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[DOVeR-HARI'ARP 
THEOLOGICAL  UBRARY 


f  t 


J* 


.    \ 


CYCLOPEDIA 


07 


BIBLICAL, 


THEOLOaiCAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 


LITERATURE. 


PHEPAEED  BY 


THE  REV.  JOHN  M'CLINTOCK,  D.D., 


AND 


JAMES  STRONG,  ST.D. 


NCVTE  TO  THE  READER 

The  paper  in  this  volume  is  brittle  or  the 
inner  margins  are  extremely  narrow. 

We^  have  bound  or  rebound  the  volume 
utilizing  the  best  means  possible. 

PLEASE  HANDLE  WITH  CARE 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER    A    BROTHERS,  PTJBi 

FBANKLIN   SQUARE. 
1889. 


4 
i 


CYCLOPAEDIA 


OF 


BIBLICAL, 


THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 


LITERATURE. 


PHEPARED  BY 


THE  REV.  JOHN  M'CLINTOCK,  D.D., 


AND 


JAMES  STRONG,  ST.D. 


SUPPLEMENT. 

Vol.  IL  — CO-Z 

WITH  ADDENDA-A-Z. 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 


I 
I 

FBANKLIN   SQUARE.  I 


1889. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1887,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington* 


•'-'A' 


■/>  X'  V 


PREFACE  TO  VOL.  II.  OF  SUPPLEMENT. 


This  volame  finishes  the  Supplement,  and  ends  a  task  of  more  than  thirty  years' 
continuance  in  its  literary  accomplishment,  and  more  than  twenty  in  its  typograph- 
ical execution.  Most  of  its  results  are  of  too  permanent  a  character  to  be  seriously 
affected  by  the  changes  of  time,  and  the  later  volumes,  especially  the  supplementary 
ones,  serve  to  keep  it  fully  abreast  of  the  progress  of  the  age  in  literature  and  inves- 
tigation. The  copious  cross-references  will  be  found  particularly  useful  for  this  pur- 
pose. No  topic  of  general  modem  interest  appropriate  to  its  sphere,  it  is  believed, 
has  been  overlooked ;  and  if  any  reader  should  find  some  included  which  he  does  not 
himself  at  the  time  particularly  need,  he  should  bear  in  mind  that  these  may  be  es- 
peciaUy  valuable  to  others,  and  may  eventually  prove  opportune  to  his  own  wants. 
The  present  volume  contains,  like  its  predecessor,  besides  a  collection  of  necrological 
information  not  easily  accessible  elsewhere,  numerous  serviceable  additions  in  Script- 
ural and  ec-clesiastical  archaeology,  Bible  versions,  hymnology,  apocryphal  and  myth- 
ological literature,  and  many  articles  of  fresh  interest  in  religious  science  and  practice, 
such  as  Cosmology^  Cremation,  CrueUy  to  Animals,  Evolution,  Faith-cure,  Hebrew 
Language,  Salvation  Army,  Sc^icism,  Teaching  of  the  I\celve  Apostles,  Worlds 
{Plurality  of),  etc.,  some  of  which  have  never  before  been  treated  in  any  work  of 
this  kind. 

With  thanks  to  the  public  for  encouragement  in  the  task,  to  the  patrons  for  their 
adhesion  in  its  prosecution,  to  the  assistants  and  contributors  for  their  valuable  aid 
in  its  execution,  to  the  publishers  for  their  liberal  support  in  its  typographical  details, 
and  above  all  to  a  benign  Providence  for  the  preservation  of  life  and  strength  while 
so  many  associates  have  fallen,  the  editor  now  concludes  his  long  labor  by  repeating 
the  closing  words  of  the  first  Preface  :  "  If  the  work  shall  be  found,  in  actual  use,  to 
have  gathered  into  a' convenient  and  clear  summary  the  mass  of  knowledge  accumu- 
lated in  its  several  departments,  and  shall  likewise  serve  to  advance,  in  some  degree^ 
the  cause  of  religious  truth,  it  will  have  met  the  expectations  of  the  authors,  who 
have  expended  upon  it  many  years  of  earnest  toil  and  solicitude." 

SPECIAL  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THIS  VOLUME. 

W.  £.  G.— The  Vte^,  W.  £.  Gbiffis,  D.D.,  Schenectady,  K.  Y. 
D.  T.  H.— The  Rer.  D.  Y.  HnauES,  D.D.,  Mont  Alto,  Pa. 
G.  F.  U.— Pkof.  6.  F.  HOLME0,  LL.D.,  of  the  Univenity  of  Virginia. 
D.  P.^The  Ber.  K  Pick,  Ph.D.,  Alleghany,  Pa. 


iv  PREFACE  TO  VOL.  H.  OF  SUPPLEMENT, 

H.  O.  R.--The  Rev.  H.  O.  RosBOROUon,  Smithfield,  Pa. 

J.  R.— The  Rev.  J.  Roy,  LL.D.,  Cobouig,  Canada. 

K.  de  S^— Bp.  E.  db  Schwkivitz,  D.D.,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

C.  W.  a~C  W.  Smilky,  A.M.,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.C 

6.  J.  S.->0.  J.  STBPHKMaoN,  A.M.,  London,  England. 

J.  G.  S.— The  Rer.  J.  C.  Stockbridoe,  D.D.,  Providence,  R.  I. 

W.  P.  &— The  late  Rev.  W.  P.  Stbickulsd,  D.D. 

W.  J.  R,  T.— The  Rev.  W.  J.  R,  Tatlob,  D.D.,  Newark,  N.  J. 

R.  Y.--The  Rev.  R.  VAzraoBxcx,  D.D.,  of  the  Kewaik  Conference. 

A.  W.<-Prof.  A.  WiNCHELL,  LLJ).,  of  the  Univewity  of  Michigan, 


LIST  OF  WOOD-CUTS  IN  VOL  II.  OF  SUPPLEMENT. 


Flgvre  of  CoaxIUi Page     9 

n^lktlnirCack* 6 

AndentStone CoiBna. IS 

Fignre  of  Cohana  Foraeh 14 

View  of  Kbonaa 89 

Cdomb*  Saapended 4« 

ColnmlM  on  a  Baaln 49 

The  DoYfl  Opened 4S 

Colymblon 44 

Conaecralion  Craaa. 12 

Cope 105 

CopUcMonk 106 

Temple  at  Corinth 118 

Nonnan  Corbel-Uble 110 

£arl  J  Bngllah  Cornice 11^ 

Decorated  Cornice 110 

Perpendlenlar  Cornice 110 

Corona  Lacia 118 

Penaile  Crowna. 119 

Barly  Chriatian  Diadem 190 

StaLCoemaaandDamlan..... 197 

Diagram  of  Ancient  Coamology. . .  198 

Cresia  on  Bzelcr  Cathedral 107 

Crocketa. 179 

Jfaak  of  Cromwell 176 

gnfgraved  Croaaoi. 170 

ArchilMtnral  Croaaea 179 

Pedbml  Craaa 180 

Craeter 180 

BoodCroaa 181 

£ar1j  and  MediCTal  Crowna. ..184, 186 

Cniciflzea 188,187 

CnieU 187 

CnUenlnm  in  Catacomb. 191 

Plan  of  Cnbicniom 199 

HectionofCabicnlnm.. 199 

Cnaps. 909 

Cymaa. 919 

Cvmailnm 919 

Moaale  ahowtng  Dalmattc. 990 

Modem  Dalmauc 997 

OnoaticBepresenUtionoftheDeril  979 
Bepreaentaiion  of  Sxpelled  Die- 

mooa 979 

Diaper^work 974 

Kalua  of  Dibon 975 

Plan  ofDibim 976 

Ordinary  Diptych 984 

Diptych  of  Kambona. 994 

Diptych  of  Mamna 987 

Pneet  of  the  Chriatian  Doctrine... 

Caaksi,  from  the  Catacomba 

The  Dolphin  aa  an  Emblem. 

Dominican  Monk 991 

Dominican  Nnn 991 

Tell-Dothan 990 

Dorea  on  a  Tomb. 997 

Xooh'aDo^ 997 

Baptiamal  Dove 997 

Fi  xnre  of  Durj^a 910 

Chriatian  Inacriptlon  with  Eaglea.  814 

MoontEbal 817 

Bkron 897 

Vaileyofraah 898 

KlevatlonoftheHoat 881 

Eirea  at  Moonlight 889 

Bmmana 889 

Pectoral  Croaa 840 

Cbriat*a  Entry  into  Jemaalem 844 

Flgnre  of  Eralo 847 

Ktliopian  Monk 854 

FfgnreofEoropa 

Flgnre  of  Bama 

St.  Soatachiaa , 

Flgnre  of  Enterpe. , 

The  Four  BTangeliata. 867 

Fanon 878 

Fann 870 

Firmament 889 

Chriatian  Lamp 890 

FlahTeaaera. 891 

Apoctolic  Fiaher 899 


Flaherman  at  Horeb Page  896 

The  Lord  aaFiahing 898 

Flabella 894 

Deacon  with  Flabellnm 896 

Flabellnm  of  Tonmaa. 895 

Flgnre  ofFltna 889 

Flgnre  ofFlora 400 

Fbnt  at  Atqnileia 406 

Baptlamal  Taper 406 

Monumental  Footprinta 404 

Seal-ring  aa  Footprint 405 

Flgnre  of  Fortune.... 408 

Foaaor  in  Catacomba 409 

Freaco  In  Cnbicnlnm 417 

Ancient  Qabata. 493 

Fylfota 498 

FaneralPall 498 

Oadara 494 

Tellea-Saiieh 488 

Gaia 486 

Chriatian  Oema 489 

Roman  Genii 440 

Deification  of  Antonlnna 441 

MtGerisim 440 

Rulna  on  Gerislm. 446 

PoolinGlbeon 459 

Glbeon 458 

FignreaofOorgona 468 

Book  of  Goapela 469 

French  Oramtola 486 

TeamofOrifllna 487 

Hagioalderon 606 

AlnJalOd 090 

Fignrsa  of  Harplea 5B0 

Figure  of  Harpocratea 590 

Headatonea 030 

Flgnre  ofHebe 681 

PlanofHebron 686 

View  of  Hebron 680 

Figure  of  Hecate 680 

Figure  of  Hel 639 

Kepreaentation  of  the  Sun-god. . . .  640 

Flgnre  of  Berll-Kan 647 

Figure  of  Hermanubia 648 

Flgnre  of  Uermod 648 

Mt.Hermon 548 

Rulna  of  Heshbon 661 

Repreaentatlon  of  Holdn 666 

Figure  of  the  Holisy 667 

ColnofNlcflea 689 

firaxen  Incense-boat 686 

Figure  of  Tndra 686 

IxTon  and  Tantalua 600 

Interior  of  Jacob't  Well 808 

Flgnre  of  Jaeabik. 606 

Figure  of  Jamandaga 607 

Figure  of  Janua 609 

Flgnre  of  Jebia 004 

Jericho 606 

Jesreel 607 

Figure  of  Jognegier. 009 

View  of  Joppa 614 

Plan  of  Joppa 614 

Map  of  the  Jordan  Plain 616 

Slater  of  St.  Joaeph 617 

Vicinity  of  AlnKadeie 699 

Repreaentatlon  of  Kaleatri  Llnga.  698 

Figure  of  Kama 694 

Figure  of  Kanon 685 

Kanthal  and  Bajnaahlak 695 

Kedeah  Nttphtafl 699 

Knryet  el-Eiinb 686 

FigureaofKlrin 686 

Euchariatic  Knife 688 

Figure  of  Kurma 648 

So-called  Lachrymatory 646 

Figure  of  Lakahmi 646 

Liturgical  Lancea 648 

Repreaentatlon  of  St.  Laurence ...  668 

LaTabo^lah 669 

Flgnre  ofLiba 60S 

Lydda 684 


Flan  of  Mach»rua Page 

Caatle-mound  of  Machsma 

Magdala 

Bl4fughar. 

Maniple 

Mantellatnm 694 

Maaaada 708 

Viahnu  aa  a  Flab 705 

Colnmna  at  Medeba 719 

Figure  of  Melpomene 716 

Valley  of  Micbmaah 797 

NebySamwil 780 

TombatMedleh 781 

Mortar  at  Oxford 786 

Nain 740 

Baaillca  at  Bethlehem 741 

Plan  of  Church  of  Nativity. 749 

CaveofNatlTity 74S 

Figure  of  Otahirbani 754 

Pallium 760 

Antique  Pectorala 766 

TombofPhinehaa 776 

Figure  of  Prometheus 788 

RamahofNaphtall 791 

Repreaentatlon  of  Four  Rivera. . .  806 

Ancient  Carpenter'a  Toola 806 

Headqnartera  of  SaWation  Army .  814 

Printing  Worka  of  Salvation  Army  816 
Publiahing  Uonae  of   Salvation 

Army. 816 

Sepphoria. 841 

PlanofShlloh 844 

Shnnem .845 

Idola  of  Society  lalanda 860 

Claaaical  Dinner-bed 860 

Rabbinical  Dinner-bed 861 

Figure  of  Thalia 867 

Flgnre  of  Terpaichore 867 

Sepulchre  of  Joahna 871 

Figure  of  the  Trimnrtl 874 

ATritonFamily 874 

^m>ti<u)  Bwera  and  Baslna 886 

Ancient  Baptiamal  Well 901 

Aaayrian  Bmblema  of  Deity 911 

Whirlwind  in  the  Deaert 918 

WildAaa 990 

Bull,  Rhinooeroa,  and  Antelope. .  991 

Oryx 991 

WadvWntah 998 

Jebel  nm-Shomer 996 

WlldQoaU 980 

Wild  Goat  of  Sinai 980 

Ancient  Aaayrian  WIne-cnpa. ....  944 

Ancient  Egyptian  WIne-cnpa. 944 

Ancient  Egyptian  Hand-preaa  for 

Wine 946 

Ancient  Egyptian  Foot-preaa  for 

Wine 945 

Ancient    Egyptian    Winnowing 

Grain 947 

Matron  in  FttU  Dreaa 967 

Noae-Jewel 967 

Svro- Arabian  Indoor  Dreaa 968 

Garden  Dreaa 968 

Toung  Lady  in  Full  Dreaa 969 

Ancient  Greek  Wrentlera 990 

Ancient  Egyptian  Wrestlera 991 

Aaayrian  Scrlbea 990 

Egyptian  Scribe 996 

Ancient  Einrptiau  Scrlbea 996 

Palette  of  Egyptian  Scribe 997 

Cnneiform    and   Hieroglyph    of 

Xerxea 1000 

Common  Dreaa  of  the  Tezldia. . . .  1007 

Ancient  Egyptian  Plongh-yoke . .  1009 

Ancient  Egyptian  Irrigating-yoke  1009 

Ancient  Egyptian  Yoke  for  Men .  1009 

Ancient  Egyptian  Chariot-yoke . .  1010 

Antique  Figure  of  Zepbyrua 1099 

Exterior  of  St  Sophia 1079 

Interior  of  St.  Sophia 1078 

Ground-plan  of  St  Sophia 1073 


SUPPLEMENT 


TO  THB 


CYCLOPEDIA 


OF 


BIBLICAI,THE0L0GICA1,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATURE. 


Co. 


CoaleSt  Thomas  Tnoifpsoir,  tn  Englith  Congrega- 
tional minuter,  waa  bom  at  Aldwinkle,  Kortbampton- 
Bbire,  to  1784  or  1785.  He  studied  atCbeshuot  College, 
and  labored  aocoeirively  at  Ashbourne,  Birmingbam, 
Thrapston,  Ebley,  Gower,  Hereford,  Slenford,  St.  Ives, 
Middleton,  Kidderminster,  Alfriston,  Farringdon,  and 
East  Grinstead.  In  1850  be  returned  to  Ashbourne, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death,  Oct.  26, 1853.  See 
(Lond.)  Ctmg,  Year4»ok,  1855,  p.  209. 

Coen,  George  Whltefleld,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  waa  bom  at  Bergen,  Genesee  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Dec 
30, 1817.  He  graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1848, 
and  fiom  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  1849;  was 
licensed  to  preach,  and  ordained  June  6  of  the  same 
year.  He  selected  Persia  as  the  field  of  his  labors, 
and  in  October  he  sailed  for  Ooroomiah,  where  he  oon- 
tiDued  the  labon  of  Perkins,  Grant,  Stoddard,  Fisk,  and 
Rice.  After  t-hirteen  years  of  labor  there  his  health 
failed,  and  he  was  compelled  to  return  to  America,  but, 
two  years  later,  having  recruited  his  strength,  he  again 
sought  his  mission  field,  in  1864.  Ten  years  of  faithful 
toil  again  broke  his  health,  and  once  more  he  sought  its 
restoration  in  his  native  clime.  Dr.  Coan*s  heart  was 
still  with  his  brethren,  and  he  availed  himself  of  every 
opportunity  to  present  the  claims  of  Persia  to  the  vari- 
ous Presbyterian  churches  in  this  country.  He  died  at 
Wooeter,  O.,  Dec  21, 1879.  See  N,  T.  Observer,  Jan.  1, 
1880.  •  (W.  P.  S.) 

Coao,  Ijeander  Samuel,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Exeter,  Mc,  Nov.  17,  1837.  He  at- 
tended the  Exeter  and  Garland  high-schools,  and  grad- 
uated from  Bangor  Theological  Seminary  in  1862.  He 
was  acting  pastor  in  Amherst  and  Aurora,  from  May, 
1862,  to  June,  1863,  when  he  was  ordained  as  pastor  of 
that  parish.  In  3Iay,  1864.  he  was  dismissed  to  enter 
the  army.  From  August,  1865,  to  September,  1867,  he 
was  acting  pastor  in  Boothbay ;  from  November,  1867, 
to  November,  1870,  preached  in  Bmwnville,  and  the 
foUowing  year  in  Somerset,  Masai  From  1872  to  1874 
he  was  city  missionary  in  Fall  River ;  from  December, 
1875,  to  June,  1879,  he  preached  in  Alton,  N.  H.  When 
the  Constitutional  Convention  of  New  Hampshire  con- 
vened in  1877,  he  was  elected  its  chaplain.  He  died 
Sept.  24,  1879.     See  Cong,  Year-book,  1880,  p.  16. 

Cocmea,  John,  an  English  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Mile  End,  London,  in  1777.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Chureh  in  early  life,  entered  Homer- 
ton  College  before  he  was  twenty,  and  settled  as  a  min- 
ister at  Walworth,  where  he  labored  ten  years.  He 
afterwards  labored  successively  at  Horley,  near  Leeds, 
Reeth,  in  Yorkshire,  Aylesbury,  Folkestone,  in  Kent, 
WycUiSc  Chapel,  London,  and  Watford,  Herts,  where  he 
remained  five  years,  then  resigned  the  active  ministry, 
and  retired  to  Hunton  Bridge,  near  Watford.  Here  he 
taught  a  day-school,  and  preached  occasionally  for  two 
years.  His  last  days  were  spent  at  Bexley  Heath, 
where  he  died,  Nov.  6, 1862.  Mr.  Coaues  was  note<l  for 
his  bUmeless  life  and  faithful  exhibition  of  evangelical 
troth.     See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1868,  p.  216. 

XU.~A 


Coerb  (Cowarb,  or  Comharba;  in  Latin,  cor- 
ba  ;  meaning  conUrraneu$,  or,  of  the  tame  region)  ia  the 
title  in  the  Celtic-Irish  and  Scottish  churehes  of  the 
abbatial  successor  of  the  original  founder  of  a  monas- 
tery. So  an  abbot  of  Hy  would  be  called  the  coaib  of 
Columba;  of  Armagh,  the  ooarb  of  Patrick,  etc.  The 
common  use  of  the  word  dates  from  late  in  the  8th 
eentur}',  when  such  abbacies  had  become  hereditary  in 
many  cases,  and  not  only  so,  but  had  passed  into  the 
hands,  in  some  instances,  of  laymen,  while  a  prior  dis- 
charged the  spiritual  office.  Later  the  coarb  became  to 
a  monaster}'  what  the  herentich  or  airchnmeitch  (L  e.  lay 
advocate)  was  to  any  church,  monastic  or  not.  A  fe- 
male coarb  occurs  once  or  twice  (Reeves,  ad  A  damn. 
Vita  St,  Columba,  add.  notes,  p.  404).  Coarbs  that  were 
still  clergy  became  styled  in  Ireland,  later,  plebanis 
rural  deans,  or  arehprcsbyters,  or  chorepisoopoi  (in  the 
later  sense  of  the  word),  i.  e.  the  head  of  a  ^  plebs  eode- 
siastica,"  viz.  of  clergy  who  served  chapels  under  him 
as  rector.  See  Reeves,  CoUorio  Vitiiation,  p.  4  n.,  145, 
209;  Robertson,  Earfy  Scott,  i,  880.— Smith,  Diet,  of 
Ckriit,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Coat,  The  Holy.  Its  miracles  are  commemorated 
on  Oct.  1  in  the  Georgian  Calendar,  See  Holt  Coat 
OF  Tbkvks. 

Coate,  Michael,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  in  1767.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1794;  Ber\'ed  the  Church  as  an  exhorter  and 
local  preacher,  and  in  1795  became  a  member  of  the 
New  York  Conference  He  died  a  member  of  the  Phil- 
adelphia Conference,  Aug.  1, 1814.  Mr.  Coate  was  re- 
markably meek  and  devout,  lively  and  zealous,  practical 
and  exemplary.  See  Minutes  of  A  rmual  Conferences, 
1815,  p.  256;  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer»  PulpU,  vij, 
253. 

Coate,  Samuel,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  ministeri 
entered  the  New  York  Conference  in  1794,  and  after 
travelling  Flanders  Circuit,  N.  J.,  and  Albany  Circuit, 
N.  Y.,  went  in  1806  to  (^nada  as  a  co-laborer  with  Dun- 
ham, Coleman,  and  Wooster.  In  1806  he  was  stationed 
at  Montreal  His  later  history  is  unrecorded.  See 
Stevens,  IJist,  of  the  M.  E,  Church,  iii,  195, 476 ;  iv,  274 ; 
Sprague,  i4nnaif  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  vii,  255, 256. 

Coatea,  Alexander,  an  English  Wesleyan  preach- 
er,  a  native  of  North  Britain,  was  converted  young ;  be- 
gan his  ministry  in  1741,  and  died  at  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  Oct.  6, 1765.  He  was  the  oldest  preacher  in  the 
connection.  His  abilities  were  extraordinary ;  he  was 
very  popular,  and  his  conversation  wonderfully  pleasant 
and  instructive.  See  Atmore,  Meth,  Memorial,  s.v.; 
Myles,  Chronol,  Hist,  of  the  Methodists  (4th  ed.),  p.  168; 
Stevens,  Hist,  of  Methodism,  i,  420;  Weslev,  Journals, 
Oct.  7, 1765. 

Coatea,  John,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bom  at  Iron-Acton,  Gloucestershire,  in  1783.  He  was 
received  into  the  sacred  oflice  in  1806,  toiled  with  un- 
wearied assiduity  for  forty-four  years,  and  died,  Feb.  8, 
1860.    **  His  success  may  be  traced  in  the  circuits  he 


tnreUrd."  Set  Jfinaru  of  Ike  BrilM  Cm/erem,  ISSO, 
p.101. 
Coatas,  Rlohard,  in  Engliah  MetbodlM  pmcber, 

fereucc  in  1T84,  being  ippoinled  to  the  Staffanlahin 


Circuil 


■oCtb 


Ubon  brougfat  on  ■  diionler  o(  which  he  died,  at  Wed- 
neabury,  Slaffordabicp,  in  17&5,  igfd  twenty-eight.  He 
wu  *  lively,  pioiu,  zealoiu,  and  uaerul  jroung  mtn.  See 
Ausore,  if elA.  Metiiorial,  s.  r. 

CoatUmtviiw,  in  Uexicin  niTiholog)-,  wu  ihe 
FJora  of  Ihe  Mexiam,  in  whose  honur  great  florai  fen- 
(ivala  were  beid. 

Coata,  Calvin  S.,  ■  Blelhoilist  Epiacnpal  minister, 
wubomin  Onuigevillo,  Wyoming  Co..  N.V.,  May  16, 
1809.  He  experienced  oonveniun  M  the  age  of  aix-. 
teen ;  *pent  aome  time  ai  an  exhotler  and  lacal  preach- 
er, and  in  1931  entered  the  Geneiee  Conference,  wherein 
he  labored  iritli  marked  xeal  and  Oileliiy  until  failing 
health,  in  1868,  caused  bim  to  become  a  tuperanniute, 
whicli  relation  he  held  to  the  cloae  of  hla  life,  Feb.  II, 
18TS.  Hr.  Coate  waa  remiriuble  fur  the  actirily  of 
hie  intellect,  ihe  strength  of  hie  conTictiona,  and  hia 
mUeas  ie«l  in  Chriatian  worli.  Set  ilnala «/ AHatial 
Co<ifertiicrt,l97b,fAl9. 

CoatU,  ■WiUlam  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  held  a 
bumiy  of  theology  at  the  (jlaagow  L'niveraiiy  in  1702 ; 
wai  liceiiieil  to  preach  in  1714;  called  to  the  living  at 
Dalmellington  in  IT17,  and  ordained;  resigned  in  Au- 
euat,1756,anddiedFeb.6,lT&7.  Ste  fatli  Eoda.  Sco- 
licaiia,u,im,nC). 

'  Ctmtta,  WUllam  (i),  a  Bootch  deTgynun,  took 
hiade^reeatUlaigawUDiTenityin  17S6;  was  lieenaed 
to  preach  in  1726;  became  tutor  in  the  family  of  Dun- 
i(9;  waa  pretented  to  tbe  living  at  Kilmauis  in  ITSS 
hnt  was  i^poeed  and  hindered  by  berilora  and  pariah- 
ionen  for  a  long  tiove ;  was  ordained  in  Uiv,  1789,  and 
died  May  2, 1V1.  See  Futii  Eeda.  Smtidata.  ii,  ISD. 
'  CoaxUtll,  in  Hexicaa  mythology,  wtu  a  rude  dei- 
ty, apparently  the  god 
o{  the  fruit-bearing 
earth.  He  ia  repre- 
•ented  as  a  aitling, 
longhaired  man,  with 
ckaed  eye*,  gruping 
•omechingiDbiiclum- 
■V  baada,  perhapa  a 
k«r  of  bread.  The 
atiBDge  decoration  of 
his  head  leenH  lo 
cbarsraclerize  him  aa 
a  priest ;  at  leaat,  the 
latter  carried  some- 
thing similar,  aa  wo 
know  from  deaigna 
Biidbuale. 

Cob,  Thomas,  en 
Eaglinh  martyr,  suf- 
fered death  by  burn- 
ing, in  Suflulk,  Aug. 
IS,  1555,  for  hia  con- 
rcBuon  of  Christ  See 
VoXiAcUandMtniii' 
malt,  vii,  S8S.  Wpire  of  CoanlllL 

Cobatn,  EiiWARD,  an  Irish  Weileyan  minister,  wa« 
conrerled  in  youth,  commenoed  preaching  on  the  Newry 
miaiion  in  1810,  and  died  Aug.  16,  IS&G.  Hia  long  la- 
bors were  bleaaed  with  many  gcacinut  revivals.  See 
Miiuaa  o/the  Britith  Con/eraa,  1857. 

CoMU  (KJ/BoXtx,  rogua'),  in  Greek  mrtboloey 
(similar  to  the  German  KoboUtit,  L  e."gobliaa'^,  were 
louU,  tantalizing  apirlta,  which  played  all  manner  of 
poHible  iikVk.  They  were  worshipped  by  the  ancient 
"         """  "'t.  Ihe   Borussi,  Samugii*,  LithuaniaiO, 


COBB 

Livonians,  et&  These  spirits,  they  believed,  dwelt  in 
the  most  secret  parts  of  their  house*.  Tbe  people  pre- 
sented to  them  the  daintiest  meals. 

Cobard,  Jicqubs,  a.French  martyr,  waa  a  school- 
muter  in  the  city  of  Saint-Mihiel,  in  Lorraine,  who 
mainlained  against  three  priota  that  the  uciament  uf 
baptism  and  of  the  Lord's  Supper  did  not  avail  nnleae 
received  with  faith.  For  this,  and  alao  fur  hia  confetsion, 
which  he,  being  in  priaun,  aenl  of  hi>  own  accord  by  hia 
mother  loth^judge,bewas  burned,  moet  quietly  auflet- 
ing,  in  1645,  in  Luiraine.  SeeFoi,  .^c/rtmifi/oiadiKwfi, 
iv,«l. 

Cobaimbtaa,  Aloszo  dk,  an  eminent  Spaniah 
architect,  nourished  about  1450.  He  flrst  introduced 
Roman  architecture  into  Spain;  erecting,  among  other 
works,  the  magnilkent  caiheilral  of  Tuledii,  and,  at 
Valentia,  the  monasterv  and  temple  of  Ihe  order  of  San 
Girolamo.  ^  Spoouer,  Biog.  IliH.  aflke  >'n»  A  rit,  s.  v. 

Cobb,  Aldeu,  a  Free-will  Baptiat  minister,  was 
bom  in  New  York,  in  March,  1802.  He  was  converted 
in  IB8S,  and  soon  afterwards  was  publicly  set  apart  lo 
the  miniatrv.  Hi*  labors  were  chiefly  in  (be  aiate  of 
New  Yotii,  especially  at  Dansville,  Middleatx,  Noitb 
Potter,  Sparta,  liair,  Scottsburs,  and  Jerusalem.  He 
died  in  MiddlescK,  Aug.  10,  I86H.  See  Frtt-tciU  Bap- 
tilt  Rtgi^tr,  1870,  p.  Tt,  76.     (J.  Q  S.) 

Cobb,  AII«i)  H.,  a  HethniUat  Kpiacopal  mintater, 
wasbomBtBamalal)le,MaM.,  Nov.21, 1780.  He  Joined 
Ihe  Church  in  early  life,  and  in  1802  waa  admitted  into 
the  Maine  Conference,  in  which  he  sen'ed  faithfully 
until  poverty  compelled  him  in  1809  to  locate,  when  he 
retired  to  New  Gloucester,  and  nine  j-ears  later  moveil 
to  Durham,  where  be  died,  Sept.  15, 1856.  Mr.  Cobb 
repiMented  Durham  nine  yeara  in  the  legislature,  waa 
two  years  a  aenator  from  Cnmberland,  and  two  years  a 
member  of  the  executive  council.  He  waa  emphatically 
the  friend  of  tbe  poor,  the  widow,  and  Ihe  orphan.  Sec 
Miavta  o/Aiaaal  Cimferrmn,  1857,  p.  26ft. 

Cobb,  Alvaa,  a  Congregational  miuiater,  was  bom 
about  17H8,  h  is  ancestors  being  early  setllen  in  Ply  month , 
Uasa.  He  graduated  from  Brown  Univenily  in  1813, 
and  was  inatalled  paator  uf  tbe  Weat  Church  in  Taun- 
ton in  1815,  where  he  continued  fur  nearly  fbity-aix 
yeire.  At  hia  house  waa  formed  the  Doctrinal  Tract 
and  Book  Society,  unce  enlarged  into  tbe  Conj^ga- 
tional  Board  of  Publication,  of  which  he  was  director 
at  Taunton,  April  2,  1861.  Mr.  Cobb 
ral  young  men  in  theology,  published 
several  Sanu-ai,  l}uelii»al  Trad,  A'o.28,  besides  thirty 
periodical  articles.  In  Ibeulogy  he  was  an  Emnioiiaile. 
Se*  Cimg.  Qaanirly,  l8Gl,p.308. 

Cobb,  Arohibald  Fanltt,  a  Pieabyteiian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Parnppany,  Morris  Co.,  N.  J»  Nov.  0, 
1821.     He  prepared  for  college  at  home,  entered  tbe 

in  1850;  theti  from  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
in  1853,  remaining  there  one  year  lonf^r  aa  tutor.  He 
was  licensed  to  prwch  in  Monlclair.  April  20, 1858,«nd 
was  ordained  April  19, 1851,  when  ho  became  a  stated 
supply  in  the  Witheripoon  (culoreil)  Presbyleiian 
Church  at  Princeton.  The  fallowing  year  he  was  in- 
stalled paator  of  the  South  Street  Presbyterian  Church, 
Philadelphia,  where  he  remaineil  six  years,  and  was 
then  cslleil  to  the  pattoraie  of  the  Tennent  Church, 
Freehold,  N.  J.,  where  be  remained  unlil  the  close  of  his 
life,  Feb.  2, 1881.  Sft  Kfcrol,  Rr}Mii1  o/Prinalim  Tlltel. 
Sm.  1881,  p.  70.     (W.P.S.) 

Cobb,  Aaatael,  a  Congreeational  miniiter,  waa 
bom  at  Abington,  Masa.,  Hay  8. 1793.  After  pursuing 
a  preparatory  course  of  studv  in  Lilchtleld,  Conn.,  be 
graduated  frcm  Hamilton  College  in  1823.  and  tarn 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1826.  On  Doc  11 
of  that  year  be  waa  ordained  assistant  pastoral  Hatta- 
pniseti,  Mass.,  from  which  he  was  dismisnd  in  1850. 
ThetoUowing  year  hawa*  inntalM  at  Sandwich,  when 


COBB 


8 


COBBE 


lieaerrcd  deren  yem.  From  1844  to  1648  be  wm  acU 
tag  pMtor  at  Noith  Falmoutbi  the  auoceeding  year  at 
Weit  Yarmotttb,  and  in  1864  at  Utile  Gompton,  R.  L 
For  about  eleven  yean  he  was  pastor  of  First  Church, 
New  Bedford,  but  was  not  reguUrly  dismined  until 
1870.  He  resided  thereafter,  without  charge,  at  Sand- 
wich, Mb9&,  and  died  there.  May  2, 1876.  Ue  served 
two  terms  ia  the  Mafisachuseits  Legislature^tbe  first 
in  1843  and  1844,  and  the  second  in  1852  and  1863. 
See  C<mff,  Quarter! jf,  1877,  p.  413. 

Cobb,  Edvrard,  held  for  many  years- the  stations 
Bflccttsively  uf  elder  and  minister  in  the  Society  of 
Friends  (Orthodox),  and  died  in  Portland,  Me.,  Nov.  8, 

1832,  ag«i  fifty-seven  years.    See  Tka  Friend,  vt,  68. 

Cobb,  Frank  Woodbury,  a  Congregational 
minuter,  was  bom  at  Durham,  Me.,  Nov.  20,  1861. 
After  preliminary  study  at  the  Lewiston  High  School, 
he  gnuloatedfroai  Bates  College  in  1878,  and  five  years 
afterwards  (lom  Yale  Divinity  School  (?).  He  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  Church  at  Three  Rivers,  in  Palmer, 
MasB^  Feb.  12, 1879,  and  died  there,  Sept.  4, 1880.  See 
Ctmff.  Ytar-hookj  1881,  p.  20. 

Cobb,  Henry  K.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Randolph,  Orange  Co.,  Vt.,  May  7,  1827. 
Ue  received  an  early  Unitarian  training,  was  converted 
when  about  fifteen,  lapsed  into  sin,  and  several  years 
later  was  reclaimed  by  the  MethodistSL  In  18&  he 
was  admitted  into  the  Vermont  Conference ;  in  1869 
was  transferred  to  the  West  Wisconsin  Conference,  to 
fill  a  difficult  appointment  in  the  city  of  Madison,  and 
labored  there  until  his  sudden  death,  Nov.  26,  the  same 
year.  Mr.  Cobb  was  an  effective  speaker,  a  beloved  pas- 
tor, an  ardent  friend.  See  Mmutet  ofAtmutU  Confer' 
mca,  1870,  p.  261. 

Cobb,  James  E.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  entered  the  Arkansas  Confer- 
ence in  1848,  was  agent  of  the  American  Bible  Society 
in  1850,  editor  of  the  MemphU  Christian  Advocate  from 
1852  to  1856;  transferred  to  St.  Louis  Conference  in 
1856;  to  tbeWaahiU  Conference  in  1867;  appointed  tp 
Columbus  African  Mission  in  1868 ;  president  and  agent 
of  Aricadelphia  Female  College  in  1862;  sgeot  for  Trans- 
Uiaassippi  Army  Tract  Society  in  1804,  and  afterwards 
served  on  charges  in  the  Little  Rock  Conference  until 
1870,  when  he  was  traruiferred  to  the  Louisiana  Confer- 
ence, and  appointed  president  of  Homer  College,  which 
position  he  filled  four  consecutive  years.  The  remain- 
der of  his  life  was  spent  as  presiding  elder.  He  died 
April  28, 1879,  about  fifty -five  years  old.  Mr.  Cobb 
was  intensely  earnest  as  a  preacher,  and  deeply  pious 
in  his  daily  life.  See  JfintUet  of  Anmal  Confereneet 
of  Ike  M.  k.  Church  South,  1879,  p.  87. 

Cobb,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  degree 
from  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1682,  became  a 
helper  in  the  parish  of  Biraay  and  Harray,  and  was 
trsnsferred  to  Kirkwall  in  1689,  being  the  last  minister 
appointed  before  Episcopacy  was  abolished.  He  was 
promoted  to  Stronsay  and  Eday  in  1696,  transferred  to 
St.  Andrews  and  Deemeas  in  1700,  and  died  before 
January,  1719,  aged  about  fifty-seven  years.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes,  Scotieana,  ui,  878, 886, 898, 408. 

Cobb,  Natliajilel,  a  Congregational  minister,  son 
of  Bev.  Oliver  Cobb,  was  bom  at  Rochester,  Mass., 
March  9, 1800.  He  graduated  from  Brown  University 
in  1821,  and  from  Aiulover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1825.  The  following  year  he  served  as  a  home  mis- 
sionary in  Harwich.  Having  been  ordained  at  Dart- 
mouth, Oct.  81,  1827,  as  an  evangelist,  he  labored  as 
sctin^  pastor  in  Nantucket  fur  two  years,  and  then 
(1829-.%)  in  Bloomfield  and  Huntaburg,  O.  In  Octo- 
ber of  the  latter  year  he  was  installed  pastor  in  Hamp- 
den and  Rirtlsnd.    From  Kirtland  he  waa  dismissed  in 

1833,  end  from  Hampden  in  1834.  Meanwhile  he  was 
iervinffss  acting  paMor  (1882-33)  in  Mesopotamia,  and 
(ton  1888  to  1886  in  Bristol  and  Parkman;  also^  during 


the  same  tine,  waa  acting  paator  in  Southingtmi. 
From  1886  to  1887  he  labored  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Clear  Creek ;  the  three  years  followiog  be 
preached  at  Mount  Eaton,  and  from  1841  to  1846  at 
Salem.  Twice  he  was  engaged  as  a  Bible  agent  and 
colporteur,  viz.,  in  1840  and  1841,  and  from  1846  to 
1849.  The  year  succeeding  the  last  date  he  was  city 
miasionaTy  in  New  Bedford,  Mass. ;  in  1861  he  was  act- 
ing pastor  in  North  Falmouth,  and  in  1862  and  1868  in 
Chilmark.  Subsequently  he  resided,  without  charge,  in 
Kingston,  and  died  atTaunton,  Nov.  1 6, 1878.  See  Cong. 
Year^booky  1879,  p.  89. 

Cobb,  ^97Uliam  Alexander  MoJCendree,  a 

minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  son 
of  Rev.  Jesse  B.  Cobb,  was  bom  in  Granville  County, 
N.  C,  Sept.  2, 1817.  He  became  religious  very  early, 
studied  earnestly,  began  preaching  in  1888,  and  in  1889 
entered  the  Tennessee  Conference,  in  which  he  trav- 
elled a  few  mouths,  and  was  transferred  to  the  Arkansas 
Conference.  In  1849  he  was  transferred  to  the  Indian 
Mission  Conference,  and  served  the  Creeks  and  Chero- 
kees  until  1864,  when  ill-health  obliged  him  to  retire 
from  active  service.  In  1861  he  undertook  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Female  College  in  Cross  County,  Ark., 
where  be  did  excellent  service  till  the  institution  was 
broken  up  by  the  war  in  1864.  In  1866  he  entercil 
the  White  River  Conference,  and  labored  zealously  un- 
til his  decease,  Jan.  2, 1878.  Mr.  Cobb  excelled  in  all 
ministerial  duties.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences 
of  the  M.  E,  Church  South,  1878,  p.  886. 

Cobb,  William  NeifveU,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  McLean,  Tompkins  Co.,  N.  Y.,  July 
16, 1818.  He  received  an  excellent  common-school  edu- 
cation ;  at  the  age  of  eighteen  engaged  in  civil-engineer- 
ing, which  be  followed  six  years;  experienced  religion 
during  the  tinoe;  served  two  years  as  class-leader;  in 
1842  entered  the  Genesee  Conference;  was  transferred 
to  the  Oneida  Conference  the  following  year,  and  died 
Aug.  8, 1878.  Mr.  Cobb's  labors  were  highly  acceptable. 
In  the  pulpit  be  was  always  practical,  logical,  and  emi- 
nently edifying.  In  daily  life  he  was  judicioos,  solici- 
tous, energetic,  and  faithful.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Cotferenoes,  1879,  p.  67. 

Cobban,  Robk&t,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  Sept.  10,  1824.  He 
emigrated  with  bis  parents  to  Canada  when  seven  years 
old,  experienced  conversion  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and 
joined  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  who  soon  afler  licensed 
him  to  preach.  He  removed  to  Fond  du  Lac  County, 
Wis.,  in  1861,  and  in  the  same  year  entered  the  Wiscon- 
sin Conference.  Failing  health  obliged  him  to  locate 
in  1869,  and  he  retired  to  his  farm  in  Chippewa  County. 
In  1860  be  re-entered  the  effective  service  in  the  North- 
west Wisconsin  Conference,  and  after  two  years'  labor 
was  put  upon  the  supernumerary  list,  in  which  rela- 
tion he  served  on  circuits  until  1867,  when  he  again 
entered  the  ciTective  ranks,  and  continued  zealous  and 
faithful  until  his  death,  Jan.  4, 1870.  Mr.  Cobban  was 
prompt  in  every  duty  as  a  minister,  and  highly  esteemed 
by  all  who  knew  him.  See  Minvtet  of  A  nnual  Cotifer- 
ences,  1870,  p.  261. 

Cobbe,  Charles,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bora  at  Win- 
chester, England,  where  he  received  the  rudiments  of  his 
education.  He  then  went  to  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  but 
took  his  degree  of  D.D.  in  the  U  ui  versity  of  Dublin,  March 
9,  1786.  His  first  ecclesiastical  preferment  was  to  the 
rectory  of  Skreen,  in  the  diocese  of  Mesth.  He  was  af- 
terwards appointed  dean  of  Ardagh,  whence  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  see  of  Killsla  and  Achonry,  May  80, 1720. 
In  1726  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Dromore,  and 
from  that,  March,  1781,  to  Kildare,  with  which  latter 
dignity  he  held  the  deanery  of  Christ  Church,  Dublin, 
and  the  preceptory  of  Tully,  in  the  county  of  Kildare. 
On  July  19, 1734,  he  was  sworn  privy-ooundllor,  and  was 
finally  transUted  to  the  see  of  Dublin,  March  4,  1742. 
He  was  one  of  the  spiritual  lords  who  desired  leave  of 


COBBIN 


COBTHACH 


■btenoe  ihmi  the  trial  oTlatd  Nettenrille  bj  procctutioD 
in  1748 ;  and  also  one  of  the  council  who  Babacribcd  the 
prodaroation  of  February,  1744.  In  1746,  on  the  break- 
ing-out of  the  rebellion  in  Scotland,  be  sent  a  letter  to 
his  clergy  to  remind  tbem  of  the  excellence  of  the  Prot^ 
eatant  faith,  and  to  entreat  them  to  be  steadfast  in  the 
profefsion  of  it.  In  1759  archbishop  Cobbe  was  very 
active  in  procoring  the  inrestment  of  the  charitaUe 
donations  of  Andrew  and  the  Rev.  William  Wilson,  in 
the  county  of  Westmeath,  for  the  purpose  of  building  a 
hospital  for  aged  Protestants.  He  died  at  St.  Sepul- 
chre's, April  12,  1766.  See  D'Alton,  Afemoin  of  the 
A  rehbiihopt  of  DubUn,  p.  889. 

Cobbin,  Ikoram,  an  English  Gongregatiotial  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  London  in  December,  1777.  He  en- 
tered Hoxton  College  in  1798,  and  was  ordained  pastor 
at  South  Molton  in  1802.  His  health  being  very  un- 
certain, he  changed  location  frequency,  soon  leaving 
South  Moulton  for  Banbury,  and  thence  removing  to 
HoUoway.  After  preaching  awhile  at  Putney,  and  then 
at  Crediton,  be  became  assistant  secretary  to  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,and  two  years  later  attempted 
the  pastorate  at  Worcester,  but  broke  down  in  his  first 
sermon.  A  similar  attempt  was  made  subsequently  at 
Lymington,  and  with  a  like  result  In  1819  he  inter- 
ested himself,  with  other  ministers  and  gentlemen,  in 
the  formation  of  the  Home  Missionary  Society,  and  be- 
came its  first  secretary.  His  health  continuing  feeble, 
he  relinquished  public  life  in  1828,  and  died  at  Camber^ 
well,  March  10,  1851.  Mr.  Cobbin  published,  among 
other  worki^  Evangelical  Synoptit: — Bible  Jtemem- 
brancer: — and  various  CommaUariet,  See  (Lond.) 
Conff.  Year-book,  1851,  p.  212. 

Cobden,  Edward,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Gieorge  II,  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  took  his  master's  degree  in  1713. 
Early  in  life  he  was  chaplain  to  bishop  Gibson,  to 
whom  he  was  indebted  for  preferment  to  the  united 
rectories  of  St.  Austin  and  St.  Faith,  in  London,  with 
that  of  Acton,  in  Middlesex,  a  prebend  in  St.  Paul's,  an- 
other at  Lincoln,  and  the  archdeaconry  of  London.  Dr. 
Cobden  collected  his  whole  works  in  1757,  under  the 
title  of  Diacour$e9  and  Euaya,  Another  noted  work 
was  Condo  ad  Cientm,  XI  CaL  Man  (1752).  He  died 
April  22,  1764.  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did,  8.V.;  Alli- 
bone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  utMortf  s.  v. 

Coberley,  William,  an  English  martyr,  was  a  na- 
tive of  the  county  of  Wiltshire,  and  a  farmer  by  occu- 
pation. He  openly  asserted  that  the  bishop  of  Rome 
was  Antichrist,  and  God's  enemy.  He  was  examined 
and  condemned  to  be  burned,  March  25,  1556.  See 
Fox,  Acts  and  MonumenU,  viii,  102. 

Cobhran,  an  Irish  saint,  is  said  by  St.  iEngus  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Neuain,  or  Euain,  and  of  Mineloth, 
sister  of  St.  Columba;  but  as  there  are  in  the  calendars 
a  Cobhran  of  Cluain,  or  Cluain-Euach,  commemorated 
July  9,  and  Cobhran  of  Cluain-Cuallacta,  commemo- 
rated Aug.  2,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  which  dedication 
belongs  to  the  nephew  and  disciple  of  Su  Columba. — 
Smith,  Did,  of  Ckrist,  Biog,  a.  v. 

Cobia,  Daniei^  a  Protestant  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Sept.  18, 1811.  On  leav- 
ing  school  he  entered  Charleston  College,  from  which 
he  graduated  in  1829.  In  1890  he  entered  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  in  New  York  city,  from  which 
he  duly  graduated.  In  1838  he  was  ordained  deacon, 
and  immediately  took  charge  of  St.  Stephen's  Chapel, 
Charieston,  especially  interesting  himself  in  Sunday- 
school  work.  Three  churches  in  his  native  city  having 
invited  him  to  become  pastor,  he  accepted  the  invitation 
from  SL  Philip's,  beginning  his  ministry  there  in  Sep- 
tember, 1834.  He  was  ordained  priest  SepL  18, 1885. 
After  spending  a  short  time  at  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  and 
at  St.  Mary's^  Ga.,  for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  he  sailed 


4br  the  island  of  St  Thomas,  and,  a  few  days  after,  for 
the  idand  of  St.  Croix,  where  his  health  improved  some- 
what; but  he  soon  began  rapidly  to  decline,  and  died  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  Feb.  8, 1887.  Mr.  Cobia  was  a  re- 
markably eloquent  preacher,  and  his  chief  characteristic 
was  his  religious  zesl.  One  volume  of  his  sermons  waa 
issued  after  his  death.  S^e  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer. 
Pi4p»«,v,719. 

CobleifihNELBoic  Ebbnhzer,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Meth- 
odist  Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  Littleton,  N.  H., 
Nov.  24,  1814.  He  studied  in  the  common  school  at 
Newbury,  Yt.,  and  worked  his  way  through  Wesleyan 
University,  Conn.,  graduating  in  1848.  In  1844  he  en- 
tered the  New  England  Conference,  and,  in  1858,  accept- 
ed the  chair  of  ancient  languages  in  McKendree  College, 
IlL  The  folk>wing  year  he  was  elected  to  the  same  po- 
sition in  Lawrence  University,  Wis.,  and  in  1857  was 
recalled  to  McKendree  College,  as  president  In  1868 
he  became  editor  of  £ion*s  Herald,  Boston.  (H'erwork 
and  the  rigorous  climate  obliged  him  to  retire  from  all 
active  labor  in  1867,  and  he  sought  the  milder  climate 
of  East  Tennessee,  where  he  was  soon  elected  to  the 
presidency  of  Wesleyan  University,  at  Athens,  Tenn. 
In  1872  he  was  elected  editor  of  the  Metkodist  A  dvoeaie, 
Atlanta,  Georgia,  in  which  capacity  he  labored  with 
marked  zeal  and  ability  to  the  dose  of  his  life,  Feb.  1, 
1874.  Dr.  Cobleigh  was  in  the  truest  and  highest  sense 
a  great  and  good  man.  He  was  intellectually  earnest, 
deeply  and  uniformly  pious,  thoroughly  devoted  to  his 
work,  a  cheerful,  energetic  laborer;  had  few  equals  as 
an  educator;  was  pathetic,  logical,  and  powerful  as  a 
preacher;  as  a  writer,  clear,  pure,  and  graceful  See 
Mimttee  of  Annual  Confartncee^  1874,  p.  131;  Simpeon, 
Cgdop.  of  Methodism^  s.  v. 

Coblents,  Council  op  {Concilium  Confuentinum), 
a  provincial  synod,  was  held  in  922  by  order  of  the  two 
kings,  Charles  the  Simple,  of  France,  and  Heniy,  of  Ger- 
many. Eight  bishops  were  present,  Hermann,  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne,  presiding,  who  drew  up  eight  canons, 
of  which  no  more  than  five  have  come  down  to  us.  The 
only  one  of  any  importance  is  the  sixth,  which  directs 
that  all  monks  shall  submit  in  everything  to  the  Juris- 
diction and  control  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese ;  also 
marriages  between  relations,  as  far  as  the  sixth  degree, 
are  forbidden.  See  Labbe,  Condi,  ix,  579;  Landon, 
Manual  of  CovndlSf  s.  v. 

Cobo,  Bernab^  de,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  was  bom  at 
Lopera,  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  in  1582.  He  was  mis- 
sionary to  Mexico  and  Peru  for  fifty  years,  and,  on  all 
hia  journeys,  studied  with  ardor  natural  history,  and 
particularly  botany.  He  died  at  Lima,  Sept.  9, 1657, 
leaving  works  in  MS.,  which  were  bronght  to  Spain 
and  placed  in  the  library  of  Seville ;  they  consist  of  ten 
volumes,  including  a  history  of  the  Indians.  Sec  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  G^u-aUy  s.  v. 

Cobo,  Jnan,  a  Spanish  Dominican,  was  bom  at 
Alcazar  de  Consuegra,  near  Toledo.  He  became  a  monk 
at  Ocafta,  and  engaged  first  in  teaching  in  diflerent 
convents  of  his  order,  and  afterwards  attached  himself 
to  foreign  missions.  Cobo  sailed  for  Mexico  in  May, 
1586,  where,  in  a  short  time,  he  became  very  famous 
as  a  preacher,  but  was  soon  afterwards  sent  to  the 
Philippine  Isles.  Cobo  arrived  at  Manilla  in  June, 
1588,  and,  in  order  to  instruct  the  Chinese  resident 
there,  studied  that  language.  In  1 592  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  theology  at  Manilla,  but  was  soon  after 
sent  to  the  emperor  of  Japan,  on  an  embassy  of  alliance, 
which  he  accomplished  successfully.  Ou  his  return,  in 
November,  1592,  the  vessel  was  cast  upon  the  coast  of 
Formosa,  and  all  the  passengers  were  massacred  by  the 
inhabitants.  Cobo  composed  several  works  for  the  use 
of  missionaries,  especially  on  tHe  Chinese  language,  for 
which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ghirale,  s.  v. ;  Biog, 
UniverselU,  s.  v. 

Cobtbaoh,  an  early  Irish  Christian,  the  son  of  Bren- 


COBURN 


COCHIN 


din,  tod  bioUicr  of  SL  Butlien,  St  Golambft*f  wccenof 
at  looa,  ii  mentioned  among  Ihe  oorapanioiis  of  St.  Co> 
Imba  in  cranog  from  Ireland  to  looa.  Cameiarini^ 
without  aotboritj,  plaoee  htm  in  the  calendar  on  Aug. 
7.~Smith,  Diet,  of  ChritL  Biog.  s.  v. 

Cobnm,  David  KIoIioIb,  a  Congicgational  min- 
iMer,  was  bora  at  Thompson,  Conn^  Sept.  11, 1808.  He 
neeiTed  his  preparatory  edncation  at  Monaon  Academy, 
Mia,  and  gndiiatcd  at  Amherst  College  in  1888,  and 
from  the  theological  institute  at  Hartford  in  1841.  He 
was  ordained  at  Ware,  Mass.,  Sept.  21, 1842,  where  he  re- 
mained until  April  17, 184o.  From  thence  be  removed 
to  Monson,  where  he  remained  without  charge  nnUl  his 
death,  Dec  7, 1877.  Mr.  Coburn  published  A  UiMtori" 
cal  Diseounet  delirered  at  Ware,  May  9, 1851,  on  the 
ceotenaiy  of  the  first  Church  there.  See  Hist,  CaU  of 
the  TkeoLIuU  of  Coim.  1881,  p.  80.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Cobnni,  Jesse,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  at 
Fitzwilliam,  N.  H.,  in  1787,  and  removed  with  his  par- 
ents to  Bratntree,  YL,  in  1797,  He  was  converted  at 
the  age  of  thirteen ;  waa  aubaequently  ordained  in  Cor- 
nish, N«  H.,  and  for  several  years  labored  in  church- 
es in  that  state  and  Yermont  until  in  1818  he  moved 
to  Hanover,  N.  H.,  and  took  charge  of  the  Church  in 
that  town,  preaching  much,  also,  in  all  the  region  round 
about    He  died  Dec.  22, 1833.    (J.  C  S.) 

Cobom,  John  R.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Eptsoopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Charleston  County, 
&  0,  Sept.  18, 1799.  He  was  converted  in  1827,  joined 
the  South  Carolina  Conference  in  1828,  and  continued 
in  the  regular  work  of  the  ministry  until  1877,  when 
he  was  placed  on  the  superannuated  list.  During  the 
greater  part  of  this  time  he  was  a  missionary  to  the 
blacks  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  He  died  in  Florence, 
Sw  C,  Sept.  29, 1880.  Mr.  Coburn  was  faithful,  self-sao- 
lifidng,  sealons,  and  abundantly  successful.  See  Mm" 
tU»  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M.  E,  Church  JSauth, 
1800,  p.  213. 

ColHWaU  is  a  waU  built  of  unbumt  day,  mixed 
with  straw.  This  material  is  still  used  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  for  cottages  and  outbuildings,  and  was 
focmerly  employed  for  houses  of  a  better  description : 
it  is  supposed  also  to  be  the  material  of  which  the  do- 
mestic edifices  of  the  ancients,  including  even  the  Greeks 
sad  Romans  in  their  most  civilized  period,  were  chiefly 
bttilb—Parker,  Gloss,  of  A  rehUed.  s.  v. 

Cocagne,  Jbak  BAPTiars,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minuter,  was  bom  at  Bosi^res,  France,  Oct.  1,1821.  He 
noeived  a  careful  Roman  Catholic  training;  emigrated 
with  hu  parents  to  Cape  Yincent,  Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y., 
in  1831,  and  waa  there  apprenticed  to  a  Protestant  fam- 
ily, in  which  he  experienced  religion.  After  uniting 
with  the  Methodists,  receiving  license  to  exhort,  and 
sttpportiog  himself  during  a  four>year  course  at  Gou- 
Tcmear  and  Fairfield  seminaries,  he  entered  the  Black 
Rirer  Conference  in  1846.  In  1851  he  had  charge  of 
the  French  mission  in  New  York  city;  in  1862  was 
transferred  to  the  Michigan  Conference  to  tske  charge 
of  the  French  mission  in  Detroit,  and  in  1856  received 
a  retransfer  to  the  Black  Biver  Conference.  He  sailed 
Nov.  1, 1856,  for  a  visit  to  his  native  land,  in  the  steam- 
er lAfonnmse,  which  was  wrecked  on  the  following  Sab- 
bath night,  and  he  was  drowned.  Mr.  Cocagne  was 
khid,  frank,  generous,  and  ardent.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
siid/CVpi|^eiioef^l857,p.d65;  Simpson,  Cyefep.o/'ifefA- 
odiiiii,s.v. 

Cooca  (Cogs,  Chooa,  or  Caaoh),  of  Cill-Choca, 
a  female  Irish  saint,  commemorated  Jan.  8  and  June  6, 
is  SQpposed  to  be  the  same  as  elsewhere  called  Ercaai 
(q.v.)  or  Erguai-t  the  cook  and  embroideress  or  robe- 
maker  of  St.  Columba,  Cooca  being  a  form  of  *'  Coqua," 
a  cook  (Todd  and  Beeves,  MarU  Doneg.  p.  879 ;  O'Han- 
loo,  Irish  Saints,  i,  130).---Smitb,  Did.  of  Christ.  Biog, 

IV. 

Coodiis  (or  Coooyns,  i.  e.  Xfiohlin),  Hulde- 


zlo,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom  at  Freiburg  in  1526. 
He  studied  at  Basle,  and  became  preacher  in  1564,  pro» 
feasor  of  exegesis  of  the  New  Test,  in  1569,  and  doctor 
of  theology.  He  died  in  1585,  leaving.  Index  et  Prm* 
faHo  in  Opera  D.  Gregorii  Pont^ficis  (Baale,  1551)  :-> 
Jo.  iMd.  Opera  Cibid.  1555).  See  Uoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
GSierale,  s.  v. 

Coooius,  Jodoons  (l),  a  canon  of  JtUich,  who 
was  bom  of  Lutheran  parentage,  and  died  about  1618, 
is  the  author  of  TAesaurus  CatkoUcus  (Cologne,  1599, 
foL;  1619,  2  vols.).  See  Haruheim,  BibL  Colon,  p. 
210;  Bttss,  Convertiten,  viii,  500 ;  Streber,  in  Wetzer  u. 
Welte*8  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

Coootus,  Jodocus  (or  Jos)  (2),  a  German  Jesuit, 
bora  in  1581  at  Trier,  was  for  some  time  professor  of 
theology  and  first  chancellor  of  the  theological  academy 
at  MolsheinB,  in  Alsatia,  and  died  Oct.  25, 1622,  at  Buf- 
facb.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  ParaUdon  BiUi- 
cum  (Molsheim,  1618)  -.—Theses  Theoiogien  (ibid.  1619) : 
-^De  Arcane  Scripturm  Sensu  (ibid.  1620):— Z>e  i4nl». 
ehristo  (ibid.  1621)  :S.  Missm  Saerifidum  ab  Hmretu 
corum  Ityunis  Vindicatum  (ibid.  1622).  See  Streber,  in 
Wetser  u.  Welters  Kirchen^Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouu. 
Biog.  GhUraU,  s.  v. 

Coooopani,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  painter  and  ar- 
chitect, was  bora  at  Florence  in  1582,  and  executed  a 
number  of  pictures  for  the  churches  of  Lombardy.  In 
1622  he  was  invited  to  Yicnna,  where  he  was  employed 
by  the  emperor  in  the  wars  as  state  engineer.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Florence  on  the 
death  of  CasteUi,  and  was  afterwards  invited  to  Bome 
to  fin  the  chair  in  the  academy  of  that  city,  but  be  re- 
fused to  quit  Florence.  He  died  there  in  1649.  See 
Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v.;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Cooha,  of  Ros-bcnnachair  (Ck>unty  Clare),  an  Irish 
saint,  is  commemorated  June  29.  In  the  Life  of  St. 
Ciaran,  of  Saighir,  there  is  an  account  of  the  many 
services  SL  Ciaran  did  to  St.  Cocha,  and  of  their  lasting 
friendship.  She  was  St.  Ciaran's  nurse,  and  through 
him  her  monastery  at  Bosbanagher  was  founded  in  the 
6th  century  (Todd  and  Beeves,  Mart.  Doneg.  p.  188, 

879;  Lanigan,  Eed.  ffist.  of  Ireland,  i,  405) Smith, 

Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Coohelet,  Anastasb,  a  French  Carmelite,  was  bom 
at  Mezi^res  in  1551.  He  was  a  noted  preacher,  and 
for  a  time  had  to  retire  to  Antwerp.  He  returned  in 
1617,  and  died  at  Bheims  in  1624,  leaving  a  number  of 
works  against  the  Beformers,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  GhUrdle,  s.  v. 

Coohln,  Charles  Kioolas  ( l ),  a  French  de- 
signer and  engraver,  was  bora  in  Paris  in  1688,  and 
studied  painting  until  he  was  nineteen,  when  he  devoted 
himself  to  engraving.  The  following  are  some  of  his 
principal  plates:  The  Meeting  of  Jacob  and  Esau ;  Jacob 
and  Laban ;  Jaccb  Pursued  by  Laban ;  Bfbekah  with  the 
Servant  ofAbrabam ;  The  Trinity  and  the  Assumption; 
7^  Lame  Man  Cured.  He  died  in  1754.  See  Spooner, 
Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  a,  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
GMrale,  s.  v. 

Cochin,  Charles  Nicolas  (2).  son  of  the  fore- 
going, an  eminent  French  designer  and  engraver,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1715,  and  was  instracted  by  his  father. 
He  wrote  several  books  relating  to  the  arts,  which  were 
highly  valued.  He  died  April  29, 1790.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  his  plates :  The  Infant  Jesus  Holding  a 
Cross;  The  Virgin;  The  Crucifixion.  See  Chalment, 
Biog.  Diet.  &  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rt$, 
a.  V. ;  Biog.  Universelle,  s.  v. 

Cochin,  Jacques  Denis,  a  French  theologian  and 
philanthropist,  was  bora  in  Paris,  Jan.  1, 1726.  He  was 
made  pastor  of  St.  Jacques-du-Haut-Pas  in  1756,  and 
became  famous  by  his  zeal  and  charity.  In  1780  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  founding  a  hospital  for  the  poor 
in  the  faubourg  St.  Jacques,  himself  subscribing  87,000 


COCHIN  i 

liniiea  lor  tliit  purpoM,  and,  with  the  libcnliij  of  otb- 
ttt,  ibt  buUdmg  wu  Bniibed  in  Julj,  1T8S.  Abb« 
Cochin  died  June  3, 1788,  at  Piiis,  leaving  wvenl  de- 
votioiul  work*,  (or  which  ae«  Hoefer,  Jfaac.  Bieg.  GM- 

Coohln,  J«an  Denla  Matle,  >  Fnnch  philjin- 
thnipiil,  wu  Iwro  in  1789.  He  occupied  KTeral  civil 
offlcea,  but  is  beet  known  u  the  Tuuiider  of  th«  uylum 
lioniei  of  Pirii,  and  by  hia  effitrU  to  imprOTe  and  ex- 
tend poblic  priniarj  inslniction.  He  died  in  IB41, leav- 
ing aoma  woriu  on  th«e  benevolent  aubjeda.  See 
UoefeT,  Koav.  Biog.  Giniralt,  a.  y. 

Coohln,  Nioolaa  (or  Katalla),  ■  French  design- 
er and  BngraTer,  wu  bom  at  Tiojea,  in  CbanDpa^e, 
iboDt  1618.  He  settled  at  Paria,  where  he  engraved  a 
great  number  of  plalea,  among  them,  Mddtaeidc  and 
AWaJum;  Abraiam  Stnda^  awof  Hagar;  Tit  CkO- 
drtn  o/rrrarl  CroMimg  At  Ktd  Sta ;  St.  John  Pnarkiug 
wAtWOdmirM;  Tlie  Bepote  m  Eggpl ;  Tfa  ConKmoi. 
o/St.Faul:  Tltt  AJoraHoa  of  Ike  Magi  t  Pharaoh  and 
kii  Hoi  Saallowed  up  in  tke  Red  Sea.  Hediedin  169G. 
See  Spoontt,  Biog.  Ifitl.  of  tie  Fine  Ani,*.T.;  Hoefer, 
JVaar.  Biog.  GMraU,  ■.  T. 

CooblAar.    See  Sfook. 

Cochran,  Bng^  a  Scotch  clergyman,  chaplain  to 
Sir  Alexander  Haiwell'B  atniljr,  was  licenaed  to  preach 
in  17ISi  presented  to  the  living  at  Kilmaun  in  172!, 
ordained  in  1T!8,  and  died  Apnl  9,  1TS3,  igtd  Ibrtj- 
oight  yean.    See  Faili  Ecda.  Scoficou,  ii,  179. 

Coobran,  Isaao  C,  a  UethodiM  Episcopal  min- 
ister, wu  bom  in  Vermont  about  1821.  He  }uiDed  the 
Preabyterian*  in  early  life;  removed  to  Uichigan  at 
the  age  ot  seventeen;  spent  several  years  succeaiirully 
as  a  tchool-leachet;  became  principal  of  Clarkston 
Academy  in  ISSS;  joined  the  Methodists,  and  in  1861 
entered  the  Detroit  Coofereace.  During  186i  and  18G6 
Ve  wu  supeniumeiary,  and  principal  of  Owosao  Union 
School.  He  died  in  the  midst  of  hii  miiiistetia)  labors 
at  Ulica,  Mich.,  Oct.  2b,  1867.  Mr.  Cochran  had  a  eu 
tured  mind  and  heart.  See  ilinula  B/Aiaikai  Confi 
(ncu,  1BC8,  p.  174. 

Cochran,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  denc.vinan,  took 
hia  degree  at  Edinburgh  Univeraity  in  1646;  wi 
mitted  to  the  living  at  Strathblane  in  1650,  an 
dained ;  took  the  aide  of  the  ReeolutioQera  in  IGGl ; 
mitted  to  epiacopacy  in  1662,  and  resigned  in  July, 
169D.     See  Faiti  Ecda.  Scalicaaa,  ii,  S72. 

Coohran,  Jcha  (3),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  < 
called  to  the  living  at  Symington  in  1712,  and 
dained.  lie  died  berate  April  25,  1732.  See  Fi 
Ettia.  Soolicam,  ii,  lU. 

Cochran,  JoMph  Oallnp,  ■  Presbrterian  min- 
iater,  wai  bora  at  Springville,  K  r.,  Feb.  6, 1817.  He 
graduated  frnm  Amherst  College  in  184S,  and  fnim 
Union  Theological  Seminary  in  1847;  was  ordained 
June  10  of  the  ume  year,  and  cotamiasioned  b 
Pmbyteriaa  Board  aa  a  miasionaiy  to  Seir,  1 
where  for  eight  years  he  labored  earneatly.  In  1865 
ha  returned  to  the  United  Stales,  and  in  1867  agai 
aougbl,  with  renewed  zeal,  hia  foreign  flekj,  where,  afti 
four  years  mora  of  faithful  service,  he  died  at  Oonx 
miah,  Persia,  Nov.  2, 18;i.  See  T'Ae  iVe%feriin,  Fel 
17, 1872.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Cochran,  Samuel,  a  Hethodiit  Kpiscopal  mil 
titer, wu  bom  in  Halifax,Tt.,Aug.81,I77a  He  wu 
converted  in  1800;  labored  eome  time  as  cnhorter  and 
local  preacher,  and  in  ISOt  entered  the  New  York 
Conference,  wherein  he  served  the  Church  faithfully 
thirty-eight  years.  He  died  in  the  spring  of  184G. 
Mr.  Cochran  wu  energetic,  devoted,  and  succeaiful  in 
hia  ministry,  aud  Itind  in  all  his  social  lelationa.  See 
Miiaua  nf  Annual  Con/eraut;  IMG,  p.  SI. 

Coohrans.  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  wu  licensed 
to  preach  in  1811;  became  ataiatant  minister  at  Liltic» 


leaf,  and  aRerwards  mtnialer  to  the  Preahyteiian  oon- 
grq^tion  at  Falstone,  and  then  that  at  North  Shields; 
was  preaented  to  the  living  at  Hawick  in  1828,  and 
died  Sept.  13,  1832,  aged  forty-two  yean.     See  Fati 


Coohrana,  Bylvester,  a  Congregational  minia- 
er,  wu  bom  at  Antrim,  N.  H.,  Mav  8, 1798.  He  grad- 
lated  fnim  Dartmouth  College  in  1828,  and  was  or- 
dained at  Poullney,  Vl,  in  1827,  where  he  labored  wx 
years  with  great  success.  In  18B7  he  ren»ved  to  Mich- 
igan, and  preached  in  Vermontville  and  Howell,  and 
for  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Northville.  lie  died 
March  14, 1860,  at  Northville.  Mr.  Cochnne  wu  an 
able  and  faithful  minister,  and  an  advocate  of  all  moral 
reforms.     See  Coig.  Quarter^,  1860,  p.  844. 

Cochrane,  William,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  look 
s  degree  at  Edinburgh  Univeruly  in  1GS9;  wu 
licensed  to  preach,  and  became  a  helper  to  Mr.  Natne  at 
Dyaart  in  16&1 ;  waa  elected  schoolmaater  of  that  par- 
ish, admitted  to  the  living  there  in  1667,  conforming  lo 
sfiiscopacy,and  was  instituted  In  1666.  There  is  no  far- 
ther tecunl  of  him.    See  FatU  Ectta.Scoticana,  iii,4I0. 

CocIe,  in  ChriiHan  Art.  Representations  of  this 
bird  frequently  occur  on  tomb*,  from  the  earliest  period. 
When  not  aiaociated  with  the  figure  ofS^  Peter,  it  ap- 
pean  to  be  a  symbol  of  the  resurrection,  our  Lord  being 
supposed  by  the  early  Church  to  have  broken  from  Iha 
grave  at  the  early  cock-crowing.  A  peculiar  awe  seenu 
always  to  have  attached  to  that  hour.at  which  all  wan- 
deling  spirits  have,  Ibrongh  the  Middle  Agea,  been  sup- 
posed lo  vanish  from  the  earth,  ffmnltl  and  the  an- 
cient ballad  called  The  Wife  of  Viher'i  WeU  occur  to 
ua  M  salient  examples  of  a  universal  supcniition. 
Pmdentius't  hymn  Ad  GaUi  Ctmlum  {CtUhem.  i,  16) 
adopts  (he  idea  uf  the  cock-cnwing  u  a  call  to  the 
general  Judgment.  See  Aringhi,ii,338,829  (in  a  com- 
plete list  of  animal  lymbola). 

Fighting-cocks  seem  to  symbnliie  the  combat  with 
seculoi  or  wiuual  temptaiioua.    The  ptactite  of  Inin- 


Plglitlng-cocka.    (From  an  anttqne  cop.) 


ing  them  for  combat  has  pmbably  always  existed  in 
the  East,  and  certainly  wu  in  favor  at  Athens  (comp. 
Arutoph.  ^r.,-  ICor.ix,27>     See  BoItari,iii,lS7. 

Two  cocks  accompany  the  Good  Shepherd  in  Boltari, 
(ilste  clixii  (from  the  tympanum  of  an  arch  in  the  cem- 
eWry  of  St.  Agnes).— Smith,  Did.  nfChri$t.  AnHq.  a.  r. 

Cock,  Alexandor,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  wu  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1777;  presented  to  the  living  at 
Cruden  in  1778,  aud  ordained.  He  died  July  10, 1897, 
agc<l  eighty-one  years.  See  Fatii  Ecdei.  Seoticana, 
iii,60e. 

Cock,  JamM,  a  Scotch  clergj'man,  waa  called  lo 
the  living  at  Keilhhall  and  KiukcU  in  1738,  and  died 
Feb.  17,  1776,  aged  aevenly-seven  yeara,  leaving  two 
sons  in  the  minisir}',  Alexander  at  Croden,  and  Wiltiain 
at  Rathen.     See  FaM  Krrln,  Bcoticanr,  iii,  S8i. 


COCK 


COCKER 


Cock  (or  Kock),  Jerome,  a  Flemish  painter  and 
engnrer,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1510.  He  applied 
bioiself  chiefly  to  engraving.  The  following  are  some 
of  biB  principal  plates :  Mo»e»  with  (he  TabUs  of  the 
Law;  Daniel  m  the  Lixmi  Den;  Sawuon  and  Delilah; 
s  set  of  eight  female  figures,  Jaei,  Ruth,  A  higaily  Judith, 
FMker,  Suaanna,  the  Virgin  Mary  and  Mary  Magda- 
km ;  The  Rewrredion ;  The  Last  Judgment ;  The  Temp- 
tatioH  of  St,  Awthong.  He  died  in  1570.  See  Hoefer, 
.VottP.  Biog.  GeniraU,  s.  r. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  HisL  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  a,  r. 

Cock,  "V^illiam,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  bu 
degree  at  King^s  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1776;  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1782 ;  presented  to  the  living  at 
Calsslmond  in  1794,  and  ordained  in  1795;  transferred 
to  Ratben  in  1801,  and  died  July  1, 1848,  aged  ninety- 
one  rean.    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Seotieante,  iii,  579,  639. 

Cockayn,  Gborob,  an  English  Independent  minis- 
tetj  was  descended  from  an  ancient  family  in  Derby- 
shire. He  is  said  to  have  been  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  in  the  time  of  the  civil  wars  held  the  living  of 
St.  Pancras,  Soper  Lane,  London.  He  was  a  celebrated 
preacher,  and  in  November,  1648,  preached  the  fast-day 
sermon  before  the  House  of  Commons.  He  became 
chaplain  to  one  of  Oliver  CromwelFs  lords,  and  in  1657 
published  a  funeral  sermon  with  the  title  Divine  As- 
trology, He  was  ejected  from  his  living  in  1660,  when 
he  founded  the  Church  at  Hare  Court,  London,  and 
was  the  first  preacher  there.  He  had  distinguished 
citizens  in  bis  Church,  yet  he  suffered  much  persecution 
from  the  royalists.  He  was  a  man  of  ability  and  learn- 
ing, took  part  in  compiling  an  £nglish-Gre«k  Lexicon, 
in  1658,  and  died  in  1689.  See  Wilson,  Dissenting 
Ckurthes,  ui,  279. 

Cocklmm,  Henry,  x  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1613;  and 
vas  presented  to  the  living  at  Channelkirk  in  1625.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1638,  but  was 
suspended  by  that  of  1648,  and  deposed  in  1650  for  pray- 
ing in  public  for  the  army  in  England  under  the  duke 
(if  Hamilton.  He  afterwards  suffered  great  misery  and 
privation,  but  was  restored  to  the  ministry  in  1659,  and 
hsd  an  act  of  parliament  in  his  favor  in  1661.  He  was 
empbyed  at  Earlston  for  fifteen  months,  and  returned  to 
Channelkirk  in  1662.  See  Fasti  EccUs,  Scoticana,  i, 
521,522,523. 

Cockbom,  John,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
nephew  to  the  bishop  of  Abenleen,  where  he  was  edu- 
Gsied,  was  called  to  the  living  at  Udny  in  1676 ;  trans- 
ferred to  the  living  at  Old  Deer  in  1681 ;  scrupled  at 
taking  the  test  imported  by  parliament,  but  did  so  in 
1682,  and  was  transferred  to  Ormiston  in  1683.  He 
wss  tbe  first  who  projected  a  periodical  account  of  lit- 
erature in  Scotland,  and  secured  a  license  to  print  the 
roonthlv  transactions  and  account  of  books  out  of  the 
UmversaJ  Bibliotheke,  which  was  recalled  in  1688,  and 
he  wss  forbidden  to  print  any  more.  He  was  deprived 
by  the  privy  council  in  1689,  for  not  praying  for  the  king 
and  queen,  and  other  acts  of  disloyalty.  In  1 698  he  was 
appointed  by  the  bishop  of  London  as  minister  of  the 
Episcopal  congregation  at  Amsterdam,  and  in  1709  was 
promoted  to  the  rectory  of  Northall,  Middlesex,  where 
be  died  Nov.  20, 1729.  His  son  Patrick  was  an  English 
vicar.  His  pnblicstions  were,  Jaeob*s  Vow  (1686):— 
bibUotkeca  Universalis  (1688) : — Eight  Sermons  on  Sev 
frnl  Occasions  (1691)  : — Inqnirg  into  the  Nature^  \eces- 
n(^,  and  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Faiih  (1696, 1697)  :— 
Fifteen  Sermons  on  Varioas  Subfecfs  {1697 ):'^BoHrig- 
noniamsm  Detected  (1698) :— Right  Notions  of  God  and 
Religion  (1706) : — Answer  to  Queries  Concerning  Impor^ 
tant  Points  in  Religion  (1717) : — History  and  Examina- 
tion of  Duels  (1720) : — Specimen  of  Remarks  Couoeming 
A  fairs  and  Persons  in  Scotland  (1724  ).  See  Fasti 
Kecks,  Scoticana,  i,  301 ;  ui,  617, 620 ;  AUibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  Amer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

.  Cookbiini,  Patrick  (1),  a  Scotch  cle^yman. 


was  educated  at  St  Andrews;  entered  into  holy  ordefl 
when  young;  went  to  Paris  and  taught  Oriental  lan- 
guages in  the  university  there,  with  approbation ;  but 
embracing  the  Protestant  faith,  returned  to  Scotland, 
and  was  appointed,  in  1562,  the  first  ProtesUnt  minister 
at  Haddington.  He  had  to  supply  certain  kirks  month- 
ly, and  was  chaplain  of  Trinity  Aisle  in  1563.  Com- 
plaints were  made  that  he  neither  attended  provincial 
nor  general  assemblies.  He  died  in  1568.  His  publi- 
cations were,  Oratio  de  Utilitate  et  Excellentia  Verbi  Dei 
(Paris,  1551):— Z)e  Vulgari  Sacra  Scriptures  Phrati 
(ibid.  1552):— /n  Orationem  Dominicampia  Mediiatio 
(1555):  —  la  Symbolum  Apostolicum  Comment,  (Lond. 
1561).  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  i,  311;  HoeA'r, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. ;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Cockbvm,  Patrick  (2),  an  English  clergyman, 
husband  of  the  noted  writer  Catharine  Cockburn,  was 
born  about  1678,  and  was  many  years  vicar  of  Long- 
Horseley,NorthumberUind.  He  died  in  1749.  He  wrote. 
Penitential  Office  {I72i) :— Praying  for  Superiors,  etc. 
(1728, 1739):— .4  n  Inquiry  into  the  Truth  and  Certainty 
of  the  Mosaic  J)eluge  (1750).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cookbam,  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  pro- 
moted to  the  see  of  Koss  in  1508,  and  was  still  bishop 
there  in  1515.  He  died  in  1521.  See  Keith,  SooUish 
Bishops,  p.  190. 

Cookburne,  James,  a  Scoteh  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  at  Edinburgh  University  in  1658;  wasiicensed 
to  preach  in  3662;  presented  to  the  living  of  Abbey  St. 
Bathans  in  1664,  and  ordained ;  ten  years  later  was  cen- 
sured for  immorality,  and  transferred  to  Pencaitland  in 
1674.  Under  accusation  of  scandal  he  resigned  in  1684, 
and  died  in  April,  1687.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i, 
348,406. 

Cookburne,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1612;-  was 
presented  to  the  living  at  Humbie  in  1617;  instituted 
in  1618,  and  resigned  before  Aug.  23, 1648,  owing  to  age 
and  infirmity.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  837. 

Cockbnme,  Samuel,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took 
his  degree  at  Edinburgh  University  in  16()b;  wss  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  at  Kirk michael,' Banffshire,  in  1601, 
having  also  Inveraven  in  charge;  was  transferred  to 
Minto  in  1609,  and  died  before  Aug.  5, 1624.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  506 ;  iii,  237. 

Cockbume,  ^97iUiam,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took 
his  degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1627 ;  be- 
came chaplain  to  John,  carl  of  Cas8illi9,and  was  admitted 
to  the  living  at  Kirkmichael  in  1638^  In  1651  he  did 
not  take  part  with  either  Kesolutioners  or  Protesters,  but 
was  confined  to  his  parish  in  1662  for  nonconformity, 
and  died  in  August,  1677,  aged  about  seventy  years.  See 
Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  119. 

Cocke,  Stkphen  F.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Virginia.  He  was  a  student  in  Union  Semi- 
nar}%  Virginia,  and  then  spent  part  of  a  year  in  Prince- 
ton Seminary.  He  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of 
West  Hanover  in  1836  as  pastor  at  Bethany,  Vn. ;  stated 
supply  at  Fincastle  in  1887 ;  pastor  at  same  place  from 
1839  to  1844 ;  pastor  at  Little  Kock,  Ark.,  in  1846 ;  stated 
supply  at  Victoria,  Texas,  from  1846  to  1849 ;  home  mis- 
sionary at  Port  Lavaoca  from  1849  to  1852 ;  served  in 
some  agency  in  Indianola  from  1852  to  1856,  and  died 
in  the  latter  year.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL 
Sent.  1881,  p.  8L 

Cocker,  Thomas,  an  English  C!ongregationaI  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Ashton-under-Lyne,  April  9,  1840. 
He  early  became  a  member  of  the  Congregational 
Church  and  a  village  preacher,  and  was  educated  for  the 
ministry  in  an  academy  and  in  Lancashire  Independent 
College,  where  he  studied  from  1860  to  1865.  Iii  the 
latter  year  he  became  pastor  of  Copeland  Street  Chapel, 
Stoke-upon-Trent,  in  which  relation  he  continued  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  his  lifSi  .  He  was  two  years  aeo- 


COCKERTON 


8 


CODDIANI 


nUry  to  the  North  StaffoTdshire  Congregational  Union, 
and  was  also  its  president.  He  was  accidentally  killed, 
Feb.  1, 1881.    See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Tear-book,  1882,  p.  289. 

Cookerton,  Thomas,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Soham,  Cambridgeshire,  July  26, 1839.  He 
was  converted  under  the  preaching  of  Kev.  C.  H.  Spur- 
geon,  in  whose  ^  Pastor*s  College  "  he  pursued  his  stud- 
ies. He  was  settled  at  Thorpe-le-Soken,  Essex,  three 
or  four  years;  was  then  for  orer  two  years  at  Castle 
Donnington ;  afterwards  removed  to  Daventry,  but,  after 
laboring  a  short  time,  ruptured  a  blood-vessel,  and  died 
in  his  native  place,  June  4, 1868.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist 
Hand-book,  1869,  p.  187, 138.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cookii],  John,  an  English  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Thornton,  near  Bradford,  in  1783.  In 
youth  he  was  remarkable  for  his  studious  habits.  When 
about  eleven  years  old  he  was  led  to  Christ  by  reading 
Doddridge*s  Rise  and  Progress  of  Religion  in  the  Sovl, 
and  some  years  afterwards  was  admitted  to  Church  fel- 
lowship at  Queen  Street,  Sheffield,  where  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  bookseller.  In  1804  he  entered  the  Indepen- 
dent Academy,  Idle,  and  at  the  close  of  his  course  settled 
at  the  Lane  Chapel,  Holmfirth,  near  Huddcrsfleld,  where 
he  remained  forty-three  years,  during  which  period  he 
was  kept  from  his  work  only  one  Sunday  by  illness. 
The  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  were  spent  almost  in 
seclusion  at  Halifax,  where  ho  died,  Oct  17, 1861.  Both 
in  the  pulpit  and  on  the  platform  Mr.  Cockin  was  effec- 
tive tod  popular.  In  conversation  he  excelled.  He 
had  a  great  ascendency  over  others,  and  possessed  a 
strong  character.  He  wrote  and  published  a  L\fe  of  his 
father,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Cockin,  8ket<Aes  cJUr  Reading, 
and  one  or  two  controversial  pamphlets  on  Calvinism. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1862,  p.  226. 

Cookin,  Joseph,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Frixinghall,  near  Bradford,  March  12, 
1852.  He  conceived  a  desire  to  become  a  missionary 
in  early  childhood,  and  from  that  time  read  and  studied 
with  this  end  in  view.  He  was  educated  at  Cheshunt 
College  by  the  London  Missionary  Society,  for  service 
in  the  foreign  field ;  was  ordained  at  Salem  Chapel,  Brad- 
ford,  March  12, 1877,  and  sailed  on  the  29th  for  his  sta- 
tion at  Hope  Fountain,  Central  Africa.  He  entered 
heartily  upon  his  work,  but  his  robust  constitution 
yielded  to  the  deadly  climate,  and  he  died  Feb.  3, 1880. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1881,  p.  363. 

Cooking,  Samuel,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  mis- 
sionary, sent  out  by  the  British  Conference,  died  at 
Bangalore,  a  few  months  after  landing  in  India,  April 
80, 1861.  He  was  a  pious,  humble,  diligent  young  man. 
See  Minutes  of  ike  British  Conference,  1861,  p.  27. 

Cocking,  Thomas,  an  English  Wesleyan  minis- 
ter, entered  the  sacred  work  in  1819,  and  for  more  than 
half  a  century  was  a  practical,  earnest  preacher,  greatly 
beloved.  He  died  at  Alford,  Oct.  6, 1870,  in  his  eighty- 
Urst  year.  Mr.  Cocking  wrote,  A  Sketch  of  Wesleyan 
Methodism,  with  its  History  in  the  Grantham  Circuit 
(1836,  Umo):— Sabbath  Desecration  (London,  1847,  2d 
ed.  12mo),  an  excellent  practical  tractate.  See  Minutes 
of  the  BrUish  Conference,  1871,  p.  13. 

Cooks,  John,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Great  Farrington,  Devon,  OcL  12,  1788.  He 
was  a  dissipated  youth ;  came  to  London  in  early  life ; 
met  with  religious  companions;  was  converted  under 
the  ministry  of  Dr.  Jenkins;  joined  the  Church  at 
Orange  Street,  and  began  to  preach.  In  1817  he  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Church  at  Caktock,  but  went  to  Cre- 
diton,  Devon,  in  1821,  and  became  a  successful  home 
missionary.  In  1826  he  removed  to  Minehead ;  in  1833 
CO  Highbridge,  and  in  1834  became  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Twerton,  Bath.  In  1841  he  was  called  to  Amersham, 
Bucks,  where  he  remained  till  his  death,  Dec.  12, 1850. 

Cooka^  William  Franols,  an  English  Wesleyan 
missionary,  was  bom  in  the  parish  of  St.  Agnes,  Corn- 
wall.   He  was  converted  at  fifteen;  began  to  preach  at 


nineteen;  entered  the  conference  at  twenty-four,  and 
was  appointed  to  the  mission  work.  After  two  years 
and  a  half  spent  in  study  at  Richmond  he  was  sent  to 
the  St  Vincent  District,  West  Imiies.  He  died  in  July, 
1881,  in  the  thirty-first  year  of  his  age.  See  Minutes 
of  the  British  Conference,  j882,  p.  43. 

Cocq,  Florent  de,  a  Flemish  theologian  of  the 
Premonstraht  Order,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  l7th 
century,  and  wrote,  Principia  Totivs  Theologies  Moralis 
et  Speculativat  (1683): — Conversio  Vera  el  ApostnUca 
(Liege,  1685)  :—De  Jure  et  Justitia,  See  Hoefer,  Nouc 
Biog,  Generate,  s.  v. 

Cooquault,  Pierre,  a  French  historian,  a  native 
of  Reims,  was  canon  of  the  Church  of  that  place,  and 
died  in  1645,  leaving,  Memoirespour  Servir  a  FHistoire 
EccUsiastique  de  Reims,  preserved  in  MS.  at  the  library 
of  Reims : — Memoires  pour  la  Rivendication  des  ^!gUses 
des  Pays-Bas,  in  MS.  (ibid.)  :—TaUe  Chromlogique  de 
VNistoire  de  Reims  (ibid.  1650).  See  Hoefer,  Souv, 
Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Cocquelin,  Nicolas,  a  French  poet  and  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Corberie,  near  Lassay,  district  of  Ome,  in 
1640.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  Church,  and  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  and  sought  to  prevent  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1693, 
leaving  Interpretation  des  Psaumes  et  des  Canliques 
(  Paris,  1686 ;  Bordeaux,  1731 ;  Limoges,  s.  a. ) :  —  /^ 
Manuel  d'^pictete  (  Paris,  1688 ),  mostly  in  verse : — 
Trait4  de  ce  qui  est  du  aux  Puissances  (ibid.  1690). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Coo^tUB,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  the  name  of  the 
muddy  stream  which  Charon  crossed  in  carrying  the 
souls  of  the  dead  to  the  kingdom  of  shades.  It  is  a 
tributary  of  the  Acheron. 

Coda,  Bartolommeo  (sumamed  A  rimmense),  an 
eminent  Italian  painter,  son  and  pupil  of  the  following, 
was  bom  in  Ferrara,  and  lived  till  1558.  His  chief 
painting  is  a  Virgin  between  Sts,  Roche  and  Sebastian, 
in  the  Church  of  San  Rocco  at  Pcsaro.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,.  GMrak,  s.  v. 

Coda  (or  Codi),  Benedetto,  a  Ferrarese  painter, 
was  bora  about  1460,  and  studied  under  Giovanni  Bel- 
lini. He  is  said  to  have  painted  several  pictures  for 
the  churches  at  Rimini.  The  principal  are  The  Mar- 
riage of  the  Virgin,  in  the  cupola  of  the  cathedral,  and 
his  picture  of. The  Rosary,  in  the  Church  of  the  Domini- 
cans. He  died  about  1520.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  HiMt, 
of  the  Finis  Arts,%,\,\  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Coddasua,  GkQielmns  (  Willem  van  der  Coddt), 
a  Dutch  Orientalist,  bom  at  Ley  den  in  1575,  was  ap> 
pointed  in  1601  to  the  chair  of  Hebrew  in  his  native 
city,  but  deprived  in  1619  for  refusing  to  subscribe  to 
the  statutes  of  the  synod  of  Dort,  and  died  about  1630. 
His  principal  works  are.  Notes  ad  Grammaticcun  He- 
brteam  ( Leyden,  1^12 )  i—Hoseas  Propheta  cum  Com^ 
mentariis,  etc.  (ibid.  1621): — Fragmenta  ComcBdiarum 
A  ristophanis  (ibid.  1625).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ge- 
nirale,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Coddaons,  Petms  (Pieer  van  der  Codde),  a  Dutch 
theologian  of  the  order  of  the  Oratory,  was  bom  at 
Amsterdam  in  1648.  In  1683  he  was  made  pastor  at 
Utrecht,  and  in  1688  titular  archbishop  of  Sebaste,  and 
apostolic  vicar  of  the  united  provinces.  Being  accused 
of  holding  the  principles  of  Jansenism,  he  went  to  Rome 
in  1700,  in  order  to  justify  himself,  but  in  1704  his  doc- 
trine was  condemned  by  a  decree  of  the  Inquisition,  and 
he  was  deprived  of  the  spiritual  administration  of  the 
Catholics  of  Holland.  He  died  at  Utrecht,  Dec.  18, 1710, 
leaving  Dedarationes  super  Pluribus,  Interrogationibus, 
etc.  (I^me,  1701).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginerale^ 
8.  V. ;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrtei^Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Coddiftni  was, according  to  Epiphanius  (Hcsr,  xxvi, 
p.  85),  a  nickname  given  to  an  impure  sect  of  Gnostic 
heretics.    He  explains  the  word  UB  <*  plattennen,"  de- 


CODDING 


9 


COE 


riving  U  fiom  a  Syriac  word,  oodda  (Aran.  *np))  a 
pUUer  or  dish;  and  says  they  got  the  name  becaQse, 
OD  floooant  of  their  ^  pollution,**  no  one  could  eat  with 
them,  and  it  waa  neceasary  that  their  food  should  he 
giren  to  tbem  separately  .--Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog, 

Codding;  IcnAHOD,  a  Congregational  minister  and 
lecturer,  was  bom  at  Bristol,  N.  Y.,  in  1811.  He  early 
manifested  the  eloquence  and  zeal  for  reform  which 
chanuterized  his  whole  life,  becoming  a  popular  speaker 
00  temperance  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  At  twenty  he 
entered  Canandaigna  Academy,  and  prepared  for  college, 
teaching  in  the  English  department  at  the  same  time. 
In  ldS4  he  entered  Middlebury  College,  and  began  a  fer- 
vid attack  open  slavery,  which  resulted  in  his  leaving 
the  coUege.  For  the  next  fire  years  he  traversed  the 
New  England  States  and  New  York,  as  the  agent  of  the 
American  Anti-slavery  Society,  and  though  persecuted 
and  often  aeriooaly  injured  by  mobs,  never  lost  his  self- 
command,  nor  displayed  a  violent  or  vindictive  spirit. 
In  1M2  Mr.  Codding  went  West,  and  having  entered 
the  Congregational  ministry',  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  as  pastor  successively  at  Princeton,  Lockport,  Joliet, 
Bamboo,  Wis.,  and  Bloomington,  III,  lecturing  mean- 
time in  almost  all  parts  of  Illinois  against  slavery.  He 
died  in  Bsraboo,  Wis.,  June  17, 1866.  See  Af^<m's 
Atamd  Cpdop,  1866,  p.  667. 

(Toddington,  Eli  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Champaign  County,  111.,  July  1, 1887. 
He  removed  with  hu  parents  to  Henry  County,  la.,  in  his 
boyhood;  was  converted  in  his  nineteenth  year;  soon 
after  atered  the  Iowa  Wesleyan  University,  and  in  1861 
enlisted  in  the  Fourteenth  Iowa  Infantry.  He  lost  his 
left  arm  at  the  battle  of  Fort  Donelson;  was  dis- 
charged, and  on  returning  home  re-entered  college,  but 
soon  rejoined  the  army  as  captain  of  Company  H,  Forty- 
fifth  Iowa  Infantry.  After  serving  his  full  term  he 
again  resumed  his  coUege  course ;  gradiuited  with  credit 
in  Jane,  1866 ;  was  admitted  into  the  Iowa  Conference 
in  the  following  September,  and  in  1878  dosed  his  effec- 
tire  services  and  entered  upon  the  superannuated  rela- 
tion, which  he  sustuned  to  the  close  of  his  life,  July  80, 
1877.  Mr.  Coddington  was  intensely  patriotic,  studious, 
and  devout.  See  Mituitea  of  Annual  CwfirenceSy  1877, 
Ik  85. 

Codex.  For  the  important  Biblical  MSS.,  see  each 
onder  its  specific  name;  as  Auiatikb;  Axokuc;  Ar- 
GEiTEUs,  etc. 

Codington,  Gborok  Spe2«cbr,  a  Congregational 
minister,  waa  bom  at  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  April  8, 1838. 
After  having  studied  at  the  Syracuse  High  School,  he 
vent  to  sea,  returning  in  1860,  after  three  years*  absence. 
In  1861  and  1862  he  was  a  student  in  Michigan  Uni- 
versity. During  the  three  years  following  he  served 
in  the  army,  and  then  entered  the  Commercial  College 
in  Indianapolis.  In  1870  he  graduated  from  the  Chi- 
cago Theological  Seminary,  and  was  ordained  an  evan- 
gelist July  1  of  that  year  at  Lacon,  III.,  where  he  was 
acting  psstor  till  1871.  In  1872  he  removed  to  Dakota, 
there  organized  churches  at  Dell  Rapids  and  Medway, 
in  charge  of  which  he  remained  until  death,  at  Ann 
Arfoor,  Mich.,  Sept.  19, 1878.  He  was  a  representative 
in  Dakota  legislature  in  1876.  See  Cong,  Year^bookf 
1879,  p.  40. 

Codomann,  Lorkkz,  a  German  Protestant  chronol- 
ogist,  waa  bom  at  Flotz,  Sept.  15, 1529.  He  was  suc- 
cessively co-rector  at  Amberg,  rector  at  Hof,  pastor  at 
Eger,  and  superintendent  at  Germersheim  and  at  Bay- 
reoth,  where  he  died,  April  2, 1590.  H is  principal  works 
are,  Svppatatio  PrtBteritorvm  A  nnorum  ifundi  (Leipsic, 
1572):— .4Mia/ef  Sacra  ScryfturtB  (Wittenberg,  1581). 
See  Hoefer,  Sowf,  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  Ugt' 
swMet  GdekrUn^LexikoHf  s.  v. 

Codnitiis.    See  Qvadbatua. 


Codorc,  Phtuppk,  a  French  theologian,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Annonay.  Having  been  minister  at  Nismes,  he 
renounced  Protestantism,  and  became  a  Catholic.  He 
was  versed  in  the  Oriental  languages.  He  died  in  1660. 
His  principal  works  are,  CommeniarU  in  /ofrvm,  explan- 
atory of  every  Heb.  term  from  the  Babbins  (Paris,  1651) : 
— Traduction  des  Livreg  de  Job  et  Solomon,  with  notes 
(ibid.  1647, 1657).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginhdle, 
a,v. 

Codurl  {Ahul  llotein),  Ahmkd,  a  learned  Mussul- 
man doctor,  of  the  sect  of  Abu  Hanefi,  was  bom  at  Ni»> 
sabur  in  867  of  the  Hegira.  He  held  the  office  of  riig 
of  the  Hanefl  sect  in  Irak,  and  died  in  428  of  the  same 
asra  (A.D.  1087).  Among  his  works  the  most  celebrated 
is  a  Treatise  on  Dogmas  of  Uanefi,  founder  of  the  sect 
which  bore  hb  name.  See  D*Herbelot,  BiUiotkegue 
OrientcdCf  s.  v. 

Coe,  Harvey,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  at 
Granville,  Mass.,  Oct  6,  1785.  He  was  converted  in 
1804;  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1811;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  18 12,  and  settled  in  what  was  then 
called  the  Connecticut  Western  Keser\'e,  O.  He  joined 
Portage  Presbytery  in  1888,  and  was  appointed  agent  of 
the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions. He  died  March  9, 1860.  He  entered  the  ministry 
with  patriotic  zeal,  and  the  blesfiiug  of  the  Lonl  crowned 
his  labors.  See  Wilson,  /Vy«5.  Hist,  A  Imanac,  1861,  p.  1 58. 

Coe,  James  R.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman, 
was  rector,  in  1854,  at  Bethlehem,  Conn. ;  in  1857,  of 
St.  James's  Church,  Winsted ;  in  1860,  of  St.  John  the 
Evangelist's  Church,  Stockport,  N.  Y.,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1865.  He  then  removed  to  Oakfield,  as 
principal  of  Carey  College  Seminary,  and  became  rector 
of  St  Michael's  Church,  in  connection  with  which  he 
performed  missionary  work  until  his  death,  March  10, 
1874,  at  the  age  of  fifty-six  years.  See  Prot,  Kpisc,  A  l- 
manaCf  1875,  p.  144. 

Coe,  Jonas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
March  20, 1759.  He  was  educated  at  Rutgers  College, 
New  Branswick,  N.  J. ;  studied  theology  privately ;  was 
taken  under  the  care  of  the  New  York  Presbytery  in 
1790,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1791.  In  1792  he 
accepted  a  call  to  the  united  congregations  of  Troy  and 
Lansingburg,  where  he  labored  effectually  for  eleven 
years,  and  afterwards  at  Troy  alone,  until  his  death  in 
1842.  He  was  a  faithful  pastor  and  an  able  minister. 
See  Sprague,ilfifia2«  of  the  ^mei'.Pu//n/,iii,576. 

Coe,  Jonathan,  an  Episcopal  minister,  was  bora  at 
Winsted,  Coim.,  and  graduated  at  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity in  1889.  He  pursued  his  theological  studies  un- 
der the  tuition  of  Rev.  Dr.  Jar\*is,  of  Middletown,  was 
ordained  in  1848,  and  in  that  and  the  following  year 
had  charge  of  parishes  in  Bethlehem  and  Northfield. 
From  1847  to  1852  he  was  rector  of  the  parish  in  Win- 
sted; from  1852  to  1866,  of  parishes  in  Athens  and 
0>xsackie,  N.  Y.  He  died  April  25, 1866.  See  Wes- 
leyan  University  Alumni  Record,  p.  83;  Amer,  Quar, 
Church  Bev,  July,  1866,  p.  811.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Coe,  Noah,  a  Congregational  and  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  at  Durham,  Onn.,  May  24, 1786. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  180i3;  pursued  his 
theological  studies  in  part  atAndover  in  1809  and  1810; 
was  onlained  July  8, 181 1 ,  and  preached  in  Chester,  N.  Y., 
for  two  years.  In  1814  he  was  installed  over  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  New  Hartford,  where  he  remained 
until  1835.  In  1836  he  commen(:ed  preaching  in  the 
Second  O>ngregational  Church  in  Greenwich,  Conn., 
where  he  was  installed  May  28,  1837.  He  was  dis- 
missed May  20, 1845,  and  was  not  again  a  settled  pas- 
tor, though  he  preached  and  labored  almost  continuous- 
ly until  he  waa  over  seventy.  From  1848  to  1854  he 
was  engaged  as  a  city  missionary  in  New  York  city, 
and  in  Williamsburg,  L.  I.  He  then  removed  to  New 
Haven,  Conn.  From  November,  1 854,  to  February,  1856, 
he  aenred  as  stated  supply  of  the  Ck>ngregational  Church 


COE 


10 


COEN 


in  Northfield,  Conn.,  and  for  the  succeetling  year  sup- 
plied the  Congregfttional  Church  at  New  Preston  Hill. 
lie  died  at  Hartford,  May  9, 1871.  He  was  vij^lant  and 
diligent  in  his  parish,  instructive  and  faithful  in  the 
pulpit.  See  Obituary  Record  of  Yak  CoUtge^  1871; 
Pre^teriamsm  m  Central  N,  Y,  p.  216. 

Coe,  Philemon  Elmer,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  New  York  city,  June  20, 1815. 
He  graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1834, 
spent  two  years  thereafter  in  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  and  graduated  at  the  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1839.  He  was  onlatned  to  the  ministry  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  June  SO,  184B ;  became 
rector  at  Hammondsport,  N.  Y.,  in  1844,  and  was  home 
missionary  at  Medina  and  Royalton,  from  1845  to  18i)0. 
His  next  engagements  were  as  home  missionary  at  Staf- 
ford, rector  at  Plainfield  and  Scotch  Plains  (1851-59), 
and  at  Westfield,  N.  J.,  where  he  died,  Dec.  20,  1878. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Coe,  Samuel  Ooodriob,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, son  of  Rev.  Noah  Coe,  was  bom  at  New  Hartford, 
Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  22, 1819.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1838,  and  immediately  entered  the  Yale  Law 
School.  In  1840  he  established  himself  in  the  practice 
of  the  law  at  Berlin,  Conn.,  but  soon  afler  entered  the 
Yale  Divinity  School,  and  graduated  in  1843.  He  was 
ordained  over  the  Church  at  Middlebury,  Y L,  July  14, 
1844,  and  remained  there  until  compelled  to  leave  by 
failing  health,  in  November,  1850.  Dec  18  of  the  same 
3'ear  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  First  Church,  Dan- 
bury,  Conn.  Here  his  strength  again  gave  way,  in  1864, 
and  be  resigned,  and  did  not  again  accept  a  permanent 
pastorate.  He  resided  four  years  at  Ridgefield,  and  sup- 
plied the  Church  there  until  1868.  A  period  of  illness 
followed  this  service,  but  in  1869  he  so  far  improved  in 
health  as  to  preach  for  six  months  in  the  Second  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Cleveland,  O.  He  died  at  New 
llaven.  Conn.,  Dec.  7, 1869.  Mr.  Coe  was  master  of  a 
vigorous  style,  and  was  a  very  impressive  preacher.  See 
Conff,  Quarterly,  1870,  p.  802' 

Coeddl.    See  Caeti. 

CoSffeteau,  Ghiillaume,  a  French  theologUn, 
was  bora  at  St.  Calais,  Sarthe,  in  1589.  Having  com- 
pleted his  theological  studies  and  been  ordained  priest, 
he  became  rector  of  Bagnolet,  near  Paris.  He  declined 
to  be  coadjutor  of  the  bishop  of  Marseilles,  his  broth- 
er, and  contented  himself  with  a  pension  of  two  thou- 
sand livrcs.  In  1623  he  resigned  at  Bagnolet,  in  order 
to  retire  to  the  college  of  Bayeux,  where  he  composed 
the  g^reater  part  of  his  works.  He  died  at  Paris  at  the 
Dominican  house,  Rue  Sainte-Honor6,  in  1660,  leaving 
an  edition  of  the  poem  of  Simon  Nanquier,  with  notes: 
— De  Luhrico  Temporis  Curricula  (Paris,  1616) : — Com- 
pendiosa  Formandai  OraHonis  Conciornaque  Ratio  (ibid. 
1643).  His  posthumous  works  were  published  by  his 
nephew,  James  Hallier,  under  the  title,  FhriUffium,  etc. 
(ibid.  1667).     See  Hoefer,  Xouc,  Biog.  Generate,  s.  v. 

CoSffeteaii,  IVicolaa,  a  celebrated  French  theo- 
logian and  preacher,  was  bom  at  St.  Calais,  a  little  vil- 
lage near  Le  Mains,  in  1574  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
he  entered  the  Dominican  order,  in  the  city  of  Mans. 
Later,  being  sent  to  Paris,  he  completed  his  studies 
with  honor  at  the  convent  of  St.  Jacques,  and  entered 
upon  a  course  of  philosophy  with  brilliant  success, 
llenry  IV  chose  him,  in  1602,  as  his  ordinary  preach- 
er ;  his  brotherhood,  after  having  appointed  him  defini- 
tor  of  the  congregation  of  France,  elected  him  by  ac- 
clamation prior  of  the  convent  of  St.  Jacques,  and  al- 
though  he.  was  unable  to  fulfil  the  required  conditions, 
he  was  allowed,  through  the  interposition  of  Henry  IV, 
to  assume  the  position.  In  1606  he  was  appointed  vicar- 
gcneral  of  the  congregation  of  France.  His  writings 
against  Peter  Du  Bloutin,  James  I,  king  of  England, 
and  Duplessis  Momay,  added  to  his  celebrity.  In  1617 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Danlania,  iaportiftif^  infideUum, 


and  SB  suffragan  of  the  bishop  of  Mentz,  he  went  lo 
govern  this  diocese,  where  Calvinism  was  rapidly  gain- 
ing ground.  In  return  for  this  service  he  was  appoint- 
ed, in  1621,  bishop  of  Marseilles,  but  his  fsiling  health 
did  not  permit  him  to  assume  this  position.  Abbe  do 
Marolles,  in  his  Mimoiree,  gives  an  account  of  the  death 
of  Co{5ifeteau,  which  occurred  at  Paris,  April  21, 1623. 
From  a  laige  number  of  works  we  mention  the  follow- 
ing: VHydre  Abattue  par  Vllercule  Chrkien  (Paris, 
1608)  :-^Examen  du  Litre  de  la  Confeeeion  de  Foi  Publie 
iou»  le  Norn  du  Roy  de  la  Grande^Bretayne  (ibid.  1604) : 
—La  Difense  de  la  Sainte-EuduiriMiie  (ibid.  1606)  :-- 
Ije  Montayne  Samte  de  la  Tribulation  (ibid,  eod.):-^ 
Premier  Eseai  des  QuetHotu  ThMoyi^ut,  etc  (ibid. 
1607),  which  the  Sorbonne  prohibited  him  from  com* 
pleting:^/><  Sacrifice  de  F^iee  Catkolique  (ibid. 
\em):— Tableau  des  Pataione  /fmnaine»  (ibid.  1615,. 
1621,  1628;  translated  into  English,  under  the  title. 
Picture  of  Human  Pa$non»j  Lond.  1621):— 7\i6&^u  de 
la  Penitence  de  la  Madeleine  (Paris,  1620) :— Tableau  de 
P Innocence  (ibid.  1621):  —  La  Marguerite  Chritieime 
(ibid.  1627):  —  a  collection  of  theological  works,  en- 
titled (JCurret  du  R,  P,  Coiffeteau^  Conienant  un  A'ov- 
veau  TraiU  des  Nome  de  VEucKaristie^  etc  (ibid.  1622). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gin^raU^  s.  v. ;  Bioy,  UnireT' 
selle,  s^  V. ;  J^cher,  A  llgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikont  s.  v. 

Coelchua.    See  Colga. 

CcelestiAiiL    See  C<elk8tine;  Pelagius. 

Coelefltinufl,  a  French  theologian  of  the  Capuchin 
order,  was  bom  about  1596  at  Mont  de  Marssn,  and  died 
at  Toulouse  in  1659.  His  principal  works  are,  Synopsis 
Prosopochranica  ffistorue  Ecdesiastiece(Tou\n\ia^  1644): 
— Prosopochronica  S.  Scriptures  (Paris,  1648) : — CUtvis 
David,  sive  A  rcana  Scriptures  S.  (Bordeaux,  1650)  : — 
Speculum  sine  Macula  (ibid.  1651).  See  Hoefer,  A'biir. 
Biog,  Geairale,  s.  v. 

CoBllaoua.    See  Cbollach. 

CoiSllo,  Alonao  Sanohes,  an  eminent  Portu- 
guese painter,  was  bom  in  1515,  and  resided  chiefly  in 
Spain.  He  painted  a  number  of  works  for  the  churches 
of  Madrid.  His  master-piece  is  in  San  Geronimo,  rep- 
resenting The  Mmiyrdom  of  St,  Sdfastian,  with  the  fig- 
ures of  Christ  and  the  Virgin.  He  died  in  1590.  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v.;  Hoefer,  Aour. 
Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

CoSllo,  Oaspar,  a  Portuguese  missionary  of  the 
Jesuit  order,  was  born  at  Oporto  in  1531.  He  preached 
the  Gospel  upon  the  coast  of  Malabar  fur  eighteen  years, 
and  went  to  Japan  in  1571,  where  he  became  noted  for 
the  seal  with  which  he  labored  for  the  conversion  of  the 
idolaterSb  In  1581  ho  became  vice-provincial  of  the 
mission,  and  died  at  Conzuca,  in  Japan,  May  7,  1590. 
His  letters  have  been  published  in  the  Rdations  da 
Japon  (1575, 1582, 1588).  See  Biog,  Universelle,  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  Nour,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Coemaoa  (or  Coemooa).    See  Caeuiiog. 

Coeman.    See  Caemhan. 

Coemgen  (Caolmhghen,  or  Kevin),  abbot  of 
Glendalough,  commemorated  June  3,  was  bora  possibly 
in  A.D.  498.  In  Celtic  his  name  signifies  **  fair-begot- 
ten,'* and  be  belongs  to  the  second  order  of  Irish  saints. 
He  was  early  made  a  priest  Having  fled  to  Glenda- 
lough, through  fear  of  being  elected  abbot,  he  founded 
a  monastery  there  in  A.D.  549.  He  died  in  A.D.  618 
( Lanigan,  Ecdes,  liisL  of  Ireland^  ii,  43  sq. ;  Butler, 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  vi,  69,  70).~Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biogt,  s.  V. 

CoSmptio  (mutucA  purchcue)  was  one  of  the  meth- 
ods of  contracting  marriages  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
in  which  the  parties  solemnly  bound  themselves  to  each 
other  by  giving  and  receiving  a  piece  of  money.  See 
Marriagk. 

Coen,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bora  Jan.  19, 1827.     He  joined  the  Church  in  1846, 


COENBURGA 


11 


COETLOSQUET 


was  licensed  to  preach  in  1H48,  and  in  1850  was  re- 
oeired  into  the  Pittsbargh  Conference,  wherein  he  la- 
bored with  acceptability  and  sucoeas  until  his  death, 
Feix  U,  1861.  Mr.  Coen  was  pleasant  and  companion- 
able, consistent  and  uniform  in  his  daily  life;  clear, 
logical,  and  convincing  as  a  preacher,  and  abundantly 
successful  as  a  pastor.  See  Minvtes  of  A  mwal  Cowftr" 
flKO,1861,p.a4. 

Coena.    See  Ethelgert. 

CoBna  DovTNL    See  Maundt-Thursdat. 

CcDiia  PuRA.    See  Good-Fridat. 

CcBnae.    See  Agafae. 

Coenbtorga  (or  Qnoenbiirga)  is  the  name  of 
two  early  English  saints : 

1.  A  daughter  of  Heribnrg,  heing  abbesa  of  Watton, 
York,  and  a  nun  in  that  house,  was  cured  of  an  infirmi- 
ty bT  John,  bishop  of  York,  about  A.D.  686  (Bede,  //.  E, 
r,  3)'. 

2.  An  abbess,  associated  with  the  abbess  Cuenburga 
and  others  in  a  proposal  for  mutual  intercessory  prayer 
(Haddan  and  Stubbs,  Counciie^  iii,  342  ).  See  CuE!«burh. 

Coeoferth,  one  of  two  presbyters  from  the  diocese 
of  Worcester,  attesting  an  act  of  the  Council  of  Clovesho^ 
Oct  12, 803  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  CoundU,  iu,  646). 

CoengilA.    See  Cengillb. 

CoengilsiiB.    See  Cengillus. 

CcBnobinxn  (co(vu/3cov,  from  koivus,  common^  and 
/^'oc,  lift)  is  equivalent  to  numastei-y  in  the  later  sense 
of  that  word.  Cassian  says  "  monasterium  "  may  be 
the  dwelling  of  a  nngle  monk,  "  ccenobium "  must  be 
of  several ;  the  former  word  expresses  only  the  place, 
the  latter  the  manner  of  living  {ColL  xviii,  10).  The 
neglect  of  this  distinction  has  led  to  much  inaccuracy 
in  attempting  to  fix  the  date  of  the  first  **  coenobia  "  or 
commanittes  of  monks  under  one  roof  and  under  one 
government*  Thus  Helyot  ascribes  their  origin  to  An- 
tony, the  famous  anchorite  of  the  Tbebaid  in  the  3d 
een'tary  {Ordres  Rdig.  Diss.  Prelim.  §  6).  But  the 
coonter  opinion,  which  ascribes  it  to  Pacbomius  of  Ta- 
beona  a  century  later,  is  more  probable;  for  it  seems  to 
hare  been  the  want  of  some  fixed  rule  to  control  the 
irRgolaritiefl  arising  from  the  vast  number  of  eremits, 
with  their  cells  either  entirely  isolated  from  one  another 
or  merely  grouped  together  casually,  which  gave  the  first 
oecsnoo  to  "  ocenobia."  In  fact,  the  growth  of  ooenobtttsm 
seems  to  bave  been  very  gradual  Large  numbers  of 
aacetics  were  collected  near  tlie  Moiis  Nitrius  [see  Cku- 
UTJi],  and  doubtless  elsewhere  also,  long  before  Pa- 
cbomius had  founded  hia  ooeuobiura.  But  the  interval 
is  oonsideiable  between  thia  very  imperfect  organiza- 
tion of  monka  thus  herding  lawlessly  together  and  the 
srmmetrical  arrangement  of  the  Benedictine  system. 
Very  probably  the  earliest  ooenobia  were  of  women; 
fur,  though  the  word  "  virgins,"  in  the  account  of  An- 
t*}ny  having  bis  sister  in  the  charge  of  devout  women, 
is  by  no  means  conclusive,  the  female  eremites  would 
naturally  be  the  first  to  feel  the  need  of  combination  for 
mutual  help  and  security. 

The  origin  of  the  coenobitic  life  is  traced  back  to  the 
time  before  the  Christian  aera.  Something  similar  is 
seen  in  the  pages  of  Plato  ( l^gg,  780,'  1 ),  and  the 
I'ythagoieans  are  described  by  Aulus  GeUius  as  living 
together  and  having  a  communitv  of  goods  {Noctet 
AUiea,  i,  9). 

Opinions  have  been  divided  among  the  admirers  of 
ascetidsm  aa  to  the  comparative  merits  of  the  solitary 
life  and  the  ccenobitic.  Cassian  (ColL  xix,  3)  looks  up 
to  the  life  of  perfect  solitude  as  the  pinnacle  of  holiness, 
f<iT  which  the  ccenobitic  life  is  only  a  preparatory  disct- 
idinc.  Theophykct  (SL  Narc.  iv,  20)  interprets  **  those 
who  bear  fruit  an  hundred-fold  "  in  the  parable  as  vir- 
gins and  eremites.  Basil  (Reg,  c.  1),  on  the  contrary, 
and  the  sagacious  Benedict  (jHeff,  c  1),  prefer  the  life 
r-f  the  coenobite  as  safer,  more  edifying,  less  alloyed  by 
the  taiqt  of  atlfiahnessi    Even  Jerome  (Kpp,  ad  Ruttic. 


12b \  Ad  IleKod,  14),  his  monastic  fervor  notwithstand- 
ing, prefers  life  in  the  community  to  life  in  utter  soli- 
tude, though  at  first  he  seems  to  have  been  a  zealous 
upholder  of  the  ooutrary  opinion.  Doubtless  experience 
had  impressed  on  him  the  perils  of  solitude.  I>egisla- 
tors  found  it  expedient  to  curb  the  rage  for  eremitism. 
Justinian  ordered  monks  to  stay  within  the  "coenobia.'* 
Similarly  Charlemagne  discouraged  hermits,  while  pro- 
tecting ccenobitic  monks,  and  the  seventh  council  of  Tole- 
do censured  roving  and  soUtairy  monks.  Even  in  the  Esfit 
the  same  distrust  prevailed  of  perrons  undertaking  more 
than  they  could  bear.  Thus  the  council  in  Trullo  en- 
joined a  sojourn  of  some  time  in  a  ccenobium  as  the 
preliminary  to  life  in  the  desert  Benedict  aptly  illus- 
trates the  difference,  from  his  point  of  view,  between 
these  two  forms  of  asceticism.  The  solitary,  he  says, 
leaves  the  line  of  battle  to  fight  in  single  combat  See 
Monasticism. 

"  Cceiiobium  "  is  used  sometimes  in  medieval  writers 
for  the  ^  basilica, '^  or  ch urch  of  t he  monaster}'.  "  Clois- 
ter" and  "convent"  are  frequently  used  for  "coeno- 
bium."  —  Smith,  Uict.  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v.  See  also 
Asceticism;  Bbnedicti2(k  Kule;  Mokastert. 

Cconred,  king  of  the  Mercians,  succeeded  his  uncle, 
Ethelred,  on  the  resignation  of  the  latter  in  704.  In  709 
he  followed  the  example  of  his  unde,  resigned  his  crown, 
and  went  to  Rome  in  company  with  Oifa,  king  of  tho 
East-Saxons,  where  he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
In  Rome,  Constant  tne  being  pope  then,  Coenred  was  shorn 
and  made  a  monk  "  ad  limiua  a{)ostolorum," continuing  to 
his  last  hours  in  prayera,  fastings,  and  alms-dee<ls  (Bede, 
H,  E.  v,  19).  Coenred  was  the  fifth  of  the  Anglo-Sax- 
on kings  who  abdicated  on  religious  grounds,  following 
Ethelred.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Coena,  Henricus,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  sailed  from  Holland  Oct.  7,  1 725.  He 
served  at  Aquackononck  (now  Passaic).  N.  J.,  Second 
River  (now  Belleville),  Pompton  (now  Pompton  Plains) ; 
at  Ponds  from  1730,  and  died  Feb.  14, 1735.  He  wrote 
to  Holland  a.  detailed  account  of  the  troubles  between 
the  churches  of  Second  River  and  Aquackauonck.  See 
Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref  Church  in  Americaf  3d  ed. 
p.  213. 

Coonnald  (Coeniivald,  or  KeniivaldX  a  monk, 
was  sent  by  archbishop  Theodore  to  Rome,  bearing 
written  chaiges  against  Wilfred  before  poile  Agatho. 
Malmesbury  represents  him  as  supporting  the  charges 
in  harsh  and  bitter  terms.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog.  s.  V. 

Cconwaloh  (or  CoBnuualh)  was  the  eleventh 
bishop  of  London.  His  episcopate  falls  between  789, 
when  Eadgar  was  bishop,  and  796,  when  Eadbald,  his 
successor,  died.  His  name  is  attached  to  a  question- 
able or  spurious  charter  of  Offia,  dated  793.  See  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Co3tivy,  Alaik  de,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  in 
Brittany,  Nov.  8, 1407.  He  was  successively  bishop  of 
Dol,  of  Camouailles,  and  of  Avignon,  and  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  virtuous  ecclesiastics  of  his  time. 
He  was  made  cardinal  in  1448,  performed  many  impor- 
tant missions,  and  dieil  at  Rome,  July  22,  1474.  See 
Hoefer,  Nour,  Biog,  Genhale^  s.  v. 

Coetlogon,  Fran90is  de,  coadjutor  of  the  bishop 
of  Quimper  in  1666,  afterwards  titulary  bishop  in  1668, 
was  bom  in  Brittany,  France,  June  3, 1631.  He  found- 
ed iu  his  diocese  a  large  seminary,  as  well  as  a  house  of 
retreat,  and  participated  in  the  labors  of  the  assembly  of 
bishops  in  July,  1699 — the  assembly  which  condemned 
the  Maximes  des  Saints  of  Fenelon.  He  died  at  Quim- 
per, Nov.  6, 1706,  leaving  ReJUxionSy  Sentences,  et  Max- 
imes tiries  des  (Euvres  de  Saint' fyatifois-dc'Sales  (Par- 
is, 1698).     See  Hoefer,  JVbur.  Biog,  Gentrale^  s.v. 

CoStlOftqnet,  Jean  Giles  dk,  a  French  prelate, 
was  bora  at  Saint*  Pol-de-Leon,  Sept.  15,  1700.  He  was 
chancellor  of  Bourges,  and  became  bishop  of  Limoges 


(XETUS  1 

ID  1T89;  WW  preceptor  of  the  duke  df  Berrr,  then  of 
Lodu  XVI  and  his  brotber^  which  (unctioni,  ircoid- 
iog  to  cuaLom,  admiued  him  inLo  ufae  French  Aeadeniy 
la  VTGl.  He  tliol  in  Pirig,  Harcb  SI,  1784.  See  Uoe- 
fer,  Miur.  Bing.  Giniiait,  ■.  v. 

CcStna  ( ■  coning  logefker,  or  autmilg )   it  the 


e  of  B 


eccini 


the  Reronned  (l)ut£h)  Church  in  Amtrica.  It  wii 
orgmniMd  in  17«,  bfitig  de«igned  to  luppl.v  the  w«nt 
of  >  cUnis  or  aynod  in  thii  country,  ind  wu  compoaed 
of  miniaieri  iitd  eldera  who  were  in  fBvor  of  the  inde- 
pcnilenee  of  the  Church.  It»  powera  were  loo  limited 
to  enable  it  to  accampliBh  all  tbit  WM  hoped  froin 
its  organiaitinn.  Fur  >  full  account,  ne  Betormed 
CiiUBCii  IX  AuKHTCA.  A  aimiliT  bodj  «1»  eiiated  in 
the  GanNAN  Refobukd  Church  i;(  America  (i).  v.). 
(W.J.R.T.) 

CcBttr,  PiRHRE  LoulB,  >  French  prelate,  wai  bom 
■t  Tarare(Kh(ine),  March  14,  IB06.  In  IBW  he  became 
kCarlhunian  moiik.andapentaevenl  jean  in  tbealudy 
of  tbeolugy.  In  1824  he  wu  made  pioreaaor  at  the 
■(•miliary  oF  L'Argenti^re,  and  alterwarda  in  the  aemi- 
narv  of  Saint-Irtiie,  where  he  wrote  an  £uai  lur  tln- 
diftrtmx  en  Maiiirt  Rdigieutt.  He  became  aobdeacon 
in  1835,  deacon  in  ]gl6,and  piitst  in  18S9.  In  1027  ba 
went  to  Paris  to  attend  the  Sorbonne  and  the  ColleKe 
do  Fiance.  He  next  devoted  himaelf  to  preaching  for 
aevetal  vean,  with  marked  aaecess,  and  obtained  a  mem- 
berahip'in  the  academy  at  Clermont- Ferrand.  In  ieS4 
he  was  canon  of  Nantet,  in  1B38  of  Bordeaux ;  in  I8S9 
he  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  Arru.  and  in  1841 
titularycannn  of  the  metropolia.  He  afierwanla  Unght 
aacred  eloquence  with  great  succesa.  He  waa  appointed 
totbeepiacopalieeatTroveaOeLie,  1848,  and  conae- 
crated  Feb.  !5, 1849.  He  died  OcU  16, 1860.  He  vaa 
a  collaborator  on  the  Retut  Rtligiaiu  el  Edijiaiilt,  See 
Hoefer,  ffoac.  Bioj.  CMniU,  «.  v. 

CoffBD,  in  etuiy  Welsh  saint,  waa  patron  of  Llan- 
gofen,  in  Uonmoutbihiie,  and  of  8t.(ioven  Chapel,  in 

Peaibrok»hire  (Bees,  iVelik   Snialt,  p.  807) Smith, 

DkL  o/CiritL  Bioj.  s.  v. 

Coffin.  The  following  additional  particulars  are 
from  Walcott,  Sac.  A  rchaoL  s.  r. : 

"The  early  Ctirlailans  adopted  the  custom  of  tbe 
haalhans  In  nilng  cafflun.  Stone  enPIn*  wen  ordered 
tor  tbe  lotennent  at  minks,  bjr  shbot  Wsrtii,  of  St.  Al- 
bau's,  IIBS-M ;  they  had  hitherto  been  bnrled  under  the 
green  turf.  In  tbe  lOth  end  fullowlnE  (wn  centuries  f 
Vow  coped  conn  of  stone,  with  a  biill.iw  for  the  body,  sni 

e  dfculsr  cnilty  for  the  hesd,  vf  '- '—  -■ — 

in  St  AUBalm'      ' 


COGOESHALL 

cient,  tbe  ridee  being  next  In  polat  of  age-  St.  Richard 
->f  Cfalcheitet,  in  the  Uth  centniy,  was  burled  la  a  wood- 
en coBlu.  ThoH  of  the  TeniplSTx,in  theTemiileChnrch, 
lAudou,  are  of  lead,  deconied  with  omiiineiiu  of  elsbo- 
itB  deaigu  In  low  relief.  An  old  tegeud  rEiirnenti  St. 
^athbert,  lu  hia  stone  coffin,  Saaiing  down  the  Tweed." 

CofBn,  CharlSB  (1),  a  French  hymnist,  waa  born 
Oct.  4, 16T6,  at  Buiancy.  He  studied  at  Beaurais  and 
at  Piesais.  In  1718  he  succeediHl  the  celebrated  histo- 
-  hich 

poaition  he  held  until  his  death  in  1749.    At  the  in- 
nee  of  Monsieur  de  Vinlimille,  atchbiahup  of  Paris, 
composed  tbe  hymna  for  tbe  new  Vam  breviary, 
giace  of  rhythm  Ibey  join  the  most  touching  sim- 
:ity  and  tendenwaa.     Hit  works  were  publithed  in 
rolk,  Paru,  1760.     Severs!  of  bis  hymns  wen  ajw 
nalated  into   Englitb  by   Mason  Neale  and  John 
Chandler.      A  number  of  'these  trenalationB  are  also 
id  in  Lyra  Mrtnamca,  p.  IG,  86, 41, 160,164, 169, 181, 
87'2.     See  Miller,  Singrr,  ami  Songt  of  the  Charrh, 
p.142;  LicbteDberger,£iicj|clDp,(JHdcviicciJirIi^iuea, 
a.v.    (a  P.) 

Coffin,  Cluirles  (2), D.D.,aPmbyt«rian  minister, 
waa  born  at  Kewbuiy  port,  Mass.,  Aug.  15,1776;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1793;  Mudied  tbeolo^  pri- 
vately, and  was  licensed  by  Essex  Middle  Atsodation, 
Ma7'l4, 1799.  He  spent  several  yean  raiaing  tbe 
duwment  for  Greenville  College.  Tenn.,  of  wl'  '  ' 
came  vicc-praideot,  and  in  1810  preaident 
be  became  pnsidt 

and  remained  there 


The  ifou  shape  is  thi 


Junea,18&B.   See  Sprague,  .I  nafa  o/hU /I 


hebe- 
u  1827 
Utiiveraity  at 
il  1B33.    He  died 


-,24G. 


r.  Pulpit, 


Coffin,  duilaa  B.,  a  Ihoteatant  Episcopal  derfiy. 
man,  was  inducted  into  the  ministerial  office  in  1B68. 
In  1870  he  waa  anisUnt  minister  of  St.  Luke's  Church, 
New  York  city,  which  relation  he  auatained  until  1878. 
In  tbe  following;  year  liBbecame  rector  of  TiinitvChurch, 
Havenlraw,  N.  V.  He  died  July  9,  J87&,  a^ed  forty- 
six  years.     3cs/>rD(.£>uc..4Jnuinaf,  1876,p.U9. 

Coffin,  HBhemlBb  CogEwall,  a  Presbyteriaa 
minialer,  was  bom  in  New  Hampahire  in  1818.  He 
graduated  fmm  Dartmouth  College  in  1886;  studied 
theology  for  one  year  (1839)  in  Andorer  Theological 
Seminary,  and  graduated  from  Idne  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  184L  He  waa  ordained  Sept.  10, 1848;  waa 
stalsd supply  at  Fearing,  O.,  from  1842  to  1845;  at  Beth- 


1  Brem* 


,  in  ISifi  a 


18M  to  I8G1 ;  teacher  at  Granville  Female  College,  in 
IBol  and  1862;  slated  aupply  at  Piqua,  from  1S62  tO 
1860;  was  without  charge  a't  Sandusky,  in  1860  and 
t8Cl,aad  at  Marhlehoad,from  tsei  until  bia  death  thete, 
Jan.  9, 1868,  See  Tneo,  Cat.  of  AnJottr  TitoL  Seai. 
1870,  p.  14a 

Coffin,  SteplMii,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  waa 
boni  at  Alton,  N.  H„  March  8, 1792,  the  youngest  of 
fourteen  children.  He  was  converted  at  tbe  age  of 
twenty-one,  and  in  ISSS  became  a  member  of  theChnreh 
in  Wolfborough.  In  thewimerof  1841  hewasordained, 
and  afterwards  labored  as  an  evangelist,  spending  most 
of  the  autumns  and  winters  in  preaching  to  deatitut« 
cburches,  and  holding  protracted  meetings  for  nearly 
a  year  in  M'iBconsin  and  Illinoie.  He  died  in  Dover, 
N.  H.,  March  4, 1867.  See  Free-uSl  Bapliit  Sryitttr, 
1868,  p.  88.     (J.  a  8.) 

Coffins,  JACKSon  Gkkkn,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bmn  at  KeUslone,  Pa.,  Se^  21, 1824.  He 
graduated  at  Marietta  College  iu  1863;  was  a  student 
at  Union  Theological  Seminaiy  fium  1853  to  1856;  then 
a  resident  licentiate  in  1856  and  1867;  was  ordained 
Nov.  9, 1850 ;  was  a  foreign  missianarv  at  Ainub,  West- 
ern Asia,  from  1867  to  1861 ;  also  at  Hajin  and  Adana, 
in  1861  and  1862,  and  waa  aisasunated  at  Alexandretu, 
Marcb  26, 1862.  See  Cm.  CaU  of  Union  ThtoL  Sen. 
1876,  p.  77. 

COggUlUlI,   FUKBOBK,  1 


C06QESHALLE 


13 


COGNATUS 


dergrmn,  was  born  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Dec  81, 1845. 
Wben  be  WIS  a  child  his  parents  removed  to  Provi- 
dence, and  be  fitted  fur  college  in  the  htgh-tchool  of 
thstdcf.  He  graduated  with  (he  highest  honors  of 
bis  class  at  Brpwn  University  in  1867.  He  immedi- 
atdy  entered  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  New 
York,  where  he  waa  a  student  for  three  years,  with  the 
exception  of  six  months,  which  were  spent  in  travel  in 
the  old  workl.  He  was  ordained  a  deacon  June  12, 1871, 
and  commenced  a  mission  at  £1mwood,near  Provi- 
flence.  He  was  ordained  presbyter  Dec  22  of  the  same 
vear,  and  for  about  a  %*ear  was  assistant  rector  of  the 
"  House  of  Pnryer  "  in  Newark,  N.  J.  He  was  assistant 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Advent  in  Boston,  from  the 
fall  of  1872  until  June,  1874,  when  he  resigned  his  of- 
fice and  went  abroad,  intending  to  spend  three  or  four 
years  in  theological  and  literary  study  at  the  University 
of  Oxford.  While  engaged  in  his  studies  he  performed 
miuisterial  duties  in  Oxford  and  the  neighboring  vil- 
lagesL  Two  years  were  devoted  to  most  congenial 
work,  and  be  bad  made  hia  arrangements  to  return  to 
bis  nstive  oiontry,  when  he  died  at  Oxford,  Oct.  6, 1876. 
See  Brtwn  UnutrMity  Nterohgy,  1877.     (J.  a  S.) 

Coggeshalle,  Bau^h  ds,  a  learned  English  Cis- 
tercian and  historian,  is  chiefly  known  by  his  ChronicU 
of  the  ffofy  Land,  which  is  valuable  because  he  was  an 
eye-witness  of  the  facts  related.  He  was  at  Jenisalero, 
sod  was  wounded  there  during  the  siege  of  that  city  by 
Ssladin.  Hedied  about  1228.  See  Chalmers,  J9io^./>icf. 
s.  r. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthortf  s.  v. 

Cogglo,  David,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  in  Massachusetts  in  1817;  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1886,  and  from  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1841 ;  was  ordained  May  11, 1842 ;  was  pas- 
tor at  Westhampton,Mass.,  and  remained  there  until  his 
detih,  April  28, 1862.  See  Trien.  Cat,  of  A  ndottr  TheoL 
£m.  1870,  p.  145. 

Coggin,  Jacob,  a  Congregational  miniater,  was 
bom  at  Wobum,  Mass.,  Sept.  5, 1782.  He  graduatetl 
from  Harvard  College  in  1803;  studied  theol(^^  with 
his  psator.  Rev.  Jonas  Chickering,  and  was  ordained  in 
Tevksbory,  Oct.  22, 1806.  Here  he  was  sole  pastor  for 
more  tbao  forty  years.  Twice  he  represented  Tewks- 
baiT  in  the  legislature;  was  chosen,  in  1852,  a  presi- 
dential elector,  and  in  1853  was  a  delegate  to  the  con- 
vention for  revising  the  constitution  of  the  state. 
Goreroor  Cliflbrd  appointed  him  one  of  the  inspectors 
of  the  state*8  alms-house,  upon  the  establishment  of  that 
institaiion,  and  he  was  chaplain  of  it  till  his  decease, 
Dec.  12, 1854.    See  Necrology  of  Harvard  CoUege^  p.  41. 

(J.  a  S.) 

Coghfl],  DortALD  R.  M.,  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  where  he  was  con- 
verted St  the  age  of  fiAeen,  and  was  educated  at  the 
noiversity  there.  He  was  received  by  the  conference  in 
1834,  and  sent  to  Hexham,  next  to  Aberdeen,  and  final- 
ly to  Wigton.  In  1840  bodily  affliction  compelled  him  to 
give  up  the  active  work.  He  died  April  9, 1842.  See 
Minuiet  of  the  British  Conference,  1842. 

CogittelU)  a  monk  of  Rildare,  is  commemorated 
on  April  18,  in  the  Mart.  Tattaghi,  where  he  is  called 
'*the  wise.**  There  is  great  diversity  in  the  dates  of 
hia  life,  as  given  by  different  writers,  but  Lsnigan  and 
Petrie  prove  ineonte^tably  that  Cogitoaus  must  have  writ* 
ten  previously  to  A.D.  831,  when  Kildare  was  first  plun- 
dered, and  must  have  flourished  at  latest  in  the  begtn- 
nini;  <ff  rbe  9th  century  (Lanigsn,  EcdcM.  I/ist,  ofJrekmd, 
'\  879  aq.).     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cogler,  Nkriosamdus,  a  German  poet  of  the  Bene- 
dictine order,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th 
ceiuiiry,  wrote  StUlot  Poeticm  et  Profana  (Augsburg, 
1730).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GhUrak,  s.  v. 

Cognac,  CouKCiLS  or  {Concilium  Coprimacense  or 
CoKpoRKiciuii),  were  French  provincial  synods  as  fol- 

kva: 


I.  HeM  on  the  Monday  after  the  octave  of  Easter, 
1238,  by  Gerard  de  Malemort,  archbishop  of  Bordeaux, 
together  with  his  suffragans.  Thirty-eight  canona,  or 
articles  of  regulation,  were  published,  among  which  we 
find  some  that  show  what  great  abuses  had  then  crept 
into  the  monastic  system. 

9.  Orders  that  each  bishop  shall  take  cure  that  sentences 
of  oxcommnnlcation  pronounced  by  a  brother  bishop  be 
enforced  within  his  own  diocese. 

IS  and  18.  Forbid  priests  and  monks  to  act  as  advocates 
in  any  cause,  save  that  of  their  own  chnrcbes  or  of  the 
poor. 

18.  Fines  those  who  continue  forty  days  in  a  state  of 
excommun  Icatlou. 

19.  Directs  that  not  onlv  those  persons  who  maltreat  a 
clersyman  shall  be  excluded  fh>m  holding  any  eccleslasr 
tical  office  or  prefermeut,  but  their  desceudauts  also  to 
the  third  generation. 

90.  Forbids  abbots  to  give  money  to  their  monks  In 
lien  of  board,  lodging,  and  clothing;  also  t(»  iske  any  en> 
trance*fee  from  new-comera.  Orders  thai.  If  the  revenues 
of  the  hunse  are  too  small  for  the  roaliiteunnce  of  a  large 
unmber  of  monks,  the  nnmber  shall  be  rednced. 

99.  Forbids  monks  to  leave  their  walls  without  leave, 
end  to  eat  abroad. 

95.  Orders  that  if  either  monk  or  canon  shall  be  found 
to  poasess  any  property,  bo  shall  be  deprived  of  church 
burial. 

99.  Forbids  them  to  eat  their  menls  with  Iny  persons. 

80.  Forbids  their  living  nloue  iu  priories,  etc 

See  Labbe,  Condi,  xi,  556. 

U.  Held  in  1255,  by  the  same  archbishop,  in  which 
thirty-nine  canons  were  published.  The  first  seventeen 
are  but  a  repetition  of  those  of  the  Council  of  Cognac  in 
1288. 

19.  Relates  to  fasting  and  abstinence. 

90.  Prohibits,  under  pain  of  excommnnlcatlon,  to  eat 
flesh  in  Lent,  especially  on  the  first  Sunday. 

91.  Oontalna  a  list  ox  festirnls  to  be  observed  through- 
out the  year. 

28.  Peclnres  that  there  are  but  ten  prefaces. 

93.  Forbids  the  lally  to  enter  the  choir  during  service. 

94.  Directs  that  women  about  the  lime  of  their  couflne- 
ment  shall  confers  and  communicate. 

9<i.  Bxcommunlcates  those  who  attend  fairs  and  mar- 
kets on  Sundays  or  festivsl  days. 

88.  Forbids  the  married  clergy  to  exercise  any  eodesl- 
astlcn>  Jurisdicliou. 

89.  Forbids  to  bury  any  corpse  within  the  church,  ex- 
cept that  of  the  founder,  the  patron,  or  the  chaplain. 

See  Labbe,  ConciL  xi,  746. 

in.  Held  in  1260,  by  Pierre  de  Roncevaux,  archbishop 
of  Bordeaux.    Nineteen  atatutes  were  made. 

1.  Forbids  night-service  or  vigils  either  In  the  church 
or  church-yard,  on  account  of  the  disorders  committed 
by  the  peoole  who  attended. 

9.  Forblas  an  ancient  custom  of  dancing  within  the 
church  on  the  day  of  the  festival  of  the  lIuTy  Innocents, 
and  choosing  a  mock  bishop. 

6b  Forbids  a  priest  to  marry  parties  belonging  to  an- 
other parish  without  the  license  of  the  chaplain  or  prior 
belonging  to  thst  parish. 

T.  Forbids,  nnder  anathema,  cuck>figbting,  then  much 
practiced  in  schools. 

15  and  18.  Forbid  extra- porochial  bnrlal  without  the 
curate*s  permission.  One  object  of  this  canon  was  to 
prevent  the  ecclesiastical  burial  of  excommunicated  per- 
sons. 

See  Labbe,  Condi,  xi,  799. 

lY.  Held  in  1262,  by  the  archbishop  of  Bordeaux. 
Seven  statutes  were  published. 

1.  T4iys  under  an  Interdict  those  places  in  which  eccle- 
slaifitlcal  iiersons  or  property  were  forcibly  detained. 

fi.  £nj«iln8  the  clergy  to  say  the  office  wiihlu  chnrcbes 
with  closed  doors  in  places  under  interdict,  and  forbids 
any  of  the  parishioners  attending. 

Another  council  was  held  by  the  same  archbishop  in 
the  following  year;  the  place  is  uncertain.  Seven  arti- 
cles were  agreed  upon,  of  which  the  second  declares  that 
a  person  under  sentence  of  excommunication  for  twelve 
months  shall  be  looked  upon  as  a  heretic.  See  Labbe, 
ConciL  xi,  820-822.— Landon,  Manual  of  Coundls,  s.  v. 

CognatiuB.    See  Caunazzo. 

CognatUB  (or  Couain),  Johannbs,  a  Flemish  his- 
torian and  theologian,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
17th  century ;  was  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Touniay, 
and  wrote,  De  FvndamaUis  Beligiotas  (Douay,  1597) :— 


COGSHALI.  1 

De  PrmperitaU  tx  ExiUo  Satemonit  (ilnd.  1569}:— 
Hitleirt  da  Tomiiai  (in  French,  ibid.  IG19,  2  voli.)  :- 
lliiloria  Sanclonm  (j.hiiL  1621).  See  Uatfm,  Xow. 
Biog.  Giairair,  t,  v. 

CogabHll,  Israel,  a  Hethodiit  Episcopal  minister, 
w«s  bom  iiou-  Scbenectwiy,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  K(,  18m  He 
was  converted  it  tbe  age  or  nineteen;  soon  aftenrards 
received  license  to  exhort  j  removed  lu  Hichi^n,  where 
be  vu  licensed  u>preaeh,and,a(ler>pending  some  lime 
teaching  schooi  and  preachinf(t  was  admilied  inln  Ibe 
Hichiean  Conference  in  184S.  Ac  the  opening  of  the 
Rcbelhun,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of  tbe  I9tb  regi- 
ment of  Michigan  Voluntaem;  on  hia  retuni  from  the 
army  aer-ed  two  leam  as  sgent  of  Altnon  CoUej^e,  and 
then  again  entered  the  regular  ilinerantranka,  in  which 
be  remainedrailhfuluntilbiadeath,ApriI  7,1879.  ilr. 
Cogihall  waa  thoroucbly  ilevoted  lo  all  tbe  interesta  of 
the.  Church.  He  waa  ■  man  of  decided  ojdnions  and 
Mrang  convictiuni,  kind,  sympathetic,  active,  aludioiu, 
and  succeaaTuL    :j«e  Minula  qf  Atmuat  Ca^trtaca, 

CoS8i7eU,  Jamais  D.D.,a  Cuagrefntional  minia- 
ter,wa9bom  acSarbroul(,Conn.,Jan.li,lT20.  Hegrad- 
ualeil  at  Yale  College  in  IT4S,  and  waa  ordained  in  1744 
orer  the  Church  in  Canleibury,  where  belabored  Iwen- 
Iv-sei'en  vcara.  Ilia  next  charge  was  Scotland,  Tron) 
1772  lo  mi.  He  <)ied  «l  Ibe  house  of  hi*  son,  Dr.  Ma- 
aun  Fitch  Cogswell,  in  Hartford,  Jan.  S.  1807.  He  una 
"learned,  aociai,  bencTulent,  aubmiasiTe."  He  puti- 
Hahed  six  Strmoni.     See  Cong.  Qaarlerly,  1859,  p.  (153, 

COBBvrell,  Jonathan.  D.D.,  a  PrealiTterian  min- 
iater,  waa  bom  atRowley,MaBa^SepE.2,l78Z.     Hewaa 

at  Harvard  College,  ordained  in  1810,  and  ualioned  at 
Saco,  wher«  be  labored  with  great  aucccsa  for  eighteen 
vears.  In  1839  he  was  called  to  New  Britain,  Conn., 
iiberG  lie  labored  faithfully  for  Ave  yean.  In  1834  he 
waa  elected  profeaaor  of  eccleaiaatical  history  in  tbe  the- 
nlc^ical  aeminary  at  East  Windsor.  He  retired  fmm 
public  life  on  account  of  failing  health,  in  1841,  and  re- 
«ide.l  at  .New  llruntwick,  S.  J.,  until  hia  deatb,  Aug.  I, 
1804.     Sec  WiLwn,  Prrib.  ItUt.  A  Imaaac,  I8G&,  p.  85. 

Cohana  Foneh,  in  Umaiam,  la  an  idol  of  the 
Tartars  and  Kalmucka,  which  aeenia  lo  bear  a  reaem- 
blNnce  to  Sira,  of  India — at  least,  he  ia  (he  destroyer. 
In  .»ie  of  his  eight  bands  he  bohla  a  human  bead  by  (ba 
hair,  and  a  akdelon  head  in  another!  out  of  the  Are 
which  Burrounds  him  there  is  a  sliuU  visible.  A  broad 
chnin  of  similar  omamenta  hangs  below  the  breast  and 
thigh.  Hia  three  eyea  ace  the  present,  tbe  ftiture,  and 
the  poat;  hia  eight  hands  are  armed  with  all  aorta  of  iit- 
rture  for  bis  victima.    At  hia  feel  there 


FIcnre  of  Cohana  Airaeh. 


is  a  woman,  whnae  bead  he  secmato  be  about  tocutoC 
He  lives  entirely  in  aameo,  and  in  these  he  kills  every 
one  who  approacha  him;  therefore  Cobana  Forseh  it 
tbe  moat  terrific  idol  in  the  entire  Tartar  circle  uf  deities. 

Cohen,  Ateahmm  bes-Sahata,  a  Jewish  schol- 
ar, was  bom  at  Zaute  in  1670.  He  died  in  i;29.  He 
composed  a  Paraphrate  nfthtFmlmi  in  Hebrew  rerae, 
published  at  Venice  in  1719.  See  Hoefer,  A'osr.  Bias. 
Giahalf,  s.  v.;  FUnt,  BibL  Jad.  a.  v.  Zanti. 

Cohan,  Moses,  a  French  rabbi  of  the  3d  century, 
was  bom  at  Lunei,  in  Languedoc  He  combated  the 
ptinciplea  of  the  famous  Maimoniiles,  and  gained  the 
esteem  of  hia  co-religion  lata  by  varicn*  works  which 
have  not  been  published.     See  Hoefer,  A'oar.  Biog.  Ui- 

Cohon,  A^TiiTHE  Dfnis,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Craon,  in  Anjou,  in  1G94.  He  was  sent  to  his 
uncle,  canon  of  the  cathednl  of  Hans,  lo  commence  bis 
studiea,  and  thus  had  no  diQculty  in  gaining  admiuance 
to  the  college  of  Angers.  He  hesitated  for  a  time  be- 
tween oratory  and  law,  but  finally  choae  the  former.  On 
tbe  resignation  ofbis  uncle  be  became  canon  of  Mans,  and 


I  of  Nisr 


Hia 


«  during  t 


lenoe  of  IG40  was  worthy  of  miwh  praise 
aaoisted  at  the  aasembly  of  Nantes.  Ou  the  death  of 
cardinal  Kichelieu,  who  had  been  hia  patron  and  pro- 
tector, he  attached  liimaelf  In  cardinal  Uaiarin.  But 
the  ProteaUnIa  and  even  the  Catholics  became  his  ene- 
mies, and  Haiarin  waa  obliged  to  remove  him,  and  be 
accordingly  sent  him  to  the  see  of  Dnl.  Cohon  soon 
after  abdicated  in  favor  of  Robert  Cupif.  After  spend- 
ing two  years  at  the  prigry  of  St  Lonan,  Cohon  re- 

Mazarin.  At  (be  cotiaccralion  of  Louis  XIV  he  occu- 
pied the  pulpit  uf  the  church  at  Rheims,  and  pmnonnoeil 
a  discourse.  Having  already  received  the  abbey  of 
Flaran,  after  the  consecration  the  young  king  also  give 
to  him  the  abbey  of  Le  Tronchel.  His  recall  lo  the  bish- 
opric of  Nismes  only  surrounded  him  again  wiihtrunble 
and  difficulties,  and  he  died  there  Nov.  7,  1670,  leaving, 
£«fi^  n  M.U  Cardinal  de  I^on,  found  in  Ma  in  iho 
national  XAmn-.—  lMUtCaidtrioMiaCahaleSrmte 
arte  Jfiizurin  (Paris,  IMS):— A  qui  Aine  la  V^rili 
(anonymous)!— On/oBBKupM  Sjiodulfi  du  Diorw  de 
Nitmn  (1870).  8ee  Hoefer,  Koun.Bios-  Ciniralf,  s.  v. ; 
Biog.  UairnvlU,  s.  v. 

Colfi  waa  the  chief  of  tbe  heallien  priests  of  .£d- 
win,  king  of  Northumbria,  in  A.D.  GJ7.  He  advised 
hia  master  to  accept  Christianity  at  Ihe  preaching  of 
Paulinui,  and  be  himself  desecrated  the  temple  at 
Goudmanham,  where  he  had  80  often  ofRciated  (Bede, 
;/.  A',  ii,  13>— Smith,  fl.W.  ofCkriit.  Buy.  g.  v. 

Colmbra,  Bernardo  do,  a  ForiugueM  Benedic- 
tine of  the  conrcnl  of  Alcobafa,  an  encyclo|inJist  of 
the  middle  age^  of  whom  liltle  is  known.  His  book, 
still  in  MS., contains,  Dt  Cahtt  Ttrra,dt  Lucf,  Agvii, 
SoU,  Luna  H  Slrllit,  dt  Piabui  rt  Aribut/  dr  Paradim 
de  Fomaliimt  Primi  llomimM;  de  Adam,  Kta  rl  Ser- 
pmlt,  dt  Stx  Dirbui  et  Sfptinuma ;  de  A  ilam,  t'ra  el 
FUiii  £urwn ;  de  Kvu, Ewxh  tt  Not;  deAnatl  DSa- 
tv> ;  de.  C^rro  et  Coiumba ;  de  Iride ;  de  Vinea  Noe  et 
Inririatiinif  Ejm;  and  in  the  fourth  part.dr  Corparali 
el  Spirilanii  Fornicalumi ;  de  Lnpei  Cnjutdnm  Virgt- 
nit!  de  Vial'ilore  l'ii-giaii,ac  Set  Hoefct,  Noar.  Biog. 
Gini'-atr,  s.  v. 

Colmbra,  Manoel  de(l).aPortUKi<eBe  tlieulogi. 
an,bom at  ObidoB,1Irazil.was an  indefatigable  iranslalor, 
and  died  in         ~ 


alar. 


Hanqaeii  da  A  Ima  (l^iy.—Praclicndai  Eitrcicioi  Spir- 
ituaetdeSaiiloJgiuiao(,U»bon,ieaT):—AMlniVeiperiiill> 
dea.LvcarTlierfadtJaatiye^y^RtiafamJoSiimp- 
Uioto  Apparato  mi  Camniiafao  de  Ciaca  Santo* ;  S. 
LoMrmfo  Jtatiniiniv,  S.  Joio  Cuputraiio,  8.  Joao  dt  Ba- 
kagim,  S.  Joao  de  Deui  e  S.  Paiehoal  Haglim  (ilrid.  IG91). 


COIMBRA 


16 


COIT 


Coimhra,  Bfanoel  de  (2),  a  Portugnese  tbeolo- 
gitn,  WIS  born  in  the  17th  century,  in  Cuimbra,  and 
belonged  to  a  noble  family.  He  entered  the  order  of 
St.  Francis,  and  became  guanlian  of  the  convent  of  San 
Fiincifloo  de  Covilhao  in  1695;  and  occupied  the  aame 
position  at  Cbimbra  about  1706.  He  became  definitor 
of  his  order  in  the  chapter  of  1709|  and  died  in  1727, 
karing.  Epitome  Hisiorial  da  Vida  e  Virtudea  t  Portenr 
to$  do  luticfo  e  GlorUao  Padre  8,  Jodo  CqpUtramOf 
etc.  (Lisbon,  1692> 

Coinchenn  (or  Ckmohenn)  was  the  name  of 
two  Irish  Tirgin  saints  in  the  7th  and  8th  centuries : 

1.  Coi:ccHBN2(  OP  CAKti-ACiiADH  is  Commemorated 
Aug.  20.  Her  monastery  was  probably  at  Killeigh, 
King's  County,  and  she  died  about  A.D.  748,  according 
to  the  Irish  annals  (Colgan,  Acta  Sanctorunit  p.  607). 

2.  CoiNCHKKx,  TiiK  Devout,  flourished,  accord* 
ing  to  Colgan,  in  Ulster,  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th 
century.  She  became  abbess  of  Cill-Sleibhe,  and  died 
in  654.  She  is  commemorated  on  March  18  (Lanigan, 
£ccL  /Htt^  o/Irriamd,  iii,  38  aq. ;  ODonovan,  Four  Mas- 
ters, i,  168  n.,  267).— Smith,  JJiet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Coiner,  Erasmus  T.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Ross  County,  O.,  Feb.  2,  1882.     He 
removed,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  with  his  parents  to  Des 
Moines  County,  la.;  experienced  religion  in  1862;  en- 
tered Mount  Pleasant  Collegiate  Institute  the  same  year; 
gnduated  at  Iowa  Wesleyan  University  in  1857 ;  re- 
ceived license  to  exhort  the  same  year,  and  entered  the 
Iowa  Conference.    In  1861  he  enlisted  in  the  Fourth 
Iowa  Civalry,  and  was  made  first  lieutenant  of  com- 
pany D,  in  which  capacity  he  proved  himself  a  good 
soldier  and  officer,  as  well  as  an  exemplary  Christian. 
He  died  at  Jacksonport,  Arkansas,  June  28, 1868.     See 
Mmstes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1863,  p.  156. 

CoiDingeil,  in  the  Irish  martyrologies,  is  called  the 
popil  of  St.  Mac  Tail,  bishop  of  CiU*Cuilinn,  who  died 
about  A.D.  548,  and  is  said  to  have  been  denounceii  by 
the  der^  of  Leinster  on  her  account.  She  is  identified 
wUh  **St.  Cnack  of  Cill-Ftonmaighe  **  in  the  County 
Wickknr,  and  is  oommemorated  April  29. — Smith,  Diet, 
ofCkTuLBiog,uv, 

Colnsi,  Gautibr  dk,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  poet, 
was  bora  at  Amiens  in  1177.  He  was  successively  prior 
of  the  abbey  of  Y ic-aur- Aisne,  and  of  that  of  St.  MMard 
of  SoisMMUL  He  died  in  1286,  leaving  in  manuscript  a 
Frendi  translation  in  verse  of  the  Mvrades  de  Notre- 
Damt,  written  originally  in  Latin  by  Hugh  Farsi,  Her- 
BKo,  Guibert  of  Nogent,  etc.  Several  copies  of  this 
MSw  are  found  in  the  imperial  library  of  Paris.  Some 
of  the  aoeonnta  of  Coinsi  were  published  by  Legrand 
d*Au«i  in  bis  Becueil  des  FabUaux,  See  Hoefer,  Kouv, 
Biog,  GeniraUf  s.  v.;  Biog,  UnieerseUe,  s.  v. 

Colnta.    See  Qvikta. 

Colnaalch  (CoiniiTaloh,  or  Ceniivalh),  king 
of  Wessex,  succeeded  his  father  Cynegils  in  648,  being 
still  a  heathen.  In  645,  having  been  driven  from  his 
eoantry  by  Penda,  king  of  Mercia,  he  took  refuge  with 
Amis,  king  of  the  East-Angles,  at  whose  court  he  was 
converted  to  Christianity,  and  baptized  by  Felix,  the 
bbbop  of  the  East-Angles.  After  three  years  of  exile 
be  retnmed  and  introduced  Christianity  into  his  domin- 
ions. The  West-Saxon  kingdom  waa  greatly  developed 
daring  bis  reign.  He  is  the  traditional  founder  of  the 
see  and  cathedral  of  Winchester  (Bede,  //.  K.  iti,  7 ;  iv, 
131.  He  died  in  672.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog, 
e,v. 

Coialiii,  Henri  Charles  i>r  Camrout,  duke  of 
a  French  prelate,  nephew  of  the  following,  was  bom  at 
Paris,  Sept.  15, 1664.  He  became  successively  prinoe- 
bishrtp  of  Meta,  first  aknoner  <»f  the  king,  and  member  of 
the  French  Academy.  Like  hu  uncle,  he  displayed  re- 
markable charity  towarda  his  diocesans;  but  he  had  a 
eootroversy  with  Bome,  particularly  on  the  bull  l/ni- 
geaitus.    He  beqaeathed  to  the  abbey  of  St.  Germain 


the  celebrated  library  inherited  by  him  from  chaoeellor 
Seguier.  Montfau^n  gave  a  catalogue  of  the  Greek 
manuscripts  of  the  large  collection,  to  a  great  extent 
destroyed  by  a  fire  in  1798,  the  remains  of  which  have 
been  collected  in  the  national  library.  Coislin  died  in 
1782,  having  published  a  Choix  des  Statuts  Sgnodauae 
of  his  predecessors  in  1699  t^BUuei  (1718).  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Giniraie,  a.  v. ;  Biog,  UniverseUe,  s.  v. 

CoiflUn,  Pierre  de  Camboitt  dk,  a  French  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Paris  in  1686.  He  became  bishop  of  Or- 
leans, first  almoner  of  the  king,  then  grand  almoner  of 
France,  and  cardhial.  He  was  held  in  high  veneration 
for  his  benevolence,  and  the  wise  manner  in  which  he 
accomplished  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  for  the  aid 
which  he  rendered  the  Calvinists  in  allaying  the  per^ 
secution  directed  against  them  by  the  government  after 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  He  died  Feb.  5^ 
1706.  See  Hoefer,  Xovv,  Biog,  GiniraUf  s.  v.;  Biog, 
Universette,  a.  v. 

Coit,  Gkurdon  GkdtonBtall,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  minister,  was  born  in  Connecticut  in  18091 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1828 ;  studied  theol- 
ogy in  Andover  Theological  Seminary  one  year;  was 
ordained  descon  Aug.  8, 1830,  and  presbyter  at  St.  Jobn*8 
Church,  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  in  1863 ;  was  rector  of  Christ 
Church, West  Haven, in  1864  and  1865;  of  St.  Michael'a 
Church, Naugatiick,  in  1866.  After  this  time  he  preached 
occasionally,  and  died  at  Southport,  Nov.  10, 1869.  See 
Trien,  Cat,  of  Andover  TheoL  Sem,  1870,  p.  97. 

Coit,  John  CaUdzui,  a  Presbyterian  minuter,  was 
bora  at  New  London,  Conn.,  in  1799.  For  a  time  he 
,  studied  and  practiced  law,  and  was  president  of  a  bank 
in  Cheraw,  S.  C.  He  was  finallv  ordained  and  installed 
pastor  of  an  old-school  Presbyterian  Church  in  Cheraw. 
His  ecclesiastical  and  political  sentiments  were  of  a  very 
decided  character.  During  the  last  few  years  of  his  life 
be  was  without  pastoral  charge,  and,  for  the  improve- 
ment of  his  heidth,  resided  in  Wisconsin,  North  C^ar* 
olina,  and  South  Carolina  successively.  He  died  in 
Cheraw,  Feb.  6,  1868.  See  Obituary  'Record  of  Yale 
CoUege,  1864. 

Colt,  John  Snmmerfield,  a  BIcthodist  Episco- 
pal  miniater,  waa  bora  in  New  Jersey  in  1828.  He  re- 
ceived a  careful  religious  training;  was  apprenticed  to 
a  carpenter  in  Newark  at  the  age  of  seventeen ;  expe* 
rienced  religion  about  this  time;  served  the  Church  as 
class-leader,  exhorter,  and  local  preacher ;  spent  a  year 
and  a  half  in  hard  study  at  Pennington  Seminary ;  and 
in  1853  was  admitted  into  the  New  Jersey  Conference. 
In  1867  he  waa  transferred  to  the  Des  Bioines  Confer^ 
ence,  and  in  it  served  xealously  until  his  death,  Jan.  7, 
1868.  BIr.  Coit  was  emphatically  a  good  man,  and  an 
humble,  devoted,  rnd  useful  preacher.  He  was  ever 
ready  and  courageous.  His  preaching  was  sound,  prac- 
tical, and  earnest.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Covferences, 
1868,  p.  283. 

Coit,  Joseph,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bora 
at  New  London,  Conn.,  April  4, 1673.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1697,  and  was  settleil  for  several 
years  on  the  Quinebaug,  being  ordained  in  1705  and  dis- 
misse«l  in  1748.  His  territory  included  what  is  now 
Plainfield  and  Canterbury.  He  died  July  1, 1750,  uni- 
versally bmented.    See  Cong,  QMarterlg,  1800,  p.  289. 

Coit,  Joseph  How^land,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  Nov.  8, 
1802.  He 'graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1820; 
studied  two  years  thereafter  in  Princeton  Theological 
Seminar}' ;  was  ordained  deacon  in  1825 ;  spent  nearly 
the  whole  of  his  ministerial  life,  after  1832,  as  rector 
of  Trinity  Church,  Plattsburgh,  N.  Y.,  and  died  there, 
Oct.  1, 1866.  See  Prol,  Episc,  Almanac,  1867,  p.  101; 
Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1882,  p.  39. 

Coit,  J.  To\!7nseDd,  a  Prci^byterisn  minister,  was 
bora  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  May  8,  1824.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1844;  during  bis  college  course  was 


COK 


16 


COLBXJRN 


•oiiT«rted;  entered  the  thedogicel  lemtiuiry  at  Ando- 
yer,  Bfaaa.,  in  1845;  after  oomplettng  bis  studies,  sailed 
for  Europe  in  1849,  and  remained  there  two  years.  In 
1851  he  was  licensed  by  the  Niagara  Presbytery ;  in 
1854,  accepted  a  call  from  the  Church  at  Albion,  N.  Y^ 
where  he  labored  for  fire  years;  in  1860,  accepted  a 
call  from  the  Church  of  Su  Peter's,  in  Rochester,  and 
died  Jan.  28, 1863.  See  Wilson,  Pretb,  Hist,  A  Imanac, 
1864,  p:  106. 

Cok,  James,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  admitted 
the  first  Protestant  minister  at  Lsdykirk  in  1585,  and 
was  before  the  assembly  in  1597  '*  fortryal  of  the  min- 
isters of  Orkney."  There  is  no  further  record  of  him. 
See  FoMti  Ecdet,  Scoiicana,  iii,  412. 

Cok,  Thomafl^  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  de- 
gree at  Edinburgh  University  in  1612;  was  admitted 
to  the  living  of  Cross  and  Bumess  before  July,  1624, 
the  first  minister  after  the  parish  was  formed;  trans- 
ferred to  Lsdykirk  in  1635,  and  died  Jan.  28, 1646,  aged 
about  fifty-four  years.  See  Faati  Ec6U§.  ScoticamBf 
iii,  409, 412. 

Cokbume,  Jamks,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  pre- 
sented by  the  king  to  the  parsonage  and  vicarage  of  Ayr 
in  1573,  with  the  gift  of  the  emolument  of  Kilmoir  in 
1576;  had  a  presentation  to  the  living  at  Muckhart  in 
1585,  and  was  deposed  for  non-residenco  in  1591.  See 
Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticarue^  it,  776. 

Coker,  Gboroe  W.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Macon  County,  Tenn.,  June  11, 1818.  He  united 
with  the  Church  in  1887,  and  soon  after  was  licensed 
to  preach.  In  March,  1841,  he  moved  to  Wayne  Coun- 
ty, south>east  Missouri,  where  he  was  ordained  in  April, 
1848.  He  next  took  up  his  residence  in  Bollinger 
County,  where  he  lived  about  twenty  years,  and  during 
that  time  had  the  pastoral  care  of  several  churches, 
itinerating  much  in  that  region,  and  acting  as  mission- 
ary of  the  Cape  Girardeau  Association.  He  moved  to 
Carlyle,  IlL,  in  1864,  where  he  gathered  a  church,  of 
which  he  was  pastor,  and  subsequently  had  charge  of 
one  or  two  other  churches.  He  died  May  25, 1874. 
Sec  Borum,  Sketches  of  Tennessee  Afvnsters,  150-152. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Cola,  Gennaro  di,  an  old  Neapolitan  painter,  was 
bom  in  1820,  and  studied  under  Maestro  Siraone.  The 
principal  works  of  this  artist  are  the  altar-piece  in  Santa 
Maria,  Naples,  representing  the  Virgin  and  Dead  Christy 
with  angels  holding  the  instraments  of  the  passion; 
A  Magdalene  in  the  chapel  of  the  same  church ;  The 
Naiimty  and  The  A  nnunciaUon,  in  the  tribune  of  San 
Giovanni.  He  died  in  1870.  Sec  Spoouer,  Biog.  Iiist» 
qfihe  Fine  Arts,  a.  v.;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale, 
a.  V. 

Colachus.    See  Cbllacii. 

Colan,  Wilson,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Newmarket,  N.  II.,  in  1775.  In  early  life  he 
removed  to  Berwick,  Me.,  and  in  1800  removed  to  Wa- 
terville,  where  he  became  a  Christian,  and  united  with 
the  Church.  Subsequently  he  was  ordained.  In  1812 
he  removed  to  Fairfield,  a  few  miles  from  Waterville, 
where  he  had  purchased  a  farm.  He  preached  on  the 
Sabbath,  and  attended  the  meetings  of  his  denomina- 
tion, quarterly  and  yearly.  Thus  he  spent  fifteen  years, 
and  then  devoted  himself  wholly  to  ministerial  work, 
travelling  among  the  poor  churches,  seldom  receiving 
anything  for  his  services,  but  rather  contributing  from 
his  own  resources  to  help  his  needy  brethren.  He  died 
at  Fairfield,  Aug.  1, 1846.  See  Free-wili  Baptist  Regis- 
ter, 1848,  p.  79, 80.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Colangelo,  Francesco,  an  Italian  theologian  and 
schoUr,  was  bora  at  Naples,  Nov.  25, 1769.  In  1788  he 
entered  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory  of  Italy,  in 
which  he  occupied  high  positions,  and  in  1820  was  raised 
to  the  episcopal  see  of  CastdUmare.  In  1825  he  wan 
appointed  president  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instniction 
in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.    He  died  Jan.  15^  1686» 


leaving,  OpuscoU  Scientifid  di  Filaktc-^Baeooita  di 
Opere  Appartenetiti  AUa  Storia  Letteraria: — II  GaUi^ 
leo  Proposto  Alia  Giooentu : —  Vita  del  Pontano : — Vita 
di  Antonio  Beceadelli,  detto  il  Panarmila:  —  Viia  di 
Gio.  Battista  ddla  Porta: — Vita  de  San  Naszaro: — 
La  Irrdigiosa  LUberta  di  Pensare: — Apologia  delta 
BeUgione  Cristiana: — f storia  de*  Filosoji  e  Matematu 
ci  NapoUtani: — Omelia  di  S,  Gio.  Crisostomo  Intitolata 
che  Cristo  sia  Dio,  translated  from  the  Greek,  with  notes. 
See  Hoefer,  iVbicr.  Biog,  GhtiraU,  s.  v. 

Colafl,  Jean  FRAM9018  (also  called  de  Gugemsi),  a 
French  scholar,  was  bora  at  Orleans  in  1702.  He  en- 
tered the  Jesuit  order,  but  withdrew  on  account  of  his 
health,  and  became  successively  canon  of  Saint-Pierre- 
Empont  and  of  the  royal  church  of  Saint-Aignan.  He 
died  Nov.  3,  1772,  lea^nng,  Oraison  Funebre  de  Louis 
d'OrlSans  (Orleans,  1752)  i-^Discours  tur  la  PuceUe 
d'Orlitms  (ibid.  1760)  :-rl^  Manuel  du  Cultivateur  dams 
U  VignoUe  d'OrUans  (ibid.  1770).  See  Hoefer,  Nmtv. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Colb,  Andrew,  a  Scotch  clei^*man,  was  the  first 
Protestant  minister  to  the  parish  of  Reilgorton,  ap- 
pointed in  1574,  having  Luncarty  in  charge ;  was  pre- 
sented to  the  vicarage  in  1577,  and  continued  in  1591. 
See  Fasti  Eodes,  Scotioanm,  ii,  655. 

Colbenoohlag  (or  Colbenius),  Stephen,  a  Ger- 
man engraver,  was  bom  at  Salzburg  in  1591.  He  vis- 
ited Italy  early,  and  afterwards  Bome,  where  he  resided 
chiefly,  and  engraved  several  plates  after  the  Italian 
masters,  among  which  are,  The  Descent  from  the  Cross  ; 
The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds^  He  died  in  168S. 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  IJist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Colberg,  Bhregott  Daniel,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Colberg,  in  Pomerania, 
Jan.  26, 1659.  He  studied  at  the  different  univerutieo, 
was  for  a  time  professor  of  ethics  and  history  at  Greifs- 
wald,  afterwards  pastor  and  member  of  consistory  at 
Wismar,  where  he  died,  Oct.  80, 1698.  He  wrote,  De 
Tolerantia  Diversamm  Religionum  in  Politia:  —  De 
Origine  et  Progressu  Hmresinm  et  Errorum  m  Eedesia  ; 
— De  Sapienta  Veterum  Hdnr<Borum:—PlatonisckJker^ 
metisches  Christenthum,  See  J&cher,  AUgemeines  <?e- 
lehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit^ 
i,  501.     (B.  P.) 

Colberg,  Johann,  father  of  the  preceding,  died 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  Groifswald,  Sept. 
19,  1687,  lea%'ing,  De  Syneretismo :  ^  De  Libris  Sgwn- 
bolieis:^De  Verba  DeL  See  Witte,  Diarium  Biogra^ 
phicum;  J5cher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Colbert.  Michkt^  a  French  ascetic  theologian,  wms 
bom  about  1688.  He  entered  the  order  of  Pnemon- 
strants,  and  became  abbot-general  in  1670.  He  died  at 
Paris,  March  29,  1702,  leaving  Lettres  cfirn  Abbe  it  ^s 
Rdigieux  (Paris)  :»Z«e//rM  de  Consolation,  addressed  to 
his  sister  on  the  loss  of  her  husband.  See  Hoefer, 
Now,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v.;  Biog,  UniverseUe,  s.  v. 

Colbert  i>k  Skionrlay,  a  French  prelate  and 
statesman,  was  bom  in  1786  at  Castle  Hill,  in  Scotland, 
the  original  seat  of  the  Colbert  family.  Being  aent 
while  young  to  France,  he  embraced  the  ecclesiastical 
calling,  shortly  after  obtained  the  abbeys  of  Val-Richer 
and  Sorfeze,  and  became  vicar-general  of  Toulouse  at 
the  age  of  twenty-six.  He  was  appointed,  in  1781, 
bishop  of  Bode,  and  held  various  important  positions  in 
the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  his  time.  Colbert  Joined 
great  knowledge  with  sincere  piety  and  pure  morala. 
He  died  about  1808.  See  Hoefer,  JVbtir.  Biog,  GSUraie^ 
s.  V. 

Colbam,  Hanford,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  mini*, 
ter,  was  received  into  the  Oneida  Conference  at  its  or- 
ganisation in  1882,  ordained  deacon,  and  sent  to  Dan^-. 
by  Station,  which  then  had  only  three  members,  with- 
out church,  parsonage,  or  salary,  but  before  a  year  closed 
he  had  a  great  revival.    Subsequently  he  served  Ne^ir- 


COLBURN 


17 


GOLDEN 


ark,  Oircgo,  and  fiiogluuDton.  He  was  then  made 
financial  tgeot  of  CattiioTia  Seminary,  end  in  1840 
elected  to  the  princtpalahip  of  that  inacttutton.  Being 
driven  hj  sickness  in  bia  femily  to  enter  tbe  mercan- 
tile bieineest  he  located  at  Elinira;  also  practiced  med- 
idne,  irhicb  he  bad  studied  in  hia  youth,  at  Albion.  At 
the  time  of  his  death,  in  1881,  he  waa  a  member  of  the 
Central  New  York  Conference.  Mr.  Colbum  waa  a  wise 
counsellor,  a  faithful  friend,  and  a  man  of  God.  See 
MiHUies ofAmtual  Con/erencet,  1881,  p.  880. 

Colbnm,  Jonao,  a  Congrepitional  minialer,  waa 
bom  at  Dracut,  Maas.,  Oct.  26,  1789.  He  atudied  at 
PhilUpa  Academy,  Andover,  graduated  at  Middlebtiry 
College  in  1817,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Semina- 
ry in  18i0;  travelled  a  year  in  western  New  York  aa 
a  miasionary,  and  then  returned  and  preached  for  a 
short  time  in  several  Tillages  in  New  England,  when 
he  waa  ordained,  in  1824,  over  the  Church  in  Leverett, 
HaseL  His  other  charges  were  Stoneham,  Maas.,  and 
Wells,  Me.,  whence  he  was  dismissed  in  1844;  and  did 
not  again  take  a  aettled  charge,  but  preached  in  varioua 
villages  according  to  opportunity.  He  died  in  Cbicopee, 
Mass.,  Nov.  19, 1862.     See  Comg.  Quarterly,  1862,  p.  191. 

Colboni,  Moses  McLellan,  a  Congregational 
minister,  waa  bom  at  Fair  Haven,  Vt.,  Sept.  17,  1819. 
He  studied  at  Bnrr  Seminary,  Manchester,  and  gradu- 
ated from  tbe  University  of  Vermont  in  1844 ;  then 
taogbt  in  Hontpelier  two  yean,  and  graduated  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1860.  Tlie  next 
rear  he  waa  ordained  paator  of  Pacific  Church,  New 
Uedford,  Mass.;  in  1852  waa  installed  at  South  Ded- 
ham  (now  Norwood),  where  he  remained  until  1866; 
in  that  year  became  acting  paator  at  Waukegan,  111. ; 
lod  after  a  four  yean*  service  assumed  the  same  rela^ 
(ion  to  tbe  Chnrefa  at  St.  Joseph,  Mich.,  where  he  re- 
naioed  until  his  death,  Jan.  26,  1876.  Mr.  Colbum 
waa  a  conscientious  student  and  an  instructive  preach- 
(T.    See  CVm^.  (2uar/^-^,  1877,  p.  413,  431. 

Colbum,  Samuel  8.,  a  minister  in  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Greene  County, 
Tenn^  May  1, 1807.  He  removed  to  Lafayette  County, 
Mo.,  in  1^1,  was  converted  in  1882,  licensed  to  preach 
ia  1833,  and  in  1835  entered  tbe  Missouri  Conference, 
laboring  therein  continuously  until  1859,  when  he  be- 
came superannuated ;  but  atiU  continued  to  preach,  aa 
health  permitted,  until  hia  death,  Aug.  26, 1875.  Mr. 
Colbum  was  a  man  of  thorough  conaecration,  luitiring 
energy, and  living  piety.  See  Minvtft  nf  Annual  Con" 
fertm  of  the  M.  E.  Church  8<mihf  1876,  p.  235 ;  Simp- 
son, Cfclop,  ofMethoditrnt  a.  v. 

Collram,  Samuel  W.,  a  Congregational  minia- 
ter,  vas  bom  in  Lebanon,  N.  II.,  about  1785.  He  grad- 
uated from  Dartmouth  College  in  1 808,  waa  ordained  at 
^Vest  Taunton,  Mass.,  Aug  29, 1809,  and  remained  there 
until  Dec  9, 1812.  For  some  months  he  performed  mis- 
Monary  labor  in  the  state  of  Rhode  Island.  Hia  health 
liaring  been  restored,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Third 
Cliarch  in  East  Abington,  Maaai,  Oct.  13,  1818,  and  re- 
mained until  Feb.  5, 1880.  Hia  anbsequent  pastorates, 
which  were  not  of  long  duralimi,  were  at  Newark,  N.  J., 
West  Attleboro,  and  Sandwich,  Mass.,  and  Little  Camp- 
t>n,R.L  He  died  in  New  York  city,  Dec.  19, 1854.  See 
MemoriaU  of  R.  J.  CongrtgaHimal  Mmi^ert,    (J.  C.  S.) 

Colbom,  Zerall,  for  several  yean  an  itinerant 
'ninister  of  the  Methodbt  Church,  was  bom  at  Cabot, 
Vt^  Sept.  1, 1804.  He  waa  remarkably  precocious,  and 
<<o  noted,  as  a  child,  for  talent  in  computation  that  his 
teher  exhibited  him  in  different  cities  in  America  and 
in  Europe.  Zerah  spent  three  yeare  in  tbe  West- 
aiinster  school  in  London.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
ifi  London,  in  1824,  be  returned  to  the  United  States, 
sod  became  a  member  of  the  Congregational  Church 
in  Boilingtoii,  Vt.,  bot  not  long  afterwarda  joined  the 
KetbodiatSk  Mr.  Colbum  is  aaid  to  have  diaplayed  no 
uaeomnMo  abiltrv  aa  a  preacher,  and  to  have  lost  hia 

XII.-B 


peculiar  mathematical  power.    He  died  at  Norwich,  Vt, 
March  2, 1889.     See  Allen,  Amer,  Bioff,  a.  v.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Colby,  Qardner,  a  distinguished  Baptist  layman 
and  philanthropist,  was  bom  at  Bowdoinham,  Me.,  Sept. 
3,  1810.  When  but  twenty  years  of  age  he  opened  a 
store  in  Boston,  and  steadily  rose  in  mercantile  success, 
carrying  on  for  many  years  the  manufacture  of  woollen 
goods,  in  connection  with  Hon.  J.  Wiloy  £dmund^  and 
during  the  late  civil  war  becoming  a  large  government 
contractor  for  tbe  army.  In  1870  he  was  interested 
in  tbe  building  of  the  Wisconsin  Central  Knilroad,  aiid 
in  securing  tbe  government  appropriation  of  lands  along 
ita  line.  Early  in  his  business  life  he  formed  the  habit 
of  cheerful  giving;  for  years  was  a  trustee  and  treas- 
urer of  the  Newton  Theological  Institution;  and  gave 
liberally  to  Brown  University,  of  which  he  was  a  trus- 
tee for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  centur\'.  The  cause  of 
missions,  both  home  and  foreign,  found  in  him  an  ef- 
ficient helper.  In  1867  the  name  of  Waterville  Col- 
lege was  changed  to  that  of  Colby  University,  in  testi- 
mony of  the  appreciation  of  the  corporation  of  a  gift  of 
$50,000  made  to  the  institution  by  Mr.  Colb3\  He 
died  at  his  residence  in  Newton  Centre,  April  2,  1879. 
See  The  Boiion  Advertiser,  May,  3, 1879:  The  Watch- 
mofi,  April  10,  1879;  Cathcart,  Baptist  Kncyclop,  a.  v. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Colby,  John,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in  Sand- 
wich, N.  H.,  Dec  9,  1787,  but  at  fifteen  yean  of  age 
moved  to  what  is  now  Sutton,  Yr,  He  made  a  profes- 
sion of  his  faith  by  baptism  Dec.  8,  1805,  about  four 
yeare  after  was  licensed  to  preach,  was  oniained  Nov. 
80,  1809,  and  spent  nearly  the  whole  of  1811  in  New 
Hampshire  as  an  itinerant.  His  work  was  greatly 
blessed,  revivals  of  religion  evorA'w here  following  his 
labors,  especially  in  Muntville,  Me.,  where  many  were 
converted.  Mr.  Colby  continued  his  itinerant  work  for 
the  next  year  or  two,  visiting  many  sections  of  New 
England,  and  preaching  witli  great  zeal  and  unction. 
On  his  way  south  for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  he  died 
at  Norfolk,  Va.,  Dec  23,  1818.  See  Barrett,  Memoirs 
of  Eminent  Ministers,  p.  55-63.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Colclaser,  Thomas,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Georgetown,  D.  C»,  April  5,  1811.  He 
was  converted  in  Ohio  in  1830,  and  in  1851  entered  the 
North  Indiana  Conference,  in  which  he  labored  with 
zeal  and  fidelity  until  hia  death,  Sept.  26,  1865.  Mr. 
Colclazer  waa  a  plain,  earnest  man,  a  good  preacher, 
and  a  faithful  Christian.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con- 
ferences, 1866,  p.  69. 

Colon.    See  Coixsa. 

Colcsawa,  Charlies,  a  Bohemian  scholar  of  the 
Jesuit  order,  who  lived  in  the  early  half  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, wrote,  Exercitationes  Dramatics  (Prague,  1703,  3 
vols.): — Progymnasmata  in  Triplici  Geneve  Chriarum 
(ibid.  1708).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Colden  is  the  family  name  of  several  Scotch  clergy- 
men, of  whom  we  notice  the  following : 

1.  Alrxandrr,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1675;  became  minister  to  the  Presbyte- 
rian congregation  at  Enniscorthy,  Ireland;  was  called 
to  the  living  at  Bonkle,  Scotland,  in  1690;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  General  Asscmblv  the  same  vear,  and  also  in 
1692;  was  transferred  to  Dunse  in  1693,  and  promoted 
to  Oxnaro  in  1700.  He  scrupled  to  take  the  oath  of 
abjuration,  but  did  so  in  1719.  He  died  June  29, 1738, 
aged  eighty-three  years.  Mr.  Colden  wrote  the  preface 
to  Boston's  Crook  in  the  Lot,  and  was  a  true  friend  of 
that  author,  and  a  minister  of  true  piety,  learning,  wis- 
dom, and  diligence.  See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticance,  i, 
404^408,  510,  511. 

2.  Gkorok,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1627,  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Kinross 
in  1641,  and  died  while  attending  a  meeting  of  the 
synod  at  St.  Andrews,  April  5,  1665,  aged  sixty  years. 
See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticatm.  ii,  596. 


COLDING 


18 


COLE 


3.  James,  son  of  the  minister  at  Oxnam,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1722;  presented  to  the  living  at  Whitsome 
in  1723,  and  ordained;  and  died  Sept.  20,  1754,  aged 
fifty-eight  years.     See  Fasti  Ecclet.  ScoticatuB^  i,  451. 

4.  John,  second  Protestant  minister  at  Burthwick 
in  1586;  was  transferred  to  Newlands,bat  was  refused 
in  1592;  resigned  in  1594,  and  was  admitted  to  Kin- 
ross. He,  with  two  others,  was  appointed  to  sharp- 
ly rebnke  the  earl  and  countess  of  Morton  for  en- 
tertaining in  their  house  the  earl  of  Huntly  and  oth- 
ers. He  was  a  member  of  the  assembly  in  1602,  and 
was  one  of  forty-two  who  signed  a  protest  to  parlia- 
ment in  1606  against  the  introduction  of  episcopacy. 
He  opposed  the  archbishop  taking  the  moderator's 
chair  at  the  synod  in  1607,  for  which  he  was  censured 
and  restricted  to  his  parish.  He  died  before  Oct.  6, 
1640.  His  son  George  succeeded  to  the  benefice.  See 
Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticana,  i,  252, 266 ;  ii,  596. 

5.  Robert,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1626 ;  was  first  a  minister  in  Ireland,  but 
was  driven  off  by  the  cruelty  of  the  rebels,  and  a  col- 
lection was  made  for  him  in  the  kirk  at  Dunfermline 
in  March,  1643.  He  was  appointed  minister  at  Bonkle, 
Scotland,  in  1650,  and  died  after  March  29,  1664.  See 
Fasti  Ecdes,  ScoticanaSf  i,  408. 

6.  Thomas,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1657,  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Dal- 
raeny  in  1664,  transferred  to  Carsphaim  in  1669,  and 
continaed  in  March,  1672.  See  Fcuti  Eccles,  Scoticana, 
i,  181,  705. 

Colding,  Paul  Janus,  a  Danish  scholar,  who  lived 
in  the  early  half  of  the  17th  century,  and  preached  at 
Winding,  in  the  isle  of  Zealand,  wrote  Etymologicum 
Latinum,  cum  Tnterpretaiione  J>omca  (Rostock,  1622). 
See  Hoefer,  JVbi/r.  Bioy,  Genirnle^  a.  v. 

Cole,  Albert  (1),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Saco,  Me.,  Feb.  19, 1809.  He  graduated  from 
Bowdoin  College  in  1834;  studied  at  the  Theological 
Institute  of  Connecticut,  and  completed  his  course  at 
Bangor,  Me.,  in  1837;  was  ordained  at  Blue  Hills,  Oct. 
24,  the  same  year,  and,  after  a  successful  pastorate, 
was  dismissed  Aug.  23, 1843.  He  died  at  his  native 
place,  March  23, 1845.  See  /list.  Cat,  of  Theological  In- 
slUvte  of  Connecticut,  p.  15.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cole,  Albert  (2),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Cornish,  Me.,  July  15, 1818.  He  studied  at 
Limerick  Academy,  and  graduated  from  Bangor  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1846;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Church  in  Winsk>w  March  24,. 1847,  and  dismissed  Dec. 
31, 1850.  About  three  years  he  was  acting  pastor  in 
Sanford,  and  held  the  same  position  in  Limerick  from 
1853  until  December,  1855,  when  he  was  installed  pas- 
tor. Although  he  resigned  this  parish  in  March,  1857, 
he  was  not  dismissed  until  March,  1860.  He  was  act- 
ing pastor  in  Cornish  from  1858  until  his  death,  Jan.  29, 
1881.     See  Cong,  Year-book,  1882,  p.  25. 

Cole,  Baxter,  an  English  Independent  minister, 
studied  under  Dr.  Marryat  in  London.  He  was  first  a 
teacher  at  Peckham,  then  morning  preacher  at  Rope- 
maker's  Walk,  Moorfields.  In  1765  he  removed  to  W}*- 
mondham,  Norfolk;  but  in  1766  returned  to  London, 
and  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  for  which  his 
learning,  piety,  diligence,  and  sound  judgment. qualified 
him.  He  was  actively  employed  in  publishing  Dr. 
Lardner's  works;  in  1793  in  editing  the  Protestant  Dis- 
senters* Magazine,  and  several  other  publications.  He 
died  in  Essex  ( his  native  place ),  Oct.  13,  1794,  aged 
about  seventy  years.  See  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches, 
ii,  55i. 

Cole,  Benjamin  (1).  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Maine  about  1760,  and  was  licensed  by  the  Lewiston 
Conference  (so  called),  and  ordained  an  evangelist  in 
1801.  In  1802  he  was  chosen  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Lewiston,  and  continued  in  this  relation  nearly  forty 
years^  with  the  exception  of  a  few  short  intervals,  when 
he  was  engaged  in  missionary  labors  in  destitute  sec* 


ttons  of  the  state  of  Maine.  He  died  in  September, 
1889.  See  Millett,  Uisiory  of  Baptists  in  Maine,  p.  440. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Cole,  Benjamin  (2),  a  Canadian  Methodist  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Quebec  in  1825.  He  was  converted' 
in  1849,  entered  the  Wesleyan  ministry  in  1855,  retired 
in  1870,  and  died  at  Abbotsford,  Aug.  2, 1870.  He  was 
generous,  cheerful,  social,  an  enthusiastic  musician,  a 
tme  friend,  and  deeply  pious.  See  Carroll,  Case  and  his 
Contemporaries  (Toronto),  1867,  v,  250. 

Cole,  Charlea,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Wellow,  Somerset,  May  20,  1738.  He  was 
brought  up  in  the  Church  of  England,  converted  in 
1758  under  a  Baptist  minister,  baptized  in  1756 ;  began 
to  preach  in  May,  1758,  at  Whitchurch,  and  for  fifty- 
four  years  continued  to  minister  there  and  in  some  vil- 
lage around ;  his  church  increasing  fourfold.  He  dtecl 
Dec.  8, 1813.  Mr.  Cole  published  some  hymns  in  1789 
with  the  title  A  Threefold  Alphabet  of' New  Hymns, 
See  Gadsby,  Hgmn-writers,  p.  89. 

Cole,  Clifford,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  SUrk,  N.  H.,  Feb.  19, 1818.  He  was  converted 
at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  united  with  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  of  which  his  parents  were  member^ 
but  subsequently  joined  a  Free-will  Baptist  Chmpch. 
He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1842 ;  ordained  Jan.  13, 
1845,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Stark  and  Milan  Charch, 
where,  for  twenty  years,  he  continued  to  be  loved  and 
respected  in  the  community  and  blessed  in.  his  labors. 
He  died  June  10,  1882.  See  Morning  Star,  July  12, 
1882.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cole,  Braatua,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
at  Colesville,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  13,  1796.  He  was  edacatc<l 
in  Oneida  Academy,  and  began  his  ministerial  labors 
in  Colesville.  In  1839  he  removed  to  Litchfield,  O., 
where  he  was  pastor  for  two  years;  then  to  Huron,  in 
1841,  where  he  remained  for  six  years.  He  died  Oct. 
18, 1862.  Mr.  Cole  was  regarded  by  his  associates  as  an 
able,  evangelical,  and  earnest  preacher  of  the  Gospel. 
See  Wilson,  Presb,  IJist,  Almanac,  1863,  p.  290. 

Cole,  George  (l),  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  at  Bodicst,  Northamptonshire,  Jan.  13,  1798. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  joined  the  Wes- 
leyans,  and  became  a  local  preacher.  In  1823  he  united 
with  a  Baptist  church  in  Kimbolton.  He  studied  un« 
der  his  pastor,  and  in  1826  was  ordained  in  Lyiin^ 
Norfolk ;  in  1828  became  pastor  in  Kenilworth,  in  1881 
in  Leamington,  and  in  1838  removed  to  Evesham, 
Worcestershire.  In  1842  he  accepted  a  call  to  tbe 
Church  Street  Church,  Blackfrtars,  London.  His  next 
pastorate  was  in  Exeter,  and  his  last  in  Nauntoii, 
Gloucestershire,  where  he  died,  Dec.  31,  1857.  See 
(Lond.)  Baptist  Hand-book,  1858,  p.  48.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cole,  Gheorge  (2),  a  Baptist  educator  and  editor, 
was  born  at  Sterling,  Conn.,  June  22,  1806,  and  gradu* 
ated  from  Brown  University  in  1834.  From  that  year  to 
1837  he  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  Granville  Col- 
lege (now  Denison  University),  O.  In  1888  he  became 
editor  of  what  is  now  The  Journal  and  Messenger  at 
Cincinnati,  which  ofice  he  held  for  nine  vears.  For 
several  years  he  was  engaged  in  secular  business,  beini^, 
for  a  part  of  the  time,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Cindn- 
naii  Gazette,  In  1856  he  retumed  to  his  old  position 
as  editor  of  The  Journal  and  Messenger,  and  remained 
in  this  position  until  1864.  He  died  in  Dayton,  Kv., 
Jidy  14, 1868.  Sec  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encgdop,  p.  245. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Cole,  Qeorge  'Waahlngton,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  at  Saco,  Me.,  Jan.  5, 1805,  and 
graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1830.  After  teach- 
ing in  Germantown,  Pa.,  for  a  year,  he  pursued  a  course 
of  theological  study  in  the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary of  New  York.  For  two  years  thereafter  he  was  a 
professor  in  Bristol  College,  Pa.;  was  next  rector  of  a 
parish  in  Westchester  for  a  year;  of  a  parish  in  Te- 


COLE 


19 


COLE 


cnmseh,  Mich^  four  yctn ;  and  had  entered  upon  his 
ministerul  duties  in  Kalamazoo,  when  he  died,  in  1840. 
See  Hist,  ofBowdmn  CotUgey  p.  408.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cole,  laaao   D^  a    minister   of  the   Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  was  bom  at  Spring  Valley,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  25, 1799.    His  early  life  was  passed  in  the  Col- 
legiate Church  of  New  York  city,  under  the  instructions 
oT  Drs.  J.  H.  Livingston,  J.  N.  Abeel,  and  G.  A.  Kuy- 
pefs;  and  from  1807  to  the  date  of  his  conversion,  in 
1S18,  under  the  ministry  of  Christian  Bork.     Owing 
to  repeated  attacks  of  blindness,  brought  on  by  exces- 
sire  study,  bis  attempts  to  enter  college  were  defeated. 
In  18*26  he  became  a  successful  teacher  in  New  York 
city.  The  difficulty  with  his  eyes  having  passed  away, 
he  gradoated  from  New  Brunswick  Seminary  in  1829 ; 
was  licensed  by  the  Classis  of  New  York,  Aug.  4  of 
that  year;  and  ordained  by  the  Classis  of  Paramus, 
JIlay  34,  183L     He  was  assistant  pastor  at  Tappan 
from  November,  1829,  to  May  24,  1831;  colleague  at 
Tappan  mitil  Dec  12, 1832;  Second  Church,  Totowa, 
an  Dec  16, 1888;  Tappan  again,  to  Feb.  9, 1864;  and 
afterwards  remained  without  a  charge,  but  occasionally 
supplied  the  Plesbytetian  Church  at  New  Hempstead, 
S.  1%  till  Aug.  80, 1878,  when  he  died.    He  was  a  plain, 
Btnxig,  clear,  honest,  earnest,  loving  man  and  preacher. 
See  Corwin,  Afanualo/the  Re/,  Church  m  America  (8d 
ed.),  p.  213. 

Cole,  Jaxnea,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  1776,  converted  in  early  life,  and  became  pastor 
of  an  Independent  Church  in  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  In 
1801  he  was  baptized  by  immersion,  and  became,  in 
1806,  the  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  the  same 
place  in  which  he  began  his  ministerial  work.  Here 
he  remained  until  1817,  and  then  remove<l  to  Otiey, 
where,  for  more  than  sixteen  years,  he  labored  with 
much  acceptance  and  success.  He  died  May  26,  1887. 
iiee  (Lood.)  BapHtt  Hcmd-hooh,  1838,  p.  22.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cole.  Jirali  D.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Catdiill,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  14, 1802.  He  was  converted  un- 
der the  ministry  of  Dr.  Howard  Malcom,  then  a  youth- 
fal  pastor  in  Hudson ;  was  baptized  in  Catskill,  March 
4, 1821.  He  parsucd  his  literary  and  theological  stud- 
ies at  Hamilton,  graduating  in  1826.  After  supplying 
the  Church  in  Greenville  for  a  short  time,  he  was  or- 
dained. Sept  12, 1827,  and  was  pastor  in  Ogden  until 
Nov.  21.1831;  for  three  years  at  Fredonia;  then  sup- 
plied the  Second  Church,  Rochester,  several  months ; 
sQpplied  the  Church  at  Parma  Comers  for  a  time, 
and  for  two  yean  and  a  half  preached  at  Fabios. 
After  this  he  beeame  the  soliciting  agent  of  the  Mis- 
lionary  Union,  one  year  in  New  York  and  another 
in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri.  The  two 
foUowing  years  he  was  pastor  in  Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;  then 
agent  of  the  Anoerican  Baptist  Home  Society  for  Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont;  for  five  years  (1843-48) 
pastor  at  Whitcaaborough,  N.  Y.,  and  meanwhile  acted 
as  corresponding  secretary  of  the  New  York  Baptist 
Convention.  From  1848  to  18d0  he  was  pastor  at 
Nunda.  In  18M  he  received  an  appointment  to  the 
Donh-westem  agency  of  'Che  Missionary  Union,  and 
had  his  headquarters  at  Chicago.  This  position  he 
held  for  seven  and  a  half  years ;  then  became  pastor  in 
IVlavan,  IlL,  and  in  1860  in  Barr}%  His  other  pastor- 
ties  were  in  Galva,  Cordova,  Atlanta,  Lockport,  and 
fi'Metta,  IlL,  and  Valparaiso,  Ind.  He  died  in  Chicago, 
March  27, 1883.  During  this  long  period  of  service  he 
performed  a  large  amount  of  work  as  an  author  and 
compiler.  He  was  one  of  the  editorial  committee  ap- 
pointed to  prepare  the  memorial  volume  of  the  first 
balf  century  of  Madison  University,  and  was  also  the 
author  of  a  JJitiory  of  the  Heck  Idand  A  t$ociation.  As 
the  appointed  historian  of  the  Baptists  of  Illinois,  he 
feft,  at  his  decease,  a  work  in  MSS.,  which  is  represent- 
»1  as  being  one  of  great  value.  See  the  Chicago  Stan" 
^d,  April  5,  1888;  Cathcart,  Bapt,  Encydop,  p.  246. 

u.as.) 


Cole,  Joseph,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  com- 
menced his  ministry  in  1780;  retired  in  1815,  residing 
at  Carmarthen,  and  died  Jan.  8,  1826,  aged  seventy- 
eight.  He  had  peculiar  tact  in  rebuking  sin  with  ef- 
fect, yet  without  giving  offence.  See  ifinutet  of  the 
BriiUh  Cotifertnce^  1826. 

Cole,  Leroy,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  waa 
bora  in  Essex  County,  Vs.,  June  5, 1749.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1777 ;  the  same  year  was  licensed  to  preach, 
and  admitted  into  the  travelling  connection.  He  began 
his  ministry  in  North  Carolina ;  preached  regularly  un- 
til long  after  the  Revolution ;  served  the  Church  some 
years  aa  a  local  preacher,  and  spent  his  latter  life  as  a 
superannuate  of  the  Kentucky  Conference,  dying  tri- 
umphantly, Feb.  6, 1880.  See  Minvtet  of  Annuol  Con- 
firences,  1831,  p.  115. 

Cole,  Nathaniel^  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  at 
Swansea,  Mass.,  July  14,  1780.  In  his  youth  he  re- 
moved to  Otsego  Count}',  N.  Y.,  where  he  was  employed 
partly  as  a  mechanic,  and  partly  in  teaching.  In  180C 
he  settled  as  a  merchant  in  Southfield,  Madison  Co., 
where  he  was  also  a  magistrate,  and  then  county  judge. 
In  1812  he  represented  the  town  in  the  New  York  As- 
sembly. In  1816  he  was  baptized  by  Rev.  Nathaniel 
Moore,  and  united  with  the  Church  in  Fenner.  With 
but  limited  preparation  for  the  Christian  ministry,  he 
was  ordained  April  8, 1818,  continued  to  preach  for  nine 
years,  and  died  July  4,  1827.  Mr.  Cole  was  a  peace- 
maker, yet  firm,  bold,  decided,  quick,  ready,  and  com- 
municative.  See  Haynes,/f<rp/.Cycfop.  1,181.  (J.CS.) 

Cole,  Robert  W.,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  waa  bom  in  East  Tennessee 
in  1818.  He  received  an  early  religious  education; 
became  eminently  pious  in  youth,  and  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  entered  the  Tennessee  Conference.  In  1841 
he  was  transferred  to  the  Memphis  Conference ;  spent 
1843  and  1844  very  usefully  as  a  local  preacher ;  re-en- 
tered the  effective  ranks  in  1845,  and  was  appointed  to 
the  Belmont  Circuit,  where  he  died,  OcL  8, 1846.  Mr. 
Cole  was  extremely  modest  and  retiring,  and  never  ap- 
peared to  be  conscious  of  his  intellectual  powers.  He 
was  sound  in  jndgment  and  doctrine,  and  eminently 
equipped  with  all  the  Christian  graces.  See  Minutet 
of  Annual  Conference*  of  the  J/.  A*.  Church  49oi<M,1846, 
p.  78. 

Cole,  Samuel  (1),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
\  bora  at  Mexico,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  18,  1807.  He  received  his 
preparatory  education  at  Oneida  Institute  and  at  Ober- 
lin,  and  graduated  from  Oberlin  Theological  Seminary  in 
1838.  In  1839  he  was  ordained  an  evangelist  at  Ober- 
lin, and  labored  as  such  for  some  years.  He  was  acting 
pastor  at  West  Tisbury,  Mass.,  from  1851  to  1855 ;  at 
Weymouth,  O.,  from  1*855  to  1861 ;  West  Gloucester, 
Mass.,  from  1861  to  1867;  at  Saybrook,  O.,  from  1867  to 
1871 ;  at  Randolph,  from  1872  to  1876.  From  thence 
he  removed  to  Kingsvillc,  where  he  remained  without 
charge  until  his  death,  March  15, 1877.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Cole,  Samuel  (2),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  in 
Massachusetts  in  182i3.  He  graduated  from  Water\'ille 
College  in  1850,  and  from  the  theological  seminary  in 
Rochester  in  1852.  He  had  a  vigorous  intellect,  and 
took  high  rank  as  a  scholar.  His  ordination  took  place 
in  Belfast,  Me.,  July  27, 1853.  During  his  short  pastor- 
ate he  gave  himself  to  the  work  with  an  intensity  of 
devotion  rarely  excelled.  "  Humble,  studious,  and  spir- 
itual, success  attended  his  efforts,  and  a  brilliant  future 
opened  before  him.**  Prostratetl  by  disease  brought  on 
by  overwork,  he  went  to  his  father's  house  in  Beverly, 
Mass.,  and  died  there,  Nov.  11,  1854.  See  Watchman 
and  Reflector,  Dec.  21, 1854.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cole,  Thomas  (1),  an  English  divine,  was  bora  in 
1726.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  LL.R  in  1751.  At  the 
time  of  his  death,  June  6, 1796,  he  was  vicar  of  Dulvcr- 
ton.     He  was  the  author  of,  The  A  rbour,  or,  The  Rural 


COLE 


20 


COLEMAN 


PhUotcpher  (1766,  4to) : — Discourte$  on  Luxury,  Infi- 
delUy,  and  Enihunasm  (1760, 12mo)  i—The  Life  of  Hu- 
bert^ a  narrative,  descriptive,  and  didactic  poem  (1795, 
8vo).     See  The  (Lond.)  Amwal  Register^  1796,  p.  62. 

Cole,  Thomas  (2),  a  celebrated  painter,  was  bom 
at  BoIton-le-Moors,  Lancashire,  England,  Feb.  1, 1801. 
His  parents,  who  had  previously  lived  in  America,  re- 
turned in  1819,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  young 
Cole  applied  himself  to  wood-engraving  and  music  In 
1820  he  began  portrait-painting  in  Steubenville,  O.,  and 
afterwards  took  up  historical  painting.  In  1825  he  re- 
moved to  New  York  city,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
fame  by  painting  scenes  among  the  Catskillfu  His  finest 
pictures  are  the  four  called  The  Voyage  of  Life,  which 
have  been  engraved.  He  died  at  Cauktll,  K.  Y.,  Feb. 
11, 1847.  A  Memoir  of  him  has  been  written  bv  Rev. 
L.L.  Noble  (N.Y.  1855). 

Cole,  Thomas  (3),  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Delaware.  He  spent  over  two  years  (1824, 
1825)  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  and  was  then 
ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Gallipolis,  O.  He  was 
in  1880  and  1831  stated  supply  for  a  church  in  New 
Richnoond ;  labored  as  missionary  in  Ohio  in  1832  and 
1833 ;  was  pastor  in  Augusta,  Ky.,  in  1836,  for  a  Congre- 
gational Church ;  agent  for  the  American  Bible  Society, 
SU  Louis,  Mo.,  from  1855  until  his  death,  July  18, 1870. 
See  Gen,  Cat.  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  49. 

Cole,  'William,  an  English  clergyman  and  an 
eminent  antiquary,  was  bora  at  Little  Abington,  Cam- 
bridgeshire, Aug.  8, 1714.  He  was  educated  at  Saffron- 
Walden,  Eton,  and  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he 
was  admitted  to  one  of  Freeman's  scholarships  in  April, 
1734.  During  1736  and  1737  he  travelled  in  Flanders 
and  Portugal  In  1739  he  was  made  commissioner  of 
peace  in  the  county  of  Cambridge.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1744,  and  was  for  some  time  curate  to  Dr. 
Oakes,  rector  of  Wethersfield,  in  Suffolk.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  priest's  orders  in  1745,  and  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  1747.  He  went  to  France 
in  1768,  after  having  been  rector  for  some  years  of 
Bletchley,  in  Buckinghamshire,  which  place  he  resigned 
March  20, 1767.  He  then  removed  to  Waterbeche,  and 
from  thence  to  Milton,  near  Cambridge,  where  he  died, 
Dec.  16, 1782.  Among  his  works  are  Grose's  Antiqui- 
/»« .■— -Bentham's  Ely: — Life  of  Cardinal  Pole:— Col- 
^  lection  of  Poenu,  and  some  Sermons,  which  he  left  to 
Cambridge  University.  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ; 
Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Cole,  WiUiam  J.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  about  1843.  He  began  preaching  at  the  age 
of  eighteen,  under  the  direction  of  the  Canadian  Wes- 
leyan  Conference ;  removed  to  Charleston,  Sb  C,  in  1865 ; 
immediately  connected  himself  with  the  South  Caro- 
lina Mission  Conference,  and  in  its  active  ranks  died, 
July  13, 1867.  Mr.  Cole  possessed  uncommon  mental 
power,  a  remarkable  winsomeness  of  manner,  a  prepos- 
sessing personal  appearance,  and  an  energy  and  perse- 
verance that  knew  no  hinderance.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Conferences,  1868,  p.  11. 

Colebrooke,  Thomas,  a  famous  Sanscrit  scholar, 
was  bom  in  London,  England,  in  1765.  In  1782  he  went 
to  India,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
Sanscrit.  After  an  absence  of  thirty  years  he  returned 
to  London,  and  died  there  in  1887.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  scholars  who  made  Europe  acquainted  with  the 
religion,  legislation,  history,  and  science  of  the  Ilindds. 
His  essays,  published  in  the  Transactious  of  (he  Asiatic 
Society  at  Calcutta  and  London,  were  reprinted  in  1837, 
under  the  title  of  Miscellaneous  Essays,  His  paper  on 
the  philosophy  of  the  Hindis  was  translated  into  French 
by  Pauthier.  See  Lichtenberger,  EncycUtp,  des  Sciences 
Ileliffieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Colefax,  William,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  near  Nantwich  in  1792.  He  was  led  an 
orphan  in  early  childhood;  converted  in  his  twentieth 


year;  received  his  ministerial  training  at  Idle  Academy, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  in  1821  at  Hexham.  In  1833  he 
removed  to  Pudsey,  Yorkshire,  where  he  continued  till 
1846,  when  he  resigned  the  ministry.  He  died  March 
6, 1872.     See  (Lond.)  Cony.  Tear-hook,  1878,  p.  821. 

Coleman,  Andrew  (1),  an  extraordinar}*  young 
Irish  Methodist  preacher,  was  bora  in  Coleraine.  County 
Antrim.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  had  mastered  the 
usual  studies  of  a  college  curriculum.  He  was  convert- 
ed under  the  ministry  of  Thomas  Barber,  a  Wesleyan 
evangelist;  in  1785  was  recommended  to  the  Dublin 
Conference,  and  sent  to  the  Sligo  Circuit.  After  a  few 
months'  exhausting  labor  he  returned  to  Coleraine,  and 
die<l,  June  18,  1786,  aged  eighteen  years.  Coleman's 
was  a  lovel}*^  character — humble,  modest,  affectionate, 
and  thoroughly  consecrated.  He  had  a  brilliant  mind 
and  a  wonderful  memory.  See  Etheridge,  Ltfe  of  Dr. 
Adam  Clarke,  p.  51 ;  Clarke,  Miscellaneous  Works  (ed- 
ited by  Everett),  xii,  348 ;  Everett,  WesUyan  Centenary 
Takinffs,  i,  229. 

Coleman,  Andrew  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  West  Virginia,  April  5, 1790.  ■  He 
entered  the  Pittsbuigb  Conference  in  1825 ;  in  1842  was 
transferred  to  the  Rock  River  Conference;  in  1844  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Iowa  Conference,  and  in  1856  of 
the  Upper  Iowa  Conference.  The  following  were  his 
appointment :  Dubuque,  Rock  Island,  BurIington,'Bup- 
lington  District,  De  Moines  District,  Pittsburgh  Circuit, 
Iowa  City  District,  Pioneer  Circuit,  Lisbon,  I>e  Witt, 
Cedar  Rapids,  Rockdale,  La  Motte,  Iowa  City  Circuit, 
De  Witt  Circuit.  In  1872  he  became  superannuated, 
and  resided  at  Oskaloosa,  la.,  where  he  die<l.  May  4, 
1881.  Mr.  Coleman  was  an  eminently  godly  man,  of 
catholic  spirit  and  ardent  zeaL  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual 
Conferences,  1881,  p.  321. 

Coleman,  Henry,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Harrold,  Bedfordshire,  March  11, 1809. 
He  was  educated  at  Newport-Pagnell  College,  and  set- 
tled at  Wickhambrook,  in  Suffolk,  in  1838.  Here  he 
labored  with  eminent  success  until  the  beginning  of 
18C4,  when  he  removed  to  Halesworth,  and  thence,  in 
1868,  to  Penryn,  Com  wall,  where  he  continued  ten  years. 
He  retired  finally  from  active  service  in  August,  1879, 
and  died  at  Southampton,  Aug.  11,  1882.  Seie  (Lond.) 
Cong.  Year-book,  1883,  p.  271. 

Coleman,  laaiah  B.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  March  7,  1809.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
May  10, 1834 ;  ordained  in  March,  1835,  and  served  as 
pastor  of  the  Church  in  West  Stephentown,  K  Y.,  about 
forty  years.  He  assisted  in  the  organisation  of  several 
churches  of  his  denomination,  and  was  ever  ready  to 
respond  to  calls  upon  his  services  as  a  minister  of  the 
Gospel.  He  died  March  14, 1888.  See  The  Morning 
Star,  April  4,  1888.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Coleman,  James,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Black  River  Township,  N.  J.,  Oct.  30, 1766, 
of  Presbyterian  parents,  who  removed  west  of  the  Allc- 
ghanies  in  1777,  and  settled  on  the  Monongahela  river. 
About  the  close  of  the  Revolution  he  was  converted, 
licensed  to  exhort,  and  in  1791  entered  the  itinerant 
ranks,  and  was  appointed  to  Ohio  Circuit.  Subsequent* 
ly  he  served  several  years  as  a  missionary  in  Upper 
Canada,  where  he  endured  dreadful  privations,  and 
exhibited  wonderful  zeal  and  fidelitv.  His  latter  vears 
were  spent  as  a  superannuate  in  the  New  York  Confer- 
ence. He  died  at  his  residence  in  Ridgefield,  Conn., 
Feb.  5, 1842.  Mr.  Coleman  was  a  man  of  very  limited 
intellectual  culture,  but  of  many  Christian  graces.  His 
great  faith,  singleness  of  heart,  and  man'ellous  unction 
in  prayer  made  him  powerful  in  the  extension  of  Christ's 
kingdom.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1842,  p. 
309. 

Coleman,  James  A.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Baltimorie,  Md.  He  was  converted  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  Kcensed  to  exhort  two  years  later. 


COLEMAN 


21 


COLEMAN 


tiro  Uler  to  preacb,  and  At  the  age  of  niDetef  n  was  em- 
plored  as  Janior  preacher  on  CaBile  Fin  Circuit,  Balti- 
more CoofereDce.    In  1851  he  became  a  member  of  the 
cooferenee,  was  sent  as  junior  preacher  to  Shrewsbury 
Circuit,  and  afterwards  in  turn  to  Westminster,  Liberty, 
and  Hampstead,  H(.i ;  was  appointed  to  Alleghany  Cir- 
cuit in  18S5;  afterwards  served  Bedford  Circuit,  Cass- 
Tille,  and  Krmingham  Circuit,  Pa. ;  became  chaplain  in 
the  United  States  navy  on  board  a  receiving-ship  in 
the  batbor  of  BrooklTn,  N.  Y.,  and  thirteen  months  later 
removed  to  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  where  he  remained  a  su- 
perannuate, until  his  death,  March  80, 1879.     Mr.  Cole- 
man was  affd>le,  earnest,  affectionate,  and  pre-eroinent- 
Iv  successful.    See  Minvttt  of  A  tmual  Coft/ereacr^,  1880, 
p.  23. 

Coleman,  Jobll,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  minister, 
was  a  native  of  Bath  Parish,  Dinwiddie  Co^jVa.  He 
was  educated  and  prepared  for  the  ministry  principally 
by  ibe  Bev.  Devereux  Jarratt;  but  the  war  of  the  Rev- 
olation  prevented  his  obtaining  orders  in  England.  In 
1780  he  became  a  Methodist  local  preacher,  but  left 
ibat  Church  in  1784.  In  1787  he  was  admitted  to 
bolj  orders,  and  l>ecame  minister  of  St.  John's  and  St. 
James's  parishes,  in  Baltimore  County,  Md.  For  four 
years  (179&-1803)  he  was  rector  of  St.'Thoma8'8  Parish, 
in  the  same  county,  and  then  returned  to  that  of  St. 
James.  He  died  in  Baltimore  County,  Jan.  21, 1816, 
aged  fifty-eight  yean.  Mr.  Jarratt  committed  to  Mr. 
Cokman  the  publication  of  his  Autobiography,  For 
vventcen  years  the  latter  was  a  member  of  the  Stand- 
ing Committee,  and  five  times  was  a  delegate  to  the 
(xcoeral  Convention.  In  1804  he  was  named  as  a  can- 
didate for  the  suffragan  episcopate  of  Maryland,  but 
finhiig  health  prevented  his  election.  See  Sprague, 
AmhoU  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit^  v,  220. 

Coleinaxi,  Lyman,  D.D.,an  eminent  Presbyterian 
or  Congregational  divine  and  educator,  was  bom  at  Mid- 
dkfield,  Mass.,  June  14,  179G.  lie  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1817,  and  for.  three  succeeding  years  was 
principal  of  the  Latin  Grammar  School  in  Hartford, 
Conn.;  next  a  tutor  in  Yale  College  for  four  years,  dur- 
ing which  time  he  studied  theolog]^*.  From  1828  to  1885 
be  was  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  at  Belcher- 
town,  Mass.  After  this  he  taught,  first  at  the  Burr  and 
Burtnn  Seminary  in  Vermont,  next  for  seven  years  as 
principal  of  the  English  department  of  Phillips  Acade- 
my, Andover.  He  then  made  a  visit  to  Germany,  and 
spent  seven  months  in  study  with  Neander,  the  eminent 
historian,  which  resulted  in  the  preparation  of  his  learned 
work,  Primitirt  Chrittiamtjf,  On  his  return  he  was  made 
professor  of  German  in  Princeton  College.  He  continued 
there  and  at  Amherst  and  Philadelphia  the  next  four- 
teen years,  having  also  a  connection  with  various  other 
institutions.  In  1856  he  revisited  Europe,  and  extend- 
ed bis  travels  to  the  Holy  Land,  the  Desert,  and  Egypt. 
In  1861  he  succeeded  Dr.  Cattell  in  the  chair  of  an- 
cient languages  in  Lafayette  College,. but  after  1862 
deroted  himself  solelv  to  Latin.  For  manv  vears  be 
continued  his  lectures  to  the  students  on  Biblical  and 
physical  geography.  He  was  also  professor  of  Hebrew, 
emducting  classes  in  that  study  for  fifteen  years.  He 
died  at  Easton,  Pa.,  May  16, 1882.  Eminent  in  solid 
abilities,  in  accurate  scholarship,  in  stores  of  accumu- 
lated learning,  in  extended  usefulness,  Dr.  Coleman  was 
no  leas  eminent  in  the  graces  of  the  Spirit.  His  prin- 
cipal published  works  are.  The  A  ntiguitiei  of  the  ChriS' 
tim  Church :^The  ApoMolitxii  and  Primitive  Church: 
—IlittorieaJ  Geography  of  the  Bible: — Ancient  Chrit- 
tiani/y  ExempUjied:— Historical  Text-hook  and  A  tias  of 
BihUeal  Geography: — A  Manual  on  Prehtcy  and  Rit- 
Motum;  all  of  which  have  been  republished  in  Eng- 
land. See  The  PreOyterian,  March  25, 1882 ;  Allibone, 
l^.  tif  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uihortf  s.  v. ;  Kellogg,  Com^ 
«eaoratire  Sermon  (Easton,  1882).     (W.  P.  S.) 

Coleman,  Retiben,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, entered  the  travelling  ministry  in  connection  with 


the  Texas  Conference,  in  1870,  and  labored  faithfully 
until  his  decease,  Dec.  8, 1875.  Mr.  Coleman  was  a  man 
of  commanding  presence,  irreproachable  character,  and 
of  earnestness  and  effectiveness  in  the  ministry.  See 
Minute*  of  Annual  Conferencee^  1876,  p.  8. 

Coleman,  Seymour,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister^was  bom  in  Litchfield  County,  Conn.,  Dec  23, 1794, 
of  devout  Huguenot  parents.  About  1812  he  removed 
with  them  to  Fulton  County,  K.  Y.,  where  he  engaged 
in  school-teaching  from  the  age  of  eighteen  to  thirty- 
one,  meanwhile  zealously  continuing  his  study  of  books 
and  men.  He  was  also,  during  this  time,  admitted  to 
the  bar  of  Fulton  County ;  but  soon  after  gave  up  his 
profession,  began  preaching,  and  in  1828  entered  the 
New  York  Conference.  In  1882,  on  the  formation  of 
the  Troy  Conference,  he  became  a  member  of  it.  His 
appointments  extended  through  all  the  districts  of  that 
large  conference.  He  died  at  his  post,  Jan.  28, 1877. 
Mr.  Coleman  was  endowed  with  a  forcible  intellect,  and 
natural  heroism.  His  religious  experience  was  rich, 
and  his  daily  life  unsullied.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Conjerenees,  1877,  p.  67. 

Coleman,  Thomas  (1),  a  Puritan  divine,  was 
bom  at  Oxford,  England,  in  1598.  He  was  vicar  of 
Blyton,  and  subsequently  rector  of  St.  Peter's,  Comhill, 
London,  and  died  in  1647.  He  published  sermons  and 
theological  treatises  (1648^6).  See  Allibone,  JHct.  of 
Brit,  and  A  mxr,  A  utkors,  s.  v. 

Coleman,  Thomas  (2),  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  Kettering  in  1798,  and  was  stu- 
diously and  religiously  inclined  from  childhood.  He 
was  refused  admission  to  Hoxton  Academy  on  account 
of  the  loss  of  one  of  his  eyes,  yet  he  persevered  in  the 
work  of  self-improvement.  In  1822  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Independent  Church  at  WoUaston,  Northampton, 
shire,  and  in  1881  at  Ashley  and  Wilbarston.  Failure 
of  health  in  1867  compelled  him  to  resign.  Subse- 
quently he  became  totally  blind,  yet,  from  the  tenacity 
of  his  memory  and  his  disciplined  habits  of  thought, 
he  continued  to  preach  almost  to  the  end  of  his  life,  fre- 
quently conducting  the  whole  service  himself.  He  died 
at  Market  Harborough,  Dec  80, 1872.  Mr.  Coleman  is 
spoken  of  as  being  **  a  strenuous  stndenL"  His  histori- 
cal acquirements,  especially,  were  very  considerable. 
He  published.  Memorials  of  the  Independent  Churches  in 
Northamptonshire: — The  Two  Thousand  Confessors  of 
1662:— rAe  English  Confessors  after  the  Reformation  to 
the  Days  of  the  Commonwealth ;  also  other  works,  chiefly 
expository,  4s  well  as  contributing  many  articles  to  de- 
nominational periodicals.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-boot, 
1874,  p.  318. 

Coleman,  Thomas  Clarke,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Jeffer- 
son  County,  Ga.,  Feb.  8, 1794.  He  was  left  an  orphan 
when  but  a  few  months  old ;  was  converted  about  1810; 
licensed  to  exhort  in  1826,  tu  preach  in  1832,  and  in  1838 
entered  the  Georgia  Conference.  For  about  twenty 
years  he  labored  on  circuits,  and  in  mission  fields  in 
Georgia  and  Florida.  Failure  of  health  then  obliged 
him  to  retire  from  all  stated  services,  and  he  spent  the 
following  years  in  great  bodily  suffering.  He  died  July 
25, 1875.  Mr.  Coleman  had  scarcely  any  early  educa- 
tional advantages.  His  wife  taught  him  to  read.  His 
mental  hsbits  were  fixed  before  he  entered  the  minis- 
try, and  he  never  acquired  t(!^  capacity  for  sermonizing; 
yet  he  was  a  preacher  of  rare  success  through  the  power 
of  his  exhortations  and  prayers.  He  was  all  aflame 
with  zeal  and  devotion.  His  life  was  exemplar)',  full 
of  pathos,  sympathy,  and  deep  devotion.  See  Minutes 
of  A  nnual  Conferences  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1875, 
p.  178. 

Colemani  WiUiam  (l),  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  1776.  II is  first  settlement  in  the 
ministry  was  at  Lessness  Heath,  Kent,  where  he  was 
ordained  in  1809.   Here  he  remained  from  1809  to  1828, 


COLEMAN 


22 


COLES 


and  then  removed  to  Colnbrooki  Bnckti  where  be  was 
pastor  from  1823  to  1845.  In  1846  he  accepted  a  call 
to  the  Church  at  Bexley  Heath,  Kent,  where  he  died, 
Oct  4, 1848.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand-book,  1849,  p. 
41.     (J.CS.) 

Coleman,  ^TVilllam  (2),  a  Canadian  Methodist 
minister,  was  a  Comishroan.  He  was  converted  at  nine- 
teen; emigrated  to  Canada  in  1831;  was  a  lay  evan- 
gelist for  six  years;  entered  the  ministry  in  1887,  re- 
tired in  1872,  and  died  at  his  home  at  Scarborough,  Out., 
May  27,  1879,  aged  seventy-one  years.  Mr.  Coleman 
was  a  man  of  thorough  consecration  and  of  strong  and 
constant  piety.  See  Minutes  of  the  Toronto  Covfereince^ 
1879,  p.  15. 

Coleman,  "William  A.»  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  of  Episcopal  parentage,  near  St.  John,  N.  B.,  No- 
vember, 1816.  He  united  with  the  Baptist  Church 
at  PortUnd,  Dec  25,  1840;  was  ordained  at  North 
Esk  in  1845;  labored  in  several  fields,  baptized  one 
thousand  and  fifty  persons,  and  died  at  SackviUe,  March 
7,  1877.  He  was  characterized  by  executive  ability, 
judgment,  dignity,  calmness,  and  humility.  See  Min- 
vte»  of  Baptist  Convention  of  X,  S^  etc,  1877 ;  Bill,  Fify 
Years  with  the  Bc^Hists,  p.  637. 

Colendaly  Heinrich,  a  German  theologian  of  the 
Jesuit  order,  was  born  at  Cologne,  April  15, 1672.  He 
was  successively  missionary,  professor  of  theolog}'  at 
Osnabnick,  royal  chaplain  at  Dresden,  preacher  and  rec- 
tor at  Cologne  He  died  Jan.  23, 1729.  His  principal 
works  are,  Confabulatio  Catholicum  inter  et  Lutheranum 
(Cologne,  1710)  i—Osnabruffensis  Rusticus  Edoctus  (ibid, 
eod.)  '.—NvMitas  Sacerdotii  fjutheronorum  (ibid.  1713). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gmirale,  s.  v. 

Coleoni,  Celbstini,  an  Italian  historian  and  theo- 
logian of  the  Capuchin  order,  a  native  of  Bergamo,  lived 
in  the  early  half  of  the  17th  century.  His  principal 
works  are,  Istoria  Quadripariita  di  Bergamo  (Bergamo 
and  Brescia,  1617, 1619,  3  vols.)  \—Viia  8,  Patritii,etc 
(Brescia,  1617)  i-^De  Matrimomo  Grata  Virginis  (ibid. 
1719)  :—Vita  Firmi et Rustici  (ibid.  1618).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Gsnsrale,  s.  v. 

Colenso,  John  William,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  prel- 
ate, was  bom  at  St.  Austell,  Cornwall,  Jan.  24, 1814.  He 
took  all  bat  the  highest  mathematical  honors  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1836 ;  was  successively  a  master  at  Harrow 
(183^),  a  resident  fellow  and  private  tutor  at  St,  John*s 
College,  Cambridge  (1842),  rector  of  Fomcett  St.  Mary, 
near  Norwich  (1846),  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Na- 
tal on  the  creation  of  that  see  in  1853.  Great  excite- 
ment was  caused  by  his  publication  of  8t.  Paul's  Kpis- 
tie  to  the  RomanSf  newly  Translated  (1861),  in  which  he 
denied  the  doctrine  of  eternal  punishment.  But  a  still 
greater  agitation  was  caused  by  his  Pentateuch  and 
Book  of  Joshua  Critically  Examined  (in  seven  parts^ 
1862-79),  in  which  he  questioned  the  authenticity  of 
the  Pentateuch.  This  called  forth  innumerable  replies 
and  criticisms,  and  even  severe  Church  discipline.  The 
buliop  of  Capetown,  who,  by  the  various  letters  patent, 
was  metropolitan  of  the  Church  of  England  in  South 
Africa,  summoned  the  bishop  of  Natal  to  his  tribunal 
on  a  charge  of  heresy,  and  deposed  him  from  office. 
The  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council  set  aside, 
on  constitutional  grounds,  the  sentence  of  deposition. 
The  trustees  of  the  Colonial  Church  Bishoprics'  Fund 
nevertheless  withheld  bishop  Colenso's  Balar}%  and  he 
sued  for  it  before  lord  Komilly,  master  of  the  roUs. 
That  judge  declared  that  heresy  would  be  a  justifica- 
tion for  withholding  the  salar}*,  and  that,  if  the  charge 
were  preferred,  it  would  be  his  duty  to  try  it  in  accord- 
ance with  the  law  of  the  Church  of  England.  But 
the  charge  was  not  preferred,  and,  of  course,  the  Cspe- 
town  deposition  could  not  be  held  a  justification.  Thus 
the  bishop  of  Natal  continued  to  enjoy  his  salary  and 
the  property  of  his  see,  and  with  a  good  conscience,  for 
it  was  the  opinion  of  his  friends  that  a  charge  of  heresy 


could  not  have  been  maintained  against  him  nndcr  the 
standards  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  died  at 
Natal,  June  20,  1883.  Besides  a  series  of  mathemat- 
ics for  schools,  and  some  minor  works,  bishop  Culenso 
published*  lectures  on  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Moabite 
Stone  (1873):— the  New  Bible  Commentary  Critically 
Examined  (1871-74).  He  also  translated  the  New 
Test,  and  part  of  the  Old  Test,  into  the  Zulu  language, 
and  published  a  Zulu  grammar  with  dictionary.    (B.  P.) 

Coler,  Jakoby  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  at  GrUtz,  in'  Voightland,  in  1537.  He  studied 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  was  in  1564  pastor  at  Lauban, 
in  Upper  Lusatia,  and  in  1573  at  Neukirch,  where  he 
held  a  colloquy  with  L.  Crentzheim  and  M.  Flaciua,  con- 
cerning original  sin.  In  1575  he  was  made  doctor  of 
theology  and  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Frankfort;  in  1577 
he  was  called  to  Berlin  as  member  of  consistory' ;  became 
in  1000  superintendent  of  the  Gtlstrow  district  in  the 
duchy  of  Mecklenburg,  and  died  March  7, 1 G12.  He  as- 
sisted Hutterin  the  edition  of  his  famous  Hebrew  Bible, 
and  wrote,  Be  ImmortaUtate  A  ninue : — De  Exorcismo  : 
— De  Lihtro  Aibitrio,  See  Roller,  Wolaviographia ; 
J'ochetj  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Coler,  Johann  Chriatopll,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian  and  bibliographer,  was  bom  Sept.  7, 1691,  at 
Alten-Gottem,  near  Langensalza.  He  studied  at  Wit- 
tenberg, and  was  made  adjunct  to  the  philosophical  fac- 
ulty in  1716.  In  1720  he  became  pastor  at  BrUcken, 
but  four  years  later  went  to  Weimar,  as  teacher  at  the 
gymnasium.  In  1725  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  St. 
James's,  in  1731  court  preacher,  and  died  at  Weimar, 
March  7, 1736.  His  principal  works  are  some  academ- 
ical dissertations :  De  Ephramo  et  Joanne  Damasceno 
(Wittenberg,  1714): — ffistoria  Gothofr,  Amoldi  (ibid. 
1718) : — Acta  Litteraria  Academia  Witiebergensis  (ibid. 
1719)  '.—BiUiotheke  The^ogische (he\i».  1724-36)  i—An- 
thologioj  seu  Epistolcs  Vatii  A  rgumenli  (ibid.  1725) : — 
Acta  JHistorico-ecdtsiastica,  an  ecclesiastical  gazette, 
written  in  German  (Weimar,  1734).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Coler,  Johann  Jakob,  a  German  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Zurich  in  the  16th  century.  He  was  one  of 
the  pupils  of  Theodore  Beza,  and  wrote  An  A  ntma  Ra- 
tionaUs  sit  ex  Traduce  (Zurich,  1586).  The  success  of 
this  little  treatise  was  very  great,  and  Bodolphe  Gocle- 
nius  printed  it  a  second  time  in  his  collection  of  writ- 
ings upon  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  soul,  De  Homi- 
nis  Perfectione  (Marburg,  1694).  We  are  also  indebted 
to  Coler  for  Prttfatio  in  Epistoias  Huttenif  with  a  collec- 
tion of  letters  from  Hutten  (Nuremberg,  1604).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrtUe,  s.  v. 

Coleridge,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  father 
of  the  poet,  was  vicar  of  Ottery  St.  Mary,  in  Devon- 
shire, and  died  about  1781.  He  published  A  Critical 
Latin  Grammtir : — Miscellaneous  Dissertations  A  rinnff 
from  the  11th  and  18/A  Chapters  of  the  Book  of 
Judges  (1768).  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of 
learning  and  research.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  Amer,  AulhorSf  s.  v. 

Coleridge,  >77ilUam  Hart,  a  bishop  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Barba- 
does  at  its  erection  in  1824,  and  resigned  the  bishop- 
ric in  1841.  Upon  the  establishment  of  St.  Augustine's 
College,  Canterbury,  he  was  chosen  its  first  warden, 
possessing  eminent  talent  for  the  education  of  mission- 
aries, lie  died  at  Ottery  St.  Mary,  Devonshire,  Dec 
21, 1849,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age.  His  scholar- 
ship was  unquestionable.  See  Amer,  Quar,  Church 
Rev.  1850,  p.  160. 

Coles,  John,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Luton,  Bedfordshire,  in  1782.  He  was  onlained 
Nov.  5, 1813,  pastor  at  Poplar,  Middlesex,  and  remained 
there  until  1818.  His  next  settlement  was  at  Work- 
ingham,  Berkshire,  where  he  remained  from  1819  to 
1839.    Besides  performing  his  home  duties,  be  labored 


COLES 


23 


COLQA 


exteiuirdy  in  the  neighboring  rilUgeA.  On  complet- 
ing  hU  tenn  of  service,  be  retired  from  ministeriid  U- 
bor.  He  died  in  liondon,  Jan.  9, 1(H2.  See  (Lond.) 
Bofiid  HaMtooky  1842,  p.  24.     (J.  a  S.) 

CrOlefl,  Thomaa^  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  in  the  parish  of  Hawling,  Gloucestershire,  Aug. 
SI,  1779.  Soon  after  joining  the  Church  of  which  the 
Ker.  Benjamin  Beddome  was  the  pastor,  he  entered  the 
college  at  Bristol,  where  he  studied  for  a  time,  and  then 
became  a  stadent  in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
vbere  he  graduated  A.lf.  Iii  Scotland,  he  devoted 
himself  with  great  seal  to  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
Toung.  He  was  ordained  at  Dinirton,  Nov.  17,  1801, 
where  be  remained  during  his  entire  ministerijd  life, 
nearly  thirty -nine  years,  'Miigbly  esteemed  by  bis 
brethren,  and  very  useful  in  the  public  denominational 
institutions  of  the  county."  He  died  Sept.  28,  1840. 
See  Repwt  of  EnglUk  'BaptiH  Unions,  1841,  p.  88. 

(j.a&) 

Colette,  Sai$itj  a  French  nun  and  reformer,  whose 
family  name  was  BoiUt,  was  bom  at  Corbie,  in  Picardy, 
Jan.  13, 1380.  From  infancy  she  was  remarkable  for  her 
piety.  After  having  lived  successively  at  the  house  of 
the  Beguines,  the  sisters  of  the  third  order  of  Sc  Francis, 
then  in  a  hermitage,  she  entered  the  order  of  the  nuns 
of  St.  Clare,  and  conceived  the  thought  of  working  a 
rerorm.  Benedict  XIII,  Pedro  de  Luna,  the  acknowl- 
odged  pope  at  Avignon,  approved  her  design,  and  in- 
rested  her  with  the  necessary  power  to  accomplish  it. 
She  failed  in  France,  but  succeeded  in  Savoy,  Burgnn* 
Ay,  the  Netherlands,  and  Spain.  She  died  at  Ghent, 
March  6, 1446,  and  her  canonization  was  pronounced 
March  3, 1807,  by  Pius  VIL  See  Hocfer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
GMralff  s.  V. 

Coletti  (or  Coleti),  Qiovaimi  Domenloo, 
an  Italian  scholar  of  the  Jesuit  order,  brother  of  Nioco* 
Io,was  bom  in  1727.  He  was  for  ten  years  missionary 
to  Mexico.  On  his  return  to  Italy  he  resided  at  the 
OJkge  of  Bagnacavallo,  and  retired  to  his  family  after 
the  suppression  of  his  order.  He  died  at  Venice  in 
1799.  His  principal  works  are,  Vida  de  S.  Juan  Apot- 
tUi  (Lima,  1761)  :—I)izionario  Storico^Geografico  deW 
Anaica  iieridiomde  (Venice,  1771) : — Notize  Igtoriche 
ddla  Chk$a  di  San  PUtro  in  S^vis  di  Bagnacavallo 
(ibid.  1774) : — Mtmnrit  Istoriche  fntomo  al  Cav.  Cetare 
Krcolani  (ibid.  1776):  —  Lucifei-i  Kpitcopi  Calaritani 
Vila,cum  A'o/»»,  Oper&ttt  Pr<efixa  (ibid.  1778)  x—HiapeU 
lalei  Iturriptioneg  Emendata  (ibid.  1780):  —  De  Nova 
Orani  Voce  et  Officio  ^bid.  1781) : — Notoi  et  Si^  qua  in 
Nummii  et  Lapidibtu  apvd  Romanoe  ObtiTtebant  JCrpli- 
eatce  (ibid.  1786): — Lei  f era  Sopra  Vltaizione  Pemmoid^ 
(na  delt  A  Itare  di  San  Martino  di  Cividale  FriuH  (ibid. 
1799)  '.—TricUniwn  Opitergiaum  (ibid.  1794),  also  a  large 
number  of  M8S.,  preserved  by  bis  family.  See  Iloefer, 
.Vovr.  Biog.  Ginircde,  s,  v. 

Ck>letti  (or  Coleti),  Jacopo  (or  GHacomo),  an 
Italian  scholar  of  the  Jesuit  order,  lived  at  the  close  of 
the  18th  century.  On  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits, 
be  returned  to  his  family  and  devoted  himself  to  study 
and  ecclesiastical  labors.  His  principal  works  are, 
DUtertazione  Sugli  Antichi  Pedagogii  (Venice,  1780,  in- 
sened  in  the  OpuacuU  Ferraret^  :—De  Situ  Stridotttif 
Urbu  Kutalis  S.  llieronymi  (ibid.  1784).  Coletti  also 
worked  on  a  continuation  of  the  lUgricum  Sacrum  of 
Daniele  Farlati,  and  the  publication  of  the  work  of 
Lucifero,  bishop  of  Cagliari,  by  his  brother  Giovanni 
Domenico.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Coletti  (or  Coleti),  Niccolo,  a  learned  Italian 
ecclesiastic,  was  bom  at  Venice  in  1680.  He  resigned 
the  direction  of  a  library  and  printing  establishment 
which  he  bad  funned  at  Paris,  in  order  ha  devote  him- 
self entirely  to  the  study  of  history  and  ecclesiastical 
aatkiuittea.  Coletti  died  in  1765.  He  published  a 
new  edition  of  the  Italia  Sacra  of  Ughelli,  purged  of 
aereral  errors^  and  continued  it  from  1648,  where  the 


author  had  left  it,  down  to  the  18th  centary.  This 
edition,  commenced  in  1717,  was  completed  in  1781l| 
ten  vols.,  in  fol.  Coletti  likewise  worked  on  a  new 
edition  of  the  Collection  de»  Coneiles  of  Labbe,  whidi 
he  enriched  with  notes  and  valuable  additions.  He 
also  wrote.  Series  Epiacoporum  Cremonensium  Aucta 
(Milan,  1749) : — Monumenta  Ecdetia  Venetm  S.  MdUit 
(1758).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Colej,  Charles  B.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, resided,  in  1857,  in  Madison,  Ga.,  while  yet  a  dea- 
con, and  subsequently,  in  1859,  became  rector  in  that 
place  of  the  Church  of  the  Advent.  In  1861  he  was 
assistant  minister  of  Christ  Church,  Savannah,  a  posi- 
tion in  which  he  remained  until  1868,  when  he  became 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Kedeemcr,  Shelbyville, 
Tenn. ;  in  1870  was  rector  of  St  Mark's  Church,  Bruns- 
wick, Ga. ;  in  1872  officiated  in  Christ  Church,  Savan- 
nah ;  and  in  1878  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  De- 
mopolis,  Ala.  He  dieil  March  26, 1874,  aged  forty-three 
years.     See  Prot  Epitc.  A  Imanae,  1875,  p.  144. 

Coley,  Jamea  M.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
Cazenovia,  N.  Y.,  in  1806.  He  pursued  his  studies  in  the 
literary  and  theological  institution  at  Hamilton,  where 
he  graduated  in  1828.  Subsequently  he  spent  one  year 
(1888-84)  at  the  Newton  Theological  In8titution,'and 
was  ordained  at  Charlemont,  Mass.  For  two  years  he 
was  pastor  at  Beverly,  which  place  he  left  in  Febmary, 
1886.  His  other  settlements  were  in  Binghamton  and 
Carmel,  N.  Y.,  Norwich,  Conn.,  Albany  and  Waverly, 
N.  Y.  His  labors  at  Albany  were  especially  blessed. 
On  giving  up  the  pastoral  office  he  removed  to  Auburn, 
IlL  A  few  years  after,  he  went  to  California  for  his 
health,  and  died  at  San  Jose,  Jan.  8, 1883.  He  was  an 
able  preacher,  of  commanding  presence,  and  an  uncom- 
monlv  impressive  delivery.  See  The  Watchman,  March 
29, 1888.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Coley,  Samuel,  a  Wcsleyan  minister,  was  bom  at 
Birmingham,  England,  Feb.  17, 1825.  He  was  converted 
when  about  six  years  of  age,  joined  the  Wesleyans  at 
twelve,  began  to  preach  at  sixteen,  and  after  a  three 
years*  residence  at  the  theological  school  at  Richmond, 
received  an  appointment  to  the  Hastings  Circuit  in  1847, 
He  filled  some  of  the  most  important  stations  of  the 
Church.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  theological  tntor 
at  Headingly.  He  resigned  this  position  in  1880,  and 
in  August  of  the  same  year  settled  at  Warwick,  and 
died  Oct.  80  following.  ''  As  a  preacher  he  st<x>d  in  the 
first  rank  of  the  most  popular  men  of  the  day."  His 
theological  lectures  **were  models  of  clearness  in  the 
exposition  of  truth.*'  He  published  comparatively  lit- 
tle. His  Life  of  Thomas  Collins  is  one  of  the  best  of 
Christian  biographies.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Con- 
ference,  1881,  p.  20. 

Coliridiie.    See  Ceolfrid. 

Colga  (or  Colohu ;  Irish,  Coelchu),  is  the  name  of 
several  early  Irish  saints : 

1.  CoLOA,  *^ the  Wise,*  lector  of  Clonmacnoise,  was 
a  man  of  eminent  piety  and  learning,  and  acquiAd  the 
name  of  chief  scribe  or  master  of  all  the  Scots.  He 
was  appointed  to  preside  over  the  great  school  of 
Clonmacnoise ;  was  a  special  friend  and  correspondent 
of  Alcuin,  at  Charlemagne's  court,  and  composed  the 
Seopa  Devotionis,  or  Besom  of  Devotion,  a  collection  of 
most  ardent  prayers  in  the  form  of  litanies,  and  full  of 
the  warmest  devotion  to  God.  He  dicil  about  A.D. 
796,  and  is  commemorated  on  Feb.  20  (Lanigan,  Ecd, 
Hist,  of  Ireland,  iii,  228  sq.;  Todd  and  Beeves,  Mart. 
Doneg.  p.  55). 

2.  CoLous^  or  CoLOAMUB,  was  of  the  powerful  fam- 
ily  of  the  Hy-Fiachrach,  in  Connaught.  He  is  chiefiy 
known  in  connection  with  St.  Columba.  He  flourished 
about  A.D.  580,  and  probably  died  in  his  native  land, 
according  to  St.  Columba*s  promise  (Lanigan,  EccL  JfisL 
of  Ireland,  ii,  328). 

3«  CoXiOiL's,  or  CoLCius,  son  of  CcUach,  was  another 


COLGAN 


24 


COLLADO 


disdple  and  associate  of  St.  ColamtML  Aooording  to 
the  Irish  annals  be  died  aboat  A.D.  622  (Lanigan, 
EocL  nisi,  of  Ireland,  ii,  828 ;  Colgan,  A  da  Sanctorum, 
p.  881, 882. 

4.  Ck)iX3A,  abbot  of  Losk,  in  Leinster,  flourished 
about  A.D.  694,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  prelates  who 
attended  the  synod  at  Armagh,  convened  by  Flann 
Febhla  and  St.  Adamnan  about  A.D.  697  (Lanigan,  EccL 
Hist,  of  Ireland,  iii,  140). 

5.  CoLOA,  or  Gaolcud,  of  Lui-Airthir,  is  commemo- 
rated Sept.  24  (Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart,  Domeg,  p.  257). 
—Smith,  Diet,  o/Chrut.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Colgan,  Thomas,  a  missionary  of  the  Church  of 
England,  came  to  America  in  1726  to  take  charge  of 
the  Church  in  Kye,  N.  Y.,  nnder  the  direction  of  the 
Society  fur  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Parts;  but  afterwards  became  assistant  to  the  Rev. 
William  Vesey,  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York 
city,  and  remained  in  that  position  until  1782,  when  he 
became  minister  of  the  Church  in  Jamaica,  L.  I.  He 
died  there  in  1755.  See  Sprague,  Amuik  of  the  Amer. 
Pulpit,  V,  16. 

Colhard,  Christian,  a  German  poet  and  theolo- 
gian, who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century, 
wrote,  Ara  Euckaiittica  (Frankfort,  1704,  1728):— 
EpistoUs  Familiarea  Carmine  Elegiaco  (Berlin,  about 
1720)  :-^Epittolographia  Metrica  (ibid.  1724).  See 
Uoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generate,  s.  v. 

Coli,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Luc- 
ca in  1684,  and  studied  under  Pietro  da  Cortona.  Some 
of  bis  works  are  in  the  churches  of  Rome.  The  most 
celebrated  were  the  frescos  in  the  tribune  of  the  Church 
of  San  Martino,  in  I^oca.  The  whole  "cloister  of  the 
monastery  of  the  Carmelites  was  painted  by  him.  He 
died  in  1681.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  ris, 
s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Giairale,  s.  v. 

ColidL    See  Culdbes. 

CoUgny  (or  Coligne),  Oi>kt  vb,  a  French  prelate, 
son  of  marshal  de  Chatillon  and  Louise  de  Montmorenci, 
was  born  July  10, 1517.  When-  hardly  sixteen  years  of 
age  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  cardinals  who  were  to 
elect  the  pope.  He  went  to  Rome  to  take  his  place  in 
the  consistory,  and  assisted  in  the  election  of  Paul  III, 
who  made  him  archbishop  of  Toulouse  in  1534,  and  re- 
lieved him  from  the  obligation  of  residing  at  Rome. 
He  was  raised  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Beauvais  in 
1635,  and  took  a  great  interest  not  only  in  the  affairs 
of  his  country,  but  also  promoted  arts  and  sciences. 
In  1550  be  was  called  to  Rome  to  assist  in  the  elec- 
tion of  pope  Julius  III.  In  1554  he  gave  to  his  dio- 
cese the  Constitutions  Sgnodaks,  which  were  intended 
to  suppress  certain  abuses.  The  firm  attitude  of  the 
Parisian  parliament  against  the  house  of  Guise,  in  1558, 
which  sought  to  bring  France  under  the  yoke  of  the 
inquisition,  delivered  Coligny  from  a  snare,  since  he 
was  designed  to  be  one  of  the  three  inquisitor-generals. 
Without  pronouncing  himself  openly  for  the  new  faith, 
to  which  his  brothers  already  adhered,  be  put  himself 
politically  on  their  side  and  against  the  Guises,  assist- 
ed at  the  assembly  held  in  Fontainebleau  in  1560,  and 
Anally  broke  with  the  Church  of  Rome  in  1561  by 
celebrating  at  Beauvais  the  Lord's  Supper  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Protestant  rite.  A  tumult  which  soon 
broke  out  endangered  his  life.  He  gave  up  his  ec- 
clesiastical dignities,  and  assumed  the  title  of -count 
of  Beauvais.  During  the  first  religious  war  he  accom- 
panied his  brothers  and  Cond6  to  Orleans,  and  afler 
the  peace  of  Amboise  he  returned  to  the  court  of  France. 
In  the  meantime  he  had  been  reported  to  the  inquisi- 
tion at  Rome  as  a  heretic,  and  on  his  refusal  to  appear 
liefore  the  tribunal,  the  fnipe  hurled  at  him  a  bull  of 
excommunication,  March  31, 1563.  He  was  henceforth 
called  by  his  family  name,  Chatillon^  although  h<3  him- 
self retained  his  title  of  cardinal  Coligny.  In  1568  he 
negotiated  the  peace  which  followed  the  siege  of  Char- 
ties.    The  violation  of  the  peace  by  Catharine  de'  Med- 


ici necessitated  the  retreat  of  Conde  and  Coligny  to 
La  Rochelle.  Chatillon's  life,  as  well  as  that  of  Conde, 
being  endangered,  he  succeeded  in  sailing  to  England, 
where  he  hoped  to  serve  the  cause  of  his  brothers  and 
of  liberty.  He  publicly  married  Elizabeth  de  Hautc- 
ville.  Queen  Elizabeth  treated  him  with  due  respect, 
and  bis  influence  often  neutralized  the  measures  of  the 
French  ambassador,  Lamothe-F6nelon.  After  the  peace 
of  1570,  the  latter  changed  his  attitude  towards  the  car- 
dinal, and  even  entered  into  direct  relatiuns  with  him  in 
the  hope  of  securing  his  co-operation.  Chatillon,  upon 
an  invitation  of  Gaspard  de  Coligny  to  return  toFranoe,> 
made  his  preparations  for  the  journey,  but  die<I  Feb.  14, 
1571,  under  suspicion  of  being  poisoned,  which  a  post- 
mortem examination  justified.  He  was  buried  at  Can- 
terbur>\  Ii)  Odet  de  Coligny  the  French  Protestants 
lost  one  of  their  firmest  supporters.  See  De  Bouchet, 
Pr.  de  Christ,  de  la  Maison  de  CoHgng,  p.  847-442 ;  Bran- 
tome.  Homines  lUast,  s.  v.,  **  Ije  Cardinal  de  Chatillon  f 
Dupont-Whitc,  La  lAgne  a  Beauvais  ;  Corresp.  DipUm. 
de  Lamothe' FenShn,  i,  p.  16  sq.;  ii,  p.  49  sq.;  iii,  p. 
17  sq. ;  iv,  p.  12  sq. ;  Delaborde,  in  Lichtenbcrger's  En- 
cydvp.  des  Sciences  Rdigieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

CoUa.    See  Eolla. 

Collace  is  the  family  name  of  several  Scotch  cler* 
g3*men : 

1.  Andrew,  took  his  degree  at  King*s  College,  Aber- 
deen, in  1611;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Gariock 
in  1615,  transferred  to  Ecclesgreig  in  1619,  to  Dundee 
in  1685 ;  deposed  in  1689  for  drunkenness,  sacrilege, 
and  disobedience  to  the  Greneral  Assembly ;  was  settled 
at  Duuse  in  1668,  and  died  Sept.  18, 1664,  aged  about 
seventy-three  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticanos,  \,  404 ; 
iii,  689, 863, 870. 

2.  David,  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Drainie  in 
1638,  and  ordained,  and  died  June  8,  1681.  See  Fasii 
Eccles,  Scoticanm,  iii,  161. 

3.  FitANCis,  took  bis  degree  at  Edinburgh  Universi- 
ty in  1610;  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  Channel- 
kirk  in  1614,  and  admitted  to  the  livin^^  in  1615;  signed 
the  protestation  for  the  liberties  of  the  kirk  in  1617; 
was  transferred  to  Gordon  In  1625,  and  died  in  1647, 
aged  about  fif\y-seven  years.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scott- 
cana,  i,  521,  525. 

4.  John,  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Fettercaim 
in  1580;  had  Ncwdosk  under  his  care  in  1585,  and  died 
March  16,  1587.     See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticana,  iii,  8C6. 

CoUaceroni,  Agostino,  an  Italian  painter,  was  a 
native  of  Bologna,  and  studied  under  Padre  Pozzi.  He 
was  an  eminent  perspective  artist,  and  was  much  em- 
ployed in  adorning  the  churches  at  Rome,  Bologna,  and 
other  cities.  He  flourished  about  1700.  See  Spooner, 
Biog*  iJist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Collado,  DiRGo,  a  Spanish  Dominican,  was  born 
at  Mezzadas,  in  Estremadura.  He  assumed  the  habit 
of  his  order  at  Salamanca  in  1600.  After  having  taught 
belles-lettres,  he  embarked  for  Japan  in  1619,  and,  in 
spite  of  persecution,  preached  the  Gcwpel  for  several 
years.  In  1625  his  superiors  sent  him  to  Rome  to  so- 
licit of  the  pope  more  extended  powers.  While  in  Eu- 
rope he  published  several  works,  the  material  fi>r  which 
he  had  collected  in  his  travels.  Urban  VIII  having  at 
length  delivered  a  brief  favorable  to  the  wishes  of  the 
missionaries,  Collado  went  to  Spain  in  1632,  obtained 
of  the  king  letters-patent  for  the  foundation  of  a  con- 
vent of  his  order  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  em- 
barked again  in  1635.  Arriving  there,  he  met  with 
much  opposition  from  the  governor,  but  nevertheless 
succeeded  in  carrying  out  his  project  Being  recalled  to 
Spain  in  1688,  he  embarked,  but  the  ship  was  wrecked, 
and  he  perished.  His  works  are,  A  rs  GrammaUca  Linr 
gum  Japonices  (Rome,  1681)  : — Didionarium  site  The" 
sauri  Lingum  Japomces  (ibid.;  compendium,  1682):— 
llistoria  Ecclesiastica  de  las  Successas  de  la  Christian' 
dud  de  Japon  (Madrid,  1682)  i— Modus  ConJUendi  et  E»- 
amenandi  Pamtentem  Japontnsem,  etc  (Rome,  1681):" 


COLLADON 


25 


COLLECTIO 


i 


DieUotiaruim  iMgum  Smentig  (still  unpabliahed).    See 
Hoefer,  Now,  Bioff,  GMralff  &  v.;  Chalmere,  Biog. 

CoUadOD,  Nicolas,  a  Swus  Protestant  theologian 
of  French  origin,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th 
oeotary.    He  lefi  Bourges,  where  he  was  minister,  re- 
tired to  (jenera,  and  became,  in  1564,  rector  of  the  acad- 
emy of  that  place.    Two  3'ears  later  he  succeeded  Calvin 
as  professor  of  theology.    The  boldness  of  his  preaching 
bnMight  him  into  difficulty  with  the  sovereign  councO 
of  Geneva,  and  he  retired  to  Lausanne,  where  he  taoght 
beQes-lettres.    He  translated  into  French  Beza*8  work, 
Ik  Bmretieu  Gladio  PtmiendU  (1560) ;  and  wrote  AfethO' 
(faj  FaeUUma  ad  ExpHcationem  Apoctdyptfoa  Jokanmt 
(Uoiiges,  1591): — Jesvt  Natarenusy  ex  Mfatthteo,  duxp, 
n,  V.  32  (Lausanne,  1586).     See  Hoefer,  Sow,  Biog,  Gi- 
nAnkj  a.  t.  ;  Biog,  UnivetteUff  s.  v. 

CoUaeit,  Adrian,  a  Flemish  designer  and  engrav- 
er, was  bom  at  Antwerp  about  1520,  studied  in  his  na- 
tive city,  and  died  there  in  1567.  The  following  are  his 
principid  works:  The  Last  Jud^meni;  The  Israelituh 
Women  CelArtUbig  the  Desinu^ion  of  the  Kgyptiim  ffott 
n  the  Bed  Sea  ;  The  Catting  ofSU  A  ndrew  to  the  A  po^U- 
aAijp.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hut,  of  the  Fine  A  rtt^  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  AVtiv.  Biog.  GhUrale,  s.  v.;  Chalmers,  Biog, 
I>ieLt.v, 

CoQaert,  Hans,  a  Flemish  engraver,  son  and 
scholar  of  Adrian,  was  bom  at  Antwerp  about  1540. 
He  visited  Rome  for  improvement,  afterwards  return- 
ing to  Flanders,  where  he  executed  a  number  of  plates 
dated  from  1555  to  1622.  l*he  following  are  the  princi- 
pal :  St,  John  Preaching  in  the  Wilderness ;  Moses  Striking 
tk*  RoHt;  and  the  subjects  from  the  lives  of  Christ  and 
the  Tirgin.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Bist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts, 
a.  v. ;  Hoefer,  iVovr.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  r. 

Collar.  The  neck-cloth  worn  by  the  clergy  does 
not  date  earlier  than  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 
The  ruff  of  the  time  of  Elizabeth  f^ll  into  desuetude  be- 
fiire  the  falling  collars  of  the  time  of  James  and  Charles  L 

CoUaSt  a  learned  French  missionary  and  astronomer, 
of  the  Jesuit  order,  was  bom  at  Thionville  about  1781. 
He  taught  mathematics  at  the  University  of  Lorraine, 
and  in  1767  went  to  Pekin,  where  he  acted  as  mathema- 
tician to  the  emperor  of  China.  He  died  Jan.  22, 1781, 
kaving  several  very  imfiortant  sketches,  inserted  in  a 
ooOection  of  the  Mimoires  upon  the  Chinese,  vie :  fyat 
ties  Reparaticms  ei  Additions  Faifes  a  tObservatoire  Vdti 
dejntis  hmgtemps  dans  le  Menson  des  Misskmnaires  Fran^ 
(oil  a  Pekim,  and  others.  See  Hoefer,  .Voirr.  Biog,  Gi* 
•bvlSf  a.  T. ;  Biog,  Univeraelk^  s.  v. 

Cdllatinefl.    See  Oblates. 

Collatio  is  a  term  for  the  reading  from  the  lives  or 
eoUationes  of  the  fathers,  which  St.  fienedict  {Regula, 
c43)  instituted  in  his  monasteries  before  compline. 
Such  compilations  as  the  cottationes  of  John  Cassian 
vere  tend,  Ardo  Sroaragdus,  however,  says  that  this 
Krrice  was  called  eoUatiOf  because  the  monks  questioned 
each  other  on  the  portions  to  be  read.  The  Benedictine 
prsctiee  is  to  hold  this  service  in  the  church,  and  this  is 
probably  in  accordance  with  the  founder's  intention,  for 
he  evidently  contemplate  the  collation  being  held  in 
the  asme  place  as  compline  ( Ducange,  s.  v. ). — Smith, 
i>ia.of  Christ.  AnUg.  a.  r. 

CoUatioii  is  (I)  the  free  assignment  of  a  vacant 
ouMMiry  or  benefice;  (2)  reading  of  devout  Vx)ks  from 
the  pulpit  by  the  reader  of  the  week,  fullowe<l  by  an 
exposition  from  the  superior  in  chapter;  (8)  a  sermon 
altera  fmieni ;  (4)  a  lecture  on  the  catechism  established 
in  1632;  (5)  the  monastic  supper.  During  the  first  four 
ccntories  there  was  bat  one  full  meal  taken  daily  by 
■oatstki,  and  that  was  sapper  (oasna).  When  the 
mid-day  meal  was  adopted,  a  slender  repast  of  bread, 
wine,  tatd  dry  fmit,  not  worthy  of  the  name  of  supper, 
waa  taken  after  vespeii,  during  the  reading,  or  *'colla- 
tMo,"  of  the  Scripture  or  fathers— and  so  the  name  was 


given  to  the  meal,  and  adopted  by  laymen  and  priests. 
The  jentaatbtrnj  or  breakfast,  consisted  of  a  basin  of 
soup. — Waloott,  Sac,  ArchaoL  s.  v. 

Collatiaai  Fktrus  Apollonius,  an  Italian  priest 
and  poet,  a  native  of  Novarra,  lived  at  the  close  of  the 
15th  century.  He  wrote,  De  JCrersione  urbis  Jerusalem 
Carmen  f/eroicum  (Milan,  1481 ;  republished  under  the 
title  ApolloniuSf  de  Exadio  Bierosolyinitano,  Paris,  1540 ; 
Antwerp,  1586),  a  poem  on  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
under  Vespasian : — Heroicum  Carmen  de  Duello  Davidis 
et  GoHiBf  Elegies  et  Epigrammata  (ibid.  1692;  republished 
several  times).    Sm  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gkdrale,  s.  v. 

Colle,  RAFrAELi.i!(o  DAi^  an  Italian  painter,  was 
bom  at  Colic,  near  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  in  Tuscany, 
about  1490,  and  was  a  pupil  of  KaphaeL  Later  in  life 
Colle  resided  at  fiorgo  San  Sepolcro,  where  he  kept  a 
school  of  design.  He  died  at  Kome  in  1580,  His 
works  are  to  be  found  at  Urbino,  at  Pemgia,  at  Pe- 
saro,  and  at  Gubbio.  The  best  are,  The  Resurrection, 
and  an  Assumption,  in  the  churches  at  Borgo  San  Se- 
polcro. See  Enegdop,  Brit,  (9th  ed.)  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Hour, 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Rose,  Biog,  Diet,  e.  v.;  Graves^s 
ed.  of  Bryan's  Did,  of  Painters,  s.  v. 

Collect  is  (L)  a  church  appointed  as  the  starting- 
point  and  place  of  assembly  of  a  procession  going  to  a 
station,  ns,  for  instance,  the  collect  was  at  Santa  Sabina, 
on  the  Aventine,  when  the  station  was  fixed  at  the  ba- 
silica of  St.  Paul ;  (2)  a  prayer  so  called,  because  col- 
lected into  one  form  out  of  many  petitions,  or  from  the 
people  being  joined  in  as  one,  or  because  offered  for  the 
whole  collective  Church,  or  a  particular  Church.  Most 
collecta  end  *'  through  Jesus  Christ,^  because  the  Father 
bestows  his  gifts  through  the  mediation  of  Christ  only. 
The  five  parts  of  a  collect  are  the  invocation ;  the  reason 
on  which  the  petition  is  founded;  i\iQ  petition  itself;  the 
heneJU  hoped  for ;  and  ascription  of  praise,  or  mention  of 
the  Lord  Jesus,  or  both.  The  collects  in  the  mass  were 
compo8e«l  by  pope  Gelasius.  At  St.  Alban's,  in  the  12th 
centur}',  they  were  limited  to  seven.  The  collecta  were 
included  in  the  Collectarium,  and  the  collects  at  the  end 
of  the  communion  service,  matins,  and  even-song,  etc,ful- 
fil  the  definition  of  micrologus,  as  the  concluding  prayer 
in  an  office,  in  which  the  priest  gathers  up  and  collects 
all  the  prayers  of  the  people,  to  offer  them  to  God.  Out 
of  the  eighty-three  used  in  the  English  Church,  fifty- 
nine  are  traceable  to  the  6th  centur;\— Walcott,  Sac, 
A  r^esoL  s.  r. 

Collaota.    See  Cornelia. 

CoUeota,  in  liturgical  phraseology,  is  (3)  the  col- 
lecting of  alms  or  contributions  of  the  faithful.  From 
\jeo  the  Great  we  Icam  that  such  a  collection  was 
sometimes  made  on  a  Sunday,  sometimes  on  Monday 
or  Tuesday,  for  the  benefit  and  sustenance  of  the  poor. 
These  collections  seem  to  have  been  distinct  from  ob- 
lations. (2)  The  gathering  together  of  the  people 
for  divine  service.  Jerome  {Epist.  27)  states  that  the 
sound  of  Alleluia  called  monks  to  say  their  offices  (ad 
eoUectam),  Pachomius  (  Regula,  c.  17)  speaks  of  the 
collecta  in  which  oblation  was  made;  he  also  distin- 
guishes between  the  collecta  domus,  the  service  held  in 
the  several  houses  of  a  monaster}*,  and  the  collecta  mujur, 
at  which  the  whole  body  of  monks  was  brought  togeth- 
er to  say  their  offices.  In  this  rule,  collecta  has  very 
probably  the  same  sense  as  Collatio.  (8)  A  society 
or  brotherhood.  So  in  the  15th  canon  of  the  first  coun- 
cil of  Nantes  (Hincmar,  Capitula  ad  Presbgt.  c  14).— 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

CoUaotarium  is  a  book  of  collects  or  short  pray- 
ers, anciently  called  a  '*  coucher."  The  latter  word 
appears  to  be  thus  derived:  collectarium,  collect ier, 
oolctier,  coulctier,  couctier,  couchicr,  coucher.  The 
term  ** coucher"  is  frequently  found  in  English  me- 
diaeval MSS.,  and  occasionally  in  church  inventories 
and  churchwardena*  accounts. 

CoUeotio  b  a  name,  in  the  Galilean  missals,  for 


COLLEDGE 


26 


COLLIER 


certain  forms  qf  prayer  and  praitie.  The  principal  of 
these  are  the  CoUectio  post  Namifia,  which  follows  the 
recitation  of  the  names  on  the  diptyclis ;  the  CoUectio 
ad  Paeemj  which  accompanies  the  giving  of  the  kiss  of 
peace;  the  CoUectio  poMt  Sanctut,  vthxch  immediately 
I'ollows  the  ^  Holy,  Holy,  Holy,"  and  the  CoUectio  post 
/•Jucharistiatttj  after  communion.--Smith,  Diet.  o/Christ. 
Antiq.s,  v. 

CoUedge,  Thomas,  an  English  Ckingregational 
minister,  was  horn  at  Wirksworth,  July  6,  1804,  of 
pious  parents.  He  joined  the  Church  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  and  at  twenty-three  began  preaching.  In 
1832  he  entered  Rotherham  College,  and  at  the  close  of 
liis  course  became  pastor  at  Uocth,  Yorkshire.  Thence 
he  removed  to  Riddings,  where  he  died,  Aug.  23, 1875. 
See  (Lond.)  Con^.  Year-book,  1876,  p.  328. 

College  of  AugUTB  was  the  institution  of  sooth- 
sayers among  the  ancient  Romans.    See  AuouB. 

Colleges  of  Piety  were  associations  for  the  study 
of  the  Bible  and  the  promotion  of  personal  piety  among 
certain  of  the  Lutherans  in  the  17th  century.    See  Pi' 

ETIS3I. 

Collegia  de  Propaganda  Fide.  See  Colub- 
oiA  PoNTiFiCA ;  Propaganda. 

Collegium  Dendrophorium  {the  CoUege  of  the 
Dendropkori,  from  IkvSpov,  a  tree^  and  ^ffNu,  to  carry), 
were  a  class  of  heathen  (probably  priests)  whose  duty  it 
was  to  carry  branches  of  trees  in  processions  in  honor 
of  the  gods.     Sec  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Collen,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  7th  centuiy,  was  pa- 
tron of  Llangollen,  in  Denbighshire,  and  is  commemo- 
rated on  Msy  20  (Recs,  Welsh  Saints,  p.  802).— Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ.  Biofj.  s.  v. 

CoUeoni,  Gikolamo,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Bergamo  about  1495.  His  paintings  in  the  Church 
of  San  Antonio  deir  Ospitale,  at  Bergamo,  were  destroyed 
by  fire.  There  is  one  in  San  Erasmo,  near  Bergamo, 
which  represents  The  Virgin  and  Infant,  icUh  Magda- 
lene and  Saints^  and  is  one  of  his  most  esteemed  works. 
See  Six>oner,  JJiog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ;  Rose, 
Gen,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

CoUeaohit  Francesgo,  a  learned  Italian  theologian, 
who  died  in  1746,  wrote,  Dissertazione  delta  Letteratura 
dt*  Sacerdoti  A  ntichi,  in  the  RaocoUa  Caloger.  vol.  xxxiv : 
— Dissertazione  delta  Religione  degli  IndianL  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginh'ule,  s.  v. 

Collet,  PiRRRK,  a  French  theologian  and  doctor  of 
divinity,  was  bom  at.  Teraey,  near  Montoire  (Loir-et- 
Cher),  Sept.  6, 1693.  From  his  youth  he  was  employed 
at  the  house  of  the  brothers  of  Saiut-Lazare,  and  taught 
theology  in  several  houses  of  his  order.  He  was  after- 
wards principal  of  the  College  des  Bons-Enfants  in 
Paris,  and  died  there  Oct.  16, 1770.  He  wrote  a  large 
number  of  works,  among  them,  De  Quinque  Jansenii 
Propositionibus  (Paris,  1730) :— Traits  des  Dispenses  en 
General  (ibid.  1742,  1746, 1752,  1768. 1759, 1777,  1788, 
1828;  Avignon,  \82Sf):—/ns(itutiones  Theohgia  (Paris, 
1744, 1756) :  —  lustitufiones  Theologian  Moralis  ( ibid. 
1758,  which  is  the  fifth  edition,  the  dates  of  the  oth- 
ers being  unknown):  —  Institutiones  Theologia  Scho- 
lasticm  (Lyons,  1765,  1767, 1768;  Paris,  1776):— Tie* 
Saint-^Vincent-de-Paul  (Nancy,  1748;  Paris,  1818,  with 
some  writings  from  St.  Vincent  de  Paul) : — fj^tre  d'un 
Thhloffien  auH.P.A.de  G. (Antony  of  Gasquet) (Bms- 
sels,  1763)  :-~Traite  des  Devoirs  de  la  Vie  Religieuse 
(Lyons,  1765;  Paris,  1773)  i-^L'Ecolier  Chrilien  (ibid. 
1769):—/^  Dicotion  au  Sacri  Caur  de  Jesus  (ibid. 
1770)  :~Traite  des  Exorcismes  de  VEglise  (ibid,  eod.)  : — 
Instructions  sur  les  Devoirs  des  Gens  de  la  Compagne 
(ibid.  eod.).  See  Hoefcr,  Xouv.  Biog,  Gsnhale,  s.  v. ; 
Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

CoUett,  Thomas,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Lost  with  iel,  Cornwall,  Feb.  8, 1797. 


He  Joined  the  Church  in  early  manhood;  received  his 
ministerial  training  at  Hackney  Academy ;  began  his 
ministry  at  Witney,  Oxfordshire ;  and  finally  settled  ot 
Dawlish,  on  the  south  coast  of  Devon,  in  1824.  In  June, 
1866,  Mr.  Collett  resigned  his  pulpit,  but  continued  to 
reside  among  tlfe  scenes  of  his  lifelong  labors,  beloved 
by  all  who  knew  him,  until  his  death,  June  10, 1869. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1870,  p.  28L 

Colley,  Benjamin,  an  English  Wesleyan  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Tollerton,  near  Easingwold,  Yorkshire. 
He  united  with  the  Methodists  in  1761 ;  and,  having 
received  Episcopal  ordination,  was  in  that  year  invited 
by  Wesley  to  officiate  in  the  Methodist  chapela  in  l4>n- 
don,  which  be  did.  In  1762  he  was  '*  carried  away 
by  the  enthusiasm  of  George  Bell  and  Thomas  Max- 
field."  He  was  soon  restored,  however,  by  John  Man- 
ners; and  in  July,  1763,  was  engaged  in  the  work  at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  Thereafter,  until  his  death  in 
1767,  he  was  a  faithful  and  godly  worker.  Although 
he  deeply  regretted  his  slip,  he  was  ever  after  subject 
to  strong  temptations;  and,  as  Wesley  (who  believed 
his  backsliding  cost  him  his  life)  says, "  he  went  heav> 
ily  all  his  days.**  See  Atmore,  Meth.  Manorial,  s.  v. ; 
Wesley,  Journal,  Nov.  8, 1767. 

Colley,ThomaB,  an  English  minister  of  the  Soci- 
ety  of  Friends,  was  born  at  Smeaton,  near  Pontefract, 
Yorkshire,  in  1742.  He  was  brought  up  in  the  Estab- 
lished Church ;  religiously  awakened  before  he  reached 
his  majority,  and  joined  the  Methodists,  among  whom 
he  was  zealous,  active,  and  much  esteemed.  About 
1764  he  united  with  the  Friends,  and  in  1768  began  his 
ministr}*.  In  1779,  in  company  with  Philip  Madin,  of 
Shefiield,  he  visited  the  West  India  islands,  and  per- 
formed considerable  Christian  labor  there.  Some  years 
after  he  travelled  extensively  in  North  America.  Sub- 
sequently he  itinerated  much  in  his  native  land,  and 
was  very  useful  in  his  vocation.  He  died  in  Sheffield, 
June  12|  1812,    See  Pietg  Promoted,  W,  29, 3».   (J.CS.) 

Colli,  Antonio,  au  Italian  painter  of  the  Roman 
school,  flourished  about  1700,  and  studied  under  Andrea 
Pozzi.  He  painted  the  great  altar  in  the  Church  of 
San  Pantaleo.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
A  lis,  s.  V. 

Collie,  WiLMAx,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  at  King*s  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1718;  became 
schoolmaster  at  Drainie  in  1732,  and  assistant  minister 
at  Duffus;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Drainie  in 
1741 ,  and  oniained.  He  died  April  29, 1768,  aged  about 
seventy  years.    See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticanee,  i,  161. 

Collier,  Arthnr,  an  English  metaphysician  and 
divine,  was  bom  at  the  rectory  of  Langfoid  Magna,  near 
Sarum,  Oct.  12,  1680,  and  was  educated  at  Salisbury 
Grammar  School  and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  In 
1704  he  was  presented  to  the  benefice  of  I^angford  Ma^- 
ns,  where  he  continued  until  his  death,  in  1732.  In 
religion  he  was  an  Arian,  and  also  a  High  Churchman, 
on  grounds  which  his  associates  could  not  understand. 
The  following  are  some  of  his  works:  Treatise  on  the 
Logos,  in  seven  sermons  (1732) ; — \ew  Inquiry  after 
Truth,  on  the  non  -  existence  of  an  external  world : — 
Specimen  of  True  Philosophy.  See  Encycl.  Brit.  9th  cd. 
s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Collier,  Ephraim  Robins,  a  Baptist  minister, 
who  died  in  1840,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1826,  and  4iad  rare  classical  tastes  and  excellent  schol- 
arship. See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  vi, 
378. 

Collier,  Esra  W.,  a  (Dutch)  Befonned  minister, 
was  bom  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  about  1882.  He  grsdu- 
ated  at  Rutgers  College  in  1849,  and  at  New  Brunswick 
Theologicsl  Seminary  in  1854.  He  was  noted  in  his 
student  life  for  close  application,  literary  culture,  and 
scholarly  enthusiasm.  His  first  settlement  was  with 
Manhattan  Reformed  Church,  New  York  city  (1854-M). 
For  the  next  ten  years  he  was  pastor  in  Freehold,  N.  J. 


COLLIER 


27 


COLLIN 


Hu  health  \mng  greatly  impaired  he  removed  to  Cox- 
saekie,  N.  T. ;  but  after  a  year  was  obliged  to  relinquish 
an  active  duties.  He  lingered  in  great  feebleness  until 
his  death  in  1869.  He  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
and  devoted  of  the  younger  ministers  of  his  Church,  and 
heroic  in  the  utterance  of  his  views,  a  true  scholar,  and 
a  Gbrtstian  gentleman.  His  studies  took  a  wide  range 
— beyond  mere  professional  requirements.  In  1865  he 
edited  a  volume  of  posthumous  Sermons  by  his  brother, 
Rev.  Joseph  A.  Collier,  to  which  he  prefixed  an  inter- 
esting biographical  sketch.     (\V.  J.  R.  T.) 

Collier,  Francis,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 

was  converted  at  the  age  of  twenty  under  the  preaching 

of  John  Nelson;  commenced  his  ministry  at  Derby  in 

1796;  travelled  twenty-three  circuits,  becoming  a  su- 

pemomerary  in  1837  at  Taunton,  and  died  June  25, 

1851,  aged  eighty-two.    He  was  an  able  preacher,  and 

stood  high  in  the  connection.    See  Minutes  of  the  Brit' 

itk  Conference,  1851. 

Collier,  F.  Q.,  an  English  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Hartlepool,  Feb.  6, 1847.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Lancashire  Independent  College,  and  ortlatned  at 
Wigan  in  1871.  He  accepted  the  pastorate  of  New 
Chapel,  Horwich,  which,  afler  four  yearn,  he  was  forced 
to  resign  on  account  of  failing  health.  He  died  at  West 
Kirby,  Cheshire,  March  80,  188L  See  (Lond.)  Conff, 
Year-hookj  1883,  p.  273. 

Collier,  Joseph,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Stockport,  Oct.  31, 1770.  He  was  convert- 
ed at  the  age  of  fourteen ;  admitted  into  the  ministry  in 
1795;  was  prostrated  on  the  Bradford  Circuit,  but  still 
labored;  became  a  supernumerary  in  1811,  first  residing 
in  Bury,  subsequently  in  Exeter  and  at  Kingsdown, 
Brisiol;  resumeid  his  minietiy  at  Haverford-West  in 
1813,  and  travelled  several  circuits.  His  last  was  Not- 
tingham, where  he  died,  May  27,  1842.  See  Minutes 
of  the.  British  Conference,  1842;  Wesl,  Meth.  Mag,  1850, 
p.  337  sq. 

Collier,  John  (Oi  ^  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
d^ree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1650;  was 
presented  to  the  living  at  Firth  and  Stenness  in  1662; 
transferred  to  Carrington  in  1663;  deprived  for  refusing 
the  test  in  1681 ;  and  died  in  Edinburgh  Nov.  13, 1691, 
aged  about  sixty-two  years.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoti- 
<»w,  i,270;  iii,  896. 

CoUier,  John  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan  Methodist 
minister,  was  bora  at  Little  Houghton,  Northampton, 
shire,  in  1803.  He  nnited  with  the  Church  in  1821 ; 
was  received  by  the  Conference  for  the  ministry  in  1829 ; 
toiled  for  thirty-five  years  on  some  of  th^  most  laborious 
ctituits;  became  a  supernumerary  in  1864;  and  died  at 
Torquay,  Feb.  27, 1870.  Mr.  CoUier  was  instrumental 
in  Mving  many  souls,  and  was  earnest,  faithful,  and 
amiable.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1870, 
p.  26. 

ColHer,  Richard,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Dundalk,  Ireland.  Arriving  in  America  in  his 
ytroth,  be  settled  in  Elaston,  Pa.,  and  for  many  years 
was  engaged  in  teaching.  In  1833  he  was  licensed  by 
the  New  York  Synod ;  in  1834  was  ordained  pastor  at 
Spruce  Run,  N.  J.,  and  served  there  twenty-seven  years. 
He  died  in  New  York  city,  Jan.  1, 1861.  See  Lutheran 
Obstrter,  Jan.  18, 1861. 

Collier,  Thomas,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  about  1600.  For  some  time  be^reached  with 
great  success  in  the  island  of  Guernsey,  although  his 
oiemies  spoke  in  bitter  terms  of  him.  In  1645  Mr. 
CoUier,  in  order  to  vindicate  himself,  published  Certain 
Qjserin  oc  Points,  now  in  Controversy,  Examined,  in 
which  he  maintained,  like  Roger  Williams,  that  magis- 
trates have  no  power  whatever  to  establish  Church  gov- 
ernment, or  to  compel  any  persons  to  observe  the  gov- 
ernment of  Christ.  He  was  the  author  of  several  other 
works  of  a  controversial  character.  See  Haynes,  Bap- 
tist Cydop,  ly  178.     (J.  a  S.) 


Collier,  William,  an  English  divine,  was  bom  in 
1742.  He  was  for  many  years  a  tut4>r  in  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge ;  rector  of  Orwell,  Cambridgeshire;  and 
Hebrew  professor  from  1771  to  1790.  He  died  Aug.  4, 
1803,  at  which  time  he  was  senior  fellow  of  Trinity  Col< 
lege.  Mr.  Collier  published,  by  subscription.  Poems  on 
Several  Occasions,  tcUh  Translations  from  A  uthors  in 
DiJUerent  iMnguages,  Dedicated  to  Prince  Wiliiam  of 
Gloucester  (1800,  2  vols.  12mo).  See  The  (Lond.)  An- 
nual Register,  1803,  p.  516;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

CoUiette,  Louia  Paul,  a  French  antiquarian  of  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  was  curate  of  Gricourt,  near 
St.Quentin,  and  wrote,  /m  Vie  de  St,  Quentin  (St.  Quen- 
tin,  1767)  :—Memoires  EccUsiastiques  (Carobray,  1771- 
72,  3  vols.).  See  Hoefer,  A'oiiP.  Biog,  Ghih-ale,  s.  v.; 
Biog,  Universelle,  s.  v. 

CollifloTKrer,  William  F.,  a  minister  of  the  (Ger- 
man) Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Washington  Coun- 
ty, Md.,  Feb.  14, 1814.  He  received  his  education  in 
the  Reformed  High  School  and  Theological  Seminary 
at  York,  Pa. ;  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Classis  of 
Maryland  in  1836;  soon  afterwards  entered  upon  the 
ministerial  work  in  Virginia,  being  ordained  and  in- 
stalled aB  pastor  of  the  Mill  Creek  charge.  He  labored 
successively  in  Virginia,  Man^land,  and  Pcnnsvlvania, 
and  died  in  Frederick,  Md.,  April  SO,  1882.  Mr.  CoUi- 
flower  was  a  man  of  fair  talents,  great  energy,  and 
sincere  piety;  popular  and  successful  as  a  preacher. 
(D.  Y.  H.) 

Collin,  Friedrlch  Eberhard,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Worms,  Dec.  25, 1684. 
In  1709  he  was  appointed  preacher  at  Dertingen;  in 
1724  was  called  as  deacon  to  Zeulenroda,  and  in  1725 
to  Lobenstein,  where  he  died,  June  15, 1727.  He  wrote, 
Eigeniliche  GestaU  eines  Chisten  (Giessen,  1711): — Das 
Werk  des  Glaubens  in  Kraft  (Wertheim,  1719):— Crof- 
ter Ei'nst  des  Wahren  Christettthums  (Halle,  eod.) : — 
Wan  Ml  g  Chtisti  vor  den  Falschen  Propheten  (Frank- 
fort. 1723) : — Gemeinschaft  der  Schmach  Christi  (ibid. 
1724) : — Kampf  und  Sieg  der  Ei'sten  Blutzevgen  Christi 
nebst  Seinem  l^ben  (Berlin,  1744).  See  Nachrichten  ron 
Rechtschaffenen  Predigem  (Halle,  1776),  vol.  i ;  Jocher, 
AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Collin,  Jean,  a  French  theologian  of  the  Jesuit  or- 
der, was  bora  at  St.  Junien,  and  lived  about  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century.  He  was  almoner  to  the  king,  and 
preached  with  success  at  Val-de-Grace,  and  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  kingdom.  He  published,  among  oth- 
er works,  Le  Prelat  de  Saint-Gregoire  (Paris,  1640) : — 
llistoire  Saa'ie  des  Principaux  Saints  du  Diocese  de 
Limoges  (Limoges,  1672).  He  left  also  a  large  number 
of  MSS.,  a  catalogue  of  which  was  published  by  abb6 
Nadaud.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  G inhale,  s.  v. 

Collin,  Nicholaa,  D.D.,  a  Swedish  missionary', 
was  born  in  1746.  He  received  a  classical  education  in 
his  native  country,  and  intended  to  join  the  army,  but 
as  he  grew  to  manhood  his  attention  was  turned  to- 
wards the  ministr}'.  He  arrived,  May  12, 1770,  in  the 
Delaware  river,  as  a  sort  of  assistant  at  large  to  the  rec- 
tors of  the  Swedish  churches  in  New  Jersey  and  Penn- 
svlvania.  He  is  claimed  as  a  minister  of  the  Protes- 
tant  Episcopal  Church,  because  the  parishes  with  which 
he  was  connected  as  a  missionary  all  united  with  that 
body;  but  he  was  ordained  in  Sweden,  and  to  the  Swe- 
dish Church  he  always  considered  himself  as  owing  al- 
legiance. His  assistant  ministers  were  always  of  the 
Episcopal  Church,  and  he  used  its  liturg}'.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  recall  of  Hev.  John  Weisell  to  Sweden, 
Dr.  Collin  was  appointed  rector  in  his  stead  in  1778  at 
Raccoon,  Pa.,  and  Penn*s  Neck,N.  J.,  and  remained  there 
until  July,  1786,  his  residence  being  at  Swedesborough. 
In  1778  he  urged  his  own  recall  upon  the  archbishop 
of  Upsal,  Sweiien,  but  the  king  desired  that  the  Swedish 
misuoiuiries  should  remain  in  America  until  the  result 


COLLIN 


28 


COLLINS 


of  the  war  shonld  be  known ;  lo  that  it  was  not  until 
1788  that  he  received  permission  to  sail  for  Sweden. 
In  that  year,  howerer,  be  did  not  consider  it  wise  to 
leave  his  field  of  labor,  and  at  his  suggestion  he  was 
Iierroitted  to  remain,  and  to  assame  charge  of  the 
churches  of  Wicaco  (now  a  part  of  the  city  of  Phila- 
delphia), Kingsessing,  and  Upper  Merion.  In  July, 
1786,  he  removed  from  Swedesborough  to  l^iladelphia. 
During  seven  years  of  his  residence  at  the  former  place 
he  was  provost  (or  superintendent)  over  all  the  Swedish 
churches  in  Pennsylvania.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  in 
October,  1831.  Dr.  Collin  was  a  man  of  considerable 
learning,  being  aoqaainted  with  at  least  twelve  lan- 
guages. For  many  years  he  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society.  The  only  work  which 
he  left  is  a  MS.  translation  of  Acrelius*s  IJutory  of  New 
Sweden,  undertaken  in  1799  at  the  request  of  the  His- 
torical Society  of  New  York.  See  Sprague,  A  mtalt  of 
the  A  mer,  Pulpif,  v,  277. 

Collin,  Nicolas,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom 
about  the  commencement  of  the  18th  century*.  He 
was  canon-regular  of  the  strict  Observatists  of  the  Pre- 
monstrant  order,  and  prior  of  Rengeval.  He  died  at 
Nancv  in  1788,  leaving  ObtetTotionM  CtitigueM  aur  U 
Trails  det  DUpeMea  (Nancy,  1765;  Paris,  1770)  :~i>ic 
Signe  dt  la  Croix  (Paris,  177*6)  :—De  tEau  Binite  (ibid. 
1776)  :—Dtt  Pain  Benil,  etc  (ibid.  1777)  :—I>es  Ptwxs- 
noM  de  rJSglUe  Catholique  (ibid.  1//9):— Z>ii  Reaped 
aux  EglUeM  (ibid.  1781).  See  Hocfcr,  Souv,  Biog.  GM- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Collin,  Richard,  a  German  designer  and  engraver, 
was  bom  at  Luxemburg  in  1626.  He  visited  Rome 
while  young,  and  studied  under  Sandrart ;  but  afterwards 
returned  to  Antwerp  and  Brussels,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed engraver  to  the  king  of  Spain.  The  foUowiog 
are  some  of  bis  principal  works:  Estha-  be/ore  Ahag" 
verus;  Christ  Bearing  kit  Cross;  St,  Arnold,  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  UisL  of  the  Fine  Afis^  s.  v. 

Colllna,  one  of  the  inferior  rural  deities,  supposed 
by  the  Romans  to  reign  over  the  hills. 

CoUina,  Abondio,  a  learned  Italian  Camaldule, 
was  bom  at  Bologna  in  1691.  For  ten  years  he  was 
professor  of  geography  and  nautical  science  at  the  In- 
stitute of  Sciences,  and  of  geometry  *at  the  university 
of  his  native  city.  He  died  in  December,  1763,  leaving 
Aniicke  Selazioni  deff  Indie  e  deUa  China  (Bologna, 
1749): — a  translation  of  a  part  of  Voyages  de  Deux 
A  rcUtes,  published  in  French  by  abb^  Kenaudot.  Col- 
lina  wrote  numerous  poems  and  dissertations.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GineraU,  s.  v, 

CoUina,  Bonifacio,  an  Italian  scholar  of  the  or- 
der of  Camaldules,  brother  of  Abondio,  was  bom  at  Bo- 
logna in  1689.  He  taught  philosophy  at  the  university 
of  his  native  city,  and  died  in  1770.  He  published  a 
large  part  of  his  writings  under  thelitle,  Opere  Diverse 
(Bologna,  1774),  in  which  we  find  academical  memoirs, 
tragedies,  and  scraps  of  prose  upon  religious  subjects. 
He  also  wrote  several  JAves  of  the  Camaldule  saints. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gsnsrale,  s.  v. 

Collings,  John,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  non- 
conformist divine,  and  voluminous  writer,  was  bom  at 
Boxstead,  in  Essex,  in  1623 ;  educated  at  Emmanuel  Col- 
lege, Cambridge ;  and  died  at  Norwich,  Jan.  17,  1690. 
He  wrote  many  books  of  controversy  and  practical  di- 
vinity, the  most  singular  of  which  is  his  Wearer^s  Pocket- 
hook,  In  Poole's  A  nnoUtiions  on  Ihe  BiUe,  Collings  wrote 
those  on  the  last  six  chapters  of  Isaiah,  the  whole  of 
Jeremiah,  Lamentations,  the  four  Evangelists,  the  epis- 
tles to  the  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Timothy,  Philemon, 
and  the  Revelations.  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did,  s.  v. ; 
AUibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  a.  v. 

Collings,  WiUiam,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  Walworth,  Aug.  8, 1814.  He  was  baptized 
March  2, 1886,  and  began  at  once  to  preach.  In  1842 
be  commenced  his  pastorate  at  Kingston-on-Thames, 


and  remained  until  1866,  when  he  accepted  a  call  to 
the  Church  in  Gloucester,  and  was  successful  in  bring- 
ing it  up  from  a  depressed  state  to  one  of  strength  and 
prosperity.  He  died  Sept.  10, 1869.  See  (Lond.)  Bap- 
tist Hand-book,  1870,  p.  190, 191.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Collington,  John,  an  English  clerical  writer  of  the 
last  part  of  the  16th  and  the  first  part  of  the  17th  cen- 
turies, was  a  native  of  Somersetshire ;  educated  at  Lin- 
coln College,  Oxford;  made  priest  on  the  Continent; 
retumed  to  England,  and  was  cast  into  the  Tower  of 
London ;  condemned,  afterwards  reprieved,  set  free,  and 
sent  out  of  the  country.  He  retumed,  and  for  tliirty 
years  zealously  advanced  hb  own  (Roman  Catholic)  re- 
ligion. Though  in  restraint,  he  was  alive  in  1611,  and 
an  old  man.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nut- 
tall),  iii,  106. 

Collins,  an  English  martyr,  was  a  prominent  law- 
yer in  London,  burned  at  Smithfield  in  1638,  for  rebuk- 
ing the  priest.     See  Fox,  A  ds  and  Monuments,  v,  261. 

Collins,  Abel,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
died  at  North  Stonington,  Conn.,  Sept.  17, 1884,  aged 
sixty-four  years.     See  The  Friend,  viii,  20. 

Collins,  Angnstns  Baldwin,  a  Congregational 
minister,  son  of  general  Augustus  Collins,  was  bom  at 
(hiilford.  Conn.,  May  24,  1789.  He  studied  at  Yale 
College,  but  did  not  complete  his  course.  Rev.  Drs. 
Andrew  Yates  and  T.  M.  Cooley  were  his  tutors  in  the- 
ology. In  1817  he  was  acting  pastor  at  Montgomery, 
Mass.,  and  in  the  following  year  was  ordained  pastor  at 
Andover,  Conn.,  from  w^hich  charge  he  was  dismissed  in 
1827.  In  the  beginning  of  1828  he  was  installed  as  min- 
ister at  Preston,  where  he  served  until  1847,  when  be 
became  acting  pastor  at  West  Stafford.  He  was  regu- 
lariy  installed  there  May  10,  1848,  and  left  April  19, 
1862.  About  two  months  after  he  entered  upon  his  du- 
ties as  acting  pastor  at  Barkhamsted,  In  1868  he  held 
the  same  position  at  Wolcott,  also  at  Long  Ridge,  in 
Stamford.  After  1862  he  resided  at  Norwaik,  without 
charge.  He  died  there,  March  16,  1876.  See  Cong, 
Quarterly,  1877,  p.  418. 

Collins,  Barnabas  V.,  a  minister  of  the  Reformetl 
(Dutch)  Church,  graduated  from  Lafayette  College,  Eas- 
ton,  Pa.,  and  in  1842  from  the  theological  seminary  at 
New  Branswick,  N.  J.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Claasts 
of  New  York  the  same  year ;  sen'ed  the  Church  at  West 
Farms,  N.  Y.,  until  1846 ;  Ponds,  Bergen  Co.,  N.  J.,  until 
1867,  and  thereafter  was  without  a  charge  till  his  death, 
in  1877.  See  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref  Church  in 
A  merica,  8d  ed.  p.  218. 

Collins,  Benjamin,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Sussex  County,  N.  J.,  in  1786.  In 
1819  he  joined  the  Philadelphia  Conference,  in  which 
he  remained  energetic  and  faithful  until  his  death,  in 
August,  1831.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences,  18R)3, 
p.  162. 

Collins,  Britton  Estol,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  2, 1801.  He  en- 
tered Princeton  Seminary  in  1824,  and  remained  two 
years;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadel- 
phia in  April,  1828;  received  under  the  care  of  the 
Huntingdon  Presbytery,  April  8,  1830,  and  ordained 
as  an  evangelist  June  16  ftillowing.  His  first  pas- 
toral charge  was  at  Millcrstt»wn,  then  in  the  bounds 
of  Huntingdon  Presbytery,  he  being  installed  there 
in  October,  1832.  He  resigned  his  charge  in  1839, 
and  in  October  of  same  vear  was  called  to  Shirlevs- 
burgh.  This  call  he  did  not  accept,  but  agreed  to  act 
as  stated  supply,  in  which  relation  he  continued  till 
October,  1668,  when  he  retired.  During  the  remaining 
years  of  his  life,  so  long  aa  he  was  able  to  preach,  he 
spent  his  time  in  missionar}*  labor  in  different  parts  of 
the  presbytery — chiefly  in  the  churches  of  Moshannon, 
Unity,  and  Mapleton,  successively.  The  last  of  these 
owes  its  existence  largely  to  his  liberality  and  inde- 
fatigable labors.     He  died  April  12, 1876.    Mr.  Collins 


COLLINS 


29 


COLLINS 


WIS  a  man  of  hamble  and  andoubted  piety ;  of  great 
simplicity  of  character;  a  diligent,  faithful,  and  self- 
deoviog  pastor;  uniTersally  respected  and  loved.  See 
Xecroi.  Report  ofPrmceUm  TheoL  Sem,  1877,  p,  22. 

CoIUnfl,  CharleSi  D.D.,  a  minister  in  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  waa  bom  in  North  Yar- 
moatb,  He.,  April  17,1813.    He  received  an  elementary 
education  at  Portland,  and  the  Maine  Wealeyan  Insti- 
tute; after  several  years  of  school -teaching  entered 
Weeleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.,  and  before 
he  was  twenty-five  years  of  age  graduated,  taking  the 
first  honors^  and  was  elected  as  the  first  president  of 
Emory  and  Henry  College,  near  Abingdon,  Y a.   During 
the  yean  of  his  student  life  he  had  embraced  religion, 
and  dedicated  all  his  energies  to  it  and  education, 
and  having  united  with  the  Holston  Conference,  labored 
abandantly  and  effectively  in  the  pulpit  during  his  ser- 
vice in  Emory  and  Henry  College.     His  controversial 
papers  against  Romanism,  in  1844,  exhibit  his  talent 
and  ability  in  polemic  theology ;  as  do  also  his  tracts, 
published  in  1848,  entitled  Methoditm  and  Caleinism 
Compared,    He  was  also  at  this  time  editor  of  the 
SoHtkem  Repertory  €md  CoUege  RevieWy  and  was  a  reg- 
ular contributor  to  the  Ladies*  RepotUoiy^  and  various 
charcb  papers  and  periodicals.    In  1852  he  was  elected 
president  of  Dickinson  College,  and  filled  that  position 
eight  years,  during  which  time  he  declined  the  presi- 
dency of  Centenary  College,  La.,  and  of  Central  College, 
Mo. ;  the  chancellorship  of  the  University  of  Missouri,  of 
Michigan,  and  of  Southern  University,  Greensborough, 
Ala.    In  1860  he  was  transferred  to  the  Memphis  Con- 
ference, and  took  charge  of  the  State  Female  College  at 
Memphis,  Tenn.,  becoming  sole  proprietor  of  the  build- 
ings and  grounds,  and  placing  it  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Memphis  Conference.    In  the  service  of  that  col- 
lege be  dosed  his  life  and  laboia,  July  10, 1876.    Dr.  Col- 
lins was  amiable,  grave,  sympathetic,  studious,  learned ; 
a  popular,  able  writer;  an  humble,  earnest  preacher,  and 
■1  exemplary  Christian.     See  Mmutet  of  Annual  Con' 
ftrtncet  of  (he  hf.  E.  Church  Souths  1875,  p.  210;  Simp- 
son, Cydop,  of  Methodism^  s.  v. 

CoVdnm,  Daniel,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  a 
native  of  Guilford,  Conn. ;  graduated  from  Yale  College 
in  1760;  studied  theology  under  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bellamy ; 
vas  ordained  pastor  in  Lanesborough,  April  17, 1764, 
and  died  Aug.  26, 1822,  aged  eighty-three.  See  Spmgue, 
AinaU  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  iti,  498. 

CoUiDS,  iniaha,  a  Baptist  minister,  waa  bom  in 
Halifax  County,  Va.,  Oct.  20, 1788.  He  was  converted 
in  1815;  waa  baptized  April  28, 1823;  licensed  Dec  6, 
the  same  year ;  studied  with  Rev.  Abner  W.  Clifton,  and 
was  ordained  Nov.  5, 1825.  His  first  pastorate  was  with 
the  Salem  Church,  near  the  Prince  Edward  County  line. 
He  became  one  of  the  earli^t  advocates  of  temperance 
in  the  country.  In  1885  he  removed  to  Tennessee, 
where,  for  a  time,  he  found  Jiimself  in  an  uncongenial 
aliDosphere.  A  large  majority  of  Baptists  were  op- 
posed to  missions,  and  forbade  his  preaching  in  their 
housciL  Gradually  the  opposition  gave  way,  and  he 
became  at  different  times  pastor  of  the  McLemores- 
ville,  BiUe  Union,  Lexington,  and  other  churches.  He 
died  near  Lexington,  in  September,  1854.  See  Borum, 
Sketcket  of  Tenn.  Minuten,  p.  131-134.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Collixui,  EUxabeth,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  was  bom  Jan.  4, 1755,  in  Upper  Evesham,  N.  J. 
In  1779  she  was  appointed  a  minister,  aqd  travelled 
throngfa  many  of  the  states,  doing  efficient  work  for  the 
Master.  The  most  striking  characteristic  in  her  life 
was  her  intense  interest  in  and  concern  for  the  poor. 
She  died  Feb.  1, 1831.    See  A  nnual  Monitor,  1834,  p.  99. 

Collins,  Qeorge  D.i  a  Methodist  Epiucopai  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Medfunl,  N.  J.,  July  9, 1845.  He  was 
<trtirerted  in  1865;  studied  two  and  a  half  years  in 
Pennington  Seminary ;  served  one  year  as  assistant  on 
Columbus  Circuit,  and  in  1872  was  admitted  into  the 
New  Jeney  Confecenoe,  and  stationed  at  Dennisville. 


He  served  in  1873  and  1874  at  Groveville,  where  one 
hundred  and  fifty  were  Added  to  the  Church ;  from  1875 
to  1877  at  Union  Street  Church,  Trenton,  where  two 
hundred  were  converted ;  in  1878  at  Wasliingtou,  South 
River,  where  he  had  some  success,  and  was  returned  in 
1879.  He  labored  until  April  20  of  that  year,  when  he 
was  prostrated  with  fever,  then  kttacked  with  hemor^ 
rhage  of  the  lungs,  and  died  Aug.  8  following.  Mr. 
Collins  was  pre-eminently  a  man  of  one  work,  giving 
all  his  time  and  energies  to  the  ministry.  See  Minutes 
of  Annual  Conferences,  1880,  p.  91. 

CollinB,  Hiram  B.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Vinccnnes,  Ind.,  May  4, 1829.  He  was 
left  fatherless  in  childhood ;  received  a  careful  religious 
training;  spent  some  years  as  a  teacher;  was  received 
by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  by  letter  from  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  1858 ;  was  given  license  to  ex- 
hort the  same  year,  and  in  the  following  was  admitted 
into  the  South-eastern  Indiana  Conference,  wherein  he 
sen*ed  with  zeal  and  fidelity  until  his  death,  Sept.  4, 
1864.  Mr.  Collins  brought  into  the  ministry'  a  well- 
developed  intellect,  refined  taste,  superior  literary  at- 
tainments, an  energetic  character,  and  a  heart  in  living 
sympathy  with  the  interests  of  humanity  and  religion. 
He  was  a  sound  theologian,  an  excellent  preacher,  and 
a  faithful  and  successful  pastor.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual 
Conferences,  1864,  p.  162. 

Collina^  Isaac,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Baltimore  County,  Md.,  June  11, 1789.  He 
was  converted  in  1810;  served  in  the  war  of  1812  under 
general  Harrison, being  known  as  a  praying  soldier;  re- 
ceived license  to  preach  in  1819,  and  in  1828  was  admit- 
ted  into  the  Baltimore  Conference.  He  became  super- 
numerary in  1859,  and  superannuated  in  1862,  and  died 
May  25, 1870.  Mr.  Collins  was  a  plain,  earnest,  able, 
useful  preacher.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences, 
1871,  p.  19. 

Collins,  Isaac  Foster,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  at  Wolcotr,  Wayne  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Ang. 
24, 1819.  He  was  converted  in  1838,  removed  to  Ar- 
kansas in  1840,  and  in  the  following  year  entered  the 
Arkansas  Conference,  and  was  appointed  to  teach  and 
preach  among  the  Cherokee  Indians.  In  1843  he  was 
sent  to  the  Lower  Cherokee  mission ;  in  1844  was  set 
off  with  the  Indian  Mission  Conference,  and  in  1845  was 
sent  among  the  Choctaw  Indians,  to  teach  in  Morris 
Seminary.  In  1846  ho  located  and  went  to  Michigan ; 
began  regular  work  the  next  year  in  the  Michigan  Con- 
ference ;  in  1853  returned  to  the  Arkansas  Conference, 
and  was  appointed  among  the  Cherokees;  in  1854  was 
transferred  to  the  Missouri  Conference,  and  emploj'ed 
on  the  Omaha  mission.  On  the  formation  of  the  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  Conference,  in  1856,  he  became  one  of  its 
members,  and,  on  its  division,  he  fell  within  the  bounds 
of  the  Kansas  Conference,  and  died  a  member  of  its  ac- 
tive ranks,  April  26, 1862.  Mr.  Collins  was  decidedly 
a  tme  friend,  an  honest  man,  an  exemplary  Christian, 
and  a  thorough,  uncompromising  Methodist  preacher. 
He  was  dignified  in  appearance,  humble  in  spirit,  and 
very  neat  in  person.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer^ 
enees,  1863,  p.  22. 

Collins,  Isaac  Wright,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Crawford  County,  Pa.,  Aug.  25, 1888.  He 
was  educated  at  Westminster  College,  New  Wilming- 
ton, and  studied  theology  in  the  Allegheny  Semina- 
ry'. He  was  licensed  to  preach  by  Lakes  Presbytery* 
in  1862,  and  became  pastor  successively  at  Neshan- 
nock  and  West  Salem,  Wis.  He  died  May  20,  1865. 
He  was  an  earnest,  pious,  and  zealous  laborer  in  the 
Master's  vinevard.  See  Wilson,  Pi-e^,  IJist,  Almanac, 
1866,  p.  259.  ' 

Collins,  James,  an  English  Metho<Ust  minister, 
was  t)om  in  Devon,  England,  Feb.  20, 1841.  He  was 
converted  in  early 'life.  While  yet  young  he  removed 
to  Canada,  and  settled  in  the  Pickering  mission,  where 
he  became  a  local  preacher  among  the  Bible  Christians, 


COLLINS 


30 


COLLINS 


And  was  recommended  to  the  conference  of  1867.  He 
labored  on  the  Hampton,  Goboarg,  Hungerford,  Wiai^ 
ton,  LindMiy,  Fenelon,  and  Berr}'town  atattons.  He 
died  March  6, 1875.  He  was  a  diligent  student,  an 
earnest  preacher,  a  man  of  unquestioned  piety,  and  a 
successful  minister  of  the  gospeL  See  MinuttM  of  the 
Cofiference,  1875. 

CollinB,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1631 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Campsie 
in  1639;  after  long  opposition,  was  ordained  in  1641, 
and  was  murdered  about  Martinmas,  1648.  See  Fatti 
Eccles,  ScoUceuuBf  ii,  63. 

Collins,  John  (2),  an  English  Independent  minis- 
ter, came  over  to  America  with  his  father  in  his  youth ; 
in  1649  was  a  fellow  of  Harvard  College,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  and  returned  to  England  when  Oliver  Cromwell 
was  lord  protector.  He  became  chaplain  to  general 
Monk.  He  was  silenced  but  not  ejected  in  1662,  and 
became  pastor  at  Lime -street  Independent  Church, 
London.  He  was  one  of  the  first  six  persons  chosen 
to  deliver  the  Merchants'  Lecture  at  Pinner's  Hall  in 
1672.  He  died  in  London,  Dec  8,  1687.  He  was  a 
minister  of  uncommon  ability,  and  an  eloquent  preach- 
er, so  that  few  persons  went  from  his  preaching  unaf- 
fected.    See  Wilson,  Distenimg  Churches,  i,  225-229. 

Collins,  John  (8),  an  English  Independent  minis- 
ter, son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in  London  about 
1678.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Utrecht;  re- 
turning to  England,  was  ordained  oo-pastor  at  Lime 
Street,  with  the  Rev.  Robert  Bragge,  in  1698,  and  was 
chosen  one  of  the  Merchants'  lecturers.  In  1702  he  as- 
sisted at  the  ordination,  in  Mark  Lane,  of  Dr.  Isaac 
Watts.  He  was  a  good  preacher,  a  friend  of  Matthew 
Henry,  who  informs  us  that  he  fell  dead  suddenly  at 
his  study  door,  March  19, 1714.  See  Wilson,  Dissenting 
Churches,  i,  240, 241. 

Collins,  John  (4),  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  was  bom  at  Charlestown,  R.  I.,  Dec  12, 1716, 
his  father  being  also  a  minister  in  the  same  denomina- 
tion. He  became  an  eminent  preacher  among  the 
Friends,  and  for  many  years  sat  at  the  head  of  the  New 
England  Yearly  Meeting.,  He  had  a  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  disciplinary  affairs  of  the  society,  and 
^  was  much  engaged,  and  took  much  pains,  in  endeav- 
oring to  have  the  Africans  or  negroes  freed  from  slavery, 
and  often  testified  against  that  wicked  practice."  He 
died  at  Stonington,  Conn.,  Oct.  1, 1778.  See  R,  L  Buy- 
graphical  Cyclop,  p.  100.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Collins,  John  (5),  a  Methmiist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Sussex  County,  Del.,  in  April,  1764.  He 
grew  up  to  be  a  man  of  great  bodily  strength,  and  fierce 
and  revengeful  passions ;  but  married  a  woman  of  re- 
markable amiableness,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  con- 
verted. He  immediately  began  exhorting  and  preach- 
ing, and  in  1803  entered  the  Philadelphia  Conference, 
wherein  he  labored  without  intermission  until  within  a 
few  weeks  of  his  death,  which  occurred  March  80, 1827. 
Mr.  Collins  had  some  very  objectionable  qiudities  in  his 
character,  still  he  labored  with  untiring  zeal  and  did 
much  good.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1827, 
p.  542;  Methodist  Magazine,  x,  289. 

Collins,  John  (6),  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Somerset  County,  Md.,  Feb.  16, 1769.  He  was 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Lewes  in  1791.  After 
graduating  at  Princeton  College,  he  assumed  the  presi- 
dency of  Washington  Academy,  in  his  native  county. 
In  1797  he  purchased  an  estate  in  New  Castle  County, 
Del.,  whither  he  removed,  and  became  and  continued  to 
be  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  St.  Geoi^'a 
until  his  death,  April  12, 1801.  See  Atexander,  PriM»- 
ton  College  in  the  ISlk  Century. 

gn*M"*i  Joseph  Lansfield,  an  English  Congre- 
gskioual  minister,  was  bom  at  Stowmarket,  Suffolk,  in 
1848.  He  was  converted  and  joined'  the  Chnrch  in  his 
youths  and  in  1863  entered  Cheshunt  College,  where  ^e 


spent  three  years.  He  was  two  years  in  the  pastorate 
at  Ipswich,  and  in  January,  1869,  accepted  a  call  to  the 
Chnrch  at  Finchingfield,  where  he  remained  until  bis 
death,  March  81, 1881.     See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year^nok, 

1882,  p.  290. 

Collins^  J.  B.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  1821 ;  converted  in  1839,  and  united  with  the 
Church  in  Morristown,  V t.  Four  years  after,  be  com- 
menced his  ministerial  labors,  removed  to  Clinton  Coun- 
ty, N.  Y.,  in  1845,  and  shortly  after  settled  in  Franklin, 
where  he  was  ordained.  After  several  years  he  removed 
to  St.  Lawrence  County,  and  labored  in  that  section  and 
in  Jefferson  County  until  1877.  He  preached  succes- 
sively in  Morristown,  Depauville,  Philadelphia,  Keeae- 
ville,  and  other  places.  In  1877  he  took  charge  of  the 
Church  in  Dickinson  Centre;  in  1880  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Church  in  Underbill  Centre,  Yt.,  and  preached  a 
part  of  the  time  at  East  Cambridge.    He  died  in  March, 

1883.  See  Morning  Star,  July  25, 1883.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Collins,  Iievi,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
at  Somers,  Conn.,  Feb.  12, 1777.  After  receiving  a  care- 
ful academic  education,  he  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1802.  He  was  ordained  by  the  Holland  Association  in 
1832.  On  account  of  ill-health  he  did  not  take  a  pas- 
toral charge,  but  spent  most  of  his  time  in  teaching. 
He  was  principal  of  Monroe  Academy,  Mass.,  for  eight 
vears,  and  died  at  fielvidere.  III.,  Dec  10, 1859.  See 
Wilson,  Presb.  /list.  Almanac,  1861,  p.  159. 

Collins,  Nathaniel  (1),  a  Congregational  minia- 
ter,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1660,  was  ordained 
at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Nor.  4,  1668,  and  died  Dec  28, 
1684.     See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  i,  188. 

Collins,  Nathaniel  (2),  a  Congregational  minia- 
ter,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1697,  was  ordained 
at  Enfield,  Conn.,  the  same  year,  and  died  in  1756,  aged 
seventv-nine  years.  See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer. 
Ptf(ptV,'i,  188. 

CoUins,  Nicholas,  an  English  Methodist  preach- 
er, was  born  at  Su  Dreward,  Cornwall,  Dec.  28,  1806. 
He  was  converted  at  twenty;  joined  the  Bible  Chris- 
tians ;  was  a  useful  local  preacher  several  years ;  entered 
the  ministry  in  1883,  and  for  six  years  did  good  work 
among  the  people.  In  1839  hb  health  failed,  and  he 
died  at  Limehead,  July  7, 1841, 

Collins,  Robert  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Kent  County,  Del.,  Atay  12,  1838. 
He  was  converted  near  Memphis,  Mo.,  in  1858;  licensed 
to  preach  in  1859,  entered  the  Des  Moines  Conference 
in  1863,  and  was  afterwards  transferred  to  the  lUTia- 
souri  Conference.  His  health  failing  in  1874,  obliged 
him  to  become  a  superannuate,  and  he  died  Jan.  26, 
1875.  Mr.  Collins  was  a  consistent  Christian  gentle- 
man, an  unusually  good  preacher,  and  an  excellent  pas- 
tor.    See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1875,  p.  46. 

Collins,  Robert  S.,  a  ininister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  son  of  Rev.  McKissey  Collins, 
was  born  in  Greenville  District,  S.  C,  Aug.  11, 1811. 
He  removed  to  western  Tennessee  in  1823,  where'  he 
experienced  religion  in  1829 ;  received  license  to  preach 
in  1831,  and  in  1838  was  admitted  into  the  Tennessee 
Conference,  In  1834  he  was  transferred  to  the  Missis- 
sippi Conference ;  in  1839,  located ;  in  1840  re-entered 
the  conference,  and  died  June  9, 1848.  As  a  man,  Mr. 
Collins  was  high-minded  and  honorable;  as  a  Chris- 
tian, eminently  meek  and  gentle;  as  a  preacher,  sys- 
tematic, able,  impressive,  popular,  and  useful ;  and  in  his 
domestic  relations  exemplary.  See  Minutes  of  A  mutal 
Conferences  of  the  M.  E.  Chmrek  South,  1848,  p.  188. 

Collins,  Samuel  (1),  a  scholar  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, was  the  son  of  Baldwin  Collins,  who  was  bom  at 
Coventry,  a  pious  preacher,  very  bountiful  to  the  poor, 
and  whom  queen  Elizabeth  constantly  called  father 
Collins.  Samuel  was  bom  and  educated  at  Eton;  be- 
came fellow  of  Kiqg^  CoUege,  Cambridge;  afterwards 

ttacfc^  being  a  man  of  ad- 


COLLINS 


31 


COLLOP-MONDAY 


minble  wit  and  memory,  aod  the  most  fluent  Lattniat 
of  the  tge.  He  retained  his  profeasorship  throughont 
bit  life,  read  his  lectares  twice  a  week  for  forty  yean, 
dedioed  the  bishopric  of  Bristol,  and  died  in  1661.  See 
FaUer.  W'orikks  of  England  (ed.  NutuU),  i,  209. 

CoIUlu^  Ekunael  (2),  a  Congregational  minister, 
vas  bom  at  Colombia,  Conn.,  in  1747.  He  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1775;  was  ordained  pastor  in 
Sandown,  N.H.,  in  1780;  in  1788  was  installed  pastor 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Hanover  Centre,  and  in 
1795  remored  to  Craftsbury,  Yt.,  where  he  was  pastor 
of  the  Congregational  Church  until  1804.  He  died  Jan. 
7, 1807.    See  Cong,  QstarUrly^  1864,  p.  157. 

Collixis,  £kunael  (3),  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  at  Culworth,  Northamptonshire,  Dec  22, 1798. 
He  was  received  into  the  Church  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
and  manifested  a  desire  to  preach;  in  1826  went  to 
supply  the  pulpit  at  Grundesborgfa,  and  after  preaching 
one  year  was  chosen  pastor  of  the  society,  in  which  re- 
lation he  continued  for  nearly  fifty  years.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  organization  of  the  Suffolk  County 
Home  Mission  in  1881,  and  was  its  secretary  for  more 
than  forty  years.  He  originated,  in  1833,  the  Gospel 
IJeraidy  a  low>priced  Baptist  magazine,  and  edited  it 
for  twenty-five  years.  He  was  unable  to  preach  during 
the  last  three  years  of  his  life,  and  died  June  17, 1881. 
See  (Lond.)  BapiUt  Hand-book,  1882,  p.  298. 

CoUins,  William  (1),  an  English  Baptist  minis- 
ter, studied  ander  the  famous  Dr.  Duaby  at  Westminster 
School;  travelled  on  the  continent  for  increased  knowl- 
edge ;  had  valuable  offers  in  the  Church  of  England, 
but  accepted  a  joint  pastorate  with  Dr.  N.  Cox  at  the 
Baptist  Church  (now  New  Broadstreet),  London,  in 
1$75l  He  was  also  distinguished  as  a  physician,  and 
tifciied.  the  Baptist  Confession  of  Faith  drawn  up  and 
issued  in  1688.  He  occupied  a  prominent  and  useful 
poiitioo  in  London,  and  died  Oct.  30, 1702.  See  Wilson, 
IHssating  Churches,  ii,  181-185. 

Collinai  'William  (2),  an  English  painter  of  very 
considerable  merit,  was  bom  in  London  in  1788.  In 
1921  he  was  elected  a  royal  academician ;  in  1887  vis- 
ited Italy,  and  in  1840  produced  Our  Saviour  in  the  Teni' 
pie.  Some  of  his  paintings  have  been  sold  at  a  very 
high  price.  He  died  in  London,  in  February,  1847.  See 
Spooner,  Biog.  BisL  of  the,  Fine  Arts,»,y,',  Hoefer,  JVou  r. 
Biog,  Oinirale,  a.  v. 

CoUina^  'William  T,,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
iver, waa  bom  at  Northumberland,  Saratoga  Co.,  N.  Y., 
Aug.  le,  181 1.  In  1834  he  entered  the  New  York  Con- 
ference^and  for  thirty-six  years,  without  interraption, 
ardently  pursued  his  sacred  calling,  turning  many  to 
righteonsneaa.  He  died  March  21,  1870.  Mr.  Collins 
was  a  man  of  more  than  ordinary  intellect,  a  very  prac- 
tical, spiritoal  preacher,  and  an  indefatigable  pastor. 
See  Maudes  o/"  Annual  ConfereneeSf  1870,  p.  105. 

CoUinaon,  Septimus,  D.D.,  an  English  divinei 
was  bom  about  1739.  He  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1*67;  in  1796  became  provost  of  Queen's  Oillege.  Ox- 
f<)nl ;  and  in  1798  was  elected  Margaret  professor  of  di- 
vinity there.  In  his  oflScc  of  professor  he  labored  with 
unexampled  efficiency  and  zeaL  The  lectures  on  the 
Thirty-nine  A  rtides,  which  he  delivered  in  that  capac- 
ity, evinced  deep  research,  sound  judgment,  and  great 
moderation.  Dr.  Collinson  was  a  liberal  benefactor  to 
>n  public  institutions  of  acknowledged  utility.  He 
died  in  1827.  See  (Lond.)  Christian  Remembrancer, 
Februaiy,  1827,  p.  128. 

CoDinswoith,  JoHir,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Virginia,  Feb.  22, 1786.  He  embraced 
rdifpon  in  his  thirteenth  year,  and  in  1807  was  admitted 
iota  the  Sooth  Carolina  Conference.  In  181 6  he  located, 
*«  account  of  ill-health;  re-entered  the  effective  ranks 
m  ia27,  and  died  at  bia  post,  Sept.  4, 1834.  Mr.  Col- 
honrorth  waa  laborious  and  osefuL    Sec  Minutes  of 


Awnufd  Conferemces,  1885,  p.  845;  Sprague,  AnnaU  of 
the  A  mer,  PulpU,  vii,  448. 

CoUios  (or  Colins),  Fbancksgo,  an  lulian  theo- 
logian, was  bom  near  Milan  towards  the  close  of  the  16th 
century.  He  was  grand  penitentiary  of  the  diocese,  and 
died  at  Milan  in  1640,  leaving  De  Sanguine  Christi  Li- 
bri  Quinque  (Milan,  1617):— iln  Christus  Oblatum  sibi 
in  Cireumdsione  Praputium  Rursus  in  Resurrectionem 
Aeceperit: — De  Animabus  Paganorum  Libri  Octo  (ibid. 
1622,  1623.)     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  G4nirale,  s.  v. 

CoUiBon,  Gheorge,  an  English  Independent  min- 
ister and  educator,  was  bom  in  Beverley,  Yorkshire, 
Jan. 6, 1772.  He  received  a  superior  education  for  that 
period,  and  when  about  seventeen  years  of  age  was  ar- 
ticled to  a  solicitor.  In  1792,  having  experienced  re- 
ligion, he  entered  Hoxton  College,  in  1797  became 
aasistant-tutor  in  that  institution,  and  on  Sept.  14  of 
the  same  year  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Independent 
Church  at  Walkhamstow,  which  office  he  held  jointly 
with  his  tutorship.  In  1801  he  relinquished  his  engage- 
ments at  Hoxton,  and  in  1803  became  tutor  in  the  Hack- 
ney Theological  Seminary,  which  was  just  then  founded. 
He  resigned  his  pastorate  at  Waltharastow  in  1837,  but 
held  his  office  in  Hackney  until  his  death,  Feb.  6, 1847. 
Mr.  CoUison  waa  a  man  of  great  purity  of  character,  a 
sound  divine,  and  eminently  catholic  in  spiriL  He  waa 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  London  Missionary'  aod  Re- 
ligious Tract  societies,  and  an  ardent  supporter  of  all 
similar  institutions.  See  (Loud.)  Evangelical  Magazine, 
1847,  p.  137;  1848,  p.  1. 

CoIUaon,  John  Wesley,  an  Irish  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, waa  bom  near  Armagh,  March  11, 1853.  He  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  joined  the  Methodist 
Society,  and  became  a  prayer  leader,  tract  distributer, 
and  a  local  preacher.  After  passing  through  the  usual 
course  of  study  he  was  duly  admitted  to  the  ministry. 
He  died  at  Clontarf,  near  Dublin,  July  27, 1880.  His 
life  was  short,  but  eminently  successful  as  a  preacher  of 
Christ  and  winner  of  souls.  See  Minutes  of  the  British 
Conference,  1881,  p.  54. 

CSIlxi,  WiLHKLSi  VON  (or  WilHam  of  Cologne),  a 
celebrateci  old  German  painter^ was  bom  at  Herle,  near 
Cologne,  and  was  settled  as  early  as  1370  at  the  latter 
place.  His  principal  works  are  the  picture  of  the  tomb 
of  Cemo  von  Falkenstein,  in  St.  Castor's  Chnrch  at  Cob- 
lentz,  painted  in  1388;  the  large  altar-piece  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Clara  at  Cologne,  in  twenty-six  parts,  representing 
the  Life  and  Passion  of  Christ,  which  is  now  in  the  ca- 
thedral He  has  a  Crucifixion  and  an  Infant  Jesus  in 
the  Wallraf  Museum  at  Cologne.  See  Spooner,  Biog, 
Hist,  of  (he  Pine  Arts,  a.  v. 

CoUobiom.    See  Coix>bium. 

Collocatio  designates  a  custom  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  of  laying  out  the  corpse  of  a  dead  per- 
son on  a  bed  or  couch,  and  placing  it  outside  the  house 
(afterwards  at  the  threshold),  to  give  ocular  proof  that  the 
person  was  really  dead,  or,  perhaps,  that  the  death  had 
not  been  by  violence.  A  honey-cake  was  laid  beside 
the  corpse  as  a  gift  to  Ccrbems,  and  painted  earthen 
vessels  were  arranged  beside  the  bed,  and  buried  with 
the  corpse.  The  ceremony  lasted  two  days.  See  Ganl- 
ner.  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

CoUombet,  Francois  Zi^non,  a  French  Catholic 
writer,  was  born  at  Si^^ges  (Jura),  March  28, 1808.  In 
1827,  wishing  to  embrace  the  ecclesiastical  calling,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Seminary  of  8t.  Ira*nieus  at  Lyons;  but 
his  progress  in  theology  not  being  great,  he  renounced 
the  project  of  entering  orders.  Having  formed  an  inti- 
mate friendship  with  one  of  his  co-disciples,  1^1.  Gregoire, 
he  prepared,  in  connection  with  him,  various  works. 
He  died  at  Lyons,  Oct.  16, 1853,  leaving  numerous  trans- 
lationa  and  other  productions,  for  which  aee  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GetUraie,  s.  v. 

Collop-Mondaj  is  a  name  for  the  Monday  after 
Quinqnagesima  Sunday;  so  called  because  on  that  day 


COLLORD 


32 


COLMAN 


the  faithful  began  to  leave  off  the  use  of  flesh-meat— 
^  coUop  "  being  a  name  descriptive  of  a  piece  of  meat  or 
flesh. 

CrOUord,  Isaac,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  New  York  city,  June  25, 17M.  He  labored 
at  sailmaking  in  his  youth,  became  a  member  of  the 
John  Street  Methodist  Church  in  1810,  removed  to 
Cincinnati  in  1811,  and  with  his  father  engaged  in  the 
tanning  business;  served  in  the  war  of  1812,  received 
license  to  preach  in  1818,  and  in  1819  entered  the  Ohio 
Conference.  In  1848  he  became  superannuated,  which 
relation  he  sustained  until  his  death,  March  8,  1875. 
Mr.  CoUard  lived  an  eventful,  zealous,  faithful  life. 
He  was  eminently  genial  and  companionable.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1875,  p.  222. 

CoUovT,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  calle<l  to 
the  living  at  Penpont  in  1736,  and  died  Jan.  12,  1766. 
See  FoMti  Eodes,  Scoticanm,  i,  669. 

CoUuthians  were  an  heretical  sect  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury, founded  by  CoUuthus  (q.  v.),  a  presbyter  of  Alex- 
andria. His  tenets  resembled  those  of  the  Manicheans 
(q.  v.),  holding  that  God  did  not  create  the  wicked,  and 
that  he  was  not  the  author  of  the  evils  that  befall  men. 
Colluthus  was  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Alexandria 
(824),  and  died  before  840,  after  which  the  sect  rapidly 
disappeared.    See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

ColIfkthuB  is  the  name  of  several  persons  in  the 
earlv  Church : 

m  

1.  A  martyr  under  Maxlmian  in  the  Thebaid,  com- 
memorated on  May  19. 

2.  A  presbyter  and  founder  of  a  sect  at  Alexandria 
early  in  the  4th  centur}'.  He  assumed  to  exercise  epis- 
copal functions,  but  the  Council  of  Alexandria,  under 
Hosius  (A.D.  824),  decided  that  he  was  only  a  presby- 
ter, and  consequently  Ischyras  and  others  ordained  by 
him  were  to  be  accounted  mere  laymen  (Athauas.  ApoL 
Contr,  Arian,  12,  75-77,  80,  106,  152).  Colluthus  was 
regarded  as  a  schismatic  rather  than  a  heretic.  Epi- 
phanius  mentions  in  general  terms  (JIar.  69, 728)  that 
Colluthus  taught  some  perverse  things,  and  founded  a 
sect,  which  was  soon  dispersed  (Tillemont,  vi,  281). 

3.  A  monophysite,  extracts  from  whose  writings 
.  were  read  at  the  Lateran  Council,  A.D.  649.    See  Smith, 

IHct,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

CoUyer,  Isaac  J.  P.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Seekonk,  Mass.,  May  19,  1814.  He 
was  converted  and  licensed  to  exhort  in  his  youth,  and 
in  1844  entered  the  Kew  England  Conference,  in  which 
he  labored  until  his  death.  May  7,  1872.  Mr.  Collyer 
was  remarkable  for  his  noble,  manly  form  and  bearing; 
the  strength,  independence,  quickness,  penetration,  and 
earnestness  of  his  mind ;  his  strong  imagination,  prac- 
tical good  sense,  and  ardent  piety.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Corfermces,  1873,  p.  53. 

Collyer,  "William,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  at  Ivinghoe,  Bucks,  in  1798.  About  the  year 
1814  he  gave  his  heart  to  God,  but  was  not  baptized 
until  Aug.  29, 1822,  and  was  received  into  the  Church 
Oct.  6,  following.  lu  1824  he  began  to  assist  his 
own  pastor  in  the  Ivinghoe  Church,  and  at  the  death 
of  the  latter  took  the  oversight  of  the  flock.  About 
1831  he  was  urged  to  accept  ordination  as  regular  pas- 
tor, which  at  first  he  declined,  but  on  Easter  Tuesday, 
April  1, 1834,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Particular 
Baptist  Church  at  Ivinghoe.  His  labors  were  eminent- 
ly successful  for  many  years.  He  died  June  9, 1879. 
See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand-book,  1880,  p.  291. 

CoUyer,'WilUam  Bengg,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  F.S.A., 
an  English  dissenting  minister,  was  born  at  Blackheath 
Hill,  near  London,  April  14, 1782.  He  studied  at  Ho- 
nicrton  College  under  Dr.  J.  Pye  Smith,  and  became 
pastor  of  a  dissenting  church  at  Peckham,  now  a  suburb 
(if  London,  before  he  was  twenty  years  of  age,  which 
post  he  occupied  with  great  honor  and  usefulness  to 
the  end  of  his  life.     At  his  ordination  in  1801  the 


church  numbered  only  one  hundred  and  ten  members, 
but  it  soon  increased  in  membership,  and  in  1818  Han- 
over Church  was  built ;  for  about  twelve  years  he  was 
pastor  of  Salter's  Hall  Chapel,  which  afterwards  became 
a  Baptist  Church.  For  half  a  century  Dr.  CoUyer  was 
the  most  popular  dissenting  minister  in  London,  attract- 
ing large  audiences  to  his  church.  He  died  in  London, 
Jan.  9,  1854.  His  lectures  were  published  at  inter\*als, 
from  1809  to  1823,  and  embraced  Scripture  Prophecy, 
Facts,  Miracles,  ParaUes^  Doctrines,  Duties,  Compari- 
sons, In  1812  he  printed  a  collection  of  hymns  for 
the  use  of  his  congregation,  nine  hundred  and  seventy- 
nine  in  all,  fifty-seven  of  which  were  his  own.  In  1837 
he  published  Services  Suited  to  the  Marriage  Service,  to 
which  were  attached  eighty-nine  hymns  by  himself. 
See  Ne»  York  Obserter,  June  10,  1880;  Cong.  Year- 
book, 1855,  p.  210.     (W.  P.  S. ) 

CoUyxldeB  were  a  species  of  cakes  of  kneaded 
dough,  which  were  anciently  offered  to  the  gods  as  sa- 
cred gifts,  from  the  notion,  entertained  by  the  heathens 
of  all  ages,  that  the  gods  delighted  in  the  same  things 
that  were  pleasing  to  men.    See  Collykidians. 

Coll3rva  is  an  oblation  used  in  the  Greek  Church 
in  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  It 
consists  of  cakes  made  principally  of  boiled  wheat  and 
currants,  the  surface  of  the  top  being  ornamented  with 
the  edible  grains  of  the  pomegranate,  almonds,  etc.,  and 
is  presented  on  a  plate  before  the  chancel  of  the  church. 
They  are  brought  on  certain  dajrs  by  the  friends  of 
those  who  have  died  within  a  year  or  two.  The  friends 
claim  that  the  soul  of  the  deceased  comes  down  during 
the  service  and  eats  a  grain  or  two  of  the  wheat.  See 
Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Colma  (or  Coluxnba),  an  Irish  virgin-saint  of 
Leitir,  and  her  sisters,  were  pupils  or  foster-children  of 
St,  Comgall  of  Bangor.  She  is  commemorated  Jan.  22 
(0*Hanlon,  Insh  Saints,  i,  401, 402).  — Smith,  Did.  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Colman  is  a  very  common  name  in  Irish  hagiolo- 
gy.  In  the  table  of  the  Mart.  Doneg,  are  given  97  Col- 
mans,  and  in  the  index  113.  Colgan  enumerated  more 
than  130 ;  and  Usher  says  tliere  are  upwards  of  280. 
We  notice  here  only  those  best  known.  They  all  seem 
to  have  flourished  about  the  6th  or  7th  century : 

1.  The  son  of  Comgellain,  was  a  man  deeply  versed 
in  legal  and  ecclesiastical  learning,  and  a  great  friend 
of  St.  Columba.  He  died  in  the  year  of  the  eclipses, 
A.D.  625  (Lanigan,  FccL  IJUt.  of  Ireland,  ii,  238). 

2.  Son  of  Daire,  bishop  of  Doire-mor,  is  commemo- 
rateil  May  20  and  July  31.  He  was  a  friend  and 
neighbor  of  St  Pulcherius.  Colman  must  have  flour- 
ished in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century  (Colgan, 
Acta  Sanctorum,  p.  169;  c.2, 173,  593;  c  22;  Lanigan, 
EccL  Hist,  of  Ireland,  i,  401, 402 ;  ii,  210  sq.). 

3.  Son  of  Duach,  of  Cill-mac-Duach,  commemorated 
Feb.  3,  was  a  man  of  great  virtue  and  miracles.  He 
followed  Christ  from  his  youth,  and  at  length  retired 
to  a  hermit-ccll,  near  the  place  where  aftcnvards  the 
Church  of  Kilmacduagh  was  built.  The  day  of  his 
commemoration  there  b  Oct.  27  (Colgan,  Acta  Sancto- 
rum, 245  sq. ;  Lanigan,  EccL  Hist,  of  Ireland,  ii,  341  sq. ; 
Dublin  Penny  Journal,  i,  200). 

4.  Son  of  Eochaidh,  is  commemorated  Jan.  1.  There 
are  several  other  Colmans  in  the  calendars  having  this 
patronymic,  two  being  celebrated  on  Sept.  6,  and  a 
fourth  on  Oct.  27.  The  present  Colman  is  first  men- 
tioned as  driving  St.  Columba  for  a  whole  day  in  a  cart 
without  a  linclipin,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  founder 
of  the  monastery  which  in  the  native  dialect  is  called 
Snamluthair.  He  must  have  been  a  young  man  in  the 
days  of  St.  Columba  (O'Hanlon,  Irish  Saints,  i,  26> 

5.  Son  of  Fintan,  is  commemorated  Dec.  14  in  Mart, 
Doneg,,  but  others  call  him  son  of  Finnbar,  and  about 
A.D.  703  the  Irish  annals  give  the  obit  of  Colman,  sen 
of  Finnbar,  abbot  of  Lismore  (Colgan,  j4efa  Sanctorum^ 
p.  793).    See  No.  25. 


COLMAN 


33 


COLMAN 


6.  Son  of  Lenin,  of  Cluain-tumha  (doyne),  com- 
memonted  Nov.  24,  is  regarded  by  Lanigan  among 
Ibe  lainU  of  the  second  order  in  Ireland,  and  believed 
to  have  flouriibed  in  the  6ch  century.  He  was  brother 
of  St.  Brigida  (q.  rJ),  daaghter  of  Lenin,  and  was  one 
of  the  saints  belonging  to  the  family  of  St.  Foilan.  He 
Mems  at  first  to  have  been  a  poet  attached  to  the  court 
f^JMh  Caerah,  king  of  Cashel,  about  the  middle  of  the 
6th  century,  and  aAer  his  conversion  to  have  attended 
StJarlath's  school  at  Clonfois,  where  he  was  next  in 
onicr  of  sanctity  to  St.  Brendan  of  Clonfert.  He  died 
aboDt  A.D.  604.  His  character  as  a  poet  appears  in 
the  very  elegant  metrical  Life  of  St,  Senan,  which  he 
composed,  and  of  which  we  have  now  but  a  fragment ; 
the  substance  of  it  is  incorporated  into  Colgan*s  second 
life  of  St.  Sftum  (^  eta  Sanctorum,  p.  104,  c.  2,  588 ;  c. 
22,  589;  Lanigan,  EccL  liitt.  of  Irtland,  ii,  41  sq.,  212 
sq.;  Todd,  St.  Pairiek,  p.  208;  Ware,  Irish  Antiq,  p. 
144). 

7.  Son  of  Lngaidh,  priest  of  Cluain  Brnchais,  is  com- 
memorated July  12.  He  was  a  grandson  of  Laeghaire, 
king  of  Ireland,  and  is  given  among  those  of  that  race 
who  embraced  the  faith  (Colgan,  Acta  Sanctorum,  iii, 
c  3).  He  lived  not  later  than  tlie  middle  of  the  6th 
centorv. 

8.  Son  of  MuTchn,  has  had  attributed  to  him  and  his 
two  brothers  (Colman,  the  oldest,  being  a  bishop,  and 
the  othen  priests)  the  authorship  of  a  hymn  in  praise 
of  Michael  the  archangel;  it  is  given  in  the  Book  of 
Bytuu,  and  edited  by  Dr.  Todd.  He  seems  to  have 
belonged  to  Connaught,  and  for  a  time,  at  least,  was  en- 
gaged in  missionary  labors  on  the  Continent  before  be- 
coming abbot  of  Moville,  where  he  died,  A.D.  786  (Todd, 
Bod;  ofllymnM,  Fasc  ii,  165  sq.). 

9.  Son  of  Koi,  of  Reachrainn,  is  commemorated  June 
1&  Bis  mother,  Eithne,  was  the  mother  also  of  many 
other  saints,  soch  as  St.  Columba,  St.  Maedoc  of  Ferus, 
and  St.  Comgan  of  GkuvCissen.  He  is  also  called  Col- 
man the  Deacon,  and  received  from  St.  Columba  the 
ehnrch  which  that  saint  had  btult  at  Seachrainn  (Todd 
and  Beeves,  Ma^i,  tkmtg,  p.  171 ;  Reeves,  Adanman,  pp. 
Us,  164 ;  and  £cdL  A  ntiq.  p.  292). 

10.  Son  of  Ronan,  is  commemorated  March  80. 
Colgan  places  him  among  the  disciples  of  St  Columba. 

11.  Son  of  Tighemacb,  is  commemorated  Jan.  8. 
He  is  dissed  among  the  disciples  and  relatives  of  St 
Colnmba.  He  was  the  brother  of  St  Beglnle,  St  Co- 
nandil,  and  St  Cuan  Caein  (Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart. 
Ikmeg,  p.  15;  O'Hanlon,  Iriah  Saiitit,  i,  195). 

12.  Son  of  Ua  Laoighse,  is  commemorated  May  15. 
He  was  a  bishop  at  Tulach-mio-ComgbailL  He  was  a 
cootemporary  of  St  Columba,  and  is  twice  mentioned 
in  the  life  of  that  saint  St  Colman  died  probably 
some  time  between  the  death  of  St  Fintan  and  St  Co- 
lnmba (Lanigan,  Ecd.  HitL  of  Ireland,  ii,  177, 229  sq.). 

13.  Sumamed  Mac-Ui^Tealduibk,  is  commemorated 
Feb.  8  and  Dec.  12:  This  is  CoUtmbanus,  one  of  the 
bishops  to  whom  pope  John  IV,  A.D.  640  (while  yet 
but  pope-elect),  addressed  the  well-known  letter  urging 
the  Soots  to  observe  the  true  Easter,  and  avoid  the 
Pelagian  heresy  (Bede,  EceL  Hiit,  ii,  c.  19).  He  was 
bishop  of  (}lonard,  and  according  to  the  Irish  annals 
died  about  A.D.  664  (Lanigan,  £^  Hiat,  of  Ireland^  ii, 
412;  Reeves,  ted.  Antiq.  p.  149  n.). 

14.  Of  Ardbo,  is  commemorated  Feb.  21.  He  was 
the  son  of  Acdh,  and  descended  from  0>lla  Uais,  mon- 
arch of  Ireland  in  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century. 
Bis  ehnrch  was  on  the  margin  of  Loch  Eachach,  in  the 
wotli-east  of  Ireland  (Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart,  Doneg, 

p.»). 

15.  Abbot  of  Cam-Achadh  (where  ho  is  oommemo- 
cated  March  81),  and  of  Cammns  (commemorated  Oct 
90>    See  No.  24. 

16.  Of  Cill-mic-Eoghain;  is  commemorated  Oct  1. 
Una  taint  was  sumamed  CiUe,  He  was  the  son  of 
Easenlaa,  son  of  Murdoch,  and  descended  from  the 
franly  of  the  (HrghiaUi  (Oriel)  in  Ulster  (Todd  and 

xn.-c 


Reeves,  Mart,  Doneg,  p.  265;  Colgan,  ilcfa  Sanctorum, 
p.  718,  c  4). 

17.  Of  Cill-Rnaidh,  is  commemorated  Oct  16.  He 
is  only  mentioned  in  connection  with  St  Ailbhe,  who 
died,  according  to  Irish  annals,  alter  the  beginning  of 
the  Cth  centurv. 

18.  Of  CIuain-Eraird  (Clonard,  in  Meath),  is  com- 
memorated FeK  9.  Among  the  saints,  prelates,  and 
illustrious  men  in  the  school  and  church  of  Clonard, 
Colgan  {Acta  Sanctorum,  p,  406,  c  5)  cites  from  the 
Four  Masters,  A.D.  700,  the  death  in  that  year  of  Col- 
man-ua-heirc,  abbot  of  Clonard.  He  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  No.  18. 

19.  Of  Comhraire,  at  Uisneach,  is  commemorated 
Sept  25.  Mart.  Doneg.  (by  Todd  and  Reeves,  p.  259) 
says  Bronach,  daughter  of  Milinc,  son  of  Buan,  with 
whom  Patrick  was  in  bondage,  was  his  mother. 

20.  Of  Druim  -  mor  (  Dromore  ),  is  commemorated 
June  6  and  7.  This  saint  is  likewise  known  as  Colmoc, 
probably,  too,  as  Calmaig.  In  the  Irish  martyrologics  he 
is  usually  called  Mocholmog,  bishop  of  Dromore.  The 
dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  but  he  evi- 
dently flourished  in  the  very  beginning  of  the  6th  cen- 
tur}',  and  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Colman  Ela,  who 
flourished  half  a  century  later.  About  500,  he  founded 
the  noble  monaster}*  of  Dromore.  He  compiled,  like 
othen  of  his  time,  a  rule  for  his  monks.  Ho  was  buried 
in  Dromore.  As  Colmac,  Colmoc,  and  Calmaig,  he  ap- 
peara  to  have  several  dedications  in  Scotland.  In  the 
Scotch  calendars  his  feast  is  June  6,  and  in  the  Irish, 
June  7  (Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart.  Doneg.  p.  149;  Lani- 
gan, Ecel,  Hist,  of  Ireland,  i,  424,  431  sq.;  Todd,  Booh 
of  Hymns,  Fasc  i,  100  sq. ;  and  St.  Patrick,  p.  181). 

21.  Of  Glendalough,  was  the  son  of  Uithecar.  His 
festival  is  Dec  12.  He  died  A.D.  660,  and  was  contem- 
porary with  several  other  Colmans  in  the  third  class 
of  Irish  saints  (Lanigan,  Ecd.  I/ist  of  Ireland,  iii,  4 ; 
Forbes,  Kak  of  Scott.  Saints,  p.  804). 

22.  Of  Glem-Dclmhaic,  is  commemorated  Nov.  12. 
The  history  of  this  Colman  b  very  obscnre,  but  his 
memory  is  preserved  in  the  dedication  at  Clara  or  Cla- 
ragh,  in  Kilkenny. 

23.  Of  Lindisfame  and  Inis-bo-finn,  being  connects 
ed  with  two  countries,  has  a  double  commemoration,  in 
Scotland  on  Feb.  18,  and  in  Ireland  on  Aug.  8.  He  was 
consecrated,  A.D.  6iS],  as  bishop  Finan's  successor  in 
the  see  of  Lindisfame.  He  attended  the  council  of 
Whitby  in  664  on  the  Easter  controversy,  where  he 
represented  the  Scottish  party,  and  was  defeated.  See 
Wilfrid.  Accompanied  by  all  his  Scottish  or  Irish 
monks,  and  about  thirty  of  the  English,  St  Colman  re- 
turned to  his  parent  monastery  of  Hy.  Soon  after, 
A.D.  668,  he  sailed  to  the  west  of  Ireland,  and  dwelt  on 
the  island  called  Inishbofln.  Owing  to  a  dispute  be- 
tween his  disciples,  he  built  another  monastery  at  Mayo, 
where  he  placed  his  English  monks,  while  he  and  the 
others  remaineil  at  Inishbofin,  where  he  died  Aug.  8, 
A.D.  676,  and  where  the  ruins  of  his  church  are  still  to 
be  seen  in  the  town-land  of  Knock  (Bede,  Eecl,  Hist,  iii, 
c  25 ;  iv,  c.  4 ;  Lanigan,  Ecel.  Hist,  of  Ireland,  iii,  59  sq. ; 
Neander,  Gen.  Church  Hist.  [Edinb.  1849]  v,  28  sq.; 
Forbes,  Kal  of  Scott.  Saints,  p.  303, 804). 

24.  Of  Linn-Uachaille,  or  Lann,  is  commemorated 
March  80.  Colgan  {A  eta  Sanctorum,  p.  792, 793),  who 
has  collected  all  the  scattered  notices  regarding  this 
saint,  says  that  his  mother  was  Lassara,  and  he  was  a 
native  of  Ulster.  He  had  two  or  three  churches,  in 
which  he  is  commemorated  as  above,  and  also  Oct  SO. 
He  died  March  30,  A.D.  699,  according  to  the  Four 
Masters,  This  saint  is  often  called  Mocholmoc  (Lani- 
gan, EccL  Hist,  of  Ireland,  iii,  146 ;  Todd  and  Reeves, 
Mart,  Doneg.  p.  91,  289 ;  O'Donovan,  Four  Masters,  i, 
800  n.). 

25.  Otherwise  called  Mocholmog,  of  Lisroorc,  is  com- 
memorated Jan.  21.  His  father  was  Finbarr.  Colman 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  Cennfaeladh,  king  of  Ireland, 
who  died  A.D.  769.    After  the  death  of  St  Jarula,  or 


OOLMAN 


84 


COLMAN 


Hierlogi  Jan.  16,  A.D.  699,  Colman  succeeded  him  as 
bishop  and  abbot  of  Lismore,  whither  scholars  were  at- 
(lacted  from  all  quarters.  Colma^  died  Jan.  22,  A.D. 
703  (Colgan,  Acla.Sanctorumf  p.  154, 165 ;  Lanigan,  Ecd, 
fJitt,  of  Irekmd,  Ui,  li&-147 ;  O^Hanloo,  Irith  SauUs,  i, 
897  sq.). 

26.  Also  called  Alaumj  is  commemorated  Dec  14. 
His  identity  is  uncertain. 

27.  Othenvise  known  as  DubkchuUemt,  of  Dun  in 
the  Renna,  and  of  many  other  places,  is  commemorated 
Nov.  24.  He  flourished  A.D.  570,  and  was  contempo- 
rary with  saints  Kevin,  Mobhi,  Clairenech,  Colman  of 
Doiremor,  Colman  £la,  etc  He  must  be  distinguished 
from  Colman  of  Cloyne,  whose  festival  is  on  the  same 
day  (Colgan,  Acta  Scmdorum,  p.  193,  col.  1). 

28.  Surnamed  Eakij  Ela^  or  Colm/andUu,  is  com- 
memorated Sept.  26.  He  was  the  son  of  Bcognai.  By 
his  mother,  Mor,  he  was  a  nephew  of  St.  Columba,  He 
was  bom  in  Glennaichle,  now  Glenelly,  A.D.  535.  He 
founded  the  monastery  at  Lann-Eala,  in  Ferceall  (now 
Lynally).  He  probably  died  A.D.  611  (O'Donovan, 
Four  Masters^  i,  235 ;  Lanigan,  Ecd,  UisL  o/lrdand,  ii, 
804  sq.).  Many  places  in  Ayrshire  and  Argyleshire 
were  dedicated  to  his  memory  (Forbes,  KaL  of  Scott, 
Sawti,  p.  805). 

29.  Otherwise  named  Fiim,  is  commemorated  April 
4.  In  the  days  when  it  was  customary  to  join  com- 
panions under  one  leader  for  Christian  teaching  and 
practice,  wa  find  Colman  Finn  in  the  litany  of  St.  Aen- 
gus  (Colgan,  Ada  Scmctorumf  p.  486  n' ;  Reeves,  A  dar»- 
nanf  p.  300).  He  died  A.D.  771,  according  to  the  Four 
Masters,  who  call  him  **  Colum  Finn  the  anchoret." 

30.  Also  called  Imramha,  of  Fathan  Beg,  in  Inis 
Eoghain,  is  commemorated  July  8.  Among  the  abbots 
and  saints  of  the  Church  of  Fahau,  where  Colgan  says 
there  was  at  one  time  a  noble  monastery,  and  now  there 
is  only  a  parish  church,  there  is  cited,  without  date, 
*'S.  Colmanus  cogn.  Imromha,  etc"  .He  is  placed  in 
the  list  before  St.  Murus  or  Mura,  who  must  have  died 
sometime  before  A.D.658,  as  that  is  the  date  given  for 
the  death  of  Cellach,  St,  Mura*s  successor  (Lanigan, 
EccL  Hist,  o/Irektnd,  ii,  87,  38). 

31.  Surnamed  Itadaehj  or  "  The  Thirsty,"  is  com- 
memorated 3Iarch  5.  His  name  does  not  appear  in  the 
calendars,  yet  his  faithfulness  is  duly  chronicled  in  the 
Life  of  St,  Patrick,  by  Evinus  and  Jocelync  In  his 
strict  observance  of  the  rule  of  fasting  he  woidd  not 
quench  his  thirst  in  the  harvest-field,  and  died  in  con- 
sequence at  Trian  Conchobuir  about  A.D.  445  (Lanigan, 
EccL  Hist,  of  Ireland,  i,  819). 

32.  Also  called  Afdr,  son  of  Luachan,  is  commemo- 
rated June  17. 

33.  Surnamed  MuUiun,  "^  pf  the  Mill,"  is  commemo- 
rated Jan.  1.  He  is  said  to  have  been  of  Doire  Cha- 
ochain  (now  Derrykeighan).  In  St.  Aengus's  tract  on 
the  Mothers  of  the  Irish  Saints,  his  mother  is  given  as 
Bronach,  the  daughter  of  Milchu,  son  of  Buan,  with 
whom  St.  Patrick  was  in  captivity.  This  Bronach  is 
abo  given  as  the  mother  of  St.  Mochaoi,  or  Caelan,  who 
died  A.D.  497,  and  others,  which  is  the  only  clue  we 
have  to  the  period  when  he  lived  (Todd  and  Reeves, 
Mart,  Doneg,  p.  8 ;  O'llanlon,  Irish  Saints,  i,  18). 

34.  Surnamed  Piiscwt,  A.D.  800,  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  calendars,  but  Hector  Boethnis  gives  a  Colmanus 
Priscus,  who,  with  St.  Medan,  SL  Modan,  and  St.  Euchi- 
nus,  was  preacher  among  the  Picts  and  Scots  {Sector, 
Hist,  lib.  viii,  fol.  151  a,  ed.  1575).  lie  was  patron  saint 
of  the  Church  of  Llangnlman  and  of  Capel  Colman,  in 
Pembrokeshire  (Rccs,  Welsh  Saints,  p.  190). 

35.  Also  called  Stellain,  of  Tir-da-Glas  (now  Terry- 
glass,  in  Tipperary),  is  commemorated  May  26.  Little 
appears  to  be  known  regarding  him.  He  died  A.D.  624 
(Colgan,  A  eta  Sanctorum,  p.  247  n* ;  Lanigan,  EccL  Hist, 
of  Ireland,  ii,  24). 

36.  Otherwise  named  Ua  Cbtcuaigh,  This  Colman 
is  of  unknown  parentage.  He  was  Fer^Leghirm,  or 
lecturer  in  the  theological  school  at  Cork,  and  is  best 


known  as  the  tutor  or  master  of  St.  Cumin  Foda  of 
Clonfert  He  wrote  a  panegyric  on  his  pupil.  It  is 
quoted  by  the  Four  Masters  at  A.D.  661.  He  composed 
a  hymn,  intended  as  a  protection  against  the  plague ;  it 
is  given,  with  translation  and  notes,  in  the  Book  of 
Hymns  edited  by  Dr.  Todd.  He  died  during  a  pesti- 
lence in  Ireland,  about  A.D.  661  or  662  (Todd,  Book  of 
Hymns,  Fasc  i,  86,  93;  ii,  121  sq.;  O'Donovan,  Four 
Masters,  i,  271,  272). 

37.  Also  styled  Ua  Fiackrach,  of  Senbotha  (now 
Templeshambo,  in  Wexford),  is  commemorated  Oct.  27. 
He  was  the  eon  of  Eochaidb  Brec,  and  was  related  to 
Niall  pf  the  Nine  Hostages.  This  Colman*  was  a  con- 
temporary of  St.  Colman  Macduach,  and  of  St  Maidoc 
of  Ferus,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th 
century.  His  monastery  was  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Leinster.  The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown 
(Lanigan,  EccL  Hist,  of  Ireland,  iii,  2,  5 ;  Todd  and 
Reeves,  Mart,  Doneg.  p.  287). 

38.  Also  designated  as  (7a  Eire,  was  abbot  of  Clo- 
nard,  and  died  A,D,  700.  His  chief  feast  was  Dec.  6, 
but  be  appears  to  have  been  also  commemorated  Feb.  9 
(Colgan,  A  da  Sanctorum,  p.  406,  c  5 ;  Todd  and  Reeves^ 
Man,  Doneg,  p.  827).    See  No.  18. 

39.  Likewise  styled  Ua  Liathain, "  doctor,"  AJ).  725, 
is  commemorated  July  25.  Colgan  calls  him  bishop  of 
Lismore  and  a  famous  doctor,  and  says  he  died  about  A.D. 
725,  which  is  the  year  given  in  the  Four  Masters  as  the 
date  when  *'  S.  Colman  O'Liadain,  a  select  doctor,  died." 

40.  Of  Uamhach  (Huamaoensis),  scribe  of  Armagh, 
died  in  725,  and  is  commemorated  Nov.  24  (Todd  and 
Reeves^  Mart,  Doneg,  p.  817). 

41.  Commemorated  OcL  1,  is  supposed  to  be  Colman 
of  Cill-mic-Eoghain,  who  b  of  the  race  of  Colla>da- 
Chrioch.  See  No.  16.  Colgan  numbers  among  the 
saints  of  the  family  of  Oirgbialli  (Oriel),  and  race  of 
Colla-da-Chrioch,  St.  Colman,  surnamed  Kille,  son  of 
Eoghain,  etc.,  and  gives  his  feast  as  Oct.  1. — Smith, 
Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  a.  v. 

Colman,  Xlbeneaer,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Ashby,  Mass.  In  1815  he  graduated  from 
Brown  University;  subsequently  studied  theology  at 
Rindge,  N.  H.,  under  the  tutorship  of  Rev.  Seth  Pay- 
son,  and  after  three  years  was  ordained  pastor  at  Tiver- 
ton, R.  I.  His  fields  of  labor  comprised  much  of  Rhode 
Island  and  New  Hampshire  until  1842,  when  he  re- 
moved to  western  New  York,  where  he  remained  until 
1855.  The  last  three  years  of  his  ministry  were  spent 
with  the  Church  at  Lamoille,  111.  He  resided  in  De- 
troit, Mich.,  during  the  last  year  of  his  life,  and  died 
there,  June  1 5, 1859,  aged  sixty-nine  years.  His  prescb- 
ing  is  said  to  have  been  solemn  and  convincing.  See 
Cong,  Quarterlg,  1860,  p.  84. 

Colman,  Henry,  a  Unitarian  minuter,  was  bom 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  12, 1785,  and  graduated  at  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1805.  He  was  ordained,  and  installed 
minister  of  the  Second  Congregational  Church  in 
Hingham  in  1807,  where  he  remained  until  1820. 
From  1825  to  1881  he  officiated  as  pastor  of  a  new  Uni- 
tarian society  in  Salem,  and  afterwards  moved  to  Deer- 
field,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  farming.  He  was 
appointed  agricultural  commissioner  of  the  state  of 
Massachusetts,  and  after  passing  considerable  time  in 
making  a  tour  of  inspection  in  that  state,  and  in  prepar- 
ing several  reports,  spent  six  years  (1842-48)  in  Europe. 
The  results  of  hb  obser\*ations  during  this  rime  vrere 
published  on  his  return.  In  1849  he  revisited  Europe 
in  the  hope  of  benefiting  his  health,  but  died  in  Lon> 
don  soon  after  his  arrival,  Aug.  14, 1849.  He  published 
a  great  number  of  single  Sermons,  Sec  Sprague,  A  n- 
nals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  viii,  218. 

Cdman,  James,  a  Baptist  missionary,  was  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  19, 1794.  He  was  ordained  there 
Sept.  10, 1817,  having  received  his  appointment  as  a 
missionary  the  May  previous.  He  arrived  at  Calcutta 
April  15, 1818.  After  remaining  for  a  time  in  Rangoon, 


COLMAN 


35 


COLOGNE 


he  ranoTod  to  ChttUgong,  and  thence  to  Cox*8  Bazaar, 
Nov.  12, 1821.  He  died  of  jungle  fever,  July  4, 1822. 
Mr.  ColiDao  vaa  a  3roung  man  of  sincere  piety,  and  con- 
secrated to  his  work.    (J.  C  S.) 

Colman,  Robert,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Holt,  Norfollc,  in  1805.  He  united  with 
the  Chnrch  in  London  in  his  sixteenth  year;  entered 
the  ministry  in  1829;  retired  from  the  active  work 
in  1867;  resided  first  at  Hardway,  Gosport;  went  to 
St  Helen's  in  October,  1871,  and  died  there,  Nov.  17 
ensuing.  He  dearly  explained  and  earnestly  enforced 
the  doctrioes  and  duties  of  Christianity.  See  Minutes 
of  tie  Brit%akCon/ertnce^lB72,  p.  17. 

CoUnar,  Johaxm,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Nnrembng,  June  19,  1684.  He  studied  at  Altdorf, 
wha«,  in  1709,  he  became  magister,  on  presenting  his 
De  Stakorum  et  PeripateHeorum  Circa  Gradum  Neees' 
witalit  Homnvm  Extemorum  ad  Summam  BeaHtudimm 
IHacfpfatitme,  Having  completed  his  studies  at  Jena, 
he  was  appointed,  in  1715,  inspector  of  the  alumni  at 
Altdorf.  In  1719  he  was  called  to  his  native  place  as 
rector  of  the  hospital-school,  and  died  April  2, 1787. 
He  wrote,  Antihenoticon  tea  de  Causa  Negaii  Luthera- 
not  Inttr  d  Calvimanos  Ufdcmis  Suocessus  Disquisitio 
Mfthodo  Matkematiea  Instiiuta  (1714):— Dup.  de  Sum- 
ma  JndcBorum  Astorgia^  ad  Mich,  it,  5  (1716) : — De  Af- 
/ectuum  Caussis  (1719).  See  WillSf  NUritberger  Ge- 
khrten-LtanhM  ;  Jocher,  i4227em6mes  GeWirien^Lexihon, 
fcT.     (RP.) 

Colmar,  John,  an  English  Wesleyan  missionary, 
was  sent  to  the  West  Indies  in  1816,  where  he  labored 
until  Ills  sudden  death,  on  the  island  of  Tortola,  Sept. 
15^  1818.  Colmar  was  a  young  man  of  genuine  piety. 
See  Mimtes  of  the  British  Con/ereneef  1819. 

Colmar,  Joaepb  Ludwig,  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
okgian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Strasburg,  June  22, 
1760.  Having  received  holy  orders,  he  was  appointed 
professor  at  the  royal  college  of  his  native  place.  In 
1802  he  was  made  bishop  of  Hayence,  and  died  Dec  15, 
1818.  Besides  sermons  and  pastond  letters,  he  pub- 
lishoi  SatUtdim  S.  IgnatH  pro  Quolibet  die  Mensis  Dis- 
tr^mta  (Mayence,  1809-12).  See  Ddring,  Die  Gelehrtem 
Tktotoffat  Deuttdklands,  i,  261  sq. ;  Winer,  Haadbuch  der 
tk€oL/M.\unB,H7.     (B.P.) 

• 

Colmenarefl,  Dieoo  me,  a  Spanish  historian,  was 
bora  at  Segovia  in  1586.  He  entered  the  priestly  order 
vbile  very  young,  and  was  for  a  long  time  rector  of  the 
Chinch  of  St.  John  of  Segovia.  At  the  age  of  thirty- 
four  be  resolved  to  write  the  history  of  his  native  city, 
sod  spent  fourteen  years  in  collecting  the  necessary  in- 
lormation.  At  last,  in  1634,  he  published  his  book,  the 
first  of  the  kind  written  in  Spain.  It  was  entitled 
llisUnia  de  la  Insigne  Ciudad  de  Sigovia  y  Compendio 
de  las  Uiaorias  de  CasOUa  (Segovia,  1634).  He  died 
in  1631.    See  Hoefer,  iVbar.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Cohnnfl,  an  eariy  Scotch  saint,  is  said  by  Camera- 
lias  and  Dempster  to  have  been  a  bishop  of  the  Orkney 
islands,  and  is  commemorated  on  March  9  and  June  6. 
But  the  name  probably  belongs  to  two  or  more  indi- 
viduals, and  may  be  the  same  as  the  Cdmachf  Cohnan, 
md  Colme  of  the  Scotch  calendars,  and  of  the  litany 
«f  Dnnkeld  (Forbes,  Kal  of  Scott.  SainU,  p.  805,  306). 
—Smith,  Did.  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  y. 

Colobinm  (koKoPiov)  was  a  tunic  with  very  short 
sieevcs  only,  and  fitting  doeely  about  the  arm.  The 
trsditioo  was  that  Sylvester,  bishop  of  Borne,  ordered 
that  deacons  should  wear  dalmatics  in  offices  of  holy 
BBoistry,  in  place  of  the  colobia,  which  had  previously 
been  in  use.  From  this  circumstance  of  the  colobium 
heiDg  regarded  as  the  special  vestment  of  a  deacon,  it 
is  lometimea  called  leiiton  (i.  e.  leeiton)  or  lehitonarium, 
s  word  which  reappears  in  ecclesiastical  Greek  of  the 
5th  and  later  centuries  (Xc/3frta»v).  The  monastic  colo- 
htoas  ia  Palestine,  if  not  elsewhere,  had  upon  it  a  purple 


''sign,"  probably  a  cross,  used,  perhaps,  as  a  mark  of 
ser\'ice  under  Christ  Examples  of  the  Greek  colobium 
may  be  seen  in  the  ancient  mosaics  of  the  4th  century, 
in  the  church  of  St.  George  at  Thessalonica.— Smith, 
Did.  of  Christ.  Aniiq.  s.  v. 

Cologna,  Abraham  da,  an  Italian  rabbi,  was  bom 
at  Mantua  in  1755.  Having  devoted  himself  from  youth 
to  the  study  of  Jewish  theology  and  philosophy,  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  College  of  the  Doiti  at  Man- 
tua, and  in  1806  was  called  to  Paris  as  ecclesiastical 
member  of  the  body  of  distinguished  Israelites  assem- 
bled by  Napoleon.  In  1808  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  three  grsnd  rabbis  of  the  central  consistory;  in 
1812  iu  president,  and  in  1826  left  Paris  to  assume  the 
office  of  first  rabbi  at  Trieste.  He  died  there  in  1832. 
Cologna  was  one  of  the  principal  collaborators  of  the 
IsrcUlUe  /Vanfau,  a  periodical,  published  for  some  time 
at  Paris.  He  also  left  a  pamphlet  upon  the  work  of 
M.  Bail,  Les  Juifs  au  Dix^Nmvihne  Sikie,  and  another 
on  the  same  work,  addressed  to  Sylvester  of  Sacy.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Cologne,  CotTKciLS  of  {Concilium  Coloniense  or 
Agrippinense\  were  provincial  synods  as  follows : 

I.  Said  to  have  been  held  A.D.  346,  to  condemn  £u- 
phratas,  bishop  of  Cologne  (for  denying  our  Lord's  di- 
vinity), who  was,  however,  at  Sardica  as  an  orthodox 
bishop  the  year  after  {Pagi  ad  an.  846,  n.  6 ;  Mansi, 
Cofic^  ii,  1371>1878).  Baronius  and  Cave  think  the 
council  spurious.  Sirmond  supposes  that  Euphrstas  re- 
canted; others  that  he  was  acquitted ;  others  that  there 
were  two  successive  bishops  of  Cologne  so  named. 

II.  Another  council  is  reported  to  have  been  held 
in  782,  under  Charlemagne,  but  this  was  apparently  a 
politlcid  council ;  nothing  is  known  of  it  ecclesiastical- 
ly (Labbe  and  Cossart,  ConciL  vi,  1827,  from  Eginhard). 
— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

III.  Held  April  1, 887.  In  it  the  ancient  canons  were 
confirmed,  and  censures  pronounced  against  those  who 
pillaged  the  property  of  the  Church,  oppressed  the  poor, 
and  married  within  the  forbidden  limits.  See  Labbe, 
ConciL  xt,  896. 

rv.  Held  March  12, 1260,  by  Conrad,  archbishop  of 
Cologne.  In  it  were  drawn  up  fourteen  canons  of  dis- 
cipline for  the  clergy,  and  eighteen  for  monks.  Among 
the  former: 

L  Is  directed  against  those  of  the  clergy  who  kept  mis- 
tresses: forbids  ttiem  to  be  present  at  the  marriage  of 


tbelr^hildren,  or  to  leave  them  anything  by  will. 

'gy  should  know  ! 
and  to  chant  the  praises  or  God,  and  orders  such  as  can 


8.  Declares  that  all  clergy  shonl 


how  to  read, 


not  do  so  to  provide  a  deputy. 

7.  Orders  tnat  in  churches  belonging  to  canons,  if  there 
be  no  dormitory,  one  shall  forthwith  be  built,  and  that 
the  said  canons  ^all  occupy  it,  that  they  may  always  be 
ready  to  assist  at  matins ;  also  forbids  them  to  eat  or  sleep 
out  of  the  confines  of  their  chnrch,  L  e.  the  dormitory. 

See  Labbe,  ConciL  xi,  784. 

y.  Held  in  1266,  by  Engilbert,  archbishop  of  Cologne. 
Fiffy-four  canons  were  drawn  up,  whicK  are  chiefly 
against  the  plunderers  of  the  Church,  and  those  who 
killed,  injured,  and  defrauded  ecclesiastics.  The  last  or- 
ders that  the  names  of  sacrilegious  persons  shall  be  kept 
in  a  book,  and  constantly  read  out.  See  Labbe,  ConciL 
xi,  835. 

YL  Held  in  1280,  by  Sifridus  (Sifroi),  archbUhop  of 
Cologne.    Eighteen  canons  were  drawn  up. 

1.  Relates  to  the  life  and  conversation  of  the  clergy,  and 
forbids  them  toplay  at  games  of  chance ;  " 
sav  dally  the  oflfce  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 


rSTt 
tbei 


8.  Relates  to  the  state,  etc.,  of  the  religious,  and  forbids 
monks  or  unns  to  have  any  sort  of  property. 

7.  Treats  at  length  of  tne  eacraraeut  of  the  altar,  and 
directs  that  before  celebrating  the  communion  the  priests 
shall  have  said  matins  and  prime,  and  have  confessed,  if 
they  have  the  opportunity. 

8.  Treats  of  the  sacrament  of  pesanca. 

9.  Of  orders. 

10.  Of  matrimony. 

See  Labbe,  ConciL  xi,  1107. 


COLOGNE 


36 


COLOGNE 


YII.  Held  about  the  year  laOO,  by  Wicbbold,  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne ;  twenty-two  canons  were  pablisbed. 

2.  Orders  deans  to  deliver  in  wrltiog  a  list  of  all  non- 
resident incambeuts  in  tbeir  deaneries. 

10.  Orders  nil  priests  in  the  diocese  to  excite  their  par- 
ishioners to  contribute  towards  the  ikbric  of  the  cathedral 
of  Cologne. 

17.  Orders  that  the  clerks  appointed  to  ring  the  bells 
shall  not  be  illiterate  persons,  bnt,  if  occasion  require, 
able  to  assist  the  priest  at  the  altar. 

See  Labbe,  ConcU, »,  1439. 

VIIL  Held  Maich  9, 1810,  by  Henry,  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  and  three  bbhops;  twenty-nine  canons  were 
published. 

11.  Directs  that  the  epistles  and  goepeto  shall  be  read 
only  by  persons  In  holy  orders. 

la  Directs  that  those  persons  whose  office  it  is  to  ring 
the  church  bells  shall  know  how  to  read,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  able  to  make  the  responses ;  and  also  that 
they  shall  wear  the  alb  during  diTiue  service. 

IT.  Directs  that  the  rural  deans  shall  provide  that  all 
their  churches  be  fhmished  with  proper  ornaments. 

21.  Forbids  to  pronounce  a  curse  against  any  person  in 
the  church,  or  to  sing  the  Media  Vua  against  any  one, 
without  the  bishop's  leave. 

23.  Directs  that  in  fhture  the  year  shall  commence  at 
the  festival  of  Christmas,  aooordlng  to  the  use  of  the  Ro- 
man Church. 

Others  forbid  parishioners  to  receive  the  holy  commu- 
nion, at  Baster,  at  the  hands  of  any  but  their  own  cu- 
rates: order  nuns  to  keep  close  to  their  cloisters,  and 
monks  to  observe  strictly  the  rule  of  poverty. 

See  Labbe,  ConciL  zi,  1517. 

IX.  Held  in  1423,  by  Thierry,  archbishop  of  Cologne ; 
eleven  canons  were  decreed. 

Amonff  other  things,  it  was  ordered  that  clergymen 
convict^  of  incontinence  should  be  deposed,  if,  after  due 
warning,  they  did  not  amend  their  scandalous  life;  that 
priests  alone  shall  be  named  to  preach  indulgence  and  to 
collect  alms :  that  canons  and  other  clerks  xelVain  from 
talking  during  divine  service,  under  penalty  of  losing  al- 
lowance. 

The  ninth  canon  is  directed  against  the  doctrines  of 
WycliiTe  and  John  Huss. 

See  Labbe,  CwciL  xii,  860. 

X.  Held  in  1452,  by  cardinal  Cusa,  legate  a  httere 
for  Germany. 

Here  it  was  decreed  that  a  provincial  council  should  be 
held  at  Cologne  every  three  years,  so  that  a  synod  should 
occur  annufuly  in  one  of  the  three  dioceses;  that  all 
Jews,  of  both  sexes,  should  have  their  dress  marked  with 
a  circle,  in  order  to  distinguish  them;  that  the  clergy 
should  keep  their  hair  cut  short ;  also,  that  proceasious 
with  the  holy  sacrament  should  not  bejMrmitted  to  take 
place  too  frequently,  and  then  that  all  should  be  done 
with  extreme  reverence. 

See  Labbe,  Condi,  xiii,  1378. 

XL  Held  in  1536,  by  Hermann,  archbishop  of  Co- 
logne, assisted  by  his  8u£Qragans,  and  several  others. 
The  acts  of  this  council  are  divided  ipto  fourteen  arti- 
cles, each  article  containing  several  decrees  relating  to 
the  discipline  of  the  church» 

Art  I.  Consists  of  thirty-six  canons,  and  treats  of  the 
duties  of  bisho{w,  especially  in  ordaining  and  visiting. 
Among  other  things :  4.  Buviug  and  selling  of  benefices, 
and  worldly  motives  in  giving  them,  are  denounced  as 
detestable ;  also,  82.  Pluralities  are  condemned,  and  those 
who  have  the  pope's  license  for  a  plurality  of  benefices 
are  bidden  to  Inquire  of  their  consciences  whether  they 
have  God's  license  also. 

Art  II.  Relates  to  the  offices  of  the  Church,  etc.,  and  con- 
tains thirty-two  canons.  Bishops  are  exhorted  to  reform 
their  breviaries  where  they  are  defective,  and  to  purge 
out  all  false  or  doubtful  legends,  which  have  been  insert- 
ed (neaeimuB  qua  incuria)  instead  of  passages  from  Holy 
Scripture;  directions  are  given  that  the  breviary  be  re- 
cited with  reverence  and  attention,  and  that  the  mass  be 
celebrated  with  proper  devotion.  10w  Defines  the  proper 
use  of  organs,  which,  it  states,  are  intended  to  excite  de- 
votion, and  not  profane  emotions  of  Joy.  With  regard  to 
the  morals  and  conduct  of  the  clergy,  it  states  (22)  that 
pride,  luxury,  and  avarice  are  the  principal  causes  of  their 
evil  reputation ;  and  (in  28, 24, 25)  that  they  ought  to  ab- 
stain from  great  feasts  and  good  living,  and  from  drunk- 
enness and  other  like  vices. 

Arts,  in,  IV,  and  V  relate  to  cathedral  and  other  church- 
es, and  those  who  serve  them,  to  the  mendicant  friars,  etc., 
and  Contain  in  all  fifty-seven  canons.  Canons  are  ordered 
to  live  canonically,  as  their  nsme  Imports,  to  remember 
the  original  intention  of  their  institution,  which  was,  thot 


they  should  dwell  together,  etc.;  If  they  fail  on  any  occa- 
sion to  be  present  at  mass  after  the  epistle,  or  at  the 
hours  alter  the  lirst  psalm,  they  shall  be  deprived  of  their 
allowance.  Non-residence  is  forbidden.  Persons  having 
cure  of  souls  are  exhorted  to  be  careful  to  exhibit  a  pat- 
tern to  their  flocks. 

Art  VI.  Relates  to  the  preaching  of  the  word  of  God,  and 
contains  twenty-seven  canons;  states  that  the  preacher 
ought  constantly  to  read  in  and  meditate  np<m  the  Holy 
Scriptures :  to  accommodate  bis  discourse  to  the  under- 
standing of  his  hearers :  to  avoid  profiine  eloqnence  and 
worldly  declamation,  and  everything  tending  to  the  ridicu- 
lous ;  shows  how  the  clergy  are  to  instruct  the  people 
ni>on  controverted  subjects,  and  to  repress  vice.  Canon 
26.  Directs  that  the  decalogue  and  creed  shall  be  plainly 
recited  immediately  after  the  sermon.  • 

Art  VII.  Relates  to  the  sacraments  of  the  Church,  and 
contains  fifty-two  canons.  It  reckons  seven  aacrameuts ; 
directs  that  the  clergy  should  instruct  the  people  that  the 
visible  part  of  a  sacrament  is  but  the  sensible  wien  of  the 
effect  produced  np<m  the  soul ;  it  treats  of  eadi  of  the 
seven  sacraments  in  detail.  Among  other  things,  it  de- 
clares that^  in  order  to  be  admitted  to  the  communion,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  a  pure  conscience,  a  heart  truly  peni- 
tent, and  a  lively  fiiitn,  to  realize  the  truth  of  Christ's 
body  offered  ana  bin  blood  poured  forth  in  that  sacra- 
ment. With  regard  to  the  communion  in  lK>th  Idnds, 
canon  10  directs  the  priest  to  teach  those  of  his  parish- 
loners  who  are  hurt  at  the  denial  of  the  cup,  that  tne  lay- 
man, who  receives  the  bread  only,  receives  as  fully  and 
completely  both  the  body  and  the  blood  of  our  Lord  as 
the  priest  does,  who  receives  in  both  kinds;  that  the 
Church,  out  of  reverence  to  the  sacrament,  and  for  the 
salvation  of  the  faithful,  hath  thought  proper  so  to  order 
it,  and  that,  consequently,  the  laltv,  beink  assured  that 
they  do  receive  both  the  body  and  blood  of  Christy  should 
submit  to  its  Judgment 

Art  vni.  Containing  seven  canons,  is  upon  the  subject 
of  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy :  It  forbids  any  fee  for 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments  or  for  burials ;  it 
also  ei^olns  the  restoration  of  tithes  by  those  laymen 
wlio  had  usuriied  them. 

Art.  IX.  Containing  twenhr-oiie  canons,  speaks  of  the 
usages  and  customs  of  the  Church  ;  directs  that  fostlng, 
being  an  ordinance  of  the  Church,  may  not  be  neglect«l, 
and  declares  that  to  eat  sumptuous  breakfasts  on  days  ap- 
pointed to  be  observed  with  fasting,  is  not  obedience  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Church's  injunction  ;  It  also  explains  the  ap- 
pointment of  Rogation  days,  and  declares  that  Sunday  is 
to  be  obrarved  and  kept  holy ;  that  on  that  day  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  ihithfhl  to  hear  mass  and  the  sermon,  and  to 
sing  the  psalms  and  hymns;  forbids  fairs  to  be  held  on 
that  dajN  and  the  frequenting  of  taverns. 

Art  X.  Contains  nineteen  canons,  and  relates  to  mo- 
nastic dij>cipline. 

Art  XI.  Ctnitains  eight  canons,  relating  to  almshoaees, 
hospitals,  and  similar  eetiblishments;  states  that  it  ie  the 
bisiiop's  duty  to  look  after  the  repair  of  those  which  have 
fallen  into  decay,  and  to  provide  for  the  spiritual  care  of 
those  persons  who  dwell  in  them. 

Art.  xIT.  Contains  nine  canons,  relating  to  schools,  li- 
braries, etc. 

Art  XIIL  Relates  to  contests  abont  ecclesiastical  Jaris- 
diction,  etc.,  and  couti^ns  four  canons. 

Art.  XIV.  Relates  to  episcopal  and  other  visitations,  and 
contains  twenty-four  canons. 

See  Labbe,  ConciL  xiv,  484. 

XII.  Held  in  1549,  by  Adolphus,  archbishop.  Sev- 
eral statutes  were  made  for  the  reformation  of  the 
Church;  the  six  principal  methods  recommended  are 
the  following: 

1.  It  was  ordered  that  the  education  of  the  young  should 
be  confided  to  those  persons  only  whose  purity  of  faith  and 
life  was  known,  and  who  had  undergone  an  examination 
by  the  ordinary,  or  by  persons  approved  by  him.  That  no 
suspected  or  heretiou  works  should  be  allowed  in  col- 
leges or  universities. 

2.  It  is  declared  that  the  examination  of  candidates  for 
orders,  and  of  persons  to  be  instituted  to  benefices,  be- 
longs to  the  bishop  alone,  or  to  persons  authorized  by 
him ;  and  that  those  who  desire  to  be  ordained  ahall  give 
public  notice  of  the  same. 

8.  The  clergy  are  ordered  to  inflict  the  penalty  enjoined 
by  the  canons  upon  those  whose  sins  have  deserved  tt, 
and  not  to  remit  it  for  money.    Pluralities  are  forbidden. 

4.  The  end  of  episcopal  visitations  is  declared  to  be  the 
correction  of  vice,  and  the  restoration  of  purity  of  life 
and  discipline.  Bishops  are  exhorted  to  take  out  few 
followers  with  them  in  their  visitations,  to  avoid  burden- 
ing their  clergy. 

5.  The  necessity  of  holding  ecclesiastical  synods  la 
shown,  in  order  to  preserve  the  faith  and  discipline  of 
the  Church  In  their  integrity,  and  to  maintain  purity  of 
morals,  to  insure  the  reformation  of  abuses. 

6.  Treats  of  the  re-establishment  of  eccleadastica]  dis- 
cipline. 

These  statutes  were  approved  by  the  emperor^s  let- 


COLOMB 


37 


COLONIA 


ten-pttent    Set  Ltbbe,  CtmcSL  zir,  687.— landoD, 
iTfflL  of  CmmeSUt  8.  t. 

Cologne,  Dahikl  and  Willlam  or.    See  COluv. 

Colomb,  Jkas,  a  learned  Fronch  theologiaD,  was 
bom  at  Limoges,  Nov.  12, 1688.  He  entered  the  Bene- 
dkttne  order  in  1707,  and  died  in  1773.  Having  be- 
come ooUaborator  of  Rivet,  he  continued,  after  the 
death  of  that  scholar,  the  Buioirt  Litthrairt  de  la 
Frtmoe^  He  also  wrote  IJittoin  de  VAbbajfe  de  Satnl^ 
Vweeni  d»  Mam  (sttU  in  MS.).  See  Hoefer,  JVbvr. 
Bioff.  GiUrak,  %.  v. 

Cdlomba,  Scant  (1),  a  Cbrisdan  virgin,  called  the 
first  martyr  of  Celtic  Gaul,  soffered  at  Sens  nnder  Mar- 
cus Auiefius,  according  to  one  authority,  but  according 
to  other  and  more  probable  accounts,  under  the  emperor 
Aurelian,  about  273.  In  the  7th  century  she  was  an  ob- 
ject of  great  veneration  at  Paris,  and  Dagobert  caused 
a  magnificent  shrine  to  be  placed  in  the  Benedictine 
church  at  Sens,  in  honor  of  her.  This  was  destroyed 
when  the  church  was  pUlaged  by  the  Galvinista.  She 
is  commemorated  as  St.  C^mba  on  Dec.  81.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nowc,  Biog,  Gen^rale,  s.  v. 

Colomba,  Sami  (2),  a  Spanish  martyr,  was  born  at 
Cordova.  While  very  young  she  was  placed  under  the 
care  of  her  sister,  Elizabeth,  in  the  monastery  of  Taben- 
me.  Being  driven  from  this  place,  together  with  the 
other  nuns,  by  the  Moors,  she  took  refuge  at  Cordova, 
and,  when  arraigned,  boldly  declared  herself  a  Chris- 
tian, and  was  beheaded  Oct.  17, 853.  Her  body,  which 
wss  thrown  into  the  Guadalquivir,  was  recovered  by 
the  CbTtstians  and  interred  in  the  Church  of  St.  Eulalia 
at  Cordova.  An  order  of  St.  Colomba  was  founded  in 
IS79  by  John  I,  but  it  did  not  survive  its  founder.  See 
Hoefer,  liouc.  Bioff,  Gemirale,  s.  v. 

GolombaxL    See  Colusibahu8. 

Colombano,  Antonio  Mabta,  an  Italian  painter, 
a  native  of  Correggio,  flourished  from  1696  to  1616. 
There  are  fifteen  pictures  mentioned  aa  executed  by 
thb  artist,  representing  subjects  from  the  life  of  the 
Tirgin  and  the  infancy  of  Christ.  See  Spooner,  Bioff. 
ni$L 6fike  Fine  ArU,^x, 

Colombel,  Nicolas,  a  French  painter,  was  bom  at 
Sottcville,  near  Rouen,  in  1646,  studied  under  Lesueur, 
sad  mbeeqnently  visited  Rome  for  improvement.  He 
was  elected  professor  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Paris  in 
1705i.  Among  his  best  productions,  at  Versailles,  are 
Mo§ei  Saved  2y  Pkaraoks  Daughter  and  Moeu  De- 
ffadag  the  Daughters  of  Jeihro,  He  died  at  Paris  in 
1717.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  UUL  of  the  Fine  A  rte,  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  Abvr.  Biog,  GhUraU,  %.  v. 

Cdknnbitea,  Claude  db  la,  a  French  Jesuit,  was 
bom  at  Saint-Symphorien,  near  Lyons,  in  1641.  He 
was  two  years  oourt-preacher  to  the  duke  of  York,  af- 
terwsrds  James  II  of  England,  but  was  eventually  ban- 
ished, and  retired  to  Parai,  in  Burgundy,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  15, 1682.  He  was  a  famous  preacher,  and  became 
noted  for  bis  "  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,"  a 
KDtiment  which  the  notorious  Marie  Alacoque  carried 
to  the  extreme  of  fanaticism.  His  Strmone  were  pub- 
liihed  (Lyons,  1757, 6  volsw),  also  a  few  treatises  on  prac- 
ticsl  religion.    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Colombini,  Oiovannl,  a  painter  of  the  Venetian 
Khool,  was  bom  at  Trevigi  about  1700,  and  studied  un- 
der Sebastiano  Ricci.  His  chief  works  are  in  the  con- 
vent of  the  Dominicans  at  Trevigi.  See  Spooner,  Biog. 
Bitt,0fthe  Fim  Arie^  a.  t. 

Colombixil,  San  Oiovaimi,  a  noted  Italian  ec- 
cMaitic,  was  a  nDember  of  a  distinguished  fiimily  in 
Sieona,  and  a  magistrate  there.  It  is  said  that  one 
day,  being  obliged  to  wait  for  his  repast,  his  wife  gave 
hioi  as  a  means  of  diversion  the  Lixee  of  the  Sainte  to 
lesd.  This  so  impressed  him  that  he  resigned  his  civil 
oflioe,  proceeded  to  distribute  a  great  part  of  his  goods 
to  the  poor,  turned  has  house  into  a  hospital,  and  col- 


lected a  number  of  disciples,  who  received  from  the 
people  the  nanw  Jeeuatee^  because  they  often  spoke  the 
name  of  Jesus  in  a  lood  voice.  Urban  V  approved  this 
novel  institution,  under  the  order  of  St*  Augustine. 
These  Jesoates  were  originally  Uymen,  and  applied 
themselves  to  the  preparation  of  medicaments,  but  in 
1606  they  received  permission  to  take  sacred  orders. 
They  were  suppressed  in  1669  by  Clement  IX.  Colom- 
bini died  July  81 ,  1367.  See  Hoefer,  A  our.  Biog,  GirU- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Colomids  (Lat.  Colometiut),  Paul,  a  learned 
French  Protestant,  was  bom  at  La  Rochelle,  Dec.  2, 
1688.  He  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  Saumur, 
leamed  Hebrew  under  the  celebrated  Cappel,  allied 
himself  at  Paris  with  Isaac  Vossius,  and  accompanied 
him  to  Holland.  In  1681  he  went  to  England,  and  be- 
came librarian  to  Sancroft,  archbishop  of  Canterbury ; 
lost  this  place  in  consequence  of  the  disgrace  of  his  pro- 
tector, and  died  of  chagrin  at  London,  Jan.  18, 1692.  He 
wrote,  GaUia  Orientulit  (Hague,  1665): — Exhortation 
de  TaiuUien  aux  Martyrs  (ibid.  1673) : — Rome  Protes- 
tatUe  (Lond.  1676) :  —  Theologontm  PrtAgterianorvm 
leoRes  (1682):  — Para^fe  de  la  Pratique  de  VEglite 
Ancietme  et  de  CeUe  des  Protestants  de  France  (eod.) : — 
Bibliothigue  Choisie  (La  Rochelle,  eod.;  Amsterdam, 
1699) : — Ad  Gulielmi  Cave  Chartophglacem  EccUsiasti- 
cum  Paralipomena :  A  ccedit  de  Scriptis  Photii  Disser- 
tation et  Passlo  S,  Victoris  MassUiensis  (Lond.  1686, 
1689;  Leips.  \G^):—Lettre  a  M,Justel,  etc  (Lond. 
1686).  John  Albert  Fabricius  published  the  greater 
part  of  the  works  of  Colomi&s  in  a  volume  entitled 
Cohmesii  Opera,  Theohgi,  Critici,  H  Ilistorici  ArgU" 
metUi,  Junctim  EtHfa  (Hamb.  1709).  O>lomi^s  was  also 
the  editor  of  the  following :  S,  Clementis  EpistoUe  dues 
ad  Corinthios,  Interpretibus  Patricio  Junio,  Gottifredo 
WendeHno,  et  Joh,  Bap.  Cotelerio  (Vienna,  1682),  and 
others.     See  Biog,  VmverseUe^  s.  v. 

Colomme,  Jean  Baptiste  SiiBASTiESf,  a  French 
theologian,  was  bora  at  Pau,  April  12, 1712.  He  was 
superior  of  the  Barnabites,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1788, 
leaving  Dictiomutire  Portatifde  FEcriture Sainte  (Paris, 
1775;  first  publbhed  under  the  title  Notice  sur  V^^cri- 
ture  Sainte,  ibid.  1773) :— Manuel  des  JUUgieuses  (ibid. 
1779) : — itemifi  Malheureuse  (transl.  from  the  Latin 
of  Drexelius,  ibid.  1788).  He  also  wrote  a  translation 
of  the  Opuscula  of  Thomas  k  Kempis  (ibid.  1785),  and 
an  enlarged  edition  of  the  same,  entitled  Vie  ChrS- 
tienne,  ou  Principes  de  la  Sagesse  (1774;  Avignon,  1779). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrak,  s.  v. 

Colon,  Bkbnard,  a  learned  French  theologian  of 
the  Benedictine  order,  who  died  in  1709,  wrote  TraiU 
des  Vers  Latins  (Paris,  1664),  and  several  memorial 
sermons.    See  Hoefer,  Nowo,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

ColcnfttUB.  In  the  Mart,  Doneg,  (by  Todd  and 
Reeves,  p.  191)  there  are  two  entries  at  July  8,  but 
Dr.  Todd  shows  that  they  both  belong  to  the  same 
persons,  namely,  to  St.  Cilian  (q.  v.)  and  his  compan- 
ions, who  evangeliaed  Wurzburg,  and  suffered  there. 
Colonatus  is  said  to  have  been  honored  in  the  Enzie, 
Banffshire  (Forbes,  KaL  of  Scott,  Saints,  p.  806).— Smith, 
Diet,  qf  Christ  Biog,  s.  v.    See  Colmam. 

Colonia,  Andr6  de,  a  French  theologian  of  the 
Minorite  order,  who  was  bom  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  in 
1617,  and  died  at  Marseilles  in  1688,  wrote  some  theo- 
logical and  other  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Aovr. 
Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Colonia,  Dominique  de,  a  French  scholar  and 
antiquarian,  was  bom  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  Aug.  25, 
1660.  He  became  a  Jesuit,  and  resided  at  Lyons  for 
fifty-nine  years,  where  he  taught  successively  the  lower 
studies,  rhetoric,  and  elementary  theology.  He  died 
at  Lyons,  Sept.  12,  1741,  leaving  many  works,  among 
which  we  cite  Antiquitis  de  la  Ville  de  Lgon: — Pra- 
tique de  Pisti  (Paris,  1717):~£a  Religion  Chritienne 
AutorisSe  par  le  Tsmoignage  des  Andens  PaUns  (ibid. 


COLONNA 


38 


COLOIiS 


1718 ;  ibid,  and  Be8aD9on,  1826)  i-^BMothkque  Jafuht- 
iste  (ibid.  1722, 1781,  and  elsewhere  under  different 
titles).  In  the  Journal  de  Trhmtx  Tarioas  memoirs 
by  Golonia  are  found.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GM- 
raUf  8.  V. ;  Bioff.  Univenelk,  s.  v. 

Colonlca.    See  Macarius. 

Colonna,  Aacanio,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom 
about  1560;  was  made  cardinal  in  1686,  afterwards 
viceroy  of  Aragon,  and  died  at  Borne,  May  17, 1608, 
leaving  De  Monarchia  Stcilue,  which  is  a  critique  upon 
the  treatise  of  Baronius,  Monorchia  SicUiana^  and  is 
found,  with  the  response  of  Baronius,  in  the  Thuourut 
Antiquiiaium  SicUias  of  Gnsvius.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Gi/UraUf  s.  v. 

Colonna,  Egidio.    See  iEomius. 

Colonna,  Franceaoo,  an  Italian  scholar,  was 
bom  at  Venice  about  1449.  While  young  be  entereii 
the  Dominican  order,  was  professor  of  grammar  and 
belles-leUres  in  the  convent  of  that  order  at  Treviso  in 
1467,  and  in  1473  was  made  doctor  of  theology  at  Padua. 
He  died  in  1527,  leaving  a  ver}'  singular  work,  a  kind 
of  allegorical  romance,  entitled  Ilypnerotomachia  Poll' 
phili,  intended  to  show  that  human  passions  are  but 
dreams  (originally  published  at  Venice  in  1499 ;  an  in- 
ferior edition,  ibid.  1545;  transl.  into  French,  Paris, 
1546,  also  1554, 1561;  improved  version,  by  Vemille, 
ibid.  1600;  literal  translation  by  Le  Grand,  ibid.  1804; 
Parma,  1811 ;  English  transl.  Lond.  1592,  not  complete). 
See  Hoefer,  liouv,  Btog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Colonna,  GMacomo  (1),  an  Italian  prelate,  was 
made  cardinal  by  Nicholas  III,  and  afterwards  chief 
counsellor  of  the  papal  court,  while  his  relatives  were 
loaded  with  similar  honors  by  Nicholas  IV.  But  Boni- 
face VIII  stripped  the  Ckklonna  family  of  their  privileges, 
and  Giacomo  retired  to  France.  He  is  believed  to  have 
taken  part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Sdarra  Colonna,  in  con- 
cert with  Nogaret,  against  the  pope.  The  dignity  of 
cardinal  was  restored  to  him  by  Clement  V,  Dec  17, 
1305,  and  the  bull  against  the  Colonnas  was  recalled  at 
the  intercession  of  Philip  the  Fair.  Giacomo  died  in 
1318.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUralfj  s.  v. 

Colonna,  Giacomo  (2),  an  Italian  prelate,  lived 
in  the  early  part  of  the  14th  centur}*.  Pope  John  XXII 
appointed  him  bishop  of  Lombez  in  return  for  the  cour- 
age he  manifested  in  publishing  at  Rome  the  excom- 
munication pronounced  against  Louis  of  Bavaria.  As 
a  protector  of  Petrarch.  Colonna  contributed  much  to 
bring  about  the  coronation  of  that  poet  at  Rome  in 
1341,  and  Petrarch  addressed  to  him  a  canzone.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Colonna,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  made 
cardinal  by  pope  Honorius  in  1216,  and  was  present  as 
legate  at  the  taking  of  Damietta  by  St.  Louis.  Falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  he  was  condemned  to  be 
sawn  asunder,  but  his  courage  won  the  admiration  of 
hb  captors,  and  he  was  set  at  liberty.  He  founded  the 
hospital  of  the  I^ateran  at  Rome,  and  died  there  in  1255, 
leaving  HiHoria  SacrOf  which  is  in  MS.,  besides  some 
Letteri  on  the  Holy  Land,  to  be  found  in  Ughelli.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  8.  v. 

Colonna,  Giovanni  Paolo,  one  of  the  greatest 
Italian  musical  composers,  was  bora  in  1640.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Rome,  where  Carisstmi,  Bene- 
voli,  and  others  were  his  teachers.  He  then  made 
Bologna  his  residence,  where  he  soon  became  the  head 
of  the  musical  school,  and  died  Nov.  28,  1695.  His 
compositions  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  religious  char- 
acter. The  most  important  he  issued  in  twelve  col- 
lections, published  at  Bologna.  The  first  appeared  as 
Op.  1,  under  the  title  Salmi  Brevi  a  8  Voci  (1681 ), 
and  the  last  as  Op.  12,  under  the  title  Ptalmi  ad  Vet^ 
perai  (1694).     See  Biog,  Universette,  a,  v.    (B.  P.) 

Colonna,  Fompeo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  at  first 
bishop  of  Rieti.  Turbulent  and  passionate,  he  gave 
himself  up  to  his  fondness  for  arms,  and  took  an  active 


part  in  all  the  revolutions  of  the  Roman  court,  but  was 
nevertheless  a  patron  of  literature.  He  had  the  legate- 
ship  of  the  March  of  Ancona,  the  bishopric  of  Aversa, 
the  archbishopric  of  Montereale,  and  was  viceroy  of  Na- 
ples. He  died  at  Naples,  June  28,  1532,  leaving  Be 
Laudibtts  MuUerum,  a  poem,  in  MS.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog,  Genh-ale,  s.  v. 

Colorbaaians.    See  Colarba8U8. 

Coloritea  were  a  congregation  of  Aogustinian 
roonka^  founded  in  the  16th  century  by  Bernard  of  Rog- 
liano,  in  Calabria.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  Colorito,  a  hill  in  the  district  of  Naples,  on 
which  there  is  a  church  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary. 
The  order  was  not  fully  established  until  1591,  and  a 
few  years  later  they  avowed  submission  to  the  general 
of  the  Augustinians.  Their  habit  consisted  of  a  dark- 
colored  gown  and  a  mantle  that  reached  only  to  the 
knees.    See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  \Vo%'ld^  a.  v. 

Colors,  £ocLESXABTiCAL.  The  following  detaila 
are  from  Waloott,  Sac  A  rcheeoL  a.  v. : 

*'  In  some  foreign  churches  the  dignity  of  feasts  was  at- 
tempted to  be  shown  by  a  graduated  scale  of  color*.  A 
curious  analogy  has  been  traced  between  the  three  com- 
mon chord  notes,  the  third,  fifth,  and  eighth,  and  the 
three  primary  colors  of  the  solar  ray ;  also  of  the  seven 
notes  of  the  major  diatonic  scale  aud  the  colors  of  the 
solar  spectrum,  so  that  various  instrnments  have  been 
ingeniously  represented  as  colors— the  oboe  as  yellow, 
the  Ante  white,  the  trumpet  scarlet,  etc. 

"Jerome  mentious  that  one  dress  was  worn  in  sa- 
cred ministrations,  and  another  In  ordinary  life;  and 
pope  Stephen  III  enjoined  the  ecclesiastical  vestments  to 
be  nsed  only  In  church.  Possibly  about  the  0th  century 
the  fashion  of  vestments  became  fixed.  Salvian,  Paullnna 
of  Nola,  and  pope  Celestlne,  in  488,  allude  to  the  adoption 
of  a  distinct  dress  by  priests.  In  France  It  was  the  prac- 
tice hi  the  6th  century;  and  the  monks,  by  the  adoption 
of  a  habit,  promoted  the  movement.  At  Constaotiuoplc, 
In  the  4tn  century,  the  Catholics  wore  black,  and  the 
Novatians  white,  ont  of  doors.  Chrysostom  celebrated 
In  ¥t^Ue,  which  he  mentious  as  the  church-dress.  lu  the 
early  times  of  the  church  white  was  used,  certainly  in  the 
4th  century,  as  appears  ft*om  the  wrlting^s  of  Jerome,  Greg- 
ory of  Tours,  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  Fortnnatus.  Auasta- 
tlus  speaks  of  it  In  the  lives  of  Popes  Leo  III  and  IV, 
Gregory  IV,  and  Sergius  II ;  and  in  the  mosaics  at  St. 
PauT's-withont,  at  Rome,  white  robes,  sometimes  adorned 
with  bands  of  violet  or  cold,  appear,  as  worn  by  the  ear- 
ly popes.  From  the  Otn  ceutury  red,  blue,  and  green 
were  gradually  permitted  In  vestments,  but  prescript 
colors  were  not  generally  adopted  until  the  lltu  or  12ih 
century,  white  being  retained  for  the  amice,  alb,  surplice, 
and  the  cope  and  chasnble  on  feasts  of  the  Nativity, 
Epiphany.  A)I-Salnt|t,  and  St.  John  the  Baptist.  They  are 
first  mentioned  by  the  author  of  the  *  Treatise  on  Divine 
Offices'  abont  the  11th  century,  and  afkerwardii,  in  the 
18th  centnnr,  by  Duraodus,  bishop  of  Mende,  niid  Innocent 
III.  The  Greeks,  about  the  same  period,  adopted  these 
colors,  reserving  re<1,  however,  for  fast-days  aud  memo- 
rials of  saints.  The  Greek  Church  requires  white  at 
Christmas,  Epiphany,  and  Easter;  blue  or  violet  In  Pas- 
sion Week,  in  Adveut,  Lent,  and  nt  burials :  and  white 
and  green  at  Pentecost.  No  doubt  the  common  color  for 
altar-cloths — which  is  red,  and  the  ordinary  color  of  the 
Salisbury  rite — was  observed  In  England,  owing  to  the 
Sarum  use  being  prescribed  for  the  whole  sonthem  prov- 
ince In  1S41.  The  national  custom  differed  greatly  from 
the  Roman,  as  In  the  use  of  red  Instead  of  violet  on  Sun- 
days in  Lent,  and  from  Septnageslma  to  Baxter,  on  Aeh- 
Wednesday,  Manndny-Thursday,  Good-Friday,  aud  the 
Great  Saturday,  or  Easter  eve,  on  Snuday  In  Trinity,  and 
In  processions;  while  gold  color  was  used  instead  of 
white  on  confessors'  day?. 

"Festivals  were  usually  distlngnlshed  by  white,  as  em- 
blematical of  the  purity  of  the  life  of  saints,  although 
sometimes  by  red,  as  symbolical  of  the  heroism  of  the 
death  of  martyrs.  Catechnmens  wore  white  robes  dnrhijr 
the  octave  after  their  baptism.  The  pope  wears  white ; 
and  on  great  days  the  bishop's  chair  was  draped  In  white 
to  represent  divine  truth.  The  dead  were  wrapped  In 
white,  In  memory  of  our  Lord's  wiiidiug-sheet.  Violet^ 
mentioned  by  Darandus,  in  addition  to  white,  red,  black, 
and  green,  was  used  on  common  days,  and  In  Advent, 
Lent^  and  on  vigils,  as  the  penitential  color  nearest  to 
black.  Violet,  worn  on  Embers  and  vigils,  being  a  mixt- 
ure of  black  for  sorrow  and  red  for  love,  betokens  peni- 
tence, grief  for  sins,  in((plred  by  the  love  of  Christ,  Our 
Lord  wears  violet  sometimes,  as  a  type  of  the  Man  of  Sor* 
rows.  Nuns  wore  violet :  so  did  Benedictine  abbots  un- 
til recent  tiroes,  and  penitents  in  primitive  times.  Violet 
was  the  color  of  the  parchment  nsed  for  chnrch  books  in 
the  time  of  Jerome,  and  at  a  later  date.  Violet  tynlfled 
truth,  deep  love,  and  humility.    Jacinth  represents  Chria- 


prodtBt* :  virplt  ronltr  and  In)l1c«.    At  barblj, 
oa  tur  Ibe  dead,  sod  on  Good-VMdij,  Noat  ]■  woru. 


drOB  uf  Jndmr,  aimiBta  dtcelt.  itsf,  b/ tha  fiiUtbarr  nw, 
nacDjolDEdoD  AFti-Wedii«diT,HiuiibT>lnLanl,«ldtlM 
Uim  Intler  danoF  HoL;  WMk,  u  Ibe  )]rmbol  of  gin  (iNlLlb 
1,IS) :  u  tbe  eign  uf  miO«iT  and  might  ou  Snodan  (luiali 
liiil,  II:  tad  o1  blood, In  lbs  cunim*Biar*(too  of  tb«  pu- 


Oood-Frldaj  at  Bourse*,  Beuf,  H(IM,  lUd  bji 

dan  liie.  The  luttcT  reqnim  UnluiHiCorpaaChiiatl,  ■« 
ihe  f:Tcat  mntf  ry  orChrlal*a  Urn,  and.  Ilka  Ihc  Cbnrcb  of 
Lioiw,  on  tbe  Clrcnnetaliin,  lu  mcmnrj  oT  Ibe  flnt  abtd- 
dbe  of  bia  bimid.  and  ibe  drat  act  of  bi*  love ;  wbareaa 
the  Roniau  am  emplojra  white  on  the  lurmei  day, ' 


lhB~dWDi!  toY«Dfth«HolySplriii ._._ 

o[  tbe  Oieeki,  and  Ibe  indent  tile*  of  FniDi:e,(ind  lij  ibfl 
pnpe  on  Oood-mdaT,  aa  ihowlnE  Ihat  lore  U  the  csnee 
J  .w  J i^j  ^  t^j  OTdlqary  enlor  of  •■-  "-"- 

B«f  wu  n'»d  Id  Lent,  belDg 
Irom  Septnageilma  to  Boiler  „    , 

Sen*,  and  Itana.  Block  Gbuabira  kIUi  red  orpbraj* 
wan  lued  from  Panlon-Snodof  to  Kaatar  at  I'lrl^  and  at 
fDneral*  In  parli  of  GermibT  and  Flanders.  Hed  nud 
vbile  mm  rhe  Dnmlnkal  eolora  In  England.  MartTr* 
were  boiled  la  ■  Bcarlet  coloblnm  nrdilmntlc.tba  (ynibol 
of  charli/  and  blooil-abeddliig.  £lu  {indieum,  blndimn) 
wu  worn  on  tbe  Coullnent,  like  rlolei.  <iD  All-Saluia' 
Sar.lB  Adnnt,andanBeptnage>ln>a.Bi]don  fentlaorst. 
UuT.a*  in  KDiiluid,lu  Spain,  indSaplea.  It  wai  pmb- 
ablt  nwd  at  £llibnry  ou  ferlals  In  Advent  Onr  Lord 
andlheVir^nllarTnearredindbltie.  BlDe.thEi:olorur 
bc*HD,  waa  the  ambleni  of  piety,  slnceillf.  godllneaf,can- 
UmplotioD,  eipeclalloo,  kneuftiaairenly  Ibluga.' 


thit  piKC  rrora  KJtto'a /^icL  £iUf ,  note  10  Col  it. : 

"TbooEh  ■  town  of  conalderable 

"le  principal ODB  of  Pbrjgla;  . 

-.1.1 — ..I.  JitrtdeiTiiito 

ilhor  IheHeander.Bl 

m  to  rnn  <indar  g.oni: 

It  igiln  r»e  ; 


fnrkineB.  after  i 

UtMi-Sa.  TbH'- 

id  bj  Uerodotn*  (L 


borboud  of  the  village  are  KvamI  veatigaa  of  an  nndant 
dl]',  eon  riMlDgntarcbee,  Tanlw.iquared  11000,11^10  tba 
groond  la  aircwed  with  bruken  ptHiary,  which  »  gaoar- 


irkablj  lO' 
Coloaeae  Ibem  aaeDia  no  Jut  reaaon  lodonbt." 

Tfaa  town  now  containa  about  four  thounnd  inhitu* 
tiDta,  and  has  a  khm.  Tbe  niina,  which  lie  thrae 
tnilei  north  of  the  town,  an  of  the  Roman  period,  but 
they  contain  no  ioacriptioiu.  See  Murray,  lltmi^ook 
for  Alia  Minor,  p.  S26. 

ColoaalKiiiis.    See  Fibhl'S. 

Colonmalla,  Laicuclfe  he,  ■  French  chronicler, 
waa  cuoa  or  Chartree  alter  bia  uncle  Hilph,  about  1330. 
lie  wrote  a  ihrooicle  from  the  foundation  of  tbe  world 
down  to  his  own  time,  entitled,  liTmmre  nutoTiul; 
twice  publiihed  in  full  in  Latin  CPoilien,  1479;  Paria. 
cod.).  Labbe  printed  nme  frogniFRla  in  the  lint  vol- 
ume of  hii  Lilnaiy  of  MamiKripU,  among  othen,  the 
eulogieton  Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France,  and  hit  two 
tons,  Lout*  Ihe  Slubbom  and  FhiUp  iha  Long.  See 
Hoefer,  A'oud.  Biog.  GMrak,  a.  V. 

Colplol  ( Wind)  wai,  in  Phconicitn  nytholni^y,  the 
primnral  deity  of  the  wind,  who,  with  hia  wifeUiuH,  or 
night,  begot  jkn  and  Pmti^nua,  the  Srat  mortal  nieti. 

ColqnllOllii,  jEtmea,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  hi* 
degree  at  Gla«cow  University  in  1S36;  waa  called  to 
the  living  It  Whiibotn  in  1664 ;  traiuferred  (o  Penning- 
ham  in  1666.  Having  peiwcnted  aame  of  hia  parish- 
ioneia,he  waioueted  by  them  in  1669,  wbenhe  went  lo 
Ireland,  got  a  benefice  ther«,  and  died  at  an  advincMl 
age.     See  Fatii  Kcdti,  Scaiiaaia,  i,  743,  748. 

Colqnhoon,  Jobn  (1),  a  Scotch  c1ci^;vman,  re- 
ceived a  bursary  of  theology  at  the  Glaagow  Univer^ty 
in  17S5;  waa  licensed  to  preach  in  17S9;  preaeuled  1^ 
the  king  to  the  living  at  llnlilemock  ia  1745,  and  or- 
dained; and  died  July  21,  IT7Z.  He  published  a  aet- 
mou  in  1766,  Tht  Afottla  Ihe  Light  qfike  World.  S«e 
iaiU  Eoda.  SaUkaaa,  ii,»l& 


COLQUHOUN 


40 


COLTON 


Colqiihoim,  John  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  dergyman, 
was  born  at  Luas  in  January,  1748;  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh;  licensed  to 
preach  in  1780 ;  called  to  the  living  of  St.  John's,  Edin- 
burgh, in  1781,  and  died  Nov.  27, 1827.  He  was  never 
absent  from  his  charge  excepting  on  sacramental  oc- 
casions; his  duties  were  discharged  with  seal,  and  his 
life  was  one  of  siuoerity  and  simplicity.  He  wrote,  A 
Treatise  on  Spiritual  Contort  (1816)  i—On  the  Law  and 
Goipel  (1816)  i—On  the  Covenant  of  Grace  (1818) :— Ca^ 
eehitmfor  Directing  Young  Communicantt  (1821)  i—On 
the  Covenant  of  Worke  (eod.)  -.—View  of  Saving  Faith 
(1824)  '.^Collection  of  the  Promiees  of  Scripture  (1826) : 
—View  of  Evangelical  Repentance  (eod.)  '.r-Semume  on 
Doctrinal  Subjects  (posthumous,  1886>  See  Fasti  EC' 
des.  Sooticanat  i,  109. 

Colqnhouxif  Maloolm,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1794 ;  appointed  minister  at  the 
Gaelic  chapel,  Dundee,  in  1798,  and  ordained ;  and  died 
Harch  19, 1819,  aged  sixty-one  years.  See  Fasti  £o 
des.  Scoticana,  iii,  700. 

Cdqalunixi,  Robert,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made 
bbhop  of  Argyle  in  1478,  and  was  so  in  1496.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  288. 

Colaon,  Ebenezbb,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  mini»- 
ter,  was  bom  at  PUinfield,  Mass.,  about  1806.  He  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  at  twenty-four  en- 
tered the  Oneida,  Conference.  In  1844  he  joined  the 
Genesee  Conference,  in  which  he  labored  as  health 
would  permit,  until  his  death,  Dec.  16,  1864.  Mr. 
Cobon  was  a  true  man,  deeply  pious  and  faithful  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Coi\ferenceSf  1864,  p.  184. 

Colston,  Bdward,  an  Engluh  phiUnthropist,  waa 
bom  at  Bristol,  Nov.  2, 1680.  Having  amassed  a  fort- 
une in  Spanish  trade,  he  spent  nearly  all  of  it  in  esub- 
lishing  charitable  institutions,  such  as  schools  and  hos- 
pitals, in  Bristol  and  other  cities  of  England.  He  died 
Oct.  11, 1721.    See  Chahners,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. 

ColBtonvWllllam  Hungerford,  D.D.,a  Chuich- 
of-England  divine,  was  bora  in  1774.  He  graduated  at 
St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  in  1796;  was  for  fifty-seven  years 
rector  of  West  Lydford,  and  for  the  same  period  an  ac- 
tive magistrate  and  a  deputy-lieutenant  of  Somerset- 
shire, and  also  rector  of  Clapton.  He  died  at  Bath,  Oct 
8,1866.  See  Haidwick,  Annual  Biography,  1866,  p. 
280. 

Colt,  Adam,  AJf .,  a  Scotch  clefg3rman,  regent  in 
the  Edinburgh  University,  was  admitted  to  the  living 
at  Borthwick  in  1696;  presented  to  the  new  erecUon  in 
1696;  transferred  to  Inveresk  in  1697;  was  one  of 
the  royal  commissioners,  and  nominated  a  minister  for 
Edinburgh ;  was  at  the  general  assemblies  of  1601  and 
1602;  in  1606  was  selected  as  one  of  eight,  for  a  confer- 
ence at  London  previous  to  the  establishment  of  epis- 
copacy ;  detained  in  London  ten  months,  then  returned, 
and  confined  within  his  parish;  rengned  the  charge  in 
1641,  and  died  soon  after  his  last  sermon,  March  24, 
1648,  ^  having  much  reputation  for  learning,  wisdom, 
and  piety ;  for  grace  and  gifts,  faithfulness  and  success." 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  266, 286, 286. 

Colt,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1686 ;  admitted  to  the  living  at  Langnewton 
in  1642 ;  conformed  to  episcopacy,  and  continued  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1666.     See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticana,  i,  486. 

Colt,  Milton,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bora  in  Oswego  County,  N.  Y.,  in  1810.  He  received 
an  early  religious  education ;  was  converted  in  his  twen- 
tieth year;  licensed  to  preach  in  1880,  and  in  1888  en- 
tered the  Pittsburgh  Conference.  He  ended  his  short 
but  highly  successful  career  Jan.  1, 1886.  Mr.  Colt  was 
remarkable  for  his  energy  and  piety.  See  MinuUs  of 
A  unual  Conferences,  1887,  p.  484. 

Colt,  Oliver  (1).  A3I.,  a  Scotch  deigyman,  Regent 
of  Humanity  in  the  Edinburgh  University,  was  appoint- 


ed to  the  living  at  Hdyrood  House,  Edinbmgh,  in  1611; 
transferred  to  FouUen  in  1614;  presented  to  the  Ticar- 
age  of  Lammerton  in  1616,  and  died  before  1680.  See 
Fasti  Ecdes.  ScoticaneB,i,8S,43S, 

Colt,  OUTer  (2),  a  Scotch  deigyman,  took  his  d^ 
gree  at  Edinburgh  Univenity  in  1621 ;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1627;  appointed  helper  to  his  father  at  the 
living  of  Inveresk  iu  1682,  and  ordained;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  General  Assembly  in  1688;  presented  to  the 
living  in  1641,  in  succession  to  his  father;  had  protec- 
tion from  earl  Montrose  during  the  war  in  1646,  and  took 
shelter  in  Dundee  from  the  invading  army  of  England 
in  1661.  He  died  Dec.  20, 1679,  aged  eighty-one  yean. 
He  was  a  man  of  marked  diligence,  piety,  persuasiveness, 
and  integrity.    See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  i,  286. 

Coitart,  James,  a  Scotch  cleigyman,  tutor  iu  the 
family  of  colonel  McLean,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1810;  presented  to  the  living  at  Fintiy  in  1822,  and  or- 
duned ;  and  died  June  11, 1840.  See  FasH  Ecdes.  Sco- 
ticana,  ii,  865. 

Coltellini,  MxcRKUE,  a  Ferrarese  painter,  flourished 
about  1617.  His  principal  works  are  at  Ferrara:  in 
San  Andrea,  The  Virgin  and  Infant,  with  saints;  in  the 
sacristy  of  the  Augustines,  a  picture  of  St.  Monica, 
with  four  saints  of  that  order;  and  in  Santa  Maria, ^<. 
Francis  Receiving  the  Stigmata,  See  Spooner,  Biog, 
Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Colton,  Aaa  Smith,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Champion,  Jefferson  Co.,  N.  T.,  Oct.  26, 
1804.  He  received  his  preparatory  education  at  Guil- 
ford, and  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in  1827.  He 
then  taught  one  year  at  Freehold,  N.  J. ;  entered  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  November,  1828,  where  he 
remained  nearly  two  years;  then  studied  one  year  with 
the  Rev.  Thomas  H.  Skinner,  D.D.,  in  Philadelphia ;  was 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia,Oct30,1890, 
and  taught  three  years  in  Philadelphia.  Having  united 
with  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  he  was  admitted 
to  deacon's  orders,  Aug.  4, 1833,  and  ordained  a  presby- 
ter, Aug.  27, 1889.  He  taught  in  Morristown,  N.  J., 
from  1884  to  1886;  preached  and  taught  in  Borden- 
town,  from  1837  to  1839;  was  missionary  in  Bucks 
County,  Pa.,  in  1839  and  1840;  Uught  privately  at 
Gulf  Mills,  Montgomery  Co.,  from  1840  to  1842;  waa 
rector  of  St  Andrew's  Church,  West  Vincent,  and  St. 
Mark's,  Honeybrook,  both  in  Chester  Co.,  from  1842  to 
1846;  of  Christ  Church,  Towanda,  from  1845  to  1847; 
at  Pike,  from  1847  to  1849;  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  MonU 
gomery  Co.,  St.  Paul's,  Point  of  Rocks,  and  minister  of 
Zion's  Parish,  Urbana,  Ind.,  from  1849  to  1854 ;  taught 
and  supplied  seversl  vacant  parishes  at  Wilmington, 
Del.,  from  1854  to  1859;  and  afterwards  resided  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  presching  occasionally  until  his  death, 
Aug.  19, 1881.  See  Nea-oL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL 
Sem.  1882,  p.  22. 

Colton,  Benjamin,  a  Congregstional  minister, 
was  bora  at  Long  Meadow,  Mass.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  17 10 ;  was  ordained  psstor  of  the  Church 
at  West  Hartford,  Feb.  24, 1713,  and  died  March  1, 1749. 
See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  i,  180. 

Colton,  Caleb  C,  an  English  clergyman,  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton,  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  be- 
came vicar  of  Kew  and  Petersham.  A  passion  for 
gaming  so  embarrassed  him  financially  that  he  was 
compelled  to  abscond  to  America  in  1828,  to  avoid  hia 
creditors.  He  next  took  up  his  residence  at  Parii*, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  been  very  successful  at  play, 
clearing  £25,000  in  less  than  two  years^  The  dread  of 
an  impending  surgical  operation  unbalanced  his  mind, 
and  he  blew  out  his  bndns  at  Fontainebleau  in  1882. 
He  published,  Narrative  of  the  Sampford  Ghost  (1810) : 
—i/gpocrisg,  a  Satirical  Poem  (1812): — Napoleon,  a 
Poem  (eod.): — lAnes  on  the  Conjlagration  of  Moscow 
(1816)  i-^Lacon,  or  Many  Things  in  Few  Word*  (1820). 
See  AUibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  e.  v. 


COLTON 


41 


COLUM 


Coltoiit  George,  a  Gongregatiooal  minittcr,  wii  of 
Ber.  Beojamin  Colton,  of  West  Haitlbnl,  graduated  at 
Tik  CdJege  in  1756 ;  was  ordained  at  Bolton,  Nov.  9, 
17C8,  and  died  in  1812.  See  Spngue,  Afmais  of  the 
iner.Pfer^  1,180. 

Colton,  Henxy  Martyn,  a  Congregational  min- 
liter,  was  bom  at  Royalton,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at 
Tsie  College,  and  remained  one  year  after  graduation, 
pusaing  a  aeleet  eoone  in  philoaophy  and  languages. 
Tbe  next  three  years  were  spent  in  the  Yale  Divinity 
School,  and  in  NoTember,  1852,  be  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Fint  Congregational  Church  in  Woodstock,  Conn. 
In  January,  18^  he  reoMyed  to  East  Aron,  and  sapplied 
tbepolpit  of  the  Congregational  Church  until  April,  1857. 
In  this  year  Mr.  Colton  established  a  classical  school  in 
Middletown,  w  hich  continued  for  eleven  years.  In  Sep- 
tember. 1858,  he  opened  the  **  Yale  School  Ibr  Boys,"  in 
New  York  dty,  and  conducted  it  till  the  time  of  his 
death,  June  %  1872.  See  Obituary  JRecord  of  Yale  Col- 
lege, mz 

Cktlton,  John,  an  English  divine  of  the  Uth  oen- 
tory,  was  bom  at  Terrington,  Norfolk,  and  became  chap- 
lain to  William  Bateman,  bishop  of  Norwich,  and  the 
fint  master  (by  appointment  of  the  founder)  of  Gonville 
Hall,  Cambridge.    Lelaod  says  he  was  a  man  **  plus 
qoam  mediocriter  doctus  et  bonus,"  for  which  qualities 
it  is  presumed  Henry  lY  promoted  him  to  be  bishop  of 
Armagh  and  primate  of  Ireland  (or,  as  Fuller  says,  cor- 
recting Pits,  this  was  done  by  Kichard  II).    He  was 
employed  at  the  court  of  Bome  in  the  schism  between 
pope  Uiban  YI  and  Clement  YII,  which  occasioned  the 
writing  of  his  learned  treatise,  De  Cansa  SchigmatUf  and 
another  book  as  a  sequel,  De  Bemedtvt  Ejuadem,    He  is 
supposed  to  hare  resigned  his  archbishopric  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1404.    See  Warens,  De  Scr^ 
fwitmt  BOendciM,  p.  129;  Fuller,  Worikiee  of  England 
(cd.  NuttaU),  H,  459. 

CQlton,  Bichard  FrandB,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal deigyman,  became  assistant  minuter  of  the  Church 
of  tbe  Atonement,  in  Philadelphia,  in  1866;  the  follow- 
ing year  was  instructor  in  Hebrew  in  the  Divinity 
School  of  that  city ;  in  1870,  retaining  his  place  in  the 
Divinity  School,  he  assumed  the  recton^ip  of  the  Church 
of  Our  Saviour,  Jenkintown,  in  which  offioes  he  re- 
mained until  his  death,  in  July,  1880.  See  WhitUker, 
Chartk  Almanac  and  Directory^  1881,  p.  172. 

Gkdton,  SixneoB,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minia- 
tsr,  WBS  bora  at  Long  Meadow,  Mass.,  about  1786.  He 
gTMloated  from  Yale  College  in  1806,  was  ordained  at 
Palmer, June  19, 1811,and  dismissed  Nov.ld,1821.  For 
a  time  he  was  engaged  in  teaching  at  Monson,  also  in 
North  Carolina,  and  subsequently  became  president  of 
s  college  in  one  of  the  south -western  states.  See 
//asi|MfaiPa^p.97.    (J.  C  S.) 

Cohon,  Walter,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Eotland,  YL,  May  9>  1797.  He  graduated  from 
Tsle  College  in  1822,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
isaiy  in  1826 ;  was  ordained  June  5, 1827 ;  was  professor 
of  mond  philosophy  and  Biblical  literature  at  the  Mili- 
tary Academy,  Middletown,  Conn.,  from  1825  to  1880; 
sad  editor  of  the  A  merican  SpedatOTf  Washington,  D.  C, 
io  1880  and  1831.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed 
diaplaitt  of  the  navy,  and  ordered  to  the  Mediterra- 
Ben;  while  there  gathered  the  materials  for  his  Sh^ 
nrf  JSkore  m  Madeira,  Lidton,  and  the  Mediterranean 
(Kew  York,  1885);  in  1885  was  assigned  to  the  na- 
vsl  itation  at  Charkstown,  Mass.;  in  1887  edited  the 
OAmkaiiim  Herald,  and  in  1888  the  North  American, 
Pbilsdelphia;  in  1846  was  ordered  to  the  Padfle  coast, 
md  July  28, 1846,  waa  appointed  alcalde  of  Monterey, 
in  Gslifbroia,  by  the  American  military  authorities; 
otsblished  the  first  newspaper  {Alia  California),  and 
built  the  first  schoolhouse  in  California.  Having  re- 
tomed  to  Philadelphia  in  1849,  he  died  there  Jan. 
22, 1861     Hia  Deek  and  Port,  and  Three  Yean  hi 


Caiyomia,  were  published  in  1860,  and  a  yolnme  of 
Literary  Xemavu  in  1861.  See  Gen,  Cat.  of  Andtwer 
TheoL  JSem.  1870,  p.  64;  AlUbone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer.  Authors,  a.  t. 

Ck>ltriii,  Cyma,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Lenox,  Madison  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  10, 1818.  He 
went  to  Illinois  about  1848,  having  been  previously  or- 
dained, and  hibored  within  the  bounds  of  the  Fox  and 
Bock  Kiver  Quarterly  Meetings.  In  1869  he  removed 
to  Iowa.  Broken  in  health  by  hardships  as  an  evan- 
gelist in  a  new  and  sparsely  settled  country,  he  died  at 
Waltham,  Tama  Co.,  Sept.  18, 1872.  See  Morning  Star, 
July  8,  1874.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Coltrln,  Nathaniel  Potter,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  Steubenville,  O.,  Feb.  17,  1820. 
He  graduated  from  Wabash  College  in  1845;  was  a 
member  of  Lane  Theological  Seminary  one  year,  in  the 
cUiss  of  1849;  was  ordained  (by  the'  Illinois,  now  the 
Quincy,  Association)  at  Mendon,  111.,  Oct.  18, 1850 ;  was 
acting  pastor  at  Jacksonville,  until  April,  1851;  at 
Chandlerville,  and  Round  Prairie  (now  Plymouth),  from 
1851  to  1857;  at  Griggsville,  from  1857  to  1861 ;  for  a 
short  time  chaplain  in  the  army,  ader  which  he  preached 
a  year  at  Litchfield,  having  no  church ;  from  December, 
1862,  to  May,  1864,  was  acting  pastor  at  Wythe;  chap- 
lain of  the  88d  Regiment  until  December)  1865;  dur- 
ing 1866  was  without  charge;  and  finally  acting  pas- 
tor at  Sandoval  and  Clement  until  his  death  at  (^cn- 
tralia,  Dec.  26, 1877.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Colum.    See  Straii«eii. 

Colmn  (or  Colam),  is  the  primary  form  of  the 
name  which  becomes  also  Colundms,  Columha,  and,  as 
a  diminutive,  Cobnan,  Colmoc,  Columban,  and  with  the 
prefixes  da  and  mo  becomes  Dachulmoc  and  Mocholmoc, 
or  Moeholmog.  See  Colman.  It  appears  as  the  proper 
name  of  Irish  saints,  but  more  or  less  intercliangeablo 
with  the  other  forma. 

1.  Son  of  Aedh  of  Cuil-Damhain,  or  Cuil-Brinin,  is 
commemorated  Nov.  8  and  Dec.  1 1. 

2.  Of  Tirdaglas,  is  commemorated  Dec  18.  He  is 
often  called  son  of  Crimthainn,  or  of  Ui  Crimthainn,  so 
that  the  abboU  of  Tirdaglas  were  styled  the  coarbs  of 
Colum  Mao-Crimthainn.  He  was  a  pupil  of  St.  Finian 
at  Clonard.  About  A.D.  548,  he  founded  the  celebrated 
monastery  of  Tirdaglas.  He  died,  with  many  other 
saints,  of  the  great  epidemic,  about  A.D.  552  (Reeves, 
Adamnan,  p.  186, 882;  Lanigan,  Eccl,  IJiet.  of  Ireland, 
ii,  71 ;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  xii,  250). 

3.  Cruirothir  (priest)  Colum,  of  Domhuach-mor 
Maighe  Imchlair,  is  commemorated  June  4  in  the 
Maii.  Doneg.  On  thu  day  Col^^an  places  the  Colum- 
banus  or  Columha,  presbyter  of  Kill-Eraain  (in  Meath, 
or  Limerick),  who  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  those 
who  met  St.  Patrick  as  he  returaed  from  Rome,  and  re- 
ceived from  him  the  skin  to  form  the  book-satchel,  which 
remained  in  the  Church  of  Kill-Eraain. 

4.  A  priest  of  Enach,  is  commemorated  Sept.  22. 
Colgan  placea  him  among  the  disciples  of  St.  Columha, 
but  this  is  denied  by  Lanigan  {Ecd.  Bist,  of  Ireland, 
ii,  141, 407). 

5.  Of  Inis-Cealtra,  is  often  mentioned  in  Irish  his- 
tory, but  the  details  of  his  life  are  lost.  He  had  his 
monastery  on  one  of  the  islands  in  Lough  Derg,  now 
included  in  the  parish  of  Innishcaltra,  and  called  the 
island  of  seven  churches.  He  died  of  the  great  epidemic 
A.D.  548,  and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  St.  Caimin 
(commemorated  March  24)  of  tbe  same  place  (0*Dono- 
van,  Four  Masters,  i,  187). 

6.  Of  Ros-Glanda,  is  commemorated  Sept.  6.  See 
CoLMAN  (4)  son  of  Eochaidh. 

7.  Gobha  (the  Smith),  is  commemorated  June  7. 
(}olgan  identifies  Columbus  Coilriginus  (whose  soul 
Columbus  in  Hy  is  said  to  have  seen  carried  by  the 
angels  to  the  heavenly  Joys  for  his  abundant  alms  to  the 
poor)  with  this  Colum  or  Columbus  the  Smith.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  a.  v. 


{ 


COLUMBA  4 

Colnmba  (a  daw)  U  ■  tcmcI  ihipcd  like  ■  dove. 
Aneieolly  the  «»criinent  <ru  rewivcd  within  a  veMel 
of  precioiu  metal  tniide  in  Itie  torra  of  a  dove,  which 
waa  (lupended  befoie  the  bigh-alur  by  •  chain  from 
U»  roof  of  lli«  church.    To  thu  chaiu  —  "■ 


The  Dots  Opened, 


Culnmba  Snepanded  from  the  Doot 


TDnt-lihe  diah,  buin,  or  diik,  encloecd  by  other  eheina, 
onwhich the  dove  iueifnaiplaceil.  Thii veuel opened 
on  Ibe  back;  ivhile  in  the  Iwdy  uf  it  was  formed  a  re- 
ceptacle foe  the  boBL  Itie  custom  of  reserving  the  aw:- 
tament  in  such  a  vessel  was  originally  common  to  Kaai 
and  Wear.  Perpetuus,  biahop  of  Tours,  A.D.  474,  left  in 
hIswillBsiIveidavetoAmaljiriui,a  priest,  Itiarccord- 


COLUMBARIUM 

ed  of  BMil  the  Great  that  be 
reaerred  the  Lord'i  body  in 
-a  made  of  gold.    The 
smaller   example,  iUualrated 
by  the  engiarings  here  given, 
from  the  celebrated  French 
illection  of  U.  le  Comte  da 
BaaUrd.    The  "  peritl«rium," 
ref,  occura  iii  several  old 
E  nglish  in  ven  lories  of  Cb  urch 
namenla.     See  Dovka. 
Figurei  of  dovea,  aa  appro- 
priate eccleaiuticil  lymbols, 
liltewiae  auapended  over 
Engllah  baptistariea,  and  are 
JDiea  found  carved  on 
the  canopiea  of  fonta.     As 
symbolic  represenlationa  of 
tho  Holy  Spirit,  Ihey  are  like- 

BometL[nes,ai  on  the  bnao  co- 
at Thame  Church,  Ox- 
fordahire,  they  symboliie  the 

light  and  glory  of  God.  Examples  of  thia  cnatom  are 
found  in  illuminated  HSSq  and  such  veasela  exist  in 
Kveral  foreign  iacriatiea,  though  their  use  haa  lately 
giren  place  to  the  ordinary  tabernacle.  —  Lee,  Gloi*. 
of  LiOirg.  Term;  a,  v.     See  Tabkrnacle. 

Coliuaba  is  the  name  of  several  early  aunts  beaides 
the  bishop  of  lona  anit  the  virgin  martyr.    See  also 

COtOHBA, 

1.  Said  to  have  flourished  about  A.D.  640,  is  ofUli 
given  as  the  first  bishop  of  Dnnkeld,  and  the  educator 
uf  St.  Culhbert  and  St.  Brigida  (Lanigsn,  EtxL  Ilitl.  fj 
IrtUmd,  ii,  16a).  Dr.  Reeves,  hovever  {Adamnaii,  p. 
6  IL,  290-298),  says  that  the  only  Columba  conoeded 
with  Dunkeld  is  Sl  Columba  of  lona,  whose  relica  were 
deposited  tbere,  and  who  was  honored  as  the  patron 
Hint  on  June  9  (Grub,  EccL  IflH.  xf  Scollaad,  i,  ]2» 
aq.). 

3.  Another  Columba  was  the  son  of  the  rcgulua  or 
lord  of  Appleby,  Congere,  Troely  ngham,  and  Halemath, 
all  situated  in  England,  who  is  said  to  have  been  raised 
from  the  dead,  and  bapliied  by  Si.  Diane  (q.  v.).  Be 
it  buried  at  Dunblane,  Perthshire  (Forbes,  KaL  iff 
Seat.  Siiiuli,  p.  SOT).— Smith,  Did.  of  Ckrut.  Biog.  s.  r. 

Colombann*  (or  Colomban),  Saiiii,  was  a 
French  poet,  and  abbot  of  Trudo  (St.  Trend).  Ho 
died  about  the  middle  of  the  9th  centniy.  Among  the 
works  of  Rabanus  Maurus  is  a  poem  or  dirge  on  the 
death  of  Charlemagne,  written  by  a  certain  Colomban, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  abbot  of  Sl  Trond. 
To  him  is  also  attributed  the  poem  entitled  IM  Origim 
olqut  Primordiit  Omiii  Fraaeoram  {Slirpit  Carolina). 
It  waa  written  about  the  year  840,  and  dedicated  to 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  published  with  the  note*  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  (Paris,  IG44).  See  llitloire /.illiraire 
de  la  France,  iv,  422,  and  ix ;  Migne,  Palx-al.  Lai,  cvi, 
p.  1257.— Smith,  Did.  of  Ckritt.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Columbulnin  (so  called  fTom  iu  resemblance  to 
a  dove-cote)  was  a  Roman  vault  with  recesses  for  the 
funereal  ashea.  It  ii  an  utterly  untenable  view,  that 
this  distinctively  pagan  arrangement,  essentially  be- 
longing to  the  practice  of  burning  the  dead,  which 

found  within  the  limits  of,  or  in  close  connection  with, 
a  Christian  catacomti.  Tbc  misconception  haa  arisen 
from  the  fact  that  the  Chiiitian  excavators  in  carrying 
forward  their  subterranean  galleries  not  unfraquently 
came  into  contact  with  Iha  walls  of  a  heathen  colum- 
barium. As  »on  aa  thii  unintentional  interfereoce 
with  the  sanctity  of  tbe  tomb  was  discovered,  ibt/ot- 
Mora  proceeded  to  repair  Ibeir  error.  The  gallery  wat 
abruptly  closed,  and  a  wall  was  built  at  its  end  to  sbnc 
it  off  from  the  columbarium.  Padre  Harchi  (.tfonim. 
iVK«i(.p.Ct)describe»hiadiscovety  of  agallery  in  lb* 


COLTJMBI 


43 


COLVILL 


eatacombs  of  St.  Agnes  closed  in  this  way  with  a  ruined 
wall,  on  the  other  side  of  which  was  a  plundered  col- 
umbarium. Thu  is  probably  the  true  explanation  of  the 
fact  that  a  passage  has  been  found  connecting  a  large 
heathen  tomb  full  of  oolumbariai  on  the  Via  Appia,  near 
the  Porta  San  Sebastiano,  with  a  catacomb.  See  K^tell, 
BtackreUi,  d.  Rom,  p.  389 ;  Baoul-Rochette,  Tableau  des 
Caiaeombn,  p.  288>-^mith,  Dicf.  ofCkrut,  Antiq.  s.  v. 

Columbi,  Dominique,  a  French  historian  and 
Jacobin  monk,  who  died  Oct.  6, 1696,  wrote  liittoire  de 
Scnnte-JfadeUitu  (Aix,  1688).  See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog» 
CMraie,  sl  v. 

Columbia  Jean,  a  French  theologian  and  historian 
of  the  Jesuit  order,  was  bom  in  1592  at  Manosque,  in 
Prorence.  He  was  successively,  in  the  College  of  Lyons, 
professor  of  rhetoric,  of  philosophy,  of  theology,  and  of 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  died  at  Lyons,  Dec  11, 1679,  leav- 
ing, J>e  l^buM  GtMiis  Episcoporum  VcdetUinorvm  et  Du 
tnrium  (Lyons,  1638) : — (^iod  Joarmet  Monttuciua  fton 
Fuerit  Hmreticus  (1640)  i—De  Rebus  Gettis  Episcoporum 
VivarensiuM  (1651):  —  De  Rebus  Gestis  Episcoporum 
VasiotKnsium  (1656) : — Commentaria  in  Sacrum  Scrip- 
twam  (Lyons,  1656,  vol.  i) : — De  Rebus  Gestis  Episco- 
porum Listai-iensium  (1663).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Giniralef  s.  r. 

ColumbuB,  Jonas,  a  Swedish  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, became  pastor  of  Dalecarlia,  made  a  great  effort 
to  impress  with  dignity  the  acts  of  worship  in  that 
province,  and  especially  the  music  in  the  churches.  He 
died  in  1669,  leaving  some  poems. 

lib  son  Samuel  died  July  8,  1679.  He  was  also  a 
poet,  and  a  collection  of  his  works  was  published  by  J. 
Benstiema  in  1687.     See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  Ginsrale, 

BIT. 

Colnmcille.    See  Oilumba,  Saiat, 

ColTener,  Geoboe,  a  Flemish  theologian,  was  bom 
at  liouvain  in  1564.  He  was  provost  of  the  college 
and  chancellor  of  the  Univeisity  of  Douay,  and  died  in 
1649,  leaving,  JoL  Niederi  Formicarium,  with  notes 
(Douay,  1602): — CArontooa  Cameracense  et  Atrabatense 
of  fialderic  (ibid.  1615) : — Miraculorum  et  Exemplorum 
MemorabUium  Libri  duo,  of  Thomas  de  Cantipre,  with 
the  life  of  the  author  (ibid.  1627)  i-^Kakndarium  S.  V. 
If  aria  Novissimum.  (ibid.  1638).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Ginh-ale,  s.  v. 

Colver,  NATHAmEL,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Orwell,  Yt.,  Hay  10,  1794.  He  had  limited 
facilities  for  obtaining  an  early  education,  but  his  nat- 
ural endowments  were  such  that  he  took  an  honorable 
position  among  the  ministers  of  his  denomination.  He 
served  as  a  soldier  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  for  some 
tiioe  followed  the  business  of  tanuing.  After  he  was 
settled  in  life,  his  thoughts  were  turned  towards  the  min- 
istry. For  several  years  he  preached  in  Vermont  and 
New  York,  until,  in  1836,  he  was  called  to  the  pastoral 
chai;ge  at  Union  Village,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  seven 
yesn.  During  this  period  he  made  for  himself  a  high 
reputation,  both  as  a  preacher  and  an  eloquent  pleader 
for  temperance  and  anti-slaver}'.  In  1843  he  was  invited 
SI  pastor  to  Tremont  Temple,  Boston.  For  thirteen  years 
be  prosecuted  his  work  with  eminent  success,  adding 
ooostantly  to  his  reputation  as  a  pulpit  orator  and  a 
platform  speaker.  Leaving  Boston,  he  went  to  the 
West,  spending  a  year  in  Detroit,  then  a  year  or  two 
in  Cincinnati,  and  finally  taking  up  his  residence  in 
Chicago,  where — ^with  the  exception  of  a  short  time 
when  he  had  chai^ge  of  the  ''Colver  Institute,"  an  in- 
stitotion  at  Bichmond,  Va.,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  work  of  preparing  colored  students  for  the  min- 
istry—he spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  died  at 
Chicago,  Dec  25, 1870.  More  than  sixteen  hundred 
oooverts  were  baptized  by  him.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Colvill  (ColTille,  or  ColwU)  is  the  name  of  a 
nnmber  of  Scotch  clergymen : 
1.  AixxAHDBB  (1),  was  bom  in  1020.  near  St.  An- 


drews;  became  rector  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
and  died  there  in  1676,  leaving,  among  other  works  of 
controversy,  iiudibras  Ecossais,  a  poem  in  the  style  of 
Butler,  directed  against  the  Presbyterians.  See'  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. 

2.  Alexander  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1755 ; 
called  to  the  living  at  Gask  in  1763;  transferred  ro 
Ormiston  in  1 765,  and  died  Nov.  3, 1813.  He  published 
An  A  ccouni  of  the  Parish,  See  Easti  Eccles,  Scoticamr, 
i,  803 ;  ii,  765. 

3.  George, D.D.,  studied  theology  in  the  Edinburgh 
University;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1821;  presented 
to  the  living  at  Kilwinning  in  1824,  and  ordained; 
transferred  to  Beith  in  1881,  and  died  May  13, 1852. 
His  son  George  was  minister  at  Canonbie.  See  Easti 
Eccles,  Scoticana,  ii,  161, 188. 

4.  Henry,  was  presented  to  the  parsonage  and  vic- 
arage of  Mukhart  in  1577,  and  to  the  living  at  Orphir 
in  1680,  and  continued  in  1595.  He  was  *'  hunted  to  a 
savage  death  on  the  Noup  of  Nesting,''  July  9, 1596, 
and  Gilbert  Paook  was  beheaded  at  the  market  cross, 
Edinburgh,  for  his  part  of  the  murder.  See  Easti  Ec 
des,  Scoticana,  iii,  899. 

5.  John  (1),  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St 
Andrews  about  1561 ;  was  presented  to  the  chantry  of 
Glasgow  in  1567,  and  remained  the  minister  at  Kil- 
bride when  it  was  separated  in  1569.  He  was  accused 
of  neglect  and  non- residence  in  1575;  deserted  his 
charge  in  1578,  but  on  examination  before  the  synod 
was  acquitted.  He  was  appointed  roaster  of  requests  the 
same  year ;  was  ambassador  to  queen  Elizabeth  in  1582 ; 
was  found  guilty  of  treason  in  1584,  and  imprisoned  in 
Edinburgh ;  afterwards  restored,  and  named  one  of  the 
brds  of  session  in  1587,  but  resigned  within  a  month. 
Disappointed,  he  joined  the  earl  of  Bothwell  in  his 
seditious  practices,  was  driven  from  the  kingdom,  be- 
came a  papist,  wrote  bitterly  against  Protestant  prin- 
ciples, and  died  at  Paris  in  November,  1C05,  in  great 
want  and  misery.  His  several  published  works  were 
chiefly  in  defence  of  his  own  erratic  conduct.  See 
Easti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  ii,  288. 

6.  John  (2),  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1635;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at 
Kirknewton  in  1648,  and  died  in  February,  1663,  aged 
about  forty-eight  years.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticanw, 
i,142. 

7.  John  (3),  A.M.,  was  regent  in  the  old  college,  St 
Andrews,  presented  to  the  living  at  Mid-Calder  in  1668, 
and  died  in  1671,  aged  about  forty -one  years.  See 
Easti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  i,  175. 

8.  Patrick,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  UniveN 
sity  in  1629;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Beith  in 
1645,  and  ordained;  was  a  member  of  the  General  As- 
sembly in  1648 ;  was  appointed,  in  1654,  one  of  those  for 
authorizing  admissions  to  the  ministry;  elected  modera- 
tor of  the  synod  in  1661,  which  was  the  last  meeting  they 
held  previous  to  the  rerestabltshroent  of  the  presbytery 
after  the  Bevolution.  He  was  a  ver}'  leanicd  and  good 
man,  and  died  in  Msy,  1662,  aged' about  fifty -three 
years.     Sec  Easti  Eccles.  ScoficajKe,  ii,  159. 

9.  Robert  (1),  became  minister  at  Culross  in  1593 ; 
was  one  of  the  forty  who,  in  1606,  consulted  about  hold- 
ing the  assembly  at  Abenleen  against  the  king's  au- 
thority; signed,  with  forty -one  others,  a  protest  to 
parliament  against  the  introduction  of  Episcopacy,  and 
was  one  of  the  fifty-five  who  petitioned  parliament  in 
behalf  of  the  liberties  of  the  Kirk  in  1617.  He  con- 
tinued in  1629  with  an  assistant,  and  died  in  1630.  See 
Easti  Eccles,  Scoticance,  ii,  584. 

10.  Robert  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1682 ;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Barra 
in  1694;  transferred  to  Glenluce  in  1698;  resigned  in 
July,  1714,  and  retired  to  Stranraer,  where  he  died,  June 
6, 1729,  sged  seventy  years.  See  Easti  Eccles,  Scoti- 
cana,  i,  334,  766. 

11.  Robert  (3),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1691 ;  became  schoolmaster  at  Jedburgh,  and 


COLVIN 


44 


COMBADAXUS 


was  licensed  to  preach  there  in  1695 ;  admitted  to  the 
living  at  Annan  in  1696,  and  ordained ;  transferred  to 
Yetholm  in  1C99,  and  died  before  March  2, 1731,  aged 
about  sixty  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  \,  477, 
613. 

12.  KoBRRT  (4),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1758; 
presented  to  the  second  charge  at  Dysart  the  same 
year,  and  ordained.  A  libel  was  charged  against  him, 
to  part  of  which  he  confessed,  and  for  which  he  was 
suspended  in  1784,  but  allowed  an  assistant.  He  died 
Jan.  23, 1788.  lie  published,  Britain,  a  poem  (1757)  :— 
Caledonian  Heroine, a  poem  (1771) : — Atalanta,  a  poem 
(1777)  '.—The  Downfall  o/tAe  Papal  Confederacy  (1788) : 
— Poetical  Works  (1789,  2  volii.)  '.Savannah,  a  poem 
(1793)  :—To  the  Memory  of  the  flon.  William  Leslie,  a 
poem : — Extracts  from  Synod  Sermon,  etc.  See  Fatti 
Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  538. 

13.  William  (1),  brother  of  lord  ColviU,  took  his 
degree  at  the  University  of  St,  Andrews  in  1617 ;  was 
elected  minister  of  Cramond  in  1635;  changed  to  the 
second  charge  at  Greyfriars  in  1638;  was  a  member 
of  the  General  Assembly  the  same  year;  promoted  to 
Trinity  College  Church,  Edinburgh,  in  1639;  the  same 
year  sent  by  the  Covenanters  to  the  king  of  France 
to  solicit  his  aid  against  the  despotic  actions  of  Charles 
L  He  and  his  papers  were  seized  in  England,  and 
he  was  imprisoned,  till  released  in  1640  by  the  Scottish 
army.  When  the  Tron  Church  was  made  a  new  parish, 
il^  1641,  he  was  appointed  the  first  incumbent.  In  1645 
he  obtained  protection  from  the  marquis  of  Montrose, 
for  which  he  was  suspected  of  treason,  in  1648  sus- 
pended, and  deposed  in  1649.  In  1652  he  was  made  a 
prisoner,  but  was  restored  to  the  ministry  in  1654;  ap- 
pointed to  the  Collegiate  Church  at  Perth  in  1655;  re- 
fused a  bishopric,  and  was  promoted  to  the  principalship 
of  Edinburgh  University  in  1662.  See  FaMi  Ecdes, 
Scoticana,  1,31, 55, 133;  ii,  615. 

14.  WiLLLAM  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh 
University;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1821;  presented 
to  the  living  at  Eaglesham  in  1829,  and  ordained.  He 
died  March  12, 1859,  sged  fifty-nine  years.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes.  Scoticana,  ii,  66.  ^ 

Colvlii,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clei^yman,  a  na- 
tive of  Sanquhar,  was  tutor  in  the  family  of  Hope 
Johnston;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1805;  presented 
to  the  living  at  Johnston  in  1808,  and  ordained  in  1809. 
He  died  Sept,  4, 1851,  aged  seventy-two  years.  He  left 
two  sons,  Walter,  minister  of  Cramond,  and  Robert  Fran- 
cis, minister  of  Kirkpatrick-Juxta.  See  FasH  Ecdes, 
Scoticana,  i,  651. 

ColviuB,  Andrew,  a  Protestant  divine,  was  bom 
at  Dort  in  1594.  He  became  minister  of  several  Wal- 
loon churches,  and  at  length  of  that  in  Dort;  and  in 
1620  went  to  Venice  as  chaplain  to  Paul  Sarpi,  whose 
work  on  the  Inquisition  he  translated  into  Latin  (Rot- 
terdam, 1651).  He  died  in  1671.  He  was  an  indus- 
trious writer  in  some  branches  of  science,  philosophy, 
and  poetry,  and  published,  in  1655,  a  Catalogus  Musai 
Andraa  Colciu 

ColviuB,  Nicholas,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  bom 
in  1634,  became  co-pastor  at  Dort  in  1655,  afterwards 
pastor  at  Amsterdam,  and  died  in  1717.  See  Rose, 
Gen,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Colwell,  Charles,  an  English  Methodist  preach- 
er,  was  a  native  of  Cornwall.  He  entered  the  English 
Wesleyan  ministry  in  1810,  became  a  supernumerary 
at  Falmouth  in  1837,  removed  to  Helstone,  Cornwall,  in 
1838,  and  died  June  20, 1860,  in  the  seventy-eighth  year 
of  his  age.    See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  I860. 

Colwell,  John  W.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  about  1810.  He  was  ordained  at  Rochester, 
Mass.,  Sept.  3, 1841,  and  was  pastor  there  four  years;  at 
Charlestown  and  Richmond,  R.  I.,  in  1846.  During  the 
next  five  years  he  organized  a  Church  at  Cranston. 
He  died  April  26, 1852,  on  board  the  steamer  off  the 


Colymbion. 


coast  of  Mexico,  near  Acapulco.    See  Free^toill  Baptist 
Reyister,  1853,  p.  87. 

Colymbion  (coXvft^ioy)  is  a  vessel  used  for  con- 
taining holy  water  (q.  ▼.) 
at  the  entrance  of  a  church. 
A  representation  of  such  a 
vessel  is  found  in  one  of  the 
mosaics  of  the  Church  of 
San  Vitalc  at  Ravenna,  and 
is  here  engraved.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  aspergillum 
which  hangs  from  the  arch 
above  the  basin  is  in  shape 
not  unlike  those  of  modem 
times  (Neale,  Eastern  Ch,m- 
trod.  p.  215).--Smith',  Did. 
(f  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Coly  ns,  DAviD,aDutch 
painter,  was  bom  at  Amster- 
dam about  1650.  There  are 
two  very  highly  esteemed 
pictures  by  him,  at  Amster- 
dam, representing  the  /»- 
raelites  Fed  with  Manna, 
and  Moses  Striking  the  Rode, 
See  Spooner,  Bioy,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Comaigh  (Lat  Coma- 
yid),  a  virgin,  is  commemorated  as  an  Irish  saint  May 
27.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Eochaidh.  Her  moth- 
er was  Aiglema.  She  had  a  monastery  at  Suamhlu- 
thair,  and  also  her  brother,  Colman  (q.  v.)  (Reeves, 
Ada^nnan,  p.  172  sq.).  —  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Bioy, 
s.  V. 

Coman  (or  Comman),  son  of  Eman,  is  commem- 
orated as  an  Irish  saint  March  18.  He  was  a  brother 
of  Cumin  Finn,  abbot  of  Hy.  He  went  to  Hy  as  a 
monk,  and  was  alive  in  the  time  of  SL  Adamnan.  His 
church  is  Kilchoman,  in  the  Rinns  of  Islay.  The  date 
of  his  death  is  unknown. — Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Bioy, 
8.y. 

Comande,  Francesco,  a  Sicilian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Messina  about  1580,  studied  under  Deodato  Guinao- 
cia,  and  painted  in  conjunction  with  his  brother,  Gio- 
vanni Simone.  His  best  pictures  are.  The  Martyrdom 
of  St,  Bartholomew,  in  the  church  of  that  saint  at  Mes- 
sina, and  The  Adoration  of  the  Mayi,  in  the  monastery 
of  Basioo.  See  Spooner,  Bioy,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts^ 
s.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Bioy,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Comasins  was  a  rhetor  in  the  5th  century,  who 
tumed  monk,  and  still  continued  in  the  monastery  col- 
lecting "  the  rubbish  "  of  classical  Greek  literature,  for 
which  he  is  severely  rebuked  by  Nilus  (Epist,  ii,  73,  p. 
158;  ii,  257,  p.  251).— Smith,  Did,  ofCh^t,  Bioy.  s.  v. 

Comb,  Ecclesiastical.  A  comb  of  ivory  or  pre- 
cious metal,  with  which  the  first  tonsure  was  made  and 
the  hair  was  arranged  in  the  sacristy,  was  one  of  the 
omamenta  found  in  ancient  sacristies  for  the  practical 
use  of  the  clergy.  Each  cleric  had  his  own.  The  comb 
was  usually  buried  with  the  priest  on  his  decease.  St. 
Cuthbert*s,  of  ivory,  found  in  his  tomb  when  opened, 
remains  in  the  library  of  Durham  Cathedral,  and  St. 
Loup*s,  of  the  12th  century,  at  Sens.  The  latter  is  jew- 
elled and  has  svmbolical  animals.    See  Ivories. 

Comb,  Grorgb,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Edinburgh,  Feb.  12,  1782.  At  the  age  of 
twenty -six  he  was  converted,  and  united  w^ith  the 
Church  at  Guildford.  He  studied  for  the  ministry,  in 
due  time  took  charge  of  a  new  Church  at  Hbrseli  Com- 
mon, and  in  1823  accepted  a  call  to  Oxford  Street, 
London,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  Feb.  20, 
1841.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand -book,  1841,  p,  87. 
(J.  C  S.) 

Combadazus,  a  deity  of  the  eastern  Amatiesi  was 
a  bonze,  or  Indian  priest,  while  living. 


COMBALOT 


45 


COMFORT 


Combolot^  TmtoDOBS,  a  famous  Roman  Catholic 
preacher  of  France,  was  bom  at  ChAtenay,  in  the  Is^re 
Department,  Aug.  21,  1798.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
three  he  received  holy  orders,  and  pope  Gregory  XVI, 
before  whom  he  once  preached,  appointed  him  apos- 
tottc  vicar.  For  a  number  of  years  he  acted  as  vtcar- 
geoeral  of  Rouen,  Arras,  and  Montpellier,  and  died  sud* 
denly  at  Paris,  March  19, 1873.  He  wrote,  KUments  dt 
FkUotopkie  CatAoKque  (Paris,  1888)  i—La  Conmstawee 
dt  Jinu^CkriH  (1841 ;  4th  ed.  1852)  i—Mimoirt  Adrt$»i 
aux  ^regvef  de  Frtmee,  etc  (1844),  for  which  he  was 
tmpfisoned  for  thirty  days :— Cof»/2r0Mef  sur  Us  Grat^ 
deun  de  la  Samte-Vierge  (1846)  i—Lettrt  a  M.  Gwzoi, 
etc  (1858).  See  Lichtenberger,  Encjfdop,  des  Sdeneea 
Retigiauu,  s.  v.;  Yapereau,  Did,  det  ContemporahUf 
8.T.     (RP.) 

Coinb4  Marie  Magdaueisb  de  Cyz  de,  a  Dutch 
nun,  was  bom  at  Leyden  in  1656.  She  was  brought  up 
in  the  Calvinistic  belief,  and  at  the  age  of  nineteen 
married  a  wealthy  gentleman  of  Holland,  Adrian  de 
Combe,  from  whom  she  soon  afterwards  separated.  She 
went  to  France,  joined  the  Catholics,  and  by  the  aid  of 
the  abbot,  La  Bermondieu,  rector  of  St.  Sulpicius,  ob- 
tained a  pension  of  two  hundred  pounds.  In  1686  she 
formed  a  religious  community  called  Ae  B<m  Paeteur, 
which  the  king  took  under  his  protection.  The  order 
spread  through  the  province,  and  was  confirmed  by  let- 
ten-patent  in  1698,  after  the  death  of  its  founder,  which 
occurred  at  Paris,  June  16, 1692.  Boileau  published  a 
VkdeMadanuCombi(Pnn»,\7W,llS2).  SeeHoefer, 
Abnr.  Biog,  GMrak^  s.  v.;  Biog.  (/niceneUe,  a.  v. 

Comber,  Thomas  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
unde  of  the  dean  of  Durham,  was  bom  in  Sussex,  Jan. 
1,  1575,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  became  a  fellow,  October,  1597.  He  was  pre- 
ferred to  the  deanery  of  Carlisle  in  August,  1680,  and 
made  master  of  Trinity  College  in  October,  1631.  In 
1642  he  was  imprisoned,  plundered,  and  deprived  of  all 
his  preferments.  He  died  at  Cambridge,  in  Febraary, 
1659.    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Comber,  Thomas  (2),  an  English  clergyman, 
frrtal-gnndaon  of  the  dean  of  Durham,  was  rector  of 
Osiraldkirk,  Yorkshire.  He  published.  Memoir  of  the 
Life  <md  WriHnge  of  Dean  Comber  (1779y.—8ermoru 
(JLWr):^Hitlory  of  the  MoMeaere  of  8t,  Bartholomew 
(1810) : — A  duUery  A naUfzed  (eod.) :  —  A  Scourge  for 
AdaUeren,  DueOiitt,  Gamettere,  and  Self-murderers 
(snon.,  eod.).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 
AuihorSfn,T, 

Combes,  Andre'W  J.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Indialu^  Nov.  12, 1845.  He  lived  suc- 
craively  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska ;  was  converted 
in  1865,' licensed  to  preach  in  1872,  and  in  1875  entered 
the  Nebraska  Conference,  wherein  he  labored  heroically 
nnUl  his  death,  in  1878.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con- 
fereaeesj  1878,  p.  61. 

Combes,  Francisoo,  a  Spanish  Jesuit  and  trav- 
eller, was  bora  at  Saragossa  in  1613.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Philippine  Islands  to  propagate  the  Catholic  faith. 
On  his  way  to  Rome  to  represent  hb  province,  he  died 
at  Acspulco,  in  1663,  leaving,  in  Spanish,  a  Ilietory  of 
the  JtUatds  of  Mindanao  (Madrid,  1667).  See  Hoefer, 
Sow,  Biog,  Genh-aUf  a.  v. 

Combet,  Claude,  a  French  Dominican,  was  bom 
It  Lyons  in  1614.  He  was  bachelor  of  the  University 
of  Paris,  and  became  a  famous  preacher.  He  died  at 
Lyons  in  1689,  leaving,  Oraison  Funkbre  de  Louis  XIII 
(Lyons,  1613)  i-^Oraison  Funibre  de  la  Heine  A  nne  dA  u- 
tndie  (Yannet,  1666).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gkni- 
rale,t,r, 

Combonns,  Hikro^itmus,  an  Italian  Hebraist, 
lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century.  He  be- 
longed to  the  order  of  Observantists,  and  was  professor 
of  Hebrew  at  Beigaroo.  He  wrote,  Compendium  in  quo 
Qfridpiid  ad  He£raicam  Linguam  Legendam  Pertinet 


Coniinetur  (Bergamo,  1616).    See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog, 
Ginircde,  s.  v. 

Comdhas.    SeeC^oxoAx;  Coxoak. 

Come,  Saint,    See  CosacAS. 

Comegem  was  eighth  bishop  of  Lhindaff,  contem- 
porary with  Ywyr,  k'uig  of  Gwyncdd  (Stubbs,  RegisteTf 
p.  156). 

Comeiras,  Victor  Ddpuech  de,  a  French  ecclesias- 
tic and  geographer,  was  bom  at  St.  Hippoly tc-du-Gard, 
Sept,  11, 1738.  He  was  abbot  of  Sylvanfes,  and  vicar- 
genersl  of  Beauvais,  but  was  deprived  of  his  position  at 
the  Revolution,  and  died  at  Paris,  March  29, 1805.  He 
wrote  volsw  xxii-xxxii  of  VAhige  dt  niistoire  Gin4- 
rale  des  Voyages  (Paris,  1780-1801 ;  vols,  i-xx  were  pub- 
lished by  La  Harpe)  :— /.a  Voix  du  Sage  (ibid.  1799)  :— 
Hittoire  de  PAstronomie,  transl.  from  Bailly  (ibid.  1806). 
Other  writings  remain  in  MS.  See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog, 
GinSralff  s.  v. ;  Biog,  Univej-seUef  s.  v. 

Com^s.    See  Lectionary. 

Comestor  (or  le  Mangeur,  i.  e.  decourer  of  books), 
Pierre,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at  Troyes.  He 
was  successively  canon  and  dean  of  Troyes,  then,  in 
1164,  chancellor  of  the  Church  of  Paris  and  master  of 
the  school  of  philosophy.  He  gave  up  his  benefices  in 
order  to  become  canon-regular  of  St.  Victor  at  Paris.  At 
his  death,  which  occurred  in  that  city  OcL  21, 1198  (oth- 
ers say  1178  or  1185),  he  left  all  his  goods  to  the  poor. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  S<Aolastica  Historia 
super  Novum  Testamenium  (written  before  1176,  and 
published  at  Reutling,  1471 ;  Uirecht,  1473 ;  Strasburg, 
1483,1502;  Basle,  1486;  Paris,  1513;  Haguenau,  1519; 
Lyons,  1526;  Venice,  1728;  transL  into  French  in  1494 
by  Guyart  des  Bloulins,  under  the  title :  La  Bible  Ilit- 
torie;  Paris,  without  date,  with  engravings): — Catena 
Temporum  (transl.  into  Gothic  -  French  by  Jehan  de 
Rely,  under  the  title,  Mer  des  Histoires ;  Paris,  1488) : 
— SermoneSf  under  the  name  of  Pierre  de  Blots  (May- 
ence,  1600,  1605;  Lyons,  1677,  and  often  since).  See 
Hoefer,  A  our.  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. ;  Biog,  UniverseUe^ 
a.  V. 

Comfort,  David,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  a  grad- 
uate of  Princeton,  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  New  Brunswick  in  1798,  and  soon  after  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Kingston, 
N.  J.,  where  he  labored  during  a  long  life.  From 
1816  till  his  death,  in  1858,  he  was  a  trustee  of  Prince- 
ton College.  Mr.  Comfort  was  honored  and  beloved 
by  alL  See  Alexander,  Princeton  College  ta  the  ISth 
Century, 

Comfort,  David  D.,  a  minister  of  the  Metho<list 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  received  on  trial  in  the 
North  Mississippi  Conference  in  1880,  and  died  in  Sep- 
tember, 1882.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of 
the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1882,  p.  104. 

Comfort,  Silas,  D.D.,  a  Metho<iist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Deer  Park,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  May 
18, 1803.  He  was  convertetl  at  the  age  of  nine,  be- 
becaroe  a  class-leader  at  eighteen,  a  travelling  preacher 
at  twenty,  and  in  1827  entered  the  Genesee  Conference. 
Then  began  in  eamest  his  student  life,  studying  on 
horseback,  by  torchlight,  amid  the  confusion  of  fami- 
lies, always  rising  at  four  o'clock.  Thus  the  dead  lan- 
guages, science,  general  literature,  Biblical  critici.<4m, 
and  systematic  theology  were  thoroughly  explored  by 
him.  During  his  forty- five  years  in  the  ministr}'  he 
ser\^ed  sixteen  years  as  presiding  elder,  wrote  several 
valuable  volumes,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  first 
periodicals  of  the  Church.  In  1835  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Missouri  Conference,  returned  to  the  Oneida  Con- 
ference seven  years  later,  and  in  it  labored  until  his  sud- 
den death,  Jan.  10, 1868.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con- 
ferences, 1868,  p.  105;  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of  Methodism, 

SL  V. 

ComfortiWilliam  C,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min* 


COMFORTABLE  WORDS 


46 


COMITOLO 


later,  received  an  early  religious  training,  was  con- 
verted at  the  age  of  twenty,  and,  after  exercising  his 
talents  as  a  local  preacher  a  short  time,  was  admit- 
ted into  the  Michigan  Conference,  wherein  be  labored 
many  years  faithfully  until  bis  death,  June  16, 1862. 
Mr.  Comfort  was  a  man  of  decided  opinions  and  un- 
compromising integrity.  See  Minute*  of  Annual  Con- 
ferences,  1862,  p.  206. 

Comfortable  Words,  Thk.  A  modem  feature 
in  the  existing  Anglican  form  for  the  celebration  of  the 
holy  communion,  first  introduced  in  the  second  prayer- 
book  of  Edward  VI.,  AD,  1552,  consisting  of  four  texts 
of  Scripture,  which  the  priest  is  directed  to  address  to 
the  people.  These  words  follow  the  absolution,  and 
precede  the  preface. 

Comforted,  Tub,  one  of  the  two  classes  (the  con- 
sokui  or  comforted,  and  the  fcsderati  or  confederated) 
into  which  the  Manichsean  congregations  were  ancient- 
ly divided.  See  Manicilsisx.  The  Albigenses  (q.  v.) 
classified  their  people  in  precisely  the  same  way,  and 
the  comforted  led  a  life  of  celibacy  and  strict  austerity. 
See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Comgall  (or  Congall)  is  the  name  of  several 
early  Irish  saints : 

1.  An  abbot  of  Bangor,  commemorated  May  10.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  prominent  leaders  of  monasticism 
in  Ireland,  and  is  said  to  have  had  three  thousand  monks 
under  him  at  one  time  in  various  affiliated  houses.  His 
parents  were  Setna  or  Sedna,  and  Brig  or  Briga,  and  he 
was  bom  about  A.D.  517.  After  teaching  for  some  years, 
he  founded,  in  558,  his  great  monastery  at  Bangor,  Coun- 
ty Down,  Ireland,  to  which  multitudes  flocked.  Oomgall 
drew  up  for  it  and  kindred  institutions  a  mle  which  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  in  Ireland.  His  most  noted 
disciples  at  Bangor  were  Cormac,  son  of  DLirmaid  and 
king  of  South  Leinster,  and  St.  Columbanus  ( q.  v. ). 
While  on  a  visit  to  Scotland,  he  founded  a  monaste- 
ry in  Heth.  Comgall  died  at  Bangor  on  May  10, 602, 
and  was  buried  there.  In  824  the  Danes  plundered 
the  city  and  abbey,  and,  breaking  open  his  shrine,  scat- 
tered the  contents  to  the  four  winds  (see  Reeves,  Ecd, 
l/ist,  p.  93-95,  152-154,  and  Adamnan,  p.  218,  817; 
Ussher,  Ecd,  Atitiq,  c  17,  in  Works,  vi,  478  sq.). 
Comgall  is  commemorated  in  the  Scotch  calendars,  but 
Camerarius  places  him  on  Jan.  2,  and  suggests  a  Scotch 
Bangor.  See  Lanigan,  EccL  Hist,  of  Ireland,  ii,  c.  10 ; 
Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart.  Doneff,  p.  123;  Butler,  Lives 
of  the  Saints,  v,  195  sq.;  Forbes,  KaL  of  Scott,  Saints, 
p.  108-110. 

2.  Son  of  Eochaidh,  commemorated  Sept  4.  His 
monastery  was  at  Both-conais,  in  Inis-fk>ghan.  He 
is  said  to  have  received  this  monastery  from  St.  Cia- 
nan  of  Duleek.  He  belongs  to  the  8th  century  (Todd 
and  Reeves,  Afart,  Doneg,  p.  237 ;  Lanigan,  EccL  Hist, 
of  Ireland,  i,345;  iii,  162). 

3.  Of  Gobhal-liniii,  commemorated  July  28.  His 
monaster}'  was  at  what  is  now  Galloon.  On  July  27, 
Butler  (^Livcs  of  the  Saints,  vii,  425)  gives  a  short  me- 
moir of  St.  Congall,  abbot  of  Jabhualhini.— Smith,  Diet, 
of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Comgan  (Comdhan,  or  Comman)  is  the  name 
of  two  early  Irish  saints : 

1.  Of  Cluain  -  Connaidh,  commemorated  Oct.  18. 
There  is  a  St.  Comganus  named  among  the  relatives 
of  St.  Columba,  who  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  this 
Comgan.    See  Congan. 

2.  Of  Glenn  -  Uissen,  commemorated  Feb.  27.  He 
was  the  son  of  Diarmaid,  and  his  mother  was  Ethne. 
He  founded  a  monastery  in  his  native  province  at 
Ceauw-indis,  and  succeeded  St,  Diarmaid  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  monastery  at  Glenn-uissen.  He  died 
about  A.D.  569,  it  is  supposed  (Lanigan,  Ecd,  Hist,  of 
Ireland,  ii,  76  sq. ;  Reeves,  Adanman,  Ixx,  note). 

Coml,  GiROLAMO,  a  painter  of  Modena,  flourished 
about  1 550.  He  painted  sacred  subjects,  and  was  ipuch 
employed  by  the  churches  in  omamental  work.    One 


of  his  pictures  in  San  Michele  at  Bosco  is  dated  1668. 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  GenircUe,  s.  v. 

Comiers,  Claude,  a  learned  French  mathemati- 
cian, was  bom  at  Embran.  He  was  canon  there,  pro- 
vost of  the  chapter  of  Temant,  doctor  of  theology,  and 
apostolic  prothonotary ;  also  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Paris,  and  was  considered  an  able  physician  and 
chemisL  He  had  contributed  to  the  Journal  des  Savants 
from  1676  to  1678,  and  had  invented  several  curious 
machines.  Having  become  blind  in  1690,  he  entered 
the  hospital  of  Quinze-Vingts,  where  he  took  the  title 
of  aveugle  royal  because  he  had  a  pension  from  the 
king.  He  died  at  Paris  in  October,  1698,  leaving  La 
NouteUe  Science  de  la  Nature  des  Cometes  (Lyons, 
1&65)  i^InstruetioH  pour  Beunir  les  EgKses  Prkmdues 
Reformks  a  VjtgUse  Romaine  (Paris,  1678)  i— Traits  des 
Langues  et  Ecritures  (in  the  Mercure  of  Sept.,  Oct. 
1684,  and  Feb.  1685)  i—TraiU  des  ProphHies  (ibid,  of 
Aug.,  Sept,  Dec.  1689,  and  Sept.  1690)  i—Lettre  a  erne 
Dame  NouveUement  Convertie  a  la  Religion  CathoUgue 
(ibid,  of  Dec  1691),  and  many  other  pieces.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog.  GeiUrale,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  Universelle,  s.  v. 

Comin  (or  Cumin).    See  Comtn. 

Comingo,  Hem bt  G.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Harrodsburg,  Ky.,  Feb.  2,  1809.  He 
was  carefully  reared  by  Christian  parents;  graduated 
from. Centre  College,  Danville,  in  1832;  studied  two 
years  (1883-34)  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary; 
was  licensed  in  1836  by  the  New  Brunswick  Presby- 
tery, and  became  pastor.  May  24, 1837,  in  Steubenville, 
O.,  where  be  labored  until  the  close  of  his  life,  Dec. 
1, 1861.  Ho  was  a  living  Chrbtian  and  an  earnest 
minister  of  the  gospel  See  Wilson,  Presb,  IlisL  A  I' 
manac,  1868,  p.  155. 

Comingoe,  Bbuin  Romcas,  a  German  Reformed 
minister,  was  a  native  of  Germany.  He  was  pai^tor 
at  Lunenburgf  Nova  Scotia,  for  forty-nine  years,  from 
1770.  Old  age  and  ill-health  caused  him  to  resign  in 
1819.  He  returned  to  Germany  soon  after,  and  noth- 
ing more  was  heard  of  him.  See  Harbaugh,  Fathers 
of  the  Gernu  Ttef,  Church,  ii,  159. 

ComitibuB,  Blaseus  de,  an  Italian  theologian, 
was  bora  at  Milan.  He  was  a  Minorite,  and  for  fifteen 
years  regent  of  the  order  at  Prague;  then  director  of 
the  grand  seminary,  and  theologian  to  the  archbishop. 
He  died  at  Prague  in  1685,  leaving  De  Deo  Trino  H 
Uno  (Prague,  1682):— />e  Iniellectu,  Scienlia,  Providen- 
tia,  PrcBdestinatione  et  BeprobatUme  (ibid.)  i—De  Crea- 
tione,  Statu  Innocentics,  Angelis,  etc  (ibicL  1688).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GinircUe,  s.  v. 

Comitiii,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  theologian  of 
the  Jesuit  order,  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century,  wrote  Defense  de  VHowneur  des  Saints  (Dijon, 
1657): — Initiiim  Sapieniia  et  Finis,  Timor  et  Amor 
Dei  (Chalons,  1662, 1672)  i—Sdectcs  de  Fide  Controvert 
sim  (about  1666).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genirale, 

S.V. 

ComitolO,  Neapolio,  an  Italian  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Perugia  in  1544,  of  the  family  of  the  counts 
of  CoUe-Mezzo.  He  at  first  followed  the  profession 
of  law,  but  afterwards  obtained  an  abbey,  and  became 
auditor  of  the  Rota;  was  appointed  bishop  of  Pera- 
gia  in  1591,  founded  a  college  and  several  religious 
societies,  and  died  there,  Aug.  24^  1624,  lea\dng,  in 
Latin,  a  History  of  the  Bishops  of  Perugia,  a  collec- 
tion of  the  decisions  of  the  tribunal  of  the  Rota,  and 
some  liturgical  works.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  G^ 
nirale,  s.  v. 

Comitolo,  Paolo,  an  Italian  theologian  of  the 
same  family  as  the  foregoing,  was  bom  at  Perugia  in 
1545.  He  was  not  more  than  fourteen  years  of  age 
when  he  became  a  Jesuit,  and  later  one  of  the  best  cas- 
uists of  that  society.  He  taught  successively  rhetoric, 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  moral  theology.    He  died  at 


COMMAN 


47      COMMENDATORY  LETTERS 


Perugia,  Feb.  18, 1G26.  His  principal  works  are  Catma 
llbutrium  Autkorum  in  Librum  Job  (transL  from  the 
Greek,  Ljona,  1586;  Ycoioe,  lbS7)i-'ConsiUa  seu  R&- 
tpotua  MoraUa  (Lyon%  1609) : — Doctrina  de  Contractu 
Unheno  (ibid.  1616).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GitU- 
rate,  a.  ▼. 

Comman  is  a  not  unoommon  name  among  the 
Irish  sttntB,  and  is  often  exchanged  with  Colman^  Com" 
fan,  CocMon, 

1.  ^fae  Va  Theimh/ef  oommemorated  Feb.  27.  Col- 
gan  (Acta  Sanctorum,  ^  417)  distinguishes  *'St.Gom- 
gan  Uiia-Teanne"  from  St.  Corogan  of  Glenn-uissen, 
who  b  commemorated  on  the  same  day,  and  givea  from 
the  Irish  Annals  the  date  of  the  former*s  death  as  A.D. 
663.  O'Donoran  thinks  he  was  the  brother  of  Mair- 
chn  Maccttthennuis,  who  wrote  a  life  of  St  Patrick 
from  the  dictation  of  Aldus,  bishop  of  Sletty,  and  if  So 
he  maj  hare  been  the  son  of  Cogitosus  (q.  v.). 

2.  Of  Roscommon  (Ross-Commain),  oommemorated 
Dec  26.  It  is  thought  he  died  A.D.  742.  He  is  said 
to  bare  been  of  the  race  of  Irial,  son  of  Conall  Ceamach. 
He  wrote  a  monastic  rule,  and  in  the  Annali,  about  the 
year  790,  there  is  mention  made  of  the  promulgation  of 
**  the  law  of  SL  Coman"  throughont  the  three  divisions 
of  Connaught  (  ODonovan,  Four  Masfert,  i,  848, 849, 
895;  Todd  and  Beeves,  Mart,  Doin^.  p.  849;  Lanigan, 
EccL  Bis*,  of  Ireland,  ii,  226;  ui,  177>- Smith,  Diet, 
ofCkfuL  Biof^  a.  v. 

Commandery  {^conmimia,  a  benefice),  or  Pre- 
ceptoiy  (preeceptio,  a  first  share),  is  a  cell  of  the 
Templars  and  HospitallerB  for  collecting  demesne-rents, 
snd  a  home  for  veteran  memben  of  those  orders.  The 
pmident  paid  himself  first  his  own  pension,  and  then 
Bccoonted  for  the  residue.  These  houses  remain  at 
Swingfield,  Clibora,  and  Worcester. 

Commfttrds  is  a  term  sometimes  used  in  ancient 
writers  to  denote  sponsors  in  baptism^ 

Commemoratioii,  in  its  liturgical  use,  desig- 
nates: 

1.  The  recitation  of  the  names  of  those  for  whom 
inteneessiott  is  made  in  the  mass.    See  Dipttch. 

2.  The  introduction  of  the  names  of  certain  saints  or 
events  in  the  divine  office.  Such  commemorations  are 
gencnihr  of  the  cross,  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Pan],  and  for  peace. 

3.  According  to  the  rnbrics  of  the  Roman  breviarr, 
when  a  greater  festival  falls  on  the  day  of  a  ''simple  '* 
festival,  the  latter  is  **  commemorated  "  by  the  introduc- 
taoo  of  certain  portions  of  iu  proper  service  into  that 
of  the  greater  festiraL^-Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq, 

S.V. 

4.  In  the  Church  of  England  ''commemoration " 
takes  plaoe  when  two  festiv^  concur,  and  the  office 
for  the  greater  is  used,  while  the  collect  only  of  the 
leaser  is  said;  or  when  a  festival  coincides  with  a 
greater  Svnday ;  or  a  festival  of  the  second  class  falls 
on  a  greater  week-day,  and  the  aame  rule  is  observed. 
In  Lttit,  Advent,  on  ember-da3r%  and  greater  ferials,  a 
tpedal  ooUeot  is  used. 

Commemoration  -  day,  in  the  University  of 
Oxford,  is  an  annual  solemnity  in  remembrance  of 
the  foondera  and  benefactors  of  the  university,  when 
speeches  are  made,  prire  compositions  recited,  and 
honorary  degrees  conferred  upon  distinguished  persons. 
In  coUcgea  a  form  of  prayer,  prescribed  in  queen  Eliza- 
beth's reign,  is  used  during  term,  in  pious  memory  of 
foonden  and  benefactors.  The  proper  Psalms  are  cxlv, 
cxlvi,  cxlrii ;  the  lesson,  Ecclcsiasticus  xliv.  The  suf- 
frage is: 

''Thejunt  shall  be  bad  in  everlasting  remembrance; 
Be  eh»11  not  be  afraid  of  evil  tidings. 
The  souls  of  the  rigbteons  are  in  the  hand  of  God ; 
Kdther  doth  any  torment  touch  them.'* 

Then  follows  a  collect    At  Oxford  the  commemoration 
by  the  university  is  also  called  enctmia. 


Commemoration  of  the  Departed  is  the  sol- 
emn remembrance  of  the  faithful  in  Christ  who  have 
passed  from  hence  with  the  sign  of  faith,  and  now  rest 
in  the  deep  of  peace.  A  prayer  substantially  contain- 
ing such  a  commemoration  is  found  in  every  ancient 
liturgy.  Prayer  for  the  dead  has  been  pronounced 
legal  by  the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  in  England, 
but  is  a  relic  of  Romanism. 

Commenda.    See  Diocese;  Monastkry. 

CommendatlO  (  wapa^tirtg  ),  i.  e.  collect.  (1)  In 
the  third  Council  of  Carthage  it  is  provided  that  if  a 
commendatio  of  the  dead  takea  place  iu  the  afternoon,  it 
muat  consist  of  prayen  only,  without  the  celebration  of 
maaa.  In  the  African  code,  the  set  forms  to  be  ordina- 
rily used  in  churches  seem  to  be  summed  up  under  the 
heads  preces,  prmfaiiones,  eommendcUiones,  manus  impo* 
sitiones. 

(2)  But  the  word  wapa^tffic  is  also  used  to  designate 
the  prayen  made  iu  the  congregation  on  behalf  of  the 
catechumens.  Alexius  Aristenus  (quoted  by  Suioer, 
s.  V.)  explains  it,  when  designating  a  part  of  divine  ser- 
vice, as  "  the  prayen  over  the  catechumens,  whereby 
we  commend  them  to  the  Lord."— Smith,  JHct.  of 
Christ.  Amiiq.B,y, 

Ck>mmendation  is  (1)  the  act  of  commending;  a 
favorable  representation  in  words ;  (2)  the  act  of  com- 
mending the  dying  to  the  mercy  and  favor  of  God. 

Commendatoxy  is  one  having  the  grant  of  a 
benefice  in  trust  for  life,  and  enjoying  the  revenues. 

Commendatory  Letters.  The  eariiest  trace  of 
the  practice  connected  with  these  words  is  to  be  found 
in  2  Cor.  iii,  1.  St.  Paul,  it  would  seem,  had  been  taunted 
by  rivals,  who  came  with  lettere  of  commendation  (^irc- 
<rroXac  waraTiKai)  from  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  with 
the  absence  of  such  credentials  in  his  own  case,  with  his 
attempts  to  make  up  for  the  omission  by  reiterated  self- 
commendation.  The  passage  shows  the  practice  was 
already  common,  and,  of  course,  necessary.  Lettera  of 
this  kind  may  have  been  in  previous  use  among  the 
Jews,  and  thus  helped  to  maintain  their  unity  as  a  peo- 
ple through  all  the  lands  of  the  dispersion.  Other  in- 
stances of  it  in  the  apostolic  ages  arc  to  be  found  in  the 
letter  given  to  Apollos  by  the  disciples  at  £phe8us(Acts 
xviii,  27),  in  the  mention  of  Zenas  and  Apollos  in  the 
Epistle  to  Titus  (iii,  18).  The  letUr  to  Philemon, 
though  more  distinctly  personal,  has  somewhat  of  the 
same  character.  The  practice  became  universal,  and  it 
may  be  said,  without  exaggeration,  that  no  single  prao-. 
tice  of  the  early  Christian  Church  tended  so  much  as 
this  to  impress  on  it  the  stamp  of  unity  and  organiza- 
tion. The  bishop  of  any  congregatttm,  in  any  part  of 
the  empire,  might  commend  a  traveller,  layman,  or 
cleric  to  the  good  offices  of  another.  The  precautions 
against  imposture  might  sometimes,  as  in  the  instance 
of  Peregrinus,  told  by  Lucian— perhaps  also  in  that  of 
the  "ffdse  brethren"  of  Gal.  ii,  4— be  insuflicient,  but, 
as  a  rule,  it  did  its  work,  and  served  as  a  bond  of  union 
between  all  Christian  churches. 

Those  outside  the  Church's  pale,  however  arrogant 
might  be  their  claims,  could  boast  of  no  such  proof  of 
their  oneness.  They  were  cut  off  from  what  was  in 
the  most  literal  sense  of  the  terra  the  "  communion  of 
saints."  It  was  the  crowning  argument  of  Augustine 
and  Optatus  against  the  Donatists  that  their  lettera 
would  not  be  received  in  any  churches  but  their  own; 
that  thev  were  therefore  a  sect  with  no  claim  to  cath- 
olicity,  no  element  of  permanence.  When  Paul  of  Sa- 
mosata  was  deposed  by  the  so-called  second  council  of 
Antioch,  the  bishops  who  passed  sentence  on  him  wrote 
to  Dionysius  of  Rome  and  Maximus  of  Alexandria,  re- 
questing them  not  to  address  their  letters  to  him,  but 
to  Domnus,  whom  they  had  appointed  in  his  place. 
The  letter  of  Cyprian  on  the  election  of  Cornelius  and 
that  to  Stephen  are  examples  of  the  same  kind.  The 
most  remarkable  testimony,  however,  to  the  extent  and 
the  usefulness  of  the  practice  is  found  in  the  wish  of 


COMMENDATORY  LETTERS      48 


COMMENTARIES 


JuUaa  to  reorganize  heathen  society  on  the  same  plan, 
and  to  provide,  in  this  way,  shelter  and  food  for  any 
non-Christian  traveller  who  might  be  journeying  to  a 
strange  city  (Sozomen,  //.  E.  v,  16). 

As  the  Church  became  wealthier  and  more  worldly, 
the  restrictive  side  of  the  practice  became  the  more 
prominent ;  it  was  then  what  the  passport  system  has 
been  in  the  intercourse  of  modem  Europe,  a  check  on 
the  free  movement  of  clergy,  or  monks,  or  laymen. 
Thus  it  was  made  penal  (and  the  penalty  was  excom- 
munication) for  any  one  to  receive  either  cleric  or 
la3rman  who  came  to  a  city  not  his  own  without  th^e 
letters.  Those  who  brought  them  were  even  then  sub- 
ject to  a  scrutiny,  with  the  alternative  of  being  re- 
ceived into  full  fellowship  if  it  were  satisfactory,  or,  if 
it  were  otherwise,  of  having  to  be  content  with  some 
immediate  relief.  So  the  Council  of  Elvira  seeks  to 
maintain  the  episcopal  prerogative  in  this  matter,  and 
will  not  allow  titerae  confsssoricbe  (letters  certifying 
that  the  bearer  was  one  who  bad  suffered  in  persecu- 
tion) to  take  the  place  of  the  regular  commendatory 
letters.  It  would  appear  that  the  abuse  had  spread  so 
far  that  the  ** confessor's"  passport  was  handed  from 
one  to  another  without  even  the  insertion  of  the  name, 
as  a  check  payable  to  bearer.  The  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  renewed  the  prohibition  of  the  apostolic  canon 
against  allowing  any  strange  cleric,  even  as  reader,  to 
officiate  in  another  city  without  the  **  commendatory 
letters  "  from  his  own  bishop.  That  of  Antioch  (A.D. 
841)  makes  special  restrictions  in  regard  to  the  various 
kinds  of  letters.  That  of  Aries  places  those  who  have 
received  commendatorv  letters  under  the  surveillance 
of  the  bishop  of  the  city  to  which  they  go,  with  the 
provision  that  they  are  to  be  excommunicated  if  they 
begin  "  to  act  contrary  to  discipline,"  and  extends  the 
precaution  to  political  oflTenccs,  or  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  democratic  element  into  the  government 
of  the  Church.  The  system  spread  its  ramifications 
over  all  provinces.  It  was  impossible  for  the  presbyter 
who  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  bis  bishop  to  find 
employment  in  any  other  diocese.  Without  any  formal 
denunciation  the  absence  of  the  commendatory  letter 
made  him  a  marked  man.  The  unity  of  the  Church 
became  a  terrible  reality  to  him. 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  other  terms  appear 
as  applied  to  these  letters,  and  it  may  be  well  to  regis- 
ter the  use  and  significance  of  each. 

1.  The  old  term  was  still  retained,  as  in  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  where  the  prominent  purpose  was  to 
commend  the  bearer  of  the  letter,  whether  cleric  or 
layman,  to  the  favor  and  good  offices  of  another  bishop. 

2.  The  same  letters  were  also  known  as  ^  canonical " 
*'in  accordance  with  the  rule  of  the  Church."  This  is 
the  word  used  in  the  letter  from  the  synod  of  Antioch, 
by  the  councils  of  Antioch  and  Laodioea.  The  Latin 
equivalent  seems  to  have  been  the  lUertBjbmuUaSfi.e. 
drawn  up  after  a  known  and  prescribed  form,  so  as  to 
be  a  safeguard  against  imposture.  It  was  stated  at  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  by  Atticns,  bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople, that  it  was  agreed  by  the  bishops  at  the  councils 
of  Niaea  that  everv  such  letter  should  be  marked  with 
certain  letters,  in  honor  of  the  three  Persons  of  the 
Trinity.  In  the  West  the  signature  or  seal  of  the 
bishop  was  probably  the  guarantee  of  genuineness. 
The  first  mention  of  the  use  of  a  seal-ring  occurs,  it  is 
believed,  in  Augustine. 

8.  From  the  use  of  the  letters  as  admitting  clergy  or 
laymen  to  communion  they  were  known  as  communica- 
toiHcB  in  Latin,  and  by  a  Greek  equivalent 

4.  The  litera  pacifica  appear  to  commend  the  bearer 
fur  eleemosynary  aid.  They  are  to  be  given  to  the  poor 
and  those  who  need  help,  clerics  or  laymen;  especially, 
according  to  the  Greek  canonists,  to  those  who  had 
suflEered  oppression  at  the  hands  of  civil  magistrates. 
The  word  is  used  also  by  the  Council  of  Antioch,  as  ap- 
plied to  letters  which  might  be  given  by  presbyters  as 
weQ  as  bishops. 


5.  There  were  "letters  dimissory,"  like  those  of 
modem  times.  The  word  is  of  later  use  than  the 
others,  and  occurs  first  in  the  council  in  Tmllo,  in  a 
context  which  justifies  the  distinction  drawn,  that  it 
was  used  in  reference  to  a  permanent  settlement  of  the 
bearer,  *' commendatory,"  when  the  sojourn  in  another 
diocese  was  only  temporary. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
AnHq^t  s.  v. 

Commendatory  Prayer  is  a  name  given  to  the 
thanksgiving  offered  by  the  bishop  in  the  early  Church 
near  the  close  of  the  morning  service.  It  is  called  cv- 
Xapitrria  Sp^pivri  (morning  thanksgiving),  and  is  in 
these  words :  "  O  God,  the  God  of  spirits  and  of  all  flesh, 
with  whom  no  one  can  compare,  whom  no  one  can  ap- 
proach, that  givest  the  sun  to  govem  the  day,  and  the 
moon  and  the  stars  to  govem  the  night;  look  down  now 
upon  us  with  the  eyes  of  thy  favor,  and  receive  our 
morning  thanksgivings,  and  have  mercy  upon  us.  For 
we  have  not  spread  forth  our  bonds  to  any  strange  god; 
for  there  is  not  any  new  god  among  us,  but  thou,  our 
eternal  and  immortal  God,  who  hast  given  us  our  bieiug 
through  Christ,  and  our  well-being  through  him  also. 
Vouchsafe  by  him  to  bring  us  to  everlasting  life;  with 
whom  unto  thee  be  glory,  honor,  and  adoration,  in  the 
Holy  Ghost,  world  without  end.  Amen." — Bingham, 
Afdiq,  bk.  xiii,  ch.  x,  §  vii. 

Commentaries,  Biblicau  We  supplement  our 
article  on  this  subject,  in  vol.  ii,  by  a  notice  of  the  prin- 
cipal expository  works  that  have  appeared  later. 

Lange^s  Bibelwtrky  as  translated  and  augmented 
by  the  various  (chiefly  American)  scholars,  under  the 
general  supervision  of  Dr.  SchafT,  covers  the  entire  Bi- 
ble, including  the  Apocrypha,  in  twenty-five  large  oc- 
tavo volumes,  and  is  the  most  complete  thesauma  of 
exegetical,  critical,  doctrinal,  and  practical  comment 
extant  The  additions  by  the  American  editors  have 
greatly  enhanced  its  value.  • 

Keil  and  Delitzsch  on  the  entire  Old  Test. 
(transL  in  Clark*s  Foreign  Theological  Library^  Edinb. 
25  vols.  8vo)  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best  simply  exegetical 
commentary  for  scholars.  The  authors  have  shrunk 
from  no  difficulty,  but  have  met  every  question  in  a 
careful,  evangelical,  and  earnest  spirit;  and  hare 
brought  to  their  task  the  ripest  fruits  of  leaming. 
Their  readers,  of  course,  will  not  ag^ree  with  them  on 
every  point,  but  they  will  have  reason  to  weigh  well 
their  judgment  and  their  arguments.  There  is  prom- 
ise of  a  continuation  of  the  work  into  the  New  Teat, 
Delitzsch  has  published  notes  on  Hebrews  (transL  like- 
wise by  the  Messrs.  Clark),  and  Keil  has  begun  his  com- 
menta  on  the  Gospels.  For  the  present,  however,  their 
work  must  be  supplemented  by 

Meyer  on  the  New  TesL  (likewise  in  an  English 
dress,  by  the  Messrs.  Clark  of  Edinb.,  20  vols.  8vo^  not 
embracing  Rev.).  This  is  perhaps,  on  the  whole,  th^ 
best  exegetical  manual  for  scholars  on  the  New  Test., 
being  accurate,  moderately  rationalistic,  and  sufficiently 
copious  for  most  purposes. 

The  Bible  Commentary,  or,  aa  it  is  generally 
designated,  The  Speaker's  Commentary  (republished  l^ 
the  Scribners,  N.  Y.  10  vols.  8vo),  is  peculiarly  avail- 
able for  both  scholars  and  ordinary  readers,  as  it  em- 
braces a  large  amount  of  valuable  exposition  in  a  com- 
paratively small  compass.  It  is  especially  good  on  ar- 
chsBological  questions ;  is  eminently  conservative,  and 
particularly  commendable  for  its  brief  but  excellent  in- 
troductions to  the  several  books. 

Wordsworth  {The  Holy  Bible,  with  Notes,  togeth- 
er with  his  Greek  Testament,  with  Notes,  covering,  to- 
gether, the  entire  canonical  Scriptures  [Lond.  1856-64, 
and  several  later  editions,  10  vols,  imperial  4to])  ia 
throughout  sound  and  judicious;  suggestive  but  not 
exhaustive;  scholarly  rather  than  profound. ' 

The  Pulpit  Commentary,  by  a  number  of 
English  scholars  (similar  in  this  respect  to  The  Bible 
Commentary  above,  but  more  practical  and  copious),  of 


COMMENTARIES 


49 


COMMERCE 


which  aboat  twenty  Tolamefl,  octavo,  bare  already  ap- 
peared, and  which  is  intended  to  cover  the  whole  Sl- 
ide, hai  many  excellent  features,  happily  combining 
MWDd  leamiog  and  practical  piety.  It  is  adapted  to 
geoeril  readers. 

The  Cambridge  Bible  is  a  series  of  small  vol- 
nmes  for  popular  ose  (especiaUy  schools),  and  yet  con- 
tiining  the  results  of  the  latest  criticisms  and  research- 
»f  prepared  by  varioos  English  divines,  and  edited  by 
dean  Pw>wne,  a  large  portion  of  which  has  already 
been  iasued. 

Whedon's  Commentaty  is  intended  for  English 
readefs,  especially  Sunday-school  teachers,  and  is  ad- 
mirably pithy  and  suggestive.  The  New -Test,  part 
(S.  Y.  and  Lond.  5  vob.  12mo)  has  lately  been  com- 
pleted by  Dr.  Whedon  himself,  and  the  Old  Test,  has 
been  intrusted  to  various  scholars,  who  have  already 
issued  three  volnmes  in  similar  style,  and  are  expected 
to  finish  the  work  in  five  volumes  more. 

Jamieson,  Fausset,  and  Brown  have  com- 
bined ia  a  practical  commentary  on  the  entire  Script- 
ures, which  has  been  published  in  several  forms  in  Scot- 
land, and  reprinted  in  Philadelphia  in  one  thick  volume. 
The  annotations  are  brief,  but  spiritual,  and  well  adapt- 
ed to  ordinary  readers. 

Cowles  has  prepared  a  very  judicious  series  of 
notes  on  all  the  Biblical  books  (N.  Y.  16  vols.  12mo), 
for  pastors,  teachers^  and  general  readers. 

S  t  i  e  r '  s  Words  of  the  Lord  JenUf  together  with  his 
Wordt  of  the  AngtU,  covera  many  very  important  pas- 
sa^  of  the  New  Test.,  and  is  an  almost  unique  speci- 
men of  exhaustive  comment  in  the  most  evangelical 
and  pfKtical  spirit.  The  whole  has  been  republished 
by  Tibbab  dl;  Son,  New  York,  in\three  compact  octa- 
vo volumes,  with  valuable  improvements  from  Clark^s 
translation  out  of  the  original  German. 

£Uicott*8  Commefitary  for  EngHth  Headers  (of 
which  the  New->Te8t.  portion,  prepared  by  various  em- 
inent British  ^eigymen,  has  appeared  in  London  in 
three  snper-voyal  octavo  volumes;  and  of  which  the  Old 
Test,  is  in  course  of  publication  on  a  similar  plan)  is  de- 
lightfully fresh  and  instructive. 

Dr.  Schaff  is  also  editing  an  elegantly  illustrated 
oommentaiy  on  the  New  Test,  prepared  by  able  Amer- 
ican Bcholm,  several  volnmes  of  which  have  already 
appeared,  giving^  the  results  of  criticism  and  explo- 
fitions  in  a  popular  form. 

The  issue  of  the  Anglo-American  Revised  New  Test., 
recently  followed  by  the  revised  venton  of  the  Old 
Test,  has  given  a  powerful  stimulus  to  Bible  study, 
and  the  International  Sunday-school  Series  of  lessons 
has  wonderfully  aided  in  the  same  direction,  especially 
the  comments  tbereon  abundantly  issoed  in  books  and 
periodicah. 

Among  recent  expositions  on  particular  books  of  the 
Bthle,  available  in  an  English  dress  for  scholars,  we 
notice  as  specially  valuable,  EUicott's  admirable  notes 
on  the  Pastoral  Epistles  of  Paul  (reprinted  in  2  vols.  8vo, 
at  Andover) ;  Murphy,  on  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
tnd  the  PmOuos  (reprinted,  ibid.) ;  6odet,on  Luke,  John, 
and  Bomans  (tranal.  in  Chirk's  Foreign  Evangelical 
Ubrary,  Edinb.) ;  Luthardt,  on  John's  Gospel  (ibid.) ; 
Hsnpt,  on  1  John  (ibid.) ;  Pbilippi,  on  Bomans  (ibid.) ; 
Gloag,  on  the  Acts  (iUd.) ;  Glasgow,  on  Revelations 
(ibid.) ;  Lightlbot,  on  the  Pauline  Epbtles  (Galatians, 
Philippiansv  Colossians,  and  Philemon,  already  issued 
by  IbiemiUan,  Lond.};  Eadie,  on  Galatians,  Ephesians, 
C^Josnana,  and  Thessalonians  (Lond.  and  Edinb.,  in  part 
leprinted  by  Carter,  N.  Y.) ;  Hodge,  on  Romans  (new 
ed.  Phihu  1871),  Corinthians,  and  Epheuans;  Turner, 
on  Romans,  Galatians,  Ephedans,  and  Hebrews  (N.  Y. 
1852^ ;  Denoaiest,  on  Peter  fibid.  1851-62) ;  Hackett, 
CO  the  Acts  (new  ed.  Bost.  1858);  Perowne,  on  the 
I^alms  (new  ed.  Lond.  1870);  Gardner,  on  Jude  (Boat. 
1%6) ;  Moore,  on  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Blalachi  (N.  Y. 
^od.);  Wright,  on  Ecdesiastes  (Lond.  1888). 
An  OLOBllent  and  diaerimimiting  review  of  exegetical 

XIL— D 


writers,  in  past  and  recent  times,  may  be  found  in  Ter- 
ry's BibHoal  ffermeneuHcs  (N.  Y.  1888),  p.  608-788. 

CommentatorB.  Ahcikkt.     See   Interpreta- 
tion, BXRUCAU 

Commeroe,  Christian  Views  of.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  find  in  the  Bible  a  passage  that  disparages 
trade,  whether  with  or  without  a  handicraft  In  the 
Old  Testament  as  the  calling  of  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab 
puts  the  highest  honor  on  the  skill  of  the  artisan,  so 
the  ordinar}'^  processes  of  trade  are  no  less  sanctified  by 
connecting  them  with  God  and  his  law  (Lev.  xix,  86, 
86;  Dent,  xxv,  18-15;  Prov.  xl,  1;  xvi,  10,  28;  xxxi, 
24;  Micah.  vi,  11).  Nor  ia  it  amiss  to  observe  that 
the  Jewish  custom,  still  prevalent,  of  bringing  up 
eveiy  boy,  without  exception,  to  a  business,  trade,  or 
handicraft,  appears  to  be  immemorial,  and  may  serve  to 
explain  both  the  calling  by  our  Lord  of  fishermen  as  spos- 
tles,  and  his  own  training  as  a  carpenter  (Mark  vi,  8), 
as  well  as  the  tent-making  of  Paul,  Aquila,  and  Priscilla 
(Acts  xviii,  8).  No  incompatibility,  therefore,  between 
the  exercise  of  a  trade  and  the  Christian  calling,  wheth- 
er among  the  laity  or  the  dcrgy,  can  be  coeval  with  the 
Church,  and  all  legislation  to  this  effect  most  belong  to 
what  may  be  termed  the  secondary,  not  the  primary, 
nra  of  its  development.  The  places  in  which  the 
gospel  seems  to  have  preferably  taken  root  were  busy 
commercial  cities,  such  as  Antioch,  Corinth,  Ephesns. 
The  age  in  which  Christianity  forced  itself  on  the  no- 
tice of  the  pagan  world,  and  was  honored  with  imperial 
persecution,  the  time  of  Nero,  was  also  one  of  great 
commercial  activity.  Under  the  later  emperors  trade 
was  looked  upon  as  an  occupation  of  inferior  dignity. 
A  constitution  of  Theodosius  and  Yalentinian  (A.D. 
486)  required  all  bankers.  Jewellers,  dealers  in  silver  or 
clothing,  apothecaries,  and  other  trafi^ckers  to  be  re- 
moved from  provincial  offices,  *'in  order  that  every 
place  of  honor  and  official  ser\'ice  (militia)  should  be 
cleared  of  the  like  contagion."  Traders  generally,  ex- 
cept the  metropolitan  bankers,  were  again  excluded  from 
the  mUUia  by  a  constitution  of  Justin.  Soldiers,  con- 
versely, were,  by  a  constitution  of  Leo  (A.D.  458),  for- 
bidden to  trade;  and  a  constitution  of  Honorius  and 
Theodosius  forbade  men  of  noble  birth,  conspicuous  dig- 
nity, or  hereditary  wealth,  to  exercise  a  trade.  The 
exercise  of  the  smaller  trades  and  handicrafts  oden  dif- 
fered little  from  slavery.  A  constitution  of  the  emperor 
Constantino  (A.D.  829)  speaks  of  freedmen— artificers 
belonging  to  the  state — and  desires  them  to  be  brought 
back,  if  enticed  out  of  the  city  where  they  reside.  The 
bakers  seem  to  have  been  in  an  almost  lower  condition 
still,  since  their  status  is  expressly  treated  as  servile. 
Curiously  enough,  the  swineherds  of  the  capitals,  as 
canning  on  a  labOT  for  the  benefit  of  the  Boman  people, 
were  specially  exempted  from  all  sordid  duties.  Iron- 
workers were  to  be  marked  in  the  arm,  and  formed  also 
a  hereditary  caste,  the  admission  to  which  was  regu- 
lated with  especial  care.  In  the  interior  of  the  empire 
trade  was  not  only  restricted  by  monopolies  which  un- 
der Justinian  were  carried  to  a  cruel  height,  but  by  the 
reservation  of  various  articles  for  imperial  use,  as  gold 
and  silver  tissue  or  embroidery,  and  the  dye  of  the  "  holy 
murex.'*  Buying  and  selling  seems  to  have  been  in  a 
great  measure  carried  on  at  fairs  and  in  markets.  Fairs 
were  often  held  on  saints*  days,  though  St.  Basil  con- 
demns the  practice;  thus,  there  was  a  fair  in  Lucania 
on  the  birthday  of  St.  Cyprian;  a  thirty  days'  fair  free 
of  toll  in  Bdessa  at  the  feast  of  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle, 
etc  Notwithstanding  the  low  estimation  in- which 
trade  was  held  it  seems  clear  that,  until  Justinian's  time, 
at  least,  it  was  not  held  civilly  incompatible  with  the 
clerical  office.  Hippolytus  (8d  century)  shows  us  the 
future  pope  Calixtus,  set  up  by  Carpophonis  as  a  bank- 
er, holding  his  bank  in  the  "Piscina  Publica,"  and  re- 
ceiving deposits  flrom  widows  and  brethrc'n.  A  law  of* 
Constantino  and  Julian,  indeed  (A.D.  dd7),  sought  tu' 
compel  trader  derics,  among  others,  to  devote  theiv> 


COMMERCE 


60 


COMMERCE 


gains  to  charitable  uses.  The  next  paaaage  indicates 
a  ctistom  still  more  strange  to  us:  that  of  workshops^ 
and  even  taverns,  being  kept  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Church.  Other  enactments  indicate  to  us  the  extent 
of  the  trade  which  was  carried  on  in  the  eastern  capital 
on  this  behalf,  and  the  singular  character  of  a  por- 
tion of  it.  In  oonsidention  of  the  cathedral  under- 
taking what  in  modem  French  parlance  would  be 
termed  the  **Pompes  Fun^ras,"  Gonstantine  granted 
to  it  nine  hundred  and  eighty  workshops,  of  the  va- 
rious trades  of  the  city,  to  be  held  free  of  all  tax ; 
Anastasius  added  one  hundred  and  fifty  more.  The 
guilds  of  the  city  complained  that  the  number  of 
tax-free  establishments  was  ruining  them.  It  is  clear 
that  in  the  6th  century  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
trade,  including  the  liquor  traffic,  was  carried  on  on  be- 
half of  the  Church  and  its  charitable  establishments  in 
the  capital  of  the  eastern  empire.  If  we  turn  from  the 
Boman  to  the  barbarian  world,  the  codes  of  the  latter 
till  the  time  of  Charlemagne  scarcely  contain  an  allu- 
sion to  trade. 

One  form  of  trade  was  always  foibidden  by  the 
Church— that  of  earning  a  livelihood  by  usury.  See 
Usury.  In  other  respects  it  was  long  before  trade  was 
deemed  by  the  Church  itself  incompatible  with  clerical 
functions,  though  the  fathers  might  inveigh  against  it 
as  a  form  of  worldliness.  The  growth  of  some  general 
feeling  on  the  subject  is,  however,  to  be  traced  in  the 
Council  of  Elvira  (A.D.  806),  which  forbids  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons  to  depart  from  their  phM^es  for  the 
sake  of  trade,  or  to  go  round  the  provinces  seeking  lu- 
crative markets.  To  obtain  their  livelihood  they  may, 
indeed,  send  a  son,  a  freedman,  an  agent,  or  any  one 
else ;  and  if  they  wish  to  trade  let  them  do  so  within 
the  province.  The  main  object  clearly  was  to  pre- 
serve to  their  flocks  the  benefits  of  their  ministrations, 
not  to  put  dishonor  on  trading  itself.  A  collection  of 
decrees  of  very  doubtful  authority,  attributed  to  the 
Nioene  council, contains  among  its^'statutes  for  priests," 
a  provision  that  the  priest  shall  not  be  a  barber,  a  sur- 
geon, or  a  worker  in  iron,  the  two  former  prohibitions 
turning,  probably,  on  blood-letting  in  its  most  literal 
form,  the  latter  on  the  providing  instruments  for  blood- 
shed. 

The  fourth  Council  of  Carthage  (A.D.  897)  forbids 
derics  to  go  to  markets,  except  to  buy,  under  pain  of 
degradation,  but  at  the  same  time  enacts  that  *'  a  cleric, 
however  learned  in  the  word  of  God,  shall  seek  his  live- 
lihood by  means  of  a  handicraft;"  that  "a  cleric  shall 
provide  for  himself  food  and  clothing  by  a  handicraft  or 
by  agriculture,  without  detriment  to  his  office ;"  and  that 
**  all  clerics  who  have  strength  to  work  shall  learn  both 
handicrafts  and  letters."  These  enactments  indicate 
that,  at  all  events  in  this  quarter  of  the  Church,  a  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  trade  and  handicrafts,  and 
that  the  exercise  of  the  former  by  clerics  was  re- 
strained, while  the  latter  was  enjoined. 

By  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (A.D.  451) 
the  line  between  *' secular"  and  "religious"  employ- 
ments appears  to  have  become  much  more  sharply 
marked.  The  8d  canon  speaks  of  clerics  who  for  filthy 
lucre  carry  on  secular  business,  and  forbids  them  to  do 
so — a  prohibition  which  would  seem  to  include  every 
form  of  trade,  but  which  cannot  have  been  so  consid- 
ered, since  the  Council  of  Chaloedon  is  expressly  named 
as  one  of  the  four  to  whoee  canons  force  of  law  is  given 
by  Justinian's  code  (A.D.  638),  which  expressly  reec^ 
nises  both  clerical  trading  and  trading  on  behalf  of  the 
Church. 

In  the  West,  however,  the  feeling  against  clerical 
trading  became  continually  stronger;  a  letter  of  pope 
Gelasius  I.  (A.D.  492-496)  to  the  bishops  of  Lucania 
speaks  of  his  having  heard  from  Picenum  that  very 
many  clerics  there  are  occupied  with  dishonorable  busi- 
ness and  filthy  lucre,  and  enjoins  them  to  abstain  from 
unworthy  gain,  and  from  every  device  or  desire  of  busi- 
of  any  kin4i  or  else  from  the  fulfilment  of  clerical 


functions.  The  Council  of  Tarragona  (A.D.  616)  enacts 
that  **  whosoever  will  be  in  the  clergy,  let  him  not  be 
careful  to  buy  too  cheap  or  sell  too  dear,  or  let  him  be 
removed  from  the  clergy."  A  further  provision  implies 
a  prohibition  both  of  trade  and  of  usury.  The  third 
Council  of  Orleans  (A«D.  688)  in  like  manner  forbids 
clerics  from  the  rank  of  deacons  upwards  to  cany  on 
business  like  public  traders,  or  to  carry  on  a  forbidden 
business  under  another's  name.  In  spite  of  these  enact- 
ments, we  find  in  the  letten  of  Gregory  the  Great  (A.D. 
690-608)  mention  made  of  a  ship-building  bishop  in 
Campania. 

The  capitularies  of  Charlemagne  (mostly,  if  not  al- 
ways, invested  with  the  sanction  of  the  Church)  deal 
repeatedly  with  the  subject  of  trade.  The  ecclesiastical 
capitulary  of  789  enacts  that  measures  and  weights  be 
equal  and  just,  **  whether  in  cities  or  whether  in  mon- 
asteries, whether  for  giving  or  whether  for  receiving." 
The  Frankfort  Capitulary  of  794  is  one  of  several  which 
attempt  to  fix  the  prices  of  victuals.  The  pitch  of  ac- 
tual cruelty  is  reached  in  the  *'Capitula  de  Judans," 
where  every  Jew  is  forbidden  to  have  money  in  his 
house,  to  sell  wine,  victuals,  or  any  other  thing,  under 
pain  of  confiscation  of  all  hb  goods,  and  imprisonment, 
till  he  come  into  the  imperial  presence.  The  utter  ab- 
sence of  aU  notion  of  a  possible  right  to  freedom  in 
trading  is  well  expressed  in  one  of  the  Capitula  pub- 
lished A.D.  803 :  **  That  no  man  presume  to  sell  or  buy 
or  measure  otherwise  than  as  the  lord  emperor  has 
commanded." 

Markets  are  not  to  be  held  on  the  Lord's  day  (va- 
rious councils  of  the  9th  century),  except  where  tJiey 
have  been  held  of  old  and  lawfully.  Forestalling  for 
covetousness'  sake  is  forbidden  (Capitulary  of  Aix-U- 
Chapelle  of  809).  The  Council  of  Friuli  (A.D.  791)  even 
forbfkde  generally  the  carrying  on  of  secular  business  to 
an  immoderate  extent. 

Presbyters  were  by  one  capitulary  forbidden  to  trade, 
or  gather  riches  in  any  wise  by  filthy  lucre  (A.D.  806)^ 
On  the  other  hand  the  Council  of  Mayence  (A.D.  813) 
more  guardedly  forbids  clerics  and  monks  to  have  un- 
just weights  or  measures,  or  to  carry  on  an  oujust 
trade ;  '*  nevertheless  a  Just  trade  is  not  to  be  forbidden, 
on  account  of  divers  necessities;  for  we  read  that  the 
holy  apostles  traded,"  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  being  re- 
ferred to  as  a  further  authority.  Trade  was,  however, 
forbidden  to  penitents,  **  because  it  is  difficult  that  be- 
tween the  dealing  of  seller  and  buyer  sin  should  not  in- 
tervene," 

The  exact  meaning  of  some  of  the  later  texts  above 
referred  to  is  rendered  somewhat  doubtful  thcoogh  the 
gradual  narrowing  of  the  term  negotutm  and  its  deriva- 
tives, from  the  sense  of  buaness  in  its  widest  meaning 
to  the  specific  one  of  trade.  They  show,  however,  that 
while  the  vocations  of  the  early  apostles  were  still  re- 
membered, and  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  had  raised  the 
dignity  of  labor  itself,  the  growing  Judaistic  distinction 
between  '* secular"  and  '* religious"  acts  and  matters, 
so  foreign  to  the  true  spirit  of  Christianity,  had  by  the 
9th  century  begun  to  render  the  very  idea  of  trade  in- 
compatible with  the  clerical  calling,  not  so  much,  as  in 
early  times,  by  reason  of  its  distracting  the  minister 
from  his  sacred  functions,  as  on  account  of  a  supposed 
inherent  dishonor  attached  to  it.  A  comparison  with 
civil  legislation  shows  that  the  distinction  is  in  itself  a 
result  of  the  secularizing  of  the  Chureh.  The  ultra-re- 
fined officialism  of  the  later  Roman  empire,  which  made 
the  sovereign  the  only  source  of  honor,  and  excluded 
the  independent  trader  (one  specially  rich  class  except- 
ed) even  from  the  merely  civil  fnilUia,  on  the  one  hand 
— the  rude  savagery  of  the  barbarian  on  the  other, 
which  looked  upon  war  and  warlike  sports  as  the  only 
employments  worthy  of  a  man,  and  almost  utterly  ig. 
nored  in  legislation  the  very  existence  of  the  trader — 
must  both,  whatever  phenomena  to  the  contrary  may 
present  themselves  in  Justinian's  code,  have  reacted 
profoundly  upon  the  spirit  of  the  Church.    The  servioe 


COMMINERELL 


51 


COMMUNION 


of  God,  which  looa  daimed  the  title  of  a  mUtiiaf  nrast 
bin  the  exdnaiTeneaB  of  one,  whether  the  tenn  were 
used  in  the  Romui  official  sense  or  in  the  warlike  bar> 
bvum  one ;  whaterer  was  ineompatible  with  the  dig- 
nity  of  the  fonctiomury  of  an  earthly  sovereign,  of  the 
Boldier  of  an  earthly  chief,  most  be  inoompatible  also 
with  that  of  a  minister  of  God,  a  soldier  in  his  host 
A(  the  same  time,  the  infloenee  of  this  distinction  had 
not  gone  so  far  as  to  exdade  the  whole  realm  of  trade 
(fona  Chnrch  solicitode,  and  it  is  remarkable  to  observe 
in  the  canons  of  French  councils  of  the  beginning  of 
the  9th  eentoiy  similar  enactments  against  dishonesty 
in  trade  to  those  of  the  Pentateuch.  Smith,  DieL  of 
CkruLA9tiq.B,y.    See  Govktoushiow  ;  Dbrtob. 

Commixierall.  Johank  Paul,  a  German  theolo- 
gisn,  was  bom  at  Heilbronn,  July  29, 1720.  He  stud- 
ied at  Tubingen,  where  he  took  his  degrees  in  1739 ; 
then  trareUed  through  Germany,  England,  and  Hol- 
land. On  his  return  he  performed  various  ecclesiastical 
functions,  especially  at  Carlsruhe.  He  died  at  G5ppin- 
gen  in  1774,  leaving,  IlnUge  Kofuel  JUden  Uher  dam  ertU 
Bwk  Mote  (Carlsruhe,  1788) :— J  dU  PrecUgten  Uber  den 
Propketem.  Ie$aiam.    See  Hoefer,  iVbur.  Biog,  Ghiirdle, 

fcV. 

Commixiistri  are  the  presbyters  in  the  early  Chris- 
tian Chnrch  who  assisted  in  the  administration  of  the 
ascrament&  Subsequently  they  regularly  administered 
the  ordinances  themselvesL  —  Gardner,  Faitkt  of  tke 
WoHd,  s.  V.    See  Pbesbttxr. 

CominiBtio  (or  Commlxtio)*  In  the  Boman 
misBsl,  after  the  breaking  of  the  host  (see  Fractiox), 
the  priest  places  a  particle  in  the  chalice,  saying  to  him* 
sdf,  **  May  this  commixtion  and  consecration  of  the 
body  and  Uoodof  our  Loid  Jesus  Christ  avail  to  us  who 
receive  it  nnto  life  etemaL''  This  practice  appears  to  be 
an  anoeot  one,  and  to  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  conse- 
ctatMo  (<^  v.).  It  is  found  in  the  liturgy  of  SL  James^ 
where  the  priest,  after  breaking  the  bread,  places  the 
portioa  winch  he  holds  in  his  right  hand  in  the  chalice, 
**2nngt*'1^  union  of  the  all-holy  body  and  precious 
blood  of  our  Lord  and  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ," 
The  fourth  Council  of  Toledo  (A.D.  688),  canon  18,  or- 
ders the  commixtion  to  take  place  between  the  Lord's 
Pkayer  and  the  benediction.  Ccanmer  explained  the 
ceremony  as  signifying  the  Joining  together  of  Christ's 
body  and  Mood  at  the  resurrection,  which  before  were 
severed  at  the  time  of  his  passion« — Smith,  DkL  of 
CAruL  Antaq,  a.y, 

CQmmon  Hbiui9  (or  Parlor)  in  a  monastery  is 
the  calefactory ;  a  common  room,  with  a  fire  in  winter, 
for  the  monks. 

Common  of  Saints  is  a  festal  service  in  honor 
of  a  particular  kind  or  class  of  saints^  e.  g.  a  martyr,  a 
virgin,  or  confessor;  suitable,  consequently,  for  any  fes- 
tival commemorating  one  of  the  class  in  which  the  name 
of  the  saint  commemorated  is  introduced  in  the  collect 
and  at  the  other  appointed  places. 

Commonar,  at  Oxford,  a  student  who  is  not  de* 
pendent  on  the  foundation  for  support,  but  who  pays  for 
has  own  board  or  eomwume,  together  with  all  other  ool- 


Coimnotiae,  in  Roman  mythology,  were  nymphs 
of  the  Cntilian  lake,  in  the  country  of  the  Sabines, 
where  there  was  a  floating  island. 

Conmranar  was  (1)  the  bursar  in  a  cathedral,  who 
diitribated  the  commons  or  general  capituUiry  fund, 
and  paid  stipends ;  (2)  an  officer,  called  the  roaster  of 
the  eommon  house,  who  provided  a  fire  in  the  calefao- 
toiy  and  certain  luxuries  on  festivals. 

Commnnicfllea  ia  a  term  used  to  designate  the 
vends  used  in  holy  communion,  which  on  certain  days 
vne  carried  in  procession  at  Borne. 

Conmranio,  in  Utuigical  use,  is  (1)  an  anthem  in 
the  Rooum  and  cognate  missals,  said  bj  the  celebrant 


after  he  has  taken  the  ablutions.  It  is  so  called  be* 
cause  it  was  originally  appointed  to  be  sung  during  the 
communion  of  the  people,  and  was  sung  antiphonaUy 
after  each  verse  of  a  psalm,  which  was  continued  till 
the  priest  gave  the  signal  for  the  Gloria^  when  the  com- 
munion of  the  people  was  ended.  Afterwards  the  Ctfm- 
nwmo  was  looked  upon  more  as  an  act  of  thanksgiving 
to  be  said  after  the  communion.  It  varies  with  the 
day.  (2)  An  anthem  in  the  Mozarabic  missal  sung  by 
the  (^ir  after  the  communion  has  taken  place.  There 
are  only  two  forms :  one  used  in  Lent,  the  other  during 
the  rest  of  the  year.—Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq,9,Y, 

Commonio  Pr8Baanotlficat6nini,  the  reoep* 
tion  on  Good  Friday  by  the  priest  of  the  reserved  sac- 
rament in  the  Roman  Church,  as  follows :  The  celebiant 
places  it  on  the  paten,  and  then  on  the  corporaL  In 
the  meantime  the  deacon  puts  wine  and  the  sub-deacon 
water  into  the  chalice,  which,  however,  are  neither 
blessed  nor  consecrated  on  this  day.  The  celebrant  next 
places  the  chalice  on  the  altar,  the  deacon  covering  it 
with  the  pall.  The  celebrant  then  incenses  the  offerings 
and  altar,  washes  his  hands,  and  recites  the  OrcUe  Frth- 
tret  and  Pater  Notter,  Then  all  kneel  to  worship  the 
sacrament,  which  the  celebrant,  without  any  prayer, 
divides  into  three  parts,  placing  one  in  the  chalice. 
He  then  communicates  himself  of  both  sacrament  and 
chalice  (with  the  particle),  and  proceeds  to  receive  the 
ablutions  in  the  ordinary  way.    See  Pjlssamctifica* 

TIOw 

Commnnion  or  Childbkk.  See  Isfaxt  Com- 
munion. 

COBOfUNION,  Clbrical,  a  term  employed  by  the 
eariy  Christian  writers  in  opposition  to  lay  communion 
(q.  v.),  to  denote  the  full  exercise  of  all  the  duties  of  the 
clerical  office.   It  is  also  called  ecclesitutical  commwtiom, 

COMMUNION,  £kx;LE8ZA8TicAU  See  Communioit, 
Clkbicau 

COMMUNION,  Fbbb  (or  Open),  is  a  term  used  in 
opposition  to  Chte  Commumon,  to  denote  the  admission 
of  all  believers  to  the  Lord's  table.    See  Commomion. 

COMMUNION,  Holt.  We  excerpt  the  following 
particulars  concerning  the  celebration  of  this  rite  in 
primitive  times  from  Waloott,  Sae,  ArekmoL  s.  v. : 

"In  esrly  times,  after  the  benediction  by  the  bishop, 
which  followed  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  deacon  called  the 
people  to  communion,  saylnK  *  Attend  •/  and  then  the  cel- 
ebrant said,  'Holy  [thinn]  Tor  holy  [peraonei]:'  to  which 
the  answer  was, '  One  holy,  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to  the 
glory  of  Ood  the  Father,  blessed  forsTer,  anieu  ;*  followed 
by  the  Gloria  in  Bxetltit.  The  encharlstlc  bread  was 
broken  before  the  ministration,  and  In  the  Greek  Church 
immediately  after  the  consecration.  The  Latins  divided 
each  bread  Into  three,  the  Greeks  into  fonr  segments.  The 
latter  used  two  ftractions;  one  before  consecration,  into 
three  parts,  at  the  words  *  He  brake  it;'  and  the  second, 
properly  so  called,  when  each  part  was  subdivided,  before 
the  Lord*s  Prayer  and  after  the  reading  of  the  diptrchs. 
The  Moxambic  rite  prescribes  nine  parts  to  be  mnde,  in 
allusion  to  the  nine  mysteries  of  the  life  of  Christ,  the  con- 
ception, nativity,  clrcomcisiou,  transfiguration,  passion, 
death,  resurrection,  glory,  and  klogdoro.  The  fraction  was 
succeeded  by  the  mixture  mentioned  by  the  fonrlh  Council 
of  Toledo  and  that  of  Orange  in  441.  A  fter  the  call  *  Holy 
for  the  holy,*  the  congregation  communicated,  the  bishop, 
priests,  clergy,  aacetics,  women,  deaconesses,  vlrelus, 
widows,  children,  and  then  the  rest  present.  The  distri- 
bution was  made  hy  deacons,  but  in  later  times  the  priest 
ministered  the  bread,  and  the  deacon  the  chalice.  Dea- 
cons sometimes  administered  the  bread,  with  the  restric- 
tion that  they  were  not  to  do  so  to  priests  or  to  the  people 
without  the  order  of  a  priest.  In  Spain  priests  and  dea- 
cons communicated  at  the  altar,  minor  clerks  within  the 
choir,  and  the  people  at  the  chaacel.  The  Greeka  also 
allowed  only  the  former  within  the  sanctuary.  Per- 
sons in  the  Sast  received  cither  prostrate,  kneeling,  or 
standing,  bowing  the  head  at  the  ministration.  In  the 
West  priests  alone  received  in  the  latter  posture.  The 
words  of  ministration  were  at  first  ^  The  body  of  Christ, 
and  the  blood  of  Christ:*  to  which  the  falthfhl  replied, 
*  Amen.*  In  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  they  were  ex- 
panded thus,  *  The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  preserve 
thy  soul;*  and  in  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  *The  bodr  of 
our  Lord  Jesns  Christ  preserve  thee  to  everlsBtlng  life.* 
Men  received  in  the  hollow  of  the  right  hand,  bare,  crossed 


COMMUNION 


52 


COMNENA 


0V«r  tha  l«tt,  throne-like,  at  Cyril  of  JeniMlem  m*; 
and  women  in  a  linen  cloth,  colled  the  dominical,  nrom 
which  they  ralaed  the  element  to  their  llpt.  The  chalice 
was  admlnistoied  by  the  deacon,  who  held  it  by  ito  two 
handtea,  and  at  length  the  calamna  waa  osod  by  the 
people." 

COMMUNION,  iHFAirr.    See  IsrAirr  Ck>BCMUXXOM. 

COMMUNION,  Strict,  is  the  same  as  Clote  Com- 
munioH.    See  Communion. 

COMMUNION  OF  THE  Sick.  Although  the  church 
is  the  proper  place  for  a  celebration,  yet,  in  cases  of  ne- 
cessity, the  hdy  oommonion  was  administered,  in  an- 
cient times,  in  crypts,  at  the  tombs  of  martyia,  in  a 
prison,  OQt^e  celebrant's  breast,  in  the  deacon's  bands, 
in  a  tent,  a  hnt,  a  house,  in  the  ^elds,  at  sea,  by  a  bed- 
aide-^nywbere,  except  in  the  burial-plaoea  of  the  hea- 
then.   See  TiATicux. 

COMMUNION  OF  Stranoebs  (eommunio  peregri- 
fia).  Strangers  and  travellers,  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
Christian  Chnrch,  were  required  to  have  testimonials 
of  their  regular  sUnding  in  the  Church,  in  order  to  be 
admitted  to  the  privileges  of  communion.  Otherwise 
they  were  treated  as  members  under  censure,  although 
tbev  were  permitted  to  receive  support  from  the  funds 
of  the  Church  when  necessary.  Clergymen  under  cen- 
sure were  treated  in  the  same  way.  Then  they  could 
neither  officiate  nor  be  present  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  supper  until  they  bad  given  the  required  satis- 
faction.   See  Gardner,  Faiihs  of  the  WoHd,  a.  v.    See 

CoMMBKDATOBY  LETTBRa. 

Commonion-bbolu.    See  LrruBorcAL  Books. 

Conmiiuiioii-oloth  is  a  long  cloth  of  white  linen 
spread  over  the  altar-rails  at  the  time  of  communion, 
held  at  each  end  by  an  acolyte,  and  supported  by  each 
of  the  faithful  who  come  to.  communicate,  so  that  no 
irreverence,  by  accident  or  otherwise,  may  occur  to  the 
aacrament, 

CommuilloiiB  is  a  name  given  to  Psa.  xxiii,  xxxiv, 
xlii,  cxviii,  or  cxlv,  sung  during  the  administration  in 
the  Greek  Church ;  and  mentioned  by  Jerome,  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem,  the  apostolical  constitutions,  and  early 
litur^^ea. 

Cominiiiiity  of  Goods.  See  Commukism;  Mo- 
hasticisu. 

Comnat  (Comnatan,  or  Connat),  an  Irish 
saint,  commemorated  Jan.  1,  appears  among  the  prel- 
ates of  Kildaro  on  thia  day ;  but  of  her  abbacy  we 
know  nothing  beyond  its  dose.  She  died  abbess  of 
Kildare  in  A.D.  590  (Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart.  Doneg, 
p.  6:  O'HanloD,  /r.  SairUi,  i,  24,  26).  — Smith,  DicU 
^ChrUt,BiOff»s,y. 

Comnena,  Anna^  was  a  Byzantine  princess,  the 
daoghter  of  the  emperor  Alexius  Comnenus,  illustrious 
by  her  birth,  and  by  the  circumstances  of  her  life,  but 
more  illustrious  by  her  accomplishments,  and  by  the 
important  historical  work  which  she  transmitted  to 
posterity.  Whether  her  subject,  her  opportunities,  her 
talents,  her  rank,  her  associations,  or  her  disappointed 
ambition  be  considered,  her  quaint  production  is  calcu- 
lated to  excite  and  to  reward  the  liveliest  interest. 
The  time  in  which  she  lived  and  wrote,  the  memorable 
transactions  which  she  witnessed  and  in  which  she 
often  participated,  the  notable  personages  with  whom 
she  came  in  contact,  the  troubles,  perils,  and  perplex-' 
i^es  by  which  she  was  surrounded,  the  grand  and 
atartling  events  which  she  recorded,  combine  to  give 
a  peculiar  fascination  to  her  Memoirs.  In  a  dark  and 
dreary  age,  bnt  one  of  varied  and  heroic  ad%'enture,  in 
the  desperate  struggle  of  a  great  but  declining  empire, 
she  related,  for  the  instruction  of  other  times,  the 
strange  vicissitudes  of  fortune — the  hopes,  the  alarms, 
and  the  efforts  of  the  wild  period,  when  the  East,  the 
West,  and  the  North,  the  exhausted  culture  of  the  old, 
and  the  rude  chivalry  of  the  new  civilization  were  in- 
termingled with  the  fierce  fury  of  Tartar  and  Saracenic 


yioleoce.  That  she  lived  in  the  days  of  the  emperor 
Henry  lY,  the  countess  Matilda,  Godfrey  de  Bouillon, 
and  Kilidje  Anlan,  is  evidence  of  the  eventful  charac- 
ter of  the  time.  That  she  beheld  the  passage  of  the 
first  crusaders,  and  was,  in  all  probability,  acquainted 
with  Peter  the  Hermit,  Bohemond,  Tancred,  and  the 
other  leaders,  gives  assurance  of  the  highest  interest  in 
her  reminiscences.  That  she  was  brought  up  in  the 
Byzantine  court,  familiar  with  its  delusive  splendors, 
its  secrets,  its  vices,  its  intrigues,  and  ita  hazanls;  that 
she  was  herself  designated  for  the  imperial  crown,  may 
not  attest  the  accuracy  or  the  profundity  of  her  narra- 
tive, bnt  oeruinly  confer  upon  it  a  breathing  charm 
and  a  personal  reality  which  may  atone  for  grievous 
defecta.  The  inflation  of  her  language,  the  affectations 
of  her  learning,  the  extravagance  of  her  statements, 
the  moral  distempen  which  warp  her  Judgment,  may 
detract  seriously  from  the  trustworthiness  of  her  record, 
and  have  been  amply  and  too  exclusively  presented. 
Serious  as  are  these  drawbacks,  they  do  not  prevent  her 
biography  of  her  father  from  being  the  most  attractive 
in  the  long  list  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  and  also 
the  most  instructive. 

1.  Li/e,^AnntL  Comnena  was  the  eldest  child  of  the 
emperor  Alexius  Comnenus,  by  his  second  wife,  the 
empress  Irene  DuoGUisa.  She  was  bom  at  Constan- 
tinople, on  Sunday,  Dec.  1, 1088,  the  day  of  her  fm* 
ther's  return  from  his  repulse  of  Bohemond  at  lariasa. 
She  was  Porphyroffemta^-bom  in  the  Purple  Palace-^ 
and,  a  few  days  after  her  birth,  was  proclaimed  caosarisaa 
and  heiress  of  the  empire,  and  waa  betrothed  to  the 
boy  Constantine,  son  of  the  former  emperor,  Michael 
Ducas,  and  the  nominal  colleague  of  her  father  on  the 
imperial  throne.  She  was  at  once  recognised  as  the 
image  of  her  father  {Aiexiadj  vi,  8).  By  this  be- 
trothal the  Comnenian  dynasty  assumed  some  preten- 
sions to  be  the  restoration  of  the  sovereign  house  of 
Duca&  The  young  prince  was  retained,  with  his  moth- 
er, in  honorable  confinement,  and  soon  died,  but  not  be- 
fore Durazzo,  as  is  often  stated.  Anna  had  three  broth- 
en  and  three  aisters.  Among  the  former  was  Ugly 
John  Kalo-Joannes,  about  four  years  younger  than  her- 
self, who  succeeded  their  father  on  the  throne,  and  waa 
never  forgiven  for  this  intnudon.  Her  uncles,  her 
annta,  and  her  cousins,  her  brothers-in-law,  sisters-in- 
law,  nephews  and  nieces,  outrun  convenient  enumera- 
tion. Are  they  not  commemorated  by  Du  Cange,  in 
his  serviceable  FamiiuB  BjfzanUnm  f  **  Her  mother,  Irene, 
was  the  grandniece  of  the  emperor,  Constantine  Ducas^ 
and  her  father  was  the  nephew  of  Isaac,  the  first  em- 
peror of  the  line  of  the  Comneni."  She  was  thus  of  im- 
perial blood  on  both  sides.  The  time  of  her  death  baa 
not  been  determined.  As  she  began  her  history  after 
the  death  of  her  husband,  wrote  under  the  reign  of  her 
nephew,  Manuel,-  and  was  still  writing  after  thirty 
yean  of  surveillance,  she  may  be  presumed  to  hare 
lived  to  a  very  advanced  age.  She  grew  up  in  the 
court  in  close  attendance  on  her  mother,  and  in  more 
intimate  and  kindly  association  with  her  parents  than 
is  usual  in  sovereign  honseholda.  In  her  father's  fre- 
quent absences  on  military  expeditions,  she  was  more 
a  companion  of  her  mother  than  a  child  in  the  family. 
On  more  peaceful  removals  from  Constantinople  the 
empress  and  the  cssaiissa  accompanied  the  emperor. 
This  affectionate  intimacy  developed  from  very  early 
yean  the  inquisitive  spirit,  the  mental  powers,  and 
the  political  aptitudes  of  the  young  girl,  and  afforded 
her  the  best  opportunities  for  a  present  and  minute 
knowledge  of  the  prominent  persons  and  important 
occurrences  of  the  times.  The  drama  proceeded  im- 
mediately before  her  eyes.  She  was  unquestionably  pre- 
cocious.  She  was  provided  with  the  best  instructors 
and  with  the  best  means  of  instruction.  She  had  great 
zeal  for  learning,  quick  apprehension,  and  high  capacity* 
She  became  a  prodigy  of  erudition  in  the  estimation  of 
her  contemporaries,  and  not  merely  within  the  circle  of 
the  court.    It  is  certainly  a  mistake  to  regard  the  end 


COMNENA 


68 


COMNENA 


of  the  11th  ind  the  heginning  of  the  12th  oentory  as 
•a  uncoltivated  period.    The  name  of  the  empieaa  Ea* 
doeiA  Hacremb<jiaa ;  the  abilities  of  Michael  PseUus^ 
and  of  John  Italusi  the  precunor  and  Byzantine  coun- 
terpart of  Abelard ;  the  namber,  rank,  and  enthotiaam  of 
tbetr  disciples ;  the  historical  productions  of  the  highest 
dignitaries  of  the  state,  disprove  any  such  hasty  oon- 
dnslons;.     The  Dncsses,  and  particularly  the  enipeior 
llicbael  and  hb  brothers,  were  noted  for  their  litera* 
Tf  zeal  {Alexiad,  ▼,  8).    Tastes  may  be  corrupt,  pur- 
nits  mistaken,  modes  of  thought  distorted,  but  these 
sberrations  do  not  preclude  diligence  of  culture.   Rhet^ 
one  and  logic  and  philosophy,  the  inflated  style  of 
Kalocs  for  Attic  poliih,  the  arid  and  tangled  ingenuity 
of  the  schoolmen,  the  sophistry  of  the  new  Platooists  or 
new  Pythagoreans,  and  of  later  unnamed  sects,  were 
the  objects  of  admiration ;  but  these  objects  were  seri- 
ously prosecuted.  •  The  imperisl  Anna  was  among  the 
most  eager  and  successful  of  such  students.    She  boasts 
of  b«-ving  mastered  both  the  Aristotelian  and  the  Pla* 
tonic  philosophy.   She  expresses  decided  opinions  upon 
the  merits  and  demerits  of  John  the  Italian.    She  dis- 
plays in  her  writings  an  ample  if  indiscriminate  ao- 
qoaintanee  with  the  clssaics  of  ancient  Greece.    Such 
stodiefi^  however,  furnished  only  the  skeleton  and  vest^ 
nre  of  her  inquiries.    Their  substance  was  very  differ- 
ent.    The  actual  range  of  solid  information  exhibited 
in  the  work  of  her  later  life,  the  patient  industry  with 
which  she  sought,  and  the  quick  judgment  with  which 
she  estimated  the  most  important  matters  of  daily  con- 
cern, may  be  recognised  under  all  the  extravagant  finery 
with  which  they  were  disguised.    Her  acquaintance 
with  the  scholars  of  the  day,  her  court  life,  her  inter- 
vooise  with  her  parents,  her  familiarity  with  the  states- 
men  and  chief  actors  of  the  bustling  period  in  which 
she  lived,  furnished  her  with  constant  and  valued  op- 
portunities  for  the  most  sbondant  knowledge,  and  for 
the  quickest  appreciation  of  what  transpired  around 
her.    Kor  were  the  habitual  dangers  by  which  she  was 
encompassed  and  which  threatened  the  station  and  the 
lives  of  heiaelf,  her  family,  and  her  multitudinous  rela- 
tions, without  influence  in  sharpening  all  her  faculties 
and  enlaiging  her  range  of  reflection.    It  is  necessary 
to  reason  back  from  the  characteristics  of  her  subse- 
quent life,  and  of  her  Memoirs,  to  her  original  predis- 
positioo&    Grapes  are  not  gathered  from  a  bramble 
bodL 

With  remarkaUe  aptitudes,  with  fiivoring  appliances, 
with  exciting  and  invigorating  experiences,  Anna  grew 
up  to  wemanhood,  and,  if  the  testimony  of  herself  may 
be  accepted,  crowned  ber  intellectual  accomplishments 
with  rare  beauty  and  feminine  grace.  The  Comneni 
were  long  eminent  for  talent,  and  were  even  more  dis- 
tingiuahed  for  their  personal  appearance.  Anna  par- 
took of  both  kinds  of  endowment.  There  is  every  rea- 
son to  conclude  that  she  was  entitled  to  be  regarded  as 
eiogularly  handsome.  Such  charms  as  she  possessed 
may  have  been  masculine,  like  her  mind  and  tempera- 
ment. This  may  be  an  entirely  erroneous  inference. 
The  illuminated  miniature  of  the  celebrated  countess 
Iffstilds,  her  oontemporaiy,  which  adorns  the  coeval 
3CS.of  Donizo,  represents  a  small  figure  with  almost  in- 
fantile features.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  style 
of  Anna's  beauty,  in  this  remarkable  historian  were 
united  the  highest  rank,  fortune,  family,  energy,  de- 
cision, personal  appearance,  intellect,  and  learning  —  a 
msrrelious  combination  in  a  princess  of  the  Byzantine 
empire. 

As  the  young  Doeas  had  dissppointed  Anna's  rostri- 
OBooial  expectations  by  an  early  death,  her  father,  for 
some  unascertained  reason,  bestowed  her  hand  upon 
ineq)honis  Bryennius,  the  eldest  son  (Zonsr.  xviii, 
SS;  Du  Csnge  says  grandson)  of  that  Bryennius  who 
had  pretended  to  the  empire,  but  had  been  defeated, 
cqttiffed,  and  blinded  by  Alexius.  He  wss  probably 
much  older  than  herself.  She  expressed  a  most  de- 
voted attachment  to  his  memory  in  her  lonely  and 


desolate  widowhood,  though  she  had  not  resinuned  the 
bitterness  of  her  tongue  during  their  married  life 
(Nicet.  Cbon.  i,  8).  Of  the  course  and  character  of 
their  wedded  career  we  have  no  information  beyond  the 
widow's  indistinct  regrets.  Her  husband  was  a  man  of 
education  and  ability.  He  was  much  employed  in  the 
incessant  militaiy  transactions  of  the  timesb  His  death 
was  attributed  to  poison,  administered  by  direction  of 
his  wife*s  able  but  unscrupulous  nephew,  Andronicusi 
His  literary  culture  is  shown  by  the  very  interesting 
history  of  the  Comneni,  which  was  interrupted  by  his 
death,  and  which  furnished  the  example  and  the  stim- 
ulus for  its  continuation  by  hia  learned  relict  (^Alexiad^ 
Praf,  iii).  He  brought  his  Memoirs  down  onlj'  to 
the  accession  of  Alexius.  His  bereaved  spoiise  records 
for  ns  the  whole  reign  of  her  father. 

Anna  Ck>mnena  was  married,  probably,  about  the 
time  of  Peter  the  Hermit's  passage  through  Ck>nstanti- 
nople,  on  his  return  from  the  Holy  Land  and  its  dese- 
crated sanctities.  It  was  about  two  years,  after  her 
marriage  that  the  turbulent,  rapacious,  arrog^t  hosts 
of  the  Crusaders  swarmed  round  Constantinople,  plun- 
dering and  devastating  the  famished  provinces  through 
which  they  pursued  their  lingering  and  disorderly  way. 
The  years  that  followed  were  filled  with  multifarious 
adventures,  with  diversified  hazards,  with  wars,  with 
conspiracies,  and  with  romantic  tales  of  heroic  achieve- 
ments and  selfish  audacity. 

The  troubled  career  and  the  diflicult  reign  of  Alexins 
Comnenus  at  length  drew  to  a  close.  His  waning  life 
and  his  days  of  suffering  were  curiously  watched  by 
the  wife  of  his  bosom  and  the  daughter  of  his  heart. 
His  sick-bed  was  besieged  by  them,  and  his  palace 
guarded  by  their  orders,  in  order  to  determine  the  suc- 
cession according  to  their  wishes.  John,  the  heir  and 
successor,  was  excluded  from  his  father's  presence. 
Conspiracy  was  active  within  and  without  the  city,  to 
secure  the  imperial  crown  for  Anna  and  her  husband. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  the  MS.  of  the  closing  chapters  of 
Anna's  work  is  so  mutilated  as  to  leave  the  account  of 
the  death-bed  scenes  unintelligible.  The  other  authori- 
ties assert  that  the  sinking  emperor  wss  importuned  by 
wife  and  daughter  to  dedare  the  latter  heiress  to  the 
throne.  He  died  without  gratifying  this  desire;  and 
his  affectionate  wife  addressed  words  of  savage  con- 
tumely to  his  departing  spirit 

Though  the  desires  of  the  empress  and  the  princess 
were  thus  frustrated,  the  hopes  which  had  been  so  long 
entertained,  and  the  aims  so  long  contemplated,  were 
not  renounced.  The  palace  was  held  under  guard. 
Ugly  John,  the  son  and  brother,  was  neither  informed 
of  the  death,  nor  invited  to  the  presence  of  the  dead 
emperor.  The  partisans  of  the  faction  were  prepared 
for  the  seizure  of  the  throne.  Their  retainers  were  as- 
sembled, militaiy  support  was  orgsnized,  and  Niceph- 
oras  Biyennius  was  urged  to  prompt  action,  and  to 
make  himself  master  of  the  city  and  empire.  A  ma^ 
culiue  energy  and  daring  were  exhibited  by  the  empress 
and  csBsarissa,  which  would  have  been  notable  in  a  con- 
quering uvati^x—Duxfaminafacti, 

The  calm  resolution  and  promptitude  of  John  Com- 
nenus, and  the  irresolution  or  conscientiousness  of  Ni- 
cephonis  Bryennius,  defeated  these  bold  and  well-ma- 
tured schemes.  Bryennius  refused  to  perform  the  part 
assigned  to  him — whether  unwilling  to  uphold  disloyal 
practices,  or  warned  by  the  failure  and  fate  of  bis  father 
or  grandfather,  or  by  mingled  motives.  His  wife  as- 
cribed his  reluctance  or  delay  to  faintness  of  heart,  and 
expressed  her  scorn  in  terms  of  contempt  stronger  and 
coarser  than  the  language  of  Lady  Macbeth. 

John  secured  the  throne  without  serious  commotion. 
His  mother  and  sister  were  pardoned  and  put  under 
slight  and  honorable  restraint.  Nicephorus  Bryennius 
seems  to  have  been  unharmed  and  uncensured.  Even 
the  princely  fortunes  and  the  wide  domains  of  his  rivals 
were  left  untouche<l  by  the  successful  emperor.  The 
representationa  of  his  follower,  his  fnend,  and  his  able 


COMNENA 


54 


COMODI 


miniater,  the  TarlC|  John  Axueby  who  bad  been  captured 
by  the  Cruaedere  at  Nice,  diasnaded  him  from  his  flrat 
pnrpoee  of  oonflacatiiig  the  poeaesstons  of  the  near  rela- 
tiTea  who  had  oonapired  agpunat  him, 

Anna  was  aoored  for  life  bj  her  defeat,  and  pooied 
her  long  lamentationa  throughout  her  hiatoiy  (eape- 
cially  Alexiadf  xiv,  7).  The  long-deferred  hope,  the 
deaign  nuiaed  in  ailent  ansiety  during  weary  yeara, 
were  altogether  frustrated.  The  unataterly  dialike  of 
the  aovereign  was  intenaified.  The  wrong  that  had 
been  prevented  aeemed  an  injury  received.  After  the 
death  of  her  huaband,and  probably  under  the  reign  of 
her  nephew,  Manuel,  Anna  appeara  to  hare  been  com- 
pelled to  retire,  or  to  aeek  refuge  in  a  nunnery.  There 
ahe  fanned  the  ancient  flamea,  cheriahed  the  old  paa- 
aiona,  and  relieved  her  ang^iah  by  mingling  angry  re- 
grets with  all  her  reminiaoencea — 

**  Iq  aeaa  of  flame  her  pluogiug  aonl  la  drowD*d, 
While  altara  blase,  and  angeu  tremble  round." 

The  date  of  Anna  Comnena*a  death  ia  wholly  un- 
known. Nothing  ia  recorded  of  her  after  the  deceaae 
of  her  huaband,  except  what  ia  contained  in  the  renom- 
oua  moaninga  of  her  work  and  in  aome  very  brief  notices 
One  aon  aurvived  her,  Alexiua,  who  took  hia  graod- 
Cather'a  family  name,  Gomnenna  ( Nicet.  Chon.  ii,  7 ), 
and  waa  captured  in  the  Gapitanata  by  the  Normana, 
againat  whom  he  commanded.  Her  memory  haa  been 
more  effectually  preserved  by  the  memorial  of  her  fa- 
ther, which  ahe  ia  auppoaed  to  have  completed  about 
thirty  years  after  hb  death.  It  ia  only  stated  by  her 
that  she  waa  writing  at  that  time  {Akxiadf  xiv,  7). 

2.  The  AUxiad^—Tht  fame  of  Anna  Comnena  haa 
been  perpetuated  by  a  aingle  literary  monument.  This 
is  beyond  question  the  most  entertaining  and  instruct- 
ive of  the  Byzantine  hiatoriea,  a(ler  thoae  of  Procopiua 
and  Agathiaa.  Nevertheleaa,  the  work  haa  been  too  little 
esteemed.  It  haa  been  oftener  cited  with  a  aneer  than 
read  with  faimeas  and  intelligence.  Much  of  the  de- 
preciation and  neglect  muat  be  ascribed  to  her  own  ex- 
travagant rhetoric,  and  to  unmeasured  admiration  of 
her  father,  equally  in  hia  failurea  and  in  his  achieve- 
ments. More  may,  undoubtedly,  be  attributed  to  the 
contempt  with  which  Gibbon  has  spoken  of  the  history 
and  its  author.  The  supercilious  censure  of  the  great 
historian  haa  repressed  curiosity,  and  prevented  consid- 
erate judgment,  while  it  has  often  discouraged  exami- 
nation. It  ia  forgotten  that  thia  Akxiad  ia  a  aort  of 
prose  epic,  according  to  the  falae  taste  of  the  age,  as 
the  Phitippeid  of  Gulielmns  Brito,  and  the  Ge$la  Fri- 
derici  of  Gunther  Tigurinua,  were  verse  histories  of 
their  respective  heroes.  Yet,  whatever  censures  may  be 
justly  passed  upon  the  work,  our  acquaintance  with  a 
most  eventful  period  would  be  both  meagre  and  distorted 
without  the  aid  of  Anna's  discredited  Isbors.  A  clearer 
and  juster  apprehension  of  some  of  the  moat  surprising 
and  complex  changes  in  the  current  of  human  affairB 
than  has  yet  been  attained  may  be  expected  from  a 
cooler,  kindlier,  and  more  dispassionate  study  of  her  re- 
markable  contribution  to  the  varsring  story  of  the  Bys- 
antino  empire. 

The  interruption  of  the  history  of  the  Comneni,  by  the 
death  of  Nicephorus  Biyennius,  induced  hia  diaoonaolate 
widow,  in  her  enforoed  aecluaion,  to  take  up  the  broken 
thread  of  the  narrative,  and  to  continue  it  to  her  father*a 
deceaae.  She  had  her  own  abundant  reooUectiona  of 
incidenta  and  scenes  at  which  she  had  been  present, 
of  counsels  and  projects  of  which  she  had  been  cogni- 
zant, of  conspiracies  in  which  her  own  fate  had  been  in- 
volved. She  was  familiar  with  the  secrets  of  the  palace, 
with  her  husband's  labors,  with  the  materiala  he  had 
gathered,  and  with  the  notea  which  he  had  prepared. 
Not  content  with  these  sources  of  knowledge,  she  dili- 
gently pursued,  in  eveiy  quarter,  information  regarding 
past  events;  sought  out  those  who  had  participated  in 
the  grave  transactions  of  the  times,  or  possessed  the 
most  thon>4gh  aoquaintanoe  with  them.    The  zeal  for 


the  fulness  of  historical  truth  is  asserted  by  heraelf,  but  it 
is  also  attested  by  the  abundance,  the  variety,  and  the 
minuteness  of  the  knowledge  displayed  throughout  her 
work.  The  statements  may  often  be  prejudiced,  the 
sentiments  affected,  the  exaggerations  frequent,  the 
expressioo  turgid,  the  rhetorical  decorations  ina{^ropri- 
ate  and  exoeaaive— but  theae  were  the  defecta  of  the 
age.  They  do  not  deatroy  the  high  qualificationa  which 
they  conceal  by  their  gaudy  aplendor.  Making  due' al- 
lowance for  the  grave  blemiahes  which  have  too  much 
engrossed  the  attention  of  critics,  the  substance  that  re- 
mains is  of  the  highest  interest  and  of  the  greatest 
value.  The  undue  depreciations  of  Anna's  Gesta  haa 
had  a  very  injurioua  effect  on  the  eatimation  of  that 
memorable  age,  when  the  aeeda  of  growth  and  the  tares 
of  decay  were  ao  widely  acattered.  It  haa  certainly 
occaaioned  auch  a  diacoloration  of  the  picturea  of  the 
cniaadea  aa  haa  led  to  erroneoua  conoeptiona  of  their 
origin  and  conduct.  Yet  Anna,  who  haa  been  ao  inju- 
diciously  slighted,  was  their  earliest  historian,  witnessed 
their  passage,  was  cognizant  of  their  inception  and  prog- 
ress, and  was  persouaUy  acquainted  with  the  chiefs  of 
the  first,  and,  probably,  with  the  ee««reigna  of  the  second 
cruaade.  Much  diacemment  and  more  than  ordinary 
akill  may  be  required  to  detect  the  true  lineaments  of 
the  personagea  and  the  acenea,  under  the  glaring  pig- 
menta  and  prodigal  daubing  of  the  picturea;  but  they 
may  be  detected,  and  their  detection  will  reward  the 
labor  expended  upon  the  taak.  But  the  first  cnuade 
oonatitutes  only  a  small,  though  a  veiy  prominent, 
part  of  the  narrative.  The  career  of  the  emperor 
Alexius  forms  the  subject  of  the  Alexiad;  and  in  his 
troubled  and  constantly  imperilled  reign  there  occurred 
many  other  greater  dangera,  and  more  arduoua  prob- 
lema  for  statesmanship.  It  is  only  necessary  to  men- 
tion some  of  these  to  show  the  multitudinous  topics  of 
interest  recorded  by  Anna :  the  war  with  Robert  Guis- 
card,  and  the  later  war  with  Bohemond;  the  ware  with 
the  Turks,  Romans,  Hungarians,  Slavonians;  the  revolts 
and  the  conspiracies ;  the  hereaiea  of  John  Italua,  of  the 
Pauliciana,  and  of  the  Bogomiliana ;  the  reconatitution 
of  the  army,  by  which  a  precedent  waa  furoiahed  for 
the  Ottoman  Janizariea;  the  military  atratagema  and 
devicea ;  the  ambiUoua  achemes  of  Norman  auxiliaries ; 
the  reorganization  of  the  state;  the  debasement  of  the 
coinage;  the  restoration  of  the  finances;  the  provision 
for  the  poor,  the  great  orphan  asylum  and  the  poor- 
houae;  the  plagues  and  famines  and  physical  diaturb- 
ancea ;  the  ceremoniea,  the  oocupationa,  and  the  amose- 
menta  of  the  court  Theae  and  numerous  other  sub- 
jects, exhibiting  the  civil  and  socisl  aspects  of  the 
fainting  and  bdeaguercd  empire,  receive  their  fuUeat 
expotttion  in  the  Alexiad  of  Anna  Comnena.  Later 
chroniclers  contented  themaelvea  with  copying  and 
abridging  her  relationa,  and  did  credit  to  themaelvea 
and  juatice  to  their  original  by  repeating  her  praises. 
It  belonged  to  a  later  age  to  aee  only  the  blemiahea,  and 
to  remain  totally  blind  to  the  merita  of  her  work. 

8.  Literature, — Anna  Comnena,  Aiexiat  (ed.  Bonn* 
1839-76) ;  Du  Gauge,  Familia  A  vguttm  Byzantinaf  apud. 
Script,  Ber,  Byt,  vol.  xxi.  (Venet.  1729);  Bayle,  Diet. 
Hist,  (7r»r.,  tit.  Arma  Comnena;  FUaali,  Ditseiiatio  de 
AmuB  Aiexiade  (Tigur,  1766);  WUken,  Rer,  a  Otnnn, 
Geitar,  1.  iv.  (Heidelb.  1811);  Nikolai,  Getch,  dea 
ByzaM,  LH,,  apud.^  Erach  u.  GrUber.  EnkyHopadie ; 
Calliadea,  Anna  Comnena  (Conatantin.  1879);  Krug, 
Ckronoloffie  dee  Byzantiner,    (G.  F.  H.) 

Comodl  (or  Commodo ),  Andrra,  a  reputable 
Florentine  painter,  waa  born  in  1560,  and  waa  the  friend 
and  acholar  of  Cigolli  Hia  principal  worka  are  in  Rome, 
among  which  are  the  following :  The  Baptitm  ofCkrist^ 
in  San  Giovanni  in  Fonte;  Chri^  Bearing  the  Croee,  in 
the  tribune  of  San  Yitale;  and  the  principal  altar-piece 
in  San  Carlo  a  Catinari,  repreaentiog  the  titular  aaint 
kneeling.  He  died  at  Florence  in  1688.  See  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hi$t,  of  the  Fine  Arte,  a.  v.;  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog* 
GitUrakf  s.  v. 


COMP 


05 


C0MPIE6NE 


Comp,  Jacob  S^  a  McCliodiflt  EpiteofMl  minister, 
vu  born  in  MarkleyiUe,  Pa^  June  24, 1846.  He  expe- 
rienced'idigion  at  the  age  of  fonrteen,  received  license 
to  pieach  in  1867;  gradnated  from  Dickinson  Semi- 
naiy  in  Jane,  1869,  entered  the  Central  Penns}*lvania 
Goaferenee,  and  travelled  the  remainder  of  that  year 
and  all  the  next  on  Wataontown  Circuit.  In  1872  fail- 
ing health  oUiged  him  to  retire  from  the  active  ranks, 
and  he  returned  to  the  home  of  his  childhood,  where  be 
died,  Nov.  16, 1876.  See  MiimUa  of  Anmttd  Confirm 
cnocf ,  1877,  p.  26. 

Compagnoni,  CamlUo,  an  Italian  preacher, 
brother  of  the  bishop  of  Osimo,  was  bom  in  1698,  en- 
tered the  Jesuit  order,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
bis  knowledge  and  talent  as  a  preacher.  He  died  in 
1777.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Jiiog.  GetUraie,  a.  v. 

Gompagnoni,  Fletro,  an  lulian  ecclesiastic,  was 
bom  at  San  Lorenxo^  near  Lugo,  March  28, 1802.  He 
Roeived  his  education  ftrs^  under  his  uncle;  afterwards 
studied  beUee-lettres,  philosophy,  and  theology  under 
the  famous  professor  Tommaso  Ancarini,  who  died  at 
Bome  in  1890,  vicar-general  of  the  Dominicans.  Com- 
psgnoni,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  aided  by  Giovanni 
Nnvoli,  published  Sitlan  Peniienziali  Jktvide  ( Lugo, 
1821).  After  ordination  he  was  made  professor  of  rhet- 
oric and  geography  in  the  Lyceum  at  Lugo,  at  the 
same  time  officiating  as  preacher.  He  died  Sept  18, 
1833,  leaving  some  minor  pieces,  for  which  see  JSioff, 
Vm9er9dUy%,v, 

Compagnoni,  Fompeo,  an  Italian  prelate  and 
writer,  was  bora  at  Macerata,  March  11,  1698.  He 
studied  first  in  his  own  town,  and  in  1712  at  Rome, 
under  Gravina.  Having  entered  holy  orders,  he  be- 
came archdeacon  of  Macerata,  and  auditor  to  cardinal 
Francesco  BarfoerinL  He  waa  made  bishop  of  Osimo 
and  OngoU,  Oct.  2, 1740,  and  died  July  25, 1774,  leav- 
ing, besides  some  minor  pieces,  a  Memorie  ddia  Chiua 
«r  Onmo  (Bome,  1782,  5  vols.  4to).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GhiraU,  s.  v. 

Compazi,  Ahbi,  a  French  scfaoUr,  was  bom  at  Aries 
aboBt  1730.  He  studied  jurisprudence  and  theology  in 
bis  native  country,  and  was  made  advocate  to  the  par- 
liament of  Paris.  Later  he  entered  upon  the  ecclesias- 
tacal  calting,  and  was  one  of  the  clergy  of  Saint  Andr^ 
des  Arts.  He  wrote,  VEaprU  de  la  ReUgion  ChrMiame 
(Paris,  1763);—/^  Temfit  de  la  PiMi,  et  (Euvret  JW- 
vermt  (ibid.  1765,  1769 ) : ~ Abuvc^  Mkhode  Geo- 
grofhique  (ibid.  1770).  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog, 
GhtiraU,  s.  v. 

Compand  (  Compan,  or  Ckmipano  ),  Jrak,  a 
French  priest  and  religions  writer,  was  bora  at  Dalon, 
in  the  diooeee  of  Pamiers,  in  1771.    He  was  a  pupil  at 
the  seminary  of  Cahora,  in  charge  of  the  priestaof  Saint- 
Lazare, having  entered  that  celebnted  order;  and  afler 
having  tanght  philosophy  in  several  seminaries  of  the 
province,  he  was  called  to  the  same  position  in  the 
aeminary  of  Saint-Firmin,  at  Paris.     Later  he  was 
almoner  of  the  Hdtel  des  Invalides,  and  eventually  su- 
perior of  the  aeminary  at  Toulouse.    The  Revolution 
forced  him  to  seek  an  asylum,  first  at  Barcelona,  and 
then  at  Rome.    After  twelve  years  of  exile  he  re- 
lumed to  the  capital  of  Languedoc,  where  he  accepted 
a  chair  of  theology,  and  occupied  it  until  1830.     He 
died  Feb.  7, 1835,  leaving  TraUi  des  Ditpentes  de  Col- 
lei  (with  notes,  corrections,  additions,  and  explana- 
tions) ^—J?MtoftV«  de  laVie  de  Jetut-Chrisi  (composed 
at  the  request  of  madame  Louise,  daughter  of  Louis 
XY).    Sm  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GitUraUf  s.  v. 

CompaM,  WoHSHiP  of  thx.  The  Chinese  were 
acenatomed  to  pay  divine  honon  to  the  compass  by 
bumiiig  little  odoriferous  balls,  and  ofl^ring  meats  and 
iaaifioes  to  it.  They  threw  gilded  paper  punetually 
twice  a  day  into  the  sea  to  attract  ita  favor  and  win  it 
to  be  propitioua.    See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  Worlds  a.  v. 

Compasatvl^  ia  a  tern  nied  by  Bomaniat  writers 


to  express  the  feelings  of  a  saint  on  beholding  in  a 
vision  the  sufferings  whereby  his  soul  is  transpierced 
with  the  sword  of  a  compassive  pain,  thus  literally  en- 
during the  paaaion  of  Christ  See  Gardner,  Faiths  of 
the  WorldyKV, 

Comp&tres  and  Comm&trea.    See  Sponsobb. 

Compendienae,  Comgiuum.    See  CoxpixGire. 

Compere,  Lkb,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  in 
England  in  1789.  Soon  after  entering  the  ministry  be 
went  as  a  missionary  to  Jamaica,  but  ill-health  obliged 
him  to  retura  after  one  year.  In  1817  he  came  to 
America,  and  for  some  time  labored  in  South  Carolina, 
having  charge  for  six  years  of  the  mission  among  the 
Creek  Indians.  The  transfer  of  the  tribe  west  of  the 
Mississippi  broke  up  the  mission.  He  followed  the  tide 
of  emigration,  until  finally  be  aettled  in  Yazoo  County, 
Miss.,  where  he  labored  with  considerable  success  for 
several  years.  He  lived  for  a  time  in  Arkanaas,  then 
removed  to  Texas,  and  died  there  in  1871.  See  Cath- 
cart.  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  258.    (J.  C.  &) 

Competentes  (i.  e.  setkers  of  the  grace  of  Christ) 
was  an  advanced  class  of  candidates  for  baptism,  who 
had  received  adequate  instraction.  They  acquired  this 
name  on  Palm-Sunday,  when  the  Creed  was  delivered 
to  them;  on  the  second  Sunday  following  the  Lord^s 
Prayer  waa  explained  in  their  hearing. 

Compidgne,  Coukcils  of  (Concilium  Compm- 
(iiense),  were  provincial  synods, as  follows: 

I.  Held  in  756.  At  this  council,  Pepin,  king  of 
France,  several  bishops  and  lords,  together  with  the 
legates  of  pope  Stephen,  were  present.  An  organ  sent 
by  the  eastern  emperor  to  Pepin  was  received.  Eight- 
een canons  were  published,  chiefly  relating  to  questions 
about  marriages : 

1.  Orders  the  separation  of  parties  marrying  within  the 
third  deeree. 

8.  Deaares  that  a  wife  takinj^  the  veil  without  her  hus- 
band's consent  roust  be  glveu  up  to  him,  ]f  be  requires  it. 

S.  Allows  A  free  man  who  roarrfes  a  slave  under  the 
idea  that  she  wns  ft«e  to  put  her  away  and  to  marry 
again ;  also  allows  the  same  to  a  free  woman. 

9.  Declares  baptism  administered  by  au  unhaptlaed 
priest,  in  the  name  of  the  blessed  Trinity,  valid. 

See  Labbe,  ConeU,  vi,  1694. 

IL  Held  Aug.  6,  1235,  conceraing  certain  articles 
which,  according  to  the  archbishop  of  Rheima,  violated 
the  liberties  of  the  Church.  The  archbishop  and  six 
of  his  suffragans  proceeded  to  St.  Denis,  in  order  to 
make  a  second  monition  to  the  king,  which  step  induced 
the  lords  to  prefer  a  complaint  by  letter  to  the  pope 
against  the  bishops  and  clergy;  this  letter  is  dated 
September,  1285.  The  king  (St  Louis),  by  an  ordi- 
nance, declared  that  his  own  vassals  and  those  of  the 
lords  were  not  bound,  in  civil  matters,  to  answer  any 
cfaaige  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts;  and  that  if  the  ec- 
deaiastical  judge  should  proceed  to  excommunicate  any 
one  in  such  a  case,  he  should  be  compelled  to  remove 
the  excommunication  by  the  seizure  of  his  temporali- 
ties. The  pope  exhorted  St.  Louis  to  revoke  this  or- 
dinance, dedaring,  among  other  things,  that  God  had 
confided  to  the  pope  both  the  temporal  and  spiritual 
government  of  the  world.  However,  the  letter  aeems 
to  have  had  little  effect  upon  the  king,  who  refused  to 
revoke  the  edict.    See  Labbe,  ConciL  xi,  503. 

III.  Held  in  1277,  by  Peter,  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
with  eight  of  his  suffragans.  They  made  a  decree  re- 
lating to  the  insubordinate  conduct  of  the  chapters  of 
the  cathedral  churches  of  the  province,  who  pretended, 
among  other  things,  to  a  right  to  put  a  stop  to  divine 
service,  and  to  lay  the  city  under  an  interdict,  for  the 
aake  of  protecting  their  own  immunities.  See  Labbe, 
ConciL  X,  1081. 

lY.  Held  Jan.  4, 1804,  by  Robert  de  Courtenay,  arch- 
biahop  of  Rheims,  assisted  by  eight  bishops,  and  the 
deputies  of  three  absent.    They  made  five  decrees : 

i.  Forbids  the  levying  Imposts  upon  the  clergy  under 
Cslse  pretences. 


COMPITALIA 


56 


COMSTOCK 


0L  Bettriets  the  dinner  of  the  clefgy  of  the  prorince  to 
two  dishes  OTer  and  above  the  pottaee  or  sonp,  except 
they  have  some  great  person  at  the  table. 

See  Labbe,  CandL  id,  1492;  Landon,  Afan.  of  Councils, 

Besides  the  foregoing,  which  were  the  most  impor- 
tant councils  held  at  C^mpifegne,  there  are  notices  of 
others  at  the  same  place,  of  which  we  present  an:  ao- 
oomit  from  Richard  et  Giraud,  BibUothigve  Sacrie,  vit, 
425: 

L  Held  in  708,  at  which  Tasslllon,  duke  of  BaTaria, 
pledged  fealty  to  king  Pepin  (Mansi,  i,  fiOT). 

II.  In  ^  at  which  Lnnis  le  IMboiiuaire  was  snl^ected 
to  penance  (Labbe,  vil;  Hnrdonln,  iv).  

IlL  In  871,  at  which  Hincmar,  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
excommnniciited  the  rollower»  «>f  Carloman,  who  bad  re- 
volted against  Charles  the  Bald  (Mausi,  i,  1018). 

IV.  In  877,  against  idolatry. 

V.  In  106S,  by  Renaod,  archbishop  of  Rbelms,  In  favor 
of  eeruin  French  abl>eys  (Labbe,  x ;  Hardoniu,  vl). 

VI.  In  1306  {Qallia  Christ,  iii,  89). 

VIL  In  1270,  by  Jean  de  Conrtenay.  archbishop  of 
Rheims,  against  eDcroachments  upon  Church  property 
(Labbe,  xi ;  Hordonin.  vil). 

VIIL  In  1801,  at  wliich  seven  canons  were  passed,  con- 
cerning ecclesiasticai  Jurisdiction  (Labbe,  xl,  8 ;  Hardon- 
in.vii). 

IX  In  1889,  by  Gnillanmede  Brie,  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
at  which  seven  canons  were  enacted,  the  third  relating  to 
clerical  Jurisdiction. 

Compltalia,  among  the  pagan  Romans,  was  a  festi- 
val celebrated^pecially  at  cross-roads,  with  plays  and 
banquettngs,in  honor  of  the  Lares.  At  the  same  time,  as 
an  atonement  to  the  female  dnmon.  Mania,  honey-cakes 
and  onions  were  offered.  All  families  of  Rome  at  this 
festival  hung  on  the  outside  of  their  houses  as  many 
woollen  balls  as  they  bad  slaves,  and  as  many  woollen 
.  dolls  as  there  were  free  people  in  the  house,  in  order 
that  Mania  might  take  these  instead  of  the  slaves.  It 
is  stated  that,  originally,  at  this  festival  children  were 
sacrificed,  which  abomination  the  consul  Brutus  ended 
.by  instituting  the  above-mentioned  substitute. 

'     Compostella,  Coukcils  of  {CoHcUium  ad  SanC' 
tttm  Jcuo^m),  were  provincial  synods: 

L  Held  May  6,  900,  upon  occasion  of  the  dedication 
of  the  Church  of  St.  James.  Seventeen  bishops  were 
present,  together  with  lung  Alfonso,  his  family,  and 
many  others.    See  Labbe,  ConciL  ix,  482. 

if.  Held  in  1056,  by  Cresoonius,  archdeacon  of  Com- 
poatella.  Among  other  things,  it  was  decreed  that  all 
bishops  and  priests  should  say  mass  daily,  and  that  the 
deigy  should  wear  hair  shirts  on  days  of  fasting  and 

•  penitence.    See  Labbe,  ConciL  ix,  1087. — Landon,  Man, 
o/CouncilifB,r, 

Comprising  Aroh  is  an  architectural  term  for  the 
large  exterior  arch  of  a  window,  which  encloses  the  sub- 
ordinate lights  and  tracery. 

Compromifle,  Election  mr,  is  one  of  the  modes 
of  electing  the  pope.  When  the  cardinals  fail  to  agree 
upon  any  one  candidate,  they  sometimes  refer  the  mat- 
ter to  a  committee  of  their  owp  number  by  way  of  com- 
promise, binding  themselves  to  nominate  as  pope  the 
person  on  whom  the  arbiters  shall  fix.    See  Pope. 

Compte,  Niooi.A8  de,  a  French  monk,  who  died  at 
Paris  in  1689,  is  the  author  of  several  geographical 
works,  and  a  Hittoty  of  the  Jewt,  See  Chalmers,  Biog. 
Dict.B.y. 

Ck>mpton,  Robert,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  at  Withybrook,  Warwickshire,  Feb.  21, 1780. 
He  was  converted  before  arri\ing  at  eighteen  years  of 
age,  and  united  with  the  Church  at  Hinckley,  Leicester- 
shire. He  soon  began,  as  a  licentiate,  to  preach  in  the 
neighboring  villages.  In  1816  he  removed  to  Isleham, 
Cambridgeshire,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church 
there,  Oct.  29, 1817.  In  1881  his  health  began  to  faU, 
and  he  died  Aug.  8, 1834.  See  (Lond.)  Baptitt  Magor 
tint,  1686,  p.  189-191.     (J.  C.  &) 

Compton,  Samnel,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Gargrave,  near  l^kiptoni  March 


11, 1808.  In  1822  he  went  to  Roehdale,  joined  the 
Church,  and  began  to  assist  in  conducting  cottage- 
services.  He  moved  to  Bury  in  1881,  to  Ra^dilfe  in 
1888,  to  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  in  1860,  and  in  1865  to 
Settle,  where  he  was  ordained,  having  previously  la- 
bored as  home  missionary.  After  twdve  years*  woilc 
at  Settle,  Mr.  Compton  retired  to  Raddiffe,  where  be 
died,  July  1, 1870.  See  (Land.)  Cong,  Year-hook,  1871, 
p.d09. 

Compton,  William,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
EpiBOopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  London,  and 
emigrated  to  America  in  eariy  life  with  his  parents. 
In  1809  he  entered  the  Virginia  Conference,  and  subse- 
quently became  a  member  of  the  North  Carolina  Con- 
ference, in  each  of  which  he  labored,  as  health  would 
permit,  to  the  close  of  his  life,  in  November,  1847.  BIr. 
Compton  was  methodical  in  his  work,  eminently  a  Bible 
student,  an  excellent  preacher,  and  highly  esteemed. 
See  Minute*  of  A  uhmcU  Conferencet  of  the  M,  E,  Church 
South,  1847,  p.  180. 

Compton,  William  F.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Morgan 
County,  Ala.,  in  1887.  He  removed  to  Texas  in  1866, 
united  with  the  Church  South,  and  in  1870  joined  the 
East  Texas  Conference.  In  1874  he  was  transferred  to 
the  North-west  Texas  Conference,  and  labored  therein 
till  his  sudden  death  in  1878  or  1879.  See  Minutrt 
(^Annual  Confermou  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1879, 
p.  78. 

ComptitUB.    See  Caiaxdar. 

Comatock,  Blkanab,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  New  London,  Conn.,  and  commenced  preaching 
in  1800.  His  first  settlement  was  in  Albany  County, 
N.T.  Subsequently  he  went  to  Cayuga  County.  The 
New  York  Baptist  Convention  appointed  him  one  of 
its  missionaries  to  Michigan,  and  he  removed  to  Pon- 
tiac  in  1824.  Having  rare  gifls  for  this  position,  he 
"  made  full  proof"  of  his  ministry.  In  1834  he  returned 
to  visit  his  native  place,  somewhat  broken  in  health,  and 
died  there  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  See  Cathcarr, 
Baptitt Enegclop,p,ib8,  (J.CS.) 

Comstook,  Oliver  C,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  Oswego  County,  N.  Y.,  in  1784.  He  received 
an  academic  education,  and  commenced  a  coorae  of 
study  with  a  view  to  entering  the  Christian  ministry. 
Subsiequently  he  abandoned  his  theological  studies  and 
tumed  his  attention  to  medicine,  and,  in  due  time,  waa 
licensed,  and  practiced  his  profession  at  Tramansburg, 
N.  Y.  For  two  years  (1810-12)  he  was  a  member  of 
the  State  House  of  Representatives,  and  afterwards  M-aa 
elected  a  representative  from  the  state  of  New  York  to 
Congress,  and  was  twice  re-elected,  his  whole  term  of 
service  reaching'from  May  24, 1818,  to  March  3, 1819. 
He  retired  from  the  practice  of  medicine,  having  de- 
cided to  letum  to  the  vocation  of  his  early  choice,  and 
was  ordained  as  a  Baptist  dergyman.  For  a  time  bb 
acted  as  chaplain  of  the  House  of  Representatives  at 
Washington.  His  death  occurred  at  Marshall,  Mich., 
Jan.  11,  1860.  See  Poore,  Congressional  Directory,  p. 
842.    (J.CS.) 

Comatook,  Thomaa,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
later,  was  bom  in  Wayne  County,  O.,  March  2, 1829. 
He  was  converted  in  1841,  and  in  1864  licensed  to 
preach,  and  received  into  the  North  Indiana  Confer- 
ence.  In  1868  he  was  elected  professor  in  Fort  Wayiie 
College.  After  labonrig  in  that  capadty  two  years,  ho 
again  held  regular  appointments  until  1804,  when  he 
once  more  occupied,  for  a  year,  a  professorship  in  the 
same  college,  then  resumed  his  place  in  the  active  min- 
istry, and  continued  until  his  death,  June  17, 1872. 
Mr.  Comstock  was  a  man  of  rare  culture,  a  practical, 
earnest  preacher,  an  extraordinary  pastor,  and  a  Chria^ 
taan  of  deep  and  nniform  piety.  See  Minutes  of  An» 
nmal  Coitferesmxs,  1878,  p.  69. 

Comatook,  WilUam,  a  MetbodiM  Episcopal  min. 


COMUS 


57 


CONANT 


faUTi  famtbcr  of  tlie  foregoing,  was  born  in  Wayne 
GooDtji  (X,  May  %  18S2.  He  removed  with  hia  parenta 
to  ladiaiia,  and  tetUed  on  Eel  Kirer;  was  conrerted  in 
1843;  Btnd^ed  for  the  ministry,  and  waa  admitted  into 
the  Korth  Indiana  Conference  in  ISM.  In  1871  his 
bodth  failed,  and  he  died  Dec  1 1 ,  1875b  Mr.  Comstock 
was  a  man  of  great  faith  and  Christian  activity.  See 
Jfantfes  ofAmntal  Com/ermoet,  1876,  p. 87. 

Comiut,  god  of  noctnmal  revels  and  festivals,  waa 
ft  Grecian  deity,  represented  as  a  young  man  crowned 
with  rosea  or  myrtle,  holding  in  one  hand  a  golden  cup, 
tnd  in  the  other  a  platter  of  fruit 

Comyn  (Comi]],  or  Cuiiii&),  John,  an  Irish  prel- 
ate, waa  a  native  of  England,  and  a  monk  of  the  Bene- 
dictine abbey  of  Evesham.  His  education  was  supe- 
rior. Sept  6, 1181,  he  was  elected  to  the  see  of  Dublin, 
and  was  subsequently  ordained  a  priest,  at  Velletri; 
March  21,1182,  he  was  there  consecrated  archbishop  by 
pope  Lodus  III.  In  September,  1184,  he  was  sent  to 
Ireland  by  the  king  to  prepare  for  the  reception  of 
prince  John,  earl  of  Moreton.  In  1186  he  was  one  of 
the  English  nobles  who  received  John  and  his  train 
on  their  arrival  at  Waterford,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
obtained  from  the  boy  prince,  during  his  sojourn  in  Ire- 
hmd,  a  grant  of  the  bishopric  of  Glendalongh,  with  all 
its  churches,  lands,  tithes,  etc  In  1186  Gomyu  held  a 
provincial  synod  in  Dublin,  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Trinity.  He  assisted  at  the  coronation  of  king  Richard 
I,  Sept.  8, 1189,  and  was  the  witness  to  that  monarch's 
letters- patent  for  surrendering  to  William,  king  of 
Scotland,  the  castles  of  Rockbork  and  Berwick.  In 
1190  thia  prelate  erected  a  church,  dedicated  to  St 
Patrick,  in  the  aouthem  part  of  Dublin.  At  the  same 
time  he  repaired  and  partly  enlarged  the  choir  of  the 
cathedral  of  Christ  Church,  and  founded  and  endowed 
the  nmmerv  of  Grace  Dieo  in  Dublin.  He  died  Oct 
25, 1212.  See  D'Altoo,  Memoin  o/tkeAbpi^of  Ihib- 
Im,  p.  68. 

Ckxnaid,  an  eariy  British  saint,  was  a  companion 
'  of  St  Sampson.  He  is  called  by  the  French  81,  Meiti, 
and  is  probably  the  same  as  Mevemntu,  He  is  said  to 
liave  died  A.i>.  590,  and  was  commemorated  June  15 
(Cresqr,  Cktirdk  But.  of  BriL  lib.  zi,  c  28).— Smith, 
I>iet  o/Ckritt,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Conain.    See  Coxamhaiu 

Conaing.    See  Conang. 

Conall,  Samt.  In  the  Mart,  Dowg,  there  are 
aeven  Conalls^  and  Colgan  says  there  are  nine  or  ten 
in  the  Irish  martyrologies: 

1.  Son  of  Aedh,  is  commemorated  April  2.  He  suc- 
ceeded StCairpre  as  bishop  of  Colcraine,  having  before 
been  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Cluain-dallain  (Todd 
and  Beeves,  Mart.  Doneg.  p.  98;  Reeves,  Eccl  Ant,  p. 
114  n.> 

2.  Abbot  of  Inis-Caeil,  is  commemorated  May  28. 
Colgan  calls  him  the  son  of  Mannia  Coelius,  son  of 
Gsirherius.  A  panegyric  written  upon  him  by  St 
Dalian  Forgaill,  the  poet,  enables  us  to  fix  his  date  as 
prior  to  A.D.  594.  He  is  said  to  have  brought  over 
from  Rome,  though  probably  not  promulgated  for  more 
than  a  century  after  his  death,  a  curious  law-tract  or 
nle,  still  extant  entitled  the  Cam  Domnaufh,  for  the 
observance  of  Sunday  as  a  day  totally  free  from  labor, 
with  certain  unavoidable  exceptions  (O'Currr,  lAct, 
Awu  Irelandf  ii,  82, 33 ;  Butler,  Live*  of  the  SatnU,  v, 
313^846). 

3.  A  bishop,  commemorated  March  18.  At  this 
date  Colgan  gives  a  memoir  of  St.  Conall,  founder  of 
tkc  Church  of  Kilconnell.  He  was  made  bishop  by 
St  Patrick.  Together  with  St  Etchen,  he  ordained, 
aaknown  to  that  official,  some  perMna  who  were  unfit 
^  the  episcopate,  and  was  severely  rebuked  for  it  by 
Us  superior.  Lantgan  ^Ecd,  Bisi.  of  Ireland,  i,  429) 
doubts  the  connection  with  St  Patrick. 

4.  There  is  a  St  Conall  or  Connell  in  Scotland,  who 


givea  his  name  to  Kirkconnell,  but  whom  it  seems  im* 
poasiUe  to  identify  (Forbes,  KaL  of  Scot,  SamtM,  p. 
811).— Smith,  Diet  ofChritt,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Conamhail  (or  Conain),  an  eariy  Irish  and  Scot- 
tish saint  >on  of  Failbhe,  and  abbot  of  Hy,  is  commem- 
orated Sept  11.  He  was  the  first  abbot  of  Hy,  or  lona, 
that  was  not  of  the  race  of  the  founder,  and  was  the 
last  under  whom  the  native  usage  regarding  Easter 
prevailed.  He  suQceeded  St.  Adamnan,  A.D.  704,  and 
died  A.D.  710  (Unigan,  Ecd,  But,  of  Ireland,  iii,  160, 
168;  Grub,  Ecd,  But,  of  Scot,  i,  113,  114;  0*Dono- 
van,  Four  MaMten^  i,  809)^--Smith,  Diet,  ofChritt,  Bioff. 

S.V. 

Conan  waa  fifth  of  the  metropolitan  bishops  of 
London  in  the  British  period  (Stubbs,  Reguiar,  p.  162). 

Conan  waa  also  a  common  Irish  name,  and  assumed 
several  forms,  as  Cona,  Comuty  Comnan,  and  with  the 
aifectionate  or  honorary  prefixes  Do  or  Da,  and  Mo, 
Dachanna,  Mochonna,  etc  It  ia  given  to  several  early 
Irish  saints : 

1.  Commemorated  Jan.  13.  In  the  Irish  calendara, 
on  this  day,  there  are  Mochonna,  bishop  of  LeamhchoiU, 
and  Mochonna  of  Inis-Patraig.  The  second  is  like? 
ly  to  hare  lived  on  the  island  of  Inis-Patrick  (Lani- 
gan,  Ecd,  But.  of  Irdand,  i,  808-307 ;  O'Hanlon,  Irish 
Saints,  i,  191, 195, 447 ;  Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart,  Doneg. 
p.  15). 

2.  Dil,  of  Eaa-ruaidh,  commemorated  March  8.  He 
was  the  son  of  Tighemach,  and  nearly  related  to  St 
Columba.  He  ia  called  also  Conna,  Cownan,  Conda^ 
Mochanda,  and  came  to  be  generally  and  affectionately 
known  as  Conathdit,  ^'Connanus  dilectus."  He  had 
three  brothers,  sainta  Begbile,  Colman,  and  Cuan-Caoin. 
He  flourished  about  the  end  of  the  6th  century,  and 
ruled  over  a  monastery,  probably  of  his  own  foundation, 
at  Cnodain,  on  the  Emc  He  probably  was  also  a  bish- 
op, and  is  numbered  among  the  disciples  of  St  Columba 
(Lanigan,  EccL  Bist,  of  Irdand,  ii,  222, 226 ;  Kelly,  Cal 
of  Irish  Saints,  fi.  89). 

3.  Bishop  of  Sodor  or  Man,  is  commemorated  Jan. 
26.  From  the  Scotch  hagiographies  we  learn  that  St 
Conan  was  bishop  in  Man,  or  ancient  Ebona,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  7th  centur}',and  his  influence  extend- 
ed through  the  Hebrides  and  great  part  of  Scotland. 
He  died  about  A.D.  648,  and  is  honored  in  the  Hebri- 
des, Perthshire,  and  Forfarshire  (O'Hanlon,  Irish  Saints, 
i,  446-449;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  i,  377,  878; 
Forbes,  Kal.  of  Soot,  Saints,  p.  307,  808). 

4.  Of  Aeg,  commemorated  Jan.  12.  O'Hanlon  sug- 
gests that  St  Conan  of  Aeg,  or  Egg,  may  have  given 
his  name  to  the  neighboring  island  of  Canna,  among 
the  Hebrides,  but  be3'ond  the  mention  of  the  name  and 
dedication  in  the  calendars  there  is  nothing  known  of 
this  saint  (Reeves,  Adamnan,  p.  308;  O'Hanlon, /ritA 
Saints,  i,  180, 181).~Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Conang  (or  Conalng),  an  eariy  Irish  saint,  son 
of  Lucunan,  is  commemorated  Sept  23.  This  person  ia 
identified  with  Conaingus  0*DaithH,  coarb  of  St  Ailbhe 
of  Emly,  and  called  archbishop  in  The  Life  of  Mochas 
nuKUS,  If  this  be  so,  he  died  in  A.D.  661  (Lauigao, 
Ecd,  Bist,  of  Ireland,  iii,  84, 36).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog,  s.  v. 

Conant,  Daniel  M.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Herkimer  County,  N.  T.,  Feb.  19, 178C. 
He  joined  the  Church  at  the  age  of  eighteen ;  removed 
to  Ohio  in  1819;  began  preaching  there  in  1820,  amid 
the  hardships  of  a  wilderness  life,  and  in  1835  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Ohio  Conference.  He  became  superaiK 
nuated  in  1871,  but  continued  to  preach  until  his  de- 
cease, Dec  27, 1873.  Mr.  Conant  was  a  man  of  good 
natural  abilities,  well  versed  in  Methodism,  of  genuine 
cheerful  temperament,  and  untarnished  life.  See  Miik' 
utes  ^Annual  Cot^erenees,  1874,  p.  109. 

Conant,  Gains,  a  Congregational  minister,  waa 
bom  at  Bridgewater,Mass.,  Sept  6,1776,  and  graduated 


•CONANT 


68 


CONCANEN 


fnMn  Brown  Umvenity  in  1800.  He  punned  his  the- 
ological studies  in  part  with  Rev.  Dr.  Fobes  of  Raj'n- 
ham,  but  becoming  dissatisfied  with  his  Arminian  views, 
placed  himself  under  the  tuition  of  Rev.  Dr.  Emmons 
of  FrankUn.  He  was  ordained  Feb.  17, 1808,  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  Church  in  Ftaxton;  was  installed, 
in  April,  1834,  over  the  Second  Congregational  Church 
in  Plymouth ;  remained  seven  years,  and  then  returned 
to  his  old  home  in  Paxtoo,  where  he  died,  Feb.  6, 1862. 
See  IliiLofMendon  Assodaiionf^379,d09.     (J.  C  S.) 

Conant,  John,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  divine,  was 
bom  Oct.  18,  1608,  at  Yealmpton,  in  Devonshire.  He 
was  educated  in  private  schools  and  at  Exeter  College, 
in  Oxford,  where  he  was  chosen  a  fellow  in  1638,  soon 
after  became  an  eminent  tutor,  and  June  7,  1649,  was 
unanimously  chosen  rector  by  his  fellows.  In  1662  he 
received  priest's  orders  at  Salisbury,  and  in  December, 
1664^  became  divinity  professor  of  the  University  of 
Oxford.  In  October,  1657,  he  was  made  vice-chancel- 
lor of  the  university,  and  held  that  dignity  until  Aug. 
6, 1660 ;  was  deprived  of  his  rectory  of  Exeter  College, 
Sept  1,1662;  in  1670  was  invited  to  St  Mary,  Aiders 
manbury,  in  London,  but  declined.  In  1676  he  be- 
came archdeacon  of  Norwich,  and  in  December,  1681, 
prebendary  in  the  cathedral  of  Worcester.  He  died 
March  12,  1693.  Dr.  Conant  understood  thoroughly 
the  Oriental  languages,  and  was  well  versed  in  the 
Syriac.  There  have  been  six  volumes  of  his  Sermont 
published  (Oxf.  1693-1722).  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet. 
a.  v.;  AUibone,  Diet,  ofBrit^  and  Amer»  Author$f 
s.  V. 

Conant,  Liba,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bom 
at  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  March  6, 1797.  He  studied  in 
his  native  town,  graduated  from  Brown  UniverBity  in 
1819,  pursued  his  theological  studies  with  Rev.  Hol- 
land Weeks,  of  Abington,  and  became  pastor  at  North- 
field,  N.  H.,  where  he  remained  fourteen  yearn.  His 
subsequent  pastorates  were  in  Hebron,  for  nine  years, 
Canaan,  Groton,  and  Oxford,  all  in  New  Hampshire. 
He  spent  the  closing  years  of  his  life  in  Bristol,  where 
he  died,  April  3, 1881.  See  Necrology  of  Brown  Uni- 
vertUy,  1880-81.     (J.  C  S.) 

Conant,  Robert  Taft,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Barre,  Mass.,  Sept  1, 1810.  He  Joined  the 
Congregational  Chureh  in  1826;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1836,  and  at  Auburn  Theological  Seminary 
in  1841 ;  commenced  preaching  at  Clintonville,  N.Y.,  in 
1840,  and  was  ordained  there  Nov.  4, 1841;  removed 
to  St  Lawrence  County  in  1849,  and  united  with  the 
old  Ogdensburg  Presbytery  in  1860;  preached  at  Os- 
wegatchie,  Morristown,  Antwerp,  Evanston,  and  Heu- 
velton.  From  1865,  he  became  a  teacher  in  a  classical 
Bchool  at  Ogdensburg,  also  preaching  occasionally.  He 
died  there,  Jan.  28,  1879.  Mr.  Conant  was  a  pro- 
found scholar,  and  an  ardent  advocate  of  temperance. 
He  published  only  some  Sermont  and  articles  in  peri- 
odicals.   (W.  P.S.) 

Conant,  Sylvanna,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was  bom 
at  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  in  1722,  and  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1740.  He  was  ordained  at  Middlebor- 
ough,  Maroh  28,  1745,  and  remained  there  until  his 
death,  Dec  8, 1777.  He  was  a  man  of  good  talents, 
of  deep  piety,  and  of  great  circumspection  in  his  per- 
sonal and  official  deportment  See  HitL  ofFirtt  Church 
in  Middld)orough^  p.  81,  32;  Sprague,  AnndU  of  the 
A  mer.  PulpU,  viii,  292.     (J.  Q.  S.) 

Conant,  William,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Bridgewater,  Mass.;  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1770 ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Lyme, 
K.  H.,  Dec  22, 1778,  and  died  March  8, 1810,  aged  sixty- 
seven  years.  See  Sprague,  A  nnait  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit, 
il,266. 

Conant,  William  M.,  aMethodist  Episcopal  min- 
itter,  was  bora  at  Aurora,  O.,  Sept  16, 1824.  He  was 
ooaveited  under  the  ministry  of  his  £aher.  Rev.  D.  M. 


Conant,  in  eariy  youth;  studied  at  Norwalk  Seminaiy 
and  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  and  in  1849  entered  the 
North  Ohio  Conference.  He  died  in  the  midst  of  bU 
labors,  Dec.  28, 1871.  Mr.  Conant  was  deeply  pious, 
prudent,  attractive,  loving,  exemplary,  and  eminently 
conscientiousL  See  Jf tnufes  of  A  nmtal  Ccnferenoes,  1872, 
p.  72. 

Conantina,  a  Spanish  prelate  of  the  7th  oentoiy, 
was  bishop  of  Palentia  (Palencia,  in  Old  Castile)  from 
the  reign  of  the  Visigothic  king  Gundemar,  A.D.610,  to 
that  of  Sisenand,  in  636.  He  subscribed  the  decrees  of 
the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  councils  of  Toledo.  He  was 
dignified,  eloquent,  and  devoted,  and  was  acqasinted 
with  ecclesiastical  music,  composing  many  new  inelodiei; 
He  was  the  author  of  a  book  .of  disoouises  on  the 
Ptalms  (Cave,  Hitt,  of  Lit,  i,  682;  Migne,  PatroL 
xcvi,  208).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Con&nna.    See  Cum asus. 

Conoa,  SsBABTf  AMO,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Gaeta  in  1676,  and  stikUed  in  the  school  of  SoUmena. 
His  abilities  soon  became  known,  and  procured  him  the 
patronage  of  cardinal  Ottoboni,  who  rewarded  him  lib- 
erally for  a  picture  of  Herod  and  the  Wise  Men,  He 
was  employed  to  decorate  the  Church  of  St  Clement 
His  principal  works  at  Rome  are  Jeremiah^  in  St  John 
Lateran,  and  The  Attumptionf  in  San  Martino;  at  Lo- 
retto,  San  Niccolo;  at  Anoona,  Bitn  Saverio;  and  at 
Foligno,  San  Agottino,  He  died  in  1764.  See  Hoefer, 
JVottr.  Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  HitL  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  %,v, 

Concanen,  Richard  Lukr,  a  Roman  Catholic  bish- 
op, was  a  native  of  Ireland,  but  at  an  eariy  age  was  tent 
to  receive  the  white  habit  in  Lorraine,  at  the  convent 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  belonging  to  the  Irish  Dominicans, 
from  which,  at  the  expiration  of  bis  novitiate,  he  was 
removed  to  Santa  Maria  Sopia  Minerva,  Rome    He 
acquired  distinction  during  his  course  of  study,  and, 
at  its  termination,  he  was  selected  to  be  professor  of 
St  Clement's,  the  college  of  the  Irish  Dominicans  in 
the  same  city.     He  also,  for  several  years,  filled  a 
chair  in  the  school  founded  at  the  Minerva  in  con- 
nection with  the  celebrated  library  instituted  and  en- 
dowed by  the  munificence  of  the  illustrious  cardinsl 
Casanate,  one  of  the  qualifications  of  which  was  a  doc- 
torship  acquired  by  teaching  the  course  of  St  Thomas 
Aquinas.   While  residing  at  the  Minerva,  Dr.  Concanen 
became  agent  to  archbishop  Troy  of  Dublin,  and  such 
was  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  in  the  Propaganda, 
that  he  influenced  every  ecclesiastical  appointment  made 
for  Ireland  and  the  British  colonies.   Dr.  Concanen  was 
also  well  known  in  Rome  as  a  preacher  in  the  Italian 
language^a  rare  thing  for  a  foreigner  to  attempt.    He 
had  long  taken  an  interest  in  the  American  missions, 
and  it  was  through  his  advice  that  the  first  convent  of 
the  Dominicans  was  founded  in  Kentucky  In  1805.  On 
account  of  his  health,  Concanen  declined  the  see  of  Kil- 
maoduagh,  Ireland,  but  was  persuaded  to  accept  the 
bishopric  of  the  newly  formed  see  of  New  York,  to  which 
he  was  consecrated  in  Rome,  April  24, 1808.  Afler  a  resi- 
dence of  forty  years  in  Rome,  he  went  to  Naples,  in- 
tending to  take  passage  for  the  United  States.   French 
authorities,  then  in  possession  of  that  port^,  detained  him 
prisoner  as  a  British  subject    These  disappointments 
and  hardships,  with  age  (he  was  now  nearly  seventy), 
proved  too  much,  and  he  died — not  without  suspidoo 
of  poison — at  the  convent  of  St  Dominic,  Naples,  June 
10,  1810.    Concanen  bore  with  him  the  pallium  for 
archbishop  Carroll,  and  bulls  of  institution  for  three  new 
bishops.   It  was  not  until  1816  that  a  successor  to  Con- 
canen was  appointed,  when  John  Connolly  became  the 
first  resident  bishop  of  New  York.    His  library  and  a 
legacy  of  $20,000  Dr.  Concanen  bequeathed  to  the  Do- 
minican convent  of  St  Rose,  Ky.    See  De  Gourcy  and 
Shea,  HisL  of  the  Cath,  Church  in  the  CT.  ^9.  p.  90, 3d3- 
367 ;  Bayley,  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  N.  T.  (1858), 
p.  68;  Bndy,TheEfi9oopalSwxe$ntm,Utl^ 


CONCEICAM 


59 


CONCORD 


Conoaipaai,  Agosdnlio  da,a  FortugiMie  iheo- 
kgian  of  the  Fnmciaoui  order,  was  a  native  of  Lamego. 
He  engaged  as  a  sailor  and  started  for  Brazil,  was  ship- 
wrecked, and  finally,  arriving  at  his  destination,  entered 
opoo  a  religiooa  career,  and  founded  a  convent  of  his 
order  in  the  dtj  of  Cabo  Frio,  where  he  died  in  1698. 
He  wrote  manj  Sermoiu^  See  Hoefer,  iVoti r.  Biog,  Gi' 
MAna/ie^8.v. 

Coiicel9a]ii  (or  BarboMi  da  Costa),  Axitonio 
da,  a  Portttg^oese  theologian  of  the  Franciscan  order, 
was  bom  at  Porto,  June  7, 1657.  He  entered  the  order 
in  1673  and  diatingnished  himself  by  his  talent  as  a 
picacher.  He  died  April  20,  1718,  leaving  Clamoret 
Evaydiei  (Lisbon,  1698).  See  Hoefer,  iVbiir.  Biog. 
C4Mrale,  s.  v. 

Concei9aiii,  Appolinailo  da,  an  ecclesiastical 
writer  of  Portogal,  was  bom  at  Lisbon,  July  26, 1692. 
He  was  but  thirteen  years  of  age  when  he  went  to 
Braail,  joined  the  Frandscans  as  a  lay  brother,  Sept. 
8,  1711,  and  was  finally  taken  into  the  employ  of 
the  genoml  of  the  order.  He  was  appointed  chron- 
icler of  the  Franciscans  in  1740,  and  died,  probably 
at  Bio  de  Janeiro^  about  1750,  leaving  a  large  num- 
ber of  works,  espedally,  Pequenat  na  Terra  Grande*  no 
ee0  MemorioM  HutorieoM  do$  M^fiotot  da  Ordem  Se- 
raficoj  etc  (Lisbon,  1782-38) -.—C/anffro  FramUcano 
Ertcto  no  DomwiodaCinwi  Portugnrza^  etc.  (ibid.  1740). 
See  Hoefer,  Abav.  Biog,  GiiUrcUe,  s.  v. 

Concei^am,  Diiait^,  a  Portuguese  theologian, 
was  bora  at  Villavicosa,  Oct.  13, 1539.  He  entered  the 
priesthood  in  1614,  took  charge  of  several  ecclesiastical 
estaUidiments,  and  performed  various  functions.  He 
died  Sept  26, 1662,  leaving  CoUecfao  de  Estatutos  Et- 
tabeUeidot  em  Dwenoe  CapUulae  Anieeedentes  (1646). 
Sea  Hoefer,  JVovr.  Biog.  Ghtirale,  a  v. 

Conoeloao,  AKromo  da,  a  Portuguese  ecclesiastic 
and  theologian,  was  bom  at  Pombal,  Hay  12, 1522.  He 
was  tecalar  canon  of  St  John  the  Evangelist,  and  gained 
the  reputation  of  a  sainL  He  died  May  12, 1601,  leav- 
ing £  Qfiatarze  CivrtaM  Etpirituaee,  published  in  his  Vie, 
by  Lniz  de  Mertola.  See  Hoefer,  Aov r.  Biog,  Genirale, 
a^v. 

Conoeptioii,  The  Bfflractiloiia.   See  Maiuoi/- 

ATRT. 

Coneeptloii,  Aktoxio  db  ua  (called  da  Siena), 
a  Portuguese  biographer  and  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Guimaraes,  PortogaL  The  name  of  his  family  was 
La  Conofption,  He  completed  his  studies  at  Lisbon 
and  Onmbra,  went  to  the  Netherlands,  and  was  made 
doctor  at  Lou  vain.  He  afterwards  went  to  Brittany, 
where  he  remained  some  time  with  don  Antonio, 
who  assamed  the  title  of  king  of  Portugal  Antonio 
da  Siena  afterwards  went  to  Rome.  He  died  in  1586, 
having  published  notes  upon  the  Summa  of  St.  Thom- 
as, and  some  other  works,  such  as  the  A  nnaU  and  the 
BMiotkeea  of  the  authors  of  bis  order  who  wrote  upon 
morality  and  spirituality  (Paris,  1647).  See  Hoefer, 
fComv*  Biog.  GbiSrakj  s.  v. 

Conceptlone  (or  Ckuaoesione),  Maria  Cruci- 
nzAy  an  Italian  nun,  was  bom  in  Sicily  in  1645.  She 
entered  the  Benedictine  convent  of  St.  Rosaire  at  Palma, 
took  the  vows  in  1662,  and  died  in  1699,  leaving,  DtUa 
(hrribile  Bnttezza  deff  A  nima  d*un  Sacerdofe,  etc.  (Rome, 
1673;  Palermo,  1675,  without  the  name  of  the  author, 
and  in  1695  with  her  name) : — Scidta  di  Lettera  Spiri- 
tuaii  (Girgenti,  1704) ;  and  various  other  writings  which 
are  found  in  her  U/e,  by  Jerome  Turanus.  See  Hoefer, 
Sour.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Concheim.    See  Coixciiknsi. 

Concilia  Bffar^h^iUB  is  a  term  sometimes  applied 
to  the  Roman  catacombs.    See  Arenaria. 

Coneiiui,  Danielo^  an  lulian  theologian,  was  boru 
St  Frinlt  in  1686.  Ha  entered  the  Dominican  order 
Maich  16, 1706 ;  diatingnished  himself  by  his  preaching 


talent,  and  leoeiTed  proofs  of  the  esteem  of  popes  Cle- 
ment XII  and  Benedict  XIV.  He  died  at  Venice,  Feb. 
21, 1756,  leaving  numerous  works,  among  which  we  no- 
tice, Animadvernonee  Critico^Maralet  in  Menda  Ponta* 
skma  (Augsbuig,  1788)  '.^Comrneniarivt  Hietorieo-Apo' 
iogeiicus^etc  (Venice,  i7dG)i-'EpUtola  Theotogieo-Mo- 
ralet  (ibid.  1744)  i—In  Beecriptwn  Bened.  XIV,  Poni. 
Max.  (ibid.  1745):— £^rara  Contretelue  Trini  Dmerta- 
lionibtu  JIutorico-TkeologieiM  DemonUrata,  etc.  (ibid.) : 
— Theohgia  Christiana  Bogmatieo-MoraHi  (Rome  and 
Venice,  1749) ;  this  work  is  very  highly  esteemed : — De 
SacramentcUi  Abtolutione  (Rome,  1755).  See  Hoefer, 
youv,  Biog,  GMraie,  s.  v. 

Conoina,  Nioolo,  an  Italian  philosopher,  brother 
of  the  foregoing,  took  the  habit  of  a  Dominican,  was 
professorof  theology  and  philosophy,  and  in  1782  taught 
metaphysics  at  Padua.  In  1748  his  health  obliged  him 
to  retire  to  Venice,  where  he  died  in  1768,  leaving  Ora- 
Ho  in  Ggmnasio  PaUnino  (Venice,  1782) :  —  Synoptii 
TertuB  Partis  Meiapkgsiea  (without  date)  i^JwHs  Na- 
turalis  et  Gentium  Dodrina  Metaphgsice  A  iserta  (Venice, 
1786).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GhUraU,  s.  v. 

Conciolo,  an  Italian  painter  of  the  13th  century. 
At  Subiaco  b  a  picture  on  panel  by  him,  representing 
the  consecration  of  a  church,  inscribed  "Conciolus  Pin- 
xit,  1219.**  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Uist,  of  (he  Fine  A  r1», 
s.  y. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gineraie,  s.  v, 

Condamatio  was  the  cry  of  lamenution  which 
the  ancient  Romans  made  over  their  dead.  As  soon  as 
the  eyes  were  closed  in  death,  the  relatives  of  the  de- 
ceased who  happened  to  be  present  called  upon  him  by 
name  several  times  at  intervals,  repeating  ave,  hail,  or 
vak,  farewell.  Hence  when  any  affair  was  desperate, 
the  phrase  was  frequently  used  in  reference  to  this 
practice,  condamatum  est,  i  e.  **  all  is  over." — Gardner, 
Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v.    See  Mourning. 

ConolaTlats  are  the  attendants  on  cardinals  when 
met  in  conclave  for  the  election  of  a  pope.  There  are 
usually  two  to  each  cardinal,  one  of  them  being  an  ec- 
desisHtic.  If  the  cardinals  be  princes,  or  old  or  infirm, 
they  are  sometimes  allowed  three.  They  are  shut  up 
as  strictly  as  the  cardinals  themselves,  and  though  the 
situation  of  a  conclavist  is  far  from  being  comfortable, 
it  is  much  coveted.  He  must  be  immured  in  a  little 
comer  of  his  master's  cell,  and  do  every  menial  office 
for  him.  A  conclavist  may  assign  the  pensions  which 
he  haS'Out  of  benefices  for  a  particular  sum,  which  is 
determined  by  the  order  which  the  pope-elect  grants  to 
him  who  makes  the  assignment.  The  office  also  gives 
a  man  the  privilege  of  being  a  citizen  in  any  town 
within  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction ;  besides  which,  he 
reoeives  a  sum  of  money  from  the  pope  after  his  elec- 
tion. Each  conclavist,  before  entering  upon  hb  office, 
takes  an  oath  that  he  will  not  reveal  the  Kcrets  of  the 
conclave.  Conclavists  are  sometimes  the  hired  tools 
of  foreign  governments  to  procure  the  election  of  a  par- 
ticular individual  to  the  papal  chair.  See  Gardner, 
Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v.     See  TorB. 

Cronoomitanoe,  in  ecclesiastical  phrase,  is  the 
Romish  doctrine  that  under  the  form  of  bread  the  blood 
of  Christ  is  also  received,  although  the  chalice  is  not 
partaken. 

Concord,  Saint,  a  priest  and  martyr,  lived  about 
170.  He  was  son  of  Gordianus,  a  Roman  priest  of 
great  piety.  The  persecution  of  Christians  under  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  obliged  him  to  withdraw  into  retirement. 
The  report  of  miracles  which  he  accomplished  soon 
made  him  known.  Torquatus,  governor  of  Spoleto, 
made  strenuous  efforts  to  cause  him  to  abjure  the 
Christian  faith,  but  Concord  remained  resolute.  Af- 
ter craelly  torturing  him,  he  threw  him  into  a  dun- 
geon. Three  days  later  he  was  offered  the  choice  of 
WMshipping  an  idol  or  giving  up  his  life.  Scorning 
the  idol,  one  of  the  soldiera  cut  off  his  head.  He  is 
honored  on  Jan.  1,  and  the  anniversary  of  his  removal 


CONCORDANCE 


60 


CONDICT 


It  oelebnted  July  4»  The  Spanish  dergy  clum  to  have 
the  remains  of  this  saint  in  a  monasteiy  of  Gerona,  Cata- 
loflia*    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Concordanoe.    We  add  the  following;. 

I.  Hebbkw  Concordances. — A  Concordance  of  the 
Hebrtu  and  Chaldee  Scrtptum  (London,  1876,  an  excel- 
lent work) : — A  n  EngUtk^  Hdfrew^  and  Chaldee  Lexicon 
and  ConcordoMicefor  the  more  Correct  Undemanding  of- 
the  Engluh  Translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  bg  Refer- 
ence  to  the  Original  Hebrew  (ibid.  1866)  i^Concordantim 
Nonunum  Propriorum,  gute  in  lAbris  Sacris  Continentur, 
a  G»  Brecher  Inchoataf  Fimiaf  Demum,  a  FiUo  (Brecher, 
Frankfort,  1876,  on  the  proper  names,  but  deficient). 

II.  Greek  Concordances  on  the  New  Testament, — 
Tofiuiov  TtiQ  CAivqc  ^(O^Kirc  ifxupi^ioVf  by  Schmol- 
ler  (Stuttgard,  1868):  — ^  CritiaU  Greek  and  Ent^ish 
Concordctnce  to  the  Neto  Testament,  by  Hudson,  revised 
and  completed  by  Abbott  (Boston,  1870). 

III.  English  Concordances.— rAe  Twofold  Con^ 
eordance  to  the  Words  and  Subjects  of  the  ffofy  Bible, 
Including  a  Concise  Dictionary,  a  Chronological  Ar- 
rangement of  the  Sacred  Narrative,  and  other  Tables  De- 
signed to  Facilitate  the  Consultation  and  Study  qf  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  (Edinburgh,  l8o8)  i— Dictionary  and 
Concordance  of  Scripture  Proper  Names,  by  Henderson 
(ibid.  1869):— i4n  Analytical  Concordance' to  the  Holy 

'Scriptures;  or,  The  Bible  Presented  under  Distinct  and 
Classi/ed  Heads  or  Topics,  by  Eadie  (reprinted,  New 
York,  1877):— i4n  Amdytical  Concordance  to  the  Bible 
on  an  Entirely  New  Plan,  Containing  every  Word  A  l- 
phabeticaUy  A  rranged  under  its  Hebrew  or  Greek  Orig- 
inal, with  the  Literal  Meaning  and  Pronunciation,  Ex' 
habiting  about  811,000  References,  Marking  80,000  Read- 
ings in  the  New  Testament,  with  the  Latest  Information 
OH  BitfUcal  Geography  and  Antiquities,  etc,  by  Young 
.(Edinburgh,  1880),  answering  a  similar  purpose  with 
that  of  the  EngiishmaiCs  H^tw  and  Greek  Concorde 
ances.  There  have  also  been  issued  several  concord- 
ances to  the  Revised  New  Testament.    (B^  P.) 

Concordia,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  the  goddess 
of  union.  She  had  a  number  of  temples  at  Rome :  one 
on  the  Capitoline  Hill,  rebuilt  after  having  been  burned 
to  the  ground  under  Constantine  and  Maxentius,  the 
ruins  of  wliich  are  still  shown.  Another  temple  was 
built  in  consequence  of  a  vow  which  h,  Manilas  had 
made  in  GauL  A  third  was  dedicated  by  Cn.  Flavins, 
an  (edile,  during  the  Samnite  war.  Concordia  appears  on 
coins  as  a  matron,  sometimes  standing  and  sometimes 
sitting,  bearing  in  her  left  arm  a  cornucopia,  sometimes 
an  olive  branch  or  a  shell.  Clasped  hands  are  also  her 
symboL 

Concordia,  nurse  of  St.  Hippolytus,  and  a  martyr 
at  Rome,  is  commemorated  Aug.  18,  in  Usuard's  Mar* 
tyrology. 

Concordins  is  the  name  of  several  early  Chris- 
tians.   See  also  Cordius. 

1.  A  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Aries,  who  was  present 
at  the  election  of  Hilary  to  the  see  of  Rome,  A.D.  461. 

2.  A  presbyter  and  martyr  at  Spoleto,  under  Anto- 
ninus, is  commemorated  Jan.  1,  in  Usuard's  Martyrolo- 
gy.    See  Concord,  St. 

3.  A  bishop  of  Aries  (A.D.  874,  ciic  409),  canonized 
as  a  saint,  was  one  of  the  twenty-two  or  thirty  bishops 
present  at  the  first  council  of  Valence  (A.D.  874).  One 
of  the  decrees  of  this  council  was  that  those  ecclesias- 
tics who,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  burdens  of  office, 
accused  themselves  of  mortal  sin,  should  be  taken  at 
their  word.  Under  this  canon  came  Acceptus,  bishop 
of  Fregus,  whom  Concordius  defended  in  the  council 
(TiUemont,  Hist,  EccL  viii,  651-^53).— Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Concurrence  op  Uoudats.  Festivals  are  said 
to  ** concur"  when  one  feast  is  succeeded  by  another 
feast,  so  that  the  second  even-song  of  the  former  coocun 
with  the  first  even-song  of  the  latter. 

Conda.    See  Cohxa. 


Cond^,  Nicolas,  a  theologian  of  Lorraine,  was  bom 
at  Clermont,  in  Argonne,  in  1609.  He  became  a  Jesuit 
May  2, 1622,  and  taogbt  rhetoric  from  1632  to  1636, 
and  afterwards  philosophy  until  1639.  He  was  also 
distinguished  as  a  preacher.  He  died  Oct.  6, 1654, 
leaving  Oraison  Funebre  de  Louis  XIJI  (Dijon,  1643) : 
— L* Annie  Chrstienne  dans  son  Parfait  Aooomplisie- 
ment  (Paris,  1649)  i— Vie  da  Charles  de  Lorraine  (ibid. 
1 652).    See  Uoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genbrale,  s.  v. 

Cond^duB,  Saint,  a  presbyter  and  recluse  (also 
called  Conddus,  Condedes,  and  Candidus),  was  a  native 
of  Great  Britain,  but  migrated  into  Gaul  in  the  time  of 
Theodoric,  son  of  Clovis,  about  A.D.  611.  After  lead- 
ing a  solitary  life  for  a  short  time  near  Fontana  Wal- 
arid  (St.  yaler>'-en-caux,  or  St.  Valery-sur-Somme), 
and  visiting  St.  Lambert  and  brothers  of  the  monsstcry 
of  Fontenelle,  he  took  up  his  abode  upon  the  i&lsnd 
of  Belcinaca,  in  the  Seine.  Here  Condedus  built  two 
churches,  and  be  himself  was  buried  in  one,  but  hit 
body  subsequently  was  removed  to  the  monastery  of 
Fontenelle,  A.D.  1027.  Condedus  is  commemorated 
OcL  2 1 .  The  date  of  his  death  is  uncerUin  (Le  €)ointe, 
Ann,  EocL  Franc,  ii,  68, 816;  Migne,  Encyclop,  ThwL 
xl,  645) Smith,  Dkt.  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Conder,  Gteorge  William,  an  English  Congre- 
gational minister,  was  bom  at  Hitchin,  Nov.  80, 1821. 
He  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school  in  his  native 
town ;  entered  business  in  London ;  joined  the  Church 
in  early  manhood;  received  his  theological  training  at 
Highbury  College,  and  began  hiv-ministry  in  1845  aa 
co-pastor  at  High  Wycombe.  Afterwards  he  Ubored 
successively  two  years  at  Kyde,  fifteen  years  at  Leeds, 
six  years  at  lianchester,  and  finally  four  years  at  Forest 
Hill,  a  London  suburb,  where  he  died,  Nov.  8, 1874. 
Mr.  Conder  exerted  a  powerful  influence  as  pastor,  open- 
air  preacher, and  lecturer;  was  a  public-spirited  towns- 
man, an  earnest  advocate  of  education,  and  a  nervous 
and  pithy  writer  of  some  charming  articles  for  the 
young.  He  was  also  the  composer  of  a  few  notable 
hymns.  See  (Lend.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1875,  p.  817; 
(Lond.)  Eoang.  Mag.  1875,  p.  95. 

Conder,  John  (1),  an  English  Independent,  was 
chosen  assistant  to  John  Nesbitt,  in  1710,  as  pastor  it 
Hare  Court,  London,  and  continued  there  till  his  death, 
March  8, 1746.  He  attended  the  Salterns  Hall  Synod 
in  1719,  and  sided  with  both  the  signers  and  non-signers, 
which  created  considerable  mirth.  See  Wilson,  Dissent- 
ing Churches,  iii,  287. 

Conder,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  Independent 
minister,  was  bom  at  Wimpole,  in  Cambridgeshire,  in 
1714;  educated  in  London ;  was  ordained  at  Cambridge 
in  September,  1739;  and  chosen  theological  tutor  at 
the  Mile  End  College  in  1754,  when  the  institution  was 
opened  in  that  locality.  In  1759  he  became  one  of  the 
preachers  of  the  Merchants'  Lecture,  and  in  1760  as- 
sistant preacher  at  the  Pavement,  near  Moorfields, 
where  he  continued  until  his  death  in  1781.  He  pub- 
lished the  Sermons  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Hayward  of  Sil- 
ver Street  about  1760.  See  Rose,  Gen.  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Wilson, />tMenrtn^  Churches,  ii,  85, 531 ;  iii.  111. 

Condict  (or  Condit)»  Aaron,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  Aug.  6,  1766.  He 
graduated  from  Princeton  in  1788;  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  New  York  Presbytery  in  1790,  and  soon 
after  accepted  a  call  to  Stillwater.  N.  Y.  In  1796  he 
was  installed  pastor  at  Hanover,  N.  J.,  where  he  la- 
bored for  thirty- five  years.  He  died  in  April,  1852. 
His  ministerial  labors  were  crowned  with  great  suc- 
cess. See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  iv, 
39. 

Condict,  Bdward  ViriUiam,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Morri^town,  N.  J.,  Jan.  17, 1833. 
He  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1853, 
and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1855;  was 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Passaic,  April  14  of  the 


CONDICT 


ei 


CONE 


lame  year;  in  October  foOowing  joined  the  Presbytoy 
of  Lewes,  and  beeame  a  miasionaiy  within  its  bounds. 
He  died  at  Morristown,  Not.  28,  1859.  See  Wilson, 
PnA.  HitL  Aimanae,  1860,  p.  69;  Gen.  Cat*  o/Pruu»- 
tm  TkeoL  San,  1881,  p.  199. 

Condict,  Joseph  D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
grttiaated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1826 ;  was 
settled  aa  the  rixth  pastor  at  Easthampton,  L.  I.,  in 
1830 ;  dismisaed  in  1835;  installed  pastor  of  the  Congre- 
gational Church  at  South  Hadley,  Mass.,  in  July  of  the 
same  year ;  and  died  in  September,  1847.  He  possessed 
extraordinary  talents,  and  was  distinguished,  through 
his  whole  ministry,  for  his  zealous  and  successful  labors. 
See  Sprague,  Afmalt  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  iv.  89. 

Condie,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1741 ;  called  to  the  living  at  Dairsie  in 
1747 ;  and  died  June  28, 1767.  See  FomH  Ecda.  Seoiir 
oosff,  11,487. 

Condit.  Ira,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  at 
Moiristown,  N.  J.,  March  6,  1772.  He  graduated  at 
Cannoosbnrg,  Pa.,  in  1808;  studied  theology  under  pri- 
vate instmctofs,  teaching  school  in  the  meantime,  and 
waa  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Ohio,  Oct.  17, 1811. 
The  first  year  of  his  labor  was  spent  as  a  missionary. 
In  1812  he  went  to  Sandy  Creek,  and  after  preach- 
ing for  some  time  in  various  churches^  accepted  calls 
ftom  the  eongregations  of  Fairfield  and  Big  Sugar  Creek. 
His  ordination  took  place  Nov.  8, 1814.  In  1827  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  from  (ieorgetown,  O. ;  waa  afterwarda  in- 
stalled OTer  the  congregation  of  Amity ;  in  1829  accept- 
ed a  call  from  Cool  Spring  for  one  third  of  his  time ; 
and  in  this  united  charge— Fairfield,  Georgetown,  Cool 
Spring— labored  till  his  death  in  1836.  See  IJist,  of 
the  Prubytery  of  Erie. 

Condit;  John  Ho'wrel,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  New  iemj  in  1806.  He  graduated  at  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  in  1831,  and  at  the  Princeton  The- 
ologiod  Seminary  in  1885.  I^  was  ordained  evange- 
list, by  the  Presbytery  of  Ne1|  Jersey,  Oct  5,  18S6: 
jfreached  as  a  stated  supply  at  B^hesda,  Ky.,from  1837 
to  1839;  was  pastor  at  Washington,  in  the  same  state, 
ttaax  1840  to  1868;  and  died  at  Ashland,  Aug.  1, 1869, 
See  GtiL  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sent.  1881,  p.  87. 

Condit,  Jonathan  Bailey,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  son  of  the  Bev.  Aaron  Condit,  was  bora  at  Han- 
over, N.  J.,  Dec.  16,  1808.  He  graduated  from  Prince- 
ton College  in  1827,  and  spent  the  next  year  in  the  The- 
ological Seminar}'.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Newark,  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  in  1830;  was  ordained  in 
July,  1831,  by  a  Congregational  Council,  as  pastor  at 
Long  Meadow,  Hass.,  where  he  remained  four  years  and 
six  months.  From  September,  1835,  until  May,  1838,  he 
held  the  position  of  professor  of  rhetoric  in  Amherst  Col- 
lugt.  In  Jane,  1838,  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Sec- 
ond Congregational  Church  of  Portland,  Mc.,  with  which 
he  remained  until  December,  1845.  In  February,  1846, 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church, 
Newark,  N.  J. ;  resigned,  on  account  of  ill-health,  April 
15, 1851 ;  from  October  of  that  year  to  June,  1855,  was 
professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  theology  in  lane 
Theological  Seminary;  and  thereafter,  until  January, 
1874,  professor  in  Auburn  Theological  Seminary.  In 
1861  be  was  elected  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly 
(new  school).  He  died  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  1, 1876. 
Dr.  Condit  was  a  man  of  the  loveliest  type  of  Christian 
charKter,  reminding  one  of  the  apostle  John  by  his 
sweetness,  gentleness,  and  serenity  of  spirit.  He  was 
eminently  courteous  and  judicious.  As  a  preacher,  he 
was  tender,  sympathetic,  and  solemn.  As  a  professor, 
he  len  able,  instructive,  conservative,  and  safe  in  his 
teachings.  See  NteroL  Report  of  Princeton  TkeoL  JSem. 
1876,  p.  17.    (W.P.&) 

Condltor,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a  god  of  the 
fiddly  and  pfciided  over  the  gathering  of  the  fruits. 


He  waa  represented  with  flowing  robes,  and  had  some 
fmits  in  his  arms.    In  his  hand  he  bore  a  sickle. 

Conditoiltun,  a  burial-place  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  in  which  dead  bodies  were  de« 
posited  entire,  as  distinguished  from  those  sepulchref 
which  contained  only  the  bones  and  ashes.  The  word 
eondiiorium  is  also  used  to  denote  the  coffin  in  which 
a  dead  body  was  placed  when  consigned  to  the  tomb. 
See  Gardner,  FaitAt  of  the  World^  s.  v. 

Condlaedh.    See  Co:(laed. 

Condo,  Eli  £.,  a  Methodbt  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bora  July  12, 1846,  in  East  Germantown,  Ind.  He  was 
converted  in  1863,  entered  the  ministry  in  1866,  was 
ordained  deacon  in  1868,  and  elder  in  1871.  In  1873 
and  1874  he  edited  the  Carthage  Advance,  Mo.  He 
joined  the  St.  Louis  Conference  in  1878,  his  previous 
labors  having  been  in  connection  with  the  Evangelical 
Association.  He  perished  in  the  toraado  which  swept 
over  Marshficld,  Mo.,  April  18, 1880.  Mr.  Condo  was 
a  man  of  fine  ability,  scholarly  attainments,  unblem- 
ished character,  and  a  good  preacher.  See  Minuiet  of 
Annual  Conferences,  1881,  p.  95;  Evangelical  Messen- 
ger, May  25, 1880. 

Condoreet,  J aoqites  Marie  I^e  Cariiat  de,  a  French 
prelate,  was  bora  at  the  Cbfiteau  of  Condoreet,  near  Ny- 
ons,  in  Dauphin^,  in  1708.  He  at  first  inclined  towarda 
a  military  life,  but  afterwards  entered  upon  an  ecclesi- 
astical career,  and  became  grand-vicar  of  his  uncle,  Yse 
de  Snl^n,  bishop  of  Rodez.  In  1741  Condoreet  waa 
appointed  biahop  of  Gap,  in  1754  of  Auxerre,  and  in 
1761  .t>f  Lisieux.  He  was  a  confessed  enemy  of  the 
Jansenists,  had  some  lively  contests  with  the  clergy, 
and  by  bis  violence  even  occasioned  some  disorders  in 
the  bishopric  of  Lisieux.  He  died  Sept.  21 ,  1788,  leav- 
ing various  writings  against  the  Jansenists.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Condren,  Charles  de,  a  French  theologian,  was 
bora  at  Vaubuin,  near  Soissons,  in  1588.  His  family  at 
first  chose  for  him  a  military  life,  but  his  great  wish  was 
to  enter  upon  an  ecclesiastical  calling;  and  in  1616  he 
waa  made  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne.  From  that  time  he  re- 
nounced the  world,  consecrated  himself  to  works  of  char- 
ity, and  at  length,  in  1617,  entered  the  society  formed 
by  cardinal  HniUe,  who  appointed  him,  in  1622,  snperior 
of  the  house  of  St.  Magloire,  and  chose  him  as  his  di- 
rector. Having  become  confessor  of  Gaston,  duke  of 
Orleans,  be  showed  great  skill  in  very  difficult  negotia- 
tions. After  the  death  of  fierulle,  in  1629,  he  was  unan- 
imously elected  general  of  the  oratorio.  He  refused  the 
archbishoprics  of  Rheims  and  of  Lyons,  as  well  as  the 
cardinal's  hat.  He  died  Jan.  7,  1641,  leaving  Ditcours 
et  Lettres  (Paris,  1648, 1648)  i^Idie  du  Sacerdoce  et  Sa^ 
apce  de  Jitut-Chritt  (ibid.  1677).  See  Hoefer,  Now, 
Biog,  Genirak,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  Univertdle,  s.  v. 

Conduct  (Conductituts,  a  stipendiary)  is  a  term  for 
a  chai^in  without  endowment. 

Condy,  Jbrkmt,  a  Baptist  minister,  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1726.  After  preaching  a  few  years 
he  went  to  England,  and  remained  till  1738,  when  he 
came  back  at  the  call  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in 
Boston.  He  was  an  Arminian,  and  this  caused  his  r»* 
moval  from  the  pastorate.  He  died  in  1768,  leaving 
two  Sermons,  See  Sprague,  A  muds  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit, 
vi,  87. 

Cone,  Jonathan,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  in  Connecticut.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College 
in  1808;  studied  theology  at  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary over  a  year;  was  ordained  May  22,  1811 ;  and 
acted  as  pastor  at  Bristol,  Conn.,  until  1828,  and  at  Dur- 
ham, N.  Y.,  from  1880  to  1848.  He  resided  thereafter, 
without  a  charge,  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  until  his 
death,  Jan.  4, 1850.  See  Trien,  Cat,  of  Andover  Theol. 
Sem,  1870,  p.  20. 

Cone,  Salmon,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  in  Bolton,  Conn.    He  graduated  from  Yale  Col- 


CONE 


62 


CONFESSION 


lege  in  1789;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  First  Chnrch 
in  Colchester,  Feb.  29, 1792;  and  remained  there  ontil 
Aug.  11, 1830.  For  some  time  thereafter  he  preached 
as  a  stated  supply  in  the  neighboring  parish  of  Goshen. 
He  died  March  24, 1834.  Siee  Sprague,  Aimab  of  the 
Amer,  Pulpit^  ii,  204. 

Cone,  T77illiam  H.  C,  a  minister  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Greene  County, 
Ga.  He  began  preaching  in  1849,  and  for  twelve  years 
was  a  faithful  and  laborious  member  of  the  Geoigia 
Conference.  He  died  in  1862.  Mr.  Cone  was  a  remark- 
ably sweet  singer,  and  an  earnest  preacher.  See  Jfm- 
utet  of  Annual  Cotifereneet  o/the  M,  JE,  Church  Southf 
1862,  p.  401. 

Conecte  (or  Coxmeote),  Thomas,  a  Carmelite 
monk,  was  bom  at  Rennes  in  the  14th  century.  He  ac- 
quired in  bis  native  place  a  great  reputation  as  a  preach- 
er, and  attracted  crowds  of  hearers  in  Flanders  and 
various  parts  of  France.  He  finally  passed  into  Italy, 
everywhere  preaching  a  reformation  among  the  clergy, 
but  was  finally  burned  at  the  stake,  in  Rome,  in  1434. 
Sec  Hoefer,  Nottv.  Biog,  GSneraUf  s.  v. 

Conegliano.    See  Cima. 

Conei  (or  Co^^^ne ;  in  Lat.  Conanui),  Georob,  a 
Scotch  theologian,  who,  while  very  young,  left  his  na- 
tive country  and  went  to  Modena,  then  to  Rome.  Pope 
Urban  VIII  sent  him  as  nuncio  to  the  queen  of  Eng- 
land, Henrietta  Maria.  He  died  at  Rome,  Jan.  10, 1640, 
leaving  Life  of  Mary  Stuart  (Rome,  lG2i):—De  Insti- 
tutione  Prindpia: — De  DupUci  Statu  BtUgumi*  apud 
Scotos  (ibid.  1628)  i^Proo/s  of  the  Catholic  FaUh,  in 
three  books,  with  a  Hymn  to  the  Virgin  (Bologna,  1631). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Geturak,  s.  v. 

Coneataggio,  Gkbokimo  Fbamobi  db,  a  Genoese 
historian,  was  first  secretary  to  cardinal  Sforza,  next 
chaplain  to  Philip  III,  and  eventually  bishop  of  Nardo, 
and  archbishop  of  Capua.  He  died  in  1^,  leaving 
J)elV  Ufdone  del  Regno  di  Portogello  oUa  Corona  di  Cat' 
tiglia  (Genoa,  1685;  transL  into  French  by  Th.Nardin, 
Besanpon,  1596 ;  into  Latin,  Frankfort,  1602;  into  Span- 
ish, by  L.  de  Bania,  Barcelona,  1610): — Historie  delle 
Guerre  delle  Germania  I^feriore  (Venice,  1614 ;  Hoi- 
land,  1684)  :~4dso  An  Expedition  againtt  TVimf,  various 
Italian  poems,  and  the  Ltfe  of  J^orzOf  Count  of  Santa 
Flore,    See  Hoefer,  iVbur.  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Coney,  Jeremiah  Boioe,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Cambridge,  N.  Y.,  Dea  7, 1810.  After 
spending  more  than  two  years  in  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  he  was  stated  supply  at  Upper  Freehold,  N.  J., 
in  1841 ;  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Albany, 
Oct.  4, 1842;  pastor  at  Hamilton  Union  Church,  Guild- 
erland,  N.  Y.,  in  1843 ;  pastor  thereafter  at  Princeton, 
until  his  death,  May  16, 184a  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Prince- 
ton TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  118. 

Coney,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
bom  about  1676,  became  prebendary  of  Wells  in  1716, 
and  died  April  6, 1752.  He  published  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  and  Sick  Bed  (1747).  See  Le  Neve,  Faeti  ; 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authore,  s.  v. 

Confalonierl,  Giovamni  Auoustimo,  an  Italian 
religious  author,  was  bom  at  Milan  in  1571.  He  en- 
tered the  Jesuit  Order,  was  employed  in  the  Grerman 
missions,  and  distingoisbed  himself  by  hb  teaming  and 
talent  in  controversy.  He  died  April  10,  1639,  leaving 
various  works  in  Latin  and  Italian,  such  as  Vita  Beatm 
Maria  Virginit  (DiUingen,  1612;  MiUn,  1620):— />e/ 
Verbo  di  Dio  Utnanato  (Milan,  16^) : — Miecellatua 
Varia  (ibid.  1623): --also  a  number  of  MSS.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Confarreatio  was  one  of  the  modes  of  solemnizing 
marriage  among  the  ancient  Romans.  The  parties  were 
joined  in  marriage  by  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  or  Flamen 
DialiSf  in  presence  of  at  least  ten  witnesses,  by  a  set  form 
of  words,  and  by  tasting  a  cake  made  of  salt,  water,  and 
flpar,  caHtd/ar  oTpame/arreut,  which  was  offered  with 


a  sheep  in  sacrifice  to  the  gods.  A  marriage  effected  in 
this  way  brought  the  woman  into  the  possession  or 
power  of  her  husband  by  the  sacred  laws.  She  thus 
became  partner  of  all  his  substance  and  sacred  rites, 
those  of  ihepenatet  as  well  as  of  the  larea.  If  be  died 
intestate  and  without  children  she  inherited  his  whole 
fortune.  If  he  died  leaving  children,  she  shared  equal- 
ly with  them.  If  she  committed  any  fault,  the  hus- 
band judged  of  it  along  with  her  relations,  and  putibhed 
her  at  pleasure.  The  children  of  this  kind  of  marriage 
were  called  patrind  and  matrimi.  From  these  were 
chosen  the  fiamma  of  Jupiter  and  the  vestal  virgins. 
See  Gardner,  Faiths  o/the  World,  s.  v.    See  Marblaoe. 

Confederated.    See  Comforted. 

Confederated  Monasteries  are  those  united 
in  prayer  for  the  dead  members,  mutual  hospitality, 
and  admission  to  chapter.  Westminster  was  confeder- 
ated with  Bury,  Worcester,  Malmesbury,  St.  Albans, 
Winchester,  York,  Colchester,  Wenlock,  Reading,  Ber- 
mondsey,  Tavistock,  Tewkesbury,  Rochester,  Ramsey, 
Hulme,  Canterbnr}',  Shrewsbury,  Cirencester,  Malvern, 
Hurley,  and  Fecamp. 

Conference,  Lay  Eleotoral,  »  the  Mbtrod- 
I8T  Episcopal  Chcjbch,  is  a  body  consisting  of  one 
lay  member  from  each  charge  within  the  bounds  of  an 
Annual  Conference,  appointed  by  the  Quarterly  Confer- 
ence, and  meeting  on  the  third  day  of  the  session  of  the 
Annual  Conference  preceding  the  General  Conference, 
to  elect  two  lay  representatives  to  the  latter  body.  The 
latter  lay  delegates  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  yean 
of  age,  and  church-members  for  five  consecutive  yean 
previous  to  election.    See  Lat  REPBBaEMTATiON. 

Conferentie  (from  Lat.  confero,  to  bring  together, 
to  unite)  is  the  name  of  a  party  in  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  in  America,  which  was  opposed  to  the  Ceetus,  or 
party  of  independence.  Its  memtten  insisted  upon  the 
maintenance  of  organic  ecclesiastical  relations  with  the 
mother  church  in  Holland,  and  the  education  and  ordi- 
nation of  minislen  in  that  country.  Zeal  for  a  learned 
ministry  and  attachment  to  the  Church  of  Holland  led 
these  educated  clergy  and  their  adherents  into  measuras 
which  produced  the  most  bitter  animosities  and  lamen- 
table diviuons,  and  which  rent  the  Church  in  twain, 
until  unity  was  restored  in  1771,  through  the  agency  of 
Dr.  Livingston.  See  Reformed  Church  in  America. 
(W.  J.  R  T.) 

Confessio  was  originally  the  place  where  a  aaint 
or  martyr  who  had  "witnessed  a  good  confession"  for 
Christ  was  buried,  and  hence  the  altar  raised  over  his 
grave,  and  subsequently  the  chapel  erected  on  the  hal- 
lowed spot.  From  its  subterranean  position  such  an 
altar  was  known  as  descensus.  Of  these  underground 
**  confessiones  "  we  have  many  examples  in  Rome,  above 
all,  in  the  Basilica  of  SL  Peter's.  Not  unfrequently  they 
were  merely  imitative,  as  in  the  crypts  of  early  church- 
es in  England.  The  term  was  also  used  for  the  altar 
in  the  upper  church,  placed  immediately  above  that 
built  over  the  martyr's  grave,  sometimes  covered  with 
silver  plates,  and  its  canopy. 

This  memorial  to  a  saint  was  a  tomb  beneath  an 
altar  containing  a  window,  called  the  jugulum,  or  cata- 
ract, through  which  the  pilgrim  let  down  a  cloth 
(called  the  pall,  brandeum,  sudary,  or  sanctuary)  to 
touch  the  body,  below.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  screen 
of  perforated  marble,  or  a  rail  of  bronze,  and  was  of- 
ten dosed  in  with  pillars,  covered  with  metal  plates, 
and  illuminated  by  lights  and  candelabra.  The  theory 
was,  that  every  church  was  erected  over  a  catacomb : 
and  where  it  was  impossible  to  have  a  real  confessio, 
relics  were  enclosed  within  an  altar,  which  was  erected 
on  an  elevated  platform,  and  called  the  confessio.  The 
true  confessio  was  the  germ  of  the  crypt;  in  Old  St. 
Peter's  it  formed  a  subterranean  Chapel  of  St.  Peter, 
At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  the  steps  to 
it  were  removed,  and  the  eotcanee  dosed.  The  altar 
built  over  the  actual  grave  waa  the  lower  oonfesaio; 


CONFESSION 


68 


CONFESSOR 


the  upper  eonfewto  was  the  larger  altar  of  maiUe, 
eneted  aboTe  it,  in  the  chnrch  itsdf,  as  at  Santa  Pria- 
eiySiii  Silveitrov  San  Martino,  and  San  Lorenzo  in  Rome. 

CcMnUia  mmiyrum  is  applied  to  the  burial-plaeee  of 
the  martTTB  in  the  cataoombsw  Jerome  uses  a  similar 
expression,  in  speaking  of  the  graves  the  young  Nepo- 
tian  had  been  in  the  habit  of  decorating  with  flowers. 

Manorkt  mariyrum  is  a  term  of  constant  occurrence 
in  eaiir  Christian  writings  for  the  memorial  chapel  of  a 
■aint  or  martyr,  also  called  cella.  The  church  of  St. 
Euphemla,  where  she  lay  buried,  in  which  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  was  held,  is  styled  in  the  acts  of  that 
ooondl  marfyruan;  and  also  that  erected  by  Constan- 
tine  over  our  Lord's  sepulchre  on  Calvary.  The  word 
tropaa  b  used  for  the  tombs  of  Peter  and  Paul  in  the 
Boman  cemeteries. — Smith,  IHci»  of  Chri$t,  Aniig,  s.  v. 
See  Ceixa  MbxoiujB. 

Confession  is  (1)  general— made  by  a  congrega- 
tion ;  (2)  aurieular— private,  to  Ihe  priest's  ear. 

Ftablic  confessimi  of  nns  prevailed  in  the  4th  oen- 
tory,  and  lasted  longer  in  the  West  than  in  the  £asL 
Private  eonfcsrion  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  ap- 
pointed during  the  Dedan  persecution,  from  249  to  251 ; 
but  public  confession  in  the  East  was  first  given  up  at 
Constantinople,  owing  to  a  scandal  in  890.  Tbeodulph, 
bishop  of  Orleans  (835),  ordered  confession  to  be  made 
once  a  year;  and  the  rule  was  made  absolute  by  the 
Council  of  Lateran  (1215).  It  was  usual  to  confess  on 
the  first  Sunday  in  Lent.  Tertullian,  Origen,  and  St. 
Qrril  are  supposed  to  allude  to  private  confession. — 
Wakott,  Sac  A  rchaoL  s.  v. 

CONFESSION,  LrruBOiCAL,  is  the  acknowledgment 
of  sins  made  publicly  in  certain  services  of  the  Church. 

L  The  Con/eition  Preeedinff  the  CddnUum  of  the 
EwkarisL—lt  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  the 
Christian  presbyters  borrowed  the  custom  of  confessing 
sin  before  the  eucharistic  celebration  from  the  Jewish 
priests,  who^  before  sacrifidng,  confessed  their  sin  in 
such  terms  ma  these :  **  Verily,  O  Lord,  I  have  sinned, 
I  have  done  amiss,  and  dealt  wickedly;  I  repent  and 
am  ashamed  of  my  doings,  nor  will  I  ever  return  unto 
them."  Whether  the  present  of  the  Jewish  sacrificing 
priest  were  foUowed  or  not,  no  doubt  the  same  feeling 
which  prompted  the  use  of  the  26th  Psalm  in  tlie  early 
part  of  the  liturgy  caused  also  the  use  of  a  public  gen- 
eral confession  by  the  priest  and  ministers  before  the 
altar. 

In  Bsany  Greek  liturgies  some  acknowledgment  of  sin 
and  mworthiness  forms  part  of  the  prothesis,  said  in 
the  sacristy  before  entering  the  sanctuary :  in  the  lit- 
nrgy  of  St.  James,  for  instance,  the  priest  adopts  the 
words  of  the  publican,  "  God  be  merdfnl  to  me  a  sin- 
ner," and  of  the  prodigal,  *'I  have  sinned  against 
Heaven  and  in  thy  sight."  The  words  of  the  prodigal 
are  also  adopted  at  greater  length  in  the  opening  of  the 
Mosarabie  liturgy. 

For  the  West,  many  forms  of  the  liturgical  confession 
of  the  priest  about  to  celebrate  have  been  preserved. 
These,  it  is  asserted,  were  formerly  used  before  the 
oflfiertory,  with  which  the  Miita  FideUum  began;  but 
in  some  missals  they  are  directed  to  be  said  immedi- 
ately before  the  Introit,  while  the  Gloria  m  Exceleu  and 
the  Gradual  are  chanted  by  the  choir.  But  the  ancient 
formularies  of  the  Boman  Church  contain  no  trace  of  a 
ooofieaaon  in  a  set  form  to  be  made  publicly  at  the  be- 
gimuog  of  mass.  They  only  testify  that  the  celebrant, 
after  paying  his  devotions  before  the  altar  in  a  low  voice, 
with  bowed  head  besought  6od*s  pardon  for  his  own 
rins^  The  very  diversity  of  the  form  and  manner  in 
aeytag  the  confession  in  diiferent  churches  shows  that 
BO  fonn  was  prescribed  by  any  central  authority,  hut 
that  the  sereial  churches  foUowed  independent  usages. 

The  usual  place  for  the  liturgical  confession  before 
Bssi  is  the  lowest  step  of  the  altar ;  but  there  was  an- 
deatly  considerable  diverrity  of  practice;  for  the  con- 
fasoo  was  sometimes  made  (as  in  the  East)  in  the  sac* 


risty,  sometimes  1^  the  side  of  the  altar,  sometimes  hk 
the  middle  of  the  presbytery.  A  peculiar  custom,  prob- 
ably derived  from  ancient  times,  was  long  maintained 
in  the  Chnrch  of  St.  Martin  at  Tours,  that  the  celebrant 
should  make  his  confession  at  the  tomb  of  that  saint. 

II.  In  the  Matin  Office, — Something  of  the  nature  of 
confession  of  sin  appears  to  have  formed  partof  the  matin 
office  from  very  eariy  times.  This  custom  is  thought 
by  some  to  have  been  inherited  from  the  synagogue, 
which  has,  in  the  ancient "  Eighteen  Prayers,"  the  form, 
**  Have  mercy  upon  us,  O  our  Father,  for  we  have  trans- 
gressed ;  pardon  us,  for  we  have  sinned.  Look,  we  be- 
seech tliee,  on  our  aflUctions;  heal,  O  Lord,  our  infirm- 
ities." Very  similariy,  the  Greek  matin  office  has, 
''O  most  Holy  Trinity,  have  mercy  on  us;  purify  us 
from  our  iniquities,  and  pardon  our  sins.  Look  down 
upon  us,  O  Holy  One;  heal  our  in^rmities." 

In  the  4th  century  the  early  matin  office  of  many 
Eastern  churches  began  with  a  confession ;  for  St.  Basil 
describes  the  early  matins  of  the  Church  of  Neo-CiBsarea 
in  the  following  manner :  **  The  people  at  early  dawn 
seek  the  house  of  prayer,  and,  aifter  confession,  made 
with  sighing  and  tears  to  God,  rising  at  length  from 
their  prayer,  pass  to  the  chanting  of  the  Psalms." 

In  the  Western  matin  office  the  confession  is  made  in 
the  form  called  ConJUeor  (q.  v.),  from  its  first  word. 

III.  Confession  of  past  sins  formed  also  one  of  the 
preliminaries  of  baptism,  as  we  learn  from  Tertullian  ((2e 
Baptiemo,  c  20).    See  Baptisbc. 

IV.  In  all  liturgies  of  the  Alexandrian  family,  and  in 
many  other  Oriental  liturgies,  there  is  found,  immedi- 
ately before  communion,  a  confession,  or  declaration  of 
faith  by  the  recipient,  that  the  bread  and  wine  are  now 
really  and  truly  the  body  and  blood  of  ChrisL  In  the 
Coptic  of  Basil,  the  priest,  holding  the  elements,  saya: 
"  The  Holy  Body  and  precious,  pure,  true  Blood  of  Jesus 
Christ  the  Son  of  our  God.  Amen,  This  is  in  very 
truth  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Emmanuel  our  God. 
Amen,^ — Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Antiq,  s.  v. 

CONFESSION,  Psalm  ok,  is  a  name  applied  in  the 
early  Christian  Church  to  Psalm  li,  as  being  peculiarly 
appropriate  to  the  case  of  one  confessing  his  sins. 

Confessional.  A  stone  chair  found  in  the  cata- 
combs has  been  presumed  to  have  been  thus  used.  A 
small  recess  at  the  foot  of  the  dormitory  stairs  of  St. 
Albans,  and  a  stone  chsir  with  two  armed  warders,  in 
the  south-arm  area  of  the  transept  at  Gloucester,  and 
two  wooden  structures  at  Bishop's  Cannings  and  Tavis- 
tock, are  said  to  have  served  as  confessionals.  The 
ususl  place  was  a  seat  in  the  chancel,  in  the  face  of  day, 
and  open  to  all  passers-by ;  the  modem  closed  boxes  are 
of  recent  introduction.  In  1878,  women  were  o>nfes8ed 
without  the  chancel  veil,  and  in  an  open  place,  that  they 
might  be  seen,  though  not  heard,  by  the  people.  Men 
confessed  at  Easter,  Pentecost,  and  Christmas.  Bedyll, 
writing  to  CiomwaU,  recommended  the  walling  op  of 
'*the  places  where  the  friars  heanl  outward  confessions 
of  all  comers  at  certain  times  of  the  year."  Probably 
these  apertures  were  in  friary  churches,  in  the  form 
of  low  side  windows.  One  of  the  14th  or  15th  cen- 
tury renuuas  at  Nuremberg.  It  consbts  of  several  can- 
opied compartments ;  the  central  was  occupied  by  the 
priest,  and  the  lateral  portions  by  penitents,  who  en- 
tered by  the  outermost  doors.  An  open  metal  screen 
fills  the  apertures  only  half-way  up.  In  England  con- 
fession was  ordinarily  made  openly  in  the  chancel,  the 
priest  sitting  in  the  stall  on  the  north-east  side,  and  the 
penitent  kneeling  before  him.  Roger  Van  der  Weyde, 
who  died  1464,  painted  a  confessional  chair  as  stand- 
ing on  the  north  side  of  the  nave,  next  the  stairs  to 
the  chancel,  and  outside  the  rood-screen.  In  Flemish 
churehes,  and  St.  Helen's,  Bishopsgate,  orifices  in  the 
wall  served  as  confessionals. — Walcott,  Sae,  A  rchaoL  s.  v. 

Confessor.  (1)  The  name  of  a  singer  in  the  coun- 
cils of  Carthage  and  Toledo  in  400,  when  anthems  were 
forbidden  to  be  snng  by  nune  and  widows,  except  in 


i 


CONFESSOR 


64 


CONGREGATION 


the  pretence  of  e  bUhop.  Ck>nrettioa  of  God*a  name 
(Psalm  cvi,  1)  is  ^yDonymona  with  its  praise.  (2)  Saints 
not  actually  martyred,  who  by  a  gocd  life  have  wit- 
nessed for  Christ.  Their  names  were  first  inserted  iu 
the  diptychs  in  the  4th  century. 

CONF£SSOR  OF  the  Household  was  the  sub-dean 
or  one  of  the  priests  in  ordinary  of  the  chapel  royal,  who 
read  daily  prayers  to  the  household,  visited  the  sick, 
and  prepareid  persons  for  holy  communion.  The  dean 
of  the  royal  chapel,  Stirling,  who  was  always  bishop  of 
Glasgow  or  Dunblane,  was  the  Scottish  king's  con- 
fessor, and  the  bishop  of  Chichester  was  confessor  to  the 
king  of  England.  At  St.  PauFs  cardinals  acted  as  con- 
fessors. The  confessor  of  the  papal  household  was  a 
Sertite.    See  Penitentiaby. 

Confirmation  of  a  Bishop.  On  the  death,  re- 
moval, or  resignation  of  a  bishop  in  the  Church  of 
England,  the  dean  and  chapter  of  the  cathedral  which 
is  situated  within  the  vacant  diocese  make  application 
for  the  royal  license  to  elect  a  successor.  The  crown 
then  issues  the  license  and  the  bishop  is  elected,  where- 
upon the  crown  issues  letters-patent  to  the  archbishop 
of  the  province,  requiring.him  to  proceed  with  the  con- 
firmation and  consecration.  On  the  day  being  fixed  for 
the  confirmation,  notice  is  publicly  given,  and  all  who 
object  to  the  election  of  the  party  proposed  are  invited 
to  appear.  One  or  fnore  persons  delegated  by  the  dean 
and  chapter  present  the  bishop-elect  to  the  archbishop, 
or  to  his  representative,  the  vicar-general.  Proof  is 
now  given  of  the  election  of  the  bishop,  and  of  the  ro>*al 
assent;  after  which  the  bishop  takes  the  usual  oaths 
touching  allegiance;  supremacy,  simony,  and  obedience 
to  the  archbishop.  Then  follows  '^  The  definitive  sen- 
tence, or  the  act  of  confirmation,  by  which  are  com- 
mitted to  the  bishop  elected  the  care,  government,  and 
administration  of  the  spiritual  affairs  of  said  bishopric, 
and  he  is  thus  decreed  to  be  installed  and  enthroned." 
—Gardner,  Fa&hs  o/the  Worlds  s.  v.    See  Bishop. 

Confiteor  is  the  form  of  general  confession  of  sins 
made  in  the  offices  of  the  Church,  so  called  from  its  first 
word.    This  is  prescribed : 

L  At  the  beginning  of  the  mass,  when  the  priest 
sajrs  it  standing  at  the  steps  of  the  altar,  ^  bowing  very 
low." 

2.  At  the  administration  of  the  holy  oommnnion  at 
other  times. 

8.  At  the  administration  of  extreme  unction. 

4.  Previous  to  the  absolution  **  in  articulo  mortis." 

5.  In  the  daily  office  at  compline;  and  at  prime,  when 
the  office  is  not  double. 

Sacramental  confession  is  also  directed  to  begin  with 
the  opening  words  of  the  "  Confiteor."  It  is  prefaced 
by  the  versicle  *'Deus  in  adjutorinm,"  etc.,  and  is  sud 
alternately  by  the  priest  and  congregation,  who  each 
respond  with  a  prayer  for  the  forgiveness  of  the  other; 
in  addition  to  which  the  priest  pronounces  a  short  for- 
mula of  absolution  over  the  people.  There  have  been 
various  forms  in  former  ages,  but  since  the  publication 
of  the  missal  of  Pius  V  there  has  been  complete  uni- 
formity in  this  respect  throughout  the  Boman  Church. 
-rSmith ,  Diet,  of  Chritt,  A  tUiq,  s.  v.    See  CoxrESSioN. 

Conforte,  David,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom  at  Sa- 
lonica  in  1619.  In  1644  he  went  to  Palestine,  and  died 
there  in  1671.  He  is  the  author  of  a  chronological  work, 
entided  nin'Tnn  K5*ip,  which  treats  of  the  Jewish  lit- 
erati in  Turkey,  Africa,  Italy,  etc.  (Venice,  1746).  It 
has  been  edited,  with  a  corrected  text,  valuable  notes, 
and  indices,  by  David  Cassel  (Berlin,  1846).  See  FUrst, 
JSibl,  Jud,  i,  186;  De^  Boss!,  Dizionctrio  Storico  (Germ. 
transL),  p.  86,  but  more  especially  Cassel*8  introduction 
to  his  edition  of  the  work.    (B.  P.) 

Confraotoxium  is  an  anthem  in  the  Ambroeian 
missal  at.  the  breaking  of  the  host.  It  usoally  has  some 
reference  to  the  gospel  of  the  day. 

Congal  (or  CrongaU)t  an  early  Irish  saint,  is  com- 


memorated Jan.  2.  Some  say  he  lived  about  A.D.  590. 
He  must  not  be  confounded  with  St  Comgall,  aljW 
of  Bangor,  in  Ireland  (Forbes,  KaL  of  Scot,  Saints,  p. 
233, 810).    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Chritt.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Congan  (Comdhan,  or  Comgan)  (1),  an  early 
Irish  saint,  is  commemorated  Oct.  18.  He  was  brother 
to  St.  Kentigem  and  uncle  to  St.  Fillan.  He  socoeeded 
his  father,  (^Uach  Cualann,  king  of  Leinster,  A.D.  715. 
But,  leaving  his  kingdom  in  company  with  St.  Kenti- 
gem and  her  three  sons,  he  went  to  Lochelch,  where 
they  lived  a  severe  life.  He  died  at  a  great  age,  and 
was  buried  in  lona.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
He  has  given  his  name  to  many  places  in  the  islands 
and  west  of  Scotland  (Forbes,  KaL  of  Scot  Sauds,  p. 
810;  Reeves,  Adamnan,  p.  884,  419).---Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.v. 

Congan  (2),  a  religious  writer,  lived  in  1120.  He 
entered  the  order  of  the  Cistercians,  and  became  an  ab- 
bot in  Surrey,  England.  He  composed  a  lAfe  of  SaaU 
MakuAi,  which  St.  Bernard  afterwards  wrote  at  his  re- 
quest. The  preface  of  St  Bernard  commenced  thus:  Tu 
miAs,  albas  Coj^ane,  injungis,  etc.  See  Hoefer,  iVbirv. 
Biog,  Giniralej  s.  v. 

Congdon,  Benjamin,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Pomfiret,  Conn.,  in  1808.  He  united  with  the 
Church  in  his  native  town,  and  having  prepared  him- 
self for  the  ministry  at  the  New  Hampton  Theological 
Institution,  was  ordained  in  1887  pastor  of  the  Second 
Church  iu  8anbornton,N.H.,  where  he  remained  nntil 
1843.  He  then  returned  to  Connecticut,  and  finished 
his  ministry  in  his  native  town.  He  died  June  28, 
1846.  Mr.  Congdon  was  a  man  of  an  excellent  spirit,  and 
much  devoted  to  his  work.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Congdon,  James,  a  minister  and  elder  connected 
with  the  Oswego  (N.  Y.)  Monthly  Meeting  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends,  di^  there  Sept.  24, 1884,  aged  seventy- 
five  years.     See  The  Friend^  viii,  182. 

Congdon,  Bylveater  Ih  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Bhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  26,  1826. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  in  1847 
admitted  into  the  Genesee  Conference.  He  continued 
faithful  and  laborious  during  life,  and  died  May  27,1868. 
Mr.  Congdon  was  endowed  with  a  clear  and  comprehen- 
sive mind,  marked  conscientiousness,  an  ardent,  genial 
temperament,  and  a  deep  spiritual  nature.  See  Minutes 
of  A  tmual  Cofferencts,  1868,  p.  154. 

Congio,  ChxoAX^  a  Roman  designer  and  engraver, 
vras  bora  about  1604.  The  following  are  some  of  his 
principal  plates:  The  Atmundation;  The  Adoration  ttf 
the  Magi;  The  Creation  of  Angels;  An  Assewblg  of 
Saints,     See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,Kv* 

Congnet,  Louis  Henri,  a  French  educator,  was 
bom  at  Soissons,  Dec.  6,  1795,  and  died  there  July  6, 
1870.  He  was  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Soissons,  a 
member  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris,  and  of  the  His- 
torical Institute  of  France.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a 
new  method  for  teaching  the  Greek  language,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  FEnseignement  Positif.  He  wrote, 
Grammaire  de  la  Langua  Gricque  (Soissons,  1840): — 
Le  Pieux  ffelleniste,  etc.  (in  Greek  and  Latin,  Paris, 
1845),  and  several  other  works.  See  Hoefer,  Now* 
Biog,  GbUrale^  s.  v. 

Congregation  is  the  ancient  name  for  a  chapter, 
used  by  St.  Benedict.  It  designates  some  religious  or- 
ders, and  in  the  University  of  Oxford  the  assembly  of 
all  regent  graduates,  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  granring 
degrees. 

CONGREGATION  on  the  Morals  or  Bish<»«  is 
a  committee  of  three  cardinals,  two  bishops,  four  prel* 
ates,  and  a  secretary  (the  pope^s  auditor),  instituted  by 
Innocent  XI,  to  see  that  churchmen  who  are  raised 
to  the  episcopal,  or  any  other,  dignity  in  the  Charcb, 
should  be  men  of  virtaous  and  regular  lives.    See  Coh* 

OKKGATIOM. 


CONG'L  METHODISTS 


65 


CONLEY 


Ooasrosatioiial  (or  Independent)  Meth-| 

odiits.  Besides  the  larger  secenions  from  the  Wealey- 
an  bodj  in  Engluid,  and  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Chnreh  in  America,  which  have  resulted  in  the  forma- 
tloo  of  separate  churches  mainly  organised  like  the 
parent  stock,  there  have  been  at  various  time  and  places 
withdrawals  of  individual  societies,  especially  in  the 
United  States,  which  have  generally  assumed  a  Gon- 
gngational  form  of  government.  They  have  main* 
taincd  but  a  local  existence  for  a  time,  and  ultimately 
either  disbanded  utterly,  or  else  returned  to  their  for- 
mer communion,  or  become  merged  in  some  kindred  as- 
sociation. 

There  still  exists,  however,  a  distinct  body  of  a  more 
general  character,  styled  **  The  Congregational  Method- 
itt  Church,"  which  was  organized  in  Monroe  County, 
Ga^Msy  8, 1852,  by  the  union  of  three  local  preachers 
and  eight  laymen,  all  members  of  the  Methodut  Epis- 
copal Church  South.    Their  chief  dissatisfaction  was 
with  the  itinerant  ministry  and  the  episcopal  polit}*. 
They  were  soon  joined  by  others  from  the  same  region, 
and  within  a  vear  about  a  dozen  societies  were  formed 
in  that  state.    In  the  course  of  a  couple  of  years  the 
morement  had  spread  so  considerably  that  a  conven- 
tion wss  held  at  Mount  Zion,  early  in  1856,  at  which 
there  were  present  delegates  from  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
HksisBippL    A  complete  organization  was  effected  at 
that  convention,  by  the  ratification  of  a  book  of  disci- 
pUoe,  which  had  been  early  put  forth  by  the  leaders  of 
the  enterprise,  and  by  the  adoption  of  a  formal  consti- 
totion.    This  latter  provides  for  a  fourfold  series  of 
conferences,  as  follows: 

(1)  Ckmreh  Om/crmees.  —  Composed  of  all  the  local 
chordi  sMmbers.  who,  by  a  majority  vote,  elect  church 
oifflcers ;  namely :  an  elder  or  pastor,  class-leader,  deacon 
or  steward,  and  clerk.  This  conference  is  held  monthly ; 
the  elder  or  pastor  presides,  or,  in  his  absence,  a  chairmnn 
yn  tern.  ]m  elected.  Reception  or  dismissal  of  members 
IS  by  m^^  vote  of  the  members  present. 

(^  DUtrlet  C9V«ren«M.~ Meet  semi-nnnaally,  com- 
posed of  delegates  from  the  local  churches,  in  the  ratio 
of  one  delenue  fw  every  twenty  members. 

(3)  StaU  Cb^/Senmeea -^Composed  of  delegates  from  the 
district  conSnences,  meet  annually,  electing  their  own 
olDoera.  They  review  the  acts  of  the  district  conferences. 
chjmge  or  form  new  districts,  determine  all  qnestlons  of 
doctrine  or  discipline,  and  supply  destitute  sections  of 
atatea  beyond  the  districts. 

(4)  Genml  OM^«r«no0.— Meeting  quadrennially,  and 
composed  of  dei^ates  elected  to  the  state  conferences. 
Thia  makes  general  rules  and  regnlatlons  for  the  whole 
Church,  snbject  to  certain  restrictfons. 

The  last  General  Conference  of  the  body  was  held  in 
1881,  and  claimed  a  total  lay  membership  of  about 
twenty  thousand*  In  1872  an  official  organ,  called  The 
Cottgrtgatitmal  JfetAocUst,  was  established  at  Opelika, 
Ala.,  which  has  lately  been  edited  by  Lb  T.  Jones. 

Congas  (Lat.  ConguMriu$\  bishop  and  scribe  of 
Anna^h,  succeeded  Suibhne  A.D.  780,  and  held  the  see 
ton  twenty  yean  (Ware,  /riaA  Bishops,  p.  4 ;  0*Donovau, 
Four  Masters,  i,  831,  852  n«,  8o8>— Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Bu>g.  a.  v. 

Coolao,  a  French  Benedictine  of  the  society  of  St. 
Xanr,  was  bora  at  Rennes  in  1781,'  and  died  in  Paris  in 
1802.  He  commenced  the  Collection  des  Conciles  de 
Framee  (completed  by  Labat,  Paris,  1785),  and  pub- 
lisbed,  in  connection  with  J.  P.  Deforis,  the  Collection 
des  CEwms  de  Bossuet  (Paris,  1772-1790) .  See  Hoefer, 
•Vovr.  Biog,  Gmirale,  s.  ▼. 

Gcmibear,  William,  a  minister  of  the  Bible  Chris- 
tiana, was  bora  at  Hiacott,  Devonshire,  Engknd,  in 
Attgvst,  1799.  He  was  converted  in  1818,  and  in  1825 
CBtered  the  ministr}*,  and  was  apfiointed  to  the  Chat- 
Kttm  dreuir.  For  twenty-nine  years  he  labored  on 
cucnita  and  sutions,  making  full  proof  of  his  ministry. 
la  1854,  becoming  verv  deaf,  he  took  a  superannuated 
KlatMn.  He  died  at'llfracombe,  SepC  80,  1878.  See 
Afnaiiei  o/ihe  Com/erenoe,  1874. 

Cooinancil^  an  early  Irish  saint,  who  died  Dec. 
%  AJX  710,  ia  aaid  to  have  been  abbot  of  Hy,  and 


preceptor  to  king  Ferquhard's  sons  (Reeves,  A  damnan, 
p.  878, 404).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Coninck,  Gilles  de,  a  Flemish  theologian,  was 
bora  at  Bailleul  in  1571.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Lessius, 
entereil  the  society  of  the  Jesuits,  and  taught  scholas- 
ticism for  several  years  at  Louvain,  where  he  died  in 
June,  1638.  His  principal  works  are,  In  Unirersetm 
Dodrinam  D,  Thoma  (Antwerp,  1616,  1619;  Rouen, 
1630):— Z>6  Mortaliiate,  Natura  et  Effectibus  Actuum 
SuptmaiuraUum  ;  et  de  Fide,  Spe,  Charilate  (Antwerp, 
1623):— />e  Deo  Trino  et  Incamato  (ibid.  1645).  See 
Iloefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Coninghaxn,  John,  an  Englbh  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  about  1670;  educated  at  Eilinbnrgh 
University,  where  he  took  hia  degree,  and  settled  first 
at  Penrith,  Cumberland.  In  1700  he  removed  to  Man- 
chester, to  assist  John  Cborlton  with  his  large  congre- 
gation, and  to  train  students  for  the  ministry.  He  had 
much  success  till  prosecuted  for  keeping  a  dissenting 
academy.  In  1712  he  became  pastor  at  Haberdashers' 
Hall,  London,  and  was  both  popular  and  useful  till  his 
premature  death,  Sept.  I,  1716.  See  Wilson,  Dissent-' 
ing  Churches,  iii,  133-186. 

*  

Conin8;tOD,  Jonir,  an  English  theologian  of  the 
14th  century,  early  took  the  Franciscan  habit,  and  be- 
came general  of  the  order.  He  defended  the  papacy 
against  William  of  Occam.  He  died  at  Cambridge 
in  1880,  leaving  Sermones  Solenmes  «n  Quadragesimam 
GregorH: — De  Magistro  Sententiarum : — De  Christo 
Domino,  etc     See  Hoefer.  JVour.  Biog,  Gherale,  s.  v. 

Conis&luJi  {cloud  of  dust\  in  Greek  mythology, 
waa  a  demon  attendant  on  Priapus  (q.  v.). 

Conklin,  Benjamin,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  settled  Nov.  23,  1768,  over  a  Church  in  Leicester, 
Mass.  He  resigned  June  30, 1794,  and  died  Jan.  30, 
1798.  Mr.  Conklin  was  a  laborious  minister.  He  was 
pleasing  and  interesting,  without  being  brilliant;  use- 
ful and  instractive,  without  being  great.  See  Alexan- 
der, Princeton  College  in  the  ISth  Century, 

Conklin,  Robert  Hanrey,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  Claverack,  N.  Y.,  April  22, 1808. 
He  was  converted  at  Camden,  studied  with  Rev.  Henry 
Smith  of  that  place,  and  Rev.  Sylvester  Eaton,  was 
ordained  in  1831  as  an  evangelist,  and  labored  in  that 
capacity  in  New  York,  Springfield,  Mass.,  Providence, 
R.  I.,  and  Ashtabula,  O.  He  died  at  Cleveland,  Dec.  15, 
1866.  As  a  preacher,  Mr.  Conklin  was  argumentative 
and  earaest,  personally  amiable  and  kind,  and  on  all  the 
moral  questions  of  the  day  his  position  was  that  of  a 
radical  reformer.     See  Cong,  Quarterly,  1866,  p.  COO. 

Conla.    See  Connla. 

Conlaedh  (Condlaedh,  Con-laidh,  or  Con- 
lian),  an  Irish  saint,  is  commemorated  May  8.  When 
St.  Brigida  founded  her  monastery  at  Kildare,  she  chose 
the  learned  and  pious  Conlaedh  to  be  her  bishop,  but 
in  submission  to  the  monastic  authority.  He  was  also 
St.  Brigida's  chief  artist,  artificer,  or  brazier,  for  the 
working  in  all  kinds  of  metals,  and  making  chalices, 
patens,  bells,  shrines,  etc.  He  was  devoured  by  wild 
dogs  or  wolves  as  he  was  on  his  way  to  Rome,  A.D.  620 
(Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart,  Doneg,  p.  119 ;  Lanigan,  EccL 
Hist,  of  Ireland^  i,  409, 460 ;  Forbcn,  KaL  of  Scot.  Saints, 
p.  811 ;  Todd,  St,  Patrick,  p.  19-27).— Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Conley,  Andrew,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  (^urch  South,  was  bora  in  Williamson 
County,  Tenn.,  in  1818.  He  was  converted  in  early 
life,  and  in  1846  was  admitted  into  the  Tennessee  Con- 
ference. He  located  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  ministry. 
In  1870  he  removed  to  Arkansas,  served  as  supply,  and 
in  1872  entered  the  White  River  Conference,  wherein 
he  labored  until  his  death,  April  19,  1875.  See  i/tn- 
utes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  if,  E,  Church  South, 
1876,  p.  260. 


CONLIN 


66 


CONNER 


Conllii*  Albbrt  Jokamn,  a  Qerman  writer,  was  pas- 
tor of  Monning,  ia  Bavaria,  at  the  close  of  the  17th  oen- 
iuiy.  He  \eh  a  Toluminous  work  on  religion  and  mo- 
lality, in  German  (Augsbuig,  1708).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog,  GMraU,  s.  r. 

Conmach.    See  Comkmach;  Cosckachtacr. 

Conn,  Huoif,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  at 
Macgilligan,  Ireland,  in  1685.  He  studied  at  the  school 
in  Fatighanvale,  and  afterwards  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  A  Presbyterian  congregation  having,  through 
London  merchants,  who  carried  on  a  trade  with  the  Pa- 
tapsoo  river,  Md.,  secured  him  as  their  minister,  he  was 
accordingly  sent  over,  ordained,  and  installed  October, 
1716.  After  two  years'  service  he  obtained  leave  from 
the  presbytery  to  resign  his  pastors!  chaige,  on  account 
of  his  want  of  success  and  the  paucity  of  his  flock.  He 
received  a  call  from  Pomonkey,in  the  New  Castle  Pres- 
bytery, which  he  accepted,  and  was  installed.  He  died 
almost  instantly,  June  28, 1762,  while  preaching  at  the 
funeral  of  a  person  who  had  died  suddenl}*.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Conna  (Conda  or  Daohonna),  an  early  Irish 
saint,  abbot  of  Daire-Dachonna,  in  Ulster,  is  commem- 
orated April  12.  Owing  to  there  being  so  many  saints 
of  this  name,  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  lines  of  identi- 
fication dear  {Mart.  Doneg.  p.  71, 127).— Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.  v* 

ConnAohtaoh  (or  Conmaoh),  an  early  Irish 
saint,  is  commemorated  May  10.  He  was  the  eigh- 
teenth abbot  of  Hy  or  lona,  and  presided  A.D.  801-2. 
In  the  Armals  he  is  called  "choice  scribe"  (Reeves, 
Adamnan,  p.  888;  Lanigan,  EceL  Hiit,  of  Irdcmd^  iii, 
262) Smith,  Diet,  of  Chritt.  Biog.  a.  v. 

ConnelL    See  ConalL 

Connell,  David,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of  Mat- 
thew, took  bis  degree  at  Glasgow  Uniyersity  in  1727; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1736,  became  assistant  to  his 
father  at  Kilbride,  and  in  January,  1744,  minister  at 
Blantyie.  He  died  June  15, 1790,  aged  eighty-three 
years.     See  Fatti  Eccle*.  Scolicana,  ii,  290,  291. 

Connell,  James,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1746 ;  called  to  the  living  at  Som  in  1752, 
and  ordained.  He  died  July  14, 1789,  aged  sixty-seven 
years.  He  was  eminent  for  his  exemplary  discharge 
of  the  pastoral,  domestic,  and  social  duties.  See  Fatii 
Eccles.  Scoticanaf  ii,  140. 

Connell,  John  Martin,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  22, 1819.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1838 ;  was 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Castle,  April  14, 1842 ; 
was  stated  supply  in  Delaware  County;  at  Bladensburg 
and  New  Windsor,  Md. ;  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  and  was 
killed  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Aug.  29, 1855.  See  Gen,  Cat, 
of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  122. 

Connell,  Matthew  a  Scotch  clergyman,  studied 
theology  at  Glasgow  University ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1702;  called  to  the  living  at  Blantyre  in  1703 ;  or- 
dained in  1704 ;  transferred  to  Kilbride  in  1720,  and  died 
Oct.  1, 1743,  aged  sixty-five  years.  He  was  very  useful 
among  his  people.  See  Fatti  Ecdet,  ScoticancB,  ii,  140, 
290. 

Connelly,  Henry,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  at  Greensburg,  Pa.,  Nov.  5, 1788.  He  graduated 
at  Washington  College  in  1824 ;  was  a  student  in  the 
Associate  Reformed  Seminary,  Allegheny,  and  part  of 
a  year  (1830)  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  He 
was  ordained  an  evangelist  by  the  Associate  Reformed 
Prcsbyteiy  of  New  York,  Sept.  21, 1882 ;  became  pastor 
at  Bloomingburgh,  N.  Y.,in  1833 ;  principal  of  the  acad- 
emy, Newburgh,  in  1848 ;  agent  of  the  New  York  Colo- 
nization Society ;  principal  of  an  academy  at  (voshen 
in  1867,  and  died  at  Newbuigh,  Aug.  5, 1868.  See  Gen. 
Cat.  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  75. 

Connellyt  William,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 


ister, was  bom  in  Talbot  County,  Md.,  in  1793  or  179i 
He  labored  some  time  as  ezborter  and  local  pmcher, 
and  in  1829  entered  the  Philadelphia  Conference,  in 
which  he  continued  diligent  until  his  death,  Aug.  8, 
1844.  As  a  minister,  Mr.  Connelly  was  plain,  praeticsl, 
and  powerful ;  as  a  friend,  warm  and  generous ;  a  buoy- 
ant, happy  companion,  an  exeroplaxy  citizen.  See  Mit^ 
utes  of  Annual  Cotferenoet,  1846,  p.  596. 

Conner,  Aaron,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Pera,  May  22, 1822.  He  removed  to  Akron, 
O.,  with  his  parents,  at  the  age  of  seven ;  was  convert- 
ed at  sixteen ;  went  to  South  Bend,  Ind.,in  1858,  where 
shortly  afterwards  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in 
1860  waa  admitted  into  the  North-west  Indisns  Con- 
ference. In  1872  he  became  superannuated,  removed 
to  Califomia,  spent  five  years  as  agent  of  the  California 
Bible  Society,  and  died  Sept.  28,  1878.  See  Minvta 
of  A  nnual  Conferencetf  1879,  p.  28. 

Conner,  Champ  C^  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  Culpepper  Oounty,  Ya.,  March  13, 1811.  He 
united  with  the  Church  Sept.  14, 1828,  and  soon  after 
began  to  preach;  moved  to  West  Tennessee  in  1835, 
and  was  one  of  the  pioneer  Baptist  preachers  in  that 
section  of  the  state.  For  a  term  of  years  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Baptist  Female  College  at  Hernando,  Miss. 
He  died  at  Indian  Mound,  Lauderdale  Co.,  Tenn.,  FeU 
14, 1875,  being  at  the  time  pastor  of  four  churches.  He 
was  a  strict  Baptist  in  faith  and  practice,  yet,  while  he 
was  bold  and  fearless  in  the  advocacy  of  the  doctrines 
he  held,  he  was  always  courteous  and  respectful  to  those 
who  differed  from  him.  See  Cathcart,  Bctptid  Enqf- 
clop.  p.  269.    (J.  a  S.) 

Conner,  Charles  W.,  a  Methodist  Episoopsl  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Franklin  County,  On  Oct  6, 1839. 
He  was  converted  when  a  boy;  served  three  years  in 
the  Union  army ;  spent  two  years  in  study  at  Abing- 
don College,  and  in  1868  entered  the  Illinois  Conference. 
Having  taken  a  superannuated  relation,  he  removed  to 
Louisiana,  Mo.,  in  1878,  engaged  in  business,  and  thus 
continued  until  his  decease,  Jan.  27, 1876.  As  a  preach- 
er, Mr.  Conner  was  alwaj's  interesting  and  earnest,  ami, 
as  a  citiaen,  he  had  a  laige  place  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people.   See  Minutee  of  A  nnual  Coherences,  1876,  p.  144. 

Conner,  George  J.,  a  Methodist  Episoopsl  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Frederick,  Md.,  April  9, 1829.  He  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  was  soon  instru- 
mental in  leading  his  Soman  Catholic  father  and  Lu- 
theran mother  and  his  sisters  to  Christ.  He  graduated 
at  Dickinson  College,  led  a  class  of  students  while  there, 
and  acted  as  Sunday-school  superintendent;  stndicd 
medicine  also,  receiving  the  degree  of  M.D.,  as  well 
OS  a  diploma  from  the  Dental  College  of  Baltimore; 
and,  after  serving  as  principal  of  the  Cassville  Seminaiy 
eighteen  months,  became  a  member  of  the  East  Balti- 
more Conference.  In  1859  he  joined  the  Virginia  Con- 
ference of  the  Church  South,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  BebelHon  removed  to  PnrkerBburgh,West  Vs.,  where 
he  opened  a  successful  seminary  for  young  ladies.  Sub- 
sequently he  re-entered  the  ministry  of  the  Chureh 
South,  and  in  Ashland,  Ky.,  conducted  an  academy  for 
some  time.  In  1871  he  waa  admitted  into  the  Cincin- 
nati Conference  of  the  Northern  Church.  Disease  obliged 
him  to  retire  from  regular  work  in  1872,  and  he  died 
April  1, 1878.  Mr.  Conner  was  a  methodiod  sermoni- 
ser;  possessed  a  pleasant,  well-trained  voice;  was  a 
cultured  man,  a  devoted  friend,  and  naturally  retiring  in 
disposition.  See  Aftnutes  of  Annual  Corferencetf  1872, 
p.  79. 

Conner,  James,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Buckingham  Connty,  Va.  He  was  two  and 
a  half  years  in  the  work;  a  pious,  solid,  intelligent 
man.  In  the  midst  of  a  blameless,  useful  career  he  died, 
in  1789  or  1790.  See  i/tnutes  cf  Annual  Conferences, 
1790,  p.  87. 

.  Conner,  Joaepli,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  miniMerw 


CONNER 


67 


CONON 


was  born  at  ReimelMmUe,  K.  Y^  July  6, 1810.  He 
wn  omveited  in  1881,  Uceiued  to  exhort  in  1837,  ami 
io  1840  entered  the  Troy  Conference,  wherein  he  labored 
aeaJooaly  nnfcil  attacked  by  ooneinnption,  which  soon 
tefminated  in  hta  death,  Dec.  27, 1861.  Sir.  Conner  was 
an  ezoeilent  miniater,  modest,  devoted,  and  greatly  be- 
loTfd;  powerful  in  exhortation,  mighty  in  prayer,  and 
•jrmpathizing  and  faithful  in  friendahip.  See  ifuuttet 
ifAmmal  Coirf<ertMx$,  1862,  p.  lOa 

Conner,  William,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 

born  in  Allegheny  County,  Pa.,  May  17, 1799.    He  was 

oonrerted  early  in  life,  and  from  1820  until  1880  was 

engaged  in  bueinesa.   At  thirty  yean  of  age  he  entered 

Jeilerson  College,  Pa.,  where  he  pursued  his  studies 

with  more  than  ordinary  diligence.    He  was  licensed 

by  the  Mooongahela  Preriiyteiy  in  1887,  and  stationed 

at  Unity,  Westmoreland  Col,  Flk    In  1850  he  aoeepted 

a  call  to  Bethd;  and  in  1868  an  inritation  to  Blairs- 

viUe.  He  died  Sept.  28, 1868.   See  Wilson, /Veid.  JVuC 

i4i!BKDKUvl864,p.848. 

Connla  (or  Conla)  is  found  twice  in  the  Irish  cal- 
endar!, first  as  a  aon  of  Leinni,  bishop,  at  May  10,  and 
next  as  a  bishop  of  Rusgach  (perhaps  Rossagh,  West- 
neath)  at  Dec.  80.  But  the  most  famous  person  bear- 
ing the  name  was  a  renowned  worker  in  brass,  who  lived 
in  the  5th  century  or  eariy  in  the  6th  (Petrie,  Round 
Toversy  p.  202, 203).— Smith,  Did.  of  Ckrut,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Coniiniaoll  (or  Conmaoh),  an  early  Irish  prd- 
ste,  aucoeeded  Cudiniscua  as  bishop  of  Armagh  some 
time  after  AJ>.  790  {Four  Mcuten),  He  died  sudden- 
ly in  807,  and  the  Pmker  of  Ccuhd  gives  him  a  rule 
of  foarteen  years.  Under  his  influence  St.  Fothad  the 
Canonist  drew  op  the  remonstrance  which  procured 
for  the  clergy  of  Ireland  the  right  of  exemption  from 
milttarr  service  (Lanigan,  Ecd,  HiaL  of  Inland,  iii,  233, 
244^  252;  Prim.  Ch,  Hiit.  of  Ireland,  ii,  1106). 

Of  Connmach  of  Ath-blair,  commemorated  aa  an  Irish 
aaint  on  July  9,  we  have  no  account — Smith,  Diet,  of 
Ckritt.  Biog.  a.  v. 

Connolly,  John,  an  eminent  Roman  Catholic  prel- 
ate, was  bom  on  the  banks  of  the  Boyne,  near  Navan, 
Irelam^  in  1750,  and  was  educated  in  Belgium.  At  an 
early  ige  he  proceeded  to  Rome,  and  there  spent  most 
of  his  life  in  the  convents  of  his  order,  that  of  St.  Domi- 
nie. He  waa  for  many  years  agent  in  that  city  of  the 
Iridi  bishops,  and  filled  various  chairs  as  professor.  He 
was  selected  by  the  cardinal-bishop  of  Albano  aa  the  ex- 
aminer of  candidatea  for  the  priesthood.  In  these  duties 
he  displayed  great  ability  and  virtue,  and  is  remem- 
bered by  hia  pa{Hls  bm  a  man  of  gentleness  of  character. 
In  1814  he  waa  appointed  to  succeed  Concanen  as  the 
second  bishop  of  New  York,  and  was  consecrated  Nov. 
6  of  that  year.  His  diocese  comprised  the  state  of  New 
York  and  part  of  New  Jersey,  in  which  were  thirteen 
thooaand  Oithalics,  three  Jesuit  fathers,  and  one  secu- 
lar priest.  After  a  faithful  episcopate,  Connolly  died  in 
New  York,  Febk  6, 1825,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dubois. 
See  De  Conrcv  and  Shea,  Mitt,  of  tke  Caih.  Church  in 
tktU.8.^  375-J»8. 

Connolly,  Thomas  Zionia,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olie  dignitary,  was  bom  at  Cork,  Ireland.  He  joined 
the  Capochins^  and  in  his  eighteenth  year  went  to  Rome 
to  pfepare  himself  for  holy  orders,  remaining  there  six 
yesrs.  He  was  ordained  in  Lyona  in  1888.  Return- 
ing to  Ireland  the  following  year,  he  labored  in  Dub- 
lin for  three  years.  In  1842  he  accompanied  arch- 
bidiopWalsh  to  Hali£tx,N.S.f  as  secretary.  In  1846 
he  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  that  dioceae.  In  1851 
Pias  IX  appointed  him  bishop  of  St.  John,  N.  B.,  as  suc- 
cessor of  bishop  IMlard.  After  administering  this  dio- 
OBe  for  seven  yean^  Dr.  Connolly  was,  on  the  death  of 
uchbishop  WsJsh,  in  1859,  transferred  to  the  archiepis- 
o^pal  see  of  Halifax,  N.  S.,  which  he  filled  for  seventeen 
fBarai  He  waa  admirably  fitted  for  this  position.  Of 
n  ittposiog  pccsesce,  he  poastsscd  a  powerful  eloquence, 
fiicat  energy,  ainoeFe  and  noaffected  piety,  and  mag- 


nanimous and  broad  views.  He  became  loved  for  inno- 
merable  acts  of  kindness  to  the  poor  and  unfortunate, 
and  his  death,  on  July  27, 1876,  in  his  sixty-third  year, 
was  regretted  by  all  denominations.  He  was  succeed- 
ed by  Dr.  Hannan,  who  died  in  1882.  See  (N.  Y.)  Cath. 
AlmanaCf  1877,  p.  78. 

Connor.    See  O'Coxmor. 

Connor,  Jamea  R.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  converted  in  early  life, 
and  Joined  the  Church  in  1846,  in  Randolph  0>unty,  Ala. 
In  1848  he  received  license  to  preach,  and  in  Februar}-, 
1850,  entered  the  Florida  Conference,  and  was  appointed 
to  HlUsborough  Mission,  where  he  labored  until  his 
death,  Dec  17  of  the  same  year.  Mr.  Connor  was  a 
young  man  of  great  promise,  able,  devout,  fervent.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferencet  of  the  M.  E.  Church 
South,  1850,  p.  816. 

Connor,  Wilson,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Marlborough  District,  a  C^  July  7, 1768.  In  his  eariy 
manhood  be  was  a  Methodist  preacher,  but  was  baptized 
at  Cheraw,  and  ordained  aa  a  Baptist  in  Efilngham 
County,  Ga.,  in  1808.  Having  fallen  into  a  backslid* 
den  state,  he  retired  from  the  active  duties  of  the  min«> 
istry  for  a  long  time.  For  eighteen  years  he  was 
justice  of  the  inferior  court  in  Montgomery  County, 
and  also  a  member  of  the  legislature.  He  was  at  last 
brought  back  to  his  religious  experience,  and  once  more 
became  a  preacher  of  the  GospeL  In  his  latter  days 
his  ministiy  was  signally  blessed.  He  was  also  an  ear- 
nest advocate  of  temperance  and  other  good  causes. 
As  an  evangelist  he  made  the  whole  state  of  Georgia 
his  mission  field,  travelUng  more  than  thirty-five  thou- 
sand miles  in  thirteen  yean.  For  some  time  he  held 
official  connection  with  the  Georgia  Baptist  Convention 
as  its  missiona^.  He  was  also  actively  engaged,  for  a 
time,  as  the  financial  agent  of  Mercer  University,  in 
collecting  funds  for  that  institution.  Having  preached 
a  most  solemn  discourse  in  Telfair  County,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1844,  he  sat  down  and  expired  instantly.  His 
personal  appearance  and  address  were  striking.  His 
voice  is  said  to  have  been  extraordinar}%  resembling 
the  rumbling  of  distant  thunder.  See  Haynes,  Bapt. 
Cydop.  i,  167.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cono  (or  Conon),  Joha^iit,  a  German  theologian, 
waa  bom  at  Nuremberg  in  1468.  He  entered  the  Do- 
minican order,  and  went  to  Padua  to  study  Greek  un- 
der Marcus  Musnrus.  Erasmus  spoke  in 'eulogistic 
terms  of  this  monk  in  several  of  his  works.  Cono  died 
at  Basle,  Feb.  21, 1518.  In  1512  he  published  in  Greek 
some  treatises  of  the  different  fathers  of  the  Church,  and 
the  Inttitutet  of  Justinian,  with  numerous  annotationai 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginirale,8,r.;  Jocher,  Alfge- 
meines  Gdehrten'Lexihon,  t.  v. 

Conoo.    See  Cakoc 

Conodhar  (or  Conodran),  of  Fobhar,  commem- 
orated as  an  early  Irish  saint  Nov.  8,  seems  to  have  been 
a  person  of  note,  as  his  death  is  entered  in  most  of  the 
Irish  annals ;  but  of  his  parentage  or  life  at  Fobhar  we 
have  no  trace.  He  died  AD.  707  (Todd  and  Reeves, 
Mart,  Doneg.  p.  296 ;  Colgan,  A  da  Sandorum,  148,  c.  3). 
— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Conon  is  the  name  of  several  early  Christians.  See 
also  CONAN. 

1.  A  martyr  at  loonium,  under  Aurelian,  is  commem- 
orated May  29  in  Usuard's  Martyrology,  and  March  5  in 
thi  Byzantine. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Anttq.  a.  v. 

2.  A  martyr  under  Decius,  in  Pamphylia,  commem- 
orated March  6.  He  is  said  in  one  account  to  have 
been  a  gardener  of  Nazareth,  and  a  poor,  simple,  hospi- 
table man.  When  told  the  pmfect  wanted  him,  he 
said,  **  What  can  he  want  me  for,  especially  as  I  am  a 
Christian.**  When  bidden  to  sacrifice,  he  groaned,  and 
wished  the  pmfect  could  renounce  idols  and  come  to 
Christ.  His  ankles  were  pierced,  and  nails  were  driven 
through  them,  and  in  that  state  he  waa  made  to  run 


CONONDRIUS 


68 


CONRAD 


before  «  chariot  till  he  died.  Another  story  was  after- 
wards told  of  him,  or  perhaps  of  another  man  of  the 
same  name,  in  Isauria,  to  suit  the  taste  of  a  later  age. 
He  was  baptized  by  the  chief  captain  MichaeL  He 
used  to  make  the  devils  guard  his  folds,  and  then  shut 
them  up  in  casks.  He  taught  the  people  to  say, "  There 
is  one  God,  eyenX>>non'6."  When  he  was  tortuxed  there 
was  a  rescue,  and  he  survived  two  years,  and  died  in 
peace  {Menolotf,  B<mL). 

3.  Bishop  of  Edessa,  who,  in  the  year  813,  laid  the 
fonndations  of  a  church  in  that  city,  which  was  com- 
pleted by  his  successor,  Saades,  and  enlarged  by  Aital- 
laha  (Henogt  Beal^Encyhlop,  iii,  646). 

4.  Bishop  of  Apamea,  who,  in  the  Isaurian  rebellion 
in  the  reign  of  Anastasitis,  A.D.  497, "  left  his  throne, 
and  was  converted  from  a  priest  to  a  soldier  and  a  gen- 
eraL"  Conon  became  a  leader  of  the  rebels,  and  was 
killed  while  besieging  the  town  of  Claudiopolis,  A.D. 
498. 

5.  Bishop  of  Tarsus  (flourished  about  601),  a  disciple 
of  Joannes  Philoponus,  whose  cause  he  defended  in  con- 
junction with  Eugenius  against  the  Eutychians,  Paul 
and  Stephen,  before  John,  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople. The  acts  of  this  disputation  existed  in  the  time 
of  Photius,  and  were  read  by  him.  Conon  subsequent- 
ly disagreed  with  Philoponus  as  to  the  perfect  equality 
of  the  three  natures  in  the  Trinity,  and,  separating  from 
him,  founded  a  new  church,  of  which  he  acted  as  bishop. 
His  quarrel  with  Philoponus  led  to  his  anathematiza- 
tion of  his  former  teacher,  and  the  publication  of  an 
OrcUio  Iiwedwa,  directed  against  the  views  of  Philopo- 
nus, as  to  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh,  which  Photius 
records  having  read.  Photius  speaks  of  Conon  and  his 
followers  under  the  name  of  Tritheists.  See  Cokokites. 

6.  Abbot  of  L6rins,  who  lived  about  A.D.  600.  Pope 
Gregory  wrote  a  letter  to  him  on  the  government  of  his 
monastery,  commending  Conon  for  his  vigor,  ability, 
and  excellence  (Le  Cointe,  Ann.  EeeL  Franc  ii,  478). — 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Chritt,  Biog,  s.  v. 

ConondriuB  is  supposed  to  have  been  bishop  of 
Man,  consecrated  by  St.  Patrick,  A.D.  447  (Stubbs,  Reffis^ 
ter,  p.  164). 

Conov,  Pkter,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  Feb.  8,  1580,  at  Prenzlow.  In  1602  he  was 
preacher  at  Kamow ;  in  1605  he  was  called  to  Berlin  as 
archdeacon  of  St.  Mary's,  and  in  1611  to  Alt-Branden- 
burg, where  he  died,  Aug.  18, 1642.  He  wrote,  RepeiUio 
Sana  Dodrma  de  vera  ac  Beali  Corporis  Prasen/ia  ta 
S,  Casna  (Wittenberg,  1^1^)1  — Antiparathetis  Orfho- 
doxioB  LutheraneB  et  Hderodoxica  CalfMana  (ibid.  1615), 
etc  See  J5cher,  AUgemeineM  GeUhrten^Lexikon^  s.  v.; 
Hoefer,  JVour.  Biog,  GinSrale,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Conoway,  Johk  O.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Baltimore  County,  Md.,  in  1810.  He 
was  converted  at  twenty;  received  into  the  Ohio  Con- 
ference in  1835;  labored  at  St  Mary's,  Risdon,  Finley, 
Bucyras,  Clarksfield,  and  Quincy,  and  died  Dec  8, 1841. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1843,  p.  453. 

Conraoh  (or  Conry),  an  early  Irish  saint,  is  com- 
memorated Feb.  23.  On  this  day  the  calendars  give 
CruinUher  Connrach,  Colgan  says  this  is  the  brother 
of  St.  Aidan.  His  mother  is  said  to  have  been  Sinecha, 
sister  of  St.  Columba,  and  he  was  buried  at  Durrow 
(Reeves,  Adamnan,  p.  247, 277).— Smith,  Did,  of  Christ, 
Biog,  8.  V. 

Conrad,  Saint,  a  German  prelate,  was  son  of  Henry, 
count  of  Altdorf,  and  was  educated  by  Noting,  bishop  of 
Constance,  who  brought  him  through  the  various  cXet' 
ical  degrees  and  placed  him  in  charge  of  his  church. 
The  chapter  chose  him  for  provost  Noting  having 
died  in  934,  the  people  and  the  clergy  of  Constance 
elected  Conrad  bishop.  He  fulfilled  with  zeal  his  epis- 
copal functions,  and  founded  three  churches  and  a  hos- 
pital. Three  times,  according  to  Udalric,  he  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  returning  with  the  gift  of 


prophecy  and  mirades.  He  foretold  to  St  Gebbird 
who  would  be  his  suooessor.  Conrad  died  Nov.  26, 976. 
Pope  Calixtos  II  canonized  him  at  the  Council  of  late- 
ran,  held  in  1128.  His  anniversary  is  Nov.  26.  An  sc- 
count  of  his  miracles  is  given  in  the  Ckromque  de  Con- 
stance, A  history  of  his  life  is  given  by  Ulnc  or  Udal- 
ric, one  of  his  successors,  as  related  by  Surins.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Giniralt,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  UntverseUe^  &  v. 

Conrad  op  Asti,  a  theologian  of  Piedmont,  entered 
the  Dominican  order,  of  which  he  became  general  in 
1462,  in  place  of  Martial  Auribelli,  whom  Pope  Pios  U 
deposed.  Paul  H  having  in  his  turn  deposed  Conrad, 
Auribelli  was  restored  to  his  position.  Conrad  died  at 
Asti  in  1470.  His  works  were,  CommeiUaria  in  jus  Cano- 
meumc-^Stimma  Casuum  Consciaitim:—0pH8  Prada- 
rum  et  Laboriosum  quo  Dicta  B,  Tkoma  de  Aquino  per 
Materia*  Ord»navit:—Epistola  EncgcUca  in  Univtrtum 
Ordinem,  etc  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirak,  s.  v. ; 
Jdcher,  Al^^emeines  Getehrten-Lexikon,  B,y, 

Conrad  of  Austria  (or  Waldhausbk).  See 
Wau>iiau8en,  Conbad. 

Conrad  op  Beport,  a  German  theologian  and  phi- 
losopher of  the  Capuchin  order,  who  died  at  Mublberg, 
Aug.  12, 1720,  wrote  ProUemata  PkUosopkica  (Cologne, 
1720).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GinhraUj  s.  v. 

Conrad  op  Braunweiucr,  a  German  biographer, 
lived  about  1090.  He  belonged  to  the  Benedictine  or- 
der, and  wrote,  VUa  Miraculdque  Saneti  Wolphelmij 
A  bbatis  Bruwilerensis,  which  he  dedicated  to  Everfaard, 
abbot  of  Braunweiler,  and  to  Hermann,  abbot  of  St  Pan- 
taleon  of  Cologne.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhMe, 
S.V.;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gehhrten^Lexikon,  8.v. 

Conrad  op  Coloom k.   See  Conrad  op  Hibschau; 

also  COMRAD  OP  HOCIISTADT, 

Conrad  op  Cosstamcb.    See  Coicrad,  St. 

Conrad,  abbot  op  Evbbbach  (or  Estrrbacr),  a 
German  ecclesiastic,  was  bom  about  1140,  and  died  in 
1226.  He  left  a  biography  of  the  principiid  Cistercian 
and  Qair\'aux  monks,  entitled.  Exordium  Magnum  Or- 
dims  Cisterdensis.  This  contains  some  historical  in- 
formation worthy  of  interest,  but  in  the  main  is  a  very 
dry  compilation.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gktiraky 
s.  V. ;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikonf  s.  v. 

Conrad  op  FUrstbnbbro,  a  German  prelate,  was 
son  of  £gon  or  Eginon,  count  of  Urach  and  of  FQrsten> 
berg.  After  being  dean  of  St.  Lambert,  at  Liege,  be 
became  a  monk  of  the  Cistercian  order,  and  then  abbot 
of  YUlers,  Brabant  In  1214  he  was  elected  abbot  of 
Clairvaux,  and  in  1217  head  of  the  general  order.  In 
1219  pope  Honorius  III  appointed  him  cardinal  and 
bishop  of  Oporto,  and  two  yean  after  sent  him  to 
France  to  preach  against  the  Albigenses.  Conrad  af- 
terwards returned  to  Germany,  and  published  ordi* 
nances  for  the  reform  of  the  manners  of  the  clergy. 
At  the  death  of  Honorius  III  he  refused  to  be  a  candi- 
date for  the  papacy,  and  thus  aided  the  election  of 
Gregory  IX,  who  sent  him  to  preach  a  crusade  against 
the  Mussulmans,  and  to  lead  it  to  the  Holy  Land. 
Conrad  died  during  the  expedition,  Sept.  80, 1227,  leav- 
ing, Constitutiones  in  Germama  pro  Cleri  Reformationef 
published  in  the  Annates  of  Bzovius: — De  Erroribu* 
Atbigensium.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v.; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Conrad  op  Gbisbnpeld,  a  native  of  that  city,  was 
a  Bavarian  theologian,  who  pursued  his  studies  and  took 
his  degrees  at  Vienna.  In  1433  he  entered  the  Benedic- 
tine order  at  Melk,  in  Austria,  became  prior  in  1434,  and 
resigned  his  functions  in  1485.  Nevertheless  he  had 
charge  of  reforming  several  houses  of  his  order.  For 
this  purpose  he  was  sent  to  Augsburg,  Etthal,  and  Te- 
gemsee.  He  was  authorized  to  remain  in  this  last- 
named  place,  where  he  died,  in  May,  1460.  He  left  sev- 
eral MS.  works  on  theology,  such  as  Conunentarii  Inter* 
Uneares  in  Epistolam  Sandi  PauU  ad  Gatatas  et  ad 
Titum,    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMraU^  a.  v. 


CONRAD 


69 


CONRAD 


Comd  (ot  Conrard)  or  Hatjieb8tai>t  (caHed 
The  Elder),  a  Geiman  theologian,  lived  in  1821.  He 
wu  a  Dominicaii,  and  definitor  of  the  province  of  Sax- 
onv.  He*added  the  indedinaUe  particles  to  the  Con- 
coidance  of  the  Holy  Scriptnres  which  Hugh  of  St. 
Cher  had  made;  also  wrote,  ijxiwra  tn  Johum: — Sum" 
ma  StftdaUimn: — Retpontorium,  sea  TracUUvi  Muhb 
PkHo$opkiem  : — Sermomt  de  Tempore  ei  de  SaneiUfttc 
See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog,  GMraley  a.  r.;  Jdcher,  AUge" 
SKHMf  Gekikiiat'LeankoHf  a.  t. 

Conmd  op  Herksbach,  a  kamed  German  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Heresbach,  in  the  duchy  of  Cloves, 
Aug.  2, 1496.  He  studied  at  Cologne,  and  in  1522  tis- 
ited  the  univeiBlties  of  Fiance  and  Italy.  He  was  the 
teacher  and  coonseUor  of  prince  William  of  Cleves,  and 
died  ai  Wesel,  Oct.  li,  1576.  He  wrote  Psalmorum 
ErpHeaHo  (Baile,  1578),  and  several  educational  works, 
for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. ;  Biog, 
Umeer$eUe,%,T, 

Conrad  op  Hikschau,  or  op  Colooxb,  a  learned 
German,  lived  about  1140.  He  was  a  Benedictine  at 
the  monastery  of  Hirachau,  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne. 
He  was  a  philosopher,  rhetorician,  poet,  and  mnsiGian, 
and  wrote,  De  Mumea  ei  Diferentia  Tomnrum,  and  other 
worka.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  t.  ;  Jdcher, 
Al^feaumes  GdekrUn^Lexikon,  a.  v. 

Conrad  of  Hochstadt  (or  op  Hohexstkdbxv), 
archbishop  of  Cologne,  was  son  of  Lothaire,  ooant  of 
Hochstadt,  and  was  elected  in  128S  to  succeed  the  arch- 
bishop Henry  of  Molenarck.  After  a  turbulent  admin- 
istration, be'  died.  Sept  28, 1261.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Geitirale,  s.  t.  ;  Biog,  Univertelle,  s.  v. 

Conrad  <hf  Lichtenau  (or  Urspergeniia),  known 
aa  th^  PrieM  of  Urtperg,  a  German  chronicler,  waa  at 
first  canon  at  Constance,  then  took  vowa  at  the  monas- 
tery of  Urspeiig,  of  the  order  of  Premonstrants,  where 
he  became  priest  in  1216,  and  died  in  1240  or  1241.  He 
composed  a  work  called.  Life  of  Ike  Saints,  in  twelve 
bookfl^  of  which  no  trace  remaina.  He  also  wrote, 
Chromam  Universale^  commencing  with  Belue,  king  of 
Aamis,  and  continuing  down  to  1229.  This  work  waa 
pnblisbed  first  by  Conrad  Pentinger,  at  Augsburg,  in 
1515.  A  second  edition,  dedicated  to  the  duke  of  Ba- 
varia, entitled  ProUgotnena,  extending  down  to  the  time 
of  Charles  V,  was  prepared  by  Melanchthon,  at  Stras- 
borg,  in  1537 ;  a  third  edition,  by  Paul  Piema,  pub- 
Gsbed  in  1569,  bore  the  name  of  the  author,  which  the 
previoos  editions  omitted ;  and  a  fourth  edition  was  pub- 
lished, at  Strasburg,  by  Lazarus  Zeltner,  in  1609.  The 
chronicle  of  Conrad  of  Uraperg  contains  valuable  mat- 
ter upon  the  history  of  Germany,  and  especially  as  to 
the  contest  which  was  carried  on  between  the  emper- 
ors and  popea  in  the  time  in  which  the  author  lived. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v.;  Jdcher,  ABge- 
wtemet  GelekrUn^Lexikon,  a.  v.;  Biog,  Unherselle,  s.  v. 

Conrad  op  LGwknbbbo  (or  Leontorius),  a  German 
scholar,  was  bom  at  IxSwenberg,  Suabia,  in  1460.  He 
was  a  Benedictine  of  the  Cistercian  order,  of  the  abbey 
of  MQlbran,  Wttrtemberg,  and  became  secretary  to  the 
general  of  his  order  in  1490.  He  died  at  Engenthal, 
(Arcta  Vallls),  near  Basle,  about  1520.  He  published, 
TeztvM  BiUiatSf  cum  Ghssa  Ordinaria,  etc  ( Nurem- 
berg, 1496;  Engenthal,  1499;  Basle,  1498-1502;  Arcta 
Tallia,  1506-1508;  Lyons,  1520,  1528):— Po^/tUa  Hu- 
9ovit  de  Saneto  Caro  (  Basle,  1604  ) :  —  Opera  Sancti 
Amhrogii  (ibid.  1506):— i4«re/tt  Augustini  Hipponensis 
Episcopi,  ad  MareelUmum,  de  Civitaie  Dei,  contra  Pa- 
fosMM,  /Mni  xvii.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale, 
%.  T. ;  Biog.  UnioerseUe,  s.  v. 

Conrad  (by  some  incorrectly  called  Clandarus'), 
bishop  or  LuBBCK  in  1183,  went  to  Palestine  in  1189, 
became  bishop  of  Hildesheim  in  1196,  and  of  WUrz- 
baig  in  1 198.  See  Jocher,  i^^^emcMe*  GdehrienrLexi- 
fa»,  s.  r. 

Conrad,  caniina^archbishop  op  Mbhtz,  was  aon  of 


Otho  IV,  ooont  of  Wittelsbach,  and  was  made  arohbiah- 
op  in  1160,  at  the  wish  of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  In 
1162  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  St.  Jago  of 
Compostella.  In  1165  Frederick,  having  convoked  the 
dietof  WUrzbnrg  in  order  to  acknowledge  the  antipope, 
Conrad  retired  to  Touni  with  the  rightful  pontiff,  Alex- 
ander III.  Frederick  then  placed  Christian  of  Buche  in 
the  archiepiscopal  eee  of  Mentz,  and  the  pope  named  Con- 
rad cardinal-priest  and  bishop  of  Sabina.  But  he  did  not 
resign  the  arohbishopric  of  Mentz  until  1177,  after  peace 
was  made  between  the  emperor  and  the  pope ;  in  indem- 
nification he  was  named  archbishop  of  Salzburg.  Chris- 
tian of  Buche  having  died  in  1 188,  Conrad  returned  to 
Mentz.  The  following  year  he  wulied  to  seize  that 
which  had  belonged,  in  Thuringiaand  HeBBe,to  the  lost 
house  of  Franconia ;  but  he  found  an  adversary  in  the 
landgrave,  Louis  III.  The  result  was  a  war  of  pillage 
and  devastation,  lasting  for  several  years.  In  1189  Con- 
rad aided  Heniy  YI,  prince  of  Germany,  in  vanquishing 
Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony.  In  January,  1197, 
the  emperor,  being  unable  to  go  to  the  Holy  Land,  as 
he  wss  urged  by  the  pope,  put  in  his  place  the  warlike 
archbishop,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army.  Conrad,  with 
the  title  of  legate,  made  it  one  of  his  tasks  on  the  route 
to  bring  back  to  the  Komish  Church  Livon,  king  of 
Armenia,  and  to  reconcile  him  with  Bohemond  III, 
prince  of  Antioch.  We  are  ignorant  of  his  exploits  in 
Palestine.  He  returned  to  Europe  and  landed  in  Apu- 
lia, July  15, 1199,  rendered  an  account  of  his  mission 
to  pope  Innocent  III,  then  went  to  Mentz,  and  thence 
to  Tburingia.  He  denred  the  same  year  to  hold  a  diet 
at  Boppaid,  in  order  to  establish  peace  between  the  two 
competitors  for  the  empire;  but  Otho  refused  to  grant 
it.  He  then  went  to  Hungan;*,  and  reconciled  the  king, 
Emeric,  with  Andrew,  hia  brother;  and  succeeded,  in 
1200,  at  the  assembly  of  Andernach,  in  pacifjing  the 
quarrels  of  the  princes  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  same  year 
he  died.  It  wss  perhaps  he  who  wrote  the  Chronicon 
Rerum  Mogunlinarum,  giving  an  account  of  German 
eventa  from  1140  to  1152  (published  in  Helverich's 
HiiL  GermatUj  Frankf.  1550.)  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Genirale,  s.  t. 

Conrad  op  Nurkhbrbo,  a  learned  German  Bene- 
dictine, studied,  probably,  at  Vienna ;  entered  at  Gottwig, 
in  1428,  the  Benedictine  order;  later  returned  to  Melk ; 
and  in  1426  became  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Obemburg. 
Hia  knowledge  was  varied,  embracing  mathematics,  the- 
ology, and  music  He  died  at  Obernburg,  May  16, 1441, 
leaving  JUducUo  Gradualis  in  IntroiHbus,  AntipkoniSf 
Kgrie  Eteison,  etc. : — TraekUus  vtrum  Omnia  qua  Con- 
tinet  Regularis  Inetitutio  sunt  Prmcepia  f  etc : — De  Phle^ 
botonuoj  epu  CausiSf  usu  est  EffectibuM : — De  Positione  seu 
AppUcatione  Ventosarum: — Tradatue  Nomina  Mwho' 
rum  Exhibens,  These  works  remain  in  MS.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Ginircde,  s.  v. 

Conrad  of  Scheubkm  (or  Seiren),  in  Bavaria,  called 
The  Philonpher,m  German  chronicler, lived  in  the  early 
part  of  the  18th  century.  He  was  a  Benedictine,  and 
became  prior  of  his  monaster}'.  He  wrote,  Chronkon 
Schirense,  that  is,  the  chronicle  of  the  abbey  of  Scheu- 
em,  from  1196  to  1226,  published  at  Ingolatadt  in  1628, 
and  Strasburg  in  1716.  He  wrote  more  than  fifty  vol- 
umes upon  other  matters.  Aventin  says  that  the  works 
of  Conrad,  of  which  he  gives  a  list,  aided  him  greatly  in 
completing  his  A  nnales.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  (Jini- 
rale,  s.  v.;  Biog,  UniverseUe,  s.  v.;  Jocher,  AUgemeines 
GelehrtenrLexihon,  %,  v. 

Conrad  of  Uksfebg.   See  Coxrad  of  Lichte:iau. 

Conrad,  bishop  of  Utrkcht,  was  bom  in  Snabia. 
He  wss  at  first  chamberlain  to  the  archbishop  of  Co- 
logne; then  had  charge  of  the  education  of  prince  Hen- 
ry, afterwards  Henry  IV,  emperor  of  Germany.  After 
the  death  of  William  de  Pont,  in  1075,  Conrad  was  cho- 
sen his  successor.  He  accomplished  the  oonstraction 
of  the  fort  of  Ysselmonde,  opposite  Kotterdam.  Robert 
the  Prison,  count  of  Flanders,  restrained  by  this  fortress. 


CONRAD 


TO 


OONROOD 


conteated  its  pooeflaion  with  Connd,  who  was  conquered 
and  taken  prisoner,  and  obliged  u>  yield  to  Robert  a  part 
of  Holland  as  well  as  the  isle  of  Ysselmonde.  The  em- 
peror. Henry  lY,  made  amends  to  the  prelate  by  the 
gift  of  the  ooonty  of  Stavoren,  on  Oct.  80, 1077,  and  on 
Feb.  7, 1086,  of  thoee  of  Ostergo  and  Westergo.  Conrad 
warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  Henry  IV  when  Gregory 
YII  wished  to  depose  him.  He  was  the  architect  and 
designer,  as  well  as  the  founder,  of  the  college  of  Notre- 
Dame  at  Utrecht  Conrad  was  assassinated  in  his  pal- 
ace at  Utnecht,  April  14, 1099.  He  wrote,  Pro  Impera- 
tore  contra  Papam,  published  in  the  Apologia  pro  /Ten- 
rico  IV  (Hanau,  1611).  This  discourse,  the  style  of 
which  is  concise  and  smooth,  was  delivered  by  Conrad 
at  the  assembly  of  Gerstungen  in  1085.  See  Hoefer, 
JVour.  Biog»  Gknirale,  s.  v.;  Biog^  Umvertelkt  a.  v.; 
Jocher,  AUffemeines  Gelekrten'Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Conrad  of  Waissknau,  a  German  theologian,  hav- 
ing lived  for  some  time  at  the  court  of  the  emperor 
Henry  V,  entered  the  order  of  Premonstrants;  and  was 
successively  abbot  of  Waissenau,  in  Suabia,  of  Valser}', 
near  Soissons,  then  general  of  his  order.  He  was  de- 
posed from  this  office  and  became  abbot  of  Cuissy,  near 
Laon,  where  he  died  in  1241.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Conrad,  Frederick  TT^illiam,  aMethodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  a  member  of  the  North-western  Ger- 
man Conference,  and  died  in  the  twenty-sixth  year  of 
his  age,  and  ninth  of  his  itinerant  ministry,  at  Colum- 
bus, Wis.,  April  16, 1864.  See  Mwutes  of  Annual  Con- 
ferences, 1864,  p.  140. 

Conrad,  Oeorge  "W,,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Franklin  County,  Ind.,  Dec  16, 1836* 
He  joined  the  Church  when  fifteen  years  of  age;  was 
educated  in  BrookviUe  College,  where  he  afterwards 
became  a  teacher;  removed  to  Iowa  in  1856;  received 
license  to  preach  the  same  year;  in  1857  was  admitted 
to  the  Iowa  Conference;  became  a  supernumerary  in 
1859 ;  and  died  April  27, 1860.  See  Minutes  of  A  mmil 
Conferences,  1860,  p.  224. 

Conrad,  ZK>uia  L.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  Prussia,  June  24, 1817.  His  parents  emigrated  to  the 
United  SUtes  in  1829,  and  seUled  near  Columbia,  Pa. 
He  was  educated  in  Lafayette  College,  Easton,  and 
Hampden-Sidney  College,  Va.  About  1847  he  com- 
pleted his  studies,  was  licensed  by  the  Allegheny  Pres- 
bytery, and  preached  at  Lawrenceville,  Pa.  He  was 
settled  at  Manchester  in  1852,  where  he  remained  till 
his  death,  in  1867.  See  Wilson,  Predf.  Hist.  A  bnanacj 
1868,  p.  79. 

Conrad  (or  Conrard),  OUvier,  a  French  poet,  a 
native  of  Gatinais,  lived  in  1546.  He  completed  his 
studies  at  Paris,  and  took  the  habit  of  a  Cordelier  at 
Meuog.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  Latin  verses ; 
and  so  well  did  he  imitate  Faustus  Andrelinus,  that  he 
was  sumamed  Faustultu.  He  wrote,  Poisies  Latines 
(Paris,  1630)  i^Le  Miroir  des  Pkheurs  :—La  Vie,  FaiU 
et  Louanges  de  Saint-Paul  (ibid.  1646).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Biog.  UmverHUe,  s.  v. 

Conrad,  P.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in  Wyo- 
ming County,  N.  Y.  He  pursued  his  studies  at  the 
Hamilton  Institution,  and  in  1842  was  sent  by  the 
American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society  to  Wiscon- 
sin. His  pastorates  were  at  Milwaukee,  Geneva,  Prai- 
rie-du-Lac,  and  two  or  three  other  places.  He  per- 
formed a  large  amount  of  work  as  an  itinerant,  so  that 
there  is  hardly  a  town  in  the  state  in  which  he  did  not 
sow  the  Gospel  seed.  He  was  for  many  years  the  *'  Mis- 
sionary Apostle  "  of  Wisconsin.  For  a  short  time  Mr. 
Conrad  acted  as  the  financial  agent  of  the  American 
Bible  Union  in  that  state;  but  the  woric  in  which  he 
most  delighted  was  mtssionaxy  work.  Having  gone 
to  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  to  recruit  his  health,  he  died 
there,  Nov.  1, 1876.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encgdop. 
p.  270.     (J.  a  &) 


Conradi,  Bmest,  a  German  physician  and  theo. 
logian,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  March  2,  1677.  He 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  pastor  of  the  Church  of  St. 
George  at  Bremen,  where  his  father  was  a  meichant,  and 
died  there,  April  21, 1716,  leaving  some  dissertations, 
among  which  we  mention,  De  Surdorum  Enufunatimii' 
6us  (1698, 1701)  i—Fimtor  Phgsieus,  SdtnUa  Naturalu 
Limites  et  Confixa  Dirigens  (Wittenberg,  1703).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog*  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Conradi,  Isnattua  Norbert^  a  Hungarian  the- 
ologian and  poet,  of  the  order  of  Pietists,  was  bom  st 
Pesth  in  1718.  After  a  journey  to  Italy  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Academy  of  the  nobility  in 
"^^nna;  later  he  was  professor  of  theology  at  Waiueu 
and  Wesprim;  he  also  filled  important  offices  in  his 
order.  He  died  Aug.  20, 1785,  leaving.  Be  Jam  Panmh 
nii  Vita  et  Seriptis  Commentarii  (Buda,  1754):--£du- 
ardi  Corsini  DissertaOones  AgonisticoB  (Leipsic,  eod.): 
— Paulimanarum  Orationum  Volumen  Secundum  (Bads, 
eod.).  An  edition  of  the  Odes  Epigrammes,  and  other 
poems  of  Conradi,  were  published  by  Zimaoyi  (Pesth, 
1792).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Conradln  of  Borkada  (called  The  Happy),  an 
Italian  Dominican,  was  bom  near  Brescia  in  1892.  His 
family  being  noble  and  rich,  allowed  him  to  pursue  his 
studies  at  Padua,  where,  in  1418,  he  assumed  the  habit 
of  the  Dominicans.  He  devoted  himself  to  preaching, 
for  which  he  showed  a  remarkable  talent.  The  pesti- 
lence having  broken  out  at  Bologna,  Conradin  went 
to  its  relief.  This  city  was  at  that  time  at  war  with 
the  pope.  Conradin,  failing  in  bringing  the  citizens 
into  submission,  published  an  interdict  which  the  pope 
had  pronounced  against  them.  He  was  then  treat- 
ed as  an  enemy,  thrown  into  prison  and  allowed  little 
food,  but  his  life  was  wonderfully  spared,  and,  a  treaty 
being  concluded,  he  was  set  at  liberty.  Conradin  per- 
formed with  ardor  all  his  tasks,  and,  the  pest  again 
raging,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  sick  until  he  himsdf 
fell  a  victim  and  died,  Nov.  1, 1429.  See  Hoefer,  Nwv. 
Biog.  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Conradin  of  Suabia.    See  Konbadin. 

Conran,  John,  an  Irish  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  was  bom  in  Dublin  in  1789.  He  was  brought 
up  in  the  Established  Church,  and  received  a  good  ed- 
ucation, his  father  being  a  man  of  means.  He  was 
placed  as  an  apprentice  to  leam  the  linen  trade  at  Lis- 
burn.  For  a  time  be  was  inclined  to  be  somewhat  dis- 
sipated, but  when,  at  the  age  of 'thirty-three,  he  wss 
brought  under  the  ministry  of  Robert  Willis,  of  Amer- 
ica, then  on  a  religious  visit  to  Ireland,  the  result  was  his 
conversion  and  uniting  with  the  Friends.  In  1780  he 
began,  in  a  quiet  way,  to  speak  in  public,  and  was  rec- 
ogni2ed  as  a  minister.  At  that  time  there  was  prevail- 
ing a  spirit  of  unbelief  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Socin- 
ianism  was  spreading.  John  Conran  contended  valiant- 
ly for  what  he  believed  was  *^  the  faith  once  delivered 
unto  the  saints.**  His  ministerial  work,  for  many  years, 
was  carried  on  chiefly  in  Ireland.  When  nearly  eighty 
years  of  age  he  united  in  a  religious  visit  to  all  the 
families  of  Friends  in  Dublin,  in  which  he  was  greatly 
blessed.  His  death,  which  was  sudden,  took  place  at 
the  house  of  a  friend,  with  whom  he  resided,  at  Moy- 
allen,  June  14, 1827.    See  Pktg  Promoted,  iv,  298>d03. 

(J.  c.  a) 

Conran.    See  Caoihan. 

Conrard.    See  Conrad,  Olivier. 

Conrlntlnns.    See  CnoitENTiNua. 

Conrood,  Stephkn,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Shelby  County,  Ky.,  Feb.  4, 1798.  He  united  with 
the  Church  in  1812,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1828,  and 
ordained  a  few  years  later.  In  1829  he  settled  in 
Greene  County,  III,  and  for  forty  years  was  pastor  of  a 
single  church  at  Bethlehem,  near  Greenfield.  During 
this  time  he  baptised  a  large  number  of  converts.  Al- 
though he  was  very  conservative  in  his  ideas,  and  did 


CONRY 


11 


CONSECRATION 


not  faror  some  of  the  movemeoti  of  the  modem  Church, 
he  was  Derertheleas  an  earnest  man  of  God,  and  a  suo- 
oeafol  preacher.  He  died  in  1873.  See  AHmOa  of 
JBmoii  Amm9ersane$,  1878,  p.  8.     (J.  a  &) 

Conry  (Lat.  ComiMi)^  Flobxmck,  an  Irish  theolo- 
gisn,  was  bom  in  Gonnanght  in  1660.  He  was  a  Fran- 
dsean,  hecame  proTindal  of  his  order  in  IreUmd,  and 
was  appointed  archbishop  of  Tuam  by  Clement  VIII, 
who  ordered  ud  to  be  given  by  all  means  to  the  Span- 
ish fofoes  sent  to  the  relief  of  the  Irish  Catholics,  against 
queen  Elizabeth.  Don  Joan  d'Aguilla  commanded  the 
Spaniards^  bat  the  earl  of  Tyrone  baring  been  defeated 
at  Kinsalc,  Conry  was  banuhcd,  escaped  to  Belgium,  and 
thence  paned  on  to  Spain.  He  foanded  a  convent  of  Irish 
Observantists  at  Loavain,  under  the  title  of  St  Anthony 
of  Padua.  Conry  died  at  Bladrid,  Nov.  18, 1G29,  leaving, 
Dt  Scmcti  A  uffuttim  Sentu  Circa  Beatm  Manm  Coneep- 
tiomm  (Antwerp,  1619):— /)0  Statu  Parvuiorum  tme 
BtptitmOf  Juxta  Sensum  Beati  AttgutHm  (Louvain, 
1€H  16^;  Rouen,  1648)  :-.lftrror  of  ChrMcm  Lift, 
in  Irish  (Louvain,  1626) : — Compenditim  DoetrimB  Sann- 
H  Auffustitd  Circa  Gratiam  (Paris,  1634, 1646)  i—Pere- 
grinu  Jerickoniimts,  hoc  tat  de  Natura  Humana,  etc 
(ibid.  1641,  1644):  — />e  Fiagtm$  Juttontm,  Juxta 
Metaem  Sandi  Auffustim  (ibid.  1644)  i—TraetaUu  dt 
Gratia  Chrisd  (ibid.  1646):— fTjputoto  Diffusa,  contra 
tot  9«»  Atstmum  PrabuerufU  tn  Partamtnto  tlibtmia 
Protcribemdii  Bottit,  etc  (given  by  Philip  0*SuUivan, 
in  his  HitL  of  Irdand,  voL  iv,  book  zii).  See  Hoe- 
fcr,  Aour.  Biog,  Genh-edt,  s.  v. 

GkxnflCieiice  signifies  knowledge  in  conjunction; 
that  ia,  in  conjunction  with  the  fact  to  which  it  is  a 
witnesa,  as  the  eye  is  to  the  action  done  before  it ;  or, 
as  South  obaerves,  it  is  a  doubie  or  jouU  htowltdgt, 
namdy,  one  of  a  divine  law  or  rule,  and  the  other  of 
a  man*s  own  action.    It  may  be  defined  to  be  the  jodg- 
ment  which  a  man  passes  on  the  morality  of  his  ac- 
tions, aM  to  their  parity  or  turpitude ;  or  the  secret  testi- 
mony of  the  soul,  whereby  it  approves  things  that  are 
good,  and  condemns  those  that  are  evil.    Some  object 
to  iu  being  called  an  act,  habit,  or  faculty.     An  act, 
say  they,  would  be  represented  as  an  agent,  whereas 
consoenoe  ia  a  testimony.    To  say  it  is  a  habit,  is  to 
apeak  of  it  as  a  disposition  acting,  which  is  scarcely 
more  aocomte  than  ascribing  one  act  to  another;  and, 
besides,  it  would  be  strange  language  to  say  that  oon- 
adenoe  itself  ia  a  habit.     Against  defining  it  by  the 
name  of  a  power  or  faculty  it  is  objected,  that  it  oc- 
casioDa  a  false  notion  of  it,  aa  a  distinct  power  from 


L  Tk€  moral  groumi  of  eomcienot*  We  must  distin- 
guish between  a  rule  that  of  itself  and  immediately 
binds  the  eonsdence,  and  a  m^  that  is  occasionally  of 
use  to  direet  and  satisfy  the  eonadenoe. 

L  The  will  of  God  is  the  only  mle  immediately  bind- 
ing the  ooQsctenoe.  No  one  has  authority  over  the 
oooadence  but  God.  All  penal  laws,  therefore,  in  mat- 
ters of  mere  conscience,  or  things  that  do  not  evidently 
allect  the  civil  state,  are  certainly  unlawful 

2.  The  commands  of  saperiors,  not  only  natural  par- 
ents, but  civil,  as  magistrates  or  masters,  and  ever>' 
man's  private  engagements,  are  rules  of  conscience  in 
things  indifferent. 

8.  The  examples  of  wise  and  good  men  may  become 
rales  of  conscience;  bat  here  it  must  be  observed,  that 
DO  example  or  judgment  is  of  any  authority  against 
law :  where  the  law  is  doubtful,  and  even  where  there 
is  no  doabt,  the  side  of  example  cannot  be  taken  till 
iaqniry  has  been  first  made  conceming  what  the  law 
diieeta. 

II.  Couscience  has  been  divided  into  the  following 


1«  Aoteral^or  that  common  principle  which  instructs 
men  ni  all  countries  and  religions  in  the  duties  to  which 
they  are  afl  alike  obliged.  There  seems  to  be  some- 
thing of  this  in  the  minds  of  all  men.    Even  in  the 


darkest  regions  of  the  earth,  and  among  thd  mdeht 
tribes  of  men,  a  distinction  has  ever  been  made  between 
just  and  unjust,  a  duty  and  a  crime. 

2.  A  right  conscience  is  that  which  decides  aright, 
or  according  to  the  only  mle  of  rectitude,  the  law  of 
God.  This  is  also  called  a  wtU^itformed  cotudatct, 
which  iti  all  its  decisions  proceeds  upon  the  most  evi- 
dent principles  of  tmth. 

8.  A  prtinMe  conscience  is  that  which,  in  caaes  that 
admit  of  the  brightest  and  fullest  light,  contenu  itsdf 
with  bare  probabilities.  The  consciences  of  many  are 
of  no  higher  character;  and  though  we  must  not  say  a 
man  cannot  be  saved  with  such  a  conscience,  yet  such 
a  conscience  is  not  so  perfect  as  it  might  be. 

4.  An  igtiorarU  conscience  is  that  which  may  declare 
right,  but,  as  it  were,  by  chance,  and  without  any  just 
ground  to  build  on. 

6.  An  trromoui  conscience  is  a  conscience  mistaken 
in  its  decisions  about  the  nature  of  actions. 

6.  A  doubting  conscience  is  a  conscience  unresolved 
about  the  nature  of  actions,  on  account  of  the  equal  or 
nearly  equal  probabilities  which  appear  for  and  against 
each  side  of  the  question. 

7.  Of  an  tvU  conscience  there  are  several  kinds.  Con- 
science, in  regard  to  actions  in  general,  is  evil  when  it 
has  lost  more  or  less  the  sense  it  ought  to  have  of  the 
natural  distinctions  of  moral  good  and  evil :  this  is  a 
polluted  or  defiled  conscience.  Conscience  is  evil  in  it- 
self when  it  gives  either  none  or  a  false  testimony  as  to 
past  actions ;  when,  reflecting  upon  wickedness,  it  feels 
no  pain,  it  is  evil,  and  said  to  be  seared  or  hardened  (I 
Tim.  iv,  2).  It  is  also  evil  when,  during  the  commission 
of  sin,  it  lies  quiet  In  regard  to  future  actions,  con- 
science is  evil  if  it  does  not  start  at  the  proposal  of  sin, 
or  connives  at  the  commission  of  it. 

III.  For  the  right  management  of  conscience,  we 
should,  1.  Endeavor  to  obtain  acquaintance  with  the 
law  of  God,  and  with  our  own  tempers  and  lives,  and 
frequently  compare  them  together.  2.  Furnish  con- 
science with  general  principles  of  the  most  extensive 
nature  and  strongest  influence;  such  as  the  supreme 
love  of  God;  love  to  our  neighbors  sa  ourselves;  and 
that  the  care  of  our  souls  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

3.  Preserve  the  purity  and  sensibility  of  conscience. 

4.  Maintain  the  frecxlom  of  conscience,  particularly 
against  interest,  passion,  temper,  example,  and  the  au- 
thority of  great  names.  5.  We  should  accustom  our- 
selves to  cool  reflection  on  our  psst  actions. — ^Buck, 
Thtol,  Diet,  s.  T.    See  Moiul  Skn'Sk. 

Consciousnees  is  the  perception  of  what  pass^ 
in  a  man's  own  mind.   We  must  not  confound  the  terms 

« 

contdoumntu  and  conadenct;  for  though  the  Latin  be 
ignorant  of  any  such  distinction,  including  both  in  the 
word  contciaUia,  yet  there  is  a  great  deal  of  difference 
between  them  in  our  language.  Consciousness  is  con- 
fined to  the  actions  of  the  mind,  being  nothing  else  than 
that  knowledge  of  itself  which  is  inseparable  from  every 
thought  and  voluntary  motion  of  the  soul.  Conscience 
extends  to  all  human  actions,  bodily  as  well  as  mental. 
Consciousness  is  the  knowledge  of  the  existence;  con- 
science,  of  the  moral  nature  of  actions.  Consciousness 
is  a  province  of  metaphysics ;  conscience,  of  morality. 
—Ruck,  ThtoL  Diet,  s.  v. 

Consecration  of  thk  Elements  of  the  Com- 
MUNiON.    See  Eucharist. 

CONSECRATION,  Euciiaristic  (Conatcratio,8anc- 
tifcatio).  For  the  distinction  between  consecration 
and  benediction,  see  Bkhediction.  The  general  con- 
sideration of  the  doctrine  of  eucharistic  consecration 
belongs  to  theology,  and  the  question  is  considered  here 
only  in  its  relation  to  the  liturgy. 

1.  The  principal  forroulss  of  consecration  are  given 
under  Canon  of  the  Liturgy.  The  roost  noteworthv 
difference  between  the  forms  of  consecration  used  in 
the  Eastem  and  Western  churches  consists  in  this,  that 
in  the  Eastem  Church  the  Holy  Spirit  is  invoked,  after 


CONSECRATION  CROSS 


12 


CONSENT  TO  MARRIAGE 


the  lecitation  of  the  words  of  institation,  to  descend 
apon  the  elementSi  and  make  them  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  (aee  Epiclesis)  ;  and  this  invocation  is  com- 
monly thought  to  imply  that  consecration  would  be 
imperfect  without  it  In  the  Western  Church  the  in- 
vocation of  the  Holy  Spirit  at  this  part  of  the  litnrgy 
is  generally  wanting,  and  the  whole  consecrating  virtue 
is  attributed  by  Western  ritualists  to  the  redtation  of 
the  words  of  institution,  accompanied  by  the  fitting 
gestures.  It  would  seem  from  the  Mozarabic  liturgy, 
however,  that  such  an  invocation  is  an  ancient  rite 
which  the  Latin  Church  has  lost,  not  an  innovation  of 
the  Orientals  (Neale,  EoMtem  Churck,  introd.  p.  492  sq.). 

2.  In  the  Ordo  Romanus^  iii,  c.  16,  the  following  ru- 
brical directions  are  g^ven :  ''After  the  pope  has  com- 
municated of  the  cup,  which  is  held  by  the  archdeacon, 
the  latter  pours  a  portion  of  the  remaining  wine  into 
the  larger  chalice  from  which  the  people  are  to  com- 
municate ;  for  wine  not  consecrated  but  mingled  with 
the  Lord's  blood  is  completely  sanctified.**  The  reason 
of  this  custom  probably  was  that  in  a  very  large  con- 
gregation it  was  difficult  to  consecrate  exactly  the 
quantity  of  wine  required.  A  small  portion  was,  there- 
fore, consecrated  in  the  first  instance,  and  amplified 
according  to  the  number  of  communicants  by  pouring 
in  fresh  wine.  The  whole  of  the  wine  in  the  cup  was 
held  to  be  completely  consecrated  by  mingling  with 
that  which  bad  been  originally  consecrated.  The  same 
practice  is  enjoined  in  a  number  of  other  documents. 

8.  The  placing  of  a  particle  of  the  consecrated  bread 
in  the  chslioe  is  sometimes  called  "  consecration."  See 
CoxmsTio. 

4.  On  certain  days  it  is  an  ancient  cnstom  not  to 
consecrate  the  sacred  elements. — Smith,  DicU  of  Christ, 
Antiq,  8.  v.    See  P&ssanctified,  Lituboy  of. 

Conseoration  Cross.  According  to  the  direc- 
Uons  of  the  ancient  Western  Pontificals,  twelve  crosses 
should  either  be  sculptured  or  painted  in  different  parts 
of  a  new  church.  Generally,  they  are  found  inside ; 
but  sometimes  (as  at  Uffington  Church,  in  Berkshire) 
•utside  the  sacred  edifice.  Occasionally  a  recessed 
stone  quatrefoil  is  charged  with  a  floriated  brass  cross; 
but  ordinarily  consecration  crosses  are  painted  either 
on  the  walls  or  pillars.  An  example  of  a  painted  cross 
may  be  found  under  the  word  Bkamch;  another  spec- 
imen of  a  consecration  cross  sculptured  within  a  circle 
is  given  from  the  old  cathedral  church  of  Brechin,  in 


Consecration  Cross. 

Scotland.  In  the  act  of  consecrating  a  church,  a  Cath- 
olic bishop  anoints  the  twelve  crosses  with  holy  chrism, 
'Mn  the  name  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  to  the  honor  of 
God  and  of  the  glorious  Virgin  Mary  and  of  all  saints,** 
and  specially  of  the  saint  whose  name  the  church  is  to 
bear.  Then  the  crosses  are  incensed.  A  branch  for  a 
taper  is  usually  placed  opposite  each  consecration  cross, 
and  the  taper  is  lighted  during  the  service  of  consecra- 
tion ;  as  also,  in  some  places,  on  the  annivenary  of  that 
ceremony. — Lee,  Glou,  o/LHurff,  Termt^  s.  v. 

Consensus  Skiidomiriexsis.    See  Samdomib. 

Consent  to  Manlage.  The  marriage-Uw  of 
all  cowilries  turiis  upon  one  or  other  of  two  principles^ 
Either  marriage  is  viewed  as  a  union  between  persons, 
or  as  the  disposal  of  a  property.  In  the  former  case, 
the  consent  of  the  parties  themselves  is  the  main  cle- 


ment in  it ;  in  the  latter,  that  of  some  other  person  or 
persons.  Still,  in  legislations  founded  upon  the  former 
principle,  the  element  of  consent  by  others  comes  in  as 
a  salutary  check  upon  rash  self-disposal  by  the  young; 
in  those  founded  upon  the  latter,  the  recognition  of  a 
right  of  self-sale  in  the  adult  may  equally  check  the 
too  authoritative  interference  of  others. 

The  Jewish  law  is  in  its  inception  essentially  person- 
aL  Christ  needed  but  to  refer  to  the  first  history  in  the 
Jewish  Scriptures  in  order  to  bring  out  the  full  spirits 
uality  of  the  marriage  relation  (Matt,  xix,  4;  Mark  z, 
6).  In  Genesis,  the  woman  is  at  once  brought  l>efore 
us  as  the  one  ** helpmeet**  for  the  man.  God  simply 
brings  the  woman  to  the  man,  who  at  once  recognises 
her  as  bone  of  his  bones,  and  fiesh  of  his  flesh  (ii,  20, 22, 
23).  As  the  history  proceeds,  however,  other  elements 
develop  themselves.  Slavery  makes  its  appearance, 
and  the  slave-owner  is  exhibited  as  giving  the  slave  in 
marriage  (xvi,  8 ;  xxx,  4). 

Throughout  the  patriarchal  history  (Gen.xxiv,xxix, 
xxxiv ;  Exod.  ii,  21),  under  the  law  (Exod.  xxi,  4, 7, 8; 
xxii,  17;  DeuL  xxii,  16),  in  the  time  of  the  judges 
(Josh.  XV,  16,  17;  Judg.  i,  12;  xv,  1,  2;  xxi,  1,  7,  8; 
Ruth  iv,  10),  under  the  monarchy  (1  Sam.  xvii,  25; 
xviii,  19,  21,  27;  2  Sam.  xiii,  13;  1  Kings  ii,  17),  after 
the  captivity  (Nehem.  xiii,  25),  in  our  Lord*s  time 
(Matt,  xxiv,  38 ;  Luke  xvii,  27),  and  in  the  apostolic 
Church  (1  Cor.  vii,  88),  the  right  of  the  father  to  give 
his  daughter  in  marriage,  of  the  king  to  give  one  who 
was  under  bis  control,  is  either  assumed  or  asserted. 

Among  the  Jews  the  power  of  self-disposal  in  mar- 
riage was  singulariy  wide  for  either  sex,  the  man  being 
held  of  full  age,  and.  capable  of  marrying  at  his  will,  on 
the  last  day  of  his  fifteenth  year,  the  woman  in  the  sec- 
ond half  of  her  twelfth ;  while,  if  betrothed  under  that  age 
by  their  fathers,  girls  could  repudiate  the  engagement 
at  ten.  Yet  the  forms  used  in  Jewish  practice  belong  to 
the  material,  and  not  to  the  spiritual,  view  of  marriage. 
The  prominence  given  to  the  A  rrha  (q.  v.)  or  earnest, 
and  the  necessity  for  its  being  presented  to  the  wom- 
an herself  either  in  money  or  money's  worth,  show 
clearly  that  the  grand  spirituality  of  marriage  had  been 
lost  sight  of,  that  it  had  come  to  be  viewed  essentially 
as  an  act  of  wife- buying;  and  yet  the  fact  that  the 
woman,  from  earliest  puberty,  was  reckoned  as  having 
the  sole  right  of  self-sale,  preserved  an  amount  of  free- 
dom in  the  contract.    See  Bbtbothal. 

The  Boman  law  starts  from  the  material  view  to 
grow  more  and  more  into  the  spiritual  one.  Originally 
the  father*s  **  power,*?  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from 
absolute  ownership,  overshadows  all  the  domestic  rela- 
tions, extending  equally  to  the  wife  and  to  the  children 
of  both  sexes.  Eventually,  so  far  as  marriage  is  con- 
cerned, the  '*  power'*  resolves  itself  simply  into  a  right 
of  consent.  Consent  is  made  the  very  essence  of  mar- 
riage. The  validity  of  marriages  contracted  by  mere 
consent  was  admitted  in  a  oonstitutiori  of  Tbeodosins 
and  Yalentinian,  A.D.  449.  This  consent,  moreover, 
must  be  at  once  that  of  the  parties  themselves^  and  of 
those  in  whose  **  power**  they  are.  The  Roman  law, 
indeed,  never  recognised  such  a  thing  as  the  marriage 
of  slaves,  and  the  unions  between  them,  which  might  be 
permitted  and  even  respected  by  their  masters,  were 
of  no  more  legal  value  than  the  coupling  of  domestic 
animals,  although  they  might  be  recf^pfiised  hy  the 
superior  morality  of  the  Church.  Where,  indeed,  a 
master  gave  away,  or  allowed  another  to  give  away, 
his  slave  girl  in  marriage  to  a  freeman,  or  constituted  a 
dot  upon  her,  Justinian  ruled  that  this  should  amount 
to  an  enfranchisement.  But  this  of  itself  shows  that 
marriage  and  slavery  were  held  to  be  incompatible. 
See  Contract. 

Substantially  the  Church  did  little  else  than  folk>w 
the  municipal  law  on  the  subject  of  consent,  eventually 
adopting  the  Roman  civil  law  as  the  basis  of  her  own. 
If  we  except  a  canon  of  doubtful  authority  attributed 
either  to  the  fourth  or  fifth  council  of  Aries  (AJ>.  524 


CONSENTES 


73 


CONSTANCE 


or  5M),  and  enacting  that  widows,  before  professing  con- 
tineDoe,  may  many  whom  they  will,  that  virgins  may 
do  the  same,  and  that  none  shall  be  forced  to  accept  a 
husband  against  the  will  of  their  parents,  the  earliest 
CboTch  enactments  seem  to  belong  to  the  British  Isles. 
An  Irish  synod  of  uncertain  date,  presided  over  by  St. 
Patrick,  speaks  thus :    **  What  the  father  wilts,  that  let 
the  girl  d(>,  for  the  head  of  the  woman  is  the  man ;  but 
the  will  of  the  girl  is  to  be  inquired  of  the  father."  The 
so-called  Excerpta  of  £gbert,  archbishop  of  York,  in  the 
8th  oentary,  read :  *'  Paienta  ought  to  give  women  to 
be  united  to  men  in  roairiage,  unless  tht  woman  abso- 
lutely refuae,  in  which  case  she  may  enter  a  convent;" 
not  a  very  wide  stretch  of  female  freedom.  Further  on, 
the  husband  whose  wife  has  deserted  him,  and  refused 
for  five  years  to  make  peace  with  him,  is  allowed  to 
marry  another  woman,  **  with  the  bisbop*s  consent." 

The  coancil  of  Friuli  (A.D.  791)  forbade  the  marriage 
of  infant%  requiring  parity  of  age  and  mutual  consent. 
The  Garlovingian  capitularies,  which  have  a  sort  of 
mixed  clerical  and  civil  authority,  enact  among  other 
things  that  none  shall  marry  a  widow  ^^  without  the 
consent  of  her  priest."  It  is,  however,  also  enacted  that 
women  are  not  to  be  compelled  to  marry,  under  penalty 
of  treble  ban,  and  public  penance;  or,  in  default  of 
means,  of  prison  or  banishment.  Lastly,  the  edict  of 
Charlema^e,  in  814,  required  inquiry  to  be  made, 
among  other  things,  as  to  men  who  had  wives  *' against 
the  will  of  their  parent^"— Smith,  Diet.  o/Chriit.  A  lUig, 
s.  V.    See  Mabriagb. 

Consentas,  in  Roman  mythology,  were  the  twelve 
Etniscaa  deities  who  formed  the  council  of  Jupiter. 
They  are  not  all  known,  but  include  Juno,  Minerva, 
Summanua,  Vulcan,  Saturn,  Mars ;  possibly  also  Yer- 
tamnna,  Janus,  Ne|:^une,  Nortia.  It  was  a  later  error 
to  cottfbttnd  them  with  the  twelve  great  Grecian  deities, 
Jnno,Yesta,  Minerva,  Ceres,  Diana,  Venus,  Mars,  Meiv 
cury,  Jove,  Neptune,  Vulcan,  and  ApoUo. 

Confleiitiiis,  a  lay  theologian  of  the  time  of  Augus- 
tine, lived  probably  in  the  Balearic  islands,  and  wrote 
to  aubmit  some  of  his  treatises  to  Augustine's  judgment 
(August  £p.  119  [221] ;  ii,  449,  ed.  Migne). 

Confleflsna  Clkri  is  a  name  given  by  Cyprian  to 
the  altar-part  of  the  ancient  Christian  churches,  within 
the  culs,  where  none  but  the  clergy  were  allowed  to 
enter.—Gardner,  FaHhi  of  the  Worlds  a.  v.    See  Bema. 

CONSESSUS  Presbyteriorum  are  the  seaU  of  the 
presbyters^  in  the  ancient  Christian  churches,  which 
were  ranged  in  a  aemidrde  on  either  side  of  the  bishop. 

Consi^natio  AblutSrux  is  an  ancient  Latin 
term  for  ooofirmation  of  the  baptized. 

CCMufgnatoiliim.  As.  the  act  of  blessing  by  the 
use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross,  e.  g.  in  confirmation,  is 
termed  amMiffnarty  hence  the  word  contignatorium  is 
oecaaioDally  used  to  designate  the  place  set  apart  for 
that  rite.  Bishop  John  of  Naples  (about  616)  is  said 
to  hare  erected  a  beautiful  building,  called  coiuignaiO' 
rum  abitiionim,  so  arranged  that  the  newly  baptized 
ihonld  pass  in  on  one  side,  be  presented  to  the  bishop, 
who  sat  in  the  midst,  and  then  pass  out  by  the  other 
side. — Sasitb,  Diet,  of  Ckriit,  A  niiq.  s.  v. 

ConaiBtentefl  {h^tiander;  owturrafiivoi}  were 
sn  order  of  penitents  in  the  early  Church,  who  derived 
their  name  from  Ixing  allowed  to  remain  and  hear  the 
pfmvers  of  the  Church  after  the  catechumens  and  other 
penitents  were  dismissed,  but  were  not  allowed  to  make 
their  oblations  nor  partake  of  the  eucharist.  They  re- 
Bttined  in  this  class  two  years.    See  Penitents. 

Cooflifltorlefl  is  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  cer- 
tain civil  courts  of  judicature  among  the  ancient  Jews, 
commonly  known  as  the  Small  Sankednm,    See  San- 


Conflistory,  in  the  Anglican  Church,  is  the  dio- 
cesan eoort  of  a  bishop,  in  which  are  tried  causes  of 
jurisdiction,  that  is,  affecting  visitations,  li- 1 


censes,  institutions,  and  sequestrations;  and  eonienHous 
or  judicial,  touching  probate  of  wills  and  hearing  of 
cases  to  be  decided,  the  former  by  a  vicar-general,  the 
latter  by  an  official,  but  now  by  the  chancellor  of  the 
diocese.  Criminal  clerks  were  committed  to  the  bish- 
op's prison  by  this  court. 

Consol&ti  is  a  name  applied  among  the  Caikari 
(q.  v.),  in  the  12th  century,  to  those  who  had  received 
the  coHtolawientum,    See  Comforted. 

Conaortia,  Saint,  was  a  virgin  of  Clugny,  the 
daughter  of  £ncherius  (q.  v.)  snd  Galla,  and  is  said  to 
have  declined  an  offer  of  marriage  and  afterwards  built 
a  church.  She  lived  about  the  end  of  the  6th  century, 
and  is  commemorated  June  22.  Her  legend  is  given  at 
length  in  Bollandus,  Acta  Sanctorum,  June,  iv,  250. 

Constabile  (Lat.  ConttahUit),  Paolo,  an  Italian 
theologian  of  the  Dominican  order,  was  bom  at  Ferrara 
about  1509.  Gregory  XIII  appointed  him  inquisitor 
of  Ferrara  and  master  of  the  sacred  palace.  He  was 
also  elected  general  of  his  order,  and  died  at  Venice, 
Sept.  17,  1682,  leaving  De  Causis  in  Sancto  Officio 
Cognoioendit,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhUraU,  s.  v.; 
Jocher,  AUgemeinet  GeUhrttn^Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Constable,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1674;  waa 
presented  to  the  living  at  Kingoldmm  in  1684,  and  or- 
dained. He  died  in  February,  1703,  aged  about  forty- 
nine  years.     See  Fasti  EccUs.  Scotuxma,  iii,  758. 

Constable,  Thomas^  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in 
1772;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1788;  presented  to  the 
living  at  Liff  in  1785,  and  ordained.  He  died  April  17, 
1817,  aged  sixty-one  years.  See  FatU  EccUs.  Scotica- 
fMs,iii,711. 

Constable,  "V^illiam  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1785;  presented  to  the  living 
at  Sl  Martinis,  Perth,  in  1802,  and  ordained.  He  died 
Oct.  6, 1886,  in  his  eightieth  year.  See  Fasti  EccU*. 
Scotic(ma,  ii,  663. 

Constable,  "V^illiam  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  bom  at  St.  Albans.  He  was  converted  in 
early  life,  and  began  to  preach  in  connection  with  the 
conference  in  1806,  his  first  station  being  St.  Kitts, 
W.  I.  From  1807  he  preached  in  England  and  Scot- 
land. From  1810  to  1814, "  being  in  doubt  with  regaid 
to  his  station  in  the  Church,"  he  retired  from  the  min- 
istry. He  finally  removed  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  where 
he  died,  Oct.  10, 1845.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Con- 
ference, 1846,  p.  297, 

Constanoe,  Council  op.  We  give  additional 
particulars  of  this  important  synod,  from  Landon, 
Manual  of  Councils,  s.  v. : 

The  conncil  was  opened  on  the  Sth  November,  1414,  with 
solemn  prayer,  nnd  the  firnt  sesnon  was  held  on  the  16tb, 
In  which  pone  John  presided,  nnd  delivered  sn  address, 
exhorting:  nil  present  to  give  themselves  entirely  to  the 
bnsiness  of  the  coancil.  After  this  the  bnll  of  codvoca- 
tlnn  was  read,  and  the  nfllcers  of  the  conncil  were  appoint 
ed,  vix.  ten  notaries,  one  guardian  of  the  coancil,  the  au- 
ditors of  the  rota,  fonr  advocates,  two  promoters,  four 
ofllcers  to  snperlntend  all  matters  relatine  to  arrange- 
ment and  ceremouv.  Lastly,  the  canon  of  the  eleventh 
Conncil  of  Toledo,  held  In  676,  was  read,  which  relates  to 
the  gravity  and  decorum  to  be  observed  In  snch  assem- 
blies. 

In  the  interval  between  the  first  and  second  session,  John 
nuss,  who,  upon  the  strength  of  the  emperor's  snfe-con- 
dnct,  had  ventured  to  Constance,  was  treacherouslv  seized 
and  thrown  Into  prison  by  order  of  pope  John'XXTII, 
and  his  trisl  commenced.  His  accusers,  who  are  said  to 
have  been  also  his  personal  enemies,  drew  up  a  cntslogne 
of  his  impnted  errors,  which  they  presented  to  the  pope 
and  to  the  conncil.  Among  other  thlnep,  they  charged 
him  with  having  tanght  publicly  that  the  laity  had  a  right 
to  the  communion  in  both  kinds ;  that  in  the  holy  sacra- 
ment of  the  altar  the  substance  of  the  bread  remains  un- 
changed after  consecration  •  that  priests  living  In  mortal 
sin  cannot  administer  the  sacmroents  ;  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, any  other  person,  being  in  a  state  of  grace,  can  do 
so :  that  by  **  the  Church  "  is  not  to  be  nnderstood  either 
the  pope  or  the  clergy ;  that  the  Church  cannot  possess  any 


CONSTANCE 


H 


CONSTANCE 


temporalities,  and  that  the  lalty  have  a  right  to  deprive 
her  of  them. 

In  this  interval,  moreover,  vast  nnmben  of  temporal 
and  f  piritaal  dlgDitariee  arrived ;  among  others,  the  well- 
known  Peter  Diilltf,  cardinal  of  Cambrav ;  alao  the  em* 
peror  Bigismnnd,  who,  on  Christmaa  day.  assisted  at 
mass  in  the  habit  of  a  deacon,  and  chanted  the  gospel. 
In  Uie  month  of  Febmary  the  depntles  of  Gregory  and 
Benedict  arrived,  and  now  reveral  congregations  were 
held,  and  steps  taken  to  persuade  John  to  abdicate,  on 
nccoant  of  his  notoriously  immoral  conduct.  It  was  re- 
solved to  take  the  opinion  of  the  various  nations  com- 
f>osing  the  council,  and  for  that  purpose  it  was  divided 
uto  lour  classes,  according  to  their  nations,  vis.  1,  Italy ; 
S,  France :  8.  Germany ;  4,  England.  From  each  class  a 
certain  numoer  of  deputies  were  elected,  having  at  their 
head  A  president,  who  was  changed  everv  month.  The 
deputies  of  each  nation  then  met  separately  to  deUt>errtte 
opon  such  measures  as  they  considered  best  to  propose 
to  the  council,  and  when  any  one  class  of  deputies  had 
agreed  upon  a  measure,  it  was  carried  to  the  general  as- 
semblv  of  the  four  nations :  and  If  the  measure,  upon 
consideration,  was  approved,  it  was  signed  and  sealeo,  to 
be  presented  at  the  next  session,  in  order  to  receive  the 
sanction  of  the  whole  council. 

In  one  of  these  congregntlons  a  list  of  heavy  accusa- 
tions against  pope  John  XXIII  was  presented,  and,  in 
consequence,  deputies  were  sent  to  him  to  engage  him  to 
reflgu  the  pontificate.  He,  in  answer,  promised  to  do  so, 
if  his  two  competitors  would,  on  their  part,  engage  to  do 
the  same.  Nevertheless,  he  put  off  from  day  to  dny  mak- 
ing any  clear  and  formal  act  of  cession :  and  during  that 
time  the  deputies  of  the  University  of  Paris  arrived7wiih 
Qersou,  their  chancellor. 

In  the  teeond  Mttion  (March  S2, 1415)  John  made  a  for- 
mal declaration,  accompanied  with  an  oath,  to  the  effect 
that  he  would  abdicaie,  if  by  that  means  the  schism  could 
be  healed.  But  when,  in  a  subsequent  congregation,  they 
proceeded  to  deliberate  about  a  new  election  to  the  pon- 
tificate. John,  disguised  in  a  postilion's  dress,  secretly 
escaped  ftorn  the  dty  to  the  castle  of  Scbaflhansen.  The 
council  proceeded,  nevertheless,  to  labor  to  effect  the 
nnion  of  the  Church,  and  Gerson  made  a  long  discourse 
tending  to  establish  the  superiority  of  the  council  over  the 
lM>pe.  This  discourse  was  the  origin  of  the  question, 
which  was  then  very  warmly  agitated,  via.  whether  the 
authority  of  an  oscumenical  council  la  greater  than  that 
of  a  pope  or  not? 

In  the  third  9eation  (March  SB)  the  cardinal  of  Fk>reuce 
read  a  declaration  made  in  the  name  of  the  council,  by 
which  it  is  declared,  first,  that  the  council  is  lawfully  as- 
sembled ;  secondly,  that  the  flight  of  the  pope  cannot  dis- 
solve it,  and  that  it  shall  not  separate,  nor  be  transferred 
to  snolher  place,  until  the  union  of  the  Church  shall  have 
been  effected,  aiyl  the  Church  reformed  as  to  faith  and 
m(irnli< :  thirdly,  that  John  XXIII  shall  not  withdraw  his 
oflScers  from  Constance  without  the  approval  and  consent 
of  the  conucil,  nor  shall  the  prelates  leave  the  council 
without  Just  cause. 

The  em|>eror  Sigismnnd  was  himself  present  in  the 
fourth  ttnnon  (March  80),  in  which  the  cardinal  of  Flor- 
ence rend  the  five  articles  upon  which  the  fathers  of  the 
council  had  agreed.  The  most  worthv  of  note  is  the  de- 
cree which  declares  that  the  aforesaid  Council  of  Con- 
stance having  been  lawfhlly  assembled  in  the  name  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  forming  an  cscumenical  council  of  the 
whole  Church  militant,  has  received  its  authority  imme- 
diately ft-om  our  Lord  Jesns  Christ;  a  power  which  every 
person  whatsoever,  of  whatever  state  or  dignity  he  may 
oe,  even  the  popo  himself,  must  obey  in  alt  matters  relat- 
ing to  the  faith,  the  extirpation  of  schism,  and  the  refor- 
mation of  the  Church  in  its  head  and  in  its  members.  It 
was  also  decreed  that  the  pope  should  not  transfer  the 
council  to  anv  other  place,  and  declared  null  and  void  all 
processes  and  censures  directed  by  the  pope  against  those 
attending  the  council. 

In  t\it  fifth  neaticn  (April  6)  the  articles  which  had  been 
read  in  the  last  were  a  second  time  read  and  unani- 
mously approved.  The  departure  of  John  was  declared 
to  be  unlawful,  and  that  he  would  Justly  subject  himself 
to  corporal  punishment  and  imprisonment  should  he  re- 
iiise  to  return.  The  emperor  was  charged  to  arrest  all 
persons  endeavoring  to  quit  Constance  in  disguise.  Also 
the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Rome  against  the  writings  of 
Wycliffe  was  confirmed. 

The  emperor  was  present  In  the  tixth  session  (April  16), 
in  which  pope  John  XXIII  was  snmmoned  to  present 
himself  at  the  council,  or  to  Issue  a  bull,  declaring  that  he 
had  vacated  the  pontificate.  A.  citation  was  also  issued 
Against  Jerome  of  Prague.  It  is,  however,  easy  to  see,  by 
the  answer  of  the  latter  to  the  aeputles,  that  his  denni 
was  only  to  amuse  the  council,  and  thenceforward  tne 
fathers  resolved  to  proceed  against  him  as  against  a  noto- 
rious heretic  and  schismatic. 

Letters  from  the  University  of  Paris  to  its  deputies  In 
the  conucil,  and  others  to  the  emperor,  were  read.  In 
which  both  of  the  parties  are  exhorted  to  proceed  firmly 
with  the  matter  of  the  union,  notwithatanding  the  pope^ 
absence. 

In  the  Interval  between  the  sixth  and  seventb  eesaions 


disputes  arose  among  the  theologians  as  to  the  form  is 
which  the  decree  condemning  the  doctrines  of  Wycllflb 
should  be  drawn  up ;  some  voshlng  that  this  condemns* 
tlon  should  be  made  in  the  name  of  the  pope,  with  conwnt 
of  the  conucil,  while  others  Insisted  upon  the  omission  of 
the  pope's  name  altogether.  Daill4  was  of  the  latter  opln- 
ion,  and  he  composed  a  treatise  in  support  of  his  views: 
he  maintained  that  the  position  of  his  adversaries  was 
heretical,  viz.  that  the  council  had  no  authority  hi  Itself 
except  through  the  pope.  Its  head;  for  in  that  case,  be 
urged,  the  Council  of  Pisa  would  have  possessed  no  au- 
thority, not  having  been  assembled  by  any  pope;  and 
if  so,  then  the  election  of  John  himself  would  be  hi- 
valid,  since  he  succeeded  Alexander  Y,  who  had  been 
elected  by  the  Council  of  Pisa.  In  the  second  place,  be 
mainuined  that  this  very  Council  of  Pisa  was  superior  to 
the  pope,  fh>m  the  fact  that  already  two  popes  bad  been 
deposed  by  it;  and  that  any  other  OBCumenical  council 
would  possess  the  same  power  (Gerson,  Op.  ii,  960). 

In  the  iteventh  Betsion  (May  8)  John  was  cited  to  sppear 
in  person  with  his  adherents  within  nine  days,  in  order 
to  Justify  himself  with  respect  to  the  charges  of  heresy, 
schism,  simony,  and  various  other  enormous  crimes 
brought  against  him :  In  case  of  refkisal,  they  declared  that 
they  wonld  proceed  against  him.  It  may  be  obsenrsd 
that  John,  after  many  removals,  had  at  this  time  settled 
at  Brlsac.  , 

In  this  session  the  afllair  of  Jerome  of  Prague  was  ngam 
discussed.  ^ 

III  the  eighth  mmion  (Mav  4)  the  condemnation  of  Wyo 
liffe'a  errors  waa  proceeded  with.  The  errors  Imputed  to 
him  were  contained  in  forty-flTe  articles  or  proposltlona 
He  is  said  in  the  first  three  to  deny  the  doctrine  of  troo- 
snbstantiation  and  a  real  corporal  presence.  In  4,  to  as- 
sert that  a  bishop  or  priest,  In  mortal  sin,  cannot  perform 
the  proper  functions  of  his  oflice.  6.  That  God  Is  obliged 
to  obey  the  deviL  8.  That  a  bad  pope  has  no  power  over 
the  Church.  18.  That  they  who  hinder  preaching  wtll 
be  held  excommunicated  by  Christ  in  the  last  day.  10. 
That  the  temporal  powers  may,  at  will,  take  away  toe 
property  of  tho  Church.  1&  That  tithes  are  merely  cbari- 
table  oiTorings,  which  may  be  denied  to  the  bad  ministera. 
27.  That  all  things  happen  by  an  absolute  necessity.  SB. 
That  confirmation,  ordination,  and  consecration  of  plaoes 
have  been  reserved  to  the  pope  and  to  bishops  solely  for  the 
sake  of  gain.  W.  That  ttnlversitiea,  schools,  etc.,  are  mere 
vanities,  which  help  the  devil  as  much  as  they  do  toe 
Church.  84.  That  all  of  the  order  of  mendicants  are  here- 
tics. 80.  That  no  one  entering  into  any  order  of  religion 
can  keep  the  divine  precept,  and  therefore  cannot  attain 
to  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  87.  That  the  Church  of  Boos 
ia  the  synagogue  of  Satan.  88.  That  t  he  decretals  are  apoc- 
rvphal,  and  the  clergy  who  study  them  fools.  89.  That 
tne  emperor  and  secular  princea  who  endowed  the  Cbnrcb 
were  seduced  by  the  devil.  41.  That  it  is  not  necessary 
to  salvation  to  uelieTe  that  the  Roman  Church  Is  supreme 
among  all  other  churehea.  48.  That  It  ia  folly  to  pot 
faith  HI  the  indulgences  of  popes  and  bishops.  44.  That 
Augustine,  Benedict,  and  Bernard  are  damned,  nnleae 
they  repented  of  having  had  property,  and  of  having  en- 
tered the  religious  state  45w  That  all  religions  indllfe^ 
ently  have  been  introdnced  by  the  devlL  All  of  theie 
forty-five  articles,  together  with  all  the  books  written  by 
him,  were  condemned,  and  his  bones  ordered  to  be  dog 
up,  and  cast  ont  of  consecrated  ground. 

In  the  interval  between  sessions  eight  and  nine,  John 
XXIII  was  arreated  at  Fribourg. 

In  the  ninth  Beunon  (May  18)  a  proposition  waa  received 
(Vom  the  pope,  oflbrlug  to  send  three  cardinals  to  the 
council  to  answer  the  cnargea  brought  against  him ;  but 
the  council  rejected  the  offer.  Two  cardinals  and  five 
prelates  were  nominated  to  summon  the  pope  thrice  atUie 
door  of  the  church,  and,  as  he  did  not  appear,  an  act  de- 
claring this  citation  waa  drawn  up. 

After  this  session  the  depositions  of  witnesses  agaioet 
John  were  taken ;  among  the  ten  who  came  forward  were 
bishops,  abbots,  and  doctors. 

On  the  following  day,  in  the  t»Uh  tmion  (May  14),  the 
commissioners  made  their  report  of  the  depositions  against 
the  pope.  After  this,  having  twen  again  cited  thrice  with- 
out appearing,  the  council  proceeded  to  declare  John 
XXIII  convicted  of  the  charges  brought  against  him :  rii. 
of  having  brought  scandal  upon  the  Church  l)y  his  cormpt 
life,  and  of  having  publicly  been  guilty  of  simony ,  aud  as 
snch,  suspended  from  the  exerdA  of  any  of  the  functions 
of  the  papal  ofilce,  and  from  every  administration,  teropt> 
ral  or  spiritual,  with  a  prohibition,  at  the  same  timcu  to 
every  Christian,  of  whatever  rank  or  condition,  against 
ol)eying  him  thenceforth  directly  or  indirectly,  under  pen- 
alty of  being  punished  as  nn  abettor  of  schism.  The  oc- 
cusatlons  were  contained  under  seventy  heads,  all  well 

{>roved ;  but  fifty  only  were  read  in  the  council  (in  the 
allowing  session ),  relating  chiefiy  to  his  simooy,  bis 
worldly  life,  his  vexations  conduO,  his  fialse  oaths,  etc ; 
other  things  which  decency  required  to  be  passed  over 
in  silence  were  suppressed.  Sentence  of  snspenslon  hav- 
ing been  thus  pronounced,  messengera  were  sent  to  him 
to  notify  to  him  what  the  council  tiad  decreed.  He  did 
not  In  anv  way  deny  the  Justice  of  his  sentence,  and  reo> 
ognised  the  council  aa  holy  and  in£Ulible,  and  at  the  earns 


CONSTANCE 


75 


CONSTANCE 


time  delivered  up  the  aetl,  rlof^,  aod  book  of  BopplteA- 
tloDf.  which  they  demanded  of  him,  hegfglDg  the  conocil 
to  take  measnree  for  hia  anbtisteooe  Andhouor. 

In  the  OeteiUh  mmien  (Mat  SS)  the  Tarions  heada  of  the 
aocnaatioD  asainat  John  XXIII  were  read.  Jerome  of 
Pragne,  whonad  endeavored  to  escape,  waa  arrested,  and 
thrown  into  priaon. 

In  the  iw^fth  aettion  Qinf  29)  the  sentence  of  deposl- 
tion  against  John  XZIII  hariug  been  read,  and  nuani- 
moBsiy  approved,  waa  deflnitivejv  passed :  at  the  same 
lime,  all  tne  three  competitors  lur  the  papacy  were  de- 
clared incapable  of  being  elected  again. 

In  the  thnrteaUh  session  (Jnne  U)  a  decree  was  made, 
in  reply  to  a  petition  presented  by  the  Hnssites,  npon  the 
snbject  of  the  oommonion  in  both  kinds,  to  this  effect, 
that  althoogh  Jeans  Christ  insUtnted  the  holy  sacrament 
of  the  encharist  after  anppcr,  under  the  two  kinds  of  bread 
and  wine,  nevertheless,  toe  use  sanctioned  by  the  Cliurch 
is  not  to  celebrate  that  sacrament  after  supper,  nor  even 
to  permit  the  fiiithfhl  to  receive  it  otherwise  than  fasting, 
except  In  cases  of  sickness  or  other  necessitv «  and  that, 
secondly,  althoogh  in  the  primitive  Church  this  sacrament 
WAS  received  by  the  fa1tnf\i1  In  both  killd^  yet,  in  after 
agesi,  the  laity  had  been  permitted  to  receive  in  one  kind 
onlj,  via.  the  bread,  and  for  this  reason,  because  it  oagbt 
to  be  most  anrely  believed  that  the  whole  body  and  the 
whole  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  is  truly  contained  nnder  the 
apedee  of  bread ;  that,  therefore,  tne  custom  introduced 
by  the  Church  must  be  regarded  aa  a  law,  which  may  not 
be  r«Jected  or  altered  at  the  will  of  individuals,  without 
the  sanction  of  the  Church ;  and  thAt  to  maintain  that  thla 
custom  ia  sacrilegioos  or  uiilawftil  is  an  error,  such  that 
the  ofaatinate  perseverance  in  It  deserves  to  be  punished 
as  heresy,  and  even  with  the  secular  arm,  if  neceiffesry. 

In  the  fourteenth  tutan  (July  4)  severs]  decrees  were 
lead:  the  first  of  which  forbade  to  proceed  to  the  election 
of  a  new  pope,  without  the  consent  of  the  council :  also 
the  abdication  of  Gregory  XII  waa  received,  beins  made 
in  hia  name  by  Charles  de  Malates ta  and  cardinal  Domi- 
nic Pedro  de  Lana  waa  called  upon  to  do  the  same ;  but 
be  steadily  refused  to  the  day  of  hia  death,  which  hap- 
pened In  1494. 

In  the  Jkfteewth  teukn  (July  0)  the  trial  of  Buss,  who 
was  brought  belbre  the  council,  was  terminated  The  pro- 
motera  or  the  oonndl  demanded  that  the  articles  preached 
and  taught  by  John  Hnss,  In  Bohemia  and  elsewhere, 
being  heretical,  seditious,  deceitful,  and  offens ive  to  ])ions 
ears,  should  be  condemned  by  the  council,  and  thAt  the 
bcK>Ka  firom  which  they  were  extracted  should  be  burned. 
Buss  not  being  willing  to  retract,  was  condemned  to  be 
degraded  and  given  over  to  the  eecular  arm,  and  in  the 
end  was  cruelly  burned  alive,  on  the  6th  of  Jnly,  I41& 

In  the  same  session,  the  oninion  of  John  Petit,  a  doctor 
of  Paris,  waa  condemned  aa  heretical,  ecandalons,  and  se- 
ditions :  he  maintained  that  any  individual  had  a  right  to 
take  away  the  life  of  a  tyrant,  nnd  that  the  deed  was  even 
neritorioos ;  no  sentence,  however,  was  luirsed  upon  the 
author  of  this  opinion,  who  was  protected  by  the  duke  of 
Burgundy  and  other  powerful  friends. 

In  the  Hcteenth  and  aevenUenth  wetmiona  (July  11,  IS)  prep- 
aiaUona  were  made  for  the  departure  of  king  Slgismund, 
who  proposed  to  go  in  peraou  to  the  king  of  Aragon,  to 
Indnoe  hun  to  renounce  the  cause  of  Pedro  de  Luna. 

In  the  wighUenih  muion  (Aug.  17)  various  decrees  were 
made,  one  declaring  the  same  credit  and  obedience  to  be 
due  towarda  the  bulla  of  the  council  aa  to  those  of  the 
holy  see 

In  the  nineteenth,  eeeeian  (Sept.  23)  Jerome  of  Pragus, 
terrified  by  the  horrible  cod  of  Buss,  was  lndacedto>make 
a  recantation  of  the  errors  Imputed  to  him.  A  declara- 
tion waa  idao  made,  in  which  It  waa  stated  that,  notwith- 
standing the  aafe-condnct  of  klng^  Inquisition  might  al- 
waya  be  made  into  the  conduct  of  heretics. 

In  the  twentUth  aeeafon  (Nov.  CI)  the  ditTerences  be- 
tween the  bishop  of  Trent  and  duke  Frederick  of  Anatrla 
wers  discaseed.  The  twelve  chapters  of  Narboune,  agreed 
npon  between  king  Slgismund  and  the  deputies  of  the 
council  and  the  deputies  of  Benedict,  were  approved. 

After  the  session,  an  assembly  was  held  to  consider 
the  reformation  of  the  Church,  and  the  repression  of  si- 
mony. 

Ano,  in  the  interval  between  the  twentieth  and  twenty- 
first  sessions,  several  congregations  were  held.  In  one, 
the  alTalr  of  John  Petit  was  fhrther  discussed ;  in  another, 
Jerome  of  Prague,  whose  retractation  was  suspected, 
being  brought  forward,  boldly  declared  that  he  had  not 
sincerely  retracted,  spoke  of  Buss  as  a  saint,  and  pro- 
dainsed  bin  entire  adherence  to  hia  doctrine,  and  to  that 
of  WyclilTe 

In  the  tventp-Jlrti  mmtton  (May  80, 1416)  Jerome  was 
again  brought  before  the  council,  and  revoking  his  forced 
retractation,  spoke  boldly  in  fsvor  of  his  original  opin- 
inoa;  eenteuoe  was  tlien  passed  upon  him,  he  wss  de- 
clared to  be  a  relapsed  heretic,  was  excommunicated  and 
anathematized,  and,  lastly,  was  handed  over  to  the  secular 
arm,  and  bamed. 

Meaanrea  were  taken  in  the  tnenty-^eoomd  eeeaion  (Oct 
1Q>  to  nnite  the  Aragonese  to  the  council,  they  having 
adcnowledged  Benedict  XIII. 

!■  tbft  (wMiy-tMrtf  tMSfon  (Not.  fi)  the  proceedbigs 


against  Benedict  Xni  (Pedro  de  Luna)  eorameoeed,  and 
he  was  definitively  condemned  in  tne  thirty-seventh, 
when  he  was  deposed,  and  declared  to  be  a  peijurer,  and 
to  have  brought  scandal  upon  the  whole  Chnrch,  etc.; 
and,  as  such,  the  council  degraded  and  deposed  him,  de- 
prived him  of  all  his  dignities  and  offices,  forbidding  him 
thenceforward  te  cousiaer  himself  as  pope,  and  all  Chris- 
tian people  to  obey  him,  nnder  pain  of  being  dealt  with 
as  abettors  of  schism  and  heresy. 

In  the  tMrty^hth  session  (July  S8, 1417),  the  decree  of 
the  council,  annulling  All  sentences  end  censurea  uttered 
by  Benedict  XIII  agunst  the  ambassadors  or  allies  of  thu 
king  of  Castile,  was  read. 

In  the  fAfrtjf-nfnM  aeaaiion  (Oct  0)  the  question  itf 
Church  reform  was  entered  npon,  and  several  decrert* 
made,  one  of  which  declares  the  necessity  of  frequently 
holding  councils,  in  order  to  check  the  progress  of  beresv 
and  schism ;  and  directs  that  another  cBcnmenical  conned 
shall  be  hold  five  years  after  the  diesolntlon  of  the  pref- 
ent ;  a  third,  seven  years  after  the  second ;  and  after  that, 
one  every  ten  years.  In  a  place  appointed  by  the  pope  at 
the  close  of  each  council,  with  the  approbation  and  con- 
sent of  the  council ;  in  case  of  war  or  pestilence,  the  pope, 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  cardinals,  to  have  power  lo 
appoint  anv  other  place,  and  to  hasten,  but  not  to  retard, 
tlie  time  for  assembling.  Another  decree  provides  for 
casea  of  schism,  and  orders  that,  when  there  shall  be  two 
claimants  of  the  papal  chair,  a  council  shall  be  held  in  the 
very  next  year,  and  that  both  claimants  shall  suspend 
every  administration  until  the  council  shall  have  com- 
menced Ita  sittings.  The  third  decree  relates  to  the  pro- 
fession of  fhith  which  the  newly  elected  pope  was  to  make 
In  the  presence  of  his  electors;  in  it  eight  cecumenical 
councils  are  recognised,  bosfdee  the  genersl  councils  of 
LAtersn,  Lyons,  And  Vienne.  A  fourth  decree  is  directed 
AgAlnst  the  trsnslAtion  of  bishops. 

In  the  fortieth  eeeMon  (Oct  80)  a  decree  containing 
eighteen  well-matured  articles  of  reformation  was  pro- 
posed. It  WAS  there  provided  thAt  the  new  pope,  whom 
they  were  About  sneeally  to  elect,  should  Isbor  to  reform 
the  Church,  In  its  nesd  And  in  its  members,  as  well  as  the 
court  of  Rome,  in  concert  with  the  council,  or  the  national 
deputies.  Its  principal  articles  relate  to  tne  anoAtes,  the 
reserves  of  the  apostolic  see,  the  collations  to  benefices, 
nnd  the  expectatives ;  what  causes  may  or  may  not  be  car- 
ried to  Rome ;  In  what  cases  It  Is  lawftil  to  depose  a  pope, 
and  how  it  can  be  done ;  to  the  extirpation  of  simony,  to 
dispensations,  to  indulgences,  and  to  tithes. 

The  article  upon  the  Annates  or  first-fruits  was  very 
warmly  discussed  by  the  cardiuAls  Aud  nAtloual  deputies, 
but  the  latter  finally  declared  that  It  was  necessary  to  sup- 
presi*  them  altogether,  and  chiefly  for  this  reason,  that 
wheiens  they  had  originally  been  but  a  voluntary  offering 
to  the  ItomAn  see,  they  had  subsequently  been  made,  un- 
der pretext  of  custom,  an  obligatory  payment.  In  fact, 
we  And  no  mention  of  annates  before  tne  time  of  Clement 
V,  who  for  three  years  imposed  them  upon  England,  but 
was  opposed  by  the  parllAment.  Boniface  IX  was  the 
first  wno  pretended  to  claim  them  as  a  right  attached  to 
the  dignity  of  sovereign  pontiff.  Moreover,  the  taxing  of 
benefices  was  pronounced  a  slmonlacal  exaction. 

In  the  forty- fret  oeuton  (Nov.  8)  It  was  decreed,  that,  for 
this  time  alone,  alx  prelates  of  different  nations  should 
be  chosen  within  the  space  of  ten  days,  in  order  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  election  of  the  pope  with  the  college  of  cardi- 
nals. Accordingly  the  electors  held  a  conclave,  and  on 
November  11  after,  cardinal  Colonna  was  elected  pope, 
and  took  the  style  of  Martin  Y.  After  his  coronation,  the 
mitlonal  deputies  having  required  of  him  that  he  would 
labor  to  eflect  a  reformation  of  the  Church,  he  renewed 
his  promifs  to  do  so. 

In  the  forty^eeeond  iie$Hon  (Dec.  SS)  the  new  pope  pre- 
sided, and  the  emperor  was  present.  A  bnll  was  read, 
releasing  the  emperor  fh>m  the  custody  of  Balthasar,  aim 
ordering  him  to  oe  delivered  over  to  the  pope  The  na- 
tional oeputles  presented  to  the  pope  a  memorial  on  the 
subject  of  reform.  Martin,  trouoled  by  their  Importuni- 
ty, gave  in  a  scheme  <if  reformation,  based  upon  tne  eigh- 
teen articles  proposed  In  i>ession  forty. 

Between  this  aud  the  forty-third  session  the  pope  Is- 
sued a  bull  confirming  the  acts,  etc.,  of  the  Conncll  of  Con- 
stance. In  the  edition  of  Baguenau,  A.D.  IfiOO,  this  bull 
Is  regarded  as  the  act  of  the  conncll  Itself,  whereas  in 
other  editions  It  appears  to  be  the  pope  who  approves  and 
confirms  the  council.  Bowever  this  may  he,  the  first  ar- 
ticle of  this  bnll  Is  worthy  of  remark,  for  in  it  Martin  de- 
sires that  any  one  suspected  In  the  faith  shall  swear  that 
he  receives  all  the  (ecumenical  councils,  and  especially 
that  of  Constance:  which  provea  that  the  pope  considered 
this  council  lawful  and  CBcnmenlcal,  and  as  he  desired 
that  all  the  acts  of  this  council  should  be  received  by  all 
persons,  he  thereby  approves  that  passed  in  the  fifth  ses- 
sion, which  declares  the  superiority  of  the  council  to  the 
pope. 

In  the  forty'third  eeuion  (March  91, 141S)  decrees  were 
published  reatralnlnff  the  aonse  of  exemptions  and  dis- 
pensations, and  condemning  simony.  The  canons  relet* 
ing  to  modesty  of  dress  In  ecclesiastics  were  renewed,  but 
no  other  objects  of  reform  were  proposed  besides  those 
contained  in  the  decree  of  the  fortieth  session,  and  of 


CONSTANS 


76 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


ibem  bIz  only  were  drawn  np  in  this  forty-third  saMlon. 
The  reformatioD  of  the  college  of  cardluiUe  and  of  the 
coort  of  Rome,  which  had  l>een  decreed  by  the  council, 
was  passed  over  withoat  notice. 

In  the/ortj^/otirtA  wMfon  (April  19)  the  pope,  in  order 
to  satisfy  the  decree  made  in  the  tnirty-niuth  session, 
appointed  Pa  via  for  the  meeting  of  the  next  connclL 

On  April  S8, 1418,  the  loBt  temion  was  held.  After  the 
celebration  of  high  mass,  the  pope  read  a  discourse  to  the 
ooaucil.  which  being  ended,  one  of  the  cardinals,  by  or- 
der of  tne  pope  and  connciljdlsmlsi>ed  the  assembly  with 
the  words.  ^*  Go  in  peace*'  This  coaucil  lasted  three  years 
and  a  half 

See  Labbe,  ConciL  xii,  1-294. 

Besides  this  most  celebrated  council,  there  are  notices 
of  other  synods  held  at  Constance,  of  which  we  give  a 
brief  account  from  Ricliard  et  Giraud,  BibUotk^que  Sa- 
eritf  viii,  1 18 : 

I.  Ileld  in  1044,  at  which  Tlenry  IV  of  Germany  pro- 
claimed a  general  peace  (Labile,  ix :  Hardotiiu,  vi). 

II.  Convened  in  1094,  by  Gcbhard  of  Hirschan,  bishop 
of  Constance  and  legate  (if  )K>pe  Urban  II,  on  points  of 
Chnrch  discipline,  especially  the  Incontinence  of  priests, 
simony,  and  fasting  (Labbe,  x ;  Hardouin,  vi). 

Constans.    See  Cokstaktink;  Constastxkus. 

Confltans  is  a  supposed  bishop  of  Winchester, 
A.D.  298,  according  to  Rudbome  (Stubbs,  Regiiter^ 
p.  168). 

CoxiBtanB,  an  Irish  aatn/,  was  a  priest  and  anchorite 
of  Eo-iiits,  in  Longh  Erne,  and  is  commemorated  Nor.  14. 

Constant  (db  Rebboque),  David,  a  Swiss  phi- 
losopher, was  bom  at  Geneva,  March  16, 1688.  He  pur- 
sued his  fttudies  in  Germany,  Holland,  and  France, 
under  Maresius^  CooceiuSi  Amyraut,  and  other  reformed 
scholars,  with  whom  he  allied  himself  in  friendship. 
On  his  return  to  Lausanne,  in  1658,  be  consecrated 
himself  to  the  Church,  and  was  appointed  pastor  at 
Coppet  in  1664.  In  1674  he  became  principal  of  the 
college  of  Lausanne,  in  1684  professor  of  Greek,  and 
in  1703  professor  of  theology.  He  died  there,  Feb.  17, 
1783,  leaving  Traiti  de  la  Providence  (Leyden,  1679) : 
— Floru»i  cum  Notts  PHiMogicit  et  HistoricU  (Geneva, 
1684) : — Ercum  CoUoquia^  cum  Notts  (ibid.) : — Sysiema 
Ethico  Theologicum  (Lausanne,  1689)  :—Transitus  per 
Mare  Bubrum  (Geneva,  1690) : — Dissertationes  de  Uxore 
Lothi,  Rubo  Mosis  et  Serpente  Aeneo  (Lausanne,  1698): 
T-Dissertaiio  de  Zelo.  See  Uoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gai- 
rale,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  Hgemeines  Gelehrtett'lAmkon,  t,  v. 

Constant,  Pbllippe.    See  Costakt. 

Constantia,  sister  of  the  emperor  Constantine  the 
Great,  and  wife  of  the  emperor  Licinius,  was  the  patron- 
ess of  Eusebius  of  Csraarea  and  of  Anus.  She  is  said  to 
have  imbibed  the  views  of  the  latter — at  least,  through 
her  influence  the  emperor  Constantine  was  led  to  invite 
Arius  to  his  court,  where  he  soon  established  an  exclu- 
sive influence  (  Robertson,  Hist,  of  the  Christ,  Church, 
bk.  ii,  chap,  i ;  Ceillier,  iii,  260, 417). 

Constantia,  Saini^  a  mart3'r  at  Nuceria,  under 
Nero,  is  commemorated  Sept.  19  in  Usuard*s  Mar' 
tgrology, 

Constantlftnus,  Semit,  abbot  and  recluse,  was  bom 
in  Auvergne  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century,  and 
died  A.D.  570.  He  is  commemorated  Dec  1  (Le  Cointe, 
A  mu  EccL  Fran,  i,  898, 868). 

Constantin,  Boniface,  a  French  theologian,  be- 
longing to  the  Jesuit  order,  was  bom  at  Magni  (near 
Geneva)  in  1590,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  and  phUoeo- 
phy  at  Lyons,  and  died  at  Yienne,  Dauphin6,  Nov.  8, 
16.51.  He  wrote.  Vie  de  CI,  de  Granger  ivique  H  Prince 
de  Geneve  (Lyons,  1640) : — Historia  Sanctorum  Angelo- 
rum  Epitome  (ibid.  1652),  a  singular  work  upon  the  his- 
tory of  angels.  He  also  wrote  some  other  works  on  the- 
olog}'.  Siee  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GinireUe,  a,  r. ;  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeines  GeUhrten-Lexikon^  s.  v. 

Constantine  (or  Constantins),  Saint,  is  repre- 
sented as  a  bishop,  whose  deposition  occurred  at  Gap,  in 
France.  He  is  commemorated  April  12  (GalUa  Chris- 
tiana,  i,  454).    See  also  Constamtxnu^ 


Constantine  or  CoiisTAiniNOPLE,  deacon  and 
chartophylax  of  the  metropolitan  Church  of  Conatanti- 
Dople,  lived  before  the  8th  century.  There  is  a  MS.  in 
the  library  of  the  Escurial,  a  Greek  discourse  upon  the 
holy  martyrs,  entitled  Oratio  Encomicutica  in  Ontnes 
Sanetos  Martgres,  This  discourse  is  often  cited  in  the 
A  eta  of  the  second  Council  of  Nice,  which  proves  that 
Constantine  lived  before  the  holding  of  this  council,  or 
before  the  8th  century.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gini^ 
rale,  a.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr,  and  Bom,  Biog,  n  v. 

Constantino,  Manobl,  a  Portnguese  scholar,  was 
bora  at  Funchal,  Madeira.  He  became  established  at 
Rome,  and  taught  philosophy  there.  Later  he  was  ap- 
pointed clerk  of  the  sacred  college  and  professor  of  the- 
ology in  the  Roman  gymnasium.  He  had  acquired  a 
rare  facility  for  writing  Latin,  without,  however,  neg- 
lecting the  study  of  history,  to  which  he  devoted  him- 
self ckMely.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1614.  He  wrote,  In- 
sula Materia  ffistoria,  connected  with  Orationes  Bum 
fJabita  Coram  Clemente  VIII  et  Gregorio  XIII  (Rome* 
1599):— //wToria  de  Origins  atque  Vita  Begum  Lusita'^ 
nia  (ibid.  1601)  :~CarmtNa  Varia  (ibid.).  These  po- 
ems were  published  separately  at  different  dates.  He 
also  published  at  Rome  a  remarkable  work  on  the  origin 
and  history  of  the  kings  of  Portugal.  See  Hoefer,  Nour. 
Biog,  d emirate,  s.  v. 

Constantinople,  Coitxcils  of  (Concilium  Com- 
stcmtinopolitaniut).  The  large  number  of  these,  and 
the  great  importance  of  several  of  them,  justify  a  fuller 
treatment,  which  we  give  from  Landon,  Man,  of  Coum- 
cUs,  8.  v.,  and  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  uHq,  s.  r. 

I.  Held  A.D.  886,  by  the  Euaebians,  under  Eusebi- 
us of  Nioomedia,  at  which  Athanasius  was  exiled  to 
Treves,  Marcellus  of  Ancyra,  with  several  other  bishops, 
deposed,  and  Arius  ordered  to  be  received  into  commu- 
nion by  the  Alexandrian  Church.  According  to  Ruffi- 
nus  (Hist,  i,  12)  it  was  convened  by  order  of  the  emperor, 
viz.  Constantine  the  Great ;  and  according  to  Eusebius, 
the  historian  (Contra  MarodL  i,  4),  it  was  exclusively 
gathered  together  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  capital. 
It  seems  to  have  met  in  February,  and  not  separated 
tiU  the  end  of  July.    See  Mansi,  CowH,  ii,  1 167-1 170. 

II.  Held  A.D.  889  or  840,  by  order  of  the  emperor 
Constantius  II,  to  depose  Paul,  the  newly  elected  bishop 
there,  whose  orthodoxy  displeased  him,  and  translate 
Eusebius,  his  favorite,  from  Nioomedia  to  the  imperial 
see.    See  Mansi,  ConciL  ii,  1275. 

III.  Held  A.D.  860,  composed  of  deputies  from  the 
(Council  of  Seleucia,  just  ended,  with  some  bishops  sum- 
moned from  Bithynia  to  meet  them,  aliout  fifty  in  alL 
Most  of  the  former  were  partisans  of  the  metropolitan 
of  Ciesarea,  whose  name  was  Acacius,  and  semi-ArianaL 
A  creed  was  published  by  them,  being  the  ninth,  aa>*a 
Socrates,  that  had  come  out  since  that  of  Nic»a.  It 
was,  in  fact,  what  had  been  rehearsed  at  Rimini,  with 
the  further  declaration  that  neither  substance  nor  hv- 
postasis  were  permissible  terms  in  speaking  of  God.  The 
Son  was  pronounced  to  be  like  the  Father,  according  to 
the  Scriptures,  and  Aetius,  who  maintained  the  contrary 
opinion,  was  condemned.  A  synodical  epistle  to  George, 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  whose  presbyter  he  was,  con- 
veyed the  sentence  passed  upon  him  and  his  followers. 
Several  bishops  were  deposed  at  the  same  time,  amon^ 
them  Cyril  of  Jcmsalem— all  for  various  causes.  Ten 
bishops,  who  declined  subscribing  to  these  depositions, 
were  to  consider  themselves  deposed  till  they  subscribed. 
Ulphilas,  bishop  of  the  Goths,  who  had  hitherto  pro- 
fessed the  Nicene  faith,  was  one  of  those  present,  and 
joined  in  their  creed.    See  Mansi,  Condi,  iii,  825. 

IV.  Held  A.D.  862  or  860,  in  which  sixty-two  bishops 
excommunicated  and  deposed  Macedonius,  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  for  his  errors  in  faith  concerning  the 
Holy  Spirit.  See  Mosheim,  EccL  Hist,  cent,  iv,  pt.  ii, 
ch.  v. 

v.  The  second  general  council,  met  in  May,  A.D.  881 , 
to  reassemble  the  following  year,  for  leasona  explained 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


77 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


by  the  bishops  in  their  syaodical  letter.  Owing  to  this 
drcamstanoe,  and  to  the  fact  that  its  acts  have  been 
lost,  its  proceedings  are  not  easy  to  unraveL  Socrates 
begins  his  account  of  it  {BitL  Y,  8)  by  saying  that  the 
Emperor  Theodoeina  convened  a  council  of  bishops  of 
the  same  faith  as  himself,  in  order  that  the  creed  set- 
tled at  Kloea  might  prevail,  and  abishop  be  appointed 
to  the  see  of  Constantinople.  That  the  bishops  met  at 
bis  bidding  is  testified  by  themselves  in  their  short  ad- 
dress to  him  subsequent!}*,  to  confirm  what  they  had 
decreed.  Whether  they  reassembled  at  his  bidding  we 
are  not  told.  Of  their  number  there  has  never  been 
any  dispute,  this  council  having,  in  fact,  gone  by  the 
name  of  that  of  "the  one  hundred  and  fiftv  fathers'* 

• 

ever  since.  There  were  thirty-six  bishops  of  the  Mace- 
donian party  likewise  invited,  but  they  quitted  Con- 
stantinople in  a  body  when  they  found  that  it  was  the 
faith  of  the  Nicene  fathers  to  which  they  would  be 
called  upon  to  subscribe.  Of  those  present,  Timothy, 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  Mdetius  of  Antioch,  who  pre- 
sided at  first,  Cyril  of  Jerusalemi  with  the  two  Greg- 
ories,  of  Nazianzum  and  Nyssa,  were  the  most  consider- 
able, Kectaxius  and  Flavian  being  added  to  their  number 
bdbre  they  separated.  The  names  of  all  who  subscribed 
have  been  preserved  (Dionys.  Exig.  ap  Justell.  BibL  Jur, 
Catum.  ii,  502). 

The  fint  question  considered  was  that  relating  to  the 
Chorch  of  Constantinople,  ^d  it  was  declared  that  Max- 
imum called  the  Cynic,  had  not  been  lawfully  made 
bishop;  that  his  ordination,  and  all  that  he  had  since 
done  in  his  pretended  character  of  bishop,  was  null  and 
void,  and  that,  in  fine,  he  was  a  usurper  of  the  see  of 
Constantinople.  Then  they  proceeded  to  elect  to  the 
>ee  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  eventually,  notwithstand- 
ing his  entreaties  and  tears,  obliged  him  to  accept  the 
office.  During  these  proceedings  Mdetius  died,  and 
Gregory  of  Nazianzum  succeeded  him  as  president  of 
the  eomieil.  He  endeavored  with  all  his  powers  to 
indnee  them  to  leave  Panlinus  in  the  see  of  Antioch, 
with  the  view  of  appeasing  the  divisions  of  that  Church ; 
bat  his  efforts  were  ineffectual.  The  bishops  of  Mace- 
donia and  of  Egypt  (who  had  now  arrived)  vehemently 
opposed  his  designs,  objecting  also  to  his  election,  upon 
the  gnmnd  that,  being  already  bishop  of  another  see,  he 
ought  not  to  have  been  translated  to  that  of  Constanti- 
nofde.  In  consequence  of  this,  Gregory  formed  the  res- 
dntion  to  entreat  the  fathers  to  permit  him  to  resign 
the  see  of  Constantinople,  which  he  in  the  end  did,  and 
Kectarius  was  elected  in  his  room.  During  this  inter- 
val Timothy,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  presided  over  the 
council;  but  Nectarine,  immediately  after  his  election, 
took  that  oiffioe  upon  htmsdf.  Now,  Nectarius  had  been 
a  priest  in  the  latter  dty,but  so  far  from  having  passed 
through  the  inferior  degrees,  as  the  canons  direct,  he 
had  not  been  even  baptized. 

Seven  canons  and  a  creed  appear  to  have  been  sub- 
mitted to  the  emperor  by  the  assembled  fathers  for  con- 
firmation, at  the  close  of  their  labors.  Whether  any 
canons  have  been  lost  seems  to  admit  of  some  doubt. 
Socntes  speaks  of  the  establishment  of  patriarchs  as 
one  of  the  things  done  by  this  coundl ;  and  the  Arabic 
paraphrase,  under  a  separate  heading,  **  concerning  the 
order  of  the  prelates,  and  their  rank  and  place,"  explains 
thia  as  follows:  **  Honor  besides,  and  the  primacy,  was 
granted  in  this  coundl  to  the  bishop  of  Rome,  and  he 
waa  made  first,  the  bishop  of  Constantinople  second, 
the  bishop  of  Alexandria  third,  the  bishop  of  Antioch 
foiatli,  «nd  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem  fifth  ** — which  is  the 
more  renuu-kable  as  neither  it  nor  Socrates  omits  the 
canon  ordaining  special  prerogatives  for  new  Bome.  It 
is  one  difiSculty  connected  with  these  canons,  that  in  all 
probabiUty  they  were  not  all  passed  at  the  same  ooundL 

1.  Conflrros  the  (kith  of  the  conndl  of  Nicsa,  and  anath- 
cmatJsea  ("extiema  ezecratlooe  ac  detettatlone ")  all 
who  deny  it,  espedally  the  Arians,  Ennomiaus,  SodoxU 
SBs,  SabellUns,  Apollinarians,  and  others. 

i.  Forbids  bfshops  to  go  beyond  their  borders,  and  to 
treuble  other  dtoceees.    Orders  that  the  bishop  of  Alex- 


andria shall  hsve  the  sole  administration  of  Egypt,  and 
that  the  privileges  given  to  the  Chnrch  of  Auiloch  by  the 
Niceoe  canons  shallbe  preserved.  Orders  thnt  the  sflTain 
of  the  Asian,  Pontic,  and  Threclan  dioceses  shall  bo 
severally  administered  by  their  respective  bishops,  and 
that  the  synod  of  each  province  shsll  administer  the  af- 
fairs of  the  province,  according  to  the  canon  of  Nicsea. 

B.  By  this  canon  toe  primacy  of  honor  is  given  to  the 
bishop  of  Constantinople  after  the  bishop  uf  Home,  on 
acconnt,  as  it  states,  of  the  former  being  "  tne  new  Ri>me.'* 

4.  Decinres  the  nullity  of  the  consecration  and  of  the 
episcopal  acts  of  Msximus. 

5.  As  re^pirds  the  books  of  the  Western  Chnrch,  we  hnve 
also  received  those  in  Antioch,  who  confess  one  and  the 
same  divinity  in  the  three  pervons  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 

6.  Lays  down  a  rale  for  ecclesiastical  Judtnnents,  end 
permits  sll  persons  whatever  to  bring  an  accusation 
against  a  blsnop  or  any  other  ecclesiastic  on  account  of 
any  private  injury  or  wrone  said  to  have  been  racelved: 
but  in  Chnrch  mattera  it  d^ects  that  no  accusation  shall 
be  received  coming  ft-om  heretics  or  schismatics,  or  (Vom 
persons  ezccimmnulcated  or  depof>ed,  or  accused  of  any 
crime,  befoTO  they  shall  have  Justified  themselves. 

7.  Gives  direction  as  to  the  msnner  in  which  heretics 
ought  to  be  received  into  the  Chnrrh ;  Arians,  Macedoni- 
ans, 8abbatians,  Novatians,  Qnartodeclmani,  snd  Apol- 
linartana  were  simply  to  be  required  to  renounce  their 
errora  in  writing,  to  anathematize  all  heresies,  and  to  be 
anointed  with  the  holy  chrism  on  the  forehead,  eyes, 
nose,  month,  and  ears,  that  they  might  receive  the  Holy 
Spirit  Others,  such  as  the  Knnomians  (who  baptised 
with  one  Immersion),  MonUnists,  Sabellians,  etc.,  were 
to  be  received  as  heathens,  L  e.  to  be  catechised,  exor- 
cised, and  baptized. 

See  Labbe,  Conal,  ii,  911. 

Of  the  heretics  named  In  canon  1  the  Semi-Arians  en- 
gaged most  attention  bv  far  here,  (torn  the  farther  error 
into  which  they  had  Ceillen  of  late  respecting  the  divinity 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  All  that  was  rnled  by  this  council  on 
doctrine  was  directed  sgniust  them  ezclosively. 

By  the  word  **  diocese,"  In  canon  8,  is  meant  a  tract  em- 
bracing several  provinces. 

Most  probably,  the  third  canon,  ordnininj;  that  in  fntnre 
the  see  of  Constantinople  should  take  honorary  prece- 
dence next  after  Bome,  was  intended  to  prevent  the  bish- 
ops of  Antioch  and  Alexandria  from  ever  attempting  to 
take  such  liberties  with  It  again. 

Dionysios  Exignns  ends  his  canons  of  this  conncll  with 
the  fourth.  Traces  of  s  new  series  appear  with  the  fifth. 
It  runs  as  follows ;  **  Concerning  the  tome  of  the  Westerns. 
we,  too,  have  received  those  who  professed  their  belief 
at  AntioclOn  one  Godhead  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
GhosL^*  what  was  this  tome  of  the  Westerns  7  Some 
think  it  was  the  synodical  epistle  received  from  pope  Da- 
masits  by  the  Bastems  nt  their  second  meeting.  A.D.  88S, 
to  which  they  wrote  their  own  in  reply.  Otoers,  with 
better  reason,  hold  that  it  was  a  synodical  letter  of  pope 
Damasus.  addressed  to  the  synod  of  Antioch  A.D.  sfs  or 
879.  A  third  view  is,  that  it  was  another  of  his  to  Pan- 
linns'  of  Antioch  some  years  before.  Athanasins  sent  a 
letter,  in  the  name  of  his  synod  at  Alexandria,  A.D.  868,  to 
the  Chnrch  of  Antioch,  which  he  calls  *'a  tome  "  himself, 
to  which  Panlinus  Is  expressly  said  to  have  subscribed, 
and  in  which  the  indivinibilitv  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ft-om 
the  substsnce  both  of  the  Father  and  the  Son  is  as  dis- 
tinctly set  forth  as  It  ever  was  afterwards.  Through  Ense- 
bius  of  Vercelll.  to  whom  it  was  addresfed,  and  by  whom 
it  was  in  dne  time  subscribed,  it  would  find  Its  way  into 
the  West  and  to  Rome,  as  the  rallying-polntof  the  ortho- 
dox, and  a  bond  of  union,  under  existing  circumstances, 
between  the  sees  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Home, 
whose  acceptance  of  its  doctrine  can  source  have  become 
known  to  each  other  before  Macedonlns,  the  ez-patrlarch 
of  Constantinople,  commenced  assailins  the  divinity  of 
the  third  person  in  the  Godbeod.  On  tnis,  it  wonld  Im- 
mediately give  rise  to,  and  be  the  fonndation  of,  a  scries 
of  "  tomes  "  or  epistles  of  the  name  kind  between  them,  in 
which  Constantinople,  being  in  AHan  hands,  wonld  take 
no  part,  nor  Alexandria  much,  owing  to  the  banishment 
of  its  orthodox  prelate,  Peter,  ri'om  A.D.  378  to  878,  nnder 
Valens.  Meletins  hod  olso  been  driven  ft'om  Antioch 
A  year  earlier;  bat  his  orthodox  rival,  Paulinns,  was 
allowed  to  remain :  and  this  wonld  acconnt  for  the  cor- 
respondence that  went  on  between  him  and  pope  Dama- 
sns  nninterrnptedly  while  Meletins  was  away,  and  of 
which  the  prominent  topic  was  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Now,  the  synods  of  Antioch  snd  Koroe  are  con- 
fusedly given  about  this  time,  yet  several  were  probably 
held  at  each  place.  One  thing  may  well  be  thonght  tu 
have  been  a^ed  upon  at  the  first  pynod  of  Aiuloch, 
and  possibly  Itome  too,  which  was  afterwords  confirmed 
in  the  second,  and  is  evidently  referred  to  by  the  Constnn- 
tinopolitan  fathers  In  their  synodical  letter,  namely,  the 
creed,  in  its  enlarged  form.  Admit  this  form  to  hnve  been 
sgreed  npon  at  the  synod  of  Antioch,  in  conjunction,  or 
not,  with  that  of  Rome,  A.D.  873,  and  the  n^e  of  it  in 
the  year  following  by  Eplnhaniui,  bishop  of  Snlamis  in 
Cypms,  OS  the  authorized  creed  of  the  Church,  is  ex- 
plained :  nor  Is  |here  any  reason  why  Gregory  Nyssen, 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


79 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


If  he  composed  it  at  all— u  stated  by  Nloephonu  alone— 
ehoald  not  have  compoeed  It  there  Bat  Valens  coining 
to  Antloch  in  April,  to  penecnte  the  orthodox,  the  proh- 
ability  wonld  be  that  this  synod  was  hastily  broken  np, 
and  remained  in  abeyance  till  A.D.  878  or  879,  when  its  pro- 
oeedinffs  were  reenmed  nndcr  Meletins,  and  confirmed 
by  one  nnndred  and  sixty-three  bishops,  and  with  its  pro> 
ceedings  this  creed.  All,  at  the  same  time,  then  and  there 
sabscrlDed  to  the  Western  tome  or  letter  of  pope  Dama- 
sn&  Hence,  both  the  Innjiraage  of  the  fifth  Constantino- 
politan  canon  alxive  mentioned,  and  of  the  Cathers  who 
Ihimed  it,  in  their  synodicnl  letter,  where  they  say  that 
*'  this,  their  faith,  which  they  hnd  professed  there  snm- 
marily,  might  be  learned  more  fully  by  their  Wcistern 
brethren,  on  their  being  so  good  as  to  refer  to '  the  tome* 
that  emanated  fVom  the  synod  of  Antloch,  and  that  set 
forth  by  the  cDcnroenical  oooucil  of  Constantinople  the 
year  before,  in  which  docaments  they  had  professed  their 
faith  at  greater  leueth."  Now,  what  they  had  set  forth 
themselves  was  their  adherence  to  the  Nioene  faith  nnd 
reprobation  of  the  heresies  enumerated  In  their  first  can- 
on ;  what  they  had  received  fhim  Antloch  and  accepted 
mast  have  been  the  creed  which  has  since  gone  by  their 
name,  bat  was  certainly  not  their  composition ;  and  what- 
ever else  was  confirmed  there,  A.D.  878,  inclndins  the 
Western  tome.  The  letter  of  ))ope  Damasus  to  Pauli- 
nas was  written  A.D.  878,  when  there  was  nobody  left  at 
Antloch  but  Paalinns  to  write  to.  The  letter  addressed 
in  his  own  name  and  that  of  the  ninety-three  bishops  with 
him,  "to  the  Catholic  bishops  of  the  East/'  was  "the 
tome  '*  received  by  the  synod  at  Antloch  A.I).  87fr-9 ;  to 
which  they  replied  the  same  year.  Both  letters  being  on 
the  same  snldect— as  were  the  synods  of  878  and  37S-d— it 
was  easy  to  confuse  them. 

We  now  come  to  the  synodical  letter  of  the  reassembled 
Council  of  Constantinople,  A.D.  888,  and  their  proceedings 
generally.  Most  of  the  bishops  who  hnd  met  at  Constan- 
tinople, A.D.  881,  retnmed  thither  the  following  summer. 
One  of  their  number,  Ascholins,  bishop  of  Thessalonica, 
and  Bpiphanius  and  Jerome  with  him,  had  gone  mean- 
while to  Rome.  Being  at  Constantinople,  they  received 
A  synodical  letter  (h)m  the  West,  inviting  them  to  Rome, 
where  a  large  gathering  was  in  contemplation.  This  letter 
having  been  lost,  we  can  only  guess  at  its  contents  fVom 
what  they  say  in  reply  to  It,  coupled  with  their  fifth  canon, 
which  was  evidentlv  mimed  in  consequence.  The  affairs 
of  theEastbeingin  imminent  peril  and  confusion,  they  beg 
to  be  excused  fh>m  going  awny  so  far  from  their  sees.  The 
moat  they  could  di»  wonld  lie  to  send  deputies  into  the 
West  Cyriacns,  Erfliebius,  and  PrIsclaJius  are  named, 
to  explain  their  proceedings,  which  they  then  epitomize, 
commencing  with  what  has  been  anticipated  above  about 
their  (hltb,  and  ending  with  the  statement  that  Nectarine 
and  Flavian  as  had  been  appointed  canonlcally  to  their 
respective  sees,  while  Cyril  was  recognised  by  them  as 
bishop  of  Jerusalem  for  the  same  reason.  Thus  this  let- 
ter explains  the  framing  of  their  fifth  canon,  and  attests  its 
date.  The  same  dale  u  assigned  to  canon  G»  restricting 
tlie  manner  of  instituting  proceedings  against  bishops, 
nnd  reprobating  appeals  to  the  socnlar  power.  Bnt  canon 
7,  prescribing  the  distlnctione  to  be  observed  In  admitting 
heretics  into  communion.  Is  shown  not  to  belong  to  this 
council  at  all.  It  is  almost  Identical  with  the  ninety-fifth 
Trullan  canon.  Of  the  creed,  little  more  need  be  added. 
It  was  in  existence  A.D.  873,  having  probably  been  framed 
at  Antloch,  in  conformity  with  &e  synoalcal  letter  of 
Athanasius,  A.D.  878,  where  it  was  doubtless  confirmed 
A.D.  873-9,  and  received  more  probably  by  the  fifth  canon 
of  this  council  A.D.  888,  than  promulgated  separately  by 
the  conncil  of  the  year  preceding.  Possibly  this  miiy 
hav6  been  the  creed  called  by  CassTan,  as  late  as  A.D.  430, 
"peculiarly  the  creed  of  the  city  and  Church  of  Antloch.** 
From  the  portion  of  ft  given  by  him  It  Is  as  likely  to  have 
been  this  as  that  of  A.H.  863,  or  any  other  between  them. 
That  there  is  a  fiimily  likeness  between  it  and  the  creed 
of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  commented  tm  by  Cyril, 
will  be  seen  on  comparing  them.  On  this  hyiMthesis 
alone  we  can  understand  why  no  notice  should  have  been 
taken  of  it  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  A.D.  481,  and  in  the 
Afirican  code,  namely,  because  It  had  originated  with  a 
provincial,  and  only  been  as  yet  received  by  a  general 
council.  It  was  promulgated  as  Identical  with  that  of  Nl- 
csa  for  the  first  time  by  the  fathers  of  the  fourth  council. 

The  dogmatic  professions  of  Uie  conncil  of  881  were 
confirmed  by  Theodosius  in  a  constitution  dated  July  80 
of  the  same  year,  and  addressed  to  Antonlus,  proconsul 
of  Asia,  by  which  the  churches  are  ordered  to  be  handed 
over  to  the  bishops  in  communion  with  Nectarine  and 
others  who  composed  It,  the  Bunomians,  Arians,  and  oth- 
ers having  been  deprived  of  their  churches  by  a  con- 
stitution issned  ten  days  earlier.  It  waa  also  received  by 
pope  Damasus,  and  has  been  regarded  in  the  West  ever 
since,  so  far,  as  cecumenlcal.  Its  first  four  canons,  in  the 
same  way,  have  always  been  admitted  into  Western  col- 
lections. But  what  passed  at  the  supplemental  council 
of  382  never  seems  to  have  been  confirmed  or  received 
equally.  It  was  in  declining  to  come  to  this  last  council 
that  Gregory  Nazianzen  said,  In  his  epistle  to  Procopins, 
"that  he  had  come  to  the  resolution  of  avoiding  every 
meeting  of  bishops,  for  ho  had  never  seen  any  synod  end 


well,  or  asBnase  rather  than  SAgtarate  disordera."  His 
celebrated  oration,  known  as  his  "  farewell "  to  the  coun- 
cil of  881,  is  Inspired  by  a  very  diffluent  spirit 

See  Hansi,  ConcU.  iii,  6^. 

VI.  Held  A.I).882,  in  order  to  appease  the  divisions  of 
Antioch,  to  which  see  Flavianua  had  been  nominated  in 
the  preceding  council,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  actoal 
bishop,  Paulinus.  Most  of  the  bishops  who  were  pres- 
ent at  that  conncil  also  attended  here.  Nothing  cer- 
tain is  known  of  the  proceedings,  except  that  the  elec- 
tion of  Flavianua  was  oonfirmed,  and  a  letter  to  the 
Western  Church  written,  to  excuse  the  Orientals  from 
attending  the  cotmcil  at  Rome  held  at  the  same  timew 
A  declaration  of  fiiith  was  added  on  the  subject  of  thQ 
Blessed  Trinity  as  well  as  of  the  Incarnation.  This 
council  further  declared  that  Nectarius  had  been  duly 
elected  to  the  see  of  Constantinople,  according  to  the 
Nicene  canons,  and  it  also  recognised  the  election  of 
Flarianus  to  Antioch.    See  Labbe,  CondL  ii,  1014. 

VIL  There  waa  a  meeting  of  liishops  held  at  Con- 
stantinople,  by  command  of  Theodoaiua,  A.D.  888,  under 
Nectarius,  to  devise  remedies  for  the  confusion  created 
b}'  so  many  sees  passing  out  of  the  hands  of  the  hetero- 
dox into  those  of  the  orthodox  party.  The  Arian,  En- 
nomian,  and  Macedonian  bishops  were  required  to  at- 
tend there  with  confessions  of  their  faith,  which  the 
emperor,  after  examining  carefully,  rejected  in  favor  of 
NicflUL  The  Novatians  aloi^  receiving  this, were  placed 
by  him  upon  equal  terms  with  the  orthodox.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  on  this  occanon  that  Amphilochius,  bish- 
op of  looninm,  on  entering  the  palace,  made  the  usual 
obeisance  to  Theodosius,  but  took  no  notice  of  Arcadia^ 
his  son,  standing  at  his  side  (Socmtes,  IJisi.  v,  10). 

VIII.  Held  A.D.  894,  Sept  29,  on  occasion  of  the  ded- 
ication of  the  church  of  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  \milt 
by  Ruffinus,  prefect  of  the  Pnetorinm.  The  dispute 
concerning  the  bishopric  of  Boatra  was  brought  before 
this  counciL  Nectarius  of  Constantinople  presided,  in 
the  presence  of  Theophtlus  of  Alexandria,  Flavianua 
of  Antioch,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Palladius  of  Coisarea  in 
Cappadoda,  and  many  other  bishops  of  note.  It  waa 
determined,  that  althoogh  three  bishops  are  sufBdent 
to  consecrate,  a  larger  number  is  required  in  order  to 
depose.    See  Labbe,  ConeiL  ii,  1151. 

IX.  Held  AS).  899,  attended  by  twenty-two  bishops 
under  Chrjrsostom,  to  inquire  into  seven  capital  charges 
bibught  against  Antoninus,  bishop  of  Ephesna.  As  he 
died  before  the  witnesses  could  be  examined,  Chrysos- 
tom,  at  the  request  of  the  Ephesian  clergy,  went  over 
thither,  and,  at  the  head  of  seventy  bishops,  appointed 
Ueraclides,  a  deacon,  in  bis  place,  and  deposed  six  bish- 
ops who  had  been  ordained  by  AJatoninus.  Their  pro- 
ceedings contain  a  reference  to  the  canons  of  the  African 
Church.  Strictly  speaking,  this  last  was  a  synod  of 
Ephesus.   See  Mansi,  CondL  iii,  991. 

X.  Held  A.D.403,  by  forty  or  sixty  bishops,  in  support 
of  Cbrysostom,  unjnsUy  deposed  by  the  pseudo  councU, 
"ad  Quereuro,"  because  of  his  non-appearance  tliere. 
Although  Areadius  had  weakly  confirmed  this  depoei- 
tion,  and  l»nished  him  into  Bithynia,  his  exile  lasted 
but  for  one  doff,  for  the  empress  Eudoxia,  frightened  by 
a  terrible  earthqtudce  which  happened  at  the  time,  sent 
after  him  to  recall  him,  and  he  re-entered  Constanti- 
nople in  triumph.    See  Labbe,  ConeiL  ii,  1831. 

XI.  Held  in  the  aame  year.  After  the  restoration  of 
Cbrysostom  to  his  bishopric,  he  ordered  those  priests 
and  bishops  who,  upon  his  condemnation,  had  intruded 
into  the  sees  and  benefices  of  his  followers,  to  be  de- 
posed, and  the  rightful  pastors  to  be  restored ;  he  then 
demanded  of  the  emperor  that  his  own  cause  should  be 
considered  in  a  lawful  synod.  Sixty  bishops  assembled, 
who  came  to  the  same  conclusion  with  the  last  council^ 
viz.  that  Cbrysostom  had  been  unlawfully  deposed  in 
the  council  "  ad  Quercum,"  and  that  he  should  retain 
the  bishopric    See  Socrates,  //iff,  viii,  19. 

XII.  Held  A.D.  4(H,  to  sit  in  Judgment  on  Chiy8o»> 
tom,  who  had  been  recalled  from  exile  by  the  emperor 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


79 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


ind  fetaken  poaeaiion  of  hit  Me,  fiom  which  he  had 
be«n  depoeed  hy  the  lyiiod  "  ad  Qaefcom."  Theophilua 
of  Akzandria  was  not  preaent  on  this  oocaaion,  having 
had  to  fly  Constantiiiople  on  the  return  of  hia  rival. 
StilL  he  was  not  nnrepresented ;  and  Cbryaostom  bad  by 
this  time  proToked  another  enemy  in  the  empress  £a- 
doxia,  whose  etatne  he  had  denonnced,  from  Uie  games 
and  rerels  permitted  to  be  held  round  it,  in  offensire 
proximity  to  lus  cbureh.  At  this  sjmod  be  aeems  to 
hare  given  attendance  when  the  question  of  his  former 
deposition  was  aigaed.  Thirty-six  bishops  had  con- 
demned him ;  but  aixty-flve  bishops,  he  rejoined,  had, 
by  communicating  with  bim,  voted  in  bis  favor.  It  is 
not  implied  in  these  words  that  a  synod  was  actually 
fitting  in  bis  favor  now,  any  more  than  during  the  lyn- 
od  **  ad  Quercum,"  the  deputies  from  which  found  him 
sammnded,  but  not  sjrnodically,  by  forty  bishops,  in  his 
own  palace.  The  fourth  or  twelfth  canon  of  the  Council 
of  Antioch  was  alleged  by  his  opponents:  his  defence 
was  that  it  was  fimmed  by  the  Arians.  As  quoted  by  his 
oppcoenti,  it  was  diiferently  worded  from  what  either 
the  fourth  or  twelfth  are  now ;  possibly  there  may  have 
been  an  Arian  version  of  these  canons,  against  which 
his  objection  held  good.  The  synod,  however,  decided 
sgminst  bim,  and  his  banishment  to  Comana,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  says  Socrates— to -Cucuaus,  in  Armenia,  say 
othen — ^followed,  where  he  died. 

XUL  HeM  AJ>.426,  on  the  last  day  of  February, when 
Sisiimiua  was  consecrated  bishop  there,  in  the  room  of 
Arti'T'w,  Afterwards,  the  errors  of  the  Massalians,  or 
Eocbite^  were  condemned,  at  the  instance  of  the  bish- 
ops of  looninm  and  Sida.  A  severe  sentence  was  passed 
on  sny  charged  with  holding  them  after  this  denuncia- 
tion.    See  Uansi,  CorndL  iv,  543. 

XIY.  Held  A.D.  428,  on  the  death  of  Sisinnins,  when 
the  well-known  Nestorius  was  consecrated.  See  Hansi, 
ComnL  iv,  548. 

XV.  Held  A.D.  481,  Oct.  25,  fonr  months  after  Nes- 
totiua  bad  been  deposed,  to  consecrate  Maximian  in  his 
place.  This  done,  Bfaximian  presided,  and  joined  in  a 
synodieal  letter,  enclosing  that  of  the  Council  of  Ephe- 
sos,  with  its  first  six  canons,  as  they  are  called,  to  the 
bishops  of  ancient  Epims,  whom  attempts  had  been 
made  to  detach  from  orthodoxy.  Letters  were  written 
likewise  by  him  and  by  the  emperor  to  pope  Celestine, 
QrriJ,  and  other  bishops,  to  acquaint  them  with  his  el- 
evation, at  which  all  expressed  themselves  well  pleased. 
Anotlier  synod  appears  to  have  been  held  by  him  the 
year  following,  for  restoring  peace  between  his  own 
choreh  and  that  of  AnUoch.  See  Mansi,  C<meiL  v,  257- 
292, 1046-1060. 

XYL  Held  A.D.  448,  probably  to  consider  the  case 
of  Athanaains,  bishop  of  Perrhe,  on  the  Euphrates,  after- 
warda  deposed  at  Antioch  under  Domnns.  See  Hansi, 
Condi  ▼!,  468. 

XVII.  Held  A.D.  448,  Nov.  8,  under  Flavian,  to  in- 
quire into  a  dispute  between  Florentius,  metropolitan 
of  Sardis,  and  two  of  his  soffrsgans;  but  while  sitting, 
it  was  called  upon  by  Eusebius,  bisbop  of  Doryls- 
um,  one  of  its  members,  who  bad,  as  a  layman,  de- 
nonnoed  Nestorius,  to  summon  Eutyches,  archimandrite 
of  a  eoovent  of  three  hundred  monks,  and  as  resolute 
an  opponent  of  Nestorius  as  himself,  on  a  charge  that 
he  felt  obliged  to  press  against  him.  The  charge  was 
that  be  recognised  but  one  nature  in  Christ.  Messen- 
gers were  despatched  to  invite  Eutyches  to  peruse  what 
Eaaebtna  had  alleged  against  him.  A  reply  was  brought 
aufaaeqiiently  from  Eutyches,  that  he  refused  to  quit  his 
monaateiy.  A  second  and  third  citation  followed  in 
sncceanon.  Then  he  promised  attendance  within  a 
week.  At  last  he  appeared,  made  profession  of  his 
Csith,  and  was  condemned — thirty-two  bishops  and 
twenty-three  archimandritea  subscribing  to  bis  deposi- 
tioa  from  the  priesthood  and  monastic  dignity.  The 
proceedings  occupied  altogether  seven  sessions,  the  last 
of  which  was  heM  Nov.  22.  Its  acts  were  recited  in  a 
sohaeqiseiit  oooncil  of  the  year  following  at  Constanti- 


nople; at  Ephesos,  also^  the  year  following,  under  Di- 
oscorus;  and  again,  in  the  first  session  of  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon.  See  Hansi,  CVnicO.  vi,  495, 649 ;  Labbe, 
ConeiL  iii,  I486. 

XVm.  Held  A.D.  449,  April  8,  of  thirty  bishops  un- 
der  Thalassius,  archbishop  of  Omarea  in  Cappndoda, 
by  order  of  the  emperor,  to  re-consider  the  sentence 
passed  on  Eutyches  by  the  council  under  Flavian,  on  a 
representation  from  the  former  that  its  acts  had  been 
falsified.  This,  however,  was  proved  untrue.  Another 
session  was  held  April  27,  on  a  second  petition  from 
Eutyches,  to  have  the  statement  of  the  official  or  silen- 
tiaiy,  who  had  accompanied  him  to  the  council  under 
Flavian,  taken  down.  This  officer  declared  to  having 
seen  the  instrument  containing  his  deposition  before 
the  session  was  held  at  which  it  was  resolved  on.  The 
acts  of  this  council  are  likewise  preserved  in  the  first 
session  of  that  of  Chalcedon.  See  Mansi,  CondL  vi, 
508,758. 

XIX.  Held  A.D.  450,  at  which  Anatolius  was  or* 
dained  bishop ;  and  at  which,  some  months  afterwards, at 
the  head  of  his  suffrsgans  and  clergy,  he  made  profes- 
sion of  his  faith  and  subscribed  to  the  celebrated  letter 
of  Leo  to  his  predecessor  Flavian,  in  the  presence  of 
four  legates  from  Rome,  charged  to  obtain  proofs  of  his 
orthodoxy.  See  Mansi,  Conct/.  vi,  509.  All  the  bishops, 
abbots,  priests,  and  deacons  at  the  time  in  Constantino- 
ple were  present.  Nestorius  and  Eutyches,  together 
with  their  dogmas,  were  anathematized.  The  pope's 
legates  returned  thanks  to  God  tbst  all  the  Church  was 
thus  unanimous  in  the  true  faith.  Several  of  the  bish- 
ops who  had  yielded  to  the  violence  of  Dioscoms  in 
the  Latrocinium  were'  present  in  this  assembly,  and 
having  testified  their  sorrow  for  what  they  had  done, 
desired  to  condemn  the  act  with  its  authors,  in  order  to 
be  received  back  into  the  commnnion  of  the  Church ; 
they  were  subsequently  received  into  communion,  and 
restored  to  the  government  of  their  respective  churches. 
See  Labbe,  Concil.  iii,  1475. 

XX.  Held  A.D,  457,  under  Anatolius,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Leo,  whom  he  had  just  crowned,  to  take  cog- 
nizance of  the  petitions  that  had  arrived  from  Alexan- 
dria for  and  against  Timothy  ^urus,  who  had  been 
installed  bishop  there  by  the  opponents  of  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  and  to  consider  what  could  be  done  to  re- 
store peace.  The  council  anathematized  iElurus  and 
his  party.    See  Mansi,  Concil.  vii,  521, 869^ 

XXI.  Held  A.D.459,  under  Gennadius.  Eighty-one 
bishops  subscribed  to  its  synodieal  letter,  still  extant,  in 
which  the  second  canon  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  is 
cited  with  approval  against  some  simoniacal  ordina- 
tions recently  brought  to  light  to  Galatia.  See  Manai, 
CimeiL  vii,  911. 

XXIL  Held  A.D.  478,  under  Acacius,  in  which  Peter, 
bishop  of  Antioch,  sumamed  the  Fuller,  Paul  of  Ephe- 
sus,  and  John  of  Apamea,  were  condemned ;  and  a  letter 
addressed  to  Simplicos,  bishop  of  Rome,  to  acquaint 
him  with,  and  request  him  to  concur  in,  their  condem- 
nation. A  letter  was  addressed  at  the  same  time  by 
Acacius  to  Peter  the  Fuller  himself,  rebuking  him  for 
having  introduced  the  clause  **Who  was  crucified  for 
us"  into  the  Trisagion,  or  hymn  to  the  Trinity.  This 
letter  has  been  printed  as  issued  from  a  synod  five 
years  later,  when,  in  fact,  there  was  no  such  synod.  See 
Mansi,  Concil,  vii,  1017  sq. 

XXIII.  Held  A.D.  492,  under  Eupbemius,  in  favor  of 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon ;  but  as  he  declined  removing 
the  name  of  his  predecessor,  Acacius,  from  the  sacred 
diptychs,  he  wss  not  recognised  ss  bishop  by  popes 
Felix  and  Gelasius,  to  whom  he  transmitted  its  acts, 
though  his  Orthodoxy  was  allowed.  See  Mansi,  ConciL 
vii,  1176. 

XXIV.  Held  A.D.  496,  by  order  of  the  emperor  Anas- 
tasius  I,  in  which  the  Henoticon  of  Zeno  was  confirmed, 
Eupbemius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  deposed,  and  Mace- 
donius,  the  second  of  that  name  who  had  presided  tben^ 
substituted  for  him.    See  Mansi,  ConeiL  viii,  186b 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


80 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


XXV.  Held  A.D.  496,  by  order  of  the  emperor  Anas- 
taMOB  I,  in  which  Flavian,  the  aeoood  biabop  of  Antioch 
of  that  name,  and  Philoxenns  of  Hierapolia,  took  the 
lead :  condemning  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  and  all  who 
opposed  the  Monophynte  doctrine,  or  would  not  accept 
the  interpolated  clause  "Who  was  crucified  for  us,"  in 
the  Trisagion.  But  it  seems  probable  that  this  coun- 
cil took  place  a  year  later,  and  that  another  had  met  a 
year  earlier,  under  Macedonius,  less  hostile  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon  than  this,  and  of  which  this  was  the 
reaction.    See  Mansi,  ConcU,  viii,  197. 

XXVI.  Held  A.D.  518,  July  20,  by  order  of  the  em- 
peror  Justin,  at  which  the  names  of  the  councils  of 
Nicsa,  Constantinople,  Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon;  of 
Leo  of  Rome,  vrith  Euphemius  and  Macedonius  of  Con- 
stantinople, were  restored  in  the  sacred  diptychs;  and 
SsTems  and  all  other  opponents  of  the  fourth  council 
anathematized.  Count  Gratus  was  despatched  to  Rome 
by  the  emperor  with  letters  from  himself  and  the  patri- 
arch to  pope  Hormisdas,  hoping  that  peace  might  under 
these  circumstances  be  restored  between  them.  The 
Easterns  had  to  anathematize  Acacius  of  Constantino- 
ple by  name,  and  to  erase  his  and  the  names  of  all  oth- 
ers, Euphemius  and  Macedonius  included,  who  had  not 
erased  his  previously,  from  the  sacred  diptychs,  before 
the  pope  would  readmit  them  to  his  communion.  See 
Mansi,  ConeiL  yiii,  435  sq. ;  Labbe,  ConcU,  iv,  1586b 

XXYII.  Held  A.D.  531,  under  Epiphanius,  who  was 
then  patriarch,  to  inquire  into  the  consecration  of  Ste- 
phen, metropolitan  of  Larissa,  within  the  diocese  of 
Thrace,  which  had  been  made  without  consulting  him. 
Stephen,  having  been  deposed  by  him  on  these  grounds, 
appealed  to  Rome ;  but  the  acts  of  the  synod  held  there 
to  consider  his  appeal  are  defective,  so  that  it  is  not 
known  with  what  success.    See  Mansi,  ConeiL  viii,  789. 

XXVin.  Held  A.D.  583,  between  the  Catholics  and 
followers  of  Severus ;  the  latter  were  silenced,  and  many 
of  them  returned  into  the  Chureh.  See  Labbe,  ConeiL 
iv,  1768. 

XXIX.  Held  A.D.  536.  According  to  some,  three 
synods  were  held  in  Constantinople  this  jrear:  (1)  In 
which  pope  Agapetus  presided  and  deposed  Anthymus, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople ;  but  this  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian had  already  done,  besides  confirming  the  election 
of  Mennas  in  his  stead,  at  the  instance  of  the  clergy 
an^  people  of  the  city.  Agapetus,  who  had  come  thith- 
er on  a  mission  from  Theodatus,  king  of  the  Goths, 
having  previously  refused  his  communion,  had  unques- 
tionably procured  his  ejection ;  and  he  afterwards  con- 
secrated Mennas,  at  the  request  of  the  emperor.  (2)  In 
which  a  number  of  Eastern  bishops  met  to  draw  up  a 
petition  to  the  pope,  requesting  him  to  call  upon  Anthy- 
mus, subsequently  to  his  deposition,  but  previously  to 
his  going  back  to  Trebizond,  from  which  he  had  l)een 
traiudated,  for  a  retractation  of  his  denial  of  two  natures 
in  Christ;  but  this  can  hardly  be  called  a  council;  and 
the  death  of  the  pope  stopped  any  definitive  action  on 
his  part.  (3)  Under  Mennas,  after  the  death  of  the  pope, 
consisting  of  five  actions,  the  first  of  which  took  place 
May  2,  Mennas  presiding,  and  having  on  his  right, 
among  others,  five  Italian  bishops,  who  had  come  to 
Constantinople  from  the  late  pope.  The  first  thing 
brought  before  the  council  was  a  petition  from  various 
monastic  bodies  in  Constantinople,  Antioch,  Jerusalem, 
and  Mount  Sinai,  to  the  emperor,  begging  that  the  sen- 
tence, stayed  only  by  the  death  of  the  pope,  against 
Anthymus,  might  be  carried  out ;  a  general  account  of 
what  had  passed  between  them  and  the  pope  followed; 
their  petition  to  him  was  produced  by  the  Italian  bish- 
ops present  and  recited ;  after  it  another  petition  to  him 
from  some  Eastern  bishops  on  the  same  subject ;  and 
his  own  letter  to  Peter,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  in  reply. 
Desirous  of  following  out  his  decision,  the  council  sent 
deputies  to  acquaint  Anth3rmn8  with  its  proceedings, 
and  bid  him  appear  there  within  three  days.  The 
second  and  third  actions  passed  in  sending  him  similar 
aammonses,  but,  as  he  could  not  be  found,  his  condemna- 


tion and  deposition  were  at  length  decreed  in  the  fourth 
action  by  the  council  and  its  president,  and  signed  by 
serenty-two  bishops  or  their  representatives,  and  two 
deacons  of  the  Roman  Chnreh.  At  the  fifth  and  last 
action  a  nomber  of  documents  were  recited,  mainly  re- 
ferring to  Peter,  iMshop  of  Apamea,  Severus,  and  other 
Monophysites.  All  these  having  been  read,  an  anath- 
era'a  was  passed  upon  Peter,  Severus,  and  Zoaras,  one 
of  their  followers,  by  the  council  now  sitting,  and  then 
by  Mennas,  its  president;  according  to  the  order  ob- 
served in  the  fourth  action  in  passing  sentence  upon 
Anthymus.  Eighty-eight  bishops  or  their  represent- 
atives, and  two  deacons  of  the  Roman  Church,  as  before, 
subscribed  on  this  occasion.  A  constitution  of  the  em- 
peror addressed  to  Mennas  confirmed  their  sentence. 
See  Mansi,  CondL  viii,  869  sq. ;  Labbe,  ConeiL  v,  1  sq. 

XXX.  Held  A.D.  538  (541,  or  548),  under  Mennas, 
by  order  of  the  emperor  Jnstinian,  in  support  of  his 
edict  against  the  errors  of  Origen,  denounced  to  him  in 
a  petition  from  four  monks  of  Jerusalem,  placed  in  his 
hands  by  Pelagius,  a  Roman  envoy,  whom  he  had  sent 
thither  on  a  different  errand,  with  the  express  object  of 
injuring  Theodore,  bishop  of  Cssarea,  in  Cappadoda, 
surnamed  Ascidas,  who  defended  Origen.  His  edict  is 
in  the  form  of  a  book  against  Origen,  and  addressed  to 
Mennas.  It  was  communicated  to  the  other  patriarchs 
and  to  pope  Yigilius.  The  council  backed  it  by  fifteen 
anathemas  against  Origen  and  his  errors,  usually  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  acts  of  the  fifth  general  council,  with 
which  this  council  came  to  be  subsequently  confused, 
in  consequence  of  their  respective  acts  having  fonned 
one  volume.    See  Mansi,  Condi,  ix,  487  sq. 

XXXI.  Held  A.D.  546,  under  Mennas,  to  assent  to  the 
first  edict,  now  lost,  of  the  emperor  Jnstinian  against 
the  three  chapten  the  year  before.  Some  authon  pass 
over  this  council,  and  substitute  for  it  another,  supposed 
to  have  been  held  by  pope  Yigilius  the  year  following, 
after  his  arrival  in  Februaiy  (A.D.  547),  at  which  it  was 
decided  to  refer  passing  sentence  upon  the  three  chap- 
ters to  the  meeting  of  the  general  council  about  to  take 
place.    See  Mansi,  CondL  ix,  125 ;  Labbe,  CondL  v,  890.' 

XXXn.  Held  A.D.  553,  the  fifth  general  council,  by 
order  of  the  emperor  Jnstinian,  with  Eutychius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  for  president;  pope  Yigilius  being  on 
the  spot  all  the  time,  but  declining  to  attend :  indeed, 
he  was  not  even  represented  there.  The  council  opened 
on  May  4,  in  the  cathedraL  In  the  first  and  second 
sessions,  which  were  styled  conferences,  Eutychinsy  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  ApoUinaris  of  Alexandria, 
and  Domnus  of  Antioch  were  present,  together  with 
three  bishops,  deputies  of  Eustachius,  the  patriarch  of 
Jerusalem;  there  were  in  all  one  hundred  and  rixty- 
five  bishops,  among  whom  were  five  Africans,  the  only 
bishops  who  attended  from  the  West  The  following  is 
a  summary  of  its  causes  and  proceedings,  with  their  re- 
sults: 

As  far  back  as  his  election,  A.D.  S87,  Vigilins  had 
been  secretly  pledged  to  the  empress  Theodora,  who  fk- 
vored  the  Honopbyslte  party,  to  assent  to  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  three  chapters ;  aud  this  step  had  been  pressed 
upon  the  emperor  nil  the  more  warmly  since  then,  in  con- 
eeqnence  of  toe  condemnation  of  the  OrigeDtsts  in  a  coan- 
dl  nnder  Hennas  the  year  following.  Theodore,  bishop 
of  Ccsaren,  a  devotea  Origen  Ist,  and  friend  of  the  em- 
press, pointed  it  ont,  in  fact,  as  a  means  of  hrincing  back 
a  large  section  of  the  Monophysites  to  the  Church.  Their 
opposition  to  the  fonrth  general  conncilt  be  averred,  lay  in 
toe  countenance  supposed  to  be  given  by  it  to  these  writ- 
inn:  1.  The  works  of  Theodore,  bishop  of  Mopenestia  • 
8.  The  letter  of  Ibas,  bishop  of  Edesss,  to  Maris;  and  8, 
whnt  Theodoret,  bishop  of  Cyrrhos,  had  published  agalnsK 
Cyril— the  third,  however,  be  forbore  to  name— all  held 
to  be  tainted  witli  Nestorlanism.  By  condemning  them, 
he  seems  to  have  expected  thnt  the  nothoritT  of  the  coun- 
cil that  had  treated  tbetr  antbors  so  favorably  would  be 
undermined.  Justinian,  acting  on  his  advice,  had  ftV 
ready  condemned  them  twice  (A.I>.  S46  and  861),  and  the 
first  time  had  been  followed  bj  Vi^lias,  whose  Judg- 
mmtf  published  at  Constantinople,  Ari>.048,  is  quoted  in 
part  by  the  emperor  in  bis  address  to  this  council  on  its 
assembllDg.  But  Vigilins  had  (A.D.  64T)  declared  against 
coming  to  any  declsfon  on  the  subject  till  it  had  been  dfs- 
cntsed  tn  a  general  eomieil;  and  to  thia  he  went  back 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


8t 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


on  tMcrtfiini&g  vbat  indirnfttioii   his  Jttdfftnent  had 

eaoMd  in  Africa  and  in  the  Weat,  and  excommanicated 

Mennaa  and  Theodore  tor  having  gone  fhrlber.    Accord- 

iagl7,  die  emperor  decided  on  anmmoning  thia  conudl  (o 

eiamine  and  prononnce  opon  them ;  and  Entychinis  the 

CoDstaatioopoliuu  patriarch,  addreased  a  letter  to  VI- 

giliog.  which  was  read  oot  at  its  first  session.  May  O*  re- 

goestlng  him  to  come  and  preside  over  its  deilbernttons. 

vieilliis  assented  to  their  joint  examination  by  himself 

and  the  conucil,  bnt  was  silent  abimt  his  attendance. 

Tbtce  patriarchs  and  a  namber  of  bishops  accosted  him 

persoDAliy,  with  no  better  success. 

At  the  seeond  session  or  eoOation,  a  second  interview 
with  him  was  reported,  in  which  he  definitively  declined 
attending ;  and  even  on  a  message  from  the  empen>r  he 
woald  not  undertake  to  do  more  than  examine  the  chap- 
ters by  himself,  and  transmit  his  opinion  on  them,  not  to 
tite  conucil,  bat  to  him.  Some  bif  hops  of  Africa  and  III  vrla 
exeased  themselves  to  the  deputation  sent  to  invite  their 
attendance. 

At  the  tkSrd  eMoHon  the  futhers  commenced  the  real 
bosiness  for  which  they  had  been  convened.  I'hey  pledged 
therotelvea  to  the  exact  doctrine  and  discipline  laid  down 
in  the  four  general  couacils,  each  and  all,  preceding  their 
own :  one  tatd  the  same  confession  of  faith  had  sufflced 
for  them  In  spite  of  all  the  hereaies  they  had  met  to  cun- 
&eam,  and  should  suffice  now.  AH  things  in  harmony 
with  It  should  be  received ;  and  all  thinga  nt  variance 
with  it  rejected.  Having  thus  pledged  themselves  to  the 
fourth  council  among  the  rest,  the  fiithers  proceeded  to  the 
ezamiDatlon  of  the  three  chapters  in  thelr/owrCA  collation, 
Tbis  was  on  May  IS.  Bxtracta  having  accordingly  been 
read  out  from  various  works  of  ThSMore,  both  he  and 
tbey  were  judged  worthy  of  condemnation. 

The  next  day,  or  the  JIfih  collaiioTi,  passages  for  or 
aj^ainst  Theodore,  Cyril,  and  others,  were  produced  and 
weighed;  and  authorities,  particularly  Angnstine,  cited 
in  avor  of  condemning  heretics,  although  dead.  At  the 
close  of  the  titling,  ^tracts  from  the  writings  of  The- 
odoret,  sgainst  Cyril,  were  recited ;  on  which  the  fathers 
remarked  that  the  fourth  council  had  acted  widely  In  not 
receiring  him  till  he  had  anathematized  Nestorlus. 

The  sixth  eoUation  took  place  May  19.  During  the  in- 
terval VlgUina  issued  his  Cwwlitutum,  dated  May  14,  in 
the  farm  of  a  synodical  letter  addressed  to  the  emperon 
answering  and  condemning  a  number  of  the  positions  of 
Theodore,  bnt  pleading  for  Theodoret  and  loas,  as  hav- 
ing been  acquitted  by  the  fourth  coundL  However,  the 
coan^l  at  its  tixth  coOaJtkn  found  the  letter  of  Ibas  in 
qoeetloik  contrary  to  the  Chalcedonian  definition,  and 
anatbematized  it  accordingly ;  but  its  author  escaped. 

At  the  mtadk  eoUaUofn^  juy  S6  or  20,  a  communication 
was  read  from  the  emperor  in  deprecation  of  the  Om- 
afilulvm,  addressed  to  him  by  the  pope.  May  14,  and  on 
^rbicb  there  had  been  a  good  many  messages  between 
tbem,  la  vain,  since.  No  less  than  six  d<icnments  were  re- 
cited, proving  that  Vigillns  had  expressly  condemned  the 
three  chapten*  as  many  times ;  the  last  of  them,  a  depo- 
•itl«>n  signnl  by  Theodore,  bishop  of  Cssarea,  and  a  lay 
dignitary,  to  tbe  effect  that  Vlgfllns  had  sworn  to  the 
erapoor  in  their  presence  to  do  all  he  could  for  the  con- 
demnation of  the  three  chapters,  and  never  say  a  word  In 
tbeir  faTor.  Next,  an  inquiry,  by  order  of, the  emperor, 
respecting  a  picture  or  st atne  of  Theodoret,  said  to  have 
been  earned  about  at  Cyrrhns  in  pmoession,'wa8  reported. 
lanly,  tbe  imperial  mandate,  which  ordained  that  the 
luune  of  Vigilius  should  be  removed  from  tbe  sacred 
diptjchi  for  nls  tergiversations  on  the  subject  of  the  three 
Cnaptem  Unity  with  the  apostolic  see  would  not^  he 
addSy  be  thereby  dissolved,  inasmuch  as  neither  Vigilius 
nor  any  (kkvt  Individual  could,  by  his  own  change  for  the 
wone,  mar  the  peace  of  the  Church.  To  all  this  the  coon- 
dl  agreed. 

Finally,  reviewing  at  its  Hghth  eoUafion,  June  2,  In  a 
siagnlarly  well-wrluen  compendium,  all  that  it  had  done 
previously,  and  vindicating  the  course  about  to  be  pur- 
sued, the  coundl  formally  condemned  the  three  chapters, 
aad  with  them  the  author  of  the  first  of  them— Theodore— 
promnlgating  Its  deflnitlTe  sentence  in  fourteen  anathe- 
naa,  almost  Identical  with  those  of  the  emperor,  and  In 
whkii  the  hereslee  and  heresiarchs  thus  condemned  are 
spedfled;  Origen  among  the  number,  in  the  eleventh, 
tmrneh  not  tn  the  correspoudiug  one  of  the  emperor.    He 
had  been  previously  condemned  in  the  council  under  Men- 
aas  A.D.  C38,  as  we  have  seen.    Of  these  anathemaa  the 
Oroek  version  is  still  extant :  of  almost  every  other  record 
nf  Ua  piooeedhigs  the  Latin  version  alone  remains.    Vlgil- 
kie,  after  taking  some  time  to  consider,  annonnced  his  as- 
•ent  tothem  in  two  formal  documents :  the  first  a  decretal 
apisCle,  dated  Dec.  8  of  the  same  year,  and  addressed  to 
ue  CoiistanUnopolltan  patriarch,  in  which,  as  he  says, 
tfker  the  manner  of  Augustine,  be  retracts  all  that  he 
had  ever  written  dlfferentlv;  and  the  secondt  another 
CbasCttsiam  of  great  length,  dated  Feb.  iS  of  the  year 
fcUowinf,  but  without  any  heading  or  subscrintlon  in  its 
preseat  l>rm.    He  died  on  his  way  home,  ana  Pelaglue, 
the  Bonan  envoy  who  had  been  instrumental  in  con- 
^nuia^  Origen,  had  thus,  on  becoming  po])e,  to  vindl- 
cate  the  condemnation  of  the  three  chaptera  by  this  coun- 
dl, fa  the  Weat,  where  they  had  been  defended  all  bnt 

XIL-F 


unanimously,  and  were  upheld  obstinately  by  more  than 
three  parts  of  Italy  still.  The  second  Pelaglus,  twenty- 
five  years  later,  in  nls  third  letter  to  tbe  bishops  of  Istria, 
saia  to  have  been  written  by  Gregory  the  Great,  then  his 
deacon,  apologized  for  the  conduct  of  his  predecessors 
and  his  own  therein,  by  referring  to  the  occasion  on 
which  Peter  was  reproved  by  Paul  (Qal.  11,  11).  Greg- 
ory, when  pope,  settled  the  matter  by  affirming  that  he 
venerated  the  fifth  council  equally  with  the  four  preced- 

lU)?. 

Ko  canons  seem  to  have  been  passed  by  this  council ; 
many  points  connected  with  it  are  still  doubtful :  and  the 
documents  published  as  belonging  to  it  greatly  need  re- 
arranging. 

See  Mansi,  CaneU,  ix,  1 51-661 ;  Labbe,  C<mciL  v,  41 1 ,  sq. 

XXXIII.  Held  A.D.  666,  at  which  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian endeavored  to  get  the  errors  of  Julian  of  Halicar- 
nusus,  a  well-known  Monophysite,  who  maintained  the 
inoorruptibility  of  the  body  of  Christ  antecedently  to 
his  resnrreotion,  approved,  by  banishing  those  who  op- 
posed them.    See  Mansi,  ConeiL  ix,  766. 

XXXIV.  Held  A.D.  687,  at  which  a  foul  charge 
brought  against  Gregory,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  by  a 
banker  of  bis  diocese,  was  examined.  He  was  honora- 
bly acquitted  and  his  accuser  punished.  This  may  have 
been  the  s^'nod  summoned  as  a  general  one  by  the  Con- 
Btantinopolitan  patriarch  John,  in  virtue  of  his  assumed 
title  of  oecumenical  patriarch,  and  for  which  he  was  so 
severely  taken  to  taslc  by  pope  Pdagius  II ;  but  for  this 
no  direct  proof  is  adduced.  This  is  referred  to  in  a 
letter  of  Gregory  the  Great  to  that  patriarch,  and  a 
further  letter  of  his  some  time  later,  when  Cyriacus  was 
patriarch,  whose  plan  of  holding  another  synod  for  the 
same  purpose  he  would  seem  to  have  anticipated.  Mansi 
conceives  tbis  synod  to  have  been  held  A.D.  598  (Coa- 
cU,  ix,  481). 

XXXV.  Held  A.D.  626,  under  Sergins,  to  consider 
the  question  raised  by  Paul,  a  Monophysite  of  Phasis, 
in  LflLSEica,  and  Cyrus,  its  metropolitan — afterwards  trans- 
lated to  Alexandria — before  tbe  emperor  Heraclius, 
whether  one  or  two  wills  and  operations  were  to  be 
ascribed  to  Christ,  Sergius  pronounced  in  favor  of  one 
operation  and  one  will;  thereby  founding  the  heresy 
called  Monothelism.  The  question  may  have  originated 
with  Athanasius,  patriarch  of  the  Jacobites  in  Syria, 
on  his  promotion  to  the  see  of  Antioch  by  Heraclius 
four  years  later.    See  Mansi,  Condi,  x,  586. 

XXXYI.  Hdd  A.D.  639,  under  Sergius,  and  contin- 
ued—unless there  were  two  distinct  councils  this  year 
— under  Pyrrhus,  his  successor,  at  which  the  exposition 
of  faith  by  tbe  emperor  Heraclius,  favorable  to  Mono- 
thelism, was  confirmed.  Parts  of  its  acta,  with  the  **  ex- 
position "  in  full,  were  recited  in  the  third  sitting  of  the 
Lateran,  under  Martin  I,  A.D.  649.  See  Mansi,  ConeiL 
x,673. 

XXXVII.  Held  A.D.  665,  by  order  of  tbe  emperor 
Constans  II,  at  which  Maximus,  the  great  opponent 
of  the  Monothelitesy  was  condemned.  See  Mansi,  Con- 
ci/.  xi,73. 

XXXTIII.  Held  A.D.  666,  under  Peter,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  and  attended  by  Macedonius  of  Antioch 
and  the  vicar  of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  at  which 
Maximus  was  condemned  a  second  time,  with  his  dis- 
ciples.    See  Mansi,  ConeiL  xi,  73. 

XXXIX.  The  sixth  general  coundl,  held  in  the  ban- 
queting-hall  of  the  pahice,  called  TruUus  from  its  domed 
roof,  and  lasting  from  Nov.  7,  A.D.  680,  to  Sept.  16  of  the 
ensuing  year.  It  was  convened  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  Pogonatns,  in  consequence  of  a  request  made 
to  him  by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  to  permit 
thrir  removing  from  the  sacred  diptychs  tbe  name  of 
pope  Yitalian,  lately  deceased,  while  they  were  for  re- 
taining that  of  Honorius.  In  short,  they  wished  to 
commemorate  none  of  the  popes  after  Honorius  till 
some  disputes  that  had  arisen  between  their  own  sees 
and  his  had  been  settled,  and  some  newly-coined  words 
explained.  Donus  dying  before  this  letter  could  reach 
Rome,  it  was  complied  with  at  once  by  his  successor, 
Agatho,  who  sent  three  bishops,  on  behalf  of  his  synod, 
and  two  presbyters,  and  one  deacon  named  John — ^who 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


82 


CONSTANTDfOPtE 


sabBeqaently  became  pope  as  John  V— in  his  own  name, 
to  Constantinople,  **  to  bring  about  the  union  of  the 
holy  churches  of  God."  On  hearing  from  the  "  cecn- 
menical  pope,"  as  he  styles  him,  to  that  effect,  the  em- 
peror issued  his  summons  to  GcSorge,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople— whom  he  styles  oecumenical  patriarch — 
and  through  him  to  the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  to  get 
ready  to  come  to  the  council  with  their  respective  bish- 
ops and  metropolitans.  Haqsuetus,  metropolitan  of 
Milan,  who  had  formed  part  of  the  Roman  synod  under 
Agatho,  sent  a  synodical  letter  and  profession  of  faith 
on  behalf  of  his  own  synod,  and  Theodore,  bishop  or 
archbishop  of  Bavenna,  who  had  formed  part  of  the 
same  synod,  a  presbyter,  to  represent  him  personally. 
The  number  of  bishops  actually  present,  it  is  said,  was 
two  hundred  and  eighty-nine,  though  the  extant  sub- 
scriptions are  under  one  hundred  and  eighty.  Thirteen 
officers  of  the  court  were  there  likewise,  by  command  of 
the  emperor,  who  attended  in  person,  and  were  ranged 
round  him — on  his  left  were  the  representatives  of  the 
pope  and  his  synod,  of  the  arohbishop  of  Savenna,  and 
of  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  then  Basil,  bishop  of 
Gortyna,  in  Crete,  and  the  remaining  bishops  "  subject 
to  Rome"— his  right  being  occupied  by  the  patriarohs 
of  Constantinople  and  Antioch,  a  presbyter  representing 
the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  the  bishop  of  Ephesus,  and 
*'the  remaining  bishops  subject  to  Constantinople." 
The  business  of  the  council  was  concluded  in  eighteen 
actions  or  sessions,  as  follows : 

1  (Not.  7, 680).  The  legates  of  Affatho  havhig  complained 
of  the  novel  teaching  of  four  patnarche  of  Constantinople, 
and  two  other  prtmates,  that  bad  for  forty-six  years  or  more 
troubled  the  whole  Chnrcb.  in  nttribattng  one  will  and 
operation  to  the  Incarnate  word,  Macarios,  patriarch  of 
Antioch,  and  two  soffrsganff  of  the  tee  of  Constantinople 
favorable  to  this  dogma,  briefly  replied  that  they  bad  put 
out  no  new  terms,  but  only  believed  and  taught  what  toey 
had  received  flrom  general  councils  and  fk-om  the  holy  fa- 
thers on  the  point  in  question,  particularly  the  patriarchs 
of  Constantinople  and  Alexniidrta,  named  by  their  op- 
ponents, and  Honorins,  formerly  pope  of  elder  Rome, 
whereupon  the  chartophylaz,  or  keeper  of  the  archives 
of  the  great  Church,  was  ordered  by  the  emperor  to  fetch 
the  books  of  the  cscnmenical  conndls  from  the  library  of 
the  patriarch.  As  nothing  was  said  of  the  acts  of  the  first 
and  second  councils  on  this  occasion,  we  most  infer  they 
had  been  lost  previounly.  The  chartophylax  was  told  to 
produce  what  ne  had  brought;  and  immediately  two  vol- 
umes of  the  acts  of  the  third  council  were  recited  by  Ste- 
{>hen,  a  presbyter  of  Antioch  in  waltiug  ou  Macarins,  who 
brtbwith  contended  that  some  of  Cyrirs  expressions  were 
favorable  to  him. 

S  (Nov.  10).  Two  volomes  of  the  acts  of  the  fourth  coun- 
cil were  read,  when  the  legates  of  Agatho  pointed  out 
that  two  operations  were  attributed  to  Cbiist  by  iH)pe 
Leo. 

8  (Nov.  18).  Two  volumes  of  the  acts  of  the  fifth  council 
were  read,  when  the  legates  protested  that  two  letters  of 
pope  Vigilins,  contained  in  the  second  volume, had  been  in- 
terpolated, and  that  a  discourse  attributed  In  the  first  to 
Hennas,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  spurious.  This 
last  having  been  proved  on  the  spot  Arom  internal  evi- 
dence, its  recital  was  stopped,  the  emperor  directing  fhr- 
ther  inquiry  to  be  made  respecting  the  lettere  of  the 
pope. 

4  (Nov.  15).  Two  lettere  firom  Agatho  were  recited— one 
to  the  emperor,  in  his  own  name,  the  other  to  the  conncll, 
In  his  own  name  and-tbat  of  a  synod  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  bishops,  assembled  under  him  at  Rome,  previ- 
ously to  the  departure  of  his  legates.  The  burden  of  both 
is  the  same,  namely,  that  what  bad  been  defined  as  of  fiftith 
by  the  five  general  councils  preceding  it  was  the  summit 
of  his  ambition  to  keep  inviolate.  Several  passages  in 
the  lAtln  version  of  these  letters,  on  the  prerogatives  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  are  not  found  in  the  Greek.  Either, 
therefore,  they  have  been  interpolated  in  the  one,  or  sup- 
pressed in  the  other. 

5  (Dec.  10).  Two  papere  were  exhibited  by  Macarins,  and 
recited,  of  which  the  first  was  headed,  **  Testimonies  from 
the  holy  fathera  confirmatory  of  there  being  one  will  in 
Christ,  which  is  also  that  of  the  Father  and  the  Holy 
Qboat" 

6  (Feb.  18, 681).  A  third  paper  from  Mocarius,  to  the  same 
effect  as  the  other  two,  having  been  read,  the  sealing  of 
all  three  was  commanded  by  the  emperor,  and  intrusted  to 
his  own  officials  and  those  oelonging  to  the  sees  of  Rome 
and  Constantinople.  On  the  I^ates  offlrming  that  the  quo- 
tations contained  in  them  had  not  been  fairly  made,  an- 
thentiq  copies  of  the  works  cited  were  ordered  to  be 
hronght  from  the  patriarchal  library  to  compare  with 
4bam. 


7  (Feb.  18).  A  paper  headed  **  Testimonies  from  the  holv 
falhen  demonstrating  two  wills  and  operetions  in  ChrUt" 
was  produced  by  the  legatee,  and  read.  Appended  to  It 
were  passages  from  the  writings  of  heretics,  iu  which  but 
one  will  and  operation  was  taught  This  paper  also  wis 
ordered  to  be  sealed,  by  the  emperor. 

8  (Moreh  7).  The  piissoges  adduced  by  Agstho  from  the 
fktbers,  and  by  his  syno<!^  in  Ikvor  of  two  wills  and  opers- 
tions,  having  been  examined  and  confirmed,  were  pro- 
nounced conclusive  by  all  present  except  MacarinB ;  and 
the  petition  to  have  the  name  of  Vitolian  erored  from  the 
diptycbs  was  withdrawn  by  Gtoorge,  the  existing  paUi- 
arch  of  Constantinople,  amid  greot  applause.  Hacsrloi 
being  then  called  upon  to  maxe  his  profetsion,  proved 
himself  a  Monothelite;  and  was  convicted  of  htvlDi; 
quoted  unfairly  from  the  fkthen  iu  his  papers,  to  support 
his  views. 

0  (March  8).  Examination  of  the  papers  of  Mscariss 
having  been  completed,  he  and  his  presbyter  Stephen 
were  formally  deposed  as  heretics  by  the  council 

10  (March  18).  The  paper  exhibited  by  the  legatoi  was 
taken  in  hand;  and  after  a  most  interesting  comparlioii 
between  it  and  the  authentic  works  in  the  patriarchal 
library,  was  declared  thoroughly  correct  in  ito  citations : 
a  profession  of  fiiith  was  received  from  the  bishop  of 
NIcomedia  and  some  othen,  iu  which  Monothelism  iras 
abjured. 

11  (Mareh  20).  A  long  and  remarkable  profession  of  faith, 
contained  in  a  synodical  letter  of  Sophronlus,late  patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  fint  to  oppose  Monothelism,  was  re> 
cited;  and  after  it,  at  the  request  of  the  lef»te&  some 
more  writings  of  Macarins,  since  come  to  hand,  that 
proved  full  of  heresy. 

15  (March  22).  Several  more  documents  belonging  to  Ma* 
carius  having  been  received  from  the  emperor throogh  one 
of  his  officers,  which  he  professed  not  to  have  read  hunsel^ 
some  were  looked  through  and  pronounced  irrelevant, 
but  three  lettere  were  redted  at  length,  two  from  Sergioe, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  one  from  pope  Honorioa 
in  reply  to  one  of  these.  Seareh  in  the  patriarchal  ar^ 
chives  and  proper  investigation  placed  the  genuineness  of 
all  three  beyond  doubt  A  suggestion  brought  fh)m  the 
emperor,  that  Macarlus  should  l^  restored  in  the  event  of 
his  recanting,  was  peremptorily  declined  by  the  conncll 

18  (March  28).  Both  the  lettere  of  Serglus  before  men- 
tioned nnd  that  of  Honorins  to  him  were  declared  hetero* 
dox ;  and  he  and  his  successors,  Pyrrbus,  Peter.  sndPanl 
Cyrus  of  Alexandria,  and  Theodore,  bishop  of  Pharan.- 
ou  all  of  whom  Agatho  had  passed  aentence  prevlonsiy— 
with  Honorius,  whom  Agatho  had  passed  over,  were  defln- 
Itively  cast  out  of  the  Church  — the  only  sentence  of  the 
kind  ever  decreed  ogainst  any  pope.  Finally,  search  having 
been  made  for  all  other  works  of  the  same  kind  in  the 
archives,  nil  that  could  be  foimd  were  brought  ont  and 
recited.  A  large  number  were  pronounced  heretical,  and 
bnrned  as  such.  Lettere  of  Thomas,  John,  and  ConsUn- 
tlne,  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  were  read  likewise, 
but  their  orthodoxy  was  allowed. 

14  (April  1).  Returning  to  the  lettere  of  pope  Tiglllas  that 
bad  been  called  in  question,  it  was  ascertained  by  corerol 
iuquiry  that  each  of  the  volumes  of  the  fifth  council  had 
been  tampered  with ;  in  one  cose  by  inserting  the  paper 
attributed  to  Menoas,  in  the  other  by  interpolating  the 
lettere  of  Vlfflllus,  in  support  of  heresy.  The  council  or- 
dered both  falsifications  to  be  cancelled,besides  anathema- 
tizing them  and  their  authon.  A  sermon  of  Athanaaias 
was  produced  by  the  bishop  of  Cyprus,  in  vrhlch  the  doc- 
trine of  two  wills  in  Christ  was  clearly  laid  down.  At 
this  sitting  Theophanes,  the  new  patriarch  of  Antioch,  is 
first  named  among  those  present. 

16  (April  26).  Polychroulus,  a  presbyter,  undertaking  to 
raise  a  aead  man  to  life  in  support  of^his  heretical  view?, 
and  faillug,  was  condemned  as  an  impostor,  and  deposed. 

10  (Ang.  9).  Constantine,  auotiier  presbyter,  affecting  to 
have  devised  some  formula  calculated  to  reconcile  Monoth* 
ellsm  with  orthodoxy,  was  proved  in  agreement  with  MaM 
carina,  and  similarly  condemned.  In  conclusion,  all  who 
had  been  condemned  were  anathematized,  one  after  the 
other,  by  name,  amid  cheere  for  the  orthodox 

17  (Sept.  11).  The  previous  acts  of  the  council  were  read 
over,  and  Its  definition  of  (kith  published  for  the  fint  time. 

18  (Sept.  10).  The  definition  havine  been  once  more  pub- 
lished, was  signed  by  all  present,  andreceived  the  assent  of 
the  emperor  on  the  apot,  amid  the  usual  acclamations  and 
reprobations.  It  consisted  of  Uiree  parts :  a.  An  intro- 
duction, proclaiming  entire  agreement  on  the  part  of  the 
coimcll  with  the  five  previous  councils,  and  acceptance  of 
the  two  creeds  promulgated  by  them  as  one.  o.  Recital 
of  the  two  creeds  of  Nioea  and  Constantinople  in  their 
pristine  forms,  e.  Its  own- definition,  enumerating  all 
previously  condemned  for  Monothelism  once  more  by 
name,  and  mentioning  with  approbation  the  dedaretion 
of  pope  Agatho  and  his  synod  against  them,  and  in  favor 
of  the  true  doctrine,  which  it  proceeded  to  unfold  by 
oourse :  then  reiterating  the  decree  passed  by  previous 
councils  against  the  Ihimere  and  upholdere  of  a  faith  or 
creed  other  than  the  two  forms  already  specified ;  and  in- 
cluding finally  In  the  same  condemnation  the  inventon 
and  diesemluatore  of  any  novel  tenna  anbvenive  of  its 
own  rulings. 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


83 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


ProeeediDga  tennlnated  In  a  remarkable  addrete  to  the 
emperor  on  behalf  of  all  present,  which  was  read  ont. 
showihf  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  had  been  defined 
by  the  flret  two  conndla,  and  that  of  the  Incarnation  by 
the  next  Ibor,  of  which  this  waa  the  laat ;  and  a  atUl  more 
remarkable  reqneat  waa  appended  to  it—that  he  wonld 
forward  the  deflniUonf  signed  by  himeelf.  to  the  five  pa- 
triarchal tees  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  An- 
tiocfa,  and  Jemaalem;  which  we  are  told  exprewly  was 
done.  In  eondoaion,  a  letter  waa  despatched  to  the  pope 
in  the  name  of  the  conndU  iufonninc  him  that  he  wonid 
receiTe  a  oodt  of  its  acts  thronsh  his  legates,  and  be^ng 
tliat  he  wooia  oonllrm  them  in  his  reply,  llie  emperor,  on 
his  part,  exhorted  all  to  receive  them,  in  a  special  edict: 
and,  as  he  had  promised,  addressed  a  letter  in  his  own 
name  to  the  Roman  synod,  dated  Dec  S8,  A.D.  081  ( Ai^atho 
dying,  according  to  CaTe,  Dec  l)i  and  another  to  Leo  II, 
soon  after  his  accession,  the  year  following,  bespesking 
their  acceptance.  This  the  new  pope  granted  without 
hesitation  In  the  fhUest  manner,  even  to  the  condemna- 
tion of  Honorias  as  having  betmyed  the  fkith ;  all  which 
he  repented  to  the  bishope  of  Spain,  in  sending  them  a 
iiStin  translation  of  the  acM  of  thiaconndl. 

It  fa  admitted  on  all  hands  that  no  canons  were  passed. 
Several  anecdotes  of  this  oonndl  fonnd  their  way  into  the 
West.  Bade  tells  ns,  for  instance,  that  snch  was  the  honor 
scoordcd  there  to  the  lentes  of  Agatho  that  one  of  Hiem, 
the  blahop  of  OportOjCeiebrated  the  encharist  in  Latin  on 
Low  Sonoay,  in  the  Chnrch  of  St.  Sophia,  before  the  em- 
peror and  patriarch.  Cardinal  Hnmbert  asserts  it  was 
then  explained  to  the  emperor  that  unleavened  bread  was 
ecdoinea  by  the  Latin  rite.  Bat  the  two  striking  inci- 
dents of  thfB  eonncil  were:  L  The  arrangement  of  the 
"bishfypa  sntjcct  to  Rome,"  and  thoee  "sobject  to  Cou- 
itantinople**  on  opposite  sides:  and,  I.  The  anathemas 
passed  on  pope  and  patriarch  alike. 

See  ICanai,  C<mdL  xi,  189  sq. ;  Labbe,  ComdL  vi,  687  sq. 
XL.  Held  A.D.  691,  in  or  not  earlier  than  September. 
The  fathers  oomponng  it,  in  their  address  to  the  em- 
peror Jnwtinian  II,  aay  that  they  had  met  at  bia  bidding 
ta  pan  aooke  canons  which  had  long  been  needed,  owing 
to  the  omiflBuni  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  conndls,  contrary 
to  the  pieoedent  of  the  fonr  first,  to  pass  any,  whence 
this  oooDcil  has  been  oonunonly  styled  the  fuvd-text^ 
or  a  supplement  to  both.  It  is,  indeed,  best  known  as 
the  Trvilaa,  from  the  hall  of  the  palace  in  which  it  waa 
held,  altfaoogh  the  sixth  council  had  met  there  also. 
The  number  of  bishops  subscribing  to  its  canons  is  two 
hundred  and  thirteen,  of  whom  forty-three  had  been 
present  at  the  sixth  council,  and  at  their  head,  instead 
of  after  them,  as  at  the  sixth  council,  the  emperor,  who 
signs,  however,  differently  from  the  rest,  as  merely  ac- 
cepting and  aaaenting  to  what  bad  been  defined  by  them. 
A  blank  ia  left  immediately  after  his  name  for  that  of 
the  pope,  showing  clearly  that  the  pope  waa  not  repre- 
sented there;  and  blanks  are  subsequently  left  for  the 
hisbopa  of  Thcssalonica,  Hendea,  Sardinia,  Ravenna, 
sad  Coiinth,  who  might,  had  they  been  present,  have 
been  sappoeed  to  be  acting  for  him.  Basil,  indeed,  bishop 
of  Gofftyna,  in  Crete,  is  set  down  as  subscribing  on  behalf 
of  the  whole  synod  of  the  Roman  Church ;  but  then  he 
is  sionlarly  set  down  among  the  subscriptions  to  the 
axth  coniiicil,  not  having  been  one  of  the  three  depu- 
ties sent  thither  from-  Rome,  and  afterwards,  in  the  let- 
ter addicMed  to  Agatho  by  the  council,  only  signing 
<br  himadf  and  his  own  sjmod.  Hence  thore  seems 
little  groond  for  supposing  him  to  have  represented 
Borne  there  in  any  sense.  Anastasius,  in  his  life  of 
Seigiaa  I,  who  was  then  pope,  says  that  the  legates  of 
the  apoatolic  see  were  present,  and  deluded  into  sub- 
sertbin^ ;  but  there  is  nothing  in  the  subscriptions  to 
eonfinn  thia,  and  of  the  acts  nothing  further  has  been 
pceserred.  Great  controversy  prevails  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  thia  ooandl  haa  been  received  in  the  West : 
ceeaneiiieBl  it  has  never  been  accounted  there,  in  spite 
of  its  own  cUdm  to  be  so;  and  when  its  canona  were  sent 
m  six  tomes  to  Sers^os^  himself  a  native  of  Antioch,  for 
sabscriptioot  he  said  he  wonld  die  sooner  than  assent  to 
the  cwjueuiia  innovationa  which  they  contained.  John 
VII,  the  next  pope  but  one,  waa  requested  by  the  emper- 
or to  oonffartD  all  that  be  could,  and  reject  the  rest;  buthe 
sent  back  the  tomes  untouched.  Constantine  is  supposed 
to  be  the  first  pope  tooonfirm  any  of  them ;  but  this  is  in- 
fiexred  sofelj  liom  the  honorable  reception  given  to  him 
stCnn^iiitiiio^  by  Justinian.    Adrian  I,  in  his  epis- 


tle to  Taranus,  read  out  at  the  seventh  oonndl,  is  ex- 
plicit enough :  '*  I,  too,  receive  the  same  six  holy  coun- 
cils, with  all  the  rules  constitutionally  and  divinely  pro* 
mulgated  by  them ;  among  which  is  contained  "  what 
turns  out  to  be  the  eighty-second  of  these  canons,  for 
he  quotes  it  at  full  length.  The  first  csnon  of  the 
seventh  council,  confirmed  by  him,  is  substantially  to  the 
same  effect  But  the  exact  truth  is  probably  told  by 
Anastasius,  the  librarian.  *<At  the  seventh  council,*' 
he  saj's,  **  the  prindpal  see  so  far  admita  the  rules  said 
by  the  Greeks  to  have  been  framed  at  the  sixth  coun- 
cU,  as  to  reject  in  the  same  breath  whichever  of  them 
should  prove  to  be  opposed  to  former  canons,  or  the  de- 
crees of  its  own  holy  pontiffs,  or  to  good  manners.*'  All 
of  them,  indeed,  he  contends  bad  been  unknown  to  the 
Latins  entirely  till  then,  never  having  been  translated ; 
neither  were  they  to  be  found  even  in  the  archives  of 
the  other  patriarchal  sees  where  Greek  was  spoken, 
none  of  whose  occupants  had  been  present  to  concur  or 
assist  in  their  promulgation.  This  shows  how  little  he 
liked  these  canons  himself,  nor  can  it  be  denied  that 
some  of  them  were  dictated  by  a  spirit  hostile  to  the 
West 

1.  The  council  declared  Its  adherence  to  the  apostolic 
faith,  as  defined  by  the  first  six  oecumenical  conndls,  and 
condemned  those  persons  and  errors  which  in  them  had 
been  condemned. 

2.  The  canons  which  they  received  and  confirmed  were 
set  forth,  viz.  the  eighty -five  canons  attributed  to  the 
apostles,  those  of  Nlcao,  Ancyra.  Neo-C«sarea.  Gangra, 
Antioch,  Laodicea,  and  those  of  the  oBcnraenical  councils 
of  Consuutinople,  Bjphesus,  and  Chalcedon,  also  those  of 
the  couudls  of  Sardica  and  Carthage,  and  those  of  Con- 
stantinople, under  Nectarius  and  Theophilus;  further, 
they  spproved  the  canonical  epistles  of  Dionyslus  of 
Alexandria,  of  Athanasius,  Basil  of  Ccsarea,  Gregory  of 
NvBsa,  Gregory  the  Divine,  Amphilochios  of  Iconfum. 
of  Timothy,  Tbeophllne,  and  cVril  of  Alexandria,  of 
Gennadius,  and,  lastly,  a  canon  of  Cyprian. 

S.  Enscts  that  all  priests  and  deacons  who.  being  mar- 
ried to  a  second  wile,  reAise  to  repent,  shall  be  deposed ; 
that  those  whose  second  wives  are  dead,  or  who  have  re- 
pented, and  live  in  continence,  shall  be  forbidden  to  serve 
at  the  altar,  and  to  exercise  any  priestly  fhnction  in 
Ibtnre,  but  shall  retain  their  rank ;  that  those  who  have 
married  widows,  or  who  have  married  after  ordination, 
shall  be  suspended  for  a  short  time,  and  then  restored, 
but  shall  never  bo  promoted  to  a  higher  order. 

7.  Restrains  the  arrogance  of  deacons ;  forbids  them 
to  take  precedence  of  pnests. 

9.  Forbids  clerks  to  Iceep  tavema 

11.  Forbids  familiarity  with  Jews. 

13.  Allows  (notwithstanding  the  decrees  of  th^  Soman 
Chnrch  to  the  contraiy)  that  married  men,  when  raleed 
to  holy  orders,  should  keep  their  Wives  and  cohabit  with 
them,  excepting  on  those  daya  on  which  they  are  to  cele- 
brate the  holy  communion :  and  declares  that  no  person 
otherwise  fit  and  desirous  for  ordination  shall  be  refUscd 
on  account  of  hia  being  married,  and  that  no  promise 
shall  be  extorted  from  him  at  the  time  of  ordination,  to 
abstain  fh>m  his  wife,  lest  God's  holy  institution  of  mat- 
rimony be  thereby  dishonored ;  orders  further,  that  they 
who  shall  dare  to  deprive  any  priest,  deacon,  or  sub- 
deacon  of  thia  privilege,*  ahall  be  deposed,  and  that,  also, 
any  priest  or  deacon  separating  lh>m  his  wife  on  pretence 
of  pletv,  shall.  If  he  persist,  be  deposed. 

14.  Enacts  that  men  be  not  ordained  priests  before  they 
are  thirty  yean  of  age,  or  deacons  before  twenty -five. 
Deaconesses  to  be  forty. 

15.  Sub-deacons  to  bo  twenty. 

17.  Forbids  clerks  to  go  from  one  chnrch  to  another. 

19.  Orders  those  who  preside  over  churches  to  teach 
the  people  at  least  every  Snudsy :  forbids  them  to  ex- 
plain Scripture  otherwise  than  the  lights  of  the  Church 
and  the  doctors  have  done  in  their  writings. 

81.  Orders  that  deposed  clerks,  who  remain  impenitent, 
shall  be  stripped  of  every  outward  mark  of  their  derical 
state,  and  be  regarded  as  men  of  the  world ;  those  who 
are  penitent  are  permitted  to  retain  the  tonsure. 

S&  Against  simony. 

28.  Forbids  to  require  any  fee  for  administering  the 
holy  communion. 

24.  Forbids  all  In  the  sacerdotal  order  to  be  present  at 
plays,  and  orders  such  as  have  been  invited  to  a  wedding 
to  rise  and  depart  before  any  thing  ridlculoua  is  Intro- 
duced. 

38.  Declarea  that  in  some  parts  of  Armenia  water  was 
not  mixed  with  the  wine  used  at  the  altar ;  condemns  the 
novel  practice ;  seta  forth  the  foundation  for  the  catholic 
use,  and  orders  that  every  bishop  and  prieat  who  refuses 
to  mix  water  with  the  wine,  "accoraing  to  the  order 
handed  down  to  us  by  the  apostles,"  shall  ue  deposed. 

86.  Decrees  that  the  see  of  Constantinople,  according 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


84 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


to  the  canons  of  ConsUntlnopto  and  Cbaloedon,  ihall 
ha^e  eqnal  prlTlleges  with  the  throne  of  old  Rome. 

40, 4L  Or  thoae  who  shall  he  admitted  into  the  mo- 
nastic state. 

48.  or  hermits. 

48.  Orders  that  the  wife  of  one  who  has  been  raised  to 
the  episcopate,  having  first  separated  flx>m  her  hnsband 
of  her  own  free-will,  shall  be  kept,  at  the  bishop's  ex- 
pense, in  a  monastery  far  lirom  him,  or  shall  be  promoted 
to  the  deaoonate. 

68.  Forbids  a  man  to  marry  her  to  whose  children  by 
a  deceased  hnsband  he  has  become  godfkther. 

B&.  Forbids  any  to  fast  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays, 
OTen  dnrinff  Lmt. 

60.  Forbms  to  eat  eggs  or  cheese  in  Lent. 

67.  Forbids  to  offer  milk  and  honey  at  the  altar. 

68.  Forbids  a  lay  person  to  administer  to  himself  the 
holy  mysteries,  when  thero  is  a  bishop,  priest,  or  deacon 
present ;  offenders  to  be  separated  for  a  week,  "  that  they 
may  be  thereby  taaght  not  to  be  wiser  than  they  ought 
to  be." 

64.  Forbids  lay  persons  to  teach,  and  bids  them  rather 
learn  of  others  who  have  receiyed  the  grace  to  teach. 

60.  Orders  all  the  faithfhl,  for  seyen  days  after  Easter, 
to  occupy  themselyes  at  church  in  psalms  and  hymns  and 
spiritual  songs. 

67.  Forbids  to  eat  the  blood  of  any  animal;  offenders, 
if  clerks,  to  be  deposed. 

68.  Forbids  injury  to  any  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament 

60.  Forbids  lay  persons  to  enter  the  altar-rails. 

79.  Forbids  marriage  with  heretics. 

78.  Forbids  the  use  of  the  cross  lying  upon  the  ground, 
lest  by  treading  on  it  men  should  dishonor  It. 

74.  rorblds  to  celebrate  the  Agapse  in  churches.         * 

76.  Belates  to  the  manner  of  singing  psalms  to  be  ob- 
served. 

88.  Forbids  to  administer  the  holy  eucharist  to  dead 
bodies. 

84.  Orders  the  baptism.of  thoee  of  whose  baptism  there 
exists  any  doubt 

88l  Forbids  to  take  any  beast  into  n  church,  onless  in 
case  of  great  need  a  traveller  be  compelled  to  do  so. 

89.  Oraers  the  faithftil  to  observe  Good  Friday  with 
fasting  and  prayer,  and  compunction  of  heart,  until  the 
middle  of  the  night  of  the  mat  Sabbath. 

90.  Forbids  to  kneel  at  church  ttom  Saturday  night  to 
Sunday  night 

111.  Of  penance  and  absolution. 

This  conncil  receives  all  the  apostolical  canons,  eighty- 
five  in  number,  though  at  that  time  but  fifty  were  re- 
ceived in  the  Roman  Church,  but  rejects  the  apostolical 
cpDStitutions  as  having  been  interpolated,  and  contain- 
ing many  spurious  things.  Accordingly,  the  code  of 
the  Eastern  Church  was  authoritatively  settled,  apart, 
of  course,  from  the  one  hundred  and  two  canons  now 
added  to  it,  which  were  formally  received  themselves, 
as  we  have  seen,  by  the  second  council  of  Nictea,  and 
reckoned  over  afterwards  as  the  canons  of  the  sixth 
council.  Their  general  character  is  thoroughly  Ori- 
ental, but  without  disparagement  to  their  practical 
value.  See  Mansi,  ConeiL  xi,  921  sq. ;  xii,  47  sq. ;  Labbe, 
CoMctLvi,1124  8q. 

XLI.  Held  A.D.  712,  in  the  short  reign  of  PhUip- 
picus  or  Bardanes,  and  under  the  Monotbelite  patriarch 
of  his  appointment,  John  YI ;  at  which  the  sixth  coun- 
cil was  repudiated  and  condemned.  The  copy  of  its 
acts  belonging  to  the  palace  was  likewise  burned  by  his 
order,  as  wo  learn  from  the  deacon  who  transcribed 
them,  and  the  picture  of  it  that  hung  there  removed. 
On  the  death  of  the  tyrant,  indeed,  John  addressed  a 
letter  to  pope  Constantine,  to  apologize  for  what  had 
been  done^  but  its  tone  is  not  assuring.  He  testifies, 
however,  to  the  authentic  tomes  of  the  nxth  council 
being  safe  atill  in  bis  archives.  See  Mansi,  Caitcil.  xii, 
187  sq. 

XLIL  Held  A.D.  715,  Aug.  11,  at  which  the  trans- 
lation of  Germanus  from  the  see  of  Cyzicus  to  that  of 
Constantinople  was  authorized.  He  had  been  a  party 
to  the  Monotbelite  synod  under  John  three  years  before ; 
but  immediately  after  bis  translation  he  held  a  synod- 
most  probably  in  714,  of  whioh  this  was  a  continuation 
— ^in  which  he  condemned  Monotheli.<)m.  See  Mansi, 
CancU,  xii,  2&5  sq.;  Labbe,  CoruH,  vi,  1451. 

XLIIL  Held  A.D.  730,  or,  rather,  a  meeting  in  the 
imperial  paUioe,  at  which  the  emperor  Leo  IH,  bet- 
ter known  as  the  Isaurian,  called  upon  Germanus,  the 
aged  patriarch,  to  declare  for  the  demolition  of  images. 


which  he  had  Just  ordered  himself  in  a  second  edict 
against  them.  The  patriarch  replied  by  resigning.  Sec 
Mansi,  ConeiL  xii,  269  sq. ;  Labbe,  CoiiaL  vi,  1461. 

XLIV.  Held  AJ),  754,  from  Feb.  10  to  Aug.  8,  by 
order  of  the  emperor  Constantine  CopronymoB,  and 
styling  itself  QBcnmenical,  or  the  seventh  council,  though 
its  claim  to  both  titles  has  since  been  set  aside  in  isTor 
of  the  second  council  of  Nicssa,  in  which  its  decrses  were 
rereised.  There  is  no  record  of  its  acts  extant  but  what 
is  to  be  found  in  the  rixth  session  of  that  council,  where 
they  were  cited  only  to  be  condemned.  As  many  as 
three  hundred  and  thirty-eight  bishops  attended  it,  bat 
the  chief  see  represented  there  was  that  of  EpbesoB. 
Their  proceedings  are  given  in  six  tomes,  as  follows: 

1.  They  deduce  the  origin  of  all  creatnre-w<»ship  from 
the  devil,  to  abolish  which  Ood  sent  his  Son  in  the  flesh. 

S.  Christianity  being  established,  the  devil,  they  taj, 
was  detenninea  to  bring  about  a  combination  between  it 
and  Idolatry ;  but  the  emperors  had  opposed  his  desinii. 
Already  six  councils  had  met,  and  the  present  one.  follow- 
lug  in  their  steps,  declared  all  pictorial  represeutationsnn* 
lawfM,  and  subversive  of  the  faith  which  they  professed. 

8.  Two  natures  being  united  in  Christ,  no  one  nictore 
or  statue  could  represent  Christ  as  he  is ;  besides,  hit 
only  proper  representation  is  In  the  eucharistic  sacriflce, 
of  his  own  institution. 

4.  There  was  no  prayer  in  nse  for  consecrsting  imsgee, 
nor  were  representations  of  the  saints  to  be  tolerated  nj 
more  than  of  Christ,  for  Holy  Scripture  was  distinctly 
against  both. 

5.  The  fathers,  beginning  with  Epiphanius,  having  been 
cited  at  some  length  to  the  same  purpose,  the  conncll  de- 
creed unanimously  that  all  likenesses,  of  whatsoever  color 
and  material,  were  to  be  taken  away,  and  utterly  dlsued 
in  ChristlAU  churches. 

0.  All  clergy  setting  up  or  exhibiting  reverence  to  im- 
ages  in  church  or  at  home  were  to  be  deposed ;  monks 
and  laymen  anathematized.  Vessels  and  vestmenu  be- 
longing to  the  sanctuary  were  never  to  be  tnrned  to  soy 
purpose  in  connection  with  Images.  A  series  of  anathemna 
was  directed  against  all  who  npheld  them  in  any  eenie, 
or  contravened  the  decrees  of  this  council.  Germanvi, 
the  late  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  George  of  Cyprns, 
and  John  of  Damascus,  or  Mansur,  as  he  was  colled  by 
the  Saracens,  were  specially  denounced  as  irasge-wor- 
shippers.  The  usual  acclamations  to  the  emperor  fol- 
lowed. Before  the  council  separated,  Constantine,  toe 
new  patriarch,  was  presented  to  it  and  approved. 

See  Mansi,  CmciL  xu,  575 ;  xui,  208  sq. ;  Labbe,  CtmdL 
vi,  1661  sq. 

XLV.  Held  A.D.  786,  Aug.  2,  by  the  Iconodulist8,bat 
broken  up  by  the  violence  of  the  opposite  party.  See 
Ignatius  of  Constantinople,  Vita  Taratii, 

XLYI.  Held  A.D.  815,  by  the  Iconoclasts,  under  the 
emperor  Leo;  the  abbots  of  Constantinople  excused 
themselves  from  attending,  and  the  monks  deputed  to 
bear  to  the  council  their  reasons  for  so  doing  were  driven 
from  the  assembly ;  also,  those  of  the  bishops  who  dif- 
fered in  opinion  from  the  dominant  party  were  tram- 
pled upon  and  maltreated.  The  council  condemned  the 
acts  of  the  second  council  of  Nicssa,  A.D.  787,  and  de- 
creed that  all  paintings  in  churohes  should  be  defaced 
everywhere,  the  sacred  vessels  destroyed,  as  well  as  all 
Church  onamentfl.  This  council  has  never  been  recog- 
nized by  the  Western  Church.  See  Labbe,  CtrndL  vii, 
1299. 

XLVIL  Held  A.D.  842,  by  the  emperor  Michael  and 
Theodora,  his  mother.  This  council  confirmed  the  sec- 
ond council  of  Nicaea,  anathematized  the  Iconoclasts, 
restored  images  to  the  churches,  deposed  the  patriarch 
John,  and  elected  Methodius  in  his  stead.  In  memo- 
ry of  this  council  the  Greek  Church  still  keeps  the 
second  Sunday  in  Lent  (the  day  on  which  it  was  held) 
holy,  as  the  festival  of  orthodoxy.  See  Labbe,  Can- 
ciL  vu,  178.2 

XLVIIL  Held  A.D.  858,  by  the  b'lshopa  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Constantinople,  first,  on  account  of  the  banish- 
ment of  Ignatius,  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by 
the  emperor  Bardas,  to  whom  he  had  justly  refused  com- 
munion after  having  charitably  warned  him  of  the  scan- 
dal occasioned  by  his  irregukr  life.  They  deposed  Pho- 
tius,  who  had  been  intruded  into  the  see,  with  aiuithe- 
ma,  as  well  against  himself  as  against  all  who  should 
dare  to  acknowledge  him  to  be  patriarob.  ThisPhotitti 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


85 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


was  one  of  the  moel  leamed  and  able  men  of  hit  age ; 
bat,  led  artray  by  bis  boundlev  ambition,  by  bis  arti- 
fices be  pvocuied  bis  election  to  tbe  patriarebate,  al- 
tbougb  a  layman,  and  was  consecrated  by  Gregory  As- 
besta,  the  deposed  bishop  of  Syracose,  Dec  25|  857. 

Forty  days  alter  bis  consecration  be  held  a  ooancil, 
in  which  sentence  of  deposition  and  anathema  was  pro- 
nounced against  Ignatius  and  his  followers;  and  in  861 
be  conroked  another  coancil,  at  which  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  bishops  (including  the  pope*s  legates)  at- 
tended, together  with  the  emperor  Michael  and  a  large 
number  of  lords  and  people.  To  this  council  Ignatius, 
haring  been  cited,  refused  to  come,  protesting  against 
its  irregularity,  but  some  days  afterwards  he  was  seized 
and  forcibly  bfooght  before  it.  After  a  sort  of  mock 
trialy  be  was  condemned,  and  sentence  of  deposition 
passed  upon  him;  be  was  then  imprisoned,  and  sub- 
jected to  great  cruelties.  The  pope,  it  should  be  sdd- 
ed,  had  been  deceived  into  sending  legates  to  this  coun- 
cil, and  the  latter,  when  at  Constantinople,  by  threats 
were  forced  t9  yic^d  an  assent  to  its  proceedings.  Ig- 
natius sabse<ittently,  in  order  to  deliver  himself  from 
the  cruelties  which  he  endured,  signed  (or  rather  was 
forced  to  sign)  a  confession  declaring  that  he  had  been 
unlawfully  elevated  to  the  see;  after  this  he  was  de- 
livered from  prison,  and  escsped  from  Constantinople. 
Fhotlos  then  wrote  an  artfnl  letter  to  pope  Nicholas,  to 
induce  him  to  recognise  his  elevation  to  the  patriarch- 
ate, which  be,  however,  refused  to  do^  and  held  a  coun- 
cil at  Ronoe  (868),  in  which  Zachens,  one  of  the  legates 
who  attended  the  pseudo-council  of  861,  was  excommu- 
nicated, tbe  other  renumded,  and  Photius  himself  con- 
demned and  deposed.  Upon  this  the  latter,  in  866, 
called  together  another  assembly,  wherein  tbe  emper- 
ors Michael  and  Basil  presided,  together  with  tbe  leg- 
ates of  the  three  great  Eastern  sees ;  and  this,  after  bear- 
ing witnesses  against  Nicholas,  the  pope,  pronounced 
sentence  of  deposition  and  excommunication  against 
him.  Twenty-one  lusbops  signed  this  sentence,  and 
about  one  thousand  false  signatures  wore  said  to  have 
been  added.  After  so  bold  a  step  it  was  impossible  to 
keep  op  appearances  with  Rome  any  longer,  and  Pho- 
tius wrote  a  circular  letter  to  the  Oriental  bishops,  in 
which  he  dared  to  charge  with  error  tbe  whole  West 
Among  other  accusations,  he  charged  the  Latin  Church 
with  adding  the  word  '*  Filioqne  **  to  the  original  creed. 
See  Labbe,  CwuiL  viii,  661, 695, 785. 

XLIX.  Held  A.D.8i67.  In  this  council  Photius  was 
deposed  and  driven  into  banishment,  Ignatius,  by  a  de- 
cree of  the  emperor  Basil,  having  been  restored  to  the 


Lb  Sometimes  called  the  eighth  general  council,  held 
A.D.  869,  by  the  emperor  Basil,  and  attended  by  about 
one  huodred  Eastern  bishops,  and  by  three  legates  from 
pope  Adrian  IL 

Tbe  council  was  opened  (Oct  6)  in  the  Charch  of  8t 
Sophia.  Tbe  pope's  legates,  who  had  been  received  by 
tbe  emperor  with  the  most  marked  attention  and  honor, 
had  the  Unt  seats  sssipied  to  them ;  tbe  lecates  of  the 

Ktriarcbs  <Mr  Antloch  and  Jerusalem  were  slso  present 
le  first  bishops  who  entered  tbe  coancil-chamber  were 
the  twelve  who  had  suffered  persecution  from  Photius  in 
the  cause  of  Igoatins :  then  the  pope's  letters  to  the  em- 
peror and  to  the  patriarch  wera  read,  also  tbe  form  of 
reeoacStiAtion  which  the  Boman  legates  had  brought 
with  tbem. 

In  the  seomd  S0M<on  <Oct  7)  the  bisbops,  priests,  den- 
eons,  and  snb-deaeo»s  who  had  yielded  to  rbotius  ap- 
peared and  testified  their  repentance,  urjrinff,  at  tbe  same 
time,  in  excuse,  the  evils  that  they  had  been  made  to 

In  the  CMrd  and  fmxrih  muikm^  (Oct  11  and  18)  The- 
opbllna  and  Zacbary  were  qnestiuued.  The  legates  from 
Antloch  dedared  that  Phoiius  bad  never  been  acknowl- 
edged by  the  Church  of  Antioeb.  Also,  a  letter  fh>m  tbe 
pope  to  tbe  emperor  Michael  was  read. 

Fi^  mmion  (Oct  90).  Photios  himself  was  broocht  be- 
liife  tbe  council  and  questioned.  Being  reoulred  to  ent)- 
Diit  to  tbe  council  and  to  Ignatius,  in  order  to  be  re- 
ceived into  lay  communion,  be  reftised  to  give  a  definite 
answer,  and  waa  withdrawn. 

In  tbe  aiadk  mnkn  (Oct.  85)  the  emperor  Basil  was  pree- 
est,  and  occupied  the  chief  place,    several  bishops  who 


had  taken  part  with  Photius  were  tntrodoced,  and  ex- 
horted to  renounce  their  schism;  thev,  however,  con- 
tinned  firm  in  their  fidelity  to  hlra,  and  Zacbary,  bishop 
of  Chalcedon,  in  a  long  oration,  defended  Photius  firom 
tbe  charges  brought  sgsiust  bim.  The  emperor  himself, 
at  some  length,  endeavored  to  persusde  tbem  to  renounce 
Photius  and  to  submit  to  Ignatius,  but  they  resolutely 
refused.  Ten  days  were  granted  them  in  which  to  con- 
sider the  matter. 

In  the  §eventk  tmion  (Oct  S9),  Photius  again  appeared, 
and  with  him  Gregory  of  Syracuse :  an  admonition  to  blm- 
feir  and  his  partisans  was  read,  exhorting  tbem,  under 
pain  of  anathema,  to  submit  to  the  council.  Photius 
merely  answered  that  he  bad  nothing  to  say  in  reply  to 
calumnies,  whereupon  the  IcMtes  directed  the  sentence 
of  excommnnlcatiuu  against  Thollua  and  Gregory  to  bo 
read. 

In  tbe  eiffhth  ssssfon  (Nov.  6)  the  acts  of  the  council 
against  Ignatius,  and  several  of  the  books  written  by 
Photius,  were  burned ;  anathema  wss  pronounced  against 
the  Iconoclasts,  and  finally,  tbe  sentence  of  anatnema 
ngainsl  Photius  was  repeated. 

Ju  tiie  nifUh  muUm  (Feb.  IS,  870),  false  witnesses  whom 
the  emperor  Michael,  at  tbe  instigation  of  Photius,  bad 
bronght  forward  to  ^\t  evidence  against  Ignatius,  were 
put  to  penance.  In  this  session  the  emperor  was  not 
present,  but  tbe  legate  of  tbe  patriarch  of  Alexandria  at^ 
tended. 

In  tbe  tenth  and  Iaa(  sMtion  (Feb.  S6)  the  emperor 
Basil  attended,  with  his  son  Ck)nBtantine,  twenty  patri- 
cians, tbe  three  ambasvadore  of  Louis,  emperor  ofitaly 
aud  France,  and  those  of  Michael,  king  of  Bulgaria ;  also 
a  hundred  bishops  were  present  They  acknowledged 
seven  preceding  oBcnmenical  connclls,  aud  declared  tola 
to  be  the  eighth.  Tbe  condemnation  pronounced  by  tbe 
popes  Nicholas  and  Adrian  against  Photius  was  con- 
firmed. 

Twenty-seven  canons  which  had  been  drawn  up  in 
the  previous  sessions  were  read ;  they  were  chiefly  di- 
rected against  Photius : 

i  8.  Enjoins  tbe  wonblp  of  the  sacred  Image  of  our  Lord 
'Vinally  with  tbe  books  of  the  holy  Gospels  {cBq^o  htmore 
ewn  libro  S.  E.)\  also  ordere  tbe  worship  of  the  cross  and 
of  images  of  Baiuts. 

7.  Forbids  persons  laboring  under  anathema  to  point 
tbe  holy  images. 

11.  Anathematizes  all  who  believed  with  Photius  that 
tbe  body  contains  two  souls. 

18.  Forbids  princes  to  meddle  in  tbe  election  of  bishops. 

18.  Ordera  that  tbe  higher  ranks  in  each  Church  shall 
be  filled  by  tbe  ecclesiastics  of  that  Church,  and  not  by 
strangers. 

1&  Beprobates  tbe  sacrilegious  use  made  of  tbe  holy 
vestments  snd  garmenu  by  tbe  emperor  Michael,  who 
employed  them  In  profkne  snows  and  eamea. 

81.  finjoins  reverence  to  all  the  patrisrehs,  especially  to 
tbe  pope,  and  declares  that  even  in  an  oscomeuical  synod, 
any  matter  of  complaint  or  doubt  involving  tbe  Roman 
Church  should  be  treated  with  suitable  reverence,  with- 
out presuming  to  pass  any  sentence  against  tbe  supreme 
pontifl's  of  old  Rome. 

Further,  a  definition  of  faith  was  published  in  the 
name  of  the  council,  with  anathema  against  all  heretics, 
especially  naming  Monothelites  and  Iconoclasts. 

The  acts  of  this  council  were  subscribed,  in  the  first 
place,  by  the  three  legates  of  the  pope  (the  emperor, 
through  humility,  refusing  to  sign  first),  then  by  tbe 
patriarch  Ignatius,  and  after  him  by  Joseph,  legate  of 
Alexandria,  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Tyre,  who  repre- 
sented the  vacant  see  of  Antioeb,  and  the  legate  of 
Jerusalem,  then  by  the  emperor  and  his  two  sons,  Con- 
stantine  and  Leo,  and,  lastly,  by  one  hundred  and  one 
bishops. 

This  council  has  not  the  slightest  claim  to  \>t  consid- 
ered oecumenical ;  it  was,  indeed,  annulled  in  the  follow- 
ing council,  and  has  always  been  rejected  by  the  East- 
ern Church.    See  Labbe,  ConciL  viii,  962. 

LI.  Sometimes  styled  the  ninth  general,  was  held 
A.D.  879,  by  the  emperor  Basil,  upon  the  restoration  of 
Photius  to  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  vacated 
by  the  death  of  Ignatius.  The  legates  of  pope  John 
VIII  and  of  all  the  Eastern  patriarchs  attended,  with  not 
less  than  three  hundred  and  eighty  buhops. 

In  the  frtt  »e$tion  Photius  presided ;  tbe  legate  of 
John,  ctiralnsl  Peter,  declared  the  pope's  willingness  to 
recognise  Photius  as  bis  brother,  and  produced  the  pres- 
ents which  be  bad  brought  for  the  latter  flx>m  Rome. 
Much  was  said  by  Zacharias,  bishop  of  Chalcedon,  and 
others,  In  praise  of  Photius,  which  was  greatly  applauded 
by  ibe  assembly. 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


66 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


In  the  ueond  teiiiom  (Nor.  14)  the  letter  of  the  pope 
to  the  emperor,  tnoeleted  Into  Greek,  waa  read,  those 
paru  which  were  nnfhvorable  to  Pbotlna  baying  been 
altered.  The  coancil  received  the  pope'a  letter  relating 
to  nnlon  with  the  latter,  but  rejected  that  which  claimed 
Bulgaria  aa  belonging  to  the  Roman  obedience.  The 
letter  of  the  pope  to  Fhotias  waa  then  rend,  that  part, 
however,  being  anppreaaed  which  declared  that  Photins 
onght  to  have  conanlted  him  before  retHming  to  the  aee 
of  Couatantinople,  and  to  have  aaked  paitlon  in  Ihll 
council.  The  biahopa  declared  that  no  force  or  violence 
had  been  need  by  Fhotina,  in  order  to  procure  hie  re- 
eatabliahment  in  the  eee,  and  that  all  bad  been  done 

anletlv  and  in  order;  aflerwarda.  he  himself  spoke, 
eclanng  that  he  had  been  elevated  to  the  patriarchate 
against  nis  own  will,  to  which  the  whole  council  aa- 
seoted.  This  done,  the  letters  of  the  eaatern  patriarchs 
to  the  emperor  and  to  Photins  were  read,  being  all  highly 
favorable  to  the  latter,  acknowledging  him  to  be  the  law- 
ful patriarch  of  ConsUntinople,  and  inveighing  against 
the  synod  of  869.  .  ^  . 

In  the  third  muion  (Nov.  18)  the  letter  of  John  YIII 
to  the  Church  of  Conetantiuople  waa  flrat  read,  then  the 
acta  of  all  previona  councils  condemning  Photins  were 
annulled,  the  council  declaring,  "We  reject  and  anathe- 
matize that  pretended  council  (the  preceding)  in  uniting 
ourselvee  to  the  patriarch  Photins." 

In  the  fourth  ttticn  (Christmaa  Eve)  the  letter  of  the 
patriarch  of  Antioch  to  Photins  waa  read ;  it  was  ap- 
proved by  the  conndl,  which  declared  that  the  eaatern 
aeea  had  all  along  recoenised  PhotlnSb  Afterwards,  the 
articlea  of  union  were  alscussed;  they  were  five:  1.  Re- 
specting Bulgaria,  concenilng  which  nothing  was  de- 
termined; 8.  Relating  to  the  consecration  of  laymen  to 
the  aee  of  Conatantinuple ;  8.  Forbidding  the  election  of 
any  person  to  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople  fh>m 
another  Church ;  4.  Condemning  all  the  councils  held 
against  Photins :  0.  Excommunicating  all  who  refhsed  to 
communicata  with  Photins.  The  last  four  were  unani- 
mously approved.  ,  ..    ^ 

In  tne  j(fih  aestUm  (Jan.  90,  880)  the  second  council  of 
Niciea  waa  approved,  and  received  aa  oscnmenicaL  After 
the  publication  of  certain  canons,  the  bishopa  present 
proceeded  to  snbscrlbe  the  acta  of  the  council,  the  Romav 
legates  being  the  Aret,  who  declared  that  they  acknowl- 
ec&ed  Photms  to  be  the  legitimate  patriarch,  that  they 
rejected  the  council  of  Couatantinople  in  869,  against 
him,  and  that  if  any  schismatics  should  still  separate 
themselves  from  Photins,  their  lawfhl  pastor,  tbev  ought 
to  be  excluded  from  communion,  until  they  should  return 
to  obedience. 

The  titth  tetaion  waa  held  (March  10)  in  the  palace, 
the  emperor  Basil  being  present.  Here  It  was  agreed  to 
follow  the  decisions  of  the  seven  cBcnmenlcal  councils  In 
drawing  up  a  profession  of  faith ;  thereby,  in  fact,  con- 
demning the  addition  of  the  "  Filioqne.*' 

In  the  getenth  and  la$t  aeMt'on,  held  on  Sunday,  March 
18,  in  the  church,  the  definition  of  faith,  agreed  to  In  the 
former  session,  waa  read  and  subscribed,  after  which  the 
council  was  dissolved. 

The  acta  of  thia  council  were  subscribed  by  the  em- 
peror. It  waa  rejected  by  the  Western  Church.  John 
YIII  very  shortly  after  sent  Marinua,  his  legate,  to 
Conatantinople,  to  revoke  his  consent  to  ita  proceed- 
ings, and  to  declare  his  concurrence  in  the  sentence 
of  excommunication  previously  passed  against  Photins. 
It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  universally  received  in 
the  East    See  Labbe,  Condi,  ix,  824-329. 

IIL  Held  A.D.  1054,  by  the  patriarch  Michael  CSferu- 
lariua.  In  this  council  the  great  schism  between  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churchea  waa  (aa  it  were)  consnm^ 
mated.  Cffimlariua  had  previously  written  a  letter  in 
his  own  name  and  that  of  Leo,  archbishop  of  Acrida,  to 
John,  bishop  of  Trani,  in  Apulia,  in  which  he  publicly 
aocuaed  the  Latin  Church  of  error.  Among  other  thinga 
laid  to  their  charge  was  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in 
the  holy  communion ;  single  immersion  in  holy  bap- 
tism ;  the  use  of  aigns  by  bishops,  etc.  To  this  letter 
Leo  IX  returned  an  angry  answer,  and  held  a  ooun- 
cQ  at  Rome,  in  which  the  Greek  churches  were  ex- 
oommunicated.  The  emperor,  however,  waa  anxioua 
to  appease  matters,  and,  by  hia  order,  Leo  sent  three 
legates  to  Constantinople,  Humbert,  Peter,  archbiahop 
of  Amalfi,  and  Frederick,  chancellor  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  (afterwards  Stephen  IX),  who  by  their  own  con- 
duct fully  seconded  the  arrogance  of  the  pope,  and,  in 
1054,  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  solemnly  excom- 
municated Michael  CsBrularius  and  Leo  of  Acrida,  with 
all  their  adherents ;  and,  leaving  a  written  document 
to  this  effect  upon  the  altar,  departed,  shaking  off  the 


dost  from  Uieir  feet.  Upon  this,  Michael  called  togeth- 
er this  coancil,  in  which  he  excommunicated  the  three 
legates,  with  aU  thoee  who  adhered  to  their  views.  The 
JMloQsy  with  which  the  bishops  of  Rome  regarded  the 
claipi  of  the  patriarcha  of  Constantinople  to  the  su- 
premacy over  the  churchea  of  their  own  obedience  was 
the  true  cause  of  this  rupture. 

LIIL  A  council  waa  held  by  Nicholas  III,  the  patri- 
arch, about  the  year  1084,  in  which  the  decree  made  in 
the  Council  of  Conatantinople,  A.D.  842,  in  favor  of  the 
use  of  images,  was  confirmed.  Simeon,  patriarch  of 
Jerusalem,  twenty-three  archbishops  and  bishops,  to- 
gether with  many  heads  of  monasteries,  were  present. 
The  case  of  Leo,  archbishop  of  Chaloedon,  was  dis- 
cussed, and  hia  opinion  unanimously  condemned,  which 
was  to  the  effect  that  an  ahBolttte  worship,  and  not 
merely  relative,  waa  due  to  the  holy  imagea.  Leo  him- 
aelf  aubmitted  to  the  dedaion  of  the  council,  retracted, 
and  was  admitted  to  communion. 

LIV.  Held  A.D.  1118,  under  John  IX,  in  which  the  aect 
of  the  Bogomili  was  condemned,  and  ita  leader  Baailius 
anathematized  and  aentenoed  to  be  burned.  Thia  aect 
took  ita  rise  in  Bulgaria.  Like  the  Maasaliana,  in  ear- 
lier times,  they  attributed  an  excessive  importance  to 
prayer,  and  walked  about  perpetually  muttering  prayer 
to  themselves;  the  Lord's  prayer  they  repeated  seven 
times  every  day,  and  five  times  in  the  night,  many  of 
them  very  much  more  frequently.  From  this  habit  of 
much  praying  they  derived  the  name  of  Bogomili,  which, 
in  the  Sclavonic  language,  roeana,  **God  have  mercy 
upon  us."  In  their  heretical  notions  they  resembled 
the  Manichieans  and  Paulicians,  which  last  sect  arose 
about  the  same  time.  They  affected  an  appearance  of 
extreme  aanctity,  and  wore  the  monkish  dress.  Their 
leader  Baailius,  a  physician,  had  twelve  principal  fol- 
lowers whom  he  designated  his  apostles,  and  also  some 
women,  who  went  about  spreading  the  poison  of  his 
doctrine  everywhere,  Baailius,  when  before  the  conn* 
cil,  refused  to  deny  his  doctrine,  and  dedared  that  be 
was  willing  to  endure  any  torment,  and  death  itselC 
One  peculiar  notion  of  this  sect  was,  that  no  tonnent 
could  affect  them,  and  that  the  angels  would  deliver 
them  even  from  the  fire.  Baailius  himself  was  burned 
in  this  year.  Several  of  hia  followers,  when  seized,  re- 
tracted; others,  among  whom  were  some  of  those  whom 
he  called  his  apostles,  were  kept  in  prison  and  died 
there.    Several  councils  were  held  npon  this  subject. 

LV.  Held  A.D.  1143,  Aug.  20,  by  the  patriarch  Mi- 
chael Oxytes,  in  which  the  consecration  of  two  biabops, 
Clemens  and  Leontius,  performed  by  the  metropolitan 
alone,  was  declared  to  be  null  and  void.  They  were 
further  condemned  as  favorers  of  the  sect  of  the  Bogo- 
mili.   See  Leo  Allat.  Corutit,  1, 1. 11,  cap.  12,  p.  67L 

LYI.  Held  about  A.D.  1143.  Nyphon,  a  monk  (who 
had  been  sentenced  in  a  previous  council  to  be  impris- 
oned until  further  evidence  could  be  procured  against 
him),  was  condemned  for  blasphemy;  among  other 
things,  for  saying,  *'  anathema  to  the  God  of  the  He- 
brews.*' He  was  put  into  prison,  and  remained  there 
during  the  patriarchate  of  Michael.  See  Leo  Allat. 
Cotutit,  p.  681;  Mansi,  Condi,  xviii;  Baronius,  Anaal, 
A.D.  1143. 

LVII.  Held  A.D.  1156,  under  the  patriarch  Lnca« 
Chrysoberges;  in  which  the  errors  of  Soterichus  Pan- 
tengenus,  the  patriarch-elect  of  Antioch,  and  of  some 
others,  were  condemned.  They  asserted  that  the  sacri- 
fice upon  the  cross  was  offered  to  the  Father  and  to  the 
Holy  Spirit  alone,  and  not  to  the  Word,  the  Son  of  God. 
The  origin  of  thia  error  seems  to  have  been  the  fear  of 
admitting  the  Nestorian  doctrine  of  two  persons  in  Jesus 
Christ  In  a  subsequent  sitting  Soterichus  confessed 
his  error,  but  was  judged  unworthy  of  the  priesthood. 

LVIH.  Held  A.D.  12^,  by  the  emperor  Michael  Pa- 
leologus,  to  deliberate  upon  the  recall  of  Arsenius  I,  the 
patriarch,  who  had  withdrawn  from  Conatantinople. 
The  circumstances  of  the  case  were  as  follows:  Arseni- 
us (Antorianus)  was  a  monk  of  Mount  Athos,  who  luu) 


CONSTANTINOPLK 


SI 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


been  imbed  to  the  office  of  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
bj  the  emperor,  Theodoms  Lascaria  n,  in  1257.  Upon 
the  death  of  the  latter,  Michael  Paleologiu  was,  in 
the  absenoe  of  Arseniua,  appointed  regent,  and  short- 
ly after  having  been  associated  in  the  imperial  dig- 
nity with,  the  young  emperor  John,  Arsenius  was 
obliged,  against  his  own  wishes,  to  crown  him ;  this, 
bowerer,  he  did  only  upon  condition  that  John  should 
hold  the  first  rank.  Subsequently,  seeing  that  this 
condition  was  not  fulfilled,  and  that  Michael  was  go- 
ing oo  in  an  ill  course,  he  withdrew  from  his  see;  to 
which  Michael  immediately  appointed  Nicepbonis  of 
Ephestts,  in  1260,  who  died  within  a  few  months,  when 
Michael  convoked  this  council  to  consider  about  the 
expe£«icy  of  recalling  Arsenius^  After  some  debate, 
in  the  course  of  which  some  of  the  bishops  present 
maintained  that  Arsenius  had  not  lawfully  and  canoni- 
cally  vacated  the  see,  and  others  that  he  had  sufficient- 
ly signified  his  abdication  by  his  words  and  actions,  it 
was  resolved  to  send  a  deputation  from  the  council  to 
Arsenius  to  entreat  him  to  return,  which  he  subsequent- 
ly did,  the  emperor  promising  to  forget  all  that  had 
passed. 

LIX.  Held  A.D.  1266,  by  the  same  Michael  Paleol- 
ogos,  in  which  the  patriaroh  Arsenius  was  deposed  and 
banished.  Arsenius,  after  his  recall  in  1261,  had  given 
olTenoe  to  the  emperor  by  refusing  to  acknowledge  the 
consecration  of  Nicepbonis  to  the  patriarchate  during 
his  absence ;  and  subsequently  learning  that  Michael 
bad  cruelly  pat  out  the  eyes  of  the  young  emperor 
John,  he  had  boldly  excommunicated  him;  and,  upon 
hb  continuing  obstinate,  he  had,  in  a  council  held  three 
yean  afterwards,  entirely  cut  him  off  from  the  Church. 
Upon  this  Michael  grievously  persecuted  him ;  and  upon 
a  fabe  charge  of  having  administered  the  holy  commun- 
ion to  a  Turkish  prince,  he  was  in  this  synod  ezcom- 
manicated,  deposed,  and  banished,  and  Joseph  set  up  in 
his  place.  This  caused  a  schism  among  the  Greeks  of 
Coitttaptinople,  most  of  them  refusing  to  acknowledge 
Joseph.    Arsenius  died  in  banishment  in  127S. 

lie  Held  about  A.D.  1277,  in  which  John  Vecciis,  or 
BoccQS,  who  succeeded  Joseph  I  in  the  patriarchate, 
made  profession  of  the  faith  as  held  by  the  Church  of 
Roffie^  and  excommunicated  those  of  the  Greeks  who  re- 
fused to  return  into  union  with  that  Church.  A  long 
synodal  letter  was  written  to  the  pope,  humbly  deplor- 
ing the  division  of  the  two  churches,  acknowledging 
the  primacy  of  Bome,  and  confessing  the  Latin  faith. 
This^  however,  was  not  done  without  great  opposition ; 
and  a  new  schism  arose.  See  Labbe,  CondL  xi,  1032- 
1087. 

LXL  Held  A.D.  1280,  May  8,  by  the  same  patriarch, 
John  Yeccus,  at  which  eight  metropolitans  and  eight 
archbishops  were  present.  A  passage  was  read  from 
the  writings  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (beginning  with  these 
words, "  Cum  adduoeret  magnus  Moyses*'),  in  which  the 
following  words  occur:  ** Spiritus  vero  Sanctus  ct  a  Pa- 
tre  dicitur  et  ex  Filio  esse  affirmatur.**  The  word  "  ex," 
it  appeared,  had  been  wilfully  erased,  and  thus  the  sense 
of  the  paaaage  was  altered,  which  otherwise  would  have 
assisted  towards  the  re-establishment  of  union  between 
tlie  charchee,  since  it  tended  to  prove  that  the  Holy 
i^rit  proceeds  from  the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father. 
The  zeal  of  Veceus  for  a  reunion  with  Rome,  and  in  fa- 
vor of  the  Latin  faith,  brought  upon  him  the  ill-will  of 
the  Greeks.     See  Labbe,  CotieiL  xi,  1125. 

LXIL  HeM  A.D.  1283,  in  which  the  patriarch  Veceus 
was  condemned ;  and  at  a  council  held  the  following 
year,  in  the  palace  of  Bkoquems,  the  celebrated  treaty 
of  onion  agreed  upon  at  the  Coancil  of  Lyons  in  1274, 
and  publicly  ratified  by  Veceus,  was  annulled,  and  Vec- 
C8S  himself  exiled. 

LXIII.  Held  A.D.  1841,  under  John  XIV,  patriarch, 
who  presided,  the  emperor,  Andronicus  UI,  being  pres- 
ent. To  this  council  Gregory  Palamas,  the  chief  of 
the  Qttietists  or  Hesycastc,  of  Mount  Athos,  was  cited 
to  anawer  the  acensation  of  BarlBam,a  Calabrian  monk 


(afterwards  bishop  of  Gienecei  in  Calabria).  These 
Qnietists  believed  that  by  intense  and  constant  ooi>> 
templation  it  was  possible  to  arrive  at  a  tranquillity  of 
mind  entirely  free  from  perturbation ;  and,  according* 
ly,  they  used  to  sit  in  one  fixed  posture,  gazing  at  the 
pit  of  their  stomach  (hence  the  title  Umbilicani,  given 
them  by  Barlaam),  and  pretended  that,  when  so  occu- 
pied, they  could  see  a  divine  light  beaming  forth  from 
the  soul,  and  that  this  light  was  the  gloiy  of  Grod  and 
the  same  that  illuminated  Christ  during  the  transfigoza- 
tion.  The  event  of  the  council,  however,  was  that  Greg^ 
ory  triumphed,  and  Barlaam  was  condemned,  and  made 
to  ask  pardon  for  his  hasty  accusation.  He  subsequent^ 
ly  returned  to  Italy.     See  Labbe,  ConciL  xi,  1872. 

Five  other  councils  were  held  upon  this  same  subject 
within  the  nine  following  years. 

LXrV.  A  council  was  held  about  A.D.  1845,  at  which 
the  two  legates  from  Rome — ^Francis,  archbishop  of  Boa* 
phorus,  and  Richard,  bishop  of  Chersonesns,  an  English*^ 
man — wera  present.  Their  object  was  to  enter  into  a 
negotiation  for  a  union  of  the  two  churches.  As  neither 
the  patriarch,  John  XIV,  nor  his  bishops  were  capable 
of  managing  the  business,  Nicephoms  Gregorius,  a 
learned  layman,  was  called  in,  by  whose  advice  they 
avoided  all  discussion  with  the  legates,  and  the  matter 
fell  to  the  ground. 

LXV.  Held  about  A.D.  1450,  upon  the  subject  of  the 
union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  agreed  upon 
at  Florence  in  1489.  Gregory  III,  patriarch  of  Onistan- 
tinople,  was  deposed,  on  account  of  the  consent  which 
he  had  given,  as  he  allowed,  willingly,  to  that  union, 
and  Atbanasius  elected  to  his  place.  This  was  done  in 
the  first  session.  In  the  second  the  unfair  means  used 
by  the  Latins  at  Florence,  in  order  to  effect  the  union, 
were  dilated  on.  In  the  third  the  question  of  the  pro* 
cession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  argued,  and  the  Latin 
doctrine  on  that  subject  endeavored  to  be  rcroted.  In 
the  fourth  they  discussed  the  following  subjects: 

1.  The  suthority  claimed  by  the  pope  over  the  Oriental 
and  all  other  charcbes. 

2.  The  fire  of  pnr^atory. 

8.  The  fruition  of  the  saints. 
4  The  words  of  consecration. 

In  all  of  these  they  differed  from  the  view  taken  by 
the  Roman  Church.  They  then  added  twenty-fire  ar- 
ticles of  complaint  against  the  Latin  Church : 

I.  That  they  did  not  paint  the  fmsges  like  the  archetype. 

9.  That  they  adapted  secular  tnues  to  ecclesisstical 
psalmody.. 

&  That  they  permitted  men  and  women  to  sit  together 
In  their  churches. 
4.  That  they  forbade  marriage  to  the  clergy. 

6.  That  they  did  not  pray  towards  the  Bast 

ft.  That  they  used  uuleavened  bread  in  the  holy  sacrifice. 

7.  That  they  asserted  whatever  Is  in  God  to  be  sub- 
stance. 

&  That  the  pope  had  that  cross  depicted  upon  his  feet 
which  Christ  carried  on  his  sbonlder. 

9.  That  they  sllowed  the  bed -ridden  {eubantsm)  to 
participate  in  the  holy  mysteries,  and  that  not  with  suf- 
ficient reverence. 

10.  That  they  accepted  money  from  harlots. 

II.  That  they  liisted  ou  Saturdays. 

12. .  That  they,  contrary  to  the  decree  of  the  seventh 
synod,  made  paintings  to  represent  the  Father. 

18.  That  in  crossing  themselves  they  began  on  the  left 
14.  That  the  pope  usurped  a  secular  authority. 

16.  That  the  pope,  for  money,  absolved  Christians  from 
the  obligation  to  ttusL 

16.  That,  contrary  to  holy  Scripture,  they  permitted 
parents  to  make  their  eldest  sons  sole  heiro. 

IT.  That  they  gave  to  the  image  of  Christ  and  to  the 
cross  the  worship  of  Latria,  which  is  due  only  to  the 
Word. 

1&  That  (hey  adored  images. 

19.  That  they  permitted  priests.  In  a  state  of  fornica- 
tion, to  celebrate  massi 

ao.  lliat  they  did  not  at  once  anoint  the  heads  of  the 
baptized.  .  ^  ,     ,  ^ 

21.  That  they  did  not  pray  ttanding  on  Satnrdaya  and 
Sundays. 

22.  That  they  ate  of  things  suffocated. 

28.  That  they  punished  with  UmportU  Jlrta  those  who 
erred  In  the  faith.  .     ._   ^  , 

24.  That  they  did  not  enjoin  those  who  had  done  any 
Inlttry  \fi  any  one  to  seek  forgiveness  of  him. 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


88 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


The  synodi  which  was  nameioixBly  attended,  ended 
with  the  fifth  settion^    See  Labbe,  ConeU,  ziii,  1865, 

LXVI.  Held  A.D.  1593.    A  great  synod,  in  which 
Jeremiah  II,  patriarch  of  ConsUntinopie,  and  Heletiiu 
of  Alexandria  prended.    All  things  relating  to  the 
foundation  of  the  new  patriarchate  of  Moecow  were 
confirmed  in  this  council.    Up  to  the  end  of  the  16th 
centuiy  Kieff,  which  was  then  the  metropolis  of  Russia, 
was  under  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  hut  about  that  time  Jeremiah  II,  being  at  Mos- 
cow, the  monks  of  that  city  earnestly  besought  him  that 
the  people  and  empire  of  Moscow  might  be  subjected 
to  an  archbishop,  avroict^oXoc,  **qui  sui  Juris  esset;" 
subject,  that  is,  to  no  superior.    This  petition  the  pa- 
triarch at  once,  of  his  own  accord,  granted,  and  con- 
firmed his  promise  by  an  oath,  at  the  same  time  giving 
a  deed  drawn  up  in  the  Sclavonic  tongue,  by  which  the 
new  patriarchate  of  Moscow  was  erected;  which  deed 
was  subscribed  by  all  the  priests  and  monks  who  were 
present  with  him.    Having  executed  this  deed,  Jexe- 
naiah  convoked  a  synod  on  Jan.  26, 1589,  in  the  impe- 
rial city  of  Moscow,  composed  of  all  the  bishops  and 
abbots  of  the  empire ;  in  which,  the  lituigy  having  been 
first  said  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  his  wife,  and 
the  whole  senate,  Job,  archbishop  of  Rostof,  was  elected, 
and  declared  the  first  primate  and  patriarch  of  the  em- 
pire of  Moscow.    Upon  the  return  of  Jeremiah  to  Con- 
stantinople, a  numerous  council  of  bishops  was  assem- 
bled in  the  month  of  February,  1593,  by  which  the 
erection  of  the  new  patriarchate  of  Moscow  was  con- 
firmed; and  it  was  declared  to  be  just  and  right  that 
the  state  of  Moecow,  strictly  orthodox,  etc.,  should  re- 
ceive ecclesiastical  honors  in  accordance  with  the  spirit 
of  the  twenty-eighth  canon  of  Chalcedon,  and  for  other 
sufficient  reasons  there  stated.    Then  it  was  settled  and 
decreed  that  the  Church  of  Moscow  should  be  thence- 
forward a  patriarchate;  that  all  Russia,  with  its  tribu- 
uries  northwards,  should  be  subject  to  it  in  all  roatteis 
ecclesiastical;  and  that  the  patriareh  of  Moscow  should 
rank  next  afler  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  take 
precedence  of  all  metropolitans,  archbishops,  and  bish- 
ops throughout  the  whole  Catholic  and  Orthodox  Church 
of  Christ.    It  was  further  decreeil  that  the  election  of 
the  patriarch  of  Moecow  should  be  confirmed  by  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  to  whom  a  fixed  tribute 
should  be  paid.    Job,  archbishop  of  Kostof,  was  then 
consecrated  primate  of  the  empire  of  Moscow,  and  pa- 
triarch. 

LXVII.  Held  A.D.  1638,  Sept.  24,  by  Cyril  of  Beitea, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  for  the  purpose  of  anathe- 
matizing the  memory  of  Cyril  Lucar,  his  predecessor, 
who  died  about  three  mouths  previously,  and  who  was 
accused  of  holding  many  of  the  peculiar  teneto  of  Cal- 
vin. It  was  decreed  that  Cyril  Lucar  should  be  pub- 
licly denounced,  and  delivered  over  to  an  anathema,  as 
well  as  all  those  who  received  his  vain  dogmas.  Thir- 
teen  anathemas  were  then  published  against  him,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  summary: 

♦kI;  Ti?  Cyril,  snniamed  Lncar,  who  has  falsely  asserted 
that  the  whole  Sasteru  Church  is  of  the  same  belief  as 
Calvin,  anathema.  * 

r^.35?«S^K*iT^°  teaches  and  believes  that  the  holy 
Cnurch  of  Christ  can  lie,  anathema. 

8.  To  Cyril,  who  teaches  ond  believes  thnt  God  hns 
*^^2^*L??"*1  ^  S^iPT  ^fore  the  foundnUon  of  the  world, 
f °?  P'^jM^oated  them  without  works,  ond  haifi  repro^ 
^  .„«]!!"♦  r**J<>nt  caow.  and  that  the  works  of  none 
Chrte"  anSthemi*"""    "  '*^"''*  ^^"^^  *^®  iribuual  of 

nii  Z'i  £?Zl!'.ir**°  ^^I^^^  •"^  believes  that  the  saints  are 

K  rK  n!i'i* -?  *?^  Intercewors  with  Giki,  anaihemtu 

^.n^nl?  SJ^k^^'^**^  iW'®"  5"^  believes  that  man  is  not 

Sf  inlfin^  w'tf^r^ys^?^  ^^*'  V"^^ »""»  *»"»  ^»»«  power 
«  1R!°^?^  °9*  of  doing  good,  anntkemn. 
fc  IX)  Cyril,  who  teaches  and  believes  Miat  there  are 
??5  fJ^*°  sacraments,  but  thst  only  two.  I.  e.  l)nptlt<ni 
and  the  eucharist,  were  handed  down  to  us  by  Christ  in 
his  gospel,  anathema.  '  ^u^w* 

^2lI?  9?k^»  Y****  ^««fhes  and  believes  that  the  bread 
SJf  kL^i  ***®  j'S^.anj?  alao  the  wine,  is  not  changed  by 

Ghost,  Into  the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  anathema. 


a  To  Cyril,  who  teaches  and  believes  that  they  wh6 
have  fallen  asleep  in  piety  and  good  works  are  not  aa* 
slated  by  the  alms  of  thefr  relations  and  the  prayers  of 
the  Cbnreh,  anathema. 

0.  To  Cyril,  a  new  Iconoclast,  and  the  worst  of  all, 
anathema.  ' 

The  10th  and  11th  are  merely  an  amplification  of  the 
0th,  and  the  12th  and  18th  a  recapitulation  and  enforee- 
meut  of  the  whole. 

^  The  acta  of  the  oonncil  are  signed  by  three  patriarchs, 
viz.  Cyril  of  Constantinople,  Metrophanes  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  Theophanes  of  Jerusalem;  also  by  twenty- 
four  archbishops  and  bishops,  and  by  twenty-one  dig- 
nitaries of  the  great  Church  of  Constantinople.  See 
Neale,  liigt,  of  the  Oriental  Chvrck, 

LXVm.  Held  A.D.  1641,  by  Parthenius;  eight  pre^ 
ates  and  four  dignitaries  of  the  Church  attended.  The 
teaching  of  Cyril  Lncar  was  again  condemned,  and  the 
use  of  the  word  furowritanc  authorized  to  express  the 
change  in  the  elements  after  consecration;  but  this 
was  not  done  without  opposition,  as  it  was  a  term  un- 
known to  the  fathers,  and  the  of&pring  of  Latin  scho]a»- 
ticism.     See  Neale,  ffist,  of  the  Oriental  Church. 

LXIX  (CotJNCiL  OF  Jassy),  A.D.  1642.  Held  at 
Jassy,  in  Moldavia,  but  commonly  named  the  synod  of 
Constantinople.  Parthenius,  the  (Ecumenical  patriarch, 
presided ;  and  the  acts  of  the  council  (which  are  in- 
corporated with  and  authenticated  by  thoee  of  the 
Council  of  Bethlehem,  A.D.  1672)  are  signed  by  twenty- 
three  archbishops  and  bishops,  among  whom  was  Peter 
Bfogilas,  archbishop  of  KiefT,  the  author  of  the  Confeuio 
Orthodoxm  Ecdesia  Catholica  H  OrienUdis,  which,  as 
revised  by  Bfcletius  Syriga,  was  formally  approved. 
Most  of  the  signatures,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
added  subeequently,  the  number  of  prelates  actually 
present  being  small. 

The  decrees  of  this  synod  are  contained  in  seventeen 
chapters,  and  the  condemnation  of  Cyril  Lucar  is  more 
fully  expressed  than  it  had  been  in  the  synod  of  1688. 
All  the  chaptere  of  Cyril,  except  the  seventh  on  the 
incarnation,  are  condemned.  See  Neale,  Uitt,  of  the 
Oriental  Church ;  Labbc,  Condi,  xv,  1718. 

LXX.  Held  A.D.  1718,  April  12;  the  patriarch,  Jere- 
miah of  Constantinople,  Samuel  of  Alexandria,  and 
Chrysanthus  of  Jcnisalem  being  present,  with  the  cler- 
gy of  the  Church  of  Constantinople.  In  this  council 
the  twelve  proposals  of  the  Scotch  and  English  non- 
juring  bishops  upon  the  subject  of  a  union  between  the 
Greek  Church  and  the  nonjuring  British  churches  was 
considered.  The  circumstances  which  led  to  this  scheme 
were  as  follows :  In  1716  Arsenius,  metropolitan  of  the 
Thebaid,  in  Egypt,  was  in  London,  and  the  Scotch  biah- 
op,  Campbell,  forming  an  acquaintance  with  him,  was 
led  to  mention  the  subject  of  a  union  to  him.  Arsenius 
entered  warmly  into  the  matter,  and  undertook  to  for- 
ward to  the  Orientals  any  proposals  upon  the  subject 
which  the  British  bishops  might  agree  upon.  In  con- 
sequence twelve  proposals  were  drawn  up,  which  were 
translated  into  Greek  by  bishop  Spinkes,  and  to  them 
was  added  a  declaration  expressing  wherein  they  agreed 
and  disagreed  with  the  Oriental  Church,  The  five 
points  of  disagreement  were  as  follows : 

1.  That  they  denied  to  the  canons  of  cecumenlcal  ccnm- 
clls  the  same  authority  with  holy  Scriulnre. 

2.  That  they  could  not  pay  any  kind  of  worship  to  the 
Blessed  Virffio. 

8.  That  they  could  not  pray  to  saints  or  angels. 
4.  That  they  could  give  no  religious  veneration  to 
images. 

6.  That  they  could  not  worehlp  the  host  in  the  eacha- 
rfsiio  sacrifice. 

In  1721 "  The  answer  of  the  orthodox  in  the  East  to 
the  proposals  sent  firom  BriUin  for  a  union  and  agree- 
ment with  the  Oriental  Church"  was  transmitted 
through  Arsenius,  who  was  then  at  Moscow.  This  an- 
swer was  the  synodical  Judgment  agreed  upon  in  this 
council;  it  was  contained  in  a  long  paper,  in  Greek,  ac- 
cepting the  twelve  proposals  and  the  articles  of  agree- 
ment, under  certain  explanations,  but  warmly  defending 
the  Greek  Church  on  the  aubject  of  the  five  articles  of 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


89 


CONSTANTINUS 


diMgncneDt,  tnd  inaistiiig  upon  tn  entire  oonformity 
in  Mch  of  thieae  particulan.  At  the  same  time  they 
forwnded  the  two  dedantions  of  their  Choicb  diawn 
op  in  tbe  lynod  of  Constantinople  (or  Bethlehem),  un- 
der Doricbeoa,  in  1672,  and  in  that  under  Callinicna,  in 
1791.    See  Skinner,  Eeckt,  Hist,  of  Scotland,  ii^eSL 

LXXI.  Held  A.D.  1723,  in  September,  upon  the  same 
nbject  as  the  pKoeding---Jeiemtah  of  Ck>n8tantinople, 
Athaossius  of  Antioch,  Chrysanthns  of  Jemsalem,  Cal- 
linicas  of  Heradea,  Auxentius  of  Cyzicuro,  Paisius  of 
Nioomedia,  Gerasimns  of  Nicsea,  Parthenios  of  Chalce- 
don,  Ignatius  of  Thessalonica,  Anenius  of  Pmsa,  Theoo- 
tiitos  of  Poljpolisi,  and  Callinicus  of  Varna  being  pres- 
ent TpoD  the  receipt  of  the  synodical  judgment  of 
the  last  oooncil,  the  English  bishops,  in  a  synod  held 
at  IxmdoD,  in  May,  1722,  drew  up  a  reply  defending 
their  former  position  by  appropriate  passages  from  Holy 
Scriptore  and  from  the  fathers,  and  oondnding  with  the 
foUoM'ing  proposal : 

**If  oor  Ifbertr,  therefore,  is  left  ns  In  the  instances 
^ore  mentioned ;  if  the  Oriental  pntriarcbs  and  bishops 
inll  aothentically  dedare  as  not  obliged  to  the  invocAtlon 
of  laints  and  angels,  the  worship  of  images  and  the  adora- 
j»P  of  U»  host;  if  they  please  publicly  and  anthorlta- 
tneiy,  bj  an  instrnment  under  their  hands,  to  prouonnce 
as  perfectly  disengaged  In  these  particnlnrs,  both  at 
bpfne  sod  abroad,  in  their  churches  and  in  our  own : 
tacM  relaxing  ooocesaions  allowed,  we  hope,  may  answer 
the  orertares  on  both  sides,  and  conciliate  a  union.'' 

In  the  pfcsent  coancil  this  second  communication  of 
the  British  bbhope  was  considered,  and  a  final  answer 
drawn  op  and  forwarded,  telling  the  Anglican  prelates 
thst  they  had  nothing  to  say  different  from  their  former 
reply;  snd,  far  from  acceding  to  any  compromise,  they 
bokfly  dedare  that 

.  "tTbese  doctrines  hare  been  long  since  examined,  and 
ngbtly  and  religionslr  defined  aud  settled  by  the  holy 
and  CKomeolcal  mods,  so  that  It  Is  neither  lawfkil  to 
add  snyUihig  to  them,  nor  to  Uke  anything  fh>m  them ; 
thmloie,  they  who  are  disposed  to  agree  with  us  In  the 
oinAe  doctrines  of  the  orthodox  faith  must  necessarily 
follow  and  sQbmit  to  what  has  been  defined  and  de- 
termined by  the  ancient  fhtbers  and  by  the  holy  and 
MBcnfeal  synods,  from  the  time  of  the  apostles  and 
w«'  boly  cnccessors,  the  Ikthers  of  our  Church,  to  this 
*™;  we  say  they  must  submit  to  them  with  sincerity 
™  .obedience,  and  without  any  scniple  or  dispute,  and 
tais  is  a  saflkient  anawer  to  what  yon  have  written.** 

To  this  epistle  they  added  the  confession  of  faith 
•?ned  upon  in  the  synod  of  Bethlehem,  in  1672.  See 
Skinner,  Eceiet.  Hut.  of  Scotland,  ii,  637. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  Bichard  et  Girand(£t^ 
^Mkqite  Saerit,  riii,  158  sq.)  give  several  less  impor- 
tant councils  held  at  Constantinople,  as  follows : 

I.  In  tsi,  against  Atbanaslus. 

If.  In  498.  hi  fkvor  of  Lh«  Catholic  fiillh. 
.  IH.  la  489,  on  the  pretended  primacy  of  the  Church  at 
AnriociL 

nr.  In  461,  on  the  conversion  of  the  Eutydilans. 

y.  In  417,  in  which  Macedonlns  condemned  the  de- 
fcweri  of  the  CooncO  of  C*halcedon. 
._V-  Ifl  K».  by  Epipbanlua,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
cnccniing  his  ordination.    The  council  wrote  a  letter  to 
pnm  H<vBusdaa  on  the  subject. 

-Vl*;.^  8«»  a  synod  of  Butychlans,  followers  of  Julian 
erHalicsmasBasL 

T^^h  'Bif^  **y  *"^*^  of  Nicephoms,  snocesaor  to  Con- 
•"nttse  VII,  in  which  Joseph  (Eoonomos  of  Constant!- 
J^  was  restored,  whom  the  patriarch  Taraslns  had 
5fsnded  for  having  crowned  Theodora,  concubine  of 
O^wtaaiine. 

HL  Id  808,  fai  which  Cooatantlne's  marriage  with  The- 
^^  was  rstifled,  and  aeveral  eminent  persons  wero 

\  5»  **»  by  Nifephorus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
^*J^T^\x.h\abov»-  Antonins,  an  Iconoclastic  bisnop 
2[_™n«ylin,  was  excommunicated.  Hausi  places  three 
ttwdla  in  this  year  iConeO.  I,  60T). 

XI.  In  fin,  in  which  the  Catholic  bishops  refhscd  to 
me  In  cooodl  with  heretic^  as  the  emperor  Michael  U 
^^JjjnyoMd. 

xn.  In  8M;  aeainst  Image  worship. 

xni  In  854,  in  which  Gregory,  bishop  of  Syracas e,  was 
J*9<M  by  Igoatloa  of  Constantinople.  Mansl  assigns 
"^Jlf  ihe  year  8iT  or  818  (Omrfl.  I,  rfo). 
ti^I:  ^»**»  daring  the  absence  of  the  natriarch  Igiia- 
"'*»"'  *blch  the  adiierents  of  Gregory  of  Syracuse  were 
CKanai,l,MT). 


XV.  In  901,  in  Which  Nicholas  the  Mystic,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  condemned  the  marriage  of  the  emneror 
Leo  with  his  fourth  wife  (Labbe,  ix). 

XVI.  In  944,  to  depose  Trypho,  whom  Constantine  Vm 
had  intruded  Into  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople  un- 
til his  own  son,  Theophyiact,  ahould  be  of  sufficient  see 
for  the  ofllce  (Labbe,  Ix ;  Hardouln,  vi). 

XVIL  In  98S,  to  abaoWe  the  emperor  Nicephoras  Pho- 
cas  fh>m  the  ban  which  the  patriarch  Polyeuctes  had  im- 
posed  upon  him  for  having  two  wives ;  the  emperor  tuk- 
Ing  oath  of  his  innocenca 

XVUI.  In  969  a  celebrated  dispute  was  held  at  Con- 
stantinople between  the  Catholics  iind  the  Jacobites,  by 
order  of  the  emperor  Nicephoms  (Benandot,  Lituraiee 
Orientalet,  II,  489;  Assemani,  Bibliothiqw  OrientaU,  W, 
183 ;  Mnnsi.  ConeiL  supplement,  1, 1159). 

XIX.  In  976,  when  the  patriarch  Basil,  convicted  of 
crime,  waa  deposed,  and  Antonins  Stndltes  put  Into  his 
place  (Bnronins,  AnnaUa,  s.  an.). 

XX.  In  1096.  when  the  patriarch  Alexis  excommuni- 
cated the  seditions  (Mnnsi,  Condi,  append.  1, 74). 

XXI.  In  1027,  when  the  same  patriarch  condemned  the 
sale  or  transfer  of  monasteries. 

XXIL  In  1028,  when  the  same  patriarch  made  certain 
rules  couccrning  bishops. 

XXIIL  In  1068,  when  the  patriarch  Michael  Caemlariua 
defended  the  marriage  of  relatives  In  the  seventh  degree. 

XXIV.  In  1066,  when  the  patriarch  John  Xlphilin  de- 
dared  that  there  waa  no  difference  between  marriage 
and  regular  betrothal  as  to  the  impedimenu  between  the 
parenta 

XXV.  In  1067,  on  the  same  snblect 

XXVI.  In  1061,  when  the  marrisge  of  two  conslns,  one 
of  them  to  a  mother,  and  the  other  to  a  daughter,  was 
annulled. 

XXViL  In  the  same  year,  when  the  emperor  Alexia 
Comnenns  was  forbidden  to  dismember  episcopates. 

XXVIII.  In  1166,  when  Demetrius  Lampenns  and  othera 
were  exiled  for  having  falsely  accused  the  Germans  of 
heresy  respecting  the  divine  nature.  Marriage  was  also 
allowed  to  the  seventh  degree  of  relationship  Inclusively 
(Mnnsi,  11). 

XXIx.  In  1168,  when  the  Grevk  Church  was  entirely 
separnred  from  the  Boman. 

XXX.  In  1286,  on  a  passage  In  bk.  I,  cap.  v,  of  John  of 
DamttKUs*s  book  on  the  orthodox  faith  (Hardouln,  vli). 

XXXL  In  1297,  concerning  the  anathema  hurled  by  the 
patriarch  Athanaslus  against  the  emperor  (Mansl,  lil). 

XXXII.  In  1299,  in  which  the  marriage  of  prince  Alexia 
was  Judged  valid,  although  contracted  against  the  con- 
sent of  his  uncle  the  emperor. 

XXXnL  In  1448,  when  the  patriarch  Metrophanes,  who 
had  been  very  xealoua  for  the  union  of  the  Greek  aud 
Anglican  churchea,  was  deposed  (M\&tinB,IhConeeneione, 

111/* 

XXXIV.  In  166S,  when  the  patriarch  Josbaphat  was 
deposed  for  simony. 

ConBtantinTiii  is  the  name  of  several  early  saints 
and  prelates  besides  those  given  below  and  under  Con- 

STANTIME : 

1.  Bishop  in  the  Bomagna  in  the  4th  century,  ad- 
dressed by  Ambrose,  A.D.  379  (Epistles  in  Migne,  Patrol, 
Lai.  xvi,  p.  878, 1246;  CeiUier,  v,  480). 

2.  Bishop  of  Laodioea,  originally  a  magitter  milkum, 
consecrated  in  610  bishop  of  Laodicea.  He  was  a 
leading  Monophysite,  and  as  such  was  deposed  by  Jn*- 
tin  I  in  the  year  618.  He  is  commemorated  by  the 
Jacobites  on  June  26  (Assemani,  BibL  Orient,  ii,  327; 
Le  Quien,  Orient  Ckrittianus), 

3.  Abbot  of  Monte  Cassino  after  the  death  of  St. 
Benedict.  He  ruled  the  monastery  from  A.D.  643  to 
cir.  660.  He  was  one  of  the  four  whom  St.  Gregory 
consulted  as  witnesses  to  the  life  and  works  of  their 
founder  (CeiUier,  xi,  634). 

4.  Saint,  is  said  in  the  breviary  of  Aberdeen  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Patemus,  king  of  Cornwall.  He  went 
as  a  missionary  to  Scotland,  where  he  was  martyred  in 
Cantire,  about  the  end  of  the  Gth  century  (Forbes,  KaL 
of  Scot.  Saints,  p.  311-314;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints, 
iii,  148, 149;  Lanigan,  Ecd.  Hist,  of  IreUmd,  i,  486;  ii, 
166). 

5.  Sumamed,  or  perhaps  christened,  Silvanus,  the 
founder  of  the  Paulicians,  was  bom  in  Armenia  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  7th  century.  By  order  of  the  emperor 
Constantinus  Pogonatus,  he  was  stoned  to  death.  See 
Paulicians. 

6.  Bishop  of  Naoolia,  in  Phrygia,  about  A.D.  727, 
the  principid  supporter,  among  other  bishops,  of  the 
emperor  Leo  III,  the  Isaurian,  in  his  polemic  againat 
imageSb 


CONSTANTINUS 


90 


CONSUS 


7.  ConstanCinns  and  Peregrinm,  8<wU$^  wen  two 
bishops  whose  relics  were  found  in  the  church  at  Ge- 
mirge,  in  Normandy,  bat  it  is  not  known  when  or  where 
they  Uved.  They  are  oommemorBted  in  that  church 
June  16.    See  Smith,  Dief.  of  ChritL  Biog,  s.  v. 

Constantiniu,  an  Italian  martyr,  was  a  citizen  of 
Borne,  and  for  the  defence  of  the  Gospel  being  con- 
demned to  be  burned,  was  put  in  a  dung -cart;  who, 
thereat  rejoicing,  said  that  he  was  reputed  here  as  ex- 
crements of  thb  world,  but  yet  his  death  was  a  sweet 
odor  unto  God.  This  occurred  at  Rome  in  1642.  See 
Fox,  A  ds  and  MonummU,  iv,  898. 

Constantiziti8  (or  Ck>xistantia8)  of  Astiocr, 
a  Greek  theologian,  was  priest  of  the  metropolitan 
church  of  Antioch,  and  destined  to  succeed  Flavian, 
bishop  of  that  place.  Porphyry,  who  desired  to  obtain 
this  episcopal  see,  by  intrigue  at  the  court  of  Constan- 
tinople obtained  of  Arcadius  an  order  of  exile  against 
Constantinns,  who,  by  the  aid  of  his  friends,  escaped  to 
Cyprus,  where  he  appears  to  have  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  days.  Ue  ^ed  about  410  of  the  Christian  era. 
He  placed  in  order  the  thirty -four  ffomiUea  of  John 
Chr}'8ostom,  upon  the  epistle  to  the  Uebrews.  Among 
the  letters  of  Chrysostom  there  are  two  addressed  to 
Constantinns,  and  he  appears  to  be  the  author  of  two 
other  letters  attributed  generally  to  Chrysostom.  See 
lioefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU^  s.  v. 

ConBtantlxias  Licrudes,  a  Greek  theologian, 
was  at  first  protovestiary,  and  was  appointed  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  in  1068.  We  have  from  him  two 
synodal  decrees,  one  upon  a  culpable  slave,  the  other 
upon  a  priest  arrested  for  murder.  These  two  decrees 
are  found,  with  a  Latin  tranUation,  in  the  Jui  Graco- 
romamtm  of  Leundavius.  See  Hoefer,  iVoinr.  Biog,  G4- 
niralef  s.  v. 

Coxuitantinas  Meuteniota,  a  Greek  theolo- 
gian, lived  about  1276.  A  partisan  of  the  union  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churohes,  he  was  exiled  to  Btthynia, 
where  he  died.  He  wrote  the  two  following  treatises: 
De  Eccksiattica  Unione  TMtvwrum  et  Gracorum: — De 
Prooasione  Spiritus  Sancti,  These  were  published, 
with  a  Latin  translation,  in  the  Graeia  Orthodoxa  of 
Leo  Allatius.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Constantlxias  Tiberius,  antipope,  did  not  await 
the  death  of  Paul  I  in  order  to  obtain  the  papal  pow- 
er. He  was  elected  in  767  by  the  influence  of  his 
brother  Toto,  or  Teuto,  duke  of  Nepi,  who  installed 
him  by  force  of  arms.  Constantinus  was  a  layman. 
He  assumed  the  deaconry,  disdained  the  priesthood, 
and  was  ordained  bishop  by  George,  bishop  of  Pre- 
lieste,  and  afterwards  consecrated  pope  by  the  same 
George,  assisted  by  Eustrasius,  bishop  of  Albano,and  by 
Citonatns,  bishop  of  Oporto.  A  little  later,  another  in- 
truder, Philip,  priest  of  St  Vito,  and  cardinal-priest,  pro- 
claimed himself.  He  excited  a  sedition  in  which  Toto 
was  killed.  Constantinus  took  refuge  with  his  other 
brother  Passicus,  in  the  oratorio  of  St.  Cnsarius.  He 
was  pursued,  dragged  from  his  retreat,  and  imprisoned 
in  the  monastery  of  Cells  Nova,  where  he  was  cruelly 
treated.  Stephen  IV  was  named  and  acknowledged 
sovereign  pontiff,  Aug.  6,  768.  In  April,  769,  a  council 
was  convoked  in  St.  John  of  Lateran,  which  decided  that 
one  could  not  be  raised  to  the  papacy  who  had  not  been 
ordained  deacon  and  priest.  The  election  of  Constanti- 
nus was  thus  annulled,  and  he  was  condemned  to  pass 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  a  monastery.  During  his 
usurpation  he  had  created  eight  bishops,  eight  priests, 
and  four  deacons,  who  could  not  be  confirmed.  The 
letters  of  the  antipope  were  published  by  the  Jesuit 
Gretser  (Ingoktadt,  1618),  and  by  Duchesne,  in  his  CoU 
lection  de»  Ilistoriena  de  France^  See  Hoefer,  Ii^ouv. 
Biog,  Giniralet  s.  v. 

Constantiiiiui  I  was  86th  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  succeede<l  John  V,  A.D.  674.    He  died  A.D. 


677,  and  was  followed  by  Tbeodon  I  (Theophane% 
Chronog,  p.  296). 

ConBtantiniu  H  was  47th  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, A.D.  746,  according  to  Theophanes  {Chronog,  p. 
660).  He  had  previously  been  a  monk  and  bishop  of 
Syllium.  In  A.D.  764,  owing  to  the  emperor  Coostsn- 
tine  Coprooymus's  ill-will,  he  was  exiled,  and  in  767 
was  deposed  by  Ntcetaa,  who  afterwards  succeeded  bim. 
After  enduring  horrible  cruelties  from  his  enemies,  be 
was  beheaded  in  the  year  776  (Niceph.  Constantin. 
Bremarium,  p.  48).  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  CkritL  Biog. 
s.  v. 

Constantiilfl,  Baku  (l),  a  martyr,  was  bom  at  Pe- 
rugia. His  upright  character  gained  for  him  the  ap- 
pointment of  bishop  of  hb  native  city.  Some  yean 
afterwards  he  was  arrested,  conducted  to  Aseisi,  sad 
beheaded  near  Yypsello  or  Foligno.  According  to  the 
BHUiothkque  Sacrie  the  life  of  this  saint,  as  published 
by  the  BoUandists,  is  not  trustworthy.  It  is  certain 
that  the  worihip  of  St  Constantius  is  very  anctent,  sod 
that  there  is  a  church  near  Perugia  which  bears  his 
name,  also  a  district  of  Foligno  which  is  cslled  the 
country  of  St.  ConstantiuSb  He  is  honored  Jan.  29.  See 
Hoefer,  iVbiir.  Biog,  GMralej  s.  v. 

Constantina,  SaitU  (2),  lived  about  650.  He  wss 
sacristan  of  San  Stefano,  near  Anoona.  His  poverty 
was  great  and  his  humility  profound.  He  is  honored 
Sept  28.    See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog.  GMrak^  s.  v. 

Constantias  is  likewise  the  name  of  a  number  of 
early  Christian  bishops  or  other  notable  ecclesiastics. 
See  also  Comstamtikb;  Constastinus. 

1.  Bishop  of  Faenza,  in  the  Romagna,  A.D.  813,  pm- 
ent  at  the  Council  of  Rome  concerning  Cecilian. 

2.  Bishop  of  Siscia  (in  Pannonia,  now  Sissek,  on  the 
Save),  attended  the  Council  of  Aquileia,  AJ>.  881. 

3.  Bishop  of  Arausio  (Orange),  was  present  at  the 
same  council. 

4  and  5.  Two  presbyters  of  Antioch  in  the  time  of 
Chr}*sostom. 

6.  A  Manichssan  at  Rome,  in  Augustine's  time. 

7.  Bishop  of  Uzfes  (Ucetia)  in  Gaul,  A.D.  419. 

8.  Also  called  Com8tantinu8,  deacon  and  secretary 
of  Eutyches,  present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople, 
A.D.448. 

9.  A  bishop  sent  by  Hilary  of  Aries,  in  the  6th  cen- 
tuiy,  along  with  bishop  Nectarine,  to  Leo  of  Rome,  on  s 
question  of  Jurisdiction. 

10.  A  priest  of  Lyons,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  5th 
century,  of  noble  extraction  and  literary  character,  the 
friend  of  Sidonius,  who  gives  us  our  only  knowledge  of 
him  and  his  brave  exploits  when  Clermont  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Tisigoths  (JEpitl,  i,  1 ;  iii,  2;  vii,18;  ix, 
16). 

11.  A  bishop  directed  by  Avitus  (bishop  of  Vienne, 
in  France,  A.D.  497-617)  not  to  refuse  commuuion  to 
trivial  offenders. 

12.  A  monk  of  the  abbey  of  ClassiB,  who  failed  to 
be  appointed  abbot  there  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the 
Great, 

13.  Bishop  of  Albi,  at  the  Council  of  Rheim^  AD. 
626,  and  living  in  647.  He  wrote  a  Joint  letter  with 
Dado  Desiderius  of  Cahors  (Migne,  PatroL  Ixxxvii, 
217). 

14.  Also  called  ConarAirriKiis,  presbyter  of  Aps- 
mea,  in  Syria,  who  explained  his  peculiar  views  on 
Christology  at  the  third  Council  of  Gonatantinople,  AD. 
680,  but  was  excommunicated  therefoiw  See  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Comraetudinary,  in  ecclesiastical  usage,  is  a 
term  for  (1)  the  ritual  or  book  of  constitutions  for  cere- 
monials and  official  dutiea;  (2)  a  cuttutnal  or  rental 
of  estates. 

Consulter  with  Faxtlxab  SPtRirs.    See  Nbo- 

ROMATICER. 

Coiuti8  (is  thoaght  to  be  derived  from  eomUtu^ 


CONTACIUM 


91 


GONTENSON 


■^bidden,"  en  froin  contulo, "  to  adTite ")  wa«  an  ancient 
^ioaifo.  god,  probably  to  be  referred  to  the  wonhip 
of  the  deities  in  tbe  infernal  regiona.  When  the  Ro- 
man state  was  threatened  with  destruction,  because  of  a 
aoutity  of  women,  Romnlns  decided  on  tbe  rape  of  the 
Sabine  girb.  He  pretoided  to  hare  found  hidden  in 
tbe  earth  an  altar  of  an  unknown  god,  in  whose  honor 
plays  were  to  be  celebrated,  and  for  this  purpose  all 
neighboring  nations  were  invited.  In  memory  of  the 
socoess  of  the  scheme  there  was  a  yearly  festival  held, 
called  Ccmsmalia,  at  the  celebration  of  which  an  altar 
was  dug  from  the  earth  and  plays  were  performed, 

Contacimn  (covranov)  is  a  name  given  in  the 
ritnal  of  tbe  Greek  Church  to  a  short  hymn,  and  also 
to  the  volume  containing  special  liturgies. 

Contandn,  Ctbiqck,  a  French  Jesuit  missionary, 
was  bom  at  Bonrges  in  1670.  In  1700  he  was  sent  to 
tbe  Chinese  missions,  and  did  not  return  to  France  until 
1731,  when  he  was  brought  back  by  some  affairs  con* 
nected  with  his  order.  Being  appointed  superior-gen- 
eral in  China,  he  went  to  Port  Louis,  where  he  took 
ship  Nov.  16,  1738,  but  died  at  sea  a  few  days  after- 
wards. His  long  sojourn  in  Asia  afforded  him  oppor- 
tunity for  collecting  curious  documents,  and  these  were 
published  in  the  Lettra  Edifiaatu,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. 

Contant  (or  Constant  db  la  Mollette),  Phi- 
Uppe  dn,  a  French  theologian,was  bom  at  Saint- Andr^, 
Dauphin^  Aug.  29, 1787.  He  completed  his  studies  at 
the  Sorbonne,  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  1765, 
pieparing  a  thesis  in  six  languoges  upon  the  Holy  Script- 
ure, which  was  published  at  Paris  the  same  year.  He 
was  afterwards  vicar-general  of  Yienne.  He  was  be- 
headed in  1798.  He  wrote,  La  Gatese  ExpliquiiB  (Pans, 
1778):  — £:^fcit  mr  t Venture  Sarnie  (ibid.  1775;  this 
work  is  preceded  by  a  plate  containing  several  Oriental 
alphabets) : — y<ntveOe  Mitkode  pour  Entrer  dam  h  Vrai 
teas  de  Vtcritun  Samte  (ibid.  1777):  — L'Exode  Ex- 
pUgiui  (ilHd.1780):  — Am  Ptaumet  ExpUqucM  (ibid. 
179V) -^TraUi  sur  la  PoUU  ei  la  Mutique  det  U^ 
hnax  (ibid,  epd.)  i-^U  IMiiqtte  ExpUqui  (ibid.  1785) : 
—Aoweiie  Bible  Polyfflotte  (very  rare).  See  Hoefer, 
JVosr.  Bioff,  Geaerale,  s.  v. 

Contant,  Pieire,  an  eminent  French  architect, 
was  bom  in  1696  at  Ivry-sur-Seine,  and  studied  under 
Wattean.  He  erected  the  convent  of  Panthemont  and 
the  church  de  la  Madeleine,  in  Paris,  and  also  designed 
the  beautiful  church  of  St.  Waast,  at  Arras.  He  died 
at  Paris  in  1777.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Ilitt,  of  the  Fine 
A  rtf ,  SL  V. ;  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Contaxini,  Camillo,  an  Italian  scholar,  was  bom 
at  Tenice,  Jan.  8, 1644.  He  completed  his  studies  at 
the  CTleoDentine  College  in  Rome,  returned  to  his  native 
city  in  1668,  and  entered  upon  public  employments 
with  zeal  and  wisdom.  Later  he  became  member  of 
the  grand  council,  and  there  distinguished  himself  by 
his  eloquence.  He  married  Maria  Donate  in  1679,  but 
after  her  death,  in  1698,  he  took,  March  80,  1710,  the 
ecclesiastical  habit,  and  went  to  Borne,  where  he  pre- 
sented to  Oemcnt  XI  the  first  volume  of  his  historical 
worksL  He  died  at  Venice,  Aug.  17,  1722,  leaving 
ringaimo  Biconotcivto  (Venice,  ieC6):  —  VAfhace,  a 
roosical  tragedy  (ibid,  1667) :— Za  Genealogia  de  Do- 
SIMS  (Amsterdam,  IGQS^i  —  lMtoria  della  Gverra  di 
Leopoldi  /,  Imperaiore,  Contra  U  Turco,  deW  Anno 
1683 :— //  TradUore  Tradiio,  a  tragedy  (Venice,  1714) : 
— AtmaU  delle  Guerre  per  la  Monorchia  deOe  Spagne 
(ibid.  1720-1722).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genirak, 
s.r. 

Contaxini,  Giovanni,  an  eminent  Venetian  paint- 
er,  was  bom  in  1549,  and  applied  himself  at  an  early  age 
to  the  atody  of  the  works  of  Titian.  He  travelled  in 
Germany,  where  he  met  with  great  encouragement  from 
tbe  princes  and  nobility,  esp^ially  at  the  court  of  the 
ipevor  Kudolph  H.     In  the  church  Delia  Croce,  at 


Venice,  is  a  picture  by  thia  artist  of  The  Cnieifmon, 
and  in  San  Francesco  is  The  Resurrection,  His  princi- 
pal work,  however,  now  in  the  Louvre,  represents  the 
Virgin  and  Ii^ant  Enthroned,  vith  St,  Mark  and  St, 
Sebastian.  He  died  in  1605.  See  Spooner,  ^to^. /fiit 
of  the  Fine  iirfr,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale, 

S.T. 

Contarizo,  Luigi,  an  Italian  theologian,  who  lived 
in  the  early  half  of  the  17th  century,  wrote  //  Vago  e 
Dtfeftevo^  C7uin^Mo  (Vicenza,  1602).  See  Hoefer,  JVbitr. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Conte,  Gkzido  del,  an  artist,  so  called,  whose  real 
name  was  Fassi,  a  native  of  Carpi,  was  bom  in  1584.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of  work  called  by  the  Ital- 
ians scagliola  or  miscbio.  From  him  this  method  rap- 
idly spread  throughout  all  Italy.  Some  of  his  scholare 
far  surpassed  him  in  the  execution  of  altars  for  church- 
es. He  died  in  1649.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  s.v. 

Conte,  Jacopino  del,  a  Florentine  painter,  was 
bora  in  1510,  and  studied  under  Andrea  del  Sarto.  His 
principal  pictures  in  Rome  are,  St,  John  Preaching  and 
The  Descent  from  the  Cross,  in  San  Giovanni  DecoUato; 
The  Dead  Christ  and  St,  Francis  Receiving  the  Stigmata, 
at  the  C!appuccini  &  Monte  Cavallo.  He  died  at  Rome 
in  1598.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  CMrale,  s.  v. 

Contee,  Benjamiv,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Benficld,  Charles  Co.,  Md.,  in 
1755.  When  the  war  of  the  Revolution  broke  out  he 
entered  the  American  army,  and  held  a  commission 
in  1776.  After  independence  was  declared  he  visited 
France,  Spain,  and  England.  He  was  a  scholarly  man, 
very  courteous  in  his  manner.  In  1789  be  was  elected 
a  representative  to  the  first  Congress  under  the  new 
constitution.  Though  not  a  public  debater,  he  was 
profound  in  investigation  and  wise  in  counsel.  Wash- 
ington was  his  personal  fnend.  Returning  from  Con- 
gress, his  father  established  him  as  a  merchant  in  Not- 
tingham, Md. ;  but  he  was  unsuccessful,  and  returned  to 
Blenheim,  where  he  had  been  married.  Subsequently 
he  became  a  planter.  He  accepted  the  appointment  of 
chief  Judge  of  the  testamentary  court  of  Charles  Coun- 
ty, which  he  held  during  his  life.  In  May,  1802,  the 
parish  of  William  and  Maxy,  in  Charles  County,  of 
which  he  had  been  vestryman,  solicited  him  to  enter 
holy  orden  and  become  their  pastor,  to  which  he  con- 
sented. In  June,  1808,  he  obtained  deacon's  orders, 
and  in  1806  was  placed  on  the  standing  committee, 
and  became  the  official  visitor  of  his  own  and  the  ad- 
joining county,  a  position  which  he  held  ever  after. 
The  adjoining  parish.  Trinity,  invited  him  to  ita  pul- 
pits about  this  time,  and  he  continued  to  preach  there 
during  the  following  five  years,  although  one  church 
was  twelve  and  the  other  twenty  miles  distant  from  his 
home.  Bishop  Claggett's  health  failing,  Dr.  Contee  be- 
came, in  AugtMt,  1811,  rector  of  St.  Paul's  parish,  a  pact 
of  the  bishop's  charge,  and  in  this  pastorate  he  contin- 
ued for  three  years.  During  this  time  he  had  five  places 
of  worship  to  supply,  the  most  distant  being  forty  miles 
away.  lu  1812  he  came  very  near  being  elected  as- 
sistant to  the  bishop.  In  1818  he  began  to  curtail  his 
field  of  labor,  giving  up  Trinity  Church  and  St.  Paul's. 
William  and  Mary,  the  parish  in  which  he  resided, 
was  held  by  him  until  the  date  of  his  death,  Jan.  23, 
1816.  His  character  was  distinguished  by  self-denial, 
great  zeal,  and  devotion.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the 
Amer,  Pulpit,  v,  487. 

Contelorio,  Felice,  an  Italian  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Spoleto  in  1590.  He  was  doctor  of  theology 
and  keeper  of  the  Vatican  llbrar}*,  and  died  at  Rome, 
Sept.  28, 1652.  He  wrote  various  religious  treatises, 
for  which  see  Hoefer,  A'our.  Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v.;  Jdcher, 
ABgemeines  Cetehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Contenaon,  ViKCEirr,  a  French  theologian,  waa 


CONTEXTUS 


92  CONTRACT  OF  MARRIAGE 


bom  at  AldTiUiK,  in  tbe  diooeae  of  Condom,  about 
1640.  He  took  tbe  Dominican  babit  at  Toaloose,  Feb. 
2, 1657,  and  taugbt  pbiloeopby  at  Albi,  then  theology 
at  Toolouse.  He  was  very  learned,  and  occupied  the 
chair  of  eloqaenoe.  He  died  at  Creil,  Dec  26, 1674, 
leaving,  Thtologia  Mentis  H  Cordis  (Lyons,  1675, 1681, 
1687).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Wetaer 
u.  Welte,  Kircka^Lankon^  s.  v. 

ConteztoB  (Contestus,  ConteBtiuB,or  Ck)n- 

tessuB),  Saint,  an  early  Christian  prelate,  is  said  to 
have  been  bom  near  Bayeux,  in  Gaol,  and  to  have 
been  pions  from  early  youth.  He  preached  so  zealous- 
ly against  the  prevalent  vices  as  to  be  subject  not  only 
to  popular  dislike,  but  to  Satanic  temptations;  but  per- 
severed, and  in  advanced  age  was  made  bishop  of 
Bayeux,  A.D.  cir.  480-513.  He  is  famed  for  bis  virtues 
and  good  deeds,  and  his  body  was  transUted  to  Fiscan- 
num  (Fecamp).  His  festival  is  on  Jan.  19.  See  Smith, 
DicU  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 
Conthigimiis.    See  Kentioebx. 

Continenoy  is  that  moral  virtue  by  which  we  re- 
strain concupiscence.  There  is  this  distinction  between 
chastity  and  continence :  chastity  requires  no  effort,  be- 
cause it  may  result  from  constitution ;  whereas  conti- 
nenoy appears  to  be  the  consequence  of  a  victory  gained 
over  ourselves.  The  term  is  usually  applied  to  men, 
as  chastity  is  to  women.    See  Chastity. 

Contiogent,  happening  without  a  foreknown  cause, 
commonly  called  accidental.  An  event  not  come  to  pass 
is  said'  to  be  contingent,  which  either  may  or  may  not 
be ;  what  is  already  done  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
tingent, if  it  might  or  might  not  have  been.  What  is 
contingent  or  casual  to  us  is  not  so  with  God.  As  ef- 
fects stand  related  to  a  second  cause,  they  are  often- 
times contingent;  but  as  they  stand  related  to  the  first 
cause,  they  are  acts  of  God's  counsel,  and  directed  by 
his  wisdom.    See  Necessity;  Wilu 

Contobabditao  were  a  section  of  the  Agnoitas 
(q.v.). 

Contra  ▼otam  is  a  formula  of  regret  in  early 
Christian  epitaphs,  adopted  from  paganism  after  the 
8th  century,  especiaUy  in  Northem  Italy. 

Contra-remonstrants.    See  RKMONSTRAirrs. 

Contraot  of  Marriage  may  be  considered  in 
two  senses : 

I.  AgrtemaAfor  Marriage  in  the  A  bstract.  The  law 
of  the  Church  on  this  point  is,  as  on  many  other  points, 
compounded  of  tbe  Jewish  and  Roman  laws,  under  the 
influence  of  New-Testament  teaching.  It  is  derived 
mainly  from  the  latter  system  of  legislation,  especially 
in  regard  to  the  marriage  of  the  laity ;  from  the  former 
mainly,  in  regard  to  that  of  the  clergy.  The  validity  of 
the  marriage-contract  generally  depends  on  two  points : 

1.  Strictly  speaking,  the  inherent  capacity  of  the 
parties  for  marriage  turns  only  upon  three  particulars : 

(a)  Sufficient  Age,  On  this  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  old  Roman,  like  the  old  Jewish  law,  attached  the 
capacity  for  marriage  by  age  to  the  physical  fact  of 
puberty ;  and  the  same  principle  is  practically  followed 
in  all  systems  of  legislation  which  take  notice  of  age  at 
all  in  this  matter,  although  it  is  generally  found  con- 
venient in  the  long  run  to  fix  an  age  of  legal  puberty, 
without  reference  to  the  specific  fact.  Thus,  in  the 
Digestf  it  is  provided  that  the  marriage  contract  is  only 
valid  on  the  part  of  the  wife  when  she  has  completed 
her  twelfth  year,  even  though  she  be  already  married  and 
living  with  her  husband.  Justinian  himself,  in  his  In- 
stitutes, professes  to  have  fixed,  on  grounds  of  decency, 
the  age  of  puberty  for  the  male  at  fourteen ;  both  which 
periods  have  very  generally  been  adopted  in  modem  leg- 
islation. 

The  earlier  Roman  legislation  seems  to  have  fixed  an 
age  beyond  which  a  woman  could  not  marry,  since  we 
find  Justinian  abolishing  all  prohibitions  of  the  earlier 
Roman  law  against  marriages  between  men  and  women 


above  sixty  and  fifty.  Nothing  of  this  kind  is  to  be 
found  in  later  system's  of  legislation,  although  disparity 
of  age  in  marriage  tias  sometimes  been  sought  to  be 
suppressed. 

Physical  incapacity  in  persons  of  full  age  has  never 
been  held  to  produce  actuisl  inability  to  enter  into  the 
marriage  contract,  but  simply  to  render  tbe  marriage 
voidable  when  the  fact  is  ascertained.  Nor  is  the  fact 
one  of  importance  in  reference  to  the  marriage  relation^ 
except  where  divorce  is  put  under  restrictions.  See 
Impotbvgy. 

(6)  Dtfeet  of  Reason  acts  inversely  to  defect  of  age. 
Thus,  madness  was  fatal  to  the  validity  of  the  contract, 
but  did  not  dissolve  it  when  afterwards  supervening. 

(c)  The  Freedom  of  Will  of  the  parties,  on  the  other 
hand,  can  only  be  testified  by  their  consent  to  the  mar- 
riage (see  Consent)  ;  but  it  may  also  be  indirectly  se- 
cured, by  limitations  of  a  protective  character  placed  on 
the  exercise  of  the  capacity  to  contract  marriage.  Ac- 
cording to  the  jurists  of  the  Digest,  a  man  might  marry 
a  woman  by  letters  or  by  proxy  if  she  were  brought  to 
his  house,  but  this  privilege  did  not  belong  to  the 
woman. 

There  was  one  large  class  of  persons  in  whom  there 
was  held  to  be  no  firc^om  of  will,  and,  consequently,  no 
capacity  to  contract  marriage.  Marriage  is  simply  im- 
possible where  the  persons  of  slaves  of  both  sexes  are 
subject,  absolutely  without  limit,  to  the  lusts,  natural  or 
unnatural,  of  a  master.  The  slave,  his  master's  thing, 
can  have  no  will  but  his  master's;  in  respect  of  tbe 
civil  law,  properly  so  called,  i.  e.  the  law  made  for  citi- 
zens, he  does  not  exist ;  his  condition  is  almost  equiva- 
lent to  death  itself.  Tb  us  the  Roman  law  has  never  men- 
tioned connections  between  sUves.  Connections  between 
slaves  and  serfs  are  indeed  mentioned,  but  without  tbe 
name  of  marriage,  and  only  to  determine  the  condition 
of  the  offiipring,  which  is  fixed  by  that  of  the  mother. 
Rustici,  a  class  of  peasants  who  seem  to  have  been  of 
higher  status  than  tbe  ^  serfs,"  could  contract  marriage 
among  themselves. 

The  recognition  of  slaves*  marriages  originated,  not 
in  the  Roman  law,  but  unquestionably  in  the  Jewish 
Uw.  Although  only  **  Hebrew  **  servants  are  mentioned 
in  the  passage  of  Exodus  on  this  subject  (xxi,  S,  4, 5, 6), 
it  is  clear  that  the  Pentateuch  recognised  tbe  marriage 
of  persons  in  a  servile  condition.  With  the  sweeping 
away  by  tbe  Christian  dispensation  of  all  distinction  be* 
tween  Jew  and  Gentile  it  is  but  natural  to  suppose  that 
the  right  of  marriage  would  be  extended  from  the  He- 
brew slave  to  the  whole  slave  clasa.  Such  right,  in- 
deed, was  not  absolute,  as  will  have  been  observed,  but 
flowed  from  the  master's  will,  and  was  subject  to  his 
rights.  The  master  gave  a  wife  to  his  slave ;  the  wife 
and  her  children  remained  his,  even  when  tbe  slave 
himself  obtained  his  freedom.  As  respects  the  marriage 
of  slaves,  it  appears  clearly  to  have  been  recognised 
both  by  the  State  and  the  Church  in  the  reign  of  Charle- 
magne. 

2.  The  Extrinsic  Conditions  of  the  capacity  for  mai^ 
riage  were  very  various.  Some  are  purely  or  mainly 
moral  ones ;  the  leading  one  of  this  class,  that  of  the 
amount  of  consanguinity  which  the  law  of  different  na* 
tions  has  held  to  be  a  bar  to  the  validity  of  the  nuptial 
contract,  will  be  found  treated  of  under  the  heads  of  Af- 
finity; Cousins-Gkrman.  Another— singular,  because 
exactly  opposite  feelings  on  the  subject  have  prevailed 
in  different  countries — is  to  be  found  in  the  prohibition 
by  the  later  Roman  law  of  marriages  between  rsvishers 
and  their  victims,  under  severe  penalties,  both  for  the 
psrties  themselves,  and  the  parents  who  consented  to  it 
(Justinian,  Cod,  b.  ix,  L  xiii,  §  1,  Nov,  143, 160). 

Another  limitation  on  the  marriage  contract,  which 
must  be  considered  rather  of  a  political  nature,  and 
which  prevails  more  or  less  still  in  the  military  code  of 
almost  every  modem  nation,  was  that  on  the  marriage 
of  soldiers.  Under  the  eariy  Roman  polity,  marriage 
was  absolutely  forbidden  to  soldiers;  but  the  emperor 


CONTRACT  OF  MARRIAGE      93 


CONTRITE 


Clftndios  allowed  them  the  right,  and  it  seems  certain 
that  there  were  mairied  soldiem  under  Galba  and  Domi- 
tian.  SeYems  scema,  however,  to  have  been  the  first  to 
allow  soldiers  to  lire  with  their  wires.  Philip  I  and  II,  on 
the  other  hand,  seem  to  have  restricted  soldiers  to  a  first 
marriage.  Under  Justinian^s  Code,  the  marriage  of  sol- 
diers and  other  persons  in  the  militia  was  made  free, 
without  solemnities  of  any  sort,  so  long  as  Che  wife  was 
fiee-bom.  There  having  been  no  regular  armies  among 
the  barbarian  races,  nothing  answering  to  the  prohibi- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  their  codes. 

There  were  also  restrictions  on  marriage  which  must 
be  considered  protective  in  their  character,  and  intend- 
ed to  secure  real  freedom,  as  well  as  the  wisdom  of 
choice.  To  these,  in  the  highest  view  of  the  subject, 
bdoog  those  which  turn  upon  the  consent  of  parents 
(seeCoxsKKT);  although  this  restriction  seems  gener- 
ally to  have  had  its  historic  origin  in  a  much  lower 
sphere  of  feeling— that  of  the  social  dependence  and 
slarery,  or  quasi-alarery,  of  children  to  their  parents. 
Next  oome  the  interdictions  placed  by  the  Roman  law 
on  the  marriage  of  guardians  or  curators,  or  their  issue, 
with  their  female  wards. 

lastly  come  the  interdictions  on  the  marriage  of  offi- 
cials within  their  Jurisdictions,  which  are  analogons  in 
principle  to  those  on  the  marriage  of  guardians  with 
their  wards.  No  official  could  marry  (though  he  might 
betroth  to  himself)  a  wife  bom  or  domiciled  within  the 
province  in  which  he  held  office,  unless  he  had  been  be- 
trothed to  her  before ;  and  if  he  betrothed  a  woman,  she 
could,  after  his  giving  up  office,  terminate  the  engage- 
ment, on  returning  ^e  earnest-money;  but  he  could 
give  his  danghtem  in  marriage  within  the  province. 
The  marriage  of  an  official  contracted  against  this  in- 
terdiction seems  to  have  been  considered  absolutely 
void. 

Among  the  specially  religious  restrictions  placed  on 
the  marriage  contract  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church, 
the  one  which  would  first  claim  our  attention  is  that  on 
the  marriage  of  Christians  with  Gentiles,  or  eventually 
also  with  Jews  and  heretics. 

That  marriage  generally  was  a  civil  contract,  subject 
to  the  laws  of  the  state,  seems  to  have  been  the  re- 
ceived doctrine  of  the  early  Church ;  while  at  the  same 
time  it  claimed  also  power  to  regulate  it  in  the  spirit  of 
the  Gospel,  as  is  shown,  for  instance,  in  the  strictness 
of  oar  Lord  and  his  apostles  against  divorce,  although 
ftedy  allowed  both  by  the  Jewish  and  the  Roman  law. 
Hence  pagan  betrothals  and  marriages  were,  as  Selden 
observes,  held  valid  by  the  Christians  (£7xor  Ehraica^ 
bib  ii,  c  24). 

The  next  religioos  restriction  of  marriage  is  that  con- 
nected with  themonkuh  profession,  which  must  be  dis- 
tiogoisbed  from  the  eariy  vow  of  virginity  in  the  female 
sex,  and  from  the  institution  of  the  Church  virgins. 
The  vow  of  virginity,  which  for  many  centuries  now 
has  been  considered  an  essential  prerequisite  of  the 
monastic  profession,  was  not  so  by  any  means  in  the 
csrly  heroic  days  of  monachism  (q.  v.). 

The  prohibition  against  the  marriage  of  monks  and 
leligioas  women  by  degrees  found  its  way  into  the  civil 
law  of  several  of  the  barbarian  kingdoms  besides  France. 
Among  the  laws  of  king  Luitprand  of  Lombardy,  A.D. 
721,  or  later,  we  find  one  of  this  kind  as  to  women,  in 
which  their  position  when  they  have  assumed  the  relig- 
ious h^it  is  assimilated  to  that  of  girls  betrothed  under 
the  dvil  law,  whose  marriage  entails  a  penalty  of  five 
hundred  foUdL  The  Yisigothic  code  inflicts  ^  on  ince»- 
taoui  marriages  and  adulteries,  or  on  sacred  virgins  and 
widows  and  penitents,  defiled  with  lay  vesture  or  mar- 
riage," the  penalties  of  exile,  separation,  and  forfeiture 
of  property.  By  the  time  of  the  Carbvingians,  the 
rivil  and  ecclesiastical  law  almost  wholly  coalesce.  In 
the  €th  book  of  the  Capitularies  we  find  one  almost  in 
the  same  terms  with  the  Yisigothic  law  above  quoted, 
Maring  that  marriage  with  a  virgin  devoted  to  God, 
•  penon  nndcr  the  rdigioas  habit,  or  professing  the 


continence  of  widowhood,  is  not  a  true  marriage,  and 
requiring  the  parties  to  be  separated  by  either  the 
priest  or  the  Judge,  without  even  any  accusation  being 
lodged  with  him,  the  penalty  being  still  perpetual  ex- 
ile. In  the  East,  on  the  contrary,  about  the  end  of  the 
8th  century,  it  is  noted  as  one  of  the  features  of  Con- 
stantine  Copronymus's  tyranny,  that  he  compelled  monks 
to  marrv. 

* 

In  respect  of  the  marriage  of  the  deigy,  however, 
the  restraint  which  occupies  most  space  in  the  Church 
legislation  of  the  period  which  concerns  us,  is  that  on 
digamous  or  quasi-digamous  marriages,  which  will  be 
considered  under  the  head  of  Dioamt.  Meanwhile, 
however,  there  was  growing  up  a  feeling  against  all 
marriage  of  the  clergy  while  in  orders,  tending  to  tlieir 
absolute  celibacy.  The  notices  which  occur  of  other 
restraints  upon  clerical  marriages  are  comparatively 
few  and  unimportant.    See  Cklibact. 

II.  We  have  now  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  contract 
of  marriage,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  expression  is 
still  used  in  France  (marriage  seUlement),  of  the  written 
evidence  of  the  contract  itself  as  between  the  parties. 

The  marriage  contract  among  the  Romans  was  ha- 
bitually certified  in  writing  on  waxen  tablets,  which, 
however,  might  also  be  itsed  after  marriage,  e.  g.  on 
the  birth  of  a  child.  "Nuptial  Ublets"  were  signed 
both  by  the  parties  and  by  witnesses,  and  the  breaking 
of  them  was  held  to  be  at  least  a  symbol  of  the  dLmolu- 
tion  of  marriage,  if  it  had  not  the  actual  effect  of  dis- 
solving it.  By  a  constitution  of  the  emperor  Probus, 
the  drawing  up  of  such  ''tablets"  was  enacted  not  to 
be  necessary  to  establish  the  validity  of  the  marriage 
or  the  father's  power  over  his  offspring.  They  were 
perhaps  not  necessarily,  though  usually,  identical  with 
the  "  dotal  Ublets,"  "  dotal  instruments^"  or  ^  dotal  doc- 
uments," specifically  so  called,  but  must  have  been  com- 
prised with  them  at  least  under  the  general  terms  *'  in- 
struments" or  *' documents ; "  as  to  which  it  is  pro- 
vided, by  a  constitution  of  Diocletian  and  llaximin, 
that  where  there  is  no  marriage,  *^  instruments"  made 
to  prove  marriage  are  invalid ;  but  that  where  there  are 
none,  a  marriage  lawfully  contracted  is  not  void ;  nor 
could  the  want  of  signature  to  such  by  the  father  in- 
validate his  consent.  Nuptial  instruments  were  by 
Justinian  made  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  marriage  of 
stage-players.  Under  the  74th  Novel,  indeed,  all  per- 
sons exercising  honorable  offices,  businesses,  and  pro- 
fessions, short  of  the  highest  functions  in  the  state, 
were  required,  if  they  wished  to  marry  without  nuptial 
instruments,  to  appear  in  some  ^'  house  of  prayer  and  de* 
Glare  their  intentions  before  the  *  Defender  of  the 
Church, '"  who,  in  the  presence  of  three  or  four  of  the 
clerks  of  the  Church,  was  to  draw  up  an  attestation  of 
the  marriage,  with  names  and  dates,  and  this  was  then 
to  be  subscribed  by  the  parties,  the  "  Defender,"  and  the 
three  others,  or  as  many  more  as  the  parties  wished,  and 
if  not  required  by  them,  to  be  laid  up,  so  signed,  in  the 
archives  of  the  church,  i.  e.  where  the  holy  vases  were 
kept;  and  without  this  the  parties  were  not  held  to 
have  come  together  "  with  nuptial  will."  But  this  was 
only  necessary  where  there  was  no  document  fixing  a 
doM  or  anti-nuptial  donation ;  nor  was  it  required  as  to 
agriculturists,  persons  of  mean  condition,  or  common 
soldiers.  It  will  be  obvious  that  we  have  in  the  above 
the  original  of  our  marriage  certificates. — Smith,  Did. 
of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v.    See  Dowry  ;  Marriage. 

ContrecUt,  Andri£,  a  French  poet  and  musician, 
lived  about  1290.  He  wos  an  ecclesiastic,  and  left 
NeufChansont  Noties  (MS.  in  the  National  Library  of 
Paris,  No.  7222,  containing  eight  volumes).  See  Hoc- 
fer,  A*btf  V.  Biog,  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Contrite  literally  signifies  beaten  or  bruised,  as 
with  hard  blows,  or  a  heavy  burden ;  and  so,  in  Script- 
ure language,  importa  one  whose  heart  is  broken  and 
wonnded  for  sin,  in  oppoution  to  the  heart  of  stone 
(Isa.  Ixvi,  2 ;  Psa.  U,  17 ;  Ivii,  15).    The  evidences  of  a 


CONTROVERSY 


94 


CONVICTION 


brokeo  and  contrite  apirit  are:  (1)  Deep  ooovicdon  of 
the  evil  of  sin ;  (2)  bomiliation  under  a  lenae  of  it  (Job 
xliii,  5,  6);  (3)  pungent  Borrow  for  it  (Zech.  xii,  10); 
(4)  ingenuous  confession  of  it  (1  John  i,  9) ;  (5)  prayer 
for  deUveranoe  from  it  (Psa.  li,  10;  Luke  xviii,  18); 
(6)  susceptibility  of  good  impressions  (Ezek.  zi,  19). — 
Buck,  TheoL  Diet,  s.  ▼. 

Controversy,  Rbltoious,  is  good  or  evil,  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  which  it  upholds,  the  purpose  in 
which  it  originates,  the  object  to  which  it  is  applied, 
and  the  temper  with  which  it  is  conducted.  If  it  spring 
from  a  mere  spirit  of  contention,  from  desire  of  victory, 
not  love  of  truth,  or  from  stul^runess,  that  will  not  be 
brought  into  captivity  to  the  obedience  of  Christ,  Gbris- 
tianity  will  not  acknowledge  it  for^her  own.  If  it  be 
employed  on  questions  unbefitting  human  disputation ; 
questions  inaccessible  to  our  finite  understandings,  un- 
necessary or  unimportant  in  their  issue,  and  only  tend- 
ing to  perpetuate  strife,  or  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  men, 
then  it  is  also  unworthy  of  the  Christian  character. 
Nor  is  it  void  of  oiTeuce  when,  however  sound  its  prin- 
ciples, however  important  its  subject,  however  irrefrag- 
able its  argument,  it  is  made  the  vehicle  of  personal 
malignity;  when  it  is  carried  on  with  a  spirit  that  rends 
asunder  the  social  ties,  and  exasperates,  instead  of  en- 
deavoring to  soften,  the  iiritable  feelings,  which,  even 
in  its  mildest  aspect,  it  is  but  too  apt  to  excite. 

-  But  those  evil  consequences,  which  flow  from  the 
abase  of  controversy,  and  from  causes  by  no  means  nec- 
fliMarily  connected  with  religious  discussion,  ought  not 
to  deter  us  from  its  proper  use,  when  truth  requires  its 
aid.  Controversy  is  worse  than  useless  if  it  have  no 
better  end  in  view  than  a  display  of  mental  superiority, 
or  the  self-gratification  which,  to  minds  of  a  certain 
cast,  it  appears  to  afford.  For  as,  in  secular  disputes,  it 
is  the  legitimate  end  of  warfare  to  produce  peace,  so,  in 
religious  polemics,  the  attainment  of  unanimity  ought 
to  be  the  main  object  Wkt  \a  waged  because  peace 
cannot  be  obtained  without  it.  Religious  controversy 
is  maintained  because  agreement  in  the  truth  is  not 
otherwise  to  be  effected.  When  this  necessity  is  laid 
upon  us,  we  do  but  acquit  ourselves  of  an  indispensable 
duty  in  defending  the  charge  committed  to  our  care  by 
the  use  of  those  weapons  with  which  the  armory  of  the 
divine  Word  supplies  us.  See  Van  Mildert,  JBanr^Um 
Led, 

ContomelidstiB,  a  bishop  of  Riez,  in  Gaul,  A.D. 
624.  He  was  addressed  by  Avitus,  bishop  of  Yienne, 
concerning  a  work  sent  him  by  the  latter.  He  was  a 
learned  man,  but  of  doubtful  private  morality,  and  about 
634,  at  the  instance  of  Cflssarius,  bishop  of  Aries,  pope 
John  II  forbade  his  excrdsing  episcopal  functions.  Con- 
tnmeliosus  appealed  to  pope  Agapetus,  but  the  case 
seems  not  to  have  been  further  determined.  See  Smith, 
Did,  of  Chritt,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Contumely  and  Impudenoe,  two  vices,  were 
adored  by  the  Athenians  under  the  figure  of  partridges, 
from  a  supposed  analogy  of  nature. 

Contore,  Guillaume,  a  French  architect,  was  bom 
at  Rouen  in  1732,  and  visited  Italy  early,  where  he 
made  great  improvement.  He  restored  the  Churoh 
de  la  Madeleine,  and  died  in  1799.  See  Spooner,  Biog, 
Higt,  ofik6  Fine  A  rU,  s.  v. 

Contzen,  Ai>am,  a  Jesuit  and  controversialist  of 
Belgium,  was  bom  in  1678  at  Montjoie,  in  the  Jttlich 
territory.  In  1595  he  joined  his  order  at  Treves,  was 
in  1606  appointed  a  professor  of  philosophy  at  WUrz- 
burg,  and  in  1610  professor  of  tbeology  at  the  academy 
in  Mayence.  He  wrote,  against  the  Heidelberg  profess- 
or Parens,  Dtferuio  Libri  de  Gratia  Primi  ffonunis 
(Magdeburg,  1613),  and  CruddUat  et  Idoium  Cahnmita- 
rwn  Revdatum  (ibid.  1614).  When  Parens  tried  to  har- 
monise the  differences  between  Lutherans  and  Calvin- 
ists,  and  to  array  both  parties  against  Rome,  Contzen 
published  De  Urdone  eC  Synodo  Gtnerali  Evangdieorum 
^bid.  1616),  and  De  Paoe  Germanim  Libri  Duo  (ibid. 


1616).  When  the  first  centenary  of  the  Refonnatioii 
was  celebrated,  he  published  JubUum  Jubilorum  (i\Ad, 
1618).  At  Munich,  where  he  was  called  in  16^,  he 
wrote,  In  Qiuatuor  Evang,,  a  commentary  (Cologne, 
1626) :— /n  EpittoL  ad  Romanoi  (ibid.  1629)  :~/n  EptB-^ 
toL  ad  CorwUhios  et  ad  Galaku  (ibid.  1681).  He  died 
May  20, 1686.  See  K.  Brischar,  P.  A  dam  Coniten  (Wtlrs- 
burg,  1829);  Streber,  in  Wetzer  n.  Welte*s  Kircken- 
Lexikxm^  s.  v.;  Hoefer,  JVbttv.  Biog,  GMraU^  s.  r. 

(a  P.) 

Conunalh  (or  Conwalh).    See  Coinwalcr. 

ConuulfuB  (or  Conwnlfos).    See  Ctnewulf. 

Comrallua  (or  ConwaU)  is  the  name  of  several 
early  Scotch  siUnts: 

1.  Said  by  some  to  have  been  an  abbot  in  Scotland, 
and  confessor  of  king  Comanns,  and  to  have  died  in 
A.D.  627;  but  according  to  othen  an  abbot  of  lona^ 
who  introduced  '*  gang  -  days  "  (  Rogation  -  days  )  into 
Scotland.  His  day  of  commemoration  is  Oct  18  or  15. 
See  Forbes,  Kal,  of  Scot,  SakUs^  p.  164, 214, 241, 816. 

2.  A  confessor,  commemorated  May  18  or  Sept.  281, 
probably  the  Convalius  who  was  a  favorite  pupil  of 
Kentigem  at  Glasgow,  described  as  the  son  of  an  Irish 
prince,  and  as  dying  in  AJ).  612.  See  Forties,  KaL  of 
Scot,  Sainttf  p.  815. 

3.  A  monk,  commemorated  Sept.  14^  who  was  brought 
up  in  the  monastery  of  Croeraguel  in  Carrick,  and 
therefore  not  eariier  than  the  18th  century.  See  Came- 
rarius,  DeScot,  Fort,  p.  17d.'-Smitb,i>tct  ofChriU,  Biog. 
s.  V. 

Con^entiozi,  General,  is  an  assembly  of  clerical 
and  lay  deputies  belonging  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  (q.  v.)  of  America. 

Converse,  AmaBa,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister^ 
was  bom  at  Lyme,  N.  H.,  Aug.  21, 1796.  He  gradu-^ 
ated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1822;  studied  theology 
at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  for  one  year;  was 
ordained  evangelist  by  the  PreiA)ytery  of  Hanover, 
May  6, 1826 ;  was  missionary  in  \irginia  during  182S 
and  1827;  editor  of  the  Visitor  and  Telegraphy  Rich> 
mond,  thereafter  until  1839;  of  the  Christian  Observer ^ 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  until  1861 ;  then  went  back  to  Rich- 
mond, and  was  employed  there  until  1869 ;  and  at  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  until  his  death,  Dea  9, 1872.  See  Gen,  CaJU 
of  Princeton  Th^U  Sem,  1881,  p.  44. 

Converse,  Augustas  L.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
deigyman  of  the  diocese  of  South  Carolina,  was  for  a 
number  of  years  rector  of  the  church  in  Statebuigh,  near 
which  place  he  died,  Maroh  21, 1860,  aged  sixty-two 
years.    See  Prot,  Episc  A  hnanac,  1861,  p.  98. 

Converse,  John  Kendriok,  a  Presbyterian  and 
Congregational  minister,  was  bora  at  Lyme,  N.  H.,  June 
16, 1801.  His  preliminary  education  was  acquired  at 
Thetford  Academy.  In  1827  he  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College,  and  during  the  two  years  following  was 
a  teacher  and  editor  in  Richmond,  Va.  Soon  after  bia 
graduation  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  he 
was  ordained  pastor,  Aug.  9, 1832,  at  Burlington,  Vt, 
where  he  continued  to  minister  for  twelve  years ;  and 
then,  for  more  than  twenty-Ave  years  was  principal  of 
the  Burlington  Female  Seminary.  For  a  long  time  he 
was  secretary  of  the  Vermont  Colonization  Society,  and 
was  also  general  agent  of  the  American  Coloniaation 
Society.  He  died  at  Burlington,  Oct.  8,  1880.  See 
Cong,  Year-book,  1881,  p.  20 ;  NecroL  Report  of  Prince- 
ton TheoL  Sem,  1881. 

Conversi  is  a  Latin  term  for  lay  brothen  of  a 
monastery,  as  having  forsaken  the  worid. 

Convert  is  a  person  who  is  converted.  In  a  mo- 
nastic sense,  converts  are  Uy  friars,  or  brothers  admitted 
for  the  service  of  the  house,  without  orders,  and  not  al- 
lowed to  sing  in  the  choir. 

Conviction,  in  general,  is  the  assurance  of  the 
truth  of  any  proposition*    In  a  nligiooa  sense,  it  is  ths 


CONVOCATION 


95 


COOK 


first  degree  of  repentance,  and  implies  an  affecting 
aenee  that  we  are  guilty  before  God ;  that  we  can  do 
nothing  of  oonelrea  to  gain  hiB  forfeited  favor;  that 
we  desenre  and  are  ezpoied  to  the  wnth  of  God ;  that 
•in  ia  very  odious  and  hateful,  yea,  the  greatest  of  evils. 

There  is  a  natural  and  just  conviction  which  arises 
ffom  natnral  conscience,  fear  of  punishment,  monl  sna- 
SMHi,  or  alarming  providences,  but  which  is  not  of  a 
permanent  nature.  Samng  conviction  is  a  work  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  as  the  cause ;  though  the  eonsdenee, 
the  law,  the  gospel,  or  affliction,  may  be  the  means 
(John  xvi,  8,  9). 

Convictions  of  sin  differ  very  much  in  their  degree 
and  pungency,  in  different  persons.  It  has  been  ob- 
served that  those  who  suffer  the  most  agonizing  sensa- 
tions are  such  as  never  before  enjoyed  the  external  call 
of  the  gospel,  or  were  favored  with  the  tuition  of  relig- 
ious parents,  but  have  neglected  or  notoriously  abused 
the  means  of  grace.  To  these,  conviction  is  oilen  sud- 
den, and  produces  that  horror  and  shame  which  are  not 
soon  ovetcome ;  whereas  those  who  have  sat  under  the 
gospel  from  their  infancy  have  not  often  such  alarming 
convictions,  because  they  have  already  some  notion  of 
these  things,  and  haVe  much  acquaintance  with  the  gos- 
pel, which  administen  to  a  believing  heart  immediate 
oomfort.  As  it  is  not,  therefore,  the  constant  method 
of  the  Spirit  to  convince  in  one  way,  it  is  improper  for 
any  to  distress  themselves  because  they  are  not,  or  have 
not  been,  tormented  almost  to  despair :  they  should  be 
rather  thankful  that  the  Spirit  of  God  has  dealt  tender- 
ly with  them,  and  opened  to  them  the  genuine  souree 
of  conaolation  in  Christ.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to 
observe  that,  in  order  to  repentance  and  conversion  to 
God,  there  must  be  real  and  lasting  conviction,  which, 
though  it  may  not  be  the  same  in  degree,  is  the  same 
innatore. 

Evangelical  conviction  differs  from  legal  conviction 
thus:  l^al  arises  from  a  consideration  of  the  divine 
law,  God's  justice,  power,  or  omniscience;  evm^icalf 
from  God's  goodness  and  holiness  as  seen  in  the  cross 
of  Christ,  and  from  a  disaffection  to  sin ;  legal  convic- 
tion srill  conceives  there  is  something  remuning  good ; 
but  evangelical  is  sensible  there  is  no  good  at  all ;  legal 
wishes  freedom  from  pain ;  evangelical  from  sin ;  legal 
hardens  the  heart;  evangelical  softens  it;  legal  is  only 
temporary ;  evangelical  lasting.— Buck,  TheoL  Diet,  s.  v. 

€rOllvocatioil,«t  (ke  University  o/ Ox/ordjCOTa\alt» 
of  all  persons  admitted  to  regency,  who  have  their 
names  on  their  ooUege  books,  and  have  paid  all  their 
fees.  This  assembly  gives  assent  to  statutes  passed  in 
congregation,  confirms  leases  of  lands,  makes  petitions 
to  Parliament,  elects  burgesses,  and  confers  honorary 
degrees,  or  those  given  by  degree  or  by  diploma. 

COn^rell,  Heniy,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was 
bom  in  Ireland,  made  bishop  of  Philadelphia,  Pa,  in 
1820,  and  died  in  that  city,  April  21,  1842.  See  De 
Conney  and  Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Caiholie  Church  in  the 
U.  8.  p.  125. 

Con'vrell,  177.  T.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Chnreh  South,  was  bom  near  Hazel  Green,  Morgan 
Go!,  Ky.,  Feb.  19, 1849.  He  removed  to  Missouri  in  1870, 
was  ooaverted  ib  1874,  and  the  same  year  joined  the  Mis- 
souri Conference.  He  died  at  Savannah,  Mo.,  May  28, 
1881.  See  MimUes  of  Annual  Can/erencee  of  the  M.  E, 
Ckwrtk  S<mthy  1881,  p.  818.     . 

GSonybeaf  e,  John  Josias,  A.M.,  an  English  divine, 
was  bom  in  1779.  He  was  elected  professor  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  in  Oxford  University  in  1808,  and  professor  of 
poetry  in  1812.  He  delivered  the  Bampton  lectures 
for  1824,  on  the  IfUtrprttation  ofScriptyire ;  and  in  1826 
was  frabtished  his  Ilhutraiumt  of  Ans^Sazon  Poetry^ 
edited  by  W.  D.  Conybeare.  This  work  has  done  much 
to  promote  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon  literature.  Large 
portions  of  the  8cmg  of  the  Trwfdkr  and  Beowulf  ytiXi 
be  found  in  the  vdume.  Mr.  Conybeare  was  a  contrib- 
olor  to  the  BriiUh  Bibliogrcpher.    He  died  in  1824. 


See  (Lond.)  Chritiian  Bememhraneerf  July,  1824,  p.  489 ; 
Allibone,  DieL  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  AtOhort,  s.  v. ;  Bioff, 
Unteertetlef  s.  v. 

Conyera,  Josiah  6.,  a  Baptist  minister  and  physi- 
cian, was  bora  in  Bath  County,  Ky.,  Maroh  4, 1812.  He 
graduated  as  M.D.  from  Transylvania  University,  and 
for  seven  years  practiced  his  profession  at  Quincy,  IlL 
He  united  with  the  Baptist  Chnreh  in  1844.  Several 
years  afterwards  he  gave  up  a  lucrative  practice,  and 
was  ordained  a  minister  at  St  Mary's,  O.,  where,  and 
at  Delphos  and  Zanesville,  he  preached  for  six  yeark 
Although  somewhat  advanced  in  life,  he  became  a 
student  in  the  theological  department  of  Madison  Uni- 
versity, N.  Y.,  and  studied  one  year  at  Princeton.  In 
January,  1868,  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  pastor- 
ate in  Oneids,  IIL  Subsequently  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Chnreh  at  Berwick.  He  died  Aug.  6, 1870,  near  Tabo, 
Lafayette  Co.,  Mo.    See  Miautee  of  IIL  AnmvertarieSf 

1870, p. u.   (J. as.) 

Conyngbame,  Daniel,  a  Scotch  deigyman,  took 
his  degree  at  Gla^w  University  in  IbSi;  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  at  Kilmalcolm  in  1588;  was  a 
member  of  the  Court  of  High  Commission  in  1619,  con- 
tinued in  1628,  but  resided  at  Lochwinnoch  in  1646. 
See  Faeti  Ecdes,  Scotuxjam,  ii,  249. 

Conynghame,  Hugh,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took 
his  degree  at  Glasgow  University  in  1634,  became  minis- 
ter of  the  Presbyterian  congregation  at  Ray,  Ireland,  but 
was  compelled  by  persecution  to  leave  that  island ;  was 
called  to  the  living  at  Mearas  in  1649;  became  a  tem- 
porary supply  at  Erskine  in  1641,  and  continued  in  Jan- 
nary,  1654.     See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  ii,  227, 245. 

Consl^,  Z^anooia  de,  a  French  prelate,  brother 
of  the  following,  was  bom  at  Poncin,  in  Bngey,  Mareh 
18, 1786.  He  was  first  £prand-vicar,  then  bishop  of  St 
Omer,  and,  in  1774,  became  archbishop  of  Tours.  As 
deputy  of  the  clergy  to  the  states-general  of  1789,  he  pro- 
tested aglinst  the  reunion  of  the  three  orders,  resigned 
in  1791,  and  went  to  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  afterwards 
wrote  against  the  dvil  constitution  of  the  clergy,  and 
published,  in  June,  1791,  a  mandate  which  was  con- 
demned, in  July  of  the  same  year,  by  the  tribunal  of 
Tours,  to  be  tom  and  bnmed  by  the  hand  of  the  exe- 
cutioner. He  retired  to  Holland,  and  died  at  Amster- 
dam in  1795.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginh^le^  s.  v.; 
Miog,  UttiverseOe,  s.  v. 

Conai^,  Xioiiia  Z^anooia  Maro  Hilalre  de, 
a  French  prehite,  was  bom*  at  Poncin,  in  Bugey,  Jaa 
18, 1782.  He  served  first  as  an  officer  of  dragoons, 
but  was  soon  made  bishop  of  Arrss.  He  proved  him- 
self one  of  the  most  violent  adversaries  of  the  Kevo- 
Itttion.  He  refused  to  sit  at  the  states-general,  and  in 
a  riot  came  near  losing  his  life  in  return  for  his  de- 
votion. An  indictment  being  decreed  in  1792,  he  took 
refuge  in  England  and  attached  himself  to  the  count 
of  Artois.  He  exercised  great  influence  in  private,  and 
directed  the  affain  of  the  royalist  part}'.  He  became 
the  centre  of  the  intercourse  and  intrigue  which  fed 
the  civil  war  in  France.  For  many  years  bis  name 
was  found  in  nearly  all  the  projects  of  political  insur- 
rections. He  is  especially  memorable  as  one  of  the 
directora  of  the  plot  of  the  machine  infemale^  Dec  24, 
1800.  He  died  in  London  in  December,  1804.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Bioff»  Ghirakf  s.  v. ;  Biog,  Universelle, 
s.  V. 

Coo,  RooKR,  an  English  martyr,  was  a  native  of 
Melford,  in  Suffolk.  He  was  brought  before  the  bish- 
op,  examined,  and  condemned  to  be  burned,  on  accoiut 
of  his  belief  in  the  tnie  God  and  his  abhorrence  of  the 
worship  of  idols.  The  sentence  was  executed  at  Yox- 
ford,  Suffolk,  in  1555.  See  Fox,ilcfs  and  Monuments, 
vii,881. 

Cook,  Albert  A.,  a  Methodist  Episcopsl  minister, 
was  bom  at  Warehouse  Point,  Conn.,  Sept  24,  1817. 
Ho  early  gave  proof  of  a  noble  character  by  caring  for 


COOK 


06 


COOK 


the  fAmily  on  the  death  of  his  father;  Joined  the  Chnich 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and,  after  aeveral  yeara  of  study 
and  teaching,  united  ¥rith  the  New  England  Conference 
in  1842,  and  began  his  pastoral  life  at  Feeding  Hills, 
Kass.  He  continued  his  ministry  at  Shelbnme  Falls, 
Chester  Village  (now  Huntington),  North  Drookfield, 
Princeton,  Oxford,  and  in  1851  at  Milford  (all  in  Massa- 
chusetts), where  he  died,  Feb.  4, 1880.  Mr.  Cook  spent 
his  latter  years  as  a  dentist;  was  a  member  of  the  Gen- 
eral Court  of  Massachusetts  in  1850, 1855,  and  1864;  and 
aenred  once  in  the  Senate  and  twice  iu  the  House.  He 
was  a  Christian  gentleman,  of  fine  presence  and  great 
nrbanity ;  a  natural,  excellent  preacher  and  expositor; 
was  benevolent,  and  everywhere  highly  esteemed.  See 
Miautes  of  Annual  Con/erencetj  1880,  p.  66. 

Cook,  Alexander  (1),  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
waa  bom  at  SL  Monance,  near  tilasgow,  Scotland,  Feb. 
4, 1760.  He  received  a  moderate  English  education  at 
Glasgow,  and  learned  the  trade  of  a  silversmith.  He 
was  at  Berwick-on-Tweed  in  1778,  and  emigrated  to 
America  in  1783;  in  1797  waa  living  in  Pennsylvania; 
in  1802  waa  licensed,  and  went  as  a  missionary  to  the 
Indians,  but  remained  only  a  short  time.  In  1803  he 
was  received  into  the  Presbytery  of  Erie,  and  accepted 
calls  from  the  congregations  of  Slippery  Rock  and  New 
Castle,  where  he  continued  until  1809.  In  1810  he  was 
dismissed  from  the  Presbytery  of  Erie,  and  connected 
himself  with  that  of  Hartford.  About  this  time  he  took 
a  commission  to  labor  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  as 
a  missionar}'.  He  was  also  stated  supply  at  Poland,  O., 
from  1812  to  1814.  In  1815  he  was  received  into  the 
Presbytery  of  Ohio,  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church 
of  Bethany,  which  relation  was  dissolved  in  1820.  In 
1821  he  was  received  by  the  Presbytery  of  Allegheny, 
and  in  the  same  year  installed  as  pastor  of  the  churches 
of  Ebenezer  and  Bear  Creek.  In  1827  he  was  received 
into  the  Presbytery  of  Steubenville,  and  for  a  year  sup- 
plied the  churches  of  Annapolis  and  Bloomfleld,  O.  In 
1828  he  left  his  home  to  organise  a  Church  in  a  Scotch 
settlement  in  Ohio.  While  on  this  trip  he  died,  Nov. 
80, 1828.  ^  See  Hist,  of  the  Preib^ery  of  Erie. 

Cook,  Alexander  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Keskasbig,  County  Donegal,  Ire- 
land, May  5, 1842.  He  joined  the  Wesleyans  early  in 
life;  received  a  good  common  English  education,  and 
studied  two  years  in  the  Wesleyan  Institute;  taught 
school  four  years;  emigrated  to  America  in  1865,  and 
in  1866  entered  the  Central  Ohio  Conference,  wherein 
he  served  the  Church  until  his  death,  early  in  1870. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1870,  p.  196. 

Cook,  Arohibald,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  li- 
censfkl  to  preach  in  1822;  appointed  to  the  North 
Church,  Inverness,  in  1837,  after  he  had  spent  some 
years  as  missionary  at  Berriedale;  Joined  the  Free  Se- 
cession in  1843,  and  became  minister  of  the  Free  Church, 
Daviot,  in  1844.  He  died  May  6,  1865,  aged  seventy- 
four  years.    See  Fasti  Ecdes.  ScoHcana^  iii,  259. 

Cook,  Chauncey,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Wallingford,  Conn.,  March  9, 1778.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Middlebury  College  in  1808,  studied  theology 
with  Dr.  Asa  Burton,  was  orduned  in  1809,  and  labored 
as  an  evangelist  in  Vermont  and  New  York.  In  1811 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Adams,  N.  Y.,  and 
his  successive  charges  were  as  follows:  Lima,  Pittsford, 
Chili,  Greece,  Ira,  Aurora  (Presbyterian  Church),  all  in 
New  York  state;  Hennepin,  Aurora,  and  Bristol,  in  Eli- 
nois.  He  died  at  Ottawa,  Dl.,  March  21, 1860.  Mr. 
Cook's  ministry  was  blessed  with  many  revivals.  ^  He 
was  a  progressive  man  to  the  last."  See  Cong,  Quar^ 
ieriy^  1860,  p.  844. 

Cook,  ComeliuB,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  a  native  of  Great  Britain,  where  he  was  converted, 
and  then  called  to  preach  in  America.  He  labored  three 
years  in  the  ministry  (in  East  Jersey,  1787 ;  Dutchess, 
1788;  SchenecUdy,  1789),  and  died*  in  August,  1789. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Cotifenneej  1790,  p.  86. 


Cook,  Hdvraxd,  an  English  Wesleyan  missionary, 
was  bom  at  Long  Whatton,  Leicestershire,  Nov.  4, 1806. 
He  was  converted  in  1828,  ordained  in  London  for  the 
missionary  work  in  1881,  and  on  Jan.  14,  1832,  sailed 
with  Rev.  Messrs.  Edwards  and  Satchel  in  the  Caledonia^ 
for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  His  field  was  the  Great 
Namaqua  land.  His  work  was  interesting,  successful, 
pursued  with  great  love  and  enthusiasm,  often  amid 
dangers.  His  health  finally  giving  way  under  his  toils, 
he  commenced  a  journey  to  Cape  Town,  but  before  he 
reached  the  station  of  his  wished-for  rest  he  died,  on  tb« 
banks  of  the  Great  Orange  River,  March  7, 184S.  His 
remains  were  carried  back  over  fifty  miles  to  Nisbet 
Bath,  and  interred  in  the  land  of  bis  labor.  Besides  es- 
tablishing a  church  of  more  then  four  hundred  mem- 
bers, and  schools  of  more  than  one  thousand  children  at 
Nisbet  Bath,  he  made  frequent  journeys  to  the  Damans 
and  more  distant  tribes.  See  Minutes  of  tAe  British 
Conference,  1843;  John  Cook,  The  Life  of  Edward  Cook 
(Liverpool,  1849, 12mo);  Christian  Watchman  Maga^ 
sine  (Cape  Town),  March,  1843. 

Cook,  Bdwln  R.  T.,  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  waa 
bom  in  1825.  At  the  time  of  bis  death,  July  25, 1865, 
be  was  rector  of  Wainwright  Memorial  Church,  in  New 
York  city.  Mr.  Cook  was  an  able,  devoted,  and  emi- 
nently successful  pastor.  See  Appleton^s  A  nnual  Cgdqp, 
1865,  p.  644. 

Cook,  EUJah,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  the  state  of  New  York  in  1798.  He  removed 
to  the  West  in  1835,  and  waa  a  preacher  in  Michigan. 
His  ordination  took  place  in  1845,  and  for  neariy  thirty 
years  after  he  was  engaged  in  his  Master's  woric  He 
died  at  Cook's  Prairie,  Mich.,  Jan.  81, 1872.  See  Free- 
will Baptist  Register,  1878,  p.  88.     (J.  C  S.) 

Cook,  Emlle  F.,  a  French  Methodist  preacher, 
son  of  Rev.  Charles  Cook,  was  bom  at  Niort,  June  15, 
1829.  The  happy  influence  of  his  godly  parents  was 
shown  by  his  conversion  at  the  age  of  nine  years.  His 
mind  was  drawn  to  the  ministry,  and  he  pursued  his 
classical  studies  in  France  and  Switzerland;  and,  to 
qualify  himself  for  preaching,  entered  the  Wesleyan 
Theological  College  at  Richmond,  England,  where,  for 
three  years,  he  manifested  the  aptitude  for  pastoral  work 
which  ever  afterwards  characterized  his  life  and  labors. 
He  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  France  in  1854, 
when  that  country  was  made  an  independent  conference, 
and  labored  successfully  at  Nismes,  Nyons,  Lausanne, 
and  other  important  circuits.  He  was  stationed  in 
Paris  during  the  siege,  and  heroically  opened  his  house 
as  a  hospital,  and  had  it  filled  with  the  sick  and  wounded, 
whom  he  gathered  in  person  from  the  battlefield,  and 
his  devoted  labors  were  greatly  appreciated  by  both  the 
conference  and  the  citizens.  The  conference  elected 
him  president  in  1872,  and  kept  him  in  the  office  two 
years,  as  a  mark  of  the  confidence  and  affection  of  his 
brethren.  At  the  close  of  his  presidential  duties  he 
came  to  America  to  attend  the  meeting  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Alliance,  and  afterwards  spent  some  time  in 
pleading  in  Methodist  churches  for  aid  to  his  native 
land.  He  started  for  home  in  the  steamer  Ville-du- 
Havre,  but  was  shipwrecked  soon  after  leaving  America. 
He  was  picked  up,  as  by  a  mirade,  with  barely  life 
left;  resumed  his  journey  in  the  steamer  Loch  Eam^ 
and  was  again  wrecked.  Was  again  rescued,  but  with 
little  hope  of  ralljing,  yet  he  strove  hard  to  lead  the 
dying  to  the  Saviour.  He  at  length  reached  England, 
got  home  greatly  exhausted,  and  was  sent  to  the  south 
of  France;  but  nature  was  worn  out,  yet  his  mind  was 
calm  and  serene,  and  his  strong  faith  remained  un- 
shaken.   He  died  Jan.  9, 1874. 

Cook,  FInlay,  a  Scotch  deigyman,  was  bom  at 
Arran  in  1778.  He  became  a  catechist  at  Glasgow; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1816;  ordained  and  sent  as 
missionary  to  Halkirk,  Watten,  and  Reay,  and  after- 
wards to  Invemess;  presented  to  the  living  at  Cross  in 
1829;  transferred  to  East  Charch,  Invemeas,  in  1838; 


COOK 


97 


COOK 


and  thence  to  Reay  in  1886;  joined  the  Free  Secession 
in  1843;  snd  died  June  12, 1868.  He  was  ranarkAble 
for  integrity  and  uprightnessi  faithful  in  repronng  sin 
and  enor.  His  ton«  Alexander,  was  a  minister  in  the 
Free  Church.  See  FomH  £oeU$,  Sootkomm,  iiij  147,  f&9, 
868. 

CrOOk,  Oeorse,  D.D.,  a  Scottish  theologian,  was 
bom  at  St.  Andrews  between  1780  and  1795.  He  was 
pastor  of  Laurenoekirk,  and  died  in  1845.  He  wrote 
s  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  (Edinb.  1811, 
1819,  3  vols.)  i—tL  Jlistory  of  ike  Church  of  Scotland 
(Lond.  1815, 8  voW)  i—BeaUty  of  Chritfi  Resitrrection 
(1808),  and  some  minor  pieces. 

Cook,  Henry  David,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son 
of  the  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  St.  Andrews, 
was  born  Feb.  24, 1791.  He  took  his  degree  at  the 
Cnireitity  of  St.  Andrews ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1813y  and  presented  to  the  living  at  Kilmany  in  1815. 
He  died  Sept.  19, 1857.  He  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  history  of  the  Church,  and  with  all  its  schisms  and 
oontroreraies.    See  FofU  EodcM,  ScoHcana,  ii,  499. 

Cook;  Henry  Preston,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Hancock  County,  Ga.,  Dec  8, 
1800.  He  received  a  careful  religious  training,  ex- 
perienced conversion  in  1817,  and  in  1820  united  with 
the  Hiasiasippi  Conference,  wherein  he  labored  with 
zeal  and  fidelity  until  his  death,  in  1826.  See  i/ui- 
Mta  of  Animal  Conferences,  1826,  p.  506;  Methodist 
Jfaffozme^  ix,  359. 

Cook,  Zsaao  M.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Pennsylvania.  He  graduated  from  Jefferson 
College  in  1841,  attended  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
naiy  for  about  one  year  (1842),  was  ordained  by  the 
Probytery  of  Beaver,  Dec.  17, 1845,  and  waa  pastor  at 
Bridgewater,  Pa.,  nntil  bis  death,  in  January,  1854.  See 
Gen.  Cat.  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  iso. 

Cook,  Israel  B.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
waa  bom  in  1789.  His  name  first  appears  in  1813,  in 
connection  with  Lycoming  Circuit  of  the  Genesee  Con- 
ference. In  1822  he  became  superannuated,  but  sub- 
sequently was  readmitted  into  the  East  Baltimore 
Conference.  He  died  March  7, 1868.  See  Minute*  of 
Annua/  Conferences,  1868,  p.  29 

Cook,  I.  RusseU,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  at  Acton,  Me.,  in  1821.  He  removed  to  Man- 
chester, N.  H.,  where  he  was  converted  in  1847,  and  or- 
dained io  1862.  His  pastorates  were  in  various  places 
in  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  including  Gilmanton, 
where  be  waa  pastor  for  four  years,  and  Buxton,  Me., 
for  five  yean.  He  died  in  Rochester,  N.  H.,  July  1, 
1862.     See   Free-will  Baptist  Jee^itfer,  1868,  p.* 92. 

(J.  a  &) 

Cook,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  de- 
gree at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1648;  was 
presented  to  the  living  at  Ecdes  in  1668;  deprived  in 
1689  for  not  praying  for  the  king  and  queen,  and  other 
aets  of  disloyalty.  He  died  in  1691,  aged  about  sixty- 
three  yesrs.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scotieana,  i,  412. 

Cooky  John  (2),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1732;  called  to  the  living  at  Abercrombie 
in  1734,  and  ordained.  He  died  June  24,  1751.  His 
ttaa  John  became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  St 
Aodiewa.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  p.  403. 

Cook,  John  (3),  a  Scotch  ckTgynum,  was  bora 
Kov.  24, 1771.  He  took  his  degree  at  the  University 
of  Sl  Andrewa  in  1788;  was  Ucensed  to  preach  in  1792; 
appointed  minister  at  Kilmany  in  1793,  and  ordained ; 
appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at  St.  Mary's  College,  St. 
Andrews,  and  resigned  in  1802.  He  died  Nov.  28, 1824. 
See  Fasti  EeaUs,  Seoticana,  ii,  499. 

Cook,  John  (4),  an  eariy  Wedeyan  missionary, 
Wis  Moi  to  the  ialaod  of  IXmiinica,  W.  I.,  in  1794. 
On  hb  afriTsl  at  Tortola  he  was  seized  with  putrid 
flercr,  and  in  five  days  died, "  in  the  prime  of  hia  life 

XH..-6 


and  the  triumph  of  faith,"  in  1795  (according  to  HiU). 
See  Atmore,  Meth*  Memorial,  s.  v. 

Cook,  John  (5),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of 
the  divinity  professor  at  St.  Andrews,  graduated  at  that 
university  in  1823.  He  was  factor  to  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege in  1824,  licensed  to  preach  in  1828,  presented  to 
the  living  at  Laurencekirk  in  1829,  and  ordained; 
transferred  to  St.  Leonanrs,  St.  Andrews,  in  1845 ;  ap- 
pointed convener  of  committee  on  education  in  1849. 
of  that  for  schoolmasters  in  1850,  and  also  of  three 
other  committees;  was  moderator  of  the  General  As- 
sembly in  1859,  assessor  to  the  university  court,  elected 
professor  of  divinity  and  ecclesiastical  history  in  1860, 
and  one  of  the  deans  of  the  chapel  in  1863.  He  died 
April  17, 1869,  aged  sixty-one  years.  Dr.  Cook  publishe<l 
works  on  Church  Patronage,  Church  Defence,  Helufof 
the  Poor,  School  Statistics,  a  Catechism,  and  a  few  sin- 
gle Sermons,  A  handsome  painted  window,  placed  by 
his  parishioners  in  the  college  chureh,  St.  Andrews,  is 
one  token  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  he  was  held. 
He  had  scholarly  ability,  refined  taste,  exact  and  active 
business  habits,  affobility,  and  courtesy.  See  Fatti  Ec- 
des, ScotieanoB,  iii,  879. 

Cook,  John  C,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  about  1887.  He  was  educated  at  Dickinson 
College,  where  he  was  converted  at  the  age  of  nineteen, 
and  in  1860  entered  the  East  Baltimore  Conference, 
wherein  he  labored  with  earoest  devotion  until  his 
death,  April  22, 1862.  Mr.  Cook  was  a  roan  of  great 
promise,  meek  and  lowly  in  heart,  earnest,  faithful 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1863,  p.  10. 

Cook,  John  Lovejoy,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Edinbui^,  Saratoga  Co.,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  7,  1819,  of  devout  Christian  parents.  He  spent 
his  youth  amid  the  quiet  and  peace  of  farm  life,  where 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  blameless,  industrious. 
Christian  character.  lie  was  employed  in  his  .voung 
manhood  by  his  brother  as  a  manufacturer  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  Rhode  Itlandy  at  which  time  he  was  con- 
verted, became  a  class-leader,  and  received  license  to 
preach,  and  in  1846  was  admitted  into  the  Troy  Confer- 
ence. His  last  eight  years  were  given  to  the  pastorate 
of  the  Congregational  Church  at  North  Pownall,  Yt., 
where  he  died  May  15, 1878.  See  Minutes  of  A  mmal 
Conferences,  1879,  p.  48. 

Cook,  Joseph,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Bath,  England.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1776. 
He  had  previously  served  as  associate  pastor  at  Margate, 
on  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  at  Dover,  Deal,  and  Folkestone. 
He  then  came  to  America,  and  was  first  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Entaw  Springs,  S.  C,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  during 
the  Revolutionary  War.  When  he  returned  he  found 
his  Church  almost  extinct,  but  through  his  efforts  it 
grew  in  numbers,  spirituality,  and  influence.  He  died 
Sept.  26, 1790.  See  Spnigue,  A  nnals  of  the  Amer,  Pul- 
pit, vi,  186. 

Cook,  Joseph  B.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  in 
South  Carolina  about  1776.  He  was  converted  at  the 
age  of  fifteen,  and  graduated  from  Brown  University  in 
1797 ;  pursued  his  theological  studies  with  Rev.  Dr.  Fur- 
man  ;  was  ordained  as  an  evangelist,  ond  succenively 
became  pastor  of  the  Eutaw,  the  Beaufort,  and  the 
Mount  Fisgah  churches.  He  died  at  his  residence  in 
Sumter  District^  S.  C,  Aug.  24,  1838.  See  Watchman 
and  Reflector,  Sept.  18, 1833.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cook,  Nehemlah  Baldwin,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Hampton,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  20, 1793. 
He  graduated  from  Andover  Theological  Seminar}' 
in  1821;  in  1823  was  appointed  a  home  mission- 
ary in  Wayne  County,  Pa.,  served  one  year,  and  was 
ordained  Aug.  81, 1825;  from  that  time  till  1833  he  was 
acting  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  in  Babylon 
and  Fresh  Pond,  L.  I.,  and  during  the  three  succeeding 
years  at  Riverhead  and  Southhold.  He  was  installed 
pastor  in  Stonington,  Conn.,  March  7, 1888,  from  which 


COOK 


98 


COOKE 


he  w«8  dUmisfled  in  May,  1859,  From  Jane,  1864,  to 
October,  1867,  he  w«8  acting  paator  in  Ledyard,  and 
subsequently  resided  there  without  charge  until  his 
death,  Nov.  17, 1879.  He  publuhed  two  Funeral  Ser- 
moru.    See  Conff,  Year-boole^  1880,  p.  16. 

Cook,  Pardon,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  admitted  into  the  Pittsburgh  Conference  in  1827, 
preached  for  thirty-four  years,  was  a  superannuate  for 
nineteen  years,  and  died  at  Marietta,  O.,  in  May,  1880, 
in  his  eighty-third  year.  He  was  pure-minded,  cheer- 
ful, sweet-spirited,  and  beloved.  *See  Minutu  of  An- 
tmal  Conferences^  1880,  p.  243. 

Cook,  PhlneaB,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Greenfield,  Mass.,  March  10,  1784.  He 
experienced  religion  in  1800 ;  and  in  1808  entered  the 
New  York  Conference,  in  which  he  was  an  effective 
preacher  for  forty  years.  He  spent  his  latter  years  as 
a  saperaunoate,  and  died  May  26, 1861.  Mr.  Cook  was 
of  a  warm  and  lively  temperament,  open-hearted  and 
frsnk.     See  Minutes  of  Annual  ConferenceSf  1862,  p.  80. 

Cook,  Riohard,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  about  1818.  Ho  was  converted  when  quite 
young;  joined  the  Oneida  Conference  in  1844;  con- 
tinued effective  until  1860,  when  he  took  a  supernu- 
merary relation,  on  account  of  ill-health ;  served  as  pre- 
siding elder  in  1861  and  1862;  and  spent  his  last  fifteen 
years  in  New  Hartford.  He  died  in  September,  1876. 
Mr.  Cook  was  a  fearless  advocate  of  all  reforms,  and  an 
exemplary  Christian.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Confer- 
ences^ 1876,  p.  137. 

Cook,  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  de- 
gree at  Bfarischal  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1818 ;  was  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Clatt  in  1820,  and  ordained; 
transferred  to  Ceres  in  1844,  and  died  at  Monimail,  Dec 
20, 1851,  aged  fifty-eighe  years.  His  publications  arc, 
Sermon  on  the  Abundant  Harvest,  ufilh  Metrical  Para- 
phrases  (1881):  — TAs  CatechisCs  Poetical  Manual 
(1884)  i-'The  Young  Communicants  Manual  (1849)  :— 
Account  of  the  Parish,  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Sooticana, 
iii,  654. 

Cook,  Samuel,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  at 
Eastham,  Mass.,  in  1791.  When  he  was  young  his 
parents  removed  to  Maine.  In  1815  he  was  baptized, 
and  united  with  the  Baptist  Church  in  Clinton.  He 
oompleted  a  literary  and  theological  course  in  1821  at 
Waterville  College.  Soon  after,  ho  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Church  in  Effingham,  N.  H.  The  subsequent 
pastorates  of  Mr.  Cook  were  at  Brentwood,  Hampton 
Falls,  Hopkinton,  Meredith  and  Dunbarton,  all  in  New 
Hampshire.  He  acted,  for  some  years,  as  the  agent  of 
the  New  Hampshire  Baptist  Convention,  and,  for  eight 
years,  was  the  chaplain  of  the  state  prison  at  Concord. 
He  died  Feb.  15, 1872.  See  Obit,  Hecord  ofColbg  Uni- 
vtrsity,  Supplement  No,  1,  p.  5.     (J.  C.  S.) 

.  Cook,  Thomas  F,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  son  of  Rev.  Valentine  Cook, 
was  a  native  of  Kentucky.  He  professed  religion  in 
boyhood,  labored  a  number  of  years  acceptably  aa  local 
preacher,  and  in  1848  entered  the  Mississippi  Confer- 
ence. In  1865  he  was  transferred  to  the  Kio  Grande 
Conference.  He  died  of  yellow  fever,  July  24, 1867. 
Mr.  Cook  was  a  meek,  spiritual  Christian,  a  faithful, 
laborious  pastor,  and  a  successful  preacher.  See  J/i'n-' 
utes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M,E.  Church  South, 
18G7,  p.  190. 

Cook,  "Walter,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  de- 
gree at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1709 ;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1722;  appointed  to  the  living  at 
Cummcrtrees  in  1728,  and  ordained.  He  died  April  21, 
1759,  aged  seventy-six  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoti- 
cano*,  i,  G15. 

Cook,  W.  B.,  a  Universalist  minister,  was  bora  at 
Marcellus,  Onondaga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Dec  8, 1810.  He  en- 
tered the  ministry  in  1843,  was  ordained  in  1846,  and 
labored  at  the  following  places:  Mottvillc,  Alexander, 


Lockport,  Gaines,  Chorchville,  Newbuigh,  and  Aurora, 
all  in  New  York;  went  to  Michigan  in  1866, and  there 
continued  until  his  decease  at  Muskegon,  June  5, 1871. 
Mr.  Cook  was  a  humble,  faithful,  diligent  preacher.  See 
Universalist  Register,  1872,  p.  144. 

Cook,  'WiUiam  W.,  a  minister  of  the  Metho^st 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  at  Princeton,  Ky., 
May  2,  1818.  He  was  converted  in  youth,  licensed  to 
preach  in  184C,  and  joined  the  Louisville  Conference  in 
1854.  From  1861  to  1864  he  was  superannuated.  En- 
tering the  effective  ministry  again  he  labored  faithfully 
until  compelled  by  poor  health  to  take  a  superannuated 
relation  once  more,  in  which  he  remained  until  bis 
death,  Oct.  22, 1879.  Though  his  early  education  was 
limiteil,  Mr.  Cook  possessed  good  natural  endowments, 
and  by  diligent  study  became  a  clear  theologian  and 
successful  preacher.  He  was  a  kind,  true  man,  and  an 
efficient  pastor.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences 
of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1880,  p.  164. 

Cooke,  Albert,  A.B.,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  Uttoxeter,  Staffordshire,  aboat 
1842.  He  was  educated  at  Alleyne*s  Gnmmar-echool 
and  at  Lancashire  Independent  College.  On  leaving 
college,  in  June,  1866,  be  became  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Newport,  Shropshire.  In  Jnne,  1869,  he  accepted  the 
pastorate  at  Acock*s  Green,  Birmingham.  In  1874  he 
resigned  tliis  charge  to  take  a  school  at  Frorae,  in  the 
hope  that  a  m<ire  southera  climate  might  repair  his 
shattered  health.  He  died  July  30,1879.  See  (Loud.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1880,  p.  815. 

Cooke,  Amos  Starr,  a  Congregational  mission- 
ary, was  bora  at  Danbur}',  Conn.,  in  1810,  and  graduated 
from  Yale  College  In  1834.  He  went  to  the  Sandwich 
Islands  in  the  employ  of  the  American  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions,  arriving  there  in  April,  1837.  Soon  af- 
ter his  arrivid  he  took  charge  of  the  education  of  Che 
higher  classes  of  that  country,  and  remained  at  the  head 
of  the  royal  school  for  twelve  vears.  He  died  at  Hon- 
olulu, March  20, 1871.  '  ^ 

Cooke,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  of  Protestant  Episcopal  parentage  in 
St.  Mary's  County,  Md.,  Sept.  8, 1799.  He  experienced 
religion  in  1815,  while  attending  school  at  the  acade- 
my in  Georgetown,  D.  C ;  soon  displayed  marked  talent 
as  leader  of  a  young  people's  prayer-meeting;  was  li- 
censed to  preach,  and  in  1820  entered  the  BislttiiMMPe 
Conference.  In  1824  he  became  a  member  of  the  Pitta- 
burgh  Conference;  in  1840  was  made  editor  of  the 
Pittsburgh  Chrtstian  Advocate,  and  subsequently  trana- 
ferred  to  the  Philadelphia  Conference.  He  became  su- 
perannuated in  1872,  and  died  Aug.  24, 1875.  Dr.  Cooke 
was  quiet  and  unobtrusive,  firm  and  trae,  an  exemplary 
Christian  gentleman.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer* 
ences,  1876,  p.  51 ;  Simpson,  Cydop.  of  Methodism,  a.  v. 

Cooke,  Corbett,  an  English  Wesleyan  rotniater, 
was  bora  at  Felmingham,  Norfolk,  Dec.  2,  1787.  He 
commenced  his  ministry'  in  1809;  was  chairman  of  a 
district  fur  twenty -seven  years;  retired  to  Gueitiaey 
after  a  ministry  of  half  a  century,  where,  blind  but 
happy,  he  performed  various  pastond  duties  until  bis 
death,  May  16, 1806.  Mr.  Cooke  was  an  argumentative 
and  practical  preacher,  and  his  manner  was  simple  aiul 
dignified,  earnest  and  persuasive.  He  wrote  Strictures 
on  a  Pamphlet, entitled  An  Attempt  to  Show  that  Klec^ 
tion  is  Beneficial  to  Many  and  Inp/rious  to  None: — TAe 
History  of  ApostoUeal  Succession  (new  ed.  Lond.  1840, 
12mo)  '.—The  0/nn»ons  of  Bev,  John  Wesley  in  lUfer* 
ence  to  the  Relation  of  Methodism  to  the  EstabUakrd 
Church  (Exeter,  1844, 12mo) :— .4  Plain  Statement  of 
Facts  (ibid.  1835, 12mo)  \—Chur<^  Membership ;  Serm. 
on  Acts  ii,  47  (Lond.  1862,  12mo).  See  A  Memori4ii 
Volume  of  the  Rev,  Cotirett  Cooke  (Lond.  1868,  8vo) ; 
Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1866,  p.  81 ;  Steven- 
son, Wesleyan  Hymn^fook  and  iU  Associations  (Lond. 
1870), p. 367;  Osborne, Meth, Bibliogrqphy,p,97 ;  MeOu 
Magazine  (Lond.  1866),  p.  941. 


COOKE 


99 


COOKE 


Cooke,  XSd'veard,  LUB^  an  English  divine,  was 
rector  of  UaTershaiD,  Backs.  He  was  an  able  scholar, 
and  particulaiiy  weU-versed  in  whatever  related  to  his- 
toij,  anttqoities,  and  jurisprudence.  Besides  the  Z/if- 
tmj  of  Whaddim  Chaae,  the  publication  of  which  was 
interrupted  only  by  his  death,  he  had  made  ample  col- 
lections towards  a  history  of  Buckinghamshire,  which 
would  probably,  had  his  life  been  spared,  have  been  com- 
pleted in  a  few  years.  He  died  Feb.  27,  1824.  See 
(Lond.)  Ammal  BegUUr^  1824^  p.  214. 

Cooke  (or  Coke),  George,  D.D.,  an  English 
prelate  of  the  17th  century,  brother  to  sir  John  Cooke, 
secretary  of  state,  was  bom  at  Trusley,  Derbyshire,  of 
an  ancient  and  honorable  family.  He  was  educated  at 
Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  beneficed  at  Bigrave,  Hert- 
fordshire, made  bishop  successively  of  Bristol  (1688)  and 
Hereford  (1686),  and  died  in  1650.  Bishop  Cooke  was 
a  meek,  grave,  and  quiet  man,  much  beloved  of  such  as 
were  subjected  to  him,  and  was  in  the  same  condemna- 
tion with  the  rest  of  hu  brethren  for  subscribing  the 
protest  in  parliament  in  preservation  of  their  privileges. 
The  times  broke  the  body  of  his  estate  so  that  he  had 
to  be  reliered  by  his  rich  rellitives.  See  Fuller,  Wor^ 
tiies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  i,  871. 

Cooke,  Beili7,D.O.,LUD.,an  Irish  Presbyterian 
divine,  waa  bom  at  Grillagh,  0>unty  Londonderry,  in 
1788.  He  studied  at  Gla^w  University,  and  settled 
in  1806  at  Duncan,  County  Antrim,  and  in  1811  at  Don- 
jon, in  the  same  county.  In  1817  he  attended  the 
medical  daases  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  in  1818 
removed  as  pastor  to  Killyleagh,  County  Down,  where 
he  engaged  in  a  controversy  with  a  Unitarian  minister. 
In  1824  he  was  chosen  moiderator  of  the  synod  of  Ul- 
ster, and  three  years  later  carried  on  a  discussion  on 
Ariamsm  with  Heniy  Montgomery.  In  1829  he  be- 
came pastor  at  Belfost,  a  position  which  he  retained 
until  bis  death,  Dec  18, 18i58.  During  this  period  he 
waa  engaged  in  politico -ecclesiastic  discussions,  was 
three  times  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly,  and  at 
the  cloce  was  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric,  in  the  New 
Preriiyterian  College  of  Belfast  Some  of  his  polemical 
writings  have  been  published.  His  L\fe  was  written 
by  J.  Lb  Porter  (Lond.  1871 ;  Belfast,  1875).  See  Gates, 
DicUofGen,  Btoff,  s.  v. 

Cooke,  James,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bora  at  Gloucester  in  1800.  He  was  early  converted, 
entered  the  ministry  in  1822,  and  died  Jan.  22, 1854. 
Kind  and  sympathetic,  constant  as  a  friend,  his  views 
of  Christianity  were  lolly  and  comprehensive,  his  per- 
oeptaoDS  quick,  and  bis  judgments  discriminating.  See 
Mmmte»  ofth€  BriiUk  Conference^  1864. 

Cooke,  James  V7^  a  Protestant  Episcopal  der- 
gyman,  was  bora  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  March  5, 1810. 
He  graduated  from  Brown  University,  was  minister  at 
Lonsdale,  R  I.,  and  then  assistant  to  the  late  Dr.  Milnor 
of  New  York  city,  after  which  he  became  rector  of  St. 
Michaers,  Bristol,  K.  I.  He  made  a  voyage  to  Aspio- 
wall  to  examine  that  place  and  Panama  with  a  view 
to  missionary  operations,  but  was  compelled  to  return  on 
acoonnt  of  broken  health.  He  died  in  New  York,  April 
12,  ISoS,  being  at  the  time  secretary  and  general  agent 
of  the  foreign  department  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
MiasioDary  Board.  Mr.  Cooke  was  an  ardent  and  effi- 
cient man.    See  Amer,  Qftar,  Church  JUv.  1853,  p.  302. 

Gooke,  John  (l),  an  English  clergyman  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  rector  of  Wentnor,  Shrop- 
shire, poblished  a  Sermon  (1773):— and  The  Preacher^t 
AeautwU  (Oxford,  1788, 2  vols.).  This  work  conUined 
an  account  of  various  preachers  and  sermons  since  the 
Bestontion,  and  is  considered  valuable  as  a  list  of  ser- 
aoBS  from  which  the  preacher  might  select  for  his  li- 
fasaiy.     See  Allibone^  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors^ 

S.T. 


),  John  (2),  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Atherstone,  Warwickshire,  March  25, 


1799.  He  eariy  became  a  Chiistian,  entered  Blackburn 
Academy  in  1821,  and  was  ordained  in  1825  to  the  pas- 
torate at  Uttoxeter,  where  he  Ubored  forty  years,  and 
where,  after  a  few  years'  retirement  from  the  sacred 
office,  he  died,  Feb.  11, 1871.  Mr.  Cooke  was  a  master 
of  one  subject,  human  nature.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year^ 
book,  1872,  p.  809. 

Cook(e),  Joseph,  an  English  Wesleyan  preacher, 
became  prominent  as  an  advocate  of  certain  theological 
tenets,  which  resulted  in  his  exclusion  from  that  body. 
He  had  travelled  without  objection  from  1795.  While 
on  the  Rochdale  Circuit,  1808-5,  he  began  to  state  the 
doctrines  of  justification  and  the  witness  of  the  Spirit  dif. 
ferenUy  from  the  received  view.  According  to  Myles,  he 
hardly  implied  experimental  religion,  l^ut  a  firm  belief 
in  what  the  Scriptures  declare  on  these  subjects.  Prom- 
ising not  to  promulgate  his  opinions,  he  was  removed  to 
the  Sunderland  Circuit  His  friends  in  Rochdale,  not 
so  discreet  as  their  late  pastor,  published  his  two  ser- 
mons on  the  above  subjects  without  his  knowledge. 
This,  of  course,  led  to  his  arraignment  before  the  confer- 
ence, and,  although  treating  him  with  respect  and  ten- 
derness on  account  of  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held, 
they  excluded  him  from  their  number  in  1806,  Cooke 
refusing  to  renounce  his  opinions.  He  then  went  to 
Rochdide,  where  he  became  the  minister  of  a  part  of 
his  former  Wesleyan  society.  He  published  a  defense 
of  his  doctrines,  which  was  answered  by  Dr.  Coke  (q.  r.) 
and  Edward  Hare  (q.  v.)*  Hare*s  trcatise  on  justifica- 
tion has  become  a  classic  Cooke  died  in  1811.  ''  The 
breach  which  he  made  is  not  yet  healed  in  the  town  of 
Rochdale  "  (Myles,  1818).  See  Myles,  Chronol.  Hist,  of 
the  MethodieU,  s.  a.  1806 ;  Smith,  Hitt,  of  Weslegan  Afeth- 
odim,ii,4S0,482. 

Cooke,  Nathaniel  Bowen,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  at  Cambridgeport,  Mass.,  Feb.  26,  1816.  He 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1840,  and  passed 
the  next  three  years  as  teacher  of  a  select  school  in 
Bristol,  R.  I.  He  then  spent  a  brief  time  in  the  Theo- 
logical Institution  in  Newton  Centre,  Mass.,  and  in 
1844  began  the  study  of  medicine,  attending  a  course 
of  lectures  at  the  medical  school  of  Harvard  University. 
On  receiving  his  degree  he  began  the  practice  of  his 
profession,  but  subsequentiy  returned  to  school  teaching 
in  Webster,  Mass.,  and  in  Bristol,  R.  L  In  1862  he  was 
ordained  at  Greenville,  in  the  town  of  Leicester,  Mass., 
and  in  1869  settled  in  Lonsdale,  R.  I.,  where  he  died, 
April  14, 1871.  See  Obituary  Record  of  Yale  CoU^e, 
1870-80;  Necrol  of  Brown  Umvertitg,  1871, 

Cooke,  Patrick  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  hia 
degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1627 ;  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1630;  admitted  to  the  living  at 
Stenton  in  1631,  and  died  Dec.  81,  1635,  aged  about 
thirty-nine  years.    See  Fa*li  Eccks.  Scoticana,  i,  883. 

Cooke,  Patrlok  (2),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of 
the  foregoing,  was  bom  July  21, 1626;  called  to  the  liv- 
ing at  Prestonpans  in  1658,  and  ordained  in  1654;  se- 
lected in  1670  as  one  of  the  "bishop's  evangelists"  for 
enlightening  the  Presbyterians  of  the  West,  and  died 
in  August,  1672.    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticanm,  i,  851. 

Cooke,  Samuel  (l),  a  minister  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Church,  was  bom  at  Hadley,  Mass.,  in  1708.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1785;  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Church  in  West  Cambridge,  SepL  12, 1789, 
and  died  June  4,  1783.  See  Sprague,  Annalt  of  the 
A  mer.  Pulpit^  ii,  73. 

Cooke,  Samuel  (2),  D.D.,  a  missionary  of  the 
Church  of  £ngland,  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  and,  having  been  admitted  to  holy 
orders,  was  sent  to  America,  probably  as  early  as  1749, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  his  destination  being 
Monmouth  County,  N.J.  In  1765  he  ministered  to 
three  churches,  located  at  Shrewsbury,  Freehold,  and 
Middletown,  but  subsequentiy  abandoned  Freehold.    In 


COOKE 


100 


COOLHAAS 


1774  he  went  to  Eogland,  bat  it  does  not  appemr  that 
he  letamed  after  this  to  the  United  States,  although  he 
was  stIU  in  the  employ  of  the  missionary  society.  In 
1785  he  was  at  Frederickton,  N.  &,  where  he  remained 
until  the  dose  of  his  life.  In  1790  he  was  commissary 
to  the  bishop  of  Nova  Scotia.  After  a  period  of  vaca- 
tion, on  account  of  ill-healtb,  he  resumed  his  ministerial 
^ties  in  June,  1791.  While  crossing  the  SL  John's 
'nveif  on  his  return  home  with  his  son,  the  canoe  was 
upset  and  both  were  drowned,  May  28,  1795.  See 
Spragoe,  AtmaU  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  v,  224. 

Cooke,  Theodore,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  Oct  27, 1815.  In  1842  he 
graduated  from  Williams  College,  and  in  1845  from  Yale 
Divinity  SchooL  After  preaching  in  various  places  for 
a  time,  he  was  ordained  June  10, 1847,  and  until  1852 
was  pastor  in  Stowe,  Mass.  In  1854  he  went  to  Me- 
nasha,  Wis.,  as  a  home  missionary,  and  remained  until 
1857,  when  he  returned  to  New  England,  taking  charge 
of  the  Church  in  Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  and  preached  there 
nine  yeark  His  health  failing,  in  1867,  he  returned  to 
Stowe  to  reside  upon  his  farm,  and  died  Aug.  27, 1871. 
For  a  short  time  he  was  editor  of  the  Worcerter  Gazette, 
See  Conff,  QutxrHerlyy  1872,  p.  487. 

Cooke,  William,  a  Congregational  minLster,  was 
bom  at  Hadley,  Mass.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
College  in  1716 ;  was  ordained  at  Sudbury,  March  20, 
1723,  and  died  Nov.  12,  1760,  aged  sixty -four  years. 
See  Sprague^  Annali  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  i,  386. 

Cookznan,  Alfred,  A.M.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  son  of  the  renowned  George  G.  Cookman,  was 
bom  at  Columbia,  Pa.,  Jan.  4, 1828.  He  was  early  con- 
secrated to  the  ministry  by  his  pious  mother;  expe- 
rienced religion  while  attending  the  grammar  school  of 
Dickinson  College;  was  a  diligent  and  earnest  student; 
received  license  to  preach  in  1846,  and  in  1848  entered 
the  Philadelphia  Conference,  in  which  he  filled  promi- 
nent appointments,  as  also  he  did  successively  iu  the 
Pittsburgh,  Wilmington,  New  York,  and  Newark  con- 
ferences. He  died  Nov.  13,  1871.  Mr.  Cookman  in- 
herited a  measure  of  bis  father's  ardent  temperament, 
magnetic  power,  and  earnest  religious  feeling.  He  ev- 
erywhere won  many  to  Christ.  See  Minutes  of  Amatol 
Conferences,  1872,  p.  85 ;  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of  Methodism, 

8.V, 

Cookaon,  John,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  Leeds  in  1800.  He  was  converted  at  the  age 
of  thirteen,  and  early  in  life  became  a  local  preacher. 
He  came  to  the  United  States,  and  prosecuted  his  theo- 
logical studies  under  the  Kev.  Dr.  Sharp  of  Boston,  his 
maternal  uncle.  In  1824  he  was  ordained  in  Maiden, 
Mass.,  and  subsequently  was  pastor  in  South  Reading, 
now  Wakefield,  and  in  some  other  places  of  the  vicinity. 
In  1862,  being  somewhat  broken  in  health,  he  returned 
to  England,  and  after  a  time  was  so  far  recovered  as  to 
be  able  to  take  charge  of  the  Church  in  St.  Benedict's 
Square,  London,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in 
April,  1878.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand -book,  1874, 
p.  265.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cool,  Peteb,  a  Flemish  engraver,  flourished  about 
1690.  He  executed  a  number  of  plates,  among  which 
is  one  after  Martin  de  Vos,  represenUng  Christ  Bearing 
the  Cross,  with  St.  Veronica  and  other  figures.  See 
Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Cobley,  Bli  Field,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Sunderland,  Mass.,  Oct  13, 1781.  He  received 
careful  training  from  his  parents,  and  was  cdilcated  in 
the  Academy  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  whither  his  parents 
had  removed.  In  1606  he  graduated  from  the  College 
of  New  Jersey;  in  October,  1809,  was  licensed  by  the 
New  Branswick  Presbytery;  in  1811  was  installed  at 
Cherry  Valley,  N.  Y.,  where  he  labored  until  1819,  and 
then  accepted  a  call  from  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Middletown  Point,  N.  J. ;  in  1828  accepted  a  call  to  the 
First  PKsbyterian  Church  in  Trenton,  where  he  labored 


tini857.    He  died  April  22, 1860.    See  Wilson,  Pr«a&i 
Hist.  Almanac,  1861,  p.  82. 

Cooley,  Henry  BdwBxdB,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  lx>m  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  April  6, 1838.  He 
received  bis  preparatory  education  at  Phillips  Acsdemy, 
Andover,  graduated  from  Tale  College  in  18HB3,and  from 
Yale  Divinity  School  in  1866;  was  ordained  at  the 
First  Church,  Plymouth,  Aug.  7  of  that  year,  and  re- 
mained there  until  March  31, 1869;  was  acting  psstor 
at  the  First  Church,  Winsted,  the  next  year,  and  the 
year  following  at  South  Weymouth,  Mass.  He  was 
pastor  at  Littleton  from  May  9, 1872,  until  Oct.  29, 1874, 
and  at  Leominster  from  Nov.  10, 1874,  until  his  death, 
Feb.  17,  1877.     (W.  P.  &) 

Cooley,  Timothy  Mather,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minuter,  was  born  at  East  Granville,  Mass.,  March 
13, 1772.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  delivering  his 
oration  in  Hebrew,  and  became  pastor,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three,  of  the  Church  in  his  native  village,  vhere 
he  continued  until  1864,  with  only  an  absence  of  four 
months  on  home  missionary  work.  Soon  after  his  set- 
tlement he  opened  a  classical  school  in  his  own  house, 
and  continued  it  during  most  of  his  life.  For  fifty- 
seven  years  he  was  an  active  and  influential  member 
of  the  board  of  trustees  of  Westfield  Academy,  and  for 
forty-seven  years  held  the  same  relation  to  Williams 
College.  He  died  at  East  Granville,  Dec.  14, 1859.  Dr. 
Cooley  was  one  of  the  lights  of  the  New  England  pulpit. 
Several  of  his  sermons  and  addresses  have  been  printed. 
The  number  of  his  publications,  including  his  journal 
articles,  is  not  far  from  sixty.  He  assisted  in  preparing 
a  collection  of  the  memoirs  of  all  the  members  of  the 
cUss  of  1792,  and  in  1850  he  presented  the  volume  in 
Ma  to  the  library  of  Yale  College.  See  Obituary  Rec- 
ord of  Tale  CoU^,  1860 ;  Cong,  Quarterly,  1860,  p.  271 

Cooley,  17711118111  J.}  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  Sooth,  was  bom  Oct.  18, 1818.  He 
was  converted  in  1840  or  1841;  received  license  to 
preach,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Tennessee  Confer- 
ence in  1844,  in  which  he  labored  as  his  health  permit- 
ted until  1856,  when  he  became  superannuated.  He 
died  Dec.  11,  1859.  Mr.  Cooley  was  intellectual,  and 
labored  with  a  fair  degree  of  acceptability  and  success. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M.  E,  ChwrA 
South,  1860,  p.  212. 

Coolhaae,  Goepard,  a  Ptotestant  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at*  Cologne  in  1686.  After  serving 
several  churches  he  was  appointed  to  Leyden  in  1575; 
presided  at  the  inauguration  of  the  nniversity  of  that 
place,  and  there  taught  theology  until  the  arrivsl  of 
William  Fougereau,  titulary  professor.  Coolhaas  hsd 
several  discussions  with  his  colleagues;  be  midntained 
against  Peter  Comelissen  that  the  intervention  of  the 
civil  magistrate  was  necessary  in  the  election  of  elders 
and  deacons.  Brandt  says  that  this  was  the  beginning 
of  the  dissensions  concerning  the  authority  of  the  civil 
government  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  Coolhaas  did  not 
approve  the  dogma  of  absolute  predestination.  In  1578 
the  synod  of  Middleburg  condemned  his  writings,  but 
he  appealed  to  the  states-general  of  Holland,  who  con- 
firmed the  synodal  sentence,  and  prohibited  him  from 
exerciung  his  ministerial  functions.  The  burgomaster 
of  Leyden  sustained  Coolhaas  in  his  heterodoxy,  and, 
in  spite  of  a  new  excommunication  of  the  synod  of 
Harlem,  continued  to  pay  him  his  allowance.  After 
about  two  years  he  withdrew.  He  died  in  that  city  in 
1615,  leaving  a  largenumber  of  works,  polemical  or  apolv 
ogetic  of  his  opinions,  which  are  now  of  small  account 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GinSrale,  s.  v. ;  Biog.  Vniver- 
sdle,  a.  V. 

Coolhaas,  W^illem,  a  Dutch  theologian  of  the 
family  of  Gaspard,  was  born  at  Deventer,  Nov.  11, 1709. 
He  completed  his  studies  at  Utrecht,  where  he  received 
the  degree  of  doctor,  after  having  sustained  a  thesis 
upon  the  sentiment  of  the  mottoa  niariQ,  irior^,  and 


COOMBS 


101 


COOPER 


trtarmtv.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  Ltngenk; 
then,  in  1753,  profesBor  of  languages  and  Oriental  an- 
tiquities at  Amsterdam,  bot  in  1766  was  called  to  the 
pastoial  functions  of  the  same  city.  Here  he  died,  in 
1772,  leaving,  ^HO^DS^ia  Tempontm  et  Modontm  Hdnrmm 
Lwgvm: — ObKnaUima  PkilologieO'ExegeUem  in  Qttm' 
que  Moria  LSnru  :'~-'De  Imterrogatiotubui  in  Sacro  C<h- 
dice  BtbreeOf  and  two  volomes  of  Semwfu  in  Dutch. 
See  Hoefer,  JVouv.  Bioff.  GMrale,  %  v.;  Bio^,  Unwer* 
se2fa,a.T. 

Coombe,  Thomas,  D.D^  a  miniiter  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  about  1746,  and 
graduated  from  the  college  there  in  1766.  He  was 
chtoeen,  Nov.  80, 1772,  assistant  minister  of  Christ  Church 
and  St.  Peter's,  in  that  citv.  On  account  of  having 
exhibited  a  disposition  inimical  to  the  American  cause, 
he  was  imprisoned  in  September,  1777.  Although  an 
appeal  was  made  in  his  behalf,  the  executive  council 
of  Philadelphia  determined  to  send  him  from  the  coun- 
try. In  July,  1778;  he  went  to  EngUnd  and  did  not 
again  return  to  America.  For  some  time  he  was  chap- 
lidn  to  lord  Carlisle,  in  Ireland,  by  whom  he  was  pre- 
fented  with  a  parish.  He  was  a  prebendary  of  Canter- 
bmy,  and  one  of  the  forty-eight  chaplains  to  the  king. 
He  wrote  some  poems.  See  Sprague,  AtmaiU  of  the 
At»er.JPu^,r,2S0. 


Coombes,  William  Jamxs,  an  English  Congrega- 
tiooal  minister,  was  bom  in  1814.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  printer  at  Hertford,  in  his  boyhood;  experienced 
rdigion  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  soon  distinguished 
hisudf  for  piety,  intelligence,  and  Chrisrian  us^ulness. 
In  18G6  be  entered  Cheshunt  College,  and  in  1869  began 
his  ministry  at  St.  Ives^  Cornwall.  Here  he  labored 
beyond  his  strength,  and  in  1871,  being  obliged  to  quit 
his  charge,  aailed  to  Australia,  was  much  Invigorated 
by  the  voyage,  and  soon  after  his  arrival  accepted  the 
pastorate  at  Hawthorn,  where  he  died,  Aug.  2,  1878. 
See  (Lond.)  Canff.  Year^nok,  1874,  p.  819. 

Coomba,  Abner,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  Dec.  1, 1794.  He  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  licensed  by  the 
Sebee  Quarteriy  Meeting  Jan.  9,  1880,  and  ordained 
Sq>t.  22  of  the  same  year.  The  following  churches 
were  organized  by  him :  Foxcroft,  Sangerfeld,  Kilmar- 
nock, C6rinth,  Dover,  and  Hopkinton,  all  in  his  native 
sUte.  He  aim  visited  the  province  of  New  Branswick. 
La  Sqpcetnber,  1842,  be  went  to  Wisconsin,  and,  for  seven 
years,  was  pastor  of  the  Honey  Creek  Church.  He  per- 
formed pastorsl  work  in  several  other  churches  in  that 
state,  residing  in  Rochester,  Bacine  Co.,  where  he  died, 
March  15,  188a  See  Morwtg  Star,  May  5,  188a 
(J.  G  &) 

Coombs,  Benjamin,  an  English  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  converted  in  1800,  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  He 
studied  at  Stepney  College  for  four  years,  and  then  be- 
came, for  a  time,  a  supply  at  East  Dereham,  Norfolk. 
Sttbecqnexitly  he  preached  for  another  Church  in  the 
same  county,  and  afterwards  for  a  Church  in  Hereford- 
shirew  His*  kHigest  settlement  was  in  Bridport,  in  Dor- 
setshire, where  he  died,  Feb.  4, 1850.  Mr.  Coombs  was 
a  ooDtiibator  to  the  pages  of  his  denominational  peri- 
odica]%  *bla  attainmenU  as  a  scholar  being  of  no  mean 
Older."     See  (Lond.)  BaptiH  Magazine,  p.  802,  808. 

(J.  a  &) 

Coon  (or  MoCoon),  Abram,  a  Seventh-day  Bap- 
tist minister,  was  bom  at  Hopkinton,  R.  I.,  in  17^.  In 
1786  be  professed  faith  in  Christ,  snd  was  ordained  as 
a  minister  Aug.  26, 1798.  He  died  in  Hopkinton,  SepL 
28, 1813.  He  was  an  eloquent  speaker,  sound  in  doc- 
trine, wise  in  council,  kind  and  faithful,  and  as  such 
won  and  held  a  high  place  in  public  esteem. 

His  brother  AaA,  and  his  nephew  Wiluam,  were 
alio  ministers  among  the  Seventh-day  Baptists. 

Also,  hia  son  Dahibl  was  a  Sabbatarian  minister, 
bom  in  Hopkinton,  Jan.  9, 1792.    He  was  licensed  to 


preach  March  22, 1818,  ordained  April  4, 1819,  became 
pastor  in  Brookfield,  N.  Y.,  and  performed  some  mission* 
aiy  work.  In  1886  he  returned  to  Hopkinton,  and  took 
charge  of  the  Church  of  which  his  father  had  been  pas- 
tor. He  died  May  21,  1868.  He  was  a  man  of  fine 
presence,  and  of  a  genial,  sympathetic  nature.  He 
spoke  with  ease,  fluency,  and  vehemence,  and  was  fer- 
vent and  impassioned  in  prayer.  See  iZ.  /.  Biographi- 
cal Cydop.  p.  164, 240.     (J.  C.  a) 

Coonm,  Akdbew  Nelson,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  Msrch  20, 1826,  of  Lutheran  parents. 
In  early  manhood  he  was  converted,  joined  the  Cbnrch, 
and  served  efficiently  as  a  local  preacher;  in  1862  en- 
tered the  Erie  Conference ;  in  1865  became  superannu- 
ated, removed  to  Illinois,  worked  a  short  time  as  an 
evangelist,  and  finally  went  to  Oak  Bidge,  Mo.,  where 
he  died,  May  81, 1866.  Mr.  Coons  was  a  man  of  rare 
talent  and  culture,  and  possessed  deep  piety.  See  J/tn- 
utet  of  Annual  Corferenoei,  1866,  p.  128. 

Cooper,  Abraham,  an  English  Weslcyan  mii- 
sionaiy,  was  sent  to  the  island  of  Tobago,  W.  L,  in  Au- 
gust, 1886.  After  two  years  and  three  months  labor, 
he  returned  to  England,  a  victim  of  consumption,  and 
died  at  the  house  of  his  brother-in-law,  in  Oldland- 
Common,  near  Bristol,  June  8, 1888,  aged  twenty-nine 
years.  ''His  vsluable  life  was  too  short**  See  Min- 
utes of  the  British  Conference,  1888. 

Cooper,  Alexander  (1),  a  Scoteh  clergyman, 
took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in 
1646;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Sorbie  before  1666; 
continued  in  1671 ;  transferred  to  Selkirk  about  1677, 
and  continued  in  1682.  See  Fatti  Ecdes,  Soottcanm,  i, 
640,746. 

Cooper,  Alexander  (2),  a  Scoteh  clergyman,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1690 ;  appointed  to  the  living  at 
North  Uist  in  1692,  and  ordained ;  submitted  to  the 
Presbyterian  Church  government  in  June,  1699 ;  and 
was  drowned  in  August,  1706.  See  Fasti  Eccles.  Sco- 
ticanm,  iii,  186. 

Cooper,  Alexander  (3), a  Scotch  clergyman, took 
his  degree  at  Edinburgh  University  in  1692 ;  refoised  a 
call  to  Durrisdeer  in  1697 ;  accepted  a  call  to  Traquair 
in  1698,  and  was  ordained  in  1699;  in  1711  he  had  an 
assistant,  and  died  Aug.  11,  1764.  He  published  An 
Essay  upon  the  Chronology  of  the  World  (Edinb.  1722). 
See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  i,  257. 

Cooper,  Benjamin,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Perry  County,  O.,  June  8, 1802.  He 
received  a  careful  religious  training ;  was  a  bright  ex- 
ample of  early  piety ;  acquired  a  good  English  educa- 
tion; loved  the  society  of  the  sged  and  upright  from 
his  youth;  was  very  retiring  and  modest;  and  in  1827 
was  admitted  into  the  Ohio  Conference,  wherein  ho 
labored  faithfully  until  his  superannuation  in  1886.  He 
died  May  18, 1846.  Mr.  Cooper  possessed  a  sound  mind, 
respectable  preaching  talents,  and  a  sweet  spirit.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1846,  p.  74. 

Cooper,  David  (l),  M.D.,  a  Scoteh  clergyman, 
was  licensed  to  preach  at  Rotterdam ;  appointed  to  the 
living  at  Auchinleck  in  1732,  and  ordained ;  and  died 
July  9, 1761.  He  published  two  single  Sermons,  See 
Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana^  ii,  97. 

Cooper,  David  (2)^  a  Baptist  minister,  was  a  pio- 
neer of  his  denomination  in  south-west  MlssissippL  He 
was  both  physician  and  preacher  in  the  region  where 
be  went  in  1802.  His  labon  extended  throughout  that 
section  of  the  state,  and  also  into  eastern  Louisiana. 
Being  an  educated  man,  ho  exerted  his  influence  Ifi 
establishing  and  mainteining  institutions 'of  learning. 
He  assisted  in  the  formation  of  the  Mississippi  Bsptist 
Association,  of  which,  for  several  years,  he  was  the  mod- 
erator. His  "circular  letters,**  published  in  the  min- 
utes of  the  association,  are  timely  and  valuable  docu- 
ments. He  died  in  1830.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  En^ 
eydop,  p.  274.     (J.  C.  S.) 


COOPER 


102 


COOPER 


Cooper,  Bbaneser,  a  Presbjterun  minister,  was 
bom  in  Sooth  Ouolina  in  179&.  After  receiving  a  care- 
ful academical  education,  he  entered  the  South  Carolina 
College;  studied  theology  in  the  seminary  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbjrterian  Church  at  Philadelphia;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  by  the  Philadelphia  Presbytery  in 
1827,  and  was  pastor,  for  several  years,  of  Hephsibah 
Church,  in  West  Tennessee.  He  died  at  Cedanrille,  O., 
Nov.  18, 1868.  See  Wilson,  Prah,  Hist,  A  Imanac,  1860, 
p.  170. 

Cooper,  Bdward,  an  English  clergyman,  became 
rector  of  Yoxball  in  1809,  and  died  in  1888.  He  pub- 
lished. Practical  and  Familiar  Sermoni  (7  vols.  12mo) : 
—The  Crisis  f  Prophecy  and  Signs  of  the  Times  (1825). 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Cooper,  mijali,  an  English  Methodist  minuter, 
was  bom  at  Norton-in-Hales,  Aug.  6, 1828.  He  lost 
his  parents  in  youth ;  was  removed  to  Tunstall,  where 
he  attended  the  Primitive  Methodist  Sunday-school; 
became  a  teacher;  was  early  converted,  being  always 
serious;  and  was  accepted  as  a  local  preacher,  winning 
many  souls  to  Christ.  He  began  to  itinerate  in  1854, 
and  for  twenty -three  years  preached  faithfully  and 
lovingly  in  the  Tunstall  district,  his  earnest  appeals 
being  very  sooceasfuL  In  1878  be  settled  at  Shrews- 
bury as  a  soperanmerary,  working  till  his  death,  May 
17, 1882. 

•Cooper,  Blizabeth,  an  English  martyr,  was  a 
native  of  Norwich,  and  dwelt  in  Ljmn.  She  was  at 
one  time  made  to  recant  her  religion,  but  being  much 
troubled  she  entered  a  popish  church  while  they  were 
having  service,  and  openly  revoked  her  recantation. 
She  was  taken  immediately  and  bumed,  dying  happy 
amfd  the  flames,  in  1557.  See  Fox,  Acts  and  Monu- 
ments, viii,  880. 

Cooper,  Sosene  Beoklard,  a  Universalist  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Russell,  N.  Y.,  May  6,  1852.  He  re- 
ceived an  early  Methodist  training,  and  became  an  ex- 
horter;  but  soon  after  embraced  Universalism ;  gradu- 
ated from  the  theological  school  at  Canton  in  1876,  and 
took  charge  of  the  Universalist  society  in  Mexico,  Os- 
wego Co.  One  year  later  he  removed  to  Dexter,  where 
he  performed  but  one  Sunday's  service,  when  be  was 
taken  sick  and  suddenly  died,  Sept.  24,  1877.  Mr. 
Cooper  was  industrious,  modest,  true  to  his  convictions, 
amiable,  and  faithful;  an  able  and  acceptable  preacher. 
See  Universalist  Register,  1878,  p.  94. 

Cooper,  Bxekiel  F.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Kent  County,  Del,  May  18, 1830.  He 
received  a  careful  moral  training ;  was  thoughtful  and 
upright  from  childhood;  was  converted  at  the  age 
of  thirteen;  received  license  to  preach  in  1854,  and 
in  1855  entered  the  Philadelphia  Conference.  His 
health  declining,  he  became  a  superannuate  in  1861, 
and  died  June  28, 1862.  Mr.  Cooper's  early  disadvan- 
tages for  acquiring  an  education  were  overcome  by  his 
natural  thirst  for  knowledge.  His  prominent  mental 
trait  was  his  power  of  investigating,  analyzing,  and  rea- 
soning. His  sermons  were  short,  concise,  clear,  instruct- 
ive, systematic,  and  uttered  with  much  fervor.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1868,  p.  47. 

Cooper,  Oeorge  A.  C,  a  ProtesUnt  Episcopal 
clergyman  of  the  diocese  of  North  Carolina,  after  his 
ordination  became  a  teacher,  in  1877,  in  St.  Augustine 
Normal  School,  Raleigh,  N.  C,  and  continued  to  hold 
that  position  until  his  death  in  October,  1879.  See 
Prof,  Episc  Almanac^  1880,  p.  170. 

Cooper,  James  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1668 ;  admitted  to  the  living  at 
Wigton  before  1664 ;  transferred  to  Mochrum  in  1667, 
and  thence  to  Humble  in  1681 ;  deprived  in  1695  for 
non-jurancy ;  instituted  to  the  curacy  of  Holy  IsUnd 
the  same  year,  and  died  In  1701.  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
ScoticamB,  i,  837,  780,  740. 

Cooper,  James  (2),  an  English  Congregational 


minister,  was  bom  at  Walsall,  Jan.  1, 1782,  of  pious  par 
ents.  He  removed  with  them  to  Birmingham,  became 
a  Christian  in  early  life,  and  alter  suitable  trial  was 
employed  in  preaching  in  the  surrounding  villages.  In 
180i3  he  was  sent  to  Kotherham  College,  and  on  com- 
pleting his  course  settled  at  Wirksworth,  Derbyshire, 
where  he  labored  but  one  year,  then  removed  to  West 
Bromwich,  where  he  was  ordained,  and  preached  twen- 
ty years.  After  this  his  course  was  very  checkered; 
having  preached  at  ^'arious  places,  he  finally  retired  to 
Norwich,  where  he  died,  May  27, 186&  Mr.  Cooper 
wrote  a  book  on  Death  Persomfcation,  See  (Lond.) 
Cong.  Year-hook,  1864,  p.  202. 

Cooper,  James  Ransom,  an  English  Congre- 
gational minister,  was  bom  at  Gosport,  Jan.  8,  1792. 
He  received  a  religious  truning,  joined  the  Chnrch  at 
the  age  of  seventeen,  and  soon  after  removed  to  Lon- 
don. He  obtained  his  ministerial  education  at  Goa- 
port  Academy,  and  was  ordained  at  Emsworth,  Hants, 
in  1819 ;  removed  thence  in  1889,  and  became  paat<»r 
successively  at  Pootjrpool,  Wincanton,  Old  Gravel  Lane, 
London,  and  finally  at  Seaford,  Sussex.  He  died  Aug. 
17, 1867.    See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-boolc,  1868,  p.  26i. 

Cooper,  John  (l),  D.D.,a  Scotch  deigyman,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1742 ;  ordained  in  1752  as  mission- 
ary at  Fort  William ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Glass  is 
1756,  and  died  Dec  20, 1795,  aged  seventy-eight  years. 
See  Faiii  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  199. 

Cooper,  John  (2^  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, fifteen  years  in  the  itinerancy,  was  modest,  blame- 
less, subject  to  much  dejection  and  sorrow,  often  in  want, 
and  died  in  great  peace  in  1789.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual  Cotferenees,  1789,  p.  88. 

Cooper,  John  (P),  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Evesham,  Worcestershire,  in  1821.  When 
he  was  about  fourteen  years  of  age  he  joined  the  Wes- 
leyans,  and  subsequently  became  a  local  preacher,  but 
when  about  twenty-two  joined  the  Baptists.  For  two 
years  he  remained  at  home,  devoting  himself  to  tbeo- 
logical  studies,  and  preaching  in  the  villages.  In  1844 
he  entered  Horton  College,  and  in  1849  settled  at  Ross, 
in  Herefordshire,  where  he  remained  about  two  year^ 
and  then  removed  to  Newark-on-Trent,  commencing 
his  pastorate  in  that  place  in  December,  1851.  He 
died  Feb.  28,  1858.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Handbook, 
1854,  p.  46.    (J.CS.) 

Cooper,  John  (4),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  studied  et 
Edinburgh  University;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1924; 
became  assistant  minister  at  Clackmannan,  and  sifker- 
wards  at  Arbroath ;  was  appointed  minister  at  Pitten- 
weem  in  1888 ;  admitted  in  1834,  and  died  March  261, 
1854,  aged  fiftv-two  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  ScoticantBf 
ii,  457. 

Cooper,  John  (5),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  England.  He  emigrated  to  Woodstock, 
Conn.,  in  early  manhood,  for  the  purpose  of  cnga^ng 
in  a  special  branch  of  woollen  manufacture;  was  there 
converted  in  1842;  began  earnest  Christian  work  at 
once;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1848,  and  admitted 
into  the  Providence  Conference,  wherein  he  labored 
with  zeal  and  fidelity  to  the  close  of  his  life,  Oct.  18, 
1878.  Mr.  Cooper  possessed  a  clear  and  vigorous  in- 
tellect, and  a  glowing  Christian  experience.  See  Afia^ 
utes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1879,  p.  79. 

Cooper,  John  (6)^  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  called  to  preach  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  by  the 
Church  at  Rattlesden,  Suffulk,  and  at  once  employed  in 
the  chapels  and  villages  around.  The  following  year 
he  was  unanimously  chosen  to  the  pastorate  of  the 
Church  at  Wattisham,  where  he  labored  faithfully  for 
more  than  forty-nine  years,  retiring  in  September,  1979, 
For  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life  he  was  secretary  of 
the  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  Association.  He  was  also  co- 
secretary  with  Samuel  Collins  (q.  v.)  of  the  Home  Mis. 
sioD,  and  an  able  editor  of  the  Go^d  Herald,  He  ^ed 


COOPER 


103 


COOPER 


Feh.  22, 1880,  in  the  wreDty-sizth  yeu  of  his  age.  See 
(hood,)  Bqpikt  H€aid'iook,19Si,p.dO0. 

Cooper,  John  H.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
£pi8eo(Ml  CboTch  South,  was  a  member  of  the  Mem* 
phis  Oooferenoe  seven  or  eight  years,  and  died  in  1862 
or  1868.  He  was  gentle  in  spirit,  an  able  preacher,  and 
a  faithfnl  pastor.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences 
of  the  M.  E.  Church  South,  1868,  p.  484. 

Cooper,  Joseph  (1),  an  English  nonconformist 
divine,  was  bom  in  1685,  and  died  in  1699.  He  pub- 
lished. Eight  Sermons  on  1  Pet,  r,  15  (1663)  i—Domus 
MosmecB  Clans  (1678).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cooper,  Joseph  (2),  an  Engluh  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Rotherhithe,  Surrey,  in  1800,  and  was  con- 
verted when  somewhat  mature  in  years.  His  first  min- 
isterial services  were  at  Orpington  and  Oxford.  In 
1835  he  was  instmmental  in  forming  a  church  in  Gar- 
den Bow,  London  Boad,  which  called  him  to  be  its  pas- 
tor, and  be  remained  there  till  his  death,  Feb.  17, 1862. 
See  (L(»d.)  Baptist  Jland-book,  1863,  p.  1 13.     (J.  C  S.) 

Cooper,  Joseph  Calvin,  -u  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Plymouth,  MassL,  May  10, 1820.  In 
early  lif«  be  rejected  the  Bible.  At  the  age  of  seven- 
teen be  became  a  sailor,  and  led  a  seafaring  life  about 
eight  years.  After  he  had  settled  at  Denmark,  la.,  he 
ffas  converted*  In  1848  he  was  engaged  as  a  colpor- 
teur of  the  American  Tract  Society,  and  became  spe- 
daHy  successful  in  combatting  infidelity  for  two  years 
in  southern  Iowa.  After  this  he  studied  theology  at 
home,  and  commenced  preaching  in  the  church  at  Den- 
mark, wbile  the  pastor  was  absent  on  vacation.  In 
October,  1852,  he  was  licensed  by^  the  Denmark  Associ- 
ation, and  was  ordaiued  May  1, 1858.  His  roring  sail- 
or habits  followed  him  through  life,  and  be  went  from 
place  to  place,  especially  in  southern  Iowa,  and  was  al- 
ways acceptable  as  a  preacher.  He  labored,  in  1856,  in 
Fairfi^  and  an  addition  of  twenty-five  was  made  to 
the  Church;  was  settled  for  some  years  in  Hillsboro*, 
and  also  preached  for  a  time  at  Salem,  but  the  most 
of  his  m inisterial  career  was  spent  as  an  evangelist.  He 
died  at  Cincinnati,  la.,  Aug.  A,  1872.  See  Cong,  Quar- 
/er/if,1874yp.315. 

Co(q;>er,  J.,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
at  Bath,  Oct.  24, 1793.  He  united  with  the  Church  at 
the  age  of  aeventeen,  and  soon  after  began  to  preach  in 
the  villages  around  his  native  city.  He  was  ordained, 
April  8, 1819,  pastor  of  a  church  at  Amer8haro,and  re- 
mained there  until  June,  1823,  when  he  resigned ;  but 
immediately  another  church  was  formed  in  Amersham, 
and  he  became  its  pastor.  His  labors  were  greatly 
bleased  during  the  seventeen  years  of  his  pastorate. .  In 
1810  he  removed  to  Leighton- Buzzard,  his  ministry 
here  lasting  seven  years.  He  next  went  to  Sohara, 
then  Co  Aberdare,  and  finally  returned  to  Amersham, 
where  he  died,  Nov.  28,  1871.  See  (Lond.)  BaptiH 
Uand-boot,  1873,  p.  258.     (J.  C.  8.) 

Cooper,  MyleS)  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
bora  in  1735,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Oxford, 
taking  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  1760.  He  arrived  in  New 
York  in  the  fall  of  1762,  and  was  at  once  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  in  King's  College,  in  that  city. 
The  following  year,  npon  the  resignation  of  Dr.  John- 
son, the  president  of  the  college,  he  was  elected  to  fill 
his  place.  His  administration,  supported  as  he  was  by 
able  assistants,  was  very  successful.  When  the  war  of 
the  Bevolution  commenced,  the  affiiirs  of  the  college 
beeame  embarrassed.  Dr.  Cooper  was  a  loyalist,  and  be 
found  his  position  so  unpleasant  that,  in  1776,  he  re- 
signed, returned  to  England,  and  became  one  of  the  min* 
isten  of  an  Episcopal  Church  in  Edinburgh,  in  which 
dty  be  died,  May  1, 1786.  He  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral literary  works.  See  Allen,  Amer.  Bioff,  s.  v. ;  Sa- 
bine, Loyalists  of  the  A  mer.  Revolution,  i,  386.   (J.  C.  Sk) 

Cooper,  Peter  (1),  LL.D.,  a  notable  American  citi- 


zen and  philanthropist,  was  bora  in  the  city  of  NewToilr, 
Feb.  12, 1791.  His  early  education  was  confined  to  one 
year's  schooling.  He  leaned  the  trade  of  a  hatter  with 
his  father,  continued  at  this  employment  until  be  was 
seventeen  years  of  age,  and  then  found  a  position  in  a 
grocery  store  at  twenty-five  dollars  a  yew.  When  be 
was  of  age  he  went  to  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  and  worked 
in  a  woollen  factory,  then  returoed  to  New  York  and 
opened  a  grocer}*  store.  After  this  he  changed  his 
business  five  times,  and  finally  commenced  the  manu- 
facture of  glue  and  isinglass,  and  exerted  himself  in 
the  development  of  iron,  and  railroad  and  telegraph  in- 
terests. Ultimately  he  employed  in  his  varions  business 
engagements  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  bands, 
not  one  of  whom  ever  went  unpaid.  In  all  the  panics 
and  business  failures  in  New  York  his  finances  were 
firm,  and  his  wealth  increased  with  his  years,  which 
may  be  attributed  to  his  engaging  in  no  hazardous 
speculations.  When  a  young  man,  he  conceived  the 
idea  of  establishing  an  industrial  school  of  science  and 
art  for  indigent  young  men  who  were  obliged  to  depend 
upon  their  own  resources,  and  he  established  the  Cooper 
Union  in  New  York  city,  open  for  instraction  in  all 
branches  of  science  and  art.  He  resolved,  wisely,  to  be 
the  executor  of  his  own  estate,  and  see  the  fraits  of  his 
liberality.  Yearly  three  thousand  students  receive  gra- 
tuitous education  in  its  halls.  He  contributed  to  the 
building  and  endowment  of  the  institute  nearly  one 
million  dollars.  He  died  April  7, 1883,  wealthy  and 
honored.  See  N,  Y.  Observer,  April  12, 1888;  D^ke, 
Diet,  of  A  mer,  Biog,  s.  v. ;  Men  of  the  Time,  %.y.\  A  u(o- 
hiography  (N.  Y.  1877).     (W.  P.  S.) 

• 

Cooper,  Peter  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bora  at  St.  Neots,  Huntingdonshire,  in  1804.  He 
was  converted  when  nineteen  years  of  age,  entered  the 
ministry  in  1830,  retired  from  active  work  in  1864,  and 
died  at  Blackheath,  April  20, 1878.  His  insight  into 
character  and  his  broad  common-sense  gave  him  power 
in  dealing  with  the  problems  of  life.  He  was  a  plain, 
practical  preacher;  his  style  was  quaint,  sometimes 
epigrammatic;  his  piety  was  cheerful  and  lowly.  See 
Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1878,  p.  88. 

Cooper,  Preston,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Warren  County, 
Tenn.,  Dec  29,  1806.  He  was  converted  in  1827,  and 
in  1828  united  with  the  Mississippi  Conference.  His 
health  failing,  obliged  him  to  become  a  superannuate 
in  1867,  and  he  died  in  July,  1858.  Mr.  Cooper  was 
a  man  of  extraordinary  mental  ability,  and  a  laborious 
student;  a  courageous  preacher,  and  an  energetic  pas- 
tor. See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M.  E. 
Church  South,  1858,  p.  86. 

Cooper,  Rlobard  (1),  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Woodend,  Stafibrdshire,  in  1782.  He 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  twenty,  entered  the  minis- 
try in  1814,  travelled  eighteen  circuits,  became  a  super- 
numerary in  1846  at  Windsor,  and  died  Nov.  80, 1848. 
He  was  a  faithful  and  godly  minister.  See  Minutes  of 
the  British  Conference,  1849. 

Cooper,Rioliard  (2),  an  English  Methodist  preach- 
er,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  receiveil  by  the  British 
Wesleyan  Conference  in  1857,  sailed  for  West  Africa, 
laborcil  with  success  for  a  short  time,  and  died  at  St. 
Mary's,  on  the  Gambia,  Aug.  13,  1859,  in  his  twenty- 
sixth  year.   See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1860. 

Cooper,  Robert  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of 
the  minister  at  Mochrum,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh 
University  in  1744;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1749; 
appointed  minister  at  Girthon,  and  ordained ;  and  died 
Nov.  7, 1776,  aged  fifty-one  yenn.  He  was  a  useful 
pastor,  a  worthy  man,  and  a  good  Christian,  having  ex- 
tensive knowledge  in  several  branches  of  philosophy. 
See  Fasti  Eccks.  Sooticante,  i,  714. 

Cooper,  Robert  (2),  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  the  north  of  Ireland  about  1782.    He 


COOPER 


104 


COOPER 


removed  to  America  with  his  mother  in  1741 ;  gradu- 
ated at  New  Jersey  College  in  1763;  studied  theology 
privately,  and  was  licensed  by  tbe  Presbytery  of  Car^ 
lisle,  Feb.  22, 1766.  In  the  same  year  he  received  a  call 
from  tbe  Presbyterian  Church  at  Middle  Spring,  Cum- 
berland County,  Pa^  where  be  labored  with  great  zeal 
and  effect  for  thirty-one  years.  He  died  April  5, 1806. 
See  Sprague,  Amalt  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit^  iii,  270. 

Cooper,  Robert  (3),  a  missionar}*  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  a  native  of  Wales.  He  was  sent  to 
South  Carolina  in  1768,  and  became  rector  of  Prince 
William  parish.  The  following  year  he  was  chosen 
assistant  minister  of  SL  Philip*s  Church,  Charleston. 
St.  Hichaers  Church  was  opened  in  Februar}',  1761, 
and  from  that  year  until  June,  1776,  be  was  its  rec- 
tor. His  parisbionen  declared  the  pulpit  vacant  be- 
cause he  espoused  the  royal  cause.  Afterwards  he  went 
to  England  and  received  a  pension  of  one  hundred 
pounds  yearly  in  consideration  of  his  sacrifices  for  tbe 
king.  Soon  after  he  was  appointed  joint  curate  and 
joint  lecturer  at  SL  Andrew*s,  Holbom,  and  evening 
lecturer  at  St.  Michael's,  Comhill,  of  which  he  aftel^ 
wards  became  rector.  He  died  in  England  about  1812, 
more  than  eighty  years  of  age.  Soe  Sprague,  AtmaU 
of  the  A  tner.  Pulpit,  v,  1 71.  / 

Cooper,  Samnel  (l),  D.D.,  an  English  divine  of 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  rector  of  Morley  and 
Yelverton,  Norfolk,  published  Sermont  (1776-90).  See 
Allibonc,  Diet,  of  Brit,  andAmer.  Authors,  b,  v. 

Cooper,  Samuel  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
minister  of  Great  Yarmouth,  and  died  in  1800.  He 
published,  Vefinitioru  and -Axioms  Relative  to  Charity, 
Charitable  Irutitutions,  and  the  Poor  Laws  (1764):— 
Sermons  (1782-90)  -.^Letters  to  Dr.  Priestley  (1800). 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cooper,  Samuel  (3),  an  English  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  1766,  baptized  Dec  16, 1787,  and  united 
with  the  First  Church  in  Birmingham.  He  was  or- 
Ulained  Jan.  18, 1807,  and  first  became  pastor  at  Romsey, 
Hampshire,  having  for  a  few  years  served  tbe  Churoh 
in  Wallingford  as  an  assistant.  Subsequently  he  set- 
tled at  Cbolscv,  where  he  died,  March  7, 1889.  See 
(Loud.)  Baptis't  Uandrbooh,  1889,  p.  24.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cooper,  Samuel  Milroy,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  the  Kishaooquillas  Valley,  Pa.,  in  1814. 
He  graduated  at  Jefferson  College, Cannonsbui);^,  in  1836; 
studied  one  year  (1837)  at  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary; was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Huntingdon  Pres- 
bytery, April  16, 1840,  and  ordained  Oct  15  following, 
as  pastor  at  Lick  Run  Mills,  Centre  Co.,  Pa.,  and  con- 
tinued to  preach  there  until  the  spring  of  1852.  He 
was  also  at  this  time  in  charge  of  a  female  seminary 
at  Jaclcsonville,  and  continued  in  this  position  for  about 
a  year  and  a  half  after  his  pastoral  relation  closed  with 
the  Lick  Run  Church,  when  he  received  a  call  to  Clear- 
field, and  there  spent  two  years.  After  a  trip  to  Florida 
for  his  health,  he  became  stated  supply  at  Little  Valley, 
Pa.,  but  soon  returned  to  tbe  female  seminary,  the  build- 
ings of  which  belonged  to  him.  His  health  shortly 
failed  altogether,  and  he  died  at  East  RishacoquiUas, 
Aug.  16,  1860.  See  Hist,  of  Presbsfteriamem  in  IlunU 
ing^km,  1874;  Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881, 
p.  114. 

Cooper,  Solomon,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Easton,  Talbot  Co.,  Md.,  in  1824.  He 
was  converted  when  quite  young ;  removed  to  Towanda, 
Pa.,  in  1844;  there  joined  the  Wesleyan  Methodists; 
served  faithfully  as  an  exhorter  and  local  preacher  sev- 
eral years;  and  in  1869  was  admitted  into  the  Dela- 
ware Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and 
labored  in  it  with  great  acceptability  until  his  death, 
Dec  26,  1877.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Cot^erenoes, 
1878,  p.  6. 

Cooper,  Sylvester  W^  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Oct  81, 1889.    He 


received  a  careful  rttUgitRia  triittiog;  was  converted  in 
1857,  and  in  1861  entered  the  Troy  Oonferenoe,  wheran 
be  served  the  Chureh  with  marked  seal  and  devoted- 
nesB  until  his  decease,  Nov.  28, 1864.  Though  young, 
Mr.  Cooper  was  an  excellent  preacher,  a  devoted  Chris- 
tian, and  a  successful  pastor.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Conferences,  1865,  p.  76. 

Cooper  (or  Coaper),Thomae  (l),  D.D.,  a  learned 
English  prelate^  was  bora  at  Oxford  about  1517.  He 
was  educated  in  the  school  adjoining  Magdalen  (College, 
of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1540.  In  1546  he  a^ 
plied  himself  to  the  study  of  physic,  and  practiced  some 
time  in  Oxford,  being  secretly  inclined  to  the  Protestant 
religion;  but  resumed  his  study  of  divinity,  in  March, 
1567,  and  soon  after  became  dean  of  Christ-church.  In 
1569  he  was  made  dean  of  Gloucester,  and  in  1570  bish- 
op of  Lincoln.  In  July,  1572,  he  preached  a  sermon  at 
St.  PaoPs  Cross,  in  vindication  of  the  Churoh  of  England 
and  its  liturgy,  which  did  him  much  credit.  In  1584 
he  was  translated  to  the  bishopric  of  Winchester,  where 
he  died  April  29, 1594.  His  writings  were  numerous, 
among  them  are.  Cooper's  Chronide  (1559) : — Thesau' 
rus  Lingua  Romanm  ei  BritamUcet,  and  Ditiimuirium. 
niitorieum  et  Poetieum  (1565,  foL).  See  Chalmen, 
Biog,  Diet,  n,  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  k- 
thors,  s.  V. 

Cooper,  Thomas  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Staincross,  near  Wakefield,  in  1760. 
At  an  early  period  in  his  life,  hb  parents,  who  were 
members  of  the  Established  Church,  were  converted 
under  Methodist  preaching.  In  1779,  Thomas,  after 
prolonged  and  severe  struggles,  was  himself  converted, 
and  on  the  invitation  of  Wesley  attended  the  Kings- 
wood  School  for  fifteen  months.  He  travelled  twenty- 
three  circuits,  and  in  1821  settled  in  Liverpool,  where 
he  died  after  long  and  complicated  affliction,  OcL  1, 
1832.  "  He  was  a  man  of  sound  sense,  and  of  more 
than  ordinary  ministerial  talent;  so  thst  his  labore 
were  not  only  acceptable,  but  popular  and  useful."  He 
was  a  good  historian  and  grammarian,  somewhat  taci- 
turn, and  occasionally  sarcastic.  See  WesL  Meth,  Mag, 
1835,  p.  1, 81;  Minutes  of  the  British  Conferences,  1888; 
Wesleyan  Takings,  i,  331. 

Cooper.  Thomas  W.,  a  minister  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  Jan.  28, 1818.  He 
embraced  religion  in  bis  sixteenth  year;  was  a  pupil  in 
the  Manual  Labor  School  near  Covington,  Ga.,  in  1887- 
88 ;  was  then  licensed  to  preach,  and  received  into  the 
Georgia  Conference.  He  afterwards  became  a  member 
of  the  Florida  Conference,  and  in  it  did  faithful  work 
until  his  decease,  Feb.  24, 1860.  Mr.  Otoper  was  a  very 
eloquent  declaimer,  a  successful  revivalist,  and  aealons 
in  all  his  work.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  ConferenceM 
of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1860,  p.  269. 

Cooper,  'William  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
tutor  to  Alexander,  lord  Garliss;  called  to  the  living  at 
Mochrum  in  1701,  and  died  June  1, 1747.  See  FasU 
Eccles,  Scoticana,  i,  740. 

Cooper,  'William  (2),  D.D.,  was  admitted  areh* 

deacon  of  York,  Jan.  21, 1777,  and  prebendary  of  South- 

'  well  the  25th  of  the  same  month.    He  published  Dis* 

courses  (1795, 2  vols.).    See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 

A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cooper,  William  (8),  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  Warwickshire.  Aug.  28, 1776.  He 
delivered  his  first  sermon  Felt.  1, 1795,  and  a  few  months 
later  became  the  most  popular  preacher  of  his  day. 
Multitudes  pressed  to  bear  him  at  Spa  Fields  and  Tot- 
tenham-Court-Road chapels,  as  well  as  in  the  Taberw 
nacle.  He  discoursed  to  the  Jews  in  Zion  Chapel,  Lon- 
don, Aug.  28,  1796,  on  his  twentieth  birthday.  The 
throng  was  so  great  that  thousands  could  not  gain  en- 
trance, and  while  he  was  speaking  inside  four  other 
ministers  preached  outside.  He  undertook  a  tour 
through  various  parts  of  Ulster,  Ireland,  in  the  summer 


COOPER 


105 


COPE 


of  1799,  addrettiiig  thoaauidSi  and  alio  nude  «  leoond 
toar  the  following  sammer.  He  was  then  called  to  the 
partonte  of  the  Plunkei  Street  Congregational  Chuichi 
DaUiDy  and  entered  upon  hia  labon  in  April,  1802, 
where  he  continiicd  till  March,  1828,  when  he  was 
ibfced  to  retire  from  public  effort.  He  died  Jan.  22, 
im,    See(Lond.)Coi^.  lVar-^ooi^l848,p.217. 

Cooper,  ^KTiUlaiil  (4),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
itter,  was  born  in  Beaver  County,  Pa^  March  26, 1814. 
He  ezperieooed  rriigion  in  1886 ;  was  Ucensed  to  preach 
in  1837,  and  in  1840  entered  the  Pittsburgh  Conference, 
wherein  he  labored  faithfully  until  the  close  of  1867. 
The  laai  year  of  his  life  was  spent  in  the  service  of  the 
WeiUfni  Seamen's  Friend  Society,  as  an  agent  He 
died  in  1868  or  1869.  Mr.  Cooper  was  of  a  sober,  re- 
tiring ^apositioo,  a  faithful  minister,  an  excellent  pas- 
tor, sad  an  exemplary  Christian.  Siee  Minutes  of  Att" 
wMol  Ctmfirmeei,  1869,  p.  45. 

Cooper,  Williain  Hawei^  an  English  Congre- 
gational minister,  was  bom  in  the  city  of  Bath  in  1798. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  entered  Hox- 
toa  Academy  to  prepare  for  the  ministry  in  1816.  In 
1819  he  commenced  his  labors  in  a  temporary  place  in 
Doblin,  and  soon  succeeded  in  building  up  a  new  Congre- 
gational Church  in  that  city.  He  was  for  some  years 
the  rcMdent  tutor  of  the  theological  seminary  of  the 
Irish  Evangelical  Society,  and  the  secretary  of  the 
Congregational  Union  in  Ireland.  He  endured  many 
snd  sore  trials;  was  in  labors  most  abundant;  refused 
oflen  of  augmented  income  to  allure  him  from  his 
chosen  duties.  He  was  a  warm  and  generous  friend, 
sn  sffectionate  parent,  an  able  tutor  and  preacher,  but 
troubled  occasionally  with  an  infirmity  of  temper.  He 
died  ai  Manor  Street,  Dublin,  March  1, 1847. 

Cooper,  IKrilliaxii  H.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Pittstown,  N.  Y.,  June  27, 1808.  He 
studied  for  a  time  under  Rev.  C.  Bogardus,  and  finished 
his  preparatoiy  course  at  the  New  Brunswick  Classical 
ScbooL  He  graduated  from  Rutgers  College,  N.  J.,  in 
1830y  and  entoed  the  theological  seminary  there,  where 
he  remaxDcd  two  years.  He  was  ordained  by  the  Pres- 
by  toy  of  Onondaga,  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church 
of  WsmpsviUe,  N.  T.,  Nov.  23, 1883.  After  ministering 
to  this  church  twenty-fonr  years,  he  was  called  to  the 
raitoiate  of  the  United  Presbyterian  churches  of  Belle- 
pon  snd  Sooth  Haven,  Suffolk  Co.,  N.  Y.,  where  he  was 
iiwtaned  Sept.  23, 1856.  He  died  at  Parsippany,  N.  J., 
Feb.  24, 1880.  Dr.  Cooper  was  eminently  a  preacher 
and  a  pastor;  a  faithful  member  of  the  presbytery  and 
sysod,  and  several  times  represented  his  presbytery  in 
the  genersl  assembly.  See  A".  Y,  Observer^  March  11, 
1880.    (W.P.&) 

Cooper,  177.  Bn  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Abbeville  District,  SwO,  in  1807.  He  received  a  good 
cariy  edoeation  under  the  direction  of  his  father,  a  man 
ofurecollureand  intellect,  and  graduated  from  Colum- 
bian CoUege  in  1887.  He  was  ordained  in  Augusta, 
Gs.,  in  1838,  and  in  1839  or  1840  went  to  Florida,  Uking 
up  his  resideBoe  at  Madison  Court-House.  For  a  period 
of  about  thirty-eight  years  he  labored  chiefly  in  Middle 
Fkrida,soaietiniea  itinerating  in  Georgia.  He  accom- 
pliihcd  much  for  his  denomination,  whidi  frequently 
caOtd  him  to  preside  at  conventional  and  associattonal 
oMciiagk  He  died  in  187&  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
£Kr^Pb277.     (J.CS.) 

Coore,  RiciiAn>,D.D.,  an  English  divine,  who  died 
n  1S87,  pahlisbed  Fraetical  Eaepotition  of  the  More 
^^jfenU  Tats  that  are  Conlamtd  in  the  Holtf  Bible 
flSI0\in  the  preface  of  which  he  says,  <<  The  dreams 
i>  Dniei,  and  the  viaiona  of  all  the  prophets,  and  the 
<*•  Bynical  hooka  of  the  Canticles  and  the  Revelation 
Bt  sn  deariy  opened."  See  AUibone,  i>tcf.  of  Brit, 
»i  Aner.  Awtiors,  a.  v. 

Coota,  CHAnLEa,  a  Scotch  cleigyman,  held  a  bur- 
**?  fif  theology  at  Glasgow  Univernty  in  1698;  was 


licensed  to  preach  in  1702 ;  called  to  the  living  at  Govan 
in  1711;  ordained  in  1712;  was  chaplain  in  the  royal 
army  at  Sterling  in  1715,  and  died  Dec  31, 1745.  See 
Fasti  Eeeks,  SeoOeana,  ii,  69. 

Cop  (Lat  Copiiu),  Balthazar,  a  German  poet  and 
philosopher,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century. 
He  taught  at  the  gymnasium  of  Lemgo,  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  the  reformed  religion,  went  to  the  Pala- 
tinate, and  became  superintendent  at  Neustadt.  He 
wrote,  De  Christi  Prasentia  in  sua  Ecdesia  (1566) :  — 
ErkUlmng  derEpistelandie  Galater  (1587)  i-^Elegim  ;-<. 
Epifframmata.    See  Hoefer,  A'our.  Biog.  GMraU,  s.  v. 

Cope  (from  cop,  a  covering,  or  caputs  tho  head,  over 
which  it  was  thrown,  or  eapere,  from  taking  in  the 
whole  body).  We  give  additional  particulars  concern- 
ing this  clerical  garment  from  Walcott,  Sac,  A  rckaoL 
S.V.: 

"  There  were  several  kinds  of  this  cloak-like  vestment : 
**  1.  Ths  Processional  or  Ceremonial  Cope^  called  the  Phb- 
viale,  worn  out  of  doors,  wbence  its  name— a  protection 
from  rain  in  processions.  It  appears  to  have  been  mod* 
elled  by  pope  Stephen,  in  Sfi6,  on  the  Roman  laeema^  a 
large,  sqnare-hoodied  cloak,  fssiened  with  a  hrooch  upon 
the  breast,  and  worn  by  soldiers  oud  civilians  in  the  last 
age  of  the  Bepublic,  and  it  resembled  the  Greek  vtandyas 
or  ehlamus,  a  habit  of  smaller  dimensions  than  the  pal' 
Hum.  The  laeema  was  usually  sad>colored,  pnrple  or 
red.  The  open  part  of  the  cope  denoted  that  eternal  life 
was  offered  to  the  minister  or  holy  deportment ;  and  the 
entire  habit  was  an  imitation  of  the  purple  robe  of  mock- 
ery, or  sakkoSt  which  onr  Lord  was  compelled  to  wear.  It 
waa  also  often  called  the  lyrrhus.  The  cope  was  originally 
a  great  cloak,  worn  in  processions  principally,  which  in 
Ume  was  f^raonally  enriched  with  embroiaery  and  gems, 
BO  that  in  the  18th  century  it  had  become  one  of  the  moat 
magnificent  vestments  In  nee,  and  was  known  as  *preo- 
lons.'  It  frequently  had  sniierb  orphreys  and  a  nood 
splendidly  worked  with  figures  of  saints  and  other  pat- 
terns. In  pre-Norman  times  there  were,  in  Bngland.  tas- 
sels and  movable  hoods  of  thin  beaten  gold  and  silver, 
such  ss  William's  stole  at  Bly.  Some  examples  had  Mnces 
of  bells,  like  one  at  Caateronry,  which  had  a  little  chime 
of  one  hundred  and  forty.  In  1106,  and  others  sent  by  Will- 
iam I  to  Clngny,  or  presented  by  Lanfranc,  Brnnlph,  and 
Conrad  to  their  minster.  One  Is  still  preserved  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  having  silver  bells  round  the  hem,  said  to 
have  been  given  by  pope  Leo  HI  at  the  coronation  of 
Charlemagne.  There  are  three  copes  of  the  14th  century 
at  Durham,  one  of  which  is  of  crimson  silk,  with  the  be- 
headsl  of  Gk>liath ;  two  at  Langhame ;  one  of  green  velvet, 
of  the  14th  century,  at  Ely ;  two  at  Carlisle  of  the  15th  and 
16th  centuries ;  one  of  crimson  velvet,  with  crowns  and 
stars  of  Bethlehem,  at  Chlnpiug-Campden ;  some  of  the 
date  of  James  II,  at  Westminster;  several  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury at  Spirea ;  one  of  the  16th  century,  foimd  at  Waterford 
Cathedral,  at  Oscott;  some  of  the  ITth  century  at  Rise- 
holme,  worn  by  the  bishops  of  Lincoln  at  coronations ;  and 
others  at  Waraonr  Castle,  Weston  Underwood,  and  Stony, 
hurst :  aume  traditionally  being  said  to  have  been  brought 
from  Westminster.  The  silken  copes  were  distribntea  in 
choir  by  the  precentor  to  the  various  members,  upon  great 
festivals;  at  other  times  they  were  carefnlly  folded  and 

f»nt  away  In  triangular  cope-chests.  Every  canon,  at  hia 
nstallation,  presented  one  of  these  precious  or  proces- 
sional copes  to  the  Ikbric ;  and  every  abbot  or  bishop  gave 
a  cope  or  profession,  on  his  nppolntment,  to  Cnuterbnry 
Cathedral.    In  Snglandi  at  the  reformation,  the  precious 


Cope. 

copes  were,  unhappily,  too  often  desecrated  to  garnish 
beds  aa  coverlets.  Bishop  Cosin  wore  a  cope  of  white 
satin.  Portiona  of  copes  are  still,  in  several  English 
churches,  used  aa  altar  or  pulpit  cloths. 

**  8.  The  Canonical  or  Choral  Cope  wos  a  large,  (bll,  flow- 
ing cloak  of  black  woollen  stuff,  worn  by  canons  ond  vicars 
in  cathedrals.  It  Is  mentioned  at  Chichester,  in  the  IStb 
centnry,  as  without  corsets  and  open.  It  opened  down- 
wards from  the  breast,  and  was  sewed  up  aa  Car  aa  the 


COPE 


106 


COPELAND 


throat,  Toand  which  wm  ft  hood.  In  the  15th  centniy,  the 
almaco  wub  sewn  on  to  the  cope  like  a  hood,  except  when 
it  was  carried  across  the  ahonlders,  or  thrown  orer  the 
left  arm. 

"8.  ThB  CUm  cT  8leeveU$9  Ctope,  an  ample  hood  lined 
with  fnr,  did  not  open  in  fW)ntI  whence  its  name.  The 
ho<Hl  was  of  ermine,  like  that  of  the  proctors  at  Oxford. 
it  U  seen  depicted  on  the  Camons  wall-palntlnff  of  Chi- 
Chester  Cathedral— -bishop  Sherborne  being  habited  in  it 
In  the  18th  century  all  clerks  were  required  to  wear  close 
copes  in  synods,  and  In  the  presence  of  prelates  and  pa- 
rochlal  clergy  In  their  parish :  they  were  to  be  laid  aside 
on  Journeys.  Black  canons,  ISeuedlctines,  and  unns  were 
to  nse  black,  and  not  colored  copes,  and  faced  only  with 
black  or  white  ftir  of  inmbs,  cats,  or  foxes.  They  were 
forbidden  caps  by  H.  Walter*s  canons  In  tSOO.  In  1196 
priests  were  forbidden  to  wear  steered  copes.  In  1229 
monks  and  canons  were  proscribed  bumet  or  irregular 
cloth,  or  girdles  of  sllk,  or  gold  embroidery  in  their  habit 
and  the  nuns  were  to  use  no  veil  of  silk.  At  the  close  of 
the  12th  century  dignitaries  were  allowed  the  nse  of 
sleeved  copes;  but  in  1222  it  was  found  necessary  to  for- 
bid the  gay  colors  of  red  and  green  adopted  for  copes. 
The  monk  retained  the  sombre  hue  of  black.  At  Cam- 
bridge doctors  of  dlTlnity  sUll  wear,  on  formal  occasions, 
a  cope  of  scarlet  cloth  with  ermine  bands  in  ftont.  By  the 
Laudlan  statutes  of  Oxford  on  formal  occasions,  they  are 
required  to  wear  either  the  close  or  open  cope ;  and  bach- 
elors of  arts,  when  reading  in  the  Bodleian  library,  were 
enjoined  to  be  attired  in  Mheir  habit  or  cope,  cowl,  and 
cap.* 

"The  CVi^ipa  Kagna^  worn  in  processions  and  during 
certain  ftiuctlons  in  Italy  at  this  day,  corresponds  to  the 
English  close  cope.  It  is  a  large  violet-colored  habit,  with 
a  train  and  an  ermine  cape  when  worn  by  bishops,  but 
only  Ihrred  when  canons  use  IL*' 

Copei  Alan,  an  English  Boman  Catholic,  who 
died  about  1580,  published  Hiatorim  Evangeticm  Veritas 
(Lond.  1572): — and,  under  his  own  name,  the  Latin 
work  of  Nic  Harpesfield,  entitled  DiaXogi  sex  Contra 
Summi  Ponttficatus  Moruuticm  Vitm^  etc  (Antw.  1566). 
See  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cope,  David,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of  Ortho- 
dox Friends,  was  bom  at  East  Bradford,  Chester  Co., 
Pa.,  Jan.  24, 1787.  His  first  appearance  as  a  minister 
occurred  in  his  own  monthly  meeting,  when  he  was 
about  twenty-four  years  old,  but  he  was  not  fully  ap- 
proved as  such  until  1814,  four  years  thereafter.  His 
ministerial  labors  were  mostly  within  the  limiraof  Phil- 
adelphia,  but  in  1852  he  visited  the  subordinate  meet- 
ings of  Ohio.  He  died  Sept.  24, 1864.  See  Memorials, 
etc,  for  PetmsylvamOf  1879,  p.  479. 

Cope,  Bdward,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
at  Lisbon,  N.  Y.,  May  25, 1806.  He  joined  the  Church 
in  1827,  studied  two  years  (1838  and  1884)  at  Centre 
College,  one  year  in  the  Western  Theological  Semi- 
nary; graduated  from  the  Aubum  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1836;  was  ordained  as  a  missionary  to  India, 
and,  after  a  service  of  ten  years,  retumed  on  account 
of  ill  -  health ;  preached  at  Norwich,  N.  Y.,  and  the 
vicinity,  from  1854,  and  died  at  Gilbertsville,  May  10, 
1884.  See  Pre^yterianism  in  Central  JV:  K.  p.  603 ;  Gen, 
Cat,  of  Aubum  TkeoL  Senu  1883,  p.  46, 289.     (W.  P.  &) 

CopO)  James  (l),  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bora  Jan.  8, 1800.  He  joined  the  Church  at 
Ring  Street  Chapel,  Birmingham,  when  in  bis  twenty- 
second  year,  entered  Chesbunt  College  in  1824,  and 
preached  first  at  Middleton,  near  Manchester,  Sept.  2, 
1827,  where  for  some  years  he  labored,  and  at  Sleaford, 
Warrington,  Farrington,  and  Alfriston  successively,  un- 
til his  settlement  orer  the  Independent  Church,  New- 
market, in  1840.  At  the  end  of  about  six  years  he  re- 
moved to  Chatteris,  then  to  Godmanchester,  which  he 
left  in  April,  and  accepted  an  invitation  to  Ashfonl  in 
September,  1851.  He  died  there,  Oct.  12, 1852.  See 
(Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1858,  p.  208. 

Cope,  James  (2),  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  London,  Sept  16, 1781.  He  was 
brought  up  by  a  pious  mother,  converted  in  early  life, 
and  educated  at  Hoxton  Academy;  was  ordained  at 
Weytown,  near  Bridport,  in  1815 ;  retired  from  the  pas- 
torate in  1823;  accepted  a  call  to  St.  Austell  in  1828, 
and  resigned  in  1848.  He  died  while  on  a  visit  to  Plym- 
outh, May  28, 1863.   Mr.  Cope  generally  supported  him- 


self bv  keeping  a  boarding-iehool.     See  (Lond.)  Cong, 
l>ar^l:,1864,p.204. 

Cope,  Rioliard,  LL.D.,  F.A.S.,  a  distinguished 
English  Coogiegational  minister,  was  bora  in  London, 
near  the  spot  where  the  Craven  Chapel  now  stands, 
Aug.  23,  1776.  Becoming  a  junior  clerk  in  St  Al- 
bans Street,  he  was  made  chaplain  of  the  lady  of  the 
house.  He  was  next  engaged  ¥rith  Kenneth  Macken- 
zie, of  Loch  Torridge,  Rosshire,  Jan.  21, 1793^  and  while 
there  employed  his  vacant  hours  in  studying  theology, 
On  Dec.  9, 1795,  he  became  the  clerk  of  Edward  Leigh, 
Esq.,  of  Tooke  8  Court,  but  his  desire  for  the  ministry 
reviving,  he  entered  Old  College,  Hoxton,  March  5, 
1796,  and  there  continued  until  his  removal  to  Lancas- 
ter, June  28, 1800.  At  the  last-named  place  he  con- 
ducted a  boarding  and  day  school  with  extisoidiiiary 
soooess,  preached  in  sixteen  villages,  enlarged  the 
chapel  four  times,  and  saw  numbers  added  to  the 
Church.  He  removed  to  Dublin  as  professor  or  tutor 
in  New  College,  Manor  Street,  Aug.  1,  1820,  but  re- 
signed after  two  years.  He  then  travelled  through  the 
north  of  Ireland  on  behalf  of  the  Irish  Evangelical  and 
I/>ndon  Missionary  societies.  On  Sept  80, 1822,  he  be- 
came pastor  of  Salem  Chapel,  Wakefield,  where  he  was 
very  successful,  and  removed,  April  8, 1836,  to  Penrrn, 
where  the  house  soon  became  crowded.  In  1840  he 
erected  a  chapel  at  Poliphant,  near  Launceston,  and  an- 
other at  Mylor  Bridge,  near  Penryn,  where  he  preached 
every  Sunday  afternoon.  His  labors  for  fifty-six  years 
were  abundant  During  that  time  he  preached  three 
times  on  Sundays  and  several  times  through  the  week. 
He  died  Oct  26, 1856.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Tear^hookf 
1857,  p.  172. 

Cope,  Samuel,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of  Ortho- 
dox Friends,  was  bora  at  East  Bradford,  Chester  Co., 
Pa.,  Feb.  28, 1789.  His  mother,  Jane  Cope,  was  a  min- 
ister for  more  than  fifty  years,  and  died  March  28, 1834, 
aged  seventy -three  years.  When  thirty -nine  years 
old  Samuel  became  an  elder,  and  in  1835  was  duly  ac- 
knowledged as  a  minister.  He  visited  several  yearly 
meetings  in  the  United  States.  lie  died  Nov.  II,  1871. 
See  Memorials  for  Pennsglvama,  1879,  p.  495 ;  The 
Friend,  vii,  208. 

Cope-ohest  is  a  deep  and  broad  wooden  chest, 
semicircular  in  shape,  for  containing  copes  unfolded — 
an  ordinary  piece  of  furniture  in  the  sacristtea  of  oor 
largest  and  most  important  churches  in  past  years. 
Examples  are  to  be  seen,  among  other  placea,  at  Wells 
Cathedral,  at  Salisbury  Cathedral,  at  York  Minster,  at 
Lockinge,  Berkshire,  and  at  Brampton,  Northampton- 
shire.   See  Chests. 

Copeland,  Adoniram  Judson,  a  Congr^a- 
tional  minister,  was  bora  at  Brewef,  Me.,  in  March, 
1814.  He  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1840, 
and  from  the  Bangor  Theological  Seminary  ia  1843. 
After  preaching  for  a  time  in  Maine  he  removed  to  Il- 
linois, and  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Church 
at  Como,  in  that  state.  He  died  in  1855.  See  UisL  of 
Bowdoin  College,  p.  541.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Copeland,  David,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister  and  educator,  was  bora  in  Braintree,  Vt,  Dec 
21, 1882.  He  graduated  from  the  Wesleyan  University 
in  1855,  joined  the€renesee  Conference  in  1858,  and  wais 
the  same  year  appointed  principal  of  the  SpringrviUe 
(N.  Y.)  Academy.  In  1865  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Cincinnati  Conference,  and  became  president  of  the 
Hillsborough  (O.)  Female  College.  In  1872  he  was 
elected  principal  of  the  Wyoming  Seminary,  and  in 
1873  was  transferred  to  the  Wyoming  Confeienoei.  He 
diedinRoyalton,yt,Dec6,1882.  See  Jftnutet  o/*^f». 
nual  Conferences,  1883,  p.  88. 

Copeland,  Edmund,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Braintree,  Yt,  July  8, 1811.  He  was 
converted  in  1825,  licensed  in  1829,  and  joined  the  New 
Hampshire  Conference  in  1883.     In  1884  he  was  or- 


COPELAND 


107 


COPLEY 


dained  deacon,  and  in  1886  elder.  He  was  a  toecenfid 
preadicr  and  pastor,  and  filled  serend  of  the  best  ap- 
pointments in  the  conference.  In  1852  that  body 
sent  hina  as  a  delegate  to  the  General  Conference. 
When  on  Middlesex  and  Montpelier  Circuit  he  was 
pfostnted  by  excessive  labors,  from  which  he  never 
recovered.  He  died  at  Barre,  April  16,  1681.  Mr. 
Copeland  was  modest,  retiring,  pmdent,  thoughtful,  and 
devoted.  See  Mmutet  of  A  rmual  Canfirtneetf  1881,  p. 
94. 

Copeland,  George  "W.  Doane,  a  minister  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Feb.  22, 1888.  In  1860  he  graduated  from  the 
German  Theological  Seminary,  and  was  ordained  deacon 
in  that  year,  and  priest  in  1868.  His  ministerial  life 
was  spent  in  connection  with  St.  Luke's  Church,  New 
Tork  city,  though  his  labors  were  frequently  interrupt- 
ed by  bodily  suffering.     He  died  in  Boston,  May  21, 

1864.  His  character  was  distinguished  by  marked 
piety.     See  AmerieoM  QfiarUr^  CAarcA  i?«r»nff,  April, 

1865,  p.  139. 

Copeland,  Henxy,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episeojpal  Church  South,  was  admitted  into  the  Mem- 
phis Conference  in  1846,  located  in  1850,  removed  to 
Yicksborg,  and  in  1856  entered  the  Mississippi  Con- 
ference, wherein  he  Aboied  until  he  became  superan- 
nnated,  in  1868.  Not  long  afterwards  he  removed  to 
British  Honduras,  and  from  that  time  to  the  close  of 
his  life  labored  constantly  and  successfully  as  a  mission- 
ary there.  He  died  July  24,  1879,  aged  about  sixty 
years.  He  was  a  substantial  Christian,  faithful  min- 
ister, and  a  devoted  father  and  friend.  See  Minutes  of 
Ammai  Conferauxs  of  (he  M,  E.  Church  Soufh^  1879, 
p.  49. 

Copeland,  James,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, wss  bom  in  Reynolds  County,  Mo.,  Aug.  21, 1836. 
He  experienced  religion,  joined  the  Church  South,  was 
licensed  to  preach,  and  admitted  into  the  St.  Louis  Con- 
ference in  1853.  Being  anti-slavery  in  sentiment,  he 
removed  to  Illinois  at  the  beginning  of  the  Rebellion, 
and  was  admitted  into  the  Southern  Illinois  Confer- 
ence. Failing  health  obliged  him  to  become  a  super- 
annuate in  1871,  which  relation  he  sustained  until  his 
death,  Oct  12,  1872.  Mr.  Copeland  was  a  man  of 
Btioag  convictions,  and  a  plain,  practical,  earnest,  faith- 
ful minister.  See  Mimttet  of  A  tmual  Confei'enceSf  1873, 
p.  157. 

Copeland,  John  (1),  an  English  minister  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  was  bom  at  Holdemess,  Yorkshire, 
and  is  referred  to  as  having  been  ''well  educated."  In 
1657  be  went  to  America  with  Christopher  Holder  and 
other  Friends,  his  '*  companions  in  tribulation."  Re- 
tomijig  to  his  native  land,  he  passed  through  the  vicis- 
situdes which  fdl  to  the  lot  of  the  Quakers  of  his  age. 
In  1687  be  came  again  to  America.  After  enduring 
moch  persecution,  he  died,  Jan.  9, 1718,  at  a  good  f»ld 
age.     See  Bowden,  Hiti,  of  Friends  in  A  mericuy  i,  137. 

(j.as.) 

Copeland,  John  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Vermont  in  1801.  He  was  converted 
in  1821,  began  preaching  in  1822,  and  joined  the  Gen- 
esee Conference  in  1823.  His  first  appointment  was 
Eden  Circuit,  south  of  Buffalo,  and  embraced  thirty  ap- 
pointaoents  to  be  filled  every  four  weeks.  He  became 
one  of  the  leading  men  of  his  conference,  eminently 
ttsefnl  to  the  Church.  As  a  presiding  elder  he  was 
abondiint  in  labors  and  wise  in  administration.  He 
was  snpersnnuated  during  the  last  years  of  his  life,  and 
died  at  Lima,  N.  Y.,  Oct  7, 1880.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
wmd  Ccmftrenees^  1881,  p.  827. 

Copeland,  T^ilUam,  an  Irish  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  eooverted  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  He  commenced 
bis  labors  in  1806,  and  retired,  on  account  of  ill-health, 
in  1819,  settling  at  Waterford,  where  he  died,  Sept.  22, 
1882,  aged  forty-one.    He  was  a  man  of  superior  attain- 


ments and  excellence.    See  Minutes  of  the  British  Coif 
ferenee,  1828. 

Copeland,  William  Raneom,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  in  Jackson  County,  O., 
Feb.  14,  1885.  Ho  united  with  the  Church  in  1853, 
was  licensed  to  exhort  in  1856,  to  preach  in  1857,  and 
in  the  same  year  entered  the  Ohio  Conference.  He 
died  May  4, 1870.  Mr.  Copeland  was  a  good  preacher, 
a  laborious,  faithful,  and  successful  pastor.  See  Ifui- 
utes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1871,  p.  249. 

Copenhagen,  Council  of  {Concilium  Ilafmense). 
The  place  in  which  this  council  was  held  is  not  alto- 
gether certain ;  it  was  assembled  by  Peter  Lukins,  arch- 
bishop of  Lund,  in  1425.  His  suffrsgans,  and  some 
other  bishops,  abbots,  etc.,  were  present.  A  synodal 
letter  was  drawn  up  for  the  re-establishment  of  disci- 
pline, and  the  reformation  of  morals  among  both  clergy 
and  laity.  These  rules  forbid  luxur}',  drunkenness, 
frequenting  wine-shops,  carr^'ing  arms,  having  concu- 
bines, etc.  All  troublers  of  State  or  Church  were  ex- 
communicated ;  nnns  were  forbidden  to  leave  their  con- 
vent without  permission,  and  bishops  to  ordain  any  one 
belonging  to  another  diocese  without  the  consent  of  the 
bishop  of  that  diocese.  See  Labbe,  ConciL  xii,  380.— 
Landon,  Man.ofCounciis,  s.  v. 

Copia,  in  Boman  mythology,  was  the  goddess  of 
wealth,  an  allegorical  figure,  personifying  plenty.  See 
Abundamtia;  Amaltuka. 

Copinlata  were  a  sect  of  Universalists  (q.  v.)  who 
denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 

Copland  is  the  family  name  of  several  Scotch 
clergymen : 

1.  Grorok,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1722;  called  to 
the  living  at  Birsay  and  Harray  in  1780,  and  ordained. 
He  died  Aug.  9, 1785.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana^  iii, 
398,894. 

2.  Patrick  (1),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1671,  and 
appointed  to  the  living  at  Cushnie  in  1672.  He  died 
in  1710.    See  Fasti  Eccles,  SeoticanoBy  iii,  562. 

3.  Patrick  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1704; 
called  to  the  living  at  Tough  in  1706,  and  ordained. 
He  died  Sept  22, 1745,  leaving  a  son.  Dr.  Samuel,  min- 
uter of  Fintray.     See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticana,  iii,  566. 

4.  Robert,  was  ordained  in  1814  as  missionary  at 
Euzie,  and  presenteil  to  the  living  at  Durris  in  1823. 
He  died  July  3,  1860,  aged  eighty  years.  See  Fasti 
Eccles.  ScoticancSf  iii,  499. 

5.  Samuei^  D.D.,  took  his  first  degree  at  King's 
College,  Aberdeen,  in  1733;  Vaa  licensed  to  preach  in 
1739;  called  to  the  living  at  Fintray  in  1745,  and  or- 
dained. He  died  Feb.  19,  1795,  aged  eighty  years. 
He  published,  >il  n  Essay  on  the  Christian  Charat^er 
(1785).     See  Fasti  Eccles.  ScoticantKy  iii,  503. 

6.  Thomas,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1608;  was  appointed  in  1615  to  the  living 
nt  Redkirk  (Renpatrick),  and  transferred  to  Temple  in 
1620.  He  died  in  August,  1631,  aged  about  forty-nine 
years.     See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticatiaj  i,  307, 619. 

7.  William,  was  born  at  Tough  in  1709;  took  his 
degree  at  King*8  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1781 ;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1740,  ordained  as  a  minister  at  large 
in  1753,  and  presented  to  the  living  at  Forres  in  1763. 
He  died  May  8, 1772.  See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scotieana,  iii,, 
573. 

Copley,  Wiluam,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Bradfonl,  Yorkshire,  in  1796.  He  was  con- 
verted under  the  ministry  of  Rev.  Dr.  Steadman,  at  an 
early  age;  pursued  the  usual  course  of  study  at  the 
academy  in  his  native  place,  and  was  for  a  short  time 
pastor  in  Haslingden,  Lancashire.  In  1821  he  removed 
to  Watford,  Herts,  where  he  remained  till  1825,  and 
then  went  to  Oxford  to  become  co-pastor  with  Rev. 
James  Hereton,  the  relation  continuing  till  1839,  when 
he  went  to  Eythome,  Kent.  He  remained  here  'until 
1846,  at  which  time  he  became  pastor  at  Blakeney, 


COPP 

CloaceUenfaira,  wtiere  he  died,  April  I9|  ISGT. 
(Lond.)  Bapliit  Hand-book,  1868,  p.  M,     (J,  a  8.) 
Copp,  Ji>ii!i  B^  &  Free-irill  Baptist  minlMer, 
bnm  M  LebiDOD,  Me.,  Much,  1811 ;  bis  father,  alio,  be- 
ing a  luiniuer.    He  united  wilh  the  Church  at  an  early 
age.    About  1833  he  remoTed  to  Detroit,  in  the  aame 
■laM,  where  he  waa  lictnwd  (o  preacb;  and  in  IBSfi 
wai  ordained.    While  teaching  in  the  winter  of  1836, 
in   Coiinna,  a  powerful  reTival   coiomenetd   ' 
■chool  Bod  ipreed  in  different  directiona.     1 
be  went  to  St.  Albans,  where  he  rcnded  nin«  yean, 
preaching  moatly  in  that  plice  and  in  the  adjoining 
towna.     In  July,  1847,  he  went  to  Aiblabula  County, 
O.    A  part  of  hia  time  waa  derated  to  preaching  ' 
Geneva,  AuMinburg,  TnimbuU,  and  other  plaeea. 
1863  he  removed  to  Fluthiiifc,  Micb,,  wbere  he  died, 
Sov.  10,  1853.     Bee  Frte-icUl  BaplUt  RtgiUtr,  I8S7, 
p.  86.     (J.  a  S.) 

Coppa,  Stktaxo,  an  Italian  engraver,  praclioed  the 
art  at  Rome  about  ITTo.  He  engraved  a  number  of 
platea,  among  which  is  a  print  of  Tkt  ' 
Spooner,  Biog.  HitL  oftht  Fine  A  rl;  i 

Coppeiurteln,  Johank  Andrhas,  a  Gerniaa  Jeui- 
it,  who  became  a  famoua  preacher  at  Coblenti  in  1614, 
psitor  of  SL  Peter's,  at  Heidelberg,  in  1629,  and  died 
there,  March  8, 1638,  is  the  author  of  Eztalmtaatio  Ca- 
ttchumi  Calcino-HeideOieTgtatUi—Ciuligalio  Apcdogia 
Calrino-cat/eAtlka  el  Apologitta  Amiltirodamtniu . 
CmtrcrernaruiaLathero-CalinaUla  Quadricrpt:—! 
Iktm-Caivinumi  A  nliiAHilta,  Genailogia  et  A  nli-papit- 
ta  Meodax: — C<Jmiiutica  jidei  Spfoilim: — Lullirro. 
Calvuumi  It^fidditai  Je  Citiiito  tt  Anlidtriiie.     Host 
of  hia  writings  were  publinbed  under  the  title,  J.  A. 
Coppautami  Controttriia  iaUr  Calkoikot  tt  HcerOicot 
<164S).    See  JScber,  A  Ugmaaet  Geltkrtai-Lrxihm,  a. 
(B.P.) 

Coppl,  JaoopO,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Pe- 
letola,  Tkear  Florence,  in  1Ri8.  There  is  a  fine  picture 
byhim,of  rjieOuctlinoSiin  the  Church  of  San  Salva- 
tor^  at  Bologna.  He  died  in  1591.  See  8pooner,BKy. 
Bi*l,oflktFvitATU,».v. 

Coppln,  Jean,  a  French  voyager,  waa  bom  about 
16IS,  and  became  a  cavalry  captain  in  i 
France  nnd  AuMria.  He  embarked  in  1638  for  Egypt, 
where  be  spent  two  years.  On  the  «eeond  voyage  he  ' 
ited  Tuuii  and  Syria,  and  iras  appointed  consul  at  Da 
ettainieM,  After  a  sojourn  of  three  yean  in  the  East, 
be  returned  to  Europe  with  the  project  of  a  crusade,  in 
which  he  vainly  atCempttd  to  interest  the  pupe.  He 
then  addressed  the  public  in  a  book,  entitled  BohcUo- 
dtVEuropt  (Puy,  1686;  Lyons,  1720).  He  died  about 
1690.  See  Hoefer,  ^^oui'.  Biog.  GiniraU,  s.  v.;  Biog. 
UmmritUf,  t.  v. 

Coppola,  GiovAHSi  CAUu>,an  ICaliaa  prelate  and 
poet  of  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century-,  waa  a  native 
of  Gallipoli,  and  became  bishop  of  Huro  in  1648.  He 
lived  fire  years  on  intimate 
terras  with  Campanelta,  and 
wrotd  some  poems,  for  which 
see  Hoefer,  Nam.  Biog,  GM- 

CopUo  Iffonka  are  the 
.monks  of  Egypt  living  in  the 
•even  regular  convents  of  that 


the  Ked  Sea,four  in  the  Natron 
Valley,  and  one  at  Jebel  Kos- 
kun,  in  Upper  Egypt  There 
are  also  several  secondary  mon- 
asteries, in  which  the  priests 
are  seculars,  and  into  which 
wotoen  are  admitted.  The 
Coptic  monka  practice  groat 
MUteiities,  living  in  deaerts, 


18  COQUEREL 

sleeping  in  their  clotbeaeo  the  groand,  and  oreiyevtn- 
ing  prostrating  Ibemsekes  one  hundred  and  fifty  times 
with  their  face  and  breast  on  the  earth.  They  qiring 
from  the  lowest  dais  of  the  people,  and  live  on  alms. 
A  period  of  Mvero  probation  is  required  of  ail  persom 
applying  for  admission  into  the  monaatic  order.  Be- 
sides making  a  vow  of  celibacy,  they  must  perfann,  in 
some  sequestered  convent  in  the  desert,  such  menial 
services  as  fetching  wood  and  water,  aweeping  the 
rooms,  or  waiting  upon  the  monks.  See  riittoirt  du 
Clergi  (Amst.  1716),  i,  S3  sq.     See  Copts. 

Coq  (Lat,  Coguaui),  Ldo!(ABD,  a  French  Augustinian 
monk,  was  a  native  of  Orleans.  Ua  acted  as  profeaaor 
of  theology  and  andent  languages  at  Paris,  Florence, 
aud  Borne ;  wis  confessor  to  the  grand-duebess  Chris- 
tina of  Florence;  and  died  Nov.  27,  16IG,  leaving, 
among  other  writings,  Augmlim  dt  CivUale  Dei  cuik 
Cu»atettanit!-^Fj!a«iat  Pnrfittioiai  Monitoria  Jacw 
hil  Magna  Britannia: — Attii~Monuria,Kic-  See  Joch- 
er,  A  Ugtmrina  GeUhrten-Lexitoit,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Coqnelin,  Fronsolo,  ■  French  monk  of  the  order 
of  St.  Bernard,  wu  bom  at  Salins,and  lived  in 


Hew 


mVila. 


:  Uiracuhmm 


Sandi  Claudii  (Rome,  1652).  See  Hoefer,  A'lwv.  Biog. 
CMrale,  a.  v. 

Coqnelin,  JdrAme,  a  FmHHt  historian,  was  bora 
at  Besanfon,  July  21, 1690.  He  entered  the  BenedictiDe 
order,  and  waa  the  last  abbot  of  Favemey.  He  died 
SepL  1, 1771,  leaving  in  H3.  some  works  re'ladng  to  (he 
hialory  of  Francbe  Comt^.  See  Hoefer,  A'duf.  Biog.  Gi- 
i^raU,  s.  V.  ]  Biog.  UnintTtrUr,  a.  v. 

Coquelln,  Nloolaa.    See  Cdoquilin. 

Coqnerel,  Athonase  Jomid,  D.D.,  son  of  the 
following,  was  bom  at  Amsterdam,  June  16, 1820.  lie 
studied  at  Geneva,  and  waa  ordained  in  18^  by  his  fa* 
ther,  at  Nismes.  On  account  of  his  advanced  liberal 
theological  views,  he  had  to  resign  hia  office,  in  1862, 
and  bccarae  the  bead  and  leader  of  liberal  Protestantism 
in  France.  He  died  at  Ftsmes,  July  !G,  1876.  He  waa 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Socict*  de  I'Histoire  du  Prot- 
esUntiame  Franfiis,  in  the  year  1852.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  unedited  letters  orVoltalie,  on  Toler- 
ance, in  18G3,  and  wrote,  Jean  C(ii(ucfici/'iiintU;(Fismi>a, 
1857 ;  2a  ed.  1870).  He  left  an  unfinished  work,  L'Bii- 
loin  th  e^gliie  Riformee  de  Parii.  See  Lichtenberger, 
Eniydop,  da  Scienai  Religieutei,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Coqnerel,  Atbanaae  Iianrent  ChatteB,  a 

ench  Proleataut  divine,  and  president  of  the  Presby- 
terian Council  of  Paris,  was  bom  in  that  city,  Aug,  27, 
1796.    He  pursued  bis  theological  studies  at  Geneva 
and  Montauban,  and  in  1816  was  ordained  pastor. 
During  the  following  twelve  years  be  nnidcd  in  Hoi- 
preached  wilh  acceptance  before  Calviniatie 
iciiis  at  Amsterdam,  Leyden,  and  Utrecht.    In 
he  was  called  to  Paris,  and  there  spent  the  rest 
of  bis  life.     The  first  year  he  was  there  he  established 
s  periodical,  entitled  /.<  Prplufunf,  which  was  continued 
till  December,  1833,  when  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  consistory.    In  January,  1884,  the  first  number  of 
the  IM>re  Kramtn  appeared,  under  the  joint  editor- 
ship of  Coquerel  and  Artaud,  and  was  carried  on  until 
July,  1836.     He  rapidly  acquired  the  lepatation  of  a 
great  pulpit  orator,  and  the  liberal  views  which  he  an- 
nonnced  with  fearless  freedom  brought  him  more  and 
re  into  antagonism  wilh  tba  rigid  CalviniitB.    He 
s  chosen  a  member  of  the  Lsgion  of  Honor,  at  Paris, 
1836.     AlUr  Ibe  revolution  of  February,  1848,  Co- 
querel waa  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly; 
and  after  the  coup  (TAof  of  Dec  2,  1851,  be  confined 
'^'mselflo  the  duties  of  his  pastorate,  which  be  had  not 
ased  to  discharge.     He  died  at  Paris,  Jan.  10, 1868, 
large  number  of  hit  Ormolu  wera  published,  in  eight 
ilumea,  between  1819  and  1852.     Other  works  by  him 
e,  L'dMhodoxie  ilodtme,  a  reply  to  Strenss'a  ijft  of 
■tat  (Paris,  1341;  traiuL  iuto  Dutch  and  English);-' 


COQUEREL 


109 


COBBMAC 


U  CkriMtiamgmt  Exphimaital,  i  chmtology  (ibid.  1868; 
tnnd.  into  Gennan  by  H«  AUhans,  HanoTer,  1869,  2 
ToU):— FufOtrv  Sauiie  (1889):— iVo^  de  DUdpUm 
pour  lea  £jfii$e*  R^formk*  de  France  (ibid.  1861)  :--£»- 
ogrt^ik  Saerie  (1826-26),  etc  See  Lichtenberger,  £»- 
cgdop.  da  Seiacei  JUUffieutn,  ■.  v. ;  Ziichold,  BibL 
Tkeol.  i,  248;  Efiqfdop.  Brit.  9th  ed.  s.  ▼. 

Coqnerel,  Charles  Ausustln,  brother  of  the 
preoediDg,  w»  bom  in  Paria,  April  17, 1797.  He  stiid< 
ied  theology  at  HoDtaaban,  bat  after  his  return  to  Paris 
he  also  stodied  medictne  and  other  sciences.  He  was 
one  of  the  fonnders  of  the  A  rekivet  du  Chrutiani$me  and 
of  the  Afotales  PrdeMUaOe*  in  1819,  and  in  1826  of  the 
RameProtetiaHte,  He  also  published //iirotrecfefl^tfey 
du  Di$ert  (Paris,  1841 ;  Germ.  transL  by  Schilling,  Stutt- 
gart, 1846>.  He  died  Feb.  1, 1861.  See  lichtenbetger, 
Em^dop,  du  Scimou  Bdigiaues,  s.  v.;  Zuchold,  BUiL 
TheoL\,t4&.    (RP.) 

Coxaoion  was  chief  of  the  Hillenarians  of  Arnno^, 
in  Egypt,  about  the  middle  of  the  8d  century.  He  was 
converted  from  his  chiliasttc  views  by  Dionysius,  the 
patriarch  of  Alexandria  (Eoseb.  HitL  EecL  vii,  24). 

Cora],  PiKRRE,  a  French  chronicler  of  the  Idth  cen- 
tuiy,  abbot  of  SuUartin  of  Toulouse,  wrote  a  chronicle 
of  this  monasteiy.  Coral  left  this  abbey  in  1276,  in  or- 
der to  enter  another,  and  his  chronicle  does  not  extend 
beyond  this  term.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale, 
fcv. 

Coraa  (Lat.  CcranuB),  Jacquks  de,  a  French  Prot^ 
cstant  theologian  and  poet,  was  bom  at  Toulouse  in 
1690.  He  was  a  pastor  in  Guienne,  and  fulfilled  sev- 
eral other  religious  functions.  He  died  in  1677,  leaving 
several  poems  on  Old-Test,  characters,  for  which  see 
Hoefer,  .Voter.  Biog.  GhUrale,  a.  v. 

CorbaniiB.    See  Cebbak. 

Corbeil  (Lat.  CorheUtu),  Pikrrb  de,  a  French  the- 
ologian of  the  18th  century,  was  at  first  canon  and  doctor 
at  Fsiis,  then  bishop  of  Cambray,  and  finally  archbishop 
of  Sens  in  120O.  While  he  taught  theology  at  Paris 
he  bad  for  pupil  Innocent  HI,  who,  on  rising  to  the 
papacy,  faTored  his  former  master,  and  confided  to 
him  important  missions.  Rigord,  Alberic,  Vincent  of 
Beauvais^  Trithemius,  and  Henry  de  Gand  all  eulogize 
Corbeil.  He  died  June  8, 1222.  Only  fragments  of  his 
■jnodal  ordinances  remain.  At  the  National  Library 
of  Fkris  there  is  a  Ma<entitled  Petri  de  Corbeiiio  Satyra 
Adeerau  eo§  qui  Uxaree  DuctnU^  which  is  perhaps  his. 
He  also  wrote  some  Scriptural  comments,  still  in  MS* 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv»  Biog,  GMrale^  s.  v.;  Jocher,  Allge^ 
mama  GdArtem^Lexihon,  s.  v. 

CofbeUn,  Piebre,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom 
in  Maine  shoot  1480.  He  taught  belles-lettres  at  the 
College  of  Navarre,  as  John  of  Launoy  attests.  Du 
Vcfdier  indndes  among  his  works,  De  Dunno  Jfiute 
3amJkio:  —  D€  Hmrdkorum  Confutatit  Ojnmonibut 
(ToaJoose,  1528):— Pe^*  CorbeUm  Cemmanetuie  Ada^ 
Siake  rioKHH  (JhaiBj  IbW).  See  Hoefer,  Abtrv.  Bio^. 
Ghirak,a.r, 

Corbet,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  atGbngow  Univeruty  in  1628;  became  echool- 
master  at  Renfrew;  was  appointed  minister  at  Bonhill 
in  1687 ;  declined  the  authority  of  the  general  assembly 
in  1688;  wss  deposed  in  April,  1689,  and  fled  to  Ireland, 
where  he  pbyed  a  deceitful  part,  for  which  he  was 
**  hewed  in  pieees  by  two  swine-herds  in  the  arms  of  his 
wife,"  in  1641,  aged  about  thirty-eight  years.  See  Fatii 
Kcda,  Seotieance,  ii,  846. 

Corbet,  John  (2),  an  English  nonconformist  di- 
vine, was  bora  at  Gloucester  in  1620.  He  was  educated 
At  a  grammar  school  there,  and  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1639.  He  preached  successively  at  Gloucester  and 
Cbiehcster,  and  became  rector  at  Bramshot,  in  Hamp- 
•Ure,  but  was  ejected  in  1662,  and  afterwards  lived  pri- 
vitely  in  London,  where  he  died  Dec.  20, 1680.  He 
piliUabed  an  aeooont  of  the  liegt  of  Gloucester,  besides 


several  tracts,  for  which  see  Chalmers,  Bioff,  DicL  s.  r. ; 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  A  uthore,  s.  v. 

Corbet,  Richard,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate  and 
poet,  was  bom  at  Ewell,  in  Surrey,  in  1682,  and  was 
educated  at  Westminster  School  and  Christ  Chnreh,. 
Oxford,  where,  in  1606,  he  entered  into  holy  orders. 
In  1618  he  went  to  France,  and  wrote  his  Epistle  to  Sir 
Tkomae  Ayletbury,  and  his  Journey  to  France,  one  of 
his  popular  poems.  King  James  I  made  him  one  of  his 
chaplains  in  ordinary,  and  in  1620  advanced  him  to  the 
deanship  of  Christ  Chureh.  At  this  time  he  was  vicar 
of  Cassington,  near  Woodstock,  in  Oxfordshire.  He  was 
promoted  to  the  see  of  Oxford  Sept  24, 1628,  and  April 
7, 1682,  was  translated  to  that  of  Norwich.  He  died 
July  28, 1686.  His  poems,  after  passing  through  three 
editions,  were  carefully  revised  and  published  by  his 
biographer,  Mr.  Gilchrist,  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet, 
s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthortf  s.  v. 

Corbett,  James,  an  English  Wesleyan  mission- 
ary, was  sent  to  the  West  Indies  in  1883.  He  died  after 
a  short  illness  at  Spanish  Town,  Jamaica,  June  9, 1886. 
He  was  an  amiable  young  man  of  promising  talents. 
See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conferences,  1886. 

Corbett,  Thomas,  an  English  Wesleyan  preacher, 
was  bom  in  Leicestenhire.  He  began  his  labon  in 
1774,  and  died  in  1789.  He  was  a  plain,  pious,  honest 
man,  and  though  with  but  ordinary  gifts,  was  generally 
acceptable.    See  Atmore,  3f</A.  Memorial,  s.  v. 

Corbiohon  (or  Corbeohon),  Jeaic,  a  French 
writer,  lived  about  1850.  He  was  an  Augustinian 
monk,  chaplain  of  king  Charles  V,  and  made  himself 
known  by  a  translation 'of  a  Latin  treatise,  entitled 
De  Proprietatibtts  Berum,  This  work,  reviewed  and 
corrected  by  another  monk  of  the  order,  named  Pierre 
Ferget,  was  published  under  the  title,  Le  Grand  Pro^ 
prikaire  (Lyons,  1482,  I486,  1491,  1600;  Paris,  1610; 
Rouen,  1656).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. ; 
Biog.  Universelle,  s.  v. 

Corbiooa.    See  Makes. 

Corbin,  Ira  Hah unk,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Russia,  Herkimer  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  1, 
1812.  He  was  converted  at  eighteen ;  licensed  to  preach 
at  twenty-three,  and  in  1840  entered  the  Black  River 
Conference,  wherein  he  labored  faithfully  until  his 
death,  Dec  11, 1866.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer^ 
enees,  1867,  p.  865. 

Corbltt,  John  A.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  South,  was  bom  hi  Tipton  County,  Tenn., 
Dec  28, 1886.  He  was  converted  at  twenty-one ;  licensed 
to  preach  in  1872,  and  joined  the  White  River  Confer- 
ence in  1876,  when  he  was  ordained  deacon.  In  1877 
he  was  transferred  to  the  Memphis  Conference.  He 
died  Jan.  2, 1880,  having  been  for  a  year  a  superannuate. 
He  was  a  faithful  preacher,  and  a  close  student.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M.  E.  Chureh 
South,  1880,  p.  167. 

Corbley,  John,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
England  in  1738.  He  came  to  America  and  took  up 
his  residence  in  Virginia,  where  he  gave  himself  to  the 
work  of  the  ministry.  In  1768  he  was  forced  to  leave 
the  state,  on  account  of  the  persecutions  which  were 
inflicted  upon  the  Baptists.  He  went  to  South- westem 
Pennsylvania,  and  assisted  in  establishing  churches  in 
that  region.  The  Goshen  Church  in  Green  County 
called  him  to  be  its  pastor  in  1776.  While  here  his 
wife  and  five  children  were  killed  by  the  Indians.  After 
a  life  of  great  usefulness  he  died  in  1803.  See  Cath- 
cart.  Baptist  Encyelop.  p.  277.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Coibmao  (or  Connao)  is  the  name  of  some  forty- 
eight  early  Irish  saints,  of  which  we  here  present  the 
best  authenticated : 

1.  Priest  in  Achadh-finnich,  commemorated  May 
11,  according  to  the  Mart.  Doneg,  (Todd  and  Reeves, 
p.  126).  Colgan  mentions  a  king  by  this  name,  son  of 
Diarmaid,  who  turned  monk  in  his  oU  age,  and  like- 


CORBOLD 


110 


CORDER 


wlfle  gives  two  Connacs,  priests,  venented  on  the  above 
day  {A  da  Scmctorum,  p.  8€0,  a). 

2.  Of  Annagh,  venerated  Feb.  17,  seems  to  have  been 
bom  near  Mt  Usneach,  and  was  baptized  by  SL  Patrick. 
His  father  is  said  to  have  been  Enna  (Ennius  or  £nda), 
and  he  was  ooarb  or  abbot  of  Armagh,  A.D.  482-497. 

3.  Of  Trim  (then  Ath-truim),  likewise  venerated 
Feb.  17,  seems  to  have  been  descended  from  the  same 
jamily  as  the  preceding,  his  mother  being  Funecta  (Fui- 
neacht),  his  brothers  also  bishops  of  adjoining  sees,  and 
his  father's  name  Colman.    He  died  A.D.  742. 

4.  Called  Ua  Liathaw,  abbot  of  Dermagh  (now  Dur> 
row),  and  venerated  June  21,  was  the  son  of  Dima,  and 
is  samamed  **  Corbmac  the  Navigator,"  from  his  voy- 
ages  in  the  Northern  Ocean.  He  afterwards  founded  a 
monastery  in  his  own  country,  but  there  is  no  cine  to 
his  exact  date. 

Another  anchorite  of  the  same  name  is  assigned  to 
A.D.  865,  but  is  otherwise  unknown. 

5.  Of  Munster,  commemorated  Dec.  14  (some  erro- 
neously March  26),  was  the  son  of  Eugenius,  and  had 
several  brothers  who  were  saints.  He  retired  to  one 
place  of  solitude  after  another,  and  finally  settled  in  a 
monastery  at  Mayo,  on  the  Moy,  probably  about  the 
middle  of  the  6th  centur}\  See  Smith,  Did.  ofChriiL 
Biog,  s.  V. 

Corbold,  Alfred,  an  English  missionary  to  India, 
was)  bom  at  Ipswich,  May  7, 1821,  Having  studied  at 
Bedford,  and  subsequently  at  Colton  End,  he  was  accept- 
ed by  the  London  Missionary  Society  and  appointed  to 
the  Guzerat  Mission.  He  was  ordained  Aug.  7, 1850, 
at  Bunyan  Meeting,  Bedford ;  sailed  in  company  with 
his  wife  for  India,  and  arrived  at  his  destination  in  Jan- 
uary. From  the  beginning  of  1856  the  entire  charge 
of  the  mission  rested  on  Mr.  Corbold.  Early  in  1860 
the  mission  was  transferred  to  the  Irish  Presbyterian 
Missionary  Society ;  and  he  and  his  wife,  having  suf- 
fered in  health,  returned  to  England.  Having  been 
appointed  to  join  the  Madras  Mission,  he  again  sailed 
with  Mrs.  Corbold,  arriving  in  Madras  Jan.  81, 1862. 
There  he  took  charge  of  the  Tamil  congr^ation,  at 
l^ursewakum,  and  three  out-stations;  while  his  wife 
took  the  superintendence  of  the  native  female  boarding- 
school,  and  three  vernacular  day-schools  for  girls.  But 
health  again  failing  them,  they  returned  to  EngUind  in 
1870.  Three  years  later  they  resumed  their  labon  in 
Madras.  In  1875,  illness  rendering  it  necessary  for  Mr. 
Corbold  to  visit  England,  he  returned  home  with  his 
wife.  It  soon  became  evident  that  the  faithful  mission- 
ary's career  was  at  an  end.  He  died  Sept.  28,  1877. 
S^  (Lond.)  Evangelical  Magazine,  Nov.  1877,  p.  688. 

Corbyn,  A.  D.,  a  minister  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  bora  in  Woodstock,  Conn.,  in  1810. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1838 ;  and  being  admitted  to 
orders,  served  twelve  years  in  Missouri,  and  removed  to 
the  diocese  of  Mississippi  in  1852,  to  take  charge  of  SL 
Paul's  Church,  Columbus.  He  was  next  called  to  the 
rectorship  of  the  College  of  SL  Andrew,  in  1853,  and 
subsequently  to  the  charge  of  SL  Andrew's  Church,  in 
Jackson,  where  he  faithfully  served  until  his  death, 
OcL  18, 1855.  See  Anter,  Quar.  Church  Rev,  1856,  p. 
638. 

Corbyn,  Candia,  a  Welsh  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  was  bora  at  Pontypool,  Monmouthshire,  about 
1671.  Through  the  ministry  of  Thomas  Wilson  she, 
was  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth  in  the  eigh- 
teenth year  of  her  age,  and  a  few  yeara  after  received 
«a  call  to  the  ministry,"  in  the  exercise  of  which  "she 
was  sound  and  clear."  Through  a  long  life  she  mani- 
fested the  power  of  her  religion.  She  died  in  Worcester, 
April  28, 1767.    See  Piety  Promoted,  ii,  428.    (J.  a  S.) 

Coroan  (Curonaeus,  or  Corcunutan)  it  the 
name  of  three  Irish  saints,  two  of  them  commemorated 
Jan.  7,  and  one  SepL  30 ;  but  their  identification  is  very 
uncertain.    See  Smith,  Did,  of  Chritt.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Coroarla  (or  Coroair)*    See  Curcach. 


Coroodfimna  ( Corcodomoa,  Cooordaiiu^ 
Carondemna,  etc),  Saini,  was  ordained  deacon  of 
Auxerre  by  pope  Sixtus  II,  and  preached  in  France  in 
the  8d  century.  He  died  after  the  martyrdom  of  St 
Peregrinus,  and  his  relics  were  translated  to  the  basilica 
of  SL  Amatoe.  He  is  commemorated  May  4.  See  Bd- 
land,  A  da  Sandorum,  May,  i,  452. 

Cord,  Investitubb  with  the,  is  «  name  applied  to 
the  ceremony  of  introducing  the  young  Brahmin  into 
the  sacred  caste  at  the  age  of  aeven  or  nine  years.  Be- 
fore this  time  he  is  regarded  as  no  better  than  a  Sudra; 
he  has  no  privilege,  no  rank.  By  the  laws  of  Menu,  a 
Brahmin  is  to  be  distinguished  from  individuals  of  the 
secular  classes  by  a  cord  {paUd),  which  is  worn  hang, 
ing  from  the  left  shoulder,  and  resting  on  the  right  side 
below  the  loins.  It  condsts  of  three  thick  twists  of 
cotton,  each  formed  of  numerous  snudler  threads.  These 
three  separate  twists,  which  on  marriage  are  increased 
to  three  times  three,  are  considered  aa  emblematical  of 
the  three  persons  in  the  Hindft  Trinity — Brahma,  Vish- 
nu, and  Siva.  The  cotton  from  which  the  cord  is  made 
must.be  picked  from  the  plant  by  the  hands  of  Brah- 
mins only,  and  the  thread  must  be  spun  and  twisted  by 
persons  of  the  same  caste.  When  the  cord  has  been 
properly  manufactured,  the  father  of  the  young  candi- 
date endeavors  to  ascertain,  by  the  rales  of  astrology, 
the  month,  the  week,  the  day,  the  hour,  the  minute 
which  will  be  most  favorable  for  his  son's  investiture 
with  the  cord.  The  ceremony  and  the  entertainment 
last  four  days,  and  at  the  dose  of  each  the  guests  re- 
ceive numerous  presents.  For  a  description  of  the  cere- 
mony see  Dubois,  The  Hindoos,  See  Braiimiks;  Ix- 
DiA3f  Caste. 

Cord,  JoHir,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  in  Harford  County,  Md.  He  was  converted  in 
1806 ;  officiated  some  time  as  exhorter  and  local  preach- 
er, and  in  1811  entered  the  Illinois  Conference.  A  se- 
vere loss  by  fire  necessitated  his  location  for  a  few  years, 
with  the  exception  of  which  he  labored  faithfully  and 
successfully  until  1826,  when  failing  health  obliged  him 
to  become  a  superannuate.  He  died  full  of  hope,  BIsurch 
28, 1827.  See  Minitte$  of  Annual  Conferences,  18281, 
p.  673. 

Cordemoy,  GMraud  de,  a  French  historian  and 
philosopher,  who  died  OcL  8, 1684,  was  a  native  of  Paria^ 
He  first  practiced  law,  but  soon  abandoned  his  profea- 
sion,  and  betook  himself  to  the  stlidy  of  philosophy,  es- 
pecially that  of  Des  Cartes.  Bishop  Bossuet  introduced 
him  to  the  French  court,  and  he  was  appointed  lector  to 
the  dauphin.  In  the  year  1675  he  was  elected  a  naem- 
ber  of  the  French  Academy.  He  wrote,  Histoire  de 
France  (from  the  beginning  of  the  monarchy  to  the 
year  987,  2  vols.)  -^Six  Ditcourt  nir  la  Distindion  dm 
VAmeddu  Corps:— Loire  h  un  Savant  Rdigieux  de  la 
CompagnU  de  JhuM  pour  Dtfende  U  Syttame  de  Den^ 
cartes:— Traith  de  Mkaphysique :—TraiU  de  VlvsfaH- 
libiliti  de  FEglise,  See  Winer,  Handbudi  der  theoL 
Lit,  i,  404 ;  Jocher,  A  llgemeines  Gekh/ten^Lexihon,  b.  v.  ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Biog.  Unives'seiie, 
s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Cordemoy,  Lonia  O^raud  de,  a  French  the- 
ologian, son  of  the  foregoing,  was  bom  at  Paria,  Dec 
7, 1651.  He  took  holy  orders,  was  made  doctor  of  the> 
ology,  and  applied  himself  to  the  conversion  of  the 
Protestants.  After  having  aided  the  missions  of  Saio* 
tonge,  he  was  appointed,  in  1679,  abbot  of  Feni^rea,  of 
the  order  of  Cistercians,  in  the  diocese  of  Clennont,  in 
Auvergne.  He  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  7,  1722,  leaving  a 
number  of  religions  letten  and  treatises,  for  whictk  see 
Hoefer,  Abvr.  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  UnictrB^Ue 
s.  V. 

Corder  (LaL  Corderius),  Balthasar,  a  Belgian 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Antwerp  in  1592.  He  entered 
the  Jesuit  order  in  1612,  and  taught  theology  at  Vi« 
enna.  He  was  leamed  in  Greek.  He  died  at  Rome, 
June  24,  1650,  leaving  Catena  L^V  Grtnconum   JPa-- 


OORDES 


111 


CORELLA 


tnm  w  S.  Ltuam  (Antwerp,  1628 ):.^(Miiaitff  PAOo. 
pom  M  cap,  I  GateM,  de  Mundi  CrecMone  Libri  IV  (Yi- 
enna^  1681) : — JExponHo  Grteeomm  Patrum  m  Ptalmot, 
JHgata  M  CttUnam  (Antwerp,  1648)  i—Jcb  Ehtddatus 
(ibid.  1646)  :—i8;yM(ofa  Gracorum  Patntm  m  Etftm- 
ffdivm  Mattked  (Tooloose,  1646,  1647)  :~i9.  CyrUli, 
Akaeandnm  Arekiqnscopif  ffoimUm  XIX  in  Jertmiam 
Propheiam,  Haetaatt  Inedita  (Antwerp,  1648).  See 
Hoefer,  Nomv,  Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. ;  JQclkerf  Allgemeine* 
Gdekrta^Lankcm,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Cord0fl,  EuiTCHE  DK,  a  Belgian  theologian,  was 
boni  about  1520  at  Antwerp.  He  entered  the  Bene- 
dictine order,  in  the  monaBterr  of  St.  Justin  of  Padua, 
of  the  congregation  of  Monte  Cassino,  was  elected  abbot 
of  San  Fortuoato,  near  Bassano,  and  was  invited  with 
this  title  when  he  assisted,  Feb.  26, 1562,  at  the  eigh- 
teenth session  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  being  one  of  the 
theologians  chosen  to  arrange  the  catalogue  of  suspi- 
cious or  pernicious  books.  After  the  close  of  the  coun- 
cil he  returned  to  the  abbe^r  of  St.  Justin,  where  he 
died  in  September,  1582.  He  left  in  MS.,  CommaUariu* 
M  Omaes  Epistolat  Pauli: — C<nnmefUariu3  in  SjfmbobiM 
Apottolorum: — DictwnaHum  BMicunu  See  Hoefer, 
Abarr.  Bioy,  GitUraU,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  Umcertdie,  s.  v. 

Cordio51ea  (from  cor,  the  heart,  and  co&>,  to  wor- 
ship) were  a  sect  of  Roman  Catholic  devotees  which 
arose  in  France  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century, 
profewDg  to  worship  the  sacred  heart  of  Jesus  and  the 
heart  of  the  Virgin  Mary.    See  Sacbed  HBJkirr. 

Cordier,  a  French  Jesuit  of  the  18th  century,  was 
ehancellor  of  the  University  of  Pont-k-Mousson,  and 
wrote  EciairciMtemaUM  tur  la  PrideMimUUm  (Pont-&- 
Mooasoo,  1746).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrakf  s.  r. 

Cordier,  Claade  Siinoii,  a  French  eodesiastie, 
canon  of  Orleans,  was  bom  at  Orleans  in  1704,  and  died 
at  the  same  place,  Nov.  17,  1772,  leaving  La  Vie  de 
SamU-Frimiot  de  ChoHtal  (Orleans,  1768, 1772).  See 
Hoefer,  JV^Ncv.  Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  UmoermUef  s.  v. 

Cordier,  Franpoia^  a  French  monk  of  the  Ora- 
tory, who  died  in  1693,  wrote  Vie  ^ Atme  da  Anget 
(Putia,  1694).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GintraU^  s.  v. ; 
Biog,  Umvereette,  s.  v. 

Cordier,  Jean,  a  French  Jesuit,  taught  rhetoric, 
philosophy,  and  theology  at  Rheims;  was  afterwards 
rector  of  the  college  at  Chalons,  and  died  at  Dijon,  Nov. 
22, 1678,  in  his  seventy-fifth  year,  leaving  a  work  enti- 
tled Famitia  Sancta,  See  Jochcr,  AUgmeinee  GeUhr- 
te^'LexitoKj  B,  v. 

Cordier,  M8tliiiriii,a  distinguished  French  priest, 
was  born  in  1479,  taught  languages  at  several  places  in 
Frsoce,  and  finally  in  Geneva,  where  he  died  in  1564, 
leaving  some  grammatical  treatises,  for  which  see  Biog, 
UmketroelU,  a.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhUrale,  s.  v. ; 
J5cber,  AUgemeinu  GeiehrUn-Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Liohten- 
berger,  Ewegdop,  dee  Seieneee  Reiigieueetf  s.  v. 

Cosrdiner,  Jaxks,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  de- 
gree at  King*s  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1808 ;  became 
schoolmaster  at  Gartly  in  1825 ;  was  licensed  as  an  as- 
sistant preacher  for  nine  years ;  presented  to  the  living 
at  Forgne  in  1834,  and  died  March  4, 1849,  aged  sixty- 
three  yearsL    See  Faeii  Eccks,  Scoticana,  iii,  656. 

Cordley,  CimiSTOPireB  Mimta,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Oxford,  England,  in  1821.  He 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  when  twelve  years  old ; 
graduated  at  the  Western  Reserve  College,  Ohio,  with 
the  highest  honors,  in  1844,  and  at  Andover  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  in  1847;  was  ordained  two  years  after 
in  Hopkinton,  N.  H.,  and  served  sucoessivelv  at  West 
Randolph,  Mass.,  in  1852,  West  Brookfiekl  in  1858,  and 
Lawrence  in  1862,  where  he  died,  June  26, 1866.  Mr. 
Gocdley  wis  a  man  of  great  mental  acuteness  and  orig- 
inality, sn  earnest  and  critical  student,  a  powerful  and 
pnogent  preacher,  and  one  who  deeply  sympathised 
with  the  people  at  large.  See  Cong,  Quarterly,  1867, 
11.374. 


Cordon,  Jamks  R.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  England,  March  7, 1885.  He  was  convert* 
ed  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  in  1858,  and  in  the  same  year  en- 
tered the  Detroit  Conference,  in  which  he  labored  for 
eighteen  years  with  general  acceptability  and  useful- 
ness.  He  died  April  18, 1876.  Wherever  Mr.  Cordon 
was  known,  he  was  regarded  as  a  devout,  earnest,  and 
successful  minister;  especially  in  the  Sunday-school 
was  he  greatly  beloved.  See  Afinuies  of  Annual  Cbn- 
ferenceey  1876,  p.  100. 

Cordona,  Juak  Bautista,  a  Spanish  prelate,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  centur}*,  wrote.  Be 
Dietgehie  (Tarragona,  1587)  :—De  Bibliotheca  Regia  8, 
LaureniU  in  IJitpania,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Gini^ 
rale,  a.  v-. 

Cordova,  Council  or  (^Concilium  Cordubenee}. 
Two  of  these  provincial  synods  are  mentioned : 

I.  Held  A.D.  847  or  348,  by  Osius,  bishop  of  Cordova, 
which  reaffirmed  the  action  of  the  Council  of  Sardica 
(Labbe,  ii;  Hardouin,i). 

II.  Held  A.D.  852,  by  order  of  Abderahman,  the  Mos- 
lem king,  who  caused  the  metropolitans  of  the  different 
provinces  to  assemble.  In  this  council  voluntary  mar- 
tyrdom was  condemned.  This  was  not  a  legitimate 
synod.  Eulogius  speaks  of  it  as  a  pseudo-council,  not 
gsthered  together  lawfully  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  col- 
lected by  the  advice  of  the  infidels,  and  by  order  of  a 
king,  the  impious  enemy  of  the  Christians.  See  Labbe, 
ConciL  viii,  76 ;  Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  s.  v 

Cordova,  Alfonao  de,  a  Spanish  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Salamanca  in  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. He  studied  medicine  at  Paris,  was  first  to  intro- 
duce the  doctrine  of  nominalism  into  the  University 
of  Salamanca,  and  died  in  1542,  leaving  Priacipia  Dia- 
lectieee  in  Terminoe  Suppositiones  Consequentias  (Sala- 
manca, 1519).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Cordova  (or  Corduba),  Antonio  de,  a  Span- 
ish casuist,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century. 
He  belonged  to  the  order  of  Minorites,  and  remained  for 
a  long  time  in  a  convent  at  Alcala  de  Henares.  He 
wrote,  A  nnotationes  in  Dominicum  Cotum  (Alcala,  1553) : 
— Expoeitio  Reguke  FrcUrum  Minorum  (Louvain,  1554): 
—Commentaria  in  Quatuor  Libris  Magietri  Sentential 
rum  (Alcala,  1569):— rra/<i(2o  de  Caaoe  de  Comciencia 
(Toledo,  1575):  —  Quoittionarium  Theologicum  (ibid. 
1578): — Additionee  in  Compendium  Privilegiorum  Fra- 
trum  Minorum  Alphonti  de  Casaruhios  (Naples,  1595). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Cordova,  Antonio  Fernandez  de,  a  Spanish 
Jesuit,  who  died  at  Grenada  in  1684,  wrote  Inttruccion 
de  Confeesoree  (Grenada,  1621).  See  Hoefer,  Aour. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Cordova,  Fernando  de,  a  Spanish  schohir,  was 
bom  in  1422.  He  distinguished  himself  by  the  extent 
of  his  knowledge  in  theology,  philosophy,  medicine, 
mathematics,  music,  and  in  the  languages,  as  Greek, 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Chaldee,  snd  was  also  familiar  with 
astrology,  as  well  as  acquainted  with  the  works  of  the 
scholastics,  philosophers,  and  physicians  of  Europe  and 
the  East.  He  had  8er%'ed  with  distinction  against  tho 
Moors,  under  the  colors  of  the  king  of  Castile,  John  II, 
went  to  Paris,  but  his  great  wisdom  caused  him  to  be 
regsrded  m  a  sorcerer,  and  he  repaired  to  Rome,  whero 
he  found  favor  with  popes  Sixtus  IV  and  Alexander 
TI.  He  died  near  the  close  of  the  15th  centur}',  hav- 
ing composed  a  number  of  works,  the  more  remarkable 
of  which  is  an  introduction  to  the  treatise  of  Albert  the 
Great,  Be  Animalibus;  this  was  published  at  Rome  for 
the  first  time  in  1478.  Among  his  productions  remain- 
ing in  MS*  we  cite  a  commentary  upon  the  Almagesta 
of  Ptolemy.    See  Hoefer,  A'ouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Cordovexo,  Moses.    See  Moses  CoRDOVERa 

Corella,  Jaime  de,  a  Spanish  theologian,  was  bom 
in  1657.  He  entered  the  Capuchin  order,  was  minister 
of  Charles  II,  king  of  Spsin,  snd  died  in  1699,  leaving, 


COREN 


112 


CORIO 


Mtihodua  qua  PiiMtime  Fiat  ExercUium  Vim  Baarm  (Sl 
Sebastian,  1689)  i—Clavis  Ccdi  (1694)  i^Praetioa  de  d 
Cct^estionare  (Pampelana,  TIASty.Summa  de  la  Theo- 
logia  Moral  (Madrid,  1707).  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog, 
GMraU^  a.  r. 

Ooren,  Jacx^ueSi  a  French  theologian  of  the  order  of 
Sl  Francis,  who  lived  in  the  early  half  of  the  17th  oen- 
tory,  wrote,  Clypeus  Patientia  (Lyons,  1622)  '.—OUerva- 
tiones  in  Evangdia  (ibid.  1027) : — Citfitat  A  vemanentis 
PettHeniia  Laborant  (Avignon,  1680).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog,  GMirale,  a.  v. 

Carentlnua,  SairUf  bom  in  Brittany,  is  said  to  have 
been  consecrated  bishop  of  Cornwall  (some  say  of  Quim- 
per,  in  Brittany)  by  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  and  therefore 
in  the  4th  century.  His  day  is  May  1  (others  give  SepL 
5  or  Dec.  12).  See  Smith,  Did.  of  ChriH.  Biog,  a.  v. 
See  CHOREimxus. 

CorentiuB.  See  Caremtxus;  Chobrxfiusl 
Corenzlo^  Belisabio,  a  Greek  painter,  was  bom 
in  1668.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  went  to  Venice 
«nd  entered  the  school  of  Tintoretto.  One  of  his  best 
productions  is  The  Mirade  of  the  Loavet  and  Fiihet,  in 
the  refectory  of  the  Benedictines,  which  he  finished  in 
forty  days.  He  painted  many  admirable  works  for  the 
churches  of  Naples.  Some  of  his  principal  pictures  are, 
The  Virgin  Crowned  by  the  TriniUg;  The  Visitation; 
The  Presentation  in  the  TempU;  Life  of  the  Virgin,  He 
died  in  1648.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts^ 
8.  V. ;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  y. 

Ooret,  Jacques,  a  Belgian  theologian,  was  bora 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  He  entered  the 
Jesuit  order,  and  became  celebrated  by  his  virtue  and 
zeal  for  souls.  It  is  said  that  so  many  wished  to  confess 
to  him  that  he  absolved  them  en  masse,  not  being  able 
to  take  them  singly.  He  died  at  Liege,  Dec  16, 1721, 
leaving  several  mystic  works,  under  the  titles  of,  Jour^ 
nal  des  Anges: — Maison  de  PJttemiti: — Le  Cinquiime 
Angede  V Apocalypse;  and  a  historic  work,  entitled  Vie 
d'Anne  de  Beauvais  (Lisle,  1667).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  GiniraUf  s.  v. 

Coret,  Pierre,  a  Belgian  theologian,  was  bora  al 
Ath,  in  Hainault,  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century. 
He  was  at  first  curate  of  St.  Crespin,  and  afterwards 
canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Tournay,  in  1674,  where 
he  died  in  1602,  leaving,  Defensio  Veritatis  (Antwerp, 
1691);  which  is  a  refutation  of  the  Discours  PoUtiques  et 
MUitaires  of  Lanone: — Anti-PoHticns  (Douay,  1699), 
a  work  especially  directed  against  the  Bepublique  of 
Dodin.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GSniraie,  s.  v. ;  Biog. 
Umverselle,  s.  v. 

Coret-y-Perls,  Cribtoval,  a  Spanish  theologian 
and  grammarian,  was  priest  of  Alboraya,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Valencia,  and  taught  Latin  and  eloquence  at 
the  episcopal  school  of  Valencia.  He  died  about  1760, 
leaving,  Explicacion  de  la  Syniaxis  do  TorreUa  (Valen- 
cia, 1712) :— iVbcAes  i  Dias  Feriadas  (ibid.  1760).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale,  a.  v. ;  Biog,  UmvtrseUe, 

8.  V. 

Corey,  Abel  Moaes,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  near  Fostoria,  O.,  July  28,  1838.  He 
experienced  religion  at  the  age  of  eighteen;  acquired 
a  good  academic  education;  began  preaching  in  1860, 
and  in  the  following  year  entered  the  Central  Ohio  Con- 
ference. After  laboring  in  obscure  places  several  years, 
he  was  elected  state  senator,  in  which  capacity  he  served 
with  much  credit  four  years.  In  1871  he  again  entered 
the  effective  itinerant  ranks,  and  continued  with  marked 
zeal  and  success  until  his  death,  Oct.  4, 1876.  Mr.  Corey 
was  clear  in  thought,  apt  in  expression,  generous  in 
sympathy,  self-sacrificing  in  labor,  and  strong  in  friend- 
ship.   Sec  Minutes  of  Annual  Coiferencesy  1876,  p.  106. 

Corey,  David,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  1797.  He  was  converted  in  1814;  soon 
after  began  preaching  in  northern  Vermont;  located, 
and  engaged  in  farming;  moved  to  central  Now  York, 


Joined  the  Oneida  Conference,  and,  after  three  years* 
labor,  went  west  and  entered  the  Illinois  Conference. 
He  became  a  superannuate,  and  died  Aug.  28,  1844. 
See  MinuUM  of  Annual  Conferences,  1846,  p.  686. 

Corey,  John  Bdwin,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Mansfield,  Mass.,  July  29, 1826.  He  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  College  in  1860 ;  was  ordained  in  1863 ; 
labored  as  an  evangelist  for  a  short  time  in  northern 
Ohio ;  preached  in  Massachusetts  in  the  following  places: 
Freetown,  Chesterfield,Yarmouth,and  North  Wrentham, 
at  which  latter  pUce  he  died,  Nov.  80, 1866.  Mr.  Corey 
was  an  indefatigable  student,  and  a  dear  and  logical 
thinker.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  nearly  ready 
for  the  press  a  Manual  of  Congregational  P<iUy  and 
Princqfies.    See  Cong,  Quarterly,  1867,  p.  201. 

Corgen,  Pirrrb,  a  French  theologian  who  lived  in 
the  early  half  of  the  18th  century,  belonged  to  the  dio- 
cese of  Quimper,  was  doctor  of  theology,  and  wrote.  La 
Dispute  Entre  le  Pape,  Saint-J^tienne  et  Sctinl-Cyprim 
(Paris,  1726)  -.^Dissertation  sur  le  Concile  de  Rimini 
(ibid.  1872)  :—Mimoire  Touchant  Us  Juges  do  la  Foi 
(ibid.  1736)  i^Sur  le  Monothilisme  etsurle  Sixiime  Con- 
cile Giniral  (ibid.  1741)  i-^Dffense  des  Droits  des  Eveques 
dans  TE^ise.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GhuraU,  s.  v. 

Corlxitll.  The  following  additional  particulars  con- 
cerning this  once  famous  city  are 'taken  from  Kitto^ 
Pict,  Bible,  note  on  1  Cor.  i,  1 : 

*'Thla  great  and  wealthy  cfty  was  the  metropolis  of 
Achala.  and  situated  npon  the  Isthmus  of  tbe  some  name, 
which  Joiiip  the  Peloponnesus  to  the  continent  Its  poei- 
tlon  was  hi{;hlv  favorable  for  that  commerce  which  nltl- 
mately  rendered  It  one  of  the  most  laxurious  cities  of  the 
world.  For,  having  two  ports,  one  of  which  was  op«i  to 
the  eastern  and  the  other  to  the  western  navigator*  while 
its  geographical  sltuntion  placed  it,  as  it  were,  in  the  cen- 
tra of  the  civilixed  world.  It  became  tbe  point  where  the 
merchants  from  every  quarter  of  the  globe  met  and  ex- 
chnnjired  their  treasures.  It  was  also  celebrated  for  the 
Isthmlnu  Games,  to  which  the  apostle  makes  some  strik- 
ing and  remarkably  appropriate  allnsions  In  his  Bplstlea 
to  the  Corinthians.  Nor  should  it  be  niinotlced  that  In 
the  centre  of  tbe  city  there  stood  a  famous  temple  of 
Venus,  In  which  a  thousand  priestesses  of  the  goddess 
ministered  to  licentiousness,  under  the  gnise  of  religion. 
From  such  various  causes  Corinth  had  an  Influx  or  for^ 
eigners  of  all  descriptions,  who  carried  the  prodnctioua 
and  the  vices  of  all  nations  Into  a  city  in  which  the  mer- 
chant, the  warrior,  and  the  seaman  could  have  them  for 
money.  Devoted  to  traffic,  and  to  the  eujoynient  of 
the  wealth  which  that  traffic  secured,  the  Corinthians 
were  exempt  from  the  influence  of  that  thirst  for  con- 
quest and  military  glory  by  which  their  nelghbora  were 
actuated ;  hence  tney  were  seldom  engaged  In  any  war 
except  for  the  defence  of  their  country,  or  In  behalf  of 
the  liberties  of  Greece;  yet  this  city  furnished  many 
brave  and  experienced  commandera  to  other  Grecian 
states,  among  whom  It  was  common  to  prefer  a  Corin- 
thian general  to  one  of  their  own  state.  As  might  be 
expected,  Corinth  was  not  remarkably  distinguished  fur 
philosophy  or  science;  but  Its  wealth  attracted  to  It  the 
arts,  wnicn  assisted  to  enrich  nnd  aggrandixe  It,  till  it 
became  one  of  the  very  finest  cities  in  all  Greece.  Tbe 
Corinthian  order  of  arcnitectnra  took  its  name  ft-om  that 
ricli  and  flowery  style  which  prevailed  In  its  sumptanna 
edifices.  Its  temples,  palaces,  theatres,  and  porticoes.  [Tet 
It  Is  noteworthy  that  no  specimen  of  this  style  of  archi- 
tecture has  been  found  there.] 

**  Corinth  still  exists  as  an  inhabited  town,  under  the 
same  name  Korinthoe,  It  Is  a  long,  stragi^llnff  plac^ 
which  Is  well-paved,  and  can  boast  of  a  few  Uilerabiy  good 
buildings,  with  a  castle  of  some  strength,  which  under  the 
Turkish  rule  was  kept  In  a  good  state  of  defence,  l^ere 
are  still  considerable  ruins,  to  attest  the  ancient  conse- 
quence of  the  city,  and  the  taste  and  elegance  of  Its  public 
buildings.  The  extensive  view  from  the  summit  of  the 
high  mountain  which  comronnda  the  town,  and  which  w'as 
the  AcrotMlis  (Acro-Corinth)  of  the  ancient  dty,  Is  pro- 
nounced oy  travellen  to  be  one  of  the  finest  In  the  world." 
(See  cut  on  opposite  page.) 

Corlo,  Hatmo,  an  Italian  theologian  and  mocaliat, 
a  native  of  Milan,  became  famous  as  a  preacher,  and 
was  appointed  oonsulter  to  the  inquisition  by  Ckmeiit 
IX.  sieveral  times  he  waa  offered  a  bishopric,  but  de- 
clined. He  died  Sept.  17, 1679,  leaving.  Epitome  Do' 
erelorum  Conciliorum  S.  Mediolanensis  Eodesim  (MiLan, 
1640) :— ^Afomiafe  Regulans  Dise^ina  (ibid.  1669):^ 
Concorditntia  Morales   in    Exodum  (ibid.  1666):— 


COKIOLAHO 


(ttMDj  or  tha  tolamni  biTt  hillcD  alDce  thli  Tien  km  Ukcs.) 


.  EpiKopomm  (ibiil,  I66S): — Coitmr- 
vmaa  jtoratKM  n  GmaiK  (ibid.  1G71) : — In  /^rifinin 
(ihiiLlETT):— /ii  Daltraumiam  (ibid.  1S8I):— VifiE 
Staaovm  Ha^iMmt  ei  Vrmundi  de  Coriit  (ibid.). 
St*  H(»r«r,  .VoKB.  fitcy.  Giairalf,  >.  t. 

Cortcdftuo,  Baitolommeo,  &  Bolognese  en- 
pirer,  Hiiid  acm  of  Criitoforo.  wu  burn  in  1&99,  and 
wB  inMnctcd  by  fail  bUitr  and  in  (he  wstiviBj  of  the 
Cincci.  The  following  an  hie  principal  plain :  81.  Jt- 
rtme  n  MeHlatiim  Brfori  a  Cmcija ;  Hentdiat  vilk  Ihe 
Sad  of  Ou  Baptat ;  The  Virgin,  irtfJt  Ike  Infant  Slrrp' 
■9.  HediedialSre.  Stt  Sfoonet,  Bioff.  Hill.  0/ tlit 
riKArU,t.v.;  Uodtr,Noar.  Biog.Ginirale,*.v. 

CorioUno,  Oiovannl  BatUsta,  ■  Bolognese 
painter  and  enf^rarer,  elder  biriiher  of  Banolommeo, 
■aa  boni  in  1589,  and  itudied  undei  Gia.  Lodorico 
TilcMi,  He  waienplaj^aoiiMwhatupon  thechuTch- 
a  of  BotagTuu  In  chs  Nuiuiata  ia  ui  alur-piecc  by 
thii  mnter,  repnaeDting  St.  Jahnj  St.  Jama,  and  St. 
StnanL  tie  did  not  atuin  niuch  diuiDction.  He 
died  in  IMS.  SeeSpooaer.Jiios.Hit'.ofllKFiniAni, 
».T.;  Hoefer,  JV'otir.fli(jj,GMrraif,«.v. 

Cocfolla,  Gaipaed  HoiroBi  ns,  ■  French  theo- 
logian, WW  bom  at  Aix  aboal  ITB6.  He  becime  »en- 
ioT  ekfk  at  tbe  parUament  of  Prorence.  cuion  of  Matie 
Dame,  and  ricU'gnicnl  of  Hcnde.  He  died  at  Parii, 
lb7M,m4,  leaving,  rnariibrJdnnufrafioaduCoin/i 
de  Prwaia  (Aix,  1788):— fferncei  dt  Piili  (|■*ri^ 
181G):— fief  Ckapitra  et  da  Dignlaim  (ibid.  1823). 
Be  alao  left  aeveral  USS.,  npeciaUj  A  brigi  de  riliatotre 
EaUnatlipit.     See  Hoefer,  Non.  Biog.  Gininle,  %.  v. 

Corker,  James,  an  Engliih  theologian  of  the  Ben- 
tdictiEW  Older,  who  lived  in  the  aecond  half  of  the  17th 
ceotinj,  wFotf,  Tht  Romm  Calkolie  Prindplti  (Land. 
Itfay—Slafford-i  ifanoirt  (ibid.  1082).  See  Hoefer, 
A«p.  Biog.  Giniralt,  t.  v. 

Corlatt,  JOHit,  an  Engiiih  Uetbodint  miniater,  vrai 
bom  DO  the  Itle  of  Uin.    He  wu  converted  ' 


11824,  a 


,  after 


1  brief  ■ppointawtit  to  Kendil,  entered  upon  miaaion 

Terk  in  Ncwfnundland,  where  he  labored  with  indefaii- 

pUe  leal  and  much  aucceaa  until  1830.     He  wai  Ibrn 

XIL— H 


Bahama  District,  and  there,  aa 
also  in  Darbadoca,  Demerata,  and  Antigua,  continued 
his  toil  with  unabated  deTotednen  until  IflAO,  when  he 
w HI  welcomed  back  to  Jamaica.  He  still  labored  abun- 
dai^tly  in  powerful  preaching,  in  prayer,  in  erection  of 
chipela,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel  into  neglect- 
ed lucaliiies,  becoming  a  supemumerxry  after  Stly  yean' 
miuionirrloiL  He  died  Aug.  6,  1877.  See  JfnDfct 
n/  Ihe  Brilitk  dm/ima,  1878,  p.  63. 

Corley,  Robrrt  J.,  ■  minister  of  the  Hethodiat 
Episcopal  Church  South,  wai  bom  at  Muianna,  Fla., 
in  1840.  He  served  in  tbe  Conrederate  army  during 
[he  war,  and  entered  the  Georgia  Conference  in  1866; 
became  luperannusted  in  1880,  and  relumed  to  his 
birthplace,  where  he  died,  March  17, 1881.  See  ifin- 
uttmf  Annual  CotifcTenoa  of  the  if.  E.  Church  South, 
leSl,  p.  S60. 

Cormao.    See  Coobhac. 

Comtaok,  Johm,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
brought  up  as  a  blacksmith.  He  gained  a  prize  at 
Edinburgh  University  for  the  beat  essay,  and  took  his 
degree  there  in  1803;  wai  licensed  to  preach  in  1804, 
and  ordained  usistsnt  at  Stow  in  IB07.  He  died  Dec. 
20, 1S40,  aged  sixty-four  years.  He  published.  A  Sir- 
mm  at  Iht  Optning  of  Ihe  Synod  { iH\0 )  :  —  Pa4torat 
lliali  to  hit  Parvhionert  (ISIS):— f'^uiry  into  lAn 
Doetrine  of  Ori^nal  Sin  iieU):— On  Volunlaiy  Church 
Auodalion  :—tUuitralioni  of  Faith  11839)  :—Jfmuiir 
af  the  Ra.  Wiiliaa  ^(ari.-— bewdea  many  contribu- 
tions to  tbe  EiiiAvrgh  Chriilian  Iniiractor.  Ue  also 
translated  fmm  the  French  FAnilon's  lAret  qfthe  A  n- 
ciaU  I'hiloiopitii  (1803,  2  vols.),  and  The  Church  of 
Rome  Kiumintd,  by  Dr.  C.  Malaii.  Dr.  Cormack  waa 
■n  ardent  student,  a  faithful  minister,  and  a  judicious 
friend.  His  fervent  piety  wu  enlivened  by  a  natural 
turn  fur  racy  humor.    He  formed  an  asaociation  fur  the 

iprovemcnt  of  servants  in  his  parish.    See  Faiti  Fc- 


dti.  Scot 


i,b3i. 


Cormaotia,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  probably  bishop 
of  Mortlach,  translated  lo  the  see  of  Dunkeld,  end  is 
itso  spoken  of  as  bishop  of  Aberdeen.  He  died  in 
1177.    See  Keith,  ScolUih  Biehopt,  p.  76. 


CORMAN 


114 


CORNELISZ 


Corman  is  thought  by  some  to  be  the  anstere 
deric  (called  by  others  PatUerius)  who,  about  A.D« 
685y  endeavored  to  convert  the  Northumbrians.  He 
18  commemoxated  as  a  bishop  and  apostle  of  Anglia, 
March  12  or  20.    See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Conniok,  Daniel,  a  Scotch  dergyman,  was  li- 
censed  to  preach  in  1888 ;  appointed  to  the  living  at 
the  South  Church,  Forfar,  in  1889,  and  ordained; 
joined  the.  Free  Secession  in  1848.  He  died  May  28, 
1848.    See  Fatti  Ecdet,  Sooticcm<By  iii,  778. 

Corn,  Allowance  of,  was  a  provision  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  dergy,  connected  with  the  early 
stages  of  the  recognition  of  Christianity  by  the  em- 
pire. Constantine,  in  his  zeal  for  his  new  creed,  or- 
dered the  magistrates  of  each  province  to  supply  an 
annual  amount  of  com  {Irfiota  oiTtipiiria),  not  only  to 
the  dergy,  but  to  the  widows  and  virgins  of  the  Church 
(Theodoret,  i,  11).  When  Julian  succeeded,  he  trans- 
ferred the  grant  to  the  ministers  of  the  heathen  cultus, 
which  he  revived  (Sozom.  r,  6 ;  Philostorg.  vii,  4).  Jo- 
Tian  restored  it,  but  on  the  lower  scale  of  one  third  of 
the  amount  fixed  under  Constantine.  The  payment 
continued,  and  was  declared  permanent  by  Justinian 
(Z>e  83.  Ecdet,  cod.  i,  tit.  2).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Chriat. 
Antiq,  s.  v. 

CORN,  Ears  of,  m  Christian  Ari^  is  not  so  frequent 
an  emblem  as  might  be  supposed.  See  Loaves.  The 
thooght  seems  to  have  gone  alwajrs  to  the  bread  of  Tife 
with  sacramental  allusion.  The  corn  and  reaper  are 
represented  in  a  compartment  of  a  vault  in  the  catacomb 
of  Fontianus.  Again,  the  harvest  com  is  opposed  to  the 
vine  and  cornucopia  of  fruit  (Catacomb  of  Callixtus). 

The  more  evidently  religious  use  of  the  ears  of  corn 
is  in  various  representations  of  the  fall  of  man.  On  the 
sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus  (prob.  A.D.858)  Adam 
and  Eve  are  carved— the  former  bearing  the  com,  in 
toHen  of  his  labor  on  the  earth,  and  the  latter  a  lamb, 
indicating  woman's  work,  spinning.  In  a  bass-relief 
from  the  catacomb  of  SL  Agnes  there  are  two  human 
forms,  apparently  both  male,  standing  before  a  sitting 
figure,  supposed  to  represent  the  First  Person  of  the 
IVinity.  This  may  represent  the  offering  of  Cain  and 
Abd;  at  all  events,  the  corn-ears  and  lamb  are  either 
received  or  presented  by  the  standing  figures.  As 
these  figures  are  of  no  more  than  mature  (even  of 
youthful)  appearance,  the  Second  Person  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  intended  by  them. — Smitlkf  Diet,  of  Christ, 
AtUiq,»,y, 

Comab,  Jean,  a  French  preacher,  abbot  of  Villd- 
vin,  was  a  man  of  high  standing  with  his  ecdesiastical 
superiors,  and  became  intimate  counsellor  of  the  duke 
of  Mayenne.  He  died  in  1614.  Historians  do  not 
mention  him,  and  his  works  are  unpublished.  The 
National  Library  has  four  large  volumes  of  his  Ser- 
pu>fu.  He  was  learned  in  ecclesiastical  history.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU^  s.  v. 

ComaBUB,  Melohiok,  a  German  Jesuit,  was  bom 
at  Brilon,  in  Westphalia,  in  1698.  He  was  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Toulouse,  afterwards  of  theology  at  May- 
ence  and  WUrzburg,  and  died  March  18,  1665.  He 
wrote,  Miracula  Ecdesia  CathoUca  Defensa :  — Manes 
Lutheri  ei  Calvini  JudiccUi:  —  Ens  Bationis  Luthero- 
CaMmcum : — Curriculum  PhUosophia  Peripatetuxe : — 
Mums  Papyrachus  PurgaiorO,  etc  See  Witte,  Dia- 
rium  Biographicum  ;  Alegambe,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum 
Societatis  Jesu ;  Jocher,  A  llg&neittes  Gelehrteti'Lexikonf 
8.  V.     (R  P.) 

Comara,  Carlo,  an  Italian  painter,  was  born  at 
Milan  in  1605.  He  painted  some  works  (or  the  church- 
es at  Milan,  one  of  the  best  of  which  is  an  altar-piece 
for  the  Church  of  St.  Benedict,  in  Pavia.  He  died  in 
1678.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Cinerakt  s.  v. 

Comara,  Flaminlo.    See  Corneuus. 

ComeiUe^  Jean  Baptiate,  a  French  painter 


and  engraver,  brother  of  Michd  the  Younger, 
bora  at  Paris  in  1646.  He  was  instmcted  by  his 
father,  visited  Rome,  where  he  studied  several  years, 
and  on  his  return  to  Paris  was  received  into  the  Koyal 
Academy  in  1676.  He^ied  in  1695.  Some  of  his 
works  are,  St,  Peter  Ddiveredfrom  Prison  ;  Christ  Ap- 
pearing to  St,  John;  The  Baptist  in  the  WHdemess; 
Christ  and  the  Samaritan  Woman ;  St,  Francis,  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  a.  v.;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Comellle,  Michel,  the  Elder,  a  French  painter, 
was  bom  at  Orleans  in  1603,  and  studied  under  Simon 
YoueL  He  executed  twdve  large  pictures  for  the 
churches^  and  was  one  of  the  twelve  original  members 
of  the  Royal  Academy  at  Paris.  Some  of  his  works 
are.  The  Holy  Family,  with  St,  Elizabeth;  The  Murder 
of  the  Innocents;  Christ  Appearing  to  Magdalene,  and 
The  Virgin  Suckling  the  Itfant  Jesus,  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1664.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GeniraUj  s.  r. ; 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arises,  y, ;  Chalmers, 
Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Comellle,  Mlohel,  the  Younger,  a  French  painter 
and  engraver,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  bora  at  Paris 
in  1642.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  soon  after  his  re- 
turn to  Paris  was  received  into  the  Academy,  painting 
for  his  reception-piece  The  Calling  of  Peter  and  A  ndrew 
to  the  Apostleship,  He  engraved  a  great  number  of 
plates,  among  which  are  the  following :  God  Appear^ 
ing  to  Abraham;  Ahraham  Setting  out  with  ids  Son 
Isaac  for  the  Sacrifice;  The  Conception  of  the  Virgin; 
The  Baptist  Preaching  in  the  Desert;  Abraham  SentU 
ing  away  Hagar;  Christ  and  the  Virgin  Appearing  to 
St,  Francis  ;  Jacob  Wrestling  with  the  A  ngeL  He  died 
in  1708.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Generate,  s.  v. ;  Spoon- 
er, Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  tie,  s.  v. 

Coniejo,  Damiano,  a  Spanish  theologian,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  oentun',  wrote 
Chronica  Seraphiea,  etc.  (Madrid,  1682-1698).  See 
Hoefer,  Nottv,  Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Comejo  {de  Pedrosa),  Pedro,  a  Carmelite  of  Sala- 
manca, who  died  March  81, 1618,  was  one  of  the  aioat 
famous  interpreters  of  the  philosophy  of  Thomas  of 
Aquinas,  which  he  taught  at  the  university  of  his  na- 
tive place.  After  his  death  some  of  his  lectures  were 
published,  under  the  title  Theohgia  SdtoUutica  et  Mo^ 
ralis,  etc.  (Bamberg,  1671),  preceded  by  a  biographical 
sketch  written  by  Sanchez  d'Avila,  bishop  of  Piacenza* 
See  Hurter,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s,  t. 
(RP.) 

Comeliana  was  a  name  given  to  the  andent  or- 
thodox Christians  by  the  Novatian  party,  because  they 
hdd  communion  with  Comelius,  bishop  of  Rome,  rather 
than  with  his  antagonist.    See  Novatians. 

ComellBon,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  was  bom  at  Nyack,  N.  Y.,  in  17G9. 
He  studied  under  H.  Meyer  and  J.  H.  Livingston,  and 
was  licensed  by  the  synod  of  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church  in  1791.  His  first  work  was  as  missionary  to 
the  northern  and  western  states  (1791-98).  From  i793 
to  1806  he  was  pastor  at  Bergen  avenue,  Jersey  City, 
and  at  English  Neighborhood,  Bergen  Co.,  N.  J.  In 
1794  he  visited  the  settlements  on  the  Delaware  and 
Susquehanna  rivers  (Hanover),  and  was  at  Bergen  arc~ 
nue  again  from  1806  to  1828,  when  he  died.  Mr.  Cornel- 
ison  had  a  noble  zed  for  the  gloi>'  of  God,  and  an  anxie- 
ty for  the  souhi  of  men.  He  took  great  interest  in  the 
colored  people,  many  of  whom  were  slaves,  and  opened 
a  specid  service  for  them  in  his  own  house.  He  formed 
them  into  classes,  teaching  them  to  read,  and  filling 
their  minds  with  Gospd  truth.  See  Corwin,  Manu€tZ 
of  the  Ref,  Church  in  America,  8d  ed.  p.  222. 

Comeliss  (or  ComellBsen),  Jakob,  a  Dutch 
painter,  was  bom  at  Oost  Zanen,  in  Holland,  about 
1470.  There  is  a  picture  by  him,  of  The  Circumcisiost^ 
in  the  old  church  at  Ilasrlem,  painted  in  1517,  much 


CORNELIUS 


115 


CORNERSTONE 


pTund;  and  a  DeseaU  from  the  Crostf  at  Alkmair. 
He  died  at  Amsterdam  in  1670.  See  Spoooer,  Bioff, 
HitL  of  the  Fme  Artt,  a.  t. 

Comeliiifl)  Sttini,  (1)  The  centurioD,  is  oom- 
meawrated  as  bishop  of  Oeaarea,  on  Feb.  2  or  Dec.  10; 
(2)  pope,  is  oommemoxated  as  a  mutyr  under  Deciui, 
on  Sept.  14. 

Comeliiis  is  the  name  of  several  other  early  Chris- 
tian notables: 

1.  The  fourth  patriarch  of  Antaoch,  A.D.  129-148. 

2.  Head  of  the  monastery  called  Mochanseos  (Je- 
rome, Op,  lit  86,  ed.  YalL). 

3.  A  oonTcrted  Manichiean  mentioned  by  Aagusttne 
(JEpiit.  259  [126] ;  ii,  1078> 

4.  A  mook  and  bishop  of  Forum  Comelii,  in  the  5th 
century,  of  noted  virtoe,  the  teacher  of  Chrysologus 
(Migne,  Patrol  Lot,  liii,  31).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog,  a.r. 

ComeUiis  (or  Oomara),  Flamlnioa,  senator 
of  Venice,  where  he  was  bom  in  1692,  and  died  in  1778, 
is  the  author  of,  Momtmenta  Eedesim  VenetoB  (1750, 
15  vols.)  :—Creta  Sacra  (1755, 2  vols.) :— fo^ena  Tor- 
ceUma  (1756, 8  vols.) :— CAtese  e  Momatteri  di  Venezia 
€  di  Toredlo  (Padua,  1758).  See  Winer,  ffattdbueh  der 
theoL  IM,  i,  870 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeine§  GeUhrten-Lexikon, 
SLV.    (a  P.) 

Comeliii%  Bamnel  (1),  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Devooport,  England,  in  1794,  and  came  to 
the  United  States  with  bis  parents  when  he  was  a  child. 
Eariy  in  life  he  Joined  the  Church,  in  Philadelphia,  of 
which  RcT.  Dr.  William  Staoghton  was  the  pastor. 
His  first  settlement  in  the  ministry  was  in  Norfolk,  Vs., 
where  he  remained  from  1817  to  1824,  and  then  took 
charge  of  the  Church  in  Alexandria,  sustaining  this  re- 
lation thirteen  yeark  He  was  next  pastor  of  the 
Choreh  in  Hoont  Holly,  N.  J.,  eleven  years,  a  part  of 
this  time  acting  as  agent  of  the  Colonization  Society. 
For  several  years  he  preached  in  different  places  in 
Michigan,  his  last  pastorate  being  at  Ann  Arbor.  In 
all  good  causes  in  which  his  denomination  was  con- 
cerned, Dr.  Cornelius  took  an  abiding  interest.  He 
died  in  1870.     See  Catbcart,  Baptist  Encychp,  p.  279. 

(J,  a  S.) 

Comeliiia,  Samuel  (2),  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
deigymao,  was  bora  at  Baltimore  in  1827.  He  was  at 
fint  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  but 
in  1867  connected  himself  with  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal, officiating  at  first  in  Severn  Parish,  Md.  In  1870 
he  was  rector  of  Sl  PauFs  Church,  in  Calvert  County; 
in  1878  he  removed  to  Baltimore.  He  died  in  October, 
1879.    See  Prat.  Epise,  A  bnanac,  1880,  p.  170. 

Comeliii%  Thomaa,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Nov.  12, 182^,  of  de- 
rout  Methodist  parents.  He  experienced  conversion 
in  bis  deventh  year,  and  in  1845  was  admitted  into  the 
Baltimore  Conference.  In  1848  an  attack  of  hemor- 
rhage of  the  throat  obliged  him  to  desist  from  all  active 
service.  He,  however,  recovered,  and  in  1850  did  reg- 
ular work,  until  hb  sodden  death,  Oct.  8, 1851.  Mr. 
Cornelius  was  a  young  nuin  of  great  promise,  intelli- 
gent, dignified,  and  becoming,  and  highly  exemplary  in 
hb  daily  life.  See  Jfinutes  of  Atmital  Conjferatets^ 
1852,  p.  12. 

ComelitUi,  'William  HoK  a  Blethodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  in  Clark  Counter,  Ind.,  April  4, 
1819.  He  removed  with  his  parents  in  early  life  to 
Kentucky,  where  he  was  converted,  joined  the  Church, 
and  wu  licensed  to  preach  in  1846.  He  was  received 
on  trial  in  the  Indiana  Conference  in  1849,  and  subse- 
quently served  the  following  charges:  Fredericksburg, 
He]lowviUc,LecsviIle,  Springville,  Bloomfield,  Sullivan, 
Mount  Veraon,  Cannelton,  Oorydon,  Paoli,  Ellettsville, 
Patnamville,  Cjosport,  Linton,  Harrodsburg,  Graysville, 
BrueeviUe,  and  Hymers.  He  was  superannuated  in 
ino^  and  removed  to  hb  farm  near  Linton,  where  he 


died,  July  81, 1882.    See  Mvmks  of  Annual  Confer- 
enees^  1882,  p.  808. 

Cornell,  Frederick  FrelinglinyBeii,  D.D.,  a 
minuter  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  son  of  Rev. 
John  Cornell,  was  bom  at  Allentown,  N.  J.,  Nov.  16, 
1804.  He  graduated  from  the  Coll^^e  of  New  Jersey 
in  1825,  and  was  licensed  by  the  presbytery  of  Newtown, 
Li  I.,  in  1829.  He  was  professor  of  languages  in  the 
College  of  Mississippi,  Natchez,  in  1828;  missionary 
at  Stuyvesant,  N.  Y.,  three  months  in  1829;  at  Colum- 
biaviUe,  in  1880 ;  Marshallsville,  N.  J.,  1881, 1882 ;  Mont- 
ville,  1898-85;  New  York  city,  ManhatUn  Church, 
1886-^ ;  Pluckemin  (Presby t«rian),  N.  J.,  1857-64.  He 
was  thereafter  without  a  charge  tiU  hb  death,  Aug.  7, 
1875.  See  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Rif,  Church  in 
America,  8d  ed.  p.  222. 

Cornell,  John,  a  minbter  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church,  was  bora  at  Northampton,  Pa.,  in  1774.  He 
pursued  hb  classical  studies  at  the  Log  College,  Pa., 
completing  them  with  Dr.  Wilson,  in  New  York  city ; 
prosecuted  hb  theological  studies  under  Dr.  J.  H.  Liv- 
ingston, and  was  licensed  by  the  dassb  of  New  York  in 
1798.  He  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  churches 
of  Allentown  and  Nottingham,  Pa.,  in  1800,  and  served 
them  for  twenty  years.  Hb  health  becoming  impaired, 
he  removed  to  SomerviUe,  N.  J.,  where  he  acted  as 
principal  of  the  academy  from  1821  to  1828.  He  re- 
moved, in  the  latter  year,  to  Milbtone,  and  died  there 
in  1885.  As  an  instractor,  he  was  noted  for  great  thor- 
oughness and  ability.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  clear,  dis- 
criminating, and  marked  by  sound  judgment;  hb  ser- 
mons were  instmctive,  methodical,  and  impressivei  See 
Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Bef  Church  in  America,  dd  ed. 
p.  228. 

Cornell,  Joaeph,  a  Baptbt  minister,  was  bora  at 
Swansea,  Mass.,  Feb.  11,1 747.  He  began  preaching  in 
1780,  was  pastor  at  Manchester,  and  at  Galway,  N.  Y. ; 
travelled  under  the  Blassachusetts  Missionary  Society 
in  New  York  and  Upper  Canada,  and  died  July  26, 
1826,    See  Sprague,  A  rmals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  vi,  269. 

Cornell,  William,  D.D.,  a  minbter  of  the  Re- 
formed (Dutch)  Church,  was  bora  in  Seneca  County, 
N.  Y.,  in  1884.  He  graduated  from  Rutgers  College  in 
1859,  and  from  the  New  Branswick  Seminary  in  1862; 
was  licensed  by  the  classb  of  Geneva  the  same  year, 
and  became  pastor  at  Minisink,  Sussex  Co.,  N.  J.; 
teacher  at  Freehold,  in  1868;  pastor  at  Woodstown 
Presbyterian  Church,  in  1864 ;  teacher  at  SomervUle, 
in  1868,  and  died  there  SepU  11,  1876.  See  Corwin, 
Manual  of  the  Brf,  Church  in  America,  8d  ed.  p.  224. 

Cornell,  William  Auguatua,  a  minbter  of  the 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  graduated  from  Rutgers 
College  in  1841,  from  the  New  Branswick  Seminary  in 
1844;  and  was  licensed  by  the  classis  of  New  Bruns- 
wick the  same  year.  He  served  the  Church  at  Athens, 
Greene  Co.,  N.  Y.,  until  1848 ;  Blooming  Grove,  Rens- 
selaer Co.,  until  1862,  and  died  in  August,  1876.  See 
Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref  Church  in  America,  3d  ed. 
p.  224. 

Corneo,  Giambattista,  an  Italbn  theologian,  was 
bora  at  MiUn  in  1607.  He  was  apostolic  prothonotary 
and  archivbt  to  the  archbishop  of  Blilan,  and  died  in 
1690,  leaving,  De  Sancto  Blasio  Sebaste,  in  Armenia 
(Mibn,  1645):— De  Sancto  Manricillo  (ibid.  1646):— 
//  Sacro  Chiatdo  (ibid.  1647) :^Kifa  del  B,  Gio.  An- 
gela Parro  (ibid.  1649)  :—Ongine  deW  Instituzione  delP 
Orazione  delle  XL  Ore  (ibid.  eod.).  Corneo  also  left 
thirty- two  volumes  of  MS.  upon  other  ecclesiastical 
matters.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ghhale,  s.  v. 

Comer-atone  is  the  first  stone  of  a  church,  prop- 
erly bid  on  the  north-east  side,  as  determined  by  the 
orientation  of  the  sun  on  the  day  of  the  feast,  or  patron 
saint.  At  Beaulieu  only  one  stone  was  found  on  the 
ground,  and  it  was  in  this  position ;  that  of  Avranches, 
the  solitary  relic  of  a  cathedral,  b  still  pointed  out    In 


CORNET 

iDodern  chorcbM  tb«  noM  pmniiH 
coner  !■  leleclcd,  ud  th<  comer-iuinc  ia  >  iqaue  block 
of  luiuble  lilt,  laid  at  the  angls  of  Ibe  topmoat  counc 
of  the  ronndatioa.  It  ia  ciutomaiy  to  boUow  it  out 
Id  ■  box-like  muiiier,  uid  to  depoail  wiEbin  it  memo- 
rial papent  eta 

Comet,  Niooi^B,  a  Fieueb  theologiaD,  vu  bom  at 
AmicDS  in  1692.  He  wa*  educated  iii  hit  native  oil; 
at  a  Jesuit  sebool,  made  doctor  of  Iheologf  at  Parii 
ia  1E26,  and  aflerwaidi  became  grand-mailer  of  the 
College  of  Naram,  and  ijmdic  of  the  faculty  of  theol- 
agy.  He  refiued  to  be  tbc  confenor  of  Kichelieu,  but 
corrected  tbe  MUhodei  de  Conlroitnt  of  that  miniMer, 
and,  it  la  asid,  compoMd  Iba  preface.  He  denounced  to 
tbe  faculty  of  theok^y  KTen  propoBitioDa,five  ofirbieb 
were  anenrarda  condemned  at  Rome  oa  extracts  from 
the  A  ugvitiniii  of  Janacniua.  Tbia  orlbodox  acal  ex- 
poaed  Comet  to  the  attacks  of  tbc  writers  of  Port  RoyaL 
He  died  at  Pari^  April  12,  1663.  See  Ilnefer,  A'aur. 
Bioy.  Giniraie,  s.  r. ;  Biog.  L'niccriflle,  a.  v. 

Comey,  GeOroe,  an  Engliih  Congregational  min- 
tster,  waa  bam  at  Keymer,  Suaaei,  in  ITM.  He  vai 
coarerted  itben  about  eleven  veara  old,  educated  for 
tbe  miniUiy  at  Hackney,  became  paitor  first  at  Crat- 
field  and  Newmarket,  and  eventually  at  Barking,  where 
he  labored  twenty-foor  years,  and  died  April  28, 1862: 
Hr.  Comey  waa  an  eameat  and  cnnacientioua  preacher. 
See  {Load.)  Cong.  Ttar-iooi,  1863,  p.  918, 

Comfoid,  Sahuel,  an  English  Baptiat  miniater, 
waa  bom  in  1792.  He  united  originally  with  the 
Church  in  HaidKone,  for  sereral  years  waa  pastor  of 
tbe  Indqiendent  Church  at  Harden,  but  returned  to 
Hiidsliine,wherehe  wasfora  time  paator  of  tbe  Third 
Baptiat  Cburcb.and  tben  of  the  Fourth  Baptiat  Church. 
HadiedDec.S4,18S7.    See  (hoaS.}  Baptif  aamUool, 

1S3S,  p.  m.   (J.  c.  s.) 

Comfortli,  Colombna,  a  Baptist  minister,  waa 
bom  in  Maine  in  1SB8.  He  was  converted  at  the  age 
of  eighteen,  rcoeiTed  his  collegiate  educalion  at  Union 
College,  Schenectady,  N.  T.,  and  his  tbeolc^cal  at  the 
Bochester  Seminaiy.  He  was  ordained  at  Smitbport, 
Fa.  During  the  late  civil  war  be  waa,  for  a  time,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  iSd  Pennsylvania  Regular  Volunleeia,  and 
was  eevemly  wounded  and  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle 
of  Frederickaburg.  Sulncquently  he  served  aa  chap- 
lain of  the  l!iOth  Pennsylvania  Toluntcem  till  the  ckne 
of  tbe  war,  and  then  twcame  inspector  and  examiner 
of  the  Soldiers'  Orphan  School  of  Pennyilvania.  In 
1879  he  removed  to  Kansas,  and  died  at  Clyde,  in  that 
■tate,  Feb.  10, 1SS3.  Seo  TAi  Ckicajo  Standard,  March 
1,1983.     {J.C.S.) 

Corafortb,  David,  an  English  Wesleyan  minis- 
ter, waa  bom  at  Brompton,  Yorkshire,  Oct.  30,  1786. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  entered  the 
ministry  in  1814,  and  died  OcL  3,  \9bb.  He  used  Xo 
picach  in  bams,  private  houses,  and  in  the  open  air. 
See  Mimta  of  the  Briliik  Co<^eeo>ei,  1856. 

Goniloe.  We  add  the  following  particulars  from 
Parker,  Giou.  of  Archittcl.  a.  v.: 

•'InCliurstcanliitecInreeacboribe  orders  hni  Ita  pe- 
culiar 


irapet,  altghtlj  prujectlog  fr 
ir  It,  aomellmea  plain,  so 


•uliy 


Corbel-table,  BL  Pater's,  Oxfixd. 


Early  Bo| 

table.  Tbc 


Dntalnlng  flowers  or  earrings,  eicepi  tbc 

beAKorotAl  stjla,  the  tomiee  Is  nsoalli  lerr  m- 
)d  tbooBh  Id  same  large  buildings  It  hai  KTcnil 
IS^  It  principally  conatris  iif  a  flop*  sbore,  mi  ■ 
ink  hollow,  wlih  an  ailngnl  nuder  It:  In  UieH 
flowenat  ragnlar  dlstanees  are  oRen  pISMd.asd 
large  bolldiugs,  and  lu  towen,  etc,  tbeie  are  Dt- 


Decorated  Camkc,  Irdiester,  i 
entlj  beads,  and  the  cornice  ainioet  fll 


ralea  may  alau  be  occaslonallj  mi 


balldlt      , 


atyle,  tbe  i 
IODldlne>,  a 


pncediugitjltsn 
sometimes  with  flgara  mi 


Perpendlcnlar  Cornice,  Enih  am,  c.  tUO. 
erolesqng  anlmala.  In  the  latter  end  of  thta  ■tTle.eome- 
Ihlng  verT  analognus  to  an  ornstnented  frieie  la  per- 
ceived, or  which  the  cannpiss  to  the  oicbee  In  Tsrlout 
works  are  eiamplea:  and  lUe  angela  so  proniseljr  intro- 
duced in  tbe  late  rich  work  are  a  sort  of  comic*  oras- 

Comldei^  Dakiei.  vok,  a  HanKirian  historian,  wss 
bom  in  1789  at  Sient-Uikloe,  in  the  Liptau  ptovincc. 
He  studied  pbiloaophy  and  theology  at  Erlangen,  and 
waa  appointed  teacher  at  the  Reformed  College  in 
Klausenburg.  He  accompanied  count  Teleki  on  bit 
travels  through  Italy,  Germany,  and  Fnnce,  and  the 
count's  son  to  Gottingen.  In  1781  he  was  appointed 
librarian  at  the  Pcsib  Unii'eraity,  and  died  Oct.  i,  1787, 
leaving,  Rrgnm  Hmgariar,  jwi  Satculo  XJ.  Jttgmtcm, 
Gtatalo-/ia  (Prcaburg,  1778):  — «i«ib/*mi  I/mgarWJ 
(Peti]i,  1791)  t—ComanilaiioJi  RcUgbme  Veltmm  Urn- 
garoran  (Vienna,  1791).     {B.  P.) 

Coming;,  WtLUAM  H.,nPreabyteriaii  minisur,wts 
bom  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1S22.  He  woi  educated  in 
bis  native  place,  at  Trinity  College,  waalieenaed  by  the 
Hartford  Congregational  Association  in  IS46,and  made 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  at  Clinton,  ilaas. 
In  1858  he  took  cbarge  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Whitehall,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  until  bis  death, 
Ocu  8, 1862.    See  Wilson,  Prat.  Alimaac,  1663,  p.  »1. 


CORNISH 


117 


CORNWELL 


Corniib,  Anidbmw  H.,  «  Protettant  Episcopal 
dexgjrman,  was  a  graduate  of  the  Genenl  Theological 
Semioaiy,  and  rector  of  St  Paurs  Chareb,  Pendleton, 
SL  C,  for  aboat  a  quarter  of  a  centtuy.  He  died  Hay 
U,  1975,  aged  sixty-two  years.  See  ProL  Epiac  At- 
maaae,  1876,  p.  149. 

ComlBb,  George,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  was  born  at  Bedrutb,  Cornwall,  Dec.  24, 1801. 
He  was  a  coppersouth  by  trade.  As  a  minister,  be  did 
not  exercise  bis  gifts  beyond  hb  own  society.  He  died 
Jan.  29, 1877.    See  A  nmial  Monitor,  1878,  p.  48. 

Comioh,  John,  an  English  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, waa  born  in  1687 ;  was  chosen  assistant  to  Joshua 
Bayes,at  the  Leather  Lane  meeting,  early  in  the  oen- 
tuiy,  and  eootinucd  to  minister  there  with  acceptance 
and  sncccas  till  his  death,  Nov.  28, 1727.  He  was  pious, 
serious^  wise,  pmdent,  and  useful.  See  Wilson,  Ditteni-' 
ixg  CkMTckn,  tv.  899. 

ComUh,  John  Coiyp  an  English  Methodist 
preacher,  was  bom  at  Bridgeruk,  Devon,  in  1819.  He 
was  converted  in  his  youth,  during  a  revival  among 
the  Bible  Christians;  became  a  clan-leader  and  a  local 
preacher,  and  entered  the  ministry  in  1889.  He  died 
at  Bridgerule,  March  17, 1840.  His  zeal  for  God  knew 
no  limit  except  that  of  bis  strength. 

Condflh,  John  Hamilton,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyinan,  was  bom  in  1815;  ordained  in  1842;  and 
from  1848  to  1868  was  rector  of  St.  Thaddeus's  Church, 
Aiken,  S.  C  In  1870,  though  still  residing  in  Aiken, 
he  performed  missionaiy  service  at  Kaolin,  and  con- 
tinnied  to  do  so  until  1875,  when  he  was  employed  as  a 
nussiooary  at  Barnwell  and  John's  Island,  in  the  same 
state.  From  1875  he  preached  at  Barnwell,  Toogoodoo, 
and  Pinewood  until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  Charlea- 
toD,  May  24^  1878.  See  Prot.  Epuc  A  Inuinae,  1879,  p. 
168. 

Comiab,  Joseph  D.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  Dnchess  County,  N.  Y.,  March  26, 1764. 
He  was  eonverted  in  1817,  and  moved,  in  1826,  into 
Chantaaqua  County,  where,  in  1827,  he  was  baptised, 
and  united  with  the  Free-will  Baptists.  In  1880  he 
commenced  preaching,  and  was  ordained  in  1886.  He 
died  at  Sherman,  Chautauqua  Co.,  Nov.  17,  1854.  He 
was  a  good  minister,  and  universally  beloved.  See  Free- 
wOr  Bc^Htt  Register,  1856,  p.  9.     (J.  a  S.) 

Comieh,  Semnel  B^  a  colored  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  New  York  in  1798.  He  was  licensed 
by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  Oct  81, 1819,  and  in 
1823  was  calieQ  to  the  First  African  Church  of  Phila- 
delphia, where  be  preached  for  some  years.  From  1845 
to  1847  be  served  as  a  missionaiy  to  the  colored  peo- 
^  of  New  York  city,  and  during  this  time  organized 
Emmannel  Church.  In  1855  he  joined  the  Nassau 
Presbytery  of  Brooklyn,  I*  I.,  where  he  labored  till  his 
death,  in  1858.  See  Wilson,  Preab,  BisL  Almanac^  1860, 
p.  69. 

Comon,  Jbaii,  a  French  martyr,  was  a  husbandman 
of  Maacon,  and  unlettered,  but  one  to  whom  God  gave 
such  wisdom  that  bis  judges  were  amazed,  when  he  was 
eondemiicd  by  their  sentence  to  be  burned  for  listening 
to  the  reading  of  the  Scripture,  in  1585.  See  Fox,  A  cU 
and  Ifomuments,  iv.  397. 

Coznu  Epistola  is  the  epistle  hom  of  a  Christian 
altar,  Le.  the  right-hand  comer;  so  reckoned  when  the 
looker  faces  the  western  side  or  front  of  the  altar. 


COBNU  EvAXOELn  is  the  gospel  hom  of  a  Christian 
sltar,  L  e  the  left-hand  comer,  the  looker  lacing  the 
aide  or  front  of  the  altar. 


Comtta%  a  presbyter  of  Iconium,  who  boldly  con- 
ff— d  himself  a  ChriMian,  and  was  beheaded  Sept.  12 
(his  festivsl  day),  apparently  under  Decius. 

CamwaU,  AleaauDider,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son 
of  Robert,  minister  at  linltthgow,  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1622 ;  odained  mtniater  at  Moinroiiaide  in  1627,  and 


presented  to  the  living  there  in  1638.  He  was  In  ne- 
cessitous circumstances  in  1689 ;  suspended  in  1640  for 
using  insulting  language;  and  resigned  in  1641.  He 
had  pecuniary  aid  ftom  the  Kirk-Session  in  1646  and 
1649 ;  became  a  schoolmaster  and  precentor  in  1650 ;  in 
1652  was  charged  with  marrying  and  baptizing  irreg- 
ularly, for  which  he  was  excommunicated.  He  was 
living  in  poor  circumstances  in  1659.  See  Feuti  Eede$, 
SeotieamBf  i,  194. 

Cornwall,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  pre- 
sented by  the  king  to  the  living  at  Lihlithgow  in  1626, 
and  died  in  April,  1646.  See  Fasti  EocUt,  Scoticana,  i, 
159. 

Cornwall,  Nathaniel  EUaworth,  D.D.,  a  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  at  Granby,  Conn., 
Feb.  6, 1812.  He  griuluated  from  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, in  1881,  and  from  the  General  Theologiod  Semi- 
nary in  1884.  From  that  year  to  1853  he  was  rector 
of  Trinity  Church,  in  Sonthport;  until  1855  of  St  An- 
drew's Church,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  in  1859  of  Christ 
Church,  Pelham,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  until  1862, 
when  he  removed  to  New  York  city,  as  rector  of  the 
Free  Church  of  St.  Matthias.  He  died  there,  Aug.  28, 
1879.    See  Prot.  Episc  A  Imanac,  1880,  p.  170. 

Cornwall,  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  at  Glasgow  University  in  1583;  was  appointed 
to  the  living  at  Ecdesmachan  in  1588 ;  transferred  to 
the  second  charge  at  Linlithgow  in  1597;  presented  to 
the  living  in  1699 ;  transferred  to  the  first  charge  in  the 
same  place  in  1608,  and  died  June  5, 1626,  aged  about 
sixty-three  years.  He  was  a  member  of  the  assembly 
in  li590, 1602,  and  1608 ;  and  was  nominated  constant 
moderator  of  the  presbytery  in  1606.  See  Fasti  EccUs. 
Scoticana,  i,  159, 162, 184. 

Cornwall,  William,  an  Irish  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  converted  at  an  early  age,  under  the  ministry  of 
Gideon  Ouseley.  Being  a  good  Celtic  scholar,  he  was 
appointed  a  missionary  to  the  Irish,  chiefly  in  his  own 
province  of  Connaugbt.  After  undergoing  numerous 
privations  and  hardships,  which  induced  premature  de- 
cline, he  became  a  supernumerary  in  1848,  and  died 
May  11, 1860.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference, 
1860. 

Com^^allia,  Frederiok,  an  English  prelate,  son 
of  the  first  Lord  Comwallis,  was  appointed  canon  of 
Windsor,  May  21, 1746;  installed  a  prebendary  of  Lin- 
coln, April  11,  1747 ;  consecrated  bishop  of  Coventry 
and  Lichfield,  Feb.  19, 1750,  and  appointed  prebendary 
of  London,  Nov.  8, 1760,  and  dean  of  London,  Nov.  14, 
1766.  He  was  enthroned  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Oct. 
6, 1768,  and  died  March  19, 1788.  He  published  sev- 
eral Sermons,  See  Le  Neve,  Fasti;  AlUbone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Cornwallia,  James,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom 
in  1748.  He  received  the  early  part  of  his  education  at 
Eton,  whence  he  removed  to  Merton  College,  of  which 
he  became  a  fellow.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the 
marquis  of  Townshend,  when  that  nobleman  was  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  on  his  return  therefrom  waa 
made  a  prebendary  of  Westminster  in  1770,  and  present- 
ed to  the  valuable  rectories  of  Wrotham,  in  Kent,  and 
of  Newington,  in  Oxfordshire.  In  1775  he  was  installed 
dean  of  Canterbury,  and  in  1781  consecrated  bishop  of 
Lichfield  and  Coventry.  In  1791  he  succeeded  to  the 
deanery  of  Windsor  and  Wolverhampton,  which,  in 
1794,  he  exchanged  for  that  of  Durham.  On  the  death 
of  his  nephew,  marquis  Comwallis,  without  male  issue, 
Aug.  16, 1823,  the  dignities  of  earl  Comwallis  and  vis- 
count Brome  devolved  upon  him.  He  died  in  1824. 
He  published  Sermons  (1777,  1782,  1811).  See  The 
(Lond.)  Annual  Register,  1824,  ii,  205;  Allibone,  Diet, 
o/BriL  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Comwell,  Francis,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
lived  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  He  was  educated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge;  was  an  object  of  per* 


CORN  WELL  11 

mcdUdii  at  the  bind*  ot  arcIibtihoi>  Ltud,  becmta  he 
objected  U  the  ■aTpIiee,  kneeling  at  the  Lord's  Supper, 
uid  miking  the  aiga  of  the  cram  in  biptjun.  He  be- 
cine  «□  KTDired  Bipdit  ibouC  1644,  and  published,  not 
long  aTtcr,  a  work  in  defence  oT  Ilia  principles,  eolitled, 
The  ViudiaUim  of  Ike  Kogal  Commitiian  of  King  Jaat, 
which  "cTMtad  much  excitement  and  lonie  wrath." 
He  gathered  a  company  of  ClirieUans  whoee  faith  was 
]n  ^rmony  vith  his  oirn,  and  liecame  their  pastor. 
Ifoal  ipealu  of  him  as  "nne  of  the  most  learned  dirines 
that  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Baptists."  See  Cath- 
cart,  Baplwl  Eiuyiop.  p.  280.     (J.  C  8.) 

Cormrell,  Walt*,  a  E*resbyterian  minisier,  vent 
to  Yale  College  from  Middletown,  and  graduated  in 
1782.  He  preached  occaHonally,  but  never  had  charge 
of  a  paiiih.  He  moved,  late  in  life,  to  lome  part  of  the 
atate  ol  Ohio,  where  be  died  in  March,  1816.  See  Old 
RtditoiK. 

Comwell,  'W.  Bi  ■  German  Reformed 
wa*  bom  in  Thiladdphia,  Dec  8,  1807.  In  early  life 
he  was  a  Preibytcrian.  In  !8SS  he  became  a  licensed 
mimater  in  the  German  Reformed  Church,  and  lAok 
charge  of  a  congregation  in  Manlgnmery  County,  Pa. 
Later,  he  was  pastor  at  Bdbmi  (in  Whitpaine),  Pleas- 
antville,  and  Whitemaisb.  In  I8S0  he  left  the 
Qerman  Church  and  was  immened  by  Rer,  Mr. 
Smith.  From  I8fi3  to  1857  he  was  pastor  of 
the  Baptist  churches  at  Norriatown,  Pa.,  and 
Bridgeton,  N.  J.,  and  later  at  Princeton.  He 
died  Haich  29, 1868.  See  Maibangh,  Falhtrt 
<iftlu  aem.Rff.  C*urnl,iii,488. 

Comya,  John  Kiskead,  a  Pnsbfterian 
miniater,  was  bom  at  Cirliale,  Pa.,  Aug.  16, 
IBIG.  He  graduated  at  JeSersm  Collie  in 
IB42,  and  was  a  student  in  the  Western  Theo- 
logicsl  Inatitute  for  three  years.  He  was  li- 
censed by  the  Presbytery  of  Allegheny,  April  3, 
18il>,  and  for  two  yean  supplied  varloui  church- 
es in  his  preabytet}'.  In  1847  he  entered  the 
Freshytery  of  Erie,  where  he  preached  to  the 
congregations  of  Sturgeonville,Girard,  and  Har- 
bor Creek.  From  1850  he  preached  in  sever- 
al places,  especially  at  Tro)',  Pa.,  but  failing 
health  soon  obliged  him  to  retire  from  the  ac- 
tive duties  of  tho  ministry.  He  died  Dec.  22, 
1B&3.  During  his  period  of  ill-health  he  pub- 
lished a  work  called  Didc  WUim,  or,  t)u  Rum- 
tOxt'f  VicHm.  See  HitL  oj  Ihe  Pmiglay  of 
Erie. 

CorAca,  a  martyr  in  Syria,  with  Vicler 
(q.  v.),  under  Antoninus^  ia  commemanled 
Slay  14. 

COT&na  ClsmcIlu  is  a  name  given  to 
the  bmtun  (q.  v.)  of  the  clergy  in  the  ancient 
Church, 

CORONA  LirciB  (cmni  of  light).  Crowns  of  candles 
ot  tapers,  or,  as  they  were  oflen  called,  pAnri,  in  distinc- 
tion from  amthari,  or  oil-limpe,  were  at  an  early  date 
toipended  in  the  cboir ;  they  were  circles,  covered  with 
tapers  or  lamps,  hung  by  chains  or  ropes  from  the  vault. 
We  eitract  the  following  account  of  them  from  Walcott, 
Sac.  A  rciaoJ.  s.  v. : 

"  At  Tours  a  standlDg  lamp,  with  three  Inpen,  Is  a  lin- 
gering relic  of  the  cnslom  In  France,  where  glass  Inilres 
are  now  common,  bnl  the  hnnging  crown  bus  been  re- 
vived In  BnglBiid.  AtAli-la-ChBpallelherel>(in  oclnEo- 
nal  crown  of  the  latter  pirt  at  the  lltb  cenlnrr,  which 
was  the  gift  ot  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbitouii ;  It  Is 


pope  Adrian,  was  hang  before  the  presbytery  of  Bt  Peter's 
at  Rome,  and  lighted  with  one  thousand  three  haulrsd 
and  seTCDtT  candles.  Conatantlna  gave  a  phinsof  (ol4 
to  bom  before  Bt.  Pater's  tombi  and  Leo  Itl  added  t 
lustre  ol  porptmr,  hong  bj  chains  of  jgoM,  to  bam  be- 
fore  the  conTes^  of  the  apostles,  fflilas  III  gm  i 
illTcr  phime  to  et  HairMaJori  HlUrj  prasaatea  i«  to 
SL  Jn£n  Lateraii ;  snd^  Walstrld  SlnSo  mentliHis  oge 
hanging  by  a  cord  befbra  Ibe  altar  at  St.  Gall  At  Dor. 
bsm,  in  the  llih  century,  we  read  that  In  bonor  ot  Bi- 
Calbbert  lights  were  arranged  like  a  crown  roond  tli 


dngle  boon 
.iiui  ui  uii  modes  of  II 
I  clond  of  Ore  before  ( 


altar,  on  Ibe  candelnbrnin,  and  llgfaiad  on  greslet  km. 
TSli.  This  I*  the  earliest  Instance  In  Engtaud.  Crawsg 
*  id  little  belli,  called  clamacleria,  pendent  from  Uktd. 
'-  — ina,  the  luminous  crown  or  drclet  of  llghli, 
Bangle  hoop  or  slier  of  msoj.ls  the  moat  tni- 
'  [btlUE— hanglDK  and  Aatblog  Ilka 
le  sanctuary  In  some  grand  cslbc- 
umi.  luLu  u  luiivci  guapended  In  the  midat  of  the  <Aah 
of  Sl  Reml  at  Rbelmti,  Clugny,  Tool,  snd  Bsrni,  mil 
represCD^luK  the  heaveuly  Jeraaslera,  wUb  Its  intEa  ud 
towers  and  angelic  warders.  The  crown  of  Hlldeabttm, 
of  the  Uth  cento  rj,  la  of  latve  dlmaDSUma,  and  Is  enrlcbed 
with  alalnes:  thuiy-ali  olf-lampa  bum  npou  the  dootila 
gateway  towers;  aerenly-two  wax  tapers,  arranitd  la 
threes,  bisie  on  the  Inlermedlale  battlemsnis.  Whea 
lliese  hundred  and  eight  llglll^  like  dlanonds  of  llrln; 
Bra,  are  seen  from  i  distance,  they  ttise  Into  a  dlak-Uke 
glory,  or  a  ana.  In  the  Oreek  cbnrcbe*  of  tbe  pmcpt 
day  there  la  often  a  wooden  cross,  bung  with  oilrlrb 
eggs,  suspended  from  tbe  dome,  which,  almost  In  mock- 
ery of  ancient  splendor,  la  furnished  with  lights  spoa 


was  the  sift  i 
made  of  Inn 


of  ti 


trlpledT  making  U  all  (ony*lglit  ..^..„    ,.  ..,.t.v-..  ™ 
descend  from  the  doms.  as  fiom  the  vault  ot  bearen, 

.V. .._..  -,  ^..._.(^  Another  crnwu  of  great 

uEDubj,  uiv  K"^ui  uuuop  Odn,  brother  of  Wllllnm  oT  Nor- 
mandy, edomad  the  choir  of  Bi  ...      .    . 


. jetomb  orcbsrlemi 

besnty,  iheglftof  Wabopt  _  _, 

mandy,  adorned  the  choir  of  Bsjeui,  ouilllta  deatruclloi 
lu  isn.  The  earliest  on  record  la  that  glTen  by  pnpe  Leo, 
wblcb  was  made  of  illTBr,  sod  bad  twelve  towen  and 
thlity^U  lampa.    Another,  ot  crHcilbrm  shape,  given  by 


, —  bnmed  before  Ihe 

_ les  in  tbe  centra  of  ibe 

cburch,  and  twelve  lights  on  the  aide*  uf  the  chancel- 
screans.    Tbe  llRbts  arrano*' 
only  snolher  form  of  tbe  cr 


I  typlBea  tbe  divine  gr 

,".K" :'"""" 

M ;  on  the  top  Is  tbe  Bleared  Mother 
.  the  Holy  Child,  and  under  them  ars  Bt.  Michael  and 
dragon.  A  tiimlnons  cro«  of  copper,  with  Inleieact- 
arrur,  and  olMsmps  hanglns  by  chalus,  of  the  ISIh 
Inry,  Is  suspended  nnder  the  done  of  8t  Xnrft 
nice),  and  la  lighted  on  great  festivals.     A  perpen- 


velve  the  Olorlona  Ccimpany  nV  tbe  Apostla. 
imnle  Charcb  (Bristol)  there  Is  n  iKantltul  ci — 


.  LUns 


opled,an<i  fun'r  tiers  otoraochea  (or  llgbto." 
CORONA  NL-mius  is  the  nuptial  crown,  i,  e.,  tjie 

wreath  or  ornament  placed  on  tbe  head  of  Ihe  bride  in 

the  Weslem,  as  well  as  on  the  head  of  the  bridegroom 
the  Eastern  Churab,  at  the  time  of  marriage. 
CORONA  VdtTva.    In  tbe  cariy  agca  of  ChrisLion- 
/  it  was  by  no  means  unuaaal  for  sovereigiu  and  otbel 

royal  penonaget  to  dedicate  theii  crowva  to  tlie  use  ot 


tbe  OiiiTtb.    The  gifts  thin 


maria,tB6 

chiim  icucbo]  to  their  upper 

rim,  ibove  in  iltn  or  duine, 


of  tbe  efaanb.    Other  chain 

wen  ittaehed  to  the  lower  rim,   j 

npporting  a  lamp,  from  whKh    1 

■BuaUy  depended  ■  jevclled 

CRM.  TbeoQwiwdcKnilha)  J 

nipeDded  above  the  altar  wai  l( 

fdt  to  be  wi  appropriate  n 

liol  o(  tbe  triumphs  of  Chris-  Peniile  Crown. 


thii  aitge  we  End  repeated  noiicn  in  ancient  cbroniclei 
They  are  luusllr  described  as  having 


Penrile  Crowns.    (From  biH-rellel,  CDtbsdral  of  Uaiu. 
er  tbe  altar,  and  Tcrr  freqoentlj  men. 
:  of  Jewelled  ctoaaei  sppended  to  Ibem. 
Tbe  cooTCDieDce  of  tbe  foimaflbeaedaDaliyacrowni 
(w  tbe  luapenaiaii  of  lamps  donUlna  gave  rue  to  tht 
(ntom  cf  oonstrnetiiig  large  cbandelien  aller  the  Hint 
model.     la  these  pennle 
luminaries  the  alispe 
character  of  tbe  rof  al 
de  was  preserved,  but 
quenttr  in   much   larger 


.  ,1. 

thoogb  sometimes  ua 

a  coFMUi,  was  mora  prop- 

eilj  a  Btanding  candela- 

brum  supporting  lampi 

candles,  which,  Trom  their 

VntflaCmni.   |From  Vo- namber  of  sB'e>tliii 

■afc  in  San  ApolIlDara      branches,  were  sometimi 

KooTO,  Harenna.)  „,i,j  oriorc*,  trees.- 

Sanlh,  Diet,  of  OruL  .,411^7.  s.  v. 

riBiiiH,  TilHllllllllll  DA  HuKABO,  an  Italian  pain 
B,  WM  bora  at  UoraDO  in  IMl,  and  gained  mttch  bj 


CORONATION 

idy  of  the  works  of  Titian  and  Tintoretto.    In 

the  Church  of  San  Fsntino  i>  his  ntaaler-piece,  repre- 

J  The  CTVeifixicn.     He  died  at  Tenice  in  1606. 

See  Uoefer,  ^okc.  Biog.  Gimirale,  s,  v.;  Spooner,  Biag, 

Ilitt.c/llie  Fmt  ArU,  I.  T. 

Corona,  IfBtthlAB,  a  Dutch  theologian  of  the 
order  of  Cannelito,  who  lived  in  the  latter  hair  of  the 
""  "  enturv,  wrote,  FolttUu  InfaUibilu  PttH  tt  Sue- 
im  Homanonim  Ponlificum  (Liege,  IG68)  :— />e 
Dignilalt  tt  FBlatatt  Spiriiaali  Epueoporuin  (ibid. 
ISTl).     See  Hocfer,  JVouf.  Biog-  GMraU,  s.  v. 

CoronK,  TobUa,  an  Italian  theologian,  originator 
of  the  "  Uilanew  "  monks,  entered  into  orders  in  1563, 
wai  confeaaor  or  cardinal  Juatiniani,  and  general  of  the 
commnuity  to  which  tic  belonged.  He  waa  sent  to 
Fiance  and  to  Savoy  by  pope  Gregory  XV,  and  died 
at  Naples  in  I6ST,  leaving  /  Soyri  Tempii,  etc  (Rome, 
16S6).     See  Uoefer,  Aouc.  Biog.  GMrale,  u  v. 

CoTOIUiall  was  a  lamentation  at  funerala,  formerly 
univenat  throughout  Scotland  aod  Ireland,  and  Kill 
very  common  in  parts  of  those  countries.  Combined 
cries  of  lamentation  were  intermingled  with  expoituta- 
tioM  and  reproachea  bestowed  upon  the  deceased  for 
leaving  the  world,  and  the  wailing  was  conlinunl  by  a 
train  of  females  which  followed  the  corpse  to  the  burisL 
The  okoKvyi)  of  Ibe  Greeks  and  vlulalui  of  the  LalilU 
deugnated  similar  practices  among  the  clanicalnaliooi; 
and  the  resemblanceof  these  words  to  the  common  Gel- 
tic  dies  on  funeral  occasions,  u^Aone  and  A ii"iiJu,  indi- 
cates an  etymological  affinity.     See  MouBX. 

Corooitl  Dl««.     See  Fsstival. 

CoToaktl  Qvatnot,  Lkqemd  ahd  Febtivai. 
OP,  i>  the  title  given  to  four  msnyrs,  Ssveriit,  Seve- 
r)anu^  (^rpophonu,  and  Yictorinus,  who  euffeied 
martyrdom  at  Rome  in  the  leign  of  Uiocletiin.  The 
tradition  respeclhig  them  is  to  the  effect  that  they  re- 
fused to  iscriflce  to  idols,  and  were  then,  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  emperor,  beaten  to  death  before  the  atatua 
of  fsculapiui,  with  scoutges  loaded  with  lead,  llie 
bodies  hiving  lain  when  they  died  for  five  diya,  were 
then  deposited  by  pious  Chriatiaiis  in  a  sandpit  on  tbb 
Via  Uivicana,  three  miles  from  the  city,  near  the  bodies 
of  fire  who  had  autfered  msityrdom  on  the  aame  day 
two  yean  before,  Claudius,  Nicoslratua,  Sy  mpbonianna, 
Castorius,  and  Simpliciui.  See,  e.  g.  the  Usityrology 
of  Ado,  Nov.  8  (Migne,  Palnl.  ciiiii,  892),  who  gives 
the  legend  more  fully  than  others. 

It  is  stated  by  Anastauni  Bibliothecarios  (ibid. 
cxxvili,  693),  that  pope  Honorius  I  (died  A.D.  638) 
built  a  chiiich  in  Rome  in  their  honor.  To  thia  church 
the  remains  of  tbe  martyrs  were  aubscquently  trins- 
ferred  by  pope  Leo  IV  (died  A.D.  B55),  who  had  been 
its  officiating  prieal,  and  who,  Snding  it  in  a  ven-  roin- 
oua  condition  on  his  ascenaion  to  tbe  pootificite,  re- 
ilored  it  with  much  aplendor,  and  bestowed  upon  it 
many  gifts.  This  church  was  Htualcd  on  the  ridge 
of  tbe  Ctelian  Hill,  between  the  Coliseum  and  the  U- 
teranj  and  on  its  aite  Che  present  church  uf  the  Santi 
Quatiro  Incoronsli  was  built  by  pope  Pascal  IL 

As  to  the  appointment  of  the  feativsl  of  these  maityn 
on  Kov.  8,  which  is  aaid  to  be  due  lo  pope  Helchjades 
(died  A.D.  311),  a  curious  difficulty  hat  ariaen.  Thus, 
in  the  notice  of  tbe  fcilival  in  the  editiona  of  the 
Gregorian  Sacramentaiy  (for  the  words  would  appear 
to  be  wanting  in  HS.  authority},  tbe  remark  ia  made 
that,  it  being  found  impoeaible  to  ascertain  the  nsCal  day 
of  the  four  marty™,  it  waa  appointed  that  in  their 
church  the  natal  day  of  the  Ave  other  saints,  near  lo 
whose  bodiea  they  had  been  buried,  thou  Id  be  celebrated, 
that  both  might  hare  their  memory  recorded  together 
iPalroL  Ixxviii,  li7)^^mith,  Did.  of  Chriil.  Anttj. 

CoTOnatioil  of  kings  and  emperors,  the  most  su- 
gutt  ceremony  of  Christian  national  lire,atrordB  a  strik- 
ing example  of  Ibe   manner  in  which  Cbriatianitj 


CORONATION 


120   CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT 


Early  ChriBtlan  Diadem. 


breathed  a  new  spirit  into  already  existing  ceremoDies, 
and  elevated  them  to  a  higher  and  purer  atmosphere. 
Under  her  iospiration  a  new  life  animated  the  old  form : 
heathen  accessories  gradoally  dropped  off;  fresh  and 
appropriate  observances  were  developed;  and  the  whole 
ceremonial  assumed  a  character  in  harmony  with  the 
changed  faith  of  those  who  were  its  subjects.  It  has 
been  remarked  by  Dean  Stanley  {MtmoriaJU  of  WuU- 
mmtler  Abbey j  p.  42)  that  the  rite  of  coronation,  at 
least  in  early  Christian  times,  represents  two  opposite 
aspects  of  European  monarchy.  It  was  (1)  a  symbol 
of  the  ancient  usage  of  the  choice  of  the  leaders  by 
popular  election,  and  of  the  emperor  by  the  Imperial 
Guard,  derived  from  the  practice  of  the  Gallic  and 

Teutonic  nations;  and 
(2)  a  solemn  consecra* 
tion  of  the  new  sover- 
eign to  his  office  by 
unction  with  holy  oil, 
and  the  placing  of  a 
crown  or  diadem  on  his 
head  by  one  of  the 
chief  ministers  of  relig- 
ion, after  the  example 
of  the  ancient  Jewish 
Church.  In  modem  times,  the  custom  has  been  kept 
np  of  calling  upon  a  high  ecclesiastical  functionary  to 
take  a  prominent  part  in  this  act  of  public  inaugura- 
tion of  a  sovereign,  in  all  the  countries  of  £uiope  where 
nonarohy  prevails.    See  Crown. 

CORONATION  of  the  Yiroxii  is  a  ceremony  per- 
formed annually  at  Rome,  in  which  the  pope  takes  a  oon- 
apicnous  part.  An  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary  is  arrayed 
in  velvet  or  satin,  adorned  with  silver  and  gold,  and 
trimmed  with  the  most  costly  lace.  It  is  gorgeously 
decked  with  necklaces  and  earrings,  and  bracelets  of 
precious  stones.  At  the  appointed  time  this  figure  is 
placed  on  an  altar,  in  a  church  hung  round  with  tapestry 
and  brilliantly  lighted.  In  the  presence  of  immense 
crowds  a  service  is  performed,  after  which  the  priests 
approach  the  image  and  crown  iL  In  the  course  of 
these  ceremonies  the  priests  bum  incense  before  the 
figure,  bow  down  before  it,  and  mutter  prayers  to  the 
Virgin.  In  many  respects  these  ceremonies  resemble 
those  followed  by  the  ancient  Romans  in  crowning  the 
statues  of  their  heathen  gods.  See  Seymour,  PUgrim" 
age  to  Rome, 

Coronel,  (}regor  Nunes,  a  Portuguese  priest 
who  lived  in  the  16th  century,  was  preacher  to  the  duke 
of  Savoy.  Clement  VIII,  whose  confessor  he  was,  ap- 
pointed him  first  secretary  and  consulter  of  the  Con- 
gregatio  de  AuxUiit,  His  treatise  against  Molina  is 
preserved  in  MS.  in  the  A  ngelica.  He  died  at  Rome  in 
1620,  leaving,  Z>e  Vera  Chritti  EccUsia  (Rome,  1594): 
— />«  Optimo  RepiMica  Statu  (ibid.  1697) :  ^  Apolo- 
geticum  de  Traditionibiu  Apottolicit  (ibid.  eod.).  Sec 
Ossinger,  BibL  Aug.  p.  636;  Lanteri,  Sac,  Sex^  ii,  280; 
Schmalfus,  Iliti,  Bdig,  et  Ecdet.  Christ,  v,  244  (giving 
the  substance  of  Coronel's  treatise  against  Molina); 
Keller,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchen-Lexikoiu  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Coronel,  Paolo,  a  Spanish  convert  from  Judaism, 
was  bom  at  Segovia  in  1480.  After  his  baptism,  in 
1492,  he  studied  theology,  and  was  appointed  professor 
at  the  University  of  Salamanca,  where  he  died,  SepL 
80, 1534.  He  was  a  celebrated  Talmudist,  and  deeply 
versed  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages. He  contributed  to  the  famous  ComplutenaUm 
Pofyglot,  See  FUist,  BibL  Jud,  i,  189 ;  Wolf,  Bibl.  11^, 
i,  966;  Jocher,  AUgemevm  Gekhrten^ LexUcon,  s.  v.; 
Lindo,  Hiit,  of  the  Jews  in  Spain,  p.  858.     (R  F.) 

Coronet.  This  ornament  first  appears  in  the  effigy 
of  John  of  Eltham,  who  died  in  1832.  The  addition  of 
a  marquis's  coronet  to  an  aichiepiscopal  mitre  does  not 
date  back  before  the  time  of  Sheldon.  Edmundson 
apeaks  of  it  as  a  novelty.   It  has  since  then  been  drawn 


as  a  ducal  coronet.  The  bishops  of  Durham,  who  took 
their  title  by  the  grace  of  God  or  by  divine  providence 
(in  distinction  from  other  bishops,  who  are  styled,  by 
divine  permission),  while  still  palatine,  until  1833,  used 
the  coronet  by  right,  or  in  lieu  of  it  a  plume  of  feathers. 

Coronidian  Maidens,  in  Greek  mythology,  were 
Metioche  and.Menippe,  the  daughters  of  Orion,  both 
endowed'  by  Minerva  with  wisdom  and  rare  beauty. 
When  their  father  had  been  killed  by  Diana,  a  pesti- 
lence broke  ouL  The  orade,  on  being  consulted,  de- 
clared that,  in  order  to  atone  to  the  subterranean  dei- 
ties, Aro  maidens  must  be  sacrificed.  Then  Metioche 
and  Menippe  offered  themaelves  as  victims,  but  Plato 
changed  them  into  two  comets.  A  temple  of  the  Coro- 
nidian Maidens  was  built  by  the  .Aolians, 

Corophltea  is  the  same  as  Agonittiei  (q.  v.). 

Corporal  is  a  word  used  in  the  Saeramendaria  by 
Gregory  the  Great^  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  in  the  capitu- 
lars of  the  Frankish  kings  in  800,  meaning  a  fine  linen, 
or  canvas,  cloth  of  pore  white,  according  to  the  Council 
of  Rheims,  on  which  the  sacred  elements  are  consecrated, 
and  hence  called  the  corporal,  in  allusion  to  the  body  of 
Christ,  of  which  bread  is  the  sacrament.  Isidore  of 
Pelusium  called  it  the  eiUion,  the  wrapping-doth;  and 
Isidore  of  Damascus  speaks  of  it  as  the  winding-sheet. 
The  centre,  on  which  the  chalice  and  paten  stood,  were 
qnite  plain,  the  ends  alone  being  of  ulk,  or  worked  with 
gold  or  silver.  It  was  ordered  to  be  used  by  pope  Sixtus 
I  in  125,  and  Sylvester  I,  dr.  314,  directed  it  to  be  of 
linen  and  not  of  stuff,  as  before.  It  was  also  known  as 
thej>a2^ret/,or  n'iicion,and  represented  the  fine  linen  in 
which  Joseph  of  Arimathca  wrapped  the  Lord*s  body 
in  the  garden  tomb.  The  altar,  by  canon  law,  had  two 
palls,  and  one  corporal  of  plain  linen  doth.  The  re- 
moval of  the  cloth  from  the  consecrated  dements  typi. 
fied  the  manifestation  of  the  mysteries  of  the  Old  Teat, 
by  the  death  of  Jesus.  The  earliest  corporals  covered 
the  entire  altar,  and  hung  down  at  each  side;  two  dea- 
cons were  required  to  spread  them. — Walcott,  Sac 
ArehaoL  s.  v.    See  Altar-cloth  ;  Amtim emsiiim. 

Corporal  Aota  op  Merct  is  an  ecdesiaadcal 
phrase  for  (1)  feeding  the  hungry ;  (2)  giving  drink  to 
the  thirsty;  (8)  clothing  the  naked;  (4)  harboring  the 
stranger;  (5)  visiting  the  sick ;  (6)  minutering  to  pris- 
oners; (7)  burying  the  dead  (Matt  xxv,  86;  Tobit  i, 
17). 

Corporal  Pnnjahmcmt  subsisted  during  the  first 
five  centuries  of  the  Christian  sra  under  its  most  usual 
forms,  as  a  social  degradation,  but  the  liability  to  it  was 
afterwards  greatly  extended. 

I.  Ctvi/.— The  equality  before  the  law  which  mi^fat 
have  been  reached  through  the  extension  of  Roman 
citizenship  had  been  by  no  means  attained,  but  the 
character  of  that  prerogative  itself  had  become  de- 
based,  and  the  exemption  from  corporal  punishment, 
which  still  fiuttered,  like  a  last  rag  of  the  toga^  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  dvic  officers,  had  already  been  blown 
off  for  some.  There  were  decurions  who  had  been 
flogged,  and  decurions  who  could  be  flogged.  Exemp- 
tion was,  indeed,  growing  to  be  a  privilege  attached 
to  the  mere  possession  of  wealth.  Thus  delation,  if 
proved  false,  or  where  the  delator  did  not  persevere, 
should  he  be  of  mean  fortune,  which  he  did  not  care 
to  lose,  was  to  be  punished  with  the  sharpest  flogging. 

Among  the  offences  which  entailed  corporal  puniah- 
ment,  besides  the  one  already  mentioned,  may  be  named 
false  witness.  The  use  of  it  multiplied,  indeed,  as  the 
character  of  the  people  became  lowered,  and  the  Novels 
are  comparatively  full  of  it.  The  eighth  enacts  flog- 
ging and  torture  against  the  taking  of  money  by 
judges;  the  one  hundred  and  twenty- third  punishes 
with  "  bodily  torments  "  those  persons*  especially  stage- 
playen  and  harlots,  who  should  assume  the  monastic 
drc«s  or  imitate  or  make  a  mock  of  Church  usages;  the 
one  hundred  and  thirty.fourth  enacts  corporal  punish- 
ment against  those  who  detained  debtors*  children  aa 


CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT       121       CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT 


fespooabb  for  their  talhtft  debt,  or  who  ibetted  illegal 
divones,  ind  requires  the  adoUenmi  wife  to  be  scourged 
to  the  quick.  On  the  other  hand,  a  husband  chastising 
his  wire^otherwiae  than  for  conduct  for  which  he  might 
lawfully  divorce  her,  was  by  the  one  hundred  and  sev- 
eoteeath  Novel  made  liable  to  pay  to  her,  during  oover- 
tan,  the  amocmt  of  one  third  of  the  ante-nuptial  gift. 
The  but  chapter  of  the  one  hundred  and  thirty-fourth 
Novel,  indeed,  professes  to  inculcate  moderation  in  pun* 
ishment,  and  enacts  that  from  henceforth  there  shall  be 
no  other  penal  mutilation  than  the  cutting  off  of  one 
hand,  and  that  thieves  shall  only  be  flogged.  Already, 
under  Constantine,  it  had  been  enacted  (A.D.  315)  that 
branding  should  not  be  in  the  face^  as  disfiguring  ^  the 
heavenly  beauty,"  a  law  in  which  the  influence  of 
Christian  feeling  upon  the  first  Christian  emperor  is 
strikingly  displayed. 

Passing  from  the  legislation  of  the  East  to  that  of 
the  West,  we  find  on  the  whole  a  very  similar  course 
of  things.  Among  the  ancient  Germans,  according  to 
tbe  account  of  Tacitus,  corporal  punishment  was  rare. 
He  notes  as  a  singularity  that,  in  war,  none  but  the 
priest  was  allowed  to  punish,  bind,  or  even  strike  a 
soldier.  A  husband  might,  indeed,  flog  his  adulterous 
wife  naked  through  the  streets;  but  otherwise  even 
slaves  were  rarely  beaten. 

Among  the  Anglo-Saxons  corporal  punishment  seems 
in  general  to  have  been  confined  to  slaves,  as  an  al- 
temative  for  compensation,  wherewith  the  slave  ''re- 
deemed** or  **  paid  the  price  of  his  skin,**  as  it  is  ex- 
pressed ;  e.  ^.  lor  sacrificing  to  devils  (A.D.  691-725),  for 
working  on  Sundays  (A.D.  688-728).  In  certain  cases 
of  theft  the  accuser  himself  was  allowed  to  flog  the 
culprit.  A  foreigner  or  stranger  wandering  out  of  the 
way  through  the  woods,  who  neither  shouted  nor  blew 
tbe  horn,  was  to  be  deemed  a  thief,  and  to  be  flogged  or 
redeem  himself. 

Capital  punuhment  is  again  prominent  in  the  Captt- 
ularias.  The  first  Capitulary  of  Carloman  (A.D.  742), 
imposes  two  years'  imprisonment  on  a  fornicating 
priest,  after  be  has  been  scourged  to  the  quick.  The 
Capitolaiy  of  Metz,  755,  following  a  ^nod  held  at  the 
same  place,  eiuusts  that  for  incest  a  slave  or  freedman 
shall  be  beaten  with  many  stripes,  as  also  any  "  minor  *" 
cleric  guilty  of  the  like  offence.  The  same  enactment, 
confined  to  the  case  of  marrying  a  cousin,  and  in 
stigbtly  diiferent  language,  occurs  elsewhere  in  the  gen- 
eral oonection.  A  savage  one  on  conspiracies  (A.D. 
805)  is  added  to  the  Salic  law,  enacting  that  when  con- 
spicaciea  have  been  made  with  an  oath — the  principal 
suffering  death — the  accessories  are  to  flog  each  other 
and  cut  each  other's  noses  off;  even  if  no  mischief  shall 
have  been  done,  to  shave  and  flog  each  other.  For 
oonspiracies  without  an  oath,  tbe  slave  only  was  to  be 
flogged,  the  freeman  clearing  himself  by  oath  or  com- 
pounding. The  same  law  occurs  in  the  General  Capit- 
ularies. Another  law  enacts  public  flagellation  and 
decalvation  for  the  slave  marrying  within  the  seventh 
degree  of  consanguinity,  and  there  is  also  embodied 
much  of  the  rigorous  Visigothic  Code  as  towards  the 
Jews,  who  are  to  be  decalvated  and  receive  one  hun- 
dred laahes  publicly  if  they  marry  within  the  prohib* 
ited  degrees.  The  Visigothic  provision  against  mar- 
lying  without  priestly  benedictions,  or  exceeding  in 
any  wise  the  laws  as  to  dowry,  is  by  this  extended  to 
Jews  as  well  as  Christians. 

IL  EedenastieaL — Here,  indeed,  we  find  at  first  a 
nrach  higher  standard  than  that  of  the  civil  law. 
Among  tbe  persons  whose  offerings  the  Apostolic  Con- 
atitotiofia  require  to  be  rejected  are  such  as  **  use  their 
daves  wickedly,  with  stripes  or  hunger,  or  hard  ser- 
vice." Soon,  however,  a  harsher  law  must  have  pre- 
vailed. The  Council  of  Elvira  (A.D.  805),  enacted  that 
if  a  miatreas,  inflamed  by  jealouay,  shotUd  so  flog  her 
handmaid  that  she  should  die  within  three  days,  she  is 
only  to  be  admitted  to  communion  after  seven  years* 
(unless  in  case  of  dangerous  iUness),  if  the  act 


were  done  wilfully,  or  after  fine,  if  death  wero  not  in* 
tended— a  provision  which  speaks  volumes  indeed  of 
the  bitterness  of  Spanish  slavery  at  this  period,  but 
which  nevertheless  shows  the  Church  taking  cognizance 
of  the  slave-owner's  excesses,  and  endeavoring  to  mod* 
erate  them  by  Its  discipline,  at  least  in  the  case  of 
women.  On  the  other  hand,  the  right  of  personal 
chaatisement  was  often  arrogated  by  the  clergy  them- 
selves, since  the  Apostolic  Ouions  enact  that  a  bishop^ 
priest,  or  deacon,  striking  the  faithful  who  have  sinned, 
or  the  unfaithful  who  have  dene  wrong,  seeking  there- 
by to  make  himself  feared,  ia  to  be  deposed,  and  Augu^ 
tine  clearly  testifies  to  the  fact  of  corporal  punishment 
being  judicially  inflicted  by  bishops,  in  a  letter  to  the 
pnefect  Marcellus,  in  which,  while  exhorting  him  not  to 
be  too  severe  in  punishing  the  Donatists,  he  praises  him 
at  the  same  time  for  having  drawn  out  the  confession 
of  crimes  so  great  by  whipping  with  rods,  inasmuch  as 
this  **  mode  of  coercion  ia  wont  to  be  applied  by  the 
masters  of  liberal  arts,  by  parents  themselves,  and  often 
even  by  bishops  in  their  judgments.*' 

Corporal  punishment  seems,  moreover,  to  have  formed 
from  an  early  period,  if  not  from  the  first,  a  part  of  the 
monastic  discipline.  The  rule  of  Pachomius,  tran^ 
lated  into  Latin  by  Jerome,  imposes  the  penalty  of 
thirty-nine  lashes,  to  be  inflicted  before  the  gates  of  the 
monastery  (besides  fasting),  after  three  warnings,  on  a 
monk  who  persists  in  the  "  most  evil  custom  "  of  talk- 
ing,  aa  well  aa  for  theft.  Cassian  (end  of  4th  or  begin* 
ning  of  6th  century)  places  flogging  on  the  same  line 
with  expulsion  as  a  punishment  for  tbe  graver  offences 
against  monastic  discipline  (some  of  which,  indeed,  may 
appear  to  us  very  slight),  as  ''open  reproaches,  mani- 
fest acta  of  contempt,  swelling  words  of  contradiction, 
a  free  and  unrestrained  gait,  familiarity  with  women, 
anger,  fightinga,  rivalries,  quarrels,  tbe  presumption  to 
do  some  special  work,  the  contagion  of  money-loving, 
the  affecting  and  possessing  of  things  superfluous, 
which  other  brethren  have  not,  extraordinary  and  fur- 
tive reflections,  and  the  like.'*  In  the  rule  of  Bene- 
dict (A.D.  528)  corporal  punishment  seems  implied: 
^*  If  a  brother  for  any,  the  lightest,  cause  is  corrected  in 
any  way  by  the  abbot  or  any  prior,  or  if  he  lightly  feel 
that  the  mind  of  any  prior  is  wroth  or  moved  against 
him,  however  moderately,  without  delay  let  him  lie 
prostrate  on  the  earth  at  his  feet,  doing  satisfaction 
until  that  emotion  be  healed.  But  if  any  scorn  to  do 
this,  let  him  be  either  subjected  to  corporal  punish- 
ment, or,  if  contumacious,  expelled  from  the  mon- 
astery.** Here,  it  will  be  seen,  corporal  punishment  is 
viewed  as  a  lighter  penalty  than  expulsion. 

In  the  lettera  of  Gregory  the  Great,  590-603,  the 
right  of  inflicting,  or  at  least  ordering,  personal  chastise- 
ment is  evidently  assumed  to  belong  to  the  clergy.  In 
a  letter  to  Pantaleo  the  Notary,  on  the  subject  of  a 
deacon's  daughter  who  had  been  seduced  by  a  bishop's 
nephew,  he  required  either  that  the  offender  should 
marry  her,  executing  the  due  nuptial  instruments,  or 
be  "corporally  chastised"  and  put  in  penance  in  a 
monastery,  and  the  pope  renews  this  injunction  in  a 
letter  to  the  uncle,  bishop  Felix,  himself.  Bishop  An- 
dreas of  Tarontum,  who  had  had  a  woman  on  the  roll 
of  the  Church  cruelly  whipped  with  rods,  against  the 
order  of  the  priesthood,  so  that  she  died  after  eight 
months,  was  nevertheless  only  punished  by  this  really 
great  pope  with  two  months'  suspension  ftom  saving 
mass.  Sometimes,  indeed,  corporal  punishment  was 
inflicted  actually  in  the  churob,  as  we  see  in  another 
letter  of  the  same  pope  to  the  bishop  of  Constantinople, 
complaining  that  an  Isauriairmonk  and  priest  had  been 
thus  beaten  with  rods,  **  a  new  and  unheard-of  mode  of 
preaching."  But  the  same  Gregory  deemed  it  fitting 
that  slaves  guilty  of  idolatry,  or  following  sorcerers, 
should  be  chastised  with  stripes  and  torturea  for  their 
amendment.  Elsewhere  the  flogging  of  penitent  thieves 
seems  to  be  implied. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  same  century,  the  sixteenth 


CORPORAX  CUPS 


122 


CORRARO 


Council  of  Toledo  (A.D.  093),  enacted  that  one  hundred 
lashes  and  shameful  deealvaHo  should  be  the  punish- 
ment of  unnatural  offences.  With  this  and  a  few  other 
exceptions,  however,  the  enactments  of  the  Church  as 
to  oorpond  punbhment  'chiefly  refers  to  clerics  or 
monks.  The  Council  of  Vannes,  in  466,  had  indeed  al- 
ready enacted  that  a  cleric  proved  to  have  been  drunk 
should  either  be  kept  thirty  days  out  of  communion, 
or  subjected  to  corporal  punbhment.  The  first  Council 
of  Orleans,  in  511,  had  enacted  that  if  the  relict  of  a 
priest  or  deacon  were  to  marry  again,  she  and  her  hus- 
band were,  after  "  castigatioo,"  to  be  separated,  or  ex- 
communicated if  they  persisted  in  living  together. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  7th  century,  the  Council  of 
Autun  (about  670)  enacted  that  any  monk  who  went 
against  its  decrees  should  either  be  beaten  with  rods,  or 
suspended  for  three  years  from  communion.  lu  the 
next  century,  Gregory  III  (781-741),  in  his  excerpt 
from  the  Fathers  and  the  Canons,  assigns  stripes  as 
the  punishment  for  thefts  of  holy  things.  The  Synod 
of  MeU,  758,  in  a  canon  already  quoted  in  part  above  as 
a  capitulaiy,  enacted  that  a  slave  or  freedman  without 
money,  committing  incest  with  a  consecrated  woman,  a 
gossip,  a  cousin,  was  to  be  beaten  with  many  stripes, 
and  that  clerics  committing  the  like  offence,  if  minor 
ones,  were  to  be  beaten  or  imprisoned.^Smith,  IHeL  of 
Christ,  AtUiq,  s.  v. 

Corporax  Ctipa  are  vessels  of  precious  metal,  sus- 
pended by  a  chain  under  a  canopy,  aiid  used  for  the  res- 
ervation of  the  encbarist  for  the  sick.  They  sometimes 
took  the  form  of  a  tiara  of  crowns,  in  allusion  to  Rer. 
xix,  12,  and  were  covered  often  by  a  thin  veil  of  silk  or 
mudin,  called  the  *' kerchief  of  cobweb  lawn."  At 
Durham  it  was  of  very  fine  lawn,  embroidered  with  gold 
and  red  silk,  and  finished  with  four  knobs  and  tassels. 
That  used  by  St  Cuthbert  formed  the  banner  carried  to 
victory  at  the  Red  Hills.— Walcott,  Sac,  A  rchaoL  s.  v. 

Corpreus.    See  Cairpre. 

Coipns  Christi  (French,  File  Dieu),  the  FeaH  of 
the  Bo£f  i)f  Chritty  kept  on  the  Thursday  after  Trinity 
Sunday  (or  the  octave  of  Pentecost),  was  instituted  in 
1264,  by  pope  Urban  IV,  for  a  procession  bearing  the 
encbarist,  with  an  ofiioe  and  prose  composed  by  Aquinas; 
the  office  is  also  attributed  to  Robert,  bishop  of  Liege, 
in  1249.  Colleges  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  bear  this 
dedication.  It  afterwards  became  the  chief  occasion  on 
which  the  mysteries  were  acted  by  the  deigy,  and  the 
miracle-plays  by  guilds.  The  mother  churches  began 
the  procession  on  this  day,  and  subordinate  churches  on 
or  within  the  octave.  It  was  an  immemorial  custom  in 
Spain  for  the  priests  to  carry  the  tabernacle  upon  these 
occasions  raised  upon  their  shoulders.  In  England,  on 
Corpus- Christi  day,  they  carried  the  silver  pyx  under  a 
canopy  of  silk  and  cloth-of-gold,  borne  by  fotur  men,  pre- 
ceded by  a  pageant — Ursula  and  her  maidens,  St.  George 
with  spear  and  dragon,  the  devil's  house,  Sl  Christopher 
bearing  the  Infant,  St.  Sebastian  pierced  with  arrows,  St. 
Catharine  with  sword  and  wheel,  SL  Barbara  with  the 
chalice  and  cakes,  followed  by  banners,  crosses,  candle- 
sticks, reliquaries,  cups,  and  images,  which  the  priests 
lifted  on  high,  while  before  them  went  many  sacring 
bells  and  musicians,  Su  John  pointing  to  the  Lamb, 
upon  which  two,  clad  as  angels,  cast  sweet-smelling 
flowers.  The  highway  was  strewn  with  boughs,  every 
wall  and  window  was  decorated  with  branches..  In 
villages  the  husbandmen  went  among  the  cornfields 
with  crosses  and  banners;  and  the  priest,  carrying  the 
blessed  bread  in  a  bag  round  his  neck,  read  the  gospel 
at  certain  stations,  as  an  amulet  against  the  wind,  rain, 
and  foul  blasts.'Walcott, SacArchaoL  s.  v. 

Corradi,  Domenico  (called  Ghirlandajo^t  an  em- 
inent Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Florence  in  1451,  and 
was  instructed  in  the  school  of  Alessio  Baldovinetti. 
Two  of  his  best  pictures  are.  The  Resurrection,  and  The 
CaUinff  of  St,  Peter  and  St.  Andrew  to  the  ApostUship, 
There  are  many  of  his  works  in  the  churches  of  Rome, 


Florence,  Pisa,  and  RiminL    He  died  in  1495. 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,t,y.;  Rose,  Gem. 
Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Corradi,  Ridolfi  (also  called  Ghirlandajo\  an  Ital- 
ian painter,  son  of  Domenico,  was  bom  at  Florence  in 
1485.  He  studied  under  Fra  Bartolommeo  di  S.  Marco, 
and  made  such  rapid  advance  that  he  was  intrusted  by 
Raphael  to  finish  a  picture,  begun  by  him,  of  the  Virgin 
and  Infant,  for  one  of  the  Sienese  churches.  Several  * 
of  his  first  productions  are  in  the  churches  at  Florence, 
viz.,  Santi  Girolaroo  and  Jacopo.  He  died  in  1560.  See 
Rose,  Gen,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Corradinl,  Piktko  Marckllimo,  a  learned  Italian 
antiquary  and  prelate,  was  bora  at  S«Bza,  June  2, 1658. 
He  became  an  eminent  lawyer,  and  was  afterwards 
canon  of  St.  John  Lateran,  and  finally  cardinal  in  1712L 
He  was  employed  in  several  diplomatic  embassies,  and 
died  at  Rome,  Feb.  8, 1748.  He  wrote  several  works  on 
ecclesiastical  jurispmdence  and  history,  for  which  see 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU,  s.  v.;  Jocher,  AUgemeines 
Gelehrten-Lexikonf  s.  v. 

Cerrado^  Carlo^  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at 
Naples  in  1698,  and  studied  under  Solimens.  He  paint- 
ed a  number  of  altar-pieces  for  the  churches  at  Rome, 
and  also  a  large  fresco  painting  in  the  ceiling  of  the 
Church  of  Buono  FratelU,  which  represented  Christ 
Glorified,  and  Surrounded  bg  his  Saints,  He  died  in 
Italy  in  1768.  See  Spooner,  Biog:  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
Arts,»,y,\  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Corrado^  Plrro  (Lat.  Pgrrhus  Corradus),  an  Ital- 
ian theologian,  bora  in  the  diocese  of  Rossano,  Calabria, 
lived  in  the  17th  century.  He  was  prothonotaiy  apos-> 
tolical,  canon  of  the  metropolitan  church  of  Naples,  and 
minister-g^eral  of  the  inquuition  at  Rome.  He  wrote. 
Praxis  Beneficiaria  (Naples,  1656) : — Praxis  Dispensa^ 
tionum  ApostoHcarum  (Clologne,  1672, 1678, 1716;  Yen- 
ice,  1785).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. 

Corrado,  Qointo  Maiio,  a  learned  Italian,  was 
born  at  Oria,  Otranto,  in  1508.  He  studied  at  Bo- 
logna under  Roroulo  Araaseo ;  entered  holy  orders,  and 
opened  a  school  in  his  native  place.  He  spent  some 
years  at  Rome  as  secretary  of  cardinals  Alexander  and 
Badia.  He  afterwards  taught  belles-lettres  at  Naples 
and  Salerao,  and  died  in  his  native  country  in  1575^ 
leaving  several  educational  and  other  works,  for  which 
see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirak,  s.  v.;  Jocher,  AUge^ 
meines  Gtlehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Corranua  (or  De  Coiro),  Amtonivs,  an  Italian 
Protestant  divine,  was  bora  at  Seville,  Spain,  in  1527, 
and  educated  for  the  Roman  Church,  but  went  to  Eng- 
land in  1570,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Anglican  Church. 
In  1571  he  was  made  reader  in  the  Temple,  London, 
and  afterwards  at  SL  Mary's  and  Hart  HaU,  Oxford, 
and  finally  prebendary  in  St.  Paul's.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don in  March,  1591,  leaving  several  Latin  works  on 
language  and  practical  religion,  including  notes  on  Can- 
ticles and  Ecclesiastes.    Seie  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet*  s.  v. 

Corraro  (Lat  Corrarius),  Antonio,  an  Italian 
prelate,  was  bora  at  Venice  in  1859.  He  was  one  of 
the  instituton  of  the  society  of  SL  George  in  Alga,  and 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Ostia,  and  afterwards  cardinal, 
by  pope  Gregory  XII,  his  uncle.  After  having  per- 
formed the  functions  of  legate  in  France  and  Germany, 
he  passed  the  Isst  yean  of  his  life  in  a  monastery.  He 
died  at  Padua,  Jan.  19, 1445,  leaving  some  works  on 
festivals  and  casuistry,  which  have  perished. 

Another  Antonio  Corraro,a  Benedictine  of  Venice,  who 
died  the  same  year,  had  been  bishop  of  Brescia  and  C^ 
neda.  See  Biog,  Umversdle,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Corraro,  Gresorio^  an  Italian  writer  and  eodcai- 
astic,  was  bom  at  Venice  in  1411 ;  became  prothonotaiy 
apostolic  at  Rome,  and  in  1464  patriarch  of  Venice. 
He  died  at  Verona  the  same  year,  leaving  aevaral 


CORREA 


123 


CORSE 


works  of  an  ethical  rather  than  atrictly  religioiu  char- 
acter, for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraief  a.  v. ; 
Bioff,  Umeenelk,  a.  v. 

Correa,  Diego,  a  Spaniah  painteryfloarished  about 
1550.  At  Piaoenza,  in  the  convent  of  San  Yincente, 
are  tiro  pictares  by  him,  representing  subjecta  from  the 
Lifi  of  tie  Virgm,  and  in  the  Madrid  Muaeum  are  aer- 
enU  pictares  representing  The  Passiofu  See  Spooner, 
Bioff.  Hist,  of  tie  Fme  A  rit,  a.  ▼. 

Correa,  Manoel  (1),  a  Portuguese  Jcsnit,  was  bom 
in  1G36  in  Sl  Paul  de  Loanda,  in  the  African  colony  of 
Angola.  He  went  to  Lisbon  and  entered  the  Jesuit  or^ 
der  May  31, 1651 ;  afterwards  taught  at  the  University 
of  Evora,  received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  1685,  and 
became  rector  of  tbe  University  of  Goimbra.  Being 
called  to  Rome,  he  waa  there  promoted  to  the  dignity 
of  provincial,  appointed  aasiatant  of  P.  Tyrso  Gonzalea, 
and  died  in  1708,  leaving  Idea  CansUarii  (Rome,  1712). 
See  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog»  GSnerale,  a.  v. 

Comea,  Manoel  (2),  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  was  bom 
in  1712.  He  entered  upon  the  life  of  a  monk  in  1729, 
went  to  Brazil,  taught  at  Bahia  and  at  Pemambuoo, 
hot  waa  arrested  in  1758,  for  an  attack  upon  Joseph  I, 
snd  sent  to  Borne,  where  he  died  in  1789.  His  life, 
written  in  Latin,  contains  interesting  particulars  upon 
the  religioua  institution  to  which  he  belonged.  See 
Hoefer,  A'oirr.  Biog,  Gmhrale,  s.  v. 

Coma,  Pelaglo  (or  Payo)  Peres,  sumamed 
the  P<niitgueae  Jot  Aiux,  was  bora  in  the  early  part  of  the 
13th  century,  aooordtng  to  some  historians,  at  Evora, 
according  to  others  at  Santarem.  He  entered  the  new 
order  of  St.  James,  and  was  soon  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  fonnidable  adversaries  of  the  powerful  Mussulmans 
in  the  Peninsula.  In  1242  he  was  elected  grand  master 
of  the  order,  and  at  this  time  the  Spanish  chroniclers 
give  to  his  history  a  truly  legendary  character.  In 
1248  he  aided  in  the  conquest  of  Seville  by  Ferdinand 
III  of  Castile.  When  Alfonso  III  was  securely  fixed 
upon  the  throne  of  Portugal,  he  called  to  his  aid  Correa, 
for  the  purpose  of  pushing  bis  conquests.  Correa  died 
in  127a.  ^  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog,  Giniralej  s.  v. ;  Bio^, 
Umcendkf  s.  v. 

Correggio.    See  Alleori,  AirroMia 

Conrespoxideiicea  is  the  name  applied  to  one  of 
the  principal  doctrines  which  Swedenborg  (q.  v.)  be- 
lieved himself  specially  commissioned  to  promulgate. 
He  taught  that  there  are  certain  links  of  harmony  and 
coneBpoadence  between  the  seen  and  the  unseen  worlds, 
so  that  every  object  ought  to  suggest  to  the  mind  of 
man  its  own  appropriate  divine  trath.  The  fundamen- 
tal idcft  of  his  system  was  that  matter  and  spirit  are 
associated  together  and  connected  by  an  eternal  law, 
and  all  analogies  were  converted  in  his  mind  into  pre- 
determined oorrespondences.  See  Vaughan,  iTovr^  wAA 
the 


Corrie,  Danikl,  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, was  bom  about  1777.  Having  been  nominated 
a  chaplain  on  the  Bengal  Establishment,  be  proceeded 
to  India  towards  the  close  of  1806.  His  first  station 
op  the  country  was  at  Cbunar,  where  he  was  soon  able 
to  q^eak  to  the  natives  in  Hindostanee,  of  which  he  had 
acquired  tbe  rudiments  on  his  voyage  out.  Benares 
hsd  alao  tbe  benefit  of  his  visita  and  ministrations. 
By  the  aaristnnce  of  friends  he  raised  a  small  church 
at  Secrole,  soon  after  another  at  Benares,  and  in  1818 
tbe  beautiful  church  at  Cbunar,  together  with  a  small 
chapel  at  Baxar,  to  the  poor  invalids  and  native  Chris- 
tisns  of  which  place  he  extended  his  labors  of  love.  In 
1810  he  waa  removed  to  Cawnpore  to  labor  with  his 
frioid,  Henry  Martyn,  and  continued  there  about  a 
year,  until  <Miged,  by  illness,  to  proceed  to  Calcutta. 
At  the  doee  of  1812  he  removed  to  Agra,  and  two  years 
later  returned  to  England  for  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
aad  while  there  waa  much  engaged  in  preaching  for  the 
Church  Miaaionaiy  Society  in  ^half  of  India.    On  re- 


suming his  miaaionaiy  labors  at  Benares  he  devoted 
much  of  hia  care  to  eatabliahing  schools  for  the  native 
Hindiis  and  Mohammedans.  In  1819  he  became  presi- 
dency chaplain,  and  in  1823  archdeacon  of  Calcutta; 
but  this  appoiutment  did  not. prevent  him  from  work- 
ing for  the  native  congregations,  besides  translating 
SeUon's  Abridgment  of  Scripture,  the  Prayer-book,  and 
many  of  the  homilies,  into  Hindostanee.  He  likewise 
drew  up  Outlines  of  Ancient  History,  in  English,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  native  youth.  In  1834,  after  a  sojourn 
of  nearly  twenty^ight  yean  in  India,  archdeacon  Cor- 
rie was  called  to  England  to  be  consecrated  bishop  of 
Madras.  He  returned  at  once  to  India,  but  died  Feb. 
6, 1887.  Bishop  Corrie  was  a  man  in  whose  character 
the  Christian  graces  were  beautifully  developed.  See 
(Lond.)  Christian  Remembrancer,  July,  1887,  p.  442. 

Corrlngton,  Elijah,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Harrison  County,  Ky.,  Jan.  28, 1797. 
He  embraced  religion  in  1827,  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1828,  removed  to  Jacksonville,  III.,  in  1830,  and  in 
1836  entered  the  Illinois  Conference.  With  but  one 
year's  exception  as  a  superannuate,  he  labored  zealous- 
ly and  successfully  until  his  second  superannuation,  in 
1868.  He  died  late  in  1868  or  in  1864.  See  Minutes 
ofAnnuai  Conferences,  1864, p.  191. 

Corrington,  Jamea  B.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bora  in  Kentucky,  Oct.  24, 1801. 
He  was  converted  in  1828,  licensed  to  preach  soon  after, 
in  1880  went  to  Illinois,  and  in  1888  joined  the  Illinois 
Conference.  He  k>cated  in  1842,  but  in  1847  was  re- 
admitted into  the  same  conference.  In  1849  he  waa 
appointed  presiding  elder  of  the  Sparta  District,  subse- 
quently filling  that  poairion  on  different  districts  with 
great  acceptability  and  usefuluess.  He  was  a  model 
presiding  elder,  possessing  great  executive  ability,  and 
being  peculiarly  adapted  to  that  work.  In  1872  he  be- 
came superannuated,  and  continued  in  that  relation 
until  his  death,  Nov.  15, 1880.  Dr.  Corrington  was  a 
delegate  to  each  session  of  the  General  Conference  from 
1862  until  1868.  He  was  a  man  of  marked  ability,  emi- 
nently popular  among  the  masses.  His  sermons  were 
clear,  eloquent,  fidl  of  pathos  and  power.  See  Minutes 
of  Annual  Conferences,  1881,  p.  828. 

Corrington,  'William  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  of  godly  parents  in  Kentucky  in 
1826.  He  removed  to  Greene  County,  III.,  at  the  age 
of  four,  with  his  parents;  experienced  religion  while  a 
student  at  McKendree  College,  where  he  graduated  in 
1849;  for  some  time  afterwards  was  tutor  in  that  insti- 
tution, and  its  financial  agent;  labored  as  a  teacher  in 
Chester,  Mount  Carmel,  Rockford,  and  elsewhere,  with 
marked  success;  became  president  of  Southera  Illinois 
Female  Seminary,  and  in  1861  entered  the  Southera 
Ulinob  Conference.  After  two  years  in  the  ministry 
he  again  resumed  the  presidency  of  the  college.  He 
subsequently  re-entered  the  regular  work,  and  after- 
wards became  presiding  elder,  which  position  he  re- 
signed but  a  few  weeks  before  his  death,  June  6^  1872. 
Mr.  Corrington  was  a  man  of  sound  sense  and  excellent 
Judgment.  His  words  were  few,  but  plain  and  practi- 
cal His  career  was  an  undoubted  success.  See  il/ti»- 
utes  of  Anmial  Conferences,  1872,  p.  186. 

Corrody  is  (1)  a  payment,  in  kind  or  money,  made 
by  a  monastery  to  the  nominee  of  a  benefactor,  who 
had  tbe  right  of  appointing  often  an  indefinite  number 
of  such  persons;  (2)  an  allowance  by  a  monastery  to 
servants  or  outside  persons. 

Corsawr,  John,  a  Scotch  clerg}'man,  took  his  de- 
gree at  tbe  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1661,  had  a 
unanimous  call  by  the  parishioners  to  the  living  at 
South  Leith  in  1664,  and  was  transferred  to  Dalgety  in 
1669.  He  died  May  20, 1680,  aged  thirty-seven  years. 
See  Fasti  EccUs,  Scoticana,  i,  105 ;  ii,  589. 

Corae  is  a  pUited  or  woven  silk  ribbon,  used  as  an 
oraament  of  vestments. 


CORSE 


124 


CORTE 


Corse,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  clcigyman,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1788;  called  to  the  living  at  Aber- 
njrte  in  1789,  and  ordained.  He  died  Jan.  26,  1764. 
See  Fasti  Ecdet,  SeoticoMj  iii,  702. 

Corse,  David  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  ap- 
pointed minister  at  the  second  charge,  Aberdeen,  in 
1704,  and  transferred  to  the  first  charge  in  1706.  He 
died  before  Oct.  28, 1712.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana, 
iii,  486, 487. 

Corse,  David  (2),  a  Scotch  cleig}*man,  took  his 
degree  at  King*s  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1726;  was  as- 
sistant minister  at  Dunnottar,  and  appointed  to  that 
living  in  1734;  ordained  in  1786.  He  died  in  Febru- 
ary, 1736,  aged  thirty  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoti- 
cantSf  iii,  862. 

Corse,  Hugh,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  studied  at 
Glasgow  University ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1701 ; 
appointed  to  the  living  at  Bower  the  same  year,  and 
ordained.  He  died  July  6, 1738,  aged  sixty-two  years. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scaticana,  iii,  367. 

Corse,  John,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1737 ;  appointed  to  GoriMds  Chapel 
of  Ease,  Glasgow,  in  1789;  called  to  Tron  Church  as 
assistant  minister  in  1743,  and  ordained.  He  died  Feb. 
6, 1782,  aged  sixty-seven  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Soo- 
iicaiuBf  ii,  12. 

Corser,  Enoch,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bom 
at  Boscawen,  N.  H.,  Jan.  2, 1787.  He  attended  the  acad- 
emy in  Salisbury,  and  in  1811  graduated  from  Middle* 
bury  College.  For  three  yean  he  taught  school  in 
Danvers,  Mass. ;  commenced  the  study  of  divinity  in 
Hay,  1814,  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Harris,  of  Dunbarton, 
and  was  licensed  in  1816  by  the  Hopkinton  Associa- 
tion. After  preaching  in  Middleton,  Mass.,  and  Cole- 
brook,  N.  H.,  be  was  invited  to  London,  where  he  was 
ordained  as  pastor,  March  17,  1817.  His  labors  here 
were  attendeid  with  great  success,  and  ended  Dec.  18, 
1837.  At  Sanbomton  Bridge  he  preached  for  nearly 
six  years,  and  in  May,  1848,  began  service  as  stated 
supply  to  the  Church  at  Plymouth.  He  held  the  same 
relation  to  the  Church  in  Epping  for  three  yeats,  from 
May,  1846,  after  which  he  removed  to  Boscawen.  Dur- 
ing the  two  years  following  he  supplied,  for  short  peri- 
ods, the  churches  in  Fisherville,  Henniker,  and  Warner. 
At  this  time  he  was  compelled  to  relinquish  ministerial 
labors  for  several  years,  on  account  of  an  attack  of  palsy ; 
but  in  August,  1867,  he  began  service  at  Loudon,  which 
continued  until  his  death,  June  17, 1868.  See  Cong, 
Quarterly,  1869,  p.  286. 

Corsfoos,  a  presbyter,  is  honored  June  80  as  a 
Christian  martyr  in  Africa. 

Corslnl,  Andrea,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  was  bom 
at  Florence,  Nov.  30, 1802.  He  entered  the  order  of 
Carmelites  in  1319,  was  ordained  priest  in  1328,  and  be- 
came distinguished  by  his  sermons,  and  still  more  by 
the  sanctity  of  his  life.  According  to  the  BMiotk^que 
Saerie^  he  was  made  bishop  of  Fiesole  in  1369  or  1360, 
in  spite  of  his  efforts  to  avoid  it-,  and  bis  life  was  one 
of  deep  humility.  He  was  sent  as  legate  to  Bologna 
by  pope  Urban  Y,  and  appeased  the  seditions  which 
disturbed  that  city.  He  died  Jan.  6, 1373,  and  is  com- 
memorated on  Feb.  4.  Urban  YIU  canonized  him.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraUf  s.  v. 

Corslni,  Lorenzo.    See  Clemeht  XH. 

Corslnus.    See  CoRvnnia. 

Coxsned  (from  kur,  trial,  and  snad,  a  slice)  was  an 
ordeal  among  the  Saxons,  mentioned  as  early  as  1016, 
consisted  of  eating  barley-bread  and  cheese,  over  which 
prayers  had  been  said  by  the  priest.  The  eater,  if  guilty, 
was  expected  to  be  choked  by  the  moraeL  It  is  supposed 
that  this  ceremony  was  invented  in  the  early  ages  of 
Christianity  from  a  presumptuous  use  of  the  consecrated 
elements,  and  that  the  Saxon  corsned  was  actually  the 
sacramental  bread.    The  custom  long  since  fell  into 


disuse,  though  traces  of  it  still  exist  in  certain  phrases 
of  abjuration  in  use  among  certain  classes,  such  as  ''I 
will  take  the  sacrament  upon  it,"  ''May  this  morsel  be 
my  last."    See  OmmAU 

Corso,  Olovannl  Vlnoente,  a  Neapolitan  paint- 
er, was  bom  about  1490.  He  studied  under  Giovanni 
Antonio  Amato,  and  afterwards  entered  the  school  of 
Fierino  del  Vaga,  at  Rome.  Most  of  his  woiks  in  the 
churches  at  Naples  have  been  retouched.  The  best 
preserved  are  an  admirable  picture  of  Christ  Bearimg 
his  Cnwf,with  many  figures,  in  San  ]>omenieo,and  The 
Adoration  of  the  Magi,  in  San  Lorenco.  He  died  at 
Rome  in  1646.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  BisL  of  the  Fine 
Arts,%.x.\  Bryan,  DidU  of  Painters  and  Engravers  (ed. 
Graves),  s.  v. 

Corso,  NlCGOlo,  a  Genoese  painter,  flourished 
about  1603.  His  works  are  chiefly  in  the  cloister  and 
refectory  of  the  monastery  of  the  Olivetani  at  Quarto, 
near  Genoa.  The  most  esteemed  is  a  picture  from  the 
life  of  St.  Benedict  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  Arts^uv, 

Corson,  Charles  "Wesley,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  at  Beealey's  Point,  Cape  May 
Co.,  N.  J.,  Sept.  19, 1838.  He  was  converted  in  186^ 
and  in  1872  joined  the  Genesee  Conference,  being  or- 
dained deacon  the  same  year,  and  elder  two  yean  after. 
He  served  successfully  Chili,  Walworth,  and  Penfield 
(all  in  New  York).  In  1880  he  was  appointed  to  Pntts- 
burg,  where  he  died,  Jan.  26, 1881.  He  was  a  man  of 
sympathetic  nature  and  true  piety,  arduous  and  faith- 
ful in  his  laborsi  See  Minutes  ofAnmuU  Conferences, 
1881,  p.  828. 

Corson,  Robert,  a  Canadian  Methodist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Clinton,  Out,  Sept.  12, 1798.  In  the  war 
of  1812  he  served  at  the  battles  of  Stony  Greek, 
Queenston  Heights,  and  Lundy's  Lane.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1817,  sent  out  to  preach  in  1822,  ordained  in 
1826,  became  superannuated  in  1868,  still  continoed 
abundant  in  labors,  and  died  at  CainsviUe,  Ont.,  Oct. 
8, 1878.  Mr.  Corson  had  poor  fare,  poor  pay,  but  tire- 
less energy.  He  would  preach  forty  sermons  a  month. 
He  smiled  at  toil,  hardship,  and  danger.  His  lore  of 
preaching  was  marvellous;  it  was  a  passion,  an  enthu- 
siasm, an  inspiration.  See  Minutes  of  London  (OnL) 
Coiiference,  1879,  p.  26. 

Cort,  CoRNEUcs  (in  Italy,  Comdio  Fuorm^o),  an 
eminent  Dutch  engraver,  was  bom  at  Hoora  in  1538 
or  1686,  and  was  probably  instracted  by  Jerome  Code 
He  afterwards  established  a  famous  school  at  fiome, 
where  he  died  in  1678.  The  following  are  some  of  his 
numerous  prints  from  different  masters :  A  dam  and  Eve^ 
with  the  Serpent;  The  Resurrection;  The  Descent  ifftke 
HoUf  Ghost;  Christ  Walkii^  on  the  Water;  ChriH 
Crowned  with  Thorns;  St.  John  the  Baptist;  The  Adth- 
ration  of  the  Magi;  The  Entombing  of  Christ;  The  Cre^ 
ation  of  Adam  and  Eve;  Moses  and  Aaron  Before 
Pharaoh;  The  Nativity;  The  Hotg  FamUg;  The  JUs- 
urrection  qf  Lazarus;  The  Death  of  the  Virgin;  Christ 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  JTisL  of  the 
Fine  A  rts^  s.  v. ;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Bryan,  Diet, 
of  Painters  and  Engravers,  s.  v. 

Cortasse,  Pibrrk  Joseph,  a  French  theologiaiip 
was  bom  at  Apt,  May  21, 1681.  He  entered  the  Jesuit 
order ;  taught  grammar,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  positive 
theology,  and  Hebrew  in  the  colleges  of  his  order;  and 
for  fourteen  yean  devoted  himself  to  preaching.  H« 
died  at  Lyons,  March  24,  1740,  leaving,  TraUi  de» 
Nome  Divins  Traduit  du  Grec  de  S<unt'Denis  PAr^o^ 
pagite  (Lyons,  17d9>  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GSU- 
ra£e,s.v. 

Corte,  Cesare,  an  Italian  painter,  the  son  and 
scholar  of  Yalerio,  was  bora  at  Genoa  in  1650.  His 
best  historical  woriu  are  in  that  city.  In  San  Pietto  is 
his  picture  of  St,  Peter  at  the  Feet  of  the  Virgin,  In 
San  Francesco  is  an  altar -pieoe^  reprasenting  Mary 


CORTE 


125 


CORTBANTES 


Jffl^dafaw;  and  in  SanUi  Maria  del  Cannina  are  two 
pictutei  by  him,  of  St.  Simeom  and  St,  Franeit.  He 
died  ia  1613.  See  Spooner,  Bioff,  Hitt.  of  tU  Fim 
Arti,  a.  ▼. ;  Bryan,  J)iet,of  Pamtirt  and  Engraven,  8.  t. 

Ccurte,  Juan  de  la,  a  Spanish  painter,  was  horn  at 
Hsdrid  in  1597,  stadied  in  the  school  of  Velasquez,  and 
wsi  diatinguished  for  his  small  pictures  of  sacred  suh- 
Jects.  He  died  at  Madrid  in  16G0.  See  Hoefer,  iVour. 
Biog,  GenhraJU,  s.  ▼.;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hitt.  of  the  Fitie 
Arts,  9,  r. 

Coxteae  (or  Corteai ;  Fr.  CourtoU),  Giaoomo 
(or  Jacopo,  called  R  Borgognone)t  a  Jesuit  and  paint- 
er, was  horn  at  St.  Hippolyte,  in  Franche-Comt^,  in 
1621.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  visited  Milan,  and  after- 
waids  Rome,  where  he  painted  a  picture  of  Magdalene 
lU  tJke  Fed  of  Ckriat,  in  the  church  of  SanU  MorU ; 
and,  in  II  Gesu,  The  Adoration  of  the  Magi  and  The 
Murder  of  the  Itmoeeuts,  He  died  at  Rome  in  1676. 
See  Chalmen,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  r. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  Arts,  a,  v, ;  Bryan,  Diet,  of  Painters  and  En- 
gravers,  si  t. 

Crorteae,  Gnglielmo  0^^^^^^  called  //  Borgo^ 
gnom),  a  painter,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  was  bom  at 
St.  Hippolyte,  in  1628,  and  was  instructed,  while  young, 
in  the  school  of  Pietro  da  Cortona,  at  Rome.  His  best 
works  are  in  that  city.  They  are.  The  Crucifixion, 
Joshua*s  Battle,  a  Madonna,  toiih  several  Saints,  He 
died  at  Rome  in  1679.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  HisL  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  a.  ▼.;  Biyan,  Diet,  of  Painters  and  En^ 
graters,  a.  y. 

Corteai  (or  Cortezi)t  Paoijo,  an  Italian  theologi- 
an, was  born  at  San  Geminiano,  Tuscany,  in  1465^  He 
entered  orders,  and  applied  hiooself  to  the  study  of  Latin 
literature.  He>ras  apostolic  secretary  under  Alexander 
Tl  and  I'ius  IH,  prothonotory,  and  finally  bishop  of  Ur- 
bioo.  He  died  in  1510,  leaving,  De  Uommbus  Doctis 
Dialogue  (published  by  Alexander  Politi,  more  than  two 
centniies  after  the  death  of  Corteai;  Florence,  17S4) : — 
In  Qnatuor  Lihros  Senientiarum  P.  Ixmbardi  Commen- 
tarn  (Rome,  1503 ;  Paris,  1513 ;  Basle,  1540) :— />e  Cai^ 
dinaliin  (1510).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Generate,  s.  ▼. ; 
Chalmen,  Biog,  Diet,  a.  ▼. 

Cortala  (de  Pressigng),  Gabriel,  a  French  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Dijon,  Dec  11, 1745.  After  having  charge 
of  the  abbey  of  St.  Jacques,  in  1780,  in  tlie  diocese  of 
B^zien,  he  was  appointed,  in  1785,  to  the  bishopric  of 
St.  Mslo,  and  consecrated  Jan.  15,  1786.  During  the 
Rerolution  he  spent  most  of  his  time  in  Switzerland. 
On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  appointed  mem- 
ber of  a  oommisRon  of  bishops  and  ecclesiastics  to  ex- 
amine the  wants  of  the  Church,  and  was  sent  to  Rome 
as  anbssaador.  In  1816,  he  was  made  peer  of  France, 
and  the  following  year  archbishop  of  Besan^n,  but 
did  not  uke  poase»ton  until  Oct.  81, 1819.  He  died 
May  2, 1822.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GeniraU,  s.  v. 

Corraria  (Corbario,  or  Corrara),  Piktro  di. 
See  Nicholas  V. 

Corvi,  Doxiniico,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at 
Vitertw  in  1628,  and  studied  under  Mancini.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  eminent  modem  Roman  masters,  and 
hb  best  works  are  his  night-pieces,  as  his  Nativity ^  in 
the  ChttFch  of  the  Assumption.  He  died  at  Rome  in 
1703.  Set  Bother,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrate,»,v.',  Spooner, 
Biog,  ffist.  of  the  Fine  Arts,B,T. 

Conrimia  (or  Corainiia,  properly  Rabe),  Jo- 
HAicrcs  AR!fOU>U8,  a  Dutch  jurist  and  theologian,  de- 
moted biouelf  to  preaching  in  1606,  and  embraced  the 
doctiine  of  the  Remonstrants,  fur  which  he  was  deprived 
of  hii  office  as  preacher,  and,  in  1622,  obliged  to  seek  an 
asylam  in  Schleswig.  In  1628  he  went  to  France,  so- 
journed at  Paris,  Rouen,  and  Orleans,  and  was  made 
doctor  of  law.  In  1625  he  returned  to  Amsterdam,  and 
heeaaae  professor  of  canon  law.  He  is  often  confounded 
^h  his  son,  Corvious  of  Beldera,  who  embraced  Ca- 
tMdsm.    The  subject  of  this  sketch  died  in  1650, 


leaTing  Defensio  Sententim  Jac,  ArmsnU,  etc.  (Leydetv 
1618) :— Cciwura  Anatomes  Arminianismi  P.  Molinai 
(Fiankfort-on-the-Main,  1622),  etc  See  Hoefer,  Noitv. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  t.;  Biog,  UmverseUe,  s.  x, 

Corwlii,  XYankUn  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Jefferson,  Chemung  Co.,  N.  T., 
Oct  9, 1888.  He  received  an  early  religious  training; 
was  passionately  fond  of  books  and  study  from  child- 
hood; entered  Rock  River  Seminaiy,  IlL,  in  1857,  with 
the  intention  of  preparing  for  the  law,  but,  experiencing 
conversion,  repaired  to  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute, 
remained  about  two  years,  and  then,  in  1861,  entered 
the  Rock  River  Conference,  in  which  he  labored  with 
much  energy  and  acceptability  until  his  decease,  June 
24, 1865.  As  a  preacher,  Mr.  Corwin  was  studious  and 
careful  in  preparation,  earnest,  attractive,  and  convinc- 
ing in  his  delivery ;  as  a  pastor,  nuld,  social,  and  win- 
ning.    See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1865,  p.  225. 

Corwin,  Jamea»  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Pendleton  District,  S.  C,  in  1811.  After 
seventeen  years  of  effective  service  in  Indiana,  he  emi- 
grated to  Califomia  in  1849,  became  a  member  of  the 
first  conference  in  the  state,  and  travelled  very  exten- 
sively between  Siskiyou  and  San  Diego.  He  died  Dec 
1, 1876.  Mr.  Corwin  was  remarkable  in  bis  exemplary 
life,  energy,  and  devotedness  in  self-culture  and  service 
for  the  Church,  and  in  his  success.  See  Minutes  o/ 
American  Conferences,  1877,  p.  100. 

Corwlii,  Jaaon,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
Franklin,  Conn.,  in  February,  1792,  of  Presbyterian  pa- 
rentSL  He  removed  to  Cazenovia,  N.  T.,  where  he  was 
baptized  by  elder  John  Peck,  and  soon  after  licensed  to 
preach.  He  studied  at  the  Theological  Institute  in  Ham- 
ilton, was  ordained  at  Woodstock,  and  in  a  few  months 
became  pastor  of  the  church  in  Deposit,  Delaware  Co. 
Here  he  remained  three  years;  was  then  pastor  in  Pen- 
field,  Monroe  Co.,  five  years,  Webster  two  years,  fiing- 
hamton  two  years,  and  then  removed  to  Great  Bend, 
Pa.  His  other  pastorates  were  in  Earlville,  Bridge- 
water,  Augusta,  Clinton,  all  in  N.  T.  In  1848  he  re- 
ceived au  appointment  from  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Mission  Society,  and  labored  in  Illinois  four 
or  five  years.  Subsequently  he  was  an  agent  of  the 
American  Bible  Union.  He  died  at  Washington,  Taze- 
weU  Co.,  Ul.,  May  15,  1860.  See  Minutes  of  lUinois 
A  nmversarigs,  1860,  p.  8,  9.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Corwin,  Riohard,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis* 
ter,  was  bom  in  Mason  County,  Ky.,  Aug.  29,  1789. 
He  was  piously  trained,  joined  the  Church  in  1809, 
entered  the  ministry  in  1817,  travelled  in  Kentucky, 
was  presiding  elder  for  ten  years,  agent  for  American 
Colonization  Society  in  1884,  and  died  while  elder  of 
Louisville  District,  in  1848.  He  was  consistent,  grave, 
intelligent,  and  spiritnaL  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con- 
ferences, 1848-44,  p.  454. 

Cory,  AivDREW,  an  English  Bible  Christian  preach- 
er, was  bora  at  Moorwinstow,  Cornwall.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1816,  became  a  class-leader  and  local  preacher, 
entered  the  ministry  in  1818,  and  travelled  the  best  cir- 
cuits  for  fifteen  years ;  was  superintendent  of  circuits 
and  districts  several  years,  treasurer  of  the  Missionary 
Society,  and  once  president  of  conference.  He  was 
drowned  in  September,  1888,  at  St.  Neots,  CorawalL 

Coryata,  Gborok,  an  English  clergyman  and  Lat- 
in poet,  was  bom  in  the  parish  of  St.  Thomas,  Salis- 
bury, and  was  educated  at  Winchester  School  and  New 
College,  Oxford,  where,  in  1562,  he  was  admitted  a  per- 
petual fellow.  In  June,  1570,  he  became  rector  of  Od- 
oombe,  and  in  1594  was  appointed  prebendary  in  the  ca- 
thedral of  York.  He  died  at  Odcombe,  March  4, 1606, 
leaving  Poemata  Varia  Latina  (London,  1611, 4to),  and 
Descriptio  Angltte,  Scotia,  et  Hiherma.  See  Chalmers, 
Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  Au- 
thors, s.  v. 

Corybantea^  in  Greek  mythology,  were  priests 


1 


COSACK 


126 


COSMAS 


of  Rhea  br  Gybele,  who  danced,  with  shrieks  and  oon- 
▼ulsire  movements,  to  express  their  sorrow  at  the  death 
of  Atys;  who  loved  Cybele.  They  are  often  confound- 
ed with  the  CureUi  or  Cabiri  and  the  Idaan  DadifUi, 

Cosack,  JoHAMN  Carl,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  27, 1813,  at  Marienwerder,  and 
died  Oct.  80, 1868,  while  professor  of  theology  at  Ko- 
nigsberg.  He  wrote,  UAer  die  Tau/e  der  vneheHeken 
Kinder  (Konigsberg,  1858 )  :—Pau/««  Spetatue  Leben 
und  Lieder  (Braunschweig,  1861).  See  Zuchold,  BibL 
TheoL  1,246.     (aP.) 

Coaattliii,  Giuseppe,  an  Italian  eodesiastie,  canon 
of  Aquileja,  was  a  native  of  Udine  (Friuli),  where  he 
flourished  from  1672  to  1784.  He  is  particularly  noted 
for  his  picture  of  St.  PhiUp  at  the  Altar,  painted  for 
the  congregation  of  Udine.  See  Spooner,  Bioff,  fJisi. 
of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GinSrale,  s.  v. 

Cosby,  Jouett  Vernon,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  July  8, 1816,  at  Staunton,  Va.  He  was 
prepared  for  college  at  his  native  place ;  graduated  from 
Hampden-Sidney  Collegie  in  1836 ;  taught  school  three 
years,  then  entered  the  theological  seminary  at  Prince 
Edward,  Va.,  where  he  spent  two  yeats,  but  graduated 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1848.  Ue  was 
licensed  to  preach  by  East  Hanover  Presbytery,  May  8, 
1848;  was  ordained  as  an  evangelist  by  the  same  pres- 
bytery at  Mount  Carmel,  Va.,  Sept,  28  of  the  same  year, 
and  assigned  to  Southampton  as  his  field  of  labor,  but 
afterwards  supplied  the  church  at  Smithfield  for  two  or 
th ree  years.  He  commenced  labor  at  Bardstown,  Ky.,  in 
1847,  and  also  took  charge  of  the  Bardstown  Academy. 
His  relation  as  pastor  was  dissolved  in  1860,  and  then 
he  supplied  the  churches  of  Midway  and  Clear  Creek, 
and  was  principal  of  Rose  Hill  Female  Academy,  at 
Woodford,  but  in  1864  be  returned  to  Bardstown,  and 
resumed  the  care  of  the  church  as  stated  supply,  and 
the  charge  of  the  academy,  where  he  continued  till  his 
death,  Nov.  14,  1877.  Mr.  Cosby  was  a  highly  culti- 
vated scholar,  a  devoted  and  successful  teacher.  See 
Nea-oL  Rtport  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1878,  p.  51. 

Cosby,  Minor  M.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, embraced  religion  when  about  twenty-one,  and  two 
years  later  entered  the  Kentucky  Conference.  He  gave 
full  proof  of  his  calling  during  the  four  years  of  his  min- 
istry, and  died  Sept  6, 1835.  Mr.  Cosby  was  a  young 
man  of  good  understanding,  great  industry,  and  exem- 
plary lire.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferenoti,  1836,  p. 
405. 

Cosda,  Lelipo,  a  NeapoliUn  prelate,  brother  of 
Niocolo,  was  bom  at  Benevento,  and  lived  at  Rome  in 
1731.  He  was,  like  his  brother,  an  attendant  of  Bene- 
dict Xni,  and  became  private  chamberlain  and  vicar- 
generaL  April  8, 1725,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Targo  by  the  pope,  who,  in  April,  1729,  appointed  him 
his  auditor.  After  the  death  of  Benedict  XIII,  Coscia 
was  included  in  the  disgrace  of  his  brother,  and  shared 
a  similar  fate,  being  deprived  of  his  honors  and  con- 
demned to  suffer  imprisonment  Nothing  is  known  of 
the  dosing  years  of  his  life.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
GineraUf  s.  v. 

CoBOla,  Niocolo,  a  NeapoliUn  prelate,  was  born 
at  Benevento,  Jan.  25, 1682.  He  was  at  first  domestic 
and  intimate  confidant  of  cardinal  Orsini,  archbishop 
of  Benevento,  who,  having  become  pope  under  the  name 
of  Benedict  XIII,  made  him,  in  June,  1724,  secretary 
of  memorials,  with  an  abbey  of  a  thousand  pounds*  rev- 
enue ;  consecrated  him  titular  archbishop  of  Trajanop- 
oils  on  Jul3«^  2;  declared  him  assistant  bishop  of  the 
throne,  Aug.  15,  and  made  him  cardinal,  under  the  title 
of  Santa  Maria  in  Dominica  (called  the  Novicelia}, 
Sept.  15.  Aug.  2, 1725,  Coscia  was  appointed  to  various 
other  ecclesiastical  privileges.  Sept.  5,  Benedict  XHI 
declared  him  successor  to  the  archbishopric  of  Bene- 
vento. On  the  13th  of  the  same  month  Coscia  received 
the  title  of  protector-commander  of  the  order  of  St.  John 


of  Jemsalem,  with  provision  for  six  thousand  pounds  of 
revenue.  In  December  he  was  made  protector  of  the 
order  of  Conventual  Minors,  and,  Feb.  10, 1726,  of  the 
brotherhood  of  writers  and  copyists,  and  finally,  on 
June  12,  prBfect  of  the  congregation  of  the  state  of 
Avignon.  The  bestowal  of  so  much  honor  brought 
upon  him  general  hatred.  He  was  from  time  to  time 
robbed  of  his  honors,  and  suffered  great  persecution,  es- 
pecially at  the  hand  of  Clement  XH.  After  suffering 
ten  years'  imprisonment,  he  returned  to  Naples,  where 
he  died  in  1755.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  a.  v. ; 
Biog.  UnivtrttUe,  s.  v. 

Cosoinomancy,  in  Grecian  superstition,  was  for- 
tune-telling by  means  of  a  sieve.  When,  for  example, 
a  thief  was  to  be  detected,  the  sieve  was  suspended  by 
a  thread  in  the  air,  and  a  number  of  suspected  persons 
named,  the  gods  being  invoked  in  the  meantime.  At 
whosesoever  name  the  sieve  moved,  he  was  held  to  be 
the  thief.    See  Divination. 

Coaena,  Pbtbb,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  a  native  of 
Forfarshire,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1806 ;  presentod 
to  the  living  at  Torrybnm  in  1808 ;  ordained  in  1809 ; 
transferred  to  Lauder  in  1811,  and  died  Aug.  20, 1846, 
aged  sixty-three  years,  leaving  a  son,  Alexander,  min- 
ister of  Broughton.  See  /\is<«  Eodet,  SooticantB,  i,  521 ; 
ii,605. 

Cosimo^  Pncmo  t>i,  a  Florentine  historical  and  por- 
trait painter,  was  bom  in  1441,  and  studied  under  Cosi- 
mo  Roselli.  He  went  to  Rome  and  assisted  in  painting 
a  chapel  for  the  pope,  which  gave  such  proofs  of  his 
skill  that  he  was  much  patronized  by  the  nobility,  and 
established  a  school  He  died  in  1521.  See  Spooner, 
Biog.  NisL  of  the  Fine  A  r1$y  s.  v. 

CoBin,  Richard,  LL.D.,  an  English  divine,  and 
civil  and  canon  lawyer,  was  dean  of  the  arches,  and 
chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  Worcester  from  1579  until 
1598.  His  works  include  An  Ansteer  to  a  Libdj  ewli' 
tM,  An  Abetract  of  Certain  Acts  of  Parliament  (1584): 
— Contpiracie  for  Pretended  Reformation,  viz.  Pretl^ 
terial  Diecipline  hy  Ilachet,  Coppinger^  and  Arthington 
(1592) : — Apologiefor  Sundrie  Proceedinge  hy  Jurisdic 
tion  EocUnatlicaU  (1594) :— -focfena  AnglicaneB  Poli- 
ttia  in  Tabulae  Digesta  (1604);  and  other  works.  See 
FuUer,  Worthies  of  England;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brii. 
and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cosin,  Robert,  an  English  martyr,  was  a  godly 
man,  and  did  much  good  by  reading  the  Scriptures  to 
those  who  could  not  read.  For  dissuading  his  neigh- 
bors from  image-worship  he  was  condemned  and  burned 
at  Buckingham  in  1533.  See  Fox,  Acts  and  MonU" 
menta,  iv,  214. 

Coamaa  (Cosmua,  or  Cosmo),  Saint,  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  full  legend  of  this  saint,  as  given  by  Mrs. 
Jamieson,  Legends  of  the  Saints,  p.  433. 

Coemas  and  Damlsn  were  two  brothers,  Arabians  by 
birth,  bat  they  dwelt  In  M^^k^  a  city  of  Cllicia.  Tlieur 
fnther  hayioj?  died  while  they  were  yet  children,  their 
pious  mother,  Theodora,  brought  them  np  with  all  dill- 

?eace,  and  in  the  practice  of  every  Christian  virtue. 
*heir  charity  was  snch  that  their  not  only  lived  in  the 
greatest  absUnence,  distribnting  their  goods  to  the  Inflrm 
and  poor,  but  they  studied  medicine  and  surgery,  that 
they  might  be  able  to  pret<cribe  for  the  sick,  and  relieve 
the  snlTerinirs  of  the  wounded  and  inflrm ;  and  the  bles0> 
lug  of  God  bein*;  on  all  their  endeavors,  thev  became  the 
moiit  learned  and  the  most  perfect  physicians  that  the 
world  had  ever  seen.  They  minifitered  to  all  who  applied 
to  them,  whether  rich  or  poor.  Even  to  suffering  aniroak 
they  did  not  deny  their  aid,  and  they  constantly  refused 
all  payment  or  recompense,  exercising  their  art  only  for 
charitT,  and  for  the  love  of  God :  and  thus  they  spent 
their  nays.  At  lengtli  those  wicked  emperws,  Diocletian 
and  Maximlau,  came  to  the  throne,  in  whose  time  so 
many  saints  perished.  A  mon;;  them  were  the  physicians, 
Codmas  and  Damlati,  who,  professing  therosulves  Chris- 
tians, were  seized  bv  Lvcias,  the  proconsul  of  Arabia,  and 
cast  into  prison.  Anil  first  they  were  thrown  into  the 
sen,  hut  an  nn;:el  saved  tliem ;  and  then  into  the  fire,  but 
the  fire  refnred  to  consume  them :  and  then  they  were 
bound  on  two  cro^Nis  and  stoned,  bnt  of  the  stones  flung 
at  them  none  reached  them,  hut  fell  ou  those  who  threw 


COeHAS 

■n  nuocroiu;  the  bttt  *wm  to  be  hii  cinoiu  an 
Gnsory  NuUnzeo  «nd  tbe  Puriaotioo.  To  htm 
■  couaidenblB  put  at  the  Octoecbiu  U  owing. 
"He  ii  (he  moM  teuned  ot  the  GTcek  Cbarch 
poels,  ind  hia  fondaea  for  tTpea,  baldneM  in  tb«r 
■pplication,  and  love  or  egf^regatiug  tbem,  m*k« 
bim  the  OrieoUl  Adam  of  Sl  Victor.  It  ii  owing 
panl;  to  ■  comprened  fubicH  of  meming,  T«iy 
uocommoa  in  the  Greek  poeta  of  the  Churib, 
partly  to  the  unuiuil  barahnen  and  contiactioD 
of  hia  phnaee,  that  be  it  tbe  hardeat  ol  ecclesiafc 
tkalbard*  lo  eomprebend"  (Neale),  The  fol- 
lowing hymna  have  been  tianilated  into  Enelidi 
by  Neale: 

,.™.V"^'  T'"*'"',  »of""a't  (Chriatnifia). 
"Chrlitlaboral    Tell  (brlh  hla  tonwl" 

"  Him,  of  the  Fatiiei^a  TBtj  EMenw." 

"Rod  ol  the  Hoot  of  Jeaae." 

"  FMber  of  Feue,  ud  Ood  of  ConaolatloD  I' 

"  A*  Jonah,  iHotng  from  bia  three  di^a'  lomb." 

"He  Uulj  Children^ldl}  aland." 

"Tbe  dewj  freahoeea  that  the  (nniaca  fllnga." 

"O  wond'rona  mjaterj,  fall  of  pmrtng  grace  1" 


The  Greek  Church,  however,  celebratn  three  pain 
of  thcM  biMben  u  aainti :  {1}  July  I,  in  the  tin 
Carinu;  (!)  Oct.  37,  Anb^  with  tbeir  brolhen  A 
nui,  Leoniiua,  and  Euprrpiui,  martyred  under  Dioclc- 
liin;  (3}NaT.  l.aoncofTbeodoliu.  It  it  probable  tha 
■U  tbeie  are  bat  raiialioni  or  imitation*  of  one  legend. 

Coamai  or  Alkxamdria,  a  deacon.  Hazimiu, 
■bbet  ofChryaopolie  (A.D.  682),  mentioDa,  in  a  letter  lo 
1  noUeman  nanwd  Petnii,  a  treatiae  on  the  union  and 
disiioctioa  of  two  natarea  in  Jeeua  Chriil,  which  he  had 
aditmstd  to  Coamaa.  Cosmaa  had  been  aclracted  by 
Sereriio  opiniona,  bat  bad  retomed  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  In  a  second  letter  to  Co«nB^  Haiimua  pro- 
ftMOhia  aorrowat  tbeealumniei  spread  abroad  agiinat 
Giegorr,  prefect  of  Africa  (Migne,  PalroL  Grac  xci ; 
Uadmua,  $  307-S09,  S13,  334 )  CeiUier,  xi,  768, 769).— 
Saiith,  Diet,  of  ChriiL  Bioy.  u  v. 

CoamK>  or  Jkrvsmkm  (aumamed  lit  HogiopoUle, 
aliD  ULt  Uetoditt),  who  held  the  aecond  place  among 
(imk  ecclesiastical  poeca,  waa  bom  at  Jeniulem.  Be- 
ing lert  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  he  waa  adopted  bv 
the  father  of  John  of  Dimascua,  and  the  two  foater- 
tactben  were  bound  together  by  a  fiiendahip  which 
lM(d  tbroogh  life.  They  excited  each  other  lo  hym- 
■Btoey,  and  abated,  eorrmed,  and  puliihed  each  other'a 
empoailiooa.  Coamaa,  like  hia  rriend,  became  a  monk 
of  St.  Sahoa,  and  against  hii  will  was  consecrated  bishop 
«f  Mijoma,  nenr  Gaxa,  in  A.D.  74B,  by  John,  patriarch 
sf  Jerusalem,  the  same  who  ordained  John  of  Damsscua 
pnoL  After  ■dminiatcniig  bia  dioeeaewith  great  boli- 
"»,  he  died  of  dd  age,  about  T60,  and  ia  cooiineRia- 
nttd  by  the  Eastern  Church  Oct.  14. 

-  Where  perfoc!  pweelnesa  dwells,  la  Cosmas  gone : 

Bat  hia  sweet  Ian  U  eheer  tbe^bnrcb  Itre  tn,' 

Mil  the  Tcrae  -preflxed  to  bia  life.     His  compcaiiiona 


n  Bat  Patrol,  ed. 
I  were  Hiat  printed 
(Venice,  1601),  and  ihey  are  to  be  found 
in  La  Bigne,  BUil.  PatnL  xii,  T27  aq.;  Higne, 
Patrol,  jicviii,  and  Daniel,  Tknauni4  Hyvamlogi- 
cm,  iii,  M.  According  loAllaCiua  (Dt  Gtai-giit, 
p.  418)  they  have  been  expounded  by  Joannea 
Zonaraa,  Theodorus  Frodromui,  George  of  Corinth,  and 
others.  See  Suidaa,  a.  v.  laaw.  Saltan.;  Joann.Ui- 
eroa.  in  Vita  Joatm,  Danatc,  ed.  Oudiu,  j,  1786;  Gal- 
landi,  xiii,  p.  viii;  Uirooa,  Aaclar.  de  Script.  EctL; 
Voaaius,  Dt  Poet.  Grac.  c  3;  Saxiua  in  Oitom.  Lit.  W, 
Bb;  Fabricius,  MKGinc.  vi,4It  U  Quien,  F£f. ./aan. 
DanuK.  p,  20;  J5cher,  AUgtmeina  GcUhrfm-Lerihm, 
a.T.iSmiibandWace.Ztfctn/'t'Arur.flit^.B.v.;  Neale, 
IIjpnBt  o/  the  EoMlem  Chard,  p.  127  aq.;  Rambacb, 
Anthoiagie  CkritllicAer  Gfidnfff,\,  136  aq.;  Jacobi,iriir 
Gachichle  da  GriecAiidtn  Kirthmlitdti,  in  Brieger'a 
ZeitKhiift  fur  Kirchtngrtehichle  (Golba,  1881),  v,  810 
sq.      (ttP.) 

Goamai  or  Pbaouk,  the  Srst  Bohemian  biatorisn, 
was  bom  in  1046.  In  1086  he  was  made  canon  of  tbe 
Prague  chapter;  in  1099  he  received  holy  orderp,  and 
he  died  Oct.  21, 11S&  When  already  advanced  in  yean 
he  aet  himself  lo  write  a  biatory  of  Bohemia.  He 
completed  tbe  Chronica  Boemomm  between  1119  and 
1126.  The  first  book  reaches  from  Ihe  earliest  limei  to 
the  year  1038)  the  second  to  1092;  the  third  to  ll!6. 
The  Chronica  was  published  by  Frrher  in  Snipl.  reran 
BohemUanin  (Hanover,  1602,  160",  1620);  Menke, 
Script  rnim  Gtrmankanaa  (Leipsic,  1728) ;  Pelil  et 
iky,Scrip(.  reran  £(o*™iooruiB  (Prague,  1788); 
-,  Monum.  Germ.;  Mjgne,  Patrol.  Lai.  clxvi; 


Kopke  : 
Emler  et 
1874),  ii,  1 
writers,  u: 
Borowy  ii 
(B.  P.) 


nek,  Fonla  rtmm  Bokanicarum  (ib 

It  was  continued  by  some  anonymoua 
■  tbe  title  Crmtimaloru  Coima.  See 
■cl»r  u.  Welte'i  AiroSm  -  iriiton,  e.  t. 


(usually  styled  "the  Elder'^  was  a  monk 

Iaba.  After  a  youth  devoted  to  tbe  study  of  the 

liberal  aria,  philosophy,  and  theology,  when  already  a 

presbyter,  he  was  captured  and  enilaved  by  the  Saracens 

Joutney  from  Italy  lo  Damascus,  but  was  redeemed 

by  the  father  of  Joannea  Damascenua,  who  inlruated  lo 

care  the  education  of  hia  son,  with  his  companion 


COSMAS 


128 


COSMOLOGY 


Coemas  (the  Yonnger, "  Cosmas  of  Jerasalem  **).  After 
be  had  oompleted  the  instnietion  of  his  pupila  he  re- 
tired to  the  monastery  of  St.  Saba,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death,  cir.  A.D.  760  (Joann.  HierosoL  in  Vita 
Joann,  DamoMc.;  Moeehos,  Prat,  Spirit,  c.  40).  The 
greater  part  of  the  hymns  that  pass  under  the  name  of 
Cosmas  the  Melodist  are  attributed  to  him,  but  in  the 
confusion  that  exists  between  the  elder  and  younger 
Cosmas,  it  is  impossible  to  assign  them  to  their  respec- 
tive authors  with  any  accuracy. — Smith,  Did.ofChritt. 
Bioff,  s.  V. 

Cosmas,  bishop  of  Scythopolis,  and  metropolitan, 
succeeded  Oljrropius  )n  466.  He  was  a  native  of  Cap- 
padocia,  but,  with  his  two  brothers,  Chrysippus  and 
Gabrielf  was  brought  up  in  Syria  under  the  famous 
abbot  St.  Enthymius,  who  on  their  first  application  for 
admission  to  his  monastery  rejected  them  on  account  of 
their  youth,  but  afterwards,  being  warned  in  a  dream, 
admitted  them.  Cosmas  was  ordained  deacon  by  Jo- 
venal  of  Jerusalem  about  the  time  of  the  Council  of 
Ephesus,  and  afterwards  raised  by  him  to  the  pres- 
byterate.  He  was  ordained  bishop  of  Scythopolis  by 
Anastasius,  Juvenal's  successor;  held  the  see  for  thirty 
years,  and  died  in  496.  The  third  brother,  Gabriel,  was 
ordained  priest,  and  was  twenty-four  years  abbot  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Stephen.  He  founded  a  small  monas- 
tery in  honor  of  the  Ascension,  in  a  valley  of  Olivet,  and 
died  at  the  age  of  eighty  years  (CyrilL  Scy  thop.  Vit,  S. 
Euthem,  40,  54,  etc. ;  Le  Quien,  Orient  Christiaruu). — 
Smith,  DicL  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v.     See  CHRvaiprus. 

Cosmas  of  Thebes  was  a  deacon,  deposed  A.D. 
692  by  his  bishop,  Adrian,  for  malversation  of  the  goods 
of  the  Church.  Cosmas  and  another  deposed  deacon 
accused  Adrian,  by  way  of  revenge,  to  the  emperor 
Maurice.  Maurice,  according  to  the  canons,  sent  the 
case  to  John,  bishop  of  Larissa,  Adrian's  metropolitan, 
who  condemned  him.  Adrian  appealed  to  Maurice,  and 
was  acquitted.  The  case  finally  came  before  Gregory 
the  Great  (Gregory,  Epp.  iii,  7 ;  in  Migne,  Patrol.  Lat. 

Ixxvii,  609,  §  629;  Ceillier,  xi,  490) Smith,  Diet,  of 

Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Cosmati,  a  family  of  Greek  artists,  who  flourished 
at  Rome  as  eariy  as  the  12th  century.  They  particu- 
larly excelled  in  mosaic  paintings.  Among  them, 
Adbodato  di  Cosimo  Cosmati  was  the  most  distin- 
guished, and  he  was  employed  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore  in  1290.  Several  of  his  name  also  ex- 
ercised their  talents  in  the  cathedral  of  Orvieto. — See 
Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts^t,  v. 

Cosmo,  Saint,    See  CosafAS. 

Cosmocr&tor  {Ko<rfjioKpdrup,  governor  of  the 
vforld),iti  the  system  of  Valentinus,  is  an  appellation 
given  to  the  devil,  who  was  represented  as  having  his 
dwelling  in  this  world,  while  the  Dcmiurgus,  whose 
creature  he  was,  dwelt  in  the  lowest  of  the  regions  above 
the  world  (Irenisus,  i,  5,  p.  26).  The  name  Cosmocrator 
we  may  believe  to  have  been  derived  from  Ephes.  vi, 
12,  reference  also  being  had  to  John  xii,  31,  whose 
phrase,  "  prince  of  this  world,"  occurs  instead  of  Cos- 
mocrator in  the  parallel  passage  of  Ilippoly  tus  (p.  192). 
Harvey  (ad  Iren.")  gives  proof  that  in  the  rabbinical 
daemonology  this  Greek  word  was  written  in  Hebrew 
characters,  and  thence  infers  that  the  Gnostic  applica- 
tion of  this  word  was  derived  from  a  Jewish  use  of  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  Massuet  (p.  xliii)  refers  to  an  em- 
ployment of  the  word  by  the  later  Platonists,  to  denote 
the  rulers  of  the  seven  planetary  orbs.  But  its  occur- 
rence in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  renders  any  other 
explanation  unnecessary. 

In  the  system  of  Marcion  (Irenaeus,  i,  27,  p.  106),  into 
which  the  name  Cosmocrator  probably  passed  from  the 
Valentinian,  it  was  applied  to  the  God  who  made  the 
world. — Smith,  Bid,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cosmology,  Ancient.  A  remarkable  paper  on 
this  subject  has  been  published  by  president  Warren 


(in  the  Boston  University  Year^hook,  1882,  p.  17  sq.), 
in  which  he  maintains  a  new  theory  of  the  Homeric 
cosmology,  and  he  further  asserts  that  *'the  Egyp- 
tians, Aocadians,  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Fbaenidana^ 
Hebrews,  Greeks,  Iranians,  Indo- Aryans,  Chinese,  Jap- 
anese—in fine,  aU  the  most  ancient  historic  peoples— 
possessed  in  their  earliest  traceable  periods  a  cosmology 
essentially  identical,  and  one  of  a  far  more  advanced 
type  than  has  been  attributed  to  them.**  We  cite  the 
most  essential  paragraphs  of  his  paper : 

"  In  ancient  thought  the  grand  divisions  of  the  world 
are  four,  to  wit :  The  abode  of  the  gods,  the  abode  of  liv- 
ing men,  the  abode  of  the  dead,  and,  finally,  the  abode  of 
dsemous.  To  locate  these  in  correct  mutual  relations*  one 
must  begin  by  representing  to  himself  the  earth  as  a 
sphere  or  spheroid,  and  as  situated  within,  and  concentric 
with,  the  starry  sphere,  eocA  having  its  axis  perpendicular, 
and  its  north  pole  at  the  top.  The  pole-star  is  thus  in  the 
true  senith,  and  the  heavenly  heights  centring  about  it 
are  the  abode  uf  the  supreme  god  or  gods.  According  to 
the  same  conception,  tne  upper  or  northern  hemisphere 
of  the  earth  is  tne  proper  home  of  living  men :  the  under 
or  sontheni  hemisphere  of  the  earth,  the  abode  of  disem- 
bodied spirits  nna  rulers  of  the  dead ;  and,  finally,  the 
undermost  resrion  of  all,  that  centring  around  the  aouth- 
em  pole  of  the  heavens,  the  lowest  hell.  The  two  hemi- 
spheres of  the  earth  were  furthermore  conceived  of  as  sep- 
arated from  each  other  by  an  equatorial  ocean  or  ooeauie 
current 


Diagram  of  Ancient  Cosmology. 

"To  illustrate  this  conception  of  the  world,  let  the  two 
circles  of  the  disf^raro  represent  respectively  the  «artli- 
sphere  and  the  outermost  of  the  revolving  starry  ephereaii 
A  is  the  north  jpole  of  the  heavens,  so  placed  as  to  be  In 
the  zenith.  B  is  the  south  pole  of  the  heavens,  in  the  na- 
dir. The  line  A  B  is  the  axis  of  the  apparent  revolution 
of  the  starry  heavens  in  a  perpendicular  poidtlon.  C  Is 
the  north  pole  of  the  earth;  D,  its  south  pole;  the  line 
C  D,  the  axis  of  the  earth  in  perpendicular  position,  and 
coincident  with  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  axis  of 
the  starry  heavens.  The  space  11 11  is  the  abode  of  the 
supreme  god  or  gods :  2.  Europe ;  S,  Asia ;  4,  Libya,  or  the 
known  portion  of  Africa ;  o  6  6,  the  ocean,  or  '  ocesin 
Ktrenm ;'  6  6  0,  the  abode  of  disembodied  spirits  and  m|. 
ers  of  the  dead ;  7  7  7  7,  the  lowest  hell. 

"The  difflcnlties  hitherto  experienced  in  representing 
in  a  satisfactory  manner  the  Ygdrasil  of  Norse  mythoP 
offT,  the  cosmical  *  fig-tree*  of  the  Vedas,  the  *  winged  oak* 
of  Pherecydes,  etc.,  quite  disappear  when  once,  with  an- 
derstanding  of  the  supposed  true  position  of  the  nnlTerse 
in  space,  the  centre  line  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree  is  made 
coincident  with  the  axis  of  the  starry  heavens. 

"  In  any  chart  or  picture  of  the  ancient  Iranian  coaraol- 
ogy,  coiiBtmcted  according  to  this  key,  the  Iranian  Olyna- 
pns.  Har6  berezaitL  will  Join  the  solid  earth  to  heaven, 
while  underneath,  the  mount  of  daemons,  dread  Arezftrn^ 
will  penetrate  the  nether  darkness  of  the  lowest  hell.  In 
Bryptianand  HindQ  cosmoloirythe  same  opposed  drcam- 
p«>rar  projections  of  the  earth  are  clearly  traceable.  To 
Hard  herezaiti  (Alborz)  corresponds  Mount  Sar  of  ancient 
Egyptian  mythology,  the  Kharsak  Kurra  of  the  Acca- 
dians,  the  Ear  Moed  of  Babylonia  (Isa.  xiv,  18, 14),  the 
Snmeru  of  the  Hlndfia  and  Buddhists,  the  Asgard  of  the 
Northmen,  the  Pearl  Mountain  of  the  Chinese. 

'*In  like  manner,  the  comporatire  study  of  the  mytlis 


COSNAC 


129 


COSSIERS 


oftht  ocean  and  of  the  mder-worlds  of  ancient  peoples 
letTct  no  room  for  donbt  that  these,  too.  were  ori^lDallT 
adjnsted  to  a  geocentric  conception  of  the  nnlyerse,  and 
to  in  earth  which  was  flgnred  as  a  globe.  With  such  a 
key  tbe  meet  perplexing  cosmologiciU  problems,  such  as 
the  origin  of  tne  stranee  concentric  dirlpos  of  the  Pnra- 
nas,tbe  orisln  and  signiflcaDce  of  the  Sabean  myth  of  Ur, 
U)e  coo  of  Ronhala,  and  many  others,  receiTe  at  once  a 
pkfn  snd  satisfactory  eolation. 

"Bren  the  Kojiki,  the  most  ancient  of  the  sacred  books 
of  Japan,  should  have  tanght  oa  to  credit  the  early  na- 
tions of  the  world  with  better  knowledge  of  the  earth 
tiUD  we  have  done;  for  in  ita  beantifhl  oosmogoDy  the 
esrth  rerolTcs,  and  Ixanagi's  spear  is  only  its  nprlght 
axif." 

These  views  Dr.  Warren  applies,  by  way  of  illustration 
and  confirmation,  to  the  famous  problem  of  the  pillan 
of  Atlas,  which  classic  mythology  represents  as  sup- 
pomng  the  universe. 

**  The^  are  simplv  the  upright  axes  of  earth  and  heaven. 
Viewed  in  their  relation  to  earth  and  heaven  respectively, 
they  are  two ;  bat  viewed  in  reference  to  the  niii verse  as 
an  undivided  whole,  they  are  one  and  the  same.  Being 
coincident,  they  are  trnly  one,  and  yet  they  are  ideally 
leparable.     Hence  singular  or  nloral  designationa  are 

Saally  correct  and  equally  fitting.  Transpiercing  the 
}be  at  the  verv  *  navel  or  centre  of  the  sen,'  Atlaa's 
DiOar  penetrates  far  deeper  than  any  recess  of  the  waters' 
bed,  and  he  may  well  be  said  to  *know  the  depths  of  the 
whole  sea.*  Or  this  statement  may  have  relbrence  to 
that  primordial  sea  In  which  his  pillar  was  standing  when 
the  geogonic  and  cosmogonic  process  began.  In  this 
lenie  how  appropriate  and  signillcaut  would  it  have  been 
If  applied  to  Izanagl ! 

**  Atlas's  pillar,  then,  is  the  axis  of  the  world.    It  is  the 

nme  pillar  apoetropnized  in  the  Egyptian  document 

known  as  the  great  Harris  Magic  Papynis,  in  these  nn- 

nilrtakable  woras :  '  O  long  column,  wntch  commences  in 

the  upper  snd  in  the  lower  heavens  1'    It  is.  with  scarce  a 

doubt,  what  the  same  ancient  people  in  their  Book  of  the 

Dead  lo  happily  styled  '  the  spine  of  the  earth.*    It  Is  the 

BSg-Veda's  viMragende  Aehm  dst  ittutt^fhaUaam  tich  dr0- 

heideH^nietUtemdeu^nie  morwehwerdmden,  durch  dm  Lav/ 

dtr  IHtm  nieht  abfftnutgien  WeltradM,  axtf  weleKem  alls 

WnxM  STKURM.    It  is  ths  umbrella-staff  of  Burmese  cos- 

<Bology,  the  chuming-stick  of  India's  gods  and  dnmous.  It 

Is  the  tnmk  of  every  connical  tree.    It  is  the  Tii  Kih  of  the 

Chinese  uniTerse ;  the  tortoise-piercing  (earth-piercing) 

arrow  of  the  Mongolian  heavcu-god ;  the  vpear  of  Iza- 

BAgi.    It  is  the  cord  which  the  ancient  Vedic  bard  saw 

sCretcbed  from  one  side  of  the  universe  to  the  other.    Is 

It  not  the  Ptalmist's  *  line '  of  the  heavens  which  *  is  gone 

<mt  throagh '  the  very  'esrth '  and  on  *to  the  end  of  the 

world '  r   It  la  the  Irminsul  of  the  Germans,  as  expressly 

recngnlaed  by  Grimm.    It  is  the  tower  of  Kronos.    It  is 

the  ^Imndlc  pillar  which  connects  the  Paradise  celestial 

md  the  Paradise  terrestrial. 

**  The  stadies  already  completed  render  it  certain  that 
erety  existing  systematic  exposition  of  classic  mythology 
te  to  be  supplsnted.  Equally  interesting  is  the  question 
of  the  adsptatlon  of  this  reconstruction  of  ancient  cos- 
BBoiogy  to  throw  light  on  early  Hebrew  conceptions  of 
tbe  worid  and  of  Sheol.*' 

Such  a  radical  reoonstniction  of  ancient  cosmology, 
howrrer,  teqniies  further  exposition  and  conoboration 
ia  detail  before  the  learned  world  can  be  expected  to 
adopt  it  generally.  The  Hebrew  notions  especially, 
which  are  developed  to  a  considerable  degree  in  the 
Bible,  ahould  be  subjected  to  a  rigid  and  critical  com- 
pariaon.  This  task  we  may  hope  that  the  author  of 
the  aehcne  will  perform  in  due  time.    See  Pabadisk. 

Cosnac,  Dx^nsL  dk,  a  French  prelate,  waa  bom  at 

the  chateau  of  Cosnac,  in  Limousin,  about  1680.   Being 

deatined  from  his  birth  for  the  ecclesiastical  calling,  he 

fint  parsned  his  studies  at  Brives  and  at  Pirigueux, 

and  went,  in  1644,  to  take  the  degree  of  master  of 

ana  at  the  College  of  Navarre.    He  received  the  de- 

i;ree  of  bachelor  of  divinity  at  the  University  of  Paris 

in  1618,  and  his  licensure  two  years  later.    Being  ad- 

BBtted,  through  the  kindness  of  the  duke  of  Bouillon, 

to  the  house  of  the  prince  of  Conti,  young  as  he  was, 

he  nalized  the  advantage  thua  acquired,  proving  him- 

aelf  a  man  of  uprigbtneas  and  integrity.    He  appeared 

MToal  tioiea  in  assemblies  of  the  clergy,  took  part  in 

^  gnve  question  of  the  right  of  enjoying  the  reve* 

of  vacant  bishoprica^  which  threatened  to  make  a 

,  and  was  one  of  the  French  prelatea  who  aided 

I  aehirang  the  liberty  of  the  Gallican  Church. 

He  had  chain  of  eaEamtning  the  briefii  of  Innocent  XI, 

XIL-I 


•ad  hb  report  is  worthy  of  being  read.  In  1687  Coanae 
waa  called  to  the  archbishopric  of  Aix,  but,  owing  to 
the  troubles  between  France  and  Rome,  be  did  not  take 
the  oath  until  June  11, 1695.  In  1701,  the  king  gave 
to  him  the  abbey  of  St.  Riquiera  of  l^vreux,  and  ap- 
pointed him  commander  of  the  order  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
He  died  at  Aix,  Jan.  18, 1708,  leaving  some  Mhnoires 
in  MS.,  which  were  published  in  1852  by  count  Julius 
de  Cosnac  See  Hoefer,  Ncnv.  Biog,  Geniralej».Y,; 
Bing,  Umvertelle,  s.  v. 

Coqp^an  (or  Coapean),  Philippr  dk,  a  Flemish 
theologian,  was  bom  in  Hainault  in  1568.  He  first 
studied  under  Justus  lipsius,  and  then  went  to  Paris. 
His  poverty  and  his  desire  for  knowledge  were  so  great 
that,  in  order  to  complete  his  studies,  he  accepted  the 
podtion  of  valet  to  the  abbot  of  Espemon,  afterwards 
cardinal  de  la  Yalette.  In  1604  Cosp^an  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  from  the  Sorbonne,  was  appointed  bish- 
op of  Aire  in  1607,  and  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of 
Nantes,  March  17, 1622.  He  had  at  his  accession  a 
very  lively  dispute  with  his  chapter,  relative  to  the 
emoluments  during  the  vacancy.  Cosp6an  declared 
himself  favorable  to  the  Oratorians  in  their  quarrel 
with  the  Carmelites.  He  was  charged,  in  1627,  by 
cardinal  Kichelieu,  with  preparing  Francis  of  Mont- 
morency for  death.  In  1636  he  waa  transferred  to 
the  bishopric  of  Lisieux.  He  died  at  the  chateau  of 
Loges,  near  Lisieux,  in  1646,  leaving,  Orauon  Fumhrty 
aux  Ohtkqvet  de  Henri  k  Grand  (Paris,  1610) :— 72»moii- 
trance  du  Clerpi de  France  au  Rot:— Pro  Paire  Bervl- 
lioEputola  Apoloffdiea  (Paris,  1622).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GeniraU,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  UmverseiUf  s.  v. 

Coaaa,  Framcbsco,  an  Italian  painter,  was  a  native 
of  Ferrara.  He  executed  some  works  at  fiiologna,  which 
are,  Afadotmas,  wiik  Samls  and  AngeU,  One  of  them, 
in  the  inatitute,  is  dated  1474.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GMraU,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  ttitt,  of  the  Fine  A  rtt,  s.  v. 

Coaaale  (or  Cozzale),  Orazio,  an  Italian  paint- 
er, flourished  about  1600.  His  chief  worlcs  are,  The 
Adoration  of  the  Magi,  in  the  church  Delia  Grazie,  at 
Brescia;  and  The  PresetOatian  in  the  Temple^  in  Le  Mi- 
racoli.  Cossale  was  accidentally  killed  by  his  son, 
about  1610.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.' Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. ; 
Spooner,  Biog,  HuL  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Coaaart,  Oabriel,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  born  at 
Pontoise  in  1615.  In  1683  he  joined  his  order,  was  for 
some  time  professor  at  Paris,  and  died  Sept.  18, 1674. 
He  is  the  author  of  Parthenii  Patriarcha  Conttantino- 
polUani  Becretum  Sgnodale  (in  Greek  and  Latin,  Paris, 
1648).  He  continued  and  completed  the  famous  col- 
lection of  councils  commenced  by  abb6  Labbe,  which 
he  published  in  17  vols,  folio,  with  the  title,  Conciiiorum 
CoUedio  Maxima  ad  R&giam  Editionem  Exacta^  Studio 
Philippi  Labbe  et  GabrielU  Couartii  e  Societate  Jetu 
(Parisiis,  1671, 1672).  See  Kobler,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte*s 
Kirehen-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Biog.  UniveneUe^  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  GMraU,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Coaaart,  Iiaurent  Joaeph,  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
was  bom  Aug.  10, 1758,  at  Cauchy- la-Tour,  near  Lillers. 
After  having  been  master  of  theology  at  the  grand  sem- 
inary of  St.  Nicholas  du  Chsrdonnet,  he  was  appointed 
superior  of  the  seminary  of  St.  Marcellus.  From  this 
he  passed  to  the  diocese  of  Boulogne,  when  he  was  made 
rector  of  Wimille.  Cossart  fell  into  official  difficulties, 
and  was  obliged  to  retire  to  the  Netherlands,  where  he 
found  his  bishop,  who  had  already  preceded  him.  The 
invasion  of  the  Netherlands  by  the  French  again  driving 
them  forth,  Coaaart  went  to'  DUsseUorf.  He  died  in 
1880.  While  at  Dttsaeldorf  he  published  the  i/fVoircfu 
Clergif  a  new  edition  of  which  appeared  at  Lyons  and 
Paris  in  1824,  He  also  wrote,  Coun  de  PrSnes  (1816), 
in  collaboration  with  other  eoclesiasts  iScienoe  Pra- 
tique du  Caiichiete  (1838, 1889  >  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Coaaiara»(or  Cotalara),  Jah,  a  raputable  Flemish 


COSSIN 


130 


COSTER 


historical  painter,  was  born  at  Antwerp  In  1608,  and 
studied  under  Comelis  de  Voa.  He  executed  a  num- 
ber of  works  for  the  churches  in  Flanders,  the  principal 
of  which  are  The  NaHvitjfj  at  Brussels,  in  the  church 
of  the  Jesuits;  The  Martfrdam  of  8t.  Ursula,  at  the 
Beguinage ;  The  PretenkUion,  and  a  grand  picture  of 
The  Crucifixion^  in  a  church  at  Mechlin.  He  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  acadenay  at  Antwerp  in  1639,  and 
died  in  1652.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rU, 
s.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale,  %,  y. 

CoBBin,  Louis,  a  French  engraver,  was  bom  at 
Troyes  about  1638,  and  died  at  Paru  in  1682.  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  his  principal  plates:  The  Virgin 
Mary;  St.  John  the  EvangeKH  Su^>ended  oter  a  Cal- 
dron of  Boiling  Oil ;  The  Stoning  of  St,  Paul  ai  Lystra, 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hitf.  of  the  Fine  i4  rto,  Sb  r. ;  Hoefer, 
Hottv,  Biog,  GenSraUf  s.  v. 

CosainB,  Gborok  Horwood,  an  English  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  in  the  parish  of  Martock,  Som- 
erMt,  in  1799.  He  was  converted  in  early  life;  pre- 
pared for  the  ministry  by  self-culture  and  the  assistance 
of  his  pastor;  began  preaching  at  Somerton,  and  after- 
wards held  the  pastorate  at  Bower  Hinton,  Martock,  for 
thirty-six  years,  where  be  died,  Jan.  19, 1878.  Mr.  Cos- 
sins  wrote  The  Lffe  of  Rev,  Christopher  HuU^  who  was 
the  founder  of  the  church  at  Bower  Hinton ;  and  com- 
piled the  hymn-book  used  by  his  congregation  for  many 
years.    See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1879,  p.  808. 

Costa,  Andrea  da,  a  Portuguese  theologian  and 
musician,  was  bom  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  cent- 
ury at  Lisbon,  and  took  the  habit  of  the  order  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  of  that  city,  Aug.  8, 1650.  He  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  musical  composition  and  the  study  of  the 
harp,  and  was  harpist  to  the  chapel  of  Alfonso  VI  and 
of  Pedro  IL  He  died  suddenly,  July  6, 1686;  but  left 
a  large  number  of  works  in  the  musical  library  of  the 
kings  of  Portugal,  especially  Masses  and  Da  Paixao  da 
Dominga  de  Pabnas,  etc.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  G^ 
nirale,  s.  v. 

Costa,  Cesare,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  16th  century,  was  bom  at  Macerata.  He 
taught  canon  law  at  Rome,  and  became  successively 
referendary  apostolic  and  archbishop  of  Capua.  He  was 
sent  to  Venice  as  papal  nuncio,  and  died  at  Naples,  Feb. 
12, 1602,  leaving  several  works,  among  which  was  one 
of  considerable  repute,  entitled  Variarum  Ahiguitatum 
Juris  lib,  iii  (Venice,  1588 ;  also  in  Otto's  Thesaur.  Juris 
[Utrecht,  1733],  vol.  iv).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gini- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Costa,  Jorge  da,  a  Portuguese  prelate,  was  bora 
in  1406  at  Alpedrinha,  a  village  of  the  diocese  of  La 
Guarda;  was  educated  at  Lisbon,  became  a  professor 
there,  and  a  dean  of  the  cathedral ;  eventually  bishop 
of  Evora,  archbishop  of  Lisbon,  and  cardinal  in  1476. 
He  removed  to  Rome  in  1487,  and  died  there,  Sept.  19, 
1608.    See  Biog,  Umverselle,  s.  v. 

Costa,  Lorenxo  (the  Elder),  an  Italian  painter, 
was  bora  at  Ferrara  about  1450.  He  was  instructed 
in  the  school  of  Francesco  Francia,  and  then  went  to 
Bologna.  His  first  work  there  was  The  Matigrdom  of 
St.  Sebeutian,  in  the  church  of  San  Petronio.  He  also 
painted  ap  altar-piece,  which  was  considered  very  fine. 
He  particularly  excelled  in  his  countenances  of  men,  as 
may  be  seen  from  those  of  The  Apostles  at  San  Petronio, 
and  from  his  St,  Jerome,  He  died  about  1530.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  ArUfB,y. 

Costa,  Manoel  da.    See  Acosta,  Emmanueu 

Costadau,  Alphoksk,  a  French  writer,  was  bora 
at  Alans  (Venaiasin).  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  be- 
came a  Dominican  monk  of  the  congregation  of  the 
Holy  Sacrament,  and  afterwards  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology.  He  died  at  Lyons  in  1726,  leaving  sev- 
eral works  on  witchcraft,  etc,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
JVour.  Biog,  QMrale,  a.  v.  I 


Costadoni,  Giovanni  Domemico  (called  A  nsebn\ 
an  Italian  theologian  and  antiquary-,  was  bom  at  Venice 
in  1714.  He  entered  the  monastery  of  St.  Michael  ai 
Murano  in  1720,  and  died  at  Venice,  Jan.  23, 1785.  His 
principal  works  were  upon  Christian  antiquities  and  the 
history  of  religious  orders.  Costadoni  labored  with  P. 
Mittarelli  in  editing  the  Annales  Camaldulensej,  See 
Hoefer,  Nour,  Bittg,  GMrcUe,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  UmverweUef 
s.  V. 

Costagnti,  ViMCBKTE,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic  and 
musician,  was  bom  at  Genoa  in  1618.  He  was  piotho- 
notary  to  Urban  VIII,  secretary  of  the  apostolic  court 
of  justice,  and  in  1648  was  made  cardlnalndeacon  under 
the  title  of  Santa  Maria  in  Porticu,  He  died  in  1660, 
leaving  Discorso  aUe  Musiea  (Genoa,  1640): — Ap-- 
plausi  Poetici  alte  Glorie  delta  Signora  lAonora  Ba-- 
rani  (Rome,  1689).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale^ 

8,  V. 

Costansi,  Carlo,  a  very  emiiient  Italian  engraver 
on  precious  stones,  son  of  Giovanni  Costanzi,  was  bom 
at  Naples  in  1708.  He  executed  a  large  .number  of 
admirable  works,  among  them  a  copy  of  the  Medusa 
of  Solon.  He  brought  the  art  to  such  a  high  degree 
of  perfection  that  he  gained  a  knighthood  from  the 
king  of  PortugaL  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fime 
Arts,  8.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Nour,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Bioff.. 
Umverselle,  s.  v. 

Costard,  Gbobob,  a  leamed  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  bom  at  Shrewsbury  about 
1710,  and  graduated  AJf.  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford, 
in  1788.  He  became  a  tutor  and  fellow  of  his  college  * 
and  afterwards  vicar  of  Whitchurch,  in  Dorsetshire.  , 
His  extensive  learning  recommended  him  to  the  notice 
of  lord-chancellor  Northington,  who  presented  him  to 
the  vicarage  of  Twickenham,  in  Middlesex,  in  1764,  in 
which  charge  he  continued  until  his  death,  Jan.  10, 1782. 
Among  his  publications  were,  Observations  Tending  to 
Illustrate  the  Book  of  Job  (17U),  also  Dissertatiomet 
Critico-Sacra  (Oxford,  1752).  See  Chalmers,  Biuff. 
Diet,  8.  V. ;  Allibone,  Dkt,  of  Brit,  €md  A  mer,  A  uthom^ 
s.  V. 

Coste,  HuJuaoN  dk,  a  French  mission  friar,  was 
bom  in  Paris,  Sept.  6, 1695,  of  a  noble  family,  originally 
from  Dauphin^,  and  died  in  the  same  city,  Aug.  22, 
1661,  leaving  several  pious  works  full  of  curious  partic- 
ulars, but  destitute  of  critical  accuracy,  for  which  see 
Biog,  Universale,  s.  v. ;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Coster,  Frangois,  a  Belgian  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Mechlin  in  1531.  In  1551  he  was  received  into  the 
Jesuit  ranks  by  Ignatius  Loyola  himself.  In  1555  he 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  at  Cologne, 
and  there  taught  belles-lettres,  phikMophy,  and  theol* 
ogy.  He  was  afterwards  charged  with  the  mission 
of  propagating  Jesuitism  in  the  Low  Countries  and 
the  Rhenish  provinces.  He  zealously  combated  the 
Protestants,  and  thus  obtained  the  name  of  Malleug 
Iliereticorum,  He  died  at  Brussels,  Dec  6, 1619,  leaving 
Responsio  ad  Andream  Calliam  CcUvinistam  (Cologne, 
1586):  —  Enchiridion  Controversiarum  (in  Latin  and 
Flemish,  ibid.  1600)  i—Epistola  ad  Franciseum  Goma- 
rum, contra  Anti-Costerum  (ibid.): — Epistola  ad  Gaap^ 
Grevinchovium  (ibid.):  —  Institutionum  Christianarum 
Ubri  iv  (Antwerp  and  (Cologne,  1604)  :^Denumstratio 
Veteris  Orthodoxa  Fidei,  eta  (Cologne,  1607)  :-~Respam- 
sio  ad  Lucam  Osiandrum,  etc  (ibid.  1608),  and  several 
other  works  of  controversy  or  religion,  in  both  Latin 
and  Flemish.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. ; 
Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Coster,  Jean  (called  Columba,  from  his  gentle- 
ness), a  Belgian  commentator,  was  bom  at  Louvain  in 
1515.  He  was  prior  of  the  canons-regular  of  St  Mar- 
tin in  that  city,  and  died  there,  March  9, 1559,  leaving 
editions  and  annotations  of  various  Church  fathers,  for 
which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  J&dber, 
A  Bgemeuies  Gdehrten-I^exikon,  s.  t. 


COSTER 


131 


COTHURNO 


Coster,  Johannaa,  a  Flemish  theologuo,  was 
bom  at  Aknt,  became  master  of  arts  in  1561,  aod  after- 
wards carate  of  Oodenarde,  where  he  died,  June  10, 
1590,  leaTiog  a  history  of  the  Catholics  in  heretical 
cities,  nnder  the  title,  De  Exitu  JEgjfpH  tt  Fuga  Bab^ 
hmu  (Douay,  1560).  See  Hoefer,  Souv,  Biog,  GMrale, 
B,  Y. ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugememe§  GeUhrtett^Lexihon,  s.  v. 

Costerdine,  Robbbt,  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Flixton,  near  Manchester,  in  October, 
1726.  He  was  converted  under  John  Ndson;  was  a 
local  preacher  five  yean,  and  in  1764  was  appointed 
to  the  Epworth  Cireuit.  He  was  persecuted  much, 
bat  his  sermons  had  mighty  effect.  He  also  labored 
at  Keighley,  SheiBeld,  Manchester,  Macclesfield,  Wed- 
iieebinry,etc.  He  died  March  16, 1812.  He  was  a  man 
of  patience  ami  self-sacrifice.  See  WeiL  Meth,  Maga- 
181i,p.l61. 


Costere  is  a  medieval  term  for  the  side-hangings 
which,  suspended  on  rods,  anciently  enclosed  the  altar, 
or,  stretched  upon  frames,  ffood  at  either  tndf  to  protect 
the  lighted  tapers  from  draughts. 

CoatOD,  Zara  Haijb,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
iater,  was  bom  at  Litchfield,  Herkimer  Co.,  K.  Y.,  Aug. 
6, 179S.  He  experienced  oonrersion  at  the  age  of  sev- 
enteen ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1820,  and  admitted 
into  the  Ohio  Conference.  In  1829  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Pittsburgh  Conference,  and  in  it  served  the 
Church  as  health  permitted,  until  1858,  when  he  be- 
came soperannnated,  and  continued  to  sustain  that  re- 
lation to  the  dose  of  his  life,  June  8, 1874.  Mr.  Coa- 
ton  was  amiable,  a  universal  favorite,  generous  to  a 
fault,  and  a  preacher  of  ordinary  abilities.  See  Jl/u»- 
mlet  of  A  imual  Cotferencetj  1875,  p.  35 ;  Simpson,  Cydop, 
of  Metkodiuftf  s.  v. 

Cot  (or  Cotas),  Saimt,  an  early  martyr,  was  a 
friend  of  St.  Priscus,  and  when  the  latter  was  behead- 
ed, by  order  of  the  emperor  Aurelian,  Cot  seized  the 
heiMi  and  ran  into  the  forest.  Being  pursued  by  the 
Roman  soldiers,  he  was  overtaken  and  beheaded,  in  273. 
It  ia  said  that  his  body  was  preserved  in  the  Church 
ofSLPrisens^from  which  place  John  Baillet,  bishop  of 
Aiucerre,  exhumed  it,  Nov.  19, 1480,  and  exposed  it  for 
public  veneration.  According  to  the  BibHothique  Sa- 
crse,  little  is  known  definitely  of  this  man,  yet  his  re- 
mains may  be  seen  at  Notre  Dame,  and  bis  festival  ia 
celcbmted  with  that  of  St.  Priscus,  May  26.  See  Hoe- 
fer, iVoH p.  Bioff.  GhUrdkf  s.  v. 

CotbAt  is  the  discourse  with  which  the  imanms 
among  the  Saracens  were  wont  to  commence  the  public 
prayen  on  Friday.  It  consisted  of  expressions  of 
pcaiae  to  God  and  to  Mohammed,  and  was  first  intro- 
duced by  the  Prophet.  In  ancient  times  the  caliph, 
dreased  in  white,  used  to  pronounce  the  cotbat  in  per^ 
aofi,  a  ceremony  which  was  considered  a  mark  of  sov- 
ereignty. It  generally  concluded  with  a  prayer  for  the 
caliph.    See  Gardner, /VzicAjq/'fAe  World,  %.  v. 

Cote,  C  H.  O.,  M.D.,  a  Canadian  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  Montreal  in  1808.  He  received  a  colle- 
giate education,  studied  medicine,  and  entered  on  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  L'Acadte  in  1831,  but  in 
1838  removed  to  Napierville.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  legislative  assembly  of  Lower  Canada  in  1836,  but 
erentuaUy  being  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  insurrectioi^ 
of  1887  and  1888,  went  into  exile,  and  for  several  years 
rcnded  in  the  United  States.  He  had  been  brought 
Qp  in  the  Romish  Church,  but  was  converted  in  June, 
1841.  He  then  began  to  preach,  spending  two  years 
at  Chasy,  where  a  number  of  French  Canadians  had 
aettled.  As  the  result  of  his  labors,  about  fifty  converts 
vtte  made  from  Romanism.  He  removed,  in  the  fall 
of  1848,  to  St.  Pie,  and,  amid  much  opposition,  went 
forward  in  his  work,  in  which  he  met  with  the  most 
cooouraging  success.  A  Church  was  formed  in  that 
place,  of  which  he  was  oidained  the  pastor  Aug.  28, 
1844.    When  he  left  there  in  1848,  upwards  of  two 


hundred  persons  bad  been  converted.  Dr.  Cote  spent 
some  time  in  tlie  United  States,  raising  funds  for 
the  Grind  Ligne  Mission,  and  then  retunied  to  the 
field  of  his  labors,  taking  charge  of  the  mission  sta- 
tion at  St.  Mary*s.  Here  a  Church  was  about  to  be 
formed,  made  up  of  converts  from  Romanism,  of  which 
he  was  to  be  the  pastor,  but  while  attending  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  Lamoille  Baptist  Association  at  Hinet- 
burg.  Sept  18, 1850,  he  was  seized  with  illness,  and  died 
Oct.  4  following.  The  only  publications  of  special  in- 
terest which  were  the  product  of  his  pen  were  a  trana- 
lation  into  French  of  Pengilly's  Scripture  Guide  on 
Baptism,  issued  by  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society,  and  some  other  small  works  for  the  instruction 
and  benefit  of  his  fellow -countrymen.  See  Engliik 
Baptitt  Magazine,  1851,  p.  1.     (J.  a  S.) 

Cotelle  {de  la  BUmdmUkre),  Piebbb  Jacques,  a 
French  theotogian,  was  bom  at  Laval  about  1709.  He 
was  at  first  rector  of  Soulaines,  in  Anjou,  next  vicar- 
general  of  Blois,  and  superior  of  the  priests  of  Mt,  Va- 
lerien.  He  added  ten  volumes  to  the  Conftreneee  Ec^ 
cUsiastiquee  du  Diockte  d^A  ngere  of  Bobin,  in  return  for 
which  the  assembly  of  the  cleigy  voted  him  an  an- 
nual pension  of  one  hundred  pistoles.  Moultrot  has  re- 
produced it  in  his  DifenMe  du  Second  Ordre.  Cotelle 
died  in  1795.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Cotorean  (or  Cottereau),  Claude,  a  French 
ecclesiastic,  was  bom  at  Toun  in  the  16th  centuiy. 
He  entered  holy  orders,  and  became  canon  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Paris,  where  he  died  about  1560.  He  was 
learned  in  philology  and  canon  law,  and  left  several 
minor  treatises,  for  which  see  Biog.  Utdverselle,  &  v. 

Coter6e,  Jeah,  a  French  preacher,  was  bom  at 
Rbeims,  and  lived  in  1598.  He  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  divinity  from  the  Sorbonne,  taught  at  Douay, 
and  became  canon  of  Toumay.  He  wrote  seven  vol- 
umes of  French  sermons,  which  were  published  from 
1578  to  1596.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Cotes,  Roger,  a  celebrated  English  divine,  math- 
ematician, philosopher,  and  astronomer,  was  born  July 
10, 1682,  at  Burbage,  in  Leicestershire,  and  educated  at 
Leicester  School,  St.  Paul*s  School,  London,  and  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degrees,  and 
was  chosen  a  fellow  in  1705.  In  January,  1706,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  astronomy  and  experimental 
philosophy,  took  orders  in  1718,  and  the  same  year 
published  at  Cambridge  the  second  edition  of  sir  Isaac 
Newton^s  MathemaUca  Principia,  He  left  at  his  death 
some  admirable  tracts.  He  died  June  5,  1716.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  AUibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer,  A  uthort,  s.  v. 

Cothman,  Johanm,  a  German  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Herford,  Westphalia,  in  1595,  studied 
at  Giessen  and  Rostock,  was  doctor  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  died  at  Rostock  in  1650, 
leaving  DiuerUxtio  de  Pratentia  Corporie  et  Sanguinis 
Ckritti  in  Sacroeancta  Euckaristia: — Destrudio  Fut^ 
damenti  Papatut,  contra  SchiUerum:  —  De  Conjugio 
Comprivignorum.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale, 
s.  V. ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeinei  Gelehrien-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Cothumo,  Bartolommbo  del,  an  Italian  prelate 
and  theologian,  was  born  in  the  suburbs  of  Genoa,  of  a 
noble  and  wealthy  family,  which  he  abandoned  in  order 
to  become  a  Franciscan.  His  merit  raised  him  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Genoa.  Pope  Urban  VI  appointed 
him,  Sept.  16, 1878,  cardinal  -  priest,  with  the  title  of 
Scmto  Jjorenzo  in  DamoMo.  Some  years  after,  Urban, 
then  at  war  with  the  king  of  Naples,  Charles  Durazzo, 
feared  a  conspiracy  among  the  cardinals  who  sur- 
rounded him,  and  at  the  denunciation  of  Prignani, 
hia  nephew,  Jan.  11, 1885,  caused  Cothumo  to  be  ar- 
rested at  Luoera,  together  with  five  other  princes  of 
the  Church,  and  after  cruelly  torturing  him,  threw  him 
into  the  sea,  where  he  was  drowned,  in  December,  1885, 
Cothumo  wrote,  Paiilla  Sermonum  Saerorum: — Com* 


COnONOLA 


132 


COTTIDES 


mentaria  Sopra  CamUeum  Canticarum: — and  some 
other  religions  works.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GifU' 
rale,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  AUgemebies  GekhrUH'^Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Cotignola,  Framoesco  da.  (called  Marchen  or 
ZanffoneUi),  an  Italian  painter,  who  resided  chiefly  at 
Parma,  flourished  about  1518,  and  studied  under  Ron- 
dineUo.  He  painted  a  number  of  historical  works  for 
the  churches,  the  best  of  which  are  The  liaising  of 
Lazarus,  at  Parma,  and  The  Baptism  of  Christ,  at 
Faenza.  See  Uoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v.; 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

CotigBOn,  MiCHBL,  a  French  theologian,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century,  was  chief 
priest  of  NevorB,  and  wrote  Catalogue  Bistorial  des 
Piques  de  Nevers  (Paris,  1616).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  r. 

Cotin,  Charles,  a  French  preacher  and  writer,  also 
counsellor  and  almoner  of  the  king,  was  bom  in  Paris 
in  1604.  Being  appointed  in  16o0  to  the  canonship  of 
Bayeux,  he  took  possession,  but  resigned  it  the  follow- 
ing year.  On  May  8, 1655,  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy,  and,  although  ridiculed  by  Boi- 
lean  and  Moliere,  was  admitted  to  the  best  literary 
society  of  the  day.  He  died  in  January,  1682.  Some 
of  his  works  are,  MMHations  sur  les  Lemons  de  Timbres, 
etc.  (Paris,  1684)  :—La  Vraie  Philosophie  des  Principes 
da  Monde  (ibid.  1646 ) :~-rrat^^  de  VAme  ImmorUUe 
(1656) -.—PoMes  Chrkiemtes  (1657):— La  Pastorale 
Sacrie  (first  in  prose,  then  in  verse ;  one  of  his  most 
important  works) : — (Euvres  Melees  (1659).  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did. 
s.  V. 

Cotolendi,  loKACB,  a  French  missionary  and  theo- 
logian, was  bom  at  Brignolea,  March  24,  1680.  He 
completed  hu  studies  at  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Aix,  received  the  degree  of  doctor  at  Rome,  returned 
to  Aix,  where  he  took  the  eoclesiastical  habit,  and  was 
appointed  rector  of  Sainte- Marguerite.  He  left  this 
post  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  missions,  and  on  his 
return  to  Rome  was  appointed  by  pope  Alexander 
YII  preacher  in  the  suburbs  of  Paris  and,  among 
other  places,  at  Dreux.  He  became  titular  bishop  of 
Metellopolis,  and  ad  interim  filled  the  episcopal  see 
of  Chartres.  He  then  received  letters  giving  him 
the  authority  of  apostolic -vicar  for  the  mission  of 
Nankin,  Northern  China,  Corea,  and  Tartary.  He 
returned  to  Marseilles  with  three  priests  who  were 
to  be  his  companions;  visited  >Ialta,  Alexandretto, 
Aleppo,  and  arrived  at  Mazulipatam;  travelled  through 
various  parts  of  India,  and  introduced  himself  as  a 
physician.  This  gained  for  him  confidence,  which 
aided  him  in  his  work  as  missionar}'-,  and  ho  made 
numerous  proselytes.  But  fatigue  and  change  of  cli- 
mate were  too  much  for  his  health,  and  he  died  at 
Palacol  (East  Indies),  Aug.  10, 1662.  His  body  was 
carried  to  Goa,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory.  He  wrote.  Vie  de  Saini-Gaitan:*—9\BO  addi- 
tions to  the  Chroniques  of  Gautier,  and  several  religious 
works.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  G^h'cde,  s.  v. 

Cotron,  Victor,  a  French  Benedictine  of  the  con- 
gregation of  St.  Maur,  was  bom  at  Rheims  in  1614. 
His  diligence  as  a  student  reflected  honor  upon  his 
order,  and  he  wrote  the  history  of  several  abbeys,  espe- 
cially those  of  St.  Germain  of  Auxerre,  and  St.  Bene- 
dict-on-the-Loire,  which  remain  in  MS.  He  died  March 
10, 1674,  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Riquier,  of  which  he  was 
prior.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GhUraU,  s.  v. 

Cotta  was  an  Italian  tunide  of  linen  reaching  to 
the  knees.  Ducange  sa^^s  it  was  a  closed  circular  sur- 
plice. 

Cotta,  an  abbot,  attested  a  charter  of  Suaebraed, 
king  of  the  East -Saxons,  June  18,  A.D.  704.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cotta,  JoHAMW  Fbiedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Tubingen,  May  12, 1701.    He  studied  in 


his  native  city ;  went  to  Jena,  where  he  was  added  to 
the  faculty  of  philosophy  in  1728;  travelled  through 
Germany,  Holland,  England,  and  France;  on  his  return 
to  Germany  in  1784  was  appointed  titular  professor  of  % 
philosophy  at  Tubingen ;  in  1735  taught  theology  at 
Gottingen  as  fellow,  and  was  titular  professor  of  the 
Oriental  languages;  in  1789  returned  to  Tubingen,  in 
order  to  teach  theology,  poetry,  and  philosophy ;  after- 
wards occupied  other  high  positions  as  instructor;  and 
died  Doc.  31, 1779.  His  principal  works  are,  Themata 
Miscellanea  (I'ttbingen,  \n«)i-^AlUmeueste  Uistorie 
der  theologischen  Gelehrmmkeit  (ibid.  1722) : — De  Orir 
gine  Masorm  (ibid.  1726): — De  ProbabiUsmo  MoraU 
(Jena,  172S)  i—Traiti  de  la  ProbcdfiUte  (Rheims  or 
Amsterdam,  1782):  — I>e  FaUtbili  Poniificis  Romam 
A  udoritate  (Leyden,  eod.) : — Flavii  Jotephi  sanwUHche 
Werhe  (Tubingen,  1785) :— 2>e  Situ  Inavguratioms  apud 
HdfrcBos  (ibid.  1737) : — Ecdesia  Romante  de  A  ttritione 
el  Contritione  Conteniio  (ibid.  1789):— Z>e  Constitution- 
ibus  Apostolicis  (ibid.  1746):— Z>e  CuUu  Adorationis 
(ibid.  1755)  \—De  Jure  Docendi  in  Conventibus  Sacris 
(ibid.  1756):— /)e  Constitutione  Theologim  (ibid.  1759): 
--De  Variis  Theohgia  Speciebus  (ibid,  eod.)  -.-De  Be- 
ligione  in  Genere  ae  Spedatim  NaturaU  (ibid.  1761) : — 
De  Rdigvme  GentiU  (ibid,  eod.)  i—De  Rdigione  Bevdaia 
(ibid,  eod.)  :—De  Religions  Mahommedica  (ibid,  eod.) : 
— Z>e  Vita  jEtema  (ibid.  1770).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v.;  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Thedogen 
DeuischkmdSy  s.  v. 

Cotte,  Robert  de,  an  eminent  French  architect, 
was  bom  in  Paris  in  1657.  He  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Architecture,  and  was  vice- 
president  of  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture. 
He  was  greatly  esteemed  by  Louis  XIV,  who  made  him 
a  knight  of  the  order  of  St.  Michael.  He  died  in  1735. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog, 
HiH,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  b,  v. 

Cotten,  James  L.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Edgecombe 
County,  N.  C,  June  1,  1817.  He  was  remarkable  in 
early  life  for  his  purity  of  character,  tender  sensibilities, 
and  ardent  feelings;  developed  rapidly  in  mental  cult- 
ure, and  became  a  complete  English  scholar;  expe- 
rienced religion  in  his  young  manhood,  and  in  1845  en- 
tered the  Alabama  Conference ;  passed  up  through  all 
the  grades  of  circuit  rider,  station  preacher,  and  pre- 
siding elder,  until  his  death,  hi  1872  or  1878.  Dr.  Cot- 
ten  possessed  a  powerful  and  well-cultured  intellect,  an 
imperial  imagination,  an  unquenchable  zeal,  and  an 
amiable  disposition.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Confer- 
ences of  the  M.  E,  Church  South,  1878,  p.  827. 

Cotter,  RoBKRT  N.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Hall  County,  Ga., 
April  11, 1826.  He  joined  the  Church  in  his  seven- 
teenth year,  received  a  very  limited  education,  was  sev- 
eral years  class-leader  and  exhorter,  and  finally,  in  1854, 
entered  the  Georgia  Conference.  He  con  tinned  his  min- 
isterial labors  until  his  death,  May  6, 1868.  Mr.  Cotter 
was  a  simple,  eamest  preacher.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual 
Conferences  of  the  M.  £.  Church  South,  1868,  p.  454. 

Cotterean,  Claude.    See  Coterkau. 

Cottereau  (de  Coudrag),  Jean  Baptiste  Ar- 
mand,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at  Tours,  Jan. 
25, 1697.  He  was  curate  of  Donne-Marie-en-Montois, 
president  of  the  ecclesiastical  conferences,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy  of  Villefranche,  He  died  in  1770, 
leaving  a  few  fugitive  pieces,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Cotterel,  Alrxis  Francois,  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  curate  of  Saint-Laurent  of  Paris, 
and  royal  censor,  died  at  Paris,  Feb.  5,  1775,  leaving 
some  discourses  and  dissertations,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

CottiCdea  (or  Quottidius),  a  deacon  and  martyr 
in  Cappadocia,  is  commemorated  Sept  6. 


comNG 


138 


COTTON 


Cottingf  John  Rnoai.u,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can CoagT^adonal  minister  and  physicist,  was  bom 
in  Acton,  Maaa,  in  1784.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
rard  aod  the  medical  school  of  Dartmouth  College; 
was  ordained  about  1810;  became  verf  noted  for  bis 
manufacture  of  chemical  compounds  used  in  the  war  of 
1812  br  a  company  in  Boston ;  was  made  professor  of 
natural  sciences  in  Amherst  College  at  the  close  of  the 
war,  preaching  meantime  in  the  vicinity;  subsequently 
became  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Berkshire  Medical 
Institute:  in  1885  removed  to  Augusta,  Ga.;  entered 
upon  a  geological  and  agricultural  survey,  at  first  of 
Burke  and  Richland  counties,  then  of  the  entire  state; 
and  finally  retired  to  MilkdgeviUe,  where  he  spent  his 
latter  yeara,  and  died,  Oct.  13,  ISCJ,  Dr.  CoUing  pre- 
pared text>book8  of  al^ty  and  popularity  on  both  chem- 
istry and  geology.  See  AppkUnCs  A  tmutU  Cjfdop,  1867, 
p.  58a 

Cottiiigfaam,  Lewis  Nicholas,  a  reputable  Eng- 
lish architect,  was  bom  in  1787,  in  Suffolk.  He  went 
to  London,  and  was  employed  by  a  skilful  architect  and 
surveyor.  He  commenced  his  professional  career  in 
181i.  In  1822  he  received  his  first  public  appointment 
as  architect  and  surveyor  to  the  Cook's  Company ;  in 
1825  was  Bppotuted  architect  of  the  cathedral  at  Roch- 
ester; in  1829  was  the  successful  competitor  for  the 
restoration  of  the  interior  of  the  chapel  of  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford ;  and  in  1838  was  intrasted  with  the 
icstonttioa  of  St.  Albania  abbey  church.  He  was  af- 
terwards employed  in  the  restoraUon  of  a  number  of 
churches  and  cathedrals  in  England  and  Ireland.  He 
died  about  1847.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hisi.  of  the  Fine 
Arts^a^w 

Cotton,  Bartholome'W  of,  a  monk  of  Norwich, 
England,  wrote :  A  rmaUa  Ecdtnm  Kanoicauia,  1042- 
1295,  H  nigicria  de  Epucopu  Norw^  ad  an.  1299: — 
A  cctdaaU  dndinucUio  Uittorim  ad  an,  1446,  et  Succettio 
EpiacopQnim  tt  Priorum,  See  Wharton,  A  ngiia  Sacra  ; 
AlUbone,  DicLof  Brii,  and  A wur,  A utkort,  s.  v. 

Cotton,  Henxy,  an  English  prelate  of  the  first 
part  of  the  17th  century,  was  bom  at  Warblington, 
Hampshire,  being  a  son  of  sir  Richard  Cotton,  privy- 
oounciUor  to  Edward  VI.  He  was  educated  at  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  and  was  preferred  by  Queen  Elisabeth 
(bis  godmother)  bishop  of  Salisbury,  Nov.  12, 1598,  at 
the  same  time  that  WiUiam  Cotton,  of  another  family, 
wss  made  bishop  of  Exeter,  the  queen  merrily  saying 
that  "she  hoped  that  now  she  had  well  cottoned  the 
west."  He  died  May  7,  1615.  See  Fuller,  WortkieM 
o/EngUnd  (ed.  NuttaU),  ii,  1 1. 

Cotton,  John  (1),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  in  Boston,  March  13, 1640.  He  was  pastor  at 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  from  June  30, 1669,  to  Oct.  5,  1697; 
atMartha'aVineyaidfrom  1664  to  1667;  and  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  from  1698  until  his  death,  Sept  18, 1699.  He 
rendered  great  assistance  to  Thomas  Bfayhew,  at  Mar- 
tha's Vineyard;  frequently  preached  to  the  Indians  at 
Plymouth,  and  revised  and  corrected  Eliot's  Indian  /iiUe, 
printed  at  Cambridge  in  1685.  See  Drake,  A  mer,  Biog, 
n  V. ;  Allibone,  BicL  o/BriL  and  A  mer,  A  utkorSf  a.  v. 

Cotton,  John  (2),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  about  1693.  He  was  pastor  at  Newton,  MassL, 
and  died  in  1757.  He  published  several  Sermons,  See 
AUibooe,  Did,  of  BriL  and  A  mer.  A  uthore,  s.  v. 

Cotton,  John  (8),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bon  aboot  1712,  and  was  first  pastor  at  Halifax,  Mass. 
He  died  in  1789.  He  published  two  Sermons  (1757). 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cotton,  John  T^allaoe,  an  EngliMh  Wealeyan 
minister,  was  bom  in  London,  May  80, 1801.  He  was 
converted  in  early  youth,  joined  the  Wesleyans,  became 
a  local  preacher,  and  an  active  worker  in  the  City-road 
CiicmL  At  the  request  of  Richard  Watson,  he  offered 
himself  to  the  Church  for  its  ministry  in  1827.  He  la- 
bored faithfully  in  his  appointments,  and  was  a  pains- 


taking and  earnest  preacher.  In  1868  he  retired  to 
liewisham,  where  he  died.  May  9, 1881.  See  Mimttes  of 
tMe  Brit.  Conferences,  1881,  p.  43. 

Cotton,  Joseph,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Derby,  Feb.  24, 1810,  and  attended  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Pike,  under  whom  he  was  con- 
verted and  baptised.  He  studied  for  the  ministry  un- 
der the  Rev.  Thomas  Stevenson,  at  Loughborough.  He 
was  successively  pastor  at  Isleham,  Barton,  Holbeach, 
and  Woodhouse  Eaves,  and  in  each  place  his  earnest 
efforts  to  do  good  were  greatly  blessed.  He  died  Nov. 
19,1868. 

Cotton,  Joslah,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  a 
son  of  Rev.  Roland  Cotton,  of  Sandwich,  Mass.,  and 
great-grandson  of  Rev.  John  Cotton,  of  Boston.  He 
graduated  from  Har>'ard  College  in  1722 ;  was  or- 
dained at  Providence,  B.  I.,  Oct.  28, 1728;  installed  at 
Wobum,  July  15, 1747 ;  at  Sardown,  Nov.  28, 1759,  and 
died  May  2*7,  1780,  aged  seventy -eight  years.  See 
Sprague,  A  wnaU  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpitf  i,  901. 

Cotton  (or  Coton),  Pienre^  a  French  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Neronde,  in  Fores,  in  1564.  He  studied  in 
Paris  and  Bonrges,  went  to  Turin,  and  there  joined  the 
Jesuit  order,  against  the  wishes  of  bis  father^  After 
staying  some  time  at  Milan,  Rome,  and  other  cities  of 
Italy,  he  went  to  France,  where  he  preached  with  suc- 
cess, was  received  at  the  court,  and  gained  the  confi- 
dence of  Henry  IV,  whom  he  accompanied  in  hia  trav- 
ela  as  confessor.  Cotton  refused  the  archbishopric  of 
Aries  and  the  cardiualate.  At  the  time  of  the  murder 
of  Henry  by  RavaiUac,  May  14, 1610,  CoUon  attempted 
to  defend  his  order  from  the  accusations  made  against 
them,  by  a  work  entitled  Lettre  Didaratoire  de  la  VoC" 
trine  des  Peres  Jisuites  (Paria,  1610).  When  Albert  of 
Luynes  became  strongly  influential  with  Lonis^  Cotton 
retired  from  the  court,  and  went  to  visit  the  house  of  the 
novices  of  his  order  at  Lyons,  where  he  remained  for 
some  time,  and  finally  devoted  himself  to  missionary 
work  in  the  south  of  France  and  in  Italy.  At  length 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  preached  before  the  king. 
He  died  in  that  dty,  March  19,  1626.  Besides  the 
above,  Cotton  wrote :  Institution  Caiholique,  in  opposi- 
tion to  Calvin's /m^k/umw; — Gen^e  Plagiaire,tigsiTtBt 
the  Geneva  Bible  translation  (Paris,  1618),  which  called 
forth  a  rejoinder  by  B.  Tunretin : — Defense  de  la  FideUti 
des  Traductions  de  la  Bible  Faites  ^  Geneve  (Geneva, 
16\9):  — Sermon  aux  ks  Primeipales  et  Plus  Difficiks 
Matieres  de  la  Foi  (Paris).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
Genirale,  s.  v. 

Cotton,  Stephen,  an  English  martjr,  was  one  of 
six  who  were  burned  at  Brentford,  seven  miles  from 
London,  July  14,  1558,  for  faithful  adherence  to  Christ 
and  his  cause.    See  Fox,  A  cts  atul  Monuments,  viii,  479. 

Cotton,  Thomas,  an  English  Presbyterian,  bom 
at  Workby,  near  Rotherham,  in  1658»  was  educaud 
by  four  eminent  tutors,  and  took  his  degree  at  Edin- 
burgh  University  in  1677.  Owing  to  the  persecutions 
prevatlinfT,  Sunday  service  was  long  held  in  his  father's 
house.  He  then  travelled  for  three  years  with  a  gen- 
tleman on  the  Continent.  On  his  retum  to  London  he 
was  for  a  time  a  tutor,  and  chaplain  to  Lady  Russell. 
He  had  a  church  in  St.  (iiles  parish  for  some  yean,  but 
it  Buffered  severely  in  the  Sacheverel  riots,  in  1709,  and 
he  had  to  flee  for  safety.  He  was  one  of  the  non-sub- 
scribing members  at  the  Salters'  Hall  synod,  1719.  He 
died  at  Hempstead,  in  1780,  much  loved  and  esteemed. 
He  published  one  Sermon  (1702).  See  Wilson,  DissenU 
ing  ChurcheSf  iv,  376. 

Cotton,  T^ard,  a  O)ngrcgational  minister,  was 
bora  at  Plymouth,  Mass.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
College  in  1798 ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in 
Boylston,  June  7,  1797;  dismissed  June  22,  1825,  and 
died  in  1848.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pul- 
pit, i,  574. 

Cotton,  T^ilUam,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate  of  the 


COTTRET 


134 


COUDRETTE 


first  part  of  the  17th  century,  wm  bom  in  London,  edu- 
cated at  Queen*8  College,  Cambridge,  preferred  by  Elis- 
abeth to  be  archdeacon  of  Lewes  and  canon  residentiary 
of  St.  Paul's,  and  consecrated  bishop  of  Exeter  Nov.  12, 
1598.  He  is  credited  by  Fuller  with  having  plucked 
up  the  seeds  of  nonconformity  sowed  in  his  diocese  by 
Snape,  of  JerMy.  He  died  of  apoplexy,  in  1621.  He 
was  father  of  Edward  Cotton,  D.D.  See  Fuller,  Wor- 
thie$  o/En^and  (ed.  Nuttall),  ii,  858. 

Cottret,  PiKRBB  Maris,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Argenteuil,  near  Paris,  May  8, 1768.  Having 
completed  his  classical  studies  at  Sainte-Barbe,  he  en- 
tered the  seminary  of  SL  Louis  of  Paris,  at  the  close 
of  1785.  In  April,  1791,  he  was  called  to  the  priest- 
hood, privately  ordained  by  the  bishop  of  Oleron,  and 
allowed  to  depart  in  disguise.  He  went  to  Ghent, 
where  he  remained  as  chaplain  of  the  cathedral  until 
June,  1794.  Then,  after  taking  refuge  for  some  time 
in  several  cities  of  Germany,  he  resided  at  Fritzlau,  and 
thence  went  to  Arolaen  as  private  tutor.  After  a  pro- 
longed sojourn  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  he  returned  to 
France  in  October,  1800.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chapel  of  Sannois,  in  the  valley  of  Montmorency; 
in  1806  rector  of  Boissy-Sainte-L^ger,  and  the  year  fol- 
lowing, returned  to  Paris.  He  now  became  connected 
with  the  Gazette  de  France  and  the  Jomnud  de  FEm^ 
pire.  He  was  appointed  adjunct  professor  of  the  facul- 
ty of  theology  in  1809,  honorary  canon  of  Notre-Dame 
of  Paris,  and  vioe-promoter-general  of  the  diocese,  in 
1811;  was  invested  with  a  canonship  in  1812;  later 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  small  seminary  of  Paris. 
In  1828  be  accompanied  cardinal  Clermont -Tonnerre 
to  Rome.  Leo  XII  appointed  him  titular  bishop  of 
Carystus,  and  canon  of  the  first  order  of  the  chapter 
of  St.  Denis.  He  retired  to  the  diocese  of  Venailles, 
and  was  thence  appointed  to  the  see  of  Beauvais,  Dec 
27, 1837.  He  died  at  Beauvais,  Nov.  18,  1841.  Be- 
sides his  work  for  the  Gazette  de  France  and  the  Bi- 
offrapkie  Unioertelle  of  the  Michaud  brothers,  Cottret 
wrote,  from  1822  to  1827,  a  number  of  articles  upon 
literary  and  religious  matters  in  the  TaUettee  du  CItrffij 
and  the  Unum  EecUnoMtique  published  several  letters 
of  this  prelate.  He  also  wrote:  Contidirationt  stir 
rj^  actud  de  la  Religion  Caiholique  en  France  et  eur 
lea  Moyent  de  la  RkcMir  (Paris,  1815)  i—Duomre  eur 
la  ReUgwn  Condderie  comme  urn  Nicettiii  de  la  So^ 
eUti  (1828):~also  an  edition  of  the  DMaraHon  du 
Clerg^  de  France  de  1682  (Paris,  1811).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Cotuxlafl,  Julius  Casar,  a  German  theologian  of 
the  Jesuit  order,  who  lived  near  the  latter  half  of  the 
17th  century,wrote,J^oine  Coftfroremarum  (Munich, 
1648)  :~i4  n  Quivit  in  aua  Fide  Salvari  Poetit  (Meissen, 
1645).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Cotys  (or  Cotytto),  in  Greek  mythology,  was  a 
Thracian  goddess,  whoso  worship,  like  that  of  Cybele, 
was  held  with  noise  and  tumult,  and  led  finally  to  licen- 
tiousness. In  later  times  she  was  also  honored  in  Cor- 
inth, Athens,  and  Sicily. 

Couard,  Christian  Ludwxo,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Berlin,  April  11,  1798, 
became  doctor  of  theology  and  pastor  of  St.  Georges,  in 
the  same  city,  and  died  there,  Dec.  28,  1865.  He  pub- 
lished, Predigten  Uber  gewdhnUcke  Perikopen  und  Freie 
Texte  (Berlin,  1824 ;  8d  ed.  1851)  \^Der  verlorene  Sokn^ 
(ibid.  1831 )  x—PreeUgten  uber  die  Bekehrung  det  ApoeteU 
Paulue  (ibid.  1833):— i^imon  Petrui,  der  Aposiel  dee 
Herm  (ibid.  1836, 2  vols.) : — Sammlung  von  Casualreden 
autfruherer  und  neuetter  Zeit  (Potsdam,  1856, 1858,  2 
vols.) : — Evangelisehe.  Zeugmeee  in  Predigten  (ibiil.  1855- 
60, 8  vols.).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  ii,  27, 
101, 120, 121, 146 ;  Zuchold,  BHU,  Theol,  i,  247.    (a  P.) 

Conoh,  EzBKiEL,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copid  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Pendleton  District, 
Sw  Cw,  Nov.  1, 1805.  He  was  converted  in  1824 ;  licensed 
to  preach  in  1836;  Joined  the  Memphis  (>)nference  in 


1840;  was  ordained  deacon  in  1841,  and  elder  in  1843. 
In  1847  he  was  transferred  to  the  Indian  Mission  Con- 
ference; from  1855  to  1857  was  superintendent  of  the 
Colbert  Institute  in  the  Chickasaw  Nation ;  in  1857  was 
transferred  to  the  East  Texas  Conference;  in  1864  was 
a  superaumersry,  but^as  made  effective  the  following 
year;  from  1866  to  1871  was  superannuated;  again 
made  effective  in  1872,  but  at  the  end  of  the  year  was 
obliged  again  to  take  a  superannuated  relation,  in  whidi 
he  continued  until  his  death  in  1880.  He  was  a  conse- 
crated, zealous,  and  faithful  minister,  kind  and  cordiaL 
See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Coi^erenees  of  the  M.  E,  Church 
South,  1880,  p.  203. 

Couch6,  Marc,  a  French  theologian,  was  bora  nt 
Besanfon.  He  entered  the  Benedictine  order  of  St. 
Vanne  at  Luxeuil,  June  10, 1688,  then  taught  theology, 
and  became  prior  of  Mont -Roland.  He  died  about 
1751,  leaving,  Prioeptee  dune  Beligieuse: — Commentaria 
Theologica  in  Sammam  Divi  Thomm: — Dejeneio  Deere' 
iorum  Pontijidorum  circa  Regulat  Morum: — PhiioeO' 
phia  cum  Theologia  Christiana  Comtexio: — Ad  Prth' 
legomena  Sandm  Scripturm  Brevia  Manududio : — Apo* 
ki^  dee  Principaux  Points  de  la  Doctrine  de  SainU 
Thomas: — Le  Vrai  Centon  ThSohgique  Opposi  au 
Faux:  —  VArt  de  Vivre  Beureuz  dans  une  Comam- 
nauti  ReUgieuse,  and  some  treatises  upon  questions  of 
the  time,  remaining  in  MS.  See  Hoefer,  Wouv.  Biog, 
GeniraU^UY. 

Coticher  is  a  name  for  (1)  a  register  or  account 
book ;  (2)  a  church  book  couched,  or  lying,  on  the  chan- 
cel desk.    See  Collkctabiuil 

Coucy,  Jean  Charlei,  comU  de,  a  French  theo- 
logian and  prelate,  was  bom  at  the  castle  of  Eacordal 
(^thelois),  Sept  23, 1745.  He  was  successively  vicar- 
general  of  Rheims,  canon  of  that  city  (1778),  almoner 
of  the  queen  (1776),  abbot  of  Iny  (1777),  and  bishop  of 
La  Rochelle  (Jan.  8, 1790).  Under  the  Revolution  he 
retired  to  Spain,  but  on  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  he 
was  made  archbishop  of  Rheims  (1817),  where  he  died, 
March  10, 1824.  He  wrote  a  Protestation  Addrtssk  a 
Pie  VII  (1802).  See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog.  Ginirale^ 
a.  V. 

Coney,  Robert  de^  a  French  architect,  who  died 
at  Rheims  about  1800,  had  chief  charge  of  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  cathedral  of  that  city,  which  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1210.  In  1297  he  completed  the  or- 
namentation of  the  Church  of  St.  Nicaise.  See  Spooner, 
Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Artt,n,v;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bio^, 
GMrale,  s.  v. 

Condon,  JoeEPU,  A.M.,  a  minister  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church,  was  a  native  of  AnnapoUis 
Md.  He  became  lay  reader  in  North  Elk  Parish  in 
1782,  hsving  previously  been  principal  of  the  Free 
School  in  Kent  County,  which,  in  1783,  became  Wash- 
ington College.  As  a  lay  member  of  the  convention 
of  the  diocese  he  was  prominent  in  organizing  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church,  after  the  Revolution.  In  1787 
he  was  ordained  deacon,  at  the  age  of  forty-five,  became 
rector  of  North  Elk  Parish,  and  died  there  in  April, 
1792.    See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  v,  812. 

Condrette,  Christopiir,  a  learned  French  publi- 
cist, was  born  at  Paris  in  1701,  became  a  priest  in  1725, 
and  Joined  the  Jesuits.  He  was,  however,  an  opponent 
of  the  bull  UmgenUus,  and  being  persecuted  by  the  cler- 
ical party,  was  imprisoned  in  1785  at  Vincennes,  and 
again  in  1738,  in  the  Bastile.  Being  noted  for  his  op- 
position to  the  Jesuits,  he  was  appointed  in  1762  to  ex.. 
amine  their  institutions  and  afTairs.  He  died  at  Paiia, 
Aug.  4, 1774,  leaving,  among  other  works,  Disseriaiion 
sur  U$  BuUee  Contre  BaSus  (Utrecht,  1787,  2  vols.)  : — 
Histoire  Generate  de  la  Compafpue  de  Jesus  (Amsterdsas^ 
1761-87,  6  vols.).  See  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  G^ehrtet^ 
LexUcon,  s.  v. ;  Nouv.  Diction,  Historigue ;  Winer,  Hand- 
buch der  theol.  Lit.  i,  649,  722;  Biog.  UmverteUe^  a.  v.; 
Huefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 


COUET 


185 


COULTER 


Ctonet  (LaL  Cowhu)^  Jaxxhom^  a  French  Refomcd 
tbeologun,  was  bom  at  Parii  in  1546.  Being  an  ad- 
hcfent  of  the  Reformed  Church,  he  had  to  leave  his 
country,  and  on  his  way  to  Basle  in  1577  held  a  con- 
troveay  with  Faoatus  Socinus,  against  whom  he  wrote 
his  /)e  Saii$/aeUoHe  CkritH,  In  1588  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  the  French  Church  at  Basle,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  18, 1G06.  Besides  the  work  already  mentioned,  he 
wrote,  Riponse  a  Cenx  qui  CroiaU  PrMaiee  du  Cotpt 
de  Ckrisi  dan$  la  Cam  (\b&S)  i -^  Riptmttt  CkHHemut 
a  LaealU  (1598)  z—Apohffia  de  Justijicatume  (1594)  :— 
Tntiti  de  la  Pridetimation  (1599)  \— Confirmee  Faiie  a 
Aoffcy  (1600):— rrttM  du  Ckristianume  Cl(i02).  See 
Haag,  France  ProtettatUe ;  Bulletin  du  Protestaniitme 
FroRfais,  xii,  265  sq.;  zvi,  853  sq.;  Chretien  Evan^ 
Uquej  1868,  p.  135-140;  Jocber,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikcn^  a.  v. ;  Lichtenberger,  Fnejfdop*  dee  Sdenees  i2e- 
Uffieufet,  s.  t.    (B,  P.) 

Conghen,  Johk,  an  English  theologian,  became  a 
Qnaker  on  hearing  an  eloquent  young  woman  of  that 
denomination,  and  afterwards  defended  their  doctrines. 
He  died  of  the  plague  in  London  in  1665.  See  Hoefer, 
Now.  Biog,  G^nhraU^  s.  v. 

Conshlan,  Lawbxkck,  an  early  Methodist  preach- 
er, was  a  native  of  Ireland,  one  of  the  first-fhiits  of 
Methodism  in  that  country.  He  was  received  on  trial 
by  Wesley  in  1755,  and  labored  sucoeasfully  for  ten  years, 
when  in  consequence  of  having  been  ordained  in  1764 
by  Erasmus,  a  Greek  bishop,  he  withdrew  from  the  itin- 
erancy, Charles  Wesley  taking  deep  umbrage  at  such  a 
proceeding.  In  1765  he  sailed  as  a  miasionaxy  to  New- 
Ibandland,  a  year  before  Philip  Embury  arrived  in 
New  York,  and  labored  there  with  zeal  and  success  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Goepel  in  Foreign  Parts,  having  received  reordina- 
ti<m  from  the  bishop  of  London,  but  still  as  a  Methodist. 
He  formed  classes,  the  first  before  the  close  of  1765,  and 
the  earliest  Methodist  societv  on  the  west  of  the  At- 
lantic  On  his  return,  in  1778,  to  London,  Coughlan 
was  minister  of  the  Cumberland  Street  Chapel,  but  ap- 
plied to  Wesley  for  a  circuit.  While  in  conversation 
with  the  latter  in  his  study,  he  was  seized  with  parslysis, 
and  died  a  few  days  after.  Wesley  refers  to  his  death 
in  a  letter  written  to  John  Stretton,  of  Harbor-Grace, 
Newfoundland,  dated  Feb.  25, 1785  iMeih,  Mag,  1824, 
fi.307).  Coughlan  published,  in  1776,  a  book  entitled, 
Br^f  Account  of  the  Work  of  God  in  Newfoundland, 
See  Atmore,  Metk.  Memorial^  s.  v.;  Stevens,  Hi$L  of 
Methodism,  ii,  329 ;  Myles,  Chron.  ffist.  of  the  Methodists, 
1785,  p.  169;  A  rminian  ( WesL  Meth,)  Mag.  1785,  p. 490 ; 
Wilson,  NevfoundUmd  and  its  Missionaries,  p.  123, 134, 
141 ;  Smith,  Hist,  of  Meth,  in  Eastern  British  America 
(HaliC&x,  1877, 12mo),  p.  41-^;  Wesley,  Journal,  Aug. 
1768,  iii,  324;  also  Reports  of  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tiom  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  1767  sq. 

Conillon  (Lat.  CoviUomu),  Jkan,  a  Jesuit  of  Lille, 
and  professor  of  philosophy  and  theology  at  Coimbra, 
Borne,  and  Ingolstadt,  who  died  at  Rome  Aug.  17, 1581, 
it  the  author  of  Assertiones  in  Epistolatn  Primam  Pauli 
ad  CoruUhios: — Conduskmes  ex  hoc  Epistola  DeducUs: 

(^tmstiones  m  Psalmos,    See  Alegarobe,  BibHotheca 

ScriptorumSodeUUis  Jesus  J'dchtTf  Allgemeines  Gdehr^ 
ia^Lexikon,9.y.    (a  P.) 

Oonlan,  Airrom k,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Alaifli,  Langnedoc,  Oct.  10, 1667.  He  was  minister  of 
a  French  Church  in  London,  where  he  died,  Sept.  28, 
1694^  leaving,  ii^omoi  die  FBistoire  Critique  du  Nouveau 
Tetiamenl  (in  two  parts,  Amsterdam,  1696) :— /xi  De- 
fente  des  RefugUs  (Deventer,  1691).  See  Hoefer,  Aouv. 
Bioff,  GMrtUe,  a.  v. 

Oonllf  Alrx  AKDCR,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1749;  presented  to  the  living  at  Edenkeil- 
fie  in  1763,  ordained  in  1754,  and  died  July  10,  1790. 
Fasti  Eedes,  ScoOcana,  iii,  184. 

Cdi]lliii&  Jamxs  D.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 


Episcopal  Church  Sonth,  was  bom  at  Richmond^  Va., 
May  20, 1812.  He  was  converted  in  his  eighteenth  year; 
soon  became  an  earnest  Christian  worker  as  Sabbath- 
school  teacher  and  class -leader;  began  t^eaching  ia 
1835;  and  in  the  following  year  entered  the  YirgUiia 
Conference,  wherein  he  labored  with  zeal  and  fai&fol- 
ness  until  his  death,  Nov.  28, 1866.  Honest  oonaden- 
tiousness  and  earnest  fidelity  were  the  prominent  feat- 
ures of  his  character.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Cotifer* 
ences  of  the  M,  E.  Church  South,  1866,  p.  8. 

Conlon,  Claude  Asitoikic,  a  French  preacher  and 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Salins  in  1745.  He  became  a 
priest,  went  to  Paris,  and  was  chosen  grand-vicar  by  the 
bishop  of  Sisteron.  He  retired  during  the  Revolution, 
but  returned  with  the  Bourbons,  and  died  at  Paris,  March 
10, 1820,  leaving  Exhortation  a  la  Pershhance  dani  la 
Foi  (Paris,  1792)  i^ParapkroMe  du  Psaume,  '*Exaudiat 
te  Donttnus"*  (Lond.  1799),  and  some  minor  Letters  und 
Addresses,    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ghihrale,  s.  v. 

CoTilBOn,  David,  an  English  minister  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Friends,  was  bom  at  Nottingham,  April  9, 1718. 
He  was  converted  in  his  twenty -sij^h  year.  Some 
time  before  this  he  had  become  blind ;  but,  neverthe- 
less, about  his  thirty-third  year  he  visited  and  preached 
in  all  the  counties  of  England  except  Kent  and  Sussex. 
He  never  met  with  any  fall  or  accident  to  lay  him  up 
one  day  in  all  his  travds.  He  died  Dec  9, 1765.  See 
Pi€tg  Promoted,  ii,  414.     (J.  C,  S.) 

Conlaon,  Gtoorge  J.  A.,  a  preacher  and  novelist, 
was  bom  in  the  South  in  1819,  but  came  North  at  the 
commencement  of  the  late  civil  war.  For  a  long  time 
he  occupied  a  position  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  departs 
ments  in  A.  T.  Stewart's  store.  Latterly  he  had  been 
an  expert  accountant  and  commercial  referee.  For 
many  years  he  was  a  contributor  to  religious  papers, 
being  an  influential  member  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
South,  and  a  diligent  theological  student  For  several 
months  previous  to  his  death  he  preached  in  the  New 
East  Side  Chapel,  Peterson,  N.  J.  He  died  there  sud- 
denly, Oct  27, 1882.  Mr.  Coulson  was  the  author  of 
The  Lacg  Diamond; — The  Odd  Trump: — Ifarwood: — 
Flesh  and  Spirit  :^The  Ghost  of  Redbrook,  and  other 
novels.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Coulaton,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  a  native  of 
Dunfermline,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1795 ;  present 
ed  to  the  living  at  Pennycuik  in  1798;  ordained  in  1799; 
and  died  March  18, 1829,  aged  sixty-five  years.  See 
FasU  Ecdes,  Scotioana,  i,  806. 

Cooltaa,  Joseph,  an  English  Methodist  preacher, 
grandson  of  the  following,  was  bom  at  York,  June  14, 
1821.  He  was  brought  up  a  Wesleyan ;  toiled  success- 
fully in  the  Sunday-school  for  some  years;  became  a 
local  preacher  at  twenty;  joined  the  New  O)nnection 
in  1850;  entered  the  ministry  in  1858;  and  travelled  for 
twenty-one  years  in  thirteen  circuits.  In  1875  he  was 
attacked  wiih  cerebral  disease,  of  which  he  died  at  Shef- 
field, Nov.  30, 1878.  He  was  a  student,  a  plain  preach- 
er, gentle,  thoughtful,  trustful,  and  tranquil.  See  Min^ 
utes  of  the  Conference, 

Conltaa,  WiUlam,  an  English  Wesleyan  roinia- 
ter,  was  bom  at  Seamer,  Yorkshire,  Aug.  22, 1788.  He 
united  with  the  Church  in  1801,  was  received  into  the 
ministry  in  1810,  hnd  sent  to  'Nevis,  W.  I.,  where  he 
labored  for  six  years  amid  much  persecution  from  the 
planters.  He  returned  to  England  in  1817 ;  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  the  ministry  in  his  native  land;  re- 
tired to  Southport  in  1850 ;  and  died  Aug.  19, 1866.  Mr. 
Coultas  had  a  resolute  will,  strong  passions,  controlled 
by  grsce;  his  manner  was  rugged,  bis  heart  honest, 
and  his  life -long  fidelity  to  Christ  might  well  throw 
into  the  background  his  eccentricities.  He  wrote  a 
Memoir  of  his  daughter,  Eliza  (12mo).  See  Minutes 
of  the  British  Conference,  1867,  p.  10;  WesL  Meth, 
Magazine,  1868,  p.  961. 

Coulter,  Dayid,  D.D.|  a  Presbyterian  minister, 


COULTER 


186 


COUPLET 


was  bom  Kor.  S,  1806,  near  Geoigetown,  Snaaex  Go^ 
Del  He  eariy  ezperienoed  ootiTenion,  and  nnited  with 
the  Church  when  abeut  seventeen  ^rears  of  age.  After 
obtaining  a  good  English  education  in  the  common 
schools  of  his  neighborhood,  he  went  to  Easton,  Pa^ 
and  was  prepared  for  college  in  the  Manual  Labor  School, 
taught  by  tbe  Rev.  George  Junkin,  D.D.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Lafayette  College  in  1888,  and  fVom  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1841;  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  Kewton  Presbytery,  April  28,  tbe  same  year; 
soon  after  went  to  Missouri,  where,  for  about  two  years, 
be  preached  at  Auxvasse.  He  was  ordained  by  Mis- 
soari  Presbytery,  July  h,  1848,  pastor  of  the  Rocheport 
and  Fayette  churches,  where  he  labored  xealously  and 
usefully  until  Aug.  18, 1848;  next  acted  as  stated  sup- 
ply at  Round  Prairie  and  Millersburg,  and  pastor  of  the 
latter  Church  from  December  10, 1858,  to  April  8, 1856 ; 
and  of  Hopewell  Church,  in  Lafayette  Presbytery,  from 
April  32, 1856,  to  April  20, 1867,  at  the  same  time  serv- 
ing Prairie  Church.  Alter  preaching  at  Columbia,  Mo., 
a  little  over  a  year,  he  served  the  churches  of  Liberty 
and  Bethel  from  1868  to  1874.  He  was  now  quite  in- 
firm, and  at  length  entirely  unable  to  read ;  but  he  tried 
to  preach  even  to  the  last.  He  died  at  Liberty,  Aug. 
20, 1878.  See  NeeroL  B^oH  of  Prmcdon  TheoL  San, 
1879,  p.  42. 

Coulter,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1761 ;  became  assistant  minister 
at  Kilwinning;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Kirk- 
maiden  in  1768 ;  orduned  in  1764 ;  transferred  to  Stran- 
raer in  1772;  and  died  Feb.  16, 1814,  aged  eighty-three 
years.    See  FoMti  Eodet.  Scotieana,  i,  752,  762. 

Coulter,'  John  (2),  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  near  Sunbury,  Pa.,  June  26,  1784.  He  entered 
Jefferson  College,  Canonnaburg,  in  1818 ;  studied  theolo- 
gy with  Dr.  McMillan ;  was  licensed  by  the  Ohio  Pres- 
bytery; and  in  1828  became  pastor  at  Muddy  Creek, 
Butler  Co.,  Pa.,  where  he  remained  for  twenty -seven 
years.  He  was  installed  paator  at  Sunbuiy  in  his  sev- 
enty-eighth year,  and  died  in  Butler  County,  Dec.  6, 
1867.     See  Wilson,  JPretb.  Hut.  A  imanae,  1868,  p.  81. 

Conlthurst,  Hemrt  William,  D.D.,  an  English 
divine,  was  bom  in  Barbadoes  in  1758.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  England,  first  at  Hipperholme^  and  afterwards 
at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge;  graduating  in  1775, 
and  soon  after  obtained  one  of  Dr.  Smith's  priaes  for  his 
proficiency  in  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy.  In 
1777  he  obtained  a  prize  for  a  dissertation  In  Latin 
prose.  He  was  afterwards  elected  a  fellow  of  Sydney 
College,  held  the  office  of  moderator  in  the  years  1784 
and  1785,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  bis  residence  in  the 
oniversity  was  tutor  of  his  college.  In  December,  1790, 
he  became  vicar  of  Halifax.  He  died  suddenly,  Dec. 
11, 1817.  Dr.  Coulthurst  was  a  benevolent  man,  a  pious 
Christian,  a  xealous  minister.  See  (Lond.)  Christian 
OUerver^  1817,  appendix,  p.  869. 

Connter-remonatrance  of  Calvinists  to  tie 
Slate^'OeneraL    See  Rexonstbanck. 

Conpar,  William,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bora  in 
1566  at  Edinburgh,  and  took  the  degree  of  master  of 
arts  at  St.  Andrews  in  1582.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1586,  and  entered  into  the  ministry  at  Bothkennar, 
Stirling,  in  the  same  tear.  In  1592  he  was  removed 
to  the  town  of  Perth.  He  was  promoted  to  tbe  see  of 
Galloway  July  81, 1614,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death,  Feb.  15, 1619.  See  Keith,  Seottish  Bishops,  p. 
280. 

Coup6  (or  Coupp^),  Danicl,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian, who  lived  in  tbe  early  part  of  the  17th  oentuiy, 
wrote,  Tram  des  MiradeSy  eontre  BeUarmin  (Rotterdam, 
1645).    See  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Couper  is  the  family  name  of  several  Scotch  clergy- 
men: 

1.  Jambs,  D.D.,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1780; 
pnsented  to  the  living  at  Baldemock  in  1782 ;  ordained 


in  1788 ;  elected  professor  of  practical  astronomy  in  GIai> 
gow  University;  resumed  hfs  charge  in  1808;  and  died 
in  January,  1^,  aged  eighty-three  years.  See  Fatd 
EceUs,  Scoticanm,  ii,  844. 

2.  John  (1),  son  of  the  minister  at  Ktn&uns,  wu 
appointed  to  the  second  charge  at  Brechin  in  1724,  and 
ordained;  transferred  to  the  ftrst  charge  in  1781;  t^ 
tired  from  public  duty  in  1746,  having  his  chaige  sup- 
plied till  1764  by  unordained  assistants;  and  died  Jan. 
2i,  1774,  aged  seventy-seven  years.  See  Fasti  Eockt, 
SeotioamBj  iii,  845. 

3.  John  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1787 ;  csUed 
to  the  living  at  Lochwinnoch  in  1750,  and  onUned. 
He  died  Dec.  19, 1787,  aged  eighty  years.  He  was  so 
excellent  scholar,  of  irreproachable  character,  and  tbe 
only  minister  of  his  parish  of  the  moderate  party  in 
Church  politics.    See  Fasti  Eodes,  Scotieana,  ii,  2*^ 

4.  Matthkw,  studied  at  the  Glasgow  Univenity; 
held  a  bursary  in  theology  there  in  1676;  became  a 
schoolmaster  at  Manchline,  and  afterwards  at  Ochiltree; 
was  called  to  the  living  at  lilliesleaf  in  1691 ;  transferred 
to  Ochiltree  in  1695,  thence  to  Kinfauns  in  1700;  and 
died  Feb.  18, 1712,«ged.aixty  years.  See  Fasti  JSecUt, 
Scotieana,  i,  554;  ii,  184,  646. 

5.  P/TRicK,  was  bom  at  Scone  in  1660 ;  took  his  de- 
gree at  tbe  Universit}*  of  St,  Andrews  in  1678;  in  1679 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Perth  as  a  rebel;  imprisoned  and 
6ned  five  or  six  times  for  nonconformity  and  attending 
field  preaching;  fled  to  Scotland;  preached  at  Amster- 
dam in  1684;  after  several  years  of  foreign  travel,  peril, 
and  shipwreck,  returaed  to  Scotland;  was  appointed 
minister  at  St.  Niuian\  Stirling,  in  1688 ;  was  member 
of  the  assemblies  of  1690  and  1692;  accepted  the  living 
at  Pittenweem  in  1692,  although  much  opposed;  and 
died  June  14, 1740.  He  was  a  small,  thin,  spare  man, 
generous  and  kind;  and  was  the  first  to  propose  a  fund 
for  ministers'  widows,  in  1716.  He  published.  On  Pidh 
lie  Oaths  (1704)  i-^acobite  Lo^altp  (1724):— a  Sermon 
(1725).     See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scotieana,  ii,  456, 710. 

6.  KoDEBT  (1),  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1622 ;  was  called  to  the  living  at  Temple 
in  1682 ;  and  died  in  1655.  See  FasU  EccUs,  Sooticanae, 
1,807. 

7.  RoBKRT  (2),  was  bom  at  Cinry ;  presented  to  the 
living  at  Kirkmaideu,  as  assistant  and  successor,  in  1800; 
was  only  three  times  in  the  pulpit,  for  he  died  at  Clary, 
July  80, 1801,  aged  twenty-two  years.  See  Fasti  Eedes. 
Scotieana,  i,  762. 

B.  Simon,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  University 
in  1667 ;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Kirlccudbright 
in  1678 ;  transferred  to  the  Second  Church,  Dunferm- 
line, in  1682,  and  to  the  First  Church  in  1686;  was 
charged  in  1689  with  not  praying  for  the  king  and 
queen,  and  other  acta  of  disloyalty,  but  was  acquitted; 
was  depused  in  1698  for  contumacy  and  contempt  of  the 
authority  of  the  Presbytery,  and  ordered  to  leave  the 
Church  in  1696.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  Sept  20, 1710, 
aged  about  sixty-four  years.  He  published,  A  n  Impar- 
tial Inquiry  into  the  Order  and  Government  in  the  ChnrA 
(Edinb.  1704).  See  FasU  Eedes,  Scotieana,  i,  689;  ii, 
568-571. 

9.  Thomas,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1625;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1627;  ad- 
mitted to  the  living  at  Saline  in  1684 ;  tranaferred  to 
Menrouir  in  1689;  thence  to  Montrose,  in  1642;  and 
died  in  1661,  aged  about  fiftv-six  years.  See  Fasti  Ec- 
€hs,SootiDana,'\i,&^\  iii, 841, 844. 

Conplet,  Phiuppk,  a  Belgian  roiasionary,  was  bom 
at  Malines  about  1628.  He  entered  tbe  Jesuit  order, 
and  in  1659  departed  for  the  mission-field  of  China.  He 
returned  to  Europe  in  1680,  and  in  1692  started  to  re- 
turn to  China,  but  was  overtaken  by  a  violent  tempest, 
and  perished.  He  wrote,  Confucius  Sinarum  Philoso- 
phus  (Paris^  1687),  containing  a  summary  of  the  theol- 
ogy, history,  and  customs  of  the  Chinese,  with  a  trans- 
lation of  three  works  of  Confucius;  Ta-Hio  (grand  sci- 
ence), Chonff'Ywng  (the  Just  man),  Z^tra-Fii  (the  book 


COURAGE 


13? 


COURTENAY 


of  KBtanMi),  a  fife  of  GonfucttiSy  and  the  ChinMe  annals 
back  to  296t  B.a  Goaplet  alio  wrote,  Caialoffus  PP. 
Soaetaiu  Jet^  etc  (PariB,  W^y.—Hittoria  Candida 
ffiu  (truulated  into  French,  Paris,  1688 ;  also  in  Span- 
iih,  at  Madrid,  and  in  Flemish,  at  Antwerp).  See  Hoe- 
Icr,  A<nrr.  Bio^,  GkUraley  s.  t.  ;  Biog,  UniverteUe,  s.  t. 

Conxmge  is  thst  qoality  of  the  mind  that  enables 
men  to  encounter  difficnlties  and  dangers.  Natural 
eoorage  is  that  which  arises  chiefly  from  constitution ; 
moral  or  tpiritual  is  that  which  is  prodoced  from  prin- 
ciple, or  a  sense  of  duty.  Courage  and  fortitude  are 
often  used  as  synonjrmous,  but  they  may  be  distin- 
guished thus :  fortitude  is  firmness  of  mind  that  sup- 
ports pain;  courage  is  actire  fortitude,  that  meets  dan- 
gen,  and  attempts  to  repel  them.  See  FoirrrruDB. 
GottiBge,  says  Addison,  that  glows  fWun  constitution, 
▼eiy  often  fonakes  a  man  when  he  has  occasion  for  it; 
and  when  it  is  only  a  kind  of  instiuct  in  the  soul,  it 
breaks  out  on  all  occasions,  without  judgment  or  dis- 
cretion; but  that  courage  which  arises  from  a  sense  of 
duty,  and  from  a  fear  of  offending  Him  that  made  us, 
always  acts  in  a  uniform  manner,  and  acoording  to  the 
dictates  of  right  reason.— Buck,  TkeoL  Dkt,  s.  v. 

Conrbe'ville.  Joseph  Francois  de,  a  French 
Jesuit,  who  lived  in  1740,  wrote  a  laige  number  of 
works  on  practical  piety,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Now. 
Bioff.  Gimirale,  s.  ▼. 

Conroellefly  Btienne  de.    See  Cvbckllmvs. 

ComoeUes,  Thomas  de,  a  French  theologian, 
was  bom  in  1400,  of  a  noble  family  of  Picardy,  and 
studied  at  the  University  of  Paris.    In  1481  he  was 
canon  of  Amiens,  of  Laon,  of  Therouanne,  and  bachelier 
forwu  of  theolo^,  and  already  a  very  eminent  preach- 
er.   He  was  successively  sent  to  councils  or  congresses 
at  Basle,  Bourges,  Prague,  Rome,  and  Mantua.    In  1440 
he  refused  the  cardinalate  oifeied  to  him  by  the  anti- 
pope,  Felix  V.    He  was  one  of  the  most  able  defenders 
of  the  fibefties  of  the  Galilean  Church.    In  1447,  and 
yeera  following,  he  was  part  of  the  embassy  which  de- 
termined the  fate  of  the  pontifical  schism.    Having 
beoocne  doctor  of  theology,  he  was,  in  1450,  appointed 
vector  of  St  Andrew's,  Paris^  afterwards  canon,  peniten- 
tiaiy,  and  dean  of  the  cathedraL   In  1461  he  pronounced 
the  funeral  oration  of  Charles  VIL    Being  proviseur  of 
the  Soibonne,  he  was  the  same  year  delegated  by  the 
pope,  with  the  bishop  of  Paris,  to  proceed  to  the  refor- 
Bsation  of  the  order  of  Fontevrault.    Thomas  de  Cour- 
eeOea  n  especially  noticeable  in  history  by  the  part, 
ahhoegh  seooodanr,  which  he  played  in  the  condemna- 
tioB  of  Joan  of  Arc.    He  died  Oct.  28, 1469.    See  Hoe- 
fer, Nwn,  Biog.  Gemirale,  s.  r. ;  Biog.  Umva'sellf,  s.  v. 

Cornier,  Ecclesiastical.    See  Cursor. 

Conronne,  Matiiieu  de,  a  French  theologian, 
who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  wrote, 
Traits  de  VlnfttUlUdlUi  du  Pape  (Uege,  1668)  :—De  la 
PuttMoftce  Temporelle  et  Spirituelle  des  Eveques  (ibid. 
1671,  1673)«— Ats  Misiums  ApostoHqua  (ibid.  1675). 
See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  GkUrale^  s.  v. 

Court  OP  High  Commissioh.  See  High  Com- 
maaiox.  Court  of. 

COUBT,  Spibituat^  in  English  ecclesiastica]  usage, 
is  one  for  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  justice. 
Until  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror  the  court  for 
the  ODOsidenition  of  ecclesiastical  and  temporal  matters 
vas  one  and  the  same;  but  at  that  period  a  separation 
took  |>laoe.    There  are  six  such  courts: 

1.  The  Archdeaeon^i  Court,  which  is  the  lowest,  and 
is  beU  where  the  archdeacon,  either  by  prescription  or 
composition,  has  jurisdiction  in  spiritual  or  ecdesiasti- 
esl  csoses  within  his  archdeaconry.  The  judge  of  this 
aoort  is  cslled  the  official  of  the  archdeaconry. 

1  The  CongittOTy  Courts  of  the  archbishops  and  bish- 
epi  of  eveiy  diocese  are  held  in  their  cathedral  churches, 
fer  trial  of  all  ecclesiastical  causes  within  the  diocese. 
Tht  bisbop's  chancellor  or  commissary  is  the  judge. 


8L  The  Ptnfroj^llpeCovre  is  held  at  Doctors*  Commoni, 
in  London,  in  which  all  testaments  and  last  wills  are 
proved,  and  administrations  upon  the  estates  of  intestates 
granted,  where  the  party  dies  beyond  seas  or  within  his 
province,  leaving  bona  notabUku 

4.  The  Arches  Court  (so  called  because  anciently 
held  in  the  arched  church  of  St.  Mary,  in  Cheapside, 
London)  is  that  which  has  jurisdiction  upon  appeal  in 
all  ecclesiastical  causes,  except  such  as  belong  to  the 
Prerogative  Court.  The  judge  is  the  official  principal 
of  the  archbishop.    See  Abchss,  Court  of. 

6.  The  Court  of  PeeuUarSf  of  the  archbishop  of  Can* 
terbury,  is  subservient  to,  and  in  connection  with,  that 
of  the  Arches. 

6.  The  Court  of  Delegates  is  so  called  because  the 
judges  are  delegated  and  set  in  virtue  of  the  king's  com- 
mission, under  the  great  uulfpro  hac  vice,  upon  appeals 
to  the  king  on  ecclesiastical  matters. 

These  courts  proceed  according  to  the  civil  and  canon 
laws,  by  citation,  libel,  or  articles,  answer  upon  oath, 
proofs  by  witnesses  and  presumptions,  definitive  sen- 
tence without  a  jur}%  and  by  excommunication  for  con- 
tempt of  sentence.  In  times  of  intolerance  many  sets 
of  the  most  cruel  enormity  were  committed  in  theso 
courts.— Buck,  TheoL  fHd.  s.  v. 

Court;  Pierre,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Provins  in  1666.  He  took  the  Benedictine  habit  in 
the  congregation  of  St.  Vanne,  June  1,  1685,  became 
prior  of  Airy,  and  died  in  1780,  leaving  Vie  de  M. 
SAligrt  (Paris,  1712) :  —  i46r^^  dit  Conmeataire  de 
Calmet  (7  or  8  vols.): — Paraphrases  sur  le  Cantiqut 
des  Caniiques  ei  sur  la  Prose  des  Morts  **  Dies  Ira  " : — 
Reeueil  de  Sequences,  Proses  Anciennes  ou  Caniiques:'^ 
Concordia  DUcordantium  Theologorum,  etc : — Uistoirt 
de  VA  bbage  de  Saint-  Vatme  de  Vetdun,  and  other  pieces. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Court,  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  bom  at 
Muthill,  April  18, 1790 ;  licensed  to  preach  in  1815 ;  be- 
came assistant  minister  at  Yester,  and  afterwards  at 
Cranston ;  ordained  in  1881  minister  to  the  Presbyterian 
Congregation  at  Maryport ;  presented  to  the  living  at 
Heriot  in  1834 ;  joined  the  Free  Secession  in  1848 ;  be- 
came minister  of  the  Free  Church  at  Pathbead  the 
same  year,  and  resigned  in  1866.  See  Fasti  Eedes, 
Scoticana,  i,  284. 

Conrte-cniflse,  Jbam  db  (Lat.  Johannes  de  Bre- 
viooxa,  also  de  Curtaooza,  or  de  Cortohosa),  a  French 
prelate  and  theologian,  was  bom  at  Hallaines,  in  the 
Passais  (Maine),  about  1850.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Oillcge  of  Navarre,  in  Paris,  made  doctor  in  1888,  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  in  1418,  bishop  of  Paris  in  1420, 
and  died  at  Geneva  in  1425.  Living  iit  a  time  when 
the  question  of  papal  schism  was  rife,  he  wrote  several 
controversial  tracts  and  sermons,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog,  Generale,  s.  v. 

Conrtenay,  Henry  Reginald,  D.D.,  an  English 
prelate,  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford ;  became 
chaplain  to  the  king,  prebendary  of  Exeter  in  1772, 
rector  of  St,  Gcorge*8,  Hanover  Square,  in  1774,  of  Lee 
(in  Kent),  in  1775,  and  prebendar>'  of  St.  Andrew,  in  the 
cathedral  of  Rochnter,  in  1788.  He  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Bristol,  May  11, 1794,  and  translated  to  the 
see  of  Exeter  in  1797.  He  died  June  9,  1808.  He 
published  a  Fast  Sermon  (1795) : — and  a  Charge  (1796). 
See  Le  Neve,  Fasti;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 
Authors,  s.  T. ;  (Lond.)  A  nnual  Register,  1803,  p.  510. 

Courtenay,  John,  a  Scotch  clerg}*man,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1685 ;  and  presented  to  the  living 
at  Bolton  in  1640.  He  deserted  his  charge  at  Whit- 
sunday, 1661,  and  went  to  Ireland.  See  Fasti  Eccles. 
Scoticana,  i,  822. 

Conrtenay  (or  Conrtnay),  "WiUiani,  an  Eng- 
lish prelate,  was  bom  in  the  parish  of  St.  Martin's^  a 
suburb  of  the  city  of  Exeter,  about  1842,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  his  father*s  house  until  he  was  sent  to  the  Uni> 


COURTENAY 


138 


COUSIN 


renity  of  Oxford.  In  1867,  after  having  completed  his 
collegiate  course,  he  was  elected  chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity. In  1369  bis  friends  succeeded  in  obtaining  for 
him  the  bishopric  of  Hereford,  and  his  consecration  ap- 
pears to  have  taken  place  March  17.  He  was  enthroned 
Sept  5, 1370,  and  translated  to  the  see  of  Canterbury  in 
1375.  He  labored  for  the  improvement  of  the  church 
edifices,  and  gave  liberal  sums  himself  for  that  object. 
He  died  July  31, 1396.  See  Hook,  Lives  of  the  AnA- 
bishopM  of  Canterbury,  iv,  816  sq. 

Conrtexuiy,  "William  A^  an  English  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  Falmouth,  Dec  24, 1826.  .  He 
united  with  the  Church  at  an  early  age;  entered  Hack- 
ney College  in  1849,  and  began  his  ministry  at  Kelve- 
don,  Esaex,  in  1862.  He  afterwards  labored  successively 
at  North  Walsham,  Norfolk ;  at  Mile  End ;  at  Wardour- 
Btreet  Chapel,  Soho;  and  at  the  Royal  Amphitheatre, 
Holborn.  He  died  June  9, 1878.  See  (Lond)  Cong, 
Year-book,  1874,  p.  820. 

Coortlce,  William,  an  English  Methodist  preach- 
er, was  bom  at  North  Devon  in  1796.  He  led  a  wicked 
life  in  his  youth;  heard  Mr.  O'firyan  preach  in  1815; 
gave  his  heart  to  God  and  his  service  to  the  Bible  Chris- 
tians; entered  the  ministry  in  1820,  as  a  supply  for 
James  Thome,  and  for  more  than  forty  years  was  one 
of  the  most  able  and  successful  ministers  in  the  connec- 
tion, filling  some  of  the  highest  oiBces.  In  1862  he  be- 
came a  Biipemumerary,  and  died  suddenly  at  Devonport, 
Jan.  2, 1866.    See  Minutea  of  the  Conference,  1866. 

Conrtie,  David,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  hb  de- 
gree at  Edinburgh  University  in  1601 ;  was  presented 
by  the  king  to  the  living  at  Stitchel  in  1618,  and  died 
April  29, 1655,  aged  eighty-three  yearSb  See  Feuii  Ee^ 
eles,  Sooticanetj  i,  474. 

CoortioB,  JoHK,  an  English  Wesleyan  missionafy, 
was  sent  to  Sierra  Leone  in  1826.  After  successfully 
completing  his  term  of  service,  he  sailed  for  his  native 
country,  but  died  on  the  passage,  in  1829.  See  Muattee 
of  the  British  Conference,  1829. 

Courtney,  Ezra,  a  Baptist  pioneer  preacher,  was 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1771.  He  began  to  preach  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  stete  in  1804,  and,  after  itiner- 
ating some  years,  he  became,  in  1814,  a  resident  in  East 
Feliciana  Parish,  La.  He  died  in  1855.  He  was  an 
efficient  and  popular  preacher,  and  was  often  elected 
moderator  of  the  Mississippi  Association,  and  other  bod- 
ies of  which  he  was  a  member.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
Encyclop,  p.  282.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Courtney,  John,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
King  and  Queen  County,  Ya.,  about  1744.  He  began 
his  ministry  at  Richmond,  and  served  the  Church  over 
forty  years.  H6  died  Dec  18, 1824.  See  Sprague,  Jn- 
nals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  vi,  291 ;  Lives  of  Virginia  Bap^ 
tist  Mwdsta's,  p.  99. 

Courtney,  Peter,  LL.D.,  an  English  prelate  of  the 
15tK  century,  was  bom  at  Powderharo,  Devonshire.  He 
was  preferred  dean  of  Windsor  in  1476,  bishop  of  Exe- 
ter in  1478,  translated  to  Winchester  in  1487,  and  died 
Sept.  22,  1492.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed. 
KuttaU),  i,  407;  I^  Neve,  FastL 

Courtney,  Richard,  an  English  prelate,  a  rela- 
tive of  William  Courtenay,  archbishop  of  Canterbur}-,  was 
a  man  of  good  lineage  and  no  less  learning.  He  was 
preferred  precentor  at  Chichester  in  1400,  dean  of  St. 
Asaph  in  1402,  prebend  of  York  in  1403,  dean  of  Wells 
in  1410,  chancellor  of  Oxford  in  1411,  bishop  of  Norwich 
in  1413,  and  died  at  the  siege  of  Harfleur,  Normandy, 
in  the  second  year  of  his  consecration,  and  was  buried 
iii  Westminster.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed. 
Nuttall),  i,  405;  Le  Neve,  FastL 

Courtney,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took 
his  degree  at  Edinburgh  University  in  lS6;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  living  at  Merton  in  1640;  was  minister  at 
Kirk-Andrews,  in  England,  in  1661 ;  returned  to  Scotland 


in  1668,  and  was  elected  one  of  the  ministers  at  Edin- 
burgh the  same  year,  but  did  not  accept.  He  is  re- 
corded as  having  possession  of  the  Kirk  lands  of  Home 
in  1668.     See  Fasti  Eedes.  Scoticante,  i,  580. 

Conrtot,  Jkan,  a  French  theologian,  wss  bon  at 
Amay-le-Duc.  He  entered  the  oongregadon  of  the 
Oratory  in  1682,  and  was  distinguished  fur  ill-will  tow- 
ards the  Jesuits.  Bouigoing,  general  of  the  Orstorisns, 
banished  him  to  Joyeuse,  and  he  was  finally  exdaded 
from  the  Oratory  in  1652.  He  died  in  1665,  leaving, 
Manuals  CaihoUcorum  (Paris,  1651),  under  the  name  of 
Algtophikf  republished,  with  numerous  additions  (ibid. 
1663);  condemned  in  1664  and  homed:— and  sevenl 
controversial  pieces,  mostly  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Jean  Cordier,    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirak,  s.  v. 

.  Conrta,  Church,  among  the  Presbyterians,  are  tboss 
ecclesiastical  associations  of  minuters  and  elders,  con- 
sisting of  sessions,  presbyteries,  synod^  and  the  genenl 
assembly,  which  in  Scotland  are  considered  as  forming 
the  perfection  of  Church  govemment  and  discipline. 
Each  subordinate  court  takes  cognizance  of  ecdesiasticsl 
matters  within  its  own  bounds ;  and  from  each  there  is 
an  appeal  to  that  which  is  above  it  in  order,  till  the 
matter  is  carried  before  the  general  assembly,  which  is 
the  supreme  court,  and  the  decision  of  which  is  finsL 
—Buck,  TheoL  Diet.  s.  v. 

COURTS  OF  Law,  Hebrew.    See  Jcdiual  Pbo- 

CKDITRK. 

Cousin  (Lat  Cognatvs),  Gilbert,  a  I'rench  theo- 
logical author,  was  bom  at  Nozeroy,  Franche-Comt^ 
Jan.  21, 1506.  He  studied  Jurispradence  at  Dole  in 
1526,  but  soon  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  the  ec- 
clesiastical calling.  In  1580  he  became  copyist  to  Enis- 
mus,  who  regarded  him  as  a  companion  in  labor,  and 
aided  him  in  studying  Greek,  Latin,  and  belles-lettres. 
In  1585  Cousin  was  appointed  canon  of  St.  Anthony  of 
Nozeroy,  and  at  the  same  time  devoted  himself  to 
teaching.  In  1558  he  went  to  luly  with  Claude  La 
Baume,  archbishop  of  Besan^on,  and  remained  for  some 
time  at  Padua.  On  bis  retum  to  France,  Cousin  em- 
braced Protestant  sentiments.  Pope  Pius  V  ordered 
his  arrest  for  heresy,  July  8, 1 567.  He  was  taken  to  the 
ecclesiastical  prison,  and  died  in  the  same  year.  His 
numerous  works  have  been  collected  and  published.  A 
complete  catalogue  may  be  seen  in  Niceron.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  GinsraU,  a.  v. ;  Biog.  UniverseUi,  s.  v. 

Cousin,  Jean  (1),  a  French  painter,  was  bom  at 
Soucy,  near  Sens,  about  1601,  and  was  the  founder  of  a 
French  schooL  He  died  about  1590.  His  principal 
historical  work,  representing  The  Last  Judgment,  wss 
formerly  in  the  monastery  of  the  Minim  at  Vinoenncs, 
the  windows  of  which  were  also  painted  by  him.  The 
best  of  his  works  are  on  glass,  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Gervais  at  Paris.  They  represent  Christ  with  the  Wmr 
an  of  Samaria,  Christ  Curing  the  Paralytic,  and  the 
Sfarfyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  th^  FiM  Arts, 
s.  V. 

Consin  (Lat.  Cognatus),  Jean  (2),  a  Belgian  relig- 
ious historian,  was  bom  at  Toumay,  where  he  was  after- 
wards canon,  and  where  he  died  in  1621.  He  wrote, 
De  Fundame^is  Religionis,  containing  the  following  dis- 
courses: De  Naturali  Dei  Cognitione;  De  Immortalitate 
A  ninue ;  De  Jusiitia  Dei  (Douay,  1597) : — De  Prosperi- 
tate  et  Exitio  Solomonis  (ibid.  1599) i-^Hisioirede  Tour- 
nay  (ibid.  1619, 1620)  i—Bistoire  des  Saints  de  Towmay 
(ibid.  1621).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GinhraU,  s.  v.; 
Diog.  Universelle,  a.  v. 

Conain,  Lonia,  a  French  writer,  was  born  at  Paris, 
Aug.  12, 1627.  He  became  bachelor  of  theology  at  Paris, 
advocate  in  1646,  and  president  of  one  of  the  lower 
courts  in  October,  1659.  He  was  made  member  of  the 
French  Academy  June  15, 1697,  chosen  royal  censor,  and 
charged  with  the  compilation  of  the  Journal  des  Savants 
from  1687  to  1702.    He  studied  Hebrew  at  the  age  of 


COUSIN 


189 


COUTTS 


serenty,  in  oider  to  understand  va&n  fully  the  sacred 
8cripCaraa»  Niceron  says  that  he  was  a  man  of  high 
integrity,  of  an  admirable  spirit  of  Justness,  correct 
judgment,  easy  and  agreeable  in  oonvenation.  He  died 
Feb.  26, 1707.  He  deroted  his  spare  time  to  the  trans- 
lation of  works  of  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  hutorians, 
and  published  sereral  volumes,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Now,  Biog,  GhUraltf  s.  v. ;  Blog.  UmverweUe,  s.  v. 

Cooslli,  Michael,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Uaworth,  Yorkshire^  March  20, 1782.  He 
united  with  the  Church  in  1802,  was  appointed  to  a  cir- 
cuit in  1804,  became  a  supernumerary  in  Halifax  in  1840, 
and  died  Nov.  6, 1862.  With  a  vigorous  frame,  he  gave 
lumaelf  with  devout  ardor  to  his  work,  and  success  re- 
aulted  from  his  labors  See  MimUts  of  the  British  Com' 
/eraor,18oa. 

Cousins,  Marriaob  of.  The  course  of  Church 
practice  on  this  subject  appears  to  have  been  this :  the 
traditional  Roman  prejodice  against  cousins*  marriages, 
although  quite  unoonntenanced  by  the  Jewish  law  or 
practice,  oommended  itself  instinctively  to  the  ascetic 
tendencies  of  the  Western  fathers,  and  through  them 
took  root  among  the  Western  clergy  generally,  embody- 
ing itself,  indeed,  temporarily,  towards  the  end  of  the 
4th  century,  in  a  general  civil  law  for  the  Roman  empire. 
But  while  thu  law  was  abrogated  in  the  beginning  of 
the  5th  century,  and  in  the  East  such  unions  remained 
perfectly  lawful  both  in  the  Church  and  in  the  State 
throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  the  period  which  oc- 
cupies us,  never  being  condemned  by  any  oecumenical 
council  till  that  of  Constantinople  towards  the  end  of 
the  7tb  century,  in  the  West  the  clergy  adhered  to  the 
harsher  view ;  popes  and  local  synods  sought  to  enforce 
it;  wherever  clerical  influence  could  be  brought  to  bear 
on  the  baifoaric  legislators  it  became  apparent ;  till  at 
last,  under  the  Cariovingian  princes,  it  established  itself 
as  a  law  alike  of  the  Sute  and  of  the  Church.  But  the 
history  of  this  restraint  upon  marriage  is  that  of  all 
others  not  derived  from  Scripture  itself.  Originating 
probably,  all  of  them,  in  a  sincere  though  mistaken 
asceticism,  they  were  soon  discovered  to  furnish  an  al- 
most inexhaustible  mine  for  the  supply  of  the  Church's 
coffeis,  through  the  grant  of  dispensations,  prosecutions 
in  the  Church  courts,  compromises;  The  baleful  alli- 
ance between  Carlovingian  usurpation  and  Borouh 
priestcraft,  in  exchange  for  the  subserviency  of  the 
deigj  to  the  ambition  and  the  vices  of  the  earlier 
despots,  delivered  over  the' social  morality  of  the  people 
to  them,  it  may  be  said,  as  a  prey,  and  the  savageness 
of  Cariovingian  civil  legislation  was  placed  at  the  ser- 
vice of  the  new-fangled  Church  discipline  of  the  West. 
—Smith,  IHei,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq.  s.  v.  See  Arrtym ; 
Makriaob. 

Coaminm,  James,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  at  Freystrope,  near  Haverford-West,  in  1788. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  studied  at 
Bristol  College,  and  in  1818  became  pastor  at  King- 
stanley,  Glonoestershire,  where  he  had  great  success. 
He  retired  in  184S,  but  continued  to  preach  in  various 
places  in  the  neighborhood  until  his  death,  Feb.  17, 
1802.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand-iook,  1863,  p.  118. 
(J.  a  Sw) 

CofuAnm,  Jonathan,  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, commenced  his  itinerancy  in  1780,  and  died  at 
Diss,  near  Norwich  (where  he  alto  began  his  ministr}*), 
Oct.  31, 1805,  aged  forty-nine.  He  was  a  man  of  mild 
temper  and  much  esteemed  by  his  people.  See  Minutes 
of  the  British  Confertnee,  1806. 

Gkntaaard,  Claude,  a  French  theolog^n,  of  the 
16th  century,  wrote  Valdensittm  ae  Quommdam  A  lio^ 
rmm  Errorts  (Paris,  1648;  also  in  French,  by  Cappell, 
Sedan,  1618).    See  Hoefer,  Nohv.  Biog,  GMrakt  s.  v. 

CoiistaJit,  PnsRRK,  a  learned  French  Benedictine 
of  the  order  of  St.  Maur,  was  born  at  Compiegne,  April 
80, 1654,  and  died  at  Paiis»  Oct.  18, 1721,  while  dean  of 


the  abbey  of  St.  Germain-des-Pr^  leaving  several  edi- 
tions of  the  works  of  Church  fathers  and  others,  for 
which  see  Chalmers,  Bioff,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GSUrale,  s.  v. ;  Wetzer  u.  Wdte,  Kirchm-Leabm, 
8.  V. ;  Biog,  UmoerseUe,  s.  v. 

Couston,  Gnlllanme,  (he  Elder,  a  repnuble 
French  sculptor,  the  brother  of  Nicolas,  was  bom  at 
Lyons  in  1678,  studied  under  Coysevox,  and  soon 
gained  the  prize  of  the  Academy.  His  reputation  rap- 
idly increased.  Some  of  his  works  are,  Christ  m  the 
Midst  of  the  Doctors,  at  Versailles,  and  some  Portraits, 
He  died  at  Paris,  Feb.  22,  1746.  Sep  Hoefer,  Now. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v.;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
i4r<s,  S.V. 

Couston,  Gklillanme,  the  Yovnger,  a  French 
sculptor,  son  and  scholar  of  the  foregoing,  was  bora  at 
Paris  in  1716.  Having  carried  ofT  the  grand  prize  of 
the  Academy,  he  went  to  Italy  with  the  royal  pension. 
In  1742  he  was  elected  an  academician,  in  1746  was 
appointed  professor  of  sculpture,  and  the  king  named 
him  keeper  of  the  sculptures  in  the  Louvre.  He  died  at 
Paris,  July  18, 1777.  See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  GMrak, 
8.  V. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Uist.  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Conston,  Nicolas,  an  ingenious  Frencli  sculp- 
tor, was  bom  at  Lyons,  Jan.  9, 1658.  He  studied  at 
Paris  under  his  nncle,  Coysevox,  and  carried  off  the 
grand  prize  of  the  Royal  Academy  at  the  age  of  twen- 
ty-three; then  he  went  to  Rome  and  studied  the  works 
of  Michael  Angelo.  In  1608  he  was  received  into  the 
Academy  at  Paris.  The  following  are  some  of  his 
works :  The  Descent  from  the  Cross,  and  the  statue  of 
St,  Denis,  in  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame.  He  died  at 
Paris,  Feb.  1, 1783.  See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  GMrale, 
s.  V. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Coustniier.    See  CoirrcRiER. 

Continho,  Luis,  a  Portuguese  prelate,  was  bora 
near  the  close  of  the  14th  centur)*.  He  was  made 
bishop  of  Viaeu  about  1440,  and  sent  by  Alfonso  V 
as  antljassador  to  Rome,  where  he  assisted  in  the  elec- 
tion of  the  antipope  Felix  V.  Under  the  influence  of 
this  illegitimate  authority  he  was  made  cardinal  in 
1448.  lie  became  bishop  of  Coimbra,  and  accompanied 
the  daughter  of  king  Edward  when  she  went  to  Ger- 
many to  many  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  Having 
been  promoted  to  the  archbishopric  of  Lisbon  in  1452, 
but  not  sharing  the  favor  of  Alfonso,  he  retired  from 
court,  and  withdrew  into  the  solitude  of  Cintra  to  seek 
relief  from  leprosy,  with  which,  it  is  said,  he  was  at- 
tacked. He  died  at  Cintra  in  April,  1453,  and  was  in- 
terreil  in  the  cemetery  of  the  lepers,  where  a  splendid 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory.  See  Hoefer, 
Aour.  Biog.  G^hcde,  s.  v. 

Conto  (Lat.  Coutus),  SkbastiIo  do,  a  Portuguese 
theologian,  was  born  about  1567.  He  belonged  to  a 
noble  family,  and  was  originally  from  Oliven^a.  He 
joined  the  Jesuits  on  Dec  8, 1582.  Shortly  aftcnaards 
he  was  called  successively  to  the  chairs  of  philosophy 
at  Coimbra  and  Evora,  and  was  made  doctor  of  theology 
on  June  24, 1596.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  time.  He  died  near  Evora,  Nov.  20,  1689, 
leaving,  Commentaria  in  DiaUcticam  A  listotelis : — Epi- 
grammata  in  Moiiem  Francisci  de  Mendo^a  (published 
in  the  Veridai'vim  of  Mend09a,  Lyons,  1649).  In  the 
library  of  Evora  may  be  found  a  collection  of  theolog- 
ical matter  dictated  by  him  in  his  lectures.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Now.  Biog.  Ginh'ate^  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  llgemeines  Go* 
lehrten-Lexikott,  s.  v. 

Conttis  (or  Contts),  Alkxanhkr,  a  Scotch  cler- 
gyman, took  his  degree  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in 
1670;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1675;  presented  to  the 
living  at  Strickathrow  in  1677,  and  ordained.  He  died 
April  11,  1695,  aged  forty -eight  years.  See  Fasti 
Eccles.  Scoticance,  ili,  850. 

Contts  (or  Conttis),  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergy- 
man, was  bora  at  Laigo;  studied  at  St.  Andrews  and 


COUTURIER 


140 


COVELL 


Edinbaigh  univefsities ;  wm  lioeiued  to  preach  in  1796 ; 
became  assistant  in  mathematics  at  St.  Andrews;  and 
was  presented  to  the  living  at  the  second  chaige, 
3cechin,  in  1798.  He  died  June  18, 1808,  aged  thirty- 
one  years.  He  had  a  singularly  pioas  and  yigorous 
mind.    See  Fagti  Ecdes.  3ooticmuBf  iii,  616, 817. 

Couturier,  Jaoob,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Minot,  near  La  Montague  (Buigundy).  He  was 
curate  of  Salives,  near  Dijon,  in  the  time  of  the  Rero- 
lution ;  was  elected  deputy  to  the  states-general  by  the 
bailiwick  of  La  Montagne,  and  made  himself  noticeable 
by  his  opposition  to  the  reformers.  He  refused  to  take 
the  ecclesiastical  oath  to  the  new  constitution^  and  went 
into  exile;  but  returned  to  France  some  time  before 
the  18th  Brumaire,  and  assumed  the  direction  of  his 
parish.  He  died  at  Salives,  Burgundy,  in  1805,  leaving 
Histoire  de  PA  ncien  Tettament  (Dtjon,  1826).  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GinSrale^  s.  v. ;  Biog,  UtUverseOej  s.  v. 

Couturier,  Jean,  a  French  theologian,  brother  of 
Jacob,  was  bom  at  Minot,  near  La  Montagne,  Burgundy, 
in  1730.  He  completed  his  stodies  at  Lingres,  entered 
the  Jesuit  order,  and  taught  rhetoric  successively  at 
Langres,  Verdun,  Pont-^-Mousson,  and  Kancy.  At  the 
time  of  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  he  was  appointed 
curato  at  Lery.  In  1791  be  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  new  constitution,  and  was  incarcerated 
soon  after,  but,  being  Itbented  in  1795,  he  resumed  his 
functions,  and,  in  spite  of  legal  remonstrance,  continued 
them  until  his  death,  at  L6ry,  March  22,  1799.  He 
wrote,  Catichitme  Dogmatiqu^  ei  Moral  (Dijon,  1821, 
1832)  i—La  Bonne  Joumk  (ibid.  1822, 1825 ;  Coutances, 

1827)  :—Abreffi  de  la  Doctrine  Ckretierme  (Dijon.  1822, 

1828)  x^LHUtoire  de  Tobie  (ibid.  1828):-^nd  a  large 
number  of  Conirovertietj  Me^UtaHotu,  Semuma,  etc,  re- 
maining in  MS.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrak,  s.  v. ; 
Biog,  UfdvenelUfKY, 

Couturier,  Nicolas  J6rome,  a  French  ecclesi- 
astic, was  bom  in  the  diocese  of  Rouen,  June  2, 1712. 
He  became  preacher  to  the  king,  canon  of  St  Quentin, 
and  died  at  Paris  in  1778,  leaving  several  Funeral  Set'* 
mons.    See  Biog.  Univentlle,  s.  v. 

Couturier  (or  Coustnrier),  Pierre  (Lat.  Petrue 
Suior\  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at  Chemdr6-le- 
Roy,  a  village  of  Laval,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th 
century.  Having  received  the  degree  of  doctor  at  the 
Sorbonne,  he  taught  philosophy  in  the  College  of  St. 
Baibe.  He  afterwards  became  a  cenobite,  and  entered 
the  Carthusian  order.  In  1519  he  was  made  governor 
of  the  Carthusians  of  Paris.  In  1534  he  went  to  an- 
other monastery,  near  Troves,  as  prior.  He  employed 
his  leisure  in  writing  books  against  the  Protestants. 
He  died  June  18,  1537,  leaving,  De  Vita  Carthusiana 
(Paris,  1522;  Louvain,  1572;  Cologne,  1689):  — /)<; 
Triplici  Amm  Cotmubio  (Paris,  1528) :— 2>«  Translati- 
one  BibluB  (ibid.  1525).  In  reply  to  Erasmus  he  wrote 
Antspologia  (ibid.  1526): — Apologetiatm  (ibid,  eod.): 
'^Apologia  (ibid.  1531):— Z>e  Poleetutt  Eocksim  (ibid. 
1534, 1546).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Couvay,  Jkan,  a  reputable  French  engraver,  was 
bom  at  Aries  about  1622.  The  following  are  his  prin- 
cipal works :  The  Virgin  and  Infant ;  St.  John  in  the 
Desert;  The  Magdalene;  The  Maiigrdom  of  St,  Bar- 
tholomeiv.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginh-aUi  s.  v.; 
Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  »Y»,  s.  v. 

Couvoyon,  Saint^  a  Breton  abbot,  was  born  at 
Combsac  in  788,  being  the  son  of  a  gentleman  named 
Conon,  He  entered  the  priesthood,  became  archdea- 
con of  Vannes,  and  soon  after  retired  to  a  solitude  in 
Redon,  where  he  built  a  monastery  under  the  Benedic- 
tine rule,  with  the  aid  of  Ratwil,  lord  of  the  region. 
In  848  he  obtained  a  decision  of  pope  Leo  IV  on  a 
question  of  simony,  and  thereupon  prosecuted  four  of 
the  neighboring  prelates,  who  were  deposed.  In  865 
he  took  refuge  from  the  invasion  of  the  Normans  with 
the  prince  of  Bretagne,  who  built  for  him  a  monastery 


at  P]61an,afterwaids  called  that  of  St  Maxentitts.  Ha 
died  there  in  868,  and  his  remains  were  transferred  in 
the  10th  century  to  Redon.  His  festival  is  on  Dec.  28. 
See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog.  GMraU,  a.  v. 

Covarrubias  (or  CoTarruvias)  y  />yra,  Df  bgo 
(sumamed  The  Spanith  Bart6le\  a  Spanish  lawyer  and 
prelate,  was  bora  at  Toledo,  July  25, 1512.  He  studied 
under  Kicolas  Qeynants,  Fernando  Nuflea,  and  Azpil- 
ciieta,  and  taught  canon  law  at  Salamanca.  In  1538 
he  became  professor  at  Oviedo^  later  Judge  at  Burgoe, 
and  counsellor  at  Grenada.  In  1549  he  was  nominated 
arehbishop  of  San  Domingo;  in  1560  bishop  of  Ciudad 
Rodrigo ;  in  1565  bishop  of  Segovia,  and  later  of  Cuenca. 
He  was  engaged  in  several  ecclesiastical  reforms  and 
ofikws,  and  died  at  Madrid,  Sept.  27, 1577,  leaving  a 
number  of  historical  and  archaeological  works,  for  which 
see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  a.  v.;  Biog.  Univer^ 
tellff  a.  V. 

Covel,  Samuel,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
son  of  Rev.  James  Covel,  Sr.,  was  converted  when  a 
young  man,  and  in  1821  entered  the  New  York  Confer- 
ence. In  1852,  on  account  of  ill-health,  he  became  su- 
perannuated, and  continued  to  hold  that  relation  to  the 
close  of  his  life,  early  in  1860.  Bfr.  Covel  was  a  deeply 
pious  man,  an  ordinary  preacher,  but  had  few  superiors 
in  ardor  or  faithfulness  in  the  ministiyi  or  suoceas  in 
revivals.  See  Mimttee  of  Ammal  Confereneetf  1861, 
p.  91. 

Cove),  William,  an  English  theologian  of  the 
former  part  of  the  17th  century,  wrote  several  minor 
works  on  ecclesiastical  polity,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit^  and 
Amer.  Author*,  s.  v. 

Covell,  Alanaon  Zk,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Pittstown,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  20,  1804.  He  became  pastor 
of  a  church  in  Addison,  Yt.,  and  subsequently  at  Whites- 
borough,  N.  Y.,  also  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Al- 
bany. He  died  Sept.  20, 1837.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  organization  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  while  pastor  in  Albany.  See  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  vi,  813, 

Covell,  Joseph  Smith,  a  minister  of  the  Episco- 
pal Church,  was  born  in  Killingly,  Conn.,  June  4, 1797. 
He  spent  the  first  eighteen  years  of  his  life  on  his  fa- 
ther's farm;  fitted  for  college  in  part  at  Woodstock, 
and  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1822.  H« 
afterwards  took  charge  of  a  private  school  in  New- 
port, R.  I.,  and  began  his  theological  studies  under  the 
tuition  of  Rev.  Dr.  Austin,  but,  later,  connected  him- 
self with  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  in  August,  1824, 
was  ordained  deacon  and  became  minister  of  a  mia- 
sion  church  in  St.  Albans,  Yt.  The  climate  province 
to  be  too  rigonius,  he  removed  to  Baltimore,  where  he 
was  ordained  a  presbyter,  in  May,  1825,  and  took  charge 
of  a  mission  station  at  Princess  Anne,  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  Maryland.  Subsequently  he  returned  to  New- 
England,  and  in  October,  1828,  was  called  to  the  rector- 
ship of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Brookfield,  Conn.,  where  he 
remained  nine  years,  and  then  took  charge  of  Trinity 
Church,  Bristol,  for  ten  years.  He  afk«rwards  was  reo> 
tor  of  churches  in  Essex,  Bethlehem,  etc,  until  1863, 
when  he  was  called  to  the  rectorship  of  St.  PauPa 
Church,  Huntington.  He  resigned  in  July,  1876,  and 
removed  to  Bridgeport,  where  he  died,  March  16, 1880. 
See  Brown  University  Necrology,  1879-1880 ;  Whittaker, 
Almanac  and  Directory,  1881.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Covell,  Lemuel,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
the  state  of  New  York  about  the  middle  of  the  last  oen- 
tur\'.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Church  in  Providence, 
Saratoga  Co.  Although  at  first  poor  and  illiterate,  ao 
remarkable  were  his  natural  abilities  that  he  became 
one  of  the  inost  eminent  preachers  in  his  denomination. 
He  was  blessed  with  a  voice  of  singular  charm,  and  hie 
address  was  manly  and  engaging.  He  regarded  it  aa 
his  mission  to  travel  extensively  among  the  churches 


COVENANTING 


141 


COWELL 


of  New  York  and  New  England.  Not  long  befon  his 
death  the  Chorch  in  Cheshire,  Mass.,  of  which  Rer. 
John  Leiand  had  been  the  pastor,  called  him  to  be  his 
SDCcesaor.  He  accepted  their  call  on  condition  that  he 
be  allowed,  a  part  of  the  time,  to  travel,  and  preach  in 
destitute  regions,  under  the  patronage  and  direction  of 
the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  of  Boston.  While  thus 
engaged,  in  Upper  Canada,  he  died  after  a  short  illness, 
in  October,  1806.  See  Benetlict,  Hist,  of  the  Baptists^ 
ii,  289.    (J.  a  a) 

Cowenantiiig,  Pebsosal,  is  a  modem  term  for  a 
solemn  transaction  by  which  many  pious  and  devoted 
Christians  have  dedicated  themselves  to  the  service  of 
God.  Such  bonds  or  covenants,  written  and  subscribed 
with  their  own  hands,  have  been  found  among  their 
papers  after  their  death,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
most  of  them  are  exceedingly  edifying;  but  instances 
have  also  been  known  of  persons  abusing  this  custom 
for  purposes  of  superstition  and  self-righteousness,  and 
of  some  who  have  gone  as  far  as  to  write  and  sign  such 
a  document  with  their  own  blood. 

Coventry,  Oeorge,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  settled  at  the  Duke  Street  Church,  London,  in  Feb- 
maiy,  1731.  There  was  a  large  tomb  in  the  graveyard 
belonging  to  the  Coventry  family,  but  it  was  destroyed 
when  the  chapel  was  pulled  down,  and  the  records  of  the 
family  losL    See  Wilison,  DistetUing  Churches,  iv,  181. 

Coventry,  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1725;  called  to  the  living  at  Ril- 
Bpisdie  in  1727,  and  ordained;  and  died  Feb.  19, 1761. 
See  rasti  EedcM.  SeatiauM,  ii,  644. 

Covetonsnees.  The  works  of  the  earliest  Chris- 
tian authorities  are  full  of  warnings  against  the  differ- 
ent forms  of  this  vice.  The  oblations  of  the  covetous 
were  not  to  be  received.  Gregory  Thanmaturgus,  arch- 
bishop of  Neo-Cnsarea  (about  A.D.  262)  declares  that  it 
u  impossible  to  set  forth  in  a  single  letter  all  the  sacred 
writings  which  proclaim  not  robbery  alone  to  be  a  fear- 
ful crime,  but  adl  covetonsneas,  all  grssping  at  others' 
goods  for  filthy  lucre.  Others  of  the  fathers  in  like  man- 
ner vigofoQsIy  denounced  the  existence  of  the  vice 
among  the  clergy. 

Gregory  of  Nysaa  observes  that  the  fathers  have  af- 
fixed no  punishment  to  this  sin,  which  he  assimilates  to 
adultery;  though  it  be  very  common  in  the  Church, 
Done  inquires  of  those  who  are  brought  to  be  ordained 
if  they  be  polluted  with  it.  It  is  true,  a  decree  from 
GratiaD,  ascribed  to  pope  Julius  I,  A.D.  337-362,  de- 
nouDoes  as  filthy  lucre  the  buying  in  time  of  harvest  or 
of  vintage,  not  of  necessity  but  of  greed,  victuals  or  wine, 
in  order  to  sell  at  a  higher  price;  and  the  17 tb  canon 
of  the  CSouncil  of  Nicsa  (A.I).  325)  is  directed  against 
the  love  of  filthy  lucre  and  U8ur>%  enacting  deposition 
as  the  pMmiahment  for  the  cleric.  But  here,  as  in  a 
parallel  canon  of  the  synod  of  Selencia,  A.D.  410,  it  is 
perhaps  to  be  inferred  that  the  vice  was  chiefly,  if  not 
aokiy,  aimed  at  under  the  concrete  form  of  usury  (q.  v.). 
That  ooretousness  was  as  rife  in  the  monastery  as  in 
the  world  may  be  inferred  from  Cassian. 

The  yery  doubtful  *'  Sanctions  and  Decrees  of  the 
Nioene  iathers,"  apparently  of  Greek  origin,  require 
priests  not  to  be  given  to  heaping  up  riches,  lest  they 
should  prefer  them  to  the  ministry,  and  if  they  do  accu- 
mulate wealth,  to  do  80  moderately.  The  3d  Council 
of  Orleana,  A.D.  588,  forbids  derics,  from  the  diaconate 
opwaida,  to  carry  on  business  as  public  traders  for  the 
greed  of  filthy  lucre,  or  to  do  so  in  another's  name.  As 
the  times  wear  on,  covetousness  seems  often  to  be  con- 
founded with  avarice,  and  to  be  legislated  against  un- 
der that  Dftme. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Chaiit,  A  tUiq,  s.  v.  See 
Bkikst;  Commbiicb;  Usitry.  For  rapacity  in  exact- 
lag  fees^  see  SpoRTULii. 

Covinstile,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
baptized  June  15, 1685;  took  his  degree  st  Edinburgh 
Umvetttty  in  1705;  studied  divinity  at  Glasgow;  was 
liooMd  to  pfctch  io  1711 ;  called  to  the  living  at  Cross 


and  Bamets  the  same  year,  and  ordained ;  and  died  Sept 
2, 1744,  aged  sixty  years.  See  Fasti  EccUs.  Scoticana, 
ui,  410. 

Cowan«  Andre^7,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  Ii* 
censed  to  preach  in  1719;  became  missionary  in  the 
parish  of  Westray ;  was  presented  to  the  living  in  1784; 
ordained  in  1785;  and  died  July  28, 1760.  See  rasH 
Eccks.  Scoiieanm,  iii,  419. 

Co^van,  Chairlea,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  studied  at 
the  University  of  St.  Andrews;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1817;  appointed  to  the  living  at  Fetlar  and  North 
Yell  in  1822,  and  ordained.  He  died  Oct  9, 1829,  aged 
thirty-three  years.   See  FomU  Eccks,  Scoticana,  iii,  437. 

Cowan,  Franoie,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1758;  presented  to  the  living  at  Gladsmnir 
in  1759,  and  ordained ;  and  died  Oct  28, 1789.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes,  Seoticana,  i,  886. 

Cowan,  John  Fleming,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Parkesbuig,  Pa.,  May  6, 1801.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Jefferson  CoUege  in  1825,  and  in  1828  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1829,  and  oidained  April  4, 1830,  with  a  view 
to  missionary  work  in  Missouri,  where  he  labored  for 
thirty-three  years.  His  first  field  wss  Apple  Creek, 
Cape  Girardeau  Co.  After  this  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Potosi  Church  in  Washington  Co.  (1836-1852).  He 
then  visited  and  labored  in  various  parts  of  the  state, 
and  died  at  Carondelet,  Sept  29, 1862.  Mr.  Cowan  was 
in  the  fullest  sense  an  evangelist  He  acted  as  agent 
for  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions  for  three  years,  and 
served  for  a  while  as  chaplain  of  the  hospital  at  Caron- 
delet His  preaching  was  practical  and  instructive. 
(W.  P.  a) 

Cowbridge,  an  English  martyr,  was  burned  st  Ox- 
ford in  1538,  for  his  public  communication  of  the  Script- 
ures.  .See  Fox,  A ds  and  Monuments,  v,  251. 

Cowden,  James,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  May,  1836.  He  received  an  early  religious 
training;  experienced  conversion  in  1853,  and  in  1855 
entered  the  Kock  River  Conference.  In  1858  he  re- 
moved to  Minnesota  for  the  improvement  of  his  health, 
but  continued  eifective,  and  six  yesrs  later  returned  and 
united  with  the  Central  Illinois  Conference,  wherein  he 
served  zealously  to  the  close  of  his  life,  March  22, 1871. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1871,  p.  195. 

Co^wdy,  Samukl,  an  Irish  Methodist  preacher,  was 
born  in  1799  in  County  Down.  He  gave  his  heart  to 
God,  and  bis  life  to  Methodism  at  an  early  age;  en- 
tered the  itinerant  ministry  in  1832,  snd  for  a  quarter 
of  a  centuiy  preached  the  gospel  with  soul-converting 
power  on  many  Irish  circuits.  In  1860  he  became  a 
supernumerary,  but  labored  as  he  had  strength  until  his 
death,  June  8, 1880,  at  Portadown. 

Cowell,  David,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
at  Wrentham,Mas8L,in  1704.  He  graduated  from  Har- 
vard College  in  1732.  Having  studied  theology  and  re* 
ceived  license  to  preach,  he  went  as  a  supply  to  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  in  1735,  and  in  April,  1736,  became  pastor.  At  the 
division  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  1741,  Mr.  Cowell 
remaineil  with  the  old  side.  On  the  union  of  the  two 
synods  he  joined  the  New  Brunswick  Presbytery,  and 
continued  in  relation  with  it  until  his  death,  Dec.  1, 
1760.    See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer,  Pulpii,  iii,  66. 

Co^well,  D.  B.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  st  West  Lebanon,  Me.,  Dec  20, 1806.  He  received 
his  early  education  in  the  academy  at  Limerick,  and 
at  Wolfsbosougb,  N.  H.;  spent  his  early  manhood  in 
teaching  and  in  mercantile  pursuits,  several  years  being 
passed  in  Great  Falls,  where  his  trsde  became  extensive. 
At  this  period  of  his  life  he  was  a  Universalist,  and  sub- 
sequently an  avowed  infidel.  In  1833  he  was  converted, 
and  soon  afler  became  a  class-leader  in  the  Church  at 
Great  Falls.  In  1837  he  was  ordained,  and  for  seven 
3'esrs  trsvelled  almost  constantly  as  sn  itinerant.     In 


CO  WELL 


142 


C0WLE8 


1848  he  gave  the  start  to  a  morement  which  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  the  West  Lebanon  Academy. 
His  last  fields  of  labor  were  with  the  Walnut  Grove 
Church,  N.  H.,niore  than  a  year,  and  with  the  churches 
in  Gorham  and  Standish,  Me.  Feeble  health  prevented 
his  preaching  much  for  some,  time  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  April  16, 1884.  See  The  Morning  Star, 
June  4, 1884.    (J.CS.) 

Cowell,  Bdward,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  at  Ewood  Bridge,  near  Blackburn, 
Feb.  7,  1880.  He  became  an  efficient  local  preacher 
among  the  Wesleyans,  but  afterwanls  joined  the  Con- 
giegationalists.  In  1862  he  supplied  the  pulpit  of  Prov- 
idence Independent  Chapel,  Marsden,  and  the  following 
year  became  its  pastor,  being  ordained  Sept.  29.  He 
accepted  an  invitation  to  Bretherton  in  September,  1874, 
where  he  labored  happily  and  successfully  for  five  years. 
He  died  Feb.  9,  1880.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book, 
1881,  p.  365. 

Cowie,  William,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  a  native 
of  Banffshire,  took  his  degree  at  King's  College,  Aber> 
deen,  in  1806;  was  appointed  schoolmaster  at  Mort^ 
lach  in  1811 ;  licensed  to  preach  in  1812;  presented  to 
the  living  at  Cabrach  in  1817,  and  ordained ;  transferred 
to  Caimie  in  1826;  and  died  June  1,1866,  aged  eighty 
yean.     See  Fasti  JSodet.  ScotioantBy  iii,  196,  o61. 

Cowing,  Charles,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Lyman,  N.  H.,  Nov.  19, 1796.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1818;  licensed  to  exhort  in  1824,  to  preach  in 
1827,  and  in  1828  entered  the  New  England  Conference, 
wherein  he  remained  effective,  with  but  a  three  years* 
intermission  as  superannuate,  until  1862,  when  he  again 
became  superannuated,  and  thus  continued  until  hb 
death,  in  May,  1869.  See  Minutes  of  Ammal  Confer- 
ences^ 1870,  p.  111. 

Cowl.  Benedict  ordered  the  ^  cnculla,**  or  hood,  to 
be  shaggy  for  winter,  and  for  summer  of  lighter  texture ; 
and  a  "  scapulare  **  to  be  worn  instead  out  of  doors,  as 
more  suitable  for  field-work,  being  open  at  the  sides. 
The  "cuculla"  protected  the  head  and  shoulders,  and, 
as  being  worn  by  infants  and  peasants,  was  said  to  sym- 
bolize humility;  or,  by  another  account,  it  was  to  keep 
the  eyes  from  glancing  right  or  lefL  It  was  part  of  the 
dress  of  nuns,  as  well  as  of  monks,  and  was  worn  by  the 
monks  of  Tabenna  at  the  mass.  It  seems  in  their 
case  to  have  been  longer  than  a  hood  or  cape.  In- 
deed, '^  cuculla  "  is  often  taken  as  equivalent  to  **  casula," 
a  covering  of  the  whole  person ;  in  later  writers  it  means, 
not  the  hood  only,  but  the  monastic  robe,  hood  and  alL 
These  same  Facboroiani,  or  monies  of  Tabenna,  like  the 
Carthusians,  drew  their  hoods  forward  at  meal-times,  so 
as  to  hide  their  faces  from  one  another.  The  ^  cappa  " 
(probably  akin  to  our  ''cape")  in  Italy  seems  to  cor- 
respond with  the  Gallic  *' cuculla,**  and  both  were  nearly 
identical,  it  is  thought,  with  the  **  melotes,**  or  sheep- 
skin of  the  earliest  ascetics.  —  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ. 
Antiq,B,Y, 

Cowrie,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  South,  was  bom  in  Huntingdonshire,  Eng- 
land, in  January,  1815.  He  went  with  his  parents  to 
Vanderburgh  County,  Ind.,  in  1822 ;  removed  to  Ar- 
kansas in  1838 ;  and  in  1841  entered  the  Arkansas  Con- 
ference. From  1868,  he  was  a  superannuate  to  the  close 
of  his  life,  June  6,  1870.  During  his  entire  ministry 
Mr.  Cowle  acquitted  himself  with  honor.  He  was  a 
close  student  and  a  laborious  minister.  See  Minutes 
of  Annual  Corferenees  of  the  M.  E.  Chureh  South,  1870, 
p.  496. 

Cowles,  Chaanoey  Demmlng,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  Farroington,  Conn.,  June 
27, 1812.  He  graduated  from.  Yale  College  in  1834; 
studied  theology  at  Yale  Divinity  School  for  two  years 
(1838-40),  and  was  ordained,  June  10, 1841,  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  Church  in  PlainviUe,  where  he  con- 
tinned  for  two  years.    He  then  retired  from  the  min- 


iitiy  and  removed  to  BoflUo,  N.  T.,  where  he  engaged 
in  manu£scturing  until  1868.  He  died  at  his  native 
place,  Jan.  12, 1881.  See  ObUuaty  Record  of  Yak  CoU 
lege,  1188. 

CowleB,  George,  a  Congregational  minister,  wu 
bora  in  Connecticut  in  1798.  He  graduated  from  Yale 
College  in  1821,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1824;  was  ordained  Jan.  18, 1826,  and  becime 
pastor  at  South  Danvers  (now  Peabody),MasB.,in  1827. 
He  was  lost  at  sea,  near  Cape  Hatteras,  in  the  wreck 
of  the  Home,  Oct.  9, 1889.  See  Trien.  Cat  ofAndovtr 
TheoL  Sem,  1870,  p.  67. 

Co^ea,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Norfolk,  Conn.,  April  24,  1803.    He  pur- 
sued his  preparatory  studies  under  Rev.  Ralph  Emer- 
son, of  Norfolk ;  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  182<i, 
and  spent  two  yean  in  Yale  Divinity  School ;  was  or- 
dained an  evangelist,  July  1,  1828,  at  Hartford;  for 
two  years  was  acting  pastor  at  Ashtabula  and  San- 
dusky, O.,  and  then  served  in  that  relation  at  Au8tin> 
burg*  to  July  29,  1881,  when  he  was  installed  pastor 
there,  remaining  until  November,  1836.    From  that 
time  to  1838  he  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in 
Oberlin  College,  0.;  the  next  ten  years  professor  of  eo* 
desiastical  history,  church  polity,  and  Old  Testament 
language  and  literature ;  from  1848  to  1862  editor  of  the 
Oberlin  Evangelist ;  and  subsequently  was  engsged  ia 
literary  labor  at  the  same  place.    From  1851  he  wss 
tmstee  of  the  college.    He  died  in  Janes  ville.  Wis.,  Sept. 
6, 1881.    Dr.  Cowles  was  the  author  of  the  following 
publications:  The  ffoUness  of  Christians  in  the  Present 
Life  (1841):— Goipe/  Manna  for  Christian  Pilgrim 
(1847)  i-'Conunentaries  on  the  Scriptures^  in  16  voU, 
covering  the  whole  Bible,  as  follows :  The  Minor  Proph- 
ets (1867)  i-^Exekiel  and  Daniel  (1869)  i-^Isaiak  (eod.): 
— Jeremiah  (eod.) : — Proverbs,  Ecdesiastes,  and  Song  of 
Solomon  (1870)  i^Rwdaiion  {\Viiy,^Psalms  (1872):- 
Pentateuch  (1874)  \— Hebrew  History  from  the  Death  of 
Moses  to  the  Close  of  Scripture  Narrative  (1876)— 601- 
pd  and  Epistles  of  John  (l876):-^o6  (1877):-//e- 
brews  (1878)  i^The  Shorter  Epistles  (1879) :— TAe  Loih 
ger  Epistles  (1880)  -.^Luke's  Gospel  and  Ads  (1881)  >- 
Matthew  and  Mark  (eod.).    The  profiu  arising  from 
the  sale  of  these  commentaries  he  gave  to  the  mission- 
ary cause.    Dr.  Cowles  also  edited  a  volume  of  Mr. 
Finney*s  Sermons,  in  1876,  entitled  Gospel  Themes,  and 
published  a  volume  entitle  Sin  and  Suffering  in  the 
Universe.    See  Cong.  Year-book,  1882,  p.  26;  Obituary 
Record  of  YaU  College,  1882. 

Cowles,  Henry  Brown,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Fauquier 
County,  Ya.,  Nov.  2, 1808.  He  experienced  conversioo 
in  1818;  was  licensed  to  exhort  in  1880,  and  in  1881 
connected  himself  with  the  Virginia  Conference,  in 
which  he  filled  the  most  prominent  stations,  to  the 
close  of  his  life,  Nov.  28, 1874.  Mr.  Cowles,  became,  in 
1864,  the  financial  agent  of  Randolph-Macon  College,  and 
raised  for  the  institution  an  endowment  of  $100,000. 
He  had  a  strongly  marked  character;  was  noted  for  bis 
caution  and  prudence,  his  sincerity  and  courage;  was  a 
keen  Judge  of  character,  and  a  skilful  manager  of  men; 
was  punctual,  industrious,  and  painstaking.  See  Min* 
utes  of  Annual  Conferences  oftheM.E.  Church  South, 
1876,  p.  141;  Simpson,  Cydop.  of  Methodism,  a.  v. 

Cowles.  Orson,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  at  East  Hartland,  Conn.,  Jan.  14, 1801.  He  stud- 
ied at  Yale  College,  and  in  the  theological  department, 
not  graduating,  however.  He  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Church  in  North  Woodstock  in  1882;  taught  in 
North  Haven  two  years,  and  was  district  secretary  of 
the  American  Board  from  1840  to  1860.  He  died  at 
North  Haven,  Dec.  28, 1860.  See  Cong.  Quarter^,  1861, 
p.  211. 

Cowles,  R.  J.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  Belchertown,  Mass.,  July  10,  1796.  He  waa 
converted  in  1811,  and  united  with  the  CoRgregaUonal 


COWMEADOW 


143 


COWPER 


Ghurcfa  in  his  luitiTe  town.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he 
remored  to  Genesee  County,  N.  Y.,  and  took  up  hit  res- 
idence in  what  is  now  South  Byron.  In  1828  he  re- 
moved  to  Brokenstmw,  Pa.,  and  a  year  later  to  Sugar 
Grove.  Here  be  opened  a  Sahhath-echool,  and  began  to 
preach,  receiving  a  licenee,  in  1832,  from  the  Presbytery 
of  Pennsylvania.  In  1889  he  united  with  a  Free-will 
Baptist  Church  at  Wrightsville,  and  was  ordained  at 
Sugar  Hill,  Feb.  29, 1842.  He  continued  to  preach  for 
many  years,  and  died  March  29, 1874.  See  Tke  Morn^ 
mg  Star,  July  22, 1874.     <J.  C.  S.) 

Co'Wineado^  Johx,  an  English  Methodist  preach- 
er, was  received  by  the  British  Conference  in  1788. 
In  much  weakness  of  body  he  labored  faithfully  until 
his  death,  in  1786.  Wesley,  in  bis  Journal,  speaks  of 
him  as  a  martyr  to  long  and  loud  preaching;  but  says, 
'*He  had  the  ornament  of  a  meek  and  quiet  spirit,  and 
was  of  exemplary  behavior."  See  Atmore,  Metk,  J/e- 
wiorial,  s.r. 

Co'viriiley,  Joseph,  an  early  English  Methodist 
preacher,  was  bom  at  Leominster,  Herefordshire,  June 
26, 1723.  Under  Wesley's  preaching,  Cownley  was  con- 
verted at  Bath,  whither  his  business  as  traveUing  sec- 
retary to  a  magistrate  sometimes  called  him.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  itinerancy  by  Wesley,  in  Bristol,  in 
174^  He  preached  in  Staffordshire,  confronting  the 
mobs,  in  Cornwall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  (1747),  Ire- 
land (at  the  peril  of  his  life),  and  in  various  parts  of 
England.  In  spite  of  a  severe  fever  in  17(^5,  he  la- 
bored in  Newcastle,  Edinburgh,  and  Glasgow.  He  died 
at  Newcastle,  Oct.  8, 1792.  Unusually  sensitive  to  dis- 
cord, Cownley,  from  his  sympathy  with  the  popular 
movement,  was  involved  in  the  great  agitation  of  1792, 
which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Methodist  New 
Connection.  He  was  a  life-long  friend  of  the  Wesleys 
and  Whitefield.  Cownley  was  a  thorough  theologian, 
having  read,  it  is  said,  nearly  every  theological  work  in 
the  langiuge.  His  mind  was  capable  of  abstruse  inves- 
tigation, and  Wesley  called  him  withal  *'  one  of  the  best 
preachers  in  England."  He  loved  to  carry  the  gospel 
to  the  retreats  of  «rretchedness.  See  Mmutu  oftht  Brit' 
iA  Comferemee,  1793;  Jackson,  JCariy  Meth,  Preachertf 
ii,  1-47  (by  John  Saulter,  1794) ;  Stevens,  Hut,  ofMeth- 
odJnsUi, 39,91-93;  Smith, ^tf<.o/ifcf,Aod&m,ii,  42-44; 
Atmore,  Meth.  Memorial,  p.  90  sq. ;  Crowther,  Portrai- 
ture o/MethodUm  (Lond.  1814, 2d  ed.),  p.  346^850. 

Convper,  Charles  Philip,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Baden,6ermany,  April  8, 1851.  He 
emignted  to  New  York  city  with  his  parents  when  four 
years  of  age;  experienced  conversion  in  1864;  assisted 
in  establishing  the  first  mission  for  colored  people,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epiicopal  Church,  in  New 
York  city;  gave  himself  to  that  work  with  remarkable 
zeal  and  self-denial ;  studied  three  years  at  the  Wesley- 
ao  Academy,  Wilbraham,  Mass.,  preaching  nearly  every 
Sonday ;  and  in  1873  entered  the  New  York  East  Con- 
ference, wherein  he  labored  with  abundant  success  till 
hb  death,  July  1 1 ,  1875.  Mr.  Cowper  was  a  young  man 
of  considerable  promise,  sweet  in  spirit,  unasduming  in 
manner,  and  irreproachable  in  conduct.  His  mind  was 
strong,  and  his  will  consecrated.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Com/erenceM,  1876,  p.  61. 

Cowper,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  brother  of 
the  biabop  of  Galloway,  was  a  supply  at  the  High  Kirk, 
Edinburgh,  in  1586,  and  became  afterwards  minister. 
He  refosed  to  pray  for  queen  Mary  in  the  terms  of  the 
king's  command,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
casUe  of  Blackness;  the  city  paid  his  expenses,  ob- 
tained his  release,  and  he  was  transferred  to  the  Col- 
legiate Church,  Glasgow,  in  1587,  having  charge  of  the 
eastern  district  and  parish.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
assemblies  of  1593  and  1596,  and  was  appointed  to  visit 
thai  at  Lothian  in  1602.  In  1595  his  life  was  threatened 
by  two  men,  but  the  chief  offender  begged  pardon  on 
his  kneea  before  the  presbytery.  He  died  Dec.  26, 1608. 
ButJraMiiEecka.8eotietm9,i,7i  ii,7. 


Cowper,  Spenoer,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
second  son  of  loid-chancellor  William  Cowper,  was  bora 
in  London  in  1713.  He  was  educated  at  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  became  rector  of  Fordwich,  prebend- 
ary of  Canterbury  in  1742,  and  dean  ofDurham  in  1746. 
He  died  March  25, 1774.  He  published  some  single 
Sermont  and  Ditcourtes,  and  a  Dissertation  on  tke  Dis^ 
tinet  Powers  o/Jieason  and  Revelation  (1773).  See  AUi- 
bone,  I>iet  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  A  utkors,  s.  v. ;  Chalmers, 
Gen.  Biog.  Diet,  s.  v. 

Cowper,  WiUiam,  an  eminent  English  poet, 
grand-nephew  of  lord-chancellor  Cowper,  grandson  of 
a  judge  in  the  court  of  lommon  pleas,  and  son  of  John 
Cowper,  rector  of  Great  Berkhamstead,  in  Hertford- 
shire, was  bom  there,.Nov.  26, 1781.  He  appears  from 
his  infancy  to  have  been  delicate  in  mind  and  body, 
and,  after  having  spent  two  years  of  misery  in  a  coun- 
try school,  was  placed  at  Westminster  School,  where 
he  remained  till  he  was  eighteen  years  old.  He  was 
then  articled  to  a  solicitor  in  London,  called  to  the 
bar  in  1754,  and  resided  in  the  Middle  Temple  for 
eleven  years,  neglecting  law,  contributing  a  few  papers 
to  The  Connoisseur,  and  gradually  exhausting  his  little 
patrimony.  In  1768  one  of  his  powerful  kinsmen  ap- 
pointed him  to  two  clerkships  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
Doubts  of  his  competency,  and  the  fear  of  appearing 
in  public  assemblies,  developed  the  tendency  to  insan- 
ity which  lurked  within  him.  He  made  several  at- 
tempts to  destroy  himself;  and  was  consigned  for  eigh- 
teen months  to  a  lunatic  asylum  at  St.  Albans.  On 
his  release  in  1765,  subsbting  on  the  remnant  of  his 
property,  with  asstsunce  from  relatives,  he  took  up  his 
residence  at  Huntingdon,  and  became  a  boarder  in  the 
house  of  Mr.  Unwin,  a  clerg}'man.  That  gentleman  dy- 
ing two  years  afterwards,  the  widow  and  Cowper  re- 
moved to  OIney,  in  Buckinghamshire.  John  Newton 
was  curate  of  the  place;  and  his  religious  views  accorded 
with  those  which  had  been  adopted  by  the  poet,  al- 
though the  association  rather  increased  than  lessened 
the  morbid  tendencies  of  the  latter.  In  1776  appeared 
the  Olney  Hymns,  of  which  some  of  the  best  were  fur- 
nished by  Cowper ;  but  it  was  only  about  the  time  of 
their  publication  that  the  unhappy  poet  was  freed  from 
a  second  confinement,  which  had  lasted  for  nearly  four 
years.  He  had  still  earlier  tried  his  hand  at  poetry, 
having  translated  an  elegy  of  Tibulius  at  the  age  of 
fourteen,  and  at  eighteen  he  wrote  some  beautiful  verses 
On  Finding  the  Heel  of  a  Shoef  but  difiMence  repressed 
his  talents  until  he  had  passed  his  fortieth  year.  Mrs. 
Unwin,  anxious  to  engage  his  mind  ssfely,  now  urged 
him  to  prosecute  verse-making.  The  Progress  of  Error 
wss  written;  Truth,  Table-TaUs,  and  Expostulation  fol- 
lowed it ;  and  these  with  other  poems  made  up  a  volume 
which  was  published  in  1782,  receiving  the  spprobation 
of  Johnson  and  other  critics,  but  meeting  little  attention 
from  the  public  The  poet's  fame,  however,  was  de- 
cisively established  by  his  next  volume,  which,  sppear- 
ing  in  1785,  contained  The  Task  and  other  poems.  The 
publication  of  this  work,  indeed,  was  an  sera  in  the  his- 
tory of  Englbh  poetry.  It  was  the  point  of  transition 
from  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  nineteenth.  Natural 
language  was  substituted  for  artificial ;  themes  of  uni- 
versal interest  were  handled,  instead  of  such  as  told  only 
on  a  few  cultivated  minds;  even  the  seriousness  and 
solemnity  of  the  leading  tone  had  a  striking  attraction, 
while  it  was  relieved  both  by  strains  of  pathos  and 
'  touclies  of  satiric  humor.  More  novel  and  original  than 
anything  else  were  those  minute  and  faithful  delinea- 
tions of  external  scenery,  to  which  no  parallel  had  been 
seen  since  Thomson's  Seasons,  Perhaps,  also,  the 
didactic  form  of  Cowper's  poems,  giving  them  an  equiv- 
ocal character  which  hovers  continually  between  poetry 
and  argumentation,  was  an  additional  recommendation 
to  readers  who  had  long  been  unaccustomed  to  the  finer 
and  higher  kinds  of  poetical  invention.  John  Gilpin  is 
a  specimen  of  his  humorous  genius,  the  subject  of  which 
is  said  to  have  been  suggested  to  him  by  Lady  Anaten, 


COW-WORSfflP 


144 


COX 


one  of  hU  literary  frieuda.  Cowper  now  spent  ax  years 
on  his  tranalation  of  Homer,  which  appeared  in  1791. 
The  neglect  which  it  has  experienced  is  certainly  un- 
deserved} at  least  by  his  Odyssey,  His  mental  aliena- 
tion, which  had  repeatedly  threatened  him  with  a  return, 
overcame  him  completely  in  1794 ;  and  the  last  six  years 
of  his  life  produced  hardly  any  literary  fruits  except  the 
pathetic  Castaway.  The  death  of  his  friedd  Mra.  Un- 
win,  in  1796,  threw  him  into  a  gloom  which  was  hardly 
ever  again  dispelled,  and  he  died  at  Dereham,  April  25, 
1800.  Cowper's  chief  characteristics  are  simplicity,  in- 
dividuality, transparency  of  ideas,  bold  originality, 
singular  purity,  and  experimental  Christian  piety.  All 
his  poems  bear  marks  of  his  mature  authorship,  his  ac- 
curate rather  than  extensive  scholarship,  and  his  un- 
wearied desire  to  benefit  mankind.  His  Christian  life, 
though  oppressed  by  disease,  was  true,  useful,  and  lovely ; 
and  even  while  suffering  under  the  deranged  idea  that 
he  was  an  exception  to  God's  general  plan  of  grace,  it 
is  delightful  to  perceive  that  it  had  no  tendency  to  lead 
him  aside  from  the  path  of  rectitude,  or  to  relax  in  the 
least  his  efforts  to  maintain  the  life  of  religion  in  his 
souL  His  poems  remain  a  treasure  of  deep  Christian 
pathos  and  earnest,  pensive  thought,  and  many  of  them 
have  been  incorporated  into  nearly  every  collection  of 
religious  hynms.  Cowper's  works  were  first  collected  by 
his  friend  Hayley  (1803-4,  with  a  Lt/e);  but  the  best 
edition  is  that  of  Southey  (1838-37,  also  with  a  /.t/«, 
the  most  carefully  written,  and  with  additional  Lei" 
tert^  in  Bokn's  Standard  Library^  1853).  For  a  copious 
view  of  the  literature,  see  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  A  tUAors,  s.  v. 

Co^v^-worahip.  The  Egyptian  goddesses  Athor 
and  Isis,  represented  as  having  the  head  of  a  oow; 
Astarte,  the  Syrian  goddess,  as  wearing  the  horns  of  a 
oow;  and  the  Grecian  Juno  as  having  a  cow's  eyea 
Venus  is  sometimes  figured  as  a  oow  giving  milk  to  her 
calf.  lo  changed  into  a  cow  is  an  emblem  of  the  earth. 
The  cow  of  Minos,  which  on  each  day  was  white,  red, 
and  black,  seems  to  represent  the  three  different  as^ 
pects  which  the  earth  presents  in  the  bright  blaze  of 
noon,  in  the  purple  tinge  of  evening  or  morning,  and 
in  the  dark  shades  of  night.  In  the  fables  of  Brab- 
minism,  the  earth  takes  the  form  of  a  oow  named  Ka- 
madhuka,  which  gives  its  worshippers  all  they  desire. 
Among  the  Adighe,  a  race  of  Circassians,  a  oow  is  of- 
fered in  sacrifice  to  Aehin,  the  god  of  homed  cattle. 
According  to  tMe  cosmogony  of  the  Scandinavian  Edda, 
before  the  heavens  and  the  earth  were  created,  the  oow 
Andumla  was  produced  in  the  place  where  the  south- 
ern fires  of  Muspelheim  melted  the  ice  of  Nifiheim. 
This  cow  denotes  the  oosmogonic  earth.  Among  the 
Hindfts  the  cow  is  held  in  the  greatest  veneration,  par- 
ticularly the  species  called  the  Brahmin  or  sacred  cow, 
and  by  many  families  a  oow  is  kept  for  the  mere  pnr^ 
pose  of  worshipping  it — Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  Worldj 
a.  V.    See  Apis  ;  Moscholatry. 

Cox,  Alfred,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was  con- 
verted in  early  life ;  baptized  at  seventeen  at  the  Coun- 
terslip  chapel,  Bristol,  and  began  to  preach  in  the  vil- 
lages around.  He  was  an  agent  for  the  Baptist  Home 
Missionary  Society  twenty-two  years;  was  pastor  at 
Dunchurch  seven  years,  and  was  a  consistent  and  de- 
voted minbter.    He  died  at  Cradley,  June  9, 1870. 

Cox,  Daniel,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
boni  at  Barnard,  Yt.,  in  August,  1801.  He  professed 
conversion  in  early  manhood,  received  license  to 'ex- 
hort in  1828,  and  in  1829  entered  the  East  Maine  Con- 
ference. Failing  health  in  1888  obliged  him  to  become 
a  superannuate,  which  relation  he  sustained  to  the  dose 
of  his  life,  Dec  28, 1875.  See  Minutes  of  A  mual  Con- 
ferenoeSf  1876,  p.  90. 

Cox,  Francis  AagUBtiis,  D.D^  LL.D.,  a  distin- 
guished English  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at  Leighton 
BusEzard,  Bedfordshire,  in  1783.  He  was  brought  up 
religiously,  baptized  by  his  gnmdlather,  entered  Bristol 


College  at  eighteen,  under  Dr.  Ryland,  and  gradoated 
at  Edinburgh  University.  In  1804  he  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Church  at  CUpaton,  Northampton,  by  SuU 
diffe,  Fuller,  and  Robert  Hall,  and  the  Church  pros- 
pered so  much  a  new  large  chapel  had  to  be  built.  He 
next  succeeded  Robert  Hall  at  Cambridge.  In  1811  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Shore  Place,  Hackney, 
where  also  his  success  was  such  that  in  1812  a  new 
chapel  was  built  in  Mare  Street.  Being  settled  in  Lon- 
don, he  took  an  active  part  in  establishing  and  conduct- 
ing the  Baptist  Magazine,  and  was  connected  with  nu- 
merous philanthropic  institutions.  He  died  at  Clapton, 
London,  Sept.  5, 1853.  Dr.  Cox  was  the  author  of  aome 
valuable  works,  including  an  account  of  his  visit  to 
America.    See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  284. 

Cox,  Gkenhom  Flagg,  A.M.,  a  Methodist  £|ua- 
copal  minister,  twin  brother  of  Melville  B.  Cox,  was 
bom  at  Hallowell,  Me.,  Nov.  9, 1799.  He  joined  the 
Church  at  the  age  of  eighteen ;  was  soon  licensed  to 
preach,  and  gave  great  promise  of  usefulness;  spent 
several  years  in  Belfast  in  business,  and  in  1830  joined 
the  Maine  Conference,  in  which,  and  in  the  New  Eng- 
land Conference,  he  labored  with  but  few  intermissions 
as  a  supemumerary,  for  more  than  thirty  yeaiK  In 
1864  he  became  superannuated,  which  relation  he  su»- 
tained  until  his  decease  in  Salem,  Nov.  16, 1879.  Mr. 
Cox  was  a  plain,  earnest,  instructive.  Biblical  preacher. 
In  his  prime  he  was  one  of  the  mighty  preachers  in 
New  England  Methodism,  filling  with  great  acceptabil- 
ity her  chief  pulpits.  He  was  a  superior  pastor,  spirit- 
ually minded,  consdentious,  and  prayerful ;  a  man  of 
broad  self- culture;  was  a  ready  and  dear  writer,  for 
many  years  editing  The  Maine  Wedeyan  Journal;  and 
in  addition  to  numerous  contributions  to  the  Quarterly 
Review  he  was  the  author  of  the  memoir  of  Mdville 
B.  Cox.    See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences^  1880,  p.  65. 

Cox,  G.  Davenport,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
at  Comwallis,  N.  S.  He  was  ordained  at  Clementsvale, 
Jan.  4, 1865,  labored  there  for  several  years,  then  be- 
came pastor  at  Hillsburg,  where  his  fervent  labors  broke 
down  his  constitution,  and  he  died  March  25, 1879.  His 
zeal  was  unflagging,  his  love  for  his  flock  intense.  See 
Baptist  Year-book  for  the  3faritime  Provinces^  1879; 
BiU,  Fify  Years  teith  the  Baptists,  p.  554. 

Cox,  James,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  missionary, 
was  a  native  of  Biermuda.  In  1828  he  received  his  first 
appointment  to  his  native  islands,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  sent  to  the  West  Indies,  where  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  St.  Kitt's,  Antigua,  Dominica,  Tortola,  and 
Jamaica.  Having  a  strong  constitution,  he  undertook 
labors  to  which  few  men  would  have  been  equal.  He 
died  at  Morant  Bay,  Jamaica,  May  80, 1859.  See  Jf m- 
utes  of  the  British  Conferencej  1859. 

Cox,  John  (1),  an  English  Baptist  minister,  waa 
bom  in  1746.  He  commenced  ministerial  labors  in  the 
connection  of  the  countess  of  Huntington,  but  after- 
wards joined  a  Baptist  Church,  and  for  forty-two  years 
was  pastor  at  Horsington,  Somerset,  where  he  continued 
to  preach  until  his  death.  Jan.  9, 1827.  See  Xew  Bap^ 
tist  Miscellany,  1827,  p.  124.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cox,  John  (2),  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  at  Lamboum,  Berkshire,  Blay  5, 1802.  He  waa 
converted  early  in  life,  entered  the  ministry  soon  aflcr 
he  was  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  during  his  long 
career  was  pastor  successively  of  churches  in  Reading, 
Woolwich,  and  Ipswich,  in  all  of  which  places  he  was 
held  in  deservedly  high  esteem  as  a  godly,  faithful,  and 
laborious  minister  of  the  gospel  He  spent  his  last 
years  in  occasional  preaching,  chiefly  in  a  small  chapd 
near  his  residence  at  Foots  Cray,  in  Kent.  He  died 
March  17, 1878.  He  wrote  books,  pamphlets,  and  ar^ 
tides  for  the  press  in  great  numbers.  See  (Lond.) 
Baptist  Hand-book,  1880,  p.  29a 

Cox,  John  Goodwin,  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, grandson  of  Rev,  John  Goodwin,  one  of  WeBley*a 


cox 


146 


COX 


pfcttchen,  was  bom  at  Bibtoo,  StallbrdBbire,  Oct.  81, 
1815).  He  was  pious  from  his  yooth ;  entered  the  min- 
istiy  in  1836;  died  in  London,  April  1, 1878,  and  was 
buried  at  Wrexham,  where  he  had  settled  as  a  super- 
nomecaiy  during  the  previous  year.  He  was  a  man  of 
sterling  intellect  and  high  moral  worth ;  was  well  read 
in  philosophy,  history,  and  elegant  literature;  his  aei^ 
mous  were  dear,  elaborate,  sententious,  forcible.  See 
Mmutes  of  the  Briiisk  Confirmlot^  1878,  p.  36. 

Cox,  John  HajTter,  an  Englbh  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Portsea,  March  26, 1768,  and  re- 
ceiTed  his  ministerial  education  at  Gosport  Academy. 
In  1789  be  began  to  preach  at  Fareham,  Hampshire, 
and  labored  there  eighteen  years.  In  1809  he  became 
pastor  at  St.  Albans,  and  after  lire  years  went  to  Had- 
leigh,  in  Sollolk,  where  he  was  installed  Oct.  26, 1814. 
In  1829  be  removed  to  Uley,  Gloucestershire,  but  relin- 
quished this  charge,  and  at  the  same  time  the  ministry, 
in  1839,  and  retired  to  Kingston,  Surrey.  He  died  Jan. 
6, 1848.  He  published,  A  Harmony  of  Scripturt^  some 
anonymous  pamphlets,  and  a  ^S'^niMm.  See  (Lond.) 
CoMf.  Year-booky  1848,  p.  219. 

Coa^  Iiather  J.,  the  bard  of  the  Methodist  Protes- 
tant Chnicb,  was  bom  in  Maryland,  Dec.  27, 1791.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Ghnrcb  in  1819,  but  afterwards  left  it ;  and  was  among 
the  first  to  organize  and  set  in  operation  the  Meth- 
odist Protestant  Church,  in  which  he  acted  as  a  zealous, 
unstatiofied  minister  until  1869,  and  then  was  received 
ss  a  supemnmeraTy  member  in  the  Maryland  Annual 
Conference.  He  died  July  26, 1870.  With  an  ardent 
and  devotional  temperament  he  possessed  a  genius  and 
talent  for  poetry.  He  is  the  author  of  several  popular 
hymns,  especially  "An  alien  from  God  and  a  stranger 
to  grace."  See  Cobbouer,  Fovmden  of  the  Meth,  ProL 
Ck^xhj  p.  218. 

Cook,  Margaret,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  was  bora  in  1814.  She  hibored  *<with  much 
earnestness  and  love,  yet  with  becoming  modesty.  In 
many  instances  she  was  enabled  to  make  full  proof  of 
her  ministry.*'  She  died  near  Lawrence,  Kan.,  Nov.  12, 
1878.     See  Friend^  Review,  xxxii,  197.     (J.  a  &) 

Coz;  Itflchael,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Os- 
sory  in  1743,  and  became  archbishop  of  Cashel  in  1754. 
He  published  a  Sermon  (Dublin,  1748).  See  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthort,  s.  v. 

Co3^  Nehemiah,  D.D.,  an  English  Particular  Bap- 
tist, was  bora  at  Bedford,  being  a  member  of  John 
fianysn*s  Church  there.  He  was  well  educated,  and  "  a 
very  excellent,  learned,  and  Judicious  divine."  He  was 
ofdainecl  in  October,  1671;  in  1673  preached  for  some 
time  at  Hitchin;  then  atCranfield;  and  in  1675  went 
to  London,  and  was  ordained  Joint  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Vetly  Prance,  where  he  continual  till  the  Revolution 
in  1688L  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  good  Greek  and  He- 
brew scholar,  and  to  have  been  imprisoned  in  early  life 
for  preaching.  He  published  two  Semtons^  one  on  the 
Con^enants,  against  Mr.  Whiston ;  the  other  an  ordina- 
tion  sermon.  He  died  in  1688.  See  WUaon,  Dissenting 
CAmrdkeM^  ii,  185. 

Coa^  Philip,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
born  at  Frome,  Somersetshire,  England.  He  Joined 
the  Wesleyans  when  about  eighteen;  and,  having  emi- 
grated to  America,  labored  in  the  itinerancy  about  six- 
teen yeaiai,  travelling  extensively  through  the  United 
States.  He  died  Sept.  8, 1793.  Mr.  Cox  was  a  man  of 
small  Btatttze,  great  spirit,  quick  apprehension,  and  sound 
judgment,     1^  MimUee  of  Annual  Confereneet,  1794, 

Coz;  Richard,  a  minister  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
co|ial  Church,  waa  born  in  New  York  dty  in  1808.  He 
was  desigiied  for  mercantile  life,  but,  comparatively 
late,  cotesed  the  ministry,  graduating  from  Columbia 
College  in  1833.  Having  finished  the  course  at  the 
Gcncnl  Theolopetl  Semiaaiy,  he  was  ordained  deacon 


in  1886;  was  missionary  pioneer  at  Yicksburg,  Miss.; 
rector  for  several  years  of  St.  John's  Church,  Troy, 
N.  Y.;  then  of  St.  Paul's  Parish,  Woodbury,  Conn.; 
a  year  or  two  after  became  rector  of  Zion  Church,  New 
York  city,  retaining  this  position  for  thirteen  years;  af- 
terwards was  rector  of  St.  John's,  Santa  Cruz,  W.  I.; 
and  a  short  time  before  his  death  returned  to  New  York 
city,  where  he  died,  Dec  16, 1860.  See  Amer,  Quar, 
Church  Review,  1861,  p.  186. 

Cos,  Samuel  Hanaon,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent 
Presbyterian  divine,  was  born  at  Rahway,  N.  J.,  Aug.  26, 
1796.  His  father,  who  died  in  1801,  was  at  that  time 
engaged  in  a  mercantile  enterprise  in  New  York  city. 
He  was  descended  from  a  family  which  in  the  17th 
century  had  settled  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland, 
and  was  connected  for  several  generations  with  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends.  He  was  educated  at  Weston,  Pa., 
also  received  private  instruction  in  Philadelphia,  and 
was  a  law  student  in  Newark,  N.  J.  In  the  war  of  1812 
he  served  in  a  volunteer  company  of  riflemen.  He 
studied  theology  in  Philadelphia  under  Dr.  Wilson,  was 
ordained  in  1817,  and  soon  after  accepted  the  pastorate 
of  Mendham,  Morris  Co.,  N.  J.  In  1821  he  removed 
to  New  York  city  as  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Spring  Street,  and  went  from  thence  to  Laight  Street, 
on  Sl  John's  Park,  in  1825.  His  congregation  here  was 
largely  composed  of  the  leading  merchants  of  the  city. 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  cholera  he  remained  at  his 
post  until  stricken  down  by  the  disease. 

Dr.  Cox  took  a  leading  part  in  the  foundation  of  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  in  the  literary 
conventions  which  were  called  to  aid  in  its  organiza- 
tion. He  was  appointed  to  open  the  instructions  of  the 
university  with  the  late  Dr.  Mcllvaine,  afterwards  bish- 
op of  Ohio,  and  delivered  one  of  the  two  memorable 
courses  of  lectures  in  the  winter  of  1831-32,  his  depart- 
ment being  that  of  moral  philosophy. 

In  impaired  health,  Dr.  Cox  visited  Europe  in  1883, 
where  a  speech  which  he  delivered  at  that  time,  at  the 
anniversary  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in 
London,  gained  him  great  distinction  and  opened  the 
way  to  high  honors  and  attentions. 

He  was  elected  professor  of  pastoral  theology  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Aubura  in  1834,  and  accepted 
the  position ;  but  in  1837  he  became  pastor  of  the  first 
Presbyterian  congregation  in  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  where  he 
built  a  new  church  in  Henry  Street.  For  a  long  time, 
both  in  Brooklyn  and  New  York,  he  maintained  a  po- 
sition of  great  eminence  with  unvarying  popularity. 

In  1845,  Dr.  Cox  attended  in  London  the  Evangeli- 
cal Alliance,  of  which  he  was  a  leading  member,  and  on 
his  return  was  exposed  to  peril  of  shipwreck  on  the  coast 
of  Ireland,  when  the  steamer  Grtat  Britain  was  stranded 
in  the  bay  of  Dundrum.  In  1852,  his  health  declining, 
he  visited  Nassau;  but  with  so  little  good  efiect  that, 
against  the  remonstrances  of  his  people  and  the  most 
liberal  proposals  on  their  part,  he  resigned  his  charge 
and  retired  to  a  pleasant  property  which  they  enabled 
him  to  purchase  at  Owego,  Tioga  Co.,  N.  Y.  He  con- 
sidered his  career  as  a  pastor  at  an  end,  but  frequently 
delivered  lectures  and  sermons  in  New  York  for  several 
years  subsequently. 

Dr.  Cox  for  many  years  was  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  of  New 
York,  and  also  presided  for  a  time  over  the  Female 
College  at  Le  Roy.  For  the  last  twelve  years  of  his 
life  he  lived  in  great  retirement  in  Westchester  County. 
He  died  there,  OcU  2, 1880. 

The  anti-slavery  sentiment  predominant  in  England 
made  a  great  impression  on  Dr.  Cox  during  his  visit 
there,  and  although  he  publicly  defended  his  countiy 
while  abroad,  he  soon  after  his  return  preached  a  cele- 
brated sermon  against  slavery,  which,  although  moderate 
in  tone,  drew  upon  him,  as  a  conspicuous  person,  a  great 
share  of  the  violence  with  which  the  anti-slavery  agi- 
tators were  then  visited.  He  was  never  identified,  how- 
ever^ with  their  extreme  measures,  and  afterwarda  took 


cox 


146 


COXHEAD 


a  leading  conMnratiye  poaition  on  all  questions  connect- 
ed with  the  Soath,  which  for  a  long  time  agitated  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  In  other  questions  which  for  a 
time  divided  that  denomination,  his  theological  standing 
was  with  the  new  school,  of  which  he  was  a  prominent 
champion;  in  the  order  and  discipline  of  his  Church, 
however,  he  maintained  the  highest  and  roost  thorough 
old-school  position,  so  far  as  conformity  to  the  standard 
is  concerned.  Although  much  criticised  for  personal 
eccentricities,  and  especially  for  a  pompous  Latinity 
of  style,  Dr.  Cox  has  been  generally  recognised  as  a 
man  of  high  character  and  commanding  talents,  of  great 
boldness  in  expressing  his  strong  convictions,  and  of 
singular  power  and  magnetism  as  an  orator.  As  a  con- 
sistent  Christian,  his  great  purity  and  marked  simplicity 
of  character  secured  to  him,  through  a  long  and  useful 
life,  the  uniform  respect  of  his  fellow>men. 

Dr.  Cox  wrote  largely  for  the  press.  Among  his 
publications  were,  QuakerUm  not  Christiamty  (N.  Y. 
1888,  8vo) :— /ntervtewf ,  Memorable  and  Utffiil  (N.  Y. 
1868, 12mo),  etc  See  N,  F.  Tritew,  Oct.  4, 1880 ;  N,  Y. 
OUerver,  Oct  7, 1880 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  s,y, 

Coz,  Samuel  J*,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Monmouth  County,  N.  J.,  Nov.  2,  1789. 
He  joined  the  Church  in  1809,  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1812,  and  not  long  after  admitted  on  trial  in  the  Phil- 
adelphia Conference.  He  filled  successively  the  follow- 
ing appointments:  Sussex  Circuit;  SnowHiII;  Kensing- 
ton, Phila.;  Wilmington,  Del.;  Union  Charge,  Phila.; 
and  Salem,  N.  J.  In  1821  he  located  and  removed  to 
Zanesville,  O.,  where  he  remained  undl  his  death,  Aug. 
28, 1870.  Mr.  Cox  was  editor  of  the  Muthmgum  Mes- 
aenger  from  1823  to  1885,  and  filled  various  civil  offices 
with  eminent  abUity.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Coz,  Thomas  Xi.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Washington  County,  Ky.,  Jan.  15, 1809 ;  ex- 
perienced religion  at  the  age  of  ten ;  joined  the  Tennes- 
see Conference  when  twenty-five,  and  was  immediately 
transferred  to  the  Alabama  Conference,  wherein  he  serv^ 
the  Church  with  zeal  and  fidelity  until  his  death,  Jan.  18, 
1886.    See  Mimtes  of  A  nnual  Conferences,  1886,  p.  487. 

Cox,  TViUiam  (l),  an  English  Wesleyan  minister 
entered  the  ministry  in  1789,  preached  for  seventeen 
years,  and  died  at  Swansea,  Oct.  15, 1809.  His  life  and 
ministry  displayed  the  attractive  charms  of  genuine 
Christianitv.  See  Minuiet  of  the  British  Conference, 
1810. 

Coz,  William  (2), an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Warminster  in  1813.  Removing  to 
Bristol  in  1840,  he  joined  the  Church  in  Newfoundland 
Street  Chapel,  in  that  city,  the  same  3'ear.  He  zealous- 
ly employed  himself  in  efforts  to  do  good,  and  having 
entered  the  ministry,  was  sent  to  Fovant  by  the  Wilts 
Association,  in  connection  with  the  Home  Missionary 
Society  in  London,  in  1849,  and  labored  there  till  1852, 
when  he  was  ordained.  Failing  health  compelled  him 
to  relinquish  his  charge  in  April,  1858,  and  on  May  14 
of  that  year  he  died.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-booh,  1854, 
p.  221. 

Cozcie  (or  Coxis),  Michael.,  a  reputable  Flemish 
painter,  was  bora  at  Mechlin  in  1497,  and  was  a  scholar 
of  Van  Orley ;  afterwards  went  to  Rome,  where  he  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  study  of  Raphael.  On  his  return 
to  Flanders  he  painted  many  works  for  the  churches, 
the  best  of  which  are  at  Brussels.  The  Last  Supper, 
in  St.  Gudule ;  and  The  Death  of  the  Virgin,  in  Notre 
Dame.  He  died  at  Antwerp  in  1592.  See  Chalmers, 
Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genhak,  s.  v. ; 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Cozcox  is  the  name  given  in  Mexican  mythology 
to  the  patriarch  who,  together  with  his  wife,  Xochiquet- 
zal,  escaped  the  deluge  by  constracting  a  boat  of  cypress 
wood.  This  legend  is  evidently  a  tradition  from  the 
history  of  Noah.    See  Dklugi. 


Coxe,  Henzy  Ootavius,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  bora  in  1811,  and  educated  at  Wcst^ 
minster  and  at  Worcester  College,  Oxford,  graduating  in 
1888.  He  entered  at  once  upon  work  in  the  MS.  de- 
partment at  the  library  of  the  British  Museum,  and  con- 
tinued there  till  1888,  when  he  became  one  of  the  sub- 
librarians of  the  Bodleian  library.  He  succeeded  the 
late  Dr.  Bandinel  as  head  librarian  in  1860.  On  the 
part  of  the  goverament  Mr.  Coxe  was  sent  out  to  in- 
spect the  libraries  in  the  monasteries  of  the  LevanL 
He  was  an  authority  on  the  date  and  character  of  MSS., 
and  he  detected  one  of  the  forgeries  palmed  by  M.  Si- 
monides  upon  the  learned.  He  died  July  10, 1881,  at 
Oxford.  Mr.  Coxe  was  the  editor  and  author  of  many 
works;  the  most  important  of  all  his  hibon  being  the 
new  Catalogue  of  the  Bodleian  Librarg.  He  was  curate 
in  a  London  district  while  working  at  the  museum ;  and 
he  was  in  charge  of  Wytham,  near  Oxford,  as  curate  or 
rector,  for  twenty-five  years,  until  his  death.  He  was 
Oxford  select  preacher  in  1842,  and  WhitehsU  preacher 
in  1868 ;  also  an  honorary  fellow  of  Worcester  and  Cor- 
pus Christi  colleges,  and  chaplain  of  the  latter.    (R  P.) 

Coxe,  Richaird  Charlea,  an  eminent  En^h  di- 
vine, was  bora  in  1800.  He  graduated  at  Woroesier 
College,  Oxford,  in  1821,  was  ordained  deacon  in  1828, 
and  priest  in  1824;  in  1841  became  vicar  of  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne  ;  in  1848  honorary  canon  of  Durham,  and  one 
of  the  select  preachers  befure  the  University  of  Oxford ; 
in  1868  archdeacon  of  Lindisfarae,  with  the  vicarage  of 
Englingham  annexed ;  and  in  1857  canon  of  Durham. 
He  died  at  Englingham,  Aug.  25,  1865.  Archdeacon 
Coxe  was  the  author  of  several  valuable  theological 
works,  a  number  of  sermons,  and  a  few  volumes  of  po- 
ems of  a  high  order  of  meriL  See  Appleton*s  Animal 
Cgdopetdia,  1865,  p.  674. 

Coxe,W^llliam  (1),  an  English  author  and  divine, 
was  bora  in  Dover  Street,  Piccadilly,  London,  March  7, 
1747.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  King's  College, 
Cambridge.  In  1768  he  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  lat- 
ter; and  during  his  residence  at  the  university  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  classical  attainment,  twice  gain- 
ing the  bachelor's  prize  for  the  best  Latin  disaertatioh. 
He  was  ordained,  and  appointed  curate  of  Denham  in 
1771;  rector  of  Beroerton  in  1788;  canon-residentiaiy 
of  Salisbury  in  1803;  and  archdeacon  of  Wilts  in  1805. 
which  office  he  held  till  his  death,  June  8, 1828.  Mn 
CoxCf  as  tutor  to  the  sons  of  several  noblemen,  spent,  at 
various  times,  many  yean  on  the  Continent,  where  be 
neglected  no  opportunity  of  collecting  information  about 
the  countries  which  he  visited.  The  result  appeared  in 
many  volumes  of  travels  and  history,  all  of  which  are 
characterized  by  close  observation,  care,  and  research. 
Archdeacon  Coxe  published,  also,  several  lai^  topo- 
graphical works,  besides  some  of  a  religious  charu^ter. 
A  set  of  his  historical  works  and  travels  is  published 
in  twenty -four  volumes,  imperial  quarta  See  Th» 
(Lond.)  Annual  Register,  1828,  p.  287;  Hart,  Manual 
ofEng,  Literature;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 
Authors,  s.  V. 

Coxe,  "William  (2),  a  Presbyterian  minister,  waa 
bora  in  Pennsylvania.  He  was  a  student  in  Jefferson 
College,  and  graduated  at  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1828.  He  was  ordained  an  evangelist  by  the 
Presbytery  of  New  Branswick,  Oct.  8  of  the  same  year; 
was  missionary  to  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  1829;  stated 
supply  at  Apple  Creek,  O.,  from  1882  to  1836;  at  Lau. 
caster  in  1887 ;  pastor  t  here  from  1888  to  1849 ;  and  there- 
after at  Piqua  until  his  death,  in  1856.  See  Gen,  CaK 
of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  58. 

Coxhead,  Benjamin,  an  English  Baptist  mirilster, 
was  bora  June  9, 1772,  and  baptised  at  Carter  Lane,  Lon. 
don,  May  27, 1794.  He  pursued  his  theological  studies 
at  the  academy  in  Bristol;  and  was  ordained  at  Wild 
Street  Church,  London,  Oct.  80, 1800,  remaining  there  un- 
til 1807,  when  he  removed  to  Traro,  where,  for  the  most 
of  the  time,  he  (X)ntinued  until  1820.    For  two  or 


coxroA 


14? 


COZZA 


jean  be  was  oat  of  the  pastorate,  in  oonseqoence  of  iU- 
heakh.  In  April,  1824,  he  accepted  a  call  to  Winches- 
ter, and  was  pastor  in  that  city  seven  years,  from  1824 
to  1881.  He  contidned  to  reside  in  Winchester  for  five 
yeara^  preaching  when  be  could,  and  then  removed  to 
Newbary,  where,  without  charge,  he  preached  freqnent- 
Iv,  until  laid  aside  by  the  infirmities  of  age.  He  died 
Nov.  12. 1851.  See  (Lond.)  BapUti  Hand-book^  1852, 
p. 46.    (J.CS.) 

Coadda,  £uk  db,  a  French  religious  writer,  was 
bom  near  Fumes  about  1140.  In  1189  he  became  ab- 
bot of  the  monastery  of  Dunes  (Cistercian),  where  he 
aoqaired  extensive  celebrity  for  his  knowledge  and 
virtue.  He  died  in  1203,  leaving  only  two  Sermons, 
which  have  been  published  by  Visch  in  the  Bibliotheca 
Scripionim  Ordmit  Cittereiauit,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog,  GkUrak,  s.  v. 

Cozis.    See  Coxcie. 

Cdiaco'W,  Thomas  T.,  an  English  Methodist  preach- 
er, was  bora  at  Hull  in  1812.  In  early  life  he  was  con- 
verted, and  joined  the  New  Connection  Methodists. 
In  1884  he  b^an  to  itinerate  in  their  ministry,  and  for 
nearly  ten  years  preached  with  acceptance  in  nine  cir- 
cuits, when,  at  Halifax,  ill-health  suspended  his  labors 
in  1843,  and  he  retired  to  Hull,  where  he  died,  Aug.  17 
d"  the  same  year.    See  Minutes  of  the  British  Cottfer^ 


Coyaoo,  Council  of  (  Concilium  Coy<ieenae\  was 
held  in  lOSO,  at  Coyaco,  or  Coyace,  in  the  diocese  of 
Orvietta,  Spain,  by  Ferdinand  I  of  Castile.  Nine  bish- 
ops attended,  and  thirteen  decrees  were  published,  re- 
lating partly  to  the  Church  and  partly  to  the  state. 

1  Orders,  under  anathema,  that  all  abbots  and  abbesses 
tball  govern  their  houses  according  to  ibe  rule  of  St 
Isidore  or  8t  Benedict,  and  shall  submit  iu  all  things  to 
their  blflhopi 

8.  Orders  that  churches  and  the  clergy  shall  be  nnder 
the  control  of  their  bishop,  and  not  under  that  of  any  Iny 
person ;  that  suitable  vessels  and  ornaments  be  provided ; 
that  no  ehalloe  of  wood  or  earthenware  shall  be  allowed ; 
that  tbe  altar  ahali  be  made  eutlrely  of  stone,  and  shall 
be  ransecratcd  by  the  bishop.  It  also  directs  that  In 
every  church  the  proper  priestly  vestments  shall  be  pro- 
dded, via.  the  surplice,  amice,  alb,  cinctorinm,  belt,  stole, 
maniple,  and  chasuble :  also  the  vestments  of  tbe  deacon, 
viz.  amice,  alb,  and  atole.  Also  it  orders,  that  under  the 
chalice  shall  be  placed  a  paten,  and  over  It  n  corporal  of 
linen.  The  host  to  be  made  of  fine  flonr,  without  any  ad> 
miztore ;  tbe  wine  and  water  to  be  pure,  so  that,  in  the 
wine  and  host  and  water,  the  sacred  Trinity  may  be 
signifled.  That  the  vestments  of  priests  ministering  In 
tbe  church  shall  reach  to  their  feet  That  they  shall 
have  no  women  In  their  houses  except  a  mother,  or  aunt, 
or  slater,  or  woman  of  approved  character,  who  shall  al- 
ways be  dressed  entirely  In  black ;  and  that  they  shall 
teach  tnCuits  the  Creed  and  Lord^s  Prayer. 

6.  Biddns  that  archdeacons  shall  present  for  ordlna« 
tion  cmiy  sach  clerks  as  shall  know  the  whole  psalter, 
with  the  hymns  and  canticles,  epistles,  gospels,  and 
prayers. 

&  Orders  all  Christian  persons  to  go  to  chnrch  on  Sat- 
urday evenings,  and  on  Sunday  to  be  present  at  the 
matins,  mass,  and  at  all  the  hours :  to  do  uo  work,  nor 
travel  on  that  day,  nnlees  for  the  pnrposes  of  devotion, 
visittng  the  sick,  burying  tbe  dead,  ezecnting  a  secret 
order  of  the  king,  or  or  defence  against  the  Saracens. 
Those  who  break  this  canon  are,  according  to  their  rank, 
either  to  be  deprived  of  communion  for  a  year,  or  to  re- 
ceive one  hundred  lashes. 

IL  Commands  fastlnsron  Friday. 

11  Forbids  the  forcible  seizure  of  those  who  have 
taken  reftage  In  a  chnrch,  or  within  thirty-one  paces  of  it 

There  appears  to  be  some  difference  in  the  copies  of 
thcBs  Ganoa&  See  Labbe,  CondL  ix,  1063.— Landon, 
Mm,of  CcMndlSjM^T.',  Bichard  et  Giraud,  BibUotktque 
5a«r*E,fcv. 

Ooyle,  JoHH,  a  Scotch  Congregational  minister, 
^ni  bom  at  Montroae,  July  26, 1842.  He  waa  con- 
^^tited  in  hb  eighteenth  year;  Joined  the  Wesleyans 
•tfint,  but  soon  after  became  a  Congregationalist;  re- 
Cttred  bis  miniaterial  education  largely  under  private 
^■•netois;  and  waa  ordained  at  Forfar,  April  26, 1866, 
"^^  hs  labored  with  great  ability,  seal,  and  devoted- 


neas  until  his  death,  July  1, 1868.    See  (Lond.)  Cong. 
Year^took,  1869,  p.  241. 

Coypel,  Antoine,  a  French  painter,  son  and 
scholar  of  Noel,  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1661.  He  went 
to  Borne  when  quite  young,  and  studied  the  works  of 
Baphael,  Michael  Angelo,and  the  Caraccu  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  returned  to  Paris  with  a  very  superficial 
knowledge  of  hu  profession.  He  was  only  nineteen 
when  he  painted  his  Assun^ption,  for  the  Church  of 
Notre  Dame,  and  at  twenty  he  was  elected  a  royal 
academician.  He  waa  appointed  painter  to  the  king 
in  1715.  His  principal  works  are  at  Paris.  They  are 
Christ  Curing  the  Blindf  at  the  Carthusian  convent; 
Christ  among  the  Doctors;  and  The  Assumption,  in  the 
Church  of  Notre  Dame.  He  died  in  1722.  See  Hoefer, 
Now,  Biog,  GMrak,  s.  v.;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  A  rts,  s.  ▼. 

Coypel,  Noel  (sumamed  Le  Poussm),  an  eminent 
French  painter,  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1628.  He  studied 
first  under  Ponoet,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  entered 
the  school  of  Quillerier,  where  he  made  such  rapid  prog- 
ress that  his  merit  procured  his  election  to  the  Academy 
in  1659,  his  reception-picture  being  Cain  Slaying  A  M, 
His  celebrated  Martyrdom  of  St,  James  was  painted  for 
the  Church  of  Notre  Dame  about  this  time.  He  was 
appointed  by  the  king  director  of  the  French  Academy 
at  Bome,  where  he  went  in  1672.  His  best  productions 
after  this  were  The  Virgin  Caressing  the  In/ant  and 
The  Holy  Famtiy.  He  died  in  1707.  See  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts^  s.  v.;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GMrale,  s.  v. 

Coypel,  Noel  Nioolae,  a  French  painter,  was 
bom  in  1692,  and  was  a  son  of  Noel  by  a  second  mar- 
riage. He  received  his  first  instruction  from  his  father, 
after  which  he  studied  in  the  Academy  of  Paris,  and  in 
1728  was  elected  a  member  of  that  institution.  His 
best  wortcs  are  the  ceiling  of  the  chapel  of  the  Virgin 
in  the  Church  of  St.  Saviour,  and  the  altar-piece  in  the 
aame  chapel,  representing  The  Assumption,  He  died  in 
1785.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Spoon- 
er,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts^t,  v. 

Coyeevoz,  Amtoine,  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
was  bom  at  Lyons  in  1640.  Before  he  was  seventeen 
he  distinguished  himself  by  a  statue  of  tbe  Virgin,  and 
immediately  went  to  Paris,  where  he  studied  under 
Lerambert  and  other  masters.  He  produced  some  fine 
works,  among  which  were  the  tomb  of  cardinal  Maz- 
arin,  and  the  monument  of  Charlea  le  Brun,  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Nicolas.  He  died  at  Paris,  Oct  10, 1720. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrak,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog, 
Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s,y, 

Cosad,  Jaoob,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  waa 
bora  July  2, 1819.  He  experienced  religion  in  early 
life,  received  license  to  exhort  in  1841,  and  in  1842  en- 
tered the  Indiana  Conference.  In  it  he  labored  faith- 
fully to  the  close  of  his  life,  April  IS,  1868.  See  Min- 
utes of  Annual  Cotiferences,  1863,  p.  212. 

Cossa,  Carlo,  an  Italian  painter,  son  and  scholar 
of  Giovanni  Battista,  was  bora  at  Ferrara  about  1700. 
He  painted  several  pictures  for  tbe  churches  of  his  na- 
tive city,  among  which  are  The  Annunciation,  in  the 
Chiesa  Nuova;  St,  Antonio,  in  Santa  Lucia;  and  St, 
Francesco  da  Paolo,  in  San  Matteo.  He  died  at  Fer- 
rara in  1769.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rU, 
a.v. 

Cossa,  Franoeaoo,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Istilo,  in  Calabria,  in  1605,  and  studied  at  Bome 
under  Domenichino.  One  of  his  best  works  was  at 
Bome,  and  repreaented  the  Virgine  del  Riseatto,  in  the 
Church  of  Santa  Franoesca  Bomana.  He  died  at  Bome 
in  1682.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU,  a.  v.; 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Cossa,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  Italian  painter, 
waa  bom  at  Milan  in  1676,  and  settled  at  Ferrara  while 
very  yooDg,  where  he  executed  many  works  for  the 


COZZA 


148 


CRADOCK 


cbarches.  The  principal  are,  The  Conceptionf  in  the 
cathedral ;  The  Holy  FamUy^  in  the  Church  of  Ognis- 
santi ;  The  A  uumption^  in  San  Guglielmo ;  and  The  A  n- 
nunciation,  in  SanU  Lucia.  He  died  at  Femra  in  1742. 
See  Spooner,  Bioff,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  r. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale^  8.  r. 

Cossa,  LorensOy  an  Italian  theologian,  was  bom 
near  Bolsena,  March  81, 1654.  He  entered  the  order  of 
the  Obflenrantiats,  and  after  having  been  suoceaftlvely 
professor  of  theology  and  vice-commissary  of  his  order, 
was  elected  its  minister^general,  Hay  16, 1728.  In  De- 
cember, 1726,  Benedict  XIII  created  him  cardinal,  and 
he  was  afterwards  promoted  to  several  other  ecclesias- 
tical offices.  He  died  at  Rome,  Jan.  18, 1729,  leaving 
various  historical  and  archseological  works  in  Latin,  for 
which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GSniraUf  s.  v. ;  Wetzer  u. 
Welte,  Kirchen-LezHam,  s.  v. 

Cossando,  Leonardo^  an  Italian  biographer,  was 
bom  at  Rovato,  near  Brescia,  in  1620.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  he  entered  the  order  of  Servites,  and  while 
young  taught  philosophy  at  Verona  and  Vienna.  He 
afterwards  became  professor  of  theology,  and  regent  of 
the  College  of  St.  Alexander  of  Brescia.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-five  he  was  elected  member  of  the  Academy  of 
the  EmntL  He  died  Feb.  7,  1702,  leaving,  Corn  di 
Peana  (Bresda,  1645) :— i?if^rv/to  dei  Prelati  deUa  sua 
BtUgione  (ibid.  1678):— Ft^«  del  P,  Paolo  Cigone  e  del 
P,  Ottavio  Pantagolo: — De  MagiHerio  Anti^arum 
Phiiotopharum  (Cologne,  1682;  Geneva,  1684):— X.f- 
hraria  Bresciana  (Brescia,  1694) ;  this  work  contains 
the  lives  of  five  hundred  and  thirty  authors:- Ka^  e 
Curioto  Rigtretto  P9'ofano  e  Sagro  deW  Hittoria  Breg- 
eiana  (ibid.  eod.).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginh-ak, 

B.V. 

CosBens,  Samuel  Woodward,  D.D.,  a  Congre- 
gational minister,  was  bora  in  Mayfleld,  K.  Y.,  Oct.  25, 
1801.  He  graduated  from  Middlebury  College  in  1828, 
and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1831 ;  was 
ordained  at  Marhlehead,  Mass. ;  became  ooUeague  of  Rev. 
Samuel  Dana  in  1832;  in  1887  pastor  at  Milton;  and  in 
1847  acting  pastor  of  the  Second  Church,  Milton,  remain- 
ing there  until  1851.  The  Kingsborongh  (N.  Y.)  Pres- 
bvterian  Church  was  the  next  in  which  he  labored  in 
the  same  capacity ;  and  in  1858  he  was  installed  in  the 
Presbyterian  Church  at  Mount  Vemon,  from  which  he 
was  dismissed  in  1859.  During  the  next  nine  years  he 
was  acting  pastor  at  Weybridge,  Vt. ;  then,  in  the  same 
relation,  he  served  the  Church  at  South  Plymouth,  Mass., 
from  1868  to  1872.  He  died  in  Medfield,  Aug.  7, 1875. 
See  Cong,  Quarterly,  1876,  p.  422. 

Crabb,  Zoos  M.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  Garrard  County,  Ky.,  in  1804.  He  was  educated  in 
the  Miami  University,  Oxford,  O.,  and  studied  theology 
in  the  Western  Seminary  at  Allegheny,  Pa.  In  1838 
he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  engaged  at  Eaton  and 
Alexandria;  subsequently  he  was  pastor  of  Lima, West 
Bethesda,  and  Union  churches,  in  Ohio.  He  died  March 
17, 1859.  He  was  a  devoted  laborer  and  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  the  Church.  See  Wilson,  Preth,  Hirt,  Al- 
manac, 1860,  p.  69. 

Crabbe,  George,  an  English  poet  and  divine,  was 
bom  at  Aldborough,  Suffolk,  Dec  24,  1754.  When 
fourteen  years  of  age,  being  tolerably  grounded  in 
mathematics  and  classics,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  sur- 
geon near  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  but  had  no  liking  for 
the  profession,  and  ultimately  proceeded  to  London  to 
make  a  trial  of  literature.  For  a  time  he  was  very  un- 
fortunate. At  last,  when  threatened  with  arrest  for 
debt,  he  made  his  case  known  to  Edmund  Burke,  who 
received  him  in  a  very  kindly  manner,  brought  him 
into  his  family,  introduced  him  to  Fox,  Reynolds,  John- 
son, and  other  distingruished  men,  and  gave  him  his 
criticism  and  advice  concerning  the  poem  of  The  Li- 
brary, which  was  published  in  1781  (2d  ed.  1788),  and 
was  favorably  noticed.  By  the  assistance  of  Burke 
he  was  enabled  to  prepare  himaelf  for  admiasioo  to 


holy  orders.  In  1782  he  was  ordained  curate  of  his 
native  place,  and  shortly  after  appointed  chaplain  to 
the  duke  of  Rutland,  at  Belvoir  Castle.  In  1785  he  was 
presented  to  two  small  livings  in  Dorsetshire,  in  1789 
exchanged  them  for  others  in  the  vale  of  Belvoir,  and 
in  1818  was  preferred  to  tho  rectory  of  Trowbridge, 
which  he  held  until  his  death,  Feb.  8,  1882.  Mr. 
Crabbe,  in  addition  to  the  work  above  mentioned, 
pubUshed,  The  Village  (1788)  :—The  Netctpaper  (1786) : 
—The  Parish  Register  (1807):— TAe  Borough  (1810): 
—Tales  in  Verse  (1812)  -.—Tales  of  the  Hall  (1819). 
See  The  North  American  Review,  1834,  p.  135;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  GiniraUi,  s.  v. ;  Rose,  Gen,  Biog.  Diet,  s.  v. ; 
Allibone,  Diet.  qfBrit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Crabeth,  Dirk  and  Wouter,  two  brothers,  were 
very  eminent  Dutch  painters  on  glass,  bora  at  Gouda, 
in  Holland,  and  flourished  about  1560.  They  executed 
many  works  of  great  merit,  especially  the  magnificent 
windows  of  the  great  church  at  Gouda,  on  which  are 
represented.  The  Nativify,  Christ  Driving  the  Money- 
changers  from  the  Temple,  The  Death  of  Holofemes, 
and  The  Profanation  of  the  Temple  by  Hdiodorus,  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale,  a.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v, 

Crabtree,  Abraham,  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Heptonstall,  near  Halifax,  in  1785. 
He  entered  the  ministry  in  1811,  and  died  on  the  Pate- 
ley-Bridge  Circuit,  June  15, 1851.  See  Jdimttes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1851. 

Crabtree,  William,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  near  Heptonstall,  Yorkshire,  March  20,  1806. 
He  was  baptized  June  14, 1827,  studied  under  the  Rev. 
R.  Ingham ;  af^er  a  year's  service  in  Dnffield,  Derby- 
shire, was  assistant  minister,  for  a  time,  with  Rev.  J. 
Taylor,  at  Hinckley,  Leicestershire,  and  then  removed 
to  Lineholm,  in  Yorkshire,  where  he  died,  Mav  9, 1854. 
See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand-book,  1855,  p.  47.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cradook,  John,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  bora  at 
Wolverham,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  became  rector 
of  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  and  subsequently  chaplain 
to  the  duke  of  Bedford.  He  accompanied  that  noble- 
man to  Ireland  in  1757,  was  soon  after  elected  to  the 
see  of  Kilmore,  and  on  Dec.  4  of  the  same  year  was 
consecrated.  In  1772  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
Dublin.  In  1773  he  was  one  of  the  eighteen  peers  who 
protested  against  the  passing  of  a  bill  for  securing  the 
repayment  of  money  lent  by  Papists  to  Protestants  on 
mortgages  of  land.  He  died  Dec.  11, 1778.  See  D* Al- 
ton, Memoirs  of  the  A  bps,  of  Dublin,  p.  844. 

Cradook,  Thomaa,  a  missionary  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  bora  at  Wolverham,  Bedfordshire,  iu 
1718,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  An  attachment 
having  sprang  up  between  a  sister  of  the  duchess  of 
Bedford  and  Thomas,  he  was  persuaded  by  her  friends 
to  migrate  to  Maryland,  where  it  is  believed  that  he 
arrived  in  1742.  In  October  of  that  year  the  General 
Assembly  passed  an  act  for  the  erection  of  a  chapel 
about  twelve  miles  from  Baltimore,  to  be  called  St. 
Thomas's.  In  1745  it  was  made  an  independent  parish. 
Mr.  Cradock  became  its  minister  the  same  year,  also 
keeping  a  school  for  several  years.  Between  1750  and 
1753  he  preached  a  sermon  which  made  considerable 
impression,  urging  the  necessity  of  electing  a  bishop 
in  the  colony.  In  1758  he  published  a  version  of  the 
Psalms  in  heroic  verse.  About  1763  Mr.  Cradock  be« 
came  physically  paralyzed,  but  retained  his  mental  vig^ 
or,  and  continued  to  fulfil  his  Sabbath  appointments 
until  his  death,  May  7, 1770.  He  was  a  man  of  varied 
learning,  an  intense  student,  and  a  preacher  of  oonaider- 
able  power.  See  Spragoe,  A  nnals  of  the  Amer,  Pybnt. 
v,llL 

Cradock,  Zaohary,  D.D.,  an  English  dergyman, 
was  bora  in  1688,  and  educated  at  Qneen^s  College, 
Cambridge.  Some  years  aAer  he  was  made  canon  res- 
identiary of  Chichester,  and  elected  fellow  of  Eton  Col- 


CRAFTS 


149 


CRAIG 


kge  in  1672.  In  168D  he  wm  chosen  pioroat  of  £ton. 
He  died  Oct  16, 1696.  Dr.  Cnulock  is  Imown  to  the 
worid  by  the  high  character  given  him  by  his  contem- 
poruies,  and  by  two  fine  sermons;  yix.,  one  on  Pror»- 
dmee,  the  other  On  the  Grtai  End  eutd  Dengn  ofCkrii- 
Hamlg.  See  Cbafaner8»iBtM9.Z>»c<.  8.  V. ;  AUibone,  i>i€l. 
ofBriL  and  Amor,  AutAort,  a.  v. 

Grxafbi,  EupHALET  PoRTEBi  a  Unitarian  minister, 
W88  born  at  North  Bridgewater  (now  Brockton),  Mass., 
Nov.  23, 1800.  He  was  fitted  for  college  by  his  father, 
wbo  was  a  clergyman  (a  graduate  of  Harvard  College 
in  1785),  and  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1821. 
After  being  engaged  for  some  time  in  teaching  and 
occasional  preaching,  he  was  ordained  in  November, 
1828,  and  settled  in  East  Bridgewater,  where  he  re- 
mained neariy  eight  years.  In  1889  he  became  pastor 
in  Sandwich,  and  continued  until  1864.  After  this  be 
resided  in  East  Lexington,  teaching,  and  preaching  in 
vacant  pulpits,  as  he  had  opportunity.  Next,  he  was 
minister  at  Eaatport^  Me.,  from  1866  to  1876,  and  in 
the  latter  year  removed  to  Waltham,  Mass.,  where  he 
died,  Jan.  16,  1880.  See  Brown  Umverntif  Neendoggf 
1879-80.     (J.  a  S.) 

Cragg,  Gborob,  an  English  Congregational  minis- 
to;  was  bom  in  January,  1798.  He  joined  the  Chnrch 
in  early  manhood,  was  ordained  at  Boroughbridge  about 
1827,  labored  there  about  seventeen  years  with  great 
toocesa,  accepted  a  call  to  Leybum,  Yorkshire,  where 
he  preached  fourteen  years,  and  then  removed  to  Har- 
lowgate,  where  he  died,  Dec.  1, 1873.  See  (Lond.)  Canff. 
Year-book^  1876,  p.  819. 

Griaghead.    See  Cbaiohbad. 

Cragie  (or  Craigie),  John,  is  the  name  of  two 
Scotch  clergymen. 

1.  Took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews 
in  1697 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1702 ;  called  to  the 
living  at  Abercrombie  in  1704,  and  ordained.  He  died 
before  March  14, 1733,  aged  about  tifty-six  years.  Sec 
Fasti  Ecde*.  Scoticana,  ii,  403. 

2.  Took  his  degree  at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
in  1761 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1767 ;  appointed  to 
the  living  at  St.  Fergus  in  1773,  and  ordained;  trans- 
ferred to  OM  Deer  in  1798,  and  died  OcU  9,  1821,  aged 
eghty  years.    See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticanasy  iii,  621,  640. 

Craig,  the  name  of  a  number  of  Scotch  clergymen. 

1.  Alexamdkb  (1),  took  his  degree  at  the  Univer- 
lity  of  St.  Andrews  in  1686 ;  was  admitted  to  the  living 
St  PetUnain  in  1641,  and  died  in  April,  1642,  aged  about 
twenty-six  years.     See  Fasti  Fecks,  Scoticanas,  ii,  831. 

2.  ALEXA5DBB  (2),  took  his  degree  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Aberdeen  in  1669;  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1676;  appointed  to  the  living  at  Unst  in  1688 ;  deserted 
his  ehai^  about  1697 ;  resided  at  Fraserburgh  in  1702 ; 
intruded  there  in  1708,  and  was  accused  of  intrusion  in 
1716.    See  FasH  Fecks.  Scoticana,  iii,  372, 441. 

3.  Abchibau),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
venity  in  1810;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1812;  or- 
dained as  assistant  in  the  living  at  Bedrule  in  1882, 
and  in  that  year  published  Introduction  to  Greek  Ac- 
eeatuaiiofu    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticanm^  i,  488. 

4.  George  (1),  D.D.,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1799 ; 
presented  to  the  living  at  Kinross  in  1808,  and  ordained 
in  1804;  assumed  the  name  of  Buchanan  in  1806,  and 
died  April  18, 1842.  He  published  An  Account  of  the 
Puriih,    See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scaticawx,  ti,  598. 

5.  Geohgk  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1832 ;  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  at  Sprouston  in  1834,  and  ordained 
in  1835;  joined  the  Free  Secession  in  1843,  and  died 
Feb.  U^  1866.  He  published  A  Sermon  at  the  Opening 
of  tie  Parith  Church  (1838)  >^A  n  A  ceount  of  the  A  uch- 
terarder  Case  (1839)  :^A  Memoir  of  Rev,  John  8ym, 
hti  predecessor.    See  Fasti  Eceies,  Sooticanm^  i,  473. 

6.  Hugh,  a  Covenanter  of  Edinburgh,  studied  at 
Glasgow  University  in  1667;  was  for  some  years  a  mer- 
ehnt-boigess;  was  called  to  the  living  at  Galashiels 


in  1692,  and  ordained.    He  died  before  April,  1714.    See 
Fasti  Seeks,  Scotieanm^  i,  660. 

7.  Jambs  (1),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  University 
in  1662;  was  called  to  the  living  at  Killeam  in  1658, 
and  ordained ;  conformed  to  Episcopacy ;  was  accused 
before  the  privy  council  of  several  charges  of  disloyalty, 
and  acquitted;  other  charges  being  brought  against 
him  in  1690,  he  was  ousted  bv  the  rabble.  See  Fasti 
Eceks,  ScoticaneBf  ii,  866. 

8.  James  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity in  1655;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Hoddam 
in  1661,  and  ordained ;  transferred  to  Selkirk  in  1666, 
and  to  Tranent  in  1676 ;  was  deprived  for  refusing  the 
test  in  1681 ;  elected  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  the  kirk- 
session,  heritors,  magistrates,  and  deacons,  to  the  second 
charge,  Ganongate,  Edinburgh,  in  1687 ;  obliged  to  re- 
move to  an  old  chapel  near  the  Watergate  in  1691;  re- 
ceived into  communion,  and  transferred  to  Dudding- 
ston  in  1694^  He  died  May  31, 1704,  aged  about  sev- 
enty-two vears.  See  Fasti  Eccks.  ScoticaneBf  i,  89 ;  iii. 
360,540,6'20. 

9.  Jambs  (8),  was  bom  at  Thornton-loch,  in  August, 
1669 ;  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  University  in  1694 ; 
was  called  to  the  living  at  Bathans  (Yester),  in  1701, 
and  ordained ;  rebuked  in  1702  for  riding  on  the  Sab- 
bath while  preaching  in  the  North ;  transferred  to  Dun- 
bar in  1718 ;  promoted  to  the  Old  Church,  Edinburgh, 
in  1721,  and  died  Jan.  31, 1731.  He  published  Poenu 
on  Divine  Subjects  (Edinburgh,  1727)  '.^Sermons  (ibid. 
1732-1738,  3  vols.).  See  Fasti  Eccks,  Scoticana,  i,  15, 
364,369. 

10.  James  (4),  a  native  of  Inncrwick,  was  elected 
doctor  in  Heriot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh,  in  1739 ;  licensed 
to  preach  in  1742 ;  appointed  to  the  living  at  Currie  in 
1752,  and  ordained ;  became  presbytery  clerk  in  1758, 
and  died  June  24, 1792,  aged  seventy-two  years.  See 
Fasti  Eccks.  SooticancB^  i,  146. 

11.  James  (5),  A.M.,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1795 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Dalserf  in  1805,  and 
ordained ;  retired  to  England  with  the  sanction  of  the 
presbytery,  and  died  there,  Nov.  9,  1845.  See  Fasti 
Eccles,  Sooticanesy  ii,  281. 

12.  John,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1760;  appoint- 
ed minister  at  Ktrkpatrick-Fleming  in  1764;  tranderred 
to  Ruthwell  in  1783,  and  died  Dec.  16, 1798,  aged  sixty- 
one  years.    See  Fasti  Eccks,  Scotic€aue,  i,  622, 626. 

13.  KoBERT,  AM,f  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1824; 
appointed  to  Stanley  chapel  in  1826 ;  presented  to  the 
living  at  New  Cumnock  in  1829,  and  ordained ;  trans- 
ferred to  Kothesay  in  1835,  when  Gaelic  was  no  longer 
required;  joined  the  Free  Secession  in  1843,  and  died 
May  26, 1860,  aged  sixty-eight  years.  He  published, 
Theocracy  (1848)  :^Tht  Man  Christ  Jesus  (1855).  See 
Fasti  Eccks,  Scoiicana,  ii,  105 ;  iii,  80, 31. 

14.  Thomas  (1),  took  his  de£Tee  at  the  University 
of  St.  Andrews  in  1603,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1611 ; 
appointed  to  the  living  at  New  Spynie  in  1624,  and 
died  in  1689,  aged  about  fifty-six  years.  See  Fasti  Eo- 
cks,  Scoticana,  iii,  171. 

15.  Thomas  (2).  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity in  1617 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1620;  admit- 
ted to  the  living  at  Largo  before  1631,  and  continued 
in  1637,  but  was  deposed  in  1640.  See  Fasti  Eccks, 
Scoticana^  ii,  252. 

16.  Thomas  (3),  took  his  degree  at  King's  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen,  in  1656 ;  became  schoolmaster  of  Dyke ; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1659 ;  presented  to  the  living 
at  St.  AndrewVLhanbryd  in  1663,  and  ordained ;  de- 
prived in  1690  for  nonjurancy,  and  died  before  1719. 
Sec  Fasti  Eccks.  Scoticana,  iii,  165. 

17.  Thomas  (4),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1743 ; 
presented  to  the  living  at  Guthrie  in  1753;  ordained 
in  1754,  and  died  AprU  16, 1797.  See  Fasti  Eccks,  Sco- 
ticana,  iii,  796. 

18.  William,  D.D.,  was  bom  in  Glasgow  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1709;  took  his  degree  at  the  university  there; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1734;  called  to  the  living  at 


CRAIO 


160 


CRAIGHEAD 


Cambusnetban  in  1787,  and  ordained.  He  praacbed 
tbe  principles  of  virtue  and  morality  more  frequently 
tban  his  hearers  bad  been  acctistomed  to,  so  they  op- 
posed him;  he  was  transferred  to  the  West  Church, 
Glasgow,  in  1788;  removed  with  his  congregation  to 
tbe  new  Church  of  St.  Andrew  in  1761,  and  died  Jan. 
13, 1784^  Habitually  pious,  he  arrested  the  attention 
without  alarming  the  imagination,  and  touched  the 
heart  without  rousing  the  passions.  He  published,  The 
Reverence  tohich  it  Due  to  the  Name  of  God  (1761) : — 
The  Character  and  OtUgatitmt  of  a  Minister  of  the 
Gospel  (1764) :— iln  Essay  on  the  Life  of  Jesus  Christ 
(1767)  i-T-Twenty  Discourses  on  Various  Subfects  (Lond. 
1775 ;  2d  ed.,  with  Life,  1808, 2  vols.).  See  FatU  Ecdes, 
ScoticanoB,  ii,  24, 276 ;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Alli- 
bone,  Did,  ofBriU  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Craig,  SdwBrd,  an  English  divine,  graduated  at 
St  Edmund's  HaU,  Oxford,  and  was  curate  at  Glent- 
worth  and  Saxvy;  successively  at  Watton  and  Chip- 
ham ;  St.  James's,  Edinburgh ;  Staines,  Burton-Latimer, 
and,  lastly,  perpetual  curate  of  St  James's,  Pentonville : 
in  all  which  places  he  was  eminently  useful  He  died 
in  1850.  Among  his  writings  are.  Patriarchal  Piety 
(1826)  iSermons  (1828).  See  (Lond.)  Christian  Guar^ 
eHan,  April,  1860,  p.  199;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Craig;  Z&ijall,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in  Vir- 
ginia about  1740,  and  converted  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
four.  In  1766  he  began  to  hold  religious  services  in 
his  own  tobacoo-house,  and  continued  to  preach  as  op- 
portunity presented.  He  was  once  imprisoned  for  so 
doing,  but  nevertheless  continued  his  labors.  In  1786 
he  removed  to  Kentucky,  where  he  died  in  1808.  See 
Lives  of  Virffinia  Baptist  Mimsters,  p.  71-73.    (J.  C  S.) 

Craig;  John  (1),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Dublin,  Ireland.  He  came  to  Maryland,  Joined  the 
Methodists,  served  on  the  British  side  in  the  war  of 
independence,  went  to  Nova  Scotia  in  1784,  travelled 
through  tbe  province  as  a  preacher;  was  ordained  pas- 
tor of  a  Baptist  Chureh  at  Kagged  Island;  removed  to 
Connecticut  in  1732,  and  remained  there  two  years. 
He  then  retumed  to  Nova  Scotia,  where  be  died,  Dec 
13, 1737,  in  his  eighty-eighth  year.  See  Bill,  IJisl.  of 
Baptist4  in  the  Maritime  Provinces,  p.  232. 

Craig,  John  (2),  a  pioneer  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Ireland,  Sept  21, 1710,  but  was  educated  in 
America.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Donegal  Presbytery 
in  1738,  sent  to  Deer  Creek,  Md.,  and  in  1739  to  Opequ- 
hoii  Irish  Tract,  and  other  places  in  western  Virginia. 
In  1740  he  was  ordained  pastor  at  Shenandoah  and  South 
Kiver,  resigned  in  1754,  and  died  April  21, 1774.  He 
was  a  man  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,  in  perils  often,  in 
labors  abundant    (W.  P.  S.) 

Craig,  John  Xiiggett,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bora  at  Allegheny,  Pa.,  Dec  7, 1828.  He  graduated  at 
Duquesne  College,  Pittsburgh,  in  1846;  studied  theol- 
ogy in  the  Associate  Reformed  Seminary,  Allegheny ; 
was  licensed  by  Monongahela  Associate  Reformed  Pres- 
bytery in  1850,  and  in  1854  accepted  a  call  to  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church  at  Princeton,  lud.  In  1864 
he  was  appointed  chaplain  of  the  17th  regiment  Indiana 
Veterans.  He  died  in  July,  1866.  See  Wilson,  Presb. 
Hist.  A  Imanacy  1866,  p.  260. 

Craig,  J.  N.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  bom  in 
1814,  was  licensed  to  preach  by  New  Bmnswick  Presby- 
tery, in  1836 ;  pastor  at  Rogersville  and  New  Providence, 
Tenn. ;  aftem'ards  twenty-two  years  in  Columbus,  Miss., 
and  six  years  in  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  professor  of  moral  sci- 
ence in  the  University  of  Mississippi  until  1880.  He 
was  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1863.  He 
died  May  15, 1882.  He  was  a  man  of  superior  intelli- 
gence and  strong  character.  See  Chriitian  Observer, 
May  24, 1882. 

Cndg.  laewla,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Orange  County,  Va.,  about  1787,  and  converted  in  1766. 


Being  arreated  June  4, 1768,  while  engaged  in  paUie 
worship,  and  thrown  into  jail  at  Fredericksburg,  he 
preached  to  crowds  of  people  through  the  prison  ban. 
In  1770  he  became  pastor  of  the  Upper  Spottsylvsnia 
Church.  In  1771  he  was  again  imprisoned  three  nionthi. 
After  preaching  in  several  places  in  Kentucky,  be  wss 
pastor  of  South  Elkbom  Chureh  about  nine  years.  In 
1792  he  moved  to  Bracken  County,  Ky.,  in  which  he 
organized  several  churches.  He  died  suddenlv  about 
1828.    SeeCatbcart,^cii>ru<£:iKyc^.p.286.   (J.CS.) 

Craig,  Thomas,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Edinburgh  in  1780.  He  was  con- 
verted in  early  life;  received  his  ministerial  tniniag 
at  Homerton  College;  and  was  ordained  in  1802  at 
Bocking,  where  he  labored  until  his  death,  June  21, 1865. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Tear-book,  1866,  p.  243. 

Craig,  Whealook,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Augnsta,  Me.,  in  July,  1824.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1843,  in'l847  at  the  Bangor  Theo- 
logical Seminar}',  and  for  several  years  was  engaged  in 
teaching.  In  1849  he  was  ordained  in  New  Castle,  and 
the  next  year  accepted  a  call  to  the  Trinitarian  Church 
in  New  Bedford,  Mass.  In  May,  1868,  he  went  abroad 
for  his  health,  but  died  at  Neafchatel,  Switzerland,  in 
November  following.  See  I/ist,  of  Bowdoin  CoU^, 
p.  677,  678.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Craighead,  Alexander,  a  Presbyterian  mxiM- 
ter,  was  bora  in  Pennsylvania.  He  was  licensed  by 
Donegal  Presbyteiy  in  1784,  and  sent  to  Middle  Octo- 
rara  and  *'over  the  river."  He  was  ordained  Nov.  18, 
1736,  but  disputes  arising  from  a  diiference  of  views,  he 
was  suspended.  He  joined  Newcastle  Presbytery  in 
1764;  met  with  Hanover  Presbytery  in  1767,  and  wss 
sent  to  Kocky  River,  in  North  Carolina,  and  to  other 
vacancies.  He  died  in  March,  1766b  See  Webster,  Uist, 
of  the  Presb.  Church  in  America,  1857. 

Craighead,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  a  grad- 
uate of  Princeton  College,  received  ordination  from  Don- 
egal Presbvtery  about  1767,  and  was  pastor  at  Bocky 
Spring,  Pal,  until  1798.  He  died  AprU  20, 1799.  See 
Alexander,  Princeton  CoUege  in  the  18/A  Century. 

Craighead,  Robert,  Sr.,  a  Scotch  cleig>'man,  took 
his  degree  at  the  University*  of  St.  Andrews  in  1663;  was 
ordained  over  the  Presbyterian  congregation  at  Castle 
Finn,  County  Donegal,  Ireland,  before  1661 ;  went  to 
Glasgow  in  June,  1689;  had  a  call  to  fill  vacancies  in 
the  city  of  Glasgow ;  retumed  to  Ireland  in  1690,  and 
was  admitted  to  Derry ;  went  back  to  Glasgow  in  1698; 
settled  at  his  former  charge  about  1700,  and  died  there 
in  September,  1711,  aged  Jabout  seventy-eight  years. 
He  published  An  Answer  to  a  Discourse  on  the  Inven- 
tions of  Men  in  Worship  (1694) : — Advice  to  Communi- 
cants (1696): — Advice  for  Asturance  of  Salvation 
(1702) :— Answer  to  the  Bishop  of  Derr^fs  Second  Ad- 
monition (1697) : — Warning  and  Advice  to  the  Christian 
(1701) :—  Walking  with  God  (1712).     See  Fasti  Ecdes. 
Scoticana,  ii,  16, 18. 

Craighead,  Robert,  Jr.,  an  Irish  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Castle  Finn,  County  Donegal,  in 
1684.  He  took  his  degree  of  A.M.  at  the  University 
of  Glasgow  in  1702,  studied  divinity  at  Edinburgh  and 
Leyden,  and  in  1709  was  ordained  colleague  to  Mr. 
Iredell,  in  Capel  Street,  or  Mary's  Abbey,  Dublin,  where 
he  died,  July  30, 1738.  Both  he  and  his  father  were 
brilliant  and  effective  workers  on  behalf  of  the  Irish 
Presbyterians.  See  Beid,  Hist,  of  the  Fresb.  Church  in 
Ireland. 

Cktdghead,  Thomas,  a  Presbyterian  naini8ter,was 
a  native  of  Scotland.  He  is  said  to  have  atudied  med- 
icine as  well  as  divinity,  and,  after  bein|i^  aettled  in  Ire- 
land for  ten  or  twelve  years,  went,  in  1715,  to  New  Eng- 
land, and  was  employed  in  the  ministry  at  Freetown, 
near  Fall  Biver,  Mass.,  until  1728.  In  1724  he  was  re- 
ceived by  New  Castle  Presbytery,  and  became  paaior  at 
White  Clay,  Pa.    lu  1733  he  was  installed  at  Pequea, 


CRAIGHEAD 


151 


CRAMER 


but  was  dMoaSaaed  in  1796,  and  became  a  sapply  at  Han- 
over Paxton,  and  Conedogwinnit.  He  was  installed  at 
Hopewell  in  1738,  and  in  April,  1789,  he  dropped  dead 
in  tlie  polpit.  See  Webster,  Hitt,  of  the  Prtab,  Church 
M  Awterica,  1857. 

Cnd^iead,  Thomas  B.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  ocdained  by  the  Presbyteiy  of  Orange  in  1780. 
For  a  few  months  he  preached  at  Sugar  Creek,  his  na- 
tire  place,  and  then  removed  to  Tennessee,  where  be 
was  broaght  to  trial  before  the  presbytery  for  holding 
certain  Pelagian  views;  and  the  controveray  which 
arose  lasted  for  many  years.  Mr.  Craighead  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  Davidson  Academy  (afterwards  Nash- 
ville Univ»uty),  and  became  its  fint  president^  which 
position  he  held  for  over  two  years.  His  publications 
aie,  A  Sermtm  on  Regokeration: — ljetter$  to  Rev,  J,  P. 
CamfMl  c-'Tki  PhUotophy  of  the  Human  Mind  (1838) : 
— The  Pottert  and  SuMcqatibUities  of  the  Human  JMind 
(1834,  l2mo):—A  Defence  of  the  EUchom  Association 
(t822),  Mr.  CraighcHtd  excelled  as  an  extemporaneous 
orator,  bnt  not  as  a  writer.  See  Alexander,  Princeton 
College  in  the  18th  Century, 

Gralgie.    See  Craoie. 

Craik,  Alex.ikdkr,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1798 ;  became  rector  at  the 
Doadee  Academy  in  1809 ;  was  presented  to  the  living 
at  Liberton  in  isiS,  and  died  at  Edinburgh,  Oct.  19, 
18561,  aged  eighty-three  years.  He  published,  A  Letter 
to  Mr.  John  Brown  (1820) :— il  Sermon  m  the  ScoUish 
Pa^  .'—A  n  A  ccount  of  the  Parish.  See  FasU  Eccles, 
SeatncantB,  i,  226, 227. 

Czail,  Adax,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  promoted  to  the 
see  of  Aberdeen  about  1207,  and  died  in  1227.  See 
Keith,  SaHtish  Bishops,  p.  106. 

Grain,  Ell  B.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
oopal  Cborch  Sooth,  was  bom  in  Boyle  County,  Kv., 
March  24, 1807.  He  was  converted  about  1826,  in  IfiSd 
entered  the  Kentucky  Conference,  and,  with  the  exoep> 
tion  of  three  years,  labored  in  the  effective  ranks  until 
1853.  He  died  Jan.  10, 1867.  See  Minutes  of  A  matal 
Confirmca  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1867,  p.  161. 

Cndn,  Pranois  BC,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Chorch  South,  was  bom  in  Autauga  County, 
Ala.,  Jane  18, 1828,  professed  religion  in  1847,  in  1852 
was  licensed  to  preach,  and  admitted  into  the  Alabama 
Cooferenoe,  and  died  April  19, 1859.  See  Minutes  of 
Ammal  Cos^erasees  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1859, 
p.  ISO. 

Griallo,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century,  wss  pa- 
tron of  Uangrallo,  otherwise  Coychurch,  in  Glamorgan- 
shire (Rees,  Welsh  Saints,  p.  222).  —  Smith,  Dicf.  of 
Christ,  Bioff.  9,r. 

Cram,  Jacob,  a  Congregational  minuter,  was  bom 
at  Hampton  Falls,  N.  H.,  Oct.  12, 1762,  and  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1782.  He  was  ordained  at 
Hopkinton,  N.  H.,  Jan.  25, 1789,  and  dismissed  Jan.  5, 
1792.  He  labored  as  a  missionary  among  the  Stock- 
bridge  Indians  in  western  New  York,  until  May,  1801, 
and  then  settled,  without  charge,  in  Exeter^  N.  H.,  where 
he  died,  Dec.  21, 1888.  See  Hist,  of  the  Mendon  A  ssod- 
atitm,p.iaB.     (J.CS.) 

Oramb,  A.  B.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  in 
Wcare,  N.  H.,  Jnly  2, 1827.  He  removed  to  Illinois 
in  IS40;  settled  in' Woodford  Count}*,  near  Metamora; 
paraaed  his  studies  at  Shurtleff  College;  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1848,  and  ordained  Oct.  18, 1849,  his  prin- 
dpial  pastorates  being  at  Metamora,  111.,  and  SL  Cloud, 
Minn.  He  died  Feb.  19, 1857.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
JSMydop.  p.  28&     (J.a&) 

Crambeth,  Matthew  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
bishop  of  the  see  of  DnnkeU  in  1289,  and  died  in  1812. 
Kcttb,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  81. 

Cramer,  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger^ 
«wis  bom  in  1582  at  Heimersleben,  near  Magde- 


burg. He  studied  at  Helmstiidt,  was  in  1607  rector  at 
Quedlinburg,  and  in  1615  pastor  of  SU  John's  at  Magde- 
burg. During  the  thirty  years'  war  he  had  to  leave 
that  phice,  and  was  appointed  in  1631  superintendent 
at  Muhlhausen,  where  he  died  in  1640.  His  writings, 
which  are  of  a  controversial  character,  are  given  in 
Jochcr,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Cramer,  Daniel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Reetz,  in  the  Neumark,  Jan.  20, 
1568,  and  died  Oct  5, 1687,  at  Stettin,  being  doctor  and 
professor  of  theology,  pastor  of  SL  Mary's,  and  member 
of  consistory.  He  wrote,  Sana  Doctrina  de  Preedesti^ 
natione: — Schola  Prophetica: — Arbor  Hcsretica  Con^ 
sanguiniiatis : — Methodus  Tractandi  Textum  Scriptura 
Sacrm: — Isagoge  ad  lAbros  Propheticos  el  Apostolicosz 
— Disp.  TheoL  de  Descensu  Christi  ad  Inferos,  de  Regno 
Christi,  de  Qutsstione:  an  Hmretico  sit  Fides  Servanda: 
— De  Distinguendo  Decalogo  quoad  Praceptorum  Nu" 
merum,  and  others.  See  J  ocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrta^ 
lAxihon,  8.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbueh  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  721, 
764, 807 ;  Hoefer,  A'btip.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Cramer,  Heinxlch  Matthias  August,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  10, 1745. 
He  studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1775  appointed  pastor  of  St. 
Wipert's  at  Quedlinburg,  and  died  April  12, 1801.  He 
translated  R.  Simon's  Histoire  Critique  into  German, 
with  valuable  additions  (Halle,  1776-1780),  and  wrote, 
Briefs  Uber  Inquisitionsgericht  und  KettervtrfoUung 
(Leipsic,  1785,  2  vols.): — LebensgeschidUe  Jesu  vom 
Nazareth  (ibid.  1787).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  The- 
ologen  Deutsddands,  i,  280  sq.;  Winer,  Handbueh  der 
theoL  Lit.  i,  9,  74,  765 ;  ii,  257,  894.     (E  P.) 

Cramer,  Jean  Jacob,  a  Swiss  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  bora  at  EUg,  near  Zurich,  Jan.  24, 1678.  Af- 
ter having  travelled  in  Germany,  France,  Holland,  and 
England,  he  was  successively  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Zurich  and  of  theology  at  Herbom.  He  died  at  Zu- 
rich, Feb.  9,  1702,  leaving,  Theologia  Israelis  (Frank- 
fort, 1705):  —  Commentarius  Posthumus  in  Codicem 
Succah  (Utrecht,  1720): — some  dissertations,  the  most 
interesting  of  which  are  published  under  the  title,  De 
Ara  Exteriors  Templi  Secundi  (1697).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  GMrak,  s.  v.;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  (7e- 
lehrteO'Lexihon,  s.  v. 

Cramer,  Jean  Rudolph,  a  learned  Protestant 
divine  of  Switzerland,  was  bom  at  EUg,  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich,  Feb.  14, 1678,  and  was  instructed  in  the  clas- 
sics by  his  father.  He  studied  medicine  at  first,  but 
turned  his  attention  to  divinity  in  1698,  and  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  ministry  in  1699.  In  1701  he  went  to 
Leyden,  and  in  1702  published  his  Seven  Disserttttions 
on  the  HUcoth  Biccurim,  He  was  chosen  Hebrew  pro- 
fessor at  Zurich  on  Sept  18  of  the  same  year.  In  1705 
he  was  appointed  to  teach  sacred  and  profane  history, 
and  in  1725  was  made  professor  of  theology.  He  died 
July  14, 1737.  His  works  are  very  numerous.  Among 
them  are  Constituiiones  de  Primitivis  R,  Mosis  F,  Mai- 
moms: — Z>6oas  Thesium  Theologicarum  (1704,  4to) : — 
De  Summa  Pradicationis  ApostoUca  (1725,  4to).  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  a.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gdehr- 
tenrLexikon,  s.  v. 

Cramer,  Joliann  Daniel,  a  Reformed  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Hanau,  May  5, 1672.  In  1698 
he  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  philology,  and  in 
1709  was  msde  doctor  of  theology  on  presenting  a  dis- 
sertation, Disp.  de  Gratia  Divina  Progressu  ad  Posteros 
Credentium.  He  died  at  Zerbst,  Oct.  28,  1715.  See 
Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lezikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Cramer,  Joliann  Friedxloh  Helnxioh,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Dahlen, 
Sept.  2, 1754.  After  being  deacon  at  the  Kreuz  Kirche 
in  Dresden,  he  was  in  1815  appointed  pastor  there,  and 
died  Sept.  4,  1820.  He  published,  Kurze  Erkldrungen 
und  Beobachtw^en  iiber  Abschnitte  der  heiL  Schri/t 
(Leipsic,  1811)  i^Piedigtai  iiber  die  EvangeUen  u,  Epi- 


CRAMER 


152 


CRAMP.RINGS 


ffebi  (ZitUa,  1818, 1820, 1826, 2  Tok.)  z—GtschiehU  det 
CkriBtenthunu  und  dor  Kircke : — Ueber  die  Nachahmung 
Jetu  (Dresden,  1791 ;  6th  ed.  1808) -.— i9etcA<-tm(i  Cam- 
mumoHbuch  (ibid.  1794;  16th  ed.  1828).  See  Winer, 
Bandbueh  der  tkeoL  Lit.  ii,  127,  184,  816,  861,  866. 
(B.  P.) 

Cramer,  Johann  Jacobs  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Leipsic,  March  11, 1658.  He 
stndied  at  his  native  place  and  at  Wittenberg,  was 
preacher  at  St.  Thomas's  and  afterwards  pastor  of  St. 
John's,  at  Leipsic,  and  died  Jan.  11, 1702.  He  wrote,  De 
PromiinonUnu  Viim  yEtema  in  VeL  Tettamento: — De 
Syttogismo  Christi  in  Joh.viii,  47: — De  Vocatione  Met* 
sim  ad  Saee9*dotium :  —  Tkeologia  liraelit  (published 
after  his  death,  Frankfort,  1705) : — De  Scholarum  Per* 
petuo  in  Ecdesia  Dei  Urn  (Hertwm,  1710).  See  Jocher, 
AUgemeinet  Gelehrten'Lexikan,  s,  v. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i, 
190.    (RP.) 

Cramer,  John  Anthony,  an  English  philologist 
of  German  extraction,  was  bom  in  1793  at  Mitlocdi,  in 
the  canton  of  Glarus,  studied  in  England,  and  was  in 
1822  preacher  at  Binsey,  in  Oxfordshire.  In  1881  he 
was  made  principal  at  New  Inn  Hall,  Oxford,  was  in 
1842  professor  of  history  at  Oxford  Unirerrity,  and  died 
at  Brighton,  Aug.  24, 1848.  He  is  best  known  as  the 
author  of  Anecdota  GrcBca  Codicum  Manuscriptorum 
Biblwthecm  Oxoniensia  (Oxford,  1834^7, 4  vols.)  :^An- 
eodota  Graca  e  CodieHnu  Manuacriptie  BUdiotheca  Re* 
ffia  Parisientit  (ibid.  1839-41,  4  vols.) : — Catena  Gra* 
corum  Patrum  in  Novum  Testamentum  (ibid.  eod.  7 
vols.):— iSftwfy  of  Modern  Hiatory  (ibid.  1848).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  ▼.    (B.  P.) 

Cramer,  John  Kearaley,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Williamsport,  Md.,  Sept.  24, 1824.  He 
graduated  from  Jefferson  College  in  1848,  and  studied 
theology  part  of  a  year  in  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary. He  was  stated  supply  at  Charlotte  Court-house, 
Ya.*,  in  1852  and  1858;  also  at  Washington,  D.  C,  in 
1854  and  1855;  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Carlisle, 
April  18, 1859 ;  pastor  at  Williamsport  and  Welsh  Run, 
Md.,  from  1859  to  1861;  stated  supply  at  Havre  de 
Grace  in  1861,  and  pastor  from  1863  to  1866*,  postor- 
dect  at  Churchville  from  1866  to  1868,  and  died  at  Cum- 
berland, Dec.  19, 1869.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL 
iS^m.l881,p.l78. 

Cramer,  Lndwlg  Dankegott,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  April  19,  1791,  at 
Banmenroda,  near  Freiburg.  He  studied  at  Witten- 
berg, and  in  1812  commenced  his  lectures  on  moral 
philoeophy  there.  In  1817  he  was  called  to  Rostock 
aa  professor  of  theology,  but  in  the  following  year 
went  to  Leipsic  as  successor  of  Keil,  and  died  Jan.  8, 
1824.  He  wrote,  Dodrina  Judaorum  de  PrceexiHentia 
Animarum  (Wittenberg,  1810) : — UdterdenMytticitnuu 
in  der  Philoaopkie  (ibid.  1811)  ;—Systematitche  Darttel- 
hmff  der  Moral  der  Apokryphen  dea  AUen  Teatamenta 
(Leipsic,  1814)  :—De  Sacra  Librorum  V,  T.  A  uetoritate 
(ibid.  1819)  :—Progr.  de  Bibliologia  in  Saeria  N.  T.  Li- 
bria  Propoaita  (ibid.  1822, 1828)  i—Vorleaangen  Ober  die 
c4rutf.Z>o^7nafiib(ed.  by  Nttbe,  ibid.  1829).  SeeDdring, 
Die  gekhrten  Theohgen  Deutachlanda,  i,  283;  Winer, 
Bandbueh  der  theoLLHA,2S9,29i,BO2,SX0,430;  ii,200; 
Zochold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  248.    (B.  P.) 

Cramer,  Matthias,  a  German  controversialist, 
was  bora  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  died  Nov.  12,  1557. 
He  published,  Catholica  ac  Orthodoxa  Rdigio  (Colon. 

lfAi)i—DeCathx^ict»FideiReffulaAaaertio(Xb^)-  See 
Hartzheim,  BibL  Colon,  p.  243 ;  Streber,  in  Wetxer  u. 
Welte's  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Oramond,  James,  a  Scotch  clergjrman,  took  his 
degree  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1644;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1646;  went  to  England  as  preach- 
er to  a  regiment,  for  which  he  was  debarred  the  privi- 
leges of  a  minister ;  but  on  his  repentance  the  assembly 
readmitted  him  in  1660,  and  he  was  called  to  the  living 


at  Feam  in  1658.    He  4>^  ^  l^^i  *6^  about  sixty* 
six  years.    See  Faati  Eedea,  Seoticana^  iii,  881. 

Cramond,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
took  his  degree  at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  in 
1764;  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Con- 
gregation at  Etal  in  1775,  and  admitted  to  the  living 
at  Yanow  in  1776.  He  died  Feb.  14, 1791,  aged  fifty 
years.    See  Faati  Ecelta,  SeoticaneB,  i,  664. 

Cramp,  John  Mockett,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Bap- 
tist educator  and  author,  was  bom  at  Su  Peter's,  Isle  of 
Thanet,  England,  July  25, 1791,  and  educated  at  Step- 
ney College.  He  was  successively  pastor  at  Soutb- 
wark,  London,  in  1818 ;  St.  Peter's,  Isle  of  Thanet,  from 
1827  to  1842  (part  of  the  time  assisting  his  father.  Rev. 
Thomas  Cramp),  and  Hastings  in  1842.  In  1844  he  a»- 
sumed  the  presidency  of  an  unsuccessful  Baptist  College 
in  Montreal,  Canada,  which  he  held  until  1849.  He  was 
editor,  in  that  city,  of  The  Regialer  from  1844  to  1849,  of 
The  Colonial  Proteatant  (with  Rev.  W.  Tavlor,  D.D.)  in 
1848  and  1849,  and  of  The  Pilot  from  1849*  to  1851.  In 
1857  he  became  president  of  Acadia  College,  Wolfville, 
N.  S.,  and  the  remainder  of  his  busy  life  he  devoted  to  fup> 
thering  the  cause  of  Baptist  education  and  religion  in  the 
maritime  provinces.  Until  he  resigned  his  position  in 
1869,  his  influence  was  pre-eminent  in  all  questions  of 
denominational  and  educational  politics.  He  found  his 
college  weak  and  poor;  he  left  it  on  a  firm  foundation, 
with  an  able  staff  of  instructors,  and  a  good  attendance 
of  students.  The  home  and  foreign  mission  enterprise 
and  the  temperance  movement  shared  bis  earnest  sup- 
port. He  died  at  his  home  in  Wolfville,  Dec  7, 1881. 
Dr.  Cramp  was  an  eminent  linguist  and  historian,  a 
celebrated  theologian,  and  as  a  patristic  scholar  and  in 
Church  history  had  few  equals  in  the  dominion.  His 
worics  are,  A  Text-book  of  Popery;  or^  A  Biatory  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Lond.  1^1;  enlarg.  ed.  Lond.  and 
N.  Y.  1851, 8vo),  a  one-sided  commentary  on  the  his- 
tory and  decrees  of  the  council,  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
narrow  and  violent  Protestantism ;  a  valuable  work,  how- 
ever, containing  vast  information :— 7Ae  Reformation  m 
Europe  (Lond.  1844,  18mo): — lACturea  for  the  Timea 
(ibid,  eod.)  :—/n<r(Mftfcfory  Theological  A  ddreaa  (Hali- 
fax, N.  S.,  1851) : — Portraiture  from  Life,  by  a  Bereaeed 
Buaband  (ibid.  ldi62):^The  Great  Ejectment  of  1862 
(ibid,  eod.) : — Catechiam  ofChriatian  Baptiam  (ibid,  and 
Phila.  1865,  18mo),  an  able  presentation,  answered  by 
Rev.  D.  D.  Currie  :—//ifrory  of  the  Baptiata  from  the 
Apoatolic  Timea  to  the  Cloae  of  the  IStk  Century  (Load. 
1868,  8vo,  which  has  been  translated  into  German),  a 
work  whose  value  is  lessened  by  its  dogmatic  spirit : — 
Paul  and  Chriat  (ibid,  and  HaUfaz,  1873),  a  delightful 
and  finely  written  book:— r&e  Lamb  of  God  (Ediiib. 
1874).  His  Memoira  of  Madame  Feller  and  of  Dr.  Cote 
are  records  of  certain  mission  and  educational  work  in 
the  province  of  Quebec  See  The  Wealeyan,  Feb.  8, 
1882 ;  Moiigan,  Bibliolh,  Canadenaia^  s.  v. 

Cramp,  Stephen  T.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Sandhurst,  Kent.  England,  May  Sl« 
1842.  He  was  converted  in  1859,  emigrated  to  the 
United  States,  entered  the  Wyoming  Conference  in 
1864,  and  in  it  labored  zealously  until  his  decease, 
Jan.  19, 1870.  He  was  fervent  in  spirit,  and  untiring 
in  energy.  Sec  Minutea  of  Annual  Coiferenceaf  187^ 
p.  131. 

Cramp,  Thomas,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  SL  Peter's,  Isle  of  Thanet,  in  1769.  He 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  joined  the 
Church  at  Shallows,  near  bis  birthplace;  very  soon 
commenced  the  work  of  the  ministry,  and  took  charge 
of  the  Church  in  his  native  place,  St  Peter's,  and  died 
Nov.  17,  1851.  See  (Lond.)  £qp<we  Bandbook,  1852, 
p.  46.     (J.CS.) 

Cramp-rings  are  rings  of  precious  metal,  supposed 
to  prevent  cramp.  They  are  attributed  by  Hoepinian 
to  the  claim  of  Westminster  Abbey  to  the  possession  of 
the  ring  given  by  St.  John,  in  the  guise  of  a  ptlgiim,  to 


CRAMPTON 


153 


CRANE 


Edward  the  ConfeflBor.    On  Good  Fridays  the  kitigs  of 
En^ind  used  to  Ueas  fingei^riiigs  for  this  sapentkious 

pOZpOBb 

Cmnpton,  Ralph  S.,  a  PresbTterian  minister,  was 
born  at  Madison,  Conn^  Oct.  28, 1799.  He  studied  tbe- 
ologr  in  tbe  seminary  at  Bangor,  Me.,  was  licensed  by 
s  Congregational  assodation  in  1827,  and  about  1887 
Joined  the  Detroit  Presbytery.  He  was  secretary  of 
the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  agent  for 
tbe  New  Yorlc  Temperance  Society  for  three  years,  and 
for  the  same  length  of  time  secretary  of  the  Illinob 
State  Temperance  Society.  He  died  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,March  25^  1864.  See  Wilson, iVeaft.  ffigt,  Almc^ 
macy  186e,  p.  212. 

Cxanaoh  (or  Kranach),  Lucas  van,  an  old  Ger- 
man painter  and  eminent  engraver,  was  bom  at  Cranach, 
in  the  province  of  Bamberg,  in  1472.  At  an  early  pe- 
riod in  life  he  entered  into  the  service  of  the  electoral 
house  of  Saxony,  with  one  of  the  princes  of  which  he 
fnade  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land  in  1498,  and  with 
another  shared  five  years'  imprisonment,  after  the  fatal 
batUe  of  Mahlbe^.  He  died  at  Weimar,  Oct.  16, 1553. 
Tbe  following  are  some  of  his  principal  works:  Adtim 
(ad  Eve  w  Paradige  ;  St,  John  Preaching  m  the  Wilder- 
mu;  The  Passion  of  Our  Saviour,  in  fourteen  prints; 
7^  Twehe  AposUes  ;  St,  Christopher  Carrying  the  Infant 
Jesus,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrak,  s.  v. ;  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hid,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Crandal  (or  Crandall),  Joseph,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Friertown,  R.  L,  in  1771.  In  1774  his 
parrats  removed  to  Chester,  N.  S.  He  was  converted 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  ordained,  in  1799,  pastor  at 
SackviUe,  N.  B.,  and  did  the  work  of  an  evangelist  all 
throagh  the  region  in  which  he  lived.  In  1825  he  itin- 
erated in  Prince  Edward's  IsUnd.  He  died  Feb.  20, 
1S58.  See  Cathcart,  B(^>tist  Encydop,  p.  286 ;  Bil^  Fu- 
neral Sermon,     (J.  C.  S.) 

Crandal,  'William  Alfred,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  Westmoreland  County,  N.  J3.  He  was  or- 
dained at  Amherst  in  1858:  labored  in  Restigouche 
CooDty  as  home  missionary;  became  pastor  at  Norton, 
and  at  Elgin ;  preached  at  Lntes  Mount,  Moncton,  and 
other  localities  under  direction  of  the  Home  Mission 
Board,  and  died  Dec.  17, 1875.  See  Baptist  Year-book 
o/N,  S,,  iV.  B,,  and  P.  E.  /.,  1876,  p.  35. 

Crandallf  Andrew  Jaokoon,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bora  at  Germantown,  Chenango  Co., 
N.  Y.,  in  1813.  He  experienced  conversion  at  thir- 
teen; studied  about  three  years  at  Cazenovia  Semina- 
ry, and  in  1834  connected  himself  with  the  Oneida  Con- 
ference.  In  1848  he  was  transferred  to  the  Missouri 
Conference,  in  which  he  labored  with  zeal,  fidelity,  and 
marked  anoeesa  until  bis  death  in  August,  1849.'  Mr. 
Cnndall  published  two  or  three  Addresses,  See  Jlfm- 
lUei  ofAwmal  Conferences,  1850,  p.  510;  Sprague,  An- 
9aU  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  vii,  808. 

Ciandall,  Peter,  a  Baptist  minisUr,  probably  a 
brother  of  Joseph  Crandal,  was  bora  in  Rhode  Island 
in  1<  #0.  When  he  was  five  years  of  age  his  father  re- 
moved to  Chester,  N.  S.  He  commenced  preaching  in 
1800;  travelled  extensively  and  successfully;  was  pas- 
tor at  Digby  for  twenty-nine  years,  and  died  April  2, 
1888.  See  Bill,  ffisL  of  Baptists  in  the  Maritime  Prov- 
inces, p.  220. 

Crandall,  Pbineaa,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Montville,  Conn.,  Sept.  12, 1793.  He 
was  converted  when  about  twenty  years  of  age ;  licensed 
to  exhort  in  1817 ;  to  preach  in  1818;  in  1820  joined  the 
New  England  Conference;  in  1864  became  a  supernu- 
inerary ;  in  1856  a  superannuate,  and  died  Nov.  6, 1878. 
See  Jfnatfes  ofAnmal  ConfereneeSf  1879,  p.  51. 

Crandall,  Brnith,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
a  member  of  the  Georgia  Conference,  and  died  in 
IWO,  in  Cherokee  County,  Ga.  Sec  Minutes  of  A  nnual 
Conferences,  1842,  p.  802. 


Crandall,  Timothy,  a  Free-wiU  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  in  1790.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of 
seventeen ;  united  with  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  for 
twenty-one  yean  was  an  acceptable  minister  in  that 
denomination.  In  1843  he  joined  a  Free-will  BapUst 
Church ;  made  himself  highly  useful  as  a  preacher,  es- 
pecially in  Otselic,  N.  Y.,  and  died  in  Smynia,  May  15, 
1853.  See  Free-will  Baptist  Register,  1855,  p.  85. 
(J.  C  &) 

Crandon,  Pmup,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Rochester,  Mass.,  Jan.  4, 1810.  He  expe* 
rienced  religion  in  1828 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1884, 
and  in  1885  entered  tbe  New  England  Conference.  He 
died  at  his  post  in  1875  or  1876.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Conferences,  1876^  p.  74. 

Crane,  Caleb,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bora  in  Tennessee  about  1801,  of  pious  parents.  He 
was  converted  when  about  seventeen,  and  in  1822  was 
admitted  into  the  Kentucky  Conference.  About  1882 
he  removed  to  Cape  Girardeau  County,  Mo.,  and  in  1849 
entered  the  Missouri  Conference.  He  died  Nov.  22, 
1851.    See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1852,  p.  181. 

Crane,  Daniel,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bora 
at  Bloomfield,  N.  J.,  April  18, 1780.  He  graduated  at 
Nassau  Hall  (College  of  New  Jersey)  in  1799;  was 
licensed  by  the  Morris  County  Presbytery  in  1808,  and 
preached  at  Chester.  In  1808  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Fishkill,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1820  took  charge  of  a  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  Waterbury,  Conn.  In  1825  he  re- 
turned to  Fishkill,  taught  school  for  two  years,  and  then 
accepted  a  call  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Chester, 
N.  J.  He  died  at  Cornwall,  N.  Y.,  in  April,  1861.  See 
Wilson,  Presb,  Hist,  Almanac,  18G2,  p.  179. 

Crane,  D.  M.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  at  Brook- 
line,  Vt.,  Feb.  25, 1812.  He  joined  the  Baptist  Church 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  three  years  afterwards  was 
licensed  to  preach.  He  studied  at  Shelburae  Falls  and 
Middleborongh,  Mass.,  took  a  partial  course  at  Brown 
Univenity,  was  ordained  in  June,  1837,  at  Brookline, 
Vt.,  remaining  one  year;  afterwards  was  pastor  at  Graf- 
ton for  four  years,  and  at  North  Springfield  three  years. 
His  subsequent  pastorates  were  at  Northampton,  three 
yearsi  Union  Baptist  Church,  Boston,  twelve;  North 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  six ;  Woonsocket,  R.  L,  two,  and  for 
brief  periods  in  three  or  four  other  places ;  his  last  being 
at  Northampton.  He  died  at  West  Acton,  Sept.  4, 1 879. 
See  The  Watchman,  Oct.  8Q,  1879.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Crane,  Bber,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  in  Kil- 
lingworth,  Conn.,  May  8, 1808L  When  he  was  eight 
years  old  bis  parents  removed  to  Marietta,  O.  At 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  united  with  the  Church,  and 
for  a  time  studied  at  South  Reading,  now  Wakefield, 
and  in  Newton  Theological  Institution.  He  was  or- 
dained at  Amesbun^,  Mass.,  Sept.  80,  1882 ;  became  a 
missionary  in  the  West;  subsequently  was  pastor  at 
Akron,  McConnelsvillc,  Garrettsville,  and  for  short  pe- 
riods at  other  points  in  Ohio.  In  August,  1858,  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  Mount  Pleasant,  la.,  and  for 
many  years  devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  feeble 
churches  in  the  neighborhood  in  which  he  lived.  He 
died  early  in  April,  1884.  See  Chicago  Standard,  April 
17,1884.    (J.C.&) 

Cranei  Blias  Winana,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  at  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  March  18, 1796.  He  grad- 
uated from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1814,  and  spent 
the  next  two  years  in  teaching.  He  then  studied  the- 
ology at  Princeton  for  one  year;  became  stated  supply 
in  Morristown  for  one  year;  was  ordained  by  tbe  Pres- 
bytery of  New  Jersey,  Jan.  5,  1820;  was  pastor  at 
Springfield,  N.  J.,  till  1826,  and  thereafter  at  Jamaica, 
L.  I.,  until  his  death,  Nov.  10,  1840.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of 
Princeton  Theol  Sem,  1881,  p.  24. 

Crane,  Elijah,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bora  at  Bethel,  Vt,  about  1800.  He  was  converted 
in  1816;  received  license  to  exhort  in  1818;  to  preach 


CRANE 


154 


CRANE 


in  1821,  and  in  1822  entered  the  New  Totk  Conference. 
In  1883  be  was  tranaferred  to  the  Ohio  Conference, 
became  a  member  of  the  Michigan  Conference  on  its 
formation,  and  labored  faithfully  until  1859,  when  his 
health  faUed.  He  died  April  28, 1868.  See  Minuiet 
of  Annual  Conferences^  1868,  p.  198. 

Crane,  James  Burnet,  a  Congregational  minis* 
ter,  was  bom  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Jan.  26, 1819.  He 
sttKiied  law,  and  was  for  a  time  in  business ;  in  1850  and 
1851  he  studied  in  the  theological  seminary  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  and  was  ordained  and  installed  colleague 
pastor  over  the  Fint  Congregational  Church  in  Middle- 
town,  Jan.  11, 1854.  He  resigned  this  charge  April  15, 
1856 ;  enterod  the  United  States  army  as  hospital  chap- 
lain in  April,  1868,  and  remained  until  the  dose  of  the 
war.  He  died  in  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  Sept  80, 1868.  See 
Obituary  Record  of  Yale  College,  1869. 

Crane,  James  Lyon,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Leesville,  0.,Feb.  25, 1822.  He  received 
his  preparatory  education  at  Cleveland  Heights  Acad- 
emy, and  until  1864  was  a  farmer  and  manufacturer  in 
Berea  and  Oberlin.  He  was  ordained  as  an  evangelist 
at  Morenct,  Mich.,  Nov.  22, 1865;  was  acting  pastor 
there  until  1867;  at  Adams  from  1867  to  1872;  at  Bed- 
ford from  1878  to  1876 ;  at  Michigan  Centre  and  Napo- 
leon from  1876  until  bis  death,  Aug.  15, 1877. 

Crane,  James  Lyons,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Mount  Eaton,  Wayne  Co.,  O.,  Aug.  30, 
1823.  He  was  converted  in  1840 ;  removed  to  IlUnois 
in  1842 ;  attended  a  seminary  at  Paris  about  three  years, 
in  1846  received  license  to  preach,  and  Joined  the  Il- 
linois Conference.  After  holding  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant appointments,  in  1861  he  became  chaplain  of 
the  21st  R^raent  of  Illinois  Volunteers,  of  which  U.  S. 
Grant  was  colonel.  He  died  of  paralysis,  July  29, 1879. 
As  a  preacher  Mr.  Crane  was  original  and  bold ;  a  man 
of  marked  individuality,  and  thoroughly  evangelical. 
See  Minuiee  of  Annual  Conferencety  1879,  p.  41. 

Crane^  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bora  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1787.  He  joined  the 
Church  at  the  age  of  twelve;  at  twenty  entered  the 
Western  Conference,  and  continued  to  labor  until  near 
the  close  of  his  life,  Feb.  14, 1818.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Conferences,  1818,  p.  220. 

Crane,  John  R.,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  April  16, 1787.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Princeton  College  in  1805;  studied  law  in 
Newark  for  over  two  years;  but  in  the  winter  of  1807 
was  converted,  and  soon  afterwards  entered  the  Ando- 
yer  Theological  Seminary.  Being  licensed  in  1812  by 
the  Presbytery  of  New  Jersey,  he  preached  in  Danbury, 
Conn. ;  and  afterwards  in  the  Northem  Liberties,  Phil- 
adelphia; but  was  twice  temporarily  laid  aside  by  lung 
disease.  Nov.  4, 1818,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
First  Congregational  Church,  Middletown,  Conn.,  where 
he  served  until  his  death,  Aug.  17, 1858.  See  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  A  met.  Pulpit,  ii,  562. 

Crane,  Jonathan,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  March  27,  1814. 
He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1882,  and  from 
Aubum  Theological  Seminary  in  1835.  He  was  or- 
dained at  Attleborough,  Mass.,  Oct  20, 1886;  remained 
there  until  June  12,  1854 ;  was  then  installed  over  the 
Twentieth  Street  Congregational  Church,  New  York 
city;  from  1858  to  1859  was  acting  pastor  at  Attlebor- 
ough,  and  for  some  months  in  Waltham,  Mass.,  and 
Patchogue,  N.  Y. ;  Oct.  18,  1860,  was  installed  over  the 
Church  at  Middletown,  N.  Y. ;  resigned  in  1868 ;  was 
acting  pastor  at  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  until  1869;  thence  he 
removeid  to  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  and  supplied  neighbor- 
ing churches  until  1875 ;  Marshall  and  Mattawan,  1870 
to  1873;  PlainviUe  Presbyterian  Church,  1874;  in  1875 
returned  to  his  pastorate  in  Middletown,  and  remained 
until  his  death,  Dec.  25, 1877.    He  published,  Memo- 


rial qfMrs,  Batmah  Sanford: — Memorial  ofJ<malka» 
Crone,  his  father.     (W.P.S.) 

Crane,  Jonathan  Townley,  D.D.,  a  Method- 
ist Episcopal  minister,  iras  bom  near  Elizabeth,  N.  J., 
June  19, 1819,  of  Presbyterian  parentage.    He  received 
an  early,  careful  religiona  training;  was  left  sn  or- 
phan at  the  age  of  thirteen;  experienced  religion  st 
eighteen;  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1843;  vii 
licensed  to  preach  the  next  spring,  and  employed  by 
the  presiding  elder  on  Parsippany  Circuit;  and  in  1846 
entered  the  New  Jersey  Conference.    His  fields  of  Is- 
bor  were :  in  1845,  six  months  on  Asbury  Circuit,  snd 
six  at  Quarantine  and  Port  Richmond;  1846,  Hope; 
1847,  Belvidere;    1848  to  May,  1849,  Orange;  from 
June,  1849,  to  1857,  principal  of  Pennington  Semins- 
ry ;  1858  and  1859,  Trinity  Church,  Jersey  City;  1860 
and  1861,  Haverstraw ;  1862  and  1868,  Central  Church, 
Newark;  1864  to  1866,  Morristown;  1867,  Hacketts- 
town;  1868  to  1871,  Newark  District;  1872  to  1875, 
Elizabeth  District;  1876  and  1877, Cross  Street  Cbarch, 
Paterson ;  and  in  1878,  Port  Jervis,  N.  Y.,  where  he 
closed  his  life  and  labors,  Feb.  16,  1880.    Dr.  Crane 
was  a  clear,  thorough,  and  able  writer;  a  gentle  and 
painstaking  instmctor,  a  powerful  temperance  sdro- 
cate,  an  exemplary  Christian  gentleman,  and  a  suc- 
cessful minister.    His  authorship  embraces,  Estttif  oa 
Dancing  (1848)  .—The  Right  Way ;  or,  Practical  lAd- 
ures  on  the  Decalogue  (I9d&)i— Popular  AnatsemaUt 
( 1869  )  i^A  ris  of  Intoxication  ( 1870 )  i^Holinets  tk 
Birthright  of  aU  Godfs  Children  (1874)  -^Methodism 
and  its  Methods  (1875) ;  besides  being  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  Methodic  Quarterly  Renew,  The  Chris- 
tian A  dvocate,  and  periodicala.    See  Minutes  of  A  nmtal 
Conferences,  1880,  p.  87;  Simpson,  Cydopadia  of  Meth- 
odism, a.  V. 

Crane,  Nathaniel  M.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  West  Bloorafield,  N.  J.,  Dec  12, 180&  He 
was  converted  when  about  fifteen  years  of  age;  and,  af- 
ter spending  two  years  in  the  Bloorofield  Academy,  en- 
tered Williams  College,  Mass.,  and  was  two  years  in  the 
l*heological  Seminary  at  Allegheny,  Pa.,  and  one  year 
in  that  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.  In  1836  he  was  ordained  bv 
the  Cayuga  Presbytery,  and  sent  to  India  as  a  mission- 
ary, where  he  remained  for  seven  years;  returning  to 
America  he  preached  as  a  supply  through  Western 
Pennsylvania  until  his  death.  Sept.  21, 1859.  See  Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist,  Almanac,  1861,  p.  88. 

Crane,  Orlgen,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
Mansfield,  Conn.,  July  26, 1804.  Without  taking  a  col- 
legiate course  he  graduated  at  the  Newton  Theological 
Institution  in  1886;  soon  after  was  ordained  at  Newton 
Upper  Falls,  Mass.,  remaining  for  three  years  (18S6- 
1S89),  and  then  removed  to  Weston,  where  he  was  pas- 
tor fourteen  years.  He  was  for  some  years  an  agent  of 
the  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  for  a  time 
was  a  supply  at  New  England  Village,  Grafton,  and 
West  Sutton.'  He  died  at  New  England  Village,  April 
20,1860.    See CnthctiTt, Baptist Encyciop,B,T,   (J.CS.) 

Crane,  Robert  E.,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  minis- 
ter in  Nova  Scotia,  was  bom  at  Grand  I*re  (Horton)  in 
1818.  He  entered  the  ministry  in  1846 ;  became  a  su- 
pernumerary in  1867 ;  and  died  in  Halifax,  June  28, 
1872.  See  Minutes  of  Conference  of  Eastern  Britiih 
A  mei-ica,  1872,  p.  9. 

Crane,  Robert  EL,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  mission- 
ary, was  a  native  of  Nova  Scotia.  He  labored  in  bis 
native  province  from  1818  until  1882,  and  aftem'srds  in 
the  West  Indies,  principally  St.  Vincent,  on  which  he 
died,  at  Kingstown,  Feb.  8, 1889.  See  Minutes  <f  the 
British  Conference,  1839,  p.  481. 

Crane,  Silas  Axtelle,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Berkeley,  Mass.,  Oct.  21, 1799.  He 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1828,  taught  one 
year,  and  was  then  tutor  of  mathematics  in  the  univer- 
sity (1824-1828).    He  studied  theology  under  Rev.  Dr. 


CRANE 


155 


CRANSTON 


K.  Bw  Crocker,  of  PtoTideiioe,  R.  I. ;  was  ordained  dea- 
con in  1892 ;  was  rector  of  St.  Stephen*s  Church  in  Mid- 
dkbmT,  Yt.  (188a-1837),  and  then  remoyed  to  St.  Loois, 
Ho,  to  take  the  presidency  of  Kemper  College.  After 
two  years  he  became  rector  of  SL  Luke's  Church,  in 
East  Greenwich,  where  he  died,  July  16, 1872.  (J.  C.  S.) 

Crane,  Simeon  Hairieon,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  March  8,  1800.  He 
graduated  (from  what  ooUege  is  uncertain)  in  1828; 
studied  theol<^  for  two  years  at  Princeton  Theok)gical 
Seminary;  was  ordained  Aug.  11, 1827;  stated  supply 
at  Bethd,  Ky.,  from  1827  to  1881;  agent  for  the  Board 
of  Domestic  Miisions  in  1831 ;  sutcd  supply  at  Leba- 
non, O.,  from  1888  to  1839;  agent  for  New  Albany  Sem- 
inarVflnd.,  in  1840;  and  died  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  Aug. 
80, 1841.  See  Gen.  Cat,  o/Pri$iceian  TkeoL  Sem.  1881, 
Ik.  44. 

Crane, 'William  Croes,  D.D^  a  Prorestant  Epis- 
copal dcfgyman,  was  bom  at  Bridgeton,  N.  J.,  in  1814. 
He  reeetred  a  military  education  at  West  Point,  N.  Y. ; 
was  ordained  deacon  in  1887;  for  several  years,  until 
1866,  was  rector  in  Centrerille,  Md. ;  subsequently,  for 
n  short  tame,  in  Baltimore ;  and  at  St.  Andrew's  Church, 
Jackson,  M^  from  1858  until  his  death,  March  21, 
1877.     See  ProL  Episc  A  imanae,  1878,  p.  168. 

Craner,  Fran9oi8  Regis,  a  Swiss  writer  of  the 
Jesuit  Older,  was  bom  at  Lucerne  in  1728.  After  the 
suppression  of  his  order,  he  taught  ancient  literature  at 
the  gymnasium  of  his  native  city,  where  he  died  in 
1806,  leaving  a  German  translation  of  the  jEneid  of  Vir^ 
gil  (L783) : — and  Dramtu,  gathered  from  Swiss  history. 
See  Hoefer,  A'oiir.  Biog,  G^rale,  s.  v. 

Craner,  Tbomae,  an  English  Particular  Baptist, 
was  pastor  in  Bedfordshire  till  the  people  fell  into  doc- 
trinal error ;  in  1756  he  settled  at  Jewin  Street,  London. 
In  1760  the  Church  removed  to  Red  Cross  Street,  where 
he  preached  till  his  death,  March  18, 1778,  in  the  fift}*- 
sevenih  year  of  his  age.  He  published,  A  Dedaration 
o/tk^  FaitA  and  Practice  of  the  Church  of  Christ  :^A 
Scripture  Aftmual,  besides  four  separate  Sermom.  See 
Wilson,  Dittaaing  Churches,  iii,  820. 

Cranford,  Jaxks,  an  English  divine  of  the  17th 
eentury,  was  bom  st  Coventry,  Warwickshire,  where 
his  father  was  a  divine  and  schoolmaster  of  g^at  note. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  beneficed  in  Northampton, 
shire,  and  afterwanls  removed  to  St  Christopher's,  Lon- 
don.   He  died  in  1657,  leaving  The  Teares  oflreUtnd 
(loiid.  1642, 12mo):— i9ermoii  on  Heresies  (1646).     He 
was  a  laborious  preacher,  an  exact  linguist,  a  subtle  dis- 
putant, snd  an  orthodox  but  charitable  theologian.    See 
ynller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  NutUU),  iii,  288*. 

Crankaha^  John  Weir,  an  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  bom  at  Adlington,  near  Bolton.  He  was 
converted  at  nine ;  began  to  preach  at  sixteen ;  spent 
three  years  at  the  Didsbury  Institution ;  took  his  first 
eircait  in  1847;  spent  fifteen  years  in  the  active  work ; 
and  died  at  Bristol,  Jan.  22,'l869,  in  the  forty-fourth 
year  of  his  age.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference, 
18S9,  p.  18. 

Cnuxley,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  although 
a  native  of  England,  was  a  fellow  of  Merton  College, 
warden  of  New  College,  and  for  a  time  chancellor  of  the 
Univeisity  of  Oxford.  He  was  consecrated  to  the  ar- 
cbiepiaoopal  see  of  Dublin  in  1897.  In  1398  he  had 
ktters  of  protection  on  proceeding  to  foreign  parts  in 
the  service  of  the  king,  and  in  the  following  year  had 
power  to  treat  with  the  Irish.  He  was  several  times 
appointed  lord  chancellor.  In  1417  he  went  to  England, 
and  died  at  Farringdon  May  25  of  that  year.  See  D* Al- 
ton, Memoirs  of  the  A  rckhishops  of  Dublin,  p.  151 ;  Ful- 
ler, Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  207. 

Cnuimer,  E.  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  1812.  He  was  converted  in  1838,  and  in 
IMO  joined  the  Genesee  Conference ;  served  the  Church 
vitb  moeh  success  as  pastor  and  presiding  elder  for  many 


years  ontil  his  health  failed;  and  died  Oct.  8, 1880.   See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Cot^eremxs,  1881,  p.  827. 

Cranston  (Cranatcmn,  or  Cranatoone)  is  the 
family  name  of  aeveral  Scotch  clergymen. 

1.  John  (1),  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1611;  was  presented  to  the  living  at 
South  Leith,  Edinburgh,  in  1620;  transferred  to  liber- 
ton  in  1624;  back  to  South  Leith,  first  charge,  in  1627 ; 
and  died  in  1629,  aged  about  thirty-eight  years.  See 
Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticttnte,  i,  99, 104, 115. 

2.  John  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity in  1685;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Crailing 
in  1692,  and  ordained ;  transferred  to  Ancrum  in  1704, 
and  died  Oct.  17, 1748,  aged  eighty-four  years.  See 
Fasti  EccUs.  Sootieanes,  i,  485, 498. 

3.  John  (3),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1780;  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Ancrum  as  assistant  and  suc- 
cessor to  his  father  in  1733,  and  ordained ;  and  died  Jan. 
17, 1790,  aged  eighty-four  years.  See  Fasti  Eccles.  8cor 
ticarue,  i,  485. 

4.  Michael,  was  appointed  the  first  Protestant  min- 
ister at  Selkirk  in  1580 ;  transferred  to  Liberton  in  1585 ; 
transferred  to  Cramond  in  1590 ;  in  1596  was  impris- 
oned for  stirring  up  a  tumult  and  uproar  in  Edinburgh. 
His  opinions  changed  greatly  as  he  advanced  in  life. 
He  died  in  1631.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  i,  114, 
132,  589. 

5.  Robert,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1609 ;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Ket- 
tle or  Lathris  in  1626,  in  succession  to  his  father;  trans- 
ferred to  Scoonie  in  1630 ;  was  a  member  of  the  assem- 
bly in  1638,  and  died  in  1643,  aged  about  fifty-four  years. 
See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticanm,  ii,  495, 558. 

6.  Thomas,  was  appointed  to  Biorthwick  in  1567,  as 
the  first  Protestant  minister  there ;  transferred  to  Lib- 
erton in  1569;  to  Peebles  in  1571 ;  returned  to  Liberton 
in  1574 ;  removed  to  Ashkirk  in  1579,  and  to  Liberton 
in  1580;  retransferred  to  Liberton  in  1582,  and  died  in 
Edinburgh  in  1585.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Seoticante,  i,  118, 
114,235,266,542. 

7.  William,  was  promoted  from  being  regent  at  the 
Univerrity  of  St.  Andrews;  appointed  to  the  living  at 
Kettle  in  1589;  was  a  member  of  the  general  assemblies 
of  1590, 1597,  and  1602;  subscribed  the  protest  against 
introducing  episcopacy  in  1606 ;  deprived  in  1620 ;  again 
presented  to  Kettle  in  1628  by  the  king,  but  resigned 
before  May,  1626,  and  died  in  January,  1633,  aged  sev- 
enty-seven years.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  ii, 
495. 

Cranaton,  Robert,  an  Irish  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  in  the  county  Cavan,  Aug.  1, 1785.  He  be- 
came a  Christian  in  his  eighteenth  year,  and  an  itin- 
erant in  1811.  After  preaching  for  sixteen  years,  he 
retired  on  account  of  bodily  affliction,  and  died  July  12, 
1836.  In  the  Irish  Conference  of  1816,  he,  with  seven 
other  ministers,  was  reprehended  for  administering  the 
Lord's  Supper  to  the  people  of  his  chsrge.  See  3/tn- 
utes  of  the  British  Conference,  1836;  Smith,  Hist,  of 
Wesl  Meth,  ui,  23-25. 

Cranaton,  "Walter,  a  minister  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  st  Newport,  K.  L,  Dec.  12, 
1789.  Having  studied  under  John  Fraser,  in  Newport, 
and  graduated  at  Har\'ard  College  in  1810,  he  took  a 
voyage  to  the  island  of  Trinidad,  and,  returning  in  1811, 
went  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  afterwards  to  Cambridge 
for  study.  In  the  autumn  he  was  appointed  Greek 
tutor  in  the  university,  and  held  the  position  until  1815, 
studying  theolog}'  meanwhile.  Part  of  the  time  he  offi- 
ciated as  lay-reader  in  the  Episcopal  Church  at  Cam- 
bridge. Jan.  20, 1815,  he  was  ordained  deacon.  After 
resigning  his  tutorship  he  went  to  Savannah,  Ga.,  and 
became  pastor  of  Christ  Church  in  the  fall  of  1815. 
The  next  year  he  was  ordained  presbyter,  and  returned 
to  Savannah  to  resume  his  pastoral  duties.  On  two 
occasions,  when  yellow  fever  invaded  the  city,  he  re- 
mained at  his  post.   His  health  failing,  he  went  to  Mid- 


CRANZ 


166 


CRAVEN 


dletown,  Conn^  and  died  theie,  July  i5,  1822.    See 
Spragae,  A  tmalt  of  the  Amer»  Pti^riif  v,  680« 

CranXy  Fbiedrich  Albzamdsb  Lbopold,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  May  12, 1807, 
at  Berlin.  He  studied  there  and  in  Halle,  was  ordained 
in  1888,  and  appointed  military  preacher  at  Torgao. 
In  1840  he  was  called  as  first  militivy  preacher  to  Posen, 
was  in  1846  member  of  consistory,  and  in  1854  general 
superintendent  of  the  provinoe  of  Posen,  and  died  Aug. 
26, 1878.  He  was  one  of  the  most  faithful  leaders  of 
the  Evangelical  Church  in  his  country.     (B.  P.) 

Crapaey,  Jacob,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  1767.  He  was  baptised  in  Ontario,  N.  Y.,  in 
1822;  soon  after  was  ordained,  and  for  ten  years  en- 
gag^  in  the  work  of  preaching  the  gospel.  He  re- 
moved to  Royalton  in  1826,  where  he  died  in  October, 
1882.  See  Free- will  Baptitt  RegUter,  1884,  p.  66. 
(J.  C.  a) 

Crapster,  William  Tiiosias,  a  Unitarian  minis- 
ter, was  bora  Feb.  29, 1824,  near  Lisbon,  Md.  In  1861 
lie  entered  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  but  gradu' 
ated  from  the  divinity  school  of  Harvard  University  in 
1856.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Boston  Association  in 
1854,  and  ordained  an  evangelist  June  16,  1857,  and 
preached  occasionally  in  various  places,  both  in  the 
North  and  South.  He  died  Feb.  6, 1879.  See  NeeroL 
Report  o/Prifuxtan  TheoL  Sem.  1879,  p.  66. 

Craahaw,  Johili  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bora  at  Cheetham  Hill,  Manchester,  in  1811.  He 
was  converted  at  seventeen,  appointed  to  his  first  cir- 
cuit in  1834,  to  his  last  (Kettering)  in  1869,  and  died 
suddenly,  May  22,  1870.  He  wrote.  Important  Trutht 
in  Simple  Verse :  ^  Lecturei  to  Children  (Lond.  1858, 
18mo):  —  Conversaiums  about  Wetky: — Facta  about 
Boys  for  Boys,  See  Minutes  qftke  British  Conference, 
1870,  p.  84. 

Craahaw;  Riohard,  an  English  clergyman  and 
poet,  was  bora  in  London,  and  educated  at  the  Charter- 
house, and  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
became  a  fellow  in  1687.  He  took  orden  and  became 
distinguished  as  an  eloquent  preacher,  but  was  ejected 
in  1644  for  refusing  to  take  the  covenant.  He  then  re- 
moved to  France  and  embraced  Romonism.  Having 
been  reduced  to  great  pecuniary  distress,  he  received, 
through  the  influence  of  Henrietta  Maria,  the  positions 
of  secretary  to  one  of  the  cardinals  and  canon  of  the 
church  of  Loretto.  He  died  about  1650.  Among  his 
best  known  pieces  are.  Hymn  to  the  Name  of  Jesus: — 
Music^s  Duel: — Lines  on  a  Prayer-book}  and  some  of 
his  translations.  His  poetry  consisted  principally  of 
religious  invocations  and  translations  of  rare  merit  from 
the  Latin  and  Italian.  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ; 
Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Craahaw,  'WJIHam,  an  English  clergymen,  father 
of  Richard  Crashaw,  was  preacher  at  the  Temple,  Lon- 
don, at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  and  a  vio- 
lent opponent  of  Romanism.  He  published,  Roman 
Forgeries,  and  Fvdsificaiiims  of  Authors  (1606):— 
Newesfrom  Italy  of  a  Second  Moses,  etc  (1608)  i—Fis- 
cus  PapaUs  (1617):— rAe  Jesuites  Gospel,  written  by 
themselves,  Laid  Open  and  Reproved  (1641) ;  and  other 
Works.  Sec  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors, 
a.  v. 

Craahfleld,  Richard,  an  English  martyr,  was 
buraed  at  Norwich  in  1557,  because  he  refused  the  doc- 
trines and  ceremonies  of  the  Rcfmish  Church.  See  Fox, 
Ads  and  Monuments,  viii,  398. 

Craaaelilia,  Bartholouaus,  a  Lutheran  minis- 
ter of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Wermsdorf,  near  Glauchau, 
Feb.  21, 1677.  He  was  a  pupil  of  A.  H.  Franke,  and 
died  while  pastor  at  DllsseMorf,  Nov.  10, 1724.  He  com- 
posed about  nine  hymns,  of  which  has  been  translated 
into  English,  **  Hdligster  Jesu,  Heilgungsquelle,"  by 
Mills,  in  llora  Germanica,  p.  287:  ''Most  holy  Jesus  I 
Fount  Unfailing,"  and  **  Dir,dir  Jehovah  will  ich  sin^ 


en,**  by  Winkworth  {Chorale  Book  for  England,  Ka 
117) :  **  Jehovah,  let  me  now  adore  Thee."  See  Koch, 
GesdL  des  deutsehen  Kirchenleides,  iv,  418  sq.    (B,  P.) 

Craaaet,  Jban,  a  French  ascetic  theologian  of  the 
Jesuit  order,  was  bora  at  Dieppe,  Jan.  8,  1618.  He 
taught  in  the  colleges  of  his  oider,  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  preacher,  and  died  at  Paris,  Jan.  4, 1692.  His 
principal  works  are,  MMhode  tPOndson  (Paris,  1678):— 
MMtations  pour  tous  ks  Jours  de  fAmnh  (ibid.  1678; 
translated  into  German,  Dutch,  Italian,  Spanish,  and 
Ladn)  ^-£s  Chrkien  en  Solitude  (ibid.  1688 ;  latest  ed. 
1860)  i^La  Douee  el  Saints  MoH  (ibid.  1681)  i^Dis- 
aertatim  sur  les  Oraeks  des  SibylUs  (ibid.  1678, 1684): 
—Fie  de  Madame  llUyoi  (ibid.  ieBS)i-~  if istoirv  de 
FEglise  du  Japan  (ibid.  1689, 1716) ;  this  work  is  largely 
gathered  from  that  of  Solier  upon  the  same  subject,  pub- 
lUhed  in  1627  i^La  Foi  Vidorieuse  de  VlnfidUUe  et  du 
Libertinage  (ibid.  1698)  i^Des  X^ongregations  de  Notre- 
Dame  Erigks  dans  ks  Maisons  des  Jkuites  (ibid.  1694): 
— Abrigi  de  la  Vie  de  Claude  Ilelyot,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  (Ettvres  Spirituelles  de  M.  JlUyot  (ibid.  1710). 
See  Hoefer,  ^0119.  Biog,  Ginkrale,  s.  v. ;  Wetzer  n. 
Welte,  Kir^en-Lexikon,.B,  v. 

Craaao,  Damiano,  a  Dominican  of  Rivoli,  in  Pied- 
mont, who  died  at  Pavia  in  1615,  is  the  author  of  Con^• 
mentarius  super  Jobum : — De  S,  Joanms  Affinitate  H 
Consanguinitate  cum  Christo  Domino,  See  Niger,  De 
Scr^tor,  Flor, ;  Echard,  De  Scriptoribus  Ordinis  Do- 
nunicanorum;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon, 
s.  V.    (B.  P.) 

Craaao^  Francbboo,  an  Italian  prelate  and  jurist, 
was  of  an  ancient  family  of  Milan.  He  studied  law,  and 
practiced  in  his  native  city  in  1528.  He  afterwards 
fulfilled  variona  public  functions.  Pius  lY  appointed 
him  prothonotaiy  and  goveraor  of  Bologna,  and  iu 
1566  he  was  made  cardinaL  He  died  at  Rome,  Sept. 
1, 1566,  leaving,  Nov<e  Constitutiones  (1641) : — Orationes 
(1541, 1559) :— ComfiMNtoria  m  Jus  Civile: — Carmina. 
The  poems  of  Crasso  are  found  in  the  Rime  delta  Sig- 
nora  TuUia  d^Aragona  (Venice,  1560).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Cratte  OP  Thebbb,  a  Cynic  philoeopher,  son  of  As- 
condus,  tkmrished  in  the  4th  century  B.(X  He  went 
to  Athens^  where  he  became  a  disciple  of  Diogenes,  and 
subsequently  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Cjni- 
ics.  He  was  at  Thebes  in  807  ac.  Crates  was  heir 
to  a  laige  fortune,  which  be  bestowed  upon  his  native 
city,  or,  according  to  one  account,  he  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  banker,  with  instractions  to  give  it  to  his 
sons  in  case  they  should  become  fools,  but  if  they  be- 
came philosophers,  to  bestow  it  upon  the  poor.  He 
was  in  the  habit  of  visiting  every  house  in  Athens  and 
rebuking  its  inmates,  from  which  circumstance  he  ac- 
quired the  name  of  the  *'  door-opener."  In  spite  of  the 
poverty  to  which  he  had  reduced  himself,  and  notwith- 
standing his  ugly  and  deformed  figure,  he  gained  the 
affections  of  Hipparchia,  the  daughter  of  a  family  of 
distinction.  She  refused  many  wealthy  suitors,  and 
because  of  the  opposition  of  her  parents  threatened  to 
commit  suicide.  She  finally  gained  the  consent  of  her 
parents  and  was  married  to  Crates.  He  wrote  a  book 
of  fourteen  letters  on  philosophical  subjects,  and  some 
tragedies  of  an  earaest  and  philosophical  character, 
all  of  which  have  been  lost.  See  Smith,  Did,  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biog,  and  Myth,  s.  v.;  Encydop,  Brit,  (9th 
ed.)  s.  V. 

Crato  is  a  probably  imaginary  '*  bishop  of  the  Syr- 
ians," asserted  by  Pnedestinatus  (i,  83)  to  have  been 
a  successful  antagonist  of  the  heresy  of  Theodotua. — 
Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Craton  is  set  down  in  old  martyiologies  as  a  mar- 
tyr at  Rome,  celebrated  Feb.  16. 

Cranlbrd  (or  Cranidrde).    See  Crawfokp. 

Craven,  Braxton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  Soath,  was  bora  in  Kut" 


CRAVEN 


167 


CRAWFORD 


dolph  Coooty,  N.  C^  Aug.  26, 1822.  He  studied  in  the 
Quaker  icbool  at  New  Garden,  and  aiterwarda  at  Union 
Institute  (now  Trinity  College),  of  which  he  became 
prindpsi  in  1642.  He  was  Uoensed  to  preach  in  1840, 
and  entered  the  North  Carolina  Conference  in  1857. 
With  the  exception  of  two  years  in  the  pastorate,  all 
his  active  life  was  spent  at  the  head  of  Trinity  College. 
He  died  at  his  post,  Dec  7, 1882.  See  MimiUs  o/Ati- 
WMtd  Co^ferauxa  of  ike  M.  E,  Church  South,  1882,  p.  110. 

Ctaven,  Isaao  Nn  >  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  North  Carolina, 
Aflg.  15,  180&  He  removed  to  Georgia  in  eariy  life, 
was  oonTcrted,  joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1882.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Florida  Conference  in  1847.  He  united  with 
the  East  Texas  Conference  in  1867,  and  subsequently 
became  a  member  of  the  North  Texas  Conference.  He 
died  Aug.  6, 1881.  See  Mmutet  of  A  tmual  Confennoes 
of  lis  M,  E.  Church  South,  1881,  p.  847. 

Craven,  ^7ealey  R.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Randolph  County, 
N.  CL,  April  15, 1856L  His  parents  removed  the  follow- 
ing year  to  Missouri,  where  he  was  converted  at  fifteen 
years  of  uge.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1877,  and 
the  same  year  entered  the  SL  Louis  Conference  on  triaL 
He  died  near  Richwoods,  Aug.  4,  1881.  See  Mmutet 
ofAmmal  Cotiferemxi  of  the  M,  £.  Church  South,  1881, 
p.  867. 

Cni^r,  Paul,  a  Bohemian  martyr,  was  taken  at  St 
Andrews  by  bishop  Henry,  and  delivered  over  to  the 
secular  power  to  be  burned,  for  holding  opinions  oon- 
tmy  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  was  burned  in  1431. 
See  Fox,  A  ets  aaid  MotatmetiU,  iii,  600, 

Grainr,  Peter,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  tutor  in  the 
family  of  Robert  Yeitch,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1802,'and  presented  to  the  living  at  St.  Boswell's  (Pres- 
bytery of  Sellcirk)  in  1810.  He  died  March  21, 1884, 
aged  sixty  years.     See  Fasti  Ecclet,  ScotuxnUB,  i,  558. 

CiawJbid  (occasionally  written  CrauSord,  or 
Ciawlaide)  is  the  family  name  of  a  number  of  Scotch 
clergymen* 

1.  AuEXA3a>EB,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
veisity  in  1647;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1652;  was 
minister  at  Domock  in  1662,  and  deprived  by  the  privy 
council  the  same  year.  He  was  still  living  in  June, 
1689.     See  Fcuti  Eedet,  Scotteame,  i;  616. 

2.  Abchibald,  was  the  first  Protesunt  qiiinister  at 
Kilmanrs,  called  in  1567,  and  transferred  to  Stevenston 
in  1569.  In  1574  Dairy  and  Kilbiroie  were  under  his 
csie,  where  he  continued  in  1601,  and  afterwards  re- 
ogned.     See  Fasti  FccUs.  Scoticana,  ii,  177, 186. 

3.  OiiABLEs,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1659,  and 
presented  to  the  living  at  Ecdesmachan  in  1661.  He 
died  in  July,  1682.    See  Fasti  Bodes.  Scolicame,  i,  184. 

4.  DroALD,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1781 ;  ordained 
the  same  year  as  deputy-chaplain  to  a  regiment  in  the 
Dutch  service;  became  assistant  at  Kilmory;  was  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Saddell  and  Skipness  in  1799, 
and  txansferred  to  Kilmory  in  1815.  He  was  drowned, 
March  5, 1821,  aged  six'ty-eight  years.  He  published 
three  single  Sermons,  and  Menial  Tooth-pick  for  the 
Fait  JStx,    See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  48. 

5:  Gedbob  (1),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
venity  in  1618;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  West 
Kilbride  in  1632,  and  was  deposed  in  1648  for  conniving 
it  afamder  and  sin  in  his  parishioners,  and  selling  his 
hone  on  a  Sabbath-day,  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana, 
ii,19a 

&  Geobqx  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1704 ;  called 
to  the  living  at  Symington,  Ayrshire,  in  1708 ;  ordained 
io  1709;  tmnsferred  to  Stonykirk  in  1711 ;  and  admitted 
1b  1712.  He  died  in  January,  1700.  See  Fasti  Eedes. 
Aa0<i6iiM,i,n2;  ii,145. 

7.  Obobue  (8),  aon  of  the  piDfeiaor  of  moral  philoso- 
P^T  It  St  Andrews,  w«s  licensed  to  preach  in  1826; 
evMnted  to  the  Uviog  at^  Culte  in  1828,  and  oidained  in 


1829.  He  died  Nov.  5, 1881,  aged  thirty  years.  A  vol- 
ume of  his  Misodkmeous  JHacourus  was  published  in 
1882.    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  485, 486. 

8.  Hugh,  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Univeruty  in 
1648 ;  was  deprived  by  the  privy  council  in  1662 ;  in- 
dulged by  the  privy  council  in  1672,  and  appointed  to 
Riccarton ;  cited  to  appear  before  the  privy  council  in 
1677,  and  before  his  cautioners  in  1681 ;  afterwards  had 
a  charge  in  Ireland ;  was  recalled  in  1687  to  New  Cum- 
nock, and  admitted  to  the  living  in  1688.  He  died  in 
May,  1692,  aged  about  sixty-four  years.  See  Fasti  Ec 
des.  Scoticana,  ii,  105, 185. 

9.  Jamks,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1781 ;  elected  to 
the  living  at  Newark  in  1784;  ordained  in  1785,  and 
promoted  to  Lochwinnoch  in  1802  on  the  choice  of  the 
parishioners.  He  died  May  17, 1814,  aged  sixty-four 
years.     See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticana,  ii,  226,  255. 

10.  Joiix,  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  University  in 
1681;  was  adboitted  to  the  living  at  Lamington  in  1645; 
was  a  member  of  the  Commission  of  Assembly  in  1649, 
and  continued  in  1662 ;  summoned  before  the  synod  in 
1664  for  not  conforming,  and  indulged  by  the  privy 
council  in  1669.  He  died  Aug.  7, 1674,  aged  sixty  yearb 
See  Fasti  Ecdet,  Scoticana,  i,  224. 

11.  Matthew,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1662,  and  studied  afterwards  at  Utrecht; 
was  licensed  privately  to  preach  in  1671;  charged  be- 
fore the  synod  in  1674  with  keeping  conventicles,  and 
for  non-appearance  was  termed  rebel,  but  could  not  be 
found;  was  called  by  the  Presbyterians  at  Eastwood  in 
1679,  and  entered  on  the  living  there ;  was  at  the  first 
meeting  of  Synod  after  toleration  in  1687;  a  member  of 
the  assembly  in  1690,  and  is  said  to  have  had  a  princi- 
pal part  in  settling  the  affairs  of  the  Kirk  at  that  period 
of  transition.  He  died  in  December,  1700,  aged  about 
fifty -nine  years.  He  published  three  works  against 
poper}',  one  in  Latin,  and  left,  in  MS.  a  History  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland.   See  Fasti  EccUs.  Scoticana,  iv  812. 

12.  Patrick,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity in  1681;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1689;  called  to 
the  living  at  Dailly  in  1691,  and  ordained.  He  died  in 
June,  1710,  aged  about  forty-nine  years.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  107. 

13.  BoBXRT,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1824 ;  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  at  Kirkpatrick-Irongray  in  1882, 
and  ordained  assistant  in  that  parish ;  joined  the  Free 
Secession  in  1848,  and  was  admitted  minister  at  the 
Free  Church,  Yirg^nhall,  in  1844.  He  died  at  Penponty 
Aug.  7, 1856,  aged  fifty-seven  years.  Sec  Fasti  Ecdes, 
Scoticana,  i,  594. 

14.  THoacAB  Jacxson,  D.D.,  youngest  son  of  the 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  St.  Andrews,  took  his 
degree  at  that  university  in  1831 ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1884;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Cults  the  same 
year,  and  ordained;  transferred  to  Glammis  in  1888; 
promoted  to  St.  Andrew's  Church,  Edinburgh,  in  1844; 
appointed  convener  of  the  General  Assembly's  commits 
tee  on  (Malmody  in  1845,  and  for  missions  in  1850,  which 
he  held  until  1854 -,  was  convener  of  the  Home  Mission- 
ary Committee  in  1858 ;  admitted  professor  of  divinity 
at  Edinburgh  University  in  1859,  and  elected  moderator 
of  the  General  Assembly  in  1867.  He  died  at  Genoa, 
Italy,  in  1875.  Dr.  Crawford  published,  Reasons  for 
Adherence  to  the  Church  of  Scotland  (1843)  i—^Presbyte- 
rianism  Defended  against  Prelacy  and  Tractarianisnv 
(1853)  \—The  Fatherhood  of  God  Considered  (1866)  :— 
The  Doctrine  of  Jfoly  Saipture  respectinf/  the  A  tone" 
ment  (1871) :— and  some  single  Sa-mons,  See  Fasti 
Ecdes.  Scoticana,  ii,  486;  iii,  771,  772. 

15.  William  (1),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh 
University  in  1641;  was  presented  to  the  manse  and 
living  at  Ladykirk  in  1651 ;  conforming  to  episcopacy, 
ha  was  collated  to  the  living  in  1662,  but  deposed  in  Au- 
gust, 1690,  for  drunkenness,  he  having  been  so  charged 
fifteen  years  before.  He  died  in  1695,  aged  eighty-four 
years.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  442. 

16.  William  (2),  was  bom  at  Kelso  in  1676;  took 


CRAWFORD 


158 


CRAWFORD 


his  degree  At  Edinborgh  Unirenity  in  1700;  waa  11- 
oenaed  to  preach  in  1712,  called  to  the  living  at  Wilton, 
and  ordained  in  17ia.  He  died  May  28, 1787.  He  pub- 
lished a  sermon,  Chriti  the  Power  of  bod,  eto.  (1781) : 
^A  Short  Manual  agaimt  JnfiddUy  (1734).  His 
World  were  also  printed  ( Edinb.  1748, 2  vols. ).  See 
Foiti  Eedu,  Soodoana,  i,  517. 

17.  WiLUAM  (8),  D.D.,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1787;  appointed  to  the  living  at  Straiton  in  1791,  and 
ordained.  Having  been  appointed  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Su  Andrews,  he  re- 
signed his  charge  in  1816,  and  died  Sept  28,  1822, 
aged  sixty  years.    See  FomU  EccUm,  ScotiearuBf  ii,  144. 

Cra^vford,  Alexander,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
a  native  of  Argyleshire,  Scotland.  He  united  with  the 
Independent  (Congregational)  Church  of  the  Isle  of 
Arran  at  nineteen,  went  to  Edinburgh  to  study  under 
Haldane  and  Ewing,  and  was  immersed.  In  1811  he 
emigrated  to  Yarmouth,  N.  S.,  where  he  remained  three 
years.  In  1814  he  removed  to  Prince  Edward's  Island, 
and  labored  with  success  in  planting  Baptist  churches 
throughout  the  island.  He  died  in  March,  1828,  aged 
forty-two.  He  published  Bdieter  Immertion  at  Opposed 
to  Unbeliever  SprinkOng  (1827).  See  Bill,  Ilitt.  of  ike 
Baptisft  in  the  Maritime  Provinces,  p.  662. 

Cra'wford,  Alexander  William.  See  Likd- 
aAY,  Lord, 

Crawford,  Andrew  Jaokaon,  a  minister  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in 
Tennessee.  He  fought  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans, 
in  the  war  of  1812;  embraced  religion  in  his  young 
manhood,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Tennessee  Con- 
ference in  1821.  He  was  sent  out  by  the  United  States 
government  as  a  surveyor  of  lands  in  the  Cherokee  na- 
tion, and  at  the  same  time  as  missionary  to  the  Indians. 
In  1835  he  removed  to  Alabama,  served  some  years  as 
register  of  the  land-ofBce  at  Demopolis,  and  then  united 
with  the  Alabama  Conference.  He  spent  his  last  years 
in  retirement  at  his  home  in  Marengo  County,  where 
he  died  in  July.  1866.  See  Mituitet  of  Annual  Cot^ 
ferenctt  of  the  M.  £.  Church  South,  1866,  p.  41. 

Crawford,  David  Black,  M.D.,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  South  CUirolina  in  1794.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  the  Cumberiand  Presbjrterian 
Church,  but  changed  his  views  and  united  with  the 
Baptist  Church,  and  was  inducted  into  the  ministry  in 
1839.  He  served  as  pastor  the  Mound  Bluff  Church, 
and  the  Albion  and  Antioeh  churches  in  Mississippi, 
near  Vicksburg,  and  also  practiced  medicine  quite  suc- 
cessfully. He  died  Aug.  27, 1849.  See  Sprague,  An- 
nals of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  vi,  834. 

Crawford,  Edward,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Hanover 
in  1777 ;  on  Oct  27  of  the  same  year  became  pastor  at 
Sinking  Spring  and  Spreading  Spring,  Va.,  and  some 
time  after  1786  at  Glade  Spring  and  Rocky  Spring, 
Tenn.,  where  he  remained  until  1808.  See  Alexander, 
Princeton  College  in  the  ISth  Century. 

Crawford,  George  M.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  Abingdon  County,  Va.,  Jnne  4,  1796.  He 
was  licensed  and  ordained  by  the  Abingdon  Presbytery 
in  1822,  and  preached  for  six  years  in  Virginia  and  Ken- 
tucky. In  1839  he  joined  the  Lexington  Presbytery, 
Mo.,  and  labored  for  some  time  as  a  missionary  in  that 
state  with  great  zeal  and  ability.  He  died  June  4, 1868. 
See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist.  Almanac,  1860,  p.  120. 

Crawford,  George  W.,  A.M.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  in  Orange  County,  Ind.  He 
removed  to  Green  County  in  1838,  was  converted  in  his 
youth,  graduated  at  Asbnxy  University  in  1851,  and  in 
1854  entered  the  North-western  Indiana  Conference, 
in  which  he  filled  important  charges  until  has  death, 
Aug.  9,  1859.  See  Minutes  qf  Annual  Coffermces, 
1859,  p.  297 ;  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of  Methodic  s.  v. 

Crawford,  Gilbert,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 


bora  in  Scotland.  He  studied  at  Princeton  Theology 
ical  Seminary  one  year  (1821);  was  licensed  by  the 
Presbytery  of  New  Branswick  in  1822;  Bubeequently 
ordained,  and  served  as  supply  at  Le  Roy,  N.  T.,  and  n 
pastor  at  Buffalo  from  1827  to  1829;  supply  at  Le  Rojr 
again  in  1880,  at  Albion  in  1888,  and  pastor  soon  after 
until  1886;  supply  of  the  First  Churdh  at  Lockport  for 
two  yesLTB;  went  to  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  back  again  to 
New  York,  and  preached  at  Albion,  Boone  Centre,  and 
Le  Roy  up  to  1846.  He  died  in  1848.  SeeGe»,Cat.of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  85. 

Crawford,  Henry  EUet,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Orange  County,  N.  C,  Dec  1, 1882. 
He  graduated  at  Hanover  College,  Ind.,  in  1859,  and  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1862 ;  was  ordained, 
in  1868,  pastor  of  Pleasant  and  Jefferson  churches,  in  the 
bounds  of  the  Madison  Presbvtery,  Ind.  He  died  Feh 
6, 1866.     See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  bnanac,  1867,  p.  128. 

Crawford,  James  (1),  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Rockbridge  County,  Ta.,  Nov.  28, 179i 
He  graduated  at  New  Jersey  College  in  1826,  and 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1829;  was  ordained 
missionar}'  in  1828 ;  was  first  pastor  at  Delphi,  Ind.,  and 
then  supply  at  Hopewell  and  Naybum,  also  preaching 
at  GraysviUe,  until  1851.  He  subsequently  became  a 
member  of  the  Presbytery  of  Yincennes,  and  died  at 
Morning  Sun,  la.,  July  18,  1872.  See  Gen,  Cat  of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  44 ;  Presbgterian,  Aug.  10, 
1872 

Crawford,  James  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  at  Salem,  N.  Y.  He  was  converted 
in  childhood ;  licensed  to  exhort  at  the  age  of  eighteen; 
in  1888  to  preach,  while  a  student  at  the  Oneida  Coo- 
feience  Seminary,  and  admitted  to  the  Indiana  Con- 
ference. With  the  exception  of  a  three  years'  rest  as 
supernumerary,  from  1866  to  1869,  he  labored  zealously 
until  his  death  in  1872.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con- 
ferenees,  1872,  p.  90. 

Crawford,  James  B.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Durham,  Me.,  Dec  22, 1828.  He  was 
converted  at  eleven;  obtained  his  education  at  Kent's 
Hill;  be|;an  preaching  in  1852,  and  in  1856  entered  the 
East  Maine  Conference.  He  commenced  his  labors  at 
Bucksport  Seminary  in  1859,  and  was  connected  with 
that  institution  until  his  death,  March  81, 1869.  Sea 
Minutes  of  Ammal  Cotferenees,  1869,  p.  145. 

Craiprford,  James  7.,  a  minister  of  the  Method* 
ist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  South  Caro- 
lina in  1802.  He  was  converted  in  1818;  admitted 
into  the  Holston  Conference  in  1820 ;  located  from  ill- 
health  in  1886;  waa  readmitted  in  1848,  and  labored 
faithfully  until  his  death  in  1850.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Conferences  of  the  M.  E.  Church  South,  1850,  p.  272L 

Crawford,  John  (l)^  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, waa  bom  in  Fayette  County,  Pa.,  siept.  28, 1799. 
He  waa  converted  when  about  sixteen;  licensed  to 
preach  in  1820 ;  in  1821  entered  the  Pittsburgh  Con- 
ference,  and  in  it  continued  to  labor  until  his  deatl^ 
Feb.  29,  1832.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences, 
1838,  p.  214. 

Crawford,  John  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  White  Plains,  N.  Y.  He  commenced 
his  ministry  in  1885,  served  varioua  important  charges 
in  New  York  and  its  vicinity,  and  died  while  on  a  visit 
to  his  son  in  London,  O.,  Sept.  28,  1880.  See  Minutes 
of  Annual  Conferences,  1881,  p.  81. 

Crawford,  John  B^  a  minister  of  the  Beforaied 
(Dutch)  Church,  was  bora  at  Crawford,  N.  Y.,  in  1814. 
He  graduated  from  Rutgers  College  in  1886,  and  from 
New  Branswick  Seminary  in  1889;  waa  licenaed  by 
the  Clana  of  Orange  the  aame  year;  waa  pastor  at 
Middletown  Village,  if onmouth  CoC,  N.  J«,  from  Novem- 
ber, 1889,  to  October,  1840,  when  be  died.  See  Gorwin, 
Manual  of  the  Ref,  Church  in  America,  8d  ed.  p.  224. 

Crawford,  John  SE.,  a  minister  of  the  German  Re- 


CRAWFORD 


130 


CREAK 


farmed  Chorch  Soothe  was  bom  in  Carroll  County,  MiL, 
July  28»  1801.  He  was  received  into  the  Church  under 
the  Rer.  Jacob  Geiger ;  studied  theology  at  Carlisle,  Pa^ 
ooder  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lewis  Mayer ;  was  ordained  in  1828, 
and  sent  as  a  missionary  to  North  Carolina,  where  be 
labored  faithfully  and  with  great  suoceas  up  to  the  time 
of  his  remoral  to  Augusta  County,  Va^  where  he  died, 
Oct.  9, 1864.  SeeBubAughfFatkerto/theRe/.Ckttrdi, 
iv,  219-228.     (D.Y.H.) 

Crawford,  Jooepb,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, entered  the  travelling  connection  in  1797.  He 
occupied  many  of  the  most  important  appointments  in 
the  New  Rngland  and  New  York  Conferences,  and  had 
great  success;  but  in  1820  was  expelled  from  the  New 
York  Conference,  for  some  cause  now  unknown,  after 
which  he  entirely  disappeared.  See  AfmuteM  o/Anmial 
Confemtces,  1797-1820;  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer, 
Pu^,  vii,  99;  Stevens,  Hit$.  o/  Ike  M.  E.  Church,  iv, 
49,  es,  312L 

Crawford,  Nathaniel  Macon,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  near  Lexington,  Oglethorpe  Co.,  Ga., 
March  22,  1811.  He  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Georgia  in  1829,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  that 
state,  but  did  not  enter  upon  the  practice  of  the  law, 
haTing  been  chosen  professor  of  mathematics  in  Ogle- 
thorpe University,  which  position  he  held  nntil  1841. 
About  that  time  he  became  a  Baptist,  received  license 
to  preacfa  in  1843,  and  was  ordained  in  1844.  For  the 
next  three  years  he  was  pastor,  first  in  Washington,  Ga., 
snd  then  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  In  1847  he  beoime  pro- 
feMor  of  Biblical  literature  in  Mercer  University,  Ga. ; 
in  1854  was  elected  president  of  the  university;  in  1857 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Mississippi,  and  soon  after  in  the 
Western  Theological  Seminary  at  Georgetown,  Ky. 
In  the  aatomn  of  1858  he  returned  as  prerident  to  Mer- 
ea  University,  but  during  the  civil  war  accepted  the 
presidency  of  the  Baptist  Institution  at  Georgetown, 
Ky.,  remaining  there  until  1871,  when  he  resigned  on 
account  of  impaired  health.  He  died  at  Atlanta,  Ga., 
Oct.  27, 1871.  Dr.  Crawford  took  a  high  rank,  both  as 
a  scholar  and  as  a  preacher,  in  the  South.  He  pub- 
lished a  few  works,  in  which  were  exhibited  the  results 
of  his  scholarship  and  the  charms  of  a  graceful  stvle. 
(J.  C  S.) 

Crawford,  Oahaa  "W.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  in  November,  1809. 
When  he  was  eight  years  of  age  his  parents  removed 
to  Chamtauqua  County,  N.  Y.  He  became  a  Christian 
at  fifteen,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1829,  and  ordained 
in  1834.  He  preached  in  Canada  West,  New  York, 
FemisylTania,  Ohio,  and  Michigan,  and  died  at  Ches- 
terfield, Lucas  Co.,  O.,  March  10, 1846.  See  Frte-wU 
Baptui  Register,  1660,  p.  IS.    (J.  C.  a) 

Crawford,  Peter,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  in 
Yirginia  in  1809.  He  began  to  preach  about  1831 ;  stud- 
ied in  what  is  now  Bichmond  College,  Ya. ;  in  1835  es- 
taUisbcd  a  school,  which  became  the  Judson  Female 
Institute,  at  Marion,  Ala. ;  for  some  time  taught  in  Cen- 
tral Female  College,  Miss.,  and  from  1866  to  1871  was 
preadent  of  a  female  college  at  Keachi,  De  Soto  Parish, 
La.  He  (tied  April  25,  1878.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
EnqfCbtp.  p.  291.     (J.  C  S.) 

Crawford,  'William,  D.D.,  an  Irish  clergyman, 
was  ordained  minister  of  Strabane  in  1766.    In  1784, 
npob  the  request  of  the  synod  of  Ulster,  he  undertook 
the  iastmction  of  candidates  for  the  ministry  in  logic, 
mathematics,  and  philosophy,  and  afterwards  enlarged 
the  coarse  of  instmctioa  to  tbist  of  a  college  course.    In 
1798  be  became  pastor  at  Hollywood,  where  he  died  in 
1801.    Dr.  Crawford  was  a  man  of  considerable  team- 
ing and  great  application,  but  his  religious  views  were 
<Mdcd]y  anti- evangelical.     He  was  the  author  of 
Simu1($  on  Lord  ChutierfdSt  LeUer$:—Hutory  of 
Mtmd  (2  vobi) :— and  published  two  Sermom,  besides 
faMwhtiDM  fiom  Turretme't  Diaertatumt  on  Natural 


neology.    Seit  Bmd,  Bin.  of  the  PreOf.  Church  in  Ire- 
land, 

Crawford,  'William  H.  (1),  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Greene 
County,  Ga.,  March  81, 1825.  He  was  converted  at  the 
age  of  fourteen ;  licensed  to  preach  in  1844 ;  in  1846  was 
admitted  into  the  Georgia  Conference,  and  labored  dil- 
igently until  his  death,  July  16, 1847.  See  Minutes  of 
Annual  Conferences  of  the  M.  £,  Church  South,  1847, 
p.  187. 

Crawford,  William  H.  (2),  a  minister  of  the 
Methodbt  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Giles 
County,  Va.,  Dec.  12, 1842.  He  was  converted  when 
a  boy;  licensed  to  preach  in  1869;  in  1878  joined  the 
Holston  Conference,  and  labored  therein  faithfully  un- 
til his  heaUh  failed;  a  year  before  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred in  WaUuga  County,  N.  C,  March  2, 1880.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M,  £.  Church 
South,  1880,  p.  144. 

Crawley,  Arthur  R.  R.,  a  Baptut  missionary, 
was  bom  at  Sydney,  Cape  Breton,  in  1881.  He  grad- 
uated from  Acadia  College,  N.  S.,  in  1849,  and  from  the 
Newton  Theological  Institution  in  1852.  Under  the 
auspices  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionarv  Union,  be 
sailed  to  Henzada,  Burmah,  in  December,  1858,  and  in 
the  following  October  commenced  his  labors  there, 
achieving  great  success.  He  made  a  visit  to  the  United 
Sutes  in  1868,  and  another  in  1872.  He  died  Oct  9, 
1876.    See^flwr.Ba/^u<J(fa^az«iie,lvii,180.    (J.Ca) 

Crawley,  Ekurah,  an  English  minister  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends,  was  bom  at  Hitchin,  Hertfordshire,  in 
1717.  She  was  converted  in  early  life,  itinerated  as  a 
preacher  through  different  parts  of  (Ireat  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  died  in  London  in  February,  1799.  See 
Piety  Promoted,  ui,  288.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Crayer  (or  Crseyer),  Gaspar  de,  a  very  eminent 
Flemish  painter,  was  bom  at  Brassels  in  1582,  and 
studied  for  a  short  time  under  Baphael  van  Coxie  of 
that  city.  One  of  his  best  pictures,  for  the  refectory 
of  the  abbey  of  Affleghem,  represents  A  Centurion  JHs' 
mounting  to  Worship  the  Saviour.  His  principal  paint- 
ing is  at  Bmssels,  in  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  Christ 
Appearing  to  Mary  Magdalene;  others  in  different 
churches  are,  The  Assumption,  The  Descent  of  the  Bolg 
Ghost,  and  The  Besurrection.  He  died  at  Ghent,  Jan. 
27,.  1669.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ghh-ale,  s.  v.; 
Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Creagll,  Peter  (1),  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  see  of  Cork  in  1676;  imprisoned  in  1680; 
about  1686  translated  to  the  archdiocese  of  Tuaro ;  and 
promoted  to  the  archbishopric  of  Dublin,  March  9, 1698. 
In  1695  the  acts  were  revived,  prohibiting  the  foreign 
or  domestic  education  of  Catholics,  and  in  1697  all  the 
Popish  prelates,  vicars-general,  deans,  monks  and  others, 
who  exercised  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  Ireland,  were 
ordered  to  depart  before  May  1, 1698.  W^hstever  was 
the  promise  of  the  earlier  period  of  Creagh's  administra- 
tion, it  was  soon  overcast  by  the  succession  of  Anne. 
He  was  obliged  to  flee  to  the  continent,  and  died  at  Ar- 
gentina (Strasburg),  in  1706  or  1707.  See  D' Alton, 
Memoirs  qfthe  Ahps.  of  Dublin,  p.  457;  Brady,  EpiseO" 
pal  Succession,  i,  838;  ii,  91. 

Creagh,  Peter  (2),  an  Irish  prelate,  was  made  tit- 
ular bishop  of  Avaro  in  1745,  bishop  of  Waterford  in 
1750,  and  died  in  1774.  See  Brady,  Episcopal  Succes- 
sion, ii,  74^ 

Creashead.    See  Craiohkad. 

Creak,  Alexander,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  London,  April  16, 1785,  and  was 
converted  in  I8OI4  He  studied  first  in  Hackney  Col- 
lege, and  then  in  Homerton  College  in  1809;  entered 
the  pastorate  at  Bumham  Westgate,  Norfblk,  in  Au- 
gust, 1810;  resigned  in  November,  1818;  was  pastor  at 
Yarmouth  from  April,  1814,  nntil  the  failure  of  his 


CREAK 


160 


CREED 


heilth  in  1842,  and  died  Sept.  1, 1848.    See  (Loud.) 
Cong,  Year-hook^  1848,  p.  220. 

Creak,  Henry  Brown,  A.1L,  aa  English  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  bom  at  Yarmouth,  Mareh  25, 
1821.  He  was  converted  early  in  life;  studied  in  a 
German  university,  and  at  Spring  Hill  College,  Bir- 
mingham; was  ordained  at  Atherstone  in  1846;  was 
professor  in  Airedale  College  from  1848  to  1868,  and 
died  Feb.  10, 1864.  See  (Lond.)  Coi^.  Tear-dool^  1865, 
p.  230. 

Cream-box  is  a  vulgar  name  for  a  ehrigmatorff. 

Creamer,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  March  19, 1791.  He 
was  kfl  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  ten;  converted  at 
eighteen ;  and  in  1816  entered  the  Philadelphia  Con- 
ference, wherein  he  continued  With  acceptance  and 
usefulness  until  his  death,  April  25, 1827.  See  Mwuta 
of  Annual  Conferences,  1827,  p.  542;  Methodist  Maga- 
zine, X,  376. 

Crease,  Wiluam,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Stirling,  and  educated  by  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church.  He  became  pastor  at  Wilmslow, 
Cheshire,  in  .1844,  and  labored  there  veiy  successfully 
until  December,  1849.  In  the  spring  of  1850  he  re- 
moved to  Hazelgrove,  but  died  in  May  of  the  same 
year,  in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1850,  p.  9& 

Creatb,  William,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Nova  Scotia,  Dec  25, 1768,  of  Presbyterian  parents.  He 
was  converted  when  about  seventeen  yean  old,  removed 
to  North  Carolina  at  twenty,  joined  a  Baptist  Church, 
and  soon  after  commenced  to  preach,  his  labors  being 
greatly  blessed.  For  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life 
be  gave  himself  very  largely  to  itinerant  work.  He 
died  suddenly  at  Edenton,  N.  C,  Aug.  11, 1822.  See 
Latter-dag  Luminary,  iv,  68.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Creaticfilse  C^reature^worshippers')  were  a  Chris^ 
tian  sect  which  arose  in  the  6th  century,  headed  by 
Severus  of  Antioch,  who  maintained  that  the  body  of 
Christ  was  corraptible,  but  in  consequence  of  the  (zod- 
head  dwelling  in  it  was  never  corrapted.    See  Aru- 

THABTODOCKT.JE. 

Creda  (Credan,  or  Cred&miB)  is  the  name  of 
two  early  English  ecclesiastics: 

1.  An  abbot  of  Mercia,  A.D.  cir.  775. 

2.  Abbot  of  Evesham,  between  Almund,  A.D.  788  or 
787,  and  Tintferth,  A.D.  803.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog,  s.  V. 

Credence.  We  add  the  following  particulars  from 
Waloott,  Sac  A  rchceol,  a,  v. : 

**  It  either  takes  the  form  of  a  little  table  covered  with 
A  linen  cloth— at  Braboarae  it  is  on  the  south  side,  and 
foraied  of  black  marble,  with  a  cross  in  a  circle  carved 
on  it— or  is  made  like  an  aumbry  in  the  wall.  lu  some 
churches  a  second  table  held  the  mass  vestments  of  the 
bishop.  The  wall  credence  is  often  connected  with  a 
drain,  is  rare  in  the  ISih  (one  occurs  at  Lausanne),  but  is 
usoal  in  the  fullowlnf  century  Sometimes  it  occnrs  on 
the  north  and  soath  sides  of  au  altar ;  often  It  is  divided 
hy  a  thin  slab  of  stone.  When  the  pope  celebrates  on 
faster-day  there  are  three  credences— two  on  the  epistle 
side,  one  coutalnlog  the  deacon's  plate,  the  second  sup- 
porting two  candles  and  necessaries  required  bv  the  sac- 
ristan. The  third,  or  pope*s  credence,  is  on  the  gospel 
Hide,  where,  at  the  end  of  the  Creed,  the  sacristan  washes 
the  sacred  vessels,  drinks  of  the  wine  and  the  water,  and 
Anally,  at  the  offertory,  tastes  the  particles  from  which 
the  hosts  are  prepared,  at  the  command  of  the  cardinal- 
deacon,  as  a  precaution  sfirainst  poison.  The  first  nse  of 
credences  In  the  Roman  ritual  occurs  in  the  time  of  Leo  X, 
111  1016,  and  appareotlv  was  introduced  when  the  custom 
uf  personsl  offering  fell  iuto  desuetude.'* 

Credi,  LoBKMZo  Aitdrea  di  (called  SciarpeUom), 
a  reputable  Florentine  painter,  was  bom  about  1452, 
and  studied  under  Andrea  Verocchio  at  the  same  time 
with  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He  painted  many  Madonnas 
and  Holy  Families.  He  died  about  1586.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GMralt,  a.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog^  Hist,  of  the 
Fim  Arts,  B,y, 


CredtUa.    See  Aaisra 

Cree,  Hamilton,  a  Methodist  Episoopal  minister, 
was  bom  near  Carmichael,  Pa.,  in  1811.  He  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Pittsburgh  Conference  in  1888,  retired 
after  thirteen  years*  labor,  and  died  at  his  home  in 
Brooke  County,  W.  Ya.,  Sept.  21, 1880.  See  Mimtet 
of  Annual  Conferences,  1880,  p.  248. 

Cree,  John,  an  Associate  minister,  was  a  native  of 
Scotland,  and  came  to  the  city  of  New  York  in  1791. 
He  was  ordained  in  1792,  and  afterwards  settled  in 
Ligonier  valley,  near  Pittsburgh,  where  he  died  after 
a  few  vears.  See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit, 
IX,  ill,' 82. 

Cree  Version  of  thk  Scriptubes.  There  sie 
two  dialects  of  the  Cree  language,  the  difference  t)e- 
tween  them  consisting  of  the  uniform  sobstltutioa  of 
certain  consonants  for  others.  One  is  called  the  Moose 
Fort,  or  East  Main  Cree,  the  other  the  Red  River  Cree. 
A  complete  Bible  in  the  Eastern  dialect  for  the  Cree 
Indians  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  Territories  was  printed 
in  1861,  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  in  syllabic  characters,  the  translstioQ 
having  been  made  by  the  Rev.  W.  Mason  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society.  In  the  Western  dialect,  the  gos- 
pels of  Mark  and  John,  together  with  other  parts 
of  the  New  Test,  and  the  Psalms,  were  printed,  in  the 
Roman  character,  since  1855,  the  translation  having 
been  made  by  archdeacon  Hunter,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Cree  Indians  of  the  Saskatchewan  valley,  in  Rupert's 
Land,  who  had  also  reduced  the  Cree  to  a  written  sys- 
tem. Up  to  March  81, 1882,  altogether  38,590  copies 
were  distributed.    See  BiUe  of  Every  Land,  p.  44& 

(a  P.) 

Creeoh,  Thomas^  an  English  poet  and  clergy 
man,  was  bom  near  Sherborne,  Dorsetshire,  in  16d9, 
and  entered  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  in  1675.  In 
1688  he  was  elected  probationer  fellow  of  All-Souls'  Col- 
lege. Having  taken  orders  in  1699,  he  was  presented 
to  the  living  of  Welwyn,  in  Hertfordshire.  He  put  sn 
end  to  his  life  in  June,  1700.  See  Chalmeia,  Biog,  Did, 
s.  V. ;  AUibone,  Did,  ofBrii,  and  A  mer„  A  vthors,  s.  v. 


Creech,  WiUlam,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  studied  at 
Edinburgh  University;  became  tutor  to  George  Crans- 
toun;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1733;  called  to  the 
living  at  Newbattle  in  1788;  ordained  in  1739,  and  died 
Aug.  21, 1745,  aged  forty  years.  See  Fasti  EecUs,  Soo- 
<K»fUB,i,296,297. 

Creed.  The  following  is  the  Greek  text  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed: 

nurrcvtf  ■!?  OEON  HATEPA,  warroicyiifropa,  tmi|- 
rf/v  oOpavov  Kal  y^v. 

Kal  (flO  'IHSOYN  XPirrOK,  vl6v  airrov  t6m  /io- 
voyunj,  Tdy  Kvpiov  vnw,  t^v  av\\fiil>^ttrra  Ik  twv- 
/itaTov  dyiov,  ytvinj^iirra  Ik  "Nlaptat  Ttjt  Trap^iwv, 
tra^ivra  iirl  tloirriov  JliXdrov,  irravpta^iyra,  ^av6»- 
TO,  Kal  Tatpiirra,  KtvrtXJ^oina  lit  tA  Karrorraxa,  Tjf 
TptTif  Vfiipn  dpaerrdirra  dir6  twv  ywpSiv^  aytX^ovra 
ftlv  Toitt  ovpaifou9,  Ka^i1^6fu»o¥  i¥  dt£f^  J^fov  irarp^ 
iraproiwd^ov,  itat^uf  ipx6fttPo»  Kpwai  ^warras  Koi 
mnpow, 

Hiirrtvai  tU  t6  HNEYMA  TO  "APION,  dylav  ko- 
^oXucfiy  iKK\t}<rlaif,  Ayimv  KOiywuiay,  a«ptaii/  dpapnS^, 
aapKdt  dtfdoTaoiv,  ^»t)i^  alwiov,    *Afiii», 

Dr.  Schaff,  in  his  Creeds  of  Christendom  (N.  Y.1877, 
8  vols.),  which  is  the  latest,  and  in  many  respects  the 
most  complete,  treatise  on  ecclesiastical  symbolics,  ai^ 
langes  the  Apostles*  Creed  as  in  pagea  162,'  163. 

Dr.  Heurtley,  in  his  valuable  coUecUon  of  creeds  of 
the  Westem  Church,  which  has  been  supplemented  by 
two  "  University  Programmes"  by  Dr.  C.  J.  Caspari, 
professor  of  theology  at  the  Norwegian  University,  pub- 
lashed  at  Christiana  in  1866  and  1869,  tnicea  the  growth 
of  the  creed  (as  far  as  it  pan  be  traced)  through  Tertul- 
lian  and  Cyprian ;  then  we  must  take  a  leap  from  No- 
▼atian  (A.D.  250)  to  Rufinns,  bishop  of  Aquileia  (A.D 


CREEPING  TO  THE  CROSS      J61 


CREIZENACH 


890),  tbe  intennediate  ipaoe  of  one  hnndred  and  forty 
years  alfordiog  only  one  stepping-stone,  furnished  by 
the  Dotes  of  the  belief  of  Marodlas  of  Ancyra,  which  he 
detiTcred  on  his  departare  from  Rome.  The  date  of 
this  is  A.D.  341.  We  might  have  expected  Marcellus 
to  exhibit  bis  belief  in  the  words  of  the  creed  of  Ni- 
om;  the  fact  that  he  used  another  symbol  is  inter- 
Mtiiig  for  more  reasons  than  one.  It  comes  to  us  in 
Gieek,  and  with  the  assaranoe  that  he  had  received  it 
from  the  Scripturesi  and  been  taught  it  by  his  forefa- 
tben  in  the  Lord;  by  which  he  roust  have  meant  that 
be  regarded  it  as  in  entire  agreement  with  the  Script- 
nres.  The  creed  of  Ancyra,  then,  most  in  substance 
have  accorded  nearly  with  the  creed  of  Borne  as  we 
learn  it  from  Rufinns,  diftering  from  it  only  in  the  fol- 
lowing points,  yiz. :  it  omita  tbe  name  FcUher  in  the 
first  article;  it  reads  "  bom  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of 
the  Virgin  Mary ;"  and  at  the  end  there  is  added  the 
dense  **  eternal  life."  The  annexed  table  (taken  from 
Smith's  DicL  ofChritL  Biog,  s.  v.)  shows  the  principal 
fonns  of  the  Apoetles'  Creed  in  Latin,  the  variations 
printed  in  italics. 


Creightozi,  Jameo,  an  early  Methodist  preacher, 
was  born  at  Moyne  Hall,  near  Cavan,  Ireland,  in  1789. 
He  studied  at  a  grammar-school  in  Cavan,  graduated 
in  1764  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and,  on  October  28, 
the  same  year,  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  the  cathedral 
church  of  Kilmore.  Creighton  confesses  that  at  that 
time  he  had  no  experimental  knowledge  of  the  way  of 
salvation,  and  that  the  bishop  had  warned  him  against 
preaching  the  doctrines  of  the  Methodists.  About  1776 
he  was  converted  through  the  reading  of  some  of  the 
writings  of  Wesley  and  Fletcher.  He  then  commenced 
itinerating  through  Ireland,  often  preaching  amid  per- 
secution and  danger.  In  1783  he  was  appointed  by 
Wesley  resident  clergyman  of  the  City-road  Chapel, 
London,  where  he  officiated  until  the  infirmities  of  age 
compelled  him  to  retire.  In  1784  he  assisted  Wesley 
and  Coke  in  the  ordination  of  Whatooat  and  Yasey ; 
he  also  participated  in  tbe  consecration  of  Coke  as 
bishop  for  the  United  States  of  America.  From  1790 
to  1792  he  was  editor  of  the  Armiman  Magazine.  He 
died  at  Hackney,  London,  Dec  26,  1819.  Creighton 
published.  Dictionary  ofScrijUurt  Proper  Kamu^  with 


AQVII.UAN  CaSBU. 

Credo  in  DtoPaJtn 

omnipot€nU,invi»(bUi 

etimpautbui 
et  In  Cbristo  Jeen  nnico  FIlio  ctfos 

Domino  noetro 
Old  natns  cet  de  Spirita  Sancto 

ex  Maria  Vlrgioe  [tns 

cracUxns  sab  Pontio  Pilato  et  sepol- 

deseendit  In  Infema 

tertia  die  resnrrexit  a  mortnls 

aseendit  in  caelos 

sedet  ad  dexteram  Patris 

inde  Venturas  est  Judicare  vivoe  et 

mortaoe 
et  in  Spirita  Sancto 
sanctam  eoclesiam 

remisttooem  peccatorom 
kuftu  cands  resnrrectionem 


Old  Kojia2«  CaxEU 

Credo  in  Beam  Patrem 
omnfpoteutem 

et  in  Christnm  Jesnm  nnicnm  Fflinm 

^os  Domlnum  nostrum 
Qui  nattts  est  de  Spirita  Sancto 

ex  Maria  Vlrglne  Ctns 

cmclflxos  sob  Poutio  Pilato  et  sepol- 


tertia  die  resnrrexit  a  mortnls 

aseendit  in  caelos 

sedet  ad  dexterem  Patris 

inde  Tentnros  est  Jodicare  vivos  et 

mortnos 
etin  Splritam  Sanctam 
sanctam  ecclesiam 

remlssionem  peccatonim 
camis  resnrrectiouem 


MUDBBM  RUMAX  CbrKD. 

Credo  in  Deam  Patrem 
omnipotentem,  erMtorem  eaeli  tt 

terrae 
et  in  Jemitn  Christum  Filinm  ^os 

nnicom  Domlnnm  nOstram 
qnf  eoneejHttB  est  de  Spirita  Sancto 
natuM  ex  Maria  YirslDe 
Pa$m$  snb  Pontio  Pilato  craclflxas 
mortuui  et  sepultas 
deeoeodit  ad  infema 
tertia  die  resarrexit  a  mortals 
aseendit  ad  caelos  iUntis 

sedet  ad  dexteram  Dei  Patris  omnipo- 
inde  ventnnis  est  Jndlcare  vivos  et 

roortaos 
Credo  In  Spirltam  Sanctam 
sanctam  ecclestam  CtUholicam 
mnetorttm  eommunionem 
remissiouem  peccatorum 
carols  resnrrectionem 
vitom  Q/fiemtvn 


Creek  Veralon.    See  Muskokxe. 

Creeping  to  the  Croes  (so  called).  Alcnin  men- 
tions that  on  Good  Friday  a  cross  was  prepared  before  the 
altar,  and  kissed  in  succession  by  the  deigy  and  people. 
Sometimes  it  was  laid  on  a  cushion  in  a  side-chapeL 
By  .£Uric's  Canons  (957),  the  faithful  were  required  to 
pay  their  adoration,  and  greet  God*s  rood  with  a  kiss. 
*^We  humble  ourselves  to  Christ  herein,"  Cranmer 
asys,  "offering  onto  him,  and  kissing  the  cross,  in 
memory  of  our  redemption  by  Christ  on  the  crossb" 
Tbe  practice  was  forbidden  in  1549,  but  was  observed 
at  Dunbar  in  1568  by  the  congregation,  bare-legged  and 
barefooted.    During  the  ceremonial  the  hymns  ^  Pauge, 
liDgna,"snd  ''Vexilla  regis  prodeunt,"  were  sung,  fol- 
lowed bv  tbe  "  Improperia,"  or  reproaches,  an  expansion 
orMsLiii,3,4. 

Creichton.    See  CncHTOif. 

Crelgh,  Patrick,  a  Scotoh  clergyman,  was  minis- 
ter St  Ratho  in  1565 ;  was  three  times  complained  of  for 
neglect  of  his  ministerial  duty ;  suspended  from  his 
mioistry  in  1567,  and  ordered  to  make  his  repentance 
at  Edinbargh.  He  was  settled  at  Korth  Berwick  in 
1668,  bat  deposed  the  same  year;  was  again  admitted 
hf  the  sssembly  in  1572  to  read  pravers  at  Haddington. 
See  FomH  Ecdet,  ScoUeana,  i,  189, 841. 

Creigfa,  Thomae,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Landisbnrg,  Perry  Co.,  Pa.,  SepL  9, 1808. 
He  graduated  from  Dickinson  College  in  1828;  was 
eoen  afterwards  converted,  and  studied  theology  under 
Bev.  Geo.  Duffield,  D.D.,  and  at  Princeton  Seminary ; 
was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  CarliMe ;  ordained 
pmtar  of  tbe  Upper  West  Conococheague  Church  at 
Mcnenbnrg,  Pa.,  in  1881.  and  continued  there  with 
gittt  lesl,  fidelity,  and  usefulness  nntil  his  sadden 
Aetth,  April  21, 1880.  See  NeeroL  Report  of  Princeton 
Cpiy,1881,p.87.    (W.P.8.) 

XIL-L 


a  Prdimiaary  Diuertation  (commended  by  Dr.  A. 
Clarke),  mHi— Elegiac  Stanzat  on  the  Death  of 
Charles  Wesley :  —  Dialogue  on  the  Death  of  John 
Wesley  :—Fenelon't  Dialogues  .'—Thuch/ords  History 
of  the  World.  Dr.  Osbom  (Outlines  of  Wesleyan  Bibli- 
ography^  Lond.  1869)  enumerates  eighteen  separate  pub- 
lications. See  Sandford,  Memoirs  of  Wesleycm  Preach^ 
ere  (N.  Y.  1843),  p.  51  sq. ;  Stevenson,  City-road  Chapel 
(Lond.  1872,  8vo),  p.  147-149,  282;  Stevens,  ffist,  of 
Methodism,  ii,  214,  297 ;  Smith,  ffist.  of  WesL  Melh.  i, 
478  sq,;  ii,  276, 277. 

Creighton  (or  Crightou),  Robert,  Sen.,  D.D., 
an  English  prelate,  was  bom  in  1598,  and  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  became  prebendary 
of  Lincoln  in  1631,  prebendary  of  Wells  in  1682,  dean 
of  Wells  in  1660,  and  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1670 ; 
and  died  Nov.  21,  1672,  leaving  some  Sermons  and 
Translations.  See  Le  Neve,  Fasti  f  AUibone,  Did.  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Creighton,  Robert,  Jun.,  D.D.,  an  English  di- 
vine, was  bom  in  1689.  He  became  famous  for  his 
skill  in  church  music,  and  was  installed  precentor  of 
Wells  in  1674.  He  died  in  1786.  The  celebrated  an- 
them, ''I  will  arise  and  go  to  my  Father,"  is  by  him, 
and  he  also  published  a  volume  of  Sermons  (1720).  See 
AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Authors,  s.  v. 

Creisenach,  Michael,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Germany, 
was  bora  at  Mayence,  May  16, 1789.  After  a  thorough 
study  of  the  TsJmud  and  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  he  be- 
gan to  read  German,  devoting  all  his  leisure  to  the 
Kantian  philosophy,  while  at  the  lyceum  of  his  native 
place.  In  1813  he  opened  a  private  seminary,  which 
he  conducted  until  1825,  when  he  was  called  as  pro- 
fessor to  the  Philanthropinum  at  Frankfort -on- the- 
Main,  where  he  died  August  5, 1842.  His  main  work  ia 
'?|^"^9  in^O,  or  Encyklopaedische  DarsteUung  des 


CRELL 


162 


CRELL 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  THE 

A8  BBLATKD  TO  THK  APOttUSf 


Tsi  AronLM*  CBm. 

(Rome.)  Abook  A.D.  S40. 

iBBiiiRTa.    (Gaal.) 

TaxivuuAir.   (North 

Obmbt.  JAlatandria.) 
A.D.  flW. 

CrraiAir.    (Oar- 

HfOfATUM. 

LaWr  addiaoM  an  ia 

A.D.  110. 

Africa.)    A.D.  MO. 

thaga.)    AJ>.«N. 

(Roma.)   AJ).IM. 

ilaUtt. 

IteU«T« 

WabaUara 

Wa  baliava 

rWa  baliara  In] 
1.  Ova  Goo, 

Iballara 

Wabdiava 

1.  ...  la  oiTB  God  ihx 

1. ...  la  ovB  Goo,  tha 

1.  In  God  nre  Fa- 

1.   teOODTBlFA* 

Alml(chljr> 

FAina  Almighty, 

Craaior     of     tha 

who     craatad     aad 

rwMM; 

tbbb  and  Al- 

who BMda  haaran 

world,  who     pro- 

fhunad  ararythlng 

mighty  Lord; 

MrtkJ 

and  aarlh.  and  tha 
aaa^aadaUthatln 

daead  all  oat  of 

•  •  • 

nothing . . . 

Who  In  tha  lait  day* 

thamb; 

aant 

%,  Aa4  la  JwanCaman, 

t.  And  In  vn*  Cbmbk 

t.  And  In  tha  Word, 

1.    Oar     Lord    Jaaca 

t.    to    hla    Son 

t.  hi  tha  8m  of 

Hh    obIj   Son,  o«r 

Jaaua,  tha  Boa  of 

hit     Son,     Jaaua 

Cnuar  .  .  .  bora 

CBBiar; 

God,  Caiiar 

Lord; 

God[owLoid]| 

CHsnr; 

of  tha  Fathar  bo- 
IbraaUeraatloa... 

Jnua,     oar 
UtdiM; 

S.  who  WM  Wiifarf  tar 

S.WhobaMMflc8h[of 

S.  Who  throogh    tha 

S.  bora    of  tha  Tbgtai 

• 

IhaHolyCHiMt, 
bora  of    iho  VirglB 

tha  Vtrsln]  for  oar 
lalTatiOBi 

Spirit  and  jMwar 
of  God  tha  Fathar 

aad      tha      Holy 
Ohoat . . . 

Mary) 

daaoandad  Into  tha 
Virgin  Mary,  was 
mada  flaah  la  har 
womb,  and  born  of 
har; 

mada  laearnata  whUa 
lamaiaing  God . . . 

4.  «i#irMl  ondm  PonthH 
rUata,  was  erad- 

4,  and  bJi  inllMBr  raB* 
darFontlnFUala]; 

4.   Was  fizad  on   tha 

4.    Miflbrad    In    trath. 

croaa  [andar  Pon> 
tin*    Filata],  waa 
daadaadbnriad: 
&.  roaa  again  tha  third 

diad; 

t«d,Muf,aod  trar* 
lad: 

1.  and  hU  iWng  from 

i.  roaa  from  tha  daad ; 

JXhIm; 

thadaad) 

day; 

Um  third  day  h«  mm 
fromthadMd; 

• 

6.   Ha    aaeandad    iato 

C.  and  hk  bodily  aa- 
aanptlon  late  iiaaT- 

C.  waa  takan  np  Into 

f .  WBi  takoB  «p . . . 

haaTaa, 

haavaa  aad  alttoth 

and   altuth   on   tha 

«»J 

at  tha  ri^t  band 

rlRht  hand  of  0»d 

of  God  tha  Fathar; 

ijia     Fathar     At- 

wrigkf; 

T.  froBOwMa  ha  ihaU 

T.  and  hta  ootnlajt  from 
haaToa  hi  tf  a  >lo- 
ry  of  tha   Fathar 

T.HawlllaomatojBdga 
tha  qakk  aad  tha 

aoBia  to  Jodga  tha 
qoiekaadthadaad. 

daad. 

to  eomprahaad  all 

thlnf*   nadar  ona 

haady  .  . .  and   to 

azaenta    rlghtaooa 

Jodipnant  ovar  all. 

t.  And  rttSmn  la  thb 

B.  And  la  nu  Hoi.y 

8,  Aad  In  m  Holt 

8.  m  Holt  Ghobt, 

8.  In  nra  Holt 

8.  ia   na  Botr 

Holt  OHoar ; 

Qaoar. 

Oaoar,  tha   Para- 

aaltad  In  honor  and 

Oaoar; 

ORoar(iiroa»- 

data,  tha  Sanctlfl- 

dignity   wHh    tha 

iMd  of  old  to 

ar,  aant  by  Chriat 
from  tha  Falhar. 

Fathar    and     tha 

tha    Chat^ 
aad    ftaBlad 

Boa. 

la    tba    a^ 

poialod    md 
itUagtIma). 

9.  tha    holy    CMOU 

• 

Chareh; 

Oa     eamaiaaiMi    ^ 

■afaH; 

10.  tha   foixlT«na«  of 

10.  Iballara  tha  for. 

■laa; 

glvaoaai     of 
abn. 

. 

11.  tha  naametfam  of 

11.  And  that  Chttot  ihall 

11.  And  that  Chriat  wOl. 

thobody} 

aoma  f^m  haaran 
toralaaapallflaih, 
. . .  and  to  a4Jadg« 
tha    Imptona    and 
B^inat ...  to  atar- 
nai  flra, 

aftar    tha   raatora* 
tloa  of  tha   fladi, 
racalTa  hla  aalnU 

It.  Mii  Oa  l{^«  aawfatf. 

IS.  and  to  giva  to  tha 

It.  into  tha  aiOoyaaDt 
of  atarnal  ilia  and 

IS.  and  atarnal  life 

%.• 

Jnat  aad  holy  Im- 
BMTtaltty  and  atar- 

thrmwh     tha 
holy  Chnrch. 

tha     promliaa    of 

aal  glory. 

haaraa,  and  Jadga 
tha    wiehad    with 
atarnal  lira. 

•  Tha  Roman  CVaad,  according  to  Raflaaa  (800),  anda  with  mmu  fararratfwam ;  bat  tha  Grade  Tanlon  of  tha  Raaaan  Ciaad  by  Ifaroallaa  (t41X  vlt^ 


taitchm  Geteizes  (4  vols.) ;  a  work  which  called  forth 
many  criticisms  from  the  orthodox  party.  See  FUrst, 
BibL  Jud.  iy  190  sq. ;  KayserUng,  Bibliothek  jUditcker 
KanzdredneTf  i,  884  sq. ;  Joet,  Michael  Creiznaehy  in 
the  Jahrbuch  fur  Itraeliten  (Vienna,  1848),  ii,  79  sq. ; 
Jost,  Gesch.  d,  Juden.  u,  t,  Selken,  iii,  861.    (&  P.) 

Crell,  Michael,  a  German  Protestant  theologian, 
who  lived  in  the  early  half  of  the  17th  century,  was 
minister  at  Altenbnrg,  and  wrote,  Spkikgium  Poeti- 
cum  (Leipnc,  1629)  i—Anagramatismorum  SyBoge  II 
<1631)  i^Breoiarium  EtymoLN,  T.  (Altenburg,  1646)  \— 
SyOaim  Grmco-BMicua  (ibid.1646 ;  Baaneburg,  1663)  :— 
idso  some  works  on  the  Holy  Sciiptares.— {^  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GMrakf  s.  ▼. 

Crell,  PaulUB)  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 


was  bom  at  Eialeben,  Feb.  5, 1531.  He  was  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg ;  was  called 
in  1568  as  provost  to  Meissen,  and  died  there,  Hay 
24, 1579.  He  prepared  an  £v<tngeUen'H€irmtmie,  and 
wrote,  Opus  Concordcmtiarum.'—Traciatus  de  Justifca" 
tione  :—i^ommonf/actio  de  Verhit  SymboU: — Credo  Re' 
mitaiotum  Peccatorum  ei  de  Dido  PauU  : — Gratia  SaJU 
rati  Estts:  —  Spongia  de  Definitione  EvanffeUi,  See 
Freheri,  ThecUrum  Erudiiorum;  Jocher,  AUganameM 
Gelehrteft'LexihmjB.yr,  Winer, Handbuch der tkeoL lAL 
i,166.    (B.P.) 

Crell,  SpinoviuB  ChxlBtoph,  a  German  Socin- 
ian  theologian,  son  of  Michael,  was  sucoeasivelT  pastor 
of  Unitarian  churches  in  PoUuid,  Silesia,  and  'Proi&a. 
He  died  Dec  12, 1680,  leaving,  De  VirtfUe  ChritHama  d 
GerUiUy  published  in  the  series  of  tthiguee  of  hia  father. 


CRELL 


168 


CREMATION 


ANTE-NICSENE  BUI^S  OF  FAITH, 

CSESD  ASD  THB  2I1CK3IB  CKBKDa 


"'jld! 


«w. 


LvexAV.    (Antioeh.) 

A.D.aoo. 


PAI.)    A.D.au 


S 


CrmtL,   (Jwadi.) 
A.D.  SM. 


CxBBD.    A.D.  aSi  and  181. f 


L  On  Cop  iu    Fa- 


■    Goo  !■•   Fa> 


'  of  God,  the  InuiR* 
1  Md  Iftwi  of  tba 
'  G«dkaMd,  .  .  .  tlM 
WMoBi  aad  Fow«r 
vUeh  ModMM  all 
matkn.  tha  traa 
Soa  of  Intern  Fa- 


ofallthl^i; 

t.  Aad  la  «aa  Lord  Jb> 
Bca  Cbbwt  hh  Son, 
banttaa  of  tba  Fatbar 
bafora  all  a«a,  God 
of  God,  Wlidoa, 
Ufa,  light . . . 


I.  wko  WM  bora  of  a 
VlrRia,  acGordiair  to 
Um  BcriplarM,  aad 


4.  who 


fivaa; 


i.  iBd  toaa  Ibr  at  oa  tha 
third  day ; 


C  and  oaccadad  Into 
h«aTaD,aad  olttath 
o«  tha  rlitbt  hand 
ofGodtbaFathar; 


T.  aad  acain  la  eonlaff 
with  Klofy  and 
pewar,  to  ndga  tha 
qoiekandthadMMl; 


"it 


«.  Ma 

Aa^ 

Goi  tha  F«thar, 
vha  l»  aror  alt 
tUaca  and  throi^th 
aUthi^p,aBd  God 
tha  Bon,  wbo  la 
fhraathallthlaia- 
a  ;offcct  TriBltjT.  pot 
wrldad  aac  dMhifteg 
ta  .glory,  atarsity. 


t.  Aad  In  m  Holt 
Gooar, 
glrao  for  eonaoUtioa 
aad  aaaetiicatiaa 
aad  parfcetloa  to 
thoaa  who  ballara 


Wa  ballara 
1.  la  ova  God  fm  Fac 


llahar  of 

Tiaibla 
Ma; 


Ahnlfhty, 
of  all  tLbn 
I  aad  laTiS- 


f .  Aad  la  OM  Laid  Ji- 

avB  Cbbhr. 
tha  Word  of  God,  Gad 

of  God,  U|riit  of 

Light,  Ufc  of  Life, 
tbaooly-bagottao  Sob, 
tha  flnt-boiB  of  orrary 

craatara, 
bM»ttaa  of  Gad  tha 

Fathar    balara   all 


by  whooi  all  thlap 


8.  who  for  oar  MlTattoa 
waaaiada  flaah  aad 
liTadaaMkBgaiaa} 


4.  aad 


8.  aad  loia  on  Iha  third 
day} 


f .  aad  aaraaJad  to 
Fathar} 


T.  aad  wUl  aooia  agala 
wtthglon,toJ«dta 
tha  qaldC  aad  tha 


B.   Wa  baHara  alao  la 
UoLt  Gi 


Wabdiara 
I.  la  OMB  God  m  Fa- 

niBB  AUoi^ty, 
Mahar  of  haavaa  aad 

aarth,  aad   of  all 

thlaga  Tiaibla  aad 

iBTldbla; 

S.  ABd     ia    OMB     LOBD 

Jncs  Caaiar,  tha 
oalT.baaottaa  Bon 
of  ood,  EagottMi  of 
tha    Fathar   balbra 

Tary  Crad, 

by  whom  aU  tUaffi 


8.  who  waa 


4.  waa  cradflad,  aad 
barlad; 


8.  foaa  oa  tha  thhd  day ; 


Caad  aaeaadad  lato 
hoavaa,  aad  dttath 
oa  tha  right  haad 
of  tba  Fathar; 


T.  aad  will  esaaa  agala 

to  Jkoga  tba  qokh  aad 
tha  daad J  whoaa 
hiagdom  ohall  haTo 
aoaad; 


8.  Aad  la  oaa  Holt 
GaoOT,  tha  Adva- 
eato^ho  apaka  la 


8.  Aad  la 


of  rnaataaca  lor  tha 
rawalMloa 


ofaiaa; 


10.  aad  la  oaa  holy  Catll- 
oUeChozeh; 


11.  aad  la  the 

ttoa  of  tha  flaah ; 


11.  aad  la  Ufa  ararlart- 

lag  (r*^  aUwMrX 


Wa  [I]  baltora 
I.  la  OBB  God  ma  Faibbb  Al 
nighty. 

Mahar  of  htm^m  mmd  •oHk,  mnd 
^all  thiavi  Tiaihto  aad  iaviat- 

t.  Aad  ia  oaa  Lord  Jaaoa  Caaiar, 
tho  ow/y  h*gmm  Bon  of  God, 
higotlan  of  tha  Fathar  War*  «0 

worWt* 
tGod  of  <iod].  Ught  of  Light, 
Tory  God  of  vary  God, 
bagottaa,  aot  aiada, 
babg  of  oao  anbataaea  with  tha 

Fathar  (|«w«WMr  vy  n**^ 
by  whom  all  thlap  wara  mada ; 


S.  who,  for  «a  naa,  aad  for  onr  aal- 

▼BtloD,  caoM  down /ma  Anivta, 

aad  waa  laaaniato  a«  A»  Hhh 

Gkom  mmd  [^,  m]  dU  Virgi* 


aadwi 


>; 


4.  Ha  waa  eracillorf  >br  «•  MMlrr 
ibnii'af  Aiair, 
bmI  aaflinad,  MMf  ««•  Aartfltf  ; 


8.  aad  tha  thltd  day  ha  roaa  agalB, 
aacawKaf  10 IJU  Btrit ' 


8,  aad  aaeaadad  lato  hi 


a^atu,  «tlft 


T.  aad  ha  shall 
•  thaqa! 


to'Jodga  tha  qalck  aad  tha  daad ; 
taMMMfl 


8.  Aad  [I  ballara]  la  nn  Holt 

OnooT, 
lAa  Unl,  mmd  Oimtr^lif; 
WJm  fnettdtlkfromk  tk»  FMm 
[amf  tif  Som,  /iliaya*], 
ado  utitk  (A«  /aOfp  on^  Uu  An 

«Mia4«r  it  wenUpptd  mmd  glori- 


8.  Amd  [f  baUara]  <n  aa«  lafc  CUU 
«/•€  mmd  Ap«iMo  CkmreSj 

10.  wt  Cn  utkmumitigt  «n«  &aa<iM» 

/or  aa  fWafmoitVoiBa  ;  ^ 

11.  oaJ  ««  [I]  hokfar  tk*  rftwrractian 

^fihtdtmdf 


li,  mmd  a*  lift  ^  As  imrU  l« 


la  aiaiiai  la  tha  laat  aolaaai  ara  additiona  of  tha  Saeoad  fgcaaiaBlad  Coaaell  (881);  tha  wocdt  la  hraekala  ara  Waatara  changaa. 


See  Hoefer,  Ncuv,  Biog,  GhiraU,  a.  t.;  Jdcher,  AUge- 
Gekkrlem-LexikoH,  a.  r. 


CreH^VT'oll^ang^  a  German  Pn>te8Uiit  theologian, 
was  profeaaor  of  metaphyaica  and  theology  at  Frankfort- 
OQ-the-Oder.  He  died  July  8, 1664,  leaving,  De  Difi- 
cidtau  CogmMcemda  VtritatU.  See  Hoefer,  jVbiir.  Bioff, 
Ghiraie^  a.  v.;  Jocher,  AUgemeinet  GeUkrUn-Lexikonf 
a.T. 

CraUin,  Hkbbt,  a  Methodiat  Epiaoopal  miniater, 
was  bom  In  Philadelphia,  Pa^  March  19, 1820.  Ue  waa 
comrerted  in  his  twentieth  year;  remoyed  to  Iowa  in 
I8U,  and  in  1856  entered  the  Iowa  Conference,  where- 
in he  labored  until  hia  death,  Jan.  1, 1867.  See  Min- 
fUa  tfAmmai  C<mferaKe$,  1867,  p.  208. 

Crematioii,  the  bnnung  of  human  oorpaea,  waa 


probably  the  general  practice  of  the  ancient  world,  with 
certain  important  exceptiona.  In  Egypt  dead  bodiea 
were  embalmed ;  in  Judaea  they  were  buried  in  aepnl- 
chrea ;  and  in  China  they  were  buried  in  the  earth.  In 
Greece  only  auicidea,  unteethed  children,  and  persona 
atruck  by  lightning  were  denied  the  right  to  be  burned ; 
while  at  Rome,  from  the  doae  of  the  republic  to  the 
end  of  the  4th  century  A.D.,  burning  on  the  p3rre  or 
roffue  waa  the  general  rule.  Even  the  Jewa  uaed  cre- 
mation in  the  vale  of  Tophet  when  a  plague  came ;  and 
the  modem  Jews  of  Berlin  and  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese Jewa  at  Mile-End  cemetery  have  been  among  the 
firat  to  welcome  the  lately  revived  proceaa.  Cremation 
ia  atiU  practiced  over  a  great  part  of  Aaia  and  America, 
but  not  always  in  the  same  form.  Thus,  the  ashes  may 
be  stored  in  uma,  or  buried  in  the  earth,  or  .thrown  to 


CREMATION 


164 


CREMONA 


the  wind,  or  smeared  with  gum  on  the  heads  of  the 
mourners.  In  one  case  the  three  processes  of  embalm- 
ing, baming,  and  burying  are  performed ;  and  in  an- 
other, if  a  member  of  the  tribe  die  at  a  great  distance 
from  home,  some  of  his  money  and  clothes  are  never- 
theless burned  by  the  family.  It  is  claimed  by  some 
that  the  practice  of  cremation  in  modem  Europe  was 
at  first  stopped,  and  has  unoe  been  prevented  in  a 
great  measure,  by  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body ;  partly,  also,  by  the  notion  that 
the  Christianas  body  was  redeemed  and  purified.  The 
very  general  practice  of  burying  bodies  in  the  precincts 
of  a  church  in  order  that  the  dead  might  have  the 
benefit  of  the  prayers  of  persons  resorting  thither,  and 
the  religious  ceremony  which  precedes  both  European 
burials  and  Asiatic  cremations,  have  given  the  sub- 
ject a  religious  aspect.  The  question  is  also  a  sani- 
tary one,  and  has  attracted  very  considerable  attention 
lately. 

For  the  last  ten  years  many  distinguished  physi- 
cians and  chemists  in  Italy  have  warmly  advocated  the 
general  adoption  of  cremation,  and,  in  1874,  a  congress 
called  to  consider  the  matter  at  Milan  resolved  to  peti- 
tion the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  a  clause  in  the  new 
sanitary  code,  permitting  cremation  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  syndics  of  the  commune.  In  Switzerland 
there  are  two  associations  in  support  of  the  cause.  In 
1797  cremation  began  to  be  discussed  by  the  French 
Assembly,  under  the  Directory,  and  the  events  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  have  again  brought  the  subject 
under  notice.  The  military  experiments  at  Sedan, 
Ch&lons,  and  Metz,  of  burying  large  numbers  of  bodies 
with  quicklime,  or  pitch  and  straw,  were  not  success- 
ful, but  very  dangerous.  The  municipality  of  Vienna 
has  formally  made  cremation  permissive.  There  is  a 
propagandist  society,  called  the  Ume^  and  the  main 
difficulty  for  the  poor  seems  to  be  the  cost  of  carrying 
the  bodies  five  miles.  To  overcome  this  a  pneumatic 
tube  has  been  proposed.  Dresden,  Leipsic,  and  Berlin 
are  the  centres  of  the  German  movement.  In  England 
Sir  Henry  Thompson  first  brought  the  question  prom- 
inently before  the  public,  and  in  1874  started  the  cre- 
mation society  of  London.  Its  object  is  to  introduce, 
through  the  agency  of  cemetery  compauiea,  and  paro- 
chial and  municipal  authorities  and  burial-boards,  some 
rapid  process  of  disposing  of  the  dead,  '*  which  cannot 
offend  the  living  and  shall  render  the  remains  absolute- 
ly innocuous."  His  problem  was  this :  *'  Given  a  dead 
body,  to  resolve  it  into  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  am. 
monia,  rapidly,  safely,  and  not  unpleasantly."  Relying 
on  the  facts  connected  with  receiit  burial  l^slation, 
he  pointed  out  that  in  the  neighborhood  of  oeme- 
teries  there  is  a  constantly  increasing  risk  of  contami- 
nated air  and  water.  The  problem  he  solved  by  the  Sie- 
mens process  of  cremation.  The  British  authorities  also 
have  had  to  interfere  in  the  management  of  the  Hindil 
cremations,  so  as  to  reduce  the  cost  and  perfect  the  sani- 
tary arrangements  of  the  process. 

Among  the  practical  methods  of  cremation  which  have 
recently  been  attempted  are  those  of  Dr.  Polli,  at  the  Mi- 
lan gas-works,  and  Prof.  Brunetti  of  Padua.  The  former 
obtained  complete  calcination  of  dogs  in  two  hours,  by 
the  use  of  coal-gas  mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  applied 
to  a  cylindrical  retort  of  refracting  clay,  so  as  to  con- 
sume the  gaseous  products  of  combustion.  The  ashes 
remaining  were  five  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the  material 
before  cremation.  The  latter  used  an  oblong  furnace 
of  refracting  brick,  with  side  doors  to  regulate  the 
draught,  and  above  a  cast-iron  dome,  with  movable 
shutters.  The  body  was  placed  on  a  metallic  plate 
suspended  on  iron  wire.  The  noxious  gases,  which 
were  generated  in  the  first  part  of  the  process,  passed 
through  a  flue  into  a  second  furnace,  and  were  entirely 
consumed.  The  process  required  four  hours.  In  the 
ordinary  Siemens  regenerative  furnace  only  the  hot 
blast  is  used,  the  body  supplying  hydrogen  and  carbon ; 
or  a  stream  of  heated  bydrocarbDn  mixed  with  heated 


air  is  sent  from  a  gasometer  supplied  with  coal,  or  other 
fuel,  the  brick  or  iron  cased  chamber  being  thus  heated 
to  a  high  degree  before  cremation  begins  {Encyd,  Brit, 
9th  ed.  s.  v.).  The  subject  has  also  been  agitated  in 
America,  two  societies  having  been  organized  here  for 
cremation  of  corpses,  and  occasional  instances  bare  oo- 
currcil ;  but  the  ovens  and  other  apparatus  ha\'e  been 
as  yet  but  moderately  patronized. 

The  operation,  as  carried  on  at  one  of  the  best-con- 
structed furnaces,  is  thus  described  by  an  eye  witness: 

"  CremAtTTui  la  erroneously  supposed  to  be  a  boming 
of  the  body.  It  in  not.  No  flftine  whatever  tonchetl  the 
flesh  or  bones  from  the  he<rinuing  to  the  end  of  the  proc- 
ess. It  Is  properly  nnd  strictly  ineinerationf  or  redaction 
of  the  hnmaii  frame  to  aalies ;  an  absorption  of  all  the 
gaseous  elements  carried  on  inside  a  flre-clay  retort,  three 
feet  in  diameter  and  seven  in  length.  As  the  door  of  the 
retort  is  opened  the  f  urushinff  air  cools  it  frdm  white  to 
red  heat,  and  the  whole  interior  is  filled  with  a  beaatifol 
rosy  Wshu  The  body,  decently  clad  as  for  bnrial,  is  Isid 
in  a  cnb,  which  is  covered  wiUi  a  clean  white  sheet  Bottled 
In  alum.  The  crib  is  then  put  Into  the  retort.  The  sheet 
retains  its  original  position  and  conceals  the  form  nntil 
nothing  but  the  bones  are  left— and  these  gently  crumble 
into  dust  The  relatives  then  receive  a  few  ponnds  of 
clean,  pnre  ashes  in  an  nru,  which  can  be  placed  in  any 
cemetery,  public  or  private,  in  a  vault  or  church  niche, 
or  disposed  of  as  personal  caoice  may  dictate." 

This  process  is  certainly  a  great  improvement  upon 
the  rude  and  tedious  operation  of  the  ancient  Bomani 
and  the  modem  Hindfis,  consisting  of  a  roasting  of  the 
corpse  upon  an  immense  pile  of  wood,  filling  the  air 
with  smoke  and  the  noxious  fumes  of  boming  flesh. 
It  is  also  claimed  by  its  advocates  to  be  much  more 
economical  than  ordinary  burial.  Coold  the  prejudice 
naturally  entertained  against  it,  especially  by  Christiana, 
as  a  heathenish  and  barbaric  custom,  be  overcome,  there 
is  no  telling  how  popular  the  practice  might  yet  be- 
come. See  Eassie,  Cremation  of  the  Dead  (Lond.  1875), 
a  valuable  work;  Yegmann  ErcolMnifCremation  the  mott 
Rational  Method  o/Ditposing  of  the  Dead  (Zurich,  1874, 
4th  ed.);  Beelam,  De  le  Cremation  des  Cadamts;  Sir 
Thomas  Browne,  NydrtotaphiOf  or  Um-hurial  (1658); 
Walker,  On  Graveyards  (Lond.  1839) ;  Pietra  Santa,  La 
Crimation  det  Morts  en  France  et  a  Tlttranger ;  Brunetti, 
La  Cremazione  dei  Cadaveri  (Padua,  1873).  See  Bubiau 

CrementinB  (or  Clementius)  ia  the  name  of 
two  eariy  Christians : 

1.  A  sub-deacon  of  Carthage,  in  connection  with 
Cyprian  {Epist,  viti). 

2.  A  canonized  martyr  at  Saragossa,  about  A.D.  304, 
in  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  at  the  time  when  Da- 
cian  was  governor  of  Spain,  having  fought  twice  in  the 
arena,  and  retired  without  staining  it  by  his  blood 
(Prudentius,  Perieteph,  hymn  v,  in  Migne's  Patrol  l(^ 
Ix,  982 ;  Ruinart,  A  da  Sincera  Martyrum,  p.  468 ;  Ccil- 
lier,  iii,  44). — Smith,  Did.  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Cremer,  Bermhard  Skbastian,  a  Reformed  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1688,  taught  theology 
and  antiquities  at  Harderwick,  and  died  Sept  14, 1750. 
In  his  exposition  of  the  Scriptures  he  carried  out  to 
the  utmost  extreme  the  system  of  Cocceius  (q.  v.). 
He  yrrotBy  Prodromue  Typicue  in  V.  et  N.  T.Loca  (Am- 
sterdam, 1720) : —  Prophdico  -  Tjfpicarum  ExercitatiO' 
num  ex  V.  T.  Tdras  (ibid.  1728) :— /«  L^ftm  Nazirteo^ 
rum  (ibid.  1727): — Summa  Theologia  Supematuraiis 
(Harderwick,  im) :— Aniiquitates  MoeaicO'Typica 
(ibid.  1733)  :—De  A  rea  d  Shechina,  Igne  Sacro  et  Oieo 
Undionia  (1737) : — (Ediput  Evangdicut  Saerarum  An- 
ttquitatum  (Amstenlam,  1745).  See  Moser,  Jdsildi. 
theoL  Unparth.  Kirchenhittorie,  iii,  1129 ;  Jdcher,  Ail^ 
Tneines  GeUhrteti-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog,  G^ 
nirak,  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Cremona,  Niccolo  da,  a  reputable  Italian  histor- 
ical painter,  flourished  at  Cremona  about  1518.  In 
Santa  Maria  Maddalena  Monachi,  at  Bologna,  is  a  pict- 
ure by  this  artist,  of  The  Taking  Down  from  the  Cross, 
dated  1518.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hitt.  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
».  V. 

Cremaneaei  lu    See  CALBm. 


CREMONINI 


165 


CRESPET 


CremooixiifGioTASHi  BATTxsTA,an  Italian  paint- 
er, was  bom  at  Cento,  and  flourished  about  IGOO.  His 
hett  works  are  at  Bologna:  The  Astun^ion,  in  Santa 
Maria  Delia  ViU;  The  Amumdatum,  and  the  Death  of 
St.  Frtmcu,  in  San  Francesco.  He  died  in  1610.  See 
Spoooer,  Biog.  HieL  of  the  Fine  Arts,  a,  y, 

Cncltae  Vezvloii  or  thv  Scbipturk8.  This 
langaage,  a  land  of  broken  Dntch,  with  a  rather  Dan- 
ish ortb<^phy,  is  the  language  of  the  black  popula- 
tion of  the  Danish  West  Indies.  The  New  Test,  in  Cre- 
otese  was  printed  in  1781,  by  order  of  the  Danish  gov- 
enmient.  Another  edition  was  printed  at  Copenhagen 
in  1818,  by  the  Danish  Bible  Society.  The  grammar  of 
this  language  has  been  treated  by  De  St.  Quentin,  /n- 
tndncHon  a  rBistoire  de  Cayetme  Grammaire  Crick 
(Paris,  1872).     (R  P.) 

Crephagenfitds,  a  deity  worshipped  at  Thebes,  in 
Egypt,  and  sapposed  to  have  been  the  same  as  Cneph 

Cr^pln  and  Cr^pinien.    See  Cbisfin. 

Creacafl  (or  Blreflkas),  CHASDxy  bkx-Abraham, 
a  Spanish  rabbi,  was  bom  at  Barcelona  about  1340,  and 
died  in  UIO  at  Saragossa.  He  was  the  scion  of  a  no- 
ble family,  and  stood  high  in  reputation  at  the  royal 
court  and  among  the  rabbinical  authorities  of  his  time, 
who  solicited  his  opinion  on  momentous  questions.  In 
1891  he  witnessed  the  fanatical  persecution  of  the  Jews 
io  Spain,  in  which  he  lost  his  son.  He  is  the  author 
of  a  polemical  work,  entitled  "1^K'a,''On  the  Dogmas 
of  Christianity,*'  with  a  refutation  of  the  same,  treating 
of  (1)  original  sin ;  (2)  redemption ;  (3)  incarnation ;  (4) 
riiginity  of  Mjiiy ;  (5)  encharist,  etc.,  written  in  Span- 
ish, and  translated  into  Hebrew  by  Joseph  ibn-Shem- 
Tob.  Another  work  of  his  is  Or  Adanai,  '^Sinx  "I'lK, 
"light  of  the  Lord,**  a  logical  masterpiece  of  the  dog- 
matics of  Judaism,  published  at  Vienna  in  1860.  See 
Filfst,  BibL  Jud.  ii,  209;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario  Storico 
(Gem.  tnnsL),  p.  178,  and  BibL  Judaica  A  ntichfistiana, 
p  24, 29;  Grfit2,  Gesch,  d,  Juden,  viii,  32  sq.,  98  sq.,  410 
sq. ;  Jost,  Ge»ch,  d,  Juden.  v,  a.  Stkten^  iii,  84 ;  Finn,  Se- 
^ariim,  p.  393 ;  Lindo,  Hitiory  of  the  Jtws  in  Spain, 
p.  268;  Fnnkel,  Monatsschrift,  1867,  p.  311  sq. ;  espe- 
cially Joel,  Don  Chcudai  Creika*$  BeliffionsphHoiophitche 
IcAmi  (Breslau,  1866).    (B.P.) 

Crescens  is  the  name  of  several  early  Christians: 

1.  The  disciple  of  St  Paul,  afterwards  bishop  in  Ga- 
latia,  variously  commemorated  on  June  27  or  April  15. 

2.  One  of  the  seven  sons  of  St.  Symphorosa,  martyr 
at  Tiroli  under  Hadrian,  commemorated  July  21  or 
Jone  27. 

3.  Or  Creaoenrius,  martyr  at  Tomi,  commemorated 
Oct.L 

4.  Creaoens,  Paulus,  and  Dioscorides  were  three  boy 
martyrs  of  Rome,  commemorated  May  28. 

5.  Bishop  of  Cirta,  in  Numidia,  now  Constantine. 
Creaoens  is  a  particularly  common  name  on  monuments 
of  Cirta  (8th  Suffrag.  in  Svn.  Carth.  sub.  Cyp.  vii,  A.D. 
256). 

Creacentia  is  the  name  of  two  Christian  sainu : 

1.  A  martyr  in  Sicily  under  Diocletian,  commemo- 
rated June  15. 

2.  A  virgin,  whose  tumulus  was  near  Paris,  in  a  place 
where  a  stone  bean  the  inscription:  '*Hic  Requiescit 
Cresoentia  Sacrata  Deo  Pnella;"  but  nothing  more  is 
known  of  ber.  She  is  commemorated  Aug.  19.  See 
Gregory  of  Tours,  De  Gloria  Confess,  cap.  105,  in 
IGgne's  Patrol  LaU  Ixzi,  904.~Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog,%.v. 

Creacenti&nTUi  is  the  name  of  several  early  saints : 
(1)  Martyr  in  Sardinia,  commemorated  May  31 ;  (2) 
maityr  in  Africa,  commemorated  June  13 ;  (8)  martyr 
in  Campania,  commemorated  July  2 ;  (4)  martyr  at  Au- 
giatana,  commemorated  Aug.  12 ;  (5)  martyr  at  Rome, 
onder  Maxinian,  commemorated  Nov.  24  or  March  16. 


CreMentio  (or  Cresoentliis),  martsrr  at  Rome, 
commemorated  Sept.  17. 

CreioentinB  was  a  controversialist  on  the  subject 
of  the  Easter  celebration  of  the  4th  century  (Epiph. 
Hesres,  70, 9,  in  the  PatroL  Grac.  zlii,  555,  §  821 ;  Ceil- 
Uer,  iii,  105).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v.  See 
also  Crbsckmb  (3) ;  Cbebckntio. 

CreaconitiB  (or  CrlBOonlnB)  is  the  name  of  sev- 
eral  early  Christian  ecclesiastics : 

1.  Bishop  of  Villa  Regia,  in  Xumidia,  at  the  end  of 
the  4th  century.  He  deserted  his  see  and  seized  on  that 
of  Tubia,  or  Tubuna.  The  third  Council  of  Carthage, 
A.D.  397,  passed  a  decree  ordering  his  return  to  his  own 
see  (can.  SiS),  which  he  entirely  disregarded.  The  sec- 
ular arm  was  called  in  with  as  little  effect  At  the  Coun- 
cil of  Carthage,  A.D.  401,  the  primate  of  Numidia  was 
ordered  to  summon  Cresconius  before  the  next  general 
council,  and  to  depose  him  if  he  failed  to  appear  (jCod, 
Canon.  EecL  Afric,  can.  77).  But  no  mention  is  made 
of  him  at  the  Council  of  Milevum,  A.D.  402 ;  and  if  he  is 
the  same  who  appears  as  bishop  of  Tubuna  at  the  Con- 
ference of  Carthage,  in  411  {Prim,  Cognit,  c.  xxi),  he 
must  have  carried  the  day  (Labbe,  ConciL  ii,  1072, 1096, 
1172, 1377;  Tillemont,  xiii,  305). 

2.  A  monk  of  Adrumetum,  mentioned  bv  Augustine 
{Epp.  214, 215). 

3.  An  African  bishop,  who,  about  690,  at  the  request 
of  the  "  pontifex "  Lilierinus  or  Liberius,  published  a 
systematized  collection  of  the  apostolic  canons  and 
those  of  the  early  councils^  and  the  decretals  of  the 
popes  from  Siricius  to  Gelasius,  as  an  improvement 
upon  an  earlier  work  of  the  kind,  by  Fulgentius  Ferran- 
dus.  Both  are  printed  by  Migne,  Patrol,  Ixxxviii.  The 
author  has  often  been  confounded  with  the  Latin  poet. 
Flavins  Cresconius  Corippus. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog.  s.  V. 

Cr^sol,  Louis,  a  French  scholar  of  the  Jesuit  order, 
was  bom  in  1568,  in  the  diocese  of  Tr^guier.  He  taught 
classics,  philosophy,  and  theology  successively ;  was  for 
fifteen  yean  secretary  of  the  general  of  his  order  at 
Rome;  and  died  Nov.  11,  1684.  His  principal  works 
are  Theatrwn  Veterum  Rhetorum  (Paris,  1620):— />e 
Peffecta  Oraioris  Actions  et Pronunciations  (ibid. eod.) : 
— Mystayogus  Ilominum  (ibid.  1629, 1638) : — Anthohgia 
Sacra  (ibid.  1632, 1638).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Gki^ 
rale,  s.  v. 

Crespel,  Emmanuei^  O.  S.  F.,  an  eminent  Roman 
Catholic  missionary,  was  a  native  of  Belgium.  In  1723 
he  left  Avesnes,  in  Hainanlt,  and  arrived  at  Quebec  in 
October,  1724.  Being  ordained  March  17,  1726,^  he 
went  as  chaplain  with  Lignery's  expedition  against  the 
Foxes.  He  was  next  stationed  at  Niagara,  Fort  Fron- 
tenac,  and  Crown  Point,  suffering  greatly  in  his  winter 
service  at  the  last-named  place.  Being  recalled  to 
France,  he  sailed  from  Quebec,  Nov.  8,  1736,  but  was 
shipwrecked  on  the  way,  and  barely  escaped  death.  He 
returned  to  Quebec,  and  was  pastor  at  Soulanges  till 
1738,  when  he  finally  returned  to  Europe.  His  Letters, 
describing  his  perils  in  America,  were  published  in 
French,  at  Frankfort,  in  1742 ;  soon  appeared  in  Ger- 
man, and  an  English  translation  was  issued  in  London 
in  1797.  Dr.  Shea  published  another  version  in  his 
PerUs  of  the  Ocean  and  Wildertiess,  See  Cath,  Alma- 
nac, 1873,  p.  50;  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  JJist,  of  the  Cath, 
Church  in  the  V,  S,  p.  474.' 

Creapet,  Pierrb,  a  French  theologian  of  the  order 
of  Celestines,  was  born  at  Sens  in  1543.  He  was  ele- 
vated to  the  first  positions  of  his  order,  and  was  an  ac- 
tive partisan  in  Church  and  State;  but  finally  withdrew 
from  politics.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  priory  in 
Vivarais,  where  he  died  in  1594.  His  principal  works 
are,  Discours  tur  la  Vie  et  Pcusioti  de  Sainte-Catherine, 
in  verse  (Sens,  1577) : — La  Pomme  de  Grhiade  3fystique 
(Paris,  1586,  1595;  Rouen,  lQOb):—Deux  Litres  de  la 
liaine  de  Satan,  etc.  (Paris,  1590)  :~~Commentair€S  de 


CRESPI 


166 


CRESSWELL 


Bemardin  de  Mendoee  det  Guerrm  dt  FUmdre  et  da 
Patfi'Bas  Qbid.  1591).  See  Hoefer,  How.  Biog,  GM- 
rait,  B.  V. ;  Biog,  UmvendUj  s.  y . 

Crespi  (or  Creipy),  an  Italian  engraver,  practiced 
the  art  about  1706.  There  are  a  few  plates  by  him, 
among  which  is  The  Ducadfrom  the  Crostf  after  Cig- 
nanL    See  Spooner,  Biog.  Bitt,  of  the  Fine  ilrte,  s.  v. 

Creipt  Benedetto  (called  il  BuHino),  a  painter 
of  Como,  floarished  about  the  niiddle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. Some  of  his  works  are  in  the  churches  of  Coma 
See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  o/tke  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Crespi,  Daniele,  a  Milanese  historical  and  por- 
trait painter,  was  bom  in  1690,  and  studied  under  Gio. 
Battista  Crespi,  and  afterwards  under  ProcaocinL  Among 
the  best  works  of  this  artist  are,  The  Descent /rom  the 
CrosSf  and  his  celebrated  set  of  subjects  from  the  life 
of  St.  Bruno,  at  the  Certosa.  He  died  in  1630.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale^  s.  t.  ;  Spooner,  Biog,  BitU 
of  the  Fine  ArtSf  s.  v. 

Crespi,  QioTanni  Battista  (called  il  Cerano), 
an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Cerano,  near  Novara,  in 
1657.  He  visited  Rome  and  Venice,  and  subsequently 
settled  at  Milan,  where  he  was  patronized  by  the  duke- 
cardinal  Federigo.  One  of  his  best  productions  was 
The  Baptism  of  8t,  AgostinOf  in  San  Marco,  at  Milan. 
He  died  in  1688.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginhale, 
s.  V. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  ArtSfB,y, 

Crespi,  QloTaxmi  (orGiTiseppe)Marla  (called 
il  Spagmtohf  from  the  finery  of  his  dress),  a  Bolognese 
painter,  was  bom  in  1665,  and  studied  under  Canuti 
and  Cignani.  He  executed  a  number  of  iforks  for  the 
churches  of  Bologna,  among  which  are  The  Last  Sup^ 
per  ;  The  A  maascialion ;  The  Temptation  of  St,  Anthony  ; 
8L  John  Preaching,'  and  The  Crucifixion,  He  died  in 
1747.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ghirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  b,  v. 

Crespi, Qiovanni  Pietro  (called  also  de  Castoldi), 
a  reputable  Italian  painter,  flourished  about  1685,  at 
Milan,  and  left  some  specimens  of  his  genius  in  the 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  de  Busto.  See  Spooner,  Biog, 
Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Crespo,  Francisco,  a  Spanish  Benedictine,  who 
died  Sept.  25, 1665,  in  his  eighty-second  year,  was  ab- 
bot of  Montferrat,  general  visitor  of  his  congregation, 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Salamanca,  and  wrote,  Tri- 
Irnnal  Thomisticum  de  ImmacukU<e  Diepara  Conceptu 
(Barcelona,  1667).  See  Hoefer,  JVbtrr.  Biog,  Ginirale, 
8.  V. ;  Jocher,  AUgemdnes  Gekhrten-Lexihon,  s.  v. 

Cressell,  Edward,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister,  was  bom  at  Hackney,  April  4,  1830.  In  April, 
1868,  he  was  received  as  an  agent  of  the  London  City 
Mission ;  subsequently  labored  in  the  Leadenhall  Street 
and  Holbom  Hill  dbtricts  for  over  eleven  years ;  was 
some  time  evangelist  of  Claremont  Chapel,  which  led  to 
his  entrance  into  the  ministry.  He  was  pastor  at  Hough- 
ton, in  Hants,  for  five  years;  next  at  Hatton,  Norfolk, 
from  1875  until  hU  death,  Nov.  21,  1880.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1881,  p.  866. 

Cresselle  (Fr.  for  raUle)  is  a  wooden  instrument 
used  instead  of  bells  in  some  places,  to  summon  the  peo- 
ple to  service  during  Passion  week.  It  is  supposed  to 
represent  Christ  praying  upon  the  cross,  and  inviting 
all  to  embrace  his  doctrine.  Similar  instruments  are 
in  use  among  the  Turks,  in  consequence  of  their  strong 
prejudice  against  the  sound  of  bells.    See  Clapper. 

Cresset  is  an  oil-lamp  in  which  the  wick  floats 
about  upon  a  small  circle  of  cork.  Anciently,  English 
churches  were  often  lighted  by  this  sort  of 'lamp,  and 
the  side-chapels  of  cathedrals  were  likewise  so  illumi- 
nated. 

Cressett,  Edward,  an  English  prelate,  became 
dean  of  Hereford  in  1786,  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Llandaff  Feb.  12, 1749,  and  died  Feb.  13,  1755.    He 


pnUiahed  some  single  Sermons,    See  Le  Neve,  Fasti; 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uihors,  s.  v. 

Cressey,  B.  H.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopsl  der- 
gyman,  was  rector,  for  many  years,  in  Auburn,  N.  Y., 
but  removed  in  1869  to  Castleton.  In  1860  he  took 
charge  of  St  Paul's^  Stapleton;  in  1862  removed  to 
Newbnrg,  as  rector  of  two  churches  in  that  vicinity;  in 
1864  was  assistant  minister  of  the  Church  of  the  Annun- 
ciation, New  York  city ;  and  the  following  year  becsme 
pastor  of  Trinity  Church,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  where  be  died, 
Sept.  20, 1866.    See  Frot,  Episc  Almanac,  1867,  p.  101. 

Cressey,  B.  ^7.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  at 
Sharon,  Vt.,  July,  1808.  He  was  converted  in  his  nine- 
teenth year,  and  after  obtaining  what  education  be 
could,  was  ordained  as  an  evangelist  at  Garland,  Me., 
in  November,  1837.  He  preached  at  SangervUk  iu 
1838  and  1839;  in  1841  became  pastor  in  Vassslbor- 
ough ;  in  1850  was  located  at  Wabash,  Ind. ;  in  1852  or- 
ganised a  Church  at  Rolling  Stone,  near  Winona,  Minn.; 
in  1868  at  Minneapolis;  in  1864  at  PKsoott,  Wis. ;  snd 
afterwards,  at  churches  in  Hastings,  Pine  Island,  and 
Roscoe,  in  Minn.  In  1 865  he  became  pastor  at  Eicbfield. 
The  last  ten  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  Minneapolis, 
where  he  died,  Sept.  15,  1888.  See  Millet,  Hist,  of  the 
Baptists  of  Maine  i  Chicago  Standard,  Oct  18, 1883. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Cressey,  Gtoorge  'Washington,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  Rowley,  Mass.,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1818.  He  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1835, 
and  from  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1838 ; 
was  ordained  in  1840  at  Kennebunk,  Me.,  where  he  re- 
mained nearly  twelve  years ;  and  was  stated  supply  at 
Buxton  Centre,  until  his  death,  Feb.  12,  1867.  See 
Hist,  of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  478.     (J.  C  S.) 

Cressey,  Hagh.    See  Cressy. 

Cressey,  Isaac,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  at 
Fairfax,  Vt,  Dec  22, 1807.  He  was  converted  early, 
and  in  1841  engaged  in  preaching  at  Keene,  N.  H.;  in 
1846  was  ordained  in  Berkshire,  Vt ;  subsequently  la- 
bored at  Sanbomton,  N.  H.,  Johnson  and  Wateiban', 
Vt. ;  and  died  in  the  last  -  named  place,  Aug.  3,  1855. 
See  Watchman  and  Reftector,  Aug.  16, 1855.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Cressey,  Timothy  Robinson,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Pomfret,  Conn.,  Sept.  18, 1800.  H« 
graduated  from  Amherst  College  in  1828 ;  studied  the- 
ology two  years  (1828-30)  at  the  Newton  Theological 
Institution ;  was  ordained  June  5, 1830 ;  served  as  pastor 
in  Columbus,  O.,  from  1834  to  1842 ;  was  agent  of  the 
American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  from  1843  to  1816; 
pastor  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  from  1846  to  1852 ;  at  St. 
Paul,  Minn.,  from  1852  to  1864 ;  missionary  of  the  Amer- 
ican Baptist  Home  Mission  Society;  pastor  at  Hast- 
ings, Minn.;  chaplain  of  a  regiment  of  United  States 
volunteers  from  1861  to  1863:  pastor  at  Kendalville, 
Ind.,  from  1864  to  1866;  at  Indianola,  la.,  from  1868  to 
1870 ;  and  died  at  Des  Moines,  Aug.  80, 1870.    (J.  C  S.) 

Cresson,  Sarah,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  orthodox,  was  bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in 
1771 :  began  to  preach  at  the  age  of  nineteen ;  removed 
to  Haddonfield,  N.  J.,  in  1807 ;  and  died  at  Woodburr, 
Sept.  23, 1829.  See  Memorials,  etc,  for  Pennsglvama, 
1879,  p.  197. 

Cress^firell,  Daniel,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
mathematician,  was  bom  in  1776 ;  t>ecame  a  fellow  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  was  proctor  of  the  uni- 
versity in  1813,  and  tutor  in  1814.  He  died  in  1844. 
His  publications  include  several  mathematical  works, 
and  Sermons  on  Domestic  Duties  (1829).  See  Allibone, 
/>tcf«  of  BriL  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cress^Krell,  Henry,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Wallingford,  Berks,  Dec  18, 1804. 
He  was  educated  at  Hoxton  Academy  and  at  High- 
bur}' ;  in  1828,  on  leaving  college,  he  became  pastor  at 
Ipswich,  where  he  remained  three  years ;  then  at  Guild- 


CRESSY  H 

Tun  Sbttl,  Cantdtniy,  fin  Arc  jraai^  u  c&-p«tor,  and 
iftcmidt  ID  »!■  charge,  itntit  bia  death,  Dec  1, 1879. 
See  (laid.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1889,  p.  £91. 

CivMTi  CouKcn.  or  (CotteUvm  OnilMicn),  wat 
IkeU  in  evKiiaea,  A.D.  676,  ot  at  Antan,  A.D.  670,  tbe 
canon  bang  beaded  with  tbe  name  of  L  ' 
tMopof  Aonm:  pMtedwTcnlcanona,bat,i 
o^  one  cuctinK,  oo  pain  of  epiim^ul  aHiaenmanoi], 
fnn  evcfy  prieat,  deacon,  wb-deaoon,  or  "  clericiu,"  a»- 
Mst  w  the  "  lt*bii"f"-"  faith."— Smilh,  Did.  of  CkriiL 

Cnamj,  Charles,  a  Hethodiu  Epiacopal  minister, 
wai  bgni  at  Coiiath,  He  JdIt  7, 1S4I.  He  wu  edu- 
eucd  «  ibe  East  Maine  Conference  Seminar; ;  epent 
aereni  yeuB  io  teaching ;  enteml  the  Upper  Iowa  Con- 
(tKDce  in  1870,  and  continued  in  the  active  worii  until 
bildalh,it  Hampton,  Dec.  21,1881.  See  if  mat M  ^ 
Ammal  Cofftroiat,  1882,  p.  814. 

Cnaay  (or  CreBcej),  .SirHoch  Panlln,  a  Boman 
Cilbolic  dergjtDan,  waa  bom  at  Wakefield,  Yorluhire, 
Etfiand,  in  1605.  He  was  educated  it  the  free  giam- 
siar-achaol  of  bia  natire  town,  and  iC  Herton  College, 
OiTi^;  in  16SS  was  elected  a  fellow  of  hii  college; 
nbiRiDentiT  look  holy  orden  uid  became  chaplain  to 
Tboma^  lord  Wentworth,  and  aftenfards  to  Ladiu, 
lord  Falkland,  who  promoted  him  to  the  deanery  of 
lughlin.and  i  canonnr  of  Windsor.  He  tniTelled  in 
Italy,  and  in  164S,while  at  Rome,  embraced  the  Ttoman 
Catholic  faith.  He  mided  for  aeren  or  more  years 
in  the  college  of  Douay,  where  be  changed  his  name 
10  Straaa  de  Crrttrji.  Alter  the  Rentoration  he  came 
Is  England,  and  became  chaplain  to  the  queen.  Short- 
ly before  his  deatb,  which  took  place  in  IB74,  he  le- 
tiied  to  GrinMead,  in  Sunex.  He  published,  Narra- 
Hit  of  lie  Camanm  mto  Cailtelie  Utaly  of  Bvgh 
PoaliB  (PawiM,  1647,  ua.  8to;  1668,  Sro;  (be  last  ed. 
ecBluna  an  answer  to  J.  P.,  antbor  of  the  preface  to 
lord  FaUdand'a  work  on  infidelity) :  — fomta  Sophia 
(DensT,  1657,  2  vols.  8vo)  —R.  C.  Dodrina  tto  Novtt- 
Ha  {leeS, S^ :— Ciurck  HiH.  of  SnUang  (lB6S,rol.; 
completed  only  to  abont  1360>  Set  Clunk  of  England 
JfoyonK,  Sfanb,  184G,  p.  16! ;  AUibone,  Did.  of  BriL 
iaidAmer.AiiAari,*.T.i  ^atkr, Kouc. Hiog. Giniralr, 

Crest  (L^L  critla),  the  ornamental  finiabing  which 


Dopy,  Oi 


portion  ofa  building,  whether  a  battlement,  open  carved 
work,  «  other  enrichment:  a  row  of  Tudor-ilowers  is 
▼err  often  lued  in  late  Perpendicular  work.  The  name 
is  lometiaiea  applied  to  tbe  top  stone*  oo  the  parapet 
and  other  Bimilar  parts  of  a  Gothic  building,  ususlly 
called  the  capping  or  ca[nng.  The  finials  of  gables 
and  pinnacles  are  also  sometimes  called  crestji  Crtit- 
Hla  were  oIIfd  mode  with  a  row  of  oraamenla,  re- 
sembling email  battlemenu  or  Tudor-flowen,  on  the 
lop,  and  glazed,  and  still  are  »  occasionally,  but  in  gen- 
eral they  are  quite  plain.  Frequently  these  omamenta 
we»  formed  in  lead  when  theriilge  of  the  niof  was  cov- 
eted with  that  maurial,  as  at  Exeter  CalheilraL— Park- 
er, Gha.  of  A  reJiilfcl.  s. 


fotmding  eatablishments  of  pabUc  ntility,  the  prindpal 
of  which  are,  a  hospital  at  Barenton,  a  house  of  hoa> 
pitaUe  monks  in  the  same  place,  a  nmilar  bouse  at  Tl- 
moutiers,  an  H&lal-Dien  at  Bemay,  and  a  semioaty  at 
Domfiont.  He  died  at  Barenton,  Feb.  2B,  1706.  Sea 
Uoefer,.VoiR>.£i($.CMra&,  a,v.;  Biog.  Cnmriee,a.v. 

CrestL    See  PjtMioitAiiOL 

Cratl,I>oiiATo,an  Iialianpaiiiler,wasbom«t Ct«-  . 
mona  in  1671,  and  studied  under  Pasmelli  at  Bolc^na, 
whei«  he  resided,  and  painted  a  number  of  pictures  for 
the  churches  there,  tbe  best  of  which  is  Tit  A  doratbnt 
of  Ike  Magi,  in  the  Uendicand.  He  died  at  Bologna 
inl749.  »eaUoefer,A'oiRi.Au9.CMmfe,s.T.;S{KMi&> 
er.  Bios.  ^*^  "/ '*<  ' «•  Am,i.v. 

Cretin,  JosEFH,  a  Boman  Catholic  bishop,  waa  bom 
at  Lyons,  France,  In  1800.  He  came  with  bishop  L(^ 
ras  to  Anwrica,  and  ancceeded  Petiot  antong  the  Win- 
nebagocs,  where  he  built  a  church  and  school,  which 
failed  in  competition  with  the  state  schools  in  1848. 
On  Jin.  36, 1857,  be  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  St. 
Paul,  Hinn.  After  great  eierttoni  for  the  promotion 
of  tbe  interest!  of  his  diocne,  bishop  Cretin  was  atmck 
down  with  apoplexy,  Feb.  22  following.  See  Dc  Coatcy 
and  Shea,  Hilt,  of  ike  CatK  Ckurd,  U  lit  U.  3.  p.  641. 

CrMluMin-Joly,  Jaoquks,  a  French  historian,  wa* 
bom  Sept.  28,  1808,  it  Fonteosy,  in  Tend^  and  was 
educated  at  Paris,  at  the  aeminaTy  of  St  Sulpice,  When 
nineteen  years  of  age  he  was  appointed  professor  ot 
philosophy,  but,  before  enleiing  upon  his  duties,  he 
Irsvelled  in  Italy  and  Germany.  He  died  Jan.  8, 1879. 
Ho  edited  several  poll tico-religioua  Journals,  and  is  the 
author  of  Hiitoire  de  la  Compagme  de  Jitut  (Paris,  1844- 
4S,  6  vols.;  3d  ed.  1851) :— ClflnenI  XIV  A  la  JimiUt 
(ibid.  1847)  :—L'Eslite  Somairu  en  Face  de  Bicvlutitm 
(Lhid;  1862, 2  vola,)  -.—Le  Canbial  Canialei  (ibid.  1864, 
2  vols.)  -^BoHoparU,  le  Concordat  dt  1801  rl  le  Cardi- 
nal Conialci  (ibid.  1869).  See  Hoefer,  JVotitr.  Biog.  Gi- 
■iroi^B-v.     (RP.) 

Crentslger  (Lat.  Cnieiger),  Caapar,  a  German 
Protestant  tbeoli^ian,  son  of  another  i>f  tbe  same  name, 
WBsbom  at Witlenbeig.Harch  19,1535.  Having  been 
expelled  from  his  professorship  there  because  be  had 
embraced  the  doctrines  of  Calvin,  he  was  called  aa 
preacher  to  Cassel,  where  be  died,  April  16,  IG97,  ittr- 
iagDeJuilificalioneelJioiiiiOpeTibki,uii  some  polem- 
ical works.  See  Hoefer,  A'oue.  Biog.  GiiUrale,a.-v.; 
Jiiebet,  Allgemeint4  Grleliritii-Lnitott,».  v, 

CreutxiBer,  Felix,  a  Polish  nformer  of  the  mi 


Crevtay,  PiKnBe,B  Fiencb  philanlhmpist,  was  bar 
at  Tran,  near  Argentan,  Nov.  IT,  1622.  He  was  rectd 
of  Barenton,  and  diatinguiihcd  himself  by  his  seal  i 


.11  tie  I 


and  influential  in 
l)ahemianiinthatcoan> 
Wroro  in  that  movemenL 


cal  congregation  <> 

trv,«peciBl1veiiliati 
See  Sanik: 

Crentstger,  Qeorg,  was  bom  at  Herseburg,  Sept 
24,lS7i;  etudied  it  Leipsic  and  Wittenberg;  became 
professor  and  doctor  of  theology  at  Slarburg ;  and  died 
July  8,  1687,  leaving  Harmonia  Qualuor  Litiguanim 
Carditaluiiii.     See  Jocher,  AUgemeinet  Grtrhtieit-Lexi- 

Cravey,  Thohab,  a  Scotch  clerKyraan,  was  bom 
at01dAberdeen,Sept8,1644;  took  hl«  degree  at  King's 
College  there  in  1663;  waa  presented  tu  the  living  at 
Sewhills  in  1G79-,  became  synod-clerk;  protested 
■gainst  the  aHcmbly's  committee  for  the  north  in  1694 ; 
was  rteprival  for  adultery  in  1696,  and  went  to  Ireland. 
See  Fatii  Kcda.  Scolieana,  iii,  607. 

Crewe,  Nathanikl,  L1.D,,  an  English  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Stean,  Kortbampton,  Jan.  81.  1683,  and  in 
1653  admitted  commoner  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxfbrd, 
where  he  was  choHtu  fellow  in  1656-66.  He  entered 
into  holy  orders  July  2,  1664,  and.  April  29, 1669,  was 
installed  dein  of  Chichester:  in  1671  was  elected  biihop 
of  Oxford,  and  conwcnted  July  3;  was  translated  to 
Durham,  Ucl.  32,  1674;  in  ISSfi'was  appmnted  ODa  (/ 


CREWENNA 


168 


CRINESIUS 


the  oomminionen  in  the  new  eodenasdcal  oommisiion 
erected  by  king  James,  and  held  several  other  impor- 
tant  offices  daring  his  Ufe.  He  was  a  very  great  bene- 
factor to  Lincoln  College,  of  which  he  had  been  fellow 
and  rector.  He  died  Sept.  18, 1721.  See  Chalmers, 
Biog, Diet. s. y. ;  Allibbne, DicUofBrit. and Amer, A u- 
tkor§f  s.  Y. 

Crewenna,  an  Irish  9amt,iB  said  to  have  been  one 
of  the  companions  of  St.  Breaca  from  Ireland  to  Corn- 
wall in  the  6th  century,  bat  the  hagiologies  of  this  pe- 
riod are  very  uncertain. 

CrewB,  Hooper,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  near  Pruetts  Knob,  Barren  County,  Ky., 
April  17, 1807.  He  was  converted  in  1824,  licensed  to 
preach  in  1828,  and  joined  the  Kentucky  Conference  in 
1829.  Alter  five  years  he  was  transferred  to  the  Illinois 
Conference,  in  which  he  served  Springfield,Danville  Dis- 
trict, and  Galena.  In  1840  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Bock  River  Conference,  in  which  his  appointments  were 
as  follows:  Chicago,  Chicago  District;  Mount  Morris 
District;  Chicago  District;  agent  for  Bock  Biver  Sem- 
inary, Galena;  Chirk  Street,  Chicago;  First  Church, 
Bockfoid;  Bockfonl  District ;  Joliet;  Chicago  District ; 
Indiana  Avenue,  Chicago;  Embury  Chnrch,  Freeport; 
Batavia ;  First  Church,  Rockford,  and  Oregon,  111., 
where  he  died,  Dec  21, 1880.  Dr.  Crews  was  a  dele- 
gate to  four  general  conferences.  During  the  year  1862 
be  was  chaplain  of  the  100th  Illinois  regiment.  He 
was  sound  in  theology,  logical  in  methods,  and  preached 
with  power.     See  Minutu  of  Annual  Con/trenceSf  1881. 

CreygfaloxL    See  Crkighlon. 

Crlohton  (occauonally  written  Creichtoan),  the 
iamily  name  of  several  Scotch  deigj'men  and  prelates: 

1.  David,  LL.D.,  was  teacher  in  a  school  at  Anstro- 
ther  Easter;  then  English  master  at  the  Madras  Col- 
lege, Sl  Andrews;  licensed  to  preach  in  1833;  appoint- 
ed to  the  chapel  of  ease,  Inverbrothock,  in  1838 ;  Joined 
the  Free  Secession  in  1843 ;  and  had  a  son,  Andrew, 
minister  of  the  Free  New  North  Church,  Edinburgh. 
See  Fasti  Ecda,  Scoticana^  iii,  809. 

2.  Geokoe,  was  made  bishop  of  Dunkeld  in  1527, 
alK>  keeper  of  the  privy -seal,  and  diol  Jan.  24, 1543. 
He  was  not  much  skilled  in  matters  of  religion.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  94. 

3.  James  (1),  D.D.,  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity in  1655;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Kil- 
bride in  1663;  deprived  at  the  Bevolution;  was  dean 
of  the  faculty  of  Glasgow  University  from  1679  to  1689, 
and  died  in  April,  1692,  aged  about  fifty-seven  years. 
See  Fasti  Eedes.  ScoHcanet,  ii,  290. 

4.  James  (2),  D.D.,  studied  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity; was  licensed  to  preach  in  1798;  presented  to  the 
living  at  Wamphray  in  1799;  ordained  in  1800;  trans- 
ferred to  Holywood  in  1805,  and  died  July  26, 1820. 
See  Fasti  Eccles,So0tieamB,i,68A,eOd. 

5.  John,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1619 ;  was  csJled  as  colleague  to  the  living 
at  Aberoom  in  1622 ;  transferred  to  Campsie  in  1623 ; 
to  Paisley  in  1629 ;  was  deposed  in  1688  for  Armioian- 
ism,  etc. ;  petitioned  the  presbytery  in  1649  to  be  re- 
stoied,  he  being  a  chaplain  in  the  army.  He  was  af- 
terwards stationed  at  Dublin.  See  Fasti  Eodes,  ScO' 
ficoiye,  1,164;  ii,53,196. 

6.  Joseph,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1776 ;  presented 
to  the  living  at  Carstairs  in  1785,  and  ordaincil  in  1786 ; 
transferred  to  Ceres  in  1793,  and  died  Feb.  15, 1849,  aged 
ninety-five  years.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  i,  164; 
ii,  819, 478. 

7.  Patrick  (1),  was  bom  at  Nanchton ;  took  his  de- 
gree at  Edinburgh  University  in  1600;  was  presented 
to  the  vicange  of  Forgand  in  1606,  but  changed  it  for 
that  of  Ruthven  in  1609;  and  continued  in  1644.  See 
Fasti  Eedes,  Scoticana,  iii,  759. 

8.  Patrick  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1758 ;  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Glendevon  in  1765,  but  was 
kept  in  suspenae  and  refused  admission  to  the  charge 


till  1770.  The  presbytery  denied  him  ordinatioo  in 
1771,  and  he  resigned'in  1774.  See  Fasti  Eoekt.  8ah 
tuxauB,  ii,  768. 

9.  BoBBKT  (1),  nephew  of  bishop  George  Grichtoo, 
was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Dunkeld  in  1550,  where  he 
continued  until  put  out  by  the  reformers,  at  lesst  ss 
late  as  Dec.  22, 1561.  He  is  said  to  have  been  appoint- 
ed a  commissioner  for  divorcing  the  eari  of  Bothwell 
from  lady  Jane  Gordon.  See  Keith,  Scottish  BtiAopi, 
p.  96. 

10.  BoBERT  (2),  took  his  degree  at  the  University 
of  St.  Andrews  in  1625;  was  admitted  to  the  living  st 
Essie-with-Nevay  before  1687,  and  died  before  Aug.  1, 
1665,  aged  about  sixty  years.  See  FasH  Eodtt,  Scots- 
oeiiuB,  iii,  747. 

XI.  WiujAM,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity  in  1649 ;  was  called  to  the  living  at  Bathgate 
in  1654,  and  ordained ;  his  ministry  was  inhibited  in 
1655,  and  he  was  removed  by  the  synod  in  1660 ;  wss 
indulged  by  the  privy  council  in  1672,  but  refused; 
returned  in  1687,  and  opened  a  meeting-house  snd 
formed  a  presbytery;  was  a  member  of  the  assembly 
in  1690;  elected  moderator  in  1692;  transferred  to  Fsl- 
kirk  the  same  year;  promoted  to  Tron  Church,  Edin- 
burgh, in  1695 ;  again  elected  moderator  ^n  1697 ;  re- 
signed in  1707,  and  died  Nov.  27, 1708,  aged  seventy- 
seven  years.    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  i,  56, 167, 186. 

Crlokett;  Jantea,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  London  in  1789.  He  became  a  wealthy 
merchant,  and  on  retiring  was  ordained  at  Bamsbuijf 
Wiltshire;  afterwards  removed  to  Adderbury,  Oxford- 
shire, where  he  preached  many  years  gratuitously.  He 
died  at  Portland  Isle,  in  February,  1863.  See  (Load.) 
CoHff,  Year-book,  1865,  p.  282. 

Cilckett,  John,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
commenced  his  ministry  in  1780;  preached  in  England 
and  Ireland  for  twenty-six  years,  became  a  superan- 
merary  in  1805,  and  died  Dec  11, 1806.  See  MimUet 
of  the  BrUish  Conference,  1807;  Smith,  Bisi,  of  WesL 
ifefA.ii,444,445. 

Crida,  an  obscure  Welsh  saint,  was  probably  one  of 
the  devotees  who  settled  in  Cornwall,  but  others  think 
the  name  merely  a  corruption  of  Credanus  (q.  v.). 

Crigler,  A.  I.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  son  of  Rev. 
John  J.  Crigler,  was  born  in  Balls  County,  Mo.,  March 
24, 1840.  In  1871  he  graduated  from  Wittenburg  Col- 
lege, 0.,and  subsequently  from  Wittenburg  Theologiesl 
Seminary;  was  licensed  by  the  Miami  Synod,  and  for 
two  years  served  as  a  home  missionary  in  Iowa;  for 
several  succeeding  years  he  preached  at  KnoxviUe,Is.; 
afterwards  removed  to  Colorado,  but  soon  returned  U> 
Knoxville ;  again  went  to  Colorado,  and  then  to  Mis- 
souri, and  died  at  Millard,  Jan.  16, 1880.  See  Lutheran 
Observer,  Feb.  18, 1880. 

Crigler,  John  Jefferaon,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
was  bom  in  Madison  County,  Vs.,  March  1, 1811,  and 
spent  his  childhood  in  Boone  County,  Ky.  At  forty- 
five  years  of  age  he  began  the  study  of  theology  under 
Bev.  D.  Harbaugh  and  professor  J.  Y.  Harris;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  May  19, 1856,  by  the  synod  of  Ken- 
tuck,v,  and  served  as  pastor  in  Dearborn  County,  Ind. ; 
in  1858  removed  to  Sullivan  County,  Bio.,  and  labored 
there  ten  years  in  missionary  work;  was  pastor,  in 
1874,  of  Johnston's  Grove  Church,  in  Stoiy  Co.,  la.,  be- 
sides acting  as  missionary  to  neighboring  congrega- 
tions. He  died  at  Knoxville,  Marion  Co.,  March  11, 
1877.     See  Lutheran  Observer,  March  80, 1877. 

CrineBiiu^  Christoph,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  in  1584  at  Schlackenwald,  in  Bohe- 
mia, was  at  first  court-preacher  at  Gschwcnd  and  Grab^ 
on  the  borders  of  Styria,  then  deacon  and  professor  of 
theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Altdorf,  and  died 
Aug.  28, 1629,  leaving  Lexicon  Syriaatm: — EaDerdta" 
tiones  Hebraica  Quinque:—l>e  Fide  Catholica  Petri  :^ 
Gymmtsium  Syriacumc—Epistola  ad  Bomanas  ei  Tiium 


CRINin  FRATRES 


160 


CRISP 


8fri(ua:^Amiifni  Noe,  TeakmmU  :^LmgMa  8ama- 
ritema.'—Gfmmmam  CkaUaiaim: — Lexicon  Chaldai' 
eitm:-'IkOmJh»kmLmguarum,tU,  See  Steinschnci- 
der,  J9Attyr.  HmAuekj  a.  y.;  Jficher,  AUgemtmea  Ge- 
lekrim-Uiihim^  a.  t.  ;  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog.  GMraky  %  y. 

(^^') 

CUoitl  Fratres  (^long'kmrtd  hmikrtn')  wis  a 
Dime  under  which  Angustine  cenaores  the  MeeopoU- 
oiao  mookfl  for  wearing  long  hair,  against  the  nde  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

CrinsOB  (de  Bionens),  Theodore,  a  Swiss  Prot- 
eitint  theologian,  was  bom  in  1690,  at  Kyon,  near  Gene- 
ra. He  had  ondertaken  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible, 
bat  the  clergy  of  Geneya,  wishing,  without  doubt,  to  be 
revenged  upon  him  because  he  had  refused  to  sign  the 
Fonnuia  of  Conoonl,  would  not  permit  him  to  publish  it. 
He  died  sbont  1750,  leaving  Jioft,  Traduii  en  Frcmfaie 
(Botterdam,  1729)  i—Let  Peaumet,  TradtnU  en  Fran- 
fotf  (Iroenlan,  cod.) : — E$$ai  tur  PApocaUfpte  (eod.), 
and  some  polemical  worka.  See  Hoefer,  iVbiir.  Biog, 
Ghirak,a»Y, 

Ciiiie,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  deigyroan,  bom  at 
Kewabbey  in  175^  waa  a  cattle-herd,  but  fond  of  read- 
ing, and  largely  aelf- taught;  became  master  of  the 
gnmmar-school  at  Wigton  in  1777;  was  promoted  to 
the  rectorship  of  the  high -school  at  Leith'  in  1787, 
where  he  introduced  the  monitorial  system;  licensed 
to  presch  in  1791 ;  became  a  master  in  the  high-school 
at  Edinburgh  in  1795;  presented  to  the  living  at  Dal- 
ton  in  1801,  and  died  Jan.  5, 1835.  He  was  noaster  of 
sercnl  Continental  languages,  a  Fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Scottish  Antiquaries  in  1795,  and  filled  their  office  of 
Latin  secretary  from  1799  to  1815.  He  publ'ished,  Sketck- 
a  m  Vent  De»criplm  ofSoenea  Chiefy  in  the  HiffhlawU 
(18a8>    SeBFastiEcclet.ScoticttneB,ifB^ 

CxiKMiolo,  Giovaiml  Andrea  (or  Angelo), 

an  Italian  painter,  the  younger  brother  of  Giovanni 
Filippo,was  instrocted  in  the  school  of  Marco  da  Siena. 
He  painted  a  number  of  worka  for  the  Neapolitan 
ehnichea,  among  which  are  The  SUtmng  of  Stephen,  in 
San  Stefano ;  and  the  picture  of  the  Virgin  and  Infant, 
v«(A  5/.  Jertme,  dated  1572.  He  died  about  1580.  See 
Spoooer,  Biog.  BisL  of  the  Fine  Arts,  a.  y. 

Crlicmolo,  GMovaiml  Fillppo,  an  Italian  paint- 
er, was  bom  at  Gaeta  about  1495,  and  atndied  under 
Andrea  da  Salerno.  He  painted  a  number  of  fine  worka 
for  the  chmches  of  Naplea,  particularly  an  altar-piece 
in  Santa  Haria  della  Grazie,  representing  the  Virgin  and 
Infant  in  the  Claude,  with  SainU  below ;  and  the  A  da- 
ration  of  the  Magi,  in  Santa  Haria  del  Rosario.  He 
died  at  Naples  in  1584.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  HisL  of  the 
Fwe^rtr,  a.y. 

Cristoas,  a  Scotch  saint  mentioned  in  the  legend 
of  St.  Andrews  as  a  companion  of  St.  Regulus  (q.  v.). 

Cxismond,  Jons  M.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  and  reared  in  Bal- 
timore, Md.  He  waa  converted  in  youth,  and  in  1836, 
Tcnwving  to  Abingdon,  Va.,  waa  licenaed  to  preach,  and 
io  1837  entered  the  Holston  Conference,  continuing  to 
labor  with  zeal  and  fidelity  until  his  death,  April  27, 
1B75.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confsrencet  of  the  M.  E. 
GkMreh  South,  1875,  p.  155. 

Crisp,  Alfred,  an  English  Congregational  minis* 
to,  was  bom  at  Leeds,  Oct.  2, 1809.  He  was  converted 
IB  early  manhood,  ordained  to  the  mintatry  in  London 
in  1850,  and  continued  to  labor  at  home  and  in  the  aur- 
mmding  yiUages  until  1853,  when  he  became  paator  at 
AlfretoD,  Derbyshire.  He  removed,  in  1857,  to  the 
Channel  Islandia,  first  to  Jeney,and  afterwards  to  Guem- 
ley,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  April  24»  1867. 
See  (Load.)  Cong.  Tear-hook,  1868,  p.  265. 

Cxlqp^  XSdmiiiid,  an  Engliah  Congregational  min- 
iver, was  bom  at  Hertford,  June  26,  1796,  of  pioua 
NoocoBformist  parents.    In  1816  he  entered  the  Mia- 


aionaiy  College  at  Goeport;  in  1821  waa  ordained  at 
Hertford  and  aet  aail  for  Madraa,  India,  where  he  la- 
bored aeyen  yeara,  and  then,  removing  to  Combaoonom, 
toikd  aeven  years  longer,  until  his  health  failed  and 
he  returned  to  England.  In  1840  he  again  sailed  for 
India,  and  became  tutor  at  the  college  for  training  na- 
tiye  pastors,  at  Bangalore.  In  1848  Mr.  Crisp  finally 
letnmed  to  England  because  of  sickness,  travelled  one 
year  in  aid  of  the  missionary  cause,  preached  four  years 
at  Grantham,  trayelled  six  years  as  representative  of 
the  Religious  Tract  Society,  and,  becoming  one  of  the 
Association  secretaries,  settled  at  Ealing,  where  he  re- 
mained  until  his  death,  Nov.  6,  1877.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong.  Year-book,  1878,  p.  811. 

Cziep,  George  Bteffe,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Wrentham,  Suffolk,  March  8, 1786. 
He  was  converted  early,  studied  at  Wymondley  Acad- 
emy, and  settled  at  Lowestoft  in  1808.  He  resigned 
his  pastorate  in  1817,  removed  to  Aldwinckle,  North- 
amptonshire, and  in  1821  resumed  the  pastorate  at 
Lowestoft,  where  he  continued  until  1882.  He  died 
May  80,  1868.  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-booh,  1864,  p. 
205. 

Criep,  Joseph  Hemiie,  an  English  Congregation- 
al minister,  was  bom  at  Nottingham,  June  17,  1782. 
He  was  converted  at  nineteen ;  became  class-leader  and 
local  preacher  in  the  New  Connection  Methodist  Church ; 
and  in  1804  was  called  to  the  regular  ministry,  being 
appointed  first  at  Hull,  and  afterwarda  at  Dewsbnry. 
In  1807  he  entered  the  Independent  College  at  Idle, 
and  in  1810  became  paator  of  the  Congregational  Church 
at  Brighouae,  near  Halifax.  He  retired  to  Ashby-de- 
la-Zouch  in  1840,  and  there  died,  Jan.  12, 1869.  See 
(Lond.)  Cong,  Year-hook,  1810,  p.  282. 

Cilep,  Samuel,  an  Engliah  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  waa  bom  at  Norfolk  about  1667.  He  re- 
ceived a  collegiate  education,  took  orders  in  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  for  a  time  was  a  parish  curate  and 
chaplain  in  a  private  family.  While  he  was  residing 
in  Loudon,  in  1700,  he  united  with  the  Friends.  Not 
long  alter  he  opened  a  boarding-school  at  Stepney,  near 
London.  He  died  there  April  7, 1704.  Mr.  Crisp  pub- 
lished, ThePreeeni  State  ofQuakeritm  in  Eiufiand  (1701) : 
— A  Libeller  Expoeedc^-aho  three  Lettere,  on  similar 
subjects.    See  Fr»aK&*Zi&ra7^,xiii,  149-163.    (J.C.&) 

Crisp,  Stephen,  an  English  minister  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Friends,  was  bom  at  Colchester  about  1640.  For 
thirty-five  yean  he  travelled  and  preached  in  many 
paru  of  England,  Scotland,  Holland,  Germany,  and  the 
Low  Countriea.  Hia  life  was  one  of  much  hardship. 
He  died  June  28, 1692.  Among  his  writings,  which  are 
numerous,  though  none  of  them  are  long,  may  be  men- 
tioned, A  Word  of  Reproof  to  the  Teachers  of  ike  World, 
etc: — A  Desa-iption  of  the  Church  of  Scotland: — An 
Epistle  to  FiHends,  concerning  the  Present  and  Succeeding 
Times: — A  Plain  Pathway  Opened  to  the  Simple  Heart- 
ed :  — A  n  A  larm  in  the  Borders  of  Spiritual  Egypt.  See 
Friends*  Library,  xiv,  275.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Crisp,  Thomas,  an  English  Dissenting  miniAter, 
was  born  in  1738.  He  was  educated  under  Dt,  Condcr; 
first  settled  at  Colchester ;  thence  removed  to  Kingwood, 
and  afterwards  to  Hertford ;  but,  though  a  man  of  ex- 
cellent character  and  of  a  peaceable  spirit,  he  met  with 
great  trouble  and  opposition  in  every  place.  lie  at  last 
returned  to  the  home  of  his  nativity,  and  died  suddenly, 
near  Wrentham,  in  1806.  He  published.  The  Charge 
at  the  Ordination  of  Sir  Harry  Trelaicnev,  See  (Lond.) 
Theological  and  Biblical  Magazine,  Februf  ry ,  1806,  p.  79. 

Crisp,  Thomas  S.,  D.D.,  an  Engl'ish  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Becdes,  Suffolk,  in  1788.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  in  an  Independent  college  and  in 
one  of  the  Scotch  univeraities ;  became  teacher  in  the 
Baptist  College,  Bristol;  in  1818  was  associated  with 
Key.  Dr.  Ryland  as  pastor  there;  and  upon  the  death 
of  the  latter  was  elected  president  of  the  coUefe.    He 


CRBPI 


110 


CRTTCHTON 


died  at  Gotham,  Briatol,  June  16, 18<S8.  His  achoUr- 
8hip  is  said  to  have  been  of  a  rapenor  ehaiaeter,  al- 
though he  was  singularly  diffident*  See  Appletori*  At^ 
nual  Cydopadkt,  viii,  594 ;  Cathcart,  BapitL  Emq/dop, 
s.  V.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Crlspi,  Qeronimo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Ferrara,  Sept  80, 1667.  He  pursocMl  his  studies  in  his 
native  city ;  became  doctor  of  law  in  1696 ;  then  was 
ordained  priest,  and  soon  after  archdeacon.  In  1708  he 
was  appointed  auditor  of  the  rota,  and  in  1720  archbish- 
op  of  Ravenna.  He  left  this  see  for  the  patriarchate 
of  Antioch,  and  in  1748  was  appointed  archbishop  of 
Ferrara,  where  he  died  in  1746,  leaving,  Ditcorri  ed  Imm 
Saeri  (Rome,  1720 ) :— />tfn>rn  ed  Inmi  Saeri  Altn 
(Ravenna,  1722)  .--Compendium  VHa  Clementii  XI  (ibid. 
1728)  '.^Decinones  Rota  RomcauB  (Urbino,  1728).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Genirak,  s,  v. 

Crispi,  Scipione,  a  Piedmontese  painter,  was  born 
at  Tortona,  and  practiced  the  art  fh>m  1692  to  1599. 
His  works  are,  The  Visitation  of  the  Vityin  to  Elizabeth^ 
in  San  Lorenzo,  at  Voghera ;  and  an  altar-piece  at  Tor- 
tona,  of  Ste,  Francesco  and  Domenico,  See  Spooner, 
Bio^,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  ^4  rte,  s.  v. 

Crlspliia,  Saint^  commemorated  Dec.  5  (or  Dec.  8), 
is  said  to  have  been  an  illustrious  matron  of  Thagnra, 
who  was  put  to  death  A.D.  804^  under  Anlesius,  procon- 
sul at  Thebaste,  in  Africa,  and  rejoiced  in  her  torture  as 
a  Christian  (Augustine,  in  Psalm,  czx,  18 ;  czxxvii,  8 ; 
Serm,  854,  cap.  5, 44). 

Criftplnos  was  the  name  of  seversl  early  Christians, 
bendes  St  Crispin  (q.  v.) : 

1.  A  bishop,  martyred  at  Astyagis,  commemorated 
Nov.  19. 

2.  A  presbyter  of  Lampsacus,  his  native  city,  who 
wrote,  about  A.D.  837,  a  life  of  bishop  Parthenius  (given 
in  the  BoUandists,  s.  a. ;  see  also  Cave,  Bist,  LiL  i,  204 ; 
Tillemont,  vi,  288). 

3.  A  Donatist  bishop  of  Colama,  addressed  A.D.  899 
and  406  by  Augustine  {EpisL  51  [172],  60  [173]).— 
Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Crispion,  archdeacon  to  Epiphanius,  mentioned  as 
archbishop  of  Salamis  cir.  A.D.  868  to  403  (Sozom.  viti, 
15;  Migne,  Patrol,  Grcec,  Ixvii,  1555,  §  845;  Ceillier, 
vi,  880.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s,  v. 

Cri8p51as  (or  CrisptkloB),  a  martyr  in  Sardinia, 
is  commemorated  May  30. 

Crlspus,  a  presbyter,  martyr  at  Rome  under  Dio- 
cletian, is  commemorated  Aug.  18. 

Crist,  Jacob  B.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  bom  in 
Berks  County,  near  Reading,  Pa.,  No^-.  11, 1798.  Re- 
moving to  Harrisburg,  Vs.,  be  joined  the  Methodist 
Church,  and  in  the  fall  of  1824  was  licensed  as  a  preach- 
er; for  one  year  was  pastor  of  the  Warm  Springs  Cir- 
cuit; was  selected  as  travelling  companion  to  bishop 
McKendrec  three  years;  and  for  several  years  agent  for 
the  Sunday-school  Union  and  the  American  Coloniza- 
tion Society.  He  afterwards  Joined  the  Lutheran 
Church ;  became  agent  for  the  Illinois  College  and  for 
the  Education  Society ;  in  1850  pastor  at  Mount  Joy, 
Lancaster  Co.,  Pa.,  which  he  served  three  years;  and 
then  successively  pastor  at  Kishacoquillas,  Mifflin  Co. ; 
Sinking  Valley,  Dlair  Co.;  Jenner  Charge,  Somerset 
Co.;  Antis,  Blair  Co.;  supplying,  also,  the  Church  at 
Freeport,  Armstrong  Co.  For  a  time  he  was  agent  for 
Pennsylvania  College.  In  May,  1870,  he  removed  to 
Altoona  for  rest ;  and  afterwards  went  to  Antis  Charge, 
from  which  he  retired  in  1875.  He  died  at  Altoona, 
April  28, 1881.    Sec  Lutheran  Obterver,  xUx,  No.  21. 

Crifltdta,  martyr  in  Spain,  is  commemorated  Oct  27. 

Cri8ti51u8,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  oentury,  is 
the  reputed  founder  of  Llangristiolus  in  Anglesey,' and 
Eglwys  Wrw,  and  Penrydd  in  Pembrokeshire  (Rees, 
Welsh  Saints,  p.  220).-imith,  JHct.  of  Christ,  Biog, 
8«v« 


Cxistob61o,  a  Grecian  architect,  flooriahed  abost 
the  middle  of  the  15th  centniy,  and  was  empbyed  bjr 
Mohammed  H  to  erect  a  mosque  at  Constantinople,  on 
the  ruins  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  which  he 
did  sacoessfully.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  ofiheFiM 
Arts,  s.  V. 

Crlstoforl,  Fabio^  and  Pxetro  Paolo,  Italisn  art- 
ists, father  and  son,  the  former  of  whom  flourished  in 
1658,  and  the  latter  died  in  1740,  deserve  great  aedlt 
for  the  perfection  which  they  attained  in  the  mosaic  art 
They  executed  in  concert  several  admirable  works  in 
the  Basilica  of  St  Peter's,  among  which  are  The  Com' 
munion  of  St,  Jerome ;  and  The  Baptism  of  Christ,  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,B,v* 

Ciltan  is  the  name  of  several  Irish  saints : 

1.  Son  of  Illadhon,  commemorated  May  11,  at 
Achadh-flnnich,  on  the  river  Dodder,  County  Dublin, 
where  they  are  probably  interred.  Colgan  sffirms  that 
he  was  the  Credan,  Cridan,  or  Critan  who  was  one  of 
the  many  pupils  whom  St.  Petroc  had  during  his  ren- 
dence  in  Ireland  (Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart,  Doneg.  p.  125; 
Colgan,  Acta  Sanctorum,  p.  585,  c  4;  586  n.). 

2.  Bishop  of  Aendruim,  or  Nendrum  (now  called 
Mahee  Island,  in  Strangford  Lough),  commemonted 
May  17,  whose  death  is  given  at  A.D.  638  by  the  Irish 
Annalists  (O'Donovan,  Four  Masters,  i,  256  n.,  257; 
Reeves,  ut  sup,  p.  148). 

3.  Of  Mdin-Miolan,  commemorated  Feb.  7  with  Lo- 
nan  and  Miolan  or  Mellan,  all  sons  of  Daire  *,  butied  at 
Cluain-feart-Molua  (now  ConfertmuUoe  or  Kyle,  in  the 
barony  of  Upper  Oeaory,  Queen's  County)  (Colgao,  Mt 
#197.  p.  58  n.;  O'Donovan,  ui  sup,  i,  207  n.). 

4.  Certronnach,  of  Beonchar  (Bangor),  commemo- 
rated Sept  16.  In  Mart,  Doneg,  (Todd  and  Reeves,  p. 
251)  he  is  called  cellarer  of  St  Comgall  of  Bangor,  and 
is  said  to  have  got  the  name  Certronnach  because  he 
used  to  divide  fairly.  His  mother  was  Eithne,  daugh- 
ter of  Saran,  son  of  Colgan,  and  sister  of  Ronan.  He 
died  A.D.  669  (O'Donovan,  i,  280  n.,281).-Smith,iX(l 
of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Critoblow,  Benjamin  C,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  Dec.  14,  1807.  He  pursued  his  lit- 
erary studies  at  Western  Univenity,  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
and  graduated  at  Western  Theological  Seminary  in  188& 
His  first  pastorate  was  Slippery  Rock  and  New  Brigh- 
ton ;  his  next  Beaver  and  New  Brighton ;  but,  sfter  a 
few  years,  he  left  Beaver  and  confined  his  labors  to 
Brighton.  In  1876  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  Church 
of  Greenville,  Mercer  Co.,  but  resigned  in  the  spring 
of  1881.  After  this  he  occasionally  preached  at  Stooe- 
borougb,  Mercer  Co.,  and  at  Rochester,  until  his  desth, 
April  21, 1882.   See  Presbgterian  Banner,  April  26, 1882. 

Crltohton,  Andrew,  LL.D.,  a  minister  and  author 
in  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  was  bom  in  De- 
cember, 1790,  in  the  parish  of  Kirkmahoe,  Dumfries- 
shire.  He  received  his  education  at  the  Dumfries  Acad- 
emy and  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  became  a  licensed 
preacher,  and  was  for  some  time  engaged  in  teaching 
in  Edinburgh  and  North  Berwick.     In  1823  he  pub- 
lished his  first  work,  the  Life  of  the  Bee,  John  Black' 
ader,  which  was  followed  by  the  L^e  of  Colond  J> 
Blackader,  and  Memoirs  of  the  Rev,  Thomas  Scott,    To 
ConstahU^s  Miscelhing  he  contributed  four  volumes,  viz., 
Converts  from  Infidelity,  and  a  translation  of  Koch's  Aer- 
obttions  in  Europe,     In  the  Edinburgh  CabinH  Library 
he  wrote  the  Histoty  of  Arabia  and  Scandinavia,  An^ 
dent  and  Modem,  each  in  two  volumes.    He  commenced 
his  connection  with  the  newspaper  press  in  1828  by  ed- 
iting the  Edinburgh  Evening  Post,     In  1880  he  con- 
ducted the  North  Briton,  and  in  1S82  he  undertook  the 
editorship  of  the  Edinburgh  Advet-tiaer,  in  which  em- 
ployment he  continued  till  June,  1851.    He  contributed 
extensively  to  periodicals;  among  others,  to  the  West" 
minster,  TaiCs  Edinburgh  Magazine^  the  Dublin  Tm- 
versity,  Frazer's  Magazine,  the  Church  Reviao,  and  the 
Church  of  Scotland  Magasma  and  Bofiew*    He  was  a 


CRITHOMANCY 


171 


CROCKER 


member  of  the  PKsbytery  of  Edinburgh,  being  ruling 
elder  of  the  congregation  of  Trinity  College  Church, 
and  sal  ID  the  General  Aaeembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land as  elder  for  the  bargh  of  CoUen,  for  three  years 
prenooi  to  his  death,  which  occurred  in  Edinburgh, 
Jan.  9,  laM.  See  Hardwicke,  A  tmual  Biography,  1866, 
p.  198. 

Critfaomanoy  (6r.  aptdni  io'^t  «nd  /lavrcia,  dhf^ 
mi(»M)  was  a  species  of  fortane>telling  by  means  of  the 
dough  of  the  barley-meal  cakes  used  in  sacrifice. 

CziticiBiii,  Biblical.  We  add  a  few  items  to  the 
account  given  in  voV,  ii : 

The  textual  f  lamination  of  the  New  Test  in  partic- 
olsr  has  received  a  powerful  stimulus  by  the  labors  of 
the  Anglo-American  Committee  on  Bible  Revision,  who 
had  necessarily  to  reconsider  the  Greek  text.   Although 
they  have  not  directly  put  forth  any  new  edition,  yet 
the  results  of  their  criticism  have  been  embodied  in  The 
Gntk  TestamaUf  toUh  the  Readwffa  adopted  hy  the  Re^ 
titen  of  the  Authorized  Femoa  (Oxford,  1881, 12mo), 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  mature  and  impar- 
tial fruit  of  the  combined  scholarship  of  the  times,  and 
probably  nearer  the  autograph  than  any  other  text  ex- 
tant.   Ahnost  simultaneous  with  this  appeared  the 
Crttlc  Testameni  prepared  by  Drs.  Westcott  and  Ilort 
(Ozfoid.  1881, 12mo),  which,  with  its  additional  volume 
of  critical  remarks,  has  been  republished  (Harpers,  N.  Y. 
1882  sq.)  under  the  able  editorship  of  Dr.  Schaff,  who 
has  also  added  a  Compamon,  consisting  of  illustrative 
matter,  largely  bearing  upon  the  revision. 

Meanwhile  Tregelles  and  Tischendorf  each  lived  Just 
kmg  enough  to  complete  their  valuable  critical  editions, 
and  the  Prolegonuna  to  that  of  the  latter  is  in  process 
of  tssue  at  Leipeic  (voL  iii,  pt.  1, 1884).  These  nearly 
exhaurt  the  elementa  of  critical  comparison. 

A  fierce  attack  has  been  made  by  some  scholars,  es- 
pedally  opposed  to  Bible  revision,  on  the  conclusions 
arrived  at  in  the  foregoing  productions.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  they  nnneoesurily  depart  from  the  textut 
rw^p^and  unduly  lean  upon  the  few  great  nncial  MSS., 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  copies  and  to  the  neglect  of 
the  early  versions.  This  objection  leaves  room  for  doubt 
whether  the  Greek  text  to  be  finally  accepted  has  yet 
been  constructed.  But  these  are  valuable  contributions 
toward  this  final  result,  and  we  may  hope  that  ere  long 
another  Grietbach,  will  arise,  capable  of  surveying  the 
whole  field  with  broad  and  accurate  scholarship  and  im- 
partial judgment.  Meanwhile  we  may  rejoice  at  the 
immense  advance  already  made  towards  this  desirable 
end. 

See  Reuse,  B&iiotheca  Novi  Teetamenii  Grad  (Bruns- 
wick, 1872),  containing  the  most  complete  list  of  printed 
editions  up  to  that  time;  Hammond,  Outlines  of  Text' 
ual  Criticiem  (Oxford,  1872,  1876) ;  Mitchell,  CrUical 
Hand-hook  (Andover  and  Lond.  1^)  ;  Field,  Notee  on 
8ekct  Paeeagee  of  the  Greek  Testament  (Oxford,  1881, 
giving  gentle  criticisms  of  the  revisers) ;  Burgon,  New 
Testament  Revision  (in  the  [Lond.]  Quar.  Rev,  Oct.  1881, 
Jan.  and  April,  1882;  reprinted  together,  Lond.  and 
K.  Y.  1883),  a  sweeping  condemnation  of  the  Revision 
Committee ;  and  the  exhaustive  monograph  of  Hall, 
Critical  BiUiofprtphy  of  the  Gr,  Test,  published  in  A  mer- 
iea  (Phila.  1883). 

Gfrittenden,  Samuel  Worcester,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  North  Adams,  Mass.,  Feb.  22, 1824.. 
After  devoting  some  time  to  the  study  of  law,  he  com- 
menced a  theological  course  in  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary  in  1852,  continuing  it  one  year  at  Princeton, 
and  graduating  at  Union  in  1855.  He  was  ordained 
April  29,  1856,  over  the  Gilead  Presbyterian  Church, 
Camel,  N.  T. ;  was  pastor  at  Clifton,  S.  L,  in  1858  and 
1859,  and  subsequently  at  Darby,  Pa.,  from  1862  to  1865, 
nntil  he  received  the  appointment  of  corresponding  sec- 
retary of  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union. 
After  occupying  this  poet  five  3*ears,  he  was  financial 
•gent  of  the  Presbyterian  Hospital,  Philadelphia,  in 


1871  and  1872,  and  died  in  that  dty  March  2,  1884^ 
See  N.  Y,  Observer^  March  6, 1884.     (W.  P.  S.) 

CrlTelU  (Crevilli,  or  CrlviUi),  Carlo,  a  Yene. 
tian  painter,  flourished  from  1450  to  1486,  and  studied 
under  Jaoobello  del  Fiore.  He  has  a  fine  altar-piece  at 
the  Osservanti,  in  Maoerta;  and  in  San  Sebastiano,  at 
Venice,  two  pictures,  representing  St.  Fabian  and  The 
Marriage  of  8t,  Catharine,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GMrale,  %  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts, 
s.  V. 

Crlvelli,  Vittoxio,  a  Venetian  painter,  probably  a 
brother  of  Carlo,  painted  some  altar-pieces  in  the  church- 
es of  Monte  San  Martino,  and  in  San  Giovanni  at  Ven- 
ice, in  1489  and  1490.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  A  rts^  s.  v, 

Croatian  Version.    See  Slavokic  Versioks. 

Croce,  Samta  di  Gerusalemme  (Ital.  the  Ihig 
Cross  of  Jerusalem),  is  one  of  the  seven  great  basilicas 
of  Rome.  It  was  founded  by  Constantine  in  831.  It 
is  particularly  remarkable  for  the  immense  number  of 
relics  which  it  contains,  all  of  which  are  exhibited  on 
certain  days,  especially  the  fourth  Sunday  in  Lent, 
for  reverence  and  adoration  of  devotees.  All  who  at- 
tend the  services  at  that  church  on  that  day  are  enti- 
tled to  certain  indulgences;  and  all  who  share  in  the 
masses  celebrated  are  entitled  to  the  release  of  one  soul 
from  purgatory.  See  Seymour,  Pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
See  Basilica. 

Crooefisao  Bantiaaimo  (Ital.  most  holy  crudjix) 
is  a  wooden  cross  at  Naples,  which  is  remarkable  as 
having  been  said  to  have  thanked  Thomas  Aquinas  for 
his  bcAutiful  and  salutary  writings.  It  belonged  to  the 
church  of  St.  Dominic  the  Great. — Gardner,  Faiths  of 
the  World,  b,  v. 

Crochet,  Jaues,  a  Free-wiU  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Gorharo,  Me.,  in  1817.  He  was  converted  in 
Lewiston,  and  ordained  February,  1846;  for  three  years 
was  pastor  at  North  Yarmouth  and  Pownal;  preached 
about  a  year  and  a  half  at  Falmouth,  aderwaiirds  went 
to  Buxton,  and  finally  to  Scarborough,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  16, 1854.  See  Free-will  Baptist  Register,  1865,  p.  88. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Crochett,  Johk,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
Stratham,  N.  H.,  July  15, 1766.  He  was  converted  in 
1791,  licensed  to  preach  in  1792,  ordained  at  Sanborn- 
ton,  Sept.  8, 1794,  and  remained  pastor  there  until  hia 
death,  Feb.  11, 1888.     (J.  a  S,) 

Crochford,  W.,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Keysoe,  Bedfordshire,  in  1758.  For  many  years 
he  served  as  pastor,  without  charge,  at  Great  Gidding, 
in  Huntingdonshire,  and  died  in  August,  1836.  See 
(Lond.)  Baptist  flandriooh,  1887,  p.  16.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Crooiua,  Johann  Qeorg,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Cassel,  Jan.  26, 1629.  He  pur- 
sued his  studies  at  Groningen,  became  doctor  at  Basle 
in  1656,  fellow  professor  of  theology  at  l^Iarburg  in  1657, 
titular  professor  in  1661,  and  died  July  13,  1674,  leav- 
ing, De  Natura  Objecio  et  Necessitate  Logices  (Bremen, 
1644) : — De  Elementis  in  Genere  et  in  Specie  (Cassel,  1647) : 
^De  Amma  Rationalis  Ortu  (ibid.  1648,  1649) :— Z>d 
,/udais  (Groningen,  1650) : — De  A  ngelis  (Leyden,  1651) : 
—De  Baptismo  (Marburg,  1656)  :—De  Sanctis  (1662)  :— 
De  Communione  sub  Utraque  (ibid.  1668).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Crooiua,  Ludwig.  a  Reformed  theologian,  who 
died  at  Bremen,  Dec.  7, 1655,  is  the  author  of  De  Per- 
severantio  Sanctorum:— De  Vera  Religione  et  Catholica 
Ecclesia: — Examen  Calvinistarum  Descriptionis  D.M, 
Hod  Ausfriadf — Assertio  Confessiottis  Augusiana: — 
Comm,  in  Titum : — Apodeixis  Parcenetica  adJudteosper 
Orbem  Dispersos  de  Messia,  See  Jocher,  AUgemdnes 
Gelehrten-Lexa-on,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BiU,  Jud,  i,  192. 

Crockat(t).    Sec  Crocket. 

Crocker,  Aaahel  B.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  minis- 


CROCKER 

ur,  WM  born  at  Cimbridgc,  N.  T„  in  181S.  He  gnd- 
Baud  Grom  Uoim  College  in  188S;  spent  one  yeir  in 
Princeloo  Tbeologieil  Seminuy ;  wu  licenwd  bj  the 
fiabyttrj  ot  Imj;  wu  paitor  at  Glenrille,  N.  Y„ 
tnai  lai!  M  1848 ;  Eut  CongtrgitiDnal  Cbunh,  N.  Y. 
city,  theruftK  Dntil  hia  death  in  DHO.  See  Corwin, 
3lamuat/ffU>t  Iif/.ChiirthmAiiiaica{MeH.),j>.92*, 

Crocker,  Nathan  Bonnie,  D.D^  a  ProteaUnt 
EpiKopal  minister,  was  bom  at  llanistable,  Han^July 
4,17SI.  He  graduated  at  Harranl  CullegB  in  180%  aiMl 
b^an  the  study  of  medicine,  which,  boweTer,  he  aooa 
abandoned  for  theology,  and  acted  as  lay  reader  at  St. 
John's  Chunh,  ProridHm.  Becoming  deacon  in  1806, 
be  accepted  the  rectorship  of  thst  charcb.  On  account 
of  failing  health  be  retigned  hia  charge  in  IBOt,  bat 
mumcd  it  Jan.  1,  IHOB,  and  remained  in  it  until  his 
death,  Oct.  19, 1865.  Dr.  Crocket  was  a  metDber  of  the 
Standing  Cammitlee  of  the  DiocCM  of  Rhode  Island 
during  his  entire  rectorship,  excepting  one  year;  dep- 
uty to  the  General  Convention  from  1808  to  I86S  ;  and 
a  member  of  the  Board  of  Felloira  of  Brown  Univenity 
for  nearly  fiftv  years,  flee  A  mtr.  (jaar.  CImrei  Set. 
Jan.  I8GG,  p.  GG9. 

Crocker,  Tliomas,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born 
in  North  CaroUns  in  1786,  and  for  more  than  thirty 
years  was  a  very  succeSBful  preacher  in  Wike,  Wanen, 
OranvUle,  and  Franklin  couatio.  He  died  Dec  8, 1848. 
See  Calhcaii,  Baptiil  Encjebp.  p.  296.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Crocker,  'William  Qoaa,  a  Baptut  mimonary, 
waa  bom  at  Newbiir>-pon,  Mass.,  Feb.  10, 1805.  He 
gnuluBled  from  the  Newton  Theological  Institution  in 
IB84,  and  was  ordained  at  Newburrport,  Sept.  29  of  Ibe 
Mme  year,  proceeding  at  orce  to  Africa,  where  he  arrived 
Ang.12,1836.  Heenteredwithgreatiealintobiiwork, 
and  was  a  most  devoted  and  laborioua  misuonary  for 
seven  yeare.  He  succeeded  in  reducing  the  Baasa  lan- 
guage to  writing,  and  prepared  also  a  Bomki  Spdl- 
iig-book,  and  quite  a  number  of  hymns  in  the  sane 
tongae.  He  returned  to  the  United  State*  in  184!,  re- 
maining a  year  and  a  half,  when  he  re-embarked  for 
Africa,  and  arrived  at  Monrovia,  Liberia,  Feb.  23, 1814, 
but  died  the  next  day.     (J.  C.  3.) 

Crocket  (also  written  Crookat  or  Crockatt) 
i*  the  family  name  of  several  Scotch  clergymen  : 

]_  Jahes,  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1674 ;  was  licensed  to  presch  in  1678 ;  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Caputb  in  1683;  continued  in 
IS89;'  deprived  by  the  privy  council  in  1701,  and  re- 
moved to  Horinty.     See  Fatli  Ecdtt.  Seolicaair,  ii,  796. 

3.  John  (l),was  licensed  to  preach  in  1703;  called 
to  thetiving  at  Dallas  io  1708,  and  onlained;  and  died 
April  81, 1748.    See  FaMt  Ecctt*.  Seotiaxva,  iii,  179 

a.  JoHH  (2),  waa  ticcnaed  to  preach  in  1739 ;  colled 
to  the  living  at  Parton  iu  1713;  ordained  in  1744;  and 
died  July  SO,  1760,  aged  forty-flve  ycara.  See  FoMtt 
Ecdtt.  Scotkaim,  1,  720. 

4.  JoEiH  (3),  waa  licensed  to  preach  in  1803;  pre 
■ented  to  the  living  at  Kirkgunzeoa  in  1809,  aod  or 
dained;  and  died  June  20, 1S67,  in  hia  ninetieth  year 

He  had  a  clear  and  vigor 
IS  intellect,  correct  taste  a 
J  wonderfully  retentive  mem 
ory,  and  was  a  good  scholar 
See  yaUi  EceUi.  Seolieana 
i,687. 

Crocketa  (Fr.  en>c-a 
hook),  projecting  leave*, 
flowers,  or  bunches  of  foli- 
age, used  in  Gothic  archi- 
tecture to  decorate  the  an- 
gles of  spires,  canopies,  pin- 
nacles, etc ;  they  are  also 
frequently  found  on  gables, 
on  the  weather-mouldings 
A.D.1S10.  of  doon  and  windows,  and 


Sldllngtoii,  f)ifiirdsUn^ 

in  other  ajmikr  sitnatiotH;  oecanonally  they  are  oed 
among  vertical  mouldings,  as  at  Lincoln  Calhednl, 
where  they  mn  up  the  mullioiis 

the  sides  of  aome  of  the  areko, 
bat  they  are  not  employed  in  bor- 
izontal uluations.  Theyannsal 
in  suites,  and  are  placed  at  eqoal 
distances  apart:  thevarietinsn 
innumerable.  The  first  instaDOH 
of  crockets  are  to  be  found  late 
in  the  Early  English  style; 
they  mostly  coosist  either  of 
small  leaves  or  ratber  long 
stalks,  or  bunches  of  leaves 
curled  back  something  like  the 
bead  of  a  bishop's  psslersi 
crook.  Dnxraled  crockets  vary 
considerably ;  the  most  mul 
form  is  that  of  a  broad  lf*f 
with  the  edges  attached  to  the 
moulding  on  which  it  ia  plaod, 
and  the  middle  part  and  point 

In  the  FrrjieitdKHlaT  style  this 
most  prevalent  form,  but 
luey  are  not  nufreijaenlJy  msde 
like   flat,   square    leaves. 


ures  an  used  in  place  it 
crockels,  a*  in  Henry  the 

Seventh  s  cha  pel— Parker 
CiMf  of  iiciultd  av 

CrockliaT     C^ajt 

TRLDE,  an  English  man>  r 
waa  a  native  of  Su  Cath 
anne  a,  near  London  She 
would  not  attend  maas,  and 
dosed  ber  doon  upon  the 
pneals  when  tbey  came  to 
see  her      She  was  taken 

to  be  burned  but  died 
Apnl  IS  1S28  before  the 
time  fixed  for  her  eiecu 
Uon     See  Fox  4efj 

Crocota  was  a  dress  of  women  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romana  It  was  more  eapecially  worn  at 
the  festival  of  the  Dhmviu,  and  also  by  the  prieateeses 
of  Cgb^ 

Crooqnet.    See  CnoQinr. 

Crooni,CoRNKLius,aDntcb  theok^anand  schol- 
ar, a  native  of  Amsterdam,  was  appointed  rector  of  tbe 
Latin  achoola  of  his  native  city,  and  labored  lealously 


Norfolk  eir  V 


CROES 


173 


CROGGON 


to  isspire  his  popfls  with  a  ]ot«  for  th«  Catholic  rdig- 
ioD.  At  the  age  of  fifty  he  went  to  Rome,  entered  the 
Jesoit  nciety,  and  died  there  in  1660.  His  principal 
worits  irei  Farrago  Sordkbrum  Ver^orum  (Cologne, 
1520)  i-De  Fide  H  OptrSma  (Antwerp,  1681)  i^DUpu- 
tat»  cmdra  Amabcg»tutas  (ibid.  1686) : — JotephuB  Cat' 
tut  (ibid.  1648) : — ParadesU  ad  Capescendam  SeiUentiam 
Jotepki  Colli  (ibid.): — De  Vera  EccUsia  (Cologne, 
1M8).  See  Hoefer,  Ncuv,  Biog.  Generale,  b,  v.  ;  Jiksher, 
AUgemeiiitt  Gdekrten-Lfxikon,  b,  v. 

Croes,  John,  a  miniater  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church,  was  bora  Sept.  22, 1787.    Ordained  deacon 
in  1809,  and  subsequently  a  priest,  he  began  his  labors 
in  the  miniatiy  in  St.  Peter's  Church,  Freehold,  N.  J. ; 
was  thence  transferred  to  Christ  Church,  Shrewsbury, 
snd  afteiwards  to  Christ  Church,  Middletown.    After  a 
few  months  spent  in  New  Brunswick,  he  became  rector 
of  St.Paars  Church,  Paterson,  where  he  remained  three 
yean.  During  the  following  two  years  he  was  in  New- 
ark, and  the  two  years  succeeding  he  assisted  his  father, 
the  bishop  of  New  Jersey,  in  Christ  Church,  New  Bruns- 
wick,   lie  became  rector  of  that  parish  at  the  death 
of  his  lather,  and  continued  there  for  eight  years.    In 
Keyport  he  founded  and  served  St.  James's  Church  nine 
yean,  at  Brown's  Point,  erecting  the  building  on  his 
own  land  and  by  his  own  gifts  and  collections^    He 
finaOy  made  his  residence  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  where, 
sod  in  adjoining  places,  he  was  busily  employed  until 
his  death,  Aug.  18, 1849.    See  A  mer.  Quar,  Church  Rev. 
1849,  p.  4M. 

Croes,Robe]:tB.,D.D.,aProtestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, bmtber  of  the  foregmng,  was  bora  at  Sweedsbor- 
oagh,  N.  J.,  in  1800.  He  graduated  from  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  (N.  Y.),  and  was  ordained  in  1828. 
For  a  number  of  years  he  was  rector  of  a  church  in  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  which  he  left  about  the  year  1869, 
and  removed  to  New  York.  He  returned,  however,  in 
1861,  to  New  Brunswick,  still  retaining  his  connection 
with  the  diocese  of  New  York,  without  regular  work ; 
in  1866  he  resided  at  Boyd's  Coraers,  N.  Y.  Suboe- 
qocntly  he  removed  to  Yonkers,  and  died  there,  July 
22, 1878.    See  Prof,  Epitc  A  Imoftac,  1879,  p.  168. 

Croft,  G-abriel,  an  English  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Great  Eccleston,  Lancashire,  Jan.  31, 
1791;  He  entered  Hackney  Academy  in  181 1,  and  about 
three  years  later  was  ordained  at  Pickering,  Yorkshire, 
where  he  labored  until  1860 ;  afterwards  living  with- 
out charge  at  Ripon,  Eccleston,  Kirkham,  Garstang, 
and  finally  at  Preston,  until  his  death,  Nov.  14, 1868. 
See  (Loud.)  Cong,  Tear-book^  p.  241. 

Croft,  Sir  Herbert  (1),  an  English  clerg}'man,  was 
educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  in  the  latter  end  of  queen  Elisabeth's 
reign.  After  he  had  lived  fifty-two  years  as  a  Protes- 
tant he  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  went  to  Donay,  and 
bad  an  apartment  in  the  monastery  of  the  English 
Benedictines  as  a  lay  brother  of  the  order.  He  died 
April  10,  1622,  leaving  Argttmeitts  to  Show  that  the 
Chmrck  m  Commtmion  with  the  See  of  Rome  i»  the  True 
Ckurdk  (16i9>  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet,  s.  v.;  Alli- 
bone,  Diet,  of  Brif,  and  Amur,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Croft,  Herbert  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  son 
of  the  foregoing,  was  bora  Oct.  18, 1603,  at  Great  Milton, 
near  Thame,  Oxfordshire.  He  was  educated  in  the  Eng- 
lish college  of  the  Jesuits  at  St.  Omer's,  and  at  Oxford ; 
entered  into  orders,  and  became  minister  in  Gloucester- 
shire, and  rector  of  Harding,  in  Oxfordshire,  In  August, 
1639,  he  was  made  a  prebendary  of  Salisbury  Cathe- 
dral, in  1640  of  Worcester,  and  the  year  after  canon  of 
Windsor.  In  1644  he  was  nominated  dean  of  Here- 
ford, to  which  see  he  was  promoted  Dec.  2, 1661.  About 
1667  he  became  dean  of  the  royal  chapel,  which  position 
he  held  until  16^.  In  1676,  when  the  quarrel  with 
the  Nooeonformists  was  at  its  height,  he  pablished  a 
pieee  «ititled  The  Naked  Truth,  or  the  True  State  of 
<!•  PrimUm  Church  (4to),  which  created  some  con- 


trorersy  and  excited  an  uncommon  degree  of  attention. 
He  resigned  his  bishopric  some  years  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  May  18,  1691.'  He  published  some 
single  Sermons,  and  The  Theory  of  the  Earth  (1688). 
See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet,  a,  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  A  mer.  Authors,  s.  v. 

Croft,  Sir  Herbert  (8),  an  English  clergyman, 
was  bora  in  London  in  1761,  and  educated  at  University 
College,  Oxford.  He  took  orders  in  1762,  succeeded  to 
a  baronetcy  in  1797,  and  died  in  1816.  His  publications 
include,  A  Brother's  Advice  to  his  Sisters  (1776):^ 
Love  cmd  Madness  (1780)  '.—Fanaticism  and  Treason 
(eod.)  i—The  Literary  Fig  (eod.) :— and  other  works. 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  cmd  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Croft,  Joel,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bora  at  Phillipstown,  Putnam  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  11, 1820. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  sixteen;  soon  after 
entered  the  academy  at  Peekskill ;  also  began  a  private 
theological  course ;  received  license  to  preach  in  1842, 
and  in  1846  Joined  the  New  York  Conference,  of  which 
he  remained  a  worthy  and  acceptable  member  until  his 
decease,  March  27, 1 879.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnuai  Con- 
ferences, 1879,  p.  28. 

Croft,  Joseph,  an  English  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Great  Eccleston,  near  Preston,  Lanca- 
shire, Jan.  6, 1802.  He  studied  at  Rotherham  College, 
became  pastor  at  Ripon  in  1827,  and  labored  there  with 
eminent  success  for  more  than  forty  years.  After  1868 
he  lived  in  retirement  until  his  death,  June  20, 1879. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-hook,  1880,  p.  817. 

Crofts,  ZSdward,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bora  near  Stamford  in  1817.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Hoxton  Theological  Institution,  appointed  to  his 
first  circuit  in  1889,  became  a  supernumerary  in  1870, 
and  died  at  Manorbier,  near  Tenby,  July  2, 1873.  See 
Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1878,  p.  86. 

Crofts,  Henry  Only,D.D.,an  English  Methodbt 
preacher,  was  bora  in  the  city  of  Lichfield,  Sept.  8, 1818. 
At  serenteen  he  began  to  preach,  at  twenty-two  en- 
tered the  New  Connection  ministry,  and  after  spending 
four  years  in  England,  Joined  the  Rev.  J.  Addegman  in 
the  newly  established  misrion  in  Canada,  of  which  he 
was  the  general  superintendent  for  ten  years.  Retura- 
ing  to  England  in  1861,  he  travelled  in  nine  of  the  lead- 
ing circuits  with  zeal  and  success.  He  became  a  su- 
peraumerary  in  1879,  but  continued  to  preach  as  he 
was  able,  until  his  death  at  Manchester,  Jan.  21, 1880. 
I>r.  Crofts  was  president  of  the  conference  in  1861,  and 
the  author  of  a  volume  of  Sermons.  See  Minutes  of 
the  Conference, 

Crofts,  John,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bora  in  1798.  He  was  converted  when  about  seven- 
teen, entered  the  ministry  in  1820,  labored  in  Jamaica, 
Turk's  Island,  West  Indies,  Bermuda  (1880-83),  and 
Harbor  Island,  returaed  home  in  1836,  travelled  Eng- 
lish circuits  unUl  his  retirement  in  1864,  and  died  at 
Sandbach,  Cheshire,  Dec.  81, 1867.  See  Minutes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1868. 

Crofts,  Matthew  Henry,  an  English  Baptist 
minister,  was  bora  at  Upton,  Northamptonshire,  in  1801. 
He  was  converted  at  twenty-nine  years  of  age,  at  once 
began  to  preacb,  notwithstanding  his  defective  educa- 
tion, and  in  1834  became  pastor  in  Ramsey,  Hunting- 
donshire, where  he  remained  until  1862.  He  then  re- 
moved to  Andover,  Hants  Co.,  and  was  pastor  there  till 
his  death,  Feb.  20,  1866.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand- 
book, 1866,  p.  46.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Croggon,  Walter  Okb,  an  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  bora  of  Baptist  parents,  at  Penryn,  Cora- 
wall.  He  was  converted  in  his  nineteenth  year,  and 
in  1817  entered  the  ministry ;  was  stationed  successively 
in  Ck)rawaU  (1817>22),at  Charenton,  France  (1823  sq.), 
Zante,  lonUn  Isles  (1827),  Kingswood,  England  (1884), 
and  London,  as  superintendent  of  schools  ( 1836-49 ). 
He  died  at  Sittingbouroe,  Kent,  Jan.  80,  1854,  in  the 


CROI 


174 


CROME 


sixty-third  year  of  his  age.  See  Mumtes  of  the  Brit-^ 
iah  Conference^  1854;  WeaU  Meth.  Mag.  1888,  p.  241, 
1854,  p.  47a 

Croi*,  Francois  de,  a  French  Ftotestant  oontro- 
versiallst  of  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  was  pas- 
tor at  Uzes,  and  the  author  of  several  works,  the  hest- 
known  of  which  is  his  treatise  Let  Troii  Cowformith 
(1605).    See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Croi^  Jean  de,  a  Protestant  theologian  and  schol- 
ar, son  of  Francois  CroT,  was  bom  at  Uzes.  He  was 
successively  pastor  at  Beziers  and  Uzes,  and  for  some 
years  professor  in  the  Protestant  Academ}'  of  Nismes. 
He  died  at  Uzes,  Aug.  81, 1659,  leaving,  among  other 
works,  Observationes  in  quadam  OrigenUj  Irencei  et  Ter- 
tulUani  Loca  (Geneva,  1682) :— /«  Novum  Fcedui  Ob- 
servatumes  (ibid.  1646):— La  VirUS  de  la  Religion  Be- 
formee  (1645, 1650)  i—AuguHin  Suppoti  (1656).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUraie^  s.  t.  ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines 
Gelehrten-LexUeon,  s.  r. 

Crolne  (or  Crone)  is  the  name  of  several  female 
Irish  saints,  of  whom  the  following  are  the  best  known : 

1.  A  virgin,  commemorated  Jan.  27.  She  was  of  the 
race  of  Maine,  son  of  Niall  of  the  Nine  Hostages,  and 
was  venerated  at  Cill-croine  (Kilcron)  in  Ui-Maine, 
County  Galway;  but  beyond  this  we  have  no  infor- 
mation. 

There  were  others  of  the  same  name,  and  the  ruins 
of  the  Church  of  St.  Croine,  virgin,  of  Kill-Crony  or 
Kilcroney,  in  the  parish  of  Kilmacanoge,  bar.  Rathdown, 
County  Wicklow,  still  exist  in  the  disused  churchyard. 
At  Jan.  27  the  Mart,  Tattaght  has  the  feast  of  "  Croni 
Innse  Locha  Crone"  (Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart,  Doneg, 
p.  29;  Colgan,  Acta  Sanctorum,  p.  267  n.;  O'Hanlon, 
Irish  SaiaU,  p.  455,  456;  KeUy,  CaL  of  Irish  Saints, 

••■X 

p.  xui). 

2.  Beg  (little),  of  TempuU-Croine,  virgin,  commem- 
orated July  7,  was  the  daughter  of  Diarmaid,  son  of 
Garvan,  of  the  race  of  Conall  Gulban,  son  of  Niall  of  the 
Nine  Hostages.  She  is  given  as  Crania  by  Colgan, 
among  the  saints  descended  from  Conall  Gulban,  the 
parent-stem  of  St.  Columba,  and  her  church  was  situ- 
ated in  Tyrconnel  (I'odd  and  Beeves,  Mart,  Doneg,  p. 
189;  Colgan,  Tr,  Thaum,  p.  480  n.).— Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Cxx>iaet,  Jran,  a  French  ascetic  theologian  of  the 
Jesuit  order,  bom  at  Marseilles,  was  for  a  long  time  rec- 
tor of  the  House  of  the  Novitiate  of  Avignon,  and  gov- 
erned it  with  much  regularity  and  mildness.  He  died 
at  Avignon,  Jan.  81, 1738.  His  principal  works  are, 
Vie  de  Marie-MadeUine  de  la  Trimti  (1696) :— Fte  des 
Saints  pour  tous  les  Jours  de  VAnnie  (Lyons,  1728, 
1742)  i—ParaUUe  des  Maurs  de  ce  Sikde  etdela  Mo- 
rah  de  Jean  Croiset  (ibid.  17SS)  i—Exercices  de  Pieti 
pour  les  Dimanehes  et  Fites  fibid.  1786, 1747, 1764, 1804 ; 
also  under  the  title,  Annie  ChrMenne,  Toulouse,  1812): 
—Illusions  du  Caeur  (Lyons,  1786, 1748):— //<ei(re«  et 
lUglements  pour  les  Pensionnaires  Jhuites  (ibid.  1789) : 
— Devotion  au  Sacri  Coour  de  Jkus  Christ  (Paris, 
1741):  —  Retraite  Spirituelle  pour  un  Jour  de  Chaque 
Mois  (Lyons,  1822) :  —  iZ^/fexioM  Chrkiames  (ibid. 
1823)  x—MidUations,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhtS- 
rale,  s.  v.;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrlen-LexUoon,  s.  v. 

CroiuB.    See  CboY. 

Croix,  Claude  la.    See  Lacboxx. 

Croix,  Jeak  de  la  Saints.  See  Cruz,  {SaiiU) 
Juan  de  la. 

Croker,  Thomas,  an  English  martyr,  was  a  brick- 
layer in  Gloucester,  who  was  burned  May  12, 1556,  for 
his  faithful  adherence  to  Christ.  See  Fox,  Acts  and 
Monuments,  viii,  144. 

Crole,  Anthont,  an  English  Independent  minister, 
was  bom  at  Fettercaim,  Scotland,  in  1740.  He  studied 
at  Trevecca  College,  was  ordained,  in  1766,  pastor  at 
X!Samberland  Street^  London;  began  a  new  church  at 


Pinner's  Hall,  but  removed  in  1797  to  Founder's  Hall, 
and  died  July  8, 1808.  He  published  the  Sermon  at 
the  opening  of  Cheshnnt  College,  and  issued  two  other 
wofka.    See  Wilson,  DissaUing  Churches,  ii,  294-dOL 

CroU,  Alfred  De  Xionf^,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was 
bom  in  Berks  County,  Pa.,  June  25, 1838.  He  studied 
at  Kutatown,  at  Beading,  and  at  Freeland  seminary; 
graduated  in  1862  from  Gettysburg  Theological  Semi- 
nary; in  1868  was  ordained  by  the  Ministerium  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  took  charge  of  a  congregation  near 
Lykens.  After  several  years  he  united  with  the  Syn- 
od of  East  Pennyslvania,  resigned  his  charge,  organ- 
ized new  congregations  at  Lyons,  Millerstown,  Here- 
ford, and  Pleasantville,  also  acting  as  pastor  at  Mohr^ 
ville  with  extraordinary  success.  He  died  at  Lyons, 
June  19, 1876.     See  Lutheran  Observer,  July  7, 1876. 

Czoll,  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  de- 
gree at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1767;  was 
schoolmaster  of  the  parish  of  Inverbervie  in  1771 ;  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1779 ;  appointed  to  the  living  there 
in  1780;  ordained  assistant  and  successor,  and  died 
June  8,  1820,  aged  eighty  years.  See  Fasti  Eodes, 
Scotieanm,  iii,  860. 

Cromacios.    See  Chromatius. 

Croman.    See  Crohan. 

Cromar,  Andrew,  a  Scotch  clerg3rman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1820 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Oathlaw  in 
1880;  ordained  in  1881;  and  died  Nov.  10, 1835,  aged 
forty  years.    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  780. 

Crombach  (or  Cnimbaoh),  Hermann,  a  German 
historian  and  antiquarian  of  the  Jesuit  order,  was  bom 
at  Cologne  in  1598.  He  taught  in  various  colleges  of 
his  order,  devoted  himself  to  researches  upon  the  eccle- 
siastical history  and  antiquities  of  his  native  country, 
and  died  Feb.  7, 1680,  leaving  Ursula  Vindicata  (Co- 
logne, 1647 ;  augmented  ed.  1674) : — PrifniticB  Gentium 
(ibid.  ISU^i—Vita  P,  D,  Jacobi-Marlo  HarstH  (ibid. 
1655) :  —  A  uctarium  Sanctm  Ursula  Vindicates  (ibid. 
1669): — Chronographioa  Descriptio  Omnium  Parochior 
rum  ad  Archi^ioceseos  Coloniensis  Bierarchietm  Perti- 
neniium,  in  the  BibUotheca  Coloniensis  of  Joseph  Hart- 
seim  (ibid.  1747).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale, 
s.  V, ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  Gekhrten-Lexihon,  s.  v. 

Crombie,  Andrew,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  pre- 
sented to  the  vicarage  of  Knockbain  in  1592;  trsna- 
ferred  to  Chanonry  about  1594,  and  to  Bosemarkie  in 
1596;  back  to  Kilmuir  Wester  in  1597,  and  again  to 
Bosemarkie  in  1599 ;  appointed  by  the  assembly  of  1600 
to  visit  the  bounds  of  Murray ;  and  continued  in  Febm- 
ary,  1630.    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  274, 288. 

Crombie,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took 
his  first  degree  at  the  University  of  St  Andrews  in  1752; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1757 ;  presented  to  the  living 
at  Lhanbiyde  in  1760;  accepted  a  call  to  Belfast,  but 
resigned  in  1770;  and  died  March  1, 1790,  aged  aboiit 
fifty-eight  years.  He  published  a  Sermon  (Belfast, 
1781).     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  167, 168. 

Crombie,  William,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1753 ;  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1759;  ordained  in  1761  minister 
of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  at  Wisbeach,  England ; 
presented  to  the  living  at  Kirkcudbright  in  1765 ;  trans- 
ferred to  Spott  in  1769;  and  died  Jan.  6,  1789.  He 
published  The  SouVs  Perpetual  Progress  towards  Per^ 
fection  (1768).    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  382, 691. 

Cromomah  (or  Cromemach)  was  one  of  the 

first  idols  of  the  Irish,  and  was  made  of  pure  gold,  and 
surrounded  by  twelve  brazen  images.  Its  worship  still 
existed  at  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Ireland. 

Crome,  a  name  common  to  several  Lutheran  thet^ 
logians,  of  whom  we  mention  the  following : 

1.  Carl  Petrus  Thbodor,  was  bom  in  1821,  and 
died  Aug.  15, 1874.    He  was  a  strict  Lutheran,  who 


CEOMEK  i: 

wrote  and  lougb  t  Tar  his  Churth.  H«  publuhed,  Chritt. 
lidUt  Kirckm-  uf  JloMt-Gfiaiigbudi  (Zd  ed.  Ellwrfcld, 
leei)  -.—Getelbudi  fUr  aamsditfkAatktritcKt  Chrultn 
(%1  «L  ibid.  I860)  —LXX  V  Ftaimm  aui  dem  htiliffni 
J'lalUr  oMigactUkU  lad  georAtH  (ibid.  1S&6):— i>K 
Waiir\eit  da  Uidoiu-  LvlierAumt  (ibid.  eod.).  See 
Zachold,  BitL  Tkal.  i,  2S0  aq. 

2.  Frikdrich  AooLPn,  wu  bora  Feb.  !1, 1757,  at 
Bebbarg  I  wta  io  1799  ■upeiinLcDdv nt  it  Eimbeck,  in 
1813  at  JeinKii,u>d  died  Match  1,  IBili.  He  pnblUhcd, 
Vemck  eimr  VtrroilbniuiHiang  dir  gtitiL  Btredltamiril 
(HwwTer,  18U}.  See  Winer,  UandbiiA  dtr  tktol.  Lit. 
ii,«. 

3.  Fhiedsich  Gottueh,  was  bnni  in  1775  at  Eim- 
beck, and  died  as  dootor  of  theologjr  and  aupetinteadent 
■t  LUnebuiginlSSe.  He  wioU, /VoAoIia  Aaud  Proio- 
Uea  (LeydeD,lS24]  -.—BritTSgt  tar  ErUdni^  dn  JVeiua 
TatamaaiCAUmgtBtl^Syi—Ctograpkitck-kuloritckt 
Bttdtrriba3dttLindaS3rit»lfiAi.lSM).  SeeWmer, 
BoH^viA  der  llual.  LiL  i,  87,  IGO ;  Zuchold,  BiU.  Throl 
1,261.     (a  P.) 

CromftT,  OiDUO  (called  il  Croma),  a  pakotet  of 
Pemia,  was  bom  in  1673,  atmtied  under  Domenico 
Uona,  and  died  in  1632.  lie  painted  Tit  PmvUaiian, 
■Dd  Tkt  Dtalk  of  lit  Viryi^  in  [ha  Scala,  at  Fertara. 
Sm  Spomet,  Bios,  f"*-  if""  ^""  '*'^  ■•  ^■ 

CioniBraaoli.    See  Cboucsdah. 

Cronun,  AsbUs,  a  Dutch  Je«it,  was  born  ia  1(91 
at  Anchot,  in  tbe  Nethetlanda,  and  died  at  Bninela, 
Kay  2,  1651.  He  widU,  Pialmi  Davidit  eum  Cotigiat- 
Jipia  ParapAnui.-^EiXBigtlia  f/iMtoriat  OnJtiK  Con- 
atrdia  ta  J/Hbn  Digeita.  See  Andren,  BitUolKtea 
Bdgica ;  Alegunbe,  BUKoAera  ScriploTVm  Sadttalii 
J*n:i6ciia,AUgemeoiaG^Artai'l<xitom,i.v.  (KV.) 

Cioinptoil.  Samukl,  an  English  Wesleyan  minis- 
ter, began  bis  pastorate  in  1818,  became  a  anpcmamet- 
■17  in  IM7,  and  died  at  Unsworth,  near  Bury,  July  6, 
18B&    Se*«ii»(UD/(&!flri<U*Cwi)'tr(«of,lB66,p.88. 

OlOTomvH,  JamaB  O.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  began  hia  itinerant  life  in  1780;  served  rari- 
ooadrcuitsin  the  Middle  Sta(«a,  namely,  Suiaei,  I7S0 ; 
Ewt  Jeraej,  1T81 1  Fhivanna,  1782 ;  Httirlvania,  1788 ; 
Eait,lTB4)  Port  Boacway,  1785 ;  wasaentssmistionaiy 
toNonSeotiainl7S6;  andlocatedinlTSS,  See  Jf «- 
tiet  of  AnKnal  Ctmftmittt,  1780-86;  Spragne,  Amudt 
^tke  Ama:F*ipit,n\,\l3i;  Sttnat,  HiiLo/ At  MeUi. 
t^itc  Ckank,  ii,  82, 88, 138, 188,  S79. 

CimuwsU,  Jamas 'W,  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
nuniatei,  was  bom  at  HiJoTrille,  N.  a,  Oct.  38, 1848. 
He  removed  to  Frederickton  in  1862,  where  for  a  few 
yean  be  taught  school;  recaived  license  to  preach  in 
1869 ;  and  in  1870  joined  the  East  Maine  Conference, 
wbercin  he  cootinued  latwrioos  until  bis  death,  Aug. 
0,1871.   SecjrBniteio/'^iiin(o/Ci»/ennia«,t876,p.79. 

CromireU,  Oliver,  who  deserves  notice  here  as 
one  of  the  great  piditieo-religious  cbaractera  of  Great 
Britain,  was  born  in  tbe  town  of  Hnntingdon,  April  26, 
lfi99.  Hia  father  was  Robert  Cnnnwell,  of  a  family 
tjiiasisniil  iif  ■  baronetcy,  and  his  mother  being  a  daugh- 
va  of  Sir  Kicbard  Stewart,  eSorla  have  often  been 
made  to  abow  t!iat  he  was  connected  with  the  royal 
tmaiij.  He  is  said,  by  BoOiendly  anthoiities,  to  hare 
BpMta  dissolaCeaad  ex Invagant  youth,  interrupted  by 
■efions  miagiviugs,  which  t>raught  him  at  Uat  to  ■■em 
•dCooDdeBinalion,  and  resulted  in  B  Putiumic  piety. 
He  V»  educated  at  the  Huntiogdoo  grammar-acfaool, 
and  was  admitted,  April  32, 1613,  a  commoner  of  Sidney- 
Sussex  College,  Cambridge;  but  on  [he  death  of  hia  fa- 
UMT,in  June,  1617, be  left  tbe  tinivenity,and  began  the 
atady  of  law  in  Landon.  When  twenty-one  years  old 
he  married  Elisabeth,  Che  dangbter  of  Sir  Thomai 
Baucbiet.and  thus,  both  by  descent  and  alliance,  be  was 
a  Bembar  of  the  bigbei  countiy-gentleman  class,  or  of 
At  nobility,  as  it  woold  be  tenned  in  other  European 
BBontriM.    In  tbat  age,  however,  reAnement  was  only 


'  Haak  of  Cromi 


kept  up  by  attendance 
at  court,  and  Crom- 
well, who  lived  away 
from  town  atul  fol- 
lowed  country    pur- 

of  rustic  deportment. 
Though  he  had  been 
elected  to  the  bnef 
pailiacnent  of  1638,  it 
was  not  tiU  1640  that 
he  was  known  in  the 
House  of  Common*, 
and  Sir  Philip  War>  ^ 
wick,  who  observed  N 
hia  rite,  has  left  a 
rious  notice  of  his  per- 
sonal appaarancb 
"  His  appaiel  was  a  plain  cloth  anit,  whicb  seemed  to 
hare  been  made  by  an  ill  country  tailor.  His  bat  was 
without  a  hat-band.  His  stature  was  of  good  size;  bis 
sword  stuck  cloae  to  bis  side ;  hii  countenance  iwotlen 
and  reddiib,  bis  voice  sbaip  and  untunablp,  and  his  elo- 
qoence  full  of  fervor."  He  bad  been  for  some  years  es- 
tablisbiog  an  influence  witb  tbe  Puritan  party,  who  fre- 
quented hi*  hoDse  and  bowed  to  his  strong  judgment. 
He  showed  his  great  buainess  cspadty  in  (he  struggle 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  but  it  was  not  until  the  parlia* 
ment  raised  a  military  force,  (o  which  he  brought  a  lioop 
of  horse,  that  hia  powers  of  organization  and  command 
were  fully  developed.  He  speedily  rose  to  authority  a* 
lieulenant-generol  of  tbe  horse,  and  when  be  irss  spe- 
cially exempted  from  the  BClf-denring  ordinance,  so  that 
he  could  both  deliberate  in  parliament  and  bold  com- 
mand, he  became  tbe  moat  powerful  man  in  the  country. 
He  ibowed  his  eminent  sagacity  in  reconBtmcting  the 
army,  and  infusing  into  it  high  spirit  along  with  stem 
discipline.  At  the  battle  of  Nascby,  in  1645,  it  was  seen, 
in  the  signal  deatmction  brought  on  the  well-offlcered 
royal  army,  bow  eflecli vely  becould  strike  with  the  weap- 
on be  had  constructed.  His  militaiy  policy  tbronghont 
was  to  despise  secondary  toeans  and  ends,  but  lo  invest 
himself  with  overwhelming  power  snd  cnish  his  enemy. 
He  saw  the  large  ahare  which  artillery  must  bear  in 
warfare,  and  anticipated  modem  generals  in  fostering 
that  destruclive  arm.  His  repealed  viclorin  over  the 
royalists,  bis  establishment  of  the  predominance  of  the 
army  over  parliament,  and  of  the  Independents  over 
tbe  Piesbyterians,  bis  relentieaa  exertions  to  bring 
Charles  I  to  the  block,  and  his  dismisssl  of  the  parlia- 
ment, are  all  great  eventa  in  the  history  of  the  day, 

without  much  delaiL  In  1649  he  conducted  an  cxter> 
minating  wai  in  Irelanci,  instigated  by  (he  ferociona 
principle  that  whatever  human  being  opposed  biio 
should  be  put  to  death.  In  Scotland,  whrro  he  saw 
there  were  mote  suitable  materiali  for  the  sort  of  govern- 
ment he  desired,  he  was  rather  a  pacificator  than  an 
opprtasor.  Dec  16, 1653,  be  took  the  title  of  Lord  Pro- 
tector, and  became  virtually  king  of  Britain,  and  one 
wbo  submitted  to  very  little  constitution a1  reatrainl, 
Cromwell  died  8ept.S,  1658, anci  the  revolution  which 
he  had  conducted  speedily  came  to  an  end.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but  in  IGGI  bis  remain* 
were  dug  up  and  treated  with  ignominv.  How  Ikr 
he  was  jiincere  in  the  religious  convictions  by  which 
he  professed  to  t>e  led  has  been  matter  of  debate,  and 
modem  writers  bare  by  lumi  decried  him  as  a  usurp- 
er and  Uoded  him  as  a  liberator.  That  be  wa*  un- 
der powerful  religious  impulses  cannot  be  doubted; 
the  question  arises  as  lo  the  extent  lo  whicb,  by  their 
power  alone,  and  by  no  promptings  of  norldliness,  he  waa 
driven  on  in  bis  amlutious  career.  He  was  an  enlight- 
ened internal  refomier,  and  established  many  ministerial 
imprDvemenls,and  it  cannot  be  questioned  tbat  tbe  line 
of  public  policy  which  has  mode  England  famous  since, 
inaugurated  during  his  admiiiial ration. 


CROMWELL 


176 


CROOK 


Cromwell,  William,  an  Eoglish  Baptist  minia- 
ter,  was  bom  aboat  1800,  and  united  with  the  Church 
at  Beckington ;  began  to  preach  in  two  or  three  church- 
es in  Bath,  and  became  pastor  in  Wood  Street;  aooo 
afterwards  of  Providence  Chapel,  and  finally  of  Ebene- 
zer  Chapel.  He  died  April  13,  1854.  See  (Lond.) 
Baptist  Handbook,  1856,  p.  47.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cron,  Joseph  Anton,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Podersaro,  in  Bohemia,  Sept.  29, 1751. 
He  was  for  some  time  professor  of  polemics  and  dogmat- 
ics at  Prague ;  and  in  1822  became  doctor  of  theology  and 
capitulary  at  Ossegk,  where  he  died,  Jan.  20, 1826,  leav- 
ing BeUrdge  zur  Methodik  der  Kirchengetcku^e  (Prague, 
1795).  SeeWineT,i{andirttchdertheoLLU.\,680.  (KP.) 

Cxon,  William,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  a  native  of 
Dumfriesshire,  was  tutor  in  the  family  of  sir  P.  A.  Ir^ 
ving;  licensed  to  preach  in  1812;  presented  to  the  liv- 
ing at  Menmuir  in  1824;  ordained  in  1825,  and  died 
May  4, 1859.     See  Fatti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  843. 

Cronan  (Croman,  or  Chronan)  is  a  very  frequent 
name  in  Irish  hagiologies,  and  has  several  synonyms,  as 
Cuaran,  Mochuaroc,  and  frequently  Mochva,  Cron  and 
Cua  having  in  Irish  the  same  meaning. 

1.  Son  of  Cummain,  of  Sliabh  Eibhlinne,  in  Munster, 
commemorated  May  4.  ^nghus  associates  him  with 
Siollan  the  deacon.  His  church  was  among  the  Slieve- 
Phelim  mountains,  County  Tipperaiy  (Todd  and  Reeves, 
Mart,  Doneg,  p.  120,  n.,  121). 

2.  See  CuABAN. 

3.  Commemorated  Nov.  11,  probably  son  of  Sinell,  of 
the  race  of  Coindri,  son  of  Fergus,  of  the  clan  Rudhraidhe. 
Colgan  calls  him  the  brother  of  St.  Beodan,  Baitau,  or 
Mobaoi  (Dec  13),  Caman,  etc,  and  St.  ^nghns  calls 
his  mother  Sina.  He  died  of  the  Yellow  Plague  in  A.D. 
664  (Colgan,  Acta  Sanctorum,  p.  219,  n.«;  598,  c  8; 
O'Donovan,  Four  Masters,  i,  277). 

4.  Son  of  Ualach,  abbot  of  Clonmacnoise,  commemo- 
rated July  18.     He  died  in  687  or  638. 

5.  Abix>t  of  Airdne  (Arran  Isles,  in  Galway  Bay), 
commemorated  March  8,  the  same  day  as  a  Scottish 
saint,  "^  Cronan  the  Monk." 

6.  Abbot  of  Benuchar  (Bangor),  680-691,  and  com- 
memorated Nov.  6.  He  is  called  **filius  cucalnsei'*^ 
^  Mac  Cuchuailnc" 

7.  Abbot  of  Cluain-dolcain  (now  Clondalkin,  in  the 
county  of  Dublin),  probably  in  the  8th  century.  His 
father  was  Lughaidh,  of  the  royal  line  of  Erin,  and  his 
mother  was  Carner  of  Cluain-dasaileach ;  his  brothers 
were  Bscdan  (q.  v.),  etc 

8.  Abbot  and  martyr  of  Glais-mor  (Clasbmore), 
commemorated  Feb,  10.  His  father  is  said  to  have 
been  Mellan,  and  he  lived  among  the  Deui  of  Munster, 
about  the  end  of  the  6th  century. 

9.  An  obscure  saint  of  Lismore,  who  died  about  718, 
and  is  commemorated  June  1. 

10.  Abbot  of  Fearrea  (Ferns),  and  perhaps  bishop 
of  Luachair,  who  died  in  653,  and  is  commemorated 
June  22. 

11.  Priest  of  Maghbile  (now  Moville,  near  Newtown- 
ards,  in  County  Down),  commemorated  Aug.  7,  addressed 
by  pope-elect  John  IV  on  the  Paschal  controversy  (Bede, 
Eccles,  Hist,  ii,  c  19),  in  A.D.  640. 

12.  Of  Roscrea,  commemorated  April  28,  who  flour- 
ished about  A.D.  625.  He  was  a  native  of  Ely  0*Car- 
rol  in  Munster,  his  father  being  Odran,  of  that  sept,  and 
his  mother  Coemri,  of  the  sept  of  Corcobaschin,  a  dis- 
trict in  the  west  of  the  present  County  Clare.  Tak- 
ing with  him  his  maternal  cousin  St.  Mobai,  he  spent 
some  years  traversing  Connaugbt,  and  then,  returning 
to  his  native  province;  built  a  cell  near  Loch  Crea,  at  a 
place  called  Seanross,  now  Corbally  (O^Donovan,  Four 
Matters,  i,  412  n.).  As  this  place  was  so  secluded  (de- 
sertus  et  avius)  SL  Cronan  afterwards  left  it,  and  built 
his  great  church  by  the  highway  at  Roscrea,  in  the 
county  of  Tipperaiy,  where  he  had  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous schools  in  Ireland.    Tbere^  in  piety  and  works 


that  make  for  peace  with  God  and  man,  he  spent  tha 
remainder  of  his  days,  the  honored  friend  of  Fiugen, 
king  of  Munster,  and  the  willing  advocate  of  the  op- 
pressed. 

13.  Of  Tuaim-greine  (now  Tomgraneyj  in  the  bar- 
ony of  Upper  Tulla,  County  Clare),  commemorated  Oct. 
19.  This  saint  appears  twice  in  the  Mart,  Doneg.,  first 
in  the  original  hand  at  Oct  19 ;  and  next  in  the  second 
hand,  on  the  authority  of  Mar.  0*Gorman,  at  Nov.  1. 
Among  the  saints  of  the  family  of  St.  Colman  of  Kil- 
macduach  (Feb.  8),  or  house  of  the  Hy-Fiachrach,  Col- 
gan gives  *'  St.  Cronan,  son  of  ^ngus,  son  of  Corbmac, 
etc,  Feb.  20  or  Oct.  19;"  and  Mart,  Doneg.  at  Feb.  20 
also  mentions  that  there  is  a  Cronan  with  this  pedigree 
(Todd  and  Reeves,  Mart.  Doneg.  p.  55, 279, 293 ;  Colgan, 
A  eta  Sanctorum,  p.  248,  c  2). 

14.  ^'Beg*^  of  iEndruim  (Nendmm),  bishop,  com- 
memorated Jan.  7.  His  name  appears  third  among  the 
bishops  of  the  Scots  in  the  north  of  Ireland  to  whom, 
with  priests  and  others,  pope  John  IT,  when  yet  but 
pope-elect,  A.D.  640^  addressed  the  famous  letter  on  the 
Paschal  question  and  the  Pelagian  heresy  (see  No.  11 
above).  The  Irish  Annals  generally  place  his  death  in 
A.D.  642,  and  the  Ann.  Tigh.,  perhaps  more  aocurateIv» 
in  A.D.  648 ;  but  Lanigan  \EccI  Hist,  of  Ireland,  ii,  412) 
is  mistaken  in  calling  him  "  bishop  of  Antrim  "  (Reeves, 
EccL  Ant.  p.  10,  n.,  63,  n.,  148-150, 187-197;  O'Hanlon, 
Irish  Saints,  i,  95,  96). 

There  is  another  Cronan  Beg,  who,  however,  is  usu- 
ally known  as  Cronbeg  (q.  v.). 

15.  **Clairenech"  (i.  e,  Jlat-faced),  commemorated 
Jan.  29.  Under  Seighin  it  is  stated  "  the  three  Claire- 
nechs  wero  Cronan,  Baeithin,  and  Seighin.** — Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

CxonAnuB.    See  Mochua. 

Cronbeg,  an  Irish  sainl,  abbot  of  Cluain-mic-nois 
(Clonmacnoise),  is  commemorated  April  6.  Accordiog 
to  Tighemach,  he  succeeded  Forcren  in  686,  and  died 
A.D.  694,  but  the  other  Annals  place  the  dates  rather 
earlier.  He  is  also  designated  by  the  double  diminutive 
Cron-an-beg  (Cronan-beg).  See  Todd  and  Reeves,^ar<L 
Doneg.  p.  97 ;  0*Conor,  Rer.  Hib.  Script,  ii,  214, 217;  iv, 
65 ;  O'Donovan,  Four  Masters,  i,  291, 297.~Smith,  DiOL 
of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Crone.    See  Cboink. 

Cronln,  John  W.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bora  in  Harford  County,  Md.,  about  1813.  He  was 
converted  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1887  entered  the  Balti» 
more  Conference,  wherein  he  labored  until  his  death, 
Oct.  3, 1845.  ^et  Minutes  of  Anmtal  Conferences,  19A&, 
p.  9. 

Cronius  is  the  name  of  two  earlv  Christians: 

1.  An  ecclesiastic  who  accompanied  Athanasius  to 
Tyre,  and  signed  his  letter  to  the  church  of  that  place 
(Athan.  ad  Constant,  i,  797) ;  perhaps  the  same  as  the 
bishop  of  Metole  in  the  list  given  by  Meletius  (ibid. 
789). 

2.  A  presbyter  and  solitary,  visited  by  Palladius  A.D. 
894  (who  was  afterwards  bishop  of  Hclenopolis  in  Bi- 
thynia),  and  about  the  same  time  by  Petronina  (aftei^ 
wards  bishop  of  Boulogne,  and  canonized).  He  was  a 
disciple  and  interpreter  to  St.  Anthony,  and  lived  in 
the  deserts  of  Egypt  He  was  canonized  (Pallad.  HisL 
Lavs,  cap.  7,  §  718;  De  Viiis  Patrum^  vii,  cap.  19,  ap. 
Migne,  PairoL  Lot,  Ixxiii,  1041,  1122,  1126;  GeiUier, 
vii,  485 ;  x,  161).>-Smith,  DicL  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Crook,  Enoch,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  waa 
bora  at  Bath,  Dec  1 1 ,  1797.  He  was  converted  at  eigh- 
teen years  of  age;  studied  at  Bradford  Academy;  was 
ordained  March  11, 1828,  at  Crewkerae,  Somersetshinii 
and  in  1884  went  to  Battersea,  where  he  continued  aa 
pastor  until  his  death,  June  28, 1887.  See  English  Bap^ 
titt  Magazine,  1887,  p.  881-884 ;  (Lond.)  Baptisi  ffaO- 
hook,  1888,  p.  22.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Crook,  John  (l),  an  English  minister  of  the  So- 


CROOK 


177 


CROOM 


ciety  of  Friends,  was  bom  in  Bedfordtfaife  in  1617. 
After  being  a  jiulioe  of  the  peace,  he  joined  the 
Friends  tboot  1664;  preached  in  Bedfordshire  and  the 
ndghboxing  ooonties;  satfered  imprisonment  in  Lon* 
don,  Hantiogdon,  Aylesbury,  and  Ipswich ;  afterwards 
ittoerated  in  Hertfordshire,  and  died  Feb.  26, 1699.  See 
Fnmdt' Library,  ziii,  S02, 292 ;  Evans,  Piety  Promoted, 
J,  163.    (J.C.  S.) 

Crook,  John  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  near  Leigh,  Lancashire,  in  1742.    He  entered 
the  smiy  and  was  converted  while  quartered  at  Limer- 
ick; afterwards  became  a  class-leader  in  Liverpool,  and 
the  society  there  sent  him,  in  1776,  as  a  missionary  to 
the  Iile  of  Man,  whose  inhabitants  were  in  a  heathen- 
ish state  of  immorality.    Amid  dtsoouragement  and 
penecntion  he  planted  Methodism  in  that  island,  and 
in  1782  WBS  appointed  to  the  Lisbum  Circuit,  in  counties 
Down  and  Antrim,  and  thereafter  labored  in  Ireland, 
except  another  term  of  service  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  from 
1786  to  1788,  and  1798.    During  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  preached  in  England.    He  died  at  Scarborough, 
Dec  27,  1805.     See  We^.  Meth,  Mag,  1806,  p.  8,  etc ; 
Mhmtet  of  the  Britith  Coi^erenee,  1806;  Stevens,  ffist, 
o/Melk  ii,  325;  iii,  202;  Smith,  Hiit.  of  WaL  Metk. 
1,891,451;  ii,  429;  I^OBaer,  Higt.  of  Weel.  Meth.  in  the 
Jde  of  Man  (Lend.  1849),  p.  48  sq. 

Crook,  Jolin  David  Weaver,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Epiacsopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Onnge- 
boig  District,  &  C,  Oct  6, 1820.  He  joined  the  Church 
when  about  twenty-two,  labored  several  years  as  a  local 
prescher,  and  in  1851  was  admitted  into  the  Sooth  Car- 
olina Conference.  He  died  May  1, 1866.  See  Minutes 
cfAiuaud  Confarmou  of  the  M,  E.  Church  South,  1866, 
pw20. 

Crook,  Rol>ert,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  about  1770.  He  was  converted  in  1789 ; 
studied  onder  tlie  Rev.  Mr.  Reader  at  Taunton ;  settled 
at  Kiogsbridge,  Devonshire ;  afterwards  removed  to 
Newton  Abbot,  where  he  remained  pastor  for  neariy 
half  a  century.  He  resigned  in  1885,  and  removed  to 
Chttdleigh,  where  be  died,  May  10, 1850.  See  (Lond.) 
Coag,  Year-hook,  1850,  p.  94. 

Crook,  William  (1),  one  of  the  patriarchs  of  Irish 
Methodism,  was  bom  at  Cabystown,Oonnty  Fermanagh, 
December,  1784.  He  was  received  into  the  ministry  in 
1804;  became  a  supernumerary  in  1851;  resided  in 
Dublin  and  Belfast,  and  died  in  the  former  city,  May 
if  1862,  being  at  the  time  senior  minister  in  the  Irish 
Conference.  Mr.  Crook  published  a  pamphlet  in  1828, 
entitled,  A  Few  Plain  Proofs  that  the  Church  of  England 
is  not  CaJtnmstic,  See  Memorials  of  Rev,  Wm,  Crook 
(Lond.  and  Dublin,  1868),  by  his  son,  Rev.  Wm.  Crook ; 
Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1862,  p.  86. 

Crook,  ^»niHaTn  (2),  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  Sooth,  was  bom  in  Chester  District, 
&  C^  in  1805.  He  was  converted  in  1821,  licensed  to 
preadi  in  1825;  admitted  into  the  South  Carolina 
Conference;  and  died  Nov.  25, 1867.  See  Minutes  of 
Ammal  Confertnoes  of  the  Jf.  E.  Church  South,  1867, 
p^llS. 

Crooke,6BOBGB  Alkxandkr,  D.D.,  D.CL.,  a  Prot- 
estant Episoofwl  clergyman,  graduated  from  Trinity 
Colkge,  Dttbi^  Ireland,  and  was  ordained  deacon  in 
1854,  and  pnsbyter  in  1855.  About  1858  he  resided  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  the  following  year  was  made  rector 
of  Sc  Peter's  Church,  Lewes,  DeL ;  in  1860,  of  St.  John's 
Cbnich,  Nortbein  Liberties,  Philadelphia,  continuing 
aatil  1864.  Th«  following  year  be  retumed  to  his  for- 
ner  parish.  In  Lewes,  and  remained  until  1867,  when  he 
becime  assistant  minister  in  SL  James's  Parish,  Phtla- 
ddpbia.  Subacqoently  he  resided  several  years  in  that 
atj,  without  cbiirge,  and  died  there,Apiil  18, 1877.  See 
PrvL  ^piac  Almanac,  1878,  p.  168. 

dookerv  Samuel,  a  minister  of  the  Bible  Chris- 
tiiBi|iraa  bora  in  North  Devon,  Kngland,  in  October, 


1808.  He  was  converted  in  1888 ;  went  to  his  first  cir- 
cnit,  Ringsash,  in  1840,  but  left  in  discouragement  Two 
years  afterwards  he  was  stationed  at  Chard,  where 
scores  of  conversions  cheered  him.  After  twenty-two 
years  of  effective  work  he  settled  at  Dunster,  Somerset, 
where  he  died,  May  1, 1881.  See  Minutes  of  the  Sixty^ 
third  A  nnual  Conference  of  the  Bible  Christians, 

Crookes,  ^7illiam  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took 
his  degree  at  Glasgow  University  in  1619;  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1625 ;  became  assistant  minister  at  Leswalt 
in  1631;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Kilmaurs  in 
1688 ;  continuetl  in  1650 ;  went  to  Ireland ;  was  minis- 
ter at  Ballykelly,  from  which  he  was  obliged  to  remove, 
and  had  assistance  in  money  from  the  kirk  session  at 
Torphichen  in  1659,  and  charity  in  1662.  He  died  in 
1697,  aged  about  ninety  years.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Sco- 
ttcana,  ii,  178. 

Crookes, 'William  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Barlborough,  Derbyshire,  Jan,  18, 1808. 
He  was  converted  when  seventeen ;  entered  the  minis- 
try in  1825;  was  appointed  to  Jamaica,  W.  L,  in  1827; 
returned  home  after  eleven  years  of  successful  labor,  and 
exercised  his  ministry  in  England  for  upwards  of  thirty 
3rears;  became  a  supernumerary  in  1871,  first  at  Mer- 
thyr-Tydvil,  afterwards  in  Chesterfield;  and  died  at 
Old  Whittington,  Chesterfield,  May  9, 1879.  See  Miit- 
ulesofthe  British  Cot^ference,  1879,  p.  38. 

Crooks,  David,  a  faithful  minister  of  the  German 
Reformed  Church,  was  bora  March  12, 1820.  He  stud- 
ied at  Mercersbuig,  Pa. ;  was  licensed  by  the  classis  of 
Zion  in  1888;  subsequently  went  to  North  Carolina, 
where  he  was  ordained  as  pastor  at  Davidson ;  and, 
aftier  some  years,  removed  to  Lincoln,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  24,  1859.  See  Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  the  Refi 
Church,  iv,  817-820.     (D.  Y.  H.) 

Crooks,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  de- 
gree at  Glasgow  University  in  1643 ;  was  called  to  the 
living  at  New  Luce  in  1646;  admitted  in  1647;  trans- 
ferred to  Ballantrae  in  1658;  and  died  after  Feb.  15, 
1661 .     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  ScoOeanm,  i,  753,  767. 

Crooks,  John  Conrad,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odbt  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Greenup 
County,  Ky.,  about  1824.  He  was  converted  in  ear- 
ly life;  entered  the  local  ministry  in  1855;  acquired 
a  good  education;  devoted  several  years  to  school- 
teaching  ;  and  in  1866  united  with  the  Western  Vir. 
ginia  Conference,  wherein  he  labored  with  unsurpassed 
acceptability  and  success  till  his  death,  March  2, 1875. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M,  E,  Church 
South,  1875,  p.  15. 

Crookshank,  Whxiam,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presby- 
terian minister,  took  his  first  degree  in  one  of  the  Scotch 
universities ;  went  to  London,  and  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Scotch  Church,  Swallow  Street^  in  January,  1784. 
He  was  a  man  of  learning,  but  in  1767  fell  under  the 
censure  of  the  Church,  removed  into  the  country,  and 
died  July  28, 1769,  when  more  than  seventy  years  old. 
In  1749  he  published,  in  two  volumes.  The  History  of 
the  State  and  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of  Scotlandjrom 
the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution,  He  also  published  an 
English  translation  of  Witsius  on  the  Covenants,  and  five* 
separate  Sermons,  See  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches,  iv, 
46 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  cmd  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Crookshanke,  John,  a  Scotch  deigyman,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1624 ;  appointed  assistant  to  his  ' 
father-in-law  in  1625 ;  called  to  the  living  at  Redgor- 
ton  in  1626,  and  ordained;  Joined  the  Protestors  in 
1651 ;  continued  in  March,  1661 ;  and  he  is  said  to  have 
been  **  slain  at  Pentland.*'  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Sooticana, 
ii,655. 

Croom,  M.  G.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  in  1820.  He  was  converted  when  quite  young, 
and  was  first  a  member  of  the  African  M.  E.  Church. 
In  1871  he  Joined  the  North  Carolina  Conference,  in 
which  he  served  as  pastor  and  presiding  elder  until  his 


CROP 


lis 


CROSIER 


death,  at  Wilmington,  Mawh  17, 1881.    See  Mumkt 
ofAwmal  Cof^erencei,  1882,  p.  72. 

Crop  la  a  name  for  the  top  or  flnial  of  a  yyx.  (q.  v.). 

Croquet  (or  Crooquet),  Amdr]£,  a  French  Do- 
minican, was  bom  at  Douay,  and  was  first  prior  of  the 
monastery  of  Haanon.  He  was  doctor  of  theology,  and 
died  in  1680,  leaving,  CommentarUu  in  Epistolcm  Pauli 
ad  Romanoi  (Dooay,  lb77):^Enarratio  EpUtola  ad 
BdmBO§  ^bid.  1578) :  —  CotecAetef  Ckristianus  (ibid. 
1576;  Lyons,  1598):— PorapArojw  tive  Condoms  in 
Stptem  Psalmot  PeemtentiaUt  (Donay,  1579).  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrak,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  ttgemein^  Ge- 
lehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v. 

CroBbie,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  bom  at 
MerkUnd,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1804 ;  presented  to 
the  living  at  Boittle  in  1807;  ordained  in  1808;  and 
died  Dec.  8, 1847,  aged  seventy  years.  See  Faiti  Ee- 
ckt»  ScoHcancBf  i,  704. 

Crosbie,  John  Qeddee,  A.M.,  a  Scotch  clergy- 
man, was  cidled  to  Birmingham  in  1824 ;  ordained  by 
the  Glasgow  Presbytery  in  1825;  resigned  his  English 
charge  in  1826;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Fen- 
wick  in  1828 ;  resigned  in  1836,  in  consequence  of  a 
change  of  opinion,  and  left  the  Scotch  Church.  He 
died  June  16, 1888.    See /Vz^»  £cc2ei.  ^coticomv,  ii,  170. 

Crosbie,  WiUlam  Olendonwyne,  a  Scotch 
clergyman,  took  his  degree  at  Edinbuxgh  University  in 
1828 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1829;  appointed  to  the 
living  at  Parton  the  same  year ;  ordained  in  1830 ;  and 
died  March  18, 1845,  aged  thirty-eight  years.  See  Fatti 
Eedes,  Sootioanaf  i,.720. 

Crosby,  Benjamin,  an  English  Wesleyan  mis- 
sionary, was  sent  to  Sierra  Leone  in  1884,  and  died 
April  24, 1887,  aged  twenty-nine  years.  See  MimUet 
of  the  Britiah  Co^ermee,  1837. 

Crosby,  Daniel,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  in  Hampden,  Me.,  Oct.  8, 1799.  He  graduated 
from  Yale  College  in  18123,  and  completed  his  theolog- 
ical course  at  Andover  in  1826 ;  became  pastor  at  Con- 
way in  1827,  and  of  Winthrop  Church,  Charlestown,  in 
1883 ;  in  1842  entered  upon  the  editorial  duties  at  the 
Blission  House  in  Boston,  and  died  Feb.  28, 1843.  He 
published  a  small  work  on  the  Chc^racUr  ofChriitf  and 
several  Sermons.  See  Spragiie,  Anaala  of  the  Amer, 
Puipit,  iv,  822. 

Crosby,  Jewett  Vemon,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Staunton,  Va.,  July  8, 1816.  He  g^d- 
uated  from  Hampden-Sidney  College  in  1837,  taught 
for  a  time,  spent  one  year  in  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Virginia,  then  became  stated  supply  at  Manning's 
Nedc,  K.  C.,  and  Jerusalem,  Va.,  in  1843 ;  was  ordained 
evangelist  by  the  Presbj^tery  of  East  Hanover,  Sept 
28  of  the  same  year;  preached  at  Southampton  and 
Smithfield^  Va;,  until  1847;  afterwards  at  Bardstown, 
Ky.;  from  1848  to  1860  was  pastor  of  that  church,  at 
the  same  time  being  principal  of  the  female  academy 
there ;  stated  supply  at  Midway  and  Clear  Creek  until 
1864;  was  also  principal  of  Rose  Hill  Female  Acad- 
emy; thereafter  stated  supply  and  principal  of  the  fe- 
male academy  at  Bardstown,  until  his  death,  Nov«  14, 
1877.  See  Gen,  Cat,  ^f  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p. 
186. 

Crosby,  John  (1),  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bora  at  Whitby  in  1755.  He  was  converted  in 
1774,  under  the  preaching  of  a  Church  of  England  min- 
ister, and  in  1783  Wesley  appointed  him  to  a  circuiL 
He  labored  with  great  success  for  twenty-eight  years, 
travelling  eighteen  circuits^  finally  settled  at  Bolton  as 
a  superaumerar}',  and  died  there,  March  29, 1816.  See 
Wed,  Meih,  Mag,  1819,  p.  8;  MimUe$  of  tha  Britiih 
Conference^  1816. 

Crosby,  John  (2),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  at  Bfl^gor,  M&i  in  1808.  He  graduated  "from 
Bowdoin  College  in  1823;  taught  for  a  year  in  Hallo- 


well;  graduated  from  Andover  Theologieal  Seminary 
in  1827,  and,  June  11, 1828,  waa  ordained  pastor  in  Gas- 
tine;  resigned  in  1881 ;  labored  for  a  year  in  Pennsyl- 
vania as  agent  of  the  American  Colonization  Society; 
then  went  to  Savannah,  Gsu,  and  subsequently  to  Bar- 
badoes,  where  he  died,  May  26, 1888.  See  Bidory  of 
Bowdoin  CoUeffe,  p.  261,  262;  Trien,  CaL  of  Andover 
Theol,  Sem.  1870,  p.  74.    (J.  C,  &) 

Crosby,  John  (3),  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bora  at  Powis  House,  near  Kirby  thorpe,  Westmore- 
land, Aug.  9, 1804.  He  was  converted  in  1819 ;  in  1829 
was  sent  to  Penrith  as  supply;  the  following  year  to 
Applebv,  and  in  1831  to  Kendal,  where  he  died,  Jan.8» 
1832.  'See  TTesf.  if e<A.  ifa^.  1884,  p.  498 ;  If M«/e«  </ 
the  British  Cot^ference,  1882,  p.  111. 

Crosby,  Joshua,  A.M.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  ordained  pastor  in  Enfield,  Mms.,  Dec.  2, 1789,  and 
died  in  1838.  See  Sprague,  Annait  of  the  Amer,  PuU 
pU,  ii,  142. 

Crosby,  Stephen,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  at  Thompson,  Conn.,  about  1795.  He  entered 
Brown  University,  but  graduated  from  Union  College^ 
SchenecUdy,  N.  T.,  in  Sl6  or  1817;  pursued  his  theo- 
logical studies  there  under  president  Nott;  in  Jane^ 
1819,  was  ordained  pastor  in  Spencer,  Mass.,  and  di»- 
missed  May  81, 1825.  Subsequently  he  was  pastor  in 
East  Granby,  Conn. ;  next  in  the  western  part  of  New 
York,  and  finally  in  or  near  Norwich,  Conn.,  where  he 
died  in  1889.    See  Hist,  of  Spencer,  p.  100.     (J.  C  &) 

Crosby,  Thomas  (1),  an  English  Baptist  histo- 
rian, was  bora  about  1700.  For  some  time  he  was  at 
the  bead  of  an  institution  for  the  education  of  boys. 
He  was  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  which  Dr.  Gill  was 
pastor.  His  great  work  was  his  History  of  EngUsh 
Baptists,  from  the  Rrformalion  to  the  Beginning  of  the 
Beign  of  George  I  (Lond.  1788-40, 4  vols.  8ro).  See 
Haynes,  Baptist  Cydop,  p.  168.     (J.  C  S.) 

Crosby,  Thomas  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan  Meth. 
odist  minister,  was  bora  at  Stock  with,  March  25, 1816w 
He  was  converted  at  eighteen,  received  into  the  minis- 
try in  1842,  and  died  at  Haslingden,  June  28, 1875.  See 
Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1876,  p.  28. 

Crosdalei  John,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  EpuBoopal  cler- 
gyman, was  rector  for  many  years  in  Newtown,  Md^ 
and  also  of  Pocomoke  and  Coventry  parishes.  He  died 
at  Newtown,  March  11, 1878.  See  Prot,  Episc  Alma" 
nac,  1879,  p.  168. 

Croser,  John  P.,  a  distinguished  Baptist  philan- 
throplBt,  was  bora  in  that  part  of  Springfield  now  called 
West  Dale,  in  Delaware  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  13, 1793.  At  the 
age  of  fifteen  he  united  with  the  First  Baptist  Church 
in  Philadelphia,  and  at  twenty-eight  commenced  the 
straggle  of  life,  which  eventuated  in  a  career  of  great 
success  in  business.  Mr.  Croser^s  interest  in  the  kin^ 
dom  of  Christ  early  developed  itself,  and  was  exhib- 
ited in  labors  and  contributions  to  the  Bible  and  tract 
societies,  the  temperance  and  anti-slavery  causes,  for- 
eign missions,  and  especially  in  the  cause  of  edncaUon* 
He  subscribed  liberally  in  aid  of  the  Lewisburg  Uni- 
versity, gave  ten  thousand  dollars  to  the  American 
Baptist  Publication  Society  for  a  dnnday-echool  libnt. 
ry  Fund,  and  five  thousand  dollars  to  purchase  hooka 
for  poor  ministers.  As  wealth  increased,  ao  did  his 
benevolence  grow  more  expansive,  and  his  dcmationa 
flowed  in  a  steady  stream  in  every  direction.  He  died 
March  11, 1866.  He  perpetuates  his  memory  thnagh 
the  fifty -thousand -dollar  memorial  fond  for  missloiia 
among  the  colored  people  of  the  oonntry,  and  tfaioiigli 
the  the(dogical  institution  at  Upland,  Pa.,  which  beats  * 
his  name.  See  Dr.  J.  Wfaeaton  Smith's  Life  of  Jm  I\ 
Croser.     (J.C.&) 

Crosier,  Samuel  B.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  miift- 
ister,  waa  bora  at  Halifax,  Yt.,  in  1812;  He  waa  con- 
verted at  the  age  of  twenty ;  soon  after  received  lioanae 
to  preach;  in  1851  was  admitted  into  the  Black  Rlv^ 


CoifinnGt;  bcMow  ■  •upenumiuU  In  UBS,  ud  died 
tl  Cajdt,  N.  T^  Dec  81, 1870.  See  Jlinitto/AmiMal 
Cfmftmea,  1871,  p,  1S8. 

Ckwb>  The  Katcment  of  Bede  nlUiiiK  to  the 
ftnr  kiodj  of  wood  of  which  the  croas  of  Chiut  wu 
mide— th«  apright  of  cTprea,  the  cw  piece  of  oedv, 
Ae  bead-inece  of  fir,  tiid  the  (bot-eopport  of  bia— dc- 
piita  from  tb«  Eutem 
Indilion,  which  Nib> 

fa  the  two  Utter  Ta- 
liititi  of  wood.    Su 
Ckoaa,  Cbkiit'b. 
The  piirete  ue  of 


CROSS 

A  in  rcligioa)  pToendoni  upoB 
long  atjireii 

A  luge  eroM  with  the  figure  *l- 
tached,  oUed  the  rooct,  wu  plued 

c«l  in  eT«7  church. 

It  WM  foimeiljr  the  ouMom  in 
Gntt  Britain,  es  it  Uill  ii  in  Bomin 
Cuhglic  conntrin^  to  erect  ctoMU  in 
cemeteriee,  by  the  mad-ttde,  and  in 
the  DMiket-lJacM  and  opan  ipaoea  in 
towDi  and  Tillagee,  of  which  oomer-   „    .       _  „ 

the  exception  of  the  market  ctohu, 

moat  of  them  are  greatlj  defaced :  thoaa  ti 

and  by  the  way-nde  were  gencftllj  aaplc  M 

railed  on  a  few  atctia,  conaeting  of  a  taU  ahaft,  with 


Ferlod. 


attheBaiUeat 


IfbeloiigiDg  to  rings, 

engiared,  and  which  ■> — ■■ 

appear  to  be  of  dale 

u  pnibeble  that  the  me  of 

■a  picTailed  before  and  during  hia  time,  with 

"    ' '  igmoraandmorelotheemd- 

CgnDiniheChriMianniiDd.  8e«ll<«oiMAiforCHnn. 

The  lidknriiig  engannge  iUoMrate  the  vatioiia  fonna 

vlii^  tbie  lymbol  of  Chriatianit;  aatuned  in  earij 

limM.    Sec  Cmtcivix;  laacairaoMi 


on  the  top ;  in  acme  iaataneea  thej  had  hmH  oicbea  or 
other  onuuneuta  loond  the  top  of  the  ahaft,  balow  the 
CToaai  the  village  cmeKa  appear  generally  to  haTC  been 
of  the  aame  umple  description,  hot  sometimea  thej 
were  more  important  elections  Market  croaaea  were 
oaually  polygonil  bnlldingg  with  an  open  irchwaj  on 
each  of  the  aides,  and  vaulted  within,  large  enoogh  to 
afford  abelter  to  *  oontideitble  nnmber  of  pecMH;  of 


Croa*  on  a  Kngle  Tomb  In  the  CalllxUne  Catacomb. 

The  torn ''atatiDn-cn]ea''ia  derived  fram  the  Soman 
militny  tenn  italio,  and  applied  to  a  lai^  cross  on  the 
cliief  iltai,  or  in  aome  principal  part  of  a  church,  but 

Toccaeionally  removed  or  carried  in 
piooeasion  to  another  apal,  and  then 
coDiIiluting  a  apccial  place  of  prayer. 
Prooeaiooal  croswa  may  be  tnced  to 
the  use  of  the  L^barum  in  ConMan- 
tine'i  ■nny,and  alio  to  hi)  anbsljla- 
tlon  of  the  cross  for  the  dragon,  or 
placing  it  above  the  dragon  on  tland- 
ardi  of  mhoria,  etc— Smith,  DiA  of 
AaOuK-Cnn.      CltritL  J  nf^.  a.  v.    See  Statiob. 
CB0S8,  as  an  aithilectaral  oraameot  in  cbarches 
sod  rdigiiKU  edificea,  was  almost  alwaya  placed  upon 
the  paints  of  the  gables,  the 
form  varying  coniidvably,  a^ 
U)  the  atyle  of  the  ar- 


Dgton,  Morth 


Chniebyard  Oroas,  Vaterperry, 


these  good  examples  remain  at  Halmeabnry,  Salisboiy, 
Chichester,  GlaitonbDry,  etc  Crosses  were  also  (reded 
in  commemorarion  of  remarkable  occtureDoes,  of  which 
Queen  Eleanor's  crosaea  ate  btautiTnl  examples;  thete 
are  meniDrials  of  the  places  at  which  her  corpse  rested 
each  night  on  its  Journey  to  Weitmintter  for  interment. 

The  croB  was  a  fflvorile  form  for  the  plan  of  chnrches, 
and  great  nambcra  are  built  in  this  shape,  the  West- 
em  churches  mostly  foUowicg  the  Latin  form  of  cross, 
the  Byiantinc  cburches  following  the  Greek  form,  L  •. 
with  the  chsncel,  nave,  and  two  transepts  all  of  cqoal 
length.— Parker,  Olou.  ufArckiltd.  a,  r. 

CROSS  or  ABSOLtTTiotr  wsa  a  metal  eroas,  inscribed 
with  a  papal  absolution,  buried  In  graves.  Specimens 
have  been  found  at  Ueaux,  Hayence,  Plrigneux,  and 
Bnry  St.  Edmnod'a.  One  of  a  bishop,  dr.  1068,  is  pre- 
eerved  at  Chichester, 

CROSS,  Adoratiom  of.    See  Asokihoh  or  tb> 

CB0S8,  AppABirroK  of  th^  al  Jen/Malan,  about 
the  tbitd  bout  of  the  d^,  in  the  time  of  ConsUntiai, 


CROSS 


180 


CROSS 


in  the  year  846,  is  oommemonted  Hay  7  in  the  Byun- 
tine  and  £tliiopic  calcndara. 

CROSS  OF  BoDXDART  (WAT6IDB,  and  Sanctu- 
abt).  Croases  eng^yed  on  boundary  atones  are  men* 
tioned  as  early  as  807;  and  atanding  crosses  for  the 
same  pnrpoies  are  freqnently  aUuded  to  in  old  Eng- 
lish cartalaries.  Near  Hereford  there  is  a  good  exam- 
ple, of  the  14th  century.  At  Buiy  and  Beverley,  the 
whole  precinct  was  distinguished  at  the  cardinal  points 
of  the  compass  by  tall  crosMS.  In  Cornwall  and  the 
Isle  of  Blan  crosses  are  very  common ;  in  the  former 
region  they  sometimes  have  a  rounded  head.  One  at 
Towednack  has  a  curious  double -incised  cross,  like  a 
patriarchal  cross,  which  may  mark  the  boundary  of  a 
religions  house.  St.  Burian's  has  a  church-yard  cross 
of  the  18th  or  14th  century;  and  at  a  little  distance  a 
sanctuary  cross,  with  a  crudfiz.  At  Battel,  as  late  as 
the  17th  century,  the  boundaries  were  marked  by  watch 
crosses.  There  is  a  wayside  cross,  of  the  14th  century, 
in  Burleigh  Park. 

CROSS  or  Calvary  is  a  cross  on  three  steps. 
These  steps  are  said  by  some  writers  to  signify  the 
three  theological  virtues— faith,  hope,  and  charity. 

CROSS  OF  CoHSBCRATioir.  See  Conbbcbation 
Cboss. 

CROSS  Cboaslet  is  a  cross  with  equal  arms,  each 
of  the  ends  of  which  b  terminated  by  another  cross. 

CROSS,  QsEBK,  a  cross  in  which  the  vertical  and 
transvexse  parts  are  of  equal  length. 

CROSS,  Imcemsino  thb,  is  a  ceremony  by  which  all 
crosses  to  be  erected  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  in 
public  places,  high-roads,  and  cross-ways,  as  well  as  on 
the  tops  of  chapels,  are  prepared  previous  to  erection. 
Candles  are  first  lighted  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  after 
which  the  celebrant  sits  down  before  it  and  delivers  a 
discourse  to  the  people  on  its  manifold  virtues.  Then 
he  sprinkles  the  cross  with  holy  water,  and  afterwards 
with  incense,  and  at  the  dose  of  this  ceremony  candles 
are  set  upon  the  top  of  each  arm  of  the  cross. — Gard- 
ner, FaUks  o/tAe  World,  s.  v. 

CROSS,  Latin,  is  a  cross  the  transverse  beam  of 
which  is  placed  at  one-third  distance  from  the  top  of 
the  perpendicular  portion.         * 

CROSS  or  Malta  Lb  a  cross  of  eight  points,  the 
badge  of  the  knights  of  Malta.  The  points  are  said  to 
sjrmbolize  the  eight  beatitudes  (Matt.  vi). 

CROSS,  Mabket,  is  an  erection  of  stone,  commonly 
vaulted,  jBupported  on  four  or  more  pillars,  and  entered 
by  arched  apertures  on  each  side,  surmounted  by  a 
cross,  usually  built  in  the  centre  of  the  cross-streets, 
for  the  shdter  of  persons  attending  market.  Many 
curious  and  remarkable  andent  specimens  exist ;  e.  g. 
at  Glastonbury,  Chichester,  Malmesbury,  and  Winches- 
ter.   All  these  are  of  Pointed  architecture. 

CROSS,  Mkmoriai^  was  a  beautiful  structure  of 
stone,  erected  near  Durham,  in  memory  of  the  victory 
of  the  Red  Hills,  and  called  Neville's  Cross,  while  an 
humbler  crucifix  of  wood  marks  the  spot  on  which  the 
monks  had  stood,  praying  for  the  rout  of  the  Scots. 

CROSS,  OsDKAL  or  thb,  is  a  mode  of  trial  anciently 
practiced  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  accused  per- 
son brought  eleven  compurgators  to  swear  to  his  inno- 
cence. Two  pieces  of  wood,  on  one  of  which  the  cross 
was  delineated,  were  placed  under  a  cover,  and  he  was 
to  choose  one  of  these.  If  he  took  the  one  with  the 
cross,  he  was  regarded  as  innocent;  if  the  other,  guilty. 
This  apedes  of  ordeal  was  abolished  about  A.D.  820,  as 
exposing  the  sacred  symbol  to  profanation,— Gardner, 
Faithi  ofthe  Worlds  %  v. 

CROSS,  Papal,  is  a  cross  with  three  transverse 
beams,  the  upper  one  less  wide  than  the  second,  and 
the  second  less  wide  than  the  third. 


CROSS,  Pbctobai^  ia  a 
cross  of  predons  metal  worn 
lonnd  the  necka  of  Roman 
Catholic  and  Greek  bish- 
ops, attached  to  a  chain, 
symbolizing  to  the  faithful 
authority  and  jurisdiction. 
It  was  worn  by  St.  Alphege 
in  the  11th  oentur}*. 

CROSS  FOR  Preach- 
no.  Crosses,at which  aer- 
mons  were  delivered,  ex- 
isted on  the  north  side  of 
Norwich  and  Worcester 
cathedrala  and  St.  Paul's, 
and  on  the  aouth  at  Here- 

8p«nUhBx«npl.of.Cw«  '■"'^    A  be«itiW^Mn. 
^^       Pectoral  P^®  remaina  m  the  Domin- 

ican monastery  at  Here- 
ford. St.  Oswald  used  to  preach  at  the  cemetery  croaa 
of  Worcester. 

CROSS  or  Prelates  (or 
Crosier).  Of  this  episco- 
pal emblem  we  give  the  fol- 
lowing additional  particulars 
from  Walcott,  Sac  A  rehmoL 
s.  v.: 

"It  reminded  bishops  of 
their  duty,  as  the  pastoral 
staff  was  for  the  direction  of 
the  laity.    The  archiepisco- 

Sal  cross  of  Canterbury  was 
istinguished  from  the  pro- 
cessional cross  (which  had 
but  one)  by  two  craclflzet, 
behind  and  before  The 
double  -  crossed  patriarchal 
cross,  so  called,  Ibrmed  by 
the  addition  of  the  scroll,  waa 
nsed  in  Greece,  but  in  the 
West  is  merely  a  convention- 
al and  arbitrary  invention  of 
pointers  (it  resembles,  how- 
ever, the  cross  of  Lorraine) ; 
and  the  triple-barred  cross 
of  the  pope  is  equallv  mod- 
em ana  unauthorized.  The 
cross  was  carried  by  a  sub- 
deacon  in  front  of  pope  Leo 
IV,  when  he  rode  on  horse- 
back, according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  his  predecessors.  The 
archbishop  of  Ravenna  was 
allowed  to  have  his  cross 
borne  before  him  throughout 
his  province,  and  within  three 
miles  of  Rome.  Augustine  en- 
tered Canterbury  with  a  cross 
borne  before  him ;  Thomas  k 
liecket  waa  preceded  by  his 
silver  cross:  and  8t  Anselm 
refused  to  allow  the  archbish- 
op of  Dublin  such  a  privilege 
in  England ;  while  archbish- 
op Peocham,  In  1279,  excom- 
municated all  persons  selling 
victuals  to  the  archbishop  of 
York,  if  the  latter  persisted 
in  having  bis  crosier  carried 
in  state  within  the  province 
of  Canterbury.  After  the  9th 
century,  legates  apostolic 
were  permitted  to  enjoy  this 
distinction :  and  in  the  18th 
century  it  waa  extended  to 
metropolitans  who  had  re- 
ceived the  pall :  but  in  the 
18th  centnry  it  became  com- 
mon to  all  archbishops.  In- 
nocent III  and  the  Council 
of  Laterau,  in  1810,  granted 
the  use  of  the  banner  of  the 
cross  to  be  carried  before  the 
patriarchs  of  Alexandria,  An- 
tioch,  and  Jerusalem,  except 
In  the  dty  of  Rome.  The 
cross -bearing  is  a  preroga- 
tive, not  an  act  of  Jurisdic- 
tion, but  simply  a  sign  of 
honor  and  reverence  one  to 
a  dignity.    The  bishop  of 


Graslar. 


J 


CROSS 


181 


CROSS 


LDCcairwn  the  palL  and,  like  ttit  Mthop  of  PftTia,  hai 
his  CITM8  carried  Delore  him  br  grant  of  Alezander  11, 
1070;  hit  cuoDS  walk  mitred  in  prooeaeiona,  like  card!- 
nala.  The  kings  of  Hongary  auo  carry  the  croaa,  in 
memory  of  kSne  Stephen,  to  whom  it  waa  granted,  in 
1000^  by  pope  Sylreater  II.  The  archbiabop  of  Naaa- 
reth  had  the  right  of  luing  the  croea  ererywhere ;  and 
the  archhiahop  of  Toledo  throaghont  Spain.  In  1459 
Booth,  of  York,  by  a  ooropact  made  in  1858,  gare  an 
image  of  himaelf  to  Canterborr,  having  carried  hia  crof  a 
within  the  proTlnoe.  The  biabop  of  Fnncbal,  on  certain 
daya,  haa  a  croaier  carried  before  him,  inatead  of  the 
fltuT,  in  memory  of  the  aee  having  once  been  metropolis 
taa.  The  pope  never  carries  a  croaier,  nnleaa  he  should 
be  In  the  dioceae  of  Treves,  where  St.  Peter  la  aaid  to 
have  given  hla  ataff  to  ita  first  bishop,  Bncberina.  The 
reason  la.  that  the  bend  at  the  top  of  a  croaier  betokena 
restricted  Jnriadiaion,  while  the  pontUfclalma  nnlimited 
aovereignty.  It  ia  certain,  however,  that  orlglnallv  he 
reedvea  a  AmXo,  or  ataS;  at  hia  inangnntion.  TThe  bish- 
op of  Capetown  was  the  first  colonial  metropolitan  who 
canled  a  crosier.  There  ia  a  fine  croaier  of  the  16th  cen- 
tnry  at  Toledo,  which  cardinal  llendoza,  ic  1492,  planted 
on  the  Alhamora :  and  another,  with  enamel  work,  at 
CoJognsL  Ragenlh>l*8  cross,  of  tbe  12th  century,  with 
Goliath  in  the  head,  ia  at  Goodrich  Court ;  a  third,  with 
cnasoel  and  figurea,  la  in  the  Britiah  llnaenm." 

CROSS,  Bkd  or  Blue,  is  the  mark  set  on  houses 
infected,  in  tiaoes  of  plague. 

CROSS,  RxuQUABY,  b  a  box  of  precious  metal,  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  so  arranged  as  to  receive  particles 
of  the  relics  of  the  saints. 

CROSS  OF  TBS  RssuBBEcnoN  OF  Chbist  is  a  tall, 
dlgfat  cross,  to  the  top  of  which  is  affixed  a  floating 
pennon  of  white,  chaiged  in  its  turn  with  a  scarlet  or 
crimson  crosai 

CROSS,  ScBKBii  (or  Rooo).  A  cross  on  or  above 
the  altar  is  one  of  the  legal  omamaita  of  the  aame :  and 
^he  cnM%  with  tbe  Ague  of  oor  Lord  attached,  can  be 


Mth-centnry  Cross,  on  a  Chanoel-scrocn. 

Cfeelcd  in  seulptore  over  the  altar,  or  aa  an  important 
put  of  the  nod-screen.  Anciently,  almost  every  Eng- 
fish  chmth  owned  its  rood-cross,  with  the  figures  of 
Ksry  and  John  on  either  side. 

CROSS)  Siov  OF  THE,  is  a  signal  current  among 
Christians,  made  in  the  West  by  drawing  the  three  fin- 
gtaof  the  right  hand  from  the  foiehead  to  the  breast, 


ind  from  the  left  to  tbe  right  shoulder.  The  use  of 
this  sign  is  a  very  ancient  Christian  practice,  possibly 
as  old  as  Christianity  itself.  Minutius  Felix  asserts 
that  it  was  a  badge  of  faith  among  the  primitive  dis- 
ciples ;  and  Tertullian,  long  before  material  crosses  were 
in  use,  tells  us  that  **  upon  every  motion,  at  their  going 
out  or  coming  in,  at  dressing,  at  their  going  to  bath,  or 
to  meals,  or  to  bed,  or  whatever  their  employment  or 
occasion  called  them  to,  they  were  wont  to  mark  their 
foreheads  with  the  sign  of  the  cross;  adding,  that  this 
was  a  practice  which  tradition  had  introduced,  custom 
had  confirmed,  and  which  the  present  generation  re- 
ceived upon  the  credit  of  that  which  went  down  before 
them  "  (Tertullian.  De  Coron.  Mil.  c  ui).  The  follow- 
ing is  the  ordinaiy  Oriental  mode  of  making  the  tign 
o/tke  crou.  The  tips  of  the  thumb  and  the  two  fore- 
fingers of  the  right  hand  are  brought  together  (the 
third  and  fourth  fingers  being  folded  in  the  palm  of  the 
hand).  The  band  is  then  lifted,  and  the  three  finger- 
tips brought  into  contact  with  the  middle  of  the  fore- 
head ;  it  is  then  brought  down  to  the  chest,  and  moved 
transversely  upwards  to  the  right  shoulder ;  and,  lastly, 
horizontaUy  to  the  left.  .The  meaning  of  tbe  act  is 
thus  explained  by  certain  mystical  Eastern  writers. 
The  conjunction  of  the  three  finger-tips  signifies  in  one 
action  the  equality  and  unity  of  the  Three  Persons  of 
the  Holy  Trinity ;  the  raising  of  the  hand  to  the  fore- 
head  signifies  thst  God  the  Word  was  in  heaven  glori- 
fied together  with  the  Father  and  the  life-giving  Spirit 
from  all  eternity.  The  descent  of  the  hand  to  the  waist 
or  breast  denotes  that  this  same  God  came  down  from 
heaven  to  the  earth,  and  waa  incarnate  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  the  womb  of  the  ever-virgin  Mary,  thus  be- 
coming man  for  our  salvation;  the  motion  upward  to 
the  right  shoulder  B3rmbo]izes  that  he  has  reascended 
into  heaven,  and  is  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  God 
the  Father ;  the  horizontal  motion,  from  right  to  left, 
that  our  blessed  Saviour's  arms  were  stretched  out  on 
the  cross  to  make  atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world ; 
that  be  is  gathering  together  into  one  body  the  faith- 
ful out  of  all  nations,  and  that  at  the  last  day  he  will 
set  the  righteous  on  his  right  hand  and  the  wicked  on 
his  left.  After  the  Joined  fingers  have  touched  the  left 
shoulder  some  Easterns  lay  the  open  palm  on  tbe  left 
breast  over  the  heart  and  bow  the  head.  This  is  re- 
puted as  a  declarations  of  devotion  to  the  cause,  and  sub- 
mission to  the  will,  of  the  divine  Master.— Lee,  Glou, 
of  LUvrg,  Temu,  s.  v. 

CROSS,  Wekpiico,  is  one  at  which  penance  was  per- 
formed. 

Cross,  Afaijah,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  in  Massachusetts  in  1798.  He  graduated  from 
Dartmouth  College  in  1821 ;  studied  in  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1823 ;  waa  ordained  Maroh  4, 1824 ; 
was  pastor  at  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  until  1829;  at  West 
Haverhill,  Mass.,  stated  supply  until  1831,  and  pastor 
until  1858 ;  without  charge  at  the  same  place  thereafter 
until  his  death,  July  16,  1856.  See  Trim.  Cat.  of  An- 
dover Theol.  Sem.  1870,  p.  67. 

Cross,  Coleman  Harwell,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Giles 
County,  Tenn.,  Oct.  5, 1833.  He  was  converted  in  1857, 
and  in  the  same  year  entered  the  Tenneasee  Conference, 
in  which  he  successfully  labored  to  the  dose  of  his  life, 
Aug.  9,  1860.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferaicet  of 
the  M.  E.  Church  South,  1860,  p.  212. 

Cross,  David,  a  Free-wiU  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Wilmot,  K.  H.,  Jan.  22,  1786.  He  was  con- 
verted at  thirty  years  of  age,  soon  after  began  to  preach, 
and  died  in  Newark,  Vt,  June  22, 1870.  See  Free-will 
Baptist  RegitUr,  1871,  p.  81.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cross,  Johzi,  a  Ftesbyterian  minister,  styled  by  Dr. 
Brownlee  ^  a  Scottish  worthy/'  was  received  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  New  Jersey  Synod  in  1782,  and  settled  at  a 
place  called  The  Mountains,  back  of  Newark.  The  re- 
markable revival  in  his  congregation,  in  1784  and  1785,  is 


CROSS 


182 


CROSWKLL 


nOdo^ialEAwnd^BThoHgkUonJRevivaU,  He  was  the 
minister  of  Baskingridge  and  Staten  Island,  and  one  of 
the  first  members  of  &e  New  Brunswick  Fkesbjteiy. 
He  was  wonderfully  snecessful  as  a  revivalist  White- 
field  was  refreshed  by  meeting  with  him,  and  they  la- 
bored together  at  Baskingridge  and  the  vicinity.  Cross 
alterwaids  fell  into  sin,  and  it  is  not  known  where  he 
died«    (W.P.a) 

CroM^  Joseph  Qonld,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Onondaga  County,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  12, 
1840.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  nine ;  removed 
to  niinois  with  his  father  early  in  life;  spent  four  years 
in  school  at  Evanston;  and  in  1867  was  admitted  into 
the  Bock  Biver  Conference,  wherein  he  labored  with 
marked  success  until  his  death,  Hay  28,  1870.  See 
Mmutei  o/Ammal  Cfmfermctt,  1870,  p.  276. 

Crou^  Joshua  L.,  a  Baptist  minuter,  was  bom  in 
Tennessee  in  1822.  He  Joined  the  Church  in  1847,  was 
ordained  in  October  of  that  jrear,  and  began  his  work  in 
western  Tennessee  in  1848,  visiting  the  churches  in  Hen- 
derson County,  and  acting  as  pastor  at  Unity  until  the 
dose  of  1849 ;  after  which  he  labored  in  Fayette  County, 
other  parts  of  western  Tennessee,  and  in  parts  of  north- 
em  Mississippi  for  a  number  of  years.  In  1869  his  la- 
bors were  divided  between  the  churches  at  Byhalia  and 
Olive  Branch,  nntU  his  death,  March  11,  1870.  See 
Bomm,  8heUike»  of  Temu  Mvmtert,  p.  118.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Cross  (a^  Fi$her\  Mary,  an  English  minister  of 
the  Society  of  Friends,  was  bom  in  the  north  of  £ng^ 
land  abont  1628.  She  appeared  as  a  minister  in  1652, 
and  was  imprisoned  and  even  whipped  for  addressing 
pubUo  assemblies  during  her  travels  in  the  south  of 
England*  Subsequently  she  visited  the  West  India 
Islands  and  North  America,  in  1668.  In  1662  she  mar- 
ried William  Bayley,  and  in  1678  John  Cross,  of  Lon- 
don ;  but  finally  came  to  America,  and  resided  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ashley  Biver,  near  Charleston,  S.  C,  where 
she  died,  about  1700.  See  Bowden,  Hkt  ofiht  8oc  of 
Friends w AmencajUBS-4l.    (J.CS.) 

Cross^  Robert,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
near  Ballykelly,  Ireland,  in  1689.  He  was  licensed  by 
the  S3mod  in  1717 ;  preached  some  time  in  New  Castle, 
Pa.,  and  became  pastor  there  in  1718;  was  ordained 
March  17, 1719;  in  September,  1728,  was  called  to  Ja- 
maica, N.  Y.;  in  1737  to  Philadelphia;  resigned  June 
2, 1758,  and  died  in  that  dty,  Aug.  9, 1766.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Cross^  Walter,  AJtf.,  an  English  Independent  min- 
ister, studied  in  Scotland  and  Holland,  and  settled  as  pas- 
tor in  Hope-maker's  Alley,  Moorfields,  London,  in  1675. 
He  preached  at  Utrecht  in  1685 ;  returned  to  London,  and 
died  there  in  1701.  He  published  two  Semoru,  and  in 
1698  A  TrecOite  on  the  Art  of  Expounding  Scripture  fty 
the  PoinU  called  Accents,  See  Wilson, 2>MiM»i/tri^  CfturcA- 
et,  ii,685. 

Cross,  "WiUiaiii,  an  English  Wesleyan  missionaiy, 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  twenty-one;  in  1827  was 
sent  to  New  Zealand,  in  1829  to  the  Friendly  Islands, 
and  in  October,  1835,  with  Cargill,  to  the  cannibals  of 
Fiji.  He  remained  at  his  post  until  his  death,  Oct  16, 
1842.  The  story  of  his  trials  and  dangers  and  marvel- 
lous successes  may  be  found  in  the  Life  of  Cross^  by 
John  Hunt  (Lond.  1846,  12mo).  See  Minutes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1844;  Moister,  Hist,  of  WesUyan 
Missions,  185a 

Cross,  WlUlaxn  Q.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  Soufh,  was  bora  in  Morgan  County, 
Ya.,  Jan.  17, 1822.  He  experienced  religion  at  the  age 
of  twenty-two ;  united  with  the  Baltimore  Conference 
in  1846 ;  became  a  superannuate  in  1873 ;  and  died  Aug. 
4  of  the  same  year.  See  Minutes  of  A  nmual  Conferences 
of  the  M,  E.  Church  South,  1874,  p.  4. 

Cross -alphabets  is  a  name  applied  to  certain 
characters  made  by  the  pope  at  the  dedication  of  church- 
es.   A  pot  of  ashes  is  provided,  which,  in  the  course  of 


the  oemnony,  is  strewed  in  two  fines,  each  abont  a  span 
in  breadth,  in  the  fomi  of  a  cross,  trsnsvenely  from  an- 
gle to  angle  of  the  church.  During  the  chanting  of  the 
Benedsetus  the  pontiff  soores  with  the  point  of  his  pas- 
toral staff  on  one  of  these  lines  the  Greek  alphabet,  and 
on  the  other  the  Latin. 

Cross-week.  The  days  of  the  rogation  were  ao 
called  in  1571 ;  the  name  formerly  designated  the  week 
in  which  the  finding  of  the  Holy  Cross,  May  8,  was 
kept. 

Crosse,  John,  AM^  an  English  divine,  was  bora 
in  1787.  For  upwards  of  thirty  years  he  was  vicar  of 
Bradford,  Yorkshire,  and  died  there  June  17, 1816.  See 
(Loud.)  Christian  Observer,  July,  1816,  p.  486. 

Crossett,  Cortes  Z.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bora  in  Danbury,  N.  H.,  Sept.  17, 1858.  He  was 
converted  in  1875,  joined  the  West  Wisconsin  Confer- 
ence in  1877,  and  labored  at  Necedah,  EUsworth,  and 
Pepin,  where  he  died,  Sept.  17, 188L  See  Minutes  of 
Annual  Conferences,  1881,  p.  319. 

Crossette,  Bobkbt,  a  Presbjrterian  minister,  was 
bora  in  Massachusetts.  He  graduated  from  Bangor 
Theological  Seminary,  was  settled  for  a  time  at  Den- 
nysvillc.  Me.,  and  afterwards  served  churches  in  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylva- 
nia. In  1868  he  removed  to  College  Hill,  O.,  where  he 
died,  June  24, 1872.    See  PreOyterian,  July  6, 1872. 

Crossley,  David,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
a  co-laborer  in  early  life  of  John  Bunyan  as  a  preacher, 
became  pastor  in  1705  at  Curriers*  Hall,  Cripplegate, 
London,  and  years  afterwards  retired  into  the  country, 
where  he  eventually  kept  a  school,  and  died  about  1748. 
See  Wilflon,  2>iMeiKti^  Oan:;^,  ii,  572.    (J.CB.) 

Crossley,  John,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  White  Hall,  Over  Darwen,  Nov.  20, 
1790.  He  was  converted  when  about  fourteen  years  of 
age ;  educated  himself;  was  ordained  at  Tosside,  York- 
shire, in  1820 ;  afterwards  labored  at  Horwich,  Buxton, 
and  Lichfield ;  and  then,  resigning  the  regular  ministry, 
rehioved  to  Farawoith,  where  he  died,  Oct.  28;  1864. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year^look,  1865,  p.  232. 

Crosthwalte,  Thomas,  an  English  Wesleyan  mis- 
sionary, was  accepted  by  the  Conf^nce  in  1880;  la- 
bored partly  in  Nova  Scotia  and  partly  in  the  West  In- 
dies, and  died  May  1, 1836,  aged  thirty-one.  See  Min- 
utes of  the  British  Conference,  1886;  Cooney,  AutoUoff, 
of  a  Wesl^an  Missionary  (Montreal,  1856),  p.  284. 

Croswell,  Andrew  (1),  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bora  in  Charlestown,  Mass.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1728;  was  ordained  in  Groton,Conn., 
in  1786 ;  installed  over  a  new  society  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Oct.  6, 1788,  and  died  April  12, 1785,  aged  seventy-aiz 
years.  He  published  a  number  of  Sermons  and  contro- 
versial pamphlets.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Awier, 
Pulpit,  i,  822. 

Cros^BireU,  Andrew  (2),  an  Episcopal  dergsrman, 
was  bora  at  Falmouth,  Mass.,  July  9, 1822.  He  studied 
at  the  academy  in  his  native  place  and  at  Phillips  Acad- 
emy in  Andover;  graduated  from  Brown  University  in 
18^,  and  from  the  theological  seminary  at  Alexandria, 
Ya.,  in  1846.  He  was  ordained  deacon  the  same  year, 
took  charge  of  a  mission  station  in  Johnston,  B.  L,  was 
ordained  a  presbyter  in  1848,  had  charge  of  a  Church 
in  Chicopee,  Mass.,  then  became  rector  of  St.  Paul's 
Church  in  Brunswick,  Me.,  where  he  remained  till  the 
spring  of  1858,  and  then  removed  to  Newton  Lower 
Falls,  Mass.,  and  was  rector  of  St.  Mary's  Chuich  in  that 
place  three  years.-  He  afterwards  resided  in  Cambiidga 
for  a  time ;  out  of  his  efforts  grew  St.  James's  pariah. 
North  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  rector  till  the  spring 
of  1871.  He  died  on  Coshing's  Island,  near  Fbrtland, 
June  80, 1879.  See  Broum  University  Necrology,  1879, 
1880 ;  Prot.  Episc  A  Imanac,  1880^  p.  171.    (J.  a  S.} 

Croswell,  Hany,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episoopal 


CROXTCH 


188 


CROWELL 


ttogyman,  wm  bom  at  West  Hartftnd,  Oodd^  Jaoe  16, 
1778.  He  WIS  ordained  detooo  in  1814,  and  presbyter  in 
181&  He  began  his  ministerial  work  in  Christ  Choieh, 
Hndsoo,  N.  T^  in  May,  1814,  and  on  Jan.  1  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  oommenoed  his  services  in  Church  Street, 
New  T<»k  city,  and  was  instituted  rector  of  the  parish 
Feb.  22, 181&  For  more  than  forty  years  he  was  rector 
of  Trinity  Cbofdi,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and  died  there, 
Maieh  18, 1868.  See  Amer.  Q^ar.  Ckurek  Beo,  1868, 
pulTS. 

Crouch,  Benjamin  T.,  Sr^  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  New 
Castle  County,  Del,  July  1, 1798.  He  Joined  the  Church 
in  1816;  received  license  to  exhort  in  1818;  and  in 
1819  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  admitted  into  the  Ohio 
Conferenoe.  On  the  formation  of  the  Kentucky  Con- 
ference, in  1820,  he  became  one  of  its  members.  He 
took  a  superannuate  relation  in  1827,  re-entered  the  ef- 
fective ranks  in  1880,  and  continued  faithful  until  1866, 
when  he  again  became  a  superannuate  and  took  charge 
of  a  school  at  Goshen,  Oldham  Co.,  Ky.,  where  he  di^ 
April  26, 1858.  See  Minutes  of  A  tmual  Confertnou  of 
ike  M.£.  Ckurdk8ouik,lSo8,p,S. 

Crouch,  Benjamin  T.,  Jr.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  and  reared 
in  Kentucky.  He  embraced  religion  early  in  life,  and 
In  1851  entered  the  Memphis  Conference,  After  two  or 
three  years  of  useful  service,  he  went  as  missionaiy  to 
California,  subsequently  returned  to  the  regular  work 
of  the  Memphis  Conference,  wherein  he  was  faithful 
■ntil  the  beginning  of  the  Bebellion,  when  he  became 
chaplain  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  was  shot  in  the 
battle  of  Thompson*s  Sution,  Middle  Tennessee,  in  1868. 
See  Mimttes  of  A  muial  Conferaieet  of  the  3f,  E.  Church 
ANtt*,1863,p.4S4. 

Croach,  Chxlstopher  J.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  in  Cecil  County,  Md.,  Jan.  1, 1811. 
He  joined  the  Church  when  about  eighteen ;  received 
fioense  to  exhort  in  1881,  and  in  1888  entered  the  Phil- 
adelphia Conference,  wherein  he  served  with  zeal  and 
fidelity  until  1868,  when  he  became  a  supernumerary. 
He  was  post-chaplain  in  the  Union  army  two  yean,  and 
died  Feb.  4, 1874.  See  MuaOes  of  Annual  ConferemxM^ 
1874,  p.  84. 

Cronch,  John  F.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  mimster, 
was  bom  in  Cecil  Coun^,  Md.,  May  27, 1804.  He  em- 
braced religion  at  fifteen;  was  licensed  to  exhort  in 
1826;  to  preach  in  1881 ;  and  in  1833  entered  the  Phil- 
adelphia Conference ;  was  a  supernumerary  seven  years, 
and  died  Sept  23, 1852.  See  Mimtiet  ofAtmual  Con- 
/eremces,  1853,  p.  173. 

Crouch,  TVilliam,  an  English  minister  of  the  So- 
ciciT  of  Friends,  was  bom  at  Penton,  in  Hampshire,  Ap|p 
5^  1628L  In  1656  he  joined  the  Friends  in  London,  and 
by  his  preaching  and  pecuniary  help  did  much  to  sus- 
tdui  their  tben  feeble  cause.  He  died  Nov.  13, 1710. 
See  Friatd^  Library,  xi,  287-381.     (J.  C.  &) 

Cxonched  (or  Cnttched,  L  e.  eroated)  Z^iara 
were  a  religious  order,  called  also  Cro$%er$  or  Croas' 
hearerw,  which  was  founded  in  the  4th  century,  in  hon- 
or of  the  discovery  of  the  Cross  by  the  empress  Helena. 
They  came  to  England  in  1244,  and  carried  in  their 
band  a  stafl^  on  the  top  of  which  was  a  cross.  They 
bad  naonastcries  at  London,  Ryegate,  and  Oxford. 

Cioiiched-mafl-day  b  the  festival  in  the  Greek 
Church  in  honor  of  the  erection  of  the  cross.  From 
this  feast,  which  occurred  on  Sept.  14,  the  Eastem 
Chnich  commenced  to  calculate  its  ecclesiastical  year. 

Croafleilhefl»  Pierrx  YutCKKT,  haron  Dombidau 
dt,  a  French  prelate,  bom  at  Pau,  July  19, 1751,  became 
gnnd-vicar  at  Aix,  and  afterwards  canon  of  the  csthe- 
dimL  He  went  abroad  during  the  Revolution,  and  after 
his  retnra  to  France  was  appointed  bishop  of  Quimper, 
April  21, 1805,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  for 
Ifaa  imperial  goremment.    ^t  also  empkiyed  himself 


actively  in  the  promotion  of  misaioDS.  He  died  Jnne 
29, 1828,  leaving  several  Maaidemait$t  addressed  to  re- 
fractory Britons,  the  object  of  which  was  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  victories  of  Napoleon.  See  Hoefer,  N<mv, 
Biog,  GMraUf  s.  v. 

Crowder,  Tromab,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Wake  County, 
N.  C  Sept.  22, 1797.  He  was  piously  trafaied,  and  re- 
ceived a  liberal  education;  was  converted  in  1819,  and 
in  1821  entered  the  Virginia  Annual  Conference,  in 
which  he  did  good  service  until  his  death,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1852.  See  MinuU$  of  Aimual  Coiferatea  of  the 
M.  E.  Church  South,  1858,  p.  445;  Spngne,  Amaii  qf 
theAmer.  Puljnt,  vii,  654. 

Crowe,  George  H.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, began  his  ministry  in  1867,  as  assistant  mini^ 
ter  in  St.  Michael's  Church,  New  York  dty,  and  died 
Sept  28, 1868.    See  ProL  Epi$c  Almanac,  1869,  p.  109. 

Crowe,  John,  an  English  Wedeyan  minister,  was 
bom  at  Coventry,  converted  young,  entered  the  minis- 
try in  1815,  became  a  supemumerary  in  1855,  and  died 
while  on  a  visit  to  Bourton,  near  Shaftesbury,  Oct  18, 
1857,  in  the  sixty-fourth  vear  of  bis  age.  See  Mumtm 
of  the  Britieh  Confermce,  1858. 

Crowe,  John  Finley,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Green  County,  Tenn.,  Jnne  17, 1787. 
In  1812  he  entered  Transylvania  College,  in  Kentucky; 
in  1815  was  licensed  by  the  Lexington  Presbytery,  and 
soon  after  accepted  a  call  to  Shelbyville,  where  he  la- 
bored until  1888.  He  was  professor  in  Hanover  Col- 
lege, Ind.,  until  about  1855,  and  died  Jan.  17, 1860.  Dr. 
Crowe  was  a  man  of  sound  judgment  and  deep  pietr. 
As  a  teacher,  he  was  ranked  among  the  first  See  WU- 
son,  Preth,  Hiti,  Almanac,  1861,  p.  84. 

Crowe,  "William,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Braintree  in  December,  1796.  He  was 
converted  at  sixteen ;  studied  with  Dr.  Bogue  of  Goa- 
port,  and  was  appointed  a  missionary  to  Qtdlon,  in  the 
Bombay  presidency.  After  laboring  four  years,  he  re* 
turned  to  England;  preached,  for  a  time,  at  Lutter- 
worth; in  Kingston,  Surrey,  nine  years;  in  Worcester, 
sixteen  years;  and  then  resided,  without  charge,  in 
Hammersmith,  until  his  death,  Nov.  27,  1878.  See 
(Lond.)  Bc^ftia  Hand-book,  1878, 258.     (J.  a  &) 

Crowell,  Chvrohwell  Anderaon,  «  minister 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bofrn  in 
Mecklenburg  County,  N.  CL,  Sept  15, 1806,  He  was 
converted  in  1825 ;  licensed  to  exhort  in  1826 ;  to  preach 
in  1828 ;  in  1829  united  with  the  South  Carolina  Con- 
ference; was  transferred  to  the  Georgia  Conference  in 
1850,  and  in  1867  to  the  South  Georgia  Conference,  la- 
boring faithfully  until  his  death,  Jan.  10, 1872.  See 
MuaUee  of  Annual  Conferences  qf  the  M,  E,  Church 
South,  1872,  p.  681. 

Crowell,  Jesee  T.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Yillanova,  Chautauqua  Co.,  N.  Y.,  April 
2, 1889.  He  was  converted  in  boyhood,  and  notwith- 
standing a  partial  loss  of  eyesight,  acquired  much  knowl- 
edge; was  licensed  to  preach,  after  a  year's  study  at 
Wyoming  Seminary ;  entered  the  Wyoming  Conference 
in  1862,  and  labored  with  great  success  untU  1868,  when 
his  health  faUed.  He  died  Feb.  18, 1869.  See  Minutes 
of  Annual  Conferences,  1869,  p.  111. 

Crowell,  "William,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  Middlefield,  Mass.,  Sept  22, 1806.  He  was  care- 
fully educated,  and  besan  to  preach  in  early  manhood. 
In  1838  he  became  editor  of  The  Christian  Watchman, 
and  conducted  that  paper  with  distinguished  ability. 
In  1848,  the  Journal  being  united  with  The  Christian 
Reflector,  Dr.  Crowell  occupied  a  pastorate  in  Water- 
ville,  Me.,  for  a  year  or  two,  and  then  for  several  years 
was  the  editor  of  The  Western  Watchman,  st  St  Louis. 
About  1860  he  becsme  a  pastor  in  central  Illinois,  and 
was  officially  connected  for  a  time  with  ShurtleffCoUe^, 
St  Alton.    HedleilatFlaiKier{i,N.  J.,Aug.  19, 1871.    Dr. 


Qowell  wu  the  ■Dtbot  of  KTail  wMfc^  towiig  tbe  bMt 
kuowD  and  moK  Tilaibls  of  which  *n,  The  CktrA 
Maibtr't  Mmaat,  ud  ■  Bislorji  ofBaj^  LtUratun, 
irUch  he  pnpmd  for  the  Hiaoonaiy  Jubilee  Toliune. 
(J.  C  &) 

Qnyr^Yi  Ann,  in  Eoj^iah  miuiHer  of  the  Sodetj 
of  Friendi,iraibain  at  SbillingfbTd,  Oxfbfd^iin,  in  176&. 
She  wu  OMivened  at  nxteen,  and  at  tweat;-rix  "  Bnt 
came  fbith  a*  a  miniMer."  la  1796  ahe  icowTed 
TJxbiidge,  and  labored  in  tbat  vicinity  until  ber  death, 
Aprill0,1826.    8tx  Pitts  PTomottd,iy,3ISi.    (J.C3.) 

Crotrlftj,  Robert,  an  Engliih  dinne  and  poet, 
ni  born  in  Gloaoe«t«nbire  or  Northamplmiihir*, 
educated  at  Hagdalea  College,  Oxford,  vrhere  he 
elected  probationer  fellow  in  1642,  la  '  '  _' 
of  the  rmgn  of  Edwud  TI  he  lettled  in  London,  tbeie 
earned  on  the  trade  of  piinltng  and  bookielling,  and 
pKaehed  often,  being  in  orders  i^venuiallj  leTeial 
benefice*  were  beatowad  upon  bim,  among  which  were 
the  archdeaconry  and  a  prebend  in  Herefard,  both  oT 
which  be  retired  in  1667,  a  prebend  in  3t.  Paul's,  the 
NGloty  of  St.  Peter  le  Poor,  and  the  vicarage  of  St. 
Gilea'i,  Ciippl^ate.  He  died  June  18, 1588,  leaviDg, 
among  other  woriu,  The  Voice  of  lite  Latt  Tria^iet, 
tioKH  bf  Oi  StvtMk  Aiigd:—PUamre  aad  Pcm, 
ntaim  and  HtUi—The  Four  Uiual  Nota  of  ChritCt 
Ckanh  (158t,  4to).  See  Chalmera,  Biog.  Diet,  a. 
KSi1xtDt,Diel.ofBril,w<dAiatr.AuUiorM,t.v. 

Crown  OF  Cbbutun  Pbdiccs.  From  the  por- 
tniti  on  thrar  anna,  it  appean  that  the  early  emperon 
adopted  the  dxadtm,  or  limple  fillet,  worn  either  aimply 
ortDCirding  the  helmet  with  which  (heir  head  waa 
eorend.    Tht  coina  of  Conttantine  the  Great  depict 


ConatantliM  and  HaraeUni.    (From  FamriO,  CMnat) 


bim  wearing  diadenu  or  fillet*  of  virioui  kindi ;  aoina 
ornamented  with  gemi;  lome  enrichod  with  a  double 
row  of  pearl*,  with  the  looae  endi  of  the  fillet  hanging 
down'orer  bia  shoolden.  Sometimea  he  wear*  a  hel- 
met KinouDded  by  a  diadem,  with  a  cth*  in  front. 
Thi*  comtdnilion  i*  aI*o  aeen  on  the  coin*  of  Qratian, 
Taleotlnian  II,  Theodonn*,  and  the  emperon  Leo  and 
BiA    HeTadiui,A.D.  610-611,  iirepieientedaaweai^ 


Jsttinlan  and  Theodoia.    (From  Uoialc*  at  San  TItale, 


ing  B  helmet  encircled  by  a  gemmed  diadem  with  pen- 
dant end*,  and  a  eroa*  above  the  forehead.  The  combi- 
na^on  of  the  diadem  with  the  linra  wa>  borrowed  from 
the  Oriental*,  among  whom  it  had  beeninuae  from  an- 
cient lima*.  It  wai  worn  by  Zenobia,  and  wa*  adapted 
by  heroonqociDr,  Aurelian.  It  i*  wen  in  medal*,  under 
the  form  of  a  peiiked  cap  ornamented  with  gem*,  riaing 
from  a  Jewelled  diadem  or  fillet,  tied  behind.  The  cap, 
in  lalec  time%  aaaomcd  tba  popular  name  of  tufiiiM, 


9th  century,  a*  weaiiog  a 
"tiaia,"  popularly  known 
a*"tnphan."  Anotherfoim 
of  (b«  impeiial  head-gear 
waa  ■  low-crowned  cap,  ap- 
parently deatilule  of  (Ua- 
dem  or  any  ipecial  diatino- 

__  . ,   ,  tion  of  royalty.    Thi»  waa 

mphan.    (PromFenarlo]   ^^^^  ^  Caxeuhjcidm 

(q.  v.).     CodBtantine  appean  in  thia  cap  on  hi*  tii- 

nmphal  arch   in   Rome,  and  in 

an  ilhiminBtion  (tarn  a  HS.  of 

the  9th  century,  reprcKnling  the 

Council  of  Nicsa.     Juatinian,  in 

the  moaaica  of  the  aanctury  of 

San  Vitale,  at  Ravenna,  ha>  hie 

bead  covered  With  a  jewelled  cap, 

while  the  empreae  Theodora  wean 

a  tiara  aumMiaded  with  three  cir- 

dela  at  gem*.    Siting*  of  pearls 

and  other  gema  hang  down  Oom 

The  diadem,  in  it*  origin*]  foim  of  a  linen  oi 
ribbon  or  fiUeC,  gradually  went  out  of  nae  from  Jnatin- 
i*n'*  time,and  waa  replaced  by  a  flexible  band  of  gold, 
■ometimea  adorned  with  a  band  of  pearla  and  predooa 
atone*,  repreaenting   the  old  "diadem."    The  t 


"  eroirn"  wa*  in  nae  for  the  imperial  aymbol  aa  caily  •• 
the  time  of  ConHau^e.  Ttaia  circlet  wa*  cloaed  by  • 
cap  of  rich  itulT  decorated  with  gema,  In  the  time  of 
Cooitantinu*  Porphyrogenilus  the  royal  treasury  con- 
tained circlet*  or  ttemmala  of  varioua  colon,  while, 
greeu,  and  blue,  according  tn  the  enamel  with  which 
they  were  coated.  These  drclela  decorated  with  grana 
are  mentioned  by  Claudiaa  in  connection  with  the  two 
son*  of  Theodoaiui,  Arcadiu*  and  Honorina,  toward*  the 
end  of  the  4tb  century. 

The  moat  ancient  examptea  of  crown*  are  those  long 
prcaerved  in  the  treasury  of  the  cathedral  of  HoHEa,  in 
Lombardy,  belonging  to  the  early  part  of  the  7th  ccD- 
lary.  These  crown*  were  three  in  number :  (1)  the  *•■ 
called  Irtm  f^vwn, "  Corona  Ferrea;"(l)  the  crown  of 


Iron  Crown  ofLombardy.    (At  MoBMCalbedraL) 


AgilulTt  and  (S)  that  of  Theodelinda.  Agiluirs  erawn 
waa  taken  to  Pari*  aa  a  priaa  of  war  by  Napoleon  T,  in 
1804,  by  mistake  for  the  Iron  Crown,  and  wa*  Uolw 
fhiin  the  "Cabinet  dca  Uedailles," in  which  it  was  de- 
pouted,  and  melted  down Smith,  i>icto/'Ciri>(..t»> 

tiq.  a.  V.    See  Cobohatioh. 

CBOWN,  at  a  ChrittSoK  Embiem,  being  the  symbol 
of  victory  and  recompense  (Rev.  ii,  10 ;  3  Tim.  iv,  8), 
became  the  token  of  martyrdom;  fint,  the  eroai  wa* 


CROWTHKR 

I  HopHid  It  tha  tfafcihtdd  of  a  hooM  in  wUell  k 

elutd  VU  bom.     At  Atbciu,  when  the  child  iru  a  bo7, 

the  natal  crown  wu  or  olire;  when  ■  girl,  of  wool; 

lila  It  Rome  thaj  wan  of  luinl,  iv;,  or  puikf . 

CROWN.  NrrriAL,  wu  one  with  wbicb  peraonajnat 

tcring  into  the  bondi  of  maliimony  were  decked. 

Newljr  married  penoo*  cf  both  aeiea  imoDg  the  He* 

hrewi  wore  nowni  apon  their  weddiog-day.    Among 

the  early  Chrutiuii  the  ict  of  cmwning  the  paitid  wal 

the  commencement  of  the  mairiiige  ceremony.    Tbii 

raa  done  by  the  prieU  with  due  aolemnity.    On  the 

eighth  day  the  married  pair  pmenl«d  Ihemielrea  again 

in  the  church,  when  the  minister,  after  an  appropriate 

prayer,  took  off  tha  nuptial  crown  and  dianiued  them 

ith  hii  Kilemn  beoeiUctioD.     The  ceremaniea  of  ooro- 

ition  and  dunlting  tbe  crowni  are  Hill  obierved  tn 

the  Greek  Church.     The  crowru  uwd  in  Cieece  Ste  of 

olire  brancbea  twined  withi  white  and  purple  ribbon; 

1  RnaU  tfaey  are  of  g^ld  and  nlrer,  or,  in  eountr]' 

jAuen,  of  tin,  and  an  pmerved  oa  the  propeity  of  the 

Cbnteh.    Among  the  Jews,  napUal  coronttioD  contia- 

ued  until  the  b^iinniog  of  the  war  under  Veipatian ; 

and  crowni  of  maei,  myitle,  and  ivy  are  Rill  uied  in 

Jewith  marriaga  in  many  placet.    See  Codoha  Kor- 


Ciown  of  Tbeodettada 
enrwned,  and  then  crowiu  of  laoiel,  flowert,  palm, 
prteiooa  metal  were  Buipended  or  carved  over  the  ton 
<A  martrn  and  confeMora.    Sometimes  the  dicine  band 
oOkn  the  (town  i  tometimes  two  crow  na  are  reprm 
lo(  I  Tugin  martyr ;  or  dovca  carry  cmvn*  of 
embleim  of  peace  booght  by  the  martyr's  triumph  i  or 
titt  pabn  and  croaa  are  aaaociated,  to  repreKnttbe  merit, 
the  labor,  snd  priie.    Hence  came  tbe  banging  crown 
('  Ught ;  and  the  "  oblatiooa,"  the  repreaentation  of  the 
BoKd  oflering  their  crown*  to  the  Bedeemet.    The 
ChiiMiin  emperon  gave  their  soldien  crowns  of  laurel, 
•donud  with  the  monogram  of  Christ.— Walcott,  Sat. 
irdmel.  i.  r. 
CROWN  or  CBamtAna,    Sea  Adbeolx. 
CROWN,  Clekicuu    See  Coboma  Cluucalib. 
CROWN,  DioicAm),    See  Corona  VanvA. 
CBOWK,  Fdukkal,  was  made  of  leaTes  and  floi 
<B,  unaig  the  Greeks  generally  of  parsley,  which  was 
■aaallr  Hreatbed  around  tha  head  of  a  dead  person 
iton  interment.     Floral  wreithi  were  often  piaced 
<vra  the  taer,  or  scattered  on  the  road  along  which  the 
fiiaenl  procesnon  was  lo  pass,  or  twiated  round  the  urn 
in  which  tbe  aabe*  were  contained,  or  tbe  tomb  in  which 
iW  leauins  were  laid. 
CSOWK  OP  LiDHT.    See  Coboha  Locie. 
CBOWK,  Sxtu,  was  that  which  it  was  cuMom- 


CBOWN,  Radiatid,  is  on*  with  ny*  appuantl^ 
emanating  (him  i^  and  used  by  tbe  ancient  Romans  la 
place  upon  the  heads  of  tbe  imagea  of  tbeit  gods  or 
dciAed  beroesh 

CROWN,  Bacesdotal,  was  worn  by  tbe  priests  or 
tattrdoUt  of  the  ancient  Romana  when  engaged  in  of- 
fering sacrificea.    It  was  formed  of  dilTetent  materials, 

ancient  sacriOdal  garland  oMd  by  the  Romans  was 
made  of  ears  of  corn. 

CROWN,  SuTiLE,  waa  oompoaed  ofany  kind  of  Row* 
era  sewed  together,  and  used  ty  tbe  Salii  (q.  t.)  at  IbtiT 
featirala. 

CROWN  o*  Tafebs.    See  Cobora  Ll'cis. 

CROWN,  Tcnivt    See  Coeoba  V^tiva. 

Ciowna  (Heb.  ^^kH,  laggln)  a  a  came  given  to 
points  or  horns  with  which  certain  letteii  in  tbe  H3S. 
used  in  the  Jewish  synagogoes  are  decorated,  and  wbicb 
distinguish  them  from  tbe  V19&.  in  ordiiury  use.  The 
rabluns  affirm  that  God  gave  them  to  Moaet  on  Mount 
Sinai,  and  that  ha  tanght  bim  how  to  make  them.    Sea 

TlTtlX 

Ctomua,  Adah,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  bom  at 
Sharon,  N.  T.,  in  I79B.  He  studied  the  classes  and 
theology  at  Uartwick  Seminary,  graduating  in  1S2S; 
tbe  ume  year  waa  licenied  by  tha  New  York  Hiniste- 
lium,  and  tiegan  lo  preach  in  Sbaron  and  Rhioebeck 
(then  Guililerland),  where  be  remained  over  twenty 
yean  He  was  thereafter  paalor  at  Middleburg,  and 
subsequently  returned  to  Uuilderland.  HedieduiUay, 
1865.     See  Littktran  Obtrvtr,  Aug.  2G,  1865. 

Crowaon,  £luar  L,  a  mioister  of  the  Uethodiat 
Episcopal  Church  Sooth,  was  converted  at  twenty,  la- 
bored many  yean  as  a  local  preacher,  and  in  ISM  entered 
the  Little  Rock  Conference.  Ue  becaote  superannuated 
in  1867,  and  died  Jan.  3, 18C8.  See  Himla  of  A  nwal 
CoB/*rfM«  d/(A<  ilf.  i".  CAureA  Sou^A,  1868,  p.  274. 

CiOWther,  JoiWthui(l),  an  early  English  Uelb- 
odist  minister,  was  converted  in  youth,  and  labored  for 
thirty-eight  yean  in  the  Wesleyan  connection.  In 
1819  be  wiBchown  president  of  the  English  Confer- 
ence, and  in  1820  of  the  Irish  Conference.  He  died 
June  8, 1824.  He  is  the  antbor  of  i^rtnridire  ofiltA- 
oditm  (1811),  and  a  number  of  minor  works  of  the  same 
character.  See  Mirmlu  oflhe  BrilM  Con/emce,  ISSi, 
p.  472 ;  Osbom,  Mah.  Liltraturt,  1. 1. 

CrowtlMr,  JonathKa  (3),  an  English  Hetbodiat 
minister,  son  of  TimoUiT,  and  nephew  of  the  abore  and 
of  Robert,  waa  bora  at'  St.  Austell,  Cornwall,  Joly  II, 


CROWTHKB  II 

17M.  Ha  wM  converted  in  roath,  uid  •dnealed  at 
Kingiwood  School  Iq  1811  he  began  to  pnacb,  and 
in  1823  wu  appobted  hud-muwr  of  tfaaC  ichool,  hav- 
ing already  hdd  the  ume  office  at  Woodlraiua  Givrc. 
He  allenrude  aerred  eevenl  important  eireoiti,  until 
he  was  colled  in  1887  to  the  luperinleBdencf  ol  the 
Weilevin  miaiioiu  in  Uadrai,  when  he  labored  with 
greit  efficiency.  In  1S4S  be  retnrned  to  home  woik 
in  England,  and  in  1849  wm  apptnntcd  danical 
in  the  We^yan  Theological  Inatitatiim  at  Didibary, 
where  he  remained  unlil  hii  death,  Jan.  11, 1S6G.  Ha 
published  tevcfal  Stmumi  and  other  pamphieta.  See 
Minula  of  the  BritM  Cmferaux,  1866,  p.3}!, 

Crowthar,  Robort,  an  Engliih  Woleyin  minla- 
ter,  was  born  at  Booth-Ioirn,  near  Halibx,  in  1762.  He 
waa  coOTCrted  at  ^Mut  the  age  of  Hrteen,  iti«  ncelTed 
hy  the  conleicnce  in  1763,  and  coHlinaed  to  travel  until 
1830,  when  be  became  a  gnpcrnumemy  at  Rochdale. 
He  died  there  Jan.  19, 1888.  See  Miimlti  oflht  Brit- 
iMh  Cor^eraof,  1883 ;  WaL  Mttk.  Mag.  1881,  p.  881  aq. 

Ciowtber,  Sfunael,  A.M.,  an  EngtUb  divine,  wai 
bom  in  London,  Jan.  9,  1TB9.  He  waa  educated  at 
CrovdoD  Fiee-ecbool  and  WincheaUr  College ;  became 

fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford  j  wal  ordained  in 

to  the  curacy  of  Eaiic  Bergholt,  Suffolk,  and  res 
in  1793  to  Barking,  Eaaei.  la  1800  he  received  the 
nnited  livings  of  Chtiit  Church,  Newgate  Stimt,  and 
St.  Leonard'*,  Foiter  Idne ;  and  waa  abonly  after  choeen 
oneof  tbelectnrenafSt  Botolph,  Biihot^te.  March 
S7,  1826,  be  was  aeiied  with  apoplexy,  and  he  died 
Sept.  28, 1829.  See  (Lond.)  CIriMian  Guardiioi,  Nov. 
1829,  p.  14a 

Crowthu'i  Thomas,  a  Preabyterian  minliter,  waa 
born  at  Bridlington  Quay,  England,  July  7, 1840. 
graduated  fiomColumbiaCollegetN.T.,  in  1868;  (p«at 
about  four  yean  in  teaching;  one  In  Princeton  Semi- 
nary (1868);  and  graduated  from  Union  S«minary,N.y, 
in  18G5.  He  was  licensed  by  tbc  Presbytery  of  New 
York,  AprU  IS,  1866,  and  ordained  an  avangeUit  in  1867 ; 
went  (0  SouLhfield  Congregational  Cburcti,  Mew  Uarl. 
borough,  Mnu.,  as  a  supplr,  and  nu  initalled  Jan.  23, 
1888;  BeiitatritUfie]d,in'lS72;  andinl87S waacalted 
to  Brooklyn,  N.  V.,  drat  aa  paatot  of  the  Hemorial  Pres- 
byterian Church,  and  then  aa  pastor  of  the  Fint  Prea- 
byterian  Church,  where  he  died,  Oct  10, 1877.  See 
t/tcroi  Rtport  of  PrinaXm  TheaL  Sm.  1878,  p.  61 

Ctowther,  Tlmotliy,  an  English  Wesleyan  min- 
iater,  waa  bom  near  Halifax  in  lTfi7.  He  was  con- 
vened at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  under  the  minUtra- 
tloDs  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England ;  en- 
tered the  miniatry  in  1784,  became  a  aupemnmenry  in 
181fi,  and  died  March  26,  1829.  See  Mmata  of  tit 
Brilith  Coi^eroKt,  1829. 

Ci'oirt)ier,'WtUlam,  an  English  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  boni  BtGomersal,Yark>hire,  April  2, 1816.  He 
wubaptiiedin  1834;  speot  the  gitalei  port  of  his  min- 
ieterial  career  aa  a  aopply  and  occasional  preacher,  while 
continuing  in  businaa  at  his  native  place ;  but  eventu- 
ally accepted  the  pastorate  of  Rehoboth  Chapel,  Lock- 
wood,  where  he  died  in  1882.  See  (Lond.)  Baptitt 
ffand-ipct,  1883,  p.  257. 

Croxall,  Sauuei.,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
waa  bom  at  Walton-upon-Thamea,  in  Surrey,  and  re- 
ceived his  educaUon  at  Eton  School  and  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  He  probably  waa  ordained  about 
1713.  Soon  after  leaving  the  univenity  he  waa  insti- 
tuted to  the  vicarage  of  Hampton,  in  Hiddlesex,  and 
afterwards,  in  Febmar}-,  1731,  to  the  united  parisbea  of 
St.Uary  Somenet  and  SU  Mary  Mounthaw,  in  London. 
Be  was  alio  chancellor,  prebendary,  canon  residentiary, 
■nd  porlionist  of  the  church  of  Herefonl.  In  1782  he 
waa  made  arebdeacon  of  Salop  and  cbapl«o  to  the  king, 
and  in  February,  1734,  obtained  the  vicarage  of  Sellack, 
in  Herefontahire.  He  died  Feb.  13,1762.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  his  worka  i  7te  Original  CaMot,  aa  /«- 


10  CRUCIFIX 

tiotiiM  iif  Bpami't  Ftarg  Qntm,  ai  a  SaHn  oa  Cl« 
Earl  of  O^onti  Admimilnai<m;~nt  Vition  .—Tlu 
fair  CirecutioK  (1722,  Ito).  He  waa  the  anther  of 
Scriptun  Potitia  (17S6,  8vo>  His  latert  poblicatioa 
wuTitJtosidJIannaL  SeeCbalmera,.B>o;.Z>icf.a.T.; 
Allibone,  Did,  <jfBnt.  and  A  mtr.  A  aOart,  •.  v. 

CroT  (or  CronT),  GcttAvi  Mtxnm.tKit  Jem, 
prvux  de,  a  French  prelate,  woe  bom  at  the  chateau 
of  the  Beimitage,  near  Vieox  Conde,  Sept.  12,  177& 
From  early  youth  he  exhibited  great  piety  and  an  ii>- 
clination  towards  preaching.  He  entered  the  ecderi- 
aatical  calling  a«  canon  of  the  grand  chapter  of  Stiaa- 
buig.  His  noble  birtb  gave  bim  high  honon  in  the 
Church,  but  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolation  be 
waa  obliged  to  take  refuge  at  TieDna,  where  be  waa  one 
of  the  four  canons  of  the  Licbtcnatein  fonndation.  In 
1S17  be  was  appointed  Usbop  of  Slnsbuig;  in  182t 
aucccedcd  the  cardinal  of  Peiigord  aa  grand-almooer  of 
France;  became  peer  of  France  in  1822;  in  1SS4  yaa 
transferred  from  the  tuahopric  of  Straahnrg  to  the  areb- 
btahopric  of  Rouen ;  was  made  cardinal  in  18fe,  and 
died  in  1844.    See  Poefer,  Nouf.  Biog-  GMraU,  a  t. 

Cromst,  TaoMAa,  a  French  theologian  of  the  order 
of  BecoUeta,  devoted  himself  to  preaching,  rended  for  a 
Ling  time  at  Madrid,  and  died  at  Avignon  in  1720.  He 
publiahed,  Cormjoi  dt  la  ScAidnria  Rieapitutaei<m  it 
lai  Maximat,  etc  (Maraullea,  1S90) :— Jf  nzuMi  Jfo- 
Tola: — Bitloin  de  la  BiadktHmat  ViargtMarit  (Hud. 
1696) ;  republiibed  under  th«  title  La  U^UiqM  Ciii  d* 
Ditm—Caaura  Camra  (Cologne,  1697) ;— /iCRidBo- 
tion  aua  Vtrtat  Xorala  tt  Htrolfati  pitaaa^  1721): 
.-rndiaibu  Uiiititrtalit  (Lyon*,  1706).  See  Hoebr, 
Abun,  Biog,  CMalmlt,  t.  v. 

CroBler,  Boskkt,  an  Irish  Wesleyan  minister,  waa 
bom  at  Tmry,  near  Enniskillen,  in  1T65.  He  waa  eoo- 
verted  in  early  life  i  entered  the  ministry  in  1793 ;  waa 
secretary  of  the  coiiJ*erence  in  1816 ;  pleaded  ation^y 
for  the  right  of  aocietiea  to  receive  the  sacramenta  dur- 
ing the  famoua  discusaions  at  that  time;  retired  to  his 
native  place  in  182! ;  and  died  very  auddsnly,  Nov.  8, 
1866.     See  Mhuta  o/Oe  BrUitk  CotfertKH,  1867. 

Crualdh,  anmamed  Coe-nuDA  {!.  e.  £oi||pI(^),  an 
Irish  saint  of  Bolana  (now  probably  Ball'"',  in  Tippe- 
rary),  commemorated  Oct  23,  ia  repreaented  aa  baring 

en  appealed  to  by  St  Haling  (q.  v.)  for  help  in  • 

se  of  danger._Smith,  DicL  of  CAritl,  Biog.  a.  T. 

CmolSx.  It  ia  necessary  to  distinguiab  between 
tbe  use  of  thia  figure  aa  an  object  or  inatmment  of  de- 
votion, and  that  of  pictorial  or  other  repreaentation*  of 
the  Crucifixion  as  a  scene.  Every  variety  and  caiDl»<- 
>tion  of  the  atta  of  sculpture,  tooaaici  punting,  and 
ignving  boa  been  applied  to  thia  great  aotijeet  frain 
early  timea,  and  to  all  parts  of  it;  and  this  dialinction 
•  of  principle  aa  well  as  convenience, 
the  end  of  tbe  fitb  century  be  conaidered  tbe  be- 
ginning of  the  Middle  Agea,  the  pnblic  lepreeentalion 
of  the  Crucifixion  may  be  aaid  to  be  a  mediaval  usage 

point  of  time.    Hartigny  claims  for  France  the  boo- 

of  having  poasessed  the  Snt  puUic  ctuciSx-pMnUils 
which  ever  existed ;  for  which  he  lefen  to  Gregory  or 


nwodalUdft'*  Crocifli. 


AnSqae  BUaphamooi  GraJlU  o(  tb*  CrncUzloi. 
pnlxUj  with  gtcat  oorrectnen,  lb*t  (11  tbe  moU  el 


at  Cmeiflxiops  known  n< 
l»o,  ioMaiicing  the  peetonl 
of  qoeen  Thcodelindi.  and  tbe  871- 
iie  US.  of  the  Bledinui  Libnrf 
■tnoKDcc  The  DfBcUl  01  public 
me  of  the  crow  u  ■  iTnibol  ofre- 
demptioii  begim  with  CorutanliiK, 
tb«^,  ofconne,  it  had  been  T*ri- 
omlf  emptojred  bj  all  ChriKiani  it 
an  nriier  dale.     See  Caosa. 

Qvalzei,accordiiiB  toGnaricke, 
did  got  appear  in  chnrche*  till  a(Ut 
the  7th  eeiitiir7.  Such  image*, 
prebaNj,  in  the  early  daya  of  the 
Chnteh,  would  produce  too  erode, 
■ad  painful  an  effect  on  the  Chrii- 
tian  imaginatioD,  and  to  that  of  the 
teore  hopeful  pagan  they  would  be 
inioleiahle;  not  only  becauH  hia 
tatagt  would  leeoil  from  the 
tbonght  of  tb«  pnniahment  of  the 


ibjects  of  private  devo- 


of  iinociating  the  "  unhappy  tree  " 
with  a  IKrine  Bdiig.  The  Gn(f- 
filo  Blatfmo  of  the  Palatine  illu» 
utadua;  botCbTiatlaDteachen 
wy  have  nfanned  ftom  aoy  addi- 


tnm  pBicl^  fJiaritabto  t 


Tha  enai  iteelf  tuay  have  been  felt  to  be  tMcporarily 


Sndth,  DieL  of  ChriH.  A  ntiq.  a.  v. 
Cradger.  See  CBKinziQaB. 
CnidMt,  the  name  of  aaveral  Scotch  clergymen : 

1.  David,  D.Dn  took  hii  flrat  degree  at  Miriachal 
Collage,  Aberdeen,  in  1764 ;  waa  Ucenaed  to  preach  in 
1786;  preaented  to  tha  living  at  Nigg  in  ITGS;  and 
died  Nov.  18, 1S26,  aged  eighty  yean.  He  puhliihed, 
1 1821,  OtKTimfioiu  on  (Ac  Conduet  0/ a  Miniiler  ,■  alao 
nAeannUo/HtPariiK  Set  Fatti  Eala.  Scolkamt, 
i,611. 

3.  Gbohoe,  took  hii  degree  at  Haiischal  College, 
Id  1791 ;  became  acboolmaslcr  in  that  oity ; 
cd  to  preach  in  180G ;  became  a  teacher  of 
ica  at  Aberdeen ;  wa«  presented  to  the  living 
at  Logic~Iinehan  in  1817  ;  and  died  Sept.  11, 1850,  aged 
aeventy-aix  yean.  He  pnbliabed,  ifuforicalZndace 
qftit  t'ylfihuMt  qfthe  Prmaitt,  "to,  I  am  leUh  gea  at- 
leant,'-  etc.  (IBSBJ  :-^  otihK  0/  Ikt  FaruKit  of  Old 
Dor  and  Lm/ia-Buehan.  See  FatH  EccUi.  Scotiaaa, 
iii,eiO. 

3.  WiLLiAit,  wa>  bom  at  nciUgo  in  17S6 ;  took  hia 
degree  at  Hiriachal  College,  Abetdetn,  in  1718)  be- 
came a  teacher  of  Engtiih  at  Uontroiw ;  waa  licenwd 
to  preach  in  17S2 ;  called  to  the  tivicg  at  Uigie  in  1768, 
audocdained;  presented  to  the  living  in  1769)  reiigned, 
on  being  called  to  the  Relief  Ueeting-houae,  Glugow, 
in  1767;  was  elected  minister  of  tbe  Scots  Church, 
Crown  Court,  London,  in  1773,  where  he  continued  till 
bis  death,  Nov,  G,  I78&.  Hii  publicationa  were,  Bsaml 
on  a  Varirt)/  of  Dime  Sub/Kit  (1761) :— iSoibom  on 
Eeaistlkal  and  Praelieal  StibjteU  (1787).  See  Fatlt 
Eccla.  Seotiaaa,  iii,  888 ;  Wilson,  Diiiatting  Ckurdia, 
iv,9. 

Cradnp,  Josah,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
WAeConnty,  N.  C,  June  6,1791;  ordained  in  Angnst, 
1813,  and  was  paator  of  several  churches  in  North  Car- 
olina fnr  about  Olty  year*.  Mr.  Crudup  was  a  preactier 
ofanri-assing  eloquence,  and  was  a  member  of  Congresi 
from  IS2L  to  1S23.  He  died  May  20, 1872.  See  Cath- 
cart,  Boftirt  Eacyck^.  p.  299.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Graot  (f7rceoJiH,  onaia,  hirefte)  is  a  vase  for  hold* 
ing  the  water  and  wine  used  at  holy  communion.  John 
de  Garlande,  writing  dr.  1080,  says  their  should  be  two 
cruets— one  for  wine,  the  other  for  water.  The  ancient 
cruets  were  very  rarely  of  crystal  or  glass,  generally 
of  enamelled  copper,  and,  in  consequence,  about  the 
illh  ccntnry,  were  distinguished  by  the  letten  Y  and 
A  to  nark  their  contents.  Several  sncient  examples 
are  preserved — one  of  the  IBth  centur}-,  at  Paris ;  one, 
in  the  form  of  an  angel,  of  the  14tb  century,  at  Aix-ls- 
Chapelle;  and  another  of  the  11th  or  I5tb  century  in 
the  same  eatbedial,  silver  gilt.    Sometimes  the  haodte 


CRUGEB 


188 


CRUM 


WM  made  in  the  form  of  «  dngon.  After  the  time  of 
the  Remuflsance  the  cmets  were  made  of  tnuitpavent 
material ;  there  was  one  at  Grandroont  Abbey,  how- 
erer,  of  crystal,  moanted  in  rilver,  of  the  18th  century, 
with  an  eagle  engraved  upon  it.  A  cruet  for  oil,  in 
bronze,  nsed  at  the  coronations  of  the  emperors,  and 
shaped  like  an  antique  bust,  is  preserved  in  the  treasury 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Four  of  lilver,  of  the  9th  century, 
are  preserved  in  the  Vatican;  they  are  of  classical  form. 
— Waloott,  Sac  A  rchmoL  s.  v.    See  Axa  ;  Ampulla. 

Criiger,  Johann,  a  German  composer  of  Church 
music,  was  bom  April  9, 1698,  at  Gross-Breese,  near  Gu- 
ben,  in  Brandenburg.  lie  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was 
in  1622  organist  at  Su  Nikolai,  in  Berlin,  and'died  there, 
Feb.  28, 1662.  He  wrote,  Praeqtta  Mutica  Praetiea  Fu 
guralii  (Berlin,  1625)  i—SynoptU  Mutica  (ibid.  1680)  :— 
Queutumes  Mutica  (1650) ;  and  composed,  besides,  many 
chorals,  which  are  still  in  use  in  the  German  Church. 
He  also  published,  Neuet  Getangbttch  auptburger  Kon- 
fettion  (ibid.  1640) : — GeitUiche  Kirchenmelodim  (Leips. 
lQi9)  :-~Ptalmodia  Sacra  (1658)  :—Pr«m«  Pidatit 
(eod.).  See  Koch,  Getckichte  det  datttchen  Kirekadeidet, 
iv,99sq.;  Grove,Z>ic<.o/ifi(j»e^s.v.    (B.P.) 

Cxllger,  Theodor,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  1694  at  Stettin,  in  Pomerania.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  Wittenberg ;  was  in  1721  rector  at 
lAcka,  in  Lower  Lusatia;  in  1727,  pastor  at  Kirchhain ; 
in  1782,  superintendent  at  Colditz,  and  in  1785  at 
Chemnitz.  He  was  made  doctor  of  theology  in  1787, 
and  died  June  1, 1751,  leaving,  Schediatma  Hittoricum, 
etc  (Wittenberg,  1719)  x—De  Succettione  PonHficum  Ro- 
manorum  (ibid.  1723) :  —  Heptaiogot  in  Ara  Crueit 
(Frankfort,  1726)  :—De  Vdentm  Ckrittianorum  Ditd- 
plina  A  ream  (Wittenberg,  1727)  i—ItUroductio  in  Chrit- 
talogiam  Moralem  (Dresden,  1782),  etc.  See  Mosers, 
Jetztlebende  Tkeoloffen;  Winer,  Handbuch  dor  theolLit. 
i,  684;  Jocher,  AUgemtinet  Gekhrten^Lexikon,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Cntgot,  Mabtin,  a  ProtesUnt  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Bremen,  Jan.  5, 1725.  Under  Iken 
and  Nonne  he  prepared  himself  for  the  ministr}',  with- 
out attending  any  university.  In  1746  be  accepted  a 
call  to  Herford;  in  1747  went  to  Carolath;  in  1748 
was  called  as  second  preacher  to  Blomberg,  but  re- 
turned again  to  Carolath,  where  he  died,  Sept.  5, 1790, 
leaving  Semumtf  besides  some  ascetical  works,  as,  Mor-^ 
gen-  und  Abendgedanken  (ZuUichau,  1777):— Z>a«  TFs- 
tentluAe  in  der  Chrittliehen  Sittent-  und  GlaubentUhre 
(Sajan,  1776)  i^Der  Chritt  in  der  Eintamheit  (Breslau, 
1761 ;  5th  ed.  1779).  See  Ddring,  Die  gdekrim  Theo- 
logenDeuttchlandt,  1,288 aq,     (a  P.) 

Cmiokiihanlr  (or  Cnxikahank)  is  the  family 
name  of  several  Scotch  clergymen : 

1.  AusxAMDEB,  was  licenscd  to  preach  in  1748;  pre- 
sented to  the  livjng  at  Meams  in  1752 ;  and  died  Jan. 
22,  1791,  aged  Sixty-seven  years.  See  Fatti  Eodet, 
SooiicantB,  ii,  228. 

2.  Gborob  (1),  studied  at  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen ;  was  schoolmaster  for  a  time ;  licensed  to  preach 
in  1735;  called  to  the  living  at  Arbroath  in  1787,  and 
ordained  in  1788 ;  transferred  to  Kinnell  in  1748 ;  and 
died  Nov.  12, 1753.  lie  published,  Antwert  to  the  Que- 
riet  of  Mr.  MaUland.  See  Fatti  Ecdet,  Scoticana,  iii, 
786,  801. 

3.  George  (2),  took  bis  degree  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1771 ;  was  schoolmaster  at  Inveravon,  and 
assistant  minister  at  Rothes;  appointed  to  the  living 
there  in  1788,  and  ordained;  and  died  June  15, 1838, 
aged  eighty-five  years.  See  FatH  Ecclet,  Scoticana, 
ui,  226. 

4.  James  (1),  D.D.,  son  of  the  rector  of  Banff  Acad- 
emy, took  his  degree  at  King's  College.  Aberdeen,  in 
1806;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1812;  ordained  in  1816 
as  assistant  at  Turreff ;  presented  to  the  living  in  1821 ; 
transferred  to  Fyvie  in  1848;  and  died  April  12, 1858, 
aged  seventy  years.   See  Fatti  £eckt.S€otioamB/ui,&i8. 


5.  James  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  presented 
to  the  living  at  Kanor  in  1888  and  ordained;  trans- 
ferred to  Stevenston  in  1848.  See  FatH  Ecdet,  Scod- 
cams,  i,  251. 

6.  James  Alexasdeb,  son  of  the  miniiter  at  Glasi^ 
became  schoolmaster  of  that  parish  in  1822 ;  took  his 
degree  at  King*s  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1828 ;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1827,  appointed  assistant  at  Mort- 
lach  the  same  year,  and  ordained ;  presented  to  the  living 
in  1887.  He  was  one  of  the  majority  who  Joined  in  or- 
daining the  presentee  to  Haraoch  in  1841,  against  the 
wish  of  the  assembly.  He  was  living  in  1863.  See 
Fatti  Ecdet,  ScotUxum,  iii,  211. 

7.  JoHK,  a  native  of  Culsalmond,  took  his  degree  at 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1789;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1795;  presented  to  the  living  at  Glass  in  1799;  and 
died  Dee.  20, 1841,  aged  seventy-four  years.  See  Fatti 
Ecdet,  Seotiixum,  iii,  200. 

8.  Thomas,  was  the  first  Protestant  minister  at  Kin- 
loch  ;  called  to  the  living  in  1567,  presented  in  1573, 
and  in  1574  had  three  other  places  in  charge.  He  con- 
tinned  in  1590.    See  Fatti  Ecdet,  Scotieana,  ii,  807. 

9.  William,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1740 ;  called 
to  the  living  at  Ruthven  in  1748;  ordained  in  1744; 
and  died  July  14, 1756.  See  Fatti  Ecdet,  Scoticaatm^ 
iii,  759. 

Cmikahask,  William,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  mto- 
ister,  was  bom  in  1798,  at  Salem,  N.  Y.  He  graduated 
from  Union  College  in  1821,  studied  theology  in  New 
Bronswick  Theological  Seminary,  entered  the  mimstry 
in  1824,  and  was  settled  on  Long  Island,  at  Flatlands 
and  New  Lots  (1825-84).  In  1885  he  founded  the  Re- 
formed Church  at  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  and  was  its  pastor 
until  1888.  For  several  years  thereafter  he  was  with- 
out charge,  on  account  of  ill-health,  and  only  served  as 
stated  supply  in  the  retired  church  of  Mamakating 
from  1849  until  his  death  in  1854.  Mr.  Craikshank 
was  an  eloquent  and  powerful  preacher,  of  logical  mind 
and  impressive  deliveiy,  possessed  of  a  voice  of  great 
power  and  flexibility,  and  gmceful  in  appearance  and 
manners.  He  was  the  author  of  a  standard  tract  pub- 
lished by  the  American  Tract  Society,  entitled  Damd 
Baldwin,  or,  the  MiUer^t  Son,  also  of  a  printed  sermon 
on  the  Intermediate  State,  While  without  pastoral 
care,  he  published  a  series  of  papers  under  the  heading 
of  Wathington^t  Bodjf^Guard,  See  Corwin,  Manual  of 
the  Rff,  Church  in  >! mertca, 8d  ed. p. 225.    (W.  J.R.T.) 

Craimmlii,  an  Irish  taint,  commemorated  Jane 
28,  was  the  son  of  Corbmac,  of  the  race  of  Tadbg,  and 
of  Darerca,  the  sister  of  St.  Patrick.  The  latter  placed 
him  in  charge  of  some  relics  at  Lecain  (now  Leckin), 
and  he  lived  as  bishop  there  till  an  extreme  old  age. 
By  some  he  is  confounded  with  St  Cruemns,  and  by- 
others  with  Sl  Cruimthor  Nathi  (festivsd  on  Aug.  9), 
who  prophesied  St.  Fechin*s  greatness^— Smith,  DicL 
of  Chritt,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cnilmtlier  (dimin.  eruimtheran),  an  Irish  word 
for  presbyter  atpriett,  often  occdrring  in  the  calendaia 
prefixed  to  proper  names. 

Cmimtherifl,  a  daughter  of  king  Longobardua, 
placed  by  SL  Patrick  in  a  cell  on  Mt  Kenngobha,  to 
the  east  of  Armagh  (now  Ballyboley  Hill,  in  AntrioaX 
and  was  there  occupied  in  making  ecclesiastical  em- 
broidery.— Smith,  Vict,  of  Chritt,  Biog,  a.  v. 

Cmithneohaii  (otherwise  called  Caritanutf  hy 
way  of  diminutive),  an  Irish  taint,  commemorated 
March  7,  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  6Ui 
century.  He  was  the  son  of  Cellacban,  and,  after  mar- 
rying and  having  children,  renounced  the  world,  with 
his  three  daughters.  He  baptized  St.  Columba  in  the 
Church  of  Tulach-Dubglaise  (now  Temple-Douglaa,  in 
Donegal).--Smith,  Diet,  of  Chritt,  Biog,  a.  v. 

Cmm,  Gkeorge  Cramer,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Winchester,  Ya.,  June  29,  1809« 
At  seventeen  he  removed  to  Hillsborough,  O.,  wb«r^ 


CRUM 


189 


CRYER 


h«  was  eomrerted  in  1827,  lioensed  Co  preach  in  1881, 
lod  lecetTed  into  the  Ohio  Gonferenoe  the  aame  year. 
During  hiB  long  aemce  in  the  itinerant  lanka  he  aerred 
maoy  of  the  best  charges  in  his  oooferenoe*  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Cincinnati  Conference  from  its  oigani- 
zation  in  1858  until  the  dose  of  his  life.  He  was  sa- 
pcnuuinated  in  1877,  and  died  in  Xenia,  March  4, 1882. 
See  Jftmte*  ofAmmal  Con/ermeet,  1882,  p.  821. 

Cnmi,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  at  Elizabeth,  Allegheny  Co.,  Pa.,  Dec.  25, 1809. 
He  imited  with  the  Seoeder  Chnrch  in  early  manhood, 
about  a  year  afterwards  was  converted,  and  soon  joined 
the  Methodists  in  Ashtabula  C6unty,  O.  He  entered 
the  Erie  Conference  in  1886,  and  travelled  with  but 
alight  intemuaaion  until  his  death  at  Volant,  Pa.,  Jan. 
10, 1882.  See  Jftmclet  qf  Ammal  Ccmfireneu^  VS^  p. 
818. 

CSnunei  Mosas,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
converted  in  1785,  in  Shenandoah  County,  Va. ;  emi- 
gntcd  to  Kentucky  later;  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1798^  and  labored  in  that  capacity  until  1808,  when  be 
entered  the  Western  Conference.  In  1828  he  became 
superannuated,  and  thus  continued  until  his  death  in 
1839.    See  MuMtea  of  A  mual  Coiferences,  1840,  p.  52. 

Gnmqp^  Jdhn,  an  English  Nonconformist  divine, 
became  minister  at  Maidstone  about  1658,  and  was  eject- 
ed lor  nonconformity  in  1662.  He  pubUahed  The  Great 
Stopper  (1669).  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer, 
AfUkor$fB,Y, 

Gnunp,  John  Benxy,  AJtf.,  an  English  Congr^ 
gatkmal  minister,  was  bom  at  Coventry,  Maroh  15, 1803. 
In  1822  he  entered  the  Congregational  College  at  Hox- 
ton;  in  1826  became  pastor  at  Weymouth;  in  1888 
chaplain  of  the  Protestant  Diaaentera'  Collegiate  School 
at  MiU  Hill,  Middlesex,  and  in  1847  removed  to  Lech- 
lade,  Glouoesterahire,  where  he  died  Feb.  14, 1849.  He 
wrote  a  beautiful  memoir  of  hia  friend,  Rev.  Thomaa 
C  Everett.     See  (Lond.)  Evang,  Magazine^  1849,  p. 


GSnunp,  Joseph,  an  Englbh  Wealeyan  minister, 
was  born  at  Dudley  in  1800.  He  was  converted  in 
eariy  life,  began  his  ministry  in  1825,  retired  to  his  na- 
tive place  in  1860,  and  died  June  5, 1862.  See  Aftntctet 
of  the  Brititk  Conferatce,  1862,  p.  31. 

Gnunpton,  Thomas,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  near  Tenbury,  Worcestershire,  in  December, 
1780,  or  January,  1781.    He  was  baptized  about  1800, 
and, for  many  years,  was  offidally  connected  with  "  The 
B^idst  Itinerant  and  Miaaionary  Societtea,"  "The  Sun- 
day-school Union,"  and  other  kindred  inatitutiona.    In 
Septomber,  1840,  he  commenced  a  aix  yeara'  pastorate 
atShremborv.    He  died  at  Leeda,  Sept.  25, 1868.    See 
(Load.)  Bap^  Handbook,  1869,  p.  188.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cnmnmhael  is  the  name  of  several  old  Irish 
siinta.    See  also  Conamhaxl. 

1*  Also  called  Crmndmael'Erbuiig,  aon  of  Ronan,  of 
the  aept  of  the  Hy-Cennsealch,  ruled  for  three  years  as 
chief  of  the  dan,  and  then  became  a  monk  at  Clonard, 
in  Meath.  He  was  a  special  friend  of  St.  Lasrean,  bish- 
op of  Lrighlinn,  and  died  A.D.  650.  He  is  commemo- 
rated June  22. 

2.  Abbot  after  Dubhdabbhoireann  at  Clonard,  A.D. 
787  tin  his  death  in  793,  and  also  for  some  time  at  Dru- 
iorlnes^lainn  (now  Dromiskin,  in  Louth).  He  has 
BO  featsl  di7.-.Smith,  DieL  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

GniM^  CmnsTiAV,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
ckrgynan,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  27, 1794, 
oC  Dumb  parents.  He  graduated  from  the  University 
oC  Pteosjivania  in  1815;  was  appointed  professor  in 
that  institotion  in  1881,  but  resigned  in  1833;  was  or- 
diiaed  in  1842 ;  became  rector  of  Trinity  parish,  Fish- 
^N.T.,  in  April,  1846;  resigned  in  1851 ;  soon  after 
•wnnii  librarian  of  the  Generd  Theological  Seminary, 
iiBd  devoted  htmsdf  to  the  study  of  ancient  languages. 
He  ditd  in  New  Tofk  dty,  Oct.  5»  1865.    In  Syriac, 


Hebrew,  and  Greek,  Dr.  Cmae  was  one  of  the  meet 
learned  men  in  his  Churoh.  See  Amer,  Quar,  Chunk 
Bev,  January,  1866,  p.  669. 

CruMniiui,  NicoLAvs,  prior  of  the  Augustinian 
monasteries  at  Brussels  and  Antwerp,  and  general  vis- 
itor of  his  order  in  Austria  and  Bohemia,  who  died  at 
Vienna  in  1629,  is  the  author  otManaslicon  Augustinp- 
anum,  etc  (Munich,  1628).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der 
theol  Lit.  i,  705 ;  Jocher,  AUgmeinet  Gdehrien-Lexikon, 
S.V.    (RP.) 

Cntaiai,  Maomub,  a  Lutheran  theok>gian,  was  bom 
in  Schleswig,  Jan.  10, 1697.  He  studied  at  Kiel,  was  in 
1728  called  to  Copenhagen,  and  accompanied  as  chap- 
lain the  Danish  ambassador  to  France.  In  1781  he 
was  appointed  to  the  pastorate  at  Bramstedt,  in  Hol- 
stein,  in  1788  first  preacher  and  member  of  consistory  at 
Flensburg,  in  1785  professor  of  theology  at  Gottingen, 
where  he  also  took,  in  1787,  the  degree  of  doctor  of  di- 
vinity. In  1747  he  was  made  general  superintendent 
at  Harburg,  and  died  Jan.  6, 1751.  He  is  the  author  of 
De  Senectute  fferoioa  Veterum  Christianorum  (Harburg, 
1721)  i—Prohgi  Origenu  m  Eoangelia  8S.  Matt,,  Lucm 
et  Joatmit  (Gottingen,  1785) :— Z>e  Besurrectione  Spir- 
ituali  (ibid.  1788)  :-^De  Mgtterio  SilaUU  et  ChmorU 
(ibid,  eod.),  etc.  See  Mosen  u.  Neubauer,  Jelztlebemde 
Theohgen ;  Hdnsius,  Kirchen  Historie,  iv ;  Strodtmann, 
Neues  Getehrtes  Europa,  v ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemanea  Gelehr^ 
im-Lexikon,  sl  v. ;  Winer,  Jlandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  s, 
897.     (a  P.) 

Cmao,  Timothy,  A.M.,  an  English  Nonconformist 
minister,  was  bom  in  1655.  He  was  educated  for  the 
ministry,  first  in  a  dissenting  academy,  and  then  at  one 
of  the  universities  of  Scotland ;  and  was  pastor  of  a 
chureh  which  met  in  Crutched  Friars,  London,  where 
he  continued  to  the  close  of  his  life,  Nov.  26,  1697. 
Mr.  Cruso  was  chosen  one  of  the  preachers  of  the  Mer- 
chants' Lecture  at  Pinner's  Hall,  and  his  sermons  there 
verify  the  high  eulogium  given  him  by  all  for  his  great 
ability.  See  Bogue  and  Bennett  Hitt,  ofDisterUere  (2d 
ed.),  i,  467;  (Lond.)  Theol,  and  BiU,  Mag,  Oct  1805» 
p.  888;  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches,  i,  56. 

Cmx  Amsata.    See  Cross. 

Cms  iSaint)f  JvAs  dk,  a  Spanish  ascetic  theolo- 
gy, whose  family  name  was  Yesiet,  was  bom  in  1542 
at  Ontiveroa,  in  Old  Caatile.  At  twenty-one  he  became 
a  Carmelite  at  the  monaatery  of  Medina  del  Campo, 
and  aided  St.  Thereaa  in  reforming  the  monks,  who 
eventually,  however,  through  enmity,  took  him  to  To- 
ledo, where  he  was  imprisoned  for  nine  months,  and 
then  was  released  through  St  Theresa's  interposition. 
He  afterwards  founded  and  controlled  some  monasteries. 
In  1591  he  encountered  new  persecutions,  and  was  ban- 
ished to  the  convent  of  Pegnuela,  upon  the  Sierra  Mo- 
rena,  but  obtained  the  liberty  of  retiring  to  the  convent 
of  Ubeda,  where  he  died,  Dec.  14, 1591.  He  was  beati- 
fied in  1675,  and  canonized  in  1726.  He  wrote,  Noche 
Obseura  del  A  Ima : — Subida  del  Monte  Carmeh : — Catk- 
tioo  Espiritual  entro  le  Alma  y  Chrgsto^  tu  Esposa ;«• 
Uama  de  Amor  Visa;  and  other  works  in  Spanish. 
His  works,  collected  and  published  for  the  firat  time  at 
Barcelona  in  1619,  were  tranalated  into  French  by  P. 
Cyprian  (Paria,  1641) ;  by  P.  Louu  of  St  Thereaa  (ibid. 
1665) ;  by  P.  Maillard  (ibid.  1694);  and  in  Utin  by  P. 
Andrew  de  Jeaua  (Cologne,  1639).  They  are  written  in 
an  obacure  and  myaterious  atyle.  See  Hoefer,  iVbar. 
Biog,  Ghiihrak,  a.  v. ;  Encgdop,  Brit,  (9th  ed.)  a.  v. 

Ciyer,  Thomas,  an  Engliah  Wealeyan  miasionary, 
waa  bom  at  Bingley,  Yorkshire,  in  1800.  He  was  con- 
verted at  twenty,  and  in  1829  was  sent  as  a  missionary 
to  India.  He  labored  in  Bangalore,  Madras,  Negapa- 
tam,  and  Manargoody.  During  an  interval  from  mis- 
sionary labor  (1840-41)  he  was  stationed  at  Dewsbury, 
Enghmd.  He  was  appointed  to  Madras  in  1852,  arrived 
in  that  citv  Oct  1 ,  and  died  Oct.  5.  See  MuuUes  ofths 
British  Conference,  1858,  p.  186. 


CRYPT 


190 


CUANNA 


Crypt.  Of  thii  important  form  of  chaich  aieiii- 
tectnre  we  give  additioiul  details  from  Waloott,  Sac 
ArchfBoL  I.T.: 

"  The  earliest  crypts  which  we  possess  are  those  of  Hex- 
ham and  RipoD.  They  have  several  entranees ;  one  used 
exclusively  oy  the  priest  serving  at  the  altar,  the  others 
for  the  ascent  and  descent  of  the  worshippers,  and  open- 
ing into  a  chapel  containing  relics  and  a  recess  for  an 
altar.  In  the  wall  are  niches,  with  fhnneUheaded  open- 
ings  for  lamps.  At  Winchester,  a  low,  arched  doorwav, 
below  the  screen  of  the  feretory,  led  down  to  the  relic 
chamber,  which  was  in  conseqneuce  callea  the  Holy  Hole. 
In  later  times,  aumbries  and  secret  hiding-places  for  plate 
and  treasnres  were  generalW  provided.  In  the  Uth,  12th, 
and  iBth  centuries  crypts  bosame  developed  into  mag- 
nificent subterranean  churches,  like  those  of  Canterbury, 
Gloucester,  Rochester, Worcester,  Winchester;  8t.Peter% 
Oxford;  Bayenx,  Cbartrcs,  Salntes,  Auxerre,  Bourses, 
Holy  Trinity,  Caen;  St.  Denis.  Ghent ;  Flesole,  Padua, 
Florence,  Pavia,  Palermo^  and  Modena.  The  earlier  ex- 
amples are  of  moderate  dimensions,  resembling  cells,  as 
in  the  pre-Kormau  examples  at  Lastlngham,  at  St  Mel- 
lon, at  Rouen,  of  the  4th  century ;  St  Haur,  and  Fare  la 
Vlnense.  After  the  t4th  century  the  crrpt  was  replaced 
by  lateral  chapels  built  above  ground.  In  fiict,  all  crypts 
— called  in  some  places  the  crowds— the  shrouds,  or  un- 
dercroft-~were  built  to  put  Christians  in  remembrance  of 
the  old  state  of  the  Primitive  Church  before  Constantino. 
The  crypts  of  the  Dnomo  and  San  Ambrogio,  Milan,  Par- 
ma, and  Monte  Cassino^  are  still  used  as  a  winter  choir  $ 
ana  the  parish  church  of  St  Faith,  in  the  shrouds  of  St 
Paul's,  was  occupied  until  the  Great  Fire.  Several  of  the 
largest  cathedrals,  built  on  unfavorable  sitee  for  excava^ 
tion,  as  Durham  and  Chlcheeter,  have  no  crvpt  The 
erypU  of  Winchester,  Rochester,  Gloucester,  Worcester, 
and  Canterbury  were  all  made  before  1085:  and  after 
that  date  the  construction  of  -crypU  was  laid  aside,  ex- 
cept where  they  were  a  continuation  of  existing  build- 
ings, as  at  Canterbury  and  Rochester.  There  Is,  how- 
ever, an  exoeptlonal  Barly  Bnglish  example  under  the 
Lady  Chapel  of  Hereford,  and  one  of  Decorated  date  at 
Waltham.  A  curious  Decorated  contrivance  for  construct- 
ing a  crypt  in  an  earlier  church,  which  was  never  designed 
to  have  one,  may  be  seen  at  Wimbome  Minster,  where  the 
crypt  under  the  presbytery  lies  open  to  the  aisles.  At 
Bosham  and  Dorchester  (Oxon)  there  is  a  small  crypt  in 
the  south  alley  of  the  nave,  under  a  raised  platform,  for 
on  altar  or  chapel,  which  is  ouly  another  specimen,  on  a 
much  smaller  scale,  of  the  same  principle  which,  at 
Lubeck,  Hildesheim.  Naumburg,  Hnlberstadt,  Rochester, 
and  Canterbury,  left  the  crypt  floor  on  a  level  almost 
with  the  nave,  and  raised  the  choir-level  to  a  great  height, 
enclosing  It  with  stone  screens.  At  Christchurch  and 
Gloucester  there  was  a  crypt  under  each  comer  of  the 
cross,  except  the  western  one.  At  Auxerre  and  Bourges 
the  crypt,  like  the  subterranean  church  of  Assisi,  was  use- 
ful as  a  constructional  arrangement  to  maintain  the  level 
of  the  choir.  Occasionally  the  crypt  assumes  rather  the 
character  of  a  lower  church,  as  lu  the  Sainte-Chapelle  (Par- 
is), Ston,  and  St  Stephen's,  Westminster.  There  is  no 
example  of  a  crypt  in  the  Peninsula  or  Ireland,  and  Scot- 
land possesses  only  one,  at  Glasgow.  At  Westminster, 
Glasgow,  and  Wells  there  is  a  crypt  under  the  chapter- 
house, which  contained  an  altar.  The  crypt  was  fire- 
quently  lighted  brilliantly  on  great  festivals,  audits  chap- 
els were  constantly  throneed  with  pilgrims  and  visitors, 
BO  that  at  present  we  can  nardly  portray  to  ourselves,  in 
their  cheerless  desolation,  that  once  they  were  much  fre- 
quented places  of  prayer." 

Crypta  seems  to  have  been  sometimes  used  in  Chris- 
tian times  as  synonymous  with  **  cemetery."  We  may, 
however,  mark  this  distinction  between  the  two  words, 
that  '*  cemetery  **  is  a  word  of  wider  ^gniflcation,  includ- 
ing open-air  bmrial-grounds,  while  ^  crypta**  isstrictly  lim- 
it^ to  those  excavated  beneath  thesuxicce  of  the  ground. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  the  expression  crypta  are^ 
nantm,  or  crypta  aretiaria  (i.  e.  '*of  the  sand-pits*^),  in 
connection  vrith  the  interment  of  Christian  mar^rs. 
These  would  seem  to  indicate  the  galleries  of  a  deserted 
pozzuolana  pit,  as  places  of  sepulture.  But  though  the 
subterranean  cemeteries  very  frequently  had  a  ciose 
connection  with  these  quarries,  and  were  approached 
through  their  adita,  the  sand-pits  themselves  were  sel- 
dom or  never  used  for  interment,  for  which,  indeed, 
they  were  unfit,  without  very  extensive  alteration  and 
adaptation.  The  passages  referred  to,  which  are  chiefly 
found  in  the  not  very  tmatworthy  Acta  qfth€  Mat^ 
tyrtf  have  probably  originated  in  a  confosbn  between 
the  cataoomba  themselves  and  the  quarries  with  which 
they  were  often  so  doaely  connected— Smith,  DicL  of 
Chritt,  Antiq,  s.  v.    See  Cataooxbs, 


Ciyitalloinanoy  (Gr.  KfrnoraXXoc,  eryflaif  ^au, 
and  luntuat  dicmaUon)  ia  a  apemea  of  divinatioo  by 
means  of  a  minor  or  enchanted  glaai»  in  which  fntoze 
eventa  were  said  to  be  leprcosntod  or  aigniited  by  cer- 
tain marin  or  figures. 

Cselefl)  Mabtiv,  a  Hungarian  theologian,  waa  bom 
at  Rosenthal,  Jan.  23,  1641.  He  took  holy  ordera  in 
1657,  and  afterwards  went  to  Rome  as  pontifical  pen- 
itentiary. Returning  to  hia  country,  be  waa  appointed 
provost  of  Raab  and  Presbrarg.  Daring  the  civil  troaUea 
which  broke  out  in  Hongary  be  fell  into  the  banda  of 
the  Rakotzki  party,  who  held  him  prisoner  for  a  year. 
He  died  at  Patak,  Jan.  14, 1709,  leaving,  Edneaiio  Hu- 
iorioO'Chrmohgiea  de  Epitoopatu  TVantyhaittas — />•• 
icr^ut  AmpUtidmu  Epiteopatui  SirmiennM,  See  Hoo- 
fer, Now,  Biog,  GMrttle,  a.  ▼. 

Cteaiphoii,  a  Roman  (probably)  to  whom  St.  Je- 
rome writes  from  Bethlehem  {Epist,  188,  ed.ya]L)  on 
the  question  of  Pelagianism,  on  which  Ctesiphon  had 
written  to  ask  his  opinion. 

Ctesiphon  (on  (As  Tiynt),  Goukcil  of  {CondUitm 
CtctiphowMt),  was  held  A.D.  43Q,  under  Taballaha,  arch- 
biahop  of  Seleuda,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river. 
Here  the  Nioene  faith  waa  received,  and  with  it  the 
canons  to  which  the  consent  of  the  rest  of  the  Chnroh 
westward  had  been  given. 

Ctibor,  John  (called  CotwC),  a  Horavian  theolo- 
gian, was  canon  of  Brilnn,  of  Ohnntz,  and  of  Pragoei 
dean  of  Sinczna  in  1615,  and  provost  of  Lntomierz.  He 
died  in  1687.  He  wrote  in  the  Bohemian  language. 
His  principal  work  is  directed  against  the  FkoCeetantBi 
and  is  entitled  Larve,  His  sermons  were  also  esteemed. 
See  Hoefer,  Houv.  Biog,  GMraU,  a.  v.;  Biog,  Umver^ 
telle,  s.  V. 

Ctistol&tras  (crctfroXdrpat,  called  also,  from  their 
founder,  Gajamta)  were  a  subdivision  of  the  Aphthar' 
todooeta  (q.  v.),  themselves  a  sect  of  the  Honoph3r8itea» 
who,  in  opposition  to  the  Aktisteta,  taught  that  the 
body  of  Christ  was  created.  See  Hagenbach,  SitL  of 
Bodrinet,  i,  281,  Clark*s  translation ;  Dorner,  Permm  of 
Chriit,  div.  ii,  vol.  i,  p.  181 ;  Heraog,  Real^EneyUcp,  iz, 
749. 

Cuaoh.    See  Cooca. 

Cnan  (Cnanna,  Cuanan,  or  Cnannache;  di- 
minutive of  Cu, "  a  hound  ;**  Lat  Cuamu)  is  a  name  of 
several  Irish  saints: 

1.  Of  Airbhre  in  Hy-Cennsealach,  Leinster,  com- 
memorated July  10,  is  thought  to  have  anooeeded  St. 
Brogan  (q.  v.)  in  the  abbacy  of  Mothel,  Waterford. 

2.  Of  Cluain-mor  (now  Clonmore,  Carlow),  com- 
memorated OcLl5)i8  thought  to  have  accompanied  St. 
Moliny  (q.  v.). 

There  is  another  Cnan,  '*  of  Ath-eaacrach  **  (now  prob- 
ably Ahasragh,  in  Galway),  who  died  A.D.  788  or  79Sy 
and  is  commemorated  also  on  Oct  15b 

3.  Son  of  Tigher-nach,  of  the  race  of  the  Nine  Hoa- 
tages,  and  brother  of  Sta.  Begbile,  Colman,  and  Ooanm, 
is  commemorated  Mareh  2,  and  lived  about  the  doee  of 
the  6th  century. 

Then  are  also  Cuan-Cam  and  Cnan  the  anehorel  of 
Lilcah  (not  identified),  who  both  died  A.D.  748 ;  aloo 
Cuan  of  Imleach-Jubhair  (Emly),  who  died  A.D.  787; 
and  Cnan  of  Louth,  who  died  in  8^.  See  Smith,  Diet* 
qf  Chritt.  Biog,  a.  v. 

Caanan  GLimrE,  an  Irish  taint,  commemorated  Feb. 
8,  was  abbot  of  Maghbile  (now  Moville,  County  Down, 
and  died  in  747.    See  Smith,  Bid,  of  Chritt,  Biog,  a.  v. 

Cnanghaa  Hao  Dall  Q.  e.  blind  hoy,  although  he 
afterwards  received  his  sight),  an  Irish  taints  commem> 
orated  Marph  18,  succeed^  St.  Pulcherins  as  abbot  of 
Liathmore  (Leamokevoge,  in  Tipperary),  and  died  in 
747.    See  Smith,  Bid,  of  Chritt,  Biog,  a.  v. 

Cnanna  (or  Cnanda)  ia  the  name  of  aeveral  eady 
Irish  saints: 


CUARAN 

1.  Abbot  of  Kinehnuiiu  (nnr  KikooTU,  In  Qahnr) 
lad  lianoR,  celibnted  Feb.  4,  it  wd  to  bavc  beui  bom 
It  tht  eka>  erf'  tbe  6th  caitoi;,  fail  mather  being  Hedk 
[fliinKili  or  ConmaoU),  du^hlcr  of  FiDgm,  aod  bii 
(ktbcr  onkiKnni,  vbile  bii  brother  ku  St.  Cartbuh  or 
Ribco.  Uanj  mindM  an  related  of  him,  and  ba  di«d 
•boat  S50.    Sec  ColgiD,  Ada  Smdonim,  p.  249  iq. 

2.  Sou  of  Hiodbani  of  Boko,  eelabratcd  April  10,  it 
sfobKiiie  ud  confiued  hialoir,  bqt  Mcma  io  hare  di«d 
in  731.    Set  Forbei,  aatt.  SiukU,  p.  10;  lUllj,  Iriik 


Ibe  Blind;"  celcbnMd  March  II,  i> 
Iboogbt  to  hare  beta  tbc  ana  of  Tulan,  and  ia  u 
ban  been  minculoinlf  taught  malic  by  St,  Patrick. 
—Smith,  Ditt.  of  ChritL  Biog.  t.  y. 

Cntnns.    See  Hocbua. 

Cnana  (Konui,  Cronan,  BCoobnuoo, 

CrovlniM),  an  early  Irith  aaint  (Humamtd  tA<  Witt), 
oommemoraud  Tab.  9,  is  uid  to  hara  be«a  bom  in 
HoiHter,  being  the  ion  of  Nathaervan,  of  a  noble  family, 
and  became  a  tnihop,  but  of  what  place  ii  nnknown. 
He  aeemi  to  have  flonriihed  about  A.D.  570,  and  is 
tlNrefore  different  from  Cronan  of  Liamore.  —  Smith, 
DitL  of  Ckriil.  Biog.  t.  t, 

Cnba,  in  pagan  ros^bology,  waa  the  totalary  god- 
deal  of  aleepen,  eapedally  of  children. 

Caba,  an  early  Saxon  pteabyter,  atteated  a  charlei 
ta  arehtdihop  Ethctheaid,  A.D.  SOS. 

Cnbbitt,  Gn>iiGE,  in  Engliih  Wealeyan  miciiter. 
waa  bom  at  Borwich,  in  December,  1791.  He  Joined 
the  Chnnh  in  1806,  at  Sbeffleld,  whither  hie  familjr  bad 
iCBored.  He  commenced  hi*  miaiitry  in  1818 ;  labored 
in  Catboaear  and  St  John'a,  Mewronndland,  from  1810 
ta  1818 ;  in  Glaigow,  Scotland,  in  1819,  and  fnJm  I8S0  to 
1BS5  in  Boitaa.  Oxford,  Briitol,  Sheffield,  Uuddenfield, 
and  Uatdon.  From  1836  to  the  end  of  hii  life  he  was 
editor  of  the  conference  office  puhlicationi.  In  IS39  he 
ivpUeil  to  the  attacka  on  Uethodiam  made  by  Daniel 
O'CoaDctl  in  the  Hancheater  newipapen.  Tlx  TimeM 
ifioka  highly  of  CDbbitt'i  aniwen.  He  died  alUr  three 
daj^  illneaa,  Oct.  IS,  ISia  Cubbitt  wrote  Cowtna- 
tiam  aa  lit  UiratUt  of  Ckriit  (18mo)  -.^-CoBverKitioiu 
o»  die  ParcAkt,  and  other  minor  pnbhcatiODi.  He  waa 
one  o(  the  aenteat  and  ableat  nf  iVealeyan  ttaeoh^^iana. 
Daring  the  latter  part  of  hii  life  he  lived  aa  a  rediue. 
See  ItiuMttt  of  Uu  Btiliik  Confertnct,  18SI ;  Smith, 
Bin,  of  WaL  Unk,  iii,  4SS,  439. 

Cubero,  Psdbo,  a  Spanish  missionary  and  trarel- 
W,  m  born  in  ItU,  near  Calataynd,  in  Atagon.  He 
eommeneed  liia  travels  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  going 
from  Sangoaaa  to  Paris,  aflerwarda  visited  Bome,  Ten- 
ice,  Timsa,  Constantinople,  Wusiw,  Moscow,  Asln- 
khan,  Saltan,  Ispahan,  Sbiraz,  Laar,  Snrat,  Goa,  Halao- 
ea,  Uinills,  and  Hexico,  letnmiag  to  Europe  after  a  nine 
Teals' abstnee,  and  published  an  account  of  hi*  miisioill 
in  Spamsh  (Madrid,  1680;  Saiagoasa,  1688).  Cnbero 
was  the  lint  ttavcUer  who  made  the  tout  of  the  world 
from  ■««  to  east,  and  in  part  by  luiiL  His  work  give* 
a  dttdkd  toeonnt  of  the  ilappes  of  Aitiikban,  of  the 
deKtli  of  Ferua,  and  of  Manilla.  See  Uoefer,  Norn. 
Bieg.  CJafrofa,  t.  T. ;  Biog.  UmttrMOt,  a.  v. 
Cnbnt  See  Ccdbebth. 
CnbloUim)  ia  a  term  nsedineadyCbriatianacehi- 

0  denote  what  we  should 
he  nave  of  a  church.    The 

DtH  Innance  of  its  u*e  in  this  sense  is  in  the  writings 
of  Patlinoi  of  NoU,  who  describe*  the  church  erect- 
ed si  Xola,  and  partiilDlariiea  these  side  chapel*,  which 
wm  evidently  novel  features  in  church  arrangemenL 
There  were  foor  on  each  side  of  the  nave,  beyond  the 
M  aisles,  wUh  two  verses  inscribed  over  the  en- 
tninu.  Thtar  object  waa  to  fumiih  places  of  retire- 
^Bt  ht  tkoae  who  desired  to  pray  or  meditate  on  the 
*Mt  •(  Qoi,  and  for  the  stpatehral  memoriala  oT  the 


II  CUBICULUM 

departed.  They  dUTered  ftom  the  aide  ebapela  of  later 
ages  in  containing  no  allan,  as  originally  tbere  was  bat 
one  altar  in  a  church.  Faulinus  also  speaka  of  these 
chapels  under  the  name  of  c^a  at  ceUuia,  e.  g.,  when 
speaking  of  a  thief  who  had  concealed  himself  in  one 
of  them  all  night.  Perhaps  the  earliest  existing  ex- 
ample in  Rome  of  such  a  chape]  attached  to  the  body 
of  a  church  i*  that  of  St.  Zeno  in  the  Church  of  San- 
U  Praseede,  buUl  by  pope  Paschal  I  about  A.D.  817.— 
Smith,  ma.  ofCkritl.  Anfi;.  *.  v. 

3.  The  word  cabiailttm  i*  likewise  employed  10  des- 
ignate the  family  grave  chambers  in  the  sublerranean 
cemeteries  at  Rome.  In  addition  to  the  ordtnar}'  placea 
of  interment  In  the  ambulacra,  the  catacombs  contain 
an  immense  number  of  sepulchral  chambers  or  cubieula, 
each  enshrining  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  dead,  aa 
well  in  table  tombs  and  arcoeolia,  as  in  loculi  pierced  in 
the  waUb.  These  were  originally  family  burial-places, 
excavated  and  embellished  at  the  expense  of  the  friends 
of  the  departed,  and  from  the  date  of  their  Snt  con- 
atraction  served  tor  the  celebration  of  the  eucbaristia 
feast  and  agape,  on  the  occasion  of  the  funeral,  and  it* 
soooeasive  anniveraariefc  In  times  of  peraecution  they 
may  have  supplied  places  of  religions  assembly  where 
the  faithful  might  gather  in  aecuriiy  for  the  celebraliiui 
of  the  holy  mysteries,  at  the  graves  of  the  departed 
martyr*  and  others  whose  fate  they  might  be  soon 
called  to  share  by  sealing  their  tntimony  with  their 
blood.  The  name  evbiadvm  is  of  exclusively  Chris- 
tian use  as  applied  to  place*  of  interment.  From  in- 
scriptions in  which  the  term  occnrs,  Harchi  infer* 
"that  in  the  4th  century  the  persons  named  caused 
that  their  own  cubicnla  should  be  excavated  at  their 
own  eipenae.  Each  cubiculnm  was  of  luffident  di- 
menuons  to  serve  for  several  geueratioua  of  the  re- 
spective families.  If  it  proved  insufficient  locnli  w«r* 
added  at  ■  greater  or  leaa  distance  from  the  cubiculum." 
SomeCimea  we  Snd  the  arch  of  an  arcotolium  of  the  1st 
century  cut  through  and  used  as  a  door  or  entrance  to 
a  second  cubiculum  excavated  in  it*  rear,  the  original 
sarcophagus  being  removed  and  carried  to  the  hack  of 
the  cbapet  that  other  bodieg  might  be  placed  near  iL 


(With  a 


The  number  of  these  sepukhral  chambers  ia  almost  be- 
yond computation.  Marchi  reckon*  more  than  dxty 
in  the  eighth  port  of  the  catacomb  of  St.  Agnea.  In 
that  of  St.  CalUxtua  they  amount  to  aome  hundreds. 
They  are  equally  fluent  in  the  other  cemeteries. 
Their  form  it  very  varied.  In  the  catacomb  of  St, 
Callixtus,  with  very  few  exceptions,  they  are  rectangu- 
lar, and  that  appears  to  have  been  the  earlier  shape. 
But  there  are  example*  of  mai^'  other  forms,  triangular, 
pentagonal,bexagonal,  octagonal,  circular,  and  semicir- 
ilar.  The  roof  i*  lometimes  a  barrel  vau]t,sametimes 
coved  ceilingj  nearly  Sat ;  in  one  instance,  it  expands 
110  a  lofty  dome,  lighted  by  a  JuMHore,  Both  tha 
roof,  the  vaults,  ami  the  receaea  of  the  anoaolia  ars 


PUs  of  Cobleulam     (FromCi 


:tue.} 


generally  coated  with  ttuceo,  and  nchl;  deconled  w 
leligious  piintings.  In  Ihe  later  realoralioru  the  «i 
are  often  veneered  wilh  plates  of  coetly  marble.  9ee 
PWTOJiiA.  In  >  veiy  targe  DQmber  of  eiiunpleB  thi 
Good  Shtpherd  occapiea  the  centre  of  the  ceiling,  Iht 
■UROundini;  lunetlea  containing  Adata  tmd  Ev*  afttr 
the  FaU,The  Uittory  of  JomA,  Tim  Sacrijiae  of  Abra- 
ktm,  Moiei  SlriiHig  tit  Rode,  TU  Three  ChUdren  tn  fhi 
rurpact,  The  VUit  of  llie  Wite  Mm  to  Ckritt,  The 
Hairing  of  Laiarut,  Tht  Healiag  of  the  Blind  Man,  The 
Faralj/tic  Carrying  htM  Bed,  Tht  Miracle  of  the  l.oasei, 
and  other  scenes  rrom  the  limi[«d  cycle  of  Scriptural 
nibjecli  to  which  early  Cbriitian  art  confined  itself, 
treated  with  a  wearisome  unifonnily;  cmbelllslied  with 
palm  branches,  Tinea  laden  with  gnpes,  the  dove,  the 
peacock   and  other  fkm  1  ar  Chr  it  an  symbols.     The 


Action  of  CublCQ  am.  (ProraCaiacamh  ofSt.  Lalliitni 
valli  of  the  chimbei  were  also  similarly  decanted. 
Sm  FsKSCoea.  The  vault  ii  in  some  cases  supported 
bjoalnmns,  either  cut  out  of  thetafSiOi  formed  of  brick 
coiled  with  stucco.  Ught  and  air  were  not  unfre- 
qneot])'  admitted  by  means  of  a  shaft  communicating 
with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  called  luminart.  A 
chamber  so  lighted  wis  known  as  a  eubiculum  damtn. 
These  eubicula  were  very  frequently  double,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  gallery,  and,  as  vre  have  Just  noticed, 
in  some  instances  a  luminare  was  sunk  in  the  centre 
■D  a*  to  give  light  to  both.  The  cuhieula,  generally 
speaking,  are  of  small  dimenuoiis,  and  are  incapable  of 
oontainiiig  more  than  a  veiy  limited  number  of  wor- 
ahippen.  But  there  are  also  found  hslls  and  chimben 
of  much  larger  pioportjons,  which  have  been  conud- 
ered  by  the  chief  Koman  Catholic  autboritiea  on  the 
•abject  to  have  been  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
ligious assemblies,  Theae  are  distinguisbed  by  Marchi, 
by  an  arbitrary  nomenclature,  into  crypla,  far  the 
•nMller,and  teeUtia,  for  the  larger,  excavations, — Smith, 
Did.  ef  ChriH.  Amiq,  t.  v.  "Catacomba."    See  Cata- 


Cnbitt,  jAiuea,  sn  English  Baptist  miniiter, 
bom  at  Neateahcod,  SnOblk,  in  180&    He  gradoatad 
tuna  Stepney  College  ia  18M,  and  the  suiie  yei    ' 


CUERNERT 

paalor  of  the  Church  at  lUind,  Euex.  Ia  ISBI 
moved  to  Stratford-oo-Avon,  in  ISU  to  Bouitm- 
on-the-Water,  remaining  there  seven  years,  and  then 
was  pastor  at  Thraptton,  Northamptonshire,  for  twelve 
years.  In  1H61  he  became  one  of  the  tutors  in  Ur. 
Sporgeon'a  Uetropolitan  Tabernacle,  Southwirk,  bat 
in  1868  was  compiled  to  desist  from  all  occDpst)OD,and 
died  Ang.  fi  of  the  same  year.  See  (Lood.)  BaptiU 
Band-book,  1B65,  p.  I!I.    (J.  C  a) 

Cabolma  (Conbrau,  or  Cabnn),  an  Irish  sunt, 
nmmemorated  Nov.  10,  is  said  to  bave  died  as  abbot 
if  Cillarhaidh  (now  Killeigh,  in  King's  Coon^},  AD. 
'OJ.— Smith,  Did.  of  ChritL  Biog.  s.  v. 
Cnbilcms.  See  Manib. 
Cnoojot  the  head  of  a  heretical  Syrian  sect  ofVil- 
intiniana  in  the  latter  port  of  the  !d  century  (Ephnin, 
Coiiira  HartHeoe,  xxii,  4B5  b,  in  Aiaemani,  voL  ii).— 
Smith,  Did.  of  ChritL  Biag,  t,  v. 

CaonlU,  an  early  martyr  at  Barcelona,  celebrated 
July  26. 

GnonUa  was  a  hood  worn  by  Benedictine  nmiki 
id  nuns,  equivalent  to  the  later  coeI  (q.  v.). 
CuotUtl^  an  epithet  of  an  unknown  disciple  of 

Cnoamsllam,  a  flagon  or  bovtl  belonging  to  the 
sltoT  in  eariy  Christian  churches,  which  was  used  prob- 
ably for  containing  the  communion  wine.     See  Bing- 

m,  jinftj.hk.  viii,chBp.vi,  sect.xxL     CompareAiu. 

Cudunail,  an  early  Saxon  abbot,  attested  a  char- 
ter of  Etbelbeard,  archbishop  of  Canteibuiy,  AD.  80S. 

Cndbert  (Cnclberct,  or  Codbtitttna).    Ses 

ClJTBBKBT. 

Cndberth  (or  Cubort),  an  early  Eogllsh  abbot 
of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  died  A.D.  777. 

Cndbnrg  (or  Cudbnch).    See  Cvthbl-bo. 

Cnddo,  so  early  English  abbot  of  Meicia,  dr.  AD. 
742. 

Caddy,  Jaueb  BiLLDiaB[,ET,  a  Uethodist  Episo^ 
pal  minister,  was  bom  in  Baltimore  County,  Hd,  Aug. 
16,  1836.  He  was  converted  at  sixteen;  studied  one 
at  Manchester  Academy,  and  two  at  DickiDSOB 
nary,  William  sport ;  received  licenae  to  cibart  ia 
1857;  and  in  1860  entered  the  East  Baltimore  Coofer- 
wherein  he  aerved  until  his  death,  Aug.  2,  ISi^ 
See  Miavtu  ofAnmal  Con/eroKU,  1S75,  p.  32. 

Cnddy,  MacOilla.    See  AatmiiEsis,  Ricuabd. 

Cndrkdna,  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  of  lindis- 
fame,  A.D.  T9S  (Alcuin,  KpiMl.  h). 

Cndied  (or  Cndiat).    See  CdthkeI). 

Gndmlda.    See  Cih'buiiia. 

Cadnald,  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Oundle  (Dn- 
dalum),  in  North  Hanti^A.D.  709  (BMle,&xJu.ffM«. 
19). 

Cna— .    See  Qu^^ 

Cnailly,  Ouvikh  dk,  a  French  tbedogiao,  wal 
bom  at  Laval  in  16G6.  He  became  a  Dominican  at  tb« 
convent  there,  and  aAerwards  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
taught  seversl  branches  of  theology.  He  died  about 
1620,  leaving  Merpritalion  mr  la  Prtmiert  Chapiitt 
du  Prophite  iiiehid  (Paris,  1611):  — La  FUatx  de 
Dim  (ibid.  1616).    See  Hoefer,  /fovv.  Bioff.  GiUrak, 

Cnenbiuh  (Csnbnrg,  Qnanhnrga,  etc),  aistn 

of  Ina,  king  of  Wessex,  co-foundress  of  Wimbtim  Abbey 
with  her  sister,  is  perhaps  also  the  same  aa  the  abboi 
Caadatrga,  probably  of  WiinbiirR,  AJ>.  oir.  718.  Sea 
Smith,  Did.  of  Chrid.  Biog.  s.  r. 

Cneiaert,  Dibk  (at  Tbkodobb  tax),  a  Dutch  en- 
graver, was  bom  at  Amsterdam  in  I63S,  and  lived 
chiefly  at  Haarlem,  when  he  was  D»re  noted  for  IV 
ligioa*  contnveny  than  for  attainroent*  in  the  art 


CUEURET 


193 


CULVER 


tfe  died  in  1590.  The  following  are  his  chief  works: 
The  Deatad  from  the  Cross;  Joseph  ExpkMng  his 
Dream;  Josqth  Interpreting  the  Dreams  of  his  Fellow^ 
Prisoners;  Job  Reproached  2y  Air  Wife;  Balaam  and 
hsAss.    See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,9,y. 

Cnenret  (or  Ciiret),  I'nciunc,  a  French  theolo^^n, 
who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  centur}%  was 
etnon  of  the  Church  of  Mans,  and  chaplain  of  the  duke 
of  Jfayenne,  who  intrusted  him  vrith  important  matters. 
He  wrote.  La  FUur  de  Pridication  selan  Saint  Ephrem 
(without  date),  from  the  Latin  of  Ambrose  the  Camal- 
dole.  According  to  La  Croix  da  Maine,  we  are  in- 
debted to  Cueuret  for  the  first  edition  of  the  Triom- 
pkant  Mystkre  des  Aetes  des  ApSlres^  of  Amoul  and 
8imon  Criban,  published  in  1537.  See  Hoefer,  Abitr. 
Biog.  GMrale,  a.  r. 

Cneva,  Martin  db  lA|  a  Spanish  grammarian  of 
the  order  of  Cordeliers,  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  16th 
oentarf.  He  wrote  De  Corrupto  Docenda  Grammaiicm 
Latima  Genere  (Anvers,  1550).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GMrale,  a.  v. 

Cnfa,  an  abbot  of  the  diocese  of  Winchester,  who 
attested  an  act  of  the  Council  of  Clovesbo,  Oct.  12, 808. 

Cnli^  JoH3i  Habcombb,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  near  Chard,  Somerset,  in  1790.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Western  Academy,  Axminster ;  in 
1812  commenced  his  ministry  at  Wellington,  Somerset, 
and  coniinaed  it  there  until  his  death,  November,  1846. 
See  (Lond.)  Evang.  Magazine,  August,  1847,  p.  401. 

Cnffee,  Paul,  a  native  Indian  preacher  of  the  Shin- 
ncoock  tribe  of  Indians  on  Long  Island,  was  born  in 
1757,  and  was  for  thirteen  years  in  the  employ  of  the 
New  York  Missionary  Society.   He  died  March  7, 1812. 

Casanaeich.    See  Co^cqan. 

Ciii— .    See  Qui-^ 

GHiichelin,  an  early  English  prelate,  was  conse- 
crated  seventh  bishop  of  Rochester  by  archbishop  Theo- 
dore, bat  deserted  the  see  (Bede,  HUt,  Ecdes,  iv,  12). 

Culrbin.    See  Ckrbas. 

Cnlan  (Colan,  or  Dachiialen),  a  doubtful  Irish 
saint ^  given  by  Colgan  (Acto  Sanctorum)  under  Feb. 
18. 

CnlbertBOn,  Javbs,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Franklin  County,  Pa.  He  was  educated  at 
Cannoosburg  College,  and  installed  at  ZanesviUe,  O.,  in 
1812;  where,  after  a  long  and  useful  service,  he  died 
suddenly,  Feb.  28, 1847.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Cnloheth.  William,  an  English  Wesleyan  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Darentrv  in  1810.  He  was  converted 
early  in  Ufe,  admitted  into  the  ministry  in  1888,  and 
died  Jnty  26, 1852.  See  Mtnutes  of  the  British  Confer- 
1852. 


Cull,  Hugh,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  and  an 
eminent  local  preacher  for  nearly  sixty  years,  died  near 
Richmond,  Ind,  Aug.  80, 1862,  in  his  one  hundred  and 
fifth  year.  See  AjqtUtotfs  A  nmial  Cgdopadia,  1863,  p. 
672. 

Callen,  GaTln,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  bora  in  Lan- 
arkshire, was  licensed  to  preach  in  1821 ;  presented  to 
the  liviog  at  Balmaclellan  in  1825,  and  onlained ;  and 
died  Jso.  18, 1844,  aged  fifty  yearn  See  Fasti  Ecdes. 
ScoticttfM,i,G9f7. 

Calleii,  John,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bom  It  Newark,  Nottinghamshire,  Oct.  25, 1786.  He 
conmeoeed  his  ministry  in  1809,  became  a  superau- 
Bciiry  in  1851,  settled  at  Wellingborough,  and  died 
April  16, 1868.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference, 
1868,  p.  30. 

CQUeo,  John  Bdward,  an  English  Congrega- 
tinttl  nioirter,  first  cousin  of  cardinal  Cullen,  was  bora 
atGsrt,  in  the  weat  of  Inland,  May  10, 1794.  He  was 
^"^  teigned  by  his  parents  for  the  priesthood,  and 
""        *  for  that  purpoae  in  Dublin,  belt  his  study  of  I 

XIL— N 


the  Scriptures  led  him  to  renounce  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic faith.  He  resolved  to  commence  preaching  at  once 
at  Omagh,  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  at  the  same 
time  was  engaged  as  private  tutor  in  the  family  of 
James  Buchanan,  Esq.,  father  of  president  Buchanan 
of  the  United  Sutes.  Persecution  from  the  Catholioi 
induced  him  to  remove  to  London,  where  he  maintained 
himself  by  teaching  in  schools  and  private  families. 
About  1820  he  was  ordained,  and  preached  successive- 
ly at  Caistor,  in  Lincolnshire;  Flocton,  in  Yorkshire; 
Fairfonl,  in  Gloucestershire ;  Lacock,  in  Wiltshire ;  Bor- 
oughbridge,  in  Yorkshire ;  Burwell,  in  Cambridgeshire ; 
and,  lastly,  at  Fordham,  until  1856,  where  he  died,  Dec. 
30, 187&  'He  published  The  Voice  of  Truth.  See  (Lond.) 
CoR^.  Tear-bookj  1880,  p.  318. 

CuUen,  Paul,  an  eminent  Roman  Catholic  prelate, 
was  bora  April  27, 1808,  at  Prospect,  in  Ireland.  He 
studied  at  the  college  in  Carlow ;  went  in  1820  to  Rome, 
where  he  completed  his  education.  In  1828  he  received 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology ;  was  rector  of  the  Irish 
college  at  Rome,  and  in  1849  was  appointed  archbishop 
of  Armagh.  In  1851  he  was  transferred  to  Dublin, 
where  he  opened,  in  1854,  the  Catholic  high-school, 
whose  first  rector  was  John  Newman.  In  1869  he  was 
made  cardinaL  He  died  OcL  24,  1878.  His  Pastoral 
Letters  And  other  Writings  of  Cardinal  CuUen  (edit.  Mo- 
ran)  were  published  in  1883.  See  Brady,  The  Episcopal 
Siteeeuion  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  i,  845; 
Bellesheim,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchen^LexUum,  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Cullinc;ford,  John,  an  English  Wesleyan  preacher, 
entered  the  ministrv  in  1825.  and  was  sent  as  a  mission- 
ary  to  the  West  Indies.  Being  seized  with  illness  in 
1^5,  he  left  Trinidad  for  Barbadoes,  and  died  there, 
March  4, 1846,  in  the  forty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  See 
Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1846. 

CuUam,  Sir  JoHsi,  an  English  clerg}'man  and  an 
accomplished  antiquary,  was  bora  in  1738,  and  educated 
at  St.  Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  a 
fellow  in  1758.  In  April,  1762,  be  was  presented  to  the 
rectory  of  Hawstead,  in  Siiflblk ;  and  in  December,  1774, 
instituted  to  the  vicarage  of  Great  Thurlow.  He  died 
Oct.  9, 1785.  His  History  of  the  Parish  of  Hawstead 
and  Hardwidc  House  was  originally  published  as  the 
twenty-third  number  of  the  Bibliotheca  Topographica 
Britanmca.  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone, 
DicL  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Cttlmer,  Richard,  an  English  clerg}*man  of  Kent, 
is  represented  by  Wood  {Fasti  Oxonienses)  as  "an  ig- 
norant person,  and  with  his  ignorance  one  of  the  roost 
daring  schismatics  in  all  that  country.**  He  published, 
Cathedrall  Newes  from  Canterbury  (1644) : — Mimster^s 
Hue  and  Cry  (1651)  i^lMvless  TUhe  Robbers  Discovered 
(1G55).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors, 
s.  V. 

CulBhaw,  JosKFH,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister^ 
was  bora  of  Roman  Catholic  parents  at  Ormskirk,  Sept. 
25, 1856.  In  1877  he  entered  the  Richmond  Theolog- 
ical School;  early  in  1879  began  circuit-work  at  the 
diamond  fields.  South  Africa;  and  the  year  following 
removed  to  Kronstadt,  in  Orange  Free  State.  He  waa 
drowned  Feb.  8, 1880.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Con- 
ference, 1881,  p.  60. 

Colter  was  a  knife  used  by  the  ancient  pagans  in 
slaughtering  victims  at  the  altars  of  the  gods.  It  usu- 
ally had  one  edge,  a  sharp  point,  and  a  curved  back. 

Cultrarlns  (Lat  atUer,  a  knife)  was  the  person  who 
killed  the  victims  which  were  sacrificed  to  the  gods  by 
the  heathens  of  ancient  times.  The  presiding  priest 
never  performed  this  service  himself,  but  appointed  one 
of  his  attendants  to  the  ofllce  of  eultrarius  for  each  Occa- 
sion. 

Culver,  Aaron  L.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Dobb's  Ferry,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  19, 1841.  He 
was  converted  at  twelve ;  afier  studying  at  Claverack 


CULVER 


104 


CUMING 


in  1859  or  1860,  labored  for  four  years  as  a  local  preach- 
er, and  then  in  the  New  York  Conference,  till  his  death 
ip  1878.    See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferencu,  1878,  p.  43. 

Culver,  Cyrus,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Chester,  Mass.,  in  1780.  He  was  converted 
in  early  life ;  labored  several  years  as  a  local  preacher ; 
in  1811  entered  thk  New  York  Conference;  in  1827  be- 
came a  supernumerary,  in  1830  a  superannuate,  and 
died  March  11, 1846.  '  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Cimfer- 
<iicr«,  1846,  p.29. 

Culver,  N'e^Birell,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Pomfret,  Vt.,  July  13, 181 1.  He  joined  the 
Church  in  January,  1833,  and  in  July  of  the  same  year 
was  received  on  trial  into  the  New  Hampshire  Confer- 
ence. He  continued  in  the  active  work,  except  for 
three  years  (1849-52),  nutil  1871,  when  his  health  failed. 
He  died  Sept.  22, 1882.  See  MinuUs  of  Annual  Con- 
/emic««,1883,  p.84. 

Culverwell,  Ezekiri^  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
published  a  Treatise  on  Faith  (Lond.  1629)  :—A  Blessed 
Estate  {IQ8S):-^  Meditations   (1634).     See  AUibone, 
.  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthorSf  s.  v. 

Cuman  was  an  abbot  of  Glastonbury,  England, 
A.D.  800-802. 

Cumanus  (or  ConanuB)  was  second  abbot  of 
Abingdon,  died  A.D.  784. 

Cumberland,  Demison,  an  Irish  prelate,  became 
bishop  of  Clonfert  in  1768,  and  was  translated  to  Kil- 
more  in  1772.  He  published  some  single  Sermons,  See 
AlUbone,  Diet,  ofBrii,  and  A  mer,  A  uthorSf  s.  v. 

CumbertuB  (or  Tumbertus),  was  abbot  of 
Glastonbury,  England,  A.D.  744-753. 

Cumin  (Cumian,  Cumeanua,  Cumeneus,  or 
Cummein),  was  the  name  of  about  a  score  of  Irish 
saints,  of  whom  but  few  are  clearly  identifiable. 

1.  Son  of  Dubh,  and  abbot  of  Druimdruith,  com- 
memorated Jan.  12. 

2.  Bishop  of  Bobbio,  commemorated  Aug.  19,  died 
after  seventeen  years  of  piety,  at  the  age  of  ninety-five, 
about  A.D.  744. 

3.  A  poet  of  CV)nnor,  about  the  middle  of  the  7th 
centur)'. 

4.  Otherwise  called  CadAan,  commemorated  June  1, 
seems  to  have  been  the  son  of  Cronchu,  son  of  Konan, 
of  the  race  of  Corbmac  Cas,  and  to  have  lived  about 
A.D.  738. 

5.  Surnaroed  Fin, "  the  Fair,"  commemorated  Feb.  24, 
is  thought  to  be  the  same  as  the  son  of  Eman,  of  the 
district  of  Tyrconncll,  who  retired  to  the  monastery  of 
Hy.  He  probably  became  abbot  A.D.  657,  and  died  in 
699.  He  is  famous  as  the  earliest  biographer  of  St.  Co- 
lumba. 

6.  Surnamed  Foda,  *'  the  Tall,"  of  Cluainferta-Dre- 
nainn  (now  Clonfert),  commemorated  Nov.  12,  was  the 
son  of  Fiachna,  of  the  royal  line  of  West  Munster.  He 
was  bom  about  A.D.  590,  and  his  original  name  was 
Aedh,  He  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  great  learning, 
and  wrote  a  hymn  in  praise  of  the  apostles  and  evan- 
gelists (edited  by  Todd,  Book  of  Hymns,  i,  81).  He 
died  A.D.  662.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cumin,  John.    Sec  Ck)HiN. 

Ciunin,  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  bora  in 
1660;  colled  to  the  living  at  Riccarton  in  1694;  or- 
dained in  1695,  and  died  April  8, 1739.  See  Fasti  iTc- 
cles,  ScoticuncB,  ii,  136. 

« 

Cumine,  Andreinr,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
teacher  at  the  grammar-school  in  Irvine  in  1696 ;  called 
to  the  living  at  Largs  in  1701,  and  died  July  4, 1762, 
aged  eightv-eight  vears.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticance, 
ii,  253. 

Cumine,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of  the 
foregoing,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1739;  called,  in 
1742,  to  be  assistant  to  his  father  at  Larg^,  and  died 
Jan.  31, 1743.    Sea  Fasti  Eccks.  SsoOcana,  ii,  263. 


Cumine,  "William,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  originally 
schoolmaster  of  Fraserburgh,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1754;  presented  to  the  living  atTyrie  in  1761 ;  ordained 
in  1762 ;  transferred  to  Ruthen  in  1772,  and  died  Feb^ 
8, 1800,  in  his  eightieth  year.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Soh- 
ticana,  iii,  639,  643. 

Cuming  (or  Cumming)  is  the  family  name  of 
many  Scotch  clergyman.    For  others  of  later  date  see 

CUMMING. 

1.  Alexander  (1),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1672; 
called  to  the  living  at  Dallas  the  same  year,  and  died 
May  24,  1681.     See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticante^  iii,  179. 

2.  Alexandkr  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Moy-and-Dalaroasie  in  1680,  and 
ordained.  Though  a  Jacobite,  ho  continued  after  the 
Revolution  in  1688;  and  died  April  27, 1709.  Sec  Fasti 
Eccles,  Scoticance,  iii,  268. 

3.  Alexamdrr  (8),  was  bursar  to  the  presbytery  in 
1684  and  1685;  minister  at  Liberton  in  1689;  deprived 
the  same  year  for  not  praying  for  the  king  and  queen, 
and  died  at  Edinburgh,  April  26, 1713,  aged  sixty  yearSL 
See  Fiuti  Eccles,  Sooticana,  i,  115. 

4.  David,  born  at  Relugas,  took  his  degree  at  King*8 
College,  Aberdeen,  in  1667;  succeeded  his  brother  as 
schoolmaster  at  Turrif,  and  then  in  the  living  at  Eden- 
keillie  in  1672,  and  was  ordained;  received  into  com- 
munion in  1694;  was  one  of  the  ministers  appointed 
in  1699  to  visit  the  Highland  parishes  of  Moray,  and 
died  at  the  end  of  the  same  year,  aged  about  fifty -two 
year&     See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scotiatnee,  iii,  183. 

5.  Georgb  (1),  took  his  degree  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1619;  was  appointe<{  to  the  living  at  Dal- 
las in  1624,  and  ordained;  in  1631  was  charged  before 
the  presbytery  with  making  railing  verses,  found  among 
the  people,  which  he  deiiied  on  oath;  was  the  only 
minister  in  the  presbytery  who  refused  to  subscribe  the 
Covenant  in  1638;  officiated  as  synod  clerk  in  1648; 
was  a  member  of  tlie  Commissions  of  Assemblv  in  1044 
and  1645;  and  subscribed  the  marquis  of  Uuni]y*A  bond 
in  1646.  He  died  before  May  3, 1648,  aged  about  forty- 
nine  years.     See  Fcuti  Eccles,  Scoticante,  iii,  179. 

6.  Gkokgb  (2),  took  his  degree  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1647 ;  became  schoolmaster  at  Elgin,  where 
he  was  obtruded  on  the  grammar-school  by  the  magis- 
trates, in  1649,  without  the  consent  of  the  presbytery; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1655 ;  called  to  the  living  at 
Urray  in  1658,  and  died  in  1705,  aged  about  seventy- 
eight  yeai^.     See  Fasti  Eccks,  Scoticame,  iii,  305. 

7.  George  (3),  bom  at  Elgin,  took  his  degree  at 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1667;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1674;  presented  to  the  living  at  Essil  in 
1676,  and  ordained.  He  died  Sept.  20,  1723,  aged 
about  seventy-six  years.  His  two  sons,  Archibald  and 
George,  both  settled  as  clerg}*men  in  England.  See 
Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticante,  iii,  170, 

8.  John  (1),  born  at  Relugafs  took  his  degree  at 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1661 ;  l)ecame  schoolmas- 
ter at  Turrif;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Eden* 
keillie  in  1688,  and  ordained;  transferred  to  Auldearn 
in  1672 ;  resigne<l  in  1682,  and  settled  at  Cullen.  lie 
died  at  Edcnkeillie,  Feb.  9, 1689,  aged  fort^'-eight  years. 
His  son  John  was  the  first  regius  professor  of  divinity 
and  church  history  in  the  Edinburgh  University.  See 
Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  iii,  183, 246, 673. 

9.  John  (2),  took  his  degree  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1663;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1668; 
called  to  the  living  at  Bimie  in  1670, and  ordained;  in- 
stituted in  1671;  deprived  in  1690  for  nonconformity; 
went  to  Ireland,  where  he  is  said  to  have  joined  the 
Romish  Church.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticame,  iii,  159. 

10.  John  (8),  was  called  to  the  living  at  Sandsting* 
and-Aithstiug  in  1701;  ordained  in  1702;  falling  un-> 
der  aensure,  was  reproved  by  the  synod  in  1704.  He 
died  May  21, 1731.    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scotianut,  iii,  428. 

11.  John  (4),  son  of  the  minister  at  EdenkeiUie^ 
studied  theology  at  Glasgow  University ;  was  called  to 
the  living  at  Eyemouth  in  1708,  and  ordained ;  traQ;^^^ 


CUMING 


195 


GUMMING 


ferred  to  Humbie  in  1715,  and  died  Feb.  26, 1754,  aged  ser- 
eoty^foar  yean.    See  Fcuti  Ecdes,  ScotukuuBf  i,  838, 437. 

12.  JoHif  (5),  D.D.,  was  bom  in  1685,  in  Ireland ; 
cdacated  in  a  Scotch  university ;  removed  to  England, 
and  waa  chosen  pastor  at  Cambridge.  In  1714  the 
court  designed  the  overthrow  of  dissent  by  act  of  par- 
liament, and  Mr.  Cuming  resisted  that  act  by  publish- 
ing The  Comqitums  and  Dtfeetioru  of  the  Present  Timet 
as  to  Matters  of  ReUffum.  In  1715  he  tvrote  and  pub- 
fished  Remarks  on  Dr.  Bewlley*s  Sermon  on  Popery,  In 
1716  he  took  charge  of  the  Scotch  Church  at  Founders 
Hall,  Lotbbarv,  London.  In  1717  he  preached  a  Sermon 
fo  Controvert  One  on  the  Kingdom  of  Christy  published 
bv  bishop  Hoadley«  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Salter's  Hall  Synoii  in  1719,  in  defense  of  the  Trinity, 
and  was  one  of  the  signers.  He  preached  and  published 
a  sermon  on  the  subject,  which,  in  1722,  he  defended  by 
a  bulky  volume  On  the  A  uthority  of  Scripture  Conse" 
qtienees  in  Matters  of  Faith,  In  1724  he  published  the 
Funeral  Sermon  of  Benjamin  Robinson.  He  died  SepL 
7, 1729.     See  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches,  ii,  487. 

13.  Michabi^  took  his  degree  at  the  IJniversity  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1659;  became  a  chaplain;  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1663;  appointed  to  the  living  at  Drainy 
in  1666;  declined  to  take  the  test  in  1681,  but  was  re- 
turned  to  his  ministry  in  1683,  and  died  in  March, 
1695.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  161. 

14.  Patrick  (1),  was  presented  by  the  king  to  the 
parsonage  of  Dallas  and  vicarage  of  Aldeme  in  1576, 
which  he  resigned  before  February,  1586;  was  trans- 
fcned  to  Urquliart  in  1578,  his  former  parishes  being 
conjoined.     See  Fasii  Ecdes,  Scotieana,  iii,  178, 178. 

15.  Patrick  (2),  bom  at  Belugas,  took  his  degree 
at  Edinburgh  University  in  1670;  became  minister  to 
a  Presbyterian  congregation  in  Dublin;  was  called  to 
the  living  at  Ormiston  in  1689;  ordained  in  1690,  re- 
serving the  liberty  to  return  to  Ireland.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1690,  and  was  ap- 
pointed with  principal  Dunlop,  in  1694,  to  get  the  royal 
sanction  to  bold  the  General  Aasembly,  which  had  been 
interrupted.  He  had  the  care  of  all  the  churches,  was 
a  constant  friend  to  all  young  ministers  and  scholars, 
and  a  most  instructive  and  cheerful  companion.  He 
died  March  10, 1731,  aged  eighty-one  years.  See  Fasii 
Ecdes.  Scoiieana,  i,  302. 

16.  Patrick  (3),  D.D.,  son  of  the  minister  of  Relu- 
gaa,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  University  in  1716; 
became  chaplain  to  lord  justice  Clerk  (Grange) ;  was 
lioenaed  to  preach  in  1720;  appointed  to  the  living  at 
Kirkmahoe  the  same  year,  and  ordained ;  transferred 
to  lAehmaben  in  1725,  and  to  the  Collegiate  Church, 
eeoood  charge,  Edinburgh,  in  1732 ;  elected  moderator 
of  the  General  Assembly  several  times,  and  died  April 
\y  1756,  aged  eighty  years.    He  waa  distinguished  for 
erudition,  liberal  sentiments,  and  extensive  benevo- 
lence.   His  talents  as  a  speaker  gave  him  great  influ- 
ence, and,  patronized  by  the  Arg^-ll  family,  then  hold- 
ing in  their  handa  the  government  of  Scotland,  he 
acquired  the  chief  management  of  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  in  Scotland  from  the  year  1751.     His  sons, 
Robert  and  Patrick,  were  professors  in  the  universities 
of  Edinbargh  and  Glasgow.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoti- 
<»iMe,i,15,588,642. 

17.  Patrick  (4),  D.D.,  waa  bom  in  1695;  in  1737 
became  professor  of  church  history  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  was  also  one  of  the  ministers  of  the 
city,  baring  been  ordained  when  but  seventeen  years 
<^  He  resigned  his  professorship  in  1762,  in  favor 
of  hti  SOD.  Soon  afker  his  removal  to  Edinburgh  he 
l>ccaaae  the  leader  of  the  Church  party  known  as  the 
Moderates,  He  was  several  times  moderator  of  the 
nneuibly,  and  died  April  1,  1776,  at  Rybreas,  in  the 
puiib  of  Edenkeillie.  Dr.  Cuming  was  a  man  of  ex-, 
tCBsire  historical  and  critical  knowledge;  and  «s  a 
pveaebcr,  equalled  by  few,  having  an  easy,  fluent,  neat, 
«ad  degtttt  style.  Sec  A  nnals  of  the  Church  of  Scot^ 
^Mrf(li39-1766),i,S19. 


18.  Robert,  took  his  degree  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1680;  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  admit- 
ted to  the  living  at  Urquhart-and-Glenmorriston  in 
1686,  and  ordained.  He  died  before  April  8, 1730,  aged 
about  seventy  years.  See  Fasti  Eccks,  Scoticana^  iii, 
120. 

19.  William  (1),  took  his  degree  at  King^s  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1622 ;  was  licensed  to  preach,  but  not  set- 
tled; complained  of  to  the  synod  in  1624  for  marrying 
irregularly  at  Inverness,  but  continued  in  the  ministry. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  344. 

20.  NViLLTAM  (2),  took  his  degree  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1661 ;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at  Dores 
in  1663,  and  ordained ;  removed  in  1664 ;  called  to  Hal- 
kirk in  1677,  and  continued  in  1688.  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
Scoticanm,  iii,  262, 362. 

21.  William  (3),  brother  of  the  ministor  at  Riccar- 
ton,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1693 ;  called  to  the  living 
at  Caterline  in  1708,  ordained  in  1709,  and  died  in  1717. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticanm,  iii,  877. 

Cumingfl,  Abuah  Preston,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Dover,  N.  Y.,  July  4, 1803.  He  grad- 
uated from  Union  College  in  1832;  studied  theology 
for  two  years  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary ;  was 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Brunswick,  Oct.  21, 
1835 ;  was  editor  of  the  New  York  Observer  from  1836 
to  1871,  and  died  at  Nice,  France,  May  13, 1871.  See 
Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  88. 

Cumma  was  abbot  of  Abingdon«  England,  abont 
A.D.  726-737. 

Cmnman  is  the  name  of  two  early  Irish  virgins 
and  saints : 

1.  Commemorated  July  6,  seems  to  have  been  twin- 
sistor  of  Ethne  and  daughter  of  Cormac,  of  the  royal 
race  of  Ireland,  and  flourished  about  A.D.  560. 

2.  Commemorated  May  29,  apparently  of  the  Ards 
(County  Down),  and  of  the  royal  race  of  Erin,  before 
A.D.  800.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cluniiiian  (oflen  confounded  with  St.  Cumin  [q.  v.]), 
an  early  Irish  ecdesiast  of  unknown  parentage,  was 
probably  educated  in  Sl  Columba^s  monastery  at  Dur- 
row,  and  had  his  church  at  Kilcomin  (King's  County). 
He  is  known  fur  his  zeal  in  the  Paschal  controversy, 
and  a  letter  of  his  is  extant  on  the  subject,  written 
A.D.  634  (given  in  Usher,  Works,  i  v,  430).  He  is  also 
thought  to  be  the  author  of  an  abridgment  of  the  peni* 
tential  Psalms  (in  Fleming,  Collect,  Sacra^  p.  197).  See 
Smith,  Du^,  of  Christ,  Biog,  a.  v. 

Cmnming,  Alexander,  a  Scotoh  clergyman,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1828;  presented  to  the  living  at 
Dunbamie  in  1833 ;  ordained  in  1834;  joined  the  Free 
Secession  in  1848,  and  became  minister  at  Gorbals  Free 
East  Church  in  1853.  His  publications  were,  a  Lecture, 
a  Sermon,  and  An  Account  of  the  Parish,  See  Fasti 
Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  684. 

dimming,  Andrew,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Hawkins  County, 
Tenn.,  Nov.  18,  1817.  He  was  converted  and  joined 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1833,  and  three 
years  later  removed  with  his  father's  family  to  Illinois. 
There  he  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1843,  joined  the 
Illinois  Conference,  and  was  transferred  immediately  to 
the  Arkansas  Conference.  At  the  division  of  the  Church 
the  following  year  he  became  a  member  of  the  southern 
branch.  He  was  a  member  successively  of  the  Indian 
Mission,  the  East  Texas,  and  the  North  Texas  confer- 
ences. He  became  superannuated  in  1864,  and  died  at 
Turner's  Point,  Texas,  Oct.  6, 1882.  See  Minutes  of  A  n- 
nual  Conferences  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1882,  p.  145. 

Camming,  David  B.,  a  minister  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  at  Mercersburg, 
Pa.,  June  3, 1796.  He  was  converted  in  1818,  licensed 
to  preach  in  1819,  and  entered  the  Tennessee  Confer- 
ence in  1821.  In  1823  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and 
transferred  to  Holston  Conference  in  1824.     In  ita 


GUMMING 


106 


CUMMINGS 


boiindB  be  travelled  nntil  1884,  czceptiDg  three  years 
that  he  was  a  superanmerary,  being  agent  for  the 
American  Bible  Society.  From  1884  to  1838  he  had 
charge  of  the  Indian  Mission  work  of  that  conference. 
He  was  transferred  in  1838  to  the  Arkansas  Conference, 
within  the  bounds  of  which  he  ser%'ed  daring  the  next 
six  years.  From  1845  nntil  his  death  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Indian  Mission  Conference.  From  1872  to 
1879  ho  was  superannuated.  lie  was  the  pioneer  of 
Methodism  among  the  Wyandottcs,  the  Senecas,  the 
Delawares,  the  Creeks,  and  Cherokees.  He  served  three 
terms  as  presiding  elder,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  1854.  His  death  occurred  in  Mc- 
Donald County,  Mo.,  Aug.  25,  1880.  See  Mimdes  of 
A  fuuial  Conferemxs  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1880,  p. 
151. 

Gumming,  Franols  H.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,Oct.  28, 1799. 
His  literar}'  and  theological  studies  were  pursued  under 
Rev.  Dr.  Rudd  of  Elizabeth,  N.J. ;  and  he  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1819,  and  priest  in  1820.  He  remained  a 
year  in  his  first  cure  in  Binghamton,  N.  Y. ;  was  then 
called  to  St.  Luke's,  Rochester,  officiating  there  during 
nine  years;  spent  one  year  in  Reading,  Pa.,  and  one  in 
Le  Roy,  N.Y.;  became  secretary,  agent,  and  editor  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Sunday-school  Union,  remov- 
ing to  New  York  meanwhile,  and  holding  these  oflices 
for  the  space  of  four  years.  Ho  was  the  first  rector  of 
Calvary  Church,  New  York  city ;  in  1839  entered  upon 
the  duties  of  rector  of  St.  Andrew's,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich., 
continuing  there  four  years;  became  rector  in  1843  of 
St.  Mark's  Church,  Grand  Rapids,  which  post  he  held 
until  his  death,  Aug.  26, 1862.  He  was  chaplain  of  the 
8d  regiment  Michigan  Infantry,  and  twenty-five  years 
represented  the  diocese  of  Michigan  in  the  General  Con- 
ventioiu  Possessed  of  great  energy  of  character,  and  a 
mind  well  stored,  he  was  by  no  means  an  ordinary  man. 
3ee  Amer.  Quar,  Church  Rev,  April,  1868,  p.  150. 

Cmunlng,  Hooper,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister,  was  bom  in  New  Jersey.  He  graduated  from 
Princeton  College  in  1805,  and  from  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  in  1810 ;  was  ordained  in  1811 ;  preached 
in  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  of  Newark,  N.  J., 
from  1811  to  1814;  at  SchenecUdy,  N.  Y.,  from  1815  to 
1817;  in  the  Third  Presbyterian  Church,  Albany,  from 
1817  to  1822;  and  in  the  Yandewater-street  Church, 
New  York  city,  in  1822  and  1823.  He  went  to  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  in  1824,  and  died  there,  Dec.  18, 1825.  See 
Trien,  Cat,  of  Andover  TheoL  Sent,  1870,  p.  17. 

Gumming,  James,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  a  member  of  the  Holston  Conference,  and  died 
in  1868  or  1869.  See  Minuiea  of  Annual  Conference*^ 
1869,  p.  264. 

Camming,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  a  na- 
tive of  Kilmamock,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1795;  be- 
came assistant  minister  at  Dundee,  and  afterwards  libra- 
rian at  Glasgow ;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Fra- 
serburgh in  1814,  ordained  in  1815,  and  died  Jan.  25, 
1857,  aged  eighty-four  years.  See  Fatti  Ecclet,  Scott- 
canat  iii,  628. 

Cnmming;  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister 
of  the  Scotch  Church,  was  bom  in  Aberdeenshire,  Nov. 
10, 1810.  He  went  to  London  in  1833 ;  became  minis- 
ter of  the  Church  in  Crown  Court,  and  through  life 
maintained  his  connection  with  the  Established  Kirk, 
having  no  sympathy  with  the  cause  which  led  Chal- 
mers to  forsake  it.  He  died  in  London,  July  6, 1881. 
Dr.  Cumming  was  equally  noted  as  an  opponent  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  and  as  a  believer  in  the  speedy  ad- 
vent of  Christ,  He  was  a  clear  thinker  and  an  able 
preacher,  possessing  much  learning  and  vivid  imagi- 
nation, which  rendered  him  interesting  to  those  even 
who  did  not  accept  his  peculiar  views.  In  1872  he 
preached  before  the  queen  on  *' Communion  between 
Heaven  and  Earth,"  and  was  personally  thanked  by  her 


mijesty  for  his  effort,  with  which  she  professed  herself 
greatly  pleased.  His  church  was  not  large  enough  to 
hold  the  vast  crowds  which  attended  his  ministry.  The 
writings  of  Dr.  Cumming  were  very  numerous,  among 
which  we  notice.  The  Church  ofScotUatd: — Apocalyptic 
Sketches: — Lectures  on  tite  Seven  Churches: — Lecture 
on  the  Miracles: — Lecture  on  the  Parables: — Lecture 
on  Daniel : — The  Finger  of  God: — Christ  our  Passover  : 
— The  Comforter: — A  Meuagefrom  God: — The  Great 
Sacrifice : — Christ  Receiving  Sumen : — Is  Christianity 
from  Godf — Sabbath  Morning  Readings  on  Genesis: — 
On  Exodus : — On  Leviticus : — Benedictions : — Voices  of 
the  Night  :^Ofthe  Dag :~-Ofthe  Dead:— God  in  His- 
tory : — Infant  Salvation : — Baptismal  Font :— Lectures 
for  the  Times  :^-ChristiaH  Patriotism: — The  Conmutm- 
ion  Table  f— Almost  Protestant  :—The  Church  Before  the 
Flood  :—Libefiy  :-'EguaUty :— Fraternity  :—The  Rev^ 
olutionists:—The  True  Charter:— The  True  Succession: 
— Exposition  of  Psalm  xci : — Occasional  Discourtes : — 
Thank^vingf  an  Exposition  of  Psalm  ciii: — Our  Fa- 
ther; a  Week's  Family  Prayers:— An  Edition  of  the 
Pulpit  Psalm-book,  Church  of  Scotland  :—A  n  Edition  of 
Fox^s  Book  of  Martyrs : — A  n  Edition  of  A  Wert  Barnes's 
Notes : — TranskUAon  of  Bonaventura^s  Psalter  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin: — Discussion  on  Protestantism  with  Dan^ 
iel  French,  Esq,:— The  Tent  and  the  Altar :— Daily 
Family  Devotion,  etc  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Cnmming,  John  A.,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Buncombe  County, 
N.  C,  Nov.  23, 1826.  He  embraced  religion  at  an  early 
age;  and  in  1849  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  received 
into  the  Indian  Mission  Conference.  He  began  his  la- 
bors among  the  Indians  on  the  Shawnee  and  Delaware 
Mission  under  great  disadvantages.  On  the  change  of 
boundaries  he  became  a  member  of  the  St.  Louis  Con- 
ference, in  which  he  ended  his  days  in  1859  or  186Q. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M,  E,  Church 
South,  1860,  p.  205. 

Cumming  (or  Cuming),  Moses,  an  Irish  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  ordained  over  the  First  Dromore 
Church  in  1784,  and  removed  to  Armagh  in  1796,  where 
he  died  in  1816.  For  many  years  he  was  clerk  of  the 
synod  of  Ulster.  See  Stuart,  Armagh,  p.  498;  Reid, 
Hist,  of  the  Presb,  Church  in  Ireland, 

Gumming,  Paxton,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Rockingham  County,  ya.,Feb.  12, 1808L 
He  experienced  religion  at  sixteen ;  and  the  same  year 
was  licensed  to  preach,  and  admitted  into  the  Holston 
Conference.  In  1828  he  located,  because  of  ill-health ; 
subsequently  removed  to  Illinois,  and  in  1837  entered 
the  Illinois  Conference.  In  1838  be  became  superannu- 
ated, and  died  Aug.  21, 1839.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Conferences^  1840,  p.  53. 

Cummings,  Archibald,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  Fngland,  appeared  before  the  vestry  of  Christ  Church, 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  9, 1726,  with  an  appointment  to 
that  church  from  the  bishop  of  London,  and  was  accord- 
ingly received  as  rector,  a  position  which  he  held  until 
his  death,  in  April,  1741.  See  Sprague,  Amnals  of  the 
Amer,  Pulpit,  \,  88, 

Cummings,  Asa,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Andover,  Mass.,  SepL  29, 1790.  He  gradu* 
ated  from  Harvard  College  in  1817,  and  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1820;  was  ordained  pastor  at 
Yarmouth,  Me.,  in  1821,  where  he  remained  until  1829, 
and  then  removed  to  Portland,  as  proprietor  and  editor 
of  the  Christian  Mirror,  Here,  for  thirty  years,  be 
labored  most  faithfully,  and  by  his  pen,  through  the 
columns  of  his  paper,  he  was  the  instmment  of  largdy 
increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  Congregational  churches 
of  the  state.  He  wrote  the  interesting  and  useful  Me- 
moirs  of  Edward  Payson,  His  death  occurred  sudden- 
ly, on  the  steamer  George  Law,  on  his  way  home  from 
Aspinwall,  June  5  or  6, 1856.    See  Boston  Advtriiser, 


CUMMIN6S 


197 


CUMMINS 


July  16, 1856 ;  TrioL  Cat  o/Andover  TkeoL  Sem,  1870, 
p.  4L    (J.  a  &) 

Cnnuninga,  Charles  (1),  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  an  Irishman  by  birth,  and  came  to  America  in 
early  manhood.  It  is  believed  that  he  obtained  most 
of  his  education  in  this  cocpitiy.  He  was  licensed  by 
the  Hanover  Pcesbyter}',  April  18, 1767,  as  preacher  at 
North  Mountain,  Va.,  where  he  remained  for  five  years. 
He  died  March,  1812.  See  Sprague,  A  nnab  of  the  A  mer, 
PiUpiiy  m,  285. 

Cmniniiigfl,  Charles  (2),  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Seabrook,  N.  H.,  Sept  28, 1777.  He  removed 
in  early  life  to  Dublin,  where  he  was  converted,  and 
was  baptized  July  16, 1797.  In  1805  he  was  licensed, 
and  in  1810  was  ordained  at  Sullivan,  where  he  remained 
fifteen  years,  during  a  part  of  the  time  preaching  in 
Keene,  and  also  laboring  as  a  missionary  throughout  the 
state.  He  was  next  pastor  in  Hillsborough,  afterwards 
in  Mariborough,  and  finally  in  Swanzey.  He  died  in 
Soxbuiy,  Mass.,  Dec  27, 1849.    (J.  C.  S.) 

CmnznixigB,  Cynifl,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Bridgewater,  N.  H.,  April  23,  1791. 
He  experienced  religion  in  1809,  received  license  to 
exhort  in  1810,  and  in  1811  entered  the  New  England 
Conference.  In  1816  he  located  at  North  Yarmouth,  Me. ; 
in  1818  removed  to  West  Cumberland ;  in  1848,  to  Port- 
land; in  1852  was  admitted  into  the  Maine  Conference 
as  a  superannuate,  laboring  as  chaplain  to  the  poor, 
nnta  his  death  in  1859  or  1860.  See  Minutes  o/Atmual 
CoH/eremxs,  1860,  p.  114. 

CiuniiiizigB,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Tyngsborough,  Mass.,  Sept.  25, 1737.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1760,  and  began  the 
study  of  theology;  in  1762  preached  as  a  candidate  at 
Billeriea,  and  in  November  accepted  a  call  from  the 
daorch  to  become  their  pastor.  He  resigned  his  charge 
in  1814,  and  died  Sept.  5, 1823.  Dr.  Cummings  was  ap. 
point«d  delegate  to  the  convention  which  framed  the 
Constitution  of  Massachusetts.  In  1795  he  preached 
the  annual  sermon  before  the  convention  of  ministers 
in  Massachusetts,  and  the  same  year  delivered  the  Dud- 
leian  lecture  in  Harvard  College.  He  published  a  great 
namber  of  Sermons,  See  Sprague,  A  ttnals  of  the  A  mer, 
Faipiij  Till,  55. 

CmnmiiigB,  Jacob,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Warren,  Mass.,  Dec  5, 1792.  He  studied 
at  Phillips  Academy;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege in  1815;  taught  at  the  Hampton,  N.  H.,  Acad- 
enoy ;  was  ordained  in  1824  at  Stratham,  and  remained 
there  for  eleven  years.  Hts  other  pastorates  were  Sha- 
ron, Mass.,  in  1835;  Southborough,  in  1838;  Hillsbor- 
ough Bridge,  N.  H.,  in  1843 ;  and  Exeter,  where  he  died, 
June  20, 1866.     See  Conff,  Quai-terly,  1867,  p.  40. 

Cmnxnings,  Jeremiah  "W,,  D.D.,  a  Koman  Cath- 
oUc  divine,  was  bom  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  April  5, 1824. 
His  father  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  United  States  navy, 
and  died  when  on  a  cruise  in  the  Mediterranean  sea 
when  Jeremiah  was  young.  His  mother  became  a  Cath- 
olic, and  sent  her  son  to  a  seminary  established  at  Ny- 
ack-oD-the-Hudson  by  bishop  Dubois,  whence  he  went 
to  the  Propaganda  College,  Rome,  where  he  received 
the  highest  honors.  In  1847  he  returned  to  America, 
and  was  for  a  time  stationed  at  the  old  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral,  Mott  Street,  New  York  city.  Thence  he 
went  to  a  temporary  church  at  Madison  Avenue  and 
Twentieth  Street,  and  finally  built  St.  Stephen's  Church, 
Twenty^sghth  Street,  of  which  he  remained  pastor 
onlil  hts  death,  Jan.  4, 1866.  Dr.  Cummings  was  well 
known  as  an  effective  preacher,  a  popular  lecturer,  a 
graceful  poet,  and  an  elegant  writer.  He  was  the  author 
ei ItaUan  Legends; — Spiritual  Progress: — Hymns  and 
Smgs  for  CathoUe  Schools  :-^The  Silver  Stole,  He 
wnce  and  corrected  many  articles  on  Catholic  subjects 
fer  the  first  edition  of  AppktoiCs-  Cgchpcedia,    He  was 


a  genial  gentleman,  and  of  great  popularity  among  all 
classes.    See  (N.  Y.)  Cath,  A  nnual,  1881,  p.  54. 

Cummlnga,  Preston,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Seekonk,  Mass.,  May  1,  1800.  He  spent 
his  early  life  in  Attleborough,  where  he  fitted  for  col- 
lege, and  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1822. 
He  studied  theology  with  Dr.  Calvin  Park ;  was  or- 
dained at  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  22, 1825;  dismissed  in 
February,  1827 ;  was  pastor  in  Dighton,  Mass.,  from  Dec. 
26  following  until  Oct.  5, 1835;  of  the  North  Church, 
Wrentham,  from  July  6,  1836,  to  Jan.  1, 1838 ;  and  at 
Buckland  from  1840  to  1848.  He  resided  in  Leicester 
from  1851  to  1871,  and  thereafter  in  Holden,  where  he 
died  AprU  8,  1875.  Mr.  Cummings  compiled  a  valua- 
ble Dictionarg  of  Congregational  Usages  and  Principles. 
See  Hist,  of  Meridm  Association,  p.  183.     (J.  C  S.) 

Cummings,  Beneoa,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Antrim,  N.  H.,  May  16, 1817.-  He  gradu- 
ated from  Dartmouth  College  in  1841,  begai^his  theo- 
logical studies  at  Lane  Seminary  the  same  year,  and 
completed  them  at  Union  Seminary  in  1847 ;  was  or- 
dained a  Congregational  minister,  Sept.  30,  the  same 
year;  became  a  missionary  to  Foo-Chow,  China,  in 
1848 ;  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1856)  and  died  at 
New  Ipswich,  N.  H.,  Aug.  12  of  that  year.  See  Gen, 
Cat,  of  UnUm  Theol  Sem,  1876,  p.  45. 

Cummings,  Stedman,  a  Free-will  Baptbt  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Washington,  Yl,  Nov.  10, 1806.  He 
was  converted  when  fourteen  years  of  age,  ordained  in 
1825,  and  labored  as  an  evangelist  in  Vermont  and  Can- 
ada. In  1854  he  went  West,  and  about  1870  removed 
to  Kansas,  where  he  preached  occasionally.  He  died 
at  Kirwin,  Kansas,  Oct.  19,  1883.  See  Morning  Star, 
May  14, 1884.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Ciimmlns,  Alexander,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Albemarle  County,  Ya.,  Sept.  8, 
1787.  He  embraced  religion  in  his  twentieth  year,  and 
in  1809  entered  the  Western  Conference.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  one  year's  intermission  as  soperonmeraiy  he 
labored  zealously  until  early  in  1823,  when  he  beoime 
superannuated.  He  died  Sept.  27  of  that  year.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  ConferenoeSf  1825,  p.  474 ;  Meth,  Mag, 
vii,  225. 

Cummins,  Asa,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  Thompson,  Windham  Co.,  Conn.,  Sept.  1, 
1762.  He  was  converted  in  his  twenty-fifth  year,  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1797,  and  in  1802  entered  the  itine- 
rant ranks,  and  began  travelling  the  Albany  and  Sara- 
toga circuits.  His  latter  years  were  in  connection  with 
the  Oneida  Conference,  as  a  superannuate.  He  died 
Sept.  5, 1836.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences,  1886, 
p.  411. 

Cummins^  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Strasburg,  Pa.,  July  15, 1776,  of  Scotch- 
Irish  Presbyterian  parents.  He  graduated  from  Dick- 
inson College  in  1799,  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the 
New  Castle  Presbytery  in  1801,  and  in  1804  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  churches  of  Chestnut  Level  and 
Little  Britain.  In  1808  he  accepted  a  call  from  a 
church  in  Florida,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death,  Jan.  9, 1863.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Cummins,  Charles  P.,  M.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  in  Franklin  County,  Pa.,  in  1803. 
He  graduated  from  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadel- 
phia, and  practiced  medicine  in  his  native  county  until 
1836;  was  licensed  by  the  Carlisle  Presbytery  the  same 
year,  and  installed  pastor  of  Dickinson  Church,  where 
he  remained  until  1843.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Clarion,  Clarion  Co.,  from  1847  to  1862, 
and  died  March  22, 1865.  See  Wilson.  Presb,  Hist.  A  U 
manac,  1866,  p.  100. 

Cummins^  Francis^  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Shippensburg,  Pa.,  in  1752,  of  parents 
who  had  been  Presbyterians  in  Ireland.  He  graduated 
from  the  college  called  **  Queen*s  Museum,"  in  North 


CUMMINS 


198 


CUNIBERT 


Carolina,  in  1776,  and  engaged  for  seTeral  years  after- 
wards in  teaching ;  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  Orange,  in  Mecklenburg  County,  Dec  15, 
1780,  and  in  1782  accepted  a  call  from  Bethel  Church, 
in  York  District,  S.  C  He  was  never  long  stationary 
in  any  one  field.  He  labored  about  one  year  in  North 
Carolina,  twenty-four  years  in  South  Carolina,  and  twen- 
ty-five years  in  Georgia.  He  died  Feb.  22, 1882.  See 
Sprague,  Armalt  of  the  A  men  PulpU,  iii,  418. 

Cninmlns,  Frederick  P.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  entered  the  ministry  in  1871,  doing 
service  as  a  missionary,  in  connection  with  which  he 
was  rector  of  St.  John's  Church,  Crawfordsville,  Ind. 
The  following  year  he  was  rector,  not  only  of  St.  John's, 
but  also  of  Sl  Philip's  Church  in  Covington,  which  two 
parishes  he  served  until  his  death,  Jan.  17, 1874.  See 
Prot,  Episc  Almanact  1876,  p.  144. 

Cummins,  Oeorge  David,  D.D.,  senior  bishop 
of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  has  already  been 
noticed  under  that  denomination  in  Vol.  YIII.  We  here 
add  that  he  was  bom  near  Smyrna,  Del,  Dec.  11, 1822  •, 
p^raduated  from  Dickinson  College  in  184 1  was  a  preach- 
er in  the  Methoilist  Church  for  two  years;  joined  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  miuistry,  and  was  ordained  pres- 
byter in  1847.  For  six  years  he  was  rector  of  Christ 
Church,  at  Norfolk,  Ya.,  and  afterwards  of  St.  James's 
Church,  at  Richmond;  Trinity  Church,  Washington, 
D.  a ;  and  SL  Peter's  Church,  Baltimore,  Md.  In  1866 
Mr.  Cummins  was  elected  assistant  bishop  of  the  diocese 
of  Kentucky.  Seven  years  thereafter  bishop  Cummins 
withdrew  on  account  of  the  Romanizing  tendencies  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  and  founded  the  Reformed  Epis- 
copal Church,  of  which  he  was  made  the  first  bishop, 
in  December,  1873.  He  died  suddenly,  June  26,  1876, 
at  his  residence  in  Lutherville,  Baltimore  Co.,  Md. 
Bishop  Cummins  was  emphatically  a  Low-Churchman, 
of  broad  and  evangelical  views,  of  dignified  and  com- 
manding presence,  a  ready  and  clear  thinker,  and  a  free 
pulpit  orator  and  platform  speaker.  See  Memoir^  by 
his  wife  (N.  Y.  1878). 

Cummins,  John,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Manchester,  April  11, 1804.  He  was 
converted  in  youth,  and  in  due  time,  after  a  preparation 
for  village  preaching,  being  recommended  to  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society,  was  sent  to  Madagascar  as  an 
artisan  missionarv.  Soon  after  his  arrival  Mr.  Cum- 
mins  was  compelled  to  leave,  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  king  Radama,  and  the  accession  of  queen  Ra- 
navalona  to  the  throne.  Returning  to  England,  he  set- 
tled at  Smallbridge,  and  afterwards  successively  at 
Blackpool,  Holbeck,  Kirkheaton,  and  Stubbin-Elsecar, 
where  he  labored  fourteen  years,  and  then  retired  to 
Sheffield,  where  he  died.  May  29,  1872.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-booky  1878,  p.  821. 

Cunmiins,  V.  C,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Harrison  County, 
Ky.,  in  May,  1848.  He  joined  the  Church  in  1863, 
was  educated  at  the  Kentucky  Wesleyan  University, 
and  in  1872  connected  himself  with  the  Kentucky  Con- 
ference, in  which  he  labored  until  his  death,  July  20, 
1875.  See  Minutes  of  A  rmual  Conferences  of  the  if,  E, 
Church  Southj  1876,  p.  228. 

Cumner,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
•  was  bom  in  Massachusetts,  about  1789.  He  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1826,  and  in  1833  entered  the 
Maine  Conference,  in  connection  with  which  he  la- 
bored, with  the  exceptitm  of  a  three  years'  location, 
until  his  death,  Feb.  6, 1861.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Conferences,  1861,  p.  109. 

Cun— .    See  under  Cyn— . 

Cundiff,  William,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  converted  in  1824^  licensed  to  exhort  in  1825,  in 
1826  to  preach,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Kentucky 
Conference.  In  1830  be  removed  to  Illinois,  and  in 
1887  joined  the  Illinois  Conference.    He  died  in  1839 


or  1840,  aged  about  thirty-five.    See  Minutes  of  Ait- 
uual  Conferences,  1840,  p.  54. 

Cnndinonuurca  was  the  goddess  of  love  of  the 
Mexicans,  in  whose  temple  religious  and  secular  assem- 
blies were  held. 

Cimego,  Aloysio,  an  Italian  engraver,  the  elder 
son  and  scholar  of  Domenico,  was  bom  at  Verona  in 
1757,  and  resided  principally  at  Leghorn,  where  he  ex- 
ecuted two  works,  St,  Margaret  and  Mary  Magdalene, 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  9,  y, 

Ctmego,  Domenioo,  an  Italian  engravet,  was 
bom  at  Verona  in  1727.  He  went  to  England  and  en- 
graved the  following  plates :  Three  Subjects  of  the  Creo" 
f ton,  from  the  Sistine  Chapel;  The  Birth  of  St,  John 
Baptist ;  The  Prodigal  Son ;  St,  Cecilia  Receiring  the 
Palm  of  Martyrdom,  He  died  at  Rome  in  1794.  See 
Hoefer,  Kouv,  Biog,  Generale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Cnnegonda  (or  Kinge),  Saint,  daughter  of  BeU 
IV,  king  of  Hungary,  and  granddaughter  of  Theodore 
Lascaris  I,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  married  Boleslaa, 
called  the  Chaste,  king  of  Lesser  Poland,  but  lived,  like 
her  husband,  in  a  state  of  complete  continence,  devot- 
ing herself  to  the  sick  in  the  hospitals.  After  her  hus- 
band's death,  in  1279,  she  retired  to  a  monastery  at 
Sandecz,  and  died  there,  July  24, 1292..  She  was  can- 
onized by  Alexander  VIII  in  1690.  See  Hoefer,  Xouv, 
Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Congar,  an  early  English  anchorite,  is  said  to  bare 
been  the  son  of  a  prince  at  Constantinople,  and  went 
to  Britain  about  A.D.  71,  establishing  a  monastery  In 
Congresbury  (named  from  him),  on  the  Teo,  and  after- 
wards one  in  the  north  of  Wales.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cungi  (Congi,  or  Cugni),  three  painters,  broth- 
ers— Giovanni  Battista,  Leonaudo,  and  Francesco 
— were  natives  of  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  where  they  flour- 
ished in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  They  were 
chiefly  employed  in  the  churches  and  convents  in  their 
own  countr}',  especially  in  the  Church  of  San  Rocco 
and  the  convent  of  the  Osservanti  at  San  Sepolcro.  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Cnnha,  Don  Rodxigo  da,  a  Portagueae  preUle 
and  writer,  was  bom  at  Lisbon  in  1577.  He  first  stud- 
ied with  the  Jesuits,  then  went  to  Coimbra ;  after  being 
admitted  to  the  Royal  College  of  St.  Paul,  took  orders, 
and  familiarized  himself  especially  with  canonical  ju- 
rispradence.  He  was  promoted  in  1615  to  the  bishop- 
ric of  Portalegre,  and  some  years  later  to  that  of  Oporta 
In  1626  he  occupied  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Braga. 
He  also  became  primate  of  an  important  part  of  the 
peninsula,  and  occupied  the  archbishopric  of  Lisbon 
from  1635,  where  he  gave  further  proof  of  his  patriotism 
and  love  of  independence  when  the  revolution  of  1640 
placed  the  duke  of  Braganza  upon  the  throne.  In  the 
absence  of  the  new  sovereign,  he  was  chosen  by  the 
people  governor  of  the  kingdom.  He  died  at  lisbon 
Jan.  3,  1643.  We  are  indebted  to  this  poelate  for  an 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  Oporto,  Braga,  and  Lisbon,  in 
which  he  was  aided  by  Pontaleo  de  Ciabra  (Oporto, 
1623,  1742).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genircde,  a.  v. 

Cunha  (or  Cugna),  Theodosiiia  da,  an  Augus- 
tinian  and  professor  at  Coimbrs,  who  died  April  26, 
1742,  is  the  author  of,  Procnnialia  Theologia  UniverscB  .* 
— TraetcUus  de  Incamatione,  de  A  dvocatione,  de  BesMT" 
rectione.  See  Keller,  in  Wet«er  u.  Welte's  Kircken-' 
Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Cuniberct.    See  Ctnbbebt. 

Conibert  (Honibert,  or  Chunebert),  bishop 
OF  Cologne  in  the  7th  century,  was  bom  in  the  bish- 
opric of  Trier.  He  was  made  bishop  in  628,  and  died 
in  663.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  religious  and 
political  affairs  of  his  time.  Under  Sigebert  III  and 
Childeric  II  he  exercised  a  great  influence.    See  Gailia 


CUNIBERT 


100 


CUNINGHAM 


(JkriaHtma,  iii ;  Geleoius,  De  A  dm,  MagnUudvM  Cobma 
(Cologne,  IWSi) ;  RettberK,  KirehengetehickU  Dtuttch- 
kmdg,  i,  296;  Hefele,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte*s  Kirehm- 
LexUam;  Wagsnmtnii,  in  Herzog's  JUaUEnejfclop,i.r. 
He  is  Mt  down  as  a  aaint  in  Dsaard's  Martyrotogrff 
Nor.  13.     (RP.) 

Ciinibert  of  Englaio),  bishop  and  oonfesaor,  com- 
fBemorated  April  25,  was  educated  at  the  monastery  of 
Balmerino,  in  Fifeshire,  and  eventually  betook  himself 
as  a  recluse  to  the  desert,  where  he  died,  about  A.D. 
690.     See  Smith,  DicL  of  CkritL  Biog,  a.  v. 

CoDiliati,  FuLOEXTE,  an  Italian  theologian  of  the 
Dominican  order,  was  bom  at  Venice  in  1685.  He 
taught  successively  philosophy  and  theolog}%  diatin- 
gntshed  himself  as  a  preacher,  and  became  vicar-gen- 
eral of  his  order.  ^He  died  Oct.  9, 1759,  leaving  several 
lives  of  saints  and  works  of  devotion,  fur  which  see 
Uoefer,  Aovr.  Biog,  GitUrcde,  s.  v. 

Cnnliia,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a  goddess  who 
especially  gave  protection  to  new-ix>rn  children ;  hence 
her  name,  from  Cunci^  the  cradle. 

Cgnninehain  (also  spelled  Cimliighame,  Cun- 
ywgffcayn,  eCc),  the  family  name  of  many  Scotch  clergy* 
men.     See  also  Cunningham. 

X.  Adam,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1831 ;  presented 
to  the  living  at  Eskdalemuir  in  1835,  and  ordained  in 
1886;  transferred  to  Crailing  in  1843.  See  FatH  Ee- 
eh*,  ScoiicamKj  i,  685. 

2.  AuEXANDKR  (1),  took  hls  degree  at  the  Universi- 
Cjr  of  St.  Andrews  in  1681;  was  presented  by  the  king 
to  the  living  at  Ettrick  in  1641 ;  refused  to  conform  to 
Cfusoopacy  in  1662,  and  settled  on  his  estate  at  Hynd- 
hope,  where  his  descendants  resided  two  centuries  after- 
wwds.  Hb  son  Alexander  was  minister  to  Venice,  and 
was  author  of  the  Uutory  of  Great  Britau^from  1688 
to  the  AceesnoH  of  George  /,  translated  from  the  Latin 
in  1787  by  Dr.  William  Thompson.  See  FaMti  EceUs, 
SeotietimPf  i,  546. 

3.  Alexander  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
wemly  in  1646;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Glosser- 
Con  before  1664,  and  died  before  1674.  See  Fiuti  Ec- 
tka.  Sooticana,  i,  731. 

4.  Alezandbr  (3),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh 
University  in  1663;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at 
Colmonell  in  1666;  transferred  to  Monkton  in  1676; 
ousted  by  the  people  at  the  Revolution  in  1688,  and  died 
in  1692,  aged  about  furty-niue  years.  See  Fatii  Eccles, 
SooticanoB,  i,  756 ;  ii,  128. 

5.  Alexander  (4),  born  at  Glcngamock,  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  at  Dreghom  in  1695,  and  ordained. 
He  died  in  August,  1712,  aged  furty-seven  yean.  See 
Fijoti  Ecdes.  Scotieana,  ii,  164. 

6.  Charles  (1),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1729; 
presented  to  the  living  at  Tranent  in  1739;  ordained 
in  1740,  and  died  April  4, 1793,  aged  ninety-one  years. 
Se«  FcuH  Eccki,  Scoticana,  i,  360. 

7.  Charles  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1795;  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Lundie  and  Fowlis  in  1797 ;  or- 
dained in  1798;  transferred  to  Daillv  in  1806,  and  die<l 
Aug.  10, 1815.  See  Fasti  Eedea,  Scotictma,  ii,  108 ;  iii, 
718. 

8.  David  (1),  was  in  orders  prior  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  in  1562  was  the  first  Protestant  minister  at 
Lanark,  with  a  pension  for  life  provided  by  the  pope's 
ball  from  Rome.  He  was  transferred  to  Lesmahago 
in  1570,  thence  to  Cadder  in  1572,  and  in  1574  had 
Motikland  and  Leinzie  in  charge;  was  Joint  visitor  for 
Clydesdale,  Renfrew,  and  Lennox  in  1576,  and  was  one 
of  those  who  drew  up  the  heads  of  policy  in  the  second 
book  of  discipline.  He  was  elevated  to  the  bishopric 
of  Aberdeen  in  1677,  the  first  of  the  reformed  religion. 
He  was  commissioner  for  Aberdeen  and  Banff  in  1578; 
accused  of  scandal  in  1586;  appointed  visitor  of  King's 
College  in  1 594.  and  died  Aug.  80, 1600.     P^e  Fasti  Ae- 

ScoOcano!,  ii,  49, 806,  827 ;  iii,  462, 466,  884,  887. 

9.  David  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Univer- 


sity in  1600;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Dansoore 
in  1609;  was  a  member  of  the  Court  of  High  Commis* 
sion  in  1610,  and  again  in  1619;  transferred  to  Percie- 
town  in  1618,  and  continued  there  in  1631.  See  Faati 
EccUe,  Seoticana,  1,  578 ;  ii,  272, 345. 

10.  David  (3),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Univeiw 
sity  in  1650 ;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Cambnslang 
in  1663,  and  died  about  1688.  See  FomU  Eccles,  Sooti- 
catHBt  ii,  272, 273. 

11.  Gabriel  (1),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  XJnir 
versity  in  1632 ;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Kilsyth 
in  1637,  and  died  in  September,  1665,  aged  about  fifty- 
four  years.     See  Fasfi  Eeela,  ScoHctmoi^  ii,  72. 

12.  Gabriel  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity in  1642;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Dunlop 
in  1648 :  deyirived  in  1664  for  not  conforming  to  epis- 
copacy, but  restored  in  1672.  In  1674  he  was  charged 
with  being  a  conventicle  preacher;  was  called  before 
the  privy  council  in  1677  for  not  obeying  the  rules;  and 
in  1688  was  denounced,  put  to  the  horn,  his  movable 
goods  seized,  and  his  stipend  given  to  the  widow  of 
another  minister;  but  returned  to  his  living  in  1687,  and 
was  restored  by  act  of  parliament  in  1690.  He  preached 
the  opening  sermon  of  the  first  General  Assembly  after 
the  Revdution ;  was  on  the  committee  for  visiting  col^ 
leges,  and  died  in  May,  1691,  aged  about  sixty- ntne 
years*     See  Fasti  Eccles,  ScotieamK^  ii,  166. 

13.  George,  was  bom  April  24, 1766;  licensed  to 
preach  in  1790 ;  for  some  time  taught  in  an  academy 
at  Westruther;  presented  to  the  living  at  Dunse  in 
1797,  and  ordained.     He  died  suddenly,  Jan.  9,  1847. 

14.  Hugh,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1781 ;  presented 
to  the  living  at  Tranent  as  su(M%ssnr  to  his  uncle  Charles 
in  1784,  and  died  July  20, 1801.  He  published  A  Short 
Explanation  of  the  Ten  Commandments: — Sermon  on  the 
Death  of  his  Mother :— Account  of  the  Parish,  See 
Fasti  Eccles,  ScoticancBy  i,  360. 

15.  James  (I),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity in  1579 ;  was  reader  at  Dumbarton  in  1585  and  1586 ; 
was  appointed  the  first  Protestent  minister  at  Bonbill  in 
1588 ;  continued  in  1591 ;  transferred  to  Cardross  in  1696, 
and  died  before  May  10,  1603,  aged  forty-four  yean. 
See  Feuti  Ecdes,  ScoticawKy  ii,  846. 

16.  James  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity in  1602 ;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Buchanan 
in  1604;  transferred  to  Dunlop  in  1606,  thence  to  Cum- 
nock in  1608;  was  a  commissioner  to  reside  at  Edin- 
burgh for  the  ministers  at  the  Tables  in  1637;  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Commissions  of  Assemblies  in  1643  and  1644, 
and  died  about  the  latter  date,  aged  sixty-three  years. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  103, 166, 348. 

17.  James  (3),  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1648,  residing  in  Edinburgh ;  was  called 
to  the  living  at  Lasswade  in  1659,  and  ordained;  de- 
prived by  act  of  parliament  in  1662,  after  the  Restora- 
tion.    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Sooticana^  i,  290. 

18.  James  (4),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1701 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1709;  called 
to  the*  living  at  Smailholm  in  1710,  and  ordained.  He 
died  May  12,  1743,  aged  about  sixty-two  years.  See 
Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticancgj  i,  532. 

19.  John  (1),  was  admitted  to  baptize  and  solem- 
nize marriages  at  Kirkmichael,  in  15i67;  presented  to 
the  vicarage  of  Kirkcudbright-Ianertig  in  April,  1571, 
where  he  was  probably  reader ;  promoted  to  the  living 
at  Daillv  in  1574;  admitted  in  1575,  having  also  Girvan 
and  Ktrkoswald  under  his  care ;  removed  to  Gir\^an  as 
the  first  Protestant  minister  there  in  1590;  continued 
in  1608,  and  died  before  AprU  6, 1612.  See  Fasti  Ec- 
des, ScoticancBy  ii,  106, 116. 

20.  John  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Univer-- 
sity  in  1595;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Houston  in 
1599;  transferred  to  Kilallan  in  1602,  thence  to  Dairy 
in  1604,  and  died  in  April,  1635,  aged  about  sixty  years. 
See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  ii,  161, 214, 217. 

21.  John  (3),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity in  1621 ;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Lecropt  in 


CUNINGHAM 


200 


CUNNINGHAM 


1637,  and  Kugned  in  1687.    Sec  FaaU  Eceki.  Scotiea- 
na,  ii,  782. 

22.  John  (4),  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Old 
Cumnock  in  1647, and  admitted;  refusing  to  conform  to 
episcopacy  after  the  Restoration,  in  1662,  was  confined 
to  his  parish,  and  died  in  October,  1668.  See  FasU  Ec- 
cks,  SeoticancBf  ii,  108. 

23.  John  (5),  was  bom  at  Enterkin ;  took  his  de- 
gree at  Glasgow  University  in  1665 ;  became  curate  to 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  and  was  called  to  the  living 
at  Parton.  He  was  accused  before  the  privy  council, 
in  1676,  of  holding  conventicles  at  Dladenoch,  Glen- 
Ince ;  was  ousted  by  the  people  in  1689,  and  deprived 
by  act  of  parliament,  in  1690,  restoring  Presbyterian 
ministers.  He  died  the  same  year,  aged  about  forty- 
five  years.    See  FatU  Eeclet^  Scodcanm^  i,  719. 

24.  John  (6),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1755 ;  called 
to  the  living  at  Dalmellington  in  1756,  and  ordained; 
transferred  to  Monkton  and  Prestwick  in  1762,  and  died 
May  28,  1774,  aged  forty-four  years.  See  FaHi  Eo- 
ekt»  Scotieanetf  ii,  110, 129. 

25.  John  Macpherson,  A.M.,  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1809;  presented  to  the  living  at  Newtyle  in  1815, 
and  ordained ;  transferred  to  Kinglassie  in  1818,  and 
died  Sept.  8, 1847,  aged  sixty  years.  His  son  Hugh 
was  a  clergyman  in  the  Church  of  England,  near  Dur- 
ham. He  published  A  Short  Addrtu  to  the  ConffrtgO' 
Hon  at  Kirkcaldy  (1845).  See  FomH  Ecelet.  ScoHcana^ 
ii,549;  ui,758. 

26.  Patrick,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity in  1666,  residing  in  Hawick ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1684 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Lochnitton  the  same 
year,  and  ordained ;  transferred  to  Kirktown  in  1687, 
and  died  about  1706.  See  Fatti  EccUt.  Scoticana,  i, 
604,  595. 

27.  Richard,  son  of  the  minister  at  Dreghom,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1780;  called  to  the  living  at  Sy- 
mington in  1783,  and  ordained.  He  died  Nov.  4, 1760, 
aged  fifty-six  vears.  See  FcuH  Ecckt,  Scoticamej  ii, 
145,146.  f 

28.  Robert  (1),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity in  1608;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1617;  ad- 
mitted to  the  living  at  Hawick  in  1625 ;  was  a  member 
of  the  General  Assembly  in  1688,  of  the  Commission 
in  1647,  and  died  after  Oct.  8, 1656.  See  FatH  Eedes, 
Seotioanaf  i,  496. 

29.  Robert  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1642;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Ash- 
kirk  in  1649 ;  deprived  after  the  Restoration  by  act  of 
parliament  in  1662;  indulged  by  the  privy  council  in 
1669;  suspended  again,  but  restored  in  1689,  and  con- 
tinued in  1690.     See  Fatii  Ecda,  ScoHoanm,  i,  542. 

30.  Robert  (8),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1689 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1698 ;  called 
to  the  living  at  Wilton  in  1694,  and  ordained ;  Joined 
with  three  others  in  1708  in  a  dissent  against  an  act 
of  the  sjmod  on  the  government  of  the  Church ;  was 
transferred  to  Hawick  in  1712;  went  to  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, for  his  health,  in  July,  1721,  and  died  Aug.  5, 1722, 
aged  about  fifty-four  years.  See  Fctsti  Ecdes,  Sootir 
COJMS,  i,  498,  517. 

31.  Samuel,  secretary  to  his  cousin,  the  archbishop 
of  St.  Andrews,  in  1591,  and  afterwards  schoolmaster  at 
Forgan;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1611;  presented  to 
the  living  at  Ferryport-on-Craig  in  1615;  subscribed 
to  the  covenant  at  Edinburgh  in  1688,  but  was  deposed 
for  insufficiency,  and  died  before  Oct.  1, 1641.  See  Fob- 
H  Eceiet,  SeotuxauB^  ii,  427. 

32.  WiLUAM  (1),  was  appointed  to  the  living  at 
West  Kilbride  in  1658;  deprived  by  the  privy  council 

•in  1662,  and  died  in  January,  1669.    See  Fatti  Ecciea, 
Sooticanaf  ii,  190. 

33.  WiLUAM  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1681 ; 
presented  to  the  living  at  Loohwinnoch  in  1683,  and  de- 
prived in  1689  for  disloyalty  to  the  king  and  queen. 
See  Fatti  Eccles.  Seoticana,  ii,  225. 

34.  William  (8),  took  his  degree  at  the  University 


of  St.  Andrews  in  1692 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1700 ; 
called  to  the  living  at  Kembach  in  1702,  and  ordained; 
and  died  before  Nov.  20, 1728,  aged  about  fifty-seven 
years.    See  Fatti  Eccies,  ScoticantB,  ii,  433. 

35.  William  (4),  son  of  the  foregoing,  took  his  de- 
gree at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1725;  had  a 
bursary ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1731 ;  presented  to 
the  living  at  Mouswald  in  1736 ;  ordained  in  1737 ;  trans- 
ferred to  Durrisdeer  in  1743;  thence  to  Sanquhar  in 
1753 ;  and  died  Aug.  25, 1758.  See  Fasti  EccUt.  Scoti- 
cana,  i,  659,  674,  684. 

36.  William  Bruce,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1831 ; 
presented  to  the  living  of  Prestonpans  in  1883,  and  or- 
dained. He  joined  the  Free  Secession  in  1843.  He 
published.  Collegiate  Education  versus  CoUegiate  Extent 
sion  (1850)  i—Friendlg  Hints,  a  tract:— i4n  Account  of 
the  Parish,  He  was  living  in  1860.  See  Fasti  Eccles, 
Scoticanigf  i,  853. 

Cnniflon  (or  Cnniflone),  the  family  name  of  sev- 
eral Scotch  clergymen : 

1.  Alexakdkr,  son  of  John  (2),  was  called  to  the  liv- 
ing at  Kilfinichen  and  Rilvickeon  in  1706,  and  ordained 
in  1707.  He  was  bitten  by  a  mad  dog,  and  caused  him- 
self to  be  bled  to  death,  Nov.  15, 1717.  See  Fasti  Ec- 
cles, Scotioawe,  iii,  84. 

2.  John  (1),  bom  at  Dunkeld,  took  his  degree  at 
the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1615;  was  presented 
to  the  living  at  Dnll  in  1624;  and  died  before  Jan.  4, 
1682,  aged  about  eighty-six  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
SeoticttMBj  ii,  818. 

3.  John  (2),  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1644;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at 
Killin  before  1650 ;  transferred  to  Kilbride,  Arran,  in 
1655;  deprived  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1662;  returned 
to  the  living  in  1687 ;  was  restored  by  act  of  Parliament 
in  1690;  was  a  member  of  the  Genersl  Assembly  the 
same  year;  transferred  to  Killean  and  Kilchenzie  in 
1692;  resigned  on  account  of  old  age  in  1697,  but  lived 
in  Killean  till  his  death.  See  Fasti  Fades,  Scoticansi, 
ii,824;  iii,  41, 45. 

4.  John  (8),  took  his  degree  at  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1676;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at 
Dull  in  1682;  and  died  in  August,  1693,  aged  about 
fifty-eight  years.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  ScoticantB,  ii,  818. 

Cunnera.    See  Cainner. 

Ctuiningham,  Alexander,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Mercer,  Pa.,  Jsn.  21, 1815.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Washington  College  in  1840 ;  studied  theology  at 
the  Western  Theological  Seminary ;  was  licensed  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Erie,  Sept,  4, 1842 ;  ordained  by  the  same, 
Oct.  5,  1843,  and  installed  pastor  of  the  churches  of 
Gravel  Run  and  Washington.  He  was  released  from 
this  charge  in  1851,  and  dismissed  to  the  Presbytery  of 
Allegheny.  He  died  at  Whitestown,  Sept.  5,  1874. 
See  Hist,  of  the  Presbylay  of  Erie, 

Cunningfaam,  Alexander  Kewton,  D.D.,  a 

Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  near  Jonesborough, 
Tenn.,  March  16,  1807.  He  graduated  at  Washington 
College,  Tenn.,  in  1826,  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1830;  was  licensed  b}'  New  Brunnwick  Presby- 
tery, April  28  of  the  same  year;  preached  at  Montgom- 
ery, Ala.,  from  1833  to  1836;  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  from 
1838  to  1842;  was  sUted  supply  at  Franklin,  Tenn., 
from  1844  to  1858;  also  founded  the  Franklin  Insti. 
tute.  He  preached  in  Shelby ville  from  1859  to  1862; 
then  volunteered  as  chaplain  in  the  Southern  army,  and 
labored  in  the  hospitals  at  Montgomery,  Ala.;' from 
here  he  returned  to  Franklin,  and  was  professor  in 
the  Female  Institute.  In  1874  he  became  pastor  in 
Fayetteville,  and  in  Aberdeen,  Miss.,  where  he  contin- 
ued until  his  death,  Sept.  5, 1878.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent preacher  and  industrious  student.  See  NeeroL  J2s- 
poH  of  Princeton  Theol.  Sem,  1879,  p.  26. 

Cunningham,  Amor  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Ripley  County,  Ind.,  July  12, 1^8. 
He  experienced  religion  and  entered  Brookville  CoUega 


1 


CUNNINGHAM 


201 


CUNNINGHAj^I 


in  bb  niiMtcciitli  yetr,  spent  MMae  jem  in  ichool-teael^ 
ing,  lod  fiuUy  tetered  tbe  Indiana  Conference.  In 
lieo  he  aaramed  tbe  editorship  of  the  Daily  Indiana 
Amerieant  and  afterwards  served  some  time  as  chaplain 
of  tbe  Fifth  Indiana  Cavalry.  In  1862  he  was  tran»- 
feired  to  the  North-west  Indiana  Conference;  subse- 
qoeatly  was  elected  president  of  Northern  Indiana  Col- 
lege; and  died  Aug.  9,  1868.  See  AfuutUi  of  Aunvud 
Cin^ertnetM,  1868,  p.  250. 

Cunningham^  James,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Nov.  30, 1811.  He 
was  converted  in  1829,  licensed  to  exhort  in  1832,  joiiied 
the  Philsdelphia  Conference  in  1834,  and  labored  there- 
in nntil  his  death,  in  1881.  See  Minutet  of  A  mmal  Con- 
/traiet$,  1882,  p.  71. 

Ciinnlnghani  (or  CimDyiigham)»  Jesse,  a  min- 
ister  io  tbe  Methodist  Epiioopal  Chnrch  South,  was  born 
on  the  French  Broad  River,  East  Tenn.,  Oct.  26,  1789. 
He  united  with  the  Church  at  the  age  of  nine ;  was  con- 
verted in  1807;  received  license  to  preach  in  1810;  en- 
tered tbe  Hoistoo  Conference  in  1811,  and  oontinned  his 
Ubon  until  his  death,  July  10, 1857.  See  Minutet  of  A  n- 
SI0/  C<mfer«mx9  of  (he  M,  E.  Church  South,  1857,  p.  763. 

Cmiziiiighaiii,  John  SL,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
vss  bom  in  Pennsylvania.  He  was  a  student  in  Jef- 
ferMo  College,  and  graduated  from  Princeton  Theolog- 
ical Seminaiy  in  1827 ;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery 
ofKew  Branswick,  April  28,  1828;  ordained  and  be- 
eune  ststed  supply  at  Montour,  Pa.,  in  1829,  and  then 
psrtor  from  1890  to  1888;  pastor  at  Ishind  Creek,  O., 
fnm  1840  to  1852;  sUted  supply  at  Wayne  and  Che»- 
let  io  1854  and  1855 ;  and  died  a't  Wooeter  in  the  Utter 
rear.   See  Gau  Cat.  ofPrinotton  TheoL  SeiH,  1881,  p.  49. 

CnnDln^haiii,  John  Whitfield,  D.D.,  a  Pres- 
brterisn  minister,  was  bora  in  Salem,  Tenn.,  in  1806. 
Uc  gradoated  from  Washington  College  in  1823,  and 
ffOQ  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1824;  was  pro- 
ffsnr  of  Biblical  literature  and  exegesis  in  Hanover 
Seninsry,  Ind.;  and  stated  supply  at  Middle  Fork  from 
U31  to  1834 ;  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Salem 
in  tbe  latter  year;  pastor  at  Jonesborongh,  Tenn.,  until 
1M5;  stated  supply  of  Second  Church,  Knoxville,  for 
ooe  year;  pastor  of  Second  Chnrch,  La  Porte,  Ind., 
from  1846  to  1S49;  agent  of  the  American  Home  Mi»- 
nooary  Society  from  1859  to  1862 ;  stated  supply  at 
^ora  and  Lena,  III.,  fur  three  years;  labored  for  the 
Pimbvterian  missions  in  Illinois  from  1865  to  1867; 
was  stated  supply  for  a  Congregational  Church  in  Na- 
perviOe  nntil  1871,  and  died  there,  Feb.  8, 1874.  See 
Go,  Cat.  o/Prineeton  TheoL  Son.  1881,  p.  67. 

Cunnlncluun,  John  William,  an  English  cler- 
fjVDMii,  was  bom  in  London,  Jan.  3, 1780.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Sc  John's  College,  Cambridge;  was  curate  of 
Bipley,  in  Surrey ;  afterwards  of  Clapham  ;  and  in  181 1 
▼icar  of  Harrow,  where  he  remained  to  the  close  of  his 
life,  about  1861.  3|r.  Cunningham  was  editor  of  the 
Chrittian  Obtervtr  eight  years,  beginning  with  1850 ; 
and  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  missionary  and  Bi- 
ble societies.  See  (Lond.)  Ckrittian  Obterver,  Novem- 
ber. 1861,  p.  878. 

Canninfiham.  Joseph  Parker,  a  Presbyterian 
mintster,  was  bom  in  Greene  County,  Ga.,  Jan.  21, 1799. 
He  vas  educated  in  Transylvania  University,  Ky.,  and 
floated  fiom  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1821 ; 
«si  licensed  to  preach  by  the  New  Brunswick  Preeby- 
^  in  1822;  in  1824  was  ordained  pastor  of  Concord 
Chaith  by  South  Alabama  Presbytery ;  in  1882  became 
stated  supply  at  Mt.  Pisgah,  Ky.,  and  died  there  in  1833. 
^  Spngue,  A  naalt  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  iv,  60 ;  Gen. 
CaLo/PrimxUm  TheoL  Sem.  1880,  p.  26. 

Coniringham,  Nathaniel  Pendleton,  a  Meth- 
^^  Epiaeopal  minister,  was  bora  in  Pendleton  County, 
Va.,  Aog.  1, 1807.  He  was  converted  in  1825 ;  received 
KioeQie  to  preach  in  1827 ;  in  1829  entered  the  Baltimore 
Confeicsee;  and  io  1887  was  transferred  to  the  Illinois 


Conference,  wherein  he  served  till  his  death,  July  7, 
1848.    See  Mvmiea  of  A  mmal  Conferences,  1848,  p.  288. 

Cunningham,  Oscar  F.,  a  minister  in  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  Sooth,  was  bora  in  Grayson 
County,  Ya.,  May  1,  1818.  He  embraced  religion  in 
his  youth;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  his  twenty-first 
year ;  and  in  1835  united  with  the  Holston  Conference. 
After  travelling  several  years  he  located,  but  subse- 
quently was  made  presiding  elder,  in  which  office  he 
continued  nearly  to  the  close  of  his  life,  June  15, 1848. 
See  Minutet  of  Annual  Conferencet  of  the  M.  E.  Church 
South,  1848,  p.  169. 

Cmmingham,  Richard,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  Halifax,  N.  S.,  in  1612.  He  began  to  preach 
in  1828;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Wilmot  Mountain, 
March  25,  1829;  and  remained  there  about  twenty 
years.  He  was  subsequently  pastor  at  Digby,  N.  Si, 
and  died  Jan.  15, 1858.  See  Cathcart,  Bo^,  Encyclop, 
p.  800.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cunningham,  Robert,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Butler  County,  Pa.  He  Joined 
the  Church  in  1841,  and  in  1848  entered  the  Pittsburgh 
Conference,  wherein  he  toiled  until  he  became  suf)er- 
annuated,  in  1870.  He  died  April  8, 1872.  See  Min- 
utet of  Annual  Conferencet,  1873,  p.  41. 

Cunningham,  Robert  M.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  York  County,  Pa.,  Sept.  10, 1760. 
He  removed  with  his  father  to  North  Carolina  when  he 
was  in  his  fifteenth  year;  graduated  at  Dickinson  Col- 
lege, Pa.,  in  1789 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  South  Carolina  in  1792 ;  in  1802  removed  to 
Lexington,  Ky.,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Church  at 
that  place,  where  he  remained  until  1822.  He  died 
July  1 1, 1839.  See  Sprague,  A  naalt  of  the  Amer.  Pulr 
pit,  iv,  58. 

Cunningham,  Timothy,  a  Free-will  Baptist 
muiister,  was  bora  in  March,  1756.  He  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  war;  was  converted  in  1790,  and  com- 
menced preaching  soon  after.  He  was  ordained  Jan. 
25, 1804,  by  the  Edgeoomb  Quarterly  Meeting,  Me.,  and, 
after  a  ministry  of  great  usefulness,  died,  Jan.  16, 1886. 
See  Free-will  Baptist  Itegitter,  1837,  p.  67.     (J.  C.  &) 

Cunningham,  T.  M.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  called  to  succeed  Dr.  Duncan,  in  the  Church 
which  bore  the  latter*s  name  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  but  de- 
clined, and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Chnrch  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  AJfter  some  years  he  removed 
as  pastor  to  Indianapolis,  and  thence  to  the  Alexander 
Church,  Philadelphia.  For  the  benefit  of  his  health 
he  went  to  San  Francisco,  Col.,  and  became  pastor  of 
the  Central  Church.  He  identified  himself  with  the 
Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary  there,  and  crossed 
the  Continent  several  times  in  its  behalf.  He  died  at 
Oakland,  Cal.,  Feb.  22,  1880.  He  was  a  preacher  of 
distinguished  ability,  and  his  sermons  were  eloquent 
and  powerful  See  (San  Francisco)  Occident,  March, 
1880.     (\V.P.&) 

Cunningham,  William,  a  Presbyterian  minis* 
ter,  was  bora  at  Blairsville,  Pa.,  June  14,  1827.  He 
graduated  from  JelTerson  College  in  1852;  spent  three 
years  teaching  at  Harrodsburg,  Ky. ;  studieil  one  year 
at  the  Western  Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny, 
Pa.,  and  graduated  from  Princeton  Seminary  in  1858. 
He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Blairsville,  June 
17,  1857.  In  June,  1858,  he  went  as  supply  to  Blairs- 
ville ;  served  as  chaplain  to  a  regiment  of  Pennsylvania 
Volunteers  one  year;  after  which  he  devoted  himself 
to  study  and  occasional  preaching  until  1863,  when 
he  went  West.  He  served  as  stated  supply  Prospect 
Church,  in  the  Presbytery  of  Peoria,  and  then  the 
Church  of  Princcville,  until  1865,  teaching  at  the  same 
time.  Rcturaing  to  Pennsylvania,  he  became  pastor 
of  Fairfield  and  Union  churches,  in  the  Presbytery  of 
Blairsville.  He  died  April  21,  1879.  See  NecroL  Be- 
port  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1880,  p.  44. 


CUNNINGHAM 


202 


CURATE 


Cimninghani,  'William  Madiaon,  D.D.,  a 
PreBbyterian  minister,  wu  bora  in  Jonesboronghi 
Tenn.,  Jane  28, 1812.  He  was  a  student  of  Washing- 
ton College;  graduated  from  Princeton  Theological 
Seminaiy  in  1833;  was  ordained  by  the  Lexington 
Prcsb^'tery,  June  2<S,  1835 ;  served  as  pastor  at  Lex- 
ington, Ya.,  until  1840;  stated  supply  at  Chattanooga, 
Tenn.,  for  a  short  time;  pastor  at  La  Grange,  Ga.,  from 
1841  until  his  death,  March  3, 1870.  See  Gen,  Cat.  of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  75. 

Cunningfaam,  W.  I.  W.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Indiana  about  1830.  He  was 
converted  in  early  life;  educated  in  part  in  Asbiiry 
(now  De  Pauw)  Universit}* ;  engaged  in  teaching  for  a 
time,  and  began  preaching  in  1858.  After  supplying  a 
circuit  in  the  North-west  Wisconsin  Conference,  he  was 
received  into  the  travelling  ranks,  where  he  continueil 
for  six  years,  then  took  a  supernumerary  relation,  and 
the  next  year  was  transferred  to  the  Minnesota  Confer- 
ence, in  which  he  labored  until  compelled  to  take  a  su- 
perannuated relation.  He  died  April  3, 1882.  See  3fin- 
utet  of  Annual  Conferencetj  1882,  p.  318. 

Cunred,  became  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Sts.  Pe- 
ter and  Paul  (afterwards  St.  Augustine's)  at  Canterbury, 
in  803,  and  died  in  823.  See  Smith,  Did.  of  ChritL 
Biog,  s.  V. 

Cunuberthas.    See  Cynibkrct  (2). 

Cunuulfaa.    See  Cymkwulf. 

Ctmyngham.    See  Cuntxoham,  Cuxnixoham. 

Cuoenbtirg,  an  English  abbess  in  Mercia,  A.I>. 
811. 

Cup  OF  Blkssikg,  a  cup  which  was  blessed  among 
the  Jews  in  ceremonial  entertainments,  or  on  solemn 
occasions.  Paul  employs  the  expresrion  (1  Cor.  x,  16) 
to  describe  the  wine  used  in  the  Lord's  supper. 

CUP,  EiiCHARisTic    See  Chalice. 

CUP  OF  Salvation,  an  offering,  probably  a  libation 
of  wine  poured  on  the  victim  sacrificed  on  thanksgiving 
occasions,  which  the  Jews  of  Egypt  offered  in  their  fes- 
tivals for  deliverance  (2  Mace.  v\j  27). 

Cup6,  Pierre,  a  French  theologian,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  18th  centur}',  was  rector  of  Bois, 
in  the  diocese  of  Saintes,  and  wrote  I^e  Ciel  Ouvert  a 
Tout  Us  IJommes  (17G8),  a  work  reputed  to  be  profane. 
See  Uocfer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Cupella,  in  Christian  archaM)log)%  is  a  small  sepul- 
chral recess  for  children,  in  the  catacombs.  At  present 
we  have  only  one  instance  of  its  use,  which  is  given  by 
Marchi  {Monumenti  Primit,  p.  114).  The  inscription 
upon  it  records  the  burial  of  her  two  children,  Secimdi- 
na  and  Laurentiii9,  by  their  mother  Secunda.  The  sol- 
ecisms in  grammar  and  orthography  of  which  it  is 
full  show  that  Secunda  was  a  person  of  humble  rank. 
The  stone  is  preserved  in  the  Museum  Kircherianum. 

Cupella  is  evidently  the  diminutive  of  aipa^  ex- 
plained to  mean  ''urn,*'  "sepulchral  chest."  This 
sense  is  a  derivative  one,  from  its  classical  meaning 
of  a  large  cask,  butt,  or  vat.  It  appears  in  pagan  in- 
scriptions but  rarely.  The  use  of  the  word  survived 
until  later  tiroes.  The  idea  has  been  propounded  that 
we  may  find  in  cupella t  as  a  place  of  Christian  burial, 
the  etymology  of  the  word  capellaj  chapel,  which  has 
so  long  perplexed  philologists,  and  of  which  no  satis- 
factory derivation  has  ever  yet  been  discovered.  The 
architectural  term  cupola  is  another  form  of  the  same 
root.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Cupelloxnanoy,  divination  by  means  of  cups.  The 
practice  is  very  ancient.  It  was  known  in  Eg}*pt  in 
the  time  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xliv,  5),  and  is  still  practiced 
in  England,  among  the  ignorant,  who  profess  to  '^  read  " 
in  cups  a  sign  of  future  events.     See  Divinatio.v. 

Cuper,  VViLLEM,  a  Flemish  historian  of  the  Jesuit 
order,  was  bora  at  Antwerp  in  1686,  and  died  Feb*  2, 


1741,  leaving  De  Patriarckit  ConttanUnopolitamt  (Ant- 
werp, 1788).  Cuper  aided  in  collecting  the  A  eta  S<mi>' 
torvm  of  the  Bollandists,  July  and  August.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GMraUf  s.  v. 

Capldo  (Cupid),  in  Boman  mythology,  was  the 
god  of  loving  cfemW,  a  translation  of  the  Greek  xa^oc* 
The  name  is  more  poetical  than  mythical,  and  usaally 
he  is  identified  with  A  mor  (q.  v.). 

Cupola  (ItaL),  a  concave  ceiling,  either  hemispheri- 
cal or  of  any  other  curve,  covering  a  circular  or  polygonal 
area ;  also  a  roof,  the  exterior  of  which  is  of  either  of 
these  forms,  more  usually  called  a  dome,  and  in  Latin 
tkolut, — Parker,  Gloss,  of  A  rehitect,  a.  v. 

Cupples  is  the  family  name  of  several  Scotch  cler> 
gA'men : 

1.  Ghorob  (1),  son  of  the  minister  'of  Kiricoswald, 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1752;  appointed  to  the  living 
at  Swinton  in  1754,  and  ordained.  He  died  Sept  14, 
1798,  aged  seventy-one  years.  See  Fasti  Eodes.  Sco- 
ticana,  if  447, 

2.  George  (2),  son  of  the  minister  of  Swinton,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1807;  became  assistant  at  Dnn- 
bar;  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Legerwood  in  1811 ; 
ordained  in  1812;  elected  presbytery  clerk  in  1825; 
transferred  to  the  second  charge,  Stirling,  in  1833 :  ad- 
mitted in  1884;  joined  the  Free  Seoessioa  in  1843;  and 
was  admitted  minister  to  the  Free  Church,  Kilmadock, 
the  same  year.  He  died  May  1, 1850,  aged  sixty-four 
years.     See  Fasti  Fccles,  Scotkana,  i,  529;  ii,  682. 

3.  WxLUAM,  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  University; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1717 ;  presented  to  the  li^dng 
at  Kirkoswald  in  1719;  and  was  the  first  in  Scotland 
who  gave  in  a  letter  of  acceptance  with  the  pieaenta- 
tion,  according  to  the  act  of  Assembly.  He  was  or^ 
dained  in  1720,  and  died  March  17, 1751,  aged  aboot 
stxt3'-one  years.  He  published  The  Experiences  of 
John  Stevenson,  Land-laborer  of  DaiUy  (1729).  S«e 
Fasti  Kecks,  Scoticana,  ii,  121. 

Cupra,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  the  name  of  Juno 
among  the  Etrurians.  She  had  a  temple  at  Firmam 
Picenum,  in  Asia. 

Cura  (care),  in  Roman  mythology,  was  an  allegoric 
deity  of  which  a  fable  is  told.  In  thought,  she  was  sit- 
ting by  the  shore  of  the  sea,  and  watching  the  waves. 
Unconsciously  to  herself,  her  fingers  formed  out  of  day 
a  form — and  behold !  it  was  man.  She  begged  Jupiter 
to  give  him  life,  which  he  did,  but  required  that  th« 
man  should  belong  to  him,  to  which  Cura  was  opposed, 
as  she  had  formed  him,  and,  moreover,  the  earth,  from 
which  he  had  been  taken,  would  not  agree.  Satura,  as 
judge,  said :  Jupiter  shall  receive  the  body  after  death, 
Cura  shall  have  it  during  life,  and  his  name  shall  be 
homo  (man),  because  he  was  taken  from  humus  (tbe 
earth). 

CuraQ9o  is  an  island  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  belong 
ing  to  the  Dutch.  A  large  proporrion  of  the  population 
consists  of  free  negroes,  and  fur  their  benefit  the  Neth- 
erlands Bible  Society  published  in  1846  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew,  to  which,  since  1865,  the  Gospel  of  Blark  has 
been  added  bv  the  American  Bible  Societv. 

Curae  (carts),  in  Roman  mythology,  were  reveng- 
ing goddesses,  who  lived  at  the  entrance  to  Tartarnsw 

Curate.  We  add  an  account  of  the  history  of  this 
oflice  from  Walcott,  Sac  A  rchaoL  s.  v. : 

*'  Until  the  4th  and  6th  centnHes  in  the  Bast  there  were 
country  cnmtec,  and  Cyprian  mentions  town  clergy.  In 
the  large  clUm,  fVom  the  4th  to  the  5th  century,  in  the 
Bast  and  at  Rome,  tbe  churches  bad  their  own  priests, 
who  Instmcted  the  people,  the  communion  being  given 
only  in  the  cathedral.  In  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury pope  Mnrcellus  e»tabliehed  twenty-five  titles  for  pre- 
paratory fiiMtniction  before  bnptlsm  and  reconciUation 
of  penitents.  In  the  Greek  Chnrch  cardinal  priestB  dis- 
charged the  same  dntv.  lu  the  beginning  of  the  Stta  oeii- 
tnry  the  bishop  rent  the  eucharii*t  for  dlvtrlbntlon  to  the 
pnrieb  priests:  then  by  degreeu  the  Intier  received  power 
to  reconcile  penitents  In  case  of  necessity  and  heretics  la 


CURCACH 


203 


CURRIE 


duller  of  death,  in  the  nbtence  of  the  binhop ;  to  Tisit  the 
■Ick,  to  administer  extreme  ODction,  and  to  chooae  slug- 
era.  In  the  7th  centary  the  namber  of  aaaistmit  clerks 
was  aoffmeoted  or  dimtuished  according  to  the  condition 
of  the  Cbarch  reTeuoen,  ns  in  the  6th  century  they  had 
recelTed  authoritv  to  celebrate  lu  their  chnrches  and  ora- 
tories, chapels  of  eace  reqnlred  by  the  increase  in  the 
nnmbers  of  the  faitbfni.  The  bishops  eradnally  rej^ard- 
iog  them  hs  fellow-worken^,  sobordiuated  their  assistants 
to  them  in  all  things  toachine  divine  worship  and  borlal. 
It  was  not  until  the  close  of  toe  IGth  century,  in  Bnglnnd, 
that  the  word  was  restricted  to  assistant  clei^y.  deputies, 
«fr  substitutes.  In  France  the  latter  are  still  called  vicars. 
In  Eosland,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  distinction  was 
drawn  oetween  temporary  and  i^erpetnal  curates." 

Corcach  (CoroaiTf  or  Quorrair)  is  the  name  of 
8eTerai  Irish  virgin  aaintS)  of  whom  only  two  are  clearly 
tiBcenble: 

X.  Commemorated  March  8  or  Aug.  8,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  sister  of  St.Finnian  and  daughter  of  Corpreus, 
of  a  princely  family  in  Ulster,  and  to  have  lived  in  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century. 

2.  Commemorated  July  21  as  the  patron  saint  of 
Kilcorkey,  in  County  Roscommon.  See  Smith,  Diet, 
of  Ckritt,  Biog,  a.  v. 

Grurchua,  a  deity  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Prussia,  who  was  believed  to  preside  over  eating  and 
drinking,  on  which  account  they  offered  to  him  their 
first-fruits,  in  his  honor  kept  up  a  continual  fire,  and  ev- 
ery year,  breaking  his  old  statue,  erected  a  new  one. 

Cnrcneus.     See  Cohcan. 

Cnrcodexnoa,  an  ancient  deacon  commemorated  in 
Uaujird*s  Afartyrology  as  a  martyr  at  Auxerre  on  May  4. 

G^nrdie,  Jaxks,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  de- 
gree At  Edinburgh  Univenity.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1821,  ordained  in  1825  as  missionary  at  Tar- 
bert,  presented  to  the  living  at  Gigha  and  Cara  in  1826, 
and  admitted  in  1827.  He  was  there  in  1860.  See 
fatti  Ecde*.  ScotuxauB,  iii,  41. 

Core  BY  Faith.    See  Faitii-curb. 


$,  In  Greek  mythology,  were  originally  priests 
of  the  orgiastic  Jupiter  cult  us  on  Crete.  They  were 
smed,  and  their  worship  consisted  in  weapon-dances. 
The  latter  was  also  the  case  with  the  Conrbantes  and 
with  the  IdsMin  Dactyles ;  therefore  these  three  classes 
were  eventually  confused.  According  to  Strabo,  those 
CnretK  who  were  among  the  oldest  inhabitants  of 
^tolia  were  different  from  the  above. 

Cnreas,  Joachim,  a  Protestant  theologian  and  phi- 
loeopber  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Frcistadt,  in  Silesia, 
Oct.  22, 1532.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  in  1554 
was  rector  in  his  native  cit}'.  He  then  went  to  Padua 
and  Bologna  for  the  study  of  medicine,  and  after  his  re- 
turn, in  1559,  settled  as  physician  at  Glogau,  where  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  introduction  of  the  Refor- 
mation, but  in  the  spirit  of  his  friend  Melanchthon.  He 
died  at  Glogau,  Jan.  21,1 573.  One  year  after  his  death 
his  Ea^tgtau  Persptcua^  etc.,  appeared,  which  caused  the 
deposition  and  expulsion  of  all  Philippistic  theologians 
by  August  of  Saxony,  l)ecause  he  believed  them  to  be 
the  authon  of  the  same.  See  Grusinger,  Commentatio 
de  Joadu  Cureo  (Marburg,  1853);  Heppe,  Geschichte 
dts  dcalscAen  Proteslantismua  (ibid.  eod. ),  ii,  422  sq., 
467->494;  Herzog,  Beal-Eruyklop,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Odiia,  Francesco,  a  Neapolitan  painter,  was  born 
in  1538.  and  was  a  pupil  of  Gio.  Filippo  Criscuolo;  af- 
terwards visited  Rome,  where  he  studied  the  works  of 
Bapliael.  On  bis  return  to  Naples  he  painted  fur  the 
ehurches  there.  His  masterpiece  was  a  grand  picture 
of  Tke  Craci/fijrttm,  in  the  Chiesa  delta  Picta.  He  died 
ia  1610.   See  Spooner,  Bioff,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  riSf  s.  v. 

Cnxial  (or  Ctiriel),  Juan  Alfonso,  a  Spanish 
Benedictine,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Salamanca, 
where  he  died,  Sept.  28,  1609.  After  his  death  were 
pobliabed  LecturtB  m  Z>.  Thomee  Aq,l,^  (Douay,  1G18; 
Antwerp,  1621):  —  Controvernm  in  Diversa  Loca  S, 
Scripiara  (Salamanca,  1611).    See  Le  Mire,  Z>r  Sa-ipt, 


Sac  xvU;  Nic  Antonio,  Siblioih.  Hitp,  i,  681 ;  Hurter, 
Nomendator,  i,  275;  Langhorst,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte'i 
KircheU'Lexikim,  s.  v.     (U.  P.) 

Curig;.    See  Cyricus. 

Carlo  was  the  president  of  a  curia  or  ward  in  an- 
cient Rome.  His  office  was  to  officiate  as  priest.  There 
were  thirty  eurioneSf  and  over  these  was  a  curio  maxi' 
mu*  or  chief  priest. 

Curltan  is  the  name  of  two  early  Irish  saints : 

1.  Abbot  and  bishop  of  Rosmeinn,  commemorated 
March  16,  was  one  of  those  who  assisted  in  releasing 
certain  women  of  Erinn  from  ix)ndage. 

2.  Of  KUmore,  commemorated  Aug.  9.  See  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Chtist,  Bioff,  s.  v. 

Cuman,  an  early  Irish  saint,  commemorated  Jan. 
6,  was  bishop  of  Kilcoman,  and  was  the  son  of  Sinell, 
of  the  race  of  Coinan,  in  Ulster. 

Cumook,  Nbhemiah,  an  English  Weskyan  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Bristol  in  1810.  He  united' with  the 
Church  at  thirteen;  began  to  preach  at  an  early  age; 
entereci  the  ministry  in  1834,  and  died  July  26, 1869. 
He  was  known  as  **  the  children's  preacher."'  He  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  The  Father  of  Methodism  (Lond. 
1847,  18mo).  See  Minutes  of  tke  British  Conference, 
1869,  p.  27 ;  Stevenson,  TKe«/eyan  i/ymn'-book  and  its  At^ 
sociations  (Lond.  1870),  p.  315. 

Curradi  (or  Corrado),  Francesco,  a  Florentine 
historical  and  portrait  painter,  was  bom  in  1570,  and 
studied  under  Battista  Naldini.  His  Magdalene,  and 
The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Thecla,  in  the  Florentine  galler- 
ies, are  considered  his  best.  He  died  in  1661.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  SiKwner,  Biog,  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Curran,  Richard  Augustus,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Llifflintown,  Pa.,  July  15,  1808. 
He  graduated  from  Washington  College  in  1834,  and 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1837;  became 
stated  fiupply  at  Millville,  N.  J.,  anil  Gallipolis,  O.,  in 
1838;  Cassville,  Ga.,  in  1839.  He  was  ordained  an 
evangel iitt  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Jersey  the  same 
year,  and  became  stated  supply  at  Cedarville,  N.  J., 
and  pastor  in  1842;  at  Shavers  Creek  Church,  Pa.,  in 
1849 ;  Cottage  Church  in  1854,  and  dismissed  in  1859,  on 
being  appointed  professor  of  Pottstow^n  Cottage  Semi- 
nary. He  afterwards  became  8tate<l  supply  and  teach- 
er at  Huntington,  Ind. ;  pastor  at  Minerva,  O.,  in  1872 ; 
at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  in  1874,  and  dismissed  in  1875.  He 
died  at  Bourbon,  Ind.,  March  26, 1883.  See  NecroL  Re" 
port  of  Princeton  A  lumni,  1884.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Currelly,  Charlks,  an  English  Wesleyan  preacher, 
was  bom  at  Devon  port,  Jan.  4, 1806.  He  was  convert- 
ed at  fifteen ;  began  to  preach  in  1827;  was  received  by 
the  conference  in  1830 ;  avd  retired  to  Bristol  in  1862, 
where  he  died,  Sept.  29, 1868.  See  Minutes  of  the  Brit- 
ish Conference,  1869,  p.  10. 

Cunle  is  the  family  name  of  numerous  Scotch 
clergA'men : 

1.  Hknry,  a  native  of  Kinross-shire,  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1793;  presented  to  the  living  at  Carsphaira 
in  1802,  and  ordained ;  and  died  suddenly,  I>ec.  9, 1815, 
aged  sixty-three  years.  See  Fasti  EccUs,  Scoticance,  i, 
707. 

2.  James  (1),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1645;  was  called  to  the  living  at  Shotts  in 
1649,  and  ordained;  deprived  by  act  of  Parliament 
in  1662;  cited  before  the  privy  council  in  1669  for 
keeping  conventicles,  but  escaped  censure  by  not  ap- 
pearing; accepted  indulgence  in  1672,  thereby  offend- 
ing his  parishioners,  who  forsook  the  church;  was 
again  cited  in  1677  and  in  1684  for  keeping  conventi- 
cles ;  refused  to  read  the  proclamation  of  thanksgiving 
for  the  escape  of  the  king  from  the  Rye-house  plot,  and 
was  imprisoned  in  1685;  was  returned  to  his  charge  at 
Shott<i  in  1687,  and  died  before  Jan.  24, 1693.  See  Fas- 
ti Eccles.  Scoticana,  ii,  297, 298. 


CURRIE 


204 


CURTAIN 


3.  James  (2),  took  his  degree  at  Edinbnrgh  Uni- 
venitjT  in  16d5;  wis  Ucenaed  to  preach  in  1697 ;  called 
to  the  living  at  Hoddam  in  1700,  and  ordained ;  and  died 
Feb.  25, 1726,  aged  flfty-two  yean.  See  Fasti  Eccles, 
Scoticaxut,  i,  621. 

4.  Jambs  (8),  son  of  the  minister  at  Hoddam,  re- 
ceived a  barsary  in  Glasgow  University  in  1741 ;  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Kirkpatrick-Fleming  in  1745 ; 
ordained  in  1746;  transferred  to  Middlebie  in  1768; 
and  died  Oct.  24,  1778,  aged  fifty-seven  years.  See 
Fatti  EccUt,  Scoticana,  i,  622,  624. 

5.  James  (4),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1809 ;  elected 
to  the  living  at  Catrine  in  1815;  ordained  in  1816; 
and  deposed  in  June,  1886,  for  intoxication.  See  Fasti 
Eoda,  Scodcana,  ii,  141. 

6.  John  (1),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity in  1629 ;  was  called  to  the  living  at  Calter  in  1636 ; 
was  deposed  in  1658,  but  restored  by  the  synod  in  1661. 
He  died  in  reduced  circomstances.  See  Fatti  Eedes, 
Scotieanaj  i,  218. 

7.  John  (2),  a  native  of  Ochiltree,  was  called  to  the 
living  at  Oldfaamstocks  in  1694;  ordained  in  1695; 
transferred  to  Elgin  in  1697,  but  not  confirmed ;  trans- 
ferred to  Haddington  in  1704 ;  elected  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  in  1709,  and  died  June  18,  1720. 
See  FasU  Ecdet,  Scotieatue^  i,  818,877. 

8.  John  (8),  took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  University 
in  1695 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1699 ;  called  to  the 
living  at  Old  Monkland  in  1700,  and  ordained ;  and  died 
in  1741,  aged  about  sixty-six  years.  See  Fasti  Eccks. 
Seoticana,  ii,  298. 

9.  John  (4),  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity in  1699;  wss  licensed  to  preach  in  1705;  called  to 
the  living  at  Kinglassie  the  same  year,  and  ordained. 
He  adhered  to  the  protest  against  loosing  the  four  se- 
ceders  in  1783,  and  died  Sept.  22, 1765,  aged  about  eigh- 
ty-six years.  He  published  A  Sermon  at  the  Opewbig 
of  the  Synod  (1733) ;  and  seven  separate  worlcs  in  vindi- 
cation of  the  Church.  See  Fasti  Eccles, Scoticana,  it,  548. 

10.  John  (5),  son  of  the  minister  of  Old  Monkland, 
took  his  degree  at  Glasgow  University  in  1725 ;  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1780 ;  called  to  the  living  at  New 
Monkland  in  1732;  ordained  in  1783,  and  died  April 
19, 1758.    See  Fasti  EccUs.  Scoticana^  ii,  295. 

11.  John  (6),  a  native  of  Dumfriesshire, was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1816 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Murroes 
in  1821,  and  ordained.  He  assumed  the  name  of  hting 
In  1846,  and  died  July  20, 1868.  See  Fasti  Eccles.  Sco- 
ticancBf  iii,  729. 

12.  William,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1742 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1744 ;  called 
to  the  living  at  Scone,  but  set  aside  in  1747 ;  called  and 
ordained  assistant  and  successor  to  his  father  at  King- 
lassie  in  1750;  and  died  March  11,  1770,  aged  forty- 
eight  3'ear8.    See  FatH  Eccks,  Scoticana,  ii,  548. 

Ctmle,  A.  H.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman, 
entered  the  ministry  about  1866,  and  throughout  his 
life  remained  in  the  diocese  of  Virginia.  In  1870  he 
was  living  in  Warminster;  in  1871  became  rector  of 
Tillotson  Parish,  residing  at  Glenimore ;  and  continued 
in  this  rectorship  until  his  death,  Oct  17, 1878.  See 
Pro/.  Episc,  Almanac,  1880,  p.  171. 

Cnrrie,  Robert  O.,  D.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed 
minister,  was  bom  of  Scotch  parentage,  in  1806.  He 
graduated  from  Rutgers  College  in  1829,  and  from  New 
Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  in  1834.  His  only 
settlement  as  a  pastor  was  at  New  Utrecht,  L.  I.,  from 
1885  to  1866,  when  he  died.  His  mind  was  remarkable 
for  clearness,  precision,  and  strength;  his  learning  was 
varied,  accurate,  and  thorough.  He  was  an  excellent 
classical  and  Biblical  scholar.  As  a  preacher,  he  was 
instructive,  direct,  fervid,  and  strong.  He  wrote  much 
for  the  religious  periodical  press.  His  only  volume  is 
a  well-written  memoir  of  his  former  pastor  and  friend, 
the  Rev.  Richard  Sluyter.  See  Corwin,  Manual  o/tke 
Ref,  Church  in  America,  s.  v.    (W.  J.  R.  T.) 


Currier,  John,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Meredith,  N.  H.,  May  18, 1809.  He  was  con- 
verted at  twenty-three;  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Dur- 
ham Quarterly  Meeting  in  May,  1838 ;  and  was  ordained 
in  January,  1842.  Soon  after  he  removed  to  Thornton, 
where  he  preached  but  a  short  time,  and  died  Nov.  2, 
1848.     See  Free- will  Baptist  RegisUr,  1844,  p.  75. 

(J.  G  a) 

Cnrry,  Hiram  M.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minisr 
ter,  was  bora  in  Adams  County,  O.,  April  7, 1818.  He 
was  converted  in  early  life ;  in  1848  was  admitted  into 
the  Ohio  Conference ;  was  transferred  in  1863  to  the 
Cincinnati  Conference,  and  died  March  8,  1874.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1874,  p.  102;  Simpson, 
Cyclop,  of  Methodism,  s.  v. 

Curry,  J.  M.,  a  Baptist  minister,  wss  bora  at  Can- 
ning, N.  B.  He  was  appointed  to  a  mission  to  Mirami- 
chi  in  1860 ;  ordained  in  1864,  at  Norton ;  was  pastor  at 
Northampton,  Rockland,  South  Richmond,  Hampton, 
and  Upham ;  and  labored  at  Kars,  Wickham,  McDon- 
ald's Corner,  Hammond  Vale,  Peticodiac,  North  River, 
and  Shediac,  all  in  New  Branswick.  He  died  at  Hills- 
borough, Feb.  8, 1880,  aged  forty -nine.  See  Baptist 
Year 'hook  for  Maritime  Provinces,  1880;  Bill,  Fiflg 
Tears  with  the  Baptists,  p.  569. 

Curry,  Thomaa  AC,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Yorktown,  Westchester  County,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  18, 1881.  He  was  converted  at  twenty-one ;  stud- 
ied in  the  New  York  Conference  Seminary ;  in  1856  en- 
tered the  New  York  Conference,  and  died  Sept  17, 1868L 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1869,  p.  90. 

Curry,  William  F.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bora  at  Paris,  Bourbon  Co.,  Ky.,  July  28, 1800.  He  was 
educated  at  Transylvania  University,  I^exington;  li- 
censed by  the  New  York  Presbytery  in  1822,  and  sent 
as  a  missionary  to  the  northera  part  of  Georgia,  where 
his  labors  were  abundantly  blessed.  About  1880  he 
was  appointed  general  agent  for  the  Home  Blissionary 
Society  of  northera  Ohio.  He  died  May  19,1861.  See 
Wilson,  Predf.  Hist,  Almanac,  1862,  p.  179. 

Curadrda,  Egclbsiji,  were  messengers  employed 
in  the  early  Christian  Church,  in  times  of  danger,  to 
give  private  notice  to  each  member  of  the  time  and 
place  of  holding  meetings  for  worship.  It  was  also  the 
term  used  to  denote  messengers  sent  from  one  country 
to  another  upon  the  important  affairs  of  the  Church. 

Curalialda  Equi  (^post-horses),  L  e.  horses  belongs 
ing  to  the  "  public  course  ;*'  called  also  for  shortness 
cursus,  **  course."  The  Roman  posting  or  postal  system 
— the  distinction  between  the  two  belongs  to  a  late 
stage  of  civilization>-was  established  by  Augustus.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Secret  Ui»tory  of  Procopius,  the  day*s 
Journey  consisted  of  eight  posts,  sometimes  fewer,  but 
never  less  than  five.  Each  stable  had  fortj*  horses,  and 
as  many  stablemen.  Bingham  gives  a  quite  incorrect 
idea  of  the  system  in  describing  the  cursualts  equi  as 
licing  simply  impressed  for  the  army  and  exchequer. 
The  early  Christian  emperors  made  minute  laws  rege- 
lating these  messengers,  and  some  of  them  evince  their 
regard  for  the  life  and  comfort  of  the  animals.  The 
clergy  were  exempt  from  this  service,  and  from  the  tax 
for  it.     See  Smith,  Z>tcf.  of  Christ,  Antiq,  s.  v. 

Curaua  is  the  original  name  of  the  breviary  (q.  v.) 
in  the  Romish  Church.  The  same  term  was  used  to 
denote  the  Gallican  liluigy,  which  was  used  in  the  Brib» 
ish  churches  for  a  long  period,  until  the  Roman  liturgy 
came  to  be  employed.    See  Liturgy. 

Curtain  (cortina,aubeum, velum;  PiiXov,  wapairU 
raafia,  KaraniTaafia,  afi^i^pov).  Curtains  were  used 
in  ancient  churches  for  the  following  purposes :  (1)  to 
hang  over  the  outer  doorway  of  the  chnrch ;  (2)  to 
close  the  doorway  between  the  nave  of  the  church  and 
the  sanctuary,  or  perhaps  rather  to  fill  the  open  panels 
or  caneelli  of  the  door,  during  the  time  of  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  cucharist;  (3)  to  fill  the  space  between  tho 


CURTCHEW 


205 


CURTIS 


pQlan  of  the  dborinm,  or  canopy  of  the  altar;  (4)  cur^ 
tains  were  e]eo  need  in  baptisteries.— Spiitb,  DkL  of 
CkruLAntiq,9,T. 

Ciutchew  (Catchon,  or  Cowslan)  is  appar- 
ently u  early  Scottish  name  for  St.  Coxstamtinb 

(q.  T.> 

Caxtei%  Thox as,  D.D^  an  English  divine,  one  of 
the  prebendaries  of  the  cathedral  at  Canterbury  in  1756, 
Rccor  of  Sevenoaks,  in  Kent,  of  St.  Dionis  Backchurcb, 
LoodoD,  and  one  of  the  proctors  in  convocation  for  the 
diocese  of  Rochester,  died  April  28, 1775.  See  Amatal 
Reguter,  1775,  p.  209. 

Cnrteninfl,  Axroxius,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Holland  in  1698,  and  came  to  America 
in  1730.  He  was  pastor  at  Hackensack  until  1787; 
stHsckenaack  and  Scbraalenbargh  until  1755;  Brook- 
lyn, FlaUands,  Bushwick,  Flatbush,  New  Utrecht,  and 
Grareieod  in  1756,  when  he  died.  See  Corwin,  Man- 
nal ofikt  Rtf,  Chmreh  in  America,  3d  ed.  p.  226. 

Corti,  lYanceaco,  a  Bolognese  engraver,  was  bom 
in  1603^  and  atndied  under  Cherubtno  Albert!.  The 
foUowiog  are  hia  principal  plates :  Tke  Virgin  and  St, 
Catkerite;  The  Virgin  Teaching  the  Infant  Jestts  to 
Read;  Tke  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine  f  The  Infant 
Ckrid  Sb^tMf.  He  died  about  1670.  See  Hoefer, 
3««v.  Biog.  GinhxUe,  s.  ▼.;  Spooner,  Biog.  Uitt,  of  the 
fine  Jftf,8.r. 

Cuitl,  Pietro,  an  Italian  Hebraist  of  the  Jesuit 
sider,  who  was  bom  in  Rome  in  1711,  and  died  there 
April  4,  1762,  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  met- 
sphTsidans  of  bis  time.  He  taught  Hebrew  in  the 
Bonan  College,  and  published  several  dissertations  on 
difficult  passages  of  Scripture,  especially  Christue  Sa- 
ceriot  (Borne,  1751)  :—Sol  Statu  (ibid.  1754)  i-Sol  Re- 
tngroAu  QiXwdU  1756).  See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  GM- 
mfefiLV. 

Cnrtlee,  Corban,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Windsor,  N.  H.,  Feb.  11, 1809.  He  studied  at 
Hmcock  Academy,  and  graduated  from  Gilmanton  Sem- 
ioafT  in  1843;  Oct.  5  of  that  year  was  ordained  pastor 
of  Nofthfield  and  Sanboroton  Bridge  (the  latter  now 
ratoo),  N.  H.,  and  was  dismissed  May  8, 1870.  The 
next  three  years  he  was  acting  pastor  at  Boecawen,  and 
thereafter  reaided  at  Tilton,  without  charge,  until  his 
death,  Feb.  19, 1«81.    See  Cong,  Year-book,  1882,  p.  26. 

Cnrtii^  diandler,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
WslUngford,  Conn.,  in  1795.  In  1885  he  went  to  the 
Indian  eountiy,  nnder  the  direction  of  the  American 
Baptist  Board*  of  Foreign  Missions.  The  field  of  his 
labm  was  among  rarious  Indian  tribes,  from  the  Choo> 
taws,  on  Bed  River,  to  the  Omahas,  far  to  the  north- 
west. After  five  years*  service  he  removed  to  Griggs- 
riOe,  BL,  in  1842  to  Maesachnsetts,  was  pastor  for  two 
jttn  in  Westminster,  and  died  July  27,  1881.  He 
pahlished,  in  1866,  The  Mgtterg  of  Iniquity,  and  two 
voliunes  on  CkrieHanitg  Delineated,  See  The  Wateh- 
IMS,  Sept.  8, 1881.     (J.  a  S.) 

Cnxtia,  Daniel,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  London  in  1799.  He  was  converted  in  youth ; 
baptized  at  Blandford  Street  Church  in  1815,  of  which 
he  was  deacon  for  many  years;  and  in  1827  assisted  in 
fvBiiiig  a  new  Church  for  the  Kev.  J.  Foreman,  in  Dor- 
ax  Sqaare.  Being  an  occasional  preacher  for  some  years, 
Mr.  Cortis  waa  ordained  pastor  at  Homerton  Bow,  in 
Asgatf,  1837,  and  died  July  26, 1853.  See  (Lond.)  Baj>- 
fi^  UamUook,  1854,  p.  48. 

Cliiti%  Dawld,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
Eatt  Stoogbtoo,  Maas^  Feb.  17,  1782.  He  graduated 
ffoa  Brown  University  in  1808;  was  pastor  at  two 
^iSettm  tioea  in  Pawtnxet,  B.  L,  and  for  one  year  poet- 
vartcr  of  the  Tillage.  For  two  years  he  preached  in 
Harwich,  Maaa.,  and  for  about  the  same  time  at  New 
Bedfofd;  Uved  eight  yean  in  Abington,  serving  part 
«( the  time  aa  pMtor.   Hia  next  piatorates,  of  two  yean 


each,  were  at  Fisksville  and  Chepackct,  both  in  Bhode 
Island.  The  last  twenty-five  yean  of  his  life  were  spent 
in  his  native  place,  and  he  died  there,  Sept  12, 1869. 
See  Filler,  History  of  Harwich,  p.  226.     (J.  C  a) 

Curtiflk  GrandlflOXi,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  Sooth,  was  bom  in  Ohio,  July  22, 
1818.  He  joined  the  Baptists  in  early  life ;  removed 
to  the  Pacific  coast  in  1850;  in  1862  joined  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South ;  soon  after  was  licensed 
to  preach,  and  continued  as  a  local  preacher  until  1871, 
when  he  entered  the  Columbia  Conference,  wherein  he 
labored  till  his  death,  which  occurred  near  La  Grande, 
Union  Co.,  Or.,  Jan.  21,  1878.  See  Minutee  of  An- 
nual Conferences  of  the  M,  E.  Church  South,  1878,  p. 
908. 

Ciirtis»  Harvey,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  at  Adams,  N.  Y.,  May  80, 1806.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Middlebury  College,  Yt,  in  1881;  studied  the 
next  year  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary;  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Bran- 
don, Yt.,  Feb.  18, 1886;  in  1848  accepted  a  call  from  a 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Madison,  Ind^  and  remained 
there  eight  years.  In  1852  he  was  called  to  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Chicago ;  in  1858  was  elected  to 
the  presidency  of  Knox  College,  IlL,  and  died  at  Galea- 
burg.  Sept,  18, 1862.  See  Wilson,  Presih,  Hist.  Alnumae, 
1863,  p.  292;  Gen.  Cat.  of  Princeton  Theol.  Sem,  1881, 
p.  81. 

CurtiB,  Hemy,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
lUston,  Leicestenbire,  England,  Oct.  1 1 ,  1800.  He  came 
to  the  United  SUtes  in  1812;  resided  flnt  in  Otsego 
County,  N.  Y.,  and  allerwanls  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
where  he  joined  the  Baptist  Church,  and  was  licensed 
to  preach,  March  10, 1824.  The  same  year  ho  was  or^ 
dained  at  Harpersville,  N.  Y.;  in  1882  he  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Church  in  Bethany,  where  he  remained  four- 
teen years.  He  did  much  evangelical  hibor  in  Wayne 
County,  during  a  period  of  thirty-five  years,  and  thir- 
teen churches  were  more  or  less  under  his  pastoral  care. 
He  died  about  1860.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encgdop. 
p.  802.     (J.CS.) 

Curtis,  James,  an  English  Methodist  preacher,  was 
bom  at  Westwoodside,  Lincolnshire,  in  1797.  Removing 
to  Sheflleld,  he  was  converted  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 
and  devoted  himself  to  Church  work.  In  1822  he  en- 
tered the  New  Connection  ministry,  and  for  thirty-three 
yean  travelled  in  twenty -two  circuits,  most  of  them 
important  ones.  He  beoime  a  superannuate  in  1855, 
and  died  in  the  city  of  York,  March  8, 1874.  See  Min- 
utes of  the  Conference. 

Curtis,  John,  a  Wesleyan  missionary,  after  spend- 
ing three  yean  in  the  theological  institution  at  Rich- 
mond, England,  was  in  1868  appointed  to  Honduras, 
Central  America,  where  he  labored  in  various  circuits. 
He  retumed  to  England  in  impaired  health,  and  was 
ordained  at  the  Conference  of  1872.  He  was  next  ap- 
pointed to  Turk's  Island,  Bahama  district,  but  was 
seized  with  pulmonary  disease,  and  died  at  sea,  on  his 
homeward  voyage,  Aug.  6,  1874.  See  Minutes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1875,  p.  84. 

Curtis,  John  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bora  at  Plymouth,  England,  Feb.  29,  1816.  He 
came  to  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  with  his  parents,  when  but 
three  years  of  age;  began  preaching  at  the  age  of 
•twenty;  in  1837  united  with  the  Philadelphia  Confer- 
ence; in  1876  became  superannuated,  and  retired  to 
the  city  of  Wilmington,  where  he  died,  July  25, 1877. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1878,  p.  22. 

Curtis^  Jonathan,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Randolph,  Mass.,  Oct.  22, 1786.  He  graduated 
from  Dartmouth  College  in  1811 ;  was  ordained  at  Ep- 
som, N.  H.,  in  1815;  dismissed  in  1825.  His  other 
charges  were  Sharon,  Mass.,  Pittsfield,  N.  H.,  and  South 
Woodstock,  Conn.    He  died  at  Chicopee,  Mass.,  Jan. 


CURTIS 


2oe 


CURWEN 


27f  1861.    Mr.  Curtis  published  several  Sermont  and 
Addresses.     See  Cong,  Quarterly,  1861,  p.  862. 

Curtis,  Joseph,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Exeter  in  1815.  He  labored  as  an  evangelist 
while  vet  a  layman  in  the  Established  Church ;  after- 
wards became  a  Baptist,  gave  up  business  entirely,  and 
devoted  himself  to  gratuitous  labors  from  place  to  place, 
visiting  the  cottages,  where  he  read,  prayed,  and  con- 
versed, announcing  at  each  house  his  intention  of 
preaching  in  the  open  air.  He  was  some  time  pastor 
at  St.  Mary  Ottery,  and  at  Cranford,  Middlesex.  He 
died  near  Devoran,'Comwall,  Dec.  18, 1878.  See  (Lond.) 
Baptist  Hand-book,  1880,  p.  294. 

Curtis,  Joseph  E.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  at  WethersfieId,Conn.,  Oct.  9, 1789.  He  graduated 
from  Williams  College,  Mass.,  in  1816,  and  went  to  Vir- 
ginia, where  he  was  licensed  by  Hanover  Presbytery 
in  1828,  and  installed  pastor  of  Powhatan  Church,  re- 
maining there  until  1842.  He  died  at  Montrose,  March 
1, 1859.     See  Wilson,  Presh,  Hist,  A  Imanac,  18C0,  p.  69. 

Curtis,  Joseph  Walt,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  Vermont.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth 
College  in  1811;  was  ordained,  July  5, 1816,  pastor  at 
North  Yarmouth,  Me. ;  preached  at  Warren,  O.,  from 
1820  to  1832 ;  was  chapUin  of  Vermont  penitentiary 
for  two  years;  missionar}'  in  Canada  in  1836;  without 
a  charge  in  Vermont  the  next  year;  and  pastor  at  H ad- 
ley,  Mass.,  from  1886  until  his  death,  March  16,  1857. 
See  Trietu  Cat,  ofAndover  Tkeol,  Sem,  1870,  p.  28. 

Curtis,  M.  Ashley,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector  for  several  years,  until  about  1856, 
in  Society  Hill,  S.  C.  Shortly  after  he  was  rector  of 
SL  Matthew's  Church,  Hillsborough,  N.  C,  and  in  this 
pastorate  he  remained  until  his  death,  in  April,  1872. 
See  Prot,  Episc,  Almanac^  1873,  p.  188. 

Curtis^  Otis  Freeman,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  July  0,  1804.  He 
studied  at  Kimball  Union  Academy;  read  theology 
with  Rev.  William  A.  Chapin  at  Craftsbury,  Vt. ;  aiid 
was  ordained  an  evangelist  Oct.  23,  1828.  He  was 
pastor  at  Barton  and  Irasburg  the  two  following  years; 
evangelist  in  Derby  and  other  towns  in  northern  Ver- 
mont (Barre,  Peacham,  Glover,  Plainfield)  from  1830  to 
1835 ;  preached  in  Canton  (111.),  Chicago,  Racine,  Keno- 
sha, Waukesha,  and  Milwaukee;  Shopiere  from  1848  to 
1850;  insuUed  at  Emerald  Grove,  Wis.,  May  6, 1851; 
dismissed  May  1,  1863;  preached  at  Versailles,  N.  Y., 
among  the  Seneca  Indians,  from  1864  to  1867;  was  act^ 
ing  pastor  at  Dover,  111.,  until  1874;  without  charge  at 
Emerald  Grove  until  1878;  and  died  at  David  City, 
Neb.,  July  1, 1879.     See  Cong,  Year-book,  1880,  p.  16. 

Curtis,  Reuben  B.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Lisbon,  Me.  He  was  converteil  in 
1830,  in  1845  joined  the  Maine  Conference,  in  1862  was 
transferred  to  the  W^isconsin  Conference,  in  1868  be- 
came superannuated,  and  died  May  21, 1872,  See  J/m- 
utes  o/Ammal  Conferences,  1872,  p.  1 19. 

Curtis,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister  and 
educator,  was  bom  in  England,  and  came  to  America 
about  1845,  being  then  over  fifty  years  of  age.  He 
preached  for  some  time  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  event- 
ually established  a  school  for  young  ladies  at  Limestone 
Springs.  He  lost  his  life  on  a  steamer  that  was  burned 
on  the  Potomac  in  1858.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Ency^ 
clop,  s.  V. 

Curtis,  Thomas  F.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  England  in  1816.  He  was  educated  in  the  South 
Carolina  Uuivcrsit}*,  and  pursued  his  theological  studies 
under  the  direction  of  his  father,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Cur- 
tis, D.D.  After  several  years'  pastorate  over  a  church 
near  Boston,  he  was  called  to  a  professorship  in  Lewis- 
burg  University,  Pa.,  where  he  remained  until  1865. 
In  1867  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
where  he  died  in  1872.  Dr.  Curtis  published  a  volume 
on  Inspiration,    He  is  also  author  of  a  work  on  Com- 


nutmon,  and  another  entitled  Progress  ofBaptia 
ciples  in  the  Last  Hundred  Years,     (J.  C.  S.) 

Curtis,  Timothy,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
a  native  of  Yorkshire,  was  sent  in  1830  to  Jamaica,  and 
died  at  Falmouth,  on  that  island,  Dec  24, 1854,  in  his 
fortv-ninth  year.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference, 
1855. 

Curtis,  William,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  in  Hoxcy,  Lincolnshire,  England,  May  15,  1798. 
He  first  united  with  the  Primitive  Methodist  Church 
and  entered  its  ministry ;  came  to  Illinois  in  1830,  and 
joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  but  withdrew 
in  1832 ;  then  organized  a  church  at  Albion,  and  was 
ordained  its  pastor;  and  eventually  five  other  churchea. 
He  died  June  15, 1877. 

Curtis,  William  A.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, graduated  from  the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary, N.  Y.  He  was  rector  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  Ho- 
bart,  for  many  years,  until  his  death,  in  Nor^vich,  Conn., 
Oct.  31, 1862.     See  Prot,  Episc  A  Imanac,  1863,  p.  94. 

Curtlss,  Caleb,  a  Congregational  minister,  grad- 
uated from  Princeton  College,  studied  theology,  and 
was  onlained  pastor  at  Charlton,  Mass.,  in  1761.  He 
was  dismissed  in  1776,  after  which  he  represented  the 
town  in  the  Provincial  Congress,  and  served  in  other 
public  capacities.  He  died  March  21, 1802.  See  Alex- 
ander, Princeton  College  in  the  ISth  Century, 

Curtiss,  Claudius  G.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Niagara  County,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  16, 
1828.  He  was  converted  in  •  his  twentieth  year,  and 
immediately  Joined  the  Methodiat  Episcopal  Church. 
In  1854  he  removed  to  Markham,  Canada,  where  he 
was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Canada  Wesleyan  Church. 
In  1860  he  united  with  the  Evangelical  Associatioo, 
was  ordained,  and  appointed  to  Seneca  chai^.  In  1867  - 
he  retnraed  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and 
was  received  as  a  member  of  the  East  Genesee  Confer- 
ence. He  took  a  supernumerary  relation  in  1881,  and 
retired  to  his  home  in  Hammondsport,  where  he  died, 
Aug.  18,  1882.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferenees, 
1882,  p.  820. 

Curtiss,  Samuel  Ives,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Meriden,  Conn.,  March  5,  1803.  He 
studied  in  the  prepanitory  department  of  the  Bangor 
Theological  Seminary,  and  in  1832  graduated  from 
Yale  Divinity  School  In  November  of  that  year  he 
was  ordained  pastor  in  East  Hampton,  remaining  there 
five  years.  From  1837  to  1839  he  was  acting  pastor 
in  West  Woodstock,  four  years  acting  pastor  at  Union, 
and  from  April  12,  1843,  regular  pastor  until  his  death, 
March  26, 1880.     See  Cong,  Year-book,  1881 ,  p.  20. 

Curtiss,  William  M.,  a  minister  in  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  at  Norway,  Her- 
kimer Co.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  6,  1798.  He  received  a'  liberal 
education ;  went  to  Mississippi  when  about  twenty-fewo, 
and  engaged  in  teaching;  joined  the  Church  in  1821 ; 
and  in  1822  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  admitted  into 
the  Mississippi  Conference.  In  1837  he  located;  in 
1855  re-entered  the  effective  ranks;  in  1861  became 
superannuated,  and  died  Feb.  9, 1863.  See  Minutes  of 
AnnucU  Conferences  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1864, 
p.  495. 

Curtius,  Sebastiatt,  a  Reformed  theologian  of 
Germany,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg, 
where  he  died.  May  30, 1684,  is  the  author  of  Badioes 
Ling,  S,  Hebr,  (Weimar,  1629, 1645, 1649;  Amsterdam, 
1652) : — Manuals  Hebrao^Chald.  Lat,  Belgicum  (Frank- 
fort, 1668)  '.—Kleiner  Juden  Katechismus  (Cassel,  1650). 
See  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gdehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Stein- 
Schneider,  Bibliogr, Handbuch,%,  v. ;  Wolf,  BibL  HebraOt 
ii,  551 ;  FUrst,  BiU,  Jud,  i,  193  (where  the  first  two 
works  are  erroneously  ascribed  to  Cursius),    (B.  P.) 

Curvius.    See  Cuarab. 

Curwen,  Hugh,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  a  native  of 


CURWEN 


207 


CUSHING 


WestmoreUnd,  tnd  became  dean  of  Hereford  in  1541. 
On  Oct  20, 1&55,  be  became  archbisbop  of  Dublin ;  in 
1557  was  constituted  one  of  the  lord»-jufttices  of  Ireland ; 
in  Jone,  1559,  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  great  seal  of 
Ireland;  in  1560  was  one  of  the  spiritual  lords,  who  sat 
io  the  Parlwment;  in  1568  was  again  constituted  lord- 
chancellor;  in  1567  procured  his  translation  to  Oxford, 
and  spent  one  year  there.  He  died  at  Swinbrook  in 
Xorember,  1568*  See  D*Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  Arch- 
hiikopt  ofDuhiuij  p.  235. 

CiinHreii,  John,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Heckmondwike,  Yorkshire,  Noy.  14, 
1816.  He  was  early  brought  to  Christ ;  was  educated 
at  Coward  College,  and  at  University  College,  London ; 
became  assisUnt  minister  in  the  Church  at  Basingstoke 
in  1838;  in  1841  oo-paator  at  Stowmarket,  Suffolk;  in 
1844  pastor  at  Plaistow ;  resigned  in  1867,  on  account 
of  ill-bealth,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  improvement 
of  Church  music,  establishing  a  printing  and  publishing 
business  for  that  purpose.  He  died  May  26, 1880.  He 
published,  The  Little  Tune-iook  Harmonized:  —  The 
Child's  Om  Hynmrbook:—The  Standard  Course  of  the 
Tcmc-solfa  Method: — How  to  Observe  Harmony: — 
The  Teacher's  Manual: — Musical  Statics: — Construc- 
Hvt  Exercises  in  Elemetttary  Musical  Composition: — 
Musical  Theory,  and  other  works.  See  (Lond.)  Cong. 
r0ir-5(MM^188],p.d66. 

Cnrvireii,  Speddlng,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Whitehaven,  Cumberland,  Jan. 
19, 1790.  He  vfs»  brought  up  in  the  Established  Church, 
bat  joined  the  Independents  at  Leeds,  and  was  soon 
engaged  in  speaking  at  weekly  prayer-meetings  and 
at  adjacent  villages  on  Sunday  evenings,  and  finally 
became  a  student  in  Rotherham  College.  He  was 
ordained  at  Heckmondwike  in  December,  1814;  was 
called  to  the  Church  at  Cottingham,  near  Hull,  in  1819, 
also  preachings  on  Sunday  evenings  at  Fish  Street 
Chapel;  and  accepted  a  call  from  the  Church  at  Bar- 
bican, Londoa,  in  1824.  While  there  he,  with  oth- 
ers, founded  the  Christian  Instruction  Society.  In 
1828  he  went  to  Frome,  Somersetshire,  where  he  la- 
bored fur  eleven  vears;  in  1838  he  settled  for  a  few 
months  at  Newbury,  whence  he  was  called  by  the  new 
society  at  Castle  Street,  Reading,  and  there  remained 
until  his  death,  Jan.  9, 1856.  See  (Lond.)  Cotig,  Year- 
^it,  1857,  p.  173-175;  Evangelical  Mag,  March,  1856. 

Cnrwlzi,  Gkorge,  a  Congregational  minister,  son 
of  Hon.  Jonathan  Curwin,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass., 
Har  21, 1683.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in 
1701 ;  was  ordained  in  Salem,  as  colleague  to  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Noyes,  May  19, 1714 ;  and  died  Nov.  28, 1717.  See 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amtr,  Pulpiif  i,  254. 

Cosa  (Cnsaii,  or  CnaanuB),  an  early  English  al>- 
bot  of  the  Wicti,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  8tb  century. 

Ciuari,  The  Book  op.  See  Jkhudah  (ffa-Levt) 
hen^amueL 

Ctuhen,  Samuel,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Frederick  County,  Md.,  March  21,  1796. 
He  joined  the  Church  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  in 
1818  entered  the  travelling  ministry,  whereui  he  labored 
as  his  health  would  permit  until  his  decease,  in  July. 
1825.  See  MinMtes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1825,  p.  476 ; 
Melhodisi  Magazine,  vii,  866. 

Cnahing,  Caleb,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  at  Sdtnate,  Mass.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
College  in  1692 ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  First  Church 
in  SaUsbnry,  Mass.,  Nov.  9,  1698.  The  Rev.  Edmund 
Noyes  became  his  colleague,  Nov.  20, 1751.  Mr.  Cush- 
ing  died  Jan.  25, 1752,  aged  eighty  years.  See  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  i,  458.' 

Cnahlng,  ChriBtopher,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minieter,  was  bora  at  Scituate,  Mass.,  May  3, 1820.  In 
1844  be  graduated  from  Yale  College ;  spent  one  year 
in  Tale  Divinity  School,  and  in  1847  graduated  from 
Andorer  Thedogioal  Seminary.    In  F^bniar>'>  1849,  be 


waa  ordained  pastor  of  the  Edwards  Church,  Boston, 
and  remained  there  until  April,  1851 ;  from  September 
following  until  September,  1868,  was  pastor  in  North 
Brookfield ;  for  ten  years,  from  1867,  was  secretary  of 
the  American  Congregational  Union ;  from  January  to 
July,  1879,  treasurer  of  the  Biassachusetts  Home  Mis- 
sionary Society ;  from  1867  to  1875  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  Congregational  Quarterly ,  and  was  its  sole  editor 
and  proprietor  during  the  succeeding  three  years.  In 
1865  he  became  one  of  the  overseers  of  the  Charity 
Fund  of  Amherst  College;  from  1852  to  1863  .he  pre- 
pared and  published  the  A  nnual  Reports  of  the  Brook- 
field  Auxiliary  Foreign  Missionary  Society.  He  also 
published  many  Sermons  and  A  ddresses.  He  died  Oct. 
23,  1881.     See  Cong,  Year-hitok,  1882,  p.  26. 

CiiBhing,  Jacob,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
son  of  Rev.  Job  Cushing,  of  Shrewsbury,  Mass.,  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  College  in  1748 ;  was  ordained  pas- 
tor in  Waltham,  Nov.  22, 1752;  and  died  Jan.  18, 1809, 
aged  seventy-nine  years.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the 
Amer.  Pulpit,  i,  514. 

Cushing,  Jamas  Royal,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  Nov.  24, 1800.  He 
studied  at  the  Thetford  (Vu)  Academy ;  graduated  from 
Bangor  Theological  Seminary  in  1828;  the  next  year, 
Aug.  12,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Box- 
borough,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  until  June  10, 1883; 
the  next  two  years  was  city  missionary  in  Boston ;  from 
June,  1836,  until  April,  1844,  pastor  in  East  Haverhill ; 
from  November  fcAlowing  until  May,  1854,  pastor  in 
Wells,  Me.  After  this  be  was  a<;(ing  pastor  in  the  fol- 
lowing places :  Taunton,  Mass.,  uiith  1861 ;  North  Roch- 
ester till  1869;  Cotuit  Port  the  next  year;  Waquoid, 
1871-74;  subsequently  resided  without  charge  at  East 
Haverhill  until  his  death,  June  11,  1881.  See  Cong, 
Year-book,  1882,  p.  27. 

Ctiahing,  Job,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bom 
at  Hingham,  Mass.  He  graduated  from  Han*ard  Col- 
lege in  1714 ;  was  ordained  first  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Shrewsbury,  Dec  4, 1723 ;  and  died  Aug.  6, 1760,  aged 
sixty-seven  years.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer, 
Puljnt,  i,  514. 

Cnabing,  Jonathan,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
bora  at  Hingham,  Mass.,  in  1690.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1712 ;  was  ordaineil  at  Dover,  N.  H., 
Sept.  18, 1717 ;  and  died  March  25, 1769.  See  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  viii,  74. 

Cnshing,  Jonathan  Peter,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Rochester,  N.  H.,  March  12, 1793.  He 
studied  at  Phillips  Academy,  Exeter;  graduated  from 
Dartmouth  College  in  1817 ;  went  to  Virginia,  and  be- 
came connected  with  Hampden -Sidney  College,  first 
as  a  tutor,  then  as  a  professor,  and  after  the  death  of 
Dr.  Hodge,  in  1820,  as  president,  in  which  office  he  con- 
tinued until  the  close  of  his  life,  April  25, 1835.  See 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  iv,  624. 

Cnahing,  Peres  Lincoln,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  6, 1822.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Brown  University  in  1849;  spent  one  year  at 
the  Newton  Theological  Institution,  and  was  ordained 
in  1852.  For  six  years  thereafter  he  was  chaplain  of 
the  Reform  School  at  Westborough ;  and  subsequently, 
for  twelve  years,  of  the  State  Almshouse  at  Bridge- 
water.  He  was  also  a  teacher  at  Middleborough  for  a 
time.  He  died  at  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  March,  14, 1875. 
See  Newton  General  Catalogue,  p.  39.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cashing,  Bamuel  A.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Brattleborough,  Vt.,  Jan.  24, 18 1 2.  In 
1831  be  entered  the  ministry,  and  the  following  year 
joined  the  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  Conference, 
where  he  ser^'ed  eleven  charges  in  New  Hampshire. 
His  health  failing,  he  became  superannuated,  supplying, 
for  a  season,  East  Cambridge.  Taking  a  transfer  in 
1844  to  New  England  Conference,  be  filled  four  more 
pastorates;  and  from  1869  was  again  a  superannimte. 


CUSHMAN 


208 


CUSHNY 


During  the  Rebellion  he  entered  the  work  of  the  Chris- 
tian CommiflBion,  until  himself  prostnted  by  disease, 
which  terminated  his  life  at  Walthami  Mass.,  March  10, 
1881.     See  Mmuies  of  Annual  Co^fermces,  1881,  p.  83. 

Ctuhman,  Chester  Lemuel,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Stafford,  Conn.,  March  ^,  1831. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1856 ;  was  ordained 
pastor  at  Jownshend,  Vt.,  Dec  22, 1859 ;  dismissed  Oct. 
15,  1866;  became  pastor  at  Ludlow  and  Phillipston, 
Mass.,  and  at  Ludlow  Mills ;  and  died  April  21, 1880. 
See  MimUei  of  Gen.  Convention  of  Vermont,  1881,  p.  49. 

Cnfthman,  Tlllfiha,  a  Baptist  minister,  son  of  Ker. 
Elisha  Cushman,  was  bom  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  July  4, 
1818.  In  March,  1836,  he  commenced,  with  Mr.  Isaac 
N.  BoUes,  the  publication  of  what  was  subsequently 
known  as  the  Hartford  Courier,  a  political  newspaper. 
In  March,  1838,  he  began  a  religious  paper,  the  Chrigtian 
Secretary,  the  organ  of  the  Baptists  in  Connecticut, 
which  had  been  discontinued  for  a  short  time.  In  the 
autumn  of  1839  he  became  a  Christian,  and  united  with 
the  First  Baptbt  Church  in  Hartford.  Soon  after  this 
he  retired  from  the  editorship  of  the  political  paper,  of 
which  he  had  had  charge,  and  confined  his  attention  to 
the  Secretary,  In  April,  1 840,  he  was  licensed  to  preach, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Wil- 
lington,  Sept.  30  of  the  same  year.  He  now  gave  up 
his  editorial  work,  and  devoted  himself  to  his  Church, 
of  which  he  remained  pastor  for  five  years,  when,  in 
consequence  of  ill-health,  he  resigned.  In  a  year  or 
two  his  health  was  so  far  restored  that  he  was  able  to 
resume  his  ministerial  work,  and  in  April,  1847,  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Church  at  Deep 
River,  where  he  continued  for  several  years.  He  after- 
wards acted  as  pastor  of  the  Church  in  West  Hartford 
for  some  time,  and  returned,  at  length,  to  his  former 
position  as  editor  of  the  Chrittian  Secretary,  for  a  sea- 
son, performing  the  duties  of  pastor  of  the  Church  at 
Bloomfield.  His  death  occurred  at  Hartford,  Jan.  4, 
1876.  See  the  Cushman  GeneaUnjy,  p.  408 ;  TiirnbuU, 
in  the  Christian  Secretary,  Jan.  12,  1876.     (J.  C.  &) 

Cushman,  Isaac  Jackson,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Ohio.  He  graduated  from  the  Miami 
University,  Oxford,  O.,  in  1858,  and  entered  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Xenia ;  was  licensed  to  preach  by 
the  Chillicothe  Presbytery  in  1859,  and  in  1860  was  or- 
dained by  the  Cincinnati  Presbyter}'  pastor  at  Murdock, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death,  Aug.  26, 1881,  at  the 
age  of  forty-nine.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Cushman,  Isaac  Somes,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  at  New  Gloucester,  Me.,  in 
1828.  He  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1844 ; 
subsequently  from  the  Medical  School  of  the  same  col- 
lege; and  for  three  years  practiced  medicine  in>Saco. 
In  1861  he  entered  Concord  Biblical  Institute,  and  in 
1858  joined  the  New  England  Conference.  During  the 
civil  war  he  was  chaplain  of  the  Thirty-third  Massa- 
chusetts Regiment,  and  afterwards  surgeon  of  the  First 
^Massachusetts  Cavalry.  In  1864  he  re-entered  the  pas- 
torate in  the  Maine  Conference;  and  in  1867  was  trans- 
ferre<l  to  the  New  England  Conference,  in  which  he  con- 
tinued until  his  sudden  death,  Sept.  6, 1870.  See  J^m- 
utes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1871,  p.  87. 

Cushman,  Job,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bora  at  Kingston,  Mass.,  Jan.  17, 1797.  He  studied  at 
the  Kingston  Grammar  School ;  graduated  from  Brown 
University  in  1819;  studied  theology  with  Calvin  Park, 
D.D.,  and  was  ordained  in  Springfield,  N.  H.,  July  6, 
1825,  where  he  remained  pastor  three  years.  During 
1828  and  1829  he  was  acting  pastor  in  Bristol ;  the  next 
two  years  in  Sullivan ;  1882  in  Westford,  Conn. ;  from 
1888  to  1835  in  North  Wienlham  (now  Norfolk),  Mass. ; 
until  1839  pastor  in  Presoott ;  from  1841  to  1843  acting 
pastor  in  Tolland;  from  1852  to  1854,  in  Palmyra,  Pe- 
wankee,  and  Watertown,  Wis.;  from  1856  to  1859  in 
Tnuo  and  North  Truro,  Mass.;  until  1861  in  Marlbor- 


ough, Vt.;  1862  in  Plymouth,  Mass.  From  1868  to 
1867  he  resided  in  Plymouth  without  charge,  and  tber»- 
after  in  Griimell,  la.  He  died  Aug.  5, 1878.  He  pub- 
luhed,  Addrets  on  Washii^ton*s  Birthday  (1835)  i—Th^ 
Law  of  God:— The  Liviny  and  the  Dead: —Revivals  qf 
Religion  Desirable:— The  Blessedness  of  Living  in  the 
Present  Aye  :—A  CongUaint ;  Appeal  to  Churches  of  the 
Old  Colony  (1871).     See  Cony,  Year^nok,  1879,  p.  40. 

Cnshman,  Ralph,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bora  in  Massachusetts  in  1792.  He  graduated  from 
Williams  College  in  1817,  and  from  Audover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1820 ;  was  ordained  Nov.  16, 1821 ;  trav- 
elled as  a  home  missionary  in  Kentucky  from  that  time 
to  1824;  and  then  settled  at  Pittsfonl,  N.  Y.,  until  1826, 
and  at  Manlius  until  1880,  when  he  acted  for  a  year  as 
an  agent  for  the  American  Home  Missionary  Society; 
and  removing  to  Ohio  the  same  year,  died  at  Wooster, 
Aug.  27, 1831.  See  Preebyterianim  in  Central  N,  Y, 
p.  604 ;  Trien.  Cat,  ofAndover  TheoL  Sem,  1870,  p.  41. 

Cushman,  Richards,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Massachusetts  in  181 9.  He  graduated  from 
Brown  University  in  1844,  and  studied  one  year  there- 
after in  Andover  Theological  Seminary;  was  ordained 
in  1847  a  missionary  for  the  Foreign  Evangelical  Soci- 
ety to  Hayti,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  June 
7, 1849.  See  Trien.  Cat,  ofAndover  TheoL  Sem,  1870, 
p.  175. 

Cushman,  Robert  Woodward,  D.D.,  a  Bap- 
tist minister,  son  of  Job  Cushman,  a  lineal  descendant 
of  Robert  Cushman,  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  was  born  at 
Woolwich,  Me.,  April  10, 1800.  For  some  time  he  was 
engaged  in  the  watchmaking  and  jewelry  business. 
Having  become  a  Christian,  and  fitted  for  college,  he 
entered  Columbian  College,Washington,D.C,  and  grad- 
uated in  1826.  By  his  own  efforts  he  paid  his  way 
while  procuring  au  cilucation,  yet  took  a  high  rank  as 
a  scholar,  lie  was  ordained,  August,  1826,  pastor  of  the 
Baptist  Church  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,and  a  little  more 
than  a  year  afterwards  removed  to  Philadelphia.  la 
1828  he  established  "  a  young  ladies^  institute  "  of  a  high 
order,  still  constantly  employed  as  a  preacher,  and  for  a 
time  was  the  editor  of  the  Christian  Gazette,  In  the 
various  organizations  for  religious  work,  established  by 
his  denomination,  he  took  an  active  interest.  He  was 
one  of  the  early  and  warm  friends  of  the  American 
Baptist  Publication  Society.  After  nearly  twelve  years 
of  labor  in  Philadelphia,  he  was  called  to  the  pastorate 
of  the  Bowdoin  Square  Church,  in  Boston,  and  was  in- 
stalled July  8, 1841.  In  the  winter  of  1847-48  he  went 
to  Washington,  to  take  charge  of  the  £  Street  Baptist 
Church  in  that  city  during  the  temporary  absence  of 
its  pastor,  Rev.  O.  W.  Samson.  He  remained  in  Wash- 
ington, and  established  a  Isdies*  school,  which  he  con- 
ducted for  five  years,  and  then  returned  to  Boston,  to 
become  the  principal  of  the  **  Mount  Vernon  LacUei^ 
School"  In  1863  he  retired  from  active  life  on  ac- 
count of  impaired  health,  and  spent  his  closing  years  in 
Wakefield,  Mass.,  where  be  died,  April  7, 1868.  (J.Ca) 

Cnshman,  Rnlns  Bpanldlng;  D.D.,  a  Congre- 
gational minister,  wss  bom  at  Fairhaven,  Vt.,  Aug.  31« 
1816.  He  studied  at  Castleton  Seminary;  graduated 
from  Middlebury  College  in  1887;  was  a  teacher  in 
Pickens  County,  Ala.,  in  1888  and  1889,  and  in  Lowndes 
County,  Miss.,  in  1840.  He  became  a  member  of  Lane 
Theological  Seminaiy  in  1841,  and  graduated  from  Ask 
bum  Theological  Seminary  in  1848;  was  ordained  at 
Orwell, Vt.,  Dec  21  of  the  same  year;  dismissed  May 
7,  1862;  May  28  following  was  installed  over  the 
Church  at  Manchester,  and  died  May  18,  1877.  See 
Gen,  Cat,  of  A  ubum  TheoL  Seau  1883,'p.  265. 

Cttfllmy,  Alexander  (1),  a  Scotch  deigyman, 
took  his  degree  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1774 ; 
became  schoolmaster  of  Foveran ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1782 ;  presented  to  the  living  of  0}*ne  in  1786^  and 
ordained ;  and  died  Feb.  1, 1889,  aged  eighty-five  yearib 


Ciuliny.  Alazandar  {2),  D.D.,  >  Scotch  clergy- 
Du,  Ink  bii  Sim  (I^tm  at  Uirischal  College,  Ab^- 
dco,  ia  ISOd  ;  commenced  teaching  in  fail  yautb  ;  wta 
pm«I«]  to  the  liring  at  Stracban  in  1814;  onUined 
ia  ISii;  uwufened  to  Ravae  in  1810;  elected  aynod 
cbrk  in  ISii;  depMod  in  i»43  bj  tbe  uHinbly,  with 
ol]M«,fiir  holding  communion  with  the  dtpoeed  niioia- 
Iin  IX  Smihbogie,  but  the  Knlence  vu  tevened  in 
frt  iDoatba.     Hia  knowledge  of  l>uHne>i,  intrepidity, 

ddtUiDg  tbe  plaoi  of  the  Don-intmnon  pany  in  tha 
tfwi.  Ht  had  ■  ion,  John,  miniater  of  Spejmouth. 
3ee  FaMi  Kceie*.  SaHKeua,  iii,  64^  £00. 

CmIut,  Robert,  a  Scotch  ciergyrnan,  toik  bis 
digTM  U  HariKhal  College,  Aberdeen,  in  18%;  was 
lietnMd  ts  praach  in  1881;  prearnted  to  Uic  living  at 
Imeti  in  ]8Sfi,  and  ordained  aanstant  and  aneceasor; 
linifentdhiBdUeiDlS48,andconIiDuedinlSG0.  See 
Faiti  Eeda.  Saotittimt,  iii,  682. 

Ctufghe,  SiHo:tK  DA,  an  old  {lainter  of  tbe  Vene- 
tian Khool,  flouiiahed  at  Ciuighe,  a  place  near  the  city 

it  BtQaDo,  from  1382  to  1409,     Tbere  ia  a  good  slUr-' 

pitee  Reeated  by  him  in  hia  native  place:    See  Spoon- 

v,Biiig.  Hill,  of  tit  Fine  ATtt,*.v. 
Cup  (Lat-  a  iptar-poinf),  the  projecting  point! 

fbming  the  futberinga  or  foliation*  in  Uothic  tracery, 

aickB,  panelat  etc;  they  came  into  use 

during  the  latter  part  of  the  Early  Eng- 

liA  arte,  at  irbich  peiiod  Ihey  were 

UHiimea  worked  with  a  im^l  leaf. 

aniUr  a  trefoil,  on  tha  end.     When 

b»  introduced,  ibe  culpa  aprang  from 

Iba  flu  nndec-anrfac*  or  aofflc  of  tbe 

Ocli,  entirely  independent  of  the  mould- 

ian  aad  tbi*  method  was  aomelimes 

faUntd  in  Decorated  work ;  bat  they 

ray  MOD  began  to  bo  for 


dBHT  Bnolding  r 


hollD<>),andth 


t  (osiaUy 


CitbidraL     Sec  Famku 

In  the  Dnoraltd  and  PtrytnUcalar  atyle*  they  were 
inqotDll)'  anamemnl  at  the  enda,  eitliet  with  beada. 


iiii,Glaa.o/Anlaltef.i.T.     See  FoiLa, 

CnstOdta  ArohlvOniin  (hrperi  nfiU  ncordt) 
•ere  tbe  iMie  aa  the  CtimtKarcki  (q.  *.). 

dutAdfts  £colailn  (irrpen  oflht  thvelii  irere, 
ia  ancient  ccdenaKical  use,  either  tboaeotherwiae  called 
(Man,  one  oT  the  inferior  ordeia  in  tbe  early  Church, 
w,  nvire  probabW.  perbapa,  the  aame  ofllcen  vrbo  are 
aotaMime*  diatingiuahed  aa"elden  of  tbe  Church,"  and 
whoM  doiiea  nffTCtponded  in  certain  pointa  with  those 
of  the  modem  Ci 


CoaUdes  Iiooflnun  SuiotAram  {hrtpert  of 
tb  Uf  piaet*  of  Paleatiae),  >a  called  beeanse  of  tbeli 
Nfaaiaa  to  onr  Ldid'a  earthly  biatoiy :  e.  g,  Bethlehem, 
VoBt  GolgMlu,  tba  Holy  Sepulchre,  Monnt  Oliret. 
Saeb  an  oAc«  waa  probably  oeeaaioned  by  the  cuMnm 
whiAaoaa  aniMvCbiiatiana  in  earlrtimeaorviuliiig 
XIL-0 


CUTHBERT 

IhcM  placea  liir  purposea  of  piety  and  devotion ;  and 
that  the  fanction  of  these  "  keepera  "  wa*  accounted  a 
religioua  aerviee  appear*  from  ibeir  having  been  ex- 
empted, by  ■  atatule  of  Theodoaiui,  in  tbe  aame  man- 
ner aa  ecclesiastica  generally,  from  peiwnal  tribute,  out 
of  regard  to  tbit  tbdr  apecial  employment.— Smith,  Diet, 
qf  C/iriil.  Amiq.  M,  V. 

Cnatos  (HHUiin)  ia  apecially  the  Ireaaurer  or  chief 
criatan  in  a  foreign  cathedral.  See  Cl-stoa  Anc^v, 
There  were  anciently  alao  varioua  others  thua  desig- 
ited:  thecBifoa  ordtmr,  oneof  tho  great  monaitic  offi- 
cers, the  third  and  fourth  priors,  who  acted  aa  the 
rounds  1  the  cu'af/nWn',  the  shrine-keeper ;  ihecuiM 
optria  HI  ftibrica,  the  canon  in  charge  of  repaira  of  the 
building,  in  secular  cathedrals;  the  four  cuitoda  at  Exe- 
ter, attendants  in  the  aacriity,  bell-ringers,  and  marshal- 
men  in  proceasionB;  and  the  cuaroi puerDrani  at  Salis- 
bury, a  canon  who  had  tbe  supervision  of  tbe  choris- 
tera.— Watcolt,  j'ac  ^  rcAiEoJ.  a.  r. 

Cnstos  Aiom  (_hetptr  of  At  thai)  was  a  name 
given  to  Che  archdeacon,  as  baving  charge  of  tbe  treas- 
ury of  the  Church,  and  the  care  of  dispensing  the  obla- 
liona  of  the  people.  In  tliia  capacity  CKcilian  tvas  ac- 
cused by  the  Donatials  of  having  prohibited  the  dea- 
cons from  carrying  any  provision  to  the  martyn  in 
priaon.  Tbe  fourth  Council  of  Carthage  directs  tbe 
bishop  not  to  concern  himielf  personally  in  the  care  and 
government  of  widows,  orphans,  and  strangers,  hut  to 

Smith,  Diet,  of  C/iriil-Aatig.  a.  V. 

Cnnrorth,  Josefh,  an  English  Wealeyan  minister, 
was  bom  near  Kolherhani,  I'orkshire.  He  waa  conven- 
ed in  Sheffield  in  1S04;  in  1807  was  received  into  tbe 
ministry :  from  1843  waa  governor  of  Kingawoud  School, 
and  M  him  ia  due  the  erection  of  the  nolJe  building  at 
Lansdown,  Bath ;  and  fiir  twenty-seven  years  waa  one 
of  the  IreasureiB  of  the  Home  tlisston  and  Contingent 
Fund.  He  died  Matx:h  19,  1897,  in  tbe  seventy-Brst 
year  of  hia  age.  See  JlSmtlti  aflkt  BriliiK  Ctm/trenet, 
1857, 

Cnthbald  waa  a  monk  and  at  lengtb  abbot  of 
Medeahamatede  (afterwards  Peterborough)  in  680,  and  ■ 
man  of  great  piety  and  wisdom.    See  also  Cuduau). 

Cnthbatht  waa  a  prcabyter  of  licbGeld,  A.D.  80S. 

Ciithbttrt,  archbishop  or  CAnTEitnunr,  wsa  boni  in 
Uereis,  of  noble  parenta,  and  was  high  in  favor  with 
the  king.  In  7S6  he  waa  appointed  to  the  see  of  Here- 
ford, and  in  741  waa  tranalaled  to  the  see  of  Csnter- 
bnry,  and  proceeded  to  Rome  soon  after.  He  aeems  to 
have  agreed  with  Boniface,  that  tbe  centre  of  unity 
must  be  tbe  aee  of  Rome,  and  was  ambitious  of  aUb- 
lishing  this  principle  in  the  Cbnreh  of  England.  He 
obtained  the  permission  of  the  king  to  convene  a  synod, 
which  In  747  met  at  Cloveaho,  and  there  lie  carried 
many  of  his  pcnnCs;  but  the  proposal  to  bring  the 
Anglican  Church  under  subjugation  to  the  see  of  Rome, 
Bttbough  noticed,  was  very  quietly  evaded.  We  bear 
very  little  of  the  provincial  labors  of  Cuthbett  nfter 
thia  council  He  died  in  768.  See  Hook,  lira  oftht 
Arehbiikopt  of  Canlertury,  t,  217  sq. 

Cnthbttrt  was  also  the  name  of  two  early  Engli^ 

1.  Of  Halmesbury,  in  the  latla  part  of  the  8th  cea- 

2.  Of  JaTTDwandWewmontb.in  the  same  century. 
He  was  a  disciple  of  Bede,  and  several  of  bis  Leilrrt 
are  extant.     See  Smith,  Diet.  nfCkrin.  Bioi).  s.  v. 

Cutlibert,  Hayhnrst,  an  English  minister  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  was  bom  in  Vorkahire  about  1633, 
and  waa  among  the  ilnt  in  that  county  who  embraced 
the  principles  of  the  Quakers.  Soon  after  reaching  hia 
majority  he  became  an  accredited  minister.  More  than 
once  during  the  next  few  yeara  he  was  subjected  to 
great  hardship  on  account  of  hia  religious  opiniiinB,  be- 
ing several  times  thrown  into  priaon.     In  1682  he  ao* 


CUTHBERT 


210 


CUTTER 


compaoied  WiUiAm  Penn  to  Americt,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  ^  an  inatniroent,  in  the  divine  band,  of  com- 
fort and  consolation  to  his  brethren  under  their  new 
ctrcumstanceSk"  He  died  at  his  residence  in  Bncks 
County,  Pa^  in  January,  1668.  See  Bowden,  IJiit,  of 
the  Frknda  m  A  merica,  ii,  106.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Cathbert,  James  (l),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1707 ;  called  to  the  living;  at  Cul- 
lOM  in  1708,  and  ordained.  He  died  Oct.  1, 1715.  He 
published,  The  Counier^Querries  Qfterrifd  {1712)  :^A 
Letter  on  the  Danger  of  Comnderwf  the  Injtuenct  of  the 
Spirit  oi  a  Bule  of  Duty,  See  Faiti  Ecdst,  Scotieana^ 
ii,686. 

Cnthbert,  James  (2),  a  promising  young  mi»- 
-ttonary  of  the  British  Woleyans,  embarked  for  West 
Africa  in  November,  1864,  and  died  at  Lagos,  on  his 
^ay  to  Abeokuta,  Feb.  22,  1866.  See  Minutes  of  the 
Briiith  Coiferenctf  1865,  p.  81. 

Cnthbertson,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  clerg}'man, 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1817;  became  assistant  to 
'Rev.  Dr.  Somerville  of  Jedburgh ;  was  presented  by  the 
'king  to  the  living  of  Edrom  in  1828,  and  ordained.  He 
died  June  4, 1849,  aged  fifky-six  yearsu  See  Fasti  Ec- 
eUs,  Scotieanaf  i,  486. 

Cuthbertson,  John,  an  Associate  Reformed  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Scotland  in  1720.  He  studied  for  the 
ministry  under  the  Rev.  John  McMillan,  the  father  and 
founder  of  the  Reformed  Presbytery  of  Scotland;  emi- 
grated to  America  in  1762,  and  for  more  than  twenty 
years  was  the  only  Reformed  Presbyterian  minister  in 
this  country,  having  charge  of  the  small  Reformed  Pres- 
byterian societies  scattered  over  the  thirteen  colonies. 
He  entered  cordially  into  the  union  in  1782,  and,  after 
this,  his  field  of  labor  was  restricted  to  his  own  imme- 
diate charge,  Octorara,  Pa.,  where  he  died,  March  10, 
1791.   See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer,  Pvlpit^  IX,  iv,  7. 

Cuthbertson,  Robert,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  Congre- 
gational minister,  was  bom  at  Paisley,  Nov.  16,  1805. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Glastgow,  and  at 
the  Divinity  Hall  of  the  United  Secession  Church ;  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1880,  and  onlained  pastor  of  tlie 
Chalmers  Street  Church,  Dunfermline,  in  1883.  He  re- 
signed in  1843;  joined  the  Congregationaltstsin  1845,and 
.became  pastor  at  Cleckheaton  in  1852 ;  retired  to  Leeds 
in  1869,  and  continued  to  reside  there  until  his  death, 
Dec  17,1881.   See(Lond.)Cof^.rtfar.5ool;,1888,p.274. 

•    Cathbtirg(Cadbarg,  Cndbnrh,  Cuthbritha, 

-or  Cnthburga),  sister  of  Ina,  king  of  Wessex,  was  the 
'foundress  and. first  abbess  of  Wirobum,  cir.  A.D.  705. 
She  had  been  the  wife  of  Alfred,  king  of  Northumber- 
•land,  and  a  nun  at  Barking.  She  is  commemorated 
'Aug.  .81.    See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

'    Cutiibyhrt.    See  Cuthbert. 

Cuthfiith  was  the  twelfth  bishop  of  Lichfield,  about 
A.D.  765-769. 

CnthiU,  Alexahder,  a  Scotch  clergj'man,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1809 ;  called  to  the  second  charge 
at  Ayr  in  1814,  and  ordained.  He  died  Feb.  17,  1852, 
leaving.  Public  Sins  Af/gravated  by  the  Enjoyment  of 
Great  Public  Blessings  (1843)  \— Discourses  on  Practi- 
cal Religion  (Ayr,  1851,  2  vols.  8vo):— i4n  Account  of 
the  Parish,    See  Fasti  Eccles,  ScoticamCf  ii,  95. 

Cuthman  (  Cutmen,  or  Cutmanus ),  Sainiy 
commemorated  Feb.  8,  was  an  English  monk  at  Sten- 
ninga  or  Steyning,  in  Essex,  in  the  9th  or  10th  century. 
The  Bollandists  relate  many  curious  legends  of  him. 
See  Smith,  Diet.  ofChtist,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cuthred  is  the  name  of  several  early  English  ec- 
desiasts : 

1.  An  abbot,  probably  of  Merda,  in  the  middle  of  the 
8th  century. 

2.  An  abbot  of  Hereford,  A.D.  806. 

3.  A  presbyter,  probably  of  Kent,  A.D.  808.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  a.  v. 


Cuthwin  (Cathuninns)  is  the  name  (1)  of  the 
first  bishop  of  Leicester,  appointed  in  679 ;  also  (2)  of 
the  eighth  bishop  of  Dunwich,  about  the  middle  of  the 
8th  centurv.    See  also  Cuthbkrt. 

•  • 

Cutler,  Abel,  a  Congregational  minister, waa  boni 
in  Massachusetts.  He  graduated  from  Williams  College 
in  1807,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1810;  waa  acting  as  home  missionary  in  18]5tand  may 
have  been  so  previously;  was  ordained  Oct. 24, 181 6, m 
pastor  at  Yarmouth,  remaining  until  1888 ;  was  not  after- 
wards seuled,  nor  in  regular  service,  and  died  at  Xorth- 
aropton,  Feb.  27, 1859.  See  Trien,  Cat,  of  A  ndoter  TkeoL 
aem,  1870,  p.  17. 

Cutler,  Calvin,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  waa  bom 
at  Guildhall,  Vt.,  in  1791.  lie  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1819;  became  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Windham,  N.  H.,  April,  1828,  and  died  in  1844.  See 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit^  iv,  414. 

Cutler,  Elbrldge  Gerry,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Maine.  He  studied  theology  one 
year  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary  aa  a  member  cC 
the  class  of  1889;  was  a  student  in  Harvard  CoUega; 
graduated  from  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1889;  -was 
stated  supply  at  Phippsburg,  Me.,  in  1840  and  1841 ; 
was  ordained  Jan.  15, 1842;  and  was  pastor  at  Belfaat 
from  that  year  until  his  death  at  Reading,  Pa.,  April  28, 
1 846.  See  Trien,  Cat,  of  A  ndoter  TheoL  JSem.  1870,  p. 
140. 

Cutler,  Lyman,  a  Congregational  minister,  wa.^ 
bom  in  Massachusetts  in  1827.  He  graduated  fnnD 
Dartmouth  College  in  1847,  and  from  Andover  Thc«>ltig- 
ical  Seminary  in  1850;  was  installed  Jan.  22,  1851,  at 
Pepperell ;  and  ifas  pastor  of  Eliot  Church,  NewtoOy 
from  1854  until  his  death,  April  28, 1855.  See  Trien. 
Cat,  of  Andover  TheoL  Sent,  1870,  p.  188. 

Cutler,  Ruins  Putnanit  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Hamilton,  Mass.,  JiUy  1 1, 1815.  He 
graduated  fmm  Yale  College  in  1840,  and  from  the  Di- 
vinity School  of  Harvard  University  in  1844;  in  1846 
became  pastor  of  the  Second  Unitarian  Congregational 
Society  of  Portland,  Me. ;  in  1854,  of  the  First  Unitarian 
Church  in  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  and  in  1859  returned  to 
New  Engiland.  He  preached  for  a  few  months  at  Staten 
Island;  in  1869  took  charge  of  a  church  in  CharlestaD, 
S.  C. ;  in  October,  1872,  sailed  for  Europe,  and  on  his  re- 
turn voyage,  in  August,  1873,  he  was  strack  with  partial 
paralysis.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Dec  9, 1877. 
See  Obituary  Record  of  rale  College,  1878. 

Cutler,  Stephen  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Montpelier,VL,  Nov.  1, 1802.  He  was 
converte<l  at  eighteen ;  in  1827  was  licensed  to  preach, 
and  admitted  into  the  New  Hampshire  Conference, 
wherein  he  labored  to  the  close  of  his  life,  May  22, 1884. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1834,  p.  283. 

Cutsuida  (or  Cudsuida)  was  abbess  of  Worce^ 
ter,  probably  at  the  end  of  the  7th  century*. 

CutteU,  Hknry  Mabttn,  a  preacher  nf  the  United 
Methodist  Free  Church,  was  bom  at  Sheflield,  Yorkshirt, 
April  27, 1839, where  his  father  was  a  godly  local  preach- 
er. He  was  converted  under  the  ministry  of  the  Rer. 
James  Caughey,  an  American  evangelist;  for  a  short 
time  was  a  local  preacher;  in  1861  began  to  travel  as  a 
minister  in  the  Free  Methodist  Church ;  and  died  sud- 
denly, Sept.  4, 1868.  See  Minutes  of  the  Twelfth  A  rnntal 
Assen^y. 

Cutter,  Edward  Francis,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Portland,  Me.,  Jan.  20, 1810.  He 
graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1828,  and  from  An- 
dover Theological  Seminary  in  1631 ;  was  ordained  paa- 
tor  of  the  Second  Church  in  Warren,  Me.,  May  8, 1888; 
dismissed  May  8, 1846;  Sept.  28  of  the  latter  year  waa 
installed  pastor  at  Belfast,  and  resigned  in  October,  1865, 
but  was  not  regularly  dismissed  until  a  year  af^rwards. 
During  1856  and  1857  hd  was  editor  6f  the  Christian 
Era,    The  next  two  years  he  waa  acting  pastor  at 


CUTTING 


211 


CYBI 


Beaidrtowor  TIL,  and  then,  from  1869  to  1868,  resided  id 
BelfjistjMe^  without  charge.  At  Rockland  he.  was  act- 
ing pastor  from  1863  to  1871,  and  at  AndoTer  dtiting 
1873.  Excepting  one  year  in  California,  he  resided, 
after  this,  without  charge,  in  Belfast.  At  two  periods 
he  was  recording  secretary  of  the  General  Conference  of 
Maine,  Tiz.  1844-48  and'l85l ;  from  1868  to  1880,  sec- 
retary of  the  Maine  Conditional  Charitable  Society ; 
from  1842  to  1857,  trustee  of  the  Maine  Missionary  So- 
ciety ;  from  1878,  an  orerseer  of  Bowdotn  College.  Hb 
death  occurred  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  March  27, 1^.  Mr. 
Cutter  wrote  largely  Hat  religious  periodicals,  and  be- 
sides various  sermons  and  essays,  he  published,  Pastoral 
CometnatumM  (1846)  i-^Day  <\f  Judgment  and  Day  of 
Salvation  :—Houukoid  fnttrudian.  See  Conff»  Year- 
Book,  1881,  p.  20. 

Cnttiiig,  Leonard,  a  minister  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Great  Yarmouth,  Eng- 
land, in  1724.  When  seventeen  years  of  age  he  was 
admitted  to  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge  University, 
and  received  his  degree  of  A.B.  in  4747.  He  came  to 
Yirgtnia,  and  became  overseer  of  a  plantation,  and  sub- 
sequently of  a  larg^  farm  in  New  Jersey.  He  was  ap- 
pointed tutor  in  the  college  at  New  York  in  1756,  and 
.  professor  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  and  of  moral 
.philosophy.  From  November,  1757,  to  March,  1758, 
.during  the  absence  of  president  Johnson,  Mr.  Cutting 
had  cha^  of  the  institution,  and  again  in  1759.  Hav- 
ing prepared  for  the  ministry  in  the  meantime,  he  re- 
rigned  bis  professorship  in  October,  1763,  and  went  to 
England  for  ordination.  He  was  appointed  missionary 
to  Pi<«eataqua  (now  Stelton)  and  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
by  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foi^ 
eign  Parts.  In  1766  he  became  rector  of  Sr.  George's 
Church,  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  conducting  a  classical  school 
at  the  same  time.  His  next  pastorate  was  at  Snow 
Hin,  Md.,  in  1784,  whence,  in  1785,  he  removed  to  Christ 
Church,  in  Newbem,  N.  C.,and  thence,  after  eight  years, 
to  New  York  city.  In  September,  1792,  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  General  Convention, and  was  secretary  of  the 
House  of  Bishopa.  He  died  in  New  York,  Jan.  25, 1794. 
See  Sprague,  A  tmals  of  the  A  mtr.  Pulpit^  v,  223. 

Cattiiig;  Sewell  Sylvester,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  borii  at  Windsor,  Vu,  Jan.'  19, 1813.  He 
mited  with  the  Church  in  1827,  and  commenced  the 
study  of  law  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  but  subsequently 
decided  to  prepare  for  the  ministry.  He  was  fitted  fur 
college  at  South  Reading,  now  Wakefield,  Mass. ;  spent 
two  years  in  Waterville  College,  now  Colby  University, 
md  two  years  at  the  University  of  Vermont,  where  he 
g^nuloated  with  the  highest  honors  of  his  class  in  1835. 
■  He  was  ordained  March  31, 1836,  as  pastor  of  the  Church 
in  West  Boylston,  BCass.,  and  not  long  after  was  called 
to  the  Church  in  Southbridge,  where  he  remained  from 
1837  to  1945.  He  next  took  editorial  charge  of  The 
BapH^t  Advocate,  in  New  York  city,'arrerwartls  calle<1 
the  AVv  York  Recorder,  For  a  short  time  he  was  cor- 
R^KMidiog  secretary,  of  the  American  and  Foreign  Bi- 
ble Society,  and  for  a  year  or  two  was  engaged  in  edi- 
torial work  in  connection  with  the  Walekatuin  and  Be- 
JUetor  of  Boston  and  the  ChriMUan  Review,  In  1853 
he  onoe  more  became  editor  of  the  New  York  Recorder ^ 
which,  as  consolidated  with  the  Baptist  Regitter,  be- 
came subsequently  Tie  Kxaminer,  In  1855  he  became 
ptofessor  of  rhetoric  and  of  history  in  the  University 
of  Rochester;  in  1868,  secretary  of  the  American  Bap- 
tist Educational  Commission;  in  1879,  secretary  of  the 
AaMrican  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society.  After  serv- 
ing ooe  year,  he  went  abroad,  and  did  not  ent^r  again 
npon  any  public  position.  Hb  death  took  place  Feb.  7, 
1882.  Among  the  best  known  of  the  publications  of  Dr. 
Cutting  are  his  StrvggUf  and  Triumphe  of  Religioua 
Zibarty,  and  his  Historical  Vindicatiom  of  the  JSaptieie 
<BeaL  1866>    See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  805. 

William,  an  English  Baptist  ministeri 


was  bom  in  1784.  He  was  converted  at  sixteen ;  pur- 
sued a  course  of  theological  study  under  Dr.  Ryland,  at 
the  Bristol  College,  and  was  ordained  in  1808  as  pastor 
of  the  Church  at  Amsby,  Leicestershire.  In  1818  he 
removed  to  Ridgemont,  Bedfordshire,  and  died  there, 
Dec.  16, 1829.  See  (Lond.)  B(yittist  Mayaxiite,  1836,  p. 
409.     (J.  C.  &) 

Cntulf  was  abbot  of  Evesham  about  A.D.  780. 

Cntsupltae  (August.  J^jp.  53 ;  De  Unit,  Ecd,  6)  is 
probably  a  oormption  for  Cutvprita,  i.  q.  Cotopitm  or 
GotispitiBf  a  name  given  to  the  heretics  called  Circdm- 

CBLLIONKB  (q.  V.). 

Caatfert.    See  Cuthfrith. 

Caller,  Charlbs  CuRih-tEX  LiCopold,  a  French 
Protestant  theologian,  was  bom  Oct.  24, 1798.  He  stud- 
ied at  Montb^liard  and  Strasburg ;  in  1821  was  appoint- 
ed professor  of  history  at  the  royal  college  of  Strasburg, 
in  1824  professor  of  history  st  the  university  there, 
and  occupied  this  latter  position  for  nearly  forty  years. 
In  1859  he  was  elected  dean  of  the  faculty,  hut  in  1860 
resigned  his  professorship  on  account  of  broken  health. 
On  his  retirement  he  was  decorated  with  the  cross  of 
the  legion  of  honor,  and  appointed  honorary  dean. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  he  spent  in  writing  and  im- 
proving the  religious  state  of  the  Church.  He  died 
April.  17, 1881,  at  Montbdliard.  He  published.  Expo- 
sition  de  la  Doctrine  tva;ngfliqiiA  (Paris  and  Strasburg, 
1884):— £^iMe  sur  Us  Ecrivains  Sacris  des  fJebrevx 
(1848)  i-^U  PeiU  Catichisme  de  Luther  (1846)  i-^Pricis 
de  VUistoire  des  Missions  Chretiennes  (eod.) : — La  Venue 
du  Sauveur  (eod.) : — Les  Souffrances  et  le  Triomphe  du 
Sauveur  (eod.)  i^ConseiU  et  Consolations  de  VExpiri" 
enee;  Cours  d^ Etudes  Historiques  (1860-80).  He  also 
edited  Recueil  de  Ptaumes  et  CantiqueSf  and  a  new  edi-. 
tion  of  Aa  Liturgie  de  la  Confession  dA  u^mrg.  See 
Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  i,  254;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop, 
des  Sciences  ReligieuseSj  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Cuyok,  Henry  Van,  a  Dutch  theologian  and  schol- 
ar, was  born  in  1546  at  Kuilenburg.  For  fourteen  years 
he  taught  philosophy  at  Louvain.  After  having  been 
vicar-general  of  the  archbishop  of  Malines,  he  became 
bishop  of  Ruremond  in  1596,  and  won  the  reputation  of 
being  a  prelate  both  pious  and  instructive.  He  died 
Oct.  7, 1609.  His  principal  works  are,  Orationes  Pane- 
gyricte  (Antwerp,  1575) :— an  edition  of  the  works  of 
Cassianus  (ibid.  1578) : — Speculum  Concubinariorum  Stt- 
cerdotum,  MonachorumjClericorum  (Cologne,  1599 ;  Lou- 
vain, 1601) : — Epistolm  Parcsnetica,  See  Hoefer,  A'our. 
Biog,  G^neraUf  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lex- 
ikon,  s.  V. 

Cuykendall,  E.  Nelson,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  in  1826.  He  was  converted  in  1842 ; 
licensed  to  preach  in  1847;  in  1848  entered  the  Oneida 
Conference;  in  1857  became  superannuated,  and  died 
Sept.  4  the  same  year!  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Confer- 
ences, 1858,  p.  89 ;  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of  Methodism^  s.  v. 

Cmrenbnrh.    See  Cubnburh. 

Cwiffeiit  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  7th  century,  com- 
memorated June  3,  was  founder  of  Llangwyfen,  in  Den- 
bighshire, and  patron  of  Tudweilig,  in  Carnarvonshire 
(Kees,  WeUh  Saints,  p.  304). 

Cybar  (or  Cibar ;  Lat.  EparcMus),  a  French  an- 
chorite, at  first  entered  the  monastery  of  Sedacia<^  in 
Perigord,  but  afterwards  secluded  himself  in  a  cell  near 
Angouldme,  where  he  was  patronized  by  Aptonius  II, 
the  buhop  of  Angoul&me,  who  ordained  him  priest.  As 
he  became  popular,  disciples  flocked  to  him  for  instruc- 
tion, and  a  monastery  sprung  up.  He  died  July  1, 581, 
having  occupied  his  cell  for  thirty-nine  years.  He  is 
commemorated  July  1.  See  Smith,  Diet,  qfChiisf,  Biog, 
s.  V. 

Cybi  [pronounced  Kubbyl  (Lat.  Chebius,  or  Kebius\ 
a  WeUh  saint,  was  a  younger  cousin  of  St.  David.  He 
was  present  at  the  synod  of  Brefi,  and  his  memor}%  near 


CYFEILACH  s; 

Liuiddewi  Brdt,  the  pUee  »h««  it  vu  bdd,  ii  pre- 
■arrfd  io  the  oame  of  tbe  Church  of  UangyhJ.  The 
cbDichn  of  LUngybi,  near  Cxrleon,  and  liang^bi,  in 
CinMrTaiitbire,  were  founded  bj  him.  He  a  eapeciiUj 
distinguiihed  u  foaDdet  oF  a  toatty  at  Caergybi  or 
I]aljhead,in  An^ae^.  A>  pKaidine  ovettbia  he  nai 
atjled,  aecordiiig  u>  the  practice  of  the  lime,  a  Inahop, 
Ihougb  he  DETer  bed  anthDrity  over  a  diocew.  The 
day  or  comnieiiioTatioii  i>  Tariaiuly  gi<ea  aa  Nor.  S  and 
Nov.  8.     See  Smith,  Diet  of  Ciriit.  Biog.  %.  r, 

Cfoliw  Amn.    See  Calkkdab. 

Cyolna  Fabchaub.    See  Eabtbb. 

CyfeUaoh,  biihop  of  GUnrargan,  vaa  killed  A.U. 

7se. 

Cyfr*r  (or  CwynlJyw),  a  Welsh  tuat  of  tbe 
6lh  cenlnrj,  waa  patron  of  Uangyfyw,  near  Caeileon 
(Bees,  WOA  SoMt,  p.  iSSJ. 

Cyholja  was  ninth  netropolilan  of  CaerleoD,  ao- 
cording  to  the  loia  MSS.  of  E.  Williama  (Stubba,  Stg- 
isltr,  p.  Ibi). 

Gjllnnliu,  a  Qallie  biibop,  ia  addtowd  in  con- 
junction with  biahop  Proculna  by  AoguXine  "and  the 
other  fathera  of  ATriea."  The  letter  begs  Ihem  t 
criTe  back  Lcpotiiu,  who  had  been  btniibed  for  Pela- 
gian c^iniona,  but  had  not  changed  hia  mind.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  CkriiL  Biog.  u  T. 

Crnui  (Gr.),  an  undulated  moulding,  of  which  there 
are  two  kind) ;  cyma  rrda,  which  ia  hollow  in  th 
per  part,  and  round  in  the  lower;  and  eyma  rectrta. 


CrmaRecIa.   Thenlre  of  llDrtel!u>,R( 

called  alao  tbe  ogee,  which  ia  hollow  in  the  lower  part 
and  round  in  the  upper.    The 
adjectire,  i*  alwaya  considered 

''  ' 'ly  the  upper 

'n  tbe  Tuacan  and  Doiicordeta, 


and  in  clanieal  architecture  i>  very  rarely  uaed  ii 
but  a  horizontal  poiiLion,  except  over  pedimenti 
the  Ifannan  style  tbia  moulding  is  not  very  oltei 
with,  but  in  Gothic  architecture  it  ia  frequent,  eape- 
ci^r  ia  doorways^  windows,  archwaya,  elc^  but  the 
proportioiu  are  generally  very  different  from  those 
given  to  it  by  tbe  ancients,  and  it  ia  called  an  ogc 
Ah  example  of  a  qairttd  cyma  ii  given  under  Ooek.- 
Vtrktr,Glo4:o/Arthilecl.a.v.     See  Coluxk. 

CynMtlnm.  Thia  ia  not  eaty  to  define,  but  it  mi. 
be  called  a  ospping  moulding  to  certain  parta  and  sub- 
divisions of  the  orders  in  classie  architecture :  thi 
jecting  mouldings  on  the  upper  part  of  the  architrave 
(except  in  the  Doric  order,  where  it  ia  denomltuted 
Irma),  the  corresponding  moulding  over  the  frieze,  and 
the  small  moulding  between  the  corona  and  cyma  of 
the  cornice,  are  each  called  by  this  name;  tbe  an 
moulding,  alio,  which  runs  round  the  upper  part  of 
modilloni  of  a  cornice,  is  their  cTmslium  ;  and  the 


CTNEHEARD 


S.  per  moulding  of  tbe  abMU 
of  the  Boman  Doric  capital 
ia  likewise  to  called ;  tbe  up- 
per mouldings  which  serre 
as  Bcomiceto  pedestals  have 
occaaionally  the  same  name. 
—Fukrr,Glau.a/ArelH/tel. 


Crmatiam.  CymatliiB  was  bishop  of 

Gtbida,  or  perhaps  Paltoa, 

Syria  Prima,  A.D.  34I-S62.    It  is  supposed  that  be 

one  of  tbe  Inshopa  who  asuated  Lucifer,  bishop  of 
Cagliari,  in  his  sudden  consecration  of  Paulinus,  prea- 
byler  of  Antioch,  chief  of  the  Euitalbian  party.  Sec 
Smith,  Zfc*.  0/ CA™(.  flioff,  s.  V. 

CymbUnm.  This  word  is  occasionally  need  for  a 
ell,  or  some  other  sonorous  instrument  used  instead  of 
belL  Thus  Gregory  tbe  Great  (Dialogtit.  i,  9}  speaks 
of  a  cymbalum ;  ind  Durandus  [Salioitalr,  i,  4,  {  !}  of 
monks  being  called  to  the  refeclorj'  by  the  sound  of  a 
i^mbalam  which  fiungin  the  cloister.  See  Smith,  Dia. 
BfChritI,  Biog.  B.  V.     See  Cthbau 

Cyn-.    See  Cuk-;  Kw-;  Kvh-, 

Cytutn  was  uith  metropolitan  of  Caerleon,  aecord* 
ing  to  lob  U3S.  of  £.  Williams  (Sttibbs,  Rrgil.  p.  lU). 

Crnbryd,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  5th  centurv,  Ibuikd- 
er  of  Uanddulaa,  in  DenbiKhsbire,  was  aliin  by  the  Sis- 
onsat  Bwlch  Cvnbiyd.  He  ia  commemorated  Uarch  19 
(Rees,  W<Uh  Sahtlt,  p.  tU). 

CyaddUlg,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  Gth  century,  U 
commemorated  on  Nov.  1  in  the  parish  of  Llanrhjyud, 
in  Cardigsnahire  (Rees,  WfUh  Sai«tt,  ^  281> 

CTodsTiii,  sou  of  Arthog  ah  Ceredic,  was  a  Welsh 
■lint  of  the  Gth  century,  and  patron  of  Uangynderm, 
formerly  subject  to  Llandyfaelnj;,  in  Carmarthenabire, 
He  ia  commemonled  on  July  23  (Rees,  Wdth  Santa, 
p.  211). 

Cyn«>.    See  Crsi-. 

Cyneb«tht  (CytilbeTCt,  Cnnlberot,  or  Kln- 

beit ;  Lat.  Cktmbnckia)  ia  the  name  of  two  early  Brit- 
ish hiabops : 

1.  The  fourth  bishop  of  the  Lindiafari,  in  tbe  Ke  of 
Siduaceater.  Hii  exact  dale  is  not  known,  b«t  is  be- 
tween 706  and  TSS.  It  was  Cram  him  that  Beda  re- 
ceived hia  information  on  the  eccleuslical  history  o( 

2.  The  twelfth  bishop  of  Winchester,  was  preaent  at 
the  legatine  synod  of  787.  Between  7E>9  and  0D1  be 
went  to  Rome  with  the  archbishop,  and  as  his  auceeasoT 
appears  in  SOS.  He  prolMbly  remained  or  died  abroad. 
See  Smith,  Ditt.  o/CknM.  Biog.  a.  v. 

CTnaberthna.    See  Cuhbebtus. 

Cynebirht.    See  CriiKBaBirr. 

CfttabUTKh  (or  CynabnrKa).    See  CrxiBCBQA. 

Cynedild  ( CTnedrjd,  CTnedrjtliM,  or  Cyne- 
driUiH).    See  CvHrrHRtTH. 

CjUttSltis  was  preFect  of  the  Piztoriins  at  Rome, 
A.D.  384-390.  In  A.D.  S84  the  emperor  Theodoriua 
sent  him  ■  rescript  at  the  request  of  Mnrcellinus  and 
Paustinus,  two  preabyters  of  the  Lnciferian  faction,  en- 
joining that  the  Luciferians  should  have  the  same  re> 
ligious  liberty  as  the  Calholica,  and  highly  praising 
some  or  their  repreaentatives.  The  seventh  and  eighth 
letters  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa  are  addressed  to  this  Cyne* 
giua,  iu  behalf  of  Syneaius  and  Alexander,  two  acnaed 
persona.     See  Smith,  Did.  n/Ckritt.  Biog.  a.  v. 

CrnegyaluB.    See  Cenoili.k, 

Crneheard  (or  Klnshard)  was  tbe  eighth  tuabop 
of  Wincbrater,  in  the  aocient  liala.  Aconrding  la  the 
Anglo-Saxon  CtrDncJE he  waa appointed  in  7E>(,Bnd  hia 
name  is  found  appended  to  charters  from  7d6  to  766. 
Hia  death  was  probably  prior  to  7K,  Ihe  date  given  bv 
some  HSS.  of  Florence.    Two  letters  of  Cyneheaid  io 


CYNEHEARDUS 


213 


CTNOG 


SqUiis  Me  pnaerred  among  tbe  leiten  of  BonUaee  (J/on. 
Mogvitina,  ed.  Jd»,  Noa.  110, 121).  See  Smith,  DicL 
of  CkruL  Biog.  B,  y. 

Cynalieardiui  wis  a  pnabjter  who  attested  a  do- 
nation by  Donimald  to  the  chnrch  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Fsnl  (aflcnrards  SU  Augustine,  at  Canterbury). 

C3rneswltlia  (Cynesuith,  Cynesntiith,  Kyn- 
esuitb,  Kynasanith,  Kyneswith,  or  Blinea- 
witha),  an  English  saint,  was  a  daughter  of  Penda, 
king  of  Mercia,  and  his  queen  Cynwise  or  Cyneswith. 
Her  sister  Cyniborga  and  three  of  their  five  brothers, 
Sthelred,  Mcrowald,  and  Meroelinus,  were  also  reckoned 
saints.  She  had  been  betrothed  to  Offa,  king  of  the 
East  Angles,  but  gave  htm  up  to  become  a  nun  in  her 
sister's  convent,  '*Kineburgae  Castrum"  or  **  Castre." 
Both  the  sisters  were  present  at  the  hallowing  of 
Medeshamstede  (afterwards  called  Peterborough ),  in 
the  reign  of  their  brother  Wulfhere,  and  their  names  are 
attached  to  his  charters.  They  were  both  buried  in 
their  own  convent,  and  in  the  11th  century  their  re- 
mains were  removed  to  Peterborough.  See  Smith, 
DicL  o/Ckrut.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Cynathxlth  was  an  English  abbess  of  some  relig- 
ious hoose  belonging  to  bishop  Wilfrid.  In  A.D.  709 
she  received  the  silk  robe  on  which  his  dead  body  had 
been  laid,  and  through  which  a  miracle  is  said  to  have 
been  wroughL    See  Smith,  DicL  of  Chritt.  Biog,  &»  v. 

Cyneaalo  (or  Cynehnalo).    See  Coinwalch. 

CyneiillaB*    See  Ctnkwulf. 

Cyneanlf  (Cynawuli;  CynwnlC  Cymwlt 
Cbene'virli^  or  Kimanlf ;  Lat.  Cpuwulfiuj  Cgneuul- 
fut^  ComtmlfuMf  CuHUulfiu^  Conwulfuif  Cinetclfus,  or  Ki- 
mailfu»)  was  consecrated  bishop  of  lindbfame,  A.D.  740. 
In  750  he  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  Eadbcrht,  king 
of  Northnrobria,  for  giving  shelter  to  prince  Offi,  who 
had  taken  sanctuary  at  Undisfame.  The  monastery 
was  besieged,  and  Cynewulf  imprisoned  at  Bamborough, 
the  charge  of  his  diocese  having  been  delegated  to  Fri- 
othnbert,  bishop  of  Hexham.  He  was  released,  and  in 
A.D.  780,  worn  out  with  years  and  labor,  made  Higbald 
his  deputy  in  the  bishopric,  with  the  assent  of  the  con- 
gfcgation.  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  re- 
tirement, and  died  788.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Chrisi, 
Biog,  s.  r. 

Cyxifab,  an  early  Welsh  saint,  was  patron  of  Capel 
Cjnfab,  formerly  in  the  parish  of  Uanfair  ar  y  Bryn,  in 
Carmarthenshire.  He  is  commemorated  on  Nov.  16 
(Rees,  Wdik  SavUs,  p.  807). 

Cynfiuroh  Oer,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century, 
was  a  chieftain  in  North  Britain.  He  is  the  reputed 
fooader  of  Liangynfarch,  in  Maelor,  Flintshire,  a  church 
destfoved  bv  the  Saxons  in  the  battle  of  Bangor,  A.D. 
€03  (Bees,  H^elsk  SainU,  p.  168). 

Cjmfiumry,  an  early  Welsh  saint,  was  patron  of 
liecbgynfarwy  Church,  in  Anglesev.  He  is  commem- 
ooted  Nov.  7  (Bees,  WeUk  SainU,  p.  307). 

Cynfelyn  ab  Bleiddyd,  a  Welsh  saint  of  Bangor 
Desniol,  in  the  6Lh  century,  was  founder  of  Llangynfelyn, 
in  Cardiganshire  (Kees,  WeUh  Saviis,  p.  260). 

Cynlraxi,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century,  was 
foandcr  of  Uysfaen,  in  Rhos,  Denbighshire,  and  patron 
of  the  well  there  named  Ffynnon  Cynfran  (Rees,  WeUh 
Saiais,  p.  144). 

Cyufyw  (or  CynyiPr).  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th 
century,  is  reputed  founder  of  the  church  of  Llangyny  w, 
in  Mootgomeiyshire  (Rees,  WeUh  StwUs,  p.  288). 

Cyngar  (or  Cnngar)  is  the  name  of  a  number  of 
early  Welsh  saints,  whom  it  is  difficult  to  identify.  An 
•eootut  of  them  is  given  in  Rees,  Weiah  JSaiats,  p.  183, 
211,282. 

Cjngfin,  son  of  Cadell  and  prince  of  Powys,  in  the 
%Qk  eentury,  wss  reckoned  among  the  Welsh  ssinu  for 
tbe  patronage  he  aflbnled  them,  and  for  his  liberal  en- 


dowments to  the  (^oieh.  A  chnich  at  Shrewsbury  was 
dedicated  to  him.   See  Smith,  Diet  of  ChritL  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cynhafid,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  7th  century,  found- 
ed Uangynhafal,  in  Denbighshire.  He  is  commemo- 
rated Oct.  5  (Rees,  Welth  Saints,  p.  295). 

Cynhalam,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  centnry,  was 
patron  of  Ynys  Cynhaiam,  a  chapel  under  Cmocaith,  in 
Carnarvonshire  (Rees,  WM  SauUt,  p.  275). 

Cyni-.    See  Cynr-. 

Cynibaldufl^  an  English  abbot,  attested  two  char- 
ters of  Cuthred,  king  of  Wessex,  A.D.  749.  See  Smith. 
Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  ▼. 

Cyniberot(Cyneb6rht,orKinbert;  Lat  Cann- 
herthui).    See  also  Ctnkbbbht. 

1.  Abbot  of  Hrentford  or  Redbridge.  He  baptized, 
A.D.  686,  the  two  sons  of  Arvald,  king  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  before  they  were  put  to  death  by  Caedwalla 
(Bede,  //.  E.  ir,  16). 

2.  A  deacon  of  Cothbert.  He  was  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  is  mentioned  in  a  letter  fipom  Boniface 
to  his  master  (Boniface,  Epp,  ed.  Giles,  i,  189).— Smith, 
DieL  if  Christ,  Biog.  s.  ▼. 

CynibiU,  brother  of  bishops  Cedda  and  Ceadda,  and 
of  the  presbyter  Caelin,  was  a  presbyter  to  Oedda.  Bede 
gives  his  participation  in  the  consecration  of  a  site  for 
the  monastery  of  Lastingham  {B,  E,  iii,  1). 

Cyniborga  (Kineburga,  or  Klnnaburga),  a 
Welsh  saint,  bom  in  the  latter  part  of  the  7th  century, 
was  a  daughter  of  Penda,  the  pagan  king  of  Mercia,  and 
sister  of  Cjrneswitha  (q.  v.).  She  married  Alfrid,  king 
of  Northumbria,  but  left  him  ^  pro  amore  Dei,"  and  en- 
tered the  monastery  which  her  brothers  Wulfhere  and 
Ethelred,  kings  of  Mercia,  constructed,  and  which  was 
called  after  her  ^  Kineburgs  Castrum  "  or  *<  Castre.*" 
The  two  sisters  were  both  present  at  the  consecration 
of  Medeshamstede,  in  the  reign  of  their  brother  Wulf- 
here, and  signed  the  charter;  and  it  is  said  that  in  the 
1 1th  century  Aelfsi,  abbot  of  this  monastery  (then  called 
Peterborough),  removed  their  bodies  from  Castre,  where 
they  died,  to  Peterborough.  The  account  of  these  sis- 
ters resembles  that  of  Cuenburga  and  Cuthburga,  sis- 
ters of  Ina,  king  of  Wessex.  See  Smith,  DicL  of  Christ, 
Biog,  s.  V.    See  CuRifBuiiaA. 

Cynidr,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  centnry,  was  the 
possible  founder  of  LUingynidr  and  Abeiyscir,  two 
churches  in  Brecknockshire  (Rees,  Wdsh  Sainti,  p.  148, 
149). 

Cynifrld  (or  Cynifrlth),  abbot  of  Gilling,  Ounty 
of  York,  in  Gaetlingum,  was  brother  of  Ceolfrid,  abbot 
of  Jarrow  and  Wearmouth.  He  died  in  the  pestilence 
of  A.D.  664.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  ChrisL  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cynimimd  (or  Cynemnnd)  was  a  monk  of  Lin- 
disfame,  and  afterwards  of  Jarrow,  in  the  time  of  Bede, 
who  describes  him  as  "  fidelissimus  mihi  uostne  ecclesi» 
presbyter.*^— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cynln,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century,  was  found- 
er of  Llangynin,  near  St.  Clears,  in  Carmarthenshire, 
and  said  to  have  been  a  bishop  (Rees,  Welsh  Saints,  p. 
144, 146). 

CyhUo,  a  Welsh  ssint  of  the  6th  century,  was  found- 
er or  patron  of  three  chnrehes  in  north  Radnorshire, 
Nantmd,  Uangynllo,  and  Uanbister  (Rees,  Welsh  Saints, 
p.  12, 188). 

Cynmur,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century,  was  one 
of  the  companions  of  St.  Teilo  after  his  return  from 
Arroorica  (Rees,  WeUh  Saints,  p.  263). 

Cynog  (or  Cynawg),  sou  of  Brychan,  was  a  Welsh 
saint  in  the  6lh  century,  of  eminent  sanctity.  He  was 
patron  of  several  churches  in  Brecknockshire,  among 
which  are  Defynog,  Merthyr  Cynog,  and  Llangynog 
(Rees,  Welih  Saints,  p.  188, 139). 

Cynog  (Cynoo,  Cinauo,  Cinnaao,  Kenanc, 

or  Kinoohua)  was  bishop  of  Llanbadam,  and  after- 


CYNON 


^14 


CYPRUS 


wards  soooeflBor  of  Dtrid,  at  St.  Dartd't.  He  died  A.D. 
606.— Smith,  Did.  ofChriH.  Biog.  8.  v; 

OjnoOi  was  a  Wekh  saint  of  the  6th  oenturv.  He 
acoompanied  ■Cadfan  to  Bardsey,  where  he  was  made 
chancellor  of  the  monastery.  He  is  the  repated  found- 
er of  the  church  of  Tregynoo,  in  Montgomeryshire,  and 
the  patron  of  Capel  Gynon,  subject  to  liandyasilio  Gogo, 
in  Cardiganshire  (Rees,  WeUh  Saints,  p.  215> 

Cynred  (LaL  Cynredu$y,    See  Ck>ENRKD. . 

Cynudyn,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century,  was 
dean  of  th^  college  of  Padam,  at  Llanbadam  Fawr.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  a  stone  in  the  chorch-yard  of 
Llanwnws,  in  Cardiganshire,  inscribed  *'  Canotinn,"  may 
have  been  a '  monument  to  his  memory  (Rees,  WeUh 
Sainis,  p.  261). 

Cynulf  was  one  of  four  presbyters  from  the  diocese 
of  Dunwich,  attesting  an  act  of  the  Council  of  Clove- 
sho,  Oct.  12, 808 Smith,  Did.  of  Christ.  Biog.  a.  v. 

CynvraU.    See  Ctnkwulf. 

Cyn^p^d  (or  Cynwydion),  a  Welsh  saint  of  the 
6th  century,  was  a  member  of  the  congregation  of 
Cattwg,  and  presumed  founder  of  Llangynwyd  Fawr,  in 
Glamorganshire  (Rees,  Welsh  Smnts,  p.  208, 270). 

Cjrn^'^lt  A  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century,  was  one 
of  the  sons  of  Dunod,  Dinothus,  or  Dinott,  and  co-found- 
er with  him  of  the  monastery  of  Bangor  Iscoed.  He  is 
himself  deemed  the  founder  of  Cynwyl  Gaio,  the  church 
of  a  parish  adjoining  that  of  Uanddewi  Brefi ;  of  Cynwyl 
£lfed,in  Carmarthenshire ;  and  of  Aberporth,  in  Cardi- 
ganshire. He  is  commemorated  on  April  80  (Rees, 
Welsh  Sttinis,  p.  206,  260). 

Cyny w.    See  Cnnnrw. 

Cyprian  is  the  name  of  several  early  saints  and 
others : 

1.  A  magician  of  Antioch,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
hired  by  one  Idas  to  make  a  Christian  virgin,  Justina, 
enamoured  of  him,  but  was  converted  himself,  and  was 
martyred  with  her  at  Damascus,  under  Decins,  or  at 
Nicomedia,  under  Diocletian.  The  whole  story  is  very 
probably  a  figment.  He  is  the  pretended  author  of  the 
confession  of  Cyprian,  found  in  some  MSS.  He  has 
been  confounded  with  the  great  Cyprian  by  Prudentius 
{De  Steph. p. Id), tnd  by  Gregory  Nazianzen  (Orat.lS). 

2.  A  saint  of  ONrinth,  who  is  commemorated  March 
10  among  the  disciples  of  Qnadratus,  and  of  whom  a  ro- 
mantic story  is  told,  which  is  absurd.  His  martyrdom, 
if  there  be  any  reality  in  it,  must  belong  to  the  persecu- 
tion of  Diodetian. 

3.  A  learned  presbyter,  to  whom  Jerome  writes  from 
Bethlehem  (Letter  140,  ed.  ValL),  expounding  Pba.  xc. 

4.  A  deacon,  mentioned  by  Jerome  (Letter  112,  ed« 
Vail.)  as  the  bearer  of  three  letters  from  Augustine  to 
him,  at  Bethlehem. 

5.  Saint,  and  buhop  of  Bordeaux.  He  was  the  sixth 
bishop  of  that  diocese,  and  took  part  in  the  Council  of 
Agde  (606)  and  the  synod  of  Orleans  under  CHovis  I 
(511).  He  appears  to  have  succeeded  St.  Gallicinus 
after  the  interregnum  caused  by  the  Arian  troubles. 

6.  Saint,  and  third  bishop  of  Toulon.  He  was  sec- 
ond patron  of  that  city,  and  belonged  to  the  principal 
family  in  Montelieu,  Marseilles.  He  flourished  in  the 
time  of  Anastasius,  Justinus,  and  Justinianus,  emperors, 
of  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  and  of  Childebert,  bis 
son.  He  was  bom  probably  in  475  or  476,  and  ordained 
at  thirty  years  of  age  by  St.  Cnsarius  of  Aries,  of  whom 
he  was  a  disciple.  Cyprian  was  present  at  the  fourth 
Council  of  Aries,  A.D.  624.  In  527  he  subscribed  to  the 
Council  ofCarpentras,  and  the  sy nodical  letter  to  Agrae- 
cius,  bishop  of  Anti polls.  In  A.D.  529  he  came  to  the 
third  synod  of  Yaison.  In  the  same  year  he  took  part 
in  the  second  synod  of  Orange,  and  was  sent  by  Ciesariua 
to  the  council  of  the  bishops  beyond  the  Isar,  at  Valen- 
tia,  where  he  outshone  all  in  scriptural  and  patristic 
knowledge.  After  the  conquest  of  the  Arian  Goths, 
Cyprian  went  to  the  fourth  OnwcU  of  Orleans,  A.D. 


541.  After  the  death  of  C^osarins,  .he  remained  in  the 
bishopric  in  peace.  But  soon  aflerwards  Alboin,  king 
of  the  Goths,  invaded  Gaul  with*  a  large  army,  and 
devastated  all  the  cities  of  Gallia  Narbonenau  with  fire 
and  sword.  Hb  soldiers  butchered  the  people,  and 
killed  many  bishops.  They  found  Cyprian,  together 
with  his  friends  Mandrianus  and  Flavianus,  in  the 
churoh,  cast  them  out,  and  killed  them  (Aug.  556). 
Such  is  the  account  of  his  death  given  by  Guesnayus 
in  AfmaL  MassiL,  but  the  Bollandists  say  that  he  was 
not  martyred,  but  died  a  happy  death,  A.D.  549.  He 
is  commemorated  on  Oct  8.  He  wrote  a  Lift  of  CtS' 
sarius  of  Aries,  in  580. 

7.  Saint,  and  abbot  of  Perigueux.  He  was  also  called 
Suhrtmus.  He  took  the  religious  habit  in  a  monastery 
of  which  the  abbot's  name  was  Savalon,  and  having  been 
a  model  to  the  whole  community,  retired  to  a  solitude 
near  the  Dordogne,  where  he  built  a  hermitage,  which 
afterwards  gave  rise  to  the  little  tow;i  of  St^  Cyprien. 
He  died  towards  the  end  of  the  6th  century,  and  Greg- 
ory of  Tours  recounts  legends  of  several  appropriate 
wonders,  calling  him  a  man  of  magnificent  piety.  He 
is  commemorated  Dec.  9. 

8.  A  monk  of  Monte  Cassino  In  thie  time  of  the  ebi- 
peror  Constanttnus  VI  and  the  empress  Irene.  He 
composed  a  Sapphic  hymn  on  th^  miracles  of  St,  Ben- 
edict, in  twenty-four  stanzas,  to  be  sung  on  his  festival 

9.  A  saint  and  martyr,  lies  buried  in  the  Church  of 
St.  Francii^  Boulogne,  and  is  commemorated  March  10. 

10.  A  saint,  and  i^uthor  of  a  poeip  on  the  resurrec- 
tion, at  the  end  of  the  works  of  Tertullian. 

11.  A  bishop  martyred  with  Justina.  He  is  com- 
memorated Sept.  26. 

12.  A  martyr  in  Africa  under  Humeric,  commeuKH 
rated  Oct.  12.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Cjrpxian,  Ernst  Solomon,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  22,  1678,  at  Ostheim,  in 
Franconia.  He  studied  at  Jena  and  Helmstiidt,  was 
in  1699  professor  extraordinarius  of  philosophy,  and  in 
1700  rector  of  the  gymnasium  academicum  at  Coburg. 
In  lilS^hc  was  called  to  Gotha  as  member  of  consistory, 
became  vice-president  in  1785,  and  died  Sept.  19, 1745. 
He  was  one  of  the  few  defenders  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy 
during  the  18th  century,  and  wrote,  Historie  der  A  ygsi. 
Confession  (Gotha,  1780;  8d  ed.  1736):^  AUgemeinB 
Anmerhmgtn  Uber  AmMs  Kirehen^  und  Ketstr  Bi** 
toris  (Helmstadt,  1700;  dd  ed.  1701):— Z>MMr<a/»o  db 
Omophorio  Episoopor,  GneQorum  (1698) :— Z7s  Propa~ 
gatione  Baresium  per  CcmHUnas  (Coburg,  1708;  Jena, 
1715)  i-^Tahularutm  Ecdesim  Rom.sec.xvi,  etc.  (Frank- 
fort, 1748) :  —  Ueberzeugende  Belehrung  vOm  Ursprsmg 
und  WacAsthum  des  Papstthunis  (Gotha,  1719,  etc.).  Seq 
Fabricius,  Bistoria  Bibliothecai  Fabriciana^  iv,  455; 
Fischer,  Leben  E.  S,  Cyprians  (Leipsic,  1749);  Schulze, 
LAen  Berzog  Friedrichs  II,  von  Gotha  (1851);  Herzog, 
ReaUEnqfUop,  s.  v. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encydopidie  dm 
Sdenees  Rdigieuses,  s.  v. ;  Doring,  /Ke  Gelehrten  Theo- 
logm  Deutschlands,  i,  297  sq.;  Winer,  Bandbudk  der 
tkeoL  Lit.  M  20, 127, 828.  881, 583, 584, 544, 614»  689, 669, 
678, 787, 788, 755, 849^  860.     (B.  P.) 

Cypiianna,  Johannes,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Rawicz,  in  Poland,  Oct.  24, 1642.  He  studied 
at  Jena  and  Leipsic,  was  in  1678  licentiate,  in  1699  doc- 
tor, and  in  1710  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.  In 
1715  he  was  appointed  canon  of  Zeitz  and  Meissen, 
and  finally  senior  of  the  univernty.  He  died  March 
12, 1728,  leaving,  Ds  Voce  bxo  et  jf  dii^i^De  Funda^ 
menlo  Ecclesim  EvangeUccs: — De  Apostasia  a  Christo 
d  EJusdetn  Gratia  Instituta  per  Opera  LegaHa:  —  Dt 
Propaganda  Evangdio  ad  Gen.  tV,  26:  —  De  Nowutm 
ChrisH  Ecdesiastico  t  ^  ^  v  c  i—De  Bnptssmo  iVose/yfu- 
rum  Judaico.  See  Jocher,  AOgetneines  Gdekrien-La^ 
ikon,  i.  v.    (a  P.) 

Cypms,  CouMcn.  of  (CondUmn  C^prianum),  held 
A,D.  401,  at  the  instigation  of  Theophtlus  of  Alexan* 


CYRIACA 


^i& 


CYRIL 


dria,  which  prohibited  the  naiiog  cf  the  worlcs  of 'Oi- 
g«i.    See  Smith,  Diet  ofChritL  Antiq,  t.  y, 

rCjT.    SeeCTBicus. 

Cyxa.    SeeCiAB. 

CyriXca  wu  a  mArtyr,  A.D.  282,  and  is  commemo- 
rated July  7. 

Oyriaoii%  the  name  of  a  namber  of  eainte,  maityn, 
tod  othen.    See  also  Chbtsb;  Cr&icua. 

1.  A  martyr  who,  with  his  brother  TheoduliWi  was 
put  to  death  in  the  time  of  Hadrian.  They  an  com* 
Demonted  Hay  2. 

2.  A  deacon  of  Rome.  He  is  said  to  have  suflSered 
martyrdom  there  early  in  the  4th  century,  under  Max- 
imia  His  commemoration  is  given  variously  March 
16,  Ang.  8^  and  July  15;  the  limr,  probably,  being  the 
festival  of  hia  martyrdom,  the  second,  of  the  removal  of 
his  boats  by  pope  if  aroellus,  the  last,  of  a  churoh  dedi- 
cated to  his  oame. 

3.  A  disciple  of  Marcellus  of  Anc}'ra. 

4.  A  saint,  commemorated  in  the  menology  of  Basil 
as  a  man  of  Jerusalem,  martyred  with  his  mother  by 
Jttliaa  the  Apostate,  his  right  h^nd  being  first  cut  off 
beeaose  his  writinga  had  made  so  many  converts. 

5.  Bishop  of  Adaua,  in  Cilicia.  He  was  present  at 
the  CooDcil  of  Constantinople  in  881,  and,  by  the  per- 
mission of  Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  hu  metropolitan,  re- 
puined  behind  on  its  separation  to  instruct  Nectarius, 
who  had  been  unexpectedly  raised  from  the  rank  of  a 
lajnaa  to  the  arehiepcsoopal  see  of  Constantinople.  He 
was  one  of  the  three  bishops  commissioned  by  the  coun- 
cil to  convey  their  synodal  letter  to  Damasua  and  the 
other  bishops  of  the  West. 

6.  See  Ctricus  1. 

7.  A  presbyter  of  Antioch,  addressed  along  with 
Castas  and  Valerius  and  Diophantes  by  Chrvsostom 
(£^  22, 62,  66,  107, 130,  222),  and  alone  by  his  exiled 
fcUow-presbyter  Gbnstantius  in  a  letter  wrongly  ascribed 
toChrysostom  {Ep.lAX), 

&  A  deacon  who,  together  with  Paul,  accompanied 
the  depatation  of  bishops  who  conveyed  to  Borne  Chry- 
sostom's  letter  to  Innocent,  in  401  (Pallad.  p.  11>  He 
was  anable  to  Join  his  namesake,  bishop  Cyriacus,  and 
his  Qompanioos,  in  Rome  in  406,  his  health  not  permit- 
ling  him  to  take  a  long  voyage  {Ep,  148). 

9.  A  bttbop,  apparently  resident  at  Constantinople. 
He  waa  a  friend  and  oorreapondent  of  Chrvsostom. 
From  a  letter  to  Olympias  {Ep,  ad.Ofymp.  12)  it  is  evi- 
dent that  he  had  snfBcient  influence  to  change  the  place 
of  Chrysostom'a  exile.  Two  letters  of  Chr^'sostom  to 
Cyriacua  are  extant. 

10.  A  bishop  of  Synnada,  iyi  Phrygia,  friend  and  fel- 
low-«iiierer  of  Cbrytoatom,  who,  together  with  Eulysius, 
biriiop  of  Apamea,  embarked  with  him  when  expelled 
iioaa  Conatsntinople,  in  June,  404,  and  accompanied 
him  on  the  first  stages  of  his  joume}'.  The  whole  party 
was  anestcd  at  Nicm  on  suspicion  of  complicity  in  the 
eesfiagfalion  at  Constantinople,  and  thrown  into  chains. 
After  a  lew  dajis,  Cyriacus  and  Eulysius  were  separated 
frao  Cbiysoetom  and  brought  back  and  imprisoned  at 
Chaleedan  (PalhuL  p.  88 ;  Siiasom.  viii,  22).  While  they 
were  in  prison  Chr\'sostom  wrote  them  a  consolatory 
and  eneonraipng  letter  (Chrysost.  Ep.  147).  Being  ao- 
qoicted  of  tbe  charge,  Cyriacus  was  sent  back  to  Con- 
stantaoople,  but  waa  driven  from  the  city  by  the  law 
enfetdiiip  eocnmunion  with  Arsacins,  Theophilus,  and 
Porphyry.  He  fled  to  Rome,  where  he  anived  tow- 
ards the  beginning  of  40db  He  laid  the  statement  of 
his  own  and  Chrysostom's  troubles  before  Innocent, 
his  oral  aceoont  being  confirmed  by  the  letters  brought 
a  few  days  afkcrwards- by  Eulysius  (Pallad.  p.  11). 
He  aooonpanied  the  unfortunate  western  deputation 
to  CoDiUBtiiiople  in  406,  and  shared  in  the  Ul-treat- 
meat  to  which  they  were  sub|ected  (Chrysost  Ep, 
124;  PiBnad.pil3).  He  and  his  eastern  colleagues  were 
sued  and  put  oo  board  a  vessel,  and  it  was  reported 
Ihsft  they  had  been  drowned.    But  they  were  purpose- 


ly r^eryed'by  th^ir  enemies  for  insult  and  ill-asagei 
They  weie  conveyed  to  places  of  exile  in  the  most  le- 
mote  and  desolate  parts  of  the  empire.  Cyriacus  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Persian  fortrees  of  Palmyra,  eighty 
miles  beyond  Emesa. 

11.  Bishop  {iiuiragos  or  Shaha^)  of  Daik,  in.  Pen- 
armenia,  about  A.D.  890-411  (Faustus  Byzantinus,  yi, 
11,  in  Unglois,  ColL  Bist,  Artn,i,  809). 

12.  A  subdeacon  of  the  Churoh  of  Macedonia^  A.D. 
414. 

13.  A  buhop  in  Thessaly  in  the  time  of  pope  Boni-' 
face  I.  In.  a  letter  to  Rufus,  bishop  of  Thessalonica, 
Boniface  tells  him  that  he  has  separated  from  his  com- 
munion Cyriacus,  among  other  bishops,  unless  they  ob- 
tain pardon  through  Rufus. 

14.  Bishop  of  Lodi  (A.D.  451, 452).  Bearer  of  the 
synodal  letter  of  the  Council  of  Milan  in  A.D.  451  to 
pope  Leo  the  Great. 

15.  One  of  the  two  deacons  appointed  to  summon 
the  bishops  to  the  sessions  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 

16.'  Bishop  of  Tyaiia.  He  supported  the  demand 
of  Julian  and  Severus  for  the  condemnation  of  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  and  the  Tome  of  Leo,  but  in  618 
turned  completely  round  and  signed  the  ''relatia"  to 
John,  the  patriareh  of  Constantinople,  drawn  up  at  the 
synod  that  met  in  that  city,  which  asked  for  the  res- 
toration of  the  names  of  Leal  of  Rome,  and  Euphemius 
and  Afaoedonius  of  Constantinople  to  the  diptychs,  and 
the  condemnation  of  Severus  and  the  other  impugners 
of  the  decrees  of  Chalcedon.  In  the  Latin  acta  he  ap» 
pears  as  "  Dominicus  **  (Labbe,  CondL  iv,  1586 ;  v,  167 ; 
LeQuien,  1,400). 

17.  Abbot  of  St.  Andrew's  at  Rome,  employed  by 
Gregory  the  Great  about  A.D.  598  in  the  conversion  of 
the  Barbarfcini  in  Sardinia. 

18.  Martyr  at  Tomi,  commemorated  June  20. 

19.  The  anchorite  (A.D.  448-557),  commemorated 
Sept.  29.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Bioff,  s.  v. 

Cyriaoua  of  Carthaob,  who  lived  in  the  11th 
century,  in  the  time  of  Gregory  YII,  was  one  of  the  last 
Christian  bishops  of  North  Africa.  He  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  Gregory,  who  also  recommended  to  him 
Sevandus,  archbishop  of  Hippo  Regius.  See  Jaffe, 
Reffesta  Ponlif,  ad  ann.  1076,  June;  Gregorii  YII,  Re- 
ffittr,  iii,  19  sq. ;  Wagenmann,  in  Herzog's  Retd'Eney' 
'ktop.  8.  V.     (R  P.) 

Cyxicius  (Quiricuflr  ^  Syrions)  was  buhop  of 
Baroino  (Barcelona),  in  Spain,  about  662.  He'  wrote 
two  fetters  to  Ildefonsus  of  Toledo,  in  the  first  of  which 
he  thanks  him,  in  language  almost  blasphemous  in  the 
extravagance  of  its  praise,  for  having  sent  him  his  work 
on  the  Virffin^y  of  the  Blessed  Virffin  Mary,  In  the 
second,  he  entreats  him  to  devote  his  time  to  the  elur 
cidation  of  obscure  passages  of  Holy  Scripture.— Smithy 
Vict,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cyricas  (Oyr,  or  Carig;  Lat.  Cericus  or  Quiri- 
cus)f  ia  also  the  name  of  three  early  ChristiaA  martyrs. 

1.  A  martyr  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  about  804.  There 
u  little  doubt  that  this  is  tbe  martyr  Cyriacus,  who, 
with  his  mother  Julitta,  suffered  in  the  Diodetian 
persecution.  St.  Cyricus  was  venerated  in  the  east  of 
Scotland  at  an  early  period.  He  is  to  be  distingnished 
from  the  Pietish  king  Cyric,  Grig,  or  Gregorius,  who 
had  his  chief  residence  at  Dunottar,  in  the  9th  century. 
He  is  commemorated  June  16. 

2.  A  martyr  who  suffered  by  drowning  in  the  Hello- 
pont,  commemorated  Jan.  8. 

,  3.  A  martyr  at  Antioch,  commemorated  June  16.^ 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cyril  (Lat.  Cyrillus)  is  the  name  of  several  per? 
sons  in  the  early  Church,  besides  those  mentioned  in 
vol.  li: 

1.  A  bishop  of  Antioch,  who  succeeded  Timetis  A.D. 
288,  and  held. tbe  see  to  A.D.804,  when  he  was  succeed- 
ed by  Tyrannna.  Eusebius  speaks  of  him  as  his  oon- 
temporary*     During  his  cpiseopate  Dorotheas  attained 


CTRILLA 


216 


CYRUS 


oeldbritj  w  an  expounder  of  Scripture  (Emeb.  H,  E, 
libu  vii,  c.  82 ;  Chromam  ad  ano.  4  Probi).  Aoooiding 
to  an  obseure  totdition  he  soffered  maityrdom  at  the 
commenoement  of  Diocletian*a  persecution,  and  ia  com- 
memorated in  the  Roman  martvrology  July  22. 

2.  An  intruding  bishop  of  Jerusalem  who,  followed 
by  Baronius  and  Touttee,  was  thrust  into  the  see  of  his 
great  namesake  during  his  deposition,  in  succession  to 
Herennios.    The  two  Cyrils  are  identified  by.  some. 

3.  A  presbyter  or  bishop  of  Palestine,  to  whom  Je- 
rome had  delivered  a  written  confession  of  his  faith. 
Jerome  refers  to  this  when  applied  to  for  proof  of  his 
orthodoxy. 

4.  A  martyr  of  Heliopolis,  in  Syria,  a  deacon  who 
inflered  for  the  faith  in  the  time  of  Julian,  having  pre- 
Tioosly  displayed  g^reat  zeal  in  the  destruction  of  idols, 
in  the  reign  of  Gonstantine.  He  is  commemorated 
March  20. 

5.  A  bishop  in  Armenia,  reconciled  by  St.  Basil  to 
the  Church  at  Satala  in  872. 

6.  Deacon  to  St.  Hilary  of  Aries,  by  whom  he  was 
wonderfully  cured,  after  having  had  his  foot  bruised  by 
the  fall  of  a  large  stone. 

7.  Bishop  of  Adana,  in  Cilicia  Prima.  He  was  one 
of  the  Antiochene  party  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  A.D. 
481.  He  signed  the  remonstrance  against  the  opening 
of  the  council  by  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  before  the  arrival 
of  John  of  Antioch  and  his  companions,  as  well  as  the 
sentence  of  deposition  passed  by  them  on  Cyril  and  his 
adherents.  He  also  took  part  in  the  synod  of  Tarsus, 
A.D.484. 

.8.  Bishop  of  Coela,  in  Thrace,  in  the  5th  century.  In 
conjunction  With  Euprepius,  bishop  of  Byza,  he  opposed 
at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431)  the  custom  of  one 
bishop  holding  two  or  three  sees,  then  prevalent  in 
Europe.  The  council  authorized  the  custom,  but  after- 
wards special  bishops  were  given  to  several  towns. 

9.  Fourteenth  bishop  of  Treves.  He  rebuilt  the  cell 
of  St.  Eucherius,  near  Treves,  which  lay  burned  and 
deserted.  There  he  placed  the  bodies  of  the  first  three 
bishops  of  Treves,  and  hb  own  remains  were  deposited 
with  them  after  his  death,  which  occurred  about  458. 
He  is  oommetnorated  May  19. 

10.  Bishop  of  Gaza,  one  of  the  prelates  who  signed 
the  synodal  letter  of  John  of  Jerusalem  to  John  of 
Constantinople,  condemnatory  of  Sevems  of  Antioch 
and  his  followers,  A.D.  518. 

11.  Of  Scythopolis  (Bethshan),  so  called  from  his 
birthplace,  a  hagiologist,  flourished  dr.  555.  His  father, 
John,  was  famous  for  his  religious  life.  Cyril  com- 
menced an  ascetic  career  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  On 
leaving  his  monastery  to  visit  Jerusalem  and  the  other 
holy  places,  his  mother  charged  him  to  put  himself  un- 
der the  instruction  of  John  the  Silentiar}^  by  whom  he 
was  commended  to  the  care  of  Leontius,  the  abbot  of 
the  monaster}'  of  St.  Euthymius,  who  admitted  him  as 
a  monk  in  542.  Thence  Cyril  passed  to  the  Laura  of 
St  Saba,  where  he  commenced  his  sacred  biographies 
with  the  lives  of  St.  Euthymius  and  St.  Saba,  deriving 
his  information  from  the  elder  monks  who  had  seen  and 
known  those  holv  men.  He  also  wrote  the  life  of  St 
John  the  Silentiarr,  and  other  biographies,  affording  a 
valuable  picture  of  the  inner  life  of  the  Eastern  Church 
in  the  6th  century.  They  have  been  nnfurtunatel}* 
largely  interpolated  by  Metaphnstes. 

12.  A  bishop  and  martyr,  apparently  in  Egypt,  com- 
memorated July  9. 

13.  A  martyr  at  Philadelphia,  in  Asia  Minor,  com- 
memorated Aug.  1.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Cyxilla  was  a  martyr  under  Claudius,  and  daughter 
of  Decius.    She  is  commemorated  Oct  28. 

Csniltonaa,  a  Syriac  hymn-writer,  lived  about  the 
end  of  the  4th  century.  His  name,  as  well  as  his 
hymns,  have  only  become  known  of.  late.  A  German 
translation  of  his  hjrmns,  with  introduction  and  notes, 
was  published  by  Bickell  in  1872,  at  Kempten.    See 


Streber,  in  Wetier  u.  Welte'a  Ktrekm-LexOBom^  &  t. 

(R  P.). 

Cyrlnas  (or  Qnlrintui)  u  the  name  of  several 
early  ecclesiasts  and  martyrs.    See  Ctbicus. 

1.  Bishop  of  Chalcedon.  He  was  an  Egyptian  by 
birth,  and  a  relative  of  Theophilus,  patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria. In  401  he  accompanied  Chrysostom  as  a  friend 
in  bis  visitation  of  Ephesus  and  the  Asiatic  churches; 
but  for  some  unexplained  reason  he  became  from  this 
time  his  most  virulent  enemy,  accusing  him  of  pride, 
tyranny,  and  heresy.  He  was  prevented  from  taking 
part  in  the  opening  of  the  proceedings  against  that  fa- 
ther, at  Constantinople,  in  408,  by  a  bShop  stepping 
upon  his  foot,  producing  a  painful  wound,  which  in- 
flamed and  gangrened,  eventually  producing  hb  death. 
He  was  present,  however,  at  the  'synod  of  the  Oak,  and 
never  relaxed  his  persecution  of  C'hr^'sostom,  being  one 
of  the  four  bishops  who,  after  his  recall,  took  his  con- 
demnation on  their  own  heads.  His  death,  in  405,  after 
twice  resorting  to  amputation  and  enduring  great  suf- 
fering, was  regarded  by  the'friends  of  the  persecuted  fa- 
ther as  a  mark  of  the  vengeance  of  Heaven. 

2.  A  German  Benedictine,  also  called  A  ribo.  He  be- 
came abbot  of  St  Dionysius,  at  Schlechdorf,  and  in  760 
the  fourth  bishop  of  Freising,  in  Bavaria  He  died  in 
788.  Cyrinus  wrote  the  life  of  St  Corbinianus,  the  first 
bishop  of  Freising. 

3.  A  martyr  at  Rome  under  Claudius.  He  is  com- 
memorated March  25. 

4.  A  martyr  at  Rome  under  Diocletian,  commemo- 
rated April  26. 

5.  A  martyr  at  Milan  under  Nero,  commemorated 
June  12. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Cyrlon  (1),  bishop  of  Doliche.one  of  the  subscribers 
to  the  Semi-Arian  Council  of  Seleucia.  (2)  Presbyter 
and  martyr,  commemorated  Feb.  14. 

Cyrus  is  the  name  of  several  eariy  bishops: 

1.  Of  Bercea,  succeeded  Eustathius  as  bishop  of  that 
dty  in  825.  He  was  persecuted,  on  account  of  his  or- 
thodoxy, by  the  Arian  party,  and  deposed  by  Constan- 
tius. 

2.  Bishop  of  Tyre,  was  present  at  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  in  431.  He  was  a  leading  member  of  the 
party  of  John  of  Antioch  and  the  Oriental  bisbwpa, 
against  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and  was  chosen  as  one  of 
the  deputation  to  wait  on  Theodosius  II  to  lay  a  com- 
plaint of  the  illegality  of  his  proceedings,  but  being  in- 
disposed, Macarius  of  Laodicea  took  his  place.  He  was 
deposed  by  Cyril  in  the  name  of  the  council. 

3.  Bishop  of  Aphrodisias,  and  metropolitan  of  CairOi 
He  was  born  of  Christian  parents,  and  was  a  monk  when 
elevated  to  the  bishopric.  He  was  conspicuous  at  the 
Council  of  Ephesus,  in  481,  for  his  vacillation,  signing 
one  day  the  act  for  the  deposition  of  Nestorins,  and  on 
the  next  an  appeal  to  the  emperors  against  the  legality 
of  the  acts  of  the  council.  Although  still  greater  weak- 
ness of  character  was  shown  when,  at  the  *^  Robber^s 
Synod  "  in  449,  he  signed  the  act  of  condemnation  of 
Flavian  and  Eusebins,  yet  he  stood  so  high  that  in  456 
he  was  specially  exempted  from  the  operation  of  a  gen- 
eral law  by  the  emperor,  on  account  of  his  great  merits^ 

4.  Bishop  of  Phasis,  in  Colchis,  and  aften^-ards  patii- 
aroh  of  Alexandria,  630-641.  Although  the  plans  of 
Heradius  for  the  union  of  the  roonophysite  party  with 
the  Church  were  at  first  unacceptable  to  him,  he  after- 
wards gave  them  his  hearty  support,  and  was  rewardeil 
by  elevation  to  the  patriarohate  of  Alexandria,  fie 
now  succeeded  in  effecting  a  temporary  union  of  the 
Eg>'ptian  monophysites,  known  as  Theodoaiana,  with 
the  Catholic  body.  But  the  agreement  being  such  that 
both  parties  claimed  a  victory,  it  could  not  be  lasting. 
Although  counselled  by  pope  Honorius  I  to  g^ve  less 
attention  to  theological  refinements,  and  mora  to  true 
godliness,  Cyrus  cidled  a  council  at  Alexandria,  which 
adopted  the  Eklkesia  pablished  by  Heradius  in  689t. 
This  met  with  no  better  success  than  the  former  agree* 


CYRUS 


217 


DABRECOG 


neBt,  aad  in  the  midat  of  tlieie  diatnetions  the  San- 
oens  iovaded  Egypt  under  Amron,  in  June,  688. .  He- 
ndios  appointed  Cyrua  pnefect  of  Egypt,  and  gave  him 
the  conduct  of  the  war.  Cynia  prevailed  on  Amron  to 
withdraw  his  forcea  by  the  promiae  of  an  annual  trib- 
ute, and  the  hand  of  the  emperor'a  daughter  Eudocia. 
lo^gnant  at  theae  terma,  Heracliua  aummoned  the  pa- 
triarch to  Constantinople.  Hia  life  would  not  have  been 
apared  but  for  the  aiege  of  Alexandria  by  Amron.  He 
was  sent  back  to  negotiate,  but  arrived  too  late.  The 
city  feU  after  fourteen  montha*  aiege,  Dee.  22,  640,  and 
Cyma  died  eome  time  in  641. 

5.  Forty-third  patriarch  of  Gonatantinople,  705-711. 
He  waa  formerly  a  redoae  at  Amaatria,  and  had  pre- 
dicted to  Justinian  11  his  restoration  to  the  imperial 
dignity.  He  waa  deposed  by  the  monothelite  emperor 
Bafdanfs,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  711,  and 
confined  in  the  monastery  of  Chora,  which  he  had 
founded. 

6w  A  martyr  in  292:  He  waa  a  wonder-worker,  but 
not  mercenary.  Hia  death  ia  commemorated  Jan.  81, 
and  hia  tranalation  Jnne  28,r— Smith,  Did,  of  Christ. 
Biog,»,Y, 


CyTnauhTlanm.    See  Paolub  StuorrURiuL 

CjTsXoilfl,  CotTNCiL  OF  {Concilium  Cyzicanum),  held 
A.D.  876,  aooonling  to  Hanai,  being  the  meeting  of  Semi* 
Ariana  mentioned  by  Baail  in  hia  letter  to  Patrophilua, 
and  apoken  of  aa  a  recent  occurrence.  *'What  elae 
they  did  there  I  Icnow  not,"  aaya  he ;  ^  but  thus  much  I 
hear,  that  having  been  reticent  of  the  term  Homooiuion, 
they  now  give  utterance  to  the  term  Homoiounanj  and 
join  Eunomiua  in  publuhing  blaaphemiea  againat  the 
Holy  Ghoat— Smith,  DieL  of  Christ,  Biog.  a.  v. 

Cymloiui,  The  Mabttbs  op,  are  commemorated 
AprU  29  (aL  28). 

Cseohowitsky,  Martin,  a  Socinian  teacher  and 
preacher,  who  died  at  Lublin  in  1608,  is  the  author  of 
Sjfnopsis  Ju^ificatioms  NoHra  per  Christum : — De  A  ue» 
toritate  Sacra  Scripturm : — De  Padobaptistarum  Ori' 
ffime: — Diaiogi  xiii  de  Varus  Religionis  A  rticulis.  He 
abo  translated  the  New  Teat,  into  Polish,  which  he  pub- 
lished, with  notes.  See  Sandii  BibL  A  ntitrinit. ;  Witte, 
Diarium  Biographiatm ;  3  dchtr,  A  Ugemeifies  Gekhrten^ 
/.exikont  a.  v.;  Winer,  Uandbuch  dtr  theol.  Lit,  i,  184. 

(a  P.) 


D. 


Dabaiba,  an  idol  of  the  inhabitanta  of  Panama. 
Thia  goddeaa  waa  of  mortal  extraction,  and,  having  led 
a  virtuous  life  on  earth,  was  deified  after  death,  and 
called  by  thoae  idolaters  the  mother  of  God,  They  aac- 
rificed  alavea  to  her,  and  worshipped  her  by  fasting  three 
or  foor  days  together,  and  by  acta  of  devotion,  such  as 
iigha^  groans,  and  ecstaaiea. 

Dabbaaheth.     Tristram  (Bible  Places^  p.  252) 
thinks  this  is  "  the  modem  Duwe&eh^  ^  between  Jok- 
aean  (Keimftn)  and  the  aea,  along  the  aouth  boundary 
of  Carmel,'*  thus  making  the  line  of  Zebulun  include  the 
crest  of  Carmel«  and  doubtless  referring  to  Khurhet  ed- 
DneeSbeh^  which  the  Ordnance  Map  lays  down  at  one 
and  one  half  miles  north-west  from  Tell-KeimAn,  and 
which  the  Memoirs  (i,  811)  describe  as  **  heaps  of 
atones,  well  cut  and  of  good  size,  apparently  Byzantine 
work;"  but  TreUwney  Saunders  {Map  of  the  Old  Test,) 
adopts  the  suggestion  of  Jebdta,  aa  in  vol.  ii,  p.  638,  de- 
scribed in  the  Memoirs  (i,  274)  aa  *'  a  amall  mud  hamlet 
in  the  plain,  aaid  only  to  contain  eighty  aoula." 

Dabbs,  Richard,  a  Baptiat  miniater,  waa  bom  in 
Charlotte  County,  Va.  He  waa  paator  first  at  Ash  Camp, 
afterwarda  in  Petersburg ;  in  1820,  in  Lynchburg;  sub- 
sequently, in  Nashville,  Tenn.  He  died  May  21, 1825. 
See  Cathcait,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  806.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Oaberath.  The  Memoirs  (i>  363)  accompanying 
the  Ordoaoce  Map  of  Western  Palestine  contain  the  fol- 
lowing additional  notice  of  thia  place :  ^  Deburieh—u. 
amall  village  built  of  stone,  with  inhabited  cavea;  con- 
tains about  two  hundred  Moalema,  and  ia  aurrounded  by 
gaidens  of  figs  and  olivea.  It  ia  situated  on  the  alope 
of  the  hilL  Water  is  obtained  from  cisterns  in  the  vil- 
lage." '^It  has  several  ProtesUnt  families,  the  fruits 
of  the  English  Church  mission  "  (Tristram,  BilUe  Places, 
p.  235). 

Dabema  (Tabema,  or  Fema),  Giuseppe,  a 
Scilian  theok)gian,  was  bom  at  Camerata  in  1599.  He 
vas  a  Capuchin  friar,  and  died  in  1677,  leaving,  Disser^ 
iaxiem  delta  Scienza  per  Bene  Finire  (Messina,  1652)  :-> 
Jiarmoma  delta  Biblia  (ibid.  \^b&)\  —  Ceremonie  per 
CeUbrart  la  Messa  (Palermo,  1669):—//  Voeabulario 
Toseamttsiao  some  religious  works  in  Italian.  See 
Hoefer,  Nmn,  Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Dabbaog,  of  Lough  Derg,  an  Irish  or  Welsh  saint, 
^oamemonud  Jan  1. 

^  DabUXon,  AxDRii,  a  French  theologian,  and  for  a 
tiaae  a  Jeaait,  became  grand-vicar  of  Caumartin,  bishop 


of  Amiena,  then  rector  of  Magn^,  Saintonge,  and  died 
there  about  1664,  leaving.  La  Divimt4  Defend»ie:-'Le 
Coneile  de  la  Grace,  etc.  A  collection  of  hia  worka  waa 
printed  at  Paria,  1646.  They  were  attributed  to  Bar- 
ooa,  nephew  of  John  Duvergier  of  Hauranne,  abbot  of 
St.  Cyran,  in  the  Bistoire  EccUsiastique  of  Dupin.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  a.  v. 

Dabia  (or  Debla),  a  Japanese  deity,  of  which  a  large 
image  of  braaa  atood  in  the  road  from  Osaka  to  Sorungo, 
which  was  consulted  every  year  by  a  spotless  virgin. 

Dabina  (David,  otherwise  called  Dobi,Biten8, 
or  Mobiou),  an  Irish  priest  and  saint,  preached  with 
great  success  in  his  own  oountr}*  and  in  Alba,  and  waa 
patron  saint  of  Domnach  Cluana,  now  Donachdoney, 
in  the  county  of  Down,  and  of  Kippen,  in  Scotland, 
where  a  famous  church  was  dedicated  under  his  pat- 
ronage, by  the  name  of  Movean,  We  still  have  Ki|v> 
pendavie  besides  Dunblane.  To  him,  probably,  more 
than  to  St.  David  or  Dewi  of  Wales,  are  the  Cekic  ded- 
ications to  St.  David  to  be  assigned.  He  is  commemo- 
rated July  22.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Dablon,  Claude,  a  French  Jesuit  missionary  in 
Canada,  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  was  bom 
in  1618.  He  began  a  mission  at  Onondaga  in  1655, 
and  in  1668  established  another  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  and 
one  among  the  FoxesL  In  1670  he  became  superior  of 
the  Canada  missions.  He  died  in  Quebec,  Sept.  20, 1 697. 
He  wrote  the  Relation  de  la  Novvelle  France^  1671-79 
(printed  partlv  at  the  time  and  partlv  later;  reprinted, 
N.  Y.  1810). 

Dabney,  Jomv  B.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  began  his  ministry  in  1862  by  officiating  in 
Campbell  County,  Ya.,  serving  in  Moore  Parish,  where 
subsequently  he  became  rector,  and  remained  in  that 
position  until  his  death,  April  23, 1868.  See  Prot,  Ejnsc 
Almanac,  1869,  p.  109. 

Daboi  is  one  of  the  snakes  of  Africa  worshipped  by 
the  Widahs;  it  is  attended  by  maidens  as  its  priest- 
esses, who,  Mrith  the  snake,  receive  great  respect. 

Daboxma  is  often  given  in  the  lists  of  nephews 
and  nieces  of  St.  Patrick,  but  much  doubt  rests  on  all 
his  kindred.    See  Durerca. 

Dabreoog  (or  Da-Brecooc),  of  Tuam-dreman,  ia 
an  Irish  aaint,  commemorated  on  May  9 ;  probably  the 
aame  given  by  aome  on  this  day  as  Dubricin  or  Dahri* 
««.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Dabud.    See  David,  1. 


DACE 


218 


ItMDJS  imUQRI 


Dace,  JoHir,  an  English  Wesleytn  tniaaicmaiy,  Ww 
born  at  Wednesbuiy  in  1754.  He  waB  converted  young ; 
in  1806  offered  himself  as  a  missionary  to  the  West  In^ 
dies;  and  died  at  St  Bartholomew,  Sept  8, 1821.  See 
Mwutu  of  the  BritUk  Conference,  1822. 

:  Dachiarog,  *^  the  saint  of  Airigul,"  is  cited  as  a 
prophet.  He  may  have  been  the  Ulster  saint  Ciaroc, 
Ciarofff  or  Mochuaroc,  who,  with  Breocan,  was  one  of 
"  the  two  heroes  of  purity  who  love  Christ  faithfully." 
— Smith,  Vict.  ofChritt,  Bwg.  s.  v. 

Daohonna  is  a  very  oompaon  name  in  the  list  of 
saints,  either  as  Cotma  and  Connan,  or  with  the  prefixes 
of  veneration  Da  or  Do  and  Mo,  Ii  was  the  baptismal 
name  of  St.  Macbar  (q.  v.). 

The  most  famous  saint  of  this  name  is  commemorated 
May  15.  He  was  bishop  of  Connor,  and  of  the  race  of 
^oghan,  son  of  Niall.  ^  St.  Dachonna  the  pious,  bishop 
of  Condere,"  died  in  726.~Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog. 
s.  V. 

'.  Dadisel,  Gboro  Curmtopii,  a  German  Hebraist 
aud  theologian,  a  native  of  AlULcisnig,  pursued  his  stud- 
ies at  Leipsic,  took  his  degrees,  and  became  minister  at 
Lechnitz  in  1712,  and  at  Geringswalde  in  1729,  where  his 
death  occurred  in  1742.  He  wrote,  De  Undione  Klitm 
(Leipsic,  1708):  —  Biblia  ffebraiea  Aoeenluata  (ibid. 
1729).    See  Hoefer,  Notiv.  Biog,  GineraU,  s.  v. 

DaciAnus  (1)«  a  persecuting  officer  in  Spain,  in  803 
br  804,  under  Diocletian  and  Maxtmian.  He  was  noted 
for  his  severity  in  carrying  out  their  orders,  especially 
against  bishops,  presbyters,  and  all  ordained  ministers. 
•(2)  One  of  the  forty-nine  martyn  of  Carthage  in  804, 
in  the  persecution  by  Diocletian  under  the  proconsul 
Anulinus.  (3)  Metropolitan  of  Dyzacene,  in  Africa,  in 
the  6rh  century.  A  rescript  was  addressed  to  him  by 
Juslinian  I  in  541. — Smith,  DicLofChritt,  Biog,  s.  v. 

.  Daoiua,  Saint^  bishop  of  Milan,  was  called  to  that 
see  in  527.  He  exhorted  the  inhabitants  of  that  city 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  Goths,  and  on  its  capt- 
ure took  refuge  at  Corinth.  He  afterwards  went  to 
(Constantinople,  where  the  emperor,  Justinian,  who  had 
published  a  constitution  prejudicial  to  the  clergy,  wished 
him  to  sign  it,  but  the  prelate  stoutly  refused.  He 
died  February,  552.  A  MS.  history,  fuund  in  the  li- 
brary of  Milan,  is  falsely  attributed  to  Dacius.  St.  Da- 
dus  is  commemorated  Jan.  1 4.  See  Hoefer,  A  our.  Biog, 
Geniraie,  s.  v. 

DacriAnns  is  the  name  of  a  supposed  Benedictine 
abbot.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  Speculum  Afona- 
ehorum  and  Spiritualis  Vitm  Documento,  ascribed  to  the 
8th  century.  The  name  was  probably  feigned  by  Lu- 
dovictts  Dlosius,  an  abbot  of  the  16th  century. — Smith, 
Diet,  ofChritt,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Dactj^U  Idaei,  in  Greek  mythology,  were  dssmons, 
to  whom  was  accredited,  in  Asia  Minor,  especially  near 
the  Trojan  mountain  Ida,  the  fint  discovery  of  metal- 
lurgy, and  who  received  divine  worship.  Their  origin 
and  real  signification  were  not  known  even  in  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  Grecian  and  Roman  art.  It  is  only 
surmised  that  thev  received  their  name  from  their  dex- 
terity  of  finger  (^ojcrvXoc),  and  from  the  mountain  Ida. 
Their  number  is  variously  reckoned  at  from  ten  to  one 
hnndred. 

Dactyllomanoy  (Gr.  icuervXioc,  a  ringt  and  ^ov- 
rf  (<?,  divination)  ^  a  species  of  augury  practiced  among  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  performed  by  suspending  a 
ring  from  a  fine  thread  over  a  round  table,  on  the  edge 
of  which  were  marked  the  letten  of  the  alphabet. 
When  the  vibration  of  the  ring  had  ceased,  the  lettera 
over  which  the  ring  happened  to  hang,  when  Joined  to- 
gether, gave  the  answer  to  the  inquirer.  See  Divina- 
tion. 

Dacfizins  is  the  name  of  a  saint  who  was  one  of 
the  anchorites  said  to  have  come  with  St.  Petrock  to 
Bodmin,  one  of  the  most  sacred  sites  in  Cornwall,  in  the 
6th  centur}'.— Smith,  Did,  tifChriMt,  Biog,  s.  v. 


Dadaa,  with  Qnintilian,  was  a  disciple  of  Maximitf 
the  reailer,  at  Dorostolus  of  Macedonia.  They  wer» 
mart3rred  under  Maximian,  and  are  commemorated 
April  28.— Smith,  DicL  of  ChriaL  Biog,  s.  v. 

Daddi,  Bernardo,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at 
Arezzo,  and  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  14th  cent-' 
ury.  He  studied  under  Spinelk>  Aretino,  and  was  elect* 
ed  a  member  of  the  company  of  painten  at  Florence  in 
1855.  He  was  celebrated  in  his  day,  and  some  of  his 
works  are  still  preserved  in  the  churches  of  that  city. 
He  died  there  in  1880.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  ffitt,  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Daddi,  Cosimo,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at 
Florence,  where  he  flourished  from  about  1600  to  1680. 
He  has  several  pictures  iu  the  monasteiy  of  San  Lino, 
in  that  city,  representing  scenes  from  the  Life  of  the 
Virgin,  In  the  church  of  San  Michacle  there  is  still 
an  altar-piece  representing  the  patron  saint  of  that 
church  defeating  the  apostate  angels.  Daddi  died  in 
1680.     See  S^oouety  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  a,  V,    . 

Dadfta,  in  one  of  the  Gnostic  systems,  is  the  archoo 
of  the  fourth  heaven. 

Dadgah,  in  Persian  mythology,  is  the  place  of  jus- 
tice, a  small  temple  of  fire  of  the  Guebres.  There  is  do 
fire-chapel  in  it,  with  a  separate  altar,  but  the  fire  buma 
on  the  ground,  in  distinction  from  the  larger  temple 
Deri mber,.  which  can  only  be  built  on  selected  sites^uid 
must  have  a  fire-chapcl  with  an  altar. 

Dado.  (1)  Bishop  of  Amiens,  is  placed  after  Deo- 
datus,  about  the  end  of  the  7th  century.  (2)  First  ab- 
bot of  Kodes.  He  lived  in  the  8th  century,  and  buil( 
with  his  own  hands  a  cell  at  a  place  called  Conclue, 
His  first  disciple  was  Medraldns,  who  succeeded  him  as 
abbot  and  obtained  the  **  privilegium  "  from  Louis  the 
Pious.  Dado  then  retired  to  a  more  remote  place  caUe4 
Grandevabrum. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v.    See 

AUDOKNUS. 

I 

Dadawell,  JAMKS,an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Woolwich,  Sept.  5,  1828.  He 
braced  religion  in  his  eighteenth  year,  aud  in  1856 
ordained  at  Caversham  Hill,  near  Beading,  where  ha 
labored  until  his  death,  July  19,  1865.  See  (Load.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1866,  p.  244. 

Dadu  PantliiB,  one  of  the  Vaishnava  (q.  v.)  sects 
in  Hindostan.  They  originated  with  Dadu,  a  cotton- 
cleaner  by  profession,  who  is  supposed  to  have  flour- 
ished about  A.D.  1600.  Having  been  admonished  by 
a  voice  from  heaven  to  devote  himself  to  a  religious 
life,  he  retired  to  Baherana  mountain  for  that  puipoae^ 
arid  after  some  time  disappeared,  leaving  no  traces  of 
his  whereabouts.  His  followers  believed  him  to  hava 
been  absorbeil  into  the  deity.  The  roembera  of  this 
sect  are  divided  into  three  classes:  1.  The  Virattasif 
religious  characters  who  go  bareheaded,  and  have  but 
one  garment  and  one  water-pot.  2.  The  Nagas,  who 
carry  arms,  and  are  ready  to  use  them  for  hire.  8.  The 
Bitter  Dhavisy  who  follow  the  ordinary  occupations  of 
life.  The  sect  is  said  to  be  very  numerous  in  Marwar 
and'  AJmere.  Their  chief  place  of  worship  is  at  Na- 
raiva.     See  Ganlner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Dadflcbi,  the  torch-bearen  in  the  Eleusinian  Mys- 
teries, whose  doty  was  to  offer  prax'era  and  sing  hymns 
to  Ceres  and  Proserpine.  They  passed  the  lighted  torch 
from  hand  to  hand,  in  commemoration  of  Ceres  search- 
ing for  her  daughter  Proserpine  by  the  light  of  a  torch 
which  she  had  kindled  at  the  fires  of  iEtoa. 

DaedaB  Tiangri,  in  Thibetan  mythology,  waa  a 
famous  race  of  spirits,  existing  previous  to  the  visible 
world,  but  who  became  limited  through  the  creation  of 
the  world,  without  their  being  subject  to  the'lawa  of 
death.  As  there  were  many  who  had  reached  this  limit, 
but  still  did  not  die,  dissatisfied  M*ith  their  doubtful  des- 
tiny, they  left  their  thrones  and  flitted  about  in  the  heav- 
ens until  they  came  to  the  kingdom  of  Assurian  apiritaj 


/ 


SAE6HELM 


219 


DA60BA 


The  laUer  were  contiaually  in  disunity,  «nd  the  trrtval 
of  ihe  Dsdie  Tsngri  strengthened  one  pftrty  to  such  ah 
extent  that  a  war  resulted  which  lasted  many  millions 
of  years. 

Daec^elm  is  belieTed  to  hare  been  abbot  of  Bard- 
ner.  He  signed  the  act  of  the  Council  of  Cloresho, 
OciL  12, 803 Smith;  Did.  of  Chrut,  Biog.  s.  y. 

Daelmaxi,  Karrl  Ghislain,  a  Belgian  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Hons  in  1670.  He  became  successively 
doctor,  doctor-regent,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Lou- 
vain,  rector  of  the  university,  president  of  the  college 
of  Adrian,  and  canon  of  St.  Peter,  in  the  same  cit}' ;  then 
canon  of  St.  Gertrude,  at  Nivelles.  He  died  at  Louvain, 
Dec  21, 1731,  leaving,  Tk^$  tur  U  Systime  de  la  Grace 
OxNivain,  1706)  :^J)e  A  ctUnu  Ifumamt :  —  TkiologU 
SeokuUco-Morale  (1788;  republished  several  times); 
also  some  Ontuons  LatmeM,  See  Hoefer,  Houv,  Biog, 
GMralffE.x, 

Daemonology  of  the  later  Jews,  This  subject  is 
inextricably  involved  with  their  angelolog}*,  although, 
strictly  speaking,  anpeU  are  good  spirits  and  damotu 
bad  ones.  The  views  of  the  later  Jews  are  thus  summed 
np  by  a  recent  writer  (Supetftatural  lUligion,  i,  128 

"  In  the  apocrvphal  book  of  Tobit,  the  sngel  Rnphnel 
prescribes,  as  an  infiilUblo  means  of  driving  ont  the  smo- 
roQs  dasmon  Asmodeas,  fnmigatlon  with  ihe  heart  oud 
liver  of  a  fish;  and  the  augel  describes  himself  as'  one  of 
the  seven  holf  ones  that  present  the  prayers  of  saints  to 

Sxl.  The  book  of  Bnoch  relates  the  fail  of  the  nngeis 
ron^h  love  for  the  danglitera  of  men,  and  gives  the 
names  of  iwenty-one  of  them  and  their  leaders :  Jeqnin 
waa  he  who  seduced  the  holy  sngels :  Ashbe«1  save  them 
•vil  cimnsel  and  corrupted  them ;  Qadre£l  seduced  Eve. 
and  alao  taught  the  children  of  men  the  mannrncture  and 
use  of  murderous  and  military  weaptms :  Penemoii  taught 
them  man  J  mvsteries,  also  the  art  of  writing; ;  Kaooeja 
tanght  them  all  the  wicked  practices  of  splriti*  and  dm- 
m<m«.  Including  magic  and  exorcism.  The  olbpring  of  the 
lUlen  angela  and  the  daughters  of  men  were  giants  whose 
be^t  waa  three  thonsimd  cubits,  and  they  are  the  dsB- 
mons  stilt  working  evil  on  the  earth.  Aziuel  tanght  men 
Vsrions  arts,  such  s^  making  bracelets  and  oninments; 
Uriel  is  the  angel  of  thunder  and  earthquakes;  Raphael 
of  the  spirits  of  men ;  Kaquel  executes  vengeance  on  the 
world  and  the  stars;  Micnnel  is  set  over  the  saints:  Sa- 
ratbaet  over  the  misled  sonis  of  men ;  Gabriel  over  ser- 
peota.  Paradise,  and  the  chernbtm.  All  the  elements  of 
nature  are  presided  over  by  special  spiritual  lielngs.  Philo 
Jodms  and  the  Talmnd  are  ftill  of  similar  notions;  an 

angel  of  ibe  sun  and  moon  is  described  iu  the  Aeem§to 

-        jj 


Daes,  James,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  who  *'came  out 
from  linlithoowe,**  officiated  in  Anstruther  in  Januar)', 
1585;  in  June  confessed  he  had  not  entered  the  Ke> 
formed  Kirk  in  proper  order ;  in  August  accepted  a  call 
to  commence  a  new  kirk  in  Ersilton  in  March,  1586; 
officiated  at  Anstruther  in  1588;  was  a  member  of  the 
Assembiies  of  1595  and  1602;  presented  to  the  living  by 
the  king  in  161 1 ;  called  before  the  Court  of  High  Com- 
raiasioo  in  1620;  resigned  before  Jan.  4. 1633,  and  died 
before  Jane  20, 1648.  See  Fasti  Ecde$.  Scoticanm,  i, 
124,523. 


was  martyretl  with  her  husband,  Fabian, 
onder  Julian,  at  Rome.     She  is  commemorated  Jan.  4. 

Dagaeus.    See  Daioii. 

Dagamnndtui  (or  Oagamodns)  was  ninth  ab- 
boc  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Claudius,  on  Mount  Jura. 
His  rule  began  in  the  last  of  the  61  h,  and  covered  the 
lint  quarter  of  the  7th  century. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog.  a,  T. 

Dac&miui  waa  an  Irish  bishop  and  confessor,  who 
flourished  at  the  close  of  the  6th  and  the  beginning  of 
%he  7th  centur}'.  He  was  a  strict  maiiitainer  of  tra- 
ditional rites,  giving  way  with  great  difficulty  to  the 
reasoning  of  Augustine,  and  refused  to  eat  even  iu  the 
sssnti  house  with  the  Roman  bishops.  His  commemo* 
tatiMi  is  variously  given  as  March  22  and  May  29. — 
SnitJi,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

bishop  of  Inbhcr  Daoile,  now  Enncrcilly, 


in  the  barony  of  A^klow,  County  Wicklow,  was  the  son 
of  Colman,  of  the  race  of  Labhraidh  Lore  His  three 
brothers  were  sainta,  and  he  was  progenitor  of  the  men 
of  Leinster.  He  was  educated  at  liathmore,  under 
St.  Mochoemoc  or  Pulcherius,  and  after  visiting  Rome 
became  abbot  of  lubber  Daoile.  He  was  a  leader  in 
the  Paschal  contruveny,  and  although  mentioned  aa 
intracUble,  is  said  to  have  been  of  a  peculiariy  mild 
disposition.  He  is  perhaps  the  same  as  Dagamus 
(q.  v.).  He  was  bom  between  565  and  570,  and  died 
Sept.  18,  641.  Both  March  12  ami  Sept.  13  are  given 
as  his  festival— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Dagg,  John  L.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom. 
at  Middleburg,  Loudon  Co.,  Va.,  Feb.  13, 1794.  He  was 
converted  in  1809^  baptized  in  1816,  ordained  in  1817; 
for  several  years  preached  to  churches  in  his  native 
state,  and  in  1825  became  pastor  of  the  Fifth  Baprist' 
Church  in  Philadelphia.  He  removed  to  Tuscaloosa, 
AhL,  in  1886,  and  for  eight  years  was  principal  of  Uie 
Alabama  Female  Athenseum.  In  1844  he  was  elected 
president  of  Mercer  University,  Ga.,  where  he  ahK> 
gave  instniction  iu  theology.  He  resigned  his  office  in 
1856.  ami  died  Jnne  11, 1884,  at  Haynesville,  Ala.  He 
published.  Manual  of  Theoictgg  {I6b7):  — Treatise  on 
Church  Order  {i8b»)i  — Elements  of  Moral  Sasnee 
(1859):»J&WdeiMea  of  ChristianUg  (1868),  and  several 
minor  works,  some  of  them  of  a  controversial  character^ 
See  CmthctiTtf  Baptist  £negclop.j^dQ^     (J.a&)         ) 

DaggaL    See  Dajal. 

Daggett;  Levi,  Jr.^  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Troy,  N.  H.,  in  1820.  He  was  converted 
in  1841,  and  after  a  few  months*  preaching  united  with' 
the  Providence  Conference.  He  died  April  18, 1857^ 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conference^  1858,  p.  89. 

Daggett,  Oliver  Blls'virorth,  ]!).D.,  a  Congrega*^ 
tional  minister,  was  bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  14^ 
1810.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1828;  and 
subsequently  studied  in  the  Law  School  and  the  Divinity 
School.  He  was  pastor  of  the  South  Church  in  Hart- 
ford, from  April  12, 1887,  to  June  28,  1843;  in  Canan- 
daigua,  N.  Y.,  from  January,  1845,  to  October,  1867 ;  for 
three  years  of  Yale  College  Church  and  Livingston 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  college ;  and  from  February,' 
1871,  to  September,  1877,  pastor  of  the  Second  Churcl^ 
in  New  London,  Conn.;  and  subsequently  resided  in 
Hartford  without  charge.  He  died  Sept.  1, 1880.  See 
Cong.  Year-book,  1881,  p.  21. 

Dagila  was  wife  of  a  steward  of  Huneric,  king  of  the 
.Vandals.  Under  the  persecution  of  Genseric,  she  sev- 
eral times  confessed  her  faith.  In  A.D. 488,  under  Hu- 
neric, she  was  flogged  with  whips  and  staves  till  she 
was  exhausted,  and  then  exiled  to  a  barren  desert, 
whither  she  went  with  cheerfulness.  They  afterwards 
offered  to  send  her  to  a  less  frightful  place,  but  she  pre- 
ferred to  remain  where  she  was. — Smith,  Did.  of  Christ 
Biog.  a.  v. 

Dagln,  Francesco  (called  il  Capelki),  an  Italian 
painter,  was  bom  at  Venice  in  1714,  and  studied  under 
Giovanni  Battista  Piazzetta.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  at  Venice.  One  of  his  best  work^  is 
St.  George  and  the  Dragon,  in  the  parochial  church  of 
San  Bonate,  in  Bergamo.  He  died  in  1784.  See 
Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Dagnus.    See  Dkcius. 

Dago,  eleventh  bishop  of  Orleans  and  successor  of 
St.  Flosculus,  lived  about  the  end  of  the  5tb  or  begin* 
ning  of  the  6th  century. 

Ddgoba  (Sanscrit,  dd,  ddtu,  or  dhdtu,  an  osseous  rel- 
ic, and  geba,  or  garika,  the  womb)  is  s  conical  structure 
surmounting  relics  among  the  Buddhists.  These  build- 
ings are  sometimes  of  immense  height,  of  circular  form, 
and  composed  of  stone  or  brick,  faced  with  stone  or 
stucco.  They  are  built  upon  a  platform,  which  again 
rests  upon  a  natural  or  artificial  elevation,  and  is  usu- 


DAGOBERTUS 


220 


DAHOM£T 


ally  reached  by  a  flight  of  steps.  Of  the  reliei  pvfr- 
eerved  in  them,  the  most  oonspicuoua  objects  are  gener> 
ally  Teasels  of  stone  or  metaL  They  commonly  contain 
a  silver  box  or  casket,  and  within  that,  or  sometimes 
by  itself,  a  casket  of  gold.  Within  these  vessels,  or 
sometimes  in  the  cell  in  which  they  are  placed,  are 
found  small  pearls,  gold  buttons,  gold  ornaments  and 
rings,  beads,  pieces  of  white  and  colored  glass  and  crys- 
tal, pieces  of  clay  or  stone  with  impressions  of  figures, 
bits  of  bone  and  teeth  of  animals,  pieces  of  doth,  and 
bits  of  bark.  The  dagobas  are  held  in  the  utmost 
respect  by  the  Buddhists,  on  account  of  the  relics  in 
them.  See  Gardner,  FaiUia  of  the  World,  s.  v.;  Wil- 
son, Ariana  Aniiqua;  Hardy,  Eattem  Monaehism,  p. 
217  sq. 

OagobertiiB  (or  Radabertos)  was  the  twenti- 
eth archbishop  of  Tarentaise,  and  lived  about  the  end 
of  the  8th  centur}*. 

Dagonel,  Pibkrb,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom 
on  the  island  of  Lifu,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  1585.  He 
entered  the  Jesuit  order  Aug.  2, 1605,  taught  philosophy 
for  four  years,  and  became  prefect  of  the  GoUege  of  Di- 
jon. He  died  at  Pont^l^Mousson,  Dec  7, 1650,  leaving 
Traits  des  Indulgencet  (Nancv,  1626)  :»Le  CAemcpi  du 
Ciel  (ibid.  1627)  :^Le»  DhoUt  Pentiet  (Paris,  1681)  :-- 
DoaitMe  (ibid,  eod.)  x^UEchelU  da  Samtt  (ibid.  1688) : 
— Le  Miroir  des  Richt$  Qbid.  1641)  i—Let  Devoir$  du 
ChrUien  (Lyons,  1648  and  1647).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Bioff.  Ghirahj  s.  v. 

Daguerre,  Jban,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Ia  Bessorce,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  in  1708.  He 
established  and  directed,  for  fifty-two  years,  a  seminary 
there,  founded  a  convent  of  nuns  at  Hasparren,  and  died 
in  1788,  leaving  Ahrigi  des  Prmeipe*  dt  Morale  (Paris, 
1778,  1819,  1823).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gen^aU, 
s.'v. 

Daguet,  PiERKB  Antoine  Alezandrb,  a  French 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Baumes-les-Dames  (Franche- 
Comt^),  Dec  1, 1707.  He  belonged  to  the  Jesuit  or- 
der, and  when  it  was  dissolved,  withdrew  to  Besan^on, 
.  where  he  died  in  1775,  leaving  Exercicet  Chretiens 
dee  Gene  de  Guerre^  etc.  (Lyons,  1749) : — Coneideratione 
Chretiemue  pour  Chaque  Jour  du  Moie  (ibid.  1758) : — 
Exerdoee  du  Chritien  (ibid.  1759) : — La  Coneolatum  du 
Chriiien  (ibid.).     See  Hoefer,  A'biir.  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Dagtun,  in  Lamian  religion,  is  the  official  dress  of 
the  priests  among  the  Mongolians.  It  is  a  large  cloak 
or  mantle,  made  of  yellow  silk,  striped  with  red,  and 
with  a  coUar,  also  of  red. 

Dagnr  (or  Dag,  i.  c  day),  according  to  the  Norse 
mythology,  is  the  son  of  Dellingnr  (twilight),  the  third 
husband  of  Not  (night),  the  daughter  of  Niorf  (dark- 
ness), a  giant  who  had  his  habitation  in  Jotunheim. 
Dagur  and  Not  were  adopted  by  Alfadur,  who  gave 
them  each  two  stallions  and  two  wagons,  with  which 
to  journey  around  the  earth  once  a  day.  Not  rides 
with  her  steed  Rhimfaxi  (dark  mane)  in  advance  The 
earth  is  wet  every  morning  from  the  foam  (dew)  run- 
ning from  the  steed.  Dagur's  steed  is  called  Skinfaxi 
(bright  mane);  from  his  shining  mane  ever}*thing  be- 
comes light 

Dahl,  JoHANN  Christiast  Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  1, 1771,  at  Ros- 
tock. In  1778  he  began  his  studies  at  his  native  place, 
and  after  having  completed  them  at  Jena  and  Gottin- 
gen,  returned  as  lecturer  to  Rostock  in  1797.  In  1802 
he  was  made  professor  of  Greek  literature,  and  in  1804 
professor  of  theolog}' ;  in  1807  he  took  his  degree  as  doc- 
tor of  theology,  presehting  for  his  thesis,  De  aif^ivri^ 
Epitiolarum  Petrina  Poeteriorie  atque  Juda,  He  died 
April  15, 1810.  He  published,  Amos,  neu  uberseiU  und 
tHaxUert  (Gottingen,  1795) : — ObservalUmes  PhiloloffieoB 
aique  Critica  ad  queedam  Prophetarum  Minorum  Loca 
(Neu-Strclitz,  1798)  i^Chrestomathia  Philomana  (Ham- 
burg, 1800-1802,  2  vols.):— Lehrbuch  der  JlomUetik 


(Leipsic,  1811).  See  Winer,  Hantdbudi  der  ikeoL  LiL  U 
91, 228, 226,  798 ;  u,  60, 97 ;  Doring,  Die  GekhrteH  TAe- 
ologen  DeuiseUands,  i,  804  aq.;  Fllist,  BibL  Jud.  i,  194. 
(a  P.) 

DaUer,  Jban  Grobob,  a  Franco-German  Protest- 
ant theologian,  was  bom  at  Strasburg,  Dec  7, 1760,  and 
died  while  professor  of  theology  and  Old  Testament 
exegesis  there,  June  29, 1832.  He  wrote,  Ammadeef^ 
stones  in  Versionem  Graeam  Proverbior,  Sahm,  ex  Fe- 
neta  S,  Mard  Bibliotheca  Nuper  EdUam  (Strasbuig, 
1786) : — De  Ubroruni  Paralipomenum  AudoriiaU  atque 
Fide  (ibid  1819)  -^Die  Denh-  und  Siitenspruche  Salo- 
mos  (ibid.  1810)  i—Jiremie  Traduit  sur  le  Texte  Orig^ 
inal,  Accompagne  de  Notes  (ibid.  1825-1830,  2  vols.). 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  IM.  i,  52,  79,  212,  219, 
859;  FUrst,J9»5/./udi,194;  Lichtenberger,  ffKycA^p^ 
die  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Dahlman,  JoHif  Jacob  Willxam,  a  German  Re- 
formed  minister,  was  bom  at  Elberfeld,  Rhenish  Prussia, 
June  29. 1801.  He  became  a  member  of  the  German  Re* 
formed  Church  in  Elberfeld  in  1845;  came  to  New  York 
in  1848,  and  in  1851  was  licensed  to  preach.  He  was 
pastor  at  Lancaster,  Erie  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1852,  and  in  1858 
at  Araheim,  Brown  Co.,  O.  In  1858  he  removed  East, 
and  was  for  a  time  pastor  of  a  German  Presbyterian 
congregation  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.  He  served  the  Reiformed 
Church  at  Melrose,  N.  Y.,  from  1861  to  1868,  when  he 
took  chaige  of  the  congregation  in  Glassborough,  N.  J., 
for  six  yean,  and  then  removed  to  Bridesbnrg,  Pla^  where 
he  labored  several  years.  His  health  failing,  he  divid- 
ed his  remaining  days  between  CoUegeville,  Montgom- 
ery Co.,  and  Philadelphia,  where  he  died,  Aug.  1, 1874. 
See  Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  the  Germ.  Be/.  Church,  v,  112. 

Dahman,  in  Persian  mythology,  is  a  pure  and  holy 
genius,  whose  favor  cannot  be  secured  by  sacrifices,  but 
only  by  prayers  and  good  deeds.  The  Persians  made 
thirty  prayers  to  this  spirit  for  their  relations,  and,  in 
consequence,  sixty  sins  unto  death  were  forgiven  the 
dead.  Dahman  is  the  most  noble  benefactor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  heaven,  as  also  of  the  human  souls  goings 
there.  His  first  work  is  to  take  the  soul  and  bring  it 
into  the  presence  of  God,  after  which  it  is  entirely  safe. 

Dahme,  Georg  Christiav,  a  Lnthersn  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  8, 1739,  at  Jeinsen,  a  village 
in  the  province  of  Hanover.  AiVer  being  for  some  time 
court  chaplain  at  the  city  of  Hanover,  he  was  appointed 
in  1792  general  superintendent  at  Celle,  and  died  while 
member  of  consistory  and  dean  of  Bardowieck,  June  20, 
1808.  He  published,  Predigten  (Branswick,  1775):^ 
SiAen  kleine  exegeiische  Av/saize  (GoUingen,  1791). 
See  Ddring,  Die  deutschen  Kamelredner  des  18.  wtd  19. 
Jahrhunderts,  p.  24  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Dttlme,  August  Ferdikaxd,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Leipsic,  Oct  26, 1807. 
He  commenced  his  academical  lectures  at  Halle  in  1831, 
was  in  1885  professor  extraordinarius  there,  and  died 
Nov.  80, 1878,  leaving,  De  Prcucientia  Divina  cum  Liber-^ 
tate  Humana  Concordia  (Leipsic,  1830) :  —  De  V^ftitni 
CUmentis  Alexandrini  (ibid.  IfiKBl)  :-^GeschichUiche  Dar- 
stellung  der  jUdisch-alexandrimschen  BeligionS'Phiioso^ 
phie  (Halle,  1834,  2  vols.)  i—Entwiclehtng  des  I^ottH^ 
nischen  Lehrbegriffs  (ibid.  1885) : — Die  Chrisluspartei  im 
der  apostolischen  Kirche  tu  Corinth  (ibid.  1841).  Se« 
Zuchold,  BUfl.  TheoL  1,257 ;  FUrst,  Bibl.  Jud,  i,  194 ;  Wi- 
ner, r/andbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  295, 418, 522, 888.   (Bw  p.) 

Dahomey,  Rkuoiok  of.  Dahomey  forms  a  king- 
dom of  considerable  extent  in  the  interior  of  Western 
Africa,  behind  the  Slave  Coast.  The  centre  of  its  relig- 
ious and  political  system  is  a  superstitious  veneration  for 
the  person  of  their  monarch,  whom  the  natives  r^gmxd 
as  almost  a  divinity.  It  is  even  aoconnted  criminal  to 
believe  that  the  king  eats,  drinks,  and  sleeps  like  oi^- 
nary  mortals.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  his  ordevs  aie 
implicitly  obeyed,  however  unreasonable  or  tyrannical 
thev  mav  be. 


i 


DAIBOTH 


221 


DAIS 


Fetbb  (q.  v.)  wonbip  preraib  here,  as  in  all  other 
parte  of  Western  Africa,  the  leopard  being  their  sacred 
animaL  The  public  sacrifice  to  this  animal  consists  of 
a  bullock ;  but  private  sacrifices  of  fowls,  and  even  goats, 
are  common,  and  are  offered  with  great  ceremony. 
When  a  man  dies  his  principal  wives  and  some  of  his 
favorites  are  offered  in  sacrifice  on  his  tomb.  The  priest- 
hood is  taken  from  the  higher  daases,  even  some  of  the 
royal  wives  and  children  being  found  in  the  sacred  or- 
der. To  reveal  the  sacred  mysteries  and  incantations, 
the  knowledge  of  which  is  limited  to  the  priestly  oflice, 
is  visited  with  certain  death.  See  Forbes,  Dahomey  and 
ike  Dakomamt;  Wilson,  Wettem  Africa. 

Dafbotb,  a  Japanese  idol  of  great  popularity,  is 
of  monstrous  height,  sits  in  the  middle  of  his  pagoda 
on  a  table  altar  raised  but  a  little  from  the  ground,  and 
with  his  hand,  which  is  as  long  as  the  body  of  an  ordi- 
nary man,  touches  the  roof.  He  has  the  breasts  and 
(aee  of  a  woman,  and  black,  woolly,  crispy  locks;  and 
u  endreled  on  all  sides  with  gilded  rays,  on  which  are 
placed  a  great  number  of  images  representing  the  infe- 
rior idols  of  the  Japanese. 

Daiobing,  in  Lamian  mythology,  is  the  god  of 
war  among  the  Mongolians,  Thibetians,  and  Mantchoo- 
rians.  He  is  represented  in  full  uniform,  surrounded  by 
trophies,  and  his'  figure  is  used  to  decorate  the  army- 
banners,  also  carried  as  a  badge.  All  siiocess  in  war  is 
ascribed  to  him,  and  it  is  believed  that  his  presence  is 
a  preventive  against  all  barm. 

Dai^  (or  Dega;  Lat,  Dageut),  an  Irish  bishop  of 
the  6th  century,  was  son  of  Cairell,  of  the  race  of  Eogh- 
an.  He  was  a  pupil  of  SL  Finnian  of  Clonard,  and,  alter 
be  became  a  priest,  gave  the  viaticum  to  St.  Mochta  of 
Loath.  He  was  a  skilful  artificer,  and  was  said  to  pass 
his  days  in  reading,  and  carving  iron  and  copper,  and 
his  nights  in  transcribing  manuscripts.  The  construc- 
tion of  three  hundred  bells  and  three  hundred  crosiers 
ci  bishops  and  abbots,  with  the  transcription  of  three 
hundred  copies  of  the  gospels,  is  attributed  to  him.  He 
died  A.D.  587.  His  chief  festival  was  Aug.  18,  although 
Feb.  19  is  given  as  a  minor  festival. — Smith,  Diet,  of 
CkriaL  Biog.  s.  v. 

Daikokn,  in  Japanese  mythology,  is  one  of  the 
four  deities  of  wealth.  He  is  the  giver  of  happiness 
and  prosperity,  for  with  the  hammer  which  he  holds 
he  can  change  everything  he  touches,  and  get  anything 
he  dcsireSk  He  sits  on  a  keg  of  rice,  and  beside  him  is 
m.  bag  in  which  he  preserves  hu  treasures,  and  out  of 
which  be  dispenses  to  his  worshippers  whatever  they 


X>al]l,  Trosias,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  entered  as  ex- 
boffter  in  1568;  signed  the  articles  drawn  up  by  the 
wynod  in  1572;  was  reader  from  1574  to  1576,  and  died 
Febw  19, 1586.    See  FaaU  EeeU§,  Seoticaiue,  i,  882. 

DalU^  PiBRRE,  a  clergyman  of  the  French  Reformed 
Church,  was  bom  in  1649,  and  removed  to  America  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century.  He  had  minis- 
tered in  the  early  Hnguenot  settlements  in  Massachu- 
setts for  some  time,  when  the  Reformed  Dntch  Ghuroh 
in  New  York  engaged  him,  in  1683,  to  preach  to  the 
French  Reformed  Church  in  that  city,  as  colleague  of 
Heorictts  Selyns.  After  1792,  he  devoted  himself  to 
itinerant  missionary  work  among  the  Huguenots, 
preaching  occasionally  at  New  PaJtz,  in  Ulster  Co., 
N.  Y^  for  several  years;  also  at  New  Rochelle,  West- 
cheater  Co.,  and  on  Staten  Island.  In  1696  he  became 
the  minister  of  the  French  Reformed  Church  in  Bos- 
too,  wfaeie  he  died.  May  20,  1715.  See  CoL  Hist,  of 
N.  r.  iii,  651,  and  Mau.  ii,  52;  DeWitt,  Hitt.  Dueourn, 
p.  B6;  <>))rwin,  Maamcd  of  the  Ref,  Church  tn  America, 
p.  388.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Dally,  WtLLiAV  M.,D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Methodbt  Epis- 
cofMl  mioiatcr,  was  bom  at  Coshocton,  O.,  in  1812.    He 
his  ehUdhood  on  a  farm  in  Franklin  County,  Ind. ; 
aU  be  oooU  at  the  accessible  schools  bv  the  time 


he  was  fifteen;  then  began  teaching;  was  converted; 
commenced  preaching  the  next  year,  and  in  1881  entered 
the  Indiana  Conference.  In  1836  he  was  stationed  at 
Bloomington,  and  graduated  at  Indiana  State  University. 
In  1888  he  was  transferred  to  the  Missouri  Conference, 
and  stationed  at  St.  Louis.  Soon  after  he  was  elected  a 
professor  in  St.  Charies  College.  In  1840  he  returned 
to  Indiana,  broken  in  health,  and  suffering  from  hemor- 
rhage of  the  lungs.  In  1843  he  re-entered  the  active 
ranks  as  pastor  at  Madison,  Ind.;  in  1844  and  1845  was 
chaplain  in  the  United  States  Congress;  then  again  en- 
tertSd  the  regular  work;  was  elected  president  of  Indi- 
ana State  University  in  1858 ;  and  in  1862  appointed 
hospitsl  chaplain  at  St.  Louis,  which  position  he  held 
until  1865,  when  he  went  South  as  special  mail-agent. 
In  1869  he  connected  himself  with  the  Louisiana  Con- 
ference, and  served  the  Church  as  presiding  elder  till 
his  decease,  in  January,  1877.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Conference,  1878,  p.  6. 

Daily  Celebratioti  of  the  //ofy  Commmuon  is 
mentioned  in  Acts  ii,  42-46;  and  by  Tertullian,  Cyp- 
rian, IrensBus,  Ambrose,  Gregory,  and  Stephen  of  Au- 
tun,  and  is  provided  for  in  the  Church  of  England. 

Daily  Prayer.    See  Daily  Service. 

Daily  Prefiice  is  the  preface  used  on  all  ferial 
days  in  the  Churoh  of  England,  immediately  before  the 
Sanctutf  in  the  service  of  the  holy  communion. 

Dai-Nits  No-Rai,  in  Japanese  mythobgy,  is  the 
great  form  of  the  sun,  a  god  of  the  air  and  light,  he 
(mm  whom  all  light,  even  that  of  the  sun  and  stars, 
comes.  He  is  represented  seated  on  a  cow.  See  Axa- 
Ko  Watta. 

Daina-lei^  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the  sword  of 
king  Hdgni,  the  father  of  the  sorceress  HUdur.  The 
sword  had  been  made  by  dwarfs,  and  had  the  attribute 
that,  once  unsheathed,  it  must  shed  blood,  and  that  the 
wounds  made  by  it  were  incurable.  The  war,  which 
originated  between  Hdgni  and  Hedin,  from  the  seizure 
of  Hildur,  will  continue,  by  the  force  of  this  sword  and 
Hildur's  strategy,  to  the  end  of  the  world. 

Daira,  in  Greek  mythology,  ''the  omniscient,"  a 
divine  being  in  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries,  mother  of 
Eleusis,  by  Mereury,  is  declared  one  sometimes  with 
Venus,  sometimes  with  Ceres,  also  with  Juno  and  Pros- 
erpina. 

Dairohell  (or  DairohoUa),  an  Irish  bishop  of 
Glendalough,  was  the  son  of  Curetai.  He  died  in  678, 
and  is  commemorated  May  8. 

Daire  (or  Daria)  is  the  name  of  several  saints 
given  in  the  Irish  calendars,  but  sufficient  cannot  be 
found  to  give  them  a  weU-definetl  individuality  or  place 
in  history. 

Dairi,  the  spiritual  head  or  supreme  pontiff  of  the 
Shinto  (q.  v.)  religion  of  Japan.  At  one  time  he  com- 
bined in  bis  own  person  the  offices  of  secular  and  eccle- 
siastical ruler  of  the  country'.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
16th  century,  however,  the  temporal  power  was  taken 
from  him,  leaving  him  only  the  spiritual.  His  position 
is  one  of  great  dignity,  and  he  attempts  to  maintain  it 
with  suitable  displsy.  The  descendants  of  the  royal 
family  all  belong  to  his  court,  and  have  now  become  so 
numerous  that  they  are  obliged  to  labor  at  the  most 
humble  occupations  to  maintain  their  outward  dignity. 
The  person  of  the  Dairi  is  regarded  as  very  sacred,  even 
as  above  all  mortal  imperfection.  When  he  dies,  the 
next  heir  (of  whatever  age  or  sex)  succeeds  to  the  of- 
fice thus  made  vacant.  At  such  a  time  he  is  said  to 
renovate  his  soul,  that  is,  to  be  renewed  in  the  form  of 
his  successor.  The  Dairi  confers  all  titles  of  honor,  and 
canonizes  the  saints.  See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  Worid, 
s.  V. 

Daia  is (1)  tabemade  work,  canopies;  (2)  the  raisetl 
platform  for  the  principal  table  in  the  hall,  hence  called 


DAJAK  VERSION 


222 


DALBEY 


the  high  table ;  (S)  the  canopy  over  a  pTeaident'a  chair. 
The  Btall-Uke  seat  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  re- 
mains at  Mayfield,  and  forms  the  centre  of  the  table. 

Dajak  Versioti  of  the  Scriftitbes.  The  Dajak 
ia  spoken  in  Borneo.  A  translation  of  the  New  Test 
was  commenced  bv  missionaries  of  the  Rhenish  mis- 
sion  in  1843,  and  completed  in  1846.  It  was  printed 
under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  A.  Hardiland,  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  This  version  is  written  in  a  dia- 
lect  of  the  Dajak  calleil  Poelopetak,  which  prevails  al- 
most over  the  whole  south  side  of  Borneo.  A  new  and 
levieed  edition  was  published  in  1859.    (B.  P.) 

Dajal,  the  name  which  Mohammed  gave  to  the 
antichrist  or  false  Christ,  whose  appearance  he  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  ten  signs  which  should  precede  the 
resurrection.  The  prophet  thus  describes  him :  <' Veri- 
ly he  is  of  low  stature,  although  bulky ;  and  has  splay 
feet,  and  is  blind,  with  bis  6esh  even  on  one  side  of  bis 
face,  without  the  mark  of  an  eye,  and  his  other  eye  is 
neither  full  nor  sunk  into  his  head.  Then,  if  you 
should  have  a  doubt  about  Dajal,  know  that  your  cher- 
•  isher  (God)  is  not  blind."  He  describes  him  as  coming 
with  deceptions,  and  displaying  miraculous  power.  He 
succeeds  for  a  certain  time,  until  the  advent  of  Christ 
shall  put  an  end  to  him  and  his  followers.  See  Gard- 
ner, Faiths  of  the  Worlds  s.  v. 

Dakhani  Version  of  tiik  Scriptures.  The 
Dakhani  is  a  dialect  of  Hindostanee  current  in  the  Ma- 
dras presidency,  and  is  used  by  the  Mohammedans.  The 
first  parts  of  Scripture,  Genesis  and  the  four  gospels, 
were  published  aboat  the  year  1862,  to  which  were 
added,  in  1868,  the  other  parts  of  the  New  Test.  •  (B.  P.) 

Dakin,  Ann,  wife  of  John  Dakin,  was  a  minister 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  died  in  Charlotte,  Vt., 
March  28, 1861,  aged  fifl^'-nine  years.  She  became  a 
member  when  about  twenr y-two  years  of  age,  and  for 
many  yean  was  an  acceptable  minister.  In  1830,  how- 
.ever,  she  withdrew  from  the  society,  but  towards  the 
close  of  her  life  reunited  with  the  Friends.  See  A  mer. 
Annual  Monitor j  1862,  p.  42. 

Dakin,  Josepb,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Castleton,  Derbyshire.  He  commenced 
his  ministry  in  1811,  worked  hard,  and  died  suddenly 
at  Tbirsk,  Jan.  8, 1818,  aged  thirty-one  years. 

DakinSfT^illiam  (1),  one  of  the  translators  of  King 
James's  Bible,  was  educated  at  Westminster  School  and 
Trinity  College,  where  he  became  a  junior  fellow  Oct.  3, 
1593,  and  senior  fellow  the  following  March.  In  1601 
he  was  made  Greek  lecturer  of  that  college,  and  iu  1604 
was  chosen  professor  of  divinity  in  Gresham  College. 
He  died  in  Februarv,  1607.  He  was  one  of  two  who 
translated  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul  and  the  canonical 
epistles,  but  did  not  live  to  sec  the  work  completed. 
Siiee  Chalmers,  Bioff.  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,, 
and  A  mer,  A  uthort,  s.  v. 

Dakina,  V7illlam  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man, published  a  translation  of  the  History  of  Cathe- 
rine,  Empress  of  Russia  (1798, 2  vols.),  and  several  single 
Salmons,  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  t/- 
thorSj  s.  v. 

Dakota  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  Till  the 
year  1839  no  edition  of  any  portion  of  the  Scripture 
was  printed  for  the  Dakota  or  Sioux  Indians.  But  in 
1879  the  entire  Bible,  the  work  of  the  Revs.  Th.  S.  Will- 
iamson and  S.  R.  Riggs,  was  given  to  the  Dakota  people. 
Forty  years  these  two  missionaries  spent  in  their  work, 
each  laboring  separately,  but  having  the  translation 
carefully  read  and  freely  criticised  by  the  other.   (B.  P.) 

Dakpa-zamOt  in  Lamian  mythology,  is  one  of  the 
most  frightful  divisions  of  helL  -  It  belongs  to  the  eight 
regions  into  which  bell -(Gnielva)  is-divided;  and  in 
this  place  the  damned  are  tortured  by  fire  nntil  thepain 
kills  them,  but  immediately  they  awake  to  new  life  and 
new  tortures. 


Dakaha,  in  Hindfi  mythology,  is  a  powerful  uiiere- 
ated  spirit,  sprung  from  Brahma*s  thumb,  and  therefote 
one  of  the  ten  rulers  of  all  beings.  He  had  no  son,  bdt 
fifty  daughten  by  his  wife  Prassudi,  the  daughter  of 
Suayambhu.  These .  daughters  were  given  away  in 
marriage  that  they  might  bear  him  sons.  Twenty- 
seven  of  the  same  were  given  to  Chiandra,  the  god  of 
the  moon ;  thirteen  to  Kasyapa,  Brahma*8  grandson ; 
seven  to  Darma,  the  god  of  justice  and  benevolence; 
of  the  remaining  three,  Akni  received  one,  Werotren 
another,  and  the  last  and  most  beautful,  Shakti,  was 
given  to  Siva.  The  ten  rulers,  of  whom  Dakslw 
was  one,  gave  a  great  feast  once,  to  which  all  the  gods 
were  invited.  When  Daksha  entered  the  gods  all 
arose  out  of  respect  to  him,  save  Siva,  who  remained 
seated.  Daksha  then  insulted  him,  without  Siva 
saying  anything.  Some  time  thcreafrer  Daksha  in- 
vited all  the  gods  to  another  festival,  but  overlooked 
Siva  and  his  wife  Shakti.  Although  Siva  sought  to 
persuade  her  not  to  go,  Shakti  went  to  the  festival^ 
and  was  treated  with  insult.  She  then  said  she  would 
lay  aside  the  body  she  received  from  Daksha,  and  take 
on  another.  This  took  place,  and  she  was  bom  as  Par- 
wadi;  but  Siva,  in  anger  over  his  loss,  tore  a  hair 
from  his  head,  out  of  which  there  came  a  giant,  who 
cut  off  Daksha's  head,  set  his  house  on  fire,  and  burned 
his  head  up  with  iL  The  gods  prayed  Siva's  for- 
giveness, which  was  granted.  But  as  Daksha*s  head 
did  not  exist,  he  placed  a  goat's  head  in  its  stead. 

Dakahinaa,  or  r^ht-handjorm  of  worship  among 
the  HindOs,  that  is,  when  the  wonhtp  of  any  goddess 
is  performed  in  a  public  manner,  and  agreeably  to  the 
Vedas  or  Puranas,  The  only  ceremony  which  can  be 
supposed  to  form  an  exception  to  the  general  character 
of  this  mode  is  the  Balif  an  offering  of  blood,  in  which 
rite  a  number  of  animals,  usually  kids,  are  annually  de- 
capitated. In  some  cases  life  is  offered  without  shed- 
ding blood,  when  the  more  barbarous  practice  is  adopt- 
ed of  pummelling  the  poor  animal  to  death  with  the 
fists;  at  other  times  blood  only  is  offered,  without  in- 
jury to  life.  Such  practices  are  not  considered  ortho- 
dox.— Gardner,  Faiths  ofihe  Worlds  s.  v. 

Dalad^,  the  left  canine  tooth  of  Buddha,  the  roost 
celebrated  relic  in  the  possession  of  his  followers.  To 
preserve  this,  the  only  portion  which  remains  of  the 
body  of  the  holy  sage,  a  temple  has  been  erected,  in 
which  it  is  deposited,  being  placed  in  a  small  chamber, 
enshrined  in  six  cases,  the  largest  of  them  being  up> 
wards  of  five  feet  in  height,  and  formed  of  silver,  on  the 
model  of  a  dAgoba  (q.  v.).  The  same  shape  is  preserved 
in  the  five  inner  ones,  two  of  them  being  inlaid  with 
rubies  and  other  precious  stones.  The  relic  itself  "is  a 
piece  of  discolored  ivory  or  bone,  slightly  curved,  near- 
ly two  inches  in  length,  and  one  in  diameter  at  the 
base;  and  from  thence  to  the  other  extremity,  which 
is  rounded  and  blunt,  it  considerably  decreases  in  size." 
'i'he  history  of  this  venerable  relic  is  given  by  Hard3', 
in  Eastern  Afotiachism,  p.  224  sq. 

Dalai-Xtama,  the  great  high-priest  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  Tartary  and  Thibet.    See  Lamaism. 

Dalberg,  Adolphua,  prince -abbot  of  Fulda, 
founded,  in  1784,  in  this  celebrated  abbey,  a  Catholic 
university.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GiniraUf  s.  t. 

Dalberg,  Wolfgang  de,  chamberlain  of  Worms, 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  archbishop  and  of  elector 
of  Mentz.  He  died  in  1601.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
G^irale,  a.  v, 

Dalbey,  Jorl,  a  Methodist  ProtesUnt  minister, 
was  bom  in  Ohio,  June  1, 1810.  He  was  converted  in 
early  life;  in  1828  licensed  to  preach  in  the  Methodist 
Episoopsl  Church ;  iii  1859  joined  the  Methodist  Pkot- 
estant  Church,  and  thereafter  labored  successively  on 
various  circuits  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  In  1841 
he  was  elected  pr^ident  of  the  Pittsbuigh  Conference, 
and  in  1848  to  the  presidency  of  the  Muskingum  Con- 


DALBHACH 


223 


DALE 


fereoee;  in  IM  wis  tnnsfenred  to  the  Ohio  Confer- 
MKX,  but  in  1851  ranored  to  St.  Chailea  County,  Mo^ 
tod  Mttied  on  a  fiun.  He  next  entered  the  Illinois 
Goofci«oa,and  in  1860  joined  the  North  Iowa  Confer- 
eBoe,m  which  he  labored  until  his  death,  Nov.  22, 1869. 
See  ftaett,  Uitt.  of  the  Metk.  ProL  Church,  p.  879. 

DalUiaoh  (Lat.  Dalmaciu»\  an  Irish  saint  of  Cuil- 
CoUaioge,  lived  about  the  first  half  of  the  7fch  oenturr. 
He  WM  of  the  race  of  Oilill  Flaunbeg,  a  disciple  of  St. 
Abben  ami  a  friend  of  St  Caiman.  He  was  a  strict 
perfonner  of  penance,  and  it  is  said  that  **  he'  never 
touched  his  hand  to  his  side  as  long  as  he  lived."  He 
is  ooomcaiorated  Oct  28.  See  Smith,  Dkt,  of  Christ, 
Biog,  t,  V. 

Dalbin,  Jkait,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Tonkmee  about  1630,  and  wai  appointed  archdeacon  of 
the  cstbcdnl  of  that  city.  He  wrote  several  religious 
and  oontforersial  works,  the  principal  of  which  are, 
J)ucourt,  etc  (Pari*,  1666 ;  Avignon,  1567) :— A«  Saa't- 
mm  de  FAulel  (Paris,  1566):— 0/>t/«ctt^«  Spirituels 
(ibid  1567) :— JLa  Marque  de  C&glUe  (ibid.  1568).  See 
Hoefer,  Xout.  Biog.  GiniraUj  s.  v. 

Oalliy;  William,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bono  at  Sutton-Bonnington,  Nottinghamshire,  June 
10, 178a  He  united  with  the  Methodist  society  at  the 
age  of  seventeen,  entered  the  ministry  in  1807,  became 
a  aapeninnieiary  at  the  end  of  forty-four  years,  took  up 
bis  abode  at  \Visbeach,  Cambridgeshire,  and.  labored 
iiotii  bis  death,  March  12,  18G0.  See  MinUtes  of  the 
BritakCoi^erenee^lSW.  , 

Dalbj.  William  Lee,  a  minister  of  the  Method- 
ist Eptseopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Northampton 
County,  Ya.,  July  6,  1826i.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1848;  joined  the  Virginia  Conference  in  1852 ;  and  la- 
bored until  his  death,  Feb:  7, 1866.  Sea  Minutet  of  A  n- 
tual  ComfertneeM  of  the  M,  E.  Church  South,  1866,  p.  7. 

Dalcho,  Fredkrick,  M.D.,  a  Protesunt  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  London,  England,  in  1770,  of  Prus- 
sian parents.  He  received  a  classical  and  medical  edu- 
carioo  b  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  obtained  a  physician's  oom- 
mlvion  in  the  Anaerican  army.  In  1799  he  resigned  and 
Rmoved  to  Charleston,  S.  C.  About  1807  he  became 
editor  of  the  Charletton  Courier;  but  in  1811  was  ap- 
pointed lay-reader  in  St.  Paul's  Parish,  Colleton;  in 
1^4  was  ordained  deacon  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  and  became  pastor  of  the  same  parish;  June 
12, 1818,  he  waa  admitted  to  the  priesthood ;  and  Feb. 
23,  1819,  elected  assistant  nrinister  of  St.  Michael's 
Church  in  Charleston.  He  died  there,  Nov.  24,  1886. 
His  pdncipal  publication  is,  ffittorieal  A  ccount  of  the 
P.  E.  Church  in  South  Carolina.  He  also  wrote.  The 
Dirimty  of  our  Saviour: — 7*Ae  Evidence  ftvm  Prophe- 
<y,  etc.;  and  was  the  projector,  and  for  a  long  time 
the  i^incipal  conductor,  of  the  Gospel  Messenger,  See 
Spngne,  A  mmaU  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  v,  560. 

Dale^  Abner,  a  German  Reformed  minister,  was 
bom  near  Boalsburg,  Centre  Co.,  Pa.,  Nov.  17,  1829. 
He  grMiuatc«l  from  Marshall  College  in  1852,  and  from 
the  ihetrfogical  seminary  at  Alercersburg  in  1856.  Soon 
afier  he  was  ordained  pastor  at  Fairview,  Butler  Co. ; 
and  fraoi  I8G0  to  1866  he  served  successively  Riroersburg 
and  Mercer  Mission.  His  health  failing,  he  was  with- 
out a  charge  for  several  years,  but  finally  accepted  a 
call  a^in  to  Fairview,  and  labored  there  until  his  death, 
Jan.  16, 1875.  See  Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  the  Germ,  Rtf 
Church,  r,  189. 

Dale,  Hervey  Smltb,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
botn  at  Danven,  Mass.,  in  1812.  He  graduated  from 
Bnnm  Unirernty  in  lftS4,  and  from  Union  Theological 
Seminary  in  1841;  was  onlained  the  same  year,  and 
■ettled  at  Newport,'  O.,  until  1851 ;  tras  pastor  at  Leba- 
Boe  for  «veral  years,  from  1852;  in  1856  became  agent 
for  the  Western  Baptist  Educational  Society;  and  died 
in  Oadanatl  In  1857.  See  Gen.  Cat,  of  Unim  Theol, 
Stm,  187C  iiL  19. 


Dale,  Z.  A.,  a  Baptist  mmister,  was  bom  in  De  Kalb 
County,  Tenn.,  in  1825.  He  united  with  the  Church  in 
1849;  the  same  year  was  licensed  to  preach;  ordained 
in  June,  1853;  labored  in  the  southern  part  of  Illinois; 
and  died  at  Sandoval,  Jan.  18,  1875.  See  Minutes  of 
III,  Anniversaries,  1875,  p.  7.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Dale,  James  Wilkinaon,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Odessa,  Del.,  Oct.  16,  1812.  He 
received  his  preparatory  education  in  Philadelphia  un- 
der Mr.  Cleanthus  Felt ;  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1881,  and  began  the  study  of  law  in 
Philadelphia.  In  the  fall  of  1^2  he  entered  Andover 
Theological  Seminary;  joined  the  middle  claM  in 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  the  fall  of  1838; 
the  next  year  returned  to  the  seminary  at  Andover,  and 
graduated  in  1835.  He  was  licensed  by  Andover  Asso- 
ciation, April  16,  visited  the  churches  of  Long  Island, 
and  those  of  eastern  Massachusetts  the  year  following, 
presenting  .the  missionary  cause,  and  was  ordained  at 
Dracut,  Aug.  29,  1837,  as  an  appointee  of  the  Amerir 
can  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions ;  but 
the  financial  condition  of  the  society  preventing  it  from 
sending  him  abroad,  he  studied  medicine  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  graduating  April  6, 1838,  and  sup- 
plying at  the  same  time  the  Firth  and  the  Fifteenth 
Presbyterian  churches  in  that  city.  He  was  an  agent 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Bible  Society,  and  labored  for  it 
throughout  the  state  for  the  next  seven  years ;  was  pas- 
tor of  Ridley  and  Middletown  churches,  Delaware  CouU" 
ty,  from  May  17, 1846,  to  April  8, 1858 ;  at  Media,  in  tho 
same  county,  from  Oct.  26, 1866,  to  Aug.  3,  1871 ;  and 
at  Wayne  from  Sept.  28,  1871,  to  Oct.  23,  1876.  He 
dietl  at  Media,  April  19, 188 1 .  Dr.  Dale  published  many 
works,  the  chief  of  which  arc  a  masterly  series  on  Bap^ 
tism  (Phila.  1867-1874, 4  vols.  8vo),  in  opposition  to  the 
views  of  Baptists.  Pruf.  A.  C.  Kendrick  reviewed  the 
volume  entitled  Classic  Baptism^m  the  Baptist  Quarter- 
ly, April,  1869 ;  Prof.  Broadus  his  Patristic  and  Christie 
Baptism,  in  the  same  Reviewj  1875,  p.  245 ;  and  Dr.  Whit- 
sitt  gave  a  general  reply  to  Dr.  Dale's  works  in  the  Bap^ 
list  Qfiarterly,  April,  1877.  See  also  the  scholarly  and 
valuable  book  by  David  B.  Ford,  entitled,  Studies  on  the 
Baptismal  Question,  including  a  Review  of  Dr,  Dale 
(Bost.  1879, 8vo). 

Dale,  Jeremiah,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  lx>ra  in 
Danvers,  Mass.,  in  1787.  He  was  converted  at  the  age 
of  eighteen ;  in  1816  removed  to  Zanesville,  O. ;  in  1^3 
was  ordained,  and  performed  much  itinerant  service, 
both  in  Ohio  and  Virginia ;  in  the  spring  of  1831  re- 
turned to  Danvers,  where  he  died,  Sept.  4  of  that  year. 
See  Christian  Watchman,  Sept.  16,  1831.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Dale,  Jonathan,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Goostrey,  Cheshire,  Aug.  11,  1827. 
He  joined  tho  Wesleyans ;  studied  at  Richmond  Col- 
lege; was  preacher  for  nearly  four  years  at  Leicester; 
then  united  with  the  Independents ;  and  in  1855  becatte 
pastor  at  Hallaton  and  Slawston,  in  Leicestershire.  Jn 
1859  he  removed  to  Heanor;  and  in  1867  became  pas- 
tor of  the  united  churches  of  Repton  and  Barrow,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death.  May  29, 1872,  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1873,  p.  822. 

Dale,  damnel,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  a  member  of  the  Delaware  Conference,  and  after 
man}*  years  of  active  service  died  at  Middletown,  Del., 
Nov.  16, 1878,  aged  seventy-three.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual  Conferences,  1873,  p.  77. 

Dale,  Thomas,  an  English  divine  and  poet,  was 
bora  in  London  in  1797.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
ordained  in  1828,  and  after  several  successive  appoint- 
ments as  curate  and  lecturer,  was  professor  of  English 
literature  in  London  University  from  1828  to  1830.  In 
1835  he  became  vicar  ef  St.  Bride,  Fleet  Street ;  in  1836 
professor  of  English  literature  in  King's  College,  London ; 
resigned  in  1839 ;  in  1843  was  made  canon  of  St.  Paul's ; 
and  in  1870  dean  of  Rochester.     He  died  May  14  of  the 


DALEN 


224 


DALIELL 


Mme  year,  leaving  several  volames  of  Semumt  and 
Poems. 

Daleiit  CoRNELis  vaNi  a  Flemish  engraver,  was 
bom  at  Antwerp  about  1640,  and  was  called  the  Younger 
to  distinguish  him  from  his  father.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Cornells  Visscher,  and  executed  a  number  of  pictures 
after  his  style,  among  which  are,  The  Adoration  of  the 
Skqfkerds ;  The  Virffin  with  the  Infant  JentM,  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GiniraU,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  Arista,  v. 

DalfinuB,  bishop  or  archbishop  of  Lyons,  flourished 
in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century.  It  in  said  that  when 
Wilfrid  made  his  visit  to  Kome,  he  was  hospitably 
entertained  by  Dalfinus,  who  became  warmly  attached 
to  him  and  wished  to  make  him  his  heir.  On  his  re> 
turn  in  658  he  tarried  at  Lyons  three  years,  during 
which  time  Dalfinus,  with  eight  other  bishops,  was  put 
to  death  by  Haldhild,  widow  of  Clovis  II,  king  of  the 
Franks.  She  was  afterwards  a  canonised  saint,  and 
the  story  is  inconsistent  with  her  character. — Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

DalgairnBy  John  Bernard,  an  English  priest  of 
the  Oratory,  was  bom  OcL  21,  1818.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  became  an  adherent  of  Dr.  John  Henry  New- 
man, shared  with  him  the  monastic  life  in  Littlemore, 
near  Oxford,  assisted  him  in  the  edition  of  Lives  of 
British  Saints,  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1843,  and 
received  holy  orders  at  Langres,  in  France.  He  then 
went  to  Rome,  and  after  his  retum  to  London  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Oratory  there,  and  died  April 
8,  1876.  Besides  contributions  to  the  Dublin  Review 
and  Contemporary  Review,  he  wrote  The  Sacred  Heart 
and  Holy  Communion,  See  Bellesheim,  in  Wetzer  u. 
Welte's  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Dalgardno,  Wiluam,  a  Scotch  clergjnnan,  grad- 
uated at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1661 ;  officiated 
at  Walls  and  Flota  for  two  years;  was  admitted  to  the 
living  in  1657,  and  resigned  on  account  of  his  age  in 
1699.     See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  404. 

DaIs;amo,  Andre'vir,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  gradu- 
ated at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1660;  became 
helper  to  John  Jamesone  at  Tyrie;  and  was  recognised 
as  incumbent  in  1692, 1693,  and  1694  by  William,  lord 
Saltoan.    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  643. 

Oalgarno,  George,  a  Scotch  dergyroan,  was  ad- 
mitted in  March,  1685,  to  the  living  at  Fyvie,  and  died 
in  1717.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,'658. 

Dalgamo,  T^iUiam,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  gradu- 
ated at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1646 ;  was  ordained 
minister  at  Penicuick  in  November,  1656 ;  collated  in 
October,  1662;  transferred  to  Kirkmahoe  in  1668;  con- 
tinued April  27, 1664 ;  transferred  to  Haucbline  in  1665 ; 
presented  by  the  king  to  Dunsyre  in  1669 ;  transferred 
to  St.  Fergus  in  1678;  admitted  April  18;  and  died  in 
1696,  aged  about  seventy  vears.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Sco- 
ticana, i,  222, 805,  587 ;  ui,  404,  689. 

Dalgleieh  (or  Dalgleiache),  the  family  name 
of  numerous  Scotch  clergymen : 

1.  Albxakdrr  (1),  was  accepted  and  sent  to  preach 
the  gospel  to  the  heathen,  but  died  on  the  way,  be- 
tween Montserrat  and  Darien,  in  November,  1699.  See 
Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  400. 

2.  Alkxandbr  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  July, 
1688;  called  to  the  living  at  Abercorn  in  June,  1689; 
ordained  Jan.  I  following;  called  to  Dunfermline,  April 
7, 1697 ;  transferred  to  Linlithgow,  May  3,  1699 ;  and 
died  Mav  80,  1726.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i, 
161, 165.' 

3.  Colin,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  in 
1670 ;  was  called  to  the  living  at  Parton  in  1675,  trans- 
lated to  Old  Luce  in  1684,  and  became  a  papist  about 
1686.     Sec  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  719, 766. 

4.  Davii),  graduated  at  the  University  of  SU  An- 
drews in  1599;  was  an  expectant  there  in  1608;  was 
Appointed  to  the  living  at  Cupar,  second  charge,  in 


1614;  ordained  in  1617;  presented  to  the  living  at 
Aberdour  in  1686;  transferred  to  the  first  charge  at 
Cupar  in  1642;  was  injured  in  a  journey  to  Edinburgh, 
and  died  May  7, 1652,  aged  about  seventy-three  years. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  461, 464. 

5.  JoHjf  (1),  graduated  at  the  University  of  St.  An- 
drews in  1662 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1667 ;  became 
chaplain  to  William,  earl  of  Roxburgh,  who  presented 
him,  in  March,  1672,  to  the  living  at  Roxburgh,  to 
which  he  was  ordained  in  March,  1673;  was  without 
a  cure  till  1688,  when  he  was  appointed  to  Queen»> 
ferry;  transferred  to  Roxburgh  in  1690,  and  to  Old 
Macbar  in  1696;  continued  at  Roxburgh  through  in- 
firmity in  January,  1698,  but  transferred  to  Dundee  in 
1700,  and  died  after  Nov.  1,  1715,  aged  seventy-four 
years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  198,  470,  690; 
iii,  692. 

6.  John  (2),  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  in 
1672;  was  called  to  the  living  at  Kirkcudbright  in 
1683 ;  transferred  to  Strathaven  after  1684,  and  died  at 
Edinburgh  in  June,  1699,  aged  about  forty-seven  years. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  690 ;  ii,  262. 

7.  NicoL,  regent  in  St.  Leonard's  College,  St.  An- 
drews; was  appointed  minister  to  the  second  charge  at 
St.  Cuthbert's  in  1581 ;  tried  by  the  privy  council  in 
1584,  and  convicted  of  concealing  treasonable  corre- 
spondence, and  a  scaffold  was  erected  for  his  execution, 
but  be  was  pardoned,  released,  and  returned  to  hb 
charge ;  transferred  in  September,  1588,  and  settled  at 
Pittenweem  in  1589;  became  chaplain  to  the  countess 
of  Forfar.  He  took  an  active  share  in  the  business  of 
the  Church ;  was  a  member  of  the  assemblies  in  1589, 
1590,1591  (when  he  was  elected  moderator),  1592, 1598, 
1595, 1597.  and  died  in  1608.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoti- 
cana, i,12Si  ii,  454, 469. 

8.  Robert  <1),  son  of  Alexander,  minister  at  Un- 
lithgow,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1719;  called  to  the 
living  of  the  second  charge  at  Linlithgow  in  1720;  trans- 
ferred to  the  first  charge  in  1726;  presented  to  the  liv- 
ing in  January,  1727,  and  died  Aug.  9, 1758,  aged  sixty- 
four  years.  He  left  two  sons,  Robert  and  William,  in 
the  ministry.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  162, 163. 

9.  RoBKRT  (2),  D.D.,  son  of  the  minister  at  Ferrj- 
port^  was  bora  June  5, 1731 ;  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  SL  Andrews  in  1750;  licensed  to  preach  in  1756; 
presented  by  the  king  as  successor  to  his  father  at 
Ferryport-on-Craig,  in  December,  1759;  ordained  in 
May,  1760;  resigned  his  charge  in  November,  1794, 
and  died  April  19, 1803.  He  published  ^n  Account  ^ 
the  Parish,    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  428. 

10.  Walter,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  Univernty 
in  July,  1661 ;  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  admitted  to 
the  living  at  Girthon  in  October,  1665;  transferred  to 
Tongland  in  1666,  and  to  Westerkirk  in  1668;  deprived 
on  account  of  the  test  in  1682,  and  died  at  Inzeholm  in 
February,  1088,  aged  forty-seven  years.  See  Fasti  Ec- 
des, Scoticana,  i,  637, 713, 724. 

11.  Wiluam,  son  of  a  skipper  of  Qucensferry,  grad- 
uated at  Glasgow  University  in  June,  1707:  became 
bursar  there  in  1710 ;  studied  thetrfogy  under  Dr.  Hark, 
at  Leyden;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1717;  called  to 
the  living  at  Cambee  the  same  year,  and  ordained  in 
1719 ;  transferred  to  Ferryport-on-Craig  in  1789 ;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  family  estate  in  Scotacraig,  and  died  there 
Aug.  6,  1759,  aged  seventy  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdet^ 
Scoticana,  ii,  414, 428. 

Dalham,  Fi^orxsttius  (or  Florian),  an  Austrian 
geometrician,  doctor  of  theology,  and  librarian  at  Salx- 
burg,  was  bom  July  22, 1713,  at  Vienna,  where  he  also 
acted  for  some  time  as  professor  of  philosophy,  and  died 
Jan.  19, 1795.  He  is  the  author  of  ConcUia  Salidmrg- 
ensia  Diocesana  (Augsburg,  1788,  fol.).  See  Winer, 
HandbucK  der  theoL  LA.  i,  668 ;  Hoefer,  JVbur.  Biog,  G4- 
nirale,  s,  v. 

Daliell,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  graduated  sit 
Edinburgh  University  in  1610;  was  licensed  to  preach 


DALIELL 


226 


DALLAWAY 


in  1614;  became  a  ichoolniaflter  at  Prestonpans;  was 
fMesented  to  the  liriog  at  Prestonkirk  in  1619;  con- 
tinned  Jnly,  1668,  and  died  before  Nov.  8, 1682.  See 
Fatti  Ecdit,  ScoticatuB^  i,  878. 

Daliell,  Mnngo,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  graduated 
at  Glasgow  UniTersicy  in  1608;  was  presented  to  the 
Ticange  of  Coldingham  by  the  king;  transferred  to 
the  Itnng  at  Craashaws  in  1615;  continued,  but  the 
charge  was  vacant  in  16d2.  See  Fasti  Ecdet,  Scoti- 
eoMte^  i,  409. 

DaUnc;,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  li- 
oeosed  to  preach  in  November,  1739;  called  to  the  liv- 
ing of  Cleish  in  February,  and  ordained  in  July,  1743 ; 
was  one  of  three  suspended  from  sitting  in  synods  or 
presbyteries  or  general  assemblies,  regwding  the  set- 
tknent  of  Inverkeithing;  was  released  in  June,  1765, 
and  died  Aug.  11, 1790,  aged  seventy-eight  years.  See 
Fatii  Eeda,  ScoUcomb,  ii,  582. 

Deling  William,  a  Scotoh  clergyman,  son  of  the 
foregoing,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  July,  1786;  or- 
dained assistant  minister  to  his  father  at  Cleish,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1788;  snooeeded  in  1790,  and  died  Nov.  18, 1885, 
in  his  dghtieth  year.  See  FomH  Ecdet,  Seotiecaw^  ii, 
M3. 

Dalkiel,  in  later  Hebrew  dssmonology,  is  a  fallen 
spirit,  whose  office  is  to  wield  a  fiery  switoh,  with  which 
be  drives  the  lost  to  the  seventh  region  of  helL 

Dall,  Henry,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  graduated  at  the 
Uaivetsty  of  St.  Andrews  in  JiUy,  1699;  was  called  to 
the  living  at  Kirkcaldy,  second  charge,  in  August,  and 
ordained  in  November,  1704;  transferred  to  the  first 
charge  in  October,  1711,  and  died  in  February,  1724, 
aged  about  forty-five  years^  See  Fcuti  Ecdet,  Scoti- 
ematy  ii,  516, 519. 

Dall,  John,  a  Scotch  dergymab,  graduated  at  the 
Univeiaity  of  St.  Andrews  in  July,  16i58 ;  became  chap- 
lain to  the  laird  of  Dnninald;  was  presented  to  the  liv- 
ing of  Kinnaird  in  September,  1676,  and  died  in  1698, 
aged  about  fifty-five  years.  See  FatU  Ecdet,  Scoti- 
eamee,  iii,  829. 

Dall,  Robert,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  entered  the  itinera 
aney  under  Wesley  in  1772,  labored  in  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  and  the  Isle  of  Man  with  great  success,  be- 
came a  snpemnmerary,  and  died  Oct.  10,  1828,  aged 
eaghtv-one  years.  See  Mmutet  of  the  Britith  Confer- 
1829. 


Dallf 'William  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  called 
to  the  living  at  Barrie  in  September,  1720;  ordained 
the  nuMth  following,  and  died  Sept.  27,  1775.  See 
FomU  Ecdet.  Scolicana,  iii,  792. 

Dall,  William  (2),  a  Scotoh  clergyman,  was  li- 
eensed  to  preach  in  1727,  called  and  ordained  to  the 
fivingatMonifiethinl7d8,anddiedHay25,1762.  See 
FatH  Ecdet.  SeoticatuB,  iii,  725. 

Dalian  Foroaill  (properly  Eoohard,  Eigeaa, 
or  RigUi  Eigeaa),  of  Clnain  Dalkin,  an  Irish  saint  of 
the  6th  centory,  was  the  son  of  Colla,  of  the  race  of 
CoOa  Nais,  who  was  monarch  of  Ireland,  A.D.828>826. 
He  was  bom  on  the  borders  of  Connaught  and  Ulster, 
at  a  place  called  Kasrige  and  Cathrige  Sleacht,  afler- 
wards  Tesllach  Eathach.  He  was  early  recognised  as 
the  royal  poet,  and  the  greatest  scholar  in  Ireland.  In 
hia  day  the  bards  had  become  very  turbulent  and  an- 
Bojtng  to  royalty,  and  because  king  Aedh  refused  their 
i«qiiests,they  threatened  to  satirize  him  in  their  bardic 
^ys.  The  king  issued  a  decree  of  banishment.  At  a 
eonventiott  of  the  estates  of  the  nation,  which  met  at 
^E^ramccstt  (now  Dai^  Hill,  in  the  county  of  London- 
deny),  the  question  of  the  bards  coming  up,  St.  Colum- 
ba  piMded  successfully  for  their  retention,  as  a  useful 
body.  In  gratitude  to  St.  Columba,  Dalian  composed 
th^Amkra  CkobmeiUe,  or  <*  Praises  of  St.  (}olumba," 
whieb,  thoogfa  largely  glossed,  remains  to  this  day.    It 

xri.-p 


is  written  in  very  old  and  almost  unintelligible  Irish. 
It  was  long  used  as  a  charm,  and  the  reciting  of  it 
was  believed  to  be  a  safeguard  in  danger,  and  a  sure 
remedy  in  blindness,  Dalian  himself  having,  it  is  said, 
received  his  sight  on  the  completion  of  his  poem  at 
St.  Columba*s  death.  He  19  also  said  by  Colgan  (Acta 
Sanctorum,  204)  to  have  composed  other  panegyrics 
in  praise  of  St.  Senan  of  Iniscathey  and  St.  Con^  of 
Iniscail,  which  had  the  same  wonderful  effects.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  made  chief  Ollamh,  or  special 
master  of  education  and  literature,  at  the  reformation 
then  inaugurated  in  Ireland.  In  or  about  the  year  594 
Dalian  was  killed  by  fhe  pirates  on  the  island  of  Inis- 
cail (now  Inishkeel,  in  Gweebara  Bay,  Oounty  Done- 
gal), and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St  0>naU  of  Inis- 
cail, where  his  men^ory  wis  long  held  in  great  venera- 
tion. He  is  popularly  connected  with  several  churches, 
as  with  Maighin,  a  church  in  Westmeath ;  Killdallaln, 
now  KiUadallan  or  Kildallan,  in  the  diocese  of  Kilmore, 
County  Cavan;  Disert-Dallain ;  Tullach-Dallain,  in  the 
diocese  of  Kaphoe ;  and  Cluain-Dallain,  now  Clonallan, 
in  the  diocese  of  Dromore,  County  Down.  He  is  com- 
memorated Jan.  29. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Chritt,  Biog,  s.  t. 

Dallas,  Alexander,  a  Scotoh  clergyman,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1700,  called  and  ordained  to  the 
living  at  Kinnell  in  1708,  and  died  Jan.  20, 1705.  See 
Fatti  Ecdet,  Scoticana,  iii,  800. 

Dallaa,  Alexander  R.  C,  an  English  divine,  was 
admitted  as  a  gentleman  commoner  at  Worcester  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1820;  in  1821  accepted  the  curacy  of 
Radley ;  became  bishop  of  Jamaica  in  1824 ;  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Sumner  in  1826;  en- 
tered upon  the  ministry  at  Wonston  in  1828,  where  he 
continued  about  forty  years,  and  died  Dec  12,  1869. 
Mr.  Dallas  was  a  powerful  advocate  of  the  missionary 
cause,  and  a  great  champion  of  anti- Catholicism  in 
Ireland.  He  was  the  author  of,  A  Voicafrom  ffeaven 
to  Trdand: — Practical  Sermont  on  the  lA>rdPt  Prayer: 
— Pattorai  Superintendence,  itt  Motive,  Detail,  and  Sup- 
port:— Curate^  Offering: — Viliage  Sermont: — Miror 
det  of  Chritt :  —  ParabUt  of  Chritt :  —  Progrete  and 
Protpectt  ofRomanitm: — Scriptural  View  ofthePotp' 
Hon  of  the  Jewt : — Cottagtr't  Guide  to  the  New  Tettamentf 
and  many  other  valuable  works.  See  (Lond.)  Cftiis- 
tiem  Ohtierver,  February,  1872,  p.  98;  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  Amer,  A uthort, s.  v. 

Dallas,  James,  a  Scoteh  clergyman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1786 ;  missionary  at  Stomoway,  and  school- 
master there  in  1787;  schoolmaster  at  Kincardine  in 
1791 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Contin  in  1792,  bnt  his 
ordination  delayed  for  a  year  on  false  charges ;  ordained 
in  August,  1793,  and  died  Sept.  18, 1825,  aged  seventy- 
one  years.    See  Fasti  Ecdet,  Scoticanee,  iii,  294. 

Dallas,  John  (I),  a  Scotoh  clergyman,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  living  at  Tain  before  July  4, 1649,  and  con- 
tinued Oct.  5, 1658.  See  Fatti  Ecdet.  Scoticana,  iii, 
809. 

Dallas,  John  (2),  a  Scoteh  clergyman,  was  bom  at 
Budzet;  admitted  to  the  living  of  Ardersier  before. 
April,  1665;  deprived  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  April, 
1690;  intruded  in  1691,  and  died  about  1693.  See 
Fatti  Ecdet.  Scoticana,  iii,  244. 

Dallaway,  James,  an  English  clerg}*man,  was  bom 
at  Bristol  in  1768,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College^ 
Oxford.  He  became  rector  of  South  Stoke,  in  Sussex, 
in  1 799,  and  vicar  of  Leatherhead,  Surrey,  in  180 1 .  He 
was  for  some  time  chaplain  and  physician  to  the  British 
embassy  at  the  Porte,  and  gave  much  attention  to 
antiquarian  pnnuits.  He  di^  in  1884.  His  publica- 
tions include  Letters  of  Bithop  Htaiddl  to  Mrt,  Sandgt 
(1789,  2  voIsl)  :— Cofu<aftfHM>p2ff,  Andeni  and  Afodam 
(l797y.— Notices  of  Ancient  Church  Architecture  m  the 
I6th- Century  (1828),  and  other  works,  chiefly  of  anti- 
quarian interest  See  Allibone,  Diet^  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
A  uthort,  B,  V. 


DALLEWELL  !i 

Dallairell,  Joici,  an  EoglUb  Biptiit  mu^nuy, 
wu  bom  in  Siinderluid,  Nor.  M,  1816.  Foi  ■  time  ba 
WM  ■  Methodist  local  preacher,  but  in  1836  unilcil  with 
the  Scotch  Bapti«t  Churcb  in  hia  Dative  town,  la 
December,  1840,  be  wu  publid;  Mt  apart  for  evangel- 
ical work  in  Jamaica,  and  embarked  foi  the  Held  of  bia 
labor  in  JanDar7,IS4I,bDt  died  tbeieOc^ll  foUowing, 
See  (Lond.)  BaptiM  Hand-book,  181!,  p.  36.     (J.  C  S.) 

DalUoker  (Oe  la  Cour),  Fbeuerice,  a  German 
Serormed  minister,  waa  bom  Feb.  i,  17S8.  He  vaa  li- 
eenaedin  IT&T;  waapaaloi  atAmwell.N.  J.,  untill7T0t 
Bockawair  Valley,  Alexandria,  and  Foxenburgh,  nntil 
ITS!;  at  Qoahenhoppen,  Pa.,  nntil  1T84,  and  died  at 
Faulkner  Swamp,  Jan.  5, 1799.  See  Haibaugb,  Falhtn 
oftfm  Gmn.  Re/.  Ckarch,  ii,  882. 

DalUaton.  Joi»,  an  Engliah  Baptiat  minitur,  wai 
bom  in  Bory  St.  Edmunda  in  181S.  He  wai  early  con- 
verted, and  united  with  the  Cbnrcb  in  hia  native  place ; 
wa>  ordained  pastor  at  Sibile  Hedingham,in  Eiaei,  and 
irudniwnedAug.30,lS43.  ^tx  Qjoni.')  Baptiit  Hmd- 
iooi,  18*4,  p.  IB.     (J.C8.) 

Dslmaolna.    See  Daisiuch. 

Dallliabo7,  Jaheb,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  waa  an  ex- 
borter  at  Cambiukenacth  in  1667,  when  the  Refoimed 
fUth  came  in;  reader  there  in  1674,  with  faur  other 
plMta  in  charge  in  1576,  and  continued  in  1580.  See 
Fati  Eoda.  Scoticam,  ii,  69G. 

Dalnuuio,  Lipfo  ScANT^AfiKCCiii  (called  Lippo  datie 
JtfddcinM],  an  Italian  paint«r, waa  bom  in  Bologna.  He 
waa  a  pupil  or  Titale  da  Bologni,  and  aa  early  aa  137G 
rarBurpaawdallhiscontemporariefi.  There  i>  a  picture, 
painted  by  bim,  of  Tht  V'ir7tii,in  the  Church  or  San  Pe- 
tninio,  at  Bologna.  He  died  about  1410,  See  Hoerer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  Giiiratr,  I.V. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Bin.  qf  the 
Fia»  ArU,t.y. 

Oalmata,  Antox,  a  Croatian  theologian,  who  lived 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  IGlh  centnty,  wrote,  Btixmt- 
mu  if  GiauitM  die  Carol  V.  etc  (Tubingen,  1£63 ;  ■ 
trantlation  made  in  collaboration  with  Priniua,  Truber, 
and  Stephen  Consul)  -.^youam  Ttitamaitiim  Croaliet 
(Trau,  1&63  or  1665).     Sea  Hoefer,  ATdhef.  Biog.  CM- 

Dalmatia,  CoiKCti.  or  {Concilium  Dalmaticam). 
Held  in  1199,  by  John,  chaplain  to  pope  Innocent  III, 
and  Kmon,  his  sub-deacon,  both  legates  or  the  Roman 
aee.  In  this  council  the  Church  of  Dalmatia  aubmitted 
itaelf  to  tho  authority  of  Rome.  Twelve  canona  were 
published. 

>  bitbop  convicted  of  taking  an j  fte  fbr 

10  secrecr  orconreieloD  shall  be  kept  io- 
I  of  deposition. 


Knjoln.  thft 
nation  ■ball 


8.  Con  den: 


and  tbini 
loflhelB 


•f  the  clergy  w 


withODI  wsUing  ...  —  ,„„.., 

11.  Forbids  tba  ordlnntlou  of  baatards, 

11.  Forbida  the  ordlnatloa  of  any  one  as  priest  under 
thirty  year    * "~" 

The  acta  are  sabacribed  by  seven  bishops,  beside*  the 
l<^Us  and  the  archbiabep  DomlDieua. — I^bbe,  Co*dL 
xi,  7 ;  Landon,  Manual  of  Council;  »,  v. 

Oalmntlo.    Although  tbii  is  deaeribed  aa  a  speciea 
of  long-aleeved  tunic,  there  are  fair  grounda  forbelievi 
that  in  iu  oriffinal /om  the  dalmatic,  as  worn  by  mi 
waa  a  ahort-aleeved  or  aleeveleas  tunic,,  eqnivalent 
the  colobion.     Tliii  is  shown  by  the  way  in  which  ( 
two  words  are  used  synonymoualy,  as  in  Epiphani 
Again,  in  the  edict  of  Diocletian  fixing  the  maximi 
piica  of  articles  throughout  the  Boman  empire,  the  t' 
words  are  usedsa  equivalents.      Wo  first  meet  with  t 
dalmatic  as  a  seculai.dieaa,  ofa  atately  or  luxnriout  chi 
Bcter,  worn  by  persons  in  high  pnaition.     Thus  there 
would  necessarily  be  lomething  exceptional  in  the  nee 
of  it ;  and  then,  like  other  srticlca  of  Roman  apparel. 


■ma  adopted  by  the  Cbnrcb  as  a  vestment  for  ee- 
Blics.  Lampridius  chaigca  Commoitua  with  un- 
seemly behavior  in  that  be  appeared  in  the  streela  in  a 
ilic  If  at  this  time  it  had  short  sleeves,  there 
1  be  an  obvious  unseemliness  in  a  person  of  rank 
being  seen  abroad  without  an  upper  garment.  Otheia, 
who  bold  that  even  then  the  dalmadc  was  a  long- 
steeved  dress,  refer  the  cause  of  the  censnre  to  the  im- 
plied effeminacy  of  the  wearer.  The  edict  of  Diocle- 
tian furnishes  us  with  much  interesting  information  aa 
to  the  different  varieties  of  this  garment  in  use  in  tho 
Boman  empire  at  tbe  end  of  the  Bd  cenlnry,  A.D.     It 


mendoned.  Three  different  qualities  are  given  fur  each 
sex,  the  price  varying  botb  according  to  the  quality  and 
the  place  of  manufacture.  In  later  limes  the  dalmalie 
was  worn  by  sovereigns  at  (heir  coronation  and  on  oth- 
er great  occaniona.     See  Cokonatioh. 

The  ideas,  then,  of  dignity  and  slaleliness  were  asao> 
elated  with  the  dalmatic  as  a  aecular  dreas.    Tbe  car- 


iof  it 


e  ia, if  tl 


be  genuine,  in  the.4c>ii  ifdrfyrti  of  St.  Cyprian.  Here, 
where  the  vesture  is  evidenily  Ibat  ortlinarilg  uaed  bj 
the  bishop  (if,  indeed,  a  distinction  between  the  eveiy- 
day  dress  of  the  Christian  ministry  and  that  used  in 
divine  service  bad  yet  arisen),  we  find  first  tbe  under 
linen  garment,  over  this  the  dalmatic,  and  finally  the 
Wmis  or  cloak.  Pope  Sylvester  I  (A.D.  3S6)  ordem) 
that  deacons  should  for  the  future  wear  dalmatics  in- 
stead of  colobia.  Whether  a  new  veitmont  was  intro* 
duced  or  tbe  existing  one  modified,  the  result  was  the 
introduction  of  a  long-sleeveil  in  the  place  of  a  abort- 
sleeved  tunic  Walafrid  Strabo  (859)  savs  that  when 
the  priests  began  to  use  chasubles,  dalmatics  were  pet* 
milled  lo  the  deacons,  but "  at  that  time  the  pemianoa 
was  not  given  to  all  to  do  what  now  almoat  all  bishopa 
and  some  priesta  think  tbey  may  do;  namely,  wear  a 
dalmatic  under  the  chasuble."  It  is  noticeable  that  tbie 
ordinance  liad  special  reference  lo  descons,  snd  that  the 
dalmatic  waa  in  some  special  wav  avociated  with  the 
local  Church  of  Rome.  TbnB,wheu  CBsarius,  bishop  of 
Aries, visited  Rome,  pope  Symmachus  granted  him,  aa  ■ 
special  distinction,  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  palliuoi 
(q.  v.),  and  lo  his  deacons  tbat  of  dalmatics,  after  the 
Koman  fashion.  Also  Gregory  the  Great,  in  a  letter  to 
Aregiua,  bishop  of  Vapincum,  accords  to  bim  and  his 
archdeacon  the  aought-fot  privilege  of  wearing  dalmat- 
ics. Indirect  evidence  pointing  to  the  same  result  may 
be  gathered  from  the  fact  of  tbe  absence  of  any  mention 
of  the  dalmatic  in  (he  acts  of  the  fourth  Council  of  To- 
ledo (A.D,  G33),  among  the  regulsliona  as  to  the  dreas 
of  the  Christian  ministry,  ahowtng  that  this  vestment 
waa  not  one  then  in  use  in  Spain.  The  dalmatic  thus 
being  a  vealment  which  even  in  the  Weat  hadprnm- 
rifyonly  a  local  acceptance,  we  are  prepared  IflSnd  that 


DALMATIN 


227 


DALRYMPLE 


in  the  Eaat  there  is  nothing  which,  strictly  speskiog; 
answers  to  it.  The  ''sdcharion/*  however,  is  the  rep- 
resentstiv-e  of  the  general  type  of  white  tonic,  which, 
under  whatever  name  we  know  it,  alb,  dalmatic,  or  to- 
nide,  Ib  essentially  the  same  dreas^ 

One  or  two  farther  remarks  may  be  made  in  conda- 
rion,  as  to  the  ornamental  stripes  [see  Clavus]  of  the 
dalmatic  As  to  the  color  of  thesci  it  is  stated  by  Mar- 
riott that  he  had  met  with  exdusively  black  stripes  in 
all  andent  pictores  of  ecdesiastical  dalmatics  prior  to 
the  year  600,  as  in  the  well-known  Ravenna  mosaic 
(see  above),  the  earliest  exception  being  a  mosaic  of  the 
date  640,  in  which  the  apostles  have  red  stripes  on  their 
tonics.  The  red  or  purple  stripes  afterwards  became 
common,  and  are  spoken  of  as  worn  back  and  front ;  but 
whether  this  was  the  case  with  the  original  type  of  the 
dress  may  perhaps  be  doubted.  Farther,  these  orna- 
mental stripes  are  found  on  the  borders  of  the  sleeves; 
and  on  the  left  side,  in  later  days,  was  a  border  of 


Modem  Dalmatic 

fringe,  for  which  various  writers  have  found  appropri- 
ate symbolical  reasons. — Smith,  JHcL  of  Christ,  Biog. 

8.V. 

Dalxnatiil,  Geobo,  a  Slavonic  theologian  and  Ori- 
entalist, lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century.  In 
1668  he  translated  the  Bible  of  Luther  into  his  native 
language.  The  printing  of  this  translation  was  intrust- 
ed to  John  Bfanlius,  who  established  the  first  printing- 
house  at  Laybach,  and  was  completed  at  Wittenberg  in 
1584.  After  repairing  to  Dresden,  in  order  to  thank 
the  elector  of  Saxony  for  having  permitted  the  printer 
to  take  charge  of  this  operation,  Dalmatin  went  to  per- 
form pastoral  duties  at  St.  Khazaim,  in  1585.  Being  ex- 
iled in  1598  by  the  Catholics,  who  called  him  abusivdy 
Ca9€de  (Kobila,  "the  preacher"),  he  found  an  asylum 
at  the  house  of  the  baron  of  Ansperg,  who  lodged  him 
in  a  vault  placed  under  the  stables  of  the  chateau,  and 
afterwards  called  the  Trou.  See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog, 
G^mirale,  s.  v.;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Dalmatius  (or  Delmatiaa),  the  name  of  early 
ecclesiastics: 

X.  A  martyr  nnder  Maximian,  commemorated  on 
DecS. 

2.  Censor  at  Antioch,  commissioned  by  Constantine 
the  Great  to  inquire  into  a  charge  brought  by  the  Ari- 
ans  against  Athanasins,  of  having  murdered  Arsenius. 
Dalmatius  wrote  to  the  archbishop  to  prepare  his  de- 
fence. 

3.  Honk  and  abbot  near  Constantinople,  often  called 
IkUmaiaSf  and  commemorated  Aug.  8.  He  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  at  the  time  of  the  Coundl  of  Epb- 
esns  (481),  against  Chrysoretes  the  chamberlain  and 
the  Nestorian  party  at  the  court  of  Theodosius  II.  His 
inflaeace  arose  from  his  eminent  piety,  his  strength  of 
eharaeter,  and  his  fieiy  zeaL  Under  Theodosius  the 
Great  be  had  served  in  the  second  company  of  Guards, 
wss  married,  and  had  a  family.  Feeling  a  call  to  a 
monastic  life,  he  left  his  wife  and  children,  except  a 


son  Faostus,  and  went  to  receive  instmction  from  the 
abbot  Isaac,  who  had  dwdt  in  the  desert  from  his  in- 
fancy. Isaac,  at  his  death,  made  him  Hegnmenns,  or 
superior  of  the  monastery,  under  the  patriarch  Atti- 
cus.  Consulted  by  councils,  patriarchs,  and  emperoni 
he  remained  in  his  cell  forty-eight  years  without  quit- 
ting it.  After  the  Nestorian  party  at  Ephesus  had  de- 
posed Cyril  and  Memnon,  bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  im- 
prisoned them,  news  of  their  distress  reached  him  by 
secret  conveyance.  While  he  prayed  he  believed  that 
he  heard  a  great  voice  summoning  him  fbrth  from  his 
retreat  Accompanied  by  the  monks  of  all  the  monas- 
teries, with  their  abbots  at  their  head,  he  appeared  be- 
fore the  palace.  I'he  abbots  were  admitted  with  him 
to  the  imperial  presence.  The  outcome  was  that  the 
emperor  came  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth  from  DaL> 
matius,  as  the  council  acknowledged,  and  ordered  a 
deputation  of  each  party  to  appear  before  him. 

4.  Bishop  of  Cyzicum.  The  archbishop  had  nomi- 
nated Proclus,  but  the  people,  according  to  the  canons, 
chose  the  monk  Dilmatias.  He  was  present  at  Ephe- 
sus in  481. 

5.  Saint,  third  bishop  of  Rodez,  from  524  to  580. 
He  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Clermont  in  525,  at 
the  first  Coundl  of  Arvemum  in  585,  and  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Orleans  in  541.  Dalmatius  was  once  condemned 
to  death  for  the  faith,  at  Brives-la-Gaillarde.  St.  An- 
stites  interceded  for  him  with  the  tribune  who  had 
condemned  him,  but  his  intercession  was  of  no  avail, 
and  Dalmatius  was  actually  led  out  to  execution. 
Anstites  then  prayed  for  him,  the  execution  was  hin- 
dered by  some  extraordinary  atmospheric  phenomena, 
and  the  condemned  man  lived  to  a  good  old  age.  He 
is  commemorated  Nov.  2. — Smith,  JHcf,  of  Christ,  Biog, 

8.  V. 

6.  Saintf  a  French  prelate  of  the  Benedictine  order, 
and  regular  priest  of  Grasse  or  Notre  Dame  of  Orbieu. 
He  assisted,  in  1068,  at  the  Coundl  of  Gerona,  in  which 
four  canons  were  passed  against  those  who  had  repu- 
diated their  wives  in  order  to  espouse  others,  against 
simony,  and  incestuous  marriages,  disorders  then  very 
common.  Dalmatius  was  elected  archbishop  of  Nar- 
bonne  in  September,  1081,  and  presided  in  September, 
1086,  at  the  council  held  in  the  abbey  of  St.  ^tienne 
of  Ba'gnols.  He  died  at  Rieux,  Jan.  17, 1097.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Biog,  GMrak,  s.  v. 

Dalm&toa.    See  Dalmatics,  3. 

DaliTmple  (wriuen  also  DalrmupUl,  etc),  the 
family  name  of  several  Scotch  clergymen : 

1.  Andrew,  graduated  at  Glasgow  University  in 
1646;  was  called  to  the  living  of  Auchinleck  in  1650; 
deprived  by  the  privy  council  in  1662;  accused  of 
preaching  and  baptizing  irregularly  in  1669;  fined  half 
his  salary  fur  not  keeping  the  Restoration  festival  in 
1673,  and  died  in  June,  1676,  aged  fifty  years.  See  Fa^ 
Ecdes,  ScoHcaruB,  ii,  96, 189. 

2.  David^  a  natural  son  of  lord  Dromore,  was  school- 
master of  Kettle  in  November,  1692 ;  licensed  to  preach 
in  1696;  appointed  and  ordained  minister  at  Dunduroos 
in  May,  1698;  and  died  Feb.  23, 1747.  See  Fatti  Ec- 
clet,  ScoticawBf  iii,  221. 

3.  James,  was  reader  at  the  first  General  Assem- 
bly, in  1560,  '*  though  qualified  to  preach  and  adminis- 
ter the  sacraments;"  entered  Beltyn  in  1568;  the  sanae 
year  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Ayr,  and  died  in 
1580.    See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  ii,  84. 

4.  John,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  in  June, 
1697;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1702;  called  and  or- 
dained to  the  living  at  Morham  in  April,  1704 ;  resigned 
in  January,  1706 ;  and  died  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  10, 1716, 
aged  thirty-six  years.  See  Fatti  Ecdes,  Scotiaxna^  i, 
840. 

5.  Robert,  son  of  David,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
December,  1728;  presented  to  the  living  at  Dallas  in 
June,  1748;  ordained  in  February,  1749;  deposed  in 
April,  1763,  for  fornication;  the  sentence  was  revoked 


DALRTMPLE 


228 


DAMIA 


in  1776.    He  died  March  20, 1778.    See  FaHi  Eeda, 
SooHcanagf  iii,  179. 

6.  WiLUAM,  D.D.,  W88  born  at  Ayr,  Aug.  29, 1728; 
licensed  to  preach  in  1746 ;  called  to  the  second  charge 
at  A3T  in  August,  and  ordained  in  December,  1746 ; 
transferred  to  the  first  charge  in  May,  1766 ;  was  mod- 
erator of  the  General  Assembly,  May,  1781 ;  and  died  Jan. 
28,  1814.  He  was  a  man  of  meek  temper,  warm  zeal, 
amiable  manners,  and  sincere  piety.  He  published. 
Three  Sermoiu  (Glasgow,  1776) ;— Family  Worship  Ex- 
plained (1787)  :—A  Hittory  0/ Christ  (eod.)  i—Sequel  to 
the  same (1791) : — The  Mosaic  Account  o/the  Creation 
(1794)  i^Mediuaions  and  Prayers  (179b)i-^Legaqf  of 
Dying  Thoughts  (1796)  -.—Solomon's  Ethics  f  or  the  Book 
0/ Proverbs  made  Easy  (1799) : — The  Scripture  Jewish 
History  (1808) :— iln  AccmMt  of  ike  Parish.  See  FasH 
Eccles,  Seoticana,  ii,  89, 92. 

Dalrymple,  Edwin  A.,  D.D.,  a  Piotest«nt  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1818. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  Mary's  College,  Baltimore,  and 
then  studied  theology  at  the  Alexandria  Episcopal  Semi- 
nary. His  first  charge  was  Old  Church,  Hanover  County, 
Va.,  and  the  church  at  New  Kent  Court-house.  He 
then  became  rector  of  the  high-school  near  Alexandria, 
where  he  was  eminently  successful  for  several  years; 
visited  Europe,  and  afterwards  resided  in  Baltimore  as 
the  president  of  the  School  of  Letters  of  Maryknd.  He 
was  for  many  years  one  of  the  examining  chaplains  of 
the  diocese,  and  rector  of  the  House  of  Hefuge  at  the 
time  of  his  death,  Oct.  80, 1881.  For  many  years,  up 
to  1874,  he  taught  school  in  the  University  Buildings 
on  Mulberry  Street,  Baltimore. 

Dalxymple,  fikunuel  B.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  ordained  deacon  in  1866,  and  presbyter  the 
following  year;  and  was  rector  of  Grace  Church,  Hones- 
dale,  Pa.,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  Oct.  27, 1863,  at  the 
age  of  thirty  years.  See  Amer,  Qftar,  Church  Rev,  Jan. 
1864,  p.  669. 

Dalr3rmple,  William  H.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Watertown,  Mass.,  Feb.  20, 1808.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  South  Beading  Academy,  and  at  the  Newton 
Theological  Institution  two  years  (1833-35);  was  or- 
dained at  South  Abington,  Mass.,  April  29, 1835,  where 
he  remained  until  1837;  was  pastor  at  Northborough 
from  1838  to  1840 ;  at  South  Gardiner  from  1840  to  1842 ; 
in  Woodviile  from  1844  to  1846 ;  agent  of  the  American 
Peace  Society  from  1846  to  1848;  pastor  at  Barnstable 
in  1849  and  1850;  at  FitzwillUm,  N.  II.,  from  1861  to 
1868;  Hudson,  from  1855  to  1858 ;  Stratham,  from  1860 
to  1862;  and  thereafter  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  where  he 
died,  Sept.  10,  1879.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Newton  TheoL 
Inst,  p.  16.    (J.  a  &) 

Dalxymple,  WiUiam  Miller,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal  minister,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  2, 1824. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  began  preach- 
ing in  1862,  and  in  the  following  year  entered  the  Phil- 
adelphia  0>nference,  in  which  he  labored  until  his  death, 
June  27,  1876.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences, 
1876,  p.  60. 

Daltoxi,  Jacob,  an  English  Independent  minister, 
was  educated  at  Mile  End  by  Dr.  Conder,  and  was  or- 
dained in  1766.  He  was  settled  first  at  the  Silver  Street 
Church,  London;  at  Christmas,  1769,  he  removed  to 
Coventry  as  assistant  to  Patrick  Simpson,  and  was  cho- 
sen sole  pastor  in  1773.  He  gave  way  to  drinking,  and 
sank  into  obscurity.  In  1772  he  published  a  volume  of 
fifteen  Sermons,  See  WiMon,  Dissenting  Churches,  iii, 
113. 

Dalton,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
bora  in  1709  at  Dean,  Cumberland,  and  was  educated 
at  Lowther,  Westmoreland,  and  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  was  preacher  for  some  yeaK  In 
1750  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  St.  Mary,  at 
HUL    He  died  at  Worcester,  July  21,  1768,  leaving 


a  Yolume  of  Sermons  (1757):— 7Vo  Epistles  (1744, 4to, 
written  in  1786):— and  some  single  Sermons.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet,  a,  v. ;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer.  A uthors,  s,  v. 

Daly,  Danikl,  an  Irish  Dominican,  was  bora  in 
County  Kerry  in  1696,  and  as  a  monk  adopted  the  name 
of  Domimcus  a  Rosario.  He  was  educated  at  Tralee 
and  in  FUnders;  attained  considerable  reputation  for 
his  great  learaing ;  was  invited  to  Lisbon  to  assist  in 
founding  a  monastery  for  the  Irish  Dominicans,  and 
was  elected  its  first  superior.  In  1655  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  Louis  XIV  of  France,  by  the  duke  of 
Braganza,  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  alliance  and  afiinity 
between  the  two  courts.  He  died  at  Lisbon,  June  80, 
1662.  One  book  only  of  his  is  known,  Initium,  /n- 
crementUM,  et  Exitus  FamiluB  Giraldinorum  (Lisbon, 
1656, 8vo).  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Dict.B.  v.;  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Dalseil,  AicDREW,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  July,  1784 ;  presented  to  the  living  of  Stony- 
kirk;  ordained  in  September,  1789;  and  died  Nov.  22, 
1755.    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scottcame,  i,  772. 

DalzeU,  Niihan,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  the  flnt 
Protestant  minister  at  Dumfries  in  1667;  removed  to 
Caerlaverock  in  1674,  with  three  other  places  in  charge ; 
became  a  schoolmaster  at  Dumfries;  renounced  the 
Protestant  faith;  corrupted  the  youth  sent  to  his  care; 
was  deposed  by  the  assembly  of  1679;  and  died  April 
21,  1587.     See  FasH  Ecdes,  Scoticanm,  i,  567,  678. 

Daman,  Joseph  Brooks,  a  Baptist  minister,  waa 
born  at  Hanover,  Mass.,  Nov.  18, 1809.  Without  a  col- 
lege education,  he  took  the  full  course  of  study  at  the 
Newton  Theological  Institution  (1888-41) ;  and  was  paa- 
tor  of  churches  in  West  Dedham,  Mass.,  Woonsocket, 
B.  I.,  East  Killingly  and  Lyme,  Conn.,  and  Lake  Vil- 
lage, N.  H.,  where  he  died,  in  1866.    (J.  C  S.) 

Damaacdne,  a  French  preacher  at  the  dose  of 
the  18th  century,  was  a  Minorite  of  the  Franciscan 
order,  and  provincial  of  the  Becollets  of  Paris,  He 
wrote,  Discours  sur  les  Evangiles  (Paris,  1698,  1699) : 
—Discours  EccUsiastiques  et  Monastiqites  (ibid.  1708). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginh'ale,  s.  r. 

Damberger,  Josecph  Ferdinand,  a  German  schol- 
ar, was  bora  at  Passau,  March  1, 1795.  He  studied  at 
different  universities,  was  made  a  priest  in  1818,  and 
joined  the  Jesuit  order  in  1837.  In  1845  he  was  made 
professor  of  history  at  Lucerne,  and  died  May  1,  1869, 
leaving  Furstentafel  der  Europaischen  Staatengeschichte, 
(Regensburg,  l83Q):SynJiromstiche  Geschichte  der 
Kirche  und  WeU  im  Mittelalter  (ibid.  1850-1863, 16  vols., 
the  concluding  vols,  being  edited  by  Kattinge).  See 
Jaiiner,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchen-LexUxmy  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Damohuk,  in  Mongolian  mythology,  is  a  green 
horse,  the  steed  of  the  god  Maidari,  the  last  Burchaii, 
who  descended  to  earth  in  order  to  exalt  men  again  to 
their  former  duration  of  life,  their  virtue,  and  their 
beauty.  The  green  horse  is  a  great  idol  (Dolon  Erdeu i) , 
which,  with  six  other  idols,  is  placed  on  the  altars  vi 
the  Mongolian  temples. 

Dame,  Frikdericii,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Gep* 
many,  was  bora  in  Holstein,  July  22, 1567.  He  studied 
at  Rostock  and  Konigsberg;  was  in  1592  rector  at  Itze- 
hoe ;  in  1694,  deacon  at  Flensburg ;  in  1600  pastor,  and  in 
1604  provost  there.  He  died  Dec  18, 1635,  leaving  Ko- 
luntate  Dei  erga  Genus  Ilumanum: — De  Resurrectioms 
Mortuorum: — Apodixis  de  Anima  InunortaHtate,  etc. 
See  Moller,  Cimbria  Literata;  Jdcfaer,  Allgemeines  (7e- 
khrten-Lexikon^  s.  y.     (B.  P.) 

Damhnat  was  an  Irish  saint  of  Sliabh  Betha,  now 
Slieve  Beagb,  in  Tyrone.  She  is  commemorated  June 
18. 

Damla,  a  goddess  among  the  andents,  said  to  be  the 
wife  of  Faunus.    She  waa  so  chaste  that  she  never  saw 


DAMIAN 


229 


DAMON 


nor  betid  any  other  nuui  than  her  own  huband.  Her 
aacrlfiee,  whieh  was  alwaya  offered  in  private  bonaee, 
witli  window!  and  doon  shut,  was  called  Damium. 
No  man,  nor  pictore  of  a  male,  was  suffered  to  be  prrs- 
cut,  nor  were  women  allowed  to  reveal  what  passed. 

Damian  (DamUmuM,  or  Damiam,  Petrtu),  Hrma 
OP.  Of  these  the  following  have  become  especiaUy 
known:  Greufi  me  lerrore  pulias^  vUm  dka  ultima, 
"This  awful  hymn,"  says  Mr.  Neale,  ''is  the  dkt  irm 
of  individual  life.  The  realisation  of  the  hour  of  death 
is  shown,  not  only  by  this  hymn,  but  by  the  commenda- 
tory pcayer,  used  from  his  (the  author's)  time  in  the  Ro- 
man Church,  which  begins,  'To  God  1  commend  thee, 
beloved  brother;  and  to  him  whose  creature  thou  art  I 
commit  thee.* "  In  the  translation  of  Mr.  Neale  the  Ihst 
stanza  rans  thus: 

'*0  what  terror  In  thy  forsthonebt. 
Coding  scene  of  mortal  UlbT 
Heart  la  sickened,  veins  are  loosened, 
Thrills  each  nerve,  with  terror  rife, 
When  the  anxious  heart  deplcteth 
All  the  anguish  of  the  strife !" 

Another  tTanslation,'given  by  P.  S.  Worsley,  in  Ljpra 
MeMtkatica^  runs  thus : 

*'  Heavily  with  dread  thou  loomest,  last  day  of  my  earthly 

life; 
Heart  and  melting  veins  within  me  sbndder  at  the  mor- 

tai  strife. 
When  I  would  inform  my  spirit  with  what  horrors  thou 

art  rife." 

Another  hymn  is  bis  Crux  mmtdi  bmedicUOf  which  Mr. 
Neale  rendered — 

**  O  Cross,  whereby  the  earth  is  blest. 
Certain  liedemption,  Hope,  and  liest. 
Once  as  the  Tree  of  Torture  known. 
Now  the  bright  gate  to  Uesn's  Throne." 

Better  known  is  his  Adpermnia  viimfonUm^  "the  no- 
blest he  has  left  us,"  and  which,  in  R.  F.  littledale's 
translation  in  Ln/ra  Myttica,  reads  thus: 

*For  the  fount  of  life  eternal  is  my  thirsting  spirit  Ikln, 
And  my  prisoned  soul  would  glsdly  borkt  oer  fleshly 

bars  in  twain, 
While  the  exile  strives  and  struggles  on  to  win  her 

home  again." 

See  Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  p.  277  sq.,  815  sq.; 
Bambach,  Anthologie  ekriMtUcher  Geadnffe,  p.  288,  241 ; 
Daniel,  Tkuaunu  ffyimolofficus,  i,  116,  224;  iv,  291 ; 
Vone,  Hymm  Lai,  Med.  JEvif  i,  422 ;  Neale,  Mediavcd 
Mpmu,  p.  52  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Damiani,  Felice,  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
was  bom  st  Gubbio,  and  flourished  from  1584  till  16i6w 
He  studied  under  Benedetto  Nuoci,  and  painted  princi- 
pally for  the  churches  in  bis  native  city.  His  most  es- 
teemed work  is  the  Baptism  of  St,  A  vffuttinef  in  the 
church  of  that  saint,  at  Gubbio,  painted  in  1594.  An- 
other is  the  Deoapitatum  of  St,  Paul,  in  San  Recavati, 
at  Castel-Nnovo.  About  1596  he  decorated  two  chap- 
els in  the  Church  of  the  Madonna  de  Lumi,  at  San  Seve- 
rino,  with  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin  and  the  in- 
fancy of  Christ.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale, 
SI  V.';  Spooner,  Bioff,  Uitt,  of  the  Fine  Arte,  s.  v. 

Damiani,  Johann,  a  Hungarian  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Tuhegli,  June  21,  1710.  In  1726  he  went  to 
Rome,  studied  at  Fermo  under  the  auspices  of  pope  Ben- 
edict XIII,  and  on  March  5,  1735,  he  entered  orders. 
Returaiug  to  Rome,  he  was  welcomed  by  pope  Clement 
XII,  who  proposed  him  for  the  canonship  of  Presburg. 
He  occupied  various  other  positions  in  the  ecclesiastical 
hierarchy,  and  died  about  1780.  His  principal  works 
are,  Doetrina  verm  CkritH  Etxlena  (Ofen,  1762):— 
Jutta  Reliffionis  Coaetio,  etc  (ibid.  1765).  This  was  a 
treatise  concerning  means  for  bringing  dissenters  into 
the  Romish  Church.    See  Hoefer,  iVbtir.  Biog,  GMrale, 

SUV. 

Damiani,  Wilhalm  Frfedarich,  a  Hungarian 
theologiao,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  was  bora  Jan.  18, 


1714  After  having  studied  at  Fermo  he  was  chosen  by 
Clement  XII  for  primate  of  the  kingdom.  He  died  at 
Presburg,  June  17, 1760,  leaving  Synopnt  vitm  Mittio* 
nit  Miraeulontm  et  EvangeUorum  Martini  Lutkeri  ei 
Joamm  Caivvd  (Ofen,  1761) ; — 8ynopti$  Doetrinm  Mar' 
tud  Lutkeri  et  Joanme  Cabrini  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

DamiAnii%  the  name  of  several  early  Christians : 

1.  A  missionary  sent  by  pope  Elentherius  to  Britain. 

2.  Bishop  of  Sidon,  was  a  member  of  the  tynod  at 
Antioch  in  444,  and  also  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in 
451,  when  he  gave  his  vote  for  the  deposition  of  Dios- 
oorus. 

3.  A  companion  of  St.  Regulus.  One  of  the  church- 
es of  Sl  Andrews  was  dedicated  to  him.  He  is  com- 
memorated June  1. 

4.  Fifth  bishop  of  Rochester,  was  oonseented  by 
archbishop  Deusdedit  about  655. 

5.  Saiu,  bishop  of  Ticinum  (now  Pavia),  where  he 
was  bom;  and,  while  a  presbyter,  attended  the  synod 
held  by  Mansuetus,  archbishop  of  Bfilan,  against  the 
Monothelites,  in  679.  He  was  deputed  by  the  synod  to 
draw  up  an  exposition  of  faith  to  be  sent  to  the  emper- 
or, which  was  received  by  acclamation  in  the  Council 
of  Constantinople  in  680.  He  succeeded  Anastasius  the 
latter  year  as  bishop,  and  died  in  7 10.  See  Smith,  Diet, 
of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Damini,  Pibtiio,  an  Italian  historical  painter,  was 
bora  at  Castel-Franoo  in  1592,  and  studied  under  Gio- 
vanni Battista  Novelli.  There  are  many  of  his  works 
in  Castel-Fnmco,  Vioenza,  Crema,  and  Padua.  In  the 
church  of  U  Santo,  at  Padua,  is  his  principal  work, 
The  Crucifixion^  with  the  Virgin  Mary  and  St,  John, 
In  the  monastery  of  the  Padri  Serviti,  at  Yicenza,  are 
several  of  his  works,  representing  scenes  from  the  life 
of  St.  Filippo.  He  died  at  Venice  in  1681.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nowo,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  Arts,a,y, 

Damiron,  Jeak  PniLniERT,  a  French  philosopher, 
was  bora  in  1794,  at  Belleville.  He  was  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Paris,  and  died  in  1862,  leaving,  Cours  de 
Philosophie  (Paris,  1842)  i—Essais  sur  Pffistoire  de  la 
PkOosophis  en  France  au  Dix-^eptikme  Sikeh  (1846»  2 
vols.):— also  Au  Dix-huUikme  Siede  (1862, 2  vols.):-- 
and  il«Z)u>iietfrfsms^t«ofe(8ded.  1884).  SeeFranck, 
MoraUstes  et  Phihsophes  (Paris,  1872);  lichtenberger, 
Encgdop,  des  Sciences  ReUgieuses,     (B.  P.) 

Damm,  Chxiatian  Tobias,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Geithain,  in  Saxony, 
Jan.  9,  1699.  He  studied  at  Halle,  whera  he  also  for 
some  time  acted  as  teacher  at  the  orphanage.  In  1780 
he  was  called  to  Berlin  as  con-rector  at  the  KOlnische 
gymnasium,  was  made  in  1742  pro-rector,  and  finally  rec- 
tor. He  died  May  27, 1778,  having  published,  Brief 
des  Apostei  Jaeobi,  Hlmrsetzt  mil  Anmerkungen  (Berlin, 
1747) : — J)as  Neue  Testament  von  netiem  Mersetst  und 
mit  Anmerkungen  h^latH  (ibid.  1764»  1765, 8  vols.) ;  a 
work  which  caused  his  deposition  from  office,  because 
he  therein  advocated  Socinian  doctrines: — Vom  hisfo* 
rischen  Glauben  (ibid.  1772)  :~-Betrachtungen  fiber  die 
Religion  (ibid.  1778).  See  Meusel,  Gelehrtes  Deutsche 
land;  Jocher,  AUgemdnes  Geiehrten-Lexihon,  B,y,;  Wi- 
ner, Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  171.     (R  P.) 

Damm*  Oeorg,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  born  at  Rostock  in  1683.  In  1663  he  was  deacon  at 
St.  Mary's,  in  that  city ;  in  1667,  pastor  of  the  Altstadt, 
in  Konigsberg,  and  member  of  consistory,  the  same  year 
taking  his  degree  as  doctor  of  theology  at  Greifswalde. 
He  died  May  1 1, 1679.  He  wrote,  De  die  Omnium  Pri" 
mo : — De  RUu  Baptizandi  super  Sepulchra : — De  Officio 
Pastorali  Elenehtico  ex  Joh.  xn',  8.  See  Arnold,  HistO' 
rie  der  Kdnigsbergischen  UnicersitSt ;  J&cher,  A  Ugemdnes 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Damoetas.    See  Riculphus. 

Damon,  David,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  ministeri 


DAMPIERRE 


230 


DANCE 


was  born  in  1781.  He  graduated  from  Harrard  College 
in  1811;  was  settled  at  Lunenbarg  in  1816|  and  died  in 
1843.  He  pttbliabed  one  or  two  Strnumtj  and  tin  Ad- 
drttt  on  TVfnperofiee,  delivered  at  AmeeburVf  Mass.,  in 
1829.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Dampiertei  Antoike  Esmo5ik  dk,  a  French  ae- 
oetic  writer,  was  bom  at  Beaune  in  January,  1748.  He 
was  successively  counsellor  and  president  k  mortier  at 
the  parliament  of  BurgundVi  president  of  the  chamber 
in  the  royal  court  of  Dijon,  1811,  and  member  of  the 
general  council  of  the  Cote  d*Or,  1817.  He  died  Sept. 
1 1, 1824,  leaving,  Vtrith  Divmet  pour  U  Cceur  et  VEtprit 
(Lausanne,  1823)  i—IIutarique  de  la  Rieolution  (Dijon, 
1824).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  G^iraU,  s.  v. 

Da  Mula.    See  Amvlio. 

"DamfvOMt  in  Greek  mythology,  was  the  swiftest 
of  the  giants,  whose  body  was  employed  by  the  centaur 
Chiron,  in  order  to  strengthen  that  of  Achilles. 

Dan,  Thomas,  an  English  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  was  bom  at  Nutfield,  Surrey,  in  1704,  and 
became  a  preacher  in  1734.  The  field  of  his  labors  was 
chiefly  in  England.  He  died  Feb.  88, 1769.  See  Piety 
PromoUd,  ii,  488.     (J.  C  &) 

Dana  (a  ffift),  the  term  used  by  Buddhists  of  Cey- 
lon to  denote  idms.  Alms  given  to  priests  are  restrict- 
ed to  four  articles  only — robes,  food,  a  pallet  to  lie  upon, 
and  medicine  or  sick  diet.  Almsgiving  is  the  first  of 
virtues  among  the  Buddhists,  and  superior  to  the  ob- 
servance of  all  the  precepts.  It  brings  a  greatly  in- 
creased reward  in  a  future  birth,  including,  if  the  duty 
be  properly  discharged,  both  wealth  and  attendants. — 
Gardner,  FaiikM  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Dana,  Asa  J.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  at  PnltneyviUe,  Ontario  County,  N.  Y.,  March  24, 
1820.  He  was  converted  in  his  twelfth  year ;  received 
license  to  exhort  in  1888,  to  preach  in  1889,  and  the 
same  year  united  with  the  Oneida  Conference,  wherein 
he  labored  zealously  till  his  death,  Oct.  6, 1867.  See 
Mmutet  of  Annual  ConferenceSj  1858,  p.  88. 

Dana,  Charles  B.,  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector,  for  many  years,  of  Christ  Church, 
Fairiax  Parish,  Alexandria,  Ya.,  and  remained  in  that 
ofiice  until  1860,  when,  after  residing  for  a  short  time 
without  charge  in  that  place,  he  removed  to  Port  GilK 
son,  Miss.,  as  rector  of  St.  James's  Church.  In  1866 
he  went  to  Natchez,  as  rector  ol  Trinity  Church,  of 
which  he  was  incumbent  at  the  time  of  his  death,  Feb. 
25, 1873,  aged  sixty-six  years.  See  ProL  Epiec  Alma' 
nae,  1874,  p.  138. 

Dana,  GMdeou,  a  O>ngregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Oxford,  Mass.,  Sept  11, 1805.  In  1880  he  grad- 
uated from  Brown  University,  and  in  1886  from  Bangor 
Theological  Seminary— although  part  of  his  profession- 
al studies  were  pursued  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  For  a  time 
he  preached  at  North  Falmouth,  Mass.;  Jan.  3, 1838, 
be  was  ordained  pastor  at  South  Amherst,  where  he 
remained  nntil  1840.  Subsequently,  for  four  years,  he 
labored  in  Holyoke,  and  was  one  year  in  the  service  of 
the  American  Tract  Society.  4Ie  preached  in  Harroar, 
Om  from  1846  to  1850;  spent  several  months  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Western  Seamen's  Friend  Society,  and  then 
took  charge  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  at  Del- 
aware. He  removed  to  Strongsville  in  June,  1852,  and 
in  November,  1855,  to  Oberlin,  as  agent  for  the  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Christian  Union.  From  1859  to  1861 
he  served  the  Church  in  Bucyrus;  in  June,  1863,  re- 
moved to  Wauseon,  but  in  1868  returned  to  Oberltn, 
where  he  died,  May  9, 1872.  See  Con^g,  Qmtrterfy,  1873, 
p.  328. 

Dana,  James,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1735.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  CoWegt  in  1753,  and  remained  there  as  a 
resident-graduate  several  years.  In  1758  he  was  or- 
dained pastor  at  Wallingford,  Conn.,  notwithstanding 
the  opposition  of  the  Consociation  on  doctrinal  grounds, 


and  a  cbnrcb  qnarrel  ensued,  which  was  not  healed  until 
about  1772.  When  the  Revolutionary  straggle  b^gan, 
Mr.  Dana  became  very  popular  on  aooount  of  bb  de- 
cided stand  for  American  liberty.  Rev.  James  Noyes 
became  his  colleague  in  May,  1785.  Four  years  alter, 
Dr.  Dana  was  called  to  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  First 
(^urch  in  New  Haven,  and  retired  in  December,  1805. 
He  died  in  New  Haven,  Aug.  18, 1812.  See  Sprague, 
AmaU  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  i^  Kb, 

Dana,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Pomfret,  Coaju,  Nov.  2, 1742.  He  gnidn- 
ated  at  Yale- College  in  1760;  was  ordained  over  the 
Soath  Church  in  Ipswich,  Mass.,  in  1765,  and  contin- 
ued pastor  there  until  his  death,  Nov.  16, 1827.  Dr. 
Dana  publ'ished  several  Semumt  and  Addretees,  See 
Sprague,  A  imals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  i,  597  \  Cong.  Quar' 
terlg,  1859,  p.  42. 

Dana,  Simeon,  M.D.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Lebanon,  N.  H.,  December,  1876.  After 
practicing  medicine  some  years,  he  began  preaching  in 
New  Hampshire,  and  divided  his  time  between  his  own 
church,  that  in  Holderaess,  and  that  in  North  Holder- 
ness.  He  died  Sept  28, 1853.  See  Free-wU  Baptist 
Register,  1855,  p.  89.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Dana,  William  Coombs,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Newburyport,Mass.,  Feb.  13, 1810. 
He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1828;  was 
then  employed  in  teaching ,  became  a  student  in  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary,  and  also  in  Columbia 
Seminary;  was  licensed,  and  spent  a  part  of  a  year  in 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  He  was  ordained 
Feb.  14, 1836,  pastor  of  Central  Church,  Charleston,  S.  C. ; 
and  died  there,  Nov.  30, 1880.  He  published  a  trans- 
lation of  F6nelon  on  the  Education  of  Daughters  (1831) : 
—A  Transatlantic  Tour  (1845):— TAe  Ltfe  of  the  Rev, 
Daniel  Dana,  his  father  (1860);  and  compiled  a  vol- 
ume of  I/gmns,  See  Gen.  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem, 
1881,  p.  98. 

Danaoe,  a  name  given  to  the  obolus,  or  coin  which 
the  ancient  Greeks  were  wont  to  place  in  the  mouth  of 
the  dead,  to  pay  Charon  for  carrying  them  in  his  boat 
across  the  Styx  to  Hades. 

Danavandrl  in  Indian  mythology,  is  the  god  of 
the  healing  art,  a  special  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  There 
are  no  separate  temples  built  for  him  (pagodas),  but  his 
image,  a  statue  representing  an  old,  bearded  man,  read- 
ing in  a  book,  is  erected  on  Vishnu's  altar.  He  was  pro- 
duced when  the  gods  turaed  the  Mandar  mountain  into 
the  sea  of  milk,  to  prepare  amrita.  Then  he  came  out 
from  the  sea  with  a  vessel  which  contained  this  am- 
brosia. 

Danavas,  in  Hindii  mythology,  a  numerous  train 
of  evil  spirits,  who  often  caused  destractive  wars,  and 
were  in  continual  discord  with  the  kingdom  of  Indra. 
Twice  Vishnu  delivered  his  sovereign  from  the  control 
of  the  daemons,  and  Ihumanta  also  once  came  to  his 
sistanoe. 


the  reader,  of  Aulon  in  Illyria,  fled  with 
the  sacred  vessels  from  a  rastic  riot  against  the  Chris- 
tians to  a  place  by  the  sea,  five  miles  from  the  town, 
but  his  enemies  pursued  him,  let  themselves  down  to 
him  by  ropes,  bade  him  sacrifice  to  Bacchus,  and,  as  he 
would  not,  cut  him  down  with  their  swords  and  cast 
him  into  the  sea,  Jan.  16  (year  not  specified).  See 
Smith.  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Dance,  Matthew  Maze,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  in  Dinwiddie  County,  Vs.,  Jan.  29, 
1790.  He  was  converted  about  1807 ;  spent  the  next 
five  years  in  teaching  and  study;  entered  the  Virginia 
Conference  in  1812,  and  was  appointed  to  the  Bertie 
Circuit;  in  1814  became  private  secretary  to  bishop 
Asbury ;  located  in  1822,  settled  in  Prince  £dward  Coun- 
ty, and  died  there,  March  8, 1873.  See  Minutes  of  An^ 
nual  Conferences  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1873,  p. 
789. 


DANCE  OP  DEATH 


231 


DANE 


Dance  of  Death  U  a  lerM*  of  fnetarea  in  which 
Death,  portrayed  m  a  skeletoo,  is  the  principal  figure, 
and  repreteota  all  the  animation  of  a  living  penon, 
tDmetimcs  amusingly  ludicioufli  and  at  othen  miachicT- 
oua,  bat  always  busily  employed.  It  is  interesting,  as 
it  exhibits  the  costumes  of  dl  ranks  and  conditions  of 
life  at  the  period.  Hans  Holbein  painted  a  dance  of 
death  in  the  royal  galleries  at  Whitehall  There  was 
also  a  fine  example  in  the  cloisters  of  the  chantry  chapel 
of  St.  Anne,  called  the  Pardon  Church  House,  on  the 
north  side  of  St  PauFs,  in  London,  which  dated  from 
the  leigQ  of  Henry  V;  and  othen  were  painted  in  the 
doisters  of  the  Holy  Innocents  at  Paris,  at  Basle  and 
Lnbeck  in  the  16th  century,  at  Minden  in  the  14th  oen* 
tuy ;  and  at  Dresden,  Leipsic,  and  Annaberg.  In  the 
14ih  century  it  is  alluded  to  in  the  **  Vision  of  Piers 
Plowman,"  and  has  been  said  to  have  been  acted  as  a 
spiritual  masque  by  derks.  Prior  speaks  of  "imperial 
death  leading  up  Holbein's  dance."  Possibly  it  i^as  a 
memorial  of  a  fatal  plague  as  well  as  a  moral  lesson. 

It  was  known  also  under  the  title  of  the  Ikmee 
Maekabrt,  either  from  an  imaginary  poet  of  Germany 
called  Macabar,  who  was  said  to  have  written  the  ap- 
priate  diatichs  placed  under  each  set  of  figures,  or  more 
probably  from  the  hermit  saint  of  Egypt,  Macarius, 
who  is  still  portrayed  on  pictures  in  Greek  monas- 
teries, as  he  was  frequently  introduced.  The  English 
name  waa  Bamce  o/PomUb  (St.  Paul's).— Walcott,  Sor 
crtd  ArektBoL  a.y, 

Danoel,  Jbah  Crables  Richard,  a  French  prelate 
and  theokigian,  was  bom  in  1761  at  Cherbourg.  He  went 
to  Paris;  entered  the  society  called  the  Robertines;  was 
admitted  to  the  Sorbonne  as  tociut;  obtained  a  chair  of 
philosophy;  in  1792  went  to  England, and  there  taught 
mathematics;  returned  to  France  in  1801,  after  the  con- 
cordat ;  entered  the  chapter  of  Coutauces ;  became  grand« 
Ticar,  then  rector  of  Yalognes  and  archdeacon  in  1805. 
Oct.  28, 1827,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Bayeux,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  for  the  extension  of 
aeminaries.  He  died  April  20, 1886,  leaving  ApoiogU 
dm  Sa-muU  Cinqw  (1790).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Chtiralej  s.  v. 

Danok:vrert%  Hbbxaxm,  a  Lutheran  theologiaii 
of  Germany,  was  bom  April  4, 1814,  at  Plate.  He  stud- 
ied at  Gottingen ;  was  in  1843  pastor  at  BienenbUttel ; 
in  1855,  superintendent  at  Borry ;  in  1860,  pastor  at  Got- 
tingen, and  finally  superintendent  there.  He  died  July 
26, 1S81.  He  was  an  excellent  preacher,  who  led  many 
in  the  way  of  righteousness.    (B.  P.) 

Dandam,  in  Hindil  mythology,  is  a  staff  with  seven 
ash  knots,  which  the  Sanjasi,  or  Indian  saints,  carry,  and 
whoae  knots  they  must  dail}'  moisten  with  water  from 
Ihe  Ganges,  whereby  they  are  protected  against  all  in- 
fluences of  evil  damona. 

I>azidavatreii,  in  Hindft  mythology,  is  a  new 
birth  and  the  thiid  incarnation  of  the  giant -dsmon 
Emniakaasiaben,  one  of  the  two  Daidyas.  He  was  suIk 
dued  and  slain  by  Visbnu,  according  to  the  Avatera. 

Dandesuren,  in  Hindft  mythology,  was  a  holy 
penitent  and  favorite  of  Siva,  who  commanded  the 
same  worship  to  be  paid  to  this  saint  as  is  given  to  the 
god  himself.  Therefiire  Dandesuren's  statue  stands  in 
the  temple  of  Siva,  side  by  side  with  that  of  the  great 
destroyer. 

Dandini,  Ceaare,  an  Italian  painter,  was  boro  at 
Florence  in  1695,  and  studied  successively  with  Curradi, 
Fassignano,  and  Cristofano  Allori.  He  executed  many 
pietares  and  altar-pieces  for  the  churches  and  convents 
at  Florence.  He  died  in  1658.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
GmiraUt  s.  v.;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
iir. 

Dandinl,  Ottaviano,  an  lulian  painter  of  the 
midiiUe  of  the  18th  century,  was  the  son  of  Pietro,  by 
whfOB  be  was  instructed.  There  are  several  of  his 
works  in  the  convents  and  churches  at  Florence,  high- 


ly praised.  There  are  some  paintings  of  sacred  tulilects 
by  him,  in  the  Church  of  San  Lorenzo;  also  in  the 
Chureh  of  Santa  Maddalena,  at  Pescia.  See  Hoefer, 
Nou9»  Biog,  GMralt,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hiat,  of  ike 
Fine  Arts f  s.  v. 

Dandini,  Pietro^  an  Italian  painter,  was  bora  at 
Florence  in  1646,  and  received  instraction  in  the  art 
when  but  four  years  of  age,  from  Valerio  Spada.  He 
afterwards  travelled  through  Italy,  studying  the  best 
masters,  and  at  the  same  time  executed  a  number  of 
paintings  fur  the  churches  and  convents  of  Florence. 
One  of  his  most  important  works  was  the  cupola  in  the 
church  of  Sanu  Maria  Maddalena.  In  the  Church  of 
SanU  Maria  Maggiore  is  his  picture  of  SL  Francieco. 
He  died  in  1712.  See  Hoefer,  Noud,  Biog,  GMraU, 
s.  V. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  (he  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Dandle,  one  of  the  Vaishnava  (q.  v.)  sects  among 
the  Hindfis,  and  a  legitimate  representative  of  the 
fourth  Asrama  or  mendicant  life,  into  which  the  Hindii 
is  believed  to  enter  after  passing  the  previous  stages  of 
student,  householder,  and  hermit.  A  Brahmin,  bow- 
ever,  does  not  require  to  pass  through  the  previous 
stages,  but  is  allowed  to  enter  at  once  into  the  fourth 
order.  The  Dandi  is  distinguished  by  carrying  a  small 
dand  or  wand,  with  sevend  projections  from  it,  and  a 
piece  of  cloth  d3'ed  with  red  ochre,  in  which  the  Brah- 
minical  cord  is  supposed  to  be  enshrined,  attached  to 
it;  he  shaves  his  hair  and  beard,  wean  only  a  loin- 
cloth, and  subsists  upon  food  obtained  ready  dressed 
from  the  houses  of  the  Brahmins  once  a  day  only, 
which  he  deposits  in  the  small  clay  pot  that  he  always 
carries  with  him.  They  are  generally  found  in  cities, 
collected,  like  other  mendicants,  in  maths.  See  Gf  rd- 
ner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Dandolo^  Fausteko,  a  Venetian  theologian,  was 
bora  about  1879.  He  was  successively  apostolic  pro- 
thonotary,  legate  a  latere,  and  governor  of  Bologna ; 
and  died  in  1449,  leaving  Comj^ndium  pro  Caiholiom 
Fidei  Intiructione.  There  has  also  been  attributed  to 
him  Tradatus  de  BeneJlcOs ;  Responsa  Q^tBdam  Juri- 
diccu    See  Hoefer,  Nquv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Dandy,  James  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Ireland,  Sept.  8, 1798.  He  entered  the 
Philadelphia  Conference  in  1826,  and,  by  subsequent 
changes  in  the  conference  lines,  was  a  member,  first  of 
the  New  Jersey,  and  afterwards  of  the  Newark  Confer- 
ence. From  1857  to  1878  he  sustained  a  superaumerary 
relation,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  superannuated.  He 
died  in  1882  or  1888.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer- 
ences, 1888,  p.  84. 

Dane,  Franole  (1),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
partly  educated  in  England,  and  completed  his.Uieo- 
logical  studies  in  America.  About  1648  he  became  pas- 
tor in  Andover,  Mass.  In  March,  1682,  the  Kev.  Thorn- 
as  Bamard  became  his  assistant.  During  the  witch- 
craft frenzy  in  1692,  it  is  said  that  intimations  of  Mr. 
Dane's  implication  served  somewhat  to  check  the  de- 
lusion, as  it  was  not  believed  that  so  pious  a  man  coidd 
be  in  league  with  the  devil  He  died  Feb.  17, 1699, 
aged  eighty-one  years.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the 
Amer,  Pulpit,  \,\W, 

Dane,  Franda  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Andover,  Mass.,  May  1, 1782.  He  was 
converted  in  early  life,  and  in  1810  Joined  the  New  Eng- 
land Conference,  wherein  he  preached  until  1840,  when 
he  superannuated.  He  was  afterwards  twice  honored 
by  being  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  Sute  Legislature. 
He  died  Oct.  16, 1864.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Confer^ 
enees,  1865,  p.  42. 

Dane,  John,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bom 
at  Andover,  Mass.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege in  1800 ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Pitts- 
ton,  Me.,  Feb.  16, 1808,  and  was  dismissed  on  account 
of  gross  immoralities  in  1804.  See  Sprague,  Annals  qf 
the  Amer.  PuljHt,  ii,  879. 


DANEDI 


282 


DANIEL 


DanadJ^  Gtoraiiiil  Stefitmo  (called  Moni(du>\ 
ft  MUaneae  ptinter,  was  born  at  TrerigUo  in  1606,  and 
studied  under  CavaJiere  Morazzone.  He  executed  many 
works  in  the  churches  and  convents  of  Milan,  among 
them  Tks  Martyrdom  qfSt,  Jiutina^  in  the  Church  of 
Santa  Maria  Pedone.  He  died  at  Milan  in  1689.  See 
SpoQoer,  Biog,  HitU  ofthi  Fine  Arts,  b,  v. 

Danedi,  GMlueppe,  an  Italian  painter,  brother 
of  the  foregoing,  was  bom  at  Treviglio  in  1618,  and  stud- 
ied under  Guido  Reni,  at  Bologna.  He  went  to  Turin, 
and  executed  some  admirable  pictures  for  the  churches 
of  that  city,  among  them  the  fine  altar-piece  represent- 
ing The  Masiocre  of  the  Jtmocents,  He  died  in  1688. 
8e9  Spooner,  Biog,  Jlitt,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Dandfl,  Pierre,  a  French  scholar  and  bishop,  was 
bom  at  Paris  in  1497.  When  quite  young,  he  entered 
the  College  of  Navarre,  where  he  was  appointed  first 
professor  of  Greek  in  1680.  In  1546  be  was  present  at 
the  Council  of  Trent,  and  his  address,  which  he  deliv- 
ered there  in  the  following  year,  was  printed  at  the  in- 
stance of  Francis  L  When  Henry  II  ascended  the 
throne,  he  appointed  Dan^  in  1547,  as  tutor  to  the  dau- 
phin, afterwards  Francis  IL  In  1548  he  was  elected  to 
the  see  of  Lavaur,  and  died  at  St.  Germain  des  Pr6s, 
April  28, 1577.  He  wrote  a  number  of  historical  works 
and  addresses.  See  Abr^  de  la  Vie  du  CeL  Pierre 
Danit  (Paris,  1781) ;  Jocher,  i4%memef  GeUhrtetfljex- 
ikon, a.  y,;   Hoefer, iVbar.  Bto^.  (?^fiira^ a. v.    (B.  P.) 

Dandfl,  Pierre  ZjOuIb,  a  Flemish  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Cassel,  Flanders,  in  1684.  He  taught  philoso- 
phy at  Louvain,was  rector  of  St.  James's  at  Antwerp  in 
1714,  graduate-canon  at  Tpres  in  1717,  then  president 
of  the  episcopal  seminary,  and  penitenliai7.  In  1782 
he  returned  to  Louvain,  and  succeeded  to  Daelman  in 
the  chair  of  philosophy.  He  died  at  liouvain.  May  28, 
1736,  leaving  ImHtuHones  Doetrina  Chrietiana  (Lou- 
vain, 1718  and  1768;  this  is  an  abridgment  of  an  excel- 
lent theological  work): — Oraiionee  et  JiomUia  (ibid. 
1785)  i—De  Fide,  Spe  ef  Chariiate  (ibid.  eod.).  See 
Hoefer,  iVbup.  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Danforth,  A.  H.,  a  Baptist*  minister,  was  bom  in 
1818.  Immediately  upon  completing  his  educational 
course  at  Hamilton  in  1847,  he  went  as  missionary  to 
Assam,  India,  but  after  eleven  years  labor  there,  ill- 
health  obliged  him  to  return,  and  he  settled  with  the 
Baptist  Church  at  Milestown,  Pa.,  where  he  labored  as 
pattor  three  yean,  and  where,  after  ser\*ing  the  Chris- 
tian OHnmission  some  time  in  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac, he  died  Feb.  18, 1864^  See  Appieton's  Annual 
Cgcb^HBdiaj  1865,  p.  683. 

Danforth,  Z^ancls,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  in  New  Hampshire  in  17S4.  He  graduated 
flrom  Dartmouth  College  in  1819,  and  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1822;  was  ordained  June  11, 
1823;  pastor  at  Greenfield,  where  he  remained  until 
1881;  at  Winchester  until  1889;  of  the  First  Church 
of  Hadley,  Mass.,  until  1842 ;  was  without  charge  un- 
til 1844;*  was  at  Byron  and  Medina,  N.  Y.,  in  1845; 
stated  supply  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Clarence 
from  1846  to  1852,  and  thereafter  without  charge  at 
the  same  place  until  his  death,  Jan.  29,  1854.  See 
Trien,  Cat.  of  A  ndover  TheoL  Sem,  1870,  p.  50. 

DaQforth,  John,  a  Congregational  minister,  son 
of  Bev.  Samuel  Danforth,  Sr.,  was  bom  Nov.  5,  1660. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1677;  was  or- 
dained the  seventh  minister  of  the  Church  in  Dorches- 
ter, June  28, 1682,  and  occupied  that  position  until  his 
death.  May  26,  1730.  He  left  several  published  dis- 
courses, among  them  two  Sermons  on  the  Earthquake  in 
1727.    (J.CS.) 

Danlbrtll,  R.  Edmund,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Merrimac,  N.  H.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1854;  received  license  to  exhort  and  to 
preach  in  1855;  and  in  1856  entered  the  Biblical  In- 
stitute at  CoDOord,  N.  H.,  where  he  remained  two 


years,  meatetime  Joining  the  New  Hampshire  Confer- 
ence, in  which  he  labored  till  hia  death,  June  28, 1868. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Coitferenees,  1864^  p.  76. 

Danforth,  William  Burke,  a  Ongregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Barnard,  Vt.,  Feb.  21, 1849.  He 
studied  at  Royalton  Academy,  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
0)llege  in  1871,  and  from  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1874 ; 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Gilead,  (}onn.^ 
July  9  of  the  same  year,  and  died  there  July  4,  1875. 
See  Cong.  QuarterfyflSji,  p.  428. 

Dangerfleld,  Joan,  an  English  martyr,  was  the 
wife  of  the  godly  WUliam  Dangerfield,  and  on  account 
of  her  faithfulness  to  her  religion  she  was  taken  from 
her  home,  with  a  child  only  fourteen  days  old,  and  cast 
into  prison  amid  thieves  and  murderers.  She  remaincni 
there  for  some  weeks,  when  she  was  taken  to  the  place 
of  execution  and  burned,  with  three  other  martyrs,  in 
1556.    See  Fox,  A  cts  and  Monuments,  viii,  251. 

• 

Dangerfleld,  WUliam,  an  English  martyr,  was 
a  citizen  of  Wootton-nnder-Edge,  not  far  from  Bristol 
He  was  suspected  by  some  of  his  adversaries,  and  pot 
into  prison,  where  be  remained  until  his  legs  were  al- 
most fretted  off  with  irons.  After  much  suffering  he 
recanted,  against  the  advice  of  hb  wife,  who  was  a 
prisoner  at  the  same  time;  he  had  no  sooner  quitted 
the  Jail,  than,  his  conscience  upbraiding  him,  he  began 
to  pray  for  forgiveness,  for  which  he  was  soon  pot  to 
the  stake  and  burned,  in  1556.  See  Fox,  A  cts  and  J/on- 
unmUs,  viii,  251. 

Danl,  Eldad  ha-.    See  Eldad  had-Dahi. 

Danioie,  Gboro,  a  famous  Servian  linguist,  was 
bom  at  Neusatz,  April  4,  1825.  In  1856  he  was  ap- 
pointed librarian  at  Belgrade,  in  18.'^9  professor  at  the 
lyceum  there,  and  in  1853  professor  of  Slavic  philology 
^t  the  college.  In  1867  he  went  to  Agram,  where  be 
was  made  secretary  of  the  academy.  In  1878  he  was 
recalled  to  Belgrade,  but  in  1877  he  went  again  to  Agram 
to  continue  his  large  Sert>6-Croattan  dictionary,  which 
was  published  by  the  academy.  He  died  Nov.  17, 1882. 
His  chief  work  lies  in  his  linguistic  publications  con- 
ceming  the  Servian  language,  but  he  also  holds  an 
honorable  position  on  account  of  his  excellent  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  into  the  Servian  language. 

(a  P.) 

Daniel  (sometimes  Danihel)  was  the  name  of 
a  number  of  early  bishops  and  presbyters : 

1.  Presbyter,  said  to  have  been  martyred  in  Persia, 
Feb.  21,  in  'the  thirty-fiah  year  of  Sapor  (A.D.  844), 
with  a  virgin,  whose  name  in  Chaldee  meant  Rose,  after 
five  days*  torture  and  three  months*  interrogation,  ac- 
cording to  brief  acts  given  from  a  Vatican  MS.  by  Asse- 
mani  (^Mart.  Orient,  p.  108.) 

2.  One  of  the  abbots  of  Scet^  in  Egypt,  in  the  4th 
or  5th  century.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Paphnutius,  and 
served  him  in  the  capacity  of  deacon  at  the  altar.  He 
is  the  speaker  in  the  fourth  of  the  Ollationea  of  Johan- 
nes Cassianus,  who  had  met  him  during  a  tour  in  Egypt. 

3.  A  disciple  of  the  solitary  Arsenius,  about  445,  who 
performed  for  him  the  duties  of  boqiitality  to  strangen 
arriving  at  his  cell 

4.  Bishop  at  a  council  assembled  by  Cyril  at  Alex- 
andria about  A.D.  480,  for  the  condemnation  of  Nesto- 
rius.  He  was  one  of  the  four  bishops  selectetl  to  carry 
to  Constantinople  the  letter  written  by  Cyril  in  the 
name  of  this  council,  together  with  the  letter  of  pope 
Celestine  in  the  name  of  a  Roman  council  on  the  Mme 
subject. 

5.  A  presbyter  at  Alexandria,  sent  in  A.D.  488  to 
Acacius,  bishop  of  Meletina,  Theodotus  of  Ancyra,  and 
Firmus  of  Cnsarea,  with  a  credential  letter  by  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  to  show  them  the  situation  of  affaira  and 
the  reply  he  proposed  to  send  to  the  Oriental  bishops 
at  Ant  loch. 

6.  Bbhop  of  Chams  (Haran)  in  Mesopotaniia,  in  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century.    He  was  the  nephew  of  the 


DANIEL 


233 


DANIEL 


edebnted  NeBtorian,  IbM,  bishop  of  Edcfltt,  who  eon- 
•ecimted  him.  He  voted  against  Athanasios  ia  the 
oouDcii  held  at  Antioch  in  444,  Charges  were  pre- 
ferred against  him  by  a  synod  held  at  Berytiis^  and  his 
disorderly  and  licentious  life  being  proven,  he  was 
anathenmtized  by  Diosooms  at  the  Latrodnium  of 
Ephesus. 

7.  See  Deisol  Wth. 

8.  A  deacon  mentioned  in  the  will  of  St,  Perpetuus, 
archbishop  of  Tourk  Ho  lived  about  the  end  of  the 
5ih  century. 

9.  Bishop  of  Theodosiopolis  (or  RhsBsina)  in  Meso- 
potamiay  in  the  middle  of  the  6th  century.  He  wrote 
works  against  the  errors  of  "  the  Marcionites,  Manichees, 
Chaldjeans,  and  astiologerSk" 

XO.  Abbot  of  the  monastery  afterwards  known  as 
St.  M^dard'Si  at  Soissons.  The  monastery  was  founded 
by  Qotaire  I  of  the  Franks  about  560,  and  at  its  dedi- 
cation, in  562,  Daniel  became  its  first  abbot.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  SL  Maurus  of  Glaufeuille, 
and  to  have  obtained  the  privilege  of  immunity  from 
pope  John  HL 

11.  Saint  and  bishop  of  Cenn-6aradh  (now  Kin- 
garth,  on  the  island  of  Bute,  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde). 
He  is  commeoMmUcd  Feb.  18. 

12.  A  monk  of  the  7th  centmy,  who  wrote  at  the 
monastery  of  Rhaitu  the  Lffk  ofJokm  CiimaeuM,  abbot 
of  Mount' Sinai  (605). 

13.  Bishop  of  Salach,  in  Mesopotamia.  He  lived  in 
the  8th  century,  and  wrote  a  Commentary  <m  the  PttUmt, 

14.  Succeeded  Aribertus  as  fifteenth  archbishop  of 
Narfoonne.  He  was  one  of  twelve  Gallic  bishops  pres- 
ent at  the  Roman  council  held  in  the  Lateran  basilica 
under  pope  Stephen  IT,  A.D.  769,  concerning  the  eleo- 
lion  of  the  pope  and  the  cnltus  of  sacred  images.  The 
principal  event  recorded  of  hu  episcopate  was  his  hold- 
ing a  synod  in  the  basilica  of  Sts.  Justus  snd  Pastor 
at  Narbonne,  on  June  27, 788  (Baluze,  Petrus  de  Marea), 
or  791  {GalL  Ckritt.),  attended  by  the  Ushops  of  the 
provinces  of  Nsrbonne  and  Tarragona,  which  were  then 
united,  and  by  those  of  the  neighboring  provinces  of 
Aries,  Yienne,  Aix,  and  £ause.  Three  subjects  were  dis- 
cussed. (1)  The  heresy  Uught  by  Felix,  bishop  of 
Urgel,  oonoeming  the  adoption  of  the  Son  of  God,  and 
this  was  in  all  probability  condemned,  though  there  is 
no  distinct  information  on  that  point.  (2)  The  state 
of  the  chureh  of  Ausona  (Vlch),  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Tarragona,  which  had  formerly  lost  its  episcopal 
•ee  through  the  invasion  of  the  Moors,  and  been  eocle- 
sasiically  annexed  to  Narbonne.  It  was  decided  that 
it  should  remain  in  this  subjection  until  the  pagans 
irere  expelled,  after  which  it  should  have  a  bishop  of 
its  own.  (3)  A  dispute  with  Winedurus,  bishop  of 
Kine,  a»  to  jurisdiction  over  the  Pciffiu  Bedmsis,  in  the 
Pyrenees,  and  this  was  decided  in  Daniers  favor.  The 
exact  date  of  his  death  is  not  known,  although  Nebri- 
dus  succeeded  him.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog, 

SL  V. 

Daniel,  Saini,  or  Africa,  was  provincial  of  the  or- 
der of  Minorites  of  Calabria.  In  1221  he  embarked  for 
Afirica,  at  the  head  of  a  mission  composed  of  brothers 
Samuel,  Angelns,  Donno,  Ugolino,  Leo,  and  Nicolss,  for 
the  purpose  of  laboring  for  the  conversion  of  the  Moors. 
They  landed  at  Ceuta  and  commenced  preaching.  The 
peo|4e  seized  them,  and  led  them  to  Mohammed  the 
Green,  king  of  Morocco ;  this  prince  despoiled  them, 
scourged  them,  threw  them  into  prison,  and  finally  be- 
headed them,  Oct.  8, 1221.  They  suffered  martyrdom 
with  joy  and  courage.  Some  years  after,  the  child- 
prince  of  Portugal,  son  of  king  Alfonso  the  Fat,  ob- 
tained their  bodies  of  the  king  of  Morocco,  and  present- 
ed them  to  Spain.  In  1516,  pope  Leo  X  added  them 
to  the  number  of  saints.  Their  festival  is  celebrated 
Oct.  13.     See  Hoefer,  iVbttP.  Biog,  G4n4raU,  s.  v. 

Daniel  db  Saiht  Joseph  (properly  Joseph  It 
Gomtenteur),  a  French  theologian,  was  born  at  St.  Malo 


in  1601.  He  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Carmelitei  of 
Rennes  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  nine  years  afterward! 
taught  philosophy  at  Caen,  and  subsequently  theology, 
with  gteat  repute.  He  became  provincial  of  his  order 
in  the  province  of  Toulouse,  and  died  at  Guildo,  Feb.  6, 
1666,  leaving  Vie  de  Saint  A  ndri  Conin  (Rennes,  1 630) : 
— Mamul  de  la  Cottfririe  de  la  SakUe  Familie  de  Jhus 
(Angers,  1640):— Le  ThMogien  Franfais  sur  le  MyS' 
tere  de  la  Sainte  TrimU  (1643,  1658)  ^-Pan^njaet 
(1660).    See  Hoefer,  JVbatr.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Daniel  i>b  SAiirr-SRVKR,  a  French  theologian,  who 
lived  in  1625,  was  a  Capuchin  of  the  province  of  Gui- 
enne.  He  uught  theology,  was  possessed  of  a  good 
memory,  and  was  versed  in  nearly  all  the  langusges. 
He  wrote,  De  Decensu  Chj-isH  ad  In/erot  (Lyons,  1618, 
in  Latin  and  French):— i>e  CoUadone  et  Disputaiione 
cum  Nomaneenttbue  et  Septimanm  Factionis  Cabrinianob 
(Avignon,  1625).     See  Hoefer,  A^our.  Biog,  Genirale^ 

8.  V. 

Daniel  db  la  Yibrob  (properly  Audenterde)^  a 
Belgian  theologian,  was  bom  at  Hamme,  near  Dender- 
monde,  Flanders,  in  1615.  He  obtained  his  education 
at  the  house  of  the  Carmelites,  whom  he  joined  iu  1632. 
He  was  successively  lecturer  on  theology,  master  of 
novices,  prior  of  the  convents  of  Brussels  and  Malines, 
and  twice  provincial  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
piety  and  charity,  and  died  Oct.  24, 1678,  leaving  a 
large  number  of  works,  among  which  we  notice,  The 
Art  of  Confeerion  (Brussels,  1649, in  Flemish) -.—Demon' 
stratum  of  the  True  Chureh  (ibid,  eod.,  in  Flemish):— 
Epitome  Vilm  Sancfi  Petri  Thonue,  etc.  (Antwerp,  1659) : 
—  VUa  Sancti  Elia  Prophita  (Frankfort,  1670).  See 
Hoefer,  Noun,  Biog,  Ghdrale^  s.  v. 

Daniel,  Fkstival  of,  a  festival  celebrated  by  the 
Greek  Church  on  Dec  17,  in  memory  of  the  prophet 
Daniel,  and  the  three  young  Hebrews  who  were  cast 
into  the  fiery  furnace. 

Daniel,  Ebenezer,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Burfurd,  in  Oxfordshire,  Oct.  14, 1784.  He 
was  converted  when  a.  child,  and  baptized  at  the  sge  of 
seventeen.  He  became  a  student  in  Bristol  College  in 
1802;  wss  ordained,  in  1808,  as  pastor  at  Brixham, 
Devonshire;  in  1812  removed  to  Luton,  Bedfordshire; 
was  desigiuted  as  a  missionary  to  Ceylon,  Feb.  17, 
1880;  reached  his  station  Aug.  14  following,  and  la- 
bored until  his  death,  June  2, 1844.  See  (Lond.)  tiap- 
tist  Magazine,  1846,  p.  187, 201.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Daniel,  Bliaabeth,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  was  bom  at  Salem,  N.  J.,  in  1709,  and  early  in 
life  was  called  into  both  the  Church  and  the  ministry. 
She  sometimes  travelled  in  sections  of  Pennsylvsnia 
and  MaryUnd,  and  died  Oct.  80, 1760.  See  Piety  Pro- 
moted, iv,  416-418.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Daniel,  Qabrlel,  a  French  ecclesiastical  writer, 
was  bort  at  Rouen  in  1649.  When  eighteen  years  of 
age  he  Joined  the  Jesuits.  After  he  had  Uught  for  some 
years  in  the  college  at  Rouen  with  great  success,  his 
superiors  sent  him  to  Paris  as  librarian  of  the  *^  domos 
professsB "  of  his  society,  where  he  died  in  1728.  His 
most  iroporUnt  work  is  VlJistoire  de  France  (Paris, 
1713,  also  175&-60, 3  vols.),  against  which  Mezerai  wrote 
his  Observations  Critiques  .-—niBO  Recueil  de  Divers  Ou- 
wages  Philosophiques,  ThMogiques,  Apologstiques  et 
Critiques  (ibid.  1724.  3  vols.).  Sec  Lichtenberger,  En- 
rydop,  des  Sciences  Beligieuses,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  ligemeines 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Encychp,  Brit,  (9th  ed.)  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Daniel,  Herbert,  an  English  Con^^regationsl  min- 
ister, was  bom  near  Pontypool,  Blarch  80, 1801.  He 
wss  converted  at  the  sge  of  eighteen ;  received  his  min- 
isterial training  at  Pontypool  and  at  Abergavenny ;  and 
was  ordained  pastor  at  Maesycwmwr  in  1832.  In  1837 
he  formed  a  chureh  in  Pontvpool,  and  in  1841  another 
inCefnycrib.  He  died  Oct.  26, 1874.  See  (Lond.)  Con^. 
Year-book,  1875,  p.  320. 


DANIEL 


234 


DANNEOEER 


Daniel,  Hennann  Adalbert,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Kdtheu,  Nov.  18, 1812. 
He  studied  at  Halle ;  was  in  1848  aasbtant  tutor  at  the 
school  there;  in  1844,  inspector  adjunctus,  with  the 
title  of  professor;  and  died  at  Leipsic,  Sept.  13, 1871. 
He  published,  CommaUatioms  de  Tatiano  Apologeta 
Specimen  (Halle,  1885):— 7\i/iaiitt#  alt  Apologet  (ibid. 
1887)  '.—Hymnologueher  BUUhautrausM  (ibid.  1840)  :— 
Theoloffische  Controvenen  (ibid.  1843).  But  his  main 
works,  which  have  made  his  name  known  beyond  the 
limits  of  his  own  country,  are.  Codex  LUurgiau  Ecde^ 
eia  UttivertcB  (Leipsic,  1847-55, 4  vols. ;  vol  i,  Codex  Li- 
tut'fficus  EcdetuB  RomanO'CathoUae,  1847 ;  voL  ii,  Cod, 
Lit,  Eoclena  Lutherana,  1848 ;  voL  iit.  Cod,  Lit,  EccUna 
SeformatcB  atque  AngUcantB,  1851 ;  vol.  iv,  Cod,  Lit,  Eo 
cletia  Orientalitf  1855  )  :  —  Tketaurut  Jlynmolofficus 
(Halle,  1841-46,  5  vols.).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL 
i,  258.     (a  P.) 

Daniel,  James  Taylor,  a  minister  of  the  Bible 
Christians,  was  bom  in  I)evon,  England,  March  5, 1838. 
He  was  converted  when  twenty  years  of  age ;  for  two 
years  labored  with  great  acceptability  and  usefulness 
as  a  local  preacher  on  the  Holsworthy  Circuit,  and  in 
1864  entered  the  itinerant  ministr)'.  After  thirteen 
years  of  successful  labor,  he  died  suddenly,  Bia}*  2, 1877. 
See  MimUe  of  the  Conference^  1877. 

Daniel,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1807,  of  Quaker  parents. 
He  was  converted  in  early  youth,  licensed  to  preach  in 
1828,  and  in  1832  joined  the  Indiana  Conference,  in 
which  he  rendered  effective  service  until  1852,  when  he 
was  transferred  to  the  California  Conference.  He  at 
length  became  superannuated,  and  died  Oct  19, 1880. 
See  Minutei  of  Annual  Conferences,  1881,  p.  316. 

Daniel,  Ilfark,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
converted  in  early  life,  b^an  to  preach  in  1794,  and 
died  Feb.  21, 1821,  aged  fifty-five  years.  See  Minutes 
of  the  British  Conference,  1821. 

Daniel,  Robert,  a  Bible  Christian  minister,  was 
bom  in  the  parish  of  St.  Austell,  Cornwall,  England. 
He  was  converted  in  1824,  and  entered  the  ministry  in 
18da  His  health  faUed  in  1888,  and  he  died  Dec  11, 
1839. 

Daniel,  Robert  T.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Middlesex  County,  Ya.,  June  10, 1778.  He  removed 
to  North  Carolina ;  in  1802  united  with  the  Church  at 
Holly  Springs,  Wake  Co.,  and  was  ordained  in  1803. 
He  labored  as  an  itinerant  evangelist  in  different  parts 
of  Nonh  Carolina,  Virginia,  Mississippi, and  Tennessee; 
and  died  in  Paris,  Tenn.,  Sept.  14, 1840.  See  Cathcart, 
Baptist  Encychp,  p.  806.     (J.  a  a) 

Daniel,  "Walter  (Lat.  GuaUerus\  a  Cistercian  of 
England,  who  died  about  the  year  1170,  is  the  author 
of,  JJe  Conceptiane  B,  Maria : — De  Virffimtate  Ejusdem : 
— Expositio  Super'  ^^ Missus  est  Angelas''^ : — De  Onere 
Jumentorum  Austri  Esa,  xxx,  6,  in  two  books.  See 
Pitseus,  De  Sa-iptoribus  Anglics ;  De  Yisch,  BibUotheca 
Saiptorum  Orduus  Cisterciensis ;  Jocber,  AUgemeines 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Daniels,  Amoo,  a  Free-will  Bsptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Hertford,  Conn.,  in  1787.  He  was  converted  in 
August,  1806,  and  joined  the  Methodbts,  among  whom 
he  was  a  preacher  for  about  eight  years;  but  afterwards 
united  with  a  Free-will  Baptist  Church,  and  was  or- 
dained in  1822.  He  labored  much  among  the  feeble 
churches,  and  for  twenty-five  years  was  the  pastor  of 
the  Virgil  and  Dryden  Church,  N.  Y.  He  died  at  his 
residence  in  Vestal,  April  29, 1873.  Sec  Morning  Star, 
Dec  24, 1873.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Daniels,  Edmund,  an  English  Conc^negational 
minister,  was  born  at  Waltham,  near  Canterbury,  in 
1837.  He  early  united  with  the  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
and,  before  reaching  his  sixteenth  3*ear,  was  an  accepta- 
ble lay  preaclier.  After  studying  at  Didsbury  College, 
he  was  appointed  to  Hereford,  Cornwall,  and  Norfolk. 


In  1866  he  joined  the  Congregationalists,  and  labored 
at  Tyldesley,  HoUingworth,  and  Bolton.  In  1874  he 
removed  to  Felling,  near  Gateshead,  and  finally  to 
Byker,  where  he  died,  April  26,  1878.  See  (Lond.) 
Coi^.  Tear^hookf  1879,  p.  808. 

Daniels,  Henry,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bora  at  Ecdesfield,  near  Sbefiield,  in  1802.  He 
was  converted  in  eariy  life;  commenced  his  ministry  in 
1828;  spent  thirty-seven  years  of  toil,  almost  entirely 
in  the  counties  of  Devon  and  Cornwall ;  and  died  at 
St.  Austell,  Nov.  8, 1869.  See  Minutes  of  tke  BritiA 
Conference,  1870,  p.  21. 

Daniels,  John  H.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Caroline  County,  Va.,  Jan.  15, 1811.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1832,  ordained  in  1833,  and.  preached  in  Ken- 
tucky about  three  years ;  in  1836  settled  in  Cass  County, 
111.,  and  preached  for  the  churches  of  Princeton,  Rich- 
land, Sangamon  Bottom,  and  other  places;  thence  re- 
moved to  Bath,  Mason  Co.,  where  he  preached  until  hia 
death,  May  20, 1881.  See  Minutes  of  JO,  A  nnirersarie», 
1881,  p.  25.     (J.  C  S.) 

Danish  Version  of  thk  ScRipruREa.  See  Scan* 
DiNAViAN  Versions. 

Danker,  Geougb,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bora  near  Bremen,  Germany,  in  1794.  He  was  oon- 
verteil  in  1824;  immediately  became  an  earnest  exhorU 
er,  for  which  he  was  severely  persecuted ;  labored  some 
years  as  a  city  missionary  with  marketl  success;  came 
to  America  in  1886,  and  settled  in  Marietta,  O.,  where 
for  some  time  he  preached  with  large  success  for  the 
Lutheran  Church.  About  three  years  later  he  united 
with  the  Cincinnati  Conference,  and  in  it  continued 
faithful  and  laborious  until  1859,  when  he  became  su- 
perannuated, and  retired  to  Marietta,  where  he  died, 
March  4, 1861.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences, 
1861,  p.  166. 

Danley,  Lkroy  C,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  entered  the  Kentucky  Confer- 
ence in  1840 ;  travelled  circuits  until  1849,  when  be 
located ;  was  readmitted  in  1855 ;  became  supemumer- 
ary  in  1859,  superannuated  in  1860,  and  died  July  27, 
1878.  See  Minutes  of  A  wnual  Conferences  of  the  M,  £, 
Church  South,  1873,  p.  861. 

Dann,  Christian  Adam,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Tubingen,  Dec.  24, 1758,  where 
he  also  prepared  himself  for  the  ministry.  In  1798  he 
was  appointed  deacon  at  Goppingen ;  in  1794,  assistant 
at  Stuttgart ;  in  1819,  pastor  at  M()ssingen ;  and  in  1824 
again  at  Stuttgart,  as  archdeacon  at  the  Stiftskirche. 
In  1825  he  became  pastor  at  St.  Leonhard,  and  died 
March  19,  1837.  His  writings,  mostly  ascetical  bro- 
chures, are  enumerated  in  Zuchold,  Bibl,  Theol,  i,  268- 
260.  See  also  Winer,  Jfandbuch  der  theol  Lit,  ii,  257, 
332,  367,  374;  Herzog,  Real-EncgHop,  s.  v.;  Hofacker, 
Denkmal  der  Lirbe  (Stuttgart,  1837) ;  Albert  Knapp,  in 
his  Christoterpe  (1847) ;  M.  A.  Knapp,  Sechs  Lebenslnlder 
(1876).     (a  P.) 

Dannah.  For  this  place  Lieut.  Conder  at  first 
strongly  advocated  the  modem  Domeh  [see  Duxah], 
two  miles  north  of  ed-Dhoheriyeh  (Quar,  Statement  of 
the  *'  Pal.  Explor.  Soc.*'  Jan.  1875,  p.  55) ;  but  he  has 
since  more  plausibly  suggested  {Bibie  tJandrbook,  p. 
408;  Tent-utorh,  ii,  836)  Jdhmah,  which,  however,  is 
north-west  instead  of  south-west  from  Hebron.  See 
Jkdna. 

Dannecker,  Amton  vok,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1816  in  Rathshausen. 
In  1841  he  was  made  priest,  in  1845  chaplain,  and  in 
1849  pastor  at  Stnttgart.  In  1860  he  became  a  mem* 
ber  of  the  Rottenburg  chspter,  which  he  also  represent- 
ed from  1868  to  1876  in  the  house  of  representatives  at 
WUrtemberg.  In  1856  and  1857  he  acted  as  theological 
counsellor  to  the  WUrtemberg  ambassador  at  Rome,  and 
died  while  capitulary  and  papal  prelate  at  Rottenbarg, 
June  6, 1881.     (B.  P.) 


DANNEIL 


235 


DANZER 


DanneO,  Johann  Fbiedrich,  a  Lutbenm  theolo- 
gian of  Germany f  who  died  while  member  of  oonsistorjr 
and  pastor  of  StiEgidius  at  Quedlinburg,  Feb.  10, 1772, 
is  the  author  of  KrS^flige  TroitgrOnde  der  Religion  wider 
die  Sckreeiem  de$  Todet  (Uelmstildt,  1749)  :—Der  Got- 
iuatker,  die  A  u/erttekmig,  und  dcu  Qerickt  (Quedlinburg, 
1760).  See  Bamberger,  GeUkrtea  DeutmMcmdf  Jocher, 
AUgemeiii£M  Geiekrtei^Lexikoa,  s.  r,    (&  P.) 

Dannelly,  James,  a  mtnister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  South,  was  bom  in  Columbia  County,  Ga., 
Feb.  4, 1786.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  thirty, 
and  in  1818  received  license  to  preach  and  was  admitted 
into  the  South  Carolina  Conference,  in  which  he  labored 
fiuthfuUy,  with  but  two  years*  intermission  as  superan- 
nuate, until  1838,  when  he  again  became  superannuated. 
He  died  April  28, 1855.  See  Minutet  of  Annual  Confer^ 
exes  of  the  ^f,  E,  Church  South,  1855,  p.  627 ;  Simpson, 
Cgclop.ofMethodism,t.y,\  Spngjue,  Annals o/the Amer, 
Pulpit,  vii,  G06. 

Dannemayr,  Mathias,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  13, 1741,  at  Oepfingen, 
in  Wurtembarg.  He  studied  at  Freiburg,  and  was  ap- 
pointed in  1773  professor  of  church  history  there.  In 
1786  he  was  called  to  Vienna,  but  exchanged  his  posi- 
tion for  that  of  a  cnstos  in  the  university  library,  on 
account  of  feeble  health,  in  1803.  He  died  July  8, 1 805, 
leaving  Intro^ctio  in  Historiam  EccUsia  Chrittiimm 
Utntertam  (Friburgi,  1778)  :-^Hittoria  Sucdnda  Con- 
troversiarum  de  Librorum  Symbolicorum  Auctoritate  tn- 
ter  Lutheranos  AgUaUxrum  (ibid.  1780): — InttitutioneM 
Eceiet.  N.  T,  (1783)  i^Ingtitutionet  Ecdesiagtica  Novi 
TeMUtmaUi  (Viennae,  1788;  2d  ed.  1806).  See  Ddring, 
Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlandi,  i,  808  sq. ;  Winer, 
Handbuck  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  529, 541 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
GMraky  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Dannl-Devam  (Cold-waier  gods),  a  title  given  by 
the  Badagas  of  India  to  the  Mahalinga  idols,  which 
were  supposed  to  enable  their  priests  to  walk  upon  hot 
eoals  as  if  they  were  cold  water. 

I>aiiov,  Ebnst  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  March  12,  1741,  at  Kedlau,  near 
Dantzic.  He  studied  at  HelmstOdt,  and  was  in  1766 
appointed  rector  of  the  Johannes  school  at  Dantzic  He 
accepted  a  call  as  professor  extraordinarius  of  theology 
to  Jena  in  1768,  and  drowned  himself  March  18, 1782, 
leaving  J)e  Vera  Verborum  Sermomis  llehrctici  Natura 
(Sedan,  1740) : — De  Choreis  Sacris  Ebrmorum  (Greifsw. 
1766)}— />s  Vera  Natura  et  Indole  Verbi  Kb  (Sedan, 
1768):— />e  Gloria  ChtisH  (Jens,  17G9)  ;^Institutio- 
nes  Tkeohgim  Dogmatica  (ibid.  1772-76) :— Z>e  Epis- 
eopis  Tempore  Apostdorum  (ibid.  1770)  i^Explanatio 
Jjocorum  Ser^pturee  S,  Divimtatem  Jesu  ChrisH  Prchan- 
Hum  (ibid.  1774) :— Jesus  Christus  FUius  Dei  (1776, 1777, 
2  ports): — Progr,  Super  Integritaie  Scripturts  (ibid. 
1777) : — De  eo,  quod  in  ReHgione  vim  JRationis  Superat 
(ibid.  1778-81).  See  During,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
Deutsehlands,  i,  810  sq. ;  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  theoL  Lit, 
1,22,298,383,447;  ¥\Xnt,BiU,Jud,  1,196;  Steinschnci- 
der,  BOdiog,  I/andbuch,  s.  v. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop, 
des  Sciences  ReUgieuses,  s.  v. ;  Hensog,  Real-Ewyklop, 
(2d  ed.)  s.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v.    (R  P.) 

Dante,  Gxbolamo,  a  Venetian  painter,  was  a  scholar 
of  Titian,  and  painted  from  his  own  designs.  There  is 
a  fine  altar-piece,  by  him,  in  the  Church  of  San  Gio- 
vanni Nuovo  at  Venice.  He  flourished  in  the  first 
part  of  the  16th  century.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
tke  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Danteoourt,  Jean  Baptistk,  a  French  theologian, 
was  bora  in  Paris,  June  24,  1643.  He  joined  the  rep:u- 
lar  canons  of  8L  Genevieve  at  St.  Augustin,  Sept  8, 1662 ; 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris  in 
1680;  and  pastor  of  St.  £tienne-du-Mont  in  1694.  He 
retired  to  St.  Genevieve  in  1710,  and  died  at  Paris, 
April  5^  1718,  leaving  Les  A  ugustins  et  Les  BinMictins 


aux  hats  de  Bourgogne:—Difeme  de  Vtglise  (Paris, 
1689).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Dantforth,  Charlbs,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Rupert,  Vt.,  Aug.  28, 1800.  He  graduat- 
ed from  Williams  Clollege  in  1826 ;  studied  at  Auburn 
Seminary;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Cay- 
uga in  1829,  and  ordained  an  evangelist;  soon  after 
went  to  Ohio  and  Indiana ;  labored  severfl  years  in  the 
bounds  of  the  presbyteries  of  Miami  and  Chillicothe ;  in 
1838  became  a  member  of  the  Presbytery  of  Erie;  in 
1840  removed  to  Springfield,  Pa. ;  afterwards  resided  at 
Oberlin,  O.,  preaching  ss  he  was  able,  until  his  death, 
April  29, 1867.     See  Hist,  of  the  Presb.  of  Erie, 

Danti,  €Mrolamo^  an  Italian  painter,  was  bora  at 
Perugia  in  1547.  There  are  some  of  his  works  in  the 
Church  of  San  Pietro,  in  his  native  city.  He  died  in 
1580.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Danti,  Ignaaio^  a  Dominican  friar,  was  bora  at 
Peragia  in  1537.  He  painted  four  subjects  from  the 
New  Test,  by  order  of  pope  Gregory  XIII.  He  died  at 
Some  in  1586.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
A  rts,  8.  V. 

Dantine,  Frak^ois,  a  learned  Benedictine  monk 
of  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur,  was  born  at  Gourieux, 
in  the  diocese  of  Liege,  April  1, 1688.  He  studied  at 
Douay,  taught  in  various  schools  of  France,  and  died 
Nov.  8, 1746.  He  edited  an  improved  edition  of  Du- 
cange's  Glossary  in  1786;  assisted  Qemencet  in  the 
great  work  IJArt  de  VMJler  les  Dates,  and  wrote  a 
Traduction  des  Psaumes  (Paris,  1739, 1740).  See  Biog. 
UnwerseUe,  su  v. 

Dannkobl,  in  Hindfi  mythology,  is  a  celebrated 
pool,  or  bath,  which  Vishnu  dug  for  himself  and  Siva. 
It  lies  near  Pondicherry,  on  the  peninsula  this  side  of 
the  Ganges,  near  a  large  temple  of  Siva.  The  spot  is 
sacred  for  another  reason.  It  was  the  place  where  the 
ape-king  Hanuman  met  Rama,  when  they  both  under- 
took the  joumey  to  Ceylon.  This  bath  is  visited  by 
innumerable  parties  of  pilgrims;  whoever  bathes  in  it 
is  purified  from  all  sin,  but  he  must  bring  water  from 
the  Ganges  with  him  to  wash  the  Lingam  of  the  pago- 
da,-and  he  is  obliged  to  sleep  on  the  bare  earth,  with- 
out covering,  during  the  entire  pilgrimage. 

D'Anvera,  Henry,  an  English  Baptist,  bora  of  re- 
spectable parents,  was  a  colonel  in  the  Parliamentary 
army  in  1646,  governor  of  StafTord,  and  a  magistrate 
well-beloved  of  the  people,  as  he  refused  bribes.  He  be- 
came a  Baptist  during  the  Commonwealth,  and  after 
the  Restoration  made  over  his  estates  to  tmstees  to  save 
their  confiscation  by  his  persecutors.  In  1663  he  was 
Joint-pastor  of  a  Church  in  Aldgate.  In  1674  the  gov- 
ernment offered  a  reward  for  his  apprehension,  and  he 
was  sent  prisoner  to  the  Tower;  but  his  wife  procured 
his  release  in  1675.  He  afterwards  defended  the  duke 
of  Monmouth,  and  for  safety  fied  to  Holland,  where  he 
died  in  1686.  In  1674  he  published  a  Treatise  on  Bap- 
tism, which  made  him  many  adversaries.  Some  of  his 
brethren  defended  him  against  his  antagonists.  He 
also  published,  A  Treatise  of  the  Laying  on  of  Hands, 
with  the  History  Thereof  ( 1674 ).  In  another  book, 
called  Theopolis,  he  fully  considers  "the  Dragon,  the 
Beast,  and  False  Prophet."  He  was  a  worthy  man,  of 
unspotted  life.  See  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches^  i,  393 ; 
Benedict,  Hist,  of  the  Baptists;  Haynes,  Baptist  Cgdop, 
i,  13-16. 

Danzer,  Jakob,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  Bfarch  4,  1743,  at  Lengenfeld,  in 
Suabia.  He  joined  the  order  of  the  Benedictines  at 
Isn}';  was  in  1784  professor  of  moral  and  pastoral  theolo- 
gy* at  Salzburg,  but  had  to  resign  his  position  in  1792  on 
account  of  his  liberal  tendencies.  In  1795  he  was  sec- 
ond canon  at  Buchau,  and  died  there  Sept.  4, 1796.  He 
published,  Anleitung  zur  christlichen  Moral  (Salzburg, 
1787-91,  1792, 3  vols.)  x—Ueber  den  Geist  Jesu  vnd  seine 
Lehre  (ibid.  1795, 1797) : — BeUrdge  tur  Reformation  der 


1 


DAOLA 


236 


DARIA 


ckriatUckm  TheoiogU  (Ulm,  1798)  x—Magcmn  atr  Ver- 
heMaerung  deM  dogmcUitchen  Lekrhegriffs  der  Katholihm 
(1794).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Tkeologen  Deuttch- 
landi,  i,  815  sq. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  Lit,  i,  816, 
702;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirakj  ■•  v.     (&  P.) 

Daola,  a  Tonquinese  idol,  who  presides  over  travel- 
len. 

Daon,  KooER  Francois,  a  French  theologian,  was 
born  at  Briqueville,  diocese  of  Bayeux,  in  1679.  He  be- 
came a  priest  in  1699;  taught  theology  at  Avranches; 
was  afterwards  made  governor  of  the  smaller  seminary 
at  Rennes ;  and  was  successively  superior  of  the  semina- 
ries of  Avranches,  Senlis,  Caen,  and  Seez,  where  he  died, 
Aug.  16, 1749,  leaving  Le  Tf-ibtmcd  de  la  PMience,  etc. 
(Paris,  1788)  :— Pratique  du  Sacrement  (Caen,  1740)  :-^ 
Mkhode$  des  Con/frenees  SpjrUudlu,  etc  (ibid.  1744)  :— 
La  Conduite  des  ilin««  (Paris,  1758): — Catkkhume  powr 
U$  OrdinanUf  etc  I — Itutruction  a  V Amour  de  Dieu: — 
lUgUmeras  de  Vie  pour  un  Prilrt,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Ginirak,  s.  v. 

Daphnomantia,  in  Greek  paganism,  was  the  art 
of  prophesying  from  the  twig  of  a  laurel-tree.  It  was 
thrown  into  the  fire,  and  its  crackling  and  bending  was 
carefully  noticed,  from  which  the  answer  was  concluded 
as  given  by  Apollo.    See  Divinatiox. 

Daphnoa,  second  bishop  of  Vaison,  lived  in  the 
.time  of  Constantino  the  Great  (cir.  814).  He  came  to 
the  Council  of  Aries  with  Victor,  an  exorcist,  at  the  or- 
der of  the  emperor.   See  Smith,  Did.  ofChriMt,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Dapp,  Ratmund,  an  evangelical  minister  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Sept.  22, 1744,  at  Geislingen,  near  Ulm, 
and  died  May  1, 1819,  near  Berlin.  Ho  is  the  author 
of  GtmeittKuUigee  Magazin/Ur  Prediger  (Berlin,  1806- 
1816,  7  \6\s,)i—Predigtbuch  fir  ehrietUeke  Landleute 
(ibid.  1797):— J^trrze  Predigten  und  Predigtentvutfe 
(1793-1805,  6  vols.)  i^Gebetbuch  fir  diristUche  Land- 
leute (1786,  1799).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol  i,  261 ; 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  ii,  89,  174,  198,  880. 
(R  P.) 

Dara,  in  Lamaism,  was  the  name  of  two  goddesses 
who  sprang  from  two  tears  of  Jashik,  which  he  let  fall 
over  the  fearful  destiny  of  the  damned.  They  were 
personifications  of  love  and  sympathy. 

Darariano,  the  name  of  a  heretical  Mohammedan 
sect,  derived  from  their  founder  Damn.  They  flour- 
ished on  the  coast  of  Syria  and  in  the  district  of  Leba- 
non. Darari  was  an  impostor,  who  came  from  Persia 
to  Egypt  about  A.D.  lOOlO,  and  endeavored  to  persuade 
the  people  that  the  caliph  Hakem  was  God.  For  this 
blasphemy  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  indignant  people. 

Darbelin  was  an  Irish  saint,  given  as  one  of  the 
four  virgin  daughters  of  Mac  laar,  li\'ing  at  Cill^na- 
ninghen,  now  Killininny,  County  Dublin.  They  were 
DarinniU,  Darbelin,  Cael,  and  (]loimghea]L  She  is  com- 
memorated  Oct.  26. 

Darbile  (or  Derbhiledh),  an  Irish  saint,  was 
daughter  of  Cormac,  son  of  Brecchius.  She  was  accept- 
ed as  patron  saint  of  the  descendants  of  Amhalghaidh, 
son  of  Fiachra,  in  the  place  of  St.  Corbmac  She  flour- 
ished about  the  middle  of  the  6th  century,  and  is  also 
known  as  Darbile  and  Derivla  of  Irras.  The  church  in 
which  she  lived,  died,  and  was  buried  is  in  Mullet,  baro- 
ny of  Erris,  County  Mayo.  She  is  commemorated  Aug. 
3  and  Oct.  26.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  ChritU  Biog,  s.  v. 

Darboy,  Georgka,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  born 
Jan.  16, 1818.  He  became  teacher  of  philosophy  and 
theology  at  the  Seminary  of  Langres  in  1889,  bishop  of 
Nancy  in  1859,  and  archbishop  of  Paris  in  1863.  He 
was  a  firm  opponent  of  papal  infallibility  in  the  Vatican 
Council,  but  yielded  to  the  decision  of  the  majority. 
He  was  arrested  by  the  Communists  April  5, 1871,  and 
when  the  government  troops  entered  the  city  he  was 
shot  at  St.  Roquettc,  May  24  following.  Among  his 
most  important  Morks  are  Jjet  Saintee  Femme*  (1850) : 


^LeiFemmetde  la  Bible  (btheA,lSS&)i-^La  Vie  deSt, 
Thomas  a  Becket  (2d  ed.  1860).  See  Wetzer  o.  Wdte^ 
Kirchei^LexikoH,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Darby,  Debonh,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  in  England,  travelled  with  her  fellow-minister, 
Rebecca  Byrd,  in  the  principality  of  Wales,  in  1784* 
Subsequently,  in  1798,  both  embarked  for  America,  and 
spent  three  years  there  preaching  the  Gospel.  She 
died  in  1810.    See  The  Friend,  viii,  857. 

Darby,  John  Nelaon,  who  was  bom  in  London, 
Nov.  18, 1800,  and  died  at  Boamemonth,  April  28, 188S, 
is  noted  as  the  head  of  the  Darbyites  or  Plymouth  Breth- 
ren (q.  v.).  He  is  also  known  on  the  C<Mitinent  by  his 
writings,  which  have  been  translated  into  German,  and 
for  which  see  Zuchold,  BM,  TheoL  i,  261  sq.     (B,  P.) 

Darby,  M.  W.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  clerg>'man, 
was  rector  of  Grace  Church,  Montrose,  la.;  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  at  Port  Jervis,  N.  Y.,  July  20, 1878.  See 
Prat,  Epise,  Almanac,  1879,  p.  168. 

Dare,  Jamss,  an  English  minister,  originally  a 
Methodist,  joined  the  Congregationalists  about  1878, 
and  was  appointed  to  Rutherglen  and  Wahgunyah, 
Victoria,  where  he  labored  ontil  his  death,  Jan.  13, 1876. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1877,  p.  868. 

Darexoa,  a  reputed  Irish  saint,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  sister  of  St  Patrick.  Her  father  was  Calphumins, 
a  British  nobleman,  and  her  mother  Conchessa,  a  sister 
or  niece  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  Colgan  Mys  that  she 
bore  to  two  husbands,  Conis  and  Restitutus,  seventeen 
sons,  who  were  bishops,  and  two  daughters,  who  were 
virgins.  In  her  old  age  she  devoted  herself  to  God, 
and  took  charge  of  the  altar  vestings,  with  her  sisters 
Lupita  and  Tigrida.  Later  writers  have  thrown  dis- 
credit upon  the  whole  story.  She  is  commemorated 
March  22.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Daret,  Jean,  a  Benedictine  monk,  was  bom  at 
Mantes  in  1667.  His  opposition  to  the  bull  Umgemtus 
made  him  famous  in  his  day,  and  he  composed  contro- 
versial writings  which  are  now  forgotten.  He  also  as- 
sisted Mabillon  in  his  great  works.  He  died  Jan.  8, 
1736.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginhtde,  s.  v. 

Daret,  Pierre,  a  French  engraver,  was  bom  in 
Paris  in  1610.  The  following  are  some  of  his  principal 
works :  St,  John  Sitting  in  the  Desert ;  The  Virgin  Suek^ 
ling  the  Infant;  St,  Peter  Delivered  from  Prison;  The 
Entombing  of  Christ;  The  Ilolg  Fanulg,  leith  an  Angel 
Presenting  Fruit  to  the  Infant  Jesus;  The  Dead  ChHst, 
vith  the  Marys;  The  Virgin  and  Infant,  See  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Darg,  Patrick,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  minister 
at  Fordyce  in  1599;  had  letters  of  "dispositure  and 
mortification "  from  the  advocate,  Edinburgh,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1629,  and  died  about  1662.  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
ScoticancB,  iii,  666. 

Darg,  "Walter,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  graduated  at 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1628;  was  the  first  minis- 
ter at  Desk  ford  after  it  was  separated  from  Fordyce  in 
1680;  was  suspended  in  1650,  and  deposed  in  1651  for 
insufficiency;  was  accused  of  marrying  persons  irreg- 
ularly in  1666  and  1674*  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Sooticana, 
iii,  674. 

Dargavel,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  graduated  at 
Edinburgh  Univeraity  in  1666;  was  presented  to  the 
living  at  Southdean  in  August  of  that  year;  transferred 
to  Prestonkirk  in  1670,  and  collated  thereto  in  March ; 
accused  Sept.  1, 1670,  of  fornication.  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
Sootioana,i,378,bl2, 

Dkria,  wife  of  Nicander,  martyr  in  Moesia,  under 
Maximus,  in  the  persecution  of  Galerius,  bravely  en- 
couraged her  husband  to  martyrdom;  and  when  the 
Judge  sneeringly  said  that  she  only  wanted  another 
hasband,  she  oiferetl  to  die  first.  She  was  sent  to  pris- 
on, but  was  released  before  her  husband's  death,  and 
was  present.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 


DARroA 


237 


DARROCH 


Doxida,  in  Hindi!  mythology,  was  •  powerful  dm- 
moo,  who  chalkoged  Siva  to  battle.  The  latter  im- 
plored Yishna's  help,  who  came  out  of  Sira*s  eye  in 
the  fonn  of  the  eight-headed  gianteSB)  Bnuirakali,  and 
dew  the  dsmon. 

Darixmillf  an  Irish  saint  of  Cill-na-nioghen,  was 
one  of  the  virgin  daughters  of  Mac  laar.  She  is  com- 
memorated Oct.  26.    See  Darbeux. 

DfulttBy  a  martyr  at  Nicsea,  commemorated  Dec  19. 

Darkin,  Chasles,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  about  1800.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  sev- 
enteen; joined  Dr.  Cox's  Church,  Mare  Street,  Hack- 
ney; entered  Stepney  College;  became  pastor  at  Wood- 
stock, Oxfordshire,  in  June,  1826 ;  and  in  1841  removed 
to  Cirencester,  where  he  died  in  1858.  See  (Lond.)  Bap- 
iid  Hand-book,  18^, p. 49.    (J. US.) 

Darley,  Thomas,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
a  native  of  England,  entered  the  travelUng  ministry  in 
1801 ;  located  in  1806,  but  continued  his  labors  with 
characteristic  sEeal  and  fidelity  until  1814,  when  he  was 
readmitted  into  the  Georgia  Conference,  and  therein 
oontinued  till  his  death,  April  16, 1832.  See  AfinuUs 
ofAmmal  Conferences,  1838,  p.  215. 

Darling,  the  family  name  of  several  Scotch  cleigy- 


1.  Ahdrew  (1),  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University 
in  1670;  was  presented  by  the  king  to  the  living  at 
Stitchd;  ordained  May  1, 1683;  deprived  by  the  privy 
council  in  1689  for  not  praying  for  the  king  and  queen ; 
and  deposed  for  drunkenness  in  1692.  See  Fasti  Eo 
dorn  ScoHccauB,  i,  474. 

2.  ANDREW  (2),  a  native  of  Galashiels,  graduated  at 
Edinburgh  University  in  1698 ;  was  ordained  minister 
mt  Hoddam,  Oct.  13, 1696 ;  transferred  to  Kinnoul  before 
December,  1697;  admitted  in  January,  1698,  and  died 
Aug.  12, 1781,  aged  fifty-nine  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
SeoHcantB,  i,  620 ;  ii,  648. 

3.  Huoii,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  in 
July,  1696;  licensed  to  preach  in  August,  1699;  called 
to  the  living  at  Innerwick  in  April,  and  ordained  in  Au- 
gust, 1700.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  Sept.  29, 1701,  aged 
about  twenty-five  years.  He  had  two  brothers  in  the 
minisEtiT,  Andrew  and  BoberU    See  Fasti  EccUs.  Scoti- 

4.  James,  son  of  the  minister  at  Ewes,  was  called  in 
Januaiy,and  ordained,  in  March,  1734,  minister  at  Kin- 
kell;  transferred  to  Kintore  in  Januar}%  1738,  and  died 
March  29, 1742.  See  Fasti  Eecles.  Scoticanas,  iii,  585, 589. 

5.  Pkter,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  in 
1695 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1697 ;  called  and  or- 
dained in  June,  1698,  to  the  living  at  Boyndie ;  and 
died  in  1730,  aged  about  fifty- five  years.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes,  ScoOeana,  iii,  671. 

6.  RoBEBT,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  in 
July,  1685;  had  a  unanimous  call  to  the  living  at 
Ewes;  was  ordained  Nov.  20, 1694;  called  to  Gask  in 
1699,  but  declined,  and  died  Dec  1, 1716,  aged  forty- 
aeven  years.    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  686. 

Darling,  Da'vid,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  1785.  In  1816  he  was  sent  by  the 
London  Missionary  Society  to  Eastern  Polynesia ;  and 
after  laboring  for  sixteen  years  in  the  Society  Islands, 
went  to  the  Marquesas  and  took  part  in  the  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  into  the  Unguage  of  that  group.  He 
afterwards  lemoved  to  Tahiti,  where  he  continued  to 
labor  nntil  1859,  when  be  rethred,  on  account  of  age  and 
infirmity,  to  Sydney,  and  died  there,  Dec  6, 1867.  See 
(Lond.)  Conff.  Year-book,  1869,  p.  234. 

Darlugdaoh  (Dardulaoha,  Derlnghach,*  or 
Derlngdaoha),  abbess  of  Kildare,  has  a  Scotch,  Irish, 
and  possible  Continental  connection.  She  succeeded 
ber  mistress,  SL  Brigida,  in  the  abbacy  of  Kildare,  about 
H3,  and  died  a  year  afterwards.  A  romantic  story  is 
told  of  her  early  history  by  Baring-Gould,  Lives  of  the 
8amU,ii,fSt. 


Damalt,  Jsah,  a  French  theologian,  lived  about 
1618.  He  was  priest  of  St.  Croix  at  Bordeaux,  and 
wrote,  LaViede  Saint  MomrnoHn  (Bordeaux,  1618)  :— 
Statuta  et  Deereta  Beformationis  Congregate  Bened.  etc 
(Paris,  1605).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Damey,  William,  an  English  Wesleyan  preacher, 
commenced  his  itinerancy  (according  to  Hill,  Alphab. 
Arrangem,)  in  1742,  and  was  instrumental  in  raising 
several  societies  in  the  North  of  England,  which  for 
some  time  were  called  "William  Damey's  Societies." 
For  an  account  of  his  maltreatment  bv  mobs  see  West, 
Meth,  Magazine,  1842,  p.  619  sq. ;  Stevens,  Hist,  ofMeth' 
odism,  ii,  131.  He  finally  settled  in  Colne,  Lancashire, 
but  preached  as  he  was  able,  until  his  death  in  1779  or 
1780.  He  published,  A  Collection  of  Hymns  (Leeds, 
1751, 12mo,  pp.  296):— rA«  Fundamental  Doctrines  of 
Holg  Scripture,  etc  (Glasgow,  1755,  16mo).  See  At- 
more,  Meth,  Memorial,  1801,  p.  100. 

Damey  was  rather  Calvinistic  in  his  creed,  fearless 
of  danger,  and  extensively  useful  His  doggerel  hymns 
greatly  annoyed  the  good  taste  of  Wesley.  One  of 
them  was  spun  out  to  one  hundred  and  four  stanzas.  '*  A 
bard  Sootehman,"  Everett  calls  him.  See  Wesl,  CVw- 
tenarg  Takings  (Lond.  1841,  8d  ed.),  i,  821;  Jackson, 
Life  of  Charles  Wesley  (N.  Y.)t  p.  451-458 ;  Christopher, 
Epwortk  Singers  and  other  Poets  of  Methodism  (N.  Y. 
and  Lond.  1874),  p.  213-215;  Weslev,  Works  (Lond.  8d 
ed.),xii,805;  xiii,188,191. 

Darood,  Georo,  a  Transylvanian  theologian  of  the 
Jesuit  order,  lived  in  the  first  part  of  the  17th  century, 
and  wrote,  Ortus  et  Progressus  CoUegU  Societatis  Jesu 
ClaudiO'Politani  (Clausenburg,  1736).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Daronatai,  Paui^  an  Armenian  abbot,  was  bom 
in  1043,  in  the  province  of  Daron.  He  was  noted  for 
his  profound  knowledge  of  philosophy  and  theology. 
He  died  in  1123,  leaving  a  letter,  which  he  wrote  (1101) 
in  favor  of  the  Monoph ysites  against  Theophistes  (print- 
ed at  Constantinople  in  1752 ;  Galanus  has  inserted  from 
it  about  twenty  passages  in  his  Cofic»/ia/io) :— also  a 
Treatise  against  the  Greek  Church: — A  Commentary  on 
DanieL    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

DaxTOOh,  the  family  name  of  several  Sooteh  cler- 
gymen: 

1.  DuoALD,  graduated  at  Glasgow  University  in 
1638;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Kilcalmonell  and 
Kilberry  in  1641;  had  a  recommendation  in  1646  to 
the  committee  of  Money ;  was  transferred  to  Campbel- 
ton  in  1649 ;  appointed  the  same  year  one  of  the  trans- 
lators of  the  Shorter  Catechism  into  Irish;  intrasted 
with  the  translation  of  the  Bi-ief  Sum  of  Christian 
Doctrine  in  1660,  and  had  to  translate  the  Second  Book 
of  Kings  into  Irish,  as  part  of  the  whole  Bible ;  was  de- 
prived by  the  privy  council  in  1662,  and  died  about 
1664  or  1665.     See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  35,  43. 

2.  John  (1),  graduated  at  Glasgow  University  in 
1625 ;  was  minister  at  Jura  and  Colonsay  in  1639 ;  de- 
posed in  September,  1646,  "  for  preaching  to  and  gross 
compliance  with  rebels,**  and  died  before  May  9,  1649. 
See  FaMi  Ecdes,  Sootieana,  iii,  53. 

3.  John  (2),  was  a  student  in  Glasgow  University  in 
1665;  recommended  for  license  to  preach  in  1669,  and 
called  that  year  to  the  living  at  Kilcalmonell  and  Kil- 
berry; had  charge  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  at 
Glenarm,  Ireland,  in  1687 ;  was  a  member  of  the  General 
Assembly  in  1690;  recalled  to  Kilcalmonell  in  1691; 
transferred  to  Craigneish  in  May,  1692,  and  died  in  May, 
1730.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticawe,  iii,  43, 44. 

4.  Mauricb,  had  chaige  of  the  parish  of  Kilcalmo- 
nell in  1629,  and  died  March  10, 1638,  aged  sixty-three 
years.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana^  iii,  43. 

5.  Robert,  graduated  at  Glasgow  University  in  1579 ; 
was  chosen  minister  at  Kilmarnock  in  1580;  was  a 
member  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1581 ;  regent  in 
Glasgow  University  in  1583;  transferred  to  Stonehouse 
in  1585,  and  to  Kilbride  in  1586;  had  the  parsonage  of 


DARROW 


238 


DASHIELL 


Torrens  presented  to  hiip  by  the  kiog  in  1587;  was 
appointed  in  1592  to  give  informatioa  against  the  Pa- 
pists; in  1597  was  a  commissioner  to  consider  griev- 
ances; in  1606  was  chosen  constant  moderator  for  the 
presbyteiy,  but  died  the  same  month,  aged  about  forty- 
eight  years.  See  FtuH  EccUs,  ScoHcamg^  ii,  289,  802, 
857. 

6.  William,  son  of  the  minister  of  Craigneish,  stud- 
ied theology  in  Glasgow  Unirersity;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1700 ;  called  to  the  living  at  Kilchrenan  and 
Dalavich  in  1701;  deposed  in  Januar}*,  1710,  for  neg- 
lect of  family  worship,  and  afterwards  became  mentally 
deranged.     See  F(uli  Ecck$,  Scoticana,  iii,  71. 

DaxTO^v,  Franoia,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Watcrford,  Conn.,  in  1779.  He  was  converted  under 
the  preaching  of  his  grand(ather,  Zadoc  Darrow ;  was 
ordained,  in  1809,  assistant  in  Waterford;  in  1827  be- 
came sole  pastor,  and  remained  until  his  death,  in  No- 
vember, 185a  See  Watckman  and  ReJIedor,  Nov.  21, 
1850.    (J.  a  S.) 

DaxTOinr,  Nathan,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
ordained  and  settled  at  Homer,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  2, 1803 ;  went 
to  Cleveland  in  1808,  and  afterwards  to  Vienna,  O., 
where  he  resided  till  his  death.  Sec  Pretbyterianiam 
in  Central  N.  Y.  p.  605. 

DaxTOinr,  William  V.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Camden  County,  N.  J.,  March  20, 
1819.  He  joined  the  Church  in  1842 ;  received  license 
to  exhort  in  1849,  to  preach  in  1850,  and  in  1851  was 
admitted  into  the  New  Jersey  Conference,  wherein  he 
labored  till  his  death,  Jan.  24, 1856.  See  Mmuiet  of 
Annual  ConfertnceM,  1856,  p.  28. 

Darrcw,  2adoo,  Sr^  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
Dec  25, 1728.  He  was  ordained  pastor  in  Waterford, 
Conn.,  in  1769,  and  his  influence  extended  throughout 
the  eastern  part  of  the  state.  He  died  in  1827.  See 
Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  308;  Sprague,  AnnaU  of 
ike.  A  mer.  Pulpitf  vi,  109. 

Darro^  Zadoc,  Jr.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  New  London,  Conn.,  June  11, 1768.  He  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  baptized  in  March, 
1788,  and  licensed  in  1792.  In  1807  he  removed  to 
Chenango  County,  N.  Y.,  where  he  preached  to  three 
different  churches;  in  1819  went  to  Missouri,  lived  in 
St.  Louis  three  years,  and  in  1823  purehased  a  tract  of 
land  and  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  Rock  Spring,  111. ; 
was  publicly  ordained  Aug.  22, 1824,  and  removed  in 
1849  to  Collinsville,  where  he  died  July  18  of  that  year. 
See  Minutes  of  III  A  nnicertariet,  1849,  p.  6.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Darahan,  Moaea.    See  Mosrs  ha.Darshav. 

Darahan,  Simon.    See  Cara,  Simeon. 

Daratiua,  G.  H.,  a  German  Reformed  minister,  was 
settled  pastor  in  Bucks  Coimty,  Pa.,  about  the  year  1781, 
preaching  in  both  the  Dutch  and  German  languages. 
In  1748  he  removed  to  Holland.  See  Harbaugh,  Fa- 
(hers  of  the  Germ.  Ref  Church,  ii,875. 

Darte,  Frkbmaiv,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  at  Salisbury,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  22, 1803.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1882;  joined  the  Churoh  in  1884;  not  long 
after  commenced  to  preach,  and  was  pastor  in  Erie  and 
Cattaraugus  counties.  He  died  suddenlv,  Jan.  22, 1888. 
See  Afoming  Star,  Feb.  14,  1883.     (J.  C.  &) 

Daruj,  in  Persian  mythology,  was  a  division  of  the 
evil  diemons,  brought  forth  by  Ahriman,  as  opposed  to 
the  creations  of  light  from  Ormuad. 

Darvanda,  in  Zendic  mythology,  are  six  evil  spir- 
its created  by  Ahriman,  in  opposition  to  the  Amshas- 
pands  of  Ahuramazda.  Their  names  were  Akomano, 
Ander,  Samva,  Nasatyas,  Taric,  and  Zaric.  These  were 
mostly  the  same  as  the  deities  of  the  Vedas,  only 
changed  into  diemons  by  the  Zends. 

Darwiniam.    See  £volutio2(. 
Daaa-bala  is  a  term  employed  to  denote  ten  aUri* 
huie$  or  modes  of  wisdom  possessed  by  Buddha.    They 


are  as  follows :  ^  1.  The  wisdom  that  understands  what 
knowledge  is  necessary  for  the  right  fulfilment  of  any 
particular  duty  in  whatsoever  situation ;  2.  That  which 
knows  the  result  or  consequences  of  i»rma,  or  moral  ac- 
tion ;  3.  That  which  knows  the  way  to  the  attainment 
of  mnrana,  or  annihilation ;  4.  That  which  sees  the 
various  sahealat  or  systems  of  worlds;  5.  That  which 
knows  the  thoughts  of  other  beings;  6.  That  which 
knows  that  the  organs  of  sense  are  not  the  self;  7. 
That  which  knows  the  purity  produced  by  the  exercise 
of  the  dkjfonas,  or  abstract  meditation;  8.  That  which 
knows  where  any  one  w'aa  bora  in  all  his  former  births; 
9.  That  which  knows  where  any  one  will  be  bom  in  all 
his  future  births;  10.  That  which  knows  how  the  re- 
sults proceeding  from  karma,  or  moral  action,  may  be 
overcome  '*  (Hnrdy,  Manual  of  Buddhism), 

Daaa-danda  are  ten  prohibitions  which  are  en- 
joined upon  the  Buddhist  oumks,  to  be  studied  during 
their  novitiate,  as  follows :  **  1.  (The  eating  of  food  after 
mid-day ;  2.  The  seeing  of  dances  or  the  hearing  of 
music  or  singing;  8.  'I'he  use  of  ornaments  or  per- 
fumes; 4.  The  use  of  a  seAt  or  couch  more  than  a  cu- 
bit high ;  5.  The  receiving  of  gold,  silver,  or  money ; 
6.  Practicing  some  deception  to  prevent  another  priest 
from  receiving  that  to  which  he  is  entitled;  7.  Prac- 
ticing some  deception  to  injure  another  priest,  or  bring 
him  into  danger;  8.  Practicing  some  deception  in  or- 
der to  cause  another  priest  to  be  expelled  from  the  com- 
munity; 9.  Speaking  evil  of  another  priest;  10.  Ut- 
tering slanders  in  order  to  excite  dissension  among  the 
priests  of  the  same  community.  The  first  five  of  these 
crimes  may  be  forgiven,  if  the  priest  bring  sand  and 
sprinkle  it  in  the  court-yard  of  the  teihara ;  and  the 
second  five  may  be  forgiven  after  temporary  expulsion  " 
(Hardy,  Eastern  Monachism,  p.  28). 

Daaa-ail  are  ten  oUigations  which  most  be  repeat- 
ed and  meditated  upon  by  the  Buddhist  priest  three 
hours  a  day  during  bis  novitiate.  They  are  as  follows : 
'^  1.  I  will  observe  the  precept,  or  ordinance,  that  forbids 
the  taking  of  life ;  2.  I  will  observe  the  precept,  or  or- 
dinance, that  forbids  the  taking  of  that  which  has  not 
been  given;  8.  I  will  observe  the  precept,  or  ordi- 
nance, that  forbids  sexual  intercourse;  4.  I  will  ob- 
serve the  precept,  or  ordinance,  that  forbids  the  saying 
of  that  which  is  not  true;  5.  I  will  observe  the  pre- 
cept, or  ordinance,  that  forbids  the  use  of  intoxicating 
drinks,  that  leads  to  indifference  towards  religion;  6. 
I  will  observe  the  precept,  or  ordinance,  that  forbids  the 
eating  of  food  after  mid-day ;  7. 1  will  observe  the  pre- 
cept, or  ordinance,  that  forbids  attendance  upon  dancing, 
singing,  music,  and  masks;  8. 1  will  observe  the  pre- 
cept, or  ordinance,  that  forbids  the  adorning  of  the  body 
with  flowers,  and  the  use  of  perfumes  and  unguents; 
9.  I  will  observe  the  precept,  or  .ordinance,  that  forbids 
the  use  of  high  or  honorable  seata  or  couches;  10. 1 
will  observe  the  precept,  or  ordinaqce,  that  forbids  the 
receiving  of  gold  or  silver  "  (Hardv,  Eastern  Monachism, 
p.  24). 

Daaer,  Ludwio  Hercules,  a  Lutheran  minister  of 
C>ermany,  was  bora  at  Affalterbach,  April  4, 1705.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen,  was  in  1735  pastor  at  Schwaick- 
heim,  and  died  in  1765,  leaving,  De  Origine  et  A  uciorite 
Punctorum  Hebraicorum  IHtina  (Tubingen,  1728): — 
De  A  ugustiniana  Decahgi  Divisione  (ibid.  1788) : —  Fer- 
theidiffunff  der  Tntegritatis  Textus  Hebraici  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenti  (Heilbronn,  1764).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  197 ; 
Steinschneider,  Biblioffr,  Handbuch,  s.  v.;  Jdcher,  AU^ 
gemeines  GekJirten-L^nhm,  s.  v.;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
Ginerale,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Daab,  Frkdebick  H.,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  Gosport,  Hants,  Dec  25, 1854.  He 
entered  Hackney  College  in  1874;  in  1879  became  paa- 
tor  at  Bungay ;  was  ordained  Jan.  27,  1880,  and  died 
Oct.  80  following.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  188I« 
p.  369. 

Daahiell,  Alfred  H.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minia- 


DASHIELL 


239 


DATHEVATSI 


ter,  waB  born  in  HanrlAnd,  Aug.  2, 1798.  He  gndiuiUd 
at  the  UniveTMty  of  PennsylTinia ;  was  ordained  by  the 
Preabytenr  of  Philadelphia ;  became  suoceflatvely  (tastor 
of  the  Marinera'  Church,  Philadelphia;  of  First  Charch, 
Jacksonville,  III ;  president  of  a  female  academy,  Nash- 
rillCfTenn.;  pastor  Presbyterian  Church, Franklin;  for 
nineteen  years  at  Shelby ville;  and  finally  resided  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  until  his  death,  March  18, 1881.  See 
Norton,'  UitL  of  the  Pre$b.  Church  in  JIL 

Daahiell,  Benjamin  D.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,-was  bom  at  Vienna,  Md., 
Sept.  21, 1881.  He  removed  with  his  parenU  to  Texas 
in  1837 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1852 ;  admitted  into 
the  Texas  Conference  on  trial  the  same  year;  located 
in  1867;  re-entered  the  conference  in  1869,  continuing 
in  the  itinerant  ranks  until  1880 ;  and  died  Jan.  14, 1882. 
See  Minuiea  of  A  tmutd  Con/ereiuxt  of  the  M.  E.  Church 
South,  1882,  p.  120. 

Daahiell,  Gteorge,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  al^Stepney,  Somerset  Co.,  Md. ;  was  ad- 
mitted to  orders,  and  preached  in  Delaware,  in  South 
Sassafras  Parish,  Kent  Co.,  Md.,  in  Chester,  and  in  St. 
Peter's,  Baltimore.  In  1816  he  set  up  an  independent 
church,  claiming  and  exercising  the  authority  to  ordain 
otben.  He  died  in  New  York  city  in  AprU,  1852.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  eloquence.  See  Sprague,  A  r- 
mai»  of  the  Amer,  PulpU,  v,  318. 

Daahiell,  Robert  Laurenaon,  D.D.,  a  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  in  Salisbury,  Md., 
June  25, 1825.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  fifteen ; 
graduated  from  Dickinson  College  in  1846,  and  in  1848 
cnt«%d  the  Baltimore  Conference.  His  fields  of  labor 
were  West  River  Circuit,  Md.,  and  Loudon,  Va.;  four 
yeftrs  at  Union  and  Wesley  chapels,  in  Washington; 
1856  and  1857,  EuUw  Street,  and  1858  and  1859,  Charles 
Street,  Baltimore ;  1860  and  1861,  Central  Church,  New- 
ark, N.  J.;  1862  and  1863,  Trinity,  Jersey  City;  1864 
to  1866,  St.  Paurs,  Newark ;  1867,  First  Church,  Orange ; 
in  nearly  all  of  which  he  had  large  and  lasting  revivals. 
In  1868  he  was  elected  president  of  Dickinson  College ; 
resigned  in  1872,  and  was  made  presiding  elder  of  Jer- 
sey City  district;  but,  in  May  of  that  year,  was  chosen 
missionary  secretary,  which  office  he  continueil  to  hold 
to  the  dose  of  his  life,  March  8,  1880.  Dr.  Dasbiell 
was  a  man  of  extraordinary  gifts  and  graces,  and  left  a 
rare  record  of  success.  His  spirit  was  free  and  genial, 
his  temperament  poetical,  his  nature  radical,  his  zeal 
outspoken,  bis  friendship  lavish.  See  Minutes  of  Alt' 
mual  Can/erencet,  1880,  p.  38 ;  Simpson,  Cydop*  ofMeth- 
odiem,  s.  t. 

Daaina.  (1)  A  soldier,  in  the  time  of  Diocletian 
and  Maximian,  at  Dorostolus,  where  it  was  the  custom 
to  olfer  a  human  sacrifice  to  Saturn  on  Nov.  20.  He, 
being  selected  for  the  purpose,  preferred  to  die  as  a 
Christian,  which  meant  dying  by  torture.  (2)  A  mar- 
tyr at  Nicomedia,  with  Zoticus,  Gaius,  and  twelve  sol- 
diers. He  is  commemorated  Oct.  21.  See  Smith,  Di<^ 
of  ChriA  Biog^  tb  v. 

Daanami  Dandia  (ten^named  Dandit),  among  the 
Hindi^  are  the  primitive  members  of  the  order  of  Dan- 
dia (q.  T.),  who  refer  their  origin  to  Saukara  Achdrya 
(q.  T.).  There  were  ten  classes  of  mendicants  descended 
from  this  remarkable  man,  only  three  of  whom  have  so 
far  retained  their  purity  as  to  entitle  them  to  be  called 
Saukara's  Dandis.  They  are  numerous,  especially  in 
and  about  Benares ;  and  to  theae  the  chief  Vedanti  writ- 
ers belong.  The  remaining  members  of  the  Dasnami 
class,  who  have  degenerated  from  the  original  purity  of 
practice  which  distinguished  the  primitive  Dandis,  are 
still  religious  characters,  only  they  have  given  up  the 
use  of  clothes,  money,  and  ornaments;  they  prepare 
their  own  food,  and  admit  members  from  any  order  of 
Hindfts,  whereas  the  original  Dandis  admit  only  Brah- 
mins.^ — Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  Worlds  s.  v. 

Daaa,  lahuree,  a  Pkesby  terian  minister,  was  bora 


at  Futtehpoor,  India,  in  1826.  He  was  educat(?d  in  the 
mission-school  there,  and,  on  a  visit  to  America,  en- 
tered Lafayette  College,  Eastoo,  Pa.,  but  was  compelled 
to  return  to  his  native  land  without  graduating.  He 
continued  his  studies  with  the  English  roissioiiaries, 
and,  in  1865,  was  licensed  by  Furrackabad  Presbytery, 
and  stationed  at  Futtehpoor,  where  he  died.  May  2, 1867. 
He  wrote  a  prize  essay  on  Female  Education  in  India. 
See  Wilson,  IJist,  Presb.  Almanac,  1868,  p.  83. 

Daaael,  Ciiristiak  Cokbad,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Harkesbtlttel,  March  16, 1768. 
In  1794  he  was  teacher  at  Hanover,  in  1796  preacher 
at  Schlos»-Rickliugen,  in  1800  at  Hohenbostel,  and  in 
1806  first  preacher  at  Stodthagen,  where  he  died,  in 
1826.  He  wrote :  Ueber  den  VerfaU  des  offentlichen 
ReUgionseultus  in  theoloffitcher  JJinsicht  (Neostadt, 
1818)  i—Der  hannoverische  Landeskatechismus  als  Lese- 
und  Erbauungsbuch  (Hanover,  1800)  i—Commeniar  uber 
der  hannOverischer  Landeskatechismus  (Gottingen,  181 1). 
See  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  496;  ii,  219; 
Zuchold,  B^  TheoL  i,  264.    (JL  P.) 

Daaeier,  Lazare,  a  French  preacher,  lived  about 
1685.  He  was  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic,  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  iSermoM,  for  which  see  Uoefer,  Aovv. 
Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Daaaov,  Nlcolana,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Hamburg,  Dec  11, 1639.  At  Greifa- 
wald,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology, 
he  was  also  professor,  senior  of  the  theological  faculty, 
member  of  consistory,  and  pastor  of  St.  Mary's.  He 
died  Aug.  8,  1706,  leaving:  De  Prima  NicohUarum 
Haresi:  -De  Vento  PenUcostali :  —  De  Ghrificatione 
Christi,  See  Moller,  Cimbria  Litteruta ;  Jocber,  A  Ugt- 
meines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Daaaov,  Theodor,  a  German  theologian,  brother 
of  Nicolaus,  was  bom  at  Hamburg.  He  studied  at 
Giessen  and  Wittenberg;  was  in  1678  professor  ex- 
traordinarius  of  Oriental  languages,  and  in  1689  pro- 
fessor ordinarius  at  the  Utter  place,  where  he  also  took 
his  degree  as  doctor  of  theology,  in  1699.  He  accepted 
a  call  to  Kiel,  and  died  Jan.  6, 1721,  while  general  su- 
perintendent of  Holstein  and  provost  of  Bendsborg. 
He  wrote :  A  vis  Ungue  Sect.  Inque  Saa-ific.  OUat.  (Wit- 
tenberg, 1697)  x—De  Emphasi  Sacrarum  Vocum  ex  Vet. 
Hist,  liebr.  Repet,  (Kiel,  1714) :— /)«  Jure  Finium  ex  Pan- 
dect, Talmudic,  (Wittenberg,  1735)  :—De  RUibus  Mesu- 
S€B  (ibid.  1714) :  Dissidium  Pontif,  Rom,  et  Ilebr,  (ibid. 
1785) — Imagines  Hebrceorum  Rei-um^quiB  Nostra  JEtatt 
Circumferunt  (ibid.  1735)  i—Rabbinismi,  Philol  s,  A  ncH- 
lani,  (1674)  '.^Diatribe  in  Judteos  de  Resurrectione  Mor- 
tuorum  (1675): — Vota  Monasticaet  Nasirteorum  (1786): 
—Scholia  Crilicorum  (1707).  See  Moller,  Cimbria  Lil^ 
ferataf  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-I^exikon,  s.  v.; 
Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  i,  148,  202, 604;  Fllrst, 
BibL  Jud,  i,  197 ;  Steinschneider,  Bibliogr.  Ilandbuch, 
s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Datan,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  was  a  god  of  the 
Poles,  who  was  said  to  dispense  blessings,  prosperity, 
and  plenty,  especially  in  fmits  of  the  field. 

Dathe,  Hikrontmus,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  Feb.  4,  1667,  He 
studied  at  Giessen  and  Wittenberg;  was  in  1694  pro- 
vost and  superintendent  at  Kemberg,  in  1700  at  Anna- 
berg,  and  died,  a  doctor  of  theology,  June  14,  1707, 
leaving,  De  Sacramento  Baptismi,  de  Peccato  et  Libero 
A  rbitrio  .—Orationes  de  Patieniia  Christi.  See  Moller, 
Cimbria  Litterata;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten^Lex- 
ikon,  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Dathevatei,  Greoort,  an  Armenian  theologian, 
who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  14th  century,  was  monk 
in  a  monastery  at  Dathev.  After  having  studied  un- 
der the  celebrated  John  Orodnetsi,  he  taught  theology 
and  philosophy.  He  died  in  14 10,  leaving  about  twenty 
works,  of  which  the  best  known  is  a  Book  of  Questions, 
printed  at  Constantinople,  and  held  to  be  heretical 


DATI 


240 


DAUGHTRY 


ThereVas  alao  another  Gregoiy  Dathevataii  who  was 
martjrred  in  the  17th  century  by  the  Kurds ;  and  this 
one,  according  to  the  opinion  of  S^rpos,  is  commemo- 
rated in  the  Armenian  liturgy.  See  Hoefer,  Now. 
Biog.  GMraUy  q.  v. 

Dati,  Leonardo  (1),  an  Italian  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Florence  about  1860.  Ho  entered  the  order 
of  Che  Dominicans,  and  became  celebrated  for  learning 
and  piety.  He  was  sent,  in  the  year  1400,  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance.  After  having  accomjilished  diplo- 
matic missions  to  the  king  of  Bohemia,  in  1409,  and 
the  emperor  Sigismund,  in  1418,  he  was  elected  general 
of  his  order  in  1414 ;  and  died  in  Apri],  1425,  leaving 
several  theological  works,  the  only  ones  of  which  that 
have  been  printed  are,  Sermone$  de  Petitionibut  (Lyons, 
1618,  8vo): — Sermones  de  Flaffellis  Peccatontm  (ibid, 
eod.  4to).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Datl,  Leonardo  (2),  an  Italian  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Florence  in  1408.  He  was  canon  at  Florence, 
and  afterwards  secretary'  to  popes  Calixtus  III,  Pius  II, 
Paul  II,  and  Sixtus  lY.  He  was  appointed,  in  1467, 
bishop  of  Massa,  and  died  at  Rome  in  1472,  leaving  in 
MS.  many  works  in  prose  and  verse.  Mehus  pub- 
lished thirty-three  of  his  lAtter$  (Florence,  1742, 8vo). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Datius,  bishop  of  Milan,  was  consecrated  about  527. 
Ho  brought  min  upon  his  countrymen  by  the  part  he 
took  in  instigating  the  revolt  of  Liguria  from  Yitiges, 
the  Gothic  king  of  Italy.  When  Milan  was  Mcked  by 
the  Goths  he  fled  to  Constantinople.  In  547  he  united 
with  pope  Vigilius  in  opposing  Justinian*s  condemnato- 
ry edict  of  the  three  articles,  by  refusing  to  sign  it;  and 
the  two  controversialists  took  refuge  in  the  church  of 
St.  Peter,  at  Constantinople,  in  551,  from  which  the  im- 
perial troops  vainly  endeavored  to  drag  the  pope  by 
force.  A  second  refuge  was  taken  in  the  church  of  SL 
Euphemia,  at  Chalcedon,  where  the  pope,  afraid  to  leave 
his  asylum,  appointed  Datins  one  of  his  representatives 
in  the  approaching  discussions.  Datius  died  about  555. 
See  Smith,  Did.  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

DatXva  was  a  female  martyr  in  Byzacium,  Africa, 
in  484 ;  commemorated  Dec  6,  with  seven  others. 

Dativna  is  the  name  of  several  early  Christians  of 
eminence : 

1.  Bishop  of  BadA,  in  Numidia,  a  frontier  post  towards 
the  Gaetuli,  was  the  author  of  several  epistles. 

2.  Seventh  bishop  of  Limoges,  succeeded  Adelphius 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  dd  century.  Ho  was  deposed 
at  the  end  of  nineteen  years,  during  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian. 

3.  A  celebrated  senator,  was  martyred  under  Diocle- 
tian, at  Carthage,  in  804.  He  and  forty-eight  others 
were  surprised  while  worshipping  at  Abitina,  and,  after 
severe  torture,  died— some  from  starvation.  He  is  com- 
memorated on  Feb.  1 1 .  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Chritt,  Biog, 

S.V. 

Datta  (or  Dattatreya),  an  incarnation  of  a  por- 
tion of  Vishnu,  and  therefore  venerated  by  the  Yaish- 
navas  (q.  v.).  He  was  also  eminent  for  his  practice  of 
the  Yoga,  and  hence  Js  held  in  high  estimation  by  the 
Yogis  (q.  V.).— Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  Worlds  s.  v. 

Danbenton,  Guillaumb,  a  French  Jesuit,  born  at 
Auserre  in  1648,  went  to  Spain  as  confessor  to  Philip 
Y ;  was  sent  back  in  1706,  but  returned  in  1716.  He 
died  in  1728,  leaving  Oraisops  Funsbres  and  a  Fm  de 
Saint  Francois  Rigis,  See  Hoefer,  JVbvv.  Biog,  Gene- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Daubentonne  (or  Dabentonne),  JsAiunc  (called 
also  Pietvime  Daubenfon),  a  French  female  fanatic,  bom 
in  Paris,  was  bumed  there,  July  5, 1872,  for  setting  her^ 
self  up  as  a  prophetess  at  the  head  of  the  Tvrlupins  or 
"  Brothers  of  the  Company  of  Poverty."  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Ginsrale,  s.  v. 

D'Aubign^.    See  Mkrlk. 


Daiible,  G.,  a  Baptist  missionary,  was  bora  in  Switx> 
erland  about  1820.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Basle 
Missionary  Society,  he  was  laboring  in  Dacca,  Bengal, 
when  he  became  a  Baptist,  and  was  baptized  at  Tezpur, 
on  the  Brahmaputra,  Assam,  Feb.  4, 1860 ;  and  appoint- 
ed a  missionary  at  Nowgong,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river.  He  died  March  21, 1858.  See  The  Missionary 
Jtt6ae«,  P- 245.     (J.CS.) 

Daabii%  CirAiiLES,  a  French  Protestant  ecclesiastic 
and  philosopher,  bora  at  Auxerre,  was  for  some  time 
minister  at  N^rac.  Among  several  productions,  be 
wrote,  VEchdU  dA  Jacob  (St  Foy,  1626,  8vo):  — 
L'Ebionisme  des  Moines  (l^mo)  i—Belkainin  RifomU 
(1681,  8vo).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  G^nhrale,  s.  v. 

Da'ftd,  an  Arabic  philosopher,  son  of  Nassir,  be- 
longed to  the  tribe  of  the  Thai,  died  A.D.  770.  See 
Hoefer,  Mniv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  a.  y. 

Daud6,  Pierre  (1),  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
was  bora  at  Marvejola  (Locere),  Sept.  26, 1664.  He 
studied  theology  at  Puylaurens,  and  went  in  1680  to 
EngUnd,  where  he  completed  his  studies;  was  active 
for  some  time  in  the  evangelical  ministry,  and  for  twen- 
ty-eight years  was  clerk  of  the  exchequer.  He  died  in 
London,  Jan.  29, 1788,  leaving  several  transitory  pieces 
(Amsterdam,  1780).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale, 
a.  V. 

Daud^,  Pierre  (2),  a  French  Protestant  divine, 
nephew  of  the  foregoing,  waa  bora  at  Marvejols  (Lo- 
sfere)  in  1681,  and  died  in  England,  May  II,  1754, leav- 
ing the  following  works,  which  were  publi^ed  anony- 
mously, F»e  ds  Michel  de  Cervantes,  Trad,  de  VEspagnU 
de  Magansg  Sisear  (Amsterdam,  1740, 2  volsw)  '.—TraiU 
de  la  Foi,  Traduit  du  Laiin  de  Burnet  (ibid.  1729).  Ae- 
oording  to  Barbier  and  Burnet^  he  co-operated  in  the 
publication  ofthe^St^tor^ue/Zutonjirr,  1788-47.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Danderetadt,  Chrtstoph,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Naumbuig  in  1580.  He  stud- 
ied at  Leipsic  and  Wittenberg,  was  in  1605  con-rector 
at  Zeitz,  in  1608  rector,  in  1612  at  Saleck,  and  in  1617 
pastor  at  Skeuditz.  In  1625  he  went  to  Freiburg,  and 
died  in  1654.  He  wrote,  Apodixis  Messia  : -^  Pasdo 
Secundum  Quatfuor  EvangeUstas :  —  Meditaf.  Septem 
Verborum  ChrisH  in  Cruce  :—Anti'Christus  Orientaliis. 
See  Schamelins,  Naumburgum  Literatum;  Jocher,  i4£^ 
gemeines  Gelehrten-LexHon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Danghaday,  Thomas,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Baltimore  County,  Md.,  in  1777.  He 
was  converted  young;  in  1798  entered  the  Baltimore 
Conference;  travelled  in  Man*land,Yirgtnia,  and  Penn- 
sylvania until  1802,  when  he  located;  but  re-entered 
the  effective  ranks  in  1805,  and  labored  to  the  close  of 
his  life,  Oct.  12, 1810.  See  Mimttes  of  Annual  Confer- 
ences,  1811,  p.  192. 

Daugherty,  Jamks,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Park,  near  Lairaiount,  County  Lon- 
donderry, Ireland,  April  9, 1796.  He  came  to  America 
in  1819,  and  went  to  South  Hero,  Yt.  After  prepara- 
tory studies  with  the  Rev.  Asa  Lyon,  and  in  St.  Albans* 
Academy,  he  graduated  from  the  University  of  Yer- 
mont  in  1880,  studying  theology  with  Rev.  O.  S.  Hoyt, 
of  Hinesbnrg,  and  also  with  W.  Smith,  D.D.,  of  St. 
Albans.  He  was  ordained  as  an  evangelist,  Jan.  18, 
1882,  and  for  some  time  labored  for  the  Colonial  Blia- 
sionary  Society ;  was  also  a  teacher  at  Frost  Yillage  and 
Sheffurd,  Canada ;  was  installed  at  Milton,  Yt^  Sept.  28, 
1886^  and  dismissed  July  5, 1848.  He  next  was  agent 
for  the  Foreign  Evangelical  Society  one  year;  thea 
acting  pastor  at  Fairfax,  Yt.,  from  1849  to  1*851.  Nor. 
12, 1867,  he  was  installed  at  Johnson ;  dismissed  March 
12, 1867.  and  remained  there  without  charge  until  hia 
death,  June  10, 1878.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Danghtry,  Josiah  tS.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  joined  the  Tennessee  Confer- 
ence in  1816;  became  superannuated  in  1845;  entered 


DAUIiLE 


241 


DAVENPORT 


tbe  MiaBusippi  Conference  in  1850 ;  again  became  super- 
annuated in  18a3 ;  and  died  late  in  that  year  or  early  in 
1854.  See  Mumte$  of  Annual  Conftrmou  of  the  M.  E. 
CMunA  JSoutky  18M,  p.  629. 

DauU^  Jean,  an  eminent  French  engraver,  wai 
bom  at  Abbeville  in  1707,  and  settled  in  Paris,  where 
be  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy  in  1742. 
He  died  there,  April  23, 1763.  The  following  are  some 
of  his  principal  plates :  The  MagdaUn ;  Diogenea  vrith 
kiM  Lwitem,  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog.  GiniraUt^  Sb  v. ; 
Spooner,  Biog,  Ui$L  of  the  Fine  Art*,  s.  v. 

Daniner,  Gkobo  Friedrich,  a  -Roman  Catholic 
convert  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg,  March  6, 
18001  He  commenced  studying  theology  at  £riang^ 
en,  where  he  belonged  to  the  so-called  pietists.  The 
leotures  of  Schelling  made  him  give  up  theology,  which 
he  exchanged  at  Leipeic  for  philology.  In  1822  he  was 
appointed  teacher  at  the  Latin  school,  and  in  1827  at 
the  gymnasium  of  his  native  place.  In  1883  he  re- 
signed his  position.  Joined  in  1858  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  died  Dec.  14,  1875,  at  WUrzburg.  He 
pablished,  Urgegdkiehte  det  MfHsehengeistes  (NUrnberg, 
1827)  i—PhUotophkj  Religion  und  AUerihum  (1833):— 
Ueber  die  EntwenduMg  agypiiechen  EigetUhums  heim 
Avszug  der  IsrtteUten  atu  Egypten  (ibid.) : — Poiemiache 
BiaUer^betrefend  Christenthum^  Bibelgiauben  vnd  Theol* 
ogie  (ibid.  1834)  i—Zuge  tu  eitier  neueu  Philoaophie  der 
Rdiffion  und  ReUgiontgeeehichte  (ibid.  1885)  i—Anthro- 
poiogiinuu  wtd  Kriticitmus  der  Gegenwart  (ibid.  1844) : 
— Die  Stimme  der  Wahrhal  in  den  religiosen  und  eon- 
feedondlen  KOmjufen  der  Gegenwart  (ibid.  1845)  '.—Salh 
batk,  Moioch  und  Tabu  (ibid.  1889)  :—Der  Feuer-  und 
JfoiodkdienU  der  alien  UArder  (Braunschweig,  1842) : 
— Die  Geheinmisae  dee  chriatUdun  AUerthuma  (Ham- 
burg, 1847,  2  vols.)  I— Die  ReUgion  dea  neuen  WeUaUera 
(ibid.  1850, 3  volsu):— Jfettie  Converaion  Ein  SiOck'See- 
Un-  und  Zeitgeachichte  (Mayence,  1859>  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL  i,  265;  Ftlrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  197  sq.;  Lich- 
cenberger,  Enegdop,  dea  Scieneea  Beligieuaea,  s.  v. ;  Hoe- 
fer, Xouv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Dann,  Geoboe,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  graduated  at 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1772 ;  was  schoolmaster 
at  Alves;  licensed  to  preach  in  1778;  appointed  to 
the  living  at  Insch  in  1790,  and  died  May  21,  1821, 
aged  seventy  years.  See  Faati  Eeclea,  Scoticante,  iii, 
582. 

Daaney,  Franda  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  grad- 
uated at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen ;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  June,  1742;  called  to  the  living  at  Lumpha- 
nan ;  ordained  in  June,  1743 ;  transferred  to  Banchory- 
Teman  in  June,  1758;  and  died  April  2,  1800,  aged 
eighty-one  vears.  See  Faati  Ecclea.  Scoticante,  iii,  523, 
536,537. 

Danney,  Fnmoia  (2),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
lioenaed  to  preach  in  May,  1709 ;  called  to  the  living 
■t  Keithhall  and  Kiukell  in  1710 ;  transferred  to  Kem- 
omj  in  1719,  and  died  Nov.  7, 1746.  See  Faati  Ecclea. 
ScoHamce,  iii,  585, 588. 

I>aiirda,  Louis,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Milbau  (Roueigue)  in  1655.  He  became  a  Dominican, 
weoi  to  Paris,  and  founded  there  the  community  of 
penitence  called  St.  ValAre,  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Ger- 
nmitiy  with  the  object  of  gathering  together  young  girls 
who  had  been  led  into  debauchery.  He  died  there.  May 
10, 1728,  leaving  V^gliae  Proteatante  DMruite  par  EUe 
Meme  (Paris,  1689, 12mo>  See  Hoefer,  JVbur.  Biog. 
Gmirale,  s.  v. 

D*Aiirolt,  AsTHONT,    See  Averolt,  Amthoxy. 

Danaaa  was  a  martyr  in  Persia  in  861.  He  was 
one  of  the  captives  carried  away  by  Sapor  II  when  he 
took  Bezabde  or  Phosoicia.  Heliodonis,  the  bishop,  be^ 
iog  taken  ill,  consecrated  Daosas,  and  gave  him  charge 
over  all  the  captives  who  had  escaped  the  rack.  When 
thej  aasembled  to  worship,  it  was  reported  to  the  king 
that  they  met  to  cune  him,  and  the  Christians,  to  the 

XIL-Q 


number  of  three  hundred,  were  collected,  and  com- 
manded to  embrace  fire-worship  or  die.  Dausas  encour- 
aged his  flock,  telling  them  that  they  would  be  deliv- 
ered from  bondage  and  restored  to  .their  country.  Two 
hundred  and  sixty-five  of  them  were  slain,  twenty-five 
apostatized,  and  the  fate  of  the  other  ten  is  unknown. 
See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Chriat.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Dauaqua  (or  Dauaqney;  Lat.  Dauaguiua),  a 
French  scholar,  was  bom  at  dt.  Omer,  Dec.  5, 1566.  He 
joined  the  J/»uits,  but  left  them  in  1610,  and  became 
canon  of  Toumay.  He  died  about  1636,  leaving,  among 
other  works,  BaailO,  SeUucienaia  Epiacopi,  HomiUta 
(Heidelberg,  1604;  transL  from  the  Greek,  with  notes) : 
—Scutum  Duplex^  etc  (Douay,  1610)  i-^Sancti  Pauli 
Sanetitudo  (Paris,  1627);--^afici»  Joaephi  SandifaxUio 
extra  Uterum  (Lyons,  1671).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
GMrakf  su  v. 

Daut,  JoiiAMN  Maximilian,  a  jonmeyman  shoe- 
maker of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  was  one  of  those  en- 
thusiasts who  appeared  after  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
centun',  and  proclaimed  the  coming  judgment  of  God. 
At  the  divine  behest,  as  he  said,  he  wrote,  in  1710,  his 
HeUe  Donnerpoaaune,  in  which  he  cries  the  woe  espe- 
cially over  Frankfort  and  the  Roman  empire.  Only  a 
small  number  will  be  saved  for  the  marriage-feast  of 
the  Lamb,  after  Turks,  Jews,  and  heathen  have  been 
converted.  Against  the  Lutheran  clergy  he  was  es- 
pecially severe.  Expelled  from  Frankfort,  he  went  to 
Leyden,  where  he  soon  had  a  conflict  with  Ueberfeldt, 
against  whom  he  wrote,  calling  his  adherents  *' Judas 
brethren."  He  was  afterwards,  however,  again  on  good 
terms  with  Ueberfddt.  In  and  about  Ulm  he  succeed- 
ed with  his  notions,  in  consequence  of  which  the  mag- 
istrate issued  an  edict  against  these  meddling  preach- 
ers, and  prohibited  the  reading  of  Daut*s  writings,  to 
which  also  belonged  his  Geiatlicht  Betrachiungen,  pub- 
lished in  1711.  John  Frick,  a  pastor  and  professor  of 
theology,  who  was  appointed  to  bring  him  back  from 
his  errors,  succeeded  in  his  mission,  and  again  recon- 
ciled him  with  the  Church.  See  Walch,  BeL  StreUig- 
keiien  in  der  lutheriachen  Kircke,  ii,  794;  v,  1051 ;  Pfaff, 
Iniroductio  in  HiaL  TheoL  ii,  372;  Burger,  Exercitatio 
de  Sutoribua  Fanatieia  (Leipsic,  1780);  Fuhrmann, 
Handbuch  der  ReL  und  KinAengeachichte,  s.  v. ;  Hagen- 
bach,  in  Herzog's  Real-EncyHop.  su  v.;  Jdcher,  AUge- 
meinea  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (&  P.) 

Davoina,  an  early  Chaldmn  goddess,  the  wife  of 
Hea,  and  the  mother  of  Maiduk.  She  has  been  sup- 
posed to  represent  tbe  earth  in  a  female  form,  as  Hea 
was  the  god  of  the  waters.  Her  analogue  was  the 
Phoenician  goddess  Bohu, 

Davenport,  Addington,  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  £ngland,  graduated  from  Harvard  Collego 
in  1719,  and  went  to  England  for  ordination.  For  a 
while  he  was  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Scituate,  Mass.; 
he  became  assistant  rector  of  King's  Chapel,  Boston, 
April  15,  1737;  and  in  May,  1740,  rector  of  Trinity 
Church  in  the  same  city.  He  died  there,  Sept.  8, 1746.. 
See  Sprague,  A  nnala  of  the  A  mer,  Pulpif,  v,  122. 

Davenport,  Benjamin,  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Boumeheath,  Bromsgrove,  in  1826. 
He  was  converted  at  seventeen;  joined  the  Baptist 
Church  at  Holy  Cross,  and  began  to  preach  at  Catshill 
and  Stony  Stratford.  He  settled  as  pastor  at  Brington, 
Northamptonshire,  in  1854,  and  died  July  30, 1857.  See 
(Lond.)  Baptiat  Handrbook,  1858,  p.  49. 

Davenport,  Ebeneaer,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, graduated  from  Princeton  College,  was  settled  over 
the  First  Church  at  Greenwich,  Conn.,  in  1767,  and  re- 
mained there  until  his  death  in  1773. 

Davenport,  Jamea,  an  eccentric  Presbyteriaa, 
minister,  was  bom  at  Stamford,  Conn.,  in  1716.     He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  at  the  age  of  twenty-two. 
In  1738  the  Philadelphia  Presbytery  gave  Maidenhead 
and  Hopewell  leave  to  call  him,  but  he  preferred  to  set- 


DAVENPORT 


Ui 


DAVID 


tie  tt  Soathold,  L.  I.,  and  was  ordained  by  a  council, 
Oct  26, 1738.    He  was  not  an  eloquent  speaker,  and 
in  preaching  exhausted  himself,  exhibiting  strange 
contortions  of  face,  and  a  strange,  singing  tone,  which 
was  imitated  by  many  Baptists  of  the  South.    White- 
field,  who  met  him  in  1740,  styles  him  *^one  of  the 
ministers  whom  God  had  sent  out,  a  sweet,  zealous 
soul."    Davenport  had  oonsiderable  success  in  South- 
old,  and  was  the  means  of  a  great  revival  in  Basking* 
ridge,  N.  J.,  where  he  preached  for  a  season.    He  vis- 
ited Connecticut  in  1741.     At  Stonington,  one  hundred 
persons  were  converted  by  his  first  sermon.    Twenty  of 
the  Niantic  Indians  were  converted  under  his  preaching 
at  East  Lyme,  and  many  of  the  Mohegan  tribe,  also. 
At  New  Haven  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  pastor. 
He  was  afterwards  arrested  at  Ripton  for  disorderly  pro- 
ceedings and  carried  to  Hartford,  where  he  sang  all 
night  in  prison.    The  grand  jury  presented  him  as  a  de- 
famer  of  the  ministry ;  he  was  treated  as  insane,  and 
carried  to  his  home.    In  March,  1743,  he  went  to  New 
London  and  organized  a  separate  church,  his  followers 
making  a  bonfire  of  religious  books  and  fine  clothing. 
After  a  severe  illness,  his  mind  underwent  a  change ;  he 
bewailed  his  errors,  and  in  July,  1744,  made  ample  re- 
traction.   In  1746  he  became  a  member  of  the  New 
Brunswick  Presbytery.    Having  recovered  his  health, 
he  spent  two  months,  in  1750,  in  Virginia,  and  also  la- 
bored with  some  success  at  Cape  May,  N.  J.    He  was 
called  to  Maidenhead  and  Hopewell,  and  was  installed 
Oct.  27, 1754.    As  moderator  of  the  synod  of  New  York 
be  preached  the  opening  sermon,  which  was  printed 
with  the  tide  The  Fait^ul  Minitter  Encouraged,    He 
remained  pastor  for  three  years,  but  his  labors  were  not 
greatly  blessed.    Many  of  the  extravagances  charged 
against  him  were  mitrue,  coming  from  scoffers  and 
worldly  men.    Davenport  died  in  1757,  and  was  buried 
in  the  New -Light  gravevard,  near  Pennington,  N.  J. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Davenport,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Suffolk,  June  4, 1776, 
and  served  the  congregation  in  Southold,  L.vl.,  for  two 
years.  On  Aug.  12, 1795,  he  was  settled  at  Deerfleld, 
N.  J.,  but  resigned  in  1805.  He  died  July  13,  1821. 
See  Alexander,  Princeton  College  in  the  ISth  Century. 

Davenport,  Robert  Dunlevy,  a  Baptist  mis- 
sionary, was  bom  in  Williamsburg,  Va.,  March  25, 1809. 
He  studied  At  the  Virginia  Baptist  Seminary ;  was  or- 
dained at  Richmond  in  August,  1835 ;  received  his  ap- 
pointment as  a  missionary  to  labor  among  the  Siamese 
in  September  following,  and  arrived  in  Bangkok  in  July, 
1836.  Being  a  practical  printer,  he  took  with  him  a 
press,  types  in  Chinese  and  Siamese,  and  a  lithographic 
'  press,  and  was  the  means  of  doing  great  good,  by  the 
publication  of  religious  literature  for  the  people  for 
whose  spiritual  welfare  he  was  laboring.  At  the  end 
of  about  nine  years*  service  he  returned  to  America  on 
account  of  his  health,  and  died  at  Alexandria,  La.,  Nov. 
24, 1848.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Davenport,  Silas  D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector,  in  1857,  in  Wadesborough,  N.  C, 
whence  he  removed  to  Corpus  Christi,  Texas,  in  1861, 
and  subsequently,  in  1865,  performed  missionary  work 
at  Waco.  In  1866  he  was  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
in  Marshal],  whence  he  removed  to  Dallas  in  1868, 
as  rector  of  St.  Matthew^s  Church,  and  there  remained 
until  his  death,  Jan.  1, 1877.  See  Pt-oL  EpUc  AlmanaCf 
.  1878,  p.  168. 

Daveyro,  Pantaleon,  a  Portuguese  monk,  who 
Hved  at  the  end  of  the  16th  and  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century.  He  made  a  journey  to  Jerusalem,  of  which 
he  pul>lished  an  account,  under  the  title,  Jiinerario  de 
Terra  Sancta  (Lisbon,  1593).  Diego  Tavares  published 
of  it  a  much  more  enlarged  edition  (ibid.  1683).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

David,    Among  the  Egyptians,  an  archimandrite. 


or  any  head  of  a  monastery,  of  whatever  rank,  was  called 
David;  so  that,  when  a  monastic  head  gave  letters  of 
oommendatioD  to  any  one,  be  subscribed  himself  as 
^ David  iUius  loci"  (Gratian,  De  Formatis,  quoted  by 
Ducange).    See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ.  A  ntiq.  s.  v. 

David,  a  frequent  name  in  early  Christian  history. 
See  also  Dabius. 

1.  One  of  the  four  luminaries  of  the  Barbeliot  system. 
See  Dadrs. 

2.  A  bishop  of  the  5th  century.  About  440  he  car- 
ried a  letter  from  Leo  the  Great  to  the  bishop  of  Mauri- 
tania, and  is  praised  by  the  pope. 

3.  A  deacon,  and  treasurer  of  the  Church  of  Edetsa, 
was  one  of  the  witnesses  produced  by  the  presbyters 
against  Ibas  before  Photius  of  Tyre.  His  testimony 
was  rejected  by  the  judges. 

4.  This  is  a  common  form  of  the  Irish  Dabi,  Mobi, 
etc  The  most  famous  of  the  name  was  David,  called 
sometimes  **  Legate  of  all  Ireland,**  who  succeeded  St. 
Dubhthach  as  bishop  of  Armagh  in  548.  He  died  in 
550. 

5.  A  martyr,  together  with  three  boys,  is  commemo> 
rate<l  June  25. 

6*  Of  Thessalonica,  is  commemorated  June  26. 

7.  King  of  Ethiopia,  commemorated  Sept.  7. 

8.  King  ofthe  Jews,  commemorated  variously:  Sept. 
30  {Cal.  A  rmen.) ;  Dec  19  {CaL  Ethiqp.)  \  Dec  29  {Mori, 
Rom.  Vet.). 

9.  Commemorated  with  Constantine,  Oct.  2. 

David,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  chamberlain  to  the 
king,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  St  Andrews  on 
St.  Vincent's  day,  Jan.  22,  1233,  by  William,  Gilbert, 
and  Clement,  bishops  of  Glasgow,  Caithness,  and  Dun- 
blane. In  1242  he  held  a  provincial  council  at  Perth; 
and  in  1249  performed  the  ceremony  of  anointing  king 
Alexander  III,  at  Scone  He  died  at  Northampton  in 
1253.    See  Keith,  ScoUith  Bithopt,  p.  16. 

David,  another  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Ar- 
gyle  in  1830  and  1350.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  287. 

David,  a  Carmelite  of  the  15th  century,  was  bom  in 
Cherbury,  Shropshire.  Leland  says  he  was  Theologia 
copritione  darus.  Going  over  to  Ireland  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Dromore.  (1427-29).  He  wrote  some  books, 
but  they  are  not  mentioned  by  Bale  {De  Scriptoribus 
Brit.)  nor  by  sir  James  Ware  {De  Scriptoribus  ffibemi" 
cis),  so  they  were  few  or  obscure.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land, he  died,  and  was  buried  in  the  Carmelite  monas- 
tery at  Ludlow  iu  1420.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  Eng- 
land (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  64. 

David  Almasskr,  a  Jew  of  Moravia,  who  lived 
about  the  end  of  the  12th  century,  professed  to  be  the 
Messiah.  He  pretended  to  make  himself  invisible  at 
pleasure ;  and  the  ignorant  Jews  submitted  to  his  call 
and  followed  him  in  masses.  The  governor  (who  was 
alarmed  by  the  agitation)  promised  him  pardon  if  he 
would  surrender  himself  to  his  hands.  David  did  so 
with  confidence,  and  was  put  in  prison.  He  escaped, 
however,  and  the  Jews,  being  threatened  with  severe 
fines,  delivered  up  David,  who  this  time  no  more  es- 
caped either  the  eye  or  the  hand  of  the  executioner. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GSniralef  s.  v. 

David  Alrui  (^Alrog  or  el-Roi,  i.  c  **  the  seeing ;" 
also  called  Mauihem  henrSolomon)  is  known  in  Jewish 
history  as  one  ofthe  false  Messiahs  who  arose  from  time 
to  time  About  the  year  1160  he  appeared  among  the 
Persian  Jews,  and  proclaimed  himself  as  sent  from  God 
to  free  the  Jews  from  the  Mohammedans  and  to  bring 
them  back  to  Jerusalem.  David  brought  trouble  upon 
his  countrymen,  and  his  timely  death — ^his  father-in- 
law  had  invited  David  to  a  supper,  and  while  in  a  state 
of  drunkenness  the  latter  was  bcJieaded— stopped  the 
persecution  of  the  sultan  against  the  Jews.  Disradi 
has  taken  this  historical  event  as  the  plot  of  his  Alroy. 
See  Lent,  De  Judceorum  PseudomessOs  (2d  ed.  HerfooiBy 


DAVID 


243 


DAVIDI 


1697), IK 62 Ml.;  Grilts,  (?cfdUdUe drr /lufai, yi, 291  aq. ; 
Robling,  in  Wetxer  n.  Welters  Kirdtm-LexUeon,  s.  ▼.; 
Hoefer,  Now,  Biog.  GhUrale,  8.  y.     (K  P.) 

DaTid  be»-Abje  LOw.    See  Lida,  Datid  db. 

David  bbn-Gedalj A  ibn-Jachja,  See  IbN'JAcbja, 
Datid. 

DayidBBM-lBAACife Pomu:   See  Pomis,  David  db. 

David  bkx-Jkhuda  (Leom),    See  Micssbb,  Lbok. 

David  GAna.    See  Ga^s,  David. 

David  HA-KoHEX  de  Lara.    See  Lara,  David  db. 

David  OFPKSiHBUf.    See  Oppbnhbix,  David. 

David  Pbovkxzalb.    See  Pkovbnzalb,  David. 

David  RuBE^ii  (also  caUed  David  Leimlein),  a  fanat- 
ical Jew,  lived  at  the  end  of  the  loth  and  in  the  flnt 
part  of  the  16th  century.  It  was  said  that  he  frequent- 
ly remained  withoat  food  for  sixty  days;  professed  to 
come  from  the  eaat  of  Tartary ;  and  cnnoanced  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Messiah  for  the  year  1600.  Accordingly,  in 
1499,  he  pretended  to  have  received  a  divine  command 
to  lead  the  Jews  back  to  the  land  of  their  fathers ;  and 
when  some  were  preparing  to  go  to  the  Holy  Land,  Da- 
vid was  under  the  necessity  of  declaring  that  God  was 
displeased  with  their  sins,  and  had  therefore  retarded 
the  accomplishment  of  his  promise.  Pope  Clement  VII, 
who  favored  the  Israelites,  honored  David  with  much 
distinction.  David  went  to  Lisbon,  and  there  succeed- 
ed in  bringing  back  to  Judaism  Solomon  Molcho,  who 
had  become  a  Christian,  and  who  occupied  the  position  of 
secretary  to  the  king  of  Portugal.  Solomon  was  both 
tm  orator  and  a  scribe,  and  thus  afforded  great  help  to  Da- 
vid. The  two  together  happened  to  be  present  at  Man- 
tua when  Charles  Y  passed  through  the  city.  Solomon 
was  80  imprudent  mb  to  ask  the  emperor  for  an  audi- 
ence, hoping  to  convert  him  to  Judaism ;  but  the  only 
result  was  Uiat  he  was  compelled  to  mount  the  funeral 
pile.  David  was  seized  at  the  same  time,  and  sent  to 
Spain,  where  he  died  a  few  dayv  afterwards.  His  death 
did  not  undeceive  the  Jews,  who  believed  for  a  long  time 
that  he  xctumed  every  week  to  visit  his  wife,  who  was 
in  Italy.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GhUraU,  s.  v. 

David,  Charlea»  a  French  engraver,  was  bom  in 
Paris  about  1600.  The  following  are  some  of  his  best 
prinU :  ChriH  Shown  to  the  Peo^  by  Pilate;  The  Vir- 
gin and  Infant f  with  Angela;  The  Virgin,  with  St*  Ber- 
nard, See  Biog.  UniveneUe,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hitt. 
of  the  Fine  Art*,  s.  v. 

David,  Cbrade,  a  French  Benedictine  of  the  soci- 
ety of  St.  Maur,  was  bom  at  Dijon  in  1644,  and  died 
Nov.  6, 1705.  He  composed  several  works  on  the  sub- 
» ject  of  ecdesiasticai  scholarship,  one  only  of  which  has 
been  printed:  DiuertaHon  sur  Saint  Deng*  VArkupct- 
gOe,    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

David,  FranQOia  Anne,  a  French  engraver  and 
editor,  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1741 ;  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Bas ; 
and  died  in  his  native  city,  April  2, 1824.  The  foltow- 
in(p  are  some  of  his  principal  religious  works :  Adam  and 
Ete  M  Paradiee ;  David  with  the  Head  of  Goliath,  He 
also  published  many  volumes,  including  an  illustiated 
Bible.  See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog,  GMraUy  s.  v. ;  Spoon- 
er, Biog.  UitL  oftiu  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

David,  Jacqnes,  a  French  poet  and  theologian, 
who  waa  bom  at  Aunecy,  and  lived  about  1636,  was  Judge 
at  T^lay,  and  left  ffittoria  DedicationiM  Ecdenm  Podii 
A  mdenn*  in  VaUacia,  etc.  (Avignon,  1516) ;  three  royal 
songs,  four  ballads,  and  ten  roundelays,  in  praise  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  with  an  orison  (Lyons,  1536).  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Biog.  Geniralt,  s.  v. 

Davidt  Jean  (1),  a  Belgian  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Conrtnd  in  1546.  He  was  pastor  of  St.  Martinis, 
at  Coartrai ;  joined  the  Jesuits  in  1581 ;  was  successive- 
ly rector  of  the  colleges  of  Courtrai,  Brussels,  and  Ghent, 
and  died  at  Antwerp,  Aug.  9,  1618.  His  numerous  as- 
cetic works  are  written  in  Latin  and  Flemish,  including 


Vtridiau  Chrigtiamie  (Antwerp,  1601)  i—Extinctorium 
Famotm  Faeit  ffoUandia  (ibid.  1602)  i^Ahearium  Ro- 
mana  Ecdena  (ibid.)'. — Arcanum  Ilaretieum  (ibid.): 
— Labgrinthum  ffareticorum  (ibid.  1605): — Occasionii 
Arrtptm  ac  Net^eette  Tgput  (ibid.  eod.)*> — Paraditut 
Sponiiac  Sponta  (ibid.  1607)  :>-and  many  others.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

David,  Jean  (2),  a  French  canon,  was  bom  at 
Carcassonne,  and  flourished  about  1672.  He  was  com- 
mendatory c^  the  abbey  of  the  Bons-Hommes,  near  An^ 
gers,  and  was  sent  to  Rome  on  a  mission  by  Louis  XIV, 
where  he  died.  His  principal  works  are,  Du  Jugemeni 
Canonique  dee  Jtveque*  (Paris,  1671) ; — Ripoiue  aux  Re- 
marquee  de  Af,  de  Launog  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

David,  Jerome,  a  French  engraver,  brother  of 
Charles,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1608.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  some  of  his  principal  works :  A  dam  and  Eve  Driv^ 
em  from  Paradise;  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin;  St, 
Francis  of  Paula.  He  etched  forty-two  plates  from  the 
designs  of  Montano,  of  churches,  tombs,  and  altars  at 
Rome.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. ;  Spoon- 
er, Biog.  Bia.  of  the  Fine  Arts,  b.y. 

David,  John  Baptist,  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
was  bora  near  Nantes,  France,  in  1760.  He  was  made 
a  priest  of  St.  Sulpice  in  1784 ;  came  to  America  with 
FUget  and  Badin  in  1792  as  missionary  in  Maryland; 
in  Kentucky  in  1811  sq. ;  was  bishop  of  Mauricastro  ta 
partibus  and  coadjutor  of  Bardstown  in  1819 ;  and  died 
June  12,  1841.  See  De  0>urcy  and  Shea,  ^isL  of  the 
Cath.  Church  in  the  U.  S,  p.  70, 125. 

David,  Lodovioo  Antonio,  an  Italian  painter, 
was  bom  at  Lugano  in  1648,  and  studied  under  Cava^ 
liere  Cairo  and  Eroole  Procaccini  at  Milan.  He  became 
a  painter  of  eminence,  and  executed  many  works  for 
the  churches  and  convents  at  Milan  and  Venice.  In 
the  Church  of  San  Silvestro,  in  Venice,  is  a  NaiUvitg  by 
this  artist,  which  is  especially  commended.  He  died 
about  1780.  See  Hoefer,  A*bti9.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ; 
Spooner,  Biog,  UisL  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

David,  Nioolas  Joseph,  a  French  theologian, 
was  bom  near  Bayeux.  He  was  professor  in  the  col- 
lege of  Montaigu  and  canon  of  St.  Marcel,  and  died 
at  Paris,  Aug.  5, 1784,  leaving  Bifutation  du  Sgsteme  d^un 
Philosophe  CartMen  (Paris,  1729).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Davidge,  James,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  wais 
bom  at  Motcomb,  DorseUbire,  Oct  14,  1803,  of  Wes- 
leyan  parents,  and  was  blind  from  his  birth.  At  the 
age  of  fifteen  he  was  placed  in  the  blind  asylum  at 
Bristol  to  leam  the  trade  of  basketrmaking.  Return- 
ing to  his  native  village,  he  awakened  much  interest 
as  "The  Blind  Preacher."*  Being  also  a  musician  and 
poet,  he  composed  his  own  hymns  and  tunes,  after  sing- 
ing which,  his  preaching  was  especially  attractive  to 
his  hearers.  Having  become  a  Baptist,  he  was  or- 
dained at  Iweme  Minster,  July  25, 1833,  where  he  con- 
tinued till  his  death,  Jan.  6,  1872.  See  (Lond.)  Bap- 
tist  Hand-book,  1873,  p.  255.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Davldi,  Fkamciscub,  a  German  Socinian,  was  bom 
in  Transylvania  about  1510.  At  first  a  zealous  Romanist, 
he  became  a  Protestant,  and  defended  the  Lutheran  doc- 
trines against  the  Zwinglians.  He  soon  joined  the  lat- 
ter, and  finally  became  a  Socinian,  through  the  influence 
of  Georg  Blandrata,  who  also  succeeded  in  causing  the 
removal  of  the  Lutheran  court-preacher,  Dionysius  Ale- 
sius,  and  putting  Davidi  in  his  place.  Davidi's  influence 
over  prince  Sigismund  was  so  great  that  be  was  ap- 
pointed superintendent  of  Transylvania.  When  the 
synod  at  Torda  was  held,  in  1568,  Davidi  openly  de- 
clared that  Jesus  Christ  was  nothing  but  a  man,  with- 
out any  claim  to  adoration.  Being  accused  of  intrigues 
against  the  state,  he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment 
in  the  fortress  at  Detva,  where  be  died,  June  6, 1579. 
Some  of  his  published  writings  are  found  in  the  BiUi- 


DAvros 


244 


DAVIDSON 


otheca  Fratrum  Pahnorum,  See  J5cber|  AUffemeine$ 
GeUhrtm'Lexikor^t.x,;  Idchtenherg^r, Encydt^pidie dea 
Sciences  RdiffieuBat  8.  v.     (Bw  P.) 

Davidfl^  Arthur  Lumlbt,  a  Jewish  writer,  was 
bom  in  London  in  ISll,  and  died  July  17, 18S2.  Be- 
fore he  was  twenty,  he  delivered  a  lecture  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  *'  Society  for  the  Cultivation  of  Hebrew  Lit- 
erature," on  The  Philotophy  of  the  Jewe,  replete  with 
deep  learning  and  profound  research,  and  published  in 
1883.  He  also  wrote  a  Grammar  of  the  Turkish  La»- 
ffuage,  with  a  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  language 
and  Literature  of  Eastern  Nations  (London,  1832),  a 
work  which  called  forth  the  most  unqualified  praise  from 
the  most  competent  judges  of  the  subject.  See  FUrst, 
BibL  Jud,  i,  202.     (B.  P.) 

Davidflon  (occasionally  written  Davidaone  or 
Davidsoune),  the  family  name  of  a  large  number  of 
Scotch  clergymen: 

X.  Adam,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University,  June 
28, 1697 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  Dec  7, 1698 ;  called  to 
the  living  at  Essie-with-Nevay,  Aug.  27, 1701 ;  ordained 
Dec.  80,  1702,  and  died  Oct.*  24, 1720,  aged  fQrtyH>ne 
years.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  747. 

2.  Alexander  (I),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1740 ; 
called  to  the  living  at  Traquair ;  ordained  in  1744 ;  and 
died  July  20, 1759.     See  Fasti  Eccks,  Scotieance,  i,  258. 

3.  Albxakder  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1758 ; 
presented  to  the  living  at  Stenton  in  1766 ;  ordained  in 
February,  1767;  and  died  Jan.  24, 1801,  aged  seventy 
years.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticanaj  i,  884. 

4.  AifXANDER  (8),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1802 ; 
presented  to  the  living  of  Gargnnnock  in  1809;  or- 
dained in  1810 ;  transferred  to  Slamannan  in  August, 
1826 ;  and  died  Oct.  29, 1855,  leaving  a  son,  Thomas, 
in  the  ministry.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  201 ; 
ii,  705. 

5.  Alexander  (4),  a  native  of  Dyke,  graduated  at 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1826 ;  became  teacher  in 
the  family  of  Irvine  of  Schivas ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1831 ;  elected  to  the  living  at  Northesk  in  1838 ;  or- 
dained in  1839 ;  resigned  in  1843 ;  and  died  April  5, 1858, 
aged  fifty-three  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  SooUcana,  i, 
288. 

6.  Alexander  Dtce,  D.D.,  was  tutor  in  the  family 
of  James  Blaikie,  provost  of  Aberdeen ;  was  licensed  to 
preach  March  31, 1830 ;  presented  by  the  town  council 
to  the  living  of  the  South  Church  in  June,  1832,  and 
ordained  in  August ;  transferred  to  the  West  Church, 
April  14, 1836,  and  joined  the  Free  Secession  June  15, 
1843.  He  published  four  Sermons  (Aberdeen,  1836- 
1848)  I— The  Position  and  Duties  of  Christ's  Church 
(ibid.  ISU) '.—Lectures  on  the  Booh  of  Esther  (Edin- 
burgh,  1859).    See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  465, 479. 

7.  Archibald,  D.D.,  son  of  the  minister  at  Craw- 
fordjobn,  was  presented  to  the  living  at  the  second 
charge,  Paisley,  and  ordained  Sept.  7, 1758 ;  transferred 
to  Inchinnan  Sept.  80,  1761 ;  was  appointed  principal 
of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  but  resigned  in  October, 
1786,  and  died  July  7, 1803.  See  FasU  Ecdes,  Scoti- 
canoi^  ii,  201, 221. 

8.  David  (1),  D.D.,  native  of  Fowlis-Wester,  was 
baptized  in  February,  1750;  licensed  to  preach  in  Au- 
gust, 1773 ;  ordained  Jan.  2, 1776 ;  became  assistant  to  Mr. 
Robert  Walker,  of  Monzie ;  was  presented  to  the  living 
at  Kippen  in  May,  1776 ;  transferred  to  Dundee  in  July, 
1782 ;  and  died  De&  22, 1825,  aged  seventy-five  years. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  ii,  731 ;  iii,  694. 

9.  David  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  February, 
1792 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Cumbernauld,  and 
ordained,  Sept.  17, 1801 ;  and  died  April  11, 1814,  aged 
forty-seven  years.    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  68. 

10.  David  (3),  son  of  the  minister  at  Dundee,  stud- 
ied theology  at  Edinburgh  University ;  was  licensed  to 
preach  July  31,  1822;  unanimously  elected  the  first 
minister  of  the  church  of  Broughty  Ferry,  Oct  25,  and 
ordained  Dec.  13, 1827 ;  joined  the  Free  Secession,  Aug. 


22, 1848,  and  died  three  days  afterwards,  aged  forty-one 
years.  He  published  a  Sermon  (1830).  See  Fasti  Ec 
des,  Scoticana,  iii,  726. 

11.  Duncan,  was  promoted  from  being  regent  in 
Aberdeen  University,  and  presented  by  the  king,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1574,  to  the  living  at  Rathen,  as  the  first  min« 
ister;  in  1593  Lonmay  was  under  hiscare.  He  was  mod- 
erator of  the  assembly  in  August,  1597,  and  continued 
in  1601.    See  Fasii  Ecdes,  Scotieana,  iii,  687. 

12.  Elliot  Wiluam,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1788 ;  appointed  by  the  king  assistant  and  successor  to 
his  father,  Isaac,  in  September,  1789,  and  died  Aug.  21, 
1846,  aged  eightv  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  SootieansB, 
1,746. 

13.  Gborob  (t),  graduated  at  EiUnburgh  Univer- 
sity in  June,  1658 ;  was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Rer- 
rick  in  1664;  transferred  to  An woth  in  1666,  and  to  Whit- 
some  in  1668;  continued  in  October,  1684;  and  died  be- 
fore Feb.  5, 1686.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  i^  450, 
698,  721. 

14.  George  (2),  graduated  at  King's  College,  Aber- 
deen, March  81,  1809 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  Nov.  22, 
1814 ;  ordained  in  March,  1819,  as  missionary  at  Berrie- 
dale;  presented  Feb.  22, and  admitted  June  15, 1820,  to 
the  living  at  Latheron ;  and  joined  the  Free  Secessiim, 
March  24, 1843.  He  published  An  A  ccount  of  the  Par- 
ish.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticance^  iii,  364. 

15.  George  Ramsay,  was  licensed  to  preach  June 
25, 1828 ;  presented  by  the  earl  of  Kintore,  in  March, 
1828,  to  the  living  at  Drumblade,  and  ordained  May  8 ; 
translated  to  lady  Glenorchy's  Church,  Edinburgh,  July 
14, 1842 ;  joined  the  Free  Secession,  June  28, 1843.  He 
published,  PtivHege  and  Duty  ;  a  Pastoral  A  ddress  to 
Lady  Glenorchy's  Congregation  (Edinburgh,  1845): — 
Britain's  Past  PoUqf^  Penitence^  and  Pledge^  a  sermon 
(ibid.  1857)  :  —  AnA  ccount  of  the  Parish.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  658. 

16.  Henry,  was  bom  at  Eckford  in  1687 ;  graduated 
from  Edinburgh  University  in  1705;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  March,  1712 ;  and  ordained  minister  at  Gala- 
shiels in  December,  1714.  He  was  one  of  twelve  min- 
isters who  petitioned  the  General  Assembly,  in  1721, 
against  the  Marrow  of  Modem  Divinity ^  for  which  they 
were  scofiingly  called  the  Twelve  Apostles.  About 
1785  he  adopted  the  principles  of  the  Independents,  but 
reuined  his  living  till  his  death,  OcL  24, 1766.  He 
published  three  Sermons;  and  Letters  to  Christian 
Friends  (Edinburgh,  1811).  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Sooti- 
cantBf  i,  550. 

17.  Hugh,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  March,  1799; 
appointed  schoolmaster  at  Maybole  in  1811 ;  present- 
ed' in  January,  and  ordained  April  24, 1817,  minister  at 
Eaglesham ;  and  died  April  27,  1829,  aged  fifty-aiz 
years.     See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scotioanm,  ii,  65. 

18.  Isaac,  D.D.,  minister  of  a  Presbyterian  church 
at  Ratdifie  Highway,  London,  graduated  from  Edin- 
burgh University  in  1775;  was  admitted  minister  at 
Sorbie  the  same  year ;  transferred  to  Whithorn  in  1794 : 
and  died  Dec.  26, 1810.  See  F€Uti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  i, 
745,  749. 

19.  James,  graduated  at  the  University  of  St.  An- 
drews in  March,  1580 ;  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  uf 
Wigton  in  1590,  and  Kirkmadryne  in  1596 ;  transferred 
to  Whithoni  about  1599;  continued  in  1606,  and  adhered 
with  forty-one  others  to  the  protestation  against  the  in- 
troduction of  episcopacy.  He  died  before  April  17, 1617. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  ScoticamBf  i,  729,  746. 

20.  John  (1),  was  appointed  the  second  Protestant 
minister  at  Hamilton  in  1567,  and  had  charge,  also,  of 
Dawserff,  Dalyell,  Cambusnethan,  and  Blantyre,  in 
1574 ;  was  a  member  of  the  assembly  in  1581 ;  appoint- 
ed by  the  secret  council,  in  March,  1589,  one  of  the  com- 
missioners for  the  maintenance  and  defence  of  true  re- 
ligion, and  continued  in  1 596.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Sco» 
ticoMBj  ii,  257. 

21.  John  (2),  graduated  at  the  University  of  Sr. 
Andrews ;  was  setded  at  Liberton  in  1579,  and  was  a 


DAVIDSON 


245 


DAVIDSON 


toanaaknu  of  tbe  Genend  Aisembly  of  1581.  He 
wrote  a  poetical  tnct  agaioat  the  regent,  James,  earl 
of  M oitoo,  in  1579,  and  wept  when  the  earl  forgare  him ; 
was  appointed  by  the  General  Assembly  of  1582  to  pro- 
nounce  sentence  of  excommunication  against  the  arch- 
bishop of  Glasgow,  and  was  **  nothing  aifrayed,"  bat 
was  threatened  with  a  violent  death,  so  was  guarded  to 
the  kirk  for  ten  Sundays.  In  1583  he  boldly  admon- 
ishetl  the  king  **to  forbear  his  often  swearing,"  and 
the  same  year  had  to  advise  him  "  to  beware  of  inno- 
vations in  the  court.**  He  fled  to  England  in  April, 
1584,  to  escape  the  rage  of  his  enemies.  He  refused  in 
1588  to  be  again  settled  at  Liberton,  but  was  appointed 
to  St.  Giles's  parish  church,  Edinburgh,  in  1589;  was 
moderator  of  the  simod  and  of  the  General  Assembly 
that  year;  appointed  to  the  second  charge,  Holyrood 
house,  in  1590  ;  was  a  member  of  the  assembly,  1591 ; 
preached  in  the  New  Kirk,  Edinburgh,  1592 ,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Ptestonpans  in  1595 ;  presented  to  the  vicar- 
age in  1597 ;  appointed  by  the  assembly  a  visitor  of  five 
presbyteries;  and  died  before  Sept.  5, 1604,  aged  about 
tifty-siz  years.  He  built  the  kirk  and  manse  at  his  own 
expense;  and  left  all  his  property  to  support  the  school 
which  he  founded,  *'  for  teaching  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
brew, and  instructing  the  youth  in  virtue  and  learning.** 
He  published,  Dialogue  Bettnxt  a  Clerk  and  a  Courtier 
(1573)  :—Ane  Breif  Commendation  of  Vprighine$  (4to, 
eod.) :  — D.  BoMcrofCt  Rashneu  in  RayUng  agauut  the 
Church  (1590) :  — Memorial  of  the  L\fe  and  Death  of 
Robert  Cam^U  and  hig  Wife  (1595):^ Some  Helps 
for  Young  Sdwlare  m  Chrittiamtg  (lG(i2)i— Discovery 
of  the  Unnatural  and  Traitorous  Conspiracy  of  Scot' 
tish  Papists  (1593): — Apohgie,  and  several  Letters: — 
Short  Form  of  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer,  See  Fas- 
ti EceUs.  Scoticana,  i,  7, 87, 114,  349. 

22.  John  (3),  graduated  at  the  University  of  St.  An- 
drews in  1582 ;  was  appointed  the  second  Protestant  min- 
ister at  Gomrie  in  1588;  removed  to  Muthill  in  1589; 
was  a  member  of  the  General  Assembly,  1590,  and  one 
of  forty-two  ministers  who  signed  a  protest  to  parlia- 
ment against  the  introduction  of  Episcopacy  in  1606 ; 
moderator  of  the  Presbytery  in  1590;  and  died  April  7, 
1607,  aged  about  forty- five  years.  See  Fcuti  Ecdes, 
SeoHcana,  ii,  752,  779. 

23.  JoH3i  (4),  graduated  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1628;  was  presented  to  the  living  of  South - 
dean  in  July,  1685.  Refusing  to  conform  to  Episcopa- 
cy, was  confined  to  his  parish  in  1662 ;  and  was  deposed 
in  July,  1666,  for  fornication.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoti- 
eame,  i,  512. 

24.  John  (5),  son  of  the  minister  at  Graw ford-John, 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  Januar}',  1743;  called  in  Jan- 
uary, and  ordained  May  7, 1745,  minister  at  Old  Kil- 
patrick ;  and  died  May  19, 1798.  He  published  An  Ac- 
count of  the  Parish.   See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticanatf  ii,  862. 

25.  Patrick  (1),  graduated  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity in  1587 ;  was  appointed  minister  at  Auchterarder 
in  1591,  having  also  Mony vaird  in  charge  in  1593 ;  pre- 
sented by  James  VI  to  the  living  at  Muckart  in  1594; 
and  continued  in  April,  1620.  see  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoti- 
came,  ii,  746,  776. 

26.  Patrick  (2),  D.D.,  a  native  of  Scotstown,  be- 
came schoolmaster  of  Keith-hall ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  April,  1771 ;  became  assistant  to  Mr.  Robert  Farqn- 
harson,  minister  of  Chapel  Garioch ;  was  presented  to 
the  living  at  Keranay,  and  ordained  June  19,  1776; 
transferred  to  Rayne  in  February,  1778,  and  died  May 
21,  1819,  aged  seventy-five  years.  He  published  An 
A  etouat  if  the  Parish.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana^  iii, 
588. 

27.  Patrick  (3),  youngest  son  of  William,  minister 
at  Invemry,  graduated  at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
April  ],  1806 ;  became  schoolmaster  of  Kintore ;  was  li- 
eoaed  to  preach  in  July,  1814;  presented  to  the  living 
at  Insch  in  1821 ;  ofdained  May  8, 1822 ;  and  died  Nov. 
17,  1858,  aged  sixty -eight  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes. 
Seotieante^  iii,  582, 


28*  RoBBBT  (1),  graduated  at  Edinborgh  Universi- 
ty in  July,  1628 ;  was  a  member  of  the  commission  of 
assembly  in  1647 ;  and  died  in  November,  1657,  aged 
•about  fifty  years.     See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticanasy  i,  383. 

29.  Robert  (2),  was  licensed  to  preach  in  February, 
1708;  became  chaplain  to  lady  Blantyre;  was  called 
to  the  living  at  Crawford-john  in  December,  1712;  or- 
dained in  November,  1718 ;  and  died  Jan,  7, 1749,  aged 
sixty-seven  years.  He  left  two  sons,  Archibald  and 
John,  in  the  ministiy.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticcnue,  ii, 
322. 

30.  THoaiAS  (1),  studied  theology  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity; was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Scotch  Presby- 
ter>'  at  London,  Dec.  12, 1700;  received  by  the  Presby- 
tery at  Edinburgh,  1702 ,  elected  sole  lecturer  in  the 
Tron  Church,  Edinburgh,  Sept.  11,  1706;  commis- 
sioned chaplain  by  queen  Anne  at  Stirling  castle,  and 
ordained  Oct.  18, 1709 ;  promoted  to  Whitekirk  in  1713 ; 
transferred  to  Dundee,  Jan.  5, 1732;  and  died  Nov.  27, 
1760,  aged  eighty-two  years.  His  son  Hugh  became 
rector  of  Kirkby,  in  Yorkshire;  and  his  son  Thomas 
Randall  was  minister  at  Inchture,  then  at  Stirling.  See 
Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  i,  386 ;  ii,  685 ;  iii,  689. 

31.  Thomas  (2),  studied  at  the  universities  of  Aber- 
deen and  Glasgow;  became  schoolmaster  at  Dorea  in 
1819;  was  liceoBed  to  preach,  and  ordained  minister  at 
Kilmalie,  April  4,  1826 ;  made  missionary  at  Tarbert, 
April  15, 1829;  presented  to  Salen  in  December,  1835; 
joined  the  Free  Secession,  May  24, 1843.  See  Fasti  Ec- 
des. Scoticana,  iii,  113, 114. 

32.  William  (1),  graduated  at  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1595;  was  appointed  to  the  living  at 
Reay  in  1601 ;  transferred  to  Farr  before  1607  ;■  and  con- 
tinued in  1608.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  350, 
366. 

33.  WiLUAM  (2),  graduated  at  the  University  of 
St.  Andrews  in  1603 ;  was  an  expectant  in  the  s^'nod  in 
1611 ;  admitted  to  the  living  of  Auchindoir  and  Keam 
before  November,  1683 ;  was  a  member  of  the  General 
Assembly  in  1639;  and  continued  April  16, 1667.  See 
Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  548. 

34.  WiLUAM  (3),  a  native  of  Kintore,  was  minister 
at  Rathen  in  1603;  present  at  the  Aberdeen  Assembly 
in  July,  1605,  contrary  to  the  king's  order ;  confessed 
his  error  to  the  privy  council  in  October,  and  was  ad- 
monished and  returned  to  his  charge.  He  was  admit- 
ted a  burgess  and  guild-brother  of  Abenleen,  Aug.  1, 
1620 ;  was  a  member  of  the  commission  of  assembly, 
1645;  and  died  in  1657.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  ScoticanoPj 
iii,  638. 

35.  WiLUAM  (4),  had  been  a  minister  in  Ireland  who 
fled  at  the  time  of  the  insurrection  in  1641.  After  a  stav 
in  England  and  the  south  of  Scotland,  he  was  invited 
to  the  living  at  (}anisbay  in  1652,  and  admitted  Feb.  17, 
1655 ;  transferred  to  Birsay  Oct.  18, 1666 ;  lost  his  sight 
May  25, 1673,  and  died  after  Sept.  9, 1690.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes,  Scoticana^  iii,  358,  393. 

36.  William  (5),  graduated  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  July  12, 1660;  and  was  admitted  to  the  liv- 
ing at  KiUearnan,  Feb.  25, 1669.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Sco- 
tieancBf  iii,  281. 

37.  William  (6),  a  native  of  Aberdeenshire,  became 
schoolmaster  of  Navar;  was  licensed  to  preach  Aug. 
19, 1741 ;  called  to  the  living  at  Lethnot  and  Navar,  and 
ordained  Sept.  25, 1746 ;  and  died  March  12, 1775,  aged 
seventy-three  3*ears.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticante,  iii, 
833. 

38.  William  (7),  graduated  at  King's  College,  Aber- 
deen, April  23, 1751 ;  became  schoolmaster  at  Invemry 
in  June,  1751 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  Feb.  14^  1759 ; 
ordained  assistant  minister,  and  successor  at  Inveruiy, 
Sept.  6, 1767 ;  and  died  Jan.  19,  1799,  aged  sixty-eight 
years.  He  left  two  sons  in  the  ministry,  William  and 
Patrick.     See  Fcuti  Ecdes,  Scoticanae,  iii,  583. 

39.  William  (8),  was  ordained  in  October,  1762, 
minister  of  the  Presbyterian  congregation,  Castlegarth, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne;  presented  in  January,  and  admit- 


DAVIDSON 


246 


DAvrosoN 


fed  in  May,  1801,  to  the  Uving  at  Mordington ;  and  died 
June  24, 1804,  aged  sixty-eight  yean.  See  Fasti  Ec- 
clet,  ScoticancBf  i,  446. 

Davidson,  Adoniram  Jndson,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  baptized  in  1858 ;  licensed  to  preach  in  1878 ; 
matriculated  at  Acadia  College  in  1872;  preached  for 
a  while  in  1878  at  Isaacs  Harbor,  and  in  1874  undertook 
a  mission  to  Eatonville,  N.  S.,  and  died  at  his  home  in 
Portaupique,  Jan.  14,  1876,  aged  thirty -three  years. 
See  Baptist  Year-hook  qf  N,  8 J,  N,  B^  and  P.  E,  /., 
1876,  p.  36. 

Davidson^  Alexander,  a  Ptotestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  entered  the  ministry  in  1867 ;  became  as- 
sistant minister  of  St.  George's  Church,  Newbuigh,  N.  Y., 
bat  served  only  a  short  time,  and  died  Sept.  29, 1870. 
See  Prot,  Episc,  A  Itnanac,  1871,  p.  118. 

Davidson,  Asbury,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Tennessee  in 
1810.  He  was  admitted  into  the  Tennessee  Conference 
in  1881 ;  served  as  presiding  elder  in  the  Memphis  Con- 
ferenee  during  1842  and  1844 ;  was  transferred  to  the 
Mississippi  Conference  in  1845;  located  and  removed 
to  Texas  in  1851 ;  joined  the  Texas  Conference  in  1855, 
and  died  Dec.  21,  1868.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con- 
fermees  of  the  M,  E,  Church  Souths  1869,  p.  885. 

Davidson,  Benjamin,  an  English  Oriental  schol- 
ar, was  bom  of  Jewish  parentage.  In  1845  he  was  in 
connection  with  the  British  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  among  the  Jews,  and  in  1847  was 
appointed  principal  of  the  college  founded  by  that  so- 
ciety for  training  missionaries  for  the  Jews.  He  died 
in  London  in  1871.  Besides  assisting  in  the  edition  of 
the  EnglishnunCs  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Concordance^  he 
is  the  author  of  the  Analytical  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
Lexicon: — Syriae  Reading  Lessons,  with  Analysis: — 
Chaldee  Redding  Lessons: — and  joint  author  of  Arabic 
Raiding  Lessons,  But  his  chej''d^cnivre  is  his  poet- 
humous  worlc,  A  Concordance  of  the  Hebrew  and  Chal- 
dee Scriptures  (Lond.  1876),  the  most  complete  Hebrew 
concordance  hitherto  issued.  The  order  of  the  IkmUs 
is  here  retained  uniformly,  and  also  that  of  the  personal 
inflections  of  the  verb.  The  suffixes  are,  moreover,  ex- 
pressed in  detail.  At  the  end  of  the  volume  a  list  of 
particles  is  given.    (B.  P.) 

Davidson,  C.  B.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, entered  the  ministry  in  1867,  becoming  pastor 
of  Grace  Church,  Indianapolis^  Ind.;  in  1870  resided  in 
Spring6eld,  O.,  where  he  assumed  the  rectorship  of 
Christ  Church ;  in  1873  became  rector  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Cincinnati ;  and  died  in  December,  1874,  aged 
fifty-eight  years.  See  Prot.  Episc,  Almanac^  1874,  p. 
145. 

Davidson,  James  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Westmoreland  County,  Pa.,  in 
1886.  He  was  converted  in  early  life ;  removed  to 
Indiana  in  1856;  received  license  to  preach  soon  after; 
in  1859  entered  the  South-eastern  Indiana  Conference; 
in  1861  enlisted  in  the  Seventieth  Regiment  Indiana 
Volunteers;  served  in  the  army  one  year;  re-entered 
the  itinerancy,  and  continued  until  his  death,  June  18, 
1866.     See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences,  1866,  p.  205. 

Davidson,  James  I.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  near  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Northumber- 
land, England,  Dec  14,  1824.  He  was  converted  at 
the  age  of  eight;  conducted  prayer-meetings  at  ten; 
began  to  exhort  and  preach  at  twelve;  became  a  reg- 
ular licensed  preacher  among  the  Wesleyans  when  but 
sixteen;  in  1849  emigrated  to  America;  in  1850  set- 
tled in  Quincy,  III.;  in  1851  entered  the  Illinois  Con- 
ference ;  in  18iS2  was  appointed  chaplain  of  the  Seven- 
ty-third Begiment  Illinois  Volunteers,  but  afterwards 
became  successively  captain,  major,  and  lieutenant- 
colonel;  returned  to  the  pastorate,  and  continued  until 
his  death,  Jan.  10, 1870.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con" 
ferences,  1870,  p.  285. 


Davidson,  John  fidward,  ■  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Fairfield  District,  S.  C,  June  16, 1827. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1868;  was  ordained  an  evangelist  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Tombigbee,  Dec  17  of  the  same  year;  became  pas- 
tor at  Minden,  Ala.,  in  1854,  and  died  there  Oct.  80  of 
that  year.  See  Gen,  Cat  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881, 
p.  178. 

Davidson,  Joseph  T.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Fairfield  District,  &  C,  April  11,1818.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Red  River, 
Jan.  7, 1841 ;  oixlained,  In  1854,  pastor  at  Homer, La.; 
supported  his  family  by  teaching  and  working  on  the 
farm ;  organized  several  churohes  and  saw  many  revi- 
vals; and  died  at  Homer,  Oct.  21,  188L  See  S,  W, 
PreOyterian,  Nov.  1,  1881.     (\V.  P.  S.) 

Davidson,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, only  son  of  Rev.  R.  Davidson,  D.D.,  second  presi* 
dent  of  Dickinson  College,  was  born  at  Carlisle,  Pa., 
Feb.  28, 1808.  He  gradiuited  from  Dickinson  CoUege  in 
1828,  and  from  IVinceton  Theological  Seminary  in  1831 ; 
the  following  year  took  charge  of  the  McChord  (or 
Second)  Church  of  Lexington,  Ky.,  was  ordained  there 
in  Mareh,  1882,  and  became  distinguished  for  his  pulpit 
eloquence  and  his  earnest  work  as  a  pastor.  In  1840 
he  became  president  of  Transylvania  University,  Ken- 
tucky; in  1842  was  appointed  superintendent  of  public 
institutions,  but  after  holding  that  office  a  'short  time 
and  declining  a  professorship  in  Centre  College  and  the 
presidency  of  Ohio  University,  he  accepted  the  pastoral 
charge  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  New  Brans- 
wick,  N.  J.,  May  4, 1848.  In  1859  be  became  pastor  of 
the  Spring  Street  Church,  New  York  city.  From  1864 
to  1868  his  pastoral  charge  was  the  First  Church  of 
Huntington,  L.  I.,  and  he  afterwards  resided  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  until  his  death,  April  6, 1876.  Dr.  Davidson 
served  the  General  Assembly  as  its  permanent  derk 
from  1845  to  1850.  For  a  quarter  of  a  century  be  was 
a  member  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions;  for  ten 
years  a  director  of  Princeton  Seminary,  and  in  1869 
was  one  of  the  delegates  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland.  He  was  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  the  periodical  literature  of  the  day.  He  published 
a  large  number  of  pamphlets,  sermons,  etc,  and  wrote 
several  able  articles  for  the  Princeton  Review,  He  was 
also  the  author  of  a  number  of  volumes,  the  lai^est 
and  best  known  of  which  is  his  History  of  the  Presby- 
terian  Church  in  Kentucky.  **  He  was  a  man  of  fine 
culture,  a  scholar,  a  writer  of  great  purity  and  elegance. 
As  a  minister  of  Christ  he  won  and  maintained  to  the 
end  a  high  position."  See  Necrol,  Repoii  of  Princdon 
Theol.  Sem,  1877,  p.  26. 

Davidson,  Thomas  Leslie,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  Sept.  6, 1825. 
He  went  to  Canada  in  1838;  in  1841  united  with  the 
Church ;  in  1843  entered  the  Baptist  College  in  Mon- 
treal; in  August,  1847,  was  ordained  pastor  in  Picker- 
ing, Ont.,  continuing  there  till  December,  1850,  when 
he  went  to  the  city  of  Brantford,  and  remained 
there  till  April,  1860.  During  this  pastorate  he  l»p- 
tited  three  hundred  and  eight  persons,  and  built  two 
churches.  He  was  at  the  same  time  editor  of  the  Can- 
adian Messenger,  now  the  Canadian  Baptist,  assuming 
thai  position  in  1854.  In  1857  he  was  chosen  secretary 
of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Convention  of  Ontario,  and 
held  the  office  for  fifteen  successive  years.  He  was 
aOerwards  pastor  at  St.  George  (1860-66),  Elgin  (1866- 
78),  and  Guelph  (1878-77).  For  one  year  after  leaving 
the  last  place  he  was  general  financial  and  travelling 
secrctar}'  of  the  Ontario  Baptist  Convention.  His  last 
pastorates  were  in  Chatham  and  Tiverton,  Ont.  In 
1858  he  published  a  work  on  Baptism  and  Communion, 
He  died  in  October,  1888.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  En- 
cyclop,  p.  808 ;  Chicago  Standard,OcL  25, 1883.   (J.  (X  S.) 

Davidson,  "W.  Fayette,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  a  deacon  for  several  years  in  the  dio- 


DAVIE 


247 


DAVIES 


ofP^nntrlTanU;  in  1868  officiated  in  Philaddphi A 
for  a  abort  time,  and  then  removed  to  Suffolk,  Va^  where 
be  died,  Dec. 24, 1869.  See  PrtfU  EpucAlmoMe,  1861, 
P.98L 

Davie,  Alezandor,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  studied 
at  the  Univeiaity  of  SU  Andrews;  was  presented  by 
the  king  to  the  living  at  Inchtara  in  1799,  and  ordained 
In  August  of  that  year;  libelled  by  the  presbytery  in 
1811, but  the  charge  was  withdrawn;  the  parishioners 
brought  a  new  charge  against  him  in  1812,  which,  afler 
three  years*  litigation,  was  declared  *'  not  proven,"  in 
May,  1816.  He  died  Sept.  8, 1840,  aged  seventy-seven 
yean.     See  Fmii  Ecekt.  Scotictmaf  iit,  700. 

Davie,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  intruded  in  the 
living  at  Strickathrow  in  1701,  and  again  in  November, 
1716,  "coming  in  with  near  eighty  men  under  arms, 
with  beating  drums  and  flying  colors,  and  preached  a 
little.**  He  continued  till  Februai^',  171G,  and  was  de- 
posed in  October  following,  at  which  time  he  was  factor 
to  James,  eail  of  Southesk.  See  FasH  Ecdet,  Scoiiccmm^ 
iij,850. 

Davie,  J.  T.  M.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  minister, 
came  from  the  Presbytery  of  North  River  in  1868; 
served  the  Cburch  at  Flatlands,  U  I.,  from  1868  to  1861, 
and  died  in  1862.  See  Cofwin,  Manual  of  the  Rrf. 
Church  in  America^  Sd  ed.,  p.  2S0. 

Daviea,  Benjamin  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  Inde- 
pendent minister,  son  of  an  Independent  minister  in 
Wales,  was  educated  at  Carmarthen,  settled  first  at 
Abergavenny,  and  was  tutor  of  an  academy  there.  In 
1783  he  went  to  London  as  pastor  at  Fetter  Lane,  and 
tutor  in  the  Homerton  Academy.  He  was  one  of  the 
six  Merchant  Lecturers  from  1783.  He  filled  his  varied 
duties  with  great  respectability  and  accoeptance  till  his 
health  failed,  and  he  died  after  July,  1795.  He  pub- 
lished several  Sermon*,  See  Wilson,  Dittenting  Church- 
e«,iii,462,46a 

Daviea,  Benjamin  (2),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Llangan,  Carmarthenshire,  in  1777.  He  was 
baptized  in  1796;  had  a  good  education ;  was  ordained 
at  Ffynon  in  1792,  and  after  a  life  of  great  usefulness 
died  there,  Aug.  16, 1828.  See  (Lond.)  BaptiU  Maga- 
ttii«,  1829,  p.  181.     (J.  as.) 

Daviea,  Benjamin  (8),  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Dorchester,  Aug.  81, 1833.  He  was 
onnverted  at  the  age  of  sixteen ;  for  a  few  years  was 
engaged  in  aecular  business,  but  in  October,  1864,  became 
pastor  of  the  Cburch  in  South  Chard,  Somersetshire; 
in  eighteen  months  removed  to  Linsdale,  and  preached 
till  the  dose  of  1868,  when  he  went  to  Greenwich,  where 
he  was  pastor  until  his  sudden  death,  May  1 1, 1872.  See 
(Loud.)  BapHU  Uandrhook,  1874,  p.  266.     (J.  C  S.) 

Daviea,  Daniel  (l),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  Pembrokeshire  in  1814.  He  graduated 
from  Pontypool  College  in  1841 ;  became  co-pasCor  with 
Kev.  Robert  Williams  at  Ruthin,  Denbighshire,  for  a  few 
years ;  pastor  at  Llanelly,  near  Abergavenny,  for  twelve 
vears,  and  afterwards  at  Cowbridge,  Glamorgan,  until 
his  death,  Dec.  14, 1867.  See  (Lond.)  Bapiitt  Hand- 
book,  1869,  p.  139.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Daviea,  Daniel  (2),  an  Englbh  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Maelgrove,  Pembrokeshire,  in 
1780.  He  was  early  converted  to  Christ ;  ordained  at 
Bhesycae,  Flintshire,  in  1808;  five  years  later  removed 
to  Cardigan,  and  remained  there  until  hiM  death,  Jan.  18, 
1867.     See  (Lond.)  Cong.  I'earJiook,  1868,  p.  266. 

Daviea,  Daniel  (3),  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Hawey  Mill,  Radnorshire,  April 
17, 1787.  He  was  converted  when  very  young;  trained 
Ibr  the  ministry  at  Wrexham  College;  was  ordained 
St  Saman,  Montgomeryshire,  where  he  labored  ten  years ; 
thence  removed  to  Wollerton,  Salop,  where  he  contin- 
«ed  untU  his  death,  March  20, 1866.  See  (Lond.)  Cong. 
Year-book,  \S66,^Ub. 


Daviea,  Daniel  (4),  an  English  Congrtgatioaal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Castle  Villa,  Pembrokeshire,  iil 
1791.  He  Joined  the  Church  at  the  age  of  eighteen  i 
began  preaching  in  the  following  year;  in  1812  entered 
Abergavenny  Academy;  in  1819  was  ordained  oo-pa»- 
tor  at  Trefgam  and  Penybont ;  afterwards  had  oversight 
of  the  churches  at  Gower,  Glamorganshire,  at  Winalow, 
again  at  Penybont,  and  finally  at  Zion*s  Hill,  Pembroke- 
shire, where  he  died,  Sept.  28, 1869.  See  (Lond.)  Coi^ 
Year-book,  1860,  p.  181. 

Daviea,  Daniel  (6),  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Baptist  mini»- 
ter,  was  bom  in  Carmarthenshire,  Dec  16,  1797.  He 
became  blind  at  the  age  of  seven ;  studied  for  a  time 
in  the  Liverpool  College  for  the  Blind,  and  for  a  short 
period  was  a  preacher  among  the  Welsh  Presbyterians. 
At  the  age  of  twenty^three  he  became  a  Baptist,  and 
for  five  years  was  pastor  of  a  Welsh  Church  in  London, 
when  he  removed  to  Bethesda,  Swansea,  and  there  had 
charge  of  the  church  for  thirty  years.  In  1866  he  re- 
moved to  Cardigan,  where  he  was  pastor  for  several 
years.  He  died  in  Glamorganshire,  but  the  exact  date 
does  not  appear.   See  Cathcart,  Baptitt  Enegdop.  p.  809. 

(J.  a  a) 

Daviea,  Daniel  (6),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  Carmarthensh  ire  in  1806.  He  joined  the  Chnrch 
at  the  age  of  thirteen ;  in  1830  became  pastor  at  Liz- 
wora,  Flintshire,  where  he  remained  seventeen  years, 
and  at  Penyfron  and  Halkin,  until  his  death.  May  30, 
1869.  See  (Lond.)  Baptitt  Hand-book,  1861,  p.  97. 
(J.  a  S.) 

Davies,  David  (1),  a  Welsh  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Clifforch,  Cardiganshire,  February, 
1791.  He  joined  the  Church  when  very  young;  en- 
tered the  Presbyterian  College  at  Carmarthen  in  his 
seventeenth  year ;  was  co-pastor  at  Camarvon  two  years, 
and  then  at  Pant-teg  and  Peniel,  near  Carmarthen,  un- 
til his  death,  July  81, 1864.  He  was  president  of  the 
college  at  Carmarthen  twenty-one  years.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Ytar-book,  1866,  p.  238. 

Daviea,  David  (2),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  son 
of  the  Rev.  Benjamin  Davies,  was  bom  at  Denant,Miuch 
2,  1794.  He  was  brought  up  a  carpenter,  converted 
under  the  last  sermon  of  his  father  in  1812,  and  soon 
began  to  preach.  He  studied  under  Rev.  Micah  Thom- 
as, at  Abergavenny,  and  afterwards  at  Stepney  College, 
London.  In  1822  he  was  chosen  assistant  minister  at 
Evesham;  subsequently  was  pastor  at  Haverfordwest; 
and  after  being  for  some  years  tutor  of  the  college  at 
that  place,  died  there,  March  19,  1866.  See  (Lond.) 
BapUtt  Hand-book,  1866,  p.  6. 

Daviea,  David  (8),  a  Welsh  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Uanybydder,  Carmarthenshire,  in 
June,  1798.  He  joined  the  Cburch  at  the  age  of  fif> 
teen ;  before  he  was  twenty,  through  the  request  of  the 
Church,  began  preaching ;  was  ordained  at  New  Inn, 
near  Pontypool,  in  1828,  where  he  continued  to  preach 
until  his  death,  Dec  12, 1876.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year- 
book, 1877,  p.  863. 

Daviea,  David  (4),  a  Welsh  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Blaenpanty  vi,  in  the  parish  of  Troedy- 
roer,  in  1806.  He  was  converted  about  1822,  while  at- 
tending the  Neuaddlwyd  Academy;  in  1828  began 
preaching,  and  was  ordained  pastor  at  Capel-y-reu-oe1- 
Ian;  in  1839  removed  to  Lampeter,  where  he  labored 
till  his  death,  Dec  17, 1871.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year- 
Book,  1878,  p.  822. 

Daviea,  David  (6),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Newtown,  Montgomeryshire,  Wales, 
June  10, 1807.  He  embraced  religion  in  early  life ;  re- 
ceived license  to  preach  at  the  age  of  sixteen ;  came  to 
America  in  1831,  and  in  1838  united  with  the  Oneida 
Conference.  He  became  so  affected  by  blindness  that 
he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  all  active  work  in  1878, 
and  died  Feb.  2, 1878.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer' 
enoes,  1878,  p.  67. 


DAVIES 


848 


DAVIES 


Da'vletf  David  (6),  a  Welsh  CongregatiomU  min- 
iBteTi  labored  eleven  yean,  and  then  suffered  two  years 
of  iodispositioD  and  inability  to  perform  his  pastoral 
dnties,  when  he  died  at  Glantftf,  Glamorganshiref  Jaly 
16, 185 1 1  at  the  age  of  forty  years.  See  (Lond.)  Cong, 
Year-book,  1861,  p.  214. 

Daviea,  David  (7),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Culycwm,  Carmarthenshire,  in  1818.  He  began 
to  preach  in  1836 ;  entered  Pontypool  College  in  1841 ; 
in  1844  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Old  Church  at  Wain- 
trodau,  Bedwas,  where  he  ministered  with  gseat  accept- 
ance and  success  for  twenty  years.  His  next  pastorate 
was  with  the  Charles  Street  Church,  Newport,  Mon- 
mouthshire ;  and  his  last  with  the  Church  in  Bedwas, 
where  he  died,  Jan.  11,  1872.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist 
Hand-book,  1878,  p.  266.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Davies,  David  Milton,  a  Welsh  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  near  Lampeter,  Canliganshire,  Nov. 
28,  1827.  He  joined  the  Church  in  1840 ;  studied  two 
years  at  Hanover,  and  four  years  at  Brecon  College ; 
was  ordained  at  Hay,  Brecon,  in  1863 ;  about  a  year  later 
became  pastor  at  Wem  and  Penycae,  in  Cardiganshire, 
where  he  labored  with  great  zeal  and  success  until 
1868,  then  removed  to  Llanfyllin,  Montgomeryshire,  and 
lemained  until  his  death,  June  7,  1869.  For  some 
years  he  was  one  of  the  responsible  editors  of  the 
Dytgedffdd,  a  denominational  monthly.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong.  Year-book,  1870,  p.  288. 

Davies,  David  BowlBnd,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Ystradfellte,  Glamorganshire,  South 
Wales,  in  1809.  In  1848  he  emigrated  to  America,  and 
was  oidained  June  17  as  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Brady's 
Bend,  Pa.,  where  he  died,  Aug.  16,  1881.  See  Cong, 
Year-bookf  1882,  p^  28. 

Davies,  Sbeneser,  F.O.S.,  an  English  Congre- 
gational minister,  was  bora  at  Ruthin,  North  Wales, 
April  8, 1808.  He  was  educated  at  Rotherham  College, 
and  settled  at  Tabernacle  Chapel,  Stockport,  in  1838. 
After  one  year  of  unexampled  success,  he  accepted  a 
call  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  go  to  New 
Amsterdam,  in  Berbice,  British  Guiana,  where  he  la- 
bored faithfully  until  1848.  He  then  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  became  the  minuter  of  a  chapel  in  London, 
where  he  remained  twenty-four  years.  His  last  years 
were  spent  in  Southport.  He  died  at  Bryniach,  Ruthin, 
Feb.  8,  1882.  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1888,  p. 
276. 

Davlea,  Edward  (1),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  1769.  He  began  to  preach  in  1789,  and 
finally  was  pastor  of  the  English  and  Welsh  Church  at 
Maesteg,  Glamorganshire,  where  he  died,  Nov.  8, 1843. 
See  (Lond.)  Bap^t  Hand-book,  1844,  p.  16.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Daviea,  Sd^^ard  (2),  a  Welsh  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Llanrhaiadr-y-Mochnant,  May, 
1786.  He  was  converted  in  youth ;  began  his  ministry 
in  1816,  at  Capel  Helyg  and  Rhoslan ;  in  1822  became 
pastor  of  the  churches  at  Penystryt  and  Maentwrog ; 
relinquished  his  pastoral  work  in  1866,  but  continued  to 
preach  in  different  places  till  near  his  death,  at  Traws- 
f}*nydd,  Jan.  6,  1872.  See  *  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book, 
1878,  p.  823. 

Davies,  Bdward(8),  A.M.,  an  English  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  near  Newport,  Shropshire, 
March  16, 1796.  He  was  converted  at  sixteen  years  of 
age;  in  March,  1818,  joined  the  Church  at  Harwood; 
entered  North  Wales  Academy,  at  Uanfyllin,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1817 ;  in  1820  was  appointed  tutor  of  classics,  and 
in  January  was  ordained  as  co-pastor,  at  Newtown, 
Montgomeryshire,  and  ba  pastor  of  the  neighboring 
church  of  Bwlchyfridd.  In  1889  he  removed  with  the 
academy  to  Brecon,  retaining  his  office  as  classical 
tutor  until  his  death,  Feb.  26, 1867.  See  (Lond.)  Cong, 
Year-book,  1868,  p.  196. 

Davies,  Evan  (1),  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Hengwm,  Cardiganshire,  in  1806. 


He  waa  earefuDy  trained  as  a  Galvinistic  Methodist; 
experienced  conversion  in  early  manhood  in  London, 
whither  he  had  gone  to  engage  in  business;  jmned 
the  Congregationalists ;  studied  at  Neuaddlwyd  Acad- 
emy, and  at  the  Western  Academy;  and  settled  as 
minister  first  at  Great  Torrington,  North  Devon,  for  a 
short  time ;  was  sent  by  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
after  ordination,  in  1886,  to  Penang,  China,  where  he 
devoted  himself  incessantly  to  the  study  of  the  Chinese 
language,  established  a  Christian  school  for  native  chil- 
dren, and  preached  to  the  English  soldiers  stationed 
there.  Mr.  Davies  retnmed  to  England  in  1840,  trav- 
elled as  missionary  agent  until  1844,  when  he  accepted 
the  oversight  of  the  O>ngregational  Church  in  Rich- 
mond, Surrey.  In  1867  he  removed  to  Heywood,  Lan- 
cashire, remained  there  two  years,  then  went  to  Dal- 
ston,  and  finally  to  Homsey,  where  he  died,  June  18, 
1864.  Mr.  Davies  was  the  suthor  of  the  following 
works :  China  and  her  Spiritual  Ckrinu  :—Memoir$  of 
the  Rev,  Sennuel  Dyer : — A  n  Appeal  to  the  Reason  and 
Good  Conscience  of  Catholics :  —  Lectures  on  the  Sab- 
bath;  and  editor  of  the  following  works:  Letters  of 
the  late  Rev,  Samuel  Dger  to  his  Children ;  Lectures  on 
Christian  Theology,  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Pavne ;  and 
The  Works  of  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Edward  WiUiams  of 
Rotherham,  His  notes  on  Original  Sin  and  Baptism, 
which  appear  in  his  edition  of  Dr.  Williams's  works, 
evince  great  power  as  a  thinker.  See  (Lond.)  Cong. 
Year-book,  1866,  p.  284. 

Davies,  Evan  (2),  a  Welsh  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Cellan,  near  Lampeter,  in  November,  1819. 
He  was  converted  in  1889,  entered  the  ministry  in  1846, 
and  died  at  Llangollen,  Jan.  11, 1877.  See  Minutes  of 
the  British  Conference,  1877,  p.  27. 

Davies,  Francis  Barton,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Savannah, 
Ga.  He  was  converted  in  early  life ;  begsn  his  minis- 
try in  the  Plokton  Conference,  but  afterwards  gave  up 
preaching  for  a  time,  on  account  of  failing  health ;  in 
1866  again  entered  the  itinerant  ranks  in  the  North 
Georgia  Conference,  in  which  he  labored  until  his  death, 
at  Decatur,  April  26, 1881,  in  the  forty-seventh  year  of 
his  age.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences  of  the  M. 
E.  Church  South,  1881,  p.  832. 

Davies,  Oteorge,  an  English  Wesleysn  missionary, 
was  sent  out  by  the  British  Conference  in  1863  to  West 
Africa,  where,  after  a  few  months  of  earnest  and  useful 
labor,  his  health  failed.  Returning  to  his  native  land, 
he  was  appointed  in  1866  to  the  South  Bristol  Circuit ; 
but  died  at  Cardiff,  Aug.  8,  1866,  in  the  twenty-fifth 
year  of  his  age.  See  Minutes  of  the  Bntish  Conference, 
1866,  p.  89. 

Davies,  George  Palmer,  an  English  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  Narberth,  Pembrokeshire, 
April  80, 1826.  He  was  educated  at  Carmarthen  and 
Homerton  colleges,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  en- 
tered upon  the  pastorate  of  the  Church  at  Wandsworth, 
where  be  remaine<l  three  years.  Retiring  to  recuperate 
his  failing  health,  he  sojourned  in  Bonn  and  subsequent- 
ly in  Berlin,  pursuing  his  theological  studies.  He  re- 
fused the  chair  of  theology  at  Carmarthen  College,  and 
accepted  the  agency  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Societv  in  south  Germanv.    For  several  vears  be  lived 

•  •  • 

in  Frankfort;  but  in  1869,  having  been  called  to  super- 
intend the  entire  work  of  the  Bible  Society  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  he  removed  to  Berlin,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  reside  until  his  death,  April  28, 1881.  He 
wrote,  ErinnerungsUatter  von  Freundeshand  (  Berlin, 
1881).    See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1882,  p.  292. 

Davies,  Henry  (1),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Uanggloffan,  Pembrokeshire,  in  1788.  He  be- 
gan to  preach  at  the  age  of  nineteen  or  twenty ;  studied 
two  years  at  Abergavenny  College;  and  in  1811  was 
chosen  co-pastor  in  his  native  town,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death,  Aug.  23, 1862.    For  twenty-eight  years 


DAVIES 


249 


DAVIES 


Im  was  seeretar^  of  the  anocUtion  in  hia  abira.    See 
(Lood.)  BapUu'HaMwok,  1863,  p.  118.     (J.  C.  a) 

OaviM)  Henry  (2),  an  Engliah  Wealeyan  minia- 
ter,  was  born  at  Barnstable,  Oct.  23, 1 799.  He  was  con- 
▼erted  at  sixteen ;  was  appointed  to  tbe  West  Indies  in 
1321 ;  leturned  to  England  in  1824;  was  henceforth  en- 
gaged in  the  home  work;  became  a  aupernun^lBrary  in 
139&;  re-entered  the  itinerancy  in  1859;  retired  in  1865; 
and  died  in  Cambridge,  Jan.  19, 1870.  See  MiniUes  of 
the  Brititk  Conferenee,  1870,  p.  22. 

DavieB,  Henry  (3),  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  London  in  1817.  He  studied  at 
Newport  Pagnel  Academy;  preached  sacceseively  at 
Godaianche8ter,Rvde,  and  Lavenbara ;  and  died  March 
22,  1877.    See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1878,  p.  812. 

Davies^  Henry  (4),  a  Welsh  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Bwlch-y-gwynt,  Carmarthenshire, 
May  21, 1820.  He  joined  tbe  Church  at  the  age  of  fif- 
teen ;  b^an  preaching  in  the  following  year ;  studied 
for  the  ministiy  at  Frood-Vale  Academy ;  and  was  or- 
dained in  1842  at  Dethania,  Llanon,  where  he  labored 
successfully  until  his  death,  Feb.  1,  1871.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1872,  p.  311. 

Daviee,  Ho'well,  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  atTrelech  in  1818,  and  brought  up  an  Independent. 
In  1844  he  was  immersed  and  began  to  preach.  In  1850 
he  remored  to  Macstig,  Glamorganshire;  and,  while 
keeping  a  school,  and  serving  as  pastor  orer  the  Bap- 
tist Church  there,  he  died,  April  25, 1866.  See  (Lond.) 
Baptist  tiand-booky  1866. 

Davieo,  laaac  (1),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  was 
bore  near  Corwen,  Oct*  21,  1817.  He  studied  at  the 
college  in  Bratlfurd  in  1843 ;  became  pastor  of  the  unit- 
ed churches  of  Swanwick  and  Biddings,  in  Derb^'shire ; 
in  Xorember,  1850,  removed  to  Cupar-Fife,  Scotland; 
and  in  September,  1853,  to  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  where 
he  remained  three  years,  and  died  July  19,  1860.  See 
(Lond.)  Baptist  l/and4>ook,  1862,  p.  106.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Oavies,  Xsaac  (2),  a  Welsh  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Hynydd-bach,  Carmarthen.  He  united 
with  tbe  Methodist  society  in  early  life ;  preached  for 
some  time  in  che  Welsh  language ;  was  accepted  for  tbe 
ministry  in  1857,  and  sent  to  Ireland,  where  he  labored 
six  yeata;  was  appointed  to  an  English  charge  in  1863 ; 
and  died  suddenly  at  Chipplng-Norton,  Oxfordshire, 
April,  1868.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Coftference, 
1868,  p.  24. 

Davles,  J'acob,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Newtown,  Montgomeryshire,  Wales,  Feb.  22, 
1816.  He  was  converted  and  baptized  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  and  soon  aftenvards  began  to  preach.  In 
1810  he  entered  Bradford  College;  and  in  1844  was 
sent  out  to  Ceylon  by  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society ; 
in  1847  his  heidth  failed,  but  he  continued  to  labor  as 
he  had  streiii^h  till  hia  death,  at  Colombo,  in  April, 
1849.     See  (Lond.)  Bujvtist  /land-book^  1850,  p.  44. 

Dawies.  James  Adama,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  York  District,  S.  C,  May  20, 1829.  He  was 
eoHTerted  in  early  life;  oiucated  in  Davidson  College, 
N.  C;  graduated  from  the  theological  seminary  at 
Columbia,  S.  C,  in  1855,  when  he  was  licensed  by  the 
Bethel  Presbytery;  was  ordained,  in  1857,  pastor  of 
Beeiaheba  Church,  and  died  at  Yorkville,  March  18, 
1867.     See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist,  Almanac,  1868,  p.  325. 

Dawiea,  Jamea  B.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Mecklenburg  County,  N.  C,  Oct.  20,  1787.  He 
was  converted  in  1800;  in  1818  removed  to  Illinois,  and 
waa  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Illinois  Presbytery ;  be- 
came pastor  at  Hopedale,'and  died  there,  Oct.  22, 1862. 
See  Wilson,  Preab,  Hist.  Almanac,  1868,  p.  414. 

Davies,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  Welsh  clergyman  and  an- 
tiquary, was  bora  in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century 
in  Denbighshire,  and  educated  by  William  Morgan,  af- 
tcnratds  bishop  of  St.  Aaaph,  and  at  Jesua  College,  Ox- 


ford. He  waa  rector  of  Malloyd,  in  Merionethahire^and 
canon  of  St.  Aaaph.  He  waa  a  fine  Greek  and  Hebrew 
acholar.  The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown.  His  works 
are,  A  lUiqua  Litigum  BritamuetB  ( 162 1, 8  vo)  z—Dictiana' 
rium  Lakiw^Britannicum,  He  also  assisted  in  translat- 
ing the  Bible  into  Welsh,  in  that  correct  edition  which 
came  out  in  1620.  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v.;  Al- 
libone^  Dict^  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Daviea,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman 
and  an  eminent  critic,  was  bora  in  London,  April  22, 
1679.  He  Waa  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  School 
and  Queen^s  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  tbe  de- 
gree of  A.B.  in  1698;  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  his  college 
in  1702,  and  became  proctor  in  1709.  In  1711,  having 
distinguished  himself  by  several  learned  publicationa, 
he  was  collated  to  the  rectory  of  Fen-Ditton,  near  Cam- 
bridge, and  to  a  prebend  in  the  Church  of  Ely,  taking 
the  same  year  the  degree  of  LL.D.  In  1716  he  was 
chosen  roaster  of  Queen*s  College.  He  died  March  7, 
1732.  Dr.  Davies  waa  not  the  author  of  any  original 
work,  but  employed  himself  in  publishing  some  correct 
editions  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors  of  antiquity.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Viet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  aad 
Amer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Davieii  John  (3),  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, waa  bom  in  Piccadilly,  London,  March  4,  1792. 
He  atudied  at  Hoxton  College ;  waa  first  settled  at  Bath, 
but  soon  accepted  an  invitation  to  Rodborongh,  Glou- 
cestershire, where  he  remained  a  considerable  period ; 
was  for  many  years  pastor  of  the  Rev.  George  White- 
field's  chapel  in  Bristol;  resigned  on  account  of  ill- 
health;  remained  some  years  without  a  charge,  and 
then  accepted  a  co-pastorate  at  Taunton.  He  after- 
wards settled  at  Oswestry,  where  he  remained  six  or 
seven  3*ears,  and  then  became  pastor  of  the  Independent 
chapel  at  Welshpool,  where  he  died  in  March,  1851.  See 
(Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1851,  p.  213. 

Dawiea,  John  (4),  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Llangyfni,  Carmarthenshire,  Wales, 
Aug.  30, 1769.  He  joineit  the  Calvinistic  Methodists  in 
1786 ;  studied  at  Trevecca  and  Cbeshunt  colleges ;  was 
ordained  at  Spa  Fields  in  1796;  settled  first  at  Hands- 
worth,  and  subsequently  at  Tetbury,  Ludgershall,  and 
Whitstable ;  in  1829  retired  to  Reading,  but  was  soon 
after  urged  to  accept  the  pastorate  at  Bracknell,  Berk- 
shire; thither  he  removed,  and,  after  fourteen  years  of 
earnest  labor,  was  disabled  by  paralysis,  and  died  March 
2, 1861.     Sec  (Lond.)  Cong' Year-book,  18G2,  p.  227. 

DaTlea,  John  (5),  an  English  Congregational  mis- 
sionary, waa  bora  in  1771.  He  left  England,  May  5, 
1800,  and  arrived  at  Tahiti,  Polynesia,  July  10,  1*801, 
when  the  island  was  sunken  in  barbarism  and  idola- 
tn'.  On  account  of  tbe  fierce  war  that  broke  out  in 
Tahiti  in  1808,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Huaheine; 
after  remaining  there  a  year,  went  to  Port  Jackson, 
which  he  reached  Feb.  17, 1810 ;  returned  to  Tahiti  in 
September,  1811;  but  in  1818  again  removed  to  Hua- 
heine, and  thence  to  Papara  in  1820,  where  he  labored 
till  hia  death  in  1856.  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book, 
1857,  p.  175. 

Davlea,  John  (6),  a  Welsh  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bom  in  Flintahire  in  1784.  He  joined  the  Methodist 
society  at  the  age  of  sixteen ;  entered  the  ministry  in 
1 806,  and  died  Dec.  21, 1845.  See  Minutes  of  the  British 
Conference,  1846. 

Davlea,  John  (7),  a  Welsh  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Esgerfynwent, Carmarthenshire,  in  1799. 
He  waa  converted  at  the  age  of  ten ;  studied  six  years 
at  Carmarthen  College,  beginning  in  1819,  supplying, 
meanwhile,  several  vacant  churches;  was  ordained  in 
1826,  at  Summerfield  Chapel,  Neath,  Glamorganshire ; 
resigned  in  1838,  but  continued  to  preach  at  various 
placea  to  the  time  of  his  death,  Aug.  3,  1862.  See 
(Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1864,  p.  206. 

Davlea^  John  (8),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister. 


DAVIES 


250 


DAVIES 


was  born  in  Liverpool,  England,  March  5, 1799.  He  waa 
eonverted  at  the  age  of  nine ;  became  a  local  preacher 
nine  years  later;  emigrated  to  New  York  city  in  1837, 
where  for  years  he  did  valiant  work  as  a  city  mission- 
ary; and  iu  1886  entered  the  New  York  Conference, 
wherein  he  labored  until  his  death,  July  2, 1676.  See 
Minutes  of  A  nnual  Cor^fereneet,  1877,  p.  42. 

Davlea,  John  (9),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  Sept.  9,  1800,  near  Aberystwitb,  Cardiganshire, 
Wales.  Ue  was  converted  at  fourteen  years  of  age ; 
soon  after  joined  the  Church  at  Woolwich^  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  entered  the  college  at  Uanfyllin ;  was  pastor 
at  New  Cross,  Deptford,  four  years ;  and  in  October, 
1826,  became  pastor  at  Daventry,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death,  June  27, 1857.  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year- 
hook,  1868,  p.  197. 

DaTles,  John  (10),  a  Welsh  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Cilianaeron,  Cardiganshire,  April,  1805. 
He  joined  the  Church  very  early  in  life;  studied  at  the 
Presbyterian  College,  Carmarthen ;  was  ordained  pas- 
tor at  BwlchylTridd,  Montgomeryshire;  twelve  years 
later  retired  to  Llanwnog,  and  preached  occasionally  at 
various  places  till  his  death,  June  24, 1872.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1878,  p.  322. 

Davieii  John  (U),an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, previously  a  Methodist  local  preacher  at  Ebeneaer, 
Newport,  Pembrokeshire,  was  ordained  pastor  at  Gideon, 
April  19, 1843 ;  resigned  in  1871,  but  was  able  for  some 
time  to  preach  occasionally;  and  died  Aug.  22, 1880, in 
the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age.  See  (Lond.)  Cong, 
Tear'book,'lHSl,  p.  869. 

Davles,  John  (12),  a  Welsh  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  the  parish  of  Motbvey,  Carmarthen- 
shire, May  1, 1823.  He  was  converted  in  his  twelfth 
year;  began  to  preach  when  but  sixteen;  completed  a 
course  at  Brecon  College;  was  ordained  at  Llanelly, 
Brecknockshire,  in  1846 ;  became  pastor  at  Aberaman  in 
1854;  in  1863  removed  to  Cardiff,  and  in  1868  resigned 
hb  Welsh  charge,  and  became  pastor  of  an  English  con- 
gregation which  be  had  organized  in  Cardiff;  in  which 
capacity  he  continued  till  his  death,  May  8, 1874.  He 
edited  the  Biemiad,  a  Welsh  quarterly,  from  its  com- 
mencement in  1860  until  a  few  months  of  his  death. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year4mok,  1875,  p.  821. 

DavieB,  John  (13),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  in  Wales  in  1824.  He  was  a  student  at  Bala  Col- 
lege, Merionethshire ;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Conway, 
Dec.  19,  1849 ;  subsequentiy  served  at  Henr}*d,  where 
he  remained  until  1859;  then  was  installed  pastor  at 
Amwythiz,  and  in  1864  at  Ruthya.  From  1868  to  1879 
he  was  engaged  in  farming,  and  in  the  latter  year  ar- 
rived in  America.  From  January,  1880,  be  was  acting 
pastor  in  Mineral  Ridge,  O.,  until  his  death,  Feb.  9, 1881. 
See  Cong,  Year-iook,  1882,  p.  28. 

Daviefli  John  (14),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Birmingham,  England,  April  11, 1837.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Rawden  College,  Yorkshire ,  ordained  in  1862 
in  bis  native  city,  where  he  was  pastor  of  the  Bond 
Street  Church  five  years;  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1867,  and  for  four  years  took  chsrge  of  the  Church  in 
South  Norwalk,  Conn.  In  1872  he  became  pastor  of 
the  Central  Church,  Nonvich.  where  his  health  sud- 
denly faile<l,  Dec.  28, 1879.  He  retumed  to  England, 
and  died  in  Birmingham,  April  19,  1880.  See  The 
Christian  Secretary,  April,  1880.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Davies,  John  (15),  a  Welsh  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Macstog,  Glamorganshire.  He  was 
brought  up  in  the  British  school  in  his  native  town,  and 
then  became  a  pupil-teacher  in  Abcrdare;  afterwards 
entered  the  Normal  College  at  Swansea  as  assistant  mas- 
ter, whence  he  went  to  the  Carmarthen  Presbyterian 
College.  Sept  4, 1871,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
English  Church  at  Maesteg  and  the  Welsh  Church  at 
Zoar,  but,  owing  to  failing  health,  gave  up  his  charge 
and  became  master  of  the  Uangadqg  Grammar-school, 


in  which  poattion  he  died,  May  21, 1879,  at  the  age  of 
thirty-five.    See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book^  1880,  p.  819. 

Daviea,  John  (16),  a  Welsh  Baptiat  minister,  was 
bora  at  St.  George's,  near  Cardiff,  Sept.  17, 1851.  He 
joined  the  Church  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  early  de> 
cided  to  enter  the  ministry,  preaching  his  first  sermon 
when  about  eighteen.  In  1872  he  entered  Cardigan 
Grammar-school,  and  afterwards  spent  three  years  in 
Haverfordwest  College.  In  June,  1876,  he  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Baptist  Church  at  Penycae,  North  Wales, 
where  he  labored  diligently  until  1879.  He  then  went 
to  Perth,  Rhondda  Valley,  Glamoiganshire ;  and  died 
June  9, 1880.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand-look,  1882,  p. 
300. 

Davlefl»  John  David,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Braintree,  Essex,  Feb.  10,  1829. 
He  was  converted  when  about  eighteen  years  old ;  stud- 
ied at  Hackney  College;  wassettledat Blakene}*, Glouces- 
tershire, seven  years ;  was  sent  by  the  Colonial  Mission- 
ary Society  to  Melbourne  in  1868,  and  was  soon  csUed 
to  the  pastorate  at  Kew,  in  the  vicinity.  After  three 
years  he  returned,  in  ill-health,  to  England ;  and  ac- 
cepted the  pastorate  at  Wareham,  Dorset,  where  he  con- 
tinued until  his  death,  March  4, 1871.  See  (Lond.)  Cong. 
Year-book,  1872,  p^  312. 

Davieik  John  Jordan,  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  Iwm  at  Cardigan,  Wales,  and  brought  up  in 
the  Church  of  England,  but  changed  his  views,  was 
baptized,  and  studied  for  the  ministry  at  the  Baptist 
College  in  Bristol.  He  was  successively  pastor  at  Bath ; 
in  1828  at  Tottenham,  London ;  in  1849  at  Luton,  Bed- 
fordshire, where  he  died,  Oct.  4, 1858. 

Daviea,  John  Le  Roy,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
son  of  the  Rev.  John  B.  Davies,  was  born  in  Chester 
District,  S.  C,  Nov.  3, 1799.  He  received  a  thorough 
academic  education ;  graduated  from  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  in  1821,  and  from  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  N.  J.,  in  1824 ;  was  licensed  by  the  New 
Brunswick  Presbytery,  and  ordained  by  Bethel  Presby- 
ter}%  then  in  connection  with  the  synod  of  North  Car- 
olina, June  7, 1827.  His  first  charge  was  Catholic  Pres- 
byterian Church,  in  Chester  District,  S.  C<,  where  be 
labored  for  eleven  years ;  in  1839  he  became  pastor  of 
Prospect  and  Centre  churches,  in  Concord  Presbytery, 
N.  C. ;  in  1845  gave  up  the  latter ;  in  1850  returned  to 
South  Carolina,  and  supplied  several  churches  in  his 
native  region ;  in  1859  visited  Arkansas,  and,  returning 
to  South  Carolina,  died  June  10, 1860.  See  Wilson, 
Presb,  BisL  Almanac,  1861,  p.  86. 

Daviea,  John  Philip,  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Bangor,  Cardiganshire,  March  12, 1786,  and 
was  the  son  of  Kev.  David  Davies,  a  clergyman  of  the 
Established  Church.  In  his  filteenth  year  he  began 
to  frequent  meetings  of  Dissenters,  and  at  length,  with 
his  father*s  reluctant  consent,  joined  the  Baptists,  in  hia 
eighteenth  year.  He  became  pastor  at  Holywell,  in 
North  Wsles,  and  shortly  afterwards  of  a  small  congre- 
gation  of  Welsh  Baptists  in  Liverpool,  but  after  a  lime 
removed  to  London;  soon  retumed  to  Wales  and  be- 
came pastor  at  Ferryside,  Carmarthenshire.  After  sev- 
eral years  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Tredegar  Iron 
Works,  Monmouthshire,  where  he  died,  Aug.  28, 1882. 
See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Afagasine,  1836,  p.  271.     (J.  C.  &) 

Daviea,  Jonathan,  a  Welsh  Congregational  min. 
ister,  was  bom  near  Neuaddlwyd,  Cardiganshire,  Oct.  26, 
1802.  He  joined  the  Church  in  his  youth ;  studied  at 
Neuaddlwyd  Academy ;  in  1828  became  pastor  at  Har- 
wood,  Flintshire ;  soon  afterwards  he  removed  to  Caier- 
gwil,  where  he  labored  until  1860,  when  be  retired  ro 
Abergele,  Denbighshire,  and  there  died,  May  24, 1871. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1872,  p.  811. 

Daviea,  Joaeph,  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  waa 
bom  at  Bettws,  Cardiganshire,  in  Febmar\*,  1808.  He 
was  baptised  and  joined  the  Church  at  ten  years  of 
age ;  was  first  pastor  at  Eardialand  for  two  yean^  then 


DAYIES 


251 


BAVIES 


at  Wbikftone,  Heieford,  from  1829  nnUl  bit  dMtb, 
Ang.  12,  I85a 

Davlea,  Joshua,  a  Welsh  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  near  Newcastle  Emlyn,  Carmaithenahire, 
in  1837.  He  joined  the  Church  in  his  youth ;  studied 
at  the  Congregational  College  at  Bala;  was  ordained 
at  Newmarket,  Flintshirp,  in  1868,  and  libored  there  un- 
til his  death,  July  5,  1869.  See  (Lond.)  C<mg,  Year' 
hook,  1870,  p.  284. 

Daviea,  X  F.,  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  son  of 
tier.  Daniel  Davies  (1),  was  horn  at  Cwmdu,  in  the  parish 
«f  TaUey,  Carmarthenshire,  April  4, 1848.  He  was  bap- 
tized by  his  father  at  the  age  of  fifteen;  studied  for 
three  years  at  the  college  of  Haverfordwest ;  was  recog- 
nised as  pastor  at  Abemant,  Aberdare,  in  August,  1869; 
and  died  May  26, 1872.  See  (Lond.)  BaptUt  HatuUtook, 
1873,  p.  256.     (J.  C  S.) 

I>avies,  J.  O.,  a  Welsh  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Brecknockshire  in  1^2.  He  joined  the 
Church  in  early  life;  studied  at  Brecon  Independent 
College ;  and  in  1867  was  ordained  at  Peny wem,  Dow- 
lais,  where  he  labored  until  his  death,  Jan.  21,  1870. 
See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book^  1871,  p.  810. 

Daviea,  Miles,  a  Welsh  clergyman,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  centuri',  was  bom  in  Tre'r- Abbot,  in 
Whibeford  parish,  Flintshire.  He  was  a  vehement  foe 
to  popery,  Arianism,  and  Socinianism,  and  of  the  most 
fervent  loyalty  to  George  I  and  the  Hanoverian  suc- 
eeanon.  He  went  to  London  and  published  a  few  works, 
among  which  are  his  A  thena  Brilamtica  (1715, 8vo) : 
_and  A  Critical  HiUory  of  Pamphlets  (1715).  Little 
else  is  known  of  him.  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  a.  v. ; 
AlUbone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  utkon,  s.  v. 

Daviea,  O^nren,  a  Welsh  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bom  at  Wrexham  in  1752.  He  was  converted  through 
Methodist  instramentality ;  became  a  local  preacher  in 
London,  and  in  1789  was  sent  by  Wesley  to  Manchester. 
He  next  travelled  the  Bedford,  Lynn,  Bristol,  North- 
ampton, Chester,  Oxford,  and  Fienzance  circuits,  until, 
in  1800,  he  was  sent  to  North  Wales.  He  preached 
there  for  fifteen  years, and  was  often  called  "the  Welsh 
bbhop."  He  was  superintendent  of  the  Liverpool  cir- 
coit  for  two  years,  and  died  Jan.  30, 1880.  See  WesL 
Meth.  Magazine,  1882,  p.  889, 469, 641 ;  Smith,  Hiet,  of 
WeO.  MtthodUm,  ii,  859-895;  MinuttM  of  the  BriHA 
Cdw/erMoe,  1880. 

Davies,  PhiUp,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Whitchurch,  Hampshire,  Oct.  21, 1778.  After 
his  conversion  be  joined  the  Independent  Church  at 
Reading,  and  in  1802  the  Baptist  Church  there;  soon 
after  became  pastor  in  Oakingharo;  in  1808  removed 
to  his  native  town,  where  he  labored  until  his  death, 
Sept.  7, 1840.  See  (Lond.)  Baptut  Hand-book,  1841, 
j».  32.    (J.  C  S.) 

Dairies,  PhiUp  L.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Walee  in  1831 ;  baptized  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  in 
Blaenem,  Monmouthshire;  soon  after  came  to  Potts- 
ville.  Pa.,  and  began  to  preach  to  the  Welsh  people. 
For  three  yean  he  was  a  student  in  the  University  of 
Lewisborgh,  and  was  ordained,  Dec  25, 1859,  pastor  at 
Carbondale,  where  he  remained  three  years,  and  then 
took  charge  of  the  English  Church  at  Blakeley.  In 
1863  he  became  pastor  in  Camden,  N.  J.,  resigning  after 
a  seven  years*  successful  ministiy,  to  become  the  suc- 
eessor  of  Rev.  Dr.  John  DowUng,  in  the  Berean  Church, 
New  York  city,  where  he  died,  July  30,  1875.  See 
Catheart,  Baj^  Eneydop,  p.  1305.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Davies,  Rees,  a  Welsh  Independent  minister,  was 
bom  at  Lanwrtyd,  Brecknockshire,  in  1778.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Presbyterian  College,  Carmarthen ;  in 
1801  was  ordained  in  Mill  Street,  Newport,  where  he 
fCfflained  till  1828;  and  afterwards  continued  to  preach 
oecasiooally  until  bis  death,  in  February,  1839.  See 
(Lond.)  Svai^ieal  Magazine,  1839,  p.  598. 


Daries,  Rlohard  (l),  a  Welsh  minister  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  was  bom  at  Welshpool  in  1 685.  He 
was  educated  in  the  Church  of  England ;  in  1667  be- 
came a  Friend,  and  was  more  than  once  imprisoned.  He 
frequently  made  missionary  tours  through  different  parts 
of  Great  Britain ;  in  1674  was  brought  into  intimate 
relations  with  George  Fox,  and  died  Jan.  22, 1707.  See 
Friends' Liln-ary,xu\,l,    (J.CS.) 

Davies,  Richard  (2),  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  mis- 
sionary, was  bom  in  Pembrokeshire,  South  Wales,  Oct. 
24, 1812.  He  was  converted  under  the  Methodists ;  ac- 
cepted by  the  conference  in  1837;  spent  one  year  at 
the  theological  institution ;  sailed  for  Jamaica  in  Octo- 
ber, 1838 ;  preached  at  Savana  La  Mar,  Bath,  and  Port 
Antonio,  and  died  Nov.  1, 1844.  See  Wesl,  Meth.  Mag- 
atine,  1847,  p.  1041 ;  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference, 
1845. 

Davies,  Richard  P.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  (jhurch  South,  was  bom  in  Shrewsbury,  Eng- 
Und,  March  12, 1838.  He  emigrated  to  Canada  with 
his  parents  when  twelve  years  old;  was  converted 
among  the  Wesleyans  in  1852 ;  removed  to  Louisiana 
and  joined  the  Church  South  in  1855 ;  received  license 
to  preach  in  1858;  went  to  Lewisville,  Ark.,  in  1860; 
and  in  1863  entered  the  Little  Rock  Conference,  in 
which  he  labored  sealouslv  until  his  death  bv  assassi- 
nation,  Feb.  24,  1871.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer^ 
enees  of  the  M.  E,  Church  South,  1871,  p.  619. 

Dalies,  Robert,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Carnarvon,  Walte,  Sept.  9, 1815.  He 
joined  the  Church  at  twelve  I'ears  of  age ;  after  study- 
ing at  the  college  at  Blackburn,  was  ordained  at  Ripley, 
in  Hampshire ;  three  or  four  years  later  removed  to  Bils- 
ton,  near  Wolverhampton ;  after  twelve  yearn  resigned ; 
beomie  pastor  at  Merton,  in  Surrey,  March  3, 1861 ;  in 
1872  resigned,  and  removed  to  Bath,  where  he  died, 
June  1, 1879.   Sec  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1880,  p.  320. 

Davies,  Samuel,  a  Welsh  Wesleyan  minister,  a 
native  of  Flintshire,  was  converted  early,  called  into 
the  ministry  in  1807,  became  a  supcmnmeraiy  at  Holy- 
well in  1846,  and  died  at  Dcubigh,  Msy  7, 1854.  He 
wrote  many  valuable  books.  See  Minutes  of  the  Brit" 
ish  Conference,  1864. 

Davies,  Samuel  Ambrose,  an  English  Con- 
gregational minister,  son  of  Rev.  Edward  Davies,  was 
bom  at  Ipswich  in  1800.  He  entered  Wy mondley  Acad- 
emy in  1816;  labored  first  at  Lindfield,  Sussex,  a  few 
years,  and  then  was  ordained  at  Enfield,  whore  he  min- 
istered twenty  years,  and  died  Feb.  20, 1865.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1866,  p.  246. 

Davies,  Sneyd,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
bom  at  ShrewsbuTT,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  King's 
College,  Cambrittge,  taking  his  degrees  in  1737  and  1739. 
He  was  collated  to  the  canonry  of  Lichfield  in  1751 ; 
soon  after  presented  to  the  mastership  of  St«  John's  Hos- 
pital, Lichfield ;  was  also  archdeacon  of  Derby,  and  rec- 
tor of  Kingsland,  in  Herefordshire.  He  died  Feb.  6, 
1769.  He  wrote  several  of  the  anonymous  imitations 
of  Horace  in  Duncombe's  edition  (1767),  and  at  the  end 
of  volume  four  is  given  the  character  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  from  a  poem  by  him,  entitled,  The  Progress  of 
Science,  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did,  s.  v. ;  AUibone,  Diisl, 
of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Davies,  Stephen,  a  preacher  of  the  United  Meth- 
odist Free  Church,  was  bom  at  Camborne,  0)rnwaII, 
Jan.  7, 1816.  He  was  converted  at  nineteen,  and  joined 
the  Methodists:  entered  the  ministrv  of  the  Method- 
ist  Free  Cluirch  in  1852,  and  died  at  Ripley,  Derby- 
shire, July  18,  1874.  See  Minutes  of  the  17th  Annual 
Assenhlg, 

Davies*  Theophilus,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Hanover  Chapel  Parsonage,  near 
Abergavenny,  Oct.  19, 1798.  His  father,  the  Rev.  Em- 
manuel Davies,  being  the  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Han- 
over, he  was  early  led  to  Christ,  and  commenced  preach- 


DAVDES 


262 


DAVIS 


ing  in  hU  tereoteenth  ye^r.  He  entered  the  Western 
Academy  in  1816,  and  settled  at  Hazlegrove,  near  Stock- 
port, in  1821 ;  ftfterwarda  at  Stourbridge,  Woicester- 
shire,  where  he  was  ordained,  Sept.  6, 1826;  in  1885 
removed  to  Ludlow,  in  1852  toNewton-le  Willowi,  Ijin- 
caebire,  and  from  there  to  Hungerford,  Berkshire,  in 
1857 ;  resigned  in  1865,  and  preached  occasionally  until 
his  death  at  Hereford,  Nov.  7, 1879.  See  (Lond.)  Cong* 
rear-ftooi;,  1880,  p.  321. 

Davies,  Thomas  (1),  a  missionary  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  bom  at  Kington,  Herefordshire,  Dec 
21  (O.  S.),  1786.  His  father  settled  in  the  town  of 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  and  the  son  graduated  from  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1758 ;  and,  after  three  years  of  theological  study, 
was  ordained  in  England  in  August,  1761 ;  returned  to 
America  under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  and  preached 
at  New  Milford,  Roxbur}%  Sharon,  New  Preston,  and 
New  Fairfield — to  which  Litchfield  was  soon  added. 
He  also  held  occasional  ser\'ices  in  Washington,  Kent, 
Cornwall,  Salisbury,  Great  Barrington,  and  Woodbury. 
He  died  in  New  Milford,  Conn.,  May  12,  1766.  See 
Sprague,  AtmaU  o/the  Amer,  Pulpit,  v,  265. 

Davleii  Thomas  (2),  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  brought  up  a  stone>mason ;  delivered  a  lecture  on 
Monday  evenings,  in  Angel  Alley,  London ;  was  minis- 
ter at  Petticoat  Lane  about  fourteen  years,  and  died 
very  suddenly,  June  15, 1768.  See  Wilson,  Dmeniing 
Churchetf  iv,  426. 

Daviea,  Thomas  (8),  a  Welsh  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  the  parish  of  Llangeler,  Carmar- 
thenshire. He  joined  the  Church  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, and,  after  preaching  some  years  in  his  own  neigh- 
borhood, was  ordained  at  Pentreath,  Isle  of  Anglesey,  in 
1825 ;  afterwards  ministered  at  Festeniog,  Aberdaivn, 
and  Moelfro,  and  retired  to  BodlTord,  where  he  died, 
April  26, 1865.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-bookj  1866,  p. 
246. 

Davies.  Thomas  (4),  a  Welsh  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  in  the  parish  of  Trelech,  Carmar- 
thenshire, in  1820.  He  joined  the  Church  at  the  age 
of  sixteen ;  in  his  twenty-first  year  began  to  preach ; 
entered  Brecon  College  in  1843,  and  in  1847  was  or- 
dained at  Llandilo,  Carmarthenshire,  where  he  labored 
until  his  sudden  death,  OcU^,  1873.  See  (Lond.)  Cong, 
Year-book,  1874,  p.  821. 

Davies,  Thomas  Frederlok,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  1793.  He  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1813 ;  spent  the  two  following  years  teaching 
in  New  Haven,  meantime  pursuing  his  theological  stud- 
ies; was  licensed  to  preach  in  1816;  in  1817  was  or- 
dained at  Huntington ;  in  1819  removed  to  New  Haven, 
became  the  editor  of  the  Ckrisiian  Spectator^  and  sev- 
eral years  later  was  connected  with  the  Jieligious  'Itt- 
teiUgeacer,  From  1829  to  1839  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Green  Farms,  now  Westport ;  the  next  ten 
years  resided  in  New  Haven,  and  died  at  Westport,  Feb. 
16, 1865.    See  AppktotCs  Annual  Cyclop.  1865,  p.  634* 

Davies,  WiUlam  (!)»&  Welsh  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Caerlem,  Devonshire,  Dec  24,  1785. 
He  was  converted  in  youth;  began  to  preach  at  the 
age  of  seventeen ;  studied  under  a  private  instractor  at 
Glandwr,  and  in  the  same  way  completed  his  theologi- 
cal training  at  Pembroke ;  was  ordained  in  his  twenty- 
first  year  at  Fishguard,  South  Wales,  where  he  labored 
until  1865,  when  he  resigned  the  regular  pastorate.  He 
died  Jan.  4, 1875.  Sec  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1876, 
p.  825. 

Davies,  William  (2),  a  Welsh  Wesleyan  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  XJanfyllin,  Montgomer}*shire,  in  1787. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  eighteen ;  in  1809  com- 
menced his  ministry,  the  last  fifteen  years  of  which 
were  spent  near  Brecon,  where  he  died,  Oct.  15, 1869. 
See  Minutes  o/(he  British  Conference,  1870,  p.  19. 

Davies,  William  (3),  a  Welsh  Congregational 


minister,  wai  bom  in  the  neighborhood  of  Penrhywga- 
led,  Cardiganshire,  Dec  81, 1792.  He  was  conyerted  in 
his  twentieth  year ;  educated  at  Neuaddlwyd  and  Llan- 
fyllin  academies ;  ordained  in  1822  at  Llangollen ;  and 
in  1826  removed  to  Bhydyoeisiaid,  where  he  died,  June 
17, 1861.    See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1862,  p.  227. 

Davies,  V7ilUam  (4),  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Coedcanlass,  Pembrokeshire,  May  1, 1795. 
In  March,  1816,  he  was  converted  and  baptized  at  Hav- 
erfordwest, and  soon  afterwards  began  to  preach  in  conn- 
try  places.  In  1819  he  entered  Stepney  College,  and 
supplied  the  church  at  Hailsham  during  a  vacation. 
The  aged  pastor  resigned  in  his  favor,  and  he  settled 
there,  after  various  trials  from  ill-health.  In  1838  he 
removed  to  Canterbury',  and  there  died,  Jan.  25, 1851. 
See  (Lond.)  BaptiH  I/and^book,  1852;  (Lond.)  BapHst 
ifagaxine,  1851,  p.  429. 

Davies.  "W.  Pollard,  an  English  Congregationil 
minister,  was  bom  at  Coventr}',  July  3, 1791.  He  joined 
the  Church  at  the  age  of  sixteen ;  entered  Hoxton  Acad- 
emy about  a  year  later;  was  ordained  at  Wellingbor- 
ough when  about  twenty-one  years  old;  labored  eight 
years  at  that  place ;  removed  into  Devonshire,  where 
he  remained  some  time  without  a  charge;  served  at 
Plymouth  eight  years;  was  pastor  at  Ashburton  eleven 
years;  rcsid^  some  time  at  Petworth;  preached  at 
Putney  six  years,  and  Anally  retired  to  Leamington, 
where  he  died,  March  13, 1872.  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year^ 
book,  1878,  p.  324. 

Davies,  W.  R.,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  18U0.  He  joined  the  Church  in  his  youth; 
preached  occasionally  in  Pembrokeshire,  Wales,  and  in 
1838  became  pastor  at  Dowlais,  Glamorganshire,  where 
he  died,  Aug.  1, 1849.  See  (Lond.)  Baptitt  /land-book, 
1850. 

Davikna,  the  Aocadian  goddess  of  nature,  spouse 
of  Hea. 

Davila,  Fraxcuco,  a  Spanish  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Avih^  of  a  noble  family,  and  took  the  habit  of.  the 
Dominicans.  He  followed,  in  1596,  his  cousin,  the  car- 
dinal Davila,  to  Bome,  where  Clement  VIII  appointed 
him  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Index.  Davila  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  dispute  which  arose  at  that  time 
between  the  Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits.  He  died  in 
1604,  leaving,  De  Gratia  et  Liberp  Arbiirio  (Bome, 
1599)  '.—De  Confeetione  per  Litteras  (Donay,  1628).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Davis,  Absalom,  a  minister  in  the  Methoilist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Wayne  County, 
Ky.;  was  converted  in  manhood ;  labored  several  years 
as  a  local  preacher,  and  in  1852  entered  the  Louisville 
Conference,  wherein  he  continued  until  his  death,  Sept. 
80,  1858.  See  Minutet  of  Annual  Conference*  of  the 
M.  E.  Church  South,  1858,  p.  8. 

Davis,  Absalom  L.,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Tennessee,  May 
10, 1812.  In  early  life  he  removed  to  Indiana,  where  he 
was  converted  and  united  with  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church.  In  1864  he  joined  the  Methodist  Epiocopal 
Church  South,  in  Illinois,  and  in  1867  became  a  mem- 
ber of  its  Illinois  Conference.  He  died  at  De  Soto,  III., 
April  20, 1882.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of 
the  M.  E,  Church  South,  1882,  p.  40. 

Davis,  Alphens,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bora  in  Paris,  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.,  DeCk  1 1, 1798. '  He 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  thirteen ;  in  1816  admit- 
ted into  the  travelling  ministry;  in  1820  became  super- 
annuated, and  dijsd  Oct.  8  the  same  year.  See  Minutes 
of  Annual  Conferences,  1821,  p.  862.* 

Davis,  Amos,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  South,  was  bora  in  Bullock  County,  Ga., 
in  1829.  He  was  converted  and  licensed  to  preach  in 
1854;  became  a  member  of  the  Florida  Conference  sub- 
sequently, and  labored  until  his  death,  March  16, 1864. 


DAVIS 


253 


DAVIS 


See  Mvmia  o/AnmtcU  Con/ermeet  of  ike  M,  E.  Ckureh 
South,  186^  p.  522. 

Davlfl,  Aqtdlla,  t  Methodist  ministeri  was  bom  in 
Berks  Countjr,  Pa^  Oct  20, 1884.  He  was  converted  in 
hb  twentieth  year ;  entered  the  ininistiy  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  1859;  in  1866  became  a  minister  of  the 
Evangelical  Association,  and  died  in  Ogle  Coontjr,  III, 
April  11, 1879.     See  Evangelical  Mfuenger, 

I>avia,  Arthur,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  Soath,  was  bom  in  Stewart  County,  Tenn., 
Feb.  17, 181 1.  He  was  reared  under  Baptist  influence ; 
converted  in  1830,  and  joined  the  Methodists ;  received 
license  to  preach  in  1831 ;  in  1870  was  transferred  from 
the  Memphis  Conference  to  the  White  River  Confer- 
ence, and  died  in  April,  1879.  See  Minute*  of  A  nmud 
Cot^artneet  of  the  M,  A*.  Churek  South,  1879,  p.  117. 

DaviSp  Caleb  Bailey,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Wrentham,  Mass.,  July  8, 1807.  Without  Uk- 
iog  a  college  course,  he  studied  theology  at  the  Newton 
Theological  Institution  from  1884  to  1887 ;  was  ordained 
pastor  in  Paris,  Me.,  June  27, 1838,  and  died  at  Portland, 
Jan.  12,  1855.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Davis,  Cbarlea  8.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  employed  in  1835  as  teacher  in  Uammoudsport, 
N.  T. ;  in  1838  admitted  into  the  East  Genesee  Confer- 
ence ;  located  and  resided  near  Havana,  N.  Y.,  from  1850 
to  1861 ;  eventually  became  a  superannuate,  and  died 
Nor.  5, 1870,  in  his  sixtieth  year.  See  Minute*  of  An- 
mual  Comfetenee*,  1871,  p.  158. 

Davis,  Claiborne  Albert,  D.D.,  a  Cumberland 
Fkesbytcrian  minister,  was  bora  in  Hardin  County, 
Tenn.',  Nov.  8,  1825.  While  he  was  quite  young  his 
parents  removed  to  Illinois,  and  subsequently  the  faro> 
ily  went  to  St  Louis  County,  Mo.  The  Platte  Presby- 
toy  received  him  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry  in  Octo- 
ber, 1845 ;  in  April,  1846,  he  was  licensed  as  a  probation- 
er ;  and  in  April,  1847,  ordained.  The  first  six  months  he 
devoted  to  missionary  work,  chiefly  in  the  cities  of  St. 
Joseph  and  Platte;  in  1847  he  became  pastor  in  Platte: 
in  1851  in  Lexington ;  in  1859  succeeded  Rev.  Dr.  A.  M. 
Bryan  as  pastor  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  where  be  died,  Oct. 
19, 1867.  Dr.  Davis  was  recognised  as  one  of  the  fore- 
most preachers  in  that  city.  The  General  Assembly 
appointed  him,  in  May,  1866,  a  delegate  to  the  Gen- 
eral Aaaembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  South.  See 
Baird,  Biographical  Sketches,  2d  series,  p.  880. 

Davis,  C.  B.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Chorch  South,  was  bora  in  Muhlenburg  County,  Ky., 
July  19, 1815.  He  embraced  religion  in  his  seventeenth 
year,  and  very  early  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Meth- 
odist Eptsoopal  Church.  His  iUnerant  life  was  all  spent 
in  the  Tennessee  Conference,  first  in  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  then,  after  1844,  in  the  Methodist  Epis- 
oo|Md  Church  South.  He  died  at  McMinnville,  Tenn., 
June  B,  1882.  See  Minuie*  of  Annual  ConferenceM  of 
the  M.  £,  Churdk  South,  1882,  p.  50. 

Davis,  C.  C,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  at  New  Springfield,  Mahoning  Co.,  O.,  in  October, 
1833.  He  was  converteid  in  his  twenty-first  year;  re- 
oetred  license  to  preach  in  1856;  and  in  1860  entered 
the  Pittsbargh  Conference,  in  which  he  labored  until 
within  a  short  time  of  his  death,  Oct.  17, 1866.  See 
Mmutee  of  Annual  Conferences,  1867,  p.  70. 

Davis,  Daniel  Oataward,  D.D.,  a  colonial  blsh- 
«»p  of  the  Chnrch  of  England,  was  educated  at  Pembroke 
College,  Oxford;  graduated  in  1814;  after  filling  vari- 
ous oflloes  in  the  Chnrch  at  home,  was  consecrated  in 
Westminster  Abbey  as  bishop  of  Antigua,  West  Indies. 
in  18^,  and  died  in  London,  Oct.  25, 1857.  See  A  mer. 
Omar,  Churdi  J2er.  1858y  p.  623. 

Davis,  David,  a  Baptist  minister,  bora  in  Pem- 
brakesbiie,  South  Wales,  in  1707,  but  was  brought  to 
Amcriea  in  1710.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Welsh  Tract 
B^tiit  Chnrdi  at  Pencador  Hundred,  New  Castle  Co., 


Del,  fhNtt  May  27, 1748,  nntil  his  death,  Aug.  19, 1769. 
See  Spragne,  Aimcds  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  vi,  117. 

Davis,  Bbeneser,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
son  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Davis  of  Walworth,  was  bom 
in  1800.  He  was  Iwptized  at  fifteen,  and  for  some  years 
followed  mercantile  pursuits,  preaching  occasionally.  In 
1834  he  was  chosen  pastor  at  Deal,  Kent;  afterwards 
had  a  pastoral  charge  at  Lewes,  Romford,  Wycombe, 
and  Southsea;  and  finally  settled  at  Belvedere,  Kent, 
where  he  had  a  stroke  of  paralysis  in  1868,  and  died 
Oct.  23»  1870.     See  (Lond.)  Baptist  /land-book,  1872. 

Davis»  Bdward,  D.D.,  a  Protesunt  Episcopal  min* 
ister,  who  died  at  South  Ballston,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  19, 1868, 
aged  fifty-nine  years,  was  the  founder  and  first  rector 
of  the  parish  of  Calvary  Church,  Bunit  Hills,  N.  Y. 
See  Amer,  Quar,  Church  Rev,  January,  1864,  p.  669. 

Davis,  Ed^^ard  le,  an  English  engraver,  was 
probably  bora  in  Wales,  and  went  to  France,  where  he 
learaed  the  art  of  engraving.  He  returaed  to  his  na- 
tive country  and  settled  in  London  about  1670.  The 
following  are  some  of  his  plates:  St,  Cecilia,  with  Ath' 
gelsf  Koos  Homo;  The  Boljf  FamUy,  See  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Davis,  Sliel,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Folkestone,  Kent,  June  5, 1803.  At  nineteen  years 
of  age  he  went  to  London  as  a  draper's  assistant,  and 
joined  the  Church  under  Joseph  Toimey.  He  began 
to  preach  in  the  villages,  and  entered  Stepney  College 
in  1826.  In  1828  he  became  a  pastor  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight;  in  1834  removed  to  Lambeth ;  in  1841  to  Eye^ 
in  Suffolk ;  in  1842  to  St.  Ives,  where  he  suddenly  died, 
March  29, 1849.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand-hook,  1850, 
p.  41. 

Davis,  Elnathan  (1),  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  Maryland  in  1789.  In  1757  he  moved  to  North 
Carolina,  and  was  ordained  in  1764;  labored  in  that 
state  thirty-four  years,  and  then  went  to  South  Caro- 
lina, where  he  served  his  Master  in  the  ministry  till 
his  death,  the  date  of  which  does  not  appear.  See  Cath- 
cart,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  3U.    (J.  a  S.) 

Davis,  Blnathan  (2),  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Holden,  Mass.,  Aug.  19, 1807.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Williams  College  in  1884;  studied  two  years 
at  the  Theological  Institute  of  Hartfonl ;  and,  having 
been  appointed  missionary  to  South  Africa  by  the  Amer- 
ican Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  was 
ordained  at  his  native  place,  Nov.  9, 1836.  Changing 
his  plans,  he  afterwards  engaged  in  home  missions  in 
south  Michigan  and  north  Indiana.  In  1845  he  labored 
in  the  American  Peace  Society;  in  September,  1846, 
was  installed  pastor  at  Ashburaharo,  Mass.;  in  1849  was 
sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  World's  Peace  Convention  in 
Paris;  in  1850  became  secretary  of  the  American  Peace 
Society;  for  fourteen  years  was  pastor  in  Fitchburg, 
Mass. ;  then,  for  a  time,  secretary  of  the  American  Mis- 
sionary Association;  and  from  1869  to  1879  pastor  in 
Aubura,  Mass.,  where  he  died,  April  9, 1881.  See  Hist. 
Cat,  of  Theol,  Inst,  of  Conn.  1881,  p.  15.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Davis,  Emerson,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Ware,  Mass.,  July  15, 1798.  He  grad- 
uated from  Williams  College  in  1821 ;  studied  theology 
with  Dr.  Griffin  while  tutor  there ;  was  preceptor  at 
Westfield  Academy  until  February,  1836;  ordained  pas- 
tor in  Westfield  the  same  year,  and  remained  there  un- 
til his  death,  June  8,  1866.  Dr.  Davis  was  a  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education.  See  Cong, 
Quarterlyt  1859,  p.  52;  1866,  p.  815. 

Davis,  Francis  Henry,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Kingsville,  O.,  July  17,  1837.  He  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Rochester  in  1860,  and  from  the 
Theological  Seminary  there  in  1865;  was  pastor  at 
White  Pigeon,  Mich.,  from  1865  to  1867,  and  at  Napo- 
leon thereafter  until  his  death,  April  2, 1872.  See  Gen, 
Cat.  of  Rochester  Theol,  Sem,  p.  27.     (J.  C.  S.) 


DAVIS 


254 


DAVIS 


Da^iSy  Franklin,  a  Googregitional  minister,  wts 
bom  tt  Bangor,  Me.,  Jan.  24,  1816.  He  graduated 
from  Bowdoin  College  in  1839,  and  from  Bangor  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1845 ;  was  ordained  pastor  at  War- 
ren, Me.,  Oct.  6, 1847 ;  in  1849  became  acting  pastor  at 
East  Orrington;  in  1854  at  Alton,  N.  H.;  in  1856  at 
North  Wrcntham  (now  Norfolk),  Mass.;  in  1860  at 
Berkley ;  in  1864  at  Newington,  N.  H. ;  and  from  1876 
at  Tamworth,  until  his  death,  which  occurred  on  a 
railroad  train  at  Ipswich,  Mass.,  Oct.  26,  1882.  See 
Cong.  Year-book,  1883,  p.  21. 

Davis,  Frederick  Bruoe,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  entered  upon  his  ministry  in  1868  as 
missionary  in  Lancaster  and  Clarendon,  S.  C. ;  in  1870 
was  rector  of  St.  Mark*8,  in  Clarendon,  and  also  in  charge 
of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Comforter  in  Sumter,  where 
he  remained  until  1872;  and  then  removed  to  Union  as 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Nativity.  He  died  Jan.  21, 
1878.    See  ProL  Epite.  Almanac,  1874,  p.  188. 

Davis,  Ckuret,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  South,  was  born  about  18 1^.  He  was 
converted  about  1835  in  Lexington,  Ky.,.  and  in  1841 
entered  the  Kentucky  Conference,  wherein  he  served  to 
the  close  of  his  life,  July  18,  1844.  See  Minutes  of 
Annual  Conferences  of  the  J/.  £.  Church  Souih,  1846, 
p.  56. 

Davis,  George,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  the  Forest  of  Dean  in  1828.  He  was  converted 
in  early  life;  became  a  Primitive  Methodist  preacher 
for  several  years;  in 4846  changed  his  views  and  was 
publicly  immersed ;  for  three  years  studied  theology  at 
Monmouth;  settled  over  the  Church  at  Tetbury;  and 
was  ordained  in  1850.  His  health  failed  a  year  after- 
wards, and  he  died  March  22, 1852.  See  (Lond.)  Bap- 
tist Hand-iookf  1858,  p.  43. 

Davis,  Gtoorge  Atherton,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Lunenburg,  Yu,  Jan.  3, 1818.  He 
graduated  from  Dickinson  College  in  1638 ;  taught  in 
Bfaryland  from  1889  to  1841;  graduateil  from  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  1844;  in  April,  1845,  was  pas- 
tor at  Hanover  College,  Ya.,  and  died  there,  Oct.  9, 1846. 
See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Union  Theol,  Sem,  1876,  p.  32. 

Davis,  Qeorge  S.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, was  for  many  years  rector  of  St.  PauPs  Church, 
Medina,  O.  In  1870  he  became  rector  of  Grace  Church, 
Ravenna,  to  which  parish  was  added,  in  1872,  Christ 
Church,  in  Kent;  the  next  year  he  was  missionary  at 
Kinsman  and  Niles;  in  1877  he  removed  to  Cleveland, 
as  missionary  at  large,  an  office  which  he  continued  to 
hold  until  his  death,  in  May,  1880.  See  Whittaker, 
Ainu  and  JHreetory,  1881,  p.  172. 

Davis,  George  "W.  (1),  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  in  Morgan  County,  Ga.,  in  1808.  He 
was  converted  in  1824,  and  in  1828  entered  the  Georgia 
Conference,  in  which  he  labored  to  the  close  of  his  life, 
Nov.  27,  1832.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences^ 
1833,  p.  215. 

Davis,  Qeorge  V7.  (2),  a  Free-will  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Greenbrier  County,  Ya.,  Jan.  12, 1830. 
At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  removed  to  the  state  of  Illi- 
nois; was  converted  in  June,  1856;  licensed  in  March, 
1857,  by  the  Walnut  Creek  Qiuirterly  Meeting ;  went 
in  October  of  that  year  to  Hillsdale,  Mich.,  to  study, 
preaching  at  the  same  time;  was  ordained  April  29, 
1860 ;  returned  to  Illinois,  and  died  at  Kewanee^  May 
6, 1861.  See  Free-vill  Baptist  Register,  1862,  p.  91. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Davis,  Gustavus  F.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  17, 1797.  He  was 
converted  about  1813;  began  at  once  to  preach;  was 
ordained  June  13, 1816,  at  Preston,  Conn. ;  in  1818  re- 
moved to  South  Reading  (now  Wakefield),  Mass.;  in 
1829  became  pastor  of  the  First  Church  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  and  died  Sept.  17, 1836.  See  Christian  Secre- 
tary,  September,  1836.     (J.  a  S.) 


Davis,  Q.  B.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  in  Del- 
aware in  1792.  He  was  converted  in  1814;  removed 
to  Illinois  in  1834  as  agent  for  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety; subsequently  was  financial  agent  of  Shurtleif 
College,  and  pastor  of  the  Bunker  Hill  Church,  III ;  af- 
terwards labored  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  Indian 
Mission  Association  in  Tennessee  and  Alabama;  and 
died  near  Bunker  Hil!,  111.,  Aug.  29, 1852.  See  Minutes 
of  III,  Anniversaries,  1852,  p.  9.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Davis,  Henry  (1),  D.D.,  a  Congregational  educa- 
tor, was  bora  at  East  Hampton,  N.  Y.,  in  1771.  He 
graduated  from  Tale  College  in  1796;  for  seven  years 
was  tutor  in  Williams  and  Yale  colleges;  professor  of 
Greek  in  Union  College  from  1805  to  1810;  president 
of  Middlebury  College,  Yt.,  from  1810  to  1817 ;  president 
of  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  from  1817  to  1833, 
and  died  there,  March  7, 1852.  His  published  works 
are  his  Inaugural  Address^  on  assuming  the  presidency 
of  Hamilton  College,  and  a  Sermon  which  he  preached 
before  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For* 
eig^  Missions.    See  Allen,  A  mer,  Biog,  s.  v.    (J.  C  S.) 

Davis.Henry  (2),D.D.,a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
at  Chariton,  Saratoga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  April  23, 1800.  Eariy 
in  life  he  moved  to  the  city  of  Now  York ;  subsequently 
was  engaged  in  teaching  at  Ogden,  Monroe  Co.,  where 
he  was  converted,  and  joined  the  Baptist  Church  in  the 
fall  of  1818;  graduated  from  the  theological  institution 
at  Hamilton,  June  7, 1827,  and  the  next  day  was  oc^ 
dained  at  Bridgewnter.  For  a  time  he  labored  nn  a 
missionary  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  planted  the  first  church 
of  his  denomination  in  that  city.  His  other  pastorates 
were,  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  Brockport,  Jordan,  Cannon  Street, 
New  York  city.  Second  Church,  Rochester,  Cdumbns, 
O.,  New  Corydon  and  Rock  Island,  IlL  He  died  at 
DanviUe,  111.,  Aug.  21, 1870.  See  Minutes  of  lU,  Anrn- 
versaries,  1870,  p.  69.     (J.  C  S.) 

Davis,  Henry  Edward,  an  English  theologian, 
was  born  at  Windsor,  Middlesex,  July  11,  1756,  stud- 
ied at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  died  Feb.  10, 1781, 
leaving  Examination  of  GHhon^s  Ilistorg,  See  Chal- 
mers, Biog,  Did,  s.  v. 

Davis,  Henry  SC,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  dergy- 
man,  was  employed  as  a  missionary  at  Islip,  N.  Y.,  in 
1853 ;  in  1857  became  rector  of  St.  John's  Church,  in 
that  place;  in  1861  rector  of  the  Church  of  Charity 
Foundation,  Brooklyn ;  in  1864  missionary  at  St.  PauFs 
Church,  Salem,  N.  Y.,  of  which  subsequently,  in  1872,  he 
became  rector,  and  so  remained  until  his  deatb,'Sept.  29, 
1875,  at  the  age  of  sixty-six  years.  See  Prot,  Epiac 
Almanac,  1876,  p.  160. 

Davis,  Isaac  Q.,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Sunstead,  Canada  East,  March  1, 1819.  He 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  seventeen;  in  1838  com- 
menced to  preach ;  was  licensed  June  22, 1839 ;  ordained 
at  Huntington,  Yt.,  Sept.  26, 1840;  entered  the  Biblical 
School  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  laboring,  meantime,  at  Rox- 
bury ;  for  a  few  years  was  at  Portsmouth  and  Deerfield, 
K.  H.,  and  on  a  missionary  tour  in  Nova  Scotia  and 
New  Brunswick ;  in  1848  went  to  the  West,  and  with 
the  exception  of  a  year  or  two  spent  in  Elgin,  III,  de- 
voted himself  to  missionary  labors  in  Boone  and  McUen- 
ry  counties,  and  as  pastor  in  Fayette,  Wis.,  where  be 
died  in  December,  1862.  See  Barrett,  Memoirs  of  Em- 
inent Preachers,  p.  249.    (J.  C.  &) 

Davis,  Jainis  XL,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  in  New  England  in  1813,  and  was  one  of  the 
early  missionaries  of  bis  denomination  in  New  York 
and  the  Westera  states.  He  died  at  North  Reading, 
Mich.,  Dec.  3,  1870.  See  Free-vill  Baptist  Register, 
1871,  p.  82.     (J.  a  S.) 

Davis,  James,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at  Hop. 
kinton,  N.  H.,  Nov.  6, 1772.  He  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1798;  was  ordained  as  an  evangelist 
in  1804;  in  1816  was  immersed;  ordained  as  a  Baptist 
evangelist  Nov.  14, 1816,  at  Lyme,  Conn.;  preached  m 


DAVIS 


256 


DAVIS 


▼ftrioQS  plaoMi  bat  cliiefly  devoted  hloMelf  to  minion- 
aiy  and  edacatioDal  causea,  and  died  May  28, 1821.  See 
Bcqttiii  Miirimuuy  Magazme,  new  eerieSi  iii,  p.  201, 208. 

(J.  a  &) 

Davis,  John  (1),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  at 
Pennypack,  Pa.,  Sept.  10,  1721.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1756 ;  the  same  year  became  pastor  at  Win- 
ter Ran,  Harford  Co..  Hd.,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death  in  1809.  See  Sprague,  AnnaU  of  the  Amer,  PuU 
pitj  vi,  69. 

Davis,  John  (2),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
New  Casde  County,  Del.,  in  1787.  lie  graduated  at 
Philadelphia  College  in  1763;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1769 ;  in  1770  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Sec- 
ond Baptist  Church  of  Boston,  and  died  Dec  18, 1772. 
See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Puljnty  vi,  117. 

Davis,  John  (3),  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Dursley,  Gloucestershire,  Oct.  27, 1780.  He 
joined  the  Methodist  Society  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 
entered  the  ministry  in  1802,  became  a  supernumerary 
in  1845,  and  died  May  16,  1852.  See  Aliautet  of  the 
British  Conferenee,  1852. 

Davis,  John  (4),  A.M.,  a  Boptist  minister,  was  bom 
io  Liverpool,  EngUnd,  Nov.  8, 1803.  He  studied  at  Hor- 
ton  College,  Bradford;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Portsea, 
Hampshire,  Jan.  13,1829;  was  minister  to  several  church- 
es, the  last  of  which  was  Port  Mahon,  Sheffield.  In  1815 
be  came  to  New  Jersey ;  became  pastor  of  a  church ;  af- 
terwards accepted  an  agency  for  the  American  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society;  visited  the  provinces,  and  in  1853 
soooeeded  Barton  in  the  pastorate  at  Yarmouth,  N.  S. 
After  a  short  period  of  minutry  at  St  George,  N.  B.,  he 
became  pastor  at  Charlottetowii,  P.  £.  I.,  and  remained 
there  until  his  death,  Aug.  14, 1875.  See  Cathcart,  Bapt. 
Eiscifdop,  p.  314. 

Davis,  John  C*  C,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Lewis  County, 
Viy^  March  2, 1832.  He  removed  with  his  parents  to 
Buchanan  County,  Mo.,  in  1837 ;  was  converted  in  1350; 
in  1853  was  admitted  fnto  the  Missouri  Conference;  be- 
came soperaonoated  in  1874,  and  died  March  11, 1875. 
See  Minute*  ofAmauU  Conferences  oftheM.E,  Church 
^o«M,i875,p.239. 

Davis,  John  N.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Mecklenburg  County,  N.  C,  Nov.  11, 1804. 
He  was  converted  in  1832;  received  license  to  preach, 
and  entered  the  South  Carolina  Conference  in  1884;  in 
1840  became  superannuated,  and  died  in  June,  1844. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1845,  p.  591. 

Davis,  John  R.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Carteret  County,  N.  C,  in  1812.  In  1837 
he  Joined  the  Methodists;  received  license  to  exhort  in 
1B41,  to  preach  in  1843,  and  in  1815  entered  the  North 
Indiana  Conference;  in  1860  became  superannuated, 
and  died  May  17, 1877.  See  Minutes  (f  Annual  Con" 
feremxsj  1^78,  p.  54. 

Davis^  John  Wheelwright,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Newbur^'port,  Mass.,  June  4. 1800. 
He  was  licensed  by  the  Philadelphia  Presbytery  in  1884 ; 
labored  as  a  home  missionary'  in  various  parts  of  the 
state  of  New  York ;  subsequently  became  an  agent  for 
the  American  Tract  Society  in  Philadelphia,  and  died 
there,  Aog.  6, 1867.  See  Wilson,  Prtsb.  Jlist.  A  Imanac, 
1868,  p.  196. 

Davi%  Joseph  (1),  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Chipping-Norton,  Oxfordshire,  in  August, 
1627.  He  was  converted  in  early  life ;  was  baptized  at 
Coventry,  and  experienced  bitter  persecution  from  the 
civil  authorities.  He  died  in  London,  Feb.  16, 1706, 
leaving  a  work  entitled  My  Last  Legacy,  which  was 
printed  in  1720.    See  Crosby,  HisL  of  the  English  Bap- 

iM<«,iu,i3o.  (J. as.) 

Davis,  Joseph  (2),  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Madbary,  N.  H.,  in  1792.    He  was  con- 


verted at  the  age  of  eighteen ;  united  with  the  Church 
in  1819;  was  ordained  July  4, 1824 ;  and  died  in  Effing- 
ham, Dec  14, 1848.  See  Free-will  Baptist  Hegister,l8i5f 
p.  75.    (J.  a  a) 

Davis,  Joseph  (8),  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
the  son  and  grandson  of  ministers,  was  bom  in  Liver- 
pool, Oct.  7,  1807.  He  was  baptized  at  the  age  of 
nineteen ;  entered  Horton  College  in  1827 ;  became  pas- 
tor at  Chorch-street,  filackfriars;  resigned  in  1841,  and 
removed  to  Manchester,  where  he  was  pastor  of  York- 
street  chapel  only  eighteen  months;  then  settled  at 
Amesby,  Leicestershire,  in  1848 ;  removed  to  Kent-street 
chapel,  Portsea,  in  1854;  and  to  Romford  in  1866,  where 
he  was  stricken  with  paralysis  in  1879,  and  died  Oct, 
28, 1881,  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  IlancUook,  1882,  p.  801. 

Davis,  Joseph  Hoomes,  a  minister  in  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Gloucester 
County,  Vs.,  April  18, 1809 ;  was  converted  in  his  four- 
teenth year;  educated  in  the  academies  of  Gloucester 
and  Northumberland,  and  in  1886  entered  the  Virginia 
Conference,  in  which  he  labored  till  his  death,  May  8^ 
1879.  See  Mmufes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M.  E, 
Church  Southj  1879,  p.  105. 

Davis,  J.  W.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  at  Tyringham,  Derkahire  Co.,Mass.,  April  30, 1791. 
He  was  converted  in  1809;  removed  to  Ohio  in  1816, 
and  in  1825  entered  the  Pittsburgh  Conference ;  in  1828 
was  transferred  to  the  Erie  Conference,  and,  after  two 
years,  located ;  at  the  close  of  four  years  again  entered 
the  effective  ranks ;  became  superannuated  in  1845,  and 
died  in  January,  1854.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer^ 
enceSf  1854,  p.  409. 

Davis,  Nathan,  a  Protestant  minister  and  African 
traveller,  was  bom  in  1812.  For  a  time  he  edited  the 
Bebrew-Christian  Magazine,  and  afterwards  took  charge 
of  a  congregation.  In  1856  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  sec- 
retary of  state,  sent  him  to  the  East,  to  explore  the  site 
of  ancient  Carthage.  He  died  Jan.  6,  1882.  He  pub- 
lished, TanM  (1841) :— v4  Voice  from  North  and  South 
Africa  (1844) :— Wanderings  in  Beldt  Kjjareed  (1854,  2 
volsl) : — A  ralnc  Reading  Lessons  (1855) : — Carthage  and 
her  Remains  (1861)  i-^Ruined  Cities  within  Numidian 
and  Carthaginian  Territories  (1862).     (R  P.) 

Davis,  Nimrod  R.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  near  Kingston,  Roane  Co.,  Tcnn.,  Sept.  28, 
1814.  He  was  converted  in  1834;  soon  after  received 
license  to  exhort  and  to  preach ;  removed  to  Kentucky 
in  1847,  and  entered  the  Kentucky  Conference  as  sup- 
ply, in  which  he  labored  until  he  became  a  supernu- 
merary, and  finally  a  superannuate.  He  died  April  18, 
1879. '  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1880,  p.  81. 

Davis,  Peter,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
was  bom  in  England  in  1680,  and  educated  as  a  Presby- 
terian. In  1716  he  united  with  the  Friends,  and  was  a 
well-known  preacher  in  that  denomination,  at  first  in 
Westerly,  R.  I.,  but  eventually  in  England  and  France. 
The  proverb,  *'  Honesty  is  the  best  policy,*'  is  said  to 
have  originated  with  him.    He  died  Feb.  29, 1776. 

His  successor  was  his  son  Petkr,  '^a  man  of  deep  piety 
and  peculiar  gifts,  noted  for  his  laconic  and  forcible  ad- 
dresses, who  died  Jan.  22, 1812,  at  the  age  of  one  hun- 
dred and  one  years  and  seven  months."  See  A  /.  Bio- 
graphical  Cydop,  p.  88.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Davis,  Richard  (l),  an  Irish  divine,  was  bom  in 
1649,  and  died  in  1741.  He  published  a  Letter  to  a 
Roman  Catholic  Friend  (Lond.  1694)  -.—The  Truly  Catk- 
oHe  and  Old  Religion  (Dublin,  1716) ;  and  other  works. 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mei\  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Davis,  Richard  (2),  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  in  1776.  For  several  years  he  was  pastor  of 
the  Church  at  Middleton  Cheney,  but  eventually  be- 
came insane,  and  died  in  March,  1838.  See  (Lond.) 
Baptist  Hand-hook,  1888,  p.  26.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Davis,  Richard  Montgomery,  a  PreBbyterian 


DAVIS 


25S 


DAVIS 


ministeri  was  born  about  1796.  He  senred  in  the  war 
of  1812;  Joined  the  Church  in  1822;  graduated  from 
Union  College  in  1828,  and  from  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary  in  1831 ;  waa  ordained  the  same  year;  in  1835 
took  charge  of  the  church  in  Springtield,  N.  Y. ;  after- 
wards preached  in  Bridgewater,  and  died  June  IS,  1842. 
See  PreAyterianitm  in  Central  N,  Y,  p.  510. 

Davis,  Robert,  an  English  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Emsworth,  Hampshire,  April  19, 1791. 
He  joined  the  Church  in  1810;  became  a  student  at 
Gosport  in  1811;  was  ordained  at  Totton  in  1818;  in 
1821  removed  to  Crondall;  in  1825  to  Spalding,  where 
his  stay  was  very  brief;  afterwards  preached  successive- 
ly at  Tarn  worth,  Earlshilton,  in  LeioesterBhire;  Welling- 
borough, Turvey,  Brackle}',  in  Northamptonshue ;  Saws- 
ton,  Cambridgeshire ;  and  finally  retired  to  his  native 
town,  where  he  died,  April  16, 1871.  See  (Lond.)  Cong, 
Ytar-book^  1872,  p.  813. 

Davis,  Ro^irland,  LL.D.,  an  Irish  divine,  was  bom 
near  Cork  in  1649,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  Having  entered  into  holy  orders,  he  was  made 
dean  of  Cork,  and  was  afterwards  vicar-general  of  the 
diocese.  He  died  in  1721,  leanng  two  sermons,  enti- 
tled Christian  Loyalty  (1716,  4to),  and  a  Charity  Ser- 
mon (Dublin,  1717, 8vo).   See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Davia,  Samuel  (1),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  l)ora  at  New  Holland,  Lancaster  Co.,  Pa.,  OcL 
7,  1793.  He  was  converted  in  1812,  and  in  1814  en- 
tered the  travelling  connection  of  the  Baltimore  Con- 
ference, wherein  he  toiled  faithfully  to  the  doee  of  his 
life,  Sept.  16, 1822.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences, 
1823,  p.  401 ;  Meth,  Magazine,  v,  439. 

Davia,  Samuel  (2),  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Leominster,  March  17, 18(S.  He 
studied  at  Highbury;  preached  two  years  at  Bilston, 
Staffordshire,  then  removed  to  Needharo  Market,  where 
he  was  ordained  as  co-pastor  in  1884 ;  in  1841  removed 
to  Bow,  afteni'ards  to  Bamet,  where  he  continued  to 
labor  until  within  a  few  months  of  his  death,  July  8, 
1865w     See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1866,  p.  247. 

Davia,  Samuel  Chalmers,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  was  a  Methodist  preacher ;  was  orduned 
in  1837 ;  in  1839  became  rector  of  William  and  Blary's 
parish,  St.  Mary's  County;  removed  to  New  York  in 
1844,  and  after  serving  in  several  placet  went  back 
to  Maryland  in  1849;  officiated  in  Holy  Trinity  and 
Ascension  parishes,  Carroll  County;  also  in  Trinity 
parish,  Charles  County ;  in  1852  returned  to  New  York, 
and  died  there.  May  8, 1862,  aged  fifty-six  years.  See 
Amer.  Quar,  Church  Bee,,  April,  1863,  p.  148. 

Davis,  Samuel  H.  (1),  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
waa  residing  in  Delaware  in  1692;  the  scene  of  his  la- 
bors in  the  ministry  from  1705  onwards,  was  the  church- 
es planted  by  Mr.  Makemie  in  Maryland,  and  those  in 
their  immediate  vicinity.  He  finally  succeeded  Mr. 
Hampton  as  minister  of  Snow  Hill,  and  died  in  the 
summer  of  1725.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer, 
Pulpit,  iii,  3. 

Davis,  Samuel  H.  (2),  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Frederick  County,  Md^  Oct.  14, 1833.  He 
graduated  from  Uampden-Sidney  College,  Ya.,  in  1853 ; 
studied  theology  at  Union  Seminary ;  was  licensed  by 
the  Presbytery  of  Baltimore  in  1856;  preached  at  Ame- 
lia  and  Namozine,  Ya.,  and  died  July  19, 1858.  See 
Wilson,  Presb.  Hist,  A  Imanac,  1860,  p.  70. 

Davis,  Samuel  S^  1>J)*,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Ballston,  N.  Y.,  July  12, 1798.  He  entered 
Union  College  at  Schenectady,  but  graduated  at  Mid- 
dlebury  College  in  1812 ;  took  charge  of  an  academy  at 
Castleton,  Yt. ;  in  the  fall  of  1815  entered  Princeton 
Seroiiuiry,  but  before  the  close  of  the  year  went  to  act  as 
tutor  at  Union  College ;  returned  again  in  1817,  and 
graduated  in  1819.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Albany,  Oct.  12  of  the  same  year;  soon  afterwards 


was  commissioned  to  collect  funds  for  a  seminary  in 
North  Carolina,  which  was  eventually  located  at  Co* 
lambia,  S.  C.  He  was  ordained  at  Albany,  Aug.  12, 
1821 ;  became  pastor  at  Darien,  Ga.,  Dec.  16  of  the  same 
year;  after  two  years  went  to  Camden,  S.  C;  in  1838 
accepted  an  appointment  as  agent  of  the  General  As- 
sembly's Board  of  Education;  in  1841  and  1842  was 
professor  of  Latin  in  Oglethorpe  University,  Milledge- 
ville,  Ga.;  from  1845  to  1851  served  at  Camden,  S.  C, 
a  second  time,  and  died  June  21, 1877.  See  Xecrolog. 
Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1878,  p.  9. 

Davis,  Setb,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman, 
was  bora  at  Providence,  R.  L,  July  18, 1802.  He  grad- 
uated at  Hobart  College  in  1827;  took  the  course  at 
the  General  Tbeologicid  Seminary;  was  ordained  dea- 
con in  1833,ofllciating  at  Seneca  Falls,  N.Y.;  became 
rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Cleveland,  O.,  where  he  was 
ordained  presbyter,  and  remained  four  years ;  returned 
to  western  New  York,  laboring  in  several  parishes,  and 
a  part  of  the  time  engaged  in  teaching ;  in  1854  went 
to  Connecticut,  and  took  charge  of  the  parishes  in  Wood- 
bury, North  Haven,  and  Northford ;  in  1857  was  pastor 
at  Monroe,  where  he  died,  July  6, 1862.  See  Amer, 
Quar,  Church  Rev,,  April,  1868,  p.  149. 

Davis,  Silaa  Ne'virton,  a  Cumberland  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  bom  in  Livingston  County,  Ky.,  May 
28, 1808.  The  Anderson  Presbytery  received  him  Nov. 
14, 1827;  shortly  after  he  entered  a  theological  school 
conducted  by  Biev.  Richard  Beard,  D.D.,  at  McLemors- 
ville,  Tenn. ;  Sept.  11, 1828,  he  was  licensed  as  a  proba- 
tioner ;  the  following  year  was  appointed  to  what  waa 
called  the  Livingston  district;  after  spending  the  sum- 
mer in  study  at  Cumberland  College,  was  ordained  in 
the  fall  of  1880;  until  1834  his' time  was  chiefly  spent 
in  itinerant  work  in  Tennessee;  for  several  years  he 
was  pastor  of  the  Elkton  Congregation ;  in  1850  he  re- 
moved to  Cumberland  College,  and  died  Sept  26, 1854. 
See  Beard,  Biographical  Sheidtes,  2d  series,  p.  321. 

Davis,  Stephen  (l),  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  at  Andover,  Hampshire  Oct  80, 1783.  He  waa 
converted  at  thirteen  years  of  age ;  baptized  in  London 
in  1802 ;  began  to  preach  at  twenty,  and  became  an 
evangelist  in  Ireland  in  1816.  He  afterwards  was  the 
travelling  agent  of  the  Irish  Baptist  Society,  and  as 
such  visited  America  in  1832  and  188a  In  18S7  he 
located  in  London,  and  visited  over  England  and  Scot- 
land as  the  advocate  of  the  society  till  1845,  when  gout 
obliged  him  to  resign,  and  he  continued  to  preach,  as 
he  had  strength,  till  his  death,  Feb.  8, 1856.  See  (Lond.) 
Baptist  Hand-hook,  1856,  p.  47. 

Davis,  Stephen  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister,  was  bom  in  Gloucester  County,  Ya.,  about  1765. 
He  travelled  about  seven  years  in  the  itinerant  connec- 
tion, and  died  in  August,  1796.  See  Minutes  ofAmmal 
Conferences,  1796,  p.  66. 

Davis,  Stephen  Joshua,  an  English  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Woolwich,  Rent,  in  1805.  He 
was  converted  in  his  youth ;  studied  at  Briatol  College 
in  1826;  attended  the  ministry  of  Rev.  Robert  Hall; 
first  settled  at  Weymouth;  was  called  to  London  in 
1837;  was  many  years  secretary  of  the  Baptist  Home 
Missionary  Society  and  of  the  Irish  Missions,  and  in 
1863  settled  as  pastor  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  where  he 
died.  May  11,  1866.  See  (Lond.)  Baptigt  Hand-book, 
1867,  p.  132. 

Davis,  Sylvester,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Royalton,  Mass.,  in  1809.  He  was  converted  in  1880 ; 
studied  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y. ;  was  ordained  at  Evana 
Mills;  subsequently  settled  in  Cassville,  and  in  Febru* 
ary,  1861,  went  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  5, 1852.  See  A  mer.  Baptist  Register,  1852,  p.  418. 
(J.  a  S.) 

Davia,  Thomas  (1),  an  English  Baptist  minister 
waa  bora  at  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  about  178a  He 
was  converted  at  Woolwich,  Kent,  Joined  the  Cbureb 


DAVIS 


267 


DAWS 


there,  wu  caDed  as  paatot  to  Reading,  Berkshire,  and 
died  Dec.  27,  179«.    See  Rifpon's  lUgitUr,  ii,  614. 

CJ.  a  a) 

Da'viflk  Thomas  (2)^  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  admitted  to  orders  in  England  in  Septem- 
her,  1773;  came  to  America;  settled  in  Norfolk  parish, 
¥a.;  in  1792  was  in  St.  Stephen's  parish ;  in  1795  be- 
came rector  of  Christ  Church,  Alexandria,  and  died  there 
some  time  before  1810.  See  Sprague,  AfmaU  of  the 
Amer.  Pu^,  y,  406, 

Davis,  Thomaa  Ftedexlck,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop,  was  consecrated  in  St.  John*s  Chapel, 
New  York  city,  as  bishop  of  South  Carolina,  Oct.  17, 
1S53,  resided  at  Camden,  and  died  Dec.  2,  1871.  See 
Prot  Episc  Almemae,  1872,  p.  127. 

Davifl,  Thomaa  P.,  Jr.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
deigyman,  was  rector  in  1853  at  Henderson,  N.  C ;  in 
the  following  year  became  assistant  minister  of  Grace 
Church,  Camden,  S.  C,  in  which  position  he  remained 
ontil  his  death  in  1866.  See  Prot,  Epite.  AlmanaCf 
1867,  p.  101. 

Davia,  ^^illiam  (1),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Orange  County,  Va.,  Jan.  7, 1765.  He  was  immersed 
at  a  Baptist  Church  in  Orange  County,  called  **Blue 
Bun,"  in  his  fifteenth  year ;  soon  after  began  publicly  to 
exhort ;  at  sixteen  became  a  soldier  in  the  Revolutionary 
army,  and  was  wounded  in  the  head.  He  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1788;  ordained  in  Georgia  in  1798;  served 
one  church  in  Elbert  County  tweiUy-three  years;  that 
at  Beaver  Dam  twelve  years ;  Clark's  Station  nineteen 
years ;  and  died  Oct  81, 1831.  See  Campbell,  Gtorgia 
'Baptial*.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Dawia,  William  (2),  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  in  London,  June  16, 1788.  He  stud- 
led  at  Southampton ;  entered  Hoxton  Academy  in  1814 ; 
in  1818  became  pastor  at  Hastings,  and  died  Jan.  19, 
1855.  He  published.  The  True  Dignity  of  Human 
Nature  :—ImmorUiliiy.  See  (Lond.)  Cong»  Year-hook^ 
1866,  p.  210. 

DaviafWilliam  (8),  a  Canadian  Methodist  preach- 
er, was  bora  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  June  5, 1851.  In  1854 
his  parents  emigrated  to  Toronto,  Canada.  He  was 
converted  in  1869,  under  the  Primitive  Methodists,  and 
began  to  preach ;  was  accepted  by  the  Bible  Christians 
in  1878 ;  travelled  in  several  circuits ;  and  died  April  19, 
1880,  at  Palmyra,  Canada. 

Davla, William  C,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  1760.  He  m^as  received  as  a  candidate  under 
the  South  Carolina  Presbytery  in  1786;  licensed  in 
1787 ;  accepted  a  call  from  the  Nazareth  Church  in  1788 ; 
ordained  in  1789;  in  1806  became  pastor  at  Bullock 
Creek,  S.  C;  was  deposed  April  8, 1811,  for  erroneous 
doctrine ;  and  died  Sept.  28, 1831.  See  Sprague,  ilimai:! 
tfthe  A  mar.  Pulpit,  iv,  122. 

Davia,  William  F.  P., a  German  Reformed  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Paradise,  York  Co.,  Pa.,  Oct  1, 1831. 
He  completed  his  classical  and  theological  studies  at 
Lancaster  in  1863;  the  same  year  was  licensed  and 
ordained ;  for  some  time  was  pastor  at  New  Oxford,  in 
Adams  County;  then  of  the  Sinking  Spring  charge,  in 
Berks  County;  and  died  at  Reading,  June  11,  1883. 
(D.  Y.  H.) 

I>aTia,  William  H.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Jasper  County,  Ga.,  Aug.  18, 1826 ;  graduated  from 
Mercer  University  in  1853;  was  ordained  the  same 
year,  and  settled  in  Burke  County,  Ga.  For  seven  years 
(1868-75),  besides  preaching,  he  was  engaged  in  teach- 
iag  in  the  Uepzibah  High-school;  and  died  Sept.  18, 
1879.    SeeCathcart,^o/>rM<i:a€yc^.p.816.  (J.CS.) 

I>a'Viao&,  John,  a  Canadian  Methodist  minister, 
was  bom  near  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  England,  Nov.  28, 
1799L  He  was  a  member  of  the  first  Primitive  Meth- 
o^afc  Society  formed  in  Newcastle,  and  at  nineteen  years 
of  Ml  made  hia  fint  attempt  at  preaching.    In  March, 

XIL-R 


1828,  he  was  appointed,  with  certain  others,  to  the 
Shields  and  Sunderland  missions.  Afterwards  he  waa 
appointed  to  the  Hexham  Station.  Subsequently  be 
travelled  on  seventeen  stations,  extending  over  a  peri- 
od of  twenty-four  jrears.  In  1849  he  went  to  Canada 
as  superintendent  of  missions.  He  resided  in  Toronto 
three  years;  then,  after  filling  four  appointments,  he 
was  in  1859  appointed  general  missionary  secretary  and 
book-steward,  which  brought  him  to  Toronto  again, 
where  be  continued  to  reside  until  his  death,  March  1, 
1884.  In  1840  Mr.  Davison  compiled  the  journals  of 
William  Clowes,  and  in  1864  published  the  life  of  that 
evangelist.  He  commenced  a  monthly  paper,  The  Evan" 
gelitt,  which  in  1858  was  merged  into  the  Christian 
Journal,  and  had  the  charge  of  it  until  1866.  He  also 
compiled  the  first  Book  of  DiscipUae  of  the  Canadian 
Methodists.  See  (Toronto)  Chrittian  Guardian,  March 
19,1884. 

Daviaon,  John  Wilea,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Cambridgeshire,  England,  Dec.  17, 
1810.  He  Was  converted  at  the  age  of  thirteen ;  emi- 
grated to  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  in  1838;  in  1840  joined  the 
Oneida  Conference ;  about  1856  removed  to  lUuiois,  and 
in  the  following  year  connected  himself  with  the  Rock 
River  Conference.  He  became  a  superannuate  in  1870, 
and  died  Jan.  12, 1876.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Confer^ 
encesj  1876,  p.  151. 

Davke  (the  female  Earth),  in  Gnoco-Babylonian 
mythology,  was  the  wife  of  Aoe,  and  the  mother  of  the 
demiurgus  BeL    She  was  also  called  Davcina, 

Davy,  William,  an  English  dinne,  was  bom  about 
1743.  He  studied  at  the  Exeter  Free  Grammar-school; 
graduated  from  college,  and  became  curate  at  Lustleigh ; 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Winkleigb,  Devon,  and 
died  June  13, 1826.  He  published  System  of  Divinity 
(Exeter,  1785,6  vols.  12mo;  1825,2  vols.8vo;  1827,  8 
vols.  8vo;  Lustleigh,  1796-1807,  26  vols.  8vo).'  See 
(Lond.)  Annual  Register,  1826,  p.  258;  Allibone,  Du^ 
of  Brit,  and  A  met:  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Davya,  Georok,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of 
England,  graduated  at  Christ  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1803,  and  became  a  fellow ;  subsequently  was  curate  of 
Littlebury,  and  in  1814  of  Chesterford ;  afterwards  of 
Swaffham  Prior ;  removed  to  Kensington,  and  was  ai>- 
pointed  tutor  to  the  princess  Victoria ;  was  advanced  to 
the  see  of  Peterborough  in  1839,  and  died  April  18, 1864, 
aged  eighty-four  year&  In  theology  Dr.  Davys  be- 
longed to  the  evangelical  section  of  his  church,  although 
he  took  no  part  in  theological  controversy.  See  Amer* 
Quar.  Church  Rev.  July,  1864,  p.  826. 

Daw,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his  degree 
at  St.  Salvador's  College,  St.  Andrewf,  in  1663 ;  became 
chaplain  to  the  laird  of  Duninald;  was  presented  to  the 
living  at  Kinnaird;  admitted  Sept.  28, 1676;  and  died 
in  1698,  aged  about  fifry-five  years.  See  Fasti  Eedes. 
ScotteanoB,  iii,  829. 

Dawea,  Mark,  an  English  Wcslcyan  minister,  waa 
bora  at  Rtdgway,  near  ShefiSeld.  He  was  converted 
early ;  entered  the  ministry  in  1809 ;  and  died  at  Birstall, 
June  1, 1844,  in  the  fifly-ninth  year  of  his  age.  See 
Minutes  of  the  British  C<)nfertnce,  1844,  p.  13. 

Dawkea,  Clendon,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  said  to  be  a  native  of  Wellingborough.  He  set- 
tled in  early  life  at  Wapping,  about  1719,  but  in  1726 
took  charge  of  a  newly  formed  church  in  Collier's 
Rents,  Southwark.  About  1734  he  was  chosen  after- 
noon preacher  at  Devonshire  Square,  but  on  the  dissolu- 
tion of  that  society  in  1751,  removed  to  Hemel-Hemp- 
stead,  Herts,  where  he  died,  Dec  8, 1758.  See  Wilson, 
Dissenting  Churches,  i,  581. 

Daws,  JosiAH,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in  Cal- 
laway County,  N.  C.,  in  1826.  His  family  moved  to  Ten- 
nessee in  1827.  He  was  baptized  in  1849,  ordained  in 
1851  or  1852,  and,  for  three  years,  was  pastor  of  the 
Antioch  Church.    In  1857  he  moved  to  Kentucky,  and 


DAWSON 


258 


DAWSON 


preached  two  yean  for  the  Oolnmbos  Church,  and  fonr 
yean  for  the  Cane  Run  Church.  During  the  war  he 
resided  in  Tennessee,  but  at  its  dose  returned  to  Ken- 
tucky, and  died  at  Kutherford,  Tenn^  March  1,  1872. 
See  Borum,  Sketches  of  Tenau  Mimttert,  p.  200.  (J.  a  S.) 

DawBon,  Benjamin,  LL.D.,  an  English  Presby- 
terian minister,  grandson  of  a  clergyman  ejected  in  1662, 
took  his  degree  at  Glasgow ;  settled  at  Congleton,Chesh- 
ire,  in  1752 ;  removed  to  SL  Thomas's  Church,  South- 
wark,  about  1754 ;  in  1759  joined  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, became  rector  of  Burgh,  Suffolk,  and  died  in  July, 
1814,  aged  eighty-five  years.  He  published,  Leduret 
in  Defence  of  the  Trinity  (1764)  '.^Dialogue  on  the  Quti- 
tion  of  Liberty  and  Ntcetnty  (1780) : — two  tracts  on  The 
Iniermediaie  State: — An  English  Dictionary  on  a  New 
Plan,    See  VUlBonf-Diaaentiny  Churches,  iv,  815-817. 

Da^^BOn,  Charl^B  Cornelius,  an  English  Bap- 
tist minister,  was  bom  at  Shenfield,  Essex,  Nov.  18, 1817. 
He  was  converted  at  twenty,  and  was  baptized  by  the 
Rev.  W.  Upton;  sailed  for  Ceylon  in  1840,  and  for 
some  time  did  the  printing  at  the  mission  press  there; 
afterwards  took  charge  of  the  station  at  Maturs,  till 
his  health  failed,  and  sailed  for  England  Feb.  10, 1850, 
but  was  never  again  heard  of.  See  (Loud.)  Baptist 
Handbook,  1851,  p.  54. 

DawBon,  Jamea  (1),  a  Scotch  clerg^^man,  son  of 
Bcv.  John  Dawson,  took  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, Nov.  9, 1722;  studied  divinity  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity in  1725;  was  licensed  to  preach  the  same  year; 
presented  to  the  living  at  Langton,  and  ordained  Aug. 
18,  1727 ;  transferred  to  the  West  Kirk,  St.  Cuthbert's, 
Edinburgh,  Jan.  81, 1783;  and  died  Jan.  22, 1785,  aged 
thirty -three  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  122, 
419. 

Da^TBon,  Jamea  (2),  a  preacher  of  the  United 
Methodist  Free  Church,  was  bom  at  Lowmore,  Clithe- 
roe,  Lancashire,  in  1842;  M-as  sent  to  the  Free  Method- 
ist Sunday-school,  where  he  was  converted ;  in  1861  be- 
came a  local  preacher,  and  in  1864  a  home  missionary. 
He  travelled  in  three  circuits,  and  died  in  the  autumn 
of  1868.     See  Minutes  of  the  18/A  A  nnual  A  ssemUy, 

DaWBOn,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  took  his 
degree  at  Edinburgh  University,  July  9,  1694;  was 
called  in  May,  1698,  to  Langton;  ordained  July  14  fol- 
lowing; and  died  in  November,  1726,  aged  about  fifty- 
three  years.     See  Fasti  Eccles,  ScoticantXy  i,  419. 

Da^^BOn,  John  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan  minis- 
ter, was  a  native  of  Portsmouth.  He  was  converted  in 
early  life;  received  into  the  ministrj'  in  1838,  and  died 
at  New  Cross,  Deptford,  Sept.  6, 1875.  See  Minutes  of 
the  British  Conference^  1876,  p.  14. 

Da^^Bon,  John  Edmonds,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Washington  County,  Ga.,  March  7, 
1805.  He  united  with  the  Church  in  1827;  was  or- 
dained Jan.  14, 1835;  and  died  Nov.  18, 1860.  Hb  min- 
isterial life  was  spent  chiefly  in  the  middle  and  western 
parts  of  the  state,  and  he  rose  to  the  highest  rank  as 
a  preacher.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Kncyclop,  p.  1298. 
(J.C.&) 

Da^^BOn,  Joaepb,  an  English  Wealeyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Wimeswould,  Leicestershire,  Feb.  28, 1847. 
He  was  converted  at  twenty-one;  appointed  to  Cardiff 
in  1875;  and  died  Feb.  18, 1877.  See  Minutes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1877,  p.  29. 

DawBon,  Robert,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  had  the 
gift  of  a  bursary  in  Edinburgh  University  in  Novem- 
ber, 1747;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  November.  1752; 
became  assistant  to  Mr.  Archibald  Lundie,  minister  of 
Salton;  was  presented  by  the  king  to  the  living  at 
Stow ;  ordained  SepU  25, 1759 ;  and  died  March  23, 1809, 
aged  eighty.one  years.  He  published  An  Account  of 
the  Parish.    See  Fasti  Eccks,  Scoticana,  i,  534. 

Da'V^Bon,  Samuel,  a  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South, was  bom  in  Rockingham  Conn* 


ty,  Va.,  Nov.  10, 1798.  He  joined  the  Church  about 
1814,  and  entered  the  Mississippi  Conference  in  184], 
wherein  he  labored  as  health  permitted  until  his  death, 
in  1858.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences  of  the  M,  E. 
Church  South,  1858,  p.  35. 

DawBon,  Samuel  O.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
in  Virginia  in  1834.  He  was  converted  when  young; 
in  May,  1859,  was  ordained  near  Marietta;  about  four 
years  afterwards  engaged  in  missionary  work  in  East 
Toledo;  was  chosen  secretary  of  the  convention  in  Jan- 
uary, 1875,  and  died  Sept.  5  following.  See  Cathcart, 
Baptist  Encydop.  p.  817.     (J.  C.  S.) 

DawBon,  Thomaa,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
in  England  in  1790.  He  was,  in  early  life,  an  officer  in 
the  English  army ;  but,  at  the  age  of  twentv-five,  was 
baptised,  and  came  to  the  United  Sutes  in  1*818.  The 
following  year  he  was  ordained,  and  soon  after  sent  as  a 
missionary  to  the  Cherokees  in  North  Carolina.  After 
their  removal  by  the  government,  he  went  to  South 
Carolina,  and  for  twenty  years  preached  among  the 
mountains,  and  was  a  missionary  among  the  colored 
people  on  the  coast.  He  died  June  29, 1880.  See  Cath- 
cart, Baptist  Encydop,  p.  817.     (J.  C.  S.) 

DawBon,^^illiam.(l),an  eminent  Wesleyan  lay- 
preacher,  was  bora  at  Garfortfa,  Yorkshire,  March  80, 
1778,  and  died  suddenly  at  Colne,  June  5, 1841.  He 
was  at  first  a  member  of  the  Established  Church ;  be- 
came a  local  preacher  in  1801 ;  and,  making  his  home 
at  Bambow,  near  Leeds,  went  up  and  down  the  king- 
dom, preaching,  raising  collections,  speaking  at  mission- 
ary meetings,  followed  sometimes  from  town  to  town 
by  colliers  and  yeomen ;  having  congregations  so  large 
that  he  was  compelled  t^  preach  in  the  open  air.  One 
who  heard  him  says, "  The  effect  of  his  sermons  on  the 
immense  and  eager  audiences  I  never  saw  before  nor  ex- 
pect to  see  again.  Not  a  man,  woman,  nor  child  oould 
resist  him;  and  there  was  so  much  Scripture  in  his  rep- 
resenutions,  and  all  said  in  honor  of  Christ,  that  the 
speaker,  with  the  sacred,  magic  wand,  was  hid  in  the 
glory  of  his  divine  Redeemer"  (Wskeley,  Ueioes  of 
Methodism,  p.  860).  Dr.  George  Smith  considers  him 
"the  most  eminent  lay -preacher  that  has  ever  ap- 
peared in  Methodism;"  and  Adam  CUrke  exclaimed, 
"What  an  astonishing  mind  he  has."  He  "possessed 
a  strong,  highly  original,  noble  and  generous  mind, 
with  an  equally  catholic  spirit,  and  his  whole  character 
was  as  transparent  as  the  light,  and  warm  as  the  son's 
own  ray ;  and  although  not  an  educated  man  in  the 
strictest  sense  of  the  term,  much  less  refined,  yet  he 
possessed,  along  with  earnest,  manly  sense,  and  a  vigor- 
ous intellect,  striking  originality  and  a  rich  power  of 
conception,  which,  although  not  free  from  occasional 
eccentricity,  bespoke  the  man  of  trae  genius."  Dawson 
published  an  address  on  the  death  of  Rev.  William 
Bramwell,  short  memoirs,  speeches  on  passing  events; 
and  a  volume  of  his  private  letters—tender,  faithful, 
forcible,  graceful— a  "  spiritual  treasury,"  was  edited  by 
Everett,  and  issued  in  London  in  1842.  See  Everett, 
Memoirs  of  William  Dawson  (Lond.  1842,  pp.  547);  West, 
Sketches  of  Wesleyan  Preacheis,  p.  299  sq. ;  Stevens, 
HiH.  of  Methodism,  iii,  179-184,  271,  275;  Smith,  Jlitt. 
of  Wesleyan  Methodism,  iii,  452-454  (see  Index) ;  i/ta- 
utes  of  the  British  Conference,  1841,  p.  137. 

DawBOn,^^imam  (2),an  English  Wesleyan  min. 
istor,  nephew  of  the  foregoing,  was  bom  at  Ancaster, 
near  York,  Oct.  19, 1807.  He  was  converted  at  the  age 
of  sixteen ;  entered  the  ministry  in  1880;  was  appoint- 
ed to  his  last  circuit  (Holmfirth)  in  1858,  and  died  Aug. 
19  of  the  same  year.  See  Minutes  oj  the  British  C<m^ 
ferencc^  1859. 

DaWBOn,  William  (8),  an  English  Congregation* 
al  minister,  son  of  Rev.  James  Dawson,  was  bom  in 
Vizagapatam,  a  sea-port  of  Orissa,  India,  Jan.  16, 1816. 
He  was  converted  early;  studied  at  Madras,  and  began 
bis  ministry  in  1838,  as  an  assbtant  missiouao^  fint  at 


DAWSON 


259 


DAT 


Caddapafa,  and  aftenranb  at  Tripaatora.  Id  16A5  he 
waa  ordained  pastor  at  Chicaeole,  and  in  1861  veinoved 
to  Yizianagram,  where  be  labored  antil  iU>health  canaed 
hia  rengnation  in  1874.  In  1875  he  embarked,  with 
manj  frienda,  for  England ;  but  on  May  6  died  and  waa 
buried  at  aea.  Mr.  Dawaon  oompiled  a  Teluga  Ufmn^ 
hotiltt  and  eercnd  tracts^  See  (Lond.)  Cof^.  XtarAtook^ 
1876,  p.  827. 

UHwBOii,  inrimniir<rMBiWH  air  sngimr  fieaiejair 
Biinister,  waa  bom  at  Portaea,  Feb.  19, 1816.  He  Joined 
the  Church  in  1831 ;  was  received  into  the  ministry  in 
1838;  became  a  supemnmerary  at  Freeraantle  in  1872 ; 
and  died  April  5, 1880.  See  J/tnu/ef  nffih^  British  Ctm- 
fertmx^  1880,  p.  28. 

Day,  Andrew,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
eopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Gibson  County,  Ind., 
July  22, 1816.  He  waa  converted  in  1886 ;  joined  the 
Miasissippi  Conference  in  1888,  in  which  he  labored 
Ibrty-two  years ;  and  died  at  the  residence  of  his  son, 
in  Lexington,  Miss.,  May  8, 1880.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
imal Coi^eraieu  of  the  M,  E.  Chvrck  Souths  1880,  p. 
175. 

Day,  Qeorgo  (1),  a  Boman  Catholic  prelate  of  the 
16th  century,  was  bom  in  Shropshire,  and  was  sueoea- 
sively  scholar,  fellow,  and  provost  of  King*s  College, 
Cambridge,  which  office  he  retained  with  the  bishopric 
of  Chichester,  to  w  h  ich  he  waa  consecrated  in  1 548.  He 
was  a  most  pertinacious  Romanist,  for  which  he  was 
deprived  of  his  benedce  under  Edward  YI,  and  restored 
by  queen  Marv.  He  died  in  1556.  See  Fuller,  Wor^ 
tkiet  o/EnffUmd  (ed.  NuttaU),  iii,  59. 

Day,  Qeorge  (2),  an  English  Baptist  minister,  waa 
bom  at  Wincanton  in  1788.  He  was  pastor  first  of  an 
Independent  church  in  his  native  town;  subsequently 
of  a  Baptist  church  in  the  same  place ;  and  died  March 
10,  1858.     See  (Lond.)  Baptist  lland-iook,  1861,  p.  98. 

(J.  a  S.) 

Day,  George  Tiilany,  D.D.,  a  Free-will  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Concord  (now  Day),  Saratoga 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  Dec  8,  1822.  While  a  lad,  he  went  into  a 
cotton  factory  at  Hebronville,  Mass.  At  the  age  of 
tw^ve  he  lived  for  a  time  with  an  elder  brother,  and 
subsequently'  at  Lonadale,  R.  I.  He  was  converted  in 
the  winter  of  1839-40,  and  was  baptized  by  Rev.  Martin 
Cheney,  of  Olneyville,  with  whose  church  he  united. 
Two  years  afterwards  he  became  a  student  in  the  Sroitb- 
ville  Seminary,  and  subsequently  went  to  the  theolog- 
ical school  of  his  denomination  at  Whitestown,  N.  Y. 
Dec  1, 1846,  he  commenced  preaching  in  Grafton,  Mass., 
and  was  ordained  at  Olneyville,  May  20, 1847.  In  the 
spring  of  1851  he  became  principal  of  Geauga  Seminary, 
in  Ohio,  at  the  same  time  taking  charge  of  the  church 
there,  until,  in  July,  1852,  he  removed  aa  pastor  to  Ol- 
neyville, R.  I.,  also  serving  aa  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Frte-wU  Baptist  Quarterly,  In  April,  1857,  he  visit- 
ed Eonope,  and  on  his  return  was  called  to  the  Roger 
Williams  Church,  in  Providence,  where  he  remained 
about  nine  yearn  At  once  he  secured  a  high  place 
among  the  ministers  of  the  city.  In  1866  he  again  vis- 
ited Europe,  and  extended  his  trip  to  the  Holy  Land. 
The  remainder  of  his  Ufa  waa  spent  aa  editor  of  the 
Marmttg  Star,  He  died  in  Providence,  May  21, 1875. 
See  Bowen,  Memoir.     (J.  a  a) 

Day,  Oeorge  'W.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
BnssffH  Connty,  Va^  Feb.  15, 1807.  He  joined  the  Meth- 
odists  Feb.  24, 1838,  but  soon  after  united  with  the  Bap- 
Uats;  was  licensed  in  La  Grange,  Tenn.,  April  14, 1889, 
and  engaged  in  itinerant  labors  in  the  Big  Hatchie  As- 
sociation; was  ordained  Oct.  17, 1841,  and  for  several 
years  was  pastor  of  the  Big  Black  Church,  near  Den- 
mark, Madison  Co.,  Tenn.,  also  having  charge  of  the 
Bethlebem  Church  in  Handeman  County,  for  ten  years, 
m  well  as  of  several  others  in  Tennessee ;  and  finally  of 
the  chorchea  at  Maple  Spriaga,  Denmark,  and  Antfat->- 
all  in  Madiaott  Co.,  and  Woodland,  Haywood  Co.    He 


died  hi  Augost,  1881.    Sea  Bomm,  Skteha  of  Tom* 
Ministers,  p.  19L     (J.  C.  S.) 

Day,  Ira,  a  Free-will  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  at 
Burlington,  Otsego  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Oct  C,  1818.  W  hen  about 
thirteen  years  old  he  joined  the  Congregational  Church 
at  PlainfleM,  N.  Y. ;  in  1866  removed  to  WiUet,  where 
he  joined  the  Free-will  Baptists,  and  where  he  was  sub* 
sequently  licensed  and  ordained  pastor.  Finally  he  oe- 
cnpiedthe  same  relation  in  Fabius  for  three  years,  and 
died  there,  July  29, 1888.  See  Morning  Star,  Nov.  7, 
1888.    (J.aSw) 

Day,  Isaac  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minuter, 
wss  bom  at  Petersburg,  Pa.,  April  9, 1809.  He  was  con- 
verted in  his  sixteenth  year ;  in  1849  entered  the  Cin- 
cinnati Conference ;  two  years  later  waa  transferred  to 
the  Ohio  Conference,  wherein  he  labored  until  hw  death, 
which  occurred  March  80, 1856.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Conferences,  1856,  p.  11& 

Day,  lorael,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bora 
at  AtUeborough,  Mass. ;  ordained  over  the  Church  in 
KiUingly,  Conn.,  in  1785;  dismissed  in  1826;  and  died 
in  KiUingly,  Dea  10, 1881.  See  Cong.  QnarteHg,  1860, 
p.  185. 

Day,  Jeremiah,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  Jan.  25  (O.  S.),  1787.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1756 ;  taught  a  school 
in  Sharon  until  Dec  1, 1757,  when  he  began  the  study 
of  theology  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  BcSamy ;  after  a 
year  and  a  half  taught  school  again  about  two  years 
in  Esopus,  N.  Y. ;  settled  on  a  fkrm  on  Sharon  moun- 
tain, still  continuing  his  studies;  and  in  1766  and  1767 
waa  representative  in  the  General  Assembly.  Not  long 
after,  he  resumed  his  theological  studies  under  the  Rev. 
Cotton  Mather  Smith,  and,  after  preaching  at  Danbury 
and  other  places,  waa  ordained  pastor  at  New  Preston, 
Jan.  81, 1770.  In  the  fall  of  1788  he  made  a  mission- 
ary tour  through  western  Vermont.  In  1794  he  made 
another  tour,  this  time  to  the  settlements  on  the  Dels* 
ware,  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and  on  the  Susquehan- 
na, in  Pennsylvania.  From  the  establishment  of  the 
Comtecticut  Evangelical  Magazine,  in  1800,  he  waa  one 
of  the  editors  until  the  close  of  his  life,  at  Sharon,  Sept. 
12,  1806.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit, 
1,688. 

Day,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  was  bora  in 
Aldersgate  Street,  London,  in  1566,  and  was  educated  at 
St.  Albania  HaU,  Oxford ;  in  1588  was  elected  a  feUow 
of  Oriel  College ;  entered  into  holy  orders,  and  became 
a  favorite  preacher  in  the  university;  travelled  three 
years  previous  to  1608,  when  he  obtained  the  vicarage 
of  St.  Mary's,  in  Oxford;  and  died  at  Thurlow,  Suf- 
folk, in  1627.  He  published  some  sermons,  among  which 
the  best  are  Condones  ad  Clerum  (Oxon,  1612, 1615)  :-* 
also  Commentaries  on  the  First  Eight  Psalms  (ibid.  1620). 
See  ChalmerB,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Day,  John  Steele,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Guildhall,  Essex  Co.,  Vt.,  June  4,  1816. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  licensed  to 
preach  in  1889;  in  1848  joined  the  New  England  Con- 
ference, in  which  he  became  a  superannuate  in  1848 ; 
in  1851  resumed  effective  work ;  in  1878  took  a  super- 
numerary, and,  in  1880,  a  superannuated  relation ;  and 
died  at  Winthkop,  Mass.,  March  1, 1882.  See  Minutes 
of  A  nnual  Conferences,  1882,  p.  92. 

Day,  Joshua,  a  Baptist  minister,  waa  bom  at  Read- 
ing, Berkshire,  England,  in  1887.  He  dame  to  the  Unit* 
ed  States  in  1868,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Glovers- 
ville,  N.  Y. ;  soon  after  entered  the  ministry,  settling 
first  at  Northville,  and  removing  afterwards  to  New- 
ark; he  became  pastor  of  the  North  Baptist  Church, 
and  subsequently  of  the  Calvary  Church,  in  Albany, 
where  he  died,  June  20,  1877.  See  Baptist  Weekfy, 
June  28,  1877.    (J.  C  S.) 

Day,  Jotham,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bore  in 


DAT 


260 


DAT 


Maine  about  1790;  was  ordaioed  in  Kennebunkport  in 
1821 ;  in  1828  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Church  in 
Lisbon ;  and  after  1886  preached  for  the  Second  Church 
in  Bowdoin  as  a  supply.  See  Millett,  Bitt,  of  the  Ba^ 
titts  qf  Maine,  p.  441.     (J.  a  S.) 

Day,  J.  C,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  bom  at  Ger- 
mantown,  Pa.,  Oct  10, 1808.  He  was  a  student  at  Get- 
tysburg in  1884;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1886;  first 
labored  at  Friesburg,  N.  J. ;  then  for  ten  years  was 
pastor  at  Saddle  River  and  Ramapo;  six  years  in 
Churchtown,  N.  Y.;  and  for  nineteen  years  in  New 
Germantown,  N.  J. ;  removed,  without  chaige,  to  Mount 
Yale,  and  died  there,  March  25, 1882.  See  Lutheran 
Observer,  April  28, 1882. 

Day,  Ilflark,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bom  near  Dewsbury,  Yorkshire.  He  was  converted  at 
the  age  of  seventeen ;  commenced  his  ministry  in  1808 ; 
and  died  at  Huddersfleld,  June  80, 1828,  aged  thirty- 
eight  years.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference, 
1828. 

Day,  Mulford,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  at  New  Providence,  N.  J.,  April  8, 1801.  He 
was  converted  in  1819 ;  in  1833  entered  the  Philadel- 
phia Conference ;  subsequently  was  transferred  to  the 
New  Jersey  Conference,  and  in  it  labored  until  his  death, 
June  26, 186L  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences, 
1852,  p.  28. 

Day,Pliny  Bntt0,D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Chester  Village  (now  Huntington),  Mass., 
April  21, 1806.  He  entered  the  academy  at  Amherst 
in  1828;  graduated  from  Amherst  College  in  1884,  and 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1887 ;  during  the 
winter  months  of  his  senior  year  at  Andover  performed 
missionary  work  among  the  Catholics  in  Canada.  The 
First  Congregational  Church  in  Deny,  N.  H.,  installed 
him  pastor,  Oct.  4,  1887,  and  he  continued  there  for 
more  t^an  thirteen  years.  During  the  summer  of  1851 
he  visited  Europe,  and  his  letters  of  travel  were  pub- 
lished in  the  CongregationalJoumaU  On  his  retum 
he  became  pastor  at  Hollis,  N.  H.,  July  7, 1852,  and  re- 
mained until  his  death,  July  6, 1869.  He  was  remark- 
able for  saintliness  of  character,  superior  business  ca- 
pacitv,  and  thoughtful  discourses.  See  Cong,  Quarterly, 
1871,' p.  431. 

Day,  Reuben,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  Feb. 
1 1, 1809,  in  Russell  County,  Va.  In  1827  he  removed  to 
Tennessee ;  in  1841  united  with  the  Church  in  Savan- 
nah, Hardin  Co. ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1842 ;  or- 
dained in  November  the  same  year,  and  acted  sus  pastor 
in  Savannah  in  1848;  spent  1844  in  missionary  work,  in 
West  Tennessee ;  had  a  short  pastorate  at  Cotton  Grove, 
in  Madison  Co. ;  took  charge,  in  1846,  of  the  Pleasant 
Plains  Church,  where  he  remained  seven  years ;  after- 
wards served  several  churches  in  Madison,  Henderson, 
Gibson,  and  Hardeman  counties,  for  ten  or  fifteen  years, 
including  Cane  Creek  and  Liberty  Grove.  He  died  in 
1880.  See  Boram,  Sketches  of  Teaa.  Ministers,  p.  197. 
(J.  a  S.) 

Day,  Richard  (1),  an  English  martyr,  was  burned 
at  the  stake  for  the  defence  of  the  Gospel,  with  three 
others,  in  June,  1558,  at  Islington.  See  Fox,  Acts  and 
Monuments,  viii,  467. 

Day,  Richard  (2),  an  English  clerg}*^man  and  print- 
er, was  educated  at  Eton  School  and  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  became  a  fellow  about  1571,  and, 
being  ordained,  supplied  the  place  of  minister  at  Rye- 
gate,  in  Surrey.  He  afterwards  turned  his  attention 
principally  to  printing.  He  translated  Fox's  De  Christo 
Triumphante  Conmdia  (1579),  and  wrote  a  preface  and 
conclusion  to  the  Testaments  of  the  Twdve  Patriarchs, 
See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  a.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Day,  Robert  (1),  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  at  Milverton,  Somersetshire,  July  2,  1721.  He 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  nineteen;  two  years  later 


united  with  the  Church  at  Bow  Green,  Wellington;  in 
174^oommenced  his  studies  at  Bristol,  preaching  occa- 
sionally to  neighboring  churches;  was  ordained  pastor 
in  Wellington  April  8, 1747,  and  died  there,  April  1, 
1791.     See  Bippon,  Register,  1791,  p.  260.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Day,  Robert  (2),  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Dewsbury,  Nov.  8, 1794.  He  was  converted 
in  1809;  called  to  the  ministry  in  1820;  became  a  so- 
pemumerary  in  1859 ;  resided  at  Lowestoft,  and  died 
March  27, 1864.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conferenee, 
1864,  p.  20. 

Day,  Samuel,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bom 
at  Wrentham,  Mas&,  April  14,  1808.  He  graduated 
from  Williams  College  in  1883 ;  for  a  time  taught  in 
Wrentham  and  at  Troy,  N.  Y.;  preached  for  two  years 
in  West  Troy ;  Sept.  28, 1840,  was  ordained  pastor  in 
Wolcottville,  Conn.,  remaining  until  June,  1845;  eight 
years  following  was  agent  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Christian  Union;  then  became  acting  pastor  at  Bd- 
lows'  Falls,  Yt.,  in  1854;  Princeton,  lU.,  in  1859;  Am- 
boy,  in  1860 ;  chaplain  of  the  8th  Regiment  Illinois  Vol- 
unteers in  1862;  in  1866  removed  to  Ann  AHx)r,Mich., 
without  charge,  and  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  April  8, 
1881.     See  Cong.  Year-book,  1882,  p.*28. 

Day,  Samuel  Steams,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  Leeds  County,  OnL,  in  1808.  He  joined  the 
Baptists  in  1825;  graduated  from  the  theological  in- 
stitution at  Hamilton,  N.Y.,in  1885;  was  appointed  by 
the  Missionary  Union  to  labor  in  the  East,  in  August 
of  the  same  year,  and  arrived  in  Calcutta  the  February 
following;  in  1837  went  to  Madras  for  purposes  of 
study,  and  in  due  time  entered  upon  his  work  among 
the  Teloogoos.  In  1840  he  went  to  Bellore,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  a  short  visit  to  his  native  country  in 
1845,  labored  most  faithfully  for  eighteen  years  among 
the  native  tribes,  after  which  he  once  more  returned  in 
broken  health  to  the  United  States,  and  died  at  Cort- 
land ville,  N.  Y.,  in  October,  1871.  See  Baptist  Mission* 
ary  Magazine,  November,  1871.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Day,  Simon,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bora  in  1745.  He  was  converted  while  at  a  boarding- 
school  at  Bristol;  soon  began  to  preach  in  the  village 
of  Somerset;  in  1766  was  appointed  for  Cornwall,  but 
after  a  while  retired  from  the  ministry ;  in  1779  again 
entered  the  itinerant  work ;  in  1817  became  a  supernu- 
merary at  Froroe,  and  died  March  17, 1882.  See  J/tiH 
utes  of  the  British  Conference,  1882. 

Day,  Warren,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  bom 
at  Sharon,  Yt.,  Oct.  1, 1789.  He  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1814 ;  preached  at  Richmond,  N.  Y., 
from  1816  to  1828;  at  Orangeville,  two  years;  at  En- 
field, from  1888  to  1844;  at  Richmond,  from  1845  to 
1850;  resided  at  Wawatoea,  Wis.,  from  1854  to  1868, 
and  died  at  Richmond,  N.  Y.,  May  19, 1864.  See  Cong. 
Quartet  fy,  1865,  p.  207. 

Day,  William  (1),  an  English  prelate,  brother  of 
(jeorge  Day,  bishop  of  Chichester,  was  admitted  to 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1545;  became  proctor  of 
Cambridge  in  1558;  was  made,  by  queen  Elizabeth, 
provost  of  Eton  and  dean  of  Windsor;  and  made  bishop 
of  Winchester,  which  office  he  enjoyed  scarcely  a  year, 
dying  of  extreme  old  age  in  1696.  Unlike  his  brother, 
he  was  a  zealous  Protestant.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of 
England  (ed.  NuttaU),  iii,  60. 

Day,  VTilliam  (2),  an  English  divine,  was  bora 
about  1765.  He  was  ordained  to  the  curacy  of  Dews- 
bury, Yorkshire,  in  1788,  where  he  remained  six  years 
and  a  half;  thence  removed  to  Bengcwonh,  Worcester- 
shire, in  which  he  spent  a  similar  period;  in  1801  be* 
came  assistant  to  the  Rev.  T.  T.  Biddulph,  at  St  James's^ 
Bristol,  with  whom  he  continued  till  1810,  when  he  was 
preferred  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Philip's  by  the  corpora- 
tion, at  the  same  time  laboring  at  other  places  in  the 
vicinity.  He  died  Sept.  7, 1882.  See  (Lond.)  Chris- 
tian  Guardian,  November,  1882,  p.  425. 


DAYKEN 


261 


DEASUIL 


I>aykeii,  Alezandar,  a  German  martyr,  who  bad 
been  the  means  of  doing  much  good  in  other  oonntries, 
went  to  Dornick,  and  for  preachiog  there,  to  the  people 
was  apprehended,  beheaded,  and  burned,  in  1562.  See 
Fox,  Acta  dnd  MonumentSj  iv,  394. 

Dayton,  A.  C,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
Fbunfield,  N.  J.,  Sept.  4, 1813.  He  joined  the  Presby- 
terians at  the  age  of  twelve,  graduated  from  the  New 
York  City  Mediod  College,  and,  after  practicing  a  short 
Ume,  went  to  Florida  for  bis  health ;  three  years  after- 
wards removed  to  Vicksbarg,  Miss. ;  in  1852  united  with 
a  Baptist  Church,  and  began  at  once  to  preach ;  subse- 
quently became  an  agent  of  the  Bible  Board  of  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention,  residing  in  Nashville, 
Tenn^  where  he  was  the  associate  editor  of  the  Ten* 
muee  Baptut,  at  the  same  time  writing  TheodfmUy  also 
InfiitPa  Daugkier,  and  several  other  books  for  Sunday- 
acbools.  During  the  civil  war  he  was  engaged  in  teach- 
ing and  in  literary  pnisuits,  until  his  death  at  Perry,  Ga., 
June  11, 1865.  See  Cathcart,  Bapfist  Enofchp,  p.  819. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Dayton,  Bzra  Fairchild,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Mendham,  N.  J.,  June  6,  1808.  He 
l^nidnated  from  New  Jersey  College  in  1826 ;  was  prin- 
cipal ot  an  academy  in  Baskingridge,  from  1826  to  1829 ; 
•pent  part  of  a  year  in  Princeton  Seminary ;  was  or- 
dained an  evangelist  by  the  Presbytery  of  Newark, 
Jan.  14, 1834 ;  was  stated  supply  at  Augusta,  from  1888 
to  1836;  at  Sparta,  from  1837  to  1889,  and  died  there 
in  October  of  the  latter  year.  See  Gen,  CaU  of  Prince 
tan  TkeoL  Sent.  1881,  p.  7*6. 

Dasa,  AirroKio,  a  Spanish  theologian  and  ecclesi- 
astical historian,  was  bom  at  Valladolid,  and  lived  about 
1625.  He  took  the  habit  of  the  Franciscans,  became 
oveneer  of  the  convent  at  Valladolid,  minister  of  the 
province  of  Concepcion.  and  commissary-general  of  his 
order  under  Gregory  XV.  He  wrote,  Las  Chromeas 
de  la  Orden  de  8,  FraneUco  (ValUdolid,  1611)  .^Hitto- 
riadeku  Llagas  de  S.  Franci$eo  (Madrid,  1612)  .—Vida 
de  8or  Juana  de  la  Cruz,  de  la  Terzera  Orden  de  S. 
Francitco  (ibid.  1613)  :—Exereiciot  Egpirifualee  (trans- 
lated into  Italian  by  Antiodocco,  Rome,  1616): — La 
Pnrifnma  Conception  de  Nueetra  Senora  (Madrid, 
1621):— r«ia  de  Pedro  Regalado  (ibid.  1627).  See 
Hoefer,  JVbiir.  Biog,  GkuraUf  s.  v. 

Dead,  Bkatixo  the.    See  Chibbut  Hak-kebeb. 

DEAD,  BvBNiNo  OF  THE.    See  Cbexation. 

DEAD,  CoMxumox  of  the.  The  practice  of  placing 
the  eucharist  within  the  lips  of  the  dead  prevailed  in  all 
parts  of  the  Church  for  some  centuries.  This  and  the 
baptbm  of  the  dead  were  forbidden  by  councils.  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen  utters  a  serious  warning  against  them. 
Even  when  the  better  sense  of  the  Church  rejected  the 
more  revolting  usage,  the  custom  continued  in  a  form 
hardly  less  superstitious,  of  placing  a  portion  of  the  con- 
secrated bread  upon  the  breast  of  the  corpse  to  be  in- 
terred with  it,  as  a  charm  against  the  attacks  of  malig- 
nant spirits.     See  Smith,  IHct,  of  Christ.  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

DEAD,  Festival  of  the.    See  All-Souls*  Day. 

DEAD,  PRATEB  FOR  THE.    See  Mabb. 

DEAD,  Trkatment  of  the.    See  Burial;  Fi7- 

MBRAL. 

Dealtry,  Thomas,' D.D.,  a  missionary  bishop  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  bom  at  Nottingley,  near  Pon- 
tefract,  in  1796,  and  was  the  son  of  James  Dealtr}',  de- 
scended from  the  ancient  family  of  Dealtry  of  Loflbouse 
Hall,  near  Wakefield,  Yorkshire.  He  was  educated  at 
6c  Catharine's  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as 
LL.B.  in  1828;  was  created  archdeacon  at  Calcutta  in 
1S35,  and  held  that  office  until  consecrated  bishop  of 
Madras,  in  1849.  He  died  March  4, 1861,  leaving  Ser- 
mons  on  various  occasions.  See  Amer,  Qfiar.  Church 
tta.  1861,  p.  396. 

Deambalatofia  (or  Deambulacra)  were  cov- 


ered porticoes  for  walking  in,  more  partienlarly  those 
surrounding  a  church.  They  were  sometimes  of  two 
stories,  and  oocauonally  contained  altars.  The  term  is 
also  used  for  the  walks  of  a  cloister  (q.  v.). 

Dean,  Henry,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom 
about  1480,  and  was  probably  educated  at  St.  Kary*s  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  but  also  studied  at  Cambridge.  He  seems 
to  have  been  one  of  the  black  canons,  and  was  prior  at 
Llanthony,  in  Monmouthshire,  before  1481.  On  Sept  18, 
1494,  he  was  constituted  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland;  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Bangor,  Oct  6, 1496,  where  he  ac- 
complished wonders  in  the  way  of  restoring  cathedrals, 
and  rebuilding  the  palace.  He  was  translated  to  the  see 
of  Salisbury,  Aug.  28, 1499,  and  was  at  the  same  time  ap- 
pointed registrar  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter.  He  occu- 
pied the  see  of  Salisbury  little  more  than  a  year.  Dur- 
ing this  time  he  received  the  great  seal,  under  the  title 
of  lonl-keeper.  He  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury about  1601.  His  health  begad  to  fail  in  1502,  and 
he  died  Feb.  1 6, 1608.  See  Hoo^  Liees  of  the  A  hps.  of 
Canterbury^  v,  600  sq. 

Dean,  Paul,  a  noted  Universalist  and  Unitarian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Barnard,  Yt.,  in  1789.  He  held 
the  doctrine  of  the  Restorationists,  and  was  pastor  of 
churches  in  Boston  and  Easton,  Mass.  He  died  at 
Framingham,  Oct.  1,  1860.  He  published  numerous 
SermonSj  etc 

Dean,  ^^illlam,  an  early  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  educated  at  the  Log  College,  N.  J. ;  was  taken  on 
trial  by  the  New  Brunswick  Presbyter}",  Aug.  3, 1741 ; 
licensed  Oct.  12, 1742,  and  was  sent  to  Neshaminy  and 
the  Forks  of  Delaware,  a  region  inhabited  by  the  Le- 
nape,  or  Delawares,  and  other  tribes.  In  1745  he  went 
with  Byram  of  Mendham  into  Augusta  County,  Ya., 
where  a  great  awakening  attended  their  labors,  and 
continued  until  1751.  He  was  ordained,  in  17q5,  pas- 
tor of  the  Forks  of  Brandywine,  and  received  a  call  also 
from  Timber  Ridge  and  the  Forks  of  James  River,  but 
it  was  not  put  into  his  hands.  He  died  July  9, 1758. 
(W.  P.  a) 

Deane,  James,  a  Judge  and  missionary  to  the  In- 
dians of  New  York,  was  bom  at  Groton,  Conn.,  Aug. 
20, 1748,  and  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1778. 
He  having  been  associated  in  religious  work  among 
the  Six  Nations  at  the  age  of  twelve,  after  leaving  col- 
lege was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  the  Canadian  Indians, 
and  used  his  influence  in  the  interests  of  peace.  He 
served  in  the  Revolution  with  the  rank  of  major,  and 
acted  as  interpreter  at  Fort  Stanwix.  After  the  war 
he  was  long  a  judge  in  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  and  held 
other  important  offices.  He  died  at  Westmoreland, 
in  that  county,  Sept.  10, 1823. 

Deane,  Samuel  (1),  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Norton,  Mass.,  July  80,  1733.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1760 ;  was  settled 
in  1764  at  Falmouth,  as  colleague  to  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Smith,  and  died  Nov.  12,  1814.  See  Sprague,  Annals 
of  the  Amer,  Pulpit^  ii,  327. 

Deane,  Samuel  (2),  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  March  30, 1784,  at  Mansfield,  Mass.,  and  grad- 
uated from  Brown  University  in  1805.  In  1810  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Second  Congregational  Church  in 
Scitnate,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  Aug.  9, 
1834.  He  published  a  History  of  Scituaie  (1881),  be- 
sides several  poems  and  sermons. 

Deasuil  (Celt,  deas^  **  the  south,"  and  suilj  **  a  way  *^), 
a  Druidical  ceremony  consisting  in  pacing  thrice  round 
an  earthen  walk,  which  encompassed  the  temple  exter- 
nally, and  which  is  still  visible  at  Stonehenge  (q.  v.). 
The  route  represented  the  course  of  the  sun,  being  from 
the  east  southward  to  the  west.  This  custom,  as  a  re« 
ligious  rite,  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  very  extensive. 
The  benediction  of  the  Deasuil  was  long  used  in  Ire- 
land, Wales,  and  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and  is  said  to 


DEBIR 


262 


DECKERS 


be  at  pretfent  not  entirdy  extinct— <v«rdiier,  Faitki  tf 
ike  Worldf  s.  ▼.    See  Druids. 

DeblT)  in  the  moantains  of  Judah.  Lieut.  Conder 
gives  an  extended  argument  (Quar.  Staiemeni  of  the 
"  PaL  Explor.  Fand,"  Jan.  1875,  p^  49  aq.)  in  favor  of  lo- 
cating this  place  at  the  modem  ed- Dhoheriyek  [see 
Daknah,  vol  ii,  p.  672],  which  may  be  summed  up  thus : 

(1)  Both  names  signify  the  back,  i  e.  ridge,  of  the  moun- 
tains, on  which  this  place  is  conspicuous;  (2)  it  has  an- 
cient remains,  consisting  of  cave  dwellings,  wells,  and  cis- 
terns ;  five  old  roads  lead  from  it,  and  large  stones,  at  the 
distance  of  about  three  thousand  cubits  around  it,  seem 
to  mark  the  limits  of  a  Levitical  city ;  (8)  there  are  fine 
springs  in  the  neighborhood,  namely,  those  of  Seil  Dil- 
beh,  six  miles  west  of  Juttah,  which  feed  a  brook  that 
runs  several  miles.  To  this  identification  Tristram 
(^BiUe  Places,  p,6i)  and  Trelawney  Saunders  (Map  of 
the  0.  7*.)  aooiade.  The  argument,  however,  is  rather 
specious  than  strong:  (1)  The  names  do  not  agree  in 
etymology,  and  the  resemblance  in  meaning  is  very 
doubtful ;  (2)  the  ruins  show,  indeed,  an  ancient  site, 
but  not  necessarily  the  one  in  question,  and  the  Levit- 
ical bounds  are  particularly  dubious;  (8)  the  springs 
are  too  distant  to  indicate  any  special  connection  with 
this  locality,  which,  moreover,  is  farther  from  Hebron 
than  we  should  expect. 

De  Blois,  FranoolB  Iionls.    See  Blosius. 

De  Blois,  Stephen  W.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  1827  at  Halifax,  X.  S.  He  graduated 
from  Acadia  College  in  June,  1846;  studied  theology 
at  Newton ;  was  ordained  Feb.  26, 1864,  in  Chester;  and 
in  1855  became  pastor  of  the  First  Church  in  Hortou, 
where  he  remained  twenty.«even  years.  He  died  at 
Wolfville,  Feb.  4, 1884.  See  Cathcart,  BaptUt  Encydap. 
p.  322.     (J.CS.) 

Debo  (or  Bebo)  was  the  twenty-second  bishop  of 
Avignon,  atwut  429.  He  was  previously  a  senator  of 
advanced  years,  universally  beloved  for  his  justice,  mild- 
ness, and  every  good  work.  In  483  he  restored  the 
Church  of  St.  Paul,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the 
Vandals,  and  afterwards  dedicated  it  to  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul.     See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

De  Bollandt,  Skbastian.    See  Bollakdus. 

Debris,  Nicolas,  a  French  doctor  of  theology  in 
the  16th  century,  was  one  of  the  four  theologians  whom 
Charles  IX  sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  He  wrote, 
Instrudion  a  Supporter  les  Adeersiiis  du  Monde  (Paris, 
lbi2)  I— Brtf  AiguiUon  a  Aimer  VEtai  de  Beligion 
Chretienne,  etc.  (ibid.  1544).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
Geniralf,  s.  v. 

Decalvatio  (making  bald).  See  Corporal  In- 
flictions ;  PUNISHMKNTS. 

Deoan&tUB  (or  Decanla),  (l)  the  office  of  a  dean ; 

(2)  the  district  of  a  rural  dean ;  (8)  sometimes  a  farm 
or  monastic  grange,  in  late  charters. 

DeoSni  (or  Deans),  an  order  of  men  instituted  in 
the  9th  century,  to  assist  the  bishops  in  the  inspection 
of  their  dioceses.  Seven  of  the  most  enlightened  men 
of  the  congregation  were  appointed,  under  the  name  of 
decaniy  to  take  charge  of  the  rest.     See  Dkan. 

Decanicinxn  was  the  pastoral  staff  borne  before 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  on  solemn  occasions, 
delivered  to  him  in  the  first  instance  by  the  emperor. 
Pancirolus,  however,  states  that  it  was  a  silver  mace. 

DecanXcmn  (Deoania,  or  Decanica)  was  an 
ecclesiastical  prison  in  which  criminal  clerks  were  in- 
carcerated by  their  ecclesiastical  saperiors.  The  word 
is  derived  from  the  decani^  who  were  jailers.  By  a 
false  etymology  it  is  sometimes  written  dicaincum  and 
diaconicum.  The  clergy,  instead  of  being  beheaded  or 
hung  for  misdemeanors,  had  suspended  from  their  necks 
the  gospels  and  the  cross,  and  were  imprisoned  in  one  of 
the  decanica  of  the  church.  The  heretics,  by  a  decree 
of  Arcadiuft  and  Honorius,  were  deprived,  with  other 


buildioga,  of  the  deeanica.    8e^  Sadih,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Antiq.B,v, 

Deottnns.    See  Dean. 

De  CapeUa,  Andrew.    See  Capella. 

Deoentina,  (l)  bishop  of  Leone,  in  Spain,  was  pres- 
ent at  the  Council  of  Elvira,  A.D.  800  or  801 ;  (2)  bish- 
op of  £ugubium,  in  Umbria,  about  416.  Among  the 
epistles  of  Innocent  I  is  a  letter  of  praise  addressed  to 
him.  ' 

Do  Champa,  Yiotoii,  caidinal^archbbhop  of  Mech* 
lin,  was  bom  Dec  6, 1810,  at  Melle.  He  was  a  follow- 
er of  Lamennais,  and  in  the  spirit  of  his  teacher  wrote 
for  different  political  periodicals,  but  in  1882  betook  him- 
self to  the  study  of  theology.  He  Joined  the  Bedemp- 
torists  at  St.  Trond;  soon  became  famous  as  a  pulpit 
orator;  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  in  1850;  in  1865 
was  raised  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Namur,  and  in  1867 
to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Mechlin ;  and  in  1875  was 
made  cardinal,  probably  for  his  advocacy  of  papal  in- 
fallibility. Bishop  De  Champs  was  especially  severe 
against  the  free-masons,  and  proved  himself  a'  decided 
Ultramontanist.    He  died  SepL  29, 1883.    (B.  P.) 

De  Charms,  Richard,  a  minister  of  the  New  Je- 
rusalem Church,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1797. 
In  early  life  he  was  a  printer ;  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1826;  the  year  previous  studied  Swedenbor- 
gianism  under  Thomas  Worcester,  D.D.,  at  the  same 
time  superintending  the  publication  of  the  New  Jeruso' 
km  Magazine;  continoed, his  theological  researches  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  and  there  began  to  preach  in  1828,  hu 
first  sermon,  considered  a  masterpiece,  being  publbhed, 
and  afterwards  reprinted  in  London.  Its  title  was  the 
Paramount,  Importance  of  Spiritual  Things.  After  a 
year  of  pastoral  labor  in  Bedford,  Pa.,  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, studied  under  Rev.  Samuel  Noble,  and  on  return- 
ing, in  1832,  became  pastor  of  the  First  New  Jerusa- 
lem Church  in  Cincinnati,  O^  and  conducted  a  periodi- 
cal called  The  Precursor.  Subsequently  he  preached 
in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  New  York.  In  hb 
latter  days  he  devoted  much  attention  to  various  me- 
chanical contrivances  and  inventions  of  his  own.  He 
died  March  20,  1864.  He  was  the  author  of  Ser- 
mons Illustrating  the  Doctrine  of  the  Lord: — Series  of 
Lectures  Delivered  at  Charleston,  S.  C.s-^The  New 
Churchman : — and  Freedom  and  Slavery  ta  the  Light 
of  t fie  New  Jerusalem.  See  AppUton^s  Anmial  Cgdfp. 
1864,  p.  598. 

DeciuB,  (1)  eighth  bishop  of  Macon,  is  assigned  by 
Severtius  to  the  period  from  599  to  612;  (2)  succeeded 
Deodatus  as  eleventh  bishop  of  Macon,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  7th  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  8th. 

Decker,  Chriatian  Aagaat  Heinrich,  a  Lu- 
theran minister,  was  bom  Oct.  13, 1806,  at  Husum,  in 
Schleswig,  and  studied  theology  at  Kiel  and  Berlin. 
In  1833  he  was  appointed  collaborator  at  the  Meldorf 
school,  and  ten  years  lat«r,  in  1843,  was  called  to  the 
pastorate  at  Klein-Wesenberg,  near  Lubeck.  In  1863 
he  was  called  to  Leezen,  near  Segt'berg,  and  in  1876  to 
the  Thumbye  and  Struxdorf  pastorate,  in  Angeln.  He 
died  June  11, 1884.  He  was  a  very  active  man,  and  a 
stanch  defender  of  his  Church.  He  wrote,  Ordmmg  dee 
Gottesdienstes  und  der  Kirchlichen  Handlungen,  etc  (Al- 
tona,  1845):  —  Die  Revolution  in  Schleswig  •  BoUtein 
(Hamburg,  I860):— re6er  Gustav-A dolphs-Verein  und 
Behenntniss  (ibid.  1861).  See  Zuchold,  BiU.  Theoi. 
U  266;  ItMihSiX^Vs  A  Ugemeine  Evangeiisch^Lutherische 
KirchemeUung,  1884,  No.  42.     (B.  P.) 

Decker  (or  Deokher),  Conrad,  a  Dutch  theo- 
logian  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  taught  at  Heidelberg, 
and  died  in  1620,  leaving,  De  Papa  Bomano  et  Papissa 
Romana: — De  Proprietatihus  Jesuitarum,  etc  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMraUy  s.  v. 

Deokera,  Jan,  a  Flemish  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Hazebroock  about  1559.    He  studied  'at  Douai',  became 


DECLAN 


263 


DEIHL 


•  Jenit  at  Kapks,  Uiigbt,  at  Dom^  and  LonTain,  pbl- 
losophv'  and  tlieology,  and  became  chancellor  oif  the 
unirenity  at  Grata  and  rector  of  the  coUege  at  Olmtttz, 
in  Moravia.  He  died  at  Grata  in  1619.  Hta  principal 
worluaie,  Tabtila  Chrtmograpkica  {XeOby.—Tktologiea 
Ditsertationety  etc.  (Paria,  1699)  i—Tahula  Expama 
£pkemeridum.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GhUrale,  a.  v. 

Dedan  (or  Deglas)  (1)  waa  an  Irish  uint,  who 
•wrought  with  SLYirgilias,  St.  Rupert,  and  othen  in  the 
cTangelization  of  Bavaria,  and  died  at  Frisengen,  Dec. 
1,  about  the  middle  of  the  8th  century;  (2)  bishop  of 
Ardmor,  was  a  son  of  Ere  and  Deirsin,  or  Dethidin. 
Throogh  his  father  he  could  boast  of  royal  anoestr}-. 
He  was  bom  at  Decies,  in  the  county  of  Waterford,  and 
probably  died  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  century.  He 
is  commemorated  July  24^  See  Smith,  DicL  of  Christ, 
Biog.  s.  r. 

Decorated  Style.    See  Gothic  Auciiitkcti7rb. 

Decret,  CLAUDBf  a  French  theologian  and  moral- 
ist, was  bom  at  Touraua  in  1598.  He  Joined  the  Jes- 
uits in  16I4f  and  became  professor  of  philosophy  and 
of  belles-lettres  at  ChAlons,  and  afterwards  rector  of  the 
college  in  the  same  town.  He  died  at  Paris,  April  10, 
1666,  leaving  Jxi  ViritabU  Veuve  (  Paris,  1654).  See 
Hoefer,  JVovr.  Biog.  GiniraUf  a.  v. 

Decretists.  one  of  the  two  parties  into  which  the 
atudents  of  canon  law  in  the  12th  century  were  divided 
in  consequence  of  the  general  recognition  at  that  period 
of  the  supreme  authority  of  the  pope.  The  name  is 
taken  from  thie  title  of  a  work,  Decretttm  Graiitmi,  which 
formed  the  basis  of  their  studies  in  ecclesiastical  law. 
Neander  saya, "  The  zeal  with  which  the  study  of  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  law  was  pursued  had,  however,  this 
injarions  eflTect,  that  the  dergy  were  thereby  drawn 
away  from  the  study  of  the  Bible,  and  from  the  higher, 
directly  theological,  interest,  and  their  whole  life  de- 
voted solely  to  these  pursuits.**  The  opposite  party 
were  called  Legists.  See  Neander,  Hiit.  of  the  Church, 
iv,  203  sq. 

DecrStuin  (or  DecretAld)  is  the  letter  of  the 
clergy  and  people  of  a  city,  sent  to  the  metropolitan 
and  the  comprovincial  bishops,  signifying  the  election 
of  a  bishop  of  their  city,  whom  they  required  to  be  con- 
aecnted.  Gr^^ry  of  Toura  says  that  in  the  choice  of 
Mauritius  the  electors  could  not  come  to  one  decretum. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  a  form  to  be  read  by  the 
deacon  when  a  bishop  is  "  designated.**  The  difference 
between  this  and  the  foregoing  decretum  appears  to  be 
that  the  one  waa  sent  by  the  hands  of  some  official  of 
tlie  vacant  see  immediately  on  the  election  of  the  bish- 
op; if,  thereupon,  the  pope  gave  his  assent,  the  bishop 
became  technically  designate,  and  the  deacon  of  his 
church  read  the  decretale  or  petition  for  consecration. 
See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  A  viiq.  s.  v. 

I>eciim&Iiii8  (or  Degeman)  waa  a  Welsh  saint. 
who  lived  a  hermit  on  the  seashore  at  the  place  called 
firom  him  St.  I>ecuman*s,  near  Watehet,  in  Somerset- 
ahire.  His  well  was  long  pointed  out  there,  and  a 
cbapd  existed  in  the  parish  of  Wendron,  near  Helstone, 
in  Corawall,  which  was  dedicated  to  him.  He  is  said 
to  have  died  Aug.  27,  706.  See  Smith,  Did.  of  Christ. 
Biog,  s.  v. 

I>eda  waa  a  presbyter  and  abbot  of  Peartancu  (Bard- 
ney),  in  the  province  of  the  Lindissi.  He  is  the  author- 
ity of  Bede  for  what  he  states  concerning  the  early  evan- 
gelization of  Lincolnshire,  and  the  multitude  of  people 
bfptt«^  in  the  Trent  by  bishop  Paulinus  in  the  prea- 
CQce  of  king  Edwin.  Beda  calls  him  a  faithful  man. 
See  Smith,  Did.  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Defensor,  (1)  the  first  bishop  of  Angers.  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  birth  or  age.  (2)  A  monk  of  the  mon- 
astery ligngfe,  which  St.  Martin  founded  on  the  ri\'er 
Galin,  dot  Ctf  from  Poitiers.  He  lived  about  the  end 
of  the  7th  century  or  the  beginning  of  the  8th.  He 
was  a  diligent  student  of  the  fathers,  and  by  his  schol- 


arly habiti  acquired  the  title  of  **  Grammarian.**  H« 
made  eztncta  and  compiled  a  book  entitled  SdnHUch 
rum,  seu  SententiaruM  CathoHeorum  Patrum.  The 
work  is  divided  into  eighty  chapters,  and  treats  of  the 
principal  Christian  virtnesL  It  has  appeared,  accoidiog 
to  Possevin,  in  three  editions:  Antwerp,  1550;  Venice, 
1552 ;  Cologne,  1554.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christy  Biog, 

S.V. 

Defensor  EccLsauK.  See  Aovocatb  of  thb 
Chubch. 

Degs.    See  Daioh. 

Dogenkolb,  Kabl  Fbikdbich,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Weissenfels,  July  12, 1682.  He  stud- 
ied at  Leipsic,  became  deacon  in  1716,  archdeacon  in 
1723,  pastor  at  Stolpen  in  1729,  and  died  in  1747.  His 
principal  works  are  Kirch-Begierunge  Gottes  im  Alien 
und  Neuen  Testament  (Bautzen,  I7ib):—Eittleitung  in 
diepolUisehe  Ifistorie  (Pima,  1716):— Wider  die  Athe^ 
isten,  MateriaUsten,  Juden,  Turken  und  Ileiden  (1722): 
--Grundriu  der  Theologie  (Dresden,  1731).  See  Hoe- 
fer, iyTour.  Biog,  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Degin,  bishop  of  Menevia.    See  David,  St. 

Degneiry,  Gaspabd,  a  French  priest,  was  bom  at 
Lyons  in  1797.  Having  completed  bis  studies  in  the 
college  of  Yillefranche,  he  waa  in  1820  ordained  priest 
In  1824  he  preached  at  Lyons,  in  1825  and  1826  at  Paris, 
and  in  the  year  following  Charies  X  appointed  him 
chaplain  of  the  sixth  regiment  of  the  royal  guards. 
After  the  revolution  in  1880  Deguerry  resumed  preach- 
ing again.  On  hia  return  from  Rome,  in  1840,  he  was 
made  canon  of  Notre  Dame,  then  archpriest,  and  finally 
curate  of  St  Eustatius  in  1845  and  of  St  ICagdalene  in 
1849.  He  refused  the  bishopric  of  Marseilles,  offered  to 
him  by  Napoleon  HI,  but  accepted  a  call  as  religious 
instroctor  of  the  prince  in  1868.  Biding  taken  prisoner 
by  the  communists,  March  18, 1871,  he  was  shot  at  La 
Roquette.  He  wrote,  Bloges  de  Jeanne  iTAf^  (1828, 
1856): — ffistoire  de  VAntien  et  du  Nouveau  Testament 
(1846):^r»e  des  Saints  (lSi5) :— and  Sermons  on  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  preached  at  the  Tuileries  in  1866.  See 
Lichtenberger,  Encgdop.  des  Sciences  ReUgieuses^  a.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Deharbe,  Joseph,  a  German  Jesuit  waa  bom  in 
1800  at  Strasburg.  In  1817  he  joined  his  order,  and 
was  professor  at  the  college  of  Brieg,  in  Switzerland, 
where  he  educated  most  of  the  Jesuits,  who  since  1848 
have  acted  as  missionaries  in  Germany.  He  died  Nov. 
8,  1871,  at  liaria-Einsiedeln,  leaving,  GrOndiiche  und 
UichtfassHche  Erkldrung  des  katholischen  Kateehismus 
(1857-68,  5  vols.)  i—Die  voUkommene  Ld)e  Gottes  (RslV- 
isbon,  1856):— £xainfli  ad  (/sum  Cleri  (2d  ed.  1849; 
8d  ed.  1866).     (a  P.) 

Deiofilae  (worshippers  of  God)  was  a  name  some- 
times applied  to  monks, 

Deic61u8  (Deel,  Deicola,  or  DichuiU)  of 
Lure  was  a  saint  and  abbot  He  went  with  St  Colum- 
ban  from  Britain  to  Burgundy,  and  shared  his  fortunes 
at  LuxeulL  He  was  a  uterine  brother  of  St  Gallus. 
Bodily  weakness  hindered  him  from  following  Colum- 
ban  into  exile,  and  although  left  to  perish  in  the  brush- 
wood near  the  monastery,  he  found  his  way  to  the  place 
where  Lutraor  Lure  now  stands,  in  Burgundy,  and  built 
his  cell  there,  which  eventually  grew  into  a  large  and 
flourishing  monastery.  He  is  said  to  have  been  visited 
by  the  Roman  pontiff.  After  ten  years  at  Lure,  seeing 
death  approaching,  he  appointed  (}olumbinus  his  suc- 
cessor, and,  retiring  to  greater  seclusion,  died  Jan.  18, 
625.  His  chief  festival  has  always  been  on  that  day 
of  the  year.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog.  a.  v. 

DeilSms.    See  Dier. 

Delhi,  MiCHAKL,  a  Lutheran  professor,  was  bom 
near  Greencastle,  Franklin  Co.,  Pa.,  in  March,  1819.  He 
attended  a  classical  school,  in  his  native  town,  in  1888; 
graduated  from  Pennsylvania  College  in  1844,  and  then 


DEINIOLEN 


264 


DELFINONE 


pninoed  the  ooane  in  the  Gettysbarg  Theological  Sem- 
inary. In  1846  he  accepted  an  appointment  to  the 
chair  of  ancient  languages  in  Wittenberg  College, 
Springfield,  O.,  which  position  he  held  until  1868,  when 
impaired  health  compelled  him  to  resign.  In  connec- 
tion with  his  labors  as  professor,  he  took  chaiige  of 
churches  at  different  times  in  several  places  near  Springs 
field.  He  died  there,  March  29, 1869.  In  1859  he  pub- 
lished a  Biogiaphy  oflJr,  Ezra  Keller^  first  president  of 
Wittenberg  College.  See  Pemifylvama  College  Book, 
1882,  p.  220. 

Deinlolen  (Deiniol  ab,  Deiniol  Ail,  or  Dei- 
niol  Fab)  was  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century.  He 
was  a  son  of  Deiniol,  first  bishop  of  Bangor.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  second  abbot  in  the  monastery  at 
that  place,  and  is  said  to  hare  founded  the  church  of 
Uandeiniolen,  in  Carnarvonshire,  in  616.  He  is  com- 
memorated Nov.  23.    See  Smith,  Diet,  ofChntt,  Bioff, 

B.T. 

De  KoveD,  Jaaies,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  Sept.  19, 
1881.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  and  the 
General  Theological  Seminary ;  in  1857  took  charge  of 
the  Church  in  Delafield,  Wis. ;  and  in  1869  removed  to 
Racine,  as  rector  and  warden  of  the  university  there. 
In  1875  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Illinois,  but  declined. 
For  many  years  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  General  Con- 
rention.  He  died  at  Racine,  March  19, 1879.  Dr.  De 
Koven  was  noted  for  his  High-Church  views.  A  post- 
humous volume  of  his  Sermons  was  published  by  Dr. 
Dix  (N.  Y.  1880).  See  Prot.  EpUc  Almanac,  1880, 
p.  171. 

De  la  Basse,  Eli.    See  Basse,  Ell 

De  la  Harpe,  Hknri,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Swiss 
theologian,  was  born  at  Bordeaux,  France,  in  1809.  He 
pursued  his  studies  in  Edinburgh,  and  gained  the  first 
prize  in  natural  philosophy  in  1828.  The  year  follow- 
ing he  went  to  Geneva,  and  finally  graiiuated  from  the 
theological  seminary  of  Montauban.  In  1832  and  1833 
he  studied  in  the  seminary  just  founded  by  D'Aubign6 
and  his  compeers.  In  1837  he  was  called  to  the  chair 
of  Old-Test,  exegesis  and  criticism,  which  place  he  filled 
until  the  day  of  his  death,  in  December,  1880,  and  never 
consented  to  receive  any  compensation  for  his  valuable 
services.  He  succeeded  D'Aubtgnd  as  president  of  the 
theological  seminary.  Professor  La  Harpe  was  a  broad 
as  well  as  a  deep  scholar.  He  was  more  or  less  master 
of  twenty  languages.  A  short  time  before  his  death  he 
completed  the  translation  of  the  Old  Test,  into  French, 
a  work  on  which  he  had  been  engaged  twenty-five 
years.  He  was  president  of  the  Geographical  Society 
of  Geneva  and  the  editor  of  its  Journal,  See  AT.  F. 
Observer,  Jan.  6, 1881 .     (W.  P.  S.) 

■ 

Do  Lasky,  Johs.    See  Lasko. 

Delatdres  (^In/ormers,  sometimes  called  Calumtd- 
atores)  were  those  unfaithful  brethren  in  the  early 
Church,  who,  for  money  or  favor  from  the  civil  authori- 
ties, betrayed  the  Christians  into  the  hands  of  their  per- 
secutors. Titus  issued  an  edict  forbidding  slaves  to  in- 
form against  their  masters,  or  freedmen  against  their 
patrons.  It  is  not  wonderful  that  during  and  immedi- 
ately after  the  days  of  persecution  the  informer  was  re- 
garded with  horror.  Thus  the  Council  of  Elvira,  A.D. 
805,  excommunicated,  even  on  his  deathbed,  any  in- 
former who  had  caused  the  proscription  or  death  of  the 
person  informed  against;  for  informing  in  less  impor- 
tant coses,  the  informer  might  be  readmitted  to  com- 
munion after  five  years;  or,  if  a  catechumen,  he  might 
be  admitted  to  baptism  after  five  years.  The  first  coun- 
cil of  Aries,  A.D.  814,  reckons  among  "  traditores  "  not 
only  those  who  gave  up  to  the  persecutors  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  sacred  vessels,  but  also  those  who  hand- 
ed in  lists  of  the  brethren ;  and  respecting  these  the 
council  decrees  that  whoever  shall  be  discovered,  from 
the  public  records,  to  have  committed  such  offences  shall 


be  solemnly  degraded  from  the  clerical  order.  The  ca* 
pitularies  of  the  Frank  kings  cite  the  canon  of  Elvira. 
The  same  capitularies  enjoin  bishops  to  excommunicate 
"accusers  of  the  brethren  ;**  and,  even  after  amendment, 
not  to  admit  them  to  holy  orders,  though  they  may  be 
admitted  to  communion.  There  is  attributed  to  pope 
Hadrian  I  a  decree :  ^  Let  the  tongue  of  an  informer  be 
cut  out,  or  let  his  head  be  cut  off.**  Precisely  the  same 
is  found  in  the  Frank  capitularies,  and  nearly  the  some 
in  the  Theodoelan  code.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ. 
Antiq,  S.V. 

Delanne,  Thomas,  an  English  Baptist  minister 
and  author,  was  bom  of  Roman  Catholic  parents  in  Ire- 
land, near  the  commencement  of  the  17th  century.  He 
was  educated  in  his  native  country* ;  was  converted  in 
youth ;  subsequently  was  teacher  in  a  grammar-school 
in  London,  and  was  ordained  as  a  Baptist  mi nister.  The 
nonconformists  of  England  being  invited  by  Dr.  Calamy, 
at  the  time  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Charles  II,  to  make  a 
statement  of  the  reasons  which  led  them  to  dissent  from 
the  Established  Church,  with  the  assurance  that  they 
would  be  candidly  taken  into  consideration,  Delanne 
published  his  famous  PUafor  the  Nonconformists  (1684, 
4to) ;  it  passed  through  twenty  editions.  The  author 
was  severely  punished  by  torture,  mutilation,  fine,  and 
imprisonment  in  Newgate,  where,  after  a  time,  he  died. 
His  other  works  are,  Truth  Defended,  etc  (Lond.  1667) : 
—Survey  of  Joseph  Whiston^s  Book  on  Baptism  (1676) : 
—The  Present  State  of  Condon  (1681)  :—A  Key  to  Open 
Scripture  Metaphors  (1682,  2  vols.  foL).  See  Hayne, 
Church  Transplanted,  p.  169. 

Delanne,  ^^illiam,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  be- 
came president  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1698, 
prebendary  of  Winchester  in  1702,  vice-chancellor  of 
Oxford  University  the  same  year,  Margaret  professor 
of  divinity  at  Oxford  in  1715,  and  died  May  28, 1728. 
He  published  A  Sermon  (1702):— and  Twelve  Sermons 
(1728).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors, 
s.  V. ;  Le  Neve,  Fasti,  vol.  i. 

Delaware  Version  of  the  ScmPTUREs.  This 
dialect  of  the  Algonquin  stock  was  spoken  at  the  time 
of  the  discovery  of  America,  between  the  Hudson  and 
the  Susquehanna  rivers,  by  the  Delaware  and  Minsi 
tribes.  In  1818  the  Rev.  Christian  Frederick  Dencke, 
a  Moravian  missionary  stationed  at  New  Fairfield,  in 
Upper  Canada,  forwarded  a  translation  of  the  Epistles 
of  St.  John  to  the  board  of  the  American  Bible  Society, 
which  has  been  published.    (B.  P.) 

Delbritok,  Johaxm  Friedrich  Theopiiii^  the 
elder,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom  at  Magdeburg, 
Aug.  22,  1768.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  was 
mode  professor  of  the  gymnasium  in  his  native  town, 
and  became  rector  in  1797.  From  1800  to  1809  he  had 
charge  of  the  education  of  the  Prussian  princes,  and 
was  then  appointed  member  of  the  privy  council  He 
filled  several  other  offices,  and  lastly  had  the  superin- 
tendence of  Zeitz  (archbishopric).  He  died  July  4, 
1830.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  r. 

Delegfitus.    See  Lisgate. 

Delfino,  Gioiranni  Pietro,  an  Italian  ecclesias- 
tic, was  born  at  Brescia  in  1709.  He  studied  theology 
at  Venice,  was  appointed  archpriest  of  San  Zenone,  and 
died  in  1770,  leaving,  //  Tempio  d,  Dio  (Brescia,  1760) : 
— Rayionamenio,  etc.  (in  the  OpuscoU  Scientifici  of  Calo- 
gera).     See  Hoefer,  A'bifr.  Bioy,  Genh-ale,  s.  v. 

Delfino,  Pietro,  an  Italian  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Venice  in  1444.  He  joined  the  Camaldules  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  was  elected  vicar-general  of  his  order 
in  1479,  and  general  in  1480,  holding  this  position,  at 
times  with  much  opposition,  until  1515.  He  died  Jam 
15, 1526,  leaving  Epistola  (Venice,  1724).  See  Hdefer, 
Nouv,  Bioy.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Delfinone,  Girolamo,  a  very  eminent  artist  in 
pictorial  embroidery,  flourished  at  Milan  about  1495. 
He  executed  a  number  of  subjects  from  sacred  history, 


DELISLE 


265 


DEMOORTTUS 


■ome  of  wbich  reprefent  th«  history  of  the  Yiigin.    See 
SpooDcr, BkHf. Hist. o/tke  /Ime  ArtSfa,v» 

Delisld,  Joseph,  a  French  theologiaD,  was  bora  at 
BiaiDrUle,  in  Bassigny,  about  1690.  He  served  for 
some  time  in  the  French  army  Joined  the  Benedictines 
at  St.  Vanne  in  1711,  taught  at  the  abbey  of  Moyen- 
mouiier,  then  at  St.  Maurice,  in  Yalais ;  was  appointed 
abbot  of  St.  Leopold  at  Nancy,  and  died  at  St.  Mihiel, 
Jan.  24, 1766,  leaving,  Vie  de  Af.  Ilvgy  (Xancy,  188])  :— 
rOUiffoium  de  Faire  FAumdne (Neufch&teau,  1786)  :— 
Le  Martyrt  de  la  Legion  Thihaine  (Nancy,  1787) : — /7t#- 
ioirz  du  Jeune  (Paris,  1741) :— //w/otre  de  VAhbaye  de 
SKMikUlQSajocytnbS).  See  fLoeter,  Now,  Biog.  Gi- 
mtrale,  a.  v. 

DeUtZflch,  JoiiAmc,  eldest  son  of  Dr.  Frans  De- 
litzsch,  was  born  at  Rostock,  Aug.  3, 1846.  He  studied 
at  Erlangen,  Tubingen,  and  Jieipsic,  and  published  as 
his  doctorate  dissertation  Die  GoUeelehre  des  Thomae  von 
Afuino,  in  1870.  Two  years  later  he  commenced  his 
aieademtical  career  at  Letpsic  by  presenting  his  De  In- 
tpinUume  Scripturm  Sacra,  In  1874  he  published  in 
the  Studien  vnd  Kriiiken  an  esssy,  Zur  Qu^Uenh-Uik  dor 
SiUe^en  KirckUchen  Beriehte  Uber  Simon  Petru*  und  Si- 
mon Magus,  which  was  followed  in  1875  by  his  Lehr- 
system  der  romisehen  Kirehe,  He  was  now  made  pro- 
fessor extraordtnarius  at  the  Leipsic  University.  In 
1876  he  published  Oehlcr's  Lehrbuch  der  Sgmbolik,  but 
in  the  same  year  bis  health  gave  waj',  and  he  died,  Feb. 
3,  at  Bapallo,  near  Genoa.  See  SchUrer,  Theohgiscke 
IMerantr-teitung,  1876,  p.  141  sq.     (B.  P.) 

DeUwerera^  a  Christian  sect  mentioned  by  Augns- 
tine  as  having  arisen  about  A.D.  260,  and  who  derived 
their  name  from  the  doctrine,  which  they  maintained, 
that  upon  Christ*s  descent  into  hell  infidels  believed, 
and  all  were  ddivered  from  thence. — Gardner,  Faiths 
of  tie  World,  s,v. 

Den,  WnxiAM,  M.D.,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  about  1600.  Soon  alter  graduation  from  the 
Univerrity  of  Cambridge,  he  took  orders  in  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  officiated  in  the  parish  of  Yelden, 
Bedfordshire.  In  1645  he  became  chaplain  in  the  army, 
and  in  1649  was  appointed  master  of  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  but  was  ejected  by  the  act  of  uniformity. 
The  precise  time  of  his  death  we  have  not  been  able  to 
asoertun.  Dr.  Dell  published  several  sermons  and  es- 
says, the  most  important  of  which  were  eventually 
iMied  as  his  Select  Works  (Lond.  1778,  8vo).  See 
Hayne,  Baptist  Cyclop,  i,  195.     (J.  C.  &) 

DelUngnx  (twiligkt\  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the 
third  husband  of  Norfs  daughter.  Not  {nigkt);  the 
shining  son  of  this  couple  was  Dagur,  or  Dag  (the  day), 

DelUuB,  GoDFBiEDUS,  a  minister  of  the  Beformed 
Church  in  Holland,  was  sent  to  America  in  1688  as  as- 
sistant to  the  Bev.  Gideon  Schaats,  in  Albany.  Mr. 
Dellios  wss  also  an  active  missionsiy  among  the  Mo- 
hawk Indians.  The  last  ten  years  of  his  pastorate  ex- 
hibit a  record  of  political  complications,  and  his  name 
appeals  very  often  in  the  Documentary  History  ofN,  F., 
the  Colonial  History  of  N,  1%  and  other  records  of  the 
time.  Of  his  last  da3's  we  have  no  notice.  See  also 
Corwin, Manual  Rff,  Church  in  America;  Dr.  Bogers's 
Historical  Discourse,  p.  17.     (W.  J.  B.  T.) 

I>e]]iiare,  Faulo  Marcblli,  sn  Italian  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Geneva  in  1784.  He  was  converted  from 
Judaism  by  a  priest  of  his  native  city,  and  received 
baptism  in  1753.  He  entered  the  clerical  ranks,  and, 
afber  spending  eeveral  years  in  missionary  work,  was 
called  in  1783  to  teach  theology  at  Florence ;  and  died 
Feb.  17, 1821,  leaving  several  controversial  treatises,  for 
which  see  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

DemarestfCoiDrELiusT.,  a  (Duteh)  Beformed  min- 
ister, gradoated  at  Columbia  College,  N.  Y.,  in  1804 ; 
studied  theology  with  Dr.  Solomon  Froeligh ;  was  pas- 
tor at  White  House,  N.  J.,  from  1808  to  1818,  and  at 
Enc^ish  Neighborhood  from  1818  to  1824,  when  he  se- 


ceded to  the  True  Beformed  Church,  giving  occasion  to 
a  celebrated  lawsuit  as  to  the  Church  property  (see 
Taytor,  Annals  of  the  Classis  of  Bergen,  p.  261-285). 
His  ministry  in  the  True  Beformed  Church  continued 
nnUl  his  decease  in  1868,  his  last  eleven  years  being 
spent  as  pastor  of  the  Church  in  King  Street,  New 
York.  He  published  A  LametOation  over  the  Rev,  Sol- 
omon Froeligh,  with  copious  historical  notes.  See  Cor- 
win, Manual  of  the  Bef.  Church  in  America,  p.  69. 
(W.  J.  B.  T.) 

Dametor.    See  Ceres. 

Demetrla,  a  daughter  of  Faustns,  and  marti-r  at 
Bome  under  Julian ;  commemorated  June  21. 

Demetrius.  (1)  A  martyr  at  Thessalonica,  A.D. 
296 ;  commemorated  Oct.  8  or  Oct.  26.  (2)  Bishop  and 
mart}T  st  Antioch  with  Anianns,  Eutosius,  and  twenty 
others;  commemorated  Nov.  10.  (8)  Saint;  commem- 
orated Dec  22,  with  Honoratus  and  Florus.  (4)  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  A.D.  281 ;  commemorated  March  8 
and  Oct.  9.  (5)  Demetrius  and  Basilius;  commemo- 
rated Nov.  12. 

DemetriuB  Pbpakus,  a  Greek  theologian,  was 
born  on  the  island  of  Chios  about  1620.  He  was  sent 
to  Bome  to  finish  hb  studies,  and  entered  into  orders, 
but  was  released  from  his  vows  on  account  of  his  health. 
He  returned  to  his  native  land,  but  left  the  island  of 
Chios  with  his  wife  and  children  in  1655,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  he  perished  in  a  shipwreck.  All  his  theo- 
logical  writings  were  intended  to  bring  back  the  Greek 
schismatics  to  the  Catholic  Church.  They  were  dis- 
covered at  Chios  by  the  English  consul  Stellio  Bsfaelli, 
and  were  published  under  the  title  Demetrii  Pepani 
Domeatici  Chii  Opera  qua  Reperiuntur  (Bome,  1781, 2 
vols.).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gmirale,  s.  v. 

Demetriufi  of  Sumiuh,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  was 
educated  in  the  school  of  the  sophist  Bhodius.-  He 
spent  a  considerable  part  of  his  life  at  Corinth,  being 
an  opponent  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  and  first  became 
famous  during  the  reign  of  Caligula  (A.D.  87-41).  The 
emperor,  wishing  to  secure  the  philosopher  to  his  party, 
sent  him  a  large  present;  but  Demetrius  refused  it  with 
indignation,  saying, "  If  Caligula  wishes  to  bribe  mc,  let 
him  send  me  his  crown."  Vespasian  ba«nshed  him  for 
his  insolence,  but  he  derided  the  punishment.  He  lived 
to  an  advanced  age,  and  Seneca  observes  that  nature 
had  brought  him  forth  to  show  msnkind  how  an  exalt- 
ed genius  may  live  uncorrupted  by  the  vices  of  the 
world.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Rom,  Biog,  and 
Myth,  s.  v. ;  Encydop,  Britcm,  (9th  ed.)  s.  v. 

Demme,  Hermann  Christopu  Gottfjukd,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian,  was  bom  Sept.  7, 1760,  at  Mulhau- 
sen,  where,  in  1796,  he  acted  na  superintendent.  In  1801 
he  was  called  aa  general  superintendent  to  Aitenburg, 
end  died  there,  Dec  21, 1822.  He  wrote,  Beitrdge  zur 
reinen  Gottesverehrung  (Biga,  1792)  i—Predigten  Uber  die 
Sonn-  und  Festtageevangelien  (Goths,  1808) : — Neue  Re- 
den  zur  Todtetfeier  in  Aitenburg  gehaUen  (ibid.  1817). 
He  is  also  the  author  of  several  romances,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Karl  Stelle,  besides  numerous  hymns. 
See  Doring,  Die  deutschen  Kanzelredner  der  18.  und  19. 
Jahrhunderts,  p.  26  sq. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol,  Lit, 
ii,  98, 183, 160, 166, 178, 288, 294, 826, 387, 841 ,  898 ;  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

DemoorltOB  was  one  of  the  ablest  and  least  known 
of  the  Greek  philosophers,  whose  position  lies  on  the  bor- 
der-line between  the  mythical  sages  of  the  elder  time 
and  the  historic  founders  of  Greek  philosophy.  His 
personal  career  is  shadowy  and  uncertain ;  his  specula- 
tions are  fragmentary  and  dislocated;  his  works  have 
been  lost,  or  only  survive  in  brief  and  disconnected 
fragments;  his  tenets  are  well  known,  but  have  often 
been  exaggerated  or  distorted.  His  influence  on  hitcr 
philosophy  has  not  alwsys  been  duly  appreciated;  but 
it  has  been  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  Socrates  and  the 
Socratic  school.     His  characteristic   doctrines  were 


DEMOORTTUS 


266 


DE^IOCRITUS 


transmitted  by  anderground  currents  to  widely  diffused 
sects.  They  hare  special  daims  to  present  consider- 
ation for  their  marked  oongrutty  with  the  rationalis- 
tic and  agnostic  schemes  now  in  vogue.  In  all  ages 
there  is  an  unbroken  traduction  of  earlier  opinions,  and 
an  intimate  connection  between  the  accepted  theories 
and  the  contemporaneous  conditions  of  the  societies  in 
which  they  prevaiL  In  both  reapectS)  the  philosophy 
of  Democritus  was  notable  in  the  wn  of  its  manifesta- 
tion, and  it  may  be  of  great  service  for  the  elucidation, 
in  both,  of  the  philosophical  distemperature  of  the  re- 
spective periods. 

I.  Life.— The  dates  of  the  birth  and  death  of  Democ- 
ritus, and  his  length  of  days,  are  entirely  uncertain, 
though  he  may  be  regarded  as  later  than  Anaxagoras, 
and  contemporaneous  with  Socrates.  He  appears  to 
have  been  bom  at  Abdera  about  B.C.  460,  and  to  have 
died  about  B.C  857.  He  is  variously  stated  to  have 
attained  ninety,  ninety-nine,  one  hundred,  one  hundred 
and  four,  one  hundred  and  eight,  and  even  one  hundred 
and  nine  years.  He  was  the  son  of  Hegesistratus  (by 
some  named  Damasippus,  by  others,  Athenooitus),  who 
was  said  to  have  entertained  Xerxes  on  his  flight  from 
Salamis.  Fables  clustered  round  his  name.  Three  au- 
tobiographical notices  survive.  The  first  states  that  he 
was  forty  years  younger  than  Anaxagoras;  the  second, 
that  the  Liiile  Diacotmus  was  composed  **  seven  hundred 
and  thirty  years  after  the  taking  of  Troy ;"  the  third, 
.  ^  that  he  had  traversed  more  countries  than  any  of  his 
countrymen**  (Herodotus  would  be  included) ;  "  that  he 
had  known  the  greatest  diversities  of  climate  and  soil, 
and  had  heard  many  sages;  that  he  had  never  been 
surpassed  in  geometrical  diagrams  and  demonstrations, 
not  even  by  the  Egyptian  Arpedonaptae,  with  whom  he 
had  lived  five  years.**  Very  little  information  is  con- 
tained in  these  statements. 

The  death  of  bis  father  left  Democritus  with  an  am- 
ple inheritance.  He  is  reported  to  have  taken  the 
smallest  share  in  the  distribution  of  the  property,  as  it 
was  in  ready  money,  immediately  available  for  the 
travels  which  he  promptly  undertook.  The  rest  of  the 
estate  he  abandoned  to  lib  brothers.  If  this  were  the 
case,  the  epigrammatic  ob8er\*ation  of  Horace  would  be 
deprived  of  its  point  (1  Epist,  xii,  12). 

Many  legends  were  current  in  regard  to  the  travels 
of  Democritus  among  the  Ethiopians,  Egj^ptians,  Chal- 
daenns,  Persians,  and  even  Indian  Gymnosophists.  A 
very  pretty  story  is  told  of  an  imaginary  visit  to  the 
king  of  Persia ;  but  the  same  tale  is  told,  in  slightly 
altered  form,  in  many  lands.  Darius  was  inconsolable 
for  the  loss  of  his  queen.  Democritus  promised  to  re- 
call her  from  the  dead,  if  he  were  supplied  with  all 
things  needed  for  the  avocation.  Whatever  was  re- 
quired was  furnished  in  abundance ;  but  one  thing  more 
was  demanded — the  names  of  three  persons  who  had 
never  felt  sorrow,  to  be  Inscribed  on  the  tomb. 

Democritus  visited  Athens  (^Froffm,  Promise,  7).  He 
is  reported  to  have  resided  there — to  have  known  Soc- 
rates— but  to  have  kept  himself  wholly  unknown ;  "  Con- 
stantem  hominem  et  gravero !  qui  glorietur,  a  Gloria 
se  abfuisse"  (Cicero,  Tuic,  Disp,  V,  xxxvi,  104).  His 
whole  career  is  a  fabric  of  fables  (Aul.  Gell.  Nod,  A  ft, 
X,  xii,  8).  He  is  alleged  to  have  shut  himself  up  in 
tombs,  that  he  might  be  free  from  interruption  and  dis- 
traction of  mind.  As  Bayle  suggests,  the  advantages 
of  such  a  procedure  are  questionable.  Bayle  also  char- 
acterizes as  a  "silly  story"  the  tradition  that  he  put 
out  his  eyes  in  order  to  promote  his  meditations  (Cioe- 
ru,  De  Fin,  v,  29) ;  Cicero  prudently  appends  "  ttrofal' 
MOM  "  as  a  restriction  to  his  statement. 

Democritus  returned  from  his  long  travels  enriched 
with  great  and  varied  knowledge,  but  stripped  of 
means,  which  had  been  expendeii  on  his  journeys. 
Thenceforth  he  may  have  been  dependent  upon  his 
brother  Damastes  for  support.  The  tradition  repre- 
sented that  he  was  summoned  before  the  magistrates 
of  Abdera,  fur  infringing  the  laws  by  living  without 


visibly  means  of  support.  In  lus  defence,  he  read  before 
them  his  Miyac  Ai^ffooyiOf.  They  were  so  much 
charmed  by  it  that  they  presented  him  with  five  hun- 
dred talents,  and  decreed  that  he  should  be  buried  at 
the  public  expense.  His  want  of  means  was  due  to  no 
incapacity  for  gaining  a  livelihood,  but  to  his  being  en- 
grossed in  his  studies.  He  had  gained  an  acquaintance 
with  the  language  of  birds,  and  knew  all  secrets,  like  the 
wondrous  women  of  Eastern  story.  He  anticipated  the 
recent  wisdom  of  ^  weather  forecasts  **  and  '*  weather 
probabilities,"  and  could  tell  when  it  would  rain  and 
when  it  would  dear  up.  He  might  have  made  a  brill- 
iant speculator,  for,  on  one  occasion,  foreseeing  a  disas- 
trous season  for  olives,  and  that  oil  would  bear  a  high 
price,  he  monopolized  all  the  olives  that  could  be  pro- 
cured (Pliny,  liiat,  Nat,  xviii,  28).  His  only  design, 
however,  was  to  show  that  he  could  easily  make  money 
if  he  desired  to  do  so.  His  poverty  was  deliberately 
accepted,  and  was  welcome  from  his  contempt  of  wealth. 
It  was  borne  with  joyous  exhilaration;  he  was  always 
seen  with  a  smile  on  his  face,  and,  hence,  was  de«g- 
nated  "  the  laughing  philosopher."  Later  philosophers 
supposed  that  he  laughed  at  the  vanities  of  life,  and  the 
weaknesses  of  mankind:  "Adeo  nihil  illi  serium  vide- 
batur,  qusB  serio  gerebantur  **  (Seneca,  De  Ira.  ii,  10 ;  i>e 
TranquUL  Ammij  xxii).  -  His  long  life  passed  away  in 
the  serene  and  sedulous  prosecution  of  his  speculative 
and  physical  investigations.  It  muse  have  been  dili- 
gently employed,  if  he  composed  the  multitude  of  works 
which  were  generally  accredited  to  him.  Death  came 
at  last  at  his  bidding,  though  it  spared  him  tiU  life  be- 
came wearisome.  He  was  represented  as  having  starved 
himself  to  death : 

'^^Sponte  SUA  lito  copnt  obvlns  obtnllt  Ipsa** 

(Lncret.  ill,  lOHL) 

He  delayed  his  end  for  three  days  with  the  smell  of 
bread  or  honey,  at  the  request  of  his  sister,  the  priestess 
of  Ceres,  who  was  unwilling  that  the  festival  in  prog- 
ress should  be  contaminated  by  death  in  the  family. 

II.  Worki,—A  list  of  sixty  treatises  by  Democritus 
is  given  by  Diogenes  La^rtius,  on  ethical,  physical, 
mathematical,  musical,  technical,  and  miscellaneous  top- 
ics. These  were  arranged  by  Tbrasyllus  in  Tetralogies, 
as  was  done  by  him,  also,  in  regard  to  the  worlcs  of 
Plato.  An  attempt  has  been  made  by  Mullach  to  re- 
store this  distrilration.  Such  a  proceeding  must  be 
purely  conjectural,  as  data  are  absent  for  even  probable 
conclusions.  Of  these  manifold  volumes,  only  three 
hundred  and  twenty  genuine  fragments  have  been 
saved.  These  are,  for  the  most  part,  extremely  brief; 
the  longest  of  them  being  on  the  subject  of  agriculture. 
They  are  inadequate  to  enable  us  to  judge  directly  of 
either  the  literary  or  philosophical  merits  of  the  author. 
The  testimonies  of  the  ancients  must,  therefore,  pass 
unchallenged.  It  is  strong  evidence  of  his  high  ca- 
pacity that  he  received  the  designation  of  nivraBKo^ 
from  the  Greeks,  and  was  termed  rtV  magnut  impri- 
miSf  by  Cicero.  He  was  equally  esteemed  for  his  style, 
for  his  learning,  and  for  his  bold  speculation.  Plato 
proposed  that  his  books  should  be  burned,  a  proposal 
which  may  have  sprung  from  jealousy,  but  arose  more 
probably  from  thorough  antipathy  to  his  doctrines  and 
apprehension  of  their  pernicious  effects.  Many  trea- 
tises were  falsely  ascribed  to  Democritus.  From  these 
may  have  been  derived  the  forty-sax  spurious  fragments 
gathered  by  Mullach. 

III.  PkUoaophy.  —  In  the  time  and  country  of  D^ 
mocritus,  philosophy  still  retained  much  of  that  indis- 
tinctness of  character  which  had  appertained  to  it  when 
it  signified  nothing  more  than  the  earnest  pursuit  of 
knowledge.  It  was  still  thoroughly  unsj'Stematic.  If 
logical  inquiries  had  been  alrndy  inaugurated,  they 
had  not  yet  assumed  a  fixed  and  coherent  form. 

The  philosophy  of  Democritus  may  be  divided  into 
ethical  and  physical:  the  former  embracing  acute 
tical  observations;  the  latter  comprehending,  as 
the  wont  of  early  speculation,  such  theology  as  ooa« 


DEMOCRmjS 


267 


DEMOCRITUS 


ported  vith  his  schemes— in  both  respects  showing  some 
eonnection  with  Parmenides  and  the  Elcattcs,  though  it 
might  be  erroneous  to  imagine  any  positive  affiliation. 
The  Eleadcs  had  rendered  philosophy  too  ideal  and  too 
impalpable.  The  Ionic  school,  in  aiming  at  simplicity 
of  doctrine,  had  fallen  into  narrow  and  arbitrary  fanta- 
sies. A  more  tangible  speculation  than  the  Eleatic,  a 
more  thoroogb  and  acceptable  exposition  than  the  Ionic, 
was  in  demand.  This  requirement  Leucippus  and  hia 
successor,  Democritus,  consciously  or  unoMiscioosly,  en- 
deavored to  supply.  The  intellectual  current  ran  in 
the  direction  of  the  atomistie  philosophy.  As  all  the 
writings  of  Leucippus  were  early  lost,  and  as  his  opin- 
ions are  only  knowmthrough  their  development  by  his 
illostrions  follower,  the  consideration  of  his  views  will 
be  implicated  with  the  appreciation  of  the  doctrines  of 
Democritus. 

The  ethical  philosophy  of  the  laughing  sage  seems 
to  have  been  of  a  purely  practical  cast,  and  to  have 
been,  in  the  main,  the  application  of  keen  judgment  to 
the  ordinary  conduct  of  life ;  thus  approximating  to  the 
aphoristic  wisdom  of  the  early  *'  Wise  Men.**  Exam- 
ples of  such  prudence  are  frequent,  even  in  the  scanty 
relics  remaining,  and  have  b«en  compactly  presented 
by  Zeller:  « Truth  dwells  in  the  bottom  of  a  pit;*' 
"Much  learning  is  often  mere  folly"  (Fr.  139-141); 
"  The  world  is  a  stage,  life  a  passage :  you  came,  you 
saw,  you  departed;**  ''Fortune  is  an  idol  fashioned  by 
the  unwisdom  of  men**  (/V.  14).  Here  is  the  origin 
of  the  celebrated  moral  of  Juvenal : 

"Noste, 
Nos  fiidrans,  Fortnoa,  deam,  ccBloqno  locamos.*' 

**  Kot  the  set  only,  but  the  disposition,  should  be  re- 
garded **  (Fr,  109) ;  ''Good  and  evil  grow  from  the  same 
root.  Evil  does  not  proceed  from  the  gods,  but  from 
the  blindness  and  malice  of  men "  (Fr,  12, 18).  The 
Hfgency  of.  habitual  self-restraint  (Fr,  76),  and  of  con- 
tentment (Fr,  24, 27, 29),  are  associated  with  the  char- 
acteristic aim  of  the  ethics  of  Democritus,  the  attain- 
ment  of  tvOvfiia  (Fr,  20),  healthy  tranquillity.  This 
serene  temper  may  be  compared  with  the  Peripatetic 
tvcaifioviaf  or  with  the  modem  pursuit  of  ^  happiness,'* 
which  is  just  as  vague,  as  unsatisfactory,  and  as  unsci- 
entific as  any  of  its  predecessors.  Such  tranquillity, 
however,  explains  the  designation  of  Democritus  as 
ridetu,  aod  points  towards  the  simple  virtues  of  daily 
life.  The  ethical  tone  of  Democritus  is  as  innocent  and 
pure  as  was  his  own  conduct. 

The  physical  philosophy  of  Democritus  is  the  most 
characteristic,  and  has  been  the  most  influential  and 
enduring  branch  of  his  speculations.  It  provides  the 
mould  for  his  psychological  assumptions,  and  for  his 
ethical  conclusions.  The  negation  of  immaterial  real- 
ities, or  agnosticism  in  regard  to  them,  necessitates  a 
spectral  phenomenalism  and  a  dim  universe.  Democ- 
ritus held  that  there  was  oaly  one  principle — the  plenum 
or  fuarov,  and  the  vacuum  or  lapov : 

"  Omnis,  nt  est,  Igitnr,  per  se  Natnrn,  dnabns 
Consistet  rebus;  nam  Corpora  snnt  et  Inaiu."* 
(LocreL  i,  490, 491 ;  see  Sezt.  Bmpir.  Adv.  Math,  vli,  136-189.) 

The  assertion  of  a  vacuum  was  inevitable,  as  long  as  the 
existence,  elasticity,  and  interpenetrability  of  gaseous 
fluids  were  unknown.  The  plenum  was  composed  of  an 
infinite  number  of  atom$  (indivisibUia)  moving  freely  in 
infinite  space — for  space,  or  the  extension  of  the  uni- 
rexse,  was  regarded  as  infinite : 

"  Nam  medium  nihil  esse  potest,  nbi  luane  locus  qno 
Inflnita.'* 

(Lncret  i,  1009;  cnmp.  AristoU  Dt  CcbIo,  iii,  4.) 

In  this  infinite  space  were  contained  an  infinite  number 
of  worlds.  The  atoms  were  solid,  impenetrable,  homo- 
geneous in  quality,  diverse  in  size  and  shape,  though 
infinitesinial  in  magnitude  (Aristot.  Met,  i,  4;  Cicero, 
De  Fbt,  I,  vi,  17).  They  are  eternal,  immutable,  and 
Imperishable.  Their  origin  is  inscrutable,  and  beyond 
the  domain  of  legitimate  investigation  (Aristot.  Ph^, 
'tU,  1).    The  atoms  possessed  of  themselves  an  inces- 


sant downward  motion.  The  differences  of  size  and 
shape  produced  contacts  and  combinations.  The  whole 
process  of  nature  was  a  cycle  of  compositions,  deoompo* 
sitions,  and  recompoeitions  (Lucret  ii,  1000).  Nothing 
was  lost;  nothing  was  gained.  Omnia  mutiintur,  nS 
mterit.  There  are  indications  that  Democritus  attrib- 
uted spontaneous  motion,  or  a  sort  of  rudimentary  vi- 
tality, to  atoms.  The  ceaseless  and  intricate  movement 
of  the  atomic  particles  in  space  generated  a  gyrating 
motion  of  the  incoherent  mass — Aiyri — a  whirL  This 
universal  circumvolution  probably  suggested  the  vor- 
tices of  Des  Cartes  (see  Des  Cartes),  and  furnishes  a 
prelude  to  the  modem  nebular  hypothesis.  These  ed- 
dies hurt  the  atoms  with  various  collisions^  winnow  the 
subtile  from  the  gross,  and  induce  coherence  in  divert 
sified  oonjunctions,  whence  arises,  by  further  and  modi- 
fied concrescences,  the  endless  multiplicity  of  things 
(Cicero,  A  cad,  Qu,  iv,  88).  By  this  restless  circulation 
all  things  have  been  produced,  and  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  things.  The  rapidity  of  the  orbicular  motion  kindles 
the  stars,  and  lights  up  the  heavenly  bodies.  Through 
the  effects  of  this  motion  the  earth  is  permeated  by 
fiery  action  and  quickening  heat.  The  matters  of 
which  it  is  compounded  originate  from  the  dissimilar 
forms  and  magnitudes  of  the  atoms,  which  are  round  in 
fire,  and  differ  in  size  and  shape  in  air,  earth,  and  water. 
The  microcosm  accords  with  the  macrocosm.  Man 
is  of  like  constitutbn  with  his  habitation.  Of  this  in- 
explicable marvel  of  the  universe  neither  definition  nor 
determination  is  attempted.  He,  too,  is  a  postulate. 
He  is  accepted  for  what  he  is,  or  is  supposed  to  be.  He 
is  a  compound  of  water  and  mud.  His  life,  or  soul,  is 
a  fine,  diffused,  and  segpnegated  fire;  vital  sparks  of 
atomic,  not  of  heavenly,  flame.  This  is  extinguished 
by  death,  and  perishes  with  the  body.  All  bodies  are 
mortal,  but  all  are  renascent,  in  Jbrmis  mutatit.  This 
seems  only  a  rude  and  tentative  wsy  of  indicating  the 
doctrine  now  generally  received,  of  the  permanence  and 
transmutation  of  matter : 

"Semper  motns  connectltnr  omnls, 
Et  vetere  exorftnr  semper  uovns  ordine  certo.*' 

Knowledge  itself  is  the  result  of  physical  agitation.  It 
is  of  two  kinds :  that  derived  directly  from  the  mind,  and 
that  obtained  from  the  senses.  It  is  not  obvious  with 
what  meaning  the  term  "  mind  **  is  employed,  whether 
as  intuitive,  or  as  reflective,  or  as  reproductive.  The 
conceptions  of  Democritus  were  by  no  means  definite 
on  the  subject.  The  same  vagueness  and  fluitancy  at- 
tend all  the  tenets  of  Democritus  not  confined  to  purely 
physical  topics.  Perceptions  are  excited  by  effluxes — 
ISofXa — projected  from  the  things  perceived  (Fr,  14, 
40).  Democritus,  however,  recognised  sound  as  tho 
vibratory  motion  of  the  air.  Knowleilge  obtained 
through  the  senses — sowus  tenebricoti  (Cicero,  Acad, 
IV,  x,  81) — was  deceptive,  okotiti  KpiaiQ.  That  from 
reason,  yvutfAri  yyi}Wi|,  merited  credence,  if  definite  and 
clear.  Nevertheless,  there  could  be  no  true  knowledge, 
Inii  oifitv  lifuv  trtpi,  ovdtvog.  How  could  it  be  oth- 
erwise with  a  system  which  made  being  and  non-being 
equally  existent,  fii)  ftaXXov  ro  Sivtf  to  fitiSkv  tivat. 

With  such  principles,  physical  and  psychological,  no 
real  theology  was  possible.  Yet  Democritus  was  un- 
willing, or  unable,  to  sever  himself  entirely  from  the 
popular  belief.  He  was  thus  involved  in  an  inconsis- 
tency, perhaps  inevitable,  which  is  strangely  illustrated 
by  a  corresponding  incongruity  in  Comte's  Potiticitm. 
He  did  not  absolutely  exdude  divinity  from  the  uni- 
verse, but  he  reduced  it  to  a  vague  and  empty  supersti- 
tion, which  was  rather  a  vsgue  rehabilitation  of  popular 
fantasies  than  a  reputable  development  of  philosophy. 
Cicero  deemed  it  more  accordant  with  the  stupidity  of 
his  countrymen  than  with  his  own  acumen.  His  gods 
were  idols,  fashioned  out  of  the  thinnest  and  subtilest 
atoms;  and  sometimes  revealed  themselves,  especially 
in  the  dark.  They  were  earthly  ghosts !  **  The  earth 
hath  bubbles  as  the  water  hath ;  and  these  are  of  them." 
The\*  were  gigantic  spectres,  of  human  form,  though  far 


DEMOCRITUS 


268 


DENNE 


transcending  human  stature.  Like  goblinsi  favs,  and 
peris,  they  were  mortal;  but  their  duration  exceeded 
the  span  of  human  life.  They  had  voices,  and  could 
utter  sounds  intelligible  to  men ;  and  they  foretold  fut- 
ure events.  Such  divine  personages  could  not  be  the 
object  of  any  theology,  and  in  no  respect  detracted  from 
the  materialism  of  the  school.  The  theology  was  a 
pretence  or  a  mocker}'. 

lY.  Hii  Infiuenee, — Dcmocritus  is  entitled  to  be 
placed  by  the  side  of  Aristotle  and  Plato,  in  regard  to 
the  effect  produced  on  later  ages  by  his  speculations. 
This  effect,  if  less  immediate  and  less  ennobling  than 
the  action  of  the  Peripatetic  and  Academic  systems,  has 
been  more  lasting  in  its  specific  charMter.  If  lets  stim- 
ulant to  the  highest  intcdlectual  aspirations,  it  has  the 
merit  of  having  more  effectually  moulded  the  proced- 
ures of  scientific  research.  The  physical  philosophy 
of  Epicurus  was  entirely  deduced  from  it,  with  such  al- 
terations as  gave  the  pretence  of  originality,  and  not  of 
mere  revival.  Still,  it  was  fully  alnorbed  into  Epicu- 
reanism, and  so  obviously  as  to  be  incapable  of  being 
ignored.  "  What  is  in  the  physics  of  Epicurus  which 
does  not  descend  from  Democritus?**  asks  Cicero  (De 
Aof.  Dear,  I,  xxv,  78 ;  xliii,  1 20).  "  Democritus,  formed 
by  Leucippus,  left  his  inheritance  of  folly  to  Epicurus;" 
observes  Lsctantius  {Div,  fntt,  iti,  17 ;  comp.  De  Ira  Deiy 
x).  Wherever  Epicureanism  spread,  through  Hellenic 
lands  and  through  the  empire  of  Home,  the  doctrines  of 
Democritus  were  accepted— the  sanela  Democriti  Sei^ 
tentia  (Lucret.  iii,  B72),  though  modified  by  the  deriv- 
ative school.  Their  influence  was  not  limited  to  the 
ancient  world.  They  reappeared  with  Gassendi  in  the 
17th  century.  They  were  revived  in  partial  and  dis- 
guised form  in  the  atomic  theory  of  Dslton,  and  in  the 
nebular  hypothesis.  They  recur  in  more  than  their 
pristine  vigor  and  exdusiveness  in  modem  agnosticism, 
and  in  current  physical  schemes.  The  atomic  specula- 
tions of  Democritus  are  a  rudimentary  type  of  evolu- 
tionism, and  of  kindred  dreams.  It  has  already  been 
stated  that  they  furnished  some  of  the  notable  suppo- 
sitions of  Des  Cartes.  They  may  be  discerned  in  the 
System  of  Pontice  Philosophy,  How  thoroughly  they 
are  the  pn^enitors,  or,  at  least,  the  precursors  of  recent 
scientific  devices,  is  manifested  by  the  marvellous  har- 
mony of  such  opinions  with  the  brilliant  poem  of  Lu- 
cretius. This  harmony  is  profoundly  and  instinctively 
felt.  Its  recognition  is  shown  by  the  recent  renewal  of 
the  earnest  study* of  Lucretius;  and  by  the  numerous 
editions  of  his  work,  and  the  brilliant  or  recondite  es- 
says upon  it,  which  have  been  welcomed  in  late  years. 
For  these  reasons,  the  views  of  Democritus,  and  his 
place  in  the  development  of  philosophy,  cannot  be  safe- 
ly disregarded  in  estimating  either  ancient  or  modem 
thought. 

y.  LUeraiure. — Besides  the  historians  of  ancient  phi- 
losophy, and  especially  Brilcker,  Bitter,  and  Zeller,  the 
following  special  treatises  may  be  advantageously  con- 
sulted :  MagnenuR,  Democritus  Reviviscens  (Paris,  1646) ; 
[in  l€o5,  Peter  Borel  promised  a  treatise  in  8  vols,  fol., 
J>e  Vita  et  Philosophia  Democriti] ;  Bayle,  />tc/.  Hist, 
tt  Crit,  s.  v. ;  G5(ling,  Diss,  de  Democrito  et  ejus  Philoso- 
phia (Upsala,  1703);  Geffers,  Quaestiones  DemocrHea 
(Gottingen,  1829) ;  Burcbanlt,  Democr,  Phil,  de  Sensi- 
bus  Fragm,  (Minden,  1880);  Fragm,  der  Moral  des 
Abd,  Democrits  (ibid.  1884);  Papencordt,  De  Atomo- 
rum  Doctrina  (Berlin,  1882);  Hemisdth,  Democriti  de 
Afdma  Doctrina  (Bimn,  1885):  MUllach,  Democriti 
Operum  Fragmenta^  etc.  (Berlin,  1846),  which  alone  is 
sufllcient  for  all  ordinary  purposes;  Johnson,  Der  Sen- 
sualismus  des  Demokrit,  (Plauen,  18G8) ;  MUlUch,  Frag- 
menta  Demociitij  apud  Fragmenta  Phihsophorum  Ores- 
corum,  torn,  i  (Paris,  1875).     (G.  F.  H.) 

DemocrltUB,  Scnnt^  lived  at  Sinnada,  in  Africa,  and 
is  commemorated  July  81,  with  Secundus  and  Dionysius. 

Demdnaz,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  later  cyn- 
ics, flourished  in  the  2d  century  of  our  era.    He  prob- 


ably lived  in  the  time  of  Hadrian  (A.D.  117-188),  though 
the  exact  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown. 
Lucian,  his  only  contemporary  biographer,  representa 
him  as  a  wise  and  good  man,  and  writes  his  history 
avowedly  as  an  example  for  the  imitation  of  the  young 
of  his  own  time.  He  was  by  birth  a  Cyprian,  and  re- 
moved to  Athens,  where  he  Joined  the  cynic  school,  - 
chiefly  out  of  respect  to  the  memory  of  Diogenes.  He 
seems  to  have  been  free  from  the  austerity  and  morose- 
ness  of  the  other  members  of  hb  sect,  but  valued  their 
indifference  to  outward  circumstanoesi  He  was  exceed- 
ingly popular  at  Athens,  and  was,  no  doubt,  an  amiable, 
good-humored  man ;  but  contributed  nothing  more  to 
philosophy  than  his  predecessors.  aHe  died  when  near- 
ly  a  hundred  years  old,  and  was  buried  with  great  mag- 
nificence. See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Eomau  Biog. 
and  Mgth,  s.  v. 

Dendritos,  a  name  given  to  those  Greek  monks  in 
the  12th  century  who  passed  their  lives  on  high  trees. 

DendrophdrL  See  CoLLxGruM  Dkkdroprorium. 

Denis  (St.),  Council  op  (jCondHum  ad  Sanctum 
Dionysium),  Held  near  Paris  A.D.  768;  a  Frankish 
council  of  bishops  and  nobles,  at  which  Pepin  Ic  Bref 
divided  his  kingdom  between  his  sons  Charlemagne 
and  Carloman. 

Deniaon,  Ed^^ard,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate, 
bora  in  1801,  was  educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford, 
and  in  1826  elected  to  a  fellowship  at  Merton  College. 
He  succeeded  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  PeterVin-the- 
East,  Oxford,  and  in  March,  1887,  to  the  see  of  Salis- 
bury'. He  died  at  Portsmouth,  March  6,  1854.  In 
politics  the  bishop  was  a  Whig,  but  he  was  constitu- 
tionally timid;  and  hence,  while  his  administration  was 
unexceptionable,  it  can  hardly  be  characterixed  as  en- 
ergetic.    See  Amer,  QtMir.  Church  Rev,  1854,  p.  464. 

DeniflOD,  Samuel  D.,  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episco- 
pal clerg}'man,  bom  in  Boston  in  1810,  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1845;  for  eight  years  thereafter  engaged  in 
missionary  work  in  Texas,  and  at  Great  Barrington, 
Mass. ;  in  1858  elected  secretary  and  general  agent  of 
the  Foreign  Committee,  continuing  in  office  until  1864; 
recalled  October,  1868,  to  December,  1870 ;  again,  March 
to  Mav,  1873 ;  and  again,  December,  1875,  to  November, 
1876; 'and  died  at  White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  Sept,  3,  1880. 
See  Whittaker,  Almanac  and  Directory ^  1881. 

Dexme,  Henry,  an  English  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  about  1600;  educated  at  Cambridge  University; 
took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England  in  1630 ;  and  was 
ten  years  the  parish  minister  at  P>*rton,  in  Hertford- 
shire. In  1641  he  preached  the  visitation  sermon,  in 
which  he  lashed  some  of  the  clergy  for  their  vices;  in 
1643  he  embraced  Baptist  views,  was  immersed  in  Lon- 
don, and  b^an  to  preach  at  Bell  Alley.  He  was  im- 
prisoned for  preaching  against  infant  baptism.  Bcv. 
Daniel  Featly  was  in  the  same  prison  at  the  same  time 
for  opposing  the  Baptists.  Being  persecuted  for  his 
preaching,  Denne  entered  the  army,  where  he  gained 
great  reputation.  In  1658  he  had  a  two  days*  discua- 
sion  with  Dr.  Gunning,  on  baptism,  in  St.  Clement's 
Church,  London.  He  defended  himself  with  so  much 
learning  that  one  party  said  he  was  an  Antinomian,  the 
other  party  that  he  was  an  Arminian.  He  died  about 
1661.  He  published  six  works  of  a  controversial  char- 
acter, between  1643  and  1658.  See  Wilson,  Dissenting 
ChurcheSj  ii,  440. 

Denne,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  anti- 
quary, was  bora  at  Littlebourae,  May  25,  1693.  He 
studied  in  the  free  schools  of  Sandwich  and  Canter- 
bur}',  and  at  Corpus  Chrbti  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  became  fellow  in  April,  1716:  was  ordained  deacon 
the  same  year,  and  priest  Sept.  21, 1718 ;  soon  after  waa 
nominated  by  the  college  to  the  perpetual  cure  of  St. 
Benedict's  Church,  in  Cambridge ;  whence  he  was  pre- 
ferred, in  1721,  to  the  rectory  of  Norton-Davy,  in  North- 
amptonshire; but  this  he  exchanged,  Sept.  80, 1723,  for 


DENTON 


269 


DE  SANCTIS 


the  Ticarage  of  St.  LeooArd,  Shoreditch,  in  London ;  in 
1725  he  was  appointed  preacher  of  Mr.  Boyle'a  lecture, 
and  continued  eo  for  three  years.  He  was  promoted  to 
the  archdeaconry  of  Kocheateri  July  22, 1728 ;  in  July, 
1729,  was  instituted  to  the  ricarage  of  Su  Margaret's, 
Bochester;  but  this  he  resigned  to  uke  possession  of  the 
rectory  of  Lambeth,  Nov.  27,  173L  He  died  Aug.  5, 
1767.  The  following  are  some  of  his  sermons :  A  Con^ 
do  ad  Cierum  (1746)  i^Artidet  of  Inquiry  for  a  Paro- 
dkied  Vintation  (1732)  i—A  RegitUr  of  Beiwfactioru  to 
ike  Parish  o/Shoreditch  (1745).  See  Chalmers,  Biog. 
Viet,  s.  v. ;  AlUbone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthorif  s.  v. 

Denton,  Richard,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  the  north  of  England.  He  was  among  the 
first  of  the  Puritans  who  came  to  America.  The  rec- 
ords show  that  he  settled  in  Weathersfield,  Conn.,  about 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century;  thence  he  went  to  Hemp- 
stead, L.  L;  and  subsequently  served  the  Church  in  Ja- 
maica. He  has  been  c^ed  the  father  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  in  America.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Denton,  Thomas,  an  English  clerg3rman,  was 
bom  at  Seberham,  Cumberland,  in  1724,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Queen*s  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  his 
master's  degree,  June  16, 1752.  Soon  after  leaving  col- 
lege he  became  curate  to  the  pastor  at  Netherby,  at  Ar- 
thuret,  and  Kirkandrews.  He  died  at  Ashted,  in  Sur- 
rey, June  27, 1777.  He  wrote  two  poems.  Immortality 
(1755,  4to):— 7^  Ilouie  of  Superstition  (1762).  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v.;  AlUbone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  A utkort,  s.  ▼. 

Denya,  Saint,    See  Dxomrsius. 

Denxinger,  Hexnrich  Joseph  Douikicus,  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  theologian,  was  bom  Oct  16,  1619,  at 
Liege;  ordained  in  1844;  and  in  1648  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  exegesis  at  WUrzborg.  In  1854  he  was  called 
to  the  chair  of  dogmatics,  and  died  June  19, 1888.  He 
belonged  to  the  ultramontanist  party  of  the  Church,  and 
wrote,  Krilik  der  Vorlesungen  von  Thiersch  uher  Katho- 
Ueismus  und  Protestantismus  (WUrzburg,  1847, 1848)  :— 
Utier  die  Eehtheit  des  biskerigen  Teztes  der  ignatianisch' 
en  Brief e  (1849) :-~  Enchiridion  Sgmbolorum  et  Definu 
iKNOfM,  etc  (5th  ed.  1874)  :—Die  Lehre  von  der  unbe" 
Jkctten  EmpfSngniss  der  seL  Jungfrau  Maria  (1854; 
2d  ed.  185$) : — Vier  BOcher  von  der  rdigiosen  Erketml- 
mass  (1856,2  vols.)  i^RUtts  OrieniaUum,  etc.  (1868, 1864, 
2  vols.).  He  was  also  oonsulter  of  the  Congregatio  de 
Propaganda  Fide  pro  Rebus  OrieniaUbus,     (B.  P.) 

Deodand  (Lat.  Deo, "  to  God,"  dandus, "  given  "),  a 
thing  given  or  forfeited  to  God  in  consequence  of  its 
having  caused  the  death  of  a  human  being.  If  a  cart, 
for  instance,  should  crush  a  man  to  death  it  would  be- 
come a  deodandf  that  is,  to  be  distributed  to  the  poor 
by  the  royal  almoner,  by  way  of  expiation  or  atonement 
for  the  death  which  it  has  caused.    See  £zod.  xxi,  28. 

Deo  Dio&tna,  a  terai  applied  to  those  engaged  in 
retigioos  service. 

Deo  Oratiaa  {Thanks  be  to  (7od),  a  response  of  the 
people  in  the  liturgy,  derived  from  the  apostolic  use  of 
the  phrase  (1  Cor.  xv,  57 ;  2  Cor.  ii,  14).  According  to 
the  Mocarabic  rite  the  people  said  **  Deo  gratias"  at  the 
naming  of  the  passage  to  be  read  as  the  **  prophecy  "  in 
the  liturgy.  Bona  speaks  of  it  being  used  instead  of 
^Amen,**  or  *'Laus  tibi  Christe,*'  when  the  gospel  was 
ended.  August tne  notices  it  as  a  common  mode  of 
greeting  among  the  monks,  for  which  they  were  ridi- 
culed by  the  Agoniatici  among  the  Donatists.  It  was 
sometimes  used  by  way  of  aodamation  on  other  occa- 
aiooSb — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Dep6ry,  JsASi-lRtfiiitic,  a  French  prelate  and  bibli- 
ographer, was  bora  at  Chalex,  near  Gex,  March  16, 1796. 
He  was  first  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Chambcry,  then 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese  of  Belley,  and  afterwards 
bisiiopof  Gap*  He  left  seven!  works  on  hagiology  and 
similar  subjects^  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  (ri- 
mraie,  s.  v. 


Deportatio  is  a  term  for  carrpng  a  bishop  in  m 
chair  by  his  fellow-bishops,  on  hb  way  to  be  enthroned* 
It  was  customary  in  the  Galilean  Church.  A  **  chairing  ** 
of  the  bishop  on  the  shoulders  of  certain  persons  of  rank, 
the  first  time  be  entered  his  cathedral,  was  customary 
in  several  of  the  French  churches  in  the  middle  ages, 
-^mith.  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq.  s.  v. 

Depoaitlo  (m  Ilagiologg),  In  martyrologies  the 
word  is  applied  to  the  death-day  of  a  saint.  This  mean- 
ing is  given  it  by  Maximus  in  the  sermon  De  Deposit 
tione  S.  Eusebiif  and  strongly  held  by  Pkipebroch  in  his 
Conatus  Chronologioo-'Ui^r,  ad  CutaL  Pontiff,  Roman, 

The  word  was  doubtless  used  also  to  designate  the 
day  on  which  the  relics  yttn  entombed. — Smith,  Diet, 
of  Christ,  Antiq,  s.  v. 

DeprecatOiy.  IMerm  Deprecatorim  are  "  letters 
of  request"  given  by  presbyters  who  were  unable  to 
grant  the  formal  "dimissory  letters"  of  the  bishops. 
See  DiMjsaoRT  LicTTicns. 

Depat&tna.  In  the  Greek  Church  those  not  or^ 
dained,  but  nominated,  to  the  minor  services  of  the 
Church  were  called :  the  Theori,  those  in  charge  of  the 
sacred  vestments ;  the  Camisati,  those  attending  to  the 
vessels  in  the  altar-service ;  and  Deputatij  those  who, 
carrying  lighted  tapers,  in  the  processions  preceded  the 
deacon  who  bore  the  book  of.  the  gospels  or  the  obla* 
tious.  They  corresponded  to  the  **  taper-bearers "  of 
the  Latin  Church.  See  Acolyti.  When  necessary, 
they  cleared  the  way  for  the  buhop  through  the  crowd- 
ed church.^Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Antiq,  s.  v. 

Deputiea,  Diaaenting.  See  Dexominations, 
THR  Thrkk  ;  and  Dissbntkiis. 

Derllng,  Johaxn  Theopiiil,  a  German  theologian, 
was  bora  at  Aschersleben,  Feb.  14, 1697 ;  visited  a  Urge 
part  of  Germany;  became  minister  and  inspector  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Halberstadt;  and  died  July  21,  1771. 
His  principal  works  are,  Do  Consuetudine  Preponendi 
j£ttigmata  opud  Veteres  (Halle,  1720)  i—De  Servis  Lit- 
teraiis  (ibid.)  i-^De  More  Inurtndi  Stigmata  Vetvstis' 
simo  (ibid.).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraU^  s.  v. 

Darlington,  John  uk,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was 
born  at  Derlington  (now  Darlington),  in  the  diocese  of 
Durham,  and  was  a  Dominican  friar.  He  was  confes- 
sor to  king  Henry  III ;  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Dub- 
lin in  September,  1279,  and  consecrated  archbishop  the 
following  April.  He  died  March  29, 1284.  See  D'Al- 
ton.  Memoirs  of  the  Archbishops  of  Dublin,  p.  104. 

De  Ronde.    See  Romdb. 

De  Sanotiak  Luioi,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Rome,  Dec  81, 1808,  and  when  twenty -three 
years  of  age  was  ordained  priest.  He  lived  for  some  time 
at  Vitcrbo  and  Genoa,  where  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself;  and  when  he  returned  to  Rome,  he  was  ap- 
pointed member  Qualificaiore  della  Sttprema  S,  Inqui- 
sizione,  and  curate  of  the  parish  called  Maddalena  alia 
Rotonda,  Being  suspected  by  the  inquisition  of  hetero- 
doxy, an  investigstion  was  made  concerning  htm.  The 
reading  of  the  Bible,  however,  brought  about  his  final 
rapture  with  the  Church,  and,  assisted  by  a  Scotch 
minister,  he  left  Rome,  Sept.  10,  1847.  Pope  Pius  IX, 
who  was  greatly  attached  to  De  Sanctus  had  a  letter 
written  to  him  by  cardinal  Ferretti,  inviting  him  to  re- 
turn. But  it  was  in  vain ;  "  I  swear  before  God,  that  in 
leaving  Rome  I  had  no  other  object  in  view  than  tlie 
salvation  of  my  soul,**  such  was  his  reply.  At  Malta  he 
published,  //  Crisiiano  Cattolico  ;— /^  Confessione,  etc 
In  1850  he  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  joined  the  Evan- 
gelical Church ;  and,  when  Italy  was  opened  to  the 
work  of  evangelization,  he  was  appointed  preacher  by 
the  Waldensian  Church.  A  difference  of  opinion  caused 
him  to  join  the  Plymouth  Brethren  at  Turin,  with  whom 
he  was  connected  for  six  years.  The  experience  made 
in  this  connection  led  him  back  to  the  Church  which 
was  dear  to  him,  and  which  appointed  him  professor  of 
the  Waldensian  theological  school  at  Florence,  wber« 


DES  BOIS 


270 


DESSLEB 


be  also  edited  VEoo  ddUi  Veriid,  He  died  Dec  81, 18$9. 
See  Biografia  <U  Luiffide  Sanctis  (Fireiue,  1870) ;  Coin* 
ba,  in  Lichtenbeiger,  Encjfdop,  du  Seiaices  BeUgioiies, 
8.T.    (a  P.) 

Des  BoIb  (fe  i2ocA^r<,  tiuioMOitE  Mabib,  a  French 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1789 ;  became  doctor  of  the 
Sorbonne,  vicar-general  of  La  Rochelle,  rector  of  St. 
Andr^^efr-ArtSi  at  Paris,  and  finally  constitutional  bish- 
op of  Amiens.  He  also  presided  at  the  Assemble  L6- 
gislative,  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Atmaks  de 
la  ReUffUm,  He  died  in  1807,  leaving,  among  other 
works,  LeUre»  PastoraUa  et  Mandements  (Paris,  1800). 
See  Hoefer,  Nauv,  Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. 

DesoensuB,  a  word  applied  to  the  tauU  beneath 
the  altar,  in  which  arc  placed  the  lelics  of  the  saints. 

Dafleoratlon  of  churches  and  aUdrs,  This  phrase 
denotes  the  pollution  of  a  church  or  altar  by  the  com- 
mitting in  it  of  homicide  or  other  revolting  crime,  or 
by  a  removal  of  the  relics  deposited  there  at  its  conse- 
cration, so  as  to  require  "reconciliation''  before  service 
could  be  conducted  there  again. 

Deseris  (or  Dexlcius),  JoespH  Innockut,  a  Hun- 
garian prelate,  was  bom  at  Neitra  in  1702.  He  taught 
belles-lettres,  and  afterwards  theology,  in  the  seminary 
of  Raab ;  was  called  to  Rome  and  made  cardinal,  em- 
ploying his  time  in  literary  pursuits  and  embassies.  He 
finally  settled  at  Waitzen,  in  Hungary,  where  he  con- 
tinucil  his  literary  work  until  his  death,  in  1766,  leav- 
ing several  treatises  on  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  his 
native  country',  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GM" 
rak,  s.  V. 

Desert;  Church  of  the,  a  title  sometimes  applied 
to  persecuted  bodies  of  Christians,  especially  the  Hu- 
guenots ;  in  allusion  to  the  vision  in  Bev.  xii,  6. 

Desertion  of  thr  Clerical  Life.  To  abandon 
a  religious  life,  after  having  once  been  initiated  into  the 
sacred  duties,  was  considered  a  crime  worthy  of  ex- 
communication or  other  severe  punishment.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon  (A.  D.  451),  the  Council  of  Angers  (A.D. 
463),  the  first  Council  of  Tours  (A.D.  461),  a  Breton 
council  (date  unsetcled,  probably  about  A.D.  666),  the 
Council  of  Frankfort  (A.D.  7M),  all  decreed  against  the 
offence.  Under  Justinian's  code,  a  cleric  guilty  of  desert* 
ing  his  service  was  punished  by  being  made  a  curialisy 
Le.  one  charged  with  the  burdens  of  the  state — a  politi- 
cal beast  of  burden.  In  a  letter  of  pope  Zachariaa  (A.D. 
741-752)  to  king  Pepin  of  France,  he  threatens  any  de- 
serter with  an  anathema  unless  he  repent  and  return. — 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  rUiq,  s.  v. 

Deagallards  (Lat.  GaUasius'),  Nicolas,  a  Swiss 
Protestant  theologian,  was  bom  in  1520.  He  became 
a  citizen  of  Geneva  in  1561,  and  pastor  of  a  church  in 
the  neighborhood  in  1553.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  in 
1667,  and  founded  a  French  church  in  London  in  1660. 
He  attended  at  the  colloquy  of  Poissy  with  his  friend 
Theodore  de  Beza,  and  presided  at  the  synod  of  Paris,  in 
1566.  In  1571  he  was  chosen  by  the  queen  of  Navarre 
as  her  preacher.  Calvin  esteemed  him  veiy  highly, 
and  engaged  him  as  secretary.  Aucillon  says  that  he 
worked  with  Beza  on  the  history  of  the  Reformed 
churches  of  France.  Desgallards  died  about  the  year 
1580,  leaving.  Pro  GuL  FavcUo  et  Colkgiis  Ejus^  etc. 
(Geneva,  1545): — Traiti  de  la  Cine  (ibid,  eod.): — 
Traiti  cotUre  les  Anabaptistes  et  let  Libertins  (ibid. 
1649) : — La  Forme  de  Police  JLOcUsiastique  Instituie  a 
Londres  en  tE^ise  Fran^aise  (1561) : — De  la  Divine  Es' 
sence  de  Jesus  Christ,  centre  Us  Nouvecaix  A  riens  (Lyons, 
1566).  Desgallards  also  translated  a  great  many  of  Cal- 
vin's works  into  French.  See  Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog,  G4nS' 
rale,  s.  v. 

Deehaya,  Jean  Baptiste  (called  Le  Romain),  an 
eminent  French  painter,  was  bom  at  Rouen  in  1729,  and 
studied  under  Colin  de  Vermont  and  RestouL  In  1761 
he  drew  the  grand  prize  of  the  Academy.  He  went  to 
Rome  and  remained  three  years,  and  on  his  letum  was 


admitted  to  the  Royal  Academy,  in  1758,  Among  his 
chief  productions  are  The  Martyrdom  of  St,  A  nds'cw,  and 
The  Death  of  SU  Benedict.  He  died  at  Paris,  Feb.  10, 
1766.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gsnirale,  a.  v. ;  Spoon- 
er,  Biog,  llist.  of  the  Fine  ArU,u  v. 

Desiderftta,  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  sac* 
raments,  as  being  desired  by  all  Christians. 

Desiderins.  (1)  Bishop  of  Vienne,  mortyr  at  Ly- 
ons ;  natal  day,  Feb.  11.  According  to  Ado,  he  suffered 
martyrdom  on  May  28,  and  was  translatcil  Feb.  11.  (2) 
Bishop  of  Ferrara ;  day  of  death,  May  28.  (8)  The  read- 
er, martyr  at  Naf^es  under  Diocletian,  with  Januarius 
the  bishop, and  others;  commemorated  Sept.  19. 

De^jardina  (or  van  den  Bogaerten),  Martu«, 
an  eminent  Dutch  sculptor,  was  bom  at  Breda,  Holland, 
in  1640.  He  was  received  into  the  Academy  of  Paris 
at  the  age  of  thirty-one ;  and  died  in  Paris  in  1694. 
Among  his  numerous  productions  were  six  groups  for 
the  Church  of  the  Mazarin  College,  representing  the 
fathers  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches.  See  Spoon- 
cr,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ;,  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Deelyona,  Jean,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Pontoise  in  1615.  He  studied  at  Paris,  entered  the  min- 
istry, and  was  made  doctor  in  the  Sorbonne.  On  Sept. 
11, 1688,  he  became  dean  of  Senlts,  and  continued  in 
office  till  his  death.  May  26, 1700.  For  a  list  of  his  nu- 
merous writings,  see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Generate,  s.  v. 

De  Sola,  Abraham,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  son  of  the 
following,  was  bom  in  London,  England,  Sept.  18, 1625. 
Having  completed  his  academical  as  well  as  theological 
studies,  he  accepted  in  1847  a  call  from  the  Portuguese 
Hebrew  Congregation  of  Montreal,  Canada.  In  1848 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Shemitic  lit- 
erature in  M*Gill  College,  which  also  conferred  on  him 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws.  He  died  at  New  York 
city,  June  6, 1882.  See  Morais,  Eminent  Israelites  of  the 
Ntndeenth  Century,  p.  68  sq.     (B.  P.) 

De  Sola,  David  Aaron.  See  Sola,  David 
Aaron. 

Desplaoea,  Louis,  an  eminent  French  engraver, 
was  bora  in  Paris  in  1682,  and  died  in  1789.  The  fol- 
lowing are  his  best  prints :  The  Martyrdom  of  St,  Peter  ; 
The  Purification,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GeniraU, 
s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rfs,  s.  v. 

DespotXcae  is  the  name  applied  by  the  Greeks  to 
the  greater  festivals  of  the  Chureh,  generally  reckoned 
as  twelve  in  number. 

Despulg  (y  Daneto),  Don  Antonio,  a  Spanish  pre^ 
ate,  was  bom  at  Palma,  on  the  island  of  Majorca,  March 
81, 1745,  of  a  family  allied  to  the  ancient  kings  of  Art- 
gon.  At  the  end  of  his  studies  he  was  provided  with 
a  canonicate,  and  appointed  to  travel  in  France,  Ger- 
many, Holland,  and  England,  to  acquaint  himself  with 
the  different  cities  where  the  general  councils  of  the  East 
had  been  held.  He  remained  for  a  time  at  Rome  in  1778, 
then  visited  Calabria,  Sicily,  Malta,  Venice,  and  came 
back  to  Rome  in  1786,  with  the  title  of  an  auditor  of  the 
rota  for  the  kingdom  of  Aragon.  Having  been  appoint- 
ed bishop  of  Orihuela  by  Charles  IV  in  1791,  he  waa 
transferred,  in  1796,  to  the  archbishopric  of  Yalencb, 
and  in  1796  to  Seville.  He  afterwarda  fell  into  politi- 
cal complications  abroad,  but,  retuming  to  Spain  in  1798, 
was  made  councillor  of  state,  resigning  the  archbishop- 
ric of  Seville  and  receiving  in  exchange  several  rich 
benefices.  He  took  part  in  the  Conclave  of  Venice  in 
1800,  and  was  made  cardinal  by  Pius  VII.  He  also 
shared  the  captivity  of  that  pontiff  in  France  from  1809 
to  1812,  and  died  at  the  baths  of  Lucca,  May  30,  1813. 
See  Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog,  Ginsrale,  s.  v. 

DeMler,  Wolfoano  Christoph,  a  German  hymn- 
writer,  waa  bom  at  Nuremberg,  Feb.  11, 1660,  and  died 
while  head-master  of  the  grammar-school  of  his  native 
place,  March  11, 1722.    Of  his  many  hymns  we  men* 


DESTUR 


271 


DEVA 


tkm  thoM  whieh  hvn  been  tnndated  into  English,  aa, 
Wie  wM  ut  mtr,  0  Frwnd  der  Stde  ("O  Friend  of 
BOii]%  how  well  with  mef"  in  Lgra  Germaniea,  i,  147): — 
MftM  JttUj  den  die  Serapkmm  (**  My  Jeeus,  if  the  Sera- 
phim," tUdL  ii,  78) : — /o4  but  dick  mckif  Du  mnut  mein 
Jeaus  bltibm  {**  I  leave  thee  not,  thou  art  my  Jeeut 
erer,"  in  The  Brtakutg  Crudbfe^  by  J.  W.  Alexander) : 
— Fritdty friteh  hmdurcA  mein  Geitt  ("Courage,  my 
heart,  press  eheerly  on,"  in  ChriMtian  Singers  of  Gtr^ 
vuo^t  p.  277)  i—Oeffke  nUr  die  Perlenj^orim  ("  How 
the  pearly  gates  unft^d,"  in  Ljfra  Germamoa,  ii,  284). 
See  Koch,  GetckickU  des  deuUcken  Kird^ttdiedu,  i'li,  581 

sq.  cap.) 

Desttkr,  in  the  old  Persian  religion,  was  the  high- 
priest  in  every  place  inhabited  by  Parsees,  who  was 
lawgiver  and  judge  throughout  his  whole  district.  He 
received  one  tenth  of  the  income  of  the  faithful 

Desubas.    See  Hajal,  Mathieu. 

"Demver^em,  Marik  Joseph  Adolphk  NoSl,  a 
French  Orientalist,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1806,  where  he 
also  pursued  his  Oriental  studies.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Astatic  Society,  and  corresponding  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He  died  at  Nice,  Jan. 
2, 1867,  leaving,  Vie  de  ifohammed d^Aboulfeda^  in  Ara- 
bic, with  a  French  translation  (1837):  —  Ilistoire  de 
VAfriqvbt  90Us  la  DominatioH  Musulmane  (1841): — 
Vhrnrie  H  Ut  Etrutquet  (1864, 2  vols.).  For  the  Urn- 
vtrt  PiUorttque  he  prepared  that  part  which  treats  of 
Abyssinia  and  Arabia.    (B.  P.) 

Deti,  GiovANKi  Battxsta,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic, 
was  bom  at  Florence  in  1581.  He  was  a  kinsman  to 
Clement  VIII,  who  sent  him  to  the  g}'mnasium  at  Rome. 
Deti  distinguished  himself  by  his  studies  and  learning, 
so  that  at  the  age  of  seventeen  years  he  waa  made  a 
caidioal.  Some  time  alter  he  was  appointed  dean  of 
the  sacred  college.  He  died  in  1630,  leaving  RtkUio 
I'acta  in  Contittorio  Coram  Urbtsno  VII I^  etc,  which 
was  printed  in  the  collection  of  the  BoUandists.  See 
Hoeler,  Ncuv,  Biog,  GiiuraU^  s.  v. 

DefUldMit  (originally  Frithiona)^  archbishop  of 
Canteibttir,  was  a  West  Saxon  by  birth.  His  educa- 
tion seems  to  have  been  good,  but  the  place  where  he 
pweecuted  his  studies  is  unknown.  He  was  consecrated 
March  26, 657,  and  gave  entire  satisfaction  to  the  people 
of  Canterbury.  He  died  in  644.  See  Hook,  Lives  of 
tke  A  rekbitkopt  of  Caaterbury^  i,  180  sq. 

Deutlnger,  Martix,  a  Roman  Catholic  philoso- 
pher, was  bom  in  1815  at  Langenpreiaing,  in  Upper  Ba- 
rmrta.  In  1887  he  was  ordained  priest,  in  1844  be- 
came teacher  at  Freising,  and  in  1846  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Mnnich.  In  1847  he  was  exiled  to  Dillingenf 
in  1852  wss  placed  on  the  list  of  retired  teachers;  and 
died  Sept.  8, 1864.  He  published,  VerhSUmtt  der  Kuutt 
zunt  ChrittaUAum  (Freising,  1848)  :-^Grundiinien  einer 
poeiiieen  Pkilotophie  (Regensburg,  1843-53,  7  vols.) : — 
Biider  des  Geittet  in  Kinut  und  Nntur  (ibid.  1849-51,  8 
volsu)  i—Geitt  der  ekrittL  l/eberiiefervnff  (1850, 2  voU.) : 
— Prineipien  der  neuertn  Pkilotophie  und  der  christL 
Wittentekaft  (1857)  i^Dat  Reich  Gottet  nach  des  Apos- 
UU  Johannes  Ijehre  (Freiburg,  1862,  2  vols.)  i^Renan 
tmd  dot  Wumder  (Munich,  1864).     (a  P.) 

DentBCh,  David,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  who  died  at 
Sohrau,  in  Upper  Silesia,  July  31, 1873,  is  the  author  of, 
Der  Prophet  Habakuky  mU  hebrdischem  Commentar  und 
deuttther  Vthersetzung  (Breslau,  1837) :  —  Rucksprache 
wni  alien  Gldubufen  det  rabbiaitchen  Judenthunu  (ibid. 
1842) : — Zur  Wirdufung  der  Braunschweiffer  Rttbbiner 
VertammtMmff  (ibi<l.  1846) : — Protestation  getjen  die  Ter- 
tamntbenif  (ibitU  1846,  in  Hebrew  and  German).  He  also 
published  a  German  translation  of  the  iiolemical  work, 
eotitlcd  Chizuk  Enmnah,  of  Abraham  Troki  (q.  v.)  (2d 
ed.  1875).     See  FUnt,  BibL  Jud.  i,  207  sq.     (R  P.) 

Derttsch,  Bmanuel  Oscar  Menahem,  a  Jew- 
iali  writer,  nephew  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  at  Neissc, 
in  Siksia,  Oct.  28, 1829.    He  studied  at  Beriin,  and  in 


1865  was  appointed  assistant  in  the  library  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  a  poeition  which  he  held  until  his  death, 
which  took  place  afe  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  May  12, 
1878.  He  was  a  contributor  to  CAaiR5er«>ii>i<:y(:^apie<iMi, 
Smith's  Dictionary  <ifihe  BiUe^  and  Kitto*s  Cydopesdia 
of  BibUccU  Liieraiure^  Besides,  he  contributed  to  va- 
rioua  periodicala,  especially  the  Quarterly  Review,  for 
which  he  wrote  an  article  entitled,  What  is  the  TcUmudf 
(Oct.  1867),  which  attracted  great  attention,  and  waa 
soon  translated  into  other  languages.  See  the  article 
Talmud  in  thia  CydopsBdia  (voL  x,  p.  172  sq.).  Nine- 
teen of  his  papers  were  published  after  the  author's 
death,  under  the  title  Literary  Remains  (Lond.  1874, 
reprinted  in  New  York).  See  Morais,  Eminent  Israelites 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  p.  57  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Dantaoh,  Biagmnnd  Hennann,  a  missionary 
among  the  Jews,  was  bom  of  Jewbh  parentage  in  1791, 
at  Peiskretscham,  in  Upper  Silesia.  Besides  a  Tal- 
mndical,  he  also  received  a  secular  education,  and  at 
the  age  of  twenty-one  was  enrolled  among  the  students 
of  the  Breslau  University,  where  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  mathematics  and  astronomy.  To  avoid  a 
lengthened  military  service,  he  early  volunteered  for 
the  Prassian  army,  and  in  a  short  time  was  made  an 
artillery  officer.  The  rising  in  Greece  enkindlevl  bis 
youthful  energy  and  ardor,  and,  with  a  few  like-mind- 
ed companions,  he  left  for  that  countr^i.  In  1824  he 
came  back  to  Berlin,  and  attended  the  sermons  of  the 
(amous  Gossner.  Having  publicly  professed  his  faith 
in  Christianity,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  distin- 
gnished  Neander.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  to  labor 
among  the  Jews  at  Warsaw,  and  in  1830  was  stationed 
at  Breslau,  where  he  also  attended  the  theological  lect- 
ures of  the  different  professon.  In  1833  he  again  re- 
tumed  to  Warsaw,  and  remained  till  1853,  when  this 
field  had  to  be  given  up,  in  consequence  of  an  imperial 
ukase.  From  Poland,  Mr.  Deutsch  went  to  Nuremberg, 
to  labor  there  among  the  Jews.  He  died  Oct.  1, 1864. 
See  The  (Lond.)  Jewish  Herald,  1864 ;  Oelitzscb,  Saai- 
auf  Hoffuung  (ErUngen,  1864),  II,  iii,  33  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Deataohmann,  Johamm,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  was  bora  at  Juterbogk,  Aug.  10, 1625.  He 
studied  and  received  his  degrees  at  Wittenberg.  In 
1652  he  was  appointed  assistant  of  the  faculty  of  phi- 
losophy; in  1665  travelled  through  Germany,  Denmark, 
and  the  Netherlands;  in  1657  was  appointed  privat- 
decent;  and  in  1662  professor  extraordinary.  Thia 
theologian  loved  particularly  to  dispute,  and  had,  says 
J(Scher,  his  head  full  of  odd  notions,  especially  on  the 
identity  of  the  religion  of  Adam  with  that  of  the  Lu^* 
therans.  He  died  Aug.  12,  1706,  leaving  an  immense 
number  of  publications,  of  which  the  principal  are,  De 
Libris  Seripturm  Apogryphis  (Wittenberg,  1682)  :—De 
Petra  ad  Matt,  xvi,  18:  —  BUUieum  Abelis  Theologia 
Compendium  (ibi(t  1709) :— Panop/ui  Conversionis  Au- 
gustana  (ibid,  eod.) : — A  nalysis  et  Exegesis  Comjmtdii 
Hutteni  (ibid,  eod.): — Theologia  Positiva  Adami  Proto- 
plasti  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genh'ale, 
s.  V. 

Devaa,  the  generic  name  for  gods  among  the  Hin- 
dfta.  Throughout  the  Yedic  period  they  were  mere 
shapeless  abstractions.  It  is  trae  that  human  proper- 
ties were  frequently  ascribed  to  them ;  it  was  even  be- 
lieved that  gods  are  ultimately  mortal,  and  can  only 
purchase  an  exemption  from  the  common  lot  by  drink- 
ing of  the  potent  amrita,  or  draught  of  immortality, 
that  is,  the  soma  (q.  v.).  But  in  the  later  perioil,  when 
Brahminism  had  been  introduced,  the  devas  became 
more  completely  humanized,  assumed  a  definite  shape 
in  the  imagination  of  the  worshipper,  and  exhibited  all 
the  ordinary'  signs  of  individuality.  They  were  all  re- 
garded as  inferior  to  the  one  Great  Spirit,  who  is  the 
primal  source  of  being,  and  of  whom  the  devas  are  no 
more  than  scintillations  of  majesty.  They  are  wor- 
shipped, according  to  a  H  indA  writer,  in  order  that  men's 
minds  may  be  composed,  and  led  by  degrcea  to  the  es- 


DKVATAS  21 

Mntiil  unity.  Tbe  devu  have  lh«(  dwelling-pliee  in 
Mtn,  tbe  lool  huTCD  of  the  HindOi.  The;  we  of 
dUTereiit  degree*  of  Tank,  stntle  of  tbera  being  auperior, 
otben  inferior.  Devat  or  Daetu  kre  also  the  deiiieft 
of  tbe  Duddhiata,  whether  denoting  the  divine  penoni 
OD  the  earth,  or  in  tbe  celeatial  regioni  ibore.  Then 
are  Dumberlen  dwellingi  of  the  devu  in  the  lokru  or 
•pherei  abore  the  earth.  For  an  account  of  tbeae  aee 
Hani}-,  Manual  of  Baddkiim. 

Dovataa;  god>  worehippnl  by  ordinair  Hindfls, 
mch  ai  fUoii,  Krishna,  Siva,  Kali,  and  otben. 

De  Veil,  Carolna  Maila,  D.D.,  an  English  Bap- 
tist, wai  a  Jew,  born  at  MeU,  Lnrraine,  and  educated  in 
Judaiim;  but,  by  comparing  the  Old  with  the  New 
Tett,  became  a  Chriatian.  Ilia  father  Irieil  to  kill 
him  with  a  aword,  but  he  escaped,  and  bacauM  a  eanon- 
reguUr  of  the  Auguitinea,  at  Ueluti,  and  pcorenor  of 
divinity  in  tbe  Unirenily  of  Anjou,  where  he  look 
his  degree.  la  1ST2  was  published  bi>  Commmfaiy 
o»  St.  Mark  md  Si,  Lakt,  in  defence  of  the  Church 
of  Rome.  Being  employed  to  write  against  the  Hu- 
guenots, he  was  led  to  embrace  Protealantinn,  fled  to 
Holland,  abjured  popery  in  1G?7,  and  finally  went  to 
England,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by  several  bish- 
ops, and  admitted  to  holy  orden  in  tbe  English  Church. 
He  published  a  CommaitaTy  on  Soiamm'i  Song,  cmd  Ike 
Minor  ProphtU,  which  secured  him  high  favor  and  pat 
ronage,  and  the  bishop  of  London  gave  him  free  acceas 
ID  his  library.  There  coming  into  contact  with  tbe 
leading  Bapliua,  he  Joined  their  body,  but  thereby  for- 
feited all  his  Church  friends  excepting  Dr.  Tillotnn. 
He  becaoie  pastor  in  Gracecbureh  Street,  and  brought 
much  honor  to  the  denomination.  In  1684  was  pub- 
lished his  LOeral  KifilamilioH  o/lhe  Adi  oflht  Apot- 
lU;  in  Latin,  then  translated  it  into  Kngliib.  De  Veil 
afterwards  practiced  medicine  for  hit  maintenance;  but 
the  Baptistt  allowed  him  a  yearly  stipend  till  hia  death. 
See  Wilson,  DUteUiag  CAurcAu,'i,  306. 

De  Veil,  Loula  de  Compelgne,  an  English  th«- 

ologian  and  aDthor,of  the  same  family  as  the  furegoing, 
embraced  the  Romish  religion  iu  early  tlfr,  but  after- 
ward! renounced  it  for  the  ProteMant  faith,  loll  France, 
where  he  had  been  the  king's  interpreter  of  Oriental 
Unguages,  and  went  to  England  in  1ST9,  where  he  im- 
mediately joined  the  EUabliibed  Church.  Ue  pub- 
lished several  books  exhibiting  considerable  learning, 
chiefly  relating  to  Jewish  literature.  Sea  Dogue  and 
Bennett,  /futory  of  DiUBitert,  3<1  ed.  i,  177. 

D«tU,  IK  ART.    Kepreaenta- 
tions  of  the  devil  as  the  final  tor- 
mentor of  men  belong  to  medi- 
Bval   rather   than    to   primitive 
arL    Probably  the  earliest  exist- 
ing representation  of  hetl  is  in  the 
moaaict  of  Torcello,  as  that  paint- 
ed by  Methodius,  even  if  ita  story 
be  true,  has  perished.     In  urly 
art  the  devil  generally  appears  in 
the  form  of  a  serpent  as  the  tempt- 
'man  in  this  world.     Didron, 
f  however,  in  tha  IconograpKie  du 
\  StrftKt,  mentions  a  gnoMic  com- 
lion  of  human  and  serpentine 
I,  with  leonine  head  and  face, 
derived  from  the  ancient  Egyptian 
symbol  of  a  lion-headed  serpent. 
The  human,  being  predominant, 
appears  an  anticipation  of  the  per- 
■onifled  aerpentofthe  midiUeages. 
The  Gothic  or  medinval  repre- 


ob^in 


nlta 


tlonof  the  DeviL 


with  tbe  Bend  in  the  Ckui  of  Tkt- 
odoric,  which,  till  hitely  deattoj-ed 
by  gradual  and  wanton  miscluef, 
adanied  the  front  of  San  Zenone 


In  the  Lauren  tian  MS.  of  Rahula  (A.D.  (187}  then  i* 
an  extraordinary  Tepmentaion  of  the  dsmoniaei  of 
Gadata,]nst  delivered  ffom  their  tormenting  spirits,  who 
are  fluttering  away  in  the  form  of  little  black  humani- 
tica  of  mischievous  ex presnon.— Smith,  Dia.  ef  Ckriil, 
Atiq.  a.  v. 


Antique  RepresentaUon  of  Expelled  Dwnooa. 


D«vtl  Worship.  Tbe  ancient  Hehrewi  are  dia- 
tinctly  charged  with  this  tin  in  DeDl.xxiii,I7,  "Tbcy 
sacriAced  unto  devils,  not  to  God."  In  later  times  they 
spoke  of  all  false  gods  as  devijs,  in  coniequenca  of  the 
'    '      '  which  they  bore  to  all  kinds  of  id  ' 


Pbmnici 


find  them  calling  the  chief  de.  , 
Bt^ztlaib  (q.  v.),  ihe  prince  of  devils. 

Among  the  aboriginal  races  of  India, : 
which  are  still  to  be  found  in  what  a 
Hill  tribes,  inhabiting  tbe  fbreata  and  m 
nesses,  devil-worship  has  always  been  widely  pnvalsit. 
The  avil  spirits  among  these  people  are  propitiated  by 
means  of  bloody  ucriflces  and  frantic  dancca.  This 
form  of  worship  also  prevails  in  one  form  or  another  in 
Ceylon,  on  the  coast  of  Ualabar,  among  the  Ugrian  riKea 
of  Siberia,  and  tbe  Hill  Itibea  on  the  aonth-weatem 
frontier  of  China.  Devil-worthip  is  also  charged  agaiitac 
the  Yeiideea  (q.  v,).    See  SrrAHaniBH. 

De  VJnne,  Danikl,  s  veteran  Methodist  £[dsca- 
pal  minister,  was  bom  of  Konun  Catholic  parent^  in 
Londonderry,  Ireland,  Feb.  1,  1T9S.  Being  led  pravi- 
dentially  into  a  Methodist  watch-meeting,  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  he  was  converted  Jan.  t,  1810.  He  then  bcgui 
lo  study  various  branohta  of  hberal  learning,  in  whidi 
he  soon  became  proficient,  and  engageil  iu  teaching 
Khool  in  Brooklyn.  In  October,  1318,he  went  toNew 
Orleans  as  a  missionaTy,  entered  tbe  Mississippi  Coe- 
ference  in  1819,  and  was  a  member  of  the  General  Coo* 
ferenc*  of  18M,  at  which  lime  he  was  tranaferred  lo  tb* 
New  York  Conference.  Here  he  Ubored  until  bia 
strength  gave  way,  and  he  retired  after  forty  yean  of 
aclJve  service.  He  died  at  Horriionia,  M.  Y.,  Feb.  10, 
lesa.  ^m  MaiOa  of  Amaal  Cm/noKM,  1888,  p.  til ; 
Mtnorial  (N.  Y.  1888). 

Devotl,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Home  in  July,  1744.  At  Ihe  age  of  twenty  be  waa 
made  profeasor  of  canon  law  in  the  college  there,  and 
[Miblished,  Ihe  foUowing  year,  a  treatise  called  Dt  Ko- 
liuimit  in  Jure  LrgSnt.  He  was  made  bishop  of 
Anagni  in  1T89,  and  also  of  Carthage,  tn  pardbut  i^ 
dcliam;  next  secretary  of  briefs  to  the  prineea,  and 
camenrins,  and  finally  coiisullcr  to  the  Coogregalien 
of  Ihe  Immunity.   He  accumpaniedPioa'nitoFraiice, 


DEWALES 


273 


DEZA 


at  the  oofuecnkion  of  tbe  emperor  Napoleon,  and  was 
sabseqiiently  coDoected  with  the  prelates  of  the  society 
of  the  Index.  He  died  at  Bume,  Sept.  18, 1^.  His 
principal  work  is  entitled  InslitutioneM  Canoniea  (Bome, 
1785;  often  reprinted).  Devoti  also  undertook  a  Jus 
Camfmatm  Unhermtm^  of  which  only  three  volumes 
have  been  published  (Rome,  1808,  1804,  1817).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Dewales,  the  name  given  to  temples  in  Ceylon  in 
which  Brahminical  deities  are  worshipped.  Entrance 
to  them  is  forbidden  to  Europeans.  **  In  the  sanctum 
are  the  armlets  or  foot-ringa  of  Patting,  or  the  weapons 
of  the  other  deities,  with  a  painted  screen  before  them ; 
but  there  are  no  images,  or  none  that  are  permanently 
placed;  in  some  of  tbe  ceremonies  temporary  images 
•  are  made  of  ric^  or  of  some  other  material  equally  per- 
bhable." — Hardy,  Eastern  Afonachism,  p.  201. 

Dewa-lokas,  the  six  celestial  worlds  which  the 
Buddhists  believe  to  be  situated  between  the  earth  and 
the  Bnhma-lokas.  In  these  worlds,  where  there  are 
numberless  mansions  inhabited  by  the  Devas  (q.  v.), 
perfect  happiness  is  enjoyed.  See  Hardy,  Eastern  Mon- 
adUffJis. 


r,  Danikl,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  a  na- 
tive of  Glen-Dochart,  was  «iucated  at  an  Independent 
college  in  England;  licensed  by  the  presbytery  of  Mull 
in  November,  1812 ;  ordained  missionarv  at  Strontian, 
Sept.  24,  1813;  elected  minister  at  Greyfrisrs'  Church, 
Aberdeen,  July  13, 1814 ;  admitted  to  the  professorship 
of  moral  pbiloaophy  in  King's  College,  June  4, 1817, 
which  he  held  in  conjunction  with  the  living  of  Grcy> 
friars;  promoted  to  Tron  Church,  Glasgow,  in  1819; 
made  principal  of  the  university  and  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  and  resigned  his  charge  in  November,  1832. 
He  died  at  Over-Durdie,  May  28, 1867,  in  his  eightieth 
year.     See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticana,  ii,  12 ;  iii,  476. 

De'vrey,  Orvillk,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
bom  March  28, 1794.  He  graduated  at  Williams  Col- 
lege in  1814;  studied  theology  at  Andover  from  1816  to 
1819,  and  soon  after  was  Dr.  Channing*s  assistant.  In 
1823  he  became  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  Church  at  New 
Bedford,  Mass.,  and  in  1836  came  to  the  Second  Uni- 
tarian Church  at  New  York.  Ill-health  led  him  to  re- 
sign his  pastorate  in  1848,  and  to  retire  to  his  farm  in 
Sheffield,  Mass.  There  he  prepared  two  courses  of  lect* 
ures  for  the  Lowell  Institute  in  Boston.  From  1858  to 
1862  he  was  pastor  of  the  new  South  Church  in  Boston. 
He  died  at  Sheffield,  March  21, 1882.  Dr.  Dewey  pub- 
liahedf  Letters  on  Reviccds : — DiscQurses  on  Human  Nat' 
acre : — The  Two  Great  Commandments^  in  sermons  (N.  Y. 
1876).     (B.P.) 

De  Witt;  ThomaB,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Beformed 
(Dutch)  minister,  was  bom  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  18, 
1791.  He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1808 ;  stud- 
ied theology  under  Brodhead  and  Frpeligh ;  also  at  New 
Brunswick  Seminary  in  1812,  and  was  licensed  by  the 
ClaMia  of  New  Brunswick  in  the  same  year;  was  pas- 
tat  at  Hopewell  and  New  Hackensack  from  Nov.  24, 
1812,  to  1825;  at  Hopewell  from  1825  to  1827;  at  New 
York  from  1827  to  1874;  was  editor  of  the  Christian 
InteUiffencer  from  1831  to  1843,  and  died  May  18,  1874. 
Dr.  De  Witt  took  great  interest  in  the  various  benevo- 
lent enterprises  of  his  day,  especially  the  Bible  and  Tract 
societies,  and  was  greatly  honored  and  revered  by  all 
classes  of  men  and  denominations  of  Christians.  He 
was  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  Historical  Society 
for  thirty  years,  and  president  from  1870  to  1872.  Dr. 
De  Witt  was  a  Christian  roiuistet  of  singular  purity 
and  simi^icity.  His  numerous  writings,  chiefly  on  re- 
ligious biography,  history,  and  practice,  are  enumerated 
in  Corwin*s  Mamud  of  the  Ref,  Church  in  America  (3d 
cd),  p.  239  sq. 

De  "Witt;  William  R.,  D.D^  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Bhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  25, 1792.  He 
WM  eonverted  in  1810,  and  educated  at  Schenectady 

XII.— S 


College  and  the  Associate  Beformed  Seminary.  In  1818 
he  accepted  a  call  to  become  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death,  Dec.  28,  1867.  Dr.  De  Witt  was  eminenUy  a 
Christian  preacher.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist,  Abnanae. 
1868,  p.  196. 

De  Wolfe,  Charles,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  bora  at  Wolfville,  N.  S.,  May  30, 1815.  He 
secured  a  liberal  education ;  commenced  the  study  of 
law  in  Halifax  i  was  converted  under  Dr.  Crawley;  united 
with  the  Methodiste  strongly  against  the  wish  of  his 
parents,  and  in  1837  left  Halifax  for  England,  having 
been  recommended  by  the  Nova  Scotia  district  to  tbe 
British  Conference.  He  received  his  theological  train- 
ing at  Hoston,  London;  was  ordained  in  Citv  Boad 
Chapel,  Sept.  14, 1838;  sailed  for  his  native  land,  and 
ministered  in  Halifax,  Windsor,  Charlottetown,  Petite 
Riviere,  Shelburne,  and  Sackville.  In  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  theological  professor  in  the  institution 
at  Sackville,  N.  B.  In  1863  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  Conference  of  Eastern  British  America.  He  at 
length  became  a  supernumerary^  took  up  his  residence 
in  his  native  village,  and  died  there,  June  9, 1875.  Dr. 
De  Wolfe  was  a  typical  gentleman— cultured,  refined. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  catholicity  and  of  large-heart- 
ed sympathy  for  the  poor  and  the  suffering.  His  preach- 
ing was  intellectual,  yet  fervent,  and  a  rich  treat  to  alL 
See  Minutes  of  the  Nova  Scotia  Conference,  1875,  p.  7. 

Dew^s,  in  Persian  Mythology.  The  Dews  of  tbe 
teachings  of  Zoroaster  are  not  personifications  of  the 
good,  but  of  the  physical  and  moral  evil,  formed  to  com- 
bat with  the  beings  of  light  created  by  Ormuzd.  Thus 
Ahriman  set  over  against  the  seven  Amshaspands  of 
Ormuzd  the  seven  Erzdews.  From  these,  the  high- 
est beings  of  the  kingdom  of  darkness,  downward,  there 
is  just  as  great  a  number  of  harmful  daemons  as  of  good, 
friendly  geniL  The  supreme  Dews  have  creative  powers; 
their  names  are  Ahriman,  A8hmoph,£ghetash,BoAhasp, 
Astujad,  Tarik,  Tosius ;  also  the  following,  Ander,  Savel, 
Tarmad,  and  Zarej.  Many  others  are  mentioned  in 
the  poetical  and  moral  works  of  the  Persians.  An  ex- 
ceptional class  are  the  Peris— light,  airy  beings  of  ex- 
traordinary beauty,  living  in  the  upper  regions  on  the 
perfume  of  the  flowers.  They  are  fallen  spirits,  but  the 
way  to  paradise  is  open  to  them,  as  also  to  Ahriman,  if 
they  reform. 

Dexter,  Flaviua  Lucius,  a  Spanish  theologian, 
the  son  of  St.  Pacian,  bishop  of  Barcelona,  lived  about 
the  year  400.  He  was  appointed,  at  the  age  of  thirty, 
prtefect  of  the  pnetorium,  by  the  emperor  Honorius,  but 
soon  resigned  this  dignity  and  retired  to  his  native 
country,  where  he  was  made  governor  of  Toledo.  He 
wrote,  a  Chronide,  of  which  Jerome  speaks.  This 
chronicle  was  for  a  long  time  supposed  to  be  lost,  when 
the  Jesuit  Jerome  de  Higuera  announced  thst  he  had 
discovered  a  MS.  in  the  library  of  Fulda.  This  MS. 
was  brought  by  Torislba  to  Calderon,  who  published 
it  under  the  title  Fragmentum  Chronici  F,  L.  Dextri, 
cum  Chronica  Marci  Maximi,  etc.  (Saragossa,  1619 ;  re- 
printed in  Seville  in  1627,  in  Lyons  the  same  year,  and 
by  Nicholas  Antonio  in  his  BHiiotheca  Hispana  Vetus}, 
It  is  generally  supposed,  however,  that  the  ChromcU 
published  by  Calderon  was  a  manufacture  of  Higuera. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GSnerale,  s.  v. 

Dexter,  Henry  V.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Wayne,  Me.,  April  3, 1815.  He  graduated  from  . 
Waterville  College,  now  Colby  University,  in  1842,  and  ' 
from  the  Newton  Theological  Institution  in  1845.  He 
was  ordained  in  firookline,  Mass.,  Sept  7,  the  same  year, 
and  was  pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist  Church  in  Calais, 
Me.,  until  1854.  His  next  pastorate  was  in  Augusta, 
until  1860,  and  a  second  time  in  Calais.  For  two  yean 
(1870-72)  he  was  at  Kennebunkport,  and  then  accepted 
a  call  to  Baldwinsville,  Mass.,  where  he  died,  July,  1884. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encgdop.  p.  882.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Desa,  Diego,  a  Dominican  and  second  grand-in- 


DEZA  2: 

quintor  arSp«in,i»a  bom  in  1444  It  Toro,iii  Leon.  In' 
14T9  be  uicc«eded  Pet«r  of  Onns  m  proreasor  of  cheot- 
ogy  ID  Lbe  Unit-enitf  of  Saluninca;  in  1494  ««a  made 
biihop  orZimoni;  id  1496  bishop  of  Salmninca ;  in 
1497  wu  eleviled  to  the  epiacopal  tee  ot  J>en,  which 
he  occupied  lill  I&OD,  wben  he  wu  appointed  biihop 
of  Pilenda.  In  1506  be  becims  archbishop  of  Seville, 
after  having  been  preTJouiiy  appoinled  auccewnr  of 
Torquemada ;  and  in  1B23  was  nude  archbishop  of  To- 
leilo  and  primue  of  Spain.  While  on  his  wa?  to  To- 
ledo he  died,  June  9, 1523,  leaving  Dr/fiaoriam  Thojoa 
Agtiiaatit  (Seville,  1491;  Parii,  1&I4).  A  complele 
edition  ot  hit  woifca  waa  puUiahed  at  Madrid  in  1&7C. 
See  Llorente,  llitloirt  tU  Flnguiiitim  dEtpagae  (Paris, 
1818),  i,  289  sq^  330  aq.;  iv,25S»q.;  Preseatt, //uloi:^ 
oflht  Utign  0/  Firdiaand  and  Itabtlla  (Lond.  1862), 
I,  8G9;  ii,  291,  819;  llefek,  Ca<-di«at  Ximentt  (2d  eil. 
Tnbingen,  1851),  276  sq.,  351  tq..  359  i  Kodrigo,  lluL 
Vtrdadeta  de  la  Ifiquitinan  (Madrid,  1877) ;  ii,  116  «q., 
SOS  H).,  235  >q.,  245  tq. ;  Uama,  Zur  Gackieklt  dtr  ipa- 
■wcAoi  StttalttRqaUUioa  (Regeniburg,  1878),  pt.  56  iq.; 
Hundbaueen,  in  Welxer  u.  Wrilc's  Kirckm-Ijiiiim,  s.  t. 
(a  P.) 

Deia,  Pedro,  a  Spanish  prelal?,  was  bom  at  Se- 
viUe,Feb.24,152(l.  Ue  studied  ntSalamanca.where  he 
obtained  a  chair  as  professor  of  law;  afterwards  became 
official  of  CompostelU,  auditor  of  Vallidolid,  archdeacon 
or  Calalrava,  member  of  the  inquisition,  and  llnilly 
prettdent  of  Grenada  in  1569.  He  obtained  the  cirdi- 
nat's  bat  in  1578,  went  to  Rome  two  j-ean  later,  and 
died  there,  Aug.  27, 1600.    See  Hoefer,  Neuv.  Biog.  Gl- 

Dbamia,  the  teachings  of  Gotama  Boddha,  or  the 
»}item  of  truth  among  the  Buddhi^ae.  Iciaoiie  of  the 
three  gems  or  great  treasures  which  they  prize  above 
all  other  objects.  It  consists  of  several  portions,  which, 
when  collected  together,  were  divided  into  two  princi- 
pal classes,  called  Sullani  and  Abiidhammaia.  Theae 
are  again  divided  into  three  culleciiona,  called,  in  the 
Singhalese,  ll'inayft,  or  di»ci[)line;  ^ufni, or  discourses; 
and  Abhidltarma,  or  pic-emiuent  truths,  llieac  collec- 
tions are  called  Piltiluit,  one  venion  of  which  consists 
of  about  four  thonsand  live  hundred  leaves.  These  are 
bound  up  in  various  sizes  to  suit  tbe  ronvenience  of 
those  nsing  them.  The  Dharma  is  literally  worsbipped, 
and  the  books  are  usually  kept  wiapped  up  with  the  ul- 
most  care  in  cloth.  Whenever  the  Buddhist  speaks  of 
these  ucrcd  booiis  he  adds  an  epithet  of  honor.  Some- 
times they  are  placed  apon  a  ruile  kind  of  altar  by  the 
road-ride,  that  those  who  pass  by  may  put  money  upon 
it  in  CHder  to  obtain  merit.  The  Dharma  is  considered 
aa  perfect,  having  notliiiig  superfluous  and  nothing 
wanting, — Hariv,  Emltm  ifmuicAun,  p,  167,192.    See 

Dlab,  the  law  of  retaliation  among  the  Blohammc- 
dans,  the  nearest  relative  of  «  murdered  person  having 
the  right  to  claim  tbe  price  nf  blood  from  thi 


4  DIAPER-WORK 

eons  of  the  Church  ofRome,  consisting  of  a  hall  in  which 
the  distributing  took  place,  and  an  oratory  or  chapel 
annexed.  Over  each  diaeiMin  a  deacon  presided,  ami 
(he  arcbdeaeon  superintended  them  all.  The  original 
diaconis  has  given  place  to  another  plan,  where  the  hall 
is  dispensed  with, and  the  chapel  has  become  a  church; 
of  these  there  are  now  fourteen,  each  assigned  to  a  car- 
diual-deacon.  (!)  Tbe  word  was  also  used,  as  by  Greg- 
ory tbe  Great  {£>.  ad  Joam.  24),  for  that  part  of  the 
deacon's  office  which  consisted  in  dlspeoiing  food  and 
money  to  the  poor.  (8)  The  word  was  used  for  monu- 
lic  aloiBgiTing  in  tbe  earlier  days  of  monacbism. 

Diaooulaa,  certain  short  prayers  in  the  liturpy  re- 
cited by  the  deacons,  called  also  ilp^vaa,  as  being 
prayers  for  peacf. 

DiaConoftchinB,  a  sect  of  EaMkoltiiit  (q.  v.),  or    ■ 
itisBGnten  from  tbe  Russo-Greek  Church.    They  derived 
name  from  the  Adrovoc  or  deacon  Alexander, 
founder.     He  belonged  to  the  Church  at  Veska, 


Thed 


subjec. 


follows  I 

murder— a  freeman  for  a  freeman,  a  slave  fur  a  slace, 
and  a  woman  fur  a  n'onian.  Sue  he  who  shall  pardon 
a  murderer  shall  obtain  mercy  from  God;  and  uhen  a 
man  shall  have  pordoned  a  murderer,  he  shall  no  longer 
have  it  in  his  poner  to  exact  retaliation  from  him." 

DiBCCenlsm  (Gr.  lia,  ihrovgh,  and  mvur,  neu>),  a 
name  formerly  given  by  the  Greek  Church  to  the  week 
after  Easter,  as  being  the  Kenovalion  or  Gist  week  of 
tbe  festival  of  our  Saviour's  resurrectioiu  On  the  fifth 
day  of  that  week  the  patriarch  oC  Constantinople,  along 
with  the  buhope  and  principal  clergy,  were  formeily 
oocustomeit  tn  begin  the  day's  services  with  a  ceremony 
in  the  imperial  palace  in  honor  of  the  emperor. — Gard- 
ner, Failht  oflht  World,  «.  v. 

Dlaconla.  (1)  The  name  given  to  the  places  where 
food  and  aima  were  distributed  to  the  poor  by  tbe  ' 


lJOfi,ii 


consequence  of  a  dis- 


pute which  had  arisen  relative  to  some  eecleaiastical 
ceremonies.— Gardner,  Failhi  nflhe  World,  a.  v. 

DladSdluB,  bishop  of  Photia  or  Photice  (Epirus), 
lived  about  ICO.  Phoiius  aaya  (Cerf.  201)  that  he  had 
read  a  book  of  this  bishop,  containing  ten  de6tiitioni 
and  a  hundred  chapters.  Although  this  book  has  not 
come  down  unto  our  time,  yet  we  have  a  translation 
from  the  Ureek  into  Latin,  made  by  the  Jesuit  Tmiieo 
under  this  title,  3.  Diadochi  Epiteopi  Photiat,  Capita 
Centum  de  I'er/rclione  Spii-ilvali,  etc  (Florence,  1570; 
reprinted  several  times) ;  but  there  it  no  evidence  as  to 
its  authenticity.    See  itaeter,  Noun.  Biog.  GiBiraU,t.T. 

DiagoniB  OF  Mklob,  a  Greek  philosopher,  was  sur- 
named  the  Atheist,  and  lived  in  the  time  of  Socrates 
and  Aiistopbane*.  He  must  have  removed  fnun  his 
native  island  to  Athens  before  the  performance  of  the 
Cloudt  of  AriBiiipbaiies,  B.C.  423,  for  be  is  alluded  io  in 
that  piece  as  one  well  known  to  the  Athenians,  lie  at- 
tacked the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  atid  ridiculed  Ihc  pqt- 
ular  religion.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Democrilusof  Ab- 
dera.  In  411  he  was  accused  of  impiety,  but  the  real 
trouble  was  his  polilica.  He  left  the  city,  fearing  the 
result  of  a  trial,  and  was  condemned  to  death  by  lbe 
court.     He  dieil  at  Corinth.    His  works  are  lost. 

Diana,  Bkhkdktto,  an  eminent  Tenelian  painter, 
flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  l&lb  and  first  part  of 
the  lOtb  ecniuiiea.  He  excelled  in  architeclnral  |»cceB, 
and  found  connderable  employment  in  the  churches  ot 
his  native  city.  Some  ot  his  piclores  are  much  ad- 
mired, particularly  his  altar-piece  of  Sr.  Lucia,  in  the 
Church  of  lbe  Apostolu  See  Spoontt.Biog.  aiiLfy/H4 
EiieArH,l.v. 

DlanteuB  (or  Dlanlns).  bishop  of  Cesarea,  in  Cap- 

-      padocia,  B,C.  cir.  840-86S, 

linlly  man,  but  of  weak 


duracler.    See  Smith,  ZKcf. 

Diaper- work  (or  SI- 

aperlng),  in  ArchilKturf, 


entirely  sunk  into  (he  nork 


below 


e  genera: 


ind 


they  are  usually  sqi 
placed  close  to  each  other, 
but  occasionally  other  form 
arc  used,  as  in  the  choii^ 
of  Canterbury;  this 


of  decc 


introdnced  in  the  Early  Eng^ 
litb  style,  when  it  was  some- 
limes  applied  to  brgcspaMs, 


DIAPSALMA  2: 

u  in  WalminMnAbber  lod  CbicbtUer  Cathedral;  in 
lb*  Dcconttd  *tyls  it  wai  also  exIenBirely  emplaned. 
An  eximple  mav  be  Kcn  in  tbe  illuuntion  or  part  of 
oneafdwKlMnorCrauagivrn  under  Camopt.  tntlw 
rnpeudkubir  Myle  diipering  nu  uied  only  u  t  painted 

•ocb  decoralLat 


5  DICE 

Dlbllk,  in  Slavonic  mytbdlogT,  wm  ■  goddCM  ot 

Dlbon  OP  Gad.  Thi>  place  hm  lately  acquiced  a 
great  STchnvli^ical  wlebrity  in  coniequaice  of  the  dis- 
covery tbere  of  tbe  rsmoiu  Uoabitie  atone  at  king 


The  origin  of  tbe 


but  it  a  generally  a 
taken  fmin  a  kind  of 
ia  iqaare  pattenit,  wbicb  wi 


imonly  u, 


Tbii 


I  then 


wa»  called  "  Dyaper,''Le.D'Vpre8, 
from  tbe  cbief  manufactory  being 
at  Ypnw,  in  Belgium.  — Parker, 
Glm.  0/ Arckiltanre,  a,  v. 

Diapaalma,  ■  mode  of  ling- 

ingaometioies  adopted  in  the  early 

■    Christian  churchea,  in  wbicb  the 

prieati  led  the  pealmody  and  the 

people  aang  reiponees. 

DiaimBid(Idt.Z)n7iri(ju(),a 

TerycomTDonnamein  Ireland,  and 
borne  by  manyortbeuinu:  tome 
artbMe  are  timply  placed  upnn  a 
day  in  the  calendaiT,«ith  or  with- 
SBt  tbeir  Tatbei's  name  and  the 
place  of  dedication,  while  otbera 
haTe  a  few  paniculaia  preaerred 
by  hiitory  or  tradition.  Sereral 
ofthein  are  enuneTated  by  Smith, 
l>icl,ofCkriil.Bioy.t.-v. 

Diat&nna,  biahop  of  Lymirat^  in  Lycia,  who,  with 
otber  of  tbe  Lycian  pnlatea,  wrote  to  Haul  {,Epiil.  403, 
130}  in  S76,  eipreeaing  their  deaire  to  aeparate  them- 
aeire*  from  the  hetAodox  Aiialic  binhopa,  and  to  enlet 
I  him.— Smith,  Uitt.  of  Chritt. 


Diwat,  Diego  ValeDtlno,  an  eminent  Spanish 
painter,  liced  at  Vallailulid,  and  executed  many  works 
fur  ttM  churchea  anitcoiiTenta  of  that  city,  lie  founded 
the  Hoiue  o[  Hercf ,  or  Hospital  for  Orphans,  and  died 
inl6«0.     SceSpooner.fiio^.  ^tf'.o/Ute/'ins^rrt.i.T. 

Dlas,  Jnan,  ■  Spanish  martyr,  waa  bom  at  Cuen^a, 
in  Caaijle^  While  a  atudeiit  at  Pari*,  he  bocame  a  con- 
Tert  141  Proteatantiam,  in  1540.  In  I54&  be  left  Paria  for 
Gawra,  with  a  recommemlation  to  Calvin.  Prom  Ge- 
nera he  went  to  Straiburg,  where  lie  waa  held  in  high 
•atccm  itj  Martin  Bucei ;  at  tbe  laller's  request,  Diaz  ac- 
aompanied  him  to  the  diet  of  Kalisbon,  December,  1646, 
FWtro  Ualrendi,  who  waa  present  at  Katisbon,  tried 
n-crything  to  bring  Diaz  back  to  the  Church  of  Rome, 
tut  in  vain.  At  last  Malrenda  lucceedeil  in  influencing 
Diax'a  btolher  Alfonio  to  commit  fratricide.  Aifbnio, 
wbo  waa  an  officer  at  tbe  papal  court,  hastened  from 
Booie,  and  perpetrated  the  foul  deed  at  Neuburg-on- 
(b«-Dviabe,  March  !7, 1646.  In  Germany  this  fratri- 
cide prodaeed  general  horror;  but  the  emperor  Charles 
V  uid  tbe  pope  approved  of  it,  and  the  murderer  was 
DOC  puniahed.  He  however  committed  suicide  at  Trent 
in  liil.  Dial  wmte  a  confession  of  faith,  Ckriitiana 
Jtrtigumii  Stmma,  which  was  published  at  Neuburg  in 
IMG.  and  put  into  the  index  by  Plus  IV  in  1564.  It  was 
npriated  at  Strasburg  in  1093  and  1694.  and  Zurich  in 
ITSS.  It  was  translated  into  French  by  Crespin,  Con~ 
fmtiomdt  fdy.qti  at  la  Sommairt  tU  la  Ritigioti  Ckri- 
tirpm  (1565;  ■  Spanish  translation  wsa  published  in 
IS65)  —Biimma  de  la  RiUgion  CnHiaiui.  In  the  epis- 
tolarr  part  of  Calrin'a  works  are  faun<l  several  lettcrt 
ofDiaz.BddmaedtDC>lviuinlM5andl54e,  SeeBeia, 
/oawi  (Geneva,  1680);  Bayle,Z>iA //jsr.ii,S12;  Boebm- 
ar,  SpoJiMt  O-formert  0/  T<eo  CnUaria,  from  1520 
(Loud.  1874),  p.  185-216 ;  Picheral-Dardier,  in  Licblen- 
bergci'a  Emyib^.  da  Bdncrt  Btliyiatt,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 


"Dlbon  Is  a  twin  city,  npan  two  ndjacenl  knnlLs,  the 
inlns  corerlog  not  only  the  tops,  but  tne  sides,  to  tbelr 

b<ilb'  knali>,  on  the  wost,  rous  s  JLlUe  widj,  In  which, 
sfler  II10  l^ile  ral.it  we  found  a  puddle  of  water  here  lud 

Ilia  co'aalry  becomes  rocky  and  sndnJDtfDc.    All  the  hllla 

has  lieeu  curried  hers  by  msu.  Sllll,  there  nre  many  bs- 
ssltlc  blocks,  dressed,  nud  nfien  wICli  lime  on  them,  ert- 

carrlnKS  on  other  stones.    The  place  Is  fall  of  canems, 

clcenlar  arches, like  thereat."  (For plan  oftlia  ruins, see 
cut  on  followiux  page.) 

Dlbrlo.    See  Dubricius. 

Dloalophj^luc  (Gr.  Akhiot,  jiui,  and  fuXoC,  a 
heeper),  an  officer  in  the  Greek  Cburch  who  takes  care 
of  the  Church's  title  and  her  charten. 

DlcaaloB,  bishop  of  Tabia,  in  Galatia  Prima  (cir. 
A.D.  314-B25). 

DlcBHtillcs  JuAa  UK,  ■  Spanish  Jesuit,  was  bon} 
in  1685  at  Naples;  Joined  bia  order  in  16U0t  was  pro- 
feaaor  of  theology  and  philosophy  at  Muicia.  Toledo,  and 
Vienna,  and  died  in  1663  at  IngolsUdU  He  wrote,  Dt 
JudtliaefJurr.etc  (Antwerp,  ie41):-Z>e/>>carTui(ioiis 
(ibid.  1641!)  -.-Dt  Sacramalit  (1646-5-2,  8  vols.)  -.—Dt 
yuramMo  (I6C2).  See  LangboiM,  in  Welzet  u.  Welte'a 
Kirck«fUxa»a,  a.  v.     {It  P.) 

Dice.  The  playing  It  dice  or  other  gimea  ofchanee 
Iwaya  been  diacountenanced  by  tbe  Cbureb.  The 
'  "lement  forbids  it.  ApollDniuB<1enounces 
the  Hontanista  for  it,  asking  whether  prophets  play 
at  dice.  The  jlposfofiicii/  Cimoni  forbid  the  practice, 
under  pain  of  degrsdation  or  excommunication.  The 
Council  of  Eliberii  (A.D.  306}  and  the  Trulkn  Council 
(at  the  close  of  the  Tth  century)  both  forbade  it.  Jus- 
tinian denounced  games  of  chance,  and  even  the  be- 
ing present  at  them,  affixing  a  penally  to  the  act  by 
tbe  clergy,  of  suspension  and  seclusion  in  a  monaateiy 
for  three  years.  Tbe  account  Jerome  gives  nf  5yne«its 
alleging  liii  own  prtqieiuity  to  gambling  oa  a  rcaion  for 


not  bring 

Uou  by  ce 

Poietien  igaiiut  their  abbess,  t 

crencn  of  like  cbinetcr,  ihow  that  the  habit  was  nev- 

erthelesa  all  too  frequent  In  the  Cbureh.— Smith,  Did. 

cfChritLAnliq.t.  V. 

DIottTlnm,  a  double  mi  taper  med  hy  the  blih- 
opa  or  the  Greek  Cburch  in  the  benediction  a(  the  book 
or  the  goipeli  lying  on  the  holy  table.  The  dvxrUtm 
was  held  to  typify  the  two  nature*  of  Clirist,  while 
the  (rioenun  ■ymboUaed  the  Trinity.— Smith,  Did.  of 
Chritt.  A  rUiq.  a.  V. 

Dlohu,  aa  Iriah  saint,  son  of  Trieben>,  of  Sabhall, 
the  first  disciple  of  St.  Patrick,  in  Ulster,  A.D.  cir.  432. 
He  is  commemorated  April  29.  See  Smith,  Did.  of 
ChriU.  Biog.  i.  v. 

Dick,  RoBBRT,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of 
Rev.  James  Dick,  minister  in  Glasgow,  was  propoeed  on 
trial  for  the  miaiatry,  July,  1746;  licensed  to  preach 
Jan.  14,1747;  presented  to  the  living  si  Latiirk  in  Sep- 
tember, 1748,  and  a  settlement  ordered  by  the  Assem- 
bly, Hay  15, 17U.  On  pmenting  himself  for  ordina- 
tion in  September,  he  was  refused  admission  to  the 
Church,  a  otob  having  carried  off  the  keys,  and  he  was 
ordained  in  the  Tron  Cburch,  Glaigow.  Another  mob 
preTented  bis  entry  into  the  church  on  Sunday,  in  Oc- 
tober, and  he  preached  at  Lee,  with  the  approval  of  the 
ptesbyteiy.  In  August,  1754,  he  was  transferred  to 
Mew  Ureyfriars'  Church.  Edinburgh ;  was  translated  to 
the  Old  Church,  but  changed  to  Trinity  College  Church, 
April  2S,  17M;  was  appointed  in  Hay,  1760,  a  commis- 
noner  to  vlut  the  Highlaoda  and  select  suitable  place* 
fat  minioaatiea  under  the  royal  bounty.  He  did  not 
(to,  bowerei,  and  died  Ang.  14, 178i,  aged  uxty  yeara. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  t\Ae  and  distinguished  minis- 
lera  of  bis  day.  He  published  two  tingle  Semunu 
(Edinh.  1768,  I7fl2):-7;ls:Stateo/(Ae  Cate  (itud.  176S). 
8«aF((«fi£xIr(.ffaKKiaNa,i, 38,70;  Ji,SOe. 


DlokanKm,  £.  W.,  D.D.,  a 
Baptitl  minister  waa  bmn  at  Sa- 
lem  N  J  Jan  28  1810.  He  grad- 
tiated  from  the  Hamilton  Inatitulion 

n  lS3o  was  ordained  at  Pough- 
keepsie  a  1836,  and  cootinned  aa 
pastor  there  fa  forty  yean.  Hi* 
other  pastorates  were  at  Danreri, 
Mask  Bu  1  ngton  N.  J^  Elmira, 
N  Y  Lew  sburg  and  Harcos  Hook, 
Pa.,  n  wh  eb  place  be  resided  foor- 
leen  yean.  He  d  ed  Dec  8, 187B. 
See  Calhcart,  Baptut  Emyclif,  p. 
88a.     (J  C.S,) 

Dlckanon,  Jaues  Stoeks, 
D  D   a  Baptist  m  nisler,  was  bom 

n  Fbdode  ph  a.  Pa.,  July  6,  IBm 
He  graduated  fraai  Hadison  Uni- 
Tcnity  in  1848  soon  after  waa  as- 
sociated w  h  Dr  U  B,  Andervm  in 
the  management  of  Tkt  Xae  York  ' 
Rtcor^fT  and  was  subsequently  COD- 
necedw  h  TA  Cinmde.  Hispat- 
lofatea  were  at  Vi  minglon,  DeL, 
F  tabu  gh  Pa.,  and  South  Boston, 
Ittm.  He  died  Uarcb  31,  ISTG,  in 
Ch  cago  where  he  had  gone  to  con- 
nect h  mself  w  h  TAe  Slamiard. 
8e>Jfe»oi    CN  Y)-     (J.Ca) 

dokey  EbeneBor,  D.D^  ■ 
Presbyterian  m  nister,  was  bom  near 
Oxford  Chester  Co  P*.,  Harch  II, 
ITTi  He  gmdua  ed  from  the  Uni- 
vem  y  of  Pennsylvania  in  1791, 
was  lieeDsed  br  he  First  Asaociste 
Keformed  Presbvtcry  of  Pennsylva- 
nia  nl  94  nl  M wa* aettled over 
the  united  congregationa  of  Oxfofd 
and  OctarDn,Pa.  Hia  connection  with  the  lait  charge 
ily  four  yean,  and  that  with  Oxford  until  hi* 
death,Hay8l,I8tL  See  Spnguc^wiaito/rAa  Jsser. 
i^Wi '",  1S8. 

Dickey,  John  Miller,  D.D.,  a  Preshytcrian  min- 
IHer,  waa  bom  at  Oxford,  Pa,,  Dec.  IS,  ]8(M.  He  pre- 
pared for  college  at  Oxford  and  Milton ;  graduated 
from  Dickinson  College  in  1824,  and  from  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  in  18Z7 ;  was  licensed  by  the  New 
Castle  Presbvlerr,  Oct.  IT,  1827,  and  ordained  by  the 
same,  Hay  19,  ISBO.  He  preached  the  fint  year  nnder 
a  comminion  from  the  Board  of  Domeatic  Utssious  in 
the  north-eastern  counties  of  PennsylTsni*, and  then 
labored  in  Georgia  and  Florida.  Having  aoccpled  a 
call  lo  become  pastor  ofthe  Church  at  Mew  CajKle,DeL, 
he  was  ordained)  next  went  toOxford  and  Upper  Wist 
Nottingham,  Pa.;  for  fifteen  years,  while  paator,  was 
also  principal  of  the  Oxford  Female  Seminary,  and  died 
Harch  31, 1878.  Dr.  Dickey  was  deeply  interested  in 
many  philanthropic  and  educaiioual  institutions.  See 
Xeonhg.  Report  of  PriMXtmTkeoLSrm.l«n»,^  11. 

Dlokliuon,  Baxter.  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  April  14, 1796.  He 
anited  with  the  Congregational  Church  then  in  IBIl; 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  18]7,and  from  Andorcr 
Theologic;ii  Seminary  in  1821 ;  was  psslor  of  the  Con- 
gregilional  Church  in  LongmeBdow,from  1838  tol8S9; 
of  the  Third  Presbyleriin  Cburch  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
from  1829  tn  IBSo;  professor  in  Lane  Theological  Sem- 
inar>-  fnnn  ]B8o  lo  I839i  in  Auburn  Theological  Sem- 
inary from  1839  lo  1847 ;  in  Andover  Theolt«ical  Sem- 
inary in  1848;  secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Christian  Union,  Boaton,  Haia.,  from  1860  to  1869;  re- 
sided at  Lake  Forest,  111.,  from  1859  to  1868,  and  tbere- 
aftar  in  Brooklyn,  M.  Y.,  until  hi*  death,  Dec  7, 187B. 
Dr.  DickiuBou  waa  one  of  the  acknowledged  leulele  in 
the  New-school  Presbyterian  Church,  and  was  modera- 
tor of  the  aaemhly  of  tbit  Church  in  Philadelphia,  in 


DICKINSON 


211 


DICKSON 


1889.  He  wat  a  mm  of  flue  scholanliip,  a  tlwRNigh 
teacher,  and  a  preacher  of  antmial  ability.  See  Prt9- 
Sytencm,  Dee.  18^1875;  Gm.  Cat,  of  Auburn  TkeoLSm. 
1888,  p^  257. 

Dlckinaoii,  Charles,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bom  in 
Anguat,  1792,  at  Cork,  Ireland.  He  graduated,  in  1815, 
liom  Trinity  College,  DobUn,  with  distinction ;  in  1819 
was  appointed  assistant  chaplain  of  the  Magdalen  Asy- 
lam,  and  three  years  later  at  the  Female  Orphan  House, 
where  he  continued  for  nine  years;  next  became  one 
of  the  archbishop  of  Dublin's  chaplains;  in  July,  1883, 
was  appointed  to  the  parish  of  SL  Ann's,  Dublin ;  in 
1840  was  made  bishop  of  Meath,  and  died  July  12, 1842. 
See  The  Church  of  Engkmd  Maffozine,  Aug,  1846,  p.  107. 

DioklilBOZi,  Moaefl)  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  Dec  12, 1695.  He  graduated 
from  Yak  College  in  1717,  and  his  first  charge  was  Hope- 
well, N.  J.,  where  his  labors  were  attended  by  extraortii- 
naiy  reyivals,  and  his  first  appearance  at  the  synod  was 
In  1722.  In  1727  he  removed,  as  pastor,  to  Norwalk, 
Conn.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  Jonathan,  he  com- 
pleted the  latter's  second  VimHecUum  of  the  Sovereiffiity 
of  Graee,  Early  in  1764  he  sought  an  assistant  in 
WiUiam  Tennent,  Jr.,  the  son  of  the  patriarch  of  Free- 
luAdf  N.  J.,  but  during  the  closing  years  of  his  life,  after 
Tenncnt*8  removal,  he  pursued  his  worklslone.  He  died 
May  1, 1778.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Diokinaoii,  Riohard  WilUam,  D.D.,  a  Piresby- 
terian  minister,  was  bom  in  the  city  of  New  York,  Nor. 
St,  1804.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1828; 
stodied  two  years  thereafter  in  the  theological  semina- 
ry at  Princeton,  N.  J. ;  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the 
Seeoad  Presbytery  of  New  Yoric,  Ifarch  5, 1828;  or- 
dained an  evangelist  Oct.  24  following ;  settled  over  the 
Preri>yterian  Church  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  Oct.  18,  1829; 
resigned  in  1883  on  account  of  injured  voice ;  spent  the 
following  winter  in  Florida,  and  the  next  season  in  for- 
eign travel,  and  then  resumed  preaching  on  his  return 
to  New  York  city,  where  he  supplied  the  pulpit  of  the 
Market  Street  Dutch  Church  from  1834  to  1835.  In 
1886  he  became  pastor  of  the  Bowery  Presbyterian 
Chnxeb,  but  resigned  the  April  following ;  was  installed 
OTer  the  Canal  Street  Presbyterian  Church,  Oct.  22, 
1^9;  resigned  in  1844;  in  November,  1859,  was  in- 
vited to  take  charge  of  the  Mount  Washington  Valley 
Chmrch,  and  acted  as  its  pastor  for  about  thirteen  years. 
He  <tied  at  Fordham,  Aug.  16,  1874.  See  Obituary 
Record  of  Tale  College^  1875;  Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton 
TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  44. 

Dlokson,  Charles,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  studied 
at  Edinburgh  Univeruty ;  was  licensed  to  preach  Dec 
6, 1821 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Wamphray  in  No- 
vember, 1824;  was  ordained  May  5, 1825,  and  died  May 
10, 1853.  He  published.  The  Case  of  Blind  Bartimeus 
Considered  and  JUuMtrated:  —  Baptismal  Regeneration 
Tested  by  the  Scriptures^  etc. : — An  Account  of  the  Par- 
ish,   See  Fasti  EccUs,  Scoticana,  i,  666. 

DicskaOD,  Cjrma,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Erie  County,  Pa.,  Dec.  20, 1816.  He  grad- 
uated at  JelEersott  College,  and  was  ordained,  in  1839, 
pastor  at  Franklin.  After  remaining  there  several  years, 
he  received  a  call  from  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  where  he 
labored  earnestly  and  successfully  until  he  was  called 
to  Baltimore,  in  1856,  as  pastor  of  Westminster  Presby- 
terian Church,  remaining  there  fourteen  years.  In  1870 
he  was  elected  secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Home  Miasions,  in  which  office  he  performed  the  great 
work  of  his  life.  In  1870,  on  the  reunion  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  he  was  appointed  permanent  clerk  of  the 
General  Assembly,  which  ofllce  he  held  at  the  time  of 
his  death,  Sept.  11,  1881.  See  Baltimore  Presbyterian, 
Sept.  16, 1881.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Dickson,  the  fiamily  name  of  several  Scotch  der- 


1.  David  (1),  AJi.,  was  regent  in  Glasgow  Univer- 


sity; admitted  asristant  minister  at  Irvine,  March  31, 
1618 ;  propoeed  for  Edinburgh  in  October,  1620 ;  deprived 
by  the  High  Court  of  Commission,  Jan.  10, 1622,  and 
confined  in  Tnrriff  for  opposing  the  Articles  of  Perth, 
bnt  permitted  to  return  in  July,  1628.  In  the  discharge 
of  his  official  duties  he  secured  the  esteem  of  the  gen- 
try, nobles,  and  parishioners.  For  employing  two  of 
his  countrymen  in  1637,  who  were  under  irish  Episco- 
pal ban,  he  was  again  tried  by  the  High  Commission. 
The  same  year  he  refused  to  accept  the  service-book 
attempted  to  be  obtruded.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
assembly  in  1688,  appointed  chaplain  to  the  Ayiahire 
regiment  in  1689,  and  the  same  year  was  elected  mod- 
erator of  the  General  Assembly.  He  was  translated  to 
the  professorship  of  divinity  in  Glasgow  Unirersitr, 
Jan.  30, 1640;  admitt«Q  to  the  Cathedral  Church,  Glas- 
gow, May  18, 1640,  but  attended  only  one  meeting  of 
session,  and  a  commissioner  was  appointed,  March  29, 
1649,  to  appear  against  his  transUtion  to  Edinburgh. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  second  charge  at  Edinburgh, 
April  12, 1650,  and  held  the  professorship  of  divinity  in 
conjunction.  He  was  elected,  a  second  time,  moderator 
of  the  General  Assembly,  July  21, 1652;  deprived  in 
October,  and  died  in  I>eeember,  1662,  aged  seventy- 
eight  years.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  the  most  popular 
and  powerful  of  his  day,  and  his  services  at  Irvine  were 
crowned  with  wonderful  success.  He  took  a  foremost 
part  at  the  Glasgow  Assembly  in  1688,  in  the  overthrow 
of  episcopacy.  When  the  Church  divided  into  Reso- 
lutioners  and  Protesters,  he  took  part  with  the  former. 
He  published,  A  Treatise  on  the  ProWuses  (Dublin, 
1630)  -.—Explanation  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Uebrews  (Aber- 
deen, 1635):— ij^^^ponfio  Analytica  Omnium  ApostoHca- 
rum  Epistotarttm  (Glasgow,  1645)  :->  True  Christian 
Love,  in  verse  (1^9):— Exposition  of  the  Gospel  of 
MaUhew  (Lond.  16bl):^  Explanation  of  the  Psalms 
(ibid.  1653-55,  3  vols.)  :—Therapeutiea  Sacra  (Edinb. 
1656;  transl.  ibid.  1664) :— ^4  Commentary  on  the  Epis- 
tles (Lond.  1659)  i—Pralectiones  in  Confessionem  Fidei 
(foL  transl.)  x— Truth's  Victory  over  Error  (Lond.  1658) : 
— several  pamphlets  in  the  disputes  with  the  doctors 
of  Aberdeen  (4to),  and  some  in  defence  of  the  public 
resolutions.  The  Directory  for  Public  Worship  was 
drawn  up  by  him,  with  the  assistance  of  Alexander 
Henderson  and  David  Calderwood,  and  The  Sum  of 
Saving  Knowledge,  by  him,  in  conjunction  with  James 
Durham.  He  also  published  some  minor  poems :  The 
Christian  Sacrifice,  and  0  Mother  Bear,  Jerusalem, 
See  FasU  Ecdes,  SeotUsana,  i,  27 ;  ii,  8, 158. 

2.  David  (2),  D.D.,  a  native  of  Kilbucho,  graduated 
at  Edinburgh  University,  May  22, 1784;  was  licensed 
to  preach,  Aug.  16,  1744 ;  presented  to  the  living  at 
Newlands  in  June,  1755,  and  ordained  March  31, 1756; 
deposed  March  2, 1763,  but  restored  in  June ;  suspended 
from  the  ministry,  and  finally  deposed,  April  22, 1767; 
contested  his  claim  for  stipend,  and  obtained  decision 
in  his  favor  in  February,  1768.  He  died  April  9, 1780, 
aged  seventy  years.  He  published  A  Letter  to  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Kinloch  (Edinburgh,  1750) :— ^4  Letter  to  the  Rev. 
John  Adams  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticanm, 
i,2o3. 

3.  David  (3),  third  son  of  the  preceding,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  parish  school  of  West  Linton^  the  gram- 
mar-school at  Peebles,  and  the  universities  of  Glasgow 
and  Edinburgh.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  August, 
1775;  appointed  assistant  and  successor  at  Libcrton, 
and  ordained  May  1, 1777;  transferred  to  Bothkennar, 
April  23, 1788;  was  brought  forward  as  a  candidate  for 
St.  Cuthbert's  in  1785;  accepted  a  call  to  Canongate 
Chapel  of  Ease,  Oct.  1, 1795,  as  the  first  minister  there; 
was  transferred  to  Trinity  College,  Edinburgh,  Feb.  27, 
1799;  promoted  Nov.  30, 1801,  to  New  North  Church, 
and  died  Aug.  3, 1820,  aged  sixty-six  jeara.  He  pub- 
lished four  single  Sermons  (Edinburgh,  1779-1819)  :— 
Sermons  Preached  on  Different  Occasions  (ibid.  1818)  : 
— Gospel  Tidings: — An  Account  of  Bothkennar,  See 
Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticanee,  i,  83,  69,  91, 226 ;  ii,  695. 


DICTINIUS 


278 


DIDYMUS 


4.  David  (4),  D.D^  eldest  son  of  the  foregoing,  was 
edueated  at  the  parish  school  of  Bothkennar,  and  at 
Edinburgh  University ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  De- 
cember, 1801 ;  called  in  January,  and  ordained  March 
10,  1802,  minister  of  the  second  charge,  Kilmarnock; 
presented  to  St.  Cuthbert's,  Edinborgh,  March  29, 1803, 
and  died  July  28, 1842,  aged  sixty-two  years.  He  was 
indefatigable  and  zealous  in  promoting  benevolent  and 
missionary  societies,  and  was  secretary  of  the  Scottish 
Missionary  Society  for  many  years.  He  published  five 
single  Sermons  (Edinburgh,  1806-81)  •.—Diaeounes  Doc- 
trinal and  Practical  (1887) :— edited  Memoir  of  Miss 
Fanny  Woodbury  (1826)  '.^Sermons  by  the  Rev,  W,  F. 
Ireland,  D,D,  (1829)  i—Lecturta  and  Sermons  by  ike  Rev, 
George  B,  Brand  (1841),  and  communicated  several 
articles  to  the  Edmburgh  Cydopadia^  Christian  Instruct 
tor,  and  other  periodical  works.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Sco- 
(teams,  i,  127;  ii,  177. 

5.  RoBBBT,  D.D.,  was  licensed  to  preach  Dec.  4, 
1782;  presented  by  the  magistrates  and  kirk  session  to 
the  living  of  the  second  charge.  South  Leith,  in  Janu- 
ary, and  ordained  July  17, 1787;  translated  to  the  first 
charge,  Sept.  29, 1790,  and  died  Jan.  26, 1824,  aged  sixty- 
five  years.  His  discourses  were  marked  by  Scriptural 
research,  a  vigorous  understanding,  a  chaste,  nervous 
style,  and  an  energetic  expression.  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
ScoticancBf  i,  102, 103,  108. 

Dioteritun.    See  Pulpit. 

Dictiilius,  a  Priscillianist,  whose  writings  are  con- 
demned by  Leo  the  Great  {Epist,  xv,  16),  at  length  re- 
canted, and  was  restored  to  the  Church. 

Diotionariefl,  Biblical,  Theological,  and  £c- 
CLIE8IA8TICAL.  We  cootiuue  here  our  account  of  the 
leading  works  of  this  kind  which  have  appeared  since 
the  article  in  volume  U  was  printed. 

New  editions  of  the  great  cyclopedias  of  Herzog  And 
Wetaer  u.  Welte  are  now  in  course  of  publication,  con- 
tinued since  the  death  of  the  principal  editors,  the 
former  by  Plitt  and  Hauch,  and  the  latter  by  Hergen- 
wothe  and  Kaulen.  The  works  have  been  almost  en- 
tirely rewritten  and  greatly  improved,  but  they  still 
retain  the  excellences  and  defects  of  the  former  edition 
as  to  contents  and  manner  of  treatment. 

Meanwhile  a  very  extensive  work  of  a  similar  char- 
acter, Encydopidie  des  Sciences  Rdigieuses^  has  been 
edited  by  F.  Lichtenberger  (Paris,  1877--82, 13  vols.), 
which  is  Protestant,  slightly  rationalistic  and  scholarly, 
but  rather  adapted  to  popular  use  than  to  profound  or 
minute  research. 

Dr.  Philip  Schaff  has  prepared  a  condensed  and  mod- 
ified translation  of  Heraog's  work,  with  many  fresh  ar- 
ticles, under  the  tiUe  of  Rdigious  Encydopadia  (New 
York  and  Edinburgh,  1881-84, 8  vols.).  Except  in  size, 
it  partakes  of  the  qualities,  both  excellent  and  other- 
wise, that  characterize  its  great  original.  Notwith- 
standing the  American  additions,  it  still  is  strongly 
Germanic  in  its  range  and  method.  The  Biblical  por- 
tion of  the  work  is  comparatively  scant,  and  the  bio- 
graphical relatively  preponderant.  As  a  natural  conse- 
quence of  its  origin,  the  chief  excellence  lies  in  the  his- 
torical department,  although,  of  course,  it  has  room  for 
little  more  than  an  abstract  from  the  copious  stores  of 
Herzog.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  plan  of  the  work 
does  not  indude  cats,  which  so  often  aid  in  the  illustra- 
tion, especially  of  archaeological  subjects.  Nevertheless 
it  is  a  valuable  and  convenient  compendium  of  religious 
knowledge,  and  well  adapted  to  the  wants  of  such  as  can- 
not afibrd  a  more  extensive  work,  yet  desire  something 
beyond  the  brief  unscientific  manuals  heretofore  current. 

Dr.  Joseph  Schftfler,  ffandlexihon  der  KathoHschen 
Theologie  (Batisbon ;  begun  in  1880  and  still  in  course 
of  publication),  is  to  be  completed  in  four  volumes.  Its 
treatment  of  topics  is  fresh,  its  tone  liberal,  its  arrange- 
ment good.  It  is  altogether  a  very  satisfactory  work 
on  Roman  Catholic  theology,  for  general  use. 

Dr.J.HtimbtiTgeT,IUal'EncyhU>padieJiir  Bibd  und 


Talmud  (Strelits,  1866-88.  Division  I,  treating  of 
Biblical  topics,  was  completed  in  1867;  Division  II,  of 
Talmudical  subjects,  in  1888.  A  second  and  improved 
edition  of  Division  I  is  to  appear  in  the  near  future). 
Thb  work,  prepared  by  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Germany, 
has  a  conceded  vklue  in  the  department  of  Jewish,  and 
also  of  general,  archseology,  and  has  no  serious  com- 
petitor. 

Dr.  Daniel  Schenkel,  BtbeULexikon  (Leipsic,  1868- 
75, 5  vols.  8vo,  illustrated).  This  work  is  characterized 
by  thoroughness  and  independence,  and  is  designed  to 
meet  the  demand  for  a  Biblical  and  Theological  Diction- 
ary of  small  compass,  and  suited  to  the  general  Church- 
public  of  Protestant  Germany.  It  is  liberal  or  slightly 
rationalistic  in  its  treatment  of  subjects,  as  might  be 
expected  in  the  work  of  its  corps  of  collaborators. 

Dr.  Eduard  C  A.  Riehm,  ffandwdrterbuch  des  Bi- 
blischen  A  Uertums  (Bielefeld  and  Leipsic,  1875-^,  8vo, 
illustrated),  is  the  work  of  a  number  of  conservative 
German  scholars,  and  forms  an  excellent  manual,  more 
like  English  Bible  Dictionaries  in  its  range  and  execu- 
tion than  any  other. 

H.  Zeller,  Biblisches  Worterbuch  (2d  and  improved 
edition,  Gotha,  1866 ).  A  useful  manual,  of  limited 
compass. 

Dr.  F.  X.  Kr|iu8,  Beal-Encyklopadie  der  Christlicken 
AUerihUmer  (Freiburg,  1880  sq.,  still  incomplete).  The 
scope  of  this  work  embraces  the  first  six  (xntories  of 
the  Christian  sera.  Its  articles  are  copiously  illustnted 
with  wood-cuts,  mostly  taken  from  Martigny^s  Diction- 
noire  des  Antiquites  Chritiennes,  The  work  is,  upon 
the  whole,  a  viduable  compilation.  Its  authors  are  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

Dr.  William  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities (Lond.  1875-80,  2  vols.),  and  his  Dictionary  of 
Christian  Biography  (ibid.  1877  sq. ;  to  be  completed  in 
four  vols.,  of  which  three  have  already  been  issued),  have 
been  prepared,  with  the  aid,  in  the  former  work,  of  Prof. 
Cheatham,  and,  in  the  latter,  of  Prof.  Wace,  on  the  same 
comprehensive  and  scholarly  plan  as  his  Dictionaries  of 
Classical  AntigttUies  and  Biography;  but  they  only 
come  down  to  the  time  of  Chariemagne. 

Potter's  Complete  Bible  EneydopctdiOf  edited  by  Rev. 
W.  Blackwood,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (Phila.  1878  sq.,  8  vols.  4to), 
includes  many  theological  and  biographical  articles; 
and  is  intended  for  popular  use.  It  is  superbly,  but  not 
always  appropriately,  illustrated. 

J.  H.  Blunt,  Dictionary  of  Doctrinal  and  Historical 
Theology  (Lond.  1872,  imperial  8vo),  and  Dictionary  of 
Sects f  Heresies,  etc  (ibid.  1874),  are  useful  preparations 
from  a  High-Church  point  of  view. 

M.  E.  C.  Woloott,  Sacred  Archceology  (Lond.  1868, 8vo), 
contains  interesting  notices  of  ecclesiastical  art  and  in- 
stitutions, especially  relating  to  the  Anglican  Chorclu 

F.  G.  Lee,  Glossary  of  Liturgical  and  Eodesiastieal 
Terms  (Lond.  1877,  8vo,  illustrated),  is  chiefiy  occupied 
with  description  of  sacred  vestments  and  appurtenances, 
all  from  a  High-Church  standpoint. 

Parhet^s  Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Architecture 
(Lond.  1845,  4th  ed.  8  vols.  8vo,  copiously  illustrated) 
is  a  very  convenient  and  useful  summary  of  details  re- 
lating to  architectural  science,  including  churches  par- 
ticularly. 

Dida,  seventh  abbess  of  the  Benedictine  convent  of 
St.  Peter,  Lyons,  in  the  time  of  bishop  Fucualdns. 

Dido,  (1)  the  twenty-sixth  bishop  of  Poictiers,  cir. 
A.D.  673;  (2)  the  thirty -second  bishop  of  Nogent,  in  the 
8th  oenturv;  (3)  the  thirty-seventh  bishop  of  Toon^ 
A.D.  742-744. 

Didymia,  fourth  abbess  of  the  convent  of  Sante- 
Croix,  at  Poictiers,  in  the  6th  century. 

Didjhl^us,  a  martyr  at  Alexandria,  A.D.  804,  and 
commemorated  April  ^,  is  said  to  have  been  a  Chris- 
tian teacher  there,  and  to  have  been  beheaded  for  aid* 
ing  the  escape  of  Theodora,  a  Christian  girl,  from  a  fate 
worse  than  deatli,  on  account  of  her  (kith. 


DlfiCMANN 


279 


DIEST 


Diaomanil,  Johakn,  a  Gennan  phUologut  and 
tbeologUoy  was  bora  at  Stade,  Jane  80,  1617.  He 
studied  at  Gieaaen  and  Wittenbei^,  and  was  appointed 
president  of  the  college  in  his  native  place,  superin- 
tendent of  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Weser,  and  later 
professor  of  theology  in  the  university  of  Kiel.  He 
died  at  Kiel,  July  4, 1720,  leaving  several  dissertations, 
enumerated  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Hittoria  Biblio' 
tkeea  Fabridame,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv^  Biog,  Genirale, 
a.  V. ;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  a.  v. 

Dledo,  GiovAXNi,  an  Italian  theologian,  bora  at 
Baaaano  in  1487,  filled  with  distinction  the  highest 
functions  in  the  Augustinian  order,  and  died  at  Bologna 
in  1553,  leaving,  Catechismus  de  A  tie  NeapoUtana 
(Rome,  1547): — Commentarii  in  Pauli  EpistoloM  ad 
TiaiotMinim  (1553)  i—Expotitionei  in  Epittolas  Petri,  Jo- 
coH  et  Judct,  etc.   See  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  GiiUraUf  s.  v. 

Diefenbaoh,  Martik,  a  German  theologian,  born 
at  Fcankfort-on-the-Main  in  1661,  devoted  himself  to 
the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  published  on  this  very 
anbject  two  volumes  in  German,  with  a  Latin  title 
Judaus  ConcertakUts  (Frankfort,  1696)  \—Judau$  Con- 
rtrmu  (1709).  He  died  in  1709.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Genirakj  s.  r. 

Diego  DB  Dkza.    See  Dxsa. 

Diego  DB  Tkpbs,  a  Spanish  prelate  and  historian, 
was  born  at  Yepes,  near  Toleilo,  in  1531.  H,e  joined 
the  order  of  the  Hieronymites,  and  became  successively 
bishop  of  Albarracin,  confessor  of  the  king,  Philip  II, 
and  bishop  of  Tarragona.  He  died  in  1614,  leaving, 
nistoria  d^.  la  Peraecucion  de  Ingalaterra  (Madrid, 
1599) : — Vida  de  la  Madre  Teresa  de  Jem*  (ibid.  eod. ; 
Saragossa,  1606)  x—De  la  Muerte  del  Rey  Felipe  Segundo 
(Milan,  1607).     See  Hoefer,  A  our.  Biog,  Geniraley  s.  v. 

Diego,  Franciflco  Garcia,  D.D.,  a  Roman  (^th- 
ollc  prelate,  who  had  for  some  time  directed  the  mis- 
aiooarics  as  prefect,  was  on  April  27,  1840,  appointed 
first  bishop  of  Califoraia,  residing  at  Santa  Barbara, 
where  he  at  once  prepared  to  erect  a  Franciscan  monas- 
tery and  a  theological  seminary,  as  well  as  a  cathedral 
and  residence;  but  the  income  of  the  "  Pious  Fund"  of 
Califoraia — created  at  the  time  of  the  Jesuit  missions 
there  (1642  sq.)  by  charitable  benefactors — was  with- 
held, as  the  Mexican  government  had  appropriated  the 
property  in  which  it  was  invested.  In  1844,  however, 
he  obtained  a  grant  of  thirty- five  thousand  acres  of 
land,  by  means  of  which  he  established  a  college  at 
Santa  Ifiez  mission.  Diego  died  at  Santa  Barbara, 
April  30, 1646.  See  De  Gourcy  and  Shea,  Hist,  of  the 
Calk,  Ckmrck  in  the  United  States,  p.  693. 

Diepenbeck,  Abraham  van,  an  eminent  Flemish 
painter,  was  bora  at  Bois-le-Duc  in  1607,  and  died  at 
Antwerp  in  1675.  He  seems  first  to  have  practiced 
painting  on  glass.  Some  of  his  efforts  of  this  kind  are 
etill  admired  in  Amsterdam,  particularly  the  windows 
in  the  cathedral,  on  which  he  painted  the  works  of 
mercy,  and  those  of  the  Church  of  the  Dominicans, 
which  are  embellished  with  representations  from  the 
life  of  St.  PauL  Several  pictures  by  this  master  were 
tmraght  to  the  United  States  some  years  ago,  and  sold 
for  enormous  prices.  One  of  these,  the  Mocking  of 
Ckriat,  was  a  most  admirable  performance.  See  Spoon- 
er,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  Giniredt,  s.  v. 

Diepenbrook,  AxonEAS  van,  a  Finlandish  theo- 
logian, was  bora  at  Riga,  Nov.  2, 1624,  studied  at  Mar- 
burg and  Giesscn,  fulfilled  various  ecclesiastical  func- 
tions, and  died  in  his  native  place,  April  4, 1698,  leaving, 
De  Ente  et  Potentia:—De  Judicio  Contradictionis  For- 
malis  in  DiscipUait  RealUnts  Exereitte  (1698).  See 
Ifoefer,  Nour,  Biog.  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Dier  (Dihenfyr,  or  Deiferus),  a  Welsh  saint, 
ffied  aDoot  A.D.  664,  and  is  commemorated  Nov.  21. 

Diexinger,  Franz  Xavier,  a  Roman<  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Rangendingen,  in 


HohenzoUem,  Aug.  22, 1811.  In  1835  he  was  ordained 
priest,  in  1840  was  made  professor  of  dogmatics  at 
Speyer,  in  1843  at  Bonn,  and  in  1853  became  a  member 
of  the  chapter  at  Cologne.  In  1856  he  was  spoken 
of  as  a  candidate  for  the  Paderbora  bishopric,  in  1864 
for  the  Treves  and  in  1866  for  the  Cologne  bishoprics; 
but  his  name  was  always  erased  from  the  list  by  the 
goverament  as  a  **  persona  minus  grata."  When,  in 
1869,  the  perplexities  of  the  Vatican  council  commenced, 
he  belonged  to  those  who  regarded  the  declaration  of 
the  papal  infallibility  as  non-opportune.  When,  finally, 
the  infallibility  of  the  pope  was  adopted  by  the  council, 
he  retired  from  his  office,  and  died  Sept.  8, 1876,  at  Ve- 
ringendorf,  in  HohenzoUera,  leaving,  System  der  gottli- 
eken  Thaten  des  Christenthums  (Mayence,  1842,  2  vols.; 
2d  ed.  1857) : — Kamehortrage  an  gebildete  Katkoliken 
(1844) : — IMten  des  heiligen  Karl  Borromdus  (Cologne, 
1846) : — Lehrbuch  der  KaihoUschen  Dogmatik  (Mayence, 
1845 ;  5th  ed.  1866)  \—Das  Epistelbuch  der  Katholiscken 
Kirche,  theologisch  erklart  (ibid.  1863, 3  vols.)  .—Laien- 
kateckismus  fiber  Religion,  OJenbarung  vnd  Kirche  (ibid. 
1355).    (a  P.) 

Dierkena,  Petbus,  a  Flemish  Uieologian,  was  bom 
at  Ghent;  entered  the  Dominican  order  in  1620,  and 
taught  both  philosophy  and  theology  at  Louvain.  He 
was,  in  succession,  doctor  of  theology,  school  director, 
and  vicar  provincial  of  Lower  Germany,  and  died  Aug. 
3, 1675,  leaving,  Exerdtia  SpirituaUa  (Ghent,  1659) : — 
De  Vita  Coniemplativa,  etc.  (ibid.  1663):  — />e  OUiga- 
tiombus  Regula  et  Constitutionum  (ibid.  1667).  See  Hoe- 
fer, Xouv,  Biog,  GMrale^  a.  v. 

Dies,  nsed,  like  the  English  "  day,**  to  designate  a 
festival:  (1)  Dies  Adoratus,  Good  Friday.  (2)  Dies 
jEgyptiaci,  certain  **  unlucky  days  "  supposed  to  have 
been  discovered  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  from  astro- 
logical calculations,  and  marked  in  the  calendars,  but 
their  observance  was  forbidden.  (3)  Dies  Boni,  used 
to  designate  festivals.  (4)  Dies  Consecrati,  the  four 
days  at  Christmas  observed  as  festival  days,  on  which 
no  courts  were  to  be  held.  (5)  Dies  Magnus  Felicissi- 
tnus  nsed  for  Easter-day ;  Dies  Magnus,  also  used  for 
the  Last  day.  (6)  Dies  Xatalis,  birthday.  (7)  Dies 
Neophgtorum,  the  eight  days  of  special  observance, 
from  Easter-day  to  its  octave,  during  which  the  new- 
ly baptized  wore  white  garments.  (8)  Dies  Palmarum 
(or.  In  Ramis  Palnturum),  Palm  Sunday.  (9)  Dies 
Sancti,  the  forty  days  of  Lent.  (10)  Dies  Scrutinii, 
the  days  on  which  candidates  for  baptism  were  ex- 
amined, especially  Wednesday  in  the  fourth  week  of 
Lent.  (11)  Dies  Solis,  Dies  Luna,  See  Week.  (12) 
Dies  Tinearum  or  Murium,  certain  days  when  ceremo- 
nies were  performed  to  avert  the  ravages  of  moths  or 
mice.  (13)  Dies  Viridium,  Thursday  of  holy  week  in 
some  ancient  German  calendars ;  ^  Green  Thursday  ^  in 
modera  German  ones.  See  Maunday  Thursdat. 
(14)  Dies  Votorum,  a  wedding-day  among  the  Lom- 
bards.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq.  s.  v. 

Diea  (or  Diaz),  Gaspar,  a  Portuguese  painter, 
sometimes  called  **  the  Portuguese  Raphael,"  flourished 
about  1525,  and  was  instracted  in  the  school  of  Michael 
Angelo  at  Rome.  On  his  retura  to  Portugal  he  exe- 
cuted, by  order  of  the  king,  a  number  of  excellent 
pictures  for  the  churches.  In  1534  he  painted  his  cel- 
ebrated Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  for  the  Church  of 
the  Miseracordia.  He  died  at  Litibon  in  1571.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ghiirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v, 

Diesbach,  Johann,  a  German  Jesuit,  was  bora  at 
Prague  in  1729,  became  successively  projfessor  at  01- 
mtltz,  Brann,  Prague,  and  Vienna,  and  died  in  1792, 
leaving  a  few  scientific  and  historical  works,  for  which 
see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Generals,  s.  v. 

Dieat,  Heinrich,  a  Gennan  theologian,  was  born 
at  Altena,  in  Westphalia,  in  1595.  He  studied  at  Dort- 
mund, Siegen,  and  liasle.  and  continued  his  studies  at 


DIESTEL 


280 


DIETlilCHSTEIN 


Hddelbeig;  bat  was  obliged  to  leave  that  city  at  the 
time  of  the  Teligions  diBputeSyand  returned  to  Basle,  to 
pans  bis  examinations  for  the  doctor's  degree,  in  1621. 
(Jntil  1624  he  lived  at  Leydeo  as  a  private  teacher.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  the  Gospel  at  Emmerich,  and 
in  1629  professor  of  theology  and  Hebrew  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Harderwick.  In  1641  he  went  to  Deventer  in  the 
same  capacity,  and  died  there  in  1678,  leaving,  among 
many  other  works,  De  Ratione  8tudii  Thmloffici  (Har- 
derwick, 1634)  x—OraUo  lnauffurali$  (Deventer,  1640): 
—Ftmda  Davidit  (1646)  .—Pedum  DavidU  (1657).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Dlestel,  LuDWio  vox,  a  Protestant  doctor  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  Germany,  was  bom  at  Konigsberg, 
Sept.  28, 1825.  He  stadied  at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and  at  his 
native  place.  In  1851  he  commenced  his  theological 
lectures  at  Bonn,  and  was,  in  1858,  appointed  university- 
preacher  and  professor  of  theology.  In  1862  he  was 
called  to  Greifswalde,  in  1867  to  Jena,  and,  after  Oeh- 
ler's  death,  in  1872,  to  Tubingen,  where  he  died,  May 
15, 1879.  A  few  months  before  bis  death  ho  had  been 
ennobled.  Besides  his  contributions  to  the  Studim  und 
Kritikenj  Hersog's  Real^  Encyldopadie  (1st  ed.),  and 
Schenkel*s  Bibd'Lexikon^he  published,  Der  Segen  Jakobe 
m  Gen,  xlix  historueh  erlduteri  (Braunschweig,  1858) : — 
Ge»chidUe  de»  alien  Tettaments  in  der  chriatUchtn  Kirche 
(Jena,  1868),  a  **  magnum  opus:**— />»e  Sinifiut  und  die 
FhiUagen  dee  AUeHvant  (1871 ;  2d  ed.  1876).     (a  P.) 

DiSta,  the  ecclesiastical  Cumu  or  daily  office. 

Dietelmair,  Jouann  Auodbtin,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  April  2, 1717,  at  Nurem- 
berg. He  studied  at  Altdorf  and  Halle,  was  in  1741 
aflerooon-preacher  at  his  native  place,  and  in  1744  dea> 
con  there.  In  1746  he  was  called  to  Altdorf  as  pro- 
fessor of  theology.  He  opened  his  lectures  with  an  ad- 
dress, De  eoy  quad  Difficile  est  in  Munere  Doctorit  Aca- 
denUd  et  Prmcipue  Theohgi,  In  the  same  year  he  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology.  He  died  April  6, 
1785.  He  wrote,  AntiquUtu  Codieis  Alexandrim  Vin- 
dicaHor  (Halle  and  Magdebnrg,  1789):— 2>0  Religione 
Christiana  PhUosophia  Nomine  a  Veteribus  Compdlata 
(Altdorf,  1740)  i—De  Descensu  CKiisti  ad  Inferos  Litera- 
ria  (Nureroburg,  1741, 1762) : — De  Serve  Veterum  Doeto- 
ruminSchola  Alexandrina  (Altdorf,  1746)  :—De  arroKa-^ 
raoT&ati  vavrunf  Scripturaria  et  Fanutica  (ibid.  1746): 
— De  Fragmenilo  Clemeniis  Romani,  etc.  (ibid.  1749). 
See  During,  Die  gdekrtm  Theologen  DentsckUtnds,  i,825 
sq. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  Lit,  i,  20, 186, 599,  605, 
889 ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  208.    (B,  P.) 

Dletenberger,  Joham n,  a  (xerman  Dominican  and 
doctor  of  theology,  who  died  in  1584,  while  canon  and 
inquisitor-generiil  of  Mentz  and  Cologne,  is  the  author 
of  a  German  translation  of  the  BiUe,  published  at  Mentz 
in  1584  (revised  by  C  Ulenberg,  Cologne,  1630 ;  and 
again  by  the  theologians  of  Mentz,  ibid.  1662).  He  also 
wrote,  be  Divortio  (ibid.  1582)  i—De  Votis  Monastids 
(1524)  :—De  Apostasia : — De  Preeceptorum  et  ConsiUo' 
rum  Differentia: — In  Defensionem  8acrificii  Missce,  See 
JikiheTj  AUffemeines  Getehrten'Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Lichten- 
berger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  ReligieuseSf  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Dletl,  Geobo  Axx>T8,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  19, 1752,  at  Pressath,  in  the 
Upper  Palatinate.  In  1784  he  was  appointed  pastor  at 
Berg,  near  Landshut;  in  1801  he  was  called  to  Landshut 
as  professor,  where  he  died.  May  27, 1809,  leaving,  Pre- 
di^  (Munich,  1786, 1802)  :—Fomi/ien  Ober  die  sotm- 
thicken  Evangelien  (ibid.  1789;  4th  ed.  1829).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  ii,  139;  During,  Die 
deuischen  Kamelredner  des  18.  und  19.  Jahrhunderts^  p. 
84  sq.     (a  P.) 

Dletlen,  Johankks,  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Sept.  18, 1790,  at  Leipheim,  in  Bavaria. 
In  1818  he  was  sub-rector  of  the  Latin  school  at  Schwa- 
bach ;  in  1824,  pastor  of  Volksratshofen,  near  Memmin- 


I  gen ;  in  1888,  pastor  primarius  and  dean  at  Wasaertrtt- 
dingen ;  in  1842,  he  was  called  to  Beiersdorf,  and  died 
Sept.  15,  1866,  leaving,  Gesckichtliehe  Darstellung  der 
GrUndung  der  ehristlichen  KtrdkCf  etc.  (Nuremberg, 
1888)  i—Unser  Glaube  ist  der  Sieg,  against  Konge,  Ghil- 
lany,  and  others  (Erlangen,  1848).  See  Zuchold,  BibL 
TheoL  i,  280 ;  Delitzsch,  Saat  auf  ffoffnung  (Erlangen, 
1864),  ii,  140  sq.     (a  P.) 

Dietpold  (or  Dietbold),  Theobald,  a  German 
prelate,  bom  in  1189,  was  bishop  of  Passau ;  made  with 
Frederic  Barbarossa  the  Joumey  to  the  Holy  Land; 
and  died  on  bis  retum  home,  leaving  Fpistola  ad  Ta- 
ganonem.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirakj  s.  v. 

Dietrich  op  Apolda  (or  Thubingia),  a  German 
Dominican,  bom  at  Apolda,  near  Jena,  is  the  author  of 
a  Life  of  St,  Elizabeth  ofThuringia  (printed  in  Canisius, 
Antiq,  Lectionest  ed.  Basnage,  iv,  118;  preface  and  sup- 
plement in  Mencken,  Script.  Rervm  Germ,  x}.  He  also 
wrote  the  Life  of  St.  Dontinic  See  Hefele,  in  Wetzer 
u.  Welters  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  r.     (a  P.) 

Dietrich  of  Muksteb  (or  Osnabbuck),  a  famous 
German  preacher  and  asoetical  writer,  was  bom  about 
the  year  1485,  at  MUnster,  in  Westphidia,  and  died  at 
Louvain,  Dec  11, 1515, leaving,  De  Passione  Domini: — 
De  Exercitatione  Interiore : — JUanuale  Simplviunu  But 
the  book  which  is  best  known  of  his  writings  is  his 
Christenspiegelf  a  catechism,  containing  also  prayers  and 
meditations,  which  was  printed  very  often.  See  Der 
Katholik,  1600.  i,  584  sq. ;  Nordhoff,  Dietrich  Cdlde  und 
sein  Christenspiegel,in  Pick's  Monatsschr^fifurrheinisch- 
toestfaUsche  Geschichtsforsthung^  1875,  i,  67  sq. ;  Evelt, 
in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchen-'Uxikon,  s. v.     (a  P.) 

Dietrich  (or  Dietricy),  Chrlatlan  Wilhelm 
Ernst,  a  German  artist,  was  bora  at  Weimar,  in  Sax- 
ony, Oct.  80, 1712,  and  studied  under  Alex.  Thiele.  He 
was  sent  by  the  king,  with  a  pension,  to  Ital}'.  He 
painted  scriptural  and  historical  subjects  well,  his  chief 
pictures  being  Lot  and  his  Daughters ;  Abraham  Going 
to  Sacrifice  Isaac  ;  The  Nativity  ;  The  A  doration  of  the 
Shepherds;  The  Taking  Down  from  the  Cross;  St.  Je^ 
rome  Writing;  Christ  Appearing  to  Magdalene;  The 
Flight  into  Egypt ;  The  Circumcision*  He  died  at  Dres- 
den, April  24, 1774.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GiniraUy 
s.  V. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts^  s,y, 

'  Dietrich,  Franz  Eduard  Chriatoph,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  Orientalist  of  Germany,  was  bom 
July  2, 1810j  at  Strauch,  in  Saxony.  In  1839  he  com- 
menced his  lectures  at  Marburg,  and  died  there  while 
professor  of  theology,  Jan.  27,  1883,  leaving,  Abhand- 
lungenfUr  senUtische  Spradforschung  (Leipsic,  1844) : 
— De  Sermonis  Chaldaici  Proprietate  (Marburg,  1838) : 
— Codicum  Syriacorum  Specimina  (ibid.  1855): — Z^cei 
sidonische  Inschr\f\en  (ibid,  eod.): — De  PsaUerii  usu 
Publico  el  Divisione  in  Ecdesia  Syriaca  (ibid.  1862): — 
Morgengebete  der  alien  Syrischen  Kirche  (ibid.  1864) : — 
De  Cruce  Ruthwellensi  (ibid.  1865): — De  Sanchonia' 
thonis  Nomine  (ibid.  1872).  He  also  edited  two  ecitions 
of  Geseniu8*s  Manual  lAxikon  (5th  and  7th  eds.  1855- 
68).     (a  P.) 

Dietrichatein,  Fbakz, /irtnoe  of  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Madrid,  Aug.  22, 
1570.  After  studying  philosophy  at  Prague  and  the- 
ology at  Rome,  he  became  successively  canon  of  OI- 
mUtsE,  camerarius  of  pope  Clement  YIII,  and  legate  a 
latere  at  several  marriage  ceremonies  of  royal  families. 
While  president  of  the  imperial  council  of  state,  he  op- 
posed the  enforcement  of  the  royal  letters  in  Moravia, 
which  were  of  a  tolerant  character ;  and  after  he  had  ex- 
pelled Boeskay,  a  Hungarian  rebel,  he  was  himself  driven 
away  by  the  Moravian  insurgents ;  but  after  Bohemia  was 
pacified  he  brought  back  into  the  bosom  of  the  Church 
of  Rome  the  Protestants  of  Moravia,  and  instituted  the 
order  of  the  Piarists.  Ferdinand  II  nominated  him 
prince,  in  1681,  in  retum  for  the  services  which  he  bad 
rendexed  both  to  the  State  and  the  Church.   He  died  at 


DIETZ 


281 


DIMMICK 


BrOnii,  in  HonTia,  SepL  19,  1686,  leaviDg  diaooones 
on  Um  Mints,  some  sUtuCei  upon  the  refonn  of  the 
deigj  and  the  people,  a  treatiM  on  oontroreny,  and 
■ome  poenu,  sacred  and  profane.  His  lAft,  written  by 
Yoigt,  was  published,  with  notes  and  a  supplement,  by 
Schwalbe  (Leipsic,  1792).  See  Hoefer,  Abav.  Biog. 
Gimiraltt  s.  v. 

Diets,  Fbivdrich  Wilhklm,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Dillenburg  in  1817,  studied  at  Got- 
tingen  and  Herboni,  was  in  1842  vicar  at  Dies,  in  1844 
eon-rector  at  the  gj^mnasium  there,  in  1852  pastor  at 
Dies,  in  1856  second  preacher  at  Wiesbaden,  in  1868 
first  pastor  and  oonrt-pieacher  at  Biebrich-Mosbach, 
and  died  in  1880.     (a  P.) 

Dietsel,  JoHANM  Jacx>b,  a  Lutheran  minister  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  7,  1898,  at  Bennweg,  near 
Nufembeig.  He  studi^  theology  and  philology  at 
£rlangen,  and  after  having  taught  for  ten  years  in 
different  colleges,  was  appointed  in  1842  third  pastor 
of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Nuremberg,  where 
he  labored  until  his  death,  June  20, 1876.  He  took  a 
great  interest  in  the  mission  among  Jews  and  hea- 
then, and  promoted  the  kingdom  of  Christ  everywhere. 

(a  P.) 

Dietsach,  Acouar,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, who  died  while  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn, 
March  4,  1872,  is  the  author  of  Adom  and  Chrubu^ 
Rom.  V,  12-21  (Bonn,  1871).     (&  P.) 

Digg0z«,  a  term  of  reproach  applied  to  the  WaU 
deasea  (q.  v.),  because  they  were  subjected  to  such  per- 
■ecntion  that  they  were  compelled  to  dig  caverns  in 
Che  earth  in  which  to  hold  meetings  for  worship. 

Digna,  the  name  of  two  Christian  martyrs:  (1) 
The  servant  of  St.  Afre,  with  whose  remains  she  was 
hamed  at  Augsburg  while  attempting  to  convey  them 
away;  commemorated  Aug.  5.  (2)  A  virgin  of  Ta- 
bana,  executed  at  Cordova  in  858,  along  with  St.  Felix, 
by  the  Moors;  commemorated  June  14. 

IMgnitary,  a  term  used  in  Eugland  to  denote  one 
who  holds  cathedral  or  other  preferments  to  which 
jnrtsdiction  is  annexed. 

DignXtas,  a  classical  term,  gradually  applied  to 
offices,  was  purely  secular  at  first.  In  the  process  of 
time,  when  ecclesiastics  were  appointed  to  secular 
oiBces,  the  people  began  to  speak  of '^dignities"  in  the 
Church.  First  applied  to  the  lower  ranks,  the  term 
was  finally  used  for  all  Church  officials,  i.  e.  pope,  car- 
dinal, patriarch,  archbishop,  metropolitan,  bishop,  etc. 
Aeoocding  to  Dacange,  in  ecclesiastical  parknce,  **  when 
a  benefice  included  the  administratiott  of  ecclesiastical 
■llauTS  with  jurisdiction,  it  was  called  a  dignity."— 
Smith,  Dia,  of  Christ,  Antiq.  s.  v. 

Dike,  Daniel  and  Jeremiah.    See  Dtkb. 

DilapidationB,  in  English  law,  is  the  name  given 
to  the  waste  committed  by  the  incumbent  of  an  ecclesi- 
astieal  living.  By  the  general  law  a  tenant  for  life  has 
no  power  to  cut  down  timber,  destroy  buildings,  etc 
(voluntary  waste),  or  to  let  buildings  fall  into  disrepair 
(permissive  waste).    See  Eneydop.  BriL  (9th  ed.)  s.  v. 

Dillard,  Rylamd  Thojipson,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Caroline  County,  Va.,  in  November, 
1797.  He  was  educated  at  Port  Koyal,  ser^'ed  in  the  war 
of  1812,  removed  to  Kentucky, studied  law,  and  practiced 
for  a  time  in  Winchester;  was  onlained  in  1824,  and 
fiMT  forty-seven  years  served  as  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  East  Hickman,  and  fur  more  than  thirty  years  of 
this  period  had  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  Church  at 
Darid's  Forku  He  was  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction for  Kentucky  in  1842-^.  His  death  occurred 
Nov.  26, 1878.     See  Cathcarr,  BaptiH  Encydop,  p.  334. 

(j.as.) 

Diller,  Jacob  W.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
dergyman,  was  bom  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in  1810.  He 
waa  ordained  deaeon  in  1834  and  presbyter  in  1886. 


With  the  exception  of  four  years  as  rector  of  St.  Ste- 
phen's Church  in  Middlebury,  Vt,  his  entire  ministry 
was  spent  in  St.  Luke's,  Brooklyn.  He  was  lost  in  the 
burning  of  the  steamer  Stawankaka^  off  Randall's  Isl- 
and, N.  Y.,  June  28,  1880,  aged  seventy  years.  See 
Whittaker,  Almanac  and  Directory,  1881. 

Dillinghani,  Francis,  an  English  divine,  was 
bom  at  Dean,  Bedfordshire;  became  a  fellow  in  Christ 
College,  Cambridge;  was  an  excellent  linguist  and 
subtle  disputant;  was  chosen  in  1607  one  of  the  trans- 
lators, of  the  Bible,  being  on  the  1  Chron.-Eccles.  com- 
mittee; was  richly  beneficed  at  Wilden,  Bedfordshire, 
and  died  there.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed. 
NutuU),  i,  170;  Anderson,  Annals  of  the  English  BibU 
(ed.  Prime),  p.  406. 

Dima  (Dimma,  or  Dioma,  dimin.  Dimmog,  Lat. 
Z>Muimi«,X>MMiu«,etc),the  name  of  several  Irish  saints 
(commemorated  respectively  on  March  9,  May  12,  June 
27,  July  19),  besides  the  bishop  of  Condeiro  (Connor), 
about  A.D.  640,  commemorated  Jan.  6. 

Dlman,  Jerbhiar  Lewis,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Bristol,  R.  I.,  May  1, 1881.  He 
studied  under  Bev.  James  N.  Sikes,  of  Bristol ;  gradu- 
ated from  Brown  University  in  1851 ;  and,  after  spend- 
ing two  years  in  Germany,  entered  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1856.  On  I^  9 
of  the  latter  year  he  was  ordained  over  the  Firrt  Church 
in  Fall  River,  Mass. ;  in  1860  he  became  pastor  of  Har- 
vard Church,  Brookline ;  and  from  1864  until  the  dose 
of  his  life,  Feb.  8, 1881,  he  was  professor  of  history  and 
political  economy  iu  Brown  University.  From  1873  he 
was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Massachusetts  His- 
torical Society.  Among  his  published  addresses  is  The 
Historic  Basis  of  Bdief,  one  of  the  Boston  lectures 
{IB70);— Historical  Addreu  at  the  200<A  Amdvtrsary 
in  Bristol,  R,  /.  (1880)  i—Ths  Theisiic  A  rgument  as  Af- 
fected hy  Recent  Theories  (1881).  He  edited  the  third 
and  fifth  volumes  of  the  Narragansett  Club  publications, 
containing  ^  John  Cotton*B  answer  to  Hoger  Williams  " 
and  '*  John  Fox  digg'd  out  of  his  Burrowea.*'  A  post- 
humous volume,  entitled  Orations  and  Essays,  teith  Se- 
lected Parish  Sermons,  was  published  in  1881.  See  Cong, 
Year-book,  1882,  p.  28. 

DimeBaes,  an  order  of  nuns,  consisting  of  young 
maids  and  widows,  founded  in  the  state  of  Venice  in 
the  16th  century  by  Dejanata  Valmarana,  the  wife  of  a 
civilian  of  Yerona.  Rules  for  their  observance  were 
laid  down  by  a  Franciscan  named  Anthony  Pagani,  in 
1584.  Their  habit  was  either  black  or  brown  woollen, 
as  the  wearer  might  choose.  —  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the 
World,  8.  V. 

DimlntttOS,  a  name  used  to  denote  those  persons 
whose  confessions  before  the  inquisition  (q.  v.)  were 
defective  and  imperfect.  There  were  three  kinds  of 
(KmsRtf/of,  who  were  condemned  to  die :  1.  Those  who, 
having  accused  themselves  after  being  imprisoned,  or, 
at  least,  before  sentence  of  condemnation  had  passed 
upon  them,  had  consequently  time  to  examine  them- 
selves and  make  a  complete  declantion.  2.  Those  who 
did  not  confess  till  after  sentence  of  condemnation  had 
passed  upon  them.  8.  Those  who  did  not  confess  until 
they  were  given  up  to  the  confessoks.  These  were  nev- 
er afterwards  put  to  the  torture,  and  could  only  be  de- 
livered from  death  by  naming  all  their  accomplices  with- 
out a  single  exception.— Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Dlmmiok,  Luther  Fraseur,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  Shaftesbury,  Vt,  Nov.  15, 
1790.  He  graduated  from  Hamilton  College  in  1816, 
and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1819 ;  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Xewburyport,  Mass., 
the  same  year;  and  died  suddenly,  May  16, 1860.  He 
was  remarkable  for  his  gentleness  and  sympathy;  was 
a  sound  preacher  and  able  scholar,  and  his  long  pastor- 
ate was  very  successful.  He  published  a  Historical 
Discourse,    See  Cong.  Quarterly,  I860,  p.  870. 


DIMOBRIT^ 


282 


DIOGENES 


DlmcBiItSB  (80  called  from  di'ci  ttptor,  and  /loi'pcr,  a 
partj  becauae  they  only  reoogniaed  two  thirds  ojf  the 
natore  of  Christ,  the  human  soul  and  body,  denying 
the  divine  nature),  another  name  for  the  Apoxj^inabi- 
AMS  (q.  v.)>  '^bo  vcfc  subdivided  into  various  sects,  as 
Vatalians,  Synusiasta,  Polemians,  Valentinians,  etc     ■ 

Dimpna  (or  Dympna),  a  virgin  martyr  of  Ireland, 
probably  in  the  7th  century,  commemorated  Hay  15. 

Din  (Arab,  practice)  ia  the  second  of  the  two  parts 
into  which  Islamism  is  divided,  faith  and  practice.  The 
dtn,  or  practice, consists  of,  1,  prayers  and  purifications; 
2,  alms;  8,  fasting;  and, 4,  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

Dina  Chariyawa,  a  manual  of  daily  observances 
to  be  attended  to  by  Buddhist  priests  in  Ceylon.  For 
the  contents  of  this  manual  see  Hardy,  Eoitem  Mon- 
aekUnij  p.  24  sq. 

DindorC  Gottlieb  Immanubl,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  10, 1755,  at  Rotta, 
near  Wittenberg.  He  studied,  at  Leipsic,  philosophy, 
theology,  and  ancient  languages ;  was  in  1786  professor 
of  philosophy,  in  1791  professor  of  Hebrew  and  cognate 
languages,  and  died  Dec  19,  1812,  leaving,  Maxima 
Vertionum  Dificultas  in  Linguarnm  DiuinUUtudine  SHa 
£H  (Leipsic,  1783) : — In  Epistolam  Syriaeam  Simeonis 
Beih'ArMamtnn*  de  Banauma^  etc  (ibid.  1788) : — Quo- 
modo  Nomen  pbnp  Salomom  TrOmaUir  f  (ibid.  1791) : 
RecitcUiones  in  Evangdium  Johanms  (ibid.  1796) :— A'o- 
rtim  Lexicon  Lingua  NdfraicO'tyhaldaiceBf  etc.  (1801-4). 
See  Doring,  Die  gtkhrUn  TheUogen  Deutschlandi,  i,  881 
sq.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  248,  250,  267; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  209 ;  Steinschneider,  Bibliog.  Hand* 
huchf  8.  V.  (the  latter  two  call  him  erroneously  Theophi- 
lus  Immanual).     (B.  P.) 

Dinet,  Gaspard,  bishop  of  M&oon,  who  lived  about 
1617,  wrote  Ordormances  Sgnodalet  de  Mcucon  (Lyons, 
1602).    See  Hoefcr,  Nouv.  Biog,  ChUrale^  s.  v. 

Dingolvinga,  Council  op  (jCondUum  Dingolmnr 
g€nMe)t  held  at  Dingolfing,  on  the  river  Isar,  in  Bavaria, 
A.D.  772,  under  Tassilo,  duke  of  Bavaria,  passed  thir- 
teen canons  npon  discipline  and  reformation  of  manners. 
—Smith,  Did,  of  Christ.  Antiq.  s.  v. 

Dlni,  PiETRO,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at  Flor- 
ence about  1570.  He  studied  belles-lettres,  and,  while 
young,  was  made  member  of  the  Academy  de  la  Crusca. 
In  1621  he  succeeded  cardinal  Bondini,  his  uncle,  in 
the  archicpiscopal  see  of  Fermo,  and  died  in  1626.  His 
fine  library,  which  was  particularly  rich  in  Italian  MSS. 
of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  has  now  passed  over  to 
the  Bibliotheca  Magliabecchiana.  See  Hoefer,  Aouv. 
Biog,  GeiUrale,  s.  v. 

Dinooth  (Lat  Dindthut)^  a  Welsh  saint,  was  abbot 
of  Bangor  between  A.D.  500  and  542.  He  was  origi- 
nally a  North  British  chieftain,  and  founded  a  monas- 
tery, the  remains  of  which  still  exist  in  Flintshire  See 
Smith,  Diet  o/ChiHst,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Dinwiddle,  Jamks  Lkmontr,  D.D.,  an  Associate 
Reformed  minister,  was  bora  in  Adams  County,  Pa.,  Feb. 
23, 1798.  He  graduated  from  Washington  College  in 
1816,  and  took  a  theological  course  in  1817  and  1818. 
Being  a  popular  preacher,  he  received  many  calls  from 
vacant  congregations;  but  accepted  one  from  Mercer, 
Pa.,  and  labored  there  fourteen  years.  In  1884  ho  took 
charge  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  in  Philadelphia. 
After  continuing  in  this  connection  about  seven  years, 
he  returned  to  his  mother  Church,  and  was  again  re- 
ceived as  a  member  of  the  Presbytery  of  Monongahela 
in  1841.  Shortly  after  this  he  was  installed  pastor  of 
the  Second  Associate  Reformed  Church  of  Pittsburgh. 
In  1842  he  was  elected  to  the  professorship  of  Biblical  lit- 
erature and  sacred  criticism  in  the  theological  seminary 
of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Allegheny,  and  died  in  1849. 
See  Sprague,  AtinaU  of  the  A  mer,  Pulpitf  IX,  iv,  154. 

Dio,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  were  birds  of  misfort- 
une, the  Harpies  of  the  Slavs. 


Diooesan  Synods  were  eoclesiaatieal  conventions 
which  the  patriarchs  of  the  ancient  Christian  Church 
had  the  privilege  of  summoning  whenever  occasion  re- 
quired. They  consisted  of  the  metropolitans  and  all 
the  provincial  bishops. 

Dioclea,  a  martyr  at  Histrias  (Istria),  commemo- 
rated May  24. 

Diodati,  Alexandre  AmiCdiCe  Edouard,  pastor 
and  professor  at  Geneva,  was  bom  in  1789.  He  be- 
longed to  one  of  those  Protestant  families  which  settled 
at  Geneva.  In  1811  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  the 
sacred  ministry,  and  was  actively  engaged  therein  at 
several  stations  till  the  year  1839,  when  he  was  appoint- 
ed professor  of  ethics.  In  the  following  3'ear  he  was 
given  the  chiur  of  apologetics  and  pastoral  theology, 
which  he  retained  till  his  death  in  18(60.  Of  his  many 
writings  we  mention,  his  French  translation  of  CAcif- 
meris  Sermons  (Paris,  1825)  :—De  F Enseignement  Pri- 
maire:  le  Pert  Girard  (in  Bibi,  ITfitr.  July  and  August, 
1880) : — Essai  svr  U  Christianism^^  Envisagi  dans  ses 
Rapports  avec  la  PerfeeHbilUi  de  VKtre  Moral  (Geneva 
and  Paris,  1880)  i^Discovrs  Religieux  (ed.  by  M.  Coulin, 
Pari^  186 1)  I— Meditations  sur  des  Textes  de  VEpitre  aux 
Ephisiens  (ibid.  1868).  See  Yiguet,  in  I^  Chritien  Evan- 
gilique  (1860,  p.  853) ;  Naville,  in  BiblotMgue  Uniterm 
selle  (Feb.  1861);  Coulin,  in  lichtenberger's  Encydop. 
des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Dioddms.  (1)  A  presbyter  and  martyr  at  Rome 
under  Valerian  (A.D.  251);  commemorated  Dec  1  (or 
Jan.  17  or  Get.  26).  (2)  A  martyr  at  Perga,  in  Pam- 
phylia;  oommemorated  April  22  (or  Feb.  26).  (8) 
Bishop  of  Tyre,  A.D.  881,  whose  inqniry  of  Epiphanius 
of  Salamis  led  the  latter  to  compose  his  treatise  on  the 
gems  in  the  high-priest*s  breastplate. 

Diodfttna,  a  saint  of  Africa;  oommemorated  with 
Anesius,  March  81. 

DiogSnda,  the  most  noted  of  the  C3mics  (q.  v.), 
was  bora  about  412  B.C.  He  was  the  son  of  Icesias, 
a  money-changer  of  Sinope,  in  Pontns.  One  account 
states  that  they  were  detected  in  adulterating  coin,  and 
that  father  and  son  were  compelled  to  leave  their  na- 
tive city.  But  according  to  another  account,  Icesias 
died  in  prison,  and  Diogenes  fled  to  Athens  with  a  sin- 
gle attendant,  whom,  upon  his  arrival,  he  dismissed  with 
the  remark,  "If  Manes  ooiiM  live  without  Diogenes, 
why  not  Diogenes  without  him?**  Thereupon  he  dis- 
carded all  superfluities  of  dress  and  utensils,  retaining 
only  a  wooden  bowl,  his  cloak,  and  his  wallet.  The 
first  of  these,  however,  was  also  relinquished,  on  seeing 
a  boy  drink  from  the  hollow  of  his  hand.  He  now 
went  to  Cynosarges,  the  seat  of  the  famous  Antisthe- 
nes,  where  he  cheerfully  endured  all  the  abuse  heaped 
upon  him  by  his  roaster  and  fellow-disciples.  Thus  in- 
troduced to  the  favorable  consideration  of  the  Cynics, 
and  willing  to  endure  any  hardship  for  the  sake  of  wis- 
dom, he  soon  ourstripped  his  master  in  learning  and 
extravagance  of  life.  The  story  that  he  took  up  his 
abode  in  a  cask  belonging  to  the  temple  of  C3'bele  does 
not  rest  upon  unquestioned  evidence.  But  that  be  was 
accustomed  to  inure  himself  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
weather  by  rolling  himself  in  the  hot  sand  in  sommer, 
and  embracing  statues  covered  with  snow  in  winter, 
arc  facts  resting  on  the  best  of  authority.  At  Athenn 
lie  was  held  in  great  esteem.  He  ridiculed  and  despised 
all  intellectual  pnrsuits  which  did  not  directly  and  ob- 
viously tend  to  some  immediate  and  practical  good. 
He  abused  literary  men  for  reading  about  the  evils  of 
Ulysses,  and  neglecting  thdr  own ;  musicians  for  string- 
ing the  lyre  harmoniously  while  they  left  their  minds 
discordant;  men  of  science  for  troubling  themselves 
about  the  moon  and  stars  while  they  neglected  what  lay 
immediately  before  them ;  orators  for  learning  to  say 
what  was  right,  but  not  to  practice  it.  His  numerous 
witty  apothegms  are  handed  down  by  Diogenes  Lacr- 
tios,  and  generally  display  that  unwise  contempt  for  the 


DIOGENES 


283 


DIPTYCH 


common  opinions  and  pnTBOtts  of  men  which  if  bo  nn- 
likely  to  reform  them« 

Diogenes  was  making  a  royage  to  iEgina,  when  the 
ahip  was  taken  by  pirates,  and  he  carried  to  Crete  and 
sold  as  a  slave.  When  interrogated  as  to  his  trade,  he 
amwered  that  he  understood  no  trade  hut ''  to  govern 
BMO,"  and  begged  to  be  sold  to  a  man  **  that  wanted  a 
master."  Such  a  purchaser  was  found  in  the  person  of 
Xeniades  of  Corinth,  over  whom  he  acquired  great  in> 
fluence,  receiving  from  him  his  freedom,  and  being  ap- 
pointed to  take  charge  of  the  education  of  his  children. 
He  remained  in  the  house  of  Xeniades  during  the  re- 
mainder of  htB  life.  He  is  believed  to  have  died  in 
823  B.C.  It  was  during  his  residence  at  Corinth  that 
the  celebrated  meeting  between  him  and  Alexander  the 
Great  is  said  to  have  taken  place.  The  king  is  report- 
ed to  have  begun  the  conversation  by  sayhig, "  I  am 
Alexander  the  Great;"  to  which  the  philosopher  re- 
plied, *'  And  I  am  Diogenes  the  Cynic."  The  king  then 
inqaired  whether  he  could  do  anything  to  oblige  him. 
Bat  the  only  request  Dingenes  had  to  make  was  that 
Alexander  should  stand  from  between  him  and  the  sun. 
The  king  is  said  to  have  admired  the  Cynic  so  much 
that  he  said,  *'  If  I  were  not  Alexander,  I  should  wish 
to  be  Diogenes.'*  He  appears  never  to  have  returned 
to  Athens.  The  mode  of  his  death  is  unknown,  al- 
though various  stories  have  been  repeated  concerning 
it.  His  own  desire  was  that  his  body  should  be  thrown 
to  the  beasts  of  the  field,  but  Xeniades  gave  him  an 
honorable  interment.  At  Corinth  there  was  a  pillar 
erected  to  his  memory,  on  which  rested  a  dog  of  Parian 
mxrble.  He  has  been  charged  with  indecencies  of  va- 
rious kinds,  which  have  cast  a  stain  upon  his  memory ; 
but  there  is  no  certain  foundation  for  much  that  has 
been  said,  and  the  conduct  of  the  later  Cynics  was  such 
as  to  reflect  discredit  on  the  very  name.  The  Cynics 
answered  arguments  by  facts.  When  some  one  was 
arguing  in  support  of  the  Eleatic  doctrine  of  the  im- 
possibility of  motion,  Diogenes  rose  and  walked.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Rom,  Biog,  and  Myth,  s.  v. ; 
Eneyiiop,  Britamdcaf  9th  ed.  s.  v. ;  Ueberweg,  IJist, 
ofPkUos.  i,  94. 

Diogenes.  (1)  A  saint  in  Macedonia,  commem- 
orated April  6.  (2)  A  presbyter  of  Alexandria  in  the 
4th  century,  said  to  have  been  personally  maltreated  by 
Basil  of  Ancyra.  (3)  A  liberal  friend  of  Chrysostom 
in  his  exile,  A.D.  404.  (4)  A  bishop  of  Seleucobelus,  in 
Syria,  who  attended  the  council  at  Ephesus,  A.D.  431. 
(5)  A  digamist  bishop  ordained  by  Alexander  of  Anti- 
ocb.  (6)  A  bishop  of  Cyxicus  (A.D.  449-451),  present 
at  the  councils  of  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon. 

I>logenlflniU,  third  bishop  of  Alby,  A.D.  cir.  407 ; 
one  of  the  most  notable  prelati!^  of  his  age. 

I>logSi2n%  the  name  of  two  saints :  (1)  Bishop  of 
Geneva,  lived,  according  to  some,  about  the  end  of  the 
8d  century,  while  otbers  maintain  that  he  was  present 
at  the  Council  of  Aquileia  in  381.  (2)  Bishop  of  Greno- 
ble, saoceeded  St.  Domninus  about  the  end  of  the  4th 
century. 

Diomfidde,  a  Christian  physician  of  Tarsus,  mar- 
tyred at  Nicssa,  A.D.  288,  and  commemorated  June  9  or 
Aug.  16. 

DioiQreia.  (1)  Virgin  martyr  at  Lampsacus,  A.D. 
250,  together  with  Peter,  Andrew,  and  Paul ;  commem- 
orated Hay  15.  (2)  Martyr  in  Africa  in  tbe  5th  cen- 
tury, with  seven  others;  commemorated  Dec.  6. 

I>ion3reiti8.  (l)  Martyr  in  I^wer  Armenia  with 
Amelianus  and  Sebastian ;  commemorated  Feb.  8.  (2) 
Martyr;  commemorated  with  Ammonius,  Feb.  14.  (3) 
Martyr  at  Aquileia,  with  Hilarius,  Tatian,  Felix,  snd 
Largos ;  commemorated  March  16.  (4)  Saint,  uncle  of 
Pancratius;  commemorated  May  12.  (5)  Bishop  and 
eonfe9K>r  under  Constantius ;  deposition  at  Milan,  May 
25i  (6)  MartjT  at  Sinnada,  with  Democritus  and  Se- 
eandos;  commemorated  July  81.     (7)  Saint,  of  Phry. 


gia;  commemorated  Sept.  SO.  (8)  Bishop  of  Paris, 
martyr  with  Rostisus  and  Eleutherius,  probably  in  A.D. 
272;  commemorated  Oct.  9.  (9)  Pope,  under  Claudius 
II;  deposition  at  Rome,  Dec  26  or  27.  (10)  Martyr, 
with  Petrus  and  Lampsacensus;  commemorated  May 
18.  (11)  One  of  the  Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesus ;  com- 
memorated Oct.  22.  (12)  Sixth  bishop  of  Yienne,  in 
France,  thought  to  have  been  martyred  A.D.  198;  com- 
memorated May  9.  (18)  Three  young  men  of  the  same 
naoie,  martyred  at  Tripoli,  March  24,  A.D.  804.  (14) 
A  disciple  of  Quadratus,  and  a  martyr  at  Corinth,  prob- 
ably under  Diocletian.  (15)  Two  of  this  nanie  mar- 
tyred together  at  Cssarea,  under  Diocletian.  (16)  Fif- 
teenth bishop  of  Ment2  for  twenty-six  years,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  4th  century.  (17)  Saint,  bishop  of  Milan 
after  Protasins,  A.D.  846.  (18)  Bishop  of  Lydda,  pres- 
ent at  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  A.D.'381.  (19) 
Eleventh  bishop  of  Tours,  a  native  of  Burgund}-,  seems 
to  have  died  about  A.D.  513.  (20)  Bishop  of  Ascalon, 
who  attended  the  third  synod  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  536. 
(21)  Bishop  of  Seleucia  Pieria  in  the  middle  of  the  6th 
century. 

Diop^tOfl,  first  bishop  of  Orleans,  about  the  middle 
of  the  4th  century. 

DiAra  (Diera,  or  Deora),  thirteenth  bishop  of 
Rochester,  cir.  A.D.  775-781. 

Dios,  a  hermit  under  Theodosius  the  Great ;  com- 
memorated July  19. 

Dioaooiidto,  one  of  the  three  boy-martyrs  of 
Rome.    See  CicxacEKS. 

DiOflodms.  (1)  Martyr  under  Numerian;  com- 
memorated Feb.  25.  (2)  The  Reader,  martyr  in  Eg}'pt ; 
commemorated  May  18.  (8)  Martyr  under  Decius  at 
Alexandria,  with  Heron,  Arsenius,  and  Isidorus,  com- 
memorated Dec  14. 

Diotallewl,  Francesco,  an  Italian  prelate  and  the- 
ologian, was  bom  at  Rimini  in  1579.  He  studied  at 
Rome,  was  appointed  bishop  of  San  Angelo  di  Lombardi 
at  Naftles,  and  then  sent  to  Poland  as  nuncio,  where  he 
remained  seven  years.  He  died  on  his  journey  home 
to  Rome  in  1620,  leaving  De  Concensu  Dei  ad  A  etu$  Li- 
berot  Voluntatis  (Lyons,  161 1),  and  a  treatise  De  Usurut, 
which  is  in  MS.    See  Hoefer,  Hour,  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Dipavall,  a  Hindi!  festival  in  honor  of  Vishnu 
(q.  v.).  It  was  instituted  to  commemorate  an  exploit 
of  the  god  when  in  the  form  of  Krishna  (q.  v.).  A  cer- 
tain Ratjatja  had  taken  captive  sixteen  thousand,  vir- 
gins, but  Krishna  slew  him  and  set  them  at  liberty. 
In  this  celebration  the  Hindii  holds  a  festival  during 
the  day,  and  the  houses  are  illuminated  at  night. — 
Gardner, /^ui^Af  of  the  World,  8.v, 

Dippers,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  Dunkera 
(q.  v.),  or  German  Baptists,  on  account  of  their  mode  of 
baptism. 

Diptych  (rd  SinTvxa)  contained  especially  the 
names  of  bishops,  whether  living  or  dead.  The  primary 
custom  would  seem  to  be,  that  they  were  read  after  the 
oblation  of  the  bread  and  wine,  and  before  the  conse- 
cration.   (1)  Sometimes  they  were  read  by  the  deacon. 

(2)  In  some  churches  it  would  appear  that  the  subdea- 
con  recited  the  names  on  the  diptychs  behind  the  altar. 

(3)  Frequently  the  priest  himself  repeated  the  names. 

(4)  A  curious  plan  is  that  mentioned  by  Fulcuin,  where 
the  subdeacon  whispered  the  names  to  the  priest.  (5) 
We  find  even  that  in  some  cases  the  tablets  were  merely 
laid  upon  the  altar,  with  the  names  of  the  offerers  and 
benefactors,  of  whom  the  priest  made  general  mention. 

In  the  church  of  Ravenna,  a  chasuble  was  made  to 
serve  the  purpose  of  a  diptych. 

The  name  of  diptych  was  also  g^ven  to  registers  in 
which  were  entered,  as  occasion  required,  the  names  of 
newly  baptized  persons,  as  then  first  becoming  members 
of  the  Christian  family. 

Of  all  extant  specimens,  the  one  which  is  usually  called 


Ordiuar?  Dlpljcb. 


the  "  Diptych  o[  Rambona,  IQ  ncenam,'' it  the  moM  iD- 
clcDt  and  ritraordiiuiT}'.  It  conUina  ■  mrdalliDn  of  the 
FuM  Pereon  at  tfa«  Trinity  ihave,  with  the  Bun  and 
moon  below  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  txoM,  pcnoni- 
fted  u  SguRB  bearing  torches.  There  are  two  tillea, 
EGO  SUM  IH3  NAZARENUS,in  rude  Romui  letten, 
with  >  amiUer  Ubel,  KEX  JUDEORUU,  over  the 
eroM.  The  nimbua  ia  cnicironn,  the  waiatclotb  leachs 
■Imoat  to  the  kneet,  the  navel  i*  atraiigelv  roimed  inlo 
■n  eye.  The  Virgin  and  St,  John  itand  under  the  armi 
or  the  cmsa.  But  the  dietlnguiahing  detail  ii  the  ad- 
dition of  the  Roman  wolf  and  twins  below  the  cmsa,  with 
the  word*  ROMULUS  ET  REMULUS  A  LUPA  NU- 
TRITL  Tbia  wonderful  ivory  ia  now  in  the  Vaticai 
Uiiaeum  (aee  Huiray'a  HaitdJiook),  and  ia  in  the  rooa 
■ncient  style  of  what  may  be  called  dark-age  Byzaalini 
art,  when  all  instiuclkid  and  perception  of  beauty  are 
departed,  but  so  vigoniai  a  Mnie  of  the  reality  of  the 
fact  remains  at  to  render  the  work  highly  imprenive. 


MS  MANIBUS 

ZMnddll  {or  I>M)rald),  two  Irish  saints:  (1)  Of 
Eadardruim  (now  Drum,  in  Alfalone,  County  Roacum- 
iDoa),eooinieinotaled  Jan.  lB,aeeicB  to  havs  lived  abont 
tbeckae  otiheathcenturr.  (!)  Bishop  of  Feins,  ano- 
ceeded  Haldogar,  A.D.  S77,  and  died  in  BW.    Ha  it 

oniMiDorated  July  S7. 

DlrdaD,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6tb  century. 

Diteotiiwita,  any  pMlm,  hymn,  or  ein  tide  said  in 
the  sen'ice  of  the  Church  in  tnonolone. 

Dlmberger,  Franz,  a  Roman  Catholic  tfaeoiogisn 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Bamberg  in  IBW.     From  18S4 

I84f>  he  was  professor  at  Regensburg;  from  1815  to 

Ei4  director  of  the  Georgianum  and  profeaaDr  of  pas. 

ral  theology  at  Munich ;  and  thereafter  it  EichstXdt, 
until  hit  death,  Feb.  25, 1875.     (E  P.) 

Dlrdk,  an  Armeoian  theologian,  was  the  son  of 
Hoaea  Koun,  of  the  city  of  Zirishst,  in  the  province  of 
Vinant,  and  was  bom  about  the  end  of  the  4th  century. 
one  of  the  eminent  writers  and  scholars  of  the 
school  rounded  by  Uesroh.  He  entered  into  sacred  or- 
der*, and  gained  a  great  reputation  by  bit  worlia  ind 
his  leal  for  patriotic  religion,  having  deeply  Uudied  the 
Syiiac,Ureek,  and  Latin  languages.  He  died  about  the 
year  4G0,  leaving  a  number  of  worh%  among  which 
may  be  cited  a  life  of  the  patriarch  Sahak,  homiliea, 
and  also  his  works  on  the  Holy  Scriptures.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  lioiit.  Biog.  GiiUraU,  a.  y. 

Dlrylas,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  Sih  eentuty. 

DlBoipUQK  Aroonl,  a  term  of  poat-Refomislioa 
controveisy,  ia  applied  lo  designate  a  number  of  modea 
of  proce<lure  in  teaching  the  Christian  faith,  akin  tu 
g  another  in  kind,  although  differing  coniideraHy 
character;  which  preriiled  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  3d  century  until  the  natural  courw  of  rircum- 
atances  rendered  any  system  which  involved  ueerecy  or 
rcserre  itnpostibie.  So  far  as  these  wen  def.iiHblr, 
they  anwe  out  of  the  principle*  (1)  of  imparting  knonl' 
edge  of  the  truth  by  degrees,  and  in  method*  ads|-tt<l 
to  the  capacity  of  the  recipieniB  J  and  (S)  of  cutting  olT 
occasion  of  profaneneea  or  of  more  hardened  nnbelief  l>y 
not  proclaiming  the  truths  and  mysteries  of  the  faith 
tDdiscriminstely,  or  in  plain  words,  or  at  once,  to  unbe- 
lievers. The  deeper  Christian  doctrines  were  withhdd 
from  thoM  out  of  the  Church,  and  tlie  maia  of  Ihota 
within.  The  seoreu  of  the  initiations  into  the  ehureh- 
ly  orders  were,  likewise,  diligently  kept  from  the  laity. 
This  wta  the  foundation  of  that  lo  which  the  word  was 
afterwards  applied.— Smith,  i>icr.  nf  Ckritt.  AiUiq.  a.  r. 
See  Arcakl 

Biaten  who  bring  tha 

DlBCOintniuiloaiita,  tfaoae  who  neglect  to  partake 
of  the  holy  communion,  a  habit  early  and  conttanl^ 
condemned  by  the  Christian  Church. 

DUibode.    See  Dtbtbod. 

Dilk,  WiHOBD.  with  pendant  crowned  urn,  ratir- 
ing  the  cross  of  life,  was  an  emblem  placed  over  the 
doorways  to  the  Egyptian  templet,  and  is  supposed  to 
represent  the  progrcBs  of  (he  sun  in  the  heavens  from 
east  to  wetl.  As  a  form  of  the  solar  deity  it  was  a 
symbol  of  the  god  Home  likewise,  and  was  regarded  by 
the  Egyptians  at  the  protecting  or  benevolent  'pint, 
the  Agathodammi  of  the  Greeki.  Its  snaio)(ue  was  in 
some  respects  the  Ftrohir  of  the  Anyrians,  and  perhapt 
the  Spirit  of  tha  Sun  of  the  Cibalisis. 

DiB  Maonms  (lo  iht  godi  iht  Slanri),  The  let- 
ten A  M.  ire  sometimes  fuund  inscribed  in  the  cata- 
combs. Boldelli,  logether  with  olben  of  the  earlier 
school  of  antiquaries,  claimed  that  Ihey  stood  for  "  Deo 
Uaximo;"  but  De'  Riiasi  ha*  doubtless  advanced  the 
more  correct  theory,  i.  e.  that  Ihey  Stand  tov  "Dii* 
Uanibus "  ( drdieolrd  lo  Iht  6e{)ud  tlacbt  iff  the  de- 
parltd),  which  was  a  heathen  motto,  bat  was  inscribed 


DISNEY 


285 


DIXON 


npoo  the  Christian  tombtuwes,  and  shows  how  slowly 
people  relax  the  customs  of  their  anoestora. 

Disney,  Jolin  (l),  a  learned  English  divine,  was 
born  at  Lincoln  in  1677,  and  was  educated  at  a  gram- 
mar«chool  and  at  Middle  Temple.  After  acting  as  a 
magistrate  for  twenty  years,  he  was  ordained  a  minister 
of  the  Established  Church  in  1719,  and  the  same  year 
waa  presented  with  the  vicarage  of  Croft  and  the  rec- 
tory of  Kirby-enper-Baine,  both  in  his  native  county. 
In  1732  he  was  instituted  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  liaiy, 
in  Nottingham,  where  he  remained  until  his  death, 
Feb.  8, 1729-30.  His  principles  of  religion  were  or- 
thodox in  regard  to  points  of  doctrine  and  articles  of 
faith;  in  respect  to  the  principles  of  others,  they  were 
tnily  catholic.  The  following  are  a  few  of  his  numer- 
ous publications:  Primkim  Sacra  (Lond.  1701, 1708): 
—A  Sermum  Prtaditd  in  the  Pariah  Church  ofSUBo- 
<o^'j^  Aldgate,  London,  Nov.  22, 1719:-«nd  six  other 
<yrrairi<mwl  Sermoiu,  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  DicL  s.  v.; 
AQibone,  Did,  ofBriL  oniAm^r,  Authort,  s.  v. 

Disney,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  Unitarian 
minister,  was  bom  in  1748,  and  educated  at  Peterhouse, 
Cambridge.  After  taking  orders  he  was  presented  to 
the  Ticarsge  of  Swinderby,  Lincolnshire,  and  appointed 
ehaplain  to  bishop  Law.  In  1782  he  resigned  his  pre- 
ferments in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and,  removing  to 
London,  became  first  assistant  and  afterwards  sole  min- 
ister of  the  Unitarian  chapel  in  Essex  Street.  He  re- 
signed in  180i,  and  died  Dec  26, 1816.  Dr.  Disney 
published,  Memoir$  of  Dr.  Sykea  (1785, 8vo)  .—c/Dr, 
Jartin  (1792, 8vo)  i-^f  T.  Jf.  IJoUU  (1780,  2  vols.  4to; 
new  ed.  1808,  4to) :— ^emom  (1793-1816,  4  vols.  8vo). 
See  (Lond.)  Annual  BegisUr,  1816,  p.  225;  AUibone, 
IHtL  of  Brit,  emdAmer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. ;  Wilson,  DiMtent' 
htg  ChurcheBj  iii,  488. 

Dispatatlo,  a  discussion  on  Scripture,  enjoined  by 
some  monastic  rules. 

Disputation^  a  name  sometimes  given  to  ser- 
mons, in  the  ancient  Church,  from  the  controversial 
character  which  they  often  necessarily  assumed. 

Diuen,  Hjcinricii  von,  an  ascetic  writer,  was  bom 
Oct.  18, 1413.  He  studied  at  Cologne,  and  received  holy 
orders  at  OsoabrUck.  He  soon  joined  the  Carthusians 
of  Cologne,  and  died  there,  Nov.  26, 1484,  leaving,  Ser^ 
momt  Dominicaka  (4  vols.) : — Pottilla  in  Evangelia  (2 
Tols.) : — EzpoaUiomu  m  EvangeUa  DomimeaUa : — Psal' 
terittm  de  S.  Trimtate^  etc  \—Dt  PrvgaenUUione  B,  Maria 
Virg,: — De  Laude  Ordinu  Carthtuianorum  : — Expoti' 
Ho  Super  Librum  Apocaljfpnt  S,  Joannit: — Expoaitio 
in  Spmbobim  8,  AthcmaaH  el  Orationem  Dominieam, 
See  Hartzheim,  BiUioih.  Colon, p.  116;  Petreji,  BiUioth, 
Cartkua,  (Cologne,  1609),  p.  127;  Kessel,  in  Wetzer  u. 
WeUe*sitirc*en.Lera»ii,s.v.     (RP.) 

Ditexidi,  JoHAsnr  Samuel,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  15, 1721,  at  Berlin ;  studied 
at  Frankfort  and  Halle,  and  was  in  1748  appointed 
third  preacher  at  St  Mary*s.  In  1751  he  became  sec- 
ocid  preacher,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father  succeeded 
bim  as  primariua.  In  1770  he  was  appointed  member 
of  the  superior  consintory,  and  died  Jan.  14, 1797,  leav- 
ing, Cogiiationea  PhUoaophica  de  PrecSbua  Continuia 
(Frankfort,  1742)  i—Kurzer  Entwurf  der  chriafL  Lehre 
(Berlin,  1754),  besides  a  number  of  sermons  and  asoeti- 
cal  disooorsss.  See  Doring,  Die  gekhtim  Theologen 
Deuiatkianda^  i,  884  sq. ;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  TheoL 
Lit.  u,  86,  226, 289, 295, 889.     (a  P.) 

Dittenberser,THxopaoR  WtLHKLM,a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  April  80,  1807,  at 
Tbeningen,  in  the  Breisgau ;  studied  at  Heidelberg  and 
Halle,  and  was  in  1881  pastor  at  Baden.  In  1882  he 
was  privat-doeent  at  Heidelberg,  and  in  1836  professor 
and  Doiversity-preacher  there.  In  1852  he  was  called 
to  Weimar,  w  here  he  died.  May  1, 187  ] .  He  published, 
Udtr  Predigeraeminarien  (Heidelberg,  1835),  which 
the  establishment  of  a  theological  seminan*  at 


Heidelbeig :  —  Conapeetua  IntroducHoma  in  Theologiam 
ffowtileiieam  (ibid.  1886).  Besides  a  great  many  ser- 
mons, which  he  published  from  time  to  time,  he  edited 
the  Zeitaehr^ft/Ur  deuiMch^proteatantiaehe  Kirchen-Ver" 
faaaung.    See  Zuchold,  JStM.  TAeo/.  i,  284  sq.     (a  P.) 

Dittrioh,  Joseph,  bishop  of  Corycus  and  apostoli- 
cal vicar  of  Saxony,  was  bom  at  Marschen,  in  Bohemia, 
April  25, 1794.  He  received  holy  orders  at  Leitermitz 
in  1818 ;  in  1824  went  to  Leipeic  as  director  of  the  Cath- 
olic schools  there;  three  years  later  took  charge  of  the 
schools  at  Dresden ;  in  1831  was  appointed  court-preach- 
er;  in  1845  was  made  cathedral  dean  of  Budiasin  or 
Bautzen,  and  in  1846  apostolical  vicar  of  Saxony.  The 
same  year  he  was  raised  to  the  episcopal  see,  and  died 
Oct.  5, 1863.  See  Forwerk,  Geaehiehte  der  Katholiachm 
ffo/kirche  zu  Dreaden  (Dresden,  1851) ;  Hefele,  in  Wet- 
zer u.  Welte's  Kiixhen-Lexikonf  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

DluchoU  (Dioholl,  DnchoU,  etc),  the  name  of 
several  Irish  saints :  (1)  Son  of  Neman,  commemorated 
Dec  25.  (2)  Of  Clnain-braein  (near  Louth),  commem- 
orated May  1.  (3)  Derg,  son  of  Nessan,  of  Inisfaith- 
lenu  (now  Ireland's  Eye,  oiT  Howth,  County  Dublin), 
in  the  6th  or  7th  oentury ;  commemorated  March  15. 

Diuma  (or  Dwina),  first  bishop  of  the  Mercians, 
was  a  Scot  (or  Irishman),  consecrated  A.D.  655,  and  died 
shortly  afterwards. 

Dius.  (1)  The  thirty -first  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
A.D.  190,  succeeding  Narcissus,  and  followed  by  Ger- 
menus.  (2)  A  monk  of  Antioch,  cir.  A.D.  413;  com- 
memorated July  19.  (3)  Saint,  of  Caesarea,  commem- 
orated July  12.  (4)  Martyr  under  Maximiuus  at 
Alexandria,  with  Peter,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  Faustus 
the  Presbyter,  and  Ammonius ;  commemorated  Nov.  26. 

DiuB  Fidius  (Afedi-fidi),  a  god  of  the  Sabines, 
adopted  by  the  Romans,  and  regarded  as  the  god  of  in- 
tegrity or  good  faith ;  hence  he  was  frequently  sworn 
by.  He  was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Jupiter,  and  was 
often  confounded  with  Hercules. 

DivitiAxras,  bishop  of  Soissons  about  the  beginning 
of  the  4th  century,  is  said  to  have  been  the  grandson 
of  St.  Sinicius,  and  is  commemorated  as  a  saint  on 
Oct.  5. 

Divol6  (or  Divoley),  Piebre,  a  French  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Auxerre  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century;  became  doctor  in  theology  at  Paris;  entered 
the  order  of  the  preaching  brothers,  among  whom  he 
achieved  great  distinction ;  and  died  in  1568,  leaving, 
for  posthumous  publication,  Inatructiona  et  Sermonapour 
toua  lea  Joura  de  Carime^  etc  (Paris,  1576) : — Deux  Ser- 
mona  de  la  Sainte  Meaae  et  Cirimomea  ^Tloelle  (ibid. 
1581).    See  Hoefer,  Houv,  Biog,  Ganerale,  s.  v. 

Dbcon,  James,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister  of  the 
British  Wesleyan  Connection,  was  bom  at  Donington 
Castle,  Leicestershire,  Oct.  28,  1788.  Ho  became  an 
earnest  Methodist  at  the  age  of  twenty ;  studied  the- 
ology four  years;  was  received  into  the  miuistr}'  in 
1812;  served  as  a  missionary  at  Gibraltar,  in  1829;  and 
discharged  with  unvarying  vigor  a  minbtry  of  over 
half  a  century  in  England.  He  was  elected  president 
of  the  Conference  in  1841,  and  representative  to  the 
General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1848.  Being  smitten  with  incura- 
ble blindness  in  1856,  he  became  a  supernumerary  in  1863, 
and  died  at  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  Eng.  (where  he  took 
up  his  residence),  Dec.  28, 1871.  Dr.  Dixon  had  one  of 
the  most  powerful  and  accomplished  minds  that  ever 
graced  the  British  Conference.  In  the  meridian  of  his 
life  his  preaching  was  a  fine  example  of  the  philosoph- 
ical style;  his  sermons  elaborated  with  care,  dealing 
with  great  principles  and  logical  sequences,  expatiating 
upon  the  harmonies  of  the  Gospel  economy,  and  in- 
vested with  an  air  of  grandeur  and  an  imposing  mental 
attitude,  and  full  of  thought.  Later  in  life  there  was  a 
rich  and  sweet  simplicity  in  his  ministrations.  With 
Watson  and  other  lights  of  the  Conference,  he  advo- 


V 


DIXON 


286 


DOCTOR 


cated  the  abolition  of  aUyery  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
some  of  his  speeches  on  this  subject  were  high  exam- 
ples of  a  burning  logic  and  eloquence.  He  was  a  most 
bitter  opponent  of  Komanism,  and  used  the  influence  of 
his  powerful  voice  and  pen  in  opposing  its  advances  as 
well  as  the  granting  of  constitutional  privileges  to  its 
adherents,  lie  took  deep  interest  in  public  affairs,  and 
had  strong  political  views  (he  was  a  Tory).  He  was 
one  of  the  defenders  of  Dr.  Bunting  during  the  **  War- 
ren" discussions.  His  powerful  and  sanctified  mind, 
noble  character,  frank,  genial,  sincere,  and  serene  piety, 
shining  from  out  of  the  darkness  of  his  deep  affliction, 
made  him  to  be  venerated  and  loved  throughout  the 
whole  Connection.  Dr.  Dixon  published  Methodism  in 
its  Oriffin,  Economy,  and  Present  Position  (Lond.  1843 ; 
N.  Y.  1853),  besides  a  Urge  number  of  sermons,  lectures, 
and  biographical  sketches,  for  which  see  Osbom,  Wes- 
leyan  Bilfliography,  s.  v.  His  own  life  has  been  written 
by  his  son,  Rev.  R.  W.  Dixon  (Lond.  1874). 

Dlzon,  Joseph,  D.D.,  Roman  Catholic  primate 
of  Ireland,  was  for  some  years  a  professor  in  Maynooth 
College,  and  in  1852  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Ar- 
magh, where  he  died,  April  29, 1866.  He  was  greatly 
beloved  by  his  people,  and  highly  respected  by  Prot- 
estants of  all  denominations.  See  Appleton's  Annual 
Cyclop.  1866,  p.  592. 

Dlugoaa  (Lat.  fxm^tu),  Jons,  the  historian  of 
Poland,  was  bom  at  Brzesnica  in  1415,  studied  at  Nouy- 
Korczyn  and  the  University  of  Cracow,  and  was  desig- 
nated for  the  archbishopric  of  Lemberg,  but  died  Biay 
29,  1840,  before  consecration  to  the  high  office.  He 
wrote,  Histories  Polonim  Libri  XIII  ab  AtUiquissimis 
Temporibus  Usque  ad  Annum  l^SO^i—Episcopatus  SmO' 
gorzoviensis  et  Pizziaensisj  quae  Runt  WratislaviensiSf 
EccUsiarum  Historia  et  Ado  (ed.  Lipf,  Breslau,  1847) : 
— ViUz  Episcoporum  Posnaniensium  (Brunsberg,  1604). 
A  new  edition  of  Dlugosz's  works  was  published  by 
Przezdziecki  (Cracow,  1868).  See  Stemmer,  in  Wetzer 
n.  Welte's  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Doak,  Archibald  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bom  in  Washington  County,  Tenn., 
July  13,  1815.  lie  graduated  from  Washington  Col- 
lege, Tenn.,  in  1833,  and  from  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  in  1835 ;  was  ordained  by  the  Holston  Pres- 
bytery  in  1839 ;  in  1841  became  professor  in  Washing- 
ton College;  and  in  1856  professor  of  ancient  languages 
in  East  Tennessee  University.  His  health  declined  in 
1861,  and  he  retired  to  private  life  in  Clarksville,  where 
he  died,  May  26, 1866.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist,  A  Ima- 
nac,  1867,  p.  429. 

Doak,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  August,  1749,  of  Irish  extraction.  He  giadu- 
ated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  In  1775;  waa  U- 
censed  to  preach  bv  the  Hanpver  PRsbytor,  OtL  81, 
1777;  in  1785  estabUshcd  Martin  AeadeniT  '(which  in 
1795  became  WaaUngton  CoDegeX  *"*^  continued  to  act 
as  ita  pKaident  antU  1S19.  He  died  Dec  12,  1830. 
8aa  Spragne,  Ammit  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  iii,d94. 

0obaii,  a  Scottish  saint,  commemorated  April  12, 
seems  to  have  been  one  of  Sl  Boniface^s  companions  in 
Germany,  and  eventually  bishop  of  Treves,  cir.  A.D.  751. 

Dobbina,  Robbbt,  a  Methodist  Protestant  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Pennsylvania,  April  20, 1768.  He  was 
converted  in  youth,  and  early  began  evangelistic  labors 
among  his  neighbors,  especially  the  poor.  His  early 
ministerial  service  was  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  In  1829  he  seceded  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  organization  of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church, 
and  in  1830  entered  its  itinerancy.  The  circuits  which 
he  ser\*ed  were  Port  William,  Highland,  Washington, 
Rehoboth  (now  Lynchburg),  Xenia,  and  Springfield,  all 
in  Ohio.  He  died  Jan.  13, 1860.  Mr.  Dobbins  was  en- 
dued with  a  vigorous  mind  and  constitution.  His 
meek,  earnest  spirit  commanded  great  respect.  He 
once  represented  bis  county  (Greene)  for  two  years  in 


the  Ohio  LegisUtnre.  See  Bassett,  Bist,  of  the  M.  P. 
Church,  p.  838 ;  Caddy,  L^/e  and  Times  of  Robert  Dob- 
bins (Cincinnati,  1868> 

Dobba,  C.  £.  W.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Portsmouth,  Va.,  Aug.  12,  1840.  He  learned 
the  printer's  trade,  and  became  editorially  connected 
with  the  press  of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth.  In  1859 
he  united  with  the  church  at  Greensborough,  M.  CL, 
and  the  year  following  entered  the  theological  seminary 
at  Greenville,  S.  C.  (since  removed  to  Louisville,  Ky.). 
Having  completed  bis  studies,  be  preached  for  a  few 
years  in  the  Court  Street  and  Fourth  Street  churches  in 
Portsmouth.  In  1866  he  removed  to  Kentucky,  and  for 
several  years  preached  for  churches  in  Madison  County; 
became  pastor  of  the  church  in  Bowling  Green,  remain- 
ing there  six  years,  and  then  went  to  Dayton.  His 
last  settlement  was  in  Madison,  Ind.  For  a  considers- 
blc  time  he  was  secretary  of  the  Southern  BapUst  Con- 
vention, and  of  the  General  Association  of  Kentucky. 
He  died  July,  1884.  Dr.  Dobbs  wrote  much  for  the 
periodical  press,  and  published  one  or  two  small  books. 
See  Oathcart,  Bapt,  Encydop,  p.  838.    (J.  C  a) 

Dobda  (or  Dubhda),  an  Irish  saint,  commemo- 
rated April  15,  seems  to  have  been  bishop  of  Chiem-see, 
in  Upper  Bsvaria,  cir.  A.D.  748,  and  assistant  of  St 
Virgilius  as  bishop  of  Salzburg,  cir.  A.D.  756. 

Dobie,  Jamrs,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  li- 
censed in  Northumberland ;  received  by  the  Presbyteiy 
of  Kelso ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Mid-Calder  in  Jan- 
uary, and  ordained  July  27, 1773 ;  transferred  to  Linlith- 
gow, May  81, 1792;  and  died  November  10, 1826,  aged 
eighty  years.  He  published  a  Sermon  Preached  ajier 
the  Death  of  Lord  President  Blair  and  Viscount  Md- 
ville  (Edinburgh,  1811): — An  Account  of  the  Parish. 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticanee,  i,  162, 176. 

Dobrila,  Gboro,  a  Greek  prelate,  wan  bom  April 
16,  1812,  at  Antignano,  in  Istria.  In  1887  he  received 
holy  orders;  in  1842  was  made  doctor  of  theology  at 
Vienna;  shortly  afterwards  was  called  as  chaplain  and 
catechist  to  Trieste,  where  in  1849  he  was  appointed 
rector  and  professor  at  the  Episcopal  seminary.  In 
1854  he  was  made  dean,  in  1857  raisied  to  the  bishoprio 
of  Trieste  and  Capo  d'Istria,  and  died  Jan.  13,  1882. 
(B.  P.) 

Doo  (Lat.  Docaus),  Ji^ks,  a  French  prelate,  was 
a  Benedictine  monk  of  the  abbey  of  Saint-Denis,  near 
Paris,  also  doctor  of  theology  and  canonical  law,  as  well 
as  an  excellent  preacher.  He  was  elevated  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  grand-prior  of  Saint^Denis,  and  in  1557  was 
placed  in  the  episcopal  see  of  Laon.  He  died  in  1560, 
leaving  De  uElema  Eilii  Dei  GeneraHone  (Paris,  1554) : 
—HomiUiB  per  AimuM  (Antwerp,  1640).  See  Hoefer, 
JVmv.  iNfl^L  GMnde,  a.  r. 

Z)ocampo,  Gohsalvo^  a  Spmaath  prdate  and  na- 
tive  of  Madrid,  lived  for  a  long  time  in  Italy  and  was 
the  favorite  of  Clement  VIH ;  became  canon  of  Sevffle» 
archdeacon  of  Niebla,  bishop  of  Cadiz,  and  finally  arch- 
bishop of  Lima,  Pern,  in  162S.  He  died  in  1626,  leaving 
Del  Goriemo  del  Peru : — Una  Carto  Pastoral  a  Todas 
los  Curas  de  Almas  de  su  Arzobispado,  See  Hoefer, 
iVbup.  Bioff,  GhUrak,  s.  v. 

Doctor.  We  here  give  an  alphabetical  list  of  such 
additional  epithets  as  were  given  to  some  doctors  of  the 
middle  ages,  although  some  of  them  were  not  poblie 
teachers : 

Dodor  abttraetionufn^aettt^u  et  UlMminatisaimus,  io  Firan- 
cis  of  Mnyronl  (Marojns),  who  died  in  1823; 

aetUissimuSt  to  Francis  d'Aibescola  della  Rovere  (after- 
wards pope  Bixtns  IV),  died  tn  1484: 

oftittM,  to  Gabriel  Vaeqnes,  a  Jesuit,  died  in  ie04: 

admirdMis  {mirdbiliB),  to  Koger  Bacon«  died  in  1994; 

amcBnus,  to  Robert  of  Cownton,  died  about  1840 ; 

angHieus^  eommunis,  also  eksrubSeuM,  to  Thomas  Aqnl- 
nss,  died  in  1274; 

authentieuSt  to  Gregorius  de  Bimini,  died  In  1808: 

authonUvs.  eopiosus,  fttndattseimfu  et  soUdus,  to  Rich* 
ard  of  Middleton,  died  about  1800 ; 


ifldlDi  ie  CaloIiDi, 
aita  ID  1410 : 
tatwL.  ID  Viliiier  Brlnkfll,dl*d  tbont  WO ; 
ckinMeia.  ■«  angilieiu ; 

ctrutioBu.'M^lcolii'ni'ofOnBii.dJsdlDlMt; 
riir^  Id  LodIi  ds  lInDlB>la<l^  d)ed  In  10!! ; 
daruM  ft  kMUU,  U>  DiouyiiDi  ths  YoDiiKer,  of  tha  llth 


"rflf" 

-^Ti^^^-x^. 

*IUl« 

r  Bi 

lelgh 

dlri 

BfW 

latinu.loJnbB 
oAnwlmoflji 
lo  Aotim  ADdn 

™fd 

dJnlllIi 
d  about  ISM: 

IBSl 

Diaoyglo*  de  Leewit  ur  Rkkcl,  died  In 


nntiitni.  Id  St.  John  arHmbB,  died  lu  HIS ; 
rra^utHevt,  to  loHa  WyclMa,  died  In  ISM : 
tuAM^wimtu,  ID  Anion  ComlU,  died  lu  IMS ; 
Binnj,toJubuTlHeriua.dlitdBboDtlBMj  ludFrui- 

>  Fear  Albanl,  died  nlmiit  UM; 


ftmimil,  lo  Becuiud  de  Ix  Toar,  died 


>,  died  ii 

__.„  rf  luUjnil.  tn  John 

aiHttnttit, 

iKwMi,  or  UluitTBtiiM,  lo  Adnm  of  MorlMO.  died  about 

i„iMu.  •oWUIIsmlliickemi'ld.  died  about  l>O0: 

iBHW,  to  Andrew  orNenrcbilein.dled  abonl 

tn  Pelrae  Thomai  or  the  Utb  tenWrji 
il  rinfiilarli,  [D  William  Occam,  died  sbont 

l/Tr/ragabait,  font  vUa,  nanartha  thialooanmi,  to  A1- 

cuDder  H>I«.  died  Id  1!4B  ; 
wvmu,  uniTtTKiUt,  to  Alauua  of  RyweT,  died  In  1»»~: 
noHsnualiiAnMlmnrCauMrbntT.dledlullW!  ud 

J<>bn  Dnni  8i»iai<,  died  in  1909 : 
wIHiluK*,  to  Bl  Bernard,  died  In  HE 
■mUUuu  aUtr,  to  Aired,  died  in  lie 
minM-U,  tea  nimirabdii; 
—'—""-  '-  '.DloD  Perei.  ibe  Jeanit, 

□  de  Bi 
u  ^  tujktou,  to  Peter  de  Aqnlla,  died  about 
fmdjirtia  tl  /rrvjlcuat  {pnJUabaU),  to  Klcbolas  DoDS- 


bnelBkl.dledlnlMfi;  and  Job 


o  Wllliim  Dnnudna  de  &  Fourcalu, 


)  Paler  Abelard,  died  li 


il»,BUHbaIed  to  St.  Pruiela  nfAMlal,  vbo  died  ii 


lofVlUrbo.  dIedlDlWS: 


Mtliiiiib,  10  Francla  de  bacbona,  died  in  ISTl 

John  of  f^nrte^uiaae.  who  riled  abnni  WU ; 
MMlNt,  to  J.ibD  Dana  8coUi*,dled  in  IMS; 


DOCTRINAIRES 

oriHbtdit,  ieedorvtaDd/undaiiifliMIia,' 
tbcmniw.u4,  fi  Peter  nf  Manias  of  the  141b  eeutn^i 
iuic<»ctuj,  taKnmclaof  Arcoll,  ivbudletlnliai]!  IMO; 
Ajlcient,  Bee  onuttianmu* ; 
tunnui  dacUnm,  to  Paler  of  Bclle-Perche,  who  died 

.Bintrtatli,  to  Albertn*  KtEnoa,  wbo  died  In  ISSO : 

Mit,  aeoplaniij; 

•ntraiuliu,  to  Waltrled  de  Fontlbna,  wbo  died  after 

See  Stniber,  in  Wetzet  n.  Welte'a  KircheB-l,exiJtoii, 
V.     C1J.K) 

Doctor  audientinin  (leaditr  oftht  keareri),  the 
atructor  of  the  aaiiaiUi  (q.  v.),  or  lowest  order  of 

e»l*chumeni  in  the  early  Church.    They  were  aimply 

DoCtOTB,  Christ  in  Conferma  vith.  The  aubject 
repreacnted  in  a  freaco  of  the  first  cubiculum  of  the 
illlitine  caUcomb,  Our  Lord  is  on  a  lofty  teat  in  the 
idat,  with  hand  upriieed  in  the  act  of  speaking;  the 
doctoia  on  hia  right  and  left,  with  some  exprtaaioD 
of  wonder  on  their  countenance!.  The  only  aarcopha- 
gus  beiidea  that  of  Junius  Ilaisui,  which  iadupatdblji 
coataina  this  aubject,  is  aaiil  by  Manigny  to  be  in  San 
Ambrogio,  at  Milan.  In  thia  lepreaentation  Chriat  la 
placed  in  a  etatloiedtcufE  above  the  aurroundlngfigurei, 
which  are  aeated,  while  two  pitma  atand  by  bim,  one  on 
either  side.  He  holda  in  hiahandabookor>croU,which 
la  partly  unrolled,  while  the  doclors  have  cloaed  theira. 
In  Allegnnia,  lav.  i,  a  mosaic  from  Ssn  Aquilino  of 
Milan  repreaenta  the  Loid'a  elevated  seat  on  ■  rock,  witb 
thadirinelarobbeluw,referTing  toRev.T,  "able  toopen 
the  book."  On  hia  right  and  lefl  are  Joieph  and  Mary 
in  the  altitude  of  ailoracion.  Perret  give*  a  copy  of  a 
very  B^iiirul  painting  from  the  catacombs,  which  place* 
two  doctors  on  the  lafVi  right  hand,  who  are  expreaa- 
ing  attention  and  wonder,  and  Joseph  and  Marj'  on  the 
other,  with  look*  of  patient  waiting  for  liim.  The  Bne 
diptych  of  Ihe  Gih  centsry  at  the  cathedral  of  UiUn, 
and  that  of  Hurano,  alao  represent  our  Lord  silting,  witb 
the  doctors  standing  before  him.  Hia  appearance  here 
ia  more  matura  than  the  Gospels  watraau    Below  hia 


Diptych  of  Uniauo. 

feet  ia  a  figure,  supposed  ta  represent  Uranus,  or  the  fir- 
mament of  the  hcarena  {Paa.  xviii,  9).-Smilh,  Dkl.nf 
Chritt,  Anliq.t.v. 

DocUlna  AdDjBL    See  Addai  DoCTRtHA. 

Dootrlna  Duodecix  AfobtolSrux.    See  Tkach- 

INQ  OP  Tim  TWELVB  Ar08TLES. 

Dootrinaiiea  is  the  common  name  of  two  religious 
aasodationa,  which  originated,  independently  of  each 
other,  in  Italy  and  France.  In  Italy  the  moTement  be- 
gan under  pope  ¥'na  IV,  and  Ihe  association  was  esCab- 
lisbed  by  HarcuB  de  Sedis-Cusani,  who  associated  vith 
bimself  some  persons  for  the  parpose  of  instructing  the 
people,  more  especially  the  children,  in  the  calccbiam. 


Italj 


Fdpe  GregoT?  XIII  ap- 
prored  of  t^t>  aodtty, 
cilled  Fadri  dtUa  Dot- 
trina  Chrutiana.  In 
Fnu)c«  the  uKCudoii  or 
the  Fira  rfs  la  Doctrine 
CArJttam  wu  founded 
by  Cmr  ds  But,  piieti 
■nd  cinon  of  CiTiilton, 
in  1592  and  wu  COD- 
flrmed  by  pope  Clement 
MIL  SeeHelrot,//«. 
Imrt  da  Onira  Slon/u- 
hqua  (PBria,  1714-19), 
IT  282  262;  Heriog, 
Rtal  tmyUop.  s.  v.; 
Licbtenberger,  Enrydap. 
dri  Somen  RitiipevMi, 
».y     (RP.) 

Doona.   Se«CAiM>c. 

I>od,AlbeitBald- 
wln,  D  D.,  s  Pmbyie- 

«t  Hendhiin,  N.  J.,  Hirch  24.  IS06.  II«  gndiuCed  at 
Primelon  College  in  1822;  spent  ibont  four  ytan 
Uicbing  D««T  Fredericksburg,  Vs.;  nf*  lieented  (o 
pteseh  in  the  spriog  of  1828  by  the  Presbytary  of 
New  York;  and  in  1830  tppointed  to  the  msthemtcical 
college  of  Priocrton,  whets  he  1»- 
d  (ill  hi^  deich.  Not.  20, 1M&  Profeanr  Dod  pub- 
liihed  neversl  articin  in  the  BSIicat  Reptrlery,  one  of 
which,  on  "TranBCendentslism,"  ittncled  grest  atUin- 
tion,  snd  was  printed  in  a  aeparate  pampbleL  He  was  ■ 
Dum  of  Tcty  great  ability  as  ■  writer  and  debater,  and 
WIS  very  popular  ai  a  profeesor  among  hlapn;uLa.  His 
■ermoni  dealt  with  princlplea  and  strove  to  convince 
the  understanding  and  rule  the  conTictiona,  See/ndez 
to  Printxlon  Ra.  1825-1868. 

Dod,  Jolm,  an  English  divine,  was  bom  at  Shot- 
ledge,  Cheshire,  in  1547  i  was  bred  in  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge  \  by  nature  a  witty,  by  industry  a  learned, 
by  grace  a  godly,  divine;  successively  minister  uf  Uan- 
well,  in  Oxford,  Fenny  Compton,  in  Warwick,  Canoni 
Ashby  and  Fawsley.in  KorthBinptonBhire,  though  for  a 
time  ailenced  in  each  of  them,  and  died,  after  a  holy 
life  in  troublesome  Cimea,  in  IMfi.  When  his  mouth  was 
shot  by  the  authorities  he  instrurted  as  much  as  before 
by  his  holy  demeanor  and  pious  diacounie.  His  chief 
production  was  an  Expoiilioii  of  the  Ten  CotnmaiidmBiti 
(Lond.  1606),  whence  he  is  otlen  styled  Ihe  Dtcalogiit. 
See  Fuller,  Worlhiu  of  Enstaml  (ed.  Nottall),  i,  278; 
Chalmcni,  Biog.  Did.  a.  v, 

Dod,  William  AnnatroDK,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
EpiBCD|>al  clergyman,  appears  in  the  ministry  in  I8&9, 
rending  at  that  lime  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  became 
iMtor  of  Trinity  Church  in  that  pUce.  This  offlee  he 
held  until  1S6G,  but  he  continued  to  reside  in  PrinceloD 
until  his  death,  Dec  3, 1872,  aged  flfty-six  years.  See 
ProL  Kpiic  A  Imanac,  1874,  p.  138. 

Dodd,  Cbarlea  (or  mdiard  TedWi,  a  Roman 
Catholic  clergyman,  leudcd  at  Harrington,  in  Worces- 
tershire, England,  and  died  there  about  1T45.  His  moat 
celebrated  work  is  a  Church  Hittors  of  England  (Brus- 
sels, 1TS7-42, 3  vols,  fol),  several  editions  of  wbich  have 
appeared.  See  Cbalmera,  Biag.  Did.  s.  v. ;  Allibone, 
t>iel.o/Bril.a>idAmtr.Aiilij»-;i.r. 

Dodge,  Orriii,  t).D.,  a  Baptist  minieier,  was  bom  in 
Utehfield  County,  Conn.,  in  1803.  He  was  baptized  by 
Bishop  Giiswold,  and  receiTed  bis  early  religious  I 
ing  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  In  1816  he 
removed  to  cenUal  New  York,  attending  Kbool 
working  on  a  farm.  Fnm  the  age  of  aareutea 
(wenty-«x  he  taught  school;  for  three  yean  was  in 
■  puUic  position  in  West  Troy,  and  then  for  several 
yeui  In  active  mercantile  buuness.    Being  converted 


DOGGETT 

1831,  he  was  licensed  in  1B83,  and  ordained  at  Sand 
ke,  in  May,  1884,  remaining  there  thr«  years.     His 
other  pastorates  were  Mayiville,  nine  years.  West  Troy, 
years,  and  Ballaton,  two  years.    In  1848  be  wu 
tinted  secretary  for   misHons   for  the  New  York 
Baptist  Convention,  and,  about  a  year  after,  agent  fur 
collecting  funds  for  the  American  Baptist  Uiaaionaty 
Union,  in  which  position,  through  a  long  term,  be  ex- 
hibited rare  executive  abilities.    For  fire  yean  he  was 
laid  aside  from  bis  labors  by  paralysis,  and  died  st  ihc 
lidenca  of  his  daughter,  in  the  dty  of  New  York.  Mav 
,1884.  8eeCalbcart,Bit|M.£'ii9c/ii}i.p.840.  (J.C.S.') 
Dodge,   WiUiam    Earl,    an    emicent    phiUn- 
ropic  elder  in  the  Presbyterian  Church,  was  bora  at 
Hartford,  Conn.,  Sept.  4, 180&.     He  came  to  New  York 
"18  and  enteiBd  a  dry-gooda  store  asan  errand  boy 
and  clerk,  sod,  tlUr  remaining  nine  years,  set  up  bnii- 
for  himself  in  the  same  line;  but  in  1883  entered 
partnership  with  bis  fither-in-law,  Anson  U.  Fhelpa, 
and  continued  in  the  same  buanessuntil  his  death,  Feb. 
9, 1888.     Mr.  Dod^e  was  supposed  to  have  left  a  fort- 
une of  upwards  of  Sve  million  dollars.     He  was  either  a 
president  or  director  of  many  compaoiea  and  societies. 
President  Lincoln  appointed  him  on  the  famous  Indian 
Commission.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Thirty-ninth 
Congms,  of  the  Peace  Commission  of  ISfll,  and  of  the 
Loyal  League  Commission,  delegate   to   the  World's 
Cbristian  Alliance,  and  president  for  three  terms  of  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce.     Ha  resigned  the  presidency 
of  the  Republican  Union  because  of  its  deriving  part 
of  its  revenue  from  the  sale  of  liquor,  and  of  a  railroad 
company  because  of  its  violation  of  the  Sabbath.     Few 
have  done  more  for  the  cause  of  temperance  than  Hr. 
Dodge,     He  was  actively  engaged  in  every  benevolent 
enterprise,  and  gave  upwards  of  one  hundred  thousand 
dollars  a  year  to  benevolent  objecta.     (W.  P.  &) 

Dodo.  (1)  AbbotofSt.GeDuirusinBourges,died 
cit.  A.D.  850.  (2)  Called  also  Ofo,  abbot  of  Su  Usr- 
tial  at  Limouun,  about  the  middle  of  the  9th  century. 
(8)  Tbe  twenty-Otit  bishop  of  Toul,  at  the  bf^innii^ 

Dodollnos  (called  also  DoUaut,  Zaudelaitit,  and 
even  SoAoUstu),  a  French  saint,  bishop  of  Tienne  about 
the  middle  of  the  7th  century,  is  commemorated  on 

Dodwell,  WiLUAM.  D.D.,  an  English  dergymaiH 
born  at  Sholteabrook,  in  Berkshire,  June  17,  1709, 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  where  be 
look  his  master's  degree  in  1782.  He  was  rector  of 
Shotlesbrook  snd  vicar  of  Buckleberry  and  of  Wbite- 
Waltham ;  became  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  chulch  at 
Salisbury,  and  was  promoted  to  the  archdeaconry  of 
Berks  by  Bishop  Thomas.  He  died  Oct.  21,  Ii85. 
The  following  are  some  of  his  publications:  Tato  Str- 
tnomotHheElernlgo/FuttiniPimithmnt:—  Viiitatiem 
Strmon  on  iAt  Duirablauti  of  Ike  Chriitian  Failh  (Ox- 
ford, 1744):  — Tuw  Sermone  «  Satumal  FaUk  (ibid. 
174S)  ■.^Diitertalion  on  Jrphlhih't  Vtm  (London,  174S)  i 
—pennon  on  5t. /■ouri  Tfiii  (Oxford,  1762),  and  many 
other  single  sermons.  See  Chalmers  Biog.  Dili,  a,  T. ; 
AUibiHie,  Did.  of  Brit,  tad  A  mer.  A  uliare,  s.  T. 

Dogfan,  a  Welsh  saint,  slain  in  the  fith  centuiy  by 
the  pagan  Saxona,  ia  commemorated  July  13. 

DocBOtt,  Davtd  SxTH,D.D.,abisboportheUetli- 
odist  Episcopal  Cbureh  South,  was  bom  in  Lancaster 
County,  Va.,  June  2S,  1810.  He  was  educated  at  Ihe 
Unireruty  of  Virginia,  and  intended  to  f(i1low  tbe  legal 
profeauon,  but  after  bis  conversion  gave  it  Dp  for  tbe 
ministry;  on  leaving  college  taught  acbool  a  year  in 
Orange  County,  Va.,  and  in  1829  entered  tbe  Ti^inia 
Conference.  That  year  bewassenttoBoaookearcuii, 
N.  C.  1  in  IBSO  to  Hattamuskeet  Circuit,  in  the  same 
sUte;  in  1881  to  Petersburg,  Ta.;  in  1882  to  Lynch- 
burg; In  1884  to  Trinity  Station,  Sichmond ;  in  1885 
to  Petersburg;  in  1886  to  Norfolk;  in  1838  to  Lynch. 


DOGURA 


289 


DOLLER 


burg ;  in  1839  to  CharlotteTille,  acting  me«nwhile  as 
chapLuD  to  the  UnWenity  of  Virginia ;  and  in  1840  was 
cba{>Iain  to  Randolph-Macon  CoUege,  and  pastor  of  the 
town  in  which  the  college  was  then  located.  From 
1841  to  1846  be  was  professor  of  mental  and  moral 
philosophy  in  the  same  institution.  In  1847  he  was 
again  sent  to  Lynchburg;  in  1849  to  Washington 
Street  Sution,  Petersburg;  in  1851  to  Richmond;  in 
1853  to  Gimnby  Street  Station,  Norfolk;  in  1855  edited 
the  Reriew{ia  1856  went  to  Washington,  D.  C;  in 
1858  was  presiding  elder  of  the  Richmond  District ;  in 
1862  served  Broad  Street  SUtion,  and  in  1864  Centena- 
ry Church.  In  1865  he  was  associate  editor  with  Rev. 
John  E.  Edwards,  D.D.,  of  the  Episcopal  MethodUt,  in 
Richmond ;  and  in  April,  1867,  was  elected  to  the  Epis- 
copacy. He  continued  to  reside  in  the  same  city,  and 
executed  the  duties  of  his  high  office  with  great  seal, 
derotedness,  and  success  until  his  death,  Oct.  27,  1880. 
It  is  thought  be  hastened  his  decease  by  overtaxing 
himself  responding  to  extra  calls  in  the  summer  of  1880. 
See  The  Quarter^  Review  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South, 
Jan.  1881,  p.  109 ;  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of  Methodism^  s.  v. 

Dognra  (or  Jnmboo)  Version  of  (he  Scriptures, 
This  dialect  is  spoken  in  the  mountainous  or  northern 
districts  of  Lahore,  and  east  of  the  river  Chenab  and  of 
Cashmere.  A  version  of  the  New.  Test,  in  Dognra  was 
nndertaken  in  Serampore  in  1814,  and  left  the  press  in 
1826.     (a  P.) 

Dohxn,  JoHAXN  Albert  Bermuard,  a  distin- 
l^iahed  Orientalist  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1805  at 
Scheuerfeld^  near  Coburg.  He  studied  theology  at 
Halle  and  Leipsic,  but  afterwards  turned  bis  attention 
exclusively  to  the  languages  of  the  East.  In  1826  he 
waa  appointed  professor  of  Sanscrit  in  the  University 
of  Kharkov,  in  Russia.  Six  years  later  he  was  called 
to  the  chair  of  Astatic  history  and  geography  in  the 
Oriental  Institute  at  St.  Petersburg,  which  he  resigned 
in  1843  to  become  senior  librarian  of  the  imperial  pub- 
lie  library.  He  died  in  1881.  He  published  in  1846 
Das  Asiatucke  Museum  der  Kaiserlicher  Akademie  der 
Wissensckajlen,  and  in  1852  Catalogue  des  JUamtscrits 
ei  Xylographes  Orientaux,  His  last  undertaking  was 
an  elaborate  work  on  the  migration  of  the  ancient 
Hans  in  TaberisUn.    (B.  P.) 

Dolben,  John  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  clergj^man  and 
archbishop  of  York,  bom  at  Stanwick,  in  Northampton- 
shire, March  20,  1625,  was  educated  at  Westminster 
school,  being  admitted  a  king's  scholar  in  1686,  and  in 
1640  elected  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  or- 
dained aboat  1652;  in  1660  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Kewington-com-Britwell,  in  Oxfordshire,  in  the  gift  of 
the  archlnshop  of  Canterbury;  in  1662  appointed  arch- 
deacon of  London,  and  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  St. 
Giles,  Crippiegate,  but  resigned  both  in  a  short  time  to 
take  the  deanery  of  Westminster.  In  1666  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Rochester,  and  allowed  to  hold  the 
deanery  of  Westminster  m  oonuMndam;  translated  to 
the  see  of  York  in  1683,  and  became  an  ecclesiastical 
gwemor  of  that  pUuse.  He  died  April  11,  1686.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  AUibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and 
Amor,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 


Dolben,  Sir  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man,  was  made  prebendary  of  Durham,  April  2, 1718. 
He  pobliahed  a  sermon,  CofKio  ad  Clerum,  on  Heb.  xii, 
1  (1726).  See  AUibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Au- 
tiorMfB.r. 

Polcino,  leader  of  the  Apostolici  (q.  v.),  was  bom 
in  the  diocese  of  Novara.  He  was  the  son  of  a  priest, 
joined  the  Apostolici  in  1291,  and  became  their  leader 
in  1J800,  after  the  death  of  Segarelle«  On  behalf  of  bis 
sect  he  wrote  three  works,  of  which  the  third  is  entire- 
ly ket,  bat  of  the  first  two  there  are  some  extracts  in 
the  A  ddUamentum  ad  Bistoriam  Duldm,  The  first  was 
written  in  1300,  at  Dalmatia,  and  is  addressed  to  the 
aeattered  memben  of  the  sect  as  well  as  to  all  Chris- 

XII.— T 


tians.  He  distinguishes  four  stages,  status,  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  divine  life  on  earth.  The  first  begins 
with  the  patriarchs,  the  second  with  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  the  third  with  pope  Silvester  and  the  emperor 
Oonstantine  the  Great,  and  the  fourth  with  Segarelle 
and  himself.  Each  stage  was  good  in  itself,  but  de- 
generation called  forth  a  new  one,  for  the  better.  The 
fourth  stage  was  to  last  to  the  end  of  the  world.  Dol- 
cino  also  made  some  predictions,  which  proved  a  failure, 
yet  in  spite  of  this  the  people  did  not  Icrae  confidence  in 
him.  There  are,  indeed,  in  his  works  both  true  relig- 
ious enthusiasm  and  a  sharp  sense  of  the  comiption  of 
the  Church ;  but  both  are  blurred  by  the  whims  of  a 
sensuous  and  ill-regulated  imagination.  Dante  (/a- 
ftmo,  xxviii,  55  sq.)  puts  liim  on  the  same  level  with 
Bf  oUammed.  See  Bistoria  Dulcini  and  A  dditanuntum, 
in  Bluratori,  Script,  Berttm  ItoL  ix,  425  sq. ;  Mosheim, 
Geschichte  des  Apostelordens,  in  bis  Ketzerffeschichte 
(HelmsUidt,  1748),  p.  193  sq.;  Schlosser,  Ahalard  und 
Dulcin  (Gotha,  1807) ;  Baggtolini,  Dolcino  e  i  Patarenn 
(Novara,  1838) ;  Krone,  Fra  Dolcino  und  die  Patarener 
(Leipsic,  1844) ;  Dollinger,  Der  Weissagungsglauhe  und 
das  Prophtienthum  in  der  christlichen  Zeit^  in  Riehl'fi 
Histor,  Taschenbuch,  1871;  Schmidt,  in  Plitt-Hersog, 
Real^Eneykhp,  s.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  Encgdopedie  diet 
Sciences  Beligieuses,  s.  v.     (13w  P.) 

Dolera,  Cleuexte,  a  Genoese  prelate  and  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Moneglia  in  1501,  He  was  a  Fran- 
ciscan, and  became  general  of  his  order.  In  1557  Paul 
IV  made  him  cardinal,  with  the  title  of  Sainte-Maris 
deAra  Cceli,  and  bishop  of  Foligno.  He  died  at  Rome^ 
Jan.  6, 1568,  leaving,  Compendium  Catholicarum  Jnstitu- 
tionum  (Rome,  1562):— ;-/>«  Sgmbola  Apostohrum: — 
De  Saerameniis : — De  Prcsceptis  Divinis  :^De  Peeeatis 
ei  Eorum  Differentiis: — De  ConsUOs  EvangeHds: — De 
Caelibatu  Sacerdotum: — De  (Ecumenico  ComdUo,  etc 
See  Hoefer,  Aotcv.  Biog,  GhiiraU,  s.  v. 

DoHohiftniiB  (or  DulioManus),  twenty-ninth 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  about  the  last  quarter  of  the  2d 
century. 

DoUtim,  a  convenient  generic  term  for  the  various 
representations  of  casks  and  large  vessels  which  occur 
frequently  in  early  Christian  art,  and  have  symbolic 
meaning  very  generally  attributed  to  them.  As  they 
are  usually  found  on  tombs,  they  are  taken  as  empty, 
representing  the  bod^'  when  the  soul  has  fled  from  ifc^ 
The  close  juncture  of  the  staves  in  some  of  the  casla 
has  been  thought  to  indicate  Christian  unity. 


Casks.    (From  the  Catacombs.) 

DoUendorp,  Johanx  (or  Heikrich  ton),  a  Ger-  '^ 
man  theologian,  was  a  professed  monk  of  the  convent 
of  the  Carmelites  of  Cologne  and  doctor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris.     He  taught  in  that  capital  in  1S39,  be- 
came provincial  of  his  order  for  Germany  in  1351,  and 
gained  great  reputation  both  as  a  theologian  and  as  a 
preacher.    He  died  at  Cologne  in  1375,  leaving.  Super  • 
Senientias : — Sermones  de  Tempore : — Sermones  de  Sane-  > 
OSf  etc    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

DoUer,  JoHANir  Loremz,  a  Roman  CalKeKc  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  8, 1750,  at  Breiten.  In 
1768  he  joined  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  Mayence,  and  in 
1772  was  appointed  professor  at  Heidelberg.    Id  1779 


DOLPHIN 


290 


DOMINICA 


be  resigned  on  aocoont  of  feeble  bealtb,  and  died  Jan. 
80, 1820.  He  pabliahed,  Zeugmtm  aUer  JakrkunderU 
(Fimnkfort-on-tbe-Biain,  1816)  :-^ttf*er'«  KathoUsekei 
MoimmaU  (ibid.  1817).  See  Doring,  Die  gtlehrtm  The- 
ologen  DeatBchlanda,  i,  889  sq. ;  Winer,  Ilandbueh  dor 
TheoL  LiL  i,  405, 466.     (&  P.) 

• 

Dolphin,  in  Christian  Art.  The  dolpbin  has  been 
used  from  an  early  date  in  several  senses,  representing 
either  the  Lord  himself,  the  individual  Christian,  or 
abstract  qualities,  such  as  those  of  swiftness,  brilliancy, 
conjugal  affection,  etc 


The  Dolphin  as  an  Emblem.  ' 

D0I2  (LaL  J)oieciu8)t  Paui^  a  German  theologian 
and  Gnecist,  was  bom  at  Plauen,  in  1526.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Wittenberg.  Melanchthon,  who 
was  his  instructor,  took  him  into  his  friendship,  and 
helped  him  to  obtain  a  place  at  the  gymnasium  of 
Halle.  Dolscius  attached  himself  doeely  to  the  cause 
and  the  doctrines  of  the  famous  reformer.  He  also 
studied  medicine,  and  wrote  Greek  with  facility.  The 
city  of  Halle  appointed  him  burgomaster,  and  later  in- 
spector of  the  churohes,  schools,  and  salt-wells.  He 
died  there,  March  9,  15iB9.  His  principal  works  are, 
Confesrio  Fidei  Exhibita  A  uffusta  Grace  Reddiia  (Basle, 
1559) : — Ptalmi  Davidit  Gnecit  Versibue  Elegiacis  Red- 
diti  (ibid.  1555).    See  Hoefer,  A^oirr.  Biog.  GhUrakj  s.  v. 

Dom,  a  title  of  respect  given  to  the  Benedictines 
and  canons,  being  the  abbreviation  of  domtaut,  which 
was  the  Latin  for  the  mediieval  ter  (sieur),  and  eir  of 
the  Reformation,  and  was  applied  to  non- graduate 
priests.  The  A.B.  of  Cambridge  is  now  designated 
*' dominus,'*  but  the  A.M.,  as  at  Oxford,  is  **dominus 
magister,"  and  the  D.D. "  dominus  doctor." 

Domenec,  Michael,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  was  a  native  of  Spain.  He  joined  the  American 
mission  of  Lazarists  while  studying  for  the  priesthood, 
was  ordained  at  Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.,  and  for  many  yean 
served  as  pastor  at  Germantown,  Pa.  On  Dec  6, 1860, 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Pittsburgh,  as  successor  to 
Dr.  O'Connor,  resigned.  On  Jan.  11, 1876,  his  diocese 
being  divided,  the  new  see  of  Allegheny  was  created,  to 
which  Domenec  was  translated.  His  health  soon  after 
failing,  he  went  to  £urope,  and  after  visiting  Rome,  re- 
signed his  see,  and  died  at  Tarragona,  Spain,  Feb.  5, 
1878,  aged  sixty-five  years.  As  a  bishop  Domenec  was 
esteemed  for  his  energy,  charity,  self-devotion,  and  zeal. 
See  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  Uitt,  of  the  Cath,  Church  in 
M«  Cr.i9.p.802. 

Domeniohi  (or  de  Domenloo),  an  Italian  prel- 
ate and  theologian,  was  bom  in  Venice  in  1416b  He 
taught  logic  at  Padua,  theology  at  Bologna  and  Rome, 
and  was  appointed  bishop  of  Torcello  in  1448.  Paul  II 
transferred  him  to  the  see  of  Brescia,  and  Sixtus  IV 
appointed  him  governor  of  Rome.  Domenichi  died  at 
Brescia  in  1478,  leaving,  De  Rfformaticmibue  Bomana 
Curia  (Brescia,  1495)  :—De  Sanguine  Chritti  (Venice, 
1557)  i—De  Dignitate  Episcopali  (Rome,  1757).  He 
also  published  an  edition  of  the  MoraUa  of  Gregory 
the  Great  (ibid.  1475).  See  Hoefer,  Kouv,  Biog.  CM- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Domenlohino.    See  Zasipiebi,  DoMBNica 

Domestio  Q*  belonging  to  the  house  or  household*^ 
has  several  ecclesiastical  senses :  (1 )  Domeetid  are  all  who 
belong  to  the  **  household  of  faith."  (2)  In  the  East,  the 
principal  dignitary  in  a  church  choir  after  the  **  chief 
singer.*'  There  was  one  on  each  side  of  the  choir,  to 
lead  the  singers  in  antiphonal  chanting.  (8)  DameeU' 
cut  Oetiorum  Q*  of  the  doors  "),  the  chief  doorkeeper  at 
Constantinople.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  ChriMt,  A  ntiq.  s.  v. 


Domingo  dx  Jesus  Maria,  a  Spanish  theologian, 
was  bom  at  CalaUyud  (Old  Castile),  May  16, 1559. 
He  taught  first  among  the  Carmelites  of  the  ancient 
observance,  and  afterwards  took  the  habit  of  the  bsre- 
footed  Carmelites.  Being  called  to  Rome  about  1590, 
he  was  raised  to  the  highest  offices  of  his  order,  and 
was  engaged  by  the  pope  in  variotis  important  embas- 
sies. Besides  Greek  and  Latin,  Domingo  knew  nearly 
all  living  languages.  He  died  at  Vienna,  Feb.  16, 1680, 
leaving,  Sentenze  SpirituaU  (Paris,  1628): — Argrnnenta 
Ptalmorum  Divini  ( Rome,  eod. ) :  —  Alia  A rgtnnenta 
Ptalmorum  (ibid.): — La  Concordia  Etpiritual  (Bm- 
xelles,  1626;  translated  into  French  under  the  title,  De 
la  ThMogie  Mgttique) : — De  la  Protection  de  la-  Vierge 
(Paris,  1645) : — Diredoire  pour  Bien  Mourir : — Vie  du 
Frkre  A  lexis  de  Saint'Bemardt  PoUmais,  etc.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Bonif.  MUller,  Z«5ai  und 
Werken  d,  Dominicus  a  Jesu  Maria  (Vienna,  1878)^ 

Dominic,  Saint  (sumamed  Loricatus,  from  the  iron 
coat  of  mail  which  he  constantly  wore  next  to  his  skin), 
a  famous  Italian  hermit,  who  died  at  Fonta  Vellano 
(Umbria),  Oct.  14, 1060,  had  passed  through  all  the  cler- 
ical degrees  and  then  devoted  himself  to  a  life  of  soli- 
ary  penance  and  extreme  austerity,  inflicting  lashca 
upon  himself  daily,  and  hourly  reciting  certain  Fsalmii 

Dominio  of  Flamdkbs,  a  theologian,  went  to  Italy 
when  very  young;  entered  the  order  of  the  Domini- 
cans, and  taught  theology  at  Bologna,  where  he  died  in 
1500.  He  wrote  sevenl  books  on  scholastic  philoso- 
phy, for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrak,  s.  v. 

Dominio  of  ths  Holy  Tbinitt,  a  French  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Nevers,  Aug.  4, 1616.  He  belonged  to 
a  nobleman's  family,  and  in  1684  joined  the  Carmelites 
in  Paris.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  to  teach ;  then  went 
to  Malta  BB  inquisitor,  but  came  back  to  Rome  again. 
In  1656  he  was  made  general  of  his  order,  and  pope 
Clement  X  appointed  him  qualifier  of  the  holy  oflSce. 
He  died  at  Rome,  April  7,  1687,  leaving,  De  Anno  Ju- 
bilai  (Rome,  1650)  :—BiUiotheca  Theohgioa,  etc  (ibid. 
166&-76, 7  vols.).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ohiirale,  s.  v. 

Dominio  of  Jerusalkst,  a  converted  rabbi,  was 
bom  in  1550.  He  was  made  doctor  at  Safet,  in  Galilee, 
where  he  lectured  on  the  Talmud,  and  became  physi- 
cian to  the  sultan.  In  1600  he  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity at  Rome,  where  he  taught  Hebrew.  He  trans- 
lated the  New  TesL  into  Hebrew.  See  Hoefer,  A'oirr. 
Biog,  dnkraltf  s.  v, 

Dominio  of  St.  GKMnaAif,  a  famous  canonist  of 
the  15th  century,  was  a  native  of  San  Geminiano,  in 
Florence.  After  completing  his  studies,  he  became  in 
1407  vicar-general  to  the  bishop  of  Modena,  took  part 
in  1409  in  the  synod  of  Pisa,  and  was  for  many  years 
professor  at  Bologna,  where  he  died,  tie  wrote.  Com- 
mentaria  Propria  DUigentissime  Castigala  m  Deeretmn 
(edited  by  P.  Albignac,  Venice,  1504) : — Commeniarins 
in  Sextum  (Venice,  1558,  f579) :— CofuiKa  et  Responsa 
(Leyden,  1588;.  Venice,  1550).  0>mp.  Schulte,  Ge- 
schiehte  der  QudUen  und  IMeratur  dee  cano»is<Aen  Rer^s^ 
ii,  295  (Stuttgart,  1877);  Streber,  in  Wetser  u.  We]te*s 
Kirchen-Lexikonf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Dominio  of  St.  Thomas,  a  Portuguese  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Lisbon,  and  lived  about  the  year  1674.  He 
belonged  to  the  Dominican  order,  and  became  suoces- 
sively  prior,  royal  preacher,  doctor,  and  professor  of  the- 
ology. He  wrote  Sununa  Theologia  (Lisbon,  1690),  con- 
taining a  long  statement  of  the  natura  and  origin  of 
the  inquisition.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GSMraUf  s.  v. 

DominXoa,  the  LortTe  dag,  not  the  Sabbath.  See 
Sunday. 

DominXba,  a  matron  saint,  commemorated  Jan.  8L 

Dominioa  Gaudh  (the  Lor^s  dag  ofjog\  a  name 
given  by  some  of  the  ancient  Christian  writers  to  East- 
er Sunday.  The  Roman  emperors  were  accustomed  on 
that  day,  as  a  token  of  joy,  to  grant  a  release  to  all  pris- 
oners except  those  guiUy  of  great  crimes. 


DOMINICAN 


._«  of  St  AastLn,  wu 

■trtct  «lMtlncnc«  trom  Awh :  fMUoreersDmoiitbi'dai 
Hod,    Itvta    Hidf 


TholJjbTtbeiliiu 
of  lbs  IifEhliil ;  Uh 

ctolhn  onlr;  md 


cla«)E,  ud  a  hood 
frv  [hi  h«d  1  ssd 
their  (Ample,  anii- 
doroed  chapelt  be- 


und  fvur  hnndrnl  and 


■  he  BI*B»edTlr[[ln,      ^^     ^^V^^  -  _^:^?^!'^iS^ 

ttL'^'SoM"  fiifbade         Dunilnican  Moiili  ot  CuDsem. 
It,  BmUirrt  ^  tlu 

nrffinJtary.-andthejaliraTahadalladoiiiim  and  cm 
cUU  In  tlielmlla.  There  waa  ageoent  chapter  held  an 
nullj.  The  tDperlorwM  called  muter  of  the  order,  am 
Ui*Kr*«tct  oOlcetB,  prion  and  auperiora.  Tbe  order  wa 
iBuTinted  for  preaching  at  hoi--  — •  '—  — '-■' —  ■-  '*■ 
baaUwn;  11  hai  prodoced  ous  i 
flftr-eight  cardlnala.  It  nud  t 
enrull  them  before  the  coUTei. 
Tkcf  held  that  the  Virgin  waa  ( 

eoBMenlad  Satnrdan  to  bar  boiiui ,  DDu  -^.i,.^  c^u....^- 
Ue  theaton,  Hont  IlioiDlita.  Their  preach  I  ug^rou  re- 
nalai  it  Hcraford,  their  relbctnrral  Caiiurbaij>,  the  nare 
of  the  cbarch  and  niher  balldlngt  maj  be  aecu  al  Nor- 
■  "  '   rf  Ihelt  eoQTeDt  at  Ljnn,  Bererley.  and 

werethreedlrlalona 
of  the  order  — the 
preacblng      friata. 


wldi,  aod  put  ol 


leu,  iHit  eoBwtlmee  ther  had  narrow  iteeHci.  as  at  Qhen t, 
or  Uleral  ehantrlea  for  altan ;  or,  aa  at  Plaa,  eilgo,  Bre- 
con, KUnullock,  alonrwter,  and  RoKomnioii,  a  alogle 
■Ifle  for  the  ■ecoBunodatlon  of  the  coneregatloii  at  ter- 
iDooe:  lalaral  cbapalj  were  added  at  n  later  dale.  Apt>l- 
dal  choin  occur  at  llousi,  MUan,  TonloDaa,  Antwerp. 
Oberweael :  and  at  Farta,  Agen,  and  TodIodh  (be  eharch 
waa  donble,  coniiiUng  almpW  of  two  alalea  of  equal 
leogtfa.  At  LooTaln  and  Norwich  the  nare  hia  alalea  of 
the  Dnial  alie.  The  cholra  had  do  alaiea.  The  cbapler- 
hnue  at  Tooloiua  waa  ipaldal,  and  had  three  atalea. 
Thti  order  proji  more  (tun  an;  other  for  tbe  dead,  the 


DOMMERICH 

Domlnlol,  QiovAxm,  an  Italian  prelate  and  theo- 
logian, waa  bom  at  Floienoe  about  1366,  eoteted  the 
Ucminican  order,  and  became  a  Tamou*  teacher  of  tbe- 
olog;^  and  canon  law;  alio  diatingaUhed  himself  ii  a 
preacher;  went  on  an  erabaaay  to  Rome  in  140fi;  wai 
ntads  biihop  of  Saguia  in  1407,  and  cardinal  in  1406 
(which  prefermenta  led  to  a  violent  controvemy),  and 
diedatBuda  in  1419,  leaving  aeveral  minor  pioductioBB, 
for  which  aee  Hoefer,  A'ohf.  Buig,  GairaU,  a.  v. 

DomlnlooB  (1),  Aiinf,  biahop  of  Cambray,  cii.  AJ), 
HO;  (2}  biabop  of  Carthage  in  the  time  of  Gr^oi; 
the  Great;  (3)  biahop  of  CiviU  Yeeehia,  A.D.  601;  (4) 
the  elcTCDth  Uabop  of  Carpentraa,  A.D.  640-646;  (S) 
the  fifth  biihop  of  Amieni,  A.D.  721 ;  (6)  aeventh  biih- 
op of  Sion  (SeduDum),  A.D.  61& 

Dominium  third  biabop  of  Geneva  in  the  Srat  half 
of  the  Athcenturf. 

DomlnnB  (n[  DomniM,  in  later  Gillican  docu- 
meola),  equivalent  to  ''nin^''  the  aane  >i  tbe  mar  of 
tbe  Childnan  Chrjgtiana,  waa  at  Gnt  a  title  of  the  ab- 
bot, afterwards  of  hia  aub-official^  and  in  the  Middle 
Agetormonkigenerallj.  It  haa  been  applied  to  aainti^ 
biahopa,  and  to  the  pope. 

Domlo,  amaityr,waBlHshapof  Salona,inI>almatia, 
and  ii  commemorated  April  11. 

DotultifiiliiB,  (1)  abbot  of  Lyoua;  depoeition  July 
1;  (2)  martyr  at  Philadelpbia,  in  Arabia;  cocnmem- 
unted  Aug.  1 ;  (3)  deacon  and  martyr  at  Ancyra,  in 
Gilatia,  with   Eutychea;  commemorated  Dec  28;  (4) 
taini,  ibtwt  of  Rimbich>de-Jaux,  in  the  dioceae  of  Ly- 
la,  in  the4tb  or  5th  century;  commemorated  July  1; 
')  acTenlb  biabop  of  Geneva,iboutA.D.  470;  (G)  lev- 
ith  biahop  of  Cologne,  AJ>.  636;  (7)  twelfth  biihop 
of  Angers,  cir.  A.D.  657-668 ;  (8)  taint,  biihop  of  Maea- 
tricht  ui  tbe  middle  of  the  6tb  century,  of  whom  aomo 
legendatj-  miracles  are  told,  ia  commemorated  Miy  7; 
!tropolitan  biahop  of  Ancyni,oDe  of  the  Acephali, 
to  pope  Vigilius  On  iKe  Origrwm  Ctm^ocerty, 
A.D.  664  (see  Uigne,  Ijivii,  632,  627);   (10)  biihop  of 
MeUtene  and  metropolitan  ofArmenia,  cir.  A.D.  564,  waa 
'11-read  icholar,  and  an  eminent  laint.     He  waa  a 
relative  of  the  emperor  (Maurice),  and  one  of  hia  prin- 
Lpal  officera.     After  he  had  become  a  widower  he  con- 
!craled  bimielr  to  the  service  of  God,  aod  waa  railed 
>  tbe  lee  of  Helitene,  ■  city  of  Armenia.    In  689  Man- 
es aenc  him  to  Choaniea  II,  king  of  I'enia,  who  waa 
ethroned  by  hia  inbjecli.     Domitianiii  auiited  the 
defeated  monarch  with  hii  couniela,  and  did  not  neg- 
lect anything  to  convert  him,  but  without  luccen,  lo 
finally  he  wrote  about  him  to  pope  Gregory.     Do- 
>nu9  came  back  to  Constantinople,  ithere  Maurice 
kept  him  near,  ai  hii  idviaer  and  miniiter,  assigning 
'  'm  even  the  guardianihip  of  his  children,  but  the  prel- 
e  died  before  the  emperor,  in  603.     The  iKxty  of  Diy- 
itianuB  wai  transferred  lo  Melltene,  and  ii  Thcophy- 
:t  lays,  "God  attated  hii  holiness  by  viriooa  mita- 
»."    lit  ii  commemorated  Jan.  10. 
DomitUla,  ■  virgin  martyr  at  Terracioi,  in  Cam- 
inia,  under  Domitian  and  Tnjan;  commemarated 
Jl.,7(.rl?). 

Domltiua;  (1)  martyr  in  Syria,  commetDorited 
jDly6;  (2)  martyr  in  Phrygi a,  under  Julian,  commem. 
irated  Aug.  7;  (3)  aoM/,  a  oonfeisar  and  ecclesiaitic 
tear  Amiens,  before  the  middle  ot  tbe  SIh  century ;  he 
-eaigned  hJ  office,  and  lived  the  leat  of  his  days  as  a 
hermit.  Ilii  relici  were  transferred  in  1279  to  the 
Cathedral  of  AmJeni.  He  i>  commemorated  Oct.  23. 
Dommerlctl,  Johakn  Chhutofii,  a  Lo  there  n  the- 
:ogian  of  Germany,  waa  bom  Dec  25, 1723,  at  BUcke- 
urg.  He  etudied  at  Halle ;  for  some  time  acted  as  In- 
irin  the  orphanage  there;  in  1747  vai  appointed  mom- 
ig  preacher  at  hii  native  plaee,  but  in  the  following 
yearaccqited  a  calltoHelmitlldt;  in  1749  became  reo- 


DOMNINA 


292 


DONI 


tor  at  WolfenbUttel,  and  in  1769  profeaaor  of  meUpbys- 
ic8  at  Helmstttdt,  where  he  died,  May  28, 1767.  He 
wrote,  Meditaiumet  PkUompkiea  ei  Theologioa  (Lemgo, 
17^)  i'-Comme$aaiio  TktAogica  (Helmstiidt,  1748) :~ 
De  Fcedare  BapUamali  (ibid.  1749)  i—Theohgitchet  Com- 
pendium (HaUe,  1769)  i^Gedanhen  Uber  den  SkepHcumus 
(Braanachweig,  1767).  See  Ddriog,  Die  geUhrien  The- 
ologen  DeutsMtndtf  i,  841  sq. ;  J'6cheT,AUffemeiitet  Ge- 
Uhrten-Lexihon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Domnina  (or  Donmia),  Scanty  was  of  a  noble 
family  of  Antioch.  Having  become  a  widow,  she  pro- 
fessed Christianity  with  her  twa  daughters,  Bemioe 
and  Proedooe,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  persecution 
by  Diodetian,  the  three  retired  to  Edessa.  They  were 
seized  and  ordered  to  Antioch;  but  on  reaching  a  river 
near  HierapoUs,  they  took  each  other  by  the  hand,  pre- 
cipitated themselves  into  the  water,  and  were  drowned. 
Their  bodies  were  taken  from  the  river  and  brought  to 
Antioch,  where  Chrysostom  testifies  that  they  were  in 
his  time.    They  are  commemorated  April  14. 

DomnXiiiiB,  (1)  martyr  at  Thessalonica,  under  Ga- 
lerius,  commemorated  March  80 ;  (2)  martyr  at  Cosa- 
rea,  with  several  others,  under  Maximin,  Nov.  6,  807 ; 
commemorated  OcL  9;  (8)  taint,  bishop  of  Digne,  in 
Gaul,  in  the  beginning  of  the  8d  century ;  commemo- 
rated Feb.  18;  (4)  bishop  of  Marcionopolis,  in  McQsia 
Inferior,  cir.  A.D.860;  (6)  sometimes  called  rath/,  bish- 
op of  Grenoble  at  the  Council  of  Aquileia;  (6)  iainty 
twenty-second  bishop  of  Vienne,  in  France,  about  the 
middle  of  the  6th  centary. 

DomnSlua  (or  Domiui),  (1)  Saini  (otherwise 
called  jlmfelaui),  a  confessor  of  Anxerre,  is  commemo- 
rated Oct  21 ;  (2)  taini  (otherwise  called  A  nolet,  Damp- 
nokl,  Tonnoldn,  etc),  is  said  to  have  been  a  prince  of  Li- 
mosin,  where  his  body  was  originally  buried  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Gregory,  near  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew,  but  was 
taken  outside  the  city  in  1684 ;  commemorated  July  1 ; 
(8)  taint,  tenth  bishop  of  Le  Mans,  appointed  by  CIo- 
thaiie,  A.D.  669,  and  died  Dec  1,  681,  after  a  life  of 
great  virtue;  (4)  taint,  twenty -ninth  archbishop  of 
Vienne,  France,  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century; 
noted  for  redeeming  Christian  captives;  commemo- 
rated June  16;  (6)  twelfth  bishop  of  Macon,  France, 
cir.  A.D.  782-748. 

Donmiiltui,  bishop  of  Marseilles  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury 

DomnnB  is  the  name  of  three  ancient  bishops  of 
Antioch:  (1)  son  of  Demetrianus,  appointed  by  the 
Council  of  Antioch,  A.D.  269,  without  the  voice  of  the 
deigy  or  people,  and  was  installed  in  office  three  years 
later  by  a  decree  of  the  emperor.  He  held  the  see  only 
a  few  y^rs ;  (2)  nephew  of  John  of  Antioch,  on  whose 
death  in  441  he  was  elected  bishop,  and  attained  great 
popularity.  He  was  afterwards  involved  in  the  Atha- 
nasian  controversy,  and  after  many  vicissitudes  was 
finally  expelled  from  the  see,  and  retired  to  the  laura 
of  St.  Euthymius  of  Palestine,  A.D.  462 ;  (8)  a  Thracian, 
appointed  by  Justinian  in  M6,  and  occupied  the  see 
fourteen  years. 

Domnus  is  also  the  name  of  (1)  one  of  the  forty-three 
solitaries  who  lived  in  the  4th  centur}*,  at  Raithu,  in 
the  caverns  of  Sinai,  and  were  attacked  about  A.D.  373, 
by  the  Blemmyes;  Domnus  died  of  his  wounds,  and  is 
commemorated  Jan.  14;  (2)  buhop  of  Apamea,  present 
at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  A.D.  461 ;  (8)  bishop  of 
Klne  (Helena)  before  A.D.  668 ;  a  man  of  great  sanctity ; 
(4)  bishop  of  Messana  (also  called  Donut")  in  the  7th 
century;  (6)  pope.  See  DoNUS;  (6)  forty-first  bishop 
of  Avignon,  died  about  A.D.  748. 

Domo  (or  Dromo),  twenty-ninth  abbot  of  Char- 
tres,  in  the  7th  century. 

DonadeuQ^  twelfth  bishop  of  Gap,  present  at  the 
synod  of  Narbonne  in  A.D.  788. 

Donald  {l£iLj)onevaldut\  a  Scotch  taint,  commem- 
orated with  his  nine  daughters,  July  16. 


Don&tft,  of  Sdllita,  a  martyr  at  C!arthage,  with 
eleven  others,  commemorated  July  17. 

DonatLAnua,  (1)  Saint,  a  martyr  at  Nantes,  with 
his  brother  Bogantius,  dr.  A«D.  299;  commemorated 
May  24 ;  (2)  bishop  and  confessor  in  AJfrica,  under  Hun« 
nericus,  commemorated  Sept.  6 ;  (8)  bishop  of  Qandii 
Forum  at  the  Council  of  Bome,  A.D.  818 ;  (4)  taint,  a 
bishop  and  confessor  of  Ch&lons-sur-Saone,  cir.  A.D.  846, 
commemorated  Aug.  7 ;  (6)  taint,  a  bishop  of  Bheims 
(commonly  called  St.  Donas),  A«D.  860^90,  a  Boman  by 
birth,  commemorateid  Oct.  14;  (6)  bishop  of  Telepte,  in 
Africa,  presided  at  the  council  there,  A«D.  418. 

Donatllla,  a  virgin  martjrr,  in  Africa,  with  Maxima 
and  Secunda,  under  Gallienus,  commemorated  July  80. 

Donato,  Luigi,  an  Italian  theologian,  was  bom  in 
Venice,  became  bishop  of  Bergamo,  and  died  in  1484, 
leaving,  among  other  works,  Commentariet  on  ike  Mat- 
ter of  Sentencet ;  also  Sermont,  etc  Sec  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

DonatUB.  (1)  Mart}^  at  Bome  with  Aquilinns 
and  three  others;  commemorated  Feb.  4.  (2)  Martyr 
at  Concordia  with  Secundianns,  Romulus,  and  eighty- 
six  others ;  commemorated  Feb.  17.  (8)  Martyr  at  Car- 
thage ;  commemorated  March  1.  (4)  Martyr  in  Africa, 
with  Epiphanius  the  bishop,  and  others;  commemo- 
rated April  7  (or  6).  (6)  Martyr  at  Cesarea,  in  Cappa- 
docia,  with  Polyeuctus  and  Victorius ;  commemorated 
May  21.  (6)  Bishop  and  martyr  at  Arctium,  in  Tus- 
cany, under  Julian ;  commemorated  Aug.  7.  (7)  The 
presbyter  and  anchorite  in  a  district  on  Mount  Jura,  in 
Belgic  Gaul ;  commemorated  Aug.  19.  (8)  Martyr  at 
Antioch,  with  Bestitutus,  Valerianus,  Fmctuosa,  and 
twelve  others ;  commemorated  Aug.  28.  (9)  Mutyr  at 
Capua,  with  Quintus  and  Arcontius;  commemorated 
Sept.  6.  (10)  Martyr  with  Hermogenes  and  twenty- 
two  others;  commemorated  Dec  12.  (11)  Bishop  of 
Enrcea,  in  Vetus  Epirus,  cir.  A.D.  887.  (12)  Bishop  of 
Tysedis,  in  Numidia,  in  the  4th  centur}'.  (18)  Donatist 
bishop  of  Bagaia,  in  the  4th  century.  (14)  Bishop  of 
Nicopolis,  in  Vetus  Epirus,  cir.  A.D.  426-438.  (16) 
Twenty-fifth  bishop  of  Avignon,  in  the  middle  of  the  6th 
century.  (16)  One  of  the  four  bishops  from  Africa  at 
the  Council  of  Bome,  A.D.  487.  (17)  Bishop  of  Be- 
san9on,  bom  in  692  or  694,  and  died  in  661 ;  commemo- 
rated Aug.  7.  (18)  The  name  of  two  Irish  saints  (prob- 
ably Lat.  for  Donagh) ;  one,  bishop  of  Lupia  (now  Leeoe, 
near  Naples),  in  the  7th  centuiy ;  the  other,  bishop  of 
Fiesole,  in  Tuscany :  both  commemorated  Oct.  22.  (19) 
Patriarch  of  Grado,  A.D.  717-780.    See  also  Dctnam; 

DUNCIIAIDH. 

• 

Dondi  {DaW  Orologio),  Fraxcbsoo  Scipiokb,  an 
Italian  prelate  and  theologian,  was  bom  in  January, 
1766.  He  studied  at  the  college  of  Modena;  in  1807 
was  called  to  the  bishopric  of  Padua;  and  died  Oct.  6, 
1829,  leaving  many  archseological  works,  for  which  see 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  %  v. 

Doneloon,  Park  Shattuck,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  Colerain,  Mass.,  April 
17, 1826.  He  was  converted  in  1886 ;  accepted  the  call 
to  the  ministry  in  1842;  graduated  from  the  Michigan 
University  in  1849,  and  spent  the  next  two  years  in  the 
theological  school  at  Auburn,  N.  T.  He  joined  the 
Michigan  Conference  in  1861,  and  served  two  years  as 
professor  of  ancient  languages  in  Albion  College.  The 
next  two  years  he  was  pastor  at  Lansing,  when  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Female  College, 
at  Delaware,  O.,  and  in  that  capacity  served  seventeen 
years.  The  last  ten  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  the 
pastorate,  in  the  Central  Ohio  Conference.  He  was 
twice  a  delegate  to  the  General  Conference,  and  a  dele* 
gate  to  the  First  (Ecumenical  Conference  (London,  1881). 
He  died  in  Dexter,  Mich.,  May  6, 1882.  See  Minutet  of 
Annual  Cofferencet,  1882,  p.  827;  Gen,  Cat*  of  Auburn 
TheoL  Sem,  1883,  p.  287. 

Doni  (tPA  Uichi),  LouiB,  a  French  prelate  and  writer, 


DONIN 


293 


DORA 


of  ItaUan  extncUon,  was  bom  in  1596;  eatered  the  or- 
der of  the  Minorites  in  161 6,  was  made  co-rector  of  tbeir 
hoiue  in  Paris,  later  provincial  of  Burgundy,  bishop  of 
Ries  in  1628,  and  died  at  Autun,  July  2, 1664,  leaving 
a  number  of  works,  chiefly  historical  and  biographical, 
for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  OnkraUy  s.  v. 

Doxiin,  LuDwxG,  an  ascetic  writer,  was  bom  in  1810 
at  Tiefenbach,  in  Lower  Austria.  In  1838  he  was  made 
priest;  and  from  1835  to  his  death,  Aug.  20, 1876,  he 
discharged  his  pastoral  duties  at  St.  Stephen's,  in  Vi- 
enna. See  Kaulen,  in  WeUer  u.  Welte's  Kirehen'Lex^ 
ikon,  8.  T.    (D.  P.) 

Donjon  (Donjnin,  or  Duisflon),  Geofpboi  dk, 
a  noted  French  crusader,  was  elected  tenth  grand-mas- 
ter of  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in  1191,  and 
the  same  year  distinguished  himself  in  the  battles  at 
Aisnf  and  Samleh.    See  Temflabs. 

Donnan,  the  name  of  several  Scotch  taintt:  (1) 
Abbot  of  Egg,  massacred  A.D.  627;  commemorated 
April  17.  (2)  Priest  of  Inis-aingin,  in  Loch  Rilh,  about 
the  middle  of  the  6th  century ;  commemorated  Jan.  7 
(also  April  29  and  Aug.  10).  (8)  Deacon  with  his  broth- 
er St.  Ciazan,  at  Cluain ;  commemorated  Aug.  11. 

Donnell,  Robert,  a  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Guilford  County,  N.  C,  in  April, 
1784.  In  1806  he  was  given  authority  to  preach,  and 
in  1809  penetrated  into  northern  Alabama  and  organ- 
ized several  congregations  in  that  new  country.  In 
October,  1811,  he  was  ordained  Previous  to  1817  he 
labored  chiefly  as  an  itinerant  minister;  after  that  date 
he  settled  first  in  Madison  County,  Ala.,  where  he  re- 
sided about  two  years,  and  then  settled  ten  miles  from 
Athena,  Limestone  Co.  Although  at  this  time  en- 
gaged in  agricultural  pursuits,  he  still  was  laboriously 
employed  as  a  minister.  The  General  Assembly  of  188 1 
appointed  him  one  of  five  missionaries  to  western  Penn- 
sylvania. About  1880  he  began  to  labor  in  Nashville, 
and,  as  a  result,  Cumberland  Presbyterianism  was  intro- 
duced into  that  city.  For  the  purpose  of  organizing  a 
eongregation,  he  went  to  Memphis  in  1845,  and  labored 
there  several  months.  Shortly  after,  he  succeeded  the 
Bev.  George  Donnell  as  pastor  of  the  congregation  at 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  and  remained  until  February,  1849, 
when  he  removed  to  Athens,  Ala.,  where  he  died,  May 
24, 1855.  Mr.  Donnell  published,  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  a  small  volume  entitled  Thoughts.  When  the 
first  General  Assembly  met,  in  1829,  at  Princeton,  Ky., 
he  preached  the  opening  sermon ;  and  in  1887  he  was 
moderator  of  that  body.  For  a  considerable  lime  he 
was  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  southern  portion  of 
the  Church.  See  Beard,  Biographical  Sketches  (1  st  ser.), 
p.  101. 

Dozmolo,  Sabbathai,  an  Italian  Hebrew  writer, 
was  bom  at  Oria,  near  Otranto,  in  918.  At  the  time 
when  Oria  was  plundered  by  the  Blohammedans  of  the 
Fatimite  kingdom,  he  was  taken  captive  with  his  par- 
eotL  While  the  latter  were  taken  to  Palermo  and  Afri- 
ca, Donnob  was  redeemed  at  Trani.  Destitute  of  all 
means  for  support,  he  paved  his  own  way  by  studying 
medicine  and  astrology,  in  which  branches  he  soon  be- 
came famous.  Though  a  practitioner  of  medicine — for 
he  was  physician  to  the  Byzantine  viceroy  Eupraxios — 
he  owes  his  reputation  to  his  erudite  works  on  astron- 
omy. He  wrote,  Sefer  Tachkemoni  paniOSHP  D),  a 
eommentary  on  the  Boraita  of  Samuel  of  Nehardea,  in 
which  he  embodies  what  he  bad  personally  learned  in 
the  East  about  the  zodiac  and  the  constellations,  and 
the  horoscopes  of  astrology,  as  well  as  what  he  had 
read  in  the  writings  of  Greek,  Arabian,  and  Indian  b»- 
tronomeni—Zophnaik  Paaneach  (n39D  n9&2C  0),  an 
astronomical  commentary  on  the  book  Jetirah,  the 
intzodnctory  portion  of  which  is  printed  in  Geiger's 
Meio  Chofna^m  (Berlin,  1840)  \—Sffer  Hammaxalotk 
(ri*)^T%n  b),  an  astrognosy.    See  GrUtz,  Gesch.  d,  Ju- 


den,  v,  816 ;  Etheridge,  Introduction  to  ffebrtw  Literor 
ture,  p.  281 ;  Steinschneider,  Jewish  Literature^  p.  181 ; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  211 ;  Geiger,  Saltb,  Donnoh,  in  Mela 
Chofnayim,  p.  95-99;  FUrst,  in  Literatur-  und  Kuttur- 
geschiehte  der  Juden  in  Asien,  i,  49 ;  Jellinek,  Der  Men- 
schals  Oottes  EbenbUd  wmlLS.  Donolo  (Leipsie,  1854) ; 
De'  Rossi,  Dizionario  StoricOf  p.  89  (Germ.  transL). 
(B.  P.) 

Donortlufl,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  the  see 
of  Aberdeen  about  1016.  He  died  in  1098.  See  Keith, 
Seottith  Bishops^  p.  102. 

Donooo,  JosKF,  an  eminent  Spanish  painter,  was 
bom  at  Consuegpra  in  1628,  and  studied  in  the  school  of 
Juan  Carreno  for  six  years.  He  executed  a  large  num- 
ber of  works  for  the  churches  and  public  edifices  of 
Madrid,  among  which  are  those  in  the  Convent  de  la 
Victoire,  viz.,  The  Canonization  of  St,  Peter  of  Alcan- 
tara ;  six  laige  pictures  from  the  life  of  St.  Benedict ; 
The  Conception;  The  Last  Supper,  He  died  in  1686. 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rtt,  s.  v. 

DonuB  (or  Domnua)  I,  seventy-ninth  pope,  was 
boro  at  Rome,  and  was  made  pontiff  Nov.  1,  676.  In 
677  he  obtained  from  Constantine  Pogonatus  the  revo- 
cation of  the  edict  which  exempted  the  archbishopric 
of  Ravenna  from  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  holy  see.  Re- 
paratus,  who  was  then  archbishop,  had  the  prudence  to 
submit,  and  thus  to  make  an  end  to  the  schism  of  Ra- 
venna. Donus  restored  the  Basilica  of  Sl  Paul,  and 
adorned  the  atrium  of  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  which 
was  called  the  Paradise.  Some  Church  historians  give 
Donus  I  the  title  saint.  He  died  April  11,  678.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

DonuB  (or  Domnua)  II,  according  to  some,  the 
one  hundred  and  thirty-seventh  pope,  was  elected  pon- 
tiff in  974,  after  the  expulsion  of  Benedict  YI,  and  by 
influence  of  the  counta  of  Tusculum.  His  pontificate, 
however,  is  very  obscure.  He  is  set  down  as  having 
died  Dec.  19, 975.    See  Popes. 

Doolittie,  Justus,  a  Presbyterian  missionary,  was 
bom  in  Rutland,  N.  T.,  June  28, 1824.  He  graduated 
from  Hamilton  College  in  1846,  and  from  Auburn  The- 
ological Seminary  in  1849;  was  ordained  at  Auburn 
the  same  year,  and  served  as  missionary  in  Foochow, 
Tientsin,  and  Shanghai,  until  1869,  and  in  1872  and 
1878.  Thereafter  he  resided  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  until 
his  death,  June  15, 1880.  He  is  the  author  of  Social 
Life  of  the  Chinese  (1865,  2  vols. ) :— Vbcaftv/ary  and 
Handrbook  of  Chinese  Language  (1878).  See  Gen,  Cat» 
of  Auburn  TheoL  Sem.  1888,  p.  277.    (B.  P.) 

Doorga.    See  Duroa. 

Doors  OF  Churches.  The  principal  outer  doora  of 
a  church  seem  to  have  been  in  ancient  times  at  the 
west,  if  the  church  was  so  built  that  the  altar  was  at 
the  esst  end,  or,  at  any  rate,  in  the  end  facing  the  altar. 
In  a  basilican  church  of  three  ables  there  were  for  the 
most  part  three  western  doors.  In  Constantine's  great 
*'  Church  of  the  Saviour,"  at  Jerusalem,  the  three  doors 
faced  the  east.  The  great  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  at 
Constantinople,  had  nine  doors  between  the  nartbex 
and  the  nave.  As  these  were  covered  with  silver,  not 
only  were  they  called  the  "  Silver  Doors,"  but  the  same 
term  came  to  designate  the  corresponding  doors  of  other 
churches,  although  not  so  decorated.  The  great  west- 
em  dnors  of  the  nave  were  called  the  *' Royal  Gates;*' 
and  when  the  church  had  a  nartbex,  the  western  doors 
of  this  were  also  caUe<l  "  Royal  Gates."  The  ^  Beauti- 
ful Gates"  were  supposed  by  Goar  to  be  the  gates  which 
separate  chorus  and  trapeza;  by  Ducange,  those  which 
separate  nave  from  nartbex;  and  by  Neale,  the  outer 
gates  of  the  nartbex.  The  ^  Angelic  Gate "  was  one 
which  allowed  a  person  to  enter  the  trapeza  so  as  to 
draw  near  the  choir.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq, 
s.  v. 

Dora,  Sister,    See  Patti80»,  Dorothy  Wyud- 

LOW. 


DORBENE 


294 


DORMTTORT 


Dorbenfi  (surnamed  yA«  TaU),  an  Irish  aaini,  com- 
memorated Oct  28|  was  abbot  of  lona,  and  died  in  718. 

Dor6,  PiKBRB  (Lat, Pe^ruf  AurcUus), a  French  the- 
ologian, born  at  Orleans  about  1500,  joined  the  Domin- 
icana  at  Blois  in  1514^  was  admitted  into  the  Soibonne 
in  1532,  became  prior  of  his  monastery  in  1545,  and  di- 
rected for  a  long  time  the  college  at  Ch&lons-sur-Mame. 
He  was  coart-preacher,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  by 
his  violent  denunciations  of  the  Protestants.  He  died 
at  Paris,  May  19, 1559,leaving'many  writings  with  odd 
titles  and  contents.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUraUj 
s,  V. 

Doremns,  Mn.  Sabaii  Platt  (nie  Haines),  a 
noted  philanthropic  member  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church,  was  bom  in  New  York  city,  Aug.  8, 1802.  She 
was  manager  and  director  of  more  benevolent  and  re- 
ligious institutions  than  any  other  woman  in  the  coun- 
try, if  not  in  the  world.  In  1828  she  set  on  foot  a  mis- 
sion for  the  suffering  Greeks.  She  was  the  patron  of 
the  City  Prison  AsMciation,  and  of  many  institutions 
for  the  relief  of  women  and  children,  as  well  as  of  the 
city  Bible  and  Tract  Societies.  To  her  Dr.  Sims  went 
with  his  noble  idea  of  a  hospital  for  women,  which  she 
took  hold  of  and  carried  through.  Her  house  was  a 
model  of  a  Christian  home,  and  it  was  a  hospitable  re- 
sort for  missionaries  on  their  way  to  distant  fields,  or  re- 
turning with  broken  health,  not  only  of  her  own  Church, 
but  of  every  other.  Early,  while  yet  it  was  dark,  she 
might  have  been  seen  on  her  way  to  market  to  procure 
food  for  the  asylums  under  her  motherly  care.  The 
crown  of  her  work  was  the  organization  of  the  Women's 
Missionary  Society,  out  of  which  has  grown  similar  as- 
sociations all  over  the  land,  auxiliary  to  the  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions,  and  from  which  go  contribotions  to 
China,  India,  Japan,  and  Africa.  When  others  in  the 
hot  season  aought  the  seaside  for  rest  and  recreation, 
•he  stood  by  her  post  and  labored  night  and  day  for  her 
widely  extended  charge.  She  died  at  her  residence  in 
New  York,  Jan.  29, 1877.     (W.  P.  S.^ 

Doren,  William  Howard  tan,  a  Presbyterian 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  Orange  County,  N.  Y.,  March 
2,  llio.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Columbia  College  and 
of  the  Westem  Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny,  Pa. 
In  1886  he  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Louisville 
Presbytery,  and  shortly  afterwards  spent  two  years  in 
roisfiionary  work.  In  1889  he  accepted  a  caU  to  the 
Reformed  Church  in  East  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  of  which  he 
was  pastor  eleven  years.  He  also  took  charge  of  a 
nrisuon  church  in  New  York  city,  now  known  as  the 
Thirty-fourth  Street  Church,  and  afterwards  of  the  Sec- 
ond Church  at  St.  Louis.  In  1865  he  removed  to  Chi- 
cago, and  in  1878  to  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  where  he  died, 
Sept.  8, 1882.  He  is  the  author  of  A  Svgge^ive  Com- 
mentary on  Lithe,  with  Critical  and  llomiletical  Notes 
(N.  Y.  1868, 2  vols.)  :—A  Suggestive  CommeiUary  on  St, 
John  (Lond.  1879,  2  vols.) : — A  Suggestive  Commentary 
on  St.  Pauls  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (1870,  2  vols.). 
(B.  P.) 

Doria,  a  martyr,  with  Chrysanthus,  under  Nume- 
rian,  commemorated  March  19. 

Doria,  GioTanzil  Pamfili,  an  Italian  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Rome,  Nov.  11, 1751.  He  was  made  arch- 
bishop at  the  age  of  twenty,  and  was  sent  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Madrid,  and  afterwards  as  nuncio  to  France. 
On  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  made  cardinal,  with  the 
title  of  SatnU'Marie,  In  April,  1798,  when  the  French 
entered  Rome,  be  was  arrested,  but  was  soon  released, 
and  retired  to  his  family  at  Grenoa.  He  was  eventually 
appointed  financial  intendant  to  the  papal  court.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GenhraUf  s.  v. 

Doria,  dinlbaldo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Genoa,  Oct.  21, 1664.    After  enjoying  successively  vari- 
ous offices  at  Rome,  he  was  called  to  the  archiepisco- 
pacy  of  Patras,  Dec.  11,  1711 ;  to  that  of  Benevento, 
'May  21, 1731 ;  was  declared  cardinal  on  Sept.  24  follow- 


ing, and  died  at  Benevento,  Dec.  4, 1788.    S^  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GinSrakf  s.  v. 

Dorigny,  laouia,  an  eminent  French  painter  and 
engraver,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1654.  He  went  to  Rome, 
and  after  remaining  there  four  years,  executed  the  grand 
altar-piece  for  the  FeuUlants  at  Foligno.  He  after- 
wards visited  Venice,  where  he  remained  ten  years. 
The  work  which  does  him  most  honor  is  the  cupola  of 
the  cathedral  at  Trent  He  died  at  Verona  in  1742. 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,B,v,;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog,  GMrak,  s.  v. 

Dorigny,  Nloolaa,  a  celebrated  engraver,  was  bom 
at  Paris  in  1657,  and  studied  in  Italy  twenty  years.  In 
1711  he  went  to  England  to  do  some  fine  work.  He  re- 
tumed  to  Paris  in  1724,  where  he  died  in  1746.  The 
following  are  some  of  his  most  capital  prints :  St,  Peter 
Walking  on  the  Sea ;  The  Virgin  and  Infant^  with  St. 
Charles  Borromeo^and  St.  lAboriusf  The  Adoration  of 
the  Magi;  The  Birth  of  the  Virgin;  The  Trinitg;  St. 
Frands  Kneeling  before  ^  Virgin  and  Infant ;  SL  Peter 
and  St,  John  HeaJling  the  Lame  Man  aJt  the  Gate  of  the 
Tenqde,  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  a.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirakf  s.  v. 

Dorland  (or  Dorlant),  Pierrb,  a  Belgian  theo- 
logian, was  bom  at  Diest  (Brabant),  took  the  habit  of 
the  Carthusian  friars  at  the  monastery  of  iSelhem,  be- 
came prior  of  that  house,  and  died  Aug.  25, 1507.  He 
wrote  many  works  on  practical  piety,  for  the  principal 
of  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Giairale,  e.  v. 

D'Ori^ans  {ds  la  Mothe),  Lotna  F11AN9018  Ga- 
BBiEL,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  at  Carpentras,  Jan. 
15, 1688,  of  an  ancient  family  of  Vioeuza,  called  Aure- 
liani.  He  pursued  his  studies  with  the  Jesuits,  and 
became  successively  canon  of  Carpentras,  grand  vicar 
of  Aries,  administrator  of  the  diocese  of  Senes,  and  final- 
ly bishop  of  Amiens  in  1788,  an  office  which  be  filled 
with  great  ability.  He  died  there,  July  10, 1774,  leav- 
ing Leftres  Spintuelles  (Paris,  1777).  Abbe  Dargnies 
has  published  his  Memoires  (Mechlin,  1785).  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Generale,  s.  v. 

Doxman,  Tiiomab,  a  Roman  Catholic  writer  of 
the  16th  ccntur}',  was  bom  at  Amersham,  Buckingham- 
shire, England.  He  was  educated  at  Berkbamstead 
School  (Protestant,  founded  by  Dr.  Incent),  Hertford- 
shire ;  afterwards  became  a  Romanist,  fled  to  the  Con- 
tinent during  the  Protestant  ascendency,  and  there 
wrote  a  book  Against  A  lexander  Nowel,  the  English  Cal- 
vinirt: — A  Proof  of  Ceriaxn  Artides  in  Religion  Denied 
bg  M,  Jewell  (Antwerp,  1564,  4to) : — Disproof  of  Mr, 
Alex,  ^owelTs  Reproof  (ibid.  1565,  4to) :— i4  Request  to 
Mr,  Jewell,  etc  (Lond.  1567,  8vo).  See  Fuller,  Wor- 
thies of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  i,  211 ;  Wood,  A  then.  Oxon. 

Donnana,  Jean  db,  cardinal-chancellor  and  guar- 
dian of  the  seals  under  the  kings  John  II  and  Charles  V, 
was  bora  at  Dormans  (Champagne).  He  founded  at 
Paris,  May  16, 1370,  the  college  called  De  Beanvais, 
from  the  name  of  his  diocese,  and  died  in  that  city, 
Nov.  7, 1373.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Dormitory.  It  was  the  primitive  custom  for  all 
the  monks  of  a  monastery  to  sleep  in  one  large  dormi- 
tory. Not  until  the  14th  century  was  the  custom  in- 
troduced of  using  separate  sleeping-cells.  By  the  role 
of  Benedict  all  were  to  sleep  in  one  room,  if  possible, 
with  the  abbot  in  their  midst,  or  in  larger  monasteries 
ten  or  twenty,  together  with  a  dean.  Only  the  aged, 
the  infirm,  and  the  excommunicated  were  excepted  from 
this  arrangement.  Each  monk  was  to  have  a  separate 
bed.  They  were  to  sleep  clothed  and  girded.  The 
room  was  kept  under  lock  and  key  until  morning.  In 
the  first  fervor  of  monastic  zeal  it  was  a  common  prac- 
tice to  sleep  on  the  bare  ground— afterwards  on  mats. 
A  fire  was  kept  burning  in  the  room  all  night.  The 
sleeping-room  for  stranger  monks  was  usually  dose  to 
the  great  dormitory*  and  the  chapeL  See  Smith,  Dict> 
of  Christ,  A  niig,  s.  v. 


DORNER 


295 


DORRBLLITES 


Tkanw,  Isaac  August,  one  of  the  most  prominent 
evAngelkal  theologianft  of  Gennany,  was  bom  in  the 
Tillige  of  Neobauaen-ob-Eck,  in  WUrtemberg,  June  20, 
1809,  being  the  son  of  a  Lntheran  clergyman.    He  was 
educated  at  Tubingen,  acted  as  pastor  in  his  native 
place,  and  snbsequently  travelled  in  Holland  and  Eng- 
land.   He  became  snocessively  professor  of  theology  in 
the  anivernties  of  Tubingen  (1888),  Kiel  (1889),  Ko- 
nigsberg  (1840),  Bonn  (1847),  Gottingen  (1853),  and  in 
1857  at  Berlin,  where  he  died,  July  12, 1884.    He  was 
a  councillor  of  the  upper  consistory,  a  distinguished 
contributor  to  Herzog's  EncyUop&dUf  and  co-editor  of 
the  Jahrbucker  fiir  Deutsche  Theohgie,    The  first  great 
work  of  Dr.  Domer,  and  that  which  at  once  gave  him 
celebrity,  was  his  EntwuMungttieichiclde  von  der  Person 
Ckritii  (Stuttgard,  1689,  1846;  Berlin,  1854,  4  vols. 
8vo),  translated  by  D.  W.  Simon  in  Clark's  <*  Foreign 
Theological  Library,'' and  entitled  Ifistory  of  the  Devel' 
opment  of  the  Person  of  Christ  (Edinburgh,  1859, 5  vols. 
8vo).    In  its  first  form  it  was  a  single  volume  of  moder- 
ate size.     Subsequently  he  made  it  by  far  the  most 
learned  and  extensive  discussion  of  the  theme  which 
has  ever  been  undertaken.    It  is  critical  as  well  as  his- 
toricaL    A  vast  amount  of  collateral  matter,  of  great 
importance  to  the  theological  student,  is  incidentally 
interwoven  in  its  chapters.     In  this  work,  as  every- 
where, Domer  shows  himself  in  cordial  sympathy  with 
evangelical  truth,  yet  bound  to  no  traditional  formulas 
in  which  that  truth  has  been  set  forth  in  times  past. 
The  book  is  a  fine  example  of  the  mingling  of  inteUec- 
tual  freedom  with  due  reverence,  and  of  the  spirit  of 
science  with  genuine  devoutness.    The  Geschichte  der 
ProtesUmtischen  Theciogie  (Leipsic,  1867),  translated 
as  Hilary  of  Protestant  Theology  (Edinburgh,  1871-72, 
2  TolSb),  referring  particularly  to  Germany,  is  a  work 
of  more  popular  interest  than  the  treatise  just  referred 
tOk     It  sarveyv  the  Reformadon,  in  its  sources  and 
phenomena,  and  in  its  consequences,  on  the  doctrinal 
ride.    In  the  earlier  chapters  is  to  be  found  a  profound 
as  well  as  discriminating  exposition  of  the  cardinal  truth 
of  justification  by  faith,  in  its  relation  to  the  authority 
of  the  Scriptures.    What  is  meant  by  "  Christian  con- 
adousnesa,"  and  what  rights  pertain  to  it,  are  instruc- 
tively unfolded.    A  volume  less  known  than  either  of 
those  noticed  above  is  the  Collection  of  Essays,  which 
embrace  some  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  briefer  con- 
tributions of  Domer  to  theological  literature.     The  ex- 
tended paper,  in  which  he  treats  of  the  A  ttributes  of 
God,  is  a  masterly  handling  of  this  topic.     But  the 
crowning  woi^  of  his  life  was  the  System  of  Christian 
Theology,  which  called  forth  the  praise  and  admiration 
of  all  enlightened  and  unprejudiced  judges.     When,  in 
1873,  the  Evangelical  Alliance  met  in  New  York,  Dor- 
Der  was  one  of  the  European  delegates.    He  combined 
profound  learning,  critical  penetration,  and  power  of 
generalization  with  an  earnest  Christian  spirit.     He 
waa  thoroughly  trained  in  the  ancient  and  modem 
schools  of  philosophy,  and  gave  evidence,  on  his  first 
appearance  before  the  public,  of  his  ability  to  defeat  the 
pantheistic  Hegelians  with  their  own  weapons,  and 
thus  to  do  most  important  service  to  German  the- 
ology.   This  service  he  faithfully  rendered,  and  lifted 
up  theology  to  the  rank  of  a  science,  pointed  out  the 
path  of  reconciliation  between  knowledge  and  faith, 
and  raised  up  a  body  of  defenders  and  expounders  of 
Chrifltianity  against  the  philosophical  and  critical  in- 
fidelity on  the  continent  of  Europe.    Besides  the  works 
mentioned  above.  Prof.  Domer  published  a  number  of 
treatises  mentioned  in  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol,  i,  289  sq. 
(RP.) 

Z>oiiies;  an  inferior  kind  of  damask,  anciently  used 
lor  church  vestments,  altar  -  hangings,  etc.,  originally 
maoDfacttned  at  Doomick  (Toumay),  in  FUnders. 

Dordna.    ''Indus  et  Dorona**  are  commemorated 
Dec  19. 


Cnsarea,  in  Cappadocia,  under  Diocletian;  oommeno- 
rated  Feb.  6. 

Dorotheanisaas  is  the  name  of  the  members  of  a 
society  formed  for  the  care  of  neglected  girls.  In  order 
to  protect  soch  girls  against  immoral  influences  and  to 
get  them  used  to  work,  a  society  of  Christian  young  la- 
dies and  women  was  formed  at  Kome  in  1880.  SL  IX>ro- 
thea  was  chosen  as  the  patroness  of  the  society,  and  the 
mles  and  regulations  of  the  same  were  printed  at  Rome 
in  1886.  Pope  Gregory  XVI  sanctioned,  in  1841,  the 
movement,  which  soon  made  rapid  progress  in  Lombardy 
and  Venice.  As  the  sisters  had  not  only  to  take  care 
of  these  neglected  girls,  but  also  to  educate  them,  pope 
Pius  IX  confirmed  them  in  1860  as  the  Teaching^nsters 
of  St,  Dorothea.  See  Kaulen,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte*s 
Kirehen-Lexikon^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

DoTOthena.  (1)  Martyr  with  Castor  at  Tarsus,  in 
Cilicia;  commemorated  March  28.  (2)  Martyr  with 
Gorg^nius  at  Nicomedia,  under  Diocletian;  commemo- 
rated Sept  9.  There  are  two  other  saints  of  the  same 
name  commemorated  on  this  day— one,  an  anchorite  of 
Thebes,  in  Egypt,  cir.  A.D.  895 ;  the  other,  a  founder  of 
a  monastery  at  Trebizond,  in  the  llth  century,  over 
which  he  is  said  to  have  presided  many  years ;  but  there 
appears  to  be  some  confusion  in  the  name,  perhaps  by 
an  identification  with  one  or  more  of  the  four  archi- 
mandrites of  Palestine  who  are  reported  under  this 
name.  (8)  First  'abbot  of  Lyons,  in  France,  in  the  8d 
century.  (4)  A  deacon  of  Antioch,  A.D.  872.  (5)  A 
presbyter  sent  by  Basil  to  seek  help  from  the  Roman 
bishops,  A.D.  878.  (6)  An  Arian  bishop  (also  called 
Theodorus)  of  Antioch  during  the  Melitian  schism, 
A.D.  876.  (7)  Abbot  of  a  nunnery  in  Athribia  (Egypt), 
cir.  A.D.  481.  (8)  A  monk  of  Alexandria,  banished  by 
the  emperor  Anastasius,  cir.  A.D.  502,  for  writing  a  book 
in  favor  of  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  (9) 
Bishop  of  Thcssalonica,  A.D.  515-20.  (10)  A  monk 
(also  called  Droctovaus)  of  great  virtue,  appointed  ab- 
bot of  St.  Vincent  (France)  A.D.  559. 

Dorpat  EsTHoxiAK.    See  Estuokian. 

Dorr,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  di- 
vine, was  bora  at  Salisbury,  Mass.,  March  22, 1796,  and 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1817,  after  which 
he  studied  law  and  then  theology.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1820  and  presbyter  in  1828.  He  was  rector 
of  the  onited  dwrches  of  Lansingburg  and  Waterford, 
N.Y.,  from  1820  to  1829;  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
Urica,  until  1885 ;  and  general  agent  for  the  domestic 
committee  -of  the  Board  of  Missions  antil  1837,  when 
he  became  rector  of  Christ  Church.  Philadelphia.  He 
died  Sept  18, 1869.  His  publications  include.  History 
of  the  Pocket  Prayer-hook  (written  by  itself):— CAi/rcA- 
man*s  Manual: — Prophecies  and  Types: — Invitation  to 
the  ffoiy  Communion: — Travels  in  the  East,  and  other 
works.    See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors, 

S.V. 


Dorothea,  a  virgin  martyr  with  Theophilus  at 


,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Kingston,  Pa.,  Feb.  28,  1800.  He  gradu- 
ated from  New  Jersey  College  in  1828,  and  from  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1826 ;  was  licensed  by  the 
Mississippi  Presbytery  the  same  year;  was  pastor  at 
Baton  Rouge,  La.,  till*  1830;  then  at  Wysox,Pa.;  July 
8, 1883,  was  called  to  Wilkesbarrc,  and  died  there,  April 
18, 1861.  See  Gen.  Cat.  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881, 
p.  44. 

Dorrellitea,  a  religious  sect,  followers  of  one  Dor- 
rell,  who  disseminated  his  doctrines  at  Leyden,  Mass., 
about  the  close  of  the  last  century.  He  pretended  to 
be  a  prophet  sent  to  supersede  the  Christian  dispensa- 
tion and  to  introduce  a  new  one,  of  which  be  was  to 
be  the  head.  The  creed  of  this  sect,  according  to  the 
statement  of  Dorrell,  was  as  follows:  ''Jesus  Christ, 
as  to  substance,  is  a  spirit,  and  is  God.  He  took  a 
I  body,  died,  and  never  rose  from  the  dead.  None  of 
!<the  human  laoe  will  ever  rise  from  their  graves.    Tha 


DORSAL 


ID  tpoken  of  ia  fieriptore  ii  only  one  from  nn 
to  ■piritual  life,  which  coniiiU  ia  perfect  obedience  M 
Ood.  WiiUen  ravelition  ia  a  tjrpe  of  the  snbetince  of 
the  true  revaUtion  irhich  God  mikea  to  tboee  whom  he 
niiea  fnni  ipiritual  deeth.  The  lubUance  n  God  re- 
vealed in  the  eoul.  Thoee  wlio  hare  it  are  perfect,  an 
incapable  of  linninK,  and  have  nothing  to  do  irilh  the 
ffible.  Neither  prafer  nor  any  olhei  wonhip  ia  necei- 
lary.  There  iano  law  but  that  of  nature.  There  ia  no 
future  judgment.  God  hai  no  forethought,  no  knowl- 
'«dge,ot  what  paaeea  in  the  dark  world,  which  ii  hell, 
not  any  knowledge  of  what  haa  taken  place  or  will  take 
pkce  in  tbu  world,"— Gardner,  Faitti  ff  (Ae  Worid, 

Dorsal  (oi  Dosaal)  (Lat.  (Ii?nuiii,and  Fr.  dm, 
"the  back").  (l)The  hinder  part  of  a  italL  (!)  The 
banging  behind  the  chcrii  atalls,  or  an  allar,  and  ren- 
dered iapeaitm.  It  ii  made  of  aatin  or  damaak,  and 
■hotilJ  have  a  reprnenlation  of  the  Crucifixion  em- 
broidered on  it;  or,  if  there  be  s  crucifix  on  the  altar. 


16  DOUFFLEST 

DoalUietU.    (1)  Biahop  of  Selenda  Keria,  tr 
ferred  to  Tamil,  A.D.ilG.     (!)AdoI 

Jtmwlem,  in  the  Bih  century,  bccotc 
mart}Tol<^Ga,  and  commemorated  Feb.  SB. 

Dotlian.  The  lateM  dcKriplion  of  this  intereet- 
ing  aite  ii  by  Lieut  Cooder  {Tmt-tctirk  n  Pair^ni,  i, 
107)1 

"By  noon  we  reached  Dolhsn,  the  icene  at  Jofcph'e 
betnjal  by  hia  brethren,  and  halied  onder  a  apreadlnf 
Aff-lree  beiide  a  lona  cactPA  hedw  Juat  north  oTuawaj 
Ibe  well  called  Blr-el-Hllflreh  (■  Wellof  the  Pit-),  aud  eaii 


•Bill.-    ibiive  the  1 


aud  l^l 


111  tbe  weft  spread  the  dark-brown  plain  of 
Toaa  which  moi  the  n»ln  BicTptlan  ruad— tbe 
,cb  IbeamiiHofTliothmee  aud  Necha  cane 
aea  coait.  and  by  which  the  Mldlanltlsh  mei^ 
,  down  with  Ibelr  caiitlre.  The  cattle  atood 
baddllug  III  Ibe  abade,  waiting  to  be  watered, 

..     _.cb  were,  no  Soubt,  nut  far  dllTeienl  In  draa 
ignaee  from  JoMpb**  brethren  fBnr  thonaand  lean 


Te1M>allilD,fRnnlheSaath.   (From  a  Pbotoenph by  Ihe  Editor.) 


there  ahould  be  depicted  one  of  tbe  joyful  myatetica. 
At  St.  Alban'a,  at  the  cloae  of  the  11th  century,  it 
wrought  with  the  martyrdom  of  the  taint;  and 
othera,  in  tbe  12th  century,  repreaenud  the  Prodigal 
Son  and  the  Traveller  who  Fell  among  Thievea.  Borne 
heraldic  tapcatriei  were  in  uie  behind  the  atall*  of  Exe- 
ter. Foeaibly  doraali  were  the  origin  of  tbe  linen  pat- 
tern on  panelling. 

Dorston,  JoHANN  vox,  in  Auguatinian  theologian 
of  tbe  l£th  century,  was  proreaaor  of  theology  and  phi 
kwophy  at  Erfurt,  wheie  he  died  in  14SI.  Uf  hia  man 
wrilingi,  only  the  TractatOM  tiit  CaUaito  Sgnodalii  de 
Statutii  EccUtianm  (Erfurt,  1489),  and  Deltnaim  ' 
Craore  Miracatoto  Jeai  Chriili  (  Leipaic,  1510  ), 
pablbhed.  A  liit  of  hia  worka  ia  given  in  Oitinger. 
BMialh.  Auguit.  p.  !99.  See  alK>  Harlzheim,  BibL 
CoL  p.  167 ;  Fabr.-Hanei,  iii,  359 ;  Kaulen,  in  Wetier  u. 
Welte'a  KircAm-Laibm,  a.  v.      (R  I".) 

DoiTmSdon,  •  marlyr  with  Tropbimui  and  Sab- 
batiua,A.D.378i  commemorated Sepu  19. 

Dool,  GiBOLAXo,  a  diatiuguiahed  Italian  archi- 
tect, waa  bom  at  Caipi  in  1696,  inatruclcd  in  the 
•chml  of  Fonuna,  where  hg  aoon  attained  diatinction, 
and  was  appointed  atate  architect  by  Clement  XIL 
Among  hie  beet  woika  are  the  calhednila  ofAlbano  aiMl 
Tdletii,  and  the  baiilica  of  Santa  Maria  Uaggiore. 
Ha  died  at  Carpi  in  ITTfi.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Ilitl.  o/ 
"-  "-■—  '  —  -  -.1  HoeCer,  JVoiir,  Bios-  OMrale,  a.  v. 


OaFiMA 


Dotto,  abbot  of  the  Orhnera,  died  A.D.  £09 :  com- 
memorated Apiil  9. 

Donb,  ParrsR,  D.D.,  a  miniater  in  the  HelbodiM 
Episcopal  Church  South,  waa  bom  in  Stokes  County, 
N.  C,  March  IS,  1796.  He  received  an  early  religioua 
training,  but  a  very  limited  education ;  experienced  re- 
ligion in  1S17;  in  Ibe  following  year  united  with  tbe 
Virginia  Conference  \  apent  hia  latter  years  in  connec- 
tion with  the  North  Carolina  Conference,  and  died  Aug. 
S4,1S69.  &etilimUnBfAmiialConfert«BaoflktM. 
£.au,-cASoH(A,1869,p.aiO;Simp.oii,C,e(op.fl/jtfrt*- 

Doubdaln,  Jxa.<(,  a  French  traveller,  waa  canon  of 

St.  Denia  in  France.  In  I6il  he  aaUed  from  Mataeillea 
for  Jaffa,  and  arrived  at  Jeruaalem,  March  30,  1661 
lie  thereafter  viaited  Bethlehem,  Jericho,  Mu  Carmel. 
Haifa  or  Caiphaa,  Galilee,  Nazareih,  Canaan,  Ht.  Tabor, 
Acre,  and  Sidon,  thence  home,  bv  way  of  Genoa,  through 
Italy,  and  back  to  St.  Denii,  Nov.  tl.  1652.  He  wmw 
an  aecount  of  hia  Iravels  under  the  title,  U  Voyage  di  la 
Ttrrt  SaiHit  (Pari*,  1661, 1662,  and  16Ge>  Doubdain 
died  about  the  year  1670.    Seo  ^otttr.Nouv.Bioff.Gi- 

Donfflest  (or  Dullelt),  Ouuiabd,  an  eminent 
Firmiab  painter,  wu  bom  at  Liege,  Aug.  18, 16M.  He 
atudied  in  the  achool  of  Rubens,  at  Antwerp,  and  aflet- 
warda  went  to  Italy.  There  ia  an  admirable  picture  bv 
tbia  artiat,  repteacnting  (be  EInatim  n/  (Is  CVw,  at 


DOUGAL 


297 


DOVE 


Liege.    He  died  in  1660.    See  Hoefer,  iVbtiv.  Bioff,  6S- 
fUrakf  M,  y. ;  Spooneri  Biog,  HitL  of  the  Fine  Arts^^r, 

Donga],  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  the  see  of 
Dunblane  about  1890.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bithopa, 
p.  176. 

Dougherty,  James,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Park,  near  Lairmount,  County  London- 
deny,  Ireland,  April  9, 1796.  In  1819  he  came  to  South 
Hero,  Vt.  After  studying  with  Rev.  Asa  Lyon,  and  in 
St.  Albans  Academy,  he  entered  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont, graduating  in  1830.  He  subsequently  studied 
theolo^,  and  was  ordained  Jan.  18, 1832,  as  an  evan- 
gelist, and  for  some  time  served  in  the  employ  of  the 
Colonial  Missionary  Society,  performing  duty  also  as 
teacher  in  Frost  Village  and  Sheiford,  Quebec.  After 
preaching  a  year,  he  was  installed  pastor  at  Milton,  Vt., 
Sept.  28, 1836,  and  served  until  July  5, 1848.  About 
this  time,  for  one  year,  he  was  agent  for  the  Foreign 
Evangelical  Society.  From  1849  to  1661  he  preached 
in  Fairfax,  VL  From  November,  1857,  to  March,  1867, 
be  was  pastor  in  Johnson,  where  he  resided  subsequent- 
ly without  charge,  until  his  death,  June  10, 1878.  For 
some  time  he  served  as  superintendent  of  schools  in 
Milton  and  Johnson,  and  was  also  trustee  of  the  Bakers- 
field  and  Johnson  academies.  See  Cong,  Year-bookf 
1879,  p.  41. 

Donglafl,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  min- 
ister at  Elgin  about  seventeen  years,  and  promoted  to 
the  see  of  Moray  in  1606.  He  died  at  Elgin,  in  May, 
1623.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  162. 

Douglas,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a  Car- 
melite friar,  afterwards  chaplain  to  the  earl  of  Argyle, 
and  finally  the  first  Protestant  bishop  of  the  see  of  St. 
Andrews.  He  became  rector  of  the  University  of  St 
Andrews,  Nov.  30, 1670.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  39. 

Donglaa,  John  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son 
of  George  Douglas  of  Parkhead,  graduated  at  Edin- 
burgh University  in  February,  1602;  became  chaplain 
of  the  North  British  Regiment  in  the  Low  Conn- 
tries;  was  ordained  in  Stirling  Kirk  in  February,  1606; 
admitted  to  the  living  of  the  second  charge  at  St.  An- 
drews in  1621 ;  transferred  to  Crail  in  1625 ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  for  the  maintenance  of  Church 
discipline,  Oct.  21, 1684,  and  died  before  Oct.  22, 1685, 
aged  about  fifty-four  years.  See  Fasti  Eccks*  Scoti- 
eamB,  ii,  394, 417. 

Donglas,  Robert  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bom 
in  1626,  and  received  his  education  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  began  preaching  about  1650,  at  Lau- 
rencekirk, in  the  Meams;  then  ministered  at  Both- 
well,  Benfrew,  and  Hamilton,  from  which  place  he  was 
made  dean  of  Glasgow;  soon  after  elected  to  the  bish- 
opric of  Brechin,  and  consecrated  to  that  office  in  1682. 
In  1684  he  wss  translated  to  the  see  of  Dunblane,  where 
he  c»ntinaed  until  deprived  by  the  revolution.  He  died 
at  Dundee,  SepU  22, 1716.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  168, 183. 

Donglaa,  Robert  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
son  of  John  Douglas,  minister  of  Jedburgh,  was  licensed 
to  preach  Sept  5, 1769;  presented  to  the  living  at  Ga- 
lashiels in  March,  and  ordained  in  July,  1770.  He  died 
Nov.  15,  1820,  aged  seventy-three  years.  He  was  a»- 
ridnoos  in  promoting  the  manufactures  and  the  inter- 
est of  his  parishioners,  by  his  advice  and  pecuniary  a»- 
sistanoe.  He  published  Observations  on  the  Nature  of 
Oatis,  and  the  Danger  of  MuUipfying  Them  (1783)  :— 
Central  View  ofths  AgricuUure  ofRoa^rgh  and  Set- 
Hrk  (Edinburgh,  1798)^— i4fi  Account  of  the  Parish, 
See  Fasti  Eedee,  Scoticana,  i,  56L 

I>oavre,  Thomas  db,  an  English  prelate  of  French 
descent,  was  bom  at  Bayeux  in  1027.  He  was  treas- 
urer of  the  cathedral  of  that  dty  when  William  the 
Cooqaeror  conferred  upon  him,  in  1070,  the  archbishop- 
ric of  York.    He  reconstructed  the  cathedral  of  that  city, 


and  composed  a  treatise  on  C%aii<f,  which  was  accepted 
by  several  churches.  In  order  to  settle  the  quarrel  be- 
tween the  sees  of  York  and  Canterbury,  which  had  arisen 
on  the  subject  of  the  pre-eminence,  he  joined  with  his  ad- 
versary, Lanfranc,  in  arbitration  before  the  pope.  The 
affair  came  back  before  William,  who  decided  in  favor 
of  Canterbury,  in  1072.    Douvre  died  in  1 100. 

There  was  another  Thomas  Douvre,  archbishop  of 
York  from  1109  to  1114,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a 
relative  of  the  foregoing. 

Dove,  tfi  Christian  Art,  As  a  symbol  of  the  be- 
liever, the  dove  of  course  has  chief  reference  to  two 
texts  of  Scripture,  belonging  to  different  yet  harmoni- 
ous trains  of  thought.  One  is  Matt,  x,  16, "  Be  ye  wise 
as  serpents  and  harmless  as  doves  ;**  the  other,  Psa.  Iv, 
6,  "  O  that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove,  then  would  I  flee 
away  and  be  at  rest.**  The  passages  in  Cant,  i,  15;  it, 
14;  v,2;  vi,  9,  refer  to  the  Church,  and  therefore  may 
be  tal^en  as  referring  simply  to  all  faithful  souls. 


DoTes  on  a  Tomb. 

The  dove  with  the  olive  evidently  refers  to  the 
flood. 


Noab*s  Dove.    (From  the  Catacombs.) 

As  an  emblem  of  the  Third  Person  of  the  Trinity, 
the  carved  or  painted  figure  of  the  dove  appeared  from 
a  veiy  early  period  in  all  baptisteries  (see  Luke,  iii,  22). 


Baptismal  Dove.    (Fmm  the  Catacomb  of  Pontianns, 

7th  Century.) 

For  the  eucharistic  dove,  see  Columba. 

Dove,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom 
in  London,  and  bred  a  *Manquam"  (a  fellow's  fellow) 
in  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge.  He  afterwards  became 
an  eminent  preacher,  **and  his  sermons,"  says  Fuller, 
*' substantial  in  themselves,  were  advantaged  by  his 
comely  person  and  graceful  elocution."  Queen  Eliza- 
beth was  much  pleased  with  him,  and  in  1589  preferred 
him  dean  of  Norwich,  advancing  him  in  1600  to  the 
bishopric  of  Peterborough.  He  died  in  1630.  See  Full- 
er, Worthies  of  England  (ed.  NutUll),  ii,  869;  Chun^ 
Hist,  of  England,  bk.  xl,  an.  1630,  par.  17. 


DOW 


208 


DOZY 


DoiRT,  AsTHOxrr,  D.D^  a  Sootclv  deigynuui,  ddest 
BOD  of  Rev.  David  Dow,  of  Dron,  was  born  Nov.  4, 1762 ; 
licensed  to  preach  Nov.  30, 1785;  called  to  the  living 
at  Kilsptndie  in  August,  1788,  and  ordained  Feb.  12, 
1789;  appointed  presbyt^  clerk  SepU  18, 1799,  which 
he  resigned  in  1811;  was  transferred  to  Kirkpatrick- 
Irongray  in  1818,  and  died  July  17,  1884.  He  pub- 
lished An  Acoouni  of  KiltpmcUe.  See  Fatti  EocUt, 
Scoticanaj  i,  694 ;  ii,  644, 645. 

Do'Vtrling,  John,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
Pevensey,  England,  May  12, 1807.  When  sixteen  years 
of  age  he  became  a  Christian,  and  joined  the  Eagle 
Street  Chuich,  London.  For  eight  years  (1625-82)  he 
was  engaged  in  teaching,  and  became  the  author  of 
three  school-books.  At  the  end  of  this  period  he  re- 
moved with  his  wife  and  children  to  the  United  States, 
and  in  1882  was  ordained  in  Catskill,  N.  Y. ;  but  a  short 
time  afterwards  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Second 
Baptist  Church  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  subsequently  to 
the  Pine  Street,  now  the  Central  Baptist  Church,  Prov- 
idence. He  next  preached  for  a  Church  in  New  York, 
holding  its  meetings  in  Masonic  Hall.  In  1844  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Berean  Church  in  the  same  city, 
where  he  continued  for  several  years,  and  then  preached 
to  a  Church  meeting  in  Hope  Chapel,  on  Broadway, 
which  has  since  become  the  Calvary  Baptist  Church  on 
Twenty-third  Street.  For  about  four  years  (1852-56) 
he  was  pastor  of  the  Sansom  Street  Church  in  Philadel- 
phia. In  1856  he  returned  to  the  Berean  Church,  New 
York.  For  a  time  he  preached  for  the  Second  Baptist 
Church  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  subsequently  supplied  the 
pulpit  of  the  South  Baptist  Church  in  New  York.  He 
died  July  4, 1878.  Dr.  Dowling^s  occasional  published 
sermons  and  discourses  were  well  received,  and  one  of 
them,  Th^  Value  of  JUuMtraiion,  had  a  wide  circula- 
tion. His  principal  work  was  his  History  of  Roman- 
ism (New  York,  1845),  which  passed  through  many 
editions.  Besides  these  works,  Dr.  Dowling  wrote 
and  compiled,  A  Vindicaiion  of  the  Baptists  (8vo): 
— An  Exposition  of  the  Prophecies  Supposed  by  Will' 
iam  Miller  to  Predict  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ 
(1840, 18mo):— -4  Defence  of  the  Protestant  Scriptures, 
etc.  (1848): — Judson^s  Offering  (18mo): — Conference 
Uymnrbook : — Baptist  NoeTs  Work  on  Baptism: — 
Works  of  Lorenzo  Dow : — Cony  ears  Afiddleton: — J/e- 
moir  of  Jacob  Thomas: — Translation  from  the  French 
ofDr,  Cotes.  See  Williams,  Memorial  Discourses;  Al- 
libone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  i,  516,  517. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Downes,  Henry,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  became 
bishop  of  Killala  in  1716;  was  translated  to  Elphin  in 
1720,  to  Meath  in  1724,  and  to  Derry  in  1726.  He  pub- 
lished Sermons  (1697-1725).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  A  nier.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Downes,  Robert,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Leighlin  and  Ferns.  He  published  a  Sermon  (1750). 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  ctnd  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Dowuham,  John,  younger  son  of  William  Down- 
ham,  bishop  of  Chester,  was  born  in  Chester;  gradu- 
ated at  Cambridge ;  became  a  preacher  in  London  in 
the  church  behind  the  Exchange,  and  died,  very  aged, 
about  1644.  He  wrote  The  Christian  Warfare,  and 
numerous  other  works,  for  which  see  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Downham,  ^T^iUiam,  an  English  prelate,  was 
archdeacon  of  IBrecknock  in  1559,  became  bishop  of 
Chester  in  1561,  and  died  Dec.  8,  1577.  See  Le  Neve, 
Fasti  Eccles.  A  nglicana,  iti,  258. 

Downing,  Calybutk,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
in  1606,  and  in  1623  became  a  commoner  of  Oriel  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  .  After  entering  into  orders  he  held  the 
vicarage  of  Hackney,  near  London,  with  the.  parsonage 
of  Hickford,  in  Buckinghamshire.  He  joined  the  par- 
liamentary party,  became  a  great  promoter  of  their  de- 
signs, and  in  a  sermon  preached  before  the  artillery 


company.  Sept  1, 1640,  delivered  tlus  doctrine :  *^  That 
for  the  defence  of  religion  and  reformation  of  the 
Churchi  it  was  lawful  to  take  up  arms  against  the 
king."  After  this  he  became  chaplain  to  lord  Roberts's 
regiment,  and  in  1648  was  one  of  the  assembly  of  di- 
vines. He  died  in  1644.  His  writings  are  scarce.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer,  A  uthors,  8,  v.  ' 

Do^^nman,  Hugh,  an  English  clergyman,  physi- 
cian, and  poet,  was  bom  at  Newton  House,  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Newton  St.  Cyres,  Devonshire,  in  1740,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  grammar-school  of  Exeter,  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  He  was  ordained  in  1762,  but  had  lit- 
tle attachment  to  the  Church.  He  turned  bis  attention 
to  the  study  of  medicine,  and  wrote  a  number  of  poems, 
which  indicate  some  share  of  poetical  taste.  He  died 
at  Exeter,  Sept.  28,  1809.  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet, 
s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Doxaxiana  (or  Apoflcbiata),  a  sect  spoken  of 
by  John  of  Damascus  as  disregarding  the  ecclesiastical 
ceremonies  of  the  times;  probably  meaning  the  Paoli- 
cians  (q.  v.). 

Doxology.  The  exact  periods  of  the  origin  of  the 
liturgical  doxologies  are  unknown,  owing  to  the  scanti- 
ness of  early  Christian  literature.  But  it  may  be  safely 
conjectured  that,  in  their  earliest  forms,  they  came  into 
use  soon  after  the  drculation  of  the  Gospel  narratives. 
The  *' Gloria  in  Exoelsis"  is  unquestionably  of  Eastern 
origin.  liturgical  speculators  have  ingenioosly  discov- 
ered a  reference  to  its  existence  in  very  early  writers. 
It  has  frequently  been  assumed  that  it  was,  in  fact, 
**  the  hymn  "  which  Christians  sang  on  all  solemn  oc- 
casions, including  such  as  are  referred  to  in  Acts  xvi, 
25;  1  Cor.  xiv,  26;  and  Col  ui,  16.  The  origin  and 
history  of  the  **  Gloria  Patri,**  or  lesser  doxology,  is  even 
more  obscure  than  that  of  the  ^  Gloria  in  Excelsis,"  and 
in  its  present  shape  it  is  the  result  of  the  Arian  contro- 
versies conceming  the  nature  of  Christ. 

Doyen,  Gabriel  Francois,  an  eminent  Frendi 
painter,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1726,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty  gained  the  grand  prize  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
In  1748  he  went  to  Rome,  and  there  studied  the  works 
of  the  great  roasters.  He  afterwards  visited  Venice, 
Bologna,  and  Parma,  and  after  his  return  to  Paris,  in 
1758,  he  executed  his  celebrated  picture,  representing  A 
Group  of  Persons  A  ttacked  by  the  Plague,  for  the  Church 
of  St.  Roch,  and  painted  the  chapel  of  St,  Gregoiy- 
aux-Invalidea.  He  died  at  St.  Peterabarg,  June  5, 1806. 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,KY,\  Hoeler, 
Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Doyle,  Mart,  a  philanthropist  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  eldest  daughter  of  Edward  Doyle,  of  Fema^ 
Ireland,  was  compelled  early  in  life  to  earn  her  own 
livelihood.  In  1796  she  and  her  sister  Anne,  with  their 
small  savings,  opened  a  shop  in  Bally  tore,  Ireland.  They 
prospered  until  the  rebellion  of  1798,  when  the  military 
plundered  them  of  their  provisions  and  outlaws  robbed 
them  of  their  money.  After  the  rebellion  their  bnuneiB 
prospered  again.  Mary  was  skilful  in  medical  knowl- 
edge, and  devoted  herself  to  the  relief  of  the  poor.  Anne 
died  in  1822.  Her  sister  continued  to  devote  herself  to 
works  of  charity,  and  died  April  6, 1884,  aged  seventy- 
one  years.    See  The  Friend,  viii,  167. 

Doxy,  Rbuihabt,  a  famous  Dutch  Orientalist,  was 
bom  at  Lej'den,  Feb.  21, 1820.  From  1850  to  1883  be 
was  professor  at  the  onivernty  of  his  native  city,  and 
was  known  as  one  of  the  best  Arable  scholars.  He  died 
April  29, 1888.  In  1845  he  published  Dietiormaire  De- 
taills  des  Nome  H  des  VStement  ehez  Us  Arabes  (Am- 
sterdam), for  which  he  received  a  prize  from  the  Neth- 
erlandish Institute  of  Sciences*  Of  his  other  works,  we 
mention  Scriptorum  Arabum  Lod  de  Abbadidis  (Ley- 
den,  1846-63, 3  yo\B,):—Commentaire  HistoHque  sur  U 
Po9me  dlbnrAbdoun  (ibid.  19^)i^liistoiredes  Musid- 
mans  dEspagne  (ibid.  1861, 1881, 4  vols. ;  Germ.  tnuuL 


DRACH 


299 


DRAUSIN 


in  2  ToliL  1874) : — CataloguM  Codicum  OrieHtalium  Bi- 
lUolkecm  Lvgduno' Baiava  (ibid.  1851,  2  vols.): — 
Notiets nur  Quelques  Mantucriis  Arahe$  (ibid.  1847-61). 
His  Ust  work  is  his  SuppUnad  aux  Dietionnaires  Ara- 
hu  (1877>81,  2  vols.),  one  of  the  most  important  in  the 
department  of  Arabic  lexioogpraphy.     (B.  P.) 

Dradi,  Da\id  Pavl,  a  Jewish  convert  to  Chris- 
tiaoity,  was  bom  at  Strasburg  in  1791.  In  1808  he 
acted  ttB  rabbi,  and  was  for  some  time  member  of  the 
Jewish  oentral  oaomtUnry  at  Paris.  In  1828  be  joined 
the  Church  of  Rome  with  his  four  children,  and  in  1827 
went  to  Borne,  where  he  was  appointed  librarian  at 
the  Ptopaganda,  and  died  there  in  1865.  He  published, 
Lettres  d^un  Bobbin  ConverH  aux  liraUUtM  (Rome, 
1838 ;  transL  into  German  by  Z.  Baumblatt,  under  the 
title  KttikoUdtmut  vnd  der  Judaitmut,  Frankenthal, 
1841):— 2>ac  Divarce  dam  la  Synagogue  (Rome,  1840) : 
— Harmome  Entre  FEgfiae  €t  la  Synagogue  (Paris,  1844, 
S  volsk).  He  also  assisted  in  the  publication  of  the  fifth 
edition  of  the  BOfU  de  Vence  (ibid.  1748, 14  vols. ;  1827- 
83,5th  ed.  27  vols.)  z—Le  Lwre  Yasharf  TradtiU  (ibid. 
1858).    (B.P.) 

DraconarlnB  denotes  the  bearer  of  the  military 
standard,  on  which  a  dragon  was  represented.  When 
Constantine  placed  the  Christian  symbol  qn  the  mili- 
tary ensigns  instead  of  the  dragon,  the  name  outlived 
the  change,  and  the  standard-bearer  was  still  called 
draamarius.  Sometimes  we  find  the  ancient  svmbol 
Joined  to  the  new,  the  dragon  being  placed  beneath 
the  cross.  In  the  Christianized  empire  this  name  came 
to  signify  the  ofllcial  who  carried  a  standard  or  banner 
in  ecclesiastical  processions.  The  name  was  sometimes 
also  given  to  the  cross-bearer. 

Dnioontia  were  dragon  -  temples  found  in  Asia 
Minor,  Epirus,  North  Africa,  Gaul,  and  Britain.  They 
were  forned  of  immense  stones,  set  upright  in  rows. 
They  had  probably  a  reference  to  the  Deluge,  and  de- 
structive agents  under  the  form  of  monster  serpents. 

Dralce,  Bexijamin  BC,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  of  devout 
parents  in  Robeson  County,  N.  C,  Sept.  11, 1800.  He 
was  converted  in  1818 ;  in  1820  joined  the  Tennessee 
Conference;  in  1821  was  transferred  to  the  Mississippi 
Conference;  became  president  of  Elizabeth  Female 
Academy  in  1828,  which  position  he  held  four  years, 
and  then  resumed  his  place  in  the  regular  Conference 
work.  In  1854  he  was  elected  president  of  Centenary 
College,  and  died  in  1880.  Dr.  Drake*8  whole  life  was 
an  ittuatiation  of  the  saving  power  of  grace.  He  was 
meek  and  dignified,  cheerful  and  firm,  able,  energetic. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Co^ferenceM  of  the  At,  E,  Church 
Souths  1860,  p.  227;  Simpson,  Cgdop.  of  Methoditm, 

Drake,  Cjtvlb  Bryant,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Wejrbridge,  Yt.,  Aug.  18,  1812. 
He  graduated  from  Middlebury  College  in  1884,  and 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1837.  His  only 
pastorate  was  in  the  Church  at  Roralton,  Vt.,  of  which 
be  was  ordained  pastor  Oct.  12, 1887,  and  died  in  oiBce. 
In  1846  a  bronchial  affection  induced  him  to  resign, 
bat  the  resignation  was  not  accepted,  altlwugh  he 
spent  ten  months  as  secretary  of  the  Vermont  Domes- 
tic Missionary  Society.  Twice  he  was  unable  to  preach, 
during  1857-59  and  1882-71,  but  his  people  refused  to 
part  with  him.  In  1852  he  was  elected  moderator  of 
the  General  Convention,  and  was  its  corresponding  sec- 
retary during  1856  and  1857.  He  served  his  native 
state  as  a  member  of  the  Constitutional  Convention, 
and  in  1870  was  elected  to  the  Legislature.  His  death 
occurred  April  21, 1878.  See  Cong,  Year-bookf  1879, 
p.  42. 

Drake,  Bamuel,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
published  SermomM,  etc  (1670-1724),  and  a  new  edition 
of  Parker's  J)e  AntiguUafe  Britanmcm  EccUtia  (1729). 
See  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brii,  and  Amer.  A  uihort,  k,  v. 


Dramaa,  CHRunAir.  There  is  little  evidence  that 
sacred  dramas  were  ever  acted  till  after  the  time  of 
Charlemagne.  A  pictorial  and  dramatic  representation 
of  the  facts  of  the  Nativity  is  implied  in  many  of  the 
descriptions  shortly  after  this  time.    See  Mystekxks. 

Drane,  Robert  Brunt,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bora  in  what  is  now  the  District  of  Columbia 
(then  Maryland),  Jan.  9, 1797.  He  fitted  for  college  at 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Mass.;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1824 ;  had  charge,  for  a  few  yean,  of  a 
classical  school  in  Salem,  Mass.;  and  was  seUled  as  a 
minister  in  Hagerstown,  Md.,  several  years.  In  1886  he 
became  rector  of  St.  James's  Church,  in  Wilmington, 
N.  C,  and  continued  in  oflSce  until  1848,  when  he  took 
charge  of  a  small  college  near  Louisville,  Ky.  Subse- 
quently he  returned  to  his  old  parish  in  Wilmington, 
where  he  continued  in  office  till  his  death,  Oct  16, 1862. 
See  Necrology  of  Harvard  College,  p.  472.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Drant,  Thomas,  an  English  divine  and  poet  of  the 
16th  century,  was  educated  at  SL  John*s  College,  Cam- 
bridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  bachelor  of  divinity 
in  1569.  In  the  same  year  he  was  admitted  to  a  pre- 
bend in  the  cathedral  of  Chichester,  June  27 ;  July  2, 
to  one  in  St.  Paul's;  and,  March  9  following,  was  in- 
stalled archdeacon  of  Lewes.  He  probably  died  in  1578. 
He  translated  Ecclesiastes  into  Latin  hexameters  (1572, 
4to),  and  published  some  Latin  poetry,  printed  at  Paris. 
He  also  published  some  Sermont,  See  Chalmers,  Biog, 
Diet,  s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthon^ 
s.  V. 

Draper,  Bourne  Hall,  LL.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  at  Cumnor,  near  Oxford,  England,  in  1778.  He 
studied  in  the  school  connected  with  Christ  Church 
College,  Oxford;  became  an  apprentice  to  the  Claren- 
don Pren;  Joined  the  Baptist  Church ;  pursued  a  course 
of  theological  study  at  the  Bristol  College ;  in  1804  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Chipping  Norton,  Ox- 
fordshire, where  he  remained  about  five  years ;  removed 
as  pastor  to  Coseley,  Staffordshire;  accepted  a  call  to 
the  Church  in  Southampton  in  1820,  and  died  there 
OcU  12, 1848.    In  1816  Dr.  Draper  wrote  the  hymn 

"  Te  Christian  heroes,  gr>  proclnfm 
Salvation  In  Immanners  name." 

See  National  Baptist,  March  3, 1881.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Draper,  Daniel  James,  a  prominent  Methodist 
minister  of  Australia,  was  bora  at  Wickham,  Hamp- 
shire, Aug.  28, 1810.  He  was  converted  in  early  life; 
received  into  the  British  Conference  in  1834 ;  appointed 
to  Australia  in  1835;  labored  in  New  South  Wales,  Ade- 
laide, Victoria,  etc.;  filled  important  offices;  was  made 
president  of  the  Australasian  Conference  in  1859;  visit- 
ed his  native  land,  as  representative  to  the  British  Con- 
ference, in  1864,  and,  upon  his  retura  voyage  to  Aus- 
tralia, perished,  by  the  foundering  of  the  steamship 
London,  in  the  Bsy  of  Biscay,  January  11, 1866.  See 
Symons,  Life  of  I).  J,  Draper  (Lond.  1870);  Minutes 
of  the  British  Conference,  1867,  p.  41 ;  Stevenson,  Ci/g 
Road  Chapel,  p.  235,  282. 

Drauciua,  fourth  bishop  of  Therouanne, in  France; 
died  probably  cir.  A.D.  667. 

Dranpner,  in  Norse  mythology',  was  a  golden  ring, 
sent  by  Baldur  from  the  infernal  regions  to  his  father 
Odin.  It  had  been  made  by  the  dwarf  Sindri,  and  pos- 
sessed the  miraculous  attribute  that  every  ninth  night 
eight  equally  large  gold  rings  dropped  from  it. 

Drattsin  (or  Drosin ;  Lat.  Drausius  or  Drautio'), 
Saint,  bishop  of  Soissons,  was  bom  in  Soissonnais  about 
606.  He  was  the  son  of  Leudomar  and  of  Rachilda, 
who  placed  him  under  the  guidance  of  St.  Ansaricus, 
bishop  of  Soissons,  who  admitted  him  among  the  num- 
ber of  clerks  in  649.  He  became  archdeacon  of  Sois- 
sons in  652,  and  replaced  in  the  episcopal  see  bish- 
op Bartholin,  who  was  accused  of  simony.  In  657 
Dausin  built  the  abbey  of  St.  Pierre  de  Rotonde,  near 


DREAMS 


300 


DREW 


Compi^gne.    He  died  in  667,  «nd  Is  commemorated 
March  5. 

Dreams  in  Ckrittian  History,  The  attempt  to  fore- 
tell the  future  by  the  interpretation  of  ordinary  dreams 
was  not  condemned  by  the  early  Church ;  rather  it  was 
acknowledged  that  dreams  might  be  made  the  vehicle 
of  divine  revelation.  But  some  of  the  old  heathen 
practices  by  which  men  sought  to  acquire  supernatural 
knowledge  in  dreams,  such  as  sleeping  in  an  idol's  tem- 
ple wrapped  in  the  skin  of  a  sacridce,  or  under  the 
boughs  of  a  sacred  tree,  were  distinctly  condemned. 

Dreohsler,  Johanit  Gabriel,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Grermany,  bom  at  Wolkenstein,  in  Saxony, 
Uught  philosophy  at  Halle,  and  died  Oct.  20, 1677,  leav- 
ing, Mcmuductio  ad  Poetin  Hebralcam : — Compendium 
Chronologico-hittoricum:  — also  De  Txirvii  NaialitiiM 
Christianorum  (Leipsic;  1683),  under  the  anagram  of 
Chressulder,    See  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog,  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Dreiabaoh,  John,  a  prominent  minister  of  the 
Evangelical  Association,  was  bom  in  Northumberland 
County,  Pa.,  June  6, 1789 ;  received  on  trial  by  the  con- 
ference in  1807 ;  in  1814  appointed  the  first  presiding 
elder  of  that  body ;  located  in  1821 ;  in  1828  and  1829  was 
a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  House  of  Representatives; 
in  1851  removed  to  Ohio ;  in  1854  became  editor  of  the 
Evangelical  Messenger  at  Cleveland;  resigned  in  1857, 
and  died  Aug.  20, 1871.  Mr.  Driesbach  was  regularly 
a  delegate  to  the  General  Conference,  and  in  1816  pre- 
pared The  Spiritual  Psaltery^  for  a  long  time  the  stand- 
ard hymn-book  of  his  denomination.  See  A  Ibright  and 
his  Colaborers,  p.  277. 

Drelinoourt,  Henri,  the  brotlier  of  Laurent,  was 
bom  at  Paris  about  1630.  He  was  first  advocate  and 
afterwards  minister  at  Gien,  and  then  at  Fontainebleau. 
He  died  in  1683,  leaving  a  collection  of  Sermons,  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraUy  s.  y. 

Drelinoourt,  Lanrent,  son  of  Charles  (q.  v.), 
was  born  at  Paris  in  1625.  After  having  completed 
his  studies  at  Saumur,  he  was  called  to  the  Reformed 
Church  at  La  Rochelle.  He  was  ordained  in  1651  by 
his  father,  and  fully  justified  by  the  sanctity  of  his  life 
and  his  Christian  humility  the  confidence  which  the 
people  of  La  Rochelle  had  placed  in  him.  In  1660  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  that  place  in  consequence  of  an 
edict  which  prohibited  Protestant  families,  who  had 
not  already  resided  there  before  the  year  1628,  to  live 
there.  He  accepted  a  call  to  Niort,  where  he  died, 
June  2, 1680,  leaving,  Le  Saint  Ministere  de  VEvangile 
(1651) : — Sermon  sur  les  Noces  de  Cana  (1657) : — La 
Salutaire  Lever  du  Soleil  de  Justice  (1665) : — Les  ^toUes 
de  Ciglise  et  les  Chandeliers  Mystiques  (1677)  i—SonneU 
Chriliens  (often  reprinted).  See  Lichtenberger,  Ency- 
dop,  des  Sciences  lUl^rieuseSf  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
G^rale,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Dresde,  Friedrich  Wilhklm,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Naumburg,  March  4, 
1740 ;  studied  at  Lcipsic ;  was  in  1772  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  at  Wittenberg,  and  in  1778 
professor  of  theology  there;  and  died  March  10, 1805, 
leaving,  De  ItnmortaUtate  Anima^  Pafriarchis  non  IgnO' 
ta  (Leipsic,  1764):— i>c  Anno  Judaico  (ibid.  1766):— 
Votum  Jephthm  (ibid.  1767) : — Triga  Commentatiomtm 
Acadd,  Critic  (ibid.  1773): — In  Diversit{Uem  Jjectionis 
Codicis  Jlebrceif  etc  (ibid.  1776) :— /»  Castiganda  LeO" 
iione  Massoretica  (ibid.  1778) :  —  Elementa  Sermoms 
A'6raic»(ibid.  1779, 1790):— />f  Usu  Pentateuchi  Samari- 
tatn  (ibid.  1783)  :-^Le  Libro  Fadetis  (1790-92, 7  paru) : 
— Z)«  Vera  vi  Dbl5  (ibid.  1793,  1794):— /)«  Xotione 
Spiritus  S,  in  Codice  Htbraico  (ibid.  1797).  See  Doring, 
Vie  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  i,  845  sq. ;  Winer, 
ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  129, 226, 270, 899, 436 ;  FUrst, 
BibLJud 'i,2i2.     (a  P.) 

Drees,  Christian.  In  the  primitive  days  Chris- 
dans  probably  took  little  thought  for  raiment.  They 
generally  wore  the  ordinary  dress  of  their  station  and 


country.  A  strong  feeling  was  prevalent  against  lux- 
ury, display,  and  immodesty  in  appareL  Nevertheless, 
even  in  the  Ist  century,  ''gay  clothing"  was  found  in 
Christian  assemblies.  TertuUian  likens  those  who  adorn 
themselves  with  costly  articles  to  the  woman  ''arrayed 
in  purple  and  scarlet  color"  spoken  of  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse. The  pope  also^  in  several  councils,  dedared 
against  extravagant  dressing.  Pope  Zacharias  decreed 
(A.D.  748)  that  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  should  not 
use  secular  dress,  but  onljs  the  sacerdotal  tunic;  and 
that  when  they  walked  out,  whether  in  city  or  country 
— unless  on  a  long  jonmey  —  they  should  wear  some 
kind  of  upper  garment  or  wrapper.  The  second  Coun- 
cil of  Nice,  in  the  year  787,  condemns  bishops  aiid  dor- 
ies who  distinguish  themselves  by  the  richness  and 
brilliant  colors  of  their  dress.  So  Tarasins,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  bade  his  clergy  abstain  from  golden 
girdles,  and  ffom  garments  bright  with  silk  and  purple, 
prescribing  girdles  of  goats*  hair,  and  tunics  decent  hot 
not  gorgeous.  The  Council  of  Aix  (A.D.  816)  inveighs 
against  personal  ornament  and  splendor  of  dress  in  the 
clergy,  and  exhorts  them  to  be  neither  splendid  nor 
slovenly.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Dreeser,  Charles,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  dergyman, 
was  bom  at  Pomfret,  Conn.,  Feb.  24, 1800.  He  gradn- 
atod  from  Brown  University  in  1828 ;  spent  some  time 
in  Virginia,  as  tutor  in  private  families ;  studied  theol- 
ogy under  bishop  Meade,  by  whom  he  was  ordained ;  re- 
moved to  Springfield,  IlL,  as  rector  there ;  subsequently 
was  employed  by  bishop  Chase  in  the  business  depart- 
ment of  Jubilee  College,  in  which  institution  he  was, 
for  a  time,  a  professor;  and  died  there  March  25, 1865. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Drem^  Philippk  de,  bishop  of  Beanvais,  went 
twice  to  the  Holy  Land  (1178  and  1190)  to  fight  the 
infidels,  and  on  his  second  visit  remained  a  captive  at 
Bagdad  for  some  time.  After  his  retum  he  turned  his 
arms  against  the  English,  fell  into  their  hands  in  1197, 
and  was  put  by  king  Richard  into  a  dose  prison.  Pope 
Celestine  III  interposed  with  the  king  of  England  for 
his  deliverance,  but  Richard  declined,  in  a  humorous 
reply.  The  bishop  being  finally  set  free,  turned  his 
arms,  in  1210,  against  the  Albigenses,  and  in  1214  he 
appeared  on  the  field  of  Bouvines  as  one  of  the  heroes 
of  the  day.  He  died  in  his  diocese  in  1217.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog.  Generak,  s.  v. 

Drevet,  Pierre,  an  eminent  French  engraver,  was 
bom  at  Lyons  in  1668,  and  after  having  studied  under 
Germain  Audran  in  his  native  city,  went  to  Paris  to 
complete  his  preparation.  The  following  are  his  best 
prints:  Abraham^s  Sacrijiee;  The  Annunciation;  The 
Adoration  of  the  Shepheids ;  The  Crucifixion.  He  died 
at  Paris  in  1788.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
Arts,B,y, 

Drevet,  Pierre  Imbreh,  was  bom  at  Paris  in 
1697.  He  is  datmed  by  his  countrymen  to  have  been 
one  of  the  greatest  engravers  of  any  age  or  country. 
He  died  at  Paris  in  1739.  The  following  are  some  of 
his  best  works :  A  dam  and  Eve  after  their  Transgres- 
sion; Rebehah  Receiving  Abrakam^s  Presents;  The  IfoUf 
Family ;  The  Entry  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem ;  The  Res* 
urrection ;  The  Presentation  in  the  Temple ;  Christ  m 
the  Garden  of  Gethsemane.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  A  rts^  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Dre'Vtr,  Daniei^  for  many  yean  a  noted  capitalist 
and  railroad  director  in  Kew  York,  and  mentioned  here 
for  his  acts  of  Christian  munificence,  was  bom  at  Car- 
mel,  Putnsm  Co.,  N.  Y.,  July  29, 1797.  When  fifteen 
years  old  he  enlisted  as  a  substitute  in  the  state  militia, 
and  with  the  bounty  money  as  a  capital,  became  a  cattle- 
drover.  In  1829  he  opened  a  cattle  yard  in  New  York ; 
in  1834  went  into  the  steamboat  business;  became  a 
stock-broker  and  banker  in  1844.  In  middle  life  Mr. 
Drew  united  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  of 
which  he  ever  after  remained  an  humble  and  faithful 


i 


DREYER 


301 


DRUM 


member.  In  1866  he  founded  Drew  Theological  Sem- 
inary at  Hadiaon.  N.  J.,  by  a  gift  of  $500,000,  paying 
over  to  iU  trustees  in  all  not  far  from  ^50,000.  He 
gave  f2d0,000  for  the  founding  of  the  Drew  Seminary 
for  Voting  Ladies,  at  CarmeL  He  also  built  a  fine 
church  at  his  native  place,  and  another  at  Brewsters ; 
in  addition,  he  freely  gave  to  many  other  benefactions. 
Mr.  Drew  was  remarbibly  bold  and  successful  in  his 
enterprises,  but,  to  use  his  own  words,  he  ''got  caught 
at  last,"  and  in  1876  was  a  poor  man.  He  died  Sept. 
18,  1879,  regretting  chiefly  his  inability  to  carry  out 
his  benevolent  enterprises.  See  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of 
Jfethoditm  ;  Chrutian  Advocate  (X.  Y.),  1879,  p.  616. 

Dreyer,  Chbistian,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Dee.  22, 16 10,  at  Stettin.  He  studied  at 
Jena^  Wittenberg,  Rostock,  and  Kdnigsberg,  In  the  lat- 
ter place  he  was  also  appointed  professor  of  theology 
and  first  oourt-preacher,  and  died  there.  Aug.  8, 1688.  Of 
hia  many  writings  we  name,  De  Prindpiit  Fidei  Chrii' 
tiana: — De  Corport  et  Sanguine  Chrisli  in  8,  EuchO' 
ritlia  Prmiente:-^De  JutUficatume  et  Certitudine  Gra^ 
tia  ex  Job  tr,  20,  21  i^De  Primatu  Ronuad  Pontificiit 
— De  Igne  Purgatorio^  quern  Redii  Romana  Ecdeeia, 
See  Jdcher,  AUgemeinei  GeUhrien-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Winer, 
Handbuek  der  tkeoL  Lit  ii,  496.     (B.  P.) 

DiifliaB,  Saxukl,  of  Leyden,  was  pastor  of  the  Hol- 
land Charch  in  London  until,  in  1652,  be  was  called  and 
removed  to  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  New 
Yoric  dty,  where  he  ministered  until  his  death  in  1682. 
Onoe  in  every  month  he  preached  to  the  Waldenses  on 
Staten  Island.  He  was  the  colleague  of  the  elder 
Megapolenais  for  twelve  years,  and  is  said,  like  him,  to 
have  been  very  intolerant  towards  those  who  dissented 
from  hia  religious  views.  At  their  instance  governor 
Stnyveaant  issued  a  proclamation  against  conventicles, 
under  which  fines  and  imprisonment  were  inflicted  upon 
thoae  who  diK>beyed  the  order.  The  Dutch  West  In- 
dia Company,  however,  soon  rebuked  and  rectified  these 
unwarranted  proceedings.  l£r.  Drisius  was  an  accom- 
plbbed  acholar  and  linguist.  See  Corwin,  Manual  of 
the  Ref.  Church  in  America,  p.  74 ;  De  Witt,  Uitt.  Die- 
eourwee,  p.  35  86,  69.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Dxoctigiailiufl^  fifteenth  bishop  of  Soissons,  tow- 
arda  the  end  of  the  6th  century. 

DfoctoaldoB,  SaitU,  fourteenth  bishop  of  Aux- 
erre,  died  in  November,  cir.  A.D.  532. 

DroctOTeoB^  the  abbot,  was  a  disciple  of  Ger- 
manua,  the  bishop;  hia  decease  at  Paris  is  commemo- 
rated March  10. 

Drogon  (1),  a  French  prelate,  said  to  have  been  the 
natoial  son  of  Charlemagne,  became  in  820  abbot  of 
Lnxeuil,  where,  under  his  direction,  science  and  art 
floarished.  In  829  he  was  made  bishop  of  Metz.  He 
waa  drowned  in  a  river  while  fishing,  in  855  or  857. 
See  Hoefer.  JVbtrr.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Drogon  (2)  (or  Drocon),  a  French  prelate,  was 
made  bishop  of  Beauvais  in  1080.  In  1085  he  founded 
the  convent  of  St.  Symphorien  -  les  •  Beauvais.  The 
king  of  France,  Henry  I,  in  one  of  his  diplomas  qualifies 
him  as  a  "vir  divine  religioni  totus  manctpatus."  He 
died  at  Beauvais,  April  21,  1047.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Drogon  (3),  a  French  cardinal  and  theologian,  was 
bom  in  Champagne,  entered  the  Benedictine  order, 
became  prior  of  St.  Nicolas  of  Rheims,  and  in  1128  was 
elected  abbot  of  St.  Jean  de  Laon.  Pope  Innocent  II 
caned  him  to  Rome  in  1130,  and  made  him  bishop  of 
Ostla  and  cardinal.  He  died  in  1138,  leaving  several 
tfeatiaes  printed  in  the  Bibliotkeca  Patrum  (Paris,  1644), 
i,  665.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Droma,  in  Korse  mjrthology,  was  the  second  strong 
chain  which  the  Asaa  had  made  to  bind  the  wolf  Fen- 
ria.  He  allowed  himself  to  be  bound  with  it,  but  when 
be  abook  himaelf  it  flew  in  pieces. 


Dromio,  a  term  applied  to  Oriental  churchee  of  the 
apsidal  or  basilican  form,  from  their  similarity  to  a  race- 
course. The  original  St.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  was 
of  this  style. 

Drops,  Festival  op  the,  a  ceremony  observed  by 
the  Copts  on  June  12,  annually,  because  on  that  day 
the  drops  of  dew  fall  which  are  believed  to  lead  to  the 
rise  of  the  Nile.  As  soon  as  this  dew  has  fallen,  the  wa* 
ter  begins  to  be  corrupt,  and  assumes  a  greenish  color, 
which  increases  more  and  more  till  the  river  appears 
as  a  lake  covered  over  with  moss.  This  lasts  from 
twenty  to  forty  days.  As  soon  as  the  green  color  is 
gone,  the  river  becomes  red  and  very  muddy.  The 
Copts  called  the  drops  of  dew  the  benediction  of  heaven, 
and  believed  that  the  Almighty  sent  down  Michael  the 
archangel  to  infuse  these  sacred  drops  into  the  Nile 
that  it  might  begin  to  rise,  and  at  length  irrigate  and 
fertilize  their  country. — ^Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World, 
s.  V.    See  NiLK ;  Nilus. 

Drosifl,  a  virgin,  probably  of  Antioch,  in  Syria, 
burned  for  her  faith  (as  mentioned  by  Chrysostom,  ii, 
688),  and  commemorated  SepL  22. 

DroBtan  (Throstan,  Droatan,  or  Dunatan),  a 
Scotch  saint,  commemorated  Dec.  14,  is  said  to  have 
been  of  royal  blood,  and  abbot  of  Holywood,  and  after- 
wards of  Glenesk,  in  Forfarshire,  about  the  end  of  the 
6th  century. 

Droate-Httlahofl^  Clement  August,  Baron  tost, 
a  professor  of  canon  law,  was  bom  at  Colsfeld,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1793.  He  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at 
MUnster,  where  Hermes  was  his  teacher.  From  i814 
to  1817  he  was  professor  at  the  MUnster  Gymnasium. 
When  called  to  Berlin  by  the  government,  he  betook 
himself  to  the  study  of  canon  law,  resigned  his  position 
at  MUnster,  and  commenced  his  lectures  at  Bonn  in 
1822.  He  died  at  Wiesbaden,  Aug.  13,  1882.  He  pub- 
lished, Ijehrhuch  dee  NaturredUt  und  der  PhUotophie 
(Bonn,  1823 ;  2d  ed.  1831)  \-^Ueber  das  Naturrecht  als 
eine  Quelle  des  Kirchenrechts  (ibid.  1822): — Religions' 
philosophische  Abhandlttngen  (ibid.  1824); — GrundsStze 
des  gemeinen  Kirchenrechts  der  KatholUoen  und  Evan' 
gelischen  in  Deutschland  (MUnster,  1828-^,  2  vols.), 
(a  P.) 

Drottea  (or  Drotner,  also  Dlar)  were  the  heathen 
Teutonic  priests  in  ancient  Germany  and  Britain.  Their 
office  was  confined  to  certain  families,  and  was  heredi- 
tary in  its  transmission ;  but  they  appear  to  have  been 
far  inferior  both  in  wealth  and  power  to  the  Druids. 
They  enjoyed  peculiar  privileges  in  virtue  of  their  sa- 
cred calling ;  being  exempted  from  war,  prohibited  from 
appearing  in  arms,  and  even  from  mounting  a  horse. 
The  Teutonic  pagans  had  also  an  order  of  priestesses, 
who  served  in  the  temples  of  their  female  deities;  and 
Friga  (q.  v.)  was  attended  by  kings'  daughters,  and  la- 
dies of  the  highest  rank  of  nobility.  Some  of  these 
consecrated  females  were  consulted  as  infallible  oracles, 
and  held  in  the  greatest  veneration,  as  if  they  them- 
selves were  divinities. 

Dronaia,  Jean  Germain,  a  distinguished  French 
painter,  was  bom  in  Paris,  Nov.  25, 1763,  and  instructed 
by  his  father.  He  gained  the  grand  prize  of  the  Ro^'al 
Academy  by  his  admirable  picture  of  The  Canaanilish 
Woman  at  the  Feet  of  Christ.  He  died  at  Rome,  Feb. 
13, 1788.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
s.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Giniraley  s.  v. 

DmotegangUB.  (1)  Third  abbot  of  Gone,  in  the 
diocese  of  Metz,  died  A«D.  769.  (2)  Eighth  abbot  of 
Jumi^ges,  in  Normandy,  A.D.  763. 

Druigen,  an  Irish  saint,  commemorated  March  6, 
was  a  sister  of  St.  Brigida  (q.  v.). 

Drum,  Sacbed,  an  instrument  of  magical  incanta- 
tion formerly  in  use  among  the  native  Laplanders.  It 
was  made  of  the  body  or  trunk  of  a  pine  or  hollow 
birch,  which  could  be  found  only  in  particular  spoti^ 


DRUMM 


302 


DRYADS 


and  every  part  of  which,  both  tmnk  and  branches,  had 
the  remarkalde  peculiarity  of  being  inflected  from  the 
right  to  the  left.  The  dram  was  constructed  of  one 
entire  piece  of  wood,  hollowed  out  in  the  middle.  The 
upper  part,  which  was  flat,  was  covered  with  skin,  and 
the  lower  part,  which  was  convex,  was  so  constructed  that 
after  they  maide  two  long  openings  in  it  the  wood  be- 
tween served  as  a  handle.  The  rims,  which  kept  the 
skin  tight  in  a  kind  of  circular  form,  were  not  exactly 
round,  but  rather  ovaL  Upon  the  skin  thus  stretched 
on  the  head  of  the  drum,  the  Laplanders  painted  vari- 
ous figures  in  red,  which  seemed  to  be  of  somewhat 
hieroglyphical  character.  There  were  added  to  this 
copper  rings  of  various  patterns,  to  be  used  in  incanta- 
tions. The  hammer  with  which  the  drum,was  beaten 
was  made  from  the  horn  of  a  reindeer. 

Dmmm,  Jork  H.,  M.D.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1827 ; 
graduated  from  the  New  York  Medical  College  in  1852 ; 
was  ordained  deacon  in  1857,  and  presbyter  in  1868 ;  in 
1857  officiated  in  Brookville,  Ind.  i,  in  1859,  was  rector 
of  St.  James's  Church,  Dundaff,  Pa.;  in  1862,  of  St. 
James's  Church  in  Bristol;  in  1875,  of  St.  Mark's  Church, 
New  Britain,  Conn. ;  in  1877  he  was  in  San  Saba,  Tex., 
but  returned  in  the  following  year  to  Bristol,  Pa.,  where 
he  died,  March  5, 1879.  See  Prot,  Episc,  A  ImanaCf  1880, 
p.  171. 

Dnunmond,  E.  A.  H.|  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
who  was  bom  in  1758  and  died  in  1830,  published,  Ser^ 
mont  (1792) :— Catechetical  Queationa  Prior  to  Confirma" 
tion  (Lond.  1813).  See  Allibone,  Vict,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors^  S.V. 

Drommond,  Qeorge,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
descended  from  the  family  of  Hawthoraden,  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  July,  1761 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Dun- 
barton  in  August,  1765 ;  ordained  May  1, 1766 ;  and  died 
Feb.  14, 1819,  aged  eighty-one  years*  He  was  a  man 
of  high  respectability,  deep  eradition,  and  eminent 
worth.  He  published  An  A  ceoutU  of  the  Parish,  See 
Fatti  Eedea.  Scoticana,  il,  870. 

Dnunmond,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
third  son  of  Rev.  James  Drammond  of  Deanstown,  was 
probably  bom  at  Fowlis,  Perthshire,  in  1619;  gradu- 
ated at  St.  Andrews'  University  in  1645;  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  living  at  Auchterarder  about  1650;  trans- 
ferred to  Muthill  in  1656;  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of 
Brechin  in  1684,  retaining  the  parish  of  Muthill  in  con- 
junction, which  he  resigned  in  1686.  He  had  a  pen- 
sion from  James  II  of  one  hundred  pounds  sterling,  in 
December,  1685 ;  signed  an  address  to  the  king  in  No- 
vember, 1688,  just  before  hb  majesty's  abdication,  and 
preached  for  the  last  time  in  the  cathedral,  April  14, 
1689,  three  days  after  episcopacy  had  been  abolished. 
When  deprived,  he  resided  for  four  years  in  Slain's 
Castle,  with  John,  earl  of  Errol,  and  died  in  1695. 
He  was  a  good  and  pious  man,  diligent  in  his  office, 
read  the  Scriptures  daily  in  the  original ;  and  while  his 
chief  and  patron,  the  earl  of  Perth,  was  zealous  to  pro- 
mote popei^',  he  was  as  strenuously  and  determinedly 
opposed  to  poperv  as  anv  one  in  the  kingdom.  See 
Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticanas/il,  747,  780;  iii,  891;  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  169. 

Drummond.'Willlam  Hamilton,  D.D.,  a  schol- 
ar, poet,  and  divine,  died  in  Dublin^  Ireland,  Oct.  16, 
1865,  aged  eighty-seven  years.  He  was  the  author  of 
poems  on  the  Battle  of  Trafalgar,  the  Giant's  Causeway, 
etc. ;  and  prepared  also  a  translation  of  Lucretius.  See 
Appleton's  Annual  Cydop,  1865,  p.  675. 

Dninkenness.  Denunciations  of  this  vice  are 
contained  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Test.  St.  Paul  ex- 
pressly includes  drankards  among  those  who  shall  not 
inherit  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  This  vice  became  pe- 
culiarly shameless  at  Rome  about  the  time  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  The  surrounding  nations,  too,  were  drank- 
ards.   Dranken  habits  were  to  afford  a  presumption 


against  a  person  accused  before  the  Church  courts.  Still, 
the  vice  flourished  among  the  Christians.  Jerome 
warns  the  priests  never  to  smell  of  wine.  Revellings 
and  drankcnness  wero  deemed  allowable  in  commem- 
orating the  martyrs.  The  first  distinct  Churoh  enact- 
ment against  drankenness  appears  in  the  canons  of  the 
Council  of  Tours.  The  West,  however,  seems  to  have 
been  the  chief  home  of  gluttony  and  drunkenness.  A 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Antun,  A.D.  670,  enacted  that 
no  gluttonous  or  drunken  priest  should  touch  the  sacra- 
ment or  say  the  mass  under  pain  of  losing  his  dignity. 
The  Council  of  Berkhamstead  enacted  that  if  a  priest 
be  so  drank  that  be  cannot  fulfil  his  office  he  should 
be  deposed  by  the  bisfaop.  In  regard  to  drunkenness 
in  the  Churoh  in  Britain,  Boniface  says:  ^It  is  also 
said  in  your  parishes  drankenness  is  a  too  common  evil, 
so  that  not  only  do  the  bishops  not  forbid  it,  but  them- 
selves, drinking  too  much,  become  intoxicated,  and  com- 
pel others  to  do  so,  offering  them  larger  beakers.**  In 
the  Carlovingian  period  civil  penalties  or  disabilities 
began  to  be  inflicted  for  drunkenness.— Smith,  DicL  of 
Christ,  Antiq,  s.  v.     See  Tkmpkrasice. 

Dmry,  Asa,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  July 
26, 1802.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1829,  and 
for  two  years  following  was  rector  of  the  Hopkins  Gram- 
mar-school at  New  Haven :  was  ordained  as  an  evan- 
gelist in  the  Baptist  ministry,  SepL  14, 1834;  was  pro- 
fessor of  languages  in  Denison  University,  Granville, 
O.,  and  held  the  office  one  year,  1886 ;  for  three  years 
(1836^9)  was  professor  of  Greek  in  Cincinnati*  Col- 
lege; the  year  foUowing  a  professor  in  what  is  now 
Colby  University,  Waterville,  Me. ;  then  returned  to 
Cincinnati  College  \  after  a  time  became  principal  of 
the  classical  school  connected  with  the  Baptist  Theo- 
logical Institute  at  Covington,  Ky.,  and  at  the  same 
time  professor  of  eodeaiasticBl  history  and  Greek  lit- 
erature; for  several  years  was  principal  of  the  high- 
school,  and  superintendent  of  schools  in  Covington ;  and 
spent  the  last  four  years  of  bis  life  in  St.  Anthonv*  Minn, 
where  he  was  pastor  of  a  Baptist  Church.  He  died 
Mareh  18, 1870.    (J.  C  S.) 

Dmatia,  a  martyr  at  Antioch  with  Zoeimus  and 
Theodoras ;  commemorated  Dec.  14. 

Druys  (Lat  Drusius)^  John,  a  Belgian  canon,  was 
bora  at  Cumptich,  near  'Tirlemont,  in  1568.  He  stud- 
ied at  St.  Trond,  at  Namur,  and  at  Louvain ;  joined 
the  order  of  Premonstrants  at  the  abbey  of  dn  Pare, 
near  Louvain,  May  29,  1588;  taught  theolqgy  there; 
in  1604  became  deputy  for  the  states  of  Bnbant,  and 
the  following  year  vicar  of  the  circarii  of  Bnbant  and 
Friesland.  He  was  charged  by  archduke  Albert  with 
several  missions  in  connection  with  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline; appointed  circarius  in  Spain  in  1630;  and  finally 
was  counsellor  of  the  state.  He  died  at  Brussels,  March 
25,  1634,  leaving,  Visitatio  Alma  Universitaiis  Lovani' 
ensis  (Louvain,  1617) : — Exhortatio  ad  Candidi  Ordims 
Pramonstrafmsis  Rdigiosos  (ibid.  1621) : — Statuta  Can- 
didi et  Canonici  Ordinis  Presmonstraiensis  Renotata^  etc. 
(ibid.  1628).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU^  s.  v. 

Dnizbicki,  Caspar,  a  Jesuit,  was  born  in  1589  at 
Sieradz,  in  Poland,  and  died  at  Posen  in  1662.  He  wrote 
De  Variis  Passionis  Christi  MedHandi  Modis  (Lublin, 
1652)  '.^Fcucicuhu  Exerciiationum,  etc  (Cracow,  1662) : 
— Tribunal  Conscientia,  etc.  (ibid.  1672) : — In  JDomini' 
cas  Totius  anni  Considerationes  (1679)! — Lapis  LydiuSf 
etc.  (1099 ;  a  German  translation  was  publbbed  in  1739 ; 
a  more  recent  one  is  that  by  Ratte,  1884).  A  complete 
edition  of  his  works  was  issued  at  Ingolstadt  in  1782, 
2  vols.  foL,  under  the  title  Venerabilis  P.  Gasparis  Drut" 
hicki  Opera  Omnia,  See  Encyklop,  KosciehOyiVyBSS; 
Ltidko,  in  Wetzer  n.  Welte's  Kir^en- Lexikon^  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Dryads  (from  ^pvct  an  oai),  female  deities  of  an 
inferior  rank,  who  presided  over  woods.  They  were 
much  more  fortunate  than  the  Hamadryads,  having 


DBYANDER 


308 


DUBOIS 


the  liberty  of  wilking  aboot,  and  even  somTing  the 
deatniction  of  the  trees  over  which  they  presided.  They 
also  had  the  liberty  of  marrying.  The  poets  frequently 
oon/bond  the  Dr}*iid8,  Hamadryads,  and  Naiada. 

I>ryailder,  IIkrmanh,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  22, 1809,  at  Halle,  where  he 
also  parsucd  his  theological  studies.  In  ISM  he  was 
appointed  deacon  at  the  chnrch  "  Unsere  Lieben  Fraoen" 
there,  in  1876  first  preacher,  and  died  as  superintendent 
and  member  of  consistory,  Feb.  16, 1880.  See  Zum  Ge- 
aSdUmn  Dr.  ffermam  Lutkeig  Dryand*r*t  (HaUe,  1880). 
(B.P.) 

Dnalla  Version  or  thx  Scriptubh.  In  this 
language,  which  is  spoken  in  the  Cameioons  dbtrict, 
West  Africa,  some  portions  of  the  Old  and  New  Test, 
ha  been  translated  by  the  Rev.  A.  Saker,  of  the  Bap- 
tist Missionary  Society.  The  grammar  has  been  treat- 
ed by  Saker  in  Grammatieal  Elements  of  the  Dnalla  /xm- 
gm^  (18o5).     (&  P.) 

Dnbbfl»  Joseph  S.,  D.D.,  a  German  Reformed  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Upper  Milford,  Lehigh  Co.,  Pa.,  Oct 
16, 1796.  His  early  education  was  received  at  a  Quaker 
school,  and,  after  studying  theology  four  years  under 
Rev.  F.  L.  Herman,  D.D.,  he  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1822.  He  received  the  charge  of  Windsor  and  Weiss 
churches,  Berks  County,  in  June,  the  same  year,  and  was 
ordained  in  1823.  In  1824  the  Eppler's  Church,  and  in 
1826  the  Hains  Church,  were  added  to  his  charge,  of 
which  be  remained  pastor  until  1881.  From  this  period 
until  1861  he  was  pastor  of  the  Allentown,  Egypt,  Un- 
ion, and  Jordan  churches.  That  year  he  resigned  the 
charge  of  the  Allentown  Church,  which  had  increased  to 
twelve  hundred  members,  continuing  to  preach  to  the 
remaining  three  until  1866,  when  he  retired  from  active 
labor,  and  removed  to  Allentown,  where  he  died,  April 
14,  1877.  He  was  conscientious  in  the  discharge  of 
doty,  and  acquired  an  unusual  degree  of  popularity. 
Dr.  Dobbs  was  a  frequent  correspondent  of  the  German 
periodicsls  of  his  Church,  and  the  author  of  seversl  pop- 
ular German  hymns.  See  Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  tke 
Germ.  JUf,  Church,  v,  239. 

Dn  Beo,  Philifpb,  a  French  prelate,  was  bora  in 
1524.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Vatines  in  1559, 
•nd  six  years  later  passed  to  the  diocese  of  Kantes. 
He  was  one  of  those  prelates  who  held  the  place  of 
ecclesiastical  peers  at  the  coronation  of  Henry  IV  in 
1589.  The  same  year  he  was  called  to  the  archbish- 
opric of  Rheims,  and  in  the  year  following  he  received 
the  title  of  commander  of  the  order  of  the  Holy  GhosL 
Bat  the  bulls  were  not  forwarded  before  the  end  of  three 
years,  on  account  of  the  differences  of  Henry  IT  with 
the  court  of  Rome.  Du  Bee  died  in  1605.  He  left  a 
ooUectaon  of  SermonSy  and  a  French  translation  of  the 
Treatise  of  the  Widows  of  SL  Ambrose  (Paris,  1590). 
See  Hoefer,  Now?,  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

I>abihan  is  the  name  of  two  Irish  saints :  (1)  A 
priest,  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  oentuiy,  commem- 
ormtetl  Nov.  11.  (2)  A  pilgrim  in  the  County  Wexford, 
eammemorated  FeK  11. 

Dabhdalethe  is  the  name  of  three  abbots  of  Ar- 
magh, in  Ireland,  one  in  the  8th  century,  and  two  in 
tb€  10th  and  11th ;  also  of  an  abbot  of  Kilskeery,  Coun- 
ty Heath,  who  died  A.D.  750. 

2>abhtliacll  (or  Dnaoh)  is  the  name  of  three  Irish 
aaints:  (1)  A  bishop  of  Armagh,  A.D.  497-518;  com- 
memorated Feb.  5.  (2)  A  companion  of  Moling  (q.  v.), 
eovomemoiated  Oct.  7.  (3)  Priest  of  king  Leogaire, 
converted  by  St.  Patrick,  AD.  483. 

Zhiboia,  Benjamin,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  minis- 
ter, descended  from  the  French  Huguenots  who  settled 
on  Scaten  Island  to  escape  the  persecutions  of  Louis 
XrV,  wss  bom  in  1789.  He  studied  theology  under 
Rev.  J.  H.  Goetsehius,  was  licensed  by  the  American 
Ciassis  in  1764,  and  for  sixty*three  years  was  pastor 
af  the  united  Reformed  Dutch  churches  of  Freehold 


and  MiddletDwn,  in  Monmooth  Co.,  N.  J.  During  Che 
Revolattonary  war  he  was  foremost  among  the  defend- 
ers of  liberty,  and  often  preached  to  his  people  upon 
their  duty  during  the  struggle.  He  died  in  1827.  See 
Slaroellus,  HisL  Discourse  ;  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Rtf. 
Church  M  A  mericOy  p.  75.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Dnboiflt  Q^ard,  a  French  Church  historian, 
was  bom  at  Orleans  in  1629.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  1650,  and  taught 
rhetoric  there  several  years.  He  wrote  the  concluding 
volume  of  the  Ecdesiastical  History  of  Le  Cointe,  in- 
cluding a  life  of  the  latter  (1683).  He  was  commia- 
sioned  by  Harlay,  archbishop  of  Paris,  to  undertake  a 
History  of  the  Church  of  Paris,  the  first  volume  of 
wbich  (1690)  carries  it  down  to  1108.  Du  Bois  died  at 
Paris,  July  1, 1696,  leaving  the  second  volume  unfin- 
ished. It  was  completed  by  fathers  La  Ripe  and  Desmo- 
lets  (1710),  and  brings  the  histor}'  down  to  1864.  See 
Landon,  Ecdes. Dict,B.r, ;  Hoefer,  Aour. Biog,  Gluirak^ 

8.  V. 

Dnboia,  Chxalterufl^  a  distinguished  minister  of 
the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  bora  at  Streefkerk, 
in  Holland,  in  1666,  and  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Leyden  in  1697,  when  he  was  licensed  to  preach  the 
Gospel.  His  father,  Rev.  Peter  Dubois,  was  a  very 
eminent  minister  of  the  Church  of  Holland,  settled  in 
Amsterdam,  the  one  hundredth  in  succession  from  the 
Reformation.  The  son  came  to  America,  when  twenty- 
eight  years  old,  as  the  colleague  of  dominie  Selyns  in 
the  Dutch  Church  qf  New  York,  where  he  ministered 
fifty-one  years  with  great  acceptance  and  ability.  He 
was  a  man  of  noble  presence,  of  amiable  spirit,  and  dig- 
nified bearing;  a  diligent  student  and  expounder  of 
6od*8  Word,  whole  books  of  the  Dible  beini?  Icflt  among 
the  subjects  of  his  pulpit  instructions,  in  his  elaborate 
aud  beautiful  manuscripts;  also  a  strong  advocate  of 
the  independence  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America 
from  foreign  control,  especially  in  the  matter  of  min- 
isterial education  and  ordination,  although  he  died  be- 
fore this  question  reached  its  crisis  in  the  disraption 
of  the  Church.  His  death,  which  followed  a  brief  ill- 
ness, in  his  eightieth  year,  called  forth  universal  ex- 
pressions of  public  grief  and  respect  for  his  character 
and  services.  He  was  regarded  more  as  *'a  bishop 
among  the  Dutch  churches  than  sa  the  pastor  of  a 
single  organization."  SeeDe  Witt,  if tftnoria^;  Smith, 
Hist,  oflfeui  York  ;  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Rrf,  Church 
in  America,  s.  v. ;  Taylor,  A  nnals,    (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Dubois,  Jean  (1),  a  reputable  French  sculptor, 
was  bora  at  Dijon  in  1626.  Among  other  excellent 
works,  he  executed  the  statues  of  St.  Stephen  and  St 
Medard,  and  the  tomb  of  Pierre  Odebert,  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Dijon;  the  grand  altar  and  the  Assumption  of 
the  Virgin,  in  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame.  The  statue 
of  the  Virgin  is  considered  his  masterpiece.  He  died 
Nov.  29, 1694.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gi/Urale,  s.  v. ; 
Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,s.  v. 

Dubois,  Jean  (2)  (Joannes  a  Bosco,  otherwise 
OUvarius),  a  French  preacher,  was  bora  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  16th  centur}\  After  living  for  some  time  aa 
a  Celestine  monk,  he  obtained  permission  of  the  pope  to 
become  a  soldier,  and  in  that  capacity  acquitted  him- 
self so  well  as  to  obtain  the  favor  of  king  Henry  III, 
who  styled  him  ^  the  emperor  of  monks."  When  peace 
was  restored,  he  quitted  the  profession  of  arms  and  re- 
turaed  to  his  cloinrer.  He  was  a  favorite  preacher,  and 
was  selected  by  Henry  lY  to  be  one  of  his  ordinary 
chaplains ;  and  so  highly  esteemed  by  canlinal  Scraphin 
Olivier  that  he  adopted  him,  gave  him  his  name  and 
arms,  and  obtained  for  him  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Beau- 
lieu,  in  Argonne.  He  was  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  on  June  6, 1610  (Trinity  Sunday),  declaimed 
against  them,  and  especially  against  the  books  of  Mari- 
ana and  Becan,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Eustachius.  For 
this,  when  he  went  to  Rome,  as  agent  extraordinary  for 
Louis  XIII,  he  was,  Nov.  11,  1611,  thrown  into  prison. 


DUBOIS 


304 


DUFF 


where  he  died,  after  fifteen  yean*  confinement,  Aog.  28, 
1626.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  FhriaeemU  Bibli- 
otheca  BenedkHnOf  etc  (Lyona,  1606, 8vo).  See  Landon, 
Eockt*  Did,  8.  V. ;  Uoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  G^iraUf  s.  v. 

Dabois,  Jean  Antoine,  a  French  missionary, 
one  of  the  directors  of  the  seminary  of  foreign  mis- 
sions, member  of  the  Asiatic  societies  of  Paris  and  Lon- 
don, and  of  the  Literary  Society  of  Madras,  was  bom  in 
1765  at  St.  Rem^ze  (Ard^che)/  About  1791  he  went  to 
Mysore  to  preach  Christianity,  his  principal  residence 
being  at  Pettah,  near  Seringapatam.  After  thirty-two 
years  of  sojourn  in  India,  he  returned  to  Europe  with 
the  strong  conviction  that  in  the  actual  state  of  affairs 
the  conversion  of  the  Hindis  was  impossible.  This 
opinion,  which  he  advanced  in  his  Letters  on  the  State 
ofChristiamty  in  lucUa  (Lond.  1828),  became  in  England 
the  object  of  very  lively  attacks.  He  died  at  Paris, 
Feb.  7, 1848.  For  the  list  of  Dubois'  other  writings, 
see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  iiiog»  GiniraUf  s.  v. 

Dubois,  John,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was  bom 
in  Paris,  France,  Aug.  24.  1764,  and  ordained  in  1787. 
He  came  to  America  in  1791 ;  labored  in  Maryland  and 
Virginia ;  founded  Mount  St.  Mary's  College  and  Semi- 
nary, Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1807 ;  succeeded  John  Connol- 
ly as  bishop  of  New  York  in  1826,  and  died  in  that  city, 
Dec.  20, 1842.  He  was  highly  revered  in  his  own  de- 
nomination. See  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  IJitt,  of  the  Cath. 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  p.  70, 104, 897  sq. 

Dubrlo  (or  Dyfrig),  archbishop  of  Caerleon,  dis- 
tinguished in  the  story  of  king  Alfred  of  England  as 
famous  for  sanctity,  was  the  grandson  of  Brychan,  king 
of  Brecknockshire,  and  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
bishop  of  Llandaff,  about  A.D.470,  and  to  have  died  in 
622.  His  bones  were  transferred  in  1120  to  the  new 
cathedral  on  the  island  of  Enlli  or  Bardsey,  where  they 
had  been  originally  interred.  His  death  is  commem- 
orated Nov.  4,  and  his  translation  May  29. 

Dnohacet,  Hknrt  William,  D.D.,  a  minister  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  entered  upon  public 
life  as  a  physician  in  New  York  city ;  but  about  1824  he 
was  ordained,  and  after  having  filled  several  other  im- 
portant positions,  in  1888  accepted  the  rectorship  of  St. 
Stephen^s  parish,  Philadelphia,  where  he  died  Dec  18, 
1866,  aged  sixty-eight  years.  For  many  years  he  was 
a  leading  member  of  the  standing  committee  of  the 
diooese,  and  was  associated  with  most  of  its  religious 
societies.  By  his  agency  a  great  charity  was  inau- 
gurated, the  Burd  Asylum  for  Orphans;  and  he  had 
planned  an  asylum  for  disabled  clergymen,  having 
already  taken  the  preliminary  steps  for  its  establish- 
ment, when  hb  sudden  death  frustrated  his  design. 
See  A  mer.  Quar.  Church  Rev.  April,  1866,  p.  126. 

Duokfl,  in  early  Christian  art.  These  birds  occur 
repeatedly  in  the  bass-reliefs  of  the  Duomo  at  Ravenna, 
on  the  great  piers  at  the  east  end,  and  at  the  same  place 
in  the  Church  of  San  Giovanni  Evangelista.  The  reason 
for  their  use  is  unknown,  but  has  been  supposed  to  be 
either  on  account  of  the  bright  colors  or  because  domea- 
ticated  in  the  monasteries. 

Dncreuz,  Gabrirl  Marie,  a  French  historian, 
dean  at  Auxerre  and  aflerwards  at  Orleans,  was  bom  at 
the  latter  place,  June  27, 1743,  and  died  there  Aug.  24, 
1790.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  Les  Siscles  Chr^ 
tiens  (Paris,  1775, 9  vols. ;  (lerman  translation  by  Fischer, 
Vienna  and  Landshut,  1781-90)  i^Pensies  et  Reflexions 
(Paris,  1765, 2  vols.).  See  Hefele,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's 
KiriAen-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Dudd,  eleventh  bishop  of  Winchester,  between  781 
and  785. 

Dudley,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  became  a 
prebendary  of  Lincoln  in  1724,  was  inSalled  archdeacon 
of  Bedford,  June  11,  1781,  and  died  about  1746.  He 
published  a  few  single  Sermons,  See  Allibooe,  Did. 
of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s,  v. 


Dudley,  T77iUlam,  an  English  prelate  of  the  15th 
century,  son  of  John  Dudley,  the  eighth  baron  of  Dad- 
ley,  Stailfordshire,  was  educated  at  University  College, 
Oxford,  thence  preferred  dean  of  Windsor,  and  after^ 
wards  for  six  years  bishop  of  Durham.  He  died  in 
London  in  1483,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster.  See 
Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  ui,  181. 

Dndttng;  Claudius  Ahtont,  a  Swiss  prelate,  was 
appointed  to  the  bishopric  of  Lausanne  in  1716,  and 
died  June  16, 1745,  leaving  Status  seu  Epoeha  Ecdetia 
A  venticensis  (1724).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ghirale, 
s.  V. 

DuK  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman  and 
missionary,  was  bom  at  Piilochrie,  Perthshire,  April 
25, 180a  He  was  carefully  educated  in  the  Esublished 
Church  of  Scotland;  graduated  from  the  University  of 
St.  And^ew^  was  ordained  Aug.  12, 1829,  and  the  same 
year  sailed  for  India  with  his  wife.  The  vessel  was 
wrecked  on  the  voyage,  and  on  arriving  at  Calcutta 
he  was  advised  by  the  English  residents  not  to  begin 
operations  until  an  imposing  church  stracture  should 
be  reared.  Nevertheless,  he  rented  a  small  house  in 
that  city,  and  commenced  a  school  for  the  instraction 
of  the  natives.  In  1882  three  Brahmins  were  baptized, 
an  event  which  produced  a  profound  impression  upon 
all  classes.  In  1834  Dr.  Dufif's  health  gave  way,  and 
he  returned  home  for  recuperation.  He  attended  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Scottish  Church,  and  delivered 
a  powerful  address  in  behalf  of  the  great  canse  in  which 
he  was  engaged.  He  returned  to  India  in  1840,  and 
entered  a  laiger  and  much  more  suitable  building  for 
school  purposes,  which  had  been  erected  in  his  absence. 
When  the  disruption  of  the  Scotch  Church  took  place 
in  1848»  Dr.  Duff  cast  in  his  lot  with  the  Free  Church, 
though  by  this  act  he  forfeited  the  use  of  all  the  mis- 
sion property.  He  leased  a  building  and  continued  his 
labors,  the  number  of  his  pupils  having  increased  to 
eight-  hundred.  A  church  was  erected  which  cost 
$50,000.  Contemplating  a  visit  to  his  native  land  in 
1853,  Dr.  Duff  made  an  extensive  tour  throughoot  In- 
dia, that  he  might  by  personal  observation  make  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  condition  and  wants  of  the 
people,  and  lay  them  before  the  churches  at  home. 
Before  his  embarkation,  the  people  raised  #25,000,  and 
in  addition  to  this  #50,000  were  subscribed  in  Great 
Britain  for  the  erection  of  buildings  for  educational  and 
missionaiy  purposes.  In  1854  he  visited  the  United 
States  and  Oinada.  Wherever  he  preached,  vast  crowds 
were  assembled  to  listen  to  his  thrilling  descriptions  of 
the  land  of  his  work  and  adoption.  After  his  return 
home  he  was  elected  moderator  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly. His  health  being  feeble,  he  visited  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores,  made  a  trip  to  Palestine,  and  returned 
to  India  considerably  improved.  He  was  appointed  by 
a  member  of  the  British  cabinet  to  draft  a  constitution 
for  the  India  University,  and  was  chosen  dean  of  the 
faculty,  and  also  elected  a  member  of  the  syndicate. 
During  all  this  time  his  own  college  in  Calcutta  pro- 
gressed rapidly.  In  1866  there  were  on  the  rolls  more 
than  eighteen  hundred  and  seventy-four  students.  Other 
schools  in  different  places  under  his  supervision  con- 
tained upwards  of  three  thousand  pupils.  In  conse- 
quence of  failing  health  he  was  obliged  to  return  again 
to  Scotland,  not  without  the  same  tokens  of  respect  and 
esteem.  He  was  elected  professor  of  evangelical  the- 
ology in  the  new  college  of  the  Free  Church,  Edin- 
burgh, and  here  his  last  labors  were  performed.  He  died 
at  Sidmouth,  Devonshire,  England,  FeK  12, 187a  See 
hu  Life,  by  Dr.  G.  Smith  (Edinburgh,  1880).  (W.  P.  &) 

Dnfl^  David,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  graduated 
at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1802;  was  licensed 
to  preach  May  6, 1805;  presented  to  the  living  at  Mou- 
lin the  same  year,  and  ordained  Feb.  21, 1806 ;  promoted 
to  Kenmore,  March  29, 1881 ;  and  vras  in  1869  Father 
of  the  Church,  being  then  about  ninety  yean  old.  See 
Fasti  Eeeles.  ScoHcana^  ii,  812, 824. 


DUFF 


306 


DUMBNESS 


DnJI^  John,  D.D^  a  Scotch  clergymtn,  was  lioenaed 
to  preach  in  March,  1793;  presented  by  the  earl  of 
Mansfield  in  February,  1796,  to  the  living  at  Kinfauns; 
ordained  Jan.  19, 1797,  and  died  March  8, 1816,  aged 
forty-eight  years.    See  FomH  EccUt,  ScotuxauSf  ii,  646. 

Dnfl^  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of 
the  Bev,  William  Duff  of  Rinedar,  graduated  at  King's 
College,  Aberdeen,  March  29,  1756;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  October,  1762;  presented  to  the  living  at 
Kinedar  in  succession  to  his  father,  and  ordained  Sept. 
18, 176&.  He  died,  having  been  rooro  than  seven  years 
Father  of  the  Synod,  Oct.  81,  1825,  aged  eighty  six 
years.    See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticcma^  iii,  663 

I>iiffleld,  George,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
was  bom  at  Straaburg,  Lancaster  Ck>.,  Pa.,  July  4, 1794, 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
was  for  many  years  pastor  of  Presbyterian  churches 
in  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Detroit,  and  was  an 
active  leader  of  the  New  School  movement.  He  died 
at  Detroit,  Mich.,  June  26, 1868.  His  publications  in- 
clude Spiritual  Life: — Diitertation  on  the  Propheda: 
—  MiUenarianitm  Defended:  —  Claims  of  Episcopal 
Bishops  Examinedj  and  other  works.  See  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Da  Tobb6,  Pierre  Thomas,  a  French  writer,  was 
bom  at  Sooen  in  1634.  He  was  educated  at  Port  Royal 
dea  Champa,  and  the  impressions  which  he  received  there 
attached  him  more  and  more  to  his  teachers,  so  that  no 
pcTMCution  could  prevail  upon  him  to  change  his  views^ 
He  was  associated  with  Tillemont,  Lema'istre,  Amaud, 
D'AndiUy,  and  others.  When  imprisoned  in  1666  in 
the  Bastile,  he  found  there  De  Sacy,  who  was  a  great 
comfort  to  him.  He  died  in  1698,  leaving  Vie  de  Bar^ 
thslemy  des  Martyrs  (Paris,  1668)  i^Vie  de  Thomas  de 
Camtorhery  (1674) :  —  ttvde  sur  TertuUien  et  Ortgene 
(1675): — Vie  des  Saints,  comprising  only  the  months 
of  January  and  February : — also  commentaries  on  Num- 
bersi  Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  Kuth,  Psalms,  and  the  Goe- 
pela.  His  Mimoires  were  published  at  Utrecht  in  1789. 
Se«  Lichtenbeiger,  Eneydop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses, 
a.  r.     (a  P.) 

Dnguesnay,  Alfred,  a  French  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  bom  at  Rouen  in  1814,  was  for  many  years  pas- 
tor of  the  Church  of  St.  I^urent,  in  Paris,  made  bbhop 
of  limoges  in  1871,  and  died  Sept.  15, 1884. 

I>il]il]iajja,  the  last  of  the  four  sacred  months  of 
the  Mohammedans,  the  month  in  which  the  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca  is  performed. 

Dnilech  (or  Donlaoh),  an  Irish  saint  of  Clochar, 
near  Dublin,  commemorated  Nov.  17. 

Daimecb,  an  Irish  virgin  of  Loch-Cuan,  in  Ulster, 
oommcmotated  Aug.  6. 

Dnitich,  Christiah  Solomon,  a  Protestant  minis- 
ter, was  bora  of  Jewish  parentage  atTemesvar,  in  Hun- 
gary, in  1784.  According  to  the  fashion  of  that  time, 
his  education  was  entirely  Talmudical.  In  1760  he  re- 
eaved  the  degree  of  ''morenu,"  or  rabbinical  doctor; 
and  being  the  son-in-law  of  a  wealthy  Jew,  he  had  ev* 
erything  that  an  ambitious  Jew  could  desire.  He  de- 
voted the  whole  of  hu  time  to  the  study  of  the  Talmud 
and  the  Midrashim,  but  many  a  passage  treating  of  the 
Messiah,  repentance,  and  conversion  led  him  to  a  dili- 
gent examination  of  Christianity.  Without  entering 
upon  the  history  of  his  inner  struggles,  which  is  given 
in  his  interesting  Z>ewoiMi!er/(/iite  Leidinge  Gods  and  /Jet 
Veroolg  van  de  womderUjke  Leidinge  Gods  (Amsterdam, 
1767-69 ;  new  ed.  Nijkerk,  1870),  we  will  state  that  on 
Jane  25, 1767,  he  was  openly  baptized  at  Amsterdam. 
Dnitsch  now  betook  himself  to  the  study  of  theology, 
■nd  having  been  duly  prepared,  entered  the  Utrecht 
University,  where  he  attended  the  theological  lectures 
for  aiz  years.  On  April  16, 1776,  he  passed  his  exam- 
faiACaon ;  and  a  year  later,  April  14, 1777,  was  elected 
patfor  at  Mydrecbt,  where  he  died,  Nov.  15, 1797.  He 
wrote,  IsraUs  Verlossinge  en  eenwige  Behoudenis  (Am- 

XII.— U 


steidam,  1769-96).    Sec  FUrst,  in  Delitasch's  Saat  axtf 
Hoffnung,  1875,  p.  3  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Dilke,  Richard,  an  English  divine  and  poet,  was 
educated  at  Westminster  School  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  became  a  fellow  about  1682  Hav- 
ing been  ordained,  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Blaby,  in  Leicestershire ;  in  1687  made  a  prebendary 
of  Gloucester;  and  in  1688  chosen  a  proctor  in  convo. 
cation  for  that  Church ,  and  was  chaplain  to  queen  Anne. 
In  1710  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Witney,  in 
Oxfordshire.  He  died  Feb.  10  of  the  same  year.  He 
published  three  Sermons  in  his  lifetime ,  the  first,  on  The 
Imitation  of  Christ,  preached  before  the  queen  in  1703; 
the  other  two  were  preached  in  1704.  See  Chalmers, 
Biog,  Diet,  s.  v.;  Alllbouc,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer, 
Authors^a,  v. 

Dula,  a  mart}T  at  NicometUa,  commemorated  March 
25. 

Da  Zian,  Jean  Marie,  a  French  prelate  and  theo- 
logian, bom  Oct.  80,  1738,  was  general  agent  of  the 
clergy,  and  became  archbishop  of  Aries  in  1775.  Hav- 
ing opposed  the  French  Revolution,  he  was  arrested,  af- 
ter Aug.  10,  and  imprisoned  in  the  convent  of  the  Car- 
melites, in  Rue  de  Vaugirard,  where  he  was  assassinated, 
Sept.  2, 1792.  He  wrote,  A  dresse  au  Roi  (Paris,  1792) : 
— Recueil  de  Mandements  et  litres  Pastorales  (Aries, 
1795).  His  complete  works  were  published  by  Jacques 
Constant  (ibid.  1817).  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog.  Gend- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Dtiloidias  (also  Duloius,  Doox,  or  Douoia). 
(1)  Saint,  third  bishop  of  Agen,  in  the  province  of  Bor- 
deaux,- probably  in  the  5th  century,  u  commemorated 
Oct.  17 ;  (2)  eighteenth  bishop  of  Anicium  (le  Puy  en 
YeUy),  A.D.  705;  (8)  tenth  bishop  of  Tonl,  between 
A.D.  632  and  539;  (4)  a  Spanish  prehue  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury, was  a  priest  at  Toledo,  when  he  was  sent,  in  888, 
by  Alfonso  III  of  Castile,  to  Abub-Ali,  the  chief  of  the 
Siaracens,  and  on  his  return  was  raised  to  the  sec  of  To- 
ledo. Joseph  Pellicer  published,  as  a  work  of  Dulcidius, 
an  old  chronicle  written  in  Latin  (Barcelona,  1663). 
See  Hoefer,  A^our.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

DUlcken,  Amton,  a  Carthusian  monk  and  ascetic 
writer,  was  bom  at  Cologne  about  1560,  and  died  as 
prior  of  the  Carthusians  at  Freiburg,  Oct.  1,  1623. 
His  works  are  mostly  translations  of  ascetical  writings, 
originally  written  in  Italian,  Spanish,  and  French. 
See  Hartzheim,  Bibliotheca  Colomtensis,  p.  20 ;  ^etreji, 
BiUiotheea  Cnrthus,  p.  10 ;  Keasel,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welters 
Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

DullanistB,  a  sect  of  Arians,  so  called  from  using 
the  wonl  ^oOXoc  to  describe  the  relation  of  the  Son  to 
the  Father. 

Dulkaada,  one  of  the  four  sacred  months  of  the 
Mohammedans.  This  month  is  sacred  as  being  devoted 
to  preparation  for  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

Dullaphel,  an  Arabian  legendary  prophet,  said  to 
have  existed  before  Christ,  and  to  have  restored  twenty 
thousand  persons  to  life  at  one  time. 

DmnbneBS.  The  Apostolical  Canons  excommuni- 
cate any  cleric  who  mocks  the  deaf,  dumb,  or  blind. 
These  three  classes  are  excluded  from  the  episcopate, 
not  as  defiled,  but  that  the  proceedings  of  the  Church 
should  not  be  hindered.  The  capacity  of  the  dumb  to 
receive  the  sacraments  or  accept  a  penance  was  the  sub- 
ject of  some  controversy.  A  whole  work  of  Fnlgentius 
is  devoted  to  the  question  of  the  validity  of  the  baptism 
of  an  Ethiop  catechumen  after  the  loss  of  his  voice,  and 
he  concluded  that  it  was  entitled  to  the  same  validity 
as  that  of  an  infanL  This  view  prevsiled  in  the  Church. 
Among  other  canonical  authorities,  the  first  Council  of 
Orange,  A.D.  441,  enacted  that  a  person  suddenly  losing 
his  voice  might  be  baptized  or  accept  a  penance,  if  his 
previous  will  thereto  could  be  proved  by  the  witness  of 
others,  or  his  actual  will  by  his  nod.    So  the  second 


DUMONT 


306 


DUNCAN 


Coancil  of  Aries  (A.D.  452)  to  the  stme  effect  as  regards 
baptism.  According  to  one  of  Ulpian's  Fragmaits,  the 
dumb  could  not  be  a  witness  nor  make  a  testament. 
By  a  constitution  of  Justinian,  A.D.  531,  deaf  mutes 
were  declared  incapable  of  making  a  will  or  codicil,  or 
conferring  a  freedom,  unless  the  infirmity  should  not  be 
congenital,  and  they  should  have  learned  to  write  be- 
fore it  occurred,  in  which  case  they  could  exercise  these 
lights  by  writing  under  their  own  hand.  The  dumb 
were  in  all  coses  allowed  to  do  so  by  such  writing.  It 
was,  however,  held  by  the  old  law  that  the  dumb,  as 
well  as  the  deaf  and  blind,  could  lawfully  contract  mar- 
riage, and  become  subject  to  dotal  obligations.  Deaf 
mutes  were  held  excused  from  civil  honors,  but  not  from 
civic  charges.  But  the  dumb  might  lawfully  decline  a 
guardianship  or  curatorship.  See  Smith,  Dic(,  o/ChrisL 
Aniiq,  B,  v. 

Dumont,  A.  IL,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  New  York  in  1798.  He  was  educated  at  Co- 
lumbia College,  and  studied  theology  in  the  seminary 
at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  His  first  pastorate  was  near 
Albany,  N.  Y.  j  in  1841  he  became  pastor  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Morristown,  N.  J. ;  in  1845  he  re- 
moved to  Newport,  R.  I.,'  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  interests  of  education,  and  perfected  the  public- 
school  system  which  Newport  to  this  day  enjoys.  He 
died  July  5, 1865.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  ffitL  Almanac, 
1866,  p.  100. 

Don  (Lat  Dunmu),  eleventh  bishop  of  Rochester, 
A.D.  741. 

Dnnan  (Lat.  Danatus),  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Dublin,  and  by  the  aid  of  Sitric,  the  king,  built  the 
Cathedral  of  the  Holv  Trinity,  afterwards  c^ed  Christ 
Church,  in  that  city,'  in  1088.  He  died  May  6,  1074. 
See  D'Alton,  Memoirt  of  the  Abp»,  of  DubUn^  p.  26. 

Dnnbar,  Colamba,  n  Scotch  prelate,  was  dean  of 
the  Church  of  Dunbar  about  1411.  He  was  promoted 
to  the  see  of  Moray  in  1429,  and  died  in  1435,  while  on 
his  return  from  the  Council  of  Basle.  See  Keith,  Scot- 
tish  Bishopgf  p.  143. 

Dunbar,  Qavln  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  dean  of 
Moray  in  1488,  and  contiimed  there  till  March  18, 1503, 
when  he  was  made  archdeacon,  and  lord-register  of  St. 
Andrews,  which  offices  he  filled  fifteen  years,  and  then 
became  bishop  of  Abenieen,  in  1618.  lie  died  March 
9,  1532.  It  is  said  that  this  bishop  was  the  first  to  ad- 
vise Hector  Boece  to  write  his  history  of  Scotland.  He 
built  a  bridge  over  the  river  Dee,  consisting* of  seven 
arches,  and  endowed  a  hospital  for  twelve  poor  men, 
with  a  preceptor,  in  1581.  See  Keith,  Scottish  BishopSf 
p.  119. 

Dunbar,  Gavin  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  early 
preferred  to  the  priory  of  Whitehern,  in  Galloway,  and 
at  the  same  time  became  instructor  to  the  young  king 
James  V.  He  was  made  bishop  of  Glasgow  Dec  22, 
1524;  in  1526  one  of  the  privy  council,  and  Aug.  21, 
1528,  lord  chancellor,  continuing  in  this  last  oflSce  un- 
til 1543.  Having  then  some  leisure  time,  he  built  the 
stately  gate-house  at  his  episcopal  palace  in  Glasgow. 
He  died  April  30, 1547.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  256. 

Dunbar,  T77illiani  (1),  a  Scotch  poet  and  monk, 
was  bom  at  Salton,  East  Lothian,  about  1465,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews.  He  afterwards 
became  a  Franciscan,  and  travelled  in  Scotland,  England, 
and  France,  as  a  preacher.  He  was  for  some  time  in  the 
diplomatic  service  of  James  IV,  and  resided  at  his  court 
as  a  pensioner.  He  died  in  1580.  His  poetry  began  to 
be  made  known  to  the  public  about  the  beginning  of  the 
last  century.  His  principal  allegorical  poems  are.  The 
Thistle  and  the  Rose:-^The  Dance  of  the  Seven  Deadly 
Sins  through  neU:—ta\^  The  Golden  Terge,  Critics 
speak  in  the  highest  praise  of  his  poetry,  some  of  them 
placing  him  in  the  very  front  rank  of  Scottish  poets. 


See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Authors,  a.  v.; 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Dunbar,  William  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
was  tutor  in  the  family  of  M'Neill;  licensed  to  preach 
in  1804;  presented  to  the  living  at  Applegarth,  and 
ordained  May  7,  1807;  nominated  moderator  of  the 
Assembly  in  1889,  but  declined  the  honor,  and  died  Jan. 
6, 1861,  ag^i  eighty-one  years.  He  published,  in  the 
Naturalises  Library,  "The  Natural  Histor>'  of  Bees" 
(Edinb.  1840):— and  An  Account  of  the  Parish  of  Ap- 
plegarth.     See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scotioan€e,  i,  644. 

Duncan,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Dunkcld 
in  1351,  and  also  in  1354.  He  probably  died  in  that 
see  in  1863.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  84. 

Dtmoan,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
brother  of  David,  minister  at  Stow,  was  licensed  to 
preach  Jan.  7, 1785;  called  to  the  living  at  Traquair, 
and  ordained  assistant  and  successor,  Sept.  12,  1788; 
transferred  to  Smailholm,  Oct  26, 1743;  and  died  Sept. 
29,  1795,  aged  eighty-six  years.  He  published,  A  Prt- 
serrative  against  the  Principles  of  Infidelity  (Edinb. 
1774)  i—The  Devout  Communicants  Assistant  (Berwick, 
1792) : — The  Evidence  of  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus,  a 
sermon  (Edinb.  1788):— r<6e  History  of  the  Revolution 
ofl68S  (ibid.  1790)  i^Miseellaneous  Essays  (1799)  :->.4  n 
A  ccount  of  the  Parish  of  Smailholm,  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
Scoticante,  i,  257,  582. 

Duncan,  Andrew,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son 
of  Patrick,  minister  at  Tibbermore;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  July,  1778 ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Aucb- 
terardcr,  and  ordained  Sept  6, 1781 ;  elected  Presbytery 
clerk  in  November,  1784,  which  office  he  held  to  Jan. 
3,  1792;  transferred  to  Ratho  Feb.  1,  1803;  elected 
principsil  derk  to  the  Creneral  Assembly  May  21, 1807; 
elected  moderator  to  the  General  Assembly  in  May, 
1824,  and  died  July  29, 1827,  aged  seventy-one  years. 
He  published,  The  Benefits  of  Christianity,  a  sermon 
(Edinb.  1806): — An  Account  of  Auchterarder,  See 
Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticanas,  i,  141 ;  ii,  748. 

Duncan,  Daniel,  D.D.,  an  English  clerg>'roan, 
wrote  Collects  upon  the  Principal  Artides  of  the  Chris- 
tian  Faith,  according  to  the  Order  of  the  Catechism  of 
the  Church  of  England  (1754):— and  other  religious 
tracts.  He  died  in  1761.  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet, 
xii,  447;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors, 
s.  V. 

Duncan,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  third 
son  of  Rev.  George  Duncan,  was  educated  fint  at  home, 
then  at  an  academy  at  Dumfries,  and  completed  his  stud- 
ies successively  at  the  universities  of  St.  Andrews,  Glas- 
gow, and  Edinburgh,  at  the  last  of  which  he  was  associ- 
ated with  Henry  Brougham,  Homer,  and  Petty  (Marquis 
of  Lansdowne).  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  August, 
1798;  presented  to  the  living  at  Ruthwell  in  May,  and 
ordained  Sept  19,  1799;  was  elected  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  in  May,  1839;  joined  the  Free  Seces- 
sion, and  signed  the  deed  of  demission,  May  24, 1848; 
and  died  Feb.  19,  1846,  aged  seventy-one  years.  He 
superintended  the  education  of  many  young  gentlemen 
in  the  manse,  with  that  of  his  own  family;  formed  an 
auxiliary  Bible  society  in  Dumfries  in  181*0;  and  found- 
ed a  parish  savings  bank.  Among  his  numerous  publi- 
cations are,  A  Pamphlet  on  the  Socinian  drntrorersy 
(Liverpool,  1791) :— three  separate  Sermom: — six  sep- 
arate lAtters  on  popular  passing  events:— i4n  Essay  on 
the  Nature  and  Advantages  of  Parish  Banks  (1815)  :— 
T*he  Young  South  Country  Weaver: — WilUam  Douglas 
(Edinb.  1826,8  vols.): — Account  of  the  Runic  Monument 
at  Ruthwell  Manse  (19SS)  t^Saered  Philosophy  of  the 
Seasons  (Edinb.  1885, 4  vols,).  He  originated  and  wrote 
for  the  Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor;  likewise  the 
Dun^ries  and  Galloway  Courier,  and  edited  it  for  seven 
years,  being  the  principal  proprietor  thereoC  He  also 
edited,  for  a  time,  the  Dumfries  Journal,  See  FasH 
Ecdes,  Seoticana,  i,  626,  627. 


DUNCAN 


807 


DUNLAP 


I>ii]ioaii,  John  (1)»  D.D.,  an  English  deigynum, 
aoo  of  Dr.  Daniel  Doncan,  was  bora  in  1720,  and  educated 
at  St  John's  College,  Oxford.  In  1745  and  1746  he  was 
chaplain  to  the  king's  regiment,  and  was  present  at  va* 
lions  battles  in  Scotland.  In  1768  be  was  presented  to 
the  college  living  of  South  Warnboroogh,  Hants,  which 
he  held  forty-five  years.  He  died  at  Bath,  Dec.  28, 
1808.  His  pablications  include  an  Estay  on  Jfappi' 
■csf,  a  poem: — Addreu  to  the  Rational  Advocates  of 
ike  Ckitrek  of  England;  and  other  works.  See  Chid- 
mers,  Biog,  DieL  xii,  447;  Allibone,  Did,  of  BrU,  and 
Awur,  AwtkoTMy  s.  v. 

Dunoaii,  John  (2),  LL.D^  a  Scotch  Presbyterian, 
preached  successively  at  Maidstone,  in  Kent ;  at  Tad- 
ley,  Hampshire;  and  at  Wimborne,  in  Dorset.  He  re- 
moved to  London  about  1790,  and  was  chosen  minister  at 
the  Peter  Street  Church,  Soho,  where  he  remained  some 
years  in  the  present  century.  See  Wilson,  IHsteniing 
CkMrchet,  iv,  37. 

Dnnoaii,  John  (8),  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
was  ordained,  April  ^,  1836,  the  first  minister  of  the 
Church  extension  parish  of  Milton,  presbytery  of  Glas- 
gow; resigned  his  parish  work  in  October,  1840;  was 
set  apart  as  missionary  to  the  Jews,  May  16,  1841 ; 
joined  the  Free  Secession  in  1843,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  the  college  at  Edin- 
burgh the  same  year.  He  died  Feb.  26, 1870.  Dr.  Dun- 
can published  a  Lecture  on  the  Jeictf  and  Lettere  in  the 
Home  ami  Fore^  Missionary  Record,  See  Fasti  Ec^ 
ties,  Seotiamce,  ii,  46;  £(/«,  by  David  Brown  (Edin- 
burgh, 1872> 

Duncan,  John  (4),  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in.  Scotland,  OcLl4, 1812.  He  was  converted  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  while  attending  an  academy  at 
Huntley,  and  became  a  member  of  an  Independent 
Church  in  hia  native  place.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  early  manhood,  and  joined  a  Baptist  church 
in  Troy,  N.  Y.  The  Church  in  Stillwater  licensed  him 
to  preach,  Sept.  29, 1838,  and  he  was  ordained  in  Cohoes, 
May  22, 1839.  He  had  two  or  three  pastorates  in  the 
8Ute  of  New  York,  and  then  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  for  several 
years.  In  18&4  he  was  called  to  the  First  Church  in 
Ctmden,  X.  J.,  and  next  to  South  Boston,  his  ministry 
here  being  between  five  and  six  years.  His  other  pas- 
torates were  in  West  Cambridge  and  Fall  River,  Mass. ; 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Essex,  Conn. ;  and  Mansfield,  Mass. 
April  5^  1888,  bis  health  suddenly  gave  wav,  and  he 
died  July  28, 1884.     See  The  Watchman,  Aug.  14, 1884. 

(J.  a  a) 

Duncan,  Robert  (1),  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  bom 
at  Edinburgh  in  February,  1699 ;  graduated  from  Edin- 
burgh University  in  June,  1718;  after  studying  theol- 
ogy, went  to  the  Continent  as  a  tutor  to  the  brother  of 
the  earl  of  Rothes,  and  pursued  the  study  of  divinity 
and  law  at  the  University  of  Groningen,  where  he  rupt- 
ured a  blood-vessel  internally,  but,  recovering,  was  prom- 
ised advancement  to  remain.  He  preferred  to  return  to 
Scotland,  And  was  licensed  at  Edinburgh,  in  October, 
1726.  During  his  preaching  at  St.  Cuthbert's  Chnrch, 
in  Edinburgh,  he  strained  his  voice,  from  which  cause 
his  complaint  returned;  after  resting,  he  was  called 
to  the  living  at  TUlioooltrv  in  October,  1727,  and  or- 
<lained  Jan.  25, 17281  He  died  May  18, 1729.  He  pre- 
pared  for  publication  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hfhreits  (Edtnborgh,  1781).  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Sooti- 
COM,  ii,  740. 

Donoan,  Robert  (8),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
was  licensed  to  preach  March  27, 1776 ;  presented  to  the 
living  at  Dandonald  in  April,  and  ordained  Sept.  11, 
1783;  and  died  April  14, 1816;  He  published,  Injidel- 
il9  the  Growing  Evil  of  the  Times,  a  sermon  (Ayr,  1794) : 
-An  Account  of  the  Parish  of  Dundonald.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes.  Scotieana,  ii,  118. 

Dnnoan^'Willlam  Caoil,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  the  city  of  New  York,  Jan.  24^1824;  gradoated 


from  Columbia  College  in  1844,  and  from  the  theological 
department  of  Madison  University  in  1846;  became  ed^ 
iter  of  the  Southwestern  Baptist  Chronicle  at  New  Or^ 
leans,  and  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  there.  In 
1851  he  became  professor  of  ancient  languages  in  the 
University  of  Louisiana,  and  in  1858  pastor  of  the 
Coliseum  Baptist  Church  in  the  same  city.  He  died 
there.  May  1, 1864.  Among  his  published  writings  are 
a  work  on  baptism  and  a  translation  of  Von  Rhoden's 
John  the  Baptist.  See  Appleton's  Annual  Cyclop,  iv, 
866 ;  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  849.     (J.  a  S.) 

Dunohadk  (Lat.  Donatus%  an  Irish  saint,  com- 
memorated May  i^,  was  the  son  of  Cennfaedlakh,  and 
abbot  of  ll3',A.D.  706. 

Dnncker,  Haxs  Gottfried  Ludwio,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  Aug.  17, 
1810.  He  studied  at  Gdttingen  and  Berlin.  In  1886 
he  commenced  his  academicid  lectures  at  Gdttingen ; 
was,  in  1848,  professor  extraordinarius,  and  In  1854,  or- 
dinarius;  and  died,  doctor  of  theology  and  member  of 
consistory,  Nov.  7, 1875.  He  la  the  author  of,  Bistorim 
Doctrina  de  Raiione,  Qum  Inier  Pecoatiun  Originale  et 
Actuate  Iniereedit  (Gdttingen,  1837):--Z>flf  heiHgen  Ire- 
naus  Christ<aogis  (ibid.  1848):  — Zvr  GesckichU  der 
christL  LogoMtre  (ibid.  1848).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol 
1,299.     (a  P.) 

Dnncombe,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
bom  in  1730^  and  educated  at  Benet  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  chosen  fellow  in  1750;  and,  in  1758,  or- 
dained at  Kew  chapel,  and  appointed  to  the  curacy  of 
Sundridge,  in  Kent,  after  which  he  became  assistant 
preacher  at  St  Annexe,  Soho.  In  1757  he  was  present- 
ed to  the  united  livings  of  St  Andrew  and  St  Mary 
Bredman,  in  Canterbury,  where  he  settled,  and  in  1766 
became  one  of  the  six  preachers  in  the  cathedral.  He 
died  in  1785.  His  publications  in  both  prose  and  poetry 
are  very  numerous.  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  AuthorSf  s.  v. 

Dnndemore,  Stephkn  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
the  descendant  of  an  ancient  family  in  Fifeshire,  and  is 
by  some  called  Dundee,  He  was  chancellor  of  the  see 
of  Glasgow,  and  afterwards,  in  1817,  elected  bishop; 
but,  being  an  enemy  to  the  English  interest,  king  Ed- 
ward II  would  not  consent  to  his  appointment  He 
was  never  consecrated,  but  is  said  to  have  died  on  his 
way  to  Rome.    See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  242. 

Dundumore,  Thomas  dk,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
bishop  of  Ross  in  1309,  and,  together  with  the  other 
bishops,  recognized  the  title  of  king  Robert  Brace  to 
the  crown  of  Scotland  in  the  same  year.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  187. 

Dunkan,  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  bish- 
op of  the  Isles,  May  21,  and  consecrated  Nov.  25, 1875. 
He  died  in  1880.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  804. 

Dnnkarton,  Robert,  a  reputable  English  roez- 
sotint  engraver,  was  bora  about  1744  He  executed 
a  large  number  of  plates  in  London,  among  which  are 
the  following:  Lot  and  his  Daughters;  Christ  and  the 
Disciples  at  Emmaus ;  and  four  subJecU  from  the  life  of 
Joseph.    See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,»,y, 

Dunkel,  Johamm  Gottlob  Wilrelh,  a  Reformed 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  K5then,  Sept  28, 
1720.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  philosophy  in  1789.  In  1744  he  was  pastor 
at  Diebzig,  near  Kothen,  and  in  1748  at  Wulfen  and 
Dronen,  in  the  county  of  Anhalt-K5then.  He  died 
Sept  8, 1759,  leaving,  Historisch-hritische  Nachrichten 
von  verstorbenen  Gelehrten  (Kothen,  1758-^0, 8  vols.)  :— 
Theod,  DassovH  de  Vacea  Rufa  Opusculum  (Leipsic, 
1758).  See  Ddring,  Die  gekhrten  Theologen  Deutsche 
lands,  i,  847  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Dunlap,  Jamea,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Chester  County,  Pa.,  in  1744;  educated  at 
New  Jersey  College ;  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Donegal 


DUNLAP 


308 


DUPRE 


J 


Presbytery  in  1776;  in  1808  called  to  the  presidency  of 
Jefferson  College,  Cannonsburg,  Pa. ;  in  1812  resigned 
on  account  of  increasing  infirmities,  and  died  Nov.  12, 
1818.    See  Sprague,  A  tmaU  of  the  A  mer,  Pulpitf  iii,  422. 

Danlap, William,  an  eminent  American  painter, 
was  bom  at  Perth  Amboy  in  1786.  He  commenced 
painting  portraits  in  crayons  at  the  age  of  nzteen.  The 
next  year  he  spent  some  time  near  Princeton,  N.  J., 
then  the  headquarters  of  Washington.  Here  he  saw 
the  general  oAen,  and  painted  his  portrait  and  that 
of  his  wife.  He  resided  three  years  in  London,  and 
returned  to  America  in  1787.  In  1821  he  began  the 
picture  of  Christ  Befectedt  at  New  York.  He  afterwards 
painted  the  Bearing  of  the  Crou  and  the  Calvary, 
which  was  considered  his  best  production,  and  gained 
him  considerable  reputation.  Mr.  Dunlap  wrote  a  Hu- 
tory  of  the  Rite  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  in  the  United 
States  (1884,2  vols.  8vo),  and  a  History  of  the  Stage  in 
the  United  States  (2  vols.  dvo).  He  died  in  1885.  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  /list,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Dunlop,  WiLUAM,  an  English  clergyman,  was  bora 
in  Glasgow  in  1692.  In  1712  he  went  to  Utrecht,  where 
he  spent  two  years,  and  in  1716  was  promoted  to  be 
regius  professor  of  divinity  and  church  history.  He 
of&n  preached  in  the  churches  at  Edinburgh.  He  died 
there  in  1720.  His  works  are  Sermons  (2  vols.  12mo), 
and  an  £ssay  on  Confession  qf  Faith.  See  Chalmers, 
Biog.  Diet  &  v. ;  AUibone,  Diet,  ofBriL  and  A  mer.  A  u- 
thorSf  s.  V. 

Dtum,  Robinaon  Potter,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Newport,  R,  I.,  May  81, 1825.  He 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1844,  with  the 
honors  of  his  class,  and  from  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1848.  He  was  lipensed  the  same  year,  and 
began  preaching  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Cam- 
den, N.  J.  In  1851  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  rhet- 
oric and  English  literature  in  Brown  University.  He 
died  at  Newport,  B.  I.,  Aug.  28, 1867.  Dr.  Dunn  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  Princeton  Review  trndBibliO' 
theca  Sacra ;  and  translated  and  edited  one  volume  of 
Lange*s  Commentary  on  the  Old  Test,  See  Wilson,  Presb. 
Hist,  Almanac,  1868,  p.  84. 

Dtum,  Samuel,  a  veteran  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister,  was  bom  at  Mevagissey,  Corowall,  EngUnd,  Feb. 
13, 1798.  He  was  converted  at  fourteen  years  of  age, 
licensed  in  1817,  and  in  1819  joined  the  Conference  at 
Bristol  In  1822  he  went  as  missionary  to  the  Shetland 
Isles,  in  response  to  an  appeal  from  Adam  Clarke.  After 
an  eminently  successful  missionary  work,  he  returned 
and  served  the  following  circuits:  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
Bochdale,  Manchester,  Sheffield,  Lancaster,  Edinburgh, 
Camborae,  Dudley,  Halifax,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Not^ 
tingham.  In  1849  he  was  expelled,  with  two  others, 
as  the  result  of  the  **  Fly-sheet  Controversy,"  which 
event  had  no  bearing  upon  his  moral  character,  but 
was  the  occaffion  of  one  of  the  largest  secessions  from 
English  Wesleyanism.  A  fine  church  was  built  for  him 
at  Camborae,  which  be  served  from  1850  to  1861.  In 
1862  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Sheffield,  where 
he  remained  until  1864.  In  1865  he  came  to  America 
and  preached  in  pulpits  that  were  opened  to  him.  He 
joined  the  New  York  East  Conference  in  1867,  and  be- 
came superannuated  the  same  year,  in  which  relation 
he  continued  until  his  death,  Jan.  24, 1882.  His  life 
was  one  of  great  usefulnesai  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Conferences,  1882,  p.  76. 

Dmister,  Charles,  an  EngUsh  clergyman,  was  rec- 
tor of  Petworth,  Sussex.  He  published  some  works  on 
literary  criticism,  and  Observations  on  Luke's  Gospel 
(1805)  i^On  Matthew's  Gospel  (1806) ;  and  other  works. 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Dupanloap,  Felix  Antoine  Philibbrt,  a  French 
prelate,  was  bora  at  St.  F61ix  (old  department  of  Mont 
Blanc),  Jan.  8, 1802.  He  studied  at  Paris,  was  ordained 
priest,  and  acquired  the  reputation  of  a  good  preacher 


and  catechist  In  1841  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
sacred  eloquence  in  the  theological  faculty  of  Paris,  and 
attracted  to  the  Sorbonne  large  audiences.  Archbishop 
Affre  appointed  him  grand  vicar,  and  he  also  held  sev' 
eral  court  offices.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Orleans 
in  1849,  and  died  Oct.  11,  1878.  Dupanloup  was  an 
earaest  advocate  of  education,  morality,  and  piety,  oc» 
copying  in  these  reg^ds  the  high  position  of  conser- 
vative  progress.  On  the  establishment  of  the  Roman 
republic  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  upon  the  temporal  sov- 
ereignty of  the  pope.  lu  1850  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  a  work  entitled  De  t Education,  which  has 
been  greatly  admired.  In  1854  he  took  the  place  of 
Tissot  in  the  Academic  Fran^aise.  On  the  occasion  of 
the  re-erection  of  the  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc  at  Orleans  he 
delivered  an  eloquent  panegyric  on  that  heroine.  His 
writings  are  enumerated  in  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GM^ 
rale,  s.  v.;  Yapereau,  Diet,  des  Contemporains,  s.  v.; 
and  were  published  collectively  as  (Euvres  Choisies 
(Paris,  1878-75,  7  vols.). 

Duperron,  Jacques  Davy,  a  French  prelate, 
nephew  of  another  of  ilie  same  name,  was  grand 
chaplain  to  Henrietta,  queen  of  England,  and  bishop 
of  Angouldme  and  of  £vreux.  He  died  Feb.  9, 1649. 
He  published  the  controversial  works  of  his  uncle. 

Dupont,  Jacques  Marie  AirroufK  Ci^lbstin,  a 
French  prelate,  was  bora  at  Iglesias,  Sardinia,  Feb.  2« 
1792,  of  a  French  family  settled  there.  He  studied 
first  at  Villa  Franca,  next  in  the  seminary  at  Nice,  and 
finally  in  that  of  St.  Irensus,  at  Lyons,  where  he  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1814;  became  private  secretary  to  car- 
dinal Colonna  d'Istria,  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  law,  and  was  received  as  dodor  in  uiroque  at  the 
University  of  Turin,  April  10,  1815.  In  1821  he  was 
appointed  canon  of  Sens,  in  1822  one  of  the  vicars-gen- 
eral of  the  same  diocese,  in  1828  bishop  in  partibus  of 
Samosata,  and  bishop  of  St.  Di6,  May  9,  1880;  was 
raised  to  the  metropolitan  see  of  Avignon,  May  1, 1839; 
in  1841  he  was  transferred  to  the  bishopric  of  Bourges, 
made  cardinal  in  1847,  and  died  May  27,  1859.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GSUrale,  s.  v. 

Duport,  Jamea*  D.D.,  son  of  the  following,  a 
learaed  Gnecist,  was  bora  in  1606 ;  educated  at  West- 
minster school  and  Trinity  College ;  became  professor 
of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in  1682;  prebend  in  Lincoln 
Cathedral  in  1641;  dean  of  Peterborough  in  1664; 
master  of  Magdalen  Collegei  Cambridge,  in  1668 ;  rec- 
tor of  Aston-Flamville  and  Burbach  about  1672,  and 
died  July  17, 1679,  leaving  numerous  clasucal  works  on 
ancient  literature,  for  which  see  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet, 
s.  V. 

Duport,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  bora 
at  Sbeepshead,  Leicestershire.  He  was  fellow,  then 
master,  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  once  proctor  (1580) 
and  three  times  vice^hancellor  of  that  university  (1590 
sq.),  and  prebendary  of  Ely  (1609).  He  died  in  1617. 
He  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the  king  James  vernoo 
of  the  Bible.    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  y. 

Dnprat,  Antoine,  a  French  prelate,  was  bora  at 
Issoire,  Anvergne,  Jan.  17,  1468 ;  educated  first  in  a 
Benedictine  abbey,  and  finally  under  the  direction  of 
archbishop  Boyer,  who  was  his  relative ;  was  soon  raised 
to  civil  office,  including  the  presidency  of  Parliament, 
and  eventually  became  chancellor  under  Francis  I.  He 
was  ordained  priest  in  1516,  soon  after  made  archbish- 
op of  Sens,  later  cardinal,  and  died  July  8, 1535.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ghth'ale,  s.  v. 

Dnprat,  Ghiillanme,  a  French  prelate,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  bora  in  1507 ;  became  bishop  of  Clermont 
in  1528,  and  distinguished  himself  among  the  French 
members  of  the  Council  of  Trenln  He  died  in  his  castle 
of  Beauregard  in  1560.  See  Hoefer,  JVovr.  Biog,  Gini^ 
rale,  s.  v. 

Dupre,  JoHH,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
about  1758,  and  died  in  1885.    He  published  Sermons 


DUPREAU 


809 


DURBIN 


(1782-87,  S  Tola.)  :-^Dueour$e$  (1816, 2  vols.).    See  Al- 
libooe,  IHeL  of  Brii,  and  A  mar,  A  utkort,  a.  v. 

Dnpreaa  (Lat  Prateolus),  Gabriel,  a  French  the- 
ologian, waa  bom  at  Marcoaaaia  in  1511.  He  taught 
theology  at  the  College  of  Navarre,  and  diatinguiahed 
himaelf  by  the  zeal  with  which  he  oppoaed  the  do&- 
trinea  of  Lather  and  Calvin.  He  died  at  Pironne, 
April  19,  1588,  leaving,  Du  Devoir  dun  Capiiainej 
tranalated  from  the  Latin  of  Claude  Cotereau  (Poitieri^ 
1 547) : — De  la  Puittance  et  Sapianx  de  Dim,  etc,  trana- 
lated from  the  Greek  (Paria,  1557)  i—Det  Faux  Pro- 
jfkHea  (ibid*  1564):  —  La  Synagogue  de  VAniechriti 
(ibid,  eod.)  :  —  and  eapecially  De  Sectii  llareticorum 
^btd.  1569),  with  othera,  for  which  aee  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.GiiUrale,s.v. 

Da  Pnia,  Matthias,  a  French  misaionary,  waa 
bom  in  Ficardy;  took  the  habit  of  a  Dominican  at 
Paria,  Ifarch  28,  1641,  and  waa  aent  in  1644  into  the 
miaaioa  6elda  of  America.  He  remained  at  Guadaloupe 
until  1650,  when  he  returned  to  France,  and  lived  auo- 
ceaaively  at  Caen,  Langrea,  and  Orleana,  at  which  laat 
place  he  died,  about  1655,  leaving  a  work  on  hia  miaaion 
(Caen,  1652).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  a.  v. 

Zhi  Pay,  Hagaefl»  a  French  cruaader,  went  to 
Pklcstine  in  1096  with  hia  wife  (the  aiater  of  ^verard 
de  Poiaieo)  and  three  aona.  He  waa  one  of  the  chief 
captaina  of  the  Chriatian  army.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Genirakj  a.  v. 

Da  Pay,  Raymond,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
•eoood  grand-maater  of  the  Knighta  of  Malta,  waa  born 
in  Dauphiny  about  1080.  He  entered  the  Hoapital  of 
SC  John  at  Jemaalero,  and  after  having  attended  on  the 
poor  and  the  aick  pilgrima  there  for  more  than  twenty 
yeara,  waa  elected  preaident  about  1121.  Du  Puy  or- 
ganised the  Knighta  of  Malta  into  a  military  body, 
designed  to  defend  the  holy  placea  againat  the  infidela. 
Then  hia  order  waa  divided  into  three  daaaea^  of  which 
the  firat  compriaed  all  noblemen,  the  aeoond  the  prieata 
and  chaplaina,  and  the  third,  under  the  name  of  eenf- 
img  brotiere,  private  peraona.  He  gave  them,  at  the 
same  time,  rulea,  which  were  confirmed  by  the  pope  in 
1127.  He  contributed  veiy  atrongly  to  the  taking  of 
Aaealon  in  1154,  and  defeated  with  hia  chevaliera  the 
saltan  at  the  battle  of  Konreddtn.  He  died  in  1160, 
from  the  effect  of  the  wounda  which  he  received  in  thia 
latter  engagement  He  haa  been  placed  among  the 
namber  of  the  aainta  of  the  order  of  Malta.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  a.  v. 

Daqaesne  (dlcard)^  Arnaud  Bkbmabd,  a  French 
theologian,  waa  bora  at  Paria  in  1782 ;  became  doctor 
in  the  Sorixmne,  vicar-general  of  Soiaaona,  and  treaa- 
nrer  of  the  Baatile,  and  died  in  hia  native  city  in  1791, 
leaving,  Retraile  SpiritueUe  (Paria,  1772)  i—VEvangile 
AfediU  (ibid.  1773) .—L'AmOe  Apoetolique  (ibid.  1791) : 
— Les  Grandeun  de  Marie  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Giairale,  a.  v. 

Daqaeanoy,  Frahcm  (called  tke  Fleming'),  a  rep- 
utable aculptor,  waa  bom  at  Bruaaela  in  1594,  and  went 
to  Italy  while  young  for  inatruction  in  the  art.  Hia 
ataiue  of  St  SuMotma,  for  the  Church  of  the  Madonna 
at  Loretto,  haa  been  highly  extolled.  For  the  baail- 
ica  of  St.  Peter's  be  executed  a  ooloaaal  atatue  of  St, 
Andrew,  which  ia  one  of  the  fineat  productiona  of  mod- 
em art.  He  died  at  Leghorn  in  1646.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s,  v.;  Spooner,  Biog,  Iliti,  of  the 
Fum  A  TtM,  a.  V. 

See  Pbofiat. 


Doruid,  a  French  Benedictine,  waa  bora  about 
1012  at  Neubourg,  in  the  diooeae  of  £vreux.  He  waa 
the  nephew  of  Gerard,  abbot  of  St,  Vandrille,  and  while 
yoang  adopted  the  rale  of  St.  Bernard  at  Rouen,  where 
he  atudied  philoaophy,  moaic,  and  theology,  ao  that  he 
became  well  known  among  the  preUtea  of  Normandy 
for  hia  learning.  William  the  Baatard  aent  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Martin  of  Troam,  in 


1059,  where  he  diatinguiahed  himaelf  for  the  mainte* 
nance  of  eodeaiaatical  diadpline.  He  had  a  very  fine 
and  atrong  voice,  and  oompoaed  many  chanta  and  an- 
thema.  Dnrand  died  about  1089,  in  hia  own  abbey, 
leaving  only  a  dogmatic  treatiae.  ealitled  Du  Corpi  et 
du  Saug  de  Jisut  Christ  (preceded  hf  about  nine  hun- 
dred hexameter  veraea,  and  printed  in  the  BibUotheca 
Maxima  Patrum,  xviii),  besidea  two  brief  epitapha. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  a.  v. 

Darand  (de  Maillane),  Pierre  TouasAurr,  a  fa- 
mooa  French  Juriat,  waa  bora  at  St.  Remy,  in  Provence, 
in  1729,  and  died  at  Alx  in  1814.  He  defended  the  righta 
of  the  Galilean  Church  againat  the  pietenaiona  of  the 
Roman  aee,  and  published  Dictiomtaire  de  Droit  Cano^ 
fdque  (Avignon,  1761,  and  ainoe) :— Institutes  du  Droit 
Canomque  (tranalated  from  the  Latin  of  Lancelot,  Lyona, 
1770, 8  vola.)  i^Les  Libert^  de  Vtglite  GaUicane  (ibid. 
1771, 5  vplf.).  See  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop,  des  Sciences 
Beligieuses,  a..v«    (B*  P.) 

Dorant^  Hebry,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational  minia- 
ter  and  teacher,  wai  bora  at  Acton,  Maaa.,  June  18, 1802 ; 
Studied  at  Phillipa  Academy,  Andover,  and  graduated 
ftom  Yale  College  in  1827;  for  two  yeara  thereafter  waa 
principal  of  the  Garriaon  Forreat  Academy,in  Baltimore 
Co.,  Md.;  and  in  1829  became  tutor  in  Yale  College. 
While  in  thia  poaition  he  punued  the  courae  of  atudy 
in  the  theological  aeminary,  and  graduated  in  1888. 
Dec  25  of  that  year  he  waa  ordained  paator  of  the  By- 
field  Church  (Newbur}'),  and  waa  diamiaaed  therefrom 
in  1849.  Meanwhile,  in  1847  and  until  1851,  he  waa 
principal  of  Dummer  Academy,  in  Byfield.  In  April, 
1853,  he  went  to  California,  and  in  June  following 
opened  the  achool  in  Oakland,  and  waa  ita  principal 
until  it  became  the  College  of  California  in  1854.  It 
waa  merged  in  the  Univenity  of  Califoroia  in  1869. 
Up  to  that  date  Dr.  Durant  had  been  profeaaor  of  an- 
cient languagea.  From  1870  to  1872  he  waa  preaident 
of  the  university,  but,  at  the  latter  date,  illneaa  com- 
pelled him  to  reaign.  He  died  in  Oakland,  Jan.  22, 
1875.    See  Cong,  QuaHerlg,  1876,  p.  423. 

Dorant,  John,  an  Engliab  nonconformiat  divine, 
waa  bora  in  1620,  and  ejected  in  1662.  He  publiahed, 
Salvation  of  the  SainU  (1658)  :^Six  Sermons  (1655)  :— 
Spiritual  Seamen  (eod.)  i— Comfort  and  Counsel  (1658) ; 
and  other  worka.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer, 
A  uihors,  a.  v. 

Darbin,  Johsi  Price,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Methodist 
Epiacopal  miniater,  waa  bora  in  Bourbon  County,  K}'., 
in  1800.  He  waa  converted  in  hia  eighteenth  year; 
aerved  aome  time  aa  local  preacher;  but,  becauae  of 
hia  vehement  atyle  of  deliver}*,  hia  health  gave  out,  and 
obliged  him  to  reaort  to  converaational  preaching  in  the 
cabina  of  hia  neighbora.  In  1820  he  entered  the  Ohio 
Conference,  and  waa  appointed  to  Greenville  Circuit; 
and  now,  on  the  aaddle,  he  began  hia  aearch  for  knowl- 
edge, straggling  through  varioua  books,  including  the 
English,  Latin,  and  Greek  grammars,  until  1822,  when 
he  waa  atationed  on  a  circuit  twelve  milea  from  Oxford, 
the  seat  of  the  Miami  University,  which  institution  he 
immediately  attended.  In  1825  he  entered  the  Cincin- 
nati College,  where  he  completed  his  course,  and  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  A.M.  After  being  seven  years  in 
the  ministry,  he  waa  elected  profeaaor  of  languagea  in 
AuguaU  College,  Ky.,  which  position  he  held  two  years. 
His  health  then  failing,  be  waa  appointed  agent  for  the 
college,  and  in  ita  behalf  visited  the  Eastern  cities.  II  is 
eloquence  made  him  famous,  and  aoon  his  name  was  suf- 
ficient to  call  together  thousands.  In  1832  he  was  elect- 
ed to  the  editorship  of  the  Christian  Advocate,  in  New 
York ;  in  1834  waa  transferred  to  the  New  York  Confer- 
ence, and  elected  president  of  Dickinson  College,  at  Car- 
lisle, Pa. ;  in  1836  waa  transferred  to  the  Philadelphia 
Conference,  of  which  he  remained  a  member  during  life. 
In  1842  and  1843  he  travelled  in  Europe  and  the  Eaat, 
and  publiahed,  aa  the  reault,  four  volumea  of  Observations, 
In  1844  he  waa  a  delegate  to  the  Greneral  Conference, 


DUBB 

irbcra  b«  [oak  in  Mtirt  put,  vtd  exbibitcd  gnat  ability 
in  tbe  contcat  conecmuig  lUrcr;.  Having  Tacaled  hia 
office  in  DiduiiKD  College,  he,  in  I8H),  wu  appainted  u 
miiHODiiy  KcraUiy,  uid,  under  bis  ciHitnl,  Hetliodiit 
Epiwopal  mininu  wen  extended  into  Cbina,  lodi*,  Ger. 
miny,  SwitierUnd,  Norviy ,  DeniDirk,S«edei],  Bulgeria, 
Italy,  and  Souti)  America  j  anil  the  Ch arch  entered  upon 
a  nev  aira  or  princely  giving.    He  died  Oct.  IS,  1876. 

American  edilion  of  Wood's  Stoiaic  Halory  oftkt  Cre- 
ation, icilh  Kolu  (8ru} ;  and  contributed  largely  to  ra- 
liou*  periodical!.  See  Mimkia  qfAnnuat  Con/ertBcri, 
1877,  p.  BS ;  SimpKin,  Cy^.  of  Mrlhoditm,  a.  r. 

DUre,  Georo  van  her  (better  kntnrn  aa  Georgiut 
Aporianai),  the  rerormer  of  KaU  Frieii,  waa  bam  at 
Zwolle,  and  died  at  Emden  in  1&S6.  Ha  was  the 
fint  who  npenly  opposed  the  Calholic  Cbuich  at  Em- 
den in  1619,  and  preached  againal  her  fratn  the  aame 
pulpit  in  which  the  doctrine  of  Rome  was  defended. 
DDre'a  influeace  caoaed  all  prieala  to  be  cupelled  rrom 
the  Roman  Catholic  churchet,  and  Emden  became  the 
nndeua  from  which  Protestant  miaionaries  were  acDt 
to  the  Netbetlande.  See  Heinden,  KerktUjkt  Amor- 
nraf,  p.  395;  Ypey  en  Decmont,  Gticliitdtsii  der  md. 
henormde  Kerk,  i,  34;  Harkenroht,  OoH/rieieke  oor- 
^tnngitUjaeiieo,  i,  136, 116  eq.;  ij,  609,  697;  ERgerik 
Beninga,  Chroi^  mat  Oatt/rialand,  p,  602;  Wiirda, 
Oilfriaitdke  GackidUt,  it,  B13  sq.,  S34  sq.;  Alberdingk 
Tbijni,  in  WeUer  u.  Welle's  Kirchm- Ltxiixm,  a.  v. 
(RP.) 

Dwel  <0T  Dnrell),  John,  D.D.,  a  learned  Engltah 
divine,  wai  bom  at  Su  Helier's,  in  the  isle  of  Jersey,  in 
1S26,  and  educated  at  Merton  Collie,  Oxford,  and  at 
SanmuT,  France.  He  wai  rainister  at  St.  Halo,  but 
came  to  England,  and  was  very  inatrumenUl  in  pub- 
lishing tbe  new  Episcopal  French  Cliuich  in  London, 
in  which  he  offidnted  for  some  yean.  In  April,  1668, 
he  was  made  prebendary  in  the  cathedral  of  Salisbury, 
and,  Feb.  II  followini;,  succeeded  lo  the  canourr  of 
Windsor.  July  1, 1668,  he  was  inatallcd  into  tbe  fourth 
prebend  of  Durham,  and  in  1677  was  giren  the  deanerv 
of  Windsor.  He  had  also  the  living  of  Witney,  in  Ox- 
fordabire,  conferred  upon  bin>.  He  died  June  0, 168S. 
His  works  are  nameiona.  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet. 
%.  V. ;  Atlibone,  Hiii.  of  Bril.  and  A  mer.  A  uOibt;  k  v. 

Dllrea  Cou»aLS  of  {Concilium  Dariaue),  held  at 
Duren,  near  Aix-la-Ch«pelle.  1,  In  A.D.  7*8,  under  Pe- 
pin, wiio  called  a  synod,  fbr  the  restoration  of  churches, 
and  (br  the  relief  of  the  poor.  S.  In  A.D.  761,  a  na- 
tional coundl  under  Pepin,  B.  In  A.D.  776,  under 
Charlemagne,  i.  Tn  A.D.  779,  under  Charlemsgne. 
The  council,  composed  of  hiahops,  nobles,  and  ahbnts, 
passed  twenty-four  capitnU  upon  discipline,  one  of  which 
enfoicea  payment  of  tithes. 

Dmfee,  Calvin,  D.D.,  a  Cungiegational  minister, 
was  bom  at  PiitaBelcl,  Maas.,  Oct,  G,  1797.  He  studied 
at  LcQOX  Academy:  graduated  at  Williams  College  in 
18!6i  studied  tbeologv  with  Dr.Woodbridge  of  Had- 
ley ;  was  ordained  in  Hunter,  N.  Y.,  April  31, 1838,  and 
served  that  church  until  August,  183G.  From  Mnrch 
S,  1836,  nntil  Julv  16,1861, be  was  pastor  in  South  Ded- 
ham  (now  Norwood),  Mass. ;  from  18at  to  1855.  acting 
pastor  in  Brooklyn,  O.;  from  lSa6  to  1868,  ananciol 
•gent  of  Williams  College ;  from  ISM  to  1866,  a  Iniitee 
of  Western  Re>cr\-e  College;  from  1800  to  1865,  acting 
pastor  in  Snuih  Will iamstown,  and  continued  Ii>  roidc 
at  WiUiamstown  until  his  death,  Nov.  30, 1879.  He 
was  also  a  member  of  the  New  England  Historic  Genea- 
logical  Society.  Besides  publiabing  various  discourses 
and  other  pamphlets,  he  iuued  a  Ilitlory  of  WUUumi 
CoUtgt  (1860):— FT^iumj'  Obiluary  Rtcord,  foumen 
pamphlets  (1866-79) ;—«iojraj>Aieai  Amalt  of  Will- 
iam CoUtgt  (1871).     Sec  Co^g.  YearJiook,  1880.  p.  17. 

DATgB,one  of  the  principal  forms  in  which  the  con- 
«ortarSiva(q,v.),  th«HiiHiagod,ianpresented.    She 


0  DURGA  PUJAH 

is  poMeased  of  great  power,  being  endowed  with  the 
distinctive  attribute*  of  all  tbe  gods.  She  is  generally 
represented  with  lea  anm,  each  of  which  is  supplied 
with  a  warUke  weapon.  She  obtained  the  name  of 
DQrga  in  tbe  following  manner:  In  remote  agea,  a 
giant  named  Durga,  baring  performed  austerities  of 
extraordinary  merit  in  honor  of  Brahma,  obtained  his 
blessing,  and  with  it  great  power.  He  conqoered  the 
three  worlds;  dethroned  all  the  gods  except  the  Tri- 
muTti;  banished  them  from  tbe  heavens  to  the  forests, 
and  compelled  them  to  worship  him.  Beligion  was 
abolished,  and  the  Brabmina  forsook  tbe  reading  of  the 
Vedaa.  Tbe  gods,  in  their  diatreae,  applied  to  Siva  for 
assistance,  and  be  prevailed  upon  Patvlti,  bia  wife,  to 
attempt  the  destruction  of  the  giant.    Sbe  undertook 


the  task.  Durga  set  out  la  meet  her  with  a  grea. 
army,  while  she  prepared  to  receive  his  attack  with  a 
thousand  arms.  A  great  conflict  ensued,  in  which  the 
giant  and  all  his  forces  were  destroyed.  The  gods  im- 
mediately ascended  their  hitherto  vacant  thrones,  and, 
in  return  for  ao  signal  a  deliverance,  immortaliied  tbe 
victory  hy  transferring  to  the  conquering  goddess  the 
name  otDiiga.  She  is  extensively  and  enthnaiastical- 
ly  worshipped  throughout  Eastern  India.  The  wealthy 
natives  have  images  of  DUrga  in  their  houses  made  of 
gold,  silver,  brass,  copper,  crystal,  alone,  or  mixeil  metal, 
which  are  daily  adored.  Her  Itn-anrnd  figure  is  ap- 
proached with  the  utmost  reverence.  On  either  side 
imagca  of  her  two  spns  are  usually  placed,  and  around 
her  are  commonly  represented  a  mnliitude  of  demigod- 
desses,  the  companions  of  Dbrga  in  her  wars.  Sbe  la 
regarded  as  tbe  patroneas  of  thieves  and  robbers,  who 
hold  her  in  great  veneration.  Fcr-  this  reason  the  Dsk- 
vits  or  bandita  of  Bengal  are  acnipulMia  in  their  devo- 
tions to  her,  and  before  setting  out  on  their  manuding 
excursions  dedicate  to  her  a  portion  of  the  spoils  to  be 
taken.  See  K*Li ;  Pahvati. 
Dl^KGA  POjab,  an  annual  festival  celebrated  among 

DOrga  (q.  v.).  It  lasts  flfteen  days,  twelve  of  which  ars 
devoted  to  prfparalion  and  three  to  icurdtp.  For  these 
inns  multitudes  of  images  are  ptrpanid,  of  a  com- 
position of  wood,  hay,  clay,  or  other  light  and  cheap 
material.  Tbey  vary  from  a  few  inches  to  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  in  height,  but  are  nsually  of  the  aiie  of  a 
human  body.    The  first  part  of  the  ceremony  cimsiWi 


DUBIE 


311 


DUTCH  VERSION 


in  the  eonaeention  of  the  idoli»  at  the  completion  of 
which  the  spirit  of  DArga  is  supposed  to  enter  the  im- 
age. Then  the  worship  of  the  goddess  commences  with 
great  energy  and  intense  devotion.  Every  oonoeivaUe 
ceremony,  gyration,  carousal,  dance,  and  sacrifice  is  per* 
formed  for  three  days  and  three  nights.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  fourth  day  the  idols  are  nnconsecrated,  and 
the  goddess  dismissed  from  her  earthly  habitation.  The 
owners  now  carry  these  images  forth  to  the  banks  of 
the  Ganges,  where,  after  various  rites  and  ceremonies, 
the  carriers  suddenly  make  an  assault  upon  them,  vio- 
lently break  them  in  pieces,  and  cast  their  broken  frag- 
ments into  the  depths  of  the  river.    See  Hinduism. 

Dnxie,  Asdrew,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  abbot 
of  Melroee  about  Sept.  24, 1627,  and  became  bishop  of 
Galloway  in  1541.  He  probably  died  in  September, 
l&o8.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Biikops,  p.  278. 

Dtizliiil,  in  None  mythology,  was  one  of  the  most 
famous  and  oldest  dwarfs,  whom  Odin  endowed  with 
human  form  and  powers  of  mind.  He  and  Modsognir 
were  excellent  workmen  in  metals. 

Dnriotdms,  sixth  bishop  of  Bennes,  about  the 
Diddle  of  the  7th  century. 

Dnrsch,  Johann  Gboro  Martin,  a  Roman  Cath- 
c^c  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1801.  Having 
liicted  as  professor  of  the  gymnasium  at  £hingen-on- 
the-Danube  for  fourteen  years,  he  was  in  1842  preacher 
at  Wurmlingen,  and  in  1850  at  Rottweil,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  22, 1881.  He  published,  Getckiehte  der  christL  Re- 
Uswm  und  Kirche  (Ehingen,  1834):— i><u  VerhaUnus 
der  Schule  zu  Kirche  und  Stoat  (Ulm,  1838):— ^4^- 
theiik  (Stuttgard,  1839)  i—AUgemeiner  Commentar  fiber 
die  Pealmen  (Carlsruhe,  \Wl)i-~8ymboUk  der  chriH- 
lichen  Region  (Tubingen,  1858,2  vols.):— Der  Sifmr 
boUsche  Ckarakter  der  chrittlichen  Rdtgion  und  Kunat 
(Schaifbausen,  1860).  See  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  iheol, 
IM.  ii,  31 3 ;  Zuchold,  BVA.  Theol,  i,  800.     (a  P.) 

Dutch  Version  op  the  Scriptures.  Dutch 
(sometimes  styled  "  Low  Dutch,"  to  distinguish  it  from 
*^  High  Dutch,"  or  German )  is  the  language  spoken 
by  all  classes  in  Holland.  It  is  also  used  to  a  great 
extent  in  South  Africa,  more  or  less  in  Java,  the  Mo- 
luccas and  the  other  Dutch  colonies,  and  among  the 
Dutch  colonists  in  the  United  States.  The  first  Dutch 
version  was  probably  the  one  published  at  Delft  in 
1477,  under  the  title  De  Bybd  dot  nive  Testament.  2 
Deele  .  .  .  tool  overgheset  ut  den  Latine  in  Duytsche 
(foL>.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  edition  was  followed 
by  others,  for  in  the  edict  published  Oct.  14, 1629,  at 
the  command  of  Charles  V,  three  editions  of  the  New 
Test,  are  mentioned,  which  were  condemned.  In  1528 
there  was  publuhed  by  W.  Vorstmann,  at  Antwerp,  De 
Bibel  Tgehede  ottde  ende  uieuwe  Testament  met  grooter 
naersHehegt  na  dem  lAXtijnschen  text  gecorrigeret.  This 
in  said  to  have  been  the  second  of  the  editions  of  the 
Bible  condemned  by  Charles  V,  because  they  were  de- 
aigned  for  Catholics.  In  1585  H.  Petersen  published, 
at  Antwerp,  Deg  bibel  Tgeheele  oude  ende  Kieutoe  Tes- 
tament, met  groter  neerstiehegt  ghecorrigeerf.  In  1560 
N.  Bieskens  van  Diest  published  Der  Bibd  inhoudende 
dai  oude  ende  Niettwe  Testament,  and  in  1568  L.  Kindem 
published  another  edition,  in  which  1  John  v,  7,  is  want- 
ing. This  edition  is  remarkable  as  having  been  printed 
op  de  yordsee.  In  1565  was  published  at  Emden,  in  fo- 
lio, Biblia  dot  is  de  gantsche  Heylighe  Schrifft  grondelick 
ende  trouweUk,  verduytschet,  met  verJdaringhe  duysterer 
tpoorden,  redenen  en  spreucken^  ende  verscheyden  tedien. 
This  is  a  translation  of  Luther's  version,  known  under  the 
name  of  Uytenspiegels-Bifiei^or  DeuX'deS'Bijbel^uccorA' 
ing  CO  the  glosses  in  Ecclus.  xix,  5  and  Neh.  iii,  5.  In 
1571  was  published  BibUa  dat  is  de  gantsche  Ifeylighe 
S^urifft,  grondelie  ende  trouwelick  verduytschet.  Met 
verkiarkifhe  duysterer  woorden,  redenen  en  spreuchen, 
ende  versd^eyden  Leetien  die  in  andere  loftily  ouerset' 
Uiigihen  ghevondem^  ende  hier  aen  de  Cant  toe  ghetettet 


tyn.  This  edition  is  very  rare,  having  been  printed  at 
Ghent  under  the  Spanish  sway.  In  the  same  year  the 
necessity  of  procuring  an  improved  version  was  publicly 
discussed,  but  it  was  not  until  the  famous  Synod  of  Dort, 
in  1618-19,  that  actual  preparations  were  made  for  im- 
mediate commencement  of  the  work.  For  the  transla* 
tion  of  the  Old  Test  were  chosen  John  Bogerman  (1576- 
1637),  first  professor  of  theology  at  Franeker,  a  very 
learned  and  able  man,  but  odious  to  the  Remonstrants 
for  his  translation  of  Beaa's  severe  treatise,  De  la  Pum" 
tion  des  H4reiiqueSj  his  polemical  work  against  Grotius, 
and  his  arbitrary  bearing  as  president  of  the  great  syn- 
od; Willem  Baudart,  pastor  at  Zutphen;  Gerson  Bucer, 
author  of  De  Gubernatione  Ecdesksy  which  drew  upon 
him  the  hatred  of  James  L  For  the  translation  of  the 
New  Test  and  Apocr}'pha  were  chosen  Jacobus  Rolandus, 
minister  at  Amsterdam;  Hermanns  Faukelius  (1569* 
1621),  minister  at  Middelburg,and  Petrus  Comelii,  min- 
ister at  Enkhuysen.  As  substitutes  for  the  Old  TeBt« 
company  were  chosen  Antonius  Thysius,  professor  at 
Hardemryk,  afterwards  at  Leyden;  Jacobus  Rolandus 
and  H.  Faukelius,  as  above  named.  Those  for  the  New 
Test  were  Festins  Hommius,  minister  at  Leyden ;  Anto- 
nius Walasus,  professor  at  Leyden,  and  Jadocus  Hoingios, 
rector  of  the  academy  at  Harderwyk.  Besides  the  trans- 
lators, there  were  appointed  revisers  on  the  nomination 
of  the  delegates  from  the  different  provinces.  These 
were — 

A.  Fob  tub  Old  Tbbtambnt. 

GetderUtnd — Antonius  Thysins. 

Softth  Holland —Johannes  Polyander,  professor  at  Ley- 
den. 

North  HoUofuL— Petms  Plandns,  eminent  for  his  scien- 
tific attainments. 

Zeeland.—^aAocnB  Larenns,  minister  at  Flashing. 

^rtetland.— Sibrandas  Lubbertas,  professor  at  Frane- 
ker, famous  for  his  skill  In  controversy  against  Bellar- 
mine,  Soclnus,  Grotins,  and  others. 

OveryMft— Jacobus  Kevius,  rector  of  a  college  at  Ley- 
den. 

6ronffi(ren.~Franc{s  Gomar  (16C3-1641),  professor  of 
theology. 

B.  Fob  tub  Nbw  Tkstamkmt. 

Gelderland.  — Sebastian  Damman,  minister  at  Zntphen. 

South  i/oUond. —Fesins  Hommins. 

North  //oltoaid.— Gotpninns  Qeldorplus. 

^ifrteiuL— Antonius  Walieuf). 

Friedand.'^Bernardaa  Fnllenias,  minister  at  Leenwar- 
den. 

Ooen^Mcl.— Johannes  Lnngins,  bnt  ho  removing  from  the 
province  the  next  year,  Kaspar  Sibelius  of  Deventer  was 
put  in  his  place. 

OrotUngen.'-Ubho  Bmmln?,  professor  at  Gronlngen. 

A  petition  was  presented  to  the  states-general,  re- 
questing them  to  undertake  the  expense  of  the  work. 
The  translators  of  the  Old  Test  commenced  their  work 
at  Leyden  in  1626,  and  completed  it  in  1632 ;  those  of  the 
New  Test  commenced  in  1628,  and  completed  in  1684. 
Each  book  was  printed  as  soon  as  finished,  and  a  copy 
was  sent  to  each  of  the  revisers.  The  revision  of  the 
Old  Test  was  begun  in  1633,  and  completed  in  1684. 
The  revisers  of  the  New  Test  commenced  their  under- 
taking in  the  latter  year.  None  of  the  translators  long 
survived  the  completion  of  the  work.  The  first  edition  of 
this  version  was  published  at  Leyden,  by  Paulus  Aerthz 
van  Ravensheyn,  in  1637,  under  the  title  Biblia  dot  is 
.  , .  des  ouden  en  des  nieuufen  Testaments,  Nu  eerst  door 
Last  der  Uoogh-Mog  Jleeren  Staten  Getiertd ...  en  vol- 
gens  het  Besluyt  van  de  Synode  Naiionaelj  gehouden  tat 
Dordrecht,  inde  Jaeren  1618  ende  1619.  Without  giv- 
ing the  titles,  we  will  only  mention  that  meanwhile  at 
least  six  other  editions  were  published.  That  the  ver- 
sion published  in  1637  was  repeatedly  issued  is  a  matter 
of  course.  When  the  first  edition  was  published  the 
Remonstrants  were  opposed  to  the  transUition;  but 
when  they  had  carefully  examined  it,  they  were  so 
struck  with  its  faithfulness  and  accuracy  that  they 
adopted  the  Old  Test  as  their  own.  After  the  lapse 
of  more  than  forty  years,  a  version  of  the  New  Test 
was  executed  expressly  for  their  use  by  Christian 
fiartsoeker,  an  Arminian  minister  at  Rotterdam,  and 
waa  publishetl  at  .\msterdam,  by  Hendrick  en  Dirk,  in 


DUTHAC 


812 


DWI6HT 


1680|  under  the  title  HH  Nieuwe  TestametU  o/fferbomU 
Uit  het  Griehch  op  nkuwt  vertadt  door  Christian  Hart- 
ioeker  Sedinaer  de  if,  Evang,  in  de  remonttra/Utche  gt- 
meintt  tot  Rotterdam,  Met  hyvajvng  van  eenige  Korte 
aenitehnnffen.  This  vereion,  although  professedly  a 
new  translation  from  the  Greek,  chiefly  followed  that 
of  the  synod.  For  a  long  time  the  Lutherans  and 
Mennonitcs  used  the  translation  of  Nicolaus  Biestkens, 
first  published  in  1560;  but  in  1648  M.  A.  Viszcher  pre- 
pared Bibtiaf  Dot  i$  de  ffontsche  II.  Schrifiure  vervai- 
tend$  aUe  de  Boechen  dee  Ouden  ende  des  Nieuwen  Tetta- 
ments.  Van  nieuwt  vyt  D,  M,  Luther»  Hooff'DujftBche 
Bibd  in  orue  Nederlandsche  tale  getroutetlytk  over-geset^ 
tot  dienst  van  de  Christelgoke  Gemeynten  donverdnderde 
Augtburgitche  Confetsie  in  due  NederUxnde  (Gedmct 
t*Amsterdam  by  Rieuwert  Dircksz  ran  Baardt).  The 
title-page  is  followed  by  an  engraving,  representing 
Martin  Luther  holding  in  his  hand  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession. Below  the  engraving  the  following  lines  are 
printed  in  Latin  and  Dutch : 

"Roraa  orbem  domait,  Romam  sfbl  Papa  sabeglt, 
Yiribas  ilia  suit,  ft'nadibas  iste  euls. 
Qoanto  iste  mijor  Lnthems.  major  et  ilia, 
latum  Ulamqne  uno  qui  domuit  calama.** 

This  Bible,  also  called  Viszcher's  Bible,  was  henceforth 
used  by  the  Lutherans,  and  contains,  besides  all  the 
prefaces,  Luther*B  marginal  readings. 

In  1717  a  New  Test,  was  published  at  Amsterdam, 
the  printing  having  been  done  at  the  expense  of  Peter 
I  of  Russia;  in  1721  another  edition  was  published, also 
at  the  expense  of  the  emperor,  in  five  volumes.  The 
Dutch  translation  b  printed  on  one  column,  the  other 
having  been  left  blank,  because  the  emperor  intended 
to  have  the  Russian  version  printed  on  it. 

In  1825  a  new  translation,  in  the  modem  style  and 
orthography,  by  the  learned  Prof.  Van  der  Palm,  of 
Leyden,  was  published ;  and  though  not  adopted  in 
churehes,  it  is  greatly  esteemed  and  extensively  used. 

A  revised  edition  of  the  established  version  was  pub- 
lished in  1834;  the  orthography  introduceti  was  that 
according  to  the  system  of  Prof.  Siegenbeek,  which  had 
received  the  sanction  of  the  government.  This  system 
has,  however,  fallen  into  disrepute,  and  was  not  adopted 
in  subsequent  editions.  Within  a  recent  period  the 
Netherlands  Bible  Society  appointed  a  commission  to 
modernize  the  orthography  of  the  Bible,  and  the  alter- 
ations which  were  iutroiduced,  both  in  spelling  and  in 
some  points  of  grammar,  were  considerable.  Ail  the 
editions  printed  now  by  that  society  are  with  these 
alterations. 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  also  issued 
several  editions  of  the  authorized  Dutch  venion.  The 
first  edition,  consisting  of  five  thousand  copies  of  the 
New  Test,  appeared  in  1809,  and  other  editions  of  the 
entire  Bible  followed  since.  The  total  number  of  copies 
issued  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  up  to 
Mareh  81,  1884,  amounted  to  1,823,888,  besides  five 
thousand  copies  of  the  New  Test,  with  English.  The 
Netherlands  Bible  Society  has  distributed,  since  its  for- 
mation in  1815,  altogether  1,530.844  copies.    (B.  P.) 

Dutliac,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Ross,  and 
was  of  a  noble  family.  He  probably  died  in  1249,  and 
is  commemorated  as  a  saint  March  8.  See  Keith,  Scot- 
tieh  Bishops,  p.  186. 

Dnthexiua,  third  bishop  of  NicsM,  in  France,  is  said 
to  have  been  slain  by  the  Vandals  A.D.  483  or  493. 

Duthraoht.  (1)  A  female  Iri&h  saint,  commemo- 
rated Oct.  25,  is  variously  called  also  Durach  and 
Brachna,  (2)  An  Irish  saint,  commemorated  May  16, 
is  said  to  have  been  abbot  of  Liathdruim. 

Duttenhofer,  Christian  Frikdbicii,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  8, 1742,  at  NUr- 
tingen,  in  WUrtemberg.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  and 
Leipeic;  was  in  1771  deacon  at  Beilstein;  in  1777,  pas- 
tor at  Granan ;  and,  in  1780,  fourth  preacher  at  St.  Nico- 
laus, in  Heilbronn ;  in  1800,  was  made  senior  of  the 


ministry,  and  in  1806  the  HelmstHdt  Univerrity  hon- 
ored him  with  the  theological  doctorate.  He  died 
March  17, 1814,  leaving,  Untersuchungen  iiber  Pietiswms 
(Halle,  1787)  :—Predigten  (HeUbronn,  n^iy.—Geschichte 
der  ReUgUmsschwdrmtrtim  (ibid.  1796-99, 3  vols. ;  2d  ed. 
1802):— V«r«iicA  Oberden  letzten  Grundsatz  der  christ" 
lichen  Siltenlehre  (Tubingen,  1801):— j&e/racA/vii^«N  trier 
die  Geschichte  des  Christenihums  (Heilbronn,  1813).  See 
During,  Die  gelehrten  Theohgen  Beutschlands,  i,  849  sq. ; 
Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  335,  484,  486,  732; 
ii,  93, 208.     (R  P.) 

• 

Duval,  Andr^,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Pontotse,  Jan.  15, 1564,  and  died  at  Paris,  Sept.  9, 1638. 
He  enjoyed  the  favor  of  cardinal  Du  Perron,  and  through 
his  influence  he  was  called  to  the  theological  chair  in 
Paris.  For  some  time  he  was  also  superior-general  of 
the  Carmelites  of  France,  and  dean  of  the  theological 
faculty  at  Paris.  He  wrote.  Be  Potestate  Ecdesim  (Pari^ 
1612):— />e  Romam  PotUificis  Potestate  (ibid.  1614):— 
Be  Summi  Pontificis  Auctoritaie  (1622).  See  Lichten. 
berger,  Encgclop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  a.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Now.  Biog.  Ciihale,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Duval  (de  Bampierre),  Charles  Antoine  Henri, 
a  French  prelate,  was  bom  at  the  castle  of  Hans  in  1746, 
and  became,  by  marriage,  lord  of  Dampierre-le-Ch&teau. 
He  exercised  the  functions  successively  of  grand-vicar, 
canon,  and  archbishop  of  Paris  until  1791 ;  but,  as  he 
would  not  take  the  constitutional  oath,  he  was  incarcer- 
ated until  1 794.  Eight  years  after,  he  was  nominated  by 
the  first  consul  to  the  bishopric  of  Clermont,  and,  in  181 1, 
was  called  to  the  national  council  at  Paris,  in  which  he 
took  part  with  the  majority  who  resisted  the  will  of  the 
emperor.  In  1814  Louis  XTIII  appointed  him  member 
of  the  commission  of  afiairs  of  the  Church  of  France; 
in  1828  he  signed  the  memoir  against  the  ordinances  of 
June.  His  Christian  charity  had  won  him  the  affec- 
tions and  the  respect  of  his  flock.  He  died  iu  1833. 
See  Huefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Duval,  Jean,  a  French  prelate  and  Orientalist,  was 
bom  at  Clamecy  (Nivemais)  in  1697.  Having  finished 
his  studies,  he  entered,  in  1615,  the  order  of  the  bare- 
footed Carmelites,  adopting  the  name  of  Bernard  de 
Sainte-Thirkse,  afterwards  went  to  the  East  as  a  mis- 
sionary-, and  was  appointed  bishop  of  Bagdad  in  1658. 
He  died  at  Paris,  April  10, 1669,  leaving  some  ver}'  im- 
portant works  on  the  Oriental  languages,  which  have 
remained  in  MS.    See  Hoefer,  A'biir.  Biog.  Ginirale, 

S.V. 

Duvoifiin,  Jeak  Baptists,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Langres,  Oct.  16, 1744.  Being  vicar-general  of 
the  bishop  of  Laon,  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  civil  authority,  and  emigrated  to  Bmna- 
wick.  In  1802  he  retumed  to  France,  was  made  bishop 
of  Nantes,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  imperial 
family  to  a  high  degree.  Duvoisin  died  July  9, 1813, 
leaving,  among  other  works.  Dissertation  Critics  sirr 
la  Vision  de  Constantin  (1774)  : — AutorUe  des  Livres  de 
Moise  (1788)  :  —  Bhnonstratum  Evcmgeligue,  with  an 
Essai  sur  la  Toliranoe,  See  lichtenberger,  Encydop, 
des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nottv.  Biog,  Geni' 
rale,  a,  y,    (a  P.) 

Duzak,  a  place,  according  to  the  ancient  Persian 
system  of  religion,  where  Ahriman,  the  deva,  and  the 
souls  of  the  wicked  are  thoroughly  cleansed  and  purified 
by  fire,  after  which  they  are  restored  to  the  divine  favor. 

Dvalln,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  a  dwarf  who  pos- 
sessed a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  making  swords  for 
battle. 

Dwight,  Harrison  Gray  0ti$,  D.D.,  a  mission- 
ary of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  of  Foreign 
Missions,  was  bom  at  Conway,  Mass.,  Nov.  22,  1808. 
He  graduated  from  Hamilton  College  in  1825  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1828,  and  in  1830 
sailed  for  the  East.    After  spending  two  years  esplor- 


DWUA 


did 


DTSIBOD 


log  the  field,  be  seiUed  as  munonary  at  Constanttnople 
in  1882,  and  there  remained  nearly  thirty  years,  preach- 
ing, anperinCending  tchoola,  and  editing  a  religious  pa- 
per. He  also  published  a  very  popular  book  entitled 
Ckrittiamiy  Brought  Home  from  the  Eatt,  He  was 
killed  by  a  railroad  accident  in  Vermont,  Jan.  25, 18C2. 
See  Appi^M  Amuutl  Cydop,  1862,  p.  662. 

Dwija  Qwioe  horn)^  an  appellation  given  to  a  HindA 
Brahmin  after  his  investiture  with  the  sacred  cord. 
See  CoKo,  iNVESTrruRK  with  the. 

Dw^uwen,  a  Welsh  saint,  patroness  of  lovers, 
appean  to  have  lived  in  the  6th  century,  and  is  com- 
memonted  Jan.2& 


is  the  Noah  of  the  British  islands.  He 
and  his  wife  Dwjrwach  are  the  progenitors  of  the  new- 
bom  human  race.  The  sea,  Llyon,  broke  from  its  bounds 
and  flooded  the  world.  The  two,  Dwywan  and  his  wife, 
saved  themselves  in  a  sailless,  but  well-oonstmcted,  ves- 
sel, made  by  God  himself,  and  took  on  board  a  male  and 
a  female  of  every  kind  of  animaL  The  ship  drifted  to 
Britain,  from  which  country  the  whole  world  was  again 
peopled. 

Dyava,  in  Hindd  mythology,  is  the  goddess  of  air; 
every  Brahmin  offers  her  daily  a  little  butter  and  a  few 
hairs  from  the  forehead  of  a  holy  cow. 

.  Dyca,  Alkxatidbr,  oldest  son  of  a  general  in  the 
East  India  Company's  service,  was  bom  in  George 
Street,  Edinburgh,  June  90,  1797,  and  received  his 
bachelor's  degree  at  Oxford  in  1819.  Between  1822 
and  1835  he  ser\'ed  two  curacies,  and  died  May  9, 
1869.  His  publications  were  chiefly  in  the  line  of 
literary  criticbm.  Besides  editions  of  Greene,  Web- 
ster, Shirley,  Middleton,  Skelton,  Beaumont  and  Fletch- 
er, liarlowe,  Peele,  Bentley,  Collins,  Pope,  Akenside, 
Beattie,  and  others,  he  published  a  new  and  complete 
edition  of  the  Works  of  William  Shakespeare  (1853- 
58,  6  vols.  8vo).  See  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  A  mer, 
A  uikorSf  8.  V. 

Dyer,  George,  an  English  Baptist  minister  and 
antiquary,  was  bora  in  London,  Maroh  15,  1755,  and 
educated  at  Cambridge.  He  preached  at  Oxford  for 
some  years,  and  then  removed  to  London  in  1792.  He 
died  Uarch  2, 1841,  leaving,  An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature 
of  SmbtcripHon  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  (1790)  '.—Po- 
ems and  Critical  Essays  on  Poetry  (1802, 2  vols.)  i—lJis- 
torp  of  the  University  and  CoUeges  of  Cambridge^  etc. 
(1814),  and  other  works.  See  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit. 
and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Dyer,  Mary,  one  of  the  martyrs  among  Netv  Eng- 
land Friends,  was  bom  in  Rhode  Island.  During  a  visit 
to  England  she  joined  the  Friends,  and  was  recognised 
as  a  minister  in  that  denomination.  Retuming  to  Amer- 
ica she  began  to  preach  in  Boston,  from  which  place  she 
was  expelled  in  1657,  and  subsequently,  in  1658,  from 
New  Haven.  In  visiting  four  Friends  imprisoned  in 
Boston  she  was  thrown  into  jail,  in  1659,  but  was  soon 
discharged,  and  returned  to  her  home.  Soon,  however, 
she  came  again  to  Boston,  was  arrested,  cast  into  prison, 
tried,  and  condemned  to  death  a  second  time.  At  the 
gallows  she  was  reprieved.  In  March,  1660,  she  once 
more  visited  Boston,  was  arrested,  tried,  condemned,  and 
hanged  April  1  fullowing.  See  History  of  Friends  in 
Amteriea,  voL  i,  chap.  xL     (J.  C.  S.) 

Dyer,  'WiUiam,  an  English  Nonconformist  divine, 
who  late  in  life  became  a  Quaker,  was  bom  about  1636, 
ejected  in  1662,  and  died  in  1696.  He  published  Ser- 
maoM^  etc.  (1663-83).  See  AUibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer.  A  uthorSj  s.  v. 


,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  5th  century,  was  the 
aoo  of  Brychan,  and  is  commemorated  April  23. 

Dyfiiog.  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  7th  century,  is  com- 
meiDonted  Feb.  13. 

Dyke,  Daniel  (1),  an  English  Baptist,  boro  at 


Epping,  Essex,  about  1617,  took  his  degree  at  Cam- 
bridge University,  and  soon  became  known  for  hia 
great  learning  and  useful  preaching,  thereby  securing 
a  valuable  living  at  Great  Hadham.  In  1658  he  was 
made  one  of  Oliver  Cromwell*s  chaplains,  but  refused 
Church  preferment  at  the  Restoration  in  1660,  and  pre- 
ferred persecution  with  the  Dissenters.  In  1668  he  was 
choaen  joint  pastor  with  William  Kiffin,  at  Devonshire 
Square,  and  continued  a  faithful  laborer  there  until  his 
death,  in  1688.  His  modesty  prevented  him  from  print- 
ing anything,  but  he  joined  others  in  writing  three  con- 
troversial tracts,  and  he  edited  a  volume  of  Sermons  bv 
his  father.    See  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches,  i,  483-485. 

Dyke,  Daniel  (2),  an  English  PuriUn  divine,  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was  minister  at  Cogges- 
hall,  Essex,  and  at  one  time  settleil  at  St.  Albans.  He 
was  suspended  in  1588,  and  died  in  1614.  His  writings 
(some  of  them  posthumously  published)  include  Se^- 
Deceiving  (1614)  .^Repentance  (1681)  i^Six  EvangeU- 
col  Histories  (1617).  See  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  A  uthors,  s,  v. 

Dyke,  Jeremiah,  an  English  Puritan  divine, 
father  of  Daniel  (1),  was  minister  at  Epping,  Essex, 
in  1609,  and  died  in  1620.  He  wrote  various  sermons 
and  theological  treatises  (1619-40),  and  the  Worthy 
Communicant  (1642).  See  AUibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Dymond,  Jonathan,  a  noted  English  moralist, 
was  bom  at  Exeter  in  1796,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Friends.  He  was  a  linendraper.  In  1823 
he  published  j4n  Inquiry  into  the  Accordanry  of  War 
with  the  Principles  of  Christianity,  He  died  May  6, 
1828.  In  1829  his  Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Morality 
and  on  the  Private  and  Political  Bights  and  Obliga- 
tions of  Mankind  was  published  (2  vols.  8vo).  See  Al- 
libone, Did,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Authors^  s.  v. 

Dynttmis  (powa-),  in  the  system  of  Basilides,  as 
described  by  Irenseus  (i,  24),  is  named,  together  with 
Sophia  (trtidbm),  as  fullowing  Nous  (mind),  Logos  (rea- 
son), and  Phronesis  {thought)  in  the  series  of  emanations 
from  the  unbom  Father. 

Djrnaminfl.  (1)  Bishop  of  Angouldme,A.D.  450. 
(2)  Third  bishop  of  Beziers,  about  the  middle  of  the 
15th  centuiy.  (3)  Thirteenth  bishop  of  Avignon,  A.D. 
605-627.  (4)  Thirty-fifth  bishop  of  Avignon  for  twen- 
ty-three years,  in  the  early  part  of  the  7th  century. 

Dyothelites  (jSvodtkiiTai),  a  name  given  to  those 
orthodox  Christians  in  the  7th  century  who  held  that 
there  were  two  wills  in  Christ,  a  divine  and  a  hu- 
man, in  opposition  to  the  MonothelUes  (q.  v.).  The 
sixth  oecumenical  council  (i.  e.  the  third  CEcumenical 
Council  of  Constantinople),  called  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  Pogonatns  in  A.D.  680,  asserted  the  doctrine 
of  two  wills  in  Christ  in  the  following  terms :  *'  Two 
wills  and  two  natural  modes  of  operation  united  with 
each  other,  without  opposition  or  change,  so  that  no 
antagonism  can  be  found  to  exist  between  them,  bnt  a 
constant  subjection  of  the  human  will  to  the  divine." 
The  champions  of  monothelism  were  anathematized,  as 
well  as  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  the  pontiff 
Honorius.  The  monothelite  doctrine  was  placed  in  the 
ascendenc}-  in  711,  but  two  years  later  Anastasius  II 
ascended  the  throne  and  established  dyothelism,  where- 
upon the  monothelites  fled  the  country. 

DyacoliUB,  sixth  bishop  of  Rheims,  about  A.D.  346. 

Dyeen,  in  Korse  mythology,  are  feminine  protect- 
ing spirits  in  general.  The  name  has  a  threefold  sig- 
nification: (1)  it  is  often  identical  with  the  VValkltres; 
(2)  it  is  used  of  goddesses  of  destiny,  good  or  evil ;  (8) 
it  has  reference  specially  to  Freya,  who  was  thus  hon- 
ored by  calling  her  the  goddess,  and  sacrifice  was  made 
to  her  in  the  middle  of  winter  by  the  Dyssablot,  so 
called  from  this  service. 

Djreibod  (Diaibod,  or  Disen),  an  Irish  preUte^ 


DYZEMAS  s 

wu  bcm  in  Intind,  uxl  wu  DnUined  a  prUst  at  the 
age  or  tbicty.  He  wai  umi  tine  afterwards  made 
blibop,  •ome  uj  of  Dublin.  When  he  bad  governed 
hi«  Ke  ten  yaura  be  wu  compelled  lo  reaign  it,  in  6T5. 
He  then  left  Ireland,  and  Iravelfed  inU  Uermany,  going 
frma  place  (n  place  preaching  the  (kapel,  (or  ten  ytan. 
At  lalt  be  arrived  at  a  high,  woody  moaatain,  where  he 
Kttlsd.  He  drew  many  of  the  onler  of  8L  Benedict  to 
bin>,  and  founded  a  DMiiaitecy  on  this  nountaiD,  which 


4  EAGLE 

wai  called  HMmt  Dinbod,  nnoe  changed  into  Diaas- 
berg.  He  died  there,  July  H,  in  the  eigb^^Gnt  year 
of  hia  age.  Hit  life  wa*  writlen  by  the  abbew  Hilde- 
gardia.  See  U'Allou,  Mttaoin  of  tkt  Aift.  tffUumt, 
p.  20, 

DTxinua.  (0  Z>uiiKf,  dKiMa,  titfae-day.  (i) 
The  Dame  of  the  penitent  Ihief  in  the  apocryphal  goa- 
pel.  Uia  fellow  is  called  Geamaa  or  Gcslaa^  and  the 
aoldier  Longinna,  from  hii  q>ear  (luacile}. 


Baba,  abbot  of  Halmeabary,  in  the  8th  ceatttry. 

B&dbald  (Xat.  MSnUiu),  12lh  biahop  of  London, 
A.D.  796. 

Eadbeit  (I.  e.  AUiat  or  Adalieri).  (1)  Bishop  of 
Undiarinie,A.I}.68a;  died  Hay6  (biidayof  commem- 
otation),  A.D.  698.  (2)  Ninth  bishop  of  London  (nine- 
lime*  called  Filbrmi),  cir.  A.D.  77S-7SB.  (3)  Abbot  of 
Bacnlrer  (called  alu  HtaUiert),  A.D.  747.  (4)  Abbot 
of  Hercii,  A.D.  747.  (G)  Abbot  ot  Shert>am,  A.D.  803. 
(6)  First  biahop  of  the  South  Saiom,  A.D.  711.  (7) 
Fifth  biahap  of  the  Middle  Anglea  at  Leioeiter,  A.D. 
764-787. 

Badborga  (\,e.  EthMurga).  (1)  Daughter  of 
Aldarulf,  king  of  the  Eaat  Anglei,  wa>  abbni  of  Rep- 
ton,  in  the  7ih  century.  (2)  Widow  of  Wulfhere,  king 
of  Mercia,  was  second  abbess  of  St.  Peter's,  Gloucealer, 
A.D.  710-735. 

Bad&ldC>>«>^{/rB^>    See  EAonuTR. 

Badgar  (L  e.  Edgar).  (1)  Third  bishop  of  Lindis- 
fame,  cir.  A.D.  706-731.  (3)  Tenth  bishop  of  London, 
A.D. 787-798. 

Badhtfd,  a  priest  of  Oawy,  king  of  SDrthumbria; 
ordained  by  Deosdedit  in  664,  consecrated  bishop  ot 
Lindsey  in  678,  and  transferred  to  Ripon  soon  afler- 
wariU 

Badle,  Jomi,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  dialinguiabed  dirine 
of  the  Preabyterian  Church  in  Scotland,  was  Intn  at 
Alva,  Sdrlingabire,  Hay  9, 18ia  Ha  grsduated  from 
the  Univenity  of  Glasgow,  stndied  at  the  Diriniiy  Hall 
of  the  Secession  Church  (United  PreebyleriBn),  and  in 
1835  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Cambridge  Street 
Church,  (Glasgow,  in  which  he  speedily  attained  great 
eminence  and  usefulness.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
leading  representatire  of  the  denomination  to  which 
he  belonged  and  of  the  city  which  has  alwsva  been  its 
Mronght^.  As  apreacher  hewas  distinguished  for  hia 
bard  common-sense  and  occasional  Suhes  of  happy  illus- 
tration, for  his  masculine  piety,  deep  eamestnese,  and 
breadth  of  sympathy,  both  intellectual  and  emotionaL 
He  was  frequently  called  to  other  important  charges, 
but  waa  too  atrongly  attached  to  Glasgow  to  leare. 
In  1836  he  removed  with  his  congregaUan  to  a  new 
and  beautiful  church  at  Lansdowne  Crescent,  where  hia 
influence  continued  unabated  until  hia  dea^,  June  3, 
187G.  Dr.Eodie  bore  iha  reputation  of  exlenuve  and 
profound  scbolanhip,  and  in  1843  wi>  appointed  by 
tlia  Church  to  the-chait  of  hermeneutics  and  the  evi- 
dences of  natural  and  revealed  religion  in  Divinity 
Hall  As  a  critic  be  waa  acute  and  paioataking.  as  an 
interpreter  eminently  fair-minded.  In  the  pulpit,  ai  in 
the  profrasor's  chair,  hia  strength  lay  in  the  tact  with 
which  he  selected  the  soundest  resulta  of  Biblical  criti- 
eiatn,  whether  his  own  or  that  of  others,  snd  presented 
them  in  a  clear  and  connected  form  with  a  constant 
view  of  their  practical  bearing.  If  this  last  fact  gave  a 
non-ncademic  aspect  to  some  of  his  lectures,  it  rendered 
tbem  not  leas  interesting  and  probaUy  not  leae  useful 
to  his  auditors.  Being  engaged  in  two  distinct  offices, 
either  nf  which  were  sufficient  to  claim  all  his  energies, 
be  nevertheless  found  time  for  an  amnunt  of  work  in  a 
tUtd  ■pbere,  of  which  the  same  thing  may  be  swd. 


Host  of  bis  works  were  anmtcted  with  KbUeal  critidan 

and  interpretation,  some  of  them  being  designed  for  pop- 
ular use  and  otbem  being  more  strictly  scientific  To 
the  former  class  belong  his  contributions  to  the  BiHiail 
CydgpodHM  of  Kitio  and  Fairbaim,  bis  edition  of  Cru- 
den's  Concardancr,  Orimlal  Iliitory,  and  his  discoiirsrs, 
The  i.j/io/'Cr.Jfi«o  obtained  s  deserved  popolarity,also 
his  Diaiimaty  nftht  BiUefor  Ikt  Yovtig,  Ijdurtt  oa  Or 
BAlt  lo  Ikt  y'auHg,  etc  His  last  work,  the  Iliitorj  o/ 
lit  EngliMA  Bible  [1876^  S  vols.),  will  probably  be  the 
most  enduring  memorial  uf  his  ability  as  an  author. 
He  is  the  author  of  valuable  expositions  on  the  Greek 
text  of  Galatisna,  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Coloeeiani, 
and  Thessalonians.  See  bis  L^fi,  by  Brown  (Lend. 
1878).    (W.P.  S.) 


Badllo,  second  abbot  of  St.  Albans,  A.D.  796. 
Badalga,  archbiahnp  of  Canterbnry,  of  whose  pa> 
entsge  and  birthplace  nothing  seems  to  be  known.    TIm 

Isins  of  Canute;  he  was  then  a  secolar,  snd,  of  course, 
in  priest's  orders.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  St. 
Martin's  in  1085 1  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury in  1038,  and  repaired  to  Rome  for  the  pallium. 
On  bis  return  home,  in  IHS,  he  was  called  upon  to  of- 
ficiate at  the  eoronalion  of  Edward  the  Coufesaor — ibe 
memorable  event  of  his  life.  He  died  in  1060.  See 
Hook,  Ziiwi  o/'fjie  .4^.  i/CaiKerhiry.  i,  489  >q. 

EBdiilf(orAldwalf,Ut.XM>*")'  (0  Kghlh 
bishop  of  LindBev,A.D.  796-886.  (2)  Fifteenth  bishop 
of  Lichfield,  cir.  A.U.  803-816. 

Bagle,  IN  CiiHiBTiAM  SvHBouui.  St,  Gr^iory  con- 
udered  this  bird  lo  typify  the  contemplalive  life;  other 
fatben  regarded  it  as  an  emblem  of  resurrection  (Psa. 
ciii,6).  It  is  the  symbol  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  as 
it  soars  up  to  heaven  snd  the  sun;  and  he  dwelle  in  his 
Gospel  and  the  Revelations  specially  on  the  divine  dia- 
couraes  and  the  celestis]  gloiy  of  the  Sun  oTRigbteau*- 
ness.  It  also  represented  the  regenerstioB  of  the  neo- 
phyte; the  resurrection  nf  the  Saviour  (says  St.  Am- 
brose); and  renewing  of  the  soul  on  earth,  as  glory 
hereafter  will  renew  body  and  soul ;  the  power  of  grace 
when  it  is  portrayed  drinking  at  a  chalice,  or  in  cotn- 
bat  with  a  serpent,  the  type  of  evil.— Walcoti,  Sac 


EAGLE 


315 


EASTEB-EGOS 


EAGLE,  AS  AK  ABcmTBcruBAL  Tbrsk,  is  used  to 
desigiiate  a  brazen  or  wooden  lectern,  the  upper  portion 
of  which  represents  an  eagle  with  outstretched  wings, 
vn  the  back  of  which  is  a  book-rest.  Many  ancient  ex- 
amples of  such  lecterns  remain  in  collegiate  and  cathe- 
dral churches,  and  a  great  number  of  new  specimens 
baire  been  made  for  use  after  the  old  models.    See  Lko- 

TKRN. 

Bagleton,  Wiluam,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  MarTrille,  Tenn.,  llarch'25, 179e#  He 
was  educated  in  Ma^ville  College,  and  studied  theok>- 
gy  iu  the  South-western  Theological  Seminary,  at  the 
same  places  In  1827  he  was  licensed  by  the  Union 
Presbytery,  and  soon  after  was  elected  professor  in 
Maryyille  College.  In  1829  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
Charch  in  Murfreesborough,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death,  March  28,  1866.  See  Wilson,  Prub,  Jliit,  Al- 
manac,  1867,  p.  431. 

jBames,  James  Hkxry,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  £pisc»> 
pal  minister,  was  bom  at  Dedham,  Mass.,  Nor.  29, 1814. 
The  first  two  years  of  his  college  course  were  spent  at 
King  College,  Bristol,  Tenn.,  and  the  last  two  at  Brown 
University,  where  he  graduated  in  1839.  He  pursued 
his  theological  studies  with  Bey.  John  Bristed,  of  Bris- 
tol, R.  L,  was  ordained  deacon  in  December,  1841,  and 
presbyter  in  1842 ;  was  rector  of  Ascension  Church,  in 
Wakefield,  for  about  four  years,  when  he  took  charge  of 
Sc  Stephen's  Church  in  Providence,  remaining  there 
until  1850,  and  then  engaged  in  missionary  labor  m 
Bbode  Island ;  became  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Con- 
cord, N.  H.,  in  1858,  and  held  that  position  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  the  harbor  of  Hamilton,  Ber- 
muda, Dec  10, 1877.  For  many  years  Dr.  Eames  was 
chaplain  to  the  asylum  for  the  insane,  and  performed  a 
large  amount  of  missionar>'  work  in  New  Hampshire. 
Three  times  he  travelled  in  Europe,  and  spent  part  of 
several  winten  in  Bermuda.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Eanbald  (or  Bnbald).  (1)  The  pupil  and  suc- 
cenor  of  Albert  in  the  archiepisoopal  see  of  York,  A.D. 
782.  He  was  very  vigorous  in  the  administration  of 
his  diooese,  and  died  at  a  monastery  called  Etlete  (or 
£dete),  Aug.  10,  796.  (2)  CaUed  also  Ileantbald,  suc- 
ceeded the  foregoing  as  aichbishop  of  York,  and  his  his- 
tory is  given  with  considerable  detail  by  Alcuin.  He 
appeals  to  have  died  A.D.  812.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of 
CkriiL  Biog,  s.  v. 

Banbeit,  bishop  of  Hexham,  cir.  A.D.  800-806. 

ZSanfrith,  fifth  bishop  of  Elmham,  A.D.  736. 

Banswitha  (or  Enswlda),  a  British  saint,  com- 
memorated Aug.  81,  was  the  daughter  of  Eadba,  king 
of  Kent,  and  lived  a  virgin,  in  a  nunnery  founded  by  her, 
at  Folkestone,  wher^  she  died/ some  say  in  640,  others 
in  673. 

XSardulf  (LaL  A  rdulpkusy,  (I)  Bishop  of  East  An- 
glia  (Dunwich)  in  747.  (2)  Twelfth  bUhop  of  Roches- 
ter,  cir.  A.D.  762. 

Earlev  Jabez,  D.D.,  an  English  Independent  min- 
ister, was  bom  about  1676,  and  educated  among  the 
Dissenters.  He  was  assisunt  to  the  Rev.  Thomas  Rey- 
nolds, at  the  Weigh-House,  London,  in  1699;  and  in 
1707  removed  to  Hanover  Street,  where  he  ministered 
more  than  sixty  years,  and  died  in  1768,  leaving  S  num- 
ber of  Sermoru  and  theological  treatises,  etc.  (1706-35; 
new  ed.  1816,  8vo).  See  Chalmeis,  Biog.  Diet,  &  v. ; 
Allibone,  DicL  of  Brit,  cmd  Amer.  Authon,  s.  v.;  Wil- 
son, Disieniinff  Churches,  i,  169;  ii,  6,  492,  508,  530. 

XSarle  (or  Earlea),  John,  an  English  prelate,  was 
bom  at  York  in  1601,  and  entered  Merton  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1620.  He  became  chaplain  and  tutor  to  prince 
Charles,  and  ehsnoellor  of  the  cathedral  of  Salisbury. 
On  the  Restoration  he  was  made  dean  of  Westminster, 
and  consecrated  bishop  of  Worcester  in  1662.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1664,  he  was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Salisbury. 
He  died  Nov.  17, 1665,  ItaxxngMicrocosmogmphy  (Lond. 


1628,  8vu;  6th  ed.  1680, 12nio).    See  Chalmers,  Biog. 
Diet*  B.  V. ;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  A  uthortf 

B.  V. 

Barlom,  Richard,  a  pre-eminent  English  engraver, 
was  born  in  London  in  1742,  and  was  the  pupil  of  Cipri- 
ani. He  died  in  1822.  The  following  are  some  of  his 
principal  plates:  The  Holy  Family;  Mary  Magdalene 
Washing  the  Feet  of  Christ;  David  cmd  BiUhsheba ;  The 
Repose;  The  Virgin  and  Infant;  The  Infant  Jesus  Sleep- 
ing ;  The  Presentation  in  the  Temple ;  The  Virgin  and  In- 
fant with  St,  John,  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
Arts,*,  V. 

Early,  Johtt,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  South,  was  bom  in  Bedford  County,  Ya., 
Jan.  1, 1786,  of  Baptist  parents.  He  was  converted  in 
1804 ;  licensed  to  preach  in  1806 ;  and  in  1807  entered 
the  Virginia  C>)nference,  wherein  he  continued  labori- 
ously and  faithfully  till  1815,  when  the  growing  neces- 
sities of  his  family  obliged  him  to  locate  and  engage  in 
secular  business.  In  1821  he  re-entered  the  effective 
ranks,  and  labored  with  marvellous  success  until  1846, 
when  he  connected  himself  with  the  Church  South, 
and  devoted  his  energies  to  establbhing  and  operating 
the  Southern  Book  Concern.  In  1854  he  was  elected 
to  the  episcopacy;  in  1866  was  granted  a  superannu- 
ated relation,  and  died  in  Lynchburg,  Nov.  6,  1878. 
Bishop  Early  was  full  of  the  missionary  spirit,  and  ev- 
erywhere awakened  missionary  zeal;  was  one  of  the 
chief  founders  of  Randolph-Macon  College ;  was  a  man 
of  great  energy  and  devotedness,  and  held  a  high  por- 
tion in  the  esteem  of  the  Church.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Conferences  of  the  M,  E,  Church  South,  1878,  p. 
914;  Simpson,  Cydop,  of  Methodism,  s.  v. 

Eamulph.    See  Arnulph. 

Bars,  Touching  of.  In  holy  communion  it  seems 
to  have  been  the  custom  to  touch  the  organs  of  sense 
with  the  moisture  left  on  the  lips  after  receiving  the 
cup. 

Barulfda,  abbot  and  confessor,  commemorated  Dea 
29. 

Bast,  Praykr  towards  tub.  See  Bowing  ;  Ori- 
entation. 

Bastbum,  Manton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  England,  Feb. 
9,  1801,  being  brother  of  James  W.,  the  poet.  His 
parents  came  to  America  when  he  was  a  boy.  He 
graduated  from  Columbia  College,  New  York,  in  1817, 
and  in  due  time  thereafter  from  the  General  Theological 
Seminary  in  the  sanae  city.  He  was  ordained  assistant 
minister  of  Christ  Church  in  1822;  became  rector  of 
the  Church  <^  the  Ascension  in  1827;  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Massachusetts  Dec  29, 1842;  and  died 
in  Boston,  ^pt.  12, 1872.  Bishop  Eastbum  published 
several  addresses  and  essays,  and  edited  Thornton's 
FarnUy  Prayers.  See  Drake,  Diet,  of  A  mer,  Biog,  s.  v. ; 
Prot,  Episc,  Almanac,  1873,  p.  133. 

Baster-oandle.    See  Paschal  Tapkr. 

Baster-eggs.  The  egg  was  the  symbol  of  creation 
in  Egypt,  and  of  hope  and  the  resurrection  among  early 
Christians;  and  the  custom  of  giving  colored  pascb  eggs 
on  Easter  morning  is  found  in  the  East,  in  the  Tyrol,  in 
Russia,  in  Greece,  in  many  parts  of  England,  where  it 
may  be  traced  back  to  the  time  of  Edward  I,  and  was 
observed  at  Gray's  Inn  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In 
France  the  pasch  egg  is  eaten  before  any  other  nourish- 
ment is  taken  on  Easter  day.  Tansy  pudding,  accord- 
ing to  Selden,  is  a  memorial  of  the  bitter  herbs  eaten 
by  the  Jews;  and  peculiar  cakes  in  some  places  formed 
the  staple  fare  on  this  day.  Paul  II  issued  a  form  of 
benediction  of  eggs  for  EngUind,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
Henry  VIII  received  a  paschal  egg  in  a  case  of  silver 
filigree  from  the  pope.  The  Jews  regarded  the  egg  as 
a  symbol  of  death.— WakM>tt,  Sac,  A  rchaol,  s.  y,  Seo 
Ego. 


EASTERWINE 


816 


EBASIUS 


Easterwine  (or  Sosterwini);  coadJatoT-abbot 
of  WeariDoath,  was  the  nephew  of  Benedict,  the  founder 
of  that  monastery,  and  was  bom  in  650.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-four  he  renounced  his  secolar  prospects,  was  or- 
dained in  679,  and  devoted  himself  with  singular  ha- 
mility  and  affection  to  the  duties  of  his  redose  life. 
He  died  March  7, 686.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  ChnsLBioff. 
8.y. 

EaBtlaJne,  Sir  Charles  Lock,  an  English  painter, 
was  bom  at  Plymouth  in  1798.  He  studied  under  Fu- 
seli  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  at  the  Louvre,  in  Paris. 
He  went  to  Rome  in  1817,  and  remained  there  many 
years.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
royal  commission  on  fine  arts;  from  1843  to  1847 
was  keeper  of  the  National  Gallery ;  and  in  1850  was 
knighte<l,  made  president  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
director  of  the  National  Gallery.  He  died  in  Pisa,  Dec 
28,  1865.  Among  his  most  noted  works  are,  Christ 
Weeping  over  JerutaJUm;  Pilgrimt  Arriving  in  Sight 
of  Rome ;  Christ  Bleating  Little  Children ;  I/agar  and 
Ishnujelf  and  the  Raising  of  Jairus's  Daughter,  He 
wrote  Materials  for  a  History  of  Oil  Painting,  and 
Contribuiions  to  the  Literature  of  the  Fine  Arts  (pQ«thu- 
roous;  edited  by  lady  Eastlake).  A  History  of  his  life 
was  publbhed  by  lady  Eastlake  in  London  in  1870. 

Baston,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  grad- 
uated from  Glasgow  University;  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  June,  1807;  presented  by  lord  Douglas  to  the  living 
at  Kirriemuir  in  1809,  and  ordained  March  22,  1810. 
He  died  April  5, 1856,  aged  seventy -nine  years.  In 
him  learning,  knowledge,  modesty,  and  moral  worth 
were  combined  with  meekness  and  piety.  He  pub- 
lished six  different  works,  chiefly  of  a  local  theological 
character.    See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Sooticanm,  iii,  777. 

Bata  (or  Boka).  (1)  First  bishop  of  Hexham, 
A.D.  678,  and  the  fiflh  of  Ltndisfaroe,  681-685,  was 
originally  from  Northurobria,  and  abbot  of  Old  Mel- 
rose; he  died  OcL  26,  686.  (2)  An  anchorite  of 
Creyke,  in  Yorkshire,  who  died  in  767.  See  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Eaton,  Asa,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Plaistow,  N.  H.,  July  25,  1778.  His 
preparatory  studies  were  begun  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  and  he  graduated  from  Harvard  University  in 

1803.  On  Oct.  28  of  the  same  year  Christ  Church  in- 
vited him  to  act  as  lay-reader,  and  he  continued  in 
this  position  until  1805,  when  he  was  ordained,  and 
remained  rector  until  1829.  In  that  year  he  became 
city  missionary,  laboring  among  the  destitute  until 
1837.  From  1887  to  1841  be  was  connected  with  St. 
Mary's  Hall,  a  young  ladies'  school  at  Burlington,  N.  J. 
Then  he  returned  to  Boston,  but  without  a  regular 
charge,  and  died  there,  March  24,  1858.  See  Amer. 
Quar,  Church  Rev,  1858,  p.  341 ;  Necrol,  of  Harvard 
College,  p.  17a 

Eaton,  George  W.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distingubhed 
Baptist  scholar,  was  bom  near  Huntingdon,  Pa.,  July  8, 

1804,  and  graduated  from  Union  College,  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  in  1829.  Upon  his  graduation  he  was  appointed 
tutor,  which  position  he  held  a  year  or  two.  In  1831 
he  became  professor  of  languages  in  Georgetown  Col- 
lege, Ky.,  and  in  1833  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  at  Hamilton  College.  He  subse- 
quently filled  the  professorships  of  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  history,  and  of  systematic  theology,  and  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  Madison  University  and  of  the 
Hamilton  Theological  Seminary,  holding  the  latter 
position  until  his  death,  Aug.  3,  1872.  Dr.  Eaton  was 
a  man  of  the  widest  and  warmest  sympathies,  earnest 
in  his  convictions,  and  able  to  maintain  them  with 
fervid  eloquence.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Eaton,  Horace.  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  Sutton,  N.  H.,  Oct.  7,  1810.  He  studied 
at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Mass.,  and  graduated 
fropa  Dartmouth  College  in  1839  and  from  the  Union 


Theological  Seminary  in  1842.  ^or  six  years  he  was 
pastor  of  the  Sixth  Presbjrterian  Chnrch  in  New  Tork 
city,  and  thereafter  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Chorch 
in  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  until  bis  death,  Oct  22,  1888.  See 
Providence  Journal,  Oct  28, 1888.     (J.  C  S.) 

Eaton,  Joseph,  a  veteran  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Wells,  Me.,  June  22, 1748.  He  was  converted  at 
the  age  of  twenty-two,  licensed  to  preach  in  1798,  and 
in  1798  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Wells, 
the  service  being  performed  in  Berwick.  After  his  res- 
ignation, in  1820,  Mr.  Eaton  was  engaged  for  several 
yean  in  evangdistic  labore  in  the  section  of  the  ooantry 
in  which  he  lived.  His  death  took  place  in  December, 
1831.  See  Millett,  Hi$tory  of  the  Baptists  in  Maine, 
p.  442.     (J.Ca) 

Eaton,  Joseph  H.,  LL.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
brother  of  Rev.  G.  W.  Eaton,  D.D.,  was  bora  in  Berlin, 
Delaware  Co.,  O.,  Sept  10, 1812.  He  graduated  from 
the  Hamilton  Literary  and  Theological  Institution 
(now  Madison  University)  in  1837,  and  for  three  years 
thereafter  was  engaged  in  teaching.  He  was  elected 
professor  in  1841,  and  in  1847  president  of  what  is  now 
Union  University,  Murfreesborough,  Tenn.  His  ordi- 
nation took  place  in  1848,  and  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Church  in  the  same  place,  having  also  the  oversight 
of  several  county  churches.  His  health  broke  down 
under  these  excessive  labors,  and  he  died,  Jan.  12, 1859. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Cyclop,  p.  858.    (J.  C  &) 

Eaton,  Peter,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
bora  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  March  25, 1765.  He  stud- 
ied under  the  Bev.  Phineas  Adams,  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1787,  taught  a  school  for  one  year 
at  Wobura,  and  then  passed  some  time  in  the  study  of 
theology.  Having  received  license,  he  preached  his 
fint  sermon  in  Boxford,  Jan.  10, 1789,  and  in  October 
following  was  installed  as  pastor  there.  In  1819  he 
preached  the  annual  sermon  before  the  Legislature  of 
Massachusetts,  and  in  1820  resigned  his  charge  at  Box- 
ford.  In  1845  he  removed  to  Andover,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death,  in  April,  1848.  Dr.  Eaton 
published  many  valuable  Sermons,  See  Sprague,  An- 
nals  of  the  A  mer,  PulpU,  viii,  222. 

Ebal,  MouHT.  We  extract  some  additional  par- 
ticulan  from  Lieut  Conder's  Tent  Work  m  Palestine, 
i,88: 

"There  are  three  cnrlons  pinces  on  Ebal:  one  of  which 
is  n  rude  stone  building,  eoclosine  a  space  of  tlffty  feet 
square,  with  walls  twenty  feet  thick,  in  which  are  chsm- 
bers.  The  Samaritans  call  it  part  of  a  rained  village,  hnt 
its  use  and  origin  are  a  mystery.  It  resembles  mo«t  the 
curious  roonnnients  nesr  Hizmeh,  called  the  *  Tombs  of 
the  Sons  of  Israel.*  Tbe  second  place  is  the  little  cave 
and  raiued  chapel  of  Sitt  Ealamtyen,  *The  Lady  of  Islnm,* 
who  has  given  ner  name  to  the  moontaiu.  Ii  is  perched 
on  the  slue  of  a  precipice,  and  Is  held  sacred  by  the  Mos- 
lems, who  have  a  tradition  that  the  bones  or  the  mint 
were  carried  hither  throngh  the  air  fh>m  Damascns.  The 
third  place  is  a  site  the  Importance  of  which  hns  not  b«en 
previously  recoffnised.  It  is  a  llitle  Moelem  Muk&m,  said 
once  to  have  Been  a  chnrch,  called  'AroAd  ed-Dtu,  the 
*  Monument  of  ihe  Faith.'  The  name  thus  preserved  has 
no  connection  with  Samaritan  tradition,  bat  it  is  undis- 
puted that  the  sacred  places  of  the  peasantry  often  repre- 
sent spots  famous  in  Bible  history.  It  Is  therefore  per- 
haps  possible  that  the  site  thus  reverenced  Is  none  other 
than  that  of  tbe  monnmental  altar  of  twelve  stones  fh)m 
Jordan,  which  Joshua  erected,  according  to  the  Biblical 
account,  on  Ebal,  and  not  on  Qerixim,  as  the  Samaritans 
believe,  charging  the  Jews  with  having  altered  the  namei* 
(Deut  xxvH,  4).  The  hill -top  on  which  this  monument 
sunds  is  called  Riks  el-KAdy,  *  Hill  of  the  Judge.*  It  was 
here  that  the  Crnsaders  placed  Dan,  the  site  of  Jeni- 
boam's  Calf  Temple,  and  the  present  name  may  perhaps 
be  connected  with  this  theory,  Dan  (*the  Judge*)  beiut; 
translated  Into  the  Arabic  KAdy  CJndse'),  Just  ns  it  hax 
l>een  at  the  true  Dan.  now  Teirel-K&dy,  at  the  source  of 
the  Jordan."    (See  illustration  on  opposite  page.) 

EbaroiOB.  (1)  Sixteenth  bishop  of  Keven,  cir. 
A.D.  696.  (2)  Thirty-third  bishop  of  Tours,  cir.  A.D. 
696. 

EbasiUB,  bbhop  of  Yicus  Aterii,  in  Byzacia,  Africa, 
cir.  A.D.  641-649. 


EBON  VERSION 

Olden  in  183S ;  in  IMO  beeiiiK  chipliin  of 

St.  Cutor'is  ac  CoblenU;  ou  called  in  1848 
u  flpiKopal  KcretBTV  1 0  TreT»T  ind  Ippoin^ 
cd  the  unie  yeu  profeaaar  of  dogmaLica  at 
■there.    In  1850  he  be. 


Bbba  (.Sblu.  ai  Bbba),  abbeu  of  Coddlnghim, 
in  Bcrwickihirc,  was  daupfaier  of  EthelMd,  kinf;  of 
Hanhumbria,  and  lisler  of  Si,  Oawald.  In  A.D,  6T9 
hir  eonreiiL  wai  burned,  and  ihe  died  Aug.  25  (Iter 
(Mai  day),  683. 

EbbO,  Saiitt,  lirenty-niuth  biahop  of  Sent,  <rai  bom 
at  Tonnem  (Bu^nndf).  He  vra«  of  a  noble  family, 
bvt  rotered  the  oionanetT  of  Saint-ricrre-le-Tif ;  wai 
elKted  abbot  of  il,  and  loon  succeeded  hia  uncle,  Su 
Gtricua,  tuahop  of  Sena,  He  >pent  the  latter  part  of 
hia  life  in  a  hermitage  at  the  villago  of  Arce,  where 
he  died  in  T50.  Be  ii  commeiDorated  Aug,  27.  See 
Hoeftr,  A'Dkr,  £iog.  Giniralt,  a.  v. 

Ebbo  (Lat>  EtnUi),  twcnly-nintU  biahop  of  Limo- 
ges, ci(.  A.D.  762. 

BboUng,  Chilstlaii,  ■  Latberan  theolo^n  of 
Germany,  waa  lum  at  BUelieburg,  Not.  S.  I66N.  He 
Mudied  at  Jena ;  waa  in  1697  proTeoor  of  philoKiphy  at 
Binteln ;  in  1708  profeaaor  of  elhica,  and  in  1714  do«Io[ 
and  profemr  nf  Iheologr.  He  died  Sept.  S,  171S,  leav- 
ing De  Mftlerio  Trimlalit  (Lengo,  nU}:~f:iiiea 
ChiHian  ComptmHam  (ibid,  1715)  :-/jfi»im  CoHtUii 
TridaHini  (ibid.  1716):— rAwIojii  Homilnica  (ibid, 
eod.).  See  Strieder,  llatuche  Gtklli-ln  GticAiclite; 
JOdttT.AlIgmfiia  Cefclrtea-Leiibw,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

Ebaliug,  Johana  Jtutofl,  a  German  theologian, 
wa*  bom  at  Etze,  Aug.  77,  ITIS.  He  aludied  at  llelm- 
nikdl',  wai  appointed  in  1740  paator  at  Garmeaaen,  and 
became  in  176S  auperintendent  at  Luneburg,  where  hi 
died,  liareb  3,  I7S3.  Hia  principal  worlis  are,  A  ndSch- 
f^&fmebif'^ni,  etc.  (Hildeaheim,  1747) : — SSiidcn  drr 
ifauot«B(Leingo,l-48):  HrUigt  WaliThrilat  da  GiaH- 
lau,  etc  (Laneburg,  cod.)  ••—Erinoiiidu  BttrachlUKgm, 
See  Hoefer,  A'our.  Biag.  GMraU,  a,  v, 

EbendoriTer  {de  Ifatdbadi),  Tiiomab,  a  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  who  died  in  14ft4,  is  the  author  of 
CommaUaruij  in  EptmgrUion  Jaharmu :  —  ExpatUio 
SjoJioti  Apoiloloram:—Dt  Ctu&ui  Extommanicalia- 
mt: — Z)e  Aofoh  AKtnit  Ptccatii: — Cofommlariai  in 
Emam.  See  JOcber,  AUgtaaaa  GrliiritK-I,exiiBn, 
t  T. ;  HoefcT,  XouB.  Biog.  GbUrak,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Ebenexer.  On  the  strength  of  Jerome's  loeatioii 
<if  ihii  spot,  near  Bethshemeah,  Ueut.  Conder  proposes 
{TrM  Work  in  Fatal.  ii,386)  to  identify  it  with  the  pres- 
ent £Mr  ^  rMn,  twu  miles  esat  of  Ain-Shems,  "  a  large 
villige  on  the  lower  tlope  of  s  bigh  ridge,  wi^h  a  well 
to  tbe  noTtb,  and  olirea  on  the  east,  weat,  and  north  " 
(Veaantrs  of  Ordnance  Surrey,  iii,  24). 

Bberbard,  HAT-rHiAa,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate, 
WIS  bora  at  Trarea,  Nor.  1, 1815.  He  atudied  at  the 
deticsl  seminary  of  bis  oMiTS  place,  and  reeeired  holy 


cnted  in  1862  biahop  uf  Treves.  After  Ar- 
nold's death,  in  1B64,  hia  name  waa  atricken 
from  the  liat  of  candidates  aa  penona  rri/i 
mBW)  giala,  but  he  waa  electeil  in  18G7  by 
tbe  chapter.  In  1869  and  1870  he  waa  at 
Rome  as  member  of  the  Voiican  CounciL 
The  fruaMan  "  Folk-Laws"  brought  him  in 
1873  in  conflict  with  the  gOTemmenl,  and 
as  he  conid  not  pay  Iho  Hues,  he  was  im- 
prisoned in  1874.  lie  died  May  B,  1876, 
learing  Dt  Tiluli  ShHi  Apoiiolica,  etc 
CT^eve^  1846),     (R  I'.) 

BborlB,  CiiniaTiA?!  Gl-stav,  a  Luther- 
an minister  of  UcrmsoT,  was  tnni  in  1813, 
and  died  Dec  9.  1879^  at  Ochaenbsch,  in 
WUtterabeTg.  He  publiahed,  Lulhtrt  Clait- 
btturichlung  (Slutlgsrd,  1858)  —LiUhfr  tin 
Ztichm  dan  videripiodien  vird  (ibid.  1860)  i 
— Luliin  Eranfftlifo-A  uMlrgunij  aat  stiwit  lioniiliritc^nt 
andertg^iiclifii  Wtrkm  (ibid.  1857).  See  Zucholil,  BiU. 
Thtfll  i,  802.     (B.  P.) 

BberniaiUI,  Titi's.  a  German  Jesuit,  wia  bom  in 
1597.  In  1G20he]oinedliiaonler,wuproremntor  phi- 
losophy and  theology  at  Maycnce  and  Wllnbarg,  and 
dieilApril8,16T6,leBving  BrUarmiia  Coatriatrtia  Vitt- 
diaila:—ParallelaEecMaVeittflFaUa:^Analontia 
Calixliiiii:—lrtnitV!a  imli-Culiili«lim:—Irtiticm  Co- 
Iholiani  Ilelnuladimii  Oppoiilam: — Bfllarmiiaii  Viadi' 
calm  (4  valt.) -.—Jhtla  fjtpotitio  cum  LHlheranoran 
Oocforibut.  See  iiichn,AUsfntfiiitt  Gilrhrtm-Lexiion, 
a.r.;  Alegtmbt,  BibUolArca  Scriptomm  SoeirUilii  Jem, 

(a  P.) 

Etb«Tt,  S.\MUEi.  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Germany, 
was  bom  at  Leipsic,  Oct  17,  1747;  studied  theology 
there;  waa  appointed  deacon  at  Taucha,  near  Leipic; 
and  in  1791  preacher  of  St.  George's,  at  his  native  place. 
He  died  Aug.  8,  1807,  leaving  Bomililiiehei  Atagatiu 
Ober  die  acngrlUdm  TatU  (Uipmc,  1T80) :— //owife- 
HnAtt  .Ifagazin  Obtr  die  rpittolitditn  Ttxie  (ibid.  1782; 
2d  ed.  1792)  -.—llomUtliidm  Afagazia/ur  die  Pauiont- 
ztil  (ibid.  1783)  ■.—llomiletinAtt  ftagiuin  liter  deu  Kale- 
ehiniut  Lvlheri  (ibid.lT91).  Sec  Ddring,  Ditffehhiien 
Thtalogm  Dtulidilandi,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Ebema,  Paul,  D.D.,  a  German  clergyman,  was 
bora  St  Kitiingen,  in  Frsnconia,  Nov.  8,  IGll,  and  was 
educated  at  Anapoch.  He  was  appointed  to  the  pro- 
ressorahip  of  philosophy  in  1544,  and  in  looG  to  that  of 
Ilebrewi  in  1568  he  gatheied  a  Church  in  Wittenberg. 
He  died  Dec  30,  1589.  Some  of  his  works  are.  Expo- 
lilio  ErangelioH:  — i>iii>Hntcaiii(in  CuUndurium  Iliilo- 
ricam  (Witlenb.  1560, 8vo,  reprinted  at  Baale  tbe  same 
year).     See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Did.  t.  v. 

Xlblia,  tbe  name  given  to  the  derU  by  the  Hohan- 
medans. 

Ebon  Veraion  op  the  Scrtpturks.  Ebon  ia  the 
most  southerly  of  the  Hanhall  lalaiids.  These  islands 
are  the  lecond  group  of  Micronesia,  beginning  from  the 
eW  with  the  <Mlbert  Island.  The  lirai  .Scripture  in 
tbia  language  was  fn>m  the  goapel  of  Matthew,  chapa. 
V  III  xL  This  Innslation  was  printeil  at  Ebon,  between 
1858  and  IS60.  The  work  was  done  by  the  pioneer 
miasionsries.  Revs.  E.  T.  Dosne  and  G,  Picrson.  A 
veraion  of  Mark,  prepsred  by  Mr.  Doane,  wia  print- 
ed at  Honolulu  in  1863.  Tho  Kev.  a  G.  Snow  pre- 
pared lor  Ihe  press  the  gospels  of  Matthew  anil  John, 
and  tlie  Acts,  and  revised  Hark  for  a  reprint.  In  1871 
hs  prepared  the  gospel  ol  Luke  sod  a  revision  of  Mat- 
thew for  the  press.  In  1877  Geneaia  was  issued  from 
•       ■  by  J.  F.  Whitney, 


EBOBAS 


318 


GCCLESIASTES 


who  alM  resamed  the  work  on  Romansi  left  unfinished 
by  Kr.  Snow,  and  translated  the  epistles  from  1  Corin- 
thians through  Philippians.  These  were  printed  at 
the  New  York  Bible  House  in  1882,  together  with  the 
book  of  Genesis  and  the  three  epistles  of  John.  The 
Bev.  £.  M.  Pease,  who  Joined  the  mission  in  1877,  has 
resumed  the  work  of  translation  of  the  rest  of  the  New 
Test.     (B.  P.) 

Eboraa,  a  Persian  presbyter,  mart\Ted  with  Miles, 
a  bishop,  and  Seboa,  a  deacon,  daring  the  reign  of  Sa- 
por II  (A.D.  346) ;  and  commemorated  Nov.  18. 

EborSnus,  sixteenth  bishop  of  Toul,  cir.  A.D.  664. 

Ebrbuharites,  an  order  of  monks  among  the  Mo- 
hammedans, who  derived  their  name  from  their  founder, 
Ebrbuhar,  the  scholar  of  Nacshbendi,  who  came  from 
Persia  to  Europe  in  the  14th  century  to  propagate  their 
faith.  They  professed  to  surrender  all  care  about  world- 
ly concerns,  and  to  give  themselves  wholly  up  to  the 
contemplation  of  eternal  objects.  They  were  esteemed 
heretics  by  the  Mohammedans  generally,  because  they 
refused  to  go  on  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  alleging  that  the 
journey  was  unnecessary,  as  they  were  permitted  in  se- 
cret vision,  while  sitting  in  their  celUs  to  behold  the 
holy  city.     See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  Worlds  s.  v. 

Ebregei^UB,  ninth  bishop  of  Cologne,  A.D.  590. 

EbregesiOB,  Satnt^  twenty-fourth  or  twenty-fifth 
bishop  of  Liege,  A.D.  618-^23 ;  commemorated  March 
28. 

Ebremundus.    See  Evriuiokd. 

EbrigiBXlus,  twenty-third  bishop  of  Meaux,  about 
the  end  of  the  7th  centurv. 

Bbroinus,  forty-second  bishop  of  Bourges,  A.D.  810. 

Bbmlfua.    See  Evroul. 

Bbulua  (ISvoliuB,  Eubrelna,  or  even  ErmiU- 
ua).  (1)  Third  bishop  of  Limoges,  A.D.  89.  (2)  Sixth 
bishop  of  Avignon,  A.D.  202. 

Eccard,  Johannes,  a  celebrated  composer  of  Church 
music,  was  bom  at  Muhlhausen,  on  the  Unstrut,  Prus- 
sia, in  1553.  Having  received  some  instruction  in  music 
at  home,  he  became,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  the  pupil 
of  Orlando  di  Lasso  at  Munich.  In  1574  he  was  again 
at  Muhlhausen,  where  he  resided  four  yeari^  and  edit- 
ed, together  with  Johann  von  Burgk,  his  first  master,  a 
collection  of  sacred  songs  called  Crepundia  Sacra  I/elm' 
holdi  (1577).  He  was  for  some  time  engaged  in  a  pri- 
vate family,  and  in  1583  became  assistant  conductor,  and 
twelve  years  later  first  chapel-master,  at  Konigsberg. 
In  1608  he  became  chief  conductor  of  the  elector*s  chap- 
el in  Berlin,  and  died  in  1611.  Eccard's  works  consist 
exclusively  of  vocal  compositions,  such  as  songs,  sacred 
cantatas,  and  chorales  for  four  or  five,  and  sometimes 
for  seven,  eight,  or  even  nine  voices.  They  are  in- 
stinct with  a  spirit  of  tme  religious  feeling,  and  possess 
an  interest  above  their  artistic  value.  Eccard's  setting 
of  **EiHfiste  Burg  ist  unser  Gott "  is  still  regarded  by  the 
Germans  as  their  representative  national  hymn.  Ec- 
card and  his  school  are  in  the  same  way  inseparably 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  Reformation.  Of  his 
songs  a  great  many  collections  are  extant.  See  £ncy- 
clop,  Brit,  (9th  ed.)  s.  v.;  Grove,  Diet,  of  Music,  s.  v. 

EcolealA  {the  Church),  one  of  the  eight  primary 
SBons  in  the  system  of  Yalentinus  (q.  v.),  and  held  to  be 
the  archetype  of  the  lower  one  on  earth.  The  6no8ti|» 
likewise  had  a  heavenly  Church,  but  not  a  distinct  be- 
ing. This  notion  is  evidently  a  corruption  of  the  Script- 
ural idea  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  and  tendencies  to 
a  fanciful  separation  of  the  Church  triumphant  and  the 
Church  militant  are  noticeable  in  the  Shepherd  of  Her- 
mas  (Vis.  ii,  4)  and  in  Clement^s  Sectmd  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  (chap.  xiv).  See  Smith,  Diet  of  Christ, 
Biog.  s.  V. 

ECCLESIA  Apostolica,  a  name  applied  by  some 
of  the  early  fathere  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  on  account 
of  the  prevalent  belief  that  the  apostles  Peter  and  Panl 


both  taught  at  Rome,  and  honored  the  Church  by  their 
martyrdom. 

ECCLESIA  >Latrix  (^Mother  Church),  a  name  given 
in  ancient  times  to  the  cathedral  church,  to  which  all 
the  clergy  of  a  city  or  diocese  belonged. 

Eccleaiee  CaualdXoi  (Church  lawyers),  the  name 
formerly  applied   to   ecclesiastical  chancellon.     See 

ClIANCiSLLOB. 

Ecoleaiaroh,  in  the  East,  was  the  sacrist,  who 
had  general  charge  of  the  church  and  its  contents, 
and  summoned  the  people  by  bells  or  other  means. 
The  minor  ecclesiastical  oflicials  were  nnder  his  au- 
thority.    Sec  Smith,  DicL  of  Christ,  Antiq.  s.  v. 

Booleaiaaterion,  a  term  sometimes  used  in  early 
times  to  denote  the  church  building  as  distinguished 
from  the  ecdesia,  or  members  of  the  Christian  Church. 

Eooleaiaatea,  Book  of.  A  somewhat  fuller  dis- 
cussion of  the  points  relating  to  the  authorship  of  this 
composition  is  appropriate,  in  view  of  the  confident  as- 
sertion of  many  critics,  especially  in  Germany,  that  the 
contents  forbid  its  ascription  to  Solomon.  'We  might 
fairly  olTset  these  opinions  of  modem  scholara  by  that 
of  the  ancient  Hebraists,  certainly  in  nowise  their  in- 
feriors, who  seem  to  have  found  no  such  difficulty  even 
in  the  linguistic  peculiarities  of  the  book  as  to  require 
a  later  than  the  Solomonic  age  for  its  production.  The 
direct  evidence  of  the  writer  himself,  in  the  opening 
verse,  has  not  been  fairly  treated  by  these  rationalizing 
critics,  for  while  most  of  them  are  compelled  to  admit 
that  *'  the  Preacher,  the  son  of  David,  king  in  Jerusa- 
lem," can  only  point  to  Solomon,  they  yet  evade  the 
argument  as  if  this  were  merely  a  nom  de  plume;  and 
Flumptre  {Cambridge  Bible,  introd.  ad  loc)  does  not 
hesitate  to  compare  this  with  the  pious  fraud  in  the 
apocryphal  book  of  **  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon.**  The 
attempt  to  justify  this  pseudonym  by  the  modem  prac- 
tice of  fictitious  authorahip  will  apply  very  well  so  far 
as  the  assumption  of  the  fancy  title  Koheieth  is  con- 
cerned, but  is  a  total  failure  as  to  the  more  definite  ad- 
dition ''son  of  David,  king  in  Jerusalem;**  for  such  a 
precise  and  misleading  designation  is  unprecedented  in 
the  history  of  trustworthy  literature.  The  book  is 
either  Solomon's  or  a  forgery. 

The  anonymous  author  of  The  Authorship  ofEedesi- 
astes  (Lond.  1880, 8vo)  has  nearly  exhausted  the  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  the  Solomonic  date,  as  derived  from 
a  comparison  of  Solomon's  other  writings,  and  he  ex- 
tends the  inquiry  into  the  minutias  of  style  and  phraae- 
ology  with  a  thoroughness  that  ought  to  shake  the 
confidence  of  the  holdere  of  the  opposite  view.  As  to 
alleged  Aramaisms  in  Ecdesiastes,  there  are  certainly 
none  more  decided  than  appear  in  Deborah's  ode  (Judg. 
v;  pure  Chaldaism  ^1%  ver.  18;  so  *ia,  Psa.  ii,  12). 

Delitzsch,  in  his  Commentary  on  this  book  (Clark's 
translation,  Edinb.  1877,  p.  190  sq.)  has  collected  a  for- 
midable "  list  of  the  Hapaxlegomena,  and  of  the  Words 
and  Forms  in  the  Book  of  Koheieth  belonging  to  a 
more  recent  Period  of  the  Language**  than  Solomon; 
and  this  has  been  pointed  to  by  later  critics  generally 
as  conclusive  against  the  Solomonic  authorship.  The 
writer  of  the  above  monograph  justly  remarks  (p.  82X 
**  A  cursory  glance  at  the  list,  however,  seems  sufficient 
to  shake  one's  confidence  in  it;  and  if  it  be  faithfully 
scmtinized,  it  shrinks  down  to  almost  nothing.*'  Ac- 
cordingly  he  examines  several  of  these  words,  as  speci- 
mens, and  shows  conclusively  that  they  do  not  sustain 
the  position.  It  is  worth  our  while  to  analyze  this 
**  list,'*  and  we  shall  see  what  a  slender  basis  it  affoitls 
for  the  conclusion  based  upon  it  There  are  ninety- 
five  of  these  words  enumerated  by  Delitzsch,  of  which,  by 
his  own  showing,  fifteen  (besides  one  which  he  has  over- 
looked) are  found,  in  the  same  form  and  sense,  more  or 
less  frequently,  in  writings  of  the  early  or  middle  He- 
brew (Moses  to  Isaiah),  and  may  therefore  bo  set  aside 
as  wholly  irrelevant     Of  the  rest,  twenty-six  worda 


ECCLESIASTICS  RES 


319 


ECCLESIUS 


ooeor  elsewhere  onljr  in  the  Talmudtc  writen  or  the 
Targums,  ip  the  same  form  and  sense,  and  therefore,  if 
they  prove  anything;  prove  entirely  too  much,  for  they 
would  irgae  a  rabbinical  date,  which  we  know  is  im- 
poirible,  stnoe  the^pfc.  translation  of  Ecclesiastes,  now 
extant,  eairiea  the  original  up  to  the  time  of  the  Ptole- 
mies at  least.    Still  further  we  may  reduce  the  list  by 
ezdnding  nineteen  words  which  appear  in  substantially 
the  same  or  some  closely  cognate  form  in  confessedly 
earlier  writers,  and  thirteen  others  which  are  used  by 
them  in  a  slightly  different  sense.    Deducting  all  these 
immaterial  peculiarities,  there  remain  only  twenty-one 
words,  or  lesa  than  one  fourth  in  the  list,  that  are  really 
pertinent  to  the  question.    Of  these,  again,  eleven  are 
Ibund  in  this  book  only  (strictly  hapaxleffomena),  and 
therefore  determine  nothing  as  to  its  age,  being  such 
forms  as,  for  aught  we  know,  might  have  been  employed 
by  any  writer.     Onoo  more,  we  ought  in  fairness  to  ex- 
dode  certain  particles  and  dubious  forms  (n!|K*1,  p!l9'^, 
^ix,  IDS),  which  are  vague  and  inconclusive.     The 
actual  residaam  available  thus  dwindles  down  to  six 
words  only,  namely,  b^a  (xii,  8),  "{Vl  (iii,  1),  "1^3  (x, 
10;  xi,  6),  1WB  (vui,  1),  BSHII  (ibid.),' and  •,^5'?  (i,  17 ; 
ii,  23;  iv,  16),  which  is  no  greater  number  than  can  be 
pointed  out  in  Job  and  some  other  pre-exilian  books. 
None  of  theae  balf-dosen  vrords  is  sufficiently  distinctive 
in  known  origin  and  histoiy  to  determine  the  date  of 
the  writing.     The  evidence  is  too  negative.    They  are 
not  like  some  modem  terms,  which  we  can  trace  to  a 
specific  source  and  occasion  when  they  were  first  coined 
or  introduced.    The  cognate  dialects  exhibit  all  of  them 
in  the  same  or  similar  signification,  and  of  most  of  them 
(perhaps  even  the  last  two  are  no  exceptions)  the  He- 
brew itself  has  the  root  in  no  very  remote  sense.    They 
are  neither  foreign  nor  technical  terms. 

The  same  line  of  argument  is  applicable  to  the  pecul- 
iar inflections  and  constructions  adduced  by  Delitzsch 
in  the  same  ocmnection.  They  have  been  greatly  exag- 
gerated in  relative  number  and  importance.  That  the 
book  of  Ecclesiastes  is  singular  in  many  of  its  forms 
and  phrases  no  one  can  doubt,  but  that  these  peculiari- 
ties are  soch  as  specially  belong  to  the  later  Hebrew 
has  not  been  made  out.  We  have  several  books  writ- 
ten in  the  post-exilian  period,  but  Kokdeth  does  not 
wear  their  impress,  either  in  general  or  in  particular. 
The  only  other  book  in  the  canonical  Hebrew  Script- 
ures analogous  to  it  in  teaching  is  Proverbs,  and  we 
hzve  nothing  in  apocryphal  Jewish  literature  that  com- 
pares with  it,  except  perhaps  ''The  Wisdom  of  Solomon," 
which  is  only  extant  in  Greek  (which  is  apparently  the 
original),  and  was  evidently  modelled  after  Kokdeth. 
That  Solomon  was  a  perfectly  classical  writer  is  not 
to  be  assumed,  either  from  his  lera  or  what  else  we 
know  of  him.  The  effort  to  express  philosophical  ideas 
in  the  inadequate  Shemitic  tongue  may  well  explain 
many  of  the  harsh  terms  and  strange  constructions  of 
Ecclesiastes.  Certainly  we  gain  nothing  by  attribut- 
ing the  book  to  some  unknown  writer  of  some  indefinite 
age,  concerning  whom  nothing  can  be  proved  or  dis- 
proved. Subjective  arguments  on  a  question  of  author- 
ship Mat  of  the  most  deceptive  character,  as  the  well- 
known  attempt  to  determine  who  wrote  The  Letters  of 
Jumtu  has  proved.  One  good  historical  statement, 
whether  made  in  the  writing  itself  or  by  traditionary 
testimony,  cNitweighs  all  such  speculative  and  conject- 
ural dicta.  Until  some  candidate  better  accredited  than 
Solomon  shall  be  brought  forward,  in  deserting  him  we 
shall  be  forsaking  the  substance  for  a  shadow. 

BcdesiaJitlcas  Res.  (1)  The  tenn  is  used,  in 
a  wide  sense,  to  denote  all  matters  belonging  to  the 
Chnich,  as  opposed  to  things  secular  or  w^orldly.  It 
also  indicates  the  priestly  office  and  duties.  It  is  like- 
wise used  in  reference  to  "spiritual "things, immaterial 
or  material.  To  the  former  class  belong  the  invisible 
giAs  ami  graces  bestowed  by  God  upon  the  soul ;  to  the 


latter,  the  outward  acts  or  objects  connected  with  such 
gifts,  as  the  sacraments  and  other  religious  rites.  From 
this  it  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  vestments  of  minis- 
ters, as  well  as  to  the  beneficent  institutions  over  which 
the  Church  has  jurisdiction.  (2)  The  narrower  sense 
of  the  term  designates  the  property  of  the  Church.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Antiq,  a.  v. 

Eooleoiastioal  CommlsBioii,  in  English  law, 
is  a  standing  body  invested  with  very  important  pow- 
ers, under  the  operations  of  which  extensive  changes 
have  been  made  in  the  distribution  of  the  revenues  of 
the  Church  of  England.  In  1835  two  committees  were 
appointed  "  to  consider  the  state  of  the  several  dioceses 
of  EngUnd  and  Wales,  with  reference  to  the  amount  of 
their  revenues  and  the  more  equal  distribution  of  epis- 
copal duties,  and  the  prevention  of  the  necessity  of  at- 
taching by  commendam  to  bishoprics  certain  benefices 
with  cure  of  soub;  and  to  consider  also  the  state  of  the 
several  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches  in  England 
and  Wales,  with  a  view  to  the  suggestion  of  such  meas- 
ures as  might  render  them  conducive  to  the  efficiency 
of  the  'EstaUidbed  Church,  and  to  ascertain  the  best 
mode  of  providing  for  the  cure  of  souls,  with  special 
reference  to  the  residence  of  the  clergy  on  their  re- 
spective benefices."  Cpon  the  recommendation  of  these 
committees  a  permanent  commission  was  appointed  by 
6  and  7  Will.  IV,  c  77,  for  the  purpose  of  preparing 
and  laying  before  the  king  in  council  such  schemes  as 
should  appear  to  them  to  be  best  adapted  for  carrying 
into  effect  the  alterations  suggested  in  the  report  of  the 
original  commission  and  recited  in  the  act.  The  first 
members  of  this  commission  were  the  two  archbishops 
and  three  bishops,  the  lord-chancellor  and  the  principal 
officers  of  state,  and  three  laymen  named  in  the  act. 
By  a  later  act  (3  and  4  VicL  c  113),  all  the  bishops,  the 
chiefs  of  the  three  courts  at  Westminster,  the  master 
of  the  rolls,  the  judges  of  the  Prerogative  Court  and 
Court  of  Admiralty,  and  the  deans  of  Canterbury,  St. 
Paul's,  and  Westminster,  were  added  to  the  commission ; 
and  power  was  given  to  the  crown  to  appoint  four  and 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  appoint  two  additional 
lay  commissioners, who  are  required  to  be  "members 
of  the  United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland,  and  to 
subscribe  a  declaration  to  that  effect."  Five  are  a  quo- 
rum ;  but  two  bishops  at  least  must  be  present  at  any 
proceeding  under  the  common  seal  of  the  commission, 
and  if  only  two  are  present  they  can  demand  its  post- 
ponement to  a  subsequent  meeting.  Paid  commission- 
ers, under  the  title  of  Church  estates'  commissioners,  are 
also  appointed— two  by  the  crown  and  one  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbor}'.  These  three  are  the  joint  treas- 
urers of  the  commission,  and  constitute,  along  with  two 
members  appointed  by  the  commission,  the  Church 
estates'  committee,  charged  with  all  business  relating 
to  the  sale,  purchase,  exchange,  letting,  or  management 
of  any  lands,  tithes,  or  hereditaments.  The  schemes 
of  the  commission  having,  after  due  notice  to  persons 
affected  thereby,  been  laid  before  the  queen  in  council, 
may  be  ratified  by  orders,  specifying  the  times  when 
they  shall  take  effect;  and  such  orders,  when  published 
in  the  London  Gazette^  have  the  same  force  as  acts  of 
Parliament     See  Encyelop,  Brit.  (9th  ed.)  s.  v. 

XScolesiaBtioal  Law.    Sec  Canon  Law. 

EoolesiastiCoiM.  (1)  Any  person  in  ordere,  wheth- 
er major  or  minor.  (2)  Isidore  of  Seville  speaks  of  a 
clerk  occupying  his  due  position  in  the  hierarchy  as  an 
"ecclesiastical  clerk,"  in  distinction  from  an  irregular 
clerk.  (3)  Those  who  were  so  connected  with  a  Church 
as  to  be  unable  to  leave  its  service  were  called  in  a  spe- 
cial sense  "  ecclesiastical  men."  They  were  not  slaves. 
See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  A  nliq.  s.  v. 

Bcolesieodfoi  {Church  lawyers),  the  chancellors 
(q.  V.)  of  bishops. 

BcoleaiUB.  (1)  Bishop  of  Ravenna,  A.D.  622'-683. 
(2)  Bishop  of  Chiusi  (Clusiuip),  A.D.  600-602. 


ECDICI 


320 


ECSTATICI 


Bodloi  (Ic^ucoi),  certain  oOLcen  appointed  in  con- 
sequence of  the  legal  disability  of  clergy  and  monks  to 
represent  the  Church  in  civil  affairs.    See  Advocatb 

OF  THE  ChUBCH. 

Bodioius.  (1)  An  intruding  bishop  of  Parnasos 
(Cappadocia  Tenia),  A.D.  876.  (2)  Bishop  of  the  island 
of  Tenos,  in  the  ^gean,  A.D.  658. 

XScfrith,  fifth  abbot  of  Glastonbury,  A.D.  719-729. 

XSchi  (LaL  Echea  or  A  chea)j  an  Irish  saint,  sister  of 
St.  Patrick,  is  commemorated  Aug.  5. 

Eohleoh,  an  Irish  saint,  son  of  Daighre  and  brother 
of  Caemban,  is  commemorated  Aug.  14. 

XSchtaoh  (Lat.  Ectacid)^  an  Irish  virgin  saint,  is 
commemorated  Feb.  6. 

Bchtbrann,  abbot  of  Glendalough,  County  Wick- 
low,  died  A.D.  795. 

Bckard,  Heinrioh,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Wetter,  in  Hesse,  Oct.  19, 1582.  He 
studied  at  Marburg;  was  in  1601  pastor  at  Wildungen,' 
in  Waldeck,  and  in  1608  professor  at  Giessen ;  in  1610 
he  was  superintendent  at  Frankenhausen,  and  in  1616 
general  superintendent  at  Altenbuig,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  22, 1624,  leaving,  Quastionep  de  Qidbus  inter  Au- 
guttana  Confusionis  Theologo$  et  Cahnnianot  DiseeptO' 
tur: — Theologia  Calvitnanorum : — Compendium  Theo^ 
loguB  Patrum: — laagoge  m  Ctxieekitmum  Lutheri: — 
AnahftU  Epittola  Johanmt:  —  De  Cavta  Aferitoria 
JuMtificatumii  contra  Pitcaiorem: — De  Ordine  Eeden- 
mtico  et  Politico,  See  iochev^  AUgemeinet  GeUhrten- 
LexihoUf  s.  v. ;  Winer,  /lemdbuck  der  thebL  Lit,  i.  486. 
(B.  P.) 

Eokard,  Heinrioh  Martiii,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  (josslcben,  in  Thuringia, 
in  1615,  and  died  April  14, 1669,  pastor  primarius  and 
general  superintendent  at  Alefeld,  in  Hildesheim,  leav- 
ing, Difputaiio  de  Trinitate  (Rinteln,  1654)  :—De  Pra- 
dettinafione  ( ibid.  1655 ) :  —  De  Natura  et  Principio 
Theologim  (ibid.  1657)  x—De  Sacrameniit  in  Genere^  et 
m  Specie  de  Bapiismo  et  Eucharistia  (ibid.  1660) : — 
De  PeccaH  Oriffine  (ibid.  1661) :— /)«  Spiritu  (ibid. 
1662):— De  Divimtate  Chrieti  contra  Photvnianoe  (ibid. 
1664)  i—De  Vera  et  Reali  Corporis  et  Sanguimt  Christi 
in  Eucharistia  PrtEseniia  (ibid.  1 669).  See  DoUen,  Le- 
benbesckreibimg  der  Rintelscken  Prof,  Tkeol, ;  Strieders, 
/feseiscke  Gelehrten  Geschichte;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Ge- 
Uhrtenrljexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Bckhard,  Albert,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Wetter,  in  Hesse,  in  1577.  He 
studied  at  Marburg,  was  in  1607  superintendent  at 
Hildesheim,  and  died  there,  Aug.  6, 1609,  leaving,  Dis- 
put,  de  Condliie  contra  Rob,  BeUarmimtm  (Marburg, 
1597)  :—De  Descensu  Ckristi  ad  Inferos  (ibid.  1599)  :— 
De  Spiritu  Sancto  (ibid,  eod.)  i—De  Sancta  Trinitatis 
Mysterio  (ibid.  1605)  i^An  Semd  JustiJUxUi  Spiritum 
Sanctum  Amittere  Possint  (Giessen,  1607) : — An  Christo 
^lav^pwwt^  Secundum  Humanam  Naturam  dona  Vere 
Divina  et  Injinita  sint  Collataf  (Hildesheim,  1608). 
See  Strieders,  llessische  Gelehrten  Geschichtef  Jocher, 
A  Ugemevnes  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Eokhard,  Paul  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Juterbogk,  Dec  6, 1698.  He 
studied  at  Zcrbst,  Quedlinburg,  and  Wittenberg;  was 
appointed  in  1728  deacon  at  SL  Nicolai,  in  his  native 
city,  and  died  there,  March  6,  1758,  leaving,  among 
other  works,  Werdische  Kirchen^Historie  (  Wittenberg, 
1789).  See  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikon^  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Bokhard,  TobiaSt  ^  elderf  was  bom  at  Delitzsch 
in  1568.  In  1614  he  was  con-rector  at  Naumburg ;  in 
1624  rector,  and  in  1684  pastor,  at  Groas^ena,  where  he 
died.  May  9, 1652.  See  J<k:her,  AUgemeines  Gekkrtenr 
Lexikonf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Eokhard,  Tobias,  the  younger^  was  bom  at  Juter- 
bogk, Nov.  1, 1662.    He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  where 


he  also  lectured  after  completing  his  studies.  In  1091 
he  was  called  as  con-rector  to  Stade,  in  1704  to  Qnedlin- 
burg,  and  died  there,  Dec.  18, 1787,  leaving,  De  Immu* 
tabUUate  Dei  (M'ittenberg,  1683)  :—De  Signo  S.  PauU 
Epistolarum  ad  2  Thess,  m,.17  (ibid.  1687)  :—De  Paulo 
Athleia  ad  1  Cor,  ix,  26  (ibid.  1688)  :— Zte  Athewis  Su- 
perstitiosis  ad  Actor,  «Ptt,  22,  28  (ibid,  eod.): — De 
SpiritUf  Principe  jEris  ad  Ephes,  O,  2  (ibid,  eod.) : — 
De  Christi  Servatoris  Resurrectione  Rom,  t,  4,  Alterias 
Nomine  Scripta  (ibid,  eod.)  :—De  Eunesto  Judas  Exitu 
(ibid.  1689) : — De  Facto  Bielis  cum  Dispendio  Duorum 
Filiorum  Uierichuutem  jEd^canOs  ad  1  Reg,  art,  84 
(ibid,  eod.) :  —  De  Fonte  Haresium  ad  CoL  n,  8  (ibid. 
1691) :— Z>e  Justijicationis  in  V.  ac  N.  Test,  Rutione  Una 
et  Eadem  (ibid,  eod.),  etc  See  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  Ge- 
lehrten-Lexikonf  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbudi  der  theoL  Lit, 
i,  132, 394.     (a  P.) 

Eckley,  Josieph,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  London,  England,  Oct.  11  (O.  S.),  1750. 
When  about  seventeen  years  of  sge  his  father  moved 
with  his  family  to  America,  and  settled  in  Morristown, 
N.  J.  Soon  after  his  arrival  Joseph  was  sent  to  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  from  which  he  graduated  in 
1772 ;  and,  in  order  to  prosecute  his  theological  studies, 
he  remained  at  Princeton.  May  7, 1776,  he  was  licensed 
to  preach  by  the  Presbyteiy  of  New  York.  The  Old 
South  Church,  Boston,  having  been  reorganized,  after 
the  dispersion  occasioned  b}*  the  Revolution,  choee  him 
for  their  pastor  in  1778 ;  and  he  was  ordained  Oct.  27, 
1779.  In  1808  he  was  provided  with  a  colleague,  Ke\'. 
Joshua  Huntington.  He  died  in  Boston,  April  SO,  1811. 
In  temperament  Dr.  Eckley  was  ardent.  Although  fre- 
quently called  upon  to  preach  on  important  occasions, 
he  was  not  remarkable  as  a  speaker,  being  inclined  to 
abstraction  and  possessed  of  an  unmusical  voice.  See 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit  ^  ii,  187. 

Ecleeton,  Thouas,  a  Franciscan  of  the  14th  cen- 
tun%  was  bom  at  Eclestone,  Cheshire ;  was  bred  a  Fran- 
ciscan in  Oxford,  and  died  in  1840.  He  wrote  a  book 
on  the  auccession  of  the  Franciscans  in  England,  with 
their  works  and  wonders,  from  their  first  coming  in  to 
his  own  time,  dedicating  the  same  modestly  to  a  fellow- 
friar.  Another  work  of  bis  is,  De  Impugnatione  Orduus 
tuiper  Domimcanos.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England, 
i,  276. 

Economist  (a  steward),  called  by  Poesidiua  provost 
of  the  church-house,  was  a  priest,  as  stated  by  Isidore 
Pelusiotes,  appointed  by  the  Council  of  Cbaloedon  in 
461,  and  elected  by  the  clergy  in  the  East,  to  discbarge 
the  same  duties  as  devolved  on  a  medissval  txeasorer, 
provost  of  canons,  and  almoners  in  an  English  cathe* 
dral.  In  the  Western  Church  he  is  mentioned  in  the 
4th  oentur}',  and  was  a  deacon  at  Milan  in  the  time  of 
Ambrose.  His  office  was  contemporaneous  with  the 
restriction  of  an  archdeacon  to  spiritual  duties.  In  the 
vacancy  of  the  see,  by  the  councils  of  Chalcedon  and 
Trent,  he  acted  as  receiver-general  and  administrator  of 
the  episcopal  revenues.  Al  Kilkenny,  St.  David^s,  and 
Exeter,  as  now  at  Windsor,  he  received  the  capitular 
rents,  and  at  Westminster  provided  the  common  table 
and  paid  the  servants*  wages.  At  Hereford  two  econo- 
mists, or  bailiffs,  rendered  half-yearly  accounts  of  the 
great  commons.— Walcott,  Sac  A  rchseoL  s.  v. 

EcondmuB.    See  (Ecokomits. 

Ecphonfisis  {U^mmifftc),  that  portion  of  an  office 
which  is  said  audibly  in  contrast  with  that  which  ia 
said  silently;  especiidly  the  doxology,  with  which  the 
secret  prayers  generally  oondnde. 

Ecrar  (confession  of  sins).  The  duty  of  confeesion 
of  sins  is  reckoned  by  Mohammedans  to  be  the  fifth 
capital  and  fundamental  article  of  their  religion.  It  is 
the  doctrine  of  the  Koran  that  God  will  pardon  those 
who  confess  their  eina. 

EcetatXoi,  a  kind  of  diviners  among  the  andeiit 
Greeks,  who  were  wont  to  fall  into  a  tnnce  in  which 


ECTENIA 


321 


EDER 


they  cootiaaed  a  considerable  time,  deprived  of  all  sense 
sad  motion,  and  on  their  recovery  tliey  gave  ntrvel- 
loos  scconnts  of  what  they  had  seen  and  heard.  In  Ko- 
mso  Cstholic  countries,  also,  many  stories  have  been 
told  of  individaals  who  have  been  in  a  state  of  ecttcuit, 
or  tnoee,  during  which  they  are  said  to  have  seen  and 
opDvemd  with  the  Virgin  Mary  and  other  saints. 

Bctenia  (errcvta).  The  liturgies  of  Basil  and 
Gbrysoatom  begin  with  a  litany,  somedmes  known  by 
this  name.  It  may  also  refer  to  the  length  or  the  ear- 
nestness of  the  supplication.  Litanies  of  a  similar  form 
are  also  found  in  the  hour-offices.    See  Litany. 

Ectypomata  {iKrviru>fiaTa)  were  gifts  of  a  pecul- 
iar kind,  which  b^an  to  be  made  to  churches  probably 
about  the  middle  of  the  5th  century.  They  are  first 
mentioned  by  Theodoret,  who  tells  us  that  when  any 
one  obtained  the  benefit  of  a  signal  cure  from  God  in 
any  member  of  his  body,  such  as  his  eyes,  hands,  or 
feet,  be  then  brought  his  ec/ypoma,  the  image  or  figure 
of  the  part  cured,  in  silver  or  gold,  to  be  hung  up  in  the 
church  as  a  memorial  of  divine  favor.  Such  a  prac- 
tice prevailed  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  slso  among  the  Egyptians.  The  same  custom  was 
known  among  the  Philistines,  as  we  may  infer  from 
the  case  of  the  ''golden  emerods"  and  mice  (1  Sam.  vi, 
4).  In  Roman  Catholic  countries  representations  of  parts 
of  the  body  healed  are  often  seen  suspended  upon  the 
walls  of  churches. 

Ed.    See  Sabtab^i. 

Edbnrg.    See  Eadbuboa. 

Bdda.    See  Nobsk  Mttholoot. 

B^cUqs  0-  ^  ^dtft,  surnamed  StejpheiCy,  a  noted 
singer  in  Kent,  a  friend  of  Wilfrid,  archbishop  of  York, 
A.D.720. 

XSddo,  sixth  bishop  of  Curia  Rhsstorum  (now  Chur, 
of  Grisons),  cir.  A.D.  500-580. 

Eddy,  Thomas  Mkabs,  D.D.,a  distinguished  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  minister,  son  of  Rev.  Augustus  Eddy,  was 
bom  in  Newtown,  Hamilton  Co.,  O.,  Sept.  7, 1823.  He 
received  a  careful  religions  training ;  consecrated  himself 
to  the  Saviour  very  early  in  life;  and  in  1842  entered 
the  Indiana  Conference,  filling  its  most  important  ap- 
pointments. In  1856  he  was  elected  editor  of  The 
yortkwetiem  Ckrittian  Advocate,  During  his  editorial 
csreer  of  fourteen  years,  this  periodical  increased  from 
a  weekly  issue  of  fourteen  thousand  to  about  thirty 
'  tboosaod  copies.  At  its  close  he  re-entered  the  pastor- 
ate, in  oonnectlon  with  the  Baltimore  Conference.  In 
1872  he  was  elected  missionary  secretary,  and  as  such 
was  very  laborioos  and  successful  to  the  dose  of  his  life, 
OcL  7, 1874.  Dr.  Eddy  was  a  clear,  logical,  pathetic 
preacher;  a  fordUe,  sprightly  writer;  a  genial  compan- 
ion, and  a  devout  man.  See  Minutes  of  A  tmual  Comfier- 
aoei,  1875,  p.  17 ;  Simpson,  Cyiop,  o/ MetAodittn,  s.  v. 

Sdel,  J.  LOW,  a  famous  Talmudist,  who  died  at  Slo- 
nim  in  1827,  is  the  author  of  Q*^n  "^"^X,  or  Du^uitwna 
on  tke  HaggadoM  ta  the  Talmud  and  Exphnatume  of  the 
Uaggaiic  Inierpreittiion  of  ike  Scripture  (Ostrok,  1835) : 
— C^asac^  nso,  a  Hebrew  grammar  (Lemberg,  1793) : 
—also  PkUoeopkieal  Deraehae^  or  homilies  (1802):— 
CommmiaTiee  <m  Maimonides*  introduction  to  the  Tal- 
mudlfi  timet  Tohorotfa,  etc  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i, 
290  aq. 

Bdelburs.    See  Etrklburga. 

Bdeles,  Samuel  Eubsbb,  a  Talmudist  of  the  16th 
centmy,  rabbi  at  Ostrok,  LubUn,  etc.,  is  the  author  of 
glosses  and  novellas  on  Talmudic  treatises,  for  which 
seeFlUst,  J9tNL  J«dLi,221;  D^'Bomi,  DUumarioStorico, 
p.  95  (Germ.  trmnsL),  s,  v.  Eideles.     (K  P.) 

lM^Hwf»lr^  GxitABD,  a  Celebrated  Flemish  en- 
gnvar,  waa  bom  at  Antwerp  in  1627,  studied  under 
Conelia  Galle,  and  waa  subsequeotly  dected  a  royal 
'"'^Hnti'if^i     He  died  at  Paris  in  1707.    The  fol- 

XIL-X 


lowing  are  some  of  his  principal  •  works :  The  Ilolg 
Famify,  with  SL  John,  St.  ElvMbeth,  and  Tufo  An^ 
gd$f  The  ifofy  Family,  where  St,  John  i*  Pretenting 
Flowers  to  the  Infant  Jesus;  The  Virgin  Mary  at  the 
Foot  of  the  Cross;  Mary  Magdalene,  penitent.  Tramps 
ling  on  the  Vanities  of  the  World;  St,  Louis  Prostrating 
kimseffbrfore  a  Crucifix,  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  A  lis,  s.  v. 

Edeling,  Christian  Ltmwio,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1678  at  LobejQn,  near 
Halle.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  was  the  tutor  of  the 
famous  count  Zinzendorf.  In  1706  he  was  appointed 
rector  at  Gr5ningen,  and  in  1710  was  made  assistant 
of  the  pastor  primarius  Muller  at  Schwanebeck,  near 
Halberstadt,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1723.  He  died 
Sept.  18,  1742,  leaving  some  fine  hymns  still  used  in 
the  German  Church:  '*Auf,  auf,  mein  Geist,  be- 
trachte,"*  "Christen  erwarten  in  allerlei  Fiillen."  See 
Koch,  Geschichie  des  deutschen  Kirchenliedes,  v,  219  sq. 

(B.P.) 

Edelmann,  Qottfiied,  a  Lutheran  minister  of 
Germany,  was  born  Dec  20, 1660,  at  Marolissa,  in  Up- 
per Lusatia.  He  studied  at  Leipsic;  was  first  pastor  at 
Holzkircb,  in  his  native  province ;  in  1693  accepted  a 
call  to  Ijauban,  and  died  there  in  1724,  leaving  a  num- 
ber of  hymns.  See  Hoffmann,  Lauhanische  Prediger- 
Historie,  p.  287 ;  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirchen- 
Uedes,  v,  448  sq.     (R  P.) 

Bdelmann,  Hirsh,  a  Jewish  scholar  of  Germany, 
who  died  at  Beriin,  Nov.  21, 1858,  is  the  author  of  *1*1D 
n*13hn,  or  the  Narrative  fir  the  Jewish  Passover,  with 
critical  notes  and  scholia  (Konigsbei^,  1845).  He  also 
published  the  Jewish  Prayer-book,  with  glosses  and  scho- 
lia (ibid.) ;  and  edited  T%e  Song  of  Solomon,  with  Obadja 
Sefomo*s  commenUry  (Dantxic,  1845).  See  Furst,  BibL 
/ttd.  1,222.     (a  P.) 

Eden.  The  locality  of  Paradise  has  recently  been 
investigated  afresh  by  Friedrich  Delitzsch  (Wo  lag  das 
Paradisus,  Leipsic,  1881),  who  places  the  garden  of  Eden 
in  that  part  of  Northern  or  Upper  Babylonia  which  im- 
mediately surrounds  the  site  of  Babylon  itself.  He  as- 
sociates the  name  Eden  wi(h  the  non-Shemitic  edin 
(''plain"),  instead  of  the  well-received  Hebraic  deriva- 
tion, and  compares  the  Accadian  name  Karckmias  (*'  gar- 
den of  the  God  Dunias  **),  of  the  district  around  Babylon. 
He  regards  **  the  river  going  forth  from  Eden  to  water 
the  garden"  as  that  system  of  watercourses,  with  one 
general  current,  which  irrigated  the  isthmus  between 
the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  at  its  narrowest  point, 
just  above  Babylon.  The  other  two  of  the  four  prin- 
dpal  *' heads'*  of  the  stream  he  thinks  wera  perhape 
half-natural,  half-artificial,  canals  flowing  out  of  the 
Euphrates — the  Pallokopas  on  the  west,  and  the  Shat- 
en-Nil  on  the  east.  He  has  not  actually  found  in  the 
Chaldasan  records  the  names  Hshon  or  Gichon,  but  he 
believes  the  former  to  be  the  Accadian  pisan  (*'  water- 
vessd"),  and  the  latter  is  supposed  to  be  the  Baby- 
lonian Gughan  dS,  possibly  pointing  to  one  of  these 
canals.  The  precariousness  of  this  identification  is 
evident  at  a  glance,  and  well  comports  with  the  fan- 
ciful character  of  many  of  that  learned  Orientalist's  in- 
terpretations.   See  Paradise,  in  this  volume. 

EdSnui^  sixteenth  bishop  of  Meauz,  cir.  A.D.  552. 

Bder.  Lieut.  Conder  proposes  ( Tent  Work  in  Palest, 
ii,  886}  to  identify  this  with  the  present  Khurhet  el-- 
A  dor,  three  miles  south  of  Gsaa,  consisting  only  of 
**  ruined  rubble  cisterns  and  traces  of  a  town,  with  im- 
mense masses  of  broken  pottery  forming  mounds  at 
the  site"  (^Memoirs  of  the  Ordnance  Survey,  iil, 251) ; 
but  the  location  seems  out  of  place  if  the  list  iu  Joshua 
begins  at  the  east. 

Bder,  Gboro,  a  Boman  Catholic  writer,  waa  bom  at 
Freysingen  in  1524,  and  studied  at  Cologne.  He  was 
the  spiritual  adviser  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I,  and 


EDES 


322 


EDRIS 


died  May  19, 1686,  leaving,  CEeonomia  BibUorum  »eu 
Patiitumum  Theologicarum^tX/c,  (Cologne,  1668 ;  Venice, 
1672):  —  Comptivdium  Catechitmi  CathoUci  (Cologne, 
1670) :— />e  Fide  Calholina  (1671)  :—AfaiUut  J/areti- 
corum  (Ingolfttadt,  1680): — Mataologia  I/arHicorum 
(ibid.  1681).  See  Jikher,  AUgemtwes  GfUhfitf^Un- 
hon,9,y.     (RP.) 

Edes,  Hbxkt,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was  a 
native  of  Boston,  and  graduated  from  Harvard  College 
in  1799.  He  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the 
First  Church  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  July  17, 1806;  dis- 
missed in  June,  1882,  and  died  in  1861.  See  Spragne, 
AfinaU  oftheAmer,  Pulpit,  viii,  96. 

Edeaiua,  a  martyr,  commemorated  April  5.     See 

^DKSIUB. 

Edeesa,  Marttrs  of,  under  Trajan  (A.D.  114), 
especially  the  bishop,  Banimieus  (according  to  some), 
and  Sabellius,  together  with  Barbea,  the  sister  of  the 
latter;  commemorated  together  on  Jan.  80. 

Bdeyrn,  a  Welsh  saint,  commemorated  Jan.  6,  was 
a  bard  of  royal  descent,  who  embraced  a  monastic  life 
in  the  early  days  of  British  Christianity. 

Bdgeworth,  Rogkb,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine, 
was  bom  at  Holt  Castle,  on  the  borders  of  Wales.  .  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  College 
in  1607,  and  soon  after  ordained.  About  1619  be  was 
appointed  canon  successively  at  Salisbury,  Wells,  and 
Bristol ;  in  1664  chancellor  of  Wells,  and  also  vicar  of 
St.  Cuthbert*s  Church,  to  which  he  was  admitted  Oct. 
8, 1548.  He  died  in  1660,  leaving  a  volume  of  Sermons 
(Load.  1667, 4to).  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Al- 
Ubone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mtt\  A  uthort,  s.  v. 

BdhameiB  (also  ^dkamaitt  Ettdhamais,  etc.),  an 
Irish  saint,  daughter  of  Mdh,  is  commemorated  Jan.  18. 

.  Edhemi,  a  monastic  order  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans, founded  by  Ibrahim  ibn-£dhem,  who  died  at 
Damascus,  A.D.  777.  His  disciples  say  that  he  was  a 
slave,  a  native  of  Abyssinia,  tliat  he  always  desired  to 
please  God,  regularly  read  the  Koran  in  the  mosques, 
and  prayed  day  and  night  with  his  face  to  the  ground. 
Edhem  established  a  strictly  ascetic  order,  who  gave 
themselves  much  to  prayer  and  fasting,  and  professed 
to  discourse  with  Enoch  iif  the  wilderness.  See  Gard- 
ner, Faiths  of  the  Worlds  a.  v. 

Edhnluoh  (Lat.  Egnacius),  an  Irish  priest,  son  of 
Ere,  and  abbot  of  Liath,  died  A.D.  767. 

EdibiUB.  (1)  Saint,  bishop  of  Soissons,  A.D.  451, 
is  commemorated  Dec.  10.  '  (2)  Sixth  bishop  of  Amiens, 
in  611. 

Ediotiua  (Bdicius,  or  Hecdicae),  said  to  have 
been  thirty-fourth  bishop  of  Yienne  (France),  k,Vi,  678 ; 
cooimemorated  Oct.  23. 

EdilfTxn,  eleventh  bishop  of  Llandaff,  died  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  7th  century. 

Edmondflon,  Jomathah,  A.M.,  an  English  Wes- 
leyan  minister  (nephew  of  Jonathan  Catlow,  an  early 
Methodist  preacher,  who  withdrew  a  short  time  before 
his  death  on  account  of  a  disagreement  with  Wesley  on 
the  doctrine  of  sin  in  believers;  cousin  of  James  Cat- 
low,  who  died  when  about  taking  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England,  and  of  Samuel  Catlow,  a  Socinian  minister, 
and  father  of  Jonathan  Edmondson,  of  the  Wesleyan 
Conference),  was  bom  at  Keighlcy,  Yorkshire,  March 
24,  1767.  He  was  converted  in  1784,  was  sent  by  Wes- 
ley to  the  Epworth  Circuit  in  1786,  and  retired  a  super- 
numerary at  Portsmouth  in  1836.  He  died  July  7, 1 842. 
Dr.  t^abondsoft'was  eminently  a  holy  and  laborious  min- 
ister/ and  was  highly  esteemed  by  bis  brethren.  In  1 8 1 4 
he  was  Hiade  one  of  the  general  secretaries  of  the  Mis- 
sionary Society,  in  which  office* he  labored  beyond  his 
strength.  In  1818  he  was  elected  president  of  the  con- 
ference silting  in  Leeds.  He  was  a  voluminous  reader, 
a  dv^geut  student,  a  lucid  expositor,  an  evangelical 
prei^I\cr,  and  a  fti^hful  postor.    During  his  buoy  min- 


istry he  wrote  some  valuable  books:  Short  Sermons  <m 
Important  Svhfects  ( I^ond.  1807, 1829,  2  vols.  8vo  )  :— 
A  Concise  Sy$tem  of  Setf-govemment  (ibid.  1816;  8d  ed. 
1834, 12mo) : — Sermons  on  the  Nature  and  Offices  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (ibid.  1823;  2d  cd.  1837 ) : ~ ifjtoy  on  the 
Christian  Ministry  (ibid.  1828, 12mo)  i—Scripturt  Vines 
of  the  Heavenly  World  (ibid.  1886,  12mo;  dd  ed.  1860, 
18mo)  '.-^Elements  of  Revealed  Religion  (1839, 12mo). 
See  Wesl,  Meth.  May,  1860,  p.  1,  118;  Minutes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1842. 

BdmundBon,  Wxluau,  a  noted  minister  of  the 
English  Society  of  Friends,  was  bom  in  Westmore- 
land in  1627.  He  was  apprenticed  in  York  as  a  car- 
penter, served  in  the  army  under  Cromwell,  but  re- 
signed in  1662,  and  in  1653  became  an  earnest  Quaker. 
Subsequently  he  resided  at  Antrim,  Ireland,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1664  removed  to  County  Armagh,  devoting 
himself  to  secular  pursuits.  He  established  meetings 
at  his  own  house,  and  soon  after,  in  company  with 
John  Tiffin,  from  England,  went  through  Ireland  preach- 
ing. Subsequently  be  visited  England  and  urged  George 
Fox  to  send  preachers  into  Ireland,  and  when  some  of 
these  arrived  he  accompanied  them  through  the  ooun- 
t  ry.  H aving  been  m ade  a  m inistcr  himself,  he  preached 
in  public  places  with  great  effect.  At  Armagh  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  and  subsequently  was  brought  be- 
fore the  Justices  at  the  Sessions  Ck>urt,  who  ordered  his 
release.  In  1666  he  travelled  into  Leinster,  holding 
meetings  in  most  of  the  towns.  At  Finagh  the  inn- 
keepers refused  to  lodge  him  because  he  was  a  Quaker. 
At  Belturbet  his  meeting  was  broken  up,  many  of 
his  followers  were  arrestetl,  and  he  was  put  in  the 
stocks  in  the  market-place,  but  eventually  was  trium- 
phantly acquitted.  For  several  months  he  suffered 
confinement  in  a  dungeon  at  Cavon,  where  he  neariy 
lost  his  life  from  suffocation.  Being  set  at  liberty,  he 
visited  the  North  of  Ireland.  While  preaching  at  Lon- 
donderry, on  a  market-day,  he  was  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned. In  1661  the  persecution  of  the  Quakers  was 
renewed  with  increased  violence,  and  he  was  incarcer* 
ateil  at  Mar}*borougb.  He  made  three  voyages  to  North 
America  and  the  West  Indies  between  1670  and  1691, 
and  died  June  80, 1712.  See  The  Ftiend,  ri,  lff7 ;  Reid, 
Hist,  of  the  Presb.  Church  in  Ireland, 

EdoldUB  (or  Heldoaldns),  twenty-funrth  bishop 
of  Meaux,  about  the  close  of  the  7th  centurv. 

Edrei  of  Naphtali,  Lieut.  Cinder  suggests  {Tent 
Work  in  Palest,  ii,  866)  for  this  site  that  of  the  present 
FaftT,  situated  a  mile  and  a  half  north  of  Beit-ljf  (He- 
leph);  and  described  as  "  a  small  stone  village,  containing 
about  three  hundred  Metaweleh,  situated  on  a  hill-top, 
with  olive-trees  and  arable  land  adjacent,  having  a 
pool  and  many  cistems  and  a  spring  near  it ;"  also  aa 
containing  rock-cut  tombs,  two  rained  watch-towers, 
and  other  signs  of  antiquity  {Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance 
Survey,  i,  203,  260).  The  place  is  not  far  from  Hazor 
(if  at  HazzOir),  and  on  the  extreme  western  confines  of 
the  tribe. 

Edrls  {the  student)^  one  of  the  appellations  of  the 
prophet  Enoch  among  the  Mohammetiana.  He  was  the 
third  of  the  prophets,  and,  according  to  the  Arabians, 
the  greatest  that  flourished  in  the  antediluvian  world. 
They  represent  him  as  having  been  commissioned  to 
preach  to  the  Cainites,  but  they  rejected  his  teaching; 
and  in  consequence  be  waged  war  upon  them  and  matte 
them  slaves  to  the  tme  believers.  He  is  also  said  to 
have  ordered  the  faithful  to  treat  all  future  infidels  in 
the  same  way,  being  thus  the  originator  of  religious 
wars  and  of  the  persecution  of  infidels.  To  Edris  the 
Arabians  attribute  the  invention  of  the  pen,  the  needle, 
the  sciences  of  astronomy  and  arithmetic,  and  the  arts 
of  magic  and  divination.  He  is  alleged  to  have  writ- 
ten thirty  treatises,  only  one  of  which  survives  to  tbo 
present  time — The  Book  of  Enoch,  an  apocryphal.work, 
held  in  great  esteem  by  tlie  Arabians.  See  Gardner, 
Faiths  <f  the  World,  u\.  . 


EDSON 


323 


EGERIA 


Bdflon,  Thbodorx,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Epuoopal  der- 
gpnmt  was  born  at  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  Aug.  24, 1798, 
being  deMended  fifth  in  the  line  from  Samnel  Edaon,  wlio 
came  to  Salem  soon  after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims 
at  Plymonthf  and  was  one  of  the  original  fifteen  propri* 
eton  of  the  town  of  Bridgewater.     Theodore  received 
his  academic  education  at  the  Andover  Phillips  Acad- 
emy; gradoated  at  Harvard  College  in  182^2;  studied 
theology  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Jarvis  of  Boston ;  and  in 
March,  1824,  conducted  the  first  religions  service  in  East 
Cbelmsford,  now  Lowell,  after  John  Eliot,  the  apostle 
to  the  Indiana.    In  April  of  the  same  year  ground  was 
broken  for  St.  Anne's  Church,  which  was  consecrated 
in  March,  1825,  at  which  time  Dr.  Edson  waa  admitted 
to  full  orders.    From  that  time  until  within  a  few  days 
of  his  hist  illnesa  he  conducted  the  services  of  that 
Cbarch  ''with  dignity,  solemnity, and  impressiveness." 
He  died  in  Lowell,  after  a  long,  useful,  and  singularly 
devoted  life,  June  25,  1888.— J9o«ton  Advertiser^  June 
2e,1883.    (J.CS.) 

Zidwarcl,  Sawt,  was  the  son  of  Edgar,  king  of  the 
Saxons,  and  the  beautiful  Ethelfleda,  who  died  shortly 
after  his  birth,  in  961.  In  975,  when  Edgar  died,  Ed- 
ward, a  pious  youth,  waa  elected  to  the  crown,  much  to 
the  discontent  of  Elfrida,  his  step-mother,  who  wished 
her  own  son,  Ethelred,  on  the  throne.  In  979  (or  978), 
Edward  was  poisoned  at  Corfe  Castle,  by  his  own  peo- 
ple, according  to  Heniy  of  Huntingdon,  or,  as  waa  prob- 
able, by  order  of  Elfrida,  as  Florence  of  Worcester  and 
William  of  Malmeabury  record.  Malmesbury  says  that 
a  light  from  heaven  shone  over  his  graye  at  Wareham, 
and  wonders  were  wrought  there  and  miracles  of  heal- 
ing ;  nnd  that  Elfrida,  at  length  terrified  and  conscience- 
stricken,  retired  to  the  convent  of  Wherwell  to  repent 
of  her  wickedness.  The  young  Edward  was  not  a  mar- 
tyr for  the  Christian  faith ;  but  being  a  good  youth,  and 
unjustly  and  cruelly  slain,  the  people  looked  upon  him 
M  a  saint  and  called  him  Edward  the  martyr;  and  so 
he  has  a  place  in  the  Anglican  and  Roman  martyrolo- 
gteai  He  is  commemorated  on  March  18.  His  body 
waa  afterwards  translated  to  the  minster  at  Shaftesburv 
(June  20),  and  his  translation  is  set  down  on  Feb.  18. 
See  Baring-Gould,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  iii,324  (March  18) ; 
Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints  (March  18) ;  Fuller,  Worthies 
of  KttgluHdf  i,  458 ;  Green,  /list,  of  English  People^  i,  96 ; 
Knight,  Pop.  nist,  of  England,  i,  147, 148. 

Bdn^ard,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  formerly  a  monk  of 
Coapar  in  Forfanhire,  and  was  promoted  to  the  see  of 
Brechin  about  1260.  It  is  said  that  he  walked  through 
the  whole  kingdom,  with  Eustathius,  abbot  of  Aber- 
brothocky  preaching  the  gospel  wherever  he  came. 
See  Keith,  Scoltish  Bishops,  p.  160. 

Edwards^  Jonathan,  D.D.,  an  English  divine 
and  able  writer  against  Socinianism,  was  bom  at  Wrex- 
ham, Denbighshire,  in  1629,  and  in  1655  became  a  ser- 
vitor of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  was  admitted 
AB,  October,  1659.  He  was  rector  of  Kiddington,  Ox- 
fordshire, which  he  exchanged,  in  1681,  for  Hinton, 
Hampshire ;  was  elected  principal  of  Jesus  College  in 
1686,  and  treasurer  of  UandafT  in  1687.  He  held 
other  important  offices,  and  died  July  20,  1712.  His 
publications  are.  Remarks  upon  Dr.  Sherlock's  Exam* 
ination  of  the  Oxford  Decree,  etc  (Oxford,  1695,  4to) : 
—A  Preservative  against  Socinianism  (in  4  parts) : — A 
yuuUcaHon  of  the  Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  (Oxford, 
1711,  8vo).  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v.;  Allibone, 
IHef.  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

XidwardJi,  Peter  Cuthbert,  a  Baptist  minister 
and  educator,  was  bom  near  Society  Hill,  S.  C,  Feb.  8, 
1819.  He  waa  converted  in  early  life,  studied  in  South 
Carolina  College,  and  graduated  from  the  theological 
institution  at  Newton,  Mass.,  in  1844.  After  studying 
for  a  time  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York  city,  he  became,  in  1845,  professor  of  Biblical  liter- 
ature and  exegesis  in  Fnrman  Theological  Institution ' 
and  on  the  removal  of  the  seminary  from  Fairfield  DiftI 


trict,  S.  C,  to  GreenviUe,  he  waa  appointed  professor  of 
ancient  languages,  which  ofiioe  he  filled  with  rare  abil- 
ity until  his  sudden  death.  May  15,  1867.  See  Gen, 
Cat.  of  Newton  TheoL  Institution.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Edwardaton,  Thomas,  an  English  divine  of  the 
14th  century,  was  so  named  from  his  birthplace  in  Suf- 
folk ;  was  educated  at  Oxford ;  became  an  Augustiniau 
in  Clare;  was  a  great  scholar;  and  acted  as  confessor 
to  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  whom  he  attended  to  Italy ; 
returned  to  his  native  country,  and  died  at  Clare  in 
1396.  Pits  thinks  he  had  an  archbishopric  in  Ireland ; 
but  this  is  disowned  by  the  judicious  sir  James  Ware 
{De  Scriptoribus  IlibernuB,  ii,  126).  Perhaps  Edward- 
ston  was  temporarily  intrusted  with  an  archbishopric 
in  Italy.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  XuUall), 
iii,  167. 

Edwen,  a  female  saint  of  Saxon  descent,  is  com- 
memorated in  Wales  on  Nov.  6. 

Eed  el-korban  (festival  of  the  sacrifiee),  a  fes- 
tival celebrated  among  the  Persian  Mohammedans  in 
honor  of  the  patriarch  Abraham.  The  day  before  the 
feast  about  four  hundred  camels  are  collected  from  the 
neighboring  country,  and  the  first  that  rises,  after  rest- 
ing, is  chosen  for  the  sacrifice,  shot,  and  speared.  See 
Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Bgan,  Michael,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was  rec- 
ommended to  the  pope,  by  archbishop  Carroll,  for  the 
see  of  Philadelphia,  June  17, 1807,  as  "  a  man  about  fitly, 
endowed  with  all  the  qualities  to  discharge  with  per- 
fection the  function  of  the  episcopacy,  except  that  he 
lacks  robust  health,  large  experience,  and  eminent 
firmness  in  his  disposition.  He  is  a  learned,  modest, 
humble  priest,  who  maintains  the  spirit  of  his  order  in 
his  whole  induct.**  He  was  accordingly  appointed 
Oct.  28, 1810.  During  his  short  episcopacy  the  Sisters 
of  Charity  were  (in  1814)  established  in  his  city.  Egan 
died  July  22,  1814,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mar6chal. 
See  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Cath,  Church  in 
the  27. 5.  p.  214-217. 

Egara,  Council  of  (jConcUium  Egarense),  was  held 
A.D.615  at  Egara  (now  Terassa),  in  Catalonia,  to  con- 
firm the  enactments  of  Osca  and  Huesca  seventeen 
years  before.  Twelve  bishops,  a  presbyter,  and  a  dea- 
con subscribed  to  it.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  niiq. 

S.V. 

Egbald.  (1)  Abbot,  probably  of  Peterborough, 
AD.  671.  (2)  Abbot  of  Waltham  ( probably  Hamp- 
shire), early  in  the  8th  century.  (3)  Tenth  bishop  of 
Winchester,  AD.  cir.  778. 

Egbert,  bishop  of  Lindisfarae,  A.D.  8a3-821. 

Egbo,  an  idol  worshipped  by  the  natives  of  Old 
Calabar,  in  Western  Africa.  It  is  a  human  skull  stuck 
upon  the  top  of  a  stick,  with  a  few  feathers  tied  to  it. 
One  of  these  idols  is  yet  found  in  almost  every  house 
where  the  inmates  adhere  to  their  former  idolatr}'. 
See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Egdtlnua,  a  presbyter,  martyr  at  Nicomedia  with 
seven  others,  AD.  308;  commemorated  March  12. 

Egemoniua  (2Sgemoniu8,  or  Ignomua),  bish- 
op of  Autun,  died  A.D.  374. 

Eger,  Akiba  Moses,  a  famous  rabbi  and  Talmud- 
ist,  who  died  at  Posen,  Oct.  12, 1839,  is  the  author  of 
various  disquisitions  and  novellas  on  Talmudic  treatises. 
See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  224;  Ktimpf,  Biographic  des 
hochberiihnUen,  hochseHgen  Jlerrn  Akiba  Eger  (Lissa, 
1838).     (a  P.) 

EgerSdua,  bishop  of  Salamanca,  A.D.  646. 

Bgeria  (or  iBgeria),  in  Roman  mythology,  was 
an  Italian  spring-nyniph,  protecting  deity  of  the  city 
of  Rome,  who  lived  in  the  sacred  woods  of  the  Camenae, 
and  blessed  the  peaceful,  wise  ruler  Numa  by  her  use- 
ful advice.  She  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  the  wife 
of  Numa.    When  the  king  died  she  retreated  from 


EGERS 


324 


EHRENFEUCHTER 


Rome,  and  wm  bo  overcome  with  sorrow  that  Diana, 
out  of  qrmpatby,  changed  her  into  a  spring,  which  hai 
her  name. 

Bgera,  Samukl  Lsyi,  a  rabbi  at  Brunswick,  where 
he  died,  Dec.  3, 1842,  is  the  author  of  several  novellas 
on  Talmudic  treatises  and  homilies  upon  Sabbatical 
sections  of  the  Pentateuch.  See  Fllrst,  BUA.  Jud,  i, 
224.   '(a  P.) 

BgertOZl}  Jonir,  an  Englbh  prelate,  was  bom  Nov. 
80, 1721 ;  educated  at  Eton  school ;  admitted  a  gentle- 
man commoner  in  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  May  20, 1740 ; 
ordained  deacon  in  Grosvenor  Chapel,  Westminster,  Dec. 
21, 1746,  and  the  following  day  priest.  He  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Church  at  Roes,  in  Herefordshire,  and  Jan.  8, 
1746,  was  collated  to  the  canoniy  of  Cubltngton,  in  the 
Church  of  Hereford,  where  he  was  promoted  to  the  dean- 
ery on  July  24, 1760.  July  4, 1766,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Bangor,  at  Lambeth ;  Nov.  12, 1766,  translated 
to  the  see  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry,  with  which  he  held 
a  prebend  and  restdentiaiyship  in  St.  PauVs,  and  also 
the  two  preferments  before  mentioned,  Roes  and  Cub- 
lington.  He  was  elected  to  the  see  of  Durham  on  July 
8, 1771,  and  after  enjoying  several  important  positions, 
died  in  London,  Jan.  18,  1787.  See  Chalmers,  Biog, 
JHcL  s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Vict,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  A  uthor$y 

8.  V. 

Bggi  a$  a  Christian  tymboL  Marble  eggs  have  been 
found  in  the  tombs  of  some  of  the  saints,  and  egg-shells 
occasionally  in  the  loculi  of  the  martyrs,  a  relic  of  the 
celebration  of  the  Agapn.  As  a  Christian  symbol  it 
signified  the  immature  hope  of  the  resurrection ;  the 
use  of  it  on  Easter  doubtless  has  reference  to  this  idea. 
See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

EGG,  MuNDAi^E.  In  the  cosmogonies  of  many  hea- 
then nations,  both  ancient  and  modem,  the  effff  occu- 
pies a  very  prominent  place,  representing  the  world  in 
its  transition  from  the  chaotic  to  the  fully  organized 
and  orderly  condition.  In  the  Rig-Veda  of  ancient 
Hinduism  the  supreme  spirit  is  represented  as  pro- 
ducing an  egg,  and  from  the  egg  is  evolved  a  world. 
At  a  later  period  Brahma  is  said  to  have  deposited  in 
the  primordial  waters  an  egg  shining  like  gold.  In 
ancient  Egypt  we  find  Cnepb,  the  creator,  producing 
an  egg,  the  symbol  of  the  world.  In  the  Sandwich 
Islands  an  eagle  is  represented  as  depositing  an  egg 
in  the  primordial  waters,  and  among  the  Finns  an 
aquatic  bird.  In  the  ancient  Celtic  legends  the  mun- 
dane egg  was  produced  by  a  serpent,  which  had  no 
sooner  brought  it  forth  than  it  hastened  to  devour  it. 
But  while  the  mundane  egg  represents  the  world  in  its 
first  creation,  it  is  often  found  also  as  emblematic  of  its 
renovation,  after  having  been  purified  by  fire.  So  He- 
rodotus relates  that  the  phoenix  buried  the  body  of  its 
father  in  a  mass  of  m3rrrh  of  the  form  of  an  egg.  Sim- 
ilar fables  are  related  as  to  the  origin  of  man.  See 
Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Bghlionna,  an  Irish  virgin  saint  of  Cashel,  com- 
memorated Jan.  21. 

Egioa,  bishop  of  Segontia  (Siguenza),  A.D.  656. 

Bgidio  (or  Egiel)i  an  early  missionary,  lived  in 
A.D.  964.  He  was  bishop  of  Tnsculum  (Frascati),  and 
was  sent  to  Poland  about  972  by  pope  John  XIII  to 
propagate  the  Catholic  religion  and  to  regulate  its  ex- 
ercises. Egidio  sent  for  prelates  from  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy,  and  divided  them  among  the  new  churches. 
He  erected  the  first  archbishoprics  and  seven  bishoprics. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginkraky  s.  v. 

Bgidina  (or  JBgidius),  nineteenth  bishop  of 
Rheims,  A.D.  665,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  pop- 
ular St.  Giles  (q.  v.),  was  a  liberal  benefactor  of  his 
Church,  but  one  of  the  most  ambitious  and  intriguing 
prelates  of  his  time,  and  was  finally  deposed  for  treason. 
See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

EgiUt    (1)  Bishop  of  Osma,  cir.  A.D.  688-666.    (2) 


Bishop  of  EUberi,  about  the  end  of  the  8th  century; 
supposed  to  be  the  same  mentioned  by  Adrian  I  in  the 
Adoptionist  controversy. 

Egilward  (or  Sgilbert),  fifth  bishop  of  Wttn- 
bnrg,  A.D.  803. 

Egina  (1)  Twenty-first  bishop  of  Consunce,  A.D. 
781-^18.  (2)  Bishop  of  Verona  in  796;  retired  in  799 
to  the  monastery  of  Beichenan,  and  died  there  in  802. 

Egloi;  sixth  bishop  of  Dunwich,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  8th  century. 

BgoalduB,  twenty -fifth  bishop  of  Geneva,  in  the 
7th  century. 

Bgremont,  William  (otherwise  called  Egunumdef 
Etjmundf  or  WHUam  of  Stamford),  an  English  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Egremont,  Cumberland,  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury. He  journeyed  towards  the  south,  fixed  himself 
at  Stamford,  became  an  Augustiniau  monk  and  doc- 
tor of  divinity,  went  beyond  the  seas,  was  made  by 
the  pope  tpiscopus  Pissinensis,  and  held  the  sufliagan- 
ship  under  Henry  Beaufort,  bishop  of  London.  He 
flourished  under  Richard  II,  A.D.  1890,  and  left  many 
learned  works.  See  Fuller,  Wotihies  of  England  (ed. 
Nuttall),  i,  845. 

Egzlllus,  a  martyr  at  Cnsarea,  in  Cappadocia,  com- 
memorated Nov.  2. 

Bgwald,  abbot  of  Tisbury,  in  Wiltshire,  AJ>.  759. 

Bgwin,  said  to  belong  to  the  royal  family  of  Meicia, 
was  made  bishop  of  Worcester  in  692,  and  died  Dec.  30, 
717.  The  following  three  works  are  attributed  to  him : 
a  History  of  the  Foundation  of  Evakam:—ti  Booh  of 
Visions :— and  a  Lift  of  A  Idhelm,  Sec  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.  v.;  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  amd  Amer, 
AuthorSf  s.  V. 

Egwulfy  seventh  bishop  of  London,  A.D.  745. 

Ee;3rptlans,  Gospsl  of.    See  Gospels,  SpuiuoiTa. 

XShinger,  Ellas,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  Sept.  7,  1573.  He  studied  at  Witten- 
berg and  Tubingen,  and  was  in  1597  court-preacher  at 
Albertsberg,  in  Lower  Austria.  Being  obliged  to  leave 
the  country  on  account  of  intolerance,  he  went  in  1605  to 
Rothenburg,  on  the  Tauber,  was  made  rector  there,  and 
accepted  a  call  in  1607  to  Augsburg.  In  1629  he  had  to 
leave  that  place  also,  and  went  to  Schul-Pforta,  in  Saxony. 
Being  reodled  to  Augsburg,  he  stayed  there  only  a 
short  time,  and  went  in  1685  to  Regensbuig,  where  he 
died,  Nov.  28, 1668.  He  is  the  author  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  writings,  of  little  value  for  our  time.  See  JSch- 
er,  A  Ugemeines  Gekhrttn^Lexikony  s.  v. ;  Bracker,  Com* 
maUarius  de  Vita  d  Scriptis  Ehhtgeri  (1724).     (B.  P.) 

ZShlnger,  Johann,  grandfather  of  Ellas,  was  bom 
at  Lauingen  in  1488.  For  some  time  he  was  a  monk, 
but  professed  the  Evangelical  religion,  and  in  1537  be- 
came preacher  at  St.  Stephen's,  in  Augsburg.  Being 
obliged,  on  account  of  his  religion,  to  leave  the  place 
in  1551,  he  became  general  superintendent  of  Pfalz- 
Neuburg,  assisted  in  introducing  the  evangelical  doc- 
trine into  the  Palatinate,  and  died  at  Augsburg  in  1572, 
having  been  recalled  there  in  1555,  after  the  treaty  of 
Passau  had  been  signed.  See  Brucker,  Vita  EUa  Ekut' 
geri  ;  Jocher,  A  llgemeines  GeUhrtett'  Lexibon,  s. v.  (BL  P.) 

Ehoam,  a  hermit^martyr  in  Brittany,  cir.  A.D.  520, 
slain  in  his  cell  in  the  diocese  of  Vannea  by  robbers,  and 
commemorated  Feb.  11. 

Bhrenfeaohter,  Frirdbich  August  Eduakd,  an 
Evangelical  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Leo> 
poldshafen,  near  Carlsrahe,  Dec.  15, 1814.  He  studied 
at  Heidelberg,  and  in  1846  was  appointed  professor  and 
university-preacher  at  Gftttingen,  where  he  died,  March 
20, 1878.  He  is  the  author  of  TheoriE  des  dkristliekem 
CuUus  (Hamburg  and  Gotba,  1840 ) :— ATafvtdbe/arn^s- 
gesehichte  der  MtnschhtU  (Heidelberg,  1845)  i—Zatgniue 
aus  dtm  akadsmsshm  Gottesdimste  tu  GUttu^fen  (Gdt* 


EHRHAHDT 


825 


EILMAR 


ttngn,  1849) :— ^itr  Gtaekicktt  da  KaitAUimu  (ibid. 
m7):-^PraiU»eke  ThMlogU  (ibid.  1869 ) r—CAriften- 
OwRVwfdMmodmMH^etoMeAattMf^  (ibid.  1876).  He 
ilto  eonCribated  to  different  reviewft  and  periodicals. 
See  Wigenmann,  in  Hersog-PUtt,  Eeal-EnqfUep.; 
lichtenberger,  Eneydop,  det  Seimee$  Rdigieuset,  a.  v.; 
Zach<M,Bad.TheoLiySQ9,    (RP.) 

Ebrhardt,  Sigismuicd  Jusrua,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
giao,  waa  bora  at  Gemllnd,  Sept.  21, 1788.  He  studied 
at  Eriangen^  Jena,  and  Halle.  In  1754  he  waa  preach- 
er at  Harkt  Borg-Preasach,  in  Franconia,  but  the  in- 
tolerance of  the  Roman  Catholics  obliged  him  to  leave 
the  place,  and  he  went  to  Halle  and  Berlin,  where  he 
gtve  private  leasons.  In  1768  he  waa  appointed  deacon 
at  SteinaUf  and  died  June  6, 1798,  pastor  at  Besching, 
in  the  Silesian  principality  of  Wohlau.  He  wrote, 
dmrnaUaHo  de  Claudii  Tiberii  Neronu  (Coburg,  1752) : 
Commtntaiionea  If  de  LatinUaie  S,  PauU  (Scbleusingen, 
1755).  See  Doring,  Die  geUhrtm  Theologen  Deutsche 
lat»dt,a.y,     (BP.) 

Ehrlioli,  Johamx  Qottlieb^  a  Lutheran  minister 
of  Germany,  waa  bora  at  Rabenau,  in  Saxony,  in  1719. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he  also  lectured  for  Bome 
time ;  in  1753  waa  appointed  pastor  at  Poppendorf,  and 
in  1760  preacher  at  Wexdorf,  in  Thuringia.  He  died 
March  4, 1779,  leaving,  De  Quadragetima  Jtjvmo  (Leip- 
sic, 1744)  v—De  Erroribus  PauU  Samogaleni  (ibid.  1745): 

— JDe  Gauima  Voce  D12K  Sigmjiettiume  (ibid.eod.)  :— 
De  Opprobrio  jEgypii  A  bUUo  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Jteher, 
A  ttgememee  Gelekrlei^LexikoH,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Tnir|ir»ii  Johaim  Napomnk,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian,  was  bora  at  Vienna  in  1810.  In  1827  be 
joined  the  Piarists,  received  holy  orders  in  1884,  and 
was  in  1836  professor  of  philosophy,  history,  and  liter- 
ature at  the  gymnasium  in  Krems,  In  1850  he  waa 
called  to  Gratzen  as  professor  of  ethics,  and  in  1856  to 
the  chair  of  fandamental  theology  at  Prague,  where  he 
died,  Oct.  23,  1864.  He  wrote,  Ve5er  das  chriuHeke 
FriK^  der  GeseOtchaft  (Prague,  1856)  i—FundameiUtd' 
Tkeologie  (ibid.  1859).     (B.  P.) 

Bhrmann,  Daniki^  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom  at 
MntterKiorf,  in  Bohemia,  in  1818,  and  studied  at  Prague. 
In  1843  he  was  rabbi  at  Kuttenplan,  in  1844  at  Hohe- 
nems,  and  in  18.52  he  accepted  a  call  to  Bohmiach- 
Leipa.  In  I860  he  resigned  his  position  and  retired  to 
Prague,  where  he  died,  Dec  12, 1882.  He  published, 
BHradamngen  Sber  fidiMehe  VerhdUmsse  (Buda,  1841): 
-^ebeie /Sr  jSduche  Frauetveinmer  (Prague,  1842):— 
Geeckiekie  der  CuUur  wad  der  Sckuien  unier  den  Juden 
(ibid.  l^M&y^Die  Bibel  naek  ikrem  ganxm  InkaUe 
dla/golea^(yeIdkirch,l852;  Prague,  1854)  :—2>a«  Aic& 
Ktlker  ibereefxt  (Prague,  1861)  .—GetckichU  der  Itraeli' 
ten  (Brmm,  1869 ;  2d  ed.  1878)  :^A  ut  PaUUtina  und  Ba- 
bjflm  (Vienna,  1880).  See  Furst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  225 ;  Kay- 
seriing,  BtbUotkek  fid.  Kanxelredner,  ii,  820;  Lippe, 
BiNiograpkieehee  Lexikon,  p.  90  sq.,  590  sq.    (B  P.) 

Bibesdilltz.    See  EYBKXScntTz. 

Bicetae,  an  order  of  Syrian  monks  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury, who  held  dancing  to  be  an  essential  part  of  divine 
wor^ip,  and  engaged  in  this  exercise  in  their  public 
servicn.  They  defended  their  practice  by  the  example 
of  Miriam  at  the  Red  Sea  and  of  David  at  the  removal 
of  the  ark.  They  met  with  few  imitators,  but  John  of 
Damaacos  thought  it  best  to  expose  their  error.  See 
Gardner,  Faiiks  o/tke  World,  a,  v. 

Biohelberg^er,  Lewis,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
was  bora  in  Frederick  County,  Md.,  Aug.  25, 1808.  At 
an  eariy  age  he  attended  the  school  in  Frederick  under 
the  care  of  David  F.  Schaeffer,  D.D.  Subsequently  he 
was  uken  to  Georgetown,  D.  C,  and  entered  Rev.  Dr. 
Caraahan*s  classical  school.  He  graduated  from  Dickin- 
son College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1826,  and  with  the  first  cUss 
at  the  Geuysburg  Theological  Seminaty.  On  Oct.  21, 
1828,  he  waa  licensed  to  preach.  His  first  charge  was 
the  Lutheran  (Aoich  in  Winchester,  Va.,  in  connection 


with  which  he  alao  served  three  other  oongregations; 
In  the  spring  of  1883  he  resigned  the  pastorate  in  Win- 
chester, but  still  preached  to  the  three  neighboring 
churehes.  At  this  period  he  opened  a  female  seminary 
in  Winchester,  which  he  successfully  conducted  for  sev- 
eral years.  He  temporarily  edited  a  political  weekly 
Journal,  and  for  a  time  the  EvattgeUeal  Lutkeran 
Preacker,  afterwarda  merged  in  the  Lutkeran  Obaerver, 
In  1849  he  was  elected  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Lexington  (S.  C.)  Lutheran  Seminary,  where  be  labored 
for  nine  years.  In  1858  he  returned  to  Winchester,  de- 
voting himself  to  literature.  At  this  time  he  began  his 
I/ittory  of  the  Lutkeran  Ckurck,  Among  other  offices 
of  trust  to  which  he  was  elected  by  the  synod  he  was 
a  trustee  of  Pennsylvania  College  and  a  director  of  the 
Gettysburg  Theological  Seminary.  He  died  SepL  16, 
1859.     See  Evangelical  Review^  xiv,  298. 

Eichhom,  Anton,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1809.  He  received  holy  or- 
ders in  1882,  was  in  1886  professor  of  the  gjrmnasium 
at  Braunsberg,  and  in  1888  professor  of  theology  at  the 
Lyceum  there.  In  1851  he  became  a  member  of  the 
chapter  at  Frauenburg,  in  1855  vicar -general,  and  in 
1866  was  appointed  tlean.  He  died  Feb.  27,  1869, 
leaving  Der  ermWnditche  Biecko/und  Cardinal  Stanis^ 
laua  Hoiius  (Ma^'ence,  1854-^,  2  vola.).    (B.  P.) 

Biohhom,  Paul,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was  bora 
at  Eckao,  in  Courland,  in  1699.  He  studied  theology 
in  Germany,  was  in  1621  preacher  at  Grenzhof  for  the 
Lettish  population,  in  1684  German  preacher  at  Mittau, 
and  in  1686  superintendent  of  Courland.  He  died  at 
Mittau,  Aug.  8, 1655,  leaving,  Widerlegung  der  A  bgotterei 
und  nicktigen  Aberglaubene  (Riga,  1627): — Brformatio 
Gentle  Letticee  in  Ducatu  Curlandia  (ibid.  1686): — 
Historia  LeUica  (Dorpat,  1649).  The  duke  Jacob  of 
Courland  sent  him  to  the  conference  held  at  Thora, 
where  he  also  signed  the  Positumee  Tkeologorum  Au^ 
guttana  Con/essionit,  Oct.  25, 1645.  See  Kidlmeyer,  in 
Ueber  die  religiOten  Voreiellungen  der  alien  Vdlker  in 
Lett'  und  Estland  (  Riga,  1857  ) ;  Brockhaus,  ContereO' 
tionelexihon,  a.  v.     (B  P.) 

Eiohler,  Christian  Gottlob,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, who  died  at  Leipsic,  Mareh  10, 1785,  is  the  author 
of  Diep,  de  l/ose,  Candidato  regni  jEgyptii  ( Leipsic, 
1733)  :^De  Pafientia  Jobi  (ibid.  1744):^  Vitio  Elipkazi 
(ibid.  n5l).  See  Jdcher,  AUgemeinee  Gelekrten-Lexi^ 
i»n,8.v.     (B.P.) 

Bioliat&dt,  Hexnrich  Carl  Abraham^  a  Luther- 
an theologian,  was  bora  at  Oacbatz,  Aug.  7, 1771.  He 
waa  for  some  time  professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic, 
bnt  accepted  a  call  to  Jena,  where  he  died  in  1849.  He 
ia  the  author  of  Super  Flaviano  de  Jesu  Ckritto  Tetti- 
mottio  (Jena,  1841-45) : — Flaviani  de  Jetu  Ckritto  Tet- 
timonii  Av^ivria  (ibid.  1840-41)  :^De  Dictione  Scrip- 
torum  Novi  Teetamenti  (ibid.  1848): — Parabola  Jesu 
Ckristi  de  CEconomo  Improbo  (ibid.  1847).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TkeoL  i,  812 ;  Winer,  I/andbuck  der  tkeoL  Lit.  t,  8, 
107,  254, 562, 578, 675, 804, 801, 894.     (B.  P.) 

Elgen,  the  first  female  saint  of  Wales,  was  the 
daughter  of  Caractacus,  and  taken  to  Rome  by  Clau- 
dius to  grace  his  triumph  over  Britain. 

Tiikln,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  one  of  the  rivers 
flowing  around  the  land  of  the  gods.  It  is  supplied 
from  the  dewdrops  which  fall  from  the  horos  of  the 
reindeer  Aeykthyraer. 

ZUllitnm  ( eiXf rdv).  According  to  Germanus  of 
Constantinople  it  represents  the  linen  cloth  in  which 
the  body  of  Christ  was  wrapped  when  laid  in  the  tomb. 
The  chalice  and  paten  are  placed  on  it  when  the  priest 
haa  unfolded  it,  immediately  before  the  deacon  waras 
the  catechumens  to  depart  See  Smith,  Did.  ofCkrist, 
Antiq,B.y, 

Eilmar,  Groro  Christian,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  born  at  MUhlhausen,  Jan.  6, 1665,  and 
Btadied  at'Wittenbeig.    -In  1689  he  was  called  to  the 


EILUNNY 


326 


EITHNE 


pastorate  at  Graba,  near  SiUeld;  was  in  1691  .deacon 
at  LaogensalzB,  in  1696  superintendent  at  Ueldrungenf 
and  in  1698  was  made  doctor  of  divinity  and  pastor  pri- 
mantis  at  his  native  place,  where  he  died,  Oct.  20, 1715. 
He  wrote,  />e  Valore  Interpreiatiotus  Vulgata  (Witten- 
berg, 1687):— i>6  Cotumtu  Orthodoxo  de  Chritio  (ibid. 
1698),  etc  See  Jdcher,  AUgemoMB  GtUhrten-Lexihon^ 
e.v.     (a  P.) 

Bilimny,  a  Welsh  saint  in  the  first  half  of  the  7th 
centun'. 

Simbetha  (or  XSinbetta),  Samt,  a  virgin,  com- 
memorated Sept  16,  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
companions  of  St.  Ursula. 

Eimhin  (Xhnir,  or  Evin),  an  Irish  saint^  son  of 
Eoghan,  and  bishop  of  Ros-glas  and  Roe-mic-Triuin, 
A.D.  580,  is  commemorated  Dec.  22. 

Einaii  (or  EinaxBen),  Gissub,  an  Icelandish  the- 
ologian, lived  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century. 
He  studied  at  Hamburg  and  Wittenberg,  where  he 
heard  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  and  in  1540  was  elected 
bishop  in  place  of  Paulson.  In  1541  the  government 
granted  the  ministers  the  privilege  of  marriage,  of  which 
they  had  been  deprived  since  1272,  and  this  innovation 
occasioned  many  disputes,  During  these  troubles  Einari 
died.  Such  was  the  animosity  against  him  that  by  or- 
der of  the  bishop,  Jon  Areson,  his  body  was  disinterred 
and  his  ashes  scattered  to  the  winds.  He  left  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Proveibs  of  Solomon  in  Norwegian  (Ho- 
lar,  1580).    See  Hoefer,  Now*  Biog,  GiniraUf  s.  v. 

Elnem,  Johann  Angust  ChriBtoph  von,  a 
Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany,  was  born*  at  Oster- 
weddingcn,  near  Magdebuig,  Nov.  25, 1730.  He  stud- 
ied at  Halle,  and  in  1754  was  appointed  teacher  at  a 
high-school  in  Berlin.  In  1759  he  was  also  appointed 
preacher  at  Trinity  Church  there,  and  in  1768  accepted 
a  call  to  the  pastorate  at  Genthin.  He  died  OcL  24, 
1810,  leaving,  De  PelagianUmo  osque  ac  Fanatidtmo  ah 
Ecdena  Jem  Chritli  Arcendo  (Halle,  1762):— ProA>- 
tische  Z^ben^tckreiburtffm  verttorbener  und  nachUbender 
GeutUchen  (Stendal,  1787).  His  best  work,  however, 
is  his  continuation  of  Mosheim's  Church  history.  See 
During,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  DeutschlandSf  s.  y. ;  Wi- 
ner, JIandbuch  der  theol  Lit,  i,  535 ;  ii,  52.     (B.  P.) 

Einem,  Johann  Just  von,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Gdttingen,  Aug.  11,1685. 
In  1712  he  was  rector  at  Bergen,  in  1728  pastor  at  Os- 
terweddingcn,  near  Magdeburg,  and  died  in  1744.  He 
vfTOtef  Anweisung  zum  Studiren  out  Lutheri  Schrijlen 
ffezeigt  (Magdeburg,  1727)  :—Anweisung  zur  ffemieneu- 
tik  au8  Lutheri  Schrijlen  (ibid,  eod.) :— 3/e7ancAr^o«t- 
ana  ( Uelmstiidt,  1730  )  : — Iniroductio  in  Bibliothecam 
Grascam  J,  A .  Fabricii  (Magdeburg,  1733) : — Introductio 
in  ejiudem  BUdiothecam  Latinam  (ibid.  1784).  See  Mo- 
sers,  Jetztlebende  Theologen ;  J iicheTf  A  Ugemeinet  Gtlehr- 
ten-LexikoUf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Einhard  (or  Eynardne),  Saintf  a  solitary  of  Al- 
tona,  in  Westphalia,  is  commemorated  March  25. 

Einhorn,  David,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom  at  Dis- 
peck,  in  Bavaria,  Nov.  10, 1809.  He  attended  the  rab- 
binical school  at  FUrth,  and  the  universities  of  Erlan- 
gen,  WUrzburg,  and  Munich.  At  the  latter  place  he 
took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  philosophy  in  1834.  His 
first  charge  was  at  Hopstadten,  and  while  officiating 
there  he  attended  the  second  conference  of  Reform  Jews 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  1845.  A  little  later  he 
succeeded  Holdheim  (q.  v.)  as  chief  rabbi  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin.  In  1851  he  was  called  to  Pesth 
by  the  Reformed  congregation,  where  he  advocated  ex- 
treme measures  for  those  days ;  his  liberalism  aroused 
the  dissatisfaction  of  the  government,  and  his  temple 
was  closed.  In  1855  he  landed  at  Baltimore,  and  was 
appointed  rabbi  of  the  Har  Sinai  congregation  there. 
His  known  opposition  to  slavery  aroused  the  ire  of 
the  Baltimoreans,  in  the  days  of  '61,  and  he  was  called 
to  Philadelphia  by  the  Reform  congregation.    In  1866 


he  went  to  New  York  to  take  charge  of  the  tomple 
*<  Adaa  Jeshurao,"  which  in  1878  was  consolidated  with 
the  '^Anshe  Chesed,"  under  the  name  of  *'Beth  £1." 
On  July  12, 1879,  he  retired  from  his  office,  and  died 
Nov.  2  of  that  year.  He  published.  Dot  Prinzip  da 
MoiaiamuM,  etc.  (Leipsic,  1854):— (7fa^A  TanUd  (Balti- 
more, 1856).  Afier  his  death  two  volumes  of  Sermom 
were  published.  See  Morals,  Eminent  Itraelitet  of  the 
I9th  Century  (Philadelphia,  1880).     (B.  P.) 

Einsiedel,  Gbobo  Hanbold,  a  German  divine  and 
statesman,  waa  bom  in  1521.  He  studied  theology, 
and  was  one  of  the  zealous  hearers  of  Luther,  Melanch< 
thon,  and  Scharf,  defending  the  Reformation  with  his 
word  and  with  the  sword  in  the  war  of  Schmalkalden. 
He  was  oounselk>r  of  the  princes  Merits  and  August 
der  Starke,  of  Saxony,  from  1576  to  1586.  Einsiedel 
died  in  1592.     See  Hoefer,  ATour.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

BirenXoa  {tipviwcd).  (1)  The  name  given  to  the 
earlier  clauses  of  the  great  litany  in  the  Greek  litur- 
gies, as  being  prayers  for  peace.    (2)  See  Pacifics. 

Eiaenlohr,  Johakk  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theolc^an 
of  Grermany,  was  bora  Nov.  8, 1656,  at  Reutlingen.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen  and  Wittenberg,  and  was  pastor 
and  superintendent  at  his  native  city  from  1680  to  1702. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  called  to  Durlach,  where  he 
died,  June  14, 1736.  He  wrote,  De  Scientia  Dei  Media : 
— De  Gratia  Dei  Praveniente: — Philohgemata  Sacra 
in  Varia  Sacrm  Scriptura  Loca: — De  Theologia  m 
Genere: — De  Principio  Theohgia  Cognotoendi:  —  De 
Theologia  ObjedOy  uu  de  Christiana  ReUgione^  See 
Jdcher,  AUgemeinet  GelehrtethLexikonf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Eiaenschmid,  Libonhard  Martik,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Ingolstadt,  Nov. 
5, 1797,  of  Roman  Catholic  parentage.  In  1818  he  was 
professor  at  Neuburg,  in  1822  at  Munich,  and  in  1824 
at  the  Aschaffenburg  gjnnnasium.  In  1828  he  joined 
the  Evangelical  Church,  was  made  rector  of  the  gym- 
nasium at  Schweinfurt,  and  dietl  May  27,  1836.  He 
wrote,  Uniertchitd  der  rdnUtch-'hatholischen  und  der 
evangelisch  -proieitantischen  Kirche  (Leipsic,  1828) : — 
Daa  romisch-katholieche  Mestbuch  (Neustadt,  1829): 
— Ud»er  die  Ver$uche  neuerer  Zeitf  etc.  (ibid,  eod.):— 
Die  Gebrauche  und  Segnungen  der  rdmitch-kathoKtehen 
Kirche  (ibid.  1830)  i-^Ueber  die  Un/ehlbarkeit  des  ersten 
allgemeinen  ConciU  zu  Nicda  (ibid,  eod.): — U^ier  die 
Un/ehlbarheit  der  allgemeinen  ConcUien  der  KathoU^ken 
Kirche  (ibid.  1831).  See  Zuchold,  BihL  TheoL  i,  315 ; 
Winer,  Handbuch  da-  theol.  Lit.  i,  346,  626,  664,  695. 
(B.  P.) 

Elsenstadt,  MeI  bkm-Isaag,  a  famous  Talmudist, 
was  bom  in  Lithuania  in  1670.  He  was  rabbi  at 
Eisenstadt,  Hungar>',  and  died  there  in  1744,  leaving 
novellas  on  some  I'almudic  treatises,  and  homilies  on 
the  Pentateuch  and  the  five  Megilloth  (i.  e.  Esther, 
Song  of  Songs,  Lamentations,  Ruth,  and  Ecdesiastes). 
See  FUrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  227;  Zipser,  in  Literatur  BlaU 
des  Orient,  1847,  xii,  24.     (B.  P.) 

Eieiteria,  sacrifices  which  the  senate  at  Athena 
were  accustomed  to  offer  to  Zeus  and  Athena  before 
they  commenced  the  public  deliberations  of  each  ses- 
sion.   Libations  were  offered,  and  a  festival  was  held. 

Eisler,  Tobias,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Nuremberg,  April  2, 1683.  He  received  a  careful  edu- 
cation ;  studied  law  at  Altorf  and  at  HaUe,  waa  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  duchess  of  Saxe- Eisenach, 
afterwards  returned  to  Nuremberg,  and  abandoned  the 
law  to  devote  himself  to  the  education  of  the  poor.  At 
Helmstitdt  he  founded  a  school  for  pour  boys,  and  an- 
other for  girls,  ^isler  was  strongly  pietistic.  He 
died  at  HelmstMdt,  Oct.  8, 1753.  For  the  chief  among 
his  numerous  works  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gtnirale, 
s.  V. 

Eithne  (or  Ethnea),  the  name  of  several  Irish 
saints.  (1)  Daughter  of  Bait,  of  the  barony  of  Nether- 
cross,  County  Dublin,  in  the  7th  century,  is  oommenK^ 


EITZEIT  8 

ritcd  Uucb  a.  (!)  Diogblec  of  king  Lughiire,  A.D. 
432,  cmrMmonted  Jan.  11  lod  Feb.  S6.  (8)  Virgin, 
diughur  of  Conskc  or  oT  Hirciii^  in  the  Gtli  eeuiuiy, 
d  July  6. 
in,  Paul  de,  ■  Luthenn  thMlogian  o(  Ger- 
u  bom  at  Himburg,  Jwi.  2G.  IS22.  He  itud- 
it  WitUnberg.  undet  Luther  and  Melmcfalhan, 


lUl  b< 


It  Coin, 


9  IS56 


rintendent  at  bia  aatire  place,  in  I5G2  Srat 
prtacberat  Schleiirig,  and  in  157G  pmreMor  Mthegym- 
uuium  tbere.  He  nrnsed  to  sign  the  formula  Con- 
emtbri,  vbieh  caowd  him  much  Ciouble.  In  1MI3  be 
reaigned  bia  offleo,  and  died  Feb.  36, 1G93.  Hia  writ- 
ingi  an  mentioned  in  Jocber,  AUgtmeinet  Gfifhrtea- 
LtBtim,t.v.\  »tt  tito  Gnit,  Mtmoria  Faali  ab  Eittn 
Iiulaurala  (Hamburg,  1744).     (It,  P,) 

Bkron.  Tbe  lateiC  deKri[ition  of  ihia  imporUnt 
plia  'u  bt  Lieut.  Coadet  (,Tail  Work  vt  PatttHat,  ii, 
irJ): 

'■Nurlh.cait  of  Kikkednh,  Ekron  >tlll  tUndu,  r>n  Ino 
riling  ponnd-^  mud  bnmlec,  mlih  rardeiia  fenced  with 
pricklj  pnr*.    Tbcre  Is  nolhlne  ancient  here,  nnj  mnre 

liuonl  wUch  la  ar'romelnureat.  Ekron  meiua  -barnn',' 
TCI  tbe  tawa  ataod  la  tbe  rich  PhlllallDe  plain.  Th«  rea- 
•oa  Is,  Ibat  narth  »rtbe  Sank  Tillej  than  la  a  long,  aand; 
•well  reachlne  tn  the  aea-cnut— an  nncnltlfated  dlatrlct, 
nDit  eallsd  Uslrin.  the  Arabic  name  beln^  «,iil»>Un>  b. 
JU  old  ilile,  Aatwnin ;  Ekrcin  alaiida  cinaa  C(i  tbia 
rea  fpar,  and  above  the  lirnlle  com-laiida  in  th« ' 


EIxIl  We  eitRct  tome  inlemting  detail)  concern- 
ing tbia  noted  valley  rrom  tbe  laceat  description,  that  oT 
Lieut.  Coader  {Tmt  Work  in  PaUtlmt,  ii,  197, 190) : 

"The  OnaC  VhIIs*  orKlab  {Wldj  ea-SoDl)  ]>  tlic  high. 
war  frtim  Phlllalla  to  Behroa;  It  haa  lla  head  nnllkr 
fr^i'u  TerkAnileb.  aud  rnua  diiwji  norlbvards,  jiial  Kellah 
»nd  Hanlb,  dlTldioc  tbe  Inw  hills  of  Ihn  Sheiibeliib  fram 
the  rockr  monntalna  or  Jndab;  e^ht  mlleatrom  the  Tat- 
lej.bead  aland*  Shochob,  and  VEAj  et-Snnt  la  here  a 
quarter  or  a  mile  acroaa:  Jou  noiih  oT  Ihla  niin  It  tnmi 
round  vreatward,  and  so  nma-BTowlav  deeper  aud  deeper, 
between  tbe  rockj  hllla  covend  irltb  brushwood,  f 


.  and  llnnll/  deb 


1V1I  n 


MSeb.    About  fi  .   _ ___  _  .    „. 

tenblnlh,  one  of  Ihe  lew  old  ireea  t.r  the  apeciea  aloiig 
ihe  coniae  of  tbe  Tnllej,  which  tnok  )ta  Hebrew  name  of 
ElDb  from  them.  This  Isreblaih  Is  rowardt  the  west  aide 
of  Ihe  Tale,  jnat  wbers  a  amall  tribalary  rarine  Jolna 

like  thoea  at  B«enbeba,  wllb  atone  wnler-lmnElia  roaud 
Ibem :  soalb  of  tbe  ratine  la  a  biffh,  roouded  bill,  almngt 
laolated  bf  *all«va.  and  covered  with  rulur,  a  nalnral 
fortnar,  not  nulike  the  wcll.knowD  Telia  which  occur 
lower  down  IbeValleriirXInh." 

"Two  uolnta  require  to  be  made  clear  a*  In  the  epi- 
aode  of  iJniriil's  battle  with  Onlhith:  one  la  the  mean, 
log  of  Ihe  eipretflim  Gal  or  •  rnvlnc ;'  Iba  other  la  Ihe 
annrce  whence  Dadd  look  Ihe  'emoolh  aionea.'  A  vldt 
la  Ihe  spot  eiplalna  both.  In  tbe  middle  of  the  broad, 
open  Taller  we  niand  n  deep  lieoch  nitb  vertkal  rides, 
Inipaaaabia  except  at  certain  placea— a  vallej  In  a  vall^j, 
and  a  nalnrnl  banler  between  the  two  boats;  ihe  alde« 
and  bed  of  thla  trench  an  strewn  with  rontided  and  wa- 
pebblet.  which  wonkl  bate  been  well  Btied  fu 


.  <r  HeUdluB), 
Anxem,  dr.  AJ>.  387,  ia  cotnmeniorated  May  a. 

HUeth(a«iiamed"lhekiug"),  a  Welthbardand 
uial  of  the  6th  or  74b  ccntn^,  is  eonimenii>rated 


(Tram  TbomBon's  Southern  Palatint  and  JtraiataK.) 
pneilc  ftnct  of  the  Mt*(a,  the 
and  cried :  '  Bt  na  shilt  thon 
champion  fell  From  an  anseen 


Vulle;  oIKlBh.    (Prord  'Hi'iniKMi'i . 

Tllalr  (LaL  lldariia),  an  Iriah  uin^  inchorite,  uid 
Khbe  DTLiich-Crea,  dkd  AJ>.  807,  and  is  conmicowntnl 
Sept.  7. 

ZQaplna.  flfteealb  Uihop  of  Poieticn,  eir.  A.D.  &B6- 
UO. 

TW« ripping  a  Cappadocian  maityr  in  lh«  n'ign  of 
Aurelian,  with  liia  uiplet  brotben,  Helawpput  and 
Speiuippui,  u  uid  u>  have  bean  ■  hone-breakeT  by 
ptofmion,  lo  have  been  cflnrerted  at  twenly-fire  .vein 
of  age,  and  to  hare  biwii  bumed  in  a  runuce.  Tbev 
are  comnicinoralcd  Jan,  17, 

maaliu  (or  BlaphluB),  Saini,  Bcrenleuitb  biibop 
nf  Chilons-sur-Maroe,  died  dr.  A.D.  680,  and  i>  com- 
memonted  Aug.  19. 

Blbodus,  Saini,  toihop  of  Uangor,  A.D.  7&5-8D9, 
induced  (he  people  of  Nottb  Wale*  to  uu  the  Komon 
cycle  of  Easter. 

pinl»«¥inn   Bci  •  Hemacreh.      See  Paulus  or 

mdad,  the  name  of  two  Welah  ninta.  (1)  Son  of 
Anh,  of  the  7th  ceniuTy.  (2)  Son  of  Oeraint,  ader- 
waid*  biahop  of  GloucetlcT,  A.D.  G00-GS4,  alain  by  tbe 

pagan  Saxoni. 

mdftd  had-Daki,  a  famoos  Jewiab  trareDer,  floui^ 
iihed  about  880-890.  In  bis  interealing  but  faluloiu 
narratiTe,  Sr/tr  Eldad  kad-Dani,  ha  pretend*  to  tell  of 
Ibe  lemnant*  of  the  ten  tribe*,  their  lain,  euitoma, 
and  their  condition.  Hi*  narrative  ha*  been  tranalated 
into  I^tin  by  Gencbranl,  into  French  by  Carmoly,  and 
into  JudiBo-Gemuin  by  Men.  ben  -  Salomo.  Exincti 
are  given  by  Bartolocci  in  BiUiotk.  Mogxa  RaUmm, 
i,  101,  and  Eisentnenfvvr,  S'ewfntdeciau  Jmdeulkumj  ii, 
587-639.  SeeFanl,Kil>LJud.i,i30iq.:  ZunM,aiHlfiJ. 
VortrSge  dtr  Juiat,  p.  139;  I^ndaucr,  in  Liltralurblall 
ri(a(}r>m(f,I84G,p.l2l  iq.j  Rapaport, BUjtart  Jla4f (ui, 

l8W,p.6S,08.    (B.  r.) 

BldlullIIIMr,  in  Noiae  mytholocy,  ii  (he  irrm  pnt 
ia  which  tho  boar  Stthrimner,  in  Walhalla,  ii  cooked, 
which  after  every  meal  rev ivee,  in  onltf,  on  the  following 
(lay,  (0  be  •]augb(ered  and  terred  up  again  by  the  cook 
Andbrimner. 

XOdridgV,  Joskfii,  D.D.,  a  Coni;reea(iiinal  mini*- 
ter,i>uU>mBtYBimaulh,Maa*.,Juiyl8,lSIH.    After 


preliminary  co 
om  Yale  Collef^  ii 
inity  School.  He  wa*  onl»ined  paator  of  tbe  Church 
1  Norfolk,  Conn„  April  2b,  18.12,  and  continued  lo  ■em 
I  (hat  pariah  until  Nov.  2, 1874.  He  died  there,  March 
1,1875.  Froml8*7be  waaamemberoftbecofpora- 
onuf  YaleCollege;  fmm  I867ofthe  AnwricanDoanl 
IT  Foreign  Hiauona.  See  Coiy.  Qaarterif,  1876,p.4H 
Bldnuoa  (or  Eldutien),  fifteenth  bishop  of  3l 
Davids. 

Bmsar,  a  itachcr  of  tbe  Haccabee*,  ia  oomuMmo- 
raled  •■  a  aunt,  Aug.  I  (July  29). 
BleaBarBK!(.AiuK,afaiDoua  Jewiah  teacher  of  the 
K  cenlury  of  our  nra,  was  one  of  the  moat  celebrated 
isdpin  of  Joehanan  ben-Zachai  (q.  v.).  Oneof  hiBR- 
>^ded  maxiuia  ia  found  in  .liMA,  ii,  19:  "fieqaickto 
study  the  law,  and  know  what  (bou  ahouIds(  lelunl  in 
ir  (o  iho  Epicurean,  and  remeniber  before  whom 
laliore«t;  for  the  master  who  employed  Ibee  it 
faithful,  aud  will  recompense  thee  the  reward  of  thy 
Aa  a  teacher,  he  waa  lo  highly  esteemed  that  to 
attend  hia  kcturea  was  regarded  like  fuISlling  a  com- 
mandment (C'AoiM,  fuL  lUC).  See  Hamburger,  Real- 
Kacfdop.  ii,  165  aq. ;  Baeber,  in  Frankel-Uiilta'a  jVoaott- 
KhriJ},  1882,  p.  2il.     (a  P.) 

Bleasor  BEs-AEARiA.a  Talmudic  teacher  of  the  Ist 
century  nfour  asra,  belonged  lo  a  nuble  printjy  family. 
When  Gamaliel  the  younger  was  deposed  at  Jabneh, 
Eleazar  wa*  elec(ed  president  of  tbe  cuUegc,  alihough 
only  aeventeen  yean  of  age.  One  of  his  fini  meaaure* 
wa*  lo  remove  the  doorkeeper  and  give  free  admiiaion  to 
the  college  lo  all,  wherea*  Gamaliel  had  csdndcd  every 
disciple  who  waa  not  "  Ihe  same  inwanlly  a*  oulwud- 
ly."  It  is  added  (hat  when  anything  ia  lecordid  •* 
having  happened  C^^a  13  "on  that  day,"  (be  occauon 
of  Aiari*'*  accession  ia  referred  lo  j  and  (be  day  a  d»- 
Bcribed  aa  one  in  which  all  ihe  pemling  coDUovFrriM 
were  decided.  When  damaliel  uas  reinatated,  Ben-Ai- 
aria  acted  a*  vicG-preiident,  and,  acconling  to  the  Tal- 
mud, matters  were  so  ami^ed  that  on  three  Sabbath* 
in  the  month  Gamaliel  acted  a*  preudent,  whereas  tbs 
fourth  was  given  to  Eleuar.  Hence  Ihe  aaving; 
"  Whoaa  Sabbath  U  it  ?  1'he  Sabbalb  of  rabbi  Eleaiar 
ben-Azaria."    A  aaying  of  hia  ia  recorded  in  Aboli, 


ELEAZAR 


329 


ELEMENTS 


iii,  96 :  '*  No  Tonh,  no  cnliare ;  no  eultore,  no  Tonh ; 
no  wisdom,  no  fear  of  God;  no  fear  of  God,  no  witdom; 
no  knowledge,  no  diieeinment ;  no  diaoemment,  no 
knowledge ;  no  meal,  no  Torah ;  no  Torah,  no  meaL" 
Sec  Hamburger,  Beal-J£»cyclop,  ii,  166  aq. ;  Bacher,  in 
FnnkeU)nlu*fl  MomMt»$ekr\ft,  1888,  p.  6  aq.     (a  P.) 

ZQeazar  bbm-Azkari  (or  Abkari),  a  rabbi  of  the 
16th  century,  b  the  author  of  an  expontion  of  the  six 
hundred  and  thirteen  precepts,  Q'^^nn  ")&D  (Venice, 
1601 ;  Zolkiew,  1778;  Brttnn,  1795).  See  FUrst,  BiU, 
Jmd.  i,  6d.     (a  P.) 

Ta^am^'r  bsn-Chuma,  a  diBciple  of  the  famona  rab- 
bi Akiba  (q.  v.),  was  noted  alike  ai  a  Talmndlst  and 
an  aitronomer.  His  recorded  maxim  (^Abotk,  iii,  28), 
"  Qinnim  and  Pitche  Nidda  are  essentials  of  the  Torah ; , 
canons  of  astronomy  and  geometry  are  ader-courses  of 
wisdom,**  shows  his  delight  in  astronomical  and  math- 
ematical problems.  See  Bacher,  in  Frankel-Gr&tz*s 
Maaatsschrijt,  1883,  p.  588.     (K  P.)     • 

HLe€UBaT  bek-Jehdda.    See  Eukseb  bek-Judah. 

ZUeasar  bbs-Shaxna,  a  Jewish  teacher  of  the  2d 
century,  was  a  pupil  of  the  famous  rabbi  Akiba.  Dur- 
ing the  persecution  by  Hadrian  he  went  to  Kisibis,  in 
Babjlooia.  His  recorded  maxim  was :  **  Let  the  honor 
of  thy  disciple  be  dear  unto  thee  as  the  honor  of  thine 
associate;  and  the  honor  of  thine  associate  as  the  fear 
of  thy  master;  and  the  fear  of  thy  master  as  the  fear 
of  heaven  "  (Abothf  iv,  17).  See  Hamburger,  Real-En" 
cyiop.  ii,  159.     (a  P.) 

ZQeasar  brn-Yxshai,  a  converted  Jew  of  the  17th 
century,  is  the  author  of  a  Brief  Compfndium  of  the 
V'aU  'llapes  of  the  Jews*  Me$aiat  (Lond.  1652).  See 
Wolf,  SiU.  ffebrma,  i v,  786 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugememes  Gekhr- 
tat-Lexikon,  a,  v.     (a  P.) 

Bleasar  hak-Kaur.    See  Kalir,  Elbasar  ha-. 


OF  MoDRT,  a  Jewish  teacher  of  the  2d 
century.  He  was  a  relative  of  Bar  Cochab,  and  not 
only  upheld  his  messianic  pretensions,  but  also  stimu- 
lated the  religious  energy  and  encouraged  the  hopes  of 
the  defenders  of  Bethar.  Weighed  down  by  3'ears  and 
emaciated  by  fasts,  the  aged  ascetic  was  daily  to  be 
aeen  on  the  ramparts,  where,  clad  in  sackcloth  and  cov- 
ered with  ashes,  he  would,  in  the  sight  of  all,  implore 
heavenly  aid  with  tears  and  by  continual  fastings.  As 
long  as  the  defenders  of  Bethar  saw  Eleazar  at  his  post 
tbey  felt  secure  under  the  canopy  of  bis  piety,  and  in 
the  assurance  of  divine  aid.  Even  the  treacherous 
Samaritana  felt  the  awe  of  his  presence,  and  were  wont 
to  say  that  Bethar  could  not  be  taken  **  so  long  as  this 
cock  remained  to  crow  in  ashes.**  At  last  one  of  them 
succeeded  in  rendering  Eleazar  an  object  of  suspicion 
to  Bar  Cochab,  who  rudely  pushed  the  old  man  aside 
with  his  foot  Eleazar  fell  to  the  ground  a  corpse.  His 
recorded  maxim  is:  **He  that  profanes  things  sacred, 
and  contemns  the  festivals,  and  annuls  the  covenant  of 
Abnham  our  Father,  and  acts  barefacedly  against  the 
Torah,  even  though  he  be  a  doer  of  good  works,  lias 
no  portion  in  the  world  to  come**  (^Abothf  iii,  17).  See 
Hamburger,  ReaUEnqfdop,  ii,  p.  161  sq.;  Bacher,  Die 
Atfoda  der  TanaUen,,  in  Frankel-Grtltz's  MonatMschriJ}f 
1882,  p.  529  sq.     (a  P.) 

HLeasama,  a  martyr  at  Lyons,  with  his  eight 
children  and  Hinerviur^  commemorated  Aug.  28. 

'ELeotit  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  Christians  in 
the  early  ages  of  the  Christian  Church. 

Among  the  Manichseans,  the  term  denoted  the  higher 
or  more  holy  of  the  two  dasses  into  which  believers 
were  divided,  the  lower  being  styled  simply  **  auditorcs.'*> 

XDectoral  College  is  a  committee  of  clergy  and 
notaUea  convened  to  elect  bishops  and  other  clerg}', 
aa  a  means  of  avoiding  the  tumult  of  a  popular  elec- 
tion, following  the  advice  of  CIcroent  of  Rome  and  the 
Council  of  Laodicca. 


Bledanofl,  legendary  Inshop  of  Dnmbarton,  said  ttf 
have  been  appointed  by  king  Arthur,  A.D.  519. 

BleemoBTnaiins.  (1)  See  Alma.  (2)  The  word 
also  designates  the  "  executor"  of  a  will,  when  distiib- 
uted  for  pious  purposes. 

ZUeSBon.    See  Kyrik. 

Blements,  Eucharibtic.  The  Latin  word  efo. 
maUa  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used  in  this  tech> 
nical  sense  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  though  it 
is  a  very  natural  word  to  express  the  component  parts 
of  anything.  The  uneonsecrated  elements  on  the  altar 
are  odled,  in  Eastern  liturgies^  '*  the  Mysteries  ;*'  the 
bread  alone,  **  the  Seal,**  from  its  being  divided  by  lines 
in  the  form  of  a  cross.  When  the  elements  have  been 
placed  on  the  altar  tbey  acquire  other  names,  having 
more  distinct  reference  to  sacrifice,  as  "  the  Lamb,**  or 
"  the  First-born.**  The  elementa  are  also  called  *<  sym- 
bols,*' "types,**  "visible  forms,**  as  ootwaid  representa- 
tions of  inward  and  spiritual  grace. 

Throughout  the  Church,  bread  and  wine  have  always 
been  recognised  as  the  elements  in  the  eucharist,  with 
but  few  exceptions.  An  obscure  sect,  called  the  Arto- 
tyritsB,  added  cheese  to  the  bread.  Some  sects  used 
no  wine,  but  water  alone;  while  others  used  wine  in 
the  evening  service,  but  not  in  the  morning. 

L  Compoeitian  ojfthe  Bread.— The  Church  has  been 
unanimous  in  using  wheat  as  the  material  for  the  bread, 
it  being  regarded  as  the  superior  grain.  The  great  con- 
troversy has  been.  Shall  the  bf^d  be  leavened  or  un- 
leavened? The  principal  arguments  bearing  on  this 
question  are  the  following:  It  has  generally  been  as- 
sumed in  the  West  that  the  Last  Supper  was  eaten  at 
the  feast  of  the  Passover,  and  that  therefore  the  bread 
used  was  unleavened,  which  was  the  only  kind  the  Jews 
were  allowed  to  eat  at  that  time.  But  it  is  contended 
by  some  writers  of  the  Greek  Church  that  the  Last 
Supper  was  held  on  the  13th  Nisan,  when  leavened 
bread  waa  still  used ;  and  there  is  no  direct  statement, 
either  in  the  New  Test,  ur  in  the  writings  of  the  early 
fathers,  to  indicate  that  unleavened  bread  was  used*; 
on  the  cootnry,  the  fact  that  only  "  bread  **  was  men- 
tioned would  lead  to  the  inference  that  only  common 
bread  was  meant.  Justin  Martyr  simply  speaks  of 
brei^d,  and  as  he  is  giving  a  particular  description  of 
the  Christian  rites,  it  seems  most  probable  that  he 
would  have  mentioned  the  fact  had  any  partieolar  kind 
of  bread  been  used.  Epiphanius  says  that  the  Ebion- 
ites,  in  imitation  of  the  saints  in  the  Church,  celebrate 
mysteries  yearly  in  the  Church  with  unlea%*ened  cakes. 
Innocent  I  sent  to  the  bishops  leavened  bread,  said  to 
have  been  called  by  him  "ferroentum,"  in  distinction 
from  the  unleavened.  Cyprian,  and  still  later,  Isidore 
of  Seville,  in  their  discussions,  leave  out  all  mention  of 
leaven  aa  an  ingredient  in  the  eucharistic  bread,  which 
they  would  hardly  have  done  had  it  been  in  use.  But 
Alcuin  (A.D.  790)  says  that  the  bread  should  be  per- 
fectly free  from  leaven  of  any  kind.  Rabanus  Maurus 
(A.D.819)  likewise  directs  that  the  bread  should  be  un- 
leavened according  to  the  Hebrew  custom.  It  has  been 
inferred  by  some  that  the  eucharistic  bread  was  intro- 
duced between  the  latter  part  of  the  9th  and  the  11th 
centuries,  for  the  reason  that  Photius  of  Constantinople 
(A.D.  867)  never  mentioned  the  use  of  unleavened  bread ; 
while  Michael  Cerularius,  also  patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple (A.D.  1054),  frequently  dues.  The  silence  of  Photius 
would  only  show  that  cither  the  use  of  it  was  unknown 
to  him,  or  that  he  regarded  it  as  a  thing  of  no  conse- 
quence. But  John  Maro,  writing,  at  any  rate,  before  the 
Tnillan  Council,  says  that  those  who  made  the  eucha- 
ristic offering  in  leavened  bread  reproached  the  Western 
churches,  the  Armenians,  and  the  Maronitcs,  with  offer- 
ing "unleavened  cakes,'*  which  were  not  bread  at  all; 
a  clear  proof  that  the  Western  churches  generally,  in 
the  7th  century,  were  thought  to  agree  with  the  Maro- 
nitcs and  the  Armenians  in  this  respect. 

On  the  whole,  then,  there  is  distinct  evidence  that 


ELEMENTS 


330 


ELEUTHEROPOnS 


unleavened  bread  was  used  in  the  eticbtriiit  by  the 
Latins,  and  by  some  eastern  sects,  in  the  7th  and  8th 
centuries;  and  there  is  strong  evidence  that  it  was 
used  in  the  3d.  In  the  orthodox  Eastern  Church,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  leavened  bread  has  been  used 
from  a  very  early  period  indeed ;  if  not  from  the  very 
first,  at  any  rate  from  the  time  when  Judaizing  sects 
insisted  on  using  unleavened  cakes,  like  those  of  the 
Passover,  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 

The  Syrian  Christians,  besides  the  leaven  which  is 
common  to  almost  all  Oriental  communions,  mix  with 
the  bread  a  little  oil  and  salt,  a  practice  which  they  de- 
fend by  many  mystical  reasons.  The  modem  Greeks 
eagerly  advocate  the  mixture  of  salt,  which  (they  say) 
represents  the  life;  so  that  a  sacrifice  without  salt  is  a 
dead  sacrifice. 

In  regard  to  the  character  of  the  bread,  the  sixth 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Toledo  (A.D.  693)  enacts  that 
no  other  bread  than  such  as  is  whole  and  clean  and  es- 
pecially prepared  shall  be  placed  on  the  altar  of  the 
Lord. 

The  form  of  the  loaf  used  by  the  Jews  was  round, 
and  somewhat  less  than  an  inch  thick,  and  six  or  eight 
inches  in  diameter.  Oblates  were  frequently  used,  and 
impressed  with  a  cross. 

II.  CompontioH  oftke  Cup.— With  regard  to  the  ele- 
ment of  wine  there  has  been  less  controversy,  though 
it  is  an  interesting  and  unsettled  question  whether  the 
cup  was  mixed  at  the  institution  of  the  sacrament  by 
our  blessed  Lord  himself.  Ughtfoot  (reaipfe  Service,  i, 
C91)  says  that  he  that  drank  pure  wine  performed  his 
duty;  so  that,  although  it  seems  probable  that  our  Lord 
iised  the  mixed  cup,  yet  it  is  not  certain  that  he  did  so. 
The  Babylonian  Talmud  calls  water  mixed  with  wine 
"the  fruit  of  the  vine;"  but  it  would  appear  that  the 
same  term  is  used  fur  pure  wine  in  Isa.  xxxii,  12;  Hab. 
iii,  17;  so  that  nothing  positive  can  be  ascertained  from 
the  use  of  that  term.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  probable 
that  our  Lord  used  a  mixed  cup,  and  it  is  acknowledged 
on  all  hands  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  heretics, 
the  Church  used  wine  mixed  with  water.  Justin  Mar- 
tyr and  Cyprian  both  justify  the  mixing  of  the  two. 
The  third  Council  of  Carthage  orders  "  that  in  the  sac- 
rament of  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord,  nothing 
else  be  offered  but  what  the  Lord  himself  commanded, 
that  is,  bread,  and  wine  mixed  with  water."  The  Afri- 
can code,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  has  this  same  canon. 
The  liturgies  of  James  and  Mark  contain  like  words, 
while  the  liturgies  of  Basil  and  Chyrsostom  order  the 
deacon  to  put  wine  and  water  into  the  cup  before  the 
priest  places  it  on  the  altar.  In  like  manner,  in  some 
form  or  another,  the  mixing  is  mentioned  in  the  litur- 
gies of  Ethiopia,  Xestorius,  Severus,  of  the  Roman  and 
the  Galilean  churches.  A  peculiar  rite  of  the  Byzantine 
Church  is  the  mixing  of  hot  water  with  the  wine.  In 
the  liturgy  of  Chrj'sostom,  after  the  fraction  of  the  oblate, 
the  deacon,  taking  up  the  vessel  of  boiling  water,  says  to 
the  priest, "  Sir,  bless  the  boiling  water ;"  the  priest  then 
says, "  Blessed  be  the  fervency  of  thy  saints  forever,  now 
and  always,  and  for  ages  of  ages  ;*'  then  the  deacon  pours 
a  small  quantity  of  the  boiling  water  into  the  chalice, 
saying, "  The  fervency  of  faith,  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Amen."  The  principal  deviations  from  the  received 
practice  of  the  Church  in  this  matter  have  been  the 
opposite  usages  of  the  Aquarians  and  Ebionites,  who 
used  no  wine  at  all  in  the  eiicharist,  and  of  the  Arme- 
nians, wlio  mixed  no  water  with  the  wine. 

Some  in  the  7th  century  offered  milk  for  wine  in  the 
eucharist ;  others  communicated  the  people  not  with  wine 
prcs£ed  from  grapes,  but  with  the  grapes  themselves. 

A  peculiar  instance  of  an  addition  to  the  cup  is  the 
dropping  of  milk  and  honey  into  it,  according  to  the 
Roman  rite,  on  Easter  eve,  the  great  day  for  the  bap- 
tism of  catechumens. 

The  wine  in  use  in  the  Church  has  in  general  been 
red,  apparently  from  a  desire  to  symbolize  as  much  as 
possible  the  blood  of  our  Lord.    Various  mystical  rea- 


sons have  been  given  for  the  mtxtore  of  the  water  with 
the  wine.  Besides  the  presumption  that  onr  Lord  used 
the  mixed  cup  at  the  first  institution,  the  liturgies  gen- 
erally allege  as  a  further  reason  that  blood  and  water 
flowed  from  his  pierced  side.  In  the  comment  on  Hark, 
ascribed  to  Jerome,  another  ia  given ;  that  by  one  we 
might  be  purged  from  sin,  by  the  other  redeemed  from 
punishmenL  Alcuin  {Eput,90)  finds  in  the  three  things, 
water,  flour,  and  wine,  which  may  be  placed  on  the  al- 
tar, a  mystical  resemblance  to  the  three  heavenly  wit- 
nesses of  1  John  V,  7.  See  Smith,  Did.  of  Ckritt,  A  »• 
tiq.  s.  V. 

Elenara  (or  Blevara),  a  virgin  martyr  with 
Sponsaria,  in  Gaul,  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  is  com- 
memorated May  2. 

Elenog,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  7th  century. 

Zneph.  Lieut.  Conder  identifies  this  place  with 
the  present  village  of  L(^a,  west  of  Jerusalem  (^Qiuir, 
Report  of  the  '*  Palest.  Explor.  Fund,"  Jan.  1881,  p.  51), 
a  site  which  he  elsewhere  (Tent  Work  in  PaletL  it,  839) 
assigns  to  Nephtoah  (q.  v.). 

Blephantas,  eleventh  bishop  of  Uses,  A.D.  810. 

Ulephas,  said  to  have  been  seventh  bishop  of  Va- 
lence, at  the  close  of  the  6th  century. 

Eleri  (or  Melcrl),  the  name  of  two  Welsh  saints. 
(1)  Daughter  of  Brychan,  iu  the  middle  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury. (2)  Daughter  of  Dingad,  at  Pennach  (Denbigh- 
shire), at  the  end  of  the  6th  centur>*. 

ElerioB,  a  Cambrian  monk  (different  from  the  mar- 
tyr in  Jersey),  died  cir.  A.D.  660,  and  is  commemorated 
June  18. 

deahaan,  an  Ethiopian  king,  hermit,  and  saint 
(commemorated  in  Home,  Oct.  22 ;  in  Ethiopia,  May  15), 
concerning  whom  the  early  hagiographers  teU  discord- 
ant stories,  seems  to  have  lived  in  the  6th  oentun*. 
See  Smith,  Did.  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

EleachadiUB^  bishop  of  Ravenna,  A.D.  100-112, 
commemorated  Feb.  14,  is  said  to  have  been  originally 
an  eminent  Platonic  philosopher,  converted  by  ApoUi- 
naris  on  a  visit  to  Rome. 

EleUBlUB,  bishop  of  Cyzicus,  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential members  of  the  Semi-Arian  party  in  the  second 
half  of  the  4th  century,  was  a  man  of  high  personal 
character.  At  the  instance  of  Acaciiis  he  was  deposed, 
A.D.  360,  but  returned  the  next  year,  and  finally  seems 
to  have  fallen  under  the  general  condemnation  of  the 
Macedonian  heretics,  A.D.  883.  See  Smith,  DicU  of 
Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Bleutherlas.  (l)  Bishop  of  Ulyricum,  mart3Ted 
together  with  his  mother,  Anthia,  in  the  reign  of  Ha- 
drian ;  commemorated  April  13  or  18.  (2)  One  of  the 
fourteen  bishops  (sees  not  named)  who  composed  the 
synod  of  Diospolis  (Lydda),  A.D.  415.  (3)  Bishop  of 
(icneva  in  the  5th  century.  (4)  Saiat,  eighth  in  the 
list  of  bishops  of  Terracina,  cir.  A.D.  443;  commemo- 
rated Sept.  6.  (5)  Bishop  of  Chalcedon  at  the  time  of 
the  council,  A.D.  451.  (6)  Said  to  have  been  elected 
patriarch  of  Alexandria  by  the  orthodox  party,  A.D.  481. 
(7)  Saint,  commemorated  Feb.  20,  was  third  bishop  of 
Touniay  in  the  8th  or  9th  century.  (8)  Saini,  fifteenth 
binhop  of  Auxerre,  A.D.  532-561,  commemorated  Aug. 
16.  (9)  Bishop  of  Cordova,  A.D.  589.  (10)  The  fir^ 
known  bishop  of  Salamanca,  A.D.  589.  (11)  Bishop  of 
Lucca,  A.D.  680.  (12)  Martyr  in  Persia  under  Sapor 
II,  commemorated  April  13.  (18)  Soldier  and  martyr 
at  Nicomedia,  under  Diocletian,  commemorated  Oct.  2. 

(14)  Martyr  at  Paris,  A.D.  272 ;  commemorated  Oct.  9. 

(15)  Martyr  at  Tarsus,  in  Bithynia,  commemorated  Aug. 
A.  (1 6)  A  martyr  at  Byzantium,  A.D.  811.  (17)  Abbot 
of  Su  Mark's,  Spoleto,  in  the  6th  centuiy.  (18)  Exarch 
of  Ravenna,  cir.  A.D.  616-620. 

Bleutheropolia.  For  a  copious  exhibit  of  the 
antiquities  of  BeiiUJibrin,  see  the  Memoirs  accompany- 
ing the  Onlnanoe  Sur\-ey  (iii,  266  Bq.)« 


ELEDTHEBUS  3; 

Blenthfinw,  mutjr  it  OMarei,  in  Cappado^ 
petbipa  under  Hadrian,  cotDmemorauil  SepL  ZT. 

ElaTftUon  of  tlw  Hoat.  Tbe  lifting  up  oT  tbe 
palCD  aaJ  consecnted  elemuiC  of  bitad  iraa  initiliilad 
by  pope  Honorius  III  {tit,  1210),  and  be  direcWd  that  it 
■honld  be  adored  when  elivated,  or  carried  to  the  lick, 
tbe  people  reverently  boiring.  Cualiui  quolei  ai  hii 
■uiborily  for  thii  cuatom  Paa.  Ixxii,  16,  Anaitutua 
KnaiU  allude*  to  Ihii  cenmon;;  and  it  appears  ai  ear- 
ly as,  perhaps,  the  fourth  centnry  in  the  Ur«k  Church ; 
it  has  been  traced  in  England  in  the  lllh,  in  France 
in  the  llih,  and  in  Gcnnany  and  Italy  befDre  the  ISth 
century.  Tbomas  Aquinas  and  Bonaventuia  mentinn 
the  elevation  of  tbe  pat«n  only ;  the  elevation  of  the 
ctaalice  was  of  later  date.  The  ringing  of  little  bella  at 
thb  tioke  was  intnxlnced  by  William  of  Paris,  and  gen- 
eraUj  enjaJDcd  by  Grreory  XL — Wakolt,  Sacnd  A  r- 
ciacl.t.v. 


they  ton 


1  ELF 

thlcknt  darknets ;  but  the/  light  up  their  dismal  bab- 
itations  by  nteani  at  brilliant  preciotu  stones  and  ahin- 
ing  metals.  Some  dwell  in  stones,  others  in  the  earib, 
Hill  otheri  ia  the  aea.  Tbey  eagerly  steal  onbap- 
lized  children  of  Chtiitians,  rear  them  in  their  earthen 
or  rocky  dwellings,  and  bring  some  of  their  own  hateful, 
mairornied  children  aa  aub^ituiei,  which  can  only  be 
got  rid  or  by  rubbing  their  feet  with  fat  and  roasting 
them  over  the  Are.  The  child  cries  unmercifully,  where- 
upon the  elves  return  and  bring  back  the  stolen  child, 
in  order  lo  save  theii  own  from  the  torture*.  The  light 
elves  are  entirely  different  in  every  respect ;  justice  and 
fainieHsre  laciedli)  Ihem,  They  never  harm  anyone; 
even  when  Ihry  have  been  wron^^  they  only  revenge 
themselTe*  by  teasing.  They  And  great  pleasure  in  a>- 
■ociiting  with  Christians.  As  they  have  human  forma 
-  ■  —  extraordinarily  beautiful,  it  is  not  setdom  that 
'otimate  relatioDS  with  men.  If  children 
follow  from  sueb  intimacy,  Iheie  must  be 
bathed  entirely  in  the  sacred  water  foe 
baptism,  as  otherwise  they  will  not  be  en- 
dowed with  immortal  anula.  The  time  ef 
the  elves' appearance  is  after  sundown,  in 
cheerful, summer  rooonlightiiights;  then 
they  often  appear  in  aiiinns,  lo  enjoy 
tbeniMlvea  and  follow  every  imaginable 
qmrt.  Their  farorite  paslinu  is  the 
dancei  they  pass  whole  nights  occupied 
with  this  amusement,  and  wherever  in 
tbe  field  or  pasture  a  company  of  elves 
have  danced,  there  the  grass  grows  green- 
er and  fresber.  We  are  accustomed  to 
suppose  the  elves  to  be  very  small,  but 
Ihey  can  take  on  any  form  or  size  they 
choose.  Sometimes  they  are  baleful, 
aoroelioMS  beaultful  i  aometiatea  large,  at 

pose.    Tbe  Scots  and  Irish  still  hohl  lo 

the  belief  that  their  respective  counlriee 

pre-eminetilly  loved  and  visited  by 


lling  St 


:s  may  be  found  there  relat- 


lofdus 


mlhei 


the  people,  believing  that  the  ei\ 
changing  their  dwelling-places,  bow 

teach  men  their  arts  of  magic; 
although  the  information  they  ' 


Keradm  of  the  IIoaL  (From  an  Old  In 
EU  (old  Scandinavian,  A^fari  Anglo-Saxon,  jEf/i 
Danish, £ir;  German, .4 /p ,-  apparently  meaning B*i(*), 
in  Norse,  British,  and  German  popular  superstitious 
belief,  ia  a  being  between  deity  and  man.  The  Edda 
names  three  classes  of  elves:  Light,  Dart,  and  Blacti 
tbe  first  of  whom  inhabit  the  pure  regions  of  light,  the 
■econd  mountain -grottoes  and  caves,  the  third  the  infer- 
nal regions.  But  this  threefold  division  seems  to  have 
beet)  soon  abandoned  for  a  dualism.  Snorre  Sturlesou 
(died  1241}  savs ;  "  In  Alfheim  there  live  the  people  of 
Light-Alfs,  and  under  the  earth  are  the  Dark-Alfs, 
both  entirely  different  from  each  other  in  appearance 
Uul  powers;  tbe  formcT  shining  with  ■  brighineas  that 
edipaea  tbe  sun,  the  latter  darker  than  pilch.'  The 
tigbl  elves  are  cheerful,  pleasant  beings,  sometimes 
Tisible,  Bometimea  innsible ;  they  enjoy  the  company 
of  men  and  goda.  On  the  contrary,  the  dark  elves  shun 
the  light,  and  only  leara  their  gloomy  habitations  at 
night;  andineaae  the  sun  flnds  them  still  on  earib, Ihey 
become  petrified  by  hia  rays,  The  dark  elves  are  great- 
ly miaformed.  They  have  monstrous  noses  and  bellies, 
boneathin  as  a  spindle,  bahl  or  homed  beads.  However, 
they  are  quite  skilful,  and  not  only  expert  in  all  powers 
of  magic,  but  pmsesa  a  rare  knowledge  in  all  metallic 
works ;  but  with  all  their  labors  there  is  always  an  ac- 
CoBipanying  curse.    The  dwelling  of  these  ia  ever  Id  the 


>t1U  the  I 


"»■'                ed  be. 

■ome  powerfu 

dreadol.    tlusic  is 

oved  by  th 

thing  eUe,  and  altb 

ugh  their  m 

luponr 


onderfut 


imptc,  still  it 
:.    The  piece 


entitled  "Elf-king"  To 
even  the  table  anil  chairs,  to  dance  as  long  as  the  music 
lasts;  buttheplsycTcannotslopplBving.  forthearmand 
hand  using  the  instrument  is  likewise  charmed  and  be- 
witched :  either  he  must  play  the  piecebackward  exactly, 
or  somebody  most  come  from  behind  and  cut  the  itringi 
of  the  violin.  Some  have  said  that  the  elves  are  angds 
banished  from  heaven,  who  have  not  sunk  into  hell,  and 
in  this  respect  there  is  great  similarity  between  them 
and  the  peris  of  the  iVrsians.  The  latter  are  also  pleas- 
ant, supematura!  beings,  but  deprived  of  heaven,  still 
not  banished  lo  helL  The  elve*  often,  in  their  songK, 
express  a  hope  of  a  coming  deliverance;  this  song  im- 
mediately becomes  a  weeping  and  wailing  if  any  one  is 
so  cruel  as  to  disturb  Ihem  in  their  hopes.  Tbe  belief 
in  elves  has  given  German  poets  of  modem  days  male- 
Hal  for  the  loveliest  and  most  animating  representations. 
Compare  the  fable  "  The  Elvei,"  in  Ludwig  Tieck's  book 
Phanlant;  also  the  novel  of  the  ssme,  entitled  THe 
y'ogdiclit'trit ;  and  especlaliv  a  passage  in  the  story  of 
■'  Cordelia,"  bv  A.  Trenburg  (Friedricb  Vischer),  in  the 
Jahrbach  KhK&iucktr  IHchltr,  by  Mdrike  and  Zim< 
mermann.    Sodm  mytba  of  dwarfs,  witches,  spriici, 


BItu  In  UmIt  MoDnli|;ht  AntlCC 
etc,  mike  ■!!  tb«n  apptu  M  tb*  iMUtM  nUtivt*  of 

EUan  (Lit.  J  /oanuu)  appeira  in  Ibe  legend  at  king 
Lucius,  in  his  ipplialioa  to  pope  Eleutbenu  for  Cbrit- 
tiiD  instruction,  and  it  wid  in  WeUh  wrilfn  to  hav« 
b«en  abbot  of  Giulonbur}';  by  othen,  of  London,  in 
the  3d  cf  nturj.     See  Smith,  DiO.  «f  ChriM.  Bieg.  a.  v, 

Elfalo  C"  Allvym),  ■  Welih  Mint  of  th«  9th  cen- 


ZllStl  (_EliAimi\  a  Walih  Mint  of  the  college  of 
St.  lUtyd  in  tho  beginning  of  the  fith  century. 

Blfleda  (or  Albfled),  abbenor  Whiibf  Oam  A.D. 
656,dieditthc>geaffllly-nine),coinniGnx)nted  Feb.  8, 
WIS  daughter  o(  Oawy,  king  or  NoTtbunibria,  and  a 
friend  of  St,  Cuthbert. 

Elga.  Snial,  a  Webh  hermit,  uid  to  hare  been  bom 
in  Devonshire  and  taken  by  piritea  to  Ireland,  bat  to 
hara  eacaped  to  Banlaey,  off  Camarvonihire,  Hia  le- 
maina  irere  removed  to  Llandaff  in  1120. 

Elgn,  a  Welsh  saint  of  the  6th  century. 

EUueam  (or  SUuilam),  ■  Welsh  saint  of  Cai^ 


commemorated  Dec.  2. 

tHian,  a  Welsh  saint,  confused  with  St  Hilary,  ia 
celebrated  in  August. 

Eliu  (or  H«llaj).  (1)  Bishop  of  Lvons,  eecond 
after  Ireniciis.  (2)  Bishop  of  Sedunum  (Setten),  in  the 
Valais,  about  the  beginning  of  tbe  6th  century.  (8)  A 
Syrian  bishop  who  endeavored  to  dissuade  Nestoriua 
from  bis  heresr.  (4)  Bishop  of  Bolandns,in  Lvdia,  A.D. 
461,  (a)  Biahop  of  Seleueo-bplu^  on  the  O^onte^  A.D. 
Ua,  (6)  Bishop  of  Majorca,  A.D.  4M.  (7)  Bishop  of 
Oesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  deposed  by  Anaatasiua  I  before 
A,D.  512.  (8)  A  martyr  of  the  6th  centurv,  commemo- 
nted  Jan.  14.  (9)  Prior  of  a  nunnery  'in  AthHbia, 
in  the  Delta,  said  to  have  been  remarkably  sanctified 
from  carnal  paaaion  by  a  dream.  (10)  A  solitary  near 
Antinotli,  in  lb*  Tbebild,  ia  tba  1th  coitory.    (tl)  A 


hermit  twar  the  Dead  Sea,  noted  for  bMfiitality.  (1!) 
Abbot  of  a  monattery  in  Syria,  edebrated  fur  bis  luJi- 
neaa  and  wisdom.  (IB)  AUrat  of  iMnia,  near  Antioeh, 
near  the  dose  of  tbe  6Ui  eeotury. 

BIlu  (Annen.  i^ia).  (1)  Patriarch  of  Aeih- 
HiA,  was  bom  at  Arjicb.  He  was  bishop  of  the  P«- 
nouniana,  and  wia  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  patriarch 
in  7D3,  after  the  death  of  Sahig  or  laaac  IIL  He 
abowed  bimaelf  as  one  of  tbe  moat  violent  advenariea 
of  the  Council  of  Chaleedon.  At  (bis  time,  tbe  prin- 
cess who  governed  the  Aghovans  (Albanians)  took 
pains  to  make  her  subjects  adopt  the  doctrine  of  the 
Council  of  Chaleedon,  and  to  nnite  tbem  with  the  Rom- 
ish Church ;  but  tbis  diapleaaed  the  nobility,  at  whose 
suggestion  Elias  wrote  three  letten  to  the  bishop  and 
to  the  princen,  in  order  to  induce  them  to  renounce 
the  enterprise.  But  aa  theae  remonsttanees  remained 
without  effbet,  he  resorted  to  violence  and  persecution. 
The  Arabians  were  then  maaters  of  Armenia,  and  Ibe 
patriarch  addressed  himself  to  the  emir,  or  kalipb,  ac- 
cuaing  his  adversaries  of  forming  a  conapiracy  with 
the  emperor  of  the  Greeka,  in  order  to  escape  from  tbe 
autbority  of  the  Moalema.  In  conaeqnence  Nemea  and 
the  princess  were  laid  in  chains,  by  the  order  of  Omar  II, 
and  a  new  bitbop  was  given  to  the  Albanians.  Elias 
died  A.D.  718.  (2)  Occupied  the  patriarchate  from 
A.D.  TGO  to  T97,  with  the  exception  of  an  interval,  dar- 
ing which  be  waa  expelled  by  the  patriarch  Thaodoret. 
See  Hoefer,  Kout.  Biog.  Grntralt,  a.  v. 

miOB  HiU<-Lbvi  bat-Bag'amiii  OF  Co:iBTAiiTiKorLB, 
who  flourished  in  the  ISlh  century,  is  the  aathor  nf  a 
ritual  for  the  Jewish  congre((ationa  in  Greece,  printed 
at  Constantinople  in  1602.  He  als>  wrote  various  Tal- 
raudic  deciaiooB.  See  FUrst,  BOL  Jud.  i,  336  sq.; 
J6cher,  AUymaKa  OttihTltn-Lmto*,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Bllaa,  bisbnp  or  jEsltaADUf.  (I)  A.D.  1»«-5I& 
He  was  an  Arab  by  Urth,  and  received  hia  education  in 
one  of  the  Nitrian  monaateries;  but  being  expelled  by 
Timothy  iElurus  in  A.D.  467,  he  took  refnge  with  St. 
EuthymiuB.  He  ifterwarda  reaided  in  a  cell  at  Jeticha 
He  waa  a  strict  ascetic,  and  took  an  active  part  in  tht 


ELIAS 


sas 


ELIOT 


AtbioMiio  cQntioTen;r,  in  eomeqaciiee  of  which  he  was 

fioally  binishcd  to  ifila,  on  the  Red  Sea.    (2)  Cir.  AJ). 

760-797.    He  was  for  a  time  deposed  on  the  charge  of 

imsge-worthip,  brought  by  Theodoras,  an  ambitious 

monk,  in  763L    He  was  represented  at  the  second  Gen- 

enl  Council  at  Nice,  in  787,  by  John,  a  priest,  and  Thom- 

aa,  a  prior  of  the  oonrent  of  St,  Arsena,  near  Babylon,  in 

£gTpt,  who  also  represented  the  patriarchs  of  Alexandria 

and  Antioch.     (8)  Died  about  907.    In  881  he  sent  a 

letter  to  Charlemagne;  likewise,  also,  to  the  preUtes, 

princes,  and  noblea  of  GaoL    A  Latin  translation  of  the 

letter  (it  is  not  probable  that  the  original  was  in  this 

Isngosge)  may  be  fgund  in  the  SpieUeyium  of  D'Achery 

(Paris,  1723,  vol.  iii). 

Bllas  MisBACHi.    See  Mxsrachi. 
Blias  MoiiTALTo.    See  Mo;cTALTa 
Elias  Bsx-MosBS  Athkmari,    See  Loarz. 
Eliaa  BB3t-MoflB8  Baal-Shan,    See  Loakz. 
BUmm  BESI-M08B8  BtskUwi,    See  Bsshitzi,  £ma& 
BUmm  BKN-Moflu  de  Vidas,    See  Yidas,  EuAa  ' 
Bllas  OF  Rad:ior.    See  William  of  Radnor. 
X!liaa  bbsv-Salorso  Abraham  hak-Kohen^  who  died 
in  1729,  is  the  author  of  "IDIQ  020,  or  Ethict,  in  filly- 
two  chapters  (Constantinople,  1G92):— IH'^bH  VSnns, 

aCosMKNtaiy  on  Midrath  Babba  (ibid.  1693) :— 0*1*1« 
"trOK  b?  ^rri^  a  CommaHary  and  HomUki  on  £$- 
tktr  (Smyrna,  1759).  He  also  wrote  cabalistic  treatises, 
comments  upon  the  hagadoth  of  the  Palestinian  Tal- 
mud, eta  See  Fflrst,  Bibl.  Jud,  i,  238 ;  Jdcher,  A  llgt- 
flwuKf  GeUhrten^LexilBon,  s.  t.     (B.  P.) 

Ellas  OP  Tkeuroham,  a  monk  of  the  18th  century, 
was  bom  at  Trekingbam,  Lincolnshire— a  Tillage  since 
depopulated — ^was  a  monk  of  Peterborough,  doctor  of 
divinity  in  Oxford,  a  learned  man,  and  a  great  lover  of 
histoiy,  writing  a  chronicle  from  A.D.  625  to  1270,  when 
he  probably  died.  See  Fuller,  Worthia  qf  England  (ed. 
Nottall),  ii,  287. 

Blias  WiUTA.    See  Wiuta. 

BUaa,  ApocalypM  o£  Under  this  title  an  apoc- 
ryphal work  was  current  in  the  2d  century,  from  which, 
according  to  Origen  (Hamiljf  85  on  Matt  xxvii,  vol 
iii,  916),  the  PaiHine  quotation  "Eye  hath  not  seen," 
etc.  (1  Cor.  ii,  9),  is  said  to  have  been  taken.  The  same 
was  repeated  by  Zachariaa  Chrysopolitanus  (^Harmomm 
EvangeUem^  cb.  166) ;  and  by  Georgius  S^iicellus,  who 
writes  that  it  was  taken  ic  r&v  'HXia  AiroKpi^uiv, 
This  view  was,  however,  early  controverted  by  Jerome, 
who,  leferring  to  1  Cor.  ii,  9,  says:  ** Solent  hoc  loco 
Apocryphomm  qntdam  ddiramenta  sectari,  et  dicere 
quod  de  Apocmlypsi  Eliss  testimonium  sumtum  sit,  cum 
in  Esaia  Joxtn  Hebimicnm  ita  kgatnr :  A  scculo  non  an- 
dierant  Deque  anribos  perceperunt''  {Epistola  101  ad 
Pammadttim}  eomp.  also,  on  Isa.  Ixiv,  4  in  lib,  xvii  in 
Itaiam,  it,  761,  ed.  VaUars^).  It  is  probably  the  same 
work  whicb  is  rejected  in  the  ApottoHc  Constitutions^ 
Ti,  16^  and  in  the  Synopsis  Sac,  Script,  ascribed  to  Ath- 
snasinf^  ii,  154.  See  Fabricius,  Codex  PseudepiffraphuSf 
i,  1072 ;  Smith,  Diet,  0/ Christ,  hiog,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

EUdilUk  (1)  Saint^  fh>m  whom  one  of  the  Scilly 
Isles  waa  named,  now  corrupted  into  St.  Helen's  Isle. 
He  is  also  called  St,  Lj/dt^  and  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  Eligiua,  bishop  of  Noyon.  (2)  Martyr  in  Au  vergne, 
under  Chiideric  II  (A.D.  674) ;  oommemorated  Jan.  25. 

BUeser  bkx-Ibaac  of  Worms,  who  flourished  in  the 
Uth  century,  is  the  author  of  an  ascetic  work  entitled, 

C^-^n  M1T1»,  abo  called  blian  ITJ-^bK  S  rfc<lX,  Th» 
Testameni  o/Babbi  Elieter  the  Great,  It  was  edited  by 
Cbajim  Ceaarini,  Constantinople,  1519,  and  often  since. 
In  a  Jodssa-GeTman  translation  it  was  published  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1649.    See  FQrst,  BHA,  Jud,  I  283.     (E  P.) 

ElifuitOB  (or  Alephantus),  thirty-third  arch- 
bishop of  Aries,  near  the  dose  of  the  8th  century. 


Xnijab,  the  prophet,  la  oommemoniked  as  a  nint 
July  4  (July  20,  Not.  27). 

mijah  hab-Babu  (i.  e.  the  Babylonian)^  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  who  flonrished  in  Babylonia  in  the  10th  century, 
is  the  author  of  an  haggadic  work,  entitled  *^3^  KSH 
in'^bx.  It  was  first  published  at  Venice  in  1530;  lat- 
est edition  at  Warsaw  in  1883.  Comp.  Zunz,  Gottesdi- 
enstliche  Vortraye  (Berlin,  1882),  p.  112-117;  Fftist, 
BiU,Jud,i,23b,    (a  P.) 

EUJah  Baghub.    See  Euas  Lkvita. 

EUJah  bex-Cratim  of  Constantinople,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  is  the  au- 
thor of  *^Bt9  '^"liQM,  or  Homilies  on  the  Pentateuch  (Ven- 
ice, 1630)  :~&'^*^n  D'lS,  or  Decisions  (ibid.  1647).  See 
Fttnt,  BibL  Jud,  i,  286;  J5cher,  Allyemeines  Gelehtien- 
Lexikon^  s.  ▼.;  De*  Rossi,  Dizionario  Storico  (Germ, 
transl.)  p.  95.    (B.  P.) 

BUned  ( JSUvedha,  Lnned,  or  Enid),  a  Welsh 
virgin  saint,  commemorated  Aug.  1,  was  daughter  of 
earl  Ynywl  and  granddaughter  of  Brychan,  in  Breck- 
nockshire, and  is  said  to  have  been  slain  for  refusing 
marriage  with  a  prince. 

EUnga,  Francis  Jan8SK!cs,  a  Dominican,  who  died 
at  Bruges,  Nov.  22,  1715,  is  the  author  of  A  udoritas 
Thoma  A  quinatis  :-^Suprema  Bomani  Ponlijicis  A  uctO" 
riias:  —  Doclrina  de  Bomani  Pontificis  Auctoritate  et 
In/aUibilitaU:-~Dissertationes  TheoL  Selectts  :~^Sum' 
ma  Conciliorum  Barth,  Carransa  Aucta  et  Additioni' 
bvs  lUustrata,  See  Jocher,  A  Ugemtines  Gelehrten-Lexi' 
kon,  s.  V.     (a  P.) 

Eliot,  Jared,  M.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  son 
of  Rev.  Joseph  Eliot,  was  bom  at  Guilford,  Conn.,  Nov. 
7,1685.  WhUe  Yale  CoUege  was  yet  located  at  Killing- 
worth,  he  graduated  from  it  in  1706.  In  October,  1709, 
he  waa  ordained  pastor  of  the  Killingworth  Church,  as 
successor  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Pierson,  and  retained  this 
position  until  his  death,  April  22, 1763.  From  1780  to 
1762  he  was  a  fellow  of  Yale  College.  In  1722,  the  day 
after  commencement  at  Yale,  a  number  of  prominent 
men  assembled  in  the  college  library  to  consider  a 
paper  signed  by  some  of  the  leading  clergymen  of 
Connecticut,  among  whom  was  Dr.  Eliot,  in  which 
doubts  regarding  the  validity  of  Presbyterian  ordina- 
tion were  expressed.  In  October  following,  according 
to  arrangement,  the  divine  right  of  Episcopacy  was  dis- 
cussed before  a  large  number  of  clergy  and  laity.  As 
the  result,  some  avowed  themselves  Episcopalians,  while 
Dr.  Eliot  and  others  were  convinced  of  the  truth  of 
Presbyterianism.  It  is  said  of  him  that  he  was  the 
chief  physician  of  his  time  in  the  colony,  being  emi- 
nent also  as  a  botanist  and  aa  a  scientific  agriculturist. 
Through  him  the  white  mulberry  was  introduced  into 
Connecticut,  and  with  it  the  silkworm,  concerning 
which  he  published  a  treatise.  In  1761  he  received 
a  gold  medal  from  a  society  in  I^ondon  for  his  process 
of  extracting  iron  from  black  sand,  for  be  was  likewise 
a  mineralogist.  His  linguistic  acquirements  were  also 
of  a  superior  order.  His  agricultural  tastes  le<l  him  to 
devise  various  ways  for  draining  swamps  and  reclaim- 
in|r  marshes,  and  he  published  several  essays  on  agri- 
culture. A  large  number  of  farms  in  the  colony  be- 
longed to  him.  So  conscientious,  however,  was  he  os  a 
clergyman  that  he  never  omitted  preaching  on  the  Sab- 
bath during  forty  successive  years.  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin frequently  visited  him,  and  the  two  maintaine<i  a 
correspondence.  Socially  he  was  very  agreeable,  and 
among  his  people  he  was  regarded  as  a  great  preacher. 
A  few  of  his  sermons  wen  published.  See  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  Amer,' Pulpit,  i,  270. 

Eliot,  John,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was  bom 
in  Boston,  May  81, 1754.  He  prepared  for  college  in 
the  North  Grammar-school  in  Boston,  and  in  1772  grad- 
uated from  Harvard  College.  Soon  after  his  gradua- 
tion he  took  charge  of  a  school  in  Rozbury,  where  he 


ELISJSUS 


834 


ELLIOTT 


remained  one  rear.  He  stodied  theology  at  Cambridge. 
In  1775  he  commenced  his  labors  as  a  preacher  at  Dover. 
In  1776i  he  received  an  earnest  request  from  several 
leading  members  of  the  Episcopal  Church  at  Halifax, 
N.  S.,  to  become  an  assistant  to  their  aged  pastor,  but 
declined.  He  officiated  for  a  short  time  as  chaplain 
to  the  recruits  of  colonel  Marshairs  regiment,  then 
raised  in  Boston  for  the  expedition  to  Canada.  After 
this  he  passed  several  months  at  Littleton  as  the  assist- 
ant of  Rev.  Daniel  Rogers,  and  during  the  winter  of 
1778-79  supplied  the  Fint  Church  in  Salem.  In  1779 
he  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  the  New  North 
Church  in  the  same  town.  In  1804  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  corporation  of  Harvard  College.  He 
was  also  a  member  of  most  of  the  literary  and  charita- 
ble societies  in  Boston  and  vicinity,  and  in  some  of  them 
he  held  important  offices.  Dr.  Eliot  died  Feb.  14, 1818. 
He  published  several  single  Sermont,  See  Sprague,  A  n- 
nali  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  viii,  92. 

SliBaeuB.  (1)  Bishop  of  Arezzo,  A.D.  713.  (2) 
Bishop  of  Bologna,  cir.  A.D.  716.  (8)  Thirtieth  bishop 
of  Noyon,  A.D.  747.  (4)  Forty-third  bishop  of  Auch, 
about  the  close  of  the  8th  century.  (5)  A  Scotch  prel- 
ate, promoted  to  the  see  of  Galloway  about  1405,  and 
still  holding  that  office  in  1412. 

BUsha,  the  prophet,  is  commemorated  as  a  saint 
in  various  Christian  calendars  on  June  14  (Oct.  12, 
Oct  16), 

Bllaha  of  Armbnia.  (1)  Elected  patriarch  A.D. 
936,  after  the  death  of  Theodoras  (Asdouadzadour)  I, 
and  established  the  seat  of  his  administration  at  Agatho- 
mar,  on  lake  Van.  His  enemies  deposed  him  by  means 
of  intrigues  and  betrayals  in  941,  and  he  died  A.D.  943. 
(2)  Born  A.D.  1451.  Being  first  bishop  of  Erivan  and 
then  vicar-general  of  the  patriarch  of  Armenia,  he  be- 
came patriarch  in  1503,  after  the  death  of  Thaddseus  I, 
and  ruled  with  wisdom.  He  was  well  versed  in  the- 
ology, rhetoric,  and  sacred  history.  He  died  in  1575, 
leaving  in  MS.  a  Commentary  on  Genesis: — TAfe  of  St, 
Gregory y  in  verse  :^and  forty-five  Sermons,  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginh'ale,  s.  v. 

Eliaha  bkn-Abuja  (suraamed  A  cher,  i.  e. "  the  oth- 
er  one,"  after  his  apostasy)  was  a  pupil  of  the  famous 
rabbi  Akiba  (q.  v.).  He  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  citi- 
zen of  Jerusalem,  and  was  early  initiated  in  the  study 
of  the  law,  but  afterwards  apostatized  from  Judaism. 
It  is  related  of  him  that  while  attending  the  Jewish 
college  he  had  often  been  noticed  to  carry  with  him 
writings  of  the  "Minim"  (probably  of  Gnostics),  and 
that  he  had  even  been  in  the  habit  of  quoting  Greek 
poetr}'.  One  of  the  most  intimate  friends  and  pupils 
of  Elisha  was  the  famous  rabbi,  Metr  (q.  v.),  who  seized 
every  opportunity  to  invite  his  friend  to  return  into  the 
bosom  of  the  synagogue — a  proposition  to  which  Elisha 
refused  to  accede,  as  forgiveness  could  not  be  granted  to 
one  who  had  so  wantonly  abused  the  gifts  bestowed  upon 
him.  When  Acher  lay  on  his  deathbed,  Meir  hastened 
to  his  side,  and  renewed,  this  time  effectually,  his  solici- 
tations on  this  subject.  Legend  has  it  that  Meir  spread 
his  cloak  over  the  gprave  of  Acher;  a  cloud  of  smoke 
rose  from  it,  and  MeTr  turned  away  with  the  somewhat 
bUsphemous  application  of  Ruth  iii,  18,  "Tarry  this 
night  (of  time),  and  it  shall  be  in  the  morning  (of  im- 
mortality) that  he  the  All-merciful  will  deliver  and 
ransom  thee ;  but  if  he  be  unwilling,  then  I  will  redeem 
thee."  See  Hamburger,  Real  -  Encykiop.  ii,  168  sq.; 
Bacher,  in  Frankel .  GriLU*s  AfonaltschHfi,  1884,  p.  284 
sq.;  Jellinek,  AYtfcAa  hen'Ahujja, genawU  Acher  (Leip- 
sic,  1847).     (B.  P.) 

miaha  Galicho.    See  GAucna 

ZUiBsasuB.  (1)  Bishop  of  Diodetianopolis,  in  Pales- 
tine,  A.D.  359.  (2)  A  priest  condemned  to  slavery  by  the 
Council  of  Seville  (A.D.  619),  for  ingratitude  to  his  bishop. 

Elithur,  the  name  of  three  saints  in  the  Irish  cal- 
endar, at  April  25,  May  12,  and  Dec.  23. 


Blivager,  celebrated  rivers  which  occupy  a  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  cosmogony  of  the  ancient  Scandi- 
navians. They  are  the  source  whence  came  the  origi- 
nal cosmical  matter  or  substance  from  which  the  worlds 
were  formed,  as  well  as  the  giants  and  men.  See  Noese 
Mttholoqy. 

Elisabeth.  (1)  Mother  of  John  the  Baptist,  com- 
memorated Feb.  10.  (2)  A  wonder-worker  of  Constan- 
tinople, commemorated  April  24. 

Blkanah  bbn-Jkrochan  bbn-Abigdor,  a  Jewish 
writer  of  the  15th  century,  is  the  author  of  a  cabalistic 
work  entiUed,  nS'fS  napi  tvazn  n^p,  which  was 
first  published  at  Prague  in  1610 :— hi^'^bBn  O,  also 
called  h*1in  "I'lDD  0,  a  cabalistic  Midraah  on  Gen.  v, 
29,  published  first  in  1784.  See  FUrst,  BHU,  Jud,  i, 
289  sq.;  Jocher,  AUgemeinet  Gekhrten^ Lexihon,  a.  v. 

(a  p.) 

mia,  bishop  of  Siguenza  (Segontia),  cir.  A.D.  680- 
685. 

mibrigh,  abbess  of  duain-Bronaigh  (Clonbrooey, 
County  Longford),  died  A.D.  785. 

Bllendorl^  Joiiann  Otto,  a  Roman  Catholic  writer, 
was  born  at  WiedenbrUck,  in  Westphalia,  in  1805.  In 
1826  he  was  rector  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native 
place,  and  in  1841  was  called  to  Berlin  as  profenor 
of  jurisprudence.  He  wrote,  Der  heilige  Bemhard  wm 
Claii-vaux  (Essen,  1837):— Z>»e  Kaiholucht  Kird» 
Preussene  (Rudolstadt,  1837)  i— Thomas  Becket  (Easen, 
193^)  i^JDie  Karolinger  (ibid.  1838, 1839, 2  vols.)  .-^Die 
Moral  ttnd  PoUtik  der  JesuUen  (Darmstadt,  1840)  i— 
Das  Primat  der  rOnUschen  Papste  (ibid.  1841, 1846,  2 
vols.) : — 1st  PetruB  in  Rom  gewesenf  (ibid.  1841) : — Die 
Stellung  der  spamschen  Kirche,  etc  (ibid.  1843).  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  Theol  i,  816  sq.     (B.  P.) 

dleniua,  abbot  of  Llancar\'an,  A.D.  570-577 

BUer,  MoRiTZ  M.,  a  Jewish  preacher,  was  bom  at 
Mannheim  in  1801.  He  studied  at  Bonn  and  Heidd- 
berg.  From  1884  to  1844  he  was  teacher  at  the  Maier- 
Michel-David  Free  School  in  Hanover,  accepted  in  the 
latter  year  a  call  as  rabbi  to  Celle,  and  died  Jan.  I, 
1848.  See  Hetmbttrger,  3f,  M.  Eller  nach  seinem  Leben 
umd  Wirken,  whst  einigen  Vorirdgen  dee  Verefffigten 
(CeUe,  1848) ;  Kayseriing,  BtbHoihekjiidischer  Kanz^ 
i^ner,  ii,  248.     (R  P.) 

Bill,  abbot  of  Whitton,  in  the  6th  century. 

EUingwood,  John  Wallack,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  May  2, 1782: 
For  several  years  he  pursued  the  businem  of  a  silver- 
smith, relinquishing  that  occupation  in  1810  to  enter 
the  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  In  1812  he  was 
ordained  over  the  Church  in  Bath,  Me.,  where  he  la- 
bored with  great  fidelity  and  success  until  1843,  when 
ill-health  compelled  him  to  resign  bis  charge.  He  died 
at  Bath,  Aug.  19, 1860.  Dr.  EUingwood  wat  a  man  of 
great  wisdom  and  pradence,  firmness  and  independence 
of  opinion,  benevolence  and  self-control ;  he  took  a  deep 
interest  in  the  great  religious  and  moral  enterprises  of 
his  day,  and  held  responsible  positions  on  the  Boards 
of  his  Church.  Eight  revivals  of  religion  resulted  from 
his  labors.  Three  of  his  sermons  were  published  in 
1851.     See  Cong,  Quarterly,  1860,  p.  420. 

Elliott,  Charlea,  D.D.    See  voL  iii,  p.  1042. 

BUiott,  Da^d,  DD.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minia- 
ter,  was  bom  in  Sherman's  Valley,  Perry  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb. 
6, 1787.  To  the  age  of  sixteen  he  had  only  the  edu- 
cational advantagea  of  the  mral  district  in  which  be 
lived;  but  in  1802  he  entered  the  classical  school  in 
Tuscarora  Valley,  and  in  the  spring  of  1804  went  to 
another  in  the  town  of  Mifilin,  where  he  spent  one  year. 
In  1805  he  became  an  assistant  of  Rev.  Matthew  Brown, 
in  the  academy  of  Washington,  at  the  same  time  mak- 
ing preparation  to  enter  the  junior  class  of  Dickinson 
College,  where  he  graduated  Sept.  28, 1806.    He  studied 


ELLIOTT 


335 


ELMENHORST 


theologj  with  Bev.  John  Linn,  Rev.  Dr.  Culbertaon,  of 
Zanesrille,  O.,  and  Rev.  Joshua  WillUms^  D.D.,  of  New- 
viUe,  Pa.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  as  a  probationer  by 
the  Presbytery  of  Carlisle,  Sept.  26, 1811 ;  and  Feb.  19, 
1812,  received  a  call  to  settle  as  pastor  of  the  Church  of 
Mercersburg,  where  he  served  until  Oct.  29, 1829.  His 
second  pastorate  was  at  Washington,  lasting  until  1886. 
For  a  time  he  was  acting  president  of  Washington  College 
and  professor  of  moral  philosophy.  In  1886  the  Assem- 
bly called  him  to  take  a  professorship  in  the  Western 
Tbeol(^cal  Seroinaxy  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1849  he 
waa  again  solicited  to  become  president  of  Washington 
College,  but  declined.  He  was  often  sent  as  a  member 
to  the  General  Assembly,  and  was  moderator  of  the 
synod  in  1831, 18S4,  and  1888.  He  died  March  18, 1874. 
Dr.  Elliott  was  successful  as  a  preacher  and  pastor,  a 
thorough  student,  successful  educator,  wise  in  the  man- 
ageiDent  of  all  aflain  in  the  assembly,  equal  to  the 
most  trying  crisis,  a  man  greatly  loved  and  honored  by 
alL     See  Brownson,  MetnoriaL 

BUiott,  James  H.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  brother  of  bishop  Elliott  of  Georgia,  was 
bom  in  Charleston,  S.  CL,  in  1819;  ordained  deacon  in 
1849 :  ministered  sacoessively  at  Beaufort,  GrahamviUe, 
St.  'Alichael's,  Charleston,  Madison,  Ga.,  and  St.  Paul's, 
Charleston ;  was  editor  of  the  Christian  WitneUy  Bos- 
ton, from  1868  to  1870;  and  died  at  Charleston,  June 
1 1,  1877.     See  Prot.  t'pise,  A  Imanac,  1878,  p.  168. 

Elliott,  Jared  Leigh,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
later,  was  bom  in  Washington,  D.  C,  June  24,  1807. 
Most  of  his  boyhood  was  spent  as  a  sailor.  He  after- 
wards studied  in  the  academy  at  Princeton,  N.  J. ;  grad- 
uated from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1831 ;  spent 
two  years  at  Auburn  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y. ;  then 
one  year  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary;  was  li- 
censed by  the  Presbytery  of  Xew  York,  April  13,  1834; 
and  was  ordained  an  evangelist  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Philadelphia,  Oct.  26, 1835.  His  xuccessive  fields  of  la- 
bor were,  as  stated  supply  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  1834 ; 
of  the  Mariners'  Church,' Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1835 ;  of  the 
first  and  second  churches  of  Washington,  and  of  the 
Church  at  Frederick,  Md.,  1886-89;  chaplain  in  the 
U.  S.  Navy,  1849;  army,  1861-81.  He  made  many 
long  sea-voyages,  and  was  attached  to  the  South  Arctic 
Exploring  Expedition  in  1840.  Dr.  Elliott  died  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  April  16,  1881.  See  Necrol  Report 
o/Frvuxttm  TheoL  Sem.  1882. 

"ESUb,  Clement,  an  English  divine,  was  bom  in 
1680,  near  Penrith,  in  Cumberland,  and  was  educated  at 
Oxford.  In  1693  he  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of 
Soalhwell.  He  died  in  1700.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  sermons  and  theological  treatises  (1661-1700), 
■Dd  'some  were  issued  after  his  death :  Discourse  on  the 
JTaritble,  with  cm  A  ccouni  of  his  Life  and  Writings  (1704, 
8vo)  z—The  Scripture  Caiet^ist,  See  Chalmers,  Biog, 
Diet,  8.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors^ 
a.  V. 

BHia^  William,  an  English  Congregationalist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Wisbeach,  Aug.  29, 1794.  Being 
eonverted  when  quite  young,  he  offered  his  ser^'ices  to 
the  London  Missionary  Society;  was  educated  for  mis- 
aioD  work  at  Giosport,  and,  in  January,  1816,  was  sent  to 
Tahiti,  the  largest  of  the  Society  Islands.  In  1822  he 
went  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  greatly  assisted  in 
estaMishing  Christianity  there,  preaching  frequently 
in  Hawaiian ;  he  assisted  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
alphabet;  wrote  the  first  hymns;  baptized  the  first  con- 
vert, the  queen-mother,  Keo-puo-lani ;  and  shortly  af- 
terwards preached  her  funeral  sermon.  In  1824  his 
wife'a  health  gave  way  and  compelled  their  return  to 
£ogiand.  He  went  by  way  of  Boston,  and  spent  three 
naontbs  in  the  northern  states,  rendering  great  service 
to  the  American  Foreign  Mission  Board  by  telling  the 
storv  of  the  Hawaii  mission.  For  six  vears  after  his 
arrival  in  England  Mr.  Ellis  was  agent  of  the  London 
llisaionary  Society  among  the  county  auxiliaries.    In 


1841  broken  health  compelled  him  to  resign  oflScial 
life,  and  he  settled  at  Hoddesdon  to  the  quiet  duties  of 
a  country  pastor.  In  1862  he  went  to  Madagascar,  re- 
organize the  minion  which  had  befen  nearly  rained 
by  the  persecutions  of  the  late  queen,  saw  the  native 
church  and  its  agencies  resettled  on  a  healthy  system, 
the  schools  reopened  and  the  press  at  work,  and  in 
1865  returned  to  Hoddesdon,  where  he  died,  July  9, 
1872.  Mr.  Ellis  published.  Missionary  Narrative  of  a 
Tour  through  Hawaii,  or  Owhykee  (Lond.  1826,  8vo; 
4th  ed.  1827,  8vo):  — Po/yii««aii  Researches  (1829,  2 
vols.  8vo;  last  ed.  1858,  4  vols.  12mo) :— Fi/Kfica/ton 
of  the  South  Sea  Missions  (1831,  8vo)  i— History  of 
ifadagascar  (1832,  2  vols.  8vo)  -.—History  of  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society  (1844, 8vo),  and  other  valuable 
works.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1873,  p.  326 ;  Al- 
libone, Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  tner,  A  uthors^  s.  v. ;  Life,  by 
his  son  (Lond.  1873). 

Elloo,  an  Irish  saint  of  Killmalloch,  is  oommemo* 
rated  July  18  (or  24). 

Blltin.  (1)  An  Irish  saint  of  Shancoe,  County 
Sligo,  commemorated  Jan.  1 1.  (2)  A  confessor  of  Kin- 
sale,  commemorated  Dec.  11. 

Ellwood,  Thomas,  a  Quaker  writer  of  some  repu- 
tation, was  bora  at  Crowell,  near  Thame,  in  Oxford- 
shire, in  August,  1639,  where  he  was  educated.  He 
united  with  the  Friends  in  1658;  became  a  preacher, 
and  died  March  1,  1713.  The  following  are  some  of 
his  publications :  Forgery  no  Chnstianity  (1674, 12mo) : 
—The  Foundation  of  Tithes  Shaken  (IG82,  1720,  8vo; 
Wickham,  1690, 4to) :— Sacred  Hisfoty  (1705-09).  He 
waa  an  intimate  friend  of  Blilton.  After  perusing  the 
MS.  of  Paradise  Lost,  he  returned  it  to  the  author  with 
the  remark,  "Thou  bast  said  much  here  of  Paradise 
lost,  but  what  hast  thou  to  say  of  Paradise  found.*'  To 
this  timely  hint  the  world  is  indebted  for  Paradise 
Regained,  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did.  a.  v. ;  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Elmadn  (or  Elmakyu),  George,  an  Egyptian 
historian,  known  in  the  East  by  the  name  ot  Jbn^Amid, 
was  born  in  1223.  He  was  a  Christian,  and  occupied 
the  place  of  ketib,  or  secretary,  at  the  court  of  the  sul- 
tans of  Egypt,  an  office  usually  filled  by  Christians.  In 
1238  he  succeeded  his  father,  Yaser  el- A  mid,  who  had 
held  the  office  of  secretary  to  the  council  of  war  under 
the  sultans  of  Egypt  for  forty  -  five  years.  Elmacin 
died  at  Damascus  in  1273.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
the  Saracens,  consisting  of  annals  which  extend  from 
the  time  of  Mohammed  to  the  year  1117.  It  is  prin- 
cipally occupied  with  the  affairs  of  the  Saracen  empire, 
but  contains  some  passages  relating  to  the  eastern 
Christians.  It  was  published,  in  Arabic  and  Latin,  at 
Leyden,  in  1625.  Other  editions  have  also  appeared. 
See  Encyclop,  Brit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Elmendori;  Akthony,  D.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed 
minister,  was  bora  in  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.,  in  1813 ; 
graduated  from  Rutgers  College  in  1836,  and  from  the 
New  Brunswick  Theological  SeminiTry  in  1839.  The 
first  eight  years  of  his  ministry  were  passed  in  quiet 
country  churches  (Hurley,  N.  Y.,  1840,  Hyde  Park, 
1843).  He  then  removed  to  Brookhm,  and  after  thfee 
years  of  earnest  work  in  the  new  Church  on  Bedford 
Avenue  (1848-51),  started  in  his  own  house  the  Sun- 
day-school and  congregation  of  the  North  Reformed 
Church,  Brooklyn,  which  is  the  monument  of  his  cour- 
ageous, indefatigable,  and  successful  labors.  Worn  out 
with  toil  and  feeble  health,  he  resigned  his  charge  but 
a  few  months  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1866. 
He  was  a  careful  sermonizer,  a  diligent  student,  and  an 
eloquent  preacher.  His  pastoral  efficiencv  was  wonder- 
ful.   (W.J.R.T.) 

Blmenhorst,  Heikrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian, 
was  bom  Oct.  19,  1632,  at  Parchiro,  in  Mecklenburg, 
studied  at  Leipsic  and  Wittenberg,  and  accepted  a  call 
in  1660  to  Hamburg,  where  he  died  May  21, 1704.    He 


ELMERUS 


336 


ELTINGE 


is  the  aathor  of  GdtOidM  lAekr  (Hamburg,  1681)  \-~ 
GeiHreiehe  Lieder  ( ibid.  1700  ).  See  HoUeri,  Ctmbria 
Lksrata  (Gopeiilu,  1744),  ii,  188  eq.;  Scbr5der,  LexUoon 
der  JJamburgisehm  Sekr\fUuUer,  voL  ii;  Wezel,  fTyni- 
napoetica^  iv,  103  sq.;  Koch,  GttchidiU  de$  dattsehm 
KirchenliedeSyVySGb  sq.;  J ogYmt, A Ugememe*  Gtiehrtat- 
Lexikon,  i.  v.    (a  P.) 

Elmems  (or  BnneUns),  patron  taint  of  a  church 
at  Molhanium,  diocese  of  Liege,  is  assigned  to  the  7th 
or  8th  century,  and  commemorated  Aug.  28. 

Elmo,  SainL    See  Erasmus. 

Elmaley,  Peter,  D.D.,  an  English  scholar  and  di- 
vine, was  born  in  1778,  and  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  at  Merton  College,  Oxford.  In  1798  he 
was  presented  to  Little  Horkeslej,  a  small  chapelry  in 
Essex,  but  becoming  master  of  a  fortune  by  the  death 
of  an  uncle,  he  devoted  himtelf  to  literary  studies,  and 
particularly  to  Greek  literature.  He  lived  for  a  while 
in  Edinburgh,  where  ho  was  intimately  associated  with 
the  founders  of  the  EiUnhurgh  RevieiOf  and  contributed 
to  that  periodical  several  articles.  He  also  edited  with 
consummate  ability  several  clasMcal  works.  In  1816  be 
made  a  voyage  to  Italy  in  search  of  manuscripts,  and 
passed  the  winter  of  1818  in  researches  in  the  Lauren- 
tian  library  at  Florence.  The  next  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  assist  sir  Humphry  Davy  in  the  unavailing 
task  of  trying  to  decipher  some  of  the  papyri  found  at 
Heiculaneum.  He  died  March  8, 18*25.  Dr.  Emsley  was 
one  of  the  most  accomplished  Greek  scholars  of  his  day. 
See  The  yew  Amer,  Cyclop,  vii,  111;  (Lond.)  Annual 
Begitterf  1825,  p.  232 ;  Hart,  EnglUh  Literature^  p.  439. 

moamis  (or  JBloeDus),  one  of  the  seven  ruling 
•pints  in  the  Ophite  (q.  ▼.)  system. 

modia,  a  virgpin  martyr  with  Nunilo  at  Osca  (Hu- 
esca);  commemorated  Oct.  22. 

Slot,  Saint,    See  Eligxus. 

Slon.  Lieut.  Gonder  (Tent  Work  in  Palest,  ii,  886) 
proposes  to  identify  this  site  with  that  of  Beit  EliOf  a 
village  marked  on  the  Ordnance  Map  (sheet  xiv)  at 
eleven  miles  northeast  of  Jimzu  (Gimzo),  in  a  plain, 
without  any  traces  of  antiquity ;  and  Tristram  (Bible 
Piacetf  p.  51)  concurs  in  this  location,  which,  however, 
is  without  the  boundaries  of  Dan.  But  Ekm-beth-hananj 
which  is  probably  the  same  place,  the  former  identifies 
much  more  plausibly  with  Beit  An&n^  which  is  laid 
down  at  two  and  a  quarter  miles  south  of  Beit-ur  el' 
Foka  (Upper  Dethhoron),  and  described  (Memoirs  to 
the  Survey,  iii,  16)  as  "a  small  village  on  the  top  of  a 
flat  ridge ;  near  the  main  road  to  the  west  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  khan,  with  water,  and  about  a  mile  to  the 
east  is  a  spring.  It  was  a  fief  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
in  the  12th  century." 

Bloquius,  abbot  of  Lagny,  commemorated  as  a 
saint  Dec.  3,  was  a  Hibernian  or  Scot  who  accompanied 
St  Fursey  to  Belgium  as  a  missionary  about  the  middle 
of  the  7th  century. 

Blotheriua  (or  Blentherliia),  twenty-aeventh 
bishop  of  Avignon,  A.D.  475. 

Blpedeph5niB,  bishop  of  Cuiculis  or  Cuizia  in 
Numidia,A.D.349. 

mpenipaa,  one  of  the  forty-eight  martyrs  of  Ly- 
ons (q.  v.). 

mpidiphdrua  and  oompanioDs,'martys  in  Persia, 
A.D.  820 ;  commemorated  Nov.  2. 

BlpidiuB.  (1)  Bishop  and  martyr  in  CherMn  un- 
der Diocletian,  commemorated  March  8.  (2)  Bishop 
of  Gomana  in  Gappadocta,  A.D.  325.  (8)  Bishop  of 
Palestine,  A.D.  347.  (4)  Bishop  of  Satala  in  Armenia, 
deposed  A.D.  860.  (5)  Bishop  of  a  maritime  town  in 
the  East,  A.D.  375,  excommunicated  by  Eustathiua. 
(6)  Bbhop  of  Dionysia  in  Bostra,  A.D.  881.  (7)  Bish- 
op of  Laodicea  in  Syria,  deposed  A.D.  404  for  attach- 
ment to  the  cause  of  Ghrysoatom,  but  restored  in  414. 
<8)  Biahop  of  Lyons,  dr.  A.D.  424.    (9)  Two  bishops 


of  ThemuD  in  Galatia,  one  A.D.  451,  the  other  A.D. 
692.  (10)  Saint,  first  of  the  four  recorded  bishops  of 
Atella  in  Gampania,  cir.  A.D.  400.  (11)  A  bishop  who, 
with  eleven  companions,  is  commemorated  Sept.  1. 
(12)  Bishop  of  Damietta,  who  fled  to  Constantinople, 
A.D.  487,  to  escape  the  Eutychians.  (18)  Bishop  of 
Yolterra,  A.D.  601.  ( 14)  Bishop  of  Ancyra  in  the  early 
part  of  the  6th  century.  (15)  One  of  four  brothers,  all 
Spanish  bishops  in  the  first  half  of  the  6th  centurv. 
(16)  Bbhop  of  Thebfl  in  Thcssaly,  A.D.  581.  (17) 
Bishop  of  Gatania,  cir.  A.D.  580.  (18)  A  bishop,  prob- 
ably of  some  eastern  see,  censured  by  Gregory  the  Great, 
A.D.  597.  (19)  Bishop  of  Tarszona  (Turiasso),  A.D. 
688-638.  (20)  Bbhop  of  Astorga,  A.D.  654.  (21)  Pa- 
tron saint  of  the  town  of  St.  Elpidia  in  Pisenum,  said  by 
some  to  have  been  a  Gappadocian  by  birth,  and  to  have 
died  A.D.  898.  (22)  Abbot  of  the  monastery  founded 
by  Timotheus  in  Gappadocia,  where  be  died  before  A.D. 
4^.     (28)  Archimandrite  of  GonsUntinople,  A.D.  448. 

(24)  Sumamed  Rusticus,  a  deacon  of  Lyons,  a  skilful 
physician,  and  a  friend  of  Ennodius,  in  the  time  of  The- 
odoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths;  the  author  of  some 
poems  still  extant  (see  Migne,  Patr.  Lot.  Ixii,  545). 

(25)  Martyr  under  Jtdaan  with  several  others,  commem- 
orated Nov.  16. 

ElpidophoniB.  (1)  An  apostate  during  the  per- 
seeotion  by  the  Vandal  king  Hnnneric,  A.D.  484.  (2) 
Bbhop  of  Anastanopolb  in  Garia,  A.D.  558. 

Znpis  (hope)t  one  of  the  eons  in  the  system  of  Val- 
entinus  (q.  v.). 

Elpia,  a  (mythical)  martyr,  daughter  of  Sophia; 
commemorated  with  her  sisters,  Pistb  and  Agape, 
Sept.  17. 

Blstob,  William,  an  EngUsh  clergyman  and  anti- 
quary, was  bom  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Jan.  1, 1678, 
and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Gatharine  Hall,  Gam- 
bridge.  In  1696  he  became  a  fellow  of  University  Col- 
lege. In  1792  he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  united 
parishes  of  St.  Swithin  and  St.  Mary  Bothan,  London, 
lu  1703  he  publbhed  an  edition  of  Ascham*s  Litin  let- 
ters. He  died  in  1714.  The  following  are  some  of  hb 
publications :  An  Essay  on  the  Great  Affinity  and  Mu- 
tual  Agreement  between  the  T\oo  Professions  of  Law 
and  Divinity  (Lond.  8vo) : — Semums  (1704,  4to)  i^A 
Translation  into  Latin  of  the  Saxon  Homily  ifLnpus, 
wUh  Notes  by  Br.  Uickes  (1701). 

Bls'VTloli,  JoHANN  Hbrmamiv,  a  Lutheran  divine, 
was  bom  at  Rendsburg,  in  Holstein,  June  19, 1684,  and 
was  educated  at  Lubeck,  Kostock,  Leipsic,  Jena,  and 
WUrtemberg,  at  which  last  university  he  took  hb  mas- 
ter's degree.  In  1717  he  was  invited  to  become  pastor 
of  the  Ghurch  of  Sts.  Gosmo  and  Damian,  at  Stade.  He 
died  there,  June  10, 172 1.  For  a  list  of  some  of  hb  works, 
see  Ghalmers,  Biog.  Diet,  a,  v. ;  Jocher,  AUgemeims  Go- 
lekrIen'Lexikonj  s.  v. 

Eltekeh.  lieut  Gonder  suggests  (Tent  Work  im 
Pakst.  ii,  886;  see  Quar.  Statement  of  **  Palest.  Explor. 
Fund,**  January,  1881,  p.  51)  that  thb  is  the  present 
Beit  Likia^  which  u  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map 
one  and  three  quarter  miles  aouth-west  of  Beit-ur  ei» 
Tahfa  (Lower  Bethhoron),  and  described  in  the  Me- 
moirs to  the  Survey  (iii,  16)  as  **  a  small  village  on  a 
main  road  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  supplied  by  ctstema; 
with  ancient  foundations  among  the  houses;"  and  in 
thb  identification  Tristram  concurs  {Bible  Places,  p.  51). 

mtixige,  WiLHRLMUS,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minbter,  was  bom  near  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  in  1778,  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  Gollege  in  1796,  and  pursued  theo- 
logical studies  with  Dr.  Theodorick  Romeyn  at  Sche- 
nectady, N.  Y.  He  was  licensed  in  1798,  and  passed  hia 
long  ministry  at  Paramus,  N.  J.  From  1799  to  1811  he 
likewise  served  the  adjoining  chnreh  of  Saddle  River, 
and  from  1816  to  1888  the  First  Ghurch  of  Totown, 
now  Paterson.  He  resigned  the  latter  in  1850,  and 
died  in  1851.    Dr.  EUinge  was  a  man  of  rrspeetable 


ELTON 


887 


ELZEVIR 


aUaiiioaeiift%  and  of  great  finnoeai  and  deciiioiL  He 
was  a  rety  promiueot  actor  in  the  eoclesUstical  troublei 
in  Beigen  Coonty  which  led  to  the  seceanon  in  1822, 
and  the  oii^anization  of  the  **Tnie  Reformed  Dutch 
Ghoreh/'  of  which  he  was  a  strong  and  life-long  oppo- 
nent. See  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Rff,  Church  m  A  mer^ 
•«,pu25o.     (W.J.R.T.) 

Blton,  BoxBOf  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister  and  scholar, 
was  bom  at  Burlington,  Conn.,  in  1790.  He  graduated 
from  Brown  University  in  1813,  engaged  in  teaching 
for  two  or  three  years;  was  ordained  at  Newport,  B.  I., 
June  11, 1817;  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist 
Church  there,  bat  resigned  in  1822  on  account  of  his 
health,  and  two  years  after  was  settled  in  Windsor,  Yt. 
Being  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Brown  Universi- 
ty, he  spent  about  two  years  abroad,  chiefly  in  Germany, 
in  study,  and  assumed  his  chair  in  1827.  He  retired 
from  his  office  in  1843,  and  in  1845  took  up  his  residence 
in  Exeter,  in  the  south  of  England,  where  he  remained 
twenty-two  years;  then  removed  to  Bath,  where  he 
lived  two  years,  during  all  which  period  he  preached 
nlmoat  constantly  in  the  vacant  pulpits  of  Baptist  and 
Independent  churches,  and  wrote  for  the  press.  For 
several  jrears  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Eehetk 
Review,  He  returned  to  America  in  1869,  and  died  in 
Boston,  MassL,  Feb.  5, 1870.  He  lefl  by  his  will,  among 
other  bequests,  one  of  920,000  to  Brown  University  to 
establish  a  professorship  of  natural  theology,  and  nearly 
as  much  to  Columbian  University  to  establish  a  profess- 
orship of  intellectual  and  moral  phUoeopby.  Among  his 
poblisbed  writings  may  be  found  an  edition  of  Callen- 
der's  Ceatujy  Sermon: — a  volume  of  President  Maxcj/'t 
Remains  (1844)  :-and  a  Life  of  Roger  WiUiams  (1858). 

(j.as.) 

Blmion,  an  Egyptian  bishop,  A.D.  847. 

Blwetns,  bishop  of  Areuo,  A.D.  776. 

Blwandus,  bbhop  of  Treviso,  in  452. 

Blwert,  Eduabd,  an  evangelical  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Cannstadt,  Feb.  22, 1805.  In  1830 
be  commenced  his  academical  career  at  Tubingen,  was 
in  1836  appointed  professor  at  Zurich,  and  from  1839  to 
1841  acted  as  professor  at  Tubingen.  Bodily  infirm- 
ities obliged  him  to  retire  from  his  academic  activity, 
and  be  accepted  the  pastorate  at  Motzingen.  In  1860 
be  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Schonthal  Seminary, 
where  he  labored  until  1864,  when  he  was  obliged  to  re- 
tire entirely  from  active  work.  He  died  June  9, 1865, 
at  his  native  place,  having  published,  De  AnHnomia 
Jok,  Agrieolct  (Zurich,  1886) : — Annotaliones  in  GaL  it, 
1-10,  etc  (Tubingen,  \Sb2) :-^Quastione»  ei  Observa- 
tumes  ad  PhiMogiam  Sacram  iV.  Test,  Pertinentes  (ibid. 
1860).  He  also  contributed  to  several  theological  re- 
Tiews.  See  Kttbel,  in  Herzog-Plitt,  Real-Encykhp, 
SL  r. ;  Zucbold,  BibL  Tkeol.  i,  818.     (a  P.) 

Bl'Win  (or  Alnzius),  Saintf  one  of  Breaca's  com- 
panions in  her  voyage  from  Ireland  to  Cornwall ;  com- 
memorated Feb.  22. 

Bl'woed,  abbot  of  St.  nityd*s  (now  Lantwit  Major), 
in  the  6th  centur\'. 

"Elwog;  (LaL  Eluogus)^  bishop  of  Uandaff,  in  the 
aeoond  half  of  the  8th  century. 

ZQ'wystyl  (or  Blgistil),  suffragan  bishop  of  Uan- 
daff, in  the  first  half  of  the  6th  century. 

Bly,  Alfred,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  West  Springfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  8, 1778.  Leaving 
a  clerkship  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  prepared  for  col- 
lege at  the  Hartford  (Conn.)  grammar-school,  and  grad- 
nated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1804.  After 
a  tutorship  at  the  college  for  one  year,  he  was  ordained 
over  the  Church  in  Monson,  Mass.,  in  1806,  where  he 
was  an  active  minister  for  thirty-six  years,  and  died 
July  6,  1866.  Dr.  Ely  was  an  able  preacher  and  theo- 
logiao,  and  his  ministrv  was  greatly  blessed  to  the  spir- 

'XIL-Y 


itaal  and  moral  elevation  of  bis  people.  Twenty-one 
of  his  sermons  and  addresses  were  published.  See  'c<mg. 
Quarterly,  1867,  p.  187. 

ZUy,  Dawld,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Lyme,  Conn.,  July  7  (O.  S.),  1749.  In  1769  he 
graduated  from  Yale  CoUege;  in  October,  1771,  was 
licensed  to  preach;  and  Oct.  27,  1778,  was  ordained 
colleague  with  Kev.  Jedediah  Mills  in  Huntington, 
Conn.  He  died  there,  Feb.  16, 1816.  During  the  Rev- 
olution he  was  a  zealous  patriot.  Though  he  made  no 
pretensions  to  style,  he  had  a  talent  for  communicating 
the  tmth,  which  strongly  impressed  it  upon  the  mem- 
ory. His  facility  and  felicity  in  quoting  Scripture 
were  excelled  by  few.  About  a  hundred  pupils  were 
prepared  by  him  for  Yale  College.  From  1778  he  was 
a  member  of  the  corporation  of  Yale;  wa<^  for  a  long 
time,  secretary  of  the  same,  and  one  of  the  pradential 
committee.  See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit^ 
11,4. 

Sly,  Samuel  Rose,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  West  Springfield,  Mass.,  Dec  29, 1803. 
He  graduated  from  WiUiams  College  in  1830,  studied 
theology  for  two  years  in  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, and  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  West- 
chester, N.  Ym  Dec  4, 1834.  He  served  aa  pastor  at 
Carmel,  from  1884  to  1886;  at  Easthampton,  from  1886 
to  1846;  at  Brooklyn,  in  1850;  and  as  stated  supply  at 
Roslyn,  from  1858  until  his  death,  May  11, 1878.  See 
Gen,  Cat.  of  Princeton  TkeoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  82. 

Elyman,  a  presbyter,  martyred  in  Persia  under 
Decius;  commemorated  April  22. 

myaiiuii,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  is  the 
abode  of  the  blessed.  According  to  Homer,  it  lies  in  the 
mild  sunlight,  this  side  of  Oceanus;  whether  it  is  an  isl- 
and or  not  is  not  mentioned.  Hesiod  speaks  of  islands 
of  the  blessed,  where  on  the  Oceanus  river  the  heroes 
live  in  peace,  and  where  the  earth  yearly  brings  forth 
three  harvests  of  fraits.  According  to  Pindar,  the  cit- 
adel, Kronos  (Saturn),  is  on  the  islands  of  the  blessed. 
Here  cool,  refreshing  sea-breeses  blow,  gold-glittering 
flowers  bloom  on  the  trees,  and  along  the  springs.  The 
heroes  decorate  their  persons  with  them.  They  only 
reach  this  blessed  abode  who  pass  a  threefold  test  in 
Hades  and  on  earth  by  keeping  themselves  unstained 
by  crimes.  Besides  Rhadamanthus,  whom  Kronos  se- 
lected as  his  successor,  Pindar  mentions  Peleus,  CadmuS| 
and  Achilles  as  being  here.  Virgil  gives  another  de- 
scription of  the  Elysium :  ^*  Laughing  tether  fills  the 
fields  with  a  purple  light ;  a  distinct  sun  and  distinct 
stars  shed  their  light  upon  them."  uEneas  there  finds 
those  who  received  wounds  in  battling  for  their  coun- 
tr}',  priests  who  led  a  spotless  life,  sacred  poets  who  sung 
the  worth  of  Phoebus,  discoverers  who  benefited  man- 
kind by  their  arts,  etc 

Elsevir  is  the  name  of  a  family,  the  members  of 
which  are  known  by  their  publications  of  theological 
works,  more  especially  of  the  New  Test.  Louis  Elze- 
vir, who  had  embraced  Calvinism  in  France,  had  to 
leave  bis  country  in  1580,  and  went  to  Leyden,  where 
he  established  a  book-store,  which  soon  became  known 
by  the  publication  of  Dnisii  Ehraicarum  Quctstionum 
libri  duo  (1583).  The  descendants  of  Louis  established 
themselves  at  Utrecht,  Amsterdam,  and  at  other  places. 
His  grandson,  Isaac,  was  appointed  in  1620  university 
printer  at  Leyden,  and  this  privilege  remained  with  the 
family  until  1712.  The  Elzevirs  published  such  works 
as  La  Pegrere*s  Prteadamitce,  in  1655,  and  Richard  Si- 
mon's Histoire  Crit,  du  Vieux  Testament,  in  1680,  which 
the  Chureh  of  Rome  tried  to  suppress.  What  assures 
the  Elzevirs  an  honorable  place  in  the  history  of  the- 
ology is  the  fact  that  they  issued  several  editions  of  the 
Greek  New  Test.,  which  became  popular  and  authorita- 
tive for  a  long  period.  The  preface  to  the  second  edi- 
tion,  published  in  1633,  boldly  proclaims, "  Textum  ergo 
babes,  nunc  ab  omnibus  receptum ;  in  quo  nihil  immu- 


EMA 


838 


EMERITUS 


tatam  ant  corruptam  AtmuBf  henee  the  natne  iextua 
receptui^  or  commonly  received  standard  text.  All  the 
Holland  editions  were  scrupulously  copied  from  the 
Elzevir  text,  and  Wetstein  could  not  get  authority  to 
print  his  famous  Greek  Test.  (1751 -<62)  except  on  con- 
dition of  following  it.  See  Bemus,  in  Lichtenberger's 
Encydop,  des  Sciences  ReligieuseSf  s.  v.;  but  more  espe- 
cially Alphons  Willems's  Jlisioire  et  A  rmales  Typogra" 
pkiqua  (Brussels  and  Paris,  1880, 2  vols.),  where  a  his- 
toxy  of  the  Elzevir  family  and  a  list  of  their  publications 
is  given.    (B.  P.) 

Bma  (or  Ama),  a  martyr,  with  six  other  nuns^ 
captives  with  Eliabus  (q.  v.),  commemorated  May  22, 

Emant,  of  Cluain,  an  Irish  saint,  ssid  by  some  to 
have  been  a  bishop ;  commemorated  July  1. 

Emanuel  BEK-SAxx>Ma    See  Imhasueu 

Smanua,  slain  by  thieves  at  Chartres  in  the  6th 
century,  is  said  to  have  been  a  Cappadocian  pilgrim  to 
Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy;  commemorated  May  16. 

Ztanber  Days.  These  are  days  of  fasting  occur- 
ring quarterly,  in  commemoration  of  the  seasons  (Lat 
quatuor  temporum^  whence  by  contraction  the  German 
Quatember^  and  the  English  Ember),  We  find  them 
at  an  early  period  associated  with  the  invoking  of 
God's  blessing  on  each  of  the  four  seasons  in  turn,  and 
the  special  striving  by  prayers  and  fasting  to  merit  such 
blessings.  They  were  celebrated  at  Nativity,  Easter, 
Epiphany,  and  Pentecost  About  the  time  of  Gelasius 
they  were  selected  as  the  most  fitting  for  the  ordination 
of  the  clergy.  In  the  Eastern  Church  there  is  no  trace 
whatever  of  an  observance  of  the  Ember  seasons.  The 
passage  of  Athanasius,  which  some  have  quoted  in  sup- 
port of  a  different  conclusion,  merely  proves  the  exist- 
ence of  a  fast  at  Pentecost.  As  regards  the  Gallican 
Church,  the  Ember  seasons  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
established  much  before  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  The 
second  Council  of  Tours  (AD.  667),  in  prescribing  the 
fasts  to  be  observed  by  monks,  makes  no  mention  what- 
ever of  the  fasts  of  the  four  seasons.  The  observance 
of  the  Ember  days  is  purely  a  Western  institution.  It 
was,  doubtless,  at  first  a  rite  merely  of  the  local  Roman 
Church,  whence  it  gradually  spread  throughout  the 
West.  The  history  of  the  development  of  the  custom 
is  probably  thus :  Fasts  were  celebrated  at  the  times  of 
Lent,  Pentecost,  and  the  Nativity ;  these  periods  would 
roughly  correspond  with  three  of  the  four  seasons,  and 
thus  some  bishop  of  Rome,  Leo  or  one  of  his  predecessors, 
may  have  conceived  the  idea  of  making  them  symbolize 
the  return  of  the  seasons,  and  so  added  the  one  necessary 
to  complete  the  four.  It  would  soon  come  to  pass,  then, 
that  they  would  be  spoken  of  as  originally  ordained 
with  that  view;  the  length  of  celebration  settled,  the 
fasts  then  became  associated  with  the  seasons,  and  were 
regarded  as  independent  of  Lent,  etc*  Thus  they  migh  t 
occasionally  fall  outside  of  these  seasons,  and  finally 
such  irregularity  may  have  caused  the  settlement  of 
the  matter  as  at  present.  See  Smith,  Did,  of  Ckrut. 
Antiq.s.  v. 

Smbla,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  first  woman 
created  by  the  Asas,  from  a  tree-trunk  {Embh^  *Hhe 
pine,"  while  Aak^  "the  ash,"  was  the  lume  of  the 
first  man).  She  was  endowed  with  feeling,  motion, 
spirit,  life,  the  senses  of  hearing  and  seeing,  and  was 
gifted  with  the  power  of  speech.  By  Ask,  her  hus- 
band, she  became  mother  of  the  human  race. 

Emboliam  (also  Emholis  and  Embolum).  (1)  An 
insertetl  prayer;  the  name  given  to  the  prayer  which 
in  almost  all  ancient  liturgies  follows  the  Lord's  prayer, 
founded  on  one  or  both  of  the  two  last  petitions.  It  is  so 
called  because  it  is  interposed  there,  and  what  had  been 
already  asked  in  the  Lord's  prayer  is  expanded,  and  it  is 
more  clearly  expressed  what  evils  we  seek  to  be  deliv- 
ered from,  viz.  past,  present,  and  future.  There  are  also 
added  the  names  of  the  saints  by  whose  intercession  we 
strengthen  our  prayers,  viz.  the  Virgin  Mary,  Peter, 


Paul,  and  Audiiew.  The  emboliam  wais  tnnally  repeat- 
ed by  the  priest  in  a  low  voice,  symbolizing  the  silence 
during  the  period  that  our  Lord  Uiy  in  the  grave ;  but 
in  the  Ambroaian  rite  it  was  alwa3r8  pronounced  aloud. 
This  practice,  which  has  left  very  faint  traces  in  the 
Western  Church,  holds  a  mora  important  place  in  Ori- 
ental liturgies.  The  embolism  is  not,  however,  found 
in  the  liturgies  of  Chrysoetom  and  Ba^  but  appears  in 
those  of  James,  Mark,  and  Theodore  the  Interpreter,  as 
well  as  in  the  Armenian,  Mozarabic,  and  Coptic  BasiL 
As  examples  of  the  shorter  embolism  we  give  that  of 
the  Church  of  Jerusalem : 

"  And  lead  us  not  into  temptation,  O  Lord,  the  Lord  of 
Hosts,  who  knowest  our  Infirmity ;  bat  deliver  us  from 
the  Bvil  One,  and  his  works,  nud  every  ai*BanU  and  will 
of  his,  for  the  sake  of  Thy  Holy  name  which  is  called 
npon  our  lowliness ;" 

and  the  Syriac  Liturgy  of  St.  James: 

**  O  Lord  our  God,  lead  ns  not  into  temptation,  which  we 
devoid  of  streneth  are  not  able  to  bear,  but  also  with  the 
temptation  make  a  way  of  escape,  that  we  may  be  able 
to  bear  it,  and  deliver  ns  from  evil,  through  Jeeos  Christ,** 
etc 

(2)  Embolism  also  designates  the  excess  of  the  solar 
year  over  twelve  lunar  months,  commonly  called  the 
Epact. — Smith,  DicL  of  Christ.  Antiq,  s.  v. 

Emb51ii8,  a  covered  portico  or  cloister;  in  eccle- 
siastical language  a  cloister  surrounding  the  external 
walls  of  a  church,  semng  as  an  ambulatory  in  hot, 
rainy,  and  dirty  weather,  and  also  affording  a  conven- 
ient passage  for  the  priests  and  ministers  of  the  church 
from  the  bema  and  diaconicum  to  the  nartkex.  These 
porticos  were  generally  vaulted,  and  highly  ornament- 
ed with  mosaic  pictures.  Such  porticos  were  at  St. 
Sophia,  Constantinople;  St.  Michael,  at  Anaplns:  and 
the  Deipara,  at  Jerusalem.  —  Smith,  Did.  of  Christ. 
Antiq,  s.  v. 

Bmden,  Jacob  Isbaei^  a  Jewish  writer  of  Ger- 
many,  was  bom  in  1696,  and  died  at  Altona  in  177G. 
He  is  the  author  of  numerous  treatises,  among  which 

are,  bx  {^"^S,  a  ritual  for  the  whole  year  (Altona,  1745, 
4  parts,  and  often ;  latest  ed.  Lemberg,  1860) : — A  Lift 
of  Jon,  Eyhenschutz^  entitled,  "^rViTV^  n*^3  (Altona, 
1762):  — B-^-iBO  nntDC,  The  Wrapper  of  Books 
(ibid.  1763) ;  a  critique  on  the  Sohar  .♦— D^mBI  CSW 
On  the  Fundamental  Doctrines  of  the  Cabala  (ibid. 
1756) :— n'^Xipn  nmn,  a  ColUction  of  Accounts  Re- 
f erring  to  Sabbathai  Zetri,  his  Pupils  and  Adherents 
(ibid.  1752;  Lemberg,  1870).  See  FUrst,  BOfL  Jud.  i, 
240  sq.;  Griltz,  Geschichte  der  Juden,  x,  396  sq.;  Gins- 
burg,  The  Kabbalah f  p.  141  sq. ;  Jost,  Geschichte  des  Ju' 
denthums  u,  s,  Sekten,  iit,  194, 252, 308 ;  FUrst,  Jacob  Em- 
denj  in  LiteraturbL  des  Orients,  1846,  c.  442;  also  the 
art.  EydensciiOtz.    (B.  P.) 

Bmeran,  Saint,    See  Emheban. 

Bmerenti&Qa,  a  virgin  martyr  at  Rome,  A.D.  804^ 
foster-sbter  of  St.  Agnes ;  commemorated  Jan.  23. 

Emexla,  daughter  of  St  Patrick,  and  abbess  of 
Clonbroney,  commemorated  July  11. 

Emexic.    See  Eymeric. 

J^merlnuB  (or  Bamenus),  bishop  of  Limoges  in 
the  3d  century. 

Emexita.  (l)  Supposed  sister  of  the  British  king 
Lucius,  whom  she  followed  in  his  missionary  journeys; 
she  was  martyred  it  Coir  of  the  Grisons  in  SwitzerUuid, 
and  is  commemorated  Dec.  4.  (2)  Virgin  martyr  at 
Rome,  cir.  A.D.  257,  commemorated  Sept.  22. 

Emeritenae,  CoNciLiuac.    See  Mcrida,  Council 

OF. 

Emerltnfl.  (1)  Donatist  bishop  of  Julia  Giesaiea 
(now  Shershell)  in  Morocco,  largely  concerned  in  the 
Council  It  Carthage,  in  June,  A.D.  411.  (2)  Bishop  of 
Macri,  in  Mauritania,  banished  by  the  Council  of  Cai^ 


thig*.  A.D.  484.  (8)  Eleventh  aichbiihnp  of  Embnin, 
AJ).  &85-G10.  (4)  A  reidec  tnd  nirlvr  at  Abilini,  is 
ATiia,  A.D.  303,  commemonted  Feb.  11  or  12. 


(1)  Eighth  bishop  of  Saintca,  A.D.  662 
or  563,  tnd  Kited  by  order  or  king  Chuib«rc.  although 
in^olariy  elected.  (2)  Sour,  ion  of  St.  CiDdia,  and 
flm  abbot  of  Banyoks,  in  Catalonia,  A.D.  789,  com- 


BmBi7,  SahueI.  Moonr,  D.D.,  an  Epiacopil  min- 
iUcr,  was  bom  in  West  Ncwbun-,  Mass.,  in  1803,  and 
gndiuted  rrom  Harvard  Collie  in  1830.  He  was 
ordained  bv  the  bishop  uf  Connecticut  in  183B,  and  wii 
called  (o  be  rector  of  the  Church  in  Portland,  where  he 
renuiDcd  in  the  diachar^  of  his  miaiiterial  and  paro- 
chial duties  for  (be  lon)[  period  of  thirty-aeven  yearo. 
Having  reaigned  in  1873,  he  did  not  accept  another 
paMorats,  but  after  a  time  removed  to  hii  native  place, 
where  he  teaided  about  ten  rears,  and  died  Aur.  16, 
1883.     See  Boiloii  AdrtitiKr,  Aug.  18,  1883.     (J.  C.  S.) 

BmetviliUI  Aohicola  {Si.  Uaiir  or  Malimt), 
it  aaid  to  have  suffert^  martyrdom  near  Barcelona,  cir. 
A.D.  680 1  cammemoraled  Uarch  S. 

Bmethaiins  (or  Hmnateilai),  martyr  at  Cal- 
ahoriD,  on  the  Ebro,  commemorated  March  8. 

ZbntgdiiiB,  Got  bishop  and  tutelary  saint  of  Asco- 
liu,  in  Fieenum,  suffered  martyrdom  A.D.  803  or  304, 
and  is  commemorated  Aug.  5. 

BidUb.  (1)  DiEhoporDarcelona,cir.A.D.600-C15. 
(S)  Bishop  of  Menleia,  oonwcrated  befoi^  A.U.  689. 
(3)  Bishop  of  Iliei  (Elche),  A.U.  G88.  (4)  Last  bishop 
uf  Coimbra  under  the  Goths,  A.D.  693.  (fi)  Deacon 
and  martyr  at  Cordova,  under  the  Saracens,  commem- 
orated Sept.  G. 

Emilia mi»  (or  JBmlUAiitu).  (I)  First  bishop 
of  Valence,  io  Gaul,  A.U.  374.  (3)  Eleventh  bishop  of 
TecceUi,  cir.  A.D.  500,  commemoraud  Sept.  11.  (3) 
Tweiity.MCODd  bishop  of  Tercelli,  A.D.  663.     (4)  Pa-  . 


le  EMMERICH 

ia  the  reniatest  parts  of  Durigoa,  where  he  pawid  forty 
years  of  ascetic  life;  was  drawn  into  public  life  by 
Didymus,  biohop  of  Torraxona,  ajid  ordained  ■  presby- 
ter; but  his  utter  nnworldlineai  drew  upon  him  the 
odium,  of  his  colleagues,  and  he  Anally  withdrew  to  a 
monaitery  near  Vergegium,  where  be  died,  after  the 
most  rigorous  asceticism,  cir.  A.O.  672.  He  ia  com- 
memorated  Nov.  12.  His  Life  was  written  by  Su 
Braulio  (who  died  in  A.D.  657),  and  flrel  published  by 
Sandoval  in  ICOl.  There  ia  much  legend  connected 
with  him.  (8)  Abbot  of  Lagnv,  cir.  A.D.  G48,  com- 
memorated March  ID.  <9>  Maityr  in  Numidia,  A.D, 
£69,  conimemorate<l  April  2S.  (10)  Martyr  at  Doros- 
torum,  in  Mceaie,  under  Julian,  commemorated  July  18. 
(II)  Deacon,  martyred  at  Cordova,  is  commemorated 
Sept.  17.  (12)  Presbyter  and  confeasor  in  Tarragona, 
commemorated  Nov.  12. 

Smlllus  (nr  .SmUluB).  (1)  Manvr  at  Cnpua 
under  Diocletian, commemorated  OcLB.  (2)  A  bishop, 
father  of  la,  who  was  married  to  Julian  of  Elana.  (3> 
Saial,  bishop  of  Bcneventum,  A.D.  405;  perhapa  the 
same  with  No.  2. 

SmlneatluB,  a  Donatiat  bishop  in  A.D.  411. 

Bmiteilcas  (or  Emltariui),  twelfth  bishop  of 
Tarentaiae,  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century. 

Bmmaui,  of  Luke  xxiv,  18.  The  Sinaitic  U8. 
here  reads,  one  hundred  and  sixty  furlongs,  which  has 
been  eagerly  seized  upon  ai  confirming  the  identifica- 
tion with  Nicopoli);  but  Tiscbendorf  in  his  last  edition 
of  the  MS.  does  not  adopt  the  reading,  and  the  distance 
as  stated  by  Joaephus  [War,  vii,  6,6)  coaflrou  the  num- 
ber aixty.  Lieut.  Gander  ia  inclined  to  fix  the  aile  of 
this  Emmatu  at  KAuHkI  rl^Khamata,  eight  mUes  from 

eicnl  church  {ifemotri  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,86}. 

A  full  description  of  the  intcreeting  remains  at  Am- 

wis  (the  Emmaue  of  1  Mice  iii,  40)  is  given  in  the  Jfr- 

moirt  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey  (til,  63  sq.). 


triorch  of  Gioda,  A.D.  T4».  (i)  An  Irish  bishop,  pa- 
tron of  Faenia,  in  the  north  of  Italy.  (6)  A  hermit  in 
the  runat  of  Ponticiaeiim,  in  AnveiKne,  who  died  at  the 
age  of  ninety,  in  A.D.  638.  (7)  Callol  Sa»  MiUan,  one 
of  tb«  most  famous  of  Spanish  saints,  is  said  to  have 
been  bom  about  473  in  OhI  Cailile,  and  to  have  been 
converted  by  a  dream  while  a  shepherd ;  instructed  by  St. 
Fcli> ;  Bied  hia  hermitage  ifint  at  Veideya,  afterwards 


Bmmwlcli,  AtUM  Ktttharliia,  a  Cimnan  vis- 
ionar)-,wasbomat  Flanik(duchyofBIIlnBter),Sepl.8, 
1774.  In  1802  ahe  Joined  tho  Auguatinians  of  Uulmen. 
She  had  visions  when  quite  young.and  in  1798  declared 
that  she  had  seen  Jesua  Christ  placing  on  her  forehead 
a  crown  of  thoma.  On  the  auppreasiim  of  her  convent 
ahe  retired  to  a  private  house,  where  aha  became  sub- 
ject to  new  risionii,  during  which  she  claimed  to  have 


EMMERICH  3< 

receit^  the  itigmala  of  the  dudfixioii,  ind  ■  cron- 
mark  on  her  cheaL  Tfae  Itctt  were  iaveiligited  in 
1BI3  by  a  pbyiidin  aad  in  tccleBiaatial  commiauiHi, 
wbo  sMm  to  have  beta  convinced  of  their  reality,  and 
reoorded  tbeiii,  in  1814,  in  a  Journal  of  Saliburg.  She 
died  FebL  9, 1824.    See  Hoefer,  JVoub,  Biog.  GiniroU,  a.  v, 

Emmericb,  Firidtitio  Charl«B  Tlmothrie,  a 

French  theologian,  waa  Iwm  at  Straaburg,  Fell.  SS, 
1786.  After  a  journey  through  Germany  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  on  his  return  to  Straiburg  in  1809  vu  ap- 
pointed superior  of  the  College  of  Sc.  Thomas,  and  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  language*  in  the  gyninatinni,  whence 
he  was  Iranafened  in  181!  to  the  Proceatant  achoot, 
ud  to  the  theological  faculty  in  1819.  He  died  June 
1,  1820,  leaving,  De  fraiyeliU  Kcuniuin  /Irbrma, 
jSgypUoi  atqut  Jvriinuni  ifartgrtm: — CAoix  de  Srr- 
moM  (1824).     See  Hoefer,  A'dud.  Biiy.  GiniraU,  a.  r. 

Bmmorllilg,  Chhibtia:!  AuoueT  Uottfriei),  a 
J.utberan  theologian  of  Germany,  was  hnrii  June  B, 
1781.  He  itudieil  at  Leipwc,  was  in  1805  catechiit, 
and  in  IBIO  preacher  there;  in  1811  became  asaisunt 
to  the  pastor  of  Probstheyda,  near  Leipsic,  and  in  1814 
was  appointed  lo  the  paatnnle  of  that  place.  He  died 
Jan. 23, 1827,  leaving,  Dt  Pa*li  Ftlierm  /lUfidtfHMii  taa 
Suatuam  PrmdicmU,  S  Cor.  3, 14-17  (Leipaic,  1809)  :— 
C.  A.  Th.  KeUii  Etememta  HermaiaUietl  .Vori  TtMla- 
moKi  (ibid.  lSU'):—PaiiJi  Eputoia  ad  Cormliiot  po- 
Itriar  Cit>i<l-  182d).  See  Doting,  Die  gdrkiiea  Thta- 
logtn  Dtatiddimdt,  a.  t.  ;   Winer,  Itamtimck  der  Iheol, 

£tf.i,i07,26a   cap.) 

Bmperenr,  CoxwtA'mnu  Lr.    See  VZ^tnunuiJt. 

Empliotltim  (ifi^wriDv)  ia  one  of  the  namea  for 
the  while  robe  with  which  peroona  were  invested  at 
haptiao).  The  name  ia  no  doubt  derived  from  the  "en- 
lightening'attributed  to  the  bapciatnal  ceremony.   9ee 

B.1PTU1I. 

Bmphyteiula  (J/i#unMic)  ia  a  contract  by  which 
the  beneScial  ownenbip  of  real  property  is  traniferrcd 
by  the  proprietor  to  another,  either  fur  a  term  of  not 
leaa  than  ten  years,  or  for  a  life  or  lives,  or  in  perpetuity, 
in  oonuileration  of  an  annual  paymenL  It  diffen  from 
letting  in  that  It  applies  only  lo  real  property,  and  must 
laat  tor  at  leaat  ten  yean;  while  in  letlrng  only  tbe  use 
and  enjoynHnt  of  produce  is  transferred.  It  ii  unlike 
feudal  tenure  in  that  it  requires  periodical  payment,  not 

Eccle«aatical  emphytensia  ia  a  contract  by  which 
property  belonging  to  a  church,  monastery,  or  other  re- 
ligious foundation,  is  granted.  It  Tcquirea  the  aaaent 
of  the  bishop,  and  must  be  for  Che  benefit  of  tbe  body 
granting  it.  Thi*  precaution  is  taken  lo  check  the 
alienation  of  church  property. — Smith,  Diet.  nfCiri^. 
Anliq.^.'r.    See  AtJEMATio:!. 

Emple,  Adax,  D.D.,  a  Proteatant  Epiacopat  minia- 
iater,  was  bom  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.  He  graduated 
from  Union  College;  studied  modicine  at  Columbia 
College;  then  studied  theology;  was  ordained  deacon 
in  1609,  and  his  first  charge  was  in  HempiteKl,  L.  I., 
where  he  also  taught  theclaasics;  became  pastor  of  SL 
James's,  Wilmington,  Del.,  in  1811;  in  1814  received  an 
appointment  ai  chaplain  awl  pmfesanr  (^rhcroric  in  Ihe 
United  Stalea  UiliUry  Academy,  Weat  Point,  N.Y.; 
became  rector  again  at  St.  Jamei's  parish,  Wilmington, 
in  1815;  president  of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary, 
Virginia,  iu  1827;  resigned  the  presidency  in  1886;  was 
temporarily  priodpal  of  the  dioceum  school  at  Baleigh, 
N.  C.;  removed  in  1837  lo  Kichmoud,  Va„  becoming 
rector  of  St.  Jamea'a,  where  he  remained  until  declining 
health  compelled  hia  retiremenL  He  irtumed  to  Wil- 
mington in  !8o9,  and  died  tliere  Nov.  G,  1S60,  aged 
seventy-flve  j-ean.  I>r.  Empie  led  a  laborious  life. 
He  represented  hla  church  in  Virginia  on  aeveral  occa- 
sions in  the  General  Convention.  Among  bis  literary 
remains  is  a  volume  of  ^ermaiit,  publiabed  in  186G.  See 
A  mr.  Quar.  Ckartb  Set.  ISfil,  p.  696. 


0  ENDEMANN 

Emplro,  RoMAH,    See  Romah  Eiifibe. 

Bmporagliu;  Emc  GABmia,  a  Swedish  theolo- 
gian, at  udieil  atUpsaljand  taught  phyaica  there  in  1687, 
and  theology  in  l&ll;  was  received  aa  doctor  by  that 
faculty  in  1647,  and  in  16M,  after  having  tilled  other 
ecclesiastical  poailion^  was  appointed  bishop  of  Streng- 
a&t.  He  died  March  14,  lt>74,  leaving,  among  other 
wriiinga,  Admonilio  Contolaloria,  etc  (Upaal,  1G29):— 
Dt  Iteivm  Duratioiu  (ibid.  leiiy.—llmaUgica  (ibid. 
IGSe)  -.-De  DUc^i*a  Kcclaiatliai  (Stockholm,  1861). 
See  Hoefer,  A'dhf.  Biog.  GhUraU,  a.  v. 

0  heaven,  the  special  residence  of  ddty, 
frooi  lbs  burning  aplendor  with  which  it  ia  auppoaed 
to  be  invested. 

Biwill.  Lieut.  Conder  suggesU  <  TaU  Work  ia  Pal- 
eil.  ii,  SBd ;  comp,  Qaar,  Stalemeid  of  the  "  PaL  Explor. 
Fund,"  Jan.  1H81,  p.  61}  for  thU  pUce  "the  rain  AUtii, 
in  the  low  hills  aoulh-wesl  of  Jerusalem,"  meaning  ap- 
parently the  insignificauC  Kkariil  'Alia  marked  on  Ihe 
ordnance  map  at  three  and  one  quarter  milea  aonlfa- 
west  of  Betlilehem,  but  there  is  nubing  slrikiog  in  Ibc 
identification. 

Buandar,  Samuei,  a  Sweilish  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Eneby  in  1007.  Aflcr  fulRlIing  several  ecclesiaatical 
function,  she  was  appointed  bishop  of  Linkoping.  He 
died  in  I67U.  Hia  principal  works  are,  Dt  luirUeclu  n 
Volmtali  llomijiit  (L'psal,  1629):— /Je  Sniibai  Inlr- 
W^ir^iuf  (ibid.  1682);  _Ai  J/unfo  (ibid.  1684>  See 
Hoeler,  A'our.  Hiay,  Gintralr,  s.  r. 

Baohetiliiin  (}yx^lpior)  is  the  napkin  with  which 
the  priest  wipes  his  hands,  and  which  he  wears  at  the  gir. 
die.  Germanua  of  Conatantinople  deacribes  it  as  sUive, 
and  aaya  that  "  lo  have  a  napkin  at  Ihe  girdle  ia  typicsl 
ho  washed  his  banda  and  said, '  I  am  innocent' 

.rii,i(>.- 

1  (iyiiXniev)  ia  a  portable  reliquary, 

i  the  neck.     Such  omimenta  are  of  the 

highest  antiquity.    Chry- 

BOatom  speaks  of  particles 

gold,  being  suspended  from 
the  neck.  The  pectoral 
cro»  (q.  v.),  worn  by  the 
bishops,  was  also  called 
EiKolpivm.  Such  are  flnl 
mentioned  bj-  Gregory  ihe 
Great.  He  sent  one  lo 
Theodelirida  containing  a 
fragment  of  Ihe  cross;  it 
still  exista  at  Menu,  and  is 
used  by  the  provwt  of  that 
ancient  church  when  he 
ofSdaiesponlifically.  Two 
amulets,  given  tothisprin- 

I he  use  of  her  children,  are 
preserred  in  the  ireasufrs 
ofMonu.  From  Gregnri' 
we  alao  team  that  filinga  from  St.  Peter'a  chaina  were 
somelimes  ciielaaed  in  golden  keys.  Gregory  himadf 
had  sent  one  of  these  consecrated  keys  to  Childcbcrr, 
king  of  the  Franks,  to  protect  him  from  all  evil*. — 
Smith, Oicf.n/'CirwL^Ui7,s.v.  See  Kelkjitabt.  , 
yBnoratlB,  Saivi.  See  Esoratia. 
Bndenuim,  Samuel,  a  Reformed  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  March  18,  ITK,  at  Carladorf.  He 
studied  al  Harburg  and  Rinleln,waa  in  1750  preacher 
■t  Jesberg,  in  Heaie,  and  in  1758  at  Hanau.  In  17S6 
he  waa  appointed  member  of  cnnnatoiy,  and  in  1767 
became  profesjor  of  theok>gy  and  Hebrew  at  tha  gym- 
naaium  in  the  latter  pUce.  In  1783  he  ancepled  a  call 
as  profeaaor  of  theology  to  Marburg,  and  died  Ihpn- 
May3],1789,leaving,/iuritur>o)M)7'A(oJb^£>iyna«(ca 
(Hanover,  1777,  2  vola.)  -.—latilatiomn  Timlngia  M»- 


Pectoral  Oniss. 


ENDOWMENT 


341 


ENGELEN 


raiis  (Frtnkfort,  1780, 2  vols.) : — Compendittm  Tkeologia 
(ibid.  1782}  i^Sdagrapkia  (Marburg,  1788) : — Compen- 
diim  Theoiogia  Moralia  (Frankfort,  1784).  His  Com^ 
pemHum  Tkeologue  DogmatiaB  was  edited  and  published 
bv  A.  J.  Arnoldi  (Hanover,  1790).  See  Doring,  DU  gt" 
Ukrten  Tktoioffm  Deutteklambt  B.  v. ;  Winer,  Ilandbudi, 
itr tkeoL Lii.\,mb,^\Z,    (a  P.) 

Sndowmenti  in  cocleaiastical  phnue,  is  the  prop- 
erty given  by  the  founder  of  a  church  for  its  mun- 
tenance,  includmg  the  pay  of  the  clerks.  Justinian 
eoopelled  those  who  built  churches  to  endow  them; 
without  competent  provision  for  support  no  clerk  was 
ordained  to  any  church ;  whoever  desired  a  parish  church 
on  his  estate  was  to  set  apart  a  landed  endowment  for 
its  clerks  (A.D.  541) ;  a  bishop  was  not  to  consecrate  a 
ehoich  until  the  endowment  of  it  had  been  reguUrly 
secured  by  a  deed  or  charter  (A.D.  672) ;  founders  of 
churches  were  to  understand  that  they  had  no  further 
authority  over  property  which  they  had  given  to  the 
(%urch,  but  that  both  the  Church  and  its  endowment 
were  at  the  disposition  of  the  bishop,  to  be  employed 
aooording  to  the  canons  (A.D.  683).  According  to  the 
ninth  Cmincil  of  Toledo,  A.D.  655,  a  bishop  was  not  to 
confer  on  any  monastic  church  in  bis  diocese  more  than 
a  fiftieth  part  of  the  Church  funds;  and  on  a  non-mo- 
nastic church,  or  church  designed  for  his  own  burial- 
plsce,not  more  than  a  one-hundredth  part.  The  royal 
confirmation  waa  required  if  one  who  held  a  flcf  .from 
the  king  endowed  a  church.  —  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ. 
Antiq,i,v. 

Biidre8%  Christian,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa^  March  12,  1776.  He 
graduated  frona  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1790;  in  1792  was  appointed  tutor  in  the  same  univer- 
sity; preached  his  fint  sermon  at  Zion*s  Church,  Phil- 
adelphia, in  1793 ;  in  1795  was  elected  principal  of  the 
Congregational  school  of  Zion  and  St.  Michael;  in  1801 
rengned  and  removed  to  Easton,  having  accepted  a  call 
to  the  Lutheran  Church  in  that  place,  and  while  there 
preached  frequently  to  neighboring  congregations.  Un- 
til 1799  he  was  subject  to  the  superintendence  of  the 
minister  or  ministers  of  the  Church  in  Phihidelphia,  but 
at  the  last-mentioned  date  he  received  a  license  from 
the  ministerinm  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  ordained  at 
Keading  in  1802.  In  1815  he  was  chosen  pastor  of  the 
Lutheran  congregation  at  Lancaster,  and  died  there  in 
September,  1827.  See  Sprague,  A  nnala  of  the  A  mer, 
Pilpit,  IX,  i,  107 ;  Evangelical  Review,  vi,  22. 

4 

Bn^  a  French  prelate  and  theologian,  waa  notary 
or  secretary  to  Charles  the  Bald,  and  waa  famed  for  his 
honesty  and  merit  In  A.D.  853  he  was  elected  bishop 
of  Paris.  On  June  14, 859,  he  assisted  at  the  Council 
of  Savonnieres,  near  Toul ;  in  861  at  that  of  Pitrea-sui^ 
Seine,  near  Rouen ;  in  862  at  that  of  Soissons ;  in  864  at 
the  second  at  Pitres-sur-Seine ;  in  August,  866,  at  that 
of  Soissons,  and  October,  867,  that  of  Troves.  He  was 
also  at  the  Council  of  Verberie  on  April  24,  869;  in 
Aogiist,  the  same  year,  at  that  of  Pitres-sur-Seine;  and 
flndly,  in  May,  870,  at  that  of  Attigny.  After  various 
other  services  to  the  Church  and  State,  £nee  was  made 
abbot  of  St.  Denis  and  grand  chancellor  of  the  palace. 
He  died  Dec.  27, 870,  leaving  a  book  against  Photius  and 
the  errors  of  the  Greeks  (printed  in  voL  vii  of  the  Spici- 
IfgUnm  of  D*Achery  and  in  vol.  viii  of  Labbe  and  Coa- 
lart's  CondHa),    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GirUrak,  s.  v. 

Bngadine,  Uppkb  amo  Lower  Vkiisiox.     See 

ROMASESE  VERBioar. 

Bn-^aimiin  ofJudaJL  For  this  site  lieat.  Conder 
VgeaU  (  Teni  Work  w  Palest,  ii,  386;  comp.  Q^uir, 
jia/emau.  of  the  *"  Pal.  Explor.  Soc.**  Jan.  1881,  p.  51) 
the  amall  ruin  called  Kkurbet  Um-Jiua,  laid  down  on 
the  Ordnance  Map  oo  the  sooth  edge  of  Wady  Surar, 
about  three  fourths  of  a  mile  sonth-west  of  Ain-Shema 
(Beih-ahemcsh),  and  in  this  identification  Tristfim 
cooeuft  {BibU  Plaets,  p.  48). 


Bngastrim^thi  (Gr.  Iv,  in,  yairrfjpf  (he  belly,  and 
ftif^ocy  OH  utterance),  a  name  given  to  the  priestesses 
of  Apollo,  from  a  species  of  ventriloquism  which  they 
practiced,  speaking  from  within,  while  not  the  slightest 
motion  of  the  lips  could  be  observed.  The  voice  was 
supposed  to  proceed  from  a  spirit  within  the  body  of 
the  Pythoness  (q.  v.). 

En-gedL    See  Ziz. 

Bngel,  Arnold,  a  Dutch  poet  and  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Maestricht  in  1620.  He  belonged  to  the 
Jesuits,  taught  theology,  and  died  at  Prague  in  1676, 
leaving  several  works  in  Latin  verse,  for  which  see 
Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  GineraU,  s.  v. 

Engel,  MoritB  Tlrflmann,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Plauen,  July  29,  1767, 
where  he  also  died,  Feb.  10, 1836.  He  wrote,  Geist  der 
BibelJUr  ScAule  und  Haus  (13th  ed.  Leipsic,  1846)  :— 
Die  Rdigion  nach  Vermtnfl  und  Schrijl  (8th  ed.  Plauen, 
1848) : — Die  A  ugthurgische  Confession  als  des  Evange- 
Hums  Kern  und  Zeugniss  (Leipsic,  1830).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  Theol.  i,  820 ;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  LU.  ii, 
232,  248,  261,  266,  316,  368.     (a  P.) 

Bngelbert  the  Frank,    See  Amoilbbrt. 

Engelbrechtaen  (or  Engelberts),  Cobneus, 
an  old  Dutch  painter,  was  born  at  Leyden  in  1468,  and 
studied  the  works  of  Hans  van  Eyck.  The  following 
are  some  of  his  noted  pieces :  The  Taking  down  from 
the  Cross;  Abraham  about  to  Sacrifice  Isaac;  Scenes 
from  the  Life  of  the  Virgin,  His  best  work,  however, 
was  an  altar-piece  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  at  Ley- 
den, representing  the  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  Apocalypse.  He  died  at  Leyden  in  1533. 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  IJist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
.Vour.  Biog,  GinhaU,  s.  v. 

Bngelcken,  Helnrich  AaoanluB,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Rostock,  Aug.  15, 
1675.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of  his  native  place 
and  Leipsic,  was  in  1704  professor  at  Rostock,  in  1718 
superintendent  and  pastor  of  St.  George's  at  Parchim, 
and  died  Jan.  13, 1734.  He  published  a  number  of  the- 
ological dissertations.  See  Jocher,  AUgememes  Gelehr* 
ten-Lexikon,  a,  v.     (B.  P.) 

Engttloken,  Hennaim  Chiifltoph,  a  Luthei^ 
an  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Jennervitz,  in 
Mecklenburg,  June  9,  1679.  He  studied  at  different 
universities,  was  in  1709  pastor  of  St.  John's  at  Rostock, 
in  1710  doctor  of  divinity,  and  in  1716  professor  of  the- 
ology there.  He  died  Jan.  2, 1742,  leaving,  Miraculum 
Dilacerati  a  Simsone  Inemd  Leowis: — De  Deo  Isralis 
Perditore  ad  Hos,  xiii,  9: — Vindieatio  Psalm,  dii,  cxlv, 
et  cxUx : — De  Dogmate  TransuJbstantiationis : — De  Res- 
urrectione  Mgstka: — De  GenHUum  Salute  non  Speran- 
da : — De  Expulsione  Prindpis  Mundi  Joh,  xii,  31 : — De 
die  Christi  Visa  ab  A  brahamo,  Joh,  viii,  56  :—De  Paulo 
Christi  Cogmdonem  OnmUms  aliis  Rebus  Anteponente : — 
De  Jesaia  de  Vita  Christi  Resusdiati  Vatieinante  cap, 
liii,  8.  See  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikott,  s.  v. ; 
Neubauer,  Naehricht  von  jetzstlebenden  Gottesgelehrten, 
S.V.;  Steinschneider,  ^iU.  ^aiid6ucA,  s.  ▼.     (B.  P.) 

Engelen  (Lat.  Angdis),  Willex  van,  a  Dutch 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Bois-le-Duc,  Sept.  1, 1583.  He 
commenced  his  studies  in  his  native  town,  and  finished 
them  at  Louvain,  under  the  direction  of  Rausin,  Folle- 
ga,  and  Malderas.  In  1606  he  taught  both  Greek  and 
philosophy  at  the  College  of  Pore ;  was  received  into 
orders  in  1607 ;  in  1614  appointed  canon  of  St.  Pierre 
and  professor  of  morals ;  in  1616  elected  president  of  the 
College  of  Viglius,  and  was  made  doctor  of  theology  on 
Oct  11  of  the  same  year;  in  1646  became  president  of 
the  College  of  Pope  Adrian  VI ;  in  1648  was  appointed 
to  the  bishopric  of  Ruremond,  but  died  at  Louvain,  Feb. 
3, 1649,  without  having  received  his  bulla  from  Rome. 
He  waa  celebrated  in  dogmatical  theology  and  scholas- 
tics, and  vigorously  oppMed  the  doctrines  of  Janseniuk 


ENGELGRAVE 


342 


ENGLERT 


He  left,  Den  Dechnantd  des  CatholydEenaenu,  etc  (Loa- 
vain,  16S0)|  which  specially  attacked  Va^t,  Udemana, 
van  Swalmen,  and  Everwyn : — Relation  des  TrouUet  h 
Jjouvain,  etc  (1641) : — Protettatio  Theologarum  Lovam 
(1642).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gknirale,  a.  v. 

EngelgravOi  ABsuerus,  a  Belgian  monk,  b^th> 
er  of  the  foUowing,  was  bom  at  Antwerp.  He  took  the 
habit  of  a  Dominican  there,  and  gained  great  reputa- 
tion as  a  preacher  in  Brabant  and  Flanders.  He  died 
in  the  prime  of  life,  July  21,  1640,  leaving  Condones 
Varke.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Engelgrave,  Hans  Baptist,  a  Belgian  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Antwerp  in  1601.  He  joined  the 
Jesuits  in  1619,  assisted  at  the  ninth  general  assembly 
of  the  society  at  Rome,  became  rector  of  the  College  of 
Brages,  was  twice  provincial  of  Flanders,  and  'finally 
superior  of  the  bouse  at  Antwerp,  where  he  died,  May 
8, 1658,  leaving,  MtditaHones  in  Omnes  Dominica*  (Ant- 
werp, 1658)  i—Dommicales  et  FeMtivaks  (Cologne,  1659). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ghuralfy  s.  r. 

Engelgrave,  Hendxlk,  a  Belgian  theologian, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Antwerp  in  1610. 
He  joined  the  society  of  Jesus  in  1628;  became  succes- 
sivdy  director  and  then  pnefect  of  the  lower  classes ; 
directed  for  fifteen  years  several  convents ;  became  rec- 
tor of  the  colleges  of  Oudenarde,  Cassel,  and  Bmges, 
being  sumamed  the  Magazine  of  Sciencegf  on  account 
of  bus  extended  knowledge;  and  died  at  Antwerp, 
March  8,  1670,  leaving,  Coeieste  Pantheon  (Cologne, 
1647) : — Lux  Evangelica,  etc  (Antwerp,  1648 ;  inserted 
in  the  Index  at  Some  on  July  27, 1686,  but  reprinted 
several  times) : — Ctdeste  Empgreum  (Cologne,  1668) : — 
Meditatien  ojie  Saeie  Bemerkingen  (Antwerp,  1670) : — 
Divum  Domut  Fada,  etc.  (Cologne,  1688) : — Commmta" 
ria  in  EvangeUa  Quadragesima  (ibid.  1725) : — and  sev- 
eral pieces  of  poetry  in  Latin,  4to.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GhUmUf  s.  v. 

Engelliardt,  DanieL    See  Angelocrator. 

Bngelhardt,  Moritz  von,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  July  8,  1828,  at  Dorpat, 
where  he  also  completed  his  theological  studies.  Be- 
ing advised  by  his  teachers,  Philippi,  Th.  Haraack,  and 
K.  F.  Keil,  to  pursue  an  academical  career,  he  went  to 
ErUngen,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Hofmann, 
Thomasius,  and  Delitzsch ;  then  to  Bonn,  where  Rothe 
and  Domer  were  his  teachers,  and  finally  to  Berlin, 
where  Hcngsteiibeig  lectured.  Thus  prepared,  be  re- 
tamed  to  bis  native  city,  taking  the  magister^degree 
by  presenting  his  monograph  on  Valentin  JEmet  Lotcher 
nach  seinem  Leben  und  Wirken  (Dorpat,  1858;  2d  ed. 
1856),  and  commenced  bis  lectures  as  a  privat-docent. 
In  1855  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Church  history, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  made  doctor  of  theol- 
ogy on  presenting  his  De  Tentatione  Christi.  In  1864 
he  published  his  Schenkel  und  StravtSy  Ztoei  Zeugen  der 
Wahrheity  and  in  1878  Das  Chrisfenihum  Justine  des 
Mdrigrers  (Erlangen;  reviewed  in  SchUrer's  TheoL 
Literaturzeitung,'1878j6B2  sq.).  In  1880  his  Sermons^ 
delivered  at  the  nni^'ersity  church,  were  published,  and 
in  1881  Die  ersten  Versuche  zur  Au/richtung  des  toahren 
Christenlhums  in  emer  Gemeinde  der  HeUigen  (Riga). 
He  died  Dec.  5, 1881.  See  Lichtenbeiger,  Encgdop,  dies 
Sciences  Religieuses,  a,  v.     (B.  P.) 

Engelschall,  Carl  Gottfrikd,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  born  May  5, 1675.  He  studied 
at  Leipeic  and  Wittenberg,  was  in  1696  pastor  at  £mbs- 
kirchen,  in  Bavaria,  in  1701  archdeacon  at  Beichenbach, 
and  in  1707  court-preacher  at  Dresden.  He  died  March 
28, 1738,  leaving  many  ascetical  writings.  See  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-LexiJsonf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Engenhagen,  HExinactf,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Lubeck,  April  26, 1615.  In 
1643  he  was  appointed  deacon  at  St.  James's,  in  his  na- 
tive place,  becamjs  its  pastor  in  1662,  and  died  Sept.  1, 
11685.  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GetehrteU'LexOxmy  s.  v, 
CB.  P.) 


Engestrdm,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  doctor  of  theol- 
ogy, of  Sweden,  and  bishop  of  Lund,  who  was  bom  in 
1699,  and  died  May  16, 1777,  is  the  author  of  Grammat- 
ica  Hebrcea  Bibliea  (Lund,  1734).  See  J5cher,  AUge- 
meines Getehrten^Lexikonj  s.  v. ;  Steinschneider,  BiUio- 
graphis<Aes  Handbuch,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Enghein,  Francois  d\  a  Belgian  theologian,  waa 
bom  at  Brussels  in  1648.  He  took  the  habit  of  a  Domin- 
ican at  Ghent,  and  finished  his  studies  at  Louvain,  where 
he  was  made  doctor  of  theology,  Jan.  21, 1685,  and  taught 
successively  philosophy  and  theolo^%  Having  become 
director  of  the  studies  of  his  order,  he  assisted  at  the 
chapter-general  which  assembled  at  Rome  in  1694^  and 
after  a  very  long  sojourn  with  pope  Clement  XI,  camo 
back  in  1703  to  take  up  again  his  functions  at  Louvain. 
In  1706  he  refused  the  bishopric  of  Antwerp,  and  re- 
tired to  Ghent,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in 
study,  and  died  Nov.  9,  1722,  leaving,  De  Potesfate  Ee- 
clesiutica  (Cologne,  1685)  :-^A  uctoritas  Sedis  ApostoU- 
CO)  (ibid.  lCS9):—VindiciiB  Adversus  Avitum  Aeademi- 
cum: — De  Doctrina  8.  Tkomm  ad  Graiiam  Eficacem 
(Louvain,  1703) :— Cofi/ra  Constitutionem  Sedis  Apos- 
(oUoa  Unigemtus  (Ghent,  1715).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv» 
Biog,  GMrale,  a.  v. 

Engil,  a  word  which  very  frequently  occurs  in  the 
Koran,  and  denotes  the  Gospel  or  New  Test,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  Taouratf  the  Law  or  Old  Test  Mo- 
hammedans generally  understand  by  Engil,  as  used  in 
the  Koran,  an  imaginary  gospel,  which  they  say  waa 
sent  by  God  from  heaven  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  which 
nothing  remains  but  what  is  cited  in  the  Koran ;  while 
the  gospel  which  is  in  the  hands  of  Christians  they  re- 
gard as  corrupted. 

Engilbert.    See  Angilbkrt. 

England,  John,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was 
bom  in  Cork,  Ireland,  Sept.  23, 1786,  and  was  educated 
at  Carlow.  He  was  ordained  priest  Oct.  9, 1808,  and 
appointed  lecturer  at  the  North  Chapel  in  Cork,  and 
chaplain  of  the  prisons.  In  May,  1808,  he  began  the 
publication  of  a  monthly  magazine  called  The  BtUg- 
ious  Re])ertOfy,  He  was  made  president  of  the  theolog- 
ical college  of  St.  Mary  in  1812,  and  in  1817  pariah 
priest  at  Brandon ;  1820,  was  appointed  bishop  of  the 
new  diocese  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  where  he  established 
an  academy  and  theological  seminary,  and  taught  in 
both  of  them.  He  went  to  Rome' in  1832,  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  pope  apostolic  legate  to  Hay  ti.  He  died 
at  Charleston,  April  11,  1842.  Bp.  En^alid  founded 
several  religious  and  charitable  institutions  at  Cork, 
and  left  a  number  of  writings,  most  of  which  appeared 
in  the  periodical  press.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  prepared  by  bishop  Reynolds  (Baltimore, 
1849, 5  vols.  8vo). 

Englert,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Schweinfurt,  Dec  29, 168k  He  stud- 
ied at  Leipsic,  was  in  1718  preacher  at  Obenlorf,  and  in 
1715  sub-deacon  at  his  native  place.  In  1725  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  and  of  Hebrew  at  the 
gymnasium  there,  and  in  1732  he  succeeded  his  father, 
Johann  Matthftus  (q.  v.),  as  pastor  primarios  and  in- 
spector of  the  g^'mnasium,  and  died  Feb.  25, 1751.  He 
published,  Di^,  de  Paschate  Jesu  Christu  VUimo 
(Schweinfurt,  1725;  Jena,  1726) :  —  Z>t9>.  de  Singulari 
Dei  Providentia  Circa  Scholas  (Schweinfurt,  1734)  :— 
QucRstiones  in  Tria  Prima  Capita  Geneseos  (ibid.  1744). 
See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrtefk-Lexihon^  a.  v.;  Neu- 
bauer,  Jetztlebende  Theotogen^  s.  v.     (B»  P.) 

Englert,  Johann  MatthSus,  a  Lutheran  minis- 
ter of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  14, 1661,  at  Schweinfurt ; 
studied  at  Giessen,  Leipsic,  and  Wittenberg ;  was  in  1687 
called  to  his  native  place  as  teacher  of  the  high-school ; 
in  1709,  accepted  the  appointment  as  deacon,  and  died  in 
1782,  pastor  primarius  and  inspector  of  the  gymnasium. 
He  is  the  author  of  several  hymns.  See  Wezel,  A  naL 
Hymn,  i,  53  sq. ;  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deuts(Aen  /Ttrcften- 


ENQLERT 


343 


ENTRANCE 


I,  T,  410  sq.;  jQdieTtAttganemet  GeUhrleO'Lexihmt 
B.V.    (a  P.) 

ZSnglert,  Johann  Wilhelm,  was  bom  at  Schwein- 
fart,  Dec  10, 170G,  where  he  was  also  appointed  pastor 
of  St.  Saviour  in  1732.  In  1737  he  was  made  sub- 
deacon  of  Sc  John's,  in  1751  deacon  and  professor  of 
theology,  in  1754  archdeacon,  and  in  1764  pastor  pri. 
nuirias  and  inspector  of  the  g^'mnasium.  He  died  in 
1768,  leaving,  among  other  treatises,  Disp,  de  Indulgeft- 
Ha  Judmorum  Patchalis  Tempore  Modoque  (Giessen, 
1731).     See  Jocher,  4tigoiteine8  Gelehrten-Lextkonj  s.  ▼. 

(a  p.)    . 

Pfigllah  Nans,  a  society  founded  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, by  Maria  Ward,  and  originally  intended  for  the 
education  of  youth.  The  first  convent  was  established 
at  Su  Omer;  there  were  soon  others  opened  at  Rome, 
in  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  in  Munich.  Doubts  con- 
cerning the  orthodoxy  of  the  opinions  held  by  the 
founder  led  to  their  suppression  by  Urban  YIII  in  1630. 
Yet  they  were  not  destroyed,  and  were  formally  re- 
established by  Clement  XI  in  1703.  Aside  from  edu- 
catioD,  they  idso  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the 
sick.  The  congregation  recognises  three  degrees :  noble 
ladies,  civilian  maidens,  and  serving  sisters;  yet  they 
make  no  difference  in  their  dress  or  mode  of  life.  The 
superiors  are  always  chosen  from  the  first  degree.  See 
Uerzog,  Real'Eniyklop,  s.  v. 

Bngratia  (Bnoratia,  or  Eugracia),  a  Spanish 
saint,  lived  at  Saragossa  in  804.  She  was  persecuted 
as  a  Christian  under  the  emperors  Diocletian  and  Max- 
imin  Hercules,  and  suffered,  as  reported  by  Prudentius, 
most  fearful  tortures.  Nevertheless  Engratia  '*  recov- 
ered with  the  time,**  and  in  spite  of  her  wounds  died  at 
an  advanced  Mge.  Her  relics  are  preserved  at  Sara- 
gosaa,  and  she  is  commemorated  April  16.  See  Hoefer, 
Nbuv.  Biog.  GMraU,  s.  v. 

Sngstfeld,  Peter  Friedrich,  a  German  hymn 
writer,  was  bom  June  6,  1793,  at  Heiligenhaus,  near 
Elberfeld,  and  died  Oct.  4, 1848.  His  hymns  are  pub- 
lished in  Zeuffniste  aus  dem  verhorgenen  Leben  (Essen, 
1S40 ;  2d  ed.  1846).  See  Koch,  Gesckichie  det  deuUcHm 
Kirchmliedu,  vii,  296  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Sn-IiaddalL  As  the  modem  representative  of  this 
site  lieot.  Conder  suggests  (JaU  Work  in  PaUiL  ii,886 ; 
oompu  QtuMT.  Statement  of  the  "  PaL  Explor.  Fund,''  Jan. 
1881,  p.  51)  Krfr  AdoMt  on  the  south  edge  of  the  plain 
of  Eadnelon,  three  miles  north-west  of  Jenin  (Engan- 
nim),  which  the  Afemoire  to  the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,  46) 
describe  as  ''a  village  of  moderate  size  on  the  slope  of 
the  hills,  built  of  stone,  with  olives  below  and  a  well  on 
the  west  This  appears  to  be  the  K^r  Ouiheni  of  the 
Talmud,  a  village  on  the  border  between  Samaria  and 
GalUee  (Mbhna,  Gittin,  vii,  7)." 

En-hakkora  Lieut  Conder  is  inclined  to  find 
this  spot  in  a  series  of  springs  to  which  he  gives  the 
name  of  'Ayun  Kara  {TeiU  Work  in  PaktU  ii,  886),  and 
which  are  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  three  and 
one  half  miles  north-west  of  Ain-Shemis  (Beth-shemesh). 
Bat  the  identification  is  precarious.    See  Lehi. 

Titi4iK»<a  (or  Emmia),  /Sa»n/,  a  Prankish  princess, 
lived  in  631.  She  was,  according  to  some  hagiogra- 
phers,  the  sister  or  daughter  of  king  Dagobert  I.  She 
retired  about  631  into  the  mountains  of  G^vaudan,  near 
the  source  of  the  Tarn,  and  constmcted  there  a  double 
mooastery  for  both  sexes.  After  having  been  conse- 
crated by  St  Liare,  bishop  of  Javoux  (now  Mende), 
Enimia  took  the  title  of  an  abbess,  and  died  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  her  communities.  She  is  commemorated 
Oct  6.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GhtiraUj  s.  v. 

Enjedin,  Georo,  a  Transylvanian  Socinian,  who 
was  bom  about  1550,  and  died  Nov.  28,  1597,  superin- 
tendent of  the  Socinian  congregations  in  Transylvania, 
is  the  author  of,  ExpUcatio  Locorum  SeripturvB  Vet,  et 
Kcti  Teai.  ex  gu&us  TrinUaiit  Dogma  StabUiri  Sokt : 


•^EsepUcoHo  Locorum  CaJeehent  Raceoviensie.  Sea 
Jdcher,  AUgemtinea  Gekhrten-Lexikonf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Enna  (Lat  Endeus)  is  the  name  of  several  Irish 
saints,  the  most  noted  of  whom  was  the  son  of  Conall 
Derg,  chief  of  the  Oriels,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the 
throne,  and  became  a  famous  warrior.  Being  suddenly 
converted  to  Christianity,  he  renounced  the  throne,  and 
after  studying  in  the  monastery  of  Mansenus,  in  Brit- 
ain, thence  went  to  Rome,  and,  returning  to  his  native 
land,  became  abbot  of  Aran,  in  Killeany  bay,  where  he 
probably  died,  cir.  A.D.  542.  He  is  commemorated  March 
21.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Ennathas,  Saint,  a  virgin,  martyred  in  Palestine 
under  Diocletian,  by  being  scourged  through  the  streets 
of  Cflssarea,  and  then  burned.  She  is  commemorated 
Nov.  13. 

Ennemond,  Saint,    See  Aiinemosidus. 

Enoch,  the  translated  patriarch,  is  commemorated 
in  some  calendars  of  saints  on  Jan.  22  or  Julv  19. 

Ens  (or  Enzo),  Gituieppe,  called  the  Younger, 
was  a  court  painter  to  Ridolfo  II,  and  flourished  about 
1660.  In  his  celebrated  Tomb  of  Christ,  at  Ognissanti, 
he  styled  himself  Jos.  Heinsius.  He  gained  such  an 
Immense  reputation  in  his  time  for  his  pictures,  that 
pope  Urban  YIII  made  him  a  chevalier  of  the  Order  of 
the  Holy  Cross.  He  painted  several  altar-pieces  for 
the  churches  of  Venice.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  Arts,%.x. 

Eno,  Jan,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Holland,  was 
bora  at  Quadyck  in  West  Frisia,  May  9,  1682.  He 
studied  at  Leyden,  was  in  1720  professor  of  theology  at 
Utrecht,  where  he  died,  Jan.  6,  1723,  leaving,  BibHo^ 
theea  Sacra: — Atxnmerkir^er  over  lesaias  xi  en  xU: — 
Oratio  InauguraUs  de  Persecutione  JulianL  See  Jocher, 
AUgemeines  Gelehrten'Lexikon,  a,  v.;  Winer,  Bandbuch 
dertheoLLit,i,dS2.    (a  P.) 

Entalma  (itfrtiKfia)  is  the  Greek  name  of  the  doc- 
ument by  which  a  bishop  confers  on  a  monk  the  priv- 
ilege of  hearing  confessions. 

Enthxonistlo  LirrrEita  were  letters  anciently  ad- 
dressed by  newly  installed  bishops  to  foreign  bishops, 
announcing  their  promotion  to  the  episcopal  ofiice,  and 
giving  an  account  of  their  faith  and  orthodoxy.  They 
received  in  return  letters  of  peace  and  Christian  fellow- 
ship. A  failure  to  send  such  messages  was  regarded  as 
an  indication  of  a  withdrawal  from  communion  with 
the  rest  of  the  Christian  world. 

ENTHRONISTIC  Sebmon  is  the  sermon  preached 
by  a  bishop  on  the  occasion  of  his  enthronization  (q.  v.). 

EnthroiiizatlOD.  (1)  The  solemn  placing  of  a 
bishop  on  his  throne.    See  Bishop. 

(2)  The  word  is  also  used  to  designate  the  placing 
or  "enthroning"  of  relics  of  the  saints  in  the  altar 
of  a  church,  on  consecration.  See  Consecbatiox  of 
Chubchks. 

(3)  The  installation  of  a  presbyter  is  someUmes  des^ 
ignated  by  the  same  word. 

EnthnaiaataB.  Those  who  pretended  to  prophesy 
by  the  motion  of  an  indwelling  demon,  which  they 
thought  to  be  the  Holy  Spirit.    See  Kuchites. 

Entxanoe.  Two  of  the  most  remarkable  ceremo- 
nies of  the  Eastern  Liturgies  are  the  Lesser  and  the 
Greater  Entrance— that  of  the  word  and  that  of  the  sac- 
rament. 

I.  The  Lesser  Entrance  is  the  bearing  in  of  the  book 
of  the  gospels  in  solemn  procession. 

"Then  the  priest  and  the  deacon,  standing  before  the 
holy  tables,  make  three  genuflections.  Then  the  priest, 
taking  the  holy  book  of  the  Gospels,  ((ives  it  to  the  dea- 
con ;  and  so,  going  out  hv  the  north  side,  with  lights  go- 
ing before  them,  tney  make  the  lesser  entrance." 

That  is,  the  deacon  and  priest  pass  from  the  sanctuary 
into  the  chapel  of  the  prothesis,  which  is  to  the  north 
of  it,  and  so  out  into  the  body  of  the  church,  where,  by 


ENTET  !■ 

a  deviom  paehi  tti*7  retam  to  ttie  boly  doora,  Trhich 
*I«Open;  tbe  iroli]n]e,orteadaeimUdiiiLhBn>t  inag- 
DiSc^ice,  ii  laid  on  the  boly  Uble,  wlience  it  U  *gijn 
ttkeD  to  the  Rinbo,  when  the  goapel  U  to  be  read. 

This  "Entrance"  txnespoaiSa  to  the  carrying  of  the 
gospel  bv-  the  deKon  Co  the  anibD  or  rood-toft  in  the 
Wealern  Chureb,  once  a  rite  of  great  importance  {  for 
the  book  w»»  preeeiled  not  ooJy  by  taper^  but  by  a  cru- 
ciflx. 

IL  TU  Greattr  Entrancf.  Thia  ceremony  bi*,  like 
othen,  been  developed  from  very  email  beginnings  into 
great  pnnninence  and  magniflcence. 

The  liturgy  o(  St.  James  simply  alludes,  in  pasung, 
to  the  bringing  in  of  the  elements.  St  Uark's  liturgy 
is  erea  more  vague. 

In  the  Armenian  rite  the  celebrant  lies  prostrate  be- 
fore the  altar  while  the  Great  Entrance  is  made;  in  thia 
rite  (anonkdously)  the  dements  are  apoken  of  as  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  brfvre  conaecation. 

In  the  mocb  more  developed  rite  of  Constantinople, 
after  the  chanting  of  the  Cherubic  h^u,  the  ceremony 
(itoceeds  aa  follows : 

DDring  ihs  prerlon*  part  of  the  enchnrietli:  offlce,  ibe 
elements  hBTs  remained  oo  the  tabts  In  the  chape)  of  the 
prolheais.  At  the  proper  point,  the  deacon  cesaes  Ibe 
altar  and  the  sanctuary,  and  then  goei  before  the  priest 
Into  the  prolbesls.  Tne  prleat  IhsD  lifts  the  "«er,"  or 
coTering.  ftom  the  chalice  and  oaten,  and  lays  li  on  the 
deacon'a  abonlder,  and  then  plaKS  tipOD  it  the  palen, 
coveted  with  the  aaterlak  and  vsM.     1'he  deacon  lakea 


and  BO,  ptHBded  bf  tapen,  they  move  rouud  lo 

the  bolT  doors,  as  in  the  leaser  entrance.  lo  great 
chnrebea,  where  there  are  dignified  clergy  aud  maoy  at- 
lendanti,  this  procession  Is  one  of  great  nmgniaciDce. 
Where  there  la  bat  a  single  prlat  and  no  deacon,  be  bean 
the  pBISD  on  hi*  shonlder,  enpporilug  It  by  his  lell  hand, 
and  the  cballce  In  hla  right  hand  betUre  hli  breast. 

In  the  Coptic  Su  Basil,  the  Great  Entrance  is  made 
at  the  very  beginning  of  the  litmrgy ;  the  diiecliona  for 
it  are  very  carious  and  minute. 

"The  priest  goes  lo  the  Takaddemet  (Protbesls)  from 
which  bo  aball  uke  the  lamb  (I.  e.  loal),  looking  altenilTe- 
lithat  Ihnmtx)  na  flaw  In  It. .  .  .  WheDbehilh  all  thnr  hp 
ne,  and  the  Incenae, 
Klpea  It  llehtlTT.as  ( 

n  he  shall  bear  It  ronn^  to  the  altar 
barablm 


needa,  the  lamb,  t) 
lamb  In  his  hand 
waa  first  washed 
Simeon  the  priest 


preaenled  ' 


,— , toetemplA  — ,«~, 

ke  priest  shall  Inr  It  down  on  the  altar  and  aball  place  II 
on  the  paten,  whlcb  slgnlflea  the  cradle ;  and  afaall  cover 
it  with  a  linen  cloth,  as  tbs  Virgin  did  at  hi*  NnlliUy." 
A  deacon  seems  lo  have  borne  the  cruet.— Smith,  Diet. 
of  Chriit.  Aiitiq.t,y.     See  Intboit. 

Bntry  into  Jbbubalbm.    Tbis  event  in  our  Lord's 
life  is  very  l[equent])r  represented  in  the  earlier  art  of 


SDtry  Into  Jernstlem.    {From  the  Snrcophagna 
□TJnnlnsBaisnB,) 


of  the  Tatican,  and  oi 
at  Belhlchem.  The  earliest  HS.  representation  of  it 
i*  probably  that  in  the  Rabula  or  Ijiurentian  Evan- 
geliary.  The  treatment  ia  almoet  always  the  same; 
the  Lord  is  mounted  on  the  ass,  eomelimea  accom- 
panied by  her  foal,  and  the  multitude  with  their  palm- 
branches  follow,  or  lay  their  garments  before  him.  His 
tight  hand  is  geDerally  raiaed  in  the  act  of  blessing. 
The  multitude  frequently  raise  their  hinda  in  Ihauk*- 
giving.  In  one  of  the  uldeet  M5S.  of  the  New  Teal,  in 
eiiatence,  the  Gregorian  Evangcliary  of  St.  Cuthbert, 
the  Lord  is  represented  mountal  on  an  ass,  and  bearing 
a  large  whip — evidently  with  reference  lo  tbe  acourge 
of  small  cords  used  in  the  expulsion  of  buyers  and  seller* 
from  the  temple.  There  is  a  certain  variety  in  the  es- 
amplea  taken  from  the  different  carvings.  Sometimes 
Zacchma  is  reprcaenled  in  Ibe  "Gg  or  sycamore  tree" 
behind  the  Lord,  as  if  to  call  attention  to  the  beginning 
of  bis  last  journey  at  Jericho.— Smitb,  I>icl,  nfChrul. 

Entychltea,  a  sect  of  the  followrra  of  Simon,  wbo, 
according  to  Clemens  Alex.  (Slromala,  vii,  17 ;  p.  900), 
derived  this  name  from  their  pTomiscuoua  (ivruT^di'w) 
sexual  tntercuunc  at  the  night  moetinga.  Others  write 
the  name  EvIychUa  or  Evchila. 

Envy  was  always  reckoned  an  odious  sin,  and  one 
of  tbe  first  magnitude;  but  there  are  no  distinct  penal- 
ties attached  to  it,  inasmuch  as,  before  it  could  bring  a 
man  under  public  discipline,  it  itquiied  to  be  displayed 
in  some  outwanl  and  vicious  action,  which  received  its 
appropriate  punishment. 

Bonus  (or  2I011IIU},  a  French  saint,  was  of  noble 
binb,  and  became  bishop  of  Aries,  A.D.  492.  He  as- 
sisted, Sept.  9, 199,  at  Ihe  conference  between  the  Cath- 
olic bishops  of  Burgundy  and  tbe  Ariaa  prelates  at  Ly- 
ons, in  the  presence  of  Gondeband,  king  of  Bui^ndy, 
who  farored  Arianiam.  About  the  same  lime  Eonus 
was  involved  in  Ihe  dispute  with  Avitus  of  Vienne,  con- 
cerning Ihe  primatial  right  of  their  respective  churches 
which  was  brought  before  pope  Symmachua,  and  Anally 
decided  in  favor  of  the  see  ot  Arlea.  Eonus  waa  allied 
with  Ruriciua  of  Limoges,  and  with  Pomerus,  abbot  of 
Aries,  and  has  left  us  his  correspondence  with  those 
saints.  He  died  Ang.  IG,  602.  and  ia  commemorated  on 
Aug.  80.  Bee  Hoefer,  A^our.  Biog.  Gmirak,  s.  v.  1  Smith. 
Lid.  of  Cliiiil.  Biog.  s.  V. 

BpaOt.  In  determining  Ihe  epact  we  cither  find 
the  number  of  days  requireil  to  make  up  tbe  lunar  to 
the  solar  year,  and  so  Ihe  numeral  of  the  moon's  age  on 
Jan.  1,  or,  with  Scaliger,  we  may  use  March  1,  which 
cornea  to  the  same  thing,  and  has  the  advantage  of 
avoiding  the  ambiguity  of  leap-year.  The  old  Latin 
cycles  of  eighty-four  years  indicated  Easter  by  meant 
of  the  epacts  oT  Jan.  1,  and  the  day  of  the  week  on 
which  Jan.  I  felL 

Tbe  method  of  determining  the  months  Qantt)  was 
as  follows:  For  the  first  month  of  tbe  year,  that  month 
was  taken  whose  age  was  expressed  by  the  epoct.  The 
day  of  December  on  which  it  commenced  is  found  by 
BubtractJng  Ihe  epact  (when  more  than  one)  from  thiily- 
three.  Tbe  fiiat  mouth  was  always  counted  full,  then 
hollow  and  full  succeeded  by  turns,  so  that  the  lost 


onth  in  the  year,  ii 


n  lun 


IS  hol- 


itercatary  year  full.     From  the  la 
the  new  moon  of  the  following  year. 

The  Elasler  new  moon  being  found,  Easter-day  was, 
according  to  the  I«tin  rules,  that  Sunday  which  fell 
on  ot  next  alter  the  ISth  of  the  moon,  not  therelbre 
later  than  the  3!d  of  tbe  moon.  The  choice  of  the 
month  waa  deterrnined  Ihns:  Ifew  moon  mual  net  be 
earlier  than  March  fi,  and  full  moon  not  later  than  March 
!1)  the  Drat  of  these  rules  aometimea  having  to  grv« 
way  to  save  (be  violation  of  the  latter. 


EPHES-DAMNUM 


346 


EPIPHANIUS 


The  following  nle  is  given  for  the  epaot  of  Jan.  1, 
riz.,  multiply  the  golden  number  by  eleven,  and  divide 
the  product  by  thirty,  the  remainder  is  the  epacL  Bat 
thit  rule  will  not  give  the  epacts  mentioned  above, 
which  were  constructed  as  we  have  just  described — 
with  a  saltus  lurae,  or  addition  of  twelve  after  the  19th 
year  of  the  cycle,  etc. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Chrisf,  Antiq. 
a.  V. 

Bpbes-damniiiiL  The  ruined  site,  Damtm,  pro- 
posed by  Van  de  Yelde  fur  this  place  does  not  appear 
CHI  the  Ordnanee  Map ;  and  Lieut.  Gonder  suggests  as 
an  identification  {Tad  Work  in  Patut,  ii,  836),  a  place 
in  the  same  general  vicinity  called  Beit-FoMeA,  lying 
one  and  three  quarter  miles  south  of  Beit-Nettlf. 

Ephesua,  Skvbn  Slkbfkbs  or.  See  Seven  Slkkp- 


Sphdri  (Gr.  c^opoc,  wupeetors%  a  name  sometimes 
Applied  by  ancient  Christian  writers  to  bishops. 

Sphraim  bex-Simson,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  who  flonr- 
ished  at  the  beginning  of  the  Idth  century  in  France, 
la  the  author  of  a  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.  Ex- 
cerpts are  made  from  it  by  Azulai  in  his  D'^iailp  bn3, 
and  in  mx  nmn.  See  Fnrst,  Bibl,  Jud,  i,  228;  De* 
Rossi,  DUionario  Siorico,  p.  94  (Germ.  transL).    (B.  P.) 

Ephrem  (or  ZSphraim),  patriarch  of  Amtioch,  a 
Greek  theologian,  was  bom  in  the  second  part  of  the 
6th  century.  If  the  epithet  of  A  midian  (6  'A/ii^(oc)» 
which  Theophanes  gives  him,  indicates  the  place  of  his 
birth,  he  was  bom  at  Amida,  in  Armenia,  near  the  source 
of  the  Tigris.  He  first  had  civil  employments,  and  un- 
der the  reign  of  Justin  I  obtained  the  high  dignity  of 
a  count  of  the  Orient  In  the  years  526  and  526  An- 
tioch  was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  earthquakes,  and 
by  fires,  which  were  the  consequences  of  them.  The 
inhabitants,  who  were  touched  by  the  compassion  which 
Epbrero  showed  for  their  disasters,  and  by  the  help 
which  he  extended  to  them,  appointed  him  successor  to 
the  patriarch  Euphrasius,  who  was  buried  under  the 
rains  of  the  dty.  All  the  writers  on  Church  history 
praise  his  conduct  as  a  patriarch,  his  charity  towards 
the  poor,  the  zeal  and  vigor  with  which  he  opposed 
heretics.  Not  satisfied  with  condemning,  in  a  synod  at 
Antiocb,  thoee  who  tried  to  revive  the  errors  of  Origen, 
be  also  wrote  divers  treatises  against  the  Nestorians, 
the  £otychians,the  Severians,  the  Acephali,  and  in  favor 
of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  Towards  the  end  of  his 
life  he  was  forced  by  the  emperor  Justinian  to  subscribe 
to  the  condemnation  of  three  of  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon,  which  he  had  there  ao  warmly  defend- 
ed. Ephrem  died  A.D.  545.  His  works  are  known  to 
OS  only  by  their  analysis,  which  Photius  has  given  in 
his  BibUotkeea;  they  made  together  three  volumes, 
which  were  consecrated  to  the  defense  of  the  dogmas 
of  the  Church,  and  particularly  of  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon.  The  fint  volume  contained  a 
letter  to  Zenobins,  advocate  of  Emessa,  and  member  of 
the  sect  of  the  Acephali ;  letters  to  the  emperor  Justin- 
ian; to  Anthimus,  bishop  of  Trapezus;  to  Dometianus 
Syndettcua,  metropolitan  of  Tarsus;  to  Brazes  the  Per- 
sian, and  to  otherSb  The  acts  of  a  synod  {awoitxf^ 
trpilis)  were  kept  by  Ephrem,  on  the  subject  of  certain 
heterodox  books,  panegyrics,  and  other  discourses.  The 
seoood  volume  contained  a  treatise  in  four  books,  in  de- 
fense of  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and  of  the  Synod  of  Chal- 
eedon,  against  the  Nestorians,  the  Eutychians,  and  re- 
sponses on  the  theological  subjects  to  the  advocate 
Anatolios.  See  Hoefer,  ATniv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v.; 
Sauih,DicLo/Chrut.Bioff.»,y. 

Ephrem,  patriarch  of  Armemxa,  was  bora  at  Sis 
in  1784.  The  otjects  of  his  study  were  poetry,  elo- 
quence, theology,  history,  and  chronology.  The  pope 
appointed  him  biihop  m  pariibiUf  on  account  of  his 
talent  and  of  the  influence  which  he  possessed  with 
the  united  Armenians.  After  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Gabriel,  in  1771,  he  waa  raised  to  the  patriarchal  see 


of  Sis,  and  died  in  1784,  leaving,  ExjUanaiion  of  the 
Psahu  of  David:  —  ColkcHan  of  Sacred  and  Profane 
Poelry: — A  Poem  on  Geneiii : — Rules qf  Armenian  Ffr- 
tifoation: — CoUection  of  IjeUert^  both  in  prose  and  in 
verse : — Chronological  Hittory  qf  the  A  rmenian  Pahi- 
arche  of  Cilicia,     See  Hoefer,  A'our.  Bioff.  Ginirale, 

S.V. 

Bphrem,  Saint,  bishop  of  Mtlasa,  in  Caria,  lived 
anterior  to  the  5th  century,  and  is  commemorated  Jan. 
24  at  Leuca,  near  Mylasa,  where  he  had  been  interred. 
See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  GMraUf  s.  v. 

Spiot§tnfl,  a  Roman  Stoic  philosopher,  was  bora 
at  Hierapolis,  Phr}''£^s,  in  the  Ist  century,  and  while 
young  was  a  slave  of  Epaphroditus.  When  he  became 
a  freedtnan  is  not  known.  He  waa  involved  in  the 
proscription  by  which  Domitian  banished  all  philoso- 
phers from  Rome,  and  retired  to  Nicopolis,  in  Epirus, 
where  he  opened  a  school  of  Stoic  philosophy,  and 
held  those  converutions  which  have  been  preserved  in 
the  Manual  and  philosophical  lectures,  compiled  from 
his  discourses  by  his  pupil  Arrian.  His  teachings  are 
summed  up  in  the  formula,  **  Bear  and  forbear.'*  Rec- 
ognizing only  will  and  reason,  his  highest  conception 
of  life  was  to  be  passionless  under  whatever  circum- 
stances. **  Man,"  he  said,  **  is  but  a  pilot ;  observe  the 
star,  hold  the  radder,  and  be  not  distracted  on  thy  way." 
He  is  supposed  to  have  committed  nothing  to  writing. 

ZSpigonatlllzn  (circyovanov),  a  portion  of  the 
sacerdotal  habit,  used  in  both  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches,  consisting  of  an  apfiendage  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  small  maniple,  on  tlie  righ(  side  hanging  from 
the  girdle.  In  the  Roman  Church  it  is  worn  only  by 
the  pope.  In  the  Greek  Church  it  is  borne  by  all  bish- 
ops, and  consists  of  brocade,  velvet,  or  some  stiff  material, 
a  foot  in  dimensions,  with  a  cross  wrought  upon  it,  and 
tassels  hanging  from  the  three  lower  comers.  It  is  not 
used  in  the  English  Church.    See  Vestmknts. 

Bpigftnns,  a  heresiarch,  was  a  disciple  of  No^tus, 
and  came  to  Rome  about  A.D.  200,  and  there  propagated 
bis  master's  opinions.    See  NoKtiams. 

BplleiiaBa,  sacred  games  celebrated  among  the  an- 
cient Greeks  in  the  time  of  vintage,  before  the  invention 
of  the  wine-press.  They  contended  with  one  another 
in  treading  the  grapes,  who  should  soonest  press  out  the 
nmsf,  in  the  meantime  singing  the  praises  of  Dionysus, 
and  begging  that  the  must  might  be  sweet  and  good. 

Bpimanioia,  the  maniples  or  hand-pieces  of  the 
priests  of  the  Greek  Church.  They  are  provided  with 
epimanicia  for  both  arms,  while  the  maniple  (q.  v.)  of 
the  Romish  priesthood  is  worn  on  the  left  hand  alone. 

Epinicion,  a  triumphal  hymn  used  in  the  commun- 
ion ser\'ice  of  the  early  Church.  It  consisted  of  the 
words, "  Holy,  holy,  holy,  Lord  God  of  Hosts !"  It  has 
sometimes  been  confounded  with  the  Trisagion  (q.  v.), 

BpiphanianB,  a  branch  of  the  CARrocRATiANs 
(q.  v.). 

Bpiphanias,  bishop  op  Armenia,  lived  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  7th  century.  After  having  been  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  the  patriarchal 
school,  he  retired  into  a  desert  near  Tevin,  whence  he 
was  taken  to  discharge  the  functions  of  abbot  of  the 
I  monastery  of  Sourp  Garabed  (St.  John  the  Baptist),  in 
the  province  of  Daron,  to  which  dignity  was  joined  the 
title  of  bishop  of  the  Mamigonians,  bome  by  Epipha- 
nias  for  twenty  years^  In  A.D.  629  he  assisted  at  the 
Council  of  Garin  (Erzeriim),  and  wrote.  The  History  of 
the  Monastery  of  Sourp  Garabed: —The  History  of  the 
Council  at  Ephesus:—  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  of 
David  and  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs:— Sermons,  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  a,  v. 

Bpiphaiiius,  fourteenth  bishop  and  fifth  patriarch 
of  CoMSTAinrnioPLE,  A.D.  520-585,  seems  to  have  been 
a  quiet  and  pradent  perron,  well  fitted  for  that  violent 
age,  when  the  great  popular  sedition  occurred  in  that 
city  (A.D.  531),  and  when  the  omperora  prescribed  the 


EPIPHANIUS 


346 


ERASMUS 


policy  of  the  Church.  His  letten  to  pope  Honniidas 
are  extant,  alao  the  sentence  of  the  court  which  he  held 
against  Severas  and  Peter  (Migne,  PcUroL  GracAxxxvif 
788  aq.)*    See  Smith,  Did,  of  Chriii,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Bpiphanlns  of  Jerusalem,  a  Greek  hagiogea- 
pher,  lived  probably  in  the  12th  century.  AUatius  (/>e 
SytMOnum  Scriptitf  p.  106)  and  Fabricius  (Codex  Apo^ 
gryph,  n.  2)  have  given  an  extract  from  the  JAfe  of  the 
Virgin  by  this  author;  the  entire  work  has  been  pub- 
lisbed  since  in  the  A  necdota  Literaria  of  Amodutius. 
Epiphanius  is  also  the  author  of  a  lJi$toty  of  St.An- 
drew,  the  apostle  (Allatius,  Dt  Symeonum  Scriplu,  p. 
90),  and  of  a  Description  of  Jerusalem  (published  by 
Ferdinand  Morelli  in  his  Expasitio  Thematum,  Paris, 
1620,  and  by  Allatius,  ^vfiftixra).  A  MS.  in  the  Bod- 
leian Library  contains  a  treatise  entitled  Epiphanvii 
Monachi  et  Presbyteri,  Character  B,  Virginit  et  Domini 
Nostri,  which  differs  from  the  Life  of  the  Virgin  cited 
above,  but  seems  to  be  by  the  same  author.  The  same 
is  also  true  of  the  MS.  entitled  De  Distidio  quatuor 
JEvangelistarum  Circa  Beturrtdionem  Christi,  which  is 
found  in  the  same  library.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
GMralCj  a.  v. 

ZSpiphaniua  the  Younger,  bishop  of  Constantia, 
lived  about  the  end  of  the  7th  centnr}*.  He  was  rep- 
resented at  the  third  General  Council  of  Constantinople, 
in  A.D.  680,  by  the  bishop  of  Trimithus.  Several  of  his 
discourses  attributed  to  St.  Epiphanius  belong  probably 
to  this  Epiphanius  or  to  a  bishop  of  Constantia,  also  called 
Epiphanius.  This  latter  is  the  author  of  a  letter  of 
congratulation,  which  was  addressed  to  the  patriarch 
John,  who  was  restored  to  the  see  of  Constantinople  in 
867.    See  Hoefer,  iVouc.  Biog.  Gin^aUf  s.  v. 

ZSplflc5pa,  a  name  sometimes  given  in  the  early 
Church  to  the  wife  of  a  bishop.  The  word  is  used  in 
this  sense  in  the  second  Council  of  Tours,  where  it  is 
said  that  if  a  bishop  have  not  a  wife  there  shall  no  train 
of  women  follow  him. 

Bplflc5p8D,  a  name  given  to  the  deaconesses  (q.  r.) 
of  the  ancient  Christian  Church. 

Episcopate,  the  office  of  a  bishop  (q.  v.). 

Episcdpi  SenatUB  (bishops  of  the  senate),  a  name 
given  in  the  canon  law  to  the  chapter  of  a  cathedral 
(q.  v.). 

BpiaoopiBsaB,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
deaconesses  of  the  early  Church. 

BpiflcdpuB  Judfleomm  ( bishop  of  the  Jews), 
The  Jews  of  England,  under  the  first  Norman  kings, 
had  over  them  an  officer  under  this  title,  licensed  by 
the  crown,  who  judged  and  ruled  them  according  to 
their  own  law. 

EplBOOpUB  Regio&axiaB,  a  bishop  in  the  early 
Church,  whose  labors  were  confined  to  no  particular 
place,  but  who  wandered  about  from  one  district  to  an- 
other. 

EplsSmon  (iirimifiov,  i.  e.  distinguished),  a  cabalis- 
tic word  much  used  in  the  Gnostic  system  of  Marcus, 
and  hinted  at  by  several  of  the  early  Church  fathers. 
See  Smith,  Dict,'of  Christ,  Biog,  a.  v. 

EpiaozomSne  (ivtatoi^ofuvri),  a  name  given  by 
the  Cappadocian  Christians  to  Ascension  day  (q.  v.), 
probably  because  on  that  day  our  salvation  was  per> 
fected. 

Epifitemonarch  (Gr.  itrierafiai,  to  know,  &px<^Vt 
a  ruler),  an  officer  in  the  Greek  Church,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  guard  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  to  exam- 
ine all  matters  relating  to  faith. 

BpiBtle,  the  first  lesson  in  the  commuhion  service 
of  the  Church  of  England,  deriving  its  name  firom  the 
circumstance  that  it  is  generally  taken  from  the  apostolic 
epistles;  though  sometimes  from  the  Acts,  and  occa- 
sionally from  the  Old-Test,  writings.  The  form  was 
derived  from  that  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches^ 
where  it  was  usually  denominated  the  *^  Apostle.'*    It 


has  been  in  use  in  the  Eoglish  Chnreh  since  the  time 
of  Augustine  of  Canterbury,  a  period  of  twelve  hundred 
years.  See  Hook,  Church  Did,  s.  v. ;  Staunton,  EcdeM, 
Did,  B,y. 

Eplstler,  an  ecdenastical  officer  mentioned  in  the 
canons  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  in  the  injunc- 
tions of  queen  Elizabeth,  whose  duty  it  was  to  road  the 
Epistle  in  collegiate  churches.  He  was  required  to  be 
dressed  in  a  cope.    The  office  is  now  obsolete. 

EplstSlaB  SynodXcce,  a  name  sometimes  given 
to  enthronistic  letters  (q.  v.),  but  more  generally  used  to 
indicate  the  circular  letters  by  which  a  primate  sum- 
moned a  council  of  the  Church  in  ancient  times. 

Bpitrachelion  (Gr.  M,  upon,  and  rpdxn^oQ,  the 
nedt),  a  vestment  of  the  Greek  ecclesiastics,  which,  in- 
stead of  being  put  round  the  neck  like  a  scarf,  is  joined 
at  the  centre,  and  has  an  orifice  left  at  its  upper  end 
that  it  may  be  passed  over  the  head.    See  Stole. 

Eponamon,  a  name  given  by  the  natives  of  Chili, 
in  South  America,  to  the  devil,  as  being  strong  and 
powerfuL 

Epnldn^  a  special  order  of  priests  among  the  an- 
cient Romans.  They  were  first  appointed  B.C.  198,  to 
preside  at  the  Epulum  Jovis  (q.  v.)  and  similar  feasts, 
and  were  usually  three  in  number,  although  they  were 
at  one  time  seven  and  at  another  ten. 

Bpiiltun  JovIb  (the  feast  of  Jupiter),  a  festival  of 
the  ancient  Romans,  held  in  honor  of  the  father  of  the 
gods.  At  these  the  gods  themselves  were  supposed  to 
be  present ;  for  their  statues  were  brought  on  rich  beds, 
with  their /7ti/t7mana  or  pillows,  and  placed  at  the  most 
honorable  part  of  the  table  as  the  principal  guests. 
The  care  of  this  apparatus  belonged  to  the  epuUmes 
(q.v.).  . 

Eqtdrla  (Lat.  ^uus,  ^  a  horse"),  two  festivals  cele- 
brated by  the  ancient  Romans,  the  one  in  February,  the 
other  in  March,  in  honor  of  Mars,  the  god  of  war,  at 
which  horse-racing  was  the  principal  amusement. 

EquitloB,  bishop  of  Hippo  Diarrhytus,  notorious 
for  his  turbulence,  against  whom  the  Council  of  Car> 
thage,  A.D.  401,  took  steps  towards  a  deposition.  See 
Smith,  Did,  qf  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

SracliuB.    See  Hbracuus. 

Erard  (Eberhard),  a  Bavarian  bishop,  lived  about 
679.  He  was  the  brother  of  St.  Hidulpbus,  archbishop 
of  Treves,  and  assisted  him  in  the  administration  of  his 
see.  He  was  consecrated  originally  biahop  of  Ardagh, 
in  Ireland,  but  finally  of  Ratisbon,  yet  without  a  sta- 
tionary location.  He  is  often  given  the  titie  of  the 
Blessed,  and  is  commemorated  Jan.  8  (also  Jan.  6,  Feb. 
9,  April  14,  and  Oct.  8).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GM» 
rale,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

EraBmUB,  Saint  (commonly  called  EItuo,  also  Ermo), 
was  bishop  of  some  see  near  Antioch,  and  is  said  to  have 
returned  to  FirmisD,  in  Campania,  and  then  to  have  suf- 
fered mart3*rdom  under  Diocletian.  The  acts  of  this 
saint,  given  by  the  BoUandists,  are  entirely  apocryphal. 
It  is  pretended  that  the  body  of  Erasmus  was  preserved 
at  Gaeta,  with  the  exception  of  some  parts  which  were 
given  to  the  monastery  of  Mt,  Codius  at  Rome,  and 
some  to  those  of  St.  Orestes.    St.  Erasmus  is  invoked  bv 

• 

the  sailors  on  the  Mediterranean  against  tempest  and 
other  danger,  and  for  this  reason  they  have  given  his 
name  to  an  electric  phenomenon  which  often  appears  on 
top  of  the  masts  of  vessels  during  a  storm.  He  is  also 
the  patron  saint  against  the  stomach-ache,  on  the  tra- 
dition that  he  suffered  martyrdom  by  evisceration.  He 
is  commemorated  June  2  (or  8).  See  Jameson,  Sacred 
and  Legendary  A  rt,  p.  699. 

BraBmUB,  Johannes,  a  Dutch  theologian,  lived  m 
1598.  He  was  very  learned,  even  according  to  the  tes- 
timony of  his  adversaries.  He  knew  Hebrew  well, 
and  had  corrected  Tremelltns  and  Juoins's  version 
of  the  prophetSi  Having  been  appointed  rector  at 
Antwerp,  he  confessed  the  doctrine  of  the  Unitariani* 


ERATH 

bat  Wtlliun,  prince  of  Onnge,  prer«til«d  hi<  miking 
pTDMlyus,  4ud  obliged  bim  to  leive  Holhnd.  £n»- 
miu  Sn(  letiml  to  I'olind,  and  thtn  Sato  Tranivlvanii, 
where  the  UniluUu  mule  him  miniiter  at  CUodiopo- 
lis,  on  the  conilitiun,  however,  that  he  would  not  teach 
thit  the  Son  ot  God  wu  created  btfore  all  other  thingi. 
EraNDU  had  a  great  conrerence  on  tliii  tutgect  nil' 
FaualusSocinua.  He  wentrcom  ClaDdiopolii  loCraeoi 
■nd  aiked  perminian  ot  the  Unitarian!  to  explain  hii 
reasons  for  not  beliering  "  that  Jetua  Chriit  was  not 
■11  the  Son  of  God  before  bin  birth  b;  hu  mother.''   S 


ippoini 


Tfaei 


lasted  two  davi,  but  ended  in  the  aatisfacti 
party.     See  Iloefer,  A'oue.  Biog.  GiaiiaU,  e.  r. 

Brstli,  Avavmfi,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  i 
GenDaoy,  waa  bom  JaiL  S8, 1648,  near  Aogtburif. 
1G79  he  was  appointed  proresaor  of  theology  at  Dilli 
gen,  and  died  Sept.  5, 1719.  He  is  the  author  of  mai 
wnliiigij  caomerated  in  Jcicbet,  AUgemtati  Cdtkrlt 
Xerih«,i.T.     (B.P.) 

BrItOfin  Greek  mytbolo- 

btr  songs  were  ao  touching 
and  charming  th  at  tbey  moved 
even  the  most  callous  hearts 
to  loTei  hence  also  her  name 
(trom  Ipo^, 


:  first  to 


pose  tUgia  or  plaintire  verse. 
She  is  generally  represented 
with  the  lyre  on  her  ann  and 
a  plectrum  in  hei  hand. 

Brbkiain,  Heinrtch 
Wiuicuc,  a  Piotestant  theo- 
logian of  Gemiany,  was  bom 
Jnly  8, 1810,  at  Glogau.  For 
hia  academical  csieer  be  pre- 
paid himself  at  the  Wit- 
tenberg Seminary,  and  com- 
mencHl  his  theotogicii  lec- 
■nrea  at  Beriin  in  1838.  In 
18a5  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Kikiigiberg,  and  died  there, 
Jan.  9,  18S4.  He  is  best  FIgars  of  Erato, 
known  aa  the  author  of  Gt- 

tduektt  dcr  prolataiaiiiAm  Sdcttn  im  ZtUatltr  Jer 
Rrformttiiott  (Hamburg  and  Gotba,  1848).     (a  P.) 

BrC  (IM.  Herat*)  is  the  name  of  several  Irish  sai 
the  chief  of  whom  was  bishop  of  Slane,  of  rayel 
Bcent,  who  died  A.D.  GIZ,  aged  about  ninety  years,  and 
ia  comnMmonted  on  Nov.  2. 

BTChembert  (oi  Erolwiilp«tt),  an  Italian  histo- 
rian, was  descended  from  the  dukes  of  Iknerei 

eur,  was  taken  in  August,  8S1,  by  Pindonulf, 
Capna,  and  Erchembert  was  carried  away  a 
bat  esciped'and  took  the  habit  of  a  monk  st 
vent  of  the  Benedictines  of  Hotite  Camao.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-five  he  was  elected  ^ibot  of  a  convent  near 
by ;  bat  was  driven  from  it  by  Aranlf,  and  returned  for 
the  rest  of  bis  days  to  his  ceU.  He  wrote  a  VkromcU, 
or  an  extended  history  of  the  Lombards,  which  is 
lieved  to  be  lost,  although  an  abridged  edition,  from 
10  888>  as  a  continuation  of  the  work  of  Paul  Uiacre, 
wai  pablished  by  Antonio  Carscioli  (NiplM,  1626);  by 
Camillo  Pertgrini,  in  his  llitloria  Prmeipura  Lorge- 
Inrdbnrn,  etc  (ibid.  1643).  There  is  also  attributed  to 
Etcbcmbert,  Vi  Dalruclioiit  el  Rmocatiom  Cattieatii 
CokoAb.'— Oe  lirnadUamm  fneurtvmt: — Vidii  Imb- 
dulfi  I,  Epitcopi  Capua,  extending  from  851  to  879,  in 
Ttae:-^Aiia  TratiiUUioioM CorpurU 81. Matthai,  A poit. 
See  Hocfer,  iVbuc.  Biog.  GMraU,  s.  v. 

Bronat  {or  Heranat),  an  Irish  saint,  commemo- 
nUd  Jan.  8  and  Oct.  SO,  was  s  virgin  of  Duneane,  A.D. 
Wb^^who  died,  it  is  said,  of  love  for  St.  Benigius,  hut  re- 


,1  ERIC    ■ 

vived,  and  spent  her  days  in  preparing  and  embndd- 
ering  sacred  vestments, 

Brdavlraph,  an  impostor  who  flourished  in  Persia 
in  the  Bd  century,  and  was  considered  the  real  re- 
storer of  the  doctrines  of  the  Magi.  He  professed  to 
have  fallen  into  a  deep  sleep,  dating  which  bis  soul 
made  the  Jonmey  to  paradise,  being  sevoi  days  on  the 
way. 

BrSbiia  (lOf^Dc,  darkaat),  in  Uieek  mytholoj^,  i* 
the  infernal  region,  the  subterranean,  chaotic  night; 
being  represented  ai  son  of  Chaos  snd  Csligo.  Erebus 
does  not  seem  to  be  identical  with  Tartarus.  His  de- 
acendonts  are  the  following,  by  NiRbt ;  Age,  Dpatb,  Fate, 
Abstinence,  Dreamt,  Epiphron,  ciutho.  Lachesis,  AlrD~ 
po^  the  three  Pans,  Dispute,  Evil,  Malice,  Nemeus, 
Euphrosyne,  Friendship,  Sympathy,  Styic,  and  Sleep. 

Eiembett,  Saint,  eleventh  bishop  of  Toulouse,  was 
born  at  ViUiolioone,  near  Poissy.  He  became  a  monk  in 
648at  the  abbey  of  Fontenelle,  which  then  was  directed 
by  Wandregisilus.  Being  appointed  by  Clotbaire  HI  to 
the  see  of  Toalouse,  about  GS6,  he  governed  it  twelve 
yeara  with  piudence,  and  then  resigned,  and  dwelt  for 
some  time  at  his  native  home,  bnt  finally  retired  to  the 
monastery  ot  FontenelJe,  where  he  died  ill  671  or  678. 
He  is  comnemoraled  May  14.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.Biog. 
(IMrale,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Did.  afChriU.  Biog.  t.  v. 

Brendlgaira*,  Rufi,  a  Swiss  theologian,  lived  in 
the  aecond  part  of  the  ITlh  century.  He  was  a  Capu- 
chin, and  deSnitor  and  prarincial  of  bis  order.  He 
wrote,  ilmudadio  Saardalii  (Lucerne,  1G74)  -.—Calm- 
daiium  apirilaale  (ibid.  1698):— flnwia(ic™-<  S.  Bri- 
gilta  (ibid.  1699) ;  — Sp^cu/llm  Ammarlim  Tkoma  de 
Kempii  (ibid.  eod.).     See  Hoefer,  .Vsue.  Biog.  Giiiirale, 

Erevantai,  Mklkhiseth  (i.  e.  MilchittJnk  af 
Eriean),  an  Armenian  doctor,  was  bora  in  1559  at 
Vejan.  He  early  devoted  himself  to  monastical  life, 
and  after  studying  under  the  famous  doctor  Ncrsfls 
Peghlow  about  fiAeen  yean,  left  his  monaslety,  which 
was  situated  in  the  isle  of  Lim,  in  the  centre  of  the  laka 
of  Van,  in  order  to  visit  Armenia.  He  planted  a  great 
numbetof  institutions  of  education,  and  relumed  to  his 
monastciy.  The  patriarch,  Moses  III,  sent  him  out 
again  as  director  of  the  pilriarchal  school  of  Echmi- 
adiii).  He  died  at  Erivan  in  1631,  leaving  sereral  M3S. 
on  gnunmilical,  rhetorical,  and  philoaophical  subjects. 
See  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  G/nirale,  a.  v. 

Ergms,  JosKFti  beti-rmaianii<l,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  who 
flourished  at  Leghorn  in  the  18th  century,  is  the  author 
oftS-'SiaS  -lEIlB  b,  R  Philinophg  of  Rdigion  and  Ca. 
bala,  written  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  (Amsterdam, 
1736) ;— D-^nrB  IfQIS  h.  Introduction  to  the  Sciencto/ 
the  True  Cobabx  ( ibid. ) :— a  collecrion  of  decisions, 
C|D1''  iiaT  DIM  (Leghorn,  1741).  Bee  FUrst,  BiU. 
Jud.i,247;  SiS^tj,  AUgrnKinti  GtlAntn-lj(xilxin,i.Y. 
(ftp.) 

Erhaid,  Tromas  Aquinas,  a  German  theologian  of 
the  order  of  the  Benedictines,  who  lived  in  the  first  part 
of  the  18th  centurj-,  wrote,  Ghria  S.  Bentdicli  (Augs- 
burg, ITSO)  —Opui  Rhtloricami—Dit  Bibd  iMlrinitch 
u»JOfH*irA(ibid.  1786) i—lfanuafcfliKicum  (1724);— 
Potgcmlri  Gerimtit,  etc.  (1729)  -.—Conmrnlarivi  in  L'ni- 
ciria  Biblia  (Augsburg,  1735)  -.-IJe  Imitnlione  ChriiH 
(about  1739)  -.—Cimeordanlia  Bibiionim  n'f$in/onlana 
(Augsburg,  1T61).     See  Hoeftr,  Mi«r.  Bing.  GiniraU, 

Grlbert,  archbishop  of  Milan,  A.D.  tOlS,  t«>k  a 
imminent  part  in  the  intrigues  that  then  divided  Italy, 
le  was  a  noted  warrior,  and  established  a  militatv  or- 
der of  the  HamUiati,  which  aabsisted  till  l&7a  '  See 
Hoefer,  A'our.  Biog.  (iineraie,  s,  v. 

Brio  OF  DRA!mENBt:R<i,t»enty-siMh  archbishop  of 
Magdeburg,  was  son  of  John  I,  elector  of  Brandenburg, 
and  was  elected  in  1278.    He  bad  a  stormy  sdminiatra. 


ERIS 


348 


EROMANGAN  VERSION 


tion,  and  died  in  1295.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  CM- 
rale,  s.  y. 

Eris  (IptCi  ftri/e),  in  Greek  mythology,  was  the  per- 
flonification  of  Ducord,  the  daughter  of  Night  When 
the  deities  were  merrily  assembled  at  the  wedding  of 
Peleus  and  Thetis,  Eris  threw  an  apple  among  them, 
bearing  the  inscription  **  To  the  most  beautiful/'  Juno, 
Venus,  and  Minerva  claimed  it.  Had  Jupiter  decided 
in  favor  of  one  he  would  have  incurred  the  bitter  en- 
mity of  the  others,  and  hence  he  refused  to  announce 
his  opinion ;  therefore  Paris  was  authorized  to  decide. 
Power  and  greatness,  wisdom  and  fame,  offered  by  the 
earnest  goddesses,  had  no  influence  with  him ;  for  Venus 
promised  him  the  most  beautiful  woman  of  Greece  as  a 
possession.  That  goddess  therefore  received  the  prize 
of  beauty ;  Paris  carried  off  Helena,  the  Trojan  war  was 
the  result,  and  all  the  deities  took  a  part  in  it :  Juno  and 
Minerva  as  enemies  of  the  Trojans ;  Venus,  Apollo,  and 
Mars  on  the  side  of  those  against  whom  war  was  made. 

Erken'wald,  the  fourth  bishop  of  the  East  Saxons, 
whose  episcopal  see  was  London,  was  brother  of  St.  Eth- 
elbuiga,  and  is  said  to  have  been  bom  at  Stallington,  in 
lindsey,  of  a  noble  family.  From  Bede  we  learn  that 
he  was  already  noted  for  sanctity  when  raised  to  the 
episcopate  in  676.  He  died  in  690,  and  is  commemo- 
rated April  30  as  the  founder  of  St.  Paul's  (where  his 
remains  were  interred),  and  also  of  one  or  two  monas- 
teries.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ  Biog,  s.  r. 

Brkiglit;  in  Greenland  mythology,  are  the  spirits 
of  war,  living  on  the  east  side  of  the  country,  cruel,  and 
enemies  of  man.  They  are  represented  as  large  men 
with  animal  heads.  Probably  this  superstition  came 
from  an  ancient  tradition,  which  gives  to  the  northern 
coast  of  Greenland  very  warlike  inhabitants,  who  some- 
times pressed  to  all  parts  of  the  island  in  plundering  and 
devastating  expeditions,  and  destroyed  all  living  beings. 

Brlkonlg,  in  Nurse  mythology,  is  probably  akin  to 
E\fk6nig,  the  ruler  of  the  ethereal  beings  which  are 
called  elves  (q.  v.).  He  is  not  dangerous  to  grown  per- 
sons, but  often  abducts  children  of  Christians  before  they 
•re  baptized,  not  from  any  evil  motive,  but  because  he 
takes  a  great  joy  in  them,  and  because  the  elves  gen- 
erally glory  in  coming  into  contact  with  human  beings. 
He  is  represented  as  an  unusually  large,  bearded  man, 
with  a  shining  crown  and  a  wide,  trailing  mantle. 

Brloeraortok,  in  Greeidand  mythology,  is  the  rul- 
er of  the  air,  the  evil  principle.  He  is  cruel  and  cun- 
ning ;  waylaying  those  who  are  on  the  way  to  heaven, 
and  lives  on  their  vitals,  which  he  tears  from  them. 

Bxxnelendis  (or  Hermelinda),  Sainnt,  was  bom 
at  Odenca,  near  Louvain,  about  650.  She  was  of  a 
rich  family  of  Brabant,  and  was  but  twelve  years  old 
when  she  resolved  to  consecrate  herself  to  God.  Some 
time  later  her  parents  tried  to  induce  her  to  marry,  but 
she  cut  off  her  own  hair  in  their  presence  and  hid  her- 
self in  the  solitudes  of  the  vicinity.  She  onl}'  left  her 
cell,  with  bare  feet,  when  she  assisted  at  the  divine  ser- 
vices. Two  young  men,  brothers,  and  lords  of  the  place, 
having  designs  upon  her  chastity,  Ermelinde  retired  to 
a  more  secluded  place  called  Meldric  (now  Meldaert), 
near  Hugard  (Brabant),  and  subsisted  there  on  fmits 
and  herba  till  her  death,  about  A.D.  595.  Forty-eight 
years  afterwards  her  obscure  tomb  was  discovered,  and 
a  chapel  was  erected  over  it^  which  has  since  perished. 
She  is  commemorated  on  Oct.  29.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Generate,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Bxxnenaire  (llermenarius),  twenty-sixth  bishop  of 
Autun,  A.D.  678,  piously  buried  the  mutilated  remains 
of  his  predecessor,  St.  Leger. 

Ennenfrid,  abbot  of  Cuisance,  in  Franche-Comte, 
entered  monastic  life,  about  627,  at  Luxeuil;  and  com- 
ing into  possession,  by  inheritance,  of  the  monastery  at 
Coisance,  restored  it,  and  died  there  in  old  age.  He  is 
commemorated  on  Sept.  25.  See  Smith,  DieL  qf  Christ, 
Biog,  9,  \, 


Bman  (also  Memoc),  the  name  of  several  Irish 
saints,  one  of  whom  was  uncle,  and  two  othen  nephews, 
ofStColnmba. 

Bmest  OF  Saxomt,  forty-first  archbishop  of  Magde- 
burg, was  elected  to  that  see  Jan.  19, 1476 ;  but  the  pope 
declined  at  first  to  consecrate  him,  and  he  had  a  long 
contest  with  Adolphus  of  Anhalt  and  the  citizens  of 
Magdeburg  before  he  secured  quiet  possession  of  the 
see.  He  died  Aug.  8, 1518.  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog, 
GMrak,  &  v. 

EmeBti,  Olinther  Gottlieb,  an  Evangelical 
preacher  of  Germany,  was  bom  June  25, 1759,  at  Co- 
burg.  He  studied  at  Jena,  was  for  some  time  employed 
by  the  minister  for  ecclesiastical  affidrs  at  Hildburg- 
hansen,  and  died  there,  June  28,  1797,  being  court- 
preacher  at  the  time.  Most  of  his  publications  were 
sermons.  See  Dbring,  Die  Gtkhrten  Theologm  Deutsch* 
lands,  &  V.     (B.  P.) 

Bmesti,  Heixirioh  ZUedrlch  Theodor  Lnd- 
w^ig;  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  May 
27,  1814,  at  Branswick.  He  studied'  at  Gdttingen; 
was  in  1838  deacon  at  his  native  place,  in  1842  pastor 
at  WolfenbUttel,  in  1848  superintendent,  in  1850  mem- 
ber of  consistory,  and  in  1858  general  superintendent, 
and  died  at  WolfenbUttel,  Aug.  17, 1880.  He  published 
Expositions  on  Luther's  Smailer  Catechism  (1861^  which 
is  used  in  many  places  as  the  official  manual  for  relig- 
ious instruction.  He  also  wrote,  Urspna^  der  SibSe 
nach  Paulimschen  I^hrbegrijjr  (Gottingea,  1862, 2  vols.) : 
—Die  Ethik  des  AposteU  Paulus  (dd  ed.  ibid.  1880). 
His  earliest  work  was  De  Pnedara  Christi  in  ApostoHs 
fnstiluendis  Sapientia  atque  Prudentia  (ibid.  1884).  Sec 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  882  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Bmesti,  Jakob  Daniel,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Rochlitz,  Dec  8,  1640.  He 
studied  till  the  age  of  fifteen  under  his  father,  Daniel, 
and  then  at  Leipsic  and  Altenbnrg,  and  became,  in 
1668,  minister  of  the  gospel  at  Eybitscb,  rector  at  the 
gymnasium  of  Altenburg  in  1678,  deacon  in  1688,  arch- 
deacon in  1685,  and  finally  oonsistorial  assessor  in  1705. 
He  died  Dec.  15, 1707.  His  principal  works  are,  Pro- 
dromus  Apanthismatum  (Altenburg,  1672): — Stleeta 
Historica  Rariorum  Casuum  (ibid.  1680).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Bmesti,  Johann  Chrlstlaii,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  18, 1695.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg  and  Leipsic,  and  died  superintendent  in 
Langensalza,  in  1770.  A  list  of  his  writings  is  given 
in  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GtUhrten-lAxikon,  s.  v.     (£  P.) 

Bmesti,  Johann  ChxlBtoph,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  11,1 662.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg,  and  died  there  doctor  of  theology,  Ang. 
11, 1722,  leaving  Disputaiiones  de  Bibliis  Polggtodis: — 
De  AfUiquo  Excommunioandi  Bitu : — De  Diahgis  Doo^ 
torum  Veteris  EccUsia: — De  Abst^uto  Bqtrobationis 
Decreto,  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gdehrten^  Lexibom, 
s.  V. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  247.    (U,  P.) 

Bmeati,  Johann  Helnrloh  Martin,  a  Luther- 
an theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  26, 1756,  at 
Mittwitz,  near  Cronach,  and  died  at  Coburg,  May  10, 
1886.  He  wrote,  Irene.  (Snbcbach,  1828)  :-~Ceber  Cen- 
nrr-  und  BUcherverbote,  etc  (Leipsic,  1829):  —  /)tfr 
Kirchetk-Staat  (Nuremberg,  1880).  See  Zuchold,  BibL 
TheoLi,8SS;  Winer,  J/ondftvoA der Meoj. LA.  i, 610 ;  ii, 
821,822.    (a  P.) 

Bromangan  Version  or  Tin  SciupTCREa.  This 
language  is  spoken  in  the  island  of  Eromanga,  one  of 
the  New  Hebrides  group.  The  verrion  of  Lake's  gos- 
pel, which  was  published  in  1864,  was  begun  by  the 
Rev.  G.  N.  Gordon,  who  was  craelly  massacred  by  the 
natives  in  1860.  The  work  was  completed  by  his  broth- 
er, the  Rev.  James  L  The  latter  has  since  translated 
the  book  of  Genesis,  which  was  printed  at  Sydney  in 
1868,  and  was  foUowed  by  MaUhew^s  gospel  in  1869,  at 
London.    In  1878  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  which  w 


EROVAZ 


340 


ERYTHRAEUS 


tmiilated  by  the  Ber.  H.  A.  Bobertson,  weve  pnbliBhed 
at  the  request  of  the  New  Hebrides  mission  at  Sydney. 
These  are  at  present  the  only  parts  of  the  Scripture 
translated  into  this  language.    (B.  P.) 

Srovax,  grand  priest  to  the  gods  of  Armenia.  He 
was  the  brother  of  Erovant  II,  who  intrusted  him  with 
the  direcdon  of  the  supreme  national  cultos,  and  also 
placed  in  his  care  the  fortress  of  Pacaran,  the  ecclesi- 
astical capital  of  Armenia.  Sempad  the  Pacratide,  who 
had  taken  possession  of  that  place  after  the  death  of 
Erovant)  drowned  Erovaz  in  the  river  Akhourian,  A.D. 
88,  and  took  away  his  treasures  and  his  five  hundred 
slaves.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GirUrale,  s.  v. 

Bnkine,  GSharleSt  a  cardinal  of  Scotch  descent, 
iras  bom  at  Borne,  Feb.  18^  1753.  After  entering  the 
profession  of  a  lawyer  when  still  quite  young,  he  at- 
tained a  rare  knowledge  of  Latin  and  philosophy,  and 
was  honored  by  Pius  VI,  who  himself  had  been  a  lawyer. 
I>uring  the  French  revolution,  Erskine  was  sent  on  an 
embassy  to  London  by  that  pontiff,  remained  there  for 
eight  years,  and  when  he  came  back  to  Italy  under 
Pius  Til  received  the  cardinal*s  hat.  When  afterwards 
be  went  to  Paris  he  was  welcomed  by  the  consular  gov- 
ernment. Erikine  died  March  19, 1811.  See  Hoefer, 
A  Mw.  Biog.  GMraky  s.  v. 

Brakine  (or  Areflklne),  Henry,  a  Scotch  divine, 
one  of  the  youngest  of  the  thirtff-three  children  of  Kalph 
£r^ne  of  Shielfield,  was  bom  at  Diyburgh  in  1624,  where 
be  received  his  early  education.  He  took  his  master's 
degree  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1645,  was  or- 
dained to  the  ministry  by  the  Presbyterians  in  Eng- 
land, to  the  living  at  Comhill,  in  Durham,  but  was  soon 
ejected  by  the  act  of  uniformity,  in  166*2,  and  returned 
to  his  own  country.  But  the  persecutions  carried  on 
then  in  Scotland  required  him  to  take  refuge  in  Hol- 
land. In  1687,  when  king  James*s  toleration  was  pro- 
daimed, Mr. Erskine  embraced  it;  and  on  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  the  presbytery  in  1690,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  Chiroside,  in  Berwickshire.  He  died  Aug. 
10,  1696.  He  never  published  any  of  his  works.  See 
ChalmerB,  Biog,  DioL  s.  v. ;  Fatii  Eccks,  iSooftcona,  i, 
427,451. 

Xtnkine  (or  Brakyn),  John,  a  Scotch  clergy- 
man, of  Dun,  knight,  son  of  John  Erskyne,  of  Dun,  was 
bora  about  1506;  studied  first  at  the  University  of 
Aberdeen,  then  on  the  Continent.  Having  imbibed  the 
doctrines  of  the  Beformation,  he  taught  them  to  the  son 
of  Alexander  Straton,  a  neighbor  who  paid  the  forfeit 
of  his  life  for  his  opinions,  at  Edinburgh,  in  August, 
15S4.  He  led  many  other  persons  to  embrace  the  new 
principles,  and  secured  for  them  safety  and  protection. 
When  the  English  invaded  Montrose,  in  1548,  Erskine, 
supported  by  his  townsmen,  repulsed  them  with  a  loss 
of  eight  hundred  of  the  invaders.  He  lived  a  retired 
life  till  John  Knox  appeared,  in  1555,  when  he  joined 
him  at  Edinburgh,  took  part  with  his  followers  in  their 
public  services,  and  was  coadjutor  with  Knox  till  a  se- 
cession took  place.  He  was  one  of  the  eight  appointed 
by  parliament,  in  1557,  to  witness  the  marriage  of  the 
queen  with  the  dauphin  of  France.  On  his  return,  in 
1558,  he  assisted  in  forming  a  Church  of  the  Beformation, 
became  an  exhorter,  drew  up  an  address  to  the  queen- 
dowager  against  the  Bomanists,  with  whose  dissimula- 
tions, in  1559,  the  people  at  Perth  became  so  enraged 
that  they  attacked  the  monasteries,  and  cast  down  the 
images,  sparing  only  the  places  of  worship  through  the 
influence  of  Erskine  and  Knox.  He  was  nominated  by 
the  lords  and  barons,  in  July,  1560,  the  first  minister  at 
Montrose  nuder  the  Beformation,  sat  in  the  first  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  1560,  and  was  appointed  superintendent 
of  Angns  and  Mearos,  in  1561.  Of  the  first  fifty-six 
General  Assemblies,  he  attended  forty -four,  and  was 
the  moderator  over  five  of  them,  three  times  in  succes- 
sion. He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  at  Leith  in 
1571;  had  to  summon  principals,  and  three  regents  of 
the  nniveKBity,  and  try  them  for  teaching  poper}',  [^ 


1567  and  1569,  and  on  their  refusal  to  accept  the  new 
faith  they  were  deprived  by  the  privy  council.  He 
several  times  offered  his  resignation,  which  was  always 
declined,  and  he  died  March  12, 1589,  having  been  sec- 
ond only  to  Knox  in  accomplishing  and  securing  the 
work  of  the  Beformation.  He  governed  his  portion  of 
the  Church  with  singular  wisdom  and  authority,  disal- 
lowing all  innovations.  He  was  a  man  of  courage, 
aseal,  learning,  prudence,  generosity,  and  liberality.  He 
compiled  and  published  part  of  the  Second  Booh  of 
Discipline.    See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoticana^  iii,  887. 

Brskine,  TbomaB,  of  Linlathen,  Scotland,  a  writer 
on  theoldgy  and  religion,  was  bom  Oct  18, 1788.  After 
being  educated  at  the  high-school  of  Edinburgh  and  at 
Durham,  he  attended  the  literary  and  law  classes  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1810  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Edinbuigh  faculty  of  advocates.  Ou  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  in  1816,  he  succeeded  to  the 
family  estate  of  linlathen,  near  Dundee,  and  retired 
from  the  bar,  spending  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the 
discussion — either  by  conversation,  by  letters,  or  by  lit- 
erary publications — of  the  most  important  religious  ques- 
tions. He  died  at  Edinburgh,  March  20, 1870.  His 
principal  works  are.  Remarks  on  the  Internal  Evidence 
for  the  Truth  of  Revealed  Religion  (1820):— an  Essag 
on  Faith  (1822) : — and  the  Unconditional  Freeness  of 
the  Gospel  (1828).  These  have  all  passed  through  sev- 
eral editions,  and  have  also  been  translated  into  French. 
He  also  wrote,  The  Brazen  Serpent  (1831):— 7%e  Doc- 
trine of  Election  (1889):— a  posthumous  work  entitled 
Spiritual  Order  and  Other  Papers  (1871),  and  various 
essays.  Two  volumes  of  his  Letters^  edited  by  William 
Hanna,  D.D.,  with  reminiscences  by  dean  Stanley  and 
principal  Shairp,  appeared  in  1877.  See  Encyclop.  Brit. 
9th  ed.  s.  V. 

Erskine,  William,  a  Scotch  nominal  prelate,  was 
minister  of  Ciampsey  and  commendator  of  Paisley.  He 
was  a  titular  bishop  of  Glasgow  in  1585,  but  was  never 
consecrated.  He  lield  the  office  but  two  years.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  262. 

Brthal,  Fbakz  Ludwio  vox,  a  German  prelate,  was 
bora  at  Lohr-on-the-Main,  Sept  16, 1730.  He  studied 
law  at  WUrzburg,  and  when  thirty-three  years  of  age 
became  a  member  of  the  chapter  there.  The  emperor 
Joseph  11  appointed  him  to  several  high  positions,  and 
in  1779  he  was  made  prince-bishop  of  Bamberg  and 
Wllrzburg.  His  government  was  in  every  respect  an 
excellent  one.  He  died  Feb.  16, 1795,  leaving,  Zeit  und 
PfUcht  der  Christen  (WUrzburg,  1798)  :—Reden  an  das 
iMndtfolk  (Bamberg,  1797).  See  Schroid,  in  Herzog- 
Plitt's  Reai-Encgd^,  s.  v.;  Geschichte  der  Kaiholikir^e 
Deutschlands  (Munich,  1872) ;  Berohard,  Franz  Ludwig 
von  Erihal  (Tubingen,  1852).     (a  P.) 

Erwin,  Alexander  B.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Louisiana, 
Jan.  12, 1820,  of  pious  Baptist  parents.  He  joiued  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1889;  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1840,  and  in  1842  entered  the  Tennessee  Con- 
ference. In  1848  he  was  appointed  president  of  Clsrks- 
ville  Female  Academy;  in  1854  re-entered  the  regular 
work;  in  1859  was  appointed  president  of  Huntsville 
Female  College,  and  died  Jan.  10,  1860.  Dr.  Erwin 
was  manly  and  dignified  in  appearance,  humble  and 
cheerful  in  spirit,  extensive  in  knowledge,  and  energetic 
in  labor.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the 
M.  E.  Church  South,  1860,  p.  212. 

Eiythraetui,  Joachim  (1),  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  Dec.  13,  1637,  at  Bela,  in  Upper  Hun- 
gary. He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  was  for  some  time 
archdeacon  in  his  native  country.  When  the  evangel- 
ical preachers  had  to  leave  Hungary,  he  went  to  Pora- 
erania,  and  was  appointed  pastor  at  Stettin,  where  he 
died,  March  21, 1699.  He  wrote.  Dissert,  de  Attributis 
Dei:— Synopsis  BiUica  Stilo  Ligato  Scripta.-^Brevi- 
ariutn  Biblicum:—Apodemica  Sacra  .-—Erpositio  Con- 


ERYTHRAEUS 


850 


ESCOBAR 


fuaionis  AugutUmat,    See  Jocher,  ilfiC^emeMef  Gdfkr- 
ten-f.eiikon,  a.  r.     (a  P.) 

Eiythraeuflt  Joaohim  (2),  ion  of  the  foregoing, 
was  bom  Jan.  28, 1663.  With  his  father  he  went  to 
Pomerania,  was  in  1688  deacon,  and  in  1700  succeeded 
his  father.  He  died  April  28, 1708.  See  Jocher,  A  U- 
^meinet  G^ehrten'Lexikon,  a.  v.     (B,  P.) 

X!r3rthropel,  a  name  common  to  several  Latheran 
ministers  of  Germany : 

1.  David  Rupert,  was  bom  March  80, 1653,  at  Hano- 
ver, and  studied  at  Jena.  In  1679  he  was  coart-preacher 
at  his  native  pUce,  in  1685  member  of  consiatory,  in  1698 
superintendent,  in  1706  first  court* preacher,' and  died 
Dec  22, 1732.  He  wrote,  De  Mmdibui  Pidaiisc'^De 
Mutistru  Kedniarum  Avffiutanm  CoH/etiionu.  See 
Jocher,  AUgenuine*  GeUhrtm-Lexihon,  &  v. 

2.  David  Wilhelx,  son  of  the  above,  was  bom  at 
Hanover,  June  20, 1687.  He  studied  at  different  uni- 
versities, and  aft^r  his  return  commenced  his  ministry 
in  his  native  city  in  1710.  He  was  intrusted  with  the 
hiij^hest  ecclesiastical  positions,  and  died  in  Febraary, 
1768.  He  wrote,  De  Faiis  Calicit  Eucharittici  (Hclm- 
stUdt,  1708). 

3.  Gkobge,  was  bom  at  Hanover  in  1607,  studied  at 
Binteln  and  Jena,  and  died  in  his  native  city  in  1669. 

4.  Martin,  was  bom  at  Hanover  in  1610.  He  stud- 
ied at  Helrostlldt  and  Marburg,  was  in  1684  pastor  at 
Darmstadt,  in  1648  court-preacher  and  general  super- 
intendent, and  died  June  1, 1655.  He  wrote,  PatholO' 
gioa  Chrigti  Propheiica  (Marburg,  1640) : — Thesaurus 
ConnubialiSf  or  Gastiicher  Eheschaiz  m  Predifften  (ibid. 
1641). 

5.  Rupert,  father  of  Martin,  was  bom  in  1556,  stud- 
ied at  Leipsic  and  Wittenberg,  and  was  in  1584  con- 
rector  at  Hanover.  In  1585  he  was  made  pastor  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Cross,  in  1596  of  St.  George's,  and 
died  Oct.  7, 1626.  He  wrote,  A  nalysis  Logica  in  EpistoL 
et  Evangel,  DonMc,  Ptricopas : — PostiUa  Methodica  in 
EpistoL  et  Evangelia :  —  Theohgia  Apostolica  et  Me- 
thodicOfOT  exposition  on  the  epistles  of  Paul,  Peter, 
James,  Jude,  John,  and  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews : — 
J/armonia  Historica  IV  Evangelistarum : — Catena  Au' 
rea  in  Harmon, Evangel,  See  Jocher,  AUgemeineM  Ge- 
UhrtenrLexikon,  s.  v.     (D.  P.) 

ZSsaias  of  Egypt,  who  lived  about  the  end  of  the 
4th  century,  was  abbot  of  some  monastery  in  that  coun- 
try, and  left  a  large  number  of  MSS.,  nearly  all  in  Greek. 
Assemani  cites  some  in  Arabic  and  Syriac,  but  these 
are  probably  translations  from  the  Greek.  Several 
liavc  been  published,  viz.,  Chapters  on  the  Ascetic  and 
Quiet  Life  (Ke0a\aia  vtpi  &(rKfi<rni>Q  rat  ^avx'ac),  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  in  the  Thesaurus  Asceticus  of  Peter 
Possin  (Paris,  1684):  —  Prcecepta  seu  Concilia  Posita 
Tironibus  (Augsburg,  1759) : — OraiioneSf  a  Latin  trans- 
lation of  twenty-nine  discourses,  or  rather  apothegms, 
published  by  Franc  Ziiii,  with  other  ascetical  writings 
by  St.  Nilus  and  other  theologians  (Venice,  1574) : — 
Vubitutiones  in  Visionem  Ezechielis,  in  MS.  in  the  royal 
library  of  the  Escurial  in  Spain,  has  been  described  by 
Montfaucon,  but  it  has  not  been  printed.  It  is  doubtful 
if  all  these  works  are  by  the  same  author,  as  there  may 
have  been  several  writers  of  this  name  in  Egypt.  See 
Hoefer,  N'ouv,  Biog,  GkUrale,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog,  s.  v. 

Escalante,  Juan  Aktonio,  a  reputable  Spanish 
historical  painter,  was  bom  at  Cordova  in  1630,  and 
studied  under  Francisco  Rizi.  There  are  a  number  of 
his  works  in  the  churches  of  Madrid,  which  are  highly 
praised,  among  which  is  a  fine  piqture  of  St,  Catharine^ 
in  San  Miguel;  and  an  altar-piece  representing  The 
Dead  Christ,  with  other  figures,  in  the  Church  of  £a- 
piritu  Santo.  He  died  at  Madrid  in  1670.  See  Hoefer, 
Aotf r.  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

BBChenbach,  Andreas  Christian,  a  German  di- 
vine and  philologist,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg,  March  24, 


1668,  and  was  educated  at  Altdorf,  where,  in  1684,  he 
ceived  the  poetic  crown.  He  went  to  Jena  and  taught 
the  claaaica  with  conaideraUe  reputation.  He  travelled 
through  Germany  and  Holland,  and  on  his  return  as- 
sisted hia  father  in  the  Church  of  Wehrd,  in  Nurem- 
berg. In  1691  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  schools 
of  Altdorf,  and  in  1695  waa  recalled  to  Nuremberg  aa 
deacon  of  the  Church  of  St.  Mary,  and  professor  of  elo- 
quence, poetry,  history,  and  the  Greek  language  in  Sl 
Gileses  College,  to  which  ofiice,  in  1705,  was  added  that 
of  pastor  of  St.  Clare.  He  died  Sept.  24, 1722.  Some 
of  bis  philological  disaertationa  were  printed  in  1700,  in 
the  Syntagma  Secundum  Dissertationum  Philologicartan 
(Rotterdam,  8vo).  His  Epigenes  sive  Commenlarius  in 
Fragmenta  Orphica,  was  published  at  Nuremberg  (1702, 
4to).  He  translated  into  German,  Allix  on  T%e  Truth 
of  the  Christian  Rdigum,  and  on  The  Coming  of  the 
ifessiah.  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  a.  v. ;  Jdcher,  A 11- 
gemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  &  v. 

Eflohenburg,  Bemhard,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  at  LUbeck,  Sept.  80, 1832,  ia  the 
author  of,  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  der  offentlichen  Re- 
ligionsvortrSge  (Jena,  1785).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
theoL  Lit,  i,  628 ;  ii,  57.    (a  P.) 

Eflohenburg,  Johazm  Joaohim,  a  Lntheran 
hymn -writer  of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec  7,  1743,  at 
Hamburg,  and  died  at  Bmnawick,  Feb.  29, 1820.  He 
ia  the  author  of  twelve  hymn&  See  Jordens,  Lexicon 
deutscher  Dichter  und  Prosaisten,  vi,  768-798 ;  Schroder, 
Lexicon  der  Hamburgischen  Schriftstelter,  voL  ii ;  Koch, 
Geschiehie,desdeutschen  Kirchenliedes,  vi,  237  sq. ;  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  LU,  ii,  290.     (a  P.) 

EBChenmayer,  Adam  Carl  August,  a  German 
philosophical  writer,  was  bom  July  4, 1768,  at  Neuen- 
burg.  In  1811  he  was  made  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Tubingen,  but  retired  in  1886  from  his  academ- 
ical position  to  Kirchheiro,  and  died  there,  Nov.  17, 
1852.  He  wrote.  Die  Philosophie  in  ihrem  Vebergange 
eur  NuAtphiUsophie  (Erlangen,  1803):  —  System  der 
Moralphilosophie  (Stuttgart,  1818): — ReUgionspkihso- 
phie  (Tubingen,  1818-24, 3  vols.)  i—Dis  HegeUehe  Be- 
ligionsphHosophie  vergUchen  i})tV  dem  christlichen  Prinzip 
(ibid.  1834),  written  against  Hegel : — Der  Ischariofis- 
mus  unserer  Tage  (ibid.  1835),  written  against  the  Life 
of  Jesus,  by  ^tnnssi—Charaheristik  des  Cngkmbens, 
Halbglaubens  und  VoUglaubens  (ibid.  1838) : — Grundriss 
der  Naturphiiosophie  (ibid.  1832) :  —  Grundzvge  der 
christlichen  Philosophie  (Basle,  1840) :  —  tTi^omm  des 
Christenthums  (Stuttgart,  1843)  :^iSecA«  Perioden  <kr 
christlichen  Kirche  (Heilbronn,  1851).  See  Lichten- 
berger,  Eneydop,  des  Sciences  ReUgieuses,  s.  v. ;  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  LU,  i,  286, 288, 429,  551, 594 ;  u,  10 ; 
Zuchold,ft5JL7Aco(.i,836.     (B.P.) 

SflOhiUB.    See  Van  Esche. 

EflOhrakltes  {enlightened),  a  Mohammedan  sect 
who  give  themselves  to  contemplation.  Their  medita- 
tions pertain  chiefly  to  God,  whom  they,  unlike  the 
other  Mohammedans,  believe  to  be  a  trinity  of  persons. 
Wherever  the  Koran  conflicts  with  their  doctrines  they 
consider  it  abrogated.  They  hold  in  utter  contempt 
the  gross  notions  of  Mohammed  concerning  the  senaual 
pleasures  of  paradise,  and  consider  man^s  supreme  hap- 
piness to  consist  in  the  contemplation  of  divinity.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  respectable  of  the  Mohammedan 
sects,  resembling  more  nearly  than  any  other,  both  ia 
faith  and  practice,  ordinary  Christians. — Gardner.  Faiths 
of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Efloobar,  Bartolomeo  de,  a  Spanuh  missionary*, 
who  spent  his  life  and  fortune  in  pious  labors,  was  boni 
at  Seville  in  1562.  He  became  a  Jesuit  in  the  Wesc 
Indies,  where  be  lived  seventeen  years,  and  afterwards 
spent  three  years  at  Lima,  dying  there  in  1624,  and  leav- 
ing. Condones  in  Quinquagesima  (Lyons,  1617)  : — Cond-^ 
ones  de  Festis  Domini  (Paris,  1624) : — Condones  super 
Omnes  Beatte  Vtrghns  Festintates  (ibid,  eod.): — Ser-' 


ESCOBAR 


851 


ESKUCHE 


c2e  ia  Coneepeion  (Oriedo,  1G22).    See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Bioff.  Generate,  s.  v. 

Escobar  (dd  Cam),  Jnan,  a  Spanish  theologian, 
was  boni  at  Puente  de  Cantos  (Andalusia) ;  taaght  law 
with  suooesB  at  the  College  of  Santa  Maria  and  at  the 
University  of  Seville ;  became  afterwards  inquisitor  at 
Morcia  and  at  Cordova,  and  died  at  Madrid  after  1642, 
leaving,  De  Puritaie.Sancii  Officii  Inquieititnut,  etc  (Ly- 
ons, 1637):^/>e  Utroque  Foro  (Cordova,  1642):  — Z>e 
ComfeseariiM,  etc.  (ibid,  eod.): — JDe  if  oris  Canomcia 
(ibid,  eod.) :  —  AtUilogia,  etc  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Hoefer, 
jVbav.  Bioff.  GeiUrale,  s.  v. 

Bacobar,  BCazlna  de,  a  Spanish  foundress  of  re- 
ligioos  orders,  was  bom  at  Yalladolid)  Feb.  8,  1564. 
AlthoDgh  the  daughter  of  rich  parents,  she  refased  mar- 
riage. She  had  visions  very  frequently,  in  which  Sts. 
Gertrude,  Brigitta,  and  Mathilda  appeared  to  her.  In 
2582  a  number  of  women  desired  to  share  her  mode  of 
living,  and  retired  under  her  guidance  to  a  monastery, 
to  which  she  gave  the  name  of  ReooUedion  of  SU  Brid- 
gel.  She  died  June  9,  1683.  Her  Life,  begun  by  P. 
Del  Puente,  was  finished  by  P.  Cachupin,  the  provincial 
of  the  Jesuits  of  CastUe  (Madrid,  1665).  See  Hoefer, 
Nowe,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Bacobar,  Pedro  Snarez  de,  a  Spanish  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Medina ;  belonged  to  the  order  of  the 
Hermits  of  SL  Augustine,  and  went  into  Spanish  Amer- 
ica^ preaching  the  Catholic  faith  in  Mexico.  He  be- 
came saocesnvely  first  theologian  of  the  cathedral  of 
that  city,  pnefect  of  the  province,  and  bishop  of  Guada- 
laxara.  He  died  at  Tlaicapan  in  1591,  leaving,  £l»- 
cata  dd  Paraito  Celestial: — Silca  de  la  Perfeccion 
Eeanffdiea: — Rehx  de  Principes: — Sermones  de  los 
EcwUgdios  de  Todo  et  Ano  (Madrid,  1601).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog,  GeniraU,  s.  v. 

Bacnara.    See  Basque  Spanish. 

Bsdaile,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  became 
a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Mr.  Christie,  of  Durie ;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  June,  1803;  presented  by  the  town 
council  to  the  second  chai^  at  Montrose  in  June,  and 
ordained  Aug.  14, 1805 ;  promoted  to  the  East  Church, 
Perth,  Oct  18,  1810;  resigned  his  charge,  which  was 
accepted  June  15, 1844,  after  securing  a  bond  from  the 
magistrates  for  an  annuity  of  J02OOj  having  discharged 
the  duties  of  his  office  with  great  ability  and  a  high 
degree  of  acceptance  and  usefulness.  He  died  Jan.  8, 
1854,  aged  eighty  years.  He  published,  Christian  The- 
f^ogy  (Edinb.  1823)  ir^Apocraphy,  for  the  Perthshire 
Bible  Society  (1826)  f— .4  LUUr  to  the  Rev,  W,  A .  Thom- 
son (Perth,  eod.): — Lectures  on  the  Shorter  Catechism 
(ibid*  1829) : — Civil  and  Rdigious  Itutitutions  Necessa- 
rily and  Inseparably  Connected  (ibid.  1838)  x^The  Vol- 
untary Church  Scheme  without  Foundation  in  Scripture, 
Reason,  or  Common-^ense  (ibid.  1834) :  —  The  Spirit, 
Principles,  and  Reasoning  of  the  Voluntaries  Exposed 
(ibid,  eod.),  with  various  articles  in  the  Edinburgh  En- 
^doptedia.    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticame,  ii,  6 1 9 ;  iii,  848. 

Eadraa  (Armen.  Ezr  or  Ezras'),  catholicos  or  uni- 
versal patriarch  of  Armenis,  was  bom  at  Parhajna- 
gaerd  (in  the  province  of  Ararat).  He  was  educated 
from  his  childhood  in  the  patriarchal  palace,  and  after 
having  filled  the  office  of  doorkeeper  to  St.  Gregory  the 
Illuminator,  was  elected  to  succeed  the  patriarch  Chris- 
topher III,  who  died  A.D.  628.  A  short  time  after  that 
the  emperor  Heraclios,  on  his  return  from  his  expedi- 
tion against  Chosroes  H,  king  of  Persia,  stopped  at 
Garin,  formerly  called  Thcodosiopolis  and  now  £rze- 
rdxn,  and  undertook  to  unite  the  Armenian  Church 
with  the  Greek.  To  this  end  he  tried  to  conciliate 
the  affections  of  the  Armenians  who  had  submitted 
to  his  rule.  He  gave  them  as  governor-general  a  very 
popular  man,  the  prince  MJej  Cnouni ;  he  treated 
the  patriarch  with  distinction,  and  gave  him  a  part 
of  the  city  of  Goghp.  At  the  order  of  the  emperor, 
Esdras  called  together  a  council  (A.D.  629)  in  the  city 
^  Garin,  where  a  gieat  number  of  bishops,  doctors  (ver- 


tabeds),  and  Armenian  princes,  likewise  several  Greek 
doctors,  came  together.  During  the  conference  of  one 
month,  the  reunion  of  the  two  churches  was  decreed. 
The  Council  of  Cbalcedon  was  recognised  as  the  fourth 
General  Council,  and  it  was  concluded  that  the  feast  df 
the  nativity  of  Jesus  Christ  is  to  be  celebrated  separate- 
ly from  that  of  his  baptism.  Moat  of  the  Perso-Ar- 
menian  bishops  adhered  to  the  decisions  of  the  council 
Many  of  the  theologians  who  had  attached  themselves 
to  the  anathematized  doctrines  received  Esdras  very 
coldly  when  he  came  back  to  Tevin,  the  seat  of  his  ad- 
ministration, and  loudly  disapproved  his  last  acts.  The 
chief  of  this  party,  John  Mairagometsi,  was  ill-treated 
by  order  of  the  patriarch  and  sent  into  exile  as  a  here- 
tic Esdras  died  in  689,  of  sorrow,  it  is  said.  He  ha» 
been  differently  judged  by  his  compatriots;  the  histo- 
rians John  VI  Catholicos  and  Michael  Asori  (or  the 
Syrian)  call  him  ignorant,  while  the  Armenians  united- 
ly reverence  him  as  a  saint.  During  his  time  Armenia 
was  ravaged  by  the  Arabs,  who  massacred  thirty  thou- 
sand people  in  the  city  of  Tevin.  Nerses  III,  bishop 
of  Dalk,  succeeded  Esdras.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
Genirale,  s.  v. 

Eager,  Hans,  a  Dutch  theologian  and  hcbraist,  was 
bom  at  Amsterdam,  Jan.  2, 1696.  He  was  preacher  at 
Ost-  and  Wester-Blocker,  at  Naarden,  Middelburg,  and 
finally  at  Amsterdam.  In  1755  he  was  called  as  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  antiquities  at  Leyden,  where  he  had 
been  teaching  theology  before,  and  died  there,  May  28 
of  same  year,  leaving,  Mosis  Maimonidis  Constitutio  de 
Siglis  (Leyden,  1727) : — Oratio  de  Supremo  EccUsub 
Doctore  (ibid.  1740):  —  De  Regimine  Ecclesire  (ibid. 
1741)  i^De  Foniibus  Theologim  (ibid.  1751).  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Bahbili,  Yom-Tob  hen-  Abraham,  a  famous  Tal- 
mudist  of  the  13th  centur>-,  is  known  fur  his  novellas  on 
almost  all  the  treatises  of  the  Talmud.  These  novellas, 
or  D*^1!71^n,  are  highly  appreciated  by  Talmudic  schol- 
ars, and  are  therefore  often  reprinted.  A  complete  list 
of  tlura  is  given  by  FUrst, BibL  Jud,  i, 248-250.    (B.  P.) 

BaheaxL  For  this  Biblical  site  Lieut.  Conder  sug- 
gests (Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  .Survey,  iii,  813)  the 
present  ruined  village  es-Svnia,  lying  three  and  a  half 
miles  southwest  of  Juttah. 

Eakild,  a  Swedish  prelate,  succeeded  to  the  see  of 
Lund,  although  his  election  was  forbidden  by  king  Eric 
Ermund,  against  whom  be  took  arms  while  only  bishop 
of  Roskilde.  He  finally  retired  to  the  monastery  of 
Clairvaux,  in  France,  where  he  died,  Sept  6, 1 181.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Eakilll,  NicoLAus,  a  Swedish  theologian,  was  born 
July  4,  1588.  He  studied  at  different  universities  of 
Germany,  and  was  in  1611  rector  at  Calmar.  The  war 
between  Sweden  and  Denmark  put  a  sudden  stop  to 
his  activity,  but  he  resumed  it  in  1623.  He  died  Feb. 
17, 1650,  leaving,  Disp,  Synodalis  de  Scripiura  Sacra 
(Colmar,  1629):  — />e  Jehovah  Elohim  (ibid.  1632)  :  — 
De  Persona  et  Officio  Christi  (ibid.  1633):— Z>«  Crea- 
iione  et  Provident  ia  (ibid.  1635) :  —  Disputationes  Octo 
Synodales  (ibid.).  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gekhrten" 
lAxikon,  s.  v,     (B.  P.) 

Eskuche,  Baltiiasar  Ludwig,  a  Keformed  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  born  at  Cassel,  March  12, 1710; 
studied  at  Marburg ;  was  in  1734  preacher  and  professor 
at  Rinteln,  and  died  March  16, 1755,  leaving,  De  Nau- 
fragio  Paulino  (Bremen,  1730)  : — De  Requie  Pauli  in 
Melita  (Magdeburg,  1731)  :—De  Festo  Judceorum  Puritn 
(Marburg  and  Kintc]ii,1734) : — Tn  Orationem  Paulinam 
in  Areopftgo  (Rinteln,  1735-40):  —  De  Festo  ^v\o(l>o- 
piiav  (ibid.  1738) : — Disp,  ad  Oraculum  Jerem.  xxxi,  22 
(ibid.  1739) :— /)«  Muliere  Bethaniensi  (ibid.)  i—Erldu- 
terung  der  heiligen  Schrifl  aus  morgenldndischen  Reise- 
beschreibungen  (ibid.  1745,  2  vols.) : — Observationes  Php- 
lolog,  Crit.  in  Nov.  Test,  (ibid.  1748-54).  See  Jtichcr, 
Al^meines  Gelehrten-TAxihmy  s.  v.;  Winer,  Uandbuch 
der  theol.  Lit,  i,  134 ;  FUrst,  Bib/,  Jud,  i,  250.     {B,  P.) 


ESORA 


852 


ESTELLA 


Bsora  (Judith  iv,  4)  is  thoaght  by  Lieat.  Gonder 
(TerU  Work  in  PaietL  ii, 886 ;  oomp.  Quar.  Statement  of 
the «'  PaL  Explor.  Fund,"  January,  1881,  p.  62)  to  be  the 
present  "village  Arirek,  north  of  Shechem,"  meaning, 
doubtless,  what  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnemce  Map  as 
Anret  eUHatob,  three  miles  north  of  NablC^  but  not 
noticed  in  the  Memoirt  aooompanying  the  Survey. 

Bspagne,  Jean  d*,  a  French  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  in  Dauphiny  in  1691 ;  became  pastor  at 
Orange  in  1620,  but  soon  left  France,  and  was  successively 
minister  in  Holland  and  at  London,  where  he  died,  April 
26,  1669,  leaving  English  translations  of  some  small 
treatises,  especially  Let  Erreurt  Popukuret  en  Points 
de  la  Religion^  etc.  (La  Haye,  1639) :— £a  Mandueation 
du  Corps  de  Christ  (ibid.  l(AO)i—V Usage  de  VOraison 
Domimcale  ( Lond.  1646 ).  See  Hoefer,  Kouv,  Biog, 
Ginh-aUf  s.  v. 

Espence  (Lat  Espencaus),  Ciiahles  d*,  a  French 
theologian,  was  born  of  noble  parents  at  Chalons-sur- 
Mame,  in  1611,  and  became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne 
and  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris.  Cardinal  de  Lor- 
raine employed  him  in  various  important  cases.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  assembly  of  Orleans  in 
1660,  and  at  the  Conference  of  Poissy  in  1661.  He  died 
Oct.  6,  1671,  leaving.  Institution  d^un  Prince  Chrkien 
(Lyons,  1548)  i—TraUi  des  Outrages  Ciandestins  :—Des 
Commentaires  sur  les  Epitres  de  Saint-Paul  a  Timothie 
et  a  Titff  full  of  long  discussions  on  hierarchy  and  ec- 
clesiastical discipline;  also  several  controversial  treat- 
ises, some  in  French  and  others  in  Latin.  All  these 
were  collected  at  Paris  in  1619.  See  Hocfer,  Nouv, 
Biog»  Gherale,  s.  v. 

Espinac,  Pierre  d\  a  French  prelate,  bom  early 
in  the  16th  century,  was  the  son  of  Pierre  d'Espioac, 
lieutenant  of  the  king  in  Burgundy.  He  became  canon- 
count,  then  dean  of  the  Church  of  Lyons,  and  finally 
archbishop  there,  after  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Antoine 
d'Albon,  in  1674.  The  clergy  chose  him  as  their  orator 
in  the  assembly  of  Blois,  and  he  became  chief  of  the 
deputation  of  the  Catholics  at  the  celebrated  deputation 
of  Saresne.  He  died  Jan.  9, 1599,  leaving,  besides  ad- 
dresses on  the  above  occasions.  Exhortation  au  Pevple 
de  Lyon  (1683): — Un  Breviaire: — Des  Poesies  Fran- 
faises  (not  printed).    See  Hoefer,  liouv,  Biog,  Ginh-ale, 

8.V. 

XSspinay,  Aiidr6  d*,  a  French  prelate,  was  succes- 
sively archbishop  of  Aries  and  of  Bordeaux,  cardinal- 
archbishop  and  count  of  Lyons,  and  aided  Charles  Y HI 
in  his  war  in  Brittany.  He  died  at  Paris,  Nov.  10, 1600. 
See  Hocfer,  Nouv,  Biog,  G^irale^  s.  v. 

Espinay,  Charles  d',  a  French  bishop,  bom  of  an 
ancient  family  of  Brittany  about  1630,  became  commen- 
datory abbot  of  Tronchet,  of  St.  Gildas  du  Bois,  and  prior 
of  Gahard  and  of  B^herel,  was  appointed  in  1668  bishop 
of  Dol,  but  before  being  consecrated  assisted  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent.  He  was  active  in  the  ecclesiastical  troubles 
of  his  time,  and  died  in  September,  1691.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginerale^  s.  v. 

Espinay,  Jaoques  d',  a  French  prelate,  was  apos- 
tolical prothonotary  of  the  holy  see,  and  succeeded  by 
his  intrigues  in  being  appointed  bishop  of  SL  Malo,  Jan. 
9, 1450.  Nicholas  V  transferred  him,  March  18  following, 
to  the  see  of  licnnes,  but  the  due  of  Brittany,  Pierre  II, 
violently  opposed  these  changes.  In  the  end,  Espinay 
was  deprived  even  of  his  patrimony,  and  although  suf- 
fering from  the  gout  was  confined  in  a  prison,  where  he 
died,  Jan.  9, 1482.  See  Hocfer,  Aour.  Biog,  GineraU, 
s.  V, 

Espinel*  ViCKNTR,  a  Spanish  writer  and  ecclesiastic, 
was  bom  at  Ronda,  in  the  province  of  Granada,  about 
1661.  He  was  educated  at  Salamanca,  and  served  as  a 
soldier  in  Flanders.  His  ecclesiastical  position  seems 
to  have  been  that  of  chaplain  at  Ronda,  but  he  resided 
chiefly  at  Madrid.  He  died  about  1634.  He  is  now 
chiefly  noted  for  his  romance  of  Marcos  de  Olregonf  a 


work  delineatiiig  Spanish  mannen.  He  was  also  a 
poet  of  some  reputation.  There  is  a  good  English  tnms- 
lation  of  his  Marcos  de  Olregon,  by  Algernon  Langton 
(Lond.  1816, 2  vols.).    See  Encgdcp,  Btit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Bspinoaa,  Diego  de,  a  Spanish  prelate  and  states- 
man, was  bom  at  Martininos  de  las  Posadas  (old  Cas- 
tile), in  1602.  He  studied  civil  and  canonical  law, 
which  he  taught  when  very  young  at  Cnen9a;  then 
became  auditor  at  Seville,  and  director  of  the  r«»yal 
council  of  Nararre.  PhiUp  II  appointed  him  some 
time  afterwards  grand  inquisitor  of  Spain,  superintend- 
ent of  the  negotiations  and  affairs  of  Italy,  and  finally 
buhbp  of  Siguenza.  In  1668  Espinosa  received  the 
cardinal's  hau  In  the  exercise  of  his  high  functioiu 
he  was  remarkable  for  his  equal  severity  against  iniq- 
uitous judges  and  heretics.  He  died  Sept.  6, 1672.  See 
Hoefer,  Aovv.  Biog,  Ghiirale,  &  v. 

Eaqtiimatix  Version  of  thk  Scripturks.  The 
Esquimaux  are  a  people  dispersed  over  the  northern 
coast  of  North  America,  inhabiting  the  shores  of  all  the 
seas,  bays,  gulfs,  and  islands  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  They  are  also  found  on 
the  Atlantic  side  of  the  continent,  along  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  as  far  south  as  the  fiftieth  degree  of  latitude; 
and  are  likewise  to  be  met  with  on  the  opposite  coast 
of  America,  along  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  from  Behr- 
ing  Strait  to  Mount  St.  Elias,  in  the  sixtieth  degree  of 
latitude.  Moravian  missionaries  were  the  first  who 
proclaimed  the  glad  tidings  of  the  Gospel  in  these  in- 
clement regions.  The  first  part  of  the  New  Test,  which 
was  published  in  that  language  was  the  gospel  of  John, 
and  three  years  later,  in  1818,  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  published  the  other  three  gospels.  Other 
parts  soon  followed,  till  in  1826  the  entire  New  Test, 
was  given  to  that  benighted  people.  Of  the  Old  Test. 
different  parts  were  published  from  time  to  time,  till  in 
1871  the  entire  Bible  was  printed  for  the  Esquimaux. 
The  language  has  been  treated  in  modem  times  by 
Kleinschmidt,  in  Grammatikdergronlandischen  Sprache 
(Berlin,  1871).    See  Greenlandibh  Vkbsiox.   (B.  P.) 

Bstaing,  Frangois,  a  learned  and  charitable  French 
prelate,  was  born  Jan.  6, 1462.  He  was  bishop  of  Rho- 
des, and  constructed  the  tower  of  the  cathedral  at  his 
own  expense.  He  died  Nov.  1,  1629.  See  Hocfer, 
Aotrr.  Biog,  Generalef  s.  v. 

Estaing,  Joachim,  bishop  of  Clermont,  died  in 
1660,  and  had  as  his  successor  in  his  diocese  his  brother 
Louis,  who  was  almoner  to  Anne  of  Austria.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Gdah-ale,  s.  v. 

XSstampea.    See  ^tampes. 

Bate,  IppolitO  d',  an  Italian  prelate,  son  of  duke 
Ercole  I,  was  bom  in  1479.  He  was  appointed  cardinal 
at  the  age  of  fifteen  years  by  pope  Alexander  VI.  He 
is  accused  of  having  given  orders  for  putting  out  the 
eyes  of  his  natural  brother,  Giulio  d*£ste,  through  jeal- 
ousy. He  was  the  politiod  counsellor  and  lieutenant 
of  bis  brother  Alfonso,  who  had  become  duke  of  Ferrara 
in  1606.  He  contributed  to  the  destruction  of  the  Vene- 
tian fleet,  Dec  22, 1609.  Cardinal  d'Este  had  received 
a  very  careful  education,  and  possessed  extensive  knowl- 
edge, particularly  of  mathematics.  He  died  in  1520. 
See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  Genirahf  s.  v. 

Este,  JuanBaptlsta  d*,  a  convert  from  Judaism, 
who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  in 
Portugal,  is  the  author  of  Consolagon  Christiana  (Lis- 
bon, 1616)  -.—Dialogo  entre  IHscipulo  e  Mestre  Caiechi' 
zante,  in  one  hundred  chapters  (ibid.  1621).  See  FUrst, 
Bibl,  Jud,  i,  268 ;  Wolf,  BiU,  ffebr,  i  and  Ui,  810 ;  Jocher, 
A  llgemeines  Gelehrfen-Lexikony  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Estella,  DiEOO  d',  a  Spanish  ascetic  writer,  was 
bom  at  Estella  in  1624.  After  studying  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Toulouse  and  Salamanca,  he  entered  the  mo- 
nastic life,  and  gained  the  confidence  of  Philip  II,  who 
called  him  his  consulting  theologian.  He  died  Aug. 
1, 1678,  leaving  De  la  Vida  del  Evangelista  San  Juan 


ESTES 


3d3 


ETHELGAIi 


CUsboii,  15M)  x—De  la  Vanidad  del  Mundo  (Salaman- 
ca, 1574) :—/«  EvangtUum  Luem  (Alcala  de  Henares, 
1578).    See  Hoefer,  Aovr.  Biog.  GiniraU,  8.  v, 

Bstas,  Damikl  Gordon,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episoo- 
pal  clefgyman,  graduated  from  the  General  Theologi- 
cal Seminary ;  officiated  in  St.  Lonis,  Mo.,  in  1858,  and 
in  the  foUowtng  year  became  rector.  In  1857  he  resid- 
ed in  Amesbary,  Mass. ;  subsequently  became  rector  of 
St.  James*s  Church  in  that  place,  and  continued  to  serve 
that  parish  until  1872.  He  died  Aug.  9, 1878,  aged  fi^y- 
three  years.     See  Fntt,  Epitc,  Altnanac,  1874,  p.  188. 

ZSsthonian  Venlon.  See  Rsval  Estuonian 
Yebsion  ;  Russia  (Vkbsions  of). 

Eatori  iiap-Pabchi  ben^Moset,    See  Parciii  £s- 

TOBL 

Batoute'ville,  Guillauxe,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  before  1408.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Paris, 
entered  early  the  Benedictine  order,  and  iras  raisetl  to 
the  highest  dignity,  being  successively  bishop  of  Mau- 
rienne,  Digne,  Bezlers,  Ostia,  Yelletri,  and  Port-Sainte- 
Kufin,  and  also  archbishop  of  Rouen.  He  had,  among 
other  abj^ys,  those  of  St.  Ouen  de  Rouen,  of  Juroi^ges, 
of  Montebourg,  and  of  Mont  St.  Michel,  together  with 
the  priories  of  St.  Martin-des-Champs,  at  Paris,  Grand 
Pre,  and  Beaumont  en  Auge  (Normandy).  In  1487  he 
was  made  cardinal-priest  by  Eugenius  IV,  with  the  title 
of  SUeeaire  el  Martin  da  Mont$.  He  was  legate  in 
France  under  Nicholas  Y,  and  took  part  in  the  election 
of  four  pontiffs.  In  1477  Sixtns  lY  appointed  him  cham- 
berlain of  the  Church  of  Rome.  D'Estouteville  died 
dean  of  the  sacred  college,  Dec.  22, 1488.  He  bestowed 
his  immense  wealth  on  several  ecclesiastical  and  literary 
institutions.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Generale,  s.  v. 

ZSstr^es,  CAmt  d',  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Paris,  Feb.  5, 1628.  When  quite  }'oung  he  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Laon.  Louis  XI Y  charged  him  sev- 
eral times  with  negotiations,  in  which  he  showed  a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church  and  of  those 
of  the  State.  D*£strees  obtained  the  cardinaVs  hat  in 
1€74^  In  1680  he  resigned  the  bishopric  of  Laon  in  fa- 
vor of  his  nephew,  and  went  to  Rome  on  public  affairs. 
He  was  eventually  made  abbot  of  St.  Germain-des-Pres, 
and  died  dean  of  the  French  Academy,  Dec  18,  1714. 
See  Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog,  G^erale,  s.  v. 

Estr6es,  Jean  d*,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  in 
1666,  and  became  abbot  of  St.  Claude.  Louis  XIY  sent 
htm  on  an  embassy  to  Portugal  in  1692,  and  finally  to 
Spain  in  1703.  In  January,  1716,  he  was  appointed 
archbishop  of  Cambray,  and  died  March  8, 1718,  with- 
out being  consecrated.  See  Hoefer,  Kour.  Biog,  Gejii- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Btaxn.  The  rock  thus  designated  hi  the  account 
of  Samson's  exploits  (Judg.  xv)  is  regarded  by  Lieut. 
Conder  (Quar,  8taUment  of  the  ''PaL  Explor.' Fund," 
Jan.  1875,  p.  12)  as  the  remarkable  chasm  or  cave  near 
the  present  Beit-A  tab^  eight  miles  west  by  north  from 
Bethlehem,  and  described  in  the  Memoirs  accompany- 
ing the  Ordnance  Survey  (iii,  23)  as  a  cavern  some  two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  with  an  average  height  of 
five  to  eight  feet  and  a  width  of  about  eighteen  feet ; 
entered  at  the  east  end  by  a  vertical  shaft  called  '*  the 
weUf"  six  by  five  feet  wide  and  twenty  feet  deep.  The 
village  is  a  small  one,  standing  on  a  bare  knoll  of  rock 
some  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  above  the  surrounding 
ridge,  with  cisterns  to  the  houses,  and  a  few  traces  of 
antiquity.  The  place  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Samson's  ad- 
reotares,  and  the  identification  is  accepted  by  Tristram 
iBiUeriace*,p.48). 

Etam  of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv,  82)  will  in  that  case  be 
a  different  place,  for  which  lieut.  Conder  suggests  (TVnl 
Work  M  Palett,  ii,  886)  the  present  ruin  A  itikn,  laid  down 
oa  the  Ordnance  Map  at  eight  miles  south  by  east  from 
Belt-Jibim,  and  described  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs 
(iii,  278)  as  ''a  mound  with  foundations;  a  square  cell 
is  cat  in  the  rock  opposite  the  ruin  on  the  south." 

X1I.-Z 


Etam  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xi,  6),  as  still  different,  hai 
been  confirmed  at  Wady  Urtas  by  the  recovery  of  the 
name  in  A  in-A  tdn^  a  spring  on  the  hillside,  south-east 
of  the  pools  of  Solomon  (el-Burak),  one  of  the  four  that 
feed  the  reservoirs  (Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey, 
iii,  90). 

EtampeB-ValeiiQay,  Achille  d',  a  French  pret* 
ate  and  general,  was  bom  at  Tours  in  1689.  He  was  for 
a  long  time  a  valiant  captain  of  the  Knights  of  Malta. 
At  the  siege  of  Montauban  he  attracted  the  attention  of 
Louis  XIII,  who  assigned  him  a  company  of  cavalry  in 
his  regiment.  After  the  capture  of  La  Rochelle,  where 
he  commanded  as  vice-admiral,  he  became  major-gen- 
craL  Immediately  after  the  restoration  of  peace  he  re- 
turned to  Malta.  Pope  Urban  YIII  charged  him  with 
the  command  of  the  pontifical  troops  against  the  duke  of 
Parma,  and  as  a  reward  gave  him  the  cardinal's  hat. 
The  new  prelate  showed  as  much  vigor  in  the  council 
as  he  had  at  the  head  of  the  army.  He  was  involved 
in  a  contest  between  Mazarin  and  the  court  of  Rome. 
He  died  in  that  city  in  1646.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GetUrcUej  s.  v. 

ZStampes-Valengay,  L^onor  d\  a  French  prel- 
ate and  theologian,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
about  1585.  He  entered  the  ministry,  and  obtained, 
while  quite  young,  the  abbey  of  Bourgueil-en-Yall6e, 
which  he  represented  as  deputy  to  the  Estates-gen- 
eral of  1614.  In  1620  he  succeeded  his  cousin  Philippe 
Hunult  in  the  see  of  Chartres,  and  in  1647  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  archbishopric  of  Rheims.  He  signalized 
himself  in  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  1636  by  main- 
taining the  royal  authority.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1651, 
leaving  a  poem  in  Latin,  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  (Paris, 
1605)  :-4i  Ritual,  for  the  diocese  of  Chartres  (ibid.  1627). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Bing,  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Etohen  (Echeus,  or  Btlan),  commemorated  Feb. 
11  in  the  Irish  and  Scotch  calendars,  wss  bishop  of  CIu- 
ain-foda,  in  Meath,  of  royal  descent,  originally  a  phy- 
sician. He  seems  to  have  been  bom  cir.  A.D.  490,  to 
have  lived  on  the  borders  of  Ossorii',  and  died  A.D.  578. 
See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Btem&ldo,  a  Christian  sect,  supposed  to  have  arisen 
about  A.D.  260,  deriving  their  name  from  their  belief  in 
the  eternity  of  the  world.  They  maintained  that  the 
earth  will  continue  in  its  present  state,  even  after  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead.— Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World, 
s.  V. 

Eternity  of  the  World.    See  CosMoooirr. 

Ethelbert.  (1)  Saint,  king  of  the  EasuAngles,  be- 
headed in  792  (rather  794)  by  order  of  Offa,  king  of 
Mercia,  and  venerated  May  20  as  the  patron  of  Here- 
ford. (2)  Saint,  martyred' with  his  brother,  St.  Ethel- 
red,  at  the  court  of  their  cousin  Egbert,  king  of  Kent, 
in  the  7th  century,  and  commemorated  on  Oct.  17.  (8) 
Archbishop  of  York  (called  also  Adalbert,  and  usually 
A  Iberi),  a  kinsman  and  pupil  of  archbishop  Egbert,  and 
the  teacher  of  Alcuin,  was  consecrated  to  the  see  April 
24,  767,  and  in  778  pope  Adrian  sent  him  the  pallium. 
He  made  an  excellent  archbishop,  continuing  his  fra- 
gal  habits,  and  devoting  himself  to  the  interests  of  the 
Church.  In  780  he  appointed  Eanbald  his  coadjutor, 
and  died  at  York,  Nov.  8,  781  or  782.  (4)  Bishop  of 
Withem,  in  Galloway,  consecrated  Jnne  10, 777 ;  died 
Oct.  16, 797.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Ethelburga  is  the  name  of  several  early  English 
abbesses,  one  of  whom  is  especially  entitled  saint.  She 
was  sister  to  Erkenwald,  bishop  of  London ;  was  by  him 
appointed  first  abbess  of  the  nunnery  at  Barking,  Essex, 
which  he.  built  and  endowed.  Here  she  led  a  very 
austere  life,  and  died  in  676.  She  is  commemorated  on 
Oct.  11.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Ethelgar,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  educated 
at  Glastonbury,  where  he  was  a  favorite  pupil.  In  964 
he  was  appointed  abbot  of  Newminster  at  Winchester, 
and  on  May  2, 980,  he  was  consecrated  to  the  see  of  Selsey. 


ETHELHAllD  3. 

For  more  than  eight  yem  Bthelgir  ww  biahop  of  Sel- 
aey.  In  9S8  he  wu  tnnnUud  lo  the  ace  of  Canterbary. 
All  hopes  ud  expecutiona  Mem  to  btxe  been  diaip- 
poinLed  by  bia  death,  Dec  8,  969.  See  Hook,  Liea  of 
llitAipt.e/  CaHltrbury,  i,  426  iq. 

SUialliaid,  archbiihop  of  Canterburr,  doea   not 
teem  to  havo  flgured  in  history  unli' 
to  that  aee,  July  21,  793.     Ilia  gret  puDiic  act  n 
jj  attend  the 


dl  vbich  the  emperor  Charlemagne  had  called 
aemble  at  Frankbrt,  one  of  the  moet  important  wun- 
eila  ever  held  in  the  Weit,  Uiaadminutiationiraa  one 
of  eoocen  and  aatialaction  to  hia  people.  He  waa  cape- 
eiaily  inatrumental  in  aecnring,  ia  80!,  the  pope'i  recog- 
nition of  the  loTereign  righta  of  the  see.  He  died  Hay 
12,  80G.  See  Hook,  Utia  of  lit  A  tpi.  of  Caxltniuj, 
i,i6GKi.i  amllb,l>icl.ofChrM.Biog.i.y. 

Btheluotb,  archbiihop  of  Canteibury,  waa  the  ann 
orEgelmier,theearl,andwaBi  Qlailonbury  man.  He 
obtained  the  grant  of  additional  pririlegea  for  the  mon- 
astery from  Canute,  and  ii  reported  to  hive  written  its 
hiitor;.  HewaafiratamonkofGlBMDnbory.tbendean 
of  Canterbury-,  and  ebaplain  to  Canute,  the  king.  Oth- 
er preferment  he  declined  antil  a  Ticancy  occurred  in 
the  aee  of  Canterbury.  Id  iOla  the  see  via  vacant, 
•nd  Ethelaoth  waa  nominated  by  the  king  ai  primate 
of  England.  Haring  tetlled  hie  affaira  in  Canterbury, 
he  made  proviflon  for  a  temporary  abience,  and  piDcecd- 
Cd  loRome  in  1022,  where  he  waa  received  with  dialinc. 
tion  by  Benedict  VIIL  From  Rome  he  went  to  Pavia 
to  viuCthe  tombofSbAuguitineofHippo.  Ethelnoth 
teems  to  have  been  a  church  restorer.  He  repaired 
lubeUmtially  the  cathedral,  which  hia  predeccsaora  ' 
only  palcbed  over.  He  displayed  lioth  fltmneaa 
diseretioo  during  hia  adminiaCnilion.  Ho  died  in  Octo- 
ber,103&  See  Hook,Z,iruo/(ij  ^(p^.o/Caaterftury, 
1,478  aq. 

Ethelred,  archbiahop  of  Canterbury,  is  aaid  i 
been  bishop  in  Wiltshire  befare  his  appointment  toCan- 
terbary  in  870.  He  waa  educated  at  the  monastery  of 
St.  Augustine.  Adet  hia  appointment  to  the  >ee,  I; 
went  immediately  to  Rome  for  Ibe  pallium,  aa  wi 
required  in  those  days.  During  Elhelred'a  adminiitn 
lion  it  ia  aaid  that  Cameliac  came  to  Canterbury  to  t 
consecrated  by  bim  to  the  see  of  LlandafT.  This  plaii 
ly  ahows  that  the  ipiritoal  supremacy  of  the  English 
Church  already  extended,  at  least,  over  the  south-east- 
em  part  of  Walca.  In  Che  episcopate  of  Kthclred,  the 
same  Church  gave  proof  of  its  revived  energy,  by  open- 
ing a  communication  with  the  Christians  of  the  fat 
Eaat,  eapecially  with  thoae  then  existing  in  Indu, 
These  things  occnmd  towards  the  close  of  Ethclred'i 
life.  He  waa  cordial  in  hia  co-operation  with  the  king, 
and  took  many  alepa  towarda  the  reformation  of  Ll 
Church.  To  him  aJao  ia  due,  at  least,  the  merit  of  ca 
rying  into  effect  the  will  of  the  aovereign.  He  died  '. 
889.  See  Hook,  Liea  of  Ot  Aipt.  of  CanUriary, 
S98aq. 

Btfaelrad.     See  Ailsed. 

Bthelrflda,  Saial.    See  Audbt,  St. 

Ethelwold  (Ut.  jEdUuaUai),  bishop  of  lindi 
fame,  cir.  T24-740,  was  originally  a  aerrant  nnder  E 
Cuthben,  and  afterwards  abbot  of  Melrose,  and  Itt-i 
through  many  Ticiasitudes  in  those  days  of  peril,  li 
iacommemoraRdonFcb.1!.  8ee8[Dtth,iKc(.i^C7ArMf. 
Bio$.  a.  V. 

Ether  ia  identified  by  UeuL  Conder  (Tail  Worl  v 
FaUa.i\,i36)  with  a  ruined aite,eI-^(r,one  mile  north' 
veat  of  Beit-Jihrin ;  but  It  is  doubtful  if  the  terri  tory  of 
KmeoD  eiUiuled  so  far  north.  Tan  de  Velde'a  TtU 
A  Utan,  "  a  Rue  to  the  north-east  of  Beeraheba,"  which 
ia  adopted  by  Triatnm  {BibU  Flaoei,  p.  42),  does  not 
appear  on  the  Otibuiiux  Map. 

Ethiopian  Chiuoli.    Sec  ABteii:(iAH  Ctiuacu. 
\       BtUopIan  Monk*.    Montsticiam  ipicad  npldly 


□p  the  Nile  into  Ethio- 
pia, and  gained  as  stioog 
a  hold  there  as  in  Egypt 
or  Srria,  if  not  a  strong- 
er. All  the  monasteriM 
in  Ethiopia  p 
obey  the  so-called  "Rale 
of  Autonv,"  but  with  dif- 


penonally  or  by  proxy. 
Several  of  them,  however,  preferred  to  retain  their  in- 
dependence, like  Congregationalista.  Monks  swarmed 
in  Ethiopia  long  after  the  first  fervor  of  asceticism ;  and 
the  constitution  of  the  Ethiopian  Church  was  monastic 
The  itoiy  of  a  military  order  of  monka,like  the  knights. 
templar,  originating  in  the  4th  century,  ia  partly  fabu- 
loua.  See  Hdyot,  Did.  dti  Ordra  Rdigiaix,  ii,  232  sq. 
EthnopIlTfiiits  (from  ISvoq,  a  talio*,  and  ^ovfw, 
lo  think),  a  namo  sometimes  applied  to  the  beretiea  of 
the  7th  centoiy,  who  sought  to  combine  pagan  cualoma 
with  Chriatisnily. 

of  the  Abynsinian  Church, 


.eAbun«(q.T.). 


la  of  ll 


ciHc,  consialing  of  aome  bird,  fish,  or  rvplilr,  in 

the  natives  believed  ■  spirit  resided.     Fur  an  aocouut 

of  this  worship  see  Williams,  -I/aaionoiy  Rttearcha. 

XjQCadirea,  priests  of  the  ancient  Carthaginian  de- 
ities, alao  called  Xbadira  (q.  v.). 

GnOherioB,  the  thirty-second  bishop  of  Orle■n^ 
was  bora  there,  of  noble  parents,  towards  the  close  of  the 
7th  century ;  devoted  bimaelf  early  lo  a  monastic  life  at 
Jumicges;  was  elected  to  the  see  on  the  death  of  his  uiw 
c)e,inTlT;  administered  it  with  remarkable  success,  but 
was  banished  to  Cologne,  in  732,  by  Charles  Martel,  ap- 
parently for  rcaisting  a  cODfiscation  of  the  Church  rev- 
enuea;  and  died  at  a  place  near  Liege  in  738  (nr  Hi). 
He  ia  cnmmcmorated  Feb.  SO.  See  Smith,  JHd.  of 
Ckntt.B<og.t.-ir. 

Encbomgnt  (from  iGxofhh,  to  prof),  a  name  some- 
limes  applied  to  those  of  the  catechumens  (q.  v.)  who 
renuined  to  receive  the  minister's  prayers  and  benedic- 
tions.   See  Gexufixctentks. 

Bndea  de  Rouokiiovt,  sixty-eighth  bishop  of  Be- 
Ban;on,  belonged  to  one  of  the  oldest  families  of  Biirgun. 
dy,  and  succeeded,  Feb.  9, 1209,  Guillanme  de  La  Tour, 
lie  fell  intn  a  quarrel  with  his  people,  in  1279,  concern- 
ing the  expeiues  of  the  see,  which  resulted  in  hii  di»- 
aomflture.  Ha  died  June  £3, 1301.  Site  Uoefer,A'on'. 
Biog.  GitUraU,  s.  v. 

Etifronlna.    See  Eiifhroniub. 

Engentoa,  a  Catholic  bishop  or  CAsmAOE,  waa 
elected  to  that  see  in  480  or  481.  In  489  he  was  ban- 
ished by  tbe  Ariin  party  to  Tripidl,  where  he  remained 
ondl  484,  when  he  relumed  to  bis  diocete.  But  the 
next  king  banished  him  to  Gaul,  where  ho  remained 
the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  at  Vienne.  Sept.  6,  506. 
He  left  ijpofirto  Fidtt  CurAoKci  (printed  in  Uigtw, 
PairoL  Lai,  Iviii).  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Did.  a.  v.; 
Sianih,  Did.  of  Cirul.Biog.uv. 


ETJGENIUS 

Bngenliu,  biihop  of  Tolcdo,  the  ncoad  of 
ttut  tamt,  wu  SnC  ■  clerk  of  the  CbuiGh  th«n, 
and  on  being  choMU  biabops  retired  to  Sangoeu 
in  &  moniuery ;  but  being  diacoveced,  wu  broaght 
back  Id  Tolnla,  and  ordained  ia  fU6.  He  [tre- 
aded at  tbg  conndli  held  at  Toledo  in  the  yean 
GU,  655,  and  656,  and  died  id  657.  He  wai  the 
aotbor  of  Krenl  works,  particularly  a  Wealiw 
oa  the  Trinity,  two  books  of  miiceltaniea,  and 
one  in  prow  and  verse,  which  were  pablisbed  by 
father  Sinuoad  at  Paris  (1S19,  Stdi  abo  in  1S96-, 
Tenice,  1728,  in  the  BiUio/hna  if  ax.  Patnim; 
Lroiis,I677,xH,a46).  SeeCLahiiers,£i<i^i>id; 
».T.j  Smiih,  Dia.ofCkril.  Bios.  t.v. 

Eoktsrol  Oikoi  ((vcriipiav,  on  aratery, 
and  oiuc, "  Aoiue),  a  name  aometiona  applied 
tn  ancient  Cbrtstian  churchca, 

Sulosinm,  the  conseoated  bread  of  the 
Greek  Cliiirch. 

BolysIOB,  biahop  of  Apamea,  in  Bithynia, 
one  of  Chrywalom'a  most  loyal  adheienta,  ban- 
ished to  Hiipah,beyoiid  Boirali,in  Syria,  A.D.  406. 

BnmenldaB.    See  Fubies. 

Xlnplieinla,  Saaii,  of  Chalcedon,  auffered  roartyi- 
dom  in  the  time  of  Gaierina,  cir.  A.D.  807.  Her  anni- 
veraaiy  is  3ept.  16. 

Snpbemliu  (by  aoDie  EuAjpniai),  third  patriarch 
of  Conalan  tiuople,  A.D.  48S-i90,  was  a  leaned  biatorian 
and  ortbodoi  presbyter  of  that  city,  hot  becan 
in  the  Jealousies  betvreen  the  Greek  and  Roman  eccle- 
aiaatics  and  was  finally  deposed  by  the  emperor  Anaa< 
laaina.  He  died  in  515.  See  Smith,  Did.  o/Chritl. 
Biog.  a,  v. 

Eupbn^B  (or  Unphroayua),  daughter  of  Paph- 
uutina  of  Alexandria,  early  in  the  Slh  century,  (led  from 
borne  to  avfHd  marriage,  and  was  received  into  a  neigh- 
boring monastery,  where,  under  the  assumed  name  of 
Smaragdiat,  she  concealed  her  aex  lor  thirty-eight 
yean.  Her  father  meanwhile  viNted  her,  without  rec- 
ognising her,  and  was  converted  to  Christianity, 
her  death-bed  she  discovered  herself  to  bim.and  be  be- 
caDK  a  monk.  She  is  commemorated  by  the  Latins, 
Feb.  tl,  by  the  Greeks,  Sept.  25. 

XlnphrfttOB,  n  heretic  of  the  3d  cenlnry,  wga  the 
foondei  of  the  sect  of  Ophites  or  Serpen  tarians,  one  of 
wfaoae  dogmas  was,  that  the  serpent  by  which  our  flnt 
pavEDts  were  deceived  was  either  Christ  himself  or  Sophii 
(medbaa)  concealed  under  that  form,  for  which  reasoi 
thejr  paid  a  kind  of  divine  honor  to  certain  aerpenb 
kept  Uit  that  purpoee.  In  most  polula  he  adhered  ti 
Ibe  priental  or  Gnostic  philosophy,  of  two  opposite 
principle^  with  the  reous  and  other  dreams  of  tfaoae 
■ecta.  Oiigeo  did  not  consider  the  disciples  of  Euphra- 
tea  as  Cfariatiani,  but  as  calumniaton  or  Jesns  Christ. 

Etipbionlns  (or  Bafronlna).  (1)  Bishop  of 
Antioeh,  intruded  by  the  Arian  party,  AD.  332-334. 
(8)  Biahop  or  Colonia,  in  Armenia;  afterwards  metro- 
politan oC  Nicopolis,  A.D.3T6.  (8)  Ninth  bishop  of 
Antim,  Dot  long  before  AD.  152;  commemoraled  Aug. 
a.  (4)  The  e^hteenth  bishop  of  loan,  AD.  556-572, 
wbo  noned  Uie  violent  encroachments  of  the  civil 
power,  died  in  bis  seventietb  year,  and  is  commemoraled 
Aug.  4. 

BttrSpa,  in  Givek  mythology,  was  the  famous  be- 
loTed  of  Jupiter,  Tor  whose  sake  he  transTonned  himself 
iato  a  bull,  and  took  her  on  his  back  to  Crete,  where 
■b«  gave  birth  by  him  to  Uinos,  Rhadamanlhus,  and 
Saipedon.  According  to  Homer,  sba  was  a  daughter 
of  Phcenii  and  Peiimedej  but  later  writers  loaks  her 
tbe  daughter  of  the  Phienician  king  Agenor  and  Tels- 
phaiwa  Agenor,  on  learning  of  her  abduction,  sent  out 
all  his  sous  in  search  of  her,  with  the  command  not  to 
letnTn  without  her.  Aa  Cbey  did  not  discover  her.  the 
pons  settled  in  strange  countries,  and  tbos  the  father 
Icat  all  hb  children.    £uTopa  niaiiied  Aslerion,  the 


Aallqae  Stona  Flgui 

king  of  Crete,  who  brought  op  her  children  as  wise,Jtist 
men,  so  that  they  became  the  judges  of  the  infernal  te- 
giona.  She  was  worshipped  on  Crete.  The  myth 
doubtless  represents  the  passage  of  colonists  aeroaa  llie 
Hellespont  from  Aua  to  Europe. 

Btima,  in  Greek  mythulogy,  ig  ihe  east,  ot,  rather, 
south-east,  wind,  bringing  to  the  Giecks  close,  dj 


weather,  and  heavy  stania.  Theidote  b«  ia  represent- 
ed on  the  tower  of  the  winds  with  flowing  hair,  tangled 
beard,  and  or  surly  aspect.     See  East  Wixd. 

Eiuebla,  SainI,  abbeaa  of  Hamay  or  Hamaige, 
daughter  of  Adalbrand,  a  Prankish  lord,  and  of  St.  Ri». 
trude,  was  bom  ia  637.  She  was  educated  by  ber 
grandmother,  St.  Gertrude,  abbess  ot  Hamay  (Hamati- 
cuai),and  was  elected  to  succeed  her  in  649;  but  as  she 
was  only  twelve  years  old,  Rictrude,  who  at  that  lime 

vent  with  her  whole  community,  by  order  of  the  king, 
Clovia  II.  Eusebis,  who  could  not  forget  her  monas- 
tery of  Hamaige,  therefore  rose  secretly  in  the  night 
with  one  of  her  friends,  and  went  there  to  chant  the 
service,  and  came  back  the  following  morning  to  Har- 
chiennes.  Her  mother  fonnd  this  out,  however,  gave 
her  a  severe  chastisement,  and  engaged  many  bishops 
and  abbots  to  rcmonstnte  with  her,  but  they  found 
her  inBexible,  and  advised  Rictrude  to  leave  her  at  lib- 
erty. When  only  thirteen  years  old,  Eusebia  returned 
to  Hamaige  as  abbeaa,  and  governed  her  community 
with  humility,  mildness,  and  prudence.  She  died  in  660, 
and  is  commemorated  March  16.  See  Hoefer,  JVoui. 
iUiiff.GMnilr,a.v.;  Smith,  Did.o/Ciriil.  Biog.  t,v. 
uebiua,  the  name  of  a  very  great  number  of  early 
Christian  ecclesiastics,  of  whom  we  men^n  a  few  of 
the  moat  noted.  (1)  Fifth  bishop  of  AjPb,  cir.  AD. 
649-554.  (S>  Bishop  of  Oesares,  in  Cappadocio,  AD. 
S62-870,  a  friend  of  Gregory  Nazianzen.  (3)  The  twen- 
^-second  bishop  of  Uilan,  AD.  449-465.  (4)  Bishop 
o(  Felusium,  cir.  AD.  4ai-4fi7.  (6)  Bishop  of  Tarra- 
gone,  cir.  AD.  610-632.    (S)  Bishop  of  Valentinianop- 


EUSTACHIUS 


olii,  in  proeontalw  Am% 
depiMcd  for  acandiloiu 
*cu,A.D.«W.  (T)Prei- 
byter   of  "  '  " 


■  conhaKn  Aug.  14. 
(8)  ProbyWr  of  Cre- 
noni,  ■  frund  of  St. 
JerooK. 

BnatRohlaa  (or 
Bnatatlilas,  uid  la 
have  been  named  Pla 
cidiui  before  hi*  am 
tgi^od),  ■  noted  sunt, 
U  commemorkted  by 
the  L^na  Not.  2,  ind 
bjtheGrMkaSeptaO 
u  1  miliUiy  martyr 


Uad[iui,A.D.IlS.  Hu 
AcU  tn  eridentlj  (pn 
rioiii,  but  bia  nuutyt 
dam  IB  nadoabted. 
Huiy  churcliea  ue  ded- 
iiMled  to  him.etpecul 
ly  one  in  Bome,  uid 
one  in  Paiii.  Bironiiu 
thiaks  he  may  bare 
been  the  PUddui  who 
«u  a  general  under 
Ticol  (JoMpbm  War 
iii,4;  iv,  187},  but  that 
would  make  him  very 
aged.  See  Jimnon, 
SacTtd  and  Ltgadary 

BnaUOhliU,  Gior  Fahu    See  Nola  Paul. 
SuBtathluB.      (I)    Abbot    of  Luxeuil   (Franche- 
Camle),  bom  in   Bui^undy  about  6G0,  aucceeded  St. 


Coluu 


in  610,  lal 


Varaaci  in  616,  and  died  in  626;  commemorated  March 
29  (byothersOct.il).  (2)  Biahop  of  Attalia,reugned 
in  431.  (8)  Biahop  of  Berylua,  in  Syria,  ejected  for 
time-aerviDK  hetsay,  in  *B7.  (4)  Patriarch  of  Ali 
dria,  801-eoS. 

BtwtOOUlU.  (1)  FiKb  arcbbiahop  of  Toun,  448- 
460,  ia  commemorated  aa  a  aaint,  Sept.  19.  (3)  Patri- 
•wh  of  Jerunlem,  644-Ge6. 

XhUtOTBlDih  bi«hop  of  Milan,  blS-SlS. 


ofmartyn  towbomafcMivalii 
dedicated  in  the  Greek  Church 
onDeclS. 

Bostratiaa,  a  Qr»k 
logian,  who  lived  in  the  6th 
century,  wrote  a  treatiae  on  Tk. 
C<mdiiim  of  IM  Soul  of  tfan 
aJUr  Dtat)i,  printed  for  ibe  first 
time  by  Leo 
OcciJtidaliun  atqm  Oriailali- 
■Hn.  The  autbor  has  been  iden- 
tified with  Euitathiua,  the  hi 
rapber  of  Eutych' 
century. 

Btutrattna, 

flauiiabed  in  the  beginning  of 

tbelSthcentu 

far  hia  polemi 

vinity,   and   hia   pbitoaophical 

works.    Hia  Greek  comment 

riea    on    Arialotle'a    Analiflk 

and  on  hit  Elhieo,  an  atill  e: 


EVANGELISTS 

tant  1  the  fanner  pabliahed  at  Teaioe  in  1634,  the  lat- 
r  at  tbe  nme  place  in  1586,  and  at  Paris  in  154S. 
Ihitwpe,  in  Greek  mythalogy,  one  of  the  muaii, 
who  prcaded  otm  lyric  poetry.    See  cut  below. 

Bntherina,  hiihop  of  Tyana,  an  earaett  Neitoiiap, 
IS  an  acknowledged  leader  of  that  p«ty  in  the  Coun- 
cil of  Epheaua  (A.D.  4S1),  and  for  some  time  afterwaida. 
He  was  ultimately  baniihed  to  Scytbopolia,  and  Ihenn 
to  Tyre,  where  be  died.  Ue  wrote  a  treatise,  usually 
pabliahed  wilb  Ibe  works  of  Athanaaiu*.  Se«  Smith, 
Did.  of  Ckritl.  Biog.  a.  v. 
Bathymins,  abbot  of  Fharan,  in  Judaea,  waa  bom 
Melitene  (Armenia)  in  877.  He  was  educated  nodn 
bishop  Otreius,wha  ordained  bim  priest,  and  intmated 
bim  with  the  direction  of  the  monasteries  of  Helileoe. 
la  106  be  went  to  Palestine,  and  retired  into  a  ecll 
Jeruaalem.  Soon  alter  he  waa  joined  by  a 
great  number  of  reduaes,  who  ehoae  him  aa  their  ao- 
penor  Hia  anlboritj  extended  orer  aereral  monas- 
teries. EutbymiuB  converted  to  Chriatianily  a  Urge 
number  of  Aribiani,  and  lirought  back  Id  the  ortbodoi 
Choich  several  Nestoriana  and  Manich■^ana.  Through 
bia  entreaty  also  the  empreaa  Eudaxia,  the  wife  of  Tbeo- 
dosiua  the  younger,  entered  into  the  biwom  of  the  Calh- 
ohc  Charch.  There  was  alao  attributed  to  Eutbrmioa 
the  power  of  performing  miracles.  He  died  in  47S, 
After  bis  death  he  was  revered  as  a  taint,  first  in  tbe 
Lhen  in  the  WeaL  See  Hoefer,  A'twr.  Biog. 
Ginir<iU,».T.;  Smith,  AK(.o/CArii(.fi%.a.r. 

Entroplns,  biahop  of  Valencia,  in  Spain,  towards 
the  end  of  the  Gth  century,  originslly  abbot  of  the  moo- 
aatery  of  Serritanum,  waa  aisociated  with  the  moat  in- 
fluential Spanish  ecclesiastics  of  bis  time.  See  Smith, 
Did  ofVKriil.Biog.».\. 

'Ev.tadbitom  (from  li,  good,  and  T'e;pi,forbmi),  a 
heretical  sect  mentioned  by  Theodoret  as  belonging  to 
the  6d  century.  They  held  that  our  souls  were  placed 
in  our  bodies  only  to  honor  the  angels  who  etealad 
them  that  we  ought  to  be  afBicted  at  nothing,  and 
to  be  equally  pleased  with  vice  and  virtue.  Tbay 
also  taught  that  Christ  was  Ibe  son  of  an  unknown 

EatyobiauilB,  a  celebrated  monk  in  the  nionnlwn* 
separating  Phrygla  and  Bithynia,  in  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine  tbe  Great. 

Entrohilia.  (l)  ffitbop  of  Elenthsopolta  (Heb- 
ron), in  Palestine,  in  the  middle  of  the  4th  centnir, 
waa  depoaed  fur  semi -Arian ism.  (3)  Sub-deacon  of 
Aleundria,martyredby  IheArians,A.D.866.  (S)  Th« 
laat-known  exareb  of  Bavenna,  A.D.  737-761.       , 

BvaETlns.  (l)  Orthodox  bishop  of  Constantino- 
{de  for  two  montba  in  870.  (!)  Bishop  of  Antiocb,  dr. 
A.D.  388-893. 

Bmldiia,  a  Scotch  prelate,  waa  appointed  the  fint 
tnthop  of  the  see  of  Argyle  in  1200,  by  biahop  John. 
See  Keith,  ScolliA  Bii^i,  p.  2S4. 

BvaogSl  (Gr.  ibayyiXjjiy,  good  lidingi),  a  nanw 
oflen  applied  to  tbe  gospel-  Hence  the  term  evtmi/eli' 
«iCq.v.). 

BvangelloKl  AdrentlBts.     See  ADiajiiwi^ 


if  the  Gth 


BTBIlKeliBtB,.TiiK  VoVB,  HrpmfHlatioiu  of,  « 
Ckrutiuit  Art.  The  adoption  of  the  four  creatures  of 
the  apocalypse  (iv,  6)  as  images  of  the  evangelists  doo 
not  seem  to  have  taken  place  generally,  or  ia  not  re- 
corded on  Christian  monumenls,  before  Ibe  Gth  century. 
It  involvea,  of  eourae,  a  peculiarly  impressive  connection 
between  the  beginning  of  the  visions  of  Eeekiel  and 
the  unvdiing  of  heaven  to  the  eyes  of  John.  Tbe  ap- 
pUcatiOD  of  each  tymbol  to  each  writer  may  be  nfenvd 


EVANGELISTS 


>■  cooteiDpUling  (he  Lord'*  dirine  niture.  Ingennitj 
and  deroLon  have  done  thtir  utm«t  on  this  aubject  for  ' 
ecntories,  with  little  lault.  The  (ccoinpuiyiiig  rm- 
bleoutieal  Bgnrei  ire  round  in  the  chapel  of  ^ui  Satiro, 
inUilan.  StxIlMitignj, Did.da An:i.Chriiitmt,i.T.; 
Jameson,  Saertd  and  Ltgndary  Arl,  p.  132  iq. 

XiTUigeUstSi  In  the  Britiab  eentus  nf  1861  four 
cfngTvi^aticnM  reTumcd  thcniHlvea  an  wonhippiiig  un- 
der tbia  aame,  probably  La  avoid  being  idenlifled  with 
■ny^ieet. 

Erana,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  an  Kngliah  BapiiiL  min- 
nUr,  wa*  bom  a,  BilMon,  StaffordgbirE,  Hay  IS,  1B09. 
Aa  ■  bo^  hii  thint  Tor  knowledge  wu  intenge,  and  he 
eiecUed  in  drawings  on  StafTordshire  potterj-irare.  He 
WM  cntiverted  in  hii  youth,  jtased  the  Baplitta,  and  at 
twenly  entered  Horton  College,  Bradford,  Yorkahire.  In. 
ISSfi  he  accepted  an  invitation  u  paatorovera  very  amall 


KTANS 

Chnrch  at  the  teipoft  of  ficarboroogh,  where,  for  forty 
yeara,  he  preached  four  aennona,  held  five  pnyer-meet- 
inga,  and  oonducCed  three  Bible-cLaaKa  weekly.  He 
formed  a  new  Baptist  Miniateiial  Aaaociation,  which 
yonng  man  from  Horton  Collie  to  repreienl 
the  Baptiat  eauae  in  Germany.  Ite  alao  founded  the 
flrat  Baptist  church  In  Bruaacla.  He  effectually  re> 
uited  the  levying  of  Church  latca  in  Scarborough  on 
Independenta  I  took  a  leading  part  in  the  anti-Cora- 
I^w  League,  and  in  the  ■nti.State.^^hurch  Aisociationa, 
and  waa  Che  founder  and  fint  lecretary  or  [he  Uechin- 
ica'  louitDte  in  the  town;  the  Arebieological  Society 
and  Huaeum  owea  much  of  its  aocceaa  to  hu  eflbrts. 
He  waa  the  foander  of  the  Society  for  the  Education  of 
Bona,  and  ita  preaident ;  the  founder  of  the 
Theological  CoUege  at  Bury,  and  pTofetaor  ofecdedMti- 
cal  hiatory  in  it ;  and  he  alio  eatabliabed  and  edited  7^« 
BoplittRiaiTd,it]aAnt!Ay ioamii.  Among hiapt^iahed 
works  are,  Tht  Eniarged  fHHors  of  Bcarbarmigk  :—Tke 
BiilOTy  of  BorlOB  and  RawJo*  CoUtga  :—Tlu  Bittory 
of  (jU  Earig  Ev^itlt  Baptiili  (I  ToU.) :— JAxfem  Po- 
ptry:-~BiiiiUlarotnigChnaH(Bu:—L\fiofWickligt! 
— HiilOTy  of  Iht  German  S^oma'ion ;  —  Ltttura  on 
Eaiaiailicul  //utory  .'—The  Rdigioui  StattofB^itm, 
and  about  ■  acore  ofpamphleti  on  popular  topiei.  He 
waa  the  father  of  the  Frttman  newapaper,  and  a  con- 
tributor Ifl  half  a  dozen  Baptiat  magazines.  He  died 
auddenly,  April  6,  ISTl.  a^e  (_honA.)  BaptuI  Iland- 
ioojt,1872. 

Bvana,  C  D.D^  ■  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  waa 
born  at  LlannwcbUyn,  Herionelbshire,  June  32,  17SI. 
He  waa  baptized  in  early  life,  began  to  preach  in  1809, 
was  two  years  in  the  Abergavenny  Academy,  and  then 
for  seven  years  pastor  of  the  amall  Church  of  Uannefyd 
and  Llanaanaan.  In  J623  he  reiaoved  to  Cefomawr, 
which  was  hia  reiideoce  for  thirty-five  yean,  during 
twenty-nine  of  whicb  be  waa  pastor  of  tlie  Cburch  in 
that  place.  Conaideting  the  imperfection  of  bis  early 
education,  he  became  a  more  than  ordinarily  cultured 
acbolar,  and  wrote,  Tia  Ptcutiar  TokU  aflJu  BapttUt, 
and  A  Hiilarf  of  Iht  Bapliili,  Baied  on  lie  Fmda- 
mental  Prindpia  of  litir  SyHem.  He  died  Uateh 
28,1864.  See(L<!nd.)£(ipfMl //<nd-Iooi,18e5,p.l21. 
CJ.C.S.) 

Btuu,  Etui  (I),  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England,  is  sapposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Wales. 
Ha  was  sent  to  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  by  the  biabop  of  Lon- 
don, in  1700.  Five  yean  before,  a  church  had  been 
built  there,  and  of  this  he  took  charge.  Through  hia 
instrumentality  churchea  were  fanned  at  Chichester, 
Cheater,  Maidenhead,  Concord,  Evesham,  Montgomery, 
Hadnor,  and  Oxford,  places  all  within  a  radius  of  forty 
miles.  After  four  years  of  aervice  at  Philadelphia,  be 
asked  lor  and  received  an  aBaistant.  In  1707  he  visited 
Eaglsnd,  and  urged  that  a  bishop  should  be  sent  over 
to  the  colonies.  In  1709  he  relumed  to  bis  charge  in 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1711  it  waa  found  necessary  to  en- 
large the  church  ediOce.  Resigning,  he  again  viidted 
England  in  1716,  and  on  his  return  to  America  accepted 
an  appointment  to  Oxford  and  Radnor,  a  part  of  hia 
former  Q«ld,ind  remained  thereuntil  1718,  when  he  re- 
aigned  his  mission,  lemoved  to  Usrylind,  to  St.  George's 
:  pariah,  then  in  Baltimore,  now  Harford,  County,  and  on 
\  every  alternate  Sabbath  ofBciated  in  the  adjoining  par- 
I  ish,  over  twenty  miles  diatanl.  He  died  in  October, 
1721.     8eeSprague,^Bu:fo/(Ae/>>Kr.i^fpA,v,22. 

Bvans,  Evan  (!),  a  Welsh  divine  and  poet,  was 
bom  at  Cynhawdren,  in  CardiBanahire,  about  1780,  and 
waa  educated  at  Jesua  College,  Oxford.  After  Uliing 
orders  incillece.heofliciated  as  curate  in  several  placei, 
particularly  Newick,  in  Kent,  Uanvair  Talhaiam,  in 
Denhighahire,  and  Towyn,  in  Herjonethshlre.  He  died 
at  bis  birthplace  in  1790.  He  published  DiueHalio  dt 
Bardu  (176*,  4to),  and  translated  into  Welsh  two  vol- 
umes of  TiUolion'i  Strmont.  See  Chalmers,  fliop.  DicK 
B.V.;  AUibone,  Z>u/.0/Srir.miil  j1nKr.^iilWi,s.*. 


EVANS 


358 


EVOLUTION 


Svans,  Jaines»  the  celebnted  Canadian  roianon- 
ary  among  the  Indiana,  brother  of  Rev.  Epbraim  Evans, 
D.D.,  entered  npon  the  miasionaTy  work  at  St  Clair, 
Ont^  in  1834.  He  labored  at  Rioe  Lake,  Credit,  An- 
eaater,  and  other  places.  To  his  mental  vigor  and  in- 
domitable perseverance  the  Indians  are  indebted  for 
many  advantages.  Npt  the  least  of  these  ia  a  written 
and  printed  character  of  their  language,  invented  by 
Evans.  He  left  behind  him  many  papers,  both  in  print 
and  manuscript — a  private  Joomal,  translations,  Indian 
vocabularies,  letters,  etc.  He  died  toddenly,  while  on  a 
visit  to  England,  at  Keelby,  Lincolnshire,  Nov.  28, 1846. 
Evans  was  a  warm  friend,  a  man  of  genius,  an  enter- 
prising explorer,  a  devoted  missionary,  and  an  humble 
Christian.  See  MimUet  o/the  BrUith  Conference,  1847, 
p.  462 ;  Carroll,  C€ue  and  his  Contemporaries  (see  index, 
voL  v). 

Bvans,  James  Harrington,  a  Baptist  minister 
of  John  Street  Chapel,  London,  was  bom  about  1786. 
He  died  about  1849.  His  works  are,  Diaioguee  on  the 
TrinUy  (Lond.  1819,  8vo)  *.— ^ermOM  on  the  Spirit  of 
Holiness  (1839, 4th  ed.  12mo).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Evans,  John,  LL.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
about  1767,  at  Usk,  Monmouthshire.  He  was  pastor  of 
a  congregation  of  General  Baptists,  Worship  Street,  Lon- 
don, from  1792  to  1827,  and  died  in  the  latter  year,  leav- 
ing a  number  of  theological  sermons  and  other  works, 
for  a  list  of  which  see  Watt,  Bibl.  Brit.,  and  the  Genth' 
man*8  Magazine,  XCVII,  i,  369.  He  published,  in  1797, 
An  Attempt  to  Account  for  the  Infidelity  of  the  Late  Mr, 
Gibbon,  Bia  beat-known  yfork  h  n  Brief  Sketch  of  the 
Different  Denominations  into  which  the  Christian  World 
is  Divided  (lldi).  See  AXUbont,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 
Authors, »,  V. 

Evans,  Jonathan,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  Coventry  about  1748.  He  was 
converted  in  1778  or  1779,  and  shortly  after  began  to 
work  with  much  earnestness  for  the  s^vation  of  his  ir- 
religious neighbors.  In  1782  he  turned  his  attention 
more  particuLrly  to  the  parish  of  Foleshill,  near  Cov- 
entry, and  was  so  successful  as  to  purchase,  in  1784, 
a  building  for  a  place  of  worship,  and  eventually  a  chap- 
el was  built.  In  1796  a  church  was  formed,  chiefly  of 
those  who  were  the  fruits  of  his  ministiy,  of  which  he 
was  ordained  pastor,  April  4,  1797.  He  died  Aug.  81, 
1809.  Mr.  Evans  was  a  plain,  earnest  preacher,  and 
very  successful  in  winning  souls.  He  was  the  author 
of  three  fine  hymns,  commencing,  "Come,  thou  soul- 
transforming  spirit,"  "  Hark !  the  voice  of  love  aijd  mer- 
cy," "  Let  saints  on  earth  their  anthems  raise."  See 
(Lond.)  Evangelical  Magazine,  1847,  p.  128. 

BveiUon,  Jaoquks,  a  French  theologian,  and  grand- 
vicar  of  Angers  under  Messrs.  Fouqnet,  Miron,  De  Reuil, 
and  Araaud,  waa  born  at  Angers  in  1572,  and  obtained 
his  prefermento  in  oonaequence  of  his  superior  knowl- 
edge of  ecdesiastical  laws  and  customs*  He  died  at 
Angers  in  1651.  He  was.  the  author  of  an  excellent 
treatise,  Des  Exoommumcatiom  et  des  Monitoires  (1672). 
See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  &  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  ci- 
nirale,  a.  v. 

Eveleigh,  John,  D.D.,  provost  of  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  and  prebendary  of  Rochester  (1781),  was  bora 
in  1747.  He  died  Dec  10, 1814,  leaving  The  Trinity 
(1791):  —  Sermons  Preached  before  the  University  of 
Oxford  (1792) :— Plurality  of  Persons  in  the  Godhead 
Proved  (1797).  See  AUtbone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 
Authors,  8.  V. 

Everett,  James,  a  noted  English  Methodist 
preacher,  was  bora  at  Alnwick,  Northumberland,  May 
16, 1784.  He  was  converted  when  about  nineteen  years 
of  age,  joined  the  Wesleyans,  soon  began  to  preach,  in 
1806  was  called  into  the  regular  work  at  Sunderland, 
and  afterwards  occupied  important  appointmenta  in  the 
Conference  nntil  1821,  when  he  became  a  superoumer- 
aiy ;  but  in  1828  resumed  an  efficient  relation  for  a  few 


years,  and  then  retired  aa  a  superannuate  to  the  city 
of  York.  In  1847  the  celebrated  <'Fly  Sheets"  ap- 
peared in  the  Wesleyan  connection,  strongly  inveighing 
against  its  administration ;  and  their  authorship  being 
charged  upon  Mr.  Everett,  and  he  not  denying  it,  he 
was  expelled  in  1848  from  the  ministry,  together  with 
Revs.  James  Dunn  and  Walter  Griffith,  who  united  in 
forming  what  has  since  been  known  as  the  Methodist 
Free  Church  (q.  v.).  Mr.  Everett  died  in  Sunderland, 
May  10, 1872.  He  is  the  author  of  several  publicationa, 
chiefly  biographical. 

Bverett,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, waa  bom  in  Gronant,  North  Wales,  Jan.  2,  1791. 
He  studied  under  Kev.  Thomas  Jones,  of  Newmarket, 
also  in  the  Denbigh  Academy;  began  preaching  in 
1809,  but  two  years  later  entered  Wrexham  Theolog- 
ical Seminary,  and  completed  a  four  years*  course.  He 
was  ordained  pastor  in  Denbigh  in  1815;  dismissed 
in  1823;  came  to  America  and  began  to  minister  to 
the  Welsh  Congregational  Church,  Utica,  N.  Y.,  in  July 
of  the  same  year.  This  charge  he  resigned  in  1882, 
and  in  the  following  year  became  acting  pastor  at 
East  Winfield,  where  he  remained  until  1835,  when,  for 
about  three  years,  he  served  the  Presbyterian  Church 
at  WestemvUle.  In  April,  1888,  he  was  installed  pas- 
tor of  the  two  Welsh  congregations  of  Steuben,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  retained  until  the  close  of  his  life,  al- 
though, during  the  last  few  years,  he  preached  only  oc> 
casionally.  He  died  there,  Feb.  25, 1876.  The  Welsh 
people  in  the  United  States  gave  him  eleven  hun- 
dred dollars  as  a  testimonial  in  1871.  Stenographia  is 
the  title  of  a  work  which  he  published  at  Denbigh  in 
1816,  in  which  shorthand  writing  waa  first  adapted  to 
the  Welsh  language.  Sixty  editions  of  his  First  Cate- 
chism were  published  in  Wales,  being  first  issued  at 
Denbigh  in  1822.  This  was  republished  in  America, 
and  passed  through  several  editions.  At  Steuben  he 
published  a  Larger  Cateehitm ;  also  A  rveinydd,  an  aid  to 
reading  Welsh,  of  which  fifteen  editions  were  printed 
prior  to  his  death.  In  January,  1840,  he  published  the 
first  number  of  Y  Cenhadwr  Ameriamaidd  (The  Amer- 
ican Missionary),  a  Welsh  Congregational  monthly, 
which  was  edited,  after  his  death,  by  his  son.  In  1848 
he  published  YDyngarwr  (The  Philanthropist),  devoted 
to  emancipation  and  temperance ;  and  from  1860  to  1852 
be  edited  Y  Detholydd  (Eclectic).  Two  Welsh  hymn- 
books,  published  in  1889  and  1846,  were  in  large  part 
prepared  by  Dr.  Everett.  See  Cong,  Quarterly,  1876, 
p.  425;  1877,  p.  814. 

Sverton,  Silvester  de,  an  English  prelate  of  the 
18th  century,  took  his  name  from  Everton,  a  village  in 
Bedfordshire.  He  received  the  lord  chancellorship  of 
England  in  1246,  and  was  very  skilful  in  customs  of 
chancery.  The  next  year  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Carlisle.  With  the  rest  of  the  English  bbhops  he 
boldly  requested  of  Henxy  III  that  all  foreigners  and 
insufficient  persons  might  be  put  out  of  their  bishoprica. 
The  king  retorted  on  the  bishops,  singling  out  Silveater 
as  to  the  point  of  insufficiency.  Everton  lost  his  life  by 
a  fall  from  a  horse,  in  1254.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of 
England  (ed.  NutuU),  i,  168. 

EvigU&tor,  an  officer  in  Greek  monaateries,  whoae 
duty  it  was  to  waken  the  monks  for  nocturnal  and  ma- 
tutinal services.  Another  officer  of  the  kind  was  the 
excitaior,  who  had  to  waken  a  monk  asleep  in  church. 

SvooatiOv  ft  religious  ceremony. observed  by  the 
ancient  Romans  when  besieging  a  town,  in  which  they 
solemnly  called  upon  the  deities  of  the  place  to  forsake 
it  and  come  over  to  their  assistance.  They  usually  at- 
tempted to  bribe  the  gods  by  promising  them  temples 
and  festivals.    See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

BvodiUB,  according  to  tradition,  the  first  bishop  of 
Antioch,  after  A.D.  42.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  ChrisL 
Biog,  &  V. 

Bvolntion.  The  important  relations  which  this 
scientific  subject  haa  assumed  to  religious  literaton 


EVOLUTION 


869 


EVOLUTION 


justifies  ns  in  a  more  copious  and  iMvticnlar  treatment 
than  was  appropriate  under  the  general  head  of  Db- 
TKXXiPMKrr  (q.  t.).* 

L  De/bdUon.  —  Evolution  in  its  widest  sensei  and 
viewed  from  the  scientiGc  standpoint^  is  the  continu- 
ous transfonnation  and  differentiation  of  an  identical 
sabstanoe.  More  specifically,  it  is  the  continuous  un- 
fdding  of  a  material  existence  according  to  such  method 
that  constituent  parts  which  were  germinal  or  potential 
beeone  actual  and  functional,  and  according  to  such  an 
Older  that  the  priroitiTe  existence  is  successively  more 
diiEerentiated,  with  parts  progressively  more  and  more 
specialized  in  structure  and  function.  It  is  the  passage 
from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous.  It  im- 
plies continuity  and  unity  of  existence.  -  It  also  im- 
plies persistence  of  the  fundamental  conception  em- 
bodied in  the  primitive  substance,  so  that,  however  di- 
versified, all  its  parts  still  conform  to  a  changeless  type. 
It  is  a  mode  which  reveals  itself  tnnscendentally  as 
the  necessary  product  of  mind;  it  reveals  thought  as 
all-pervading  and  all-enduring  throughout  the  material 
realm  in  which  the  law  of  evolution  finds  its  exempli- 
fication. 

Whether  the  phenomena  of  the  natural  world  come 
into  existence  under  a  method  conformable  to  the  above 
definition  of  evolution  is  a  question  of  fact,  to  be  de- 
cided by  investigation  of  the  phenomena.!  This  ques- 
tion of  fact  falls,  therefore,  strictly  within  the  domain 
of  natural  science.  Whatever  verdict  may  be  pro- 
nounced at  this  tribunal  can  never  be  invalidated  by 
any  a  priori  considerations,  nor  by  any  delineation  of 
supposed  consequences  or  implications  of  the  verdict. 
Nor  can  it  be  set  .aside  as  proceeding  from  incompetent 
authority,  since  no  authority  in  a  question  of  fact  can 
be  conceived  more  competent  than  that  of  a  body  of 
witnesses  who  have  surpassed  all  others  in  the  study 
of  that  about  which  they  testify.  For  our  present  pur- 
pose we  must  ascertain,  therefore,  what  are  the  deter- 
minations of  natural  science  in  reference  to  the  nature 
of  the  successions  of  phenomena  in  the  natural  world. 
Does  science  find  a  material  continuity  running  through 
these  successions;  or  does  it  find  them  marked  by  in- 
terruptions, discontinuity,  and  new  beginnings? 

IL  History  of  Opbiim, — In  searohing  for  the  best 
judgment  of  mankind  in  reference  to  the  question  of 
material  continuity  in  the  natural  world  we  ought  to 
cite  fint  the  opinions  of  thinkers  antedating  the  epoch 
when  scientific  research  had  supplied  material  fur  a 
proper  demonstration  of  the  doctrine.  As  all  philoso- 
phizing on  the  laws  of  nature  must,  of  necessity,  be 
I^Tounded  on  an  observation  of  nature  more  or  less  ex- 
tensive and  more  or  less  exact,  so  the  opinions  of  the 
ancient  philosophers,  however  slender  the  basis  of  their 
iiiductioos,  must  be  regarded  as  essentially  scientific. 
Science  had  not  yet  been  distinguished  from  philoso- 
phy. Theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the  world  and  of 
organic  existence  were  in  vogue  some  centuries  before 
the  Christian  tera.  The  hylozoism  of  the  Ionian 
physicists  conceived  a  primordial  matter  endowed  with 
generative  or  transmutative  powers  through  which  cos- 
mic forms,  successively  differentiated,  came  into  being. 
The  speculation  presents  analogies*  with  the  modem 
one  of  Buffon.  Heraditus,  about  500  B.C,  taught 
the  doctrine  of  a  perpetual  flux  of  things,  involving 
ceaseless  conflicts  between  opposites,  in  the  midst  of 
which  individual  things  survive,  by  stiperior  fitness, 
the  processes  of  destruction  and  renovation.  A  devel- 
opmental mode  of  cosmic  origins  was  taught  by  Anax- 
agoras  of  Clazomens  (Aristotle,  PhyiiecLf  viii,  1)  about 
MO  B.C.  He  supposed  the  primitive  condition  of  things 
to  be  a  heterogeneous  commixture  of  substances  with- 

"^     ■  —         11^-    —  ^-     ■-       ■ H  -^  l^^l  M  II  ■!  M_     J ■ 

*  We  present,  unmodified,  the  facts  and  positions  of  our 
esteemed  correspondent  on  this  subject,  who  views  it  in 
A  scientific  sspect,  although  we  dissent  from  some  of  his 
conclusions.— So.    See  Scbptioibm,  in  this  volnme. 

t  Not  specnlstlvelv  viewed,  however,  bnt  In  the  light  of 
all  the  evidence,  both  natnral  aud  revealed.— BOb 


out  order  or  motion.     This  oontinned  an  indefinita 
period,  when  the  mind  began  to  act  upon  it  by  in* 
stituting  a  revolving  motion  at  a  single  point.    This 
propagated  itself  into  the  surrounding  realm,  and  led  to 
the  separation  of  the  elementary  contraries,  fire  and  air, 
water  and  earth.    The  process  was  repeated  in  the  re- 
sulting masses,  and  thus^  by  continuous  differentiation 
of  likes  and  unlikes,  the  actual  constitution  of  the  world 
resulted  (Ueberweg,  Hist  ofPhilot,  i,  66).    The  views 
of  Leudppus  and  Democritus,  about  480  RC,  contem* 
plated  a  gradual  evolution  of  things.    They  held  that 
immensity  was  eternally  filled  with  atoms  actuated  by 
an  eternal  motion.    These,  in  disposing  themselves  ac- 
cording to  size,  produced  collisions  which  originated 
vortical  motions.    These,  extending  farther  and  farther, 
led  to  the  formation  of  worlds.    Such  views  were  ex- 
tended by  Epicurus  and  the  Koman  liucretius;  and 
long  afterwards,  similar  theories,  but  with  more  theistic 
leanings,  were  entertained  by  Torricelli,  Galileo,  and 
Gassendi.    The  Greek  atomfsts  attributed  the  lateral 
motions  of  the  atoms  to  choice— a  conception  of  the 
animated  nature  of  atoms  which  was  revived  in  the 
monads  of  Gassendi,  Leibnitz,  Rosmini,  Campanella, 
Bruno,  and  Maupertuis;  and  reproduced  in  the  con- 
scious atoms  and  molecules  of  Hiickel,  Elsberg,  and 
other  moderns.    The  evolution  of  the  cosmic  sjrstem 
through  the  intervention  of  vortices  was  undertaken 
in  the  well-known  theory  of  Descartes  (Principia  Phi- 
lotophia,  1644) ;  and  Kepler  made  use,  also,  of  a  vortical 
movement  in  the  matter  of  a  primitive  chaos,  but  in- 
voked the  Empedodean  conception  of  attractions  and 
repulsions  for  the  initiation  of  the  primitive  motions 
The  specuUitions  of  Swedenborg  (^Prmcipia  Serum  Nat* 
uraUum,  1733-84)  also  posited  vortical  atomic  motions^ 
which  expanded  to  cosmical  movements  and  led  to  the 
differentiation  of  worlds.    These  various  speculations 
(more  fully  set  forth  in  Winchell's  World  Life,  or  Com" 
parativt  Gfology,  pt.  iv),  opened  the  way  for  the  better- 
defined  and  better-defended  nebular  cosmogonies  of 
Kant  and  his  successors.    The  evolution  of  the  earth's 
physical  features  by  means  of  fire  and  water  was  first 
undertaken  by  Leibnitz  {Protogata,  etc.,  1749,  first,  in 
abstract,  in  Ada  Eruditorum,  Leipzig,  1683).    These 
eminent  thinkers,  whom,  in  this  connection,  we  can  only 
mention,  all  conceive  the  esrth  and  the  solar  system  to 
have  originated  through  the  progressive  differentiations 
of  a  primitive  chaotic  matter.    This  is  the  conception 
of  modem  evolution. 

Meantime  the  notion  of  a  material  continuity  in  the 
successions  of  the  organic  world  was  repeatedly  shad- 
owed forth.  Empedocles  taught  the  progressive  orig- 
ination of  organic  forms.  Aristotle  maintained  that 
immanent  divine  mind  determines  in  nature  a  tendency 
towards  improvement  and  perfection.  Lucretius  held 
that  the  races  of  men,  however  diverse,  are  derived 
from  a  common  origin,  and  this  through  the  continual 
survival  of  those  best  fitted  for  the  environment  In 
Uter  times,  Sir  Mathew  Hale  (Primitive  Origination  of 
Mankind^  1677,  p.  211),  enumerates  distinctly  the  results 
of  the  struggle  for  existence  in  the  animal.  De  Maillet 
(TelUamedf  Amsterdam,  1748),  attempted  to  explain  how 
animal  forms  undergo  transmutation  through  the  influ- 
ence of  changed  environment ;  and  Lamarck  (JPhUoto* 
phie  Zodhgiquty  new  ed.  1878)  to  this  influence  added 
the  principle  of  use  and  disuse,  and  admitted  also  an 
underlying  inherent  conatus  towards  beneficial  change. 
These  very  concise  references  to  the  history  of  opinion 
may  be  supplemented  by  a  perusal  of  the  article  on 
"  Evolution  "  in  the  Encydopadia  BrifanmcOf  and  by  a 
study  of  the  later  works  to  be  mentioned  in  the  prog- 
ress of  this  article.  Within  our  restricted  limits  it  will 
be  more  profitable  to  proceed  to  an  outline  of  the  evi- 
dences of  evolution  as  at  present  understood. 

III.  The  ScienHfic  Evidences.-^!,  Inorganic  Evolu- 
Hon.  The  processes  of  change  in  the  topographical  and 
hydrographical  features  of  the  earth's  surface  are  so  fa- 
miliar that  we  almost  fail  to  note  the  fact  that  these  re- 


EVOLUTION 


360 


EVOLUTION 


eent  tnuBfonnationB  are  but  the  last  tenna  of  a  aeries 
of  changes  which  have  moulded  the  globe  and  imparted 
to  it  the  features  that  complete  its  fitness  for  the  recep- 
tion of  organic  populations.  But,  in  fact,  the  filling  and 
drainage  of  a  pond  or  lakelet  in  a  human  lifetime  is  the 
same  kind  of  work  as  that  which  spread  the  deposits  of 
the  prairies  of  the  Mississippi,  the  (chomosjom  of  south- 
em  Rusna,  the  pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  steppes 
of  southern  Siberia.  The  alluvial  sediment  left  by  a 
MiBsissippi  overflow  of  this  year  is  only  one  of  the  suo- 
oession  of  contributions  which,  in  ages  past,  have  formed 
the  entire  delta  of  the  great  river.  The  delta  grows; 
ocean  sediments  accumulate ;  the  hillsides  waste ;  the 
mountains  wear  out;  whole  shore-lines  rise  or  sink; 
and  the  integration  of  these  minute  annual  changes  be- 
tween vast  limita  of  time  shows  that  all  the  grander 
features  of  our  planet  have  grown  into  existence  by 
progressive  transformations  of  the  original  matter.  All 
this  is  obvious. 

So  it  is  obvious  that  the  observed  and  admitted  tenor 
of  events  implies  an  ancient  course  of  change,  in  times 
so  remote  that  the  conditions  had  not  yet  approximated 
to  those  revealed  in  the  human  period.  The  pages  of 
geological  science  enumerate  those  changes.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  assume  that  all  or  any  of  the  conclusions 
of  science  are  exact  in  reference  to  the  particular  events 
of  the  geological  past;  it  cannot  be  doubted,  however, 
that  research  has  successfully  shown  that  the  present  is 
the  outcome  of  the  past,  and  that  the  rocks  and  waters 
and  gases  which  we  observe  are  only  a  transformed 
portion  of  the  material  of  the  primeval  world.  The 
actual  earth  has  passed,  by  material  continuity,  from 
a  primitive  state,  in  which  all  its  physical  conditions 
were  extremely  different  from  the  present.  Its  moun- 
tains, rivers,  islands,  and  seas  have  progressively  come 
into  existence.  Its  different  portions  have  become 
more  and  more  differentiated.  It  was  once  more  homo- 
geneous.   It  has  undergone  a  real  evolution. 

But  the  geognostic  data  which  pass  before  our  obser- 
vation disclose  the  primitive  world  in  a  process  of  emer- 
gence from  a  molten  state.  The  world*8  history  has 
been  a  history  of  cooling;  and  there  are  numerous  indi- 
cations that  the  actual  records  of  geology  note  only  the 
last  stages  of  the  world's  cooling  history.  We  have 
not  the  space  at  command,  nor  is  it  necessary,  to  enter 
into  an  enumeration  of  the  grounds  on  which  science 
has  traced  terrestrial  evolution  backward  to  a  nebular 
state,  and  even  to  a  remoter  one,  in  which  the  matter 
of  the  whole  solar  system  is  disclosed  in  a  process  of 
common  evolution,  under  the  action  of  the  same  forces 
as  enter  into  the  transformations  of  the  earth*s  surface 
in  these  times,  before  human  eyes.  That  our  planetary 
system  has  had  a  nebular  history  is  almost  unanimous- 
ly admitUd  by  the  science  of  the  present.  The  chief 
divergences  of  opinion  concern  only  some  details  of  that 
history.  This  conclusion  implies  a  material  continuity 
through  the  totality  of  the  changes.  Rocks  and  ocean 
and  atmosphere  have  grown  out  of  fire-mist  and  nebula. 
World-life  is  a  grand  spectacle  of  evolution,  and  it  illus- 
trates continuity  and  unity  of  method  on  a  scale  of  va^t- 
ness  which  is  deeply  impressive.  The  details  of  the 
evolution  must  be  sought  in  special  works  (see  Win- 
chell,  World  Life,  1883).  The  conception  of  modem 
nebular  theory  is  itself  an  evolution.  It  was  first  shad- 
owed forth  by  the  Greek  and  medinval  thinkers  already 
quoted.  It  began  to  assume  a  coiisbtent  and  modem 
Aspect  at  the  hands  of  Immanuel  Kant  (^AUgemeine  A^ia- 
turgtachichte  und  Theoi'ie  det  Himmeltf  1756,  and  a  prize 
essay,  read  in  1754  before  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sci- 
ence). Sir  William  Herschel's  nebular  researches  dis- 
closed the  apparent  existence  of  enormous  patches  of 
chaotic  world-stuff,  which  seemed  to  undergo  a  process 
of  differentiation  into  stars  and  planets  (see  sundry  me- 
moirs, read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  London  between 
1788  and  1818,  but  especially  in  1784,1785, 1791. 1795, 
1811,  and  1814 ;  also  Sir  John  Herschel,  Obtervafiofu  of 
NAuUb  and  Clutters  of  Start  at  Slovgh,  1825-33;  PhU, 


TVoM.  Nov.  21, 1888).  Laplace,  in  apparent  ignoranee 
of  Kant's  remarkable  speculation,  brought  the  concep- 
tion of  nebular  cosmogony  to  a  rigorously  scientific 
statement  (^ExpotUum  du  Sjfttkme  du  Monde,  1796); 
and  the  general  form  of  his  theory  enters  into  the  most 
recent  cosmological  specuUtions,  though  the  progress 
of  discovery  and  of  thought  has  necessitated  slight 
modifications,  and  has  greatly  extended  the  scope  of 
the  grand  generalization.  That  which  for  years  was 
known  as  '*  the  nebular  hypothesis*'*  has  strengthened 
into  a  nebular  theory,  accepted  now  with  almost  the 
same  confidence  as  the  Newtonian  theory  of  universal 
gravitation.  This  is  the  verdict  of  science  on  a  ques- 
tion in  its  own  appropriate  field.  No  dissent  from  the 
outside  is  deserving  of  consideration ;  though,  of  course, 
exceptions  taken  by  a  scientific  minority  must  be  hon- 
estly examined.  For  a  discussion  of  alleged  difficulties 
of  nebular  cosmogony,  see  Winchell's  World  Lift,  p.  153- 
198. 

According  to  this  conclusion,  the  cosmic  realm  is  the 
grandest  conceivable  exemplification  of  the  method  of 
evolution  pursued  in  nature.  This  evolution  guides 
and  determines  all  the  ulterior  details  of  inoi^^ic  his- 
tory. The  total  inorganic  universe,  as  we  know  it,  is 
the  final  outcome  of  the  method  of  efficient  activity 
revealed  in  nature,  and  it  has  been  exerted  upon  iden- 
tical portions  of  matter  from  the  dawn  of  cosmical  hi»> 
tory  to  the  present  The  question  of  fact,  so  far  as  con- 
cerns inorganic  nature,  can  no  longer  be  agitated. 

2.  Organic  Evolution, — ^This  is  a  greater  and  more  se- 
rious question.  Does  a  material  continuity  run  through 
the  succession  of  organic  types  which  have  appeared 
and  disappeared  in  the  history  of  the  world?  Are  the 
higher  species  of  the  modem  world  descended  from  the 
lower  species  of  the  ancient  world  ?  Are  the  diversified 
types  derivedvfrom  a  common  ancestry  ?  Is  man's  bod- 
ily organbm  the  outcome  of  genealogical  deseent? 
That  these  queries  must  be  answered  affirmatively 
seems  to  be  the  inevitable  conduuon  from  an  enormous 
amount  of  modem  research.  The  proofs  are  numerous 
and  diverse;  but  we  may  range  them  along  five  lines 
of  argumentation,  converging  towards  the  conclusion. 

(1.)  Ontogeny.—'By  this  we  mean  the  history  of  the 
individual.  This,  beyond  all  controversy,  is  an  evolu- 
tion. The  succession  of  changes  from  the  beginning 
of  conscious  life  to  maturity  is  great,  but  they  are 
wrought  in  the  same  identical  being.  Still  greater 
ontogenetic  transformations  may  be  traced  back  through 

^■■■».  I  -■■■       ,         ■  ■■    -M ■— -  ■      ■  iir^  ■  ■    ■  ■■—       "■"     —■  ■■ 

•  The  "  nebular  theory"  here  referred  to  is  based  upon 
the  supposition  that  the  universe  originally  existed  iu  the 
form  of  gaseous  vapor  diffused  by  intense  heat  throngb- 
out  space,  and  that  all  the  heavenly  bodies  have  resnUed 
from  this  by  rotation  and  CTadnal  condensation  through 
cooliug  off.  Most  or  all  toe  phenomena  which  they  ex- 
hibit, auch  as  sphericity,  orbital  and  axial  revoiotion,  to> 
gether  with  earthquakes  and  volcanoes  (as  ahowlng  the 
still  liquid  central  mass),  arc  tlionght  to  he  best  explained 
on  this  hypothesis,  and  the  fact  that  nebnln  are  yet  dis- 
covered in  the  starry  spaces  is  held  as  confirmatory  of  it 
On  the  other  baud,  some  of  these  nebulie  have  already 
been  resolved  by  powerfal  tele8C(n>es  into  a  mass  of  sepa- 
rate stars,  and  the  presumption  is  therefore  BtronK  that 
such  Is  the  composition  of  all  of  them.  Comets  are  too 
little  known  to  be  of  mnch  weight  in  the  argument.  Many  . 
astronomical  facts,  however,  are  decidedly  antagonistic  to 
the  "nebular"  view,  sncb  ns  the  want  of  ascertainable 
ratio  between  the  magnitudes,  distances  from  the  snn  and 
periods  of  revolution  of  our  own  planets  and  the  obliquity 
of  their  orbils,  some  celestial  bodies  actually  moving  In  the 
opposite  direction.  Experiments  with  the  spectrum  show  • 
that  they  are  not  all  compoaed  of  the  same  elements. 
Moreover  it  is  impossible  to  see,  if  space  were  at  first 
filled  with  incandepcent  gas,  where  the  excessive  heat 
could  have  radiated  to.  For  these  aud  other  reasons 
some  of  the  ablest  astronomers.  Proctor  for  example, 
wholly  discard  the  theory  as  insufficient  and  disproved. 
The  question  is  a  pnrely  scientific  one,  of  no  especial  in- 
terest to  the  theolofilan,  so  long  as  the  origination  of 
matter,  motion,  and  life,  with  their  lawa  and  properties, 
be  attributed  to  the  divine  flat  But  the  attempt  to  Iden- 
tify the  processes  of  the  nebular  theory  of  cosmogony  with 
any  part  of  the  narrative  in  the  first  chapter  of  Gcnesli*  is 
ezegetically  preposterous.  Whatever  tnerefore  may  be- 
come  of  that  theory,  Moses  is  not  responslbla  for  It,  and 
revelation  has  nothing  to  do  with  it— lEOb 


EVOLUTION 


361 


EVOLUTION 


embrjonie  life  to  the  earliett  changes  wrought  in  the 
fertilued  orum.  The  unfertilized  ovum  is  itself  only  a 
transformed  epithelial  cell,  and  consists  of  yolk,  ger- 
minative  reside,  and  germinative  dot.  The  successive 
transformations  of  these  ekmenu  bring  into  view,  first, 
the  faint  outlines  of  the  most  fundamental  structures, 
as  TertebFBD,  spinal  marrow  and  brain,  heart  and  diges- 
tive structures,  then  the  complete  details,  and  finally 
the  accessory  structures  belonging  to  the  perfected  form. 
The  particnlars  of  the  history  are  too  technical  to  be 
enumerated  inlhis  place.  This  succession  of  embryonic 
transformations  in  a  higher  vertebrate  reveals  a  won- 
derful case  of  characteristic  evolution,  beginning  in  a 
cell  and  ending  in  a  complicated  animal  structure.  But 
the  most  impressive  significance  of  the  history  will  be 
mentioned  in  another  connection.  For  details,  see  Bal- 
four, A  Treatite  on  Comparative  Embryoloify  (1880,  vol. 
i) ;  KdUiker,  EfUwieielunffiffaehiehte  dea  Afentchen  und 
der  hdkeren  Thief  (1876) ;  Foster  and  Balfour,  £lementt 
fifEmhryology  (1874,  voL  i,  on  the  chick) ;  Httckel,  Att" 
tkropogeme  (1874) ;  Packard,  Life  Hifiorie$  (1876) ;  and, 
further,  the  important  works  of  Hiickel,  Owen,  Bischoff, 
Farfcer,  Remak,  Agassiz,  Clark,  Reichert,  von  Baer,  etc. 

(2.)  Morphohgy, — ^The  forms  of  animals  and  plants 
are  said  to  be  similar  in  proportion  to  their  affinities; 
but  the  implications  of  the  statement  are  seldom  appre- 
dated.  Among  men,  family  resemblances  are  under- 
stood to  signify  blood  relationship  more  or  less  remote. 
All  men  of  the  same  race  possess  so  many  points  of 
resemblance  that  every  one  admits  thdr  common  de- 
scent from  the  same  original  parent.  All  mankind,  ac- 
cording to  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  however  diverse 
in  feature  or  endowment,  must  have  descended  from  a 
common  primitive  human  ancestry.  But  when  we 
speak  of  two  so-caUed  spedes  of  the  cat  family,  say  the 
leopard  of  Africa  and  the  panther  of  Asia,  the  popular 
opinion  is  that  they  are  primordially  distinct ;  though 
their  resemblances  are  vastly  doser  than  those  of  the 
Bushman  and  his  neighbor,  the  Cape  Englishman,  the 
deniftl  of  whose  kinship  we  resenc  In  fact,  these  two 
cats  are  so  closely  similar  that  some  zoologists  unite 
them  in  one  species.  If  pronounced  one  species,  popu- 
lar opinion  would  assign  them  a  common  descent;  if 
two  species,  it  would  hold  them  primordially  distinct. 
Yet  the  animals,  with  all  their  characteristics,  remain 
the  same,  whatever  view  may  be  taken  of  the  system- 
atic value  of  their  slight  distinctions.  Now  the  ques- 
tion of  consanguinity  is  one  of  fact,  not  depending  on 
the  opinion  which  may  be  entertained  respecting  diflSer- 
ettoe&*  Whatever  that  opinion  may  be,  it  continues 
manifest  that  we  have  a  better  reason  for  ascribing 
these  eats  to  a  common  ancestry  than  for  doing  this 
with  a  Congo  African  and  a  blonde  Scandinavian.  But 
suppose  we  compare  the  leopard  and  the  tiger  — two 
distinct  spedes  by  all  admiadons.  The  nature  of  their 
resemblances  is  precisdy  the  same  as  in  the  other  case, 
and  only  a  little  less  in  degree.  To  admit  the  common 
descent  of  the  leopard  and  panther  is  to  compel,  at  the 
risk  of  inconsistency,  the  admisdon  of  the  common  de- 
scent of  the  leopard  ami  the  tiger.  When  we  assent  to 
the  consanguineous  relation  of  two  recognised  species 
the  whole  proposition,  in  all  iu  breadth,  is  conceded, 
that  not  only  all  cats,  but  all  mammals,  are  derived  from 
some  primiuve  stock;  and  the  divergences  existing 
hare  been  acquired  during  the  prog^ress  of  the  genera- 
tioas.  But  dnoe  mammals  present  so  many  gradua- 
tiona  towards  birds,  in  egg-laying  omtthorbynchus  and 
echidna,  towards  reptiles  in  the  chelonians,  and  fishes  in 
the  cetaceans,  we  cannot  refuse  a  common  descent  to 
mammals  and  all  other  vertebrates.  This  admission 
fanngs  the  whole  animal  kingdom  with  it,  for  some 
tuntcates  and  cephalopoda  would  be  admitted  dose  kin 
to  some  of  the  lowest  vertebrates*  Indeed,  if  we  com- 
pare any  two  representatives  of  the  animal  kingdom, 

*  But  on  this  question  we  have,  in  the  bonk  of  Genenis, 
hitiorietU  pruot  which  cauoot  unfely  >)e  ne;;1ected ;  and  it 
ia  more  definite  than  the  ecientiflc En. 


however  divergent,  we  shall  find  that  they  resemble 
each  other  in  more  points  than  the  number  of  their  dif- 
ferences; and  the  argument  for  their  common  descent 
is  of  the  same  natura  as  in  the  case  of  the  negro  and 
Scandinavian.  This,  then,  is  an  indication  of  the  nature 
of  the  argument  from  morphology— and  we  can  only 
present  the  indication  (for  further  details,  see  works  on 
zoology  and  botany).  Some  striking  animal  portraits 
may  be  found  in  Johnson,  Natural  History  (2  vols. 
8vo);  Cassell,  Natural  JliMtory  (1888,  6  vols.  8vo); 
Knight,  Animated  Nature  (2  vols.  4to) ;  Brehm,  TAmt- 
lAen  (9  vols.  8vo).  Detsils  of  structure  in  Owen,  Com" 
pqraHve  A  natomy  (3  vols.  8vo) ;  li  Uckel,  Generelie  ifor" 
phologie  der  Organitmen  (vol.  i) ;  Grcgenbaur,  Grundriu 
der  terffleiehenden  Anatomie  (8vo);  Huxley,  Manual 
of  the  Anatomy  of  Vertebrated  Amtaalt  (8vo),  etc. 

(8.)  Patmmto^^.— The  doctrine  of  the  deacent  of  dl 
living  spedes  from  a  common  remote  ancestry  implies 
that  in  former  times  the  divergences  of  oiganic  types 
were  lees  than  at  present.  Such  a  retral  convergence 
of  genedogical  lines  is  precisely  what  palaontology 
shows.  Within  historic  times  this  convergence  is  d- 
most  imperceptible ;  but  as  soon  as  we  enter  the  sBons 
of  geology  no  tact  is  more  conspicuous.  To  take  an 
example  which  has  been  much  bruited,  the  domestic 
horse,  now  so  widely  differentiated  from  five-toed  quad- 
rupecte,  we  find  that  in  the  age  immediately  preceding 
the  present  true  horses  lived,  in  which  the  rudimentary 
second  and  fourth  digits,  or  splint  bones,  of  the  modem 
horse  were  more  developed.  Further  back  were  horses 
with  the  same  bones  terminated  by  dangling  hoofleta. 
Still  further  back  were  horses  having  these  booflets 
more  developed,  and  reaching  the  ground.  But  these 
horses  had  other  splint  bones,  the  rudimentary  condi- 
tion of  a  first  digit,  and  in  remoter  times  these  rudi- 
ments are  found  terminated  by  dangling  hoofleta,  and 
in  still  remoter,  by  fonctiond  hoofs.  So  we  trace  the 
succession  of  equine  types  back  to  a  four-toed  quadru- 
ped which,  when  we  consider  the  corresponding  diver- 
gences in  the  teeth,  tibije,  and  other  structures,  we  should 
hentate  to  group  with  modem  horses,  if  they  were  not 
connected  by  a  gradation  so  gentle  that  we  find  no  place 
to  draw  the  dividing  line.*  The  ancient  four -toed 
horses  are  connected  with  a  type  of  five-toed  predeces- 
sors by  a  dmilar  kind  of  rdationship.  The  equine 
succession  leads  back,  therefore,  to  a  five-toed  quadra- 
ped.  If  we  take  the  modem  ox  or  sheep  or  pig  or 
camel  or  rhinoceros,  we  shall  be  able  to  trace  back  sim- 
ilarly a  succession  which  leads  towards  a  primitive  five- 
toed  quadruped;  and  in  every  case  such  quadruped 
approximates  the  form  which  stands  at  the  beginning 
of  the  equine  succession.  The  details  of  facts  estab- 
lishing such  a  generdization  are  accessible  to  all  read- 
en  in  the  writings  of  Leidy,  Cope,  Marsh,  Gaudry,  Owen, 
Huxley,  and  other  paheontologists.  See  Cope's  me- 
moirs in  reports  of  surveys  under  Hayden  and  Svheeler, 
and  briefer  papers  in  American  Naturalist  j  Marsh,  in 
American  Journal  of  Science  (ser.  iii) ;  Leidy,  U.  S,  GeoL 
Survey  of  the  Territories  (vol.  i) ;  A  ncient  Fauua  of 
Nebraska  (1858);  **  Extinct  Mammalia  of  Dakota  and 
Nebraska,"  in  the  Jour,  A  cad,  Nat,  Science  (Phila.  1869, 
vol.  vii).  In  a  manner  precisely  dmilar  the  two  types 
of  modem  birds  —  "fiying"  and  "running"  —  may  be 
traced  back  dong  two  succesdond  lines,  to  Mesozoic 
Saurian  reptiles.  So,  progress  has  been  made  in  trac- 
ing lines  of  succession  among  invertebrate  animals  and 
plants.  The  facts  show  what  the  doctrine  of  descent 
requires,  a  gradud  convergence  backward  of  dl  the 
lines  of  organic  sucoesdon. 

But,  if  these  successions  are  genedogicd,t  there  must 
have  been  uninterrupted  continuity  along  each  line. 
The  chain  connecting  the  past  and  the  present  exhib- 

*  Bnt  there  does  not  seem  to  be  a  particle  of  proof  that 
these  latter  races  were  genetieaUy  or  nctnally  derived  from 
the  former  ones.  On  the  contrary,  these  very  difllerenees 
— oil  the  evidence  we  possess  ou  the  subject— go  to  show 
that  they  are  not  their  oflbpring.— Eo. 

t  This  genealogy  Is,  In  our  view,  a  pure  assumption.—ED. 


EVOLUTION 


962 


EVOLUTION 


ked  no  mining  links.  It  ii  the  attempt  of  palsontol- 
ogy  to  discover  traces  of  all  the  links;  but  obviously 
the  attempt  is  more  difficult  than  to  find  all  the  frag- 
ments of  a  meteorite  which  exploded  in  the  sky  before 
the  Christian  sera,  fhe  work  of  pakeontology  is  nec- 
essarily incomplete;  the  relics  of  many  types  which 
once  contributed  to  the  continuity  of  the  successions 
worked  out  remain  undiscovered.  There  are,  indeed, 
many  missing  links  in  our  knowledge;  but  the  tenor 
of  discovery  is  such  as  to  imply  that  no  missing  links 
interrupted  the  continuity  of  the  actual  successions^ 
Every  year*s  acquisition  of  new  facts  narrows  the  great 
gaps,  and  doses  up  some  of  the  smaller  ones.  Some 
successions  are  already  reconstructed  with  marvellous 
completeness ;  beyond  question  much  more  is  destined 
to  be  accomplished;  and  we  may  logically  forecast  the 
future  state  of  the  evidence  and  anticipate  the  conclu- 
sion. So  we  reason  from  patoontology,  and  it  seems 
entirely  logical  to  conclude  that  in  the  actual  life-his- 
tory of  our  planet  the  successions  of  specific  forms  were 
nicely  graduated  from  the  rude  and  generalized  types 
of  the  remote  past  to  the  large-brained  and  highly  spe- 
cialized types  of  the  present.  But  this  admission  does 
not  establish  any  genetic  connections  running  through 
the  several  series.  Each  species  may  still  have  resulted 
from  a  special  origination.  Only  the  presumptions  to 
be  drawn  from  embryology  and  morphology  suggest 
genetic  descent  in  palaeontology.  The  facts  of  palson- 
tology  might  be  as  they  are,  with  every  species  a  pri- 
mordial and  persistent  form ;  but  the  establishment  of 
these  graduated  successions  establishes  what  most  have 
been  the  fact  on  the  theory  of  common  descent,  and 
constitutes  a  link  in  the  chain  of  argument. 

(4.)  Variability. — Is  it  within  the  economy  of  natnre 
that  organic  types  shall  undergo  indefinite  secular  va- 
riation, or  maintain  essential  permanence  ?  Within  the 
historic  period  few  undomesticated  species  are  known 
to  have  varied  to  any  marked  extent ;  but  all  thoee  do- 
mesticated have  become  differentiated,  and  sometimes 
to  a  striking  extent.  The  different  breeds  of  horses, 
cattle,  dogs,  fowls,  and  pigeons  differ  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  many  of  them,  but  for  our  knowledge  of  their 
common  origin,  would  be  set  down  by  any  naturalist  as 
distinct  species.  They  are  distinct  species  in  the  same 
sense  as  the  jaguar  and  the  ounce  and  the  panther 
are  distinct.  The  elder  Agassiz,  though  no  evolu- 
tionist, used  to  proclaim  the  different  races  of  men  as 
widely  distinct  ss  the  different  families  of  monkeys. 
The  suggestion  that  these  divergences  have  not  arisen 
in  a  state  of  nature  seems  to  possess  no  relevancy,  for 
it  is  still  shown  that  the  aptitude  to  vary  is  possessed  by 
nature's  organisms.  Moreover,  the  influences  brought 
to  bear  on  these  animals  through  man's  treatment  are 
the  same  in  kind  as  those  which  sometimes  arise  from 
natural  operations;  they  only  differ  in  intensity,  and 
thus  accelerate  changes  for  which  nature  fitted,  and 
perhops  destined,  the  being.  Finally,  the  changed 
forms  result  from  the  same  kind  of  action  of  the  same 
physiological  forces  as  are  in  play  in  animals  uninflu- 
enced by  domestication.  Only  powers  like  those  of 
digestion,  respiration,  growth,  and  adaptation  have  been 
employed  in  the  development  of  these  varieties,  and 
these  ate  the  functional  activities  of  all  animals.  It 
would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  results  of  domestication 
may  be  fairly  appealed  to  as  tests  of  the  permanence  of 
species.  (See  Darwin,  Animals  emd  PUmis  vnder  Do* 
mesticatiofu) 

But  it  appears  that  great  variations  sometimes  occur 
among  animals  and  plants  in  a  state  of  nature.  Con- 
flicts between  individuals  and  conflicts  with  physical 
conditions  are  influences  continoally  making  their  im- 
pressions on  the  organism.  These  are  not  causes,  but 
only  conditions,  of  organic  change.  By  the  law  of  adap- 
tation the  forces  of  the  organism  effect  such  changes 
as  changed  environment  demands.  The  same  species 
of  birds,  mammals,  and  molluscs,  in  their  wide  range 
across  a  continent  from  east  to  %vc8t,  and  from  north  to 


soDth,  are  found  to  vary  according  to  the  latitode,  lon- 
gitude, altitude,  and  other  circumstances.  A  thorough 
knowledge  of  such  variations  in  North  America  has 
led  to  the  merging  of  large  numbers  of  once  accepted 
species  (Allen,  Prac>  Bat,  Soc  Nat,  Bist.  xv,  156 ;  xvi, 
276 ;  BulL  Mu*,  Cong9,  ZooL  ii.  No  4,  p.  845,  Aug.  1876 ; 
Amer,  Naturalist,  Oct.  1876,  p.  625;  Baiid,  Mem.  Na- 
tional Acad,  Jan.  1868;  Amer,  Jour,  Sci,  II,  xli,  Jan., 
March,  and  May,  1868 ;  Ridgeway,  A  mer.  Jour.  ScL  III, 
i  V,  454,  V,  415).  Similar  extreme  variability  is  observed 
in  many  invertebrate  species,  both  recent  and  extinct. 
Hiickel,  in  a  remarkable  work  on  calcareous  sponges,  has 
reached  the  conclusion  that  all  the  forms  belong  to  one 
species,  so  gradual  are  the  transitions  between  the  sev- 
eral nominal  species  (Die  KaiksdnDSmme,  1872, 2  vols. 
8vo).  Many  forms  of  fossil  shells  formerly  regarded  as 
distinct  species  have  more  recently  been  united,  simply 
because  series  of  intermediate  forms  became  known. 
Hilgendorf  has  traced  minutely  the  secular  variations 
of  a  species  of  Planorbis  (Udfer  Planorhis  nutUybrmis 
in  Steinheimer  SUssteasserkalk^fand  Hyatt  has  extended 
these  studies  {Proc.  Amer.  Assoc.  1880,  and  ''Anniver- 
sary Mem."  in  Bosl.  Soc.  Nat.  Bist.  1880).  Similar 
work  has  been  done  among  Paloozoic  brachiopods. 

The  influence  of  changed  environment  is  sometimes 
accelerated  by  human  intervention.  The  axolot),  per- 
manently giU-bearing  in  its  native  elevated  home,  loaes 
its  gills  when  kept  near  the  sea-level,  and  becomca  a 
land  salamander.  In  Japan  certain  leeches  and  plaoa- 
rians  have  become  adapted  to  land  life,  and  a  fish,  even 
(Periophthalmus')f  frequents  the  land  and  seema  in  a 
transition  state.  Certain  brine  shrimps  are  reported  by 
Schmaukevitch  -as  undergoing  important  aUucturd 
changes  in  the  course  of  a  few  generations,  when  the 
brine  is  gradually  freshened ;  and  return  to  the  original 
state  as  the  salinity  is  again  restored  {Zeitsch.  wiss. 
Zooloffie,  XXV,  Suppl.  i,  1875,  p.  108,  pi  6;  Amals  and 
Mag,  Nai.  Bist.  March,  1876;  ib.  xxix,  429-494, 1877. 
See,  also,  Contributions  to  a  Knowledge  of  ike  Influtsses 
of  External  Conditions  of  Life  upon  the  Organization  of 
A  nintalSf  transl.  in  H  ayden*s  twelfth  A  nn.  Bep.  pt.  i,  478- 
514.  But  compare  Verrill,  Proc.  Amer.  Assoc  1869, 
280;  Amor.  Jour.  Sci.  II,  xlviii,  244,  480;  Packard, 
A  mer.  Jour.  Sci.  Ill,  ii,  108).  The  domestic  cat  on  the 
Pribilov  Islands  becomes  thickened,  short,  losing  the 
tail,  and  undergoing  great  change  of  voice.  Certain 
domestic  pigs  in  Texas  are  well  known  to  have  become 
solid-hoofed. 

Through  hybridity,  also,  probably,  result  forms  diver- 
gent from  recognised  species.  Among  cultivated  plants 
hybrids  are  not  uncommon.  In  the  wild  state  the  num- 
ber of  reputed  hybrid  forms  may  be  Judged  from  a  glance 
through  any  manual  of  botany.  (See  also^  Hooker, 
Flora  of  New  Zealand;  CandoUe,  "Etude  sur  TEsp^ce," 
in  the  Bibliotheque  Univ.de  Genkve^  Nov.  1862;  Hooker 
and  Thomson,  Flora  Tndica,  vol  i, "  Introductory  ^ssay,*' 
London,  1855;  Gray,  Amer,  Jour.  Sci.  If,  xxi,  134; 
Naudin :  Bybridily  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom).  Among 
animals,  fertile  hybridity,  as  well  as  infertile,  is  pretty  well 
established.*  From  the  hare  apd  the  rabbit  has  arisen 
a  self-sustaining  hybrid  now  extensively  emj^yed  in 
Europe  for  food.  Fertile  hybrids  of  the  common  and 
Chinese  geese  arc  extensively  reared  in  India,  as  also  in 
England ;  while  several  generations  of  the  hybrid  from 
the  mallard  and  muscovy  ducks  are  reported  living  in  Mt. 
Auburn  cemetery  (Brewer,  Proc  Bos.  Soc  Nat  Bist. 
21  Jan.  1874).  Cari  Yogt  reports  fertile  hybrids  of  the 
wolf  and  dog,  as  also  of  the  goat  and  sheep,  and  the  lat- 
ter is  confirmed  by  Hi&ckel ;  Von  Tschndi  and  Yogt  both 
report  the  same  of  the  goat  and  steinbock,  and  of  the 
fox  and  dog.  The  same  is  alleged  of  the  buffalo  and 
bison.  Without  relying  on  the  intervention  of  hybrid- 
ity, enough  has  been  observed  of  the  power  of  oiganie 
forms  to  adapt  themselves  permanently  to  the  pennft- 

*Dat  we  belieTO  this  is  trne  only  to  a  very  limited  ex- 
tent, and  the  fertility  very  rarely  extends  to  ancoeaalve 
generations.— Sn. 


EVOLUTION 


863 


EVOLUTION 


BCBt  cltogea  of  the  enTiraniBeat  to  follj  ettaUith  the 
condiMion  that  it  ia  the  economj  of  natan  to  permit 
atmctaral  rariatiooa  witboot  limits.*  If  a  fall  siirTey 
of  the  facte  to  which  we  have  too  briefly  alladed  Justi- 
fies the  Qoodiisioii,  as  we  think  it  does,  then  no  bar  ex- 
ists to  the  oondusioD  that  thesttcoessionsof  Patoontolog- 
ical  tjpes  have  arisen  through  the  continued  Tariation 
of  primitiTe  forms;  and  that  the  hitter,  also,  may  hare 
arisen  through  yariation  and  descent  from  one  primor- 
dial, life-endowed  being.  This  extreme  conclusion,  how- 
erer,  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  the  proof  of  a  method  of 
CTolntion  in  tbe  world,  since  the  genealogical  lines  may 
have  proceeded  from  any  such  number  of  beginnings 
as  the  state  of  the  obeenred  relationships  may  allow. 

(5.)  Compar€ttiiee  Embrffology,^K  careful  study  of  the 
aspects  of  the  developing  embryo  of  a  higher  vertebrate, 
.aa  indicated  above,  under  *'  Ontogeny,**  shows  that  it 
jreaches,  in  ascending  onler,  a  succession  of  stages  which 
may  be  enumerated  and  defined.  Now  the  facts  to 
which  we  wish  to  direct  attention  particularly,  con- 
atitate  a  series  of  significant  parallelisms,  (a)  Ontoge' 
neiie  pamUeiism,  Besearch  shows  that  every  bigher 
vertebrate  passes  through  the  same  embryonic  stages, 
and  no  divergences  revealing  the  characteristics  of  class, 
genus,  and  species  make  their  appearance  until  the  de- 
velopment is  well  advanced.  To  a  certain  stage  the 
human  embryo  cannot  be  distinguished  from  that  of  a 
fish ;  at  later  stages,  it  diveiges  successively  from  the 
ODbfTo  of  reptUes,  birds,  quadrupeds,  and  quadrumana. 
The  embryo  chick  is  absolutely  nndistinguishable  from 
the  embryo  of  man  until  about  the  sixth  day  of  incuba- 
tion. Even  invertebrates  pursue  a  course  of  develop- 
ment closely  parallel  with  that  of  the  earlier  stages  of 
the  mammalian  embryo.  (H^kel,  NaWrliche  SdiGp- 
ftmg$ge9ckiehit,  xi  Vortrag;  Anthropogemef  xiii-xix 
Vortrttge;  Balfour,  Brituh  Auoc  Address,  1880,  NaU 
vre,  xxii,  418).  (b)  TaxoHomie  parallelitm.  The  suc- 
cession of  aspects  presented  by  the  mammalian  embryo 
is  identical  with  that  shown  in  tbe  gradations  of  living 
animals.  The  disappearance  of  the  nucleus  of  the  egg 
results  in  a  simple  cytodc,  which  is  paralleled  in  the 
living  world  by  Pratamaba,  the  lowest  known  animal. 
The  new-formed  nucleus  gives  the  ovum  the  character 
of  Amaba.  The  ** morula'*  mass  resulting  from  the 
divisions  of  the  yolk  is  paralleled  by  LaUfrnOhula.  The 
spheroid  formed  of  a  single  layer  of  cells  corresponds 
to  tbe  larves  of  Piamila.  The  invagination  of  this, 
Ibnniog  a  two-walled  spheroid  or  urn  ("gastnila")  is 
parallekd  by  the  larves  of  Proiasetu.  The  four-layered, 
elongated  form  answers  to  the  worm  Turbettaria.  The 
fibrous,  semi-tubular  cranium  and  gelatinous  spine  are 
found  adult  in  the  lanoelet.  The  giU-arches  of  the  em- 
bryo are  permanent  in  the  dog-^h  and  other  sharks. 
The  tailed  condition  represents  tbe  maturity  of  the  rep- 
tile. So,  without  further  particulars,  it  may  be  broad- 
ly asserted  that  the  gradations  of  living  animals  are 
pictured  in  the  successive  stages  of  the  mammalian 
embryo.  (See  especially  HMckel  and  Balfour,  as  cited ; 
fiaer,  Naehrichten  Uber  Leben  utid  Srhriflfn^  1865.) 
The  principle  has,  indeed,  found  useful  application  in 
some  cases,  in  determining  the  relative  rank  of  animals, 
(c)  PalaotOoioffkal  paralUUtm,  It  was  amply  shown 
by  the  elder  Agassiz  that  the  geological  succession  of 
organic  types  presents  an  order  identical  with  that  of 
the  claasificatory  arrangement  of  animals.  (See  espe- 
cially, EsMay  on  ClassiJieaiioiL)  This  has  been  more 
fully  illustnted  by  HSckel  (see  citations  above).  Ow- 
ing, however  to  the  recognised  imperfection  of  our 
knowledge  of  extinct  life,  this  parallelism  is  less  detailed 
than  the  others.  We  know  specifically,  however,  that 
the  primitive  form,  Eoxodn,  must  have  been  akin  to 
A  maba  and  Lahjfritdkula ;  that  the  turbellarian  grade 
waa  reached  in  SeoiithuSf  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone; 
that  the  shark  type  was  attained  in  the  Upper  Silurian 
and  Devonian;  the  transition  from  aquatic  to  terrestrial 

*  We  submit  that  these  verv  limited  vArintions  do  not 
prove  a  capacity  for  unlimited  variation.— Ei». 


cfeatutcsy  in  the  Amphibia  of  the  Ck>al  tf easorea,  with 
some  advance  in  the  Trias;  that  reptiles  succeeded  in 
tbe  Mesoxoic,  and  birds  appeared  on  their  decline;  that 
the  lowest  mammalian  types  existed  in  the  Jurassic, 
and  higher  types  followed  through  the  Tertiary;  that 
the  lowest  four-handed  animals  were  of  Lower  Eocene 
age,  and  that  tailed  monkejrs,  anthropoid  apes,  and  men 
followed  in  due  order. 

The  established  facts  of  comparative  embr}'ology 
show  a  prolonged  and  detailed  succession  of  organic 
conceptions  literally  three  times  repeated.  The  doc- 
trine of  chances  demonstrates  that  this  must  result  from 
some  mutual  dependence  and  connection  among  them. 
The  paheontological  succession  must  result  from  the 
order  of  succession  under  a  law  of  development  as  prim- 
itively exemplified  in  the  evolution  of  the  individuaL 
In  the  latter,  each  successive  stage  arises  demonstrably 
by  continuity  with  the  preceding.  The  palsBontological 
series  consists  of  the  final  terms  of  many  genetically  re- 
lated embryonic  series  successive  in  the  extinct  world. 
The  taxonomic  series  consists  of  the  final  terms  of  many 
genetically  related  embryonic  series  simultaneous  in  the 
actual  world.  All  the  terms  in  each  series  are  therefore 
materially  connected  through  the  embryonic  series  of 
which  they  are  several  parts.* 

IV.  Evolution  Theories, — While  most  evolutionists 
believe  that  the  intellectual  and  moral  elements  of  man 
are,  equally  with  the  material  organism,  the  outcome 
of  a  long  process  of  improvement,  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace 
holds  that  both  body  and  mind  of  man  may  have  arisen 
in  a  difiierent  manner.  (Wallace,  Contribution*  to  th$ 
Theory  of  Natural  Selection^  Am.  ed.  1871 ;  Address  at 
Glasgow  Meeting  Brit,  Auoc,  1871,  Amer.  Jour,  Seu 
III,  xiii,  877),  while  St.  Geo^  Mivart  limits  the  ex- 
ception to  man^s  psychic  nature  {GewM  of  Sj}€cietf 
1871 ;  Les9on$  from  Nature,  1876).  The  majority  of 
evolutionists  maintain  that  man's  body  is  so  intimately 
identified  in  structure  with  that  of  lower  animals  that 
it  is  incredible  that  it  has  not  participated  in  the  com- 
mon history.  As  to  his  psychic  nature,  it  is  held  to  l>e 
ideniical  in  many  of  its  manifestations  with  the  natures 
of  brutes,  and  a  strong  presumption  hence  arises  that 
even  man's  highest  powers  exist  germinally  in  the 
lower  animals. 

The  speculations  of  theorists  concern  chiefly  the 
causes,  conditions,  and  instrumentalides  on  which  or- 
ganic evolution  depends.  De  Maillet,  in  a  work  whose 
title  {TeUiamed,  1748)  was  an  anagram  of  the  author's 
name,  represents  that  organic  beings  possess  an  aptitude 
for  structural  changes,  and  that  changes  arise  when, 
under  changed  conditions,  the  animal  puts  forth  efforts 
to  exercise  changed  functions.  Lamarck  {PhUoMophU 
Zoiiloffiquef  1809 ;  new  ed.  by  Martins,  Paris,  1878)  main- 
tained that  primitive  rudiments  of  the  great  divisions 
of  the  organic  kingdoms  arose  by  spontaneous  genera- 
(ion ;  that  these  were  endowed  with  an  inherent  tendency 
to  improvement,  which  becomes  effective  especially 
through  use  and  disuse  of  organs,  while  the  influence  of 
external  conditions  determines  use  and  disuse.  The 
author  of  the  Vestiges  of  Creation^  1844,  suggested  that 
life  first  appeared  on  our  planet  "in  simple  germinal 
vesicles,"  "  produced  by  some  chemico-electrical  opera- 
tion,**  and  that  successive  steps  of  advance  were  effected 
"  through  the  agency  of  the  ordinary  process  of  genera- 
tion." The  conditions  under  which  this  process  result- 
ed in  an  improved  being  were  presented,  he  thought, 
in  abnormally  prolonged  gestation.  Next,  the  principle 
of  natural  selection  was  suggested  simultaneously  by 
Charles  R.  Darwin  and  A.  R.  Wallace  {Jour,  Lvmcean 
Soc  London,  August,  1858 ;  preceded  by  Wallace's  paper 
in  Ann,  and  Mag.  Nat,  Hist,  September,  1855),  and  this 


*  The  force  of  this  argaroent,  however,  seems  to  us  to 
be  wholly  invalidated  by  two  facts :  1.  No  instance  of  tbe 
propngntlon  of  one  species  of  snimsl  by  parents  of  Anoth- 
er, has  been  historically  foand  i  S.  Tbe  embryo  in  every 
instance  stops  at  the  precise  point  prescribed  by  its  speci- 
fic character ;  and  becnmep  either  an  abortion  or  n  mon- 
ster If  It  falls  to  reach  It.— Kp. 


EVOLUTION 


364 


EVOLUTION 


wai  most  indostriotuly  and  ably  dabonfeed  and  illo^ 
trated  by  Darwin  in  a  aubsequent  series  of  publications 
which  have  constituted  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  sci- 
entific thought  {Origin  o/Spedetf  1859;  Variationa  of 
Animals  and  PlanH,  1868;  The  DeaoaU  of  Man,  1871 ; 
£xprestion  of  the  Emotions,  1872;  Inseoti»orous  Plants, 
1875 ;  JCffeets  of  Cross-  and  Self-FertiUzaium,  1876,  and 
numerous  other  works  and  memoirs  bearing  more  or 
less  directly  on  the  question  of  natural  selection).  This 
theory  is  not  to  be  identified  with  the  broad  doctrine 
of  evolution,  as  is  commpnly  done.  It  assumes  that  a 
method  of  evolution  exbts  in  nature,  and  undertakes  to 
explain  by  what  means  and  agencies  it  is  carried  on. 
Becognising  the  fact  that  a  perpetual  struggle  exists 
among  individuals  for  existence,  and  for  most  favorable 
conditions  of  existence,  and  that  the  strongest  always 
succeed  the  best,  while  the  feeblest  tend  to  peruih,  the 
obvious  and  necessary  inference  is  drawn  that  the  spe- 
cies is  perpetuated  by  its  best  representatives,  and  thus 
nndeigoes  continual  improvement,  precisely  as  when 
man  intervenes  to  improve  the  breeds  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. Darwin  inclined  at  first  to  consider  this  tendency 
It  full  explanation  of  otganic  progress,  but  later  he  ad- 
mitted other  influences,  including,  like  Lamarck,  an< 
inherent  nisus  towards  improvement,  and  the  effects  of 
use  and  disuse  of  organs.  For  an  ampler  exposition  of 
the  doctrine,  see  the  article  '*  Darwinism  "  in  the  JSiiry- 
dopadia  Americana,  That  a  process  of  natural  selec- 
tion goes  on,  and  that  its  tendency  is  what  Darwin 
claims,  all  must  admit  But  there  is  a  growing  belief 
that  organic  advances  and  relapses  require  an  appeal 
also,  to  other  conditions,  instrumentalities,  and  causes. 
For  instance,  professor  Parsons,  of  Harvanl,  inclined  to 
regard  specific  variation  as  the  result  of  extraordinary 
births  {Amer,Jour.  Science,  July,  1860,  II,  xxx,  1),  and 
soon  afterwards  Richard  Owen  advanced  an  almost  iden- 
tical idea  (Anat.  of  Vertebrates,  chap,  xl;  Amer,  Jour, 
Science,  II,  xlvii,  83).  Galton's  theory  seems  to  be  the 
same  (ffereditaty  Genius,  1869,  p.  868-888).  K5lliker 
varied  this  conception  by  suggesting  heterogeneous  gen- 
eration  through  agamic  and  parthenogenic  reproduc- 
tion— a  profound  misapprehension  of  proper  generation 
{Ueber  die  JDartMsche  Schopfungsgeschichtt,  1864). 
Huxley,  while  accepting  Darwinism  for  what  it  is 
worth,  has  indicated  some  qualifications  and  additions 
(.Lay  Sermons,  Addresses,  and  Reviews,  1862;  On  the 
Origin  of  Species,  1868;  Critiques  and  Addresses,  1869, 
etc).  He  holds  particularly  that  nature  sometimes 
makes  considerable  Jumps ;  that  the  process  of  natural 
selection  goes  on  among  the  molecules  of  the  organism, 
and  that  there  exists  an  inherent  tendency  of  organiza- 
tion to  vary.  The  latter  point  he  emphasizes.  Alpheus 
Hyatt,  in  1868,  pointed  out  that  degradational  meta- 
morphoses in  the  old  age  of  the  individual,  or  the  type, 
could  not  rationally  be  referred  to  natural  selection, 
which  acts  in  the  contrary  direction.  An  internal  law 
fixes  the  duration  of  the  species  as  of  the  individual. 
Specific  advance  he  attributes  to  habitual  acceleration 
of  embryonic  development.  In  the  advanced  age  of  species 
the  reverse  takes  place,  and  thus  the  decline  of  a  spe- 
cies reproduces,  in  inverted  order,  the  succession  of 
types  which  appeared  during  the  rise  of  the  species 
(3fem.  Boston  Soc,  Nat,  Hist,  1867,  i,  pt. 2;  Amer,  Nat- 
uralist, June,  1870,  iv,  280 ;  Fossil  Cephalopods,  Museum 
Comparatur  Zool,  Cambridge,  1872).  Professor  £.  D. 
Cope  varied  this  conception  by  attributing  the  recession 
of  organic  types  to  the  influence  of  retarded  develop- 
ment {Synopsis  of  Cyprinida  of  Penn,  1866;  **  Origin 
of  Genera,"  in  the  Proc,  Acad,  Nat,  Science,  Phila.  Octo- 
ber, 1868;  **The  H3rpothesis  of  Evolution,'*  in  Lipp, 
Mag,  1870,  and  University  Series^  New  Haven,  1878 ; 
''The  Method  of  Creation  of  Organic  Type%"  in  the 
Proc.  A  cad,  Nat,  Science,  Phila.  1871,  and  other  papers). 
Probably  the  suggestions  based  on  rate  and  duration 
of  embr}'onic  changes  are  all  available.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  the  principle  of  natu- 
ral selection  obtains  in  embryonic  life,  both  in  condi- 


tions immediately  present  with  the  embryo  and  those 
external  conditions  which  produce  them — the  cireom- 
stances  surrounding  the  female  parent,  or  even  the  male. 
This  becomes  intelligible  on  the  basis  of  some  such  the- 
oiy  as  Spencer's  "Physiological  Units,"  Darwin's  **  Pan- 
generis,"  Elsberg's  ''Plastidule  Hypothesis"  (Proc  A  mer, 
Assoc  1874, 1876),  Httckel's  ''Perigenesis"  {Die  Peri- 
genesis,  1876 ;  Die  heutige  Entwiekdungslehre,  etc,  1879; 
Nature,  Oct.  4, 1877,  and  Pop,  Seien,  Monthly  Suppl.^, 
or  Brooks*  "  Law  of  Heredity  "  (New  York,  1888).  StUl, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  in  some  cases  widely  variant 
forms,  as  in  the  Anoon  breed  of  sheep,  arise  suddenly 
where,  to  all  appearance,  some  other  condition  not  yet 
known  determines  the  divergence.  We  think  also  it 
must  be  finally  admitted  that  the  organism  is  affected 
by  an  implanted  destination  or  law,  which  bends  it  con- 
stantly towards  conformity  to  the  environment,  and  em- 
ploys the  several  agencies  mentioned  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  result.  In  the  history  of  the  world 
the  environment  has  undergone  a  progressive  differen- 
tiation and  improvement.  Organization  has  advanced 
correspondingly.  When  the  environment  remains  per- 
sistent, or  deteriorates,  organic  forms  persist  or  even 
deteriorate  to  a  corresponding  extent.  If,  bowerer,  no 
existing  theoiy  of  organic  evolution  proves  final,  the 
fact  of  organic  evolution  remains  highly  probable. 

y.  Limitations  of  the  Doctrine, — We  have  stated,  pre- 
liminarily, that  the  question  of  evolution  is  simply  one 
of  fact  In  ascertaining  whether  a  method  of  evolution 
is  a  fact  in  the  natural  world,  we  are  not  concerned  in 
anything  ontside  of  this  simple  inquiry.  It  is  of  no 
import  whether  the  result  is  effectuated  by  necessity  or 
free-will,  by  inherent  forces,  by  implanted  forces  or  ex- 
ternal forces,  by  material  forces  or  spiritual  forces,  by 
mediate  action  or  immediate  action.  We  are  not  even 
concerned  in  determining  what  conditions  are  favorable, 
what  instrumentalities  are  employed,  whether  the  action 
is  prenatal  or  postnatal,  whether  through  embryonic 
development,  prolonged,  accelerated,  or  retarded.  AU 
these  questions  are  interesting— some  of  them  may  be 
important.  The  human  mind  cannot  be  restrained  frt>ro 
investigating  them.  But  it  is  important  to  understand 
clearly  that  a  verdict  on  any  one  of  these  questions 
does  not  bear  on  the  antecedent  question  of  fact.  If 
the  fact  exists,  different  persons  may  explain  and  inter- 
pret it  differontly.  The  explanation  falls  within  the 
domain  of  science;  the  interpretation  touches  philoso- 
phy and  theism.  Scientific  explanations  are  already 
various— each  probably  partial.  Interpretations  may 
be  materialistic  or  spiritualistic — that  will  depend  on 
the  antecedent  philosophy  of  the  thinker.  They  may 
be  theistic  or  atheistic — that  depends  on  the  predispo- 
sition of  the  interpreter.  Philosophic  and  theological 
opinions  must  rest  on  other  grounds.  The  fact  of  a 
method  of  evolution  in  the  world  is  not  responrible  for 
them. 

More  categorically,  we  may  state :  (1)  The  fact  of 
evolution  implies  nothing  in  respect  to  causation.  It 
throws  no  light  on  secondary  cause  or  first  cause.  It 
does  not  imply  the  evolution  of  life  from  inorganic  mat- 
ter. It  knows  nothing  of  beginnings ;  it  discovers  only 
a  method  of  continuance ;  the  beginning  may  have  been 
a  creation  by  fiat  It  knows  nothing  of  the  cause  or 
causes  of  continuance;  it  may  be  by  immanent  divine 
agency.  (2)  There  is  no  assumption  of  inherent  forces 
or  necessary  activities,  or  eternal  matter.  It  is  alk>w- 
able  to  deny  inherent  forces  and  necessary  actions,  and 
hold  to  the  creation  of  matter  and  force,  and  even  to 
the  identification  of  natural  force  with  the  divine  voli- 
tion. (8)  There  is  no  implication  concerning  the  nature 
or  origin  of  mind.  It  may  arise  with  each  distinct  or- 
ganism; it  may  arise  only  in  the  human  organism. 
(4)  Nothing  is  implied  concerning  the  intcrpretatioa 
of  the  activities  going  forward  in  the  organism.  We 
are  at  liberty  to  i^BIrm  that  they  imply  choice,  selection, 
intelligence.  We  are  at  full  liberty  to  trace  intelligence 
in  the  methods  of  the  inorganic  world,  or  to  tS&nn  thai 


EVOV^ 


365 


EWALD 


the  aH-embiscing  method  of  evolutioii  is  itself  the  high- 
est possible  manifestaUoD  of  intelligence  and  unity. 
(6)  We  may  also,  if  we  please,  maintain  that  the  meth- 
od of  the  world  and  the  collocations  of  the  world  imply 
determination  and  motive.  Thus,  in  brief,  the  limita- 
tions of  the  essential  doctrine  of  e¥<dution  are  such  that, 
in  spite  of  the  speculative  views  of  some  evolutionists, 
the  fuU  acceptance  of  the  doctrine  does  not  conflict  with 
any  fundamental  oonceptbn  of  Christian  theology. 

YI.  Ltteraterr«— Many  of  the  most  important  orig- 
inal works  have  been  cited  in  the  progress  of  this  article. 
Some  other  titles  may  be  added :  Spencer,  Firti  iVta- 
e^s  ofPhUotopky;  PrindpUt  of  Biology;  Gnj,Dar- 
fputktna  (1978) ;  Romanes,  7^  Scientific  Evideiuxg  of 
Otyatae  Evolution  (1882) ;  Chapman,  The  Evolution  of 
Life  (1873);  Semper,  Animcd  Life  a*  Affected  6y  the 
Natural  Conditions  of  Existence;  Die  Verwandtschajls- 
heziekungen  der  gegliederten  Thiere  (1875) ;  Lankester, 
Defeneration,  a  Chapter  in  Darwinism  (1880) ;  Lindsay, 
Mind  m  the  Lower  A  nimals  (1879);  Seidlitz,  Beitrdge  tur 
DeteendenS'Theorie  (1876);  Fritz  MUller,  FUr  Darwin 
(eod.) ;  Zacharias,  Zur  Entwickelungstheorie  (eod.) ; 
Jacoby,  Etudes  sur  la  Selection  dans  ses  Rapports  avec 
FBerediti  dkcs  VHomme;  Canestrint,  Teoria  di  Darwin 
CrUicamente  Exposta  (Milan,1880) ;  Du  Prel,  DerKampf 
uau  Dasein  am  Himmd;  Faivre,  Jai  VariabUiU  des 
Espkees  (1868);  Weismann,  Studien  tur  DescendenZ" 
TJkeorie  (1876) ;  Ribot,  Heredity ;  O.  Schmidt,  Desceni  and 
Darwinism  (1875) ;  H.  Mnller,  Die  Befruchtung  der  Blu- 
men  dmrek  Insecten  (1873;  an  Engl,  translation,  1888) ; 
A  ^tenblmnen  und  ihre  Befruchtur^  durch  Insecten  (1881) ; 
F^hner,  Eimge  Ideen  zur  SchSpfungs^  und  Entuneke- 
btngsgeschichte  der  Organismen  ;  Mivart,  Man  and  Apes 
(1874) ;  Bastian,  Evolution  and  the  Origin  of  Life ;  Roux, 
Der  Kampfder  Theile  im  Organismus  (1881);  Cazellea, 
OuUine  of  the  Evolution  Philosophy  (1875).  On  the  in- 
terpretatioa  of  evolution:  Dreher,  Der  Darwudsmus 
und  seine  SteBung  in  der  Philosophie  (1877) ;  von  Gizycki, 
Pkilosophis^e  Consequenzen  der  lAxmarck-DarwiiCschen 
Eniwidhdungstheorie  (1876) ;  R.  Schmidt,  Die  Darwin*- 
scheu  Theorien  undihre  Stellung  zur  Philosophie^  Religion, 
und  Moral  (eod. ;  id.  EngL  translation) ;  Henslow,  The 
Theory  of  the  Evolution  of  Living  Things,  and  the  Appli- 
cation  of  the  Principles  of  Evolution  to  Religion  (1878) ; 
I.«econte,  Religion  and  Science ;  Simooz,  Natural  Law 
(1877);  Wright,  Philosophical  Discussions,  especially 
p.  97-^;  Weismann,  Ueber  die  ktzten  Ursachen  der 
Transmutationen  (1876) ;  Spiller,  Die  Urkrajt  des  Welt- 
alls  nach  ihrem  Wesen  und  Wirhen  (eod.) ;  Schneider, 
Der  thierische  Wille  (1880);  Romanes,  Animal  Intelli- 
gence (1883) ;  Mental  Evolution  in  Animals  (eod.) ; 
Savage,  The  Religion  of  Evolution  (1877);  Beale,  Life 
T%eories,  their  Injluence  upon  Religious  Thought  (1871) ; 
WincheU,  The  Speculative  Consequences  of  Evolution 
(1881);  Sparks  from  a  Geologists  Hammer,  p.  801-^385 
(eod.>  p.  301>385;  Beckett,  On  the  Origin  of  the  Laws  of 
Sature,  Critical  and  adverse  writings :  von  Hartmann, 
Wahrheit  undlrrthumimDarwinismus  (1875) ;  Wigand, 
Der  Darwinismus  v.  die  Naturforschung  Newtons  u. 
Csmers  (1874-77,  3  vols.) ;  Yirchow,  Die  FreiheU  der 
Wissenschaft  im  modemen  Staat  (1877 ;  EngL  transla^ 
tioD);  Semper,  Hackelismus  in  der  Zodlogie  (1876); 
Michaelis,  Anti-Darwhnstische  Beohachtutigen  (1877); 
Mirart,  Lessons  from  Nature,  as  Manifested  in  MM 
and  Matter  (1876);  Contemporary  Evolution  (eod.); 
Agassiz,  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the 
U.  S.  voL  i,  Introduction ;  Amer,  Jour,  Science,  July, 
1860 ;  Dawson,  Tke  Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man  (1873) ; 
liodgfijWhatis  Darwinism?;  BaTnaide,Trilobiies(iB71)', 
Cepkalopodes  (1877) ;  Brachiopodes  (1879).  A  monthly 
Joamal  of  highest  ability,  devoted  to  evolution,  is  Kos- 
moo^  Stuttgart.    (A.  W.) 

EvovSD  is  an  artificial  word  made  out  of  the  vow. 
da  IB  the  words  *'s0cn]omm  Amen,**  which  occur  at  the 
end  of  the  Gloria  Patri.  Its  object  was  to  serve  as  a 
kind  of  memoria  teehnica  to  enable  singers  to  render 
the  several  Gregorian  chants  properly;  each  letter  in 


evovsB  standing  for  the  syUable  from  which  it  b  ex- 
tracted. It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  psalms,  etc, 
were  sung  under  antiphons,  and  that  the  music  of  the 
antiphon,  being  constructed  in  a  particular  ^  mode  "  or 
"  scale,"  such  as  Dorian,  Phrygian,  and  the  like,  the 
chant  or  "  tone  "  (''  tune  **)  to  the  psalm,  being  not  in- 
tended to  represent  a  full  stop  or  close,  might  (and  usu- 
ally did)  not  end  on  the  final  belonging  to  the  mode, 
leaving  that  for  the  concluding  antiphon :  thus  different 
forms  of  the  same  mode  or  tone  would  arise,  and  these 
were  called  evovaa,  and  sometimes  by  other  names. 
This  only  applies  to  the  latter  half  (cadence)  of  the 
chant,  as  in  the  *' mediation"  (at  the  middle  of  the 
verso  of  a  psalm)  scarcely  any  variety  was  admitted, 
except  such  as  arose  from  local  use.  Thus,  in  the  vari- 
ous works  on  the  subject,  and  in  service  books,  varieties 
of  endings  are  to  be  found  of  greater  or  less  antiquity. 
See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Evremond  (Lat.  Ebremundus),  Saint,  was  bom  at 
Bayeux  of  a  noble  family ;  married  a  high-bom  lady, 
but  suddenly  devoted  himself  to  a  monastic  life  in  Fon- 
tenay ;  afterwards  became  abbot  of  Mont  Maire,  in  the 
diocese  of  Seez,  and  died  about  A.D.  720  (others  say  be- 
fore 584).  He  is  commemorated  June  10.  See  Smith, 
DicL  of  Christ.  A  ntiq,  8.  v. ;  Guerin,  Les  Petits  BoUand- 
istes,  vi,  553. 

Evroul  (Lat,  Ehrulfus),  (1)  Saint,  was  brought 
up  at  the  court  of  Childebert  I  and  his  successor,  was 
noted  for  his  teaming  and  wealth,  but  renounced  all  for 
a  monk's  life,  and  founded  the  monastery  of  St.  Evroul 
d'Ouche  (Uticns),  in  the  diocese  of  Lisieux  (Neustria), 
where  he  died  in  596.  He  is  commemorated  Dec  29. 
(2)  The  eighteenth  bishop  of  Noyon  and  Toumay,  died 
A.D.  621  (according  to  others,  before  575).  (3)  Saint, 
is  said  to  have  been  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Fus- 
cien-aux-Bois,  near  Amiens,  probably  near  the  close  of 
the  6th  century.    He  is  commemorated  July  26. 

Ewald,  Christian  Ferdinand,  an  Episcopal 
minister  and  famous  missionary  among  the  Jews,  was 
bom  of  Jewish  parentage,  Sept.  14,  1802,  at  Blarolds- 
weisach,  near  Bamberg.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  joined 
the  Christian  Church,  studied  at  Basle,  and  was  in  1826 
licensed  to  preach  the  gospel  In  1829  he  was  called 
to  London,  and  having  duly  prepared  for  missionary 
work,  he  connected  himself  in  1832  with  the  London 
Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  among  the  Jews. 
In  1836  he  was  ordained  by  the  bishop  of  London, 
having  been  previously  in  Lutheran  orders.  There 
are  but  few  of  the  society's  missionaries  whose  sphere 
of  labor  has  been  so  lengthened  in  duration  or  so  wide 
in  extent  For  nearly  ten  years  he  labored  with  great 
devoteduess  in  one  of  the  most  trying  portions  of  the 
Jewish  mission  field — the  north  coast  of  Africa — at  Al- 
giers, Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  other  large  towns.  In  1839 
he  left  Tunis  for  a  time  and  proceeded  to  Leghorn,  and 
in  1841  finally  left  Tunis  to  accompany  the  first  An- 
glican bishop.  Dr.  Alexander,  to  Jerusalem  as  his  chap- 
lain,  and  for  some  ten  years  was  earnestly  engaged  in 
the  Holy  City.  An  account  of  the  work  is  given  in  his 
Missionary  Labors  in  the  City  of  Jerusalem,  In  1851 
ill-health  compelled  him  to  leave  the  East,  and,  be- 
ing appointed  principal  of  the  home  mission,  he  took 
up  his  abode  in  London.  In  1872  a  general  debility  of 
constitution  rendered  it  necessary  for  him  to  resign  his 
position.  He  died  August  9, 1874.  The  University  of 
Erlangen,  of  which  Ewald  was  a  graduate,  on  the  pub- 
lication of  his  German  translation  of  the  Talmudic 
treatise  Ahoda  Sarah,  in  1856,  conferred  upon  him  dis 
religiohe  Christiana  inter  barbaras  gentes  propaganda 
optime  merito,  linguarum  orientalium  gnarrissimo,  the 
diploma  of  a  doctor  in  philosophy,  and  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  conferred  upon  nim,  in  1872,  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  divinity,  as  stated  in  the  diploma,  in  con- 
sideration ^  of  his  uprightness  of  life,  sound  doctrine,  and 
purity  of  morals;  of  his  proficiency  in  the  study  of  di- 
vinitTf  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  languages  and  litera- 


EWALD 


366 


EXCLUSIVA 


tine;  and  also  of  his  muaionary  labors  and  eminent 
aervicefl  in  the  promotion  of  Christianity  among  the 
Jews."    (B.P.) 

X^wald,  Gtoorg  Helnrlch  August,  one  of  the 
most  learned  Orientalists  of  oar  century,  was  bom  at 
Gottingen,  Nov.  16, 1803.    In  1820  he  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city,  and  three  years  later  received 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.    After  teaching  for 
some  time  at  the  WolfenbUttel  g}'mnasium,  he  returned 
in  1824  to  Gottingen,  became  repetent  at  the  university, 
•and  in  1827  was  made  professor.    In  1887  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  his  position  for  having  signed,  with  six 
other  professors,  a  protest  against  the  revocation  of  the 
liberal  constitution  of  1833,  which  Ernest  Augustus,  king 
of  Hanover,  effected.     In  1829  and  1836  he  had  visited 
France  and  Italy,  and  now  (in  1838)  he  visited  England. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed.professor  at  Tubin- 
gen, where  he  remained  for  ten  years.   The  bitter  feuds 
with  his  colleagues  made  his  stay  there  very  unpleas- 
ant, and  it  was  a  relief  when,  in  1848,  he  was  recalled  to 
GQttingen.    In  1867  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  this  refusal  was 
punished  by  his  exclusion  from  the  faculty  of  philoso- 
phy, although  he  was  still  allowed  his  salary  and  the 
privilege  of  lecturing.    This  latter  privilege  was  with- 
drawn in  1868,  on  account  of  utterances  against  the 
king.    He  died  of  heart  disease,  May  4, 1876.    Ewald's 
writings  have  found  about  as  many  admirers  abroad 
as  at  home.    The  valae  of  much  of  his  learning  is  seri- 
ously impaired  by  his  dogmatic  spirit.    His  indepen- 
dence often  degenerates  into  self-conceit.    His  violent 
rationalism  is  conspicuous.    His  literary  activity  began 
in  1823,  with  the  Composition  derGenent  KriHtch  wUct' 
aucht,  and  only  closed  with  an  autobiograph}'  written 
during  the  last  months  of  his  life,  which  has  not  been 
published.  Of  his  many  writings  we  mention,  De  Mdrit 
Carminum  A  rabicorum  (Brunswick,  1825) : — Das  Hohe- 
lied  Salomons  Ubertetzt  und  erklart  (1826;  3d  ed.  1866) : 
— Libri  IVakedii  de  Mesopotamia  Expvgnata  Historia 
pars  (1827)  i—Kriiische  Grammatik  dor  //e6r.  Spracke. 
(eod.),  subsequently  enlarged,  and  AusfUhrUches  Lehr- 
buck  der  Hebr.  Sprache  des  A  Iten  Testaments  (1844;  8th 
ed.  1870 ;  Engl  transl.  by  Nicholson,  Loud.  1836 ;  of 
the  syntax  alone,  from  8th  ed.  by  Kennedy,  Edinb. 
1879) :—i7e&raucAe  Sprachkhre  fir  AnfSnger  (1842; 
Engl.  transL  from  3d  ed.  by  Smith,  Lond.  1870) :— .4  ft- 
handlungen  zur  otHentalischen  und  bildischen  Literatur 
(IB32) :  —  Grammatica  Critica  Ling.  Arab,  (1831-38, 
2  vols.)  :—Die  poetischen  BUcher  des  A  Uen  Bundes  (1835- 
89;  3d  ed.  1868;  EngL  transL  Lond.  1880  sq.):— Pro- 
pheten  des  A  Iten  Bundes  (1840, 1841 ;  2d  ed.  1867, 1867, 
8  vols. ;  Engl.  transL  LoncL  1876-81, 5  vols.)  :—Geschichte 
des  VoUxs  Israel  (1843-59,  7  vols.;  3d  ed.  1868;  Engl. 
transL  corresponding  to  voL  i-iv) : — History  of  Israel 
(Lond.  1867-74,  5  vols.):— 2>t«  AlterthUmer  des  Volkes 
Israel  (1848;  EngL  transl.  Antiquities  of  hraeH,  Lond. 
1876) : — Die  drei  eraten  Evangelien  Hbertetzt  vnd  erklart 
(1850)  :—Das  dlhiopische  Buck  ffenokk  (1854)  :—Das 
vierie  Buck  Ezra  (1860) : — Die  Sendschreien  des  Apos- 
tels  Paulus  Obenetzt  und  erklart  (1857)  ^— Die  Jokan- 
neischen  ScAnften  (1861, 1862) :— Z>t«  Bucher  des  Neuen 
Testatnents  (1870, 1871)  i—Die  Theologie  des  Alien  und 
Neuen  Bundes  (1870-75, 4  vols.)  : — JahrbUcher  der  bUfli- 
schen  Wissenschaft,  i-xi,  1848-61,  containing  a  number 
of  essays  which  are  still  very  valuable.    In  connection 
with  ll  Dukes  he  published,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichie  der 
iUiesten  AusUgung  des  Spracherkldrung  des  A  Iten  Test, 
(1844, 3  vols.).    See  Ilerzog-Hitt,  Real^EncyJdop,  s.  v. ; 
lichtenberger,  Enci/dopSdie  des  Sciences  Beligieuses,  s.  v. ; 
Zuchold,  BibL  Theol.  i,  341-344 ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  261 ; 
Steinschneider,  BibL  Ilandbuchf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

13twe  Verston  of  thk  Sciuptvres.  The  Ewe  or 
Ewegfie  (also  called  EipeyAijigbe,  Krepe^  Dahomey)  lan- 
guage is  spoken  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  at  and  be- 
yond the  river  Volta.  The  Kev.  B.  Schlegel,  of  the 
Bremen  Missiooaiy  Society,  began  to  tranalate  the  Holy 


Scriptures  into  this  language  in  the  year  1858,  and  the 
Bremen  Bible  Society  undertook  the  printing  of  the 
same.  In  1861  the  four  gospels  were  published.  In 
1874  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  puUisbed, 
at  the  request  of  the  Bremen  mission,  St.  PauFs  epistles, 
which  were  translated  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Ulerz,  and  in 
1878  the  entire  New  Test,  was  issued  from  the  preaa. 
Several  books  of  the  Old  Test,  have  also  been  published, 
as  Exodus,  Joshua  to  Ruth,  and  SamueL  Up  to  March 
81, 1884,  there  were  distributed  4500  portions  of  tbe  Old 
Tesu  and  3000  portions  of  the  New  Test.  For  the  study 
of  the  language,  see  Schlegel,  Sehi&ssel  zur  Ewe  Sjfracke 
(Stuttgart,  1857).    (R  P.) 

Ewh,  Geobo,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  bom  in  1828, 
at  Kirchberg,  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  He  studied  theology 
at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  came  to  America  in  1866,  and  was 
appointed  pastor  of  the  Lutheran  Church  (St.  Mattbew^s) 
at  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  where  he  died,  April  7, 1881 .  (R  P.) 

Ewing,  Alexander,  D.C.L.,  a  Scotch  bishop,  was 
bom  in  Aberdeen,  March  26, 1814.  He  was  educated 
at  a  private  school  in  Chelsea  abd  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  but,  owing  to  his  delicate  health  and  ample 
inheritance,  he  did  not  adopt  a  profession  on  leaving 
school.  He  began  preparation  for  the  ministry  in  1886, 
and  entered  into  priest's  orders  in  1841,  when  he  took 
cbaigo  of  the  Episcopal  congregation  at  Forrea.  -He 
remained  in  this  position  until  1846)  when  he  was  elect- 
ed first  bishop  of  the  newly  restored  diocese  of  Argyll 
and  the  Isles,  the  duties  of  which  ofiice  he  discharged 
till  his  death,  May  22, 1873.  His  theological  views 
were  communicated  to  the  world  in  tlie  form  of  letters  to 
the  newspapers,  pamphlets,  special  sermons,  essays  con- 
tributed to  the  series  of  Present  Day  Papers,  of  which 
he  was  the  editor,  and  a  volume  of  sermons  entitled 
Revelation  considered  as  Light  He  also  published  the 
Cathedral  or  Abbey  Church  oflona  (1865).  See  J/e- 
motr,  by  Ross  (1877) ;  Eneydop,  Brit,  (9tb  ed.),  s.  v. 

Ewlng,  OrevlUe,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
bom  in  Edinburgh  in  1767;  educated  at  the  high- 
school  ;  apprenticed  to  an  engraver,  but  when  of  age 
studied  theology  at  Edinburgh  Univermty;  became 
tutor  to  the  family  of  Mr.  Lockhart,  of  OutUe  Hill ; 
was  licensed  to  preach  Sept  5, 1792,  and  his  talents 
made  him  popular  from  the  first.  He  was  nomi- 
nated by  the  trustees  as  minister  of  lady  Glenorchy's 
chapel,  Edinburgh,  in  June,  1792,  and  ordained  col- 
league in  October,  1793.  Aided  by  Robert  Haldane, 
Esq.,  he  proposed  to  organize  a  select  company  for 
propagating  the  gospel  in  Bengal,  but  the  East  India 
(Company  was  hostile  to  the  movement  He  estab- 
lished the  Missionary  Magazine  for  Scotland,  tbe  first 
religious  periodical  in  that  country.  He  resigned  hb 
charge,  Dec  26, 1798;  became  minister  to  a  large  con- 
gregation at  the  Tabernacle,  Glasgow,  in  May,  1799,  un- 
der the  auspices  of  Mr.  Hiddane,  and  presided  over  a 
seminaiy  for  training  pious  young  men  for  the  ministry 
for  two  and  a  half  years  with  considerable  suoceaa. 
DifTerences  having  arisen  with  Mr.  Haldane,  he  re- 
signed, and  in  1811  became  senior  tutor  to  a  new  theo- 
logical seminary  belonging  to  the  Congregational  Union, 
and  continued  to  discharge  the  duties  wiUi  praiseworthy 
fidelity  till  obliged  by  debility  to  resign.  He  died  Aug. 
2, 1841.  He  published  five  single  Sermons;  several  con- 
troversial works;  A  Greek  Grammar,  and  Greek  and 
English  Scripture  Lexicon  (Edinb.  1802,  J9l2):^Faets 
and  Documents  respecting  the  Connections  between  Robert 
Haldane  and  Greville  Eufing  (1809): — An  Essay  on 
Baptism  (1823) :— ifemotr  qf  Barbara  Ewing  (1829), 
with  manv  smaller  works.  See  Fasti  EccUs,  Scotieanoy 
i,80,81.  ' 

EzoellentB.    See  GAostib 

Bzciflios,  an  ecclesiastical  sentence  among  the 
Jews,  whereby  a  person  was  separated  or  cut  off  from 
his  people.    SeeBAK;  ExooMUxmicATioN. 

Szolufllva,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  means  the  right. 


EXEDRA 


367 


EYCK 


daimed  by  Aostria,  France,  and  Spain,  to  exclude  each 
one  candidate  at  a  papal  election.'  This  right  haa  never 
been  fomallf  acknowledged  by  the  curia,  but  the  claim 
baa  always,  aiiicc  the  15th  century,  been  complied  with 
by  (he  conclave,  although  the  Jeauits,  shortly  before  the 
death  of  Pius  IX,  asserted  that  this  right  should  no 
more  be  granted,  since  these  states  were  no  longer  Cath- 
olic^ in  the  old  sense  of  the  word,  but  tolerant  rather. 
See  HHberUn,  RdmucktM  Cwdave  (Halle,  1769),  p.  152 
iq.;  UAer  die  Ret^te  der  Regierunffen  beim  Condave 
(Munich,  1872) ;  fionghi,  Pio  IX  e  U  Papa  Futuro  (Mi- 
lan, 1877),  p.  47-58;  Mejer,  in  Herzog-riitt,  Real-En- 
qfliop,  8.  V. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  A  ntiq.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Szedra,  a  name  sometimes  given  by  St.  Augustine 
to  the  ambo  (q.  v.).  It  is  often  used  in  ancient  writers 
as  synonymous  with  the  apsis  (q.  v.). 

Esdteria,  sacrifices  offered  by  the  ancient  Greek 
generals  before  setting  out  on  any  warlike  expedition. 
They  were  of  the  nature  of  divination,  to  ascertain 
vrbethcr  the  enterprise  was  to  be  successful  or  disastrous. 

EzocatacGBli,  a  name  given  to  several  officers  of 
the  Church  at  Constantinople,  high  in  authority,  and 
in  public  aoMmblies  taking  precedence  of  the  bishops. 
Originally  they  were  priests,  but  afterwards  only  dea- 
cons. The  college  of  the  exocatacali  corresponded  to 
the  college  of  cardinals  (q.  v.)  at  Rome. 

Ezooionites  ('E^cMCioviVac),  a  name  applied  to  the 
Arians  (q.  v.)  of  the  4th  century,  who,  when  expelled 
from  Constantinople  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  retired 
to  a  place  outside  the  city.  The  name  occurs  in  the 
records  of  Justinian,  and  frequently  in  the  chronicle  of 
Alexandria. 

Exotezlo.    See  EaoTERic. 

Exothoam^nt  ( i{«#Oov/Mvo(  )*  the  first  of  the 
four  classes  of  cateckumen*  (q.  v.)  in  the  early  Church. 
They  were  instructed  privately  outside  the  Church,  and 
prevented  frona  entering  into  the  Church  until  they 
were  more  fully  enlightened. 

BzpeotattveSk  a  term  employed  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, when  the  French  pontiffs  residing  at  Avignon  as- 
sumed to  themselves  the  power  of  conferring  all  sacred 
offices,  by  which  means  they  raised  immense  sums  of 
mooey,  calling  forth  the  bitterest  complaints  from  all 
the  nations  of  Europe.  Expectativcs  were  abolished 
by  the  Council  of  Constance,  March  25, 1436.    See  £x- 

PECTAJICT. 

•  Bxpllly,  Louis  Alcxandrk,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  Feb.  24, 1742,  at  Brest.  He  studied  at  Paris,  and 
was  made  bachelor  of  divinity  there ;  was  nominated 
pastor  of  St.  Martin  of  Morlaix ;  in  1789  became  deputy 
of  the  states-general ;  was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  de- 
partment of  Finist^re,  Feb.  24, 1791,  and  shared  the 
Ute  of  twenty-five  of  his  colleagues,  who  were  beheaded, 
May  22, 1794,  for  having  taken  an  appeal  to  the  depart- 
ment of  the  West  against  the  national  convention.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GeniraUy  s.  v. 

BzBufBatioD,  a  part  of  the  ceremony  of  baptism 
in  the  ancient  Christian  Church,  in  which  the  candidate 
stood  with  his  hands  stretched  out  towards  the  West, 
and  stmck  them  together ;  then  he  proceeded  thrice  to 
exsnf&ate  or  spit,  in  defiance  of  Satan.    See  Baptism. 

ZSxti^Ioes  (Lat.  exta,  entrails,  and  specio,  to  look), 
a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  ancient  haruspices  (q.  v.), 
beoune  it  was  their  duty  carefully  to  examine  the  en- 
trails of  the  victims  offered  in  sacrifice. 

Ezaoontiais  CE^ovjcd^Tioi),  a  name  given  to  the 
class  of  Arians  called  Aetians  (q.  v.),  because  they  af- 
firmed that  the  Son  of  God  might  be  called  God  and  the 
Word  of  God,  but  only  in  a  sense  consistent  with  his 
having  been  brought  forth  from  non-existence.  See 
Abiaxs;  Skmi-Abians. 

BybenaohtttB,  Joxathan,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom 
at  Cracow  in  1690.  He  was  not  only  a  very  learned 
Talmudiat,  but  especially  a  follower  of  the  cabalistic 


ajrstem  of  the  paendo-Meniah  Chayon,  whom  he  had 
met  at  Prague  in  1726^  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  £y- 
benschotz  was  president  of  a  rabbinical  college  at  Cra* 
cow,  which  soon  became  very*  famous.  From  year 
to  year  the  number  of  his  pupils  increased,  and  he 
was  soon  recognised  as  a  great  authority.  His  posi- 
tion shielded  him  from  the  ban  which  was  to  be 
pronounced  upon  the  followers  of  Sabbathai  Zewi 
(q.  V.)  and  Chayon.  To  avoid  all  suspicion,  Eyben- 
schUtz  himself  pronounced  the  ban  upon  all  the  fol- 
lowers of  tlie  pseudo-Messiah,  and  in  1728  the  congre- 
gation of  Prague  appointed  him  preacher.  In  1740 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Metz,  and  in  1750  he  went  to 
Altona.  It  seemed  as  if  with  him  an  evil  spirit  bad 
entered  that  place,  which  divided  the  German  and 
the  Polish  Jews.  When  EybenschQtz  came  there,  the 
famous  Jacob  Emden  (q.  v.)  lived  there,  and,  like  his 
father,  who  had  proscribed  Chayon  and  his  followers,  re- 
garded himself  as  the  keeper  of  orthodoxy.  An  oppor- 
tunity was  soon  offered  to  Eroden  whereby  his  vanity 
and  hb  desire  for  heresy-hunting  should  be  satisfied. 
At  the  time  ythen  Eybenschtttz  came  to  Altona  there 
was  an  epidemic  in  that  city.  Since  every  rabbi 
was  regarded  as  a  sort  of  magician,  the  new-comer  was 
expected  to  put  a  stop  to  the  disease.  EybenschQtz 
prepared  amulets,  which  he  distributed  among  the  peo- 
ple. For  curiosity's  sake  one  was  opened,  and  lo !  in  it 
was  written :  "  O  thou  God  of  Israel,  who  dwellest  in 
the  beauty  of  thy  power,  send  down  salvation  to  this 
person  through  the  merit  of  thy  sen'aut  Sabbathai 
Zewi,  in  order  that  thy  name,  and  the  name  of  the  Mes- 
siah Sabbathai  Zewi,  may  be  ballowe<l  in  the  world.*' 
This  amulet  came  into  the  hands  of  Emden.  Evben- 
schtttz  denied  all  connection  with  the  adherents  of  Sab- 
bathai, and  as  he  had  already  gained  a  great  influence, 
it  was  believed ;  at  least,  everybody  kept  quiet.  But 
Emden  was  not  quiet,  and  finally  the  ban  was  pronounced 
against  EybenschUtz.  The  matter  was  brought  before 
the  king,  Frederic  V  of  Denmark,  who  decided  in  favor 
of  Emden.  Eybenschtttz  lost  his  position  as  rabbi  of 
the  congregation.  As  his  best  friends  left  him,  in  liis 
perplexity  he  finally  went  to  a  former  pupil  of  his,  Mo- 
ses Gerson  Kohen,  who  after  bis  baptism  had  taken  the 
name  of  Karl  Anton  (q.  v.).  Anton  wrote  an  apology 
in  behalf  of  his  teacher,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  king 
of  Denmark.  This,  and  other  influences,  had  at  last 
such  effect  that  the  whole  affair  was  dropped,  and  Eyben- 
schfitz  was  elected  anew  as  rabbi  of  the  congregation. 
The  Jewish  community,  however,  became  divided,  and 
this  division  lasted  as  long  as  both  EybenschQtz  and 
Emden  were  alive.  Eybenschtttz  died  id  17G4,  and 
was  followed  twelve  years  later  by  his  opponent  Emden. 
Both  are  buried  in  the  Jewish  cemetery  of  Altona. 
EybenschQtz  wrote, '{rdin'i  nSHK  D,  sermons  and  com- 
ments (Hamburg,  1766)  :— mas  'j'ibK.homiletical  com- 
ments upon  the  Lamentations  (ibid.  17G5),  etc.  See 
FQrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  261  sq. ;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario  Storico, 
p.  96  (Germ,  transl.) ;  Griltz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  x,  885  sq., 
note  7,  p.  liv ;  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Juden.  w.  *.  Sekterii  iii,  250 
sq.,  309  sq. ;  Jocher,  i4 //^metnef  Gtlehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Eyck,  Hubert  and  John  van,  two  brothers,  were 
Flemish  painters,  and  natives  of  the  small  town  of 
Maeseyck,  on  the  river  Maes.  Hubert  was  proba- 
bly bom  in  1866,  and  John  in  1370.  They  esUb- 
lished  themselves  at  Bruges.  They  are  said  by  some 
writers  to  have  been  the  discoverers  of  oil  painting. 
They  generally  painted  in  concert  until  the  death  of  Hu- 
bert. Their  most  important  work  was  an  altar-piece 
with  folding-doors,  painted  for  JodocusVytSjWha placed 
it  in  the  Church  of  St  Bavon,  at  Ghent. '  The  principal 
picture  in  this  curious  production  represents  the  A  do- 
ration  of  the  Lamb^  as  described  by  St.  John  in  the  Rev- 
elation. On  one  of  the  folding -doors  is  represented 
Adam  and  Eve,  and  on  the  other  St,  CacUia.  In  the 
sacristy  of  the  cathedral  at  Bruges  is  preserved  a  pict- 


EYCKENS 


368 


EZRA 


ure  painted  by  John  in  1436,  representing  the  Virgin 
and  Infant,  with  St.  George,  St.  Donatiua,  and  other 
saints.  Hut>ert  died  Sept.  18, 1429,  and  John  in  July, 
1440.  See  Uoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrak,  s.  v. ;  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Eyckens,  Pbtek,  an  eminent  Flemish  historical 
painter,  was  bom  at  Antwerp  in  1699,  and  was  chosen 
director  of  the  academy  at  Antwerp.  His  principal 
works  in  that  city  are,  The  Last  Supper,  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Andrew ;  SL  Catherine  Disputing  vnth  the  Pagans, 
in  the  cathedral ;  and  St,  John  Preaching  in  the  Wil- 
demess,  in  the  Church  of  the  Convent  called  Bogaeide. 
At  Mechlin,  in  the  Church  of  the  Jesuits,  were  two  of 
his  most  admired  worlcs.  He  died  in  1649.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
theFine  Arts,  B,y, 

l^yte,  WiLUAM,  an  English  Calvinistic  divine,  was 
bom  in  Wiltshire  about  1613,  and  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  in  1629.  In  1654  he  was  minister  of  St. 
Edmund's  Church,  Salisbury,  and  was  ejected  for  non- 
conformity in  1662.  He  died  in  1670.  He  published, 
Epistola  ad  Vasetium  de  Teztus  Ilebraici  Variantibus 
Leetionibus  (1652) : — The  True  Justification  of  a  Sin- 
ner Explained  (1654) ;  in  Latin,  under  the  title  of  Vin- 
dicuB  Justificationis  GraiuUa  (eod.).  See  AUibone, 
Diet,  ofBi-U,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Sytel,  FfiiEDRicH  Hermann,  a  Lutheran  minis- 
ter of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  11, 1819,  at  Esslingen. 
He  studied  at  Tubingen,  was  in  1856  pastor  at  H5fin- 
gen,  in  1861  at  Maichingen,  where  he  died,  April  21, 
1869.  He  published  Psalter  in  Modemem  Gewande 
(Stuttgard,  1862;  2d  ed.  1866).  See  Koch,  Geschidkte 
des  deutschen  Kirchenliedes,  vii,  806.     (B,  P.) 

Ssan,  a  hymn  used  in  Mohammedan  countries  by 
the  Muezzin  (q.  v.),  or  public  crier,  who  chants  it  from 
the  minarets  of  the  mosques  in  a  loud,  deep-toned  voice, 
summoning  the  people  to  their  devotions.  The  proc- 
lamation is  as  follows :  God  is  great,  four  times  repeat- 
ed ;  /  bear  toitness  that  there  is  no  god  but  God,  twice 
repeated ;  /  bear  witness  that  Mohammed  is  the  prophet 
of  God,  twice  repeated ;  Come  to  the  temple  of  salvation, 
twice  repeated;  God  is  great,  God  is  most  great;  there 
is  no  God  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet.  At 
the  morning  prayer  the  muezzin  must  add,  Prayer  is 
better  than  sleep,  twice  repeated. 

Easekiel,  a  Jewish  Greek  writer,  who  lived  a  cen- 
tury before  Christ,  is  the  author  of  a  dramatic  poem 
after  the  manner  of  Euripides,  on  the  Deliverance  of 
Israel  from  Egypt,  entitled  tlayurpi.  Fragments  of 
this  poem  are  preserved  in  the  Prarparatio  Evangelica 
of  Eusebius  (ix,  28, 29),  and  in  the  Stromata  of  Clement 
of  Alexandria  (i,  23,  p.  414).  They  are  given  by  De- 
litzsch  in  his  Zur  Geschichte  der  judischen  Poisie 
(Leipsic,  1886),  p.  211-219.  The  best  edition  of  them, 
with  translation  and  notes,  is  by  Philippson  (Berlin, 
1830),  entitled  'EZvcttiKov  rov  rdv  'lovSa'tKuv  rpayi^ 
iiSiV  noinrov  i^ayurffi,  etc  See  Etberidge,  Introduc- 
tion to  HArew  Literature,  p.  114;  Edersheim,  History 
of  the  Jewish  Nation,  p.  563  sq. ;  Herzfeld,  Gesch,  des 
Volkes  Israel,  ii,  491, 517-519, 579  (Leipsic,  1868) ;  Fttrst, 
Bibl,  Jud,  i,  264;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v.; 
J()chcr,  Adlgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Esengatfli,  Gtoorge  (Armen.  Keore),  an  Arme- 
nian doctor,  was  bom  about  1338.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
the  celebrated  John  Orodnetsi,  and  a  friend  of  Gregory 
Dathevatsi.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  theologians 
of  his  century,  and  professor  in  a  monastery  near  Ezen- 
ga.  He  wrote,  Instnio^ions  how  to  Admsmtter  the  Sao- 
ramenfs  of  Marriage  and  Baj^ism  : — EaepUccriions  of 
the  Homilies  of  St.  Gregory  Natiamtm — A  Commentary 
on  the  i4/»oealKPJ«.'— 'fourteen  Sermons,  There  is  also 
attributed  to  him  a  Commentary  on  Isaiah,  All  these 
works  remain  in  MS.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GM- 
rak^B,Y, 


EsengatBl,  John  (Armen.  Eovan),  sumamcd  BA2s 
and  Tortoretsi,  the  last  of  the  classical  writers  and  fa- 
thers of  the  Armenian  Church,  studied  under  Parzer- 
petsi,  became  vastabed  (priest  and  doctor),  and  retired 
to  the  monastery  of  Torzor.  In  1281  he  travelled 
through  Armenia,  and  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusa- 
lem. On  his  return  he  was  made  patriarch  and  head 
of  the  school  of  Hromgla.  Soon  afier  be  retired  to  a 
monaster}'  on  Mt.  Sebonh,  and  wrote  his  Treatise  on 
Grammar,  In  1284  he  went  to  Tiflis,  and  gained  great 
celebrity  as  a  preacher.  He  died  in  1326,  leaving  nu- 
merous other  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Genirale,  s.  v. 

Eenik  (or  Eznag),  Gooiipatsi  (i.  e.  native  of 
Kolp),  a  theologian,  and  one  of  the  best  writers  of  Ar- 
menia, was  bom  in  897.  He  was  well  versed  in  the 
Syriac  and  Greek  languages,  so  that  his  masters,  the 
patriarchs  Isaac  and  Mesrob,  gave  him  a  mission  to 
Edessa  in  425,  then  to  Constantinople,  to  collect  and 
translate  into  Armenian  the  works  of  the  Church  fa- 
thers. Eznik  became  still  later  bishop  of  the  province 
of  Parcrevant  and  of  the  country  of  the  Arsharounikhi. 
In  449  he  attended  the  national  council  of  Ardachad, 
which  refused  to  embrace  the  religion  of  Zoroaster. 
Eznik  died  about  478,  leaving,  besides  some  homilies 
and  short  treatises,  a  work  entitled  The  Destruction  of 
False  Doctrines  (first  published  in  the  original  Arme- 
nian at  Smyrna,  in  1762;  and  in  a  better  form  in  the 
Collection  of  A  rmenian  Classics,  Venice,  1826 ;  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Vaillant  de  Percival,  Paris,  1888). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Genh-aU,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Ezra,  Abraham  ibn-.    See  Aben-Ezra. 

Ezra,  Moses  ibn-,  ben  Jacob,  a  Jewish  writer,  wu 
bom  about  1070,  and  died  about  1139.  He  is  consid- 
ered one  of  the  most  finished  of  Hebrew  poets,  but 
is  equally  celebrated  as  a  Talmudist  and  professor  of 
Greek  philosophy.  Although,  like  his  brother  poet^ 
he  excelled  in  sacred  song,  he  also  tuned  his  lyre  as  an 
inhabitant  of  the  West,  and  sang  at  times  of  lore,  bat 
more  often  in  praise  of  the  beauties  of  nature,  which  in 
later  times  was  even  acknowledged  by  Alexander  von 
Humboldt  {Cosmos,  iii,  p.  119),  who  praised  his  sublime 
description  of  natural  scenery.  His  works  are  remark- 
able not  only  fur  the  intrinsic  excellence  of  the  matter, 
but  also  for  the  purity,  sweetness,  and  SBSthetic  grace  of 
their  style.  His  selichoth,  or  penitential  hymns,  are 
greatly  esteemed  by  the  Jews,  who  give  to  Ibn-Ezn 
the  epithet  of  has-salach,  or  the  ^  selichoth  poet,"  par 
excellence.  He  wrote  hymns  for  festival  and  other 
occasions,  entiUed  D'^Stsnni  nintST,  in  the  Sephardim 
ritual  :~Z>tt0aM  B,  M,  ben-Ezra,  a  collection  of  poemi| 
lyrical,  occasioDal,  and  devotional  i-^Sefer  ha-^arshish, 
or  Sefer  Anak,  W^V3^T\t^  fa  or  pa9  6;  this  poem  is 
called  Tarshish,  from  the  number  of  its  stanzas — 1810: 
'SeferArugafhnab-bosem,tiia:in  na"^5  fa,  the  "Gar- 
den of  Spices,**  on  the  philosophy  of  religion,  after  the 
manner  of  Saadiah*s  Emunoth,  in  seven  cbaptera,  frag- 
ments of  which  have  been  published  by  Dukes,  after 
a  Hamburg  MS.  in  Zion  ii,  p.  117  (Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  1842,  1843) :  ~  7oitacAa,  nnsir,  a  penitential 
hymn,  reprinted  by  Asker,  in  his  Book  of  Life,  with 
an  English  translation  (Lond.  1849).  See  FQrst,  BibL 
Jud.  i,  257  sq. ;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario  Storioo  (Germ, 
tnnd.),  p.  11;  GrKtz,  Geschichte  der  Juden^  vi,  123 
sq. ;  Delitzsch,  Zur  Geschichte  der  jfid,  Poisie,  p.  45, 
168;  Jost,  Cesch.  d.  Juden.  u.  s.  SeJIoSt,  ii,  414;  Sachs, 
Rdigidse  Poisie  der  Juden,  p.  69  sq.,  276  sq.;  Zune, 
LiteraturgeschidUe  der  synag.  Poisie,  p.  202,  412,  586, 
614;  Synagogale  Poisie,  p.  21,  188,  228  sq.;  Kimchi, 
Liber  Badieum  (ed.  Biesenthal  and  Lebrecfat),  p.  xxzvi 
sq.;  KMmpf,  Nichtandalusisehe  Poisie  andiUusiseker 
Diehter^  p.  192-216;  Dukes,  Moses  ben-Esra  (Altona, 
1889) ;  Babbmische  Bimmadese,  pb  58.    (E  P.) 


FABER 


869 


FABRIGIUS 


P. 


Faber,  JBgjLdixiBf  a  Cannelite  moDk,  who  died  at 
Brussels  in  1 606,  is  the  author  of,  De  OrigiM  Reliffionmn : 
— De  Tettamento  Christ  «n  Cruce:  —  CommeiUarii  in 
EvangeUa^  Epistolas  Pauli,  lAbmm  Ruth  et  Job.  See> 
Ji>cher,  AUgememu  Gdehria^Leeikon^  s,  t.     (B.  P.) 

Faber,  Frederlok  'William,  D.D^  an  English 
Glergyman  and  hymn -writer,  was  bom  at  Calrerley, 
Yorkshire,  June  28,  1814.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
row and  the  UniTenity  of  Oxford,  where  he  became  a 
fellow  of  Univerrity  College  in  1887.  About  this  time 
he  gave  up  his  Calvinistic  views  and  became  an  en- 
tbnsiastic  admirer  and  follower  of  John  H.  Newman. 
In  1841  he  travelled  on  the  Continent,  and  on  his  re- 
tam  published  Sights  and  Thoughts  m  Foreign  Churek- 
€»  md  among  Foreign  Peoples^  a  work  of  great  merit. 
He  now  beoime  rector  of  Elton,  in  Huntingdonshire, 
bat  soon  proceeded  again  to  the  Continent  to  study  the 
methods  followed  by  the  Boman  Catholic  Church.  Re- 
taining to  Elton  he  devoted  himself  earnestly  to  his 
parish,  but  was  constrained  to  adopt  the  Romish  faith 
in  1845.  On  leaving  Elton  his  parishioners  sobbed  out^ 
'*  God  bless  you,  Mr.  Faber,  wherever  you  go."*  He 
founded  a  religious  community  at  Birmingham,  called 
Wilfridians,  after  the  name  Wilfrid,  which  Faber  as- 
sumed. The  community  was  ultimately  merged  in  the 
oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  of  which  father  Newman 
was  the  bead ;  and  in  1849  a  branch  of  the  oratory  was 
established  in  London,  over  which  Faber  presided  un- 
til his  death,  Sept.  26,  1863.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  although  it  is  mainly  as  a  hymn-writer  that  he 
will  be  known  in  the  future.  Among  his  finest  com- 
pontions  of  this  class  are,  The  Greatness  of  God;  The 
WiU  of  God;  The  EUmal  Father;  The  God  of  my 
CkHdhood;  The  Pilgrims  of  the  Night;  The  Shadow 
of  the  RocL  Besides  the  work  above  mentioneil,  he 
pablished,  previous  to  his  conversion  to  Romanism, 
Tracts  on  the  Church  and  the  Prager-Book  (1839)  :—A 
Sermon  on  Education  (1840)  :^The  Cherweil  Water-LUg 
ami  other  Poems  (1840)  i^The  Stgrian  Lake,  etc.  (1842) : 
— Sir  Lancelot^  a  poem  (1844):  —  The  Rosary,  etc. 
(1845),  and  several  other  papers.  After  his  conversion 
he  published.  Catholic  Hynms: — Essay  on  Beatification 
and  Canoniiation  {ISiS):— The  Spirit  and  Genius  of 
St,  PhU^  Neri  (1850)  i^CathoUc  Home  Missions  ( 1851 ) : 
^AU far  Jesus  (ISU) -.^Growth  in  Holiness  (1855):- 
The  Blessed  Sacrament  (1856):— rA«  Creator  and  the 
Creature  {lSb7):r-The  Foot  of  the  Cross,  or  Sorrows 
of  Mary  (1858)  .—Spiritual  Conferences  (1859),  and 
oCber  woikSb  The  only  complete  edition  of  his  Hymns 
is  the  one  published  by  Richardson  &  Son  in  1861  (2d 
cd.  1871).  His  Notes  on  Doctrinal  and  Spiritual  Sub- 
ject* were  edited  by  father  Bowden,  and  issued  after 
Faber's  death.  See  his  L\fe  and  Letters,  by  father 
Bowden;  Earfy  Life,  by  his  brother;  Encydop,  Brit, 
9th  ed.a.v. 

Faber,  G^eorg,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Ufl^heim,  in  Franoonia,  in  1579,  and  studied  at  Wit^ 
tenberg.  In  1606  he  was  preacher  at  Lichrenau,  in 
1616  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  died,  July  16, 1634.  He 
is  the  author  of,  Institutiones  Grammatiae  Hebraice 
(Kftiemberg,  1626)  i  —  Ledionis  Hebr,  Institutio  (Ans- 
psch,  1608).  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrten-Lexi- 
konj  8.  v.;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  265;  Steinschueider, 
BibUogr,  Handbuch,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Faber,  Johann  OotUieb,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Stuttgart,  March  8, 1717. 
He  studied  at  Tubingen,  and  was  appointed  professor 
ftbere  in  1748.  In  1767  he  was  made  member  of  con- 
sifltoiy  and  abbot  of  Alpiisbach.  He  died  at  Stuttgart, 
Maich  18, 1779,  leaving,  De  NaiuraUsmo  Morali  (Ttt- 
bingcn,  1752)  i—rDe  A  nima  Legum  (ibid.)  '.—De  Principe 
Ckriitiam  (ibid«  1753) :  — Z>e  Miraeulis  Christi  (ibid. 

XII.— A  A 


1764):  — Jfdelema  PhUosophiam  Obid.  1765):— /)« 
Diversis  Fontibus  Tolerantim  (ibid.  1769)  i—Theologia 
Dogmatica  (Stuttgart,  1780).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehr- 
ten  Theologen  Deutsehlands,  i,  892  sq. ;  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theoL Lit,  i,  685 ;  J5cher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lex' 
ikon,  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Faber,  MatthiaB,  a  Jesuit,  was  bom  Feb.  24, 1587, 
at  AltomQnster,  in  Bavaria.  In  1607  he  entered  the 
German  College  at  Rome,  received  holy  orders  there, 
and  retumed  to  Germany  in  1611.  In  1687  he  went 
to  Vienna  and  joined  the  Jesuits,  and  died  at  Tjrmaa, 
in  Hungary,  in  1658*  He  is  the  author  of  a  homilet- 
ical  work  entitled,  Concionum  Opus  Tripartitum,  which 
has  often  been  published  (latest  ed.  Ratisbon,  1879). 
Besides  he  wrote,  Rerum  Natura  Descriptio  (DiUin- 
gen,  1607).  See  Jocher,  A  llgemeines  Gelehrtei^Leadhon, 
s.  V. ;  Liierarischer  Handweiser  fUr  das  KathcUscks 
Deutschkmd,  1880,  No.  266.     (a  P.) 

Faber,  Philip,  a  Franciscan,  and  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Padua,  where  he  died,  Aug.  28, 1680,  is  the  au- 
thor of,  De  Primatu  Petri  et  PonHficis  Romani: — De 
Censuris  Ecdesiasticis : — De  PradestinaOone.  See  J5- 
cher,  A  llgemeines  G^dkrten-Leanhon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Hand" 
bueh  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  460.     (B.  P.) 

Fabiola,  a  Roman  lady  of  an  illustrious  family. 
Being  married  fint  to  a  man  who  became  lost  in  de- 
bauchery, she  divorced  herself  from  him,  and  being 
then  but  little  acquainted  with  the  commands  of  the 
gospel,  she  married  a  second  husband  of  the  same  sort 
as  the  first  For  this  act  she  was  excluded  from  the 
communion  of  the  Church,  to  which  she  eventually  re- 
tumed, after  public  penitence,  with  extreme  humility. 
She  spent  all  her  fortune  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and 
for  the  establishment  of  a  large  hospital  at  Rome.  In 
A.D.  395  she  went  to  Palestine,  and  visited  Jerome  at 
Bethlehem.  The  invasion  of  the  Huns  into  Palestine 
forced  her  to  leave  that  country,  and  she  returned  to 
Italy,  where  she  continued  to  consecrate  her  life  to  con- 
tinual exercises  of  piety  and  charity.  Fabiola  died 
Dec  29, 899.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirak,  s.  v. ; 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  J^iog,  s.  v. 

Fabre,  Jean,  a  French  preacher,  was  bom  at  Tara^ 
con,  in  Provence,  about  1370.  He  entered  the  order  of 
the  Carmelite  friars  in  1890,  and  preached  with  success 
in  divers  churches  in  Provence.  Pope  Martin  V  ap- 
pointed him  archbishop  of  Cagliari  in  1423.  Fabre 
governed  his  diocese  for  seventeen  years.  Having  been 
made  patriarch  of  Cnsarea,  he  resigned  his  archiepisoo- 
pacy,  and  ended  his  days  in  retirement  about  the  year 
1442.  His  sermons  have  been  collected  under  the  title 
of  HomiluB  Sacra,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale, 
s.  V. 

Fabzioiue,  Johannes  (1),  a  German  theologian, 
was  bom  at  NOremberg  in  1560,  and  was  successively 
instractor  and  pastor  there  for  forty-eight  years,  being 
enthusiastically  attached  to  the  doctrines  of  Melaneh- 
thon.  He  died  in  1636,  leaving  De  Dignitate  ConfugU 
(1 592).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s,  y, 

Fabzlciua,  Johannes  (2),  son  of  the  preceding, 
a  German  theolc^ian,  was  bom  at  NOremberg,  March 
31, 1616.  He  studied  at  Jena,  Leipsic,  Wittenberg,  and 
finally  at  Altorf,  where  he  became  professor  of  theolo- 
gy. In  1649  he  was  appointed  preacher  in  his  native 
city,  and  died  there  about  1690.  For  his  works,  which 
are  not  now  of  much  interest,  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Fabzicius,  Theodoslns,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Nordhausen,  Aug.  11,  1560. 
He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1584  deacon  there, 
and  in  1586  superintendent  at  Herzberg.  He  died  at 
Gdttingen,  Aug.  7, 1597,  leaving  Comprndium  Doctrines 


FABRONICS 


370 


FAIRCHILD 


ChriiliantB: — Harmoma  PasrionU  et  Resurreetiomi 
Christi:  —  Loci  Communes  ex  Scriptis  Lvtheri,  See 
Jdcher,  A  ttgemeines  Gelehrien-Lexikony  8.  v. ;  Fttrat^  Bibl, 
Jud.  i,  265.     (B.  P.) 

Fabronlus,  Hebxahx,  a  Refonned  theologian  of 
the  17tb  centur}',  is  the  aathor  of  a  didactic  poem  en* 
titled,  Christiades,  i.  e.  Israelis  in  Terram  SanOam  /»- 
iroducUo  per  Mosen,  tt  m  Cahim  per  Jesum  Christum : — 
Concordia  LutkeremO'Caivimstica: — Weissagung  Dan" 
iels  von  Verwiistung  der  Stadi  Jerusalem,  See  Jdcberi 
AUgemeines  Gelehrten-LexikoHj  b.  v.  ;  Fttnt,  Bibl,  Jud.  i, 
266.     (RP.) 

FaoiUdeSi  Victorin  Gottfried,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian, was  bom  in  1777  at  Mittweida,  in  Saxony. 
He  was  for  aome  time  pastor  at  Rochlttz,  in  Bohemia, 
and  from  1885  superintendent  at  Oachatz,  where  he 
died, Dec. 81, 1841.  l[%  wmte, De  t if  xatpiag  Homu 
letictB  Ohservatione  (Leipttc,  1830),  and  also  published  a 
nnmber  of  sermons.  See  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol.  i,  848; 
Winer,  Handbueh  der  theoL  Lit,  ii,  65, 173, 174, 17^  177. 
(B.P.) 

Faculty  Court,  a  court  of  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terboiy,  which  grants  dispensations  to  many,  to  eat 
flesh  on  days  prohibited,  to  hold  two  or  more  benefices, 
etc.  The  officer  of  this  court  is  called  the  master  of 
faculties.    See  Facitltt. 

Faea,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  at  Liineburg,  Feb.  11, 1646.  In  1675  he  was 
pastor  at  Steigerberg,  in  the  county  of  Hoya,  in  1682  at 
Minden,  in  1687  at  Stade,  and  died  there  in  1712.  He 
wrote,  De  Julnlteis  Pontfficum  Romanorum : — Exerdta* 
tio  in  Cartesii  Meditc^nes: — Anaiome  Bulla  JubHam 
Universalis  Atmi  1700: — Expositio  in  Epistolam  ad 
Pkilemonem,  See  Jocher,  A  ttgemeines  GeUhrteOf-Ijexi- 
hmf^y,\WvaieT^  Handbueh  da- theolLitA,^!,    (a P.) 

Fagau,  Luke,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  translated 
from  the  diocese  of  Mcath  to  the  see  of  Dublin  in  1729. 
In  1788,  probably  the  last  of  Dr.  Pagan's  life,  the  act 
was  passed  (7  Geo.  II,  c.  6)  whereby  converts  from  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith,  whose  wives  were  of  that  persua- 
sion, or  whose  chUdren  were  educated  in  it,  were  pro- 
hibited, under  severe  penalties,  from  exercising  the  of- 
fice of  justices  of  the  peace.  This  prelate  did  not  in  any 
way  distinguish  himself.  See.D^Alton,  Memoirs  of  the 
A  hps,  of  Dublin^  p.  466. 

Fage,  DuRAMD,  one  of  the  French  lUuminati  (q.  v.), 
was  bom  at  Aubais,  in  Langnedoc,  in  1681.  After  the 
suppression  of  the  Camisards  in  1705,  he  submitted  to 
the  Church  authorities,  and  was  taken  across  the  fron- 
tier to  Germany,  whence  he  passed  to  Holland,  and  in 
1706  went  to  London.  He  died,  probably,  in  England 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  leaving  a  work 
entitled  Thidire  Sacri  des  Civennes  (Lond.  1707, 12mo) ; 
reprinted  under  the  title  Les  Prophktes  Protestants  (Par- 
is, 1847, 8vo). 

Fahlorantz,  Christian  Erik,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Sweden,  was  bom  Au^.  80, 1790.  In  1829  he  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Upsala;  in  1849  was  elevated 
to  the  episcopal  see  at  Westerns,  and  died  Aug.  6, 1866. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Ecklesiastih'Tidskrift^ 
and  published  a  collection  of  his  writings  (Orebro,  1868- 
66, 7  vols.).    (B.  P.) 

Faigaux,  pRANgois  Louis,  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Yverdun,  in  Beme,  in  1707.  He 
studied  at  Basle,  where  he  was  also  preacher  for  some 
time.  In  1751  he  was  called  as  French  preacher  to 
Caasel,  where  he  died,  Oct.  20  the  same  year,  leaving, 
JRdigion  du  Cceur  (Rotterdam,  1736) : — Sermons  Diverses 
(Hague,  1740): — Adversus  DHaUonem  Conversionis 
(Marburg,  1743):— Ze«  Paroles  de  la  Vie  EtemeUe 
(Schwabach,  1743;  Cassel,  1752):— ^ur  la  Folie  de 
VAthHsme  (Schwabach,  1749) :— Le  PetU  Catkhisme  de 
ffeideUterg  (ibid.  1752).  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  G^ 
Ifi^rfm-Lexikoni  s.  v»     (B,  P.) 

Faillon,  Hmhxl  ^tikkmk,  a  French  theological 


and  historical  writer,  was  bom  at  Taiascon  in  1799. 
He  became  a  Sulpidan  of  Paris,  and  was  sent  to  Mont- 
real in  1854  as  visitor  of  the  houses  of  that  congregation 
in  America.  He  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  25, 1870.  His  lit- 
erary work  was  confined  chiefly  to  subjects  connected 
with  the  history  of  Canada.  His  publications  indnde 
a  Life  of  Margaret  Bourgeogs,  foundress  of  the  Congre- 
gation Sisters  ( 1852 )  »—£{/«  of  Madame  d'Youfnlk^ 
foundress  of  the  Gray  Sisters  (eod.)  ^-Ljfe  of  the  Feno 
erable  Mr,  Olier  (1858):— Lt/c  of  Mile,  Maure,  found- 
ress of  the  H6tel  Dieu  (1854) :— £t/e  of  MIU,  le  Per, 
the  recluse  (1860) : — and  a  veiy  extended  History  of  the 
French  Colony  in  Canada  (1865-66,  8  vols.  4to),  only  a 
small  part  of  his  plan. 

Falnohe,  an  Irish  virgin  saint,  commemorated  Jan. 
1,  was  sister  of  St  Ennea,  of  noble  lineage,  and  greatly 
aided  him  in  his  religious  labors.  See  Smitk,  Diet  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.  ▼. 

Fairbaim,  Patrick,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  at  Halyburton,  Berwickshire,  Scot- 
land, Jan.  28, 1805.  He  was  educated  in  the  school  at 
Greenlaw,  and  sent  to  College  at  Edinburgh ;  licensed 
to  preach  in  1826;  in  1880  went  to  the  Orkney  Islands 
with  a  family  who  had  large  possessions  there,  and  was 
shortly  after  ordained  pastor  of  the  island  parish  of 
North  Ronaldshay,  where  he  labored  six  years.  While 
there  he  translated  Steiger  on  1  Peter,  for  Clark's  TVbs- 
ological  Library ^  and  began  the  study  of  typology.  In 
1837  he  removed  to  Glasgow,  where  for  three  yean  he 
was  pastor  of  one  of  the  churches  erected  in  connection 
with  the  church-building  scheme  of  Dr.  Chalmers;  in 
1840  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  parish  of  Saltou, 
East  Lothian,  where  he  was  when  the  disrtiption  of  the 
Scottish  Church  occurred,  and  he  continued  in  the  Free 
Church  there  until  1852,  when  he  was  appointed  firet  as- 
sistant professor,  and  shortly  after  professor  of  divinity 
in  the  Free  Ch urch  College  at  Aberdeen.  In  1856  he  was 
transferred  to  Glasgow,  being  the  first  professor  appoint- 
ed to  the  Free  Church  Theological  College,  and  the  next 
year  was  elected  principal  of  the  same.  In  1867  he  was 
appointed  a  delegate  from  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
to  visit  the  churches  in  America.  He  died  suddenly  at 
Glasgow,  Aug.  6,  1874.  Dr.  Fairbaim^s  literary  pro- 
ductions were  numerous.  Besides  editing  the  Imperial 
Bible  Dictionary  (2  vols.  8vo),  the  following  may  be  not- 
ed :  An  Exposition  of  (he  First  Epistle  of  St,  Peter  (1886, 
2  vols.  12mo)  '.—Typology  of  Scripture  (Edinb.  1845-47, 
2  vols.  8vo;  Phila.  1853,  ^\'o):—Conwtentary  on  the 
Psalms,  translated  from  Hengstenberg  (1845-48, 8  vols. 
8vo)  I'-Jonah ;  His  Life,  Character,  and  Mission  (1849, 
12mo)  i—Etekiel  and  the  Book  of  his  Prophecy  (1851, 
8vo)  :—The  Revelation  of  St,  John,  translated  from  Heng- 
stenberg (Edinb.  1851,  8  vols.  8vo) :— PropA«y,  etc. 
(1856,  8vo)  :—Hermeneutical  Manual  (1858,  8vo):— 
Pastoral  Epistles  (1874)  i-^Pastoral  Theology  (posthu- 
mous, 1875) :— Law  is  Scripture  (1868).  See  Fasti  Ee- 
des,  Scoticana,  i,  866 ;  ii,  44 ;  iii,  41 1.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Falrchild,  Ashbel  Green,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Pre»- 
byteriau  minister,  was  bora  at  Hanover,  N.  J.,  May  1, 
1795,  and  was  piously  trained  by  a  widowed  mother.  At 
the  age  of  thirteen  he  commenced  his  classical  studies  at 
Horrbtown ;  in  November,  1812,  entered  the  senior  class 
in  Princeton  College,  and  graduated  in  September,  1818. 
In  January,  1814,  he  made  a  public  profession  of  relig- 
ion, and  united  with  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Haiw 
over;  and  in  June  of  the  sSme  year  entered  the  Theo- 
logical Seminar^'  at  Princeton.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Jersey  in  April,  1816, 
and  in  September  following  he  left  the  seminary  and 
entered  upon  a  missionary  tour  of  six  months  in  North 
Carolina,  as  assistant  to  Sev.  Dr.  Hall.  Returning 
home  in  April,  1817,  he  spent  two  months  in  a  mission- 
ary field  in  the  north-westem  part  of  his  native  8tat«. 
In  September  of  the  same  year  he  entered  upon  ai^other 
missionary  tour,  nndtfr  the  direction  of  the  Western 
Missionary  Society,  spcntfing  three  months  on  the 


FAIRPOWL 


371 


FAITH-CURE 


IMS  of  tlie  Monongaheb,  and  then  three  months  on  the 
upper  brtnches  of  the  Allegheny.  He  was  taken  under 
the  care  of  the  Preabyterr  of  Redatone,  April  21,  1818, 
and  was  appointed  stated  supply  to  the  congregation  of 
George's  Creek  for  half  his  time ;  on  July  1  following 
was  ordained  as  an  evangelist  in  Pittsburgh ;  July  2, 
1822,  installed  pastor  of  the  churches  of  George's  Creek, 
Morgantown,  and  Greenaborough,  Va.,  and  for  the  first 
three  years  was  obliged  to  make  up  the  deficiency  in 
his  salary  by  teaching;  in  April,  1827,  he  was  installed 
pastor  of  the  Tent  Church,  Pa.,  where  he  served  for 
thirty-six  yearsi  He  died  there,  June  80, 1864.  In 
Dr.  Fairchtld  the  dignity  and  the  simplicity  of  the  Goa> 
pel  ministry  were  most  beautifully  combined  and  exem* 
plified.  Bcaidea  frequent  contributions  to  the  weekly 
religbtis  press,  he  published  The  Great  Supper : — 8cnpt- 
ttn  Baptitm : — Unpopular  Doctrimes : — and  What  Pret- 
hjfteriaiu  BeUeve,  all  iasued  by  the  Presbyterian  Board 
of  Publication.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Prmodon  TheoL  Sem, 
1881,  p.  16 ;  Nevin,  PreA.  Ene^dop,  s.  v.     (U.  O.  R.) 

Fairfowl  (or  Fairfnll),  Akdrew,  a  Scotch  prel- 
ate, was  bom  at  Dunfermline,  Dec.  14, 1606 ;  graduated 
froQ  the  UniTersity  of  St.  Andrews  in  1623 ;  early  be- 
oune  chaplain  to  the  earl  of  Rothes;  minister  at  Leslie 
Id  16S2;  afterwards  at  North  Leith,  and  at  Dunse  in 
1636.  He  was  preferred  to  the  see  of  Glasgow,  Nov. 
14, 1661,  by  king  Charles  II,  and  was  consecrated  in 
June,  1662.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  Nov.  2, 1663.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bithopt,  p.  265 ;  Faiti  Ecdet,  ScotieanaSj 
ii,S78,6i9. 

Fairlle  (or  Fairly),  Jamks,  A.M.,  a  Scotch  cler- 
gyman, was  promoted  from  regent  in  the  Edinburgh 
Uoirersity ;  adnaitted  to  the  living  at  South  Leith  in 
1625;  transferred  to  the  professorship  of  divinity  in 
EdinbuTgh  University  in  1629;  presented  to  the  col- 
legiate or  second  charge,  Greyfriars  Church,  Edinburgh, 
in  1630;  resigned  July  28, 1637,  having  been  elected 
bishop  of  Argyll,  but  was  deposed  by  the  assembly  in 
1638.  He  failed  in  his  suit  to  obtain  the  living  of 
Largo  and  other  parishes,  was  recommended  by  the 
Commission  of  Aaaembly,  and  accepted  in  March,  1644, 
as  minister  at  Laaswade,  and  was  presented  to  that  liv- 
ing by  the  king  iu  1645.  He  died  in  February,  1658, 
aged  about  aeventy  years.  He  published  7%«  Jfuaes* 
WdeowUf  two  poems.  See  Fasti  Eccles,  SootioaneSf  i, 
45, 105, 289. 

Fairy  (variously  derived  from  the  Celtic, /ccer,  **  to 
charm  f*  Old  Engli8h,y<Te,  **  a  companion ;"  from ybran, 
'^to  go;"  Persian,  perif  Anh./€ri;  but  probably  rath- 
er from  the  LskU/atum,  through  the  mediaeval  /a- 
tare^ "  to  enchant ;"  the  French  /aer,  thence  faerity 
**illaBion^,  an  illusory  or  imaginary  being,  properly 
female,  of  supernatural  but  limited  power,  common  to 
the  popular  belief  of  most  European  countries.  The 
fag  of  romance  lesembka  the  Greek  wfrnph^  generally 
npreseoted  as  a  damsel  of  almost  angelic  loveliness, 
who  seduced  knights  into  enchanted  isles  and  palaces. 
Fairy-land  was  supposed  to  be  sometimes  underground, 
at  others  amid  wildernesses,  or  even  in  the  ocean. 
The  English  sprite^  or  male  fair>%  Shakespeare's  Puck^ 
called  "  Bobin  GoodfeUow,**  corresponds  to  the  German 
"Knecht  Rnprecht,"  the  Scotch  "brownie,"  and  the 
Freddy  « esprit  folet,"  or  << gobelin"  (goblin),  and  the 
Cornish  "  inxy."    See  Elf. 

Everything  known  of  fairies  in  the  way  of  sayings 
and  fkbles  came  from  the  Romance  people.  There  were 
at  first  only  three  of  theae  beings,  but  soon  their  number 
swelled  to  seven,  and  later  to  thirteen.  Since  their  num- 
ber waa  seven,  these  are  six  good  and  one  evil,  likewise 
later  twelve  good,  the  thirteenth  evil  This,  probably,  is 
a  lesolt  of  the  influence  of  Chriatianity,  which  sought  to 
bring  the  fairies,  as  heathen  deities,  therefore  spirits  of 
<larknc88,  into  disrepute,  which,  however,  could  not  be 
•ccoroplished  at  once.  They  are  spoken  of  as  super- 
homao,  long-li  ved  female  beings,  sometimes  good,  some- 
times bad ;  the  former  adorned  with  all  the  charms  of  | 


body  and  spirit,  exceedingly  beautiful  and  young,  per- 
fect mistresses  of  all  female  arts,  and  ever  ready  to  help 
the  down-trodden,  to  lead  the  lost  in  the  right  path,  by 
their  gift  of  sorcery  to  make  the  impossible  possible, 
and  to  use  this  power  as  becomes  the  perfect  will  of  a 
divine  being.  The  evil  fairies  are  the  oppoaite,  but 
have  no  power  to  undo  the  work  of  other  similar  beings. 
In  the  French  Pyrenees  it  is  believed  that  if  flax  be 
laid  on  the  threahold  of  a  fairy  grotto,  they  imme- 
diately change  it  into  the  finest  thread.  On  New 
Year's  day  the  fairies  visit  the  houses  whose  inmates 
believe  in  them,  and  bring  fortune  in  their  right  hand 
and  mbfortune  in  their  left.  In  a  room  a  table  is 
spread  for  them,  a  white  cloth  on  it,  a  loaf  of  bread, 
with  a  knife,  a  white  shell  full  of  water  or  wine,  and  a 
candle.  The  windows  and  doors  are  then  thrown  open, 
and  he  who  ahows  the  greatest  hospitality  may  hope 
for  a  rich  han^est,  but  be  who  neglects  this  duty  may 
fear  the  greatest  disaatera.  On  New  Year's  morning 
the  family  surround  the  tabl^  the  father  breaks  the 
bread  and  diatribntes  it,  whereupon  it  ia  eaten  as  break- 
fast; then  all  wish  each  other  a  happy  New  Year.  In 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland  it  is  thought  dangerous  to 
speak  out  the  name  of  a  fairy  on  the  mountains  which 
they  inhabit.  The  fairies  are  able  aasistanta  at  births; 
therefore  they  are  often  taken  as  god-parents,  and  a 
place  is  reserved  for  them  at  the  table.  In  Franche- 
Comt4  there  is  known  a  Fie  A  rie,  who  appears  at  country 
festivals  during  the  harvesting  season,  and  rewards  the 
diligent  reapers ;  she  drops  fruit  from  the  trees  for  good 
children,  and  during  the  Christmaa  season  she  distrib- 
utes nuts  and  cake,  similar  to  the  German  Frau  Holda. 
Again,  the  fairies  appear  as  giant  -  maidens,  carrying 
huge  rocks  on  their  heads  and  in  their  aprons,  while 
with  the  other  hand  they  turn  the  ^tindle.  On  Sat- 
urdays the  power  of  the  fairies  leaves  them ;  they  there- 
fore take  all  kinds  of  forms  on  this  day,  and  try  to  elude 
the  gaze  of  all  eyes.  They  can  hide  in  a  tree,  in  a 
horse,  in  a  sword,  in  a  mantle,  and  this  is  the  origin  of 
the  belief  that  such  things  are  ''gefeyt,"  that  is,  pos- 
sessed of  a  fairy. 

For  the  literature  of  the  subject  see  Shakespeare, 
Midsummer ' XiffhCs  Dream;  Perrault,  Conies  de  ma 
Mere  VOye  (1697) ;  Keightly,  Fairy  Mythology  (Lond. 
1860) ;  and  Scott's  writings. 

Faith-oore,  a  popular  name  for  certain  sudden 
and  remarkable  cases  of  recovery  in  recent  times,  claimed 
to  have  been  effected  by  the  power  of  faith  in  God  alone, 
without  the  use  of  any  medicine  or  physical  remedy. 
We  cite  a  few  notable  cases  from  the  public  prints : 

"Nsw  Havxn,  Coxn.,  Uareh  27.— A  remarkable  faith* 
en  re  Is  reported  ftt>m  the  village  of  Noank.  Mra.  Fan- 
nie S.  Spencer,  the  wife  of  ex-Representative  John  R. 
Spencer,  haa  for  many  years  been  a  victim  of  the  onfum 
habit  and  asthma.  Her  family  is  one  of  the  wealtniest 
and  most  reputable  in  eastern  Connecticut.  She  is  now 
ntxty-flve  years  old.  Over  forty  years  ago  she  en  fleered 
from  an  attack  of  ill-health,  and  her  physician  prescribed 
opium.  She  is  of  a  nervons  temperament  The  use  of 
the  dmg  as  a  medicine  developed  an  appetite  for  it,  to 
which  sue  ^ve  wny.  She  was  also  a  great  snnff-taker, 
and  In  addition  there  was  the  nsthmatic  tronble  which 
the  drag  wns  used  to  relieve.  All  the  local  doctors  agreed 
that  an  opinm  habit  of  forty  years'  standing  was  an  in« 
lucnrable  disease.  One  day  abont  a  week  ago  two  or 
three  of  Mrs.  Spencer's  friends  met  at  her  residence,  and 
a  season  of  prayer  wns  determined  npon.  Prayen  were 
ofllered  and  continued  with  earnestness  by  those  present 
for  sums  time.  It  was  daring  this  period  that  Mrs.  Spen- 
cer says  she  experienced  a  peculiar  sensation  of  mind  and 
body  nniike  anything  she  had  ever  felt  before.  She  calls 
it  the  *  Blessings  of  the  Holy  Spirit'  From  that  moment 
she  dates  her  complete  care,  and  she  and  her  friends  de- 
clare she  has  not  since  touched  opinm  nor  sunfl',  nor  has 
she  felt  any  desire  for  them,  and  she  has  been  entirely 
tree  from  the  asthmatlcal  trouble."— A.  Y.  TimeSt  March 
S8,1884. 

"  Clkvki.ani>,  June  S9.  —  A  strange  caae  of  faith -cnra 
came  to  light  here  to-day.  It  Is  that  of  Miss  Rebecca 
Kerby,  who  has  been  on  an  Invalid's  bed  forty  years,  in 
n  farm-house  lust  oat  of  Chardon,  a  small  town  near  here. 
During  that  time  she  has  been  on  her  feet  bnt  twice,  and 
then  only  at  the  expense  of  great  snfl'ering.  For  twenty- 
eight  years  she  has  not  sat  up,  and  yet  it  is  told  of  her 


FAITH-CURE 


372 


FAITHCURE 


that  OD  Monday,  after  prayer  and  an  ezerciae  of  faith, 
she  arose  from  her  bed,  sat  in  a  chair  for  an  hoar,  and 
waa  able  to  walk  once  acroaa  the  room."— TA«  TrUntne 
(N.Y.),Jaly  1.1884. 

"Mra.  Emily  J.  Wimpy,  wife  of  John  A.  Wlmpr,  a  resi- 
dent of  the  village  of  Norcrosa,  twenty  miles  ttom  the 
city  of  Atlanta.  Ga.,  who  had  not  been  able  to  walk  npon 
the  ground  for  twenty-two  years  in  consequence  of  ex- 
treme physical  weakness  and  suifering,  was  enabled  to 
rise  and  walk  and  go  about  and  do  as  others  do  without 
any  assistance,  being  restored  to  her  former  state  of  good 
health.  This  was  done  through  the  faith  that  God  was 
able  and  would  heal  her  by  divine  power.  The  fact  is 
attested  and  reported  through  the  press  by  Rev.  W.  A. 
Parks,  a  presiding  elder  of  the  North  Georgia  Conference 
of  the  M.  B.  Church  Sonth.  who  was  present  and  wit- 
nessed it^'— 2%«  Way  cf  Holinemj  quoted  in  The  Law  and 
Ooipel,  Paris,  111.,  December,  18S4. 

Many  similar  instances  might  easily  be  collected.  In 
fact,  there  is  a  regular  hospiul,  conducted  by  Dr.  Cullis, 
of  Boston,  where  patients  of  nearly  all  aoru  repair  for 
healing  by  means  of  simple  prayer  and  faith,  with  no 
other  outward  sign  than  mere  touch.*    Professions  of  a 

•  The  institution  referred  to  in  "  The  Fnith-Cure  House," 
which  *B  part  of  a  system  ot  Fai/h-Wvrk^  established  by 
Charles  Cullis.  M.D.,  at  Grove  Hall,  Boston  Highlands,  in 
1864, and  now Includingln  addition  (nccording  to  the  19th 
Anniud Rtport,  1883),  "The  Consumptives'  Home,  with  its 
accommodation  for  eighty  patients :  the  Spinal  Cottage, 
with  its  fonr  incnrab^  cases  of  spinal  disease ;  two  Or- 
phans' Homes,  with  their  twenty-nine  children ;  the  Dea- 
conesses' Home,  for  workers :  Orove-Hnll  Church  and  the 
Little  Chapel  for  the  Dead;*'  besides  the  "  Willard  Tract 
Repository  and  Paith-Tralning  College,"  in  the  city  of 
Boston,  branches  In  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Caufor- 
nla,  a  Cancer  Home  at  Walpole,  Mass.,  a  college  nt  Boyd- 
ton.  Vs.,  for  colored  people,  and  a  mission  in  India. 
The  whole  involved  an  expenditure  for  that  year  of 
$87,868.91.  and  for  the  nineteen  years,  $589,770.86 :  entire- 
ly raised  by  voluntary  contributions,  withont  personal 
solicitation.  The  Faith -Cure  Honse  was  dedicated  In 
1882,  after  an  expendltnre  of  $4,803.77,  raised  in  a  similar 
manner.  None  of  these  institutions  have  any  permanent 
fund  or  resonrces  except  the  f^ee-wlU  offerines  of  friends 
from  time  to  time.  Many  remarkable  cures,  it  Is  claimed, 
have  been  effected  through  these  Instrnmentalities— "  can- 
cers, tnmors.  paralysis,  spinal  diseases,  consumption, 
chronic  rheumatism  '*  (see  tne  coses  In  Dr.  Cnllis's  two  lit- 
tle volumes,  entitled  FaUh^Curea^  published  In  1879  and 
1881  at  his  Repository):  but  they  require  carefiil  sifting  in 
the  light  of  medical  science  before  they  can  properly  be 
adduced  to  show  any  direct  or  pretematurnl  divine  Inter- 
ference. It  is  bnt  Jnst  to  say  that  this  last  assertion  Is 
scarcely  made  in  Its  l>old  or  fnll  form  by  the  advocates 
of  the  system ;  although  their  language,  at  least  In  the 
popular  Impression,  seems  to  imply  such  a  view.  Of  the 
Dumerons  cases  recited  in  these  small  volnmw  no  scien- 
tific or  exact  statement  Is  made,  and  In  most  instances 
the  real  nature  of  the  disease  is  not  disclosed  at  all,  or 
very  vaguely.  A  few  are  apparently  examples  of  Incipi- 
ent consumption,  cancer,  or  other  dangerons  and  violent 
maladies.  There  are  some  of  affections  of  the  eyes,  ears, 
and  other  special  organs :  but  the  symptoms  are  equally 
indefinite.  Most  are  nervous  disorders.  Failures  are  not 
reported.  The  whole  narrative,  except  In  its  pious  senti- 
ment, reads  very  much  like  the  popular  advertisements 
of  cures  by  patent  medicines.  In  nearly  every  example 
it  is  easy  to  trace  the  heneflcial  influence  of  hope  npon 
the  nervous  system  of  the  patient,  os  the  probable  roniu- 
sprlng  of  the  recoverv.  That  devout  gratitude  to  God 
snould  be  experienced  by  the  subjects  of  these  changes 
was  certainly  proper  and  natural ;  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  they  were  correct  in  their  opinion  as  to  the  partlcn- 
lar  channel  or  medinm  of  the  cure.  There  Is  nothing  de- 
cidedly preternatural  or  suoematural  about  one  of  them. 
Nearly  every  physician  of  extensive  practice  has  wit- 
noBsed  equnlly  remarkable  restorations  in  which  no  dis- 
tinctively divine  clolm  was  set  np.  Nevertheless  the  facts 
are  doubtless  stated  by  Dr.  Cullis  with  substantial  truth, 
and  if  invalids  may  be  cured  in  that  way.  It  is  certainly  a 
very  convenient  and  economical  metnod  of  proctice. 
There  have  been  some  other  Institutions  In  this  C4)untry, 
however,  that  have  attempted  to  imitate  his  plan,  so  far 
at  least  as  to  discard  medical  treatment;  but  they  have 
been  such  wofnl  failures  that  the  civil  law  has  been  in- 
voked in  order  to  s»ive  their  victims  flrom  death  by  crim- 
inal neglect  Providence  commonly  blesses  only  Jiidl- 
cioas  physical  means  to  beneficial  physical  resnlts. 

There  are  several  similar  establishments  In  Rurope,  the 
most  noted  of  which  are  one  at  Milnnedorf,  near  Zurich, 
in  Switzerland,  established  by  Dorothea  Trudel,  and  since 
her  death,  in  1868,  carried  on  oy  Samuel  Teller,  and  one  at 
Bad  Boll,  in  W&rtemberg,  Germany,  established  by  a  Lu- 
theran clergyman,  and  since  his  death  carried  on  by  his 
M>ns.  These  are  Christian  retreats  for  a  temporary  so- 
journ of  patients  laboring  under  varions  diseases  of  body 
or  mind,  at  a  nominal  charge  for  board,  or,  in  the  case  or 


like  ability  are  pnt  forth  by  several  religions  bodies,  es- 
pecially what  is  known  as  the  "Irvingite,"  or  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church  (q.  v.). 

With  regard  to  all  these  statementa  we  have  to  re- 
mark : 

1.  It  b  not  impoaaible  nor  incredible  that  miracles 
should  take  place  in  modem  times,  provided  that  sntt- 
able  occasions  of  necessity  should  arise.  God  is  un> 
doubtedly  as  able  to  effect  them  now  as  anciently.  The 
only  question  is  one  of  fact;  and  that  is  further  limited 
to  this  inquiry :  Do  these  phenomena  take  place  tbrongh 
natural  law — whether  bodily  or  mental,  or  both  com- 
bined— or  are  they  the  supernatural  results  of  direct  di- 
vine power  in  answer  to  believing  prayer? 

2.  The  evidence  in  most  of  the  cases  certainly,  and 
probably  in  all,  if  the  circumstances  were  detailed,  is 
decidedly  in  favor  of  the  former,  or  natural  solution.  It 
will  be  observed  that  they  are  chiefly  if  not  wholly  of 
such  a  chronic  character  that  the  mind  of  the  patient 
has  laiigely  to  do  with  their  existence  and  continuance. 
They  are  nervous  diseaseSf  functional  and  not  organic 
derangements.  We  have  yet  to  hear  of  an  acute  mal- 
ady, a  well-defined  fever,  a  settled  consumption,  a  broken 
limb,  or  a  positive  lesion  of  any  kind  being  cured  in  this 
manner.  With  the  older  prophets,  with  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  all  these  and  much  more  marked  disabilities 
were  Just  as  readily  healed  as  any.  There  was  nothing 
done  in  a  comer,  nor  was  there  the  least  opportunity  to 
doubt  the  absolute  divine  power.  There  is  generally— 
we  might  say  invariably — an  air  of  mystery  and  col- 
lusion about  those  cases,  which  justly  lays  them  open 
to  suspicion.  Until,  therefore,  more  palpable  and  hana 
fide  examples  shall  be  adduced,  we  hold  ourselves  justi- 
fied in  doubting  that  these  cures  are  anything  more 
than  the  effect  of  the  imagination  upon  highly  suscep- 
tible svstems. 

8.  At  the  same  time  we  fully  and  gladly  admit  that 
eamest  faith  and  prayer  have  an  influence  upon  divine 
prov^idence,  which  may  lead  to  a  cure  that  would  not 
take  place  without  them.  This  is  through  a  special 
blessing  upon  the  means  used,  or  upon  the  person,  with- 
out any  particular  medical  means.  But  this  is  a  very 
different  thing  from  the  peculiar  claim  set  up  in  the 
cases  adduced.    See  Mm aclk  ;  Prayer. 

4.  The  prerequisite  of  "  faith  "  on  the  part  of  the  sub- 
jects applying  for  these  cures  is  a  suspicious  drcum- 
stance ;  for  they  are  required  not  only  to  believe  that 
the  Lord  is  able  to  perform  the  cure  (which  no  Chris- 
tian doubts),  but  that  he  is  also  willing  to  do  it,  and 
even  that  he  actually  tciU  do  it,  which  they  have  no 
right  to  assume.  This  is  more  than  Jesus  denumded. 
for  the  leper  only  said, "  Lord,  t/'thou  wilt  thou  canst," 
and  the  question  asked  on  another  occasion  was,  **  Be- 
lieve ye  that  I  am  able  ?*'  Confidence  enough  to  induce 
the  patient  to  come  to  our  Lord,  or  in  friends  to  bring 
him,  of  course  was  necessary ;  but  a  fixed  conviction 
that  the  cure  was  positively  about  to  be  wrought  was 
not  demanded.  When  it  is  said  that  "He  could  not 
do  many  mighty  works  because  of  their  unbelief,"  in 
a  certain  place,  it  merely  denotes  this  indisposiUon  to 
apply  to  him.  There  never  was  a  failure,  however  des- 
perate the  case,  when  this  simple  condition  of  asking 
was  complied  with.  A  larger  measure  of  belief  than  this 
in  such  matters  we  judge  to  he prentnyriion  rather  than 
wholesome  faith. 

5.  The  champions  of  "faith-cure"  generally  appeal 
to  James  v,  14, 15,  as  a  standing  proof-text  for  the  cor* 
rectnesa  of  their  position ;  but  most  of  them  pay  little 
or  no  attention  to  the  precise  and  express  stipulations 
there  made  about  "  calling  for  the  elda-s  of  the  cftirrol," 
and  "anointing  with  oil;"  and  they  lay  the  whole  stvur 


the  poor,  entirely  free,  where  many  remarkable  cures  are 
said  to  have  been  effected  by  prayer  alone  withont  medi- 
cine. As  statistical  reports  are  seldom  or  never  issued  by 
these  institutions,  which  are  all  ccmducted  on  ths  volun- 
tary plan,  it  Is  impossible  to  exhibit  or  analyae  their  re- 
sults accurately. 


FAEONE 


373 


FANON 


upon  "ibe  pnyer  of  faith."  This,  howerer,  as  the 
whole  panage  showSi  is  not  the  petition  of  the  patient 
merelyi  nor  of  a  self-constitated  oommtttee  or  a  few  vol- 
unteers, but  of  the  regular  ecclesiastical  authorities,  duly 
and  formally  convoked  for  that  purpose.  Most  judi- 
cious expositors  hold  that  this  refers  to  the  exercise  of 
the  miraculous  "  gift  of  healing  "  enjoyed  by  some  early 
believers  as  a  special  endowment  of  the  apostles,  and 
that  the  direction  has  therefore  ceased  to  be  pertinent 
in  later  times.  Such  has  been  the  practical  comment 
of  the  Evangelical  Church,  departed  from  only  by  a  few 
eodeaastical  bodies  (with  whom  the  experiment  has 
been  a  signal  failure),  and  by  the  Boman  Catholics 
(who  pervert  it  to  teach  '^ extreme  unction").    See 

YBtkone,  a  district  in  Japan  in  which  there  is  situ- 
ated a  lake,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the  Japanese  be- 
lieve is  found  a  purgatory  for  children.  On  the  shore 
of  this  lake  are  built  fire  small  wooden  chapels,  in  each 
of  which  sits  a  priest  beating  a  gong,  and  howling  a 
nimanda,  Fahone  is  also  the  name  of  a  temple  in  Ja- 
pan, famous  for  its  relics.  It  contains  the  sabres  of  the 
beioic  Camis  (q.  v.),  still  stained  with  the  blood  of  those 
alain  in  battle;  the  vestments  which  were  said  to  have 
been  worn  by  an  angel,  and  which  supplied  the  place 
of  wings ;  and  the  tomb  of  Joritomo,  the  first  secular 
emperor  of  the  Japanese. 

Falok,  Nathaktel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Dantzic,  Oct.  1 1, 1663.  He  studied 
at  Rostock  and  Wittenberg,  and  died  at  Stettin,  Aug. 
18, 1693,  leaving,  De  Ikemonologia  JUoentiorum  A  uto- 
rum  Faiaa: — SqpUnarwm  Sacrum  Condonum  Sacra" 
rvM,  etc  See  J<5cher,  AUgememet  GtkkrUik-lAxikon^ 
a.  V.     (a  P.) 

Falco,  Ji7A3f  CoxcHiLLAS,  a  reputable  Spanish 
painter,  was  bom  at  Valencia  in  1661,  and  studied  in 
the  school  of  Mario.  He  was  much  employed  for  the 
ehurches  and  private  collections,  and  died  in  1711.  See 
Spoooer,  Biog,  ffist.  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Palccmer,  Colin,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  born  in 
1633,  studied  the  liberal  arts  at  Su  Leonard's  College, 
and  graduated  from  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  in 
1615.  He  became  a  clergyman  in  1651,  and  ministered 
to  the  parish  of  Essil,  in  the  diocese  of  Moray,  and  a 
few  years  afterwards  at  Forres,  where  he  continued  un- 
til  pfomoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Argyle,  Sept  5, 1679, 
whence  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Moray,  Feb. 
7, 1680.  He  died  at  Spynie,  Nov.  11, 1686.  See  Keith, 
SeattUh  JiUkopt,  p.  154,  292;  Fatti  Ecdet.  Scoticana^ 
lit,  152, 169, 177, 446, 452. 

Falconer,  John,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clerg^'man,  son  of 
Dr.  David  Falconer,  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University 
in  1679 ;  became  chaplain  to  the  family  of  Wemyss ; 
was  admitted  to  the  living  at  Carabee,  May  23, 1683, 
bat  deprived  by  the  privy  council  in  1689  for  not  pray- 
ing for  the  king  and  queen.  He  was  consecrated  a 
bishop  of  the  Non-Jurant  Church  at  Dundee,  April  28, 
1709,  having  the  district  of  Brechin  assigned  to  him  in 
1720.  He  died  at  Inglismadie,  July  6, 1728,  aged  about 
sixty-four  years.  He  wrote  a  tract  describing  the  va- 
rious covenants  of  God.  See  Feuti  Eccks,  Scotieatux^ 
ii,413. 

Falconer,  Thomlll^  a  learned  layman,  was  born 
at  Chester,  Engknd,  in  1736,  and  died  Sept.  4,  1792. 
He  published,  Devoliomfor  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lor^$ 
Svpper  (1786) : — Chronological  TaJUetfrom  Solomon  to 
the  Death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (1796).  See  Chal- 
mers, Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet.  ofBrU,  and  A  mer, 
A  ufhors,  s.  V. 

Palconet,  £tibmnk  Maurick,  an  eminent  French 
sculptor,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1716,  and  studied  in  the 
school  of  Lemoine.  In  1754  he  was  admitted  to  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  professor 
and  rector.  Among  his  roost  important  works  in  sculpt- 
ure are  Chritft  Agcng,  The  AnnunciatioUf  and  Moses 
and  DaMf  in  the  Church  of  St.  Boch,  at  Paris,  also  St. 


Ambrotey  in  the  Church  of  the  Invalides.  He  died  in 
1791.  See  Hoefer,  iVoup.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner, 
Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rttj  s.  v. 

Falk  is  a  name  common  to  many  Jewish  rabbis : 

1.  Jacob  Joshua,  who  died  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  in  1756,  is  the  author  of  novellas  on  different 
treatises  of  the  Talmud,  for  which  see  FUrst,  BibL  Jud. 
i,  271  sq. 

2.  Joshua  ben-Alexander  hah-Kohen^  who  died 
about  1620,  was  rabbi  at  Lemberg,  and  wrote  commen- 
taries on  the  Jewish  ritual,  entitled  m29*^^l)1  htt}*^^^ ; 
he  also  wrote  derashas  on  the  Pentateuch.  See  FUrst, 
he  dt,  p.  272;  De*  Kossi,  Dinonario  Storico  (Germ, 
transl.),  p.  103. 

3.  Joshua  bem-Jobeph,  who  died  in  1648,  was  rabbi 
at  Cracow,  and  wrote  discussions  on  some  Talmudic 
treatises.     See  FUrst,  2oc.  c»r.  p.  278  sq. 

4.  Joshua  of  Ussa,  was  rabbi  at  Hamburg,  and 
wrote  under  the  title  TW^n*y  ps9,  i.  e.,  The  Valley 

of  Joshua,  expositions  on  sections  of  the  Pentateuch. 
See  FUrst,  loc,  cit.p.278;  De'  Bossi,  Aic  cA.  p.  103 ; 
Jdcher,  AUgememes  Gekhrien-LexikoB,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Falk,  LcDwio,  a  Reformed  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bora  in  1801.  Ho  was  first  pastor  at  Landshut, 
afterwards  first  preacher  at  the  Reformed  Cathedral 
Church  in  Breslau,  and  member  of  the  Silesian  consis- 
tory. He  died  at  Waldau,  near  Liegnitz,  Aug.  20, 1872, 
leaving  a  volume  of  sermons,  entitled  A  lies  in  alien 
Chrittus  (Breslau,  1843).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol.  i, 
849.     (R  P.) 

Falling  a^way  or  froh  Grace.  See  Apostast; 
Backslide;  Pebsevekance. 

Fan,  Ecclesiastical.    See  Flabellum. 

Fanoourt;  Samuel,  a  dissenting  minister,  and  the 
originator  of  circulating  libraries  in  London,  was  bom 
in  1678,  and  died  in  1768.  He  published  several  Ser^ 
mons  and  theological  treatises  in  1720.  See  Chalmers, 
Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  u- 
thors^  s.  v. 

Fano,  Fidelia  a,  an  Italian  writer,  was  bom  Dec. 
24, 1888,  at  Fano,  Italy.  In  1855  he  entered  the  order 
of  the  Franciscans,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1862. 
Having  been  called  to  Rome  in  1870,  he  published  there 
BonaventurcB  Doctrina  de  Pontifids  Primatu  et  Iff  alii-' 
biUtaie:  — Ratio  Norm  CoUectionis  Operum  S.  Bona- 
ventures  (1874).  After  having  ransacked  almost  all  the 
European  libraries  with  a  view  to  editing  a  new  and 
critical  edition  of  Bonaventura's  works,  for  which  he 
seemed  to  have  been  specially  adapted,  he  died  Aug. 
12, 1881,  at  the  College  of  St.  Bonaventura  ki  Quaracchi, 
near  Florence.  His  notes,  comprising  several  folio  vol- 
umes, are  in  the  hands  of  P.  Ignatius,  one  of  the  first 
assistants  of  Fidelis,  who  will  probably  bring  about 
the  publication  of  the  works  of  the  doctor  Seraphicus. 

(a  P.) 

Fano,  Menaohem  Asaria  dl,  a  Jewish  rabbi, 
who  died  at  Mantua  in  1620,  is  famous  alike  for  his 
Talmudic  and  Cabalistic  lore.  Most  of  his  writings 
are  on  the  Cabala,  for  which  see  FUrst,  BM.  Jud.  i, 
274  sq. ;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario  Storico  (Germ,  transl.), 
p.  108  sq. ;  Wolf,  Bibl.  IJebraa,  i,  No.  772 ;  iii.  No.  1447. 
(B.  P.) 

Fanon.    (1)  A  head-dress  worn  by  the  pope  when 

he  celebrates  mass  pontif- 
ically.  It  is  described  as 
a  veil  variegated,  like  the 
Mosaic  ephod,  with  four 
colors,  8}'mbolizing  the 
four  elements,  put  over 
the  head  after  the  pope 
was  vested  with  the  alb, 
and  tied  round  the  neck, 
forming  a  kind  of  hood, 
the  tiara  or  other  head- 
Fauou.  dress  being  put  on  above 


FANSA6A 


374 


FARB 


it  The  lower  part  was  concealed  1)y  the  planeta.  The 
annexed  figure  is  from  a  small  brass  statue  on  the  doors 
of  the  oratory  of  St.  John  Baptist  at  the  Lateran.  At 
the  "Foot-washing"  the  **Boroan  Ceremonial" directs 
that  the  pope  should  wear  the  ybnon  alone  without  the 
mitre.  (2)  The  napkin  or  handkerchief,  oscd  by  the 
priest  during  the  celebration  of  the  mass  to  wipe  away 
perspiration  from  the  face,  etc,  properly  called  faciter- 
gium,  (3)  In  later  times  the  white  linen  cloth  in  which 
the  laity  made  their  oblations  at  the  altar.  The  word 
is  sometimes  erroneously  spelled  **farones."  (4)  A  still 
later  use  of  the  word  is  for  the  church  banners  em- 
plo3red  in  processions.  This  is  perhaps  not  earlier  than 
the  French  and  German  writers  of  the  11th  century. 
(5)  The  strings  or  lappets  of  the  mitre. — Smith,  Diet, 
of  Christ,  Antiq,  s.  v. 

Fansaga,  Cosimo^  an  eminent  Italian  sculptor  and 
architect,  was  bom  at  Clusone,  near  Bergamo,  in  1591, 
and  visited  Rome  and  studied  sculpture  and  architec- 
ture under  Pietro  BeminL  The  facade  of  the  Church 
of  Santo  Spirito  de*  Neopolitani  is  the  onl}'  work  by 
him  in  that  city.  He,  however,  built  and  adorned 
a  number  of  altars  in  Naples.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  the  fa9ade8  of  the  churches  of  San  Francesco 
Saverio,  Santa  Teresa  degli  ScaUi,  and  San  Domenico 
Maggiore.  He  died  in  1678.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GhUrale^  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Bitt,  ofth»  Fine  A  rii^  s.  v. 

Fanti  Version  of  thb  Scriptures.  Fanti  is  a 
language  spoken  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Coast 
Castle,  in  West  Africa.  The  Fanti  people  are  supposed 
to  number  about  two  millions,  of  whom  about  five  thou- 
sand are  able  to  read.  At  present  the  four  gospels  only 
are  circulated,  the  translation  having  been  made  but 
recently  (it  is  first  mentioned  in  the  annual  report  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for  1884),  by  a 
Mr.  Parker,  a  very  able  native  minister  of  the  Wesleyan 
Church,  whose  father  was  a  fetish  worshipper.  The 
version,  chiefly  made  from  the  Authorized  English  Ver- 
sion, compared  with  the  Otji  translation,  was  submitted 
to  a  number  of  ministers  for  revision,  and  finally  passed 
at  the  annual  district  meeting  by  a  vote  of  the  whole 
of  the  ministers.     (B.  P.) 

Fara  (or  Burgundofara),  Saini^  daughter  of 
Chagneric,  a  high  official  of  the  court  of  Theodebcrt, 
kiqg  of  Austrasia,  early  became  a  nun  at  Meaux  in  614. 
and  afterwards  abbess  of  a  convent  near  that  place. 
She  died  in  655,  and  is  celebrated  Dec.  7.  See  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Fardh,  a  term  by  which  the  Blohammedans  de- 
scribe what  is  clearly  declared  in  the  Koran ;  and  they 
consider  any  one  an  infidel  who  rejects  it. 

Farinato,  Paolo,  degli  Uberti,  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  was  bom  at  Verona  in  1522,  and  studied  somo 
time  under  Nicolo  Golfino.  Among  his  principal  works 
which  are  at  Verona  are  three  pictures  in  Santa  Maria 
in  Organo,  representing  St,  Michael  Discomfiting  Lvci- 
foTf  the  Mothers  Presenting  their  Children  to  Constantine, 
and  the  Murder  of  the  Innocents.  In  San  Tommaso  is 
a  picture  of  St,  Onuphrius.  One  of  Farinato's  finest 
paintings  is  the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  in  the  Church 
of  the  Cappucini.  He  painted  a  number  of  other  pic- 
tures for  different  churches.  He  died  in  1606.  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts^  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Farlatti,  Daniblb,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  was  bom  at 
San  Daniele  in  Friuli  in  1690.  He  studied  at  Bologna, 
was  for  some  time  at  Borne,  and  in  1722  was  called  to 
Padua  to  assist  Kiceputi  in  preparing  his  history  of  the 
niyrion  Church.  For  twenty  years  he  arranged  the 
material,  and  after  Riceputi's  death,  in  1742,  he  com- 
menced the  publication  of  the  work,  of  which  he  edited 
four  volumes,  while  four  more  volumes  were  published 
after  his  death,  April  23, 1773,  by  Coleti.  The  title  of 
thevrorkisIUjfricum Sacrum  (Venice,  1751-1819,8  vols.). 
The  fifth  volume  contilins  a  biography'  of  FarlattL  See 
Jooher,  Al^emeines  Gelehrten'Lexikont  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 


Fanner,  Bighard,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  divine, 
was  bom  at  Leicester  in  1735,  and  educated  at  Em- 
manuel College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  mas- 
ter in  1775.  He  subsequently  became  vice-chancellor 
and  principal  librarian  of  the  university,  and  obtained 
prebends  at  Lichfield  and  Canterbury.  He  exchanged 
the  latter  for  a  canonry  at  St.  Panics.  Both  an  English 
and  Irish  bishopric  were  offered  him  and  declined.  He 
died  in  1797.  In  1766  he  issued  proposals  for  publish- 
ing a  history  of  the  town  of  Leicester,  from  the  MSS. 
of  Thomas  Stavele}\  He  found  the  work  too  laborious, 
and  gave  his  materials  to  John  Nichols,  who  published 
it  under  the  title,  History  and  Antiquities  of  Leicester 
(1795-1811).  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v.;  Allibone, 
jD»c/.  4if  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors^  s.  v. 

Famhaxn,  Nicholas  of.    See  Fernhax. 

Famawortb,  Benjamin  F.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist,  min- 
ister and  distinguished  educator,  was  bom  about  1790. 
He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1813 ;  for  a 
short  time  was  editor  of  the  Christian  Watchman  f  and 
in  1826  was  chosen  first  principal  and  professor  of  the- 
ology in  the  New  Hampton  Literary  and  Theological 
Institution.  In  1886  he  was  called. to  the  presidency 
of  Georgetown  College,  Ky.,  but  shortly  after  went  to 
Louisville,  where  he  established  the  Prather  Grove 
Seminary.  Subsequently  he  was  elected  president  of 
Union  University,  Murfreesborough,  Tenn.,  and  then 
of  the  Memphis  University.  He  died  near  Lexington, 
Ky.,  May  4,  1851.  See  Amer.  Baptist  Register^  1852, 
p.  416.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Faro  (or  Bnrgundofaro),  Sawa,  was  bora  in  Bur- 
gundy alK>ut  592,  being  the  son  of  Agneric,  one  of  the 
principal  officers  of  Theodebert,  king  of  Anstrasia,  and 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  that  prince.  In  618  he 
went  over  to  Clotaire  II,  by  whom  ho  was  highly  es- 
teemed. He  then  renounced  the  world,  with  the  con- 
sent of  his  wife  Blidechilde,  received  the  clerical  tonsure 
in  Meaux,  and  was  elected  bishop  of  that  city  in  627. 
He  administered  his  diocese  with  great  zeal,  died  in 
672,  and  was  buried  in  the  abbey  of  Sainte-Croiz,  near 
Meaux.  He  is  commemorated  Oct  28.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginh-aUf  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  ChrisL  Biog, 

S.V. 

Faroeae  Version  of  the  Scriptubes.  See 
Scandinavian  Vebsions. 

FarolfuB,  Michael  Angelo,  a  native  of  Crete,  who 
died  March  6, 1715,  joined  the  Minorites  and  studied  at 
Padua.  He  was  chaplain  to  pope  Alexander  YIII,  and 
was  elevated  to  the  episcopal  see  at  Trau,  in  Palmatia, 
by  Clement  XI.  He  wrote.  Condones  in  SacdUs  Pon- 
iificis  Halites: — Synopsis  Controversiarum  Gracorttm 
cum  Latinis  :—Pro  Canonisaiione  B,  Jftcoii  de  Marehia 
(8  vols.).  The  latter  work  made  him  lose  the  favor  of 
the  Roman  see  and  the  cardinalate,  which  was  designed 
for  him.  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexihrn, 
s.  V.     (a  P.) 

Farquharaon,  James,  F.RJS.,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  der- 
gyroan,  son  of  the  excise  officer  at  Coull,  was  bora  in 
1781 ;  graduated  at  the  University  and  King*s  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1798 ;  was  appointed  schoolmaster  of  the 
parish  the  same  year;  presented  by  the  prince  regent 
to  the  living  at  Alford  in  August,  and  ordained  Sept. 
17, 1813.  He  died  Dec  3, 1843.  His  attainments  in 
meteorological  science  were  of  a  very  high  order,  and 
he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  various  learned  period- 
icals, and  corresponded  with  most  of  the  learned  men  in 
Europe.  He  published,  A  New  lUusf  ration  of  the  Lat- 
ter Part  ofDanieFs  Last  Vision  and  Prophecy  (Lond. 
1838)  '.—The  Native  Forests  of  Aberdeenshire:— Noah's 
Ark: — The  Aurora  Borealis: — The  Currency: — An 
Essay  on  Cutting  Grain  trith  the  Scythe,  in  the  Transact 
tions  of  the  Highland  iSoctefy;— besides  many  papers  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions :— also  An  Account  of 
the  Parish,    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticana,  iii,  547. 

Farr,  Alfbed  A.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bora  in  Middlebur}*,  Yt.,  Aug.  29, 1810.    He  joined 


FARRAR 


375 


FATIMA 


the  Chnicb  in  1826,  and  in  1889  entered  the  Troy  Con- 
ference, wherein  he  labored  et^estly  and  faithfully  as 
A  pastor,  chaplain,  and  missionary  nntil  1869,  when  he 
became  superannuated.  He  died  Nov.  4, 1874,  honored 
as  a  sort  of ''  veteran  reserve"  in  all  useful  labor.  See 
MuuBtet  of  ike  Anrntitd  C<mfermee$t  1^^  P*  ^* 

Fairar,  Abraham  Eccles,  an  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  of  a  family  somewhat  distinguished  in 
clerical  lists.  His  father  (John)  was  a  Methodist  min- 
ister, who  died  in  1837 ;  his  younger  brotber  was  presi- 
dent of  the  British  Conference  in  1870,  and  is  the  author 
€]^  Dietionarjf  of  the  Bible  and  other  valuable  works;  his 
elder  son,  Wesley,  entered  the  Wesleyan  ministry  in 
1846^  and  his  youngest  son  is  canon  of  Durham  and  au- 
thor of  the  Critical  Viitory  of  Free  Thought,  Abra- 
ham E.  was  bom  at  Sowerby,  a  village  overhanging 
the  vale  of  Todmorden,  April  20, 1788.  From  1797  to 
1801  he  was  at  the  Kingswood  School.  Soon  after  his 
return  home  he  gave  his  heart  to  God.  He  was  arti- 
cled to  an  attorney  at  Sunderland,  but  in  1807  was  re- 
ceived into  the  ministry.  His  first  field  was  Holdemess, 
where  this  talented  and  refined  young  man  was  subject^ 
ed  to  all  the  humiliating  trials  that  mobs  and  persecut- 
ing rectors  made  the  order  of  the  day  with  the  early 
Methodist  preachers  (Stevens,  Hiet,  of  Afetkoditmj  iii, 
211  aq.;  Smith,  Hitt.  of  We$L  Meth.  u,  451  sq.).  He 
served  the  Church  faithfully,  and  was  intrusted  by  it 
with  important  offioes.  While  the  fire  of  youth  was 
•till  homing  upon  the  altar,  and  the  gravity  of  age  and 
tbe  Daatvritj  of  intellect  gave  evidence  of  long  years  of 
neefolness,  he  was  snddenly  called  away.  On  April  1, 
1849,  in  great  pain,  he  preached  an  anniversary  sermon 
in  the  East  London  Circuit,  and  died  one  week  there- 
after. Farrar  was  amiable,  courteous,  diligent,  and  sym- 
|»athetic.  He  had  a  mind  of  critical,  reflective,  and  ana- 
lytical power.  He  wrote,  The  Condtmner  of  Methodim 
C<mdemi^  (1814) : — Religious  Instruction  of  Children 
Enforxxd  (1820)  .—The  JuvenUe  BibU-dcus  Booh  (1825) : 
— The  Benefts  of  Messiah's  Advent,  a  sermon  (1842)  :— 
Sketches  of  Popular  Antiquities  for  the  Young  (1850). 
See  Minutes  of  the  British  Cotference,  1849;  Stevenson, 
City  Road  Chapelj  pu  322 ;  WesL  Meth.  Mag.  1849,  p.  543, 
986 ;  1853,  p.  805 ;  WeOeyan  Takings,  i,  846. 

Fasalt,  Christiak,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Grer- 
many,  who  died  April  26, 1694,  while  pastor  and  super- 
intendent at  Liebenwerda,  in  Saxony,  is  the  author  of 
£Hs»,  de  Imperio  Jlomims  m  Homnem: — De  Origins 
ral8i:-^De  Unctura  Christi  SepulcraHi—De  Vita  Soli- 
tdria: — De  Primo  Avium  in  Gen,  i,  20.  See  JOcher, 
A  Ugemeuies  Gdehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Faaoel,  Hirsch  B.,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  born  at 
Boakowttz,  in  Moravia,  in  1801.  He  was  for  some  time 
preacher  at  Prossiiitz,  in  Moravia;  and  from  1851  un- 
til hia  death,  in  December,  1888,  at  Gross-Kaniza,  in 
Hongaiy.  He  wrote.  Das  mosaiseh'-rabbiaische  Civil- 
rwkt  (Groas-Kaniia,  1852-^,  2  vols.):— />a#  mosaischr 
rtMimsche  Geriehtsverfahren  (ibid.  lS5S)i— Die  mosa- 
isdk^abbinisehe  Tugend-  und  RechtsUhre  (ibid,  eod.) : 
— Das  mosaiseh'rabbiniKhe  Stnifrecht  und  Mrafrechl- 
liche  Geriehtsverfahren  (Ibid.  1870).  He  also  published 
a.  Catechism  of  Judaism,  Sermons,  and  some  minor  trea- 
tises. See  FQrst,  BiU,  Jud,  i,  277 ;  Lippe,  BiUiogra- 
jtkisehes  Lexikon  (Vienna,  1881),  p.  98  sq.     (B,  P.) 

Fassi,  Onida    See  Coxtb. 

Fast  OF  THB  Holt  Apostlbsi,  a  fast  observed  by 
the  Greek  Church  in  imitation  of  the  apostles,  who, 
they  soppose,  prepared  themselves  by  fasting  and  pray- 
er for  going  forth  to  proclaim  the  goepel  message.  This 
fast  commences  the  week  after  Whitsuntide,  and  con- 
tinoes  tiU  the  festival  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 

Fast  Bynodfl,  a  name  given  to  Christian  sjrnods 
in  ancient  times,  which  met  on  fast  weeks. 

Fasti,  the  sacred  books  of  the  ancient  Bomans,  in 
which  were  recorded  the  fasH  dies,  or  lawful  days--days 
<m  which  legal  bosiiieas  might  be  transacted  before  the 


pnetor  without  impiety.  Then  fasti  contained  a  full 
enumeration  of  the  months  and  days  of  the  year,  the 
various  dates  belonging  to  a  calendar,  and  the  several 
festivals  arranged  under  their  appropriate  dates.  Before 
the  adoption  of  the  practice  of  preparing  such  tables,  it 
was  customary  for  the  priests  to  proclaim  tbe  different 
festivals,  for  the  information  of  the  people. 

Fat6  (or  Bfatese)  Verston  of  trb  Sgriptubes. 
This  language  is  spoken  on  the  island  of  Fat^  or  Sand- 
wich island,  the  centre  of  the  New  Hebrides.  In  1865 
the  gospel  of  Mark  was  translated  by  the  Bev.  D, 
Morrison  of  Errakor,  and  printed  at  Sydney  in  1866. 
From  the  annual  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bi- 
ble Society  for  1866  we  subjoin  the  following: 

"The  history  of  tbe  coapel  in  Fat^  has  been  peculiar 
and  Interesting.  For  about  a  quarter  of  a  century  oqr 
brethren  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  have  had  na- 
tive teachers  from  Samoa  and  Raratonga  laboring  on  this 
island.  Several  of  those  devoted  men  were  baroaronsly 
murdered  by  the  natives :  several  more  of  them  fell  vic- 
tims to  the  sickly  climate,  and  some  of  them  left  tbe  Isl- 
and to  recruit  their  enfeebled  health  elsewhere.  At  times 
AS  many  as  six  or  eight  stations  were  occupied  by  teach- 
ers, but,  owing  to  the  above  causes,  for  tne  last  ten  or 
twelve  years  only  one,  or,  at  times,  two  stations  oonld  be 
kept  open;  the  others  relapsed  to  heathenism.  Bnt  in 
one  of  these  stntlons,  Errakor,  the  chief  and  the  whole 
people  embraced  Christianity ;  and  although  at  one  time 
for  two  years  tliey  bed  no  teacher  living  among  them,  thev 
held  fast  to  their  profession,  while  the  rest  or  the  island 
was  heathen.  Brrakor  was  like  an  oasis  in  the  desert. 
Six  years  ago  we  settled  two  Aiieitynm  teachers  on  Fatd. 
One  of  them  died  abont  three  years  ago;  the  other  died 
in  August  lost  This  year  we  reonened  one  of  the  old 
stations,  and  settled  three  teachers  from  Mare.  Bighteen 
months  ago,  when  we  settled  Mr.  Morrison  at  Bn-akor, 
he  found  a  population  of  one  hundred  and  sixty,  sli 
Christian.  Of  these  sixty  were  Church  members.  There 
is  another  station  at  Pan}^,  abont  three  miles  distant, 
occupied  by  teachers,  where  the  chief  and  a  part  of  the 
people  are  Chrintiana.  Mr.  Morrison  has  had  no  aooea- 
sions  as  yet  from  the  heathen :  but  there  Is  evidently  a 
softening  process  going  on  around,  and  from  the  growing 
intelligence  and  increased  vigor  of  Christian  character 
observable  at  Brrakor,  there  can  be  little  donbt  that  from 
this  centre  the  Word  of  God  will  soon  sound  forth  to  the 
regions  beyond,  till  all  Fat^  shall  receive  the  gospel  of 
salvation.*' 

In  1870  the  gospel  of  John  was  printed  at  Auckland, 
New  Zealand,  the  translation  having  been  made  by 
the  Rev.  James  Cosh.  This  goepel  was  followed  by 
the  translation  of  that  of  Luke  and  the  book  of  Gen- 
esis. In  1880  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  also  print- 
ed, the  translation  having  been  made  by  the  Bev.  J.  W. 
Mackenzie,    (a  P.) 

Fates.    See  Farcal, 

Fathers  of  the  Christian  Doctrike,  an  order 
of  monks  collected  in  France  by  Oesar  de  Bus  in  the 
16th  century,  who  employed  themselves  in  instructing 
the  ignorant,  and  especially  the  young.  It  was  ap- 
proved by  Clement  VIII  in  1597.  Another  order,  bear- 
ing a  similar  name  and  having  a  like  object,  was 
formed  in  Italy  about  tbe  same  time  by  Marcus  Cusa- 
nus,  a  knight  of  Milan,  and  was  approved  by  Pius  V 
and  Gregory  XIII.    See  Doctrimaires. 

FATHERS  OF  the  Oratory.  See  Oratort, 
Priests  of  the. 

FATHERS  OF  Somascho,  a  name  given  to  the  clerks 
(regular)  of  St.  Majuli,  from  the  town  Somascho,  where 
their  first  general  resided.    See  Soxaschiahs. 

Fatihat  (preface  or  introduelion)  is  the  title  of  the 
first  chapter  of  the  Koran,  which  consists  only  of  the 
following  short  prayer:  **  Praise  be  to  God,  the  Lord  of 
all  creatures,  the  most  merciful,  the  king  of  the  day  of 
Judgment.  Thee  do  we  worship,  and  of  thee  do  we 
beg  assistance.  Direct  us  in  the  right  way,  in  the  way 
of  those  to  whom  thou  hast  been  gracious;  not  of  those 
against  whom  thou  art  incensed,  nor  of  those  who  go 
astray." 

Fatima,  the  daughter  of  Mohammed,  was  bom  at 
Mecca  in  606,  five  years  before  her  father  assumed  the 
office  of  a  religious  reformer.    At  the  age  of  fideen  she 


FAtTDOAS  3'. 

wu  manitd  to  Ali,  th«  wimia  of  Uohimmed,  ef  *ham 
At  mi  ttas  only  wire.  She  died  in  6S2.  Tbe  Antbian 
ijnutj  of  the  Fitimitei,  irbich  from  909  [o  1171  ruled 
OTtr  Egypt  and  the  DDrthem  part  of  Atiici,  uid  Utter- 
ly orer  Syria  and  Palestine,  claimed  to  be  deaceaded 
Trom  Fadnn.  The  religioua  lenela  of  [heir  adherenta 
dlBered  conaidflTahly  from  [how  of  the  orthodox  Mo- 
hammedana,  and  in  time  they  aougfac  lo  gire  to  the 
Koran  an  alkBorieal  interpretation,  eo  aa  to  avoid  obe- 
dience to  ita  Uteiil  precepta.  Tbe  Shiitee,  including 
the  Mohammedana  of  Penia,  hold  both  Ali  and  Fali- 
ma,  a>  well  aa  tbe  twelve  Imanu,  in  tbe  ntmoit  venen- 
lion,  wbita  tfacy  regard  Abubeker,  Omar,  and  Othuian 
ai  oaurpers  of  the  caliphate.  They  renerale  Fatirna 
ai  a  taint,  and  the  Shiitea  afford  ua  the  only  ioatauce 
which  occun  in  lalamiam  of  giving  religioui  honor  to 
a  woman.  She  was  ona  of  tbe  four  women  whom  the 
prophet  regarded  as  perfect. 

Fandoaa,  Puirhe  Pave,  Baron  de,  a  French  prel- 
ate, waa  bom  at  I^lauue,  April  1, 17i>0,of  a  noble  family 
in  rtduced  circumatancH.  Having  entered  into  orders, 
he  became  titulary  of  tbe  abbey  of  Giillac  in  1788. 
Daring  the  revolution  he  was  obliged  to  emigrate,  and, 
returning  toFrance,  found  himself  compromised  in  some 
conapiraciea  of  the  royaliata,  but  was  advanced  lo  the 
bishopric  of  Heaux  in  January,  tSOf.  Thereafter  be 
attached  bimself  strongly  lo  the  emperor.  LoniaXTIII, 
on  bii  ieato[ation,left  him  in  a  sort  of  disgrace  until  bis 
death  in  1819.     See  Hoefer,  ,Vobv.  Bio;.  CMrolr,  >.  t. 

FaonSi  a  species  of  demi-gods,  inhabiting  tbe  for- 
cata,  called  alao  Sghwii,  lalpi.  They  were  aoni  of 
FaDnns  and  Fsmia,  or  Fatui,  king  and  qneen  of  the 
LMiniS  and,  thongh  accounted  semi-divine,  were  sup- 
pCMd  to  die  after  a  long  life.  Tbey  were  Roman  dei- 
tica^  imknawi]  to  tbe  Greeks,  and  were  represented  with 


Fann. 


horns  on  their  beada,  pointed  ears,  and  crowned  with 
branchea  of  the  pine,  while  their  lower  extremiiiea  re- 
sembled thoae  of  the  goat,  later,  when  Greek  my- 
thology was  iutiodnced,  they  were  often  confounded 
with  Pan.  They  were  of  a  musical  and  voluptuous 
character.    Female  fauns  are  also  spoken  of. 

Faust;  lasao,  a  Lutheran  Ibeoiogian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  at  Strasburg,  June  10, 16S1,  and  died  there, 
a  doctor  and  profosir  of  theology,  Nov.  30,  1702. 
Ha  wrote  disacrtadons  in  Latin  on  rarieut  paHages  of 
Scripture.  See  Jbchtr,  AUgtmtiiiet  Gtlchriat'Ltxiiuii, 
IT.      (B.P.) 

E^MUt;  Joltann.  bmtfaer  of  Isaac,  wu  bom  at 
Sttaibarg,  Sept.  23, 163!,  and  died  there  July  1,  IS95, 
a  doctor  and  professor  of  iheoloKj.  He  wrote  mono- 
gfapha  in  l^n  on  leTeral  Scripimal  subjects.  See 
JttcbcT,  ^I^enenst  GtlrlU1m-I.erii)0*,  s.  T.     (a  P.) 

FuiBta,  a  viigin  martyr  under  Galerius,  A.D,  S06, 


FEBURK 

the  danghtar  of  rich  parenta,  and  noted  lor  her 
Christian  activity.  She  is  commemorated  Sept.  !0  or 
Jan.  2. 

FaastUnoB.    See  FAoarctua. 

Fatutllliu,  the  nam*  of  nnmerons  eariy  bisfat^ 
and  several  martyrs,  of  tbe  letter  of  whom  we  here  no- 
tice: (1)  A  soldier  onder  Commodus,  put  lo  death  cir, 
A.D.  I8S,  (or  refusing  to  aBtr  sicriBcc;  cammemoratcd 
Aug.  7.  (3)  Put  to  death  under  Diodedan,  at  the 
seventh  nlileitone  from  Rome  i  commemorated  July  29. 
The  catacomb  of  Generoaa,  where  he  was  buried,  baa 
lately  been  discovered.  (B)  A  presbyter,  put  to  death 
wiili  bii  brother  Jovita,  at  Brixia,  in  Italy,  under  Ha- 
drian, commenMraled  Feb.  16.  Sm  Smith,  Dirt,  of 
Chritt.  Biog.  a.  r. 

Ffttuto,  BARTOunnto  a  SAirni,  a  Cistercian  of  Sic- 
ily, who  died  at  Naples  in  16S6,  is  the  author  of,  Ih  Pan- 
lalia: — Dt  IJorit  Caaetadi: — Dt  Sacrit  ItiiiilgaitiiM! 
—Specutim  CvifataTionm:—Tlutaana  CottfeMtario- 
mai,  which  were  republished  in  three  volume^  under 
the  title  of  Titiiogia  Moralit.  Sec  Jtichcr,  Al^emamt 
CeMrtei-ZeniiM,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

FtttutiUt  ^ba  name  of  numerous  eariy  bishops  and 
martyrs, among  whom  we  notice  here:  (1)  A  presbytei 
and  aichimandrite  of  Constantinople,  active  in  the  Eu- 
t3chian  controveny,  A.D,M8-«1.  (!)  An  Italian, con- 
fided in  childhood  by  his  parents  to  St.  Benedict  of 
Monte  Casino,  sent  A.D.  613,  to  aaiit  in  fbundiog  the 
monastery  of  Qlanfenil,  in  Anjon,  where  he  remained 
forty^iz  years.  He  ia  commemorated  Feb.  15.  Sea 
Smitb,  Diet,  of  CkritL  Biog,  t,  v. 

FavaioniblU,  Augcstin  de  (also  called  Angaui' 
flUj  AanuiHHf),  archbishop  of  Naureth  and  Barletta, 
who  died  in  1*48,  was  a  native  of  Rome.  He  wrote 
annotation*  on  the  Revelation  and  Sl  Paul's  epistles, 
also  some  treatises,  as  De  Peccalo  0>igiiiuli;—De  Fo- 
latait  Papa:—Dt  Prrfiefa  Juitilia  MiSlanlit  Ectlt~ 
tin  .'—£><  PoUttale  Prmcipum  ht  Coiluliau  Brmaram 
Suoram  EcdaiiM  Fada,  His  De  Sacramtnto  Cnilatii 
Jau  Cirili  rt  Ecdena,  Dt  Chrulo  Capilt  tt  Fjut  Im- 
dylo  Friitcipatu.aad  De  Ckarilale  Ciriili  Circa  Etrtlta 
tt  i^ui  InfitUo  Amon,  were  rejected  by  the  Council  at 
BaaleblMb.  SmbKitKr,  AUgtmmtt  Gtkkrteit-Ltx- 
ihm,l.y.    (KP.) 

Faya,  Antolna  de  la.    Sec  Lapatx 

Faya,  Jaau  da,  a  French  prelate,  waa  bom  in  the 
second  part  of  the  12th  century,  of  a  noble  family  of 
Touriine.  He  wsa  dean  at  the  cathedral  church  of 
Touts,  when,  in  1S08,  he  was  called  to  the  metropolitan 
see  of  that  city  by  the  majority  of  the  euSnigan  bish- 
ops, but  with  much  opposition.  He  introduced  the 
Uinimi  into  the  city  of  Tours.  He  had  great  ditpniea 
with  Maurice,  bishop  of  Hans,  whom  he  suspended  from 
bispsstoiBlfunctionsj  and  excommunicated  Pierre  Han- 
clerc  for  peraecuUng  £tienne,  bishop  of  Nantea.  De 
Fsye  died  April  28  or  36,  ItlB.  See  Hoefer,  your. 
Biog.  GMralt,  s.  v, 

Fayet,  Jeas  Jacqcis,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom 
■tUende,  July26,  I7S7;  studied  law  at  Paris;  entered 
the  Minorite  order  at  St.  Suipice,  and  there  directed 
the  catechismal  exercises.  In  1811  be  was  ordained; 
became  principal  of  the  coUcee  of  Mende  in  \eU ;  was 
made  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  vent  on  a  mis- 
sion through  the  oountryi  joined  the  editorial  ilaffof 
Le  Cinutmateitr  (  went  to  Rouen  aa  grand- vicar ;  in  1831 
became  assistant  to  the  archbishop  there;  bishop  of 
Orleans  in  IS4S  i  end  died  April  4, 1M9.  See  Hoifer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Giititaie,  a.  v. 

Faytunl  Saadiali.     See  SAArtiAH. 

Febronia,  a  virgin  martyr  at  Niubus,  in  Iteaopota- 
mia,  under  Diocletian,  A.D.  SU;  commemorated  Juo* 


PEBTJRE 


377 


FELBINGER 


iat,  was  bora  aboot  1640.  For  eighteen  yean  he  tniT- 
eUed  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Chaldiea,  Aas^nria,  Kurdis- 
tan, Arabia,  Palestine,  etc  There  are  no  details  of  his 
life,  but  he  left  some  very  curious  and  valued  works,  es- 
pecially (hero  DncriUiont  deBa  Turehia  (Rome,  1674) ; 
translated  later  into  French,  German,  and  Spanish) : — 
d^et^ioneM  Muhctmetiea  adoernu  CathoUcoa  (ibid.  1679) : 
— Ckristkm  Ihxirwt,  in  Arabic  x—Thi&tre  de  la  Turquie 
(Paris,  1682).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  G4nirak,  %  v. 

F6bure,  Nicolas  le,  a  French  Dominican,  was 
bom  in  1588.  He  studied  at  Paris,  was  in  1631  prior 
of  his  convent  at  Chartres,  and  died  at  Rochelle  in  1653, 
leaving  Elxpontio  DactrincB  Orthodoxa : — MoKuale  Ety 
eUaioBticum  Uittoricum.  See  Echard,  De  Scriptoribus 
Ordinu  Domimcanorum ;  J ochevy  A  Uffemamu  GeUhrten- 
Lexiton,  s.  r.     (B.  P.) 

F6bure,  Tnrriane  le,  a  Jesuit,  was  bora  at  Doaay, 
France,  in  1608,  and  died  there,  June  28, 1672.  He  pub- 
lished, OpuMcula  Varia: — Elogia  Sanctorum,  See  Jc^ 
eher,  A  llgememea  Geiehrten-Lezihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

F6camp  (Lat.  Fucanua  or  Fiscanum),  a  plaqp  in 
Kormandy,  known  for  its  famous  abbey,  which  was  ded- 
icated to  the  Holy  Trinity.  It  was  founded  in  658  by 
the  count  of  C^ux,  but  was  destroyed  in  841  by  the 
Normans.  Duke  Kichard  I  of  Normandv  had  it  re- 
tmilt,  and  it  was  dedicated  in  1006  as  a  Benedictine 
abbey  to  the  Holy  Trinity.  The  abbey  lasted  till  the 
18th  century.  See  BusseroUe,  Reckerehet-hittariques 
sur  Fecamp  (Paris,  1859) ;  Fallue,  Hittoire  de  la  Ville  et 
de  VAbbage  de  Ficamp  (Rouen,  1841);  Berger,  in  Lich- 
tenberger's  Encydop,  des  Science*  Religieiuetf  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Peckenham,  John  de,  was  the  last  abbot  of 
Westminster,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  went  to 
Gloucester  Hall,  Oxford,  where  he  was  educated.  His 
right  name  was  Howman,  He  was  the  last  mitred  ab- 
bot who  sat  in  the  House  of  Peers.  He  published  a  few 
oootroverrial  pieces.  See  Biog,  Brit,;  Dodd,  Christ, 
Hist, ;  Strype,  Cranmer ;  A  then,  Oxon,  He  was  oontin- 
nally  employed  in  doing  good  to  the  persecuted  Prot- 
estants of  his  day,  but  was  afterwards,  to  the  disgrace 
of  the  crown,  imprisoned  himself,  and  died  a  captive 
in  Wtsbeach  C!astle,  in  the  Isle  of  Ely,  in  1585.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
A  awr.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Pedderseii,  Jakob  Fbiedrxch,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bora  July  31, 1786,  at  Schles- 
wig.  He  studied  at  Jena ;  was  in  1760  preacher  to  the 
duke  of  Holstein-Augustenburg;  and  in  1769  third 
preacher  of  St.  John's,  at  Magdeburg.  In  1777  he  was 
called  to  Branswick,  and  in  1788  accepted  a  call  to 
Altona,  where  he  died  at  the  end  of  the  same  year. 
He  published  a  number  of  sermons,  which  are  enumer- 
ated in  D&ring,  Deutsche  Kanzelredner,  p.  55  sq.  See 
also  Koch,  Gaichichte  des  deutschen  KirchaditdeSy  vi, 
896  sq. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  iheoL  Lit,  ii,  252, 257, 321 , 
825,328,864,883,385.     (a  P.) 

pehmel,  Axandus  Gotthold,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  Jul^'  30,  1688.  He  studied 
at  Leipsic,  and  died,  July  22, 1721,  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology  at  Hildburghausen,  leaving  De  Catacum- 
hi9  Bomanis:^-De  Errorum  Ciiteriis  circa  Religionem 
Commmubiu: — De  Criteriis  vertB  Religioni  Comnmnibus: 
— Dt  dmsiUis  Irenicis,  Unionem  EcclesiiB^  Evangelical 
cum  Romano  Concemenlibus :  —  De  Constitutione  Uni- 
genitus.  See  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 
(B-P.) 

Pehre,  Samuel  Benjamin,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  Oct.  28, 1772,  is  the  author  of 
JHe  zfMoei  Thiere  in  der  Offevbarung  Johannis  (Chem- 
nitz, 1754) : — Der  WHssagung  in  der  Ojfferdtarwng  Johan- 
nis (Frankfort,  1757): — U^)er  Han£s  Kirchengeschichte 
des  neuen  Testaments  (Leipsic,  1768)  \—Ueber  Hant^s  Ent- 
wwfy  etc  (ibid.  1770).  See  Meusel,  Gelrhrtes  Dtutsch- 
land;  JcScher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikonj  s.  v. ;  Zuch- 
Old, BfUL  TAeoiL i, 850.     (aP.) 


FehM,  JoHASN  Heinbich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  was  bora  at  Hamburg,  June  10, 1725, 
and  died  in  1777,  is  the  author  of  Explicatio  Dicti  PaU" 
Imi  ad  Gal.  i,  8  (Rostock,  1744):— i>ie  Lehre  von  der 
SaBmng  Christi  (ibid.  1755).  See  Meusel,  Gelehrtes 
Deutschland,  s.  v.;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexi' 
ibn,  s.  V.    (B.  P.) 

Fel,  Alessamdro  (called  dd  Barhiere)^  a  reputable 
Florentine  historical  painter,  was  bora  in  1588  (or  1543), 
and  studied  successively  under  Kidolfo  Ghirlandajo, 
Pietro  Francia,  and  Tommaso  Manzuoli.  His  works 
may  be  seen  in  the  churches  of  Florence,  Pistoja,  and 
Messina.  One  of  his  most  esteemed  pictures  is  in  the 
Church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  representing  the 
Scourging  of  Christ,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Geniraltf 
s.  V. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rtSj  s.  v. 

Feigerle,  Ignatius,  a  Boman  Catholic  theologian 
and  prelate  of  Germany,  was  a  Moravian  by  birth.  In 
1818  he  received  holy  orders ;  was  in  1823  professor  of 
theology  at  the  lyceum  in  OlmUtz  •,  in  1827  first  rector 
of  the  newly  founded  university  there ;  in  1830  profess- 
or at  the  Vienna  University;  in  1831  court  chaplain; 
and  in  1840  court  preacher  there.  In  1852  he  was  con- 
secrated as  bishop  of  St.  Polten,  and  died  Sept.  27, 1863. 
He  wrote,  Historia  VUcb  SS,  Thoma  a  Villanovay  Thomm 
Aquinatis  et  Laur,  Justiniani  (Vienna,  1889)  i—Predigt" 
Entwurfe  (ibid.  1835,  8  vols.;  3d  ed.  1844) :— Pmt^ten 
aber  die  heUige  Messe  (ibid.  1844) ; — Der  geistige  Kampf 
in  Predigten  (ibid.  1861,  translated  also  into  Italian). 
(B.P.) 

FeiHre  of  £nous  the  Culdek.  The  word  feUire, 
derived  from  **  feil,**  the  Irish  equivalent  of  "  vigils,**  is 
applied  to  the  metrical  festology  composed  by  iEngus 
the  Culdee  about  the  year  780.  It  is  the  most  ancient 
of  five  martyrologies  belonging  to  Ireland.  It  consists 
of  three  parts :  (1)  Five  quatrains  invoking  a  blessing 
on  the  poet  and  his  work  j  (2)  a  preface  of  two  hundred 
and  twenty  quatrains ;  and  (3)  the  festology  itself,  in 
three  hundred  and  sixty.five  quatrains,  for  every  day 
in  the  year. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Antiq,  s.  v. 

Feilmoser,  Ahdreas  Benedict,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Hopfgarten,  in  the 
Tyrol,  in  1777.  He  took  holy  orders  in  1800,  and  was 
for  some  time  professor  of  theology  at  Innsprack.  In 
1821  he  was  called  to  Tfibingen,  wheye  he  died,  July  20, 
1 83L  Besides  contributing  to  the  THUnngen  Theologische 
Quartalschrifty  he  wrote  Eudeitung  in  die  Biicher  des 
Neuen  Bundes  (Innsprack,  1810 ;  Tubingen,  1830).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  18, 75 ;  Lichtenberger, 
Encgdop,  des  Scienees  Religieuses,  &  v.     (B.  P.) 

Feki,  The  Bund  Men  of,  an  order  of  blind  devo- 
tees in  Japan,  instituted  in  A.D.  1150.  There  is  a  leg- 
end that  their  founder,  Fcki,  was  captured  by  Joritomo. 
The  captive,  though  kindly  treated,  not  being  able  to 
look  upon  his  captor  without  an  irresistible  desire  to 
kill  him,  plucked  out  his  eyes  and  presented  them  to 
Joritomo.  There  is  another  more  ancient  but  less  nu- 
merous order  of  the  blind,  clsiming  as  its  founder  a  son 
of  one  of  the  emperors  of  Japan,  who  cried  himself  blind 
at  the  death  of  his  beautiful  princess.  This  last  so- 
ciety is  composed  of  none  but  ecclesiastics;  the  other 
consists  of  secular  persons  of  all  ranks.  They  are  not 
supported  by  alms,  like  many  other  devotees,  but  most 
of  them  are  mechanics,  who  eara  their  own  living. 

Felbinger,  Jeremias,  a  Socinian,  who  was  bora  at 
Brieg,  in  Silesia,  April  27, 1616,  was  for  some  time  rec- 
tor at  Coslin,  in  Pomerania,  and  afterwards  chorister  at 
the  princely  school  in  Stettin..  On  account  of  his  So- 
cinian tendencies  he  had  to  give  up  his  position,  and 
went  to  Holland,  where  he  died  in  1687.  He  wrote, 
Demonstrationes  Christiana  (1653): — Die  Lehre  von 
Gottf  etc.  (1654) : — Epistola  ad  Chrittumos  unum  Aliis- 
simum  Deum^  Patrem,  etc.  (1672).  He  also  translated 
into  German  the  Confessio  Fidei  Christ  edila  Nomine 
Ecclesiar,  qua  in  Polonia  unum  Deum  Profttentur  (1658) : 


FELDE 


378 


FELIX 


— and  made  a  translation  of  the  New  Teat,  from  the 
Greek  into  German  (Amsterdam,  1660).  See  Winor, 
Handbuch  der  theol.  LiL  i,  169,888,  419;  Jocher,  Attg^ 
mexM»  Gelehrten-'LexikoH,  a.  r.     (B.  P.) 

Felde,  Albert -zum,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Sept,  9,  1675,  at  Hamburg.  In  1704 
be  was  pastor  at  Tonningen ;  in  1709  pastor,  and  doc- 
tor and  professor  of  theology  at  Kiel,  where  he  died, 
Dec  27, 1720,  leaving  Inttitutionet  Theologioi  MoralU : 
— A  nalecta  Disqumtionum  Sacrarums—Potiiioa  Sacra : 
— J>fi  EnaUage  Scripturm  Sacra: — Dialogus  cum  Try' 
phone  verum  cue  Juttim  Mariyrit  Fatum: — De  CuUu 
imagmum  Anti-Chri$tiano :-^Deca»  Obaervaiionum  Sa- 
crarum  ex  PeUribus  ApottolicU,  See  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  iheoL  Lit.  i,  127;  Jocher,  AUgemeinet  Gelehrtm-Lex» 
ikon,  s.  V. ;  Moller,  Cimbria  Litterata,     (B.  P.) 

Felder,  Franz  Cabl,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  boro  Oct.  6, 1766.  He  studieil 
at  Dillingen,  where  Sailer  was  among  his  teachers. 
In  1789  he  took  holy  orders,  and  in  1794  became 
pastor  at  Waltershofen,  where  he  died,  June  1,  1818. 
He  published,  Fesfpredigtm  (Ulm,  1804-5,  2  vols.)  :— 
Kieine*  Magaxm  fur  KcUholische  ReUgioH^ehrer  (Con- 
stance, 1806-8,  8  vols.) : — Neues  Magazm  fur  Kalho- 
Utche  ReiigwMUhrer  (1809-16,  8  vols.)  i—Literaturzeit- 
ungfur  Kaptolitche  Rdighndehrer  (Landshut,  1810-1 6, 7 
vols.) : — Gdehrttn'lAxUoon  dor  KatAoluchen  Geisllichkeit 
Deutschland  und  der  Schweit  (ibid.  1817 ;  the  second 
and  third. vols,  were  edited  by  Waitzenegger,  1820-22). 
See  During,  Die  geUhrten  Theologen  VeutschkmdSf  i,  397 
aq.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  12,  856;  ii,  42, 
112, 151.     (R  P.) 

Feldho^  Frxbdrich  August,  a  Lntheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Elberfeld,  Nov.  19, 1800. 
He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  JBerlin ;  was  for  some  time 
assistant  to  the  Lutheran  pastor  of  his  native  place,  and 
accepted  a  call  to  Kymwegen,  in  Holland,  in  1828.  In 
1828  he  was  called  to  Wupperfeld,  and  died  Jan.  8, 1844. 
He  wrote,  Die  Zeitenlinie  der  heiligen  Schrijl  (Frank- 
fort, 1881)  : — Ueber.  die  Jahre  der  Geburt  und  Aufertte- 
hung  unseres  Herm  (ibid.  1832)  i—Die  V6lkert<yfel  der 
Genesit  (Elberfekl,  l8S7)i—Gnomen  zur  Geechichte  dee 
vier  WeltaUer  (Barmen,  1840^:  — Chj-ietUche  Gedichte 
(ibid,  eod.) : — Feierkldnge  (ibid.).  See  Koch,  Geechichfe 
dee  deuttchen  KirchenliedeSf  vii,  197  sq. ;  ZuchoKI,  Dibl, 
TheoL  i,  352.     (B.  P.) 

Felloe,  GutLLAUMK  Adam  dk,  professor  and  dean 
of  the  Protestant  faculty  of  Montauban,  was  bom  at 
Otterberg  in  1808.  He  studied  at  Strasburg;  was 
in  1836  pastor  at  Bolbec ;  in  1888  was  called  to  the 
chair  of  ethics  and  homiletica  at  Montauban,  and  in 
1865  was  made  dean  of  the  faculty.  In  1870  he  re- 
tired from  public  activity,  and  died  at  t«ausanne,  Oct 
23,  1871.  Felice  was  a  very  excellent  preacher.  Be- 
sides histontributions  to Les  Archives  du  Christianisme, 
VEsperance,  New  York  Observer^  and  the  Evangelical 
Christendom^  he  publbhed,  Euai  tur  VEsprit  et  le  But 
de  rinstiiution  Biblique,  a  prize  essay  (Paris,  1823) : — 
Appel  dun  Chrkien  aux  gent  de  Lettres  (ibid.  1841; 
Germ,  transl.  by  Dielitz,  Berlin,  1843)  '.—Histoire  des 
Proieelanis  de  France  (4th  ed.  Toulouse,  1861 ;  translat- 
ed into  four  different  languages).  See  PMezert,  G,  de 
Felice,  Profeeseur  et  Pridicateur;  Recolin,  in  Lichten- 
berger's  Encydop.  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v. ;  Zuch- 
old,  Bibl.  TheoL  i,  352  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Felioian,  Saint,  was  arrested  at  Rome  for  being  a 
Christian,  in  company  with  his  brother  Primus.  The 
two  were  brought  before  the  emperor  Maximian  Her- 
cules, who,  on  their  refusing  to  sacrifice  to  idols,  con- 
demned them  to  be  publicly  scourged.  He  then  sent 
them  to  Promotus,  the  judge  of  Normentom,  a  city 
four  or  five  leagues  distant  from  Rome.  Promotus  not 
being  able  to  shake  their  resolution,  beheaded  them 
both,  in  the  3'ear  286  or  287.  Moreri  says  that  "the 
acts  of  these  martyn  do  not  seem  authentical  ;**  how- 


ever it  be,  the  Church  honon  their  RnniverBary  on  June 
9.    See  Hoefer,  A*bup.  Biog,  GMraU,  a.  r. 

Fellcian,  a  noted  Donatist  bishop  of  Husti,  some- 
where in  Africa,  deeply  implicated  in  the  controversy 
concerning  Prietextatus,  at  the  close  of  the  4th  centnir, 
and  finally  deposed.  See  Smith,  DicL  of  ChrisL  Biog, 
s.  V. 

Felioiano^  Porfirio,  an  Italian  prelate  and  poet, 
was  boro  in  the  canton  of  Yaud  in  1562.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  philosophy,  mathematics,  jurispradence,  belles- 
lettres,  and  wrote  very  fine  Latin.  Being  at  first 
attached  to  cardinal  Salviati,  he  became  secretary  to 
pope  Paul  V,  who  appointed  him  bishop  of  Foligno, 
where  he  died,  Oct.  2, 1632.  He  left  Rime  Diverse, 
Morali,  Espirituali  (Foligno,  1630),  and  several  vol- 
umes of  letters  in  Latin  and  Italian.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

FeliolanuB,  Hispaleksis,  a  Spanish  Capuchin, 
who  died  between  1730  and  1740,  is  the  author  of  /»- 
struetio  vites  SpiriluaUs  Brevis  et  Clara  (Seville,  1696 ; 
Madrid,  1700):— Cantiones  Spirituales  (Seville,  1698): 
—Officium  Parvum  SS.  Trinitatis  (1700)  :—De  Fontibua 
Salvaioris  (1708)  i—Lux  Apostolica  (1716).  See  Bern  a 
Bononia,  Bibl,  Capucc,;  Jocher,  AUgemeineM  GeUkrla^ 
Lexikon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

F61ioien  de  SAXNTE-MAODKLEimc,  a  French  Car- 
melite monk,  was  bora  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, at  Nantes.  He  taught  theology  in  his  native  town 
and  at  Bordeaux ;  afterwards  became  prior  of  Agen ;  and 
at  last  definitor  of  the  province  of  Touraine.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  great  knowledge  and  regular 
habits.  Being  suspected  as  a  Jansenist,  he  returned  to 
Nantes,  where  he  died  in  1685,  leaving  Defensio  Prod- 
dentits  Divinm  (Bordeaux,  1657,  3  vols.) : — Nova  ElO' 
quenlioB  Melhodus  (Paris,  1666).  See  Hoefer,  Nomv, 
Biog,  GMrak,  s.  v. 

Felbe  is  the  name  of  a  very  large  number  of  early 
Christians,  among  whom  we  notice  the  following :  (1) 
Bishop  of  Aptunga,  apparently  In  proconsular  Africa; 
prominent  in  the  controversy  concerning  the  ordination 
of  Cacilianus  (q.  v.)  to  the  see  of  Carthage,  early  in  the 
4th  century.  (2)  The  apostle  of  the  East  Angles  and 
first  bishop  of  Dunwich ;  died  cir.  A.D.  647,  and  com- 
memorated  as  a  saint  March  8.  (3)  Donatist  btsbop  of 
Idisia,  in  Numid  ia,  in  861 ;  guilty  of  great  excesses.  (4) 
Saintj  bishop  of  Nantes,  in  Brittauy,  in  550;  died  Jan. 
6, 582 ;  commemorated  July  7.  (5)  First  bishop  of  Nn- 
ceria  (or  Nocera),  in  Umbria,  in  402.  (6)  Archbishop 
of  Ravenna  in  708 ;  carried  to  Constantinople  and  blind- 
ed, "but  afterwards  restored,  and  died  Nov.  25, 724.  (7) 
Metropolitan  bishop  of  Seville ;  confirmed  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Toledo  near  the  close  of  the  7th  century.  QS) 
Bishop  of  Siponto;  addressed  by  Gregory  the  Great  in 
591  and  593.  (9)  Bishop  of  Treves  in  386;  resigned 
about  398.  (10)  Bishop  of  Tubzoca,  martyred  under 
Diocletian  in  303,  and  commemorated  as  a  saint  Oct.  24. 
(11)  Abbot  of  a  little  monastery  in  Byzacena,  to  which 
Fulgentius  (q.  v.)  retired  early  in  the  6th  century.  (12) 
Suroamed  Octavius,  a  reader,  of  Abutina,  in  Africa,  mar- 
tyred at  Carthage  under  Anulinus,  the  proconsul,  with 
Dativus  (q.  v.),  and  commemorated  as  a  saint  Feb.  IS: 
(13)  A  native  of  Scilita,  martyred  at  Oarthage  under 
Severus  (A.D.  200  or  202),  along  with  Perpetua  (q.  v.) 
and  others ;  commemorated  July  17. 


OF  Caxtalicio,  Saint,  an  Italian  monk,  was 
bom  at  Cantalicio,  Umbria,  in  1513.  He  took  the  habit 
of  a  Capuchin,  in  1543,  at  Ascoli.  In  1546  he  was  sent 
to  Rome  as  a.  mendicant  friar.  During  a  plague  which 
desolated  Rome  in  1580,  Felix  made  himself  remarka- 
ble by  his  truly  Christian  zeal;  as  also  during  a  fiunine 
in  1585.  In  spite  of  his  privations  and  penances  he 
lived  to  the  age  of  seventy-four.  Urban  VUI  beatified 
him  Oct.  1, 1625;  Innocent  X  commenced  his  can<«iiza- 
tion  Feb.  6, 1652,  and  Gement  XI  finished  it,  May  S, 
1709.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrakf  a.  v 


FELL 


879    . 


FENRIS 


Felix  OF  Valdu.    See  YaloiBi  Fklix  of. 

Fell,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  dtrine,  was 
bom  in  the  parish  of  St.  Clement  Danes,  London,  in 
1594,  and  was  educated  at  Christ  Cbarch,  Oxford.  In 
1626  he  was  made  Margaret  professor  of  dirinttjr,  and 
had  a  prebend  at  Worcester.  He  was  then  a  Calvin- 
ist,  but,  renouncing  that  system,  he  was  made  dean  of 
Lichfield  in  1637,  and  in  1638  dean  of  Christ  Cbnich. 
He  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  in  1645,  which  office 
he  retained  noUl  1647.  He  died  Feb.  1, 1648-49.  He 
published  PrimUuB  ;  rive  Oratio  Uahita  Oxomm  in  SdtO" 
Ua  Theoiogia,  Nov.  9, 1626.  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet, 
a.  V. ;  AUibone,  Diet,  ofBriU  and  Amer,  AuthorSf  s.  v. 

Fellon,  Thomas  Bkrxabd,  a  French  Jesuit,  was 
bom  at  Avignon,  Jolj  12, 1672,  and  died  ICarch  25, 1759. 
He  published.  Paraphrase  de$  Psaumes: — Traiii  de 
VA  mour  de  Dim  SeUm  Francois  de  8ale9  (Nancy,  1754, 
8  vols.).  See  lichtenberger,  Enofchp.  de»  Seieneet  i2e- 
UffieuteSf  s.  v.;  Jocher,  AUgemrineM  GeUhrten' Lexibon, 
a.v.    (RP.) 

Fela.  a  name  common  to  several  Protestant  theolo- 
gians: 

1.  JoRAXN  HfinnucH,  who  was  bom  at  Lindau  in 
1733,  and  died  in  1790,  is  the  author  of  Diu,  de  Varia 
Comfeerionit  TeirapoUUma  Fortnna  (Gotdngen,  1775). 
See  Winer,  Handintek  der  theoL  Ld.  i,  382. 

2.  JoiiA2ix  MicfiAKi^  professor  of  theology  and 
preacher  at  St.  Gall,  was  born  there  in  1761,  and  died 
Sept.  21,  1833.  He  is  the  author  of.  Die  Kirckliche 
Tramung  der  Confurionen  (SL  Gall,  1829)  :—Denkmal 
wchaeeizaiteher  JU/omtatoren  in  VorUsungtn  (ibid.  1819). 
See  Winer,  Handbueh  der  theol.  Lit.  i,  359, 748. 

3.  Sebastian,  was  bom  SepL  20, 1697,  at  Kempten, 
in  Suabia.  He  studied  at  Halle  and  Jena,  and  died  at 
Lindau,  Hay  18, 1749,  leaving  De  Proteetantium  Juti\fir 
catume  (1718).  See  Jocher,  ilZ/jTcmetnef  G^hrttn-Lex- 
«ihMi,s.v.    (a  P.) 

Felflk  Chzistiaii  Lebreoht,  a  Jewish  convert  of 
Prague,  was  bom  in  1640,  and  died  at  Hambur|]^  in  1719. 
He  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  various  universities 
and  gymnasia,  and  wrote,  0'»'T1fV»n  "J'^T  njf^O,  i.  e. 

Hodegue  Judmorum  (Letpsic,  1703) : — Brevit  et  Penpi" 
eua  via  ad  IJnguam  Sanctam  (Sondershausen,  1697)  :— 
Brerit  et  Perepicua  via  ad  Aaxntuatianem  (Witten- 
berg, 1700).  See  FUrrt,  BibL  Jud,  i,  278  sq.;  Stein- 
•ebneider,  Bibliographitchet  ffandbaeh,  s.  v. ;  Wolf,  BiN, 
Hebr,  i,  1009;  Jdcher,  Al^emeinee  Geiehrten-lAxihon^ 
a.  V. ;  Roi,  Die  Evangeliache  Christenheit  vnd  die  Juden 
(Carlirahe,  1884),  i,  1 16  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Feltoo,  Nicholas,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Yarmouth,  in  Norfolk,  in  1568,  and  educated  at 
Pembroke  Hall,  where  he  became  fellow  Nov.  27, 1583. 
He  was  rector  of  St.  Manr-le-Bow,  Jan.  17, 1595,  and 
flonoe  time  of  St  Antholin's,  London.  He  was  elected 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall,  June  29, 1616,  and  admitted 
lector  of  Great  Easton,  in  Essex,  Oct.  28  following ;  in 
the  aame  year  collated  to  a  prebend  in  Sr.  Paul's,  and 
in  1617  promoted  to  the  see  of  Bristol,  to  which  he  was 
consecrated  Dec  14.  In  1618  he  was  nominated  to  the 
bishopric  of  Coventry  and  Lichfield,  but  translated  to 
Ely  March  11  of  that  year.  He  died  Oct.  5, 1626.  See 
Cbalmers,  Biog,  Did,  a,  v. 

FeltQfl,  Hkmrt  J.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcoiwil  cler- 
gymao,  was  bom  in  1775.  He  was  a  native  of  Ireland, 
snd  came  to  America  when  quite  a  young  man.  Hav- 
ing been  for  some  time  a  preacher  in  another  commun- 
ion, he  was  admitted  into  the  ministry  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  about  1798.  He  oflkiated  for  a 
period  at  Easton,  Pa.,  when  he  became  rector  of  Trinity 
Church,  Sweedsborough,  N.  J.,  whence  he  was  called,  in 
1808,  to  the  rectorate  of  St  Ann's  Church,  Brooklyn, 
L.  I.,  and  thence,  in  1824,  to  that  of  St.  Stephen's  Church, 
New  York  city.  He'died  Aug.  24, 1828.  Dr.  Feltus 
was  distinguished  for  piety,  and  fidelity  in  the  discharge 
of  all  hn  ministeiial  dnties.     He  was  humble  and  if- 


fectionate,  and  much  beloved  and  respected  by  his  con- 
gregation. See  Tke  Chrietian  Journal  (N.  Y.),  1828» 
p.  287. 

Fel^Bvlnger,  Joha^tr  Paul,  a  German  theologian, 
was  bora  at  Nuremberg  in  1616.  Having  been  pro- 
fessor at  Altdorf,  he  took  part  in  the  religious  controver- 
sies of  the  time,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
against  the  writings  of  the  Socinians,  in  opposition  to 
whom  he  put  forth,  AntuOetorodut : — De/emio  pro  A* 
Grawero  contra  Smalzium,  He  died  in  1681.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginkrak^  s.  v. 

Fen,  John,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine  of  the  16th 
century,  was  bom  at  Montacute,  SomerBetshire.  He 
was  educated  at  New  College,  Oxford,  where  he  con^ 
tinued  till  ejected  by  the  queen's  commissioners  for  his 
seal  for  Romanism.  He  was  then  schoolmaster  at 
Bury  St.  Edmund's,  till  removed  on  the  same  account. 
He  fled  to  Flanders,  thence  to  Italy,  and  at  last  fixed 
his  residence  at  Loovain,  where  he  died  in  1613.  He 
wrote  and  translated  many  books,  living  to  celebrate 
his  fiftieth  year  of  exile  bevond  the  seas.  See  Fuller, 
Warihiee  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  106;  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  ufkon,  s.  v. 

Feneberg,  Johann  Michael,  a  German  Jesuit,  was 
bom  Feb.  9, 1751,  at  Obemttorf,  in  Switzerland.  In  1773 
he  was  professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Ingoktadt,  in 
1795  preacher  at  Seeg,  in  1805  at  Vohringen,  near  Ulm, 
where  he  died,  Oct.  12, 1812.  Feneberg  is  the  author 
of  several  hymns,  which  breathe  an  evangelical  spirit, 
and  are  found  in  Fuchs,  Samndung  Erbaulicher  Lieder 
(Kempten,  1812).  See  Sailer,  Aus  Fenebergs  Leben 
(Munich,  1814) ;  Koch,  Gexkichte  dee  deuttchen  Kirchen' 
/i«fef,vi,5d3sq.     (a  P.) 

Feirner,  William,  a  minister  of  the  Chnrch  of 
England,  was  bom  Jan.  81,  1831,  at  South wark.  In 
1854  he  entered  the  college  of  the  London  Jews'  Socie- 
ty, and  in  1857  was  appointed  lay  missionary  among 
the  Jews  of  the  duchy  of  Posen.  In  1860  Mr.  Fenner 
was  to  reopen  the  mission  in  Tunis,  and  was  ordained 
by  biiihop  Tomlinson  of  Gibraltar.  He  died  at  Tunis, 
July  22, 1874.    (B.  P.) 

FenouiUet  (or  FenoiUet),  Pikrrk  de,  a  French 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Annecy  (Savoy),  studied  there, 
entered  into  orders,  became  theological  tutor  at  Gap, 
and  then  went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  preacher  to 
Henry  IV.  In  1607  he  was  nominated  bishop  of  Mont- 
pellier,  and  in  1609  assisteil  at  the  Council  of  Narbonne ; 
but  he  became  so  zealous  for  Romanism  that  the  Prot- 
estants complained  of  his  rigor,  and  he  abandoned  his 
diocese  and  joined  the  royal  army,  July  2,  1621.  He 
was  afterwanis  busy  in  commissions  until  his  return  to 
his  diocese,  Sept.  20, 1636.  In  1652,  being  sent  to  Paris 
on  some  religious  matters,  he  died  there,  Nov.  23,  leav- 
ing a  number  of  addresses,  for  which  see  Hoofer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Geniraltf  s.  v. 

Femls  (or  Fenrir),  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  was 
a  wolf,  the  frightful  son  of  the  evil  Loke  and  the  giant- 
ess Angerbode.  The  Asas  knew  the  danger  that  threat- 
ened them  from  the  children  of  this  pair,  therefore  they 
brought  Fenris  up,  in  order  to  moderate  his  wildness, 
which  was  so  great  that  only  one  Asa,  the  strong  and 
wise  Tyr,  could  bring  food  to  him.  The  gods  attempt- 
ed to  bind  him,  and  laid  two  huge  chains  on  him,  Leding 
and  Droma,  but  when  he  stretched  himself  they  flew 
apart.  Then  the  Asss  ordered  a  band  to  be  made,  which 
appeared  to  be  of  silk,  but  was  composed  of  the  beard 
of  a  woman,  th^  root  of  a  mountain,  the  breath  of  a  fish, 
the  saliva  of  a  bird,  and  the  muscles  of  a  bear;  this  was 
called  Gleipner.  It  was  light,  but  the  wolf  did  not  allow 
it  to  be  laid  on  him,  and  he  bad  become  much  stronger 
since  tearing  the  two  chains.  The  Asas  began  to  per- 
suade him,  telling  him  that  if  he  did  not  expose  him- 
self to  some  danger  he  would  never  become  renowned; 
tlie  band  was  certainly  stronger  than  it  appeared  to  be, 
but  they  would  loose  him  in  case  he  were  too  weak. 
*'  If  I  do  not  free  myself,"  Feqris  answered,  ^  I  know  what 


PENTON 


.  380 


FERGUSON 


awaits  me;  therefore  let  it  not  touch  my  feet.  There 
must  be  some  magic  in  play;  but  if  you  are  honesty  let 
one  of  you  lay  bis  hand  into  my  throat  as  an  assurance 
of  your  sincerity."  After  much  persuasion,  Tyr  assent- 
ed to  lay  his  hand  into  the  wolf's  throat;  the  band  was 
adjusted,  but  when  Fenris  wanted  to  stretch  himself,  he 
found  that  the  band  gradually  contracted.  Then  the 
Asas  laughed,  except  Tyr,  for  his  hand  had  been  bitten 
off.  Since  that  time  Tyr  is  one-handed.  They  might 
have  killed  the  monster,  but  the  sanctity  of  the  place 
forbade  it.  They  therefore  took  one  end  of  the  band, 
called  Gelgia,  drew  it  through  a  rock,  GJol,  and  with  the 
aid  of  another  rock.  Twite,  they  hammered  the  first  still 
deeper  into  the  earth,  and  as  Fenris  wanted  to  devour 
all  who  came  near  him,  they  put  a  sword  into  his  throat, 
so  that  the  handle  lay  in  the  upper,  the  blade  in  the 
lower  Jaw,  and  Fenris  was  made  harmless.  His  body 
has  grown  so  that  by  opening  bis  mouth  he  touches 
heaven  and  earth.  Eveutually  he  will  free  himself, 
nnite  with  his  sister,  the  Midganlsnake,  and  with  the  sons 
of  Surtur,  in  war  against  the  Asas,  devour  the  sun,  and 
even  the  god  Odin ;  but  finally  the  god  AUvadur  will 
tear  his  throat  so  far  apart  that  he  wUl  die.  Odin  will 
come  from  his  grave,  and  the  world  will  be  renewed. 
Fenris  had  two  sons,  SkoU  and  Hate,  by  the  giantess 
Grige.  SkoU  persecutes  the  sun,  Hate  devours  tlie  moon. 
See  Norse  Mythology. 

FentOD,  RoGBB,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  clergyman  of 
the  16th  century,  was  bom  in  Lancashire,  became  fel- 
low of  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  was  the  labori- 
ous, pious,  beloved,  and  learned  minister  of  St.  Stephen's, 
Walbrook,  London.  He  was  a  friend  of  Dr.  Nicholas 
Felton,  oollegiates  and  city  ministers  together.  Fenton 
died  in  London  in  1615,  in  his  fiftieth  year,  leaving  a 
treatise  against  usury.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  Einff- 
2a}i<i(ed.NuttaU).x 

Fenwiok,  Benedict  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  was  bom  at  Leonardstown,  M d.,  Sept.  8, 1782. 
He  was  made  bishop  of  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  1, 1825,  a 
diocese  which  then  had  only  three  priests.  He  en- 
larged his  cathedral,  established  schools,  started  a  theo- 
Ipgical  seminary,  introduced  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
through  Ann  Alexis  in  1832,  saw  the  first  synod  of 
Boston  assembled  in  1842,  the  erection  of  a  new  see  of 
Hartford  in  1844,  founded  the  College  of  the  Holy  Cross 
at  Worcester,  through  the  Jesuits,  the  great  CatJiolic 
university  of  New  England,  and  died  in  Boston  after  an 
energetic  episcopate,  Aug.  11,  1846,  prudent,  learned, 
and  charitable.  See  De  Courcey  and  Shea,  Uist.  of  the 
Cath.  Church  m  the  U,  S,  p.  509. 

Fenwiok,  Edward,  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
was  a  native  of  Mar^'land,  long  a  Dominican  mission- 
ary in  Kentucky,  and  was  consecrated  the  first  bishop 
of  Cincinnati,  Jan.  18, 1822,  a  see  which  then  included 
Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  He  built  churches 
throughout  his  vast  diocese,  dedicated  the  Cathedral  of 
Cincinnati  in  1826,  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Dominic,  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  the  Poor  Clares,  found- 
ed in  his  city  the  Atherasum,  now  St.  Xavier's  College, 
and  in  1881  established  the  Catholic  Telegraph,  the 
oldest  of  American  Catholic  papers.  Edward  Fenwick 
died  of  cholera  at  Wooster,  O.,  Sept.  26, 1882.  See  De 
Courcey  and  Shea,  Hiit,  of  the  Cath,  Church  in  the  U,  S. 
p.  647. 

Fen^wlok,  Miohael,  an  eccentric  preacher,  con- 
nected with  the  early  Methodist  movement  in  England, 
commenced  to  preach  in  1750,  and  travelletl  some  time 
with  Wesley,  until  the  latter,  on  account  of  Fenwick's 
peculiarities,  dismissed  him.  He  almost  idolized  Wes- 
ley, and  imitated  him  so  accurately  in  speaking,  pray- 
ing, preaching,  and  writing,  that  it  was  difllcult  to 
discriminate  between  them.  Though  impradent,  his 
courage  and  zeal  for  Methodism  never  changed.  He 
was  not  given  a  circuit,  nor  was  he  acknowledged  as 
a  preacher  for  several  years  before  his  death.  Yet  he 
always  attended  the  place  of  the  annual  conference,  and 


continued  there  during  its  session,  though  he  was  not 
permitted  to  be  present  in  conference  after  1784.  The 
conference  allowed  him  a  pittance  annually,  and  he  had 
many  generous  friends  in  different  pans  of  the  king- 
dom, in  the  house  of  one  of  whom  he  lived  (in  Bridling- 
ton) for  some  years  before  his  death,  in  1797.  See  At- 
more,  Meth,  Memorial,  s.  v. 

Feologild,  archbishop  of  Canteifoury,  was  conse- 
crated June  9, 882,  to  that  see,  but  died  Aug.  29  follow- 
ing. He  had  formerly  been  abbot  of  one  of  the  Kentish 
monasteries.  See  Hook,  Lives  of  A  bps.  of  Canierbury, 
i,  288  sq. ;  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

FeraUa,  a  festival  of  the  ancient  Romans,  observed 
annually  in  honor  of  the  manes  of  deceased  friends  and 
relations.  It  was  instituted  by  Noma,  and  lasted  eleven 
days.  The  family  and  acquaintances  of  the  deceased 
went  to  the  graves  and  walked  round  them,  offering  up 
prayers  to  the  gods  of  the  infernal  regions  in  behalf  of 
their  dead  Mends.  An  entertainment  was  then  pre- 
pared and  placed  on  a  great  stone,  and  of  this  the  dead 
were  supposed  to  partake.  During  the  entire  days  of 
the  feast  no  marriages  were  allowed  to  be  celebrated, 
and  the  worship  of  the  other  deities  was  suspended,  all 
their  temples  being  shut. 

Ferat,  in  Mohammedanism,  is  separation  from  (lod, 
the  greatest  and  severest  punishment  for  the  damned. 

Ferber,  Johamn  Jacob,  a  ProtesUnt  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Strasburg  in  1678.  He  studied 
at  different  universities,  and  died  at  his  native  place, 
Feb.  12, 1717,  shortly  after  he  was  called  there  as  pro- 
fessor of  theolog}'.  He  wrote,  De  CertiUtdme  Thtologia 
NaturaUs  (Wittenberg,  1708)  .—De  iis  pta  m  Philoso- 
phia  Morali  Eximia  Sunt  (ibid.  1709) :— De  Theologia 
Experimentali  (ibid.  1711)  i—De  Prineyno  CartesU  de 
Omnibus  est  Dubitandum  (ibid.  1716).  See  J5cher,  A  lU 
gememes  Gthhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Ferdinand.    See  FsiwAKDa 

Ferdinand,  Piiiup,  a  Jewish  convert,  was  a  native 
of  Poland.  He  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  instructed  the  famous  Scaliger  in  the  Tal- 
mud, and  died  in  1598.  He  wrote,  '^'^  Pip,  Haec  smU 
Verba  Dei,  in  which  he  treats  of  the  Jewish  precepts, 
laws,  feasts,  etc.  (Cantert)ury,  1587).  See  Fttnt,  BibL 
TheoL  i,  279 ;  Wolf,  BibL  Hdtr.  i.  No.  1832 ;  iii.  No.  1882 ; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemtmes  Gehhieat-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Roi,  Die 
Evangdische  Christenheit  und  die  Juden  (Karlsruhe, 
1884),  p.  186  sq.     (R  P.) 

Fergus,  Saints  a  primitive  Scotch  bishop  and  con- 
fessor, commemorated  Nov.  15  to  18,  was  probably  of 
Irish  birth,  and  passed  through  Scotland  from  the  west 
southward,  planting  churehes  and  converting  the  na- 
tives to  Christianity.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog, 
s,  V. 

Ferguson,  Colin,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Kent  County,  Md.,  Dec  8, 1761. 
A  Scotch  schoolmaster  became  interested  in  him  as  a 
pupil  and  took  him  to  Edinburgh,  paying  the  expenses 
of  bis  education  at  the  university.  In  1782  he  was  an 
instructor  in  the  Kent  County  School  at  Chestertown, 
Md.  When  Washington  College,  the  oldest  in  the  state, 
was  organized  in  1788,  he  was  chosen  professor  of  lan- 
guages, mathematics,  and  natural  philosoph}*,  and  held 
the  position  till  1798,  when  he  was  appointed  president. 
After  studying  theology,  he  was  admitted  to  deacon's 
orders,  Aug.  8, 1785,  to  priest's,  Aug.  7  of  the  same  year, 
and  became  rector  in  St.  Paul's  Parish,  Kent  County, 
Md.,  where  he  served  until  1799.  In  1804  he  retired 
to  his  farm,  near  Georgetown  Cross  Roads,  where  he 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  March  10, 1806.  Of 
the  General  Convention  of  1789,  which  IVamed  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Church,  he  was  an  active  member.  He 
was  more  distinguished  as  a  scholar  than  as  a  preacher. 
See  Sprague,  Apnals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  v,  842. 

Ferguson,  James^  LLD.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 


FERGUSON 


381 


FERNANDEZ 


bora  in  Dolphinton,  studied  At  the  United  College,  and 
graduated  at  the  Universitjr  of  St.  Andrews  in  1763; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  October,  1768 ;  presented  to  the 
living  at  Dolphinton  in  September,  1772,  and  ordained 
April  7,  1773;  transferred  to  Pettinain,  Feb.  22,  1780, 
and  died  May  18,  1803,  aged  fifty-six  years,  much  es- 
teemed for  his  literary  abtlities.  He  published  AnAc^ 
cowU  of  the  Parish  ofPettmam,  See  Fatti  Ecdei.  Sco- 
<u»mv,i,221;  ii,882. 

Fergaflon,  Robert,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  English  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  bom  in  Glasgow,  May  12, 
1806;  educated  at  Hozton  College,  and  entered  upon 
his  ministry  at  Haddington  about  1830.  He  afterwards 
preached  at  Leicester,  Finchingfield,  Stepney,  Stratford, 
ten  years  at  Ryde,  beginning  with  1849,  and  then,  le- 
tuming  to  London,  undertook  the  charge  of  Portland 
Cbapel,  St.  John*s  Wood,  but  resigned  six  years  later  in 
order  to  devote  his  energies  more  directly  to  the  estab- 
liabment  of  the  Pastors'  Retiring  Fund,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  original  founders.  He  died  March  27, 1876. 
As  a  preacher  Mr.  Ferguson  was  in  a  marked  degree 
argumentative  and  rhetorical,  though  not  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  practical.  As  a  writer  he  was  elegant, 
persuasive,  and  forcible.  Among  other  interesting  pro- 
ductions of  his  pen  are,  Sacred  Studies: — Consecrated 
Ildgkis: — The  Penalties  of  Greatness : — Sacrifice: — 
FamUy  Pronfcrs.  He  was  for  some  time  editor  of  the 
£<dectic  Review^  and  the  Free  Church  of  England  Mag- 
ttxine.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  So- 
ciety in  1854,  and  in  the  same  year  became  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  He  took  great  interest 
in  the  advancement  of  workingmen,  and  wrote  for  their 
benefit  popular  histories  of  England  and  Scotland.  See 
(Lond.)  Cong,  Year-hook,  1876,  p.  381. 

X*ergaBBon,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  cleigyman,  bom 
in  Blair- Athol,  was  licensed  to  preach  March  29, 1809 ; 
ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Dalkeith,  Dec  7,  1813, 
as  assistant  at  Inveresk ;  presented  to  the  living  at  Beath 
by  the  earl  of  Moray  in  March,  1815,  admitted  May  4 
of  the  same  year,  and  died  March  19, 1866,  aged  eighty- 
four  years.  He  published  An  Account  of  the  Parish, 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  ii,  578. 

Z'erguaaone,  David,  a  Scotch  deigyman,  bora  in 
Dundee,  was  nominated  by  the  lords  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil to  be  the  first  Protestant  minister  at  Dunfermline,  in 
loGO.  He  was  a  member  of  thirty-nine  assemblies,  from 
Jane,  1563,  to  May,  1597,  and  moderator  in  those  of 
1572  and  1578.  In  1667  Rossyth  was  under  his  care, 
and  in  1574  Caroock  and  Baith  were  added.  In  1576 
he  was  appointed  visitor  of  the  churches  in  the  dio- 
cese from  Forth  to  Tay  and  from  the  Ochils  to  Dun- 
keld.  He  died  Aug.  23,  1598,  at  an  advanced  age. 
Though  not  educated  at  a  university,  yet  from  his  good 
Caste,  lively  fancy,  piety,  and  integrity,  he  was  highly 
useful  in  improving  and  enriching  the  Scottish  lan- 
guage, and  he  was  a  favorite  with  all  classes.  He  took 
a  lively  share  in  ecclesiastical  alTain,  wrote  a  diary  of 
historical  notes,  and  had  a  valuable  library  of  books  of 
tbeolog}'  and  natural  history.  He  wrote,  An  Answer 
to  the  Epistle  written  5y  Renat  Benedict  (Edinb.  1563); 
a  Sermon  preached  at  Leith  in  1572,  and  Scottish  Prov- 
erbe  Gathered  Together  (ibid.  1641).  Son^e  of  his  tracts 
were  printed  by  the  Bannatyne  Club  in  1860.  See  Fasti 
Ecdes.  ScotieoMBf  ii,  565. 

Fexiae  {hoUdays\  a  name  given  by  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans to  all  peculiar  seasons  of  rejoicing,  including  sacred 
festivals  or  days  consecrated  to  any  particular  god.  The 
/trim  were  of  several  classes.  Some  of  the  public  festi- 
vals were  regularly  observed,  and  the  date  of  their  oc- 
cnrrenoe  was  marked  in  the  Fa^  (q.  v.).  Such  were 
termed  Feries  Statwm  or  stated  holidays.  Other  pub- 
lic festivals  were  held  annually,  but  not  on  any  fixed 
day,  and  received  the  name  of  Feriai  Conceptiva,  The 
most  solemn  class  of  holidays  were  those  appointed  by 
the  public  authorities  to  be  observed  in  consequence  of 
great  national  emergency  or  impending  public  ca- 1 


Uunity,  and  received  the  name  of  Feria  ImperativcB,  No 
lawsuits  were  allowed  to  be  conducted  during  the  public 
ferioBf  and  the  people  were  strictly  enjoined  to  abstain 
from  work  under  penalty  of  a  fine.  The  introduction 
of  Christianity  into  Rome,  apd  especially  its  adoption 
as  the  religion  of  the  state,  led  to  the  abolition  of  the 
feritB  and  the  substitution  of  Christian  festivals. 

FERIiE  LATiNiB,  a  festival  instituted  by  Tarquinius 
Snperbus,  or  perhaps  at  an  earlier  period,  in  honor  of 
the  alliance  between  the  Romans  and  the  Latins.  It 
was  held  on  Mt.  Alba,  and  was  originally  dedicated  to 
the  worship  of  Jupiter  Latiaris,  The  festival  contin- 
ued for  several  days,  usually  five  or  six.  An  ox  was 
generally  offered  in  sacrifice  by  the  consul  then  in  ofilce, 
amid  the  assembled  multitudes,  who  engaged  in  rejoic- 
ings of  all  kinds.  The  two  days  immediately  following 
the  festival  were  considered  sacred,  and  on  them  no  mar- 
riages were  celebrated.  This  festival  was  observed  un- 
til the  4th  centur}'. 

FERIiE  SsMKHTiViB,  a  festival  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, observed  during  a  single  day  in  seed-time,  for  the 
purpose  of  praying  fur  the  blessing  of  the  gods  upon  the 
seed  sown. 

Feringa,  Richard  de,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  pro- 
moted and  consecrated  to  the  see  of  Dublin  in  1299. 
Immediately  after  his  consecration  he  made  that  con- 
veyance of  Churoh  lands  alluded  to  by  Carte  in  the  in- 
troduction to  his  Life  of  Ormond,  This  caused  some 
disturbance,  but  arohbishop  Ferings  finally  succeeded 
in  bringing  about  an  agreement  in  1300.  In  1303  he 
constituted  the  churohes  of  Stagonil  and  Tipperkevin 
prebends  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral.  In  1304  he  re- 
newed the  privileges  granted  by  his  predecessors  to  the 
dean  and  chapter  of  St.  Patrick's,  and  particularly  the 
exemption  of  their  prebendal  churches  from  visitations 
by  the  archdeacon  or  dean.  He  did  not  succeed  in  his 
administration,  and  died  Oct.  18, 1306,  while  on  his  way 
from  Rome.  See  D* Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  Abps,  of 
Dublin,  p.  114. 

Femald,  Mark,  a  veteran  minister  of  the  Chris- 
tian denomination,  was  bom  Maroh  9, 1784,  in  Kittery, 
Me.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  carpenter,  and  at  differ- 
ent times  in  his  youth  went  to  sea;  but  was  converted 
in  1807,  and  united  with  a  Free-will  Baptist  Church. 
The  following  year  he  began  to  preach,  at  once  engaged 
in  itinerant  labor,  and  was  ordained  Sept.  20,  1809. 
For  several  years  he  was  a  travelling  preacher,  chiefly 
in  New  England.  He  became  regular  pastor  at  York 
in  April,  1818,  but  gradually  became  identified  with  the 
body  called  **  Christians.'*  He  died  at  Kitter}',  Dec 
29, 1851,  where  he  had  been  pastor  for  thirty-six  years. 
See  his  Life,  written  by  himself.     (J.  C  S.) 

Femald,  "Woodbury  Melcher,  a  Universalist 
minister,  was  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  March  21, 1813. 
He  began  his  ministry  in  Nashua  in  1835,  received  ordi- 
nation the  following  year,  and  in  1838  moved  to  Cabot- 
ville  (now  Chicopee),  Mass.  In  1840  and  1841  be  was 
located  in  Newbury  port ;  then  three  years  in  Stoneham ; 
in  1845  removed  to  fioston ;  embraced  Swedenborgian- 
ism,  and  was  ordained  a  preacher  of  that  faith.  He 
published,  the  same  year,  a  work  entitled  The  Eternity 
of  Heaven  and  Hell  Confirmed  by  Scripture,  and  Ground- 
ed  in  the  Realities  of  the  Human  Soul: — Compendium  of 
the  Theological  and  Spiritual  Writings  of  Swedenborg 
(1854) : — God  tin  His  Providence  (1859) : — Memoirs  and 
Reminiscences  of  the  late  Professor  Bush  (1860)  -.—First 
Causes  of  Character  (1865) : — a  posthumous  volume  of 
Sermons,  found  marked  for  publication  at  his  decease, 
was  issued  under  the  title,  The  True  Christian  Life, 
and  How  to  Attain  It  (1874).  He  died  in  Boston,  Dec. 
10, 1878.  Mr.  Fcmald  was  a  voluminous  and  vigorous 
writer;  a  sincere,  pure,  and  spiritually -minded  man; 
and  possessed  of  a  metaphysical  turn  of  mind.  See 
Universalist  Register,  1875,  p.  124. 

Fernandez,  Alfonso,  a  Spanish  Dominican,  was 
bom  in  1573  at  Placentia,  and  died  after  1627.     He 


FERNANDEZ 


382 


FERRIS 


to  the  author  of  Historia  EedetiatHea  de  NueMroa  7V- 
empot:^ConcertaHo  Pradicatoria  pro  Eedena  Catho- 
Hca  contra  HareticoB^  GentiUty  Judaos  tl  Agarenoa, 
See  Echard,  'De  ScriptoribuM  Ordinis  Domimcanorwn  f 
Antonii  Bibliotheca  Hitpamca;  Jocher,  AU^emdmea  Ge- 
khrten^Lexikotij  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Fernandez,  Antonio,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  was  born 
at  Coimbra,  where  he  also  died,  May  14, 1628.  He  was 
for  some  time  missionary  in  the  East  Indies,  and  after  his 
return  was  preacher  at  Lisbon.  He  wrote,  Commenlar, 
in  Visiones  VHerU  Tettamenti  cum  ParaphratUms  Capi- 
turn.  See  Antonii  BUAiothtea  Hispatdca ;  J3cher,  AU- 
gemeines  (kUhrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Fernando  de  Talavera,  a  Spanish  prelate  and 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Talavera-la-Reyiia  (Old  Castile) 
in  1445.  He  was  a  Hieronyroite  monk,  became  bishop 
of  Avila,  confessor  and  counsellor  of  Ferdinand  Y,  the 
Catholic,  and  of  his  wife  Isabella.  He  encouraged  them 
particularly  in  their  enterprise  against  the  Moors,  which 
finally  led  to  the  surrender  of  Grenada.  He  obtained 
the  archiepiscopacy  of  that  city,  and  labored  very  zeal- 
ously in  the  propagation  of  the  Catholic  religion.  The 
biographers  pretend  that  he  died  in  sanctity.  May  14, 
1507,  and  that  several  miracles  took  place  at  his  tomb. 
He  wrote,  Provechosa  Doctrina  de  h  que  Debe  Saber 
Todo  Fid  ChriHiano: — Aviaadon  de  ku  ManeroM  de 
Pecadof: — M  Rettiluir  y  SoJtitfaoer : — De  Como  Demos 
de  Comulgar: — Ceremonial  Detodoi  lot  Qfidos  DivinoSf 
in  Latin  and  Spanish :— and  divers  other  works.  See 
Hoefer,  JVbtir.  Bioff,  Geniralff  s.  v. 

Femham,  Nicholas  of  (or  Xicolas  de  Ferneham\ 
was  bom  at  Farnham,  Surrey,  and  was  educated  as  a 
physician  at  Oxford.  He  became  a  student  in  Paris,  and 
there  gained  great  esteem,  being  accounted  famomt 
Anglicanua  (Matthew  Paris,  1229).  Here  he  continued 
until  the  university  was  in  effect  dissolved  through  the 
discords  between  the  clergy  and  people.  He  lived  for 
some  years  in  Bologna,  and  on  his  return  home  became 
physician  to  Henry  III,  who  at  Inst  made  him  bishop 
of  Chester.  Femham  became  bishop  of  Durham  in 
1241,  which  see  he  also  resigned  in  1249.  He  wrote 
many  books  ^  of  the  practice  in  physic  and  use  of  herbs," 
and  died  at  Stockton  in  private  life  in  February,  1258. 
See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (cd.  NuttaU),  iii,  206. 

Ferquiiard,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  bishop  of 
the  Isles,  and  presented  to  the  temporality  of  this  see, 
and  to  the  commendamry  of  Icolurokill,  lifay  24, 1530. 
He  resigned  the  bishopric  into  the  hands  of  the  pope,  in 
favor  of  Koderic  Maclean,  in  1544.  Sec  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  306. 

Ferrantl,  Dedo  and  Agostino,  two  miniature 
painters,  very  celebrated  in  their  day,  flourished  at 
Milan  in  1500.  In  the  cathedral  at  Yigevano  are  three 
of  their  works,  cousisting  of  a  Missal,  a  Book  of  the  Four 
Evangdists,  and  a  Book  of  the  Epistles,  illuminated  with 
miniature  pictures  and  ornaments  in  the  most  exquisite 
taste.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  HisU,  of  the  Fine  Arts,^\,\ 
Hoefer,  Nouv*  Biog,  G4nerale,  a.  v. 

Ferrara  (d^Este),  IppouTa    See  Estb. 

Ferrari,  Bartolommeo  (by  some  erroneously 
called  Ferrera),  a  noted  Italian  monk,  was  born  at  Mi- 
lan in  1497,  of  one  of  the  first  families  there.  He  was 
left  an  orphan  in  youth,  but  distinguished  himself  by 
his  piety  and  charity.  In  connection  with  Antonio- 
Maria  Zaccario  de  Cremona  and  Giacomo-Antonin  Mo- 
rigia,  a  nobleman  of  Milan,  he  instituted  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  Regular  Clerks  of  St.  Paul,  sanctioned  in  1530 
tinder  Clement  YII,  and  confirmed  three  years  after- 
wards by  Paul  III.  Ferrari  was  elected  superior  in 
1542,  but  governed  his  order  two  years  only.  The  Bar- 
nabites  (by  which  name  his  order  was  commonly  known) 
spread  over  Germany,  Bohemia,  Savoy,  France,  etc, 
teaching  in  the  principal  universities.  Soon  afterwards 
women  likewise  united  themselves  into  communities, 
and  were  called  AngeUce^  observing  the  rules  of  the 


Barnabites,  nnder  the  direction  of  the  aame  fathers ;  but 
the  discipUne  of  this  rdigioas  order  did  not  keep  its 
original  purity  very  long.  Ferrari  died  in  November, 
1544.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  G4nirak,  8.  v. 

Ferrari,  Oandenzio  (also  called  Gaudenzio  MU 
Umese),  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was  bora  at  Valdu- 
gia,  in  the  territory  of  Novara,  in  1484,  and  was  probably 
a  scholar  of  Pietro  Perugino.  Among  his  principal 
works  was  the  cupola  of  Santa  Matia,  in  Saronno.  His 
picture  of  St,  Christopher,  in  the  church  of  that  saint, 
at  Yercelli,  is  greatly  admired.  In  the  same  church  are 
several  other  pictures  of  his,  representing  scenes  in  the 
life  of  Christ.,  including  Marg  Magdalene  and  the  Po*- 
sion.  There  are  many  other  paintings  of  his  elsewhere. 
He  died  in  1550.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginerale, 
s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  t. 

Ferrtol  is  the  name  of  several  French  saints.  (1) 
A  presbyter  and  martyr  of  Be6an9on,  suffered  with  Fer- 
rutio  in  the  time  of  Irenseus ;  commemorated  June  16. 
(2)  Martyr  at  Yienne,  under  Maximian,  cir.  A.D.  304, 
and  commemorated  Sept  18,  was  a  military  tribune  who 
befriended  the  Christians.  (3)  Fifth  bishop  of  Uses, 
said  to  have  been  bora  of  a  noble  family  in  Narbonne, 
was  educated  by  Roricus,  bishop  of  Uzes,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  553.  He  labored  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Jews,  and  was  once  temporarily  banished  by  king  Chil- 
debert  under  false  suspicion.  He  died  in  581,  and  is 
commemorated  Jan.  4.  (4)  Fourteenth  bishop  of  Li- 
moges, is  said  to  have  died  in  595,  and  is  commemorated 
Sept.  18.  (5)  Thirteenth  bishop  of  Grenoble,  is  said  to 
have  been  martyred  A.D.  688,  and  is  commemocated 
Jan.  12  (or  16). 

Ferrie,  William,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
promoted  from  the  professorship  of  civil  history,  Sl  An- 
drews ;  presented  by  the  earl  of  Balcarras  to  the  living 
at  Kilconquhar  in  April,  1813,  which  he  held  in  con- 
junction, as  agreed  to  b}'  the  assembly,  and  was  ordained 
Feb.  8,  1814.  He  died  June  7, 1850,  aged  sizty-aeven 
years.  He  was  an  energetic  and  laborious  minister, 
whom  Dr.  Chalmers  characterized  as  **  the  best  minis- 
ter in  Fife,  and  the  worst  professor."  He  published,  A 
Catechism  on  the  Evidences  of  Revealed  Religion,  tdih 
Questions  on  Natural  Religion  (Edinburgh),  a  Sermon 
preached  at  Kilconquhar  in  1842,  and  An  Account  of 
the  Parish,    See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticancs,  ii,  438. 

Ferrin,  Clark  Klam,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Holland,  Vt.,  July  20, 1818.  In  1845 
he  graduated  from  the  University  of  Yermont,  and, 
after  teaching  two  years  in  Georgia,  graduated  in  1850 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  was  ordained 
Dec.  9  following,  at  Barton,  Yt,,  and  remained  with  that 
Church  until  Dec  13, 1854.  From  Feb.  9, 1856,  untU 
Sept.  7, 1877,  he  was  pastor  in  Hinesburg,  and  in  Plain- 
field  from  Febraar}',  1878,  till  his  death,  June  27, 1881. 
During  twenty-four  3'ears  he  was  a  member  of  the  cor* 
poration  of  the  Yermont  University.  In  1858  and  1859 
he  represented  Hinesburg  in  the  State  Legislature.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  pamphlets.  See  Cong,  Year" 
hook,  1882,  p.  30. 

Ferris,  Isaac,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  Beformed 
(Dutch)  minister,  was  bora  in  New  York  city,  Oct.  3, 
1799.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1816, 
and  from  the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  in 
1820;  was  licensed  by  the  Classis  of  New  Brunswick  in 
the  same  year,  and  became  pastor  there  in  1821 ;  at  Alba- 
ny in  1824;  Market  Street,  New  York  city,  in  1886;  and 
was  then  chosen  chancellor  of  New  York  University,  and 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  evidences  of  revealed 
religion  in  1852.  After  laboring  seventeen  and  a  half 
years,  he  was  made  emeritus,  with  the  college  debt  paid 
and  four  professorships  endowed.  In  1870  he  retired  from 
active  labors,  and  remained  thus  till  his  death,  June  16^ 
1878.  As  a  preacher,  Dr.Ferris  was  dear,  discriminating 
earnest,  and  practical ;  and  as  an  administrator  he  has 
seldom  been  equalled.  He  was  very  successful  n  ft 
pastor,  possessing  personal  magnetism  which  gained  for 


FERXTS 


383 


FEUARDENT 


blm  friends,  and  made  him  a  centre  of  influence.  He 
had  a  noble,  weU-balanced,  fiiUy-diacipUned,  and  broad 
mind.  His  nature  waa  kind,  and  bia  benevolence  large, 
yet  he  ooold  be  stem  and  positive  when  necessary.  He 
was  deeply  pious,  and  this  trait  shone  forth  on  all  oc- 
casions. Many  of  his  sermons  and  addresses  have  been 
pnUished,  and  some  of  tbem  delivered  before  various 
leligioaa  societies  are  of  permanent  historical  interest 
See  Gorwin,  Manual  of  the  Rff,  Church  in  A  maicaf  8d 
ed.p.25a. 

Ferns,  Gboro,  a  Bohemian  Jesuit,  was  bom  in  1585, 
and  died  Jan.  21, 1655.  He  translated  from  the  Latin 
into  the  Bohemian  language  the  Livt$  oflgnatiut  Loy- 
ola  and  Francis  Xavier:—The  Glory  of  Ignatius^  by 
NiooL  Landtius:  — ne  Spiritual  Praxis,  by  Nicol. 
Spondratus,  etc.  See  Alegambe,  BUiiiotheca  Scriptorum 
SaaetaHs  Jesu;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrten-Lexikon, 
fcv.     (RP.) 

FervexB,  in  Zendic  mythology,  consritute  the  third 
rank  of  celestial  deities,  being  the  souls  of  every  object 
that  had  life,  to  which,  therefore,  prayers  were  ofR?red ; 
n  species  of  celestial  manes, 

Fesole,  Cosokboatioix  of,  an  order  of  monks, 
founded  about  1386  by  Charles  of  Blontegranelli,  who 
Uved  among  the  mountains  of  Fesole.  They  were  also 
called  Mendicant  Friars  of  St.  Jerome.  The  order  was 
approved  by  Innocent  VII,  and  confirmcil  by  Gregory  XII 
and  Eugenius  IV.  See  Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Fessel,  Daniel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
waa  bom  in  Saxony  in  1599 ;  studied  at  Wittenberg, 
was  in  1625  court  preacher  to  the  widow  of  the  elector 
of  Brandenburg,  in  1630  superintendent  and  member  of 
consistory  at  CUstrin,  and  died  Oct.  17, 1G76,  leaving, 
A  dversaria  Sacra: — Theatrum  Theohgico- Politico  His- 
toricum : — Promptuarium  BibUcum : — Theosophia  Mys- 
ticcs  Nucleus: — Regnum  Chtisti  et  Diaboli  Mysticum: 
— Christus  Myslicus.  See  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theol, 
Lit,  i,  189;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Fesoler,  Joskph,  a  Boman  Catholic  theologian  and 
bishop,  was  bom  Dec  2, 1813,  at  Lochau,  in  Vorarlberg, 
Anstria,  and  studied  at  Brizen  and  Innsprack.  In  1837 
he  received  holy  orders,  and  was  promoted  in  1839  as 
doctor  of  theology  at  Vienna.  In  1841  he  was  made 
professor  of  Church  history  and  of  canon  law  at  Brixen, 
and  in  1852  was  called  to  Vienna.  In  1862  he  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Nyssa  in  partibus,  and  in  1865 
socceeded  Feigerle  as  buhop  of  St.  Polten.  At  the 
Vatican  council  he  was  first  secretary.  He  died  April 
25,  1872,  leaving,  Uetter  die  Provincial-  Synoden  und 
IHdcesan'Synoden  (Innsprack,  1849)  i—Instiiutiones  Pa' 
trohgia  (1850-52,  2  vols.)  \—Das  Kirchliche  BUcher- 
verhot  (Vienna,  1858)  i-^JDie  Protestantenfrage  in  Oester- 
reieh  (ibid.  1861)  z—FermwcAte  Schriften  (Freiburg, 
1869) : — Die  vahre  undfalsche  Unfehlbarkeit  der  PSpste 
(Vienna,  1871).  See  Erdinger,  Joseph  Fessler  (Brixen, 
1874) ;  Znchold,  BOL  Theol,  i,  354 ;  Liierarischer  Hand- 
veiserfur  das  Kathol,  DeuischUmd,  1872,  p.  212.  (13.  P.) 

Feat,  JoBANM  Samuei^  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  in  Thuringia,  Feb.  28,  1754.  lie 
studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1784  preacher  at  Trachenau, 
near  that  city,  and  died  there,  Nov.  16, 1796,  leaving, 
Ueber  die  Vortheile  der  Leiden  und  Widerwartigkeiten 
des  Lebens  (Leipsic,  1784;  2d  ed.  1787;  translated  also 
into  Dutch).  His  other  publications  are  of  no  im- 
portance. See  Ddring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutsch- 
lands,  i,  399  sq. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  426, 
861 ;  ii,  160, 196, 383,  886, 386.     (R  P.) 

-  F^te  Dieu  {Feast  of  Ood^  the  French  name  for 
Corpus  Christi),  a  solemn  festival  observed  in  the 
Bomish  Church  on  the  Thursday  after  the  octave  of 
Whitsuntide,  for  the  performing  of  a  peculiar  kind  of 
^wonhip  to  our  Saviour  in  the  eucharist.  The  festival 
§B  said  to  have  originated  with  pope  Urban  IV  in  1264 ; 
bot  in  consequence  of  the  political  commotions  of  the 


time,  the  bull  appointing  it  was  not  universally  obeyed. 
It  waa  confirmed,  however,  by  the  Council  of  Vienne, 
in  1311,  and  further  solemnized  by  pope  John  XXII, 
in  1316. 

Feti,  DoMKXiCK),  an  able  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Rome  in  1589;  was  a  scholar  of  Lodovico  Cardi,  and 
afterwards  studied  the  works  of  Giulio  Romano  at 
Mantua.  There  is  a  picture  by  him,  representing  the 
Miraculous  Feeding  of  the  Multitude,  which  is  highly 
commended.  Some  of  his  other  principal  works  are : 
Christ  Praying  in  the  Garden ;  Christ  I*i'e9enied  to  the 
People  by  Pilate f  Christ  Crowned  with  Thorns;  and 
The  Entombment,  Feti  died  at  Venice  iu  1624.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginh-ale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist, 
of  ike  Fine  A  rls,  s.  v. 

FetiileB,  a  college  of  ancient  Roman  priests,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  instituted  by  Numa,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  see  that,  in  all  transactions  with  other  na- 
tions, the  public  faith  should  be  maintained  invio- 
late. In  case  of  any  injury  from  a  neighboring  na- 
tion, four  fetiales  were  despatched  to  claim  redress. 
One  of  these  was  chosen  to  represent  the  four.  This 
deputy  then  proceeded  to  the  court  of  the  injuring  tribe 
or  nation,  delivered  his  message,  and  waited  thirty 
days  for  an  answer.  On  his  return  the  government 
would  proceed  in  accordance  with  the  message  he 
brought,  and  in  case  of  a  declaration  of  war  it  became 
the  duty  of  the  ^e^ia^  deputy  to  return  at  once  to  the 
border  of  the  offending  country,  and,  throwing  a  spear 
pointed  with  iron  or  smeared  with  blood,  to  make  a 
solemn  declaration  of  war  in  the  name  of  the  Roman 
people  upon  the  inhabitants  of  that  land. 

Fetish  (from  the  Portuguese  fetisso,  "  magician," 
KDd  fetisseira,  ''witch ^, is  a  general  name  for  the  dei- 
ties of  the  negroes  of  Guinea;  each  differing,  according 
to  the  direction  of  his  masoucki  or  priest.  The  nstives 
of  Africa  ascribe  all  their  good-fortune  to  these  gods, 
and  make  libations  of  palm  wine  in  their  honor.  Some 
birds,  the  sword-fish,  and  certain  stones  are  considered 
fetishes.  .  These  deities  are  worshipped  at  the  foot  of 
certain  trees,  are  adored  as  household  gods,  and  carried 
about  by  the  devotees. 

Fetva,  in  Mohammedanism,  is  a  declaration  that  a 
public  act  is  in  conformity  with  the  Koran.  The  right 
of  granting  this  sanction  belongs  to  the  Sheik  ul-Islam, 
who  usually  consults  the  college  of  Ulemas  before  mak- 
ing a  decision.  No  act  of  the  Turkish  government 
will  be  readily  obeyed  Mcithout  the  fetva,  because  not 
necessarily  binding  on  the  faithful.  It  has  sooSetimes 
been  used  to  dethrone  sultans,  and  deliver  them  over  to 
the  fury  of  the  Janizaries.  The  privilege  was  resisted 
by  Mourad  IV,  who  boldly  beheaded  the  Sheik  ul-Islam 
for  opposing  his  will. 

Feuardent,  Francois,  a  French  controversialist, 
a  member  of  the  order  of  the  Discalceati  (q.  v.),  and 
doctor  of  the  Paris  University,  was  born  at  Coutances, 
Dec  1, 1589.  In  1576  he  was  made  doctor  of  theology, 
and  died,  guardian  of  the  monastery  at  Bayeux,  Jan. 
1, 1610.  He  was  a  severe  opponent  of  the  Protestants, 
and  a  sort  of  Ishmael  against  his  own  co-religionists, 
when  they  differed  from  him.  He  wrote,  Theomachia 
Calvinistica : — Divins  Opuscules  et  Exercices  Spirituels 
de  S,  Ephrem,  mis  en  Fran^ais: — Censura  EccUsiae  Orir 
enlalis  de  Pracipuis  Nostri  Scectdi  Hcereticorum  Dog^ 
matihus  Nieremia  Constantwop,  Patriarchne : — De  <5fX- 
crorum  Bibliorum  Auioritate,  Veritate,  UtiUtcUe,  Ob- 
scuritate  et  Inierpretandi  Ratione : — Biblia  Sacra  cum 
Glossa  Ordinaria: — Reponses  aux  Doutes  dun  II Cri- 
tique Converti: — Antidota  Adversus  Impias  Criminati- 
oneSy  quibus  Antiguissimos  et  Sapientissimos  Ecdesia 
Africanm  Doctores  Tertullianum  et  Cyprianum  Vexant 
Laceraatque  Lutherani  et  Calvini: — Homtliie  25  in  Li- 
brum  Jo^m.  See  Baylc,  Dictionnaire  Histoi-ique  Cri- 
tique; Winer,  Ifandhuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  341;  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeines  Gdehrien-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
GMrale,s,r,    (B.P.) 


FEUERBACH 


384 


FIBUS 


Feuerbach,  Ludwig  Amdbeas,  a  Geiman  philoso- 
pher, was  bom  at  Landshut,  Bavaria,  July  28, 1804.    He 
•tadied  theology  and  philosophy  at  Heidelberg  and  Ber- 
lin.   Id  1828  he  began  to  lecture  on  philosophy  at  Er- 
langen,  and  opened  his  lectures  with  a  dissertation,  De 
Ratione  ttiia,  UmversaU^  Infinita,    In  18S0  he  published, 
snonymously,  Gedanken  iUfer  Tod  und  Unsterblichkeitf 
in  which  he  denied  the  belief  in  immortality.   As  this 
book  closed  to  him  all  and  every  academic  advance^ 
ment,  he  retired  to  Bruckberg,  where  he  spent  most  of 
his  life.    In  1833  he  published  Geackichte  der  neueren 
PhUosophie  von  Bacon  von  Verulam  bit  Spinoza ;  in  1837, 
DartUUung^  Etdtoichelung  und  Kriiik  der  Leibmtzschen 
PhUosophie ;  in  1838,  Pierre  Baf/U  nach  teinen  /Ur  die 
Getchichte  der  Phihtophie  und  Mentchheit  interetsaniesten 
Momenien.    In  1839  he  joined  the  so-called  left  wing  of 
the  Hegelian  school,  became  a  very  bitter  opponent  of 
his  former  master,  and  published  Kritik  der  htgeUchen 
PhUosophie f  in  the  Berliner  JahrhUcher,   Feuerbach  now 
attempted  an  independent  development  in  the  direction 
of  naturalism,  or,  rather,  materialism.    In  his  principal 
work,  Das  Wesen  des  Chrisienihums  (Leipsic,  1841 ;  Eng. 
transL  by  George  Eliot,  Lond.  1858 ;  new  ed.  1881 ;  Bus- 
sian  transl.  by  Philadelph  Theomachoff,  Lond.  1861),  he 
defines  God  as  a  mere  projection  into  empty  space  of  the 
human  ego,  as  an  image  of  man,  and  religion  as  a  sim- 
ple psychological  process,  as  an  illusion.    In  1848  he 
once  more  lectured  publicly  at  Heidelberg;  but,  when 
the   revolutionary   movement  completely   failed,  he 
again  retired  to  private  life.    Feuerbach  died  Sept.  13, 
1872.    His  writings  comprise  ten  volumes  (Leipsic, 
1845-66;  8d  ed.  1876).     See  Griin, /:u(/irt>  Feuer- 
bach in  seinem  Briejwechsel  und  Nachlasse  (Leipsic, 
1874,  2  vols.) ;  Beyer,  Leben  und  Geist  Ludwig  Feuer- 
bachs  (ibid.  1873) ;  Schaller,  DarsteUung  und  Kriiik  der 
PhUosophie  L,  Feuerbachs  (1847) ;  Schaden,  Ueber  den 
Gegensatz  des  (heistischen  und  paniheistischen  Hand- 
punks  (1848);  Frantz,  Ueber  den  Aiheismus  (1844); 
Haym,  Feuerbach  und  die  PhUosophie  (1847) ;  Barthol- 
may,  /iistoire  Critique  des  Doctrines  Religieuses  de  la 
PhUosophie  Modeme  (1855),  ii,  877 ;  Matter,  in  Lichlen- 
berger's  Encgkhp,  des  Sciences  Religieuses^  s.  v. ;  Zuchold, 
BU>L  Theol,  i,  355.     (a  P.) 

Feuerborn,  Justus,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, bom  in  Westphalia,  Nov.  13, 1587,  was  for  some 
time  court  preacher  at  Darmstadt,  afterwards  professor 
at  Marburg,  and  died  at  Giessen,  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology,  Feb.  6,  1656.  He  w^rote,  Kenosigraphia 
Christglogica : — Succincta  Epitome  Errorum  Calvinia- 
norum : — Expositio  Epistolcs  Pauli  ad  Galatas : — Theo- 
logia  Jobcea: — Syntagma  Disquisitionum  Saa'arum, 
See  Winer,  J/andbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  358 ;  Freher,  The- 
atrum  Eruditorum;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrten-Lexi- 
hon,  s.  V.     (a  P.) 

Feuerlein,  a  name  common  to  several  Lutheran 
theologians,  viz. : 

1.  Conrad,  was  bom  Nov.  29,  1629,  in  Franconia, 
studied  at  different  universities,  and  died  at  Nurem- 
berg, May  29, 1704.  His  publications  are  mostly  ser- 
mons. 

2.  Conrad  Frxedrich,  son  of  Friedrich,  was  bora 
at  Nuremberg,  July  15, 1694,  and  died  there  Aug.  22, 
1742. 

3.  Friedrich,  brother  of  Johann  Conrad,  was  bom 
at  Nuremberg,  Jan.  10,  1664,  and  died  there  Dec  14, 
1716. 

4.  Jacob  Wilhel3I,  son  of  Johann  Conrad,  was  bom 
at  Nuremberg,  March  23, 1689.  He  studied  at  various 
universities;  was  in  1715  professor  at  Altdorf,  in  1736 
at  G5ttingen,  and  died  there  May  10, 1776.  He  wrote, 
De  Dubitatione  Cartesiana  Pendciosa  (Jena,  1711) : — 
An  Existentia  Dei  sit  Veritas  IndemonstrabUis  (Alt- 
dorf, 1717):  —  PhUosophemata  Potiora  RecognUionum 
Clementi  Romano  Falso  AUributarum  (ibid.  1728):— 
De  Scnba  Evangdico,  ad  Math,  xiii,  52  (ibid.  1730) : 
—De  Libero  A  rbUrio  (ibid,  eod.)  :—De  Historia  A  ugust. 


Confessionis  (ibid.  1781): — De  Axiomate,  ex  Nihilo  Ki- 
hU  FU  (ibid.  1782)  :-De  Voce  2<nn  (ibid.  1783)  i-De 
ChristOf  Novo  Legislatore  (ibid.  1789)  :^De  Jejumo  Am- 
tepaschali  (ibid.  1741)  z-^Bibliolheca  SymboUca  Eran- 
geliea  Lutherana  (Gtittiogen,  1762).  This  is  only  a 
partial  list  of  his  many  writings,  the  titles  of  which  oc- 
cupy five  and  a  half  columns  in  Jdcher.  See  GAttens, 
Gelehrtes  Eurapa,  2, 8 ;  Beitrage  zur  Historie  der  Ge- 
lahrtheii  unserer  ZeUen,  v ;  Moser  and  Kenbauer,  Jetzlle- 
bends  Theohgen;  Wills,  N&mberger  Gdehrten-Lexihm ; 
Putter,  Gel.  Geschichte  von  Gdttingen,  p.  115;  Winer, 
Ilandbueh  der  iheoL  Lit.  i,  817, 389,  456,  598,  602,  842, 
861,  889. 

5.  JouANX  Conrad,  son  of  Conrad,  was  bora  Jan.  6, 
1650,  and  died  superintendent  at  Nordlingen,  March  8, 
1718.    His  publications  are  mostly  sermons. 

6.  Johann  Jacob,  son  of  Conrad,  was  bora  at  Nu- 
remberg, May  9,  1670,  and  died  there  May  30,  1716L 
See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrien-Lexikon^  s.  v.;  and 
Supplement  to  Jocher,  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

Feustking,  Johann  Hkinrich,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Geraiany,  was  born  at  Stella,  in  Holstetn, 
March  7, 1672.  He  studied  at  Rostock  and  Witten- 
berg; was  in  1697  superintendent  at  Jessen;  in  1703 
provost  at  Kemberg;  in  1706  court  preacher  at  Zerbst; 
in  1709  professor  of  theology  at  Vllttenbeig ;  in  1712 
first  court  preacher  and  member  of  consistory  at  Gotha, 
where  he  died,  March  28, 1713.  He  wrote.  Pastorate 
Evangelicum:  —  Historia  Cotloquii  Jeurensis  (Zeihst, 
1707).  See  MoUer,  CinAria  Litterata;  Winer,  Hand- 
buch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  763 ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  Geiehrtm- 
Lexikon,  a.  v.     (R.  P.) 

Feutrier,  Jean  Francois  tiTAciNTHs,  county  a 
French  prelate,  was  bora  at  Paris,  April  2, 1785.  After 
studying  at  Sr,  Sulpice,  he  entered  into  orders,  and  was 
soon  appointed,  by  cardinal  Fesch,  general  secretary  of 
the  great  almonry  of  France.  He  was  active  in  politico- 
religious  affoirs  under  Napoleon.  On  the  restoration  of 
royalty  he  was  appointed  rector  of  La  Madeleine,  where 
he  did  many  good  works.  In  1826  he  was  made  bish- 
op of  Beauvais,  and  in  1829  a  count  and  peer  of  France. 
He  died  at  Paris,  June  27,  1880.  See  Hoefer,  Kow. 
Biog.  GMrakf  s.  v. ;  Lichtenbeiger,  Enegdop.  des  Sci- 
ences ReligieuseSf  s.  v. 

Feyerabend,  Maurus,  a  Roman  Catholic  theok>- 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Oct.  7, 1754*  In  1777  he 
took  holy  orders;  was  for  some  time  teacher  in  the 
monastery  at  Ottobeuercn,  in  Suabia;  when  it  was 
closed  in  1802,  lived  in  literary  retirement,  and  died 
March  8, 1818.  He  translated  into  German  the  Epistles 
of  Gregory  the  Great  (Rempten,  1807) :— his  Ilomilies 
(ibid.  1810) :— and  the  WrUings  of  Cyprian  (Munich, 
1817).  See  Ddring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutsch- 
land,  i,  404  sq.;  Winer,  Ifandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  906, 
907.     (a  P.) 

Fiao,  an  Irish  saint,  commemorated  Oct.  12,  was 
bishop  of  Sleibhte  (now  Sletty),  and  is  said  to  have  been 
consecrated  by  SL  Patrick.  There  are  two  hymns  at- 
tributed to  him ;  one  (probably  genuine)  entitled  The 
Praise  of  St.  Patiick: — another  (probably  spurious), 
The  Hymn  on  St.  Brigida.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog.  s.  V. 

FianoelB,  a  ceremony  of  betrothal  as  practiced  in 
the  Romish  Church,  after  which  an  oath  was  adminis- 
tered to  the  man,  by  which  he  bound  himself  **  to  take 
the  woman  to  wife  within  forty  dsLy%  if  holy  Choreli 
will  permit.** 

Fibuflk  Bartbolomaus,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, was  bora  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Aug.  24, 1648.  In 
1662  he  Joined  the  Jesuits;  was  for  some  time  profeaor 
of  theology  at  Cologne,  and  died  there,  Feb.  18, 1706. 
He  wrote.  Apologia  pro  ConsdentUs  Infrmis  (Cologne, 
1682) : — De  Radice  Damnatorum  ProposiHonum  tA  Al- 
essandro  VII H  Innoceniio  II  (ibid.  1682)  :—Via  Verin 
tatis  et  Vita  contra  Atheos,  Paganos,  Judesos,  etc.  (ibid.  . 


FICHTE 


386 


FIESCO 


lGd&):—Demonttratio  Tr^arHta  Dei  adversut  Aiheoiy 
GadUa,  etc.  (ibid.  1702).  See  Hanheiiiii  BibL  Colon. ; 
JScber,  AUgeaeims  Geiehrien-Lexikon,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

ZHchte,  IMMA2CUEL  Hbrmann  yoNf  a  German  phi- 
losopher, the  BOD  of  Johann  Gottlieb  Fichto,  was  bom 
at  Jena,  July  18, 1797.  Although  he  had  given  him- 
self to  the  study  of  philosophy,  he  was  at  first  teacher 
in  the  gymnasium  at  Saorbiiick,  afterwards  at  Diis- 
selUorf,  and  in  18B5  at  Bonn  as  professor  of  philoso- 
phy. In  1842  he  was  called  to  Tubingen,  and  died 
there,  Aug.  9, 1879,  having  been  ennobled  by  the  king 
of  WUrtemberg  in  consideration  of  his  great  merits. 
His  career  as  teacher  and  writer  may  be  divided  into 
two  epochs.  The  first  begins  with  his  BeUrdffen  zur 
CharacterUHk  der  neueren  Philotophie  (1829),  and  es- 
pecially with  his  Udier  Gegensalz^  WendtputdU  und  Zid 
ievtiffer  Pkiioaophie  (1832).  During  this  period  we 
find  him  in  close  connection  with  the  Leipsic  professor 
Weiase,  with  whom  he  labored  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Hegelian  system,  out  of  which  he  tried  to  bring  forth  a 
speculative  theum  free  from  all  rationalism.  With  his 
SpectdatitB€  Theologie  (1846),  and  System  der  Ethik 
(1850-&3,  2  vols.),  he  closes  this  phase  of  development 
to  give  himself  entirely  to  psychological  speculation. 
To  this  second  period  belong  his  Anthropologie  {\^h^\ 
dd  ed.  1879),  Pggehologie  (1864-73, 2  parte),  and  a  num- 
ber of  monographs.  His  Vermiickte  Schrtflen  tur  Phir 
iotopkie,  Theologie  und  Ethik  (1869)  contain  a  part  of  his 
eaaays  contributed  to  the  Zeittchr^J^  Philosophie  tmd 
piilosophische  Kritik^  which  he  edited  alone  from  1887 
to  1947.  The  ground  character  of  his  philosophy  was 
m.  positive  religious  one,  directed  against  all  and  every 
ktud  of  materialism.  See  Neue  Evang^itcke  Kircheor 
xeiiung,  1879,  p.  585  sq.;  Bfatter,  in  Lichtenbeiger's 
JSneydiop,  dee  Sdeneee  Reiigietuee,  a.  v. ;  Zuchold,  BiU, 
TkeoLi,d^    (B.PO 

Ficxxroni,  Framcbsgo  di,  a  famous  Italian  antiqua- 
ry, who  was  bom  at  Lugano  in  1664,  and  died  at  Rome, 
Jon.  25, 1747,  is  the  author  of,  Oeeervazioni  Sopra  PAn- 
HekUa  di  Roma  DeserUte  net  Diario  ItaUco  di  Mont* 
yiitieoM  (Rome,  1709)  \—Memorie  piu  Singoiari  di  Roma 
«  sue  VidnoRze  (ibid.  1730)  i—Le  Vestigie  e  Rarita  di 
Homa  AtUieOf  e  U  Singolarita  di  Roma  Modema  (ibid. 
1744, 2  vols.).  See  J5cher,  A  Ugemeinee  GeiehrUn^Lexh- 
ion,  9,  V. ;  Uoefer,  Nouo.  Biog,  GMrale,  a.  v.     (B,  P.) 

Ffdanque,  Jacob  ben- A  braham,  a  Portuguese  rabbi 
of  Hamburg,  who  died  at  London,  Aug.  4, 1709,  is  the 
editor  of  Solomon  ben-Melech's  *^£1^  hhz^  (Amster- 
dam, 1685),  and  of  Abarbanel's  commentary  on  the  for- 
mer prophets  (Hamburg,  1687).  See  Furst,  BiU,  Jud.  i, 
280 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehticn^Lexikon,  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Fide,  Jebour  a  Sakcta.    See  Jeboxk  a  Sasicta 

FiDK. 

Fiedler,  Caapar,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was  born 
at  Rochlitz,  in  Bohemia,  Oct  20, 1619,  and  died  there. 
May  15, 1719.  He  was  an  ascetic  writer.  See  Hey- 
nen,  Beeckreibung  von  RodilUz;  Jocher,  AUgemeinea 
Getehrten-I.exikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Fiedler,  Conetantin,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
bom  St  Dantztc,  March  6, 1579,  and  died  at  Roatock, 
Oct.  21, 1644.  See  Jocher,  AUgemeinea  Gelehrien-Lexi- 
feR,a.v.    (a  P.) 

Fiedler,  Ferdinand  Ambroaioa,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  18,  1737,  at 
Tieono.  He  Joined  the  Ang^inians,  and  after  hav- 
ing received  holy  orders,  was  for  some  time  profess- 
or of  apologetics  and  canon  law.  In  1767  he  left 
the  monastery,  went  to  Leipsic  and  Hamburg,  and  in 
the  latter  place  joined  the  Evangelical  Church.  In 
1772  he  was  appointed  court-preacher  at  Ludwigslust, 
and  in  1778  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity. 
In  1774  he  was  made  superintendent  at  Doberan,  and 
die4  at  Altona,  June  26, 1780.  He  wrote,  Der  Protect 
(Leipstc,  1768-71, 3  vols.)  i—De  Ecdeeia  Repraeentanie 
(Btttzow,  177Z}  I —Geeehichte  aUer  Ceremomen  der  rd^ 

XIL^B  B 


misch-Kathoiieehen  Kirehe  (Leipsic,  1777-85,  2  vol8.> 
See  Doring,  Die  geUhrlen  Theologen  Deutschlands,  i, 
406  sq. ;  Winer,  Handhuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  626 ;  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeinee  Gelehrte»-LexikoHf  s.  v.     (B»  P.) 

Field,  Benjamin,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister 
of  marked  ability,  was  bom  at  Sevenoaks,  Kent,  in  1823. 
He  was  converted  when  twelve  years  of  age,  under  the 
ministry  of  Thomas  Collins,  became  a  local  preacher  at 
the  age  of  sixteen,  was  accepted  as  a  candidate  fur  the 
minbtry  in  1843,  spent  three  years  at  the  Richmond 
Theological  Institution,  and  July  2, 1846,  was  ordained; 
a  few  days  after,'  with  Glanville  and  Morris,  sailed  as  a 
missionary  to  India.  For  this  work  he  had  evciy  qual- 
ification except  that  of  physical  adoptability  to  the 
climate,  and  he  was  soon  stricken  with  fever.  Return- 
ing to  England,  he  travelled  the  Chatteris  (1850),  Lu- 
ton, Bradft>rd,  Hackney,  City  Road,  London,  and  Pen- 
zance (1864)  circuits  until  he  was  compelled  to  desist 
through  disease.  In  December,  1865,  he  embarked  for 
Melbourne,  Australia,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  bia 
brief  life.  He  edited  the  Weslegan  ChronicU  for  a  year 
(1868).  Mr.  Field  died  in  the  city  of  Melbourne,  Sept. 
1, 1869.  His  piety  and  earnestness  were  successful  in 
winning  souls,  and  his  love  for  God,  superior  abilities, 
and  accumulated  sorrows,  won  for  him  the  love  of  alL 
Field  wrote,  Life  of  Mrs.  C.  E.  Martin  [his  sister] 
(1862,  24mo) :  --  The  PemUeni'e  Inquiry,  an  admirable 
tractate,  which  has  had  a  laige  circulation  in  England 
and  AustiaUa:~rA«  StudetU*e  Hand-book  of  Chrittian 
Theologgt  an  excellent  treatise  (Melbourne,  1868;  en- 
larged ed.,  with  a  biographical  sketch  by  Rev.  John  C. 
Symons,  Lond.  1870, 12mo).  Among  the  shorter  pres- 
entations of  a  systematic  Wesleyan  theology  this  lat- 
ter work  is  probably  unsurpassed.  See  Symons,  ife- 
motr,  s.  V. ;  Minutee  of  the  Britieh  Conference f  1870,  p. 
12;  We*L  Afeth,  Magazine,  1870,  p.  1026. 

Field,  Edwmrd,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom  in 
1801.  He  studied  at  Rugby  and  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  gained  a  Michel  fellowship,  was  appoint- 
ed public  examiner  in  1827,  and  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Newfoundland  in  1844.  Ho  died  June  8, 1876.  See 
Appleton^s  Annual  Cydop,  1876,  p. 638. 

Fierte,  a  privilege  enjoyed  formerly  by  the  arch- 
bishops of  Rouen,  in  Normandy,  in  consequence  of  the 
miraculous  deliverance  which  St.  Romanus  is  said  to 
have  had  from  a  dragon  which  infested  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  saint  took  with  him  a  condemned  male- 
factor, and  repaired  to  the  haunts  of  the  monster.  He 
then  stripped  off  his  stole,  bound  it  around  the  neck 
of  the  dragon,  and  ordered  the  criminal  to  lead  it  into 
the .  town,  where  it  was  burned  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembled  inhabitants.  In  reward  for  his  bold  feat  the 
malefactor  obtained  his  pardon;  and  in  onler  to  keep 
up  the  remembrance  of  this  wonderful  deliverance,  a 
custom  was  long  presented  in  the  district  of  bestowing 
pardon  on  Ascension  day  upon  a  criminal,  if  he  would 
only  assist  to  carry  in  procession  the  shrine  called  the 
Jierte  of  St.  Romanus. 

Fiesco,  Cattarina.    See  Cathabine  op  Grnoa. 

Fiesco^  Giorgio,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  archbishop 
of  Genoa  when  pope  Eugcnius  IV  appointed  him  car- 
dinal-priest, with  the  title  of  St.  Anastasia,  and  bishop 
of  Ostia.  Nicholas  V  gave  him  the  legation  of  Li- 
guria.  Giorgio  Fiesco  enjoved  the  favor  of  (^olixtus 
III  and  of  Pius  IL  He  died  at  Rome,  Oct.  11, 1461, 
but  his  body  was  transferred  to  Genoa.  See  Uoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Fieaoo,  GHLOTannl,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  VerceUi,  and  was  appointed  cardinal-priest,  with  the 
title  of  SL  Mark,  in  1878,  by  pope  Urban  VI,  who  was 
very  fond  of  him,  and  charged  him  with  several  impor- 
tant missions.  Fiasco  died  in  1884.  See  Uoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Gen^ralff  s.  v. 

Fiesco,  GKiglielmo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom 
in  Greuoa,  and  was  the  nephew  of  pope  Innocent  IV, 


FIESCO 


380 


FILASTRE 


who  made  him,  in  December,  1244,  cardinal -deacon, 
with  the  title  of  Sc  Eustachiua.  The  same  pontiff  gave 
him  the  protectorate  of  the  Augostinians,  and  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  some  troops  in  1264,  to  operate 
against  France.  GugUeimo  came  back  to  Borne  after 
the  death  of  his  nncle,  and  took  part  at  the  election  of 
pope  Alexander  lY,  on  Dec.  12  of  that  year.  He  died 
in  1256,  and  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  San  Lorenzo. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Giniralet  s.  v. 

Fieaoo,  Luoa,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  appointed  in 
12d8  cardinal-deacon,  with  the  title  of  St,  Mary  in  Via 
Lata,  by  pope  Boniface  VIII.  Luca  'piored  his  grat- 
itude SepL  9, 1808,  by  delivering  Anagni  from  an  insur- 
rection. On  Jan.  6^  1309,  he  was  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
and  assisted  as  legate-extraordinary  of  pope  Clement 
y,  in  the  coronation  of  the  emperor  Henr}'  VII  of  Lux- 
emburg. John  XXII  sent  him  as  legate  to  England. 
Fiesoo  died  in  1886,  and  was  buried  in  the  metropoliun 
church  of  Genoa.    See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog,  GMiraie, 

Fiesoo,  Luigl,  an  Italian  prelate,  succeeded  his. 
uncle  Giovanni  through  the  favor  of  pope  Urban  VI, 
and  was  appointed,  in  1885,  cardinal-deacon,  with  the 
title  of  St.  Adrian.  Boniface  IX  nominated  Luigi  legate 
of  the  holy  see  in  Bomagiia,  and  obtained  by  his  instru- 
mentality the  submission  of  several  cities,  among  them 
Anagni.  In  1404  Luigi  refused  to  recognise  Coemo  de 
Migliorati  (Innocent  VII),  who  had  been  chosen  by  seven 
cardinals  in  place  of  Boniface  IX.  He  put  himself  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  at  Avignon,  Pedro  de 
Luna  (Benedict  XIII),  whom  he  abandoned  in  1409  or 
1410,  to  join  Pietro  Philargi  (Alexander  V).  The  suc- 
cessor of  this  latter  pontiff,  Baldassare  Cossa  (John 
XXIII),  appointed  Luigi  governor  of  Bologna.  In  1414 
he  attended  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  and  in  1417  at 
the  election  of  Ottone  Colonna  (Martin  V).  He  was 
sent  by  this  pontiff  as  a  legate  into  Sicily,  and  returned 
to  Rome,  where  he  died,  April  8,  1423.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GhUraU,  s.  v. 

Fiesoo,  Niooolo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bishop  of 
Frejus  and  of  Toulon.  On  the  recommendation  of  Louis 
XII,  pope  Alexander  VI  appointed  him,  in  May,  1503, 
cardinal-priest  of  St.  Nicolas  inter  imagineSf  afterwards 
with  the  title  of  the  Twelve  Apostles.  Some  time  later 
Niocolo  obtained  the  archbishopric  of  Embrun,  and  also 
that  of  Ravenna.  According  to  the  account  of  his  con- 
temporaries, he  was  a  just  and  liberal  counsellor  of  popes 
Alexander  VI,  J ulius  II,  and  Adrian  VL  It  is  said  that 
he  refused  to  be  a  candidate  for  the  papacy  in  compe- 
tition with  Giulio  de*  Medici  (Clement  VII),  the  suc- 
cessor of  Adrian  VI.  Fiesco  died  June  14, 1524.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GbUraUy  s.  v. 

I^esole,  Giovanni  da.    See  Amoeuoo. 

Fifyne,  Thomas  dk,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  probably 
a  dignitary  in  the  Church  of  Roes  before  his  promotion 
to  the  bishopric  of  that  see  in  1274.  Sec  Keith,  Scot- 
tish Bishops^  p.  187. 

Fijian  Version  op  thb  Scriptures.  This  lan- 
guage is  spoken  in  the  Fiji  islands  (q.  v.).  The  prin- 
cipal dialect  is  that  of  Ban,  and  a  translation  of  the  New 
Test,  was  made  into  this  idiom  by  the  late  Rev.  J.  Hunt, 
in  concert  with  other  Wesleyan  missionaries.  The  work 
was  completed  in  1849.  In  1854  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  printed  an  edition  of  five  thousand 
Fijian  New  Tests.,  and  in  1858  the  same  society  issued 
an  edition  of  five  thousand  gospels.  In  the  meantime 
the  missionaries  employed  in  the  Fiji  Islands  were  dili- 
gently engaged  in  the  translation  of  the  Old  Test,, 
which  they  completed  in  1854.  The  printing  of  the 
work  was  commenced  in  England  under  the  joint  super- 
vision of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Calvert,  a  long  resident  in  the 
islands,  and  the  editorial  superintendent  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  the  year  1857.  As  Mr. 
Calvert,  however,  was  compelled  to  return  to  his  mis- 
sionary station,  the  work  was  left  in  an  unfinished  state. 
The  printing  was  consequently  suspended,  and  a  new 


editor  was  appointed  by  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  So- 
ciety, to  whom  the  examination  of  the  unfinished  part 
of  the  text  was  confided,  in  order  that  such  revision 
might  be  introduced  as  was  necessary  to  secure  har- 
mony in  grammatical  construction  and  orthography. 
The  Rev.  U.  B.  Ly th  having  been  selected  for  this  im* 
portant  duty,  finished  the  work  in  1864,  and  the  com- 
mittee of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  an- 
nounced to  its  supporters  in  the  report  for  1865  the 
completion  of  the  entire  Bible  in  the  language  of  Fiji, 
a  work  upon  the  preparation  of  which  a  vast  amount 
of  care  and  anxious  study  had  been  expended.  The 
following  account  of  the  reception  of  the  Scriptures  in 
Fiji, soon  after  their  arrival,  will  be  read  with  interest: 

"  Hnw  the  natives  rejoiced  at  the  sight  of  the  complete 
Bible  I  When  I  told  them  thnt  the  vessel  was  In  with  the 
Bibles  on  board,  they  wanted  me  to  start  off  at  once  to 
fetch  them.  On  recelviusr  tbein,  being  greatly  excited 
myself,  I  walked  through  Ban  with  a  ciipy.  I  took  it  to 
the  i»ch<M)l,  and  to  the  king's  honee,  followed  by  a  troop 
of  yoiincrpterf,  who  shonted  as  we  went  along,  'Here  U 
the  Bible  complete— hxik  at  It.  look  at  it  !*  On  showing 
the  copy  to  the  king,  he  a^kea  if  we  had  plenty.  I  told 
him  we  had  rnfflclent  for  all  the  preachen  In  Ftjl.  *  ^t,* 
said  be,  'what  aboot  ns  cbieb  woo  cau  read,  and  wish  to 
have  the  whole  book :  cnn  we  not  get  a  copy  V  He  was 
8atli*fled  when  I  told  him  he  should  have  one."  (Report 
for  180(K) 

The  extenuve  circulation  of  the  Fijian  Scriptuiea  made 
it  necessary  to  print,  in  1866,  two  editiona  of  the  New 
Test,  consisting  together  of  six  thousand  five  hundred 
copies,  and  in  1870  another  supply  of  three  thousand 
copies.  A  revised  edition  of  the  P'ijian  Bible  was  pub- 
lished by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in 
1888.  According  to  the  annual  report  of  this  society, 
there  were  circulated  up  to  March  81,  1884,  fifty-five 
thousand  and  eight  parts  of  the  Bible.  For  Itngnistlc 
helps,  see  Hazlewood,  A  Compenduna  Grammar  o/tke 
Fetfeean  Languagfy  and  his  Feejeean  and  EtigUA  and 
English  and  Fetjeean  Dictionary,    (B»  P.) 

Flkensoher,  GheorgTTVolfgang  August,  a  I^ 
theran  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  28, 177S, 
at  Bayreuth,  and  died  there  Sept.  4, 1818.  He  wrttir, 
De  Pontificum  Ecdes,  Christ,  Maximor,  Potestate  (Nu- 
remberg, 1818).  See  Winer,  HanOmck  der  theoL  Lit,  i, 
679.     (a  P.) 

Flkensoher,  Karl  Christoph  ClixiBtiau.  a 

Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany,  bom  at  Cnlmbach, 
Nov.  80, 1798,  became  pastor  of  sL  Sebaldns  at  Nurem- 
berg, and  died  in  1858.  Besides  a  number  of  sermons, 
he  published,  Geschichte  des  Reichstags  zu  Augsburg im 
Jahre  1530  (Nuremberg,  IBSO)  i-^BitfUsch^Praliiscke 
Auslegung  des  EtangeUum  Johamtis  (ibid.  1881-34,  3 
vols.) :— Z>»e  Protestanlische  Kirche  gegen  Herm  W^- 
Inschof  Wittmann  in  RegenUmrg  vertheidigt  (ibid.  1832). 
See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  357  sq.;  Winer,  I/andbuek 
der  theoL  Lit,  i,  752 ;  ii,  28,  No.  135, 155, 807.     (a  P.) 

FikooBan,  a  mountain  in  Japan,  to  which  an  order 
of  Jammabos  or  monks  go  in  pilgrimage  once  a  year;  an 
extremely  difficult  task,  on  account  of  the  precipices 
with  which  it  abounds.  This  mountain  is  believed  to 
be  a  test  of  the  character  of  a  man,  for  if  a  wicked  per- 
son should  undertake  the  pilgrimage,  the  devil  would 
enter  into  him  on  his  first  attempt  to  ascend  the  hiU. 
See  Jammabos. 

Filastre  (or  Fillastre),GuiLLAimK,the  name  of 
two  French  prelates,  uncle  and  nephew. 

1.  Bora  in  1847  or  1348  at  La  Suze  (Maine),  studied 
at  the  University  of  Angers,  became  dean  of  Rheiroa, 
where  he  also  Uught  theology  and  mathematics,  ami 
founded  a  library;  took  an  active  part  in  the  politicfi- 
religious  movements  of  his  day;  was  made  prior  of  !St. 
Ayoub,  archbishop  of  Aix  (in  PmTence),  and  in  1411 
cardinal.  He  died  at  Rome,  Nov.  6, 1428.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Gensrale,  s.  v. 

2.  Bora  probably  in  Maine,  early  entered  the  Bene- 
dictine order,  became  prior  of  Serroaise,  abbot  of*  St. 
Thierry  in  Champagne ;  was  received  as  doctor  at  Lou. 
vain  iu  Jaausry,  1486 ;  made  bishop  of  VeidoD,  Sepl.  80, 


FILBPOWSKI 


387 


FINDLAY 


1437,  bat  after  many  inrmoib  exchanged  hta  see  for 
that  of  Tooniay  in  1452,  and  died  at  Ghent,  Aug.  22, 
1473,  leaving  La  Toiton  cTOr,  a  treatiae  on  that  order, 
of  which  he  had  been  chancellor  (published  at  Paris, 
1517;  Troyes,  1580).  See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog,  GhU- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Filipowakl,  Hkrschbll,  a  Hebrew  scholar,  was 
bom  in  Poland  in  1817.  In  1840  he  went  to  EngUnd, 
and  received  an  appointment  as  teacher  of  Hebrew 
and  Oriental  languages  in  the  Jews'  College,  Finsbury 
Square,  London.  Subsequently  he  became  connected 
with  the  Colonial  and  Standard  Life  offices  of  Edinburgh, 
remaining  in  that  city  a  number  of  years,  and  died  July 
12»  1872.  Filipowski  is  especially  known  as  the  eilitor 
of  older  Jewbh  works,  such  as  of  Abraham  bar-Chiyah's 
Bepher  natbur,  which  treats  of  the  mathematical  and 
technical  chronology  of  the  Hebrews,  ^azarites,  Mo- 
hammedans, etc  (Lond.  1851) :  — Menahem  ben-Saruk's 
MackberOA,  n^anr,  or  first  Hebrew  lexicon  (1854)  :-. 
Azarja  de'  Rossi's  Stpher  Mazreph  Laheuepk  or  DisMer- 
tatio  Critica  de  Aetaie  MunM  (Edinb.  eod.) : — Abraham 
Saoeuto's  LSber  JuchoMtn,  "ponr  0  (Lond.  1857).  He 
also  published  Sepher  Ha-at^^  or  treatises  pertaining  to 
the  exegesis  of  the  Old  Test.  (Leipsic,  1849),  and  Sepher 
M^iid  ModtHmy  or  a  Hebrew  and  Boman  almanac  (Lond. 
18I6).  See  Fiirst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  84  sq. ;  Montis,  £mi' 
maU  Isnuliies  of  the  l9tA  Century  (Philo.  1880),  p.  71 
aq.    (B.  P.) 

FUippl,  Sbbastiano  (called  BaMiamno),  an  emi- 
acnt  Italian  painter,  was  bora  at  Ferrara  in  1532,  and 
was  instructed  by  bis  father,  Camilla  When  eighteen 
years  of  age  he  went  to  Rome  and  entered  the  school 
of  Buonarottt  His  great  work  in  the  Cathedral  of 
FerraxB,  representing  the  Lcu^yuci^ineii/,  established  his 
Ckine.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  Martyrdom  of 
Si*  Caikermey  in  the  church  dedicated  to  that  saint ;  and 
the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  in  Santa  Maria  de  Servi. 
He  painted  also  the  Virgin  and  Infant ;  8f.  John,  and 
the  Dead  Christ  wpporttd  hg  Angele.  Filippi  died  in 
ItfOS.     See  Spooner,  Biog,  HitU  of  the  Fine  A  rte,  s.  v. 

FQles  de  Diea  {Daughters  of  God)  tin  order  of  nuns 
in  France  who  devote  themselves  to  visiting  the  sick. 
Ther  repeat  the  Penitential  Psalms  once  a  week.  An- 
other religions  order  bearing  the  same  name  was  formed 
in  the  13th  century,  which  afterwards  became  merged 
in  the  order  of  Fontevrault  (q.  v.). 

FilliQCoiils  (or  Figliuccl),  Vikcbntk,  a  Jesuit 
of  Sienna,  was  bora  in  1566,  and  died  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Rome,  April  5,  1622,  leaving  De  Christianis 
Oficiis  et  Casibus  Conscientice  (Lyons,  1626,  2  vols.) : — 
Synopsis  Universa  Theohgite  (ibid.  1628):— />e  Statu 
Olericorumy  de  Beneficiis,  de  Pensionibus,  de  Spoliis,  de 
Clerioorum  Vita  et  Simoniaf  de  A  lienatione  JRerum  Sptr- 
itualiuws.  See  Moreri,  Dictionnaire ;  Alegambe,  Bibli- 
otkeea  Scriptorum  Societatis  Jesu;  Le  Mir,  De  Scrip' 
torSbuB  Societatis  Jesu;  Jocfaer,  AUgemeines  Gelehien- 
Ltexikon,  s.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  Encgclop,  des  Sciences 
BeUgieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

FUlmore,  Glezeo,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  in  Bennington,  Vt.,  Dec.  22, 1789. 
He  received  license  to  preach  in  1809,  spent  the  fol- 
lowing years  as  a  local  preacher,  and  in  1818  entered 
the  Genesee  Conference  and  was  appointed  to  Buffalo 
and  Bbck  Rock.  There  were  then  about  fifteen  hun- 
dred inhabitants  in  Buffalo,  and  no  church  edifice. 
He  leased  a  lot  on  what  is  now  Franklin  Street,  forty- 
eight  days  later  had  on  it  a  house  of  worship,  and  two 
years  later  reported  eighty -two  members.  His  next 
appointment  was  to  the  presiding  eldership  of  Erie  Dis- 
trict, which  stretched  from  Lake  Ontario  to  Meadville, 
Pa.,  and  on  which  his  labors  were  extremely  severe  and 
hb  sapport  exceedingl^r  meagre.  In  1830  and  1831  he 
was  pastor  of  the  first  and  only  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  Rochester.  A  camp-meeting  held  in  Hen- 
rietta had  such  an  effect  upon  Rochester  Uiat  nine  hun* 


dred  people  professed  converston.  The  last  four  years 
of  his  active  ministry  were  spent  as  presiding  elder  of 
Buffalo  District.  In  that  city,  as  pastor  and  presiding 
elder,  he  labored  twenty-one  years.  He  belonged  to 
the  Genesee  Conference  fifty-four  yean,  and  to  the 
Western  New  York  two  years,  during  the  last  fifteen 
holding  a  superannuated  relation.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  establishment  of  the  Genesee  Wesleyan  Sem- 
inary, Lima,  N.  Y.,  and  was  chosen  four  times  as  a  dele- 
gate to  the  General  Conference.  He  died  in  Clarence, 
Jan.  26,  1875.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences, 
1875,  p.  158 ;  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of  Methodism ;  Stevens^ 
Hist,  of  the  M,  K  Church,  iv,  268. 

Fillmore,  Isaac  Otis,  D.D.,  a  Presbj^terian  min- 
ister,  was  bom  July  15,  1816,  at  Sennett,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  with  honor  at  Union  College  in  1840,  and 
soon  after  entered  Princeton  Seminary,  where  he  spent 
nearly  two  years  in  study.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  Presbytery  of  Troy,  Feb.  18, 1842;  ordained  and 
installed  at  Cambridge,  Washington  Co.,  by  the  same 
presbytery,  Sept.  15, 1843 ;  labored  there  twelve  years, 
and  was  next  at  Batavia  two  and  a  half  years;  then 
became  pastor  of  the  Park  Central  Church,  Syracuse, 
for  seven  years;  in  1866  took  charge  of  the  Church  at 
Knowlesville,  where  he  labored  four  years,  and  then 
went  to  California,  and  for  two  years  preached  at  San 
Francisco,  Marysville,  and  other  important  places.  Af- 
ter this  he  returned  to  the  East,  preached  (1878-74)  at 
Jordan,  N.  Y.,  and  then  at  Green  Island,  Albany  Co., 
where  he  died,  Oct.  22, 1875.  See  Necr^  Report  of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1876,  p.  24. 

FinaB,  Saint,    See  Finnan. 

Finbar.    See  Barrfinn. 

Finokel,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was 
bom  at  Jonestown,  Lebanon  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb.  22, 181 1.  In 
1825  he  began  preparations  for  the  ministry  under  the 
direction  of  Rev.  John  Stein,  of  Jonestown ;  in  1827 
continued  his  studies  at  Gettysburg;  in  July,  1831, 
was  employed  as  tutor  in  the  Dauphin  Academy,  Har- 
risburg;  in  1832  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  churches  in 
Middletown  and  Greensburg.  For  more  than  three 
years  he  resided  in  Taney  town,  Md. ;  about  three  years 
in  Middletown,  Pa.;  four  years  in  Germantown)  and 
nearly  three  years  in  Cumberland,  Md.  Then  for 
twenty-three  years  he  was  pastor  of  the  German  Evan- 
gelical Church  in  Washington,  D.  C.  Resigning  this 
charge  on  account  of  advancing  age,  he  subsequently 
gathered  an  English  congregation  in  Memorial  Hall,  iii 
the  same  city,  to  whom  he  ministered  about  two  years. 
In  1848,  in  addition  to  his  pastoral  labors  in  Washing- 
ton, he  was  employed  as  a  clerk  in  the  quartermaster- 
general's  ofilce.  He  died  in  Washington,  Feb.  13, 1878. 
See  FiPy  Years  in  the  Lutheran  Ministry^  1878,  p.  235. 

Findlay,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
bom  in  Glasgow,  Sept.  26,  1751 ;  graduated  at  Glasgow 
University;  was  licensed  to  preach  Aug. 2, 1780;  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  the  High  Church,  Paislev,  or- 
dained March  14, 1781,  and  died  March  25, 1821.'  He 
was  a  warm  friend  of  the  Bible,  missionary,  and  school 
societies,  and  aided  by  his  advice  the  formation  of  aux- 
iliary societies  at  Paisley  and  Renfrew.  He  was  grave 
and  cheerful  in  conversation,  uniformly  correct  in  lan- 
guage and  matter,  yet  lively, entertaining,  and  instruct- 
ive. He  published  Sermons^  preached  before  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society  (Lond,  1799).  See  Fasti  Eccles, 
Scoticoma,  ii,  207. 

Findlay,  John  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was 
licensed  to  preach  May  7, 1800;  called  to  the  living  at 
Norriestown  in  March,  and  ordained  June  16,  1803; 
promoted  to  SL  Paul's  Church,  Perth,  in  August,  1807, 
and  died  April  4, 1846,  aged  sixty-six  years.  He  pub- 
lished an  address,  annexed  to  a  sermon  (Glasgow,  1803). 
See  Fasti  Eccles,  Scoticante,  ii,  619, 728. 

Findlay,  Robert  (1^,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 


FINDLAT 


388 


FIRE 


800  of  Rer.  Tbomas  Findlay,  minuter  at  Prestonkirk, 
graduated  at  Edioburgh  UoiTersity,  Dec.  10,  1734; 
was  lioenaed  to  preach  July  5, 1788 ;  called  to  the  living 
at  Inch,  April  8,  and  ordained  July  26, 1789;  engaged 
in  boaiRess  at  London,  Nor.  18.  1761,  and  died  March 
80, 1782.     See  Fasti  EceUa,  Scaticana,  i,  768. 

Flndlay,  Robert  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scoteh  clergyman, 
waa  licensed  to  preach  Oct.  5, 1748 ;  called  to  the  living 
at  Stevenston  in  March,  and  ordained  Aug.  28,  1744 ; 
transferred  to  Galston  April  29, 1745;  promoted  to  the 
To>vn  Church,  Paisley,  Feb.  20, 1754;  transferred  to  the 
north-west  quarter,  Glasgow,  Jan.  29, 1756 ;  being  ad- 
mitted  professor  of  divinity  in  the  Glasgow  University, 
he  resigned  his  parish  duties  and  charge,  Jan.  1, 1788. 
He  di<^  June  16, 1814,  aged  ninety-three  years.  Dr. 
Findlay  published,  Vindication  of  the  Sacred  Books 
(1770) :— Psalmody  (1768).  See  Fasti  Eccks,  Seotica- 
na,  ii,  26,  116,  187,  203;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  AtUkortf  s.  v. 

Fingaak,  Thomas  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  em- 
ployed in  divers  embassies  to  England  during  the  cap- 
tivity of  king  David  II,  and  was  bishop  of  Caithness  in 
1848  and  1857.  He  died  in  1860.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops^  p.  218. 

Flnlay  (1),  a  Scoteh  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Dun- 
bUne  in  1406  and  1408.  He  died  in  1419.  See  Keith, 
ScoUish  BishopSf  p.  176. 

Flnlay  (2)^  a  Scoteh  prelate,  was  a  Dominican  friar, 
and  chaplain  to  Murdoch,  duke  of  Albany,  in  1426. 
Upon  the  fall  of  the  duke  this  prelate  went  to  Ireland, 
and  there  died.  He  was  probably  for  a  time  bishop  of 
Argyle.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops^  p.  287. 

Flnlay,  John,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born 
in  the  parish  of  Loudoun,  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  March  10, 
1794.  He  was  educated  in  the  Scottish  Kirk ;  gradu- 
ated from  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1810 ;  was  con- 
%'erted  under  the  ministry  of  Dr.  Chalmers;  came  to 
America  in  1817,  and,  soon  after  landing  at  Savannah, 
went  to  Augusta,  Ga.,  where  he  was  elected  rector  of 
Richmond  Academy.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Harmo- 
ny Presbytery,  and,  for  a  time,  preached  in  the  "  Brick 
Church"  in  Augusta;  subsequently  went  to  New  York, 
where,  uniting  with  Dr.  Arch.  McClay's  Church,  he  was 
licenscil  as  a  Baptist  preacher ;  soon  after  was  onlained 
in  Albany,  N.Y.,  where  he  was  pastor  until  called  to  the 
First  Church  in  Baltimore,  in  1821.  In  1835  he  re- 
moved to  Jackson,  Tenn.,  preaching  and  teaching  for  a 
time  until  a  church  was  formed.  Subsequently  he  went 
to  Louisville,  Ky.,  where  he  was  pastors  year  and  a  half; 
then  returned  to  Jackson;  next  went  to  Middleton,  O., 
then  to  Lebanon,  and  in  the  fall  of  1849  to  Memphis, 
Tenn.,  where  he  remained  till  the  spring  of  1862.  He 
died  at  Greenville,  on  the  Mississippi,  about  1860.  See 
Borum,  Sketches  of  Tenn,  Ministers,  p.  254, 263.  (J.  C.  S.) 

Flnlayson,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  pro- 
fessor of  logic  in  the  Edinburgh  University,  which  of- 
fice he  held  in  conjunction  with  his  benefice,  was  for- 
merly tutor  in  the  family  of  Sir  William  Murray;  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Borthwick,  Aug.  80, 1786,  and 
ordained  April  6,  1787;  transferred  to  Lady  Tester's 
Chapel  of  Ease,  Edinburgh,  June  8, 1790;  promoted  to 
Old  Greyfriars  Church  in  that  city,  Dec  25,  1793; 
transferred  to  the  High  Church,  Feb.  27,  1799;  unani- 
mously elected  moderator  uf  the  General  Assembly, 
May  20, 1802 ;  appointed  almoner  to  the  king  the  same 
year,  but  resigned  the  ofiice  soon  afterwards,  and  died 
Jan.  28, 1808,  in  his  fiftieth  year.  His  life  exhibited  an 
example  of  self-prompted  merit,  unblemished  purity, 
and  elevated  virtue;  while  to  his  generous  aid  not  a 
few  were  indebted  for  their  promotion  in  life.  He  was 
deeply  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  Church,  and 
skilled  in  the  management  of  her  affairs.  He  pub- 
lished, A  rgumetU  in  Support  of  Chapels  of  Ease  (fol. 
1798)  '.^Preaching,  a  Means  of  Promoting  the  General 
Progress  oflluman  In^rovement  (Edinburgh,  1801):— 


Sermons  (ibid.  1809,  8ro):  — i^/e  of  Dr,  Blair,  with 
Blair's  Sermons,  voL  v.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticamt, 
i,  24, 44,  68,  64,  268. 

Finney,  Ciiarlks  G.,  an  eminent  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Warren,  Conn.,  Aug.  29, 1792.  In 
early  manhood  he  loft  his  father's  farm  in  western  New 
Tork,  and  began  the  study  of  law  in  Adams,  Jefferaon 
Co.,  but  shortly  abandoned  it  for  the  ministry,  to  which 
he  was  ordained  in  1824,  with  comparatively  little  pre- 
vious theological  training.  He  soon  became  noted  as 
an  evangelist,  and  great  revivals  attended  his  preach- 
ing everywhere.  In  1886  he  became  a  professor  in 
Oberlin  College,  O.,  where  he  continued  as  teacher, 
pastor,  and  president  (1862-66),  with  brief  tours  as  a 
revivalist  in  England  (1848,  1861),  nntil  hU  death, 
Aug.  16, 1876.  He  was  eminently  successful  in  relig- 
ious labors  for  the  conversion  of  sinners,  which  were 
conducted  with  great  fervor  and  earnestness,  very  much 
after  the  manner  of  Methodists.  Mr.  Finney  wrote, 
Lectures  on  Bevivals  (Boston,  1885,  and  many  editions 
since):  — L«duret  to  Professing  Christians  (Oberiin, 
1886)  i^Semwns  on  Important  Subjects  (N.  Y.  1889) :— 
Lectures  on  Systematic  Theology  (Oberiin,  1846,  and 
later).  See  A  utobiography  (N.  Y.  1876) ;  Obkrlih  Tub- 

OLOOY. 

Flnnlah  Version.    See  ^itssia,  Ykbsiovs  or. 

Finottl,  Joseph  M.,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine,  was 
bom  in  Ferrara,  luly,  in  1817,  and  educated  at  the  Jes- 
uit College,  Rome.  Being  induced,  in  1846,  by  professor 
Ryder,  of  Georgetown  College,  to  come  to  America, 
Finotti  was  ordained  at  Georgetown ;  in  1860  was  pas- 
tor of  St.  Mary's  Church,  Alexandria,  Va.;  in  1852  left 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  went  to  Boston,  Mass.,  where 
he  was  for  three  3'ears  editor  of  the  Boston  Pilot,  was 
also  pastor  of  Brookline^  Brighton,  and  other  missions, 
and  afterwards  at  Arlington,  near  Boston.  He  resided 
for  a  time  at  SL  Mary's  Seminary,  near  Cincinnati,  O^ 
from  there  he  went  to  Omaha,  Neb.,  and  finally  to  Cen- 
tral City,  Col.,  in  1877,  of  which  parish  he  had  charge 
until  his  death,  Jan.  10, 1879.  Finotti  was  a  lover  of 
books,  most  of  his  time  being  spent  in  his  library,  and 
he  was  constantly  writing.  He  published,  A  French 
Grammar  (in  Italian)  :— .4  Month  of  Mary  (1853) :— 
Life  of  Blessed  Paul  of  the  Cross  (1860)  :—Itafy  in  the 
Fifteenth  Century  t-^Diary  of  a  Soldier  (1861):— rAe 
Frendi  Zouave  (1868)  i^IIemum,  the  Pianist  (ibid.)  :— 
The  Spirit  of  St,  Francis  of  Sales  (1866) :—  Works  of  Rer. 
Arthur  0'Leary:-^Life  of  Blessed  Peter  Cleaver,  etc 
Most  of  these  works  are  translations,  or  were  edited  by 
him.  .  His  greatest  work,  never  completed,  was  his 
Bibliographia  Catholica  Amei-icana,  being  a  list  of  all 
the  Roman  Catholic  books  published  in  the  United 
States,  with  notices  of  their  authors  and  epitome  of 
their  contents.  The  first  part,  bringing  the  list  down 
to  1825,  was  published  in  1872.  One  of  the  projecU 
of  Finotti  was  the  introduction  into  schools  of  a  well- 
arranged  series  of  Christian  classics.  See  (N.  Y.)  Cath- 
olic A  nnual,  1880,  p.  44. 

Fire,  Holt,  of  the  Greek  Church,  a  fire  kindled  by 
the  Greek  and  Armenian  monks  in  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  under  pretense  of  a  mir^ 
acle,  on  Saturday  of  the  Greek  Easter  week,  amid  the 
wildest  enthusiasm  of  the  multitude,  and  the  utmost 
confusion  and  uproar ;  so  much  so  that  many  are  tram- 
pled to  death  in  the  crowd.  Dr.  Wolff,  in  his  Mission- 
ary  Journal,  relates  that  the  Greek  metropolitan  de- 
clared in  reference  to  this  pretended  miracle,  **The 
holy  fire  was  known  in  the  time  of  the  Greek  emper- 
ors; it  was  then  seen  in  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  also 
in  the  time  that  the  Crusaders  were  in  possession  of 
the  place.  Many  of  the  Latin  historians  mention  it. 
From  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Turks  till  now, 
the  holy  fire  has  been  seen  both  bv  believers  and  an- 
believers.**  SeeHer8chell,Fwtf/omyF(iMerfamiMl848. 

FIRE  Ordbau    See  Orobals. 


FIRKOWITSCH  3t 

FIHE,  FilijlR  or.  Sea  PiLLUt  or  Cloud. 
Flrkowltacll,  Abkahak,  ■  KiniU  achcdir,  wu 
bom  Sept.  ST,  17M,  at  LooUk,  in  VidhyDia,  tad  diM 
June  7,  1874,  it  Shufut-Kile,  in  the  CrimCL  Be  ii 
known  Tor  hii  ml  in  coUccting  old  muiiucripti  con- 
onnJBg  Ibc  bUtory  of  the  Kinit«  Jewa.  The  collected 
BMtniil  be  publiibed  in  Sfatia  n-Afer&a  (EupUorii, 
taaS),  and  Abac  SiUanm  (Wilna,  1S73).  Many  of  hia 
nuDuacnpti  and  epigrapha  he  uld  to  the  Impnial  Li- 
bntrj  It  St.  P«l«nburg.  AUluogh  Firkowitacb  «u 
Iijghlj  cMcenwd  anwDg  hia  co-rtligiDniita,  yet  Boiue 
donbla  were  raiaed  aa  to  the  genuiameaa  of  aomc  of 
bb  pretCDded  dalo,  aiid  to  be  found  on  (ombstonea 
■nd  in  manuacripla.  WtM,  «ai  a  isera  ■uppoaiitan 
-while  he  wa*  alira  became  a  certainty  after  hia  death. 
ScboUra  like  Strack  and  Harkavy  examined  hi*  inrea- 
tigations,  and  proved  that  Fiikowiljch  waa  guilty  of  wil- 
ful fargcriea,  by  which  he  deceived  the  literary  world. 
See  Jellinek,  Abrakam  Firhovilich  (Vicuna,  187b); 
Barkacy,  Abr.  Firbmlidi'i  AlljUJuclie  DentmSltr  in 
dtr  Krim  (St.  Peteraburg,  1876J ;  Deintrd,  Biography 
o/'/-tVi<nB>rKi  [in  Hebrew]  (Wanaw,  ie7fi)j  but  eape- 
cially  Strack,  A.  Firbomltci  Hud  Semt  Enbbdcm^ 

(Leipaic,  me),    (a  p.) 

Piimament,  h  CirMan  Art.  Tbi*  aeenu  to  be 
i^ireaeDted  uaually  bya  mnhi  flguK  luppoitiiig  an  arch 
(•ee  cut  qndcT  DoCTOBi),  but  oceaaioiuilly  lilMwise  by 
a  female  flgore  in  a  aimilar  podtion  (Ihrtigny,  Diet. 
da  Amij.  Chrkiama,  a.  v.). 


Probable  Antlqae  Cbrlillan  Repreaealatlon  of  the  nr- 


Ptltnin,  the  name  of  aeveral  early  aainia  and  eccle- 
aiaatica,afwhoaiweparticubrize:  (1)  BithopofAtDJena, 
ft  native  of  Pampelurta,  ordained  as  a  miflaionary  biahop 
of  Gaul,  died  probably  A.D.  SOS,  and  commemorated 
Sept.  23.  (3)  £(inf,  fourth  bithop  of  U«a,bom  inNar- 
faooM  of  noble  parentage,  cir.  AD.  Glfij  trained  by  hia 
BDcIe,  Poricua,  early  orUaineil,  and  conaecrated  biahop 
A.I>.S38{  died  in  ft(>3,Bnd  commemorated  Oct.  II.  See 
Smith,  Dia.  o/Chritl.  Biiig.  a,  v. 

a,  an  Engliih  Xanconrormiu  dirigie, 
in  Suffolk  in  1617,  and  educated  at  CambtiHtce. 
He  was  ordained,  and  became  minialer  at  Shalfunl,  in 
Eaaex,  where  be  continued  until  ha  was  ejected,  in  16C£, 
br  the  act  of  unironnity.  He  died  in  1697,  leavini;  aet-- 
enl  acfiDona  and  theological  trcatiae*  (1652  aq.),  the 
beat  of  which  ia  The  Stal  Ckritliaii.  See  ChalmeTi, 
Biog.IHa.t.r.;  A'a.il>ont,Dicl.''/Bril.and  Anur.  Au- 

FlrintlK  ia  the  name  of  aoveral  early  Chriatiana,  of 
wbom  we  particularize :  (1)  A  martvr  with  liusticus  at 
Vecoca,  A.D.  304 :  eommemaraCed  Aug.  9.  (i)  Biahop 
of  tba  Cappadoeian  Cnaarea,  deposed  by  the  Oriental 
puty,  and  died  AD.  489.  Be  left  a  number  otlettera, 
flitf  pnbliabed  bv  Hutatori,  Antedol.  Grac  (Fatav. 
1707),  alao  by  Higne,  fWrof.  lxs*ii,  1477.  Sec  Smith, 
Din.  o/Ciril.  Bioff.  a.  r. 


9  FISCHER 

FUoh,  Groboe,  D.D.,  a  French  theologian,  com- 
monly known  aa  "Paator  Fiacta,"  waa  bom  at  Nyon, 
canton  of  Vaud,  Switzerland,  July  6, 1814.  He  atudied 
at  Lauaanne,  waa  for  aome  tims  preacher  of  a  email 
German  congregallon  at  Varay,  till  in  184G  called 
to  Lyons,  France,  to  become  an  aaaialant  preacher  to 
Adolphe  Honod,  whom  he  aubaequently  aneceeded.  In 
1855  he  went  1o  Paria  aa  aucceaaor  of  Louii  Bridel.  and 
died  July  8,  1881,  at  Vatlorbe,  SvilzerUnd.  Fiach 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Conatiluliunol  Synod  of  1349, 
which  funned  the  union  of  the  Evangelkal  cbarchea 
□r  France.  From  ISGS  till  hia  death  he  waa  pmident 
of  the  Synodal  Commiaaion,  and  Ihua  directed  the  work 
of  the  Free  chunhee.  When,  in  1856,  the  Evangeli- 
cal Alliance  was  founded,  he  became  the  very  aoul  of 
the  branch  of  thia  aociety  in  France,  and  attended  the 
meetinga  at  London,  Paria,  Berlin,  Geneva,  Amaterdam, 
and  New  York,  He  woi  particularly  inteiatetl  in 
the  South-Africa  miaaion  among  the  Baaautoa,  in  Mr. 
McAll'a  miidon  in  Pari^  and  in  every  way  he  advanced 
the  cauae  of  the  GoapeL  See  Uchtanberger,  Emcyclap, 
da  ScirtKa  Religitvei,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

FUchar^  Jorah:!  (called  aba  JfoHur,  from  hia 
native  place,  Haycnee),  a  Lutheran  bvmn-writer,  waa 
bom  about  1547.  He  atudied  law,  and  for  tome  time 
practiced  it  at  Frank fort-on-the-Uain.  From  there  he 
went  to  Stnuburg,  and  died  in  1589.  Many  of  hii 
hymns  are  found  in  the  hymn-booka  of  the  IGth  and 
17Lh  centuriea.  A  copy  of  his  GaangbScitrin,  pub- 
lished in  1576,  baa  been  found  in  the  Britiah  Museam 
at  London,  by  pToTeMor  Max  Muiler,  and  from  a  copy  . 
made  by  him,  with  the  aaatstance  of  Herr  ran  Bun- 
Sen,  an  edition  was  pubtiahed  it  Berlin  in  1849.  See 
GUdecke,  Gruidriu  dtr  dtulichm  Dicklutig  (Hanover, 
1849),  i,  386-398;  Tilmar,  Zur  Lilfratar  Fitiarlt 
{Mai*urg,  I84B);  Weller,  Nne  Oriffimilpoaien  Joh. 
/'ucjluiti  (Halle,  1869) ;  Gervinua,  GtuJiidile  der  petl- 
itckm  NalioHaUiltralar  dsr  i>ni(KAn,  Bd  ed.  iii,p.  ISlt 
Kdtx,  Gadiicilt  da-  deuUtitm  tileralur,  4tb  ed.  iv,  p.  !6 1 
Koch,  CaMchtt  da  deuttehtn  Kti-AnHtda,  ii,  279  aq., 
487  aq.     (B.  P.) 

FUoher,  AuBnattn,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  naa  bom  April  12,1766.  He  waa  for  ooma 
I  lime  teacher  at  the  Augustinian  monaatery  in  Erfurt, 
'  accepted  a  call  in  1813  st  court-preacher  and  aub-regent 
I  of  the  seminary  at  Aschaffeiiborg,  and  died  in  1816, 
leaving  Lthrbach  drr  chriidichni  Silica,  etc.  (Erfmt, 
1802;  6th  ed,  1826).  See  Winer,  Haadlaeli  dtr  Iktol. 
/,t(.ii,242,     (a  P.) 

FtBCher,  Carl  Oottllab,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  waa  bom  Oct.  9,  1745.  Hs  studied  at 
Kdnigsberg,  where  Kant'a  leclnrea  greatly  influenced 
him.  In  1778  he  waa  appointed  pastor  of  the  royal 
hospital  at  KOnigsberg,  and  died  there,  Sept.  19, 1801, 
leaving  JlomUirn  libtr  mcrhcSrdigt  Enahlangra  mt 
drr  Gachichic  Jaa  (Konigaherg,  1799,  S  Tola.).  See 
DiJring,  Deulidie  Katizrirtdnrr,  p.  68  aq. ;  Wilier,  Bend- 
bueh  dtr  Ihfoi  l.il.  i,  1 18, 232,  293.     (a  P.) 

FlacheT,  Chrlstoph  (i),  a  Lutheran  tbeoli^iaii 
of  Germany,  who  died  as  couTt-preacher  and  general  su- 
perintendent at  Zell,  in  1697,  wrote  ErUdmngm  on  the 
paasion,  reaurtection,  and  aacension  of  Christ,  on  tiie 
Paalma,  on  Luthei'a  calcchiam,  etc  See  JQcher,  All- 
ganma  Gdtkrtm-Lmhiii,  a,  v.     (R.  P.) 

FlKher.  Clulatoph  (3),  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian, teacher  of  the  Greek  language  and  of  herme- 
neutica  of  the  New  Teat  at  Prague,  where  he  died. 
Jan.  13,  1791,  is  the  author  of,  Die  hriligtH  Sdtr\ftea 
da  litvtB  TtMamnl*  Ubtrirlzl  mil  Ertidmiigin  (Prague, 
1784 ;  Trevea,  1794)  —Int/Uulionei  itmen.  Keri  Tata- 
mnti  (Prague,  1738).  See  Winer,  Bamltack  der  Ikeol. 
Lit.  i,  107,  174.    (B.  P.) 

FiBch«r,  BtdtDBnii  Radolpb,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  waa  bom  Nov.  38.  1687,  waa  in 
1721  preacher  at  Cuburg,  in  1758  genera)  supetintendenl 


FISCHER 


FISH 


there,  and  died  June  1,  17TS.    He  wrote,  Conm.  de  I  Ac,  1772}  —Pniiaioita  cb  PiWu  Lmmnim  A'm  Tal. 

^  taSp  o/ioie  Ve^tru  EcclauB  LipatU  {CohargiinT)  i\(SiMd.  lTJ%M)i—De  CkiJdaiai  OiU^^ 
—Vita  Jo.  (Krhardi  CLeipMC,  17iB) :— i*  toKwAifarfc     Vertiixalmi  Vet.  TeA,  etc  (ibid.  1775)  -.-De  Veniamt 
AagOurgueht   Cmfanim  (Cobui^,  17B0,  I76a):_i>r!    ZOrurvn  i>iniii)riin  iVori  Tut  Fu^a  (ibiiLtTTC):— 
Eligtnda  inter  Chriniaim  Kdigiime  DiuidaUa  (ibid.    Claeit  IteBguianm  Veri.  Gracar.  V.  Tttt.  A  quOa,  Sym- 
Y7U):—Cyp<VDtiDittrialio«aVaniAi-gumati(\b\i.    ™<cAi,  etc.  (ibid.  1768),     See  FUnt,  fiiU:  Jad.  i,  383; 


nbb):—Uienn^mi  EpiU.  ad  A'rpoftoiwn  (ibid.  I768> 
See  Mooer  mnd  Neubauer,  JetetldenJe  Thtoiogm ;  Men- 
eel,  Gtlfkrta  DeufiMaad!  J6cher,  AUstnuvift  GfUkr- 
ten-Lexikon,  i.  v. ;  Winei,  HmidbaA  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  20, 
80,613,860.    (a  P.) 

FlBohar,  EUedrioh,  s  Lutheran  tbeologian  of 
Gennan}',  waa  bom  in  1£>5S.  In  1586  he  wii  reetai  et 
Grimmi,  and  accepted  a  all  in  1594  to  Bautzen,  where 
be  died,  in  1628,  leaving,  DccaUgut,  or  thiny-eighC  aer- 
mone  on  Che  decalogne  (BauUen,  1608) :— Orufw  Do- 
minica, or  fifteen  aemionB  on  Ihe  Lonl"«  Prayer  (ibid. 
1611):— J/uCerioitttiufa/ia,  or  twenty-two  eeimoru  on 
baptiam  and  the  Lard'i  auppci  (Wittenberg,  end.) : — 
Padagogia  C^rittiana,  or  tireuly  aermone  on  the  cate- 
chism (ibid.  161S}.  See  Obei-Lauutzer,  MerhaSrd^ 
leitan ;  JJScher,  A  llgeneineM  Cdthrlea  -  Lexibm,  a.  v. 
(KP.) 

FlBoher,  OottMod  Augelna,  a  Roman  Catbotic 
thedogian  of  Uermanr,  waa  bom  at  Uunich,  Nov.  6, 
1768.  He  was  fur  ■oms  time  profenor  of  philoKiphy 
■toA  bistoiy  at  the  gymnauum  of  his  native  place,  re- 
ceived in  1817  a  call  aa  pastor  to  Niederrichbacfa,  in 
Bavaria,  and  died  in  1836.  He  wrote,  Lihrt  dtr  Kalh- 
otiidai  Kircht  (Monich,  1819):  — iW^rtm  aUr  dii 
aiAl  Stlig  pTtitungm  (ibid.  1884)  ■.—  VoUilaadign  Kalk- 
oBiclta  RdigioialAriach  (ibid.  1822, 1829)  -.—Ltje-  und 
OAttlmA  JUt  jmg*  Kalhotitcit  Chrittn  (Augsburg, 
1827).  See  Winer,  namOueh  dtr  tiaol.  L^  i,  465 ;  *' 
1»,  213, 878,     (B.P.) 

Flsolwt,  Qottlob  Ihia«biii4  a  Lntbenn  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  waa  bom  Hiy  28, 1769,  at  Golsscn, 
in  Lower  Luaatia.  In  1797  he  was  deacon,  in  1801 
archdeacon,  in  1811)  pastor  at  Bania,  io  1819  auperin- 
teodeut  It  Saugerbauaen,  and  died  in  1849,  leavin;;, 
.  Pndislaateiirfe  flier /rrie  Texit  (Eiiieben,  1836,  1836,  j 
2  yoh.)  ■.  —  ChritlUda  Prtdigtback  (Sangerhausen,  I 
1838):  — CAnit&cia  Betitamden  (Neuaudt,  1834-36,  4 
parti) ; — Jaiu  Ckrittm,  me  Endilung/yr  ttr^atdige  ' 
Kinder  (Leipaic,  \l^y.  —  KirdiUche  Catedutalionat 
(StsmtM.it,  1828-^1,  4  vols.):— he  alaa  worked  up  die. 
New  Teal,  part  to  Dinler's  Oie  Biid.  alt  Eriauangt. 
Uchfir  GtbUdete  (ibid.  1832).  See  Winer,  Handbudt 
der  tktot.  Lit.  ii,  66, 74, 84, 144, 189, 2a7, 27 1 ,  854 ;  Zucb- 
old,  BihL  TktaL  i,  860  aq.     (a  P.) 

FlBclier,  Jacob  Benjamio,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  GiMinaiiy,  general  auperinleDdenl  of  Lirouia, 
who  died  Nov.  3, 1T44,  deaerrea  to  be  mentioned  for  the 
great  intereat  be  took  in  having  the  Bible  given  to  Ilia 
people  in  cbeir  Temacular.  The  first  Livooiau  or  Let- 
tish Bible  was  edited  by  bia  father,  John,  who  died  in 
1706.  The  care  of  the  second  edition  devolved  on  Ja- 
cob Benjamin,  and  it 
wai  ptiiiied  at  KBniga- 
berg  in  1789.     (R  P.) 

FlBcber,  Johum 
FriecUlch,  a  Lnthcr- 
an  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, waa  born  at  Q>- 
bnrg,  Oct.  10, 1724,  be- 
came rector  of  the 
Thomas  school  at  Leip- 
aic, and  died  there,  Oct. 
17,1799.  Hepublitbed, 
CommaOalio  de  Statu  et 
Juritdidime  Judaoram 
Sieiaiduin  Legei  Ram. 
G'ern.(SlnabuTg,17eB): 
—Protutionet  de  Vent. 
Grae.  Vet.  Ttit.  (Lelp- 


HamibBdi  der  fieoL  Lit.  i,  48, 126, 127, 128, 129, 
0.192.      (B.P.) 

Flaolier,  Johann  Miohaol,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
^  an  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Cobarg,  March  21, 1682. 
He  studied  at  LeiF«ic,  was  in  1709  lector  at  hia  native 
place,  in  1714  preacher  at  the  Holy  Cnae  Church,  and 
died  March  1, 1724,  leavuig  Dt  Satemm  Vettrit  Ecde- 
t»  AiiiepatclialilHa  (Leipeic  1704).  See  UntiAiildigii 
Xachricilen,  1725,  p.  1041 ;  Winer,  Ifmdbvci  der  throL 
Ur.  i,  617;  Jiicher,  ^i^endiKf  GeleirUm-LexUbon,  t.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Flacber,  Lndwig  Eberhard,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  boin  Aug.  6, 1695.  He  studied 
at  Tubingen,waa  in  1727  preacher  at  Zavelstein,  in  1732 
at  Stuttgart,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  religioua 
aa  well  as  political  welfare  of  his  country.  He  died  in 
17TS,  leaving  several  hymns,  which  are  found  in  the 
Wtlrtemberg  hymn-book.  See  Hoaer,  Seim^itdU 
iferiioaniiglialeii,f.»7S;  Kvilt.GaAiAtedet Detttdm 
KinJteniitdet,  v,  85  aq.     (R  P.) 

FiBohsr,  fiamnel,  a  Reformed  theologian,  who 
died  It  Aarberg,  in  Switzerland,  in  1831,  is  the  author 
of,  GtMckichle  dtr  Rtfomatim  in  Bern  (Beme,  1827)  :— 
Getchidile  dtr  Ottputation  vnd  Rr/armalion  in  Bent 
(ibid.  1828).    See  WiDer.ffnn^fi  der  lAeaL  LU.  i,81l. 

cap.) 

TiaobHa,  Ludwio  Helchioh,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  waa  bora  in  1672  at  Hunen,  near 
Brackenheim,  in  Wurtemberg,  studied  at  Tubingen, 
and  died  Aug.  II,  1729.  He  wrote,  Tktatnat  Myttrrii 
inatiaraoTAviuz  iravrwv  (Ulm,  1710,  8  vida.). 
See  Jocher,  ^  UpirMWKt  (7<fcArlen-£entim,s.v.;  Wiiwr, 
llandlmck  der  thtoL  LiL\,KA     (RP.) 

Flastl,  BAtCTHOtouKW,  a  Jesuit,  was  bom  at  Uege 
in  1691,  and  died  at  Lisle,  June  26,  1649.  He  is  the 
author  uf,  Or^o  Prima  Fall  Corponi  Ciritii  (Liege. 
1628)  -.—Hittoria  Kcdeiia  Leodittaii  (ibid.  1642,  1696, 
2  voU  ful.).  See  Winer,  llamUmck  dtr  tkeoL  Z,i(.  1,619, 
i1&;iiiehvt,AUgtmanaGelth<1en'Ltxikoit,t.T.    (RP.) 

Fiah,  n  Ctiritlian  A  rt.  The  fiab  is  •  symbol  of 
almost  univerail  occurrence  in  ths  painting  and  aculpt- 
of  the  primitive  Chureh.     •■•-■■ 


e  dove  or  the 


Isn 

scriptural  or  anagrammatic  meining  was  perhapa  the 
moat  popular.  See  IcirriiTS.  At  so  early  a  period  as 
the  middio  of  the  2d  century,  and  under  the  contioud 
dangen  of  perseculion,  Ihe  use  of  such  a  symbol  for  the 
person  of  the  Lord  was  perfectly  natural,  ai  it  would  at- 
tract no  notice  from  the  outer  world;  and  in  the  same 
manner,  with  even  mora  obvious  reasons,  the  form  of 
the  cross  was  frequently  ditgnised  up  to  the  time  of 


Antique  Lamp  with  Gbrlatlan  Symbol  and '. 


FISH 


891 


FISHER 


CooBtintiiie.  But  the  mystie  lenaei  anigned  to  the 
cnbteni  by  Tirioua  fathers  often  seem  to  the  modem 
mind  iomewhat  gfatuitoas  and  ill-foanded.    See  Fish* 


Bmnio  Testera  glren  to  the  newly  baptized. 


Piah,  Henry,  A.M^  an  English  Wealeyan  minister, 
was  bom  at  Hooton-PagneU,  near  Doncaster,  Aug.  6, 
1802.  He  joined  a  class  in  his  eighteenth  year,  was 
accepted  by  the  conference  as  a  candidate  for  the  min- 
istry in  1823,  became  a  supernumerary  at  Kettering  in 
1947,  was  a  happy  and  useful  servant  of  the  Church 
during  his  long  retirement,  and  died  Jan.  16, 1879.  He 
was  a  powerful  preacher.  **  He  had  a  quick  discern- 
ment of  the  meaning  of  the  text,  and  a  faculty  of  clear, 
logical  arrangement;  and  the  Gospel  which  he  pro- 
claimed with  noble  eloquence  and  intense  earnestness 
wrought  deep  coiivicUon  in  the  hearts  of  his  hearers 
and  turned  many  to  righteousness,  some  of  whom  hare 
nnked  among  the  most  gifted  and  devoted  sons  of 
Methodism."  Mr.  Fish  published,  Ttvth  of  the  Chris- 
Han  Rdigum  (Bristol,  1839)  t—JVa/ttra/  Theology  (ibid. 
1840):— rA«  Worhims$  of  Popery  (Lond.1845)  i-~Meth- 
odiiwi  the  Work  of  God  (Bristol,  1839) :— Death  of  Rev, 
MaximiUan  Wilson  (Lond.  IBbT)  i^Purchase  of  the 
TnUk  (Hull,  eod.): — Memorials  of  Mrs,  Parson  Coop- 
er, of  bunstable  (Lond.  1845,  8vo): — Joseph  Pearson 
(Bath,  1819, 12mo)  -.^^ohn  Wild,  ofAmUey  (Lond.  1863, 
Mimo)  z—Jtomanism  (Hull,  1886,  8vo): — Motfements  of 
tke  Oxford  Tractarians  (Lond.  1842,  8vo)  i-^Doctrines 
eftike  Orford  Tradarians  (ibid.  1841,  Svo) -.^Chapters 
cm  the  Teaching  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (ibid. 
1853,  12mo):— rAe  Class^eaderf  Manual  (ibid.  1849, 
18mo)  I— The  Present  Agitation  m  the  WesUyan  Meth- 
odist Connection  (3d  ed.  ibid.  1851,  12mo)i—Rev,  Evan 
LewiSj  B,A,  (Ck»ng.),  and  the  Wesleyctn  Methodists 
(ibid.  18G3,  2  toIs.  12mo).  He  also  edited,  with  an  in- 
troduction, ^4  Poetical  Version  of  the  Psalms  of  David, 
bj  Charles  Wesley  (ibid.  1854, 8vo).  He  was  for  many 
years  a  eootribator  to  Methodist  periodical  literature. 
See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1879,  p.  24 ;  West, 
Centenary  Takings,  i,  807 ;  Osborne,  Methodist  Bibliog- 
raphy^  p.  102. 

Flail,  Henry  Clay,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Halifax,  Vt.,  Jan.  27,  1820;  graduated  from 
Union  Theologiod  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  in  1845 ;  was  or- 
dained, June  26  of  that  year,  over  the  Church  in  Som- 
crviUe,N.  J.,  and  in  January,  1851,  became  pastor  of  the 
Fint  Chorch  in  Newark,  which  office  he  held  till  his 
death,  Oct.  2, 1877.  Dr.  Fish  was  the  author  of  several 
works,  among  them,  Primitive  Piety  Revived  (Boston, 
ISSS)  I -^Pulpit  Eloguenee  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(N.  Y.  1856, 1877)  t^The  Hand-hook  of  Revivals  (Boston, 
1874).  liU  Bible  Lands  Illustrated  (Hanford,  1876), 
waa  the  outcome  of  a  tour  in  the  Holy  Land.  See  Gen, 
Cat,  of  Union  TheoL  Sem,  1876,  p.  86 ;  (S,  Y.)  Examiner, 
Oct.  1877 ;  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encyclop.  s.  v.     (J.  C  S.) 

FlBh,  John  B.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  £pisoopal  cler- 
gyman, graduated  from  the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary, N.  Y.;  in  1853  was  employed  as  chaplain  in  the 
United  States  army,  at  San  Salm ;  in  1854  served  in 
the  same  capacity  at  Jefferson  Barracks,  Mo. ;  in  1868 
was  removed  to  Fort  Bice;  in  1871  to  Fort  Randall, 
Dak.,  and  there  remained  nntil  within  a  short  time  of 
tiis  death,  which  occurred  at  Montdair,  N.  J.,  Oct.  21, 
1878,  at  the  age  of  sixty-six  yeaia.  See  Proi,  Episc 
^^MoacM^  1879,  p.  168. 

Ptoli,  Simon,  a  sealoos  promoter  of  the  English 
Rlomation,  was  bom  in  Kent,  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
died  abottt  1581.  He  published,  The  Supplicacyonfor 
the  Beggars,  a  satire  apon  bishops,  abbots,  prion,  monks, 
and  the  popish  clergy  in  general  (1526)  i—The 


Sum  of  the  Sa-iptures,  from  the  Dutch  (1530).  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet*  s.  v. ;  AlUbone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Fisher,  Abiel,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Putney,  Vt.,  June  19, 1787.  He  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Vermont  in  1811;  studied  theology  with 
Rev.  Nathaniel  Kendrick ;  was  ordained  an  evangelist 
in  Brandon,  June  15, 1815;  was  pastor  in  Bellingham, 
Mass.,  twelve  years ;  in  West  Boylston,  three  years ;  and 
subsequently  in  Sturbridge,  Mass.,  Pawtuxet,  R.  I.,  and 
Swansea  and  Sutton,  Mass.  He  died  at  West  Boylston, 
in  the  summer  of  1862.  He  was  one  of  the  "fathers" 
of  the  Baptist  denomination  in  Massachusetts,  and  held 
in  high  esteem.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encyclop,  p.  296. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Fisher,  George  H.,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1821,  and 
from  the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  in  1825; 
was  licensed  by  the  Classis  of  New  Bmnswick  in  the 
same  year;  was  pastor  at  North  Branch  until  1830;  at 
Fishkill  until  1835;  at  Hudson  until  1841 ;  at  Broome 
Street,  New  York  city,  until  1855;  at  Utica  until  1859; 
at  Hackensack,  Second  Church,  from  1864  to  1870,  and 
was  then  made  pastor  emeritus.  He  died  at  the  last- 
named  place,  Nov.  28, 1874.  As  a  preacher,  Dr.  Fisher 
stood  for  years  in  the  foremost  rank  in  his  denomina- 
tion, being  fluent  in  speech,  clear  in  statement,  and  ten- 
der in  manner.  He  was  for  six  ycnn  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Domestic  Missions  for  the  eastern  department, 
and  published,  Divine  Providence  Proved  and  Illustrated, 
in  the  National  Preacher  (1848).  See  Corwin,  Manual 
of  the  Ref,  Church  in  America,  3d  ed.  p.  260. 

Fisher,  James,  one  of  the  four  leaders  of  the  se- 
cession from  the  Established  Churoh  of  Scotland,  and 
professor  of  divinity  to  the  Associate  (Burgher)  Synod, 
was  bora  at  Bar,  Scotland,  Jan.  28, 1697.  He  commenced 
his  curriculum  in  Glasgow  in  1712,  and  closed  it  in  St. 
Andrews  in  1716;  and  then  entered  the  Divinity  Hall 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  continued 
six  sessions.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1722,  and 
for  some  time  supplied  pulpits  within  the  bounds  of  the 
presbytery.  His  first  parish  was  at  Glenisla,  Forfar* 
shire,  and  in  1725  he  removed  to  Kinchven.  In  1782 
he  took  an  active  part  in  denouncing  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  British  legislature  on  the  ecclesiastical 
liberties  of  Scotland,  before  the  General  Assembly,  which 
soon  resulted  in  his  being  suspended  from  the  ministry. 
Mr.  Fisher,  with  his  other  dissenting  brethren,  shortly 
afterwards  constituted  themselves  into  a  presbytery, 
and  with  their  respective  congregations  thus  formed 
The  Associate  PreAytery,  After  various  fruitless  en- 
deavors on  the  part  of  the  General  Assembly  to  induce 
Mr.  Fisher  to  return  to  the  Established  Chorch,  he,  in 
1741,  was  ejected  from  the  church  and  manse  of  Kin- 
claven,  whence  he  removed  to  Glasgow  in  response  to 
a  unanimous  call  from  a  newly  organized  Church  hold- 
ing his  views,  which  he  served  continuously  for  over 
thirty  years.  He  died  Sept.  28, 1775.  Mr.  Fisher  was 
somewhat  under  the  middle  size,  well  proportioned,  had 
a  lively,  affectionate,  cheerful  countenance,  easy  and 
alert  in  all  his  movements,  was  neat  in  dress,  and  or- 
derly and  punctual  in  all  his  affairs,  an  habitual  eariy 
riser,  and  a  conscientious,  diligent  student  His  pub- 
lished works  are.  The  InestimaUe  Value  of  Divine  Truth, 
(Edinb.  1739)  i^Christ  Jesus  the  Lord,  Considered  as 
the  Inexhaustible  Matter  of  Gospel  Preaching  (ibid. 
11741):— rA«  Character  of  a  Faithful  Minister  of 
Christ  (ibid.  1752)  i^The  Assembly's  Shorter  Catechism 
Explained  by  Way  of  Question  cmd  A  newer  (Glasgow, 
1753,  pt.  i,  8vo ;  pt  ii,  1760) :— Christ  the  Sole  and  Won- 
derful Doer  in  the  Work  of  Man*s  Redemption  (ibid. 
1755),  and  a  few  revtewsi  See  Memorials  of  Alexan- 
der  Moncrieffnnd  James  Fisher,  in  the  United  Presby- 
terian Fathers,  1849,  p.  9 ;  Fasti  Eccles,  Scotioana,  ii,  802. 

Fisher,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom 
in  1748b    He  received  his  earlv  education  at  Peterbor- 


FISHER 


392 


FISHER 


oagh  And  At  St.  PaoI's  School,  London ;  in  1766  was  ad- 
mitted At  Peterhonse,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  A.B.  in  1770 ;  in  1778  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
St.  John*B  College,  and  in  the  same  year  proceeded  A«M., 
in  1780  B.D^  and  in  that  year  was  appointed  tutor  tjo 
his  royal  highness  prince  £dward,  afterwards  duke  of 
Kent.  In  1781  he  was  nominated  chaplain  to  the  king, 
and  appointed  one  of  the  deputy  clerks  of  the  closet ; 
and  in  1783  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiqua- 
ries. In  1785,  his  attendance  upon  prince  Edward  ceas- 
ing upon  his  royal  highness  going  to  Germany  to  fin- 
ish his  education  there,  he  went  to  Italy  for  his  health ; 
but  was  recalled  from  Naples  in  1786,  and  appointed 
by  the  king  a  canon  of  Windsor;  he  resigned  his  can- 
onry  in  1808,  on  being  promoted  to  the  see  of  Exeter; 
at  the  end  of  the  same  year  was  appointed  preceptor  to 
the  princess  Charlotte  of  Wales;  in  1807  translated  to 
the  see  of  Salisbury,  which  position  he  held  until  his 
death.  May  8, 1825.  Bishop  Fisher  was  an  accomplished 
scholar  and  a  sound  divine ;  but  owing  to  the  numer- 
ous duties  which  devolved  upon  him  he  had  but  little 
leisure  to  devote  to  literary  pursuits.  He  published  a 
number  of  sermons  delivered  by  him  on  special  occa- 
sions, which  possess  superior  meriu  See  The  (Lond.) 
A  tmual  Register^  1825,  p.  247. 

Fiajier,  Jonathan  Parker,  D.D.,  an  English  di- 
vine, was  bom  about  1757.  He  was  matriculated  May 
7,  1774;  proceeded  A.M.  Oct.  10, 1780;  B.D.  May  22, 
1802 ;  and  grand  compounder  May  14,  1807.  He  died 
in  1888,  being  at  the  time  sub-dean  and  canon-residen- 
tiaiy  of  Exeter  Cathedral,  and  rector  of  Farringdon, 
Hevonshire.  See  The  (Lond.)  Chrutian  JUmembraneerf 
September,  1888,  p.  568. 

Fioher,  Nathaniel,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  bom  at  Dedbam,  Mass.,  July  8, 1742.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1768,  and  soon  after 
the  beginning  of  the  revolution  was  in  the  service  of 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  For- 
eign Parts,  as  a  schoolmaster  at  Granville,  Nova  Scotia. 
Having  crossed  the  Atlantic  for  ordination  in  1777,  be 
was  admitted  to  orders  by  the  bishop  of  London,  Sept. 
25;  not  long  after  arrived  at  Nova  Scotia  as  a  mission- 
ary to  the  churohes  at  Annapolis  and  Granville,  and 
remained  there  till  1781.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
invited  to  the  rectorship  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  Salem, 
Mass. ;  but  on  arriving  in  that  commonwealth  he  was 
arrested  as  a  subject  of  Great  Britain,  and  imprisoned. 
On  taking  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  new  govemment 
he  was  released.  His  ministry  in  Salem  co\'ered  a  pe- 
riod of  thirty  years,  until  his  death,  Dec.  20, 1812.  Mr. 
Fisher  actively  promoted  the  organization  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  Massachusetts,  and  was  sec- 
retary of  the  first  convention  of  the  churches  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  Rhode  Island  in  1784.  In  1790  he  was 
one  of  those  chosen  to  frame  the  constitution  for  the 
govemment  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  churches  in 
Massachusetts;  elected  a  member  of  the  fint  standing 
committee  of  the  diocese,  and  was  one  of  the  peisons  ap- 
pointed to  publish  the  revised  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
A  volume  of  Mr.  Fisher's  Sermons,  edited  by  judge  Jo- 
seph Story,  was  published  after  his  death.  His  style  of 
preaching  was  compact,  dignified,  and  vigorous.  See 
Sprague,  AtmaU  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit  ^  v,  828. 

Fisher,  Peter  8.,  a  pious  and  successful  German 
Reformed  minister,  was  born  in  Berks  County,  Pa.,  Oct. 
11, 1804 ;  studied  theology  under  the  Rev.  Dr.  F.  L.  Her- 
man; was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1826,  and  placed 
over  some  congregations  in  the  vicinity  of  Harrisburg. 
After  laboring  there  with  great  acceptance  for  seven 
ytan,  he  removed  to  Centre  County,  where  he  proved 
himself  a  faithful  servant  of  Christ-,  and  enjoyed  the 

undiminished  confidence  of  theVopl®  ^P  ^^  ^^^  ^^"^^ 
of  his  removal  to  Bocks  County  in  1857.  Here  he  la- 
bored with  his  usual  zeal,  pmdence,  and  success.  Mr. 
Fisher  always  manifested  a  deep  interest  in  the  various 
benevolent  operations  of  the  Church,  especially  in  the 


cause  of  orphans.  He  died  very  suddenly,  May  92, 
1878,  universally  esteemed.  He  is  thought  to  have 
preached  about  ten  thousand  sermons,  added  to  the 
Church  some  fifteen  hundred  members,  and  solemnized 
two  thousand  marriages.  See  Ref,  Church  Mess,,  June 
4,1878.     (D.Y.H.) 

Fisher,  fSamuel  R.,  D.D.,  a  prominent  minister 
of  the  (German)  Reformed  Church,  was  bora  at  Norris- 
town.  Pa.,  June  2, 1810.  From  his  earliest  childhood  he 
evinced  a  spirit  of  piety,  and  became  a  full  member  of  the 
Church  when  only  fourteen  years  of  age.  About  this 
time  he  entered  the  family  of  his  pastor,  the  Rev.  George 
Wack,  in  part  as  servant-boy  and  partly  as  student. 
Here  he  remained  five  years.  In  1829  he  matriculated 
at  Jefferson  College,  Cannonsburg,  and  graduated  in 
1884.  Soon  afterwards  he  began  the  study  of  theology 
in  the  Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Church,  then  located 
at  Carlisle.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1836,  and  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  Emmittsburg, 
Md.  He  remained  here  only  about  three  years,  when, 
in  1840,  he  became  identified  with  the  PubUcation  Soci- 
ety of  the  Reformed  Church,  located  at  Chambersburg, 
Pa.  In  1864  the  establishment  was  removeil  to  Phil- 
adelphia, where  Dr.  Fisher  continued  his  labors,  with 
alight  changes,  as  editor-in-chief  of  the  Reformed  Church 
Messenger  and  superintendent  of  the  publication  inter- 
ests of  the  Church.  He  died  at  Tiffin,  O.,  whither  he 
had  gone  to  attend  the  General  Synod,  June  5,  1881. 
During  a  period  of  forty  years  or  more,  Dr.  Fisher  acted 
as  stated  clerk  of  the  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Church 
in  the  United  States.  The  duties  of  this  office  he  per- 
formed with  scrupulous  exactitude  and  fidelity.  In  the 
meantime,  also,  he  filled  other  stations  of  honor  and  re- 
sponsibility, serving  for  many  years  as  a  member  of  the 
board  of  vbitors  of  the  theological  seminary  and  as 
treasurer  of  the  board  of  education.  In  every  position 
which  he  occupied  he  rendered  full  and  complete  satis- 
faction. He  was  a  man  of  good  nattinl  endowments, 
fine  culture,  and  great  skill  in  the  practical  application 
and  use  of  his  acquirements.  He  was  also  noted  for  his 
extraordinary  energy  of  character,  perseverance,  ster- 
ling integrity,  and  wonderful  endurance.  The  amount 
of  work  which  he  accomplished  was  enormous.  Be- 
sides the  large  amount  of  writing  done  as  editor  of  the 
Messenger  and  stated  clerk  of  the  Synod,  he  published. 
Exercises  on  the  Heidelberg  Catechism: — Heidelberg  Cat" 
echism  Sunplifed: — Familg  Assistant,  a  book  of  devo- 
tions : — The  Rum  Plague,  translated  from  the  German. 
He  was  also  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Guardian 
and  the  Mercersburg  Review,  See  Ref  Church  Mess,, 
June  15, 1881.    (D.Y.H.) 

Fisher,  fSamnel  "Ware,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bom  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  April 
5, 1814.  His  father  was  an  eminent  Presbyterian  min- 
ister in  that  town,  his  chuash  being  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  state.  Samuel  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1885 ; 
studied  theology  two  years  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  one 
year  at  Union  Seminary,  New  York.  Shortly^  afterwards 
he  wss  ordained  pastor  in  West  Bloomfield,  N.  J.  Here 
he  remained  a  little  more  than  four  years,  and  then  was 
installed,  Oct.  13,  1848,  over  the  Fourth  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Albany,  N.  Y.  From  Albany  be  removed  to* 
Cincinnati,  O.,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Pres- 
byterian Church  and  successor  of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher, 
entering  upon  the  duties  of  his  office  in  April,  1847. 
Here  he  hsd  a  brilliant  and  eminently  successful  minis- 
try. A  series  of  sermons  preached  by  him  to  young 
men.  Three  Great  Temptations,  published  in  1852,  went 
through  six  editions.  In  the  fall  of  1858  he  was  inau- 
gurated president  of  Hamilton  College,  N.  Y.,  and  re- 
mained in  office  eight  years.  He  was  installed  pastor 
of  the  Westminster  Church  of  Utica,  Nov.  15, 1867,  and 
remained  four  yeare  in  that  position.  His  death  took 
place  at  College  Hill,  near  Cincinnati,  O.,  Jan.  18, 1874. 
See  Biog,  Encgdop.  of  Ohio,  p.  55;  Gen.  CaL  of  UnUm 
Theol,  Sem,  1876,  p.  18.    (J.  a  S.) 


FISHERMAN 
Flalwnnaii,  m  Ckrii- 

liam  Art.  Of  Ihil  cmblciD 
our  Idrd  tad  hia  diaciplei 
■re  freqwnUy  [tepie[«d  on 

net  ii  more  mel;  repracul- 
«1  than  the  hook  and  line; 
but  the  net  ef  St.  Peter, with 
the  Lord  Bahiog  with  the 
line,  ii  ■  derice  of  the  papal 
Bi);neu.  At  Son  Zenone,  in 
Veruna,  the  patroa  aaint  is 
thus  npnaenled,  and  thia 
■abject,  with  thoae  of  Abra. 
ham'a  aacriSce,  Noah'a  ark,      ^^  ^^ 

and   otheri,  on  the  bronie  "'DlTl'ne  op  Apoiit 

doon  and  marble  rroni  of      er.    (Frem  aa  eorl;  rop- 
that  muat  imporlant  church,      ""ulafin.) 
afo  apccialljr  raluable  aa  conaecting  (he  earlier  Lombaril 
earvinga  with  the  nine  ancient  and  icriptural  wlijects 


'•  Bjmbolleal 


n[  the 


i>r  the  Lord 


a  Urge  llab,  n 


I    antlqae    jcliu 


of  primitive  chnreh-wortt.  Thia  afmbol,  like  the  vine, 
la  adopted  from  pagan  decorationa,  which,  of  enurac, 
proves  ita  aDtiquily.— Smith,  Diet, 
of  CAriit.  A  tUiq.  t.  r. 

FlakB,  Nathan,  D.D.,  a  Con- 
(iregctinnal  roinialer,  wai  bom  at 
Weston,  Haw.,  Srpt.  9, 17S3.  lie 
graduated  from  Hamni  Collef^ 
in  1754;  becanie  pauor  May  28, 
1758,  in  the  Third  Precinct,  Brwk- 
fteld,  and  died  there,  Not'.  SB,  1799. 
He  had  a  geniua  for  pragreanTe 
im  prove  ment.  Hii  preaching  vaa 
practical,  and  yet  abounded  in  the 
beaatiea  or  literary  composition. 
Beaidea  acTeral  aemioni,  two  vol- 
UDM  of  hia  eaaays,  entitled  T/ia  '"'*' 
Moral  Matdlor,  ace  among  bis  pabliahed  works.  See 
Sprague,  JiDufa  a/llie  Amtr.  PulpH,  L  571. 

Fltah,  Ghatmo«7  W.,  D.D.,  ■  Prateatant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  waa  tor  a  number  of  years  rector  of  the 
chaTCb  in  Piqna,  O. ;  in  1S61,  of  St.  Stepben'e  Charch, 
Terre  Haate,  Ind. ;  in  1864,  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Jef- 
fersonTille,  and  chaplain  of  the  militaiy  hoapiiil  at 
that  place;  in  186(i  was  appointed  post-chaplain  at 
Fort  Wayne,  Detroit,  Hich.,  a  poeitioa  which  he  con- 
linaed  to  hijd  unUl  1875,  when  he  removed  to  .lelTcr- 
■anvi]lp,Ind.,snddied  there,  July  18,  IH78,a^  seven- 
ty-aeven  yean.    See  Prot.  Epiic  A  Imanac,  1879,  p.  168. 

Fitob,  TUljah  a  ConKregitional  miaiateriWasboni 
at  Windham,  Coun.,  in  1746,  and  graduated  rram  Yale 
CoHege  in  1766.  After  preaching  for  a  time  in  Frank- 
lin, UaK,  ha  waa  onlained,  Jan.  16,  1773,  at  Hopkin- 
ton,  as  collesgDe  with  Rer.  Samuel  Barrett,  who  died 
the  December  following,  when  Mr.  Fitch  became  sole  ! 
paatoi  of  the  church.  He  remained  in  office  until  hia 
death,  Doc  16,  1788.  Ue  was  a  fine  scholar  and  poet, 
n  well  as  an  excellent  mininter.  See  Hiil.  of  Ataidoa 
A«oeiatic,p.m.    (J.C.S.) 

FittOC.  JAtna,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Raman 
Catholic  Church  in  New  England,  was  bom  in  Boston, 
Nhs^  in  1808,  and  was  confirmed  by  the  lint  bishop  of 
Boaton,  Dr.  Chevema.    He  attended  the  first  Catholic 


13  FITZJAMES 

Bchool  In  New  EngUnd,  under  Rev.  Dr.  Hatignon,  and 
w«i  for  a  while  teacher  in  the  seminary  attached  to 
the  old  church  in  Franklin,  where  he  liad  for  one  of 
hia  pu^nls.  Dr.  Williams,  archbiahop  of  Boaton.  He 
waa  orilaineil  to  the  pricalhood  by  Bishop  Fenwick, 
Dec  m,  1827.  In  18i9  he  was  aent  on  a  minon  to  the 
Paasamaquodily  Indians,  in  Maine,  the  aame  year  ID 
New  Hampshire  and  Yetmont,  and  soon  established  his 
headquarters  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  where  he  purchased 
the  llrst  Catholic  church,  eatabliahed  the  CalMic  Prat, 
and  exteiuled  hia  labors  to  every  county  in  Connecticut. 
He  eauhlisbed  what  is  now  the  College  of  the  Holy 
Cmaa,  at  WorctMer,  Mass.,  and  helped  build  the  Cath- 
olic cause  at  Nortbamploii,  Frovidence,  R  I.,  Newport, 
and  other  plaeea  in  those  two  states.  In  August,  1866, 
he  waa  transferred  to  East  Boston,  Mass.,  where  he 
foundetl  four  pariabeo.  He  a)^  eatabliahed  several 
schools.  He  died  in  Boaton,  Sept.  15,  1881.  Mr. 
Fllton  compiled  Tk»  Triumph  of  Beligion,  edited  the 
.tfuatini  of  SI.  JoKpk,  a  prayer-book,  and  waa  )be  au- 
thor of  a  HiMtory  of  the  Calhalic  Church  in  Nt«  Ki^ 
bind  (1873).  "  Hia  work  i«  seen  in  the  whole  history 
of  Catholicity  in  New  England.  No  page  can  be  writ- 
ten without  hia  im[H'cas  upon  it.  Wisdom  filled  his 
works;  wisdom  completed  them.  In  life  he  seemed  to 
us  what  be  really  was,  a  model  priest"  (Bishop  Healv). 
See  (N.  Y.)  CalAolic  A  mual,  1883,  p.  74. 

Flt>,  Daniei.,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  waa 
bom  in  New  Hampshire  In  1796;  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1818,  and  from  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  IS26;  waa  ordained  .lune  28, 1836,  pastor 
of  South  Church,  Ipswich,  Mass.,  and  died  there,  Sept. 
a,  1869.  See  Tivti.  Cut.  of  Aadocer  Thiol  Son.  1880, 
p.  64, 

Titm-Qrel^aj  (or  Fltx-O«o&oi),  CHABL8a,an 
Engliih  clergyman,  was  bom  in  Cornwall  about  1676; 
educated  at  Hroadgate-hol],  Oxford ;  became  rector  of 
St.  Dominic's,  in  his  own  couuty,  ind  died  in  1636.  He 
waa  an  excellent  Ldlin  poet.  Hia  publications  are,  Af- 
fmia  livt  A'pigiammnla,  lib.  iii,  and  Cnotaphi<i,  lil>. 
i  (leoi) :— a  religioui  poem  called  the  Ukurd  BirtA- 
day  (IS34, 1636).  Healaopubliahediome^erniou.  See 
Chalmeni,  Hing.Dia.%.\.;  Ailiboae,  Did.  of  Bril.  and 
ABier.Aulhiin,a.v. 

FltBgerald,  C,r.nAi.j>,  D.D.,  Hebrew  pmfessor  in 
Dublin  CniveniilT;  published  Originalily  and  Ptrtna- 
aoKt  of  the  BibUial  Jltbrtw  (1796)  :—A  llthrtm  Gram- 
mar, for  the  use  of  the  students  of  the  Univerntv  of 
Dublin  (1799).      See  Allilnne,  Did.  ofBril.  and  Amtr. 

Pitsherbert,  Thohas,  a  lealous  Roman  Cslholic, 
waa  bom  in  Staffordshire  in  ISoS;  eilucatcd  at  Oxford; 
in  1614  became  a  Jesuit  at  liome,  and  waa  rector  of  the 
Engliah  college  in  that  dly  tor  twenty-three  years. 
He  died  in  1640,  lesving  a  treatise  adeeming  Patiry 
and  Rdigiofi  (1606-10),  and  several  Tradi  m  Drfeaa 
of  the  Charch.     See  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 

A  UlhoTI,  S.  V. 

ntm-JamM,  Frac  pols.  Due  df,  a  French  prelate 
and  theologian,  waa  burn  at  Sainl-Germain.en-Lave, 
June  V,  i;u9.  He  renounced  his  family  dignities' to 
enter  the  clerical  life  £1  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  waa 
appointed  abbot  of  Saint  Tictor  in  1727.  He  became 
bishop  of  Soiasons  in  1739,  and  afterwards  succeeded 
cardinal  of  Auvergne,  aa  Brat  almoner  of  Louis  XV. 
Thia  prelate  taught  the  rigid  doctrinea  of  Jansenism. 
He  died  at  Soisaons,  July  19,  1764,  and  after  his  death 
his  works  were  published  under  the  title,  (Eavrn  Pot- 
thumrt  (1769-70,  8  vols.).      See  Hoefer,  A'oub.  Bieg. 

Flti- Junea,  Richard,  an  English  prelate,  and  a 
distinguislied  benefactor  of  Merlon  College,  Oxford,  waa 
s  native  of  Somerwtshire.  He  went  to  Oxford  about 
1459,  and  in  1406  was  electetl  probationer  fellow  of  Mer- 
lon College;  in  1473  was  proctor;  in  March,  1484,  vie-  , 
ar  of  Hinehead,  and  about  the  same  tinu  rector  of  Aller, 


FITZ-JOCKLIN  SI 

in  SomBiMlBhire.  In  Hi,v,  1496,  he  vw  ooniecnted 
Ushop  of  Rocheater,  frain  which,  juuRTy,  IMS,  he  wu 
tnniUtcd  to  CfaicbeUtr,  ami  in  Hirch,  1506,  to  the  lee 
of  London,  Ha  died  Jan.  16,  163!!.  See  Chalmcn, 
Biog.  Did.  *.  r. 

FltE-Jooella,  RBOniALD,  an  Eii|;liih  prelate,  wu 
the  aon  of  Jocelin,  biahop  oT  Salisbun-,  and  wu  born  in 
114t.  Early  in  life  he  wai  appointed  archdeacon  c^ 
Saliabury ;  when  thirt;-three  he  wai  elected  (o  the  ini' 
ponanC  aee  of  Bath  and  Wella,  in  1174.  He  aocom- 
paniedthe  archbiabop-eleccof  Canterbury  to  Kon>«  loon 
■rter,  and  waa  eanaecrated  at  the  Church  oT  Bt.  John  de 
Hiurienne,  in  Savoy,  by  Richard,  archbiabop  of  Canter- 
bury. On  hi*  return  to  Rrgland  he  waa  enthroned  in 
great  atate.  There  waa  aome  oppoaition  to  thia  ap- 
pointment. Reginald  appears  to  have  been  a  weak, 
well-meaaing  man,  probably  under  tbe  influence  of  hii 
aaaociitea.  In  1191  he  waa  very  unexpectedly  elected 
to  the  tee  of  Canterbury.  Reginald  aent  to  Ronn  foi 
Iho  pallium,  and  would  have  gone  bimaelf  had  he  not 
been  detained  by  ilLneai.  Meantime  hla  Lllneaa  in- 
cteaaed,  and  he  Mid  "  It  i«  <>od'>  will  that  1  ahould  not 
be  an  archhiahop,  and  my  will  aubmita  to  hia."  He 
died  Dec.  38, 1191.  See  Hoolc,  Liva  of  llu  Atpi.  o/ 
Cnnterieit jr,  ii,  674  aq. 

Fltspstrlck,  John  Bshkarp,  D.D.,  a  Roman 
Catholic  biahop,  wa*  bom  of  Iriih  parcnta,  in  Boston, 
Maaa.,  Not.  1, 1812.  He  recaved  hia  education  at  Boa- 
ion,  tbe  College  of  Uontreal,  and  tbe  SulpitUn  Semina- 
r>-.  Pari*.  He  waa  ordained  prieat  in  1640,  in  1844  wa> 
canacctatedcoadjuIor-hiabopofBaeIon,andinl81G  auc- 
ceeded  biahop  Kenwick  in  the  epiacopacy.  lie  died 
Feb.  13,  1866. 

Fits-Ralph,  RicuARD,  an  Irish  pirlale,  ia  nip- 
posed  to  have  been  bom  in  Devonahire.  He  waa  edu- 
cated It  Oxford,  and  in  1347  waa  created  archbiahop 
of  Armagh.  He  waa  a  atrenuoua  opponent  of  the  men- 
dicant ordera;  and  being  in  London  at  a  lime  when  a 
warm  contest  was  carried  on  between  the  friara  anil 
aecularclergy,about  preaching,  hearing  con fosiona,  etc, 
he  delivered  several  aermona,  in  which  bo  laid  down 
nine  concluaions  against  the  mendicants.  Upon  com- 
plaint made  bj-  the  latter  to  the  pope,  Richard  was  oi- 
dereil  to  appear  at  Aviciion,  which  he  did,  and  nell 
defended  his  viewa.  Miracles  were  alliiholcd  to  him 
«fter  his  decease,  in  ISGO.  and  a  fruillcsa  application  for 
his  canoniution  was  made  to  Bonifaco  IX.  He  wrote, 
Strmonet  ad  Crvctm  Loadnmim  (1866) :  — ^rfrernn 
Emra  Armmonini  (Paris,  ISli) ■.—Dr/rnna  Ciralv- 
nin  Adeertui  Fralrti  MtndianHa,  etc,  ( Psiis,  1496}  :— 
D*  iMUdibnt  S.  Deipara.  Baylc  says  that  he  trans- 
lated tbe  New  Test,  into  IiisU.— London,  Ecdri.  Diet. 

Fltsslmon,  Heniy,  a  zealous  Jesuit,  was  bom  at 
Dublin  in  1569,  educated  at  Oxford,  and  died  in  1644. 
He  publiahed  a  Juuijieaturu  of  Ike  Mat  (1611);— a 
Calalogae  af  Ihe  Irith  SaiuU  <16!1),  and  aome  other 
theological  treatises  in  defmce  of  bis  faith.  See  Chal- 
mers, Atop. />i(y.s.  v.  ^  Allibone,  Z>itf.'>/jSrir.  okI  A  aKr.. 
Authort,x.v. 

Fita«tmon,  Patrick,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prclaie,  was 
dean  of  Dublin,  and  waa  appointed  to  the  see  of  Dublin 
in  1763,  having  previously  been  parish  priest  of  St. 
Audeon's.  He  filled  this  see  six  yeara,  and  died  in 
Francis  Street,  Dublin,  In  1769.  H  is  life  aeems  to  hnTe 
been  so  unobtrusive  and  purely  ecdeaiasticai  as  to  leave 
no  materials  of  interest  for  ■  memoir.  See  D'AltOD, 
Meaoiri  oflhe  Abpt.  of  Dublin,  p.  471. 

Fltsaimon.'Walter,  an  Irish  prelate,  waa  a  bach- 
L-Ior  of  civil  and  canon  law,  a  learned  divine  and  phi- 
losopher, precentor  of  St.  Patrick's  Cbarch,whDae  chap- 
ter he  repreacnted  aa  proxy  in  ■  parliament  of  1478. 
On  June  14, 1484,  he  waa  appointed  to  the  see  of  Dub- 
lin, and  conaccnieil  In  SU  Patrick'a  Cathedral,  Sept.  !6 
.  following.  In  1487  this  prelate  wu  one  of  those  who 
cqioased  the  cauae  of  I^mbert  Simnel,  and  were  ae- 


14  FLABELLUM 

ofMory  to  hia  oonmation  in  Christ  Chnrch.  In  1488 
Fitxaimon  was  permitted  to  renew  hia  allegiance,  and 
receive  pardon  through  Sir  Bichaid  Edgecombe.  In 
1492  thia  prelate  waa  made  deputf  to  Javier,  duke  of 
Bedford.  While  in  this  utnation  he  endeavored  to 
prgmota  {ndaatiioni  habits  among  the  more  indolent 
of  the  paople.  In  1496  he  held  a  provincial  aynod  in 
the  CbuTcb  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  on  which  occasion  an 
annual  contribution  for  aeven  years  was  settled  by  tbe 
clergy  of  tbe  prorincc,  to  provide  salaries  for  ifae  Ik- 
turera  of  the  unlveraily  in  St.  Patrick'a  Cathedral.  In 
Hay  of  the  same  year  he  granted  to  John  Alleyiie, 
dean  of  St.  Patrick's,  license  to  build  a  hospital  tor  the 
relief  of  poor  Cathollca.  In  150S  he  waa  deputy  to 
Gerald,  earl  of  Kildare,  and  in  1609  lord  -  chancellor. 
HediedHay  H  16ll,atFinglasa.  See  D' Alton,  Jf<- 
noirv  o//jl«  Abpi.  ofDubliii,  p.  171, 

Fix,  Chbistuit  Gotthklt,  a  Lutheran  theologian, 
waa  born  at  Chemniti,  June  6,  1761,  and  died  then, 
Jan.e,lB09.  He  publabei,  Dtr KuriaettiKlu  Kirdif 
$laaltw<kr  Rrformolio»  (Freibui^,  1806, 1807, 8  voli.): 
—A  briu  dtr  KurtSchnxlltn  Kirchm-  mtd  ComiilonaU 
vafcutiaig  (Leipslc,  1795, !  vols)  ■.^Griillicie  Slalijtit 
nn>  KMgrtiiA  Saehtm  (Giessen,  1800).  See  Wiutr, 
AoH&idl  rfer  tiiol.  Lil,  i,  800.     (B.  P.) 

PUbeUtun  (Jim ,-  Qr.  pmiiiov).  Among  the  evi- 
dences of  tbe  Eastern  origin  of  the  Christian  religion  is 
of  this  implement  during  tbe  oelebrsiian  of  the 
"  ving  its  birthplace  and  earliest  home  in 
a  climate  teeming  with  inaeet  life,  where  food  cipoaed 
uncovered  ii  instantly  blackened  and  polluted  by  swsims 
of  fliea,  it  waa  natural  that  the  bread  and  wine  of  its 
sacramental  feast  should  be  guarded  from  defilement  by 
tbe  custotnary  precaalions.    Tbe  jtuMtum  having  been 


temperate  climatea  of  the  West,  where  ita  original  pur- 
poae  was  almost  forgotten. 

Tbe  earliest  notice  of  it  as  •  liturgical  ornament  ia 
in  tbe  ApotloUcal  Comttitulioiu,  which  direct  that  altet 
the  oblation,  before  attd  during  the  pnj'cr  of  conaecn- 
lion,  two  deacons  are  to  atand,  one  on  either  aide  of 
the  sltar,  holding  t  fiaMbim  made  of  thin  memtirine 
(parchment),  or  of  peacock  feathers,  or  of  fine  liocn, 
and  quietly  drive  away  the  Ble«  and  other  small  in- 
sects, thit  they  strike  not  against  the  veneis.  In  the 
liturgies  also  of  Chiysostoni  and  Basil,  the  de*cons  are 
directed  to  fan  the  holy  oblations  during  tbe  piarer  of 
conaecration.  Tbis  fsnning  ceased  with  the  LDid'i 
Prayer,  and  waa  not  rcaumed.  Early  writtn  famish 
many  notices  of  the  uao  of  the  fiabdlim  aa  an  naeniiai 
partof  tbe  liturgical ceremonlaL  Hoachua (/Va£i 5prir. 
196),  when  nanatiDg  how  aome  ahepberd  boys  near 
Apamei  wete  imitating  the  celebntiw  of  the  eocharist 


FLABELLUM  S' 

In  childiih  ipoit,  b  MKfol  to  moidoD  tb«t  two  of  Ibe 
cbiUm  Mood  00  cither  ade  ot  the  cdebnnl,  ribnitiiig 
Ihcir  budkonhiefi  like  fuu. 

Aj  iba  dnoDDt  wet*  the  o&ccn  ■ppointed  to  wire 
lb«  (in  oTtr  tbe  Mend  obUtiMi^  )U  dElireiy  coiuti- 
tuta  ■  part  of  many  of  the  Oiicnlil  fbtnu  fur  tbe  otdi- 
"~.  AAer  (be  Hole  ha*  becD  given 


Seicon  ninnlai;  the  InbiDt  SiTloar  Sealed  -.. 

o(  hU  H other.    (From  ■  Elided  gliMa  Kwad  la  (he  C.l- 

ind  placed  on  the  left  iboulder,  ibe  holy  fan  it  pul  into 
tba  deioon'a  handa,  and  be  ia  placed  "  at  Ibe  ude  of  Lhe 
Iralj' table  to  fan;"  and  again,  the  deacon  is  directed  to 
lake  the  fan  and  atand  at  the  rigbt  aide  of  [he  uble, 
and  ware  it  orer  the  hoi?  tbinga.     See  cut  under  EiJi- 

VATIOI  OF  THE  HOBT. 

Although  then  I*  no  inCDlisn  of  Ott  JlabtUum  in  tbe 


Utoiskal  Flabellnn  of  the  Abbejp  or  Tonmai. 


3  FLAGET 

Ladn  ritual  bookj,  there  ia  no  donbt  that  it  wn  UKd 
by  tbe  Western  Church  at  an  tn\f  time.  The  fan  ap. 
peart  to  have  graduillj  fallen  inio  diniie  there,  and  In 
have  alniaN  eutirely  ceued  bj  the  Mlh  centurv.  At 
the  pretent  day,  the  only  relic  of  the  uaage  ii  in  the 
magniScent  fana  of  peticochi'  feithen  carried  by  Ibe 
attendanta  of  the  pope  in  Mlemn  proceniona  on  certain 
gteat  (eatirala. 

Though  the  original  intention  of  tbe  fan  waa  one  of 
timple  utility,  variouB  mynical  meanings  collected  round 
it.  Heference  hu  been  alnady  made  id  tbe  idea  that 
these  feather  fana  typified  the  cherubim  and  aeraphim 
tuiTounding  the  holy  throne.  Uermantia  also  hulda 
(CmUaip.  Rn.  Etdet.  p.  157)  that  Ibe  Tibration  of  the 
fana  typidea  the  tremor  and  aslnuishmcnt  of  tbe  angeli 
at  oar  lord's  Passion.  Wo  find  the  aanie  idea  in  a 
paaiage  from  the  monk  Job,  given  by  Fhoiius,  who  alao 
■tatea  {Cod,  v,  25)  that  another  purpose  of  tbe  vibration 
of  the  fans  waa  the  raiting  of  tbe  minil  from  the  mate> 
rial  elementa  of  the  eucbarist,  and  fixing  them  on  lhe 
spiritual  realities, 

See  Hartignr,  A  tUtagt  da  Flaf)ditM:  Kngham, 
Chritl.  A  ntiq,  viii,  6,  g  2 1 ;  it,  S,  g  6 :  Bona,  Rer.  Liturg.  I, 
2&,J6;  /LVKiMi,CkrilLAi-ekaoL\a,fS)i^.;  ATtkaol. 
Jair.v,10a;  xiv,17;  Smilh,i>K:(.<>/Ctrue..4ii(i;.a.v. 

FlaoOlUtl  (somelime.  written  PlacSla  or  Flacidia), 
an  early  ChriwiiD  empress,  was  a  Spaniard  by  birth, 
or  rather,  perhaps,  dauKhter  of  Antoniua  (pnefect  of 
Gaul)  J  waa  married  lo  Theodosius  I,  in  S76,  by  whom 
she  had  several  children.  She  was  a  womin  of  great 
virtue  and  charity;  died  apparently  in  88i,and  is  coni- 
memoraled  as  a  saint  in  tlie  Greek  Church  on  Sept.  H. 
See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Ckriit.  Biog.  s.  v. 

FiBOoiUlU  (written  alio  FladUia,  PlacHlut,  Fla. 
alia,  nicttta,  and  Flacattiiu),  Arian  bishop  of  Anti- 
Dch,  A.D.  S33-84:i. 

FlaolM,  Siiiiaut<ND  AiinnEAS,  a  Latheran  thenlo- 
^an  of  Oermuiy,  waa  bom  Nov.  SI,  1692,  studied  at 
Leiptic,  where  he  waa  also  adjunctiia  of  the  philosoph- 
ical faculty,  and  died  at  Leieuig,  in  Saxony,  in  IT4S, 
Itn'mtt,  Dt  Rritilulrtiiu  Duobvt  VrnSmi  Joi.il  (Leip- 
aic,  l714)>-/)«  Can  SuOanm  in  Fint  Mumii  (ibid. 
1718):— Dt  I'iKilai  iixa^  \cyoiiivoif:  in  Epitlola 
Jocnii  (ibid.  1727)  i—fuiMim^iarjl  H^sburTucAoi  Cm- 
fi$tion  (ibiiL  i;ao).  See  Winer,  //aadiueA  dcr  IhtoL 
Lil.  i,  27£ ;  FUisI,  BOi.  Jud.  i,  282 ;  Jiicher,  A  Ugtmeiati 
Ctlthrtm-Lexibm,  a.  v.     {B,  P.) 

FlaokWQliU,  Jaoobss,  a  Finnish  theologian  and 
physician,  a  native  of  Uadiyla,  waa  provoet  of  tbe  ca- 
thedral of  Abo.  In  1665  he  taught  logic  and  meta- 
ph3-sic*  in  that  same  cily;  in  1G79  he  lectured  on  tbe> 
ok^.and  died  in  I69£.  leaving, /wMfarionu  Pncanuifb 
ca  <Abo,  1664)  ■.-CoUifiiam  Logiam  (ibid.  1678).  Sea 
Hoefer,  Nout.  Buy.  Gitirah,  s.  v. 

Flaoluanloa,  Jotumil,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
and  prelate  of  Finland,  was  bom  at  Mack^la  in  1686. 
He  studied  at  lhe  Univenily  uf  Abo,  of  which  he  be- 
came tecreuiy  in  1645.  Still  later  be  wai  successively 
connected  with  the  faculty  of  philoeophv,  profemor  of 
mathematica  in  166n,  and  paMor  in  lesif.  Finally  he 
became  biahoti  of  Wihorg,  and  died  July  11, 1708,  leav- 
ing, among  other  works,  Oruli'o  f'im(6rii  in  ^Muiii  Af. 
AiiiJnuirAiiroin(.elc(Abo,1665):— Z»eA'(W«i'a£jui;He 
Sulgtao,  elc  {ISSa^-.^Si/Uoge  Sgitmuilaia  Thmlogim, 
etc  (ibid,  1690} :  — CAronofojiii  Sarra  (ibid.  1692):— 
Harmmia  Evangriiai  (ibid.  1701).  See  Hoefer,  Kom. 
Biag.  Ginirale,  a.  v. 

Fltlget,  BuiEDicT  JoaapH,  a  Koman  Caihnlic  prel- 
ate, was  horn  atCourtenay,  Auvergne.Nov.  7, 1763.  He 
entered  Iha  Sulpilian  seminary  at  Clcimonl,  and  after 
bia  otdination  was  received  into  the  society  of  St.  Sul- 
pice.  As  tbe  trouble*  of  the  French  revolution  came 
on  he  offered  himself  lo  bishop  Carroll  for  service  in 
America,  and  arrived  in  Philadelphia,  Nov.  7, 1793.  Hia 
Hnt  mistion  was  at  Vincennea,  Ind.,  one  of  the  oldest 
Frencb  seltlementa  in  the  Wc«^  whence  he  was  recalled 


FLAMBARD 


896 


FLEMAEL 


in  1796  to  assame  a  profetsonbtp  in  Georgetown  Col- 
lege. On  Nov.  i,  1810,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
the  new  diocese  of  Banlstown.  His  sealous  labors  ex- 
tended to  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans,  He  established 
a  seminary  in  his  new  diocese,  and  by  the  aid  of  priests 
like  David,  Elder,  Byrne,  and  the  Dominican  and  Jes- 
uit fathers,  institutions  arose  to  meet  the  needs  of  his 
flock.  In  1832  his  resignation  of  his  see  was  accepted, 
but,  with  Dr.  Chalrat  as  coadjutor,  he  w^  reinstated. 
Bishop  Flaget  then  visited  Rome,  when  the  pope  urged 
him  to  travel  through  France  and  Northern  Italy,  to 
commend  the  Association  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith.  Cures  said  to  have  been  effected  by  bis  prayers 
added  to  the  force  of  his  reputation.  Returning  to 
Kentucky,  he  resumed  his  toilsome  labors.  After  his 
see  was  removed  to  Louisville,  Dr.  Chalrat  resigned,  and 
M.  J.  Spalding,  afterwards  the  learned  archbishop  of 
Baltimore,  succeeded  him.  Bishop  Flaget  closed  his 
long  and  laborious  life,  Feb.  11 ,  1850.  See  Cath,  A  bna- 
nacy  1872,  p.  57 ;  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Cath, 
CAufxh  in  the  United  States,  p.  70, 538. 

Flambard  (or  Fasseflabere),  Ramulph  (or 
Ralph),  an  English  prelate,  and  justiciar  under  William 
Rufus,  was  a  Norman  of  low  birth,  who  came  to  England 
in  the  train  of  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1066.  He  took 
holy  orders,  obtained  several  Church  preferments,  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  London,  and  made 
prebendary  of  St.  PauKs.  He  afterwards  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  William  II,  who  made  him  his  chaplain.  By  his 
unscrupulous  arti6oes  with  the  king  be  raised  himself  to 
the  highest  places  in  Church  and  State.  He  seems  to 
have  been  the  first  man  to  apply  feudalism  to  the  estates 
of  the  Church.  He  suggested  that  they  should  be  con- 
sidered as  fiefs  or  benefices  held  of  the  king,  which  at 
every  vacancy  should  devolve  to  the  crown  till  the  va- 
cancy was  supi^ied.  After  the  death  of  Lanfranc  the 
king  gave  himself  up  unreser^'edly  to  Flambard.  The 
justiciar  obtained  for  himself  the  custody  of  the  vacant 
abbeys  of  W'iuchester  and  Chertsey,  the  bishopric  of 
Lincoln,  and  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  His  op- 
pressive measures  brought  him  into  such  odium  that 
an  attempt  was  made  in  1099  to  murder  him  at  sea, 
which,  however,  proved  unsuccessfuL  He  was  then 
rewarded  with  the  see  of  Durham,  for  which  he  was 
obliged  to  pay  the  king  £1000.  On  the  death  of  Will- 
iam II,  in  1100,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  "  the 
first  man,"  says  Freeman, "  recorded  to  have  dwelled  as 
a  prisoner  in  the  Conqueror's  fortress.'*  In  February 
of  the  following  year  he  managed  to  escape  from  his 
prison,  and  fled  to  Normandy.  There  he  Joined  duke 
Robert,  instigated  him  to  invade  England,  whither  he 
returned  with  him.  He  was  afterwards  restored  to  his 
sec,  and  appears  to  have  attended  to  his  duties  faith- 
fully the  rest  of  his  life.  He  coropletod  his  cathedral, 
built  Norham  castle,  and  fortified  Durham.  He  en- 
dowed the  college  of  Christchureh,  and  founded  the 
priory  of  Motitsford.  He  died  Sept,  5, 1128.  See  En- 
eydop,  Brit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Flaminia,  the  name  of  a  young  priestoss,  who  as- 
sisted the  Flaminica  in  her  sacred  duties.  This  was 
also  the  name  given  to  the  house  of  the  Flamen  Dialis^ 
from  which  no  one  could  carry  out  fire  except  for  sacred 
purposes. 

FlaxnlxiShja,  the  wife  of  the  Flamen  Dialis  (see  Fla- 
mkh),  or  priest  of  Jupiter,  among  the  ancient  Romans. 
She  was  put  under  the  same  restrictions  as  her  husband, 
and  if  she  died  he  was  compelled  to  resign  his  ofilce. 
She  sacrificed  a  ram  to  Jupiter  on  each  of  the  Nundina 
(q.  v.). 

Flaminio  (originally  Tarrabini),  Hahcx)  Axto- 
Hio,  an  eminent  Italian  poet,  was  bom  at  Seravalle,  in 
1498,  studied  philosophy  at  Bologna,  attached  himself 
to  various  ecclesiastics,  and  died  at  Rome,  Feb.  18, 1550, 
judge  of  St.  Peter.  He  was  appointed  secretary  for  the 
Council  of  Trent,  but,  being  of  a  friendly  disposition 
towards  Luther  and  his  work,  he  refused  to  accept  the 


appointment.  He  wrote  several  poetical  works,  espe- 
ciaUv,  In  Librum  PgaUnorum  Brevii  Eaeplanatio  (Ven- 
ice, 1546).  See  Winer,  l/andbueh  der  TheoL  Lit,  i,  207 ; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  282;  Jocher,  AUgemeinet  Gdekriak- 
Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s,  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nam, 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v.    (B,  P.) 

Flanders,  Charlks  Worthek,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Salisbury,  Mass.,  in  February, 
1807.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1889 ;  pur- 
sued his  theological  studies  with  Rev.  John  Wayland, 
D.D.  (a  brother  of  Dr.  F.  Wayland),  then  pastor  of  the 
First  Baptist  Church  in  Salem;  was  ordained  over  the 
First  Baptist  Chureh  in  Danvers,  Nov.  11, 1840,  remain- 
ing there  for  nearly  ten  years,  when  be  took  charge  of 
the  First  Baptist  Chureh  at  Concord,  N.  H. ;  and  sub- 
sequently was  pastor  of  Bsptist  churches  in  Kennebunk- 
port.  Me.,  and  Westboro  and  Beverly  Farms,  Mass.  He 
died  at  Beverly,  Aug.  2, 1875.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Flaviftnus,  the  second  of  that  name,  bishop  of  An- 
doch,  A.D.  498-512,  was  weak  and  vacillating  in  moral 
character,  originally  a  monk  at  Tilmognon,  in  Coele- 
Syria,  later  nuncio  of  the  Church  of  Antiocb  at  the  im- 
perial court  in  Constantinople,  and  was  deposed  in  con- 
sequence of  the  Monophysite  troubles  at  Alexandria, 
ending  his  life  in  banishment,  A.D.  518.  See  Smith, 
Diet,  o/ChriiL  Biog,  s.  v. 

Fleck,  Ferdimamd  Florkks,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Dresden,  April  5, 1800,  and 
died,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology,  at  Leipsic,  in 
1849,  leaving,  De  Regno  Chritti  (Leipsic,  1826)  :  —  De 
Regno  Divino  (ibid.  1829):^ — Otivm  Theologieum  (ibid. 
\9Aiy,-~Wi$9entchqftUche  Reiae,  etc.  (ibid.  1835-^,  2 
vols.) :— />w  Vertheidigttngdes  Chrittenthvnu  (ibid.  1842): 
— System  der  christliehen  Dogmatik  (ibid.  1847) : — Der 
Fortschritt  des  MensehengesdUechts  (Giessen,  1848).  He 
also  editetl  Testamentum  Novum,  Vulgata  Ediiioms, 
etc.  (Leipsic,  1840).  See  Winer,  Bandbudi  der  TheoL 
Lit,  a,  440 ;  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  i,  868.     (R  P.) 

Fleetwood,  John,  D.D.,  probably  an  assumed 
name  for  the  author  of  the  Christian  Prayer-book 
(Lond.  lT!2)i— Christian  Dictionary  (\773):^Life  of 
Christ  (often  printed,  and  formerly  very  popular) : — and 
Lives  of  the  Apostles,  John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Virgin 
Mary  (Glasgow,  1818).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  A  met,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Flekeles,  Eleazar  ben 'David,  a  Jewish  rabbi, 
was  bora  at  Prague  in  1754,  and  died  there  in  182G, 
leaving  ^1^  ^31^9,  a  disquisition  and  criticism  of  the 
sect  of  the  Sabbathseans  in  Prague,  (1800):  — nbi9 
*^^S2I,  a  collection  of  derashas,  in  which  he  vents  his 
ire  against  the  translators  of  the  Bible,  especially  against 
the  school  of  Moses  Mendelssohn  (1787):  — nsitb^ 
Ollpn,  on  the  holy  names  of  God  in  the  Scripture 
(1812).  See  Fttrst,  Bibl.  Jud,  i,  288  sq.;  Spits,  "pnaT 
•Itybx,  or  Biography  of  Flekeles  (Prague,  1827).  (B,  P.) 

Flemael  (Fr.  FUmtdle),  Brrtrolet,  an  eminent 
Flemish  painter,  was  bom  at  Liege  in  1614,  and  was 
a  pupil  of  Gerard  Donfflest,  at  Liege,  whence  he  went 
to  Italy,  and  studied  the  works  of  the  great  masters.  He 
soon  gained  distinction,  and  was  invited  to  Florence  by 
the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  to  do  some  work.  He  went 
to  Paris,  and  painted  for  the  cupola  of  the  Carmelites, 
Elijah  taken  vp  into  Heaven,  and  Elisha  Receiving  the 
Mantle  of  the  Prophet,  He  also  painted  the  A  doraiion 
of  the  Magi,  for  the  sacristy  of  the  Augustines.  He  re- 
turned to  bis  native  city  in  1647,  and  was  employed  in 
many  important  works  for  the  churches,  the  first  of 
which  was  The  Crucifixion,  for  one  of  the  collegiate 
chapels,  which  gained  him  great  reputation.  Some  oC 
his  other  principal  works  are,  The  Elevation  of  the  Cross; 
The  A  ssumption  of  the  Virgin ;  T%e  Conversion  of  St, 
Paul;  The  Raising  of  Lazarus,  and  The  Crucifinon, 
He  was  elected  a  member,  and  subsequently  a  professor, 
of  the  Royal  Academy  at  Paris,    He  died  at  Uege  in 


FLEMING 


807 


FLEMING 


1675.    See  Spooner,  Biog.  ffitt.  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  8.  v, ; 
Uoefer,  Now*  Biog,  Ghurale^  8.  t. 

Fleming  Alexander  (l),  D.D^  a  Scotch  clergy- 
man, son  of  a  farmer  in  Hawkurood,  was  bom  July  80, 
1747;  licensed  to  preach  March  28, 1780;  presented  by 
the  duke  of  Hamilton  to  the  living  at  Hamilton,  second 
charge,  and  ordainetl  Nov.  17, 178i5 ;  appointed  one  of 
the  king's  chaplains  in  ordinary  in  Scotland,  Sept.  7, 
1799,  and  died  Hay  28, 1880.  See  Fatti  Eccles.  Scotv- 
come,  ii,  261. 

Fleming,  Alexander  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergy- 
nan,  graduated  at  Glasgow  University;  was  licensed 
to  preach  Jan.  20, 1801 ;  elected  by  the  parishioners  to 
the  living  at  Xeilston,  Paisley,  in  June,  and  ordained 
Sept.  27, 1804.  The  parishioners,  in  1826,  refused  to 
take  the  sittings  by  auction,  which  led  to  protracted 
litigation,  ending  in  an  appeal  to  the  Hous^  of  Lords  in 
April,  1834.  The  assembly  publicly  thanked  Mr.  Flem- 
ing, in  1833,  for  his  zeal,  labors,  and  great  exertions  in 
the  csuse.  The  want  of  increased  accommodation  be- 
ing felt  in  many  other  places  gave  rise  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  committee  of  the  assembly  in  May,  1828,  for 
Church  accommodation,  which  merged  in  May,  1835, 
into  that  of  the  committee  for  Church  extension,  and 
has  led  to  the  erection  of  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  additional  churches  and  parishes.  Dr.  Fleming 
died  June  10, 1845,  aged  seventy-four  years.  His  pub- 
lications were  numerous,  and  treated  chiefly  of  Church 
matters  in  controversy  at  the  time,  one  of  which  re- 
lated to  the  building  and  endowing  of  churches.  He 
printed  An  ffirtorical  Lecture  on  Teindi  (1835): — a 
Sermon  preached  at  the  admission  of  Rev.  R.  Steven- 
son (1836) :— ^  Letter  to  Sir  Robeii  Peel  (1842):— i4n 
Account  of  the  Parieh  of  NeUeton.  See  Fasti  Ecdes. 
^eo/tc«|}m,ii,  231,232. 

Fleming,  Caleb,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
Independent  minister,  was  bom  at  Nottingham  in  1698, 
and  studied  classical  and  scientific  subjects  and  mathe- 
matics under  able  teachers  in  Nottingham  and  London. 
The  bishops  of  Winchester  and  Carlisle  made  him  hand- 
some and  liberal  offers  to  enter  the  Church,  but  his 
preference  waa  for  nonconformity,  and  he  accepted  a 
pastorate  in  Bartholomew  (3ose  in  1788,  with  a  small 
sslary.  He  objected  to  a  confession  of  faith  and  to  the 
imposition  of  hands.  In  1753  he  was  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed Dr.  Foster  as  minister  at  Pinner's  Hall.  Here  he 
Ubored  till  his  death,  July  21,  1779.  His  published 
works  are  mostly  of  a  controversial  character,  the  first 
isBoed  in  1729,  the  last  in  1775,  and  they  are  fifty  in 
number.  They  show  much  learning  and  research,  but 
his  doctrines  were  Socinian  in  charscter,  and  they  im- 
hittered  his  temper  and  kept  him  in  a  continual  atmos- 
phere of  contention  and  disputation.  See  Wilson,  Dis- 
eenUng  Ckurckes,  ii,  283. 

Fleming,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son 
of  William  P.,  minister  of  Houston,  was  licensed  to 
pceach  April  24, 1784;  called  in  January  to  the  living 
at  Kilmalcolm,  ordained  June  28, 1787,  and  died  June 
80, 1787,  aged  seventy-five  yean.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  talents,  knowledge,  oondnct,  and  piety,  which 
commanded  the  highest  esteem  and  respect.  See  FatU 
Eedee.  ScoHcanm,  ii,  251. 

Fleming,  John  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son 
of  Alexander,  of  Bathgate,  was  bom  Jan.  10, 1785;  li- 
censed to  preach  April  22, 1806 ;  called  to  the  living  at 
Bressay  in  August,  and  ordained  Sept.  22, 1808 ;  trans- 
ferred to  Flbk,  Cupar,  in  1810,  and  admitted  April  18, 
1811;  promoted  to  Clackmannan,  Sept.  4, 1832;  admit- 
ted professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  university 
and  King*s  College,  Aberdeen ;  but  in  1843,  having  be- 
come identified  with  the  Free  Church,  he  resigned  his 
position,  and  two  years  later  became  professor  of  natn- 
nl  science  in  the  Free  Church  College  of  Edinburgh. 
He  died  Nov.  18, 1857.  His  writings  were  chiefly  sci- 
entific See  Fatti  JSocks.  Scoticanm,  ii,  251, 494,'  697 ; 
ii]»4a4,697. 


Fleming,  Patrick,  an  Irish  Roman  Catholic  ec- 
clesiastic and  writer,  was  bom  at  Louth,  April  17, 1599. 
He  was  appointed  lecturer  of  divinity  at  league,  where 
he  remained  until  the  city  was  besieged  by  the  elector 
of  Saxony  in  1631,  when  he  was  murdered.  He  pub- 
lished Coliectanea  Sacra ^  or  Livet  of  Irish  and  Scotdk 
Saints  (1667).  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet,  s.  v.;  AUi- 
bone.  Diet.  ofBrii,  and  A  mer,  A  uthort^  s.  ▼. 

Fleming  (ur  Flemmynge),  Richard,  an  Eng- 
lish prelate,  and  the  founder  of  Lincoln  College,  Ox- 
ford, was  bom  at  Crofton,  in  Yorkshire,  about  1360,  and 
educated  at  University  College,  Oxford.  In  1406  he 
was  presented  to  the  prebend  of  South  Newbold,  in  the 
Church  of  York,  and  in  1407  was  proctor  of  the  univer- 
sity. In  1415,  being  rector  of  Boston,  in  Lincolnshire, 
he  exchanged  his  preliend  of  South  Newbold  for  that 
of  Langford,  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  York,  and  in 
April,  1420,  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Lincoln.  In 
1428  he  executed  that  decree  of  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance which  ordered  that  the  bones  of  Wvcklif  should 
be  taken  up  and  burned.  He  died  at  Sleford,  Jan.  25, 
1431 .     See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Fleming,  Thomas  (1),  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  of 
the  family  of  the  barons  of  Slane,  was  a  Franciscan  friar, 
and  for  some  time  a  professor  of  theology  in  Louvain. 
He  was  made  archbishop  of  Dublin,  Oct.  23, 1623.  In 
conformity  with  a  proclamation  issued  by  lord  Falk- 
land, in  April,  1629,  the  archbishop  and  mayor  of  Dub- 
lin seized  upon  several  priests  in  that  city  in  the  act  of 
saying  mass,  their  ornaments  were  taken  from  them,  the 
images  battered  and  destroyed,  and  the  priests  and  friars 
were  delivered  up  to  the  soldiers.  Between  the  years 
1633  and  1640,  Dr.  Fleming's  life  appears  to  have  been 
passed  in  the  unobtrusive  exercise  of  his  ecclesiastical 
duties.  In  1640  he  presided  at  a  provincial  council, 
which  was  held  at  Tycrogher,  in  the  county  of  Kildare. 
In  1642  archbishop  Fleming,  being  much  annoyed  with 
the  affairs  of  the  countr}',  sent  the  Rev.  Joseph  Everard 
to  appear  as  his  proxy  at  the  synod  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic clerg}',  which  met  at  Kilkenny  in  May  of  that  year. 
On  June  20,  1643,  archbishop  Fleming  and  the  arch- 
b&hop  of  Tuam  were  the  only  prelates  who  signed  the 
commission  authorizing  Nicholas,  viscount  Gormanston, 
Lucas  Dillon,  Sir  Robert  Talbot,  and  others,  to  treat 
with  the  marquis  of  Ormond  for  the  cessation  of  arms. 
In  July,  1644,  he  was  present  at  the  general  assembly, 
when  the  oath  of  association  was  agreed  upon,  whereby 
every  confederate  swore  to  bear  true  faith  and  allegi- 
giance  to  the  king  and  his  heirs,  to  maintain  the  fun- 
damental laws  of  Ireland,  the  free  exercise  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  and  to  obey  the  orders  and  decrees  of  the 
supreme  council.  In  1649  he  was  one  of  those  who 
signed  the  declaration,  at  Clonmacnoise,  reconciling  all 
former  differencea.  In  October,  1650,  this  prelate,  in 
fjerson,  at  Galway,  signed  the  document  authorizing 
Dr.  Nicholas  French,  bishop  of  Ferns,  and  Hugh  Roch- 
fort,  to  treat  and  agree  with  any  Catholic  prince,  state, 
republic,  or  person  as  they  might  deem  expedient  for 
the  preaer^'ation  of  the  Catholic  religion.  He  died 
about  1666.  See  D* Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  Abps.  of 
Dublin,  p.  890. 

Fleming,  Thomas  (2),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
a  native  of  Kirkmichael,  was  educated  at  the  parish- 
school  of  Blairgowrie,  at  the  grammar-school,  Perth, 
and  at  the  universities  of  St  Andrews  and  Edinburgh. 
He  became  tutor  to  Robert  Haldane,  of  Airthrey,  and 
his  brother,  who  were  the  founders  of  the  Tabernacle 
Church ;  was  licensed  to  preach  Nov.  5,  1777 ;  called 
March  4  to  the  living  at  Kirkmichael,  and  ordained 
April  29,  1779;  transferred  to  Kenmore  July  4,  1780, 
and  presented  to  the  living  by  the  ear>  of  Breadal- 
bane;  promoted  to  Kirkcaldy  by  George  III,  in  July, 
1788;  traiuferred  to  Lady  Yester's  Chapel  of  Ease 
in  Edinburgh,  April  17,  1806,  and  died  July  19, 1824, 
aged  seventy  year&  He  wias  characterized  by  enlight- 
ened piety,  holy  deportment,  the  diligent  discharge  of 


FLEMING 


898 


FLETCHER 


public  and  private  duty,  and  the  >tieDiious  oppotition 
be  gare  to  infidelity  and  vice.  The  benevolent  insti- 
tutions of  Edinburgh  reaped  much  advantage  from  his 
friendly  counsels  and  aid ;  he  gave  particular  attention 
to  the  affairs  of  George  Heriot's  Hospital,  the  Orphan 
Hospital,  the  Edinburgh  Education  Society,  and  the 
Christian  Knowledge  Society.  He  published  three  sin- 
gle Sermon*  (1790-1809)  i-^Sermom  (Edinburgh,  1826) : 
— A  Remarkable  Agitation  of  ike  Water*  of  IjOcK  Toy 
(Trans.  Royal  SocEdinb.):— -4n  Account  of  the  Parish 
of  Kirkcaldy :  —  Memoir  of  Robert  Cathcartf  Etq.^  of 
Drum,  He  translated  the  Shorter  Catechbm  into  Gae- 
lic, and  assisted  in  revising  the  translation  of  the  Script- 
ures into  Gaelic.  See  Fatti  Ecdes,  Scoticanat,  i,  64 ;  ii, 
516,804,824. 

Fleming,  'William,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  a 
native  of  Strathaven,  studied  at  Glasgow  University ; 
was  licensed  to  preach  April  28, 1818;  became  assistant 
in  succession  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pollock,  of  Govan,  and  Dr. 
Taylor,  of  St.  Enoch^s,  Glasgow ;  was  presented  by  George 
lYJ  in  Febniary,  1826,  to  the  living  at  Westruther,  and 
ordained  May  11;  transferred  to  Old  Kilpatrick  in 
August  of  the  same  year.  Having  been  elected  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  in  Glasgow  University,  he 
resigned  bis  benefice  Oct,  28, 1882,  and  died  March  8, 
1866,  aged  seventy-four  years.  See  Foiti  Eode*,  Sco- 
ticana,  i,  637;  ii,862. 

Flemish  Version  of  thk  Scriftubks.  This  is 
merely  a  dialectic  variety  of  the  Dutch.  It  is  spoken 
in  East  and  West  Flanders,  in  Antwerp,  and  in  part  of 
Limburg.  It  is  also  spoken  in  the  artondissements  of 
Brussels  and  Louvain,  in  Brabant,  and  even  in  parts 
of  the  neighboring  departments  of  France.  The  first 
printed  edition  of  the  Belgic  or  Flemish  Bible  appears 
to  have  been  that  published  at  Delft  in  1477,  and  again 
at  Gouda  in  1479.  Other  editions  were  printed  at  Ant- 
werp in  1518  and  1525.  In  1526  another  translation  of 
the  Scriptures  into  Belgic  was  made  by  several  learned 
men,  and  published  at  Antwerp.  The  next  edition  was 
that  of  the  Old  Test,  by  William  Vosterman,  published 
at  Antwerp  in  1528;  the  New  Test,  was  published 
in  1581,  and  again  in  1538.  lliis  edition  was  followed 
by  others,  almost  too  numerous  to  be  here  specified. 
Many  of  these  editions  were  afterwards  prohibited  by 
the  Inquisition,  and  their  continued  publication  was 
suspended  by  the  edict  of  Charles  V,  in  1546.  In  spite 
of  this  edict,  certain  divines  of  the  University  of  Lou- 
vain, among  others  Nicholas  von  Wingh,  a  regular  canon 
of  Louvain,  undertook  the  revision  and  correction  of  the 
Belgic  version  according  to  the  last  revision  of  the  Vul- 
gate, and  this  revised  edition  was  published  under  the 
sanction  of  the  emperor,  at  Louvain  and  Cologne,  in 
1548.  After  numerous  editions  of  this  version  had  been 
issued  at  Antwerp,  it  was  revised  and  corrected  by  the 
doctors  of  Louvain,  according  to  the  text  of  the  Vulgate, 
as  revised  by  order  of  pope  Clement  VIII.  This  revised 
translation  was  printed  by  Plantin,  at  Antwerp,  in  1599; 
again  at  Cologne  in  1604,  and  at  Antwerp  in  1626;  and 
it  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  the  standard  Flemish 
version.  Several  other  revised  editions  of  this  version 
followed.  In  1717,  Algidiiis  Wit,  a  Ghent  divine,  pub- 
lished another  version  of  the  Belgic  Scriptures,  and 
about  the  same  time  another  translation  was  commenced 
by  Andrew  Scurrius,  at  Gorcum.  Two  volumes  were 
printed  at  Utrecht  in  1715-17,  but  the  death  of  the 
translator,  in  1719,  put  an  end  to  the  work,  when  he 
had  carried  it  only  as  far  as  the  Second  Book  of  Kings. 
It  is  said  to  be  in  the  purest  dialect  of  the  Flemish. 
Another  Flemish  translation,  according  to  the  Vulgate, 
was  printed  at  Antwerp  in  1717,  and  again  at  Utrecht 
in  1718.  In  1820,  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the 
people,  permission  was'  given  by  the  archbishop  of  Ma- 
lines  to  print  an  edition  of  the  Flemish  New  Test, 
translated  by  Manrenhof.  This  appeared  at  Brussels 
about  1821 ;  an  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  was  printed 
at  the  same  time  from  the  Louvain  edition  of  1599.    In 


1887  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  pnbliabed 
an  edition  of  the  Flemish  Testament  under  the  soperin* 
tendence  of  her  agent,  Mr.  W.  P.  Tiddy,  then  residing  at 
Brussels.  Soon  other  editions  of  the  Test^  and  an  edi- 
tion of  the  entire  Bible  foUowed.  Of  late  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  undertaken  a  revision 
of  the  Flemish  New  Test^  and  in  the  report  for  1877 
we  read  that  pastor  De  Jonghe  has,  ^  at  the  request  of 
the  committee,  undertaken  a  new  translation  of  St. 
Matthew's  gospel  from  the  Greek  into  Flemish,  with 
the  assistance  of  M.  Matthj'saen,  of  Antwerp.  This 
new  version  has  been  ordered,  not  so  much  in  deference 
to  the  wishes  of  the  Belgian  Protestant  clergy,  who 
make  use  of  the  Dutch  states-general  version,  but  from 
a  desire  not  to  be  restricted  in  the  Flemish  to  the  Lou- 
vain translation,  which  was  made  from  the  Vulgate  at 
the  end  of  the  16th  century,  but  to  have  a  version  made 
directly  from  the  original.  M.  Matthyssen  is  also  su- 
perintending a  new  edition  of  the  Louvain  Test.,  in 
which  the  orthography  will  be  conformed  to  that  now 
in  general  use,  and  adopted  by  the  Belgian  govern* 
menu"  Of  the  revised  edition  the  four  gospels  and 
Acu  are  now  circulated.  Up  to  March  81, 1884,  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  had  disposed  of 
248,075  parts  of  the  Flemish  Bible  version.    (B.  P.) 

Flessa,  Jorakh  Adam,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  24, 1694.  He  studied  at  Alt* 
dorf,  was  in  1728  professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Bay- 
reuth,  and  in  1727  court-deacon  to  the  margrave  George 
Friedrich  Carl.  In  1741  he  was  called  as  professor  of 
theology  and  director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Altona,  and 
died  at  Oldenburg,  Oct  11, 1775.  He  wrote,  De  Bene- 
Jiciorym  Fundamenio  m  /V/irnrm,  ex  1  Tim.  6,  19  (Alt- 
dorf,  1716):— Z>Mt.  Thete*  TheoU>gioi>'Ecdetiatticee  (Baj- 
reuth,1781)  :—De lUo Paulino  dp^oroniiy  ad2  Tim» 
2, 15  (ibid.  1788):— Z>e  Faiit  Babylonu  diowvtvvTiac 
Prophetarum  Testibui  (Altona,  1 748).  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theohyen  DeuUchlandSf  1, 412  sq.     (B,  P.) 

Fletcher,  Charles,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  near  Leeds,  Yorkshire,  EngUnd,  Jan.  10, 
1811.  He  was  converted  in  1827,  licensed  in  1829,  and 
was  for  several  yean  a  local  preacher  in  England  and 
America.  Ho  joined  the  New  York  East  (inference 
in  1852,  filling  the  stations  of  Summerfield  Church, 
Brooklyn ;  Birmingham  and  Bridgeport,  Conn. ;  Sev- 
enth Street  and  Twenty-seventh  Street,  New  York  city; 
Mamaroneck,New  York;  Meriden,Conn«;  Sands  Street, 
Brooklyn;  First  Church,  New  Haven;  Paci6c  Street, 
Brooklyn.  He  served  full  terms  as  presiding  elder  of 
Long  Island  South  and  New  York  East  Dbtricta.  Death 
closed  bis  successful  ministry,  April  20, 1880.  He  was 
an  excellent  preacher,  and  people  of  mature  judgment 
and  scholarship  and  of  cultivated  taste,  sat  under  his 
ministry  with  delight.  See  Minutes  <^  Annual  Ctm^ 
/ereiioer,1881,  p.79. 

Fletcher,  David,  A.M.,  a  Scotch  prelate,  second 
son  of  Andrew,  of  Dundee,  graduated  at  the  Umvaw 
sity  of  St  Andrews  in  1625 ;  was  elected  by  the  town 
council  to  the  second  charge,  or  collegiate  church,  at 
Edinburgh,  and  admitted  May  22,  1685;  in  163a  was 
assaulted  and  maltreated  by  several  women  for  refusing 
to  obey  some  unruly  people  in  the  city;  was  depoaed 
by  the  commission  of  assembly,  Jan.  1, 1689,  for  disobey- 
ing the  General  Assembly  at  Glasgow,  and  reading  and 
defending  the  service-book ;  but  restored  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  in  August  following;  was  admitted  to 
the  living  at  Melrose,  Feb.  4, 1641 ;  was  a  member  of 
the  commission  of  assembly  in  1645  and  1647 ;  and  pro^ 
moted  to  the  bishopric  of  Argyll  in  1662,  yet  retaining 
his  benefice  in  conjunction  till  his  death  in  liarch, 
1665,  aged  about  sixty  years.  See  Fasti  Ecdes,  Sco^ 
ticantBf  i,  14,  560. 

Fletcher,  Qilee,  an  English  theologian  and  poet, 
nephew  of  bishop  Richard  Fletcher,  was  bom  about  1588 ; 
educated  at  Cambridge;  entered  into  orders,  and  be- 
came in  1617  rector  of  Alderton,  Suffolk,  which  position 


FLETCHER  31 

b«  feuiiwd  till  his  doth  in  IGSS,  Beaidn  loiiie  miooT 
effunoiu,  be  is  thought  to  h*Te  bveo  the  •aChor  of 
CkruCt  Victory  and  Triumph  ever  DtalA,  ■  poem  of 
considenblecdebritv  (Cambridge,  1610. 4lo;  1632,1640, 
1783 ;  improvni  mL  by  Gniurt,  Lonri.  I8G9).  See  Chsl- 
nwn,  Bioj.  Did.  s.  r. 

FletcIieT,  Horace,  D.D-  ■  Baplisi  minister,  waa 
bom  at  C»rendLih,Vt.,  Oct.  as,  1796;  graduated  from 
Dartmouth  Coltese;  otudiHl  law,  and  practiced  it  in  his 
iiatiTs  village;  lietame  a  lescher  in  the  spademv  at 
Konli  Benoliigion ;  wis  licensed,  and  in  1643  called  to 
a  paitiiral  charge  in  Ihc  latter  place,  and  to  caniinueil 
iiiilil  his  ileatli  at  Tawnsbend,  Nov.26, 1871.    (J.C.S.) 

FletCb«r,  JoBhua,  D.D..  ■  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  KinRslnirr,  Wathington  Co.,  N.  Y.,  April  27, 
1804;  gradoiied  from  what  is  now  Madison  Un1venit3- 
iti  1829  {  sbonly  after  was  ordaineiJ  psstor  of  a  Church 
in  SantiDga,  when  lie  renuined  until  1848.  Hi>  other 
paMorates  were  in  Amenia  and  Cambridge,  in  Soulh- 
ington,  Conn.,  and  Wallingford,  Vl.  Ho  died  at  Wal- 
lii^ord.  May  8, 1883.  See  Cathcart,  Bapliit  Eaeyclop. 
p.  4O0.     (J.  a  3.) 

Fletcher,  Riohard,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was 
probabl.F  a  natire  of  Kent;  graduated  from  Trinity 
College  in  1563;  in  September,  1572,  was  instituted  to 
the  prebend  of  Ulington;  in  1585  received  that  of  Sul- 
loD-Longa,  in  the  Church  of  Lincoln;  in  158!l  was  pro- 
tnoted  hj  Queen  Eliiabeth  to  the  bishopric  of  Bristol ; 

vean  after  to  the  see  of  London.  He  died  in  London, 
June  15, 1396,    See  Chalmers,  Bios-  Did.  t.  v. 

FlenilCMl,  Loina  Gabto;',  a  French  prelate,  wu 
boRi  in  Paris  in  1662:  After  htf  had  been  canonist 
Boccesnrelj'  of  Chartres,  abbot  of  Moreillea,  and  treas- 
urer o(  St.  Chapelle,  he  was  appointed,  in  1698,  bishop 
of  Aire,  and  iransrerred  in  170G  to  the  episcopal  see  of 
Orleans.  On  his  entry  into  the  city  he  delivered  eight 
liundred  and  fifty-four  debtors  from  the  prison.  He 
died  Jan.  11, 1733,  leaving,  Ordoimamrt  Biglane'iU  tl 
Ari*  Sipiodaax  (Orleans,  IT36} :— Autetre  de  FEnlrie 
de  Laiiii  GaUoK  FUuriait  iTAaaenoavm  (Paris,  1707): 
— DiKouri  Acadinaqut  (Orleans,  eod.).  See  Hoefcr, 
A'dht.  Biog.  Ginirale,  t.  v. 

F1«IUT  (I^t.  FlarieuMm),  a  French  town,  famous 
for  iU  B^edictine  abbey,  was  situated  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Linret^n-the-Loiie,  not  far  from  Sully.  The 
abbey  was  founded  about  (he  year  610,  and,  alter  (he 
booes  of  Su  Benedict  were  tiaiMported  there  in  653,  it 
became  very  famoui.  The  school  founded  there  by  St. 
Odo  wai  soon  known  as  a  seat  of  learning.  The  mon- 
■itery,  with  its  lihtaiy,  was  destroyed  in  1652  by  the 
CalTiiiists.  See  Rucher,  Lllitliart  4e  VA  bbage  RoyaU 
ds  St- Btmit-tur- Loire  {Orleans,  1865);  Uerger,  in 
Licbtenberger's  t'on/dop.  da  Sdaicti  SiligifUMt,  s.  v. 
<B.F.) 

Fleury,  Asmi  HERCUUt  dk,  a  French  itatesmnn 
and  prelate,  was  bom  at  Lodbre,  June  S2, 1653;  itadied 
carljr  at  the  College  of  Cleimont,  in  Paris,  and  alter- 
vaids  at  that  of  Harcourt;  entered  into  political  life, 
waa  made  bishop  of  Fr^jus  about  1707,  but  left  that  po- 
sition inlT15  fur  the  abbey  ofToumiis,  and  afterwards 
for  that  of  St.  Stephen,  in  Caen;  in  1726  was  made  car- 
dinal, atid  died  at  Paris,  Jan.  29, 1743.  See  Hoefer, 
tfoKr.  Biog.  Giairalt,  s.  r. 

I^exmaa,  Robibt,  D.D.,  an  English  Presbyterian 
foiniatet,  was  bom  at  Great  Torrington,  Devonsliire, 
Feb-  22,  I707-S.  He  studied  for  the  ministry  at  Tiv- 
erton Academy;  in  17S0  was  ordained  at  Hodbuiy; 
next  ipent  five  years  at  Crediton,  and  four  years  at 
Chanl,andeetlledalBradfotd,Wilts,inI'39.  In  1747 
he  removed  to  Rolherhiihe,  London.  In  1783  his  health 
failing,  he  resigried,  and  the  Church  was  disulved,  bat 
he  continued  the  morning  lecture  at  St.  Helen's.  He 
■ftetwarda  preached  MCMionally  as  health  permitted. 
Bb  published  works  were  Taritd.   He  was  a  man  of  pro- 


'9  FLITTNER 

digions  memory,  which  secured  him  the  task  of  com- 
piling the  general  index  to  the  journals  of  the  Hooaa 
of  Commons  from  1660  to  1697.  He  published  sermons, 
tracts,  and  several  important  biographical  shPtches  of 
diglinguished  mimsters.  He  died  June  14,  1795.  See 
Wilson,  DiuailiKg  Chtrcka,  iv,  361-366. 

mmmer,  Johahnes,  a  Lutheran  theologian  and 
hymn-writer,  was  bom  in  1512.  In  1537  he  was  preach- 
er at  Augsburg,  in  1553  at  Straaburg,  and  died  there  in 
1B78.  See  Kiitelmeyer,  Die  rvtmg.  KirchenUfdrrdiiJUa- 
da  KUaaa  (1855);  Koch,  OachichU  da  dtaUdiat 
Kirchaditdet,  ii,  278  iq.     (B.  P.) 

Fllna  (or  FUaB),  in  Slavonic  mythology,  waa  a 
manlr,  bearded  flgurt  on  a  large  flint  stone  (whence  the 
name).  The  figure  is  very  thin,  Bo  that  it  was  held  as 
a  skeleton  in  some  places,  and  thus  made  this  the  god 
of  death  among  the  Slavs.  From  severs!  attributes 
of  (he  accompanying  %uie  it  has  been  concluded  that 


Figure  of  Flliis. 


the  black,  bumed  Btaff  indicates  n  torch,  significant  of 
the  resurrection.  The  animal  standing  by  was  said  to 
be  a  lion,  because  by  his  loud  roaring  he  would  laiie 
the  dead. 

FUnt,  Eptlralm,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Lincoln,  Mau.,  Nor.  29, 1828.  He  attend- 
ed Uwrenee  Academy  at  Groton ;  graduated  from  Will- 
iams College  in  1851 ;  the  next  year  was  principal  of 
the  academy  in  WeitAeld,  and  held  the  same  position 
in  1855.  Meantime  (1853.64)  he  was  in  charge  of  Or- 
leans Academy.  From  1856  to  1802  he  waa  principal 
of  the  high-school  in  Lee;  and  thereafter  until  1865 
occupied  the  same  position  in  Lynn.  Subsequently  he 
waa  a  resident  student  at  Andover,  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  chumh  in  Hinsdale,  SepL  19,  lB67,and  died  Nov. 
28,  [882.     See  Cong.  Ytar-iook,  1883,  p.  22. 

Flint,  JBmea,D.D.,a  Unitarian  minialer,  was  bom 
at  Reading,  Mass.,  Dec  10, 17T9.  He  studied  under 
the  Rev.  Elisb  Stone,  and  graduated  from  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  1802 ;  waa  engaged  for  a  year  or  two  as  princi- 
pal of  an  academy  at  Andover;  then  became  a  student 
of  theology  under  the  Kev.  Joshua  Bates,  of  Dedham. 
In  due  time  he  was  licensed  to  preach;  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  society  in  Ksst  Bridgewa- 
ter,  Oct.  29, 1806;  resigned  in  1821 ;  was  installed  Sept. 
19  of  that  year  over  the  East  Society  in  Salem,  and 
died  there,  March  4, 1855.  His  publications  consisted 
chiefly  of  single  sermons.  See  Spregue,  AimaU  oflkt 
A  mer.  Pulpil,  viii,  407. 

Fllparl^  Jea»  Jaoquks,  a  reputable  French  en- 
graver, was  bom  at  Paris  in  172S,  instructed  by  bis 
father,  Jean  Charles,  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  died  in  1789.  The  fuUowing  plates, 
among  others,  are  by  bim :  Tht  Holg  Family;  Adam 
and  Eve  a/ler  their  FaU;  ChriH  Curing  tie  Paralglic. 
Ste  SpooiKr,  Biog,  BiMt.i^HteFintAtti.t.  v.;  Hoefer, 
Xouv,  Biog,  Ghirale,  s.  v. 

Fllttoer,  JonANN,  a  Lutheran  theologian  and 
hymn-writer  of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  1, 1618.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1646  deacon  at 
Grimmen,  near  Greifswalde,  and  died  at  Stralaund,  Jan. 
7,1678.    His  hymns  are  published  in  IlimndiidKi  Liut- 


FLORA  4( 

Caiileim  (GreirtusUr,  1661).  Sec  Uohaikt,  Btmnoh- 
gitde  Farickinigm  (Slnlaund,  18S0),  ii,  1  >q.;  Jocber, 
ASgoMma  Grldir1fii-l.aiJam,  t.  <:. ;  Koch,  GttcL  det 
daUdiat  Kirdtmlitda,  Hi,  Hi  *q.;  iv,  l!8;  tuI,  382. 
(B.P.) 

Flora,  in  Rainin  my- 
Ibolofp',  v*>  the  goddeu 
or  Bowera,  wbo*e  lively 
f««tiTaLi  Hcra  celebrated 
on  April  27.  Her  Hrst 
temple  wu  dedicated  la 
hel  in  Rome  by  (he  8i- 
blne  king  Titii*  Titiiu. 
Her  feMivil,  otied  Flora- 
li«^  wu  iDilituled  in  the 
yew  of  the  eity  616.  It 
irta  celebrated  by  jiiayt, 
dancing,  iincl  midnight  dc- 
bauchea.  The  accompany- 
ing flgure,ariet  an  anlitjue 
Walup,  may  be  round  iu 
the  muaeum  at  Naplea. 

Florence  of  Wor- 

CMSTKH,  an  Engliah  monk 
and  cbronider,  liFcd  di 


d  of  t1 


11th 


Id  beginning  of  the  12th  irignre  of  Flora, 

oenturr.    Ua  acquired  a 

gteat  reputation  for  leamiog,and  died  June  &,1I1H.  He 
wrote  aCtrQindr.whichbegiiiawiih  the  creation  or  the 
world  and  enda  with  the  year  of  hii  death.  That  part 
of  the  work  which  relate*  tn  contemporary  event*  ii 
ana  of  the  moat  yaluatite  of  exiating  authoriliea.  The 
chronicle  iraa  continued  fnim  HIS  to  1141  by  an  anony- 

lation,  with  notci,  by  Thomaa  Forester,  in  Bohn'a  Anti- 
quarian Library.     See  Kmyclop.  Hril.  9th  ed.  a.  v. 
XTorentllui,  a  Spaniab  aaint,  commemorated  June 

became  a  nun  and  auperior  of  the  convent  near  Aaiigia 
(Ecija)  about  the  cl[«e  of  the  6th  century.  See  Smith, 
IHa.  o/  Clllitl.  Biog.  *.  V. 

Florentine,  a  Scotch  prelate,  wai  elected  to  the 
•e«  of  (ilaagow  in  1203,  but  was  never  conaectated.  He 
diedat  Kome.     See  Keilb, Scolliih  BuJiopt,p.23S. 

Florex,  Alphoiuo  de,  a  Spaniab  Jemiil,  who 
diri  Dec  II,  1660,  ii  the  autbor  of,  De  Indylo  Agom 
ifartfrii,  etc  -.—Ih  Cap.  xxiv  Ecdaiatlici.  See  Ale- 
gtm\>t,  Biiiliolieea  Sctiplonin  Soci^alU  Jtut !  Jdcher, 
AUgtmdnei  Grlthiira-LexiJcOH,  a.  r.     (a  1'.) 

Ftores,  Enrique,  a  Spaniah  hiatorical  acbolar, 
vai  bom  at  ValladoUd,  Feb.  14,  1701.  Ha  entered  tbe 
order  of  St.  Aoguitine,  taught  theolofty  it  the  Uni- 
venJty  of  AkaU,  and  publiahed  a  Cujtiii  Tlifologia 
(1TS2-38,  i  vol*.  4to).  llo  afterward!  devoted  bimaelf 
exduaively  to  hiatorical  atudiea,  and  died  at  Hadrid  in 
UayorAuguatjUTS.  He  wrote, Cinve  ffutarial  (I718J : 
~/,a  £i/>afki  ^a^raiia  (1747-49),*  raat compilation  of 
h>cal  eccleaiaatieal  hialory,  which  obtained  a  European 
tcpDtalion,  and  of  which  twcnt}'-nine  rolumea  appeared 
in  the  autbot'a  Urelime,  and  othera  by  later  hand*  at 
aubaequent  date* :— and  other  work*  of  let*  importance. 
See  Hoefer,  .VatiB.  Biog.  GMnilt,  a.  v. 

norinns,  a  pre*bjter  of  the  Chutch  of  Rome,  de- 
graded for  herety  in  ihe  latter  part  of  the  2d  century 
(Enaeb.  HUl.  Ecd.  v,  16, 20). 

norlot,  PiKHKE,  a  French  theologian,  waa  bom  in 
tbe  dioceac  of  Langrea  in  1604.  He  became  curate  of 
Lais,  a  pariah  near  Paris,  and  finally  confesaor  of  (he 
nuns  of  Port-Bojal-dea-Chanipa.  He  died  Uec  1, 1691, 
leaving,  I.a  Mo<-aU  du  Paler  (Rouen,  1672};— /yanitiM 
nr  la  icangOa  (Paris,  \6u):  —  Traiti  de  la  Mettt 
{AAA.  1679) : — Recaeit  dt  Piica  CamxmaiU  la  Morak 
CMtiam  (Uouen,  1T46).  See  Hoefer,  Kmv.  Bios.  Gi- 
■A-aJe,a.v. 


FLUGEL 

Floria,  Fsadb,  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  waa 
om  at  Antwerp  in  1520,  and  studied  sculpture  under 
li*  UEidc,  Claude  de  Ttiendt,  until  he  waa  twenty,  when 
le  turned  hia  altenlion  to  painting,  and  entered  tha 
school  of  Lambert  Lombard.    He  afierwarda  went  la 
ime  Bud  studied  (here  several  yean.    He  waa  favored 
ih  the  especial  patronage  of  the  coants  of  Hoom  and 
^ont,  ind  waa  received  into  tbe  academy  at  Ant- 
werp in  1559.    Hia  most  esteemed  work  is.  Tie  I,ait 
'    '   im(,  psinted  for  the  Church  of  Moire  Dame,  at 
el*,Bndnowin  the  Muscuni  there ;  intbeUuseum 
at  Antiocfa  is  hia  next  beat  work,  Tht  Fall  o/ Lacker, 
He  died  in  1570.     See  Spooner,  Biog.  Ditl.  of  lit  fiitt 
i-tt,  I.  T. ;  Chalmers,  Biog.  Dkt.  a.  v. 
F10ike,  WiLKEUi,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Get- 
any,  who  died  Aug.  G,  1874,  paalor  at  Toitenwinkel, 
ar  Koatock,  is  the  author  or,  DU  I^hrt  rom  taiimd- 
jakrigtn  Reieht  (Marburg,  I860):— lom  hochriirdigtt, 
lakramenli  (Braatau,  IS69)  -.—Die  Uttlen  Diage  i»  Vor- 
i-<ipni  (Roatuck,  IS66) :— iJcu  ^iinii-rpiK<ipu/,*n>«  fie- 
dtvMiig  und  eein  FaU  (HaDOver,  1872).     (II.  P.) 

Floea,  HnnmcH  JoSktr,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo. 
logian  of  Germany,  waa  bom  July  29, 1819,  at  Wonnera- 
doif,  near  Rheinbach;  received  boly  orders  in  1842; 
commenced  his  academical  career  at  Bonn  in  1854,  and 
1  profe**or  of  theology  there,  May  4, 1881,  leaving, 
GtMdiicktlicin  Nackricklat  liber  die  Aackraer  I/riUg- 
IkHner  (Donn,  18&6);— />i^  Papelvalikn  imler  dm  Ol- 
(oBoi  (Freiburg,  1868):— Oia  VebtrtraguBg  der  heiiigeit 
DreiUnige  roa  Maiiaad  aa<A  Kdh  (Cologne,  1 864)  i 
^Dat  UaeUr  SolamUicerth  bei  Bom  (ibid.  18G8). 
(B.  P.) 

Flowers,  FurirAL  op,  a  cUnical  festival  of  the 
Hindu*,  celebrated  by  the  Ri^poots  during  nine  daya, 
in  honor  of  Gauri,  tbe  wife  of  Uahadera  or  Iimtra, 
It  takes  place  at  Ihe  remal  equinox,  the  ceremoniea 
lencing  on  the  cnUancB  of  tbe  sun  into  Ariea, 
1  is  the  opening  of  the  HindO  year.  Clay  inugea 
irmed  of  Gauri  and  Siva,  which  are  immediately 
placed  together.  A  small  irencb  is  then  opened  in  tbe 
eatth,  in  which  barley  i*  sown.  The  ground  is  irri- 
gBled,Bnd  artificial  heat  supplied  until  the  grain  begina 
to  germinate,  whsn  the  women  with  Joined  hands  dance 
round  the  trench,  invoking  the  blesaing  or  Gauii  upoD 
their  husbanda.  After  Ehia  Ihe  young  barley  ia  taken  up 
and  presented  by  the  women  to  their  husbands,  who 
wear  it  in  Iheir  turfiana.  Varion*  ceremoniea  are  then 
performed  during  aeveral  days  within  the  houses,  at 
the  close  of  which  the  images  are  richly  adorned  and 
carried  in  a  grand  pmcession. 

FlUgel,  Gv»T*v  Lkbreciit,  a  German  Orientaliat, 
wu  bom  Feb.  18, 1802,  st  Bautzen,  in  Saxony,  and  atad- 
ied  theology  and  philology  at  Leipsic  He  continued 
hi*  Oriental  studies  at  Vienna  under  Hammer-Purg- 
Blall,snd  It  Paria  under  De  Sacy.  In  IB5I  FlOgel  wu 
called  to  Vienna  to  prepare  a  catalogue  of  the  Oriental 
manuscripts  of  the  imperial  library.  His  m^n  work 
ia  the  Lexicon  BMiographicuta  tt  £mcgdppadicuin  a 
Ilnji  Khaya  CompotUam,  wbicb  he  published  with  ■ 
Latin  translation  and  commentary,  at  the  expense  ot 
the  Oriental  Tnnalalion  Fund  of  London  (Lond.  aod 
Leipsic  1886-66,  T  vols.].  He  also  edited  an  elegant 
edition  of  the  Koran  (Leipdc,  1SS4,  1841,  I86H),  atid 
publiahed  Coaeatdanlia  Coraai  Arabiea  (iUd.  1842). 
Of  hia  other  writings  we  mention,  Crfdiolle  (far  j4r(iin- 
(1831-40, 8  vols. ;  Zd  ed.  I8G4)  ■.-Al-KiiidL,geaaimd  do- 
PhUoiopk  der  Arabtr  (ibid.  1867)  -.-Maui,  (ow  Zeim 
and  sniH  Stkr\ftra  (ibid.  1862):  — Aie  grmmatiidiae 
Bdialen  der  A  raber  (ibid,  eod.)  -.—^GeeeliidUe  der  A  rabtr 
bii  auf  dea  Slurt  dee  Chal^ati  nm  Bagdad  (2d  ed. 
1864),  be^des  contributlona  to  German  reviews  and  ej' 
clopBliaa.  FlDgel  died  at  Drewlen,  July  6, 1870.  KtMt 
bia  death,  RMiger  and  MuUer  publisbed  hia  edition  of 
i[i(d6a<->'arwf,ofIbn-alnBdin  (1871-72,  TDlB.i  and  U). 
See  Dugat,  Hinoin  dei  OriealatuUe  (Paria,  1870),  ii,9l, 
291 ;  iichtenberger,  Eacfelep.  del  Stieaca  Religteatra. 


FLU6GE 


401 


FOLCHER 


8.  ▼.;  BrockbaiUi  CmMnofaoM-Zcxiloii  (18th  ed.)>  yi, 
927  aq.     (R  P.) 

FHigge,  CHiusTiAir  Wilhklh,  a  Latheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  born  Dec.  7, 177d,  at  Winaeo,  in 
Lnnehnrg ;  stadied  at  Gottingen,  where  he  also  lect- 
ured after  completing  his  studies;  in  1801  took  charge 
of  the  pastorate  of  Schamebeck,  in  LUnebnrg,  and  died 
June  21, 1828,  leaving,  Gesckichte  det  Glauhau  (Leipsic, 
1794-1800,8  Tols.):— F«rffucA  einer  GeMckichte  der  theo- 
log.  Wutauckq/Un  (Halle,  1796-98,  8  vols.):— Darw 
Mlung  des  bitkerigen  Einftuuet  der  Kantitchm  PkUotO' 
pkie  (Hanover,  1796) : — Einieitung  in  die  Geackichte  der 
tkeoioffitcken  Wiseentckqflem  (Halle,  1799)  t^Einleitttng 
m  dot  Sludittm  und  in  die  Literatur  der  Beligione'  und 
Kirdiengeechickte  (Gottingen,  1801): — Die  Ilimmel/ahri 
Jetu  (Hanover,  1808).  See  Dorinj;,  Die  geUhrten  The- 
oloffen  DeutschlandSf  i,  416  aq.;  Winer,  J/andbuch  der 
/A«>/L/.t^.i,6,609,629,662,604,634,779.    (RP.) 

Fobes,  Pbrez,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  &idgewater,  Hassi^  SepL  21,  1742.  He 
gimduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1762,  then  taught 
acbool,  studied  theology,  and,  Nov.  19, 1766,  was  ordained 
pastor  at  Raynham.  During  the  Revolution  he  was 
the  outspoken  friend  of  liberty,  and,  notwithstanding 
his  feeble  health,  volunteered  as  chaplain  in  the  army 
in  1777.  The  president  of  Brown  University,  Dr.  Man- 
ning, having  been  elected  to  Congress  in  1786,  Mr.  Fobes 
was  chosen  vice-president,  and  soon  after  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy.  These  positions,  however, 
«tid  not  affect  his  pastoral  charge,  and  he  still  resided 
at  Baynbam.  From  1795  until  bis  death,  Feb.  23, 1812, 
he  was  a  fellow  of  the  university.  In  1796  he  was 
called  to  the  supervision  of  Bristol  Academy,  to  which 
institution  he  rendered  important  aid.  The  American 
Aendemy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  numbered  him  among 
its  members.  As  a  preacher,  he  had  more  than  a  com- 
mon reputation ;  his  sermons  were  carefully  prepared, 
and  were  marked  by  their  perspicuous  style.  In  the 
pulpit  his  manner  was  eaniest  and  accompanied  by  con- 
siderable action.  His  success  as  a  teacher  grew  out 
of  his  rare  talent  in  communicating  knowledge.  See 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  i,  645. 

Pobian,  Moses,  a  Jewish  writer,  who  flourished  in 
Greece  in  the  16th  century,  published  the  book  of  Job 
with  a  Neo- Greek  translation  in  Hebrew  letters, 
*«3Xrn  Dna*^n  D9  Si'^X  (ConsUntinople,  1576):— 
Che  Fioverfoe  of  Solomon  in  the  same  manner  (ibid. 
1548):— the  PenUteuch,  with  a  Neo-Greek  and  Span- 
ish translation  (ibid.  1547 ;  Ferrara,  1583).  See  FUrst, 
^tU.  Jud.  i,  285  sq.     {B.  P.) 

Pock,  JoiiA3ni  Gboho,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  16, 1757,  at  Neuenmiinster,  in 
Holstein.  For  some  time  superintendent  of  the  evan- 
gelical congregations  in  Austria  and  pastor  at  Vienna, 
be  was  called  in  1796  to  Kiel,  where  he  died,  Aug.  28, 
1835.  He  published,  Sammlang  einiger  Kamelvortrage 
(Tienna,  1791)  z^Oeffentliche  ReUgidse  Vorirage  (ibid. 
1793):  —  Afdeitung  zur  grUndlichen  Erketmtniss  der 
ckrietlicken  Religion  (ibiit  1794;  6th  ed.  1834).  See 
Winer,  Uandbuch  der  tkeoL  Lit,  u,  93, 178, 205, 208, 221, 
278 ;  Zuchold,  BSU,  TkeoL  i,  866.     (R  P.) 

Focaa,  the  ancient  Boman  hearth-,  which  was  ded- 
icated to  the  Lares  (q.  v.)  of  each  family.  The  domes- 
tic hearth  was  looked  upon  with  such  veneration  that 
to  swear  by  the  royal  hearth  was  accounted  the  most 
Mcred  oath  among  the  Scythians.  On  the  occasion  of 
fdigious  festivals  the  hearth  was  adorned  with  gar- 
lands. 

FodhaU,  Bbn-Aiaoh,  Abou  Ali,  a  Mohammedan 
saint  and  ascetic,  was  bom  at  Abiwerd  (Khorassan)  or 
sit  Samarcand.  He  commenced  by  being  a  thief  on 
the  highway,  then  he  studied  the  works  of  Coufa,  and 
aettled  at  Mecca,  where  he  died  in  the  year  187  of  the 
hegira  (A.D.  803).  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  large 
nomber  of  sentences  and  replies,  some  of  which  may  be 

xn.-c  o 


mentioned  here :  "God," said  he,  "multiplies  the  afflic- 
tions of  those  whom  he  loves,  snd  the  worldly  prosper^ 
ity  of  those  whom  he  hates;''  "Actions  of  piety  which 
are  performed  through  ostentation  are  the  actions  of  pa- 
gans f  "It  is  better  to  be  affectionate  to  one's  equals  and 
to  try  to  be  agreeable  to  them,  than  to  spend  the  night 
in  prayer  and  the  day  in  abstinences."  Fodhail  had 
one  day  refused  tbe  presents  of  the  caliph,  Haroun  al- 
Raschid ;  his  companions  remarke<l  to  him  that  he  ought 
to  have  accepted  these  gifts  in  order  to  distribute  them 
among  the  poor;  but  he  answered,  "If  this  money  had 
been  legally  acquired,  it  would  have  been  legal  to  ac- 
cept it."  Fodhail  laughed  but  once  after  his  convert 
sion,  and  that  was  when  he  heard  of  tbe  death  of  his 
son, "  for,"  said  he, "  what  pleases  God,  pleases  me  also.'* 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Giaeraie^  s.  v. 

,  Foering,  Curistiah  FRBDERiCK,an  early  Reformed 
(Dutch)  minister,  was  born  in  Hanover,  Germany,  in 
1736,  and  studied  theology  under  professor  Weyberg. 
His  father  died  in  the  military  service  of  his  country, 
and  his  mother  brought  him,  when  he  was  but  seven 
years  old,  to  New  York.  Afterwards  they  settled  in 
Philadelphia.  Ho  became  a  school-teacher,  then  a  sur- 
veyor, and  at  last  a  minister,  being  licensed  in  1770 
by  the  Classis  of  New  York,  in  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Churcli.  He  was  settled  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  in  1771 ; 
in  tbe  German  Reformed  Church,  New  York,  from  1772 
to  1774;  and  in  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  Hillsbor- 
ough, or  Millstone,  N.  J.,  from  1774  to  1779,  where  be 
died,  March  29  of  the  latter  year.  Mr.  Foering  was  of 
a  devout  and  fervid  spirit,  and  preached  in  German, 
Dutch,  or  English.  He  was  one  of  tbe  original  trus- 
tees of  Rutgers  College.  During  the  American  Revo- 
lution he  espoused  the  cause  of  his  adopted  country 
with  patriotic  zeaL  See  the  Millstone  Centennial  IJisL 
Discourse,  by  Rev.  £.  F.  Corwin,  one  of  his  successors, 
p.  47-55;  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref  Church  in  Amer' 
tco,p.83.     (W.J.RT.) 

Foijiard,  Fr^d]£bic  Maurice,  a  French  theolo- 
gian, who  died  at  Paris  in  1743,  is  the  author  of,  Expli- 
cations du  Sens  Littiral  et  Spirituel  de  la  Genese  (2  vokk) : 
—  Projet  pour  un  nouveau  Brieiaire  Ecclesiastig[ue 
(1720): — Breviarium  Eedesiasticum  (2  vols.):  —  Les 
Psaumes  iraduits,  etc.  (1742).  See  Mor^ri,  Grand  Diet. 
Historique,  iv,  110,  230 ;  JOcher,  AUgenteines  GeUhrten' 
Lexihon,  s.  v.^  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop,  des  Sciences 
EeligieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Toix,  Paul  de,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  in  1528; 
became  first  a  magistrate,  and  was  engaged  in  royal 
commissions;  but  in  1576  was  made  archbishop  of  Tou- 
louse, and  in  1579  went  as  ambassador  to  Rome,  where 
he  died  about  the  end  of  May,  1584.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Fois;  Pierre  de,  cardinal  and  archbishop  of  Aries, 
was  bom  in  1386.  Pope  Benedict  XIII  sent  him  as  a 
legate  to  the  Coancil  at  Constance,  and  he  greatly  pro- 
moted the  cause  of  Martin  V,  who,  after  his  election, 
sent  him  as  his  legate  to  the  king  of  Aragon.  In  1429 
he  convened  a  council  at  Tortosa,and  the  then  pending 
differences  were  harmonized  by  him.  In  1457  he  at- 
tended the  provincial  council  at  Avignon.  He  died  in 
1464.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences  Rdi^ 
ieusesj  s.  V. ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelekrtm'Lexikon,  s,  v. 
(B.P.) 

Foloher,  Joior,  a  Swedish  theologian,  was  a  native 
of  Calmer.  He  studied  at  Upsal  and  at  Giessen,  be- 
came roaster  of  arts  in  1693,  licentiate  in  theology  in 
1696,  professor  of  philosophy  at  Calmer  in  1698,  and 
of  theology  at  Peraau  in  1701.  His  sympathies  with 
the  doctrines  of  the  Pietists  involved  him  in  violent 
controversies,  so  that  he  had  to  flee  to  Stockholm  at 
the  time  of  the  taking  of  Lironia  by  the  Russians.  He 
then  retired  to  an  estate  which  he  possessed  in  Scania. 
In  1723  be  came  back  to  Stockholm,  where  he  found 
again  the  same  opposition.  He  died  in  1729,  leaving, 
De  SpirUu  Ammali  (Upsal,  1689) :— i)e  G,  Fabio  Cum- 


FOLEY 


402 


FONSECA 


fatore  (Gieaaen,  1698) :  — Aox'/iaffia  Vert  ffommii 
Chfisiian^etc  (ibid.  1696)  i—Streittchrifim  mU  Brofnu, 
GeteliBi  und  UunMe,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GM- 
rale,t,T, 

Foley,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  March  6, 1822.  He  grad- 
uated from  Mount  St,  Mary*8  College  in  1840,  studied 
theology  for  six  years,  was  ordained  priest,  Aug.  16, 
1846,  served  missions  in  Montgomery  County,  in  a  few 
months  was  called  to  St.  Patrick's  Church,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C^  in  1848  was  appointed  secretary  to  arch- 
bishop Ecdeston,  and  in  1851  was  made  chancellor. 
In  1864  bishop  Spalding  of  Baltimore  selected  him  as 
chancellor,  and  in  1867  as  vicar-general.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  see  of  Chicago,  Nov.  19, 1869,  was  con- 
secrated March  27, 1870,  and  died  there  Feb.  19, 1879. 
**In  point  of  person  and  dignified  bearing,  Foley  wan 
one  of  the  best  specimens  of  a  thoroughbred  Church- 
man on  this  continent.  He  was  a  fine  pulpit  orator,  pos- 
sessed great  executive  ability,  and  was  beloved  by  all 
for  his  piety  and  charity."  See  (N.  Y.)  Catholic  An- 
nual, 1880,  p.  41. 

• 

Foligno,  AoxoLA  DB,  an  Italian  nun,  was  bom  at 
Foligno  (duchy  of  Spoleto).  She  made  herself  famous 
by  an  exalted  piety  from  her  early  life,  but  married  a 
nobleman  of  her  native  town,  yet  did  not  discontinue 
her  religious  practices.  Being  left  a  widow  in  the 
prime  of  life,  she  entered  a  convent  of  the  third  order 
of  St.  Francis,  and  connected  herself  closely  with  Uber- 
tino  de  Casal,  a  monk  of  the  same  order,  who  was  fa- 
mous for  his  mysticism.  According  to  Ubertino*s  re- 
port, it  was  Agnola  who  guided  him  into  the  way  of 
salvation,  sustaining  him  by  her  example  and  advice. 
She  assisted  him  also  in  writing  the  A  rhor  VUit  Cm- 
effica  Jetu  (Venice,  1485),  a  rare  and  singular  book,  in 
which  the  authors  pretend  that  Jesus  himself  was  the 
founder  of  their  onler.  Agnola  submitted  cheerfully 
to  flagellations  and  macerations  the  most  painful,  say- 
ing, *<  that  the  surest  mark  of  love  is  to  suffer  freely 
for  the  one  who  is  loved.^  She  composed  a  book,  giv- 
ing an  account  of  her  various  temptations  by  the  evil 
spirit,  published  at  Paris  in  1588,  under  the  title,  The- 
oloffia  Cruets,  She  died  Jan.  4,  1809.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. 

Follot,  Qilbeit,  a  monk  of  Cluny,  was  abbot  of 
Gloucester  in  1189,  and  bishop  of  Hereford  in  1148.  He 
was  also  bishop  of  London  in  1163.  He  died  in  1188, 
leaving  Expotitio  in  Cant,  Cantieorum  (ed.  Junius, 
1688).  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  vthort, 
8.y. 

Foliol;  Robert,  cousin  of  bishop  Gilbert  Foliot, 
was  a  native  of  Devonshire.  According  to  Bale  {Dt 
SeriptoribuM  Brit,  cent  iti,  No.  8),  he  lived  for  a  long 
time  in  France,  where  he  got  the  surname  of  Robertus 
Melodunensis  (Robert  of  Melun).  He  was  first  tutor  to 
Becket,  by  whose  favor  he  succeeded  his  kinsman  in 
the  see  of  Hereford.  He  wrote  several  books,  of  which 
that  on  The  Sacrament  of  the  Old  Law  is  the  most  re- 
markable. According  to  bishop  Godwin  {Liee$  of  the 
Bishops)  Robert  de  Melun  (also  bishop  of  Hereford) 
was  a  distinct  person  from  Robert  Foliot,  and  the  latter 
was  advanced  bishop  after  the  death  of  Becket.  He 
is  also  called  the  archdeacon  of  Oxford.  He  died  in 
1186.  See  Fuller,  [Vorihies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall), 
1,404. 

Fonda,  Jkssb.  an  early  Reformed  (Dutch)  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Wster\*liet,  N.  Y.,  in  1786.  He  was 
converted  in  }-outh,  and  graduated  from  Union  College 
with  honor,  in  1806.  The  Classis  of  Albany  licensed 
him  to  preach  in  1809,  liis  t  hcological  course  having  been 
pursued  with  some  neighboring  ministers.  He  then 
began  «  course  of  systematic  and  thorough  study,  which 
gave  high  tone  to  his  future  ministry.  His  first  set- 
tlement was  at  Nassau,  from  1808  to  1818,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  adjacent  church  of  Schodack.  His  rep- 
utation grew  so  rapidly  as  a  preacher  that  he  was  called 


in  the  latter  year  to  the  First  Church  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.  Here  be  sustained  himself  with  marked  abil- 
ity in  the  presence  of  the  professors  and  students  of  the 
college  and  theological  seminary.  In  1817  he  removed 
to  the  large  and  flourishing  chnrch  at  Montgomery, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  labored  ontil  bis  decease  in  1827.  Mr. 
Fonda  published  several  pamphlets  upon  subjects  of 
current  interest,  and  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  prac- 
tical volume  upon  The  Sacraments,  which  elicited  con- 
siderable discussion  as  to  his  views  of  the  nature  of  the 
baptism  sf  John  the  Baptist;  viz.  that  it  was  not  Chris- 
tian baptism.  See  Magazine  of  Bef,  Dvich  Churckf 
November  and  December,  1827,  ii,  228, 268, 840 ;  Steele, 
Centennial  Discourse;  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref, 
Church  in  A  merica,  a,  v.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

FonBeoa,  Aaron  and  Isaac  Bias,  two  brothers 
of  Portuguese  descent,  were  both  strict  adherents  of  or- 
thodox Judaism.  When  they  found  that  the  teachings 
of  the  Bible  were  not  in  hsrmony  with  those  of  the  vab- 
bins,  they  qnestioned  them  with  regard  to  their  doubts, 
which  finally  had  the  result  that  on  Feb.  28, 1712,  they 
were  both  excommunicated  from  the  Jewish  commu- 
nity. In  the  eyes  of  the  Christians  they  were  sus- 
pected of  being  Atheists,  and  to  counteract  this  sus- 
picion the  two  brothers  appealed  to  the  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  Church,  Hero  Sibersma,  requesting  him  to 
examine  them.  He  did  so,  and  openly  declared  them 
to  be  true  believers  in  the  Old  Test.  A  more  dili- 
gent study  of  the  Old  Test,  in  the  light  of  the  New 
brought  them  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Messiah,  and 
six  months  after  their  excommunication  from  the  6vn> 
agogue  they  were  received  into  the  Church.  The  two 
brothers  published,  in  the  Dutch  language,  in  1714,  the 
reasons  for  their  apostasy-  from  Judaism.  See  Ftlrst, 
BUfl,  Jud,  i,  286;  Kalkar,  Israel  u,  die  Kirche,  p.  64; 
Jochcr,  Al^emeines  Gelehrten' Lexikon,  s.  v.;  I^  Roi, 
Die  EranqeUsdie  Christenheit  und  die  Juden  (Oirknihe, 
1884),  p.  416  sq.     (a  P.) 

Fonseca  (Soares),  Antonio  da  (better  known 
by  the  name  of  Antonio  das  Chagas\  a  celebrated  Port- 
uguese theologian,  was  bom  at  Yidigueira,  June  25, 
1681.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Evora,  and  af- 
ter the  death  of  his  father  engaged  as  a  simple  soldier, 
but  having  killed  a  man  in  a  duel,  fled  to  Brazil.  At 
Bahia  he  was  reformed  from  a  life  of  licentiousness 
by  reading  a  treatise  of  F.  Luiz  da  Granada,  and  from 
that  time  resolved  to  become  a  Franciscan.  He  re- 
turned to  Europe,  and,  after  some  relapses  of  faith  Joined 
the  order  of  St.  Francis  of  Evora,  May  18, 1662.  After- 
wards he  studied  theology  at  Coimbra,  established  a 
seminary  at  Torrcs-Tedras  in  1678,  and  there  died,  with 
the  reputation  of  sanctity,  Oct.  20,  1682,  leaving  the 
following  works,  posthumously  published :  Faiscas  de 
Amor  Diciito  (Lisbon,  1688) :— 06ra«  Espirituaes  (ibid. 
1684, 1687,  in  2  parts)  ;—0  Padre  nosso  Commenfado 
(1688)  :—Espelho  do  Espirito  em  que  deve  verse  e  Com- 
porse  a  Alma  (1683) i—Escola  da  Penitencia  (1667) :— 
Sermoes  Genuims  (1690),  besides  a  number  of  ascetical 
writings  still  in  MS.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gini' 
rale,  s.  v. 

Fonaeoa,  Juan  Rodriguez  de,  a  Spanish  prel- 
ate, was  bom  at  Toro  in  1451.  He  became  successively 
dean  of  Seville,  bishop  of  Badajoz,  of  Cordova,  of  Va- 
lencia and  Burgos,  and  archbishop  of  Rosana.  He  ac- 
complished several  diplomatic  missions.  While  dean 
of  Seville  he  was  charged  with  the  ordering  of  the 
armament  destined  for  the  discovery  of  the  New  World. 
Being  consulted  before  on  the  project  of  Christopher 
Columbus,  he  treated  the  great  navigator  as  a  vis- 
ionary. He  never  forgave  him  for  having  succeeded, 
and  let  pass  no  occasion  for  doing  him  harm,  espe- 
cially after  the  death  of  Isabella,  when  Fonseca,  be- 
ing charged  with  the  management  of  afiaira  regard- 
ing the  New  World,  pursued  with  all  his  hatred  the 
family  of  Columbus.  He  was  less  hostile  to  Fernando 
Cortes  and  to  La  Casas,  who  challenged  and  obtained, 


Torc|iie 


le  couiicil  of  whicli  tbii  prel-  ' 
I  bard  msa,  fanitic  ind 
:  a  gnat  frieiiij  or  the  in- 
died  It  BurKoii,  Mircb  4, 
IftH.    Sec  iJwrer,  A'oiir.  Biog.  Giniralt,  a.  v. 

Font,  Baptisual.  The  material  in  the  W«tera 
Chonh  vai,  as  ■  rale,  none ;  frequently  porphyry,  or 
Mbet  rich  marble*.  In  the  Eaalcm  Church  Che  Tont 
m  Duully  of  melkl  or  wood,  and  aeldom  or  never  poe- 
KtNd  aaj  beauty  (Keale,  JCa^tm  ClmTdi,  i,  SU). 

The  iiaual  form  of  ibe  font  wai  octagonal,  with  ■ 
mruical  rereience  to  the  eighth  da}r,  at  the  day  of  our 
Lord'*  reamioctinn,  and  of  reeeneralion  by  the  Spirit 
(coiDp.  AmhruK.  Kpiii.  20,  M).  The  plicina  ig  Kunetimes 
found  of  a  circular  form,  and  ia  uccasionilly,  Ihongh 
ie»y  taiely  (m  at  Ai^uileia)  hexagonal.     Gregory  of 


Pont  Id  tb(  Bopllilsrj  at  Aqoltelii. 


Tour.  (^Dt  Gtor.  Martyr,  lib.  i,  c.  23)  ipeaki  of  a  font  in 
iheriiapeoTa  cnMa.in  Spain.  The  form  of  a  aepulcbre 
i*  ttated  to  hare  been  aonietimea  adopted,  in  nlluuon 
to  the  Chriatian's  burial  with  Christ  in  bapliam  (Rom. 
",*). 

The  piacina  otually  formed  ■  baan  in  the  centre  of 
the  bapiblery,  rather  beneath  the  level  of  the  pare- 
meat,  aumninded  with  a  low  wall.  It  was  entered  by 
an  aacent  and  descent  of  itepa.  Accord! 
Hilpal.  (Orig.  IV,  *;  Dt  Die.  Off.  ii,  24; 
number  wai  aeven ;  three  in  descent,  lo  symboljie  the 
triple  renunciation  of  the  world,  the  lleah,  and  the  def- 

Triniir,  and  a  seventh,  "  Mptimua  .  .  .  qui  et  qiiarlua," 
at  the  niiDmit  of  the  encloiinj;  wall,  for  the  oOiciatiuc 
minister  to  stand  on.  But  the  rule  concerning  the 
DDmhcr  was  not  invanible.  At  Nocera,  the  number  of 
tteps  is  Are,  two  in  ascent,  and  three  in  dcscenL  The 
descent  into  the  ptsdna  of  St.  John  Literan  is  by  four 
sleph— Smith,  Did.a/ChriM.  Bi-'g.  s.  v. 

FONT,  CoxKEcnATioN  or.  In  the  4lh  century,  the 
ceremony  of  blessini;  the  water  to  be  used  in  baptiain 
WIS  already  regarded  as  of  hijch  antiquitv  (see  Basil 
tbeRreal,'^)!!^^!^'^^!!^^,  27;  Ignatius,  AdEphii. 
18;  Iren«ns,/f*r«.i,21,S4;  Teilnllian, /)<  Bo^Vumo, 
4;  Cyprian,  Epiif.lO,?! ;  Sedalus  of  Thuburbum, 5ni- 
'M(w  Epitc  IS,  in  Cyprian's  Woriii  Cyril  of  Jenisa- 
lea,  Caleek.  iii,  S;  Ambivee,  I>e  lu  7111  latliaiilar.  5). 
Frobaj^r  the  earliest  Ibnn  extant,  which  cannot  be  a»- 

of  the  4th  century,  is  that  of  Ihe  AportolUal  Conitila- 
(WM  (vii,  48),  in  whioh  the      '  '  ■      ■         - 


3  FONTANA 

dying  unto  lin,  but  living  unto  lighlcousneat."  Com- 
pare Dionyuut  Areop.  Hirrarch  Kccttt.  c  2, 

Another  ceremony,  the  poiirjng  in  of  chrism,  gener- 
ally BO  as  lo  form  a  cross  on  the  surfaeo  of  the  water, 
was  probably  of  later  introduction,  though  it  is  found 
at  least  as  esrly  as  the  Gth  century. 

Amalarius  (Vt  JCceL  Off.  i,  25)  oxprMily  mentions  in- 
suffialion  as  one  of  the  rites  in  exorcism  (q.  v.).  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  evil  spirit  by  exorcism,  he  simply 


>e  pounng  1 


.e  form  of  a 


In  the  (iregorian  SaeramrBlary  (p.  71-79)  i*  men- 
tioned another  rite,  that  of  plunging  tapers  into  the 
water  to  be  consecraied.  Two  lighted  tapera  are  car- 
ried before  Ihe  bishop  to  the  font;  after  the  benedic* 
lion,  tbe  aforesaid  two  tapen  are  plunged  into  the  font, 
and  the  bishop  "insufflates"  on  Ihe  water  three  timCK 
Al^er  this  the  chiiim  is  poured  into  the  font,  and  tba 
children  are  baptized.    The  ceremony  meulioned  by 


from  h< 


chaiisiic  office,  proceeds, "  Look 
sanctify  this  Kiter,  and  grant  grace  and  i 
■ha  is  baptized  according  lo  the  com 
Christ  may  with  him  be  crucifled  and  (lit 
■ed  and  rist  again  to  the  adoption  which 


>f  the  ei 


Bsptlsmsl  Water  by  n  Tnper.   (From 
Icsl  of  Ihe  Hh  Cenlury.) 

if  plunging  the  tapers 
.  it«pA**M  into  the  font,  sei 

See  Hsrlene,  Dt  Ri/.Aml.;  Binterim,  nenkvilrJ^ 
htilm;  Probst,  Sairamai/t  a.  Sutramenlalirn ;  Smith, 
Did,  of  Chriit.  A  ntiq.  s.  v. 

Foiltcdlie,Kicoi.As,a  French  theologian,  was  bom 
St  Paris  in  IBib.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  joined  Ihe 
Port-Royalbts,  and  soon  became  intimatclv  acq^iainted 
with  Nicole,  Amauld,  De  Sacy,  and  others.  In  1666 
he  was  imprisoned  with  De  Sacy,  Alter  his  release 
he  lived  at  different  places,  and  finally  died  at  Melun, 
I  Jan.  28,  1709.  He  wrote,  Bitlaira  dt  FAaeim  el  da 
AoirMau  Ttlamml  (Parin,  ISHI) —Piaumei  de  Duciil 
(laii-):- ExpHarthn  du  Kaunau  Tflarnent  (1675,4 
vols.;  1686,  2  vols.)  —Viet  df  Palriarcha  (1683):— 
Viri  da  Pnpkilri  (1693)  ■.—Dictiomaire  Ckr&Ua  (1691, 
1712) :-&nMOJu  de  SI.Giigairt  dt  Xati-taie  (1693,  2 
vols.)  -.^llomSitt  dt  SI.  Chri/mldme,  tar  la  Epiirn  dt 
Si.  Paal  (7  vols.),  beudes  other  works.  He  is  heat 
known  by  his  poslbumons  work,  MiaMra  pour  Servir 
a  flliiloin  dt  /'orf-Rnja/ (Cologne,  1736).  See  Lichten- 
berger,  Eitj/etnp.  del  Sciencei  RttigitUKi,  s.v. ;  Jficher, 
ABgrnteiart  Geklirltn-Lexiloti,i,r.;  Hnefer,  yuuc.  Biog. 
GMrale;  Bing.  Umi<er^lf,t.v.     (B.P.) 

FontanB,  Carlo,  ■  famous  Italian  architect,  waa 
bom  in  ICM,  and  died  at  Rome  in  1714.  He  wrote, 
//  Trmpio  rartomo.eti.  (Rome,  1694,  fol.)  -.—DeKiicioBe 
drlla  CaptUa  del  t'osle  Baplitmak  ntUa  ButUica  Vali- 
earni  (ibid.  1697).  See  Winer.  Handbarh  der  thmL  Lit. 
i,  814;  Jticher,  Allgemeiirt  GtUkiitn-lAxihrn,  a.  v.; 
Hoefer,  Soar.  Biog.  Giiurale,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Fontaaa,  Domenloo,  an  eminent  Italian  archi- 
tect, was  bom  near  lake  Come 


a  Maria  JlB|;gior 


le  there 
the  chspe!  of  the  Pereepio  in  S 
The  pope,  being  deaitouB  of  rail 
square  of  Si.  Pet«r■^  collected  about  five  hundred  math- 
ematicians, engineers,  and  leimed  men,  among  whom 
Fonlana'a  plan  waa  approved,  and  wilh  the  assistance 
of  one  hundred  and  forty  horses  and  eight  hundred 


FANTANA 


404 


FOOTPRINTS 


men,  be  removed  this  immense  roassi  weighing  aboat 
760,000  pounds.  For  this  onderUking  he  was  created 
a  knight  of  the  Golden  Spur,  and  a  Komau  nobleman. 
He  afterwards  erected  other  obelisks  in  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1607.  See  Spooner, 
Biog.  Hitt,  of  ike  Fine  Arts,  s.  v.;  Uoefer,  Nouv,  Bioff, 
GeniraU,  s.  y. 

Fontana,  I^anoeioo  Ludovioo,  an  Italian 
prelate,  was  bom  Aug.  28, 1760,  at  Casala  Maggiore 
(duchy  of  Milan) ;  entered  the  Bamabite  order  in  1767 ; 
eTentually  became  professor  of  eloquence  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Milan,  where  he  acquired  great  fluency  in  the 
Greek  language ;  in  1804  he  accompanied  Pius  YII  to 
France,  and  on  the  return  of  the  pope  to  Rome  was 
made  cardinal,  March  8, 1816,  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
eongregatbn  of  the  Index,  still  retaining  his  title  as 
superior^general  of  the  Barnabites.  He  died  at  Rome, 
March  19, 1822.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  y. 

Fontana,  Lavlnla,  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
daughter  of  Prospero  Fontana,  was  bom  at  Bologna  in 
1652,  and  studied  under  her  father.  She  painted  a 
number  of  works  for  the  Bologuese  churches,  of  which 
the  best  are,  The  Miracle  of  the  Loaves;  The  Aununci- 
ations  and  The  Crucifixion,  She  subsequently  went  to 
Rome,  where  she  practiced  portrait-painting  with  great 
success.  She  died  at  Rome  in  1614.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Ghiirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Jiiit,  of  the  Fine 
A  rt$f  s.  V. 

Fontana,  Prospero^  an  eminent  historical  and 
portrait  painter,  was  bom  at  Bologna  in  1512,  and  stud- 
ied under  Francucci*  His  masterpiece  is  at  Bologna, 
in  Santa  Maria  della  Grazie.  In  the  same  church  is  an 
admirable  picture  of  The  ^lummcMi/ion,  by  him.  He 
also  executied  the  Deeeeid  from  the  Crou,  in  the  Bo- 
lognese  Academy.  He  died  in  1597.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog,  GMrak^  s,  v. ;  Spoooer,  Biog.  Hiei,  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  B,y. 

Fontan^a,  Ferdinand,  a  French  Protestant  theo- 
logian, was  bom  at  Nimes,  May  16, 1797.  He  studied 
'  at  Geneva,  and  entered  the  ministry  in  1821.  While 
discharging  his  ministerial  duties  at  his  native  place, 
there  occurred,  in  1824,  a  vacancy  in  the  theological 
faculty  at  Montauban.  Fontanes  made  an  application, 
and  passed  such  an  excellent  examination  that  his  ap- 
pointment became  a  matter  of  course.  Rumors  from 
Nlmes  having  reached  the  faculty  as  to  some  liberal 
opinions  of  the  candidate,  it  was  thought  best  to  pre- 
pare a  theological  formula  which  Fontanes  was  to  sign. 
But  he  refused  to  do  this  on  conscientious  grounds. 
In  1826  he  succeeded  M.  Olivier  Desmont  at  Nlmes, 
and  died  there,  Jan.  9, 1862.  Of  his  writings  we  men- 
tion, besides  his  many  articles  in  the  EvangUiste:  Cati- 
chisme  JtvangUiqut  (8th  ed.  1867):  —  Histoire  Sainte, 
in  questions  and  answers  (4th  ed.  1866): — De  r  Unite 
Religieuse  dans  FEgiise  Rifonnee  de  France  (1844):— 
Be  la  Lutte  Engagee  dans  Us  Eglises  Protestanles  (1842). 
See  Lichtenberger,  Encgclop,  des  Sciences  Jleligieuses, 
s.  V.     (a  P.) 

Fontinalia,  a  festival  celebrated  annually  among 
the  ancient  Romans  on  Oct.  18,  when  the  wells  were 
adorned  with  garlands,  and  flowers  thrown  into  them, 

Foota,  Charles  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Lenox,  Mass.,  June  17, 1826.  He 
prepared  for  college  at  Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  graduated 
from  Williams  College  in  1849;  taught  one  year  at  the 
academy  at  Mendnn;  studied  law  one  year;  graduated 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1854 ;  was  li- 
censed by  the  New  Brunswick  Presbytery,  and  after- 
wards ordained  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church  of  that  city.  After  an  earnest  and  successful 
pastorate  of  three  and  a  half  years,  he  removed  to  the 
West;  in  1866  was  installed  pastor  at  Jerseyville,  111.; 
next  at  Cairo,  in  1868 ;  over  the  North  Church  of  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  in  1871;  over  the  Walnut  Street  Church, 
Evansville,  Ind.,  in  1876,  and  at  Ionia,  Mich.,  in  1879, 


where  he  died,  June  28, 1880.    See  Necrol.  Repwi  of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  72.     (W.  P.  &) 

Foote,  Jamea,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of 
the  Rev.  James  Foote,  minister  of  Fettercaim,  gradu- 
ated from  Marischal  College  and  the  University,  Aber- 
deen, March  31, 1798;  was  licensed  to  preach  July  25, 
1804;  presented  by  king  George  III  to  the  living  at 
Logic,  and  ordained  Dec  21, 1809;  promoted  to  the  third 
charge  at  Aberdeen  in  November,  1824,  and  admitted 
June  23, 1825;  joined  the  Free  Secession  May  24, 1848, 
and  died  June  26,  1856,  aged  seventy-four  years.  He 
published  four  single  Sermons  (Dundee,  1818;  Lond. 
1819)  I— Lectures  on  the  Gospel  kg  Luke  (Glasgow,  1888, 
6  vols.): — Pastoral  Letter  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Free  East  Church  (Aberdeen,  1844)  :—A  Treatise  on 
Effectual  Calling  (Edinb.  1846)  r—A  Servum  m  the  Free 
Church  Pulpit  (voL  i).  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scotieana,  iii, 
478, 838. 

Foote,  'WilHam  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  Dec  20, 1794. 
He  entered  Yale  College  in  the  junior  year;  spent  some 
time  teaching,  and  then  entered  and  studied  for  one 
year  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminar}'.  Having  been 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Winchester  in  October, 
1819,  he  preached  at  various  missionary  stations  in  Vir- 
ginia until  June,  1822,  when  be  organized  and  after- 
wards became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Woodstock.  In 
November,  1824,  he  became  pastor  of  tlie  congregations 
of  Mount  Bethel,  Springfield,  and  Romney ;  about  1888 
agent  of  the  Central  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  labor- 
ing within  the  bounds  of  the  synods  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina.  While  thus  engaged,  he  gathered  ibe 
materials  for  his  volumes,  afterwards  published,  of 
Sketches,  Historical  and  Biographical,  of  the  PreAgte- 
rian  Church  in  Virginia  and  North  CaroUna,  In  1845 
he  returned  to  his  old  charge  in  Romney,  and  contin- 
ued till  1861.  During  the  war  he  was  occupied  in  low- 
er Virginia  as  agent  for  Hampden-Sidney  College,  also 
in  supplying  vacant  pulpits,  and  in  Petersburg,  during 
Grant's  siege,  as  chaplain  to  the  hospitaL  He  returned 
to  Romney  and  Springfield  (now  in  West  Virginia), 
and  labored  till  his  death,  Nov.  22, 1869.  See  Obituary 
Record  of  Yale  College,  1870;  Gen,  Cat.  of  Princeton 
TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  27. 

Footprinta,  Mokuuektau  Sepulchral  slabs  have 
been  found  in  the  catacombs  and  elsewhere  incised  with 
footprints.  The  two  feet  as  a  mle  point  the  same  way, 
though  sometimes,  but  rarely,  they  are  turned  in  oppo- 
site directions.  A  slab  in  the  Kircherian  Museum  bears 
two  pairs  of  footprints  pointed  contrary  ways,  as  of  a 
person  going  and  retuming  (fig.  1).  Some  of  these  slaba 


J 


Fig.  1.— Mouameutsl  Slab  with  Footprints.    (In  the  Kir* 

cherisn  Mneeum.) 


are  certainly  Christian,  though  the  fact  in  other 
is  uncertain.  A  slab  given  by  Boldetti,  inscribed  with 
JANUARIA  IN  DRO  at  One  end(  bears  the  sole  of  a  foot, 
with  IN  DEO  incised  upon  it,  at  the  other.  Perret  gives 
a  slab  erected  by  a  Christian  husband  to  his  wife,  with 
a  pair  of  footprints  incised  on  it,  not  bare,  as  is  custom- 
ary,  but  shod  in  shoes  or  sandals.  Sometimes,  but  more 
rarely,  we  find  a  single  foot  seen  in  profile. 

The  signification  of  this  mark  is  much  controverted. 
Some  regard  the  footprint  as  the  symbol  of  posseasion, 
denoting  that  the  burial-place  had  been  purchased  by 
the  individual  as  bis  own.    This  view  ia  based  on  a 


FORBES 


405 


FORD 


ftbB  etymology.  The  idea  that  a  aenae  of  their  Ion 
and  a  deep  regret  and  affection  for  the  departed  was 
thos  iodiotfed  ii  a  mere  romantic  fancy.  More  ma3r 
be  laid  for  the  view,  that  as  such  emblems  were  some- 
times dedicated  as  Tottre  offerings  by  travellers  on  their 
retont  from  a  journey,  they  were  intended  on  a  Chris* 
tian  slab  to  indicate  a  holy  thankfulness  for  the  safe 
completion  of  the  earthly  pilgrimage  of  the  departed. 
Another,  more  prosaic,  but  by  no  means  improbable^  in* 
terpretatton,  especially  of  a  single  foot,  is  that  it  was  a 
thank-offering  for  recovery  from  gout  or  other  disease 
ai&eting  the  foot. 

The  same  emblem  is  frequently  found  on  seal  rings. 
The  sole  of  the  foot  bears  sometimes  the  name  of  the 
owner,  e.  g,  fortvxivs  (Boldetti,  p.  606 ;  Penret,  voL  iv, 
pL  xi,  No.  4) ;  jvbtys  (Aringhi,  ii,  698 ;  Aginoonrt, 
8cu^.  pL  viii.  No.  28),  from  the  catacomb  of  St.  Agnes ; 
sometimes  a  Christian  motto  or  device,  e.  g.  spes  in 
DEO  (fig.  2)  (Ferret,  u.  s.  Na  5),  and  the  monogram  of 


Fig.  l>-8cal-rlng  In  the  Form  of  a  Footprint    (In  the 

Kircberian  Museom.) 

Christ  (lb.  Na  6).  In  an  example  given  by  Perret 
(vol  iv,  pL  xxiii,  No.  21),  we  see  the  stamp  of  such  a  seal 
bearing  the  sole  of  a  foot,  with  pavli  incised  on  it,  five 
times  repeated  on  the  mortar  in  which  a  gilt  glass  had 
been  imbedded,  in  the  catacomb  of  St.  Sixtiis.— Smith, 
Diet,  of  CkrisL  A  ntiq.  s.  v. 

Porbesv  Alexander,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  rector 
of  Fettercaim,  in  Meams^and  was  promoted  to  the  see 
of  Caithness,  Nov.  12, 1606,  where  he  sat  until  he  was 
translated  to  Aberdeen  in  1615.  See  Keith,  Scoff ish 
Bishops,  p.  217. 

Forbes*  Alexander  Penrose,  D.C.L.,  a  Scotch 
bishop,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh,  June  6, 1817.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Edinburgh  Academ}*,  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  and  Haileybury  College.  In  1836  he  went 
to  Madras,  India,  but  finding  the  climate  unfavorable 
to  his  health,  was  obliged  after  two  or  three  years  to 
return  >  to  England.  He  then  entered  Brasenose  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  graduated  in  1844,  was  ordained  in  the 
English  Church,  and  held  an  English  curac}'.  In  1846 
he  l>eeame  vicar  of  St.  Saviotir*s,  Leeds,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  appointed  bishop  of  Brechin.  Being 
prosecuted  for  heresy,  on  account  of  some  opinions  set 
forth  in  his  primary  charge,  delivered  and  published  in 
1857,  he  was  acquitted  with  *^  a  censure  and  an  admo- 
nition.** He  died  at  Dundee,  Oct.  8, 1875,  leaving  treat- 
ises on  the  Nicene  Creed,  the  Thirty -nine  Articles, 
varioua  eommentarifes  and  devotionsl  works,  discourses, 
snd  reviews.    See  Eneydop,  Brit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Forbes,  Qeorge,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  sec- 
ond son  of  the  minister  at  Leochel,  graduated  from 
Harischal  College  and  the  university,  Aberdeen,  March 
31,  1797;  was  licensed  to  preach  July  12,  1808;  pre- 
sented in  November  following  to  the  living  at  Strath- 
don,  and  ordained  March  1, 1804 ;  resigned  his  cure  in 
November,  1829,  and  retired  from  the  ministrv  Jan.  27, 
1830.  He  died  suddenly,  Feb.  16, 1834,  aged'  fi(ly.five 
yean.  He  discharged  the  duties  of  his  ministry  with 
seal,  and  bis  labors  were  crowned  with  eminent  success. 
See  Fasti  £ocUs.  Seotieoam^  iii,  566. 

Forbes^  John,  a  Scotch  dergymao,  third  son  of 


William  Forbes  of  Corse,  wm  bora  about  1666 ;  studied 
at  San  Satrator's  College,  and  took  bis  degree  from  the 
University  of  St«  Andrews  in  1683 ;  was  admitted  to 
the  living  at  Alford  in  1698.  He  was  commissioned 
in  1605  to  wait  upon  the  king  to  inform  his  majesty 
what  the  assembly  of  Aberdeen  had  done  in  opposition 
to  the  royal  pleasure,  he  having  been  the  moderator. 
The  privy  council  condemned  him  to  be  imprisoned, 
first  in  Edinburgh  castle,  then  in  the  castle  at  Black- 
ness. In  1606,  he,  with  five  others,  was  tried  at  Lin- 
lithgow on  the  charge  of  treason,  declining  to  acknowl- 
edge the  authority  of  the  privy  council,  and  banished, 
Oct.  28, 1606,  for  life.  He  went  to  Sedan  in  1607,  be- 
came the  minister  to  the  British  merchants  at  Middle- 
burgh,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  Scottish  church  there  in 
1611,  removed  to  the  church  at  Delft  in  1621,  was  dis- 
placed by  order  of  the  British  government,  and  died 
about  1634.  He  published,  The  Sau^s  Hope^  and  its 
InfaUiUeness  (1608):— rioo  Sermons  (eod.)-.— il  Trea*' 
tise  Tending  to  (he  Clearing  of  Justification,  (1616, 4to) : 
— A  Treatise  hovt  GodPs  Spirit  mag  be  Discerned  from 
Man's  Spirit  (Lond.  1617)  :—Four  Sermons  on  1  Tim,  vi 
(1635, 4to)  I— Certain  Records  Touching  the  Estate  of  the 
Kirk  in  1605, 1606  -.-^Three  Letters  to  James  VI  (1851). 
See  Fasti  Ecdes,  ScoticantBf  iii,  646. 

Forbes,  Lewis  'William,  D.D.,a  Scotch  clergy- 
man, graduated  at  the  university  and  King's  CoUege, 
Aberdeen,  March  29, 1811 ;  was  licensed  to  preach  July 
4, 1816;  presented  to  the  living  at  Boharm  in  June,  and 
ordained  Aug.  20, 1816;  elected  motlerator  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  in  May,  1852,  and  died  Jan.  8, 1864,  aged 
sixty  years.  He  occupied  a  prominent  position  in  the 
Church  in  the  North,  was  most  exemplary  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties,  and  much  esteemed.  He  pub- 
lished the  sermon  he  preached  at  the  opening  of  th« 
General  Assembly  in  1858,  and  also  An  AceowU  of  the 
Pariih  of  Boharm,  See  Fasti  Eccles,  Sootieanm,  iii, 
228,898. 

Forbes,  Patrick,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  son  of  the 
Rev.  Francis  Forbes  of  Orange,  graduated  from  Maris- 
chal  College  and  the  university,  Aberdeen,  in  1793;  was 
appointed  schoolmaster  of  the  parish  of  Boharm,  May 
I  following;  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Strathbogie,  May  3, 1797;  presented  to  the  living  at 
Boharm  in  May,  and  onlained  Aug.  14, 1800;  promoted 
to  Old  Machar,  second  charge,  April  26, 1816 ;  was  electa 
ed  moderator  of  the  General  Ajsembly  in  May,  1829, 
and  died  Oct.  13,  1847,  aged  seventy-two  years.  He 
published  Considerations  on  the  Constitution  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland  (Edinb.  1841),  and  translated  Principles  of 
Interpretation  ofihe  Old  Testament,  by  J.  H.  Pareau,  in 
the  Biblical  Cabinet,  voL  viii.  See  Fasti  Eodes,  Seoti^ 
cana,  iii,  220, 488, 898. 

Forbin-Janson,  Charles  Augusts  Maris  Jo- 
SEPir,  Comie  de,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  in  Paris, 
Nov.  8, 1785;  early  became  a  politician,  but  shortly 
after  entered  the  seminary  of  St,  Sulpice ;  was  ordained 
in  1811  i  immediately  became  grand-vicar'  of  the  dio- 
cese of  Chamb<$ry ;  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Nancy 
and  Toul  in  1824;  during  the  political  dangen  follow- 
ing he  took  refuge  in  Canada,  but  returned  to  France, 
and  died  near  Marseilles,  July  12, 1844.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Ford,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  graduated 
from  Edinburgh  Univerrity,  April  14, 1748 ;  was  licensed 
to  preach  Nov.  26, 1746 ;  ordained  July  31, 1751,  as  min- 
ister to  the  congregation  at  Wamford;  presented  by 
the  earl  of  Lauderdale  to  the  living  at  Lauder;  admit- 
ted Sept  27, 1763,  and  died  Sept.  24, 1810,  aged  eighty- 
six  years.  He  published  two  single  Sermons  (1777- 
78),  and  An  Account  of  the  Parish  of  Lauder,  See 
Fasti  Eccles,  Scotioana,  i,  621. 

Ford,  Simon,  a  divine  and  Latin  poet  of  some 
notoriety,  was  bom  in  East  Ogwell,  Devonshire,  in  1619, 
and  educated  at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford.  In  1651  he 
was  vicar  of  St.  Laurence,  Reading,  of  Northampton  in 


FORDICIDIA 


406 


FORSTEMANN 


1659,  and  in  1686  of  Old  Swinford,  Woroestenhire.  He 
died  in  1699.  He  was  one  of  the  tnnslatore  of  Pht' 
tarch^s  MoraU,  printed  in  1684,  and  published  a  num- 
ber of  sermons,  Latin  poems,  etc.,  from  16i6  to  1696,  a 
list  of  which  will  be  found  in  Atketu  Oxotu  See  Chal- 
mers, Biog,  Did.  s,  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors^  s.  V. 

Fordloidia,  a  festival  celebrated  annoally  in  the 
month  of  March  among  the  ancient  Romans.  It  was 
instituted  by  Numa,  in  consequence  of  a  general  bar^ 
renness  which  happened  to  prevail  among  the  cattle. 
The  name  was  derived  from  the  sacrifice  of  a  Fordo, 
that  is,  a  cow  with  a  calf. 

Fore-Jotre,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  princi- 
pal Jote,  i.  e.  the  oldest  giant,  the  forefather  of  the  an- 
cient Forjontnian  deities,  who  ruled  over  Scandinavia 
prior  to  the  Asas,  and  were  driven  out  by  Odin.  Their 
history  lies  so  far  in  the  past  that  little  is  Icnowu  of 
them  save  their  name ;  but  from  this  we  deduce  a  my- 
thology personifying  nature.  Fore-jotre  had  three 
sons:  iEger, the  sea ;  Kare,theair;  Loge,  the  lire;  and 
one  daughter:  Ran,  theft.  This  last  was  the  wife  of 
^ger,  and  by  him  she  bad  nine  daughters :  Himing- 
Iftfa,  the  heaven-threatening ;  Dufa,  the  deep ;  Blodu- 
gadda,  the  bloodthirsty;  Heffring,  the  rising;  Udur, 
the  falling;  Raun,  the  rustling;  Bylgia,  the  storm; 
Drobna,  the  threatening ;  Kolga,  the  flood.  Kare,  the 
air,  produced  Frosts,  the  frost;  the  latter  produced 
Snio-hingamble,  the  icy  snow.  Loge,  the  third  son  of 
Fore-jotre,  married  Glod,  the  flame;  and  by  him  she 
had  Einmiria,  the  coal,  and  Eisa,  the  ashes.  See  Norse 
Mytiioloot. 

Foreman,  Akdrew,  was  prothonotaiy  apostolic  in 
Scotland  in  1499,  in  loOl  was  promoted  to  the  see  of 
Moray,  and  together  n^th  it  held  in  commendam  the 
priories  of  Pittenweem  in  Scotland,  and  of  Cottingham 
in  England.  About  1606  he  was  appointed  by  king 
James  IV  as  his  ambassador,  to  procure  a  personal  con- 
ference between  him  and  Henry,  king  of  England.  In 
1514  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  St.  Andrews,  and  in 
1517  was  also  perpetual  oommendator  of  the  monastery 
of  Dunfermline.  He  died  in  1522.  See  Keith, /ScottitA 
Biihopty  p.  85, 146. 

FomialiatSt  a  sect  of  thinkers  which  arose  in  the 
12th  century,  as  a  compromise  between  the  doctrines 
of  the  Naminalitt*  and  ReaUtts,  They  professed  to  hold 
an  intermediate  place  between  the  two  parties,  abstract- 
ing the  forms  of  things,  and  assigning  to  them  the  place 
of  nniversals.  Duns  Scotus  is  said  to  have  originated 
Jormalism,  although  the  elements  of  the  doctrine  were 
to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  medieval  philosophers 
anterior  to  his  time. 

Formaa,  Aaron  Parker,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  Nov.  12, 1827,  in  Ralls  County,  Mo. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  eleven;  gradiiatecl 
firom  Centre  College,  Ky.,  in  1849,  with  the  highest 
honors  of  his  class,  and  from  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  in  1853;  preached  that  year  in  Hannibal, 
Mo.,  and  in  March,  1854, -was  ordained  pastor  there. 
In  1864  he  was  called  to  St.  Joseph,  where  he  acted 
with  great  prudence,  fidelity,  and  zeaL  In  1870  broken 
health  compelled  him  to  resign,  and  travel  in  Minnesota 
and  Colorado;  and  after  serving  in  the  Price  Street 
Church,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  March,  1872,  he  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Church  in  Canton,  Miss.  He  died  at  Court- 
land,  Ala.,  Oct.  14, 1875.  Dr.  Forman  was  a  man  of 
great  gentleness  and  amiability  of  character,  combined 
with  unusual  firmness  and  sound  Judgment;  an  excel- 
lent scholar,  a  popular  preacher,  and  a  beloved  pastor. 
See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Prituxton  TheoL  Sm,  1881,  p.  17a 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Fonnosana,  Rkugiosi  of  the.  Formosa  is  a 
large  island  in  the  China  Sea,  called  in  Chinese  TVxi- 
IToft,  245  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south,  and 
about  100  miles  in  breadth  at  the  broadest  part,  con- 
taining an  area  of  14,982  square  miles.    The  religion 


of  the  idanders  is  polytheistic  in  its  chancter,  there 
being  recognised  among  them  a  plundity  of  deities, 
two  of  whom  are  regarded  as  supreme,  one  of  them  re- 
siding in  the  north,  and  the  other  in  the  east  The 
one  is  a  guardian  of  men,  the  other,  who  is  a  goddess, 
the  guardian  of  women.  They  acknowledge  also  an- 
other deity  who  resides  in  the  north,  and  is  an  evil 
spirit.  There  are  two  gods  of  war,  a  god  of  health,  a 
god  of  forests,  and  a  god  of  cornfields.  They  have  also 
household  gods,  who  preside  over  the  several  depart- 
ments of  nature.  The  worship  of  the  gods^  which  con- 
sists of  invocations,  sacrifices,  and  libations,  is  conduct- 
ed by  priestesses  called  Juibas,  who  work  themselves 
up  to  a  frenzy,  or  fall  into  a  trance,  during  which  they 
pretend  to  hold  familiar  intercourse  with  the  gods.  The 
Formosans  acknowledge  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  always  erect  a  bamboo  hut  for  the  dwelling  of  the 
spirit  of  a  departed  relative  or  friend.  They  idso  hold 
to  future  rewards  and  punishments,  but  have  no  idea 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  An  attempt  was  made 
by  the  Dutch  in  the  17th  century  to  Christianize  the 
island,  but  without  success.  They  are  now  in  gross 
heathenism. 

Formula,  in  ecclesiastical  phrase,  is  a  profession  of 

faith. 

Fomaoalia,  a  festival  celebrated  among  the  an- 
cient Romans  in  honor  of  the  goddess  of  baking,  Fornax, 
It  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Nnma,  and  the 
time  of  Its  celebration  was  announced  every  year  by 
the  Curio  Maximus. 

Fornaxi,  Maria  Victoria,  an  Italian  foundress 
of  a  religions  order,  was  bom  at  Genoa  in  1562.  She 
was  married  to  Angelo  Strate,  by  whom  she  had  five 
children,  who  all  devoted  themselves  to  the  Church. 
After  the  death  of  her  husband,  she  instituted  the  order 
of  the  Celestial  Annonciadetf  which  had  over  a  hundred 
houses  in  Italy,  Germany,  and  France.  The  nuns  were 
dressed  in  white  robes,  with  a  light  blue  shawL  She 
died  Dec  15, 1617.  See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  Genirale, 
s.  V. 

Fomari,  Nlccolo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Rome,  Jan.  23, 1788.  He  studied  with  ardor,  was  re- 
ceived into  orders,  and  devoted  himself  to  instruction 
in  theology.  Pope  Gregory  XVI  made  him  nuncio  to 
Brussels.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  a  chief  com- 
missioner of  the  congregation  of  studies.  Fomari  was 
msde  cardinal  in  petto,  Dec  21, 1846,  and  proclaimed  as 
such  Sept.  80, 18G0.  He  was  for  some  time  papal  nun- 
cio at  Paris,  where  he  died,  June  15, 1856.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Biog.  Giniraley  s.  v. 

Forrest,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  Sept.  19, 1799.  H^  grad- 
uated from  Edinburgh  University,  studied  theology,  re- 
ceived a  call  from  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Charleston,  S.  C,  in  June,  1832,  and  being  ordained  by 
the  Edinburgh  Presbytery,  was  in  due  time  installed 
pastor.  He  continued  there  until  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred in  July,  1879.     (^.  P.  S.) 

Forrester,  Walter,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first  a 
canon  of  the  Church  of  Aberdeen,  next  was  made  sec- 
retary of  state,  and  then  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of 
Brechin  in  1401,  where  he  was  still  raling  in  1415.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  163. 

Forsete,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  a  aon  of  Baldnr, 
and  Nanna,  the  lovely  daughter  of  Nef.  He  was  the 
god  of  peace,  union,  and  friendship;  pacifying  every 
quarrel.  A  beautiful  palace  called  Glitner,ie8ting  upon 
golden  pillars,  and  covered  with  silver  shingles,  was  bis 
throne,  which  constituted  the  most  righteous  judgment- 
seat  of  the  world. 

Fdrstemann,  Carl  Edvard,  a  I^itheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  secretary  at  the  oniversitv  library  in 
HaUe,  who  died  in  1847,  published,  J9rAdft  Geschickte 
der  Religionshandlwig  (in  the  Ardiivfir  die  Getehiekte 
der  KirchL  Re/ormaHon,  Halle,  19Bl) v—UriumdesAuek 


FORSTER 


407 


FOBTLAGE 


•«  cKer  GttekidUe  da  ReiekMtagti  zu  AtigAurg  im  Jahre 
1630  (1833, 2  vols.)  i^Zekn  Brie/e  Dr.  Johatm  Fortter^t 
<M  Joiam  Sekradi  (Nordhauwn,  1885) :— Lif rAer**  7V#- 
tamenle  ohm  den  Jahrm  1587  und  1542  (ibid.  1846)  :— 
Denkmale  dem  Dr,  M.  Luther  von  der  liockaehtung  und 
LUbe  temer  ZeUgmoaatn  erricktH  (ibid.eod.) : — Luther's 
Tod  und  Begriimsa  im  Jahre  1546  (ibid.  eod.).  See 
Winer,  fftmdbuch  der  theoU  LiL  i,  741,  762;  Zuchold, 
BibLTheoL'i,de7.    (a  P.) 

FoxBter,  Froben,  a  Gennan  philosopher  and  ec- 
clesiastic, was  born  Ang.  80, 1709,  at  Konigsberg.  lie 
stodied  at  Begensburg,  where  he  also  joined  the  Ben- 
cdic tines,  and  took  holy  orders  in  1788.  In  1744  he 
was  called  to  Salsburg,  bat  in  1747  was  recalled  to  his 
nionasteiy,  and  became  its  prior  in  1760.  In  1762  he 
was  made  abbot,  and  died  Oct,  11, 1791.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides philosophical  treatises,  De  Seripturm  Sacra  Vut- 
gata  Editione  (Salzbuig,  1748),  and  edited  Akuiai  Opera 
(ibid.  1777, 4  vols.  foL).     (R  P.) 

Fdrster,  Heinxlcb,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Roman 
Catholic  prdate  of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  24, 1800,  at 
Grms  -  Glogau.  He  studied  at  Breslan,  and  received 
boly  orders  in  1825.  While  chaplain  and  pastor  at 
Ijmdshat,  his  pulpit  abilities  became  known,  and  he  was 
called,  in  1837,  as  cathedral-dean  to  Breslau.  When 
bishop  Diepenbrock  died  in  1858,  Fdrster  was  appointed 
as  **  persona  gratinima  "  his  successor.  At  the  Vatican 
council  he  belonged  to  the  opposition  party,  but  finally 
yielded,  and  accepted  the  dogma  of  infalUbility.  Not 
obeying  the  so-oUled  May-laws  of  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment, he  was  deposed,  in  1875^  from  hb  office,  and  fled 
to  the  castle  in  Johannisberg,  in  Austro-Silesia,  where 
he  died,  Oct.  20, 1881.  He  is  the  author  of,  Lebenebild 
IHfpenbrodct  (Breslau,  1869):~/'m^efi  (ibid.  1861, 
7  vols.;  6th  ed.  Ratisbon,  1878) : ~ Paf/ora/  Utters 
(Breslau,  1880,  2  vols.).  See  Franz,  llemrich  Fdrster, 
f&rstbischof  von  BredaUy  em  LAettdfild  (Breslau,  1875). 
(RP.) 

Forster,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Dec  25, 1576.  He  studied  at  Leipsic, 
was  in  1599  preacher  there,  in  1601  rect4>r  at  Schnec- 
berg,  in  1609  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and 
in  1613  general  superintendent  and  president  of  the 
consistory  at  Mansfeld.  He  died  Nov.  17, 1613,  leav- 
ing, iSy«teina  ProbUmatum  Theologicorum : — ViadicitB 
iMtheri: — Commeni.  in  Jesaiam: — Thesaurus  Cateche- 
ticus: — Comment,  in  Jeremiam  Ejusque  Threnos: — 
MeduUa  Capitis  53  Jesairn  Disputationibus  5  Expressa : 
— Passio  Christi  Typica  ex  Psalmis  et  Propheiis,  etc. 
See  Jocher,  Attgetneines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Fdrster,  Johann  Christian,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Auerstildt,  in  Thuringia, 
Oct.  6, 1754.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1782  after- 
Doon- preacher  at  Nanmburg,  and  in  1794  cathedral, 
preacher  there ;  in  1800  accepted  a  call  as  superinten- 
dent to  Weissenfels,  and  died  there  at  the  end  of  that 
aame  year.  He  published  a  number  of  ascetical  books. 
See  Doring,  Die  geUhrten  Theologen  Deutsehlands,  i, 
418  sq. ;  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  iheoL  Lit.  ii,  132, 207, 213, 
224,252,331,866,394.     (B.  P.) 

ForsjTth,  JoHX  Alexander,  LUD.,  a  Scotch  cler- 
gyman, son  of  John  Forsyth,  graduated  from  the  uni- 
versity and  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in  1786 ;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  Oct.  18, 1790;  presented  by  the  king 
to  the  living  at  Belhelvie,  in  succession  to  his  father,  in 
January,  1791,  and  ordained  Aug.  24  following.  He 
died  June  11,  1843,  aged  seventy-four  years.  To  his 
knowledge  of  theology  and  the  pastoral  office  he  add- 
ed a  profound  knowledge  of  chemistry,  and  was  of  great 
aervice  to  the  British  government  in  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder.  He  was  the  discoverer,  in  1805,  of  the 
percussion-lock,  which  was  afterwards  universally  adopt- 
ed, both  in  the  army  and  by  sportsmen ;  but  he  never 
received  any  public  reward.  See  Fasti  EccUs.  Scoti- 
f,  iii,  495. 

Foitignerra,  Nicoolo  (1)»  a  Dominican  of  Sienna, 


was  born  in  1180,  made  bishop  of  Aleria  in  1264,  and  died 
in  1270,  leaving  Postiila  in  IV  Prophetas  Afajores,  in 
IV  EvangeUa^  in  Epistoias  Pauli  et  in  Apocidypsin: 
— CommenU  m  Dumjfsittm  de  Dioims  Nomimbus: — De 
Duabus  M  Christo  Naturis :  — De  Calibaiu.  See  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Fortiguerra  (or  Fortegnerri),  Nicoolo  (2), 
an  Italian  cardinal  of  the  16th  century,  who  rendered 
important  military  and  diplomatic  service  to  popes  En- 
genius  IV,  Nicholas  V,  Pius  11,  and  Paul  II,  and  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning,  died  at  Viterbo  in  1478,  aged 
fifty-five  yearsk     See  Biog.  UmcerseUe,  s.  v. 

Fortiguerra,  Niocolo  (8),  an  Italian  prelate  and 
'poet,  surnamed  the  Younger,  to  distinguish  him  from  an 
ancient  member  of  his  family,  the  cardinal  of  the  same 
name,  was  bora  at  Pistoja,  Nov.  25, 1674.  While  still 
young,  he  sliowed  quite  a  disposition  for  poetry;  but 
after  he  had  been  made  doctor,  in  1696,  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  distinguished  himself  there  by  his  knowl- 
edge. He  accompanied  into  Spain  the  papal  legate, 
Zondadari,  and  on  his  retura  to  Rome  became  honorary 
chamberlain  to  Clement  XI,  canon  of  Santa  Maria 
Moggiore,  and  referendary  of  two  chancelleries.  About 
the  same  time  he  was  admitted  into  the  academy  of 
the  Arcades,  under  the  name  of  Nidaimo  TiseoJ"  lo 
1715  he  improvised  a  poem  in  the  manner  of  Berai,  Du 
Pulci,  and  Ariosto.  He  died  Feb.  17,  1785,  leaving 
several  orations,  addresses,  and  other  minor  pieces,  for 
which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genirale^  s.  v. 

Fortius,  Johannes,  a  convert  from  Judaism,  who 
lived  in  the  16th  century,  is  the  author  of  a  Hebrew 
grammar,  entitled  p^^p^  O  (Prague,  1670) : — De  Mgs- 
tioa  Litterantm  Significutione  (part  of  it  reprinted  in 
Kircher's  (Edipus  jEggptiacus,  Rome,  1662-64).  See 
FUrat,  BibL  Jud.  i,  287 ;  Steinschneidcr,  BiUogr.  Band- 
bnch,  n,  V. ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten'Lexihonf  s.  ▼. 
(RP.) 

Fortlage,  Arnold  Rudolph  Kari^  a  German  phi- 
losopher, was  bora  June  12,  1806,  at  Osnabrtlck.  He 
firet  studied  theology  at  G5ttingen  and  Berlin,  but,  at- 
tracted by  Hegel's  lectures,  betook  himself  entirely  to 
the  study  of  philosophy,  which  he  continued  in  1829  at 
Munich,  nnder  Schelling.  In  the  same  year  he  cobh 
menced  his  philosophical  lectures  at  Heidelberg;  in 
1845  he  was  at  Berlin,  and  in  the  following  year  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  Jena,  where  he  died,  Nov.  8, 1881.  Of 
his  works  we  mention.  Die  LUdsen  des  HegeTschen  Sys- 
tems der  PhUosophie,  etc  (Heidelberg  and  Leipsic,  1882) : 
— Phiiosophische  Afeditafionen  vber  Plato*s  Sgmposion 
(Heidelberg,  1835):  —  Aurelii  Augustini  Dodrina  de 
Tetnpora  (ibid.  1836)  i^Genetische  Geschichte  der  Phi- 
losophie  seit  Kant  (Leipsic,  1852):  —  Das  System  der 
Psychologie  als  empirischer  Wissenschajl  avs  der  Beo- 
bachtung  des  itmem  Sinnes  (ibid.  1855,  2  vols.) :— i4  cAi 
Psychoiogisehe  Vortrdge  (Jena,  1869)  z^Sechs  Psycho- 
hgisdte  VortrUge  (^1870) :  ^  Vier  Psychobtgische  Vor- 
trdge  (1874):  —  Beitrage  xur  Psychologie  als  Wissen- 
schajl aus  Spekulation  und  Erfahrung  (Leipsic,  1876), 
as  a  supplement  to  his  System,  His  position  con- 
oeraing  the  philosophy  of  religion  Fortlage  had  al- 
ready defined  in  the  DarsteUung  und  Kritik  der  Beweise 
JUr  das  Dasein  Goties  (Heidelberg,  1840).  The  be- 
lief in  Uod  is  not  a  matter  of  rational  persnasion,  but 
rests  entirely  on  moral  motives.  Religion  is  essentially 
a  moral  state,  and  only  the  translation  of  this  state  into 
the  idea  is  the  dogma  of  God*s  existence.  Philosophic 
speculation  had  the  peculiar  fate  that  it  commenced 
with  the  secondary  factor  of  the  religious  consciousness, 
and  found  itself,  and  this  against  its  own  will,  only  tow- 
ards the  end  driven  back  to  the  other.  This  turn,  so 
rich  in  consequences,  commenced  with  Kant — after  him 
the  philosophy  of  religion,  instead  of  advancing,  has 
only  been  protracted.  But  Kant,  too,  needs  to  be  sup- 
plemented :  the  purely  transcendental  belief,  emanating 
from  a  moral  and  religious  need,  asks  for  precise  points 
from  which  it  connects  with  the  material  world;  it  nee- 


FORTSCH 


408 


POSS 


essarily  wishes  to  know  the  pUioeii  where  upon  enter- 
ing into  the  world,  it  can  suppose  the  efficiency  of  the 
•haracter  of  its  moral  persuasion,  in  accordance  with 
reason  and  experience.  This  is  the  gap  which  Fort- 
lage  endeavored  to  fill  ont  in  his  lectures  on  the  philoe- 
ophy  of  religion.  Besides  these  works  he  wrote,  Dom 
muikaUscke  Syttem  der  Griechm,  etc.  (Leipsic,  1847)  :— 
the  article  **  Griechische  Musik,"  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's 
Allg.  EncyhUtpMie,  Uucxi,  175-245  (ibid.  1868)  :  — />ie 
Gesdnge  CkrUlUcker  Vorteit  (Berlin,  1844,  containing 
translations  of  Greek  and  Latin  hymns)  i—  Vorktungm 
iiberdieGetclUchlederPo9sie{StuttgtinjlSS9),    (a P.) 

F5rt8Ch,  Michael,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  July  24, 1654,  at  Wertheim,  in  Franco- 
nia,  studied  at  different  universities^  was  in  1695  pro- 
fessor at  Tubingen,  in  1705  professor  at  Jena,  and  died 
April  24, 1724.  He  published,  Commentctrius  ad  Am- 
hrotU  Librot  de  Officiit: — Tnstitutio  Itagogiea  de  JusH- 
tia  et  Jure: — De  Origine^  Veritate,  H  Immutahili  RecU- 
tudine  Jurit  NcUur<dit,  etc. :  —  Vrndidm  Dodrints  de 
Dwina  SeripturtB  Sacrm  TtupiratioM : — Distertaiionet 
ad  Ezeek,  Ui,  17-19;  Hoe,  r.  6;  MatL  xix,  28;  x,  22; 
i{Oi9i.t,4;  t,17;  t,  19,20;  9ut,14;  rm,21;  7t^.t,l,2; 
Htbr,  n,  10, 11,  etc  See  K»cher,  Sdudiasma  de  Vila, 
Scriptitf  ac  Meriti*  FeerUehii  in  Ecdeaiam  ( 1725 ) ; 
Jdcher,  AUgemeinet  Gelehtien-Lexikon,  &  v.    (B.  P.) 

FortonfttUB,  an  Italian  hagiographer,  was  bom  at 
Vercella)  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century.  He  has 
been  confounded  sometimes  withFortunatusVenantius. 
He  merited  by  his  knowledge  the  surname  of  the  Phi- 
losopher  of  the  Lombards^  and  was  elevated  to  the  epis- 
copate ;  it  is  not  known,  however,  in  what  diocese.  He 
was  obliged  to  leave  his  church,  but  for  what  reason  is 
unknown ;  retired  to  France,  where  he  bound  himself 
in  friendship  with  SuGermanus,  bishop  of  Paris;  and 
died  at  Chdlee,  near  Paris,  about  669.  He  wrote  the 
lAfe  of  St.  Marodbu.  The  Life  of  St.  BUartf  has  also 
been  attributed  to  him.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gi' 
fUrale,  s.  v^ ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq.  s.  v. 

Fortunatos's  (VENAirrius)  Hymns.  Fortunar 
tos  u  the  author  of  the  following  hymns :  VexiUa  Regis 
Prodeunt  (q.  v.),  translated  into  English  (<*The  royal 
lymnen  forward  go'*)  by  Neale,  in  MedAmval  Hymns 
and  Sequences  (Lond.  1867),  p.  6 1— Quern  TerrOf  Pontus, 
jEthera  (English  translation,  *'Tbe  God  whom  earth 
and  sea  and  sky,**  in  Hymns  Ancient  and  Modem):— 
Pange  Lingua^  Gloriosi  (q.  v.)  :—Crux  Benediota  Niiet 
(the  original  is  found  in  Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry, 
p.  180  sq.,  and  an  English  transUtion, "  The  blessed  cross 
shines  now  to  as,**  in  Lyra  Messkutica,  p.  220  sq.)  :— 
Saive,  Festa  Dies,  toto  VenerabiUsjEvo  (q.  v.)  i—Agnoscet 
Omne  Saadum,  on  the  nativity  of  Christ  i—TUn  Laus 
Perennis  Author,  on  baptism.  '*  The  poetry  of  Venan- 
tiuB  Prudentius,"  says  Mr.  Yule  (Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog. 
a.  v.),  ''represents  the  expiring  effort  of  the  Latin  muse 
in  GauL  Even  the  poet  himself  felt  the  decadence  not 
merely  of  language,  but  of  thought,  which  characterizes 
his  verse, 

*  Ast  ego  sensns  loops . . . 
Ftoce  gravis,  sermone  levis,  ratione  pigreacens, 
Menus  hebes,  arte  carens,  osn  mdis,  ore  nee  expers  * 

(VU.  St.  MarHn,  v.  26-28), 

and  it  is  diiBcult  to  dissent  from  the  severe  judgment 
he  has  passed  upon  himself.  His  style  is  pedantic,  his 
taste  bad,  his  grammar  and  prosody  seldom  correct  for 
many  lines  together.  Two  of  his  longer  poems,  how- 
ever, display  a  simplicity  and  pathos  which  are  foreign 
to  his  usual  style.  One  of  these  treats  of  the  marriage 
of  Galesaintha,  sister  of  Bninehart,with  Chilperic;  the 
other  is  the  elegy  upon  the  fall  of  Thnringia.  For 
what  is  of  real  merit  in  these  two  pieces  we  are  in  all 
probability  indebted  to  the  genius  of  Rhadegund  rather 
than  to  any  sudden  access  of  inspiration  in  the  poet 
himself.*'  See  Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry;  Daniel, 
Thesaurus  Hymnologicus,  i,  168  sq.;  Bormann,  Ueber 
das  Lebe^des  LateMschen  Dichters  Fortunatus  (Fulda, 
1848).     (B.F.) 


Fortune,  in  Boman 
and  Greek  mythology, 
''chance.'*  This  goddess, 
called  Tyehe  by  the 
Greeks,  was  represented 
at  ^gira,  in  Achaia,  in  a 
small  temple,  by  the  horn 
of  Amalthan,  and  a  small 
winged  Cupid,  which  sig- 
nified that  the  love-afiaire 
of  men  were  furthered 
more  by  fortune  than  by 
beauty.  Pindar,  there- 
fore, called  her  one  of  the 
ParcaB,  or  goddesses  of  des- 
tiny. The  Fortona  of  the 
Romans  had  temples  in 
various  parts  of  the  city, 
and  in  several  cities  of 
the  empire,  those  at  An- 
tium  (  Horace,  Od,  i,  85  ) 
and  Pneneste  being  the 
most  celebrated. 

Fortnnlo^  Agostivo^    Antique  Sutae  of  Fortune, 
an  Italian  member  of  the 

order  of  the  Camaldules,  who  lived  in  the  16th  eentoty, 
is  the  author  of,  Bistoriarum  Cawuddulensicon  Libri  8 
(Florence,  1575):  —  Historical.  Camald.  pars  Posterior 
(Venice,  1579):  — De  Origine  Ordinis  CamaUtulenna 
(Florence,  1592).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit, 
i,  714;  Jocher,  Attgemeines  Gdehrten^  LexQoon,  s.  t. 
(B.  P.) 

'  Forty  Martyrs.  (1)  This  number  of  soldien  is 
commemorated  on  Mareh  9,  as  having  suffered  under 
licinius  in  820,  at  Sebaste,  in  Armenia.  (2)  Another 
set  of  forty  martyn  is  commemorated  on  May  20,  aa 
having  suffered  in  Penia,  A.D.  875.  (8)  Forty  virgins 
are  said  to  have  suffered  on  Dec.  24,  under  Uecius,  at 
Antioch,  in  Syria. 

FoBcararl  (Lat.  Forsherariut),  Eainio^  an  Italian 
Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was  bora  at  Bologna,  Jan.  27, 
1512.  He  entered  the  Dominican  order,  and  in  1544 
became  prior  and  inquisitor  at  his  native  place,  and  af- 
terwards bishop  of  Modena.  He  was  imprisoned  for 
heresy  by  Paul  Y,  but  vindicated  by  Pius  IV.  He  en- 
tered the  Council  of  Trent  in  1561,  in  which  he  assisted 
Forerius  and  Leonardo  Marini  in  preparing  the  cate- 
chism, and  correcting  the  missal  and  breviary.  He 
died  at  Rome,  Dec  ^,  1564.  He  was  frugal,  modest, 
and  austere,  and  devoted  much  time  and  money  to  th« 
poor  and  to  the  reclamation  of  the  vicious  classes. 

Fosfl,  Archibald  Campbell,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  son  of  Rev.  Cyrus  Foss,  was  bora  at  Pbil- 
lipstown,  N.  Y.,  March  6, 1^.  He  spent  two  yeare  of 
his  youth  as  clerk  in  a  dry-goods  store  in  New  York  city ; 
entered  Amenia  Seminary  at  the  age  of  seventeen;  bie- 
came  highly  honored  for  his  scholarly  and  Christian 
character;  received  license  to  preach ;  entered  the  Soph- 
omore class  of  Wesleyan  University  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen; supported  himself  by  teaching  during  vacations; 
graduated  in  1852,  and  immediately  joined  the  New  York 
Conference.  His  appointments  were :  Lenox,  1852  and 
1858;  Morrisania,  1854  and  1855;  Thirtieth  Street,  New 
York  city,  1856  and  1857 ;  St.  PauVs,  1858  and  1859 ;  the 
next  year  with  Dr.  McQintock,  Tarrytown,  but  labore<| 
there  only  a  few  weeks,  when,  being  appointed  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Latin  and  Hebrew  in  Wedeyan  Univenity, 
he  repaired  thither,  and  there  continued  two  yean; 
Poughkeepsie  District,  18C2  to  June,  1865;  Thirtieth 
Street,  New  York  city,  July,  1865,  to  1867,  and  finally 
to  Sing  Sing,  in  1868,  where  he  labored  one  year,  and 
then  retired  from  the  effective  ranks  and  sailed  to  En- 
rope.  In  1869  he  preached  one  month  in  Ftorence,  Ita- 
ly, and  another  in  Lausanne,  Switxerland.  Early  in 
1870  he  left  his  pleasant  Swiss  home  for  a  tour  through 
the  principal  citieB  of  Italy.    He  returaed  to  Clarena^ 


FOSSARn  a 

SwitieiUnd,  Hafcb  8,  thoiDoghly  irom  out  with  ft- 
tigncand  pnMnled  wilh  e*Mric  ferer,  and  after  a  few 
diji  of  wfleriDg  died.  Mr.  Fats  was  pn-emiiwatlj 
Indcfnodent  and  uriginaL  He  wa*  brave  and  *elt-reli- 
•at.  a  wiis  and  aafe  eontiMUor,  gtntroiu^  vet  cantioua, 
paliait,paiDitaking,able,ind()niiiienClyHiix«MfiiL  See 
aHmUt  afAmmal  Cxmftraiat,  1870,  p.  97. 

FoiimU  (or  FoaaSres),  the  term  by  whicb  the 
grare-diggen  or  Mxion*  of  tfaa  early  Church  were  dea- 
ignuaL  The  tmn  JotMor  a  of  freqnent  occnrrencfl  in 
Ihe  imcriptiom  of  the  cataeomibs.  The  nwM  common 
apptwanee  of  the  lerm  is  in  [he  later  epiiaphi,  which 
teatifv  to  the  purchaw  of  grave*  from  individuala  of 
this  claaa.  The  bnrial  of  the  departed  wai  probabl]'  at 
flrtt  a  woik  oTChiutian  charity,  perfanned  without  foe 
or  reward  by  their  aurviving  brethren.  Afterward), 
wheo  the  Church  had  become 


FOUQUET 


M  at  the  public  expense  nnder  the  spedat  care 
of  the  pretbytera  of  the  "title*"  of  Home.  When 
Ctuutianity  becamo  the  eilaUiiihed  religion,  the/o»- 
lortt  evidently  etCabliihed  a  kind  of  property  in  the 
catacombi,  which  anlhoriud  them  to  aell  gravea  either 
to  living  penoni  for  their  awn  burial,  or  to  the  friendi 
oT  the  deceased.  Thit  atite  of  things  seems  to  have 
had  a  wideipread  but  trantient  existence.  A  foMoc's 
pick  has  been  discovered  by  De'  Roisi  in  the  cemetery 
ofCallistas,  much  osidized,  but  still  recognixable.  See 
Harligny,  Diet  da  A  ntiq.  CkrUioma,  a.  v. 

Fosse,  Chablzs  db  i.a,  an  eminent  French  paint- 
er, wn  bmi  at  Paris  in  IMO,  studied  nnder  Chsrles  le 
Bran,  and  baring  gained  tbe  prizs  of  the  academy, 
was  sent  to  Italy  with  the  roysj  pension.  On  hit  re- 
o  Paris  ha  was  immediately  taken  •  -    ■■^ 


minis(er,  grandson  Of  Her.  Eden  Borrougbn  D.D.,  of 
Hanover,  N.  H.,  was  bom  at  Hanover,  Msv  K,  IRIS. 
He  studied  at  Kimball  Union  Academy ;' graduated 
ficm  Dartmonth  Colkg*  in  1BS7,  and  spent  one  year  at 
Andovet  Theological  Seminary.  From  Aug.  18, 1841, 
t4)  Jin.  7. 18J7,  he  was  pastor  in  Henniker.  After  sup- 
plying the  church  in  Pelbam  fnr  several  months,  he 
was  installed  pastor  uf  it,  June  SI,  [848,  ind  retnsinetl 
until  .fanuarv,  1%!A;  thereafter  was  pastor  of  the  John 
Street  Church,  Lowell,  Hasa. ;  in  IMl  at  West  Spring- 
field ;  and  in  Hay,  1866,  was  reinsUlled  at  Ujwell,  where 
he  died,AprU  II,  I88S,  After  1876  he  was  asHsted  by 
a  colleague.  Among  his  publications  are  the  follow- 
ing! SH-moitt  on  Baptiim  (lS4S):^/>H/y  of  YaaBg 
Mm  (1860).     See  Conff.  Ytar-ioot,  1883,  p.  22. 

Fothad,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  deprived  in  the  Btst 
year  of  hii  idminist ration  of  the  see  of  St,  Andrews 
iSB2),  by  king  Indulfua.  He  died  in  »6l  or  962.  See 
Keith,  StolluJk  Biihcpt,  p.  6. 

Fotlierbjr,  Hartin,  D.D..  dean  of  Canterburv,  was 
bom  at  Great  Grimsby  in  1S69,  ediicated  at  aiid  be- 
came a  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  In  1696 
was  prebendary  of  Canterburv,  and  in  1618  bishop  of 
Salisbury.  He  died  Mamh  12, 1819,  leaving  Fair  Str- 
■iwj  (1608):— J-Ae  Clrariy  of  Four  Tnilki  againl 
^rilnXt  (1622).  SecChshners,  AtD;.i>u«.  s.T.i  AUi- 
bone,  Did.  n/Bril,and  AiHtr.Atilkori,t.v. 

Fotherglll,  Georgk,  D.D„  an  linglish  divine,  was 
bom  St  Lockholme,  in  Kaventtonedalc.  in  lT05,and  ed- 
ucated at  Oxford,  where  he  became  fellow.  He  was 
elected  principal  of  Edmund  Hall,  Oct.  17, 1761,  vicar 
of  Bramlev  soon  after.and  died  Oct.e,  1T60.  His  works 
wen  published  in  1766, 1767,  1768,  snd  some  Sennom 
in  1761  and  1762.  See  Chalmen,  Buy.  Did.  1.  T. ;  Al- 
ii bone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  A  mtr.  A  ulhort,  s.  v. 

Fonllon,  Jean  EiiAnp,  a  French  Jesuit,  and  re«Ior 
of  the  college  at  Huv,  who  was  bom  at  Liege  in  ICOS, 
and  died  Oct.  25, 1668,  is  tbe  author  of,  ./bnoi  Typta  Uo- 
nimii  a  i?Fo  fujimlii  .-—Co'npnHliiim  BiMtoria  LeotU- 
etniiii—Comiaml.  Huloria  el  iforolti  od  Duot  Libmt 
MaccabtromiH.  See  Winer,  Bandburh  der  l/ieoL  tit,  i, 
826 ;  Jttcher,  A  Ut/tmmn  <JAhrlr»-l,,txihm,  i.  v. ;  Biog. 
L'mrerttttt,t.r.     (B,  P.) 

Foolqnea  (Lat.  JUco),  a  French  prelate,  was  bom 
■bouIB60,and  educated  in  the  church  at  liheims,  where 
He  afterwards  became  ib> 


n  March,  88S,  i 


He  greatly   i 

ame  so  deeply  involved  in  the  political  con- 
>  unions  of  the  limea  that  he  was  asMsainated  in  900. 
Sec  Ilocfcr,  A'onr,  Biog.  GUiraU,  a.  v. 

Fonlqnea  (anmamed  lAe  Great),  a  French  writer 
of  aacred  history,  was  bom  in  the  firat  part  of  the  lllh 
century.  He  waa  the  thirty-Hrst  abbot  of  Corbie ;  as- 
at  Ihe  Council  of  Rheima  in  1( 


vieeof  LonisXrV,  and  painted  four  Sne  pictures  for  tbe  >  'he  Council  of  the  General  States  in 


a  Tuileries.  His  next  work  was  _ 
fresco  painting  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Eualache,  repie-  I 
seating  AdoM  <nd  t'et,  snd  Iba  Uarriagt  eftke  Vtr- 
jTHs.  In  169S  he  was  elected  a  royal  academician.  The 
fbllowing  are  some  of  his  beat  paintinga  at  Versailles : 
The  SacTifM  o/  /pkigmia ;  The  Infant  Uoia  Bated 
from  lie  Kilts  The  RtnrrtHioii i  The  Natittilg;  Thr 
AdoraliomafliiMagi.  He  died  at  Paris  in  171 S.  See 
Spoooer,  Biog.  Ilitl.  of  the  Fine  A  rli,  a.  v. 

FcMta,  in  North  German  mythology,  was  a  goddess 
wofshipped  br  tbe  Frisians.  She  stands  in  close  union 
with  Uertha,  the  goddess  of  Ihe  earth.  Both  are  god- 
d(«es  of  peace,  and  it  is  singular  that  tbey  appear 
armed.  In  tbe  temple  of  Foata,  on  Helgoland,  the  waa 
reprcaented  with  bow  and  arrow  at  her  back,  ■  helmet 
no  ber  head,  Ave  arrawa  in  her  left  hand,  and  four  eara 
a  ber  rigbt.    She  was  worshipped  in  Holslein 


6,  at  aihie. 


Fottar,  EiwM  BuBi 


B,  D.D.,  a  Congregatioi 


He  ia  noted  for  bis  long  conteat  for  the  privileges  of 
lis  Church  against  two  bishops  of  Amiens.  He  died 
n  1096.     See  Hoefer,  A'ouc.  Oiag.  Gruiralt,  a.  v. 

Fonntayne,  Jaiix,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
ras  bom  at  Uerton,  near  Doncaster,  about  1714.  He 
ras  educated  at  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which 


ind  w 


Salisbury,  canon  of  WindM>r,and  dean  of  York.  Twice 
in  hit  life,  if  not  olleiier,  he  mi^ht  hivs  been  advanced 
to  the  episcopal  bench,  but  (declined  it.  He  died  Feb. 
14, 1802.  He  waa  exemplsry  in  the  discbarge  of  every 
relative  and  social  duty;  hospitable,  benevoh-nt,  and  a 
lover  of  good  men.  See  TAc  (Loud.)  CAriHion  Oisrrrer, 
February,  1802,  p.  144. 

Ponqnet  (or  Fonoqnet),  Lonia,  a  French  prel- 
ate, who  died  in  170S,  bishop  and  count  of  Agde,  an^ 
master  of  the  royal  ontorr,  became  involved  in  trouble, 
at>d  flnslly  retired  from  his  diocese.  See  Hoefer,  A'om 
Btag.  Gbtirak,  s,  v. 


POURMONT 


410 


FRACTION 


Four    Crowned   Martyre.     See   Cohokati 

QUATDOR. 

Four  BiverB.    See  Rivkbs,  the  Four. 

Fourmont,  Michel,  a  famous  French  Orientalist, 
xras  born  at  Uerblay,  SepL  28, 1690,  and  died  at  Paris, 
Feb.  5, 1746.  He  was  professor  of  Svriac  at  the  royal 
college  in  Paris,  and  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions. Many  of  his  dissertations  are  found  in  the 
Memoirea  of  the  academy.  See  Lichtenberger,  Enof- 
dop.  des  Scienea  ReHgieuMeSy  s.  v. ;  Freret,  Eloge  de  PA  bbS 
Fourmontf  in  Hist,  de  PA  cademie  de»  iHacriptioiUf  xviii, 
482 ;  Jocher,  A  liffemeinet  Gelehrten-Lexihonf  s.  v. ;  Hoe- 
fer,  youv,  Bioff.  GtHirale^  s.  v. 

Fouxnier  {baron  de  la  CotUamine)^  Marie  Nico- 
las, a  French  prelate,  was  born  at  Gex  (Ain),  Dec.  27, 
1760;  educated  in  Paris;  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Orleans;  after  the  Revolution  went  to  Paris  as  a 
lircacher;  was  appointed  (1805)  chaplain,  afterwards 
almoner  to  the  emperor,  and  bishop  of  Montpellier,  July 
15, 1806;  was  nominated,  in  1817,  fur  the  archbishopric 
of  Navarre,  but  was  not  confirmed,  and  died  at  Mont- 
pellier, Dec  29, 1834.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GM- 
rale^  s.  v. 

Fowler,  Charles  James,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  cler- 
gyman, was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Aberdeen  Pres- 
bytery in  1828 ;  elected  minister  of  the  church  at  Rox- 
burgh Place,  Momingnide,  Eilinburgh,  and  ordained 
Aug.  7,  1884 ;  transferred  to  St.  Luke's,  Glasgow,  Feb. 
22,  1837 ;  promoted  to  Ratho,  Dec  22, 1842,  and  died  at 
Torquay,  England,  March  16, 1866.  He  published  The 
Eiff/U  Improvement  of  Divine  Judgments  (a  sermon, 
1851) : — lectures  on  The  Evidences  of  Reveal^  Eelig- 
•on,  on  Infidelity,  and  on  Sabbath^Schools : — A  Prrfaoe 
to  Watson^s  Apology  for  the  Bible,  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
ScotuxauBf  i,  131 ;  ii,  45. 

Fowler,  Joseph,  an  eminent  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  bom  at  Little  Horton,  near  Bradfurd, 
Yorkshire,  May  18,  1791.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Bradford  Grammar-school,  converted  under  the  preach- 
ing of  John  Crosse,  vicar  of  Bradford,  and  in  1811  ad- 
mitted into  the  ministrv.     In  1848  he  was  elected  sec- 

■r 

rotary  of  the  conference,  and  it  was  owing  to  failure  of 
health  that  he  was  not  elected  president  in  1849  or  1850. 
He  died,  after  acute  suffering,  in  the  Chapel-house,  City 
Road,  London,  March  17, 1851,  being  the  only  preacher 
who  has  died  there  since  Wesley.  Joseph  Fowler  was 
an  able  preacher,  a  judicious  superintendent,  an  un- 
wearied pastor,  and  a  large-hearted  friend.  He  was 
the  leader  of  the  liberal  section  of  the  conference.  See 
Stevenson,  City  Road  Chapel^  p.  824  sq. ;  West,  Meth, 
Magazine,  1851,  p.  400, 918 ;  1852,  p.  242 ;  Minutes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1851;  WesL  Takings  (Lond.  1841), 
i,851. 

Fowler,  Philemon  Halsted,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bom  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  9, 1814. 
He  received  his  preparatory  education  at  the  academy 
in  his  native  place;  graduated  from  Hobart  College, 
Geneva,  in  1832,  and  for  one  year  was  tutor  in  that  in- 
stitution ;  was  licensed  by  the  Albany  Presbytery,  Oct. 
15,  1835;  graduated  from  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1836;  served  as  pastor  dect  the  Second  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  Washington,  D.  C;  and  in  1889 
was  installed  in  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained 
until  1850.  In  1851  he  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Utica,  where  he  labored  till 
1874.  In  1866  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Joint 
Committee  on  Reunion,  on  the  part  of  the  New  School 
General  Assembly;  in  1869  was  elected  moderator  of 
the  General  Assembly.  He  died  Dec  19, 1879.  Dr. 
Fowler  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  published  ser- 
mons and  small  volumes,  his  largest  work  being  his 
fJistory  of  Pretbyterianism  in  Central  New  York  (1877). 
He  was  a  member  of  the  American  Board  of  Commission- 
ers for  Foreign  Missions,  a  trustee  of  Hamilton  College, 
and  a  director  of  Auburn  Theological  Seminary.'  He 
was  widely  known  and  honored  for  his  personal  quali- 


ties. He  preached  Christ  with  great  directness  aod 
fidelity.  See  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem, 
1880,  p.  28. 

Fowler,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  preb- 
endary of  Westminster,  and  received  his  education  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  arts  in  1747,  master  of  arts  in  1751,  and 
in  1771  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Killaloe  and  Kilfe- 
nora.  In  1773  he  was  ordered  by  the  House  of  Lords 
to  preach  before  them  at  Christ  Church  on  Oct.  2 ; 
translated  to  the  see  of  Dublin,  Dec  22, 1778 ;  in  1782 
was  one  of  twelve  spiritual  peers  who  protested  against 
the  bill  for  the  relief  of  the  Dissenters;  in  1789  con- 
curred with  fourteen  others  in  protesting  against  the 
memorable  address  of  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  to  the 
prince  of  Wales.  He  died  at  Bassiugboume  Hall,  near 
Dunmow,  in  Essex,  Oct.  10,  1801.  See  D*Alton,  Me- 
moirs of  the  A  bps,  of  Dublin,  p.  347. 

Fowler,  VTUliam  Chaunoey,  LL.D.,  a  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  born  at  Killingworth  (now 
Clinton),  Conn.,  Sept.  1 ,  1793.  He  graduated  from  Yale 
College  in  1816,  and  then  spent  a  year  as  private  tutor 
in  a  family  in  Fauquier  County,  Ya. ;  resumed  his  po- 
sition as  rector  of  the  grammar-school  in  New  Haven, 
beginning  also  the  study  of  theology  under  Professor 
Fitch.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  tutor  in  the  college, 
and  Aug.  31, 1825,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congre- 
gational Church  in  Greenfield,  Mass.  In  1827  he  was 
dismissed,  to  accept  the  professorship  of  chemistry  and 
natural  history  in  Middlebury  College,  Yl,  where  he 
remained  until  1838,  and  then  went  to  Amherst  CoUege^ 
Mass.,  as  professor  of  rhetoric  He  resigned  this  posi- 
tion in  1843,  but  continued  to  reside  in  Amherst  till 
1858,  when  he  removed  to  Durham,  Conn.,  and  died 
there,  Jan.  15, 1881.  From  the  time  of  his  resignation 
as  professor,  he  was  engaged  in  preparing  various  works 
fur  the  press.  In  1845  he  edited  the  univernty  edidon 
of  Webster's  Dictionary,  He  next  prepared  three  vol- 
umes, composing  a  series  of  English  grammars,  entitled 
The  English  Language  in  its  Elements  and  Forms,  In 
1858  he  published  Memorials  of  the  Chauneeys;  in  1868 
The  Sectional  Controversy ;  in  1866  a  History  of  Dur- 
ham f  in  1872  a  Treatise  on  Local  Law  in  Massacku- 
setts  and  Connecticut;  and  later  several  collections  of 
esssys.  In  1850  he  was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  from  the  town  of  Amherst.  He  represented 
the  18th  district  of  Connecticut  in  the  state  senate  in 
1864«     See  Obituary  Record  of  Yale  College,  1881. 

Foz,  Charles  M.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  of  the  diocese  of  Illinois,  was  rector  of  St. 
Paul's  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1870.  He  died  Sept. 
4, 1871.     See  Prof,  Episc  A  Imanac,  1872,  p.  127. 

Foz-'worship,  a  species  of  idolatr}''  practiced  only 
among  the  Japanese,  who  seem  to  be  in  doubt  as  to 
whether  the  fox  is  a  god  or  a  devil.  If  a  Japanese  feeb 
himself  in  need  of  supernatural  aid,  he  sets  out  a  platter 
of  rice  and  beans  as  an  offering  to  his  fox,  and  if  on  the 
following  day  some  of  it  has  disappeared,  this  is  looked 
upon  as  a  favorable  omen.  There  are  in  Japan  two 
species  of  foxes,  very  much  like  the  onlinary  foxes  of 
Europe  and  America,  and,  from  the  immunity  they  en- 
joy, they  are  great  nuisances.  See  Gardner,  FaiAs  of 
the  World,  B.V, 

FractioD,  a  technical  name  for  the  act  of  breaking 
the  bread  in  the  celebration  of  the  holy  eacharist. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  fraction  in  use  at  present; 
though  only  the  first  of  them  is  essential  to  the  saera- 
ment,  and  can  be  traced  with  certainty  to  the  infancy 
of  the  Church :  (1)  a  fraction  illustrative  of  the  words 
of  institution,  and  therefore  a  direct  imitation  of  our 
Lord's  action ;  (2)  purely  symbolical  fractions  after  the 
consecration  has  been  completed;  (8)  the  necessary 
fraction  for  the  distribution  of  the  bread  among  the 
communicants.  For  the  illustration  of  each  of  these  in 
the  various  rituals,  see  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Antiq, 

8.  v. 


FRAHN 


411 


FRANCKLIN 


FrBhn,  CmarriAir  Martut,  «  famoiu  Gennm  Ori- 
entalist, Domisoiaticuin,  and  historian,  was  born  at  Ros- 
tock, June  4, 1782,  where  he  also  pursued  his  Oriental 
BtudiesL  In  1807  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Kasan,  and  in  1815  chief  librarian  and  di- 
rector of  the  Anatic  Museum  at  St  Petersburg,  where 
be  died,  Aug.  IG,  1851.  He  published,  among  other 
works,  Reeauio  Numorum  Muhamedcmorum  (Su  Peters- 
burg, 1826),  to  which  must  be  added  his  Optucula  Post' 
kuma  (ed.  by  Dom,  ibid.  1855-77,  2  vols.)  i—Ibn  Fost- 
lant  wid  anderer  A  raher  Berichte  iiber  die  Ruuen  al- 
terer  Zeit  (ibid.  1823)  :—Tupoffraphuche  Utberncht  der 
A  ti^frabungen  von  aUem  arahUchen  Gelde  iu  Russland 
(Ibid.  1841):  —  Curarum  Exftjet,  et  Crit,  in  Nahumum 
prophet.  Specimen  (Rostock,  1806)  :—De  Chataris  (St. 
Petersburg,  1822).  See  Hoefer,  Aotir.  Biog,  GMraUy 
a.  V,    (R  P.) 

Ftanceschini,  Baldaasare  (called  U  VoUerra- 
no),  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Yolterra 
in  1611,  and  studied  under  Matteo  Roselli  and  Gio^  de 
San  Giovanni.  Among  his  great  frescos  is  the  cupola 
of  the  Cappella  Niocolini,  in  the  church  of  Santa  Crooe  at 
Florence ;  and  in  the  vault  of  a  chapel  of  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore  u  a  picture  of  Elia§,  which  is  considered  a 
l^rand  production.  He  died  in  1689.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GiniraUf  a.  v. ;  Spooner,  Bioff.  JHitt,  of  the  Fine 
A  r/#,  a.  V. 

FranoeflchinJ,  Car.  Maio*  Antonio,  an  emi- 
nent  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Bologna,  April  6, 1648, 
and  was  instracted  in  the  school  of  Gio.  Battista  GalU. 
The  principal  works  of  this  master  at  Bologna  are  a 
ceiling  in  the  Palazzo  Ranuzzi ;  The  Death  of  St.  Jo- 
seph, in  Corpus  Domini ;  St.  Francis  of  Sales  Kneeling 
before  the  Virgin  and  InfoKA,  in  La  Madonna  di  Galeria ; 
a  fine  picture  of  The  Anntmciaiionj  at  the  Institute. 
At  Rimini,  in  the  Chnrch  of  the  Augustines,  is  a  fine 
picture  of  St,  Tommaso  Giving  A  Ims  to  the  Poor,  Fran- 
ceschini  died  Dec.  24, 1728.  See  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog, 
Cimirale,  a.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

KanoeflOOy  Mkdioo,  an  Italian  convert  from  Ju- 
daism, who  lived  at  Mantua  in  the  17th  century,  is  the 
anthor  of,  r^ftM,  or  Epistola  in  Lingua  //r6r.,  Chald,, 
SyriacOj  etc  (Mantua,  1630 ;  transl.  into  Germ,  by  Chr}'8. 
Dudubeus,  Nuremberg,  s.  a.).  Sec  Fllrst,  Bibl,  Jud,  i, 
287 ;  Wolf,  BiU.  Ifebr,  iii,  951.     (R  P.) 

SVanchi,  Antonio,  a  reputable  Italian  painter, 
was  bom  at  Luoca,  July  14, 1634,  studied  under  Baldas- 
aare  Fraoceschini,  and  settled  at  Florence.  He  painted 
a  number  of  works  for  the  churches,  among  which  his 
picture  of  Christ  Giving  the  Keys  to  St,  Peier^  in  the 
parochial  church  of  Caporgnano,  at  Lucca,  is  considered 
his  masterpiece.  He  died  July  8, 1709.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  Art s^  s.  v. 

SVanchi,  Gnglielmo^  an  Italian  convert  from  Ju- 
daism, of  the  16th  century,  is  the  author  of  \]^h  CQD 
Onpn,  or  a  Hebrew  grammar  in  the  Italian  language 
(Berganoo,  1591, and  often): — Alphabetum  IMraicum^ 
or  a  Hebrew  reader  (Rome,  1596).  See  FUrst,  BUd, 
Jud,  i,  287 ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten'Lexihon,  s.  v. ; 
Steinsehneider,  B&liogr,  Uandbuch,  s.  v.;  Wolf,  Bibl, 
Hebr,  iii,  287.     (R  P.") 

Franohini,  Giovannt,  an  eminent  Italian  ecclesi- 
astical historian,  was  bom  at  Modens,  Dec.  28,  1683. 
Having  entered  the  order  of  the  Minorites,  he  became 
theologian  to  Francis  II,  duke  of  Modena.  He  died  in 
his  native  city,  April  4, 1696,  leaving  several  works  on 
the  history  of  his  order,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Ginirale,  s»  v. 

Francia.    See  Francesco;  Francois. 

Franciflci,  Erasmus,  a  Lutheran  hymn-writer,  was 
born  Nov.  19, 1627,  at  Lubeck,  and  died  at  Nuremberg, 
Dec.  20, 1694.  Some  of  his  hymns  are  still  to  be  found 
In  German  hymn-books.   See  MoUcri,  Cimbi-iu  Littero' 


ta,  i,  178-184;  Wezel,  ffynmopaographia,  i,  227-288; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Koch,  (le- 
schichte  des  deutsehen  Kirehenliedes,  iii,  526  sq.     (B.  P.) 

TrandaoAm,  Alkssandro  di,  an  Italian  Domini- 
can of  the  16th  centur}'.  Being  of  Jewish  origin,  he 
was  also  called  Hebneus  or  llehmiuus.  He  was  vicar- 
general  and  procurator  of  his  order,  in  1594  received  the 
episcopal  see  at  Forli,  but  resigned  his  office  iu  1597, 
and  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died  about  1600.  He 
wrote  a  commentary  on  Genesis  and  on  Exodus,  1-20, 
which  is  still  in  manuscript  in  the  Vatican  library. 
See  Jocher,  AUgememes  Gelehrten-LeacUDon^  s.  v. ;  Ughcl- 
li,  Italia  Sacra,  ii,  629 ;  Delitzsch,  WissenschaJ},  Kunst, 
Judenthum,  p.  292.     (a  P.) 

Franck,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  hymn-writer  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  June  1, 1618,  at  Gnben,  in  Lower  Ln- 
satia,  and  died  June  18,  1677.  His  hymns  belong  to 
the  gems  of  German  hymnology.  Some  of  his  spirit- 
ual songs  have  also  been  tran^ated  into  English.  See 
Wesel,  Ifynmop,  i,  164  sq. ;  Pasig*s  introduction  to  his 
edition  of  Franck's  Hymns  (Grimma,  1846) ;  Jentsch, 
Johann  Franek  von  Guben  (Guben,  1877) ;  Koch,  Gesck, 
des  deutsehen  KirtAenHedes,  iii,  278  sq.  '  (B.  P.) 

Franck,  Sebastian.    See  Francus. 

Franek,  Solomon,  a  Lutheran  hymn-writer  of 
Germany,  was  bom  March  6, 1659,  at  Weimar,  and  died 
July  11,  1725.  Some  of  his  hymns  are  still  in  use  in 
the  German  Church.  They  were  edited  by  Schauer, 
Sol.  Franek's  Geistliche  Lieder  (Halle,  1855).  See  We- 
zel,  Hgmnop,  i,  217  sq. ;  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutsehen 
Kir(Aenliedes,  v,  420  sq.     (B.  P.) 

ZYancke,  August,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  1792.  He  commenced  his  ministe- 
rial work  in  1816,  was  in  1821  preacher  at  Dresden,  in 
1828  court-preacher  there,  and  died  in  1859.  He  pub- 
lished, J)e  Fide  Christo  Habenda  (Dresden,  1830)  :-> 
Das  A  Uarfest  des  evangelischen  Christen  (ibid.  1884) : — 
Geschirhie  des  biUischen  Offenbarungs  Glaubens  (ibid. 
1830)  :—Das  Leben  Jesu  (Leipsic,  1839 ;  8d  ed.  1842)  :-- 
Die  Gmndlehren  der  Religion  Jesu  (ibid.  1848).»  He 
also  published  a  number  of  sermons.  See  Winer,  Hand- 
huch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  445 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol.  i,  871  sq. 
(a  P.) 

Francke,  Chiistoph,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
(iermany,  was  born  at  Nuremberg,  OcL  26,  1642.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  commenced  his  aca- 
demical career  at  Kiel  in  1665,  and  died  professor  and 
librarian,  Feb.  11, 1704,  leaving,  Specimen  Controversial 
rum  Ecclesia  Lutheranm  cum  Remonstrantibus : — Ex^ 
ereitationes  anti-Wendeliana  et  anti'Limborchiana : — 
^rfru  et  Liquida  Demonstratio  Deitatis  Christi^Jones 
Slichtingio  Opposita.  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehr- 
ten-Lextkon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  853. 
(a  P.) 

Francke,  Qeorg  Samuel,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  boro  Sept.  7,  1763,  was  in  1806  preach- 
er at  Sonderbuxg,  in  1810  doctor  and  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Kiel,  and  died  March  28, 1840.  He  published, 
Entwurfeiner  Apologetik  der  ChtistL  Religion  (Altona, 
1817):  —  De  Historia  Dogmatum  Aj-miniontm  (Kiel, 
1814) : — Commentat.  Qucedum  Theologiccs  de  Librorum 
Vet,  Test.  (1788)  i—Utber  die  neuren  Schicksalt  des  Spi- 
notisnuis  (iBOS)  :—Theologische  Encyklopadie  (AUona, 
1819).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  i,  8, 886, 765 ; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  290.     (B.  P.) 

Francke,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  in  1650.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  had 
several  pastorates  in  Pomerania,  and  died  April  17, 1723. 
He  published,  jLux  Tendrosa,  etc: — Tenebrce  Lucid<f, 
etc '.—Commentarius  in  Psalmos :-^Propheiia  Amosi, 
Nahumi,  Habacuci,  Sophonia,  Obadia,  Haggai,  MaUt' 
chia  .'—Ministerium  A  ecentuum  Ebneorum.  See  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeines  Gelehtien-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i, 
288.     (a  P.) 

FranckUn,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 


FRANCO 


412 


FRANKFURTER 


was  bora  in  1721,  tnd  in  June,  1760,  was  chosen  Greek  | 
professor  of  Cambridge.  He  was  preferred  to  the  liv- 
ings of  Ware  and  Thundrich  in  1767,  and  to  that  of 
Brasted  in  1776.  He  died  in  1784.  He  pablUhed, 
separately,  translations  from  Phalaris,  Cicero,  Sopho- 
cles, and  Lucian  (1749-81).  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did, 
s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Franco,  Alfonso^  an  eminent  painter  of  Messina, 
was  bora  in  1466.  His  best  pictures  were  in  Messina, 
a  Taking  Down  from  the  Crou,  in  the  Church  of  San 
Francesco  de  Paolo,  and  the  Ditpute  of  Christ  with  the 
Doctors,  in  San  Agostino.  He  died  in  1624.  See 
Spooner,  Bioff,  Bist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Franco,  Battiata  (called  il  Semelei),  an  eminent 
painter  and  engraver,  was  bora  at  Venice  in  1498.  He 
went  to  Rome  and  studied  the  works  of  Michael  An- 
gelo.  He  painted  in  fresco  the  choir  of  the  Metropoli. 
tan  Church  at  Urbino;  and  a  picture  in  oil  representing 
the  Virgin  and  Infant,  between  Sf,  Peter  and  St,  Paul 
There  are  several  easel  pictures  from  the  life  of  Christ 
in  the  cathedral  at  Osimo.  The  following  are  some  of 
bis  works;  Moses  Striking  the  Rode;  Ahraham  Meet- 
ing  Melchisedec;  Abraham  about  to  Sacr\fiee  Isaac;  The 
Israelites  GfUhering  Manna  in  the  Desert;  St^  Jerome 
Ifoldif^  a  Skuli;  The  Virgm  and  Infant  with  St,  John ; 
St,  John  the  Baptist;  The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds, 
with  Angels  in  the  Clouds,  He  died  in  1561.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Cinirak,  &  v.;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  Arts,  s,T. 

FranQoia,  Claude,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  bora 
at  Paris  in  1559,  and  made  bis  profession  at  the  abbey  of 
the  Benedictines  of  St.  Vannes,  March  21, 1589.  In  1606 
he  aided  in  effecting  a  radical  reformation  within  his 
congregation,  revised  the  principal  articles,  and  became 
a  deputy  to  Monte-Cassino  to  consult  the  constitutions 
of  that  monastery.  In  1610  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  se- 
cure the  approval  of  the  new  regulations  by  the  eccle- 
siastical superiors  and  Louis  XIII,  and  frequently  served 
as  president  of  his  congregation.  He  died  at  St,  Mi- 
hiel,  Aug.  10, 1632,  leaving  several  works  relating  par- 
ticulkrly  to  the  affairs  of  his  order,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginircde,  s.  v. 

Frank,  a  name  common  to  several  Lutheran  hj^mn- 
writers,  of  whom  we  mention  the  following : 

1.  Michael,  was  bora  March  16,  1609,  and  died 
Sept.  24, 1667.  His  hjnnns  are  collected  in  Geistliches 
ffarpffenspiel  (Coburg,  1667),  and  Geistlicher  Lieder 
ersies  Zwdlf  (ibid.  1662).  See  Koch,  GeschichU  des 
deutschen  Kir^tenliedes,  iii,  436  sq. 

2.  Peter,  a  brother  of  Michael,  was  bora  Sept.  27, 
1616,  studied  at  Jena,  was  preacher  in  1645,  and  died 
July-22, 1675.  See  Koch,  ut  sup.,  p.  441  sq. ;  Ludovici, 
De  Hyvads  et  Ngmnopolis  ffennebergicis,  p.  21 ;  Wczel, 
Hymnopaographia,  L 

3.  Sebastian,  oldest  brother  of  the  three,  was  bora 
Jan.  18,  1606,  and  died  April  12,  1668.  He  suffered 
very  much  from  the  miseries  of  the  Thirty  Years*  War. 
See  Ludovici,  De  Hymnis,  etc ;  Winterfeld,  Der  evang. 
Kirchengescmg,  ii,  468-472  (Berlin,  1845) ;  Koch,  ut  sup., 
p.431sq.     (B.P.) 

Franke,  Karl  Christian  Lbbrecht,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  24,  1796,  and 
died  May  1, 1879,  at  Halle,  doctor  and  professor  of  the- 
ology. He  wrote,  De  Diei  Dominici  Apud  Veteres 
Christianos  CeMn-atione  (Halle,  1826)  -.-^Geschichte  der 
IlalUschen  Reformation  (ibid.  1841).  Besides,  he  pub- 
lished sermons,  for  which  see  Winer.  Handbuch  der  theoL 
Xtr.i,617;ii,86,174;Zuchold,£t»^rA«>ti,3788q.  (RP.) 

Frftnkel,  David  (1),  a  Jewish  author  of  Ger- 
many, bora  at  Berlin  in  1779,  was  director  of  the  Jew- 
ish schools  at  Dessan,  and  died  in  1865.  He  published, 
Zeitschrift  zur  Beforderung  der  Kulfur  und  ffumatiitdt 
unter  derjUd,  Nation  (1806-1840)  '.—GemeinnUfzige  Blat- 
ter fur  Wissenschaf,  Schule  und  Leben  (Dessau,  1835) : 
— Die  lAjge  der  Juden  in  der  aUem  und  neueren  Zeit 
(ibid.  1808).    With  M.  H.  Bock  he  translated  the  Pen- 


tatetich  and  Joshua  into  German  (ibid.  1815).    See 
Farst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  291.     (B.  P.) 

Fr&nkel,  David  (2)  ben-NaJtali  Ilirsch,  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  who  was  bora  at  Dessau  in  1707,  and  died  at 
Berlin  in  1767,  is  the  author  of  a  commentary  on  sev- 
eral treatises  of  the  Jerusalem -Talmud.  See  Furst, 
Bibl,  Jud,  L  290  sq.     (R  P.) 

Frankel,  Zaobariaa,  a  Jewish  theologian,  was 
bora  at  Prague,  Oct.  18, 1801.  He  studied  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pesth,  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  philosophy  in  1831.  In  the  spring  of  1832  he  was 
intrusted  with  the  district^rabbinate  of  Leitmeritz,  in 
Bohemia,  and  in  the  temple  at  Teplitz,  his  seat  of 
office,  the  service  received  a  new  cast,  owing  to  the 
German  sermon  which  he  was  the  first  to  introduce 
in  the  Bohemian  synagogue.  In  1836  he  was  called 
to  Dresden  as  chief  rabbi  for  Dresden  and  Lcipeic 
At  Dresden,  Frankel  battled  for  justice  at  the  bar  of 
public  opinion,  and  secured  for  the  Jews  the  right  of 
citizenship  by  his  Die  Eidesleistung  der  Juden  in  theo^ 
logischer  und  historischer  Bedeutung  (Dresden,  1840; 
2d  ed.  1847),  followed  by  Der  gerichtliche  Beweis  nach 
mosaisch-talmudischen  Rechfe  (Berlin,  1841),  which  pro- 
moted the  cause  of  his  Prussian  co-religionists.  In 
1854  Frankel  was  called  to  Breslau  to  organize  the 
Jewish  theological  seminary,  whose  director  he  became. 
He  died  at  Breslau,  Feb.  13, 1875.  In  the  Christian 
worid  he  is  known  as  the  author  of,  Vorstudien  zur  Sep' 
tuaginta  (Leipsic,  1841) :—  Ueber  den  Einjluss  der  Paiat^ 
tvdschen  Exegese  auf  die  A  lexandriniKhe  Bemunfutlh 
(ibid.  1851): — Ueber  Paldstmische  und  Alexandrinische 
Schriftforschung  (Breslau,  1854).  Of  other  works  we 
mention,  Hodegetiea  in  Mischnam  Lihrosque  cum  ea 
Conjunetos  (in  Hebrew,  Leipsic,  1859): — Additamenla 
to  the  preceding  work  (also  in  Hebrew,  ibid.  1865) : — 
Grundlinien  des  mosaistA'-talmudischen  Ehere<^es  (Bres- 
lau, IS59)  i^Entwurfeiner  Geschichte  der  Lkeratur  der 
nachialmttdisehen  Responsen  (ibid.  1865): — Introductio 
in  Talmud  Hierosolgmitanum  (Hebrew,  ibid.  1870) : — 
Targum  der  Propheten  (ibid.  1872).  He  also  intended 
to  publish  a  new  edition  of  the  Jenisalem-Talmnd^  with 
notes;  of  this,  however,  only  two  treatises,  Berachoth 
and  Peah,  were  printed  (Vienna,  1874).  In  connection 
with  other  learned  Jews,  he  published  Zeitschrift  fur 
die  Religiosen  Interessen  des  Judenthums  (Berlin,  1844« 
46,3  vols.) ;  and  in  1851  he  commenced  his  Monatsehrtfi 
fur  Gesdichte  und  Wissensehaft  des  Judenthums,  which 
is  still  continued  bv  GrHtz  and  FrankeL  See  FUrst, 
BibL  Jud,  i,  294;  Zuchold,  BihL  TheoL  i,  374;  Bforais, 
Eminent  Israelites  of  the  19th  Century  (Philadelphia, 
1880),  p.  81  sq.     (a  P.) 

Frankenberg,  Abraham  von,  a  German  noble- 
man, an  adherent  of  Jacob  Bohme,  was  born  June  24, 
1593.  He  studied  at  Breslau,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Bdhme's  writings.  The  latter*s  philos- 
ophy influenced  him  so  much  that  he  now  betook  him- 
self entirely  to  mystic  contemplations,  and  in  order  to 
do  this  with  greater  effect,  he  retired  to  bis  country- 
seat.  He  died  June  25, 1652.  For  his  writings  and 
hymns  see  Arnold,  UngarteOsche  Kir^m-  und  Ketzer^ 
Bislorie,  ii,  410  sq.;  Wezel,  Bynmopetographia,  iv; 
WeimariMches  Jahrbuch,  1854,  p.  157>160;  Jocher,  All- 
gemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a.  v.;  Koch,  GettAichte  des 
deutschen  Kirchenliedes,  iii,  287  sq.     (a  P.) 

Frankfurter,  Naftalt,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  Feb.  13, 1810,  at  Oberadorf,  in  Wttrtem- 
berg ;  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Tubingen,  was  rabbi 
at  Braunsbach,  accepted  in  1840  a  call  to  Hamburg,  and 
died  there,  April  13,  1866,  leaving,  besides  Sermons^ 
Stillstand  und  FortschriU  (Hambui^,  1841)  i-rDie  Ve- 
rafUwortlichkeit  des  Volkslehrers  imjetzigen  Israel  (ibid. 
1844).  In  connection  with  Berthold  Auerbach  he  pub- 
lished Gallerie  der  ausgezeichneten  Israeliten  (Stuttgart, 
1888).  See  Kayseriing,  BibHothek  jiidiseher  Kanzel- 
redner,  i,  278  sq. ;  A  llgemeine  Zeitung  des  Judet^hums, 
1866,  col.  266 ;  Fnrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  296.     (E  P.) 


FRANKLAND 


413 


FRAZER 


Frankland,  Benjaznin,  A.B.,  ono  of  the  men 
representiiig  the  scholanhip  of  the  EnglUh  Wesleyan 
CoDnection,  was  horn  at  St.  IveS|  Cornwall,  in  May,  1819. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Frankland,  emi- 
nent as  the  great  Puritan  schoolmaster  of  his  time  (see 
Dr.  Halley*s  Puritanism  in  Lcmecuhire,  etc.)t  the  son  of 
Ber.  Benjamin  Frankland,  and  brother  of  Rev.  W.  Jo- 
seph Frankland.  He  was  educated  at  the  Woodhouse 
Grove  School  (1829-33),  and  the  University  of  Dublin 
(1837  sq.) ;  and  was  for  ten  years  tutor  at  Woodhouse 
Grove,  and  six  months  master  at  Wesley  College,  Shef- 
field. He  was  converted  when  eighteen  years  of  age, 
entered  the  ministry  in  1845,  and  throughout  his  various 
circuits,  from  Dias,  in  1845,  to  Islington,  London,  in 
1863,  his  ministry  was  greatly  prized,  especially  by  the 
thoughtful  and  cultivated,  and  his  personal  character 
won  profound  and  affectionate  esteem.  In  1864  he 
succeeded  J.  Gilchrist  Wilson  as  assbtant  editor  of  the 
Wesleytm  MetkodiH  Magazine  and  other  connectional 
publications,  and  on  the  death  of  the  lamented  Thorn- 
ton, in  1865,  the  entire  duties  of  editorship  devolved  on 
bim,  shared  however,  in  1868,  by  the  appointment  of  a 
colleague,  Benjamin  Gregory.  This  position  he  held 
until  his  unexpected  death  after  a  short  illness,  Jan.  17, 
1876.  Besides  his  scholarly  contributions  to  the  Mag^ 
aztBtf  Frankland  wrote.  Outlines  of  Literaty  Culture 
j(Lond.  1853,  12mo)  -.^Tntuitionaliim  (ibid.  1861,  crown 
8vo)  1-^0/ Israel,  but  not  Israel  (Exeter,  1859, 12mo)  :-> 
Tie  Weieyan  Cow/crence  (Lond.  1852, 8vo).  See  WesL 
Jfetk,  Magazine,  1876,  p.  192, 742, 844;  Minutes  of  the 
British  Conference^  1876,  p.  19. 

Frankland,  Thom«s>  an  English  divine,  was 
bom  in  Lancashire  in  1638,  and  was  educated  at  and 
became  a  fellow  of  Brazenose  College,  Oxford.  He  be- 
came a  preacher,  afterwards  a  physician,  and  died  in 
1690.  His  published  works  are,  The  Honors  (f  the 
Ijords  Sjnritual  Asserted  (1681):— rAs  Annals  of  King 
m/itmes  I  and  King  Charles  I  (eod.).  See  Chalmers, 
JBiog.  Diet,  e,  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  u- 
tAors,  a.  v. 

Txanzaai,  Luioi,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Genoa,  March  29^1789;  studied  under  the  direction  of 
Zanobi  Benncci;  was  ordained  priest  in  1814;  became 
first  an  urban  missionary,  bishop  of  Turin  in  1881,  and 
died  March  26, 1862.  He  was  an  avowed  champion 
of  Ultramontanism,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  in 
1B50,  and  took  refuge  in  Lyons.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
JBiog.  Ginirale,  s»  v. 

leaser,  Edward,  a  talented  colored  Wesleyan 
preacher,  was  bora  a  slave  in  the  island  of  Barbadoes. 
He  was  in  youth  so  appreciated  by  his  master  that  he 
was  given  a  good  education  and  made  his  confidential 
derk.  Converted  in  Bermuda,  becoming  a  local  preach- 
er and  called  into  the  ministry  in  1827,  he  was  given 
bis  liberty  at  the  request  of  the  British  Wesleyan  Con- 
feience,  and  labored  in  several  of  the  West  Indian  isl- 
ands. As  a  preacher,  he  was  thoughtful,  calm,  dignified, 
dear  in  exposition  and  powerful  in  application.  He 
moved  with  dignity  and  grace  among  the  people  of  his 
charge,  training  the  young,  comforting  the  sick,  and  re- 
lieving the  poor.  On  perplexing  questions  his  well- 
balanced  mind  and  clear,  logical  views  made  him  pow- 
erful among  his  brethren.  He  was  for  eighteen  years 
district  secretary.  For  the  cause  of  missions  and  edu- 
cation he  twice  visited  England,  where  the  memory  of 
bis  noble  pulpit  and  [Jatform  deliverances  are  still  re- 
membered. At  the  annual  missionary  meeting  in  Ex- 
eter Hall,  London,  in  his  visit  of  1837-38,  he  delivered 
a  powerful  address.  He  died  at  Grateful  Hill,  Jamaica, 
in  1872,  aged  seventy-four  years.  See  Minutes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1872,  p.'4l;  Smith,  Hist,  of  Weal 
Methodism,  iii,  366,  367;  Everett,  Wesleyan  Centenary 
TcMngs,  ii,  14. 

Fraoer,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  gradu- 
ated from  the  university  and  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deeotln  1771;  was  licensed  to  preach  Feb.  3, 1779;  pre- 


sented to  the  living  at  Drumoak  in  November,  1785, 
ordained  June  lo,  1786,  and  died  Jan.  31,  1828,  aged 
seventy-two  years.  He  published  An  Account  of  the 
Parish  of  Drumoak,  and  edited  Lectures  on  the  Pastoral 
Character  of  Principal  George  Campbell  (1811).  See 
Fasti  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  iii,  498. 

Fraoer,  Paul,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  a  native 
of  Inverness,  graduated  from  the  university  and  King's 
College,  Aberdeen,  April  30, 1755;  was  ordained  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Lorn,  Sept.  2,  1761,  as  missionary  at 
Glencoe,  from  which  he  was  removed  to  that  of  Fort 
William ;  was  admitted  minister  of  the  parish  of  Craig- 
nish  in  1765 ;  transferred  to  the  second  charge,  Invenip 
ry,Bfay  28, 1789,  admitted  June  17,  and  died  "Father 
of  the  Church,"  Oct.  2,  1827,  aged  ninety -five  years. 
For  a  time  he  held  the  chaphiincy  of  the  98th  Foot 
regiment,  and  the  5th  regiment  of  Fencibles.  He  pub- 
lished An  Account  of  the  Parish  of  Inverary,  See 
Fasti  Ecdes.  Scoticana,  iii,  4, 6. 

FraterotUl.    See  Fratricelli. 

FratBSCber,  Hkinrich  Wolfoamo,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  born  at  Erfurt,  Nov.  12, 1694, 
studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1720  magister  at  Erfurt,  in 
1738  professor,  accepted  in  1744  a  call  as  general-super- 
intendent  of  the  duchy  of  Cobnrg,  and  died  July  14, 
1757.  He  wrote,  De  Jei-emia  el  Vaticinio  Ejus  (Halle, 
1712):— i>«  Necessitate  et  UtiUtate  Lectionis  Script. 
Sacra  in  Fontibus  (Erfurt,  1738).  See  Jdcher,  Al^ 
meines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  F.) 

.  IVaueiuitftdt,  Christian  Martin  Julius,  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  was  bom  April  17, 1813,  at  Bojanowo, 
in  the  duchy  of  Posen.  He  studied  theology  and  phi- 
losophy at  Berlin  and  published,  in  1838,  Die  FreiheU 
des  Menschen  und  die  PersdnlichkeU  Gottes,  which  was 
followed  in  1839  by  Die  Menschwerdung  Gottes  nach 
ihrer  3£6glichkeii,  Wirklichkeit  und  Notwendigheit.  In 
his  Studien  und  Kritiken  zur  Theohgie  und  Philosophie 
(Berlin,  1840),  he  examined  the  philosophy  of  relig- 
ion of  Steffen,  and  with  his  Schellin^s  Vorlesungen  in 
Berlin  (ibid.  1842),  he  placed  himself  in  opposition  to 
the  Philosophie  der  OJfenbarung.  In  1846  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Schopenhauer,  and  became  his  most 
ardent  admirer.  In  1848  he  published  his  U^ber  das 
wahre  Verhaltniss  der  Vemunft  zur  OJfenbarung  (dedi- 
cated to  Schopenhauer),  followed  by  other  works  in 
which  he  advocated  more  or  less  the  system  of  his 
friend,  whose  works  he  also  edited  (Leipsic,  1873-74, 
6  vols. ;  2d  ed.  1877).  Frauenstiidt  died  at  Beriin,  Jan. 
13, 1879.  See  Brockhaus,  ConversationS'Lexikon  (ISth 
ed.),  s.  V. ;  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  i,  877.    (B.  P.) 

FraTaahifl^  certain  fetichistic  spirits  worshipped 
by  the  early  inhabitants  of  Media. 

Itevitta  (Pbravittaa,  Flavita,  or  Flavia- 
nilB),  twenty-third  bishop  of  Constantinople,  A.D.  489, 
is  said  to  have  acquired  his  position  by  a  remarkable 
fraud,  having  been  originally  a  presbyter  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Thecla,  in  the  suburbs  of  that  city.  He  died 
within  four  months,  and  the  trick  was  exposed.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Fraaer,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  abbot  of 
Melrose,  and  promoted  to  the  see  of  Ross  in  1485.  He 
was  witness  to  an  agreement  between  the  community 
of  Linlithgow  and  the  priory  of  St.  Andrews  in  1497, 
and  was  one  of  the  king's  privy  council  in  1506.  He 
died  Feb.  5, 1507.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  189. 

Fraaer,  John  (2),  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Ireland  in  1803.  He  was  a  de- 
scendant of  the  celebrated  Scotch  Frazer  family,  which 
gave  so  many  distinguished  officers  to  the  British  army. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  sailed  to  the  United  States 
and  entered  the  woods  of  Maine  as  a  lumberman.  In 
1831  he  joined  the  New  York  Conference,  and  began 
his  itinerant  career  on  the  shores  of  lake  Charoplain. 
For  twenty-five  years  he  continued  to  preach  in  that 
region,  then  embraced  in  the  Troy  Conference.    His 


FRAZER 


414 


FREIA 


appointments  were  Midcllebury,  Poultney,  and  Grand 
Isle  in  Vermont ;  Albany,  Troy,  Schenectady,  Lansing- 
burg,  and  two  terms  as  presiding  elder  in  New  York. 
In  1856  failing  health  .induced  him  to  remove  to  Ohio, 
where  he  joined  the  Ohio  Conference,  and  was  stationecl 
as  presiding  elder  three  years  each  in  Columbus  and 
Zanesville.  In  18G6  he  was  transferred  to  the  South- 
em  Illinois  Conference,  and  stationed  first  at  Alton, 
then  at  Brighton,  and  last  at  Lebanon,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  17,  1871.  Dr.  Frazer  was  a  man  of  the  purest 
character,  a  scomer  of  all  hypocrisy  and  double-dealing; 
thoroughly  read  in  theology,  was  powerfully  fluent,  and 
an  eminently  successful  revivalist.  See  Minutes  of 
Annual  ConferencfSf  1871,  p.  231. 

Frazer,  William,  a  Scotch  preUte,  was  promoted 
to  the  see  of  St.  Andrews  in  1279,  and  was  consecrated 
at  Rome  by  pope  Nicholas  III,  June  14,  1280.  About 
the  same  time  he  was  lord  chancellor  and  witness  to 
king  Alexander  III.  In  1288  he  was  chosen  to  be  one 
of  the  regents  of  the  kingdom,  and  alter  the  death  of 
queen  Margaret  he  yielded  a  forced  submission  to  £d- 
ward  I  of  England.'  He  died  at  Arteville,  Sept.  13, 
1297.     See  Keith,  ScoUuh  Bishops,  p.  20. 

Freda  was  a  god  of  war  among  the  Frisians,  who 
was  worshipped  with  another  similar  figure,  Weda, 
which  caused  the  Romans  to  make  a  comparison  with 
Castor  and  Pollux.  They  appear  armeil,  with  wings 
projecting  from  their  shoulders. 

Fr^d^gaire  (Lat.  Fredegarius),  a  French  ecclesias- 
tical historian  of  the  middle  of  the  7th  oentur}%  has  left 
a  chronicle  of  France,  and  of  Burgundy  in  particular, 
from  Gregory  of  Tours  to  his  own  time  (published  as  a 
sequel  to  the  works  of  the  former,  Basle,  1568, 8vo,  and 
later).     See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Freder,  JoliaimeB  (1),  a  Lutheran  theologian  and 
hymn-writer  of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  29, 1510,  at 
Cbslin,  in  Pomerania.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was 
in  1537  called  to  Hamburg,  in  1547  to  Stralsund,  in 
1549  to  Greifswalde,  and  in  1556  to  Wismar,  where  he 
died,  Jan.  25, 1562.  See  Jocher,  A  Ugtmeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexibon,  s.  ▼. ;  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deufschen  Kirchm- 
liedeSf  i,  421  sq. ;  Mohnicke,  Johannes  Frederut  Leben 
und  peislliche  O'esdnffe  (Stralsund,  1840) ;  Zuchold,  Bibl. 
Thtol  i,  377.     (R  P.) 

Freder,  JoliaimeB  (2),  son  of  the  preceding,  \ras 
bom  at  Hamburg,  Jan.  6, 1544.  He  studied  at  Witten- 
berg and  Rostock,  was  professor  of  theology  at  the  lat- 
ter place,  and  died  in  1604.  He  edited  Dav.  Chy  tr»i 
Summa  Docti'ina  de  Vera  Dei  Agniiione: — Explicatio 
A rticulorum  Symboli  ApostoUci  de  Filio  Dei: — Liber  de 
8pir.  JSanct.  Divinitate.  He  wrote.  Theses  de  Prtedes- 
tinatione  Hominum  in  Christo  ad  Vitam  et  Salutem 
jEtemam.  See  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrlen^Leonkon, 
8.  V. ;  Molleri,  Cimbria  LUterata,     (B.  P.) 

Frederick  HI  of  S.\xony  (usually  styled  the 
Wise),  was  born  at  Torgau,  Jan.  17, 1468,  and  succeeded 
his  father  Ernest  as  elector,  in  1486.  He  is  chiefly 
known  as  the  founder  of  the  University  of  Wittenberg, 
and  the  friend  of  Luther,  whom  he  carried  off  for  safety 
to  the  Warburg ;  but  he  had  not  the  courage  to  estab- 
lish the  reformed  faith  in  his  dominions.  He  became 
administrator  of  the  empire  in  1519,  and  declined  the 
imperial  crown.  He  died  May  5,  1525.  See  the  liter- 
ature by  KlUppel,  in  Plitt-Herzog^s  Real-Encyldop,  s.  v. 
See  LuTHKR. 

Frederick  HI  of  the  Palatinatk  (called  the 
Pious)f  was  born  Feb.  14,  1525,  succeeded  his  f&ther, 
John  II,  in  1556,  as  palatine  of  Siromero,  and  Otto  Hen- 
ry as  elector- palatine  in  1559.  In  1537  he  married  a 
Lutheran  princess,  and  adopted  the  Reformed  faith, 
which  in  1560  he  introduced  into  his  dominions,  despite 
an  effort  in  1566  to  secure  an  imperial  edict  against 
him.  He  died  Oct.  26,  1576.  See  the  literature  in 
Plitt-Herzog's  ReaUEncyldop.  s.  v.    See  Rkform ation. 

Fredet.  Pierue,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 


was  bora  at  Sehasat,  France,  about  1801 ;  educated  at 
Clermont;  became  a  member  of  the  Society  of  St.Sul- 
pice,  and  came  to  Baltimore  in  1831,  where,  till  hia 
death,  Jan.  1, 1856,  he  was  attached  to  St.  Mary's  Sem- 
inary. He  is  said  to  have  been  a  diligent  and  thor- 
ough student,  and  a  voluminous  writer.  See  Hough, 
A  nutr,  Biog,  Notes,  p.  149.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Fr^dol,  B^KEKOBR  DE  (called  the  Elder),  a  French 
prelate,  was  bom  at  the  chateau  de  la  Yerune  about 
1250 ;  became  successively  canon  at  Beziers,  Narlionuc, 
and  Aix,  b'lshop  of  Beziers,  Oct.  28, 1294,  and  cardinal  in 
130.5.  He  was  employed  by  the  pope  in  several  litera- 
ry and  diplomatic  functions,  and  died  at  Avignon,  June 
18, 1323,  leaving  a  few  works  on  canon  law,  for  wbicli 
see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginh-ale,  s.  v. 

Free  Ctariatian  Brethren,  the  name  under  which 
one  congregation  in  Scotland  is  returned  in  the  British 
census  of  1851. 

Free  Methodist  Church.  See  HETHouisTSy 
Free. 

Freeman,  Bemardus,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Westphalia,  and  licensed  there ;  came 
to  America  in  1700 ;  was  refused  by  the  Church  at  Al- 
bany for  want  of  education;  became  a  missionary  to 
the  Mohawks  (1700-5) ;  preached  at  various  places  on 
the  western  end  of  Long  Inland,  and  died  in  1743.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  natural  ability,  and  the  author  of 
several  works  in  the  Mohawk  language,  for  which  see 
Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Rrf,  Church  in  America,  3d  ed. 
p.  265. 

Freeman,  Gkeorge  "W.,  D.D.,  missionary  bishop 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  south-west, 
was  born  at  Sandwich,  Mass. ;  taught  a  large  boarding- 
school  in  Warrenton,  N.  C;  was  ordained  rector  of 
Christ  Church,  Kaleigh,  where  he  remained  for  many 
years;  then  of  Emmanuel  Church,  New  Castle,  DeL; 
consecrated  bishop  Oct.  26, 1844,  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
and  died  at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  April  29, 1858,  agc<l  sixty- 
nine  years.     See  A  mer,  Quar.  Church  Rer,  1858,  p.  840. 

Free-thinking  ChrlstianB,  a  sect  which  arose 
in  London  in  1796,  professing  to  be  a  Christian  Church 
founded  on  the  principles  of  free  inquiry.  They  were 
originally  a  body  of  Universalists,  who  separated  from 
their  congregation  by  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  the 
trinity,  the  atonement,  and  many  other  doctrines  held 
by  orthodox  Christians  generally.  Their  nest  step 
was  to  dispense  with  the  sacraments,  and  aeny  the  im- 
materiality of  the  souL  Finally,  they  rejected  the 
Scriptures,  and  abolished  all  forms  of  worahip,  though 
still  holding  their  meetings  on  the  Sabbath  as  a  matter 
of  convenience.  They  assembled  for  purposes  of -discus- 
sion and  debate  on  religious  and  social  questions.  See 
Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

FregOBO,  Fkderioo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Genoa  about  1480;  early  took  religious  orders;  became 
bishop  of  Gtibbio  in  1507;  fled  on  account  of  political 
trtiubles  to  Rome,  but  returned  to  Genoa  in  1513 ;  was 
of  great  service  in  the  civil  war  ensuing ;  made  cardi- 
nal in  1539,  and  died  at  Gubbio,  July  13,  1541.  See 
Biog,  UniverseUe,  s.  v. 

Freia,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  most  excellent 
among  the  Asas  next  to  Frigga,  the  wife  of  Odin,  being 
daughter  of  the  dark  Niord  and  the  shady  Skade.  Freia 
was  the  goddess  of  the  moon,  in  the  ancient  Scandina- 
vian religion  of  nature.  Later  she  was  the  goddess  of 
love.  She  favora  suitors,  and  finds  great  pleasure  in 
songs,  which  she  teaches  to  the  scalds.  She  lovea 
spring  and  flowers,  and  is  gracious  to  the  elves.  In 
order  to  secure  greater  swiftness  she  makes  use  of  a  pair 
of  falcon  wings,  which  she  allows  other  deities  to  use. 
The  glittering  necklace  which  the  dwarfs  present- 
ed to  her  is  called  Brising,  Freia  was  married  to 
Odur,  and  had  two  daughtera  by  him :  Hnos  (beauti- 
ful) and  Gersemi  (attractive).  Some'  time  after,  Odur 
made  a  jotimcy,  and  as  he  did  not  return,  Freia  sought 


FREIND 


415 


FRENCH  VERSION 


him,  tfavelling  through  many  countries,  and  aasuming 
difSerenc  names :  Hardol,  Horn,  Gelion,  Syr,  Vanadys; 
but  it  was  all  useless.  She  therefore  shed  bitter  tearv, 
which  were  changed  into  gold.  Her  journey  made  her 
known  in  all  lands,  and  she  was  worshipped  under  va- 
rious names.  In  North  German}',  Denmark,  Frieslaud, 
and  Saxony,  she  retained  the  name  Freia.  She  was 
represented  with  helmet,  armor,  bow,  and  sword,  above 
in  male,  below  in  female  dress.  Odin  receives  valiant 
warriors  into  Valhalla;  Freia  receives  all  virtuous  and 
lovely  women  into  her  heavenly  dwelling,  Ftilkvangur. 
She  herself  loves  mostly  to  stay  in  her  hall,  Sesrumner, 
and  has  melancholy  thoughts  about  her  departed  hus- 
band, Odur.  The  Swedes  dedicated  a  number  of  temples 
to  her,  among  which  that  at  Upsala  was  the  most  cele- 
brated. Her  name  is  connected  with  the  German  verb 
**  fireien,"  to  troo,  and  the  sixth  day  of  the  week,  Friday, 
is  named  after  her. 

Prelnd,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
bom  in  1667;  educated  principally  at  Westminster; 
elected  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1686;  engaged  in 
the  famous  oontroversy  about  the  epistles  of  Pbalaris, 
and  died  in  1751, leaving  some  Latin  and  English  poetry, 
for  which  see  Bentley,  Nichols's  Collection,  He  also  pub- 
lished a  Sermon,  preached  before  the  House  of  Commons 
(1711),  and  Cicero's  Orations  (1724).  See  Chalmers, 
Biog,  Did.  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  u- 
ikorSf  s.  v. 

Freir  (or  Frey),  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  son 
of  Niord ;  the  latter  became  one  of  the  Asas,  after  show- 
ing his  power  to  perform  wonders.  Freir's  mother  was 
Sluide.  His  sister  Freia  represents  the  moon,  and  cor- 
respondingly he  represents  the  sun.  Freir  is  called  the 
moat  excellent  of  the  Asas.  He  rules  over  the  rain  and 
sunshine,  and  most  be  invoked  for  fruitful  years  and  for 
peace.  He  presides  over  wealthy  people,  gives  to  maid- 
ens their  lovers,  and  restores  to  women  their  husbands, 
tvhen  taken  in  battle.  Freir  once  seated  himself  on 
the  throne  Hlidskialf,  from  which  he  could  look  over  the 
vrhok  world.  This  throne  was  designed  only  for  Odin, 
and  Freir  was  immediately  punished  for  the  liberty  he 
cook  by  becoming  enamoured  of  a  Jote  maiden,  namely, 
the  beautiful  Gerdur,  daughter  of  the  mouutain-giant, 
Gymer,  and  of  Aurboda.  When  he  came  home,  he 
neither  ate  nor  drank,  nor  said  anything.  A  consuming 
melancholy  fell  upon  him,  and  no  one  dared  to  talk  with 
him.  Even  his  father  Niord  asked  his  servant,  Skirner, 
to  find  out  what  was  the  trouble.  Freir  said  he  loved 
the  beautiful  Jote  maiden,  and  could  not  live  without 
her  any  longer.  Skirner  then  went  out  to  woo  Gerdur 
lor  him,  after  he  had  asked  Freir  for  bis  tfnsty  sword, 
which  had  been  made  by  dwarfs,  and  possessed  the 
mngular  faculty  of  killing  of  itself  after  it  had  once 
been  drawn.  Freir  gave  it  to  him,  and  thus,  when  he 
was  attacked  by  the  powerful  Beli,  he  was  forced  to 
■lay  biro  with  the  horns  of  a  reindeer.  Skirner  brought 
back  the  favorable  answer  that  after  nine  nights  Gerdur 
would  appear  to  him.  Tlien  Freir  said, "  I  cannot  wait 
eo  long,  for  a  single  night  is  longer  than  a  whole  month.*' 
Gerdur  is  the  northern  light  personitied.  Freir  lives 
with  her  in  Alfheim.  As  god  of  the  sun,  he  also  pos- 
eeases  the  gold-colored  boar,GullinburBti.  Besides  this 
he  owns  the  horse  Blodughofi.  He  also  has  a  skilful 
air-vessel,  called  Skidbladnir,  made  by  dwarfs,  the  sons 
of  Yvold.  Oaths  are  given  in  Freir's  name,  in  which 
case  usually  a  boar  is  sacrificed  to  him,  and  a  ring  dipped 
in  ita  blood,  which  is  held  by  the  swearer,  who  says: 
**  So  help  me,  Freir,  Niord,  and  the  mighty  Asas !" 

Freitag,  Auocstixe  M.,  a  Rcdemptorist  preacher, 
was  bom  in  Hanover,  of  Lutheran  parentage,  in  1836. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  commenced  his  preparatory'  studies  for  the 
priestly  office  at  Gottingen.  After  coming  to  Amer- 
ica, he  completed  his  studies  at  Cumberland,  Md.,  and 
joined  the  Redemptorists.  He  was  ordained  priest  in 
1803,  and  assigned  }p  duty  in  New  York  city.    After 


serving  there  for  some  years  he  was  transferred  to  Bos 
ton,  Mass.  In  1882  he  returned  to  New  York  city,  be- 
came assistant-rector  of  St.  Alphonso's,  and  died  there 
July  26  of  the  same  year.     (B.  P.) 

Fr^minet,  Martin,  an  eminent  French  painter, 
was  bom  at  Paris  in  1567.  He  produced  a  fine  picture 
of  St,  SebastiuH,  at  Paris,  when  very  young ;  afterwards 
visited  Rome  and  studied  the  works  of  Michael  An- 
gelo ;  spent  fifteen  years  in  Italy,  then  returned  to  Paris 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV,  who  appointed  him  his  paint- 
er, and  employed  him  in  the  chapel  at  Fontaineblcau, 
the  ceiling  of  which  represents  subjects  from  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  among  them  Noah  and  his  Family 
£nterit*ff  the  Ark^  and  The  Annunciation.  He  died  at 
Paris,  June  16, 1619.  See  Hoefer,  A'ottr.  Bioff,  Giniraltt 
s.  V. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  tis,  s.  v. 

Fremont,  Charles,  a  French  monk,  was  bom  at 
Tours  in  1610 ;  entered  the  order  of  Gramroont  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  and  conceived  the  idea  of  bringing 
back  the  monks  to  the  rigor  of  their  primitive  mle. 
Despite  his  superiors,  through  the  protection  of  car- 
dinal Richelieu,  he  succeeded  in  establishing  the  an- 
cient discipline,  not  only  in  the  house  of  Thiers,  in  Au* 
vergne,  which  citizens  had  founded  for  him  in  1650,  but 
also  in  six  or  seven  other  houses,  which  had  become 
nearly  mined.  He  died  in  1689,  leaving  La  TiV,  la 
Mort  et  les  Miracles  de  Saini'Etiennet  Confesseur^  Fon- 
datei/r  de  FOrdre  de  Grammont  (Dijon,  1647).  See 
Hoefer,  Now,  Biog,  CtniraU,  s.  v. 

Frenoh-Basque  Version.  See  Basqite  French. 

French  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  since  its  inception 
of  Bible-work  in  France  and  the  French-speaking  coun- 
tries, circulated  the  translations  of  Martin,  Osterwald, 
and  De  Sacy ;  the  latter  for  the  use  of  Roman  Catho- 
lics. In  1869  the  same  society  published  a  revised  edi- 
tion of  Osterwald^s  New  Test.  The  object  of  this  edi- 
tion was  to  bring  it  as  far  as  possible  into  conformity 
with  the  original  editions,  and  to  do  away  with  the 
needless  alterations  which  have  been  introduced  by 
various  printers  or  editors.  On  the  same  basis  the  Old 
Test,  was  published  in  1871.  In  1875  the  Rev.  Amold 
Bovet  addressed  a  communication  to  the  agent  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  Germany,  the 
subject  of  which  was  the  present  condition  and  charac- 
ter of  the  French  Protestant  versions.  In  bow  fsr  Mr. 
Bovet*s  suggestions  were  carried  out  we  do  not  know, 
but  in  the  report  for  the  year  1877  we  read :  "  The  com- 
mittee have  been  busy  throughout  the  year  in  reme- 
dying certain  minor  defects  in  several  of  the  French 
editions,  in  order  to  make  them  more  perfect  and  more 
uniform.  Several  new  versions  of  the  Scriptures  in 
French  have  been  urged  on  the  committee,  but  they 
did  not  see  their  wsy  to  the  adoption  of  any  of  them; 
they  hope,  however,  that  the  present  aclivit}'^  in  Bible 
translating  and  revision  msy  lead  to  the  production  of 
a  version  more  accurate  and  more  acceptable  to  the 
French  people  than  any  which  they  now  possess." 
From  the  annual  report  published  in  1884  it  sppears 
that  the  Societi  Biblique  de  France  had  undertaken  a 
revision  of  Osterwald,  and  that  this  jre vised  recension 
has  also  been  adopted  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.  The  report  reads  thus :  "  The  committee  have 
resolved  to  adopt  the  recently  revised  version  of  Oster- 
wald. The  revision  af  the  New  Test,  was  completed 
by  Mons.  Frossard  in  1869.  A  conference  of  pastors  at 
Paris  appointed  a  commission  to  examine  the  version, 
and  they  expressed  the  wish  in  the  following  year  that 
the  Societi  Biblique  de  France  should  publi&h  it.  In 
1868  a  committee,  consisting  of  MM.  Bruston,  H.  Kru- 
ger,  W.  Monod,  and  M.  Bysc  began  the  revision  of  the 
Old  Test.  In  1877  the  number  of  revisers  was  raised 
from  four  to  thirteen,  namely,  professors  Bois,  Bmston, 
Chapuis,  and  Coussivat,  and  pastors  Le  Savoureux,  Km- 
ger,  Monod,  Laufer,  Bomand,  Byse,  Favez,  Frossard,  and 
Monnier.    All  the  books  of  the  Old  Test,  were  revised 


FRENCH 


416 


FREUDENTHEIL 


at  least  twice,  the  greater  part  three  times,  and  some 
(Psalms,  Daniel,  Hoaea,  Joel,  Amos,  etc)  four  times. 
The  direction  of  the  work  was  intrusted  to  pastor  Frank 
Vermeil,  with  whom  were  associated  MM.  Matter  and 
Frossard.  In  1879  the  publication  commenced.  Since 
then  17,000  of  the  8vo  and  16mo  Bibles  have  been  sold, 
and  150,000  copies  of  the  revised  New  Test,  since  its 
publication.  The  basis  of  the  revision  of  the  New  Test, 
was  the  Textut  Receptus,  The  committee  of  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  taking  up  this  latest 
revision  of  Osterwald*s  version,  have  the  hearty  ap- 
proval of  the  Societi  BUtlique  de  Frctnctr 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  also  un- 
dertaken since  1879  the  printing  of  Dc  Sacy's  Bible, 
collated  with  the  folio  of  1759,  and  with  alternative 
readings  from  the  originals  for  all  passages  liable  to 
misoonstruction. 

Outside  of  the  Bible  societies,  there  were  publishe<l  Im. 
SainU  Bible,  TexU  de  la  Vulgate,  Traduction  Fran- 
faue  en  Regard,  avec  Commentairee  ThSol^  Moraux, 
PhiloL,  Histor,,  etc,  RU&gh  d^Aprei  let  Afeilleurs  Tra- 
vaux  Ancient  et  Cmtemp,  (Paris,  1869-82, 16  vols.).  In 
this  Bible  work,  the  commentaries  of  German,  French, 
English,  and  American  scholars  have  been  made  use  of. 
Thus,  Alexander's  Commentary  on  Itaiah,  Lyman  Ab- 
bott's New  TesLy  The  Speaker'a  Commentary,  the  works 
of  Alford,  Wordsworth,  Ellicott,  and  even  Smith's  Dict^ 
of  the  BMe  have  been  perused.  Besides  this  work  of 
Roman  Catholics,  we  must  mention  the  Protestant  Bible 
work  by  Reuss,  La  Bible.  Traduction  Novvelle  avec  Tn- 
trodudiont  et  Commentaires  (Paris,  1874-81, 16  parts). 
The  different  parts  have  the  following  titles,  besides  the 
Priface  et  Introduction  OniralB  and  Table  Gin^ale 
det  Matierea:  I.  Hittoire  det  ItraHUet  Depuit  la  Con- 
quite  de  la  Pakatine  jusqu^a  VExU  {Liprea  dea  Jugea, 
de  Samuel  el  dea  Jtoia) ;  II.  Lea  Prophstea,  2  vols. ;  III. 
VHiatoire  Sainte  et  la  TM  (^Pentateuque  et  Joaue),  2 
vols. ;  IV.  Chronique  EccUaiaatique  deJiruaalem  (Chron., 
Ezra,  Neh.) ;  V.  Poitie  Lyrique  (JLe  Paavtier,  ka  Lam- 
entaiiona,  le  Cantique  dea  Cantiquea) ;  VI.  PhUoaophie 
Religieuse  et  Morale  dea  Ilebreux  (Job,  lea  Proverbea, 
PEixUaiaate,  V EccUaiaatique,  la  Sapience,  Contea  Moraux 
\Jonaa,  Tobit,  Suacame,  Pagea  du  Roi  Dariua],  Baruch, 
Manaaae);  VII.  Liltiiature,  Politique,  et  PoUmique 
{Ruth,  Maccabeea,  Daniel,  Eatker,  Judith,  le  3m<  Liore 
dea  Maccabsea,  VHiatoire  du  Bel  et  du  Serpent,  VEpitre 
de  Jiremie);  VIII.  Iliatoire  Evangelique  {Synopae  dta 
Troia Premiera  Evangilea)]  IX.  La  ThiologieJohannique 
{tlvangile  et  ipitrea)  \  X.  VHiatoire  Apoatolique  (^Actea 
dea  Apdtrea);  XI.  I^ea  Epitrea  Paulinietmea,  2  vols.; 
XII.  Lea  Epitrea  CathoUquea ;  XIII.  VApocalypae, 

Last,  but  not  least,  we  mention  the  new  translation 
of  the  Old  Test,  from  the  Hebrew  text  by  the  Bev.  Dr. 
Louis  Segond,  published  at  Geneva  in  1874  (2d  ed. 
Nancy,  1877 ;  8d  ed.  Geneva,  1879),  and  the  new  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Test,  from  the  Greek,  published  in 
1879.  His  work  has  been  accepted  by  the  University 
Press,  Oxford,  England.  This  version  is  regarded  as  a 
decided  improvement  upon  all  others,  and  as  worthy  of 
national  official  use.  In  1878  appeared  La  Bible  An- 
noteepar  une  Sodki  de  Thiologiena  et  de  Paateura,  fasc 
i  (Anden  Teatameni,lea  Prophkea  I),  NeufchateL  (For 
A  review  of  this  part  comp.  Diestel,  in  Sch&rer's  TheoL 
Liieratuneitung,  1879,  coL  217).     (B.  P.) 

French,  John  177.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman  of  the  diocese  of  Maryland,  graduated  from 
the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  New  York,  was 
for  some  years  rector  in  Washington,  D.  C;  in  1857 
was  chaplain  at  the  Military  Academy,  West  Point, 
N.  Y.;  in  1866  was  appointed  professor  of  moral  philos- 
ophy in  the  same  institution,  and  continued  there  un- 
til his  death,  July  7,  1871.  See  Prot,  Epiac,  Almanac, 
1872,  p.  127. 

French,  'William,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  born  in  1786,  and  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge.   In  1820  he  was  master  at  Jesus  College,  and 


canon  of  Ely  in  1882.  He  died  in  1849,  leaving  Aao 
Tranalationa  of  the  Proverba  of  Solomon  (18ai):~JVao 
Tranalationa  of  the  Book  ofPaalma  (1842).  See  Alli- 
bone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uiJiora^  s.  v. 

Frenadorfil  Solomon,  a  Jewish  writer,  and  pr<>* 
fesaor  at  the  Israelitish  teachers'  seminary  in  Hanover, 
who  died  in  1880,  is  the  author  of,  Fragmente  aua  der 
Punetationa-  vnd  Aecentlehre  der  hebraiadken  Spracke 
(Hanover,  1847)  :^Die  Maaaora  Magna  nach  den  aUe^ 
aten  Drueken  (ibid.  1875,  of  which  only  the  first  part, 
Die  Maaaora  in  alphabetitdter  Ordnung,  was  published). 
He  also  edited  the  masoretic  work,  nb32(1  nbsst 
(ibid.  1864),  a  description  of  which  is  given  under  Odak 
ve-Odah  in  this  Cydopadia,     (B.  P.) 

Frenzel,  a  name  common  to  several  German  aa- 
thors,  of  whom  we  mention : 

1.  Abraham,  was  bom  in  November,  1656,  at  Kosel, 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  died  April  15,  1740,  at 
Schonau,  near  Bemstadt.  He  wrote,  De  Originibut 
Lirujua  Sorobicte,  libri  iv  (Bautzen,  1693-96) : — De  DOa 
Slavorum  et  Sorobontm  in  Specie  (publbhed  in  HofT- 
mann's  Scriptorea  Rerum  Luaaticorum,  2  vols.): — De 
Voccdmlia  Propriia  Sorobicia  Pagorum  (published  also 
in  Hoffmann's  work).  Besides,  he  left  in  manuscript  a 
Dictionary  of  the  Wendiah  Language,  works  on  the  man- 
ners of  the  people  of  Upper  Lusatia  (extracts  from  which 
were  published  by  Muka  under  the  title  FrenceUana,  in 
Caaopia  Mdciay  Serbaktye,  Bautzen,  1880-82).  See  Jdch- 
er,  Allgen»einea  Gdehrten'Lexikon,  s.  v. 

2.  Bf  iciiABL,  bom  Feb.  2,  1628,  studied  at  Leipaic^ 
was  pastor  at  Kosel,  and  died  June  29, 1706.  He  trana- 
lated  the  New  Test,  into  the  Wendish  language,  also 
the  Psalms,  and  Luther's  catechism.  See  Jdcber,  AIL 
gemeinea  GeUhrten-IjCxihon,  s.  v. 

3.  MiCRAKL,  Jr.,  brother  of  Abraham,  was  bora  Feh. 
14,  1667,  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  died  aa  deacon  at 
Hoyerswerda,  Feb.  II,  1752.  He  wrote  Diaaerlatio  de 
Idolia  Slavorum  (Wittenberg,  1691). 

4.  Solomon  Gottiiold,  son  of  Michael,  Jr.,  who  waa 
born  in  1701,  and  died  deacon  at  Hoyerswerda,  March 
22, 1768,  is  the  author  of  a  Wendiah  Catechiam  (Loban, 
1738).  See  Jocher,  A  llgemeinea  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a.  v. 
For  the  family  Frenzel  see  Schubert,  Chromk  der  Go- 
achlechter  Frenzel  und  Schletter  (Dresden,  1843).  (R  P.) 

Fresco,  qr  wall-painting  in  water-colors,  was  very- 
common  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
was  gradually  introduced  into  sacred  places,  especially 
churches  and  the  catacombs,  portions  of  it  still  remaining. 
The  subjects  are  usualh'  Scriptural,  though  sometimea 
purely  ideal.  (See  illustration  on  p.  417.)  For  the  details 
see  Smith,  Diet. of  Chriat.  Antiq.  s.  v.    See  Paintixg. 

Freonoy,  Chablks  Alphonse  vu,  a  very  eminent 
French  painter,  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1611,  and  studied 
in  the  school  of  Francois  Perrier,  after  which  he  visited 
Italy.  In  1656  he  returned  to  his  native  city,  where  he 
painted,  among  other  works,  a  fine  picture  of  St^Mar' 
qaret,  fur  the  church  of  that  name.  He  died  in  Paris 
in  1665k  He  was  occupied  during  a  long  period  of  hit 
life  in  preparing  for  publication  his  admirable  poem  on 
art,  De  A  rte  Graphica,  which  was  issued  after  his  death. 
See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hitt.  of  the  Fine  A  rta,  s.  v. ;  Uoefer, 
Nquv.  Biog.  Cenerale,  e.  v. 

Frettdentheil,  Wilhklm  Nicholas,  a  Latfaeran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Stade,  in  Hanover, 
June  5, 1771.  He  studied  at  GoUingen;  was  in  1792 
professor  of  literature  and  history  at  Zelie;  in  1796  tub- 
rector;  in  1806  con-rector;  in  1809  rector  at  Stade;  in 
1816  was  called  as  deacon  to  Hamburg;  in  1828  wai 
pastor  at  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  waa  hoo* 
ored  in  1841  by  his  alma  mater  with  the  theolo^cal 
doctorate.  He  died  March  7, 1853.  Besides  his  Com^ 
mentatio  de  Codioe  aacro  more,  etc  (Gotiingen,  1791), 
he  contributed  some  fine  specimens  to  German  hymm4- 
ogy.  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  Li^  i,  108 ;  SchrY>» 
der.  Lexicon  der  Hamburger  SchyitteUen;  Geffckei^ 


FBET  417  FRIDAY 


Cnblcalnm  In  Uu  Ccnetar;  at  St  Cilllttu. 


BiBgropkieiil    Introdarlion    to    Frttidmtieirt    TVimu 
(HuDburg,  ISM) ;  Koch,  GrtcUciU  dtr  Jtvlttint  Kit- 

Fiay,  Frmiu  Andreaa,  a  Roman  C*i1i»lic  thco- 
Ingian  of  Germany,  wu  bom  Sriy  30,  ITGS,  at  Dam- 
berg,  where  he  ako  ■ludied,  and  took  holy  ordcn  in 
17S7.  In  ITSft  be  commeDod  bia  Icclurta  on  caiinn 
Ibit  at  Iha  unirenitv  o{  bis  native  placr,  and  dieil 
there.  June  24,1820.  '  He  publubed,  Ditp.  Tifiti  thud. , 
de  IMigiaitt,  nrt  Mai  de  PHiicg>iii  Thtologiat  ( Dam-  i 
bag,  lT87)i— /Trifunln-  Comtamtar  ibtr  dot  KitckrK- 
rttil  fir  Kalkolilitn  uad  ProtfUmlnt  (ibicU  1S13-20,  | 
S  vda.).  Sm  DCriiiR,  [Ht  GrUtrlrtt  Titotogm  limlttt- 
iamdM,  i,  4S£  Hj. :  Winer,  Itaadlmdt  dtr  ihtoi.  Lit.  ii,  9 ;  ' 
Zuchold,  BibL  The«L  i,  B80.     (a  P.) 

Z*ra7,  Jean  JaoqneB,  an  aminenl  Swiaa  enf^rer, 
waa  ti«n  at  Lucerne  in  1081,  and  after  acquirini;  Ihe 
elementj  of  bia  art  in  bia  own  coanlrr,  went  lo  Kome, 
where  he  atudied  for  aome  lima  under  Arnold  van 
Weaterhiiat.  Tba  following  arc  aome  of  hia  many 
platea:  Tht  llolg  Family;  SI.  Jerome;  SI.JoMrpk  Pre- 
Motiag  Chtrritt  U  l*<  In/int  Chrul ;  HI.  A  ndroB  Kntet- 
a«jr  bi^&rt  tM€  Croat;  St.  Benuird;  The  Adoration  of 
tie  Sitpkenb;  Tie  Artkapi/tl  Slirii-el.  Me  died  at 
Simte  in  1 762.  See  Hoe^,  JVovr.  Staff.  Ghunile,  i.  v. ; 
epDoner,  Biog.  llitl.  a/Ike  Fine  A  Hi.  a.  v. 

Freyemnoat  (or  EVymnth),  J"hn  Cabpar, 
a  Befunncd  (Dutch)  miniaier,  waa  bom  in  Swiimr- 
land  in  17S0,  came  lo  America  in  hia  youth,  and  lived 
at  what  ia  now  Port  Jerria,  N.  Y„  then  the  centre  of 
tha  Dutch  chnrche*  situated  on  the  DeUware  liver— 
Miniaink,  Walpeck,  SmithSeld,  and  Mahpckemack— 
whicb  Hi  faim  to  Holland  to  be  educated  for  the  min- 
aatry  and  ordained  a*  their  paator.  He  relumed  in 
1741,  and  miniatered  to  tbem  nntil  I7M.  Hii  great 
popalarity  a*  a  preacher,  and  hia  deep  piety  and  leal,  j 
cnaled  an  active  atrife  for  hia  aerricea  between  tha 
shnreliei  referred  to  and  Iboae  in  UlMer  County.  Ha 
mnoTeal  to  Colnmlda  Coimlv  in  I7M,  and  eontinoed 
XIL-bti 


until  bia  death,  in  1T78.  thearcoptable  and  uKfulmiii- 
ist«r  of  tbe  churcheaof  Kindcrhuok,  Claverack,  Living- 
Bton  Manor,  Red  Hook,  and  Scbodack.  He  favored  the 
otdinatiou  of  miniMen  in  Ihii  counln-,  and  waa  a  con> 
•erralive  in  the  early  Oetui  party,  but  indipiantlj 
withdrew  when  tbey  propoeed  to  organize  a  ciaaaia. 
Ilia  Bocial  qnalitjea  were  of  a  high  order,  and  hii  prn- 
ilenee  and  ikill  in  actllinK  delicate  eccleuauteal  caaea 
Imiught  him  into  frequent  requeat  upon  official  com- 
miaaiotii.  See  Slauaon,  lliit.  ikicourte  at  Pari  Jen-it; 
Zabriakie,  Ctntenmai  JJiicoarte  at  Ciaveraek;  Corwin, 
Manual  of  the  Rr/ormtd  CAnnA  M  America,  a.  v. 
(W.  J.  R.  T.) 

FreytaE,  Geoko  Wilhelh  FR[KnBicH,a  German 
theologian  and  acbohr,  waa  bom  at  LUneburg,  Sept.  IB, 
1788,  and  educated  in  phi1»kigy  and  theology  at  the 
UnivenityofGbtlingen.  From  1811  to  ISIS  he  acted 
aa  theological  tutor  there,  then  went  to  Kiinigabeig 
as  suirlibrarian ;  in  1S1G  became  a  chaplain  in  the 
Fruaaian  army,  in  which  capacity  tic  visited  Paiii; 
afterwards  resigned  bis  chaplaincy,  and  remained  in 
Paris  to  ptusecuto  liia  (.hiental  tlwlica  under  De  Sac;-. 
In  1819  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Orienlal  lan- 
guages at  Idmn,  and  cnilinued  in  Ihat  poaition  until 
bisdealh.  No*.  16, 1861.  Bcudea  puUiahing  ■  compen- 
dium uf  Hebrew  gramniar  {Kungefanle  Crammalik 
der  htbiditcifn  Spracht,  1885),  ami  a  treatise  on  Ara- 
bic verNficalion  (_/iiirtttiliirig  der  A  rnbiirkra  Vtntrmi, 
1868),  Freytag  edited  two  volumes  of  Arabic  songs  (/If.. 
Kuita  Carmino,  1828-64),  and  ilitce  of  Arabic  proverb^ 
{ArabumProtrtrhia,  1838-43).  His prineipit work, how. 
ever,waBhis/>iK™.4roWco-ta/wMm  (1830-87),  which 
rapidly  aupeiaeded  the  earlier  lexicona.  See  Eixydap. 
Brit.  Bib  ed.  s.  v. 

FrlOOO,  in  Norse  mythology,waa  the  third  god  with 
Odin  and  Thor,  who  were  worshipped  in  the  great 
temple  at  Upaala  (then  the  capital  of  Sweden).  Ae- 
cordiDg  to  the  latest  reaeaichea  lie  ii  one  with  Frrir. 

TziAaj,  the  Uohammedan  weekly  Sabbath,  com- 


FRIDERICI 


418 


FBISCH 


mencing  at  the  preceding  iniuet  The  Mohamme- 
dans regard  it  as  the  chief  of  all  daya.  The  public 
services,  which  oocnpy  only  a  portion  of  the  day,  the 
rest  being  devoted  to  business  and  recreation,  commence 
at  noon,  and  besides  the  usual  prayers  there  are  addi- 
tional ceremonies  performed,  including  the  reading  and 
reciting  of  parts  of  the  Koran  from  the  reading-desk, 
and  the  delivery  of  sermons  from  the  pulpit  by  the 
Imama.    See  Gardner,  Faitht  of  the  Worlds  s.  v. 

Friderici,  Jeremias,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Leipsic  in  1696,  studied  in  the 
same  city  and  became  master  of  arts,  catechist,  and 
preacher,  and  died  there,  Sept.  6, 1766.  He  wrote,  Dt 
iloita  Prophetu  (Leipsic,  1715):  —  De  Damele  (ibid. 
1716) :— i>«  Zackaria  (ibid.  1718) :— £)c  Ezeehkk  (ibid. 
1719):  — Dc  Deo,  Patriarcka  Jacobi  (ibid.  1729):— 
Siztmi  AmamcB  Parametis  (ibid.  1730).  See  Jocher, 
A  Uffemeines  Gelehrten-LexikoHy  s.  v.     (U.  P.) 

Friderici,  Johann  Chriatoph,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  born  June  25, 1780,  at  Tem- 
pelburg,  in  Pomerania,  studietl  at  Halle,  and  was  for 
some  time  military  chaplain.  In  1760  he  was  called  to 
the  pastorate  at  NeustaduHagdebnrg,  and  in  1768  to 
Gottingen.  In  1770  he  was  appointed  general  super- 
intendent and  first  pastor  at  Clausthal,  but  five  years 
later  he  accepted  a  call  to  Hamburg,  where  he  died, 
Aug.  12,  1777.  Besides  a  number  of  sermons,  he  pub- 
lished Specimen  Jnaugurale  Tkeologicum  de  Vitiute  vere 
Chrutiana  (Kiel,  1776;  Germ,  transl.  by  Thiess,  Ham- 
burg, 1779).  See  Ddring,  Die  pelehrten  Theohgen 
DeuUehlandtf  i,  448  sq.;  Jocher,  AUffemeiaet  Getehrtei^ 
Lexik(m,B,T.    (a  P.) 

Frideawida  ( Ftedeawithe,  Frlthawitb, 
etc.),  an  early  English  saint,  is  said  to  have  been  a 
king's  daughter,  who  fled  to  Oxford  to  escape  mar- 
riage, and  founded  a  convent  there  about  the  time  of 
Bede.  She  died  about  735,  aud  is  commemorated  on 
Oct.  19.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

lYled-Ailek,  in  the  mytholog}*  of  the  Laplanders, 
la  that  one  of  the  three  supreme  gods  who  superin- 
tended ITriday.  He  was  the  companion  of  the  sun,  and 
allowed  no  worlu  on  that  day ;  sacrifices,  however,  could 
reconcile  htm. 

Friedemaim,  Fbiedricr  Trauoott,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  bom  March  80,  1793,  was  in 
1820  rector  at  Wittenberg,  in  1823  rector  at  Branswick, 
in  1828  director  at  Weilburg,  and  died  in  1839.  He 
wrote,  De  Summa  Chrislianm  Dodrinm  (Wittenberg, 
1821 ;  transl.  by  Fried.  Beck,  Leipsic,  1828)  i^ChriitHeh" 
reUgidte  Anregungen  (Weilburg,  1837).  See  Winer, 
I/andbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  869;  ii,  878;  ZuchoM,  Bibl, 
arAcoii,883.    (a  P.) 

Friedenthal,  Mabcub  Bbkr,  a  Jewish  writer  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Grosa-Glogan  in  1779,  and  died 
at  Breslau,  Dec  5, 1859.  He  wrote,  h31Qdt  *i'^p3',  Ueber 
die  Dogmen  des  JQdiachen  Gknibens  (Breslau,  1816-18, 
8  vols.) :— nnn  mO'^  (I82I-28, 7  vols.),  a  kind  of  apol- 
ogy of  Judaism,  which  was  followed  by  a  supplement, 
entitled  mm  nainrn  nBsnn  (ibid.  1843-46).  See 
Filrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  299  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Friederiob,  Gkbhabd,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  bom  Jan.  2, 1779,  was  in  1812  preacher  at 
Boraheim,  in  1816  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  died 
there  in  1860.  He  published,  Reden  der  Religion  tmd 
dem  Vaterkmde  geweiht  (Frankfort,  1817-19, 2  vols.) : — 
Chritdiehe  Vortrdge  (3d  ed.  Hanau,  1883,  2  vols.):— 
Christus  an  die  Jlentcher  und  das  Volk  (Frankfort, 
1831) :— />a«  Christenleben  (Stuttgart,  1836)  '.—Religion 
und  Kirchenihutn  (Giessen,  1842),  etc.  See  Winer, 
I/andbuch  der  iheol.  Lit,  i,408;  ii,99, 159, 172,  815,321, 
836, 864, 366, 874, 879, 408 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  883- 
885.     (a  P.) 

FriedUeb,  Philipp  Hkikricti,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  who  died  at  Stralsund,  Sept.  10,1663, 


wrote,  Theohgia: — Angelologia: — Antkropologia : — 
ChristoUtgia : — Eccksiohgia : — Medulla  Theologice  Tht- 
ticcB,  Pokmica  et  M oralis: — Theologia  Biblica  seu  Ex- 
egetiea  : — Phosphorfu  BibUeuSj  etc  See  Jocher,  A  Uge^ 
meines  Gelehrten-T^xikony  s.  v.;  Witte,  Diarium  BiO' 
graphicum.    (B.  P.) 

Frimel,  Johannea  (1),  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Breslau,  in  Silesia,  Nov.  2,  1606. 
He  studied  at  different  universities,  was  deacon  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  1631,  preacher  in  his  native  city  in  1647, 
and  died  Feb.  5. 1660.  He  wrote,  Proba  Fidei  Evan- 
gelica: — De  Colo  BecUorum: — De  Legiiima  Vocatume 
Lutheri: — De  Verba  Dei  Scryjtto,  See  Jocher,  AUgt" 
meines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a.  v. ;  Winer,  Htmdbuck  der 
theoL  Lit,  i,  759.     (R  P.) 

Frimel,  Johannea  (2),  son  of  the  foregoing,  bom 
at  Wittenberg,  Nov.  20, 1632,  studied  at  diflerent  uni- 
versities, was  deacon  at  Breslau  in  1660,  archdeacon  in 
1676,  and  died  Nov.  13, 1688.  He  wrote  De  Bona  Can- 
scientia.  See  Jocher,  Allgemeines  GeUhien-  Lexiktm^ 
8.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Frlnd,  Anton  Ludwio,  a  Roman  Catholic  histo- 
rian, was  bom  Oct.  9, 1823,  at  Hainspach,  in  Bohemia. 
In  1847  he  received  holy  orders,  was  in  1851  catechist, 
in  1852  profeteor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Leitmeritz ;  in 
1859  was  made  director  of  the  g^'mnasium  at  Eger, 
and  in  1869  canon  of  the  chapter  at  Prague.  In  1879 
he  was  transferred  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Leitmerita, 
and  died  Oct.  28, 1881.  His  main  work  is  Kirche»' 
geschichte  Bohmens  (Prague,  1864-78,  4  vols.,  the  laat 
volume  coming  down  to  the  year  1561).  Besides,  be 
published,  Katholische  Apohgetikfur  gelUdeU  Christen 
(3d  ed.  ibid.  1877)  i-^Gtschichte  der  Bischdfe  und  Ert~ 
bischo/e  von  Prag  (ibid.  1873): — Der  heilige  Johannes 
tfon  Nfpomuk  (ibid.  1879).     (B.  P.) 

Friach,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  who  died 
while  preacher  at  Altona  in  1692,  wrote,  Dfitp,  Hist^ 
rico-Theologica  de  Waldensibus  (Wittenberg,  1659): — 
//istorischer  Tagteeiser,  oder  Anweisung  dessen,  wassick 
in  der  Christenheit  zugetragen  (ibid.  1675).  See  Tbies- 
sena,  BanA,  Gelehrten  Geschichte;  Jocher,  Allgemeines 
GeUArien'Lexikonf  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Friach,  Johann  David,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  bom  Aug.  21,  1676,  was  in  1701  deacon  at 
St.  Leonhard,  in  Stuttgart,  in  1714  preacher,  in  1720 
general-superintendent,  in  1726  member  of  oonsistory, 
and  died  Jan.  8, 1742.  He  wrote,  NeukUngende  Harfe 
Davids,  or  a  commentary  on  the  Psalms:— />e  Origine, 
Diis  et  Terra  Pcdastinorum,  See  Jcicher,  Allgenwines 
GeUhrten-Lexikon,  a.  v.;  FOrst,  BibL  TheoL  i,  804. 
(RP.) 

Friach,  Johann  Frledrlch,  a  Lutheran  theok>- 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec  26, 1715.  He  studied 
at  Leipsic,  and  died  there  as  pastor  of  Sl  George's,  Nov. 
4, 1778.  He  wrote,  Commentatio  Philologica  de  dvrc- 
^aoti  Nulla,  etc  (Freiberg,  1740)  ^— Z>e  Vero  Sensu  H 
Genuina  Ratione  Legis  Divinte,  Dint,  xxii,  10  (Leipsic, 
1744): — De  Muliere  Peregrina  apud  Bebrteos  (ibid, 
eod.) : — De  Levi  cum  Matthao  non  Covfundendo  (ibid. 
y746i)i-'Apocafyptischer  Catechismus  (1773).  See 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten- Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  FtM,  BibL 
Jud.  i,  804;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  566. 
(B.  P.) 

Friach,  Samuel  Gk>ttlob,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  March  22, 1765^  at  Freiberg. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  for  some  time  deacon  at 
Mutshen,  in  Saxony,  monting  preacher  at  Freiberg^ 
and  after  1822  court  preacher  at  Dresden,  where  be 
died,  April  21,  1829.  Of  his  publications  we  mention, 
Luces  Commentarium  de  Vita,  Dictis  Faetisque  Jesu  et 
Apostohrum  (Freiberg,  1817 ;  reprinted  in  RosenmQl-  • 
ler's  Commentationes  Theologiem,  i,  272  sq.).  See  Dor- 
ing.  Die  gelehtien  Theologen  DeutschUnds,  i,  450  sq.; 
Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  87;  ii.  94,  168,  20i 
(a  P.) 


FRISIUS 


419 


FROMMANN 


MsliiSy  SnfoVi  an  eminent  Dntch  engnver,  was 
born  at  Leenwarden,  in  Frietland,  about  1 580.  He  is  re- 
f^arded  as  the  first  who  brought  etching^to  perfection. 
l*he  following  are  some  of  his  principal  works :  Tha 
DeseaU  of  the  Hol^  Gkott ;  The  AitumptioH  of  the  Vtr- 
gm;  The  Virgin  SuckOng  the  Infant,  See  Biog,  Uni' 
teneiie^  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  ris,  a.  ▼. 

FritBCh,  Joha2inHeiivrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Quedlinburg,  Feb.  8,  1772. 
He  studied  at  Halle,  and  was  in  1795  preacher  at  his 
native  place.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  first  preacher 
of  St.  Benedict's;  in  1817  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  theology  from  the  Kottigsberg  University; 
in  1821  was  made  superintendent,  and  died  Jan.  1, 1829. 
He  publislied  some  homiletical  works,  for  which  see 
Doring,  Die  gdthrien  Theologen  DeutachUmdty  i,  456  sq. ; 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  LiL  i,  496, 863 ;  ii^36, 46, 56, 
67, 123, 153, 296 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  886.*  (R  P.) 

Frizon,  PiERRR,a  French  historian  and  theologian, 
was  bom  in  the  diocese  of  Rhetms,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  15th  century.  He  was  a  Jesuit  for  some  time,  and 
taught  in  the  colleges  of  that  societ}*;  but  left  it  to 
enter  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  was  made  doc- 
tor in  1623.  He  was  admitted  to  the  College  of  Na- 
varre in  1624,  and  became  in  1685  grand-master  of  it. 
He  died  in  July,  1650  or  1651,  leaving,  La  Mogempour 
Diteerner  lee  Bibles  Fran^aites  CathoUques  (Paris, 
1621):— aatfia  Purpurata  (ibid.  1638),  against  which 
Bfllttze  wrote  his  Anti-Fritoniut  (Toulouse,  1652).  See 
Jdcher,  A  Ugenuinee  GeUhrten  -  Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginhrale,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Friuli,  CouMCiL  of  (jConcUium  Forojulien$t)^  was 
held  A.D.  796  (not  791),  as  Pagi  shows,  under  Paulinus, 
patriarch  of  Aquileia,  whose  letter  to  Charlemagne, 
iormerlv  misconnected  with  the  svnod  of  Altino,  A.D. 
802,  assigns  three  causes  for  its  meeting:  (1)  the  or- 
thodox faith ;  (2)  ecclesiastical  discipline ;  and  (8)  re- 
cent outrages,  probably  by  the  Huus.  The  first  of 
these  is  explained  in  his  speech,  which  is  an  elaborate 
apology  for  the  reception  into  the  Western  creed  of  the 
clause  '<and  the  Son,'*  which  Charlemagne  had  at- 
tacked, and  the  pope  vindicated,  the  second  Niceiie 
Council  two  years  before  for  not  having  in  theirs; 
Paulinus  himself  endeavoring  to  prove  both  right. 
The  resemblance  between  parts  of  this  speech  and 
the  Athanasian  creed  has  been  remarked,  and  is  \evy 
dose.  Besides  it  is  observable  that  all  priests  are  re- 
quired to  commit  to  memory  the  entire  exposition  of 
"the  Catholic  faith,"  with  which  he  concludes:  while, 
for  everybody  else,  the  learning  by  heart  of  the  Creed 
and  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  prescribed.  Of  the  canons, 
the  Ist  threatens  simdny ;  the  2d  drunkenness;  the  4th 
and  5th  deprecate  secular  employments  and  amuse- 
ments for  the  clerg}'.  By  the  10th,  a  divorced  person 
is  forbidden  to  marry  again  till  the  former  partner  dies; 
and  by  the  13th  all  are  inhibited  from  working  on  Sun- 
days and  holidays.  See  Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Antiq, 
s.  V. ;  Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  s.  v. 

Fro,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  a  deity  of  the  second 
grade,  worshipped  by  the  Goths  and  Danes  as  the  ruler 
of  the  winds.  He  received  bloody,  oAen  human,  sac- 
rifices, which  he  himself  instituted.  According  to  oth- 
er accounts,  black  animals  were  sacrificed  to  him  by  the 
Danish  king,  Hadding,  which  later  were  replaced  by 
human  sacrifices;  they  are  called  Froablot,  Others 
make  Fro  the  same  with  Freir  (q.  v.). 

FroeUgfa,  Solomon,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  bom  at  Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  in  1750.  He 
studied  theoI(^'  with  Dr.  Theodorick  Romeyn  and 
Rev.  J.  H.  Goetschius,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1774.  His  first  pastoral  charge  was  on  Long  Island,  in 
the  churches  of  Jamaica,  Newtown,  Oyster  Bay,  and 
Sncocss  (1775-76).  He  was  an  ardent  patriot  during 
the  Revolutionary  War,  and  was  compelled  to  flee  from 
his  congregations  when  the  British  occupied  Long  Isl- 
and.   From  1776  to  1780  he  supplied  the  cliurches  of 


Fbhkill  and  Ponghkeepaie,  and  at  the  end  of  the  war 
was  pastor  at  Hillsborough  and  Neshanic,  N.  J.  In 
1786  he  removed  to  the  united  churches  of  Hackensack 
and  Schraalenbergh :  was  appointed  by  the  General 
Synod  lector  in  theology  in  1792,  and  in  1797  professor 
of  theology,  an  office  which  he  held  until  1822.  The 
churches  over  which  he  was  last  settled  had  long  been 
in  difi9culties,  which  were  not  quieted  by  his  coming 
among  them ;  and,  in  1822,  he  seceded,  with  four  other 
ministers  in  the  North,  Messrs.  Brokaw,  Palmer,  Toll, 
and  WyckolT,  who  had  previotisly  been  suspended  for 
contumacy,  and  they  organized  what  was  called  **  The 
True  Reformed  Dutch  Church."  A  small  number  of 
disaffected  congregations  and  ministers  afterwards 
joined  them.  In  1823  Dr.  Froeligh  was  suspended  by 
the  General  S3mod  from  his  professorship  and  from  the 
ministry,  for  schism  and  contempt  of  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority, and  for  promoting  divisions  in  the  Church. 
His  own  letters  proved  that  be  had  for  many  years  con- 
templated this  secession.  After  this  he  continued  to 
minister  to  the  two  churches  ^hich  had  seceded  with 
him,  as  their  pastor,  until  his  decease,  Oct.  8, 1827.  For 
a  full  history  of  these  events,  see  Amutls  of  the  Classis 
of  Bergen,  by  Benjamin  C.  Taylor,  D.D.,  p.  188-233; 
alao  autobiographical  notes  incorporated  in  Rev.  C.  T. 
Demarest's  lAjanentation  over  Rev,  Solomon  Froeligh, 
D,D,  Dr.  Froeligh  was  neither  very  learned  nor  gifted 
with  genius,  but  was  a  man  of  unquestioned  ability  and 
respectable  attainments  in  the  old  theology.  In  his 
early  ministry  he  was  useful  and  blessed  with  consid- 
erable success.  See  also  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref 
Church  in  A  merica,  s.  v. ;  Minutes  of  General  Synod, 
1823;  Memoir,  by  Peter  Labagh,  D.D.,  p.  129-135. 
(W.  J.  R,  T.) 

Frobberger,  Christian  Gottlikb,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  July  27,  1742,  at 
Wehlen,  near  Pima,  in  Saxony.  He  studied  at  Halle 
and  Leipsic,  and  was  in  1774  preacher  at  Rennersdorf, 
near  Hemihut.  In  1820  be  retired  from  the  ministry, 
and  died  Jan.  29, 1827.  He  published  some  ascetical 
works,  for  which  see  Doring,  Vie  gelehrten  Theologen 
Deutschlands,  i,  461  sq. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit. 
i,774;  ii,ldO;  Zuchold,  i9«R  7Aeo/.  i,  889 ;  Koch,  Gesck, 
des  deuischen  Kirchenliedes,  vi,  289  aq.     (B.  P.) 

Frohne,  Johann  Adolph,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  born  Jan.  11,  1652.  He  studied  at 
Jena,  where  he  also  lectured  for  some  time.  In  1678 
he  accepted  a  call  as  rector  to  Lemgo,  was  in  1680 
preacher  there,  and  succeeded  bis  father  in  1691  as 
preacher  at  MQhlhausen.  In  1692  he  went  to  Gieaeen, 
and  presented  for  the  degree  of  theologisB  licentiatuf, 
De  Fide  ut  DisposUutne  MerUoria  ad  Justificationem 
contra  Pontificios,  In  1693  he  received  the  theological 
doctorate,  and  died  Nov.  12,  1713.  He  published, 
Griindlicher  Betceis  des  geistUchen  Ptiesterihums  (Mtthl- 
hauaen,  1703,  against  which  Eilmar  wrote' his  GrOnd- 
liche  Frdrferung  der  Lehre  von  dem  geistlichen  Priester- 
thum,  1704): — Rechi  des  geistlichen  Priesters  (written 
against  Eilmar,  1705) : — Theologia  Dejinitiva  (Frank- 
fort-on-the-BIain,  1707).  Sec  Walch,  BibL  TheoL  ii, 
765  sq.;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehtien •  Lexihm,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

ZYomman,  Andreas,  a  German  philosopher,  was 
bom  at  Coburg,  Aug.  11, 1591,  and  died  March  26, 1666. 
He  wrote,  iJisserfatiojies  6  de  StultUia  Atheismi,  ad 
Psa,  xiv: — De  Metu  Pauli  ad  2  Cor,  at,  3: — De  Fide 
Ponttfido^-um  Frplicata  et  Imjtlicaia,  Formata  et  Jn- 
formi.  See  JOcher,  A  ligemeines  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Frommann,  Erhard  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  born  Nov.  8, 1722.  He  stud> 
ied  at  Coburg  and  Altdorf,  was  in  1756  professor  of  Greek 
and  Oriental  languages  at  Coburg,  and  died  Oct.  1, 1774. 
He  wrote,  De  Cultu  Deorum  ex  dvofAaro^tot^  Ilhisti-i 
(Altdorf,  1746) :— />«  Hermeneuta  Veteris  EccUsia  (ibitl. 
1747)  \—De  Syntaxi  Lingum  et  Pnecipue  Ehraicct  (ibid. 


FROMMANN 


420 


FUCHS 


eod.)  :-^De  Lingua  Profunda  ad  Escu  xxxiiij  19 ;  £zeeh. 
Hi,  5,  6  (ibid.  1748):— />«  Opinata  Sanctitate  Lingua 
Ebraica  (Coburgi  176C) : — De  Sacris  Judaorum  (ibid. 
1769):— -4  n  Varia  Lectitmes  ad  Codicem  V,  Test,  ex 
Mischna  CoUogi  Possint  (ibid.  1760):— /)e  Ecdesia 
Ckriatuina  Reformaticme  Judais  Utili  (ibid.  1761)  :— 
Ditp,  Spec  Topices  Pauli  in  Fide  Salvifica  ex  Vet.  Test. 
Probanda  (ibid.  1762): — De  Feminis  Quibutdam  qtm 
Evangelii  Veritaiem  Tempote  Re/ormationis  Sacrorum 
Scriptis  Defenderwnt  (ibid.  1764) :— Dc  Canone  Hermt- 
neutico  (ibid.  1767).  See  Jocher,  A ttgenteines  Gelehrienr 
Lexikon,  9.  y.  ;  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  21, 132. 
(B.  P.) 

Frommaim,  Georg  Carl,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  April  9,  1809,  at  Laaten,  near 
Coburg.  He  studied  theology  at  J^na,  Bonn,  and  Ber- 
lin, with  Bleek,  Nitzsch,  Schleiermacher,  and  Neander 
for  bis  teachers.  He  commenced  his  theological  lect- 
ures at  Jena,  and  his  Darlegung  det  johanneischen  Lehr- 
hegrijfsy  published  in  1833  in  the  Studien  vnd  Kritiken, 
proved  him  to  be  a  worthy  pupil  of  his  teachers.  In 
1837  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology,  and  in 
1839  published  his  Darlegung  in  an  extended  form, 
in  consideration  of  which  the  Rostock  Universiry  hon- 
ored him  with  the  doctorate  of  theology.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  called  as  pastor  to  St.  Peter's,  in  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, where  he  labored  for  tWenty-fivc  years,  accom- 
panied with  great  blessing.  Jn  1865  he  resigned  his 
position,  and  made  Berlin  his  residence,  where  he  lect- 
ured as  honorary  professor.  In  1868  he  was  recalled 
to  St.  Petersburg  as  general  superintendent,  but  in  1876 
was  paralyzed,  and  returned  as  an  invalid  to  Jena, 
never  to  resume  again  his  work.  He  died  Dec  5, 1879. 
He  also  wrote,  De  Disciplina  A  rcani,  qua  m  Veiere  Ec- 
desia ChriMtiana  Obtinuisse  Fertur  (Jena,  1883).  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  TkeoL  i,  890.     ( R  P.) 

Fronteaii,  Jban,  a  French  archsBologtst  and  con- 
troversialist, was  bom  at  Angers  in  1614.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies  in  his  native  city,  he  took  the  habit 
of  a  regular  canon  in  the  abbey  of  Toussaint,  at  An- 
gers. He  was  called  to  Paris  in  1634,  and  engaged  ro 
teach  philosophy,  and  then  theology,  at  the  abbey  of 
St,  Genevieve,  and  was  made  chancellor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris.  Being  suspected,  however,  of  Jansenism, 
he'wns  exiled  to  the  diocese  of  Angers  in  1661,  but  soon 
called  back  to  Paris,  whore  he  remained  until  his  death, 
April  17, 1662.  He  wrote,  ^S'ttiniRa  Totius  Philosopkia 
(Paris,  1640): — Thomas  a  Kempis  Vindicatus  (ibid. 
1641 ) :  —  De  Jure  Episcoporum  ( 1669  ) :  —  ^iXortima 
Veterum  (1640).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generaiet  s.  v. 

FrSrelBen,  Isaac,  a  Lutheran  theologian  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Strasburg,  who  died  June  6, 1632, 
is  the  author  of,  De  A  ug.  Confess.  Materia^  Fundamento 
et  Format  etc  i-^Scutum  Catholica  Veritalis  pro  Inve- 
nienda  Vera  in  his  Terris  Militante  Ecdesia  :^Disser' 
tationes  contra  Weigelianos.'—Apologeticus  contra  Ca- 
rolum  Sachsium  Caivinistam:—VindiciaSgnoplioapro 
Saero  Geneseos  Codice  contra  BeUarminum: — De  An- 
gelis  BoniSf  ad  Matth,  iv.  11  \^De  jEdificio  Spirituali 
ad  1  Cor.  Hi,  11-18.  See  Witte,  Diarium  Biographi- 
cum ;  Jocher,  A  Vgemdnes  Gdehrten-Lexikon^  s.  v.   (R  P.) 

Frdreisen,  Johann  Leonhard,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian, was  bom  May  9, 1694.  He  studied  at  Giessen 
and  Jena,  was  in  1724  professor  of  theology  at  Stras- 
burg, and  died  Jan.  13, 1761,  leaving,  Disp.  de  Ostracismo 
(Strasburg,  l7U):—De  Pceniientia  Dei  (ibid.  1714):— 
De  Infelici  Divitis  Felicitate  ad  Luc  xvi,  19:  — De 
Charaderibus  Vera  Reformationis  (Jena,  1717):— /)« 
Charlataneria  Theologorum  (Strasburg,  1736):  — /)c 
Domestids  Pasiorum  Visitationibus  (ibid.  eod.).  See 
Moser,  Jetztldtende  Theologen  ,*  Strodtmann,  JetztUbende 
GekhrU;  Jocher,  AUgemdnes  Gekhrtea- Lexihon,  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Frosch,  JoHASN,  the  reformer  of  Augsburg,  origi- 
nally belonged  to  the  Carmelites.  In  1516  he  was 
made  licentiate*  of  tbeokigy  at  Wittenberg,  under  the 


presidency  of  Lather,  and  in  1517  prior  of  the  Carmelite 
nx>na8tery  at  Augsburg.  When  Luther  openly  broke 
with  the  Church  of  Rome,  Frosch,  too,  began  to  preach 
the  pure  gospel  at  Augsburg,  and  in  1522  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  city  council  as  evangelical  preacher.  In 
1527  he  held  a  disputation  with  the  Anabaptists  at 
Augsburg,  and  in  1531  was  dismissed  by  the  council 
because  it  leaned  towards  Zwinglianism.  Frosch  went 
to  NQremberg,  and  died  there  in  1533.  See  Jocher, 
AUgemeines  GeMirten-I^exikon,  s.  v.;  Koch,  Gesdu  de* 
deutschen  KirchenliedeSf  i,  405 ;  ii,  475.     (B.  P.) 

nx)8Sard,  BsNotT  Dakiel  Emiuen,  a  French 
theologian,  youngest  son  of  Benjamin  Sigismond  (q.v.), 
was  bom  June  26, 1802,  at  Paris.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  was  sent  to  England,  where  he  came  into  direct  re- 
lationship with  some  distinguished  members  of  the 
Friends,  who  made  a  lasting  impression  upon  him. 
Having  returned  to  France,  he  studied  theology  at 
Montauban,  and  presented  as  his  thesis  for  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  divinit}*,  A  axnrd  etitre  le  liicit  de  Afoise 
sur  VAge  du  Genre  liumain  et  les  Phinomenes  Geologijues, 
In  1825  he  was  called  to  Nlmes,  and  in  1847  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  seminary  which  was  to  be  es- 
tablished beside  the  theological  university  at  Montau- 
ban. In  1848  ho  resigned  his  position,  and  made  hia 
home  at  Bagn^rcs-de-Btgorrc,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyre> 
nces,  where  he  died,  Jan.  25, 1881.  His  great -zeal  for 
the  Protestants  scattered  about  the  Pyrenees  was  so 
effective  and  so  laborious  that  he  was  styled  "  the  apostle 
of  the  Pvrenees."  He  wrote,  VA  mi  de  la  FamUle  : — 
Les  A  rchives  EvangMigues : — La  Vie  RkUe: — Le  Liert 
des  Faibks: — T^e  Calidiisme  Biblique,  See  Lichten- 
berger,  Encgchp.  des  Sdences  Beligieuses,  a,  v. ;  Zuchold, 
^iW:rA<»/.i,391.     (B.  P.) 

Frothaire,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  in  the  aeoond 
part  of  the  8th  century.  He  was  educated  at  the  mon- 
astery of  Garze,  became  abbot  of  St.  Evre,  at  Toul,  and 
bishop  of  that  city  in  818.  During  the  revolt  of  Ber- 
nard, he  proved  himself  faithful  to  the  cause  of  Louis 
le  Debonnaire,  and  took  an  important  part  in  sev- 
eral councils  which  judged  the  rebel  bishops.  He  left 
twenty -one  letters,  which  were  published  by  Andrn 
Duchesne,  in  his  Bistoria  Francorum  ScriptoreSf  iU 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ghth-ale,  s.  v. 

FruotuoBUS,  an  early  martyr,  commemorated  Jan. 
21,  was  bishop  of  Tarragona  in  the  3d  century*,  and 
burned  alive  during  the  Diocletian  persecution.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Frymuth.    See  Fretkiitmoet. 

Fryzell,  Andres,  a  Swedish  historian,  was  bom 
Feb.  7,  1795,  at  Ilasselskoj,  in  Dalsland.  In  1822  he 
was  teacher,  in  1828  rector  of  the  Marien  school  at 
Stockholm,  in  1833  professor,  and  in  1836  pastor  at 
Sunne,  one  of  the  largest  parishes  of  Sweden.  In  1840 
he  was  received  into  the  Stockholm  Academy,  and  in 
1845  made  doctor  of  theology.  He  died  March  21, 1881. 
He  is  known  as  the  author  of  Berichte  aus  der  <ScAtre- 
dischen  Geschichte,  of  which  more  than  forty  volumes 
have  been  published  since  1823.     (B.  P.) 

Fucha,  Adolph  Friedxicb,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  l>ec  27,  1758,  at  Neuen- 
kirchen,  in  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  was  in  1778  con-rector  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Prentzlau,  in  1781  rector  of  the  cathedral  -  school  at 
Ratzeburg,  and  in  1810  superintendent  of  the  GUstruv 
diocese.  He  died  April  13,  1828,  leaving  Der  Brief 
Pauli  an  die  Homer  (Stendal,  1789) : — Progr.  in  qua 
Ratione  ad  Reiiquos  de  Libri  Hagiographorum  (Ros- 
tock, 1797).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
DeuUchlandSy  i,  466  sq.     (R  V.) 

Fuchfl,  Gottlieb  Daniel,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  at  Stuttgart  in  1783,  is  the  au- 
thor of  BibUothek  der  Kirchenpersammlungen  des  4  toul 
bJahrhunderts  (Leipsic,  1780-1784)4  vds.).  See  Winer, 
J/andbuckdertkeoLLU.U^&.    (a  P.) 


FUCHS 


421 


FULLER 


TuchB,  Karl  Heiarich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Gennany,  who  was  bom  in  1762  at  Heidelberg,  and 
died  at  Munich  in  1842,  is  the  author  of,  A  nnalen  der 
Prdeai.  Kircke  tm  Kdmgrekh  Bayem  (NQremberg, 
1819-28):  — i42^em«tiie  Utbernckt  det  Zuttande*  der 
JProUgt.  Kirche  m  Bayem,  etc.  (Anspacb,  1830) ;— ZHs 
Einfukrung  der  Kirchaworsfande  (Nuremberg,  1822) : 
— Die  EvangelUche  Kircke^  ihre  Behenntmsse  und  Got' 
tetdiemlliehen  Uandlttngen  (ibUl.  1829): — AtmaUn  der 
Protett,  Kirche  in  Konigreick  Bayem  (Munich,  1839- 
43).  See  Winer,  Ifandbuck  der  thtoL  Lit,  i,  785 ;  ii,  20, 
72,  77,  79, 100,  195;  Ziichold,  BibL  TheoL  i.  392  sq. 
(RP.) 

Paohten,  Jouann,  a  Pnitestant  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Antwerp,  Nov.  26,  1568,  became  pastor  at  IliU 
desheim  in  1602,  and  died  at  Helmstiidt,  Nov.  26, 1622, 
professor  and  doctor  of  theology.  He  edited,  Paschaeii 
Ratherti  Tegtimonia  88.  Pairum  de  Gemiino  Euchariatia 
InteUedu  Usuque: — EJvsdem  Libri  IT  de  8piritu  8,: — 
Sancti  Avgustini  8enteniiat  ex  Omnibus  ejus  Operibus 
a  S^Prospero  Excerptas^  etc  See  Wine,  Diarium  Bi- 
cgraphiatm;  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gelehiien»/jexihon, 
B.  y, ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  Lit,  i,  911.     (R  F.) 

Faga,  FKRnnsAMDO,  an  eminent  Italian  architect, 
waa  bom  at  Florence  in  1699,  and  studied  under  Gio. 
Battista  Fugini.  In  1725  he  was  sent  to  Naples  by 
cardinal  Giudire,  to  erect  a  chapel  in  his  palace.  He 
also  erected  the  Church  della  Morte,  in  the  Strada  Giulia. 
He  died  at  Florence,  Feb.  7, 1782.  See  Biog,  Umva- 
selitf  s.  T. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rtSy  a.  v. 

Pfihrich,  Joseph  vov,  a  Itohemian  painter,  was 
bom  at  Kratzau  in  1800.  His  admiration  for  the  pict- 
orea  in  the  wajrside  chapels  of  his  native  country  led 
him  to  attempt  a  sketch  of  The  Nativity  for  the  Christ- 
mas festival  in  his  father's  house.  He  became  the  pu- 
pil of  Bengler  in  the  Academy  of  Prague  in  1816,  and 
in  1828  went  to  Rome,  where  he  added  three  frescos 
to  thoae  executed  by  Cornelius  and  Overbeck  in  the 
Palazzo  Massimi  In  1831  he  finished  the  Triumph 
oj  Chrisij  now  in  the  Baczynski  Palace  at  Berlin.  In 
1834  he  became  custos,  and  in  1841  professor  of  compo- 
sition in  the  Academv  of  Vienna.  After  this  he  com- 
pleted  the  monumental  pictures  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Kepomuk,  and  (1854-61)  the  vast  series  of  wall-paint- 
ings which  cover  the  inside  of  the  I^rchenfeld  Church 
at  Vienna.  In  1872  he  was  pensioned,  and  made  a 
knight  of  the  order  of  Francis  Joseph.  He  died  March 
13,  1876.  '^Filhrich  has  been  fairly  described  as  a 
'  Nazarene,'  a  romantic  religious  artist,  whose  pencil  did 
more  than  any  other  to  restore  the  old  spirit  of  DQrcr 
and  give  new  shape  to  countless  incidents  of  the  gospel 
and  scriptural  legends."  His  principal  works  are  his 
illustrations  of  Tieck*s  Geno/eva,  The  lord's  Prayer, 
The  Triumph  of  Christ,  The  Road  to  Bethlehem,  The 
Succession  of  Christ,  according  to  Thomas  k  Kempis, 
The  Prodigal  Son,  and  the  verses  of  the  Psalter.  Sec 
Sncydop.  Brit,  9th  ed.,  s.  v. 

Ffihnnann,  Wilhklm  David,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Soest,  May  15, 1764, 
was  in  1806  preacher  at  Hamro,  and  died  Jan.  20, 1838. 
fie  is  the  author  of,  Handbuch  der  theol,  Literatur 
(Leipsic,  1818-21,  2  vols.):  —  Handbuch  der  neuesten 
ikeoL  Literatur  (Barmen,  1835) : — Handworferbuch  der 
christl. Religions-  und  Kirchengeschichte  (Halle,  1826-29, 
3  voW):'—Christliche  Glauhenslehre  in  alphabetischer 
Ordnung  (Leipsic,  1802) : — Christliche  MoralUhre  fur 
den  Kanzelgebrauch  in  alphabetischer  Ordnung  (ibid. 
1797-1803,  5  vols.).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol, 
IM,  i,  6,  295,  538;  ii,  56;  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol  i,  395. 

Fulbom,  Stephen  ub,  an  English  prelate  of  the 
13th  century,  was  bom  at  Fulbom,  Cambridgeshire.  In 
1274  he  became  bishop  of  Waterford  and  lord  treasurer 
of  Ireland ;  hence  he  was  preferred  archbishop  of  Tuam, 
axul  was  also  chief-justice  of  Ireland.  He  is  reported 
to  have  given  to  the  Church  of  Glastonbury,  England, 


''indulgences  of  an  hundred  days,"  probably,  as  Fuller 
suggests,  so  many  days  to  all  in  hia  province  who  went 
on  a  pilgrimage  to  that  place — **  an  over-papal  act  fur 
a  plain  archbishop."  He  died  in  1288,  and  was  buried 
in  Trinity  Church,  Dublin.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of 
England  (ed.  Nuttall),  i,  228. 

Fulcran,  saint  and  bishop,  was  a  native  of  Lodeve, 
archdiocese  of  Narfoonne,  France,  in  the  10th  centur}% 
and  from  his  childhood  exhibited  marked  piety.  He 
was  ^iucatcd  by  Theodoric,  bishop  of  Lodeve,  who  or- 
dained him.  On  the  death  of  Theodoric,  the  ciry 
elected  Fulcran  to  be  his  successor,  and  he  was  conse- 
crated at  Narbonne  by  archbishop  Imcrick,  Feb.  4, 949. 
His  zeal  and  humility  endeared  him  to  his  flock,  as  did 
also  his  abundant  charity  in  time  of  famine.  For  a 
harsh  word  ('*The  man  deserves  to  be  burnt")  spoken 
of  a  bishop  who  had  fallen  into  heresy,  and  whom  ho 
heard  was  actually  burned  by  the  people,  he  was  Hlled 
with  remorse,  twice  went  to  Rome  to  do  penance,  tore 
the  clothes  from  his  back,  bade  his  companions  boat 
htm  through  the  streets  with  thorn  branches,  and  made 
his  confessions  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter.  When  near 
his  death,  multitudes  poured  to  Lodeve  to  receive  his 
blessing.  Fulcran  dicnl  in  1006.  He  is  celebrated  in 
the  Galilean  martyrology  (Feb.  18),  and  his  life  has 
been  written  by  bishop  Bernard  Guido,  compiled  from 
ancient  notices  and  lives  of  this  saint,  published  by  Bol- 
landus.     See  Baring-Gould,  Lives  of  the  8aints,  ii,  294. 

Fulford,  Francis,  D.D.,  a  Canadian  prehitc,  was 
bom  at  Sidmouth,  England,  in  1803,  and  educated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in 
1825.  He  held  prominent  positions  in  the  Church  of 
England,  and  in  1850  became  lord-bishop  of  Montreal 
and  metropolitan  of  Canada.  He  died  in  Montreal, 
Sept«  9, 1868.  His  writings  include  Sermons: — Prog^ 
ress  of  the  Reformation: — and  other  works. 

Fulke  OF  Stamford,  was  bom  in  Somersetshire, 
made  treasurer  of  St.  PauPs,  London,  and  then  by  papal 
bull  declared  archbishop,  of  Dublin  in  1256.  He  died 
in  his  manor  of  Finglas  in  1271,  and  was  buried  in  St. 
Mary*s  chapel,  of  the  Church  of  St.  Patrick.  See  Fuller, 
Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  94. 

Folia  (or  VoUa),  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
was  a  goddess,  the  sister  and  companion  of  the  goddess 
Freia. 

Fuller,  Nicholas,  a  learned  English,  divine,  was 
bom  at  Southampton  in  1557,  and  educated  at  a  free 
school  in  the  same  place,  and  at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford.  He 
became  rector  of  Allington,  Wiltshire,  prebend  of  Sal- 
isbury', and  rector  of  Bii^hnp  Waltham,  Hampshire.  He 
died  in  1622.  His  works  arc  Miscellanea  Tkeologica^ 
lib,  iii  (Heidelberg,  1%12)  :—MisceUanea  Sacra  (1622). 
See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Did,  of  B)it, 
and  Amer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Fuller,  Richard,  D.D.,an  eminent  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Beaufort,  S.  C,  April  22,  1804.  He 
studied  under  Kev.  Dr.  Brautly,  entered  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1820,  but  on  account  of  ill-health  left  it  dur- 
ing his  junior  year,  and  became  a  lawyer  in  his  native 
state.  In  1832  he  was  converted,  under  the  preaching 
of  Rev.  Daniel  Barker,  joined  the  Baptist  Church,  Mas 
ordained  the  next  year  pastor  at  Beaufort,  and  in  1847 
removed  to  Baltimore  to  take  charge  of  the  Seventh 
Baptist  Church.  In  1836  he  visited  Europe,  and  dur- 
ing his  pastorate  at  Beaufort  was  engaged  in  a  contro- 
versy with  bishop  England  on  the  Roman  CTatholic 
claims,  as  well  as  with  Dr.  Wayland  on  the  slavery 
question.  He  died  in  Baltimore,  Oct.  20, 1876.  Dr. 
Fuller  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  an  admirable  pastor, 
and  a  noble  specimen  of  Christian  manliness  and  power. 
Besides  Leiiers  on  the  above  controversies  and  several 
Sermons,  he  pnblisbed  an  A  rgumeni  on  Close  Communion 
(1849),  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Baptist  Hymn- 
booh.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop,  s.  v.;  Drake, 
Diet,  of  Amer,  Biog,  s.  v.;  Life,  by  Cuthbert  (N.  Y. 
1879). 


FULRAD 


422 


FURSTENBERG 


Fulrad  (Lat.  Folredu9\  an  early  French  prelate, 
the  son  of  wealthy  parents  in  Alsace,  became  fourteenth 
abbot  of  St  Denis,  in  Paris,  about  730,  and  vras  for 
many  years  ambassador  of  kings  and  popes,  who  con. 
ferred  upon  him  the  most  special  privileges.  He  died 
in  784.  See  Smith,  Dkt,  of  Christ,  Biotj.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Fulton,  William,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  ofSciated,  after  his  ordination,  in  Fremont, 
O. ;  about  1859  removed  to  Chicago,  111. ;  and  in  1860 
to  Cedar  Sapids,  la.,  where  he  became  rector  of  Grace 
Church;  in  1864  of  All-Hallow's  parish,  Snow  Hill, 
Md. ;  in  1870  of  Spring  Hill  parish,  Salisbury,  where 
he  died,  Dec  6, 1877,  aged  forty-nine  years.  See  Prof, 
Episc,  Almanac^  1879,  p.  168. 

Fumel,  Jean  Felix  Hknri  dk,  a  French  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Toulouse  in  1717;  studied  at  St.  Sulpice; 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Lode%'e  in  1750 ;  distinguished 
himself  by  his  episcopal  ability,  his  ardent  charity,  and 
his  attachment  to  the  authority  of  the  Church,  and 
died  Jan.  2, 1790.  He  wrote  several  funeral  orations. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Funeral  Service,  that  part  of  the  liturgy  which 
the  Church  of  England  appoints  to  be  read  at  the  bur- 
ial of  the  dead.  It  is  said  to  have  been  of  very  great 
antiquity,  and  was  used  both  in  the  Eastern  and  West- 
em  churches.  This  service  is  read  over  all  the  dead 
indiscriminately,  with  the  exception  of  those  who  die 
unbaptlzed,  of  self-murderers,  and  those  who  die  under 
the  sentence  of  the  greater  excommunication. 

Furies  (Eumenidea  or  Diree),  mythical  person- 
ages, either  daughters  of  Nox  and  Acheron,  of  Terra 
and  the  blood  of  Saturn,  of  the  Earth  and  Darkness,  of 
Eris,  that  is,  Contention,  or  of  Jupiter.  Their  names 
were  Alecto,  Meg»ra,  and  Tisiphone.  Some  add  a  fourth, 
called  Lyssa;  though  others  recognise  but  one  Fury, 
called  Adrastia,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Necessity,  and 
the  avenger  of  all  vice.  Their  office  was  to  force  per- 
sons guilty  of  crimes  committed  in  secret  to  confess 
their  guilt.  They  pimished  their  incorrigible  subjects 
with  iusantty.  They  were  represented  as  of  vast  size, 
old,  squalid,  and  terrible  to  behold.  They  wore  a  dark 
robe  with  a  serpent  as  a  girdle.  The  uncultured  age 
took  pains  to  connect  everything  horrible  with  these 
frightful  forms :  eyes  emitting  flame,  snake-hairs,  daw- 
hands,  with  viper  scourges.  Their  dwelling-place  is  an 
iron  palace  in  the  infernal  region,  where  they  torture 
those  who  arrive  in  Tartama  without  being  reconciled 
to  the  gods.  With  the  progress  of  civilization  the 
myths  of  these  deities  had  many  changes ;  the  bloody 
pictures  disappeared,  and  in  their  place  were  substituted 
the  Eumenides  (q.  v.) 

Furinalia,  an  annual  festival  celebrated  by  the  an- 
cient Romans  in  honor  of  the  obscure  goddess  Furina. 
It  was  observed  towards  the  end  of  July,  and  the  services 
were  conducted  by  a  flamen. 

Furini,  Fra2(cbsco,  an  eminent  Italian  painter, 
was  bom  at  Florence  in  1604,  and  studied  in  the  schools 
of  Passignano  and  Roseli,  and  then  went  to  Rome. 
Among  his  finest  works  was  a  picture  of  Ttie  Three 
Graces,  in  the  Palazzo  Strozzl  He  painted  a  number 
of  large  works  for  the  churches,  the  best  of  which  are 
at  Borgo  San  Lorenzo,  near  Florence,  representing  St, 
Francis  Receiving  the  Stigmata,  and  the  Conception  of 
the  Virgin,  He  died  in  1649.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  Arts,  b,  v. 

Fiirat,  Julius,  an  eminent  Hebrew  scholar  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  May  12, 1805,  at  Zerkowo,  in  the  duchy 
of  Posen.  He  studied  at  different  universities,  and  af- 
ter having  taken  his  degree  as  doctor  of  philosophy, 
took  np  his  abode  at  Leipsic,  where  he  commenced  his 
lectures  at  the  university  in  1839.  In  1864  he  was 
made  professor,  and  died  Feb.  9, 1873.  He  published, 
Lehrgdfdude  der  aramaitchen  Idiome  (Leipsic,  1836): 
^Perlenaehmire  aramaischer  Gnomen  tmd  JJeder  (1836) : 


— Coneordantia  LUnroruni  Sacrorum  Veteris  Testa" 
menti  (1837 ^iff^i—riebraisehes  und  ChaUaisckes  Band" 
wdrterbuch  (1857-61,  and  often;  English  translation  by 
&  Davidson,  Lond.  1864;  8d  ed.  1867)  i—Gesckickte  der 
bibL  Literatur  (1867^70, 2  vols.) i—Der  Kanon  des  Allen 
Testaments  (1868,  2  vols.)  z—Kvltur-  tmd  Liiteraturge- 
sehichte  der  Judm  in  Asien  (vol.  i,  lSi9):^Gesckickle 
des  Karaerthums  (1862-65,  3  vols.)  i—BibHotkeca  Ju- 
daica  (1848-63,  8  vols.).  See  Kavserling,  Bibliotkek 
Judiseher  Kanzelredner,  ii,  285;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i, 
396  sq. ;  Etheridge,  Introduction  to  ffebrew  Literature, 
p.  483 ;  Morals,  Eminent  Israelites  of  the  19M  Century, 
p.89sq.     (a  P.) 

Fttratenthal,  Jacob  Rafael,  a  Hebrew  scholar, 
was  bora  in  1781,  and  died  at  Breslau,  Dec  16, 1855. 
He  published,  Selichoth,  or  the  penitential  prayers,  with 
a  German  translation  and  Hebrew  commentary  (Bres- 
lau, 1823-24,  2  vols.) :— he  also  translated  into  German 
Pakuda's  (q.  r.)  ninnbn  min,  or.  Duties  of  the 
Heart  (ibid.  1835) :— Maimonides'  Afore  Nehuchim  (only 
the  first  part,  Krotoschin,  1889) :— Aboab*s  Menoratk 
hormaor  (ibid.  1843).  A  very  valuable  work  of  his  is 
RaUfinische  Anthologie  (Breslau,  1834 >  See  Fttrst, 
Bibl,  Jud.  i,  307  sq.,  where  a  complete  list  of  bis  works 
is  given.     (B.  P.) 

FUratenberg,  Ferdinand  Ton,  a  German  prel- 
ate, was  born  at  Bilstein,  in  Westphalia,  Oct  21, 1626. 
Dedicated  to  the  Church  from  infancy,  he  became  canon 
of  Hildesheim,  and  finally  cttmererie  segreto  of  pope  Al- 
exander Yll.  He  was  chosen  bishop  of  Paderbora, 
April  20, 1661,  and  took  possession  the  following  October. 
He  administered  his  diocese  with  a  remarkable  spirit 
of  equity,  encouraged  public  instraction,  caused  new 
school  buildings  to  be  erected,  attended  to  a  careful  dis- 
tribution of  instmction,  preached  successfully  in  behalf 
of  various  missions,  and  raised  for  this  object  101,740 
thalers.  In  1678  he  became  bishop  of  Munster,  after 
having  been  the  coadjutor  of  his  predecessor,  also  vicar> 
general  of  the  pope  for  the  countries  of  the  North.  He 
died  June  26, 1683,  leaving  some  poems  and  other  works. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GmiraU,  s.  v. 

Fiiratenberg,  Franz  Egon  von,  a  German 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Strasburg,  May  27, 1662.  He  was 
minister  to  the  elector  of  Cologne,  Maximilian  Henry. 
His  attachment  to  Louis  XIV  led  him  to  contribute  to 
the  formation  of  the  Ligue  de  Rhin,  contracted  in  view 
of  the  peace  between  the  king  and  several  electors  of 
Germany.  In  1661  he  induced  the  elector  of  Cologne 
to  leave  to  the  disposal  of  the  king  of  France  the  places 
of  Nuiz  and  of  Kaiserwerth.  He  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Metz  in  1658,  but  in  1663  resigned  this  podtion  for 
that  of  Strasburg.  He  devoted  himself  to  recovering 
fmm  the  hands  of  the  Lutherans  certain  domains  which 
formerly  belonged  to  the  Church  of  Strasburg.  This 
prelate  died  April  1, 1682,  a  little  after  the  re-establish- 
ment  of  the  Catholic  faith  in  the  Cathedral  of  Stras- 
burg, and  after  the  recall  of  the  canons  in  accordance 
with  the  submission  of  Strasburg  to  the  king  of  France. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GSninzU,  s.  v. 

Fiiratenberg,  Wilhelm  Egon  von,  sumamed 
Prince  WiUican,  brother  of  Franz,  was  bom  in  1629. 
Like  his  elder  brother,  ho  was  counsellor  to  the  elec- 
tor of  Cologne,  Maximilian  Henry,  and  declared  him- 
self a  partisan  of  France.  Incensed  at  this,  the  em- 
peror removed  him,  Feb.  18,  1674,  then  imprisoned 
him  successively  at  Vienna  and  at  Nenstadt.  Ftlrsten- 
berg  did  not  regain  his  liberty  nntil  after  the  peace 
of  Nimeguen.  Called  to  the  bishopric  of  Metz  in 
1663,  he  resigned  the  following  year.  He  was  ap. 
pointed  bishop  of  Strasburg  on  the  death  of  his  brother 
in  1682.  He  then  committed  to  the  Jesnita  the  direo- 
rion  of  a  seminary  and  college  founded  by  him.  Fn 
1686,  through  the  representation  of  the  French  govern- 
ment, he  received  from  pope  Innocent  XI  the  hat  of 
a  cardinaL     He  was  elected  coacynCor  of  HaximiUan 


FUSS  4S 

Btotj,  flKtot  of  CdogM,  Jm.  7,  leBS;  but  the  court 
of  fioiDc,  then  at  virUnce  with  the  court  or  France,  did 
not  ntiff  Ihie  election,  and  another  cindiditc,  prince 
Clement  et  Bavaria,  bisho|i  or  RaliaboD,aupeneded  him. 
In  CDinptnulitiu  for  Ihii  he  received  of  Louia  XIV  the 
■bbejr  of  St.  UermaiiHlea-Frta,  where  he  went  lo  liwolL 
He  died  at  Paria,  April  10,  I7IH.  See  Uoefer,  ^d». 
Biog.  Ghtirale,  a.  v. 

Fnca  (I^t.  Futint],  Adah,  ■  Lulheran  theolt^an 
of  Germany,  wa*  bom  Julj  28,  I&80,  Kudied  at  Jena 
and  Leipaic,ai]d  died  in  IG48.  He  published,  Covtptn. 
diam  UctiomaHum  Ilrbr.  Gerwuniam  (Leipaic,  1G3J): 
—JlorologiumSchietaniiGtrm.  (AM.  eod.).  See  Filrat, 
BOLJuii.^W;  J<Khei,AlIgniirvittGtklii1nirlrtiiom, 
a.T.     (RP.) 

PQasll,  JoKANN  CoKRAn,  a  Reformed  theologian 
of  Gemian}-,  who  wai  bom  at  Zurich  in  1707,  and  died 
In  1775,  is  tbe  aiithor  of,  Tkttiiinn  Hiitorim  iltlrrtiea 
(_Zuiicb,V35^:~\aciHdUraniUrZareii»clim  Crbrt- 
aitmg  da  Jotrpiui  (ibid.  17S6) :— CaiuKiir.  ad  Rom. 
r,  13  (ibid.  I7S8):  — £>ui.  Apologelka  pro  Danle 
Btge  Ada.  Ottndaliooa  P.  BatUi  (ibiiL  1741}:  — firi- 
trdge  tur  ErlHtitnatg  der  Rrformalioia-GtKliidUt  dei 
SdmaUtHamdtt  (Ibid.  1741-53]  -.—Epitlola  ai  Eaie- 
tia  Ittlneliea  Rtftrmaloribtu  rtt  ad  tot  Scripla  (ibi<L 
174S)  -.—Duttrtatio  de  Fanalicii  Sec  zi  in  Italia  (Benie, 
1761):— .V««  uwJ  v^arAriiidie  Kiid^-  vnd  Kttzer- 
//Mtoiu  der  nilllern  Ztil  (Frankfort,  IT70)  >-Dt  GaiH- 
imit  Alhigeuitim  rt  Waldauium  lAilinctioix  (in  the 
J/ur.  LipM.  part  10).  See  Jucher,  AUgtneiiut  GtUkr. 
In-LeziJum,  a.  v. ;  Winer,  UamBmch  der  llmL  Lit.  i,  676, 
747,610.     (RP.) 

Fnttalahl,  in  t)>e  ni;lbo](^:y  of  the  South  Sea 
islanda,  it  the  mighlieat  among  the  goda  of  the  aea, 
wbooi  the  inhabilanta  of  the  Frieudlj  Iilandi  wonhip. 
Kaaj  •aeriSce*  of  fmiu  and  flawcn  are  given  to  him 

Fjrfe,  RoBitnT  A.,  D.D„  a  Baptiit  minister,  was  bom 
o4  SeDU:hparent^Oct.30,lSIG,it  Saint-Philippe,  near 
Montreal  He  studied  at  Madison  Universty,  N.  Y., 
and  griduBled  at  the  Newton  Theological  Inatilution  in 
1843;  was  ordained  at  Broaklioc,  Haas.,  and  was  pastor 
in  Pertb,  Can.,  the  same  year.  In  1843  he  Temoved  to 
Montreal  to  take  a  position  as  professor  in  the  college 
(bere;  oext  yeaibeame  pastor  of  aChurch  in  Toronto; 
in  1S48  was  agaia  paslor  in  Perth ;  about  1860  removed 
to  Warren,  B.  L ;  in  1B53  lo  Milwaukee,  Wis.  j  in  1865 


3  GABRIEL 

to  Toronto  again,  over  tbe  Bond  Street  Church ;  in  1860 
was  elected  president  of  the  Canadian  Literary  Insli- 
lule  at  Woodstock,  and  diol  there,  Sept.  4, 1878.  Few 
Baptist  ministen  in  Canada  have  accomplished  more 
for  the  denomination  which  he  so  ably  repreaented 
than  Dr.  Fyfe.  See  Catbcart,  Baptitl  ilneychp.  a.  r. 
(J.  C.  &) 

Fylfot  (or  Pytfot),  i.  t. /oar/ootrd,  a  term  used  to 
describe  a  mystical  cross,  made  fromi  the  combination, 
in  a  crucifocm  arrangement,  oT  four  Greek  gammas, 
thus  (flg.  1),  or  thus  (fig.  i) ;  occauonally  the  small  y  w«* 


-^.J 


^ 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  i. 

emploved,  thus  (Sg.  8).  It  was  also  called  G 
(rofifieriav),  the  Greek  term  for  this  mystical  device. 
Its  use  formed  a  part  of  the  ancient  Secret  Disciplina 
in  the  primitive  Church.     See  Gauhauia. 

Fimaial  Fall,  a 
coTCrihg  for  the  coffin 
during  the  procession 
to  church,  during  the 

until  the  coffin  is  al*ter- 
wards  placed  in  the 
giave.  Anciently  palls 
were  dther  of  violet 
or  black,  adorned  with 

richly    embr 

with   flowers,  heraldic 


Pyll^inT 
thology,  was  c 
Asas    who    lire    w 
Frigga,  in  WingolF, 
the    palace     Fensa] 
Sho  is  very  beautiful,  Poneral  Pall  otlho  Mth  Century. 
has  lung,  flowing  hair, 

and  delicate  color  of  skin.  A  golden  band  on  her  fore- 
head characterizes  her  as  a  goddess,  and  ibe  is  the  coiw 
Rdenlial  adviser  oT  the  wife  of  Odin,  aa  well  as  her 
private  maid. 


Ocbita  (ot  OabbMtlu],  properly  a  &dvI;  henc* 
■  pensile  lamp  of  similar 
form,  for  a  church,  made 
of  different  metal*— gitlil, 
^tver,  brass,  and  electnim. 
These   lamps   were    fre- 
quently emboaaed,  or  dec- 
orated in  base-nlief,  and 
ited    with    lilies, 
of    grrphoni     or 
'   even   fashioned 
the  fonn  of  these  ani- 

Dted  for  lighting,  they 
very  oAen  had  crosses  at- 
tached lo  them.— Smith,  Ditf.n/TAruf.  .4  iiri;.  a,  v. 

a«bbal,  laaao  iba-,  a  Jewish  writer,  who  flour- 
isbed  at  Leghorn  at  ihe  beginning  ot  the  17th  century, 
is  tbe  author  oT  TTO  C}3,  ot,  a  commentary  on  the 
MishDa  (Venice,  1614,  and  orteo).  See  FUrM,  BOL 
.TihL  1,811;  JOeher, il%niKtnei  GeieArteifLtxik(m,t.y. 
(B.P.) 

0«bb«l,  Meir  tbO',  a  Jewish  writer  of  Italy,  in 
llM  tSth  eentaij,  ia  Hit  aiubor  of,  nrsx  I'll,  a  cato- 


listie  work,  which  treats  of  the  ten  sepbiroih  (Pa- 
dua, 1663;  Utest  edition,  bv  Goldberg,  Berlin,  1850): 
— Blpn  niaS,  also  n^nSSt  nSt^O,  a  cabaliatico- 
philosophicsl  work  (Mantua,  IMS}:- aps"*  rrblH, 
cabalistic  explanations  of  the  Jewish  prayers  (Con- 
stantinople, 1560).  See  De'  Rossi,  Diziomirio  Slorim 
(Germ.  transL),  p.  107  sq.;  ?ant,  BM  Jii±  i,  811  sq. 

(a  P.) 

Qabri«l,  FUTIVAL  of,  is  celebrated  by  the  Greek 
Church  on  March  26,  in  honor  of  the  archangel  Gabriel. 

Another  holy  day,  called  the  faliral  of  Sit.  Gabrid 
imd  Michael,  is  held  in  honor  of  the  two  archangels,  on 
Nov.  1,  by  the  Greek  Church. 

Qabri«l  (sumamed  Serrnu).  a  Greek  prelate,  bom 
in  Monembaida  in  IS77,  was  ordained  bishop  of  Phila- 
delphia, at  Cunstaiitinople,  by  the  patriarch  Jeremiah. 
Seeing  that  hit  ehnrch  contained  few  Greek^  he  with- 
drew to  Venice,  where  be  was  bishop  of  the  Greeks  liv- 
ing there.  His  writings  were  piibluhed  by  Simon,  un- 
der the  lille,  Fidet  tcdetia  OrienKilit  (in  Greek  and 
Ulin,  IS71).  They  comprise  two  treatises,  one  relat- 
ing lo  tbe  sacraments,  the  other  entitled  Apologia,  pub- 
lished for  the  Hrst  time  at  Venice  in  1600.  SeeHocTer, 
A'oar.  Bieg.  Giniralr,  t,  r. 


GABRIELLI  4: 

Otibtlelll,  >  beredcd  prelate,  lived  ia  th«  blUr 
half  of  the  t7lb  ccntuiy.  He  beloagtd  to  Ihe  ItuiTi«n 
Lraiich  of  Ibo  GabriclU  family.  Actioni  both  fnul  ami 
■tnnge  bare  beeii  impu(«d  to  bim.nich  aa  mailing  sao 
lifleea  of  human  blowl  at  ihe  Teuniona  <i(  hia  friendii. 
FrandB  I^cchilelli,  called  also  Cmcu  Folignamc,  bail 
bMD  sent  to  asBnueiiinle  Ihe  Tnarquia  udluflalo,  but  the 
emissBry  being  aeizoil,  exponed  hii  accompli cea,  amon(c 
them  Gabrielli.nhoM'as  confined  in  a  convent  of  Monte 
Cassino,  and  deprived  of  his  income.  Afler»ard»  lie 
waa  conducted  to  the  chnteau  of  Penigia  by  the  nnlcf 
of  Innocent  XI.    See  HuefeT,  A'aur.  Biag,  GMnilr,  *.  v. 

OabTielll,  aiovannl  Maila,  an  Italian  canli- 
nal,  waa  born  at  Citta-di-Caatello,  Jan.  10,  1654,  am) 
■lied  Sept.  17,  1711.  He  is  known  aa  the  apokigiBt  of 
cardinal  Sfondfaii'a  worka.  See  Jttcher,  AUi/emriiia 
GtlekrteifLtxihm,ti-r.\  Hoefer,  A'oar.  Sioj.  CJW/Wf, 
a.  v.    (B.P.) 

Galnlelll,  ainllo,  an  Italian  prelate,  wai  bo 
Rome.  Aug.  20, 1748;  became  biahop  of  Siniga(;lia,  and 
cardinil-piieaC,  Feb.  23,  1801,  and  on  March  S7,  I80S, 
pro-aecfelary  of  etale  under  Piu»  Til.  On  account  of 
hia  iiiceasiDt  recriminationa,  GabrielU  was  armt«d  by 
order  of  Napoleon,  and  on  June  17  was  aupersedcd  by 
cardinal  Fecca.  After  the  removal  of  Che  pope,  Gabri- 
elli  went  to  France,  and  waa  banished  to  Siumur.  In 
1813  he  WHS  permitted,  with  aeveral  other  enrriinalf,  lo 
accompany  the  pope  lo  Fontaincbleau.  He  afien 
ivtumed  lo  Rome,  ohere  he  waa  likelv  to  be  electeil 
ixipe;  but  died  in  1S22.     See  Hoefcr,  .vlur.  Bios.  Ghii- 

GatnlDO,  AuouSTlKo,  an  Italian  fanatic,  wna  bom 
at  Breacia,  and  lived  in  (he  latter  half  of  llie  17ib  ceii- 
luri'.    He  waa  chief  uf  a  acct  of  fanatiea  rallcil 
Chevatirit  nftht  Apaailypf,     He  declared  his  in' 
tiiin  of  defending  the  Catholic  Church  against  the  a 
chtiat  whole  reign  he  believed  to  be  approaching.     He 
gave  09  cnugna  lo  his  followers  a  sabre  and  staff  uf 
command  in  the  fom  of  ■  crosa,  a  nparkliuK  atai 
[he  names  of  three  angeh,  Gabriel,  Micbael,  am 
phael,  upon  their  elothinj^.     Ther  numbcreil  . 
twenty  -  four,  moaCly  artiaona.     On   Palm   Suiiitay  of 
1694,  Gabrino  rusbwl,  aword  in  hand,  upon  the  ecclesi 
■Btica,  claiming  their  luimage.     lie  was  accunUngly 
imprisoned  aa  a  madman.     A  number  of  liia  proaelytea 
were  arrasted  upon  the  eonfeflaions  of  one  of  them, )     ' 
Ihe  rest  dispciacd.  See  Hoefer.Wour.flwji.tiinej'ii/r,! 

Oack,  Gkorq  Cieristopii,  a  Lutbcran  thenloEi 
waa  bom  at  Huf,  in  Bavaria,  in  1793,  and  dial  at  S< 
bach  in  18&1.     He  wrote,  Dt  Freibyltrienim  Onui 

5iibtacA(Uip^Cl847}.  See Wincr,//[)wfiii<;ji<;n-MetiJ: 

Lil.ii,K,il5;  Zuchokl,  SfU  TWJ:  i,  399.     (II.  R} 

Ofldan  (now  Dm-Ktu).    For  a  recent  and  full  i 


Gadora  (Um-Eels).    (From  Thnmaon'*  CmtraJ 


GAGARIN 

of  the  ptcaent  conditioa  of  thia  InUreslinK  aliCi 
see  Merrill,  fad  ofliu,  Jordan  (N.  Y.  1S81),  p.  14&  aq. 

QBdadon,  Christopher  P.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Epiicopal  clergyman,  was  aaaiatant  minister  in  Cliarlea- 
lon,  &C,  for  liiany  vcam,  until  16&9,when  he  became 
rector  ofSt.  Luke's  Church  in  that  city.  He  waa  ■ 
member  of  the  acanding  committee  of  his  diocese,  a 
member  of  Ihe  board  of  miaaions  to  Ihe  colored  men 
and  freedmen  of  South  Camlina,  and  a  deputy  to  Ihe 
General  Convent  ion.  He  died  July  !4, 1871,  aged  furly- 
Gre  yesra.     See  Prot.  Epiic.  A  Inonac,  1872,  p.  127. 

Oaellc  Veralan  of  thr  ScBipruaia.  Thi»  lan- 
guage la  spoken  in  the  iligblanda  and  Weatem  Isles 
of  Scotland.  It  was  not  till  the  year  [767  that  a  New 
Teat,  in  the  Gaelic  tongue  waa  provided  for  Ihe  Scotch 
Higblanders  in  Ihe  translation  ur  Ihe  Rer.  Jamea  Stu- 
art of  Killin.  The  work  was  published  at  Ibe  expmee 
of  the  Sodety  in  ScotUnd  fur  Promoiing  Christian 
Knowledge^  The  flnt  edition  consisted  of  10,000  i>ip- 
iea,  and  a  larger  eilition  of  21,500  copies  was  iaaued  by 
the  aame  aociety  in  17D6.  The  ne«  aiep  of  the  society 
waa  to  obtain  a  Gaelic  reraion  of  the  Old  Test.  1V> 
foeilitato  the  work,  the  Old  Test,  was  divided  into  fout 
parts,  two  of  which  were  allotted  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  John 
Stuart,  of  Luss,  the  son  of  the  trantlator  of  the  New 
TeaL;  a  third  pari,  alao,  aflemarda  fell  to  his  ahare, 
although  it  had  in  ihe  firat  iiiatance  been  executed  by 
another  band.  The  remaining  fourth  pan,  consiating 
of  thi  prophetieal  books,  waa  Innalaled  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Smith,  of  Campbelltown,  and,  on  ita  completion,  waa 
found  to  differ  altogether  in  atyle  and  execution  from 
Ibe  other  portion  of  the  Bible  translated  by  Dr.  Stoart. 
The  whole  Tcrsiun  was  completed  fur  the  preaa  in  IBOI. 
In  eonseqnence  of  many  complaints  conceminit  the  dis- 
crepancy in  atyle  between  Ihe  prophetical' and  the  oth- 
er booka,  the  aociety  reaolved  in  their  next  eilition  to 
subject  the  prophetical  hooka  to  a  thorough  revision, 
that  they  might  be  rendered  conformable  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  version.  Tliia  plan  was  effected  in  1807, 
and  20,000  copies  of  ilie  Old  together  with  the  New 
Test,  were  printed  at  Glai^iw,  under  the  care  of  the 
Rev.  Alexander  Stewart,  uf  I  liiiifwalL  In  the  same  year 
the  British  and  Foreign  llibleSocieir  published,  in  Lon- 
don, an  edition,  couaisiing  of  20,000*  Bibles  and  10,000 
TeatameniB,  but  not  being  aufflcieni  to  aaiiafy  the  ur- 
gent dedianda  for  more  copiea,  from  time  to  time  other 
editions  fullowed.  The  total  number  of  Gaelic  Bible* 
and  Testaments  printed  bv  Ihe  British  and  FoTeiRn 
Bible  Society  up  to  March  31, 1884,  was  1IW,I26.  I'hi* 
number,  however,  does  not  include  a  supply  of  50,n00 
Bibles  and  Testaments  futniahed  to  the  Highlandera  by 
otbcT  societies  between  1810  and  1829.  See  A(6fe  nj' 
Ettn/  Land,  p.  158,     (B.  P.) 

QaQtano,  .Antonio,  an  Italian  prelate,  waa  bom 
in  15G6.  Be  was  archbiahop  of  Capua, 
for  several  vean  uiincio  at  \'ienna  and 
Madrid,  and  died  in  1624.  He  was  learn- 
ed, and  handled  satire  with  much  abiLly. 
See  Hoefer,  A'oHr.  Biog.  Giniralt,  a.  v. 

Qaatano,  Bonifacio,  an  Italian 
pielau,  waa  biahop  of  Cassano  in  1599, 
vice-legate  of  Urban,  canlinal  in  160S. 
archbishop  of  1'areiitiim  in  1613,  end 
finally  legate  of  Romagna.  He  died 
June  29,  1617,  leaving  some  semkooo. 
Sec  Itoefer,  Aoiir.  Biog.  (7MrvJc,s.  v. 

Oagaiin,  IvAx  &,  a  Jeaoil,  waa  bora 
in  Kuiua  in  1814.  For  hmbc  time  he 
held  an  appointment  in  the  Ruauon  di- 
plomatic service,  and  joined  bis  order  in 
1843.  Afterwarda  he  devoted  a  gooil 
deal  of  attention  lo  Ihe  differencea  be- 
tween the  Eastern  and  Weslcro  church- 
es, and  published  as  the  mult  of  his 
atu<1ies  a  considerable  number  of  boohs 


6AGLIARDI 


425 


GALEN 


and  trockuns  in  the  French  language,  the  best  known 
of  these  being,  Le  CUryi  Jiuste:—Let  Egli$e»  «P Orient: 
— Le  Pape: — L*£glise  Rufte  et  les  RutoolnUa: — A>« 
JituUet  en  Russie*  He  co-operated  with  some  of  his 
ooanfcrymea  in  founding  the  excellent  Slavonic  library 
in  Pari^  known  as  the  Musee  Slave,  which,  since  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  France,  in  1880,  has  been 
located  in  the  Rue  de  Sevres.  Gagarin  died  at  Paris, 
July  20, 1882.     (a  P.) 

Oagliardi,  Achille,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  who  died 
at  Modena,  July  6, 1607,  is  the  author  of  Breve  Com- 
pendia Iniomo  aila  Profeuione  Christiana: — De  Dia- 
cipUHa  Hoimnia: — Explicalio  Instiiuti  Socieiatis  Jetu: 
—  Meditationes  pro  Onmibut  Hommum  Statibus.  See 
Alegambe,  BtbUotkeea  Scripiorum  Societaiis  Je$u ; 
Jocher,  A  Wfemeinee  GeUhrten-lAxikonf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Oagliardi,  Faolo^  a  canon  at  Brescia,  where  he 
died,  Aug.  16, 1742,  is  known  as  the  editor  of  Veterum 
Brixia  Kpiaooporum  PhUasterii  et  Gaudentii  Opera 
(Brixen,  1788):  — (7aiu2rfi/««  Sermones  (Padua,  1720; 
Augsburg,  1757).  See  Jocher,  AUgemeinet  Gelehrtert- 
Jje^tikon^  a.  T. ;  Winer,  ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  875, 
906l     (a  P.) 

Oagnatins.    See  Caonazzow 

Gktgn^  (Oagnl  or  Qaigny),  Jram  dk  (Lat. 
Gagnaut),  a  French  theologian,  was  bom  in  Paris, 
Having  been  made  treasurer  at  the  College  of  Navarre, 
he  commenced,  about  1524,  the  study  of  theology,  which 
he  was  called  to  teach  in  1529.  He  then  translated  the 
lAvrt  des  Sentences.  In  1531  he  became  rector  of  the 
university,  and  was  made  doctor  of  theology.  Being 
called  to  the  court  of  Francis  I,  he  copied  rare  manu- 
scripts in  the  royal  library.  Having  become  almoner 
and  preacher  of  the  king,  Gagnee  made  use  of  his  in- 
fluence for  the  maintenance  of  the  privileges  of  the 
university.  He  died  in  1549,  leaving,  Commentarius 
Primasii  l/tioensis  in  Epistolas  S.  PavU  (Latin  and 
French;  Paris  and  Lyons,  1587):— a  translation  from 
L«tin  to  French  of  the  Sermons  of  Guerrie,  abbot  of 
Igiiy: — Datidici  Psalmi  (Paris,  1547): — Paraphratis 
in  kptstoUim  ad  Romanos  (ibid.  1538,  \^S%)\~^Scholia 
in  KtangeUa  quatuor  et  in  Actus  Apostoiorum  (ibid. 
l.o52,  1631,  and  in  the  Biblia  Maxima  of  John  de  la 
Have,  ibid.  1648):  —  ffeudeca  Syllabus  de  Sancfissimo 
Chritti  Corpore  in  Euekaristia.  See  Hoefer,  iVour. 
'Ifioff.  GMrale,  a.  v. 

Gtaban,  Wilijam,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Roman  Cath- 
olic divine,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  June  5, 1782. 
On  Sept.  18,  1749,  he  joined  the  hermits  of  St.  Augus- 
tine in  Dublin,  and  the  vear  after  was  sent  to  the  con- 
rent  of  the  order  at  Louvain,  to  complete  his  ecclesi- 
astical studies  at  the  university.  Here  he  was  promoted 
to  the  priesthood,  May  25, 1756.  He  returned  to  Ire- 
land and  was  made  curate  of  the  Church  of  St.  Paul, 
Dublin,  where  he  was  in  labors  abundanL  He  died 
there,  Dec.  6, 1804.  His  best  known  writings  are,  Ser- 
mans: — History  of  the  Church: — The  Christian  Guide 
to  Heaven: — Catholic  Devotions,  See  Cath,  Almanac, 
1875,  p.  50. 

Qaillard  de  Lonjuubau,  a  French  prelate,  was 
the  penon  who  conceived  the  idea  of  a  grand  diction- 
ary of  universal  history,  the  execution  of  which  he  con- 
fided to  Morftri,  his  almoner.  For  the  compilation  of 
thia  work  be  made  numerous  researches  in  various  coun- 
tncB,  and  especially  in  Rome,  in  the  library  of  the  Vat- 
ican. It  was  to  Gaillard  de  Lonjumeau  that  Moreri 
dedicated  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  undertaken  in 
the  province,  and  published  at  Lyons  in  1674.  Gaillard 
waa  bishop  of  Apt  from  1673  to  1698.  He  died  in  1695. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ghtirale.  a.  v. 

Oaillard,  Qeorg,  a  Carmelite  of  G)logne,  who 
died  in  1687,  ia  the  author  of  Sacrificium  Vespertvntm 
TripartUum  ,etc.  (Cologne,  1682) : — Trifotdus  Marianum, 
etc  (ibid.  1683, 1687).  Sec  Harzheim,  BibL  Cohnensis  ; 
Jocber,  A  llgemeine*  Gdehrten-Tjexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 


Qain  (die  Montcdgnae),  Frak^oib  de,  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  bom  Jan.  6, 1744,  at  the  chateau  of  Montaignac. 
He  was  at  first  almoner  of  the  king  and  grand  vicar  of 
Rheims,  and  in  1782  became  bishop  of  Tarbes.  He  was 
strongly  oppose<l  to  the  innovations  of  the  assembly, 
and  retireil  to  Spain  in  1790.  Nevertheless,  in  1791 
he  came  to  Tarbes  to  protest  in  a  public  sermon  against 
the  new  order  of  things,  and  to  explain  his  refusal  of 
the  oath.  The  French  conquests  obliged  him  to  llee  to 
Portugal,  and  at  the  time  of  the  concordat  he  resigned, 
Nov.  6, 1801.  He  died  near  Lisbon  in  1806,  leaving 
flfly-seven  writings  upon  ecclesiastical  matters.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Galatlno,  Pibtro  di,  a  Franciscan  of  the  16th  cen* 
tury,  professor  of  theology  and  philosophy  at  Rome,  is 
the  author  of  De  A  rcanis  CalholiecB  Veritatis,  etc  (Or- 
tona  di  Mare,  1518,  and  often)  :—Opus  de  Theologia : — 
Commentaria  m  Apocalyprin : — iJe  Ecdesia  CathoUca 
InstUutione,  Deformatione  et  Reformations :  —  Ostium 
Apertum  seu  de  recta  Saaw  Scriptures  Interpretatione, 
etc  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  814;  Wolf,  BibL  //e6r.  i, 
971 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrtei^Lexikon,  s.  r.   (B,  P.) 

Oalberry,  Thomas,  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  of 
the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  was  placed  in  the  see  of 
Hartford,  Conn.,  Bfarch  19,  1876.  He  zealously  con- 
tinoeil  the  work  of  his  predecessors  till  the  summer  of 
1878,  when,  his  health  failing,  he  set  out  for  a  convent 
of  his  order  near  Philadelphia.  He  became  so  ill  in 
the  cars  that  he  was  removed  to  a  hotel  in  New  York, 
where  he  dieii,  Oct.  17  of  the  same  year.  See  De  Gour- 
cey  and  Shea,  IJist,  of  the  Cath,  Church  in  the  U.  8, 
p.  5,  7. 

Oale,  Qeorge  Waahington,  D.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  in  North  East,  N.  Y.,  Dec  8, 
1789.  He  greduateil  frum  Union  College  in  1814,  stud- 
ied'theology  one  year  thereafter  at  Princeton  Seminary, 
was  licensed  by  Hudson  Presbytery  in  September,  1816, 
and  ordained  pastor  at  Adams,  Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in 
1819,  where  he  remained  till  182&  In  1827  he  founded 
the  Oneida  Manual  Labor  Institute  at  Whitesborough, 
and  in  1832  Knox  College,  at  Galesburg,  III.  He  died 
there,  Sept.  18, 1862.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist,  A  Imanac, 
1863,  p.  296;  Gen,  Cat,  of  Prineeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881, 
p.  18 ;  Nevin,  Pre^,  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Qale,  Nahum,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Aubnra,  Mass.,  March  6, 1812.  He  studied 
at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  graduated  from  Amherst 
College  in  1887,  and  four  yean  after  from  the  East 
Windsor  Theological  Seminary.  He  wais  ordained  at 
Ware,  June  22,  1842,  of  which  church  he  was  pastor 
until  1851,  when  he  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  and  the  pastoral  charge  in  the  East  Windsor 
Seminary,  retaining  that  position  until  1853.  On  Sept. 
1  of  that  year  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at 
Lee,  and  died  in  Ncwburyport,  Sept.  18, 1876.  Among 
his  published  works  are,  IHlgrims^  First  Year  in  New 
EngUmd  {ISol)  >-Memoir  of  Rev,  Bennett  Tyler,  D,D, 
{\SbO) :— Conversion  Through  Personal  Effort  (1866): 
—Prophet  of  the  Highest  (1873).  Sec  Cong,  Quarterly 
1877,  p.  416. 

Qalen,  CHRtSTOPH  Bernhard  Mattiiaus  vaK| 
a  German  prelate  and  general,  was  born  in  Westphalia 
in  1604.  Having  completed  his  studtej>,  he  travelled  in 
various  parts  of  Europe,  cnteretl  as  colonel  the  service 
of  the  elector  of  Cologne,  and  made,  from  1637  to  1647, 
sc%'eral  campaigns  against  the  French  and  Swedes.  At 
the  treaty  of  peace  at  MUnster,  he  accepted  a  canouship 
ii)  that  city,  afterwanls  obtained  the  provostship,  and 
in  1650  was  elected  bishop-prince.  The  inhabitants 
objected  to  some  of  his  regulations,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  adopt  special  measures  to  compel  their  obedience. 
In  1664  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  general  directors  of 
the  army  of  the  empire  against  the  Turks.  Returning 
to  his  bishopric,  he  allied  himself  in  1665  with  Charles 
II,  king  of  England,  against  the  people  of  Holland,  but 
Louis  XIV  interposed  between  the  belligerent  partiea. 


GALESI 


426 


GALLICAN  COUNCILS 


In  1672  Galen  took  arms  an^nst  the  states-general,  bat 
Leopold  I  of  Germany  obliged  him  to  make  a  treaty 
with  them  in  1674.  This  bishop,  fierce  and  war-loving, 
died  at  Hay,  Sept.  19,  1678.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Generate,  s.  v. 

Qalesi,  DoMiNico,  an  Italian  prelate,  Tu'ed  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  17  th  century.  He  was  bishop  of  Kuvo, 
and  wrote  Ecdesiattica  in  Mahimonium  PotestaSy  ad- 
vertut  Jo,  Launoi  Doctrtnam,  etc  (Paris,  1677),  which 
was  followed  by  a  reply  from  Launoy.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Bioff.  Genirale^  s.  y. 

Qalemi  (Lat.  QaleBiniua),PxETiio,  a  learned  Ital- 
ian ecclesiastical  antiquary  and  apostolical  notary,  who 
died  about  1590,  devoted  most  of  bis  time  to  researches 
in  ecclesiastical  history.  He  endeavored  to  correct  and 
illustrate  the  Roman  Mariyrologjf^  by  remodelling  it 
and  adding  a  number  of  new  facts  concerning  the  saints. 
He  wrote  the  Lives  of  the  Saints  of  Milan  (1582),  and 
a  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  (1587).  See  Chalmers, 
Biog.  Diet,  s.  v. 

GaliozoD,  Gatirn  dr,  a  French  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Angers,  Oct.  27,  1658.  Having  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  civil  and  canon  law  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  he  entered  into  orders;  in  1688  was  made  canon 
and  chorister  at  St.  Martin  of  Tours;  shortly  after  offi- 
cial and  grand  vicar ;  but  his  close  attention  to  his  duties 
threw  him  into  a  dangerous  illness.  He  returned  to 
Angers  and  there  recovered  his  health.  Persuaded 
that  the  sparing  of  his  life  was  a  miracle,  he  consecrated 
himseff  more  wholly  to  the  service  of  God.  In  1707  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Agatliocles  and  coadjutor  of 
the  bishop  of  Babylon.  He  started  for  Persia,  and  died 
there  soon  after  his  arrival  at  Ispahan,  Sept.  27, 1712. 
He  wrote  some  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Kouv,  Biog. 
GMraJte,  s.  v.  • 

GalilaBtun  is  the  name  given  to  the  catechumenal 
oil  in  the  Greek  Charch.  It  is  considered  as  sanctified 
by  drops  of  Meirun  or  holy  chrism  (q.  v.)  which  are 
mixed  with  it, 

Galilei,  Alessandro,  an  eminent  Florentine  archi- 
tect, was  bom  in  1691.  He  resided  seven  years  in 
England,  and  on  his  return  to  Tuscany  was  appointed 
state  architect  by  Coemo  III.  He  was  invited  by 
Clement  XII  to  Rome,  where  he  erected  three  superb 
monuments  of  art,  the  facades  of  S.  Giovanni  de'  Fior- 
entini  and  S.  Giovanni  Laterano,  and  the  Corsini  chap- 
el in  the  latter  edifice.  He  died  in  1787.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Cktiraltt  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Butg,  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  A  ris,  s.  v. 

Galla,  Sainty  was  a  daughter  of  Symmachu^,  a  Ro- 
man noble,  who  died  in  the  former  part  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury ;  she  became  a  widow  while  very  young,  and  took 
the  veil  at  St.  Peter's  monastery.  She  is  commemo- 
rated Oct  6. 

Oalla  Veraion  or  tub  Scrifturks.  The  Galla 
language  is  spoken  by  the  Gallas  (q.  v.).  While  Dr. 
Krapf  redded  in  Shoa,  between  the  years  1839  and 
1842,  he  translated  the  gospels  of  Matthew,  Luke,  and 
John,  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  the  book  of  Gen- 
esis. The  gospel  of  Matthew  and  five  chapters  of  the 
gospel  of  John  were  printed  in  Roman  letters,  the  cop- 
ies being  designed  for  distribution  among  the  Galla 
tril>es  around  Shoa,  where  the  Church  Missionary  So- 
ciety, contemplated  the  establishment  of  a  mission.  The 
opposition  of  the  Abyssinian  priesthood  led,  however, 
to  the  abandonment,  in  1844,  of  the  Shoa  mission,  and 
the  station  was  accordingly  transferred  to  the  Wanika 
country,  whence  it  was  hoped  that  opportunities  fur  a 
wider  dissemination  of  the  Bible  than  that  originally 
contemplated  by  the  society  might  accme.  But  these 
hopes  have  been  doomed  to  be  disappointed.  Of  late 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Galla  language  has 
again  been  taken  up  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Krapf,  and  among 
the  translations  published,  the  British  and  Foreign  Bi- 
ble Society  announced,  for  the  year  1876,  the  New  Test.  I 


in  Galla,  printed  in  Amharic  characters.  Besides  the 
New  Test,  there  ate  also  printed  the  books  of  Genesis 
and  Exodus,  the  latter  having  left  the  press  in  1877. 
For  the  study  of  the  language,  see  Tutschek,  Di^ionarjf^ 
and  Grammar  of  the  Galla  Languitge  (Munich,  1944- 
45).     (B.P.) 

QalUeua,  Sbrvatius,  a  Reformed  preacher  of  Hol- 
land, who  died  near  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  ia 
known  as  the  editor  of  Lactantius^s  works,  published  at 
Leyden  in  1660;  he  also  edited  the  Sitglliue  Oracles 
(Amsterdam,  1687-88),  and  wrote  Dissertationes  de 
Sibyllis  Earumque  (haculis  (ibid.  1688).  See  JcScber, 
A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuck 
der  theol.  Lit,  i,  908.     (R  P.) 

Oalland,  Thox as,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
was  born  at  Hull.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  under  the  ministry  of  W.  £.  Miller,  and  being 
designed  for  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of  England, 
was  sent  to  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  master 
of  arts.  He  entered  the  Methodist  ministry,  but  stiU 
prosecuted  his  studies.  He  was  one  of  the  advanced 
liberal  members  of  the  Conference,  but,  with  indepen- 
dence of  thought,  he  deferred  to  the  peace  and  unity 
of  the  Church.  With  unbending  principles,  he  waa 
tender  and  charitable  towards  others;  with  great  vigor 
of  intellect,  he  was  simple,  frank,  and  ingenuous;  with 
an  anxious  desire  for  the  freedom  of  the  Church,  he 
had  a  fixed  concern  fur  Christian  order.  He  was  a  lead- 
er in  the  institution  of  that  body  and  of  its  spiritual 
government,  and  ably  advocated  all  its  great  interests. 
His  roinistr}',  which  began  in  1816,  was  evangelical, 
ardent,  and  powerful;  and  he  was  withal  a  diligent  and 
faithful  pastor.  He  died  suddenly  at  Hull,  Blay  12; 
1848,  ageid  forty-nine  years.  Galland  was  wealthy  and 
liberal.  As  a  pulpit  expositor  of  Scripture,  he  was,  per- 
haps, without  an  equal  in  his  day.  See  Afinutes  of  the 
British  Conference,  1848 ;  Stevenson,  City-Road  Ckapei, 
p.  266 ;  Smith,  I/ist,  of  Wesl.  Meth,  iii,  86,  229, 244, 850, 
855,  412,  419,  478,  479;  Everett,  WesL  Centenary  Tah^ 
ingSf  vol.  ii,  sketch  9. 

Gkdlardo,  Matted,  a  repuUble  Spanish  painter, 
resided  at  Madrid  in  1657.  There  is  a  picture  of  C^risT, 
ahd  several  of  the  Virgin,  by  him,  which  are  highly 
commended.    See  Spooner,  Biog,  llist,  of  the  Fine  A  rtt, 

S.V. 

Galle,  Philip,  an  eminent  Dutch  engraver,  waA 
bom  at  Haarlem  in  1537,  and  early  established  himself 
at  Antwerp.  The  following  are  some  of  his  prints: 
Solomon  Directing  the  Building  of  the  Temple;  a  set  of 
prints  of  subjects  from  the  Old  and  New  Test.;  A  brakam 
Saaificing  Isaac;  Christ  with  the  Tvo  JHsciple*  at 
Emmaus,  He  died  in  1612.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Ghieralft  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  I/ist,  of  the  Fine  A  rtSj  a.  v, 

Gallemart,  Joannes  db,  a  Roman  (Catholic  theo- 
logian, who  died  at  Douay  in  1625,  doctor  and  profeasor 
of  theology,  is  known  as  the  editor  of  Canones  et  Decree 
ta  ConciL  Trid,  (Cologne,  1620).  See  J5cher,  Al^ 
meines  Geiehnen-Lexikon,8,v,;  Winer,  Bane^ck  der 
theol  Lit,  i,  819.     (a  P.) 

Gkdlt  priests  of  Cybele  (q.  v.)  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  who  received  the  worship  of  this  goddess  from 
the  Phr}*gians.  They  were  selected  from  the  lowest 
class  of  society,  and  were  allowed  at  certain  times  to 
ask  alms  from  the  people,  llie  chief  priest  among^ 
them  was  called  A  rchigattus, 

OaUioan  Councila:  councils  held  in  France,  bot 
at  some  place  unknown. 

I.  A.D.  855,  at  Poitiers  or  Toulouse,  possibly.  SL 
HiUry,  writing  to  the  Easterns,  A.D.  360,  says  he,  five 
years  before,  with  the  bishops  of  France,  withdrew  from 
the  communion  of  the  Arian  bishops  Ursacius  and  Va- 
lens,  and  of  Satuminus  of  Aries,  who  had  espoused  their 
cause.  The  opening  chapters  of  his  work  addressed  to 
Constantius  are  thought  to  have  emanated  from  th^ 
council. 


GALLIFIET 


427 


OALLUS 


II.  AJ>.876.  There  aeems  a  reference  to  one  such  in 
a  law  of  that  year,  dated  Treves,  of  the  Theodosian 
code;  bnfc  it  is  not  known  where  or  for  what  object. 

IIL  A.D.  444 ,  ill  which  Hilary  of  Aries  presided,  and 
Cbelidooitis  of  Besan9on,  where  this  council  may  liave 
met,  therefore,  was  accused  of  being  husband  of  a  widow, 
and  deposed.  On  appealing,  however,  to  St.  Leo  he  was 
restored,  as  having  been  condemned  on  a  false  charge. 
Both  their  letter  to  htm  and  his  answer  are  preserved 
among  his  epistles.. 

TV,  A.D.  678,  at  some  place  unknown ;  when  St.  Le- 
odegar  or  Leger,  bishop  of  Autun,  was  degradctl  as  hav- 
ing been  accessory  to  the  death  of  king  Childeric  II 
five  yean  before. 

Y.  A.D.  S78  or  679,  against  the  Monothelites ;  as  ap- 
pears from  the  reference  made  to  it  by  the  Gallican 
bishops  subscribing  to  the  Roman  synod  under  pope 
Agatho,  preserved  in  the  4th  act  of  the  6th  council,  but 
they  do  not  say  where. 

YI.  A.D.  796,  at  Tours  possibly,  where  Joseph,  bishop 
of  Mans  and  a  suffragan  of  Tours,  was  deposed  for  cru- 
eltv. 

YIL  Three  more  councils  may  be  grouped  under 
this  bead,  usually  called  Councils  of  Auvergne,  but  this 
name  is  misleading,  as  it  means  the  town  formerly  so 
called,  not  the  province.  When  the  town  changed  its 
name  to  Clermont,  councils  held  there  subsequently 
ivere  styled  by  its  new  name,  while  the  earlier  retained 
ito  old.  We  save  confusion,  therefore,  by  classing  them 
under  Gallican.  Of  these  the  first  met  Nov.  8,  A.D.  o85, 
in  the  second  year  of  king  Theodebert,  and  passed  six- 
teen canons,  to  which  fifteen  bishops,  headed  by  Hono- 
mtus,  metropolitan  of  Bouiges,  subscribed ;  his  suffragan 
of  Auvergne  subscribing  second.  Their  canons  depre- 
cate lay  influences  in  the  appointment  of  bishops,  and 
lay  interference  between  bishops  and  clergy.  No  fur- 
niture belonging  to  the  Church  may  be  used  for  pri%*ate 
funerals  or  marriages.  The  appointment  of  Jews  as 
judges,  and  marriages  between  Jews  and  Christians, 
are  denounced.  Presbyters  and  deacons  marr>'ing  are 
to  be  deposed.  In  a  collective  note  to  king  Theodebert, 
the  bishops  entreat  that  neither  the  clergy,  nor  others, 
living  in  his  dominions  may  be  robbed  of  their  rightful 
poflsessions,  and  in  their  fifth  canon  they  declare  all 
spoliations  of  Chureh  property  null  and  void,  and  the 
spoilers  excommunicated  where%'cr  it  occurs.  Several 
other  canons  are  given  to  this  council  by  Burchard. 
The  second,  A.D.  549,  was  attended  by  ten  bishops,  but 
only  to  receive  the  canons  passed  at  the  5th  Council  of 
Orleans.  The  third,  A.D.  5)88,  was  occupied  solely  with 
a  dispute  between  the  bishops  of  Bodes  and  Cahors. — 
Smith,  Diet,  ofChritt,  Antiq,  s.  v. 

Oallifiet,  Joseph,  a  French  theologian,  was  bom 
in  1663,  near  Aix  (Provence).  He  enteretl  the  Jesuit 
order,  became  rector,  then  provincial,  of  the  College  of 
the  Trinity,  at  Lyons,  where  he  had  completed  his  stud- 
ies, and  was  regarded  as  the  principal  promoter  of  the 
devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  In  1723  he  be- 
came assistant  to  the  general  of  the  Jesuits  at  Rome. 
He  died  about  1740,  leaving  several  works  on  devotion, 
for  which  see  Hoefer,  Xovv.  Biog,  GeniraUj  s.  v. 

Galllm.  Lieut.  Conder  suggests  {Tent 'Work  in 
Paleat^  ii,  336)  as  a  representative  of  this  site  the  pres- 
ent Beit-Jdia,  doubtless  meaning  the  place  of  that  name 
a  few  miles  south  of  Jerusalem  (see  Zklah);  but  the 
passage  in  Isaiah  (x,  80)  requires  a  position  north  of 
that  city. 

Oalloche,  Loina,  a  reputable  French  historical 
painter,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1670,  and  studied  under 
Louis  Boullonge.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  Among  his  works  are  the  Departure  of 
Si.  Paul  from  MikUu,  in  the  Chureh  of  Notre  Dame; 
TAe  Good  Samaritan,  and  The  Returrtction.  He  died 
in  1761.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GineraUf  s.  v. ;  Spoon- 
er,  Bioff.  tiiK  of  the  Fine  Arts,s,v, 

Qallonias,  Amnosi itrs,  a  priest  of  the  congregation 


of  the  oratory,  was  a  native  of  Rome,  and  died  there  in 
1605.  His  works  were  numerous,  but  he  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  Trattato  degli  Inttrumenti  di  Martirio, 
etc.  In  1591  he  published  his  J/ietory  of  the  Virffim: 
—The  Licet  of  Certain  Maritfre  (1597).  See  Chal- 
mers, Biog,  DuA.  s.  V. 

Galluoci,  Angelo,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  was  bom  at 
Macerata  in  1598,  became  a  famous  preacher,  professor 
of  eloquence  in  the  College  of  Rome,  and  died  Feb.  28, 
1674,  leaving  some  Sermons  and  other  works,  for  which 
see  Biog,  UtaverteUe^  s.  v. 

Galluooi,  Tarquinio,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  was  bora 
at  Sabina  in  1574,  became  professor  of  rhetoric,  and  final- 
ly rector  of  the  Greek  College  in  Rome,  and  died  there 
July  28, 1619,  leaving  some  commentaries  on  cUasical 
works.     See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Qallna,  SahU  (1),  sixteenth  bishop  of  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  was  bom  in  that  city  (Auvergne)  about  489,  of 
patrician  parents.  In  order  to  escape  marriage,  he  took 
refuge  at  the  monastery  of  Coroon  (Cronom  or  Cour- 
nom),  and  there  embraced  the  monastic  life.  St.  Quintia- 
nus,  then  bishop  of  Auvei^e,  ordained  him  deacon,  kept 
him  near  himself,  and  drew  him  into  literary  pursuitSi 
Later,  Thierry,  king  of  Anstnisia,  attracted  Gallus  to  his 
court.  Here  he  remained  until  527,  when  St.  Quint ia- 
nus  died,  and  Gallus  was  elected  to  succeed  him.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  gentleness  and  charity. 
Being  uncle  of  St.  (tregory  of  Tours,  he  took  charge  of 
the  education  of  his  nephew.  St.  Gallus  assisted  at  the 
first  two  councils  of  Clermont-Ferrand,  Nov.  8, 535  and 
549,  as  well  as  at  the  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  of 
Orleans— June  23,533;  May  7,538;  Aug.  31, 541;  and 
Oct.  28,  549.  The  hagiographers  afiirm  that  he  pos- 
sessed the  gift  of  miracles.  By  his  prayers  he  arrested 
the  flames  which  threatened  the  destniction  of  the  city, 
and  at  another  time  delivered  the  citizens  from  the 
fearful  ravages  of  disease.  He  died  about  553,  and  his 
body  is  preserved  in  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame  du  Port, 
at  Clermont-Ferrand.  He  is  honored  by  the  Church 
July  1.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

QallaS)  Saint  (2),  twenty-third  bishop  of  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  lived  in  the  7th  century.  He  was  elected  in 
650,  and  is  honored  as  a  saint  in  his  diocese  on  Nov.  1. 
He  wrote  a  Lettre  Adressee  a  Saint  Didier^  icigue  de 
Cahartf  which  Ussher  falsely  attributes  to  St.  Gall  of 
Hibemia.  See  Hoefer,  A'birv.iSfr>^.(?^n^a^,s. v.;  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Qallua,  Nioolaa  (properly  JJahn\  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Kothen,  June  21, 
1516.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1542  deacon 
at  Ratisbon,  which  place,  however,  he  had  to  leave  on 
account  of  the  Interim  (q.  v.).  He  went  to  Witten- 
berg to  occupy  the  pulpit  of  Cruciger,  who  was  pre- 
vented from  discharging  his  ministerial  functions  by 
sickness.  From  Wittenberg  Gallus  went  to  Magdeburg^ 
but  returned  again  to  Ratisbon  in  1553,  and  died  there 
in  1570.  In  connection  with  Flacius  (q.  v.),  Gallus 
opposed  the  Interim  and  Osiander,  and  defended  his 
Church  against  the  intrusion  of  all  and  every  error. 
See  Salig,  VoUst&tdige  Ilistorie  der  A  ugsburgseher  Con' 
fession,  ii,  1008  sq.;  Jixherj  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lex' 
tfam,  s.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop.  dee  Sciences  Relig' 
tease*,  s.  v. ;  Herzog-Plitt,  Rtal-Enetfldop,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Oallua,  Robertas,  a  French  mystic,  lived  at  Or- 
ange in  1291.  He  derived  his  name  from  his  French 
origin,  and  was  provincial  of  a  monastic  order.  Ac- 
cording to  Ouden,  he  was  very  pious,  but  of  little  note. 
He  believed  himself  endowed  with  the  gift  of  revela- 
tion, and  wrote  several  works  in  this  line.  The  only 
one  which  has  come  down  to  us  was  published  at  Paris 
in  1513,  at  the  house  of  Henry  Stephens,  under  the  ed- 
itoRhip  of  Le  Fevre  of  Staples,  and  is  entitled  Liber 
Trium  Virorum  (namely.  Hennas,  Uguelin,  and  Robert 
Gallus  himself),  et  Trium  Spiriiualium  Virginmn  (the 


GALLY 


428 


6AMBARA 


prinoeases  Hildegftrde,  ^isabeth,  and  Mechtilde).  See 
Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Gaily,  UKNRYf  D.D^  an  English  divine,  was  born 
at  Bcckenharo,  Kent,  in  August,  1696,  and  was  educated 
at  Denet  College,  Cambridge.  In  1724  he  was  chosen 
lecturer  of  St.  Paul's  Covent-garden,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  instituted  to  the  rectorv  of  Wavendon  or 
Wanden,  in  Buckinghamshire.  The  king  preferred 
him  to  a  prebend  in  the  Cathedral  of  Gloucester  in 
1728,  and  three  rears  later  to  one  in  Nonvich.  He 
died  Aug.  7, 1769.  He  was  the  author  of  two  sermons 
cm  the  Mise7y  of  Man,  preached  in  1723  :—Tke  Moral 
Character  of  TheophrastuSf  translated  from  the  Greek, 
with  notes : — A  Critical  Essay  on  Chara(^eristic  Writ- 
ing:  —  Sermon  before  the  House  of  Commons.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Did,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Did,  of  BiHt,  and 
Amer,  Authors^  s.  v. 

Qalon  (also  called  GwxUo,  Gvalla^  or  Guulo\  Gia- 
COMO,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at  Vercelli  prior  to 
1150.  He  was  canon  -  regular  at  Paris,  and  occupied 
from  1173  to  1185  the  episcopal  see  of  his  native  city. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  and  virtue,  and 
pope  Innocent  III  accorded  to  him,  id  recognition  of 
this,  the  cardinalate.  Galon  had  charge  of  a  mission 
in  Languedoc,  where  he  displayed  great  intolerance 
towards  the  Albigenses.  He  afterwanis  went  to  Eng- 
land on  a  diplomatic  mission.  Later,  pope  Honorius 
III  sent  him  to  the  emperor  Frederick  II,  to  secure  aid 
for  the  Christians  in  Palestine  against  the  Mussulmans. 
Galon  died  at  YerccUi  in  1227.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Geniraie-f  s.  v. 

Galura,  Brrniiard,  prince  •  bishop  of  Brixen,  was 
bom  Aug.  21,  1764.  He  was  for  some  time  preacher 
at  Freiburg,  made  suffragan  bishop  and  vicar-general 
at  Feldkirch  in  1820,  in  1829  consecrated  prince-bishop 
of  Brixen,  and  died  in  1856.  He  wrote,  Diss,  dt  Tra^ 
€Utione  altera  Bevelationis  fonte  (Freiburg,  1790) : — Die 
Ehre  der  heiligen  Meste  (4th  ed.  Augsburg,  1827) : — 
Biblische  Geschichte  der  Welterldsung  durch  Jesum  den 
8ohn  Gottes  (ibid.  1806)  ',—Die  gartze  Kathalisehe  Reli- 
gion (ibid.  1796-99,  5  vols.)  i^Gebet-  und  Beiracktungs- 
buck  fur  Christen  (6th  ed.  1836,  ete.).  See  Winer, 
Ilandbuch  der  theok  Lit,  i,  61,  403, 466, 678 ;  ii,  241, 259, 
267, 272, 346, 852, 368, 386.     (  B.  P.) 

Galvam  (or  Gkdvao),  Francisco  Fernando, 
a  Portuguese  orator,  was  bora  at  Lisbon  in  1554.  He 
entered  the  ecclesiastical  ranks,  and  acquired  great  re- 
nown as  a  preacher.  He  was  regarded  as  a  classical 
writer  in  PortugaL  To  the  vigorous  study  which 
gained  for  him  the  title  of  doctor  of  theology,  he  added 
the  gift  of  a  powerful  memory.  He  died  in  1610.  His 
works  have  appeared  under  the  following  titles:  Ser- 
mots  do  Doutor  EranciscO'Fernando  Galvdo  Arcedittgo 
de  Cerveira  (Lisbon,  1611):  —  Sermoes  dos  Festas  dos 
Santos  (ibid.  1613):  —  Sermoea  dos  Festas  do  Chtisto 
(ibid.  1616).  He  had  as  editor  a  writer  of  merit,  Ama- 
dos  Vieira.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genh'oh,  s.  v. 

Galvam  (or  Galvao),  Joao,  count  of  Argamlj 
was  a  warlike  Portuguese  prelate,  bora  at  Evora  in  the 
15th  century.  He  was  the  son  of  Ruy  Galvao,  secre- 
tary of  Alfonso  V,  and  succeeded  his  father.  He  be- 
came prior  of  the  convent  of  the  Augustinea,  and  in 
1451  accompanied  princess  Leonora,  as  she  went  to 
be  married  to  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  On  his  re- 
turn, in  1461,  he  became  bishop  of  Coimbra.  Alfon- 
so y  sent  him  ten  years  later  to  Africa.  At  Arzilla  and 
Tangier  he  fought  so  valiantly  that  the  king  conferred 
upon  him  the  title  of  count  of  Arganil,  which  title  ever 
afterwards  belonged  to  the  bishop  of  Coimbra.  The 
archbishopric  of  Braga  being  vacant,  Galvao  was  called 
to  it  by  Sixtus  IV  in  1480.  He  died  Aug.  5, 1485,  at  a 
very  advanced  age.  He  left  in  manuscript,  Jornada 
da  Emperatriz  Dona  Leonor,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Giniralet  s.  v. 

Gamaches^  Philipps  dk,  a  French  theologian, 
was  born  in  1568.    The  faculty  of  theology  made  him 


doctor  in  1598,  aiid  the  same  year  be  became  profesKHr 
of  positive  theology  in  the  Sorbonne.  He  acquired  a 
high  reputation  for  profound  learning  and  inoonruptiUe 
independence  of  Judgment.  He  died  at  Paris,  July  21, 
1625.  His  commentaries  upon  Thomas  Aquinas,  pub- 
lished under  the  title,  Theologia  Scolastica,  Speculativa, 
Practica  (Paris,  1627),  were  highly  esteemed.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMsrcde,  s.  v. 

Gamaliel  ben-Jkhud.ui  (surnamed  Batkraakj  i.  e. 
the  Last)  terminated  the  long  dynasty  of  the  house  of 
Hillel.  Though  styled  patriarch,  yet  his  power  was 
hanlly  more  than  nominal  The  Jewish  popuUtion 
of  Palestine  had  lost  their  preponderant  inflaenoe  by 
dispersion;  and  the  stronger  the  foreign  synagogues 
became,  the  less  were  they  disposed  to  appeal  to  the 
patriarchal  see,  though  its  existence  was  still  regarded 
with  a  certain  complacency.  But  the  thing  itself  was 
now  to  end.  The  emperor  Honorius  had  inhibited  the 
transfer  of  contributions  from  the  West  to  the  patri- 
archal coffers  at  Tiberias;  and  Gamaliel  himself,  under 
the  charge  of  contumacy,  in  the  erection  of  synagc^es 
contrary  to  the  imperial  law,  by  an  edict  of  ThetMlosiua 
was  stripped  of  his  secular  title  of  "pnefect"  in  the 
year  415  {Cod,  Theod,  vi,  22).  It  may  be  that  this  is  the 
same  Gamaliel  whom  Jerome  mentions  (JBoiat,  57,  §  3) 
as  an  enemy  of  Hes3'chiu8.  Gamaliel  died  without  an 
heir,  and  thlu^  with  his  death,  this  shadow  of  dignity, 
which  he  retained  in  Jewish  circles,  entirely  passed 
away.  See  Etheridge,  Introduction  to  Jewish  Literature^ 
p.  139  sq. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Gamaliel,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  an  Englishman  by 
birth,  consecrated  by  Koger,  archbishop  of  York,  aod 
promoted  to  the  see  of  the  Isles  in  1 18L  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  298. 

Gambara,  Giovanni  Franceaco,  an  Italian 
prelate,  nephew  of  Uberto,  was  bora  at  Brescia,  Jan.  17, 
1533.  He  was  son  of  Giovanni  Brunero  II,  count  of 
Prato  Albuino,  who  rendered  great  service  to  the  hooae 
of  Austria,  and  distinguished  himself  among  the  Latin 
poets  of  his  time.  Giovanni,  afler  having  been  edn- 
cated  at  Pcragia  and  Padua,  was  sent  to  the  court 
of  Charles  V.  He  afterwards  ret^iraed  to  Borne,  per- 
formed various  offices  under  Julius  IH  and  Pins  IV, 
and  was  made  cardinal  in  1561.  Hus  V  appointed 
him  bishop  of  Yiterbo.  He  died  at  Rome,  May  5, 1587. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Chterale,  s.  v. 

Gambara,  Lattanzio,  an  eminent  Italian  paint- 
er, was  bom  at  Brescia  in  1541,  and  was  instructed  in 
the  school  of  Girolaroo  Romanino.  His  greatest  and 
most  studied  production  is  his  fresco  in  the  dome  of  the 
cathedral  at  Parma,  representing  subjects  from  the  life 
of  Christ.  Some  of  his  other  admired  works  are,  Cain 
SUfying  Abel;  Moses  and  the  Brazen  Serpent;  Samson, 
and  Delilah ;  Judith  teith  the  Head  of  H^of ernes;  Jaei 
and  Sisera ;  The  Taking  Down  from  the  Cross,  He  died 
in  1574.     See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  a.  v. 

Gambara,  Uberto,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom 
at  Brescia,  near  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  He  was 
the  son  of  Gian.  Francesco,  count  of  Prato  Albuino,  who 
abandoned  the  side  of  the  Venetians  after  the  battle  of 
Chiara  in  1509,  and  joined  the  French  in  order  to  save 
the  city  of  Brescia,  his  native  place.  This  desertion  irri- 
tated the  Venetians  against  him,  but  they  were  appeased 
through  the  intervention  of  pope  Leo  X,  a  particular 
friend  of  the  count.  This  pontiff  called  the  young 
Uberto  to  himself,  and  sent  him  as  nuncio  to  PortugaL 
Clement  VII  sent  him  to  solicit,  in  1527,  the  aid  of  the 
king  of  England  against  Charles  V.  Gambara  ac- 
quitted liimself  with  success  in  this  mission,  and  on 
bis  retura  was  appointed  bishop  of  Tortona.  Paul  III 
made  him  cardinal  in  1539,  and  confided  to  him  the  le- 
gations of  Parma  and  Placentia.  In  this  position  Gam- 
bara adroitly  favored  the  designs  of  the  Faraese,  and 
afforded  them  much  aid,  by  placing  them  in  posaessioa 
of  these  principalities.  He  died  at  Borne,  Feb.  14»  1649. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gmirale^  &  v. 


6AMELIA 


429 


GAON 


Gamelia,  the  name  applied  to  a  aacriflce  among 
the  ancient  Greelu,  which  the  parents  of  a  girl  about 
to  be  married  were  accustomed  to  offer  to  Athena  (q.  v.), 
on  the  day  before  the  marriage.  In  time  the  word 
came  to  be  applied  to  marriage  solemnities  in  general* 

Gameline,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  archdeacon  and 
lord-chancellor  of  St,  Andrews  in  1250.  He  was  made 
bishop  of  St.  Andrews  in  1255,  on  St.  Thomas's  day,  and 
consecrated  on  St.  Stephen's  day  of  the  same  year.  Here 
he  continued,  until  his  death  in  1271.  See  Keith, 
SooUish  Bishops,  p.  18. 

Gammadia  (yafifAaSiOf  for  ya/i^nrca),  a  cruciform 
ornament,  embroidered  on  the  borders  or  woven  into 
the  texture  of  ecclesiastical  vestments,  both  in  the  West 
and  East,  It  takes  its  name  fn>m  lieiiig  composed  of 
four  capital  gammas  (f)  placed  back  to  back,  thua 
.J  L  forming  a  roided  Greek  cross.  The  gammas 
1  r  were  also  sometimes  placeil  face  to  face,  so  as  to 
.constitute  a  hollow  square,  in  the  centre  of  which  r  n 
a  cross  was  inscribed.  Vestments  so  decorated  i.  j 
were  known  by  the  luime  oi polystauiia  {iroKvaravpia), 
— Smith,  jWcf.  of  Christ,  A  ntiq.  8.  v.     See  Fvlfot. 

Oanach.    See  Ibn-Ganach. 

Oanapatyas,  the  worshippers  of  Ganesa  (q.  v.). 
They  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  a  distinct  sect,  Ga- 
nesa being  worshipped  by  all  the  Hindi^s  as  having 
power  to  remove  all  difficulties  and  impediments. 
Hence,  they  never  commence  a  journey  or  engage  in 
any  important  work  without  invoking  his  pn>tection. 
Some,  however,  pay  tbu  god  more  particular  devotion, 
and  therefore  may  be  considered  as  specially  entitled 
to  be  called  Ganapatycu. 

Oanefla,  a  Hindd  deity,  was  the  son  of  Siva  and 
Parvatu  He  is  considered  the  god  of  prudence,  who 
veoioves  all  hinderances,  and  corresponds  to  the  Greek 
Jfermes,  or  the  Roman  Aferewy^  the  great  teacher  and 
presiding  deity  of  authors.  Ganesa  is  always  addressed 
«s  **that  god  upon  whose  glorious  forehead  the  new 
moon  is  painted  with  the  froth  of  Ganga."  He  is  gen- 
erally represented  silting  cnias-legged,  with  ftmr  arms 
and  hands,  and  having  the  head  and  proboscis  of  an 
elephant.  Ganesa  had  formerly  six  classes  of  worship- 
pers ;  in  the  present  day  he  cannot  boast  of  any  ex- 
clusive adoration,  although  he  shares  a  kind  of  homage 
along  with  all  the  other  gods.    See  Puu£AR. 

Oanga  Sagor,  a  sacied  island  among  the  HindQs, 
ntuated  at  the  union  of  the  great  western  or  holiest 
branch  of  the  Ganges  with  the  Indian  ocean.  It  is  low, 
flat,  and  swampy,  yet  it  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
places  of  pilgrimage  in  India,  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
aacredoess  of  the  waters  at  this  point  On  the  island 
stands  a  ruinous  temi^e  dedicated  to  Kapik,  the  found- 
er of  the  Sankbya  system.  This  temple  is  usually  oc- 
cupied by  a  few  disciples  of  Kapila,  and  crowds  repair 
thither  twit;e  every  year,  at  the  full  moon  in  November 
and  in  January,  to  perform  obsequies  for  the  benefit  of 
their  deceased  ancestors,  and  to  practice  various  ablu- 
tions in  the  sacred  waters.  As  many  as  800,000  pil- 
grims have  resorted  to  this  sacred  spot  from  all  parts 
of  India  in  a  single  year. 

Gangas,  the  idolatrous  priests  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Congo,  in  western  Africa.  They  acknowledge  one 
Supreme  Being,  but  worship  also  a  number  of  subordi- 
nate deities  who  preside  over  the  different  departments 
of  nature.  These  priests  teach  the  people  to  worship 
their  deities  by  various  rites  aud  ceremonies,  but  chief- 
ly by  donations  of  food  and  clothing,  which  they  ap- 
propriate to  their  own  use.  They  make  the  people  be- 
lieve that  they  can  bring  down  blessings  upon  them, 
avert  judgments,  cure  diseases,  and  dispel  witchcraft. 

Oangaiil^  Trbodor,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  (xermany,  was  bom  Nov.  1, 1809,  at  Bergen.  In  1833 
he  received  holy  orders,  in  1836  joincii  the  Benedictines 
at  Augsburg,  was  in  1842  professor  of  philosophy  and 
philology  at  the  Augsburg  Lyceum,  in  1848  rector  of 


the  same,  atx.  died  Sept.  15,  1875.  He  was  a  follower 
of  GUnther*s  philosophical  system,  and  wrote.  Die 
Afetaphgsische  Psychologic  des  heiL  A  ugttstin  (1844-47) : 
— A  ugusinCs  Principien  9ber  das  VerhSUniss  von  GlaU" 
hen  und  Wissen  (1851) : — AugusHn^s  Lehre  von  Gott  dem 
Drtieimgen  (1865).     (B.  P.) 

Oang-days.    See  Rooatio:?. 

Oaninnanaea  (from  Singhalese  gana^  an  assem- 
bly), a  name  applied  in  Ceylon  to  the  novices  as  well 
ss  the  priests  among  the  Buddhists. 

Qanj  Bakshifl,  a  division  of  the  Sikhs  (q.  v.)  in 
Hindustan,  who  are  said  to  have  derived  their  name 
from  their  founder.  They  are  few  in  number  and  of 
little  importance. 

Gannett,  Ezra  Stxligs,D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  May  4, 1801.  He  was 
educated  at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  and  Harvard 
College,  where  he  graduated  in  1820.  He  then  spent 
three  years  in  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School,  and  was 
ordained  colleague-pastor  with  Dr.  William  £.  Chan- 
ning,  June  24, 1824.  He  remained  in  that  charge  un- 
til his  death,  Aug.  28, 1871.  He  founded  The  Scripture 
Interpreter  J  edited  for  some  years  The  Monthly  MisceU 
liiny^  and  was  Joint  editor  with  Dr.  Alvan  Lamson 
(1844-49)  of  The  Chtistian  Examiner.  He  also  pub- 
lished numerous  discourses. 

G&nabaoher,  Joiiann  Baptist,  a  German  com- 
poser of  church  music,  was  born  at  Sterzing,  in  Tyrol, 
in  1778.  He  was  educated  under  various  masters  until 
1802,  when  he  became  the  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Ab- 
bate  Vogler.  Through  this  connection  he  became  ac> 
quainted  with  Weber  and  Meyerbeer,  and  a  friendship 
sprung  up  among  the  three  young  musicians  M'liich 
was  dissolved  only  by  death.  Giinsbacher  was  director 
of  the  music  of  St.  Stephen's  Cathedral,  Vienna,  from 
1823  until  his  death,  July  13,  1844.  His  compositions 
consist  chiefly  of  church  music,  including  not  less  than 
seventeen  masses,  besides  litanies,  motets,  offertories, 
etc.  He  also  wrote  several  sonatas,  a  symphony,  and 
one  or  two  minor  dramatic  compositions.  Sec  Eney* 
dop,  Brit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Gtansbert,  a  French  monk,  and  celebrated  reformer 
of  various  monasteries,  was  born  in  the  early  half  of  the 
10th  centurv,  of  a  noble  familv.  The  record  of  the 
fountlation  of  the  abbey  of  Bourgaeil,  in  991,  mentions 
him  as  the  abbot  of  St.  JuKcn  of  Tours  at  that  period. 
He  was  also  simultaneously  abbot  of  Bomrgueil-en- 
Yallde,  of  St.  Pierre  de  la  Couture,  at  Mons,  of  Maille- 
gais,  and  of  Marmoutiers.  The  JJistoire  Liitet'aire  de 
la  France  states  that  he  reformed  these  monasteries, 
and  that  be  established  a  great  number  of  charters, 
which  we  are  unable  to  mention.  About  1000  ho  went 
to  Rome,  and  obtained  of  pope  Sylvester  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  privileges  of  St.  Julien.  In  1001  he  en- 
gaged in  important  discussions  with  a  certain  knight 
named  Gautier,  upon  the  subject  of  the  immunities  of 
BourgueiL  The  same  year  be  received  of  queen  Ber- 
tha various  manors.  He  died  at  Bourgueil,  Sept.  27, 
but  there  is  much  uncertaintv  about  the  vear,  some 
making  it  1006,  others  1007.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Ghthiile^  s.  V. 

Ganteaviler,  Johann  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Basle  in  1631,  was  professor  at  Uerbom 
in  1650,  in  1665  at  Hanan,  in  1678  at  Duisburg,  and 
died  March  25, 1091.  He  wrote,  Mysterii  Urim  ti  Thu- 
mim  Delineatio  (Hanau,  1674):— i^cru/intum  T/teohgi- 
cum  de  Loquela  Angelorum  (Duisburg,  1682).  See 
Stricder,  fJessische  Gelehrten  Geschichte ;  AfiscelL  Duis- 
burg,  i,  550 ;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Gaon  (lii^j^  exetUence)  is  the  academic  title  of  the 
Jewish  presidents  of  the  colleges  of  Sora  (q.v.)  and 
Pumbaditha  (q.  v.).  The  title  originated,  according  to 
the  Jewish  historian  GrUtz,  cir.  A.D.  658.  When  Ali, 
the  son-in-law  and  vizier  of  Mohammed,  was  elected 


QAON 


480 


GARDINER 


caliph  (A.D.  655),  and  the  Ulamites  were  divided  into 
two  parties,  one  for  and  the  other  against  him,  both 
the  Babylonian  Jews  and  the  Nestorian  Christians  de- 
cided in  his  favor,  and  rendered  him  great  aseistanoe. 
Ali  rewarded  rabbi  Isaac,  then  president  of  the  college 
of  Sora,  with  the  title  "  Gaon."  Accordingly,  the  word 
is  either  of  Arabic  or  Persian  origin,  and  properly  be- 
longed to  the  presidents  of  the  Sora  college,  who  alone 
bore  the  appellation  at  the  beginning.  The  president 
of  the  subordinate  sister  college  at  Pnmbaditha  was 
caUed  the  head  of  the  coUfge,  SmTiO  C^n,  by  the 
Babylonians,  and  the  appellation  Gaon,  whereby  the 
presidents  were  sometimes  styled, obtained  at  first  among 
the  non-Babylonian  Jews,  who  were  not  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  dignities  of  the  respective  colleges  in 
Babylon.  It  was  only  afVer  the  year  917,  when  Pumba- 
ditha  became  of  equal  importance  with  Sora,  and  espe- 
cially when,  after  the  death  of  Saadia  (q.  v.),  the  col- 
lege at  Sora  began  to  decay  altogether,  and  Pumbaditha 
continued  alone  to  be  the  college  uf  the  doctors  of  the 
law,  that  the  presidents  of  its  college,  like  those  of  Sora, 
were  described  by  the  title  of  Gaon.  The  period  of  the 
Gaonim  comprises  the  time  from  A.D.  658  to  1040,  and  is 
divided  into  that  of  the  Firat  Gaonim^  from  A.D.  658  to 
760,  and  that  of  the  Ixiter  Gaonim,  from  A.D.  760  to  1040. 
The  only  literary  productions  of  the  First  Gaonastic  Pe- 
riod are  the  SheiUolh  of  rabbi  Acha  of  Shabcha,  which 
combine  all  the  different  characteristics  of  the  study  of 
the  rabbis,  viz.,  Halacha,  Midrash,  Talmud,  and  Kc- 
sponsa,  arranged  acconling  to  the  sections  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, explaining  their  respective  laws  and  observations 
by  means  of  extracts  from  the  Bab^ionian  Talmud,  and 
original  compositions  in  the  favorite  form  of  questions 

and  answers  (niPbMD).  To  this  period  also  belongs 
the  beginning  of  the  Neo- Hebrew  poetry,  or  the  so- 
called  Piut  (la*)*^!}),  a  term  obviously  taken  from  the 
Greek,  and  the  poet  was,  in  like  manner,  called  pAtan 
013*^6,  voirfTriQ),  Now  these  piutim  (0*^^3*1*^11),  written 
either  in  the  form  of  the  acrottie  or  arrangement  of 
wortls,  strophes,  and  lines,  or  rhyme  (TI'^H)  or  mttre 
(:i:cpQ),  are  to  be  found  in  the  Machsorim  or  syna- 
gogue rituals  of  the  different  countries,  and  consist  of 
Ktroboth  (PilSIlp,  i.  e.  that  part  of  the  morning  ser- 
vice which  comprehends  the  first  three  benedictions) 
for  the  morning  prayer;  PenUential  Praytrsi^yn!^^)', 
EUgiu  (m3*»p);    I/osaimat    (marcin);  Peiiiions 

(mopa),  etc 

Of  the  literati  among  the  later  Gaonim,  we  notice 
Mar  Zemach  I,  ben-Paltoj,  of  Pumbaditha  (872-890), 
the  author  of  a  Talmudic  lexicon  called  **  Aruch,**  which 
however,  is  not  the  same  as  the  Anich  of  Nathan  ben- 
Jechiel  (q.  v.).  Zemach's  lexicon  has  not  yet  come  to 
light.  Excerpts  were  published  by  Rappaport,  from 
the  collection  made  bv  Saccuto  in  the  Hebrew  essavs 
and  reviews,  called  BUdaire  ha-ittim  (Vienna,  1880),  xi, 
81  sq.  Other  excerpts  were  published  by  Geiger  in 
Zeitichrijl  d,  D,  M,  G.  (Leipsic,  1858),  xi,  144.  Zemach 
is  also  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  the  chronological 
account  of  the  Taualm  and  Amoralm  (D*^X:n  ^10 
B'^Xn-.rxi),  which  was  edited  by  Luzzatto  in  the  He- 
brew Etioys  (Prague,  1839),  iv,  184.  Contemporary 
with  Paltoj  was  Nachshon  ben-Zadok  (q.  v.)  of  Sura, 
A.D.  881-889.  Another  writer  of  this  period  was  Simeon 
ofKahira  or  Misr,  in  Egypt,  who  composed  a  compen- 
dium of  the  most  important  halachoth  from  both  Tal- 
muds,  with  the  title  Great  Halachoth  (Hlb^^A  n^SPH), 
about  the  year  900.  To  this  period  also  belongs  Ibn 
Koreish  (q.  v.)  and  Saadia  (q.  v.).  With  the  latter*s 
death  the  last  sunset  light  of  the  Soranic  academy  had 
passed  away,  and  about  the  year  948  the  school  had  to 
be  closed.  In  order  to  secure  its  further  existence,  four 
young  men  were  sent  out^  never  to  return  again,  to  in- 
terest their  rich  co-religionists  in  this  old  school  of  learu- 


ing.  The  yoong  men  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  Spanish 
corsair.  Among  these  captives  was  Moses  ben-Chanocb 
(q.  v.).  While  the  Soranic  school  was  closed,  that  of 
Pumbaditha  was  presided  over  before  its  final  close  by 
two  men,  Sherira  Gaon  (q.  t.)  and  Hai  ben-Shirira 
(q,  v.). 

With  the  exception  of  the  authors  we  have  named 
already,  the  great  maas  of  the  Gaonastic  literature  is 
anonymous.  We  mention  the  Midrash  Etpa  (C*)"i:3 
HBOK),  on  part  of  the  book  of  Numbers.;  the  Midrath 
IIoMhem  (DSCn  Ol'IQ);  the  chronicle,  entitled  IHm- 
tory  of  the  Maccabees  o/ Joseph  hen^Gorunij  which  is  a 
translation  of  an  Arabic  book  of  the  Maccabees,  the 
TViricA  al-Matkaibafn,  Jussv/  Um-Goryon.  This  book, 
says  Dr.  Griltz,  was  afterwards  translated  by  an  Ital- 
ian Jew,  who,  by  his  additions  to  it,  displayed  great 
skill  in  his  Hebrew  style,  and  which  translation  is  gen* 
erally  known  under  the  title,  Josippon  (q.  v.).  Besides 
the  Josippon  or  Pseudo-Josephus,  we  must  mention  an 
ethical  midrash,  entitled  Tcma  debS  Eliahu^  or  Seder 

Eliahu  Cin-^bst  ''a*!  KSn  Wbx  ■^•lO),  the  Midrash 
Tcmchuma  or  Tanchttma  Jelamdemt,     (B.  P.) 

Garafoloa,  Gabriel,  an  Augustinian  monk  of  It- 
aly, who  died  at  Spoleto  in  1488,  wrote  A  dversus  Jltere- 
ses: — A  dversus  FratriceUos : — Sermons  in  EvangeKeu 
See  Ughelli,  Italia  Sacra ;  Jdcher,  A  llgemeimes  Gelehr^ 
ten-Laeikanf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Qaroaeua,  Joiiannks,  a  Lutheran  theologian  ci 
Germany,  was  bom  Dec  13, 1530,  at  Hsmburg.  He 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1557  professor  of  theology 
and  pastor  at  Greifswalde,  in  1562  superintendent  and 
first  preacher  at  Brandenburg,  and  died  Jan.  22, 1575. 
He  wrote,  De  Erigendis  Fiyuris  Cctli  (Wittenberg, 
1556)  i^De  S,  Laurentio  Marfyre  (ibid.  1562) :  —  De 
S.  Joanne  Baptista  (ibid,  eod.) : — De  Magis  ex  Oriente 
(ibid,  eod.)  \—De  8,  Martino  Episcopo  Turonensi  (ibid. 
1568)  ',—Confessio  Orthodoxa  de  Spiritu  Sando  (1566) : 
— De  Infanticidio  Herodis  (ibid,  eod.) : — CoUatio  summi 
Pontijicis  V.  et  N.  T,  (Leipsic,  1574>  See  Thiess,  Ham- 
burg  Gekhrten-Lexikon  ;  Jocher,  AUyemeines  GeUhrfen- 
Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Oarcin  {de  Tassy\  Joseph  H^uodorb  Sagessk 
VKirru,  a  famous  French  Orientalist,  was  bom  Jan.  20» 
1794,  at  Marseilles.  In  1817  he  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  studied  under  Sylvestre  de  Sacy.  The  latter  espe- 
cially interested  him  in  the  vulgar  Anbic  spoken  by 
the  Mussulmans  of  India,  and  to  this  he  devoted  him- 
self entirely.  A  chair  for  Hindustani  was  especially 
created  for  him  at  the  college  in  Paris;  he  succeeded 
TalWrand  as  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions, 
in  1^,  and  alter  Mohrs  death,  in  1870,  he  was  made 
president  of  the  Asiatic  Society.  Garcin  de  Tassy  died 
Sept.  2, 1878.  He  published,  Rudimenis  de  la  lAjmyne 
Bindoustani  (Paris,  1829;  with  appendices,  1848): — 
Rudiments  de  la  lAtngue  JJindoul  (ibid.  1847) :  —  Let 
Ouvres  de  Wait,  Ceisbre  Poete  du  Dekkatf  (with  a  trans- 
latton,  1884):— Am  Atentures  de  Kamrvp  (ibid. eod.): 
— an  edition  of  the  Pend-Nameh  of  Saadi,  ^Mantik  ul- 
Atair"  (/««  Language  des  Oiseavx) : — Doctrines  et  De^ 
voir 8  des  Musulmans  (from  the  Arabic,  1827-^0) : — PoStie 
PhUosophique  et  Peligieuse  des  Persons  (1857) : — Rkifo^ 
riqut  et  Prosodie  de  t Orient  Musuhnan  (1878).     (K  1*.) 

Gardiner,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
l)ora  about  1756.  He  was  educated  at  Tiverton,  whence 
he  vrent  to  the  University  of  Glasgow,  where  he  sttidie>d 
civil  law.  He  then  entered  himself  in  the  Middle 
Temple,  with  a  view  to  qualify  for  the  bar.  An  irre- 
sistible impulse  induced  liim  to  exchange  the  law  for 
the  Chureh,  and  in  consequence  he  repaired  to  Wad* 
ham  College,  Oxford.  In  1781  he  took  possession  of 
the  vicarage  of  Shiriey  and  rectory  of  Brai]afonl,in  the 
county  of  Derby,  the  presentation  to  which  had  been 
purchased  by  his  father,  with  whom  he  afterwards  ie> 
sided  for  some  years  at  Wellington,  performing  gratui* 
tously  the  duty  of  curate  in  that  parish.    In  1789  be 


GARDINER 


431 


GARRETSON 


undertook  the  aame  oflSoe  at  Taonton,  and  then  oon* 
tinued  till  his  father,  in  1796,  parchased  for  him  the 
Octagon  Chapel  at  Bath,  where  he  officiated  till  bis 
death  in  188&  He  also  aenred  as  a  magistrate  for  the 
ooanty  of  SomerMt.  Dr.  Gardiner  publiahed  a  niimber 
of  oocaaional  Diaeounea  (1798-1811),  and  a  volume  of 
Senmmt  (Bath,  1802, 8ro).  See  TM  Christian  Jennm- 
braneer  (Lond.),  Sept.  1888,  p.  668;  Allibone,  Dkt,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mar,  A  uthors,  a.  v. 

Gardiner,  John  Sylvester,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  Haverford-Wesr,  South 
Wales,  in  June,  1766.  At  the  age  of  five  years  he  was 
sent  to  America  to  the  care  of  his  grandfather,  then  a 
resident  of  Boston,  where  he  attended  school,  and  after 
three  or  four  years  returned  to  his  father,  who  was  at- 
torney-general on  the  island  of  St.  Christopher,  W.  I. 
Shortly  after,  John  was  sent  to  England,  where,  from 
1776  to  1782,  he  was  a  pupil  of  the  famous  Dr,  Parr. 
After  this  he  visited  his  father  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
in  1783  went  to  Boston,  which  became  his  permanent 
home.  Partly  under  the  tutorship  of  his  father  and  part- 
ly under  that  of  judge  Tudor,  he  studied  law,  but  aban- 
doned it  to  enter  the  ministry,  officiating  as  lay-reader 
at  Pownalboro*,  Me.,  and  studying  theol<^i:y.  He  was 
ordained  deacon  in  New  York  city,  Oct  18,  1787,  and 
presbyter,  Dec  4, 1791,  For  a  while  he  preachecl  at  St. 
Helena,  Beaufort,  S.  C,  and  then  was  elected,  in  1792, 
assistant  to  Dr.  Parker,  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Boa- 
ton.  A  meagre  support  compelled  him  to  teach  school. 
He  was  chosen  rector  of  the  church,  April  16, 1806,  vice 
I>r.  Parker,  made  a  bishop.  After  many  years  of  ser- 
vice his  health  became  impaired,  and  he  made  a  voy- 
a|^  to  Europe  to  recuperate,  but  died  at  Harrowgate, 
£ngland,  July  29, 1880.  He  was  a  member  of  the  An- 
thology Club,  which  published  the  Monthly  Anthology 
and  Boston  Review,  Among  his  literary  remains  are  a 
large  number  of  published  Sermons,  A  ddresseSf  etc.  Sec 
Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit^  v,  868. 

Qerdiner,  Richard,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
at  Hereford  in  1691,  educated  at  the  school  there,  and 
at  Christ  Church,  where  he  was  canon  in  1629.  In 
1630  be  was  chaplain  to  Charles  I.  He  died  in  1670. 
He  published  several  Sermons  (1669).  See  Chalmers, 
Hioff,  Diet,  s.  ▼. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  u- 
tkors,  a,  ▼. 

Qaribald  (Lat.  GariobaUus,  Gaiavaldus,  GoibaU 
dttSj  fierbaUAt,  etc.),  appointed  bishop  of  Ratisbon  by 
Su  Boniface,  A.D.  789,  is  commemorated  Jan.  8.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Qerlande,  ^tiknhb,  a  French  prelate,  was  priest, 
archdeacon  of  Paris,  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  and  at 
leni^h  seneschaL  Forced,  at  the  end  of  seven  years,  to 
resign  these  functions,  as  they  were  incompatible  M'ith 
the  ecclesiastical  calling,  he  transferred  them  to  Amaury 
of  Montfort,  count  of  Evreux,  without  the  consent  of 
the  king,  who  seized  his  chateau  at  Uvry  as  a  punish- 
ment, but  afterwards  consented,  about  1129,  to  receive 
Gariande  and  Amaury  into  his  favor,  on  condition  that 
they  ahould  resign  their  claipis  to  the  office  of  senes- 
chal. Gariande  died  in  1160,  at  Orleans,  where  he  had 
consecrated  his  nephew,  Manasses,  bishop.  See  Hoefer, 
your,  Biog,  GSniriiie,  s.  v. 

9arnet,  Hexbt  Highland,  D.D.,  a  colored  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  bom  in  New  Market,  Kent  Co., 
Md.,  April  16, 1816,  of  parents  who  escaped  from  slavery, 
in  1824,  to  New  Hope,  Pa.,  and  the  next  year  came  to 
New  York  city,  where  the  lad  went  to  school,  and  at 
the  aame  time  served  as  a  cook.  In  1881  he  entered  a 
high-school;  in  1886  went  to  Canaan  Academy,  N.  H.; 
next  year  to  Oneida  Institute,  N.  Y. ;  in  1840  settled  as 
a  teacher  in  Troy;  studied  theology  under  Dr.  Beman ; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1842,  and  the  next  year  in- 
stalled pastor  of  the  Liberty  Street  Presbyterian  Church 
in  that  city.  The  same  year  he  delivered  an  eloquent 
speech  in  BniEdo,  before  the  Liberty  Party  convention. 
Ue  addreaKd  the  state  legislature  in  January,  1844, 


and  in  1846  he  presided  at  the  Delevan  Temperance 
Union,  at  Poughkeepsie.  About  this  time  the  late 
Gerrit  Smith  appointed  him  an  agent  for  the  purpose 
of  distributing  a  large  gift  of  lands  in  this  state  among 
colored  men.  In  1860  Dr.  Garnet  was  invited  to  lect- 
ure in  England,  made  an  address  in  Exeter  Hall,  and 
was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Congress  held  at 
Frankfort -on -the -Main.  At  its  conclusion  he  trav- 
elled through  Bavaria,  Prussia,  and  France.  In  1852 
he  was  sent  by  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland  as  a  missionary  to  Jamaica,  West  Indies. 
While  there  he  received  a  unanimous  call  to  the 
pulpit  of  the  Shiloh  Presbyterian  Church,  then  at 
Prince  and  Clarion  Streets,  New  York,  and  soon  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  colored  population  in  that 
city.  In  1861  he  revisited  England,  as  the  president 
of  the  African  Colonization  Society,  but  soon  returned, 
and  volunteered  as  chaplain  to  the  colored  troops  at 
Biker's  Island.  He  early  took  an  active  interest  in 
the  poorer  people  of  his  race,  and  organized  several 
charitable  societies  which  care  for  all  the  colored  peo- 
ple who  try  to  support  themselves.  Dr.  Garnet  was  the 
lirst  colored  man  who,  on  any  occasion,  spoke  in  the 
national  capitol,  where  he  preached  on  Sunday,  Feb. 
12, 1866,  in  the  hall  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
In  April  of  that  year  he  was  called  by  the  Fifteenth 
Street  Pr«»byterian  Church  of  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
accepted  the  call,  staying  there  several  years.  Again 
he  returned  to  his  former  church,  the  Shiloh,  and  was 
its  pastor  until  the  autumn  of  1881,  when  he  accepted 
the  appointment  of  United  States  minister  and  consul 
to  Liberia.  He  died  at  Monrovis,  Africa,  Feb.  13, 1882. 
See  The  (N.  Y.)  Tribune,  March  1 1 ,  1882. 

Oamham,  Robkkt  Epward,  an  English  divine, 
was  bom  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  May  1, 1758,  and  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  March  8, 1776,  and  soon  after  entered  into  the 
curacies  of  Nowton  and  Great  Welnatham.  He  was 
ordained  priest,  June  16, 1777;  in  1793  became  college 
preacher  at  Cambridge,  and  in  November,  1797,  was  ad- 
vanced into  the  seniority,  but  resigned  in  1789.  He 
died  Jnne  24, 1802.  His  writings  were  numerous,  but 
all  anonymous.    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Gamier,  Jean,  a  French  Reformed  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Avignon  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  centur}', 
and  died  at  Casscl,  in  January,  1574.  He  succeeded 
Pierre  Bruly,  or  Drulius  (q.  v.),  as  pastor  of  the  French 
Church  in  Strasburg,  which  was  founded  by  Calvin  in 
1538.  He  rejected  with  disdain  the  Interim  (q.  v.), 
which  Chsrles  Y  was  about  to  introduce  in  Strasburg 
in  1549.  He  left  the  city,  but  returned  in  1552,  to  leave 
it  again  in  1556.  In  1669  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Marburg,  and  three  years  later  court- 
preacher  at  Cassel.  He  published  Confession  de  la  Foy 
Christieime  de  Strasbourg  (Strasburg,  1549, 1552 ;  transL 
into  English,  Lond.  1562)  i—De  Kpistola  Pauli  ad  He- 
brceos  DecUtmatio  (Marburg,  1559).  See  Strieder,  I/ist, 
Lift,  de  la  I  [esse ;  Haag,  Ixi  France  Protestante,  vol.  v ; 
Jocher,  A  llgemeines  Gelehrten'f^exikon,  s,  v. ;  Dardier, 
in  Liclitenberger's  Eneydop,  des  Sciencet  Rel^evses, 
8.  V.     (a  P.) 

Qarretflon,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  was  bora  at  Six-Mile  Run,  N.  J.,  Nov. 
9, 1801.  He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1823,  and 
from  the  New  Bmnswick  Theological  Seminar^'  in  1826$ 
was  licensed  by  the  Classis  of  New  Brunswick,  ami  be- 
came missionary  to  Kinderhook  Landing  (Stuyvesant) 
and  Columbiaville,  N.  Y.,  the  same  year ;  at  Middlebuig 
in  1827;  at  Schnuilenburg,  N.  J.,  in  1833;  at  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  organizing  the  Central  Church  there,  in  1836;  at 
Belleville,  N.  J.,  in  1837 ;  corresponding  secretan'  of  the 
Board  of  Domestic  Missions  in  1849;  pastor  at  Canas- 
tota,  N.  Y.,  in  1859 ;  at  Owasco  Outlet  in  1861 ;  at  Esopus 
in  1865;  also  stated  supply  at  Sl  Kemy;  at  Lawrence- 
ville,  Pa  (Presbyterian),  in  1866;  at  Cortlandtown, 
N.  Y.,  in  1869;  then  two  years  without  a  charge,  until 


GARRISON 


432 


6ASTAUD 


be  bccAine  rector  of  Hertasog  Hall  in  1874,  where  he 
died  in  1875.  He  was  clear  and  diacriminating  as  a 
preacher)  wise  in  counsel,  and  of  broad  and  well-wrought 
plans  for  the  adTanoement  of  the  Church.  See  Corwin, 
Manual  of  the  Ref.  Church  in  A  merioOy  8d  ed.  p.  280. 

GarriBOXi,  Wiluam  Lijotd,  a  leading  abolitionist, 
was  bom  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Dec  12,  1804.  His 
mother  was  early  lefl  a  widow,  and  poor,  so  that  the 
son,  after  various  attempts  at  learning  a  trade,  was  at 
length  apprenticed  to  a  printer  in  his  native  town, 
where  he  soon  began  to  write  for  the  journals,  and  in 
1826  became  proprietor  of  the  Free  Prnt,  This  not 
succeeding  financially,  he  started  in  1827  the  National 
Philanihropitti  in  the  advocacy  of  moral  reforms,  and 
in  1881  the  Liberator^  a  fierce  opponent  of  slavery, 
which  was  continued  till  the  act  of  emancipation  dur- 
ing the  civil  war.  He  was  often  in  personal  peril  by 
tlic  violence  of  the  friends  of  slavery.  He  visited  Eng- 
land several  times  in  furtherance  of  his  principles,  and 
was  received  there  with  great  enthusiasm.  He  died 
Bf  ay  24, 1879.  Ho  published  Sannett  and  Other  Poenu 
(1848),  and  a  selection  from  his  Speechet  and  WrUing$ 
(1862). 

Garth,  the  greensward  or  grass  area  between,  or 
within,  the  cloisters  of  a  religious  house. 

Qartb,  Helvicus,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  Dec  18, 1579.  He  studied  at  Marburg 
and  Strasburg,  and  died  at  Prague,  Dec  6, 1619.  He 
wrote,  De  Invocatione  Sanctorum: — De  Judice  ConirO' 
vertiarum: — Comment,  in  Nahum  et  Ifabakuk  .'—Theo- 
logics  Jeiuitarum  Prcscipua  Capita: — De  Articulis 
Controversis  Inter  Lutheranos  et  Calvinianos: — Acta  et 
Post- Acta  CoUoquii  Pragtnsit:  —  De  Providentia  Dei 
in  Vocatione  Doctorum  et  Minisfrorum  Ecderia.  See 
Jdcher,  Attgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Witte,  Me- 
morim  Theologorum,     (B.  P.) 

Qartland,  Francis  Xavikr,  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1805 ;  ordained  in  Phil- 
adelphia in  1882 ;  consecrated  bishop  of  Savannah,  Ga., 
Nov.  10,  1850,  and  died  of  yellow  fever  in  that  city, 
Sept.  20, 1853.  See  De  CJoiircy  and  Shea,  IlisL  of  the 
Cath,  Church  in  the  U,  S.  p.  167. 

G&rtner,  Ilerr  ton,  an  eminent  German  architect., 
was  bom  at  Coblentz  in  1792,  and  while  young  visited 
Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  He  afterwards  settled  at 
Munich,  and  was  appointed  by  Louis  I  professor  of 
architecture  in  the  Koyal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  that 
city.  In  1822  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  state 
manufactory  of  porcelain  and  glass  paintings.  He 
erected  a  number  of  edifices  at  Munich,  among  which 
were  the  university,  the  triumphal  gate,  the  clerical 
seminary,  and  the  Church  of  SL  Louis.  After  the  de- 
parture of  Von  Cornelius  to  Berlin,  Yon  Gilrtner  became 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  having  formerly 
been  nominated  chief  architect  and  inspector- general 
of  the  plastic  monuments.  He  died  in  1847.  See 
Spooncr,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Ganzda,  the  sacred  bird  of  Yishnd  (q.  v.),  as  the 
eagle  was  the  bird  of  Jupiter.  Garuda  was  worshipped 
by  the  Yaishnavas  (q.  v.)  in  the  golden  age  of  Hindfi 
idolatry. 

Gaspazl,  Johann  Baptist  von,  a  German  histo- 
rian, was  bom  in  1702,  and  died  at  Yienna  in  1768.  He 
wrote,  De  Tridentinia  AntiquUatibut:  — De  Protegtan- 
tium  Germanorum  in  Catkolicoe  Gettit :  —  Breviarium 
Vita  S,  Theodori  Epiec  Saliiburgennum  (published  by 
his  brother  Lazaro,  Venice,  1780).  See  L.  Gaspari,  Del- 
la  Vita,  DegU  Studii  e  Degli  Scritti  di  Gio.  Batt,  de 
Gaspari  (Yenice,  1770) ;  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gdehrtenr 
Leacikon,  a.  v.     (11.  P.) 

GkuQiaiin,  Ao^or,  Comte  de,  an  eminent  layman 
of  the  French  Protestant  Church,  was  bom  at  Orange 
(France),  July  12, 1810.  He  studied  Uw  at  Paris  and 
took  an  active  part  in  French  politics,  and  in  1842  he 
lepresented  Bastia  in  the  House  of  Deputies.    Relig- 


ions subjects,  however,  engrossed  a  largo  ahaie  of  his 
attention.  In  1848  he  published  Intir&t  Geniraux  dm, 
Proteitaniieme  Franfais,  and  in  1846  Chrittianitme  et 
Pagameme  (2  vols.).  In  1848  he  attended  the  general 
synod  of  the  Reformed  churches  of  Fiance,  and  main- 
tained with  Frederick  Monod  the  necessity  of  a  well- 
defined  creed  for  that  Church.  The  last  twenty-three 
^cars  of  his  life  he  spent  in  Switzerland,  and  there  be 
wrote  his  Let  JEcoUs  du  Doute  et  PEcole  de  la  Foi: — 
Un  Grand  Peuple  qui  ss  Bileve  (1861)  :—L*Amerig»e 
devant  VEurope  (18i62),  directed  against  slavery.  He 
also  delivered  lectures  on  religious  topics,  and  in  every 
way  promoted  the  cause  of  religion.  He  died  May  8, 
1871.  Some  of  his  works  were  also  translated  into 
German,  and  of  his  IJAmerique  devant  t Europe  an 
English  translation  was  published  in  New  York  (8d  ed. 
1868).  See  Maville,  Le  Comte  Ag,  de  Gasparin  (Ge- 
neva, 1871) ;  Borel,  Le  Comte  Ag,  de  Gatparin  (Paris, 
1879;  £ngl.  transl.  N.  Y.  1880);  Lichtenberger,  Encg- 
clop,  det  Scieneee  Beligieuseif  s.  v. ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL 
i,400.     (a  P.) 

GasB,  Joachim  Christian,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  May  26, 1766.  He  studied  at 
Halle,  was  in  1795  military  chaplain,  in  1807  preacher 
at  Berlin,  in  1810  professor  of  theology  at  Breslau,  and 
died  there,  Feb.  19, 1881.  A  friend  and  pupil  of  Schlei- 
ermacher,  Gaas  also  represented  the  theology  of  hi« 
master.  As  a  member  of  consistory,  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  his  province.  He 
wrote,  Eriwneryng  an  den  Reichetag  zu  Speier  m  Jahre 
1529  (Breslau,  1829)  :—JaArM(eA«r  dee  Protegtantiechen 
Kirchen-  und  Schubcetent  von  undfur  Schietieu  (1817- 
20, 4  vols.)  ir-Ueber  das  Weeen  der  Kirchenzucht  (1819) : 
— Ueber  den  Beligiontunierricht  in  den  obem  Claseen  der 
Gymnasien  (1928) :— Ueber  den  chrietL  Cultus  (1815). 
See  Schleiermacher,  Brief wecheel  mit  Gtus  (Berlin, 
1852) ;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  det  Science*  ReUgieutet, 
s.  V. ;  Plitt^Herzog,  ReaUEncydop.  s.  v.;  Winer,  Ilitnd- 
bttch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  751, 808 ;  ii,  21, 88, 74, 75, 157, 167, 
169,179.     (a  P.) 

Gtaaaer,  Yincbnt,  a  Itoman  Catholic  prelate,  was 
bom  in  the  Tyrol  in  1809.  In  1836  he  was  professor 
of  theology  at  Brixen,  member  of  parliament  in  1848, 
bishop  of  Brixen  in  1856|  and  prince-bishop  in  1839. 
He  died  in  1879.  He  was  the  head  of  the  Tvroleee 
Ultramontaiiists,  and  allowed  the  Jesuits  to  use  their 
influence  in  the  universities  and  schools.-   (a  P.) 

Gastaldi,  Gkronimo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bora 
at  Genoa  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century,  of  an 
ancient  Genoese  family.  .He  embraced  the  eodesiasti- 
cal  calling,  and  went  to  Rome.  In  1656,  Gastaldi,  al- 
ready a  prelate,  was  designated  for  the  perilooa  position 
■of  general  commissary  of  the  hospitals,  and  was  after- 
wards appointed  general  commissioner  of  public  health, 
and  so  faithfully  did  he  perform  his  duties  that  he  ae- 
cured  the  arohbishopric  of  Benevento,  the  cardinalate, 
and  ilie  legation  to  Bologna,  Several  monuments 
erected  at  his  expense  at  Rome  and  Benevento  attest 
his  charity  and  munificence.  He  gave  his  observa. 
tions  conceming  contagious  diseases  in  a  work  which 
was  published  at  Bologna  in  1684,  the  year  previous  to 
his  death,  suggesting  certain  precautions  and  remediea. 
See  Hoefer,  Aovr.  Biog.  Gineralef  s.  v.  ^ 

Gaataud,  Francois,  a  French  theologian,  was  bora 
at  Aix  about  1660.  He  entered  the  congregation  of 
the  Oratorio  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  but  after  five  years 
withdrew,  having  studied  philosophy  at  Marseilles  and 
theology  at  Aries.  He  was  ordained  priest,  and  for 
several  yean  preached  at  Paris  with  great  sooccas.  His 
brother,  a  distinguished  advocate,  having  died  about 
1700,  abb6  Gastaud,  after  two  years  of  study,  was  a|^ 
pointed  counsellor  to  the  parliament  of  Aix,  and  obtained 
a  license  t&  practice  from  the  court  of  Rome.  He  alao 
succeeded  well  in  this,  and  in  1717  gained  an  important 
suit  against  the  Jesuits.  This  affair,  together  with  hia 
predilection  for  the  Janacnists,  made  euemiea  who  at- 


GASTROMANCT  4! 

tacked  bIm.iiMl  whoa  be  repolieil  with  gntt  violence. 
Bdng  buiiliHl  lo  Vivien  in  l7aT,>nd  recalled  in  mbout 
eight  dKNithi,  be  wu  agiin  baniilied  in  1781  lo  the 
ume  place,  where  he  died  in  1T3!2.  Some  or  his  prin- 
cipil  works  ire,  llomtiia  nr  CEpilrt  aax  Ramaiiu 
(Paria,  1699):  — £«  PoUHqia  da  Jhuita  Diwuuquit 
(witbont  date).     Sm  Hocftt,  No¥V.  Bioff.  GMrait,  i.  t. 

GMfttromancy  (from  yttfrhp,  'Ae  MIy,  and  iiar~ 
riio,  rfirtiuifioii),  a  miide  of  dirinitittn  practiced  among 
the  ancient  GraekB,  by  fllling  certain  rtHinJ  glaaae* 
with  pure  water,  placing  ligblfd  torchea  round  them, 
then  praying  to  the  deily  in  a  low,  multerinK  voice, 
and  pTvpnsing  (he  qnealian  wbich  they  wialiait  an- 
■wered.  Certain  imagea  were  now  olnerved  in  the 
glue,  reprewnting  what  was  lo  happen. 

Oatakar,  THosAa,  ■  divine  of  the  IGih  cenlurr, 
■on  of  WilUam  Uaiiker,  waa  burn  at  Caiacre  Hall, 
Sbropahire.  He  sturlied  law  at  the  'I'emple,  London, 
during  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  waa  often  prenenC  at  the 
examination  of  penvcutal  people.  Their  hanl  uaige 
and  patience  inBiieiiced  him  ill  their  favor,  which  his 
(laTeiita  pemtred,  aiid  immediately  tent  him  to  Louvain 
lo  ninttaie  him  in  the  Catholic  faith.  Thii  did  not 
aeem  to  have  the  desired  eflecl,  although  afterwardi  he 
appears  to  tiave  become  reconciled  to  liia  father.  Ue 
Mudied  theology,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  became  pu- 
lor  at  St.  Edmund's,  Iximbard  Street,  London,  and  died 
in  1593,  leaving  a  learned  aan  of  the  same  name.  See 
Fuller,  Iforttifj  a/Emglaad  (ed.  NutuU),  tii,  M. 

QateB,  Holt,  the  name  given  to  the  folding  galea 

niodetn  Gteeti  churches,  separates  the  body  of  the 
church  from  the  holy  of  holies.  The  Ao/[r  gala  are 
opened  and  shat  frequently  during  the  service,  part  of 
tbc  prayers  and  leaiuns  bdng  recited  in  front  ol  (hem 
and  part  withiu  ihe  sdytum. 

Oath.  In  the  Quarlerfy  SlaUmmt  of  (he  "  Palest. 
Esptor.  Fund,"Oct.  1880.  p.  211  aq.,  there  is  an  extended 
paper  on  the  site  of  this  important  city,  wbkh  Hr.  Tie- 
lawnev  Saunden  slronglv  arguei  was  located  it  Kkar- 
kik  Abu-GluHk,  at  the  haul  of  Wady  el-lleay  (hen 


3  GAUCHER 

Oadan,  Saint,  apostle  of  Tooraine,  waa  horn  at 
Rome,  according  to  the  ancient  annalists.  His  arrival 
among  the  Gauls  tooli  pbuc,  according  to  tiregury  of 
Tours,  under  the  consulate  of  Deciua  snd  Grotus,  i.e., in 
'i60  or  Ul.  When  he  presented  himself  at  the  metrop- 
olis of  Lyons  he  did  not  find  the  pagans,  for  the  moat 
part,  very  docile.     He  preached  during  the  day  in  the 

the  lower  class,  and  at  nighl  concealed  himself  from 
the  violence  of  enemies.  The  city  of  Tours  reverenced 
him  as  the  chief  of  ita  tnabopa.  He  laboreil  for  Bftj 
rears  to  diffuse  the  Christian  faith,  and  at  the  time  oT 
his  death,  which  occurred  Dec.  20, 30],  Ihe  Church  of 
Tours  was  founded.  See  Hoefer,  Soat.  Biog.  Ghiirak, 
1.V.1  Sniii\i,  Did.  a/ Ckivl.Bu>s.t.v. 

Omta,  Bernardo  (called  Soiaro),  an  cminenlltal- 
ian  painter,  waa  bom  at  Cremona,  and  was  a  scholar  of 
Corregglo.  Some  of  his  heat  works  are  his  Rtpoie  n 
Kgspl,  in  Si.  SigismundX  at  Cremona;  CiriH  u  Ihe 
Manger,  at  St.  Peter's,  in  the  ume  city ;  and  the  Dead 
Chivl,  in  the  Magdalene,  at  Parma.  A  great  number 
of  hii  works  have  been  taken  to  other  countries,  par- 
tJculariytoSpain.  Hediedin  IfiTS.  See  Hoefer,  Aouc, 
Biog.  Giaiiale,  s.  v. ;   .Spooner,  Biog.  llil.  of  the  Fine 

G«ttl,  (HoTuml  Aiidr«%  a  Sicilian  prelate, 
waa  bom  at  Hesaina  in  UtO.  He  entered  the  Domin. 
ican  order,  and,  while  young,  (aught  in  their  convent  at 
Hessina,  excelling  all  his  contemporaries  in  philoaophy 


eloqiienoe,  (ireek,  and  especislly  familiar  with  Latin 
(lid  Hebrew.  Tohis  extensive  knowledge  waa  added  a 
very  temarkabic  memory.  From  Messina  he  went  (o 
Rome  as  profrsanr.  Florence,  Bulngna,  and  Feiraraeik- 
joyed  successivel)'  his  lectures,  which  had  become  cel- 
ebrated ihroughout  all  the  scholastic  world.  He  was 
among  the  most  familiar  friends  of  Bcasnrioii,  who 
caused  him  to  be  appointeil.  in  1468,  commendatory 
abbot  of  two  Uenedictine  conrenla  in  Sicily.  Accord- 
ing  to  Fontana,  he  had  already  performed  the  funcliona 
of  inquisitor  in  the  diocese  of  Heiiuna.  Ferdinand  1 
conferred  upon  him  the  bishopric  of  Ce- 
fslu,  and  employed  him  in  various  mis- 
sions to  the  holy  see.  The  sovereign 
poiitilT  premised  htm  Ihe  biahaprie  of 
Calania  by  spoatoltc  letters  of  Dec  IS, 
1477;  but  king  Ferdinand  objected,  and 
Gatti  resigi>ed  it.  He  returned  (oCefalu 
and  deva(ed  himseir  (o  (he  adminialra- 
Feeling  thai  death 


tion  of  his  dioc 
r,  he  r 


Oath  rrdi  aaStitob).    (From  Thomson's  BeulStnt  nOttUn*  and  A 


<aDed  el-Uulethah),  which  falls  into  the  Hediterraoean 
between  Oaia  and  Hebron ;  whereas  Lieut.  Conder  gives 
aabstaatial  reasoo*  fur  rejecting  tbi*  location,  and  in 
faroT  of  Ttil  rt^ajitk,  the  Blandit-Gardt  of  the  Crota- 
den.  This  place  isdcacribed  in  the  Uemoiii  aoxnnpe- 
nying  the  OrdDaoae  Sorvej' (ii,  MOX 


JCn.-E  R 


1188,  and  went  to  end  his 
convent  of  Messina,  where  he  commenced 
bia  religioua  life.  He  diwl  in  1484,  snd 
waa  interred  in  the  Cathedral  of  Hesjina. 
Hwigitore  attributes  to  him  some  woika, 
which  are  preserved  in  MS.  at  the  mon- 
aatery  of  St.  Dominic  Palermo.  Sec 
Uoefer,  A'oar.  Biog.  GisiraU,  s.  v. 

aattola,ERAS^i.'B,an  abbot  of  Honle 
Castillo,  was  bom  at  Gaeta  in  l^%  and 
died  Mav  ],  1784.  He  wrote  Ilitloria 
AOatia  Catineiuit,  etc.  (Venice,  17*4,  2 
vols.).  See  Winer,  Uamdivdi  dtr  Ikeot. 
/.if.i,712j  Ji>cher,^afmfiaMC*i(*i^«. 
Lexam,t.v.    (G.P.) 

0«aolL«r,  Siii«l,  waa  bom  at  Ueulan, 
Norm«ody,inlOBO,  At  the SReof  eight- 
een, under  the  direction  at  Raigner,  he 
resolved  to  devote  himself  lo  praver  and 
la  the  mMerilies  of  penitence  in  solitude^  Upon  the 
invitation  of  Humbert,  canon  of  Umogea,  b«^ent  lo 
Limouain,  snd  there  dwelt  in  a  hermitage  in  the  forest 
of  Chavaignae.  At  tbeend  of  three  years  he  obtained 
front  the  conona  of  St.  £lienne  of  Umoges  anlhority 
lo  build  ■  monaslery  in  ■  phice  knonn  aa  Solvatius, 


GAUDENZIO 


434 


GAUTHIER 


later  as  Aoreil,  which  was  oonducted  according  to  the 
regnlation  of  St.  Augustine.  Shortly  after  Gaucher  es- 
tablished a  monastery  for  women,  near  this.  Aureil,  be- 
coming celebrated  for  its  sanctity  and  for  the  miracles 
of  St.  Gaucher,  became  the  retreat  of  St.  Stephen  of 
Muret,  St.  Lambert  (founder  of  the  Abbey  de  la  Cou- 
ronne,  afterwards  bishop  of  Angouleme),  and  St.  Fau- 
cher.  Gaucher,  at  that  time  an  octogenarian,  return- 
ing from  Limoges,  where  he  had  held  an  assembly 
concerning  the  affairs  of  his  con%'ent,  a  false  step  caused 
him  to  strilce  his  head  violently  against  a  stone,  which 
place  is  still  called  Le  Pa»  de  St.  Gaucher^  and  where  a 
chapel  was  erected.  This  accident  caused  his  death 
three  days  later  at  Anreil  (1140),  whither  he  had  been 
carried.  He  was  canonized  by  pope  Celestin  III,  and 
his  remains  placed  in  a  shrine  by  Sebrand,  bishop  of 
Limoges,  Sept.  18, 1194.  In  Limousin  and  Normandy 
his  festival  is  celebrated  April  9.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  GhiS'ale,  s.  v. 

Gaudenzio,  PAOAXiifi,  a  Boman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Italy,  was  bom  at  Poschiavo^  in  the  canton  of 
Orisons,  about  1595.  In  1627  he  was  professor  at  Pisa, 
and  died  Jan.  3, 1649.  He  wrote,  JM  DogmaHbuu  et 
RiUbus  VeteiHt  Ecdetim  Haretieorum : — De  Dogmatum 
Oriffenis  cum  Phiioiophia  Platonit  Comparatione : — 
wDeUa  Morle  <&'  8,  Giovatmi  EvcatgeUsta  Discortidue, 
and  other  works.  See  Winer,  Uandbuch  dtr  fheoL  Lit, 
i,  899;  Jucher,  AUgemeine»  GeUhrten-Lexikorij  s.  v.; 
Hoefcr,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhtiraU^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gaudied,  with  large  beadsp  Every  decade  or  tenth 
large  bead  in  the  rosaries  representing  a  Paternoster  is 
a  gaud ;  each  smaller  bead  stands  for  an  Ave  Maria. 

Gandidsufl,  Saint^  bishop  of  Tarazona,  in  Arragon, 
under  king  Gundemar,  was  noted  for  his  bold  profession 
of  the  orthodox  faith.  He  died  in  580,  and  is  commem- 
orated on  Nov.  8.     See  Smith,  Did.  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Gaudllts,  GoTTLiKB,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
bom  in  Saxony,  Nov.  17, 1694.  He  stndietl  at  Leipsic, 
was  magister  in  1717,  catechist  in  1721,  pastor  of  St. 
Thomas  in  1741,  doctor  of  divinity  the  same  year,  and 
died  Feb.  20,  1746,  leaving,  Ditpuiationes  de  £pistoU» 
Chritti  ifitl^x^^i  • — ^^  Just^catione  Dei  coram  iiomin' 
Unti : — De  Chrisio  Exegeta : — Da*  Leben  A  kabSf  Kdmgs 
M  Itratl,  etc.  See  Jocher,  il^^^emetnes  Gelehrlen-Lexi' 
iofi,s.v.    (B.P.) 

GanflBer,  Locia,  an  eminent  French  painter,  was 
bom  at  Bochelle  in  1761,  and  studied  under  TaravaL 
In  1784  he  carried  off  the  grand  price  of  the  Academy 
for  his  picture  of  the  Syropheniciun  Woman,  He  went 
to  Rome  with  the  royal  pension,  and  produced  several 
pictures  which  greatly  increased  his  reputation.  Among 
his  other  works  are  The  Boman  Matrons  Sending  their 
Jewels  to  the  Senate^  The  A  ngels  Appetyring  to  A  hrahamy 
and  Jacob  and  BacheL  He  died  at  Florence,  Oct.  20, 
180L  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ghtirale^  s.  v. ;  Spooner, 
Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,%.v., 

Qanlli,  Giovamiyi  Battxbta  (called  Baciceio\  an 
eminent  Italian  painter,  was  bom  in  1689,  and  was  in- 
stracted  in  the  art  in  Genoa,  after  which  he  went  to 
Kome,  where  he  studied  the  works  of  the  best  masters. 
The  ceiling  of  the  Chnrch  del  Gesu,  at  Rome,  is  his 
most  celebrated  performance,  representing  St.  Francis 
Xavier  taken  up  to  heaven.  The  following  are  some 
of  his  principal  pictures:  The  Madowna  and  Infant; 
The  Death  of  St,  Saterio,  He  also  gained  reputation 
by  painting  the  angles  in  the  dome  of  SL  Agnes.  He 
died  in  1709.    See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts^ 

SLY. 

Gault,  Jran  Baptibtb,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom 
at  Tours,  Dec.  29, 1595.  He  and  his  elder  brother, 
Eostacfae,  having  in  view  the  ecclesiastical  calling, 
punned  their  studies  at  Le  Fl^he,  then  at  Paris,  and 
finally  at  Rome.  After  a  sojourn  of  eighteen  months 
in  the  latter  city  they  returned  to  France,  and  entered 
the  congregation  of  the  Oratorio.    Jean  received  the 


order  of  priesthood  at  Troyes,  and  directed  successively 
the  houses  of  his  order  at  Langres,  Dijon,  and  Le  Mans. 
He  was  also  charged  with  various  apostolic  missions  to 
Spain  and  Flanders.  His  brother,  who  had  shared 
all  his  religious  labors,  was  appointed  bishop  of  Bfar- 
seilles,  but  died,  March  18,  1689,  before  receiving  bis 
bulla  from  Rome,  and  Jean  was  appointed  to  succeed 
him.  The  latter  showed  remarkable  zeal  for  the  re- 
form of  his  diocese,  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  for  the 
restoration  of  captives,  and  for  the  conversion  of  galley- 
slaves.  A  premature  death  removed  him  from  his  dio- 
cese, May  25, 1648.  The  clergy  of  France  demanded 
his  beatiticatioii  at  Rome  in  1645.  Enstache  Gault  was 
the  author  of  a  book  entitled  Discours  de  VEtat  et 
Couronne  de  Suede  (Le  Mans,  1688).  See  Hoefer,  Now, 
Biog,  Gh^'aUf  s.  v. 

Ganlter,  John,  an  eminent  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  bora  at  Chester,  Msrch  21,  1764.  He 
was  converted  by  remarkable  providences,  and  called 
to  the  ministr}'  by  Wesley  in  1785.  He  was  president 
of  the  conference  in  1817.  In  1885  he  was  laid  aside 
by  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  and  died  at  Chelsea,  Londoo, 
June  19, 1889.  He  had  a  vigorous  nnderatanding,  a 
remarkably  retentive  memory,  and  a  vivid  imagination. 
In  1812  Ganlter  revised  and  republished  Rev.  David 
Simpson's  Plea  for  Religion  and  the  Sacred  Writings. 
See  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference,  1839;  Steven- 
son, Hist,  of  City  Road  Chapd,  p.  560  sq. 

Oanltier,  Jaoques,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  bora  in 
1562,  and  died  at  Grenoble,  Oct.  14, 1686,  professor  of 
theology  and  Hebrew.  He  wrote.  Tabula  Chronogram 
phica  Status  EcoUmub  CathoHces: — Atuitomia  Calri' 
nismi: — Index  Controversiarum  ad  EvangeHa  Aecomr 
modata.  See  Alegambe,  BUdiotheca  Scriptorum  Sodt- 
taiis  Jesu;  Jucher,  AUgemeines  Getehrten^Lexikon,  8.T. 
(RP.) 

Oaupp,Carl  Frledrioh,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  and  professor  of  theology,  who  died  at 
Berlin  in  1868,  is  the  author  of  Die  RSmische  Kircke 
(Dresden,  1840) :  —  Die  Union  der  Deutschen  Kirehen 
(Breslaa,  1848)  i—Die  Union  in  der  Kirche  (ibid.  1847) : 
—  Praktische  Theologie  (Beriin,  1848,  2  vola.).  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  Theol  i,  401.     (a  P.) 

Gtoupp,  Jacob,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  Feb.  18, 1767,  at  Hirschberg,  and  died 
at  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  Aug.  19, 1828.  He  wrote,  Bei^ 
trage  sur  Befutigung  des  Reiches  der  Wahrheit  in  Pre- 
digten  (BresUn,  1798) :  —  Pnxf^toi  (Glogau,  1801):  — 
Briefe  eines  Menschenfreundes  an  hekummerte  und  lei' 
dende  Mitmenschen  (ibid.  1800-9,  8  vols.)  :—Religi6ses 
Erbauungsbuch  einerchristlichen  Familie  (Leipsic,  1812). 
See  Winer,  Bandbueh  der  theol  Lit.  ii,  94, 168, 884, 891. 
(RP.) 

Qauil,  Festival  op.   See  Flowers,  Festh'al  of. 

Gauthier,  Francoia  Loula,  a  French  theokn 
gian,  was  bora  at  Paris,  March  29, 1696.  He  was  rector 
of  Savigtiy-8ur>0rge,  and  performed  for  tift3'^-two  years 
the  pastoral  functions  with  great  zeal  and  charity.  He 
died  at  Paris,  Oct.  9, 1780,  leaving,  Reflexions  Chritiennes 
sur  les  httit  Beatitudes  (Paris,  1788).  See  Hoefer,  Abarr. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Oauthier,  Jean  Baptiate,  a  French  theologian, 
was  bora  at  Louviers  in  1685.  He  wss  for  a  long  time 
connected  with  Colbert,  bishop  of  Montpelier,  whose  in- 
stractions  and  mandates  he  published.  After  the  death 
of  that  prekte  he  settled  at  Paris.  He  died  Oct  80, 
1755,  near  Gaillon,  leaving  a  large  number  of  works, 
directedespecially  against  the  Jesuits  and  infidels.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gsnh'ale^  s.  v. 

Oauthier,  Nioolaa,  a  French  contR>ver8alist,was 
bora  i|t  Rheims  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  16th  century. 
Having  renounced  the  Church  of  Rome,  he  went  to  Se- 
dan for  the  study  of  theology;  but  suddenly  left  that 
place  and  the  Protestant  Church,  and  wrote,  Desemt- 
vaie  des  Fraudes  Sedanmses  (Paris,  1618): — Riponat 


GAUnER 


435 


OAZEL 


h  tAvertiuematt  de  J,  Cappd  (Rhetmfl,  1618)  :  —  /^ 
Livra  de  Babel  Huguew(e  (ibid.  1619).  See  Lichten- 
berger,  Enofdnp,  des  Sciences  Reiiffieutet,  a.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Now.  Biog.  GMrale,  9,  v.    (a  1'.) 

Oantier  dk  Coutances  (Lar.  de  Coustantus  or  de 
Couitantia)^  a  prelate  of  Normandr,  vraa  born  about 
1140.    Little  ii  known  of  his  life  prior  to  1178,  when 
he  was  vice-chancellor  of  England  and  canon  of  Houen. 
He  was  regarded  with  favor  by  the  king  of  England, 
who,  in  1177,  confided  to  him  a  roiaaion  to  the  count  of 
Flanden,  and  in  1180  sent  him  with  an  embaaay  to  the 
cofirt  of  the  young  king,  Philip  Augustus.     Gautier, 
who  added  to  his  other  ecclesiastical  honors  the  canon- 
ship  of  Lincoln  and  the  archdeaconship  of  Oxford,  great- 
ly desired  the  bishopric  of  Ltsieux,  but  did  not  obtain 
it.    A  vacancy,  however,  oocurriog,  he  was  made  bish- 
op of  Lincoln,  and  soon  after  passed  to  the  metropolitan 
see  of  Rouen.    From  this  time  the  name  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Rouen  ia  continually  mingled  with  the  poli- 
tics of  the  day.     In  1188  he  agreed  to  accompany  king 
Henry  II  on  the  crusade.     In  return  for  services  ren- 
dered to  prince  Richard,  Gautier  was  invested  with  the 
r^ncy  of  the  kingdom,  Oct.  8, 1 191.    After  an  absence 
from  his  diocese  of  four  years,  in  which  time  he  had 
obtained  the  liberty  of  the  king,  who  had  l)een  a  pris- 
oner in  Germany,  he  had  to  appease  some  difficulties 
between  the  canons  and  citizens  of  Rouen.     In  1194 
the  churches  of  Normandy  aulfered  greatly  from  the 
war  between  the  kings  of  France  and  England.    Gau- 
tier defended  vigorously  the  ecclesiastical  rights,  and 
sent  an  interdict  to  Normandy,  which,  however,  he  was 
unable  to  sustain.     In  1200  he  had  charge  of  promul- 
gating, conjointly  with  the  bishop  of  Poitiers,  the  in- 
terdict sent  by  Peter  of  Capua  against  the  king  of 
France.    In  1204,  Philip  Augustus* becoming  master  of 
Normandy,  Gautier  solemnly  delivered  to  him  the  at- 
tributes of  the  ducal  crown.    He  died  Nov.  6,  1207. 
There  remain  to  us  only  a  few  letters  of  Gautier,  scat- 
tered among  the  cotemporary  annalists.    It  was  said 
that  he  also  wrote  a  history  of  the  crusade  of  Richard, 
but  nothing  remains  of  it.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Cineraley  s.  v- 

Oautier  de  Mortaonk  (Lat.  WaUerue  de  Mauri- 
tama),  a  French  theolog^n,  was  born  at  Mortagne,  in 
Flanders,  in  the  early  part  of  the  12th  century.  He 
taught  rhetoric  at  Paris,  in  one  of  the  schools  estab- 
lished upon  the  St.  Genevieve  mountain.  But  he  soon 
gave  up  bellM-lettres  for  theology  and  philosophy,  and 
taught  these  two  sciences  at  Rhcims,  Lyons,  and  other 
places.  From  1136  to  1148  he  had  as  disciple  Jean  de 
Salisbury.  In  1150  he  was  canon  of  Laon,  and  be- 
came successively  dean,  and  bishop  of  that  church. 
He  died  at  Laon  in  1173.  He  wrote  five  short  theo- 
logical treatises  in  the  form  of  letters,  which  occupy 
twenty  pages  in  the  SpicOeffium  of  D'Achery.  The 
more  interesting  of  these  letters  is  addressed  to  Abe- 
Urd,  who  claimed  to  explain  philosophically  the  mys- 
teries of  Christianity.  See  Hoefer,  A"our.  Biog,  Cini- 
raiUf  B.  v. 

Oauslin,  a  French  prelate,  natural  son  of  Hugh  Ca- 
pet, became  abbot  of  Fleury  after  the  death  of  Abbon  in 
1005.  He  sent  to  Brittany  the  monk  Felix  to  reform 
the  monasteries.  At  the  death  of  Dagbert,  bishop  of 
Bourges,  in  1020,  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  prelate 
in  this  vacancy ;  but  the  opposition  of  the  inhabitants 
hindered  him  for  a  long  time  from  taking  possession  of 
his  see,  and  only  through  the  intervention  of  the  pope, 
Benedict  VIII,  he  entered  upon  these  duties  in  1014. 
In  1022  he  was  at  the  Council  of  Orleans,  which  con- 
demned the  heresiarch  Stephen,  and  in  1024  at  the 
Council  of  Paris,  where  he  debated  the  question  of  the 
apostleship  of  Sl  Martial.  He  died  in  1030.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Aoitr.  Biog.  GiniraUf  s.  v. 

Gavardo,  Niocx>ix>,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian, 
who  died  at  Rome,  June  12, 1715,  is  the  author  of,  Thfo- 
logia  JCxantiquata  juxta  Doctrinam  S,  A  vymtiui  (Na- 


ples, 1688-96, 6  vols.)  ^-^QmUioneB  de  Sierarchia  Ec- 
cUeim  MiUtatUit  (ibid.  1690) :— PAOosopAta  Vindicata 
ab  Erroribut  PhUoMophorum  GeiUilium  (Rome,  1701, 
4  vols.).  See  Argelati,  Bibl.  MedioU;  Jdcher,  AUge^ 
meinet  GeUkrten-Lexikon^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gavaston,  Juan,  a  Spanish  Dominican,  who  died 
at  Alicante  in  1625,  is  the  author  of,  Vida  de  S,  Vine, 
Ferrer: — La  Regla  de  la  Tercera  Orden  de  Predica-- 
dorte: — De  la  Frequenda  de  la  Communion: — Flor  de 
he  Santos  de  la  Orden  de  Predicadores:--'De  los  Privi- 
legios  Dados  para  la  Fiede  Aportolica  a  la  Orden  de  los 
Predieadores,  See  Antonii  BibliotMeea  Ilispanica; 
Echard,  De  Scriptoribus  Ordinis  Dornvncanoi-um ;  Jo- 
cher,  A  llgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  y.     (B.  P.) 

Oavio,  Giaoomo  Raimokdo,  an  Italian  Carmelite, 
who  died  in  1618,  is  the  author  of,  Commentaria  in 
Psalmum  :—Expositiones  in  Genesin: — Expositiones  in 
epist,  ad  Ephesios  :—Sermones  per  Adventum,  de  Sano- 
tiSf  Dotninieales : — De  A  rte  Pi-adioatoria,  See  Oldoin, 
Athenaum  Romanum;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten- 
{..exikoUf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Oay,  Ebenezer  (1),  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Dedham,  Mass.,  May  4,1718;  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  College  in  1737;  was  ordained  pas- 
tor of  the  First  Church  in  Suffield,  Conn.,  Jan.  13, 1742 ; 
and  died  in  March,  1796.  See  Sprague,  ^  niiaZf  of  (he 
A  mer.  Pulpit^  i,  687. 

Oay,  Bbenezer  (2),  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  Suffield,  Conn. ;  entered  Harvard  College, 
but  transferred  his  membership  to  Yale,  from  which  he 
graduated  in  1787,  and  of  which  he  was  tutor  from  1790 
to  1792;  was  installed  as  colleague  pastor  with  his  fa- 
ther over  the  First  Church  in  Suffield;  and  retired  from 
the  active  ministry  several  years  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  Februar}',  1837,  aged  se%'enty-one  years. 
See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit ,  i,  1, 537.' 

Gayatrl,  the  holiest  verse  of  the  Yedas  (q.  v.).  It 
is  addressed  to  the  sun,  to  which  it  was  daily  offered  op 
as  a  prayer,  in  these  words:  "Let  us  meditate  on  the 
adorable  light  of  the  divine  sun;  may  it  guide  our  in- 
tellects. Desirous  of  food,  we  solicit  the  gift  of  the 
splendid  sun,  who  should  be  studiously  li'orshipped. 
Venerable  men,  guided  by  the  understanding,  salute 
the  divine  sun  with  oblations  and  praise**  (Colebrooke, 
Translation),  The  substance  of  this  prayer  is  thus 
given  by  professor  Horace  Wilson :  "  Let  us  meditate 
on  the  sacred  light  of  that  divine  sun,  that  it  may  illu- 
minate our  minds.*' 

Gaza.  Full  descriptions  of  this  ancient  and  still 
important  city  may  be  found  in  Porter's  Handbook  for 
Syria f  p.  271  sq.;  and  Btideker*s  Palestine^  p.  312  sq. 
The  latest  is  that  of  Conder  (Jent-Worh^  ii,  169  sq.) : 

*'ThIs  ancient  city,  the  capital  of  Phillstin,  is  very  pict- 
nreFQuely  »ituated,  having  a  fliie  approach  down  the 
broad  avenue  from  the  north,  and  rising  on  nn  isolated 
hill  a  hundred  feet  above  the  plain.  Ou  the  higher  part 
of  the  hill  arc  the  governor's  house,  the  principal  niosqtie 
(an  early  Crnsadiug  church),  and  the  hazanrs.  The  green 
monnds  traceable  round  this  hillock  are  probably  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  walls  of  the  city.  Gaza  bristles  with 
minarets,  and  hai*  not  le^s  than  twenty  well?.  The  popu- 
lation Is  now  pl^hteon  thouitand,  including  sixty  or  sev- 
enty houses  of  Greek  Christians.  The  Samaritjins  In  the 
7ih  century  seem  to  hnve  been  numerous  in  Philistlo, 
near  JnlTii,  Ascalon,  and  Gnza.  Even  as  late  as  the  com- 
mencement  of  the  present  century,  they  hnd  a  pynagogne 
in  this  latter  citv,  out  are  now  no  longer  found  there. 
There  are  two  large  suburbs  of  mod  cabins  on  lower 
ground,  to  the  east  and  northeant,  making  four  quarters 
to  the  town  in  all.  East  of  the  Serai  is  the  reputed  tomb 
of  Samson,  whom  the  Moslems  call  'Aly  Merwdn  or  "Aly 
the  enslaved.**  On  the  northwest  Is  the  mosque  of  Hfishem, 
father  or  the  prophet  The  new  mosque,  built  some  fort  v 
vears  since,  1$  full  of  marble  fra^rmcnts  from  ancient  build- 
ings, which  were  principally  found  near  the  sea-j«hore. 
The  town  is  not  walled,  and  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
vIllaKe  grown  to  unusual  size ;  the  brown  cabins  rise  on 
the  hillside  row  above  row,  and  the  white  domes  and 
minarets,  with  numerous  palms,  give  the  place  n  truly 
Oriental  appearance.  The  bazaars  are  large  and  are  con- 
sidered good.*'    (See  illustration  on  folloxving  page.) 

Gaze],  love  songs  with  which  the  Mohammedan 


rierviahM  oiled  Btctaabitn  (q.  t.)  uIuM  erery  one 
theynwcl.  They  uc  applied  lUego^call?  to  the  divim 
lore.    See  Cakticlu. 

Gasltll  <n*>Il,  linen,  L  e.  of  aqusred  itcniH),  a  place 
in  which  the  Jewbh  Sanhedrim  uL  It  wai  ■  buikling 
creeled  of  hewn  atone  after  the  uoond  temple  wa»  fln- 
iihed,  hair  of  it  being  witliin  tba  court  and  half  Within 
the  diil,  and,  therefore,  half  of  it  vai  holy  and  half 
comiDDn.    SeeSANiiKuniM;  Taxn-K. 

aocophTlaoinm  {faZi^\iuctev),*tie  treaini?- 
outiide  tbe  Church,  iraong  Ihe  early  Chriatiana,  in 
which  the  oblations  or  offeringauf  the  peoplr  were  kepi. 
The  word  alio  denote*  the  cheat  in  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
aalem  in  which  the  rnluable  presenta  consecrated  to 
God  were  kept;  and  it  wa)  lonKlimea  applied  to  the 
apartinciita  of  the  temple  uKd  for  storinf;  the  provia- 
iona  for  aaeriOceand  the  prictta' portion.    SeeCHL'ticii; 

QaasuiiKa,  Fhanz  Pmn  MAm'iN.  a  Roman 
Catholic  Ilicoiaeiaii,who1it-edin  the  second  lialfof  the 
ISth  century  at  Vienna,  ii  the  author  of,  P<irlteliona 
J"jUo/dj«™  (Vienna,  l775-7fl,  5  vola.) :— I'Atoi  Cnjrnii- 
tica  in  Sgil.  Rniaclii  (lii^budl,  1786)  i—Thfol.  Poit- 
mi™  (Vienna.  1778-79,  2  vol^,  Mavence,  1783).  See 
Winer,  Ilandbvcli  dtr  IhroL  LU.  i,  806,  Ui.     (R  T.) 

Oebkoer,  Christian  Ai;i>i;8t,  a  German  hymnisi, 
was  bom  Aug.SS,  1732,  at  Knolelidorf,  in  SaKony.  He 
waa  profeaaor  at  Itonn  in  1828,  and  died  at  Tubingen, 
Nor.  18, 18o2.  lie  piiblialied,  Mmtn  rttigibien  Simwi 
(Heidelbe^,  1821;  Bd.  cl.  1843) :- /.Wire  «mi  tnite 
Ztilgmottm  (Leipaic,  I82T):  — ^lawn  Dach  uhiI  ttine 
freamk  (TUbincffli,  1828)  t—KrbouiMfM  md  Seichau- 
lictfi  am  atm.  Ttnlftgm  avigncShU  (Slntteart,  1845) : 
—llrilise  Srrlnlurt  Gritlticht  Liedtr  vwi  Hpiiklie  ron 
Sptr,  wigrlm  SUiiitu  md  fi'ovaUt  (ibid.  1843).  See 
Koch,  Getchicile  dti  deultchm  Kii-ckoUitdti.  vii,  290  aq. 
(B.P.) 

OeUurd,  BnindaiiUB,a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Cierman}-,  was  bom  in  1704  at  iireifsuralde,  studied 
there,  and  died  at  Strabund,  June  18,1784.  He  wrote, 
Diip.dt  A  cguimda  Vila  Sanelilatt  (GreifsRahle,  1 738) : 
— GVdanbn  am  der  I'rn&hiuiiig  (1745):  — Dt  GuUu 
Horali  in  /'la.  criz,  66  (Strabuud,  1751).  See  Meusel, 
GtUkrUt  IkaUehlmd;  JOcher,  AU^mruKt  GrlrhHen- 
Leiibm,  a.  r.     (R  P.) 

Ottbbard,  BrandaaoB  H«iiuloh,  a  Lutberao 


theolonian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Bninawich,  Nor. 
10, 1667.  He  studied  at  Jena,  was  in  I6B6  pnfnww  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Ureiftwalde,  profn* 


1702,  and  died  Dee.  1, 


.729.     He  « 


the  mioM  prophets: — Viudieia  A'nrt  T<t- 
tamenli  ttnOra  R.  /taac  ten  Abraham;— Comintnl.  h 
Zfpiiauam  conlra  Abarimdim  ■ — Cownmrnl.in  Epiilo- 
lai  JuSa  :—Unii  Cidxxla  laS  Priora  Capita  Cnnmi.- 
—  Vindiaa  NomBli^T^^pa■/pa^l^lartvT^^TX^'al^Alml¥: 
—Diu.  dt  Conteaiu  Jadaaram  cam  Chritio  m  Doctrina 
dt  Lfge:^!)!  Gog  tl  Masog i—KtmrraliB  Conrin  Df. 
bora  rt  florae*.— Oe  Mmin  Spiiitnaliliite  ex  IVe 
Sdiilai,  etc.  See  JOcher,  AUgr-tintt  GtUA>irn-I.txi- 
bya,  s.  V.J  FUnt.  liibl.  Jud.  i,  319;  Winer,  Urndbarli 
derlkti>lLil.\,T.%     (R  P.) 

Osbhard,  John  Q.,  aii  eminent  (ienoan  aiu] 
Dutch  Hefgnned  minister,  iras  bom  at  Wal>lorr,  Ger- 
many, Feb.  2,  IToO.  tie  receirol  hii  claseical  education 
at  the  Iliiiveruty  of  Heidelberg,  and  campleleil  his  the- 
ological stndira  at  Utrecht,  in  Hollanil,  where  he  waa 
licensed  in  1771.  The  same  year  be  emigrated  lo 
America,  and  ofRcialed  in  the  German  cburcbea  of 
Whilpaiii  and  Worcester,  I'a.,  for  three  year*.  In  1774 
he  removed  lo  New  Vork  city,  aa  pastor  of  Ihe  Uennan 
Church,  and  in  1776  acceplp<Uhe  call  of  Ibe  Dutch  Rc- 
futmcd  Church  of  Clnrcraik,  Columbia  Co.,  where  ho 
continued  until  his  ilealli,  Aug.  10, 182G.  Mr.  Gebhard 
mastcrol  the  Low  Dutch  tongue  in  three  months  to  aa 
to  be  able  lo  preach  in  it.  He  founded  the  Washing- 
Ionian  Institute  of  Claverack  in  1777.  ami  was  its  prin- 
cipal for  many  years.  Ho  was  a  spiriteii,  earneel,  and 
pathetic  preacher,  ■  gnoil  ilievlngian,  a  leader  in  ed- 
ucational marcmcnl^  a  Rreat  Ini-cr  of  peace,  a  saga- 
cious, prudent  adi-iser,  having  full  conlnd  of  himsrir, 
and  large  influence  over  a  wide  region  ol  country.  He 
threw  the  whole  weight  of  his  character  and  ofRce  into 
the  cause  of  his  ailopted  countiy  dunng  the  Revolu- 
tionary war.  See  Harbaugh,  Fatimt  n/llu  Germ.  Ref. 
Churdi.  ii,  293i  Zabriskic,  CInrerack  Cenlnmial;  Cor- 
v\n,Miinviilor'IU:R'/-CkKi-ckaiAmerifa.Kr.;  Slag- 
aziat  of  the  'Rrf.  Vulei  CAurelk,  Oct.  1826,  ji.  282. 
(W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Oebaer,  Auctin  Rudolph.b  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  19, 1801,  in  Thurinpa.  In 
1S23  he  commenceil  hia  academical  rareer  at  Jena,  waa 
in  1S28  professor  of  theology,  in  1829  proreaiar,  anper- 
intendent,  and  first  cathedral  preacher  at  Kiio^sbeTg, 


GEDALIAH 


437 


6EIGER 


and  died  at  Hille,  Jane  22, 1874.  He  wrote,  De  Explu 
erttione  Sacra  Scripturm,  Pratertim  Ncvi  Teftamenti  e 
IJbro  Zendavesia  (Jena,  1824)  : — IM  Oratione  Dominica 
(Konigsberg,  1830):— Der  Brief  de$  Jacobus  Qbersetzt 
und  ausfukrUck  erklSrt  (Berlin,  1828):  —  Commeniafio 
de  Primordiis  Studiorum  Fanaticorum  A  ttabaptistarum 
(Konigsberg,  1830) : — BUdiotheca  Latina  Vet,  Poefarum 
CAriHiam>rum  (Jena,  1827): — Votistdndipe  Gfschichte 
tin  Thomas  JIQmer  urtd  der  Bauenkriege  in  Thuringen 
(1831) : — Geschichte  der  Domlarche  zu  Konigtherg  und 
des  Bisthums  Samland  (1835).  See  Zachold,  BibL  TheoL 
i;  405  sq.;  Winer,  /fandbueh  der  theoL  Lil,  i,  110,  247, 
27^,767, 809, 880.     (a  P.) 

Oedaliab,  Fast  op,  a  Jewish  fast  observed  on  the 
thin.1  day  of  the  month  Tisri,  in  memory  of  the  murder 
of  Gedaliah  (q.  ▼.),  son  of  Abikam. 

Oedalja  idx-Jachja.     See  Ibn-Jachja,  Gb- 

Oaddofl^  Andrew,  a  reputable  Scotch  portrait- 
painter,  was  bom  at  PIdinburgh  about  1789,  and  was 
early  instructed  in  the  art  in  the  academy  there.  In 
1814  he  visited  London.  About  1825  he  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1828  visited 
Italy,  Germany,  and  BVance.  On  his  return  he  painted 
an  altar-piece  for  the  Church  of  Sr«  James  at  Garlic  Hill ; 
also  a  picture  of  Christ  and  the  Samarifan  Woman,  lie 
died  in  1844.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  /list,  of  the  Fine  A  rts, 
a.  T. 

Qederah  (or  Oederothaim)  of  Joshua  xv,  36. 
UeuL  Conder  regards  this  as  agreeing  with  the  posi- 
tion of  the  ruin  Jedireh^  nine  miles  south  of  Ludd 
{Memtiirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  43).  But  this 
U  perhaps  better  suited  to  the  requirements  of  Gede- 
Toth  (Josh. XV, 41),  which  Conder  (TetU'Wurk,  ii,33C), 
locates  at  Katrah,  m  Wady  Surar. 

Oedicke,  Lahpkrtus,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  at  Gardelegen,  in  Saxony,  Jan.  6, 
1683.  He  studied  at  Halle,  was  military  chaplain  in 
1709,  and  died  at  Berlin,  Feb.  21,  1735.  He  wrote. 
Prima  Veri/ates  Oder  Grundsdfze  der  christl.  Religion 
(Berlin,  1717): — /Jtsforitcher  UnterrirM  von  dem  Refor- 
maiionswerke  Lutheri  (ibid.  1718) : — KrUdrung  der  Lehre 
von  der  vahren  Gegenwart  des  l^eibes  und  Blates  Christi 
(ibid.  1722) : — Christliche  und  bescheidene  Vertheidigung 
der  Lulherischen  T^hre  (1724)  '.—A  mica  CoUatio  de  ACsti- 
matione  Rationis  Theohgica  cum  Henr,  van  Bashuysen 
(1726).  See  Dunkel,  Nachrichten,  iii,  312 ;  Jocher,  A 11- 
gemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Koch,  Geschichte  des 
deiUschen  Kirch&Uiedes  iv,  414  sq.     (B.  P.) 

G^edik,  SixoN,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
wa9  bom  Oct.  31,  1551.  He  studieit  at  Leipsic,  was  in 
1573  pastor  of  St.  John*s  there,  in  1574  professor  of  He- 
brew, and  died  at  Meissen,  Oct.  5, 1631.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  many  ascetical  works.  See  Witte,  DiaHum 
Biographicum;  Bayle, Dictionnaire  flistorique  Critique; 
dochcr,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten^/jexikonf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Oeer,  Ezbkiel  G.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  chaplain  at  Fort  Snclling,  Minn.,  for  many 
years,  until  1860,  when  he  was  transferred  to  Fort  Rip- 
ley ;  in  this  position  he  remained  until  1867.  Shortly 
after,  he  removed  to  Minneapolis,  where  he  resided 
without  official  duty  until  his  death,  Oct.  13, 1873,  aged 
eighty  years.     See  Prot.  Episc.  A  Imanac,  1874,  p.  139. 

Oegoberga  (or  Segoberga)  (Lat.  Cadlia,  or 
CUira)^  Saintf  said  to  have  been  a  ilaughter  of  St.  Ro- 
maric,  whoee  convent  she  built;  succeeded  (cir.  A.D. 
626)  St,Macteflede  as  second  abbess  of  the  double  mon- 
astery of  Habend  (afterwards  Remiremont  or  Rom- 
berg), on  the  top  of  a  hill  in  the  Vosges,  near  the  Mo- 
selle. She  is  commemorated  Aug.  12.  See  Smith, 
Did,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Gehe,  Christlan  Heimricii,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1752,  and 
died  Sept,  4, 1807.  He  wrote,  De  Prmndentia  Dei  in 
Errorum  //aresiumque  Sotis  (Leipsic,  1776)  :—De  Util- 


itate  et  ytoessiiaie  Conjungenda  ffistoria  ReHgiosa  cum 
Ipsa  fnstitutione  Religioms  Christiitna  (Dresden,  1783) : 
— SgUoge  Commentationum  Philologici  et  Theologici  A  r- 
gumenli  (Leipsic,  1792) : — Imago  Boni  Doctoris  Evan" 
geUei  (1792)  :—De  A  rgumento  quod  pro  Divinitate  Re^ 
ligionis  Christiana  ab  Experientia  Ditcitur  (1796).  See 
Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  DeutschlandSf  s.  v.  ( B.  P.) 

Gehrig,  Johann  Martin,  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian, was  born  May  29,  1768,  at  Baden.  In  1798  he 
received  holy  orders,  in  1809  he  was  pastor  at  Ingol- 
stiUit,  in  1818  at  Aub,  in  Franconia,  and  died  Jan.  14^ 
1825.  He  published,  Neue  Sonn-  und  Festtagspredigten 
(Bamberg,  1805-1807,  4  vols.) :  —  A>tf e  Festpredigten 
(ibid.  1809) : — ^fateriaUen  zu  Katechesen  aber  die  chriU- 
Hche  Gkadtenslehre  (ibid.  1813)  i—A  Uemeueste  Predigten  * 
Jur  das  game  katholische  Kirchenjahr  (ibid.  1814-16, 4 
vols.) : — Predigten  avfalle  Sonntage  im  Jahre  (ibid.  1820, 
2  vols.): — Die  zehn  Gebote  Gottes  im  Geiste  und  Sinne  Jesu 
aufgefasei  (ibid.  1820 ;  2d  e<l.  1824)  :—Betrachtungen 
uber  die  Liedensgeschichte  Jesu  (ibid.  1821) : — Die  sieben 
Sacramente  der  katholischen  Kirche  (ibid.  eod. ;  2d  ed. 
1825) : — Katechesen  uber  die  christlich  katholische  GlaU' 
benakhre  (ibid.  1823),  etc  See  Winer,  JJandbuch  der 
iheoL  Lit.  ii,  145,  346,  347,  360,  373,  402;  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theologen  Deuischlands,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gtoiger,  ABRAiiAMga  Jewish  rabbi  of  Germany,  was 
bom  at  Frank  fort -on -the- Main,  Bf  ay  24,1810.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Bonn,  and  won  the  prize  for 
an  essay  on  a  question  proposed  by  the  Bonn  philo- 
sophical facult3%  On  the  Sources  of  the  Koran^  which 
was  printed  in  1833  with  the  title.  Was  hat  Mohamed 
aus  dem  Judenthum  aufgenommenf  In  November, 
1832,  he  was  invited  to  fill  the  rabbinical  chair  at  Wies- 
baden, which  he  quitted  in  1888  for  Breslau.  In  1863 
ho  was  elected  chief  rabbi  in  his  native  town,  which 
appointment  he  held  until  1869,  when  he  was  called  to 
Berlin,  where  he  dieil,  Oct.  23, 1874.  As  early  as  1835, 
Geiger  published  his  Wissenschafliche  Zeitschrift  fur 
judische  Theologie^  which  was  discontinued  in  1847.  In 
1862  he  began  the  JUdische  Zeitschrift^  a  periodical  de- 
voted to  Jewish  literature,  but  important  also  for  the 
Christian  student.  In  addition  to  this  he  published 
monographs  on  Maimonides,  on  the  exegetical  school 
of  the  rabbis  in  the  north  of  France,  on  Elijah  del  Medi- 
go,  and  on  many  other  learned  Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
He  contributed  also  to  Hebrew  periodicals  numerous  ar- 
ticles on  Rabbinical  literature,  as  well  as  to  the  Journal 
of  the  German  Oriental  Society,  chiefly  on  Syrian  and 
Samaritan  literature.  His  Reading4)ook  on  the  Mishnah 
is  full  of  grammatical  and  lexicographical  notes  of  the 
highest  importance  for  the  appreciation  of  the  particu- 
lar dialects  of  the  Mishnah  and  the  Talmud.  His  main 
work,  however,  Urschrifl  und  Udtersetzungen  der  Bibel 
(1857),  which  advocates  the  theory  that  the  Sadducees 
derived  their  name  from  the  high-priest  Zadoc,  con- 
tains the  results  of  twenty  years'  study,  and  is  still  very 
important  for  Biblical  criticisms,  especially  in  reference 
to  the  Samariun  text  of  the  PenUteuch,  and  to  that 
of  the  Septuagint.  Geiger,  from  the  very  outset  of  his 
career,  belonged  to  the  party  who  were  anxious  io  re- 
form the  Jewish  synagogue  in  accordance  with  the 
necessities  of  the  age,  without,  however,  entirely  break- 
ing with  the  traditions  of  the  past;  and  though  a  re- 
former of  the  Reformers,  yet  in  his  Das  Judenthum  und 
seine  Geschichte  (1865-71,  3  vols.),  Geiger  shows  him- 
self a  narrow-minded  and  bigoted  Jew,  by  making  Jesus 
a  follower  of  rabbi  Hillel,  and  by  asserting  that  "Jesus 
never  uttered  a  new  thought."  After  his  death,  Lud- 
wig  Geiger,  a  son  of  Abraham,  published  Nachgelassene 
Schnften  (Berlin,  1875-77,  5  vols.),  containing  some 
older  essays,  formerly  published,  and  other  material 
from  Geigcr's  manuscripts.  See  FQrst,  Bibl,  Jud,  i,  324 
sq. ;  Steinschneider,  in  Magazin  fur  die  JMeratur  des 
Auslandes  (Beriin,  1874);  Berthold  Auerbach,  in  Die 
Gegenwart  (1874,  No.  45) ;  Morals,  Eminent  Israelites  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century  (PhiUdelphia,  1880),  p.  92  sq.; 


GEKHUTTNER 


438 


6EMATRIA 


Licbtenberger,  Encydop,  des  Seiencei  B^igieutes,  s,  v. 
(B.  P.) 

G^iahlittner,  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo. 
gian  of  Germany,  waa  bom  in  Austria  in  1764,  and  died 
Jan.  6, 1805,  profeaaor  of  etbics  and  pastoral  theology 
at  Linz.  He  wrote,  Theologische  Moral  in  einer  wIm- 
teruchqftlichen  DarsteUung  (Augsburg,  1804,  8  vols.) : 
— Versuch  einer  wtnenMchafilicken  und  populdrtn  Dog^ 
matik  (edited  by  F.  X.  Geher,  Vienna,  1819).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  tkeoL  Lit,  i,  816;  Doring,  Die 
^lehrten  Theologen  Deutschkmdtf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Oeissel,  Johannks  von,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate 
of  Crermany,  was  bom  Feb.  15, 1796.  In  1818  he  re- 
ceived holy  orders,  was  in  1819  professor  and  religious 
instructor  at  the  gymnanum  in  Speier,  in  1822  member 
of  the  chapter,  in  1886  dean,  and  in  1837  bishop  of 
Speier.  In  1842  he  became  the  coadjutor  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne,  in  1846  his  successor,  and  died  Sept. 
8, 1864.  Geissel  was  one  of  the  main  promoters  of  Ul- 
tramontanistic  ideas  in  Germany,  especially  in  Prussia, 
and  the  pope  acknowledged  his  endeavors  by  making 
him  cardinal  in  1850.  Geissel's  writings  and  addresses 
were  published  by  Dumont  (Cologne,  1869-76, 4  vols.). 
See  Remling,  Kardinal  von  Geiuel,  Bischnfvon  Speier 
vnd  Ei-zXnakof  von  Koln  (Speier,  1873);  Baudri,  Der 
Erzhiehof  wm  KSlUf  Johannet  JQxrdintil  voti  Geiuel  und 
teine  Zeil  (O)logne,  1882).     (B.  P.) 

Gtoisaenliaiiier,  Frbdbrick  W.,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran 
minister,  son  of  Rev.  Frederick  W.  Geisseuhainer,  a 
distinguished  Lutheran  preacher,  was  born  at  New 
Hanover,  Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  June  28,  1797.  He 
came  to  New  York  city  with  his  father,  at  an  early  age, 
and  was  licensed  as  a  minister  in  1818.  His  first  pas- 
torate was  at  Vincent,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  where  he  re- 
mained ten  years.  Fourteen  years  following  he  was 
pastor  of  St.  Matthew's  Church  (English),  in  Walker 
Street,  New  York  city.  The  congregation  of  Christ 
Church  at  length  became  the  possessor  of  the  property 
of  St.  Matthew^s,  and  took  that  name.  Dr.  Geissen- 
halner  then  founded  a  new  organization,  and  estab- 
lished the  Church  known  as  SuPauVs.  The  preaching 
was  in  a  hall  on  Eighth  Avenue ;  but  the  church  was 
erected  in  1842,  on  the  comer  of  Sixth  Avenue  and 
Fifteenth  Street,  mainly  through  the  liberality  of  Dr. 
Geisseuhainer  himself.  It  was  a  large  and  handsome 
stone  structure.  The  organization  began  with  eleven 
poor  families,  but  speedily  increased  to  1500  com mimi- 
cants.  During  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  he  was 
aided  by  an  assistant  minister.  As  a  preacher,  be  was 
terse,  vigorous,  and  powerful,  having  complete  control 
of  the  English  and  German  languages.  He  died  in 
New  York  city,  Juue  2, 1879.  See  Lutheran  Observer j 
July  4, 1879. 

Gejrroed,  in  Norse  mythology,  waa  a  mighty  giant 
who  once  outwitted  the  cunning  Loke,  but  at  last  fell 
by  the  power  of  Thor. 

Gelbke,  Johann  Hkikricii,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, and  vice-president  of  the  superior  consistory  at 
Gotha,  where  he  died,  Aug.  26, 1822,  is  the  author  of, 
Der  NauToburger  Fiirstentag  (Leipsic,  1793)  i—Kircken. 
und  JSchuherJiusung  dee  Herzogthum  Gotha  (Gotha, 
1790-99, 8  vols.)  i—Nachricht  wm  der  deuttchen  Kiiche 
in  Genf  (ibid.  1799).  See  Winer,  Ifandbuch  der  theoL 
Lit.  i,  762,  804, 813.     (R  P.) 

Gtolder,  Arnauld  van,  an  eminent  Dutch  painter, 
was  bom  at  Dort  in  1645,  and  acquired  the  elements  of 
design  under  Samuel  van  Hoogstraeten,  but  afterwards 
went  to  Amsterdam  and  entered  the  school  of  Rem- 
brandt. Among  his  principal  historical  works  are  a 
picture  at  Dort,  representing  Solomon  on  his  Throne^ 
Surrounded  bg  his  Soldiers ;  at  the  Hague,  A  Jewish 
Synagogue,  His  master-piece  was  a  picture  at  Dort, 
representing  Bathsheba  Entreating  David  to  T^ave  his 
Kingdom  to  Solomon,  His  last  work  was  the  Sufferings 
of  Christ,    He  died  at  Dort  in  1727.   See  Hoefer,  iVbur. 


Biog,  GhUrale^  s.  v.;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
A  rtSf  8.  V. 

Gtoldersman,  Vixcknt,  a  reputable  Flemish  paint- 
er, was  bom  at  Mechlin  in  1539.  Among  his  best  works 
is  a  picture  of  Susanna  and  the  Elders,  and  a  Descent 
from  the  Cross^  in  the  cathedral  at  Mechlin.  See  Spoon- 
er, Biog,  Uitt,  of  the  Fine  A  rte,  s.  v. 

Client;  Nicolas,  bishop  of  Angers,  was  bom  about 
1220.  In  1260  he  succeeded  Michael  de  Villojnreau, 
and  daring  each  of  the  thirty  years  of  his  episcopacy 
he  held  synods,  whence  emanated  the  statutes  which 
D*Achery  has  collected  in  his  Spidlegium,  and  which 
are  of  interest  as  giving  a  knowledge  of  the  customs  of 
that  period,  and  of  the  abases  of  all  kinds  which  the 
episcopal  authority  strove  in  vain  to  repress.  Cvelent 
died  Feb.  1,  1290.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU, 
s,  V. 

G^lhouen  (or  Oheylouen),  Arnauld,  a  Dutch 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Rotterdam,  and  lived  at  the 
dose  of  the  15th  century.  He  was  canon  of  the  Au- 
gustinian  order,  at  the  monastery  of  Volnert,  where  he 
died  in  1442.  He  wrote  a  moral  treatise,  entitled  Vvia^t 
oiavTOVj  Site.  Speculum  Conscientite  (Brussels,  1476), 
which  was  the  first  book  issued  from  the  press  of  the 
Fr($res  de  la  Vie,  who  introduced  the  art  of  tjrpography 
at  Bmssels.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

G«lpke,  Christian  Friedricb,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  who  died  in  1845,  is  the  authar 
of,  VindicuB  Originis  Paulina  ad  Uebrteos  Epistola  (Ley- 
den,  1882) ;— Parabola  Jem  de  CEconomo  Injutto  Luc 
16  Inierprttata  (Leipsic,  1829):  —  Sgndnda  ad  Inters 
pretat.  Loci  Act, xir,  3-13  (ibid.  1812) :— Jesus  von  Sick 
(ibid.  1829):  — />e  FamUiariiaie,  qucs  Paulo  Apoetolo 
cum  Seneca  Philoeopho  Interceseisae  Traditur  (ibid. 
1813)  i—SamnUung  einiger  Fext-  und  Ccuual-Predigten 
(ibid.  1830).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  413  sq.;  Wi- 
ner, Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  90,  248,  251,  434,  551, 
670;iii,149.     (R  P.) 

Oelpke,  EniBt  Friedrich,  a  Protesunt  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  bom  in  1807,  was  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Heme,  and  died  Sept.  2,  1871.  He  published, 
Evangelische  Dogmatik  (Bonn,  1^4) :—  Ud»er  die  A  nord- 
nung  des  Ertdhlungen  in  den  egnoptischen  Evangdien 
(Heme,  1889)  :—Die  Jugendgeschichte  des  Ifemn  (ibid. 
ISil)  I  — Kirchengeschichte  der  Schweiz  (1856-61,  2 
voK).  See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  Theol,  i,  413 ;  Winer,  Hand- 
buch der  theol.  Lit,  i,  802.     (B.  P.) 

G61u,  Jaoquxs,  a  French  prelate,  was  bora  in  the 
diocese*  of  Treves  about  1370.  He  studied  at  Paris, 
where  his  talents  attracted  the  attention  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  the  brother  of  Charles  VI,  who  took  him 
into  hu  service.  After  the  assassination  of  his  master 
by  the  duke  of  Bourgogne,  G6lu  entered  the  service  of 
the  king,  was  in  1407  president  of  the  parliament  of 
the  Daophind,  and  in  1414  archbishop,  of  Toura.  He 
attended  the  council  at  Ck)nstance,  and  was  also  present 
at  the  conclave  held  in  1417.  In  1420  he  went  to  Spain, 
being  intrusted  by  the  dauphin  with  a  mission.  In 
1421  he  left  Naples,  retired  to  his  episcopal  seat,  and 
died  Sept.  17,  1432.  When,  in  1429,  he  was  asked  by 
the  court  of  France  conceming  the  validity  of  the  rev- 
elations of  Jeanne  d'Arc,  he  spoke  very  favorably  of  her 
divine  mission,  and  remarked  that  God  has  revealed 
himself  more  than  once  to  virgins,  as,  for  example,  to 
the  sibyls.  See  Martfene,  Thesaurus  III;  Bcmlliot, 
Biogr.  Arden,  (1830),  i,  430;  Paumier,  in  Lichtenber- 
ger's  Encyclop.  des  Sciences  BeligieuseSf  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gtomatria,  a  word  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  either 
corresponding  to  ytutptrfiia  or  ypaftfuiTtia,  denotes^ 
among  the  (jabalists,  a  rule  according  to  which  the 
Scripture  was  explained.  The  idea  of  this  rule  waa^ 
since  every  letter  is  a  numeral,  to  reduce  the  word  to 
the  number  it  contains,  and  to  explain  the  word  by 
another  of  the  same  quantity.    Thos,  from  the  worda» 


OEMBICKI  *i 

"LdI  tbne  isf n  ■tood  by  him  "  (Q«iu  iviii, !},  it  i*  de- 
duced tb4t  IbcM  three  uigeli  were  Miekad,  Gabritl, 
and  JbgAofl,  becaoae  nsstS  ri:ni,  widtu!  Ihrtt  men, 
and  ^NGII  ^X^^Iil  ^X:^t)  I^X,  that  art  Mickatl, 
GiAHd,  and  Rupkatl,  txt  of  tbe  ume  numericil  rilue, 
M  will  be  seen  rrom  the  rultowins  rettuction  to  Itaeir 
nomcriud  value  of  both  then  phruea : 

no    V     D    n    J    n  1 

6+300+80+800+5+60  +  64-6=701 

80  +  l  +  10+aOO+2+3+30  +  I+20+10+M  +  e  +  80 
»  i  «  B  11 
+1+30+1+80  +  200+8=701. 
Fram  tbepaauge,"Andill  Ihe  iahabilanti  of  cbe  wth 
were  of  one  lingiuge"  (Gen.  xl,  1).  U  ileduced  (bit  all 
■poke  lltbraci  nSS  being  changed  for  ite  S)-Dauyiii 
llCb,  and  mFn=6  +  100+*+300=*09,  i>  luUti. 
tutcd  for  iu  equivalent  rnX=l+8+400=409,  Or 
the  vord  n?!C  in  tbe  paaMge,  "For  behold,  I  will 
bring  forth  my  aervant,  tbe  SruncA  *  (Zech.  iii,8),Taua[ 
mean  the  Heniah;  fur  it  arnouiits  nuTnericolly  lo  Ihc 
nine  aa  Dnio  "Comforter"  (Lam.  i,  16)=138.  So 
rA"^  X2''  in  (he  ponage,  "  The  oceptie  ihall  not  de- 
part from  Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver  from  between  hia  feet, 
until  SkUek  came,"  amounta  numerically  lo  Ihe  mme  ai 
rrica=36Si  benee  SUlok  niuat  ba  tbe  Heouah.    See 

CABAI.A.     (BL  P.) 

0«mblckl,  Lal'bkxck,  archbisbop  and  grand- 
cbaDcellor  of  {Vilanil,  was  bom  about  IfiSD.  He  cum- 
DMiieed  hia  Uudiei  at  Poscn,  and  completeil  them  at  { 
Ingobtoilt.  lie  waa  eent  as  ambauador  (o  Rome  to  ! 
pope  Clement  TIIL  Iteluming  to  Palantl,  he  waa 
ni*de  biahop  of  Kulm  or  Chelmno,  and  in  1609  became 
IJTand-ehancdIor  of  the  cron-n.  In  1613  he  obtained 
the  biabopric  of  Kulavia,  and  in  161S  waa  made  arch- 
tnabop  of  Gneien,  and  primate  of  the  kingdom,  the 
hif^hest  eecliciaatical  dignity  in  Poland.  He  dieil  in 
1624,  leaving  JCxiortutio  ad  Prineiptm  Wladuluam, 
aim  a  S.  R.  M.  Qnoamm  Indyle  Regni  Polonia  Ordmum 
Caiumu,  Flc     See  Hoefer,  Haas.  Biog.  Gifiralt,  a.  v. 

OttHU,  M  EctlaiaMical  A  rt.  Precioua  atonea  were 
employed  in  very  early  timei  for  a  great  variety  of  »o- 


0«n  nf  Red  Jaaper, 
repnsent  Ing  tbeO'n  -d 
Staepberd,  wilh  two 
Dogi,  and  the  laecrlp- 
dnu  l*KN  (pethape  lor 
.AA  la  hia  mam*). 


of  Red  Jaaper, 
repnnen  tlug  a  aalnl 
(perbip*  AgDO) 
knsellug  t'' 


10  GKJERATION 

clenaatica]  parpoiea,  >om«  artielea,  aueh  aa  chalicca,  etc, 
being  made  wholly  of  atonea  mora  or  leaa  precioua,  and 
othtra,  such  as  allara,  etc,  being  decorated  tberewilb. 
The  moat  artistic  purpose,  however,  was  their  use  for 
seals,  especially  by  engraving  emblema  of  a  religinua 
character,  chiefly  taken  from  Scripture,  particularly  the 
flsh,  the  dove,  the  lamb,  a  abip,  or  some  other  emblem- 
atic device.  Occaaionally  a  hialoricat  lubjcct  is  at- 
tempted. TYm  monogram  of  Christ  almoat  always  ap- 
pears on  them.  We  aiilijoin  cuts  of  s  few  specimens, 
taken  from  Smilh'si>«Y.n/Cjltu^  ^nfjj.a.  v. 

GEMS,  Tiic  Thskk  SacnsD,  among  the  Buddbistt^ 
■re  Buddha,  the  aaered  book^  and  tho  priesthood. 
Their  worship  is  univerul  among  the  Buddhiala,  and 
they  constitute  the  sacreil  triad  in  which  these  people 
place  lU  their  trust.  The  aanstancs  they  derive  from 
the  triad  is  called  larami  (protection),  which  "is  said 
to  destroy  the  fear  of  reproduction,  or  aucceasive  ex- 
istence, and  (u  take  away  the  fear  of  the  mind.  Ihe  pain 
to  which  thobodyia  subject,  and  the  misery  of  the  four 
bells."  "By  reflecting  ou  tbe  three  gema,  scepticism, 
doubt,  and  reasoning  will  be  driven  away,  and  Ihe  mind 
became  clear  and  calm.  See  Hardy,  EaBtm  ilona- 
chim,  p.  106,  209. 

Oanoe,  Jea^  BAFTisTRMoDEBTK,a  French  ascetic 
writer,  was  bum  June  14, 1766,  at  Amiens,  snd  died  at 
Paris,  April  IT,  1840.  He  waa  keeper  of  tbe  archives, 
and  inspector  of  the  national  printing  departmenl.  He 
publiahed,  ttiru  Fflre  Infim  (Paris,  1301}  ■—Ediliom  ou 
Traductioni  /Vanfouu  de  tlmilalion  de  JUut-Cliriit 
(published  in  the  Jounnd  da  Cvrit,  Sept.  11,  20,  28, 
1810):~Co*n(tfrartoR  rur  la  Qaalim  Bduliee  a  timi- 
talumdtJiiut-Ckrut  (1812)  :~al»  KatiaBiographiqiit 
da  Pira  H  A  ultun  Cilii  par  Jlourdaloiut  (Veruilles, 
1812),  contributeU  to  Ibc  GHh  edition  of  Ihe  Didian- 
naii-e  de  FAaidimie  Fiavfaut,  and  edited  with  ilons. 
Mounanl  .Viditutioni  JMigiaua  (Paris,  1H30  sq„  16 
vols.).  9eeLeBas,Z>u«.£ncycf(ip.i£cAi/'iiin«,'Kabbc, 
Viritt  dt  BoiMJulin  et  Stiixli- rreuce  /  Biogr.  da  Con- 
lempor.\  Michsiid,  Biog.  Unirtridit;  Maulvault,  in 
Lichtenberger's  Enryclop.  da  Scimca  Rttiffiruia,  s.  v. 
(a  P.) 

OeneiBl  BmptlBtB.    See  Baiiists. 

0«iieTatloii,  Etkiciai.,  is  a  term  used  as  descrip- 
tive of  Ihe  Father's  communicating  the  divine  nature 
to  the  Son.  On  thia  subject  we  excerpt  the  fallowing 
remarks  fnim  Buck's  Did.  of  Ike  BiiU,  ed.  Henderson : 

"Thg  Falber  la  said  tiy  some  dlvlnea  to  hsve  pnidnced 

oEi  wlilch  occASUin  the  vnrd  flaieralton  ralsea  a  pecnilar 
Idea:  tlisl  pruceeslon  which  fa  rssDy  effected  In  the  wa« 
uf  DuUen landing  Is  called  sei^cMlton,  because.  In  virtns 
thereof,  the  Word  becomes  like  him  rr.nn  whcira  he  tnkes 
theortEluat-,  or,  aa  St  Piinl  expreaeee  It,  (he  flgors  or  Im- 
age orblSBubalance:  l.e.nlbis being sndnsture.  Ueuce 
It  l>,  ihey  say,  that  the  second  person  la  called  the  Son; 

being  the  in 
l>y  hVni  befuT 
[Bom.  vlll,  3),  hl>  only  trgotltn  Sm  |Johu  111,  ]«).    Msuy 

tiy  dtOeieDt  elmimndea ;  but  as 'they  throw  llule     -  '-'' 
light  upon  tha  aul^ect,  we  shall  not  trouble  tbe  i 
with  then.    MciK  modern  divlues  believe  Ihst  th< 
Sun  4/  Bed  refers  tc   "'    '  ' 


_.    ...:    Gam    of  Dure,  with  ollie-lwlc  In  benk. 

While  Chalcedo-  perched  npoa  a  wneat-aheaf 

DT,  reprennltng  (an   eml>lem   of  the   Chnrch). 

portnltotChtlaC  hsilng  fur  anpportera  a  Hon 


nl  Son  of  Ood,  begollen 


xllelnhtsdli 

I.  E9 ;  Jijnil. 


if  both  In  one  peraou 
T,s:d.inni,«ii:Ui>(tivl,l<r:  Acta 
ii,iu,  n;  Kom.  ],4i.    It  Is  observed  I  bat  II  Is  Ininoaslbis 
thai  BUDiara  prOLwr]  j  dlvlue  shonid  be  b«[rotCen,  since  be- 

Elud  uf  prndncilno.  derivation,  and  'inlbrlorily ;  conte- 
qusntli,  that  wbnlever  Is  produced  must hsveaheglnnlue, 
and  whslever  hnd  a  beginning  was  not  from  eternllv,  iis 
ChHst  Is  uld  lo  be  (C.3.  I,  IS,  IT).    That  the  soiiiblu  of 

Is  aSd,  'l''Bnd  mr'Father'^nre"e;'lii  the  ratlerl''«» 
FsUier  la  ereater  tliJia  L'  Tbew  declarations,  however 
opposite  lacy  seem,  eqnallj  respect  blm  oa  he  la  tho 
Bon:  but  If  hia  sonshlp  primarily  and  pronerlr  sljniiry 
Ihe  generation  of  his  dhine  nalnre.  It  nfi\  be  dtncDll,  It 
not  Ymposalble,  according  to  that  scheme,  to  make  Ihem 
harmonlae.    Conaldered  as  a  distinct  person  in  Uie  Qod- 


GENESIA 

to  hl>  ofllce  Bi 

itber.    Agnin,  he  eipresfij  telle  a, 

ciiu  do  Dolhiiig  ot  tiimirif ;  Ihat  tli< 

iwelb  hlmnlllhtugBtbnl  bsdotb;  (Dd  Ihnt  be 

n  lu  bsvB  Ufa  in  riiinHir'  (Jahu  y,  1»,  3ii,  »!. 

irseKioug.  If  Hppllod  tu  lilm  as  O.hI,  ni>t  n>  me- 

1  reduce  tii  to  tbe  dtfagrevible  iiecnelljuf  *rib- 

Liber  in  the  creed  ol  Arloi,  end  Dmlidjdu  bin  lo 

■   -    •         -  ■    Rlltjortiodf, 

Id  illnvn  bim 

_ .""I  dlfllcDltj  I*  remored.     Iditlj'. 

It  la  obHrred,  tbal  Ibongb  Jeaiu  be  0»d,  lUid  tb«  iitlrt- 
bntea  at  eternkl  axii(en«i  oKrlbed  to  hini,  jtt  tbe  tno 
■ItrlbDtei,  atanul  DUd  ten,  are  lint  once  exptwed  lu  the 
UDM  Ian  u  reftnlng  to  elenial  geDeriiiun.  Tb<*  doK- 
ma,  beld  br  aretematTc  dlrlim*,  accntdluic  to  nblcb  nnr 
Lord  wiu  Ilia  Uoa  of  0<>d,  wlih  rerpect  tunia  divine  iisi- 
nre,  br  commniilcatloa  tram  tba  Fiitber.  trbu  on  tble  ac- 
codqC  la  oiled  nun  hsmrsr,  1^  Famtatn  rif  Dtily,  la  tif 
coDalderAble  antlquitT.  It  waa  cDatnmaiT  Fur  tbe  niibera, 
alter  Ibe  Council  at  Nice,  to  a|>enli  n(  tbe  Fatber  ng 
AT'>r>i'«.  •lid  fo  aMiibe  tu  blm  vhat  Ihey  termed  ^enc 
roUa  aetoa;  and  of  tbe  9oa  aa  ifiinr^,  to  wbuin  tbej 
otlrlboted  getuntio  pa—im.  Auurdlng  to  them  it  naa 
the  eaaeoilal  prnpertT  'if  the  Father  eteniallf  to  b»*  the 
dItlDe  nature  of  ft  (foni  himaelf, »  (bat,  wftb  iwpact  lo 
him,  II  vaa  Diideiii'edi  wheroan  It  waa  ihe  propertj  of 
the  Sou  to  be  eteruallj  beeotteu  of  the  Falber,  and  thua 
to  derive  bin  eaaence  irnm  blm.  To  tbb  itrnde  ut  rejirv- 
'  ig  Ibe  rslntlODB  of  Iheae  two  peraoiiB  of  Ibe  TrIiiItT, 


ual  Deltjr  of  Iht 

Scriptarea.    Swrn 


lnlBrlori  n  docirlue  hi 


laa  jnatlj  been  oldai 
...  .nine  aopreme  Biid 
to  repreMni  him  aa  eMentlallj 


It  in  I 


le  difflculij.    In  regard  In  lb 


Jecta,  tbe  aAfeal  vrn;  ia 


jwrfecll*  ni 


laaiiulloDeiiiiglalcd.leDsiiliJiKt  on  vrblch 

they  Kn  entlrelj  tileiiL  Ever;  ntlenipl  ii>  explain  It  baa 
oul;  fbrnipbed  n  freeh  Inetanca  of  darktiiliig  coanael  b; 
worda  wiibaut  knowledge." 

See  (ynei>,Penmio/Cirul:  I'eannn,  Civod;  Ridg- 
le.r,  Jtoify  of  Divmig,  3d  eiL  p.  73,  TS;  dill,  Body  of 
IMnailg,  i,  203,  8to  ed.;  Lambert,  Ssi-mom,  Ber.  19, 
Mxt  John  xi,  8a ;  Hodaon,  EUmol  Filiation  i>/  Ihe  San 
of  God;  Witl«,IFori5,r,77!  also  Dt.  A.  Cla.ke,  Wnl- 
»uii,  KiOd,  Sluart,  Drew,  and  TrelTry  on  the  aubjecl. 
Compare  So»  OF  Gol>. 

Osoeala  {ytvima,  biiihtlay-sift'),  were  offeringa 
mentiuiied  by  llerodatua,  and  probitriy  conaiating  of 
garlande,  wbich  the  ancient  Cireeks  were  accualamed  lo 
preaenc  at  the  tomba  of  their  deceaMd  isiatires  on  each 
annual  return  or  Iheir  birtlidaya. 

Oenealtu,  Saiai,  twentT-fiah  biahnp  of  Clermont, 
in  Auvergne  (A.D.  65G-66ij,  belonged  to  ■  family  of 
diatinguialied  ranlt  among  the  nublea  of  Aurergne.  He 
reaoBiiced  the  adTanUges  of  hia  birth  in  order  to  enter 
upon  tbe  ecclesiastical  calling.  Hta  learning  and  hie 
piety  ciuaeil  his  elevation  to  the  epiacopil  see  of  hia 
province,  led  vacant  by  the  deatb  of  the  biahop  Procu- 
liia.  After  five  years  he  reaolved  to  embrace  the  mo- 
luullc  life,  and  accontingly  Mt  out  for  Kome  in  the  dia- 
gniae  ot  a  aimple  pilgrim.  Hia  miraclea  betra}-ed  hia 
retreat.    He  returned  to  hia  church,  and  performed  fail 


0  GENIUS 

duties  with  extraordinary  wiadom  and  devolion.  Ha 
applied  all  hia  power  against  Ibe  her*(iee  of  Novatian 
and  Jovinian,  founded  the  abbey  of  Houlieu,  as  well  bb 
the  hospital  of  Si.  Eaprii,  at  Clermoat,  and  the  Church 
of  St.  Symphorien,  where  lie  was  interred,  and  which 
rroRi  that  time  bore  liia  name.  He  ia  lionurcd  Juite 
8.  The  BollandiaiB  have  pulilished  his  deeds,  and  coid- 
baudlheautheiilicily  of  other  acta  collected  by  varimM 
authore.  See  Horfer,  A''>irr..fiu$.  CM''afr,B.r.;  Smith, 
Vict,  of  Ckriil.  hiog.  B.  V. 

QadcbIiIs,  Sainl,  thirty-eighth  bishop  of  Lyona, 
wai  prior  of  the  celebrated  abbey  of  Ponlenelle,  fuund- 
ed  in  the  7ih  ceirtury.  He  amployeii  himself  in  re- 
pairing several  manasceriea,  among  wbiob  were  IhoBB 
of  Corbie  and  Fonleneile.  On  being  made  Brchbisho|i 
of  Lyons,  he  showed  great  ability  in  that  oBice,  but 
flnslly  retired  lu  the  abbev  of  Chel'lea,  where  he  died  in 
679.  He  is  honored  Nov.  3.  See  Hoefer,  A'oue.  Biag. 
Ginimlr,  B.  T. ;  Smiih,  Diet,  of  ChriH.  Biog.  a.  v. 

aenettlUa(r(n0Xia,Urf<liiajr-/«Mi'>),  the  festivals 
anwng  the  early  Christiaijs  held  on  the  aunivenary  o( 
the  death  of  any  martyr,  terming  it  his  MrtAifuji  (q.  r.), 
as  being  the  day  on  which  he  was  bom  to  a  new  uul 
higher  stale  of  beicig. 

OeiiEa,  Bttrtolomso,  an  eminent  Italian  atchi- 

leci,  son  of  GiroUmo  Geiiga,  waa  bom  at  Urhino  in 

1618,  and  was  instructed  by  Vasari  and  AmmBtuiti,*!!^ 

which  he  visited  Rome.    He  erected  the  church  afSBn 

Helro,  at  Mondori,  which  aurpaaaes,  Ba\-s  one  master, 

any  other  ediAce  of  its  ^le  In  Italv.    He  died  at  Malta 

"      1658.     See  Hoefer,  jVoui'.   Biog.   Ukiruk,  a.   r.; 

■noner,  Biog.  llitL  of  Iht  Fine  A  rli,  a,  v. 

Oenga,  Oirolamo,  an  Italian  painter  and  emi- 

nt  architect,  was  boni  at  Urbino  in  ItiS,  and  stodied 

ccMsively  under  Luca  Signorelli  aiwl  Hetro  renigina 

ust  of  hia  worliB  have  perished,  but  menlioD  ia  mada 

some  historical  subjects  in  the  Petrucci  palace  at 

ena:  The  ReiuiTtcluifi  aiid  Tkt  AimmpHon.     As  aa 

:hilecl  he  gained  considerable  eminence,  and  waa 

more  employed  in  Ihia  capacity  than  at  a  painter.     At 

Peaaro  he  restored  the  court  of  the  palace,  built  Ibe 

Church  of  Sail  Gin.  Batliata,  and  erected  the  facade  of 

the  cathedral     He  die<l  in  l&ol.     See  Hoefer.  A'ouf. 

Biog.  Cinirulf,  s.  t.  ;  Spooner,  Biog.  flil.  of  Ilk  Fim 

Ant,a.r. 

0«nlns,  in  Roman  mythology.  The  belief  in  in- 
visible prolecling  spirits,  or  beings  who  care  for  the 
welfare  of  single  persons,  is  found  among  many  people 
and  nations,  but  notrhere  was  the  docirine  of  genii  so 
perfect  at  in  Bome;  there  than  was  a  distinct  belief  in 
deities,  who  were  given  lo  every  man  from  the  time  oT 
birth.  These  deiliea  were  worshipped  partly  on  gen- 
eral festive  days,  partly  each  for  himself.  Thus  a  gen- 
ius was  especiajly  a  protecting  spirit  of  man.  This 
belief  extended  atill  further;  every  important  wotk 
and  object  had  lis  genius  or  genii. 

GKSIUS  or  THB  Empkhor.  In  Ibe  early  centuriea 
of  Ibe  Church,  one  of  the  tests  by  which  Chriatians 
were  detected  was,  to  require  them  lo  make  oalh  "  by 
tba  geniua  or  the  rortune  of  tbe  ei 


GEN-KO  ,  4 

wliicb  th«  CbrutiiTu,bairevtr  willing  to  pnj  Toi  kings, 
coiuiinrlv  rtfuMdiU  uvaiing  or  idolitrr,  Thui  I'oly- 
cirp  wu  requirHl  to  iwrtz  by  ths  fortune  or  Cnsar: 
■ml  Souirntniu  arljured  Spentut,  one  of  the  martjn  uf 
SdltiU,  "■[  leut  sweiT  bj  Ilie  geniu*  of  our  king;''  to 
vbich  lie  Implied, "  I  do  not  koowtlw  graiiu  of  the  «m- 
perot  of  ibc  urortd."  . 


The  0*nlBB  of  Elcrnity  cnrrjliig  in  Hfuvcii  [tie  Dellled 
F\gami  of  Aiiloiiliiui   fins  uud  b]B  Wife  FaurI\DiL 

Itnna  a  Moaunieui  at  itome.) 

UiDuciua  Felix  reprolMle*  the  ileiAcalion  of  the  em- 
peror, arul  the  heathen  practice  of  aweariiig  by  bia 
"genius"  or  "danian;"  and  Terlullian  aaya  thai,  al- 
though dimtiana  did  not  iwear  by  the  genius  of  the 
Ctcam,  tbey  iwora  by  a  tuore  auguat  oath,  "  by  their 
talvaiion."  We  do  not,  ««y»  Origcn,  awear  by  the  em- 
peror'* furtiine,  any  more  than  by  other  repuud  cleiliea; 
f<ir  (u  KHne  at  leut  think)  Ibe.v  who  awear  by  his 
fuitiine  awear  by  his  damon.  and  Christians  vroulil  die 
niher  than  lake  aueb  an  oalb.— Smith,  Z^u^.n/CArut 
Bioff.  I.  V. 

Qfln-Eo.  a  Buddhist  monk,  vras  bom  at  Sak-Syoa 
about  A.D.  ItSS.  He  introduced  ■  new  Buddhiat  doc- 
trine into  Japan,  which  soon  attracted  a  great  number 
or  disciples.  A  woman  of  the  court  of  the  oiikado  vras 
convened  m  this  religion,  which  circumstance  proTOked 
great  eiciiement,  and  a  tenlimeiit  of  hatred,  mingled 
with  an  impetuous  deure  for  vengeance  in  the  heart  of 
the  mikado.  <ien-Ka  was  banished,  ona  of  hii  mnst 
ardent  disciples  put  to  death, and  others  peraecnteil.  He 
died  A.D.  ViU.     See  Haefer,  .Vohd.  Biog.  Ghtirate,  s.  v. 

GleHBeliJoHitiHCHHrsTiAii,  aLulheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  waa  bom  at  Annafaerg,  Dec  %  1703.  lie 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  Leipsic,  and  Jena,  wu  preacher 
in  his  native  place  in  17S7,  superintendent  in  1748,  and 
died  Sept. «,  1782.  He  pnblisheil,  Oiierralumri  Sana 
(Leipaic,  1783 ;  2d  ed.  17o0} :— Z>£h.  ad  I,otum  PaaK  3 
Cor.xii,t  (17«)-.— Oe  RirtUHiombui  H  Raeialiitmm 
Uadu  (eod.).  See  Dietmann,  Churi&JuiKlu  Ftvifer ; 
iixhfw,  AUgrmrina  Gtlthlfii'Laiiaiit.v.     (D.  P.) 

OenBaler,  Wiioibi-x  Auai.-«T  Frikprtch,  a  Prot. 
tstint  thtnkigiin  of  Germinv.was  bom  March  7, 1793. 
In  1814  he  WIS  con-rector  at  the  lyeeiim  in  Saalfeld,  in 
1817  second  cour^pTeaehe^  and  professor  at  the  )»ym. 
nsaium  there,  in  182t  first  oourt-preacher  at  Cubur)(.  in 
1836  general  anperinlendent  there,  and  died  in  1847. 
He  wrote,  Vita  J<Koma  tfuila  (Jena,  ISie)  !~.C*rul- 
Sck  Amtmdm  anfi^IMm  Tagm  gthallm  (Coburg. 
It^y.—Die  SacHUirfeifi-  drr  aagAurgnrluK  Cmfaam 
(ibid.  ISaO) :—CntllKke  Rrdm  bei  mracAieJnmt  AmU- 
KrriMinigfn  (Leipaic,  1836):  — Die  fltrzogliche  Unf- 
UrAt  zu  KkrttiMTg  in  CiAutg  (Cloburg,  1838).  See 
Zuehald,SiM.  r«aii. i,4IGj  Vriatr,  HandlmiA  der  IhroL 
lif.  i,  8I» :  ii,  149, 167.     (II.  1'.) 

Oeutils,  Luioi  Primo,  a  reputnble  Italian  painter, 
waa  bom  at  Bruasels  in  1606;  acquired  the  elements 
of  design  and  then  risilod  Italy,  where  be  gained  ■ 
high  reputatiotL  Ha  resided  at  Itome  Tur  thirty  ycats, 
•Dd  waa  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Sl  Luke  in  I6M. 
Among  his  works  are  the  picture  of  SI.  A  atonie,  in  San 
UatcD,  at  RodH ;  also  7%e  JVatinTy  and  SI.  Sl'/aso,  in 


the  Cappoecini  at  Peaaro.  One  of  his  best  produedma 
is  a  picture  of  The  CnKifixioM,  in  the  chapel  of  tbe 
Trinity,  in  the  Church  of  Sc  Michael  at  Ghent.  Ue 
died  at  UnuHla  in  1667.  See  Spooner,  Bmiv,.  iJul.  qf 
lit  Fine  A  tit,  ».v. 
Oenna].  See  Efioon.ition, 
Oennflsotli}!!  {btndbiff  »/  iht  intr)  indicalea  a 
permanent  act  of  aduralion; 
uling  of  one  knee  and  not  of 


temporary  rather 

both. 

theologian  or  Germany,  uas  I 


Kmi 
dafterw 


183G  u 


Bkiikmaki 
oraI>ec5. 


a  Lutheran 
Rca- 


<M,i 


Schwanenbach,  where  he  died,  Not. 
t,  1882.  tie  wrote,  I'rbrr  St  vomrhmtlen  ^aucSr/t 
ridrr  dot  Wtik  lUr  fli4c(«ifti«funj  (Schdnben?.  1839) : 
—FalpiviigleH  {l.\imburg,IS»):— D<a  gait  Rechlmi- 
vrer  UrMickn  SsmioU  (Uipsic,  ISbl)  ■.  —  BrUSrumf 
Sri  klrvun  KalecAiiiaut  Maiim  l.ulitri  (4th  ed.  Lllne- 
burg,  1860)  -.—Unlvtir/t  lu  BficMrrdm  (Leipaic,  eod.). 
See  Zuchold,  BibL  Thtol.  i,  417.     (B.  P.) 

Geoffiey  OF  CoLnisoiiAu,  nn  ecclesiastical  Anglo- 
Murman  historian,  lived  at  the  commencement  of  the 
13lh  century.  A  mimk  at  Durhnm,  he  obtained  the 
poHtion  of  sacristan  in  the  priory  of  Coldingham,  in 
Scotland,  lie  wn*e  A  Short  /liiloiy  o/lht  Cturek  of 
f>Brkam,/fom  1153*0  1214,  which  work  was  first  pi ' 


aheil  bi 


Raini 


eilition  in   his  Uiifona  Dm^mntU  Saiplom   Tm 
(1833).     See  Hoefer.  Xoav.  Uiog.  Gmiralt,  s.  v. 

QeoBrvy  (or  Staphen)  op  Lundafp,  was  broth- 
er of  UrlMU.  and  WIS  consecrated  bishop  of  that  see  in 
He  wrote  a  Lifi  of  the  Welsh  saint  Tellvoua,  or 
Teilo,  and  is  sud  to  hare  compoied  the  rogister  of  the 
Church  of  LUndaff,  publiaheil  by  Kev.  W.  J.  Keea,  for 
the  Welsh  Manuscript  Societv,  in  1840.  See  tloefer, 
A'our,  Ding.  Gmiialt,  s.  v. j  Allibune,  IHa.  n/  B<il.  amd 

Osoffroi  GABion,  a  French  eccleBissilcal  writer, 
lived  at  the  commencement  <i!  the  Hth  centuri-.  He 
waa  one  of  the  mwit  celebrated  achulastics,  or'msstft 
profeisan,  of  the  school  ol  Angent  He  succeeded  in 
tliii  ofiice  Uarbode,  who  waa  ordaineil  biahop  of  Rennea 
in  1096.  Little  is  known  orhislirp,cxcrpling  that  uih 
ilcr  Ilia  direction  the  acbool  of  Angera  flourished,  and 
that  lie  still  lived  in  1110.  There  ia  no  f.iundation  for 
the  belief  of  l^Ia,  that  UeolTroi  was  Knglish.  There  ia 
a  eoromcniaty  preserved  in  the  abbey  of  Qieaux  with 
tills  inscription,  Gaufridi  Btdmiid  luprr  MaKkaata, 
See  Hoefer.  Svat.  Biog.  Ghiiralr,  s.  v. 

Oeoflrol  l>K  Baii  (tat.  aan/iidat  de  Bnnv),  a 
French  prelate,  waa  bom  in  the  early  part  of  the  imh 
century.  Doctor  of  Iheokigi',  canon,  archdeacon,  and, 
after  1278,  deau  of  the  Church  of  Paris,  he  was  appoint- 
ed canliiial  by  pope  Martin  IV,  March  23,  1281.  He 
died  at  Home,  Aug.  31, 1383.  For  mention  of  bia  writ- 
ings, see  Hoefer,  Kom.  Btug.  G^fiaU,  s.  r, 

0«ofial  iiR  Bkai;ijki',  a  French  bagiographer, 
was  bom  near  the  commencemeut  of  the  I3ih  wntury. 
He  entered  ihe  Dominican  onler,  and  more  than  twen- 
ty yeara  perfurmed  the  functions  of  almoner,  confeasor, 
ami  intimate  counsellor  to  Louis  IX,  whom  he  accom- 
panied in  the  cmsadc  of  1248,  sharing  his  captivity, 
and  nilh  whom  be  returne.1  to  France  in  1354.  Ilealao 
took  part  ill  the  crusade  of  1370,  and  assisted  nt  the  last 
momenta  of  Louia  IX.  lietumiiiK  to  France,  he  wrote, 
by  order  of  pope  Gregory  X,  the  life  of  tbe  saintlv  king. 
He  died  about  1374.  Geoffroi  waa  not  a  polished  hia- 
torian ;  he  was  a  religious  bagiographer,  who  kept 
within  the  buunda  of  collecting  tbe  rcligioiia  ciiatoms, 
the  prayers,  tba  confessiuns,  tbe  austerities  of  the  mon- 
arch, and  all  the  acts  of  piety  and  charily  which  gained 
for  him  the  title  of  saint     See  Hoefer,  Noac.  Biog.  Gi- 

a«oSrol  COu  DR  Crkt  (^Colluia  Cemi),  «  French 


GEOPFROI 


442 


GEORGE 


prelate,  was  bom  in  the  Utter  half  of  the  11th  century. 
He  embraced  the  religious  life,  and  was  successively 
prior  of  St,  Nicaise  of  Rheims,  and  abbot  of  St.  Medard 
of  Sotssons.  When  Abelard  was  confined  in  this  abbey, 
GeoifroL  loaded  him  with  kindness,  and  the  illustrious 
philosopher  caused  the  remembrance  to  be  handed  down 
to  posterity.  Geoffroi  revived  the  love  and  culture  of 
letters  in  the  convents  of  the  order  of  St.  Beueiiict, 
preaching  in  all  the  re-establishment  of  monastic  disci- 
pline. In  1131  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Chalons,  at 
the  wish  of  St.  Bernard,  his  friend.  Nine  years  later 
he  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Sens,  and,  in  spite  of  his 
affection  fur  Abelard,  he  could  not  but  adhere  to  the 
Judgment  passed  against  him  by  this  assembly.  Ue 
died  May  27,  1 143.  Of  three  letters  written  by  him, 
the  first  is  found  in  the  Bibliotheca  Cluniacetuis  of  Du- 
chesne, the  second  in  the  Spictlegium  of  D'Achery,  and 
the  third  in  the  MiscelUtnea  of  Batuze.  For  other  works 
see  Hoefer,  Xouo,  Biog,  GeniraUf  s.  v, 

Geoffroi  d'Eu,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  at  £u 
near  the  close  of  the  12th  century.  He  pursued  his 
studies  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  first  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology,  then  that  of  doctor  of 
medicine.  He  was  appointed  canon  of  the  Church  of 
Amiens,  and  in  1222  was  raised  to  the  episcopal  see  of 
that  cit}'.  He  patronized  the  celebrated  architect,  Rob- 
ert de  Luzarches,  and  caused  the  work  on  the  cathedral 
of  Amiens  to  be  completed  in  1288.  Geoffroi  died  at 
Amiens,  Nov.  25, 1236.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GM- 
raltf  s.  v. 

Gfreoffrol  db  L^ves,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  11th  century.  After  the  death 
of  Yves,  bishop  of  Chartres,  the  chapter  of  this  Church 
elected  Geoffroi  to  succeed  him.  Count  Thibault,  in- 
dignant at  this  election,  concerning  which  he  had  not 
been  consulted,  drove  the  new  bishop  from  the  city, 
and  pillaged  the  houses  of  the  canons  who  had  given 
him  their  votes.  Robert  of  Arbrisselles  appeased  the 
count,  and  Geoffroi,  a  peaceable  possessor  of  his  bishop- 
ric, was  consecrated  at  Rome  by  Pascal  II,  in  1 1 1 6.  He 
assisted  at  several  councils,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  eloquence.  He  had  a  contest  with  Geoffroi  of 
Vendome,  relative  to  the  privileges  of  this  abbey.  If 
we  may  credit  Abelard,  the  bishop  of  Chartres  was  the 
only  one,  at  the  Council  of  Soissons,  in  1121,  who  did 
not  approve  the  rigor  of  which  he  was  the  object. 
Nevertheless,  twenty  years  later,  he  signed  the  con- 
demnation of  this  philosopher.  In  1127  he  accompa- 
nied ]£ticnnc  de  Senlis,  bishop  of  Paris,  to  Rome,  and  in 
1 132  he  received  the  authority  of  legate,  in  which  po- 
sition he  was  obliged  to  combat  the  partisans,  in  Aqui- 
tania,  of  the  antipope  Anacletus,  and,  with  the  aid  of  St. 
Bernard,  succeeded  in  restoring  to  the  subjection  of 
pope  Innocent,  duke  William,  whom  the  bishop  of  An* 
gouldme  had  involved  in  the  schism.  He  received 
from  the  holy  see  various  missions  for  the  extirpation 
of  schism  and  heresy,  and  always  conducted  himself  in 
an  irreproachable  manner  in  the  exercise  of  these  func- 
tions. He  died  Jan.  24, 1149.  Some  of  his  letters  and 
charters  have  been  collected  in  the  GaUia  Christiana. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GiniraU^  s,  v. 

Gfreoffroi  du  Loroux,  a  French  prelate,  was  born 
at  Le  Loroux  (Loratorium),  a  town  of  Touraine,  near 
the  close  of  the  1 1th  century.  He  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  knowledge  of  theology,  and  it  is  believed  that 
he  publicly  Uught  this  science  at  Poitiers.  In  1131  St. 
Uernanl  wrote  to  engage  him  to  publicly  Uke  the  part 
of  Innocent  II  against  Anacletus.  In  1186  he  was  elect- 
ed bishop  of  Bordeaux.  Allied  in  friendship  with  Gil- 
bert de  La  Porree,  bishop  of  Poitiers,  he  attempted  to 
preserve  him  at  the  Council  of  Rheims,  in  1148,  from 
ecclesiastical  censure.  Two  years  before  he  had  pre- 
sided, as  legate  of  the  holy  see,  at  the  Council  of  Beau- 
gency,  where  the  divorce  of  Louis  the  Younger  and 
£leonore  was  published.  He  died  at  Bordeaux,  Jnly 
18, 1168.  Five  letters  of  his  remain,  addressed  to  Suger, 


and  collectionB  by  Duchesne,  Ser^ttoret,  iv,  500-506^ 
etc.  Some  manuscript  sermons  are  attributed  to  him, 
and  a  commentary  on  the  first  fifty  Psalms  of  Darid, 
which  appears  to  belong  to  Geoffroi  de  Vendome.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Giaerale,  s.  v. 

Gheoffroi  DB  PitBONXK,  a  French  theologian  of  the 
12th  century,  was  one  of  the  twenty-nine  persons  com- 
mendable for  their  birth  and  knowledge,  whom  Bernard, 
on  his  voyage  to  Flanders  about  1146,  decided  to  em- 
brace the  religious  life  at  Clairvanx.  Geoffroi  became, 
later,  prior  of  this  abbey,  and  refused  the  bishopric  of 
Toumay.  He  still  lived  in  1171.  For  mention  of  his 
works,  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Oeoffiroi  de  VexdOmb  (Lat.  Gaufridua  Vindocmm^ 
ai»\  a  French  cardinal,  was  bora  at  Angers  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  Uth  century,  probably  of  one  of  the  impor- 
tant families  of  Anjou.  Being  placed  while  very  yoang 
in  the  monastery  of  I^  Trinite  de  Vendome,  he  there 
distinguished  himself  by  his  firmness  of  character  and 
the  extent  of  his  knowledge,  qo  that  he  was  promoted 
from  the  rank  of  novitiate  to  the  dignity  of  abbot,  Aug. 
21, 1098.  The  year  following  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
Urban  II  made  him  a  cardinal,  with  the  title  of  St.  Pri^ 
usqut.  In  1094  he  was  at  Saumur  among  the  prelates 
charged  by  the  pope  with  acquitting  Foulqnes  of  Anjoiu 
In  1095  he  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Clermont,  and  in 
1097  was  found  at  the  Council  of  Saintes.  In  1116 
Geoffroi  engaged  in  a  quarrel  with  the  abbot  of  St.  Au- 
bin  of  Angers.  The  legate  Umbald  called  him,  in  11261, 
to  the  Council  of  Orleans,  but  he  responded  to  him  that 
an  abbot  of  Vendome,  vassal  of  the  holy  see,  obeyed  the 
orders  of  the  pope,  and  not  those  of  a  bishop  or  any 
other  apostolic  mandatory.  He  was  endowed  with 
brilliant  qualities,  and  would  have  occupied  the  highest 
positions  in  the  Church  had  he  been  less  imperious  and 
sullen.  He  died  at  Angers,  March  26, 1132.  His  writ- 
ings were  collected  and  published,  in  1610,  by  P.  Sir- 
mond.  This  collection  offers  five  books  of  letters,  six 
treatises  upon  various  dogmatic  subjects,  hj-mns,  and 
sermons.  The  matter  which  he  most  often  treated  of 
was  t  hat  of  investitures.  A  Commentaire  sur  les  Psaumet 
is  unpublished.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhUrale,  t.  r, 

Oeoffiroi  (or  Gtodefroi)  db  St.  Victor,  a  French 
ecdestastical  writer  of  the  12th  century,  was  canon  of 
the  abbey  of  St.  Victor,  at  Paris,  but  information  con- 
cerning his  life  is  wanting,  except  that  he  tanght  liter- 
ature and  philosophy  for  a  long  time  before  retiring  to 
the  cloister.  Some  regard  him  as  the  same  person  as  a 
sub-prior  of  St.  Barbe,  bearing  the  same  name,  and  of 
whom  several  letters  were  published  by  D.  Martene. 
Various  works  of  the  canon  of  St.  Victor  exist  in  man- 
uscript at  the  Imperial  Library;  for  further  mention 
see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  t.  v. 

GBOttroi  DU  ViGBoia,  a  French  chronicler  of  the 
12th  century,  was  bora  at  Clermont  d*£xcideuil  (Peri- 
gord)  about  1140.  He  was  educated  at  IJmoges,  and 
there  received  the  monkish  consecration  in  1159,  was 
ordained  priest  at  Benevent,  abbey  of  Marche  dn  Li- 
mousin, in  1167,  by  Gerand,  bishop  of  Cahors,  and  ap- 
pointed prior  of  Vigeois,  in  Lower  Limousin,  June  14, 
1178.  The  details  of  hb  life  are  found  only  in  his  his- 
tory, and  in  a  most  imporfeipt  one  upon  the  history  of 
Perigord  and  Limousin.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  G^ 
fUralff  s.  v. 

Gtoomanoy  (from  yji,  the  earthy  and  /lavnia,  dtt- 
tno/ton),  one  of  the  four  kinds  of  divimaium  (q.  t.)  men- 
tioned by  Varro. 

George  is  the  name  of  numerous  eariy  ecdeaiastio, 
among  whom  we  specify :  (1)  The  second  patriarch  of 
Alexandria  by  that  name,  A.D.  cir.  611 ;  (2)  first  par 
triarch  of  Antioch  by  that  name,  A.D.  dr.  <i45 ;  (8)  pa- 
triarch of  the  Nestorians,  A.D.  660 ;  (4)  second  patriarch 
of  Antioch  by  that  name,  A.D.  cir.  680;  (5)  Uie  forty- 
fourth  bishop  of  Constantinople,  and  first  patriarch  of 
that  name,  A.D.  678-688. 

Gtoorge  Amyduz a,  an  eodesiaaUcal  writer,  was  bom 


6E0K6E 


443 


GEORGES 


at  Trebizond  near  the  oommencement  of  the  15th  cen- 
toTT.  He  wts  eeteeined  by  John  PalaBologus  II,  empe- 
ror of  Constantinople,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the 
Council  of  Florence  in  1489.  On  his  return  to  Trebi- 
zond, he  performed  historical  duties  for  David,  the  em- 
peror. After  the  taking  of  Trebizond  by  the  Turks,  in 
1461,  he  was  in  favor  with  the  sultan,  Mahomet  II,  and 
obtained  an  important  place  in  the  seraglio.  He  died 
about  1465,  having  embraced  Mohammedanism.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled,  A  d  Demetrium  NauplU  /lucent, 
etc^  directed  against  the  union  of  the  two  churches,  from 
which  Allatius  has  given  extracts  in  his  Z>e  Cofuentu 
Utriuiqut  EcdetieB,  See  Hoefer,  Aovr.  Biog,  Ginirale, 
s.  V. 

Gteorge  OF  Cyprus  (afterwards  called  Grtgory), 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  bom  in  the  early  part 
of  the  13th  century.  He  occupied  an  important  posi- 
tion at  Constantinople  at  the  time  of  the  accession  of 
Androoicus  Paheologus  the  elder,  in  1282.  He  was  a 
man  of  learning  and  eloquence,  and  revived  the  Attic 
dialect,  which  had  for  a  long  time  fallen  into  disuse. 
Under  the  reign  of  Michael  Palaeologus,  father  of  An- 
dronicus,  he  was  in  favor  of  the  union  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  which  Michael  greatly  desired.  But 
the  accession  of  Andronicus,  who  was  opposed  to  this 
union,  modified  hiis  sentiments.  At  the  death  of  Jo- 
leph,  Andronicus  was  called  to  the  vacant  see.  The 
emperor,  desiring  to  put  an  end  to  the  existing  troubles 
concerning  the  proc^don  of  the  Holy  Ghost^  and  a 
schism  caused  by  the  deposition  of  Arsenius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  in  1266,  wished  to  place  a  layman  in 
the  position;  therefore  George  was  ragldly  advanced 
through  the  various  degrees  of  monk,  deacon,  priest, 
and  consecrated  patriarch  in  April,  1288,  under  the  name 
of  Gregory.  The  Armenians  at  first  refoseil  to  recog- 
nise him,  and  at  length  were  excommunicated  by  him. 
He  severely  prosecuted  the  adherents  of  John  Deccus, 
or  Yecens,  ex  -  patriarch,  and  zealous  advocate  of  the 
anion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  which  senti- 
ment appeared  particularly  dangerous  to  Gregory.  He 
expressed  his  opinions  upon  this  subject  in  a  hook,  tn- 
titled, '£x3f(nc  tov  toimov  rijfv  sriirrcwCt  which  excited 
so  much  opposition  that  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his 
see  in  1289,  and  accordingly  retired  to  a  monastery.  He 
died  the  folk) wing  year,  and  his  death  is  believed  to 
have  been  caused  by  chagrin.  For  mention  of  numer- 
ous other  works,  see  Hoefer,  ATofir.  Bioff,  GMraU,  s.  v. 

Oeorge  (^Sainf),  snmamed  Mthatsmidkl,  abbot 
of  Mtha-Tsminda,  was  bom  in  Thrialet  about  1014.  He 
was  at  the  age  of  seven  years  consecrated  to  the  mo- 
nastic life.  Carried  to  Constantinople  by  the  Greeks, 
who  took  him  prisoner  in  1021,  he  remained  there 
twelve  years,  and  obtained  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  sciences  and  the  Greek  language.  Returning  to 
Georgia,  be  entered  a  monastery,  from  which  he  went 
forth  privately  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and 
afterwards  to  Mt,  Athos,  where  in  seven  years  he  trans- 
lated a  large  part  of  the  Bible  into  the  Georgian  lan- 
guage. The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  analo- 
gous occupation.  He  composed  a  life  of  St.  Euthymius, 
some  theological  treatises,  and  translated  a  large  num- 
ber of  works  of  the  Greek  fathers.  About  1051  he  be- 
came abbot  of  the  Georgian  convent  of  Mt.  Athos,  called 
Mtha-Tsminda,  which  he  repaired  with  the  funds  fur- 
nished by  the  emperor  Constantine  Monomachus.  King 
Btgrad  IV  offered  him  the  bishopric  of  Mingrelia,  but 
he  declined,  and  even  abandoned  the  office  of  abbot,  re- 
tiring to  a  monastery  !n  Taums.  In  1059,  king  Bagrad 
pat  him  in  charge  of  the  education  of  his  son,  George 
IL  St.  George  died  about  1072.  His  festival  is  cele- 
brated June  28  or  29.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Bio*;,  GhU- 
rale,s,y, 

George  of  NiooancDiA,  a  Byzantine  theologian, 
who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  9th  century,  was 
keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  great  church  of  Constan- 
tinople.   He  was  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Pho- 


tins,  and  became  archbi^op  of  Nicoroedta.  Several 
of  his  homilies  and  three  of  his  hymns  are  found  in  the 
Novum  Audarium  of  Combefis,  voL  i.  Combefis  con- 
founded the  author  with  George  the  Pisidian.  Among 
the  unpublishe<l  works  of  George  we  mention  a  chroni- 
cle, but  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  this  and 
the  chronicles  of  the  other  Georges.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  G^iraUf  s.  v. 

Oeorge  thk  Siknbb  (AfiapTut\6i:)j  a  Byzantine 
chronicler,  lived  near  the  middle  of  the  9th  century. 
He  wrote  a  chronicle  which  extended  from  the  crea- 
tion down  to  the  reign  of  Michael  III,  son  of  Theophl- 
lus  and  Theodora.  This  man  must  not  be  confounded 
with  other  Georges  who  also  wrote  chronicles,  as  George 
Cedrenu^  George  Syncellus,  George  of  Nicomedia,  and 
George  the  Monk.  The  chronicle  of  George  was  copied 
by  Cedrenus,  Theophanus,  and  Michael  Glycaa.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Uiog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Gfreorge  (JKeorhK)  I,  patriarch  of  Armenia,  succeed- 
ed Soghomon  A.D.  792.  He  died  in  795,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Joseph  II.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrakf 
s.  v. 

Oeorge  H,  patriarch  of  Armenia,  was  bora  at 
Karabu  Educated  in  the  patriarchal  palace,  he  was 
raised  to  the  patriarchate  in  876,  after  the  death  of 
Zachary  III.  He  was  a  pmdent  man,  who  governed 
well  his  Church.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  signers 
of  the  petition  addressed  to  the  caliph,  requesting  the 
title  of  king  for  the  prince  Achod,  governor  of  Armenia. 
Being  sent  as  ambassador  by  Sempad,  successor  of 
Achod,  to  Afshin,  the  Arab  general  who  came  to  in- 
vade Armenia,  he  was  retained  as  a  captive,  and  did 
not  regain  his  liberty  until  near  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty,  and  by  means  of  a  ransom.  He  died  in  897.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  letter  addressed  to  John,  a  Syrian 
patriarch,  in  which  he  exposes  the  rites  of  the  Arme- 
nian Church.  His  successor  was  Machdots  II  {Elward" 
zetii).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Oeorge  IH  was  bom  at  Lorhi,  and  occupied  the 
patriarchal  see  of  Armenia  from  1071  to  1073.  When 
Gregory  II  had  abdicated,  in  order  to  retire  to  the 
Black  Mountain,  in  the  Taurus,  George,  who  had  been 
his  secretary',  was  elected  patriarch.  Irritated  because 
a  great  number  of  priests  still  addressed  Gregory  II  as 
the  true  patriarch,  he  treated  with  great  severity  those 
who  dented  the  regularity  of  his  election.  Being  de- 
posed in  1078,  he  retired  to  Tarsus,  where  he  soon  aAer 
ended  his  days.  Gregory  II  took  the  place  which 
George  III  had  occupied  for  two  years.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU^  s.  v. 

Oeorgel,  Jean  Francois,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and 
diplomatist,  was  bora  at  Brayferes,  Lorraine,  Jan.  19, 
1781.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  order,  taught,  with  some 
success,  rhetoric  and  mathematics,  in  the  colleges  of 
Pont-li-Mousson,  Dijon,  and  Strasburg,  and  later  be- 
came secretary  to  Kohan,  ambassador  to  Vienna.  In 
1774  he  became  vicar -general,  and  administered  the 
diocese  of  Strasburg.  He  afterwards  retired  to  Frei- 
burg, and  occupied  himself  in  editing  his  Mimoires, 
until  the  grand-prior  of  Malta  called  him  to  his  aid. 
He  refused  a  bishopric,  preferring  the  ofiice  of  vicar- 
general  of  Vosges,  and  a  quiet  dwelling  in  the  lit- 
tle village  of  Brayferes,  where  he  died,  Nov.  14, 1818, 
leaving  six  volumes  of  memoirs  in  MS.,  published  by 
his  nephew  (Paris,  1817  or  1820).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Oeorges  (or  Oeorgen),  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  dio« 
cese  of  Metz,  was  vicar  of  the  parish  of  St.  Eucaire  of 
that  city,  in  1788.  He  died  about  1848,  while  holding 
the  position  of  grand  chorister  of  the  cathedral  of  Nancy. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ghtirakf  s.  v. 

Oeorges^  Dominique,  a  French  theologian,  wa*. 
bora  at  Cutri,  near  Longwy,  Lorraine,  in  1618.  Hf 
completed  his  course  of  philosophy  at  the  College  ol 
the  Jesuits  at  PontFli-Moaaaon,  entered  orders,  and  wat 


GEORGI 


444 


GERARD 


appointed,  in  1637,  curate  of  Circourt.  Some  time  after 
he  returned  to  Paris,  went  into  the  community  of  Sl 
Nicolas-du-Cliardonnet,  and  later  into  the  abbey  of  the 
reformed  Cistercians.  At  the  age  of  forty  years  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  abbey  of  Val  Richer.  In  1664 
he  was  sent  with  the  abbot  of  La  Trappe  to  Rumo,  to 
solicit  a  general  reform  of  the  onler  of  Citeaux.  On 
his  return  he  established  this  reform  in  his  abbey  at 
Val  Richer,  which  was  a  course  of  such  extreme  auster- 
ity that  many  were  unable  to  follow  it,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  modify  it.  He  died  Nov.  8, 1693.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv»  Biog,  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Oeorgl,  Christian  Sigmuxd,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Luckau«  July  20,  1701.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg,  and  commenced  his  academical  career 
in  1723,  was  professor  of  philosophy  in  1736,  pn>fes8or 
of  theology  in  1743,  and  was  honored  with  the  doctor- 
ate of  divinity  in  1748,  He  died  SepL  6, 1771,  leaving 
De  CkaUaoiyritmis,  Rabbinismit  et  Permmu  (Wit- 
tenberg, 1726):— Z)e  Kbraismii,  Nori  Tnt,  (ibid.  1726- 
27)  :—Dt  Diakcto  aVovi  Tesiamenti  (ibid.  1730)  i—De 
Idioticismit  Novi  Test.  (ibid,  eod.)  :—De  Puritate  Novi 
Tett,  (ibid.  1731) :— />«  LaiinismU  GrtBca  Novi  Faderis 
(ibid.  l7S2y.—  Vvidicia  Novi  Teatamenti  ah  Ebraimit 
{eod,) '.  —  /Jierocriticut  Novi  Tesiamenti  (1733):— Z>c 
D'^'^BIO  ad  Varies  Vet,  et  Nuvi  Test.  Locos  lUastrandos 
(1734),  etc.  For  a  full  list  of  his  writings,  amounting 
to  seventy -two,  see  During,  Die  geUhrten  Theohgm 
Deutschltmds,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  AUffemeines  GeUhrten-Lexi- 
hott,  «.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Georgian  Version.    See  RusaxA,  V krsions  op. 

Georgio,  Adolpii  a  S.,  a  Piarist,  was  bom  in  1681, 
in  Moravia.  In  1695  he  joined  his  order,  was  its  gen- 
eral  in  1724,  and  died  as  bishop  of  Raab,  Nov.  24, 1748. 
He  wrote.,  C)^bs  1?,  i.  e.  teacher  and  witness  (Frank- 
fort, 1711 ;  a  work  written  in  Hebrew  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Jews,  which  he  had  formerly  published  in 
I^tin  at  Yienns,  1709) : — Die  Psalmen  Davids  mit  einer 
Erlddmng  und  Phraseohgie  des  IJebrdischen  Textes  (Vi- 
enna, 1787).  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrien-Lexi- 
kon,  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Georgiua,  Ambinlaa,  a  Capuchin  preacher,  who 
died  at  Paris  in  1657,  is  the  author  of  TertvUianus  Re- 
dicious  (Paris^  1646-50,  3  yo^,)i—Tkeologia  Pauli 
Ti-ina  (ibid.  1649-50, 3  vols.).  See  Bernard  k  Bononia, 
BiltL  Capuocinorum ;  Jocher^  AUgenteines  Gelehtien'f.ex- 
iton,s.v.     (a  P.) 

Georgiua,  Dominions^  the  younger,  librarian 
to  cardinal  Imperialis,  and  chaplain  to  pope  Benedict 
XIV,  died  at  Rome,  Aug.  20,  1747.  He  wrote,  De 
Antiquis  Italics  Metropolibus  (Rome,  1722) :— Z>e  Litur^ 
gia  Romani  Poniifids  (1731, 2  vols.) :— Z>e  Monogram- 
mate  Christi  (1738) : — Amtalium  Ecdesiasticorum  Cces, 
Ba  onii  (Lucca,  1740)  : — Viia  Nicolai  V  Pont,  Maxinii 
ad  Fidem  Veterum  Monumentorum^  etc.  (1742) : — Mar- 
tgrohgium  Adonis  Archiepiscopi  Viennensis  (1745).  See 
Baumgarten,  Hallische  Bibliothek,  vi,  436;  Jocher,  All- 
gemeines  Gelehrten-I^exikon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  llandbuch  der 
theoL  Lit,  i,  539, 675, 813, 914.     (R  P.) 

Georgiua,  Ignatiua,  a  Benedictine,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century,  is  the  author 
of  Paulas  A  postolus  in  Mari  (Venice,  1 780).  See  Baum- 
garten, MerkwUrdige  BUcher^  viii,  157;  Walch,  BiU, 
Theol.  iii,  454;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten'Ijexihm^ 
s.  V. ;  Winer,  llandbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  569.     (R  P.) 

Gerald,  abbot  and  bishop  of  Mayo,  is  believed  to 
have  been  of  Saxon  lineage,  and  to  have  accompanied 
Colman  from  Lindisfame  in  664.  He  is  commemo- 
rated on  March  13.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog, 

B.  V. 

Geraldini,  Alessandro,  a  Neapolitan  prelate, 
first  bishop  of  Hispaniola,  afterwards  San  Domingo, 
then  Hayti,  was  born  in  1455  at  Amelia  (Umbria).  He 
belonged  to  a  noble  family,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 


service  of  Spain.  His  brother  having  been  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Francis  11,  duke  of  Brittan}*,  Alessandro  ac- 
companied him,  and  remained  in  France  until  Septem- 
ber, 1488.  Qn  his  return  to  Spain  he  was  appointed 
tutor  of  the  princesses,  and  obtained  aid  for  Christopher 
Columbus  for  his  voyage  of  discovery.  He  was  after- 
wards charged  with  several  diplomatic  missions.  He 
first  obtained  the  bishopric  of  Volterra,  then  of  Moote 
Cervino  (1494).  In  1620  he  was  appointed  to  the  buh- 
opric  of  Hispaniola.  He  immediately  repaired  to  his 
new  diocese,  where  he  employed  himself  with  trae  evan* 
gelical  zeal  until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1525.  For 
mention  of  his  works,  see  Uoefer,  Aoitv.  Biog,  Ginkrak^ 
s.  V, 

Gerard  of  Douay,  third  son  of  Wantur  III,  lord 
of  Douay,  lived  in  the  13th  centun*.  He  was  priest 
and  canon  of  the  Church  of  Senlis,  and  bishop  of 
Chalons-sur-Marnc.  He  met  at  Douay,  Oct  17, 1206, 
with  the  bishops  of  Arras  and  Touruay,  in  order  to  re- 
move the  Uxly  of  St.  Ame,  which  the  three  bishope 
bore  upon  their  shoulders  from  the  Church  of  St.  Ain^ 
of  Douav  to  a  small  hill  situated  on  the  outskirts  of  a 
city  upon  the  road  to  Arras.  He  was  one  of  the  bene- 
factors of  the  abbey  of  Chemiuon,  to  which  he  left  a 
goodly  number  of  manuscripts.  He  resigned  his  bish- 
opric in  1215,  and  retired  to  the  abbey  of  Tousaaint, 
near  Chalons,  where  he  died  some  years  later.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Gerard  {Saint}  of  Hukoary,  was  bom  in  the 
Venetian  States,  and  while  very  young  entered  a  mon- 
aster.v.  By  the  permission  of  his  superiors  he  set  out 
for  JerusaleRK  to  visit  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  pass- 
ing through  Hungary',  the  king,  SL  Stephen,  touched  by 
his  piety,  gave  to  him  the  bishopric  of  Chonad.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  apostolic  zeal  and  his  great 
strictness.  After  the  death  of  St.  Stephen  he  suffered 
great  persecutiou,  and  was  at  last  assassinated  by  order 
of  a  nobleman  of  the  country.  In  Roman  martyrologr 
he  is  styled  the  apostle  of  Hungary.  His  death  oc- 
curred Sept.  24, 1047.  See  Uoefer,' A'bar.  Biog,  CstU- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Gerard  of  Lieoc,  a  Dominican,  was  bom  about 
1220.  He  aided  in  the  establishment  of  the  Fete-Dicn, 
and  died  about  1270.  He  wrote  several  religious  works. 
De  Dodrina  Cordis  gained  great  popularity,  as  attested 
by  the  large  number  of  manuscripts.  It  was  published 
several  times,  and  translated  into  French  b%*  W.  Caoult 
(Douay,  1601;  Lyons,  1608).  His  Sermons  and  De 
Testamento  Christi,  with  others  of  his  writings,  are  for^ 
gotten.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genh'ale,  s.  v. 

Gtorard  (SavU)  of  Toul,  was  bom  in  935,  of  a 
patrician  family.  While  veiy  young  he  entered  the 
chapter  of  St.  Peter  of  Cologne,  his  native  city,  in  order 
to  pursue  his  studies,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight 
was  promoted  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Toul.  Consecrated 
at  Treves  in  968,  and  enthroned  the  same  year,  he  led 
an  upright,  charitable,  and  studious  life,  and  devoted 
himself  very  closely  to  the  instraction  of  the  numerooa 
pupils  under  his  care.  He  labored  throughout  his  di<K 
cese,  scattering  the  word  of  God,  and  aiding  those  of 
his  subjects  who  were  impoveridied  by  war  or  pesti- 
lence. He  spent  as  little  time  as  possible  at  the  impe- 
rial court,  notwithstanding  the  wuh  of  Otho  II  to  the 
contrary.  He  viiuted  Rome,  and  in  company  with 
twelve  persons  who  travelled  on  foot  in  procession,  went 
from  Toul  to  the  tomb  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul, 
the  principal  object  of  their  devotion.  On  his  return 
to  Rome  he  found  the  nobility  had  risen  up  against  the 
episcopal  power,  which  he  had  committed  to  the  hsnds 
of  his  brother.  Gerard  died  April  22, 994,  was  canon- 
ized fifty-seven  yean  afterwards,  and  pope  Leo  IX,  Oct. 
22, 1051,  removed  his  remains.  See  Hoefer,  A  o«r.  Bioff„ 
Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Gerard  of  Zutphbn  (or  de  Zkrbolt),  a  Dutch 
ascetic,  writer,  a  disciple  of  Gerard  Groot,  was  bom  in 
1367,  and  reared  in  the  society  of  the  Brothers  of  Com- 


GERARD 


445 


OEKIZIM 


iDon  life.  He  died  in  1398,  leaving  two  trettises :  De 
Refui-maiUme  Virium  A  mma,  and  De  SpirUvalibus  A  »• 
oauumiims  (Paris,  1492;  Cologne,  1579;  and  in  the  Btb' 
Iwfhkqyt  da  Peres,  Cologne,  1618).  See  Hocfer,  Nouv, 
Bioff,  Ginerak,  s.  v. 

Gerard,  John.    See  Gerhard,  Johann. 

Gerardfl,  Mark,  a  reputable  Flemish  painter,  en- 
grarer,  and  architect,  also  an  illuminator  and  a  design- 
er, flourished  about  1560.  He  went  to  England  about 
1580,  and  was  appointed  painter  to  queen  Elizabeth. 
As  a  designer,  he  executed  a  set  of  fourteen  plates  on 
the  Pauion  of  Christ,  He  died  in  1598.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  an  able  architect,  but  none  of  his  works 
are  mentioned.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  qf  the  Fine 
Arte,  su  V. 

Geraalmiia,  a  celebrated  anchorite  of  Palestine 
towards  the  middle  of  the  5th  century,  was  a  native  of 
Lvdia,  who  embraced  the  views  of  Theodosius  of  Jeru- 
salem, but  was  restored  to  the  true  faith  bv  Euthv- 
mius.  He  founded  a  large  laura  near  the  Jonlan,  char- 
acterized by  extreme  austerity,  and  died  there,  March 
5,  A.D.  475.     See  Smjth,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Gtoraud,  Saint,  bom  at  AurilUic  about  855,  of  one 
of  the  most  powerful  families  of  Auvergne,  was  Innl  of 
the  southern  part  of  Upper  Auvergne,  and  his  ditraains 
extended  nearly  to  Perigord  and  Aquitania.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  the  stndy  of  sacred  books,  and  finally 
designetl  to  withdraw  to  a  cloister  and  devote  all  his 
wealth  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  but  was  deterred  from 
this  by  Gansbertus,  bishop  of  Cahors.  In  894  he  fuund- 
fd,  St  Aurillac,  a  convent,  under  the  control  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, aii<l  attempted  in  vain  the  building  of  a  cathe- 
dra). His  piety  led  him  to  undertake  numerous  pil- 
grimages to  the  tombs  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  He  is 
said  to  har«  made  seven  voyages  to  Rome,  ami  to  have 
traversed  Upper  Italy.  Retuniing  from  one  of  these 
jnurneyft,  he  died  at  St.  Cirgue^  near  Figeac,  Oct.  8, 909, 
having  freed  all  his  slaves.  His  kindness  and  benevo- 
lence gaiueil  fur  him  a  great  reputation,  and  legends 
attribute  to  him  a  great  number  of  miracles,  performed 
both  during  his  life  aud  after  his  death.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouc,  Bioff,  GitiiraU,  s.  v. 

Gerber,  Christian,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Goroitz,  March  27, 1660.  He  studied  at  Zeitz  and 
Leipsic,  anU  having  completed  his  e<lucation  at  Dresden, 
became  pastor  of  Roth-Schdnberg  in  1685,  and  at  Lock- 
wiu  in  1690.  He  continued  his  studies,  at  the  same 
time  practicing  medicine.  His  last  years  were  full  of 
religious  controversies.  He  died  March  24, 1781.  His 
principal  works  are,  Nistorie  der  Kircfien-Ceremonien  in 
Hach^n  (Dresden,  1723) : — IJistorie  der  Wiedergebomen 
M  Sachsen  (ibid.  1725,  1726,  4  parts) : — Geheimnisse  dee 
Rtiches  Gottes  (2  parts).  See  Winer,  llandbuch  der 
fkeol.  LU,  i,  627;  ii,364;  Jucher,  AUyemeines  Gelehrteti- 
Ijexihon,  a.  v. ;  Koch.  Geechichte  des  deutschen  Kircheu' 
Uedes,  \v,  275  sq.     (a  P.) 

Oerberoy,  RicitARO  de,  a  French  prelnte,  was  in 
1192  dean  of  the  church  at  Amiens,  and  in  1204  became 
bishop  of  that  see.  It  was  during  his  epu»copacy,  in 
1206,  that  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist  is  reputed  to 
liave  been  conveyed  from  Constantinople  to  Amiens  by 
a  crusader  named  Wallon  de  Sarton.  He  die<l  in  1210. 
One  of  his  contemporaries,  Richard  de  Founiival,  at- 
tributes to  him  various  works,  among  otherii,  a  IxHjk 
entitled  De  Quatuor  VirttUibus  et  de  Ave  Maria^  which 
appear  to  be  lost.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Generaie, 
s.  V. 

Gerbet,  Olympk  Philippe,  a  French  prelate,  was 
born  in  1798.  He  lent  his  aid  to  the  journal  VAvemr 
until  it  was  censured  by  Gregory  XVI,  and  wrote  for 
L' Universite  Catholique,  a  monthly  review,  founded  by 
M.  Bonnet ty,  a  series  of  articles  on  the  philosophy  of 
religion  which  were  quite  noteworthy.  He  was  fur  a 
long  time  vicar- general  of  M.  de  Salinis  (bishop  of 
Amiens),  was  appointed  bishop  of  Perpignan,  I>ec.  19, 


1858,  consecrated  June  29  of  the  following  year,  and 
died  in  1864.  He  become  known  to  the  public  as  oue 
of  Lamennais*  assistanta  in  editing  the  journal  VA  venir 
in  1830;  but  before  that  time  he  had  already  published 
Des  Doctrines  Philosophigues  sur  la  Certitude  dans  ses 
Report i  avee  les  Fondements  de  la  Theologie  (Paris,  1826). 
In  1831  he  published,  Coup  d'CEil  sur  la  Controverse 
Chretienne,  and  Considerations  sur  le  Dogme  Giniral  de 
la  PiMi  Cathoiigue.  More  important  is  his  VFsqttisse 
de  Borne  ChrHienne  (1844-50,  3  vols.).  See  HJiiiver- 
siti  Cathoiigue  (1888-84) ;  Lameimais,  Affaires  de  Borne 
(Paris,  1885) ;  Arboux,  in  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  dee 
Sciences  Beligieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Gtorbi,  EvANOKLisTA,  a  Franciscan  of  Pistoja,  who 
died  at  Rome,  Feb.  8, 1598,  is  the  author  of,  Delia  Con- 
versume  delPeccatore  (Florence,  1578) : — //  Cinque  Gior- 
ni  delta  Creazione  (1579) : — Breve  Esposizione  del  Salmo 
Ixvii  (1579): — Sermoni  xv  sopra  il  Salmo  cix  (Rome, 
1583):  —  Lezioni  xH  topra  Abacuc  Prof  eta  (1585): — 
I^ezioni  sopra  la  Caniica  (1589).  See  Zaccaria,  Bibf, 
Pistoj,;  Jocher.  AUgemeines  Oelehrten^ Ijexikon,  s.  v. 

(a  p.) 

Gtore,  JoHX  Avery,  D.D.,a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Chester,  Blass.,  April  8, 1799.  He  was 
converted  in  1820 ;  joined  the  Baltimore  Conference  in 
1823 ;  and  in  it,  as  well  as  in  the  East  Baltimore  and 
Central  Pennsylvania  Conferences,  serveil  the  most  re- 
sponsible appointments.  He  was  a  delegate  four  times 
to  the  General  Conference,  viz.,  1840,  1844, 1852, 1872. 
He  died  at  Shickshiuny,  Pa.,  June  3, 1874.  Mr.  Gere 
was  fearless,  yet  humble,  a  man  of  prayer  and  power, 
strong  in  intellect,  and  energetic.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Conferences,  1875,  p.  81 ;  Simpson,  C^ip,  of  Aieth" 
oditm,  8.  V. 

Geree,  John,  a  Puritan  divine,  bom  in  1600,  was 
minister  of  St.Alban's  in  1645,  in  1649  of  Su  Faith's, 
London,  and  died  in  Ivy  Lane,  Paternoster  Row,  in  Feb- 
ruary of  same  year.  He  published,  Vindicice  EccUsUb 
Angliv'tnm  (1644),  some  Sermons,  eic  See  Chalmers, 
Biotj,  IHct,  6.  V. ;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  a- 
thort,  s.  V. 

Gharhard,  Karl  Thkodor,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  born  at  Breslau,  Sept.  17,  1773.  In 
1800  he  was  pastor  at  his  native  place,  and  remained 
there  until  his  death,  Nov.  25,  1841.  He  published, 
PreSgten  (Breslau,  1835,  2  vols.): — Gebete  am  Morgen 
und  A  bend  ( 1839).  See  W  iner,  llandbuch  der  theoL  Lit. 
u,  136, 257,  373 ;  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  i,  419.     (B.  P.) 

Gerhardt,  David  Goin-FRiKo,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  born  May  9,  1734.  He  studied 
at  Halle,  was  preacher  at  Breslau  in  1759,  pastor  pri- 
marius  and  professor  in  1778,  member  of  consistory  in 
1780,  anti  died  Aug.  30,  1808.  He  wrote,  De  A  uctori- 
fate  Archctologue  (Halle,  1757) : — Dictum  Johanneum  1 
Epist,  5, 7  (Breslau,  1764),  besides  a  number  of  Sermons, 
See  During,  Die  deutechen  Kanzelredner,  p.  62  sq. ;  Wi- 
ner, llandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  27 1 ;  ii,  290.     (B.  P.) 

QerhauBer,  Johann  Balthasah,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic  theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  Sept.  24, 1766, 
and  died  at  Dillingen  in  1823,  a  professor  of  theology 
and  director  of  the  clerical  seminary  there.  He  wrote. 
Ueber  die  Pealinen  (Munich,  IHM ) :  —  Charakter  und 
Theologie  dee  Apostels  Pauli  ( Landshut,  1816 ).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  da'  iheoL  LU,  i,  81, 294.     (B.  P.) 

Qerizim,  Mount.  Wc  extract  some  further  par- 
ticulars from  Bttdeker*s  Syiia  and  Palest,  p.  334. 

"Mt  Gerisim  rises  to  a  height  a  little  less  nbove  the 
sea-lovel  than  Mt.  Ebal  (which  is  2986  feet  high).  It  is 
composed  almost  entirely  of  nnmmnlitlc  lirnesione  (ter- 
tiary formatiou).  The  summit  consists  of  a  large  platenn, 
extending  from  north  to  sontb,  at  the  north  eud  of  which 
nre  the  ruins  of  a  cnstle.  Tlie  bulldiuf;*  as  a  castle,  was 
probably  erected  in  JasUnian's  time,  alihongh  the  walls, 
five  to  ten  feet  thick,  consisting  of  drafted  blocks,  may 
possibly  belong  to  a  siiil  older  structure.  The  castle 
forms  a  large  square,  and  is  flanked  with  towers.  On 
the  cost  side  are  remains  of  several  chamlier^,  one  of 
which  has  a  Greek  cross  over  the  door.    Near  the  burial- 


Uia  plitaiia  tb*  8*in«r1tuH  point  oat  ■ 
proiceliiis  rock  «<  biTlng  one*  been  lb* 
■lleorth«  alurorUiclrtiiDple.    Orerlba 

nai  elatarna  nnd  emallcr  pared  pUtliinni, 
remnbLliig  tha  plana  af  prnyet  on  tba  nna 
or  tbe  Bnram  il  Jeniaalain.  Tha  whule 
inrfun  bean  tnoaa  d[  hating  ODC«  been 
coftred  irllh  bnnM*.  Touonla  the  an 
tben  are  aereral  pstad  terrace*.  At  tb< 
•oDtb-eoU  corner,  [be  apot  whaic  Abnbsn 


Dortd  ride,  and 

■ntb:  hrtbar  la  iha  e«i. ,. 

■    Il  Wady  A»( 


lit.  Qerlilni,  bam  the  Ninth-«w<l. 

irth-OBit  rUa  the  Voalem  valy  ot  StfUs 
ihe  Donl)  aide  at  the  c3)C1e  there  l>  ■ 

illdlngVuh*  ""  ""  ■'    "'            """  ■"  "^ 
'"je  Donn.  aiia  ciiBDeui  on  me 

:b  Jnaho* 


„ _..._  towardi  tbe  ewt,  having 

entrmoe  oa  Ihe  nnrlb,  and  cbapela  on  tlie  (Idea. 

To  tbe  aonlh  or  ihe  cniile  are  villi  and  ciMerni 
""■-- '- 1  pared  wajmunlnjifrcim  noilh  ' 


nda  1  Di>ble  proipect:  to  the  eait  Ilea 
pUIn  uIEI-Hnkhun,  bonndad  br  gentle 

-  -  riliieeof  Aikiif  IjidB  on  Iha 

id  Ibit  or  Kerr  Knlllo  no  tb* 
ROl}**-^   Tbe 

liT  in"lhe'"di»tji .. 

UlDI  or  Glleul,  among  which  Neby  Oiha 

Ihe   Great  Hennon^'li   vlirble!  bnt   (be 

Ti  ahnt  ont  hj  Hi.  Bbn^  Ti>«irdi  Ihe 
ve*t  the  villeji  And  bllla  elope  una*  tu 
Ihe  bine  buid  or  iha  dlalint  Hedlterra- 


The     foUoning    dGMriplioa    of    lliia 
memorable  eiU  ia  from  tbe  moat  recent 
Uid  Iniatvorth]'  iccount  (CoDder,  Tail  Work  n  PakM. 
i,62«i.): 

"Snnlh  or  NiUlna  rliei  Ibe  rockr  and  attep  ebinldu 
or  Gericln.  Tbe  mountain  la  L-ihapedi  Ibe  bli;bal 
ridge  (%($.B  Feet  ibore  tbe  tea)  ram  north  and  i-wih, 
nnd  I  lawer  ridge  project!  weelvardi  Ihim  It.  The  tnn 
!•  nbont  1000  feet  alinre  Un  bottODi  of  the  valley  out  ol 
impnred  witb  01  her  Jndaan  miinnliliu, 

_»riilni  I«  very  Due;  llie  loner  u»n  eon- 

if  white  chalk,  irhlch  fail  been  qanrrled,  leiTlng 


6ERERATH 


447 


GERMAN  COUNCILS 


bugs  ctTffnf  vidbto  above  the  groves  which  clothe  the 
foot  of  the  bill.  Above  this  fonnatlou  comes  the  dark- 
blue  nanmalitle  limestone,  barren  and  covered  with 
•hingle,  rlsfni;  in  ledoes  and  lonj;  slopes  to  the  snmmiL 
Tbe  whole  of  the  northern  face  of  the  mountain  abounds 
with  tpriun,  the  largest  of  which,  with  rnins  of  a  little 
Roman  shnne  to  its  genius,  was  close  to  our  camp. 

"In  nscending  to  the  summit  of  the  western  spur  of 
Gerlxim,  by  the  path  up  the  gully  behind  our  camp,  the 
cootrast  was  strtking  between  the  bright  green  of  the 
gardens,  dotted  with  red  pomegranate  blossoms,  and  the 
tieel-gray  of  the  barren  slopa  Riding  eastwards  and 
gradnalljr  ascending,  we  fln«t  reached  the  little  dry  stone 
euclosares  and  the  uven  used  during  the  Passover.  There 
are  scattered  stones  round,  but  no  distinct  ruins  of  any 
boildlngs;  the  place  is  called  lAteh  or  Lns,  but  the  rear 
•i>n  of  this  appears  to  have  escaped  notice.  The  title  is 
of  Samariun  origin,  and  is  due  to  their  view  that  Qeri- 
Sim  is  tbe  real  aite  of  Bethel  or  Lux,  the  scene  of  Jacob's 
vii>ioo. 

"Tbe  highest  part  of  the  mountain  is  covered  by  tbe 
rnins  of  Justinian's  fortress,  buili  A.D.  088,  in  the  midst 
of  which  f  tsnds  Zeno^s  church,  cnnstrncied  in  A.D.  474. 
The  foandailons  alone  are  visible,  showing  an  octagon 
with  its  entrance  on  the  north,  and  remains  of  six  side 
chapels :  the  fortress  is  a  rectangle,  180  feet  east  and  west, 
230  north  snd  south,  with  towers  at  the  corners :  that  on 
the  soath-west  being  now  a  little  mosque  dedicated  to 
Sheik  Obanim,  who  is,  according  to  the  Samaritans, 
Shechem  the  son  of  Hamor.  The  mrtress  walls  are  built 
of  those  constantly  recurring  drafted  stones  which  are 
otitn  loosely  described  as  Jewish  or  PhoBnicinn  masonry, 
Uioogh  the  practiced  eye  soon  discriminates  between  the 
origiaal  style  of  the  temple  at  Jernsalem,  and  the  rude 
roMlc  basses  of  the  Byzantines  and  Crusaders. 

"A  large  reservoir  exists,  north  of  the  castle  which  is 
called  El  Kiirah  In  Arabic,  and  below  this  a  spur  of  the 
bill  proiiects,  artillcinlly  severed  by  a  ditch  and  covered 
wlih  tbe  traces  of  a  former  fortress.  This  is  perhaps  the 
station  of  the  Roman  guards,  who  thns  prevented  the 
Samaritans  from  approaching  Gerixim.  for  it  commands 
the  Donh-eastcru  accent  to  the  mountain. 

"Of  tbe  ancient  Samaritan  temple,  probably  the  only 
relies  are  tbe  remains  of  maseive  masonry  known  as  the 
*Ten  Stones'  CAsherab  Balst&t),  near  tbe  west  wall  of 
Jnsiinhin's  fortress.  They  are  huse  blocks  rudely  squared, 
forming  one  course  of  a  foundation,  the  north-west  cor- 
ner  of  which  was  laid  bare  by  capttdu  Anderson's  exca- 
Tslion  in  1^.  There  are  two  courses,  and  the  lower  one 
contains  thirteen  stones;  this  course,  however,  was  not 
formerly  visible,  and  the  Samnriiiins  considered  ten  stones 
alooe  to  lie  buried,  and  to  be  those  brought  from  Jordan 
at  the  time  of  Joebna— thns  sunposing  some  supernatural 
aeeocy  sufflcleot  to  carry  such  huge  blocks  up  a  steep 
fMpe  1000  feet  high,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Journey  from 
the  Jordan.  Under  these  stones,  as  liefore  noticed,  the 
treasares  of  tlie  old  temple  are  snptMwed  to  lie  hidden. 

"Sonih  of  the  fortress  is  one  of  those  flat  slabs  of  rock 
which  occur  all  over  the  inmmiL  It  shelves  slightly  down 
wwtward,  and  at  this  end  is  a  rock -cut  cistern.  The 
whole  is  surrounded  by  a  low,  drystone  wall.  This  is  the 
Sacred  Rock  of  the  Samaritans,  and  the  cave  is  tradltion- 
alij  that  in  which  the  tabernacle  was  made.  At  the  time 
of  niy  second  visit  some  peasants  were  nsing  the  Sacred 
Ititck  as  a  threshing-floor.  Rude  stone  waifs  extend  on 
erery  side,  and  Cartber  sonth  there  is  a  curious  flight  of 
steps  leading  down  east  They  are  called  the  *  seven  steps 
of  Abraham's  altar,*  and  Just  oeiteath  them,  on  the  edee 
of  the  eastern  precipice  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
plateau,  there  Is  n  little  trough  cut  in  the  rock  resembling 
tbe  Passover  oven.  This  the  Samaritans  suppose  to  be 
the  site  of  Abmbam^s  sacriflce  of  Isaac,  for  their  version 
«if  the  story  reads  *Moreh '  Instead  of  Moriah,  and  makes 
Oerizim  the  scene  of  the  iiatrlarch's  trial** 

Full  arehseological  details  may  be  found  in  the  Jfe- 
MotVf  accompanjing  the  Ordnance  Survey  (ti,  187  sq.). 
See  SAMARiTAitfli  Modern. 

Oarkratb,  Ludwig,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
tnd  philosopher,  who  died  at  Braunsberg,  Jan.  ],  1864, 
u  the  author  of  a  monograph  on  Fraud*  Sanchez  (Vi- 
enna, I860),  and  De  Connexion  qum  Iniercedit  Inter 
CartetiMn  et  PaMchaiiam  (Braunsberg,  1862).     (a  P.) 

Gerlao,  Fbtebsskn  (Lat.  Gerlaeut  Petri),  a  Dutch 
ascetic  writer,  was  bom  at  Deventer,  in  Overyasel,  in 
1377.  While  very  youog  he  entered  the  house  of  tbe 
r^lar  canons  of  Windesheim,  near  Deventer,  where 
he  took  hu  rowa»  and  although  offered  higher  positions, 
he  refused  «U  except  that  of  sacristan.  He  died  in 
1411.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  piety,  his  life 
being  one  of  prayer  and  meditatioik  A  work  was  pub- 
lished some  time  after  his  death,  entitled,  A  Iter  Thomas 
^  Kempii  (Cologne,  1616),  and  under  the  title  of  Gerlad 
SoUloquia  Ditiita,  in  a  collection  encitled|  Sacra  Oro'  \ 


iumit  Theohgia,  of  Pierre  Poiret  John  de  Gorcum 
translated  it  into  Flemish,  and  published  it  at  Bois-le- 
Duc  in  1618  and  1621.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  dtU' 
rale,  s.  v. 

Oerlaoh,  Gk>ttlob  Wilhelxn,  a  German  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy,  was  bom  Nov.  4, 1786,  at  Osterfeld, 
near  Zeitz.  For  some  time  private  lecturer  at  Witten- 
berg, he  was  called,  in  1818,  as  professor  of  philosophy 
to  Halle,  and  died  Oct.  5, 1864.  He  wrote,  Grundritt 
der  JUliffiottsphUotophie  (Halle,  1818):— (^runJrtM  def 
philosophiicken  Tugendkhre  (ibid.  1820).  See  Winer, 
I/andbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  286, 288.     (a  P.) 

Gterlaoh,  Btephan,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Knittlingen,  Dec  26, 1546,  studied  at 
Tubingen,  was  in  1678  professor  of  theology  there,  and 
died  Jan.  80,  1612.  He  wrote,  Comment,  in  EpistoUxB 
Paulinas: — Disp.  contra  Jesuitas  et  Cabnnianos: — De 
ConttmplaiioRe  Ceam  iJomim,  etc  See  Jocher,  AUge- 
meines  Gelehrten'Lexikon,  a,  v. ;  Adam,  Vitte  ErudUorunu 

(a  P.) 

Qerland  (or  Gktrland),  a  French  theologian,  was 
bom  in  Lorraine  about  1100.  He  was  invested  with  a 
canonsbip  about  1180,  and  employed  as  schoolman  in 
the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Paul  at  Besan^on.  He  was 
a  very  superior  scholar  for  his  time,  and  especially  won 
admiration  in  disctissions.  He  fell  into  the  heresy  of 
Berenger.  From  1148  he  disappears  from  history,  and 
it  is  supposed  that  he  died  about  1150.  Dom  Rivet 
(^nist.  Lit,  vii,  156)  has  confounded  this  Gerland  with 
another  Gerland,  bishop  of  Girgenti.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  is,  Candela  Studii  Salutaris,  or  according  to 
other  manuscripts,  Candela  Evangelica^  which  umler 
this  last  title  was  published  at  Cologne  in  1527.  See 
Hoefer,  A^oirr.  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

GterUng,  CiimsTiAN  Ludwio,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  11, 1745,  at  Rostock, 
lu  1769  he  was  university  preacher  in  his  native  places 
in  1771  professor  of  theology,  in  1777  pastor  primarius 
at  Hamburg,  and  died  Jan.  )3,  1801.  He  wrote,  De 
Cogmtione  Dei  Rerumque  Divinarum  Analogica  (Got- 
tingen,  1769)  i^De  Concordia  Jiationia  et  Fidei  (ibid. 
1770)  :^A  briss  der  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Dogmatih  (ibid. 
lll\)i—Diss, Inaug,  Sdecta  (ibid.  1776).  See  During. 
Die  gelehtien  Theohgen  Deutschlandt,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Qermain,  Michel^  a  French  Benedictine  of  the 
congregation  of  St.  Maur,  who  died  Jan.  29, 1694,  is  the 
author  of,  Tradition  de  Pitglise  JRomaine  ntr  la  Prides^ 
tinaiion  (Cologne,  1687, 2  vols.),  and  in  connection  with 
Mabillon  he  published  Jfusaum  Italicum  (Paris,  1687). 
See  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  600, 872 ;  Jocher, 
AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

• 

Oennan  Coiinoils  (Concilium  Germamcum),  i.  e. 
councils  celebrated  in  Germany,  but  at  places  unknown. 

I.  A.D.  748,  probably,  being  the  first  of  five  said  to 
have  met  nnder  St.  Boniface,  by  bis  biographer,  but 
great  obscurity  hangs  over  their  date,  number,  and  can- 
ons, to  say  the  least.  In  the  preface  to  this  council  it 
is  Carloman,  mayor  of  the  palace,  who  speaks,  and  its 
seven  canons,  besides  running  in  his  name,  form  the 
first  of  his  capitularies.  Certainl}',  the  first  of  them, 
constituting  Boniface  archbishop  over  the  bishops  of 
his  dominions,  cannot  have  been  decreed  but  by  him. 
True,  there  is  a  letter  from  Boniface  to  pope  Zachsry, 
requesting  leave  for  holding  a  synod  of  this  kind,  which 
was  at  once  given*,  and  in  another,  purporting  to  be 
from  Boniface  to  archbishop  Cuthbert,  three  sets  of 
canons  are  quoted  as  having  been  decreed  by  the  writer, 
of  which  these  form  the  second.  Still,  even  so,  when 
and  where  were  the  other  two  sets  passed  ? 

II.  A.D.  745,  at  Mayence  possibly,  where  Aldebert 
and  Clement  were  pronounced  heretics,  and  Gervilion 
of  Mayence  deposed,  to  be  succeeded  by  Boniface. 

III.  A.D.  747,  at  which  the  first  four  general  councils 
were  ordered  to  lie  received.  Possibly  tbe  tenth  of  the 
letters  of  pope  Zachary  may  relate  to  this. 


GERMAN  EBENEZER  SOCIETY  448 


6ERMER 


IV.  A.D.  759,  at  which  Othmar,  abbot  of  St  Gall,  was 
unjtistly  condemned. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Qerman  Bbeneser  Society,  a  body  of  Luther- 
an diaaenten,  who  emigrated  from  Prussia  to  America 
some  years  ag^  and  settled  near  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  They 
number  somewhat  more  than  one  thousand  souls,  and 
hold  their  property  in  common.  They  are  exceedingly 
careful  as  to  religious  obeervaooes,  and  very  strict  in 
keeping  the  Sabbath. 

Qerman  Evangelical  Association  of  the 
Wkst,  a  sect  of  German  Protestants  in  America  corre- 
sponding to  the  United  Evangelical  Church  of  Ger- 
many. It  was  instituted  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  May  4, 1811, 
by  seven  ministers  of  the  United  Church  of  Germany. 
The  object  in  view  in  forming  this  body  is  stated  in 
the  first  paragraph  of  the  revised  statutes  as  follows : 
'*  The  object  of  the  association  x^  to  work  for  the  es- 
tablishment and  spread  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in 
particular,  as  well  as  for  the  furtherance  of  all  institu- 
tions for  the  extension  of  the  kingdom  of  GoiU  By 
the  Evangelical  Church  we  understand  that  commun- 
ion which  takes  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Tests,  as  the  Word  of  (rod,  and  our  only  infallible 
rule  of  faith  and  practice,  and  commiu^  itself  to  that 
exposition  of  the  Scriptures  laid  down  in  the  symbol- 
ical books  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformeil  churches, 
chiefly  the  Angsburg  Confession,  Luther's  Catechism, 
and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  so  far  as  these  agree ; 
and  where  they  differ,  we  hold  alone  to  the  relevant 
passages  of  Scripture,  and  avail  ourselves  of  that  free- 
dom of  conscience  which  prevails  on  such  points  in  the 
Evangelical  Church.*'  It  will. thus  be  seen  that  the 
main  purpose  is  to  unite  in  one  body  the  Lutheran  and 
the  German  lieformed  churches. 

German  Theology.    See  Tiibolooy,  Gbrxam. 

Gterman  Version  op  tub  Scripturks.  By  way 
of  supplement  we  add  the  following.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that,  during  his  life,  Luther  made  changes 
and  corrections  in  each  new  edition  of  the  Bible  trans- 
lation he  published.  His  last  edition,  that  of  1545,  was 
by  everybody  acknowleilged  to  contain  some  errors,  and 
among  these  was  the  omission  of  twelve  whole  verses. 
The  issue  in  1546,  one  year  after  his  death,  contained 
a  number  of  changes  from  that  of  a  year  earlier.  For 
nearly  two  centuries  Luther's  translation  was  published 
only  by  private  iiuUviduals,  who  could  and  did  intro- 
duce a  number  of  changes  and  deviations  from  the  last 
edition  of  the  translation.  The  result  was  that,  gradu- 
ally, the  Christians  of  (rermany  became  convinced  that 
a  return  to  the  authentic  shape  of  Luther's  own  trans- 
lation should  be  made.  The  first  movement  in  this 
direction  was  made  by  the  Canstein  Bible  lustilute, 
founded  in  1712  at  Uallc.  This  institute  in  many,  but 
not  in  all,  places  restored  the  original  text  of  Luther,  and 
was  followed  by  the  various  Bible  societies.  Finally, 
in  the  year  1857,  the  German  Bible  societies  decided  to 
go  to  work  in  a  systematic  manner  towards  the  attain- 
ment of  this  objecL  The  Canstein  Institute  took  the 
lead,  and  the  German  ecclesiastical  authorities  c(»-op- 
eratcd  and  aided  in  the  work.  A  twofold  object  was 
proposed ;  first,  to  put  the  orthographical  and  grammat- 
ical features  of  the  translation  into  moilcrn  8hai)c;  and 
secondly,  which  was  the  main  thing,  to  restore  a  har- 
monious text.  The  first  of  these  tasks  was  intrusted  to 
the  hands  of  Dr.  Frommann,  of  Nuremberg,  the  great- 
est authority  on  the  language  of  Luther's  day.  For 
the  second  object,  two  committees  of  theologians  were 
appointed,  one  for  the  New  Test«,  which  did  its  work  in 
1865  and  1866,  and  published  it  in  1867,  and  one  for  the 
Olil  Test.,  which  worked  from  1871  to  1882.  The  lead- 
ing scholars  of  (vermany,  as  Nitzsch,  Twesten,  Riehm, 
Beyschlag,  Kostlin,  Meyer,  BrUckner,  Schlottmann, 
Tboluck,  Kamphausen,  Kleinert,  Bertheau,  Delitzsch, 
Thenius,  Diestel,  Grimm,  and  others,  constituted  these 
committees.  The  result  of  years  of  scholariy  toil  was 
published  at  Halle,  under  the  title,  Die  Bibd,  oder  die 


game  Tltiiige  Schryi  dei  Alien  tad  Ktuen  Tettamemis 
nach  der  deuttchen  UAerteizung  Dr,  Martin  Luthers. 
Krster  A  hdruck  der  im  A  forage  der  deutschen  evemye-' 
liscken  Kirchenk(n\fertfa  Revidirte  Bibel  {Soffenemnfe 
Probebibel)f  in  1888.  This  book  is  now  in  the  hands  of 
the  churches  for  criticisms,  which  were  to  be  sent  in  by 
the  fall  of  1885 ;  but  the  time  has  been  lengthened  by 
the  Prussian  authorities  one  year.  Then  the  revision 
will  receive  its  final  shape,  and  will  eventually  be  pub- 
lishetl  by  all  the  Bible  societies  of  the  German  empire. 
In  onler  to  facilitate  the  examination  of  the  work,  the 
revisers  have  printed  in  '^fat**  or  spaced  letters,  i.  e. 
German  italics,  all  those  passages  where  Luther's  orig- 
inal version  differs  from  the  modem  editions,  and  also 
where  the  committees  have  made  an  eatirelv  new  ren« 
dering.  The  former  class  of  passages  are  distinguishetl 
from  the  latter  by  having  small  hyphens  before  and 
after  them.  Like  the  revised  English  Test.,  this  Probe- 
Bibel  is  criticised  by  the  wise  and  unwise,  and  has  al- 
ready created  not  a  small  library  of  essays  on  the  sub- 
ject of  revision.  Some  are  dissatisfied  on  dogmatical 
grounds,  others  because  the  revisers  did  not  act  more 
radically.     The  last  word  has  not  yet  been  spoken. 

Various  other  German  translations  have  been  given 
in  commentaries  and  separately,  but  they  are  all  of 
private  authority.    (B.  P.) 

Qermanus,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  probably  the  fint 
bbhop  of  the  Isles,  and  was  appointee!  by  St.  Patrick, 
the  apostle  of  Ireland,  in  447.  To  him  the  cathedral 
church  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  within  the  precincts  of  Peel 
Castle,  is  dedicated.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  29dL 

•  Gexmanns,  archbishop  of  Patias,  one  of  the  pro- 
moters of  the  Greek  insurrection,  was  bom  about  1771 
at  Dimizana,  in  Arcadia,  and  died  in  1827.  He  waa 
secretary  and  deacon  to  the  metropolitan  of  Argolis, 
then  to  Gregory  V,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
finally  to  the  archbishop  of  Cyzicus.  In  1806  he  be- 
came archbishop  of  Patras.  When  AH  Pasha  provoked 
the  insurrection  of  the  Greeks,  Germanus  put  bioaself 
at  the  head  of  the  insurgent  party,  and  ever  since  his 
name  has  been  connected  with  the  history  of  that  peri- 
od. In  the  interest  of  Greece  he  went  in  1822  to  Italy. 
He  sought  the  protection  of  the  great  powers  then  as- 
sembled at  the  Verona  Congress.  When  the  proris- 
ional  government  was  created,  Germanus  was  ap|K>inted 
minister  of  religious  affairs,  and  held  this  office  till  his 
death.  See  Puuqueville,  Histoire  de  la  RigMration  de 
la  Grece ;  Philimon,  History  of  the  Greek  JnsHrreetiom  ; 
Goudas,  Contempornry  Biographies  (Athens,  1872,  the 
last  two  works  written  in  (ireck) ;  Moshakis,  in  Lichten- 
berger,  Encychp,  des  Sciences  BeligieuseSy  s.  v.     (B*  P.) 

•  Gtormar,  Fkikdricii  Hkixricii,  a  Protestant  theo. 
logian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Holstein,  Sept,  29, 1776. 
He  was  rector  at  GlUckstadt  in  1802,  court  preacher  at 
Augustenborg  in  1809,  and  died  in  1859.  He  published, 
Beitrag  zur  allgemeinen  Ilermenevtik  (Altona,  1828)  : — 
Die  pan-harmonische  Interpretation  der  heil^en  Sckri/k 
(Leipsic,  1821)  :—Die  hermeneutischen  Af angel  der  toge- 
nauntengrammotisch-historisiAeu  Interpretatumen  (HaUe, 
1884):— (7«6er  die  Vernachldssigung  der  Ilermeneutik  in 
der  Protestantischen  Kircke  (ibid.  1887) :  — /Trt/a  der 
modemen  Exegese  (ibid.  1889): — Die  alte  Streiffrttge  c 
Glnuben  oder  IVissenf  (Zurich,  1856).  See  Zuchold, 
Bibl,  Theol  i,  422;  Winer,  Dandbuch  der  the<d.  Lit,  i, 
109,110.     (a  P.) 

Qenner  (^8t,)  pr  Flay  (fiennarus  of  FlaviacMtH\ 
in  the  district  of  Beauvais,  is  said  to  have  been  bom  of 
a  noble  Prankish  family  at  Giviarondra  or  Warandra, 
on  the  Itta,  about  A.D.  610.  He  married  a  noble  lady, 
and  founded  a  monastery  near  Flaviacum ;  but  retiretl, 
cir.  A.D.  648, to  the  monaster}'  of  Pentallum,  near  Ro«»en, 
of  which  he  became  abbot-.  Later  he  withdrew  to  a 
cave  near  the  Seine,  where  he  was  ordained  presbyter « 
but  finally  returned  to  Flaviacum,  over  which  he  |>re^ 
sided  till'his  death,  Sept.  84, 658.  See  Smith,  Diet,  e^f 
Christ,  Biog,  8,  v. 


QERMON 


449 


GERSON 


Qennon,  BAirrRou>iiiBU8,  a  Jesait  of  Orleans, 
wu  born  Jane  17, 1668,  and  died  there,  Oct.  2, 1718. 
Besides  his  De  VeUrUma  HareticUf  EecUtiastie.  Codi' 
cum  Corruptorihus  (Paris,  1718),  he  made  himself  known 
by  his  controyersy  with  Mabillon,  against  whose  work, 
^  Arte  DiplomaHea^  he  wrote.  See  Le  Long,  Bibl, de 
la  Frtmee ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  tkeoL  LU,  i,  92;  Jocher, 
A  Ugmemes  Gelekrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Oennoiiio,  Arastasio,  an  Italian  canonist  and 
jurist,  was  bom  in  Piedmont  in  March,  1661.  He  be- 
longed to  the  ancient  and  noble  family  of  Cena.  For 
some  reason  unknown  he  ceased  his  studies  at  the  age 
of  thirteen,  and  did  not  resume  them  until  he  was 
twenty-twOb  He  studied  civil  and  ecclesiastical  law  at 
the  University  of  Padua,  under  John  Manuoe  and  Pan- 
cirole.  He  then  went  to  Turin,  where  he  received  the 
doctomte  at  the  hand  of  Pancirole  himself.  He  was 
soon  after  called  to  the  chair  of  canonical  law.  Ger- 
monio  accompanied  Jerome,  archbishop  of  Turin,  to 
Borne,  and  enjoyed  great  consideration  at  the  pontifl- 
cal  court  under  popes  Sixtus  V,  Urban  YII,  Gregory 
ZrV,  Innocent  IX,  and  Clement  VIII.  He  was  charged 
with  compiling  and  annotating  the  Decretals.  Duke 
Charles  Emmanuel  recalled  him  to  Piedmont,  and  ap- 
pointed him,  in  1608,  archbishop  of  Taranto,  and  some 
years  later  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  Philip  III,  king 
of  Spain.  Germonio  died  while  on  this  mission,  at 
Madrid,  Aug.  4, 1627.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works, 
and  published  one  edition  at  Rome  in  1628.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Aoicv.  Bioff,  GiniraU,  s.  t. 

Gtomer,  Hkrric,  a  Danish  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Copenhagen,  Dec.  9, 1629.  He  studied  in  Holland  and 
JSnglaiid,  and  became,  at  first,  pastor  at  Berkerod.  When 
this  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Swedes,  Geraer  took 
to  flight,  then  entered  into  an  arrangement  with  Sten- 
winkel  for  retaking  the  fortress  of  Cronenberg.  He 
was  captured  by  the  Swedes,  and  finally  condemned  to 
death,  but  escaped  by  the  payment  of  a  large  ransom. 
At  the  establishment  of  peace  in  1660,  Geraer  resumed 
bis  pastoral  duties.  In  1693  he  was  appointed  bishop 
ofViborg  in  Jutland.  He  died  in  1700.  Among  his 
works  we  notice  Hesiod,  translated  into  Danish  (Copen- 
hagen, 1670).    See  Hoefer,  Nvuv,  Biog,  GeneraUf  a.  v. 

Gemler,  Lucas,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Basle,  Aug.  19, 1626.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
mt  his  native  place,  and  died  Feb.  9, 1676.  He  wrote, 
JHas,  M  Can/essianem  Ilelveticam: — SyUahtu  Ctmirover" 
siarum  Tkeologioe: — Prtdectionee  in  Propketiam  Darne^' 
Ha: — De  Sacra  Cana  ad  1  Citr.  x,  16-17  :->/)«  Jtti/i- 
Jieatiione:'^De  Adoptiane  Fidelium  Divina: — De  GloH- 
Jieatione,  See  Hoffmann,  Lexikon  UnUeraak  ;  Konig, 
BMotheca  Vehu  et  Nova;  Freber,  Theairum  Erudito- 
rum ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeine*  GeUhrten-LexiioHf  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Qerondi,  Jonah  hen'Abrakism  (sumamed  hO'Cha" 
9id,  L  e.  ^  the  Pious"),  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  the  I8th  cen- 
tary,  who  died  at  Toledo  in  1268,  is  the  author  of 
nsiOPn  r.^]lX,  or,  a  treatise  on  repentance  and  ascet- 
icism (Cracow,  1686,  and  often) :  — nston  *^19D,  on 
repentance  (Constantinople,  1611):— >flK"^^n  O,  on  the 
fear  of  God  (ibid.  eod. ;  Judeo-German  translation,  Frei- 
burg, 1683) :— a*^i93n  T\\  on  the  precepts  to  be  ob- 
served by  women  (Cracow,  1609)  :~")nni  "^IDK  O,  on 
things  allowed  and  prohibited  (Ferrara,  1666):—01*ifi 
P*)3at  '^'tfi  by,  a  commentary  on  the  Pirhe  Ahoth 
(edited  after  a  Ma  by  Dolizki,  Berlin,  1848).  See 
Font,  BiU.  Jud.  i,  827  sq. ;  De*  Rossi,  Dizionario  Sto- 
rieo  (Germ,  trans!.),  p.  1 18.    (B  P.) 

Gfterondi  (or  Genrndeiuit),  Hoses.     See  Nacu- 


Qexontitis,  a  Latin  prelate,  lived  in  the  4th  cen- 
uiffy  of  the  Christian  mra.  He  was  deacon  of  Milan 
under  St  Ambrose.  One  day  he  related  that  he  had 
in  a  dream  the  female  dssmon,  Onoscelis  (^offcc- 

XII.-F  F 


X/C)  a  spectre  with  ass's  legs).  Ambrose  heard  of  this 
and  condemned  htm  to  do  penance.  Instead  of  obey, 
ing,  Gerontius  went  to  Constantinople,  made  friends  at 
court,  and  obtained  the  bishopric  of  Nicomedia.  Am- 
brose protested  against  this  ordination,  and  uiged  Nec- 
tarius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  to  depose  the  new 
bishop.  Although  Kectarius  did  not  do  this,  two  years 
later  it  was  accomplished  by  Chrysostom,  who  visited 
Aria  in  899.  The  inhabitants  of  Nicomedia,  whose  love 
he  had  gained  by  his  pleasing  manners  and  his  charity, 
complained  bitterly  at  this,  and  the  result  was  that  the 
number  of  enemies  of  the  patriarch  was  augmented, 
and  Gerontius  figured  at  the  synod  of  403  as  one  of  the 
accusers  of  Chrysostom.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GifU» 
rale,  s.  v.;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v 

Gtorontias,  a  heretical  archimandrite  of  Palestine, 
about  the  middle  of  the  6th  century,  was  finally  expelled 
from  his  monastery,  and  spent  the  rest  of  bis  days  in 
homeless  misery.    See  Smith,  Did,.  ofChri$t,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Oerrard  (called  Gerard  of  St,  John),  an  old  Dutch 
painter,  was  bora  at  Haarlem  about  1460,  and  entered 
the  school  of  Albert  van  Ouwater.  In  the  Church  of  St 
John,  at  Haarlem,  he  executed  pictures  of  the  Cruci- 
fxioR,  the  Deeoentfrom  the  Croee,  and  the  Resurrection, 
which  were  esteemed  superior  to  any  productions  of  the 
time.  He  died  in  1438.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hitt.  of 
the  Fine  Arte,  s.  v. 

Gtosdorft  Chkistoph  Gotthklf,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  who  died  Dec  12, 1884,  is  the  au- 
thor of  Beitrage  zur  Sprach-Charakteriatik  der  Schr^ft^ 
atelier  dea  Neuen  Teatamenta  (Uipsic,  1816).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  182.     (B  P.). 

Oenhom  brn-Jbhuda  (commonly  called  RaUenu 
Gerahom,  or  the  Ancient,  also  Maor  hag^olah,  i.  e. "  the 
light  of  the  Exile  ")  was  bora  in  France  about  the  year 
960,  and  died  in  1028.  He  is  the  reputed  founder  of 
the  Franco -German  rabbinical  school,  in  which  the 
studies  of  the  Babylonian  college  were  earnestly  revived. 
He  is  the  founder  of  monogamy  among  the  Jews,  and 
wrote  acommentaiy  on  the  Talmud,  and  some  hymns  and 
a  penitential  prayer,  which  are  extant  in  the  Machaor, 
or  Festival  Ritual  of  the  Jews.  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud. 
i,  828;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario  Storico  (Germ.  transL), 
p.  114;  Griltz,  Geach,  der  Juden,  v,  864  sq.;  Braun- 
8chweiger,(7e«ol»cA/e(fer /ttimtn  denBomaniachen  Stnat- 
en,  p.  82  sq.;  Jost,  Geach.  d,  Juden.  u.  a.  Seiten,  ii,  888; 
Etheridge,  Introduction  to  Hdtrew  IMeraiure,  p.  288  sq. ; 
Steinschneider,  Jewiah  Literature,  p.  69 ;  Zunz,  Litera" 
tur  geach,  d,  aynagogalen  Poiaie,  p.  288 ;  Synagogale  Pol" 
aie,  p.  171-174;  Delitzscb,  Zur  Geach.  der  jUd.  PoHie, 
p.  61,  166;  Frankel,  Monataachrift  (1854),  p.  230  sq. 
(B.  P.) 

Qerahon,  Chaphet  ben-Moses,  a  Venetian  rabbi, 

who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century,  was 

I  endowed  with  precocious  eradition.  and  died  at  about 

the  age  of  seventeen.    He  wrote  Jad  Charoaim  (Venice, 

1700).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Generate,  s.  v. 

Gtorahon  ben -Salomon,  a  Spanish  rabbi,  native 
of  Catalonia,  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  Idth 
century,  was  the  father  of  rabbi  Leon  da  Bsftnlas  (RsiS- 
bag),  and  wrote  Shaar  Haah'Shamagim  (first  printed 
at  Venice,  1647 ;  in  four  parts).  The  first  treated  oi  the 
four  elements;  the  second,  of  astronomy ;  the  third,  the 
heavens  and  earth,  according  to  the  principles  of  Aver- 
roes;  the  fourth,  of  theological  matters.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Ginerale,  s.  v. ;  FQrst,  Bild.  Jud.  i,  829. 

Gtorson,  ChristianaB,  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  of  Jewish  parentage,  Aug.l,  1669,  at 
Recklinghausen,  in  the  then  electorate  of  Cologne.  lie 
received  his  rabbinical  education  at  the  seats  of  learn- 
ing in  Fulda  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  For  a  long 
time  be  supported  himself  and  his  family  by  instructing 
in  Hebrew.  While  at  Essen,  a  poor  Christian  woman 
brought  her  New  Test,  to  him,  which  she  panned.  Out 
of  curiosity  he  commenced  reading  that  book,  which 


GERSON 


450 


GESSNER 


finally  resnlted  in  his  oonTenion.  He  left  his  fRmily 
and  went  to  Branswick,  where  he  applied  to  the  duke 
Heinrich  Julius,  begging  that  through  his  influence  he 
might  be  instructed  in  the  full  truth  of  the  Christian  re. 
ligion,  and  be  baptized,  He  was  received  into  the  Church 
of  St.  Martin,  at  Halberstadt  in  1600,  and  took  the  name 
of  Chriilianut,  He  remained  a  considerable  time  at 
Halberstadt,  and  then  went  to  the  University  at  Helm- 
stadt,  aided  by  a  munificent  stipend  from  the  duke.  At 
the  university  he  instructed  the  students  in  Hebrew 
and  rabbinical  literature,  corresponded  with  Buxtorf 
and  Wagenseil,  and  even  received  a  call  from  the  king 
of  Denmark  to  Copenhagen,  as  teacher  of  Hebrew  and 
rabbinical  literature  at  the  university.  In  1612  he  was 
ordained,  was  appointed  deacon,  and  afterwards  pastor 
at  Berg,  in  the  principality  of  Anhalt,  and  died  Sept. 
So,  16^.  6erBon*s  son,  whom  the  Jews  had  concealed 
for  five  years,  also  became  a  Christian,  while  his  wife, 
who  resisted  the  truth,  was  divorced  from  him  in  1605 
through  the  consistory  of  WolfenbUtteL  Gerson  is  the 
author  of  JUdUcher  Talmud,  Der  fSrnehnute  InkaU 
dea  Talmud$  und  deuen  Widerkgung  (Goslar,  1607 ;  6th 
ed.  1698,  transL  into  Danish  and  French) :— pbn  der 
talmudische  JUdenfchatz  (Helmstadt,  1610).  See  Furst, 
Bihl,  Jud  i,  829  sq.;  Wolf,  BibL  IfebrtBa,  i,  1008;  iii, 
976  sq. ;  Kalkar,  hmel  und  die  Kirche^  p*  94 ;  I^  Roi, 
Die  evangdiadie  Christenheii  und  die  Juden  (Leipsic, 
1884), i,  117  sq.;  Jocher,  AUffetaemei  Gdekrten-Lexikon, 
s.r.    (RP.) 

G^rBon,  Jean,  a  French  theologian,  brother  of 
Jean  Charlier,  was  born  at  Gerson  about  1884.  He 
went,  as  did  his  brother,  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Paris, 
at  the  College  of  Navarre,  where  he  was  admitted  to 
the  number  of  students  of  theology  in  1404.  His  love 
of  solitude  led  him  to  enter  the  order  of  Celestins.  He 
took  the  TOWS  in  1409,  at  the  monastery  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  at  Limay,  near  Mantes.  Alter  having  per- 
formed the  duties  of  sub-prior  in  various  communities 
of  his  order,  he  was  found  at  a  convent  in  Lyons,  where 
he  gave  a  refuge  to  his  older  brother.  This  token  of 
attachment  was  due  to  the  chancellor,  who  sincerely 
loved  him.  Jean  Gerson  was  at  the  time  of  his  death 
prior  of  the  house  of  Lyons,  and  carried  with  him  to 
the  tomb  the  reputation  of  a  saint.  He  died  in  1484, 
leaving,  Epistoia  ad  R,  P,  Antelmum,  Caletiinum,  de 
Operibus  Joannit,  CanceUarii,  Fratrig  nit,  in  vol.  i  of 
the  works  of  chancellor  Gerson.  The  homonymy  of 
these  two  brothers  caused  Tractatus  de  Elevatione  Men- 
tie  in  Deum^  etc.,  to  be  attributed  to  one  of  them,  but  it 
belonged  to  Jean  Nyder,  a  German  Dominican,  who 
died  in  1440.    See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog,  GSniraUt  s.  v. 

Gersonidea,  Maoistes  Leo.    See  Ralbao. 

Gtorvais^  prior  of  St.  Generic,  in  the  diocese  of 
Mans,  and  a  French  hbtorian,  lived  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury. All  that  is  known  of  him  is  that,  at  the  request 
of  Robert  of  Thorigny,  who  became  abbot  of  Mont  St. 
Michel,  he  wrote  a  History  of  the  CounU  ofAnjou  and 
of  Maine,  After  remaining  for  a  long  time  unpub? 
llshed,  it  was  inserted  in  the  RecueU  det  Hittoriens  de 
la  France^  xii,  632,  from  a  manuscript  in  the  Imperial 
Library,  belonging  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Victor.  Ger- 
vais  de  St.  Generic  is  often  confounded  with  Gervaise 
of  Canterbury.     See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  GhUrak^  s.  v. 

Gervaise,  Niooi«as,  a  French  missionary  and  prel- 
ate, brother  of  Fran9ois  Armand,  was  bom  at  Paris 
about  1662.  He  chose  the  ecclesiastical  calling,  and 
before  the  age  of  twenty  had  attached  himself  to  the 
mission  at  Siam.  Here  he  lenuuned  four  years,  and 
became  acquainted  with  the  language,  religion,  cus- 
toms, litenture,  legislation,  and  history  of  that  people. 
On  his  return  he  published  the  result  of  his  observa- 
tions. He  brought  to  France  two  sons  of  the  king  of 
Macassar,  and  alter  presenting  them  at  court,  gave  them 
as  far  as  possible  a  French  education.  He  was  after- 
wards rector  of  Vannes.    The  provost  of  Su&vre-pres- 


Mer  yielded  to  him  his  charge,  which  position  Gervaise 
held  for  a  long  time,  and  during  this  time  be  published 
a  great  part  of  his  works.  Annoyed  with  the  idea  of 
proselytism,  in  1724  he  went  to  Rome,  and  obtained  the 
title  of  bishop  of  Horren.  Soon  after  his  consecratioii 
he  gathered  together  a  number  of  clergymen,  embarked 
with  them  for  Central  America,  and  commenced  his  la- 
bors upon  the  shores  of  the  Aquira,  one  of  the  tribnta* 
ries  of  the  Orinoco,  But  they  were  assailed  and  mas- 
sacred by  the  Caribs,  Nov.  20, 1729.  He  left  several 
works.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GiniraU^  s.  v. 

Oerwyn,  Saint.    See  Bbrwtn,  St. 

G^ry,  ANimtf  Guillaume,  a  French  monk  and  4xa- 
tor,  was  bom  at  Rheims,  Feb.  17, 1727.  He  entered  the 
congregation  of  St.  Genevieve  in  1742,  taught  philoeo- 
phy  and  theology  in  the  colleges  of  hb  order,  preached 
with  success  at  Paris,  and  became  sncoessively  rector 
of  St.  Leger  at  SoisBons,  and  of  St.  Irensiis  at  Lyons. 
He  was  elected  general  superior  of  his  order  in  1778. 
His  long  intimacy  with  two  prelates  not  in  subjection 
to  Rome,  MM.  De  Fitz-James  and  Montazet,  led  to  his 
being  suspected  of  Jansenism.  He  died  in  October, 
1786.  His  sermons  were  collected  and  published  at 
Paris  in  1788.  He  also  wrote  JHatertation  eur  le  Vhri^ 
table  A  uteur  He  V Imitation  de  Jhue-^Chritt  (Paris,  1768). 
See  Hoefer,  Naur.  Biog.  GMrakt  s,  v. 

Gtoaeniua,  Ansnat,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  bora  in  1718,  was  in  1744  professor  of  Greek 
at  HelmsUidt,  in  1748  general  superintendent  and  first 
preacher,  and  died  Jan.  6, 1778.  He  wrote,  Pnnde  in 
Capiie  Inimici  (Gtjttingen,  1740):  —  CkriMtwn  Decora 
GentiiMUm  A  ccommodaete  (Helmstiidt,  1744)  i—IJistoria 
PattioniiJeeu  Chritti  Harmonica  (VVolfenbUttel,  1745) : 
— 6^'imcv/a  de  blKO  *^bnn  ad  2  Sam.  asm,  5  (1746) : 

— In  Verba  CkrisH  Marc,  tr,  \2,et  Lue.  viU,  10  (eod.)L 
See  Meusel,  Gelehrtee  Deutsckland;  JoeheTf  A  Ugemeines 
GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Oeaeniua,  Frledrloh,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  in  1687,  is  the  author  of,  Lapig 
Lydius  Sacrarum  Scripturarum : — Irenaus  PhiIaleiKe» 
Explicatio  Verborum  Sacra  Coena: — Quod  Verba  jSL 
CoauB  Kard  rb  ptirov  tint  Intelligenda : — Ezamen  Jtf.» 
ligionum: — Ungleickheit  der  PSiwticken  Traditionen  mii 
der  BibeL  See  Witte,  Diarium ;  Jocher,  AUgemeime 
Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Qeaa,  Wolpoamo  Frikdrich,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  bom  at  Stuttgart,  Jan.  84, 1751,  was 
in  1787  deacon,  in  1799  superintendent  at  Neustadt,  in 
1814  general  superintendent  at  Heilbronn,and  died  OcC 
8  of  that  year.  He  published,  Briefe  aber  einige  th«o^ 
togitche  ZeUmaterien  (Stuttgart,  1797) : — MerheHrdi^ 
heUtn  au$  dem  L^ben  und  S€hr\fUn  Hincmart,  etc  (Gdt- 
tingen,  1806): — Worte  des  Troetet  und  der  Erbautn^ 
bei  Begrdbnisaen  (Stuttgart,  1799>  See  Winer,  Htmd^ 
buck  der  tkeoL  Lit.  1, 897, 578, 917 ;  ii,  888.     (B.  P.) 

Geaael,  BBiuiHARD  Frikdrich,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  April  6, 1811,  at  Daat* 
zic,  studied  at  Kduigsberg,  where  Herbart  especially 
attracted  him.  In  1838  lie  was  called  as  military 
preacher  to  Thorn,  in  West  Prussia,  and  died  there, 
March  14, 1881.  Gessel  belonged  to  the  Liberals  of  the 
Protestant  Church.  He  wrote  very  little.  See  Ziieh- 
old,  BibL  TheoL'h4S6.    (a  P.) 

Cieaaner,  G^eorg,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was  bom  in 
1764  at  Diebeudorf,  near  Zurich.  He  was  for  some 
time  professor  at  his  native  place,  in  1828  superiateBd* 
ent,  in  1887  resigned  his  position,  and  died  in  1889.  He 
published,  Nikodemut  oder  die  Lehrt  Jew  9om  geittigem 
Gottesreic/te  (Zurich,  1814)  : — Der  sickere  Gang  dur!dk9 
I^eben  (Stuttgart,  1826)  :-^Sehickaale  der  Wakrhat  maUr 
den  Meruchen  (1818-20)  :^Ckri$tlicbe»  ffandbuek  (Zu- 
rich, 1817)  I'-Der  Ckriiten^laube  m  Mtner  Fruektbar- 
heU  (Stuttgart,  1885>  See  Zuchold,  B^  TheoL  i,  43&; 
Winer,  Handbuck  der  tkeol.  Lit.  i,  863, 864 ;  ii,  196»  SOQl 
208, 228, 827, 332,  857, 359, 884, 392.    (B.  P.) 


6ESSNER 


451 


GHIBERTI 


Oetiner,  Solomoiit  a  diatingaiabed  Swiss  poet 
■nd  engraver,  was  born  at  Zurich,  April  1, 1780,  and  is 
princifMilly  known  hj  his  poem  on  the  Death  o/AbeL 
Among  his  worics  are  several  vignettes  and  other  oma- 
meota  for  his  Death  of  Abel  and  his  Pattorals*  They 
are  dated  1769, 1771.  He  died  March  2,  1788.  See 
Hoefer,  JVbicr.  Biog,  GhUraky  s,  v. ;  Spooner,  Bioff,  Hist, 
of  (he  Fwt  ilrtt,  s,  V. 

Qesta  FOatL    See  Nicodemus,  Gospkl  of. 

Gtoyser,  Saxuel  GorrpRiEn,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bont  Jan,  12, 1740,  at  Gorlitz. 
He  stadied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1771  professor  of 
theology  and  Oriental  langiugea  at  Revel,  in  1777  at 
Kiel,  and  died  June  15, 1808.  He  wrote,  DUaerUitiones 
Tret  de  utu  Patrum  (Wittenberg,  1765)  i^Poetw  Grwci 
Antigmoret^  Interpretit  Saerarum  LiUerarum  MagUtri 
(ibid.  1768) : — De  DuHtatiombnt  contra  JJittoriam  Re- 
ditiu  Jetu  Christi  (Kiel,  1778):- A phorimi  Ethici  in 
anrai  Scholarum  (ibid.  1789>  See  During,  Die  gekhr- 
ten  Theologm  Deutschkmds,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

OexeUoB)  G^aorgios,  a  Swedish  biographer,  was 
bora  in  1736.  Like  others  of  his  name,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  ecclesiastical  calling,  became  archdeacon 
of  liUkyrka  in  Norway,  and  later  almoner  to  the  king 
of  Sweden,  GnaUvualU.  He  died  May  24, 1789.  With 
several  learned  men  of  his  country,  he  wrote,  Faradk 
tit  H  Biograpkitk  Lexihm  (Stockholm  and  Upsal,  1776). 
In  1780  be  added  a  supplementary  volume.  This  work 
was  revised  and  published  without  the  nam  3  of  the  au- 
thor, under  the  title,  BiograJUk  Lexicon  (Upsala,  1838). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraUj  s.  v, 

(}exelius,  Joannes  (1),  a  Swedish  prelate,  was 
born  Feb.  S,  1C15,  in  the  parish  of  Gezala,  from  which 
he  derivctl  his  name.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
at  Dorpat,  Livonia,  which  at  that  time  belonged  to 
Sweden.  Promoted  successively  to  various  dignities 
in  the  Church,  he  was  appointed  in  1664  bishop  of  Abo, 
in  Finland,  where  he  died,  Jan.  20, 1690.  He  com- 
menced a  Swedish  commentary  upon  the  Bible,  which 
he  left  incomplete.    See  Hoefer,  Aottv.  Biog,  Giniralff 

S.V. 

Geselins,  Joannes  (2),  a  Lutheran  bishop  of 
Sweden,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  bom  in  1647  at  Dor- 
pat.  1^674  he  was  professor  of  theology  at  Abo,  in 
1684  saperintendent  at  Narva,  in  Esthonia,  succeeded 
hb  fiither  in  1690  as  bishop  of  Abo,  which  position  he 
resigned  in  1713,  and  died  April  10, 1718.  He  wrote, 
Nomendator  Adami  ad  Genes,  tt,  19,  20  (Abo,  1667) :— 
De  Inttindu  Saerificamli  in  GeniiUbut  (1670)  :—De  De- 
fauMmt  Jekosum  contra  Satanam^  ex  Zachar,  Hi,  1,  2 
( 1676  ) :  —  FaMcicuUts  Homiletiearum  Ditpositionum 
(1693):— i>eeMtbfie«  Caauum  ConadaUia  (1689>  He 
also  completed  a  commentary  upon  the  Bible,  which 
was  commenced  by  his  father.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv»  Biog, 
GMrale,  b,  v.  ;  Jdcher,  A  UgemdueB  Gelehrten-Lexiionj 
s.  V. ;  Winer,  ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  185.     (a  P.) 

Oeser.  Thia  locality  has  recently  been  discovered 
in  TeU  Jezer  (^Mound  ofJeur)^  lying  near  the  village 
of  Ab&  Ghdsh.  The  following  account  of  it  is  from 
Conder  (Jeid  Work  in  Palest,  i,  11  sq.)  a 

**Tb€  oriffin  of  the  title  [Oexer,  i.e.eut  of^  or  isolated] 
is  at  ODce  dear,  for  the  site  is  an  ontlier— to  aso  a  geo- 
logical term— of  the  main  line  of  hills,  nnd  the  position 
ooBimands  one  of  the  important  passes  to  Jerosniem.  As 
is  the  case  with  many  eoually  iinportaut  places,  there  Is 
Bot  raDch  to  be  seen  at  Oexer.  The  hillside  Is  terraced, 
sad  the  eastern  end  occnpled  by  a  ralMd  foondation, 
probably  the  andeot  citadel.  Tombs  and  wine-preraes, 
cat  lo  rock,  abound,  and  there  are  traces  of  Cnrlstian 
bnildloga  In  a  small  chapel,  and  a  tomb,  apparently  of 
Christian  origin. 

*'  Beneath  the  hill  on  the  east  there  is  a  lino  spring, 
which  wells  op  In  a  dienlar  ring  of  masonry ;  it  Is  called 
*Abi  Terdeh,  or  the  'Spring  or  the  Gatherings,*  and  its 
czistcoee  is  a  strong  argument  in  Ihvor  of  the  antiquity 
of  the  ne^boriog  site.  . . . 

**A  most  fntaresting  and  carious  diacovery  was  made 
la  1874  at  Geser.  Ifi.  (Mnneao  was  shown  by  ibe  peoMint- 
ry  a  rade  inscrtptlon  deeply  cut  in  the  flat  surface  of  the 
Batnai  rock,    it  appears  to  be  In  Hebrew,  and  to  read 


•Boundary  of  Gezer'  [snpposed  by  him  to  mark  tho  lim- 
its of  this  as  a  Levitlcal  city],  with  other  letters,  which 
are  snpposed  to  form  the  Greek  word  Alkioo.  M.  OaU' 
nean  has  brought  forward  an  Ingenious  theory  that  Alki- 
os  was  ffovemor  of  Gexer  at  tho  time  this  boundaxy  was 
t>et,  and  lie  snpports  It  by  another  Inscription  tcom  a  tomb 
on  which  the  nume  name  occurs.  Tbis  theory  might  seem 
very  risky,  were  it  not  strengthened  by  the  discovery  of 
a  second  identical  inscription  close  to  the  last,  containing 
the  same  letters,  except  that  the  name  Alklou  Is  written 
upside  down.  In  both,  it  Is  true,  the  letters  are  hard  to 
read,  being  rudely  formed,  bnt  they  are  deeply  cat.  and 
of  evident  antiqnlty,  while  It  can  scarcely  be  donbtea  that 
the  inscription  is  the  same  In  both  cases.  M.  Ganneau 
attributes  them  to  Maccabsean  times ;  It  Is  curious  that 
they  should  thus  occur  In  the  open  ctmnbry,  at  no  definite 
distance  from  the  town,  and  unmarked  bv  any  column  or 
monument.  Altogether  they  are  among  toe  many  archm* 
ological  pnxzles  of  Palestine,  nnd  their  origin  and  mean- 
ing will  probably  always  remain  qnestlonaule." 

A  full  descriprion  of  the  locality  and  ancient  remainsy 
with  a  topographical  map,  may  be  found  in  the  Me- 
moirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  417  sq. 

Ohajat;  Isaac  ibn-.    See  Ibn-Giath,  Isaac. 

Qhase,  one  of  the  three  kinds  of  Mohammedan  ab* 
lotions.  Three  rules  are  observed  in  its  performance: 
1.  Those  who  do  it  must  resolve  to  please  God.  2.  The 
body  must  be  thoroughly  cleansed.  8.  The  water  must 
touch  the  whole  skin,  and  all  the  hair  of  the  body.  The 
sonna  (q.  v.)  requires  five  additional  drcumstances : 
L  That  the  Bismilkh  (q.  v.)  be  recited.  2.  That  the 
palms  of  the  hands  be  washed  before  the  vessels  are 
emptied  in  the  washing -place.  8.  That  before  the 
prayers  some  lustration  should  be  made  with  peculiar 
ceremonies.  4.  That  to  deanse  the  surface  of  the  body 
the  skin  should  be  rubbed  with  the  hand.  5.  That  aU 
this  be  continued  to  the  end  of  the  ablution. 

Qhat;  a  flight  of  steps  leading  down  from  a  Hindfi' 
temple  to  the  waters  of  the  Ganges  or  other  sacred 
stream.    It  is  often  constructed  at  great  expense,  and 
highly  ornamented,  l)eing  regarded  as  the  most  sacred 
part  of  the  building. 

Ohad  Khan,  a  holy  Mussulman,  who  first  sub- 
dued the  country  of  Dinagepore,  India,  to  the  Modem 
power.  His  integrity  and  humanity  gained  him  the 
worship,  not  only  of  the  Modems,  but  even  of  the  Hio- 
dfts  themsdves,  who  often  perform  long  pilgrimages  to 
his  tomb  at  SheraghaL 

Ohaslpore  was  the  favorite  residence  of  GhazI 
Khan  (q.  v.).  The  place  is  remarkable  for  a  sect  of 
Brahmins  who  reside  in  it,  practicing  religious  cere« 
monies  in  great  secrecy.  They  resemble  in  thdr  faith 
and  practice  the  andent  Pythagoreans,  They  hold  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  emanation  of  the  soul,  aqd  many 
others  different  from  the  ordinary  Hindiis,  but  keep 
the  knowledge  of  their  religious  forma  a  profound  aecret. 

Qhefix.    See  Ethiopic. 

Qheg  Albahiah  Vbrsios.  See  Albanian  Ykb- 
aioa. 

Gheyn  (or  Ghein),  Jambs,  the  elder,  an  eminent 
Flemish  dedgner  and  engraver,  was  bom  at  Antwerp 
in  1666,  and  was  instructed  by  his  father.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  his  prints:  The  Life  and  Passion  of 
Christ;  The  Four  Evangelists;  The  Adoration  of  the 
Trimtg;  Christ  Preaching  to  the  Jews;  The  AnnuneUi^ 
turn;  A  Repose  in  Egypt.  He  died  in  1616.  See  Hoe* 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginerale,  a.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  Arts,  B,y, 

OhibertI,  Lorbnzo,  a  Fk>rentine  painter,  and  very 
eminent  statuary,  was  bom  in  1878,  and  instmcted  by 
Stamina.  About  1898  he  went  to  Kimini,  and  was 
much  engaged  in  punting  on  one  of  the  doors  of  the 
baptistery  of  San  Giovanni.  His  masterpiece  was  the 
Offering  vp  of  Isaac  He  completed  three  statues  of 
St.  John  the  Bapti^  SL  Matthew,  and  SL  Stephen,  for  the 
Church  of  San  Michele;  two  baa-rdiefs  for  the  bap- 
tiatery  of  the  cathedrd  of  Siena.  All  theae  works  are 
still  preserved.  The  reliquary  of  St.  Zenobiua  and  the 
two  doors  are,  to  thia  day,  among  tho  fineat  apectmena 


Fine  A 

Gbongor,  in  Liaiiisni,  U  ooe  of  the  fupnnw  goils 
of  TbibeC  He  ia  ■  mighty  proUdor  ot  the  rmnh,  the 
ncied  dodrinet  ind  monli,  but  becuiK  of  hia  cruelty 
h«  ii  counted  ■tnong  the  eight  Trighirul  liarchino. 
He  hita  a  horrible  hewl  with  open  mouth,  Ihiee  large 
flaming  eye*,  and  coral-strings  made  of  gknlla  hanging 
about  liii  neck.  Ue  carrin  in  hia  sin  inni  all  kind* 
of  muideroui  Lnitrumeni*,  and  ride*  an  elephant. 

Qlabaiian^  a  Mohammedan  aect  who  denied  the 
tree  agency  of  man,  and  taught  that  God  ia  the  author 
or  all  tbe  acliona  of  man,  vhei her  good  or  bad. 

OlBOobnxlo,  Clemente,  an  Italian  prelate,  neph- 
ew of  Domenico,  via  born  in  the  latter  half  of  the  Ifiih 
ecnluiy.  He  became  canon  of  81.  Peter  of  tbe  Vatican, 
biahop  of  Muaauo,  tecretary  of  Paul  HI,  and  auditor  of 
tbe  aacred  palace.  In  l&SG  he  wa*  made  cardinal,  irilh 
Iha  title  of  Sl  Anaataaius,  and  aoon  arter  aent  on  a  mia- 
■ion  to  Cliarlea  V.  Called  in  1539  to  the  Irgatahip  of 
Perugi*  and  Ombria,  he,  in  the  performance  of  theae 
dutie*,  died  at  Perugia,  OcL  7, 1  MO.  See  Hoefer,  Souc. 
Biog.  GiniraU,  a.  r. 

QlaooIlHxlO  (Lat.  Jacabatiiu),  Dotuonioo,  an 
tcaliao  prelate,  wai  burn  at  Rome  in  114S,  Destined 
to  ■  religious  calling,  ba  atudied  particularly  canonical 
law  and  eccletiaitical  hialoiy.  He  became  auditor  of 
tbe  rota,  and  iraa  auccesaively  bishop  of  Lucera,  of 
UaiMno,  and  of  Groaaetto,  After  having  nencd  the 
Church  under  Sixtus  IV,  Innocent  VUI,  Alexander  VI, 
Pius  III,  Juliu*  n,aud  Leo  X,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Ia*(-named  pope,  cardinal,  with  the  title  of  St.  Barthol- 
emr  de  In*ula,in  iai7.  At  the  death  of  Adrian  VI,  he 
would  hero  been  elected  pope  but  for  the  French  party. 
He  died  at  Rome,  July  2.  1 527.  He  wrote,  A  Trralit 
on  Counali,  in  Latin,  wbicb  i*  not  highly  esleenwd  on 

Tolnme  of  the  collection  of  Labbe.  Tlie  first  edition 
appeared  at  Rome  in  1&B8,  See  Hocfer,  A'otir.  Biog. 
GMratt,  a.  v. 

QiaoomelU,  HiatKL  Anqklo,  titulary  archbishop 
orChak«don,wasbom  in  IC9a,Bt  Fistoja.  He  wa>  for 
•ome  time  librarian  to  cardinal  Fabroni,  and  then  to 
cardinal  CoUigola.  He  died  in  I7T4.  Ha  wrote,  Trad. 
BeofdictiXIVdeFtMUJaii  CkrUa  (Padua,  174S)  1— 
S.  Gion.  CruoMoBio  dtl  Saetrdotto  Libri  VI  Vi^gariz- 
lali  (Rome,  llbT) :  —  OmUia  di  S.  Crimtlomo  (ibid. 
17ig}-.~-/'A>'i»iw  Kpampi  Eno'Talio  in  Canlican  Cun- 
fin>nin(ilad.l77!).  Set  J&ctiKt,  A Itgrmeaia  Ctlrirttn- 
Laihtn,  a.  v.;  Winer,  HamOmcl,  der  IktoL  Lit.  i,  617. 
(D.P.) 

OiattlllOk  GiovANiii  BATTtSTA,  a  Jeauit  and  pn>- 
fenor  at  Kome,  wa*  bom  IL  Palermo  in  IGOl,  and  die  ~ 
Not.  19,  1682.  He  tranalaied  into  Latin  Paliavicini 
liliiria  dfi  Ctmcilia  de  Trtnlo  (Antwerp,  1670,  3  voU, 
roL),Bnd  publiihed  Oraliona  Saoa  XXIY.  See  Wi- 
ner, Jlaadbuch  dtr  thtoL  Lit.  i,  667 ;  Jiicher,  Alij/emeina 
C«faSrtCT-;-<Mton,  *.  V,     (tt  P.) 

Oibbethon  ia  identiaed  by  lieuu  Conder  (TVnl 
Work,  ii,  337)  with  KiMth,  the  position  of  which  be 
due*  not  indicate,  and  by  Tristram  {BMt  Ptacti,  p.  61) 
with  "  tbe  ruin  GrSmta,  north  of  Jaffa.'' 

Oibbon,  JoiiAHM,  a  Jeauit,  and  rector  of  tbe  Jesuit 
collie  at  Treves,  was  bom  in  XbU,  at  Whinlon,  Eng- 
land, and  died  Dec.  3,  1589.  He  wrote,  IHipuluiio  de 
Sanctit  el  de  Canrnumone  Euckariitia  lub  una  Specie 
—Con/hlalia  Vinilmlia  Diiputalioni  Gtorgii  Hchon 
— Ctiacertalio  EceUaa  Catholica  in  AvgUa.  See  Juch 
er,  AUgeminet  GtUkiie<i-I,exiko«,  a.  r.     (a  P.} 

OibbonB,  OrlKUdo,  an  eminent  English  com- 
poaer  of  church  music,  was  bom  at  Cambridge  in  1688, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  was  appmnted  organial 
ofthe  Chapel  Royal  He  died  in  IG26.  He  composed 
the  lune*  fut  George  Wilher'a  Iranalalion  of  llgmni 


and  Songt  of  lit  Clktirrli,  and  malty  other  pie«ea  of 
church  Riuaic  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet.  a.  v.;  Allt- 
\>oar,Din.ofBrit.omdAmrr.A»t)ioT;a.v.;  KmrgtUf, 
BrU.  9th  ed.  a.  V, 

Olbboos,  Richard,  a  Irameil  English  Jenuit,  who 
was  bom  at  Winchester  in  1549.  and  died  in  1682,  pib- 
lished  F.  Ribrrtr  Com.  m  Duodedm  Prvphelai  Mimirt 
(1612),  and  lereral  other  works.  See  Cbalmers,  Biog. 
Diet.  s.  V.  i  Alliboiie,  Diet,  of  Bi-il.  onrf  A  mrr.  A  rtkoti, 

Qibeah  of  Rehjauih.  lieiiL  Conder  strongly 
impugn*  (Qaar.  atalemnl  of  tbe  "PaleU.  Explor, 
Fund,"  April  l^^i  P-  61)  t>K  identification  of  this  placv 
with  nieil  tl-Fii,  bnt  tbi*  Tiew  is  retained  hy  Tris- 
tram (£>Ue  Phea,  p.  118). 

Olb«l,  ADRAitAK,  a  Ldtherau  theologian,  who  ilicd 
in  IG29  at  Burg,  pastor  primariua,  is  the  author  of,  De 
Gtmtiaa  /.ericoffriipliia  Cliiililaiea  Coialilyliaiie  (Wit- 
tenberg, 1606)  :-6'i'aini>u/i'Ai  Lingum  Htbr.  (IGOS):- 
^i-fl/tnun  .4ccfli/HHiii  (eoit.) :— 5ri^u  1M  Errotum 
BeUafmiM  (1606)  -.—Erplicotio  Loci  Jrtrm.  xxriH,  IC. 
See  J<icher,.1U7niwMet  GrlrAW<it-£enttn,  s.  v. ;  Flint, 
BibL  Jvd.  i,  384 ;  $IeinK:bneider,  Bating,  tlarndbiicli,  a.  t. 
(B.P.) 

Olbeon.  A  full  description  of  ibi*  place,  crpe- 
cislly  or  the  numeroui  lock-hewa  tomba  in  it*  vicinity, 
ia  giren  in  the  Memoire  accompanying  the  Ordnance 

GIBEOS,  Pool  or  (2  Sam.  ii,  13).  The  foUowuig 
interesting  account  of  the  waters  in  the  vicinity  of 
Gibeon  ia  given  bv  lieut.  Cornier  {Qkar.  Slutemtiu  of 
the  "  Palest.  Explor.  Fund,'  October,  1881,  p.  265  aq.): 

"El-Jtb,  the  modern  lillsge,  occupies  the  uorth  end  ot 
a  delnched  hill  some  HW  feet  taleb,  anrronnded  bj  bn»d, 
llsl  oim  Tnlleyi  on  ererr  >ld>.  Tbe  InhablUnta  slsta 
tbat  tbe  old  cilr  stood  on  tbe  aonth  part  of  Iba  hill ;  and 
here.  In  the  aide*  of  Ibe  nalnrnl  soirps  which  furliry  ibo 
Bite,  we  vlilled  mid  explored  some  twenty  rock-cut  Iiimha. 
Them  are  elgbt  aprlnjr*  on  tbe  bill,  the  large*!,  or  lb« 
laat,  being  one  of  Ibe  Oneat  sajiplles  ut  wslerln  ihl*  part 
of  Pilostlne.  One  of  Ibe  aprlatn  I*  culled  el-iNrbA  (cur- 
reapoadlDg  to  Ibe  HS'^^  or  'pool' ol tbe  abare  paaaafe), 

'~'  ' —  ■"* '  —  ■" ■' '■'g  elcTen  foot  l.jr 

'e.    Tbi*  place  I* 


CkiiAuI  FaitMiH  and  P/itntltia.) 


"It  i*  powlblt,  banrer.  that  the  grail  iprlnf  fAlo  •!- 
B*11ed)  I*  tha  pUca  Intended  In  the  epitnde  or  Joab'i  en- 
coDBUr,  *al(«el]inpln  ■  ehmnbir  uima  ihlrtr  (Ht  Iodk 
ud  MTen  f«(  wide,  reached  b j  ■  deMcn  t  iit  MT*nl  etepi, 
And  there  la  uld  to  be  a  pnuege  wUh  BrBiM  letdlng  — 
rrum  the  buck  at  the  cire  b>  the  enrface  nbove.    An 


daeii.  nnd  the  puusa  )■  now 


Are  fM 

(Uvped  or,  ws  did  not 
howerer,  that  ■  door  t 

ue  lilubltiiata  ntOlb*....  .... 

eprloK heloWjUiil  tu  nhtnla  h« 
Inlhecltjr.    The  iprtaR  In  qiiei 

l«tap  U  oeewloBilli  1lghu< 
■  llLtle  rack  chamber  wllb 


Olbarti,  OiovAHin  Mattso,  Uthnp  ot  yenna,  wu 
bom  It  Pelermo  in  U9fi.  end  died  in  1543.     He  wu 
one  dT  thow  preUta  who,  berore  Ihe  Council  of  Trent, 
ebowpd  ■  Mriaai  intercec  in  tbo  reform  of  the  Cburch, 
drawing  tail  inepintion  fram  Pielro  Cerefla,  with  whom 
he  wu  intimalelr  uqiuintnl.     Thin  Gibcni  inuUed 
upon  >  bMlcr  preptntion  and  atricter  exaroinatioi 
the  clergy,  and  though  bit  eflbrte  wen  of  no  arii 
ainaant  of  the  oppoaition  from  the  clcrgv,  yet  he 
etcued  eoniidanble  influence  on  Carlo  Borromeo  (q. 
Qibeni  wrote,  Coufita/ioiH  Cibrfinm .- —  CoMttoi 
ptr  It  MoaoAti—Capitoli  di  Sfgobaiunt  Faltn  h. 
U  8lrpt:—UaiUiimet  Gmtrala  .-—CapiloU  DfUa  S'oei- 
M  <ti  Caritaf—Edida  3fiitta:—LrtUrt  Sdtlle.     See 
Ballerini'a  biography  of  Giberti,  in  the  introiluction  to 
tha  latter*!  woriii,  wbicb  were  piibtjibnl  under  the  title, 
J.  JV.  Gibeni  Opera  <Verr>na,  li3»,1740) ;  Kerlier,in  the 
TibiMgrr   QfiarUiltdirif!,  IBaS,  faic  1;  Beumont,  Gr- 
KUeUeairStaitRom.Vi\.u\';  Itenrath.in  riitt-Her- 
IDg, fiml-A'wjidop.  •.  y.\  iiii^t,  AUgrmdan  Crkkrlat- 
/*rii<m,a.y.     (UP.) 

OlbleilC  >  Trench  theologian,  waa  born  at  Ufl 
in  the  latter  hiiroC  the  16th  century.  He  waa  eilucated 
It  the  cardiul  de  Berulle,  aludied  theology,  and  re- 
ceiTed  the  degree  of  doctor  at  the  Sortmnne  in  1G19. 
The  pnTioui  year  he  had,  with  foar  other  prioti,  un- 
der the  direction  ofPFler  de  Berulle,  then  ilea  a  lirnple 
prieit,  formed  the  nucleut  of  the  congregation  of  the 
Oratorio.  Hii  general,  who  had  introduced  into  France 
Ibe  order  oTCamMlitei,  made  Gibieuf  hia  vicar-general. 
He  waa  at  the  aame  time  eommemlatorr  of  Jiiilly,  a 
bouae  then  occufHCd  by  the  canoni  regular.  The  lax- 
ity whkh  cbaracleriiad  theae  iDonlii  led  him  to  eeck 
th«iireftnnrram  the  cardinal  Da  la  Hochefouoauld.  The 


botiae  of  Juilly  wai  united  witb  that  of  St.  Uenerierc. 
and  later  to  the  coDgiegation  of  the  Onljirio.  tt  ia 
claimed  that,  owing  to  modeaty,  he  lefuaed  the  biahop- 
ric  of  Nantca.  He  died  at  the  aemiuiry  of  St.  Magtoire, 
□r  which  he  waa  SrM  auperiar,  June  G,  1C50.  He  wrote, 
Dt  Liberlale  Dti  a  Creahirx  {V*m,  IKM)  —La  VU  tt 
la  Grandati  de  la  Tiit-SaMe  Vitrgt  (ibid.  1637):— 
CatickiKi  de  U  ifaniini  de  Vie  Piir/aile  (poethumoua, 
iliid.  1G53).  He  was  allied  with  the  mnst  teamed  and 
diitinguiihed  men  of  hia  lime.  See  Hoefer,  Auuc  £1119. 
Gwrale,  a.  t. 

Oibon  ii  the  name  of  a  remarkable  idol-temple  in 
Japan.  U  ia  a  targe  but  narrow  building,  in  Ihe  mid- 
dle room  of  which  alanda  a  huge  idol  aurrounded  by 
many  othera  of  amatler  dimenaiona.  Around  this  tem- 
ple are  thirty  or  forty  imaller  lemplea,  all  arranged  in 
regular  onter. 

OibaoD,  Edwaud  TiiOMta,  H.K.A^.,  M.S.B^.  an 
Engliah  Baptiat  minieter,  wai  bom  at  Falmouth,  Not. 
II,  ISIS,  lie  wu  educated  at  the  naval  achool  at 
Greenwich,  and  when  about  fourteen  years  of  age  en- 
tered Ihe  nary,  which,  however,  he  apeedity  relinquiah- 
ed.  Hewaicoiivertedatlheageof  seTenteen,  and  aome 
yeara  afterwarda  began  study  for  the  ministry  at  Brad- 
furd  Baptiat  College.  In  IBM  he  became  pastor  of  the 
church  at  GuilBbotowgh,  Northamptonshire.  In  1809 
he  accepted  an  inrilation  10  the  pastorate  of  the  Bap- 
tint  Cburch  at  Crayliird,  Kent,  which  he  aerred  for 
eighteen  yean.  Failing  health  forced  him  to  teuga 
hit  cbame,  OcI.T,  1877.  He  died  at  Brockley,  Jan.!l. 
1880.  He  waa  ■  diligent  atudent,  eapecially  of  the 
Orietttal  laDguage^  of  aereral  of  which  he  poaseaaed  a 
aurpriaiiii:  knowledge.  He  contributed  aome  traoaU- 
liouB  to  Spurgeon'a  Trtatury  of  Dand.  See  (Load.) 
BupliM  llaid-book,  ISB'2,  p.  303. 

Qiolcnlataotea,  hermita  of  the  Armeuiaa  Church 
(q.  T.),  who  pass  tlieii  lives  in  meditatiou  on  the  lope 

Oiddlngfl^  Gboros  p.,  D.D^  ■  Proteatant  Epiaei>- 
pal  clergyman,  was  rector  in  Quincy,  111.,  for  a  number 
of  yeara  prcTioot  to  1857.  In  that  year  he  became 
rector  in  BooneTille,  Uo.,  remaining  there  until  1869, 
when  be  remored  to  Palmyra  aa  principal  of  a  female 
achooL     He  died  Hay  1,  1861.    See  Prof-  Eptte.  At- 

DMBKU!,  1862,  p.  9i. 


6IESELER 


454 


GILBERT 


BamdenbaTg',  was  preacher  in  1746  at  Keasdadorf,  in 
Silesia,  in  1755  deacon  at  Gorlitz,  in  1774  archdeacon 
theie,  and  died  Dec.  28,  1788.  He  wrote,  Hittorische 
NcMhrickt  wm  der  BibeUibertetstmg  Martin  Lutken 
(Altdorf,  1771)  :—Von  Luther's  Verdtauten  umf  seiner 
GekiUfen  urn  die  Katechismen  (GorUtz,  1782).  See  Wi- 
ner, Ucmdbitck  der  tkeoi.  Lit.  i,  167 ;  ii,  218.     (K  P.) 

GMes6ler,  Georo  CHBifrrora  Frikdricii,  a  La- 
theriui  theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Lahde,  May 
1, 1760.  In  1791  he  was  pastor  at  Petershagen,  near 
Minden,  where  the  fiunous  church -historian,  Johann 
Karl  Ludwig  Gieseler  (q.  ▼.),  was  bom.  In  1808  he 
was  first  preacher  at  Warther,  near  Bielefeld,  and  died 
March  14, 1889,  a  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote.  Das 
A  beudmahl  da  HerrtL  Ehu  Uturgischer  Versuch  ( Biele- 
feld, 1885).  See  Winer,  liandbuch  der  tkeoL  Lit.  ii,  9 ; 
Zachold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  488 ;  Hoefer,  A7>ifr.  Biog.  GhO- 
nz/e,8.v.    (a  P.) 

Gifford,  AndreiRr,  D.D.,an  eminent  English  Bap- 
tist minister,  was  bom  at  Bristol,  Aug.  17, 1700,  being 
the  son  of  Rev.  Emanuel  Gifford,  Baptist  pastor  there. 
He  was  converted  in  early  life ;  studied  at  an  academy 
in  Tewkesbury,  and  under  the  direction  of  Rev.  Dr. 
Ward  of  Gresham  College;  he  was  settled  at  Notting- 
ham about  two  years,  rad  then  removed  to  his  native 
place  as  assistant  to  Rev.  Bernard  Firkett.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1729,  he  removed  to  London  as  pastor  of  the  Little 
Wild  Street  Church.  For  many  years  Mr.  Gilford 
acted  as  chaplain  in  the  family  of  Sir  Richard  Ellya. 
In  1784  he  visited  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  honored 
with  the  freedom  of  the  city.  In  1757  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  librarian  of  the  British  Museum,  which 
position  he  held  until  his  death,  June  19, 1784.  His 
private  collection  of  coins  was  one  of  the  roost  curious 
in  Great  Britain.  His  attendance  at  the  museum  did 
not  render  him  inattentive  to  his  pastoral  duties.  For 
a  period  of  twenty-four  years  he  preached,  in  connection 
with  several  ministers  of  the  Independent  denomina- 
Gon,  once  a  month,  the  Sabbath  evening  lecture  at  St. 
Helenas  Church.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  full  of  anima- 
tion. See  Rippon,  Memoir;  Amer.  Bapt.  Magatine^ 
new  series,  v,  858.    (J.  C.  S.) 

QllTord,  Rlohard,  an  English  clergyman,  was  bom 
in  1725,  and  was  rector  of  North  Okendon,  Essex,  in 
1772.  He  died  in  1807.  He  wrote  remarks  on  Ken- 
nicott's  Dissertation  on  the  Tree  of  L^fe  in  Paradise: 
— Outlines  of  an  Answer  to  Dr.  Priestly*s  Disquisitions 
on  Matter  and  Sjnrit.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  Authors^  s.  v. 

GiftaohlitB,  Frikdrich,  a  Roman  Catholic  pn>- 
fleaaor  of  theology,  Vho  was  bom  in  1748,  and  died  at 
Vienna,  June  5, 1788,  is  the  author  of,  Vorlesungen  Ober 
die  Pastoraltheologie  (Vienna,  1786 ;  5th  ed.  1811).  See 
Wma,ffandbuckdertheoLLU.ii,^    (B.P.) 

GiggftUfl^  Amtos,  of.  Milan,  who  died  in  1632,  is  the 
aothor  of,  R.  Sakm.  Ahen  Esres  et  R.  Levi  Ben-Gerson 
Commentaria  in  Proverbia  Salomonis  Latine  Conversa 
(Milan,  1620)  :-^Thesaurvs  Lingua  A  rabica  (ibid.  1682, 
4  vols.) : — Instiiutiones  Lingua  Chaldaica  et  Thargu- 
wdea.  See  ArgelaU,  BibL  MediolanensU ;  Jdcher,  AW- 
gemesnes  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a.  v.    (BL  P.) 

Gil  OF  Sakto  Irbm o  (Lat.  JEgidius  Lusitanus),  one 
of  the  propagators  of  the  Dominican  order,  was  bora  in 
the  diooeae  of  Visco  in  1184.  He  was  the  son  of  don 
Bodrigo  Pelago,  governor  of  Coimbra,  and  one  of  the 
grand  officials  of  the  crown.  He  completed  his  studies 
at  Coimbra,  and  while  still  young  posaeased  two  prio- 
ries and  three  canonships  in  the  chapters  of  Braga,  of 
Coimbra,  and  of  Tdanha.  He  neglected  theology,  and 
devoted  himself  to  physics  and  medicine ;  went  to  Paru 
to  perfect  himself  in  these  sciences,  and  there  received 
the  degree  of  doctor.  In  1224  or  1225  he  resigned  all, 
entered  the  Dominican  order,  became  a  model  of  Chris- 
tian virtue,  and  rapidly  reached  the  highest  honon  of 
hii  ordeCi    Id  1249,  at  a  convocation  of  hia  order  at 


Tkerea,  he  resigned  hb  provindalahip  of  Spain.  He 
used  his  influence  in  re-establishing  baraiony  between 
the  king,  don  Sancho  II,  and  his  brother,  the  young 
Alfonso.  He  died  at  Santarem,  May  14, 1265.  Some 
churches  of  Portugsl  honor  him  as  a  saint,  and  the 
bishops  of  Visen  have  fixed  his  festival  on  the  Sab- 
bsth  after  the  Ascension.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  04- 
nirale,  s.  v. 

Oilbee^  Easue,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  de- 
scended from  a  highly  respectable  family  in  Kent  He 
was  educated  at  the  Charter-House,  where  for  a  con- 
siderable time  he  was  a  head  scholar.  From  thenee  he 
entered  University  College,  Oxford,  where  he  gndiH 
ated  in  due  course.  His  first  exercise  of  the  ministrr 
was  in  London,  where  he  served  a  Church  for  some 
years.  In  the  year  1795  he  was  instituted  to  the  living 
of  Barby,  in  Northamptonshire,  which  he  held  till  his 
death,  Oct  2, 1818.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  dili- 
gent, faithful,  and  successful  minister  of  Christ  He  was 
a  firm  friend  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
and  much  rejoiced  in  witnessing  the  establishment  of 
an  auxiliary  institution  in  the  county  of  Northampton 
in  1812.  Dr.  Gilbee  was  a  man  whose  piety  was  deep, 
and  whose  benevolence  endeared  him  to  all  who  needed 
bis  help.  It  was  his  meat  and  drink,  whether  in  the 
pulpit  or  out  of  it,  to  lessen  humsn  misery  and  produce 
happiness.  See  The  (Lond.)  Christian  Observer^  Febru- 
ary, 1814,  p.  65. 

Gilbert,  Saint^  a  member  of  the  noUe  family  of 
Auveigoe,  was  first  abbot  of  a  monastery  which  bore 
his  name  in  the  diocese  of  Clermont  He  passed  his 
youth  at  the  courts  of  Louis  the  Gross  and  Louis  the 
Younger,  and  was  reckoned  among  the  bravest  and 
most  pious  knights  of  his  time.  Afler  preaching  in 
behalf  of  the  second  crusade,  he  accompanied  the  king 
to  the  Holy  Land.  The  unfortunate  results  of  the  ex- 
pedition threw  a  profound  sadness  into  the  heart  of 
Gilbert,  who  attributed  it  to  the  sins  of  the  erusadera. 
He  resolved  to  consecrate  himself  entirely  to  a  monas- 
tic life,  with  the  approval  of  his  wife  and  daughter. 
Having  consulted  the  bishop  of  Clermont  and  the  alK 
hot  of  Dilo,  he  gave  half  of  his  goods  to  the  poor,  and  re- 
served the  remainder  for  building  two  monasteries,  one 
for  men  and  the  other  for  women.  The  latter  was  es- 
tablished St  Aubeterre,  under  the  invocation  of  St  Ger- 
vais  and  St  Protais.  His  wife,  Petronille,  assumed  the 
management,  and  at  her  death  his  daughter,  Pooee, 
succeeded  her.  Gilbert  retired  to  a  place  named  Neuf 
Fontaines.  He  there  constracted  a  monasteiy,  waa 
elected  abbot,  and  ruled  with  great  wisdom.  On  one 
side  of  the  monastery  was  a  large  hospital  for  the  sidk 
and  infirm.  He  died  June  1, 1152,  and  at  his  request 
was  interred  in  the  hospital  cemetery.  The  third  ab- 
bot caused  his  remains  to  be  transfened  to  the  church. 
Robert  of  Auxerre  published  the  life  of  St.  Gilbert  in 
his  Chronique.    See  Hoefer,  Nomv.  Biog.  GiniraJe,  s.  ▼• 

GHlbert  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Dun- 
keld  for  about  twenty  years,  but  when  he  took  his  seat 
is  unknown.  He  was  bishop  there  in  1220,  and  also  In 
the  twenty-eighth  year  of  the  reign  of  king  Alexander 
IL  He  died  in  1286.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bisikpe^ 
p.  79. 

GMIbert  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  to  the  see 
of  Galloway  in  1285,  and  was  probably  consecrated  with 
the  High  Church  of  York  the  same  year.  He  died  in 
1253.    See  Keith,  SooUish  Bishops^  p.  272. 

GUbert  (8),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a  native  of  Gal- 
loway, and  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  the  Isles  in  1821. 
He  probably  died  in  1826.  See  Keith,  acottiiA  ^iti^ 
p.  801. 

GMlbert,  somamed  GBianiroa,  a  Benedictine  of 
Normandy,  who  died  in  1114,  is  the  author  of,  A  Uercaiin 
Synagoga  et  Seeleeia  t-^Commeni,  m  l^otoiii  et  Jere^ 
msamc^MomiUm  m  CanOam  Cantieonm: — De  Cong 
DiaML    8—htimaMDeSer^oribmsBriiamHmiVk^ 


GILBERT 


465 


6ILLES 


rim,  De  Scr^onbui  Anglia;  Oudin,  De  Ser^torfbmi 
EeekriaiHeui  Jdeher,  AUgemaiie$  Gdehrten^ Lexihm, 
&  V.    (a  P,) 

Gilbert  of  Holland,  flonrisbed  A.D.  1200,  a  Bchol- 
or  and  divine,  took  his  name  from  a  district  in  Lincoln- 
shire. He  was  invited  by  St.  Bernard  to  live  with  him 
at  dairraox,  became  his  scholar,  continued  Bernard's 
sermons,  writing  forty-six  in  a  style  scarcely  discern- 
ible from  Bernard's.  Abbot  Tritheroios,  the  German, 
speaks  of  Gilbert  as  a  learned  and  eloquent  author.  See 
Fuller,  WoriJkie§  of  England  (ed.  NnUall),  ii,  280. 

Gilbert,  bishop  of  Losdost,  who  died  in  1184,  is 
Uie  author  oi,  GioM  in  Vetus  H  Novum  TttUimeHtum: 
— Commmf,  ta  Jobum^  Tkraoi  JeremitB  et  AU^oi 
Psahw9:^I/omiUm  in  Cantiea  Sahnumit: — Comment, 
m  Prologot  S,  ffierongnd  super  BUbUoy  which  works  are 
•till  in  MS.  On  account  of  his  great  learning,  Gilbert 
was  styled  Umvertalit,  See  Oudin,  De  Scriptoribut 
EedtaiattieU ;  Z'dchet,  AUgemHnu  Gdekrten- Lexihony 
fcT.    (a  P.) 

Gilbert  of  Westxikstbr,  a  scholar  of  the  flrat 
part  of  the  12th  century,  was  first  a  monk,  then  abbot 
of  Westminster.  He  gave  himself  up  to  the  study  of 
divinity  under  the  guidance  of  Anselm,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  attained  to  great  knowledge  of  the  Script- 
ores,  studied  in  France,  visited  Rome,  and  on  his  return 
is  reported  to  have  had  a  disputation  with  a  learned 
Jew,  which  afterwards  he  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  dia- 
logue, and,  publishing  it,  dedicated  it  to  St.  Anselm. 
He  died  in  1117,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster.  See 
FuUer,  Worihia  qfEngkmd  (ed.  Nuttall),  ii,  424. 

Gilbert  Xaland  Teralon  or  tiik  ScmrTURBa 
This  version  is  designed  for  the  people  of  Gilbert  islands, 
Micronesia.  In  18(59  the  first  parts  of  this  version, 
which  was  prepared  by  the  Rev.  Hiram  Bingham,  of 
Honolulu,  were  published  by  the  American  Bible  Society. 
The  version  of  the  entire  New  Test,  was  published  in 
1872,  which  proved  to  be  a  great  boon  to  that  benight- 
ed people,  for  soon  a  new  edition  was  needed,  which 
was  published  after  a  careful  revirion  by  the  original 
tnaalator  in  1878.     (a  P.) 

Gildersleeve,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  near  Norwalk,  Conn.,  Jan.  5,  1791. 
He  graduated  from  Middlebury  College,  Yt.,  in  1814; 
the  same  year  removed  to  Georgia,  and  began  to  teach 
in  Mount  Zion  Academy ;  in  1817  he  entered  Princeton 
Seminary,  and  remained  there  a  little  over  one  year;  in 
1819  commenced  editing  a  paper  called  The  Mimonary  ; 
In  1820  was  ordained  by  Hopewell  Presbytery,  at  Athens, 
Ga.;  in  1828  removed  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  became 
editor  of  The  Chrittian  Observer,  which  post  he  held 
until  1845 ;  then  he  removed  to  Richmond,  Va.,  where 
he  was  sole  editor  of  The  Watckman  and  Observer^  and 
then  CO*  editor  of  The  Central  Pretbjfterian.  During 
Ilia  residence  in  Richmond  he  preached  wherever  he 
found  an  open  door,  especially  in  the  Virginia  peniten- 
tiary. He  died  June  20, 1875.  At  seventy- five  blind- 
ness began  to  come  upon  him,  and  he  then  applied  him- 
self to  the  memorizing  of  large  portions  of  Scripture 
and  the  best  hymns,  that  he  might  be  able  to  continue 
hia  ministry  long  after  his  eyesight  was  gone.  In  all 
places  where  he  could  find  hearers  he  was  abundant  in 
labonk  See  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem. 
1976,  p.  a 

Gile,  Samukl,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  son 
of  major  Ezekiel  Gile,  was  bom  at  Plaistow,  K.  H.,  July 
23^  1780.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in 
1804 ;  studied  theology  under  Rev.  Jonathan  French ; 
was  Qtdained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Milton,  Mass., 
Feb.  18, 1807 ;  and  died  in  October,  1826.  See  Sprague, 
Annali  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  i,  580. 

GUfiUan,'  Geobob,  a  minister  of  the  Scotch  Pres- 
byterian Church,  was  bora  in  Scotland,  Jan.  80, 1813. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Glasgow  College  and  at  the 
United  Secession  HalL    His  first  call  was  to  a  congre- 


gation at  Schoolwynd,  Dnndee,  where  he  continued  his 
pastoral  labors  until  his  death,  Aug.  13, 1878.  In  1842 
he  began  to  write  sketches  of  the  principal  characters 
of  the  day,  for  newspapers,  and  they  were  afterwards 
printed  in  book  form  under  the  title  of  The  GaUery  of 
Literary  Portrait*,  Thb  was  followed  by  two  other 
series  of  the  same  character.  In  1860  he  published 
The  Barde  of  the  Bibk,  which  has  been  severely  criti- 
cised for  its  grandiloquent  style.  He  edited  an  edition 
of  Bryants  Poems^  and  among  his  other  works  are,  The 
Book  of  British  Poets,  Ancient  and  Modem,  and  The 
Martyrs,  Heroes,  and  Bards  of  the  Scot<^  Covenant, 
He  also  published,  The  Grand  Discovery: — History  of 
a  Man: — Christianity  and  our  Era: — A  Discourse  on 
Hades:— nnd  Five  Discourses  on  the  Abuse  of  Talent, 
He  finally  edited  a  splendid  library  edition  of  the  PopU' 
lar  Poets  of  Britain,  with  notes.     ( W.  P.  S.) 

Gill,  Alexander,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  bora  in  London  in  1597,  and  was  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Oxford.  In  1635  he  became  head  master 
of  Sl  PauFs  school.  While  usher  of  St.  PauVs  he  had 
charge  of  the  education  of  John  Milton.  He  died  in 
1642.  See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Did,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet, 
of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Gill,  Henry,  D.D.,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Tiverton,  Devonshire,  in  1828. 
He  was  led  to  an  early  decision  for  Christ;  entered 
Hackney  College  in  1844,  and  at  the  dose  of  his  currio* 
ulnm,  in  1848,  became  pastor  at  Haverhill,  Suffolk.  In 
1864  he  accepted  an  mvitation  from  the  committee  of 
the  Bible  Society  to  visit  its  auxiliaries  in  North  Amer- 
ica. This  mission  occupied  him  more  than  eighteen 
months,  in  which  he  proved  himself  admirably  adapted 
for  the  work.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  London  district  secretaries,  his  chief 
duties  being  connected  with  the  Sunday-schools  of  all 
denominations  in  and  around  the  metropolis.  He  died 
at  Lewisham,  Nov.  4, 1870.  Dr.  Gill  was  industrious, 
affectionate,  acceptable,  and  successful  in  all  his  labors 
In  addition  to  a  few  tracts  and  pamphlets,  he  published, 
Early  at  the  Temple,  and  The  True  and  Beautiful  See 
(Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1871,  p.  811. 

GHllane,  Joiik,  was  consecrated  a  bishop  in  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland  in  1727,  and  bishop  of 
Dunblane  in  1781.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  A  uthors,  a.  v. 

GMllea  de  Royb  (Lat.  uEgidius  de  Roya  or  Raid), 
a  French  chronicler  and  theologian,  was  bom  at  Roye, 
Picardy.  While  very  young  he  entered  the  ranks  of 
the  Cistercians,  and  was  sent  to  Paris  to  complete  his 
studies.  He  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology, 
and  taught  for  nineteen  years  in  various  colleges  of  the 
order  of  St.  Bernard.  He  was  then  appointed  abbot  of 
Royanmont,  Picardy.  At  the  age  of  sixty  he  resigned 
these  functions,  and  retired  to  the  convent  of  the  Dunes, 
Belgium,  where  he  remained  eighteen  years,  devoting 
his  time  to  meditation  and  study.  He  died  at  the  ab- 
bey of  Sparmaille,  near  Bruges,  in  1478.  He  wrote. 
Opus  Vastum  Chronodromi  seu  Chronsd,  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  history  of  John  Brandon,  a  monk  of  Dunes, 
remaining  in  manuscript.  Gilles  de  Roye  carried  it 
down  to  1468,  and  it  was  continued  by  Adrian  of  Budt, 
of  the  same  convent,  down  to  1479.  Andrew  Schot 
discovered  it  about  twenty  years  later,  and  it  was  pub- 
lished by  Sweert  (Frankfort,  1620).  He  also  left  some 
commentaries  upon  the  Master  of  Sentences,  See  Hoe- 
fer,  A'our.  Bioy,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Gilles,  Jean,  a  French  prelate,  was  bora  in  Nor- 
mandy. He  studied  theology  and  law  at  Paris,  and 
became  chanter  of  the  metropolitan  church  there.  Al- 
most alone  among  the  high  clergy  of  France,  Gilles 
refused  to  acknowledge  Clement  YII  (Robert  of  Gene- 
va). He  abandoned  his  benefice,  and  retired  to  Italy 
to  Urban  VI,  who  made  him  provost  of  Liege  and  au- 
ditor of  the  Rota.  He  was  afterwards  sent  by  the  sa- 
cred college  as  nuncio  to  Rheims,  to  Treves,  and  to  Co- 


OILLESPIE 


456 


GINNUNGA-GAP 


logne.  In  1405  Innocent  VII  made  him  cardinal,  with 
the  title  of  St.  Coeroo  and  St.  Damian.  He  assisted  at 
the  conclarei  Nov.  80, 1406,  which  elected  Gregory  XII, 
hut  abandoned  that  pontiff  when  he  discovered  that  the 
latter  held  his  own  interests  as  paramount  to  those  of 
the  Church,  and  that  he  rejected  the  means  proposed 
for  the  termination  of  the  schism  (1408, 1409).  Gilles 
returned  to  France,  where  he  died  about  1418.  He  left 
some  fragmentary  writings.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GMraUf  a.  v. 

Qillespie,  Thomas,  father  of  the  Belief  Church  in 
Scotland,  was  bom  at  Clearbum,  near  Edinburgh,  in 
1708.  He  received  a  careful  religious  training,  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh,  Perth,  and  Northampton,  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1740,  and  ordained  in  England  in 
January,  1741.  In  August  following  he  settled  as  pastor 
of  Camock,  where  he  continued  with  unwearied  dili- 
gence and  much  success  till  1752,  when  he  was  deposed 
from  the  Church  of  Scotland.  He,  however,  continued 
actively  engaged  in  preaching,  first,  in  the  churchyard 
of  Camock,  b^ide  the  church  which  had  so  often  echoed 
to  his  voice;  but  he  was  soon  obliged  to  leave  this  spot 
and  betake  himself  to  another,  from  which  he  was  speed- 
ily driven,  and  at  last  was  compelled  to  take  his  posi- 
tion on  the  public  highway,  where,  during  the  whole 
summer  and  autumn,  he  proclaimed  the  Gospel  to  im- 
mense multitudes  of  people.  In  the  following  Septem- 
ber he  removed  to  Dunfermline,  where,  in  1768,  the 
Relief  Church  was  founded.  He  continued  with  un- 
abated zeal  till  his  last  sickness,  which  soon  closed  his 
life,  Jan.  19, 1774.  Mr.  Gillespie  was  a  man  of  troly 
apostolic  excellence.  Conscience  was  the  power  that 
bore  sway  in  his  souL  His  intellectual  abilities  were 
excellent,  but  his  goodness  was  his  greatness.  See 
UmUd  Prabyterian  Fathen,  p.  217;  FoMti  EecUt,  Sco- 
ftcoiuv,  ii,  680. 

Qillet,  Eliphalet,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  Nov.  19, 1768.  After 
graduating  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1791,  he  taught 
school  in  Wethersfleld.  Under  the  direction  of  Rev. 
Dr.  Spring,  he  studied  theology  at  Newbtir>*port.  In 
August,  1795,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
HaUowell,  Me.  At  his  own  request  he  was  dismissed 
from  this  charge  in  May,  1827.  He  died  there,  Oct.  19, 
1848.  Dr.  GiUet  was  the  pioneer  of  Congregationalism 
in  that  section  of  the  state.  When  the  Maine  Mission- 
iiry  Society  was  organized  in  1807,  he  was  chosen  its 
secretary,  which  office  he  filled  until  the  close  of  his 
life.  The  cause  of  home  missions  had  in  him  an  ear^ 
nest  friend.  His  mind  was  of  a  superior  order,  and  was 
highly  cultivated.  Addicted  to  metaphysical  discoa- 
siona,  he  was  a  ready,  logical,  and  keen  debater.  See 
Sprague,  Annait  o/the  A  mer.  Pulpit ,  11,  877. 

GiUet,  Lotiis  Joaohim,  canon  and  librarian  at 
the  abbey  of  St.  Genevieve,  in  Paris,  was  bom  July  28, 
1680.  In  1717  he  was  pastor  at  Mahon,  in  the  Malo 
bishopric,  but  resigned  'his  position  in  1740.  He  died 
Aug.  28, 1768,  leaving  NouveUe  Traduction  de  VHittorien 
JoHphe  (published  after  his  death,  4  vols.,  1766).  See 
Jocher,  AUpemeinet  Gdehrten ^ Lexikon,  a.  v.;  Winer, 
Uandbuck  der  iheoL  LiL  i,  167.     (E  P.) 

Qillett,  Ezra  IIall,D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  July  6, 1823.  He  grad- 
uated from  Yale  College  in  1841,  and  from  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminar)',  N.  Y.,  in  1844.  He  remained  a  resi- 
dent licentiate  until  1845,  when  he  was  onlained  pastor 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Harlem.  He  continued 
in  this  charge,  an  efficient  and  successful  pastor,  until 
1870,  when  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  professor  in 
the  New  York  University,  and  occupied  that  position  un- 
til his  death,  Sept.  2, 1876.  Dr.  Gillett  wrote,  besides 
frequent  articles  for  the  periodical  press,  a  L\fe  of  Hun 
(1861)  i—Hitlory  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  (1864)  :— 
Moral  Syttem  (1876).     (W.  P.  S.) 

Qilletta,  Abram  Dunn,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minis- 
ter,  was  bom  at  Cambridge,  Washington  Co.,  N.  Y., 


Sept.  8, 1807.  He  studied  in  the  preparatory  department 
of  Hamilton  Institution,  graduated  from  Union  College, 
was  ordained  in  Schenectady,  and  in  May,  1881,  became 
pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  that  place,  where  he 
remained  four  yeara,  then  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and 
became  pastor  of  the  Sansom  Street  Church.  In  1839, 
the  Eleventh  Street  Church  (Philadelphia)  having  been 
formed  under  his  leadership,  he  became  its  pastor,  hold- 
ing that  office  until  1852,  when  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Calvary  Church,  as  it  is  now  called,  in  New  York  cit}-. 
In  1864  he  removed  to  Washington,  D.  C,  and  was  pas- 
tor of  the  First  Church  in  that  city  five  years.  He 
then  went  to  England,  where  he  delivered  a  aeries  of 
lectures  to  the  students  of  Mr.  Spurgeon^s  college,  and, 
for  a  time,  was  the  stated  supply  of  a  Church  near 
London.  For  two  years  after  liis  return  (1872-74),  he 
was  corresponding  secretary  of  the  American  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society.  From  1874  to  1879  he  was  pastor 
at  Sing  Sing,  N.  Y.,  which  was  his  last  regular  pastor- 
ate. He  died  at  his  summer  home.  Bluff  Head,  on  the 
shore  of  lake  George,  Aug.  24, 1882.  Dr.  Gillette  was 
the  author  of  several  memorial  volumes,  and  frequently 
contributed  to  various  jduraals.  See  The  WatchmoHf 
Aug.  81, 1882.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Oillett«,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  at  Granby,  Conn.,  in  1818.  He 
graduated  from  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  in  1888 ;  soon 
after  became  one  of  the  professors  in  the  Viiginia  High 
School,  near  Alexandria;  and  afterwarda  a  student  in 
the  theological  seminary  in  that  city.  He  was  ordained 
in  1842,  and  in  October  of  that  year  was  sent  out  as  a 
missionary  to  Texas;  established  himself  at  Houston, 
and  successfully  labored  there  and  in  the  regions  adja- 
cent until  the  close  of  1851.  During  the  next  fire 
years  he  had  charge  of  the  diocesan  school  and  of  St. 
Paul's  College.  In  1866  he  accepted  the  rectorship  of 
SL  David's  Church,  Austin,  from  which  he  removed  to 
St.  Paul's  Church,  Steubenville,  O.  He  died  in  18G9l 
See  Amer.  Quar.  Church  Rev.  Jan.  1870,  p.  684. 

Oillot,  Jagques,  canon  of  St.  Chapelle,  at  Paiia, 
who  died  in  January,  1619,  originally  dean  of  the  Chnrch 
at  Langres,  is  the  author  of  Inttructim*  et  Mimve$  de§ 
JRoii  tret  ChrMent  de  France  (Paris,  1607 ;  new  and  en- 
larged edition  by  P.  Dopuy,  1664).  See  Jocher,  AU- 
gemeines  Gelehrten'lAanhm,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  ffandbuck  der 
Iheol  Lit,  ii,  668;  Hoefer,  A*oiir.  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  t. 
(B.P.) 

GUoh.  Lieut.  Conder  thinks  {Memoirt  to  the  Ord- 
nance Survey,  iii,8l8)  that  this  may  be  represented  bj 
the  ruined  site  JSta,  which  the  Map  lays  down  at  three 
and  a  quarter  miles  north-west  of  Hebron ;  but  he  ad- 
mits that  we  should  not  expect  a  location  so  far  nortK 

Qimle,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  heaven^  or  the  moat 
charming  of  all  regions  of  the  spirit  world.  As  the 
ancient  Scandinavians  considered  warlike  plays  and 
drinking  the  greatest  of  all  joys,  so  also  th'is  imperish- 
able heaven  is  furnished  with  weapons  and  goMen 
drinking-horns.  It  is  the  eternal  dwelling -place  of 
Allfadur,  the  seat  of  aU  the  good  and  pions,  who  there 
partake  of  undisturbed  blessedness.  At  the  destruction 
of  the  world,  Walhalla,  the  ordinary  seat  of  the  deities, 
Asgard,  and  all  that  belongs  to  it,  will  be  destroyed : 
even  the  stiU  higher  heaven,  Aundlang,  and  the  next 
highest  seat  of  the  light^spirits,  Yidblain,  will  perish ; 
but  Gimle,  extending  high  above  all  these,  will  not  even 
be  touched  by  the  frightful  Ragnarokr  (destroyer),  but 
will  stand  with  the  eternal  god,  to  receive  the  valiant 
warriors  and  the  slain  asas. 

Oiimoiisa-gap,  the  gulf  of  delusion,  a  vast,  void 
abj'ss,  which  the  ancient  Scandinavians  believed  to  be 
the  primeval  state  of  the  material  creation.  Into  this 
capacious  gulf,  light  as  imponderable  ether,  flowed  from 
the  south  the  envenomed  streams  of  Elirvagar  (q.  v.), 
and  the  farther  they  retired  from  their  source  the  more 
the  temperature  became  reduced,  and  at  last  the  fluid 
mass  congealed  in  Ginnunga-gap, 


GINZEL 


457 


GIRARD  LA  PUCELLE 


GixueJ,  Joseph  AuousTDf,  a  Roman  CathoUo  the- 
ologiui  of  Austria,  was  bora  in  1804  at  Keichenberg, 
studied  at  Vienna,  was  in  18S4  professor  of  ethics,  in 
1843  professor  of  Church  history  and  canon  law  at  the 
clerical  seminary  in  Leitmeritz,  Bohemia,  and  died  June 
1,  1876.  He  wrote,  Legatio  Apottolica  Petri  Aloysii 
(Warzbnrg,  1840):  — CrMcAicAte  der  Kirche  (Vienna, 
1846-47,  2  vols.) : — Die  canonische  Lehnctin  der  Gtut- 
lichen  (Ratisbon,  1852):  —  Ilandbuch  des  neuesten  in 
OetterreicA  gdtenden  Kirdkenrechtei  (Vienna,  1857,  2 
vols.) :— G^e«c/<icA/e  der  Slawenapottel  Cjfrill  (Leitme- 
ritz, WHl):Sitchof  Ifurditlek  (Prague,  1878):— iTir- 
cken-historiscke  Sckriften  (Vienna,  1872,  2  vols.).  See 
Zuchold,  Bibl,  Tkeol  i,  440  sq.;  Literarischer  I/and- 
witer  jur  das  Katholische  Deutichland,  187G,  col.  288. 
(RP.) 

Oiocondo,  GiovAKNi.an  eminent  Italian  architect 
and  engineer,  was  bom  at  Verona  in  1485,  went  to  Rome 
when  quite  young,  and  studied  with  great  attention 
the  models  of  antiquity.  After  the  death  of  Bramante, 
at  Rome,  he  was  declared  architect  of  St,  Peter's.  By 
this  work,  and  many  others,  he  gained  great  fame.  He 
died  at  a  very  advanced  age.  See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog, 
GhUrale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rt$,  s.  v. 

Gioll,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  was  a  river 
which  separated  the  land  of  shades  from  earth.  It  was 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  gold. 

Giona,  Giovakmi  Battista.    See  BATnarA. 

Giordano^  Luca  (called  Fa  Pretto),  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  was  born  at  Naples  in  1682,  and  was 
instructed  in  the  school  of  Giuseppe  Ribera.  He  spent 
some  time  at  Rome,  where  he  improved  rapidly.  There 
is  a  picture  by  him  in  the  palace  at  BCadrid,  represent- 
ing The  Nativity^  which,  from  its  excellence,  is  often 
taken  for  a  production  of  RaphaeL  In  1692  he  waa 
appointed  painter  to  the  king  of  Spain.  He  executed 
the  sacristv  of  the  cathedral  at  Toledo;  the  vault  of 
the  royal  chapel  at  Madrid.  In  1702  he  went  to  Naples, 
where  he  had  so  many  commissions  that  bo  could 
scarcely  Tulfill  them.  He  painted  an  altar-piece  in  the 
Church  o  f  the  Ascension,  at  Naples,  which  is  considered 
one  of  his  best  works.  Ftobably  no  artist  ever  produced 
as  many  pictures  as  he  did.  He  died  at  NapleSi  Jan.  12, 
1705.  The  following  are  some  of  his  excellent  produc- 
tions :  Elijah  calling  Fire  from  Heaven  ;  Tie  Virgin  and 
Infant  Jesus ;  St,  Joseph  and  St.  John  ;  Afagdal^  Pen- 
itent;  The  Adulteress  before  Christ;  Christ  Disputing 
with  the  Doctors;  St,  Anne  Received  into  Heaven  bg  the 
Virgin.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v  ;  Spoon- 
er, Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Oiorgi,  A:rro2cio  Auoustimo,  an  Italian  phik>lo- 
gist,  was  born  in  1711  at  Santo  Mauro,  near  Rimini. 
He  entered  the  order  of  St.  Augustine  in  1727,  and  be- 
came procurator-general  of  his  order,  which  position  he 
occupied  for  eighteen  years.  He  destroyed  the  old  scho- 
lastic routines  which  controlled  the  schools  directed  by 
the  Augnstinians.  His  zeal  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
pure  faith  led  him  to  take  part  in  varioua  theological 
discusaiona,  and  near  the  dose  of  his  life  he  sustained 
a  lively  controversy  against  P.  Paulin,  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, oonoeraing  the  religion  of  the  Brahmins.  He 
taught  theology  in  various  places,  especially  at  the 
grand  college  of  Rome,  whither  he  waa  called  by  pope 
Benedict  XIV.  This  pontiff  charged  him  with  making 
the  apology  for  the  History  of  Ptiagiomsm  of  cardi- 
nal Noris.  Being  satisfied  with  the  manner  in  which 
this  waa  executed,  he  confided  to  the  author  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Angelican  library,  and  admitted  him  to  the 
number  of  learned  men  whom  he  consulted  upon  eccle- 
siastical affairs.  Giorgi  had  studied  eleven  languages, 
among  which  we  may  mention  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chal* 
dee,  Samaritan,  and  Syriac.  But  his  erudition  was  more 
varied  than  profound.  He  died  at  Rome,  May  4, 1797. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GhhaU,  s.  v. 

GKorgione.    See  BAikB.vR«Lu. 


Giotto,  Anoioixnro (called  Ambrogi&tto  and  Giotto 
di  Bondone'),  a  famous  ancient  Italian  painter  and  archi- 
tect, was  bora  at  Vespignano,  near  Florence,  in  1276. 
One  of  his  earliest  works  is  a  picture  of  The  Anntrndo' 
tion,  which  is  considered  very  beautiful.  He  was  high- 
ly honored,  and  his  works  were  in  great  demand.  The 
noble  families  of  Verona,  Milan,  Ravenna,  Urbino,  and 
Bologna  were  eager  to  possess  his  works.  In  1316  he 
was  employed  at  Padua  to  paint  the  chapel  of  the  Nun- 
zlata  all'  Arena.  In  1325  he  was  invited  to  Naples  by 
king  Robert,  to  paint  the  Church  of  Santa  Chiara, 
which  he  decorated  with  subjects  from  the  New  Test, 
and  the  Afgsteries  of  the  Apocalgpse,  He  was  also  dis- 
tinguished in  the  art  of  mosaic,  and  executed  the  fa- 
mous Death  of  the  Virgin,  at  Florence.  As  an  architect 
he  erected  the  bell-tower  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore.  He 
4ied  at  Florence,  Jan.  8, 1836.  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog, 
Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts, 
s.  v. 

Giovanni  (Battista)  di  Tolrdo,  an  eminent 
Spanish  sculptor  and  architect,  flourished  about  1550. 
He  visited  Rome  for  improvement,  and  acquired  great 
reputation.  He  was  invited  to  Naples  by  the  viceroy, 
don  Pietro  di  Toledo,  who  appointed  him  state  archi- 
tect. He  erected  the  Church  of  San  Giacomo  degli 
Spagnuoli.  This  work  gained  for  him  such  a  reputa- 
tion that  Philip  II  appointed  him  architect  of  all  the 
royal  works  of  Spain.  He  removed  to  Spain  in  1569, 
and  began  the  erection  of  the  Escurial  three  years  later. 
He  continued  to  superintend  this  work  until  his  death 
in  1567.     See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Giovanni  di  Mattko  (or  Matteo  di  Gioramd),  an 
eminent  Sienese  painter,  flourished  from  1450  to  1491. 
He  painted  first  in  bis  native  city  in  fresco.  His  mas- 
terpiece was  the  Murder  of  the  Innocents,  a  subject 
which  he  repeated  both  at  Siena  and  at  Naples.  Some 
of  his  paintings  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  collections 
of  noble  houses  at  Siena.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  A  rts,  s,  v. 

Giovanni  di  Paolo,  a  reputable  painter  of  Siena, 
flouriphed  about  1457.  There  arc  some  of  his  works  in 
the  churches  at  Siena.  His  Descent  fi-om  the  Cross,  in 
the  Osservanza,  painted  in  1461,  is  considered  good. 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Giovanni  da  Pisa,  an  eminent  Italian  sculptor 
and  architect,  the  son  of  Niccolo  da  Pisa,  flourished 
during  the  early  part  of  the  14th  ceutury.  He  erected 
the  public  cemetery  at  Hsa,  at  Naples  the  facade  of 
the  cathedral,  and  at  Siena  the  tribune  of  the  cathedrd. 
He  executed  many  works  at  Arezzo,  Or\'ieto,  Peragia, 
Pistoja,  and  elsewhere.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Girao,  FuAN^oia  {Bareau  de),  a  French  prelate^ 
was  born  at  Angouleroe  in  1782.  Destined  from  his  in- 
fancy for  the  ecclesiastical  calling,  he  was  appointed 
successively  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  of  Angouleme, 
dean  of  the  cathedral,  and  sent  by  the  ecclesiastical 
province  of  Tours  to  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  in  1765. 
His  uprightness  and  conciliatory  spirit  led  to  his  being 
called  soon  after,  in  1766,  to  the  bishopric  of  St.  Brieuc^ 
and  three  years  later  to  that  of  Rennes,  where  he  re- 
mained until  the  Revolution.  Being  then  forced  to 
go  into  exile,  he  attached  himself  successively  to  prince 
de  Metteraich,  and  Stanislas  Poniatowski,  last  king  of 
Poland.  Returatng  to  France,  Girac,  who  counted 
thirty-five  years  in  the  episcopacy,  sent  in  his  resigna- 
tion, in  view  of  his  long  labors  and  feeble  health,  and 
accepted  a  canonship  in  the  chapter  of  St.  Denis.  He 
died  Nov.  29, 1820.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale^ 
s.  V. 

Gixard  la  Paoelle  (Lat.  Giraldus  Puella),  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  law  at  Paris  in  the  12th  century, 
and  bishop  of  Coventry*.  He  took  a  lively  part  in  the 
contests  which  Sr.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  sustained 
against  the  king  of  England,  and  after  a  life  full  of  agi- 
tation, having  for  a  long  time  resided  at  Cologne  be 


6IRARD 


458 


GIRDLE 


went  to  England,  was  appointed  bishop,  and  died  toon 
after,  in  1184.  Many  of  his  contemporaries  bestow  great 
praise  apon  his  Icnowledge  of  theology,  philosophy,  and 
jarispnxdenoe ;  but  none  of  his  works  remain.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

GMrard,  FranQola,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  was  bom 
about  1735  at  La  Guillotiere  (at  that  time  dependent 
upon  Dauphiny,  and  still  one  of  the  suburbs  6f  Lyons). 
He  established  himself  in  Paris,  where  he  was  appoint- 
ed, in  1781,  rector  of  the  parish  of  St.  Landry.  At  the 
commepcement  of  the  revolution  he  showed  great  en- 
thusiasm for  the  new  ideas,  and  was  one  of  the  first  rec- 
tors of  Paris  to  submit  to  the  civil  constitution  of  the 
clergy.  These  patriotic  sentiments  gave  him  a  kind 
of  popularity,  which,  after  the  suppression  of  his  church, 
in  1791,  caused  his  election  to  one  of  the  episcopal  vic- 
arages of  bishop  GobeL  Two  years  later  the  conven- 
tion appointed  him  to  assist  Marie  Antoinette  in  her 
last  moments,  and  to  conduct  her  to  the  scaffold.  Ap- 
pointed canon  of  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  at  Paris, 
after  the  restoration  of  Catholic  worship,  at  his  own  ex- 
pense be  repaired  the  cliapel  and  gave  an  annuity  for 
its  preservation.  He  died  at  Paris,  Nov.  7, 1811.  An 
anonymous  treatise,  entitled  Insirudion  nir  la  ContH- 
tutum  Civile  du  Clergk^  etc.,  published  at  Paris  in  1791, 
is  cited  by  Barbier  in  his  Did, da  Anomfmu^  No. 8721, 
and  given  to  an  author  named  Gerard.  See  Hoefer, 
JVbup.  Biog,  GMlraUy  s.  v. 

Qirard  (de  ViUe^Thierry^Jeaninn  ascetical  writer 
of  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1709,  is  the  author  of,  Le 
VMtahU  PinUent:—U  ChenuH  du  Ciel:—La  Vie  det 
Vierges .'—Dei  Gent  Mariit:—Det  Veuves:— De*  Be- 
Hffieux  :-^Des  BeUffieuses : — Des  Bicket : —Det  Pauvrea : 
— Des  Saints: — Des  Clercs:—Le  Ckritien  Stranger  sur 
la  Terre:—TraiU  de  la  Flat(erie:—Trait4  de  la  Midi- 
sance: — Vie  de  Jhus^  Christ  dans  PEucharistie : — Le 
ChriHen  dans  la  Tribttlation : — La  Vie  de  S.  Jean  de 
Dieu,  See  J&cher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrtet^Lezikon,  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

GUrard,  Stephen,  an  American  philanthropisti 
was  bom  at  Bordeaux,  France,  May  21, 1750.  He  be- 
gan life  as  a  sailor  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  ten  3*ear8 
later  became  a  master  and  captain.  Ho  settled  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  May,  1777,  and  began  his  emi- 
nently successful  mercantile  career.  During  the  prev- 
alence of  the  yellow  fever  in  Philadelphia  in  1798, 
1797-98,  raging  with  unwonted  violence,  Mr.  Girard  de- 
voted himself  personally,  fearless  of  all  risks,  to  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  the  burial  of  the  dead,  not  only  in 
the  hospital,  of  which  he  became  manager,  but  through- 
out the  city,  supplying  the  sufferers 'with  money  and 
provisions.  Two  hundred  children,  whose  parents  died 
of  the  fever,  were  in  a  great  measure  intmstcd  to  his 
care.  In  1812  he  purchased  the  building  and  a  large 
part  of  the  stock  of  the  old  United  States  bank,  and 
commenced  business  as  a  private  banker,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $1,200,000,  which  was  afterwards  increased  to 
$4,000,000.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  rendered  val- 
uable services  to  the  government  by  placing  at  its  dis- 
posal the  resources  of  his  bank,  and  subscribing  with 
unexampled  liberality  to  its  loans.  He  died  Dec.  26, 
1881.  He  contributed  liberally  to  all  public  improve- 
ments, and  erected  many  handsome  buildings  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  profuse  in  his  public 
charities,  but  exacting  to  the  last  fraction  due  him. 
Notwithstanding  his  extraordinary  attentions  to  the 
sick,  he  never  had  a  friend.  He  was  a  freethinker  in 
religion,  and  an  ardent  admirer  of  Voltaire  and  Kous- 
sean.  Although  he  was  uneducated,  his  success  in  busi- 
ness had  been  such  that  his  property  at  the  time  of  his 
death  amounted  to  about  $9,000,000.  Of  this  vast  es- 
tate he  bequeathed  only  $140,000  to  his  relatives.  The 
remainder  was  devoted  to  various  public  charities,  in- 
dnding  hospitals,  asylums,  schools,  etc.;  $500,000  to 
the  city  of  Philadelphia;  $800,000  to  the  state  of 
Pennsylvania;  and  his  principal  bequest,  which  was 


$2,000,000,  besides  certain  other  property,  together 
with  a  plot  of  ground  in  Philadelphia,  for  the  erection 
and  support  of  a  college  for  orphans.  The  most  mi- 
nute directions  were  given  in  regard  to  the  buildings 
to  be  erected,  and  the  admission  and  management  of 
the  inmates.  He  required  that  the  pupils  be  instructed 
in  the  purest  principles  of  morality,  but  they  must  be 
left  free  to  adopt  such  religious  tenets  as  their  matured 
reason  may  lead  them  to  prefer.  No  ecclesiastic,  min- 
ister, or  missionary  of  any  sect  whatever  is  allowed  to 
bold  any  connection  with  the  college,  or  even  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  premises  as  a  visitor.  The  officers  and 
instructors  of  the  institution  are  eighteen  in  number, 
and  the  inmates  about  five  hundred. 

Glrardet,  Jeah,  a  reputable  French  painter,  was 
bom  at  Luneville,  Dec.  18, 1709,  instructed  in  the  school 
of  Claude  Charles,  and  after  spending  some  time  there 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  remained  eight  years  studying 
the  works  of  the  great  masters.  There  are  many  of  his 
works  at  Mctz,  Verdun,  and  other  cities  of  Lorraine. 
His  Descent  from  the  Cross,  in  one  of  the  churches  at 
Nancy,  is  considered  his  best  production.  He  died  at 
Nancy,  Sept.  2,  1778.  See  Hoefer,  ^buv.  Biog.  GinS- 
rale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Bist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  a.  v. 

Oirardon,  FnAiigoia,  an  eminent  French  sculptor, 
was  bom  at  Troves  (Champagne),  March  16, 1628,  stud- 
ied with  care  the  statues  in  the  churches  of  Troyea,  and 
produced  a  picture  of  The  Virgistf  which  was  much  ad- 
mired. In  1657  he  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  at 
Paris;  in  1659  was  appointed  professor;  became  direc- 
tor in  1674,  and  chancellor  in  1695.  There  are  many 
of  his  productions  in  France.  The  mausoleum  of  car- 
dinal Richelieu,  in  the  Church  of  the  Sorbonne,  w«i 
considered  his  masterpiece.  He  died  in  1715.  See 
Hoefer,  Now,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Bioff,  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Oiraud,  Pherrb,  a  French  cardinal,  was  bora  at 
Montfemnd,  Aug.  11, 1791.  Belonging  to  an  ancient 
family,  he  was  designed  for  the  magistracy,  but  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  went  to  the  seminary  of  Clermont  to 
study  philosophy,  and  while  there  developed  a  taste 
for  belles-lettres  and  ancient  classics.  In  October, 
1812,  he  entered  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpioe,  where  he 
studied  theology  and  the  sacred  Scriptures.  Thrae 
yean  later  he  was  ordained  priest.  In  1818  he  was 
sent  as  a  missionary  to  Auvergne.  He  was  rector  of 
the  cathedral  of  Clermont  in  1825,  when  he  was  in- 
vited to  preach  during  Lent  at  the  Tuileries.  A  royal 
ordinance  appointed  him  to  the  see  of  Rodez,  Jan.'  9^ 
1830.  He  was  one  of  the  signera  of  a  criticism  con- 
cerning certain  propositions  taken  from  the  Avemr,  and 
sent  to  the  court  of  Rome  by  the  archbishop  of  Too* 
louse.  He  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Cambray,  Dec 
4,  1841.  He  was  made  cardinal,  June  11,  1847,  and 
Jan.  4, 1849,  went  to  Gaeta,  where  Pius  IX  was  a  refu- 
gee. It  was  supposed  with  some  reason  that  he  was 
commissioned  by  MM.  de  Falloux  apd  Drouyn  de  Lhuys 
to  induce  the  pope  to  accept  the  hospitality  of  France. 
He  died  at  Cambray,  April  17,  1850.  The  works  of 
Giraud  have  been  collected  and  published  several  timesi 
The  third  edition  appeared  in  1862.  See  Hoefer,  A'oarr. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Qirdle,  Egcmcsiastical  (Cmi^,  baUeus,  or  cimgw 
/vm),  a  cord  of  linen,  silk,  wonted,  or  other  material, 
with  ussels  at  the  extremities,  by  which  the  alb  is 
bound  round  the  waint  of  him  who  assumes  it.  It  is 
fastened  on  the  left  side.  When  putting  it  on,  the  cleric 
says  the  following  prayer,  or  one  equivalent  to  it  in 
terms:  '*Pnecinge  me,  Domine,  sons  justitiie,  et  con- 
stringe  in  me  dilectionem  Dei  et  proximi.**  This  cinct- 
ure is  as  old  as  the  days  of  St  Gregory  the  Great ;  for- 
merly ample  in  size,  and  broad,  and  often  adorned  with 
gold  and  gems.  In  the  6th  century  it  was  first  reduced 
to  its  present  narrow  dimensions.  It  represented  the 
cord  with  which  our  Lord  was  bound ;  and  alludes  to 
Luke  xii,85;  Eph.vi,4;  1  Pet  i,  18. 


GIRDLE  OF  ST.  AUSTIN 


459 


GIUSTINIANI 


QMI0  of  0t  AllStlZ^  FKATnuCITT  or  THK^  A  d«- 

votlooal  Mdety  of  the  Boman  Church.  The  girdle 
wUeb  they  weir  is  made  of  leather,  and  they  allege 
that  it  wM  worn  by  the  Virgin  Mary,  John  the  Baptiat, 
and  maoy  patriarcha  and  prophets. 

Girdle  of  St.  Francis.    See  Francis,  St.,  Fra- 

TKRHITT  OF  THE  GxRDLB  OF. 

Girdlestona,  Charlbs,  a  minister  of  the  Chnrch 
of  England,  was  bom  March  6, 1797,  and  graduated  at 
Oxford  in  1818.  He  became  successively  fellow  of 
BsUiol  College,  nnivenity  examiner,  vicar  of  Sedgeley 
(SUfTordBhire)  in  1826,  rector  of  Alderley  (Cheshire)  in 
1837,  of  Kingswinford  (Staffordshire)  in  1847,  and  died 
April  28, 1881 ,  at  Weston-super-Mare.  He  was  a  volu- 
minous writer  on  theological  subjects,  from  the  Low- 
Church  point  of  view,  and  published,  among  other  r^ 
lifnous  works,  A  Family  Commentary  oh  (he  Bible 
( 1882-42) :—7Vbe  Book  of  Pealme^  according  to  the 
two  authorized  translations,  in  parallel  columns,  with 
marginal  notes  (l8»S)z^ChriMteiidom  Sketched  from 
JJiitory  M  the  Light  ofHofy  Seripturu  (1870).     (a  P.) 

Qlrodet-Trloaon,  Ax:cb  Louis,  an  eminent 
French  painter,  was  bom  at  Montaigis,  Feb.  5,  1767, 
studied  under  David,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  gained 
the  prize  of  the  Academy  for  his  picture  of  Joeeph** 
Meeting  with  hie  Brethren.  He  gained  great  eminence 
in  France  by  his  picture  of  The  Detvge.  Many  of  his 
works  are  in  the  private  collections  of  France.  He 
died  St  Paris,  Dec  9,  1824.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
GMraUy  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hitt,  of  the  Fine  A  rt$,  s.  r. 

Giron  (Garciaa  de  iMgaed^  Don  Pedro,  a  Spanish 
prelate  and  scholar,  was  bom  at  Talaverm  in  1542.  He 
was  the  son  of  Pedro  Giron,  member  of  the  Council  of 
Castile.  He  pursued  his  philosophical  and  theoloji^ical 
studies  at  Alcala.  Being  appointed  canon  of  Toledo, 
be  became  archdeacon  of  Guadalaxara  on  the  with- 
drawal of  his  uncle,  Lopez  de  CamajeL  In  1585  Philip 
11  called  him  to  his  court  as  almoner  and  master  of  the 
chapel,  and  a  little  later  intruated  to  him  the  teaching 
of  his  little  son,  don  Philip.  In  1596  cardinal  Albert 
of  Austria  appointed  him  grand-vicar  of  the  archbish- 
opric of  Toledo.  In  1598  he  obtained  the  title  of  arch- 
bishop of  the  diocese  which  he  governed.  He  died 
Felx22, 1599,  leaving  some  works^  for  which  see  Hoefer, 
Now.  Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Gisbert,  Blaise,  a  French  Jesuit,  bom  at  Cahors, 
Feb.  21, 1657,  and  died  Feb.  28, 1781,  U  the  author  of,,  U 
km  Gout  de  Vtloquenee  Chretiemte  (Lyons,  1702)  :—Ekh- 
punee  Chritieime  done  F/tUe  a  dans  la  PraHgue  (1714 ; 
with  Zenfant's  notes,  Amsterdam,  1728 ;  Germ.  transL  by 
J.  VaL  Kommmpf,  Leipsic,  1740).  See  Winer,  Hani' 
tmA  der  theoL  Lit.  ii,  61 ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeinee  Gekhtien- 
£mfaM,B.v.     (a  P.) 

Giabert,  Jean,  a  French  canonist,  was  bom  at  Ca- 
hors, Jan.  2, 1689.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  order  Oct.  2, 
1654;  for  fifteen  years  taught  rhetoric  and  philosophy 
St  Tours;  then  theology  for  eighteen  years  at  Toulouse, 
and  afterwards  became  provincial  of  Languedoc.  He 
died  Aug.  5, 1711,  leaving,  among  other  works,  In  Sun^ 
mam  Saneti  Thomm  Quwtionee  (1670):— Fera  Idea 
Tkeologia  (Toulouse,  1676 ;  revised  and  enlarged,  1689) : 
Sdentia  Beligionit  CTniverea  {Toli,'PuiB,ie8&),  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv^  Biog,  Ginerale^  a.  v. 

Gitano  (or  Spanish  Gypsy)  Tersion  of  the 

Scripturs&  Thia  version  is  intended  for  the  gypsies 
(Gypsy  being  in  Spanish  Gitano),  For  the  history  of 
these  people,  and  the  translation  of  the  gospel  of  St. 
Luke  for  them,  compare  the  article  Gypeiee,  In  conse- 
quence of  a  fresh  demand  for  the  book,  the  translator 
has  re-tranaUtcd  his  former  work,  which  waa  printed  in 
1873.  Some  oopiea  have  been  sent  out  to  Spain,  and 
■atasfiictoiy  tidings  have  been  received  conoeming  their 
Acceptance  among  the  gypsies. 

Oivatliiiaiil,  Agostino,  an  lulian  Orientalist  of 
the  prascbing  order,  waa  bora  at  Genoa  in  U70.    At 


the  ags  of  fonrtsen  yean  he  enterad  the  convent  of  the 
Dominicans  of  Santa  Marie  del  Castello,  at  Genoa.  By 
the  authority  of  the  doge  and  the  archbishop  of  Genoa, 
his  parento  sent  him  to  Valencia,  in  Aragon,  where  he 
contracted  a  serious  disease.  This  caused  him  to  again 
adopt  his  former  project,  and  he  returned  to  Pavia, 
took  the  Dominican  habit  in  1488,  and  changed  his 
Chriatian  name  from  Pantaleon  to  Agottino,  The 
stndy  of  Greek,  Arabic,  Hebrew,  and  Cbaldee  so  ab- 
sorbed  his  attention  that  he  neglected  theology  and 
philosophy,  and  indiffsrently  performed  his  duties  as 
preacher  and  confessor.  He  taught  in  several  schools 
of  his  order,  but  in  1514  resigned  his  duties  as  profess- 
or in  order  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  edi- 
ting of  a  polyglot  Bible.  Being  appointed  bishop  of 
Nebbio,  in  Corsica,  he  assisted  in  1516-17  at  the  Late- 
ran  council,  and  contested  some  articles  of  the  concordat 
with  Francis  I  and  Leo  X.  The  cardinal  having  fallen 
into  disgrace,  the  bishop  of  Nebbio  withdrew  to  Boni- 
face Ferrier,  bishop  of  Ivrea.  Francis  I,  then  mier  d 
,  the  country  of  Giustiniani,  invited  him  to  remain  in 
hb  kingdom.  The  king  increased  his  pension,  and  ap» 
pointed  him  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of 
Paris.  Giustiniani  was  the  first  who  taught  this  lan- 
guage there.  He  remained  five  years  in  France,  dur- 
ing which  time  he  made  a  voyage  to  the  Netherlands 
and  Enghmd,  where  he  met  with  Erasmus  and  Thomas 
Morus.  Recalled  to  his  diocese  by  certain  affairs,  he 
remained  there  most  of  the  time  until  bis  death,  which 
occurred  while  returning  from  Genoa  to  Corsica,  in 
1566.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  for  mention  of 
which  aee  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. 

Qioatiniaiii,  Angelo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bora 
on  Scio  in  1520.  He  joined  the  Franciscan  order,  went 
to  Italy  provided  with  valuable  manuscripts,  taught 
theology  at  Padua  and  Genoa,  and  accompanied  cardi- 
nal Ferrara  to  France.  Giustiniani  took  part  in  the 
discussion  of  Poissy,  then  was  appointed  grand  almoner 
of  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  bishop  of  Geneva.  He  as- 
sisted at  the  Conncil'of  Trent.  Pope  Pius  lY  confided 
to  him  an  important  negotiation  with  the  king  of 
France,  in  which  he  acquitted  himself  well.  In  1578 
he  was  obliged  to  resign  his  bishopric  on  account  of  a 
violent  attack  of  gouL  He  died  Feb.  22, 1596,  leaving 
Commentarii  in  Qutedam  Capita  Saneti  Johannis: — 
Sermonei,    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  r. 

Qinstiniani,  Fabiano,  an  Italian  prelate  and 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Lerma,  a  diocese  of  Genoa,  in 
1578.  His  father  changed  his  original  name  of  Taras^ 
dtetti  for  that  of  Giuetimam,  having  been  adopted  by 
a  family  of  th^t  name,  not  wishing  to  take  part  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Luigi  Fieschi.  In  1597  he  entered  the 
congregation  of  St.  Philip  of  Neri,  and  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  library  of  Santa  Maria  de  Vallioelli,  and 
he  there  formetl  a  taste  for  study.  In  1616  he  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  AJaocio,  at  which  place  he  died,  Jan. 
8, 1627.  He  wrote  Index  Umverealit  Afateriarum  Bib- 
liooarum  (Rome,  1612).  This  work  contains  many  bib- 
liographic^ errors.  He  also  wrote  other  works.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrakj  s.  v. 

GMnatlniani  (of  Chios),  Iieonardo,  an  Italian 
prelate  of  Genoese  origin,  lived  in  1453.  He  was  arch- 
bishop of  Mitylene  when  that  island  was  taken  by  the 
Turks.  He  left  a  letter  upon  the  subject  of  the  taking 
of  Constantinople,  addressed  to  pope  NichoUu  V,  and 
some  other  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Generate,  s.  v. 

Oitistlniani,  Orasio,  an  Italian  cardinal  and  the- 
ologian, was  bom  at  Genoa  near  the  close  of  the  16th 
century.  He  was  of  that  branch  of  the  Giustiniani 
family  to  which  the  isle  of  Chios  belonged.  Having 
studied  theology  at  Rome,  he  entered,  at  the  age  of 
twenty- five  years,  the  congregation  of  priests  of  St. 
Philip  of  Neri,  and  advanced  rapidly  to  the  higher  po- 
sitions of  his  order.  UriMin  VIII  appointed  him  first 
librarian  of  the  library  of  the  Vatican.    He  was  charged 


GIUSTINIANI 


460 


GI^EIO 


with  an  important  negotiation  with  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  and  acquitted  himself  so  much  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  pope  that  he  bestowed  upon  him  as 
a  reward  the  bishopric  of  Montalto,  in  16^  He  re- 
storeil  harmony  between  the  bishops  of  Montalto  and 
the  inhabitants  of  that  place.  In  1645  Innocent  X  ap- 
pointed him  bishop  of  Nocera,  and  the  year  following 
he  was  made  cardinal,  with  the  title  of  St.  Onuphrius. 
Soon  after  the  pope  chose  him  as  his  grand  peniten- 
tiary. He  became  again  first  librarian  of  the  Vatican 
library,  and  died  at  Home  in  1649.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
^    Biog,  UinkraU,  s.  t. 

GiUBtiniaui  (Dt  Monigl{a\  Paolo,  an  Italian 
prelate  and  commentator,  was  bom  at  Genoa  in  1444. 
He  was  the  son  of  Pietro  PcUcgro  Giustiniani,  ambas- 
sador to  the  duke  of  Milan.  At  the  age  of  nineteen 
3*car8  Paolo  entered  the  order  of  Minorite  preachers. 
Some  years  later  he  was  made  doctor  of  theology,  and 
elected  prior  of  the  convent  of  St,  Dominic,  at  Genoa. 
In  1484  he  was  regent  of  the  studies  of  his  order  at 
Perugia.  When,  at  the  death  of  Sixtus  IV,  the  Genoeser 
were  expelled  from  the  States  of  the  Church,  Giustini- 
ani returned  to  his  native  country  and  devoted  himself 
to  preaching.  In  148C  ho  was  elected  provincial  of 
Lombardy,  and  in  1489  Innocent  VIII  chose  him  as 
master  of  the  sacred  palace.  This  pontiff  confided  to 
him  several  important  missions,  and  in  1494  appointed 
him  inquisitor-general  of  all  the  Genoese  possessions. 
In  1498  Alexander  VI  made  him  apostolic  commissary, 
and  authorized  him,  with  the  governor  of  Rome,  to  ex- 
amine a  large  number  of  Christians  accused  of  heresy. 
In  this  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  severity  of  his 
judgments.  He  was  one  of  the  judges  who,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1498,  condemned  Pietro  d'  Aranda,  bishop  of 
Calaharra,  and  steward  of  the  pope,  to  perpetual  im- 
prisonment as  guilty  of  Judaism  and  other  errors.  He 
was  recompensed  for  his  zeal  by  the  gift  of  the  bishop- 
ric of  Scio,  and  being  sent  as  legate  to  Hungary.  He 
died  at  Bnda  in  1502,  leaving  commentaries  upon  some 
of  the  books  of  the  Bible.  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog,  Gi- 
nirale,  s.  v. 

Gladiators,  Christian  Views  dmcemmg, — Some 
pagan  moralists  expressed  more  or  less  strongly  their 
disapprobation  of  the  gladiatorial  shows,  as  being  inhu- 
man and  demoralizing;  but  they  were  too  popular  to 
be  checked  by  such  remonstrances ;  and  nothing  effec- 
tual was  done  to  stop  them  until  they  were  opposed 
and  finally  suppressed  by  the  intervention  of  Christian 
principles  and  Christian  heroism. 

The  Church  expressed  its  abhorrence  of  these  barba- 
rous games  as  soon  as  it  came  in  contact  with  them, 
not  only  by  discountenancing  attendance  at  them,  but 
by  refusing  to  admit  gladiators  to  Christian  baptism. 
Charioteers,  racers,  and  many  others  are  included  in  the 
same  condemnation;  probably  because  the  public  ex- 
hibitions in  which  they  took  a  part  were  more  or  less 
connected  with  idolatry.  For  the  same  reason  such 
persons,  if  they  had  already  been  received  into  the 
Church,  were  to  be  punished  by  excommunication. 

The  first  imperial  edict  prohibiting  the  exhibition  of 
gladiators  was  issued  by  Constantine  in  A.D.  82.5,  just 
after  the  Council  of  Nice  had  been  convened.  Forty 
vears  later,  Valentinian  forbade  that  any  Christian 
criminals  should  be  condemned  to  fight  as  gladiators; 
and  in  A.D.  367  he  included  in  a  similar  exemption 
those  who  had  been  hi  the  imperial  service  about  the 
court. 

In  the  year  404,  while  a  show  of  gladiators  was  ex- 
hibiting at  Rome  in  honor  of  the  victories  of  Stilicho, 
an  Asiatic  monk  named  Telemachus,  who  had  come  to 
Rome  for  the  purpose  of  endeavoring  to  stop  this  bar- 
barous practice,  rushed  into  the  amphitheatre,  and 
strove  to'  separate  the  combatants.  The  spectators- 
enraged  at  his  attempt  to  deprive  them  of  their  favor- 
ite amusement— stoned  him  to  death.  But  a  deep  im- 
pKflsion  was  produced.    Telemachua  was  justly  hon- 


ored 88  a  martyr,  and  the  emperor  Honorins,  taking 
advantage  of  the  feeling  which  had  been  evoked,  effec- 
tually put  a  stop  to  gladiatorial  combats,  which  were 
never  exhibited  again. — Smith,  Did,  of  Christ,  Antiq, 
8.  v. 

Oladstanea,  Geoboe,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Dundee,  and  minister  at  Sl  Andrews;  was  pre- 
ferred by  the  king  to  the  see  of  Caithness  in  1600; 
and  thence  was  translated  to  the  see  of  St.  Andrews 
in  1606,  but  was  not  consecrated  until  1610.  He  was 
called  commissioner  for  uniting  the  two  kingdoms  in 
1604.  He  died  May  2,  1616.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  41-217. 

Qlaire,  Jean  Baptistk,  a  French  Orientalist,  was 
bom  at  Bordeaux,  April  1, 1798,  and  died  in  1879.  He 
published.  Lexicon  Manuale  fJebralcum  et  Chaldaicum 
(1830;  new  ed.  1843) :— /Vtnctpe*  de  Grammaire  Hi- 
braique  et  ChaldaVque  (1832;  3d  ed  1843):  — CArvsto- 
mathie  Hibraique  et  Chaldaique  (1834, 8  vols.)  '.—Toraih 
Moschi^  U  Peniateuque  (1836-87, 2  vols.) :— /n/rodudtbs 
Bistoriqve  et  Critique  aux  Livres  Saints  (1836,  6  vols.; 
2d  cd.  1843):— /^f  Livres  Saints  Venffis  (1845,  2  vols.*; 
2d  ed.  1874,3  volo.) :— Aa  Bible  selon  la  Vvlgafe  (1863): 
— Dictionnaire  Universel  des  Scietices  KcclMastiques 
(1868, 2  vols.),  besides  contributing  to  the  Eneyciopidie 
du  XIX  Sitcle,  EncydopMie  Catholique^  and  Bioffraphie 
CathoUqtte,  See  Lichtcnbefger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences 
BeligieuseSf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Glftaener,  Justus  Martin,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  8, 1696,  at  Hildesheim.  He 
studied  at  Helmstitdt  and  Halle,  was  in  1727  preacher 
at  his  native  place,  and  took  (he  degree  of  doctor  of 
theology  in  1783.  On  account  of  controversies  with  his 
superiors  and  colleagues,  he  was  deposed  from  his  of- 
fice, and  died  at  Vienna,  Jan.  22, 1750.  He  wrote,  De 
Tniercessione  Beaiorum  Particulari: — Be  Dracone  /a- 
siffni  Begum  jEgyptiorum  ad  Exedi,  xxix-xxxii : — Sped- 
men  antuJudaicum  de  Genuino  Judaorum  Messia : — De 
Bemonstratione  Spiritus  S.Jesum  esse  Verum  Messiam: 
— Diatribe  Philologica  de  R,  Simeone  FiUo  Joehai,  A  ve^ 
tore  Libri  Sohar: — Diss,  de  TrinUate  RaUdnontm  et 
Cabbalistarum  non  Christiana  sed  Mere  Platonica,  See 
Neubauer,  Nachricht  ton  jetztldienden  Gottes^lehrten  f 
Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten^ Lexibon,  s.  v.;  Winer, 
Ifandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  422.     (a  P.) 

Qlauch,  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger^ 
many,  was  bom  at  Leipsic,  April  17, 1637.  In  1666  he 
was  superintendent  at  Bitterfeld,  in  1668  pastor  in 
Merseburg,  in  1679  archdeacon  at  Leipsic,  and  died 
July  11, 1681.  He  published,  Schediasmti  de  vac  Con- 
corydantiarum  Biblicarum  (Leipsic,  1668):  —  De  Ad- 
vfntu  Messia:— De  Corona  Chrisfi  Spinea: — De  Victu 
Jo,  BaptistcB: — De  Rege  Agrippa,  See  Wineir,  Band- 
budi  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  109;  FUrst,  BiU,  Jud.  i,  835;  Jd- 
cher,  A  Ugemeines  Gdehrten~Lexikon,  s.  r.     (B,  P.) 

Gleioh,  Johann  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  born  at  Gera,  Sept.  80, 1666.  He  stud- 
ied at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1690  deacon  at  Torgau,  In 
1696  conrt-preacher  at  Dresden,  in  1722  member  of  con- 
sistory, and  took  the  degree  as  doctor  of  theologv  in 
1724.  He  died  Aug.  1, 1784,  leaving.  Diss,  de  JJiur- 
gOs  Orientalibus  (Wittenberg,  1724) :  — />e  8,  Eneka- 
ristia  Moribundis  et  Mortuis  OHm  Data  (1690):— iln- 
nales  Ecoksiastica  (Dresden,  1780,  8  parts),  etc  See 
Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  LU,  i,  602,  632, 800 ;  FOnt, 
BibL  Jud,  i,  336 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Getehrlei^Lexikon, 
S.V.     (B.P.) 

Qleig,  Georob,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bom  ac 
Boghall,  Kincardineshire,  May  12, 1758,  and  educated  at 
King's  College,  Aberdeen.  He  took  orders  in  hia  twen- 
ty-first year,  and  was  ordained  to  the  pastoral  charge 
of  a  congregation  at  Pittenweem,  Fifeshire,  whence  he 
removed  in  1790  to  Stiriing.  He  was  twice  cboaen 
bishop  of  Dunkeld,  but  the  opposition  of  the  primale 
rendered  the  election  null.  In  1808  he  was  conaeerated 
assistant  and  suceessor  to  the  bishop  of  Brechin,  in  1810 


1^ 


GLENDONING 


491 


GOBAT 


was  preferred  to  the  sole  charge,  and  in  1816  was  elee^* 
ed  primate  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland.  He 
died  at  Stirling,  in  February,  1889.  He  was  a  frequent 
contributor  to  the  Monthly  RetieWf  the  GtiUltman*t 
Magazim^  the  Anti'Jtuiohin  Revitw^  and  the  BritUh 
Critic,  He  also  wrote  several  articles  for  the  third 
edition  of  the  EncjfHopadia  Brilamdca,  and  on  the 
,  death  of  the  editor,  Colin  Macfarquhar,  in  1798,  was 
'  engaged  to  edit  the  remaining  volumes.  He  also  pub- 
lished, Dir^etioHi  for  the  Stwiy  of  Theoloffy  (1827)  :— 
various  Sermotu,  and  other  works.  See  Walker,  fAfe 
of  Bishop  GUig  (1879) ;  Encyclop,  Brit,  9tb  ed.  s.  v. 

Qlendoning,  Matthew,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a 
canon  of  Glasgow,  and  was  afterwards  made  bishop  of 
that  see  in  1389.  He  appears  to  have  sat  there  until 
his  death  in  1408.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  246. 

Oldckner,  Hieronymus  Georg,  a  German 
phikMopher,  was  born  at  Freiberg  in  1715.  He  studied 
at  Leipaic,  was  in  1741  bachelor,  in  1742  magister,  and 
in  1754  professor  of  philosophy.  He  died  Feb.  5, 1757. 
Besides  his  contributions  to  Teller^s  Bible' Work,  and 
transhtion  of  Calmet's  Biblical  Dictionary  into  Ger- 
oian,  he  wrote,  Ds  Libertute  Dfi  Adeersus  lUcenliores 
Qao^dam  Phihsophos: — De  Wefstenianai  ipptivtiac  in 
iV.  Test  VUiis  (Leipsic,  1754).  See  Jocher,  Allgemeines 
Gddkrten-LexikuH,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  flandbueh  der  theol.  Lit, 
i,138.    (RP.) 

OI5c!lDer,  Johann,  a  Reformed  minister  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Aug.  21, 1667.  He  studied  at  Mar- 
burg, and  died  at  Itinteln,  Dec  29,  1716,  professor  of 
Greek  and  preacher  there.  He  wrote,  Disp,  in  Genes. 
1,24,25:  —  De  Gemina  Aeeentuatione  Deccdogi:  —  De 
Cognitione  Dei  Naiurali.  See  Strieder,  flessische  Ge- 
Uhitn  Geschichte;  J ochetf  Allgemeines  Gekhitn-Lexi- 
fe»,s.v.    (RP.) 

Oldrfeld,  Christian  BissfKniCT,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian, was  bom  in  1747  at  Bernau,  in  Brandenburg, 
and  died  there,  June  24, 1809,  provost  and  first  preacher. 
He  published,  Der  Katechismtu  Luthers  Erlddri  (Ber- 
lin, 1791)  i-^Predigten  vber  freU  Texte  (ibid.  1793):— 
GesprSehe  Sher  IMisehe  Erzdhlungen  und  GleichUsse 
(ibid.  1795, 1798).  See  During,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
DtutschlandSf  ai  v. ;  Winer,  Bandbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  ii, 
163,213,271.     (RP.) 

Olosaa  Ordinaiia,  the  common  exegetical  man- 
ual of  tbe  Bliddle  Ages.  It  consisted  of  short  explan- 
atory remarks,  compiled  by  Walafrid  Strabo,  following 
for  the  most  Rabanus  Maurus. 

Glover,  Livingston  M.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Phelps,  Onurio  Co.,  N.  V.,  in  1820, 
and,  after  having  received  the  necessary  training,  en- 
tered the  Western  Reserve  College,  gradiuting  in  1840. 
He  afterwards  graduated  at  Lane  Theological  Seminar)*, 
and  ^as  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Jacksonville,  IlL,  where  he  labored  with  great  success 
for  upwartls  of  thirty  years.  He  was  a  delegate  of  the 
General  Assembly  to  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  He 
died  at  Jacksonville,  July  15, 1880.  See  (N.  Y.)  06- 
«r<w,  July  20, 1880.     (W.P.S.) 

Qlovea  (xctpo^^n^,  gantus).  It  woidd  seem  that 
gloves,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  woni,  were  unknown 
to  tlie  early  Greeks  and  Romans  (Casaubon,  Animadv, 
in  A  then,  xii,  2).  That  they  were  in  use,  however, 
among  the  ancient  Persians  appears  from  Xenophon 
(Cyropted,  viii,  8, 17).  The  European  custom  of  wear- 
ing them  seems  to  have  originated  with  the  German 
nations,  as  the  Teutonic  origin  of  the  common  Latin 
word  for  them  clearly  shows:  and  although,  as  an  ec- 
clesiastical vestment,  properly  so  called,  gloves  do  not 
appear  till  the  12th  century  (the  Hrst  extant  mention 
of  them  in  that  character  being  as  late  as  A.D.  1152), 
they  had  been  used  for  centuries  as  articles  of  practical 
convenience.  Thua  we  find  them  mentioned  in  the  life 
of  St  Colambanua,  by  Jonas  Bobbiensis  (formerly  in- 
cluded among  the  works  of  Bede,  c  25).    In  this  in- 


stance, the  gtovea  are  spoken  of  as  need  ^  for  purposes 
of  labor,'*  but  sometimes  they  were  obviously  of  a  costly 
naturea,  for  in  the  will  of  Riculfus,  bishop  of  Helena 
(ob.  A.D.  915),  in  a  long  list  of  valuable  articles,  he 
mentions  **  one  pair  of  gloves  "  (Migt)o,  PatroL  cxxxii, 
468).— Smith,  DicL  of  Christ,  A  ntiq.  h.  v. 

Gloves  symbolized  the  hiding  of  iniquity  hjr  the 
merits  of  our  Saviour,  and  recalled  the  blessing  upon 
Jacob  when  he  wore  gloves  of  »ktii9.  William  of  Wyke* 
ham*s  gloves  are  preserved  at  New  College,  Oxford. 
Candidates  for  degrees  in  medicine  formerly  gave  gloves 
to  the  graduates  of  the  faculty  in  that  university,  in  re- 
turn for  their  escort  to  the  doors  of  the  convocation 
house.  Bishop  Ken  contributed  to  the  rebuilding  of 
St.  Paul's  the  cost  of  his  consecration  dinner  and  a  hun- 
dred pairs  of  gloves.  At  St,  Andrew's,  Holboro,  the 
clergy  were  given  gloves  at  Raster,  and  some  noblemen 
used  to  send  a  pair  to  any  bishop  or  dean  whom  they 
heard  preach.  In  1636  the  University  of  Oxfonl  pre- 
sented gloves  to  the  members  of  the  royal  family  and 
king  Charies  L — Walcott,  Sac,  A  rchaol.  s.  v. 

GlUck,  Ernkst,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was  bom 
in  Saxony,  Nov.  10, 1662.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg 
and  Leipsic,  and  accepted  a  call  extended  to  him  by 
the  general  superintendent,  John  Fischer,  in  1673,  to 
Livonia.  On  his  settlement  in  Livonia  he  was  grieved 
to  find  that  the  people  were  still  destitute  of  the  Script- 
ures in  their  vernacular  tongue.  He  therefore  applied 
himself  assiduously  to  the  task  of  producing  a  transla- 
tion of  the  entire  Scriptures  from  the  sacred  origuials ; 
and  with  this  object  in  view  he  repaired  to  Hamburg, 
there  to  qualify  himself  for  the  undertaking,  by  study- 
ing Hebrew  under  Edzardi,  the  celebratett  Hebraist. 
After  his  return  from  Hamburg,  in  1G80,  he  was  ap- 
pointed military-preacher  at  DUnamQnde,  where  he  also 
adopted  Catharine  Badeudiek,  afterwards  empress  of 
Russia,  as  his  daughter.  In  1683,  GltLck  was  appointed 
pastor  at  Blarienburg,  in  Livonia,  and  translated  the 
Bible  into  the  Lettish,  which  was  published  at  Riga 
in  1689,  the  New  Test,  having  been  published  in 
1685.  When  Marieuburg  was  taken  by  Peter  the 
Great  (Aug.  6, 1702),  GlQck  was  transported  with  other 
citizens  as  prisoners  to  Moscow.  Owing,  however,  to 
the  fact  that  he  had  been  the  foster-father  of  Catha- 
rine, he  was  soon  released,  and  was  appointed  inspector 
of  all  the  high-scliools  of  Moscow.  Here  he  studied 
the  Russian  language,  and  commenced  a  translation  of 
tbe  New  Test,  into  the  Russian  tongue.  He  died,  how- 
ever. May  5, 1705,  before  finishing  his  task.     (R  P.) 

GlfickBeUg,  August  Leois,  an  archasologist,  who 
died  at  Prague,  Jan.  28, 1867,  is  the  author  of  Christus- 
A  rchaologie  (Prague,  1862>  See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  Theol, 
i,  447.     (a  P.) 

Qlycas,  Michael  (Mtya^X  6  FXvicac),  a  Byzan- 
tine historian,  probably  of  the  12th  century,  was  a  na- 
tive either  of  Constantinople  or  Sicily  (hence  called  Sic- 
ulus).  He  wrote  some  letters  to  the  last  Constant ine, 
and  a  History  {BipXoc  XP^^^h\  *"  '**"''  parts,  from 
the  Creation  to  the  death  of  Alexis  I  Cumnenus  (1118), 
first  published  in  a  I^atin  translation  by  Leunslavius 
(Basle,  1572,  8vo;  best  ed.  by  Bekker,  in  the  Bonn  col- 
lection of  the  Byzantines,  1886,  8vo).  See  Smith, 
Did,  of  Class.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Glyds,  John  (liaavvrii:  6  rXvicic),  or  perhaps 
Glycas  (rXi;jeac),was  patriarch  of  Constantinople  from 
1316  to  1320.  He  was  regarded  as  a  man  of  great  wis- 
dom and  oratorical  skill.  Nicf  phorus,  who  was  his  pu- 
pil, praised  him  greatU*.  At  length,  enfeebled  by  age 
and  disease,  Glycis  resigned  the  dignity  of  patriarch, 
and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Cynotisaa.  Being  an 
elegant  and  correct  writer,  he  attempted  to  purify  the 
Greek  language  from  the  barbarisms  with  which  it  was 
surcharged.  For  mention  of  his  works  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Gin^role,  s.  v. 

Gk>bat,  Samuei^  D.D.,  missionary*  bishop  of  Jerusa- 
lem, waa  bom  Jan.  26,  1799,  at  Cremine,  a  vilhige  near 


60BEL 


463 


QODEUVE 


Mniiater,  in  the  canton  of  Beine.  In  1821  be  entered  the 
miBnonaiy  ■emuuur7  at  Basle,  aod  in  1824  went  to  Paris 
for  the  purpose  of  continuing  his  Oriental  studies,  par- 
ticulariy  Arabic,  under  the  celebrated  Sylvester  de  Sacy. 
In  1825  he  entered  into  the  service  of  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  at  London,  and  in  the  year  following 
embarked  upon  his  mission  to  Abyssinia.  But  owing 
to  the  unsettled  state  of  that  country,  he  could  not  be* 
gin  operations  until  1830,  and  left  iu  1832.  He  returned 
in  1834,  but  sickness  prevented  his  working,  and  so,  in 
September,  1836,  he  returned  to  £urope.  From  1889 
to  1842  he  was  at  Malta,  assiduously  engaged  iu  revis- 
ing the  Arabic  Bible,  and  other  learned  labors.  In  1842 
he  went  to  Basle,  afterwards  to  Berne,  and  retunied 
again  in  1845  to  Malta,  to  inaugurate  and  take  charge 
of  the  Malta  Protestant  College.  Soon  after  he  had 
opened  the  college,  Mr.  Gobat  received  an  inUmation 
that  the  king  of  rrussia  had  expressed  an  anxious  de- 
sire to  nominate  him  to  the  Anglican  episcopate  in 
Jerusalem,  He  was  much  surprised  at  the  intelligence, 
but  felt  bound  in  conscience  not  to  refuse  the  call,  with- 
out violating  his  principles  of  being  "  obeilient  to  the 
Lord  iu  all  things."  "  Wherefore,**  were  his  words, "  I 
felt  persuaded  that  the  call  was  from  God ;  and  herein 
I  ground  my  hope,  that  God  will  bless  me,  and  make  me 
a  blessing."  On  Sunday,  July  5, 1846,  Mr.  Gobat  was 
consecrated  at  Lambeth  as  bishop  of  the  United  Church 
of  England  and  Ireland  in  Jerusalem.  His  work  in  the 
Holy  City,  during  the  thirty -three  years  which  he 
spent  there,  was  very  successful  and  vigorous.  His  an- 
nual letters  from  the  Holy  City  were  always  looked  for 
with  interest,  and  read  with  the  deepest  attention.  In 
the  last  letter,  published  in  1877,  he  stated  that  there 
were  thirty-three  Protestant  schools  in  Judea,  Samaria, 
Galilee,  and  beyond  Jordan,  containing  between  1200 
and  1500  children  of  both  sexes.  He  died  at  Jerusa- 
lem, May  5,  1879.  He  wrote  A  JoHmey  of  TAi-ee 
Tear»  in  Abytnnia  (Lond.  1847).  See  Lichtenberger, 
Encyelop.  des  Sciencet  ReUffieuteSf  s.  v. ;  S.  Gobat,  hit 
Lye  and  Work,  by  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury  (Lond.  1884). 
(a  P.) 

GMSbel,  Karl,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  Feb.  18, 1808,  at  Solingen.  He  studied  at 
Erlangen  and  Berlin,  and  was  in  1887  appointed  pastor 
at  Altwied,  near  Neuwied-on-the-Rhine.  In  1845  he 
was  appointed  successor  to  professor  Krafft,  at  Erlan- 
gen, and  iu  1857  he  was  called  to  Posen  as  pastor  of 
St.  Peter's,  and  member  of  consistory.  He  died  there 
April  24, 1881,  a  doctor  of  theology  and  member  of  the 
upper  consistory.  He  published,  Der  keUige  Bock,  ein 
tvangtli$ch€»  Zeugnist  (Neuwied,  1845)  i^EvangtUichet 
Zeuffnits  gtgen  die  IrrUhren  dee  GkiUany  und  JokanneM 
Range  (Eriangen,  1849)  i—Otterbeute  Hnkgutem  Christ- 
lieher  Hoffmmg  (2d  ed.  1860)  '.—Stephanut,  der  Prediger 
dee  Gotlet  der  flerrlichkeU  (1853) :— Z)<u  alte  Testament 
gegen  Vorurtheiie  und  iiistverstdndnigte  der  Gehildeten 
vnserer  Zeii  veriheidigi  (1865).  See  Zuchold,  BiJbL 
Thed,\,AA.7.    (RP.) 

GMSbel,  Sebastian,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Dresden  in  1628.  He  was  at  first  pastor  of  the 
Church  of  Nicola!,  at  Leipsic,  then  abbot  of  the  convent 
of  Bergen,  near  Magdeburg,  in  1669.  He  died  in  1685, 
leaving  Meihodoiogia  Homiletica: — De  Padii  tt  Fcede' 
ribue  Dei  cum  Nominibut: — Christiana  Vitas  Regula: — 
Thesaurus  Evangelicus:  —  Cibus  Fctminarum  Calistis, 
seu  Saaum  Orandi  et  Cantandi  LibeUus,  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Gk>dard  (or  Gildard),  bishop  of  Rouen,  was  bom 
at  Salency,  near  Noyon,  about  460.  According  to  some 
hagiograpbers,  he  was  son  of  Nectar,  a  Roman  lord,  and 
twin  brother  of  St.  Medard,  but  the  earliest  records 
contain  no  such  information.  As  successor  to  Radbod, 
he  received  the  priesthood  at  the  bands  of  the  bishop 
of  Vermand,  then  the  capital  of  the  Yermandois.  He 
was  elected  bishop  of  Rouen  near  the  dose  of  the  fith 
oeotury,  and  brought  many  idolaters  to  the  Christian 


faith.  He  aided  in  the  eonversion  of  Clovis  I,  to- 
gether with  his  oo-laborers  Sl  Remy,  St.  Woast,  and 
St.  Medard.  In  511  he  assisted  at  the  first  Council  of 
Orleans.  He  discovered  in  St.  Laudus  an  especial  talent, 
although  but  twelve  years  of  age,  and  consecrated  him 
bishop  of  Coutances.  The  theologians  attributed  thin 
to  divine  revelatioo.  He  died  at  Rouen,  June  8,  about 
530,  and  was  interred  in  the  Church  of  the  Virgin,  but 
his  remains  were  afterwards  reinterred  in  the  abbey  of 
St.  Medard,  at  Soissons,  under  the  reign  of  Charies*  the 
Bald,  which  probably  led  to  the  conclusion  that  Godard 
was  brother  of  Medard.  These  two  saints  are  honored 
on  June  8.  According  to  Mabillon,  Fortunatns  wrote 
the  life  of  these  two  saints,  but  it  is  uncertain.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gi/Urale,  s.  y. 

Ck>ddard,  Kingatoii,  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episco- 
pal clerg>'man,  a  graduate  of  the  General  Theological 
Seminary,  was  rector  for  several  years  in  Philadelphia, 
until  1859,  when  he  became  rector  of  Christ  Church  in 
Chicinnati,  O.  In  1862  he  returned  to  Philadelphia  ae 
rector  of  Sl  PauVs  Church.  In  1866  he  removed  to 
Port  Richmond,  N.  T.,  as  rector  of  St.  Andrew's  Church, 
where  he  remained  until  the  close  of  his  life,  Oct.  24, 
1875,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three  years.  See  Ptvt,  Epise, 
A  Imcmac,  1876,  p.  1 50. 

<ioddard,  W^Hliam  Stanley,  D.D.,  an  English 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  1757.  He  was  rector  of  Rep- 
ton,  Derby,  and  died  in  1845.  He  published  a  Senmom 
on  the  visit  of  the  bishop  of  Winchester  (1811):— <Ser- 
mon  at  the  consecration  of  bishop  Howley  (Lond.  1814). 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  vihors,  s.  v. 

Gk>deberta,  Saini,  was  bom  at  Boves,  near  Amiena, 
about  640.  She  was  consecrated  by  St.  Elogiua,  bishop 
of  Noyon,  in  the  presence  of  Clotaire  III  (from  655  to 
659).  The  hagiograpbers  say  that  she  established  a 
society  of  twelve  women,  whom,  with  untiring  devotion, 
she  instructed  according  to  the  strict  rules  of  the  goe- 
pel,  and  by  her  own  virtiyius  example.  By  her  faith 
she  is  said  to  have  arrested  the  flames,  and  when  a  vio- 
lent pestilence  attacked  Noyon,  she  caused  its  cessation 
by  assembling  the  citizens  together  in  penitence.  She 
died  abont  700.  Her  remains  were  for  a  long  time  in 
the  cathedral  of  Noyon.  She  was  canonized,  and  her 
memory  is  honored  April  11.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog^ 
GMralef  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Godehard,  Sainff  bishop  of  Hildesheim,  was  bora  at 
Ritenbach,  in  Bavaria,  in  961.  He  was  educated  at  the 
court  of  the  archbishop  Frederic  of  Salzburg,  and  whan 
thirty-one  years  of  age  entered  the  monastery  of  Nieder- 
Altaicb,  and  became  its  abbot  in  997.  His  excellent 
administration  of  the  monastery  attracted  the  attentioo 
of  the  emperor  Henry  II,  who  charged  him  with  re- 
forming the  monasteries  of  Hersfeld,  Tegerosee,  etc,  and 
haying  succeeded  in  this  task,  he  returned  to  his  own 
monastery  in  1012.  When  Beraward,  the  bishop  of 
Hildesheim,  died,  he  was  made  his  successor,  in  10S2, 
and  died  May  5, 1038.  He  was  canonized  by  Innocent 
in  in  1181.  His  festival  is  on  May  4.  See  Blum, 
GeschiehU  des  FUrstenihums  Bildesheim,  ii,  108  sq. ;  LUnt- 
zel,  Gesehiehte  der  Stfidt  und  Dioeese  Hildethem,  p.  196 
sq. ;  Pertz,  Monumenta  Germ.  Hist, xi,  165  sq.;  WattCB- 
bach,  Deutsche  Geschichis-Quellen  tm  MiUelaUer^  ii,  le- 
28;  Uhlhorn,  in  Plitt-Herzog*s  Beal-Encgekp,  a.  t.| 
Paumier,  iu  Lichtenbeiger*a  Ene^fchp,  det  Scieneet  R^ 
Kgieuses,  a.  v.    {K  P.) 

QodeliTe  DB  OHI8TKLUB8,  Soiut,  a  martyr  of  the 
11th  century,  was  bom  at  Ghlstelle^  in  FlanderL  She 
was  religiously  trained  from  her  youth  at  the  chAtean 
of  Long  fort,  in  Boulonoaia.  She  was  married  to  Bcr- 
tolf,  who  at  last  caused  her  to  be  put  to  death.  Her 
festival  is  on  July  6.  Legend  attributea  to  her  many 
miracles,  and  her  life  was  written  by  Dngon,  priest  of 
Ghistelles,  one  of  her  oontemporariea.  Another,  pab> 
lished  in  German,  was  entitled  Godeiive  Boede,ia  Qothia 
characters,  ornamented  with  ooarsa  wood  engtavinga. 
This  book  was  translated  and  pobliahed  by  Lonla  de 


GODESCARD 


463 


GOLDEN 


Baecker  (Bmgea,  1849).  Sm  Hoefer,  Houv,  Biog,  GM- 
rale,  &  v. 

Qodeaoard,  Jkan  Fra2I9ois,  a  French  ecclesiasti- 
cal writer,  was  bom  at  RooquemoDt,  near  Rouen,  March 
80, 1728.  He  was  successively  secretary  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  prior  of  Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Repos,  near 
VeiBailles,  canon  of  St.  Louis  du  Louvre,  and  prior  of 
St.  Honorius,  at  Paris,  where  he  died,  Aug.  21, 1800. 
He  wrote,  Vies  dee  Piree,de»  Martyre^ei  dee  Avtree 
Prvteipaux  SauUs  (from  the  English  of  Alban  Dutler, 
ViUefcanche  and  Paris,  1763, 1788, 1784),  containing  a 
large  namber  of  anecdotes  which,  true  or  doubtful,  afford 
philosophers,  historians,  and  hagiographers  interesting 
information : — De  la  Mori  dee  Pereecuteure  (with  histor- 
ical notes  translated  from  the  Latin  of  Lectance,  Paris, 
1797)  :—Fondemente  de  la  Rdigum  Chrilierme  (trans- 
lated from  the  English  of  Challonner):— 7*a6/e  Alpha- 
hkique  (of  the  Afimoiree  de  Trevoux  down  to  1740),  and 
several  theological  works.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
GMrale^u  v. 

Oodet  da  Maraie,  Paul  db,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Talcy,  near  Blois,  in  June,  1649.  He  completed 
his  studies  at  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  and 
became  bishop  of  Cbartres,  confessor  of  madame  ICain* 
tenon,  and  superior  of  the  royal  house  of  St.  Cyr.  On 
bis  promotion  to  the  episcopacy  he  gave  all  his  rev- 
enue to  the  poor.  Nov.  21, 1695,  he  condemned  sev- 
eral propositions  taken  from  the  works  of  madame 
Goyon  and  P.  Lacombe.  He  claimed  also  to  bring 
Pension  to  a  recantation.  In  1697  he  signed,  with  the 
cardinal  of  Noailles  and  Bossuet,  a  declaration  which 
was  sent  to  Rome,  by  which  he  condemned  the  J/on- 
mee  dee  SainU,  He  founded  four  seminaries  and  schools 
for  the  instruction  of  the  young.  He  died  Sept.  25, 
1709.    See  Hoefer,  Noue,  Biog,  GenArale,  s.  v. 

Gk>d'«7iii,  ThosIas,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was 
bora  at  Oakingharo,  in  Berkshire,  in  1517,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  Magdalen  (}ollege,  Oxford.  In  1565  he  was 
made  dean  of  Christ  Churcbi  Oxford,  and  had  also  a 
prebend  in  the  Cathedral  of  Lincoln.  In  1566  he  was 
promoted  to  the  deanery  of  Canterbury.  In  1576  he 
was  one  of  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners.  He  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  September, 
1584.  He  died  Nov.  19,  1590.  Among  the  Parker 
MSSw  in  Benedict  Church,  Cambridge,  is  a  sermon 
which  he  preached  before  the  queen  at  Greenwich, 
in  1566,  concerning  the  authority  of  the  councils  and 
listhera.    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  r. 

GO0XOe,  Hugh  Williax,  was  a  Dutch  theologian 
and  physician.  After  receiving  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  medidoe,  he  practiced  at  Middelburg,  where  he  ac- 
quired a  great  reputation.  He  understood  very  well 
the  dialects  of  north  Europe,  and  the  classical  languages, 
and  occupied  his  leisure  with  archswlogy  and  trans- 
lating several  ancient  authors.  He  died  at  Middel- 
burg about  1648.  For  further  mention  of  his  works^ 
see  Hoefer,  Souv,  Biog.  GeiUrak^  s.  v. 

QoetaohifW,  John  Henry,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister  (son  of  a  German  minister  who  was  sent  over, 
probably  in  17^  from  the  fatherland,  to  labor  among 
the  Germans  in  and  around  Philadelphia),  was  bom  in 
1718,  in  Switzerland,  studied  in  the  University  of  Zu- 
rich, and  under  Rev.  G.  H.  Dorstius,  in  Pennsylvania, 
wbo^  with  Rev.  J.  T.  Frelingbuysen,  licensed  and  or- 
dained him  in  1788.  He  was  settled  successively  in 
North  and  South  Hampton,  Pa.  (1788),  in  Jamaica, 
Newtown,  and  vicinity,  on  Long  Island  (1740),  and 
at  Hackensack  and  Schraalenburgh,  N.  J.  ( 1748  ), 
where  he  died,  Nov.  14, 1774.  The  validity  of  his  or- 
dination having  been  questioned,  be  was  newly  exam- 
ined and  reordained  in  1748,  under  the  authority  of 
the  Classis  of  Amsterdam,  by  the  Costus.  But  while 
men  disputed,  God  honored  his  faithful  services,  both 
before  and  after  his  second  ordination,  with  frequent 
and  great  revivals.  His  whole  ministry  was  contem* 
ponmeons  with  the  agitation  of  the  vexed  question  of 


education  and  ordination  in  this  country,  and  especially 
in  his  last  and  longest  pastorate  in  New  Jersey,  were 
the  churches  divided  and  troubled  by  its  unfortunate 
developments.    When  the  church  was  locked  against 
him  on  Long  Island,  he  preached  on  the  steps,  or  under 
the  trees,  or  in  barns,  or  in  private  dwellings.    It  is  re- 
lated that  on  one  Sabbath  the  choriAter,  who  in  those 
days  announced  the  Psalms  and  hymns,  gave  out  the 
entire  119th  Ptalm  to  be  sung,  to  prevent  his  preaching. 
Once,  when  in  danger  of  forcible  resistance  to  his  en- 
tering the  church  at  Hackensack,  he  girded  on  his 
sword,  and  with  it  entered  the  pulpit,  for  in  those  days 
it  was  not  unusual  for  clergymen  to  wear  a  sword,  and 
carry  it  into  the  pulpit  and  place  it  behind  them  dur. 
ing  the  service.    Yet  Mr.  Goetschius  was  a  man  of 
peace,  a  learned,  pious,  goilly,  faithful,  and  eminently 
successful  preacher  of  the  gospel  in  troublous  tiroes. 
He  was  also  the  theological  instractor  of  a  number  of 
young  men  who  rose  to  eminence  and  power  in  the 
Church,  and  who  were  the  apostles  of  a  liberal  and  in*, 
dependent  ecclesiastical  polity.     Among  these  were 
professor  Roroeyn,  the  younger  Frelinghuysens,  Leeydty 
and  others.    He  was  one  of  the  original  trustees  of 
Rutgers  College,  and  a  leader  in  the  forward  move- 
ments of  his  denomination.    *'  He  was  below  the  mid- 
dle ftixe,  of  a  vigorous  constitution,  abrapt  in  speech,  but 
his  language  was  clear  and  expressive."    One  of  his 
pupils,  \>t.  Solomon  Froeligh,  describes  him  as  *'  a  gen- 
tleman of  profound  eradition,  a  thoroughbre<l  Calvinist, 
and  an  accomplished  theologian."   See  Corwin,  Manual 
of  the  Ref.  Church  in  America,  a.  v.;  Taj'lor,  Annale  of 
Claeeie  of  Bergen,  p.  180 ;  A  uioUographg  of  Dr.  S.  Fro^ 
ligh.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Gohren,  Adolph  Wilhklm  ron,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian, was  bora  May  18, 1685,  at  Copenhagen.  He 
studied  at  Kiel  and  Jena,  was  preacher  at  the  latter 
place  in  1722,  member  of  consistory  in  1725,  and  rector 
at  Haitaburg  in  1781.  He  died  July  24, 1784.  Besides 
translating  into  German  Buddeus's  work,  De  Atheiemo 
et  Superetitione  (Jena,  1723),  he  wrote  Diep.  Jnaug, 
Theologica  de  Fermenlo  Pharieaorum  (1728).  See 
Thiess,  Hamburger  Gelehrten-Geechichte ;  J5cher,  All^ 
gemeinee  Gelehrien^Lexibon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Gk>kel,  long  strips  of  white  paper,  emblems  of  the 
divine  presence  of  the  Camis  (q.  v.)  among  the  Japa- 
nese. They  are  kept  in  little  portable  miae  in  all  Jap* 
anese  houses. 

Goldberg,  Bkkr,  a  Jewish  writer,  was  bora  in  1801 
in  Pohind.  In  1840  he  went  to  Berlin,  in  1847  to  Lon- 
don, in  1852  to  Paris,  and  died  there,  May  4, 1884.  He 
published,  Chofee  Matnunum  eive  Aneodoia  Rabbimca 
(Berlin,  1845): — Jeeod  Olam,  edited  for  the  first  time 
after  an  okl  MS.  (1848)  :—8rfer  ha^Rihnah,  of  Ibn-Ge- 
mach  (Frankfort,  1856):  —  Sefer  Taggin,  a  masoretic 
work,  edited  in  connection  with  Barges:— /Tua^i/,  or 
Ibn-Koreisb's  treatise  on  the  use  of  the  study  of  the 
Targums  (Paris,  1867)  i—Sefer  ho'Sichronoth,  or  a  He- 
brew concordance,  by  Elias  Levita,  edited  after  a  Paris 
manuscript  (Frankfort,  1874).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i, 
837.     (a  P.) 

Golden,  T.  C,  M.D.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  England,  April  16,  1818.  He 
emigrated  to  America  in  1849,  settled  near  Kingston, 
Wis.,  aud  the  year  following  entered  the  Wisconsin  Con- 
ference,  wherein  he  successively  served  Cascade,  Sheboy- 
gan F^ls,  Omro,  and  Fond  du  Lac,  two  years  each.  He 
was  then  transferred  to  the  West  Wisconsin  Conference, 
and  stationed  at  La  Crosse.  When  the  North-west 
Wisconsin  Conference  was  formed  he  became  a  member 
of  it,  and  was  appointed  presiding  elder  of  La  Crosse 
district  from  1859  to  1862;  elected  a  delegate  to  Gen- 
eral Conference  in  1860;  Eau  Clair  district  from  1868 
to  1866;  delegate  to  General  Conference  in  1864;  lo- 
cated from  1865  to  1869;  readmitted  to  the  Upper  Iowa 
Conference  in  1870,  and  for  three  years  was  sutioned 
at  Mount  Vernon,  aud  then  was  appointed  presiding 


GOLDEN  AGE 


464 


GONDI 


dder  of  Vinton  district.    He  died  May  29, 1879.    See 
MvaittM  of  Annual  Conferences,  1879,  p.  60. 

Golden  Age  is  n  tcnn  used  in  tlie  Greek  and  Ro- 
man mythology  to  denote  the  reign  of  Saturn  (q.  v.), 
when  justice  and  innocence  were  supposed  to  havo 
prevailed  throughout  the  earth,  and  the  soil  to  have 
produced  all  that  was  necessary  for  the  subsistence  and 
enjoyment  of  mankind. 

Goldhom,  David  Johann  Heinrioh,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Leipsic, 
July  31,  1810,  and  died  there,  professor  of  theology, 
Dec  21,  1874.  In  connection  with  Gersdorf,  he  pub- 
lished, Bibliotkeca  Patrum  JScdenasticorum  Latinorum 
Select  a  (Leipsic,  1838): — wrote  besides,  Commentatio 
ffistoricO'Theohffica  de  Summit  Principiu  Tkeoloffia 
A  balardee  (eo<l.)  :—Die  theologitche  Literatur  deM  Jakret 
1840  und  184  L  (1842^4).  See  Winer,  I/andbuch  der 
theoL  Lit,  i,  862,  874,  914;  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  i,  448. 
(B.  P.) 

Qoldhom,  Johann  David,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  born  SepL  12, 1774.  After  hav- 
ing served  at  different  places  as  preacher,  he  was  called 
to  Leipsic  in  1835  as  professor  of  theology,  and  died 
Oct.  23, 1836.  He  published,  Exkurte  zum  Bucke  Jonas 
(Leipsic,  1803)  :—De  Puerorum  InnocenHa  in  Sermtms^ 
bus  Saais,  etc.  (1828) : — Predigten  und  Kasualreden  (8 
vols.).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  IM.  i,  28,  83, 
869;  ii,  86,  66,  98, 172;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  448  sq. 
(RP.) 

Goldaborough,  Godfrky,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  bish- 
op of  the  16tb  century,  was  bom  in  Cambridge,  bred  in 
Trinity  College  (pupil  of  archbishop  Whitgift),  became 
afterwards  fellow  thereof,  prebend  of  Hereford  in  1585, 
archdeacon  of  Salop  in  1580,  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Gloucester  in  1598,  and  died  March  26, 1604.  See  Fuller, 
Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  i,  281. 

Ck>ldachad,  GoTTHELi'  Conrad,  a  Lutheran  min- 
ister of  Germany,  was  born  May  18, 1719.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1744  regent  of  the  Kreittzschule 
at  Dresden,  in  1750  rector  of  St.  Anne,  and  died  in  1767. 
He  wrote,  De  Mandato  Christi  Jo.  xxi,  15-17  (1750)  :— 
Chorus  Musicus  Ghriam  Christi  Celebrans  ear  Ps,  Ixviii, 
26  (1751) : — Septem  Spiritus  ante  Dei  Thronum  ex  Apoc, 
£,4  (1752):— //e  Proceeds  Padfids  et  Exactortbus 
justis  Ecdesia  a  Deo  Promissis  ex  Esaics  Ix^Xl  (1755) : 
— Salonionis  de  Juventutis  Itistiiutione  Consilium  ae 
Pretium  ex  Prov,  xxii,  6  (1760) : — Ilistorische  Nachricht 
von  der  A  tmen  Kirche  vor  Dresden  (1763).  See  Jocher, 
A  Ugememss  GeUhrten'Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Qoldsmith,  John,  D.D,,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Riverhead,  N.  Y.,  April  10, 1794.  He  grad- 
uated from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1815,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1819:  was  ordained 
a  minister  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York,  Nov.  17, 
the  same  year;  preached  at  Neivtown,  h.  I.,  tbereafler 
until  his  death,  April  6, 1854.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Prince- 
ton Thegl,  Sem,  1881,  p.  22. 

Goldvrell,  James,  LL.D.,  an  English  prelate  of 
the  15th  century,  was  born  at  Great  Chart,  Kent,  edu- 
cated in  All-Soills*  College,  Oxford,  promoted  prebend 
of  Hereford  in  1461 ,  dean  of  Salisbury  in  1463,  secre- 
tary to  king  Edwani  IV,  and  at  lasfc  made  bishop  of 
Noni'ich  in  1472.  He  repaired  the  church  at  Great 
Chart,  and  founded  a  chapel  on  its  south  side.  He  died 
Feb.  15, 1498.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed. 
NuttaU),  ii,  137. 

Qold^^ell,  Thomas,  an  English  preUte,  was  bom 
at  Goldwell,  parish  of  Great  Chart,  Kent,  Being  a 
Benedictine,  he  was  by  queen  Mary  preferred  bishop 
of  St.  Asaph's  in  1558,  but  quitted  the  land  in  the  first 
year  of  queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  and,  going  to  Rome,  in- 
duced the  pope  to  grant  indulgences  to  those  who  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  the  well  of  St,  Winifred,  in  his  diocese. 
He  died  in  Rome  about  1581.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of 
England  (ed.  NutuU),  ii,  137. 


Oolod,  JoHH,  an  Armenian  patriarch  of  Constanu- 
nople,  was  bom  at  Bales,  and  educated  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Amerdolu.  During  his  patriarchate  three  church- 
es belonging  to  the  Armenians  of  Constantinople,  which 
had  been  burned  down,  were  rebuilt  with  taste  and  ele- 
gance. He  also  built  several  schools.  The  only  writ^ 
ing  of  which  be  is  the  author  is  a  profession  of  faith 
which  be  addressed  to  the  papal  court  at  Rome.  He 
sought  to  re-establbh  the  harmony  between  the  na- 
tional Armenians  and  the  united  Armenians  or  Roman 
Catholics.  He  was  accused  of  softness  by  his  people, 
and  seeing  that  the  preaching  of  the  missionaries  gave 
occasion  to  troubles,  he  doeed  their  churches.  Golod 
died  in  1741.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

QoltS  (LaU  Gokzius),  Hkndrik,  a  pre-eminent 
Dutch  engraver  and  painter,  was  bom  at  Mulbrecht, 
in  the  duchy  of  Juliers,  in  1558,  and  studied  engraving 
under  Theodore  Cuerahert.  He  afterwards  viaited 
Italy,  and  studied  the  works  of  Raphael,  Michael  An- 
gelo,  and  P.  da  Caravaggio.  He  began  painting  at  the 
age  of  forty -two,  and  executed  a  numbier  of  fine  pict- 
ures, the  first  of  which  was  the  Crucifixion^  with  the 
Virgin  Mary  and  St,  Johi,  As  an  engraver,  he  was 
far  more  distinguished:  his  prints  number  over  five 
hundred.  The  following  are  some  of  the  principal :  The 
L\fe  and  Passion  of  Our  Saviour ;  Christ  and  the  Apos- 
ties;  The  Circumcision;  The  Adoration  of  the  Magi; 
The  Wise  Men's  Offering;  The  Temptation  of  St,  An^ 
thong;  The  Holg  Familg;  The  Natimtg;  The  Murder 
of  the  Innocents ;  7*he  A  nnundation ;  The  Last  Supper  ; 
The  Fall  of  Adam  and  Eve ;  The  Dead  Christ  Supporl^ 
edbg  an  Angel,  Goltz  died  at  Haerlem  in  1617.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  y. ;  Spooncr,  Biog,  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Gtomaxiatfl^  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  Cal- 
vinists  in  Holland  in  the  17th  century,  afler  Francis 
Gomar  (q.  v.),  an  eminent  opponent  of  the  Arminians 
in  the  synod  of  Dort. 

Gtomez,  Juan,  a  reputable  historical  painter  of 
Madrid,  was  born  about  1550.  He  painted  several  sub- 
jects from  the  life  of  St.  Jerome ;  also  the  large  picture 
of  the  Martyrdom  of  St,  Ursula,  He  restored  the  An- 
nunciation  and  the  St,  Jerome  Petdtent,  by  F.  Zuochezo, 
which  Philip  II  had  rejected  and  ordered  to  be  re- 
touched. He  died  in  1597.  See  Hoefer,  A^otfr.  Biog, 
GeniraUf  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  IJist,  of  the  Fine  A  rtSf 
s,  V. 

Oomidaa»  an  Armenian  patriarch,  was  bom  at 
Aghtsits,  in  the  canton  of  Arakadzodn.  He  was  biabop 
of  the  Mamigonians,  when  he  was  elected  patriarch  in 
617.  After  the  death  of  John  III,  Gomidas  erected  a 
magnificent  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Hripsimia.  He 
died  in  625,  leaving  Nerpogh  Hripsimia  ("  Hymn  in 
honor  of  St«  Rhipsime"),  which  is  still  contained  in  the 
Armenian  liturgy.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale, 
s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Gk>ndi  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  This  dia- 
lect is  spoken  by  the  Gonds,  one  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble of  the  hill-tribes  in  North-west  India.  In  1872 
the  Gospel  according  to  Matthew,  as  tradslated  by  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Dawson,  was  printed  at  Allahabad,  to  which 
the  gospel  of  Mark  was  added  in  1874.  See  Driberi^ 
and  Harrison,  Narrative  of  a  Second  Visit  to  the  Gonds 
of  the  Nerbudda  Territory,  with  a  Grammar  and  Vo^ 
cabulary  of  their  Language  (1849). 

Gondi,  Pierre  de,  a  cardinal-bishop  of  Paris,  was 
bom  in  1588.  He  studied  jurispmdence  at  ToiUouae, 
and  theology  at  Paris.  Before  1569  he  was  bishop  of 
Langres  and  grand-almoner  of  Catherine  de  MedicL  la 
the  following  year  he  becam^ishop  of  Paris.  A  short 
time  after  the  death  of  his  brother,  Henry  IK  sent  him 
to  Rome  to  ask  of  the  pope  permission  to  alienate  from 
the  revenues  of  the  clergy  60,000  gold  florins.  Dnrini^ 
the  league,  the  Spaniards  sought  in  vain  to  draw  him 
into  their  party.  He  refused  the  cardinal's  hat  which 
Sixtus  y  oO^red  to  him  in  1588,  except  on  consent  of 


GONDRIN 


466 


GOOD  SONS 


the  king.    He  died  Feb.  17, 1610.    See  Hoefer,  Ifow, 

Qondrln, Louis  Henrt  de  PardtxUhn  de,&  French 
preUite,  waa  bom  at  the  castle  of  Gondrin,  in  the  diocese 
of  Aucb,  ill  1620.  He  studied  at  the  College  of  La 
FI6che,at  the  University  of  Paris,  and  in  the  Sorbonne. 
Being  a  relative  of  the  bishop  of  Sena,  Octavius  of  Belle- 
garde,  he  was  appointed  his  coadjutor  in  1645,  and  anc- 
eeeded  him  the  following  year.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
who  censured  the  Apobgy  off  he  CatuiiU,  In  16o3  be 
signed  the  letter  of  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  to  pope 
Innocent  X,  in  which  the  prelates  recognised  only  the 
five  famous  propositions  of  Jansenius.  He  disapproved 
of  the  condnct  of  his  niece,  Mme.  de  Montespan,  at  the 
court.  He  died  at  the  abbey  of  Chanlnes,  Sept.  20, 
1674,  leaving  letters  and  pastoral  ordinances.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Aour.  Bio^,  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Gtonneliea,  Jtf rOmb  db,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  bom 
at  SoisBona,  SepL  8,  1640.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
Joined  hia  order,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1717.  He  wn^te, 
J>e  PEuence  de  la  Vie  SpirUueUe  (Paris,  1701):-:Z>e  la 
Pretenee  de  Dieu  qui  Rtnferme  tous  le*  Prwdpes  de  la 
Vie  InUrienre  fibid.  1703)  i—Mkhode  pour  Bien  Frier 
(1710)  i^ProHque  delaVie  IniSrieure  (eod.)  i-^Le  Ser^ 
mtm  de  Notre -Seigmur  h  eee  Apdtrea  Apree  la  Chte 
(1712).  For  e  long  time  there  was  attributed  to  him  a 
translation  of  tlie  /mitatum  of  Chrietf  which  was  pub- 
lished at  Nancy  in  1712,  for  which  edition  he  only 
wrote  the  prayers  and  the  application  at  the  end  of 
each  chapter.  The  work  of  translation  was,  in  fact, 
made  by  a  printer  and  member  of  the  Paris  parliament, 
Jean  Cursor,  who  published  it  for  the  first  time  in  1678 
nnder  his  own  name.  But  the  ambiguous  title  of  the 
edition  published  in  1712,  Jmitaiiom  de  Jitue-Chrisi^  avec 
dee  PraHquet  «t  dee  Priires,par  leP.de  Gotmelieu  (Nan- 
cy), led  to  the  error  of  palming  the  authorship  of  the 
translation  upon  Gonnelieu ;  and  in  spite  of  the  testi- 
m<Hiy  of  Calmet,  Barbier,  and  Brunet  against  this  au- 
thorship, the  error  has  been  perpetuated,  and  Gonne- 
lien's  name  continued  to  figure  in  the  new  editions  pub- 
lished in  1818, 1822,  and  18d6.  See  Jocher,  A  Ugemdne* 
GdekrUn- Laeihon^  a.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  Eneydop.  dee 
JSdeaeee  RdigieuttM^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

GdntgeD,  Jomathak  Gottlikb,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  13, 1752,  at  Frank- 
fort^-on-the-Main,  and  died  there,  May  7, 1807.  He  pub- 
lished, Der  Schriflforecher  (Leipsic,  1787>89, 8  vols.)  :— 
iMtka't  Kleiner  katechismtts  (ibid.  1791)  t—Reden  bei 
der  Vorbereiiung  zur  ehristiichen  Feier  det  heiligen  A  bend' 
makU  Obid.  1800).  See  Winer,  ffandbuck  der  theoL  Lit. 
ii,  183,  213;  Doring,  Die  gelehtien  Tkeohgen  Dfuteeh- 
lamUfB^x.     (a  P.) 

Gonthier,  Franpois  Auguste  Alphonae,  a 
Protestant  theologian,  was  bom  at  Tverdon,  Dec.  21, 
177dL  He  studied  at  Lausanne,  was  in  1805  pastor  at 
Nlmes,  and  died  at  Nyons  in  1834.  He  published, 
Lectures  Ckredemies  (1824): — MMcmgee  Evangiliquee : 
—LeUree  Chrkiemiee :  ^  Petite  Bibiiothegue  dee  Piret 
de  rJSgUee,  See  Montet,  Diet,  dee  Ginevoie  et  dee  Vau- 
doiif  etc.  (Lausanne,  1877) ;  A  rchivet  da  Christiamtme 
(1834) ;  BibUotAeque  Umvertelle  (1861) ;  Lichtenberger, 
Encgchp,  dee  Seieneee  Rdigieuset^  s.  v. ;  Winer,  HawU 
buck  der  theoL  LU,  ii.  835.     (a  P.) 

Oonthier,  Jean  Baptiste  Bernard,  a  French 
theologian,  was  bora  at  Dijon,  and  died  there,  June  1, 
1678.  He  wrote,  Reglemeat  du  Simnaire  de  Langree 
(Langres,  1663)  :—Le  Grand  Catichieme  du  Diocese  de 
Langree  (Dijon,  1664)  i^Exercioe  du  Ckrkien  pour  le 
Malm  et  le  8oir  (ibid.  eod.):~i>  Directeur  Portatif 
(ibid.  1662,  1674).  See  Papillon,  BibL  dee  Auteure  de 
Bourgogne;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Getehrten-Lexikon^  a.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Gtonzaga,  Eroole  de,  an  Italian  cardinal,  bora  in 
1505,  was  the  son  of  John  Francis  II,  duke  of  Mantua. 
After  be  bad  studied  at  Bologna  under  the  direction 

XIL— G  o 


of  Pomponacius,  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Mantua 
in  1520,  six  years  afterwards  was  made  cardinal,  and 
called  to  the  archbishopric  of  Tarragona.  In  1540  he 
took  in  his  hands  the  direction  of  the  government  of 
the  duchy  of  Mantua.  In  1562  he  was  appointed  by 
pope  Pius  lY  to  preside  at  the  Council  of  Trent  as  first 
legate  of  the  holy  see,  but  be  died  March  2, 1563,  leav- 
ing a  catechism  in  Latin,  published  for  the  pastors  of 
Mantua.  He  composed  also  a  treatise  on  De  InstitU" 
tUme  Vita  Christiana,  in  MS.  In  the  library  of  Este 
there  are  two  volumes  of  letters  written  by  him  during 
1559.    See  Hoefer,  JVbuv.  Biog.  GMraU^  s.  v. 

Gkmxaga,  Plrro  de,  an  Italian  cardinal,  was  bora 
in  the  second  part  of  the  15th  century.  He  contribu- 
ted to  the  deliverance  of  pope  Clement  YH,  who  had 
been  kept  in  prison  by  Charles  V.  The  pope  rewarded 
him  by  appointing  him  a  cardinal,  and  archbishop  of 
Modena  in  1527.  He  died  in  1529.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GMrale,  s«  v. 

Gonzaga,  Scipione  de,  an  Italian  cardinal,  was 
bora  Nov.  21, 1542.  CSardinal  Ercole  de  Gonzaga  edu- 
cated him  with  much  care,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
Scipione  had  perfectly  acquired  the  ancient  languages. 
H6  then  studied  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Padua. 
In  1568  he  founded  in  that  city  the  Academy  of  the 
Eterei,  of  which  he  remained  the  protector  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  Finally  he  entered  into  the  min- 
istry, and  was  appointed  patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  In 
1587  he  received  the  cardinalate  from  pope  Sixtus  V. 
He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Taaso.  He  died  Jan.  11, 
1598,  leaving  several  pieces  in  verse,  which  were  pub- 
lished among  others,  in  1567,  of  the  Academy  of  the 
Eterei.  In  1597  the  abbot  Marotti  published  Comment 
tarii  de  Vita  suQy  memoirs  written  in  Latin  by  Gonzaga. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraUf  s.  v. 

Qonzaga,  Sigiamondo  de,  an  Italian  captain 
and  cardinal,  was  born  in  the  second  part  of  the  15th 
century.  In  his  military  career  he  distinguished  him- 
self as  e  clever  general.  In  1505  he  was  made  cardi- 
nal by  Julius  II,  whom  he  defended  with  considerable 
energy  against  his  numerous  enemies.  In  1511  he  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Mantua,  and  died  there  in  1525. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhUrale,  a.  v. 

Qonoalvo,  Martin,  a  Spanish  religious  impostor 
of  the  14th  century,  was  bom  at  Cuen9a,  and  called 
himself  the  archangel  Michael,  to  whom  God  had  re- 
served the  plsce  of  Lucifer,  and  who  would  some  day 
fight  against  antichrist  The  Inquisition  burned  him, 
but  his  disciple,  Nicolas  de  CSalabrois,  sought  to  repre- 
sent him  after  his  death  as  the  Son  of  God,  and  preached 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  would  become  incaroato,  and  that 
at  the  day  of  judgment  Gonzalvo  would  deliver  by  his 
prayers  all  the  condemned.  De  Calabrois  also  perished 
in  the  flames.     Sec  Hucfer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genircde,  s.  v. 

Qon-Zoar,  K»-Zo,  a  Japanese  Buddhist  monk, 
was  bom  in  758,  in  the  district  of  Taka-Tki,  a  province 
of  Yamato.  One  day  his  mother  saw  in  a  vision  an 
august  being  embracing  her  in  his  arms,  and  shortly 
afterwards  she  bore  this  son.  In  his  twelfth  year  he 
entered  a  hermitage.  About  the  year  796  ho  com- 
menced the  publication  of  a  commentary  in  eight  parts, 
of  Fats-Ke-gyo  (in  Chinese  Fa-Hoa-King),  or  sacred 
book  of  the  Japanese.  After  bis  death  in  827,  he  re- 
ceived the  name  of  So-dofo,  He  is  famous  in  Japan 
for  having  possessed  such  a  high  degree  of  knowledge 
on  the  Buddhistic  dogmas,  and  among  others  for  hav- 
ing fixed  the  actual  order  of  the  Japanese  alphabet 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GineraU,  s.  v. 

Qood  Sons,  Ordbr  of,  a  religions  congregation 
of  the  third  order  of  St  Francis,  was  founded  in  1615, 
at  Armantieres,  a  small  town  in  Flanders,  by  five  pious 
artisans.  In  1626  they  adopted  the  third  rale  of  St 
Francis.  The  order  progressed  gradually,  and  in  1670 
consisted  of  two  congregations,  that  of  Lisle  being  add- 
ed to  the  first  one  formed.    Shortly  after  a  third  was 


GOODE 


466 


OOODSEXJi 


fonned  at  St  Omer,  and  Louis  XIV  gave  them  the 
direction  of  varions  public  hoapitala.  They  practiced 
great  austerity,  and  used  the  discipline  of  the  scourge 
three  times  a  week. 

Qoode,  William  H.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Warren  County,  O.,  June  19, 1807. 
He  began  school-teaching  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  in 
Green  County;  afterwards  removed  to  Madison,  Ind., 
where  he  continued  teaching,  and  studied  law ;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  before  he  was  twenty-one;  experi- 
enced religion  about  this  time;  at  the  age  of  twenty 
was  elect^  president  of  Gallatin  County  Seminary, 
Port  William,  Ky.,  which  position  he  held  for  two 
years;  then  returned  to  In^na  and  followed  farming 
seven  or  eight  years;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  18S6; 
in  1836  entered  the  Indiana  Conference,  and  was  ad- 
pointed  to  Lexington  Circuit  A  few  months  later  he 
was  elected  principal  of  the  New  Albany  Seminar}'. 
Subsequently  he  was  sent  to  Jeffersonville  and  Indian- 
apolis stations;  in  1842  was  appointed  presiding  elder 
of  South  Bend  District,  but  in  the  middle  of  the  year 
was  transferred  to  the  Arkansas  Conference,  and  ap- 
pointed to  Fort  Coffee  Academy  and  mission,  Choctaw 
nation,  where  he  remained  till  1845.  In  1844  he  formed 
the  Indian  Mission  Conference,  and  became  a  member 
of  iL  In  1845  he  was  transferred  to  the  North  Indiana 
Conference.  He  afterwards  labored  on  Peru  District, 
four  years  on  Greencastle  District,  and  four  years  on 
Indianapolis  District;  was  appointed  to  Richmond  Sta- 
tion in  1853 ;  then  had  charge  of  the  entire  territory 
between  Texas  and  Nebraska,  and  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  His  subsequent  appointments 
were  in  the  same  region  until  1860,  when  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Western  Iowa  Conference,  and  appointed 
to  Lowden  District ;  Council  Bluffs  District  in  1861 ; 
in  1862  was  retransferred  to  the  North  Indiana  Con- 
ference, and  appointed  to  Union  Chapel  (now  Grace 
Church),  Richmond.  Thereafter  be  served  on  various 
districts,  and  finally  (1877-79)  became  superannuated. 
He  died  in  Richmond,  Ind.,  Dec.  16,  1879.  Dr.  Goode 
possessed  a  very  high  order  of  intellect,  a  deep  religious 
character,  great  pulpit  power,  was  a  bom  leader  of  men, 
eminent  for  uncompromising  integrity,  and  entirely 
free  from  inordinate  ambition.  See  Alinutes  of  Annual 
Conferences  f  1880,  p.  71. 

Goodell,  William,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Windsor,  N.  Y.,  Oct,  25, 1792.  For  some  years 
lie  was  a  merchant,  first  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  then  in 
Wilmington,  N.  C,  and  afterwards  in  Alexandria,  Va. 
In  1827  he  became  editor  of  the  Weekly  Investigator^  at 
l*rovidence,  R.  I.  Two  years  after  he  went  to  Boston, 
his  paper  having  been  consolidated  with  the  Nationcd 
Philanthropist^  published  there.  In  1830  he  began  edit- 
ing the  Genius  of  Temperance^  in  New  York  city,  and 
later  he  was  editor  of  the  Emancipator,  From  1836  to 
1R12  he  edited  the  Friend  of  Man^  at  Utica,  N.  Y.;  in 
1843  was  at  the  head  of  a  paper  in  Whitesboro*,  called 
the  Christian  Investigator,  and  it  was  in  that  year  that 
he  organized  a  Congregational  church  in  Honeoye,  on 
anti-slavery  and  temperance  principles,  to  which  con- 
gregation he  ministered  for  eight  years,  although  he 
declincil  ordination.  When  he  returned  to  New  York, 
in  1653,  he  became  editor  of  the  Radical  Abolitionist, 
afterwards  called  the  Principia.  In  1865  he  removed 
to  Bozraville,  Conn.,  and  supplied  the  Church  in  that 
place.  From  1870  he  resided  in  Janesville,  Wis.  He 
died  Feb.  14,  1878.  Besides  a  large  number  of  pam- 
phlets, pruicipally  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  he  published 
three  larger  works,  viz. :  The  Democracy  of  Christianity 
(1850,  2  vols.) :  —  History  of  Slavery  and  A  nii-Matery 
{ 1852) :— il  merican  Slave  Code  (1853).  See  Cong,  Year- 
5ooifc,1879,p.42. 

Goodenough,  John  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Church  of 
England  divine,  was  bora  in  1780.  He  graduated  at 
New  College,  Oxford,  in  1801;  in  1812  was  appointed 
head  master  of  the  Bristol  Free  Grammar-school,  which 


failed  nnder  his  administration.  He  held  one  or  two 
small  pieces  of  preferment,  together  with  his  master- 
ship, before  taking  the  family  living  of  Broughton 
Pogla,  Oxfordshire,  in  1845,  at  which  place  he  died, 
April  22,  1856.  See  Hardwicke,  Annual  Biographf^ 
1856,  p.  214. 

Qoodford,  Cuables  Old,  D.D.,  a  Church  of  Eng- 
land divine,  was  born  in  Somerset  in  1812,  and  educated 
at  Eton  and  Cambridge  (A.Bb  1836).  He  was  for  many 
years  assistant  master  at  Eton ;  bcNcame  head  master  ia 
1858,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Hawtry  as  provost  in  1862.  He 
held  the  rectory  of  Chilton  Canteloo  from  1856,  and 
died  May  9, 1884. 

Goodrich,  William  He!crt,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  in  New  Haven,  Jan.  19,  1823,  be- 
ing the  son  of  Rev.  C  A.  Goodrich,  D.D.,  grandson  of 
Noah  Webster,  LL.D.,  and  great-grandson  of  Rev.  Eli- 
zur  Goodrich,  D.D.  He  graduateil  at  Yale  College  in 
1843,  and  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1847,  and  was  tutor 
in  Yale  College  two  years.  After  making  the  tour  of 
Europe,  he  accepted,  in  1850,  a  call  to  the  pastoral  charge 
of  the  Congregational  Church  of  Bristol,  Conn.,  where 
he  remained  four  years.  He  was  then  called  to  the 
pastorate  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Binghamton, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  till  1858,  and  then  removed 
to  Cleveland,  O.,  as  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church,  where  his  work  was  marked  by  very  great  sac- 
oess.  In  1872,  after  securing  the  settlement  of  the  Re^. 
H.  C.  Haydn  as  associate  pastor,  he  left  for  a  visit  to 
foreign  lands,  that  thus  his  health  might  be  restored  ; 
but  he  died  at  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  July  11, 1874b 
As  a  preacher.  Dr.  Goodrich  was  seldom  speculative  and 
theoretical,  never  dogmatic  nor  sectarian,  but  eminent- 
ly spiritual  and  practical.  A  very  strong  point  in  his 
character  was  his  downright,  never- failing  commoD- 
sense.  He  was  remarkable  for  insight  into  the  charao- 
ter  of  all  with  whom  he  had  to  do. 

Goodsel],  Buel,  a  veteran  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Dover,  N.  Y.,  July  25, 1793.  He 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  sixteen ;  in  1814  was  re- 
ceived into  the  New  York  Conference,  and  served  Gran- 
ville Circuit,  Mass.  and  Conn.;  in  1815,  Stowe  Circuity 
Yt.;  in  1816,  Chazy  Circuit,  N.  Y.;  in  1817,  Middle- 
burgh,  Vt.;  in  1818-19, St  Alban's  Circuit;  in  1820-21, 
Chazy  Circuit, N.  Y. ;  in  1822, Charlotte  Circuit, Vt.;  in 
1823-26, Cbamplain  District;  in  1827,Fitchtown,N.Y.; 
in  1828-29,  Schenectady;  in  1830-31,  New  York  city; 
in  1832-83,  Troy ;  in  1834-37,  Troy  District ;  in  1838-39, 
John  Street,  New  York  citv;  in  1840-41,  North  New- 
burgh;  in  1842-43,  White  Plains;  in  1844-45,  York 
Street,  Brooklyn ;  in  184&47,  Willett  Street,  New  York 
city;  in  1848149,  Norwalk,  Conn.;  in  1850-51,  Hem{>- 
stead,  L.  I.;  in  1852-58,  New  RocheUe,  N.  Y.;  in  1854, 
East  Brooklyn, L. I.;  in  1855-58,  Long  Island  District; 
in  1859^  Greenpoint,  Brooklyn ;  in  1861-62,  Rocka- 
way,  L.  I. ;  and  thereafter  East  Chester  and  City  Island, 
N.  Y.,  until  his  death.  May  4, 1863.  Mr.  Goodsell  was  a 
laborious,  faithful,  and  successful  minister.  See  J/ta- 
utes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1864,  p.  88. 

Goodaell.  Dana,  a  veteran  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  at  Bradford,  Conn.,  Aug.  28*,  1803.  He  en- 
tered Princeton  Seminary  in  1827,  and  remained  there 
over  two  years;  began  a  year's  service  in  MisBi»> 
sippi  as  agent  of  the  American  Sunday-school  Union, 
Oct.  8, 1830 ;  and  in  the  autumn  of  1886  was  laboring 
at  LoweU,  Mass.  He  was  ordained  and  installed  as 
pastor  at  Plainfield,  Sept.  27, 1837|  and  dismissed  SepU 
25,  1839;  was  next  installed  pastor  at  South  Am- 
herst, Mass.,  April  21,  1841,  and  after  laboring  there 
with  much  acceptance,  was  dismissed  Nov.  12,  1846. 
Subsequently  to  1847  he  travelled  in  the  West  and 
South,  in  the  service  of  the  American  Tract  Society, 
preaching  to  destitute  churches,  and  distributing  reli^ 
ions  books.  In  failing  health  he  next  went  to  North 
Carolina,  where  he  accumulated  much  property,  which 
was  lost  on  the  opening  of  the  civil  war  in  1861.     He 


600DSPEED 


467 


GORDON 


then  retnmad  to  the  North,  and  henceforth  spent  mo6t 
of  his  time  in  Fhiltdelphia,  where  he  preached  as  op- 
portunity offered,  and  engaged  in  other  Christian  labor. 
In  his  old  age  he  lost  the  remainder  of  his  property 
and  war  east  npon  the  charity  of  the  world.  Becoming 
very  feeble,  he  was  taken,  June  17, 1874,  to  *'The  Old 
Han*8  Home"  in  West  Philadelphia,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  19, 1676.  Mr.  Goodsell  was  a  man  of  strong  intel- 
lect and  firm  convictions,  wonderfully  gifted  in  prayer, 
quiet  and  devoted.  See  NecroL  Rtpori  of  Princeton 
TheoL  Sem,  1877,  p.  24. 

Goodspeed,  £doar  Johmson,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  in  Johnsburgh,  Warren  Co.,  N.  T., 
May  31, 1833.  He  studied  in  the  academy  at  Glenn's 
Falls,  spent  part  of  one  year  at  Union  College,  Schenec- 
tady, and  graduated  from  the  University  of  Rochester 
in  18o3,  and  from  the  Rochester  Theological  Seminary 
in  1856.  Immediately  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Central  Baptist  Church  in  Poughkeepsie,  and  in  the 
fall  of  1858  removed  to  Janesville,  Wis.,  in  the  same 
capacity,  where  he  had  eminent  success.  On  the  for- 
mation of  the  Second  Baptist  Church  of  Chicago,  in 
1864,  he  was  called  to  be  its  pastor,  and  for  several  years 
labored  with  great  constancy  and  success.  In  the  win- 
ter of  1870  and  1871  he  was  suddenly  prostrated  by 
asthma,  and  spent  several  months  in  Europe.  On  his 
return  he  received  for  his  colleague  his  brother,  Rev. 
T.  W.  Goodspeed ;  and  in  1876  was  forced  to  resign.  He 
next  spent  a  year  and  a  half  at  New  Market,  N.  J.,  in 
entire  rest  and  freedom  from  care,  and  then  accepted  a 
call  to  the  Central  Church  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  In  1879 
he  took  charge  of  the  Benedict  Institute,  Columbia, 
S.  C,  with  the  hope  that  a  milder  climate  would  benefit 
his  health.  The  school  largely  increased  under  his  ad- 
ministration ;  but  in  the  midst  of  his  usefulness  he  died, 
Jane  12, 1881.  He  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  trus> 
tees  of  the  Chicago  University  and  of  the  Theological 
Seminary.  He  was  editor  of  CobbMt  Commentary  on 
the  Bible^  and  wrote  The  Wonderful  Career  of  Moody 
ami  Saniey  in  Great  Britain  and  America: — The  Life 
cfJesntffor  Young  People: — The  Livee  of  the  Apo$tle$j 
for  the  Young: — The  Great  Fires  in  Chicago  and  the 
West:  — A  History  of  the  CentenniaL  See  Chicago 
Standard,  June  23, 188L     (J.  (X  S.) 

Goodwillie,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in'  Bamet,  Caledonia  Co.,  Yt.,  Sept«  27, 
1800.  His  parents  were  natives  of  Scotland,  and  emi- 
grated to  the  United  SUtes  in  1788.  He  graduated 
fromDartmouth  CoUege,  N.  H.,  in  1820.  In  1828  was 
licensed  by  Cambridge  Presbytery,  and  in  1826  installed 
paator  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Bamct.  He  was 
a  man  of  large  experience,  and  an  accomplished  scholar. 
He  travelled  extensively  through  Europe  in  order  to 
recuperate  his  health,  as  well  as  to  study  the  workings 
of  Catholicism.  He  was  a  life  member  of  the  American 
Bible  Society.  Dr.  GoodwiUie  died  Feb.  11, 1867.  He 
possessed  good  natural  ability,  carefully  cultivated  and 
improved  by  study  and  intercourse  with  men.  See 
Wilson,  Presb,  Hist.  Almanac,  1868,  p.  265. 

OoodiKrlxi,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Bath,  Oct  10, 1785,  educated  at 
the  Blue  School,  began  to  learo  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
biew  while  an  apprentice,  but  went  to  sea,  and  was 
pressed  into  the  navy.  In  1802  he  returned  to  Bath, 
waa  converted,  and  joined  the  Church  in  1803.  In  1805 
lie  became  an  itinerant  evangelist,  and  in  1808  settled 
as  pastor  at  Chipping-Sodbury.  In  1811  he  removed 
to  Dartmouth,  and  in  1815  to  Great  Missenden,  Bucks. 
In  1822  he  was  appointed  classical  professor  at  Horton, 
where  be  continued  to  labor  with  untiring  vigor  dur- 
ing many  years.  In  1828  he  entered  heartily  into  the 
oontroversy  on  popery,  in  1830  delivered  lectures  against 
'^  colonial  slavery,"  and  in  1834  lectured  on  the  atheistic 
controversy.  In  1838  he  became  pastor  of  the  Baptist 
Cbttrch  at  Oxford,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  reconcil- 
ing^ the  differences  which  had  arisen  in  the  Serampore 


mission.  In  1842  he  took  part  in  Uie  Jubilee  at  Ket- 
tering of  the  founding  of  the  Baptist  missions.  In  1843 
he  exposed  the  evil  tendency  of  Dr.  Pusey's  teaching 
on  the  eucharist.  In  1846  he  returned  to  Bradford ;  in 
1850  was  chairman  of  the  London  meeting  of  the  Bap- 
tist Union ;  in  1858  enlarged  and  redelivered  his  lec- 
tures on  atheism;  in  1855  he  removed  to  Rawdon;  at 
the  age  of  eighty  joined  in  the  Baptist  Union  meeting; 
in  1868  he  wrote  two  elaborate  essays  on  the  Future 
State,  and  died  Feb.  20,  1871.  See  (Lond.)  BaptUt 
Hand-book,  1872. 

Gkx>dwlzi,  'WiUiam  H.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Method- 
ist Episcopal  minister,  was  bora  at  Goodwin's  Point, 
Tompkins  Co.,  N.  T.,  June  12, 1812.  He  was  convert- 
ed at  nineteen  years  of  age,  and  the  next  year  entered 
the  Genesee  Conference.  His  appointments  were :  first 
in  his  native  place,  then  Ovid,  Catharine,  Brockport, 
East  Rochester,  Lyons,  Canandaigua,  Vienna,  and  Fcnn 
Yan.  In  1848,  on  the  division  of  the  conference,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  East  Genesee  Conference,  wherein 
he  served  Lyons,  East  Rochester,  Elmira,  Geneva,  Hor- 
nellsville  District,  Elmira  District,  Rochester  District, 
Genevs,  Clifton  Springs,  Rushville,  Ovid,  and  in  1874 
Dryden,  where  his  health  failed,  and  where  he  died, 
Feb.  17, 1876.  Mr.  Goodwin  wifs  chosen  state  senator 
from  Ontario  and  Livingston  counties  in  1854;  and  in 
1865  was  appointed  regent  of  the  University  of  New 
York.  He  was,  in  personal  appearance,  very  prepos- 
sessing, tall,  weU  developed,  noble;  in  character,  frank, 
generous  to  a  fault;  had  a  voice  rarely  equalled  in  depth, 
fulness,  and  sweetness;  imagination  fertile  and  chaste; 
a  mind  of  great  natural  strength,  finely  cultured  in  logic 
and  rhetoric ;  and  a  sincere  enthusiasm  that  overcame 
all  obstacles.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,1876, 
p.  138;  Simpson,  Cydop,  of  Methodism,  s.  v. 

Gopifl^  in  Hindil  mytholog}',  are  the  nine  beauti- 
fol  maidens  who  accompanied  the  youthful  Krishna, 
and  with  him  danced  at  night  on  the  plains  of  Agra. 
Krishna  is  the  Apollo^  and  these  Gopis  are  the  muses 
of  the  Hindfis.  The  number  nine  might  be  doubtful, 
were  not  Krishna  represented  riding  on  an  elephant, 
which  is  artistically  composed  of  the  forms  of  these 
GopisL 

Qdrcke,  HmuiAinf  Moritz,  a  Lothenui  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  t>om  Sept.  26, 1803,  and  died  March  6, 
1888,  at  2iarben,  in  Pomerania.  He  is  the  author  of 
BMrJahr  (Beriiu,  1857-60,  4  vols.).  See  Zuchold, 
BibLTheU.\,4&\.    (K  P.) 

Gordon,  Adam,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  dean  of 
Caithness  and  minister  at  Pettie,  and  was  bishop  of  the 
see  of  Caithness.  When  he  was  made  bishop  is  not 
known.  He  died  at  Elgin,  June  4, 1528.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  214. 

Gordon,  Alexander  (I),  a  Scotch  bishop,  was 
first  rector  of  Fetteresso,  in  the  shire  of  Mearos,  next 
chanter  or  precentor  of  the  see  of  Moray,  and  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Aberdeen  about  1517.  He  died  June 
29, 1518.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  1 19. 

Gordon,  Alexander  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
made  bishop  of  the  Isles  "Sow  21, 1553;  from  this  see 
he  was  translated  to  that  of  Galloway  in  1558.  In  1570 
he  preached  in  John  Knox's  pulpit,  at  Edinburgh.  In 
1576  he  was  a  judge  in  the  Court  of  Session.  He  died 
in  the  same  year.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  279, 
307. 

Gordon,  John  (l),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made 
bishop  of  Galloway  Feb.  4,  1G88,  and  consecrated  at 
Glasgow.  After  the  revolution  he  followed  king  James 
to  Ireland,  and  then  to  France,  and  while  at  St.  Ger- 
main's read  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England  to 
all  Protestants  who  came  to  bear.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  283. 

Gordon,  John  (2),  D.D.,  F.S.A.,  a  Church  of  Eng- 
land divine,  was  bom  at  Whitworth,  Durham,  in  1725. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge, 


GORDON 


468 


MORSIUS 


Ancient  Bepreseutatioa  of  the  two  Gorgons,  Stheno  and  Enryale,  complaining  to  Ncptaue  of  the  Fate  of 

their  Sister  Hedoaa. 


where  he  took  the  degrees  of  A.a  in  1748»  A.M.  in  1762, 
and  D.D.  in  1765,  at  Peterbouse ;  and  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  Eouuiael  College  in  1751.  At  bis  decease, 
which  ooconed  Jan.  19,  1798,  he  was  precentor  and 
arehdeaoon  of  Lincoln,  and  rector  of  Uenstead,  Suffi>lic. 
He  was  the  aatbor  of  a  New  Estimate  of  the  Matmen 
and  Prittcq>lea  of  the  Time»t  8  parts:  —  Occatwnal 
Thoughie  on  the  3tu^  of  Classical  Authors  (1762)  :— 
and  two  Sermons  preached  at  Cambridge.  See  (Lond.) 
A  nnual  Register^  1793,  ^.  69. 

Gknrdon,  Thomaji,  a  noted  religious  writer,  was 
bom  in  Kirlccudbrigh't,  Galloway,  Scotland,  about  1684, 
and  had  a  university  education.  While  young  he  went 
to  London,  at  first  as  a  teacher,  and  afterwards  as  a 
writer,  becoming  widely  known  for  his  political  and  re- 
ligious articles  and  pamphlets.  He  died  July  28, 1750. 
He  published,  Tadtus  Translated  into  English  (1728-31) : 
— l^he  Independent  Whigj  or  a  Dtfence  ofPrimitwe  Chris^ 
(iamtg  (1782)  i^SaUust  Translate  into  English  (1744) : 
— two  collections  of  tracts :  L  A  Cordial /or  Low  Spirits 
(1760);  n.  The  Pillars  of  Priestcrqft  and  Orthodoxy 
Shaken  (eod.).  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  t.  ;  Alli- 
bone,  DicLo/BriL  and  Amer,  A  uihors,  s.  v. 

Gordon,  Thomas  Patterson,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bom  in  Monongahela  City,  Wash- 
ington Co.,  Pa.,  July  28, 1818.  He  graduated  from  Jef- 
ferson College,  Canonsburg,  in  1884,  and  from  the  The- 
ological Seminary  at  Allegheny  in  1887 ;  was  licensed 
by  Ohio  Presbytery,  and  ordained  pastor  of  the  Buffalo 
Church  in  Cumberland,  where  he  labored  till  1842  with 
great  acceptance.  In  1846  he  was  appointed  an  agent 
for  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions,  but  the  same  year 
became  pastor  at  Allegheny,  Pa.;  in  1850  he  removed 
to  Wellsville,  O.;  in  1856  became  pastor  of  the  Sixth 
Church,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  in  1857  removed  to  Tcrre 
Haute,  Ind.,  and  (Ued  there,  Aug.  15, 1865.  See  Wilson, 
Presb.  Hist,  A  Imanac,  1867,  p.  150. 

Gordon,  William  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bish- 
op of  Aberdeen  about  1556,  and  died  there  in  1557.  See 
Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  122. 

Gordon,  William  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man and  historian,  was  bom  at  Hitch  in,  Hertfordshire, 
in  1729,  and  educated  at  a  Dissenting  academy  near 
London.  He  was  pastor  of  an  Independent  Chureh  at 
Ipswich,  and  was  subsequently  successor  to  Dr.  David 
Jennings,  in  the  church  at  Old  Gravel  Lane,  Wapping. 
He  removed  to  America  in  1770,  and  became  minister 
of  the  Third  Church,  Roxbury,  Mass.  In  1781  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  preached  both  at  St.  Neots, 
H  untingdonshire,  and  at  Ipswich.  He  died  at  the  latter 
place,  (kt  19, 1807.  He  published  sermons,  etc.,  1772, 
1775, 1777, 1783 :  — i4n  Abridgment  of  Jonathan  Ed- 
ward^ Treatise  on  the  Religious  Affections: — A  History 
of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and  Establishment  of  the  Indepen- 
dencg  of  the  United  States  of  A  merica  (1788).  See  Chal- 
mers, Siog,  Diet,  s.  y. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer, 
A  uthors,  s.  V. 


Gorgons,  in  Greek  mythology,  were  danghters  of 
Phoicys  and  CeU>,of  extraordinary  beauty,  but  because 
of  their  pride  were  changed  by  the  gods  into  snake- 
haired  monsters.  Their  beads  were  covered  with  drag- 
on-scales, they  had  teeth  like  hyenas,  brazen  banda, 
and  wings.  Their  appearance  was  so  horrible  that  all 
who  saw  them  were  transformed  into  stone.  Their 
names  were :  Stheno,  Euryale,  and  Medusa ;  the  latter 
is  usually  called  Gorgo.  The  first  two  were  immortal. 
Medusa  was  not.  When  Perseus  was  ordered  to  get  the 
head  of  the  Gorgon,  only  Medusa  could  have  been 
meant.    See  Mkduba. 

Gorham,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  Dominican  of  the 
14th  century,  was  bom  at  Gorham,  near  St.  Albania, 
Hertfordshire,  educated  at  Merton  College,  Oxford, 
went  to  France  when  a  yoiuig  man,  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  there,  and  died  in  Paris  about  1400.  **  Many 
and  learned  are  his  books,"  says  Thomas  Fuller,  **hav. 
ing, commented  on  almost  all  the  Scriptures,  and  no 
hands  have  fewer  spots  of  pitch  upon  them  who  touched 
the  superstition  of  that  age"  {Worthies  ofEngkmd,ed 
Nuttall,  ii,  51). 

Gdring,  Christiasi  Carl.  Ernst,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian, who  died  June  18, 1866,  at  Windsheim,  in  Ba- 
varia, is  the  author  of,  Mitgabe  Jut's  Leben  (4th  ed. 
Nuremberg,  1848,  2  paru) :  —  Tfl^/tcAer  Wandel  dez 
Christen,  etc.  (4th  ed.  Nordlingen,  1854) : — Morgen-  wuf 
Abendsegen  des  Christen  (4th  ed.  1858)  \— Passions-Buck 
(\9&S)i—Kem  des  teutschen  Liederschaixes  (1828),  etc 
See  Zuchold,  BibL  Theoi  i,  451  sq.;  Koch,  Gesehiehte 
des  deutschen  KirchenUedes,  vii,  51  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Gorionides.    See  Joskph  ben-Goriox 

Gorlow,  Stephen,  a  philologist,  was  bom  in  P]ro»- 
sia,  Dec  27, 1619.  He  studied  at  Konigsbeig,  was  ia 
1647  professor  of  Hebrew  there,  and  died  Aug.  19, 1678. 
He  wrote,  Disp,  de  Christo  Filio  jEtemi  Patris  .*—/>« 
DetorsioiMus  et  Ezceptionibus  NonnulHs  Judaorum  «n 
Lippmansd  Nizzachon: — De  Cotfusionis  Linguarum  Ori^ 
gine  et  Afodo:  —  De  Initio  Decalogi  Exod,  xx,  1 1 — De 
Protevangdio  Gen,  Hi,  15 : — De  Sono  ThdKtrum  Sanctua^' 
rti.  See  Jocher,  AUgememes  Gelehrien-Lexikon,  s.  y.; 
FQrst,  Bibl.  Jud,  i,  839.    (a  P.) 

Gorran,  Nicolas  de,  a  French  theologian,  was 
bora  probably  in  1230.  After  having  begun  his  stod- 
ies  with  the  preaching  friars  of  Le  Mans,  he  went  to 
the  college  of  Saint  Jacob,  at  Paris;  became  imme- 
diately afterwards  one  of  the  lecturers  of  the  college^ 
and,  having  gained  some  reputation  in  the  pulpit,  was 
appointed  confessor  to  the  king  of  Navarre,  son  of 
Phillippe  the  Bold.  Gorran  died  in  1295.  He  wrote 
some  commentaries  or  postals  on  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
and  sermons,  a  few  only  of  which  were  published.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Gdrrea.    See  Goerres. 

Gtoraiaa,  PETRtis,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  bom  in  1590, 
and  died  at  Bezien,  April  27, 166L    He  is  the  author 


GORSKIUS  4( 

d^  MrJUatieuit  m  Oama  Domiiaea$  tt  Frtia  TotiMt 
Atoii:—Exjdiailio  in  Prortrbia  ^o^ohoiiu; — EipUeO' 
Ha  in  Eeelaiiattm  :  —  Exjiliealio  in  Erdttimlie«» : — 
Ei^caHo  u  LOimm  Sapiaitia.  S««  Alegiidbe,  BSi- 
lioduca  SrriplOTHni  SodelaiuJm;  Jocbei,  AUgatfiaet 
Gflfltrtm-Lexiien,  ».  V.     {B.  F.) 

OonlElTiB,JAcoiius,i  PoliBh  KomaD  Calbalic  tht- 
ologian,  11111  irchdeicoa  at  Gnewti,  who  died  June  17, 
I&8&,  is  the  aattMt  of,  De  Uni  Ltsitimj)  EadiariiHa  :— 
De  Boptitme  Prmiatiiiali/nim  i  —  A  nmuiJcmioMt  in 
Tkeolagot  WirtmAerg : —  Aikiemi  Apmlalam  Ciriil. 
f  ranetni.  Sva  Surarolsciiu,  Srr^itiniim  Puloiiia  Cut- 
haia;  IHuSiJn,  Ttatro  iOomiM  LeUtratii  JOcber.ilff- 
gemma  Gdtkiiat-LnaJam,  i.  T.     (B.  P.) 

Ooaalns  (ot  Ooanami)  are  the  Hindi)  prieaU 
of  Ekliiigi,iD  Kajuthin.  Tbey  all  wear  b  cmeent  in 
Ibe  Torehead — (he  diatinguiabing  mark  of  tbe  faith  of 
^va.  It  is  not  atwommoa  to  find  Goaaini,  who  have 
made  a  tow  of  criibacr,  fallovii^  Kcular  pureuita,  auch 
ta  tbc  meteaDtiJe  and  milUaiy  profesaiooa.  Some  o( 
thoe  are  among  Uie  richeat  inerchanta  of  India,  wbile 
the  aiMJen  poiMa  Uoda,  and  b^  at  wtve  for  ptf  when 
ailed  npon. 

Qoaoelin,  a  Benedictine  of  St.  Bertia,  in  Aitoia, 
vtio  went  to  England  in  1049,  and  died  at  the  monaa- 
Irrf  of  Su  AoguaCin,  in  Canterbury,  ii  the  author  of, 
Hiitaria  Minor  dt  Vila  S,  A  vstutini,  Cantaar,  A  rcU- 
tpiteopi: — Hittoria  Major  de  Vita  S,  Anffittini^  et& 
atr«F<>ppaa,Bibi.Sftgica,i,a79  (llai);  Btitoire  Liut- 
raire  de  Fnmx,  Till;  Wright,  Biogr,  BriL  i,  MS,  521 
(I81i)t  Jitcher,  AOgeimtt  GtiihrliH- Ltxiion,  a.  v.; 
Ijcbleoberger,  Ean/dop,  da  Sdenca  RtHgieatCM,  a,  v. 
(BLR) 

Ooalawaki  (Lit.  Gotlaeiia),  Adah,  0/  Btbdm,  an 
adherent  of  Socinoa,  lived  in  Pulaiid  in  the  fint  part  of 
the  ITtfa  eentnrr,  and  wrot«  worka  in  I^tin  (Rakow, 
1607,  1620),  Tbeir  object  is  to  refute  the  aj-item  of 
Keckernan  and  of  Haitiii  on  tbe  dirinitj  of  Jeaoa 
CbriM.     See  Hoefer,  Nottt.  Biog.  Cmralt,  t.  y. 

Ooaliold,  WAWazTHiEO  (Lat.  GotlidttM,  I^arai- 
liai  Grimaiiia'),  a  learned  Polith  ecciaiaatic,  waa  bom 
about  IU8,  and  educated  at  Craoow  ami  Padua.  He 
look  orden  in  the  Horaan  Cacbcriic  Church,  and  waa 
ancceaaivd;  appointed  bishop  of  Kaminieli  and  Foaen. 
He  waa  active  in  public  alTaira,  and  waa  frequently  en- 
gaged in  politjeal  nutten.  Through  bia  influence  the 
Jeaoita  ««e  prevented  from  eataUiibing  their  achools 
at  Craoow.  He  was  ilwa  atrvnuoaa  advocate  of  relig- 
iona  tirieration  in  Poland.  He  died  Oct.31,  ISO'.  Hia 
principal  work  is  Dt  Optimo  Stnaloif,  etc.  (Venice, 
1B68),  of  which  there  are  two  En^b  Iranelationa,  A 
Commomeealli  of  Good  CauBiniU,  etc  (1607),  and  Tkt 
AeeompStlKd  Satalor,  dot  iiUo  EtgUi/i  by  Mr,  Oldit- 
mtrdt  (1733).     See  Encydap.  BriL  9th  ed.  a.  v. 

OoMlum,  JoHK,  D.D.,  a  Refurmed  (Dutch)  minia- 
ter,  waa  bom  m  New  York  city  in  1784     He  graduated 
from  Colnnbia  College  in  IWl,  and  atodied  theology 
with  Dis.  Alexander  Proudflt  and  John  H.  Haaon ;  waa 
licensed  Ijy  the  PreabjTery  of  Waahingt^n  in  IBOi,  and 
■npplied  tbe  Preabjletiau  churches  of  .Lanaingbarg, 
etc.,  until  1808,  when  he  became  paitor  at  Kingston,  to 
wluch,  for  three  years,  Hurley  was  attached.     In  1836 
be  mnored  to  the  Second  Refonned  Church,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  hut  remained  only  one  year.     Aft«r  this  be 
officiated  as  a  staled  supply  in  Port  Brron  Presbyterian 
Chnrefa  (1838-41),  and  Coeymana  and  Sew  BalrU 
la  IMS  be  became  pastor  of  tbe  Beformed  Chi 
ia  Hudson,  and  remained  eleven  years,  resigning  01 
ooant  of  yean  and  health.     But  he  could  not  be  idle 
eren  in  his  retirement,  and  ao  again  resumed  pailoial 
work  in  the  little  country  charge  of  Flatbusb,  Ulster 
Co.,  in  1854.     He  resigned  in  1869,  and  died  in  1865. 
Dr.  Gosman  waa  a  man  of  oommauding  presence  a 
gmial  manners,  gifted  with  brilliant  genius,  sttloa 
a  child,  geaerooB  and  diainterested,  full  of  vivacity  and 
d  witty,  traniparmt,  iineere. 


;»  GOSPEL 

and  attractive.    His  mind  waa  qiuck,aeliTe,  pMlMOpa- 

ical,  and  powerful, and  hii  reading  covered  a  wide  range 
in  UCeralure  and  theology.  In  tbe  pulpit  he  olten  ex- 
hibited a  ran  and  wonderful  etoqnenn.  Hia  sermona 
were  filled  with  apt  iilustraiions,  governed  by  almoat 
faoltlesa  taste,  and  eniiebed  by  his  knoVledgie  of  the 
beat  authora  and  of  our  En^ish  tongue.  Hia  meoraiy 
'  re.  His  style  waa  rich,  tetae, 
and  beautifuL  In  every  good 
See  Maaorial  Addmtet  and 
TribnUti  Corwin,  Matmal  of  the  Rrf.  CtircA  n  Amer- 
■  1,  a.  v.    (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

OoBpoI,  Book  or  the,  the  name  of  the  volmne 
from  which  the  Icsaona  were  read.     We  extract  an  ac- 
Walcott,  Sac  ArduroL  a.  v.     See 

EVAHOKLiaTAXICK. 

Ttili  vnln  me,  usnnlly  splendidly  lllamlnBtednndboand 
(n  Jewelled  covers,  nlwavi  atood  on  tbs  altar  nuou  a  atand, 
and  tbe  latter  !s  called  In  IMO.  In  Bnsland.a  desk:  with 
deiireas  oradvancamenl.  In  1H»  It  stood  in  Ibe  midsi  of 
Ibe  altar.  Two  tapers,  according  to  Amataiius,  ware  car- 
ried before  the  eoqialler  to  npresant  the  llcfat  of  the  eiw- 
pel  In  tbe  worid,  and  otber  candtaay  stgnUylng  tbslav) 

_-..  .1 v_._  _^j^  extlapilahod,  to  show  their  sb- 

.    ...  .._ _-  gospel.   In  BL  Aognstlne'a  time  the 

gospel  was  read  on  tbe  north  side.  In  almslon  to  tbe  pro. 

phetical  verse,  Jer.  Ill,  It;  and  the  old  aaeranientarles 

-'ded,  becanse  It  la  preached  to  tHom  cold  In  (altb;  but 

Itome,  becaoeo  the  men  sat  on  the  south  side,  and  tbe 

imen  on  the  north,  the  deacon  turned  to  tbe  (urmer,  as 

by  Annlarlna,  probsblv  In  sllusinn  to  I  Cor. 

le  Qemma  Anloue  spealu  ot  r 

. —  v..  ..  ^  pi 

«  psrta  of  Englsi 

■erred  aa  late  aa  t 

.  —  r«ad  on  the  lowe..., 

er  ebidr  steps  from  a  lec- 


ilv,  so.    Tbe  Qemma  Anloue  spealu  ot  raadlBg  from  the 

uotth  side  as  n  new  cnitom,  bat  It  la  praaulKed  br  the 

If  lieieford  and  Seville.    In  some  parts  of  England, 

ver,  tbe  sontb  side  was  atlll  obaerred  aa  late  aa  tbe 
nninry.    When  Ibe  t^OB  was  r«ad  on  Ibe  loweal, 
ospel  was  read  un  the  npper  ebidr  steps  from  a  Ir- 
on principal  lestlvala,  Palm  Sunday,  and  Uie  ei 
ister  and  I%nteco«i,  tliej  were  read  m  the  rood-Ion. 

t  St  Pnnl's,  In  cathedrals  of  the  new '  fouudstlon, 

also,  and  In  ail  cathedrals,  b^  tbe  canons  of  IMS.  a  goa- 

..„ii J  epletolar,  or  deacon  and  aubdeocon,  who  are 

nt  canons  or  prietl-vlcari,  are  sppolcted :  they 
__._.  , _v,_..,  ....  ....V —  prlnetpsl 


Ancient  Book  of  tbe  Ooapala. 
■Ins  f,  c  4aS,  ordered  all  prletta  to  aland  and  bow  rever 
enlly  at  the  reading  of  the  gospel.  In  Iba  atb  centnr]^ 
the  peiHJie  stood  at  the  resdlne  ot  botb  these  Iscllonf. 
but  standing  was  retained  at  tbe  Rospel  only.  In  defer- 
ence lo  BIm  that  spenketh  therein.  At  tbe  end  of  Ibe 
epistle  tbe  words  are  said,  'Here  endetb  the  epistle,"  bnt 
no  sech  Itirm  follows  the  (oapel,  bacanas  It  Is  contlnned 
In  tbe  creed.  The  custom  ot  ssylne  •  Olory  be  to  thee,  O 
Lord.'  prescribed  befon  the  goeMnn  Edward  VI's  First 
Book,  and  saying  alter  II '  Thanks  be  to  Ood  for  bla  boly 
Koapei.'ls  Bs  oldns  tbe  tlmeofSt.  ChrvMStom.  In  Po- 
ind, during  a  time  of  Idolatry,  prince  Hleeslait 


GOSPELS 


470 


GOSPELS 


half  out  of  bis  Bcabbard,  to  show  that  all  were  readjr  to 
fight  to  death  fur  the  gospel.  There  was  a  cnrions  fiog- 
llsh  mediaeval  superstition  of  crossing  the  legs  when  the 
gospel  from  the  first  chapter  of  St  John  was  read.  The 
Gospel  oak  was  the  tree  at  which  the  gospel  was  read  in 
the  Rogation  processions." 

QospelBt  Apocryfhal  (or  Spurious).  By  way  of 
supplement  we  add  the  following.  At  an  early  period 
two  classes  of  these  works  were  noted :  first,  such  as  have 
reference  to  the  infancy  of  Christ,  or  EvangeUa  Tnfantia ; 
and,  secondly,  such  as  speak  of  hia  passion,  or  EvangeUa 
Pattionu  Jeau  ChHstL    The  following  are  now  exunt : 

1.  ProtevangeUum  Jacobi,  or,  according  to  its  title  in 
the  manuscripts.  The  Iligtory  of  James  concerning  the 
Birth  of  Mary  (*H  Xaropia  'laKtHtfiov  wtpl  r^c  ycvi^- 
ffccoc  Mapiat:),  See  Tischendorf,  Evangdia  Apocrg^ 
pha  (Leipsic,  1863),  p.  1-49;  Wright,  Contribuiions  to 
the  Apoayphal  Literature  of  the  New  Tettament^  Col- 
lected  and  Edited  from  Sgriac  MSS,  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum (Lond.  1865). 

2.  Evangelium  Pseudo-Matthcn  sice  Liber  de  Ortu 
Beata  Maria  et  Tnfantia  Salvatoiis,  See  Thilo,  Co- 
dex  Apocryphns  New  Test,  p.  837^100;  Schade,  Liber 
de  Infantia  Maria  et  Christi  Salvatoris  (Halle,  1869) ; 
Tischendorf,  L  c.  p.  50-105. 

3.  Evttngelium  de  NatioUate  Maria^  which  seems  to 
be  but  another  form  of  2.  See  Tischendorf,  A  c  p.  106- 
114. 

4.  Historia  Josephi  Fahri  Lignarii,  See  Tischen- 
dorf,  p.  115-183. 

5.  Evangelium  Thoma.  Tischendorf,  who  discovered 
different  recensions,  g^ves  a  threefold  text,  two  in  Greek, 
and  one  in  Latin.  The  Greek  titles  are  (1),  Outfia  iapa- 
ijXirov  <piKofr6^v  piird  tig  rd  fraiducd  rov  Kvpiovi 
(2)  ^vtrypafifia  rov  ayiov :  (8)  'AirocrroXov  Oiofia  vtpi 
Trjg  naiiunjc  avaarpof^g  rov  Kvpiou.  The  Latin  title 
is,  Tractatus  de  Pueritia  Jesu  Secundum  Thomam.  A 
Syriac  text  with  an  English  translation  was  published 
by  Wright  (Lond.  1875). 

6.  Evangelium  Tnfantia  A  rabicum.  See  Tischendorf, 
p.  171-202. 

7.  Evangelium  Nieodemi,  consisting  of  two  separate 
works,  (a)  Gesta  Pilati  and  (b)  Descensus  Christi  adTn- 
femos.  Both  these  works  were  joined  together  at  an 
early  date,  though  the  combination  did  not  receive  the 
name  it  now  bears  until  after  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 
The  original  title  of  the  first  work  was  'Tvofiviffiara 
Tov  Kvpiov  Tffiuty  'lri<rov  Xpiarov  jcpax^ivra  iiri  Tlov- 
Tiov  IliXdroVf  hence  the  Latin  title,  Gesta  Pilati  (in 
Grcgor.  Turon.  Tlist,  Franc  i,  21, 24)  or  A  da  Pilati  (Jus- 
tin MarL  Apolog,  i,  35).  The  author  of  the  A  eta  Pilati 
was  probably  a  Jewish  Christian,  and  the  work  is  of 
some  importance  for  the  explanation  and  further  eluci- 
dation of  the  canonical  gospels.  See  Hofmann,  Leben 
Jesu^  p.  264,  379,  386,  396;  Tischendorf,  Pilati  circa 
Christum  Judicio  quid  Lucis  Offeratur  Exactis  THlati 
(Leipsic,  1855);  Lipsius,  THe  PHatuS'Akten  (Kiel, 
1871). 

The  second  part  of  the  Evangelium  Nicodemi,  the 
Descensus  Christi  ad  Tnfernos,  or  Aufyritng  vipi  rov 
rrd^ovs  rov  Kvpiov  i^fidv  'lijffov  Xpiarov  cat  rrjg  ayiag 
avTov  dvauTaaiinQ,  is  of  very  little  importance.  In 
connection  with  these  two  works,  Tischendorf  gives 
some  other  apocryphal  fabrications,  which  together 
form  a  group  by  themselves :  namely,  Epistda  Pilati^ 
incorporated  in  the  apocryphal  i4cte  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  (Greek  text  in  Tischendorf,  A  eta  Apost,  Apocryph. 
p.  16);  which  is  a  letter,  addressed  to  the  emperor  Clau- 
dius Tiberius,  containing  a  report  of  the  resurrection  of 
Christ;  Episiola  PontU  Pilati,  another  letter  by  him,  in 
which  he  excuses  the  unjustness  of  bis  verdict  by  the  im- 
possibility of  resisting  the  prevailing  excitement;  Ana- 
phora Pilaiif  a  report  on  the  trial,  execution,  death,  and 
resurrection  of  Jesus;  Paradosis  Pilati,  a  report  of  the 
examination  of  Pilate  before  the  emperor,  his  condem- 
nation and  execution.  A  forgery  of  later  origin  is  the 
Latin  Epistola  Pilati  ad  Tiberium  (Tischendorf,  p.  411 
8q.).    To  these  Evangelia  Apocrypha,  which  only  con- 


stitute the  smallest  part  of  apocryphal  gospels,  the  fol- 
lowing must  be  added : 

8.  Evangdium  Secundum  jEgyptios,  L  e. "  the  Gospel 
of  the  Egyptians,"  in  use  among  the  Encratites  (Qem. 
Alex.  Strom,  iii,  9,  p.  540  sq. ;  Potter,  xiii,  558)  and  the 
Sabellians  (Epiphan.  Beer.  Ixii,  2). 

9.  Evangdium  Sternum,  the  work  of  a  Minorite  of 
the  13th  oenturv,  and  condemned  by  pope  Alexander 
IV. 

10.  Evangelium  A  ndra,  mentioned  by  pope  Innocent 
I  {EpiMt,  6,  ad  Exuper,)  and  St.  Augustine  (Contra  Ad- 
vers.  Leg,  et  Prophet.  20). 

11.  EvangeUum  Apdlis,  probably  a  mutilation  of  one 
of  the  canonical  gospels. 

12.  Evangdium  Duodecim  Apostolorum,  mentioned 
by  Origen  (Bom.  1  tn  Luc);  Arobros.  {Prootm.  tn 
Lucam) ;  Jerome  {Prooem,  in  Matt.) 

13.  Evangdium  Bamaba,  mentioned  in  the  Tkat- 
turn  Gdasii,  vi,  10,  and  in  the  catalogue  of  Anastasiiu 
Slnaita  (by  Credner,  Gesdt.  des  Kanons,  p.  241). 

14.  Evangelium  Bartholomai,  mentioned  by  Jerome, 
Praf.  in  Matt, ;  Gelasii,  Decretum,  vi,  12. 

15.  Evangdium  BasUidis,  mentioned  by  Origen, 
Tract.  26  in  Matt.  xxxiO,  84 ;  Euseb.  Bist.  Ecd.  4, 7. 

16.  Evangdium  Cerinfki,  seems  to  have  been  the  Go»- 
pel  according  to  Matthew,  arbitrarily  remodelled,  and 
in  thb  mutilated  shape  accepted  by  the  Carpocratians. 

17.  Evangdium  Ebiomtarum^  of  which  fragments  are 
found  in  Epiphan.  Hares,  xxx,  13, 16, 21. 

18.  Evangelium  Eva,in  use  by  some  gnostics  (Epiphan. 
Bares,  xxvi,  2, 8,  5). 

19.  Evangelium  Secundum  Bebraos,  one  of  the  oldest 
apocryphal  productions,  written  in  Cbaldee  with  He- 
brew letters,  used  by  the  Nazarenes,  and  tranahited  into 
Greek  and  Latin  by  Jerome.  See  Xtcholson,  The  Got- 
pel  according  to  the  Bebrews  (Lond.  1879). 

20.  Evangdium  Jacobi  Majoris,  found  in  Spaiu  in 
1595,  and  condemned  by  Innocent  XI  in  1682. 

21.  Joannis  de  Transitu  Matia,  not  published  by 
Tischendorf. 

22.  Evangdium  Juda  Tschariota,  used  by  the  Cainttes. 

23.  Evangdium  LeucO, 

24.  Evangdia,  qua  FalsavU  Ludanus,  Apocrypha  and 
EvangeUa,  qua  Falsavit  Hesyckius,  Apocrypha,  See 
Griesbach,  Prolog. in  ed.  Nov.  Test.  Hi;  Hug,  EinkituRS 
in  das  Neue  Test.  87, 88. 

25.  Evangelia  Manichaorum,  comprising 

(a.)  Evemgdium  Thoma,  different  from  the  one  given 
under  5. 

(b.)  Evangdium  Vivum, 

(c.)  Evangdium  PhilippL 

(d.)  Evangdium  A  bda,  also  called  Mddtog,  i  e*  ^^ 
BusheL 

26.  Evangdium  Marcionis,  a  mutilation  of  the  Gospel 
according  to  Luke,  by  the  founder  of  the  famous  anti- 
Jewish  sect 

27.  Maria  Tnterrogationes  Majorts  el  Minorts,  two 
works  of  obscene  contents,  used  by  some  Gnostics. 

28.  Evangdium  Matthia,  mentioned  by  Origin,  Je- 
rome, Eusebius,  Grelasius,  and  Beda. 

29.  Narraiio  de  Le^i  Christ*  Saeerdotu>,  comp. 
Suidas,  a.  y.  'Ifioovg. 

80.  Evangdium  Perfectioms,  used  by  the  Basilidiaos 
and  other  Gnostics. 

81.  Evangdium  Petri  was  in  use  in  the  congr^tion 
of  Rhossus,  in  Cilicia,  towards  the  close  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury. 

82.  Evangdium  PhU^,  used  by  the  Gnostics. 

33.  Eva^dium  Simonitarum,  or  as  it  was  called  by 
themselves.  Liber  Quatuor  Angulorum  et  Cardinum 
Mimdi,  i.  c.  Book  of  the  Four  Comers  and  ffingei  of  the 
World,  divided  into  four  parts. 

34.  Evangelium  Secundum  Syros,  probably  identical 
with  the  Evangdium  Secundum  Tfebraos, 

85.  Evangdium  Tatiani,  a  compilation  from  the  four 
gospels,  hence  also  called  THatessaron  {rb  Bid  rwirdp^v)' 
See  Zahn,  Tatian^s  Diatesseron  (Erlangen,  1881). 


GOSPELLER 


471 


GOTHS 


86.  EvoHffelutm  Thaddoti^  mentioned  in  some  MSS. 
of  the  DtertiUM  Gekuiamtm,  See  Credner,  Zur  Geteh, 
du  Kammt  (HaUe,  1847),  p.  21. 

87.  EvwtgeUum  Valeniim^  which  is  perhaps  the  same 
as  the  EpcmgeHum  Verilaiu  used  by  the  Yalentinians, 
and  differing  widely  from  the  canonical  gospels. 

See  Uofmann,  in  Henog-Plitt,  s.  v.,  Apokryphm  da 
Neum  TestammU;  Smith,  Dkt.  qf  ChritL  Biog,  a.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Gospeller  is  a  name  applied  to  the  priest  in  the 
English  Church  who  reads  the  gospel  in  the  commu- 
nion service,  standing  at  the  north  side  of  the  altar. 
In  some  cathedrals  one  of  the  clergy  is  appointed  spe- 
cially to  perform  this  duty ;  hence  the  name. 

Goes,  Karl  Ernst  Frirdrich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  June  18, 1757.  In  1787  he 
was  deacon,  in  1814  pastor  at  Baiersdorf,  near  Erlangen, 
and  died  June  28,  1836.  He  wrote,  Der  VerfaU  dea 
offentlicken  CuUut  im  MUUlaUer  (Sulzbach,  1820) :  — 
Die  Seelen-Fate  (ErUngen,  1825).  See  Winer,  I/and- 
buch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  576, 019.    (R  P.) 

Goaael,  Ain>RKAa  Arnold,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec  20,  1700,  in  East  Frisia. 
He  studied  at  Halle,  was  preacher  in  1728,  in  1741 
court-preacher  at  Aurich,  in  Prussia,  and  died  Dec  9, 
1770.  He  published.  Dot  Evangelium  van  Christo,  in 
dan  UU  Kapiid  letaia  (Bremen,  1788)  :-^Das  Evange- 
lism in  dem  liv  Kapitd  lesaid  (1786) : — Das  Evtmge- 
Utch'btikeruchB  Kircken  GlaubenMbemOmts  (1789): 
— Hicktige  Mittdatra$te  in  der  GnadaUekre  der  Evangt' 
liKh4utkeri$cken  Kirche  (1747).  See  Nenbauer,  JetU- 
lehende  Theologen;  Jocher,  AUgemeinei  Gelehrten-Lexu 
bm,  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

OoBset,  Isaac,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  a  Church  of  England 
divine,  well  known  in  London  as  a  most  intelligent 
purchaser  and  collector  of  books,  and  conspicuous  at  all 
public  sales  by  his  diminutive  person,  was  bom  in  1744. 
He  was  of  a  refugee  French  family,  and  was  the  son  of 
a  modeller  in  wax,  settled  in  London.  He  displayed 
from  his  childhood  an  extraordinary  passion  for  rare 
books,  and  was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford. 
He  became  eminent  as  a  preacher,  notwithstanding  his 
penonal  disadvantages,  but  never  sought  or  obtained  a 
preferment.  He  was  a  good  scriptural  critic,  and  ex- 
celled as  a  bibliogiapber.  He  died  Dec.  16, 1812.  See 
(Loud.)  Amnud  Register,  1812,  p.  182. 

GoBSon,  Stephen,  an  English  divine  and  poet, 
was  bom  at  Kent  in  1554,  and  was  educated  at  Christ- 
church,  Oxford.  He  became  rector  of  St.  Botolph, 
Btshop^gate  Street,  London,  which  post  he  retained  un- 
til bis  death.  He  was  diAtinguisbed  for  his  opposition 
to  the  dramatic  entertainments  of  the  day.  His  death 
occarred  in  1623.  His  publications  are,  The  School  of 
Abuse  (1587):— Ptoy#  Confuted  in  Fire  Actumt.-^The 
Trumpet  of  Weale,  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did,  s.  v.; 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

GK>Beiiiiit  an  abbot  of  Anchin,  theologian  and  scho- 
laatic  phik>8opher,was  bom  at  Douai  in  1086.    He  was 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  students  of  the  Univer- 
sity' of  Paris,  where  he  soon  gained  the  reputation  of  an 
excellent  grammarian  and  dialectician.    Being  admit-, 
ted  to  the  school  of  Joslain  de  Viersy,  who  later  became 
btahop  of  Soissons  and  also  minister  of  Louis  YII,  king 
of  France,  he  was  selected  by  his  fellow -students  to 
brine;  to  Abelard,  the  rival  of  his  teacher,  a  challenge 
on  science.    On  his  retnm  to  bis  native  city,  Gossuin 
entered  into  orders,  and  became  successively  minister 
of  several  monasteries.    He  was  at  the  abbey  of  An- 
chin when  pope  Innocent  II  charged  him  with  the  con- 
version of  Abelard,  who  had  been  condemned  to  con- 
finement and  silence.    Afterwards  he  was  appointed 
abbot  of  Saint- Pierre -de-Cb&lons,  and  of  Lobbes,  in 
Hainaut,  but  he  refused  to  accept.     Gossuin  finally  ac- 
cepted the  abbey  of  Anchin,  and  governed  wisely  this 
opulent  monastery.    He  assisted  at  the  Council  of 


Rheims  in  1147,  where  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Sl 
Bernard.  Gossuin  died  in  1166.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GMraU,  s.  v. 

See  GosAiKH. 


Goth,  B]£rani)  de,  a  French  prelate,  brother  of  pope 
Clement  Y,  and  son  of  Berand  I,  lord  of  Yillandrault 
(diocese  of  Bordeaux),  was  appointed  to  the  archiepis- 
copate  of  Lyons  in  1288.  B4rand  made  his  brother 
Bertrand  de  Goth  his  vicar-general.  This  appointment 
led  to  a  long  controversy.  Berand  was  made  cardinal- 
bishop  of  Albano  in  1294,  by  Celestine  Y.  Boniface 
YIII  appointed  him  his  legate  in  France,  to  restore 
peace  between  the  kings  of  France  and  England.  Be- 
rand died  on  his  retum  from  England,  without  having 
seen  the  end  of  the  dissension,  July  12, 1297.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Ginhale,  s.  v. 

Gothe  (Gothonee,  Gotonea,  Guttones,  in  Tacitus  and 
Pliny),  a  German  people,  originally  dwelling  along  the 
Baltic  sea  between  the  Yistula  and  the  Oder.  Their 
native  name,  Gutthinda^  is  preserved  in  the  Fragments 
of  bishop  Ulphilas.  The  later  form,  Gothi,  does  not  oc- 
cur until  the  time  of  CaracaUa.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  8d  century  they  are  spoken  of  as  a  powerful  nation 
in  the  regions  of  the  lower  Danube,  where  the  Geta  and 
Scythians  of  former  times  had  lived,  and  the  name  of 
Geta  or  Scythian  is  sometimes  applied  to  them.  The 
different  tribes  composing  this  people  were:  1.  The 
Gotki  Minores  or  Afcesogofhs,  who  became  permanently 
established  in  Moesia,  and  devoted  themselves  to  agri- 
cultural pursuits  (Jomandes,  51, 52) ;  2.  Gothi  Tetraxita,^ 
Ostrogoths  of  the  Palus  Mseotis  (Procop.  Bell  Goth,  iv) ;' 
8.  Taifake,  in  Dacia,  a  branch  of  the  Yisigoths  (Am- 
mian.  Marcell.  xvii,  18;  xxxi,  8;  Eutrop,  viii,  2); 
4.  Gfpida ;  5.  Rugii;  6.  Scin  and  Tttrcilingi ;  7.  Ileruli; 
8.  Juthungi;  some  writers  include  also  the  Alans  and 
Yandals  among  the  Goths.  The  nation  of  the  Goths  was 
divided  into  two  principal  groups ;  the  OstrogothSf  who 
occupied  the  sandy  steppes  of  the  East,  and  the  Visi- 
goths, who  inhabited  the  more  fertile  and  wooded  coun- 
tries of  the  West,  Zoeimus  and  Ammianus  Biaroellinus 
frequently  mention  the  Greutingi  or  Grutingi  and  the 
Thervingi  or  Tervingi,  concerning  whom  different  opin- 
ions are  entertained  by  modem  writers.  They  were, 
perhaps,  the  leading  tribes  among  the  Ostrogoths  and 
Yisigoths  respectively.  The  language  of  the  Goths  re- 
sembled the  ancient  dialect  of  the  Franks  very  closely. 
They  wore  beards,  and  suffered  their  yellow  hair  to 
grow  long.  The  royal  dignity  among  them  was  hered- 
itary. 

The  occupation  of  Dada  by  this  people  took  place 
during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Philip  (A.D.  244-249), 
and  was  immediately  followed  by  aggressive  wars 
against  the  Komans,  in  which  Mcesia,  Macedonia,  and 
Greece  suffered  from  their  incursions,  and  the  armies 
of  the  emperor  Decius  were  twice  defeated  and  de- 
stroyed. Between  253  and  269  they  ravaged  the 
coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  with  a  fleet  of  which 
they  had  become  possessed.  Pityus,  Trapezus,  Chal- 
cedon,  Nicomedia,  Nicaea,  Prusa,  Apamea,  and  Cius  fell 
before  their  assaults :  Cyzicus  was  destroyed ;  and  the 
coast  of  Greece,  from  the  south  of  Peloponnesus  to  Epi- 
ras  and  Thessaly  was  ravaged,  Illjrricum  in  particular 
being  literally  ransacked.  In  269  Crete  and  Cypms 
were  swept  by  their  destractive  power,  and  Cassan- 
drea  and  Thessalonica  were  besieged ;  but  in  that  year 
the  emperor  Claudius  defeated  them  in  three  great  bat- 
tles, which  earned  for  him  the  name  of  Gothicus,  and 
bnike  the  barbarian  power.  A  period  of  comparative 
quiet,  interrapted  by  few  and  unimportant  expedi- 
tions, now  ensued  in  the  history  of  the  Goths.  In  272 
the  emperor  Aurelian  ceded  to  them  the  province  of 
Dacia.  In  882  they  followed  their  king,  Araric,  across 
the  Danube,  but  were  defeated,  and  concluded  a  peace 
which  lasted  until  the  family  of  Constantino  vacated 
the  imperial  throne.  In  875  vast  swarms  of  Huns  and 
Alans  poured  out  of  Asia  and  drove  back  the  Ostro- 


GOTHS 


472 


GOTHS 


gothfl  upon  the  Yisigoihi>  which  latter  people  theie- 
npon  ohtained  permiBnon  to  settle  ia  Thrace,  at  that 
time  lying  desolate,  the  condition  being  imposed  by 
the  emperor  Valens  that  they  should  embrace  Christi- 
anity. Insolent  usage,  which  they  were  called  upon  to 
endure  at  the  hands  of  Roman  officers,  soon  drove  them 
into  rebellion,  however,  and  in  the  war  which  ensued 
they  completely  defeated  the  army  of  Valens  in  878, 
and  killed  the  emperor  himself  by  burning  a  cottage 
which  he  had  entered  in  his  flight.  From  that  time 
they  exercised  an  important  influence  over  the  afhirs 
of  Constantinople,  and  were  for  a  time  regularly  en- 
gaged in  the  service  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  appli- 
cation of  the  Ostrogoths  for  admission  into  the  territo- 
ries of  the  empire,  when  threatened  by  the  Huns,  was 
denied,  and  they  were  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  the 
mountains  until  after  the  defeat  of  the  Huns  in  453, 
when  they  obtained  a  settlement  in  Pannonia  and  Sla- 
vonic 

In  896  the  Visigoths,  led  by  Alaric,  invaded  and  de- 
vastated Greece,  till  the  arrival  of  the  Roman  general 
Stilicho,  in  the  following  year,  compelled  their  retreat. 
In  400  they  invaded  Italy,  but  were  defeated.  A  treaty 
was  thereupon  made  between  Alaric  and  Stilicho,  which 
transferred  the  services  of  the  former  to  the  Western 
emperor,  Honorina.  A  second  invasion,  occasioned  by 
the  delay  of  the  Romans  to  meet  the  demands  of  Alaric 
f()r  pay,  and  a  western  province  as  a  home  for  his  na- 
tion, took  place  40ft-410.  In  408  Rome  was  subjected 
to  a  severe  blockade,  from  which  it  relieved  itself  by 
the  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom.  Refusal  to  comply 
with  Alaric's  demands  led  to  a  second  siege,  in  which 
Ostia  was  occupied,  Rome  unconditionally  surrendered, 
and  the  empire  transferred  to  Attains,  but  soon  restored 
to  Honorius.  In  410  an  assault  upon  the  Visigoths, 
made  with  imperial  sanction,  provoked  the  storming 
and  sack  of  the  city,  Aug.  24-30.  After  the  death  of 
Alaric  the  Visigoths  established  a  new  kingdom  in 
Southern  Gaul  and  Spain,  which  reached  its  highest 
prosperity  during  the  latter  half  of  the  6th  century,  but 
was  soon  afterwards  harassed  by  the  Franks,  in  Gaul, 
and  wholly  overthrown  about  two  centuries  later  by 
the  Saracens. 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  Huns  the  Ostrogoths  in 
Pannonia  became  so  powerful  that  the  Eastern  empire 
was  obliged  to  purchase  peace  with  them  by  large 
sums  of  money.  Their  king,  Widemir,  led  his  hosts 
into  Italy,  but  they  eventually  joined  the  Visigoths  in 
the  West  Other  bands,  under  various  leaders,  trav- 
ersed the  Eastern  empire,  and  were  finally  settled  be- 
tween the  Lower  Danube  and  Mount  Htemus,  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  empire.  In  487  king  Theodoric,  after 
protracted  disputes  with  the  emperor  Zeno,  marched 
upon  Constantinople,  whereupon  that  monarch,  to  save 
his  capital,  authorized  the  Goths  to  invade  Italy  and 
expel  the  usurper  Odoacer.  The  enterprise  was  under- 
taken in  488,  and  completed  in  493,  at  which  time  Odo- 
acer was  assassinated,  and  all  his  strongholds  were  in 
the  possession  of  his  adversary.  Theodoric  remained 
undisputed  master  of  Italy  during  a  prosperous  reign 
of  thirty-three  years;  but  on  his  death  bis  kingdom 
was  attacked  by  foreign  enemies,  and  became  the  prey 
of  the  Eastern  empire,  and  the  Ostrogoths  ceased  to  be 
an  independent  people. 

Christianity  was  introduced  among  the  Goths  about 
the  middle  of  the  8d  century,  by  prisoners  taken  in  their 
wars,  and  there  is  evidence  that  a  continuous  tradition 
of  orthodox  Christianity  existed  from  that  time  among 
the  tribes  who  bordered  on  the  Euxine.  A  Gothic 
bishop,  Theophilus,  was  present  in  826  at  the  Council 
of  Nice,  and  even  earlier  Athanasius  (De  Income,  Verih 
§61  sq.;  Migne,  xxv,  187  sq.;  I^eander,  Church  HU^ 
tory^  EngL  transL  iii,  179)  alludes  to  the  influence  of 
Christianity  over  Gothic  (?)  barbarians;  while  Chrys- 
ostom  (£p.  xiv;  Migne,  Iii,  618)  and  F^ocopius  (Bdl, 
Qath.  iv,  4 ;  ed.  Bonn,  ii,  475)  both  speak  of  applications 
made  to  the  emperor  for  a  successor  to  recent  Gothic 


bishops.  The  propagatiob  of  Christianity  uioag  the 
Visigoths  was  carried  forward  prindpaUy  by  buhof) 
Ulphilas  (q.  v.),  whose  work,  beginning  in  848,  was  sue* 
cessful  enough  from  the  very  first  to  excite  the  hoe- 
tility  of  the  heathen  and  call  forth  persecution.  Ul* 
phiUs  and  many  of  his  converts  fled  acroes  the  Danube 
and  settled  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nicopolis.  The 
particular  form  of  teaching  adhered  to  by  Ulphilas  was 
that  of  Arianism,  which  had  already  taken  deep  root, 
and  was  yet  more  firmly  established  when  Fridigem, 
who  had  rebelled  against  the  king,  Athanaric,  consent- 
ed to  become  a  Christian  and  an  Arian  in  order  that  he 
might  secure  the  support  of  the  Roman  emperor,  and 
when,  as  already  related,  the  Visigoths  were  obliged  to 
take  refuge  against  the  Huns  in  the  territories  of  the 
empire  ruled  over  by  the  Arian,  Valens.  Subsequent- 
ly efforts  were  put  forth  to  win  them  to  Catholicism, 
especially  by  Chrysoetom,  who  became  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  898,  but  with  little  resulL  The 
Goths  continued  to  be  fanatical  Arians,  and  became 
even  violent  persecutors  after  their  settlement  in  Gaol 
and  Spain,  until  the  stubborn  resistance  of  the  Catholic 
party  was  strengthened  by  the  acoes8i<Mi  of  the  Franks, 
and  the  Gothic  king,  Recared,  solemnly  passed  over  to 
the  Catholic  faith  at  the  third  Synod  of  Toledo  in  689. 

The  Ostrogoths,  though  Arians,  were  not  fanatical 
adherents  of  that  creed,  and  Theodoric  especially  man- 
ifested a  tolerant  spirit  towards  the  Catholics.  Chrys- 
ostom^s  missionaries  were  zealously  employed  among 
these  tribes,  and  achieved  noteworthy  successes.  In 
the  Crimea  the  Catholic  Unilas  was  bishop  of  the  Te- 
traxite  Goths,  and  established  a  connection  with  Con- 
stantinople which  remained  unbroken  until  the  6th 
century.  The  district  of  Gotia,  on  the  Cimmerian  Boft- 
phorus,  was  a  diocese  connected  with  the  Byzantine 
Church  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  surname  of  Gocia 
was  borne  by  the  bishop  of  Capha  as  late  as  the  18th 
century. 

In  closing  this  article  a  few  words  respecting  the 
culture  of  the  Goths  are  required.  The  introductioo 
of  Christianity,  and  contact  with  the  civilized  subjects 
of  Rome,  did  much  to  raise  them  above  other  Geraoan 
tribes  in  point  of  civilization.  Ulphilas,  in  the  4th 
century,  formed  a  new  alphabet  out  of  those  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  which  was  generally  adopted  by 
the  German  peoples,  and  is  essentially  the  same  as  that 
still  in  use  in  Germany  and  known  among  us  as  the 
^  black-letter  "  alphabet.  His  translation  of  the  Script- 
ures into  the  Gothic  language  is,  in  the  fragments  which 
still  survive,  the  most  ancient  document  of  the  German 
language  now  extant.  No  other  monuments  of  the 
Grothic  language  of  considerable  importance  have  been 
preserved.  The  Visigoths  had  a  code  of  written  laws, 
which  was  probably  the  first  existing  among  German 
tribes,  and  the  authorship  of  which  is  usually  ascribed 
to  their  king,  Euric,  of  the  6th  century. 

Ancient  Sources.  —  Tacitus,  Germania;  Prooopius, 
BelL  Goth,f  Jomandes,  De  Rebus  GeUcU;  Idadns  of 
Lamego,  Clironicon;  Isidor.  Hispal.  Hist,  Ooth,;  Cas> 
siodonis,  Varia  et  Chron, 

Modem  Literature, — Eisenschmidt,  De  Origine  Ottro^ 
ffoih,  et  Vmffothorum  (Jena,  1886) ;  Zahn,  U^^'e  Gotk- 
isehe  BibdSbereelze  (Weissenfels,1806);  Aschbach,(;«sdL 
d.  Westgotken  (Frankforton-the-Main,  1827);  Manao^ 
Getch,d.  Oslgothm  m  Italien  (BresUu,  1824) ;  Wilhelm, 
GermanUn  u.  seme  Bewokner  (Naumburg,  1828) ;  Von 
Werbse,  Vdlker  te.  VoOoerbihidmsse  d,  AUen  DeutsekL 
(Hanover,  1826);  Zeiaaa,D,Deut$chenu,Nackbarst3mine;  • 
Forbiger,  ffandb,  d,AUen  Geogra^phie  (Leipsie,  1848,  voL 
iii);  Duncker,  Origg,  Gemumks;  K5pke,  AnfSmge  d, 
Kdnigthums  bet  d,  Gothen  (Berlin,  1869);  Richter,  />. 
Westrdmische  Reich,  A.D.  376-888  fibid.  1866);  Bern- 
hardt, Gesch,  Roms,  A.D.  268-^18  (ibid.  1867) ;  KnSt^ 
Geseh.  d.  Germ,  Volher,  i,  1  (ibid.  1864);  Waits,  Le&oi 
tc  Lehre  d.  Ulfild  (Hanover,  1840, 4to);  Lembke,  Gesth. 
V,  Spanien  (Hamburg,  1881,  voL  i) ;  Gibbon,  Dedim  msd 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire;  Pallmano,  GetdLd,  VliObtr^ 


QOTHITS 


473 


GOTTSCHALK 


waiAnug,  ii  p.  62-^;  Benell,  in  Ench  aod  Oruber*s 
Buyidop,  8.  T.  Goikm  and  Lebm  d,  UyUas  u,  Bekehrung 
d,  GotiuK,  etc.  (Gottingen,  1860);  oomp.  J.  Grimm, 
Ge$ck.  d,  DeutMckm  Sprache. 

See  ilao  Smith,  Dkt.  of  Greek  and  Ronum  Geography ^ 
%,  T.;  Gotkiy  in  Herzog  Retil- EneyUop,  s.  y.;  Korts, 
Manuai  of  Christ.  IJist,  EngL  tnnal.  i,  §  76. 

QothuSy  Andrsus  Thomas,  a  Swedish  ecclefttastie, 
was  bora  at  Wadsteoa  in  1682.  Having  finished  his 
studies  at  Upsal,  he  became  rector  at  Wadstena  in  1618, 
pastor  at  Aby  in  1625,  and  aoon  afterwards  was  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  a  provost.  He  died  at  Aby  in  1657,  leav- 
ing  £en  Kort  och  toaeigrund  ad  Rachnekonst  ("  Short 
and  Good  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Counting,"  Stockholm, 
im):— Thesaurus  Epistolicus  (ibid.  1619,  1681) :~ 
Theoria  Vita  Sterna  (ibid.  1647).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  Ghurakf  s.  v. 

Gdtichel,  Johahm  Ghbistoph  Fbxvdbich,  a  La- 
tbenn  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  8, 1768, 
at  Bayreuth.  He  studied  at  Erlangen,  was  in  1790  pas- 
tor at  Prague,  in  1798  superintendent,  accepted  a  caU 
in  1799  to  Eutin,  and  died  FeK  8, 1812.  He  wrote,  De 
MoraUiaU  Hjusque  Gradus  Imputatione  (Erlangen, 
1788):~Z>e  InUrprelaiione  Loci  1  Cor.  xi,  10  (ibid, 
eod.)  :^and  Sermons,  See  Doring,  Die  geUhrten  The^ 
oiogtn  Deutschlands,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gotten,  Gabriel  Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  4, 1708,  at  Magdeburg. 
He  studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1736  pastor  at  Celle,  in 
1741  superintendent  at  Luoeburg,  in  1746  at  Hanover, 
and  died  in  1781.  He  published  sermons  and  other 
asoetical  writings.  See  Winer,  Handbuck  der  theoL 
LU.  i,  391 ;  Bdring,  Die  gelehrten  Theohgen  Deutsck- 
lands,  8.  Y. ;  Jocher,  Al^femeiiies  GeUhrlm-'Lexihonf  %  v. 
(RP.) 

Gdtten,  Heinxich  Ludwlg,  a  Tjutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Grermany,  was  bora  in  Brunswick  in  1677.  He 
studied  at  HelmsUidt,  Halle,  and  Leipsic,  was  in  1706 
preacher  at  Magdeburg,  and  died  Aug.  5,  1787.  He 
wrote  Anleitting,  das  Leiden  und  Sterben  Christi^  and  a 
number  of  Sermons.  See  Strodtmann,  Neues  geUhrtes 
Kuropa,  vii,  620;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrten^Lexi' 
ion,a.v.     (B.  P.) 

Gdtten,  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  at  Lubeck,  July  26, 1629.  He  studied 
at  Boetock,  Leipeic,  and  Strasburg,  and  afterwards  went 
into  the  Netherlands.  While  there  he  had  frequent 
relations  with  the  Jesuits,  who,  in  expectation  of  con- 
verting him,  had  shut  him  up.  But  he  escaped,  and  re- 
turned in  1653  to  his  native  place,  to  preach  the  reformed 
religion.  He  became  pastor  6(  the  church  of  St.  John 
in  1658,  and  died  Feb.  1, 1671.  He  wrote  Observationes 
Historico^heologiea : — Spar'Stunden  kurtzer  Betrach- 
tungeny  etc     See  Hoefcr,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale^  s.  v.^ 

Gotter,  Filedricli  Gotthelf,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
k)gian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  17, 1682,  at  Alten- 
buTg.  He  studied  at  Wittenbeig  and  Jena,  was  in  1711 
rector  at  Eisenberg,  in  1737  pastor  primarius  and  super- 
intendent, and  died  May  21, 1746.  He  wrote,  Be  Con- 
jugis  PiUrti  Somnio  (Jena,  1704):  — />0  Graea  Voce 
oifpavov  Site  Ccdi  (ibid.  1705): — Diss,  Uistorica  de 
Benochia  Urbe  Prima  (1705):— i>e  Obsatritate  Epis- 
toUs  Pauli  Falso  Tributa  (1732):  — J/tracufa  Chrisii 
ab  Obfeetiombus  Wooi^tonU  Vimiicata  (1738).  SeeNeu- 
bauer,  Jeixilebands  Theotogen;  Jdcher,  AUgemtimes  Ge- 
khrien^Lexihon,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

*  Gotter,  Ludwlg  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  hymn- 
writer  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Gotha,  May  26, 1661, 
and  died  there,  Sept.  19, 1735.  Some  of  his  hymns  are 
still  in  use  in  the  German  Evangelical  Church.  See 
Koch,  Gesck,  des  deutschen  Kirchenliedetf  iv,  400  sq. ; 
Rudolph,  Gothaische  ChronHc^  iii,  272;  Wezel,  Anal 
iTywji.  ii,  22-30.     (R  P.) 

Gottfried  {ahboi)  i39  YnnAum  (hence  VindbdiMii- 
ju),  who  flourished  abont  the  year  1110,  wrote  Dt  Cor^ 


port  €t  Sanguine  ChrtsHc-^De  OrdinationB  EpiseopO' 
rum: — De  Simonia  et  Iwveslitura  Laieorum: — De  Ef" 
fe^iibus  Baptismiy  Conjtrmatioms,  UncUoms  Ii^firmorum 
et  S,  Ccsnm: — De  Heratione  Sacramenti: — De  Tribu*^ 
gum  Pastorif  in  esse  Debentj  Justitia  in  JudioOf  Discre* 
iione  in  Prwoepio^  et  Providentia  in  Consilio,  Grott- 
fried's  works  were  published  by  Sirmond,  Paris,  1610. 
See  Anber,  Uistorie  des  Cardxnaux;  Cave,  Bistoria  Li- 
teraria  Scriptorum  EcclesiasHcorum ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemei- 
nes  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gottfried,  Christian  Georg,  a  German  convert 
from  Judaism,  who  lived  in  the  17th  century,  is  the 
author  of  EinfaUige  dock  gr^ndliche  Erlduterung  der 
fidischm  Irrthumer  (Hamburg,  1693).  See  Wolf,  Bibl. 
ffebr,  iii,  976 ;  Jocher,  A  llgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikcnj 
a.  V. ;  Fttrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  340.     (B.  P.) 

Gottfried,  Jacob,  a  famdua  German  Jurist,  bora 
at  Geneva,  Sept.  13, 1587,  was  pmfessor  of  law  in  1619, 
and  died  June  24, 1652.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on 
the  Codex  Tkeodosiamis^  edited  and  published  by  Mo- 
rillius  in  1665.  and  by  Daniel  Bitter  in  1736  i^Nota  in 
TertulUani  ad  Nationes,  Lib.  ii: — De  ItUerdicta  Chri- 
stianorum  cum  Gentilibus  Communione: — De  Statu  Pa- 
ganorum  sub  ImperaUnibus  Christiams: — Philostorpii 
Bistoriam  Ecclesiasticam  cum  Versione  et  Notis: — 
Exereitationes  IT  de  Ecdesia  et  Incamatione  Christi, 
See  Kiceron,  Mimoires ;  Jdcher,  A  llgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

Gottfried,  Johann  Christian,  a  German  con- 
vert from  Judaism  (whose  former  name  was  Benja- 
min Wolf),  who  lived  in  the  18th  century,  is  the  au- 
thor of  ^"^  tVQ^S^,  or  a  Narrative  of  Simon  the  son  of 
Yochai  :—Der  ursprungliche  Glaube  an  die  Gdttlichkeit 
des  Messias  aus  dem  Sohar  nackgewiesen  (translated 
also  into  Dutch,  Amsterdam,  1724).  See  FUrst,  BibL 
Jud.  i,  840;  Wolf,  Bibl.  Bebr.  iii,  362 ;  iv,  844  sq. ;  Jd- 
cher, A  llgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gotthold,  Isaac,  D.D.,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom 
in  Bamberg,  Bavaria,  and  wa^  in  charge  of  a  syna- 
g(^ue  there  for  many  years.  In  1858  he  came  to 
America,  and  waa  at  diffeient  times  in  charge  of  con- 
gregations in  Brooklyn,  Albany,  and  New  York.  For 
many  j'ears  he  taught  private  clasaes  in  ancient  and 
modera  languages.  He  died  April  11, 1882,  while  rabbi 
of  the  Jewish  synagogue  in  Fifty-seventh  Street,  New 
York  city,  aged  seventy-four  years. 

Gotti,  YixcENzio  LuiGi,  an  Italian  cardinal,  was 
bom  Sept.  5, 1665,  at  Bologna,  where  his  father  was  a 
professor  of  law,  and  in  1680  his  son  took  the  habit  in 
the  convent  of  the  Dominicans  of  that  city.  In  1684 
he  went  to  the  University  of  Salamanca,  and  studied 
theology.  In  1688,  after  his  return  to  Italy,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  teach  successively  at  Mantua,  Borne,  and  Bo- 
I<^a,  becoming,  in  1695,  professor  of  theology  in  the 
latter  place.  In  1708  he  waa  made  provincial  of  the 
Dominicans  for  Bologna.  Pope  Clement  XI  appointed 
him  inquisitor  of  Milan ;  three  years  afterwards,  how- 
ever, Gotti  resigned,  and  returned  to  Bologna  as  pro- 
fessor of  polemics.  In  1728  Benedict  XIII  conferred 
upon  him  the  dignity  of  a  cardinal.  Benedict  XIV 
made  him  his  theologian,  and  later  protector  of  the 
province  of  Bologna.  Gotti  died  Sept,  18, 1742,  leaving 
Vera  Chiesa  di  Jesu  Ckristo  (Bologna,  1719) : — Colognia 
Tkeologico-Polemica  (ibid.  1727) :  ~  Theologia  Schola- 
stico-Dogmaiica  (1727) : — De  Eligenda  Inter  Dissidentes 
Ckrislianos  Sententia  (Rome,  1734).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Gottingen.    See  GoEmisaBN. 

Gottschalk,  raler  of  the  Wends,  and  martyr,  was 
educated  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Michael  at  LUnebnrg, 
but  left  the  monastery,  and  abandoned  Christianity  al- 
together«  as  soon  as  he  heard  that  his  father  Uto,  ruler 
of  the  Wends,  was  killed  by  a  Saxon,  about  the  year 
1029.  To  revenge  the  death  of  hia  father,  GoUschalk 
stirred  up  his  coantrymen  to  a  frightful  war  against 


GOTTSKALCKSSON 


474 


QOULET 


the  Saxons.  Gottachalk  was  defeated  by  Bemhard, 
duke  of  Saxony,  and  taken  prisoner.  He  returned  to 
Christianity,  and  after  his  release  from  prison  went  to 
the  court  of  Canute  the  Great,  spent  ten  years  in  Den- 
mark and  England,  and  after  bis  return  to  Wendland 
in  1043  he  united  ilolstein,  Mecklenbaig,  Pomerania, 
and  the  Bmudenburg  marches  into  one  powerful  Wend- 
ish  empire.  He  now  became  one  of  the  moet  sealous 
missionaries  in  his  country,  translated  the  lituigical  for- 
mulas and  sermons  of  German  missionaries  into  the  ver- 
nacular; he  built  schools,  churches,  monasteries,  and 
preached  to  his  people.  In  spite  of  all  his  efforts, 
there  lingered  yet  among  his  countrymen  a  heathen- 
ish fanaticism  which  found  vent  in  an  insurrection, 
that  broke  out  in  1066,  and  in  which  Gottschalk  was 
murdered  on  June  7.  See  Adam  of  Bremen,  Gesta  Pan- 
tif.  Ilammab.  iii;  Helmold,  Ckron,  Slav,  i,  20;  Giese- 
brecht,  Geschirhte  der  det^tschen  Kaiserzeitf  ii,  460  sq. ; 
iii,  lao  sq.;  Hirsch,  in  Piper's  Ktilender,  1866;  Dehio, 
Geschichte  de$  Erdntthums  Hamburg  ^  Bremen  (1877), 
i,  183  sq. ;  Wagenmann,  in  Plitt-Herzog  ReaUEncychp, 
S.V.    (RP.) 

Gottflkalokfloon,  Oddub,  the  translator  of  the 
New  Testament  into  Icelandic,  son  of  the  second  bishop 
of  Holum,  in  Iceland,  was  educated  in  Norway,  and  vis- 
ited Denmark  and  Germany.  The  doctrines  of  the  Ref- 
ormation began  to  excite  a  general  sensation  through- 
out the  north  of  Europe,  and  his  own  attention  was 
forcibly  arrested  by  the  truths  which  were  then  unfolded. 
We  are  told  that,  for  three  successive  nights,  he  pros- 
trated himself  half-naked  before  tbe  Father  of  lights, 
beseeching  him  to  open  the  eyes  of  his  understanding, 
and  to  show  him  whether  the  principles  of  Rome  or 
those  of  Luther  were  from  heaven.  The  result  of  his 
prayers  and  meditations  was  a  deep-rooted  conviction 
that  the  cause  of  the  reformer  was  the  cause  of  God ; 
and  with  the  view  of  obtaining  further  information  he 
repaired  to  Germany,  and  attended  the  lectures  of 
Luther  and  Melanchthon.  On  bis  return  to  Iceland  he 
entered  the  service  of.  bishop  Ogeround.  The  latter 
wished  Gottskalcksson  to  become  a  priest,  but  he  de- 
clined the  offer,  because,  as  he  said,  he  had  no  voice 
for  singing.  As  the  servant  of  bishop  Ogemund,  he 
commenced  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
Icelandic ;  and,  to  avoid  persecution,  he  selected  a  small 
cell  in  a  cow-house  for  his  study.  He  completed  a  ver- 
sion in  1539;  but  finding  it  impossible,  from  the  state 
of  public  opinion,  to  print  it  in  Iceland,  he  sailed  for 
Denmark,  and  published  it  at  Copenhagen  under  the 
patronage  of  Christian  III,  in  1540.  Besides  this 
translation  he  published  Bugenhagen's  history  of  the 
sufferings  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  Jonft*s 
sermons  on  the  Catechism  in  Icelandic,  lie  died  in 
1557.  See  Jocher,  .'I  llaemetnet  GeUhrien-Lexihon^  s.  v. 
(R  P.) 

GK5tz,  George  Filedrloh,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Hanau,  April  9, 1750.  He 
studied  at  Halle,  became  doctor  of  divinity  and  pastor 
primarius  in  his  native  place,  and  died  there,  Feb.  8, 
1813.  He  published  Sermoru  and  some  ascetical  writ- 
ings. See  Doring,  Die  geUhrten  Theohgen  Deuteck' 
landsy  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbttch  der  theoL  Lit.  ii,  158, 157, 
160, 163, 175, 179, 181, 184,  204,  206,  280.     (B.  P.) 

G5tz,  Raphael,  a  Swiss  theologian,  poet,  and 
teacher,  wna  bom  at  Gotz  of  MUnchhoff  (Thurgovia), 
in  1559.  He  studied  at  Chur  and  Zurich,  and  went  to 
Geneva  in  1580,  where  he  held  a  disputation  on  predes- 
tination, under  the  auspices  of  Theodore  Beza.  Two 
years  afterwards  he  went  to  Basle,  where  he  again 
showed  his  controversial  power.  In  1588  he  received 
in  Zurich  the  title  padagogus  alumnorum,  and  in  1592 
became,  in  the  same  city,  professor  of  the  New  Test., 
and  deacon  at  the  cathedral.  Four  years  afterwards 
he  was  made  archdeacon,  and  thereupon  introduced 
new  religious  songs  into  his  parish.  Unfortunately  he 
gave  himself  up  to  alchemy,  which  brought  him  into 


debt,  to  escape  which  he  fled  in  1601.  After  wander* 
ing  about  for  six  months,  he  went  to  Marbuig,  where 
the  landgrave  Maurice  appointed  him  professor  of  the- 
ology. He  died  there,  Aug.  20, 1622,  leaving  TVYZctatet 
Adeemu  Albencum  TriMmcMriani,de  PnedetHtuUiom: 
— J)e  Peoeato  in  Spiritum  8.:^De  Gratmta  JSleetorum 
SahUe,  etc.:-— Historia  CaplipitaHt  Sabgkmiem,  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Gh5tse.    See  Goetze. 

Gonda,  Jan  van,  a  Dutch  Jesait,  who  died  Dee. 
28, 1680,  at  Brassels,  was  for  some  time  professor  at  Ant- 
werp and  preacher  at  Brussels.  In  his  sermons  he  was 
especially  severe  against  the  Protestants,  and  his  co- 
religionists styled  him  therefore  malleus  hareUeorum 
and  murus  Catholicorum,  His  writings  are  mostly  di- 
rected against  ministers  of  the  Reformed  Church.  See 
Aleguwbe,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Socidatis  Jesu;  Bar- 
mann,  Trajectum  Eruditum;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeims  Getekr- 
ten'Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Gondlmel,  Cuiudb,  a  French  musical  composer, 
was  bom  about  1510  in  Franche-Comt6.  He  lived  at 
Rome  in  1540  when  Palestrina  studied  there.  In  1556 
he  was  at  Paris,  and  kept  a  note-printing  establishment 
there.  In  1562  he  joined  the  Reformed  Church,  and 
was  killed  in  the  Huguenot  massacre  at  Lyons,  Aug.  24, 
1572.  He  prepared  the  music  for  Clement  Marot's  and 
Theodore  Besa*s  translation  of  the  PMdms  (1565).  Some 
writers  assert  that  he  also  composed  Huguenot  hymns, 
such  as  are  still  sung;  but  this  is  a  mistake.  See  F^tis, 
Biograph,  des  Afusiciens;  Haag,  La  France  ProtetiaHle  ,- 
Donen,  CUment  Marot  ei  le  PsauHer  Buguenot,  and  tbe 
same  in  Lichtenberger's  EncgHop,  des  Sdenees  Reli- 
gieuseSf  s.  v. ;  GrUneisen  in  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Enegklcp. 
8.  V. ;  Grove,  Diet,  of  Music,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Gonffler,  Adrien,  cardinal  of  Boisy,  had  at  first 
the  title  of  prothonotary  of  Boisy,  then  he  became 
bishop  of  Coutances  in  1509.  Francis  I  asked  for  the 
cardinal's  hat  for  him  of  pope  Leo  X,  in  the  oonfetence 
of  Boulogne,  which  this  pontiff  granted  in  1515.  In 
1519  Gouffier  obtained  a  charge  as  a  legate  in  France. 
He  was  already  grand  almoner,  and  held  the  bishopric 
of  Alby  and  other  considerable  benefices.  He  died  in 
the  castle  of  Villendren-sur-Indre,  July  24^  1528.  See 
Hoefer,  Aovv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Gouge  de  Charpaignes,  Martik,  a  French  prelate, 
was  bom  about  1360,  in  Bourges.  After  the  death  of 
his  brother  John,  who  was  treasurer  of  the  duke  of 
Berr}'-,  Martin  was  appointed  to  fill  his  place.  He  be- 
came bishop  of  Cbartrcs  in  1406,  and  was  transferred  to 
the  see  of  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1415.  In  1409  he  was 
arrested  for  being  connected  with  the  revolution  of  the 
palace,  but  on  account  of  his  great  talents  he  soon  re- 
tumed  to  his  former  honors.  Under  the  reign  of  Charks 
Yil,  Gouge  became  royal  councillor.  In  1425  he  re- 
signed his  civil  functions,  but  resumed  them  until  Nov. 
8, 1428.  He  died  Nov.  25  or  26,  1444.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  GhUraU,  a.  v. 

Gonjet,  Claude  Piebrb,  a  French  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Paris,  Oct  19, 1697.  In  1720  he  was  canon  of 
St  James*s  in  his  native  place,  and  died  Feb.  1, 1767. 
He  translated  Grotius's  work  on  the  troth  of  Christianity 
into  French  (Paris,  1724)  and  other  Latin  works,  and 
published  Maximes  sur  la  Phdience  et  sur  la  Comnutnian 
(i72S) i-'Bibliothk^e  des  Auteurs  EocUsiastiques  du 
XVI I  1 8iicle,pour  Servir  de  Continuation  a  eelle  de  Mr. 
Dupin  (1736,  8  vols.) :— //ufoiiv  du  Poniijicat  de  Paul 
V  (1766, 2  vols.).  See  Nouvelle  Diction,  Bistor. ;  For- 
mey,  France  Littiraire  ;  J5cher,  Allgemeinet  GeUkrten- 
Laeikon^  s.  v.;  Lichtenbeiger,  Ent^/kiqp.  des  Sciasces 
Beligieuses,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gotdet,  Robert,  a  Roman  Catholic  theok)gian  of 
the  16th  century,  is  the  author  of  Teframonos  £van- 
geUorum,  quorum  integri  Textus  suh  una  Narratumis  Se- 
rie  ffistorico  Ordme  CouHnesOur.  He  also  edited  Pauli 
Burgensis  ScniUnium  JScr^uranm.    See  FoaaeviiiDS, 


GOUMILEVSEI 


476 


QRABENEB 


m  GeUkrten'Lexp' 


Apparatus  Saeer;  Jdcher,  A 
hoH,B,y.    (B.  P.) 

Goumilevakl,  Mo8ES,a  Rnnum  prelate  and  writer, 
was  bishop  of  Theodosia,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
scholastic  morement  which  Catherine  II  promoted  in 
her  empire.  He  died  in  1792  by  assassination  in  the 
Crimea,  leaving  several  linguistic  works,  two  funeral 
speeches  of  the  prince  Potemkin,  several  translations 
from  the  fathers  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  some  fugi- 
tive pieces  of  poetry  in  Latin  and  Russian.  See  Uoefer, 
JVbvr.  Biog,  Ginirak,  s.  v. 

Gonnja  Ticqnoa  {the  God  of  God$\  the  title  of 
the  Supreme  Being  among  the  Hottentota.  They  say 
be  is  a  good  being,  who  does  no  one  any  hurt,  and 
dwells  far  above  the  moon.  They  pay  no  act  of  devo- 
tion immediately  to  this  god,  and  when  asked  why  not, 
I  hey  answer  that  their  first  parents  so  grievously  sinned 
against  the  Supreme  God  that  he  cursed  them  and  all 
their  posterity  with  hardness  of  heart,  so  they  know 
little  of  him  and  have  no  inclination  to  serve  him. 

Gkmrlin,  Pikbrk  S^astibm,  a  French  Jansenist 
writer,  who  died  in  1775,  made  himself  conspicuous  by 
hia  opposition  to  the  bull  Unigmitut.  He  is  the  author 
of  ItuHtution  et  Instrudion  Chritiamta  (Naples,  1776, 8 
vols.),  which  has  often  been  reprinted,  and  which  con- 
tains an  exact  exposition  of  the  Jansenistic  doctrine. 
To  him  is  also  attributed  Tractaius  de  Gratia  Chritti 
Saivatorit  ae  de  PrtedetUnatume  Stmdcrum,  in  sex  libros 
distribtitus  (1781,  8  vols.).  See  lichtenberger,  Eneif- 
ehp,  des  ScUneet  SeUgieiueSf  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GhtiraU,  s.  v.     (K  P.) 

Gtotiaset,  Thomas  Marie  Joseph,  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  bom  at  Montigny-I^s-Cherlieux,  May  1, 1792. 
He  began  in  1809  a  course  of  study,  and  obtained  in 
1812  the  diploma  of  a  bachelor  of  letters ;  entered  the 
great  seminary  of  Besan^on  the  same  year,  and  became 
one  of  its  most  distinguished  scholars  and  teachers  of 
theology.  Cardinal  Rohan  made  him,  in  1882,  grand- 
vicar,  and  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Perigneux  Oct. 
6,  1836.  He  was  elevated  to  the  archiepiscopacy  of 
Rheims,  May  25,1840,  and  in  1851  obUined  the  cardi- 
nsa*s  hat.  He  died  at  Rheims,  Dec.  24, 1866,  leaving 
JSxpontioH  de  la  Doctrine  de  VEgliie  (Besan9on,  1823) : 
— Code  Civil  Commenti  dan*  se*  Rapporte  avee  la  Th4- 
oioffie  Morale: — L*JmmacuUe  Conception  de  la  Bien- 
heuremte  Vitrge  (Paris,  1855),  etc.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Gtdrait,  s.  v. 

Oovona,  Rosa,  an  Italian  philanthropist,  was  bom 
at  Mondovi  in  1716.  Her  parents  were  poor,  and  Rosa 
became  an  orphan  while  very  young,  but  she  supported 
herself  by  labor.  One  day,  finding  a  little  girl  in  a  still 
worse  condition  than  herself,  she  aided  her  and  taught 
her  to  work,  and  the  two  soon  formed  the  pUin  of  gath- 
ering other  poor  little  girls  for  a  simiUr  purpose.  Rosa 
at  length  received  a  house  from  the  community  in  the 
plain  of  the  Brao,  where  she  settled  down  with  her  com- 
pany. Charles  Emanuel  III  gave  her  several  large 
buildings  which  had  belonged  to  the  friars,  and  she 
oigani^  the  establishment  of  The  RorineM,  She  also 
esublished  houses  in  other  places,  and  in  the  centre  of 
the  cities  of  Novara,  Fossano,  Savigliano,  Saluzzo,  Chie- 
ri,  and  Saint  Damian  of  Ostia.  The  establishment  at 
Turin  became  the  centre  of  all  these  houses,  which  still 
flourish.  In  this  Utter  city  she  died,  Feb.  28, 1776.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  ▼. 

Gown.  The  ancient  academical  gown,  always 
wide-sleeved,  was  an  adoption  of  the  monastic  habit 
from  the  robe  of  the  preaching-friars,  who  wore  it  in- 
stead of  an  alb.  From  itinerant  lay  preachers  of  the 
time  of  Elizabeth,  the  custom  of  the  universities,  the 
vanity  of  the  richer  clergy  in  the  last  century,  wearing 
silk  robes  out-of-doors  and  then  in  the  pulpit,  and  the 
introduction  of  lectures,  not  provided  for  by  the  rubric, 
the  use  of  the  gown  in  English  pulpits  took  its  origin. 
The  narrow-sleeved  gown,  with  a  eroes-slit  for  the  arms, 


was  an  importation  from  Geneva,  and  called  the  law- 
yer's gown,  in  distinction  from  the  wide  velvet-sleeved 
gown  still  worn  by  other  graduates,  posers  at  Winches 
ter,  and  often  with  an  ermine  hood  by  proctors  at  Ox- 
ford. Russet  white  and  black  gowns  were  worn  by 
mourners  at  funerals. 

Ghds,  Christian  Gottlieb,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  29, 1746.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen,  was  in  1769  vicar,  in  1777  preacher,  at  Stutt- 
gart, and  died  Dec  10,  1808.  He  published,  ^e6tm^ 
der  Gottsdigkeit  in  heUigen  Betrachtungen  vnd  Liedem 
(Stuttgart,  1776)  x—Beitrag  tur  Geechiekte  der  Kirchen- 
lieder  (1784),  and  composed  some  hymns,  which  are  still 
in  use.  See  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirchenlie^ 
(fe«,vi,809sq.    (B.  P.) 

Gozlin  (Lat.  Gattxlenus)^  a  French  prelate  and 
statesman,  was  bom  about  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century.  According  to  some  he  was  the  son  of  Boricon, 
count  of  Anjou,  and  to  others  the  natural  son  of  Louis 
the  Gentle.  He  became  a  monk  at  Rheims  about  848, 
and  soon  after  abbot  of  St.  Germain-des-Prfes.  Gozlin, 
like  most  of  the  abbots  of  that  time,  was  also  a  warrior. 
In  858  he  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Normans,  and  had 
to  purchase  his  liberty  by  a  heavy  ransom.  After  855 
he  held  the  office  of  chancellor  to  (Carles  the  Bald, 
and  about  883  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Paris.  He 
died  April  16, 886.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale^ 

S.V. 

Gkaal,  The  Holy,  a  name  in  mediieval  tradition 
for  the  precious  dish  {paropsis)  or  cup  used  at  the  Last 
Supper,  said  also  to  be  the  vessel  in  which  our  Lord 
turned  water  into  wine,  and  in  which  Nicodemus  or 
Joseph  of  Arimathna  received  the  Saviour's  blood  at 
the  cracifixion.  Other  legends  describe  it  as  a  cup 
originally  given  to  Solomon  by  the  queen  of  Sheba. 
It  often  appears  in  the  Arthurian  laws,  and  probably 
arose  from  a  Druidic  origin.  The  Genoese  claim  to 
have  it  in  the  cathedral  treasury,  where  it  is  known  as 
Sacro  Catino.  It  is  of  glass,  of  hexagonal  form,  with 
two  handles,  and  is  three  feet  nine  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence. It  was  cracked  in  its  removal  from  Paris,  whither 
it  had  been  taken  under  Napoleon.  Sometimes  the 
graal  supports  a  bleeding  spear,  as  on  a  cracifix  at  San- 
creed  Church,  Comwall.  The  Church  is  often  repre- 
sented holding  a  pennon  and  a  graal  opposite  the  syna- 
gogue with  drooping  head,  and  a  banner  of  three  points, 
the  staff  broken. 

Orabau,  Joham^i  Amdbeas  August,  a  Lutheran 
minister  of  Germany,  was  bora  March  18, 1804,  at  01- 
venstiidt,  near  Magdeburg.  He  studied  at  Halle,  was 
in  1884  pastor  at  Erfurt,  but  was  suspended  in  1886  be- 
cause he  refused  to  accept  the  Pmssian  Agenda  (q.  v.). 
In  1839  he  came,  with  a  number  of  his  adherents,  to 
America,  and  settled  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  where  he  founded 
a  Lutheran  congregation,  to  whom  he  preached  till  his 
death,  June  2, 1879.  Grabau  was  president  of  the  Lu- 
theran Buffalo  Synod,  founded  the  Martin  Luther  Col- 
lege, and  was  for  some  time  editor  of  the  Kirchliches  /n- 
formatorium  and  of  the  Wachende  Kirche,     (B.  P.) 

Gtarabe,  Martin  Sylvester,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Weissensee  (Thuringia),  April 
21,  1627.  He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  was  professor 
there  in  1660,  in  1662  at  Jena,  in  1677  general-super^ 
intendent  of  Pomerania,  and  died  at  Colberg,  Nov.  28, 
1686.  He  published,  among  other  writings,  Disp,  in 
GaL  19,  4:— «fi  Joh,  artrtt,  3: — Contra  Socinianos: — De 
Unione  Duarum  in  Christo  Naiurarum: — De  Perspi- 
cuitate  Scripturm  Sacra  Kjusdemque  Lectione  Laicis 
Concedenda,  See  Jdcher,  A  ilgemeines  GeUhiien-Lexikon, 
s.  V.     (a  P.) 

Gh'abener,  Chilstian  Oottfrled,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  April  15,  1714,  at 
Freiberg.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1788  con-rec- 
tor at  Meissen,  in  1742  rector  at  Dresden,  and  died  Nov. 
80, 1778,  leaving  Disp.  ad  Genes,  xii,  6, 7  (Leipeic,  1787) ; 


GRABENER 


476 


6RAFENHAIN 


-De  CamiinSlnu  ApoitoUcii :  —  De  Formula  Kvpie 
iXktivov i—De  Portit  CalL  See  Jdcher,  AUffemeines 
Gekhrten^Lexihonj  8.  v. ;  Winer,  Hcoidbuch  der  theoL  Lit, 
1,612.     (a  P.) 

Qrabener,  TheophiltiB»  father  of  the  foregoing, 
was  bom  Nov.  3, 1685.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was 
in  1711  professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Freiburg,  in 
1735  rector  at  Bfeissen,  and  died  April  15, 1750,  leaving 
IM  Planctu  Hadadrimmon  ad  Zaeh,  xiijW  (Witten- 
berg, 1709)  \—Dt  Sacris  Judaorum  Peregrino  in  Jiortu 
Ritu  Factia  (1710) : — De  ExeonmumcaJtUmB  per  Ituom' 
ma  (eod.)  :—De  Sywbolo  I$railUarum  tram  Jordanem 
Incoleniium  ad  Jot.  xxii,  22-29  (Meissen,  1787):— Z>e 
TkeophUo  EpUcopo  Aniiocheno  (1744).  See  Jochei; 
A  Ugtmeinet  GeUhrtert'Lexikonf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

GrSiber,  Franz  Fribdbich,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  born  in  1784  in  Prussia.  He  studied  at  Halle, 
and  entered  upon  his  ministerial  duties  in  1808.  After 
he  had  occupied  different  pastorates,  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia appointed  him,  in  1846,  a  member  of  the  general 
synod,  and  made  him  general-superintendent  of  West- 
phalia. In  1856  he  retired  from  his  office,  and  died  in 
1857.  He  published  Dcu  Verlorene  ParcuUeSf  Predigten 
(Elberfeld,  1830).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  iheoL  Lit, 
ii,  1 16 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  460.     (a  P.) 

Grace,  Actual.  See  Actual  Grace. 

Qraoe  at  Kbals  was  customary  among  the  Jews 
(Lightfoot,  Horm  ffebr,  on  Matt,  xx,  86),  and  forms  are 
contained  in  the  Talmud  {Berackoth^  vii).  Numerous 
examples  occur  in  the  New  Test.,  and  early  Christian 
writers  abundantly  confirm  the  practice  (Chrysostom, 
IIomSL  xlix ;  Clemens  Alex.  Pasdap,  ii,  4^  §  •44,  77 ;  so 
also  TertuUian,  Cyprian,  and  others).  Examples  of 
forms  occur  both  in  the  early  Eastern  and  Western 
churches,  and  the  Gelasian  Sacraroentary  sets  forth 
quite  a  number.    See  Smith,  DicL  of  Chritt,  Antig.  s.  v. 

Oradenigo,  GKovanni  Agostino^  an  Italian 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Venice,  July  10, 1725.  He  studied 
under  the  direction  of  Domenioo  dall'  Onazio;  entered 
the  Benedictine  order  in  1744;  in  1749  was  called  to 
teach  philosophy  at  Mantua,  and  later  caoon  law ;  in 
1756  returned  to  Venice,  where,  in  1762,  he  founded 
an  academy  of  ecclesiastical  history;  refused  the  bish- 
opric of  Corfu  in  1765,  but  in  1770  became  bishop  of 
Ceneda,  and  died  March  16, 1774^  leaving  a  large  num- 
ber of  short  publications,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  GiniraUy  s.  v. 

Oradenigo,  GMovannl  GKeronimo,  an  Italian 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Venice,  Feb.  19, 1708.  While  young 
he  entered  the  order  of  the  Tbeatinea,  and  occupied  sev- 
eral important  chairs  at  the  Seminary  of  Brescia.  On 
Jan.  27,  1766,  he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Udine. 
He  died  June  80, 1786,  leaving  Leiiera  al  Card,  Quirinif 
etc  (Venice,  1744): — Letlera  Ittorica  Critica  Sopra 
ProbabUismo  (Brescif,  1750):  — /;«  Cure  Pattorali 
(Udine,  1756) : — De  Sich  Argenteo  Hebraorum  (Rome, 
1766),  and  other  pieces,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Ghradin,  a  French  term  for  a  step  behind  and  above 
the  level  of  the  altar-slab,  for  placing  the  cross  and  can^ 
dlesticks  upon,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  altar  it- 
self. 

Gradual  {GraduoU,  Grayf).  Strictly  only  the  first 
verse  of  the  anthem  sung  was  thus  called.  The  rest 
was  technically  styled  the  *<  verse.**  The  mode  of 
singing  it  was  not  everywhere  the  same,  but  that  in 
which  one  sang  alone  for  a  while  and  many  responded 
was  probably  in  use  from  the  very  infancy  of  the  Church. 
From  Easter  eve  to  the  Saturday  in  Whitsnn  week  in- 
clusively the  Gradual  was  followed,  and  at  last  supplant- 
ed, by  the  Alleluia.  This  had  been  long  known  in  the 
West,  and  used,  though  not  prescribed,  on  public  occa- 
sions of  religious  joy.  At  Rome  it  was  only  sung  on 
Easter  day. 

The  Tract  was  another  anthem  sometimes  sung  after 


the  eputk.  Originally  it  was  always  fmn  the  Book 
of  Psfdms.  The  Tract  in  all  probability  was.  nothing 
more  than  the  Gradual  as  it  was  chanted  in  seasons  of 
humiliation.  Very  soon,  however,  a  Tract  was  often 
sung  after  the  Gradual ;  that  is,  a  third  verse  was  add- 
ed to  the  anthem,  which  was  sung  continuously  by  the 
cantor  without  any  assistance  from  the  choir.  Tha 
Gradual  and  Tract  were  sung  from  the  same  step  of  the 
ambo  from  which  the  epistle  was  read.  The  fact  that 
the  Gradual  and  Tract  were  both  sung  from  the  lesson- 
desk,  and  that  by  a  single  cantor  detached  thither,  like 
the  readers,  from  the  choir,  seems  to  indicate  their  com- 
mon origin  in  that  extended  use  of  the  Book  of  Psalms 
with  the  rest  of  Holy  Scripture  which  we  know  to  have 
prevailed  during  the  first  ages. — Smith,  Diet,  o/CkrigL 
A  rUiq,  s.  v. 

Qraf,  Anton,  a  Roman  Oitholic  theologian,  for 
some  time  professor  of  exegesis  and  pastoral  theology 
in  Tubingen,  who  died  May  24, 1867,  is  the  author  of 
Kritische  DartteUung  des  gegenwdrtigen  Zustandet  der 
prahtitchm  Theohgie  (Tubingen,  1840).     (B.  P.) 

Oraf,  Carl  Heinrioh,  a  Protestant  theolc^an  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Mfihlhausen  in  1815.  He  stud- 
ied at  Strasburg.  In  1888  he  was  a  teacher  at  Paris, 
was  made  a  licentiate  of  theology  at  Strasburg  in  1842, 
took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  at  Leipme  in 
1846,  and  was  professor  at  the  royal  school  at  Meisaen, 
in  Saxony,  and  died  July  16, 1869.  He  wrote,  De  Li- 
brorutn  Samuelit  et  Regum  Compositione  Scrtptoribfts  et 
Fide  Hittorica  (Strasburg,  1842):— f^Mot  eur  la  Vie  et 
lee  Merits  de  J.  Lefivre  d^taplet  (ibid,  eod.) : — Moe- 
licheddin  SadPt  Rotengarten  (translated  from  the  Per- 
sian, Lcipsic,  1846) :  —  MotUcKeddin  Sadie  Luttffmifn 
(Jena,  1850, 2  vols.)  :^La  Morale  du  PokU  Person  Sadi 
(1851):— />e  Templo  Silonenti  (Meissen,  1855):  — Z>or 
Prophet  Jeremia  eridart  (Leipsic,  1868):— Z>m  ao^e- 
namde  Grundeehr^  dee  Petttateuchs  (1869),  besides  a 
large  number  of  essays  contributed  to  the  ZeUedkrifi 
der  DeutedieH  Morgenldndisi^en  Geedltcha/l.  Seelicb- 
teoherger,Enegelop,detSciaiee8ReligkueeSfB,y,i  Zuch- 
old, BiU  TheoL  i,  460.     (a  P.) 

Oraf,  Johann  Hoinrloh,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
was  bom  Nov.  19,  1797,  at  lindow,  in  Brandenburg, 
Prussia.  lu  1828  he  entered  the  missionary  seminary 
at  Berlin,  and  in  1825  the  Hebrew  College  at  London, 
to  prepare  himself  as  a  missionary  to  promote  the  gos- 
pel among  the  Jews.  He  remained  in  England  till 
1827,  when  he  was  sent  to  the  Rhenish  provinces  on  a 
missionary  journey.  In  the  same  year  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  mission-station  at  Posen,  was  ordained  there 
in  1846,  and  died  Dec.  5, 1867.    (a  P.) 

Gkrtfe,  Hbtkrich,  a  German  eodeuastic  and  educa- 
tor, was  twm  at  Buttstiidt,  in  Weimar,  May  8, 1802, 
and  educated  at  Jena.  In  1823  he  obtained  a  curacy 
in  the  State  Church  at  Weimar,  and  in  1825  was  made 
rector  of  the  town  school  at  Jena.  In  1840  he  was  alao 
appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  the  sdenee  of  ed- 
ucation in  the  University  of  Jena,  and  in  1842  he  be- 
came head  of  the  bfirgcrschule  in  CasseL  He  afterwards 
occupied  various  positions  in  the  educational  field,  and 
in  1849  entered  the  house  of  representatives  of  Hease, 
and  became  noted  as  an  agitator.  He  was  imprisoned 
in  1852  for  having  been  implicated  in  certain  revohi- 
tionary  movements.  On  his  release  he  withdrew  to 
Geneva,  where  he  engaged  in  educational  work  till 
1855,  when  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  fchool  of 
industry  at  Bremen.  He  died  in  that  city,  July  21, 
1868.  His  works  were  chiefly  on  educational  subjects. 
See  Encydop,  Brit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Grifenhain,  Ferdinand  Fbiedrich,  a  Lutheran 
theologian,  was  bora  Feb.  14^  1740.  For  some  time  dea- 
con at  Taucha,  in  Saxony,  ho  was  called  in  1780  to 
Leipsic,  and  died  March  18, 1823.  He  wrote  Awmctd^ 
versionet  in  he.  EpisL  PauU  ad  PhUipp,  tt,  5-12  (Leip- 
sic, 1802).  See  Winer,  ffandlmdi  der  theoL  LiL  i,  263w 
(RP.) 


GRAFUNDER 


*11 


6RAMMER 


GralfUider,  David,  a  Latbenn  theologum,  who 
died  Dec.  U^  1680,  at  Menebarg,  is  the  author  of,  CalU- 
ffrapkia  Hebraa: — Grammatica  Syriaca  cum  Syntaxi 
d  Lexieo:— Grammatica  Ckaldaica,  See  Jocher,  AU- 
gtmeimt  GeUhrtm- Lexikon,  &  v.;  Steinachneider,  BUh 
Uoyr,  ffandbuchf  8.  v. ;  Ftlnt,  BibL  Jud.  i,  842.     (B.  P.) 

Graham,  Andrew f  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected 
sod  ODQsecnted  to  the  see  of  Dunblane,  July  28, 1575. 
He  was  also  pastor  of  the  Church  of  Dunblane  until  his 
death.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bighops,  p.  180. 

Oraham,  Arohibald,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first 
pastor  at  Bothsar,  in  the  Isle  of  Bute,  and  from  there 
promoted  to  the  see  of  the  Isles  in  1C80,  where  he  con- 
tinued until  the  revolution  in  1688.  See  Keith,  Scot- 
tish Bishops,  p.  810. 

Orahaxn,  Charles,  an  Irish  Wesleyan  missionary, 
was  bom  at  Tnllinnagiackin,  near  Sligo,  Aug.  20, 1750. 
After  laboring  fat  twenty-one  years  as  a  local  preacher, 
be  was,  in  1790,  appointed  by  Wesley  as  a  miieionar}' 
in  Ireland.  Few  of  the  Irish  preachers  had  severer 
tiiab  from  mobs  than  Graham,  but  he  conrageoosly  met 
them.  For  six  years  he  and  Ouseley  traversed  Ireland 
together,  bringing  the  light  into  its  darkest  quarters. 
Graham  afterwards  labored  in  Ulster,  Armagh,  Kil- 
kenny, Wicklow,  Wexford,  and  other  places.  He  died 
luddenly  near  Athlone,  April  28, 1824.  His  powerful 
appeals  to  hia  street  congr^ations  were  pathetic, 
and  sometimes  overwhelming;  the  multitudes  heard, 
trembled,  and  fell  before  him.  See  Stevens,  Bist* 
of  hfethodistny  iii,  181,  409  sq.,  416  sq.,  485;  George 
Smith,  ffist,  of  Wesleyan  Methodism,  voL  ii  (see  Index, 
Tol.  iii) ;  William  Smith,  Bi^,  of  Wesleyan  Methodism 
in  Ireland,  p.  286;  Minutes  of  the  British  Conference, 
1824;  Beilly,  Ouseley  (N.  Y.  1848) ;  Arthur,  Life  of 
Ouseley  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1876) ;  Campbell,  Life  of 
Charles  Graham  (Dublin,  1868, 12mo;  Toronto,  1869). 

Graham,  George,  a  Scotch  prelate,  vrns  Ushop  of 
Dunblane  in  1606,  from  which  see  he  was  translated  to 
that  of  Orkney  in  1615,  where  he  continued  until  1688. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  BiAops,  p.  181, 227. 

Ghraham,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom 
in  Durham  in  1794.  In  1884  he  was  appointed  preb- 
endary of  Lincoln,  having  formerly  been  rector  of  Wil- 
lingham,  Cambridgeshire.  At  one  time  he  was  one  of 
the  chaplaina  of  prince  Albert,  consort  of  queen  Victoria. 
He  was  consecrated  to  the  bishopric  of  Chester  in  1848, 
which  see  he  field  until  the  close  of  his  life,  June  15, 
1865.  During  bis  administration  seventy -eight  new 
cboFches  were  consecrated  by  him  in  his  diocese.  See 
Amer,  Quar,  Churdk  Rev,  April,  1866,  p.  141. 

Graham,  Patrick,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Brediin  in  1488,  and  was  translated  to  the  see  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1466.  He  undertook  a  journey  to  Rome  in 
1467,  and  while  there  the  controversy  concerning  the 
superiority  of  the  see  of  York  over  the  Church  of  Soot- 
land  was  renewed.  He  obtained  sentence  against  that 
see,  and  that  his  own  see  should  be  erected  into  an 
archbishopric,  and  the  pope  also  made  him  his  legate 
within  Scotland  for  three  years.  On  his  return  he 
found  the  king's  dergy  and  courtiers  all  opposed  to  his 
transactions.  He  was  put  in  prison,  where  he  died  in 
147a    See  Kdtb,  SeoUish  Bishops,  p.  80-164. 

Graham,  SamnelLyle,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Liberty,  Ya.,  Feb.  9, 1794.  He 
studied  under  Rev.  J.  Mitchell,  and  subsequently  at 
the  Kew  London  Academy,  and  graduated  at  Washing- 
ton College,  Lexington,  in  1814.  After  this  he  became 
tutor  in  the  family  of  judge  Nash  of  North  Carolina. 
In  1818  be  graduated  from  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  New  Brunswick.  He  acted  for  a  while 
as  miasiomiTy  in  Indiana,  and  subsequently  in  Green- 
brier and  Monroe  ooonties^Ya.  In  1821  he  removed  to 
North  Carolina,  and  became  pastor  of  Oxford  and 
Grassy  Creek  chnzchea.    After  remaining  here  seven 


years  he  took  charge  of  the  Oxford  Church,  where  a 
gracious  revival  foltowed  his  labors,  in  1830.  In  1884 
he  became  pastor  at  ClarksviUe  and  Shiloh,  and  in  1888 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  Ya.,  which  position  he  reUined  until  his 
death  at  Prince  Edward,  Oct.  29, 1851.  He  contribu- 
ted several  papers  to  the  Princeton  Retietc,  See  Gen. 
Cat.  of  Princeton  Theol  Sem.  1881,  p.  20 ;  Nevin,  Presb. 
£ncyclop,B,r.    (W.P.a) 

Graham,  Sylveater,  a  Presbyterian  minister  and 
reformer,  was  bom  in  Sheffield,  Conn.,  in  1794.  From 
childhood  he  was  troubled  with  weak  digestion  and 
rheumatism,  and  was  compelled  to  abandon  one  em- 
ploj^meot  after  another  on  account  of  poor  health.  He 
6nally  studied  at  Amherst  College,  and  became  a  Pres- 
byterian preacher  about  1826.  In  1830  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Temperance  Society  employed  him  as  a  lecturer. 
This  led  him  to  the  study  of  human  physiology,  by 
which  he  became  convinced  that  the  only  cure  for  in- 
temperance was  to  be  found  in  correct  habits  of  living 
and  judicious  diet.  This  idea  was  set  before  the  world 
in  permanent  form  in  his  Essay  on  Cholera  (1832),  and 
Graham  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Human  L\fe  (Bos- 
ton, 1839,  2  vols.).  He  died  at  Northampton,  Mass., 
Sept.  11, 1851.  His  other  publications  were  a  Lecture 
to  Young  Men  on  Chastity  ;^a  Treatise  on  Bread-Mak* 
iny,  from  which  we  have 'the  name  *' Graham  bread": 
— and  the  Philosophy  of  Sacred  History,  of  which  only 
one  volume  was  finuhed  by  him,  and  published  after 
his  death.  In  this  work  he  attempted  to  show  the 
harmony  between  the  teachings  of  the  Bible  and  his 
views  on  dietetics.  See  Appkton*s  A  mer.  Cyclop,  viii, 
142. 

GralL  (1)  Gradale,  gradual,  that  which  follows  in 
degree,  or  the  next  step  (jgradks)  after  the  epistle,  a 
book  containing  the  Order  of  Benediction  of  Holy  Wa- 
ter, the  Offices,  Introit,  or  beginning  of  the  Mass,  the 
Kyrie,  Gloria,  Alleluia,  Prose,  Tract,  Sequence,  Creed, 
Offertor}',  Sanctus,  Agnus  Dei,  and  Communion  and 
Post-Communion,  which  pertain  to  the  choir  in  singing 
solemn  mass.  In  France  it  denotes  the  Antiphonar, 
which  was  set  on  the  gradus  or  analogium.  (2)  A 
verse  or  response,  var}'ing  with  the  day ;  a  portion  of 
a  psalm  sung  between  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  while 
the  deacon  was  on  his  way  to  the  rood-loft.  Their  in- 
troduction into  the  Church  is  attributed  variously  to 
Celestine,  430,  St.  Ambrose,  Gelasius,  490,  or  Gregory 
the  Great,  c.  600,  who  arranged  the  responses  in  order 
in  his  "Antiphonar.**  Rabanus  says  the  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  custom  of  singing  the  grail  on  the  steps 
of  the  ambon  or  pulpit ;  but  others  consider  it  to  be 
taken  from  the  responsory,  gradation,  or  succession,  or 
the  altar-step.  These  verses  were  formerly  chanted, 
either  by  a  single  voice  or  in  chorus.  When  the  chant- 
er sang  to  the  end  tractim,  they  were  called  the  Tract ; 
but  when  he  was  interrupted  by  the  choir,  then  the 
name  was  a  Yerse,  Responsory,  or  Anthem. — Walcott, 
Sac.  A  rchaol.  s.  v. 

Gramberg,  Caul  Peter  Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  24, 1797,  at  See- 
feld,  in  Oldenburg,  and  died  at  Zullichau,  in  Prussia, 
March  29, 1830.  He  is  the  author  of.  Die  Chrordk  nach 
ihrem  geschichtlichen  Charakter  (Halle,  1828):— Lt^ri 
Geneseos  Secundum  Fontes  (Leipsic,  eod.) :  —  Kritische 
Geschichte  der  Religionsideen  des  Alten  Testaments  (Ber- 
lin, 1828,  1880,  2  yo]b,):^  Salomons  Buch  der  SprHche 
Ubersetit  u.  erHdrt  (Leipsic,  1828).  See  Winer,  Hand- 
hudi  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  79, 188, 212 ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  842 : 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  461.    (a  P.) 

Grammer,  John,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Petersburg,  Ya.  He  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  that  place  some  two  years  after  grad- 
uating at  Yale  College.  In  January',  1824,  he  entered 
the  Episcopal  Theological  Seminary  at  Alexandria,  and 
on  July  15, 1826.  received  deacon's  orders.  For  the  next 
ten  years  his  life  was  that  of  a  missionary.    He  lived 


GRAMMLICH 


478 


GRANDPIERRE 


upon  his  €8tate  in  Dinwiddie  Gooiity,  tnd  preached  in 
eight  or  ten  of  the  neighboring  counties.  In  October, 
1835|  his  dwelling  was  burned  down,  and  he  removed  to 
Lawrenceville.  In  1838  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  par- 
ish of  Halifax  Court-house,  and  removed  there,  where 
he  continued  to  reside  till  his  death,  March  6,  1871, 
aged  seventy-five  years.  See  Obituary  Record  of  Yale 
College,  1871 ;  ProU  Epitc  Almanac,  1872,  p.  127. 

Qrammlloh,  JoHANif  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  July  1, 1689,  at  Stuttgart. 
He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  Halle,  was  in  1716  court- 
chaplain  at  Stuttgart,  and  died  April  7, 1728.  He  wrote, 
ErbauUcke  Betrachtungen  avf  alle  Tage  (Stuttgart, 
1724;  new  ed.  by  Bock,  BresUu,  1868)  .^Vitrzig  Be- 
trachtungen  von  Chritti  Leiden  und  Tod  (Tubingen, 
1722;  new  ed.  by  Koppen,  1865) :  also  Awiakttions  on 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  on  the  epistles  of  Peter,  John, 
and  James.  See  Jochcr,  Allgemeines  Gdehrten-Lexi- 
hm,  s.  V. ;  Zuchold,  BM,  TheoL  i,  461  sq. ;  Winer,  Hand- 
buck  der  iJkeoL  Lit.  i,  182 ;  Koch,  GetckichU  det  deuttchen 
KirchmUie^,y,6eaq.    (ar.) 

Ghramxnont,  Antoine  Pierre  de  (i),  a  French 
prelate,  was  born  in  1615.  He  entered  the  ministry 
when  quite  young.  Alexander  VII  offered  him  the 
deanery  of  the  chapter  of  Besanyon,  but  he  declined. 
Some  time  later  he  was  coa^ecrated  archbishop  of  that 
see.  When  Louis  XIV  invaded  Franche-Comt^  in  1668, 
Grammont  made  every  exertion  for  defence.  On^  the 
second  invasion,  six  years  later,  he  resigned  at  the  door 
of  his  cathedral,  and  thereafter  occupied  himself  by  rais- 
ing various  schools  in  his  diocese.  He  died  May  1, 
16d8,  leaving  editions  of  the  missal,  of  the  breviar}%  of 
the  ritual,  and  a  catechism  of  his  diocese.  See  lloefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirak,  s.  v. 

Gkrammont,  Antx)ine  Pierre  de  (2),  a  French 
prelate,  nephew  of  Fran9ois  Joseph,  was  bom  in  1685. 
After  finishing  his  studies  at  the  College  of  Louis-le- 
Grand,  in  Paris,  he  became  a  soldier  at  eighteen  years 
of  age ;  was  wounded  before  Spire,  and  taken  prisoner. 
Being  exchanged,  he  received  command  of  a  regiment 
of  dragoons,  which  bore  his  name.  When  peace  was 
restored,  Grammont  returned  to  his  province,  where  his 
uncle  supplied  him  with  a  canonicate  of  the  chapter  of 
Besan^on.  He  was  nominated  archbishop  of  that  city 
by  Louis  XV,  in  1735,  and  died  Sept.  7, 1754.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GSnirale,  s.  v. 

Grammont,  FranpoiB  Joseph  de,  a  French 
prelate,  nephew  of  Antoine  (1),  was  coadjutor  of  his  un- 
cle under  the  title  of  bishop  of  Philadelphia,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  see  of  Besan^on.  He  reconstructed 
the  arcbiepiscopacy,  and  gave  new  editions  to  the  bre- 
viary and  the  ritual,  also  published  a  collection  of  syno- 
dal statutes,  and  left  his  fortune  to  the  seminary.  He 
died  Aug.  20, 1715.    See  Hocfer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale, 

8.V. 

Ghramont,  Gabriel  db,  a  French  prelate,  succeeded 
his  brother  in  the  bishopric  of  Couserans,  and  also  of 
Tarbes  in  1522.  He  was  sent  on  various  diplomatic 
missions.  In  1532  he  was  made  bishop  of  Poitiers,  and 
finally  archbuhop  of  Toulouse.  He  died  March  26, 
1534,  leaving  in  MS.  a  collection  of  letters  relating  to 
his  various  embassies.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gini' 
rale,  s.  v. 

Ghramur,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  famous  sword 
of  the  hero  Sigurd.  It  was  the  most  excellent  that 
had  ever  been  made  by  dwarfs.  Sigurd  proved  it  in  two 
ways :  he  cut  in  two  a  lai^  piece  of  steel,  and,  behold, 
the  sword  had  not  even  the  slightest  scratch  -,  then  he 
laid  it  in  the  river,  which  carried  a  light  woolflake 
against  it,  and  the  latter  was  cut  in  two. 

Qranaoci,  Francesco,  a  reputable  Florentine 
painter,  was  bom  in  1477,  and  studied  under  Ghirlan- 
dajo  at  the  same  time  with  Buonarotti.  Among  his 
principal  pictures  are  those  of  Si,  Zanobi  and  SU  Fran^ 
cii,  near  the  Virgin,  under  a  lofty  canopy,  and  The 


A  MUfnption,  in  San  Pietro  Maggiore.  He  died  in  1544. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog, 
Hiit,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  n.  v. 

O^ranada,  Luis  de.    See  Louis  of  Grasada. 

Qranoolas,  Jean,  a  French  theologian  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Sorbonne,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1660.  In 
1685  he  took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  divinity,  was  chap- 
lain to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  died  in  1732.  He  wrote, 
TraUi  de  VAniiquiti  det  Cirhnoniee  dee  Saerimentt 
(Paris,  1692): — Inetructioiu  eur  la  Rdigion,  Tiriee  de 
FEcriture  Sainte  (1698):— I^a  Science  det  Confetaeurt 
(1696):— L'vliieieniw  Duc^line  de  FEgUte  (1697):— 
Beuret  Sacrkt  (eod.)  i—Traiti  det  Liturgies  (1696): 
Bistoire  A  brigee  de  VEgUse  de  la  Ville  etdeV  UnioersUi 
de  Paris  (1728,  2  vols.).  See  J ocher,  Allgemeines  Gt- 
lekrten-Leaahon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  tkeoL  IM.  i, 
608,  890 ;  Lichtenberger,  Encgclop.  det  Sdenoet  Jieligi' 
euses,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gtoimdi,  GuiDO  DB,  an  Italian  member  of  the  Cam- 
aldule  order,  was  bom  in  1671  at  Cremona.  He  studied 
at  Rome,  was  professor  at  Florence  and  Pisa,  and  died 
at  the  latter  place,  July  21, 1742,  leaving  Martyrologutm 
Camaldulense: — Dissertationes  CanuiUklenset,etc.  See 
Vita  del  Padre  D.  Guide  Grandi,  Scritta  da  Una  suo 
Disotpolo;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten'Lexihon,  s.  v.; 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  LU,  i,  714.     (B.  P.) 

Gtoimdidier,  Phillippb  Andri^,  a  French  theo- 
logian, born  at  Strssbui^,  Nov.  9, 1752,  entered  into  holy 
orders,  was  canon  and  keeper  of  the  archives  of  the 
bishopric  there,  and  died  Oct.  11, 1787.  He  wrotc^ 
ffistoire  de  Viiglise  et  des  Princes^EvSques  de  Strasbourg 
(1776,  1778,  2  vois.)  :  —  Hittoire  EocUsiastiques,  de  la 
Province  dAltace  (1781):  —  Ettai  Historique  star  la 
CaiMdrak  de  Strasbourg  (1782).  Besides,  he  left  in 
MS.  a  great  deal  of  matter  pertaining  to  the  Church 
history  of  Strasburg,  which  was  published  in  six  rol- 
umes,  by  Liblin,  under  the  title,  (Euvres  Uistmriques 
fnAUtes  de  Grandidier  (Cohnar,  1865).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  828 ;  Ltchtenbeiger,  Enegdop. 
des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  A'biir.  Biog,  Gens' 
rale,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Grandin,  Martih,  a  French  theologian,  was  born 
at  Sl  Quentin  in  1^604.  He  commenced  his  stadies  at 
Noyon,  continued  them  at  Amiens,  and  finished  thein  at 
Paris,  in  the  college  of  the  cardinal  Le  Moine,  where  he 
afterwards  taught  philosophy.  He  was  doctor  of  the 
Sorbonne,  and  taught  theology  there  more  than  fifty 
years.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1691,  leaving  a  work  oif 
value  entitled,  InsHtuiiones  Theohgieet  (Paris^  1710)l 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Gtoandiaon,  Johh,  an  English  prelate  of  the  14th 
century,  was  bom  at  Asperton,  Herefordshire.  He  was 
prebendary  of  Exeter  and  Yoric  in  1809,  archdeaoon  of 
Nottingham,  Oct.  12, 1810,  and  dean  of  Wells.  While 
holding  these  preferments,  he  became  chaplain  to  pope 
Clement  V,  who  employed  him  as  his  nuncio  in  France, 
Spain,  Germany,  and  England,  where  he  attncted  the 
notice  of  Edward  HI.  He  was  consecrated  to  the  see  of 
Exeter,  OcL  18, 1827.  He  was  enormously  rich,  founded 
Otteiy  St.  Mary,  built  Bishop's  Teignton,  vaulted  the 
nave,  built  the  west  front  of  Exeter  Cathedral,  annexed 
Radway  to  his  see,  and  compelled  all  ecclesiastics  in  hia 
diocese  to  bequeath  their  goods  to  him  to  complete  his 
buildings.  He  died  July  16, 1369.  Bishop  Grandiaon 
had  great  trouble  with  the  archbishop  of  Cauterburr. 
See  Hook,  Livet  of  the  Archbithopt  of  Canterbury,  iii, 
507 ;  Fuller,  Worthiet  of  England  (ed.  NutUU),  ii,  74. 

Grandpierre,  Henri,  a  Reformed  theologisoi  of 
France,  who  died  at  Paris  while  director  of  the  im»> 
sionary  institute,  in  1875,  is  the  author  of  some  aaoeti* 
cal  works,  as  Tristesse  et  Consolation: — Le  Guide  dm 
FidsU  a  la  Table  Saerie : -^ Les  Aspirations  CkrdU^ 
ennes.  Some  of  these,  besides  a  number  of  his  sermona» 
were  translated  into  German.  For  a  long  time  h«  ed- 
ited a  religious  journal  entitled,  VEtperanoe.    See  Zn* 


GRANT 


479 


6RATRY 


ch<»ld,  BibL  TJM.  i,  462;  Liehtenbeig«r,  Eneifekp.  det 
Sdenca  RtHgieuteSy  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Grant  (or  Qraunt),  Bdiward,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
English  scholar  of  the  16th  century,  waa  educated  at 
Westminster  School  and  Cbriatcburch,  or  at  Broadgates 
Hall,  Oxford.  In  1572  he  waa  made  master  of  West* 
minster  School,  where  he  continued  until  159L  He 
was  prebend  of  Westminster  in  1577,  of  Ely  in  1589, 
and  died  in  Sept  or  Oct.  1601.  He  published,  InstituHo 
Graea  Grammatioes  CompemOara  (1597)  i^Graoas  Lin- 
gua SptciUffium  (1575).  See  Cbalroers,  Biog.  Diet, 
8.  T. ;  AlHbone,  Dicf,  of  BriL  and  Amer,  A  vthors,  a.  v. 

Grant,  Richard,  an  English  prelate,  ia  usually 
stated  to  hare  been  dean  of  London,  but  thia  ia  very 
improbable.  In  1221  he  was  chancellor  of  Lincoln,  and 
in  1229  he  was  consecrated  to  the  see  of  Canterbury. 
His  episcopate  was  short,  and  it  seems  that  he  waa  not 
as  discreet  as  he  should  bare  been,  which  was  so  need- 
ful for  the  time.  He  died  Aug.  9,  1231.  According  to 
Tanner,  the  following  works  were  written  by  Richard 
Grant :  De  Fide  el  Legibut^  lib,  i:  —  De  Sacramentis, 
Ub, i:^De  Univaio  Corporali  et  Spiriiucdi, lib,  i.  See 
Hook;  Lives  of  the  A  rchbishops  o/ Canterbury  j  iii,  103  aq. 

Ghrapo,  Zacharias,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Rostock,  Oct.  6, 1671.  He  atudied 
at  his  natire  place  and  at  Greif^walde,  commenced  hia 
academical  career  in  1696  at  Rostock,  waa  in  1701  doc- 
tor, in  1704  professor  of  theology,  and  died  Feb.  11, 
1713,  learing,  Sytiema  Novistimarum  Controvertiarum 
(Bostock,  1705)  -.—Hitloria  Literaria  Talmudit  Baby- 
land  (ibid.  1696)  i—Da  Cartheaii  Methodo  Convineendi 
Atkeos: — De  Quibuidam  Locutiombut  in  Critica  Edu. 
Leighic  —  De  Victore  ab  Edom  ad  E$,  Ixiii,  1-6 : — An 
Talmud  tit  Cremendumf — An  Circumcisio  ab  jEggpliia 
ad  Abrakamum  Fuerit  Derioataf  See  Jocher,  Allge' 
meina  Gelekr/en-Lexikan,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Uandbuch  der 
ikeoL  Lii,  i,  343 ;  FUrst,  Bibl,  TheoL  i,  312 ;  Steinschnei- 
der,  BibL  Uandbuch^  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ghmptua.     SeeTHBODOKR;  THBOPHAiiica. 

Graser,  Conrad,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bon  at  Konigsberg,  May  6, 1557.  He  waa 
profeasor  of  Hebrew  at  the  gymnasium  in  Thorn,  West 
Prussia, and  died  Dec  80, 1613,  leaving,' £riftor»a  Anii- 
CkritU  Magni: — ApoealypteoM  ExpUeatio: — Tradatus 
de  Principiit  Veriiaiit  JudaictB: — Explicaiio  in  Caput 
9  Dameiii.  See  Adam,  VUcb  Eruditorum ;  Jijcher,  A  lU 
yemdnes  Gelehriei^Lexihon^  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Graser,  GKovannl  Battiata,  an  Italian  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  April  2, 1718,  at  Roveredo  (Tyrol).  He 
taught,  from  1761  to  1779,  philosophy,  hiatory,  )iatristic 
and  theological  literature  in  the  CoUege  of  Innsprttck, 
exercised  at  the  aame  time  the  functions  of  a  conser- 
vator of  the  imperial  library,  and  obtained  in  1777  the 
tiUe  of  a  doctor  of  theology.  In  1779  he  retired  to  hu 
native  city,  where  he  died  in  1786.  Among  hia  writ- 
ings are.  In  Servumem  de  Maria  -  Rmata  Saga^  etc 
(Venice,  1752) : — Orazicne  in  Morte  di  Gir,  TatUarotti 
(Boveredo,  1761)  : — De  PkHosopkia  Aforali*  ad  Jurit- 
•prudeniiam  Neeeidtate  (Vienna,  1767) : — De  hittorid 
StudU  AmamtaU  Atgue  UtUUate,  etc  (1775),  also  sev- 
eral poeraa,  chants,  and  sonnets.  See  Hoefer,  A'ouv. 
Biog,  Gmerale,  a.  v, 

Graahof^  Juuus  Wersicr,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  4, 1802,  at  Prenzlaw, 
in  Brandenburg,  studied  at  Bonn  theology  and  philology, 
was  in  1826  preacher  at  Treves,  in  1830  at  Cologne,  and 
in  1886  waa  appointed  by  the  government  as  counsellor 
in  the  aflkira  pertaining  to  the  Church  and  School  of 
the  Rheniah  provinces.  Grashof  died  June  25,  1878. 
He  published.  Die  Briefe  der  keiUgen  Apottd  Jacobus, 
Petrtu^  Jokames  tad  Judas  (Essen,  1830)  i^Die  Evan- 
gdien  det  Matthaus,  Marcus  und  Lucas  (ibid.  1834)  *. — 
Luther's  BMrUAersetzung  (Crefeld,  1835).  See  Zu- 
cboM,  £tU.  ri&€o/.  i,  468  sq.    (RP.) 

Gkaasar,  JoBAim  Jaoob,  a  Swiss  historian  and 


theologian,  waa  bom  Feb.  21, 1579,  at  Bade.  He  stud- 
ied a  long  time  in  France,  and  became  three  years  later 
professor  at  Nlmes.  In  1607  he  received  at  Padua  the 
title  of  a  count-palatine,  of  a  knight  and  Roman  citizen. 
He  then  went  to  EngUnd,  and  on  his  return  accepted, 
in  his  own  country,  the  functions  of  a  pastor  in  the 
village  of  Bemwyl,  and  afterwards  at  Basle,  where  he 
was  connected  with  the  Church  of  St.  Theodor.  He 
died  at  the  latter  place,  March  21, 1627.  Some  of  hia 
principal  works  are,  Ei^vXXcov,  Helvetia  Laudem  Com" 
plectensj  etc  (BaBlc^]598) : — De  Andquitatibus  Neman- 
sensibus  (Cologne,  1672)  i—Ecdesia  Orientalis  et  Meridi- 
oralis  (Strasburg,  1613)  i—Itinerarium  Historico-PolUi- 
cum  per  Cekbres  Helvetia^  etc  (Basle,  1614) : — Chronieon 
der  Waldmser  (1623),  and  other  works  on  the  history 
of  Ital}*,  France,  EngUnd,  and  Switzerland.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  a.  v. 

Gkraaai,  GHovannl,  an  eminent  Italian  ecclesias- 
tic, was  bom  at  Verona,  Oct.  12, 1778,  and  entered  the 
Jesuit  order,  Nov.  16, 1799.  In  1810  he  was  sent  to 
Maryland  to  be  superior  of  the  Jesuit  missions.  He 
was  recalled  to  Italy  in  1817,  and  appointed  to  some 
important  places  of  the  order.  He  was  also  rector  of 
the  College  of  the  Propaganda.  He  died  Dec  12, 1849. 
Grassi  published  Various  Notices  on  the  State  of  the 
BqmbUcofthe  United Statt's,181B,which  passed  through 
three  editions  in  Rome,  Milan,  and  Turin.  See  Cath, 
Almanac^  1872,  p.  102. 

Ghraaai,  Fietro  Maria,  an  Augustiuian  monk  of 
Vicenza,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  18lh 
century,  is  the  author  of,  Narratio  Historica  de  Ortvt 
ac  Progressu  Ilteredum  Joh,  WicUfi  (Vicenza,  1707). 
See  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  734.     (a  P.) 

Gratianus,  Philip  Chkistoph,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  July  2, 1742,  at  Oberroth  (in  Limburg). 
He  studied  at  the  convents  of  Blaubeuren  and  Beben- 
hausen,  in  WUrtemberg,  sen'cd  afterwards  in  various 
ecclesiastical  relations  at  Heilbronn  (1767),  at  Neustadt 
(1773),  at  Offterdingen,  and  became  in  1795  ecclesias- 
tical superintendent  and  first  pastor  of  the  city  of 
Weinsberg,  where'  he  died,  Jan.  7,  1799,  leaving,  De 
i/armonia  Reprasenlaiionum  Dd  Realium  (Tubingen, 
1763):— />«  SfemoraUbus  Justini  Martyris,  tic  (ibid. 
llG^y.—Urspi-utig  und  Fortpjlamung  des  Christenthums 
in  Europa  (ibid.  1766)  i—PJUmzung  des  Christenthums 
in  den  aus  den  Triimmem  des  rdmischen  KaiserthumSf  etc 
(Stuttgart,  1778)  i-^Grundlehrtn  der  Religion  (Lemgo, 
1787).     See  Hoefer,  JVbur.  Biog,  GiiUrale^  s.  v. 

GratluB,  Ortwin,  a  Roooan  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  in  the  15th  century,  at  Moltwick, 
in  the  diocese  of  Mttnster.  In  1509  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  the  College  of  Kuick,  at  Cologne,  and  after- 
wards took  holy  orders.  He  undertook  the  defense  of 
Hogstraten  against  Reuchlin,  but  was  overthrown  by 
Hutten.  He  died  at  Cologne,  May  18, 1541,  leaving, 
Oradones  Quodlibetica  (Cologne,  1508)  i^Criticomastix 
PeregrinadOy  etc  (Lyons,  1511):  —  Lamentationes  Ob- 
scurorum  Vivorum  (Cologne,  1518) : — Fasciculus  Rerum 
Expectendarum  et  Fugiendiarumf  etc.  (ibid.  1535 ;  new 
and  enlarged  edition,  by  Brown,  Lond.  1690) : — Apologia 
A  dversus  Joh,  ReuchUnum : — Triumphus  Jobi,  See  Wi- 
ner, Uandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  666 ;  Jocher,  A  llgemdnes 
Gelehrten-Lexikonj  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale, 
S.V.     (a  P.) 

Gkratry,  Augustb  Josieph  Alpiionsr,  abbi^  a  French 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Lille,  March  30, 1805.  He  stud- 
ied at  Paris,  became  director  of  the  College  of  Sainte- 
Barbe,  in  that  city,  in  1841,  and  chaplain  of  the  superior 
normal  school  in  1846.  He  resigned  this  position  in 
1851,  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  abbe  Petetot,  found- 
ed the  Oratory  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  gave 
special  attention  to  the  conversion  and  instraction  of 
the  Parisian  youth.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  vicar- 
general  of  Orleans,  and  in  1863  he  became  professor  of 
moral  theology  in  the  Sorbonne.  He  attacked  Renan 
and  the  Rationalists  with  great  vigor  in  1864;  and  in 


GRATTON 


460 


GRAVINA 


1867  he  was  electod  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
He  withdrew  from  the  Oratory  in  1869  on  account  of 
the  unfriendly  attitude  assumed  towards  htm  by  that 
institution,  because  of  his  connection  with  father  Hya- 
cinthe  and  the  International  League  of  Peace.  He  set 
forth  his  views  of  the  poaition  of  the  two  parties  in  the 
Vatican  Council  in  two  letters,  in  1870,  but  was  con- 
strained to  retract  in  1872.  He  died  at  Montrenx, 
Switzerland,  Feb.  6  of  the  same  year.  His  principal 
works  are,  J^tids  sur  la  Sophi^ique  Cwtempormne  (Par- 
is, 1851;  4th  ed.  1868):--/>e  la  C^fmaisionoe  de  Dieu 
(1858, 2  vols.;  7th  ed.  1864),  which  received  the  prize 
from  the  French  Academy:  — Lo^i^tf  (1868,  2  vola; 
2d  ed.  1858):— Z>e  la  Cormaistanee  de  FAme  (1858,  2 
vols.):— La  Pkilotopkie  du  Credo  (1861):  —  Comment 
iaire  $ur  VEvangHe  Sdon  Sawt^Maiihku  (1868-65,  2 
vols)  i^La  Morale  etlaLoide  PHistoire  (1868, 2  vols. ; 
2d  ed.  1871),  in  which  he  declares  the  French  revolu- 
tion to  be  the  true  regeneration  of  human  society: 
—LeUres  sur  la  Rdigion  {ldQ9}  i—Let  sSouroes  de  la 
RSgMraiion  Sociale  (1871).  See  Perraud,  Let  Der- 
men  Jours  du  Psre  Gratry ;  VOratoirt  de  France  au 
diz'septieme  ei  au  dix-neuvieme  Steele;  Bastide,  in 
Lichtenberger'a  Encydop,  des  Sciences  Reliffieuses,  s.  v. ; 
LUerarisci^  HantdweUer  fUr  doe  KaihoUiche  Deutsch- 
land,  1872,  No.  2ia     (a  P.) 

Gratton,  John,  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Eng- 
lish Society  of  Friends,  was  bom  near  Mouyash,  Eng- 
land, about  1641.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  ten, 
and  first  joined  the  Presbyterians ;  afterwards  attended 
successively  the  service  of  the  Church  of  England,  then 
the  meetings  of  the  Independents,  and  later  of  the 
Anabaptists;  about  1671  united  with  the  Friends,  and 
began  to  preach,  travelling  extensively  throughout 
England,  often  persecuted  by  mobs,  and  from  1680  to 
1686  imprisoned  at  Derby.  While  there  he  sometimes 
preached  from  the  window  to  the  people,  wrote  letters 
of  encouragement  to  his  brethren,  and  prepared  a  small 
volume,  entitled  The  Prisoner's  Vindiication,  In  1707 
he  disposed  of  his  estate  at  Monyash,  and,  his  health 
failing,  travelled  thereafter  but  little.  He  died  Jan.  9, 
1711  or  1712.  Among  other  things  published  by  him 
was  a  Journal  of  his  Life,    See  The  Friend,  vii,  61. 

Graumann,  Johamn.    See  Pomander. 

Qraun,  Caspar  Heinrloh,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  Feb.  2, 1659.  He  studied  at  Witten- 
berg, was  in  1693  superintendent  at  Rochlitz,  and  died 
May  19, 1710,  leaving,  Definkiones,  Hypotheses  et  Pro- 
potitiones  Theologim  Dogmaium: — Apodixis  Aliquot 
Quasiionum  Theologicarum: — De  Gamaliele  CognonUne 
Sene,  See  Ranft,  £^601  der  chursdchsisdun  GoUesgO' 
lehrten;  Jucher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Qrann,  Karl  Hoinrloh,  an  eminent  German  com- 
poser, was  bora  at  WahrenbrUck,  Saxony,  May  .7, 1701. 
He  sang  in  the  choir  at  Dresden,  and  received  instrac- 
tion  from  various  masters.  Here  he  began  the  com- 
position of  cantatas  and  other  sacred  pieces  at  an 
early  age.  He  was  afterwards  employed  as  tenor  sing- 
er and  composer  at  the  opera-house  of  Brunswick,  and 
became  celebrated  for  his  talents  throughout  Germany. 
In  1740  he  became  cbapcl  -  master  to  Frederick  the 
Great,  a  position  which  he  retained  during  the  remain- 
der of  his  life.  He  died  at  Berlin,  Aug.  8, 1759.  Among 
his  sacred  pieces  are  two  settings  of  The  Passion,  and 
his  oratorio  The  Death  of  Jesus,  See  Encydop,  Brit, 
9th  ed.  8.  V. 

Ghrave,  Arnold,  a  Lutheran  theoIo>gian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Hamburg,  June  8, 1700.  He  stuiUed 
at  Wittenberg,  was  preacher  in  1727  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  his  native  city,  accepted  a  call  In  1787  to  Ham- 
burg, and  died  Nov.  X8, 1754,  leaving,  De  eo  Quantum 
Reformatio  Lutheri  Profuerit  Logicte  (Hamburg,  1717) : 
— /7e  TeriulUam  TestimoniodeApotheosiChristi  (1722): 
—  Aihanasius  de  Morte  Christi  Rrferens  (eod.) :  —  De 
Moderations  Theologica  (1728).    See  Schmeisahl,  Neue 


Naehnehten  von  verstor^tenen  Gtkkrten,  u,  473  aq.;  Jd- 
cher,  AUgemeines  Gdehrten'Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Qrave,  Oerhard,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  1598.  He  studied  at  Bostock,  Stiaa- 
buig,  and  Jena,  was  in  1627  pastor  at  Hamburg,  and  died 
March  9, 1675,  leaving,  Taimles  Apocalypticee  : — Than 
logia  Afethodiea: — PenL  Quastionum  Theologioo^HislO' 
ricarum:  — ExpUoaHo  Ps,  IxvUi:  —  DispuL  ad  Joh.  i, 
Ui—Disput.adRom.iu,^  See  Moller, C<m5rta /aI- 
terataf  JOcher,  AUgemeities  Gekhrten-  Lexikon,  a.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Grave  (also  Qravius  and  Gtareavea),  Thomaa, 
an  English  theologian,  who  died  Blay  22, 1676,  b  the 
author  of,  De  LingtuB  Arabices  UtUitate  et  Prtestantia: 
— ObservaUones  in  Persioam  Pentateut^i  VerHonem: — 
Annotationes  in  Persicam  Interpretationem  EcangeUo- 
rum,  the  last  two  are  fonnd  in  voL  vi  of  Walton's  Po^ 
gloi.  See  Wood,  Athenm  Oxonienses;  Jocher,  Attgn 
manes  GddirUnrLeankon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ck'aver,  Albert,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  April  3, 1575.  He  studied  at  different 
universities,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Jena,  general 
superintendent  at  Weimar,  and  died  Nov.  30, 1617,  leav- 
ing, Pnelectiones  in  August,  Confessionem :^~-Harmoma 
Preeeqmorum  Cahrinianorum  et  Photinianorum  : — £zpo- 
sitio  Prophetm  Aficha : — BeUum  Jesu  Christi  ef  Joamds 
Cahfini: — De  Deo  in  Came  Manffestato: — De  Errors 
circa  Doctrinam  de  Satisfaetione  Christi  pro  Peoeatis: 
— De  Creatione  ei  AngeUs: — De  Anti'Christo  Romano, 
On  account  of  his  controversies  with  the  Calvinista, 
(xraver  was  styled  dypeus  and  gladius  Luiheramssn, 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  (heoL  Lit,  i,  852 ;  Jcicher,  AU- 
gemeines Gelehrten-Lexihon^  s.  v.     (EL  P.) 

Ghraves,  Richard,  an  English  divine,  was  bora 
in  Gloncestershira  in  1715,  and  educated  at  Abingdon, 
in  Berkshire,  and  at  Pembroke  Gollege,  Oxford.  He 
was  rector  of  Cleverton,  near  Bath,  and  of  Rilmendon. 
He  died  in  1804.  Among  his  best-known  worics  are  the 
Festoon,  or  CoUedion  of  Epigrams  :—Lucubrations  in 
Prose  and  Verse,  published  under  the  name  of  Peter 
Pomfret :— 7%e  Spiritual  Qiuixote : — Sermons  on  Vart- 
ous  Subjects,  His  last  work  was  The  InoaUd,  vitk  the 
Obvious  Means  of  Enjoying  Life,  See  Chalmers^  Biog, 
Did,  s.  v.;  Allibooe,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Asstkors, 

8.V. 

Qraveaon,  Ionacb  Htacinthr  Amat  db,  a  Prendi 

theologian,  was  bom  at  Graveaon,  near  Avignon,  July 
18, 1670.  He  joined  the  order  of  the  Dominicans  at 
the  Convent  of  Aries  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  aCadied 
theology  at  the  College  of  Sl  Jacques,  at  Parian  He 
was  made  doctor  in  the  Sorbonne,  taught  in  the  convent 
at  Aries,  went  to  Borne,  refused  the  first  chair  in  theol- 
ogy in  the  University  of  Turin,  and  returned  to  Aries, 
where  he  died,  July  26, 1738.  His  works  have  been 
collected  under  the  title  of  Opera  Omnia  (Venice,  1740). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

QnrTier,  JAoqusa,  a  French  missionary  to  Amer- 
ica, arrived  in  Canada  in  1684.  He  was  sent  at  oooe 
to  the  Illinois  region,  to  follow  up  the  labon  of  Mar- 
quette and  others.  He  made  a  canoe  voyage  from 
Kaskaskia  down  the  Mississippi  to  confer  with  Iberville ; 
went  down  a  second  time  in  1706,  and  from  thenoe  to 
Europe.  He  returned  in  February,  1708,  re-embaiked, 
and  (lied  at  sea  in  April  of  the  same  year.  He  wrote  a 
grammar  of  the  Illinois  language,  a  journal  of  his  voy- 
age down  the  Mississippi  in  1700,  and  other  worka^  a 
part  of  which  have  been  published.  See  AppletosCs 
Amer,Cyclop,9,v, 

Gtaravina,  Dominioo,  ao  lulian  theologian,  waa  bora 
at  Naples  in  1580.  He  entered  the  order  of  St.  Dom- 
inic, and  studied  theology;  taught  in  several  conTents 
of  his  order  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures;  in 
1608  was  advanced  to  the  grade  of  a  licensed  theolo- 
gian at  Bome,  where  he  waa  professor  several  yean  in 
the  College  of  La  Minerva,  and  waa  aelectcd  oocaakm- 


GRAY 


481 


GREEN 


Ally  to  addreM  the  pope.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1648. 
Soine  of  bis  principal  works  are,  Catkoliea  Pntterip' 
tioma^  Adeenvs  onmes  Veteres  H  Noitri  Temporit  HtBre^ 
tico$  (Naples,  1619):— Pro  Sacro  Fidri  Caiholicm  et 
Apettolica  litponto^ etc.  (ibid.  1629) x^Ad  DwxmauUu 
Veras  a  Faltia  VwionUms  H  Revelatiombut  Lapis  Lpdius 
(1688).     See  Hoefer,  Aouv,  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Qray,  Jobn,  a  Reformed  ( Dutch )  minister,  de- 
scended from  the  Scotch  CSovenanters,  was  bom  in 
Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1792,  and  educated  and  ordained 
in  that  country  in  1815.  He  le<l  in  prayer  at  the  fam- 
ily altar,  and  bought  a  Bible,  then  a  costly  book,  with 
his  own  earnings,  of  which  he  afterwards  wrote  the  his- 
tory, called  Littie  Johnny  and  kis  Bible,  In  1818  he 
went  with  his  wife  to  Russian  Tartary  as  a  Presbyte- 
rian missionar}',.  After  seven  years  of  labor  there,  he 
returned  on  the  death  of  his  wife,  and  engaged  in  home 
miasion  work  in  Engbind  until  1833,  when  he  re- 
moved to  America,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  busy  life 
cbieflv  as  a  missionary  (Fallsbargh,  N.  Y.  1888-35; 
Schodack,  1885-46;  Cohoes,  1847-48;  Ghent,  1848-55; 
Cicero,  1856-57).  He  died  in  1865.  He  was  an  almost 
oonstant  contributor  to  the  religious  press,  and  was  the 
author  of  several  of  the  roost  striking  tracts  of  the  Amer- 
ican Tract  Society.  He  was  a  close  observer  of  men 
and  things,  an  acute  thinker  and  vigorous  writer,  full 
of  stfoni^  points  and  memorable  forms  of  expression. 
Uia  spirit,  work,  and  life  were  full  of  Christ,  and  his 
earnestness  was  unwearied.  See  0>rwin,  Manual  nf 
the  Reformed  Church  m  A  mericaf  a.  v.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

dray,  Joshua  Taylor,  Ph.D.,  an  English  Bap- 
tiat,  bom  at  Davenport,  Feb.  9, 1809,  was  the  son  of  the 
ReT.  W.  Gray.  He  was  early  convertetl,  baptized  by 
his  father  at  Northampton,  and  began  to  preach  in  his 
youth.  He  entered  the  Baptist  College  in  1827,  and 
in  1830  was  ordained  paator  of  the  St.  Andrew^s  Baptist 
Church,  Cambridge.  His  mind  not  being  suited  to 
preaching,  he  opened  a  school  at  Brixton,  but  afterwards 
sooceeded  Mr.  Bligh  in  his  school  near  Bedford  Square, 
London.  In  1849  he  became  pastor  of  the  Baptist 
Church  at  Hastings,  but  in  1850  was  chosen  classical 
tutor  at  the  Baptist  College,  Stepney.  In  1852  con- 
sampdon  set  in ;  ho  visited  New  York,  Boston,  and 
Philadelphia,  but  waa  able  to  address  only  one  Ameri- 
can audience.  He  returned  to  his  mother's  house  in 
Bristol,  and  died  there,  July  18, 1854.  See  (Lond.)  Bcq>- 
tist  I/andbook,  1855,  p.  49.  ' 

Ghray,  Thomas,  D.D^  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  16, 1772.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  University  in  1790,  and  studied  theology 
for  a  year  there  and  under  Dr.  StUlroan.  After  preach- 
ing at  several  places,  he  was  called  to  Jamaica  Plain, 
where  he  was  ordained,  March  27, 1793^  In  1843  he  re- 
signed in  favor  of  his  colleague,  Joseph  H.  Allen.  He 
died  at  Jamaica  Plain,  June  1, 1847.  Gray  was  an 
agreeable,  practical  preacher,  although  it  was  as  a  paa- 
tor he  was  most  conspicuous.  See  Christ,  ExamaWf 
September,  1847,  art.  vii;  Frothingham,  funeral  Ser- 
mem  (Boston,  1847). 

Gray,  William,  an  English  prelate  of  the  15th 
centur}*,  was  son  of  lord  Gray  of  Codnor,  Derb.vshire. 
He  studied  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  then  at  Ferrara, 
Italy,  where  for  a  long  time  he  heard  the  lectures  of 
Gnarinns  of  Verona,  an  accomplished  scholar.  The 
£oglish  king  appointed  him  his  procurator  at  the  court 
oC  Rome,  and  he  afterwards  was  preferred  to  the  see  of 
£Iy,  in  which  he  sat  twenty  four  years.  In  1469  he 
served  as  lord-treasurer  of  England,  being  the  last  cler- 
gyman who  discharged  that  office  until  the  appoint- 
ment of  bishop  Juxton  (or  Jnxon)  in  1635.  He  died 
Aug.  4, 1478,  and  waa  buried  in  the  Cathedral  of  Ely. 
He  wrote  many  books,  which  have  not  survived,  how- 
erer.  See  Fuller,  Worihks  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall), 
1,870. 

Oraxiaiii,  Ebcolb,  the  Younger^  an  eminent  Bo- 
Jogneae  painter,  waa  bom  in  1688,  and  studied  under 

XIL-Uh 


Donato  Cretu  He  painted  an  immense  number  of 
works  for  the  Bolognese  churches,  among  which  is  the 
celebrated  picture  of  St,  Peter  Consecrating  St,  Apol' 
linare.  There  are  other  works  by  him  at  Rome,  The 
Ascension  and  The  Annunciation  in  La  Purita.  He  died 
in  1765.  See  Hoefer,  Nowf,  Biog,  G^raU,  &  v. ;  Spoon- 
er,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  its,  a.  v. 

Greaton,  Josiah,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  waa 
bom  about  1680;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  July  5, 
1708,  became  a  professed  father,  Aug.  4, 1719,  resided 
at  St.  Inigo's,  Md.,  fipom  1721  to  1724 ;  exercised  his  min- 
istry  in  PhiUidelphia  for  nearly  twenty  years  (1780-50); 
returned  to  Maryland;  and  died  at  Bohemia,  Sept.  19, 
1752.  Greaton's  name  is  a  prominent  one  in  the  early 
annals  of  Catholicism  in  Philadelphia.  See  De  Courcy 
and  Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Caih,  Church  in  the  U,  S,  p.  200. 

GtareatrakeB,  YALBHTncE,  a  famous  English  than- 
matnrgist,  was  bora  at  Affane,  County  Waterford,  Ire- 
land, Feb.  14,  1628.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was 
obliged,  on  account  of  the  civil  troubles,  to  leave  the 
College  of  Dublin,  and  take  refuge  with  his  mother  in 
England.  Some  time  later  he  fought  in  Ireland  against 
the  royalists,  and  after  the  disbanding  of  his  regiment, 
in  1656,  retired  to  a  quiet  life.  He  now  imagined  that 
he  had  received  from  above  the  power  of  curing  the 
sick,  which  he  actually  proved  in  several  cases  by  sim- 
ply laying  on  his  hands.  This,  however,  drew  upon 
him  the  attention  of  the  local  authorities,  and  being 
summoned  before  the  bishop  of  Lismore,  he  was  con- 
demned, and  had  to  abstain  from  his  pretensions.  He 
was  afterwards  called  to  England,  where  the  countess 
Conway  was  afflicted  by  a  disease  which  he  cured.  He 
was  then  called  to  London,  where  he  went  about  daily 
professing  to  cure  invalids.  He  excited  the  jealousy 
of  the  physicians,  who  l)egan  to  write  pamphlets  against 
him,  but  Greatrakes  did  not  hesitate  to  refer  even  to 
members  of  the  court.  He  dietl  in  Ireland  about  1700. 
See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  04- 
nirale,  s.  v. 

Orebenits,  F.ltas,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, who  died  Dec.  81, 1689,  professor  of  theolog}'  at 
Frankfort  -  on  -  the  -  Oder,  u  the  author  of,  De  Christo 
avafiapTriTtit: — TheologieB  Systematica  Propadia: — 
De  Saiptura  Probanda :  —  De  Regeneratione :  —  De 
Scripturm  Sacrm  Vero  Usu:  —  De  Auctoritate  Conei- 
Uorunu  See  Witte,  Diarium  Biographicum ;  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten^I.^exihonf  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gkrebo  Voralon  ok  the  Scriptures.  The  Grebo 
language  is  predominant  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
cape  Palmas,  and  is  supposed  to  extend  considerably 
into  the  interior.  At  present  the  Grebos  enjoy  the 
benefit  of  having  in  their  own  vernacular  the  gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Luke,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Paul's 
epistle  to  the  Romans,  his  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthi- 
ans, and  the  book  of  Genesis.  The  publication  of  these 
parts  of  the  Scriptures  is  due  to  the  American  Bible 
Society.     (B.  P.) 

Greek  Veraiona  (Modern)  of  the  Scbiptu»ic8. 
See  Romaic  Vkhsion. 

Qreek-Turkiah  Veraioxi  of  the  Scriptubks. 
See  Turkey,  YKRSioiia  of. 

Green,  Alexander  L.  P.,  D.D.,  a  minister  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Sevier 
County,  Tenn.,  June  24,  1807,  and  reared  in  Jackson 
County,  Ala.  He  joined  the  Church  in  his  ninth  year; 
in  1824  was  admitted  into  the  Tennessee  Conference; 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the 
General  Conference,  and  was  thus  elected  each  session 
except  one  until  his  decease.  He  was  one  of  the  chief 
actors  in  securing  a  separation,  in  1844,  between  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  North  and  South.  For 
sixty  years  he  gave  his  entire  energies  to  the  Church, 
dying  in  the  midst  of  his  labors,  in  Nashville,  Tenn., 
July  15, 1874.  Probably  no  man  of  his  time  made  a 
jnore  lasting  impression  upon  his  chosen  denomination 


GREEN 


482 


GREENE 


than  Dr.  Green.  In  winning  soula  he  had  but  few 
equals.  He  was  self-taught  and  self-cultured,  strictly 
original,  full  of  pathos,  and  unnvalled  In  descriptive 
ability.  See  Minutet  of  A  nmtal  Conference$  of  the  M. 
E,  Church  South,  1874,  p.  70 ;  Simpson,  Cydop.  of  Meth- 
odism, 8.  V. 

Qreen,  Anson,  D.D.,  a  Canadian  Methodist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Middlebury,  N.  Y.,  SepU  27, 1801. 
He  went  to  Upper  Canada  in  1822,  taught  school  in 
Prince  Edwanl  County,  was  called  into  the  ministry*  in 
1824,  received  on  trial  in  1825,  ordained  as  elder  in  1880, 
was  presiding  elder  from  1882  to  1845,  was  book  stew- 
ard from  1845,  superannuated  from  1854  to  1859,  was 
again  book  steward  from  1859  to  1865,  and  retired  final- 
ly from  active  ser\'ice  in  the  latter  year.  He  was  elect- 
ed president  of  the  conference  in  1842  and  1863,  and 
representative  to  the  British  Conference  in  1846  and 
1854.  He  died  at  his  home  in  Toronto,  Feb.  19, 1879. 
Dr.  Green  was  a  faithful  laborer,  a  successful  and  popu- 
lar preacher,  and  discharged  with  e£5ciency  the  duties 
of  all  the  offices  with  which  he  was  intrusted.  He  wrote 
his  own  Life  and  Tunes,  a  valuable  book,  which  was 
published  at  the  request  of  the  conference.  See  JUin- 
utes  of  the  Toronto  Conference,  1879,  p.  18. 

Green,  Gtoorg,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Gei^ 
many,  was  bom  July  8, 1636.  He  studied  at  Witten- 
berg, Leipsic,  and  Strasburg,  was  for  some  time  professor 
at  Wittenberg,  in  1678  court-preacher  at  Dresden,  and 
died  Aug.  22,  1691.  He  wrote,  Tres  IHsputationes  de 
SibylHs: — Dna  Disputationes  de  Udms  Ilerodis  Maffni: 
— Jje  Ecdesia  Bohemica: — De  Hceresi  Veterum  Pra- 
destinatianorum:—De  ConcUio  Nicaano,  See  MoUer, 
Cimbria  Litteraia;  Jocher,  AlUiemeines  GeUhrienrLex- 
ikon,  8.  V.     (a  P.) 

Green,  Gtoorg  Siglsmnnd,  the  Younger,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  April  8, 1712, 
at  Chemnitz.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg  and  Leipsic, 
in  which  latter  place  he  also  lectured  in  1782.  In  1786 
lie  was  rector  at  Meissen,  in  1746  archdeacon,  and  died 
Jan.  12, 1754.  He  wrote,  De  Luco  Ueligioni  ab  .46ra- 
hanu)  Consecrato,  ad  Genes,  xxart,  88  (Leipsic,  1735) : — 
De  Vife  in  Temph  IJierosotymitano  a  Romanis  Reperta 
(1787) : — De  Clypeis  in  Loco  Sacro  Suspensis  (eod.) : — 
De  Regihus  Sacerdotibus  (1789;  contained  in  Exerei- 
tationes  Phiiol,  AnHques  et  CrituxB,  Meissen,  1744): — 
De  Plantatis  in  Domo  Jehovah: — De  Anno  Quinquage- 
simo  Dei  Sacris  Hfimstrorum :  —  De  Choreis  a  Pauh 
luterdidis: — De  Summa  Decalogi: — De  Deo  Fulmvut' 
tore:  —  De  Vento  Nuntio  et  Symholi  Dei,  contained  in 
Exercitationum  iSaa-arum  Decas  Prima,  Sec  Diet- 
mann,  Chursdchsische  Ptiester,  voL  i ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemet- 
nes  GekhrienrLexihcm,  s.  v.     (Bb  P.) 

Gh'een,  John,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom  about 
1706  at  Beverly,  in  Yorkshire,  and  became,  in  1730,  a 
fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1748  he 
was  regius  professor  of  divinity,  and  in  1750  was  master 
of  Benedict  College.  In  1756  he  was  dean  of  Lincoln, 
and  bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1761.  In  1771  he  was  canon- 
residentiary  of  Sl  Paura.  He  died  April  25, 1779.  He 
published  ten  occasional  Sermons  (1749-78) : — The  Aca- 
demic (1750).  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone, 
Du^,  of  Brit,  and-Amer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Green,  Le'wis  "Warner,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Boyle  County,  Ky.,  Jan.  28,  1806,  and 
educated  at  Centre  College,  Danville;  studied  one 
year  (1831)  at  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
was  licensed  by  the  Transylvania  Presbytery,  and  ap- 
pointed professor  in  Centre  College.  Subsequently  he 
was  elected  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  liter- 
ature in  the  Westem  Theological  Seminary,  at  Alle- 
gheny City,  Pa.,  which  position  he  occupied  for  many 
yearSi  In  1848  he  was  elected  president  of  Hampden 
Sidney  College,  Va.  He  died  May  26, 1868.  He  was 
an  eminent  scholar  and  a  lowly  Christian.  See  Wilson, 
Presb,  /list.  Almanac,  1868,  p.  93;  Nevin,  Pretb.  Ency- 
clop,  8.  V. ;  Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  Thiol  Sem,  1881,  p.  76. 


Green,  Thomas  Hill,  an  English  philosopher, 
was  bom  in  1836.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at 
Balliol  College.  In  1859  he  took  his  bachelor's  degree, 
began  to  study  Hegel,  and  gave  a  good  deal  of  stten- 
tion  to  the  Tubingen  school,  especially  Baur.  Among 
the  fmits  of  these  studies  were  two  essays  on  the  /)e- 
velopfnent  of  Dogma,  In  1866  he  commenced  lecturing 
at  Balliol,  and  in  1878  was  elected  to  the  office  of 
Whyte's  professor  of  moral  philosophy,  and  shortly 
after  resigned  his  tutorship.  He  died  March  26, 1882. 
For  the  North  British  Review  he  contributed,  in  1866, 
on  the  Philosopf^  of  Aristotle,  and  on  Popular  Pib'/oi- 
ophg  in  its  Relation  to  Life,  His  main  work  followed  in 
1874,  as  part  of  a  new  edition  of  Hume's  works  by  Green 
and  Grose,  in  four  volumes.  The  first  two  volumes,  in- 
cluding the  Treatise  on  Human  Naturf,  were  prefaced 
by  lengthy  introductory  dissertations ;  one  dealing  with 
the  theoretical  philosophy  of  Locke,  Berkeley,  and 
Hume;  the  other  with  the  ethical  views  of  these  writ- 
ers and  their  contemporaries.  **  The  former,**  says  a 
writer  in  the  A  eademg,  <*  is  a  probably  unequalled  piece 
of  minute  and  at  the  same  time  comprehensive  criti- 
cism of  the  origins  of  current  English  philosophy."  In 
December,  1877,  professor  Green  began,  in  the  CiMlesh 
porary  Review,  a  series  of  papers  on  **  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  and  Mr.  G.  H.  Lewes : .  their  Application  of  the 
Doctrine  of  Evolution  to  Thought.*^  Besides,  in  sev- 
eral short  reviews  published  in  the  Academy,hb  has 
made  contributions  of  permanent  value  to  the  literatore 
of  philosophical  criticism.  See  Contemporary  Review, 
May,  1882.    (a  P.) 

Green,  Valentine,  an  eminent  English  mezzo- 
tinto  engraver,  was  bom  in  Warwickshire  in  1789.  In 
1765  he  went  to  London  and  devoted  himself  to  mes- 
zotinto  engraving,  which,  without  the  aid  of  an  instruc- 
tor, he  elevated  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  In  1789 
he  obtained  the  exclusive  privilege  from  the  king  of 
Bavaria  of  engraving  and  publbhing  prints  after  the 
pictures  in  the  Dfisseldorf  gallery,  and  in  1795  he  pub- 
lished twenty-two  prints  from  that  collection.  In  1767 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Incorporated  Society 
of  Artists  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  1774  an  associate  en- 
graver of  the  Koyal  Academy.  He  died  July  6, 1813. 
The  following  are  some  of  his  imporunt  works:  Tks 
Stoning  of  Stephen;  The  Raising  of  Lazarv*;  Christ 
Calling  to  him  the  Little  Children;  Jacob  Blessing  ikt 
Sons  of  Joteph;  Daniel  Interpreting  Belshatzar't 
Dream;  The  Ammneiation;  The  Nativity;  The  Ftrpvi 
and  Infant;  St,  John  with  his  Ijomb;  The  EniombinS 
of  Christ,  Sec  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog,  Gsnirale,  a.  v.; 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  a.  v. 

Oreene,  Abljah  Bmrnone,  D.D.,a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Greenfield,  Saratoga  Coi,  N.  Y. 
Dec.  11,  1809.  He  was  prepared  for  college  at  the 
academies  at  Johnstown  and  Amsterdam,  N.  Y. ;  grad- 
uated from  Union  College  in  1884 ;  went  immediately 
to  Princeton  Seminary,  and  remained  nearly  three  yean; 
was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Albany,  Oct.  lb,  1885, 
and,  after  supplying  Glenham  Church,  was  ordained  by 
the  l^resbytery  of  North  River  paator  at  Cold  Spring, 
May  16, 1838,  from  which  charge  be  was  released  June 
9, 1841.  After  this  time  he  labored  as  suted  supply 
successively  at  Highland  Falls,  Haverstraw,  Rockland 
Lake,  Highlanc^-Falls  again,  Southampton,  Rensselaer^ 
ville,  Bleecker,  and  Hampstead  churches,  all  in  the  state 
of  New  York,  for  various  periods  of  time.  After  18G6 
he  resided,  in  poor  health,  at  Highland  Falls.  He  died 
in  New  York  city,  Oct  20, 1881.  See  NbctoL  Report  of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1882,  p.  88. 

Greene,  Maurice,  an  eminent  English  moeician, 
was  bom  in  London  in  1696.  He  composed  cathednJ 
inusic,  and  made  collections  with  a  view  to  its  publioi- 
tion.  Before  he  was  twenty  years  old  he  was  organist 
of  St.  DunsUn*s,  in  1717  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holboro,  in 
1726  of  the  chapel  royal,  and  of  St  Paurs  in  1727.  He 
died  in  London,  Sept  1,  1765,     See  Chalmen,  Biog. 


GREENLANDERS 


483 


GREENVILLE' 


Did.  t.  v.;  AUibone,  Diet.  o/Brii,  and  A mer,  Authorty 
t.v. 

GreenlanderB^  Beligion  of  thk.    These  peo- 
ple, like  the  other  Eaqiiimaux,  spiritualize  all  objects 
that  surround  them.    The  spirits  are  called  Immetf  i.  e. 
rulers    Malina  and  Aniunga  are  the  rulers  of  the  sun 
and  moon.    They  were  formerly  men,  but  have  been 
|daccd  in  the  heavens.    Their  food  changes  their  color, 
for  they  are  sometimes  red,  sometimes  3'ellow.     The 
plaueu  arc  women,  who  visit  each  other,  therefore 
oftentimes  a  number  are  seen  together.    The  rulers  of 
the  atmosphere  are  Innerterirsok  and  Erloersortok;  the 
spirits  of  the  sea  Konguesetokit,  and  the  ioe-ruler,  Sil- 
lagigsartok.    The  spirits  of  fire  are  called  IngersoiL 
The  mountains  are  inhabited  by  great  spirits  and  small 
gnomes,  Tannersoit  and  Innuarolit.     The  gods  of  war 
Erkiglir,  the  spirits  of  food  Kerrim  Innuet,  etc,  are  dis- 
tributed everywhere,  and  they  can  be  persuaded  by 
mysterious  means,  only  known  to  magicians,  to  become 
the  protecting  spirits  of  men.   Such  a  guardian  is  called 
Tomgak,  but  the  great  spirit,  the  ruler  of  all  Innuets 
and  Tomgaks,  is  called  Tomgaseak.  The  wife  or  moth- 
er of  this  great  spirit  is  a  dreaded  being ;  she  is  the 
daughter  of  the  sorcerer  who  tore  Disko  (Greenland) 
from  the  mainland,  and  thrust  it  towards  the  north. 
She  lives  under  the  sea,  and  injures  the  fish-traffic.    The 
invisible  ruler  of  the  universe,  Scylla  or  Pirksoma,  is  the 
unimaginable,  omniscient  god.    The  Greenlanders  have 
no  divine  worship  with  ceremonies.     When  a  young 
man  captures  bis  first  sea-lion,  he  lays  a  piece  of  fat 
or  meat  under  a  stone  as  a  sacrifice,  in  order  to  insure 
good  success  in  hunting.    Sun  and  moon  are  sister  and 
brother.    The  latter  loved  his  sister,  who  was  very 
beautiful,  and  he  conceived  the  idea  of  putting  out  the 
lamps  in  winter,  in  order  that  he  might  caress  and  em- 
brace her.    She  wanted  to  know  who  her  lover  was, 
aiKl  therefore  covered  her  hands  with  rust,  and  thus 
blackened  his  face  and  clothes.     Then  she  brought  in 
the  light,  and,  recognising  her  brother,  she  fled.     The 
brother  lighted  a  bundle  of  moss  in  order  to  find  his 
way  and  follow  her;  the  moss  would  not  ignite,  the 
sister  escaped,  and  was  placed  in  the  heavens.    The 
son  still  follows  her,  and  the  dark  spots  which  he  has 
are  the  stripes  made  by  his  sister's  blackened  hands. 
Heaven,  according  to  the  Greenlanders,  rests  on  the  top 
of  a  mountain  on  the  North  Pole,  about  which  it  re- 
volveti  daily.    They  have  no  knowledge  of  astronomy 
whatever,  which  is  quite  singtdar,  as  the  stars  and 
planets  are  the  only  means  of  reckoning  time  during 
the  long  half-year  night.    They  have,  however,  the 
following  theory  as  to  the  origin  of  thunder  and  light- 
ning :  Two  old  women,  inhabiting  a  log  cabin  in  heav- 
en, are  angry  with  each  other  over  a  dry,  stretched 
aeal-skin ;  as  often  as  they  strike  the  skin  with  their 
fiata,  a  peal  of  thunder  is  heard.    When,  then,  the  house 
tombles,  and  the  burning  rafters  fall,  the  lightning  is 
produced.   The  rain  also  has  its  explanation :  The  souls 
live  in  heaven  on  the  brink  of  a  dammed-tip  sea.  When 
this  sea  awells,  the  overflowing  waters  form  the  rain. 
Their  traditions  also  tell  of  Adam,  Noah,  and  a  flood. 
Kollak  was  the  first  roan,  from  whose  thumb  there 
sprang  the  first  woman,  and  from  her  came  all  human 
beings.     When,  after  many  years,  the  earth  sank  into 
the  sea,  only  one  man  was  Idt,  who  began  a  new  gen- 
eration.    The  Xvreenlanders  have  a  twofold  conception 
of  souls :  these  are  a  shadow,  or  a  breath.    A  dangerous 
journey  must  be  made  by  all  souls  to  heaven ;  for  five 
daya  they  most  slide  down  a  steep  rock,  which  is  thero- 
fore  covered  with  blood. 

Gta'eenlandlali  Version  ok  thr  Scriptures. 
As  early  as  1721,  Hans  Egede  (q.  v.),  a  Norwegian 
dergyroan,  settled  at  Sodthaas  (latitude  64^  north), 
and  his  attention  was  soon  arrested  by  the  abject  and 
tlcpk>rable  condition  of  the  natives.  He  applied  himself 
to  the  study  of  their  language,  reduced  it  to  writing,  and 
tranaiated  the  Psalms  and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.   His 


son  Paul  completed  the  version  of  the  New  Test, 
portions  of  which  were  publuhed  at  Copenhagen  in 
1744,  followed  in  1768  by  an  edition  of  the  Gospels  and 
Acts,  and  in  1766  by  the  entire  New  Test.  This 
first  attempt  being  very  deficient,  Fabricius,  after  the 
death  of  Egede  (1789),  undertook  a  new  translation, 
which  was  printed  in  1799.  As  this  second  attempt 
did  not  prove  to  be  in  any  respect  superior  to  Egede's 
version,  Moravian  missionaries  undertook  a  third  trans- 
lation from  Luther's  German  version,  which  was  pul>> 
lished  in  1822  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
and  in  subsequent  editions  by  the  Danish  Bible  Society. 
A  new  and  revised  edition  was  published  at  Hemihut, 
under  the  personal  superintendence  of  several  retired 
missionaries  from  Greenland,  in  1851 ;  while  of  the 
Old  Test  only  some  portions  are  published.  It  is  said 
that  while  John  Beck,  one  of  the  missionaries,  was  en- 
gaged in  transcribing  the  version  of  the  four  Gospels, 
the  curiosity  of  the  savages  being  excited  to  know  what 
he  was  writing,  he  read  to  them  the  history  of  the 
Saviour's  agony  on  the  Mount  of  Olives^  Some  of 
them  laid  their  hands  upon  their  mouths,  as  is  custom- 
ary among  them  when  they  are  struck  with  wonder; 
but  one  of  them,  named  Kajarnak,  exclaimed  in  a  loud 
and  serious  tone,  ^  How  was  that  ?  Tell  us  that  once 
more ;  for  I,  too,  would  fain  be  caved,"  and  finally  be- 
came converted  to  God.  Up  to  March  81, 1884,  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  had  distributed  2000 
New  Tests.,  and  1200  portions  of  the  Old  Test.  See 
Esquimaux  Yersiok.    (B.  P.) 

Oreenlaw,  Gilbert,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  pro- 
moted to  the  see  of  Aberdeen  in  1890,  and  was  made 
chancellor  of  the  kingdom  in  1396.  In  1423  this  bishop 
was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Charles  YII,  king  of  France, 
by  Robert,  duke  of  Albany.  He  died  in  1424.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  28-112. 

Greenleai^  Jonathan,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Newburj-port,  Massi,  Sept.  4,  1785. 
He  was  deprived  of  the  privileges  of  an  academic  edu- 
cation, and  when  he  felt  that  he  was  called  to  preach 
the  gospel,  he  began  the  study  of  theology  under  Dr. 
Bruer,  president  of  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover, 
N.  H.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Cumberland 
Association  at  Saco,  Me.,  in  September,  1814.  After 
having  filled  several  important  charges,  he  was  elected 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  American  Seaman^s 
Friend  Society  in  1888,  in  which  capacity  he  labored 
with  untiring  diligence  until  1841.  He  died  at  Brook- 
lyn, N.  ¥.,  April  24, 1865.  Dr.  Greenleaf  was  the  au- 
thor of,  Ecclesiastical  Sketches  0/  Maine  .'^Biitorff  of 
the  Churches  of  New  York:  —  Thoughts  on  Paper:  — 
The  Genealogy  of  the  Greenieaf  Famiiy : — A  Doctrinal 
Catechism :— and  five  tracts  entitled.  The  Missing  Dis- 
ciple; Earperimental  Religion f  Sudden  Death;  Misery 
of  Dying  in  Sin;  and  Sfiall  I  Come  to  the  lord's  Sup^ 
per  f  During  his  connection  with  the  Seaman's  Friend 
Society,  he  also  edited  the  Sailor's  Magazine.  He  con- 
tributed many  valuable  articles  to  the  religious  papers. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  1866,  p.  HI. 

Greenleaf,  Patrick  Henry,  D.D.,  a  minister 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  a  native 
of  Maine,  and  a  son  of  the  Hon.  Simon  Greenleaf. 
After  graduating  at  Bowdoin  0)llege,  he  practiced 
law  for  several  years;  but  turning  his  attention  to 
the  ministry,  pursued  his  theological  studies  under 
bishop  Doane,  and  was  duly  ordained.  He  was  con- 
nected successively  with  the  dioceses  of  Massachu- 
setts, Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Indiana.  For  several 
years  he  was  rector  of  St.  John*s,  Charlestown,  Mass. ; 
also  of  St.  Paul's,  Cincinnati,  O. ;  and  in  1862  of  Eman- 
uel Church,  Brooklyn,  in  which  city  he  died,  June  21, 
1869,  at  the  age  of  sixty-two  years.  See  Amer.  Q^ar. 
Church  Rev.,  Jan.  1870.  p.  685. 

Greenville  (GranviUe  or  (}renville),  Dsias, 
D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  was  bom  in  Cornwall,  and 
admitted  commoner  of  Exeter  College,  Sept  22, 1657. 


i 


6REES 


484 


GREGORY 


Tbe  rectories  of  Eaaington  and  Elwick,  in  the  fMdatinc 
of  Durbaro,  were  conferred  upon  htm.  He  was  installed 
dean  of  Durham  in  1684,  and  deprived  of  his  prefer- 
ments in  1690,  on  account  of  his  refusal  to  acknowledge 
William  and  Mar^%  He  died  at  Paris  in  1703,  leaving 
several  theological  works,  sermons,  etc  (1684-89).  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v.;  Allibone, Did,  o/Bfit.  and 
A  tner,  A  uthors^  s.  v. 

Grees,  a  mediieval  term,  which  some  assert  to  be 
derived  from  GraduSj  signifying  **a  step."  It  is  fre- 
quently employed  by  old  Englia^  writers  to  designate 
the  altar-steps,  whi«''i  anciently  were  two  only;  but 
others  were  added  Liter,  until,  in  more  recent  times, 
high  altars  have  been  elevated  on  at  least  seven  steps. 
There  are  some  examples  of  this  both  in  old  and  mod- 
em churches. 

Greeting -house,  a  term  sometimes  applied  in 
mediiBval  times  to  the  chapter -house  of  a  cathedral, 
where  a  newly-appointed  bbhop  or  dean  received  the 
greetings  respectively  of  his  flock,  or  tbe  members  of 
his  cathedral.  Such  greetings,  however,  were  as  fre- 
quently given  at  the  entrance  of  the  choir,  or  in  the 
sacristy.  To  an  abbot  they  were  sometimes  tendered 
in  the  refectory,  or  even  in  the  choir  after  the  rites  of 
installation.    See  Smith,  Did.  of  Chtisf.  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Qregentitui,  Saini^  bishop  of  Tephe,  in  Arabia, 
was  bom  at  Soplian,  **on  tbe  frontier  of  Asia,"  but 
other  authorities  say,  at  Milan,  on  Dec.  19  (his  festal 
day).  He  went  to  Alexandria,  where  he  embraced  the 
life  of  an  anchorite,  and  was  sent  to  take  charge  of  the 
Homerites.  He  propagated  Christianity  among  the 
idolaters  of  Yemen,  and  is  said  to  have  died  in  552. 
There  is  a  book  extant,  giving  some  details  of  part  of 
his  life,  entitled :  Tot;  Iv  ayioiQ  UarpiiQ  ^fiuv  Vpiiyriv- 
riov  Apxinrurxpirov  ytvofAivov  Te^poiy,  etc  (Migne, 
PcUroL  Grcec,  lxxx\<i,  5).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GiiUrtUej  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog,  s.  v. 

GregoriuB,  bar-Ahrun  (or  BAB-HEBitiSus).   See 

ABUI/-FARAJ. 

Ghregory  (l),  an  Irish  prelate,  was  elected  to  the 
see  of  Dublin,  and  went  immediately  to  England,  where 
he  received  his  first  orders  as  bishop,  from  Roger,  bish- 
op of  Salisbury,  SepL  24, 1121,  and  was  consecrated  in 
the  following  October.  After  he  had  presided  thirty- 
one  years  over  his  see,  the  archiepisoopal  dignity  was 
conferred  upon  him,  at  the  Council  of  Kells.  Ho  died 
OcL  8,  1161.  See  D*Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  Abps,of 
Dublin,  p.  41. 

Gregory  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  bishop  of 
Dunkeld  in  1169.  How  long  he  sat  is  unknown.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  78. 

Gregory  (3),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Ross 
in  1161.  He  died  in  1195.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bish- 
ops, p.  184. 

Gregory  (4),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Brech- 
in in  1242.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  158. 

Gregory  I,*  or  Armenia  (sumamed  the  Mand- 
goman),  brother  and  successor  of  Hamazasb,  having 
been  given  as  a  hostage  to  tbe  Arabians  from  the  time 
of  the  conquest  of  Armenia,  was  sent  back  into  his  own 
countf}"^  in  659,  to  govern  it,  with  the  title  of  a  patri- 
arch. He  relieved  Bagdad  from  its  caliphs  until  the 
year  679,  when  he  made  himself  independent.  But 
four  years  later  he  perished,  in  683,  in  an  encounter  with 
the  Khazars,  who  had  crossed  the  Caucasus  and  in- 
%*aded  Armenia.  He  erected  several  buildings,  among 
which  the  monastery  of  Ariij,  near  Erivau,  and  the 
monastery  of  Elivard  are  particularly  distinguishable. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ghierale,  s.  v. 

Gregory  H,  of  Armenia  (sumamed  Vgaiaser  or 
Martgrophilus),  a  patriarch  of  Armenia,  the  son  of 
Gregory  Magisdros,  died  in  1105,  at  Garmir-Vankh, 

*  Strictly,  Gregory  U.    See  Grkoobt  the  lUuminaUn'. 


near  KhesAn.  He  was  educated  under  the  direction 
of  his  father,  and  made  great  progress  both  in  science 
and  languages.  He  inherited,  in  1058,  ibe  govenimeut 
of  the  ducby  of  Mesopotamia.  But  neither  tliat  dig- 
nity, nor  the  favor  which  be  enjoyed  at  the  court  of 
Constantinople  could  make  him  attached  to  a  secular 
life.  He  separated  himself  from  his  wife,  sold  all  his 
goods,  distributing  the  money  among  the  unfortunate, 
and  consecrated  himself  to  the  noonastic  life.  Gregory 
is  less  remarkable  as  an  administrator  than  as  a  pro- 
tector of  letteiB.  He  gathered  about  kiro  Greek  and 
Syrian  scholars,  whom  he  chaige<l  with  translating  a 
large  number  of  works,  written  in  their  own  languages. 
These  versions  were  revised  by  Armenian  scholars,  who 
improved  their  style.  The  patriarch  himself  put  bis 
hand  upon  a  translation  of  a  martyrology.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginhxdt,  s.  v. 

Gregory  III,  of  Armenia  (named  Bahlatuni, 
and  sumamed  the  small  Vgaiaser  or  Afartyrapkiius), 
was  bom  in  1092.  After  the  death  of  his  uncle  Basil,  he 
was  consecrated  patriarch  in  1113,  in  conformity  with 
the  dispositions  which  were  made  by  Gregory  II.  But 
several  bishops  found  fault  with  the  new  patriarch  as 
too  young,  and  refused  to  recognise  him.  One  among 
them,  David  of  Aghthamar,  was  consecrated  patriarch 
at  the  Council  of  Droroi-Vankh.  But  this  usurpation 
was  condemned  in  a  council  convocated  in   1114  bv 

• 

Gregory  III,  and  composed  of  two  thousand  five  hun- 
dred bishops  and  doctors,  who  established  the  principle 
that  for  the  election  of  a  patriarch  in  the  future  it 
should  be  necessary  to  have  the  unanimous  consent  of 
the  four  archbishops.  Gregory  lived  in  good  under- 
standing with  the  Romish  Church,  and  died  in  1166, 
having  arranged  that  his  brother,  Nurses  IV,  should 
become  his  successor.  He  left  hymns,  which  are  very 
well  written,  and  which  are  still  sung  in  the  solemnities 
of  the  Armenian  Church.  See  Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog,  Gi' 
nSrale,  s.  v. 

Gregory  IV,  of  Armenia  (sumamed  Dgha,  L  e. 
'*  the  child  '^j  succeeded  to  his  uncle  Nurses  IV  in  1173. 
He  gained  the  admiration  of  his  people  by  his  imposing 
manners.  Being  charged  by  the  emperor  Manuel  Com- 
nenus  to  renew  the  offer  of  uniting  the  churches  of 
Armenia  and  Greece,  he  convoked  a  council  at  Tarsus 
in  1178,  but,  on  account  of  disputes  between  tbe  parties, 
the  projected  union  failed  of  consummation.  Gregory 
IV  died  in  1193,  leaving,  Odanaver  Oghg  (poetical  lam- 
entation), on  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin  in 
1187 : — six  Letters,  which  were  addressed  by  him  to  the 
emperor  Manuel,  and  the  letter  of  convocation  for  the 
CoimcU  of  Hrhomgla.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  CM- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Gregory  V,  of  Armenia  (sumamed  Mansug,  L  e^ 
''the  young,"  and  Kahavej,  "he  who  falls  from  on 
high  "),  succeeded  his  uncle,  Gregory  IV,  in  July,  119S, 
although  yet  quite  young.  After  having  administered 
his  office  about  one  year,  he  conducted  himself  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  make  himself  odious  to  the  nobility  as 
well  as  to  the  clerg^'.  He  was  accused  before  Leo  II, 
and  was  put  in  the  fortress  of  Gobidarh.  He  died  in 
1195.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gsnirale,  s.  v. 

Gregory  VI,  op  Armkmia  (sumamed  Abirad\ 
nephew  of  Gregory  III,  was  elected  after  the  deposition 
of  Gregory  V.  The  inhabitants  of  Great  Armenia,  and 
particularly  the  monks,  refused  to  recognise  him,  be- 
cause the  place  of  his  residence,  the  strong  castle  of 
Hrhomgla  in  Cillcia,  or  Little  Armenia,  was  too  far 
away  from  them.  They  chose  as  their  patriarch  Basil 
of  Ani.  When  the  persecution  of  the  Armenians  by 
the  Greeks  had  broken  out,  Gr^^ry  VI  vainly  tried  to 
bring  back  the  emperor  Alexis  to  principles  of  toler- 
ance. Under  his  patriarchate  the  Armenian  Church 
had  a  good  understanding  with  that  of  Rome.  He  died 
in  1202.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GhUraU,  s.  v. 

Gregory  VII,  of  Armbhia  (sumamed  Anavtsr" 
utsi),  was  proposed  as  successor  to  Jacob  I  in  1287, 


GREGORY 


485 


GREGORY 


but  hu  attachment  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Church  was  so  great  that  in  his  stead  were  elected 
Consuntine  II,  and  aOerwarda  Stephen  IV.  On  the 
death  of  the  latter,  who  was  a  captive  in  Egypt,  Greg- 
ory was  appointed  to  fill  his  place  in  1294.  The  resi- 
dence of  his  predecessors  at  Urhorogla  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  Mamelukes,  and  so  Gregory  Y II  selected 
his  seat  in  Cilicia.  His  tendencies  to  substitute  the 
Roman  liturgy  for  the  rites  of  the  Armenian  Church 
were  regarded  with  disfavor  by  the  nsonks  of  Great 
Armenia,  who  begged  him  to  abstain  from  such  unpopu- 
lar innovations.  Having  Uken  the  part  of  the  prince 
Sempad  against  king  Thoros,  Sempad'a  brother,  he 
crowned  him  in  1297,  and  placed  him  in  subjection  to 
the  pope.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  Gregory  occu- 
pied himself  mostly  with  the  reunion  of  the  Armenian 
and  Roman  churches.  Ue  died  in  13061  See  Hoefer, 
2iouv,  Bioff,  Ginirale^  a.  v. 

Gregory  Vm,  or  Abxkxia  (sumamed  Khand- 
MOffkad)y  succeeded  Jacob  III  in  1411.  He  was  a  monk 
before  his  election.  The  inhabiUnts  of  Sis»  who  had 
poisoned  his  predecessor,  made  a  conspiracy  against 
their  new  chief,  and  were  punished  by  the  chief  of  the 
Mamelukes  in  Cilicia,  but  roused  themselves  again  in 
1418,  deposing  the  patriarch,  and  putting  him  in  a  for- 
tress, where  he  died  shortly  afterwards.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Bioff,  G^raU,  s.  v. 

Qregory  IZ,  of  Auiexia  (sumamed  Moutape^ 
$%anity,  succeeded  Joseph  III  in  1440  as  patriarch. 
Cilicia  had  been  continually  invaded  at  that  time  by 
different  enemies,  on  which  account  some  of  the  bishops 
wished  to  establish  the  patriarchal  seat  in  a  different 
part  of  the  empire,  lees  exposed  to  danger,  and  proposed 
CO  transfer  the  see  of  Sis  to  the  monastery  of  Echmi- 
adzitu  But  as  Gregory  would  not  consent,  they  began 
CO  attack  him  on  account  of  his  election,  which,  in  fact, 
had  taken  place  in  a  small  assembly.  Accordingly  seven 
hundred  bishops  and  doctors  united,  in  1441,  at  Ech- 
miadzin, under  the  presidency  of  Zacharias,  bishop  of 
Havut^Tharha,  and  elected  Gurnigas,a  monk  of  Kha- 
rabasd,  in  the  province  of  Khadchperunu  The  latter 
established  himself  at  Echmiadzin,  while  Gregory  con- 
tinued in  the  city  of  Sis,  being  recognised  only  by  the 
inhabitants  of  CUida.  Ho  died  in  1447.  See  Hoefer, 
NoMv,  Bio^  G^neraltj  s.  v. 

Oregory  Z,  of  Armenia  (sumamed  Magovettt), 
was  footed  patriarch,  in  1448,  to  succeed  Gurragas, 
whom  Zacharias,  bishop  of  Havuts-Tharha,  had  de- 
posed. Yaooub  Bey,  of  Erivan,  governor  of  Armenia, 
inapoeed  on  lum  a  heavy  tribute,  which,  however,  did 
not  prevent  Gr^ory  from  finding  the  means  to  repnt 
the  patriarchal  church.  He  died  in  1462.  See  Hoe- 
fer,  N<Mv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Gregory  XI,  of  Armenia,  was  electc<l  patriarch 
io  163C,  after  the  death  of  Sarkis  III.  He  died  in  1541, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  T.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  G«iirale,  s.  v. 

Oregory  XII,op  ARMEiaA,  snooeeded  Michael  of 
Sebastopol  as  patriarch  in  1562.  He  died  in  1573,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VL  See  Hoefer,  A'bur. 
Bioff.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Gregory  Xm,  of  Armenia,  was  bom  at  Edessa. 
Aa  be  was  in  possession  of  a  large  fortune,  the  patri- 
arch Melchisedech  and  his  coadjutor,  David,  offered  to 
transfer  to  him  their  dignity,  if  he  would  consent  to  pay 
their  debts.  Serapion  (the  former  name  of  Gregory 
XIII)  went  to  Joulfa  (near  Ispahan)  in  1602,  to  nego- 
timte  with  the  patriarch  the  conditions  of  the  arronge- 
ment,  but  could  not  settle  anything.  Some  inhabitants 
of  that  city  took  htm  to  Echmiadzin,  and  elected  him 
patriarch,  A«g.  14, 1608.  That  dignity  caused  Gregoiy 
the  loss  of  his  fortune.  The  Turks,  who  were  on  the 
point  of  being  driven  out  of  Armenia  by  the  troops  of 
«fa«h  Abbas,  requested  the  payment  of  all  debts.  Mel- 
sbtaedech  being  insolvent,  they  seized  his  successor,  and 


forced  from  htm  all  that  they  could  get.  Shah  Abbas 
required  of  him  an  enormous  sum,  and  delivered  him 
to  hia  ministers,  who  put  him  to  torture,  in  order 
to  force  him  to  disclose  his  treasures.  Under  protest 
the  patriarch  retired  to  Van,  and  then  to  Amid,  where 
he  died  of  grief  in  1606.  The  patriarchal  seat,  having 
remained  vacant,  was  taken  again  by  Melchiseilech. 
See  Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Gregory  VII,  of  Bomb  (Antipope).  Sec  Boub- 
DiN,  Maubicx. 

Gregory  op  Huntingdon,  a  monk  of  the  ISth  cen- 
tury, so  called  from  the  place  of  his  nativity  in  Hunting- 
donshire, was  bred  a  Benedictine  monk  at  Ramsey, 
where  he  became  prior  or  vice-abbot,  a  place  he  de- 
served, being  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time 
in  the  languages.  He  wrote  many  comments  on  the 
Latin  and  Greek  classics,  and  vras  proficient  in  He- 
brew by  constant  conversing  with  the  Jews.  When 
the  latter  were  driven  from  the  kingdom,  he  purchased 
many  of  their  literary  treasures  for  his  monastery  at 
Kamsay,  an  institution  which  exceeded  any  other  of 
the  kind  in  England  for  its  fine  library,  rich  now  espe- 
cially in  Hebrew  books.  Two  hundred  years  after,  a 
monk  of  the  same  monastery,  John  Yong,  added  3'et 
more  to  the  library  of  his  school.  Gregory  was  prior 
of  Ramsey  for  thirty  -  eight  years,  fiourishing  under 
Henry  III,  and  died  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I,  about 
1280.  See  Fuller,  Woi-thU*  of  Engkmd  (ed.  Nuttall), 
ii,  101. 

Gregory,  Caepar  Robue,  D.D.,  a  rresbyterian 
minister,  wss  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  17, 1824.  He 
was  prepared  for  college  by  his  [brother,  Henry  D. ; 
gradual^  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1843 ; 
taught  nearly  two  years  in  private  families ;  graduated 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1847 ;  was  li- 
censed by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  April  5, 1848 ; 
then  taught  a  year,  and  was  ordained  an  evangelist  by 
the  same  presbytery.  May  20, 1849.  His  first  field  of 
labor  was  as  a  missionary  to  the  Choctaw  Indians  at 
Spencer  Academy,  in  the  Indian  Territory.  In  1850  he 
left  the  mission  on  account  of  ill-health.  He  next  sup- 
plied the  church  at  Oneida,  Madison  Co.,  N.  Y.,  from 
April  20, 1851,  until  installed  as  its  pastor,  Feb.  9, 1852, 
continuing  his  labors  until  1862;  was  installed  pastor 
of  the  First  Church  of  Bridgeton,  N.  J.,  May  12, 1864, 
and  waa  released  Oct.  7, 1873,  immediately  becoming 
professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  Lincoln  University,  Pa. 
Ue  died  there,  Feb.  26, 1882.  I>r.  Gregory  was  an  ear- 
nest man,  his  preaching  of  a  high  quality,  and  as  a  pro- 
fessor was  devoted  and  faithfuL  Siee  NecroL  Report  of 
Pi-inceUm  Theol.  Setn,  1882,  p.  46. 

Gregory,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church,  was  born  Sept.  22, 1803,  at  Wil- 
ton, Fairfield  Co.,  Conn.  He  graduated  at  Hobart 
College  in  1826 ;  was  ordained  deacon  in  1829,  and  pres- 
byter in  1831 ;  officiated  first  in  Moravia,  N.  Y. ;  was 
called  to  Calvary  Church,  Homer,  in  1833;  went  as  mis- 
sionary to  the  Menomonee  Indians,  near  Green  Bay, 
Wis.,  in  1886 ;  returned  to  Homer  in  1838,  and  two  years 
after  was  elected  rector  of  St.  PaoFs  Church,  Syracuse, 
N.  Y. ;  became  the  first  rector  of  St.  James's  Free  Church, 
in  the  same  city,  in  1848,  but  resigned  in  1857  on  ac- 
count of  impaired  health ;  subsequently  accepted  the 
presidency  of  De  Vcaux  Collie  at  Suspension  Bridge, 
remaining  in  that  position  two  years^  when  he  estab- 
lished the  Church  Book  Depository  at  Syracuse.  He 
died  there,  April  5, 1866.  In  connection  with  the  free 
church  system,  Dr.  Gregory  published,  in  1850,  a  tract 
on  the  Ckrisiian  Tenth,  See  Amer.  Qfiar,  Church  Rtv, 
July,  1866,  p.  311. 

Gregory,  John,  an  English  churchman  of  the  17th 
centur}',  was  bom  of  humble  parents  at  Amersham, 
Buckinghamshire,  Nov.  10, 1607.  He  was  educated  at 
Christ  Church  College,  Oxford,  where  for  many  years 
he  studied  sixteen  hours  a  day.  He  became  an  ex- 
quisite linguist  and  general  scholar,  his  modesty  setting 


GREGORY 


486 


6RIER 


the  greater  lustre  to  his  learning.  He  wrote  notes  on 
Dr.  Ridley's  book  of  CicU  and  Ecduiaatical  Law,  He 
was  chaplain  of  Christ  Church,  and  was  thence  preferred 
prebendary  of  Chichester  and  Sarum.  He  died  at  Kid- 
lington,  Oxfordshire,  in  1646.  His  Opera  Posthuma 
are  faithfully  set  forth  by  John  Giirgain.  See  Fuller, 
WortAies  o/lCnffkoid  (ed.  Nuttall),  i,  208 ;  Allibone,  Diet. 
ofBiHt.  and  A  mer.  A  vthors,  s.  v. 

Gregory,  Samblak,  a  Russian  prelate,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Bulgaria,  and  became  metropolitan  of  Kiev  in 
1414.  He  went  to  the  Council  of  Constance  in  1418, 
and  died  the  3'ear  following.  It  is  certain  that  this 
prelate  was  a  Catholic,  for  his  name  is  found  in  one 
of  the  ancient  liturgies.  The  library  of  the  synod  of 
Moscow  is  in  possession  of  twenty-seven  Ducourtes  of 
this  metropolitaiu  See  Iloefer,  Xouo,  Biog,  Gi/iiraU, 
s.  V. 

Greilins,  Joiiakn  CHBiSTOPir,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  28,  1765.  He  was 
preacher  in  1797  in  Saxony,  in  1805  superintendent  at 
Aschersleben,  and  died  April  8,  1840.  He  wrote,  DU 
BiblUckm  Frauen  (Leipsic,  1814,  2  vols.)  :—Dat  Ltbm 
Jeau  von  Nazareth  (Halle,  1813):— £/«6er  die  Urverfa*- 
nung  der  apostolitchen  Chrittengemeine  (1819) : —  Vertuch 
iiber  das  wechteUeiiiffe  VerhaUmu  da  StacUt  und  der 
Kirche  (1802)  :-~Neue  praklische  MateriaHen  turn  Kan^ 
zelcortntff  (1798-1804,  6  vols.) :  —  A^6»e«/e  Materialien 
(1821-27,  6  vols.)  '.—A  nUwortrdge  (1805).  See  Winer, 
Jfandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  162, 550 ;  ii,  18, 20, 25, 66, 125, 
164 ;  Zuchold,  Bibf.  TheoL  i,  465.     (a  P.) 

Greith,  Kabl  Johamn,  a  Roman  Catholic  doctor 
of  theology  and  prelate,  was  bom  in  1807  at  RapperswyL 
In  1863  he  was  made  bishop  of  St.  Gall,  the  second  after 
ihe  foundation  of  that  diocese.  He  died  May  17, 1882. 
He  wrote.  Die  deutsche  Mystik  im  Prediffer^Orden  von 
1250-1350  (Freiburg,  ISBO)  :-~Getchichte  der  aUiritcken 
Kirche  (ibid.  1867) :  —  Der  heiUffe  Galius,  der  Apottet 
A  UmatmieM  (St.  Gall,  1865)  i—Licht  und  Rechl  zur  Ver- 
tkeidigung  eeiner  bischofiichen  PfichtMlva^  (Einsie- 
deln,  1874).     (B.  P.) 

Qremiftld,  an  episcopal  ornament  for  the  breast, 
lap,  and  shoulders ;  originally  a  plain  towel  of  fine  linen, 
used  in  ordination  to  protect  the  sacred  vestments  from 


Fieuch  Gremiale  of  Purple  Silk  (of  the  16lh  centnry). 

any  drops  of  unction  that  might  fall  in  the  act  of  anoint- 
ing candidates  for  the  priesthood.  In  later  times  it 
was  made  of  silk  or  damask,  to  match  the  episcopal 
vestments,  and  was  used  in  certain  French  dioceses  both 
at  solemn  and  high  mass. 

Grenvll,  William  de,  an  early  English  prelate, 
was  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Cornwall ;  became  canon 
of  York,  dean  of  Chichester,  chancellor  of  England  un- 
der king  Edward  I,  and  finally  archbishop  of  York.  His 
confirmation  to  thu  last  preferment  was  delayed  until 
he  had  paid  the  pope  nine  thousand  five  hundred  marks, 
which  reduced  him  to  such  poverty  that  he  had  to  be 


relieve<l  by  the  clergy  of  his  province.  He  had  this' 
compensation — be  was  consecrated  by  the  ver>*  hands 
of  pope  Clement  V.  He  highly  favored  the  Templars, 
but  persons  so  greatly  opposed  as  they  were  by  the  pope 
and  Philip  of  France  had  more  fear  of  losing  than  hope 
of  gaining  by  his  friendship.  He  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Vienna  (1811),  where  he  had  a  high  place 
assigned  him.  He  died  at  Cawood  in  1316,  and  was 
buried  in  the  Chapel  of  St.  Nicholas,  leaving  the  repu- 
tation of -an  able  statesman  and  a  good  scholar.  See 
Fuller,  Worthiee  of  England  (ed  NuttaU),  i,  809. 

(}renz,  Adam,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bora  at  Rochlitz  in  1700.  *  He  studied  at  Leipsic, 
was  preacher  in  1728,  and  died  at  Dresden,  April  22, 
1778,  leaving,  Lucuhratio  Theologica  in  Joh,  rtt,  48,  49 
(Leipsic,  17^) : — De  Apocriaiariii  (1748)  \—De  eo  qtti 
Major  est  Templo  ad  Matth,  xu,  6  (1752),' etc  See 
Dietmann,  Chvrsaehsiscke  Priesterf  Jocher,  AUgemei- 
nes  Gelehrten-Lexikonf  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Ifandbueh  der  iheoL 
Lit,  i,  as.     (B.P.) 

Greswell,  Edward,  an  English  ecclesiastical  writ- 
er, was  bom  at  Manchester  in  1797.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  fellow,  and  vice-presi- 
dent of  Corpus  Christ!  College.  He  devoted  his  life 
chiefly  to  theological  literature.  He  died  at  Oxfonl, 
June  29,1869.  Among  his  more  important  publica- 
tions are.  Expositions  of  the  Parables  and  other  Partt 
of  the  Gospels  (1834, 1835,  5  vols.) : — Prolegomena  ad 
/farmoniam  Evangelicam :  —  Dissertations  vpon  the 
Principles  and  Arrangement  of  a  IJarmnng  of.Gpspefs 
(2d  ed.  1837,  5  vols.)  :— Fasti  Temporis  CathoUci  (1852, 
5  vols.).    See  AppUton^s  A  mer.  Cyclop,  s.  v.    . 

Qretaoh,  Adriaii,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian; 
was  bora  at  Vienna,  Oct.  11, 1752.  He  joined  the  Bene- 
dictines in  1770,  was  in  1784  professor  of  theology  at 
Vienna,  in  1796  dean  of  the  theological  faculty,  and 
died  Oct,  28, 1826,  leaHng  eight  volumes  of  8tmums. 
See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  DeutschkmdSf  a.  v.; 
Winer,  fJandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  ii,  118.     (B.  P.) 

Gk'euter,  Matthiku,  a  reputable  French  engraver, 
was  bom  at  Strasburg  in  1566,  and  acquired  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  art  in  his  native  city.  He  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  settled  permanently,  and  executed  a  number 
of  plates,  among  which  are  the  following :  The  Viryiu 
Seatedf  with  the  Infant  Jesus  attd  St.  John;  Mary  Mag- 
dalene  Sitting,  He  died  at  Rome  in  1638.  See  Hoefer, 
Aoup.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v.;  Spooner,  Biog,  JJist,  of  the 
Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Grease,  Jba!i  Raptistr,  an  eminent  French  paint- 
er, was  bom  at  Touraus  (Burgundy)  in  1726,  and  stud- 
ied under  Grandon.  He  went  to  Paris,  and  produced 
his  celebrated  picture  of  The  Father  ExjUaimi^  the 
Scriptures  to  his  Children,  which  at  once  established 
his  reputation.  Many  of  his  works  have  been  engraved 
by  eminent  French  artists.  He  died  at  Paris,  March 
21,  1805.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Genirale,  s,  v.; 
S|XK>ner,  Bi<Hji.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

QreWf  Obadiaii,  D.D.,  an  English  deigyman,  was 
born  at  Atherston,  November,  1607,  in  the  parish  of 
Manceter,  Warwickshire,  and  educated  at  Balliol  0>l- 
lege,  Oxford.  He  was  ordained  in  1635;  became  min- 
ister of  the  great  parish  of  St.  Michael's,  Coventry ;  was 
ejected  at  the  Restoration  for  nonconformity;  and  dietl 
in  1698.  He  published  some  Sermons  (I6is3^:— and 
Meditations  upon  the  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son  (1678). 
See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  A  mer.  A  uthorsj  s.  v. 

Grial,  Juan,  a  Spanish  canonist,  who  fiouriahed  in 
the  second  part  of  the  16th  century,  is  known  as  the 
editor  of  Isidori  I/ispalensis  Opera  (Madrid,  1599).  See 
Winer,  llandbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  i,  917;  Antonii  BibUo^ 
theca  Ilispanica ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexiion, 
s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Ghier,  John  FerguBon,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Deep  Run,  Pa.,  in  1784.    He 


ORIER 


467 


GRIFFITH 


gniduaM  trmn  Dickiiuon  CoUee«  in  ISOB  with  the 
am  hooon  of  hii  cUm;  uudied  iheology  priritdri 
vu  liceiiKcl  by  the  New  Cutle  Pretbylery  in  1810;  ur- 
d«in«d  putor  of  tbe  Church  at  ttesding  in  IH14,  ind 
diol  June  »,  1839.  S«e  Sprigue,  AmuU  o/tht  Avkt. 
PiilpH,  iii,  467, 
Chl«T,  John  Nathan  Coldwell,  D.D.,a  Prmbv- 

leRuiniinuter,wubonijLiii«8,i:92,iItheKDTk8arthe 
Bnndynine,  Pi.  In  1809  lie  graduatedrrom  Uickinna 
Cull«fte;  Bubsequently  Uudiedlheologywith  hisrilhri, 
Hev.N'aihin  Grier;  vulicenwdby  the  New  Cutle  l*rea- 
hflery,Apnl  7,  I812,uid  engaged  in  preaching  to  vacaat 
cboichea  In  Delaware.  In  1814  he  lucceeded  hia  father 
■a  pastor  *t  the  Forks  of  Brandywinc,  and  after  a  long 
and  fruitful  ministry  there,  be  resigned  in  1873,  and  re- 
tired to  his  rami.  He  died  it  New  Caule,  Sept.  13,  tSSO. 
See  Km  Ymk  Obirrrr,  Sept.  23, 18Sn.     (W.  P.  S.) 

fMealnget,  0«org  Filadiloh  wn,  a  Frototant 
tbcok^n  of  German}',  naa  bom  Harcb  IG,  1734.  Ue 
atudied  at  Tubingen,  was  in  I7ce  deacon  at  Stuttgart, 
ill  17S6  member  of  conaiMorj,  in  1799  doctpr  of  theol- 
ogy, and  died  April  27, 1828,  leaving,  IM  Vtctnlia  Et- 
liOiaionii  Caitrii  Ilnnuaii  (Tubingen,  1758):— 0« 
COBUUnIiM  Am)dar¥nl  Btmorum  tx  0pm  Rtdtmplionu 
(1766)  ■.—TheoUigia  Dwpualica  (1823);— /nfiu  Theolo- 
gia  Moralit  {1826) -.—EiJilaluiig  ia  dit  Schr^n  ila 
iMueia  Bnadf  (1799)  :_Ccirr  dit  A  ulhauie  drr  atllatii- 
wianlirhai  ScJtriflai  (  1804) :  —  Uiber  dm  Pataleack 
(1806)  -.—Dit  lamntUdtm  Schriflai  da  alien  unci  neuta 
TalamnUt  {18U).  See  DUnng,  Die  grtekrltH  Throlngat 
DtatKhbimb,  a.  v. ;  Winer,  //aw&iri  dtr  ThfoL  LU.  i, 
77,  78, 82, 38B ;  ii,  297.     (B.  P.) 

Chieolnser,  Johana  BnTobard,  a  Lutheran 
preuher  of  Germany,  wis  bom  Dec  17,  1638,  at 
Worm*.  Iking  blind  from  bia  third  year,  he  liid  nut 
bc^n  bii  Mndiea  until  the  ige  of  nineteen.  He  went 
i  tbe  unireraities  of  Stratburg  and  Jena,  and  aeltled    ),g  „^ 


but  entered  Trinity  College,  DobUn,  aa  a  menber  of 

the  Established  Church;  finiabed  hie  nnder-groduate 
career,  and  gained  ■  fellowihip  in  1811,  whicb  he  bebl 
□mil  1829,  when  he  became  rector  of  Clonfeacle,  in  the 
diocese  of  Armagh.  On  Jan.  1, 1B54,  he  was  conse- 
crated Lord  Bithop  of  Limerick,  ArdfeR,  and  Aghadoe. 
He  die<l  at  the  L'nirenity  aub,  Dublin,  April  i,  1866. 
See  A  ■ner.  Qtutr.  Chnrck  Ra.  July,  18GG,  p.  324. 

Ckifiln,  Rathatilel  Benlck.  D,D.,  ■  ]>m1>r- 
terian  miniiUr,wu  born  st  Stnithirapton.  L.  I.,  Dec.  !8. 
1814.  He  gndiiatcd  fram  Williams  College,  Mwgi.,  in 
1S84;  spent  two  years  in  Princeton  Theological  .Semi- 
nary; was  a  tutor  in  his  alma  mater  in  1838-37;  be- 
came thereafter  stated  supply  succesuvely  at  West- 
bampton,  N.Y.,  and  at  Franklin;  was  ordained  bv  the 
I'resbylety  June  27, 1H89 ;  was  pastor  at  Delhi ;  acted  ai 
aiaiilant  profciiior  in  Williams  College  (1841-12),  and  as 
■  t(9cber  in  Brooklyn  (1848-46),  pmrenor  of  Latin  and 
Greek  in  Williams  College  (1846-&3),  nf  Greek  (ISfiS- 
57),  a  teacher  in  WilliamMown,  Mass.  (1857-68).  libra- 
rian there  (IS68-76),  and  died  in  that  place,  Oct.  16, 
1870.  See  Gai.  Cat,  nf  PriitrrKm  TktoUSem.  1881, 
P.B9.  r 

Oriffltb,  David,  D.D.,  a  Proteaunt  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  New  York  city  in  1742.  His 
father  was  a  native  of  Wales,  who  came  tn  America  in 
early  life,  settling  on  a  farm  on  tbe  East  Hirer.  After 
preliminary  study  in  his  native  city,  David  went  to 
England  and  gndiuted  in   London  a 


About 


began  practioc 
York.     A  r 
England,  h 


in  1686  nt  Konigsberg,  where  he  became  famous  as 
preacher.  He  died  July  15, 170],  leaving,  Dt  Cmcrpla 
Qjtulilaliro  InmalabSilalit  Dti: — Dt  Gauaaa  Nomiait 
Tttragramnuiti.    See  HoeTer,  JVlwc.  Bwjr.  CMruZr,  s.v. 

CltUTet,  HE:(Bl,a  French  Jesuit  and  court-preacher, 
nu  bom  at  Moiiltns,  Get.  9, 1698,  and  died  at  Bnusels, 
Feb.  22, 1771,  tearing,  among  other  works,  y.'.<  mM  du 
ChrilitH  (Paris,  1747, 18  vols.)  -.—Kxtrdte  dt  PM  pour 
la  Commmiioii  (Ibid.  1748):— Seimnu  (Liege,  1767,4 
vtda.).  See  A'oue.  Did.  lliil.i  Jiicher,  AUffonam* 
GeUbiitn-Lexikoa,».y.;  Querard, /Vunctf  Liltirairt; 
Lichtenbergcr,  EiK]^p.  da  Sdtnett  Stligicuta,  a.  v. ; 
HoelVr,  .Vour.  Biog.  Giairalr,  s.  V.     (a  P.) 

OiUB  (Lau  Gtypiiui),  Lsohahoo, 
■a  Italian  prelate,  wai  bom  at  Milan 
in  1437.  Inl478hewasmsdebishiip 
of  Gubbio,  and  five  years  afterwards 
was  liaiisferred  to  the  arehbisbopric 
of  Benevento.  He  died  at  Rome  in 
14S5,  leaving  (in  the  coUeclion  of 
■  "  ■  fora  Jtervm  Italica- 
a  smalt  piece  of  poe- 


n  the  interior  of  tbe  province  of  New 
'ears  after  be  stiulied  theology,  went  to 
Emitted  to  orden  in  August,  1770 ;  soon 
Gloucester  County,  N.J..,  as  a  missionary 
of  the  Society  fi'r  the  Propagation  of  the  Uospel  in 
From  the  doae  of  1771  until  May,  1T7U, 
of  Shelbume  Parish,  Loudun  Co.,  Va.. 


ben  be  entered  the  American  army  as  chaplain  of  the 
Sd  Virginia  Regiment,  remaining  until  the  dnae  of 
1779.  In  1780  he  became  rector  of  ChriM  Church, 
Alexandria,  Va.  Throughout  the  latter  port  of  his  life 
he  is  saitl  to  have  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  General 
Wasbuigton,  who  was  his  parishioner  for  a  number  of 
yean,  [t  is  reported  that  he  was  tbe  first  clergyman 
to  propose  a  convention  for  the  independent  nrganixa- 
tion  of  the  Church  after  the  Revolution,    In  May,  1785, 

Richmond,  Va.,  under  the  act  of  incorporation ;  and  he 
was  appointed  a  delrgatc  to  the  ensuing  General  Ctin- 
vention.    In  May  of  that  year  he  was  chosen  biabop. 


d'by  H^oTand  H™iotiis  ATesm  of  Oflfflii- ALtnched  t.>  aCarof  Apollo. 

■a  the  piard  of  the  gold  in  the  innermnst  of  northem  i  but  was  unable  to  meet  the  expenses  of  a  voyage  ti> 

Europe,  which  the  one-cycd  Arimaspes  stole.  England  for  conaeeration.    Accordingly,  in  May,  1789, 

QzlfSii,  Etonry,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  waa  bom   he  resigned  bia  claim  to  the  oBice.    Ha  died  in  Fhila- 

July  10, 1786.    He  was  or iginally  a  Roman  Catholic,  |  ddphii,  Pa.,  Aug.  6, 1789,    Dr.  Griffith  was  regarded  aa 


GRIFFITHS 


488 


6RIMALDI 


a  sound  and  able  divine,  and  waa  untrenally  esteemed. 
See  Sprague,  AnnaU  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  v,  270. 

OriflBths,  David,  a  Welsh  Congregational  minis- 
ter,  was  bom  at  Glanmeilwch,  Carnarganshire,  Dec  20, 
1792.  He  was  converted  when  about  eighteen  years 
of  age,  studied  two  years  at  Neuaddlwyd  Academy, 
three  at  Wrexham  College,  and  three  at  the  Missionar}* 
College,  Goeport;  was  ordained  as"  missionary  to  Mada- 
gascar, reaching  his  destination  in  1821.  He  formed 
the  first  native  Christian  church  in  that  island,  but 
after  nearly  tifteen  years  of  labor,  when  the  mis- 
sionaries were  compelled  to  leave  the  country,  be  re- 
turned to  England.  Two  years  later  be  received  a  let- 
ter from  the  Queen  of  Madagascar,  permitting  him  to 
return  fur  five  years,  at  his  own  expense,  in  the  capacity 
of  a  trader,  but  in  reality  a  missionar}'.  He  was  again 
expelled  from  the  island,  and  after  travelling  on  sea 
and  land  about  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  Comoro 
Isles,  he  returned  to  his  native  country  in  1942,  and 
published  a  history  of  Madagascar,  in  Welsh.  In  1852 
he  established  a  church  in  Kington,  Radnorshire. 
About  this  time,  learning  that  Madagascar  was  free  for 
mission  work,  he,  in  company  with  Messrs.  Joseph  Free- 
man and  T.  W.  Meller,  commenced  a  new  and  improved 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Malagasy  language, 
and  finished  it  shortly  before  his  death,  which  occurred 
at  Machynlleth,  March  21,  1863.  Mr.  Griffiths  was 
emphatically  practicaL  He  could  preach  in  three  lan- 
guages, and  had  a  good  knowledge  of  Greek,  Latin, 
Hebrew,  French,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic.  Besides  his 
work  on  the  Malagasy  Bible,  he  translated  into  the  lan- 
gtuige  of  Madagascar,  The  A  nxious  Inquirer,  Friend  of 
JSinners,  Come  to  Jesus,  It  it  /,  and  Treatise  on  the  Res- 
nrrection;  corrected  former  translations  of  Pilffrim*s 
Progress,  and  several  tracts;  corrected  and  enlarged 
former  works,  EnffUth  and  Malagasy  Dictionary ;  Ma- 
lagasy and  EngUsh  Dictionary;  VocahuXary  of  Mala- 
gasy and  English,  Besides  his  History  of  Madagascar, 
he  published,  A  Uistory  of  Madagascar  Martyrs,  in 
EngUsh  :  —  Malagasy  Grammar  :  —  Catechisms :  — 
Hymn  Book :  —  Essay  on  Destiny :  —  The  Poor  Rich 
Man,  and  the  Rich  Poor  Man,  and  several  Tracts.  Also 
left  ready  for  the  press,  Peep  of  Day,  and  Line  upon 
Line.     See  (Lond.)  Cong.  year-Book,  1864,  p.  216. 

Gkigg,  JosKPii,  an  English  Presbyterian,  was  assis- 
tant minister  at  the  Silver  Street  Church,  London,  from 
1743  to  1747,  at  which  last  date  he  married  the  widow 
of  Colonel  Drew,  a  lady  of  much  property,  and  retired 
to  St.  Albans,  where  he  preached  for  his  dissenting 
brethren  occasionally.  He  contributed  poetical  pieces 
to  several  works  between  1756  and  1765,  when  he  issued 
a  small  tract  of  Hymns  on  Dicine  Subjects.  These  were 
collected  in  a  small  volume  by  Daniel  Sedgwick,  and 
published  in  1861.  Mr.  Grigg  died  at  Walthamstow, 
Oct.  29, 1768.  One  of  his  hymns,  written  when  he  was 
only  ten  years  old,  **  Jesus!  and  shall  it  ever  be,"  is  still 
a  favorite.    See  Gadsby,  Hymn  Writers,  p.  63. 

QrlggB,  Leverett,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Tc»lland,  Conn.,  Nov.  17,  1808.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1829,  was  engaged  for  a 
year  and  a  half  in  teaching  at  Mount  Hope  Institute, 
near  Baltimore,  Md.,  studied  at  the  Andover  Theolngi- 
cal  Seminar}'  two  years,  and  acted  as  tutor  in  Yale  Col- 
lege for  the  same  length  of  time,  while  pursuing  his 
theological  studies  in  the  Yale  Divinity  School.  He 
was  ordained  at  North  Haven,  Oct.  80,  1833,  and  re- 
mained as  pastor  till  July  30,  1845,  when  be  accepted  a 
call  to  the  Chai^el  Street  Church  (now  Church  of  the 
Redeemer),  New  Haven.  After  supplying  the  pulpit 
(if  the  Second  Church  m  MUlbury,  Mass.,  for  a  time,  he 
became,  in  1856,  pastor  of  the  Church,  where  he  con- 
tinued fourteen  years.  For  a  time  he  acted  as  an  agent 
of  the  Western  College  Society.  His  home,  during  the 
last  years  of  bis  life,  was  in  Ciristol,  Conn.,  and  he  died 
there  Jan.  28, 1888.  The  high  esteem  in  which  he  was 
held  in  this  town  is  indicated  by  the  circumstance  that, 


as  a  token  of  respect,  a  vote  was  passed  exempting  his 
property  from  taxation.  See  The  Congregatiomditt, 
Feb.  8, 1883.    (J.  C  &) 

Gkille  (1),  a  metal  screen,  to  enclose  or  protect  any 
particular  spot,  locality,  shrine,  tomb,  or  sacred  orna- 
ment; (2)  a  gate  of  metal  enclosing  or  protecting  the 
entrance  of  a  religious  house  or  sacred  building ;  (3)  the 
wicket  of  a  monastery ;  (4)  a  small  screen  of  iron  ban 
inserted  in  the  door  of  a  monastic  or  conventual  build- 
ing, in  onler  to  allow  the  inmates  to  oonVerse  with 
visitors,  or  to  answer  inquiries  without  opening  the 
door. 

Qrillet,  Jrax,  a  French  missionary,  one  of  the  first 
explorers  of  Guiana,  was  bom  about  1630.  He  joined 
the  Jesuits,  and  was  sent  out  to  Guiana,  where  he  be- 
came superior  of  the  establbhment  of  bis  order  until 
the  English  squadron  destroyeil  the  colony,  Oct.  22, 
1667.  In  1674  he  made  an  exploring  tour  through  a 
part  of  that  country,  of  which  on  his  return  to  Frtnce 
he  published  an  account.  Grillet  di^  about  1676i  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Gkimaldi,  Agostino^  a  Genoese  prelate,  third  son 
of  Lambert,  prince  of  Monaco,  studied  belles-lettres  and 
theology,  and  became  a  particular  friend  of  cardinals 
Bembo  and  Sadolet.  In  1505  he  was  elected  abbot  of 
Lerins,  and  assisted  in  1512  at  the  Council  of  Latersn. 
On  account  of  some  political  offence,  Francis  I  deprived 
him  of  all  his  revenues  in  France.  Charles  V  indem- 
nified him  by  giving  him  the  bishopric  of  Majorca  and 
the  arohbuhopric  of  Oristano ;  he  had  even  dengnated 
him  to  pope  Clement  VII  as  cardinal,  but  Agostino  died 
before  his  promotion,  probably  of  poison,  April  12, 1531 
There  are  extant  of  this  prelate  several  letters  to  illus- 
trious men  of  hia  time.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gins' 
rale,  n.  v. 

Qfimaldl,  Domenioo,  a  Genoese  prelate,  wss 
bom  in  1592,  being  the  son  of  Giambattista  Grimsldi, 
lord  of  Montaldeo.  He  had  distinguished  himself  in 
the  army  when  pope  Pius  Y  appointed  him  commissary- 
general  of  the  galleys  of  the  Church,  in  which  capacity 
be  took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  He 
afterwards  entered  into  orders,  and  obuined  the  abbey 
of  Mont  Majour-lea-Arles.  In  1581  Gregory  XHI  gave 
him  the  bishopric  of  Savons,  from  which  he  was  trans- 
ferred, in  1584,  to  the  see  of  CavaiUo,  as  archbishop  snd 
vice- legate.  He  persecuted  Protestants  with  rigor  and 
cruelty.  He  died  in  1592.  See  Hoefer,  Kouv.  Biog. 
Ginirak,  s.  r. 

Grlmaldi,  Gtoronlmo,  a  Genoese  statesman  and 
prelate,  occupied  the  principal  ofiSoes  of  the  republic, 
and  accomplished  several  diplomatic  missions  with  8uc> 
oesa.  After  the  death  of  his  wife,  he  entered  into  tlie 
ministry,  and  easily  attained  the  first  dignities  of  the 
Chureh.  He  was  made  cardinal,  with  the  title  of  St. 
Georges-in-Velatro.  He  obtained  afterwards  the  arch- 
bishopric  pf  Bari,  and  then  that  of  Genoa,  where  he 
died  in  1543.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Qrlmaldi,  Giovanni  Francesco  (called  //  Bo- 
lognese),  an  eminent  Italian  landscape  painter,  was  bom 
at  Bologna  in  1606,  and  studied  under  the  CaraccL  He 
went  to  Rome  for  improvement,  and  soon  rose  to  emi- 
nence. He  was  employed  by  Innocent  X  in  the  Vati- 
can and  at  Monte  Cavalla  He  was  invited  to  Paris 
by  cardinal  Mazarin,  and  waa  employed  in  the  Louvre 
by  Louis  XIV.  On  returning  to  Rome  he  received 
numerous  commissions,  was  patronized  by  Alexander 
VII  and  Clement  IX,  was  twice  appointed  president  of 
the  Academy  of  St.  Luke,  and  attained  both  fame  and 
fortune.  One  of  his  best  works  was  the  Baptism  of 
ChrisL  He  died  in  1680.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Genirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  ike  Fine  A  ris,  s.  v. 

Qrimaldi,  GHuaeppe  Maxia,  an  Italian  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Moncalieri  (Piedmont),  Jan.  8, 1754.  He 
studied  at  Turin,  entered  the  minbtry,  and  was  re- 
ceived as  doctor  of  theology  in  the  university  at  Turin, 


6RIMALDI 


489 


GRODDECK 


■Iterwards  went  to  Veroeil,  in  1779,  and  was  appointed 
canon  of  the  cathedral  there  in  1782.  In  1811  be  as- 
sisted at  the  Council  at  Paris,  and  took  part  in  the  com- 
mission appointed  to  re^nse  the  response  to  the  emperor. 
He  died  Jan.  1, 1830.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  CM- 
rate,  s.  r. 

Qrlmaldi,  Nicolo,  a  Genoese  prelate,  was  bom 
Dec  6, 1 645.  He  was  at  first  clerk  of  the  apostolic  cham- 
ber, and  superintendent  of  the  streets  and  roads  of  Rome. 
In  1696  he  became  prefect  of  the  pontifical  almonr}'. 
After  having  made  good  use  of  these  different  employ- 
ments, he  left  them  to  become  secretary  of  the  congre- 
gation of  the  bishops  and  regulars,  in  1701.  Clement 
XI  made  him  cardinal,  May  17,  1706,  and  on  Sept.  14 
following  he  was  made  legate  of  Bologna.  After  being 
prefect  of  the  Consultus  for  several  years,  he  passed  over, 
June  8,  1716,  to  the  order  of  the  cardinal  priests.  He 
died  Oct.  25,  1717,  leaving  an  immense  fortune.  See 
Hoefer,  A  on  p.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Grimea,  L.  A.,  a  distinguished  colored  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bora  a  slave  at  the  South  in  1808.  While 
acting  as  a  coachman  in  Washington,  D.  C,  he  attract- 
ed the  attention  and  secured  the  friendship  of  the  late 
Rev.  Dr.  Rolliu  H.  Neale,  then  a  student  in  that  city. 
He  soon  became  a  good  scholar  and  a  most  acceptable 
preacher,  holding  for  twenty-five  years  the  pastorate  of 
a  colored  Baptist  Church  in  Boston.  He  died  there, 
March  14, 1878.  Mr.  Grimes  took  a  special  interest  in 
the  education  of  colored  men  as  ministers  of  the  gospel, 
and  for  several  years  was  one  of  the  most  useful  trustees 
of  the  Wavland'  Seminary,  Washington,  D.  C.  See  The 
Watchnum,  March,  1873.     (J.  C.  &) 

Orimm,  Heimrich  Adolph,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  boro  Sept.  1, 1747,  at  Siegen,  in 
Prussia,  and  died  at  Duisburg,  Aug.  29, 1813,  doctor  and 
professor  of  theology.  He  publishe<l,  Jona  et  Obadiat 
Oraatla  Syriaee  (Duisburg,  1805)  :  —  ChaUL  Chresta- 
maiAie  mii  einem  volUtSntUgm  Glossarium  (1801):  — 
Exegditche  A  vfiuUze  zur  A  ufHdrung  gchwieriger  Siel- 
len  der  Schri/l  (1793) :  —  Der  Prophet  Jonas  erkldti 
(1789):  —  Nahum  erkldti^  mit  Anmerkungen  (1790). 
See  Winer,  llandhuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  9, 54, 125, 192, 227, 
238  ;  ii,  267 ;  Fttrst,  Bibl,  Jud,  i,  34a     (B.  P.) 

Orindrod,  Edmund,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister, 
waa  bom  in  Clay  Lane,  near  Rochdale,  Feb.  28, 1786. 
The  family  removed  to  Liverpool  when  Edmund  was 
young.  At  about  the  age  of  twenty,  when  assisting 
hifl  father  and  brothers  in  the  erection  of  the  new  ex- 
change buildings  in  that  city,  he  had  a  narrow  escape 
from  instant  death.  In  1806  he  was  received  into 
the  ministry,  and  henceforward  labored  on  some  of 
the  most  important  charges.  In  1826  a  great  revival 
bleaaed  his  labors  in  Edinburgh ;  in  1827,  with  Christian 
gentleness  and  firmness,  he  withstood  the  torrent  of 
opposition  at  Leeds  on  the  organ  question;  in  1882 
and  1833  he  was  secretary  of  the  conference;  in  1884 
was  president  of  the  Canadian  Conference  at  Kingston ; 
in  1SS4  and  1885,  while  stationed  at  Manchester,  he 
again  passed  through  a  bitter  conflict.  In  1837  Griodrod 
was  elected  president  of  the  British  Conference  at  Leeds; 
in  1840  he  went  to  his  last  appointment,  fifth  London 
or  Lftmbeth  circuit;  in  April,  1841,  he  underwent  a  se- 
vere aiirgical  operation,  and  died  May  1,  1842.  He 
wrote,  besides  essays  in  periodicals,  and  several  sermons, 
published  collectively.  The  Duties^  Qualificationtf  and 
KncouragemenAsofCUm'Leadert  (Lond.  1831, 12mo) : — 
Compendium  of  the  IjOwb  and  Regulationt  of  Wesleyan 
Methodism  (ibid.  1842,  8vo).  See  Wesl.  Meth,  Maga- 
ause,  July,  August,  September,  1846;  Stevenson,  Cifg 
Road  Chapel,  p.  318, 347 ;  Minutes  of  the  British  Confer- 
essee^  1842 ;  Smith,  HImL  of  Wed,  Methodism,  iii,  462  sq. 

Orinfiold,  Edward  William,  an  English  clergy- 
Diao  and  scholar,  was  bom  in  1784.  He  commenced 
his  career  as  a  writer  m  1818.  From  1827  to  1843  he 
pabUahed  little,  being  employed  during  that  time  on 
his  Novum  Testamaiium  ffeUenittieum  (2  vols.  8vo),  the 


design  of  which  was  to  show  the  close  connection  be- 
tween the  Septuagint  and  the  Greek  Testament.  The 
next  five  years  were  spent  in  preparing  the  Schuiia 
/fellenistica  (2  vols.  8vo)L  For  fifty  years  he  labored  to 
elevate  the  Septuagint  to  its  proper  place  as  an  inter- 
preter of  the  Hebrew  texL  To  this  end  he  collected 
all  the  various  efUiions  of  the  book,  and  all  the  litera- 
ture relating  to  them.  In  addition  to  the  above,  hiit 
publications  are.  An  Apologg  for  the  Septuagint,  in 
which  its  claims  to  Biblical  and  canonical  authority  arc 
stated  and  defended  (1850, 8vo),  a  number  of  sermonn, 
and  theological  and  other  treatises.  He  died  July  9, 
1864.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors, 
s.  V.  , 

Grixmell,  Dakibl  T.,  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Jackson, 
Mich.,  the  most  of  his  ministry  being  spent  in  this  pas- 
torate. For  a  long  time  he  was  a  member  of  the  mis- 
sionary committee  of  his  diocese.    He  died  June  2, 

1868,  aged  fiftv-five  years.     Se«  ProL  Kpisc,  Almanac, 

1869,  p.  109. 

Grischow,  JoHANN  Hkinkich,  inspector  of  the 
Halle  Bible  Society,  was  born  in  16^5.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies,  he  devoted  his  talents  entirely  to 
the  work  of  the  Bible  Society,  founded  by  the  marquis 
of  Canstein  (q.  v.),  and  died  at  Halle,  Nov.  6, 1754.  He 
translated  into  Latin  Bingham's  Christian  AntiquUies 
(1724,  10  vols.) ;  he  also  translated  from  the  German 
into  Latin  the  works  of  Spener,  Francke,  Freylinghau- 
sen,  etc.  See  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten'  T^xikon, 
s.  V. ;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  606.     (K  P.) 

QriBiwdd,  RuFus  Wilmot,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister and  writer,  who  was  bom  Feb.  15, 1815,  at  Benson, 
Rutland  Co.,Vt.,and  died  in  New  York,  Aug.  27, 1857, 
was  literary  manager  of  a  number  of  journals  in  sev- 
eral of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Union,  such  as.  The 
New 'Yorker,  The  Brother  Jonathan,  and  The  New 
World;  in  1842  and  1843  editor  of  Graham^s  Magazine ; 
and  from  August,  1850,  to  April,  1852,  conducted  the 
Jntematiomd  Magazine,  Besides  these,  he  prepared 
numerous  works,  especially  The  Poets  of  America 
(1842),  etc.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  s.  V. ;  Duyckinck,  Cydop.  ofAmer,  Lit,  ii,  532. 

Ghithe-atool.    See  Fkithstool. 

Grobe,  Joiiann  Samubl,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Bavaria,  who  died  Dec.  23,  1837,  is  the  author  of, 
Christliche  I/auspostille  (Hildborghausen,  1824-34,  3 
vols.) : — Evangelischer  Morgen-  und  Abendsegen  wfidle 
Tage  des  Jahres  (1829;  2d  enlarged  ed.  by  Teuscher, 
1857)  :  —  Gebetbuch  fur  fromme  und  christliche  Burger 
(1832, 2  vols.) : — Denkwurdigktiten  aus  dem  J^henf  rum- 
mer Personen  (1822).  See  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theol. 
Lit,  ii,  138,  144,  863,  384,  396;  Zuchold,  BUd,  TheoL  i, 
468.     (B.  P.) 

Groddeck,  Benjamiii,  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Dantzic,  was  born  there  in  1728,  and  died 
June  8,  1776.  He  wrote^  De  Necessaria  Linguarum 
Arabicm  et  ffeltraea  Comtexione  (Wittenberg,  1746): 
— De  Natura  Dialectomm  ad  Linguam  Hdtraicam  et 
Aralncmn  Applicata  (1747): — De  Vero  Originum  He- 
brmarumfonte  et  UtUitafe  (eod.) : — De  Linguos  Hebraa 
Antiquitate  (Dantzic,  1750):  — De  Litteris  llebraicis 
(1751)  : — DeSensuSa-iptura  Sacra  (eod.) : — DePunctis 
IJebrcBorum  (1763)  i—De  Via  ad  Notitumi  Jnteriorem 
Linguarum  OrientaUum  Prasertim  IJebrma  (1757):  — 
De  Vera  Verborum  n"b  Natura  et  Indole  (1760)  .—De 
Usu  Versionum  Grascarum  Vet,  Test,  Hermeneutico  et 
Critioo  (1763).  See  Meusel,  Gelehrtes  Deutschland; 
Jdcher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Stein- 
schneider,  Bibl,  Uandbuch,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  344. 
(B.  P.) 

Groddeck,  Gabriel,  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Dantzic,  was  bom  Jan.  7, 1672,  and  died  Sept. 
12,  1709.  He  wrote,  De  Judais  Prceputium  Attrahen- 
tibus  ad  1  Cor.  vii,  IS '.--Spicilegium  Aliquot  Librorum 


GROEN 


490 


GROTTA 


Awmymorum  et  Ptmdonjfmorum  qui  Lingua  Rahbinica 
Partim  ImpresHf  Partim  MS,  Reperiuniur  (reprinted 
in  David  MiUius's  Cataleda  Rahbinica,  Utrecht,  1728) : 
De  Cceremofda  Palmarum  apud  Judaos  in  Fetto  Ta* 
berrutculo  (Leipsic,  1694): — Lingua  Graca  Matrum 
Linguarum  Orientalium  nan  etse  (1698): — De  Anno  et 
DU  Pauionit  S,  Polgcat-pi  (1704).  See  Wuier,  Hand- 
buck  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  900;  FUr»t,  Bibl,  Jud.  \,  844 ;  Jocber, 
A  Ugemeinet  GeUhrten-Lexileon^ «.  r.     (B.  P.) 

Ghroen  (ran  Prifuterer),  Willkm,  a  Dutch  atatCB- 
nian  and  hiBtorian,  was  bom  at  the  Hague,  Aug.  21, 
1801.  He  studied  at  Leydcn,  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  king  in  1827,  and  soon  afterwards  director  of  the 
royal  archives ;  was,  in  the  Dutch  Parliament,  the  lead- 
er of  the  anti-revolutionary  party,  and  opposed  with 
great  zeal  the  separation  of  State  and  Church,  and  eman- 
cipation of  the  school  from  the  Church.  He  was  a 
Christian  statesman,  and  his  idea  was  that  Christianity 
should  be  the  basis  of  aU  instruction,  since  the  school 
has  for  its  object  not  only  the  information,  but  also  the 
education,  of  the  individual.  He  has  often  been  called 
the  "  Dutch  Stahl,"  but  Groen  was  more  conspicuous  in 
his  position  towards  Rome  than  Julius  Stahl  (q.  v.). 
Groen  died  Ha^  19, 1876.  He  published,  Archives  ou 
Conespondance  Inedite  de  la  Maison  d^Orange-Naseau 
(1840-^5, 13  vols.)  i—JIandboek  der  Getckiedenie  van  kei 
Vaderland  (Amsterdam,  1852) : — Maurice  et  Bamevelt, 
Etude  Hiatorique  (Utrecht,  1875).  See  Cohen-Stuart, 
In  Memoriam  Grow  pan  Prinsterer  (  Utrecht,  1876  ) ; 
Saint-Hilaire  in  the  Revue  Chrkieane  NecroL  p.  594  sq. ; 
Lichtenberger,  Encyciop,  des  Sciences  ReligieuseSf  s.  v.; 
Plitt-Herzog,  ReaUEncyldop,  s.  r.     (B.  P.) 

Qroesbeok,  Gerard  de,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  in  1508.  He  was  first  dean  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Liege,  when  Robert  of  Berg,  prince-bishop,  resigned  his 
authority  in  his  favor,  July  22, 1563.  He  successfully 
resisted  the  encroachments  of  William  of  Orange  into 
the  territory.  The  Jesuits,  whom  the  bishop  had  called 
for,  assisted  Groesbeck  largely  in  his  persecutions  of  the 
Calvinists,  and  made,  in  1569,  their  first  establishment 
at  Liege.  The  prelate  died  Dec  28, 1580.  See  Hocfer, 
A  our.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Qr5ne,  Valentiii,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  March  18, 1882,  dean  and  doctor  of 
theology,  is  the  author  of  Teizel  und  Luther  (2d  ed. 
Soest,  1860) : — Begriff  und  BedetUung  vom  Sacrament 
(^IS2») :—Glaube  und  Wissenschqfl  (I860):— ^5riM  der 
Kirchengeschichfe  (Ratisbon,  1869) : — Compendium  der 
Kirchengeschichte  (eod.) : — Die  Papst-Geschichte  (2  vols. 
1864-66 ;  2d  ed.  1875).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  468. 
(B.  P.) 

Qroa,  Nicolas  le.    See  Nicolas. 

GroB,  PiKURE  LK.    See  Pikrre. 

Gross,  Christian,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Wittenberg,  Sept.  SO,  1602.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  preacher  and  pro- 
fessor at  Stettin,  general  su[>erintendent  of  Pomerania, 
and  (lied  at  Stargard,  July  17, 1673.  He  wrote,  Com^ 
pendium  Gramm,  Bebroue :  —  Sylloge  Dittindionum 
TheoL: — De  Auctoi-itate  Pantificis  Romani: — De  Dis- 
sensu  Calvinianorum  et  Lutheranorum : — De  Magnitu- 
dine  Adtimi,  See  Witte,  3/emoria  Theologorum;  J5- 
cher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon^  s.  v.;  FUrst,  BibL 
Jtfd  1,344.     (a  P.) 

Gross,  Johann  Gheorg,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Basic,  March  28, 1581.  He  studied  at  his  native 
place,  was  preacher  there  in  1598,  professor  of  theology 
in  1612,  and  died  Feb.  8, 1630.  He  wrote,  Ditp.  in 
Locum  Jlab,  u,  4  (1611):  —  Elenckus  Controversiarum 
de  Justificatione  (cod.)  i—Libri  III  de  Christiana  Re- 
puUica  (1612)  i—Elenchus  Controv,  de  Paschate  Christi 
(1613)  i-^Re/utatio  Descensus  Localis  Christi  ad  Inferos 
(1614) :  —De  BeUis  Christianorum  et  de  Citxiurndsione 
Christi  (eod.)  i— Thesaurus  Concionum  Sacrorum  (1616). 
See  Jdcher,  AUgenmnes  Gelehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 


Gross,  Johann  Mathias^  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  Sept.  8, 1676.  He  studied  at 
Jena,  was  preacher  in  1698, and  died  Dec  11, 1748.  His 
writings,  numbering  twenty-eight,  are  given  by  Doriug, 
Die  gelthrten  Theologen  DeutschlandSf  s.  v.  See  also 
Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gekhrten-Lexikon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Grosse,  Johann  An£;Qst  Lndwig,  a  Protest- 
ant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  15, 1747, 
at  Barleben,  near  Magdeburg.  He  studied  at  HaUe« 
was  in  1774  teacher  at  Klosterbergen,  in  1779  preacher, 
and  died  Jan.  21,  1830.  He  published  sermons  and 
some  ascetical  writings.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrtem 
Theologen  DeutschlandSf  a.  v. ;  Winer,  Ilandbuek  der 
theoL  Lit,  ii,  88, 198, 202.     (B.  P.) 

Grosse,  Johann  Friedrioh  August,  a  Luther- 
an theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Zerbst,  April  13, 
1778.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg  and  Halle,  was  pastor 
in  1818,  and  died  July  27,  1828.  He  publbhed  some 
sermons.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutsek' 
lands,  a.  v.    (R  P.) 

Grosshain,  Geobo,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  G«r* 
many,  was  bora  in  1601.  He  studied  at  Jena  and  Wit- 
tenberg, was  professor  at  Erfurt  in  1633,  court-preacher 
at  Weimar  in  1637,  and  died  Sept.  5, 1638,  leaving,  De 
CathoUca  Judaorum  Conversione: — Epitome  Ilermenett^ 
tices  ad  3,  Script,  IiUerpretationem : — De  Consilio  PacU 
ad  Dan,  iv,  24 : — De  Conversione  Judaorum  ad  Ronu  xi, 
25, 26.  See  Binder,  De  Vita  et  Mentis  G,  Grosshainii  ; 
Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gdehrten-Lexikon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Grossmann,  Christl^n  Gottlob  Lebrbcrt,  a 
Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany,  was  Iwra  Nov.  9, 178S. 
He  studied  at  Jena,  was  in  1808  preacher  at  PrieasaitZf 
near  Naumburg,  in  Saxony,  in  1823  general  superinteu- 
dent  at  Altenburg,  in  1829  professor  of  theology  and 
preacher  at  Leipsic,  and  died  June  29, 1857.  He  wrote, 
De  Ascetis  Judcsorum  Veierum  (Altenburg,  1838)  : — De 
Procuratore  Parabola  J,  Christi  ex  re  Provindali  IUsl" 
strata  (Leipsic,  1824)  x—Quastiones  PhUonem  (1829) :~ 
De  Judaorum  Disdplina  Arcani  (1833-34,  2  parts): 
—De  PhUosophia  Sadducteorum  (183<>-38,  3  parts) : — 
Philonis  Judmi  Anecdoton  Grcecum  (1856).  He  also 
published  a  number  of  sermons.  See  Winer,  BibL 
TheoL  i,  140,  248,  522;  ii.  19,  171,  172,  174,  176,  177; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  344;  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol,  i,  470  sq. 
(B.  P.) 

Grosvenor,  Cyrus  Pitt,  LLbD.,  a  distinguished 
Baptist  minister,  was  bora  at  Grafton,  Mas&,  Oct,  18; 
1793.  He  studied  first  at  New  Salem  Academy,  afker- 
wards  Leorrette,  grailuated  from  Dartmouth  College  in 
1818,  and  then  taught  three  yean  as  principal  iu  au 
academy  at  Haverhill,  and  as  preceptor  in  Amherst 
Academy,  partly  in  studies  preparatory  to  his  ministry. 
In  1820  he  entered  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
and  left  in  March,  1822.  He  was  called  to  the  Baptist 
Church  of  Charleston,  May  19, 1823,  was  pastor  of  the 
Baptist  Church,  Georgetown ;  of  Hartford,  Conn. ;  of 
First  Baptist  Church,  Boston,  Mass. ;  of  Second  Baptist 
Church,  Salem ;  of  Sterling;  of  Baptist  Church,  South- 
bridge  ;  and  of  Ganges,  Allegan  Co.,  Mich.  Dr.  Gros- 
venor died  Feb.  1 1, 1879.  He  was  editor  of  The  Chrif-^ 
tian  Rejlector,  and  also  of  The  Christian  Contributor^ 
published  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  re- 
spectively. For  fifteen  years  he  was  connected  as  presi- 
dent and  professor  with  New  York  Central  College.  In 
March,  1860,  he  went  to  Great  Britain,  and  (ravelled 
extensively  in  England,  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland, 
lecturing  on  American  affairs,  and  preaching  frequently. 
See  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1879,  p.  43'. 

Gh'Otta,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  a  miracalous  mill 
of  king  Frotbi ;  it  had  two  stones,  so  large  that  no  ono 
could  tura  them,  but  everything  could  be  ground  on  it. 
In  order  to  set  it  in  motion  the  king  had  two  maids, 
Menja  and  Fenja,  who  had  come  from  Sweden.  They 
were  only  allowed  to  rest  so  long  as  the  cuckoo  did  not 
cry.     When  the  sea-king,  Mysingr,  came»  they  gioond 


GRULICH 


491 


GRUNENBERG 


out  an  army  for  Frothi ;  but  the  army  was  conquere<l, 
and  became  a  prey  of  the  strange  king,  who  took  the 
treasures  and  the  mill  on  his  ship,  and  ordered  the  maids 
to  grind  salu  This  they  did  until  midnight,  and  then 
ai«ked  the  king  whether  he  had  enough,  but  Mysingr 
told  them  to  keep  on.  They  did  this  so  long  that  the 
ship  sank,  and  the  sea  was  made  salt 

Gmlloh,  Friedrioh  Joseph,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec  15, 1766.  He  entered 
the  mintstr}'  in  1796,  was  archdeacon  at  Torgau,  and  died 
Nov.  19, 1839,  leaving,  Betmchtunguberdenneuesten  Ker. 
radk,  das  Leben  Je$u  (Leipsic,  1886) : — Utbtr  die  korper- 
lieke  BeredtMxmkeit  Jesu  (1827) : — Ladenaerfdhru'iuj  und 
Ladauffewmn  (1826):— £7f6er  die  Ironien  in  den  JUden 
Jesu  (1888).  See  Winer,  //andhuch  der  theol  Lit,  i,  551, 
557 ;  ii,  388 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  472.    (U.  P.) 

Ghrnlich,  Martlxi,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  1695.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg 
and  Leipsic,  was  preacher  in  1728,  and  died  at  Torgau, 
Nov.  30,  1772,  a  superintendent.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
great  many  asoetical  works,  of  no  importance  for  the 
present  times.  The  titles  are  given  in  full  in  Jocher, 
AUgemetMM  GeUhrten-Lexiton,  s.  v.     (U.  P.) 

Gtanndlg,  Chbistoph  Gottlob,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  5,  1707.  He  en- 
tered upon  his  ministerial  duties  in  1737  as  pastor  at 
Hermannsdorf,  near  Annaberg,  in  Saxony,  and  died  at 
Freiberg,  Aug.  9,  1780.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number 
of  ascctical  works  mentioned  by  Jdcher  in  AUgemeinea 
GtUhrienrLexikxmj  s.  v.     {K  P.) 

Gmndtvig,  Nicolai  F&kdbrik  Sk\'ebin,  *'the 
prophet  of  the  North,"  was  bom  Sept.  8, 1783,  at  Udby, 
a  village  in  the  island  of  Zealand.  Ho  studied  theology 
at  Copenhagen,  was  tutor  in  a  private  family  in  the 
island  of  Langeland  from  1805  to  1808,  teacher  of  his- 
tory in  a  school  at  Copenhi^n  from  1808  to  1810,  vicar 
to  bis  father  at  Udby  from  1810  to  1813,  and  again 
teacher  at  0>penhagen  from  1818  to  1821.  During 
those  years  of  his  youth  and  early  manhood  he  lived 
like  a  monk,  without  being  monkish.  He  only  slept 
two  hours,  and  fur  twenty  years  never  in  a  bed. 
Before  he  was  appointed  to  his  pastorate,  Grundt- 
vig  had  already  become  known  in  the  literary  circles 
of  his  country*.  His  earliest  literary  efforts  were  the 
Teachuig  of  Ata,  the  Songt  of  (he  Edda^  and  Religion 
and  Liturgy,  From  1809  to  1822  he  published  a  series 
of  poetical  and  historical  works  —  Nordtns  Mythologie 
(1808) ;  Optria  of  KampeUveU  Undergang  i  Nord  (i.  e. 
Fall  of  Heathenism  in  the  North,  a  grand  drama,  1809), 
and  the  translations  of  Saxo  Grammaticus  (1818-22, 
6  vols.),  Snorre  Sturlesou,  and  Beowulfs  Drapa — most 
of  them  referring  to  the  heroic  age  of  Scandinavian 
hiatory,  and  all  of  them  pregnant  with  a  peculiarly 
stirring  life.  But  his  theological  productions,  also  hu 
sermons,  more  especially  his  Kort  BtgrA  cf  Verdens 
Krdnike  i  Sammenhdngt  L  e.  View  of  the  World's 
Chronicle  ( 1812 ),  attracted  equal  attention,  as  they 
ran  out  in  a  vehement  denunciation  of  the  frivolity 
with  which  the  age  had  eliminated  Christianity 
from  ita  life.  Attracted  by  the  genius  of  Grandt- 
vig,  king  Frederick  VI,  without  consulting  either 
the  biahop  or  the  consistory,  appointed  him  pastor 
in  Praettoe  ( a  small  town  in  2^aland ),  and  in  the 
next  year  he  was  called  to  the  chaplaincy  at  the 
Church  of  our  Savioar  in  Copenhagen.  There  he  soon 
gathered  a  circle  of  friends  and  pupils  around  his  pul- 
pit, and  day  by  day  his  position  in  the  Danish  Church 
became  more  and  more  strongly  marked.  In  1825  pro- 
fessor H.  N.  Clansen  (q.  v.),  a  rationalist,  published  his 
Katkoiiatment  og  ProteeUmtitment  Kirhrforfatmng^ 
L>ar€  Off  JUtus  (L  e.  Church  Government,  Teaching,  and 
Rites  of  Catholicism  and  Protestantism),  and  Grandtvig 
answered  with  his  Kirkene  Gjenm&ie  (i.  e.  Protest  of  the 
Church),  in  which  he  requested  Clausen  either  to  re- 
nounce hia  heresy  or  to  give  up  his  professorship. 
Within  aght  dajrSyGrundtvig's  Protest  was  three  times 


roprinted.  Clausen  instituted  a  civil  suit;  Grandtvig 
was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine,  and  to  publish  nothing  with- 
out permission  of  the  royal  censor.  In  1826  he  resigned 
his  office,  because  he  did  not  wish  to  ser\'e  a  Church 
which  seemed  to  gi>*e  up  the  faith  and  the  confession 
of  the  fathers.  To  this  period  belongs  his  interesting 
work,  Mg  Literary  Testament.  From  1826  to  1889 
Grandtvig  lived  in  literary  retirement  at  Copenhagen. 
From  1829  to  1831  ho  visited  England,  edited  a  theo- 
logical monthly,  Tkeoiogisk  Maanedsskri/l ;  published 
the  Sang^Vark  til  den  dansko  Kirke  (1837;  new  edi- 
tions, 1870-75),  a  collection  of  hymns,  partly  original, 
partly  translated.  Meanwhile  his  influence  spread 
far  beyond  the  capital,  and  the  **Grandtvigian8"  and 
'*  Grandtvigianism  "  increased  from  day  to  day.  He 
was  allowed  to  preach  in  the  afternoon  in  the  German 
Frederiks- Church,  and  the  number  of  his  adherents 
grew  more  and  more.  In  1839  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Yarton-hospital-Church,  and  there  he  remained  till  his 
death,  which  took  place  Sept.  2, 1872.  His  party  made 
itself  especially  felt  in  1848,  and  brought  about  those 
liberties  in  church  and  school  which  in  some  cases  were 
detrimental  to  religbn.  See  Hansen,  Wesen  und  Be- 
deutung  des  Gruudtvigiamtnuts  (Kiel,  1863);  LUtke, 
Kirchliche  Ztutdnde  u»  den  Skandinavischen  LSndem 
(Elberfeld,  1864) ;  Pry,  N.  F,  S.  Grundtvig,  Biographic 
Skizze  ((Copenhagen,  1871);  Kaftan,  Grundtvig,  der 
Prophei  dee  Nordau  (Basle,  1876) ;  Lichtenberger,  En- 
cyclop,  des  Sciences  Jieligieitses,  s.  v. ;  Plitt  -  Herzog, 
Real-Encyklop,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Gnmdy,  Robkkt  Caldwki.l,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  in  Washington  County,  Ky.,  in  1809. 
He  graduated  at  St.  Joseph's  College,  Bardstown,  in 
1829,  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1835. 
In  1836  he  was  licensed  by  the  Transylvania  Presbyter}*, 
and  installed  over  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Mays- 
ville,  where  he  remained  until  1858,  when  he  removed 
to  Memphis,  Tenn.,  as  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church  in  that  city.  In  1863  he  took  charge  of  the 
Ontral  Presbyterian  Church  in  Cincinnati.  He  died 
at  Dayton,  O.,  June  27,  1865.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist, 
Almanac,  1867,  p.  158;  Gen,  Cat.  of  Princeton  TheoL 
Sem,  1881,  p.  88. 

Orttneisen,  Cari,  von,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Stuttgart,  Jan.  17,  1802.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen  and  Halle,  was  in  1825  military 
preacher  and  court- chaplain,  in  1835  court-preacher  and 
member  of  consistory,  and  died  at  his  native  place  Feb. 
28, 1878.  GrUneisen  took  an  active  part  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  church  of  Wurtemberg,  and  for  sixteen 
3'ears  presided  at  the  annual  meetings  of  the  Eise- 
nach Church  conferences.  He  wrote  Utber  bildliche 
Darstellung  der  Gottheii  (Stuttgart,  1828)  :—6^^6»-  das 
Sittliche  dtr  bildenden  Kunst  bei  den  Griechen  (Leipsic, 
1833):— Mico/aitf  Manuel,  Lehen  und  Werke  (Stuttgart, 
1837)  '^Vlms  KumtlAen  im  Mittelalter  (Ulm,  1840) :~ 
Predigtenfur  die  GAUdeten  in  der  Gemeinde  (Stuttgart, 
1835)  i—ChristUches  Uandbuch  m  Gebeien  und  Liedern 
(5th  ed.  1859) :—  Ueber  Gesangbuchsrfform  (1889).  In 
connection  with  Schnaase  and  Schnorr  von  Carolsfeld, 
he  founded  in  1858  the  Christliches  Kunstbhtt,  See 
Zuchold,  BiU.  TheoL  i,  474;  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop, 
des  Sciences  Beligieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Oriinenberg,  Johanm  Pkter,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  German}*,  was  bom  Jan.  27, 1668.  He  studied 
at  different  universities,  was  in  1698  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Kostock,  and  died  Jan.  5, 1712,  leaving  Doctrina 
SymboUea  de  S,  Theologia  Testibus  Symbolicis: — Dis» 
putationes  de  Scientia  Dei : — De  Sabbatho  JJdfdomadali 
ad  Gen.  m,  2 : — De  Samgare  Victore  ad  Judic,  tti,  31 : — 
De  Semine  Davidis  Christo  ad  2  Sam,  viij  11-16: — De 
Timore  Domini  ad  Prov,  ir,  10 : — De  fiipXtft  yfvitnwg 
ad  Matt,  t,  1  i^De  Fide  Matt,  Geneahgica  ad  Matt, 
i,  6-11 :— i>e  Filio  Dei  ex  Egypto  Vocato  ad  Matt,  n, 
15 :  —  De  Jesu  Nazareno  ad  Matt  ti,  22,  23,  etc.  See 
Jdcher,  AUgemeines  CeUhtien^Lexikon,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 


QRUPPE 


492 


GUARD 


Ghlipp6,  Otto  Frikdrich,  a  German  pbiloaopher 
and  antiquarian,  was  bom  at  Dantzic,  April  16,  1804. 
He  studied  at  Berlin,  but  as  he  opposed  the  Hegelian 
system  of  philosophy,  the  academical  career  was  closed 
up  to  him,  till  at  last,  in  1844,  he  was  made  professor 
of  philosophy.  Gruppe  died  Jan.  7,  167G,  at  Berlin. 
He  wrote  A  ridus  (Berlin,  183 1 ) :—  Wwdepunkt  der  Phi- 
loBophU  im  19.  Jahrhundert  (1834) :  —  Gegntwart  und 
Zukunft  der  PhilotophU  in  DeutachUuxi  (1855).  These 
works  were  all  directed  against  Hegel.  Of  his  poetical 
productions  we  only  mention,  Ruth,  TobiaSf  JSuktmith 
(1857).     (B.  P.) 

Guadagnl,  Bkrnardo  Gaktano  (or  John  Anthony 
of  St,  Bernard)^  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom  at  Flor- 
ence, SepL  14, 1674,  being  the  son  of  Maria  Magdalena 
Corsini,  sister  of  pope  Clement  XH.  He  Joined  the 
barefdoted  Carmelites,  at  the  conrent  of  Arezzo,  Nor. 
11,  1700.  He  had  been  successively  teacher  of  the 
novices,  and  several  times  prior  and  provincial  of  Flor- 
ence, and  was,  on  Dec  20,  1724,  appointed  by  pope 
Benedict  XIII  to  the  bishopric  of  Arezzo,  and  received 
from  the  hands  of  Clement  XH  the  pallium  on  Nov.  36, 
1780.  In  1781  he  was  made  cardinal,  with  the  title  of 
8t,  3far(in  del  Monte,  In  1732  he  became  vicar-gen- 
eral of  Rome,  which  office  he  maintained  until  his 
death,  after  1733.     See  Hoefer,  ATiup.  Biog,  Ghtirale, 

8.V. 

Guadagnolo,  Filippo,  a  Minorite  and  professor  of 
Arabic  in  the  college  of  the  Sapienza  at  Rome,  was  born 
in  1596,  and  died  March  27,  1656.  In  behalf  of  the 
Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fidei,  he  translated  the 
Bible  from  the  Vulgate  into  Arabic,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  three  volumes  (Rome,  1671) — a  work  on  which 
be  spent  twenty-seven  years.  8ee  Winer,  UandlMuh 
der  theoL  Lit,  i,  58 ;  Jocher,  AUgememe»  Gdehrten-'ljexU 
kon^  a.  V. ;  Toppi,  BibHotheea  Neapolitana,     (11  P.) 

Ouala  {Bichieri),  Giacomo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was 
born  at  Vercelli  in  the  second  part  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury. At  the  age  of  twenty-one,  after  having  studied 
canon  law,  he  was  made  canon  of  the  Eusebian  Cathe- 
dral, and  cardinal  in  the  same  year,  by  Innocent  YII. 
In  1208  Innocent  sent  him  to  France  as  a'  legate  to 
reform  the  habits  of  the  clergy.  For  this  purpose 
Guala  wrote  constitutions  of  ecclesiastical  discipline. 
After  having  been  commissioneii  also  to  reform  the 
clergy  of  Lombard}',  be  was  sent  to  Sicily  to  the  em- 
peror Frederic  II,  to  persuade  him  to  undertake  a  new 
crusade,  but 'did  not  succeed.  On  his  return  to  Italy  he 
contributed  to  the  foundation  of  the  Universitv  of  Ver- 
celli,  but  died  before  the  finishing  of  his  establishment, 
May,  1227.     See  Hoefer,  iVbur.  Bioff,  Generalet  s.  v. 

Gualdim  ('Paes)^  a  celebrated  grand-master  of  the 
order  of  the  Templars  in  Portugal,  was  born  at  Brsga  in 
the  12th  century.  He  frequently  fought  against  the 
Moors  of  the  Peninsula.  At  the  time  of  the  second 
crusade  he  was  provincial  of  the  order  of  the  Templars. 
During  his  five  years^  stay  in  the  East,  he  distinguished 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Ascalon  in  1155;  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  came  back  to  Europe,  when  he  was  made 
grand-master.  In  March,  1 160,  he  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  magnificent  castle  of  Thomar,  which  was  hence- 
forth to  serve  as  the  capitulary  chapter  of  the  Portu- 
guese Templars.  In  1190  a  vast  troop  of  Moorish  sol- 
diers advanced  under  the  leadership  of  Vakub,  son  of 
Abu-Tussuf,  against  the  doors  of  Thomar,  determined 
to  revenge  upon  the  Templars  that  loss  which  they  had 
suffered  at  Sandarem  in  1147,  to  which  the  knights  un- 
der Gualdim  had  largely  contributed.  But  the  Moors 
were  repulsed.  The  Templars  of  Portugal  were  indeed 
a  rampart  to  the  Christian  populations,  and  their  order 
was  respected,  even  though  the  pontiff  was  hostile  to 
their  convents.  Gualdim-Paea  died  peacefully,  in  1196, 
in  his  monastery.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Giniralf, 

8.  V. 

Qualterio,  Filippo  Astonio,  an  Italian  prelate 
and  scholar,  was  bom  at  San  Quirico  de  Ferroo,  March 


I  24, 1660.  He  belonged  to  one  of  the  first  families  cf 
Ancona.  His  grand-undo  sent  him,  in  1672,  to  Rome, 
to  study  at  the  college  of  Clement.  Antonio  studied 
philosophy  at  Rome,  and  law  and  theology  at  Fermo, 
where  his  grand-uncle  was  the  archbishop.  At  the 
age  of  nineteen  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor,  and 
about  1684  was  admitted  to  the  number  of  the  candi- 
dates  for  prelates.  On  Feb.  17, 1700,  Innocent  XII  in- 
trusted him  with  the  nonciature  to  France,  and  Clement 
XI  conferred  on  him  the  abbev  of  the  Trinitv,  the  bish- 
opric  of  Tmola  and  Todi,  and  in  1799  made  him  cs> 
dinal  with  the  title  of  Sawt  Chryaoffunut.  In  Franee 
Gualterio  bad  connected  himself  with  the  principal 
scholars,  had  examined  all  the  monastical  and  other 
libraries,  and  made  a  fine  collection  of  MSS.  of  great 
value,  medals,  both  antique  and  modem,  and  iiistni- 
ments  of  rare  precision ;  but  all  these  literary  or  scien- 
tific treasures,  being  embarked  at  Marseilles,  were  loit 
on  the  passage.  He  began  new  researches,  and  luc- 
ceeded  in  collecting  a  number  of  elements,  useful  for  a 
universal  history,  which  he  proposed  to  write.  But 
when  he  was  settled  down  as  a  legate  at  Ravenna,  the 
imperial  troops  invaded  that  city  and  pillaged  his  house, 
by  which  his  documents  were  either  burned  or  dis- 
persed. Later,  Louis  XV  appointed  him  commander  of 
the  Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Cardinal  Gualterio,  with 
all  his  literary  tastes,  left  no  writings.  He  died  at  Rom^ 
April  21 ,  1728.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

QualtperiuB,  Otto,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  Jan.  1, 1546,  at  Rotenburg.  He  studied 
at  Marburg,  and  was  there  professor  of  Hebrew  snd 
Greek  in  1582.  In  1593  he  went  to  LUbeck  as  director 
of  the  schools,  and  died  Dec.  24, 1624.  He  wrote.  Cram- 
matiea  Lingua  SandiB: — SyUoge  Vocum  Exoticanm 
Novi  Tettamenti: — CoUittio  Pracipuarum  Sacra  Gent' 
»eoi  Translationum,  etc  See  Moller,  Cimbria  Utterom 
ta ;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  846 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelekr. 
(en-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Scelen,  A  thena  Luhecenaes,     (B.  P.) 

GhianzeUiB,  Giakmaria  db\  an  Italian  prelstc^ 
was  bom  in  1557  at  Brazighella,  near  Faenza.  He  be- 
came a  D<Miiiuican  while  still  young,  and  taught  schoul 
in  various  establishments  of  his  order.  Paul  Y  chose 
him  as  a  master  of  the  sacred  palace,  and  in  1607  be 
appointed  him  bishop  of  Poliguana  Guanzellis  died 
in  1619,  leaving.  Index  Lilnorum  Expurgandmmm  in 
Stttdiotorum  Gratiam  Confectus  (Rome,  1607):— iS'jfiio- 
dus  Diace$ana  Pofyrnmanentit  (Baii).  See  Hoefer,  Sow, 
Biog,  Giniraie,  s.  v. 

Gnard,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  eloquent  Methodist  Epi^ 
copal  minister,  was  bom  in  County  Galway,  Ireland, 
June  8, 1881.  He  was  accepted  by  the  Irish  Conference 
of  1851  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry,  and  cslled  to 
labor  the  same  year.  He  was  received  into  full  con- 
nection in  1855.  In  1862  he  went  to  South  Africa  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
and  spent  nine  years,  chiefly  at  Grahamstown  and  P(»rt 
Elizabeth.  In  1871  he  came  to  America  on  a  visit,  and 
at  once  became  popular  as  a  preacher  and  lecturer.  On 
receiving  an  invitation  to  become  the  pastor  of  Mount 
Vernon  Place  Church,  Baltimore,  Md.,  he  deddetl  to 
make  this  country  his  home.  He  entered  upon  his 
pastorste  in  Baltimore  in  1872.  At  the  end  of  his  term 
(in  1875)  he  became  pastor  of  the  Howard  Street  Church, 
San  Francisco,  Cal.  In  1878  and  1879  he  was  pastor 
of  First  Church,  Oakland,  and  in  1880  resumed  his  for^ 
mer  relationship  with  the  Mount  Vernon  Place  Church, 
Baltimore.  It  was  there  that  he  doaed  his  earthly  ca- 
reer, Oct.  15,  1882.  He  was  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  standard  English  divinity,  and  particularly  with 
Methodist  theology.  As  a  lecturer  and  platform  speak- 
er he  was  almost  withont  an  equal.  As  a  pulpit  orator 
he  was  unsurpassed  in  his  own  or  any  age,  and  be  coukl 
attract  and  hold  the  largest  andienoea  of  the  moat  cul- 
tivated people.  As  a  pastor  he  was  not  snooesifn],  and 
was  incapable  of  managing  business  of  any  kindt  6^ 
Minutes  of  A  muial  Coi^erenoe$t  1888,  p.  83. 


6UARNACCI 


493 


GUERICKE 


Qnamaccl,  Mario»  an  lulian  preUte,  was  born  at 
Volterre  in  1701.  He  received  the  doctor's  degree  at 
Florence,  where  he  pursued  the  conrse  of  Salvini.  He 
was  honored  with  the  favor  of  Benedict  XIV,  who 
charged  him  to  continue  Chazon's  Lite*  of  the  Popes, 
but  he  retired  in  1757  to  his  own  country.  He  discov- 
ered there  the  remains  of  Roman  baths.  He  also  made  a 
collection  of  Etruscan  antiquities,  which  he  bequeathed 
to  bis  native  city.  He  died  Aug.  21,  17^,  leaving, 
IHseertazione  topm  le  XII  TavoU  (Florence,  1747) : — 
VHiB  et  Ree  Getta  Pontificum  Romanorumf  etc  (Rome, 
1761):  — Or^wH  ItaluAe  (Volterre,  1768):  — Po«««  di 
Zeialgo  Arraeiona  (Lucca,  1769).  See  Iloefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  Genii-aUf  s.  v. 

Gaden,  Hkinrich  Philipp,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  4,  1676.  He  studied  at 
HelmstHdt  and  Jena,  was  in  1700  pastor  at  Osterroda, 
took  the  degree  as  doctor  of  theology  in  1720,  was  in 
1722  pastor,  general  -  superintendent,  and  professor  at 
Gottingen,  and  died  April  27, 1742.  He  wrote,  Mani- 
puba  PrMematum  ad  Theologiam  Xaturalem  Petimen-' 
tium:  —  De  Bonifacio  Germanorum  ApoHolo  (Helm- 
sti&at,  1720>  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i, 
780 ;  Jocher,  AOgemevtet  Geiehrten^Lexikon, a.  v.   (U. P.) 

Ondentis,  Axbrlm  Frikdrich  vok,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic theol<^an  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Erfurt  in  1781, 
and  died  Hay  16,  1789,  leaving  Gesehickte  des  ertten 
chrittliekm  Jakrhundertt  (WUrzburg,  1783,  2  vols.)  :— 
Geadki^ie  dee  zweiten  ckriUlickeH  Jakrhundertt  (ibid. 
1787,  2  vols.).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i, 
548.     (RP.) 

Otider,  Eduard,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was  bora  June 
1, 1817.  He  studied  at  Berne  University,  was  pastor 
at  Bid  from  1842  to  1855,  and  thereafter  pastor  of  the 
Rydeck  Church,  at  Berne,.until  his  death,  July  14, 1882. 
In  connection  with  his  pastorate,  he  also  held  a  profess- 
orship in  his  Alma  mater.  He  published,  Ih'f  iJjire  von 
der  Ertcheinung  Jesu  Christi  unter  den  Todlen  (Beme, 
1853):  —  AUet  vnd  in  Allen  Chriatus  (sermons,  ibid. 
1857) :— Die  Thatsaehlichieil  der  A  vferstehung  Christi 
vnd  dertn  Bestreiiung  (ibid.  1862).  In  1855  he  pub- 
lished the  work  of  his  teacher,  Schneckenburger,  1  >r- 
gleickende  DarsieUung  des  lulherischen  ».  reformirten 
Ijekrbegriffes^  on  account  of  which  he  waa  made  doctor 
of  theology  by  the  Konigsberg  Unirersitv.  See  Zuch- 
old, ^bU.  TAco^ i, 475.     (RP.) 

Ghi^rard,  Robert,  a  learned  French  Benedictine, 
was  bora  at  Rouen  in  1641.  He  assisted  Delfau  in  the 
revLsal  of  St  Augustine's  works ;  while  thus  employed, 
was  accused  of  being  concerned  in  a  satirical  book  en- 
titled, UAbbi  Commendatttire^  and  confined  in  the  abbey 
of  Aimbouraay,  in  Bugey.  He  took  advantage  of  this 
exile  to  make  a  diligent  search  for  ancient  MSS.,  and 
discovered  a  great  number ;  among  others,  St.  Augus- 
tine's book  against  Julian,  entitled.  Opus  Imper/ectum, 
He  was  afterwards  sent  to  Fecamp,  then  to  Rouen, 
where  he  died,  Jan.  2, 1715.  He  left  Abr4ge  de  la  Bible 
(first  published  in  1707).  See  Hoefer,  Aoup.  Biog,  Gi- 
mirale,  s.  v. 

GKi^rech  (1)  (Lat  Guerckus,  Erechus,  or  Waro- 
ehus)  was  a  bishop  and  count  of  Nantes.  His  father 
sent  him  for  his  education  to  a  monastery,  and  he  was 
appointed  to  the  episcopal  see  at  Nant^  or  the  first 
vacancy.  However,  a  few  days  afker  having  received 
the  news  of  his  election,  Gn^rech  learaed  of  the  death 
of  his  brother.  The  people  had  made  him  bishop,  but 
by  law  of  relationship  he  was  made  count.  He  pre- 
tended, nevertheless,  to  occupy  the  two  positions  simul- 
taneously. He  became  famous  by  his  war  engagements 
with  Conan  le  Tors  (the  crooked),  count  of  Rennes. 
The  death  of  6u«irech,  in  988,  was  thought  to  have 
been  caused  by  poison.  See  Hoefer,  A  our.  Biog.  GM- 
rale,  s.  r. 

GKi^reoh  (2),  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  in  the 
first  part  of  the  11th  century,  being  the  son  of  Alain, 


count  of  Caroonailles.  Airard,  bishop  of  Nantes,  hav- 
ing  been  expelled  from  his  episcopal  see  in  1052,  by  the 
people  of  Nantes,  was  immediately  replaced  by  Gu^rech, 
who,  without  attending  to  his  consecration,  occupied 
the  episcopsl  palace,  and  took  the  administration  of  the 
Church.  He  had  not  even  obtained  canonical  ordina- 
tion when  he  went  to  the  Ct)uncil  of  Rheims  in  1059. 
He  also  attended  the  disputation  of  Angers  in  1062,  and 
presided  at  the  Council  of  Tours  in  1068.  He  was  a 
friend  of  the  monks  of  Marmon tiers,  and  sustained  their 
pretensions  in  all  the  ecclesiast ical  assemblies.  G uerech 
died  July  31, 1079.  See  Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog,  Generate, 
a.  V. 

Gki^raDger,  Prosper  Louis  Paacal,  a  French  ec- 
clesiastic, was  bora  April  4, 1805,  at  Sable-sur-Sarthe,  in 
Le  Mans.  He  studied  at  Angers  and  Le  Mans,  and  re- 
ceived holy  orders  in  1827.  For  some  time  he  was 
professor  at  Le  Mans,  and  at  the  same  time  secretary  to 
the  bishop  of  I>e  la  Myre.  With  a  view  to  restoring 
the  order  of  the  Benedictines  in  France,  he  retired  in 
1833  to  the  Benedictine  abbey  at  Solesmes,  where,  with 
a  number  of  friends,  he  commenced  a  monastic  life 
according  to  the  rales  of  St.  Benedict.  In  1836  he 
went  to  Rome,  made  his  profession  in  1837,  and  was 
appointed  by  Gregory  XVI,  abbot  of  Solesmes  and 
president  of  the  Benedictine  congregation  of  France. 
He  was  opposed  to  the  Gallican  Church  and  her  litur- 
gies. In  the  spirit  of  his  motto  he  published,  InstitU' 
tions  LUurgiques  (1840^2,  3  vols.) :  —  L'A  tmee  Litur- 
gique  (1844-66,  9  vols. ;  translated  also  into  German  at 
Mayence,  1875) : — Essais  sur  le  Naturalisme  Contempo- 
rain  (1856,  written  against  prince  Albert  de  Broglie). 
When  the  Vatican  council  was  opened,  and  the  adhe- 
rents of  the  Gallican  Church  insisted  upon  their  privi- 
leges, Gu^ranger  published  De  la  Monarchie  Pontifi- 
cale,  which  was  highly  praiseil  by  pope  Pius  IX.  At 
the  time  of  his  death,  Jan.  30, 1875,  Gueranger  was  dean 
of  Le  Mans,  Nantes,  and  St,  Denis.  Besides  the  works 
already  mentioned,  he  wrote,  Origines  de  FEglise  Ro^ 
maine  (1836)  :—Histoire  de  Sainte  Ckile  (1848;  2d  ed. 
1853;  translated  also  into  German,  Raiisbon,  1851) : — 
Mimoire  sur  la  Question  de  tlmmacuUe  Conception 
(1850) : — Enchiridion  Benedidinum,  Complectens  RegU" 
lam  Vitam  et  Laudes,  etc.  (1862) :  —  Les  Exercises  de 
Sainte  Gertrude  (2d  ed.  cod.) : — Essai  sur  la  MidaHU 
de  St.  Benoit  (4th  ed.  1865 ;  Germ,  transl.  Einsicdeln, 
1863):  — La  Rkgle  de  Sainte  Benoit  (idGS) :  — Sainte 
CscHe  et  la  Society  Romahte  aux  deux  Premiers  Siedes 
(1873).  See  Literarischer  Handweiser  fur  das  A'a- 
tholische  Deutschland,  1875,  col.  355  sq. ;  1882,  col.  323 ; 
Lichtenberger,  Eneyclop.  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Qnerioke,  Heimrich  Ernst  Ferdinand,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Feb.  25, 1803. 
He  studied  at  Halle,  was  made  a  doctor  of  philosophy 
in  1824,  licentiate  of  theology  in  1825,  on  presenting 
De  Schola,  qucs  Alexandria  Floruit,  Catecheiica,  and 
professor  of  theology  at  Halle  in  1829,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  biography  of  August  Hermann  Francke, 
and  his  Beitrdge  zur  historischfJcritischen  Einleitung  ins 
Neue  Testament.  In  1833  the  Tubingen  faculty  con- 
ferred on  him  the  degree  of  a  doctor  of  theology.  He 
was  a  very  strict  Lutheran,  opposed  the  exertions  of 
the  Prassian  government  to  effect  a  union  between  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches,  and  founded,  togeth- 
er with  Rudelbach,  the  Zeitschr\ft  fur  die  gesatnmte 
lutherische  Theologie  und  Kirche,  in  1840,  which  was 
continued  till  1878,  in  connection  with  professor  De- 
litzsch.  Guericke  died  Feb.  4, 1878.  Besides  the  works 
already  mentioned,  he  wrote,  Uandbudi  der  Kirchen- 
geschichte  (9th  ed.  1867-69, 3  vols. ;  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  W.  G.  T.  Shedd,  N.  Y.  1857-63, 2  vols.)  .—A  U^ 
meine  christliche  Sgmbolik  (Leipsic,  1861) : — Hittorisch' 
kritische  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament  (ibid.  1843 ; 
2d  ed.  1854)  i^I^rbuch  der  christlich  kirchUchen  A  rchd- 
(Uogie  (2d  ed.  Beriin,  1859).    See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL 


GUfiRIN 


494 


GUEVARA 


i,  475  Bq. ;  Plitt-Henog,  ReaUEnofUop,  a.  v. ;  Lichten- 
berger,  Encydop,  det  ScienceM  ReHgieusetf  a.  y.    (B.  P.) 

Qa6rin  (Lat  Gairinut),  abbot  of  FUvignyi  in  Bar- 
gundy,  and  tbirty-fint  biahop  of  Autun,  waa  Iwrn  about 
626.  He  took  part  in  the  diaputation  in  which  hia 
brother  St.  L6ger,  biahop  of  Autun,  had  engaged  againat 
Ebroln,  a  burgomaater  of  Neuatria,  and  ahared  with  htm 
hia  altemativea  of  triumph  and  of  peraecution.  Ebroln, 
having  overcome  hia  rivala,  brought  them  before  the 
tribunal,  after  having  cut  out  their  eyea.  Guerin,  be- 
ing charged  with  complicity  in  the  murder  of  Childeric 
II,  waa  tied  to  a  atake  and  atoned  to  death  in  678.  He 
ia  commemorated  aa  a  martyr  on  Aug.  25  and  Oct  2. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMrale,  a.  v. 

Gxi^rin  (or  (rartn),  a  French  prelate,  waa  bom 
in  1160.  He  waa  firat  a  friar  of  the  order  of  the 
Iloapitallera  at  Jeruaalem,  and  aucoeeded,  in  1218,  to 
Geoffroi,  biahop  of  Senlia.  He  waa  one  of  the  princi- 
pal counaellora  of  Philip  Auguatua^  Guerin  recovered 
Touniay  from  Renaud,  count  of  Boulogne.  In  1214  he 
aasiated'  in  the  celebrated  battle  of  Bouvinea,  in  memory 
of  which  an  abbey  waa  founded  in  the  dioceae  of  Senlia, 
with  the  name  of  Notre-Dame  de  la  Yictoire.  Louia 
VIII  aacended  to  the  throne  in  1228,  when  Guerin  con- 
tinued hia  aervicea  to  him  aa  to  hia  father,  and  received 
the  title  of  chancellor.  In  1228,  two  yeara  after  the 
death  of  Louia  VIII,  Guerin  retired  from  the  world,  and 
entered  the  monaatery  of  ChAIia,  where  he  died,  April 
19, 1230.     See  Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog,  GMraU,  a.  v. 

Qu^rin  {Gh'in  or  Guarin),  whoae  aumame  and 
country  are  uuknown,  a  grand  maater  of  the  order  of 
the  Hoapitallera  of  St.  John  of  Jeruaalem,  auoceeded 
Bertrand  of  Taxia  in  1240.  At  thia  time  the  Temp- 
lara  and  Hoapitallera  were  divided ;  Tbibaud  YI,  of 
Champagne,  went  to  Paleatine  at  the  head  of  a  cru- 
aade,  and  concluded  a  truce  with  the  infidela  after  the 
loaa  of  the  battle  of  Gaza.  The  Templara  aubacribed 
to  that  truce.  Richard  of  England  followed  next  and 
aailed  againat  Jaffa;  he  concluded  a  truce  by  which 
Jeruaalem  waa  to  be  aurrcndered.  In  that  truce  the 
Templara  were  entirely  excluded.  The  grand  maater 
of  the  Hoapitallera  brought  the  treaaure  of  the  order  to 
the  patriarch  of  Jeruaalem,  to  aaaiat  him  in  fortifying 
the  walls  of  that  city.  But  hanlly  had  they  made  a 
few  trenchea,  when  all  Paleatine  waa  invaded  by  the 
Koreiahitea.  The  grand  maatera  of  the  Hoapital  and 
the  Temple  at  J^ruMlem,  being  almoat  without  troopa, 
reaolved  to  conduct  the  inhabitanta  to  Jaffa,  while 
othera  refuaed  to  go,  and  tried  to  defend  themaelvea,  but 
were  all  cut  down  without  mercy,  or  fell  in  open  battle. 
Only  twenty-aix  Hoapitallera,  thirty -three  Templara, 
and  three  Teutonic  knighta  eacaped  with  their  Uvea. 
The  two  grand  maatera  of  the  two  onlera  and  a  com- 
mander of  the  Teutonic  knighta  loat  their  livea  at  the 
head  of  the  army  in  1248.  Other  hiatoriana  aay  that 
they  had  only  been  made  priaonera,  and  that  Guerin 
died  in  1244,  in  alavery.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GitU- 
ra/f,a.v. 

Qti6rlil,  Anne  Th^r^se,  foundreaa  of  a  religioua 
community,  waa  bom  at  Etablea,  St.  Brieuc,  Brittan}', 
Oct  2, 1798.  In  1822  ahe  joined  the  Siatera  of  Provi- 
dence, an  order  founded  at  Ruille-aur-Loire  in  1806, 
aaauming  the  name  of  Siater  St.  Theodore.  Immedi- 
ately after  her  profeaaion  ahe  waa  appointed  au|)crior  of 
an  extensive  eatabliahment  at  Rennea,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  give  poor  children  an  education.  Aaton- 
iahing  aucceaa  attended  her  exertiona  among  the  igno- 
rant and  degraded.  She  waa  afterwarda  removed  to 
Soulainea,  where  her  educational  and  charitable  dutiea 
were  combined.  Here  ahe  atndied  medicine.  On  Oct 
22, 1840,  Siater  St  Theodore,  at  the  requeat  of  biahop 
Brute,  founded,  at  St  Mary'a  of  the  Wooda,  Vigo  Co., 
Ind. — a  very  wilderoesa  at  the  time— the  Siatera  of 
Providence  in  America.  In  November,  1841,  ahe  waa 
joined  by  Siater  St.  Francia,  a  aaintly  woman,  whoae 
Life  and  Leitert — the  latter  called  **  a  atring  of  exqui- 


aite  pearla  **•— haa  been  publiahed.  The  two  aiaten  died 
in  1856,  within  three  montha  of  each  other.  Mother 
Theodore  united  thoae  rare  rirtuea  which  form  the  per- 
fect religioua  with  extraordinary  governing  and  finan- 
cial abilitiea.  The  frait  of  her  charity  and  zeal  ia  wit- 
neeaed  in  extenaive  and  numerooa  eatabliahmenta,  eda- 
cational  and  charitable,  apread  over  the  Weatero  Statea. 
See  (N.  Y.)  Cath.  Amualf  1881,  p.  75. 

Qn^iin,  Sag^nie  de,  a  French  lady  eminent  for 
her  piety  and  devotion,  waa  bom  at  the  ancient  chateau 
of  Le  Cayla,  Languedoc,  Jan.  25, 1805.  She  lived  in 
atirring  timea ;  even  into  the  aolitude  of  her  country 
home  came  the  agitation  of  political  changea  and  re- 
ligioua diaturbanoe,  diatre^ng  to  her  aa  a  legitimiat 
and  Catholic.  Her  life  waa  an  uneventful  one,  paased 
in  the  home  of  her  father,  buay  in  unaelfiah  home  min- 
iatrationa.  She  died  May  1, 1848.  Her  famoua  Jour- 
nal  ia  the  record  of  her  brother  Maurice*a  life.  She 
felt  no  call  to  write  her  own  peraonal  thoaghta  and 
feelings.  It  followa  him  through  every  mental  and 
apiritual  change,  hia  griefa  and  joya,  hia  relapae  from 
the  Roman  faith  and  leconveraion,  hia  marriage  and 
death,  and  then  it  cloaea.  It  tella  of  him  at  the  aemi- 
imry,  then  at  La  Chinaie,  under  the  eminent  Lamen- 
naia,  who  had  lelt  the  Catholic  Church,  and  waa  then 
in  Paria.  After  her  death,  the  French  Academy  cauaed 
the  publication  of  thia  aimple  record,  written  in  the 
quiet  chamber  for  Maurioe'a  eyea  akme.  Her  Jounu/l 
and  Letters  make  two  vohtmea  of  400  pagea  each,  and 
have  gone  through  twenty  editiona  in  France.  They 
have  been  tranalated  into  Engliah,  and  republtabed  in 
London  and  New  York,  edited  by  G.  S.  Trebutien,  and 
have  had  an  extenaive  aale  among  both  Proteatanta 
and  Romaniata.  See  (N.  Y.)  Cath,  Almamae,  1872,  p. 
42. 

Gix^xlxi,  Jean  Baptiste  Panlln,  a  diatinguiahed 
French  painter  of  hiatory  and  portraita,  waa  bora  at 
Toulon,  March  25, 1783.  There  are  a  number  of  fine 
hiatorical  pieoea,  by  him,  mostly  of  Scriptural  aubjecta, 
in  the  churchea  of  Paris.  He  waa  profeaaor  of  painting 
to  the  Maiaoii  Royale  de  St  Denia.  He  died  at  Paris, 
Jan.  16,  1855.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GeniraUj  a.  v. ; 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  ArtttS,v, 

Gkienra,  Giovanni  (called  da  Modena\  an  Italian 
painter,  deaigner,  and  architect,  waa  bom  at  Modena  in 
1544,  and  viaited  Rome  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  where 
he  roae  to  oonaiderable  eminence.  He  executed  a  num- 
ber of  worka  for  the  chapela  and  churchea  during  the 
pontificate  of  Sixtua  V,  and  also  made  a  great  number  of 
deaigna  of  aubjecta  from  the  Old  and  New  Teat  Aa  an 
architect,  he  deaigned  the  Scala  Santa  at  Rome,  and  the 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  di  Paradiao,  and  La  Madonna 
delle  Aaae,  at  Modena.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1618.  See 
Hoefer,  Abu r.  Biog,  GinbrdUyt,  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Oiai. 
of  the  Fine  A  fit,  a.  %*. 

Guevara,  Juan  Beltran,  a  Spaniah  prelate,  waa 
bom  at  Medina-de-laa-Torrca  in  1541.  He  waa  sent 
on  a  miaaion  to  Naplea,  and  wrote  for  pope  Paul  V 
againat  the  Venetiana;  for  which  that  pontiff  rewarded 
him  with  the  biahopric  of  Salemo.  Guevara  waa  after- 
warda biahop  of  Badajoz,  and  died  archbiahop  of  Com- 
poatella,  in  May,  1622.  Hia  oontemporariea  deaignate 
him  aa  governed  by  paaaion  and  given  up  to  imagina* 
tion.  He  wrote  Pi'opugnaculum  Ecdetiaetica  LAertatia 
Adversut  Legee  Venetiis  Lotas,  etc  See  Hoefer, Nouv* 
Biog,  GMrale,  a.  v. 

Ouevara,  Don  Jnan  Nino  de,  an  eminent  Span- 
iah painter,  waa  bom  at  Madrid  in  1632,  and  waa  in- 
atmcted  in  the  achool  of  Miguel  Manrique.  There  are 
many  of  hia  worka  at  Malaga,  Cordova,  and  Grauada, 
In  the  Church  de  la  Charidad,  at  Malaga,  ia  a  fine  pict- 
ure of  The  Triumph  of  the  Cross;  and  in  the  cathe- 
dral, The  Ascension  of  Christ,  and  The  Assumption  of 
the  Virgin,  He  died  at  Malaga  in  1698.  See  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  a.  v. ;  Roae,  Gen,  Biog,  Biet, 
a.  V, 


GUI 


405 


GUI  DE  PUY 


GKii,  the  insUtutor  of  the  order  of  the  Hospitallers 
of  the  Saint-Esprit  de  Montpellier,  seems,  in  1197,  to 
have  united  several  religious  persons,  and  to  have  writ* 
ten  down  the  rules  of  that  new  institution,  which  was 
recognised  and  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Innocent 
III,  Apnl  23, 1198.  This  pontiff  called  Gui,  with  sev- 
eral of  his  co-workers,  to  Borne,  where  he  charged  them 
with  the  administration  of  the  hospital  of  St.  Mary  in 
Saxony.  The  order  founded  by  Qui  had  for  its  special 
object  to  offer  hospitality  to  the  sick,  and  was  regarded 
as  a  militar}'  order.  Gui  died  in  1208.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Bwg.  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Gtd  d*Amikx9  ( thirty  -  fourth  bishop)  was  bom 
about  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century,  being  the  son 
of  Ingelramne  I,  count  of  Ponthieu.  He  studied  at  the 
abbey  of  St.  Riquier,  and  was  appointed  archdeacon  of 
Amiens  in  1049.  The  bishop  of  that  city  sent  him 
some  time  afterwards  to  Rome,  to  obtain  a  sanction  from 
the  pope  for  the  pretensions  of  the  bishop.  Gui  re- 
turned to  France  without  success,  and  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Amiens  in  1058.  Ten  years  afterwards  he 
accompanied,  as  almoner,  Mathilde,  the  wife  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  into  England.  He  died  in  1076,  leav- 
ing in  Latin  a  piece  of  poetry  on  the  battle  of  Hastings. 
See  Uocfer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Gui  d'Auzbrrk,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  about 
the  cud  of  the  9th  century,  in  the  diocese  of  Sena.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Cathedral  of  Anxerre,  under  the 
care  of  the  bishop  Herifrid,  and  became  archdeacon 
there.  He  also  went  to  the  court  of  king  Raoul  and 
queen  Emma,  by  whose  influence  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Auxerre,  and  was  consecrated  May  19,  938. 
He  died  Jan.  6,  961,  leaving  JRespontoria  and  iln/tpAo- 
«B,  in  honor  of  St.  Julian.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  G^ 
nirale,  s.  v. 

Qui  ns  BoutooMB  (or  d'Auveronk),  a  French 
prelate,  was  bom  in  1820,  being  the  son  of  Robert,  connt 
of  Auvergne.  After  having  entered  holy  orders,  he  be- 
came canon  and  afterwards  chancellor  of  the  Church  of 
Amiens.  In  1340  he  was  elected  archbishop  of  Lyons, 
and  two  years  afterwards  was  appointed  cardinal  by 
Clement  YI.  That  pope,  having  reduced  the  jubilee 
from  one  hundred  to  fifty  years,  sent,  in  1350,  Gui,  with 
cardinal  Ceccan,  to  Rome  to  reopen  there  the  holy  year. 
A  short  time  afterwards  Gui  was  sent  as  legate  to  Hun- 
gary to  settle  a  difference  which  had  arisen  between 
Louis,  king  of  Hungary,  and  the  queen  Jeannette  of 
Naples.  Some  time  after  his  return  to  France  Greg- 
ory XI  sent  him  to  Spain,  to  effect  a  reoonciliation  of 
the  kings  of  Castile  and  Portugal.  He  died  at  Lerida, 
Nov.  25, 1373,  and  was  buried  at  the  abbey  of  Bouchet, 
in  the  diocese  of  Clermont.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Giiterale,  s.  v. 

Gui  DE  BoURoooHB  (suroamed  GiMut\  a  French 
prelate,  was  bom  in  Burgundy  about  1210.  He  was 
elected  abbot  of  Citeanx  in  1260.  Two  years  after- 
wards he  undertook  a  journey  to  Rome  on  business  for 
his  order.  While  there  he  received  the  promise  of  a 
eaniinalate  by  pope  Urban  IV,  with  the  title  of  St. 
Laurent  in  Lucina,  Clement  lY  charged  him  with 
divers  missions  in  France,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Ger- 
many. In  1267  he  presided  at  the  Council  of  Yienna. 
To  him  may  be  attributed  the  compilation  of  the  acts 
of  that  assembly,  found  in  Blansi,  Concilia^  xxiii,  1167- 
1178.  Gui  died  at  the  Council  of  Lyons,  May  20, 1274. 
See  Hoefer,  A'birtr.  Biog.  GhUraU,  s.  v. 

Gtii  DB  SAiMT-DBifiB,  abbot  there,  and  counsellor 
of  kings  Charles  Y  and  Charles  YI,  was  a  doctor  of 
canon  and  civil  law,  and  well  versed  in  sacred  and  pro- 
fane letters.  He  assisted,  in  1880,  at  the  coronation  of 
Charles  YI,  and  in  1389  at  the  crowning  of  Isabella  of 
Bavaria.  He  died  April  28, 1398.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GMrale,  a.  v. 

Gkti  (or  GuUnar)  d*£tampe8,  a  French  prelate,  was 
born  about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century.   He  studied 


in  the  famous  school  of  Le  Mans,  and  became  the  disciple 
of  Hildebert  of  Lavardin.  He  visited  afterwards  sev- 
eral other  schools,  and  also  went  to  England,  where  he 
studied  under  the  direction  of  St.  Anselm,  archbish- 
op of  Canterbury.  After  his  return  he  assumed  the 
functions  of  a  professor  under  Hildebert,  and  sucoeed- 
ett  him  in  1097  as  director  at  the  school  of  Le  Mans. 
According  to  the  Uistoire  Lt^/^cnr«,  *^  Hildebert  had 
more  talent  for  composition  and  declamation ;  but  Gui 
surpassed  him  in  the  liberal  arts,  which  attracted  to  him 
a  great  concourse  of  students."  Gui  succeeded  Hilde- 
bert as  bishop  of  Le  Mans  in  1126,  and  did  not  cease 
even  then  to  occupy  himself  with  the  instruction  of  the 
schools.  He  died  in  1135,  and  left  no  writings.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GifUrale,  s.  v. 

Qui  DB  LusioxAN,  king  of  Jerusalem,  and  first  king 
of  Cyprus^  was  bora  about  1140.  He  belonged  to  an 
ancient  family  of  Limousin,  which  had  distinguished 
itself  in  the  first  crusades.  In  1180  he  married  Sibylla, 
the  sister  of  Baldwin  lY,  king  of  Jerusalem,  the  widow 
of  William  of  Montferrat.  That  princess  brought  him 
in  dowry  Ascalon  and  Joppa,  and  Baldwin,  who  had 
been  attacked  with  an  incurable  disease,  conferred 
upon  Gui  the  government  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
But  his  incapacity  and  pride  made  him  unbearable  to 
the  lords,  who  disputed  over  the  feeble  remains  of  the 
Frankish  power  in  the  East.  Baldwin  soon  began  to 
regret  his  choice,  and  in  1183  took  back  the  power  from 
Gui  de  Lusignan  to  give  it  to  the  count  of  Tripolis. 
This  gave  occasion  for  a  new  civil  war  within  the  king- 
dom, which  lasted  till  the  death  of  Baldwin  lY,  in 
1185.  He  had  for  his  successor  Baldwin  Y,  a  child  of 
six  years,  the  son  of  Sibylla  and  of  William  of  Mont- 
ferrat; but  the  youth  died  in  1186,  shortly  after  his 
uncle,  probably  of  poison  administered  to  him  by  Gui. 
Having  become  heiress  to  the  throne  of  Jerusalem,  the 
sister  of  Baldwin  lY  announced  her  intention  of  sepa- 
rating from  her  husband,  and  of  giving  the  crown  to  the 
most  worthy  of  the  French  lords.  She  published  the 
divorce  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre;  Hera- 
clius,  patriarch  of  Jerasalem,  pronouncing  the  separa- 
tion. Sibylla,  after  having  taken  back  the  crown,  gave 
it  to  Gui  de  Lusignan,  and  thus  disgusted  most  of  the 
French  lords.  Soon  afterwards  again  Gui  showed  in- 
capacity. Saladin,  with  his  troops,  continually  in- 
vaided  the  country,  and  on  the  morning  of  July  4, 1187, 
threw  himself  with  his  Mohammedans  upon  a  small 
body  of  Christian  soldiers,  who  were  encamped  about  the 
hill  Hattin,  near  Lake  Tiberias.  Gui,  with  Reynold  of 
Ch&tillon  and  other  commanders  were  taken  prisoners. 
Gui  bought  his  liberty  by  restoring  Ascalon  to  Saladin, 
and  Jerasalem  capitulated  Oct.  2,  1187.  Thus  ended 
the  Latin  kingdom  founded  by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon, 
after  a  duration  of  eighty-nine  years.  The  only  use 
that  Gui  made  of  his  title  of  King  of  Jerasalem  was  in 
ceding  it  to  Richard,  in  1192,  as  a  price  of  sovereignty 
over  the  island  of  Cypras,  which  that  prince  had  taken 
from  the  small  Greek  tyrant  Isaac  Comnenus;  he  also 
bound  himself  to  pay  back  the  twenty -five  thousand 
marks  .which  the  Templars  had  given  to  Richard. 
Cyprus  was  devastated  and  nearly  deserted ;  Gui  peo- 
pled it  again  by  drawing  colonists  from  Armenia  and 
Antioch.  He  also  ofibred  an  asylum  to  a  great  number 
who  fled  from  the  domination  of  the  Mohammedans  in 
Palestine.  After  a  peaceful  reign  of  two  years  he  died, 
in  1194,  and  transmitted  his  crown  to  his  brother 
Amaury.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ghhh'uU,  s.  v. 

GKii  DK  PuY  (thirt3'-first  bishop),  a  French  prelate, 
was  bom  in  the  first  part  of  the  10th  century,  being  the 
son  of  Poulqiies  the  Rind,  count  of  x\njou.  He  took 
holy  orders,  and  was  supplied  with  various  abbeys  and 
benefices.  But,  the  Church  having  interdicted  the 
holding  of  several  offices,  Gui  surrendered  all  the  other 
abbeys  and  gave  back  again  all  that  he  had  taken 
away  from  the  monaateries,  holding  only  the  abbey  of 
Carmeri,  which  he  administered  with  great  regularity 


GUIBfi 


496 


GULDIN 


and  order.  He  succeeded  his  brother  Drogon  in  the 
episcopal  see  of  Puy  in  985,  and  died  in  996.  Gui 
left  no  works,  but  two  pieces,  which  are  of  some  interest 
in  ecclesiastical  history.  The  first  is  the  manifestation 
by  which  he  resigned  his  benefices  (in  Mabillon,  Amtales 
Ord,  BenedL  i,  47) ;  the  second  is  a  diploma,  relating  to 
the  foundation  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter  (in  the 
Gallia  Christiana,  iii).  See  Uoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Geni- 
raUf  s.  V, 

Guib^,  RoBKRT,  a  French  cardinal,  was  bom  at 
Yitr^,  being  of  high  parentage,  which  contributed  to 
his  early  fortune.  His  ambition  as  well  as  his  ap- 
titude to  conduct  the  most  difficult  affairs,  rendered 
him  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  his  time.  Be- 
ing appointed  bishop  of  Tr^guier  in  1483,  he  obtained 
his  bulla  on  May  20,  but  not  yet  having  attained  the 
age  requisite  to  a  canon,  the  pope  intrusted  the  govern- 
ment of  the  diocese  to  a  provisional  administrator.  In 
February,  1485,  Guibe  went  to  Rome  on  a  message  from 
duke  Francis.  In  1499  he  returned  to  Brittany,  to  be 
transferred  from  the  see  of  Tr6guier  to  that  of  Rennes. 
He  went  to  Rome  a  second  time  in  1502,  and  was  ap- 
pointed cardinal  by  Julius  II,  with  the  title  of  St.  An- 
astasia,  Jan.  1, 1506.  On  Jan.  24, 1507,  he  was  called 
to  the  episcopal  see  of  Nantes,  but,  preferring  his  posi- 
tion at  Rome,  he  did  not  remain  long  at  his  new  church. 
He  was  legate  of  Avignon  in  1511.  The  king  after- 
wards took  away  the  revenues  of  the  benefices  from  the 
cardinal,  and  Guibe  resigned  the  bishopric  of  Nantes 
in  favor  of  Francois  Hamon,  his  nephew.  Finally,  in 
1512,  he  assisted  at  the  Lateran  Council,  and  died  Sept. 
9, 1513.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Quibert,  abbot  of  Gembloux  and  of  Florbmnes, 
was  bom  about  the  year  1120,  in  Brabant.  He  lived 
for  some  time  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Martin,  was  elected 
abbot  of  Florennes  in  11^,  and  five  years  later  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  monastery  of  Gembloux; 
which  communities  he  administered  in  wisdom,  but  re- 
signed  shortly  before  his  death,  which  occurred  Feb.  22, 
1208.  He  wrote  numerous  works,  e.  g.,  A  Poem,  on  St. 
Martin,  a  Life  of  St.  Hildegard,  and  several  Tetters,  of 
which  the  majority  have  been  published  by  Dom  Mar- 
tene,  A  mplissima  CoUecfio,  i,  916.  A  fire  which  broke 
out  in  the  monastery  of  Gembloux  at  the  end  of  the 
17th  century  destroyed  nearly  all  the  works  of  Guibert. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Guichard,  a  French  prelate,  entered  the  order  of 
the  Cistercians  and  became  abbot  of  Potigny,  and  in 
1165  archbishop  of  Lyons,  replacing  thus  another  prel- 
ate, who  had  been  deposed  on  account  of  his  relations 
with  the  emperor  of  Germany.  Guichard  rendered 
important  service  to  liis  Church,  and  died  about  1180. 
Several  of  his  letters  have  been  preserved.  Dom  Mar- 
tene  has  published,  in  De  Aniiq.  de  Eodet.  Bitibus,  iii, 
certain  statutes  which  were  promulgated  by  that  arch- 
bishop, relating  mostly  to  the  divine  service.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v, 

Quidacerio,  Agatiio,  an  Italian  Hebraist,  born  at 
Rocca-Coragio  (Calabria),  was  still  living  in  1589.  After 
having  taken  holy  orders,  he  studied  Hebrew  at  Rome 
under  a  Portuguese  rabbi,  and  was  appointed  after- 
wards to  teach  that  language.  His  life  was  much  in 
danger  during  the  year  1527,  and  having  retired  to 
Avignon,  he  found  a  protector  in  the  bishop  of  Apt, 
Jean  Nicolai,  who  took  him  to  Paris.  Guidacerio  was 
appointed  royal  professor  by  Francis  I,  in  1530.  He 
interpreted  at  the  College  of  France  both  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  texts  of  the  Scriptures,  and  wrote,  Gram- 
nuUica  Ebraica  Lingua  (Rome,  1514;  Paris,  1529;  un- 
der the  title  of  Peoulium,  Paris,  1537) ;  a  dozen  treatises, 
or  commentaries  on  the  Psalms;  a  commentary  on  the 
Song  of  Songs,  with  the  Hebrew  and  Latin  texts 
(Rome,  1524),  and  a  commentary  on  Ecclesiastes  (1531). 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Gtiidicoioni,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  prelate  and 
author,  was  bora  at  Lucca,  Feb.  25, 1500.    He  received 


a  careful  education,  and  was  quite  successful  in  his 
studies  at  the  universities  of  Pisa,  Bologna,  and  Ferrara, 
where  be  obtained  the  degree  of  a  doctor  of  law,  and 
then  went  to  Rome,  where  he  connected  himself  with 
the  principal  literary  men.  By  recommendation  of  his 
uncle,  Bartolommeo,  he  entered  the  service  of  cardinal 
Famese,  who,  on  becoming  pope  under  the  name  of 
Paul  III,  in  1584,  appointed  Guidiccioni  governor  of 
liome,  and  called  him  in  the  same  year  to  the  bishop- 
ric of  Fossombrone.  Guidiccioni  was  afterwards  sent 
on  various  more  or  less  important  commissions.  He 
was  made  governor  of  the  marches  of  Ancona  in  1541, 
and  died  at  Biacerata,  in  August  of  the  same  year.  For 
his  letters  and  other  writings,  see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bitjg. 
G4niraie,  s.  v, 

GKiidiooioni,  Chriatofoxo^  an  Italian  prelate  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Lucca  in  1536.  After  being  rector 
of  the  Church  of  St.  Synesius  in  that  city,  he  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1578,  bishop  of  Ajaccio,  in  Corsica,  and  died 
in  1582,  leaving  Tragedie  Trasportate  DaUa  Greca  ndt 
ItaUana  FaveUa  (Lucca,  1547).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
GMrak,  a.  v. 

Gtiido^  FaasL    See  0>3rrE. 

Gtiido,  RenL    See  Rkmi. 

GxiidonlB,  Bernard,  a  celebrated  French  prelate, 
was  bora  in  the  vicinity  of  Limoges,  near  La  Roche 
rAbeille,  in  1260.  He  entered  the  convent  of  the  Do- 
minicans at  Limoges,  Sept  16, 1279.  In  1293  be  taught 
theolog}'  in  the  convent  of  Alby,  hi  1301  was  appointed 
prior  of  Castres,  and  in  1305  of  Limoges.  Guidonis  went 
to  Toulouse,  in  1807,  to  enforce  the  inquisition  against 
the  Albigenses.  In  1817  he  was  appointed  procurator- 
general  of  his  order  at  the  court  of  Rome,  and  was 
charged  by  the  pope,  John  XXII,  with  several  negotia- 
tions, and  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  between  France 
and  Flanders,  he  was  rewarded  by  being  made  bishop 
of  Lod^ve  (Lower  Languedoc).  He  died  Dec  30, 1331. 
Some  of  his  principal  writings  are,  Trait4s  TkMogiqufS 
Toudiani  Us  A  rfuies  de  Foi: — Traiti  de  la  PauvreU  de 
JisuS'Christ: — Pratique  de  t Office  dInquisUeur: — Le 
Miroir  des  Saints : — Une  Chronique  des  Souverains  Pou" 
tifes,  etc    See  Uoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Gaignea^  Joseph  dk,  a  French  Orientalist,  father 
of  Chretien  Louis  Joseph  (q.  v.),  was  bora  at  Pontoiae, 
Oct.  19, 1721.  He  studied  the  Oriental  languages  under 
Fourmont,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1745.  When  the 
French  Revolution  broke  ouf^  Guignes  was  deprived  of 
his  position,  and  lived  in  great  poverty.  He  died  at 
Paris,  March  3, 1800.  Guignes,  who  had  made  the  Chi- 
nese language  a  specialty,  believed  it  to  be  related  to 
the  £g\*ptian.  See  his  Mhnoire,  dam  Lequel  on  Prouve 
que  les  Chinois  Sont  une  Colotde  igyptietme  (Paris, 
1759).  His  main  work  is  Histoire  Ginirale  des  Uuns^ 
des  Turcs,  des  Mogols  ei  des  A  utres  Talores  Ocddenfaux 
(Paris,  1756-58, 4  vols.),     (a  P.) 

Guijon,  Andr^  a  French  prelate  and  orator,  was 
born  at  Autun,  in  November,  1548.  He  becanae  grand- 
vicar  to  cardinal  de  Joyeuse,  and  afterwards  bishop  of 
Autun.  He  made  a  voyage  to  Rome  to  receive  his 
new  dignity,  and  returned  to  France  in  1586.  He  died 
in  September,  1681,  leaving  Remontrmnce  ik  la  Cour  de 
Pariement  de  Normandie,  etc  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  JBiojfm 
Ginirale^  s.  ▼. 

GuiJon,  Jacques,  a  French  prelate,  a  relative  of 
the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Noyers  in  1663.  He  en* 
tered  the  ministry,  and,  after  success  in  teaching,  died 
in  l7S9,ltKving,  A pophthegmes  des  Sainis  (Paris,  1709} : 
— Eloge  de  Rassiood  (1718):  —  Longueru€tna  (1754): — 
and  a  very  important  MS.  work  entitled,  Rift^ions  aitr 
ks  MfBUrs  des  Frangens,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog^  G^^ 
nircUe,  s.  v. 

Gnldin,  John  C,  D.D.,  a  prominent  minister  of  tbe 
German  Reformed  Church,  was  bora  in  Berks  County, 
Pa.,  in  August,  1799.  He  was  ordained  in  1820,  and 
settled  as  paator  over  acme  coDgregatioiu  in  Moatgonft- 


GUILLAUME 


497 


GUILLAUME 


cry  County,  where  be  labored  successfally  until  1841, 
when  he  removed  to  Ghambersbui^,  taking  charge  of 
seyeral  congregations  in  the  vicinity.  After  laboring 
here  about  one  year,  he  was  called  to  take  charge  of 
the  German  £van^Hcal  Mission  Church,  in  the  city 
of  New  York.  In  this  field  he  labored  with  great  ac- 
ceptance and  success  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  Feb. 
18, 1863.  Dr.  Guldin  was  a  man  of  fine  talents,  ardent 
feelings,  and  great  energy  of  character.  Besides  his 
pastoral  duties,  he  also  labored  in  connection  with  the 
American  Tract  Society.  He  published  a  volume  of 
Sermonsj  and  aided  in  getting  up  a  German  hymn-book 
fur  the  use  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church.  "  He  had 
a  fellow-feeling  for  all  in  sorrow,  and  could  speak  from 
a  sweet  experience  for  the  comfort  of  such."  See 
Harbaugh,  Fatiurt  of  the  Germ,  Rrf,  Churchy  iv,  158. 
(D,  Y.  H.) 

Guillamne.    See  William. 

GaiUauzne,  frere,  an  eminent  French  painter  on 
glass,  was  bom  at  Marseilles  in  1475.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  order  of  Dominicans,  and  executed  many 
excellent  works  in  the  south  of  France.  In  the  cathe- 
dral at  Arezzo  he  painted  several  admirable  works, 
among  which  were  The  Baptism  of  Christy  The  JResur- 
region  of  Lazarus^  and  Christ  Driinng  the  Money- 
changers from  the  Temple,  He  established  a  school  for 
teaching  the  art  of  painting  on  glass.  He  died  in  1537. 
See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rtSy  s.  v. 

Goillaume,  Saint  (1),  a  French  regular  canon,  was 
bom  at  St.  Germain,  near  Cr6py,  about  1105.  After 
'  having  been  educated  under  the  care  of  his  uncle,  the 
abbot  Hugiies  of  St.  Germain  -  des  -  Pres,  he  became 
canon  of  the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Genevieve,  but,  on 
account  of  the  laxity  in  discipline  among  the  monks, 
accepted  the  provostship  of  Espinac.  In  the  inter- 
val, reform  and  regularity  were  established  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Genevieve  by  the  monks  of  St.  Victor. 
Guillaume  then  returned  there,  and  was  elected  sub-prior 
of  the  house  in  1148.  About  the  same  time  Absalon, 
bishop  of  Roeskild,  in  Denmark,  wished  to  reform  a 
monastery  of  regular  canons  on  the  isle  of  Eskild. 
Guillaume  was  sent  there  with  three  other  canons,  who 
abandoned  him.  After  his  arrival  in  Denmark,  in  1171, 
he  WAS  made  abbot  of  St.  Tlioroas  of  the  Paraclete.  He 
re-established  the  discipline  of  that  house,  and  lived 
under  the  greatest  austerities  until  1203.  There  are 
known  of  St.  William  more  than  a  hundred  letters, 
which  were  published  in  1786,  in  the  Rerum  Danicarvm 
Seriptores.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GSnirale^  s.  v. 

Gnlllaiune,  Saint  (2),  a  French  prelate,  was  born 
in  the  borough  of  Arthcl  (Nivernais).  He  was  de- 
scended from  a  noble  family,  educated  by  William  the 
Hermit,  archdeacon  of  Soissons,  who  was  his  uncle,  and 
became  first  canon  of  the  Church  of  Paris  and  of  Sois- 
sons. He  entered  the  order  of  Grammont,  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Limoges,  and  later  went  over  to  that  of  the  Cister- 
cianft  at  the  abbey  of  Pontigny.  In  1181  he  was  made 
abbot  of  Fontaine,  dean  in  the  diocese  of  Sens,  and  after- 
wards of  Charlieu.  There  he  was  selected  by  Kudcs 
of  Sully,  bishop  of  Paris  in  1199,  to  occupy  the  episco- 
I»al  see  of  Bourges.  The  epoch  of  his  episcopate  was 
uiarkeil  particularly  by  the  discussions  with  Philip 
Augustus,  on  the  subject  of  the  repudiation  of  queen 
Ingelburga.  The  bishop,  who  took  the  part  of  the 
queen,  was  threatened  with  exile  and  confiscation,  but 
withstood  the  royal  indignation,  and  Philip,  having  de- 
cided to  take  back  Ingelburga,  was  reconciled  with  the 
prelate.  Guillaume  died  in  1209,  as  he  was  about  to 
march  out  against  the  Albigenses,  who  had  propagated 
their  doctrine  as  far  as  Berry.  His  body  was  deposited 
in  the  cr>'pt  of  the  basilica  of  St.  il^tienne  of  Bourges, 
and  remained  in  that  church  until  1562,  when  the  Hu- 
guenots, on  their  taking  possession  of  the  city,  burned 
his  remains.     See  Hoefer,  A^our.  Biog,  Ginhak,  s.  v. 

Gklillaume  d'Auberivb,  a  French  abbot  and  the- 
ologian, lived  in  the  12th  century.    In  1165  and  1180 

XII.-I  I 


he  was  at  the  head  of  the  abbey  of  Anberive,  which 
was  of  the  order  of  Cistercians,  in  the  diocese  of  Lan- 
gres.  He  composed  various  books,  which  have  re- 
mained unedited,  however ;  there  are  cited  among  them 
four  letters  on  the  last  judgment,  and  a  treatise  upon 
numbers,  which  reveals  a  profound  knowledge  of  arith- 
metic.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrale^  s.  v. 

Quillauzne  dr  Beaumont,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  in  1177,  being  a  member  of  the  illustrious  family 
of  Beaumont.  After  the  decease  of  Guillaume  de  Che- 
mill6,  which  took  place  in  May,  1202,  Guillaume  de 
Beaumont  united  the  suffrages  of  the  people  and  of 
the  clergy,  and  was  consecrated  Sept.  23, 1203.  In  1209 
he  put  an  end  to  disagreements  between  the  monks  of 
Ronceray  and  the  friars  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John. 
In  1223  he  took  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  king  Louis  YUI. 
Finally,  in  1236,  he  admitted  the  preaching  friars  into 
the  city  of  Angers.  He  died  in  1240.  His  literary 
works  are  very  few,  and  of  no  importance ;  they  are 
statutes  which  were  published  in  1680  by  one  of  his 
successors,  Henry  Aroanld.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Ginirale,  s.  v. 

GhiiUauzne  db  Blois  (suraamed  the  cardinal  oj 
Champagm)  was  born  in  1135.  In  his  early  childhood 
he  was  recommended  by  his  father  to  St.  Bernard,  who 
inspired  him  with  the  love  of  study  and  virtue.  In 
ll&l  Guillaume  was  elected  bishop  of  Chartres,  and  in 
1168  consecrated  archbishop  of  Sens  by  the  venerable 
Maurice,  bishop  of  Paris.  In  the  same  year  pope  Alex- 
ander III,  who  was  at  that  time  in  France,  selected  him 
as  his  legate,  on  the  occasion  of  a  quarrel  which  had 
broken  out  between  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canterbur}', 
primate  of  England,  and  king  Henry  II.  Owing  to 
the  pradence  and  zeal  with  which  he  transacted  his 
mission,  he  obtained  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Rheims. 
Guillaume  had  the  honor  of  crowning,  at  Rheims,  his 
nephew,  Philip  Augustus,  as  associate  with  his  father, 
Louis  the  Yeunger.  He  took  advantage  of  the  credit 
which  he  enjoyed  with  Louis  the  Younger  to  obtain 
from  him  the  regulation  which  granted  to  the  arch- 
bishops the  perpetual  privilege  of  having  the  sole 
power  of  consecrating  the  kings  of  France,  a  regula- 
tion afterwards  confirmed  by  the  bull  of  the  pope. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus, 
Guillaume  fell  into  disgrace,  and  so  turned  his  further 
attention  towards  the  court  of  Rome,  which  shortly 
afterwards  conferred  upon  him  the  cardinal's  hat,  and 
restored  him  to  his  dignity  at  the  French  court,  and 
his  call  to  the  ministry  of  the  state.  Guillaume  died 
at  Laon  about  1202.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Generalef 
s.  V. 

Guillaume  (Abbot)  db  St.  Denis,  i^as  bom  at  Gap, 
and  lived  in  the  12th  centurv.  It  seems  that  he  had 
Studied  medicine  before  entering  the  monastic  life.  In 
1178  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  celebrated  abbey 
from  which  he  derives  his  name,  and  governed  it  with 
zeal  and  wisdom.  But  he  displeased  king  Philip  Augus- 
tus, and  resigned  in  1186.  He  was  a  man  well  instructed 
for  his  time,  translating  from  the  Latin  the  Fulogg  of 
St.  Denis  the  Areopagite^  composed  by  Michael  Syncel- 
lus,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  a  Life  of  the  Philosopher 
Secundus,  His  writings  remain  in  MS.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Generate,  s.  v. 

Guillaume  du  Desert  (Lat.  GuiUlmus  or  Willel- 
mus).    See  William  of  Aquitaine. 

Guillaume  (SahU)  de  Malaval,  founder  of  the 
Guillemites,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  French  noble- 
man who  had  chosen  a  soldier's  life,  and  lived  in  dis- 
sipation. Being  anxious  to  do  penance,  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  pope  Eugenius  III,  in  1145,  ordered  him  to 
make  a  pilgrimage  to  Jemsalem.  After  his  retnm  to 
Tuscany,  in  1153,  he  settled  in  a  lonely  valley  of  the 
Sienna  territory,  in  the  diocese  of  Groascto,  where  he 
spent  bis  life  in  work  and  prayer.  He  died  Feb.  10, 
1157.  Some  time  later  some  of  his  followers  erecte<1  a 
hermitage  with  a  chapel  on  the  tomb  of  Guillaume, 


6UILLAXJME 


408 


GinoN 


and  from  that  time  it  became  the  shrine  of  the  order 
of  the  GuiUemiteB,  who  multiplied  in  Germany,  Flan- 
ders, and  France.  See  Uoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  y. 

Guillaume  de  MAZtDAOor,  a  French  prelate  and 
canon,  was  bom  of  an  illustrious  family  of  Lod^re.  He 
was  successively  archdeacon  of  Nlmes,  provost  of  the 
Church  of  Toulouse,  archbishop  of  Embrun  about  1295, 
and  was  made  cardinal  and  bishop  of  Palestine  in  1812 
by  Clement  Y.  In  1296  he  was  charged  by  Boniface 
VIII  with  composing  the  sixth  book  of  the  Decretals, 
together  with  B6renger  de  Frftdol  and  Richard  of  Si- 
enna, to  whom  was  added,  some  time  later,  Dinus,  a 
professor  of  the  Koman  law  at  Bologna.  Guillaume 
composed,  about  1800,  the  Summa  Ubetti  EUetionumj  a 
very  peculiar  work,  which  contains  some  interesting 
details  on  the  Church  of  Toulouse.  Some  time  after- 
wards it  was  revised  by  John  Andreas,  and  dedicated  to 
B^renger  (Cologne,  1673).  Guillame  died  at  Avignon 
in  November,  1821.  See  Hoefer,  Nouo,  Biag»  Ginhrak, 
a.  V. 

Otdllanme  (^AhM)  ds  Marmoutiers  was  bom 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  lUh  century,  and  was  a  native 
of  Brittany.  Before  he  had  taken  the  cowl  he  was  an 
archdeacon  of  Nantes.  After  the  death  of  Hilgode,  the 
monks  of  Marmoutiers  selected  him  as  their  abbot,  in 
1104k  Between  these  monks  and  the  archbishop  of  Tours 
there  existed  at  that  time  a  grave  dispute.  Baoul,  who 
occupied  the  metropolitan  see,  required  that  newly- 
elected  abbots  should,  in  the  ceremony  of  consecration, 
offer  to  him  the  oath  of  fidelity.  The  monks  refused 
to  render  that  homage,  declaring  it  to  be  humiliating. 
Guillaume  having  accordingly  refused,  Raoul  brought  a 
complaint  before  the  pope.  During  the  debate^  which 
agitated  the  whole  province  of  Tours,  Guillaume  him- 
self went  to  Rome,  and  there  was  consecrated.  In  1106 
he  returned  to  his  abbey.  In  1106  he  sat  at  the  Council 
of  PoitiexB,  and  vigorously  attacked  a  certain  lord  Man- 
oeau,  who  had  taken  possession  of  the  Church  of  Cha- 
haignes.  In  1108  he  obtained  of  Benedict,  bishop  of 
Aleth,  the  Church  of  St.  Malo  of  Dinan.  In  1109  he 
pleaded  before  the  Council  of  Laon  against  the  monks 
of  Chemilli.  He  was  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
abbots  of  Marmoutiers,  and  increased  its.  wealth  consid- 
erably. He  died  May  28, 1124.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Bioff,  GiiUrale,  s.  v. 

Guillaume  de  Passavant,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  in  Saintonge,  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury. When  Rainaud  of  Martign^,  his  cousin,  was 
nominated  archbishop  of  Rheims,  Guillaume  succeeded 
htm  in  that  church,  and  executed  there  the  functions 
of  an  archdeacon  until  January,  1144.  After  that  he 
was  called  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Mans,  where  his  name 
is  found  among  the  documents  of  the  year  1146.  He 
was  proud  and  able  to  defend  the  privileges  of  the 
Church.  Being  asked  by  the  monks  of  Marmoutiers 
to  intervene  in  their  favor  against  Guy  de  Laval,  who 
had  taken  possession  of  one  of  their  priories,  he  imme- 
diately excommunicated  that  powerful  leader.  In  1161 
a  vassal  church  (of  Brdlan)  had  refused  to  give  homage 
to  its  superior,  the  Church  of  La  Couture,  and  Guillaume 
ordered  the  rebel  church  to  be  demolished,  for  which  he 
was  obliged  to  go  to  Rome  in  order  to  Justify  his  con- 
duct. St.  Bernard  wrote  in  his  favor  to  Ungues,  bishop 
of  Ostia,  and  to  pope  Eugenius  III.  Guillaume  died  at 
Yvr6,  in  the  province  of  Maine,  Jan.  26,  1187.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GMraie,  s.  v. 

Gkmiaume  (^SavU)  Pinghon,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  in  1184,  in  the  parish  of  St.  Alban,  of  poor  agricul- 
turist parents.  Being  admitted  in  early  youth  as  a 
derk  of  the  Church  of  St.  Brieuc,  he  soon  distinguished 
himself  among  his  colleagues,  early  obtained  a  canoni- 
cate,  and  in  1220  was  appointed  bishop  of  St.  Brieuc. 
The  bishops  of  Brittany  at  that  time  were  engaged  in 
serious  disputes  with  Peter  Mauclerc  Guillaume  being 
summoned  to  obey  this  formidable  leader,  responded  by 
a  sentence  of  excommunication.    The  reply  of  Peter 


Mauclerc  was  the  exile  of  the  prelate,  and  the  impris- 
onment of  the  priests  who  were  known  as  his  most  de- 
voted partisans.  But  the  court  of  Rome  took  np  the 
defence  of  Guillaume,  and  made  his  exile  of  short  du- 
ration. He  had  left  his  diocese  in  1228,  and  returned 
to  it  again  in  1281.  He  died  in  1284.  See  Hoefer, 
iVbttv.  Bioff,  GMraUf  s.  v. 

GKiillaume  uc  Walu>n,  an  abbot  of  Sl  Amoul  of 
Metz.  It  is  believed  that  he  received  instmction  at  the 
school  of  Liege.  On  the  conclusion  of  his  studies  he 
retired  to  a  cloister.  His  teacher  wrote  him  a  letter, 
engaging  him  to  leave  his  retreat  and  to  enter  the  ranks 
of  the  secular  clergy,  but  Guillaume  continued  in  his 
chosen  vocation.  In  1060  he  succeeded  Warin  at  St» 
Amoul  as  abbot.  In  1078  he  was  elected  abbot  of  St. 
Remi  at  Rheim&  Since  the  year  1071  that  monastery 
had  remained  without  a  chief,  and  stood  exposed  to  the 
ravages  of  archbishop  ManasM^.  Guillaume  had  some 
warm  disputes  with  the  latter,  and  wished  to  resign. 
He  wrote  to  the  pope,  and,  not  receiving  any  answer, 
set  out  for  Rome.  The  pope  received  him  kindly,  and 
on  his  return  archbishop  Manasso  relieved  him.  Guil- 
laume retired  to  Mets,  and  although  devoted  to  bishop 
Herman,  he  was  so  weak  as  to  allow  himself  to  be  con- 
secrated in  his  place,  when  the  emperor  Henry  IV  had 
expelled  the  latter  from  his  see  in  1086.  The  following 
year  Guillaume  went  to  meet  the  bishop,  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  chief  members  of  the  Church  renounced 
the  episcopate,  and  retired  to  the  abbey  of  Gorze.  He 
was  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the  children  educated 
there,  and  after  some  time  bishop  Herman  gave  him 
the  abbey  of  St.  AmouL  He  died  about  1089.  There 
are  extant  of  Guillaume  le  Wallon  a  collection  of  seven 
letters  to  divers  persons,  one  to  Gregory  YII,  and  two 
to  archbishop  Manass^,  in  which  he  reproaches  him  se- 
verely on  account  of  his  many  vices.  To  him  also  is 
ascribed  a  fine  prayer  in  honor  of  St.  Augustine.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GiniraU^  s.  v. 

GhiHlebert,  Nicolas,  a  French  prelate,  who  lived 
in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century,  is  the  author  of, 
Les  Proverhet  de  Salomon  Paraphrases  (Paris,  1626^ 
1637) : — Paraphrase  sur  PEcdesiaste  de  Salomon  (1627, 
1686,  1642):  —  La  Sagesse  de  Salomon  Paraphnuee 
(1631) : — Paraphrases  sur  les  Jtpitres  de  S,  Paul  aux 
ColosseSf  ThessahnienSf  Timothy,  et  Tite  (1636)  i—Para- 
phrase  de  VipUre  aux  Ilibreux  et  des  fyitres  Canouiqvet 
(ibid.  1688).  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Getehrien-Lexi- 
koUf  B,Y,     (B.P.) 

Guillemin,  Pierre,  a  French  Benedictine,  who 
died  Sept.  9, 1747,  at  Neuf>Chatcau,  in  Lothariugia,  is 
the  author  of  Oommentaire  IMtiral  Ahrigi  sur  Totu  les 
Livres  de  VAncien  et  du  Nouveau  Testament  (Paris, 
1721).  See  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  iheol.  Lit,  i,  188 ;  Jo- 
cher, AUgemeines  Gekhrten-Lexikonj  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gnilleminot,  Jeam,  a  French  Jesuit,  bom  in  1614, 
joined  his  order  in  1681,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Pont-lt-Mousson,  and  died  at  Nancy,  Nov.  24, 1680.  He 
left,  Sekctoi  ex  Philosophia  QtiasHanes  (Paris,  1671,  2 
vols.): — La  Sagesse  Chritienne  (ibid.  1674):— ^c/ieete 
Quastiones  Theologica  (1682,  2  vols.).  See  PapiUon, 
BibL  des  Auteurs  de  Bourgogne;  Jocher,  AUganeimet 
GekhrtenrLexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

GuiOQ,  EHJah,  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episcopal  c)er-> 
gyman,  was  first  employed  as  a  teacher  in  Carrolton, 
La.,  about  the  year  1863.  The  next  year  he  was  rector 
of  St.  James's  Church,  Baton  Rouge;  in  1860  be  re- 
moved to  New  Orleans,  where,  during  the  war,  he  served 
as  chaplain  in  the  United  States  army;  in  1867  was 
chosen  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Advent  in  Browns- 
ville, Texas,  where  he  also  served  as  chaplain  in  the 
army;  in  1871  was  at  Fort  Sill,  in  the  Indian  Territory, 
as  United  States  chaplain ;  in  1874  was  appointed  to 
the  same  position  at  Fort  Gibson ;  in  1877  removed  to 
Texas,  and,  still  chaplain,  went  in  the  following  year 
to  Almaden  Mines,  CaL  He  died  in  New  Almaden, 
Jan.  17, 1879.    See  Prot,  Epise,  A  bnanac,  1880,  p.  171. 


GUION 


499 


GXJIZOT 


Q11I611,  John  BC,  D.D.,  a  Pirotestant  EpbcofMl 
elergymtn,  r  gnduate  of  the  General  TheologioU  Sem- 
inary, was  employed  as  rector  of  the  Church  in  Bethany, 
Conn^  in  1853 ;  the  following  year  became  aMiatant  min- 
ister of  a  church  in  Baltimore,  Md.;  and  shortly  after 
was  choflen  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y^ 
where  be  remained  until  his  death,  July  20, 1878,  at  the 
age  of  seventv-seven  years.  See  Prot,  Epitc  A  tmanac, 
1879,  p.  168.  ' 

Gaion,  Thomas  T.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
cleigyman,  was  bom  at  Bedford,  N.  T.,  Aug.  81, 1817. 
He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, Hartford,Conu.,in  1840. 
His  first  cure  was  the  missionary  station  at  Zoar.  He 
then  took  charge  of  the  parishes  of  StThomas,  in  Bethel, 
and  St.  James,  in  Danbury,  which,  at  the  end  of  three 
years,  had  become  self-aupporting^  and  he  assumed  the 
rsctorship  of  them  both.  In  1848  he  had  charge  of  SL 
Hary*8  pariah,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  afterwards  waa  rector 
of  St.  James's,  Birmingham,  Conn.,  for  more  than  four 
year&  In  1853  he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  St.  John*s 
parish,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  where  he  was  very  successful, 
but  his  health  failed  He  died  at  Milford,  Conn.,  Oct. 
21, 1862.  Dr.  Guion  was  clear  in  his  conceptions,  hon- 
est in  his  convictions,  and  fearless  in  their  avowal.  See 
Amer.  Quar,  Church  Rev.  April,  1863,  p.  150. 

Qnlragoa  (or  Cyriacua)  of  Armenia, was  bom  at 
Kbarabasd,  in  the  province  of  Khajpenini.  He  resided 
thirty-two  years  in  the  convent  of  Khor-Virab)  whence 
he  received  the  aurname  Virabetti.  He  waa  an  hnmble 
and  pious  man,  and  well  versed  in  the  Scriptures.  He 
was  elected  patriarch  in  1 14 1,  when  Gregory  IX,  patriarch 
of  Armenia,  rending  at  Sis  (Cilicia),objected  to  the  trans- 
portation of  his  aeat  to  Echmiadzin  (Greater  Armenia). 
Guiragos  was  the  first  patriarch  who  resided  at  the  latter 
place ;  he  erected  convents  and  churches  there,  repaired 
the  cathedral,  and  broke  up  the  schism  which  separated 
the  patriarch  Aghthamar  from  the  rest  of  the  Church. 
A  certain  Marcus,  bishop  of  Georgia,  who  was  dissatis- 
fied with  that  reconciliation,  pretended  that  the  elec- 
tion of  Guiragoa  was  invalid,  ^cause  he  had  not  pre- 
Tiously  been  consecrated  bishop,  and  it  was  even  said 
that  he  had  never  been  baptized.  Zachariaa,  bishop 
of  Havuts-Tharhah,  joined  the  enemies  of  the  patri- 
arch, and  went  to  Echmiadzin  to  depose  him  in  1143, 
at  the  head  of  thirty  bishops.  Yakub-Khan  of  Erivan 
at  first  opposed  the  change,  but,  being  bribed  by  Zach- 
arias,  gave  him  authority  to  renew  the  election.  The 
suffrages  were  in  favor  of  Gregory  X,  and  Guiragos, 
who  bad  been  biding  during  the  excitement,  retired 
into  a  convent,  where  he  died  the  same  year.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU,  a.  v. 

Ghiise,  John,  of  Lorkain r,  cardinal,  was  bom  in 
1498.  He  went  to  France,  and  contributed  a  great  deal 
to  the  elevation  of  his  brother,  Claude  of  Lorraine,  the 
first  duke  of  Guise,  and  of  his  family.  In  April,  1586, 
Francis  I  sent  him  to  Charles  V  to  negotiate  an  agree- 
ment. About  1542  the  cartlmal  was  removed  from  the 
court,  and  he  died  May  18, 1550.  He  is  known  for  his 
excessive  liberality,  by  means  of  which  he  became  so 
influential  among  the  people.  He  was  in  possession 
of  a  number  of  archbishoprics  in  France.  See  Hoefer, 
Now,  Biog,  GiniraUy  s.  v. 

Ouiae,  laouia  (l),  of  Lorrainr,  a  French  prelate, 
brother  of  Charles,  also  archbishop  of  Sens,  and  bishop 
of  Troyea,  of  Metz,  and  of  Alby,  was  bom  Oct.  21, 1527. 
He  waa  made  canlinal  Dec.  22, 1553,  and  attended  the 
election  of  pope  Paul  IV.  He  was  so  fond  of  convivi- 
ality that  the  people  used  to  call  him  "  the  cardinal  of 
the  bottles."*  He  died  at  Paris,  March  24, 1578.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GinercUe,  s.  v. 

Gniae,  I«oiiia  (2),  of  Loru^vinb,  a  French  prelate 
and  peer,  was  bom  at  Dampierre,  July  6,  1555.  The 
endinal  of  Lorraine,  hia  uncle,  appointed  him,  in  1572, 
his  coadjutor  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  made  over 
to  him  at  hia  death  the  archbishopric  of  Rheims,  the 
abbeys  of  Fecamp  and  Montier-en-Der  (1574).   In  1578 


he  was  made  cardinal,  and  in  the  following  year  Henry 
III  appointed  him  commander  of  the  order  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  A  few  daya  after  he  had  been  consecrated  arch* 
bishop  of  St.  Denis,  Feb.  17, 1588,  he  went  to  Rheims 
to  hold  a  provincial  council,  and  then  came  back  to 
Paris  to  mingle  in  the  intrigues  of  the  League.  In 
1685  he  assiated  at  the  eocleaiastical  reunion  of  St. 
Germain-en-Laye.  The  Germans  and  Swiss  had  burned 
down  (1587)  his  abbey  of  St  Urbin,  in  Champagne,  in 
revenge  for  which  the  cardinal  burned  the  castle  of 
Br^me,  near  chiteau  Thierry,  belonging  to  the  duke  of 
Bouillon.  Cardinal  Guise  waa  assassinated,  Dec.  24, 
1588.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMraUf  s.  v. 

Gkliae,  Loida  (3),  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  archbbhop 
of  Rheima,  and  peer  of  France,  was  bora,  according  to 
some,  Jan.  22, 1575,  according  to  others  in  May,  158§. 
He  obtained  the  abbevs  of  St.  Denis  and  of  Montier-en- 
Der,  and  also  that  of  Ch&lia.  He  was  never  ordained, 
preferring  brigandage,  and  exhibited  that  tendency  in 
his  later  years,  when  he  proposed  to  settle  theological 
disputes  by  arms.  In  1621  he  followed  the  king  on  his 
expedition  to  Poitou,  but  fell  sick  at  the  siege  of  St. 
Jean  d*Angel}%  and  died  shortly  afler  (June  21,  1621). 
Charlotte  des  Essarts,  countess  of  Romorantin,  and  one 
of  the  mistresses  of  Henry  IV,  is  said  to  have  been  se- 
cretly married  to  the  cardinal  (Feb.  4, 1611),  bearing  to 
him  three  sons  and  two  daughters.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GhUraU,  s.  v. 

Gulae,  Williaitt,  a  learned  English  divine,  was 
bom  at  Abload's  or  Abbey-load's  Court,  near  Glouces- 
ter, in  1653,  and  waa  educated  at  Oriel  College,  where 
he  waa  made  fellow  in  1674.  He  was  ordained  about 
1677,  and  died  Sept.  8, 1684.  He  translated  into  Eng- 
lish, and  illustrated  with  a  commentary,  Dr.  Bernard's 
MitMB  Pan  Ordims  Primi  Tetaim  TituU  Septtm  (1690), 
and  a  tract,  De  Victimis  Humama,  See  Chalmers, 
Biog,  DicL  s.  v.  j  Allibouc,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  u- 
thort,  s.  v. 

Gnixot,  FRAN9018  PiKRRK  Guii^LAUXB,  a  noted 
French  religious  author,  was  bom  at  Nlmes,  Oct.  4, 1787, 
being  the  descendant  of  a  family  of  Huguenot  pastors. 
He  was  educated  at  Geneva,  and  studied  law  at  Paris. 
During  the  literar}'  period  of  his  life  (1812-30),  he  was 
successively  professor  of  history  at  the  Sorbonne,  sec- 
retary-generai  of  the  interior,  journalist,  etc.  To  this 
period  belong  his  Du  GouvememaU  RepritentaHf  et  de 
CEtat  A  duel  de  la  France  (1816)  :-.Z)es  Conspiraiums 
d  de  la  Justice  Politique  {lS2i):  —  De»  Mogent  de 
Gouvemement  d  d'Oppoeitian  (eod.):  —  De  la  Peine 
de  Mort  en  Maiiikre  Politique  ( 1822 ):  — JS'Maia  §ur 
raiHoire  de  France  (1823):  — L'i7tftoire  de  la  Rteo^ 
lution  eTAnglderre  (1827, 1828,  2  vole,):— VHidoire  de 
la  Ctviiuaiion  D^uit  F£!tablissement  du  ChridianUme 
(1829).  With  the  year  1830  Guizot's  political  career 
commenced,  and  it  was  mainly  due  to  his  efforts  as  min- 
ister of  public  instmction  that  a  reform  of  the  educa- 
tional system  of  France  took  place.  In  the  year  1816 
Guizot  published  his  JCseai  sur  VHidoire  d  iur  FEtat 
Adud  de  VIndrudion  PuUique^  in  which  he  insisted 
that  the  state  had  the  right  of  managing  and  control- 
ling the  public  instmction.  This  idea  he  now  devel- 
oped, and  introduced  many  improvements,  especially 
in  the  primary  and  higher  schools.  In  ecclesias- 
tical respects,  Guizot  was  the  main  support  of  ortho- 
doxy in  the  Reformed  Church  of  France.  In  1852 
he  was  chosen  president  of  the  consistory.  He  waa 
opposed  to  liberalism  of  any  kind  in  religious  matters. 
He  was  orthodox,  and  clung  to  the  Credo  of  his  Church. 
In  1872  he  was  obliged,  on  account  of  feeble  health,  to 
retire  from  the  presidency  of  the  synod.  He  died  at 
Val  de  Bdcher,  Sept  12, 1874.  Of  his  religious  works, 
we  mention,  VEglise  d  la  SocUU  Chrkienne  (1861):— 
MidiUiiiona  sur  V Essence  de  la  Religion  Chrkienne  (1864; 
Engl,  translation,  N.  Y.  1865)  v—Miditatums  sur  la  Re- 
ligion Chrkienne  dans  ses  Rapports  avec  VEtat  A  duel  des 
Socikes  (186^^,8  vols.):— 7>«  Vies  de  Quatre  Grands 


GUJERATI  VERSION 


500 


GtiNTHERODE 


Chritiena  Franpau (1868;  Engltranalation,  Lond.  1868) : 
— MSmoireapour  Servir  a  VHuloirt  de  mon  Temps  (1858- 
68, 9  vols.).  He  was  one  of  the  foundeTS  of  the  Soeieti 
Bihlique  in  1826,  of  the  SocUte  pour  t Encourcujement  de 
Vlrutruciion  Primaire  in  1833,  and  of  the  SocUU  VHit- 
toire  du  Protestantisme  Franfais  in  1857.  When,  in 
1861,  Gaizot  had  to  make  a  reply  to  the  address  of  the 
new  academician,  P^re  Lacordaire,  be  defended  and 
jastified  the  papacy  and  the  worldly  power  of  the  pope, 
whereas  the  Dominican  praised  Protestant  America. 
This  address  of  Guizot  made  a  great  stir.  The  Catho- 
lic papers,  especially  the  Unwers,  rejoiced,  and  hoped 
soon  to  see  Guixot  return  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  But 
in  spite  of  this  Guizot  remained  in  his  Church,  and 
from  his  words  in  his  testament,  '*  I  die  in  the  bosom  of 
the  Reformed  Christian  Church  of  France,  in  which  I 
was  bom,  and  to  have  been  bom  in  which  I  rejoice," 
which  have  been  quoted  in  full,  we  see  that  Guizot 
made  all  allowance  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  without  be- 
coming one  of  her  members.  See  Mazade,  Portrait 
d'lJistoire  Morale  et  Politique  du  Temps  Jacquemont^ 
Guizotf  etc  (Paris,  1875) ;  Madame  de  Witt,  nee  Guizot, 
Monsieur  Guizot  dans  sa  Famille  et  atec  ses  Amis 
(ibid.  1880 ;  English  transL  Lond.  and  Boston) ;  Lich- 
tenberger,  Enryclop.  des  Sciences  Reliffieuses,  s.  v. ;  Plitt- 
Herzog,  ReaUEncyklop.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gujeratl  Version  of  the  Scriptuuks.  The 
Gujerati  takes  its  name  from  Gujerat,  a  district  of 
the  Punjab  in  India,  and  the  principal  province  in 
which  it  is  spoken,  and  is  said  by  the  Serampore 
missionaries  to  be  the  vernacular  of  a  territory  equal 
in  point  of  extent  to  England.  On  account  of  its 
wide  diffusion  it  has  been  appropriately  designated 
*Hhe  grand  mercantile  language  of  foreign  Indian 
marts.''  The  Serampore  missionaries  were  the  first  to 
nndertake  a  Gujerati  version  of  the  Scriptures.  In 
1807  they  commenced  printing  the  gospel  of  Matthew, 
but  the  work  was  given  up.  In  1813  it  was  resumed, 
and  in  1820  the  New  TesL,  in  Gujerati  characters  in- 
stead of  the  Sanscrit,  was  completed.  The  prosecution 
of  this  version  was,  however,  resigned  about  this  period 
by  the  Serampore  missionaries  to  the  agents  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  stationed  at  Surat,  The 
Rev.  Messrs.  Skinner  and  Fy  vie,  of  the  London  Mission- 
arj'  Society,  published  their  version  of  the  New  Test, 
in  1821,  at  Surat.  Shortly  after  the  publication  of  the 
New  Test.  Mr.  Skinner  died,  and  the  translation  of  the 
Old  Test,  was  now  carried  on  by  Mr.  Fyvie,  and  in 
1823  it  was  completed  at  press.  Other  ediuons,  in 
a  revised  state,  rapidly  followed  as  the  demand  in- 
creased. Another  version  of  the  New  Test,  was  made 
by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Clarkson  and  Flower,  and  an  edi- 
tion of  two  thousand  copies  was  issued  from  the 
press.  But  it  was  subsequently  resolved  to  publish  an 
edition  of  the  New  Test,  according  to  the  old  trans- 
lation of  the  Surat  edition,  subject  to  such  slight 
changes  as  might  be  deemed  necessary'.  This  edition 
was  completed  at  the  Bombay  press  in  1853.  Mean- 
while, preparations  for  a  revised  edition  of  the  entire 
Gujerati  sicriptures  were  in  active  progress  under  the 
care  of  the  Bombay  Auxiliary  Society,  and  an  edition 
of  the  New  Test.,  according  to  this  improved  version, 
was  completed  at  the  mission-press  in  Surat  in  1856. 
The  Old  Test,  was  completed  in  1861.  Besides  these 
two  editions,  the  Serampore  New  Test,  and  the  Surat 
version,  in  I860  a  new  edition  of  the  Gujerati  New 
Test.,  for  the  8|)ccial  use  of  the  Parsces,  was  announced. 
It  was  carried  through  the  press  in  B')mbay,  in  Parsee 
characters,  by  the  Rev.  Dunjeebhoy  Nowrojee,  and  pub- 
lished in  1862.  In  this  edition  the  religious  terms  are 
those  technically  used  in  religious  Parsee  literature. 
Of  the  latter  edition  up  to  March  31, 188^,  two  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  forty-nine  portions  of  Scripture 
were  disposed  of.  See  Jiihie  of  Every  Land,  p.  123. 
There  exist  several  grammars  for  the  study  of  this  lan- 
guage: Munshi,  The  StudenVs  Companion  in  the  Acqui' 
sition  of  a  Practical  Knowledge  of  English  and  Gujerati 


Grammar  and  Idionu  (Ahmedabad,  1869);  Shapurji 
Edalji,  A  Grammar  of  the  Gujerati  Ixmguagt  (Bombay, 
1867) ;  Taylor,  A  Grammas'  of  the  Gujerati  Language 
(ibid.  1868).     (B.  P.) 

Ghildberg,  Ovr  Hoegh,  a  Danish  statesman,  his- 
torian, and  theologian,  was  bom  Sept.  1, 1731,  and  died 
Feb.  8, 1808.  He  is  known  as  the  author  of  a  Chronol- 
ogy for  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament  (Copenhagen, 
1785),  and  of  A  Translation  of  the  New  Testament,  vitk 
Annotations  (1794,  2  vols.),  both  published  in  the  Dan- 
ish language.    (B.  P.) 

Guznpel,  Mordecai.    See  Levisohn. 

Gunn,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  minister 
of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  bora  Aug.  13, 
1785.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1805, 
and  prepared  for  the  ministry  under  Dr.  Henry  Kollock 
of  Princeton,  and  Dr.  John  Rodgcrs  of  New  York.  In 
1809  he  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York, 
and  the  same  year  took  charge  of  the  Church  at  Bloom- 
ingdale.  He  died  Oct.  1, 1829.  An  accomplished  gen- 
tleman, amiable,  prudent,  and  a  peace-maker,  he  was 
also  noted  fur  his  conscientious  piety  and  entire  devo- 
tion to  his  work.  His  talents  as  a  writer  and  preacher 
were  of  a  very  high  onler.  Imaginative  and  cultivated, 
with  good  taste,  ample  learning,  and  fine  abilities,  he 
was  among  the  most  popular  pulpit  orators  of  New  York. 
He  wielded  a  powerful  pen  as  a  theological  writer,  and 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  some  of  the  exciting  contro- 
versies of  his  time.  The  General  Synod,  in  1825,  ap- 
pointed him  to  write  the  biography  of  the  late  Rev. 
John  H.  Livingston,  D.D.  See  Magazine  of  the  Ref 
Dutch  Churchf  December,  1829,  p.  257 ;  Corwiii,  Manual 
of  the  Ref  Church  in  A  mericOj  s.  v.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Gunner,  Joiians  Ernest,  a  Norvregian  prelate  and 
naturalist,  was  born  in  Christiana,  Feb.  26,  1718.  He 
began  his  studies  under  the  direction  of  his  father,  who 
was  a  physician  in  that  city,  and  went  to  Copenhagen 
to  continue  them.  In  1742  the  king  gave  him  means 
to  go  to  Halle,  and  afterwards  to  Jena,  where  he  studied 
philosophy,  and  became  a  member  of  the  faculty.  On 
his  return  to  Copenhagen  in  1755  he  was  made  extra- 
ordinary professor  of  theology  in  the  university.  In 
1758  the  bishopric  of  Drontheim  was  conferred  upon 
him.  He  died  at  Christiansand,  Sept  23, 1773,  leaving, 
Jfgrdebrev  (Drontheim,  1758):  —  Klagtole  over  Kong 
Frederic  V  (ibid.  1766) :— also  Memoirs  in  the  Norde 
Videnskaiemsselskabs  Skrif^er  (writings  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Science  of  Norway),  etc.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Gineralej  s.  v. 

GUnther,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  April  17, 1660.  He  studied  at  Brealaa 
and  Leipsic,  was  preacher  and  licentiate  of  theology  at 
the  latter  place,  and  died  Jan.  20, 1714.  His  writings 
are  for  the  most  part  directed  against  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  See  Ranflb,  Leben  der  chursdchsiscAen 
Goitesgelehien;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehien^Lexihon, 
s.  v.     (a  P.) 

GUnther,  Wolfjgang,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
bora  in  Saxony  in  1586.  He  studied  at  VVittenbeiie:, 
was  preacher  in  1611  in  the  vicinity  of  Annaberg,  in 
1615  pastor  and  superintendent  at  Friedland,  in  1626  at 
Spardan,  and  died  Jan.  16,  1636.  He  wrote.  Analysis 
Trium  Librorum  Ecdesia  Nostra  Syf^wliafrum  (Wit- 
tenberg, 1614) : — Aphorismi  'Theologici  super  A  vg,  C<m' 
fessionem  (1615):  —  Disposifio  EpistoUe  S,  PftuH  ad 
Romanos  (1625).  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GeleArten- 
Lexikony  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

GUntherode,  Carl  von,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian of  Milan,  was  bora  in  1740.  In  1779  he  was 
professor  of  Church  histor}-  at  Innsbrtick,  but  soon  ex- 
changed the  academical  chair  for  the  mooasteir,  a  step 
which  he  regretted,  because  both  the  monastic  life  and 
the  religious  views  of  the  monks  were  not  in  bsnnooy 
with  his  intellectual  powers.  More  pleasant  w«a  hia 
position  as  librarian  to  prince  Esterhazy,  at  VieniUL 


GUNTNER 


501 


GUTELIUS 


He  died  in  1795,  leaving,  Insiitutio  Theologia  NaturaUs 
(1774):— Diss.de  Criteriit  Veri  et  Falsi  (eod.):—De 
Supremata  Concilii  Geruralia  supra  Romanorum  Ponti" 
Jicuat  ( 1777 ).  See  Doring,  IMe  gekhrten  Thtdogm 
JDattschlandM^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

GQntner,  Gabrikl  Joiiann  Bkrnhard,  a  Fremon- 
stntensian,  waB  born  in  1804  in  Bohemia,  received  holy 
orders  in  1830|  was  in  18B8  professor  of  exegesis  at 
Prague,  and  died  March  17, 1867.  He  wrote,  Herme^ 
fuutica  Biblica  GeneralU  Juxta  Principia  CathoUca 
(Prague,  1848;  2d  «d.  1851 ;  8d  ed.  1863)  -.—Introductio 
ta  Saeros  Novi  Testamenti  Libras  Histor.-Critica  et 
Apoioffelica  (ibid.  1863, 2  vols.).     (R  P.) 

Qimzbiirg;  Aaron,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom  at 
Prague  in  1812.  He  received  his  rabbinical  as  well  as 
classical  education  at  his  native  place,  and  was  appoint- 
ed rabbi  of  the  congregation  of  Libachowitz,  in  Bohe- 
mia. In  1846  he  published,  Dogmatisch  -  historische 
Belfuchtung  des  alien  Judenthums  (Prague),  in  which  he 
boldly  demanded  the  emancipation  of  the  Jews,  and 
grounded  his  demand  on  tho  words  and  promises  of 
former  Austrian  emperors.  In  consequence  of  this  pub- 
lication he  was  obliged  to  leave  his  country,  and  came 
to  America.  He  was  elected  rabbi  at  Baltimore,  then 
at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  last  in  Boston,  where  he  dieil, 
July  19, 1873.     See  FUrst,  Bibl,  Jud,  i,  348.    (R  P.) 

Gnrley,  Leonard  B.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  lx>ni  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  March  10,  1804. 
He  moved  to  Ohio  in  youth,  was  converted,  received  into 
the  Ohio  (inference  in  1828,  was  three  years  on  circuits, 
thirteen  on  districts,  two  in  agency  of  Ohio  Wesleyan 
University,  twenty-eight  in  stations,  and  six  in  retire- 
ment. He  was  elected  to  the  general  conferences  of 
1848, 1836,  and  1864,  and  died  at  Delaware,  O.,  March 
26, 1880.  Dr.  Gurley  was  genial,  generous,  and  sympa- 
thetic. He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  temperance,  wrote 
and  spoke  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  gave  $3000 
to  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  and  $10,000  to  the  Board 
of  Church  Extension.  His  publisheil  poems  exhibit 
high  talent.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences,  1880, 
p.  314. 

Ourlitt,  Joif  ANN  Gottfried,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian and  philologist,  was  born  at  Leipsic,  March  18, 
1754.  In  1802  he  accepted  a  call  to  Hamburg  as  di- 
rector of  the  Johanneum,  and  professor  of  Oriental  Un- 
giiages  at  the  academical  gymnasium,  and  died  June 
14, 1827.  Giirlitt  was  the  teacher  of  the  famous  Church 
historian  Neander.  He  wrote,  Exjylanatio  Brevis 
Hymm  43  Davidis  (Hamburg,  1773)  :—Kurze  Geschichte 
des  Tetnpelkerrenordetis  (1824).  See  Winer,  flandbuch 
der  theol.  Lit,  i,  228,  365,  876,  689,  679,  702,  722,  730 ; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  848  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Onmey,  John  Hampden,  an  Englbh  divine,  son 
of  Sir  John  (iurnpy,a  baron  of  the  exchequer,  was  bom 
Aug.  15, 1802.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1824,  was  for  some  time  curate  of  Lutter- 
worth, Leicestershire,  and  in  1848  was  presented  by  the 
crown  with  the  rectory  of  St.  Alarj'^s,  in  Marj^lebone. 
He  died  March  3, 1862.  Mr.  Gumey  was  a  most  earnest 
and  popular  preacher,  and  among  his  published  dis- 
courses are,  A  Pastot^s  Warning,  suggested  by  the 
death  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  (1860)  i-^Tke  lA>st  Chirf  and 
a  Mourning  People,  on  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Wel- 
lington (1852)  ',-^Tke  Grand  Romish  Fallacy,  and  Dan- 
gers and  Duties  of  ProtestanU  (1854)  i—Better  Times 
and  Worse  (1856),  and  seveial'series  of  sermons.  His 
lectures  were .  published  under  the  titles  of,  Historical 
Sixtckes,  lUustrcUing  some  Imporiant  Epochs  from  A  ,D. 
1400  to  A,D.  1546:  — 5A  Louis  and  Henri  /K.— and 
Go^s  Heroes  and  the  World's  Heroes  (1858).  Mr.  Gur- 
ney  waa  also  the  author  of  several  psalm  and  hymn 
books,  and  of  Four  Letters  to  the  Bishop  of  Exeter  on 
Scripture  Headers.  See  AppUion's  A  nnual  Cyclopadia, 
1862,  p.  685. 

Oomey,  Samuel,  a  dbtiogoiahed  member  of  the 


Society  of  Friends,  and  brother  of  Joseph  John  Gnrney, 
was  bom  at  Eastharo  Hall,  near  Norwich,  England,  OcL 
18, 1786.  His  education  closed  when  be  was  fourteen 
years  of  age,  and  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  London  bank- 
er and  tea-merchant.  He  eventually  became  a  partner 
in  one  of  the  roost  celebrated  business  firms  of  Lombard 
Street.  Earlv  in  his  active  life  he  waa  associated  with 
other  distinguished  philanthropists  in  efforts  to  improve 
the  condition  of  English  missions  He  was  also  the 
warm  friend  of  the  Bible  Society  and  of  the  republic  of 
Liberia.  He  was  one  of  a  deputation,  representing  four 
thousand  merchants  and  tradesmen  of  London,  sent  to 
France,  in  1853,  in  the  interests  of  peace.  He  died  in 
Paris,  June  5, 1856.  See  Memorials  of  Samuel  Gumey, 
by  Mrs. Thomas  Geldart  (Philadelphia,  1859).    (J.  C.  S.) 

GKbrutb,  Gkorg  Samuel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  3, 1745,  at  Brieg,  in  Silesia. 
He  studied  at  Kbuigsberg,  waa  in  1768  rector  at  Neu- 
stadt,  in  1778  preacher  at  his  native  city,  in  1792  pastor 
primarius  at  Krenzbuig,  and  died  Feb.  3,  1803.  He 
published  some  aaoetical  writings.  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschkmds,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

GNirtI,  a  teacher  among  the  Hindis,  occupying  in 
some  degree  the  place  of  the  confessor  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  lie  is  looked  upon  as  a  representative  and  ve- 
hicle of  divine  power,  and  therefore  entitled  to  the  most 
implicit  submission  on  the  part  of  the  man  whose  guru 
he  is. 

GKirwrhal  (or  Shreenagnr)  is  a  dialect  spoken 
in  the  province  of  Gurwhal,  west  of  Kuroaon.  A  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Test,  was  undertaken  at  Serampore 
in  1816,  and  was  completed  at  press  some  time  prior  to 
1832.     (B.  P.) 

Qutbler,  ^Igidius.  a  German  Orientalist,  was 
born  at  Weissensee,  in  Thuringia,  Sept.  1,  1617!  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1652  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Hamburg,  took  in  1660  his  de- 
gree as  doctor  of  theology  at  Giessen,  and  died  Sept. 
27,  1667.  He  published.  Novum  Testamentum  Syria- 
cum: — Lexicon  Syriacum: — Notce  Criticcs  in  Novum 
Testamentum  Syriacum: — De  Stbyllis  et  Earum  Oracu- 
lis.  See  Irtoller,  Cimhria  Litterata ;  Jocher,  AUge- 
meines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Qutbler,  Frledilch  August  Philip,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  Thuringia, 
March  2,  1765,  and  died  Feb.  5,  1838,  superintendent 
and  member  of  consistory.  He  published,  Summarien 
iiber  das  Neue  Testament  (Leipsic,  1831-38,  4  vols.) : — 
f^hrbuch  der  christiicheti  Glaubens-  und  SitterdeJire 
(Gotha,  1825) : — Liturgisches  Handbuch  zum  Gebrauch 
fur  Prediger  (Leipsic,  1805).  See  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theoL  Lit.  ii,  189,  215,  280 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol.  i, 
480  sq.    (a  P.) 

OHite,  Heinrick  Ernest,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Sept  13,  1754,  at  Bielefeld.  He 
studied  at  Halle,  was  preacher  there  in  1779,  magister 
in  1780,  professor  of  theology  in  1791,  and  died  Dec.  6, 
1805.  He  wrote,  De  Factis  Ejus  Diei,  quo  Christus 
e  Mortuis  ResurrexU  (Halle,  1780):  —  AnfangsgrUnde 
der  hebrdischen  Sprache  (ibid.  1782;  2d  ed.  1791):— 
Entwurfzur  Einleitung  in't  Alte  Testament  (ibid.  1787) : 
— Kurze  Uebersicht  der  vorzOglichsten  Materien,  etc 
(ibid.  1804).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
Deutschlands,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i, 
81 ;  Furst,  BiH,  Jud,  i,  349.    (B.  P.) 

Gutelius,  Samuel,  a  most  estimable  minister  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Lancaster 
County,  Pa.  He  studied  under  the  Rev.  Yost  Henry 
Fries,  was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1822,  and  imme<li- 
atel}'  took  charge  of  some  congregations  in  Northum- 
berland County.  After  laboring  successfully  in  differ- 
ent charges,  he  died,  July  17,  1866.  ^  Strict  honesty 
and  integrity  were  leading  and  marked  features  in  his 
life  and  character."  Father  Gutelius  was  a  great  suf- 
ferer, but  his  sufferings  never  interfered  with  his  dnties. 


GUTHRIE 


502 


GUTON 


*^  He  was  an  indefatigable  worker,  and  a  solid  preacher. 
His  sermons  were  always  well  prepared.  He  pleaded 
with  his  hearers  like  a  man  who  expected  to  meet  them 
at  the  bar  of  God.  Indeed,  he  often  reminded  them  of 
that  meeting.  He  took  a  deep  interest  in  all  the  be- 
nevolent operations  of  the  Church,  and  was  for  a  time 
connected  with  the  publication  of  its  periodicals.  His 
ministry  was  characterized  by  great  earnestness  and 
success."  See  Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  the  Ref,  Church, 
iv,  190.     (D.  Y.  H.) 

GKitfarie  (or  GKithry),  Henry,  bishop  of  Dan- 
keld  about  166i,  died  in  1676.  He  published  Memoirt, 
temp.  Charles  I  (Lond.  1702).  See  Aliibone,  Did,  of 
Brii.  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

GKithxle,  John  (l),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  promoted 
to  the  see  of  Moray  from  Edinburgh,  in  1628,  where  he 
continued  until  he  was  deprived  with  the  other  prelates 
by  the  Gksgow  Assembly  in  1688.  He  then  lived  at 
Spynie  castle  till  1640,  when  he  was  forced  to  surrender 
it  to  colonel  Monroe,  after  which  he  retired  to  his  own 
private  castle  of  Guthrie,  in  the  count}'  of  Angus.  He 
died  not  long  afterwards.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  152. 

Ghithzle,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  Milnathort,  Kinrossshirc, 
Jan.  30, 1814.  He  was  kept  in  the  Church  from  in- 
fancy through  the  care  of  pious  parents;  entered  Edin- 
burgh University  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  M.A.,  distinguishing  himself  in  clas- 
sics and  philosophy;  and  in  1839  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Secesnon  Church  at  Kendal.  Shortly  afterwards 
he  was  excommunicated  from  that  Church  for  main- 
taining the  universality  of  Christ's  atonement.  He 
then,  with  others,  formed  the  Evangelical  Union,  be- 
came the  professor  in  the  Theological  Hall  of  the  new 
body,  and  held  the  office  from  1846  to  1861.  From 
1848  to  1851  he  held  the  pastorate  in  Glasgow,  whence 
he  removed  to  Greenock,  where  he  labored  succcasfully 
for  eleven  years.  Thence  he  went  to  Tolmers  Square, 
London,  but  returned  to  Glasgow,  whera  he  assumed 
the  pastorate  of  a  new  churcb,  and  filled  the  chair  of 
apologetics  in  the  Theological  Hall  of  the  Evangelical 
Union.  He  died  in  London,  Sept.  8, 1878.  See  (Lond.) 
Conff,  Year-book,  1879,  p.  316. 

Guthrie,  Thomas,  D.D.,an  eminent  Scottbh  pul- 
pit orator,  philanthropist,  and  social  reformer,  was  bom 
July  12, 1803,  at  Brechin,  Forfarshire,  where  his  father 
was  a  merchant  and  banker.  He  went  through  the  cur- 
riculum of  study  prescribed  by  the  (church  of  Scotland 
to  candidates  for  the  mmistry,  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  devoted  two  additional  winters  to  the  study  of 
chemistry,  natural  history,  and  anatomy.  Meanwhile 
he  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Brechin 
in  1825 ;  subsequently  spent  six  months  in  Paris,  study- 
ing the  physical  sciences.  In  1830  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Chureh  at  ArWrlot,  in  his  native  county,  and  in 
1837  was  appointed  one  of  the  ministers  of  Old  Grey> 
friars  parish,  ki  Edinburgh.  Hero  his  eloquence,  com- 
bined with  devoteil  labors  to  reclaim  the  degraded  pop- 
ulation of  one  of  the  worst  districts  of  the  city,  soon 
won  for  htm  a  high  place  in  public  estimation.  In 
1843  he  Joined  the  Free  Church,  and  for  a  long  scries 
of  years  continued  to  minister  to  a  large  and  influential 
congregation  in  Edinburgh.  In  1845  and  1846  he  per- 
formed a  great  service  for  the  Free  Church  by  his  ad- 
vocacy throughout  the  country  of  its  scheme  for  pro- 
Tiding  manses  or  residences  for  its  ministers.  His  zeal 
was  not  diverted  in  mera  denominational  or  sectarian 
channeU.  He  came  forward  in  1847  as  the  advocate 
of  ragged  schools,  and  to  him  the  rapid  extension  of  the 
system  over  the  kingdom  is  very  much  to  be  ascribed. 
He  also  earnestly  exerted  himself  in  many  ways  in  op- 
position to  intemperance  and  other  vices.  He  possessed 
great  rhetorical  talent,  and  his  style  was  remarkable  for 
the  abundance  and  variety  of  the  illustrations  he  used. 
Few  public  speakers  have  ever  blended  solemnity  and 


deep  pathos  so  intimately  with  the  humoroosy  his  ten- 
dency to  which  has  more  frequently  than  anything 
else  been  pointeil  out  as  his  fault  Dr.  Guthrie  always 
displayed  a  generous  sympathy  with  all  that  tended  to 
progress  or  improvement  of  any  kind.  He  was  mod- 
erator of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland  in  May,  1862,  and  died  near  Edinburgh,  Feb. 
23, 1873.  His  most  important  published  works  are,  The 
Gospel  in  Rztkiel,  a  series  of  discoarses  ^— TAe  Way  of 
Life,  a  volume  of  sermons : — A  Plea  for  Drunkards  and 
againH  Drunkemess : -^  A  Plea  for  Ragged  SdiooU, 
followed  by  a  second  and  a  third  plea,  the  latter  under 
the  title.  Seed -time  and  Harvest  of  Bagged  SekooU: 
—The  City,  its  Sins  and  Sorrows  .'—A  Sufficient  Main- 
tenance and  an  Efficient  Ministry  (Edinburgh,  1852, 8vo). 
He  edited  a  new  edition  of  Berridge's  Christian  World 
Unmasked  (ibid.  1856, 8%'o).  For  some  years  before  his 
death  he  acted  as  editor  of  The  Sunday  Magatine, 
founded  in  1864,  in  which  year  he  retired  frona  bia  reg- 
ular ministrations.  His  A  utobiography  and  Memoir  was 
published  by  bis  sons  (1873),  and  his  Works  (187S-76» 
11  vols.).  See  also  Popular  Preachers,  p.  38;  Smith, 
Our  Scottish  Clergy  (£dinb.l848),p.342;  (Lond.)  Evan- 
gelical Magazine,  Febmary,  1874;  Aliibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  ▼.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Ouy.    See  Gui. 

Guy,  Thomas,  an  English  philanthropist,  founder 
of  Guy*s  Hospital,  was  born  at  Southwark  in  1644.  Af- 
ter serving  an  apprenticeship  of  eight  years,  he  began 
business  as  a  bookseller  in  1668.  He  dealt  largely  in 
Bibles,  which  he  at  first  imported  from  Holland,  but 
afterwards  printed  for  himselC  He  became  master  of 
an  immense  fortune,  and  died  unmarried,  Dec  17, 1724. 
In  1707  he  built  three  wards  of  St.  Thomas's  Hospital, 
and  aided  it  in  other  ways.  He  built  Guy's  Hospital 
at  a  cost  of  over  £18,000,  and  left  an  endowment  of 
£219,499.  He  also  made  other  gifts  and  bequests  foe 
hospitals  and  almshouses.  See  A  True  Copy  of  the 
Last  Witt  and  Testament  of  Thomas  Guy,  Eeq,  (Lond. 
1725) ;  Knight,  Shadows  of  the  Old  Booksellers  (1865), 
p.  323 ;  Encydop.  Brit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Giiyard,  Bkrhard,  a  French  Dominican,  was  bom 
in  1601,  and  died  at  Paris,  July  30, 1674,  a  doctor  of 
theology  and  provincial  of  his  order.  He  wrote.  La 
Vie  de  S.  Vine  Ferrier : — Diserinuna  inter  Doctrinam 
Thomistioam  et  Jansenianam : — La  Nourette  Apparition 
de  Luther  et  de  Calvin.  See  ^hard,  De  Scr^itoribms 
Orditiis  Dondnicanorum ;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GeUkr- 
ten-Lexikon,  s.  ▼.;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bidg.  Generate,  a.  r. 

(B.P.) 

Giiyet,  Charles,  a  French  Jesnit,  was  bom  at 
Tours  in  1601,  taught  theology  fifteen  years,  afterwards 
became  a  preacher,  and  died  in  the  same  city,  March 
80, 1664.  He  is  the  author  of  De  Festis  ProprOe  Lo- 
corum  et  Eedesiarum,  etc  (Paris,  1657  fol.).  See  Winer, 
Ilandbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  i,  616  sq.;  Jocher,  Allgemeinee 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Alegambe,  BAUoiheea  Scrytto^ 
rum  Societatis  Jesu;  Ba3'le,  Dietionnaire  Bistoriqwe 
Critique ;  Hoefer,  iVbicv.  Biog.  Gen^ale,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

GuyOQ,  Claude  Marie,  a  French  abbot,  who 
was  bom  in  1701,  and  died  at  Parif  in  1771,  is  the  au- 
thor of,  Histoire  des  Empires  et  des  Bipubligues  (Paris, 
1783,  12  voU.) :— Oracle  de  Nouveaux  PhUosophen  (2 
vols. ;  against  Voltaire) : — Apologie  des  Jtsuites  (17G2) : 
— Bilfliotheque  EccUsiastique  en  Forme  ^Instruction*  sur 
Touts  la  Religion  (1772, 8  vols.).  See  Now.  Diet,  fiist^  ; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gdehrten-Lexikon,  a.  ▼•     (B.  P.) 

Guyon,  Symphorlen,  a  priest  at  St  Victor,  ia 
Orieans,  who  flourished  in  the  17th  century,  is  the  author 
of,  Notitia  Sanctorum  Ecclesia  Aurelianensis  (1687), 
which  was  again  published  in  French  in  1647  nnder  the 
title,  Bistoire  de  r^glise  et  Dioc^,  ViUe  et  UnivemHi 
d'Orleans.  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  822  ; 
Le  Long,  Bibliotheque  I/istorique  de  France;  Jdcher, 
AUgemeines  GeUhrlen-l^exikon,  s.  v.    (BL  P.) 


GUZMAN 


503 


HABDALAH 


Gasman,  LuoovicOi  provincUl  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Seville  and  Toledo,  was  born  at  Osomo,  in  Castile,  in 
1554,  sod  died  at  Madrid,  Jan.  10, 1G05.  He  published 
//iif.  de  lot  MiMtiontM  tn  la  India  Oriental  (Alcala,  1601 
foL>  See  Alegambe,  Bibiiotkeca  Scriptorum  Societatii 
Je$u;  Antonii  BibUotkeea  Bi^panica;  Jochet,  A  Uge- 
iMMtf  GeUhrtm-LeiihoH,  s.  v.;  Winer,  ffandbuch  der 
OeoLLiL  i,Ui,    (B.  P.) 

Oydngydsl  (di  Peteny),  Paulus,  a  Hungarian  Re- 
formed theologian,  was  born  in  1668.  He  studietl  in 
Englsnd  and  at  Franeker,  and  took  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor of  theology  at  the  latter  place  in  1700.  Having  re- 
turned to  his' country,  be  was  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
coogregtdon  at  Kaschau,  but  he  had  to  leave  that 
place  in  1724,  and  went  to  Frankfurt-on-tbe-Oder,  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology.  He  died  there 
in  1743,  leaving,  De  Fatit  Sexta  Novi  Tettamenti  JEtaU 


(Franeker,  1700)  *. — Ditp,  Dum  m  iivnfiov€vruc6y  Amo- 
fit  Chrieti  et  CkriHianorum  (ibid.  1700)  :~.4  Uare  Paeit, 
pro  Votu  Vienieu  Eredvm;  Arm  Pilati  GaKlmorum 
SuhitUuendem  (Basle,  1722),  written  against  the  bishop 
of  Agran  and  the  Jesuit  Timon,  who  wrote  against  the 
ProtestanU;  the  publication  of  this  work  was  the  cause 
of  his  leaving  the  country  i—De  Revertniia  Temphrum 
Novi  Test,  (Frankfort,  1781):— />«  J/ora  Dei  (1783): 
•^Speculum  'EXtvOipiac  (1784)  :— Z)e  Lapidibus  SamO' 
ria  (1736) :— />e  Glorijcaiione  ChtiMi  (1788),  etc  See 
Moser,  JetzUebeude  Tkeologen;  Duukel,  Nachricktenj  iii« 
725;  Horanyi,  Ifem.  JSTim^. ;  Jocher,  All^emeinet  (re- 
lehrten-Lexihonf  s.  ▼.     (B.  P.) 

Gypoer  (or  Qypsjrre,  Fr.gibecUre),  (1)  the  medi- 
eval term  for  a  hanging  bag ;  (2)  a  pouch  or  flat  burse 
or  purse,  with  a  mouth  or  opening  of  metal,  strung  to  the 
girdle,  often  represented  in  English  m9numental  brasses. 


H. 


Haab,  Philip  Heixricii,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  at  Stuttgart,  Oct.  9, 1758,  and  died 
pastor  at  Schweigem,  Wttrtemberg,  in  1888.  He  is  the 
author  of,  Hebrditcke  Griechiache  Grammatik  sum  (?e- 
brauck  Jur  das  Neue  Testament  (Tubingen,  1815)  :— 
BdigumsmUerridU  durch  BibdgesckkhU  (1818, 2  parts) : 
^Behraehiungen  Hber  die  LeidensgesckidUe  Jesu  Christi 
nach  dem  Bericht  der  4  EvangeHen  (Heilbronn,  1830). 
See  Winer,  Handbuck  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  126 ;  ii,  254, 403 ; 
Znchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  482.     (a  P.) 

Haag;  Gibobo  Fribdricii,  a  Lutheran  minister  of 
Germany,  who  died  March  19,  1875,  is  the. author  of, 
CknstUcies  LekrbuckUia  oder  evangeL  Kaiechumenen 
Unterridkt  (Heidelberg,  1842)  i—CkrisUiehes  BausbOch- 
kin  (3d  ed.  ISGX):  —  Hibiische  Geschiehten  (1855):— 
Evangdisckes  ffausbuek  (eod.)  i-^Zeuffnisse  aus  der  la^ 
tieriscAm  Kirche  (1861).  See  Zuchold,  BOd,  Tkeol  i, 
482.     (B.  P.) 

Haak,  Tueodobk,  an  English  divine  and  natural 
philosopher,  was  bom  in  1605  at  Neuhausen,  near  Worms, 
in  Germany,  and  was  educated  partly  in  his  native  coun- 
try, and  finally  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  He  then 
visited  some  of  the  Continental  universities,  and  returned 
to  Oxford  in  1629,  but  without  taking  a  degree  was  or^ 
dained,  in  1682,  deacon  to  bishop  Hall  of  Exeter.  He 
gave  himself  up  to  literary  pursuits,  and  was  devoted 
to  the  interests  of  parliament  during  the  rebellion.  He 
died  in  London,  May  9, 1690.  He  published  the  Dutch 
Annotations  on  the  Bike  (1657,  2  vols.  foL);  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Westminster  Assembly,  and  translated 
into  Dutch  several  theological  works.  He  seems  to 
have  been  the  first  to  propose  the  Royal  Society.  Some 
of  hb  letters  appeared  in  the  Philosophical  Collections 
(May,  1682).     See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Haar,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  a  dwarf,  made  of 
and  living  in  stones. 

Haaa^  Carl,  a  German  convert  to  the  Church  of 
Rome,  was  bom  Oct.  18, 1804.  He  studied  theol<^|^ 
at  Tubingen,  and  became  a  Protestant  minister.  In 
1843  he  was  dismissed  from  the  ministry,  having  the 
year  before  published  Die  Glaubensgegensdize  des  Pro- 
tettaniismus  und  KathoUcismus,  He  joined  the  Church 
of  Rome  at  Augsburg,  in  1844,  and  published  on  that 
occasion  Ojfenes  SendstAreibeH  an  seine  lidte  Gemeinde^ 
He^  Mod  Proiestantisnms  und  KathoUcismus,  He  now  set 
himself  to  write  in  the  interest  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  published  Josephs  und  Konrads  Feierstunden  (Aogs- 
bofg;  1845) : — Populdre  Kirehengesckichte,  mit  besonderer 
BerUcksicktiffung  der  ReformnUionsgeschichte  (2d  ed. 
1846) : — BeieuehUnig  grosser  VoruriheiU  qegen  die  Ka- 
thoUsche  Kirche  (1857)  i-^Geschichte  der  Pdpste  (1860) : 
— Dis  zmH  Hauptfeinde  des  Christenihums  (1866):— 
ffaiur  und  Gnade  (1867).  After  the  Vatican  council, 
Haas  renouDced  again  the  Church  of  Rome,  without  re- 
turning to  the  Evangelical  Church,  and  to  Justify  him- 


self, he  published  Nach  Rom  und  wm  Rom  turUck  nach 
Wiaenba-g  (Barmen,  1882).  In  1881  be  published  Der 
ung^fUlsrJkte  Luther  nach  den  Urdruchen  der  leSmgL 
dffentl,  BibUothek  in  Stuttgart  hergettellt,  Haas  died 
Dec.  21, 1883.    See  Zuchold,  fii5f.  7Aeo/.  i,  484.    (EP.) 

Haaa,  Carl  I^rans  Lubert,  a  Reformed  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  born  Aug.  12,  1722,  at  CasseL 
He  studied  at  Marburg,  commenced  his  academical  ca- 
reer there  in  1748,  was  professor  in  1754,  and  died  OcL 
29, 1789.  He  wrote.  Diss,  Historica  de  Meritis  Philippi 
MagnaninU  in  Reformationem  (Marburg,  1742):  — Z>e 
Eutichianismo  et  Variis  Ejus  Sectis  (ibid.  1746) :—  Ver- 
such  einer  Uessischen  Kirchengesehichte  (ibid.  1782).  See 
Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theohgen  Deutschlands,  s.  ▼.; 
Winer,  Handbuck  der  theoL  LiL  i,  798.     (B.  P.) 

Haaa,  Nikolaaa,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Gei^ 
many,  was  bom  Nov.  25, 1665.  He  studied  at  Altdorf 
and  Leipsic,  was  pastor  in  1686,  and  died  July  26, 1715, 
leaving,  De  Princ^norum  Moralium  Existentia^  D^finif 
tione  et  Divisione  {168d):  —  De  Astrohgia  Judieiaria 
(16So):—UeUige  Unterredungen  mU  Gott  (1689)  :-<£^»- 
chirifHon  Catediisnii  Lutheri  contra  Papiatcu  (1703),  be- 
sides a  number  of  ascetical  works.  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theohgen  DeutscMands,  s.  v.;  Winer,  Band- 
buch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  166 ;  Jiksher,  Allgemeines  Gekhrten- 
Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Habadim  (or  rather  Chabadim)^  a  subdivision  of 
the  Jewish  sect  of  Chasidim,  founded  by  rabbi  Solo- 
mon, in  the  government  of  Mohilef,  in  the  18th  century. 
The  name  u  composed  of  the  initial  letters  of  the  three 
Hebrew  words,  r5*l,  W^a,  rtosn,  "wisdom,  intelli- 
gence, and  knowledge."  They  may  not  improperly  be 
termed  the  "  Jewish  Quietists,**  as  their  peculiarity  con- 
sists in  the  rejection  of  external  forms  and  the  complete 
abandonment  of  the  mind  to  abstraction  and  contem- 
plation. Instead  of  the  baptisms  customary  among  the 
Jews,  they  go  through  the  signs  without  the  use  of  the 
element,  and  consider  it  their  duty  to  disengage  them- 
selves as  much  as  possible  from  matter,  because  of  its 
tendency  to  clog  the  mind  in  its  ascent  to  tbe  aupreme 
source  of  intelligence.  In  prayer  they  make  no  use  of 
words,  but  simply  place  themselves  in  tbe  attitude  of 
supplication,  and  exercise  themselves  in  mental  ejacn- 
lations. 

Habakkuk;  the  Hebrew  prophet,  is  commemo- 
rated in  the  old  Roman  martyrologies  on  Jan.  15. 

HabdalAh  (nb'intl,  distmetion),  a  ceremony  by 
which  the  Jewish  Sabbath  is  divided  or  separated  from 
the  other  days  of  the.  week.  It  is  performed  after  the 
concluding  service  in  the  synagogue,  by  reciting  pas- 
sages of  ikripture  and  prayers,  and  the  use  of  wine  and 
spices.  On  Sabbath  evening  four  benedictions  are  said, 
one  over  the  wine,  a  second  over  the  spice,  the  third 
over  the  light,  **  Blessed  art  thou  Lord  our  God,  king 


I 


HXBERLIN 


504 


RACKET 


of  the  woild,  who  haat  created  a  shining  light,**  and  the 
last  is,  "  Blessed  art  thou,  Lord  our  God,  king  of  the 
universe,  who  hast  made  a  distinction  (^"^"^S^ij)  be- 
tween the  holy  and  the  common,  between  light  and 
darkness,  between  Israel  and  the  other  nations,  between 
the  seventh  day  and  the  other  six  days  of  work ;  blessed 
be  thou,  O  God,  who  hast  made  a  distinction  between 
the  holy  and  the  common."  If  for  any  reason  a  Jew 
is  prevented  from  performing  this  ceremony,  either  at 
home  or  abroad,  he  is  at  liberty  to  substitute  the  follow- 
ing short  benediction :  **  Blessed  is  he  who  has  made  a 
distinction  between  things  sacred  and  profane."  See 
Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chald.  Tal  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

HUberlin,  Georg  HBrNRicn,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  born  at  Stuttgart,  Sept.  30, 1644. 
He  studied  at  Tubingen,  became  deacon  in  1668,  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology  in  1681,  member  of  consistory 
and  preacher  in  1692,  and  died  Aug.  20,  1699,  leaving, 
Specimen  TkeohgitB  Practicce:  —  Conspectus  Locorum 
Theologicorum: — Thechgia  Corinihiaca  in  Forma  Sys- 
tematis  Proposita: — De  Pnncipio  Fidei: — De  Unions 
Fidelium  cum  Christo : — De  Justifications  Tlominis  Co- 
ram Deo:  —  De  Satisfactions  Christi: — De  Chiliasmo 
I/odumOf  Fidei  Christiana  Ruina  ei  InfidelUatis  JudO" 
icas  Firmamento^  etc.  See  Fischlin,  Memoria  Theolo- 
gorum  WiSkrtsnAergensium ;  JochcTf  Al^meines  GeleJir' 
te»-Lexikon^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Habert,  Louis,  a  French  theologian  and  doctor  of 
the  Sorbonne,  was  bom  at  Blois  in  1638,  and  died  at 
Paris,  April  17, 1718.  He  is  the  author  of,  Pratique  du 
Sacrement  de  Petiitence  (Paris,  1714, 1729),  better  known 
as  the  Pratique  de  Verdun,  He  also  wrote  Tkeologia 
Dogmatica  et  Moraiis  ad  Usum  Seminarii  Catalamien- 
tis  (Lyons,  1709-12,  7  vols.),  which  was  attacked  and 
condemned  by.  Pension.  Being  opposed  to  the  bull 
Utiigemtust  Habert  was  exiled  in  1714,  and  only  returned 
to  Paris  after  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  See  Llchtenber- 
ger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v. ;  Agricola, 
Bil>L  Eccles.  iii,  212 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugenieines  GeUhrten-f.exi- 
bony  s.  V. ;  Uoefer,  N'ouv.  Biog,  Genh'ale^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Habibua.    See  Abibas. 

Habichliorst,  Andreas  Daniei^  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  who  died  at  Greifswalde,  Aug.  30, 
1704,  professor  of  t'heologj',  is  the  author  of,  Tractatus 
de  Melchisedeci  Historia  et  Figura: — Dissertationes 
Exegeticm  in  lUustriora  lesaia  Loca :  —  Breviarium 
FormulcB  Concordia  et  Controversiarum  SgncretisticO' 
Pietisticarum :  —  Dissertationes  de  AUari  Gideoms :  — 
De  Ephod  Gideoms : — De  Magistratus  et  Suppliciorum 
Capitalium  Consiitvtione  Dicina: — De  Sanctorum  cum 
Christo  Redieivorum  Resurrectione :  —  De  Abrahamo 
Sola  Fide  Justificato  :—De  lesaia  Trimtatis  Pracone, 
See  Pipping,  Memoria  Theologorum;  J Qcher ^  A  llgemei- 
nes  GeUhrta^Lexikony  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Habitaole  (Lat  habiiaculum)  (1)  a  residence ;  (2) 
a  niche. 

Hachilah,  Hill  of.  Lieut.  Gonder  suggests  fur 
this  spot  ^uar.  Statement  of  the  *' Palest.  Explor. 
Fund,"  January,  1876,  p.  47)  "  the  high  hill  bounded  by 
deep  valleys  north  and  south  on  which  the  ruin  of 
Yekin  now  stands,"  and  Tristram  (^Bihle  Lands^  p.  63) 
coincides  in  this  identification ;  but  if  this  be  the  site 
of  the  ancient  city  Cain  (q.  v.),  it  can  hardly  be  also 
xhat  of  Hachilah ;  and,  in  fact,  the  latter  is  not  a  proper 

jiame  at  all,  as  it  invariably  has  the  article  (pb*^3nn, 
as  being  a  mere  appendage  of  Ziph).  Later,  Lieut. 
Conder  proposes  another  site  (Tent  Work,  ii, 91) :  "  This 
(iiill]  I  would  propose  to  recognise  in  the  long  ridge 
called  EUKolah,  running  out  of  the  Ziph  plateau  tow- 
jHds  the  Dead  Sea  desert  or  Jeshimon,  a  district  which, 
pnperly  speaking,  terminates  ^bout  this  line,  melting 
into  the  Beersheba  plains.  On  the  north  side  of  the  hill 
aie  ihe  *(^ve8  of  the  Dreamers,'  perhaps  the  actual 
scene  of  David's  flesccnt  on  Saul's  sleeping  guards."  As 
to  the  **  wood  {dtoresh)  of  Ziph,"  he  remarka  (p.  89) : 


*<  A  moment's  redection  will  convince  any  travelleT  that 
as  the  dry,  porous  formation  of  the  plateau  must  be  un- 
changed since  David's  time,  no  wood  of  trees  could  then 
have  flourished  over  this  anwatered  and  sun-scorched 
region.  The  true  explanation  seems  to  be  that  the 
word  chorcsh  is  a  proper  name  with  a  diffeient  signifi- 
cation, and  such  is  the  view  of  the  Greek  version  and 
of  Josephus.  We  were  able  considerably  to  strengthen 
this  theory  by  the  discovery  of  the  ruin  of  Khoreiaa 
and  the  valley  of  Hiresh  (the  same  word  under  another 
form),  close  to  Ziph,  the  first  of  which  may  well  be 
thought  to  represent  the  Hebrew  Chorcsh-Ziph."  But 
the  latter  term  likewise  is  a  mere  denominative,  for  it 
Ukes  the  article  (nC^Hn,  1  Sam.  xxiii,  15, 18),  and  is 
elsewhere  used  plainly  with  reference  to  trees  (Iso.  xrii, 
9;  Ezek.  xxxi,  8). 

Hacke,  Nicholas  P.,  D.D.,  a  German  Refonnetl 
minister,  was  bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Sept.  20,  1800. 
At  the  age  of  six  years  he  was  sent  to  a  relative  in 
Bremen,  Germany,  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  German  language.  He  returned  to  America  in 
1816,  and  studied  theology  privately  until  1819,  when 
he  accepted  an  invitation  to  preach  to  some  confi^rega- 
tions  in  Westmoreland  County,  Pa.,  retuniing  to  his 
studies  the  same  year.  Ho  was  licensed  and  ordained 
in  1819,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Greensburg  charge, 
which  he  served  fifty-eight  years,  and  died  there,  Aug. 
25,  1878.  During  the  greater  part  of  his  rainistrA*  he 
preached  exclusively  in  the  German  language.  He  was 
a  student  all  his  life,  and  used  the  English  language 
with  ease  and  grace.  He  was  fully  consecrated  to  his 
work,  remarkable  for  his  social  powers,  caring  not  for 
worldly  honors,  a  model  Christian  gentleman,  and  faith- 
ful minister  of  the  gospeL  See  Harbangh,  Fatkera  of 
the  Germ,  Ref  Church,  v,  800. 

Hacker,  Joaohlin  Bemhard  Nikolaus,  a 

Protestant*  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  11, 
1760,  at  Dresden.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  died 
at  Zscheyla,  in  Saxony,  Oct.  4, 1817,  leaving  some  ascet- 
ical  works,  for  which  see  Doring,  Deutsche  Kanselred" 
ner ;  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theoL  LU,  ii,  356, 886.    (B.  P.) 

Hacker,  Johann  Georg  Angnst,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Dresden,  Jan.  24, 
1762.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1784  preacher 
at  Torgau,  in  1790  garrison-preacher  at  Dresden,  in  179C 
court -preacher  there,  and  died  Feb.  21,  1828,  leaving 
Diss,  InauguraHs  de  Desctnsu  Christi  ad  Inferos  (Wit- 
tenbeig,  1802),  and  several  volumes  of  sermons.  See 
Doring,  Deutsche  Kamelredner;  Winer,  Handhuck  der 
theol,LU,  i,  436;  ii,  82,  91, 127,  161,  172, 173, 183,  3G6, 
889.     (B,P.) 

Hackett,  Horatio  Balch,  D.D.,  LUD.,  an  emi- 
nent Baptist  scholar,  was  bom  at  Salisbury',  Mass.,  Dec 
27, 1808.  In  1823  he  entered  Phillips  A'cademy,  An> 
dover,  and  in  1827  Amherst  College ;  became  a  boperul 
Christian  in  1828,  and  was  valedictorian  in  1880.  He 
graduated  from  the  theological  seminary  at  Andover  in 
1834,  spending  one  year  meanwhile  as  tutor  in  Amherst 
College.  The  next  year  he  occupied  a  position  as  teacher 
of  classics  in  Mount  Hope  College,  Baltimore,  and  becanae 
a  member  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  that  city.  He 
was  adjunct  professor  of  l^atin  and  Greek  in  Ikown  Uni- 
versity for  four  years  (1835-39).  In  1889  be  was  elected 
professor  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Interpretation  in 
Newton  Theological  Institution,  and  the  same  year  was 
ordained  to  the  Christian  ministry.  Two  years  of  ear- 
nest devotion  to  the  cultivation  of  the  classes  which 
came  under  his  instraction  were  followed  by  a  jrear 
spent  abroad,  six  months  of  the  time  in  eam^t  study 
in  Halle,  Germany,  attending  the  lectures  of  Thoiuckf 
Gesenius,  Rodiger,  and  other  eminent  scholars,  and  fbor 
months  in  Berlin,  enjoying  the  instructions,  especially, 
of  Keander  and  Hengstenberg.  After  his  return  to 
America,  in  1842,  he  prepared  an  annotated  edition  of 
Plutafch*s  treatise  on  the  Delay  of  the  Dei/g  in  the  iPint- 
ishment  ofUte  Wichedj  devoting  also  much  time  to  the 


HACKETT 


506 


HADSHI-KHALFA 


study  of  Frenchi  Chaldee,  and  Syriac,  modern  Greek,  and 
Sanscrit.  Two  years  afterwards  he  published  a  trans- 
lation of  Winer^t  Grammar  of  the  Chaldee  Langitage, 
The  first  number  of  the  second  volume  of  the  BMio- 
ikeca  Saa'a,  January,  1845,  contains  his  critique  on  the 
jLf/e  o/Jesutf  by  Strauss.  In  the  number  of  the  same 
quarterly  fur  January,  1846,  is  an  able  article  on  the 
JSynoptieal  Study  of  the  Gospels^  and  Recent  Literature 
Pertaining  to  it.  The  next  year  (1847)  appeared  his 
Exerciges  in  Hebrew  Grammar ^  and  Selections  from  the 
Greek  Scriptures  to  he  Translated  into  Hebrew,  etc  The 
result  of  some  of  his  studies  in  connection  with  the 
preparation  of  this  volume  may  be  found  in  the  Janu- 
ary (1847)  number  of  the  BiUiotheca  SacrOf  in  the  form 
of  two  articles  from  his  pen,  The  Structure  of  the  He- 
brew Sentence,  and  The  Greek  Version  of  the  PetUateuch, 
by  Thiersch.  Then  came  his  great  work,  the  Commen- 
tary on  A  cts,  the  first  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1852. 
He  then  made  a  second  visit  to  Europe,  his  journey  be- 
ing extended  to  Palestine,  and  on  his  return  spending 
several  weeks  in  Germany.  In  1855  he  published  his 
lUuftrations  of  Scripture;  Suggested  by  a  Tour  through 
the  Holy  Land.  Soon  after,  he  set  out  upon  his  third 
foreign  tour,  spending  six  months  in  Athens,  for  the 
purpose  of  devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  modern 
Greek,  and  thence  making  excursions  in  different  di- 
rections in  Greece.  In  I860  the  Bible  Union  published 
his  Notes  on  the  Greek  Text  of  the  EpistU  of  Paul  to 
Philemon,  as  the  basis  of  a  revision  of  the  common  Eng- 
lish version;  and  a  Revised  Version,  with  Notes,     In 

1864  appeared  his  Christian  Memorials  of  the  War, 
During  the  same  period  he  wrote  thirty  articles  for  the 
orij^inal  edition  of  Dr.  William  Smith's  Dictionary.  In 
1861  he  wrote  an  introduction  to  the  American  edition 
of  Westcott's  Stucfy  of  the  Gospels ;  in  the  winter  of 

1865  he  began  to  edit  an  American  edition  of  Smith's 
IHctionary  of  the  Bible,  aided  by  Dr.  Ezra  Abbot,  He 
was  also  engaged  by  Dr.  Schaff  to  translate  Van  Oos- 
terzee*3  Commentary  on  Philemon,  for  his  edition  of 
Lange^B  Commentaries,  and  Brauno's  Commentary  on 
PhUippians,  for  the  same  series.  He  published  in  1867 
a  second  revised  edition  of  Plutarch  us  de  Sera  Numinis 
Veri  Dicta,  with  notes  prepared  by  himself  and  profess- 
or W.  S.  Tyler,  of  Amherst  College.  Professor  Ilack- 
ett's  connection  with  the  Newton  Theological  Institu- 
tion closed  with  its  anniversary*,  June  24, 1868.  Two 
years  were  next  spent  in  laborious  study  in  his  favorite 
department,  translating  and  revising  the  books  of  Ruth 
and  of  Judges  for  the  Bible  Union,  upon  tlie  American 
edition  of  Smith's  Dictionaiy  of  the  Bible,  and  upon  trans- 
lations which  he  engaged  to  make  for  Dr.  Schaff;  also, 
in  1870,  spending  several  months,  once  more,  in  the  Old 
World.  Having  been  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Bib- 
lical Literature  and  New  Testament  Exegesis,  in  the 
Bochf»ter  Theological  Seminary,  he  entered  upon  the 
duties  of  his  ofitce  in  the  fall  of  1870.  The  same  zeal 
and  enthusiasm  which  characterized  his  instructions  at 
Newton  marked  his  teachings  at  Rochester.  Five 
years  of  work  were  followed  by  another  of  those  vaca- 
tions in  which  be  took  so  much  delight,  a  vacation 
passed  amid  the  scenes  of  the  Old  World.  He  returned, 
apparently  greatl}'  refreshed  and  strengthened,  to  enter 
anew  upon  his  work,  when  the  summons  suddenly  came, 
telling  him  that  his  work  was  done.  He  -died  almost 
instantly,  Nov.  2, 1875,  at  his  own  home  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.  See  Memorials  of  H,  B,  Uackett,  edited  by  G. 
H.  Whiuemore  (Rochester,  1876).    (J.  C.  S.) 

Sackett,  Thomas,  D.D.«  an  Irish  prelate,  was 
bishop  of  Down  and  Connor  in  1672.  He  was  deprived 
for  simony  in  1694.  He  published  some  Sermons  (1672). 
Sec  AUibone,  Dici,ofBrU.  and  Amer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Etackluit.    See  Hakluyt. 

Sadarniel,  in  the  Talmud,  is  an  angel  of  the  heav- 
en of  fixed  stars,  and  commander  of  fire ;  therefore  more 
than  twelve  thousand  flashes  of  lightning  come  from 
his  mouth  at  everv  word  he  utters.    He  woukl  not  al- 


low Moses  to  wander  throngh  the  air,  when  the  latter 
came,  at  the  command  of  God,  to  receive  the  law.  God 
chided  him,  therefore  he  offered  his  servicea,  to  go  be- 
fore Moses,  and  announce  his  words. 

Hadasai,  Jehuda,  a  learned  Karaite  Jew,  was  bora 
towards  the  end  of  the  11th  century,  at  Jerusalem,  and 
died  between  1150  and  1160.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
great  work,  bearing  upon  the  literature  of  the  Karaite 
Jews,  entitled,  ns'sn  b'siTK,  also  oben   "IBD,  first 

published  at  Koslo v,  1836.  '  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  353 ; 
Geschichte  der  Karaer,  ii,  211  sq. ;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario 
Storico  (Germ,  transl),  p.  120.    (B.  P.) 

Hadelin  (Lat.  HadaUnus),  Saint,  priest  and  con- 
fessor, who  died  about  690,  was  one  of  the  disciples  of  St. 
Remade,  and  when  that  saint  resigned  his  bishopric  of 
Foug^res,  that  he  might  retire  into  the  peaceful  monas- 
tery of  Sunislawow,  lately  founded  by  St.  Sigebert,  king 
of  Austrasia,  he  took  with  him  the  pious  Hadelin.  Re- 
made sent  Hadelin  into  Dinant,  on  the  Mcuse,  in  669,  and 
finding  a  quiet  retreat  at  Celles,  on  the  Lesse,  he  dwelt 
there  in  a  cave,  and  built  a  little  chapel,  on  the  site  of 
which  afterwards  rose  a  collegiate  church.  St.  Hadelin 
is  the  patron  of  five  churches  in  the  diocese  of  Liege  and 
Namur.  His  hermitage  still  exists,  and  has  never  been 
without  a  pious  successor.  The  body  of  this  saint  was 
buried  there,  but  w^as  translated  to  Vise,  in  the  diocese 
of  Liege,  in  1338.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  martyrolo- 
gies  of  Ado,  Wyon,  Menardus,  those  of  Liege,  Cologne, 
etc  There  are  two  ancient  livc^one  bj'  Notkcr,  bish- 
op of  Liege  (971-1007).  See  Baring-Gould,  Lices  oj 
the  Saittts  (sub.  Feb.  3,  his  day),  ii,  49. 

Hadeloga  (or  Adaloga),  Saint,  commemorated 
Feb.  2,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  abbess  of  the  nun- 
nery of  Kissingcn,  and  a  daughter  of  Charles  Martel,  in 
the  8th  century.     See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Hadid.  The  modern  site,  Hadithek,  is  laid  down 
on  the  Ordnance  Map  as  three  miles  east  of  Ludd,  and 
is  described  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs  (ii,  297; 
comp.  p.  322)  as  '*  a  moderate-sized  village  on  a  terraced 
tell  at  the  mouth  of  a  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  hills, 
with  a  well  to  the  east.  There  are  remains  of  a  con- 
siderable town  round  it;  tombs  and  quarries  exist;  and 
the  mound  on  which  the  village  stands  is  covered  with 
pottery." 

Hadith,  a  name  given  by  Mohammedans  to  the 
sayings  of  Mohammed,  which  were  handed  down  by 
oral  tradition  from  one  generation  to  another.  There 
arc  said  to  be  six  authors  of  these  traditions,  among 
whom  are  Ayesha,  the  wife  of  the  prophet;  Abu-Ho- 
rcira,  his  intimate  friend;  and  Ibn- Abbas,  his  cousin- 
german.  The  collection  of  these  traditions  made  by 
Khuarezmi  numbers  5266  sayings,  all  of  which  the  de- 
vout Mohammedan  ought  to  commit  to  memory,  or, 
where  that  cannot  be  done,  to  transcribe  them.  See 
Gardner,  Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  v. 

Hadila.    See  Adria. 
Hadrian.    See  Adkian. 

Hddflhi - BIhalf a  (originally  Mustafa  ben-Ab- 
dallah,  also  known  by  the  name  of  Katib-Tshelebi),  a 
most  celebrated  Turkish  historian,  geographer,  and  bi- 
ographer, was  bora  at  Constantinople  about  1605.  He 
was  for  some  time  secretary  to  the  sultan,  Murad  IV, 
and  died  in  1658.  His  main  production  is  a  great  bio- 
graphical lexicon,  Keshful-funun,  written  in  Arabic,  in 
which  he  gives  the  titles  of  more  than  18,000  Arabic, 
Persian,  and  Turkish  works,  with  short  biographies  of 
the  authors.  It  is  of  the  greatest  value,  since  it 
enumerates  a  great  many  others  which  seem  to  have 
been  lost.  Hammer-Purgstall  largely  used  this  work 
for  his  Encyklopadische  Uebersicht  der  Wissenschofien 
des  Orients  (Leipsic,  1806).  A  complete  edition  of 
Hadshi's  text,  with  a  Latin  translation,  was  published 
by  FlUgel,  Lexicon  BiUiographicum  el  Encychpadicum 
(Lond.  1835-58, 7  vols.).  Hadshi  also  published  chrono- 
logical tables,  Takwim-al-tawarikh  (translated  into 


HADWINUS 


506 


HAHN 


Latin  by  Reiske,  Leipsie,  1766),  and  a  geography, 
Jhehih&HUtmd  (Latin  tranid.  by  Korberg,  Lund,  1818, 
2  vols.).     (R  P.) 

Hadwinua,  Saint,    See  Ghadornus. 

BaBmaterlaB.    See  Chelidohius. 

Haenir,  in  None  mythology.  When  the  Wanes 
and  Asas,  after  a  long  war,  agreed  on  an  armistice,  they 
exchanged  hostages.  The  Asas  got  the  Wane  Niord, 
the  Wanes  the  Asa  Hsnir,  who  was  very  beautifal,  bot 
had  no  mental  gifts,  and  soon  the  Wanes  ceased  to  re- 
spect him.  Both  hostages  remain  in  the  power  of  their 
enemies  until  the  destruction  of  the  world,  when  they 
will  return  to  their  kindred. 

Haer,  Frakciscus  van  dkr,  a  theologian  and  his- 
torian of  Utrecht,  who  died  at  Louvain,  Jan.  18, 1682,  is 
the  author  of.  Catena  A  urea  in  IV  Evangelia: — Con- 
cordia UiitoritB  Sacra  et  Profanm  (1614)  x—Jewa  Na- 
tarenut  Afesnas  Damelii: — Biblia  Sacra  Vulgata:  — 
— Expotitio  in  EpittoUu  Patdi : — De  Sacrameniis,  See 
Burmann,  Trajedum  ErwUtutn;  Jdcher,  AUgemeinet 
Gelekrten'Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hafedab,  an  idol  of  the  Adites,  a  tribe  of  Arabians 
who  inhabited  the  country  of  Hadhramaut,  in  Yemen,  or 
Arabia  Felix.  It  was  principally  invoked  for  prosperi- 
ty- in  travelling. 

Wkfeli,  JoiiAMiv  Caspar,  a  Protestant  theologian, 
was  bom  May  1, 1754,  in  Switzerland.  He  studied  at 
Zurich,  was  vicar  in  V7B,  in  1784  chaplain  to  the  prince 
of  Dessau,  in  1793  preacher  at  Bremen,  in  1802  profess- 
or at  the  gymnasium  there,  in  1805  superintendent  at 
Bemburg,  and  died  April  4, 1811.  He  is  the  author  of 
some  ascetical  works.  See  During,  Deutsche  Kanzel^ 
redner;  Winer,  Handbudk  der  theol.  Lit,  ii,  47, 157, 168, 
201,204,812.    (B.P.) 

Hafen,  Johann  Baptist,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian, who  died  June  27, 1870,  is  the  author  of,  Strenff- 
kirchlichkeit  und  Liberalitmus  in  der  KathoL  Kirche 
(Ulm,  1842)  \—Behandlung  der  Ekesachen  im  Bistkum 
Rottenhurg  (1867)  i—Predigten  (1866, 3  vols.).     (R  P.) 

Hafenmg,  Johakx  Caspar,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Grermany,  was  born  Feb.  14, 1669.  He  studied  at  Wit- 
tenberg, and  died  there  May  17, 1744,  doctor  and  profess- 
or of  theology.  He  wrote,  De  Defectibu*  AJUdiomtm 
Chritti  a  Paulo  Suppiendis: — De  Bileamo  Ineantatore 
et  Propheta  Periodica  :—De  Cautie  cur  Chrittus  Morte 
Crucis  Voluerit  Mori: — De  Sanguine  Jetu  Chritti: — 
De  Mgsierio  Trwiiati*^  in  Libris  Apocryphit  Ohvio^  etc 
See  Moser,  Lexicon  jeiztUhender  Theologen;  Freher, 
Theairum  Eruditorum;  Ncubauer,  Nachricht  von  den 
jetttlebenden  Gottesgekhrten ;  Jocher,  AUgemeinet  (7e- 
lehrten^Lexikonf  s.  v.     (B,  P.) 

Hafisi  (keepert),  a  name  given  to  Mohammedans 
who  commit  the  entire  Koran  to  memory,  aod  are  on 
that  account  regarded  as  holy  men,  intrusted  with  God*s 
law. 

Haftorang,  in  Persian  mythology,  is  the  god  and 
ruler  of  the  planet  Mars,  the  light  -  giver  and  health- 
restorer.  As  he  is  the  protector  of  the  northern  region 
and  its  stars,  he  may  be  the  seventh  constellation,  be- 
cause Hafti  denotes  teven, 

Hagemann,  Lorens,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Wolfenbllttel,  Aug.  10,  1692. 
He  studied  at  Jena,  was  preacher  in  1719  at  Bodenburg, 
in  1722  at  Nordhausen,  in  1728  at  Hanover,  in  1748 
general  superintendent,  and  died  in  1752.  He  wrote 
An  Ilomerut  Fuerii  Philotophut  Moralit  f  (Jena,  1712), 
besides  a  number  of  ascetical  works.  See  Ddring,  Die 
geUhrten  Theologen  Deuttchlandtf  s.  v.;  Jdcher,  Alige- 
mdnet  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hagemann,  Johann  Qeorg,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  who  died  at  Blankenburg  in  1765, 
a  superintendent,  wrote  Betrachtungen  fiber  die  JUt^f 
BUt^er  Motet  (Brunswick,  1782-44)  :~Kofi  den  vor^ 
nehmtten  Uebertettungen  der  heiHgen  Schrifl  (Quedlin- 


burg,  1747).    See  JckSher,  AUgemeUtu  Gdehrtm-LoB^ 
kon,  s.  V.    (R  P.) 

Hagen,  Friedrich  Caapar,  a  Latheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  April  18, 1741,  member  of  con- 
sistory, court-preacher,  and  superintendent  at  Bayreatb, 
is  the  author  of,  De  Conventu  Snobacence  (Bayrentb, 
1717)  :^De  ^pioput-)^  Pauli  (Wittenberg,  1708;  also 
found  in  Thetaurut  Novut  Theol  PhiM,  ii,  875  sq.) :~ 
MemoritB  Philotophorum,  Oraiorum^  Poetarum,  Hittori- 
corum,  etc  (Bayreuth,  1710):  —  Die  Autgabe  einer 
deuttchen  BibiU  Lutheru  See  Banmgarten,  MerhoSr' 
dige  BQcher,  ix,  107;  Winer,  Handbueh  der  theoL  LU,  i, 
751 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemdnet  Geiehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Hagenbaoh,  Karl  Rudolf,  a  Swiss  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Basle,  March  4,  1801.  Besides  the  uni- 
versity of  bis  native  place,  he  studied  at  Bonn  and  Ber- 
lin, and  in  these  places  received  the  instruction  of 
LQcke,  Schliermacher,  and  Neander.  Having  returned 
to  Basle,  he  commenced  his  academical  career  by  pre- 
senting Obtervationet  HiHorico  -  I/ermeneutica  drea 
Origenit  Methodum  Inierpretanda  Scrij^ra  Sacrm 
(1828),  and  six  years  later  he  was  made  professor  ordi- 
narius  in  the  theological  faculty.  For  fifty  years  he 
belonged  to  the  Basle  University,  and  exerted  a  wide 
influence,  not  only  as  a  teacher,  but  also  as  a  preacher. 
He  died  June  7,  1874.  Hagenbach^s  first  important 
work  was  EncgklopSdie  und  Methodologie  der  theoL  Wit- 
tentchaften  (Leipsic,  1883;  11th  ed.  by  Kautzseh,  1881; 
Engl,  transl.  by  Crooks  and  Hurst,  as  voU  iii  of  Library 
of  Biblical  and  Theological  Literature,  N.  T.  1884)  :— 
Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengetdiichte  (1840;  4th  ed.  1867; 
EngL  transL  by  Beech,  Edinburgh,  revised  and  enlaxged 
by  Dr.  H.  R  Smith,  N.  Y.  1861,  2  vols.;  new  ed.  with 
preface  by  Plumptre,  Edinburgh,  1880, 3  vols.) : — Gnad- 
MQge  der  ffomiletik  und  Liturgik  (1863).  His  largest 
work  is  the  Kirchengetchichte  von  der  attetien  Zeit  bit 
zum  19.  Jahrhundert  (Leipsic,  1869-72,  7  vols.;  that 
part  which  treats  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  Hurst,  N.  Y.  1869,2 
vols.)  '.—(Ecokmpad  unJ  Mgeoniut  (Elberfeld,  1859)  :— 
Predigten  (9  vols.).  Besides,  he  contributed  to  Heneog's 
Encgldopadia  and  other  theological  reviews.  See  Epp- 
ler,  Karl  Rudolf  ffagenbach  (GUteralohe,  1875);  Plitt- 
Herzog,  Real'Enegkhp,  &  v. ;  Lichteuberger,  Enrgdop, 
det  Sdencet  Bel^ieutetf  s.  v. ;  Zucbold,  BibL  TheoL  i, 
487  sq.     (RP.) 

Hager,  E.  W.,  D.D.,  a  PiotesUnt  Episcopal  clergy- 
man of  the  diocese  of  central  New  York,  was  a  chaplain 
of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  At  one  time  he  was  rector  of  All- 
Saints*  Church,  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  subsequently  of 
St.  George's  Church,  Utica,  N.  Y.  He  died  iu  Chicago^ 
DL,  July  7, 1880.  See  Whittaker,  id/numac  and  Dirte- 
tory,  1881. 

Hagioaoopa,  a  word  used  by  English  ecdeaasti- 
cal  writers  to  describe  openings  made  through  diffaent 
parts  of  the  interior  walls  o(  the  church,  generally  on 
either  side  of  the  chancel  arch,  so  as  to  alford  a  view  of 
the  altar  to  those  worshipping  in  the  aisles. 

Hagiosiclfiron  {ayiooiitipopi  holy  iron),  one  of  tbe 
substitutes  for  bells  still  used  in  the  East  (also  called 
t6  oidripovVf  Kpoifapa),  See  Sbxantiiom.  It  usually 
consists  of  an  iron  plate,  curved  like  the  tire  of  a  wheel, 


The  Hagloelderon. 

which  is  struck  with  a  hammer,  and  produces  a  aoond 
not  unlike  that  of  a  gong.  They  are  occasionally  made 
of  brass.  See  Neale,  Eattem  Churdk,  Int  p.  217,  SS5 ; 
Daniel,  Codex  Lit,  iv.  199. 
HagnoaldiUy  Stunt  See  Cagkoaldu& 
Habn,  Cbxtatoph  XTlrloh,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  <jermany,  was  bom  in  1805  at  Wnrtembciy. 


HAHN 


507 


HAIFA 


In  1833  he  was  deaoon,  in  1859  putor  at  Haalacb,  and 
died  Jan.  5, 1881,  at  Stuttgart,  doctor  of  theology  and 
philoflophj.  He  organized  the  Evangelical  Society  at 
Stuttgart,  and  took  a  great  interest  in  the  work  of 
misBtona.  tie  published,  Der  tymboHschen  Bucher  der 
evangelUck '  proUatcMiuckm  Ki^-che  Bcdeutung  vnd 
Sckiehate  (Stuttgart,  1883 ) :  —  (>« «cAicAte  der  miael- 
aJUarlidun  KeUter^  besimden  im  11.,  12. «.  )8.  Jahrhutt- 
dert  (1846-M,  8  yols,):-- HandlmMein  fur  Kirchen- 
Siteite  (1851).  See  Zucbold,  BUd.  TheoL  i,  490 ;  Winer, 
Handbuck  der  theoL  LU.  i,  835.     {K  P.) 

Hahn,  Hemuum  Joachim,  a  Cutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1679  at  Grabow,  in  Meck- 
lenburg. He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1706  deacon  at 
Dieaden,  and  finally  preacher  there.  He  was  stabbed 
by  a  fanatical  Roman  Catholic,  May  21, 1 726.  He  wrote 
/>e  ttc,  gtuB  drca  Beceptam  de  SaJbbatho  Doetrmam^  a 
nan  Nemine  Nuper  im  Dubium  Vocata  mnt  (Leipsic, 
1703),  besides  a  number  of  ascetical  works.  See  Jocher, 
Aiiganeiites  Getehrten-Lexikotit  s.  t.     (B.  P.) 

Hahn,  Johann  Bernhard,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Grermany,  was  bom  at  Konigsberg  in  1686,  and 
died  there,  July  8, 1755,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology. 
He  wrote,  De  Appellatitme  Uagua  ffebi'oa  qua  didtur 
Saneta  (Konigsbeig,  1715) :— Z>e  CormhuM  Altaris  Ex- 
iremi: — De  Fetto  Khraorum  Purim: — Introductio  ad 
Jeamam  (1735) : — Itdroductio  ad  Jeremiam  (1736) : — 
De  Amto  Ebraorum  JubiUo  (1746):  — />e  D^lbv  ad 

yum,  xij  81,    See  Joehetf  AUgemeiaes  Gelehrtea-Lex^- 
kon,  8.  V.     (a  P.) 

SBUm,  Johann  Frledrioh,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  Aug.  15, 1710,  at  Bayreutb. 
He  studied  at  Jena  and  Halle,  was  preacher  at  Kloster- 
bergen  in  1743,  and  military  chaplain  at  Berlin  in  1746. 
In  1749  he  was  general  superintendent,  in  1762  member 
of  conustory,  and  died  at  Aurich,  in  East  Frisia,  June  4, 
17S9.  He  published  sermons  and  other  ascetical  writ- 
ings. See  Doring,  Die  gelekrten  Tkeologen  Deutsch- 
landM,9,\,     (a  P.) 

Bahn,  Johann  Zaohaxlas  Herman,  a  Luther- 
an theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  12,  1768,  at 
Schneeberg,  in  Saxony.  In  1800  he  was  deacon  at  his 
native  place,  in  1804  general  superintendent  and  mem- 
ber of  consistory  at  Gera.  He  died  Nov.  22, 1826,  doc- 
tor of  theology,  leaving,  Politik,  Morale  und  Beligion  in 
Verbindttng  (Leipsic,  1797-1800,  2  vols.) :— (7eraMcAe« 
Geeangbuch  nebtt  Gebeten  (Gera,  1822).  See  Winer, 
Iftmdbueh  der  tkeoL  LU,  ii,  168, 172, 177, 291, 296.  (a  P.) 

Hahn,  PhiUpp  MatthMno,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  25, 1739,  at  Scharu- 
hauaen,  in  WQrtemberg.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  and 
died  at  Echterdingen,  near  Stuttgart,  May  2, 1790.  He 
was  famous  alike  as  a  mechanic  and  theologian.  A 
poptl  of  Oetinger  and  Bengel,  he  developed  their  theo- 
aophic  system  in  his  commentaries  on  different  parts  of 
the  New  Test.,  and  his  other  writings.  He  published, 
Bttracktungen  und  Predigten  Sber  die  EvangeUm  (Stutt- 
gart, 1774;  5th  ed.  revised  according  to  his  manuscripts, 
1647^ : — Efbauungsstunden  uber  den  Brief  an  die  Ephe- 
ser  (published  by  his  grandson,  1845):  —  Erbauunge- 
stunden  Uber  den  Brief  an  die  Kohtser  (\Sib):—Die 
Lekre  Jetu  und  eeiner  Gesandien  (1856)  :—Die  Erldd- 
nmg  der  Bergpredigt  Jetu  Chriati  (eod.)  -.—A  ualegung 
dea  Briefee  an  die  Hebrder  (ed.  by  Flattiol,  1859).  See 
PUtt-Herzog,  Beai-EncgHop,  s.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  En- 
e^fHop,  dee  Sdenees  Beligieusea^  s.  v. ;  Paulus,  Philipp 
Mattk&us  ffahn  (Stuttgart,  1858) ;  Zuchold,  Bibl,  Theol. 
i,  492.     (a  P.) 

BaS  (or  Haja)  bar-Sherira,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was 
bom  in  969  and  died  in  1085.  He  was  the  last  gaon 
of  Pumbaditha  (q.  v.),  and  was  distinguished  both  for 
bis  peiBonal  virtues,  and  for  an  eradition  which  ren- 
dered him  the  most  accomplished  Jewish  scholar  of  his 
time.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  his  works  may 
be  daanfied  onder  the  following  heads:  a,  Talmudical; 


5.  Exegetical;  e.  Poetical;  d.  Cabalistic;  and  e.  Mis- 
oeUaneous.  Passing  over  his  Talmudical  works,  we 
mention  his  "^'ar.  ^9  ti^*1D,  or  commentary  on  the 
Scriptures,  not  extant,  but  cited  by  some  of  the  later 
commentators,  as  Ibn-Ezra,  David  Kimchi,  and  others. 
Sefer  Aam-mea«pA,  C]DX13n  O,  originally  called  el- 
Chdvi,  i.  e.  "  the  gathering,"  arranged  alphabetically 
after  the  manner  of  many  Arabic  dictionaries,  where 
the  order  is  regulated  by  the  last  radical  letter  (e.  g. 
^9*1  under  dtdeth).  In  this  dictionary,  written  in  Ara- 
bic, wbich  extended  to  the  Biblical  Chaldee  also,  the 
language  of  the  Mishna,  as  well  as  a  comparison  of  the 
Arabic,  and  sometimes  even  of  the  old  Persian,  was  ap- 
plied to  the  explanation  of  Hebrew  words,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  quotations  of  Ibn-Balaam  (in  his  com- 
mentary on  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy,  preserved  in 
Oxford,  and  where  the  dictionary  of  Haja  is  expressly 
called  el-Chdvij  as  in  Tanchdm  on  Judges  viii,  16),  Ibii- 
Exra  (Deut.  xxxii,  39;  Isa.  xlvi,  8;  Amos  i,  27;  Ps. 
Iviii,  10;  Job  iv,  15;  ri,  10;  xiii,  27;  xxi,  32),  David 
Kimchi  (in  his  Book  of  Boots,  also  in  his  commentary  on 
Isa.  V,  5 ;  xxxv,  14 ;  Jer.  xii,  6 ;  Ezek.  xix,  10),  liashi 
(on  Judg.  iv,  19 ;  Hos.  iii,  4),  and  others.  This  diction- 
ary, as  well  as  several  other  treatises,  is  not  extant.  Of 
his  poetical  works,  we  mention  Muear  haekel,  nolQ 
bSQSn,  also  *^D"Q  '^^910,  an  exposition  of  the  Penta- 
teuch in  Arabic  verse  (Constantinople,  1511;  Latin 
transL  by  Mercier,  Paris,  1561;  and  Seidel,  Leipsic, 
1638) ;  Shema  Koli  Cbip  ?»«),  i. e. «  Hear  my  voice," 

in  the  Spanish  Ritual.  See  Rapaport,  Biography  of 
riai,  in  Bikkura  ha-ItHm,  x,  79-95;  xi,  90-92;  Stein- 
Khmider,  Jewish  Literature^  P*78,  125;  and  Catalogue 
Libr,  liebr,  in  Biblioth,  BodL  (1026-80);  FUrst,  Bibl. 
Jud,  i,  855-<358;  De*  Rossi,  Dizionario  Storico  (Germ, 
transl.),  p.  120  sq.;  Grtltz,  Gesch,  a,  Juden,  vi,  6-13; 
Geiger,  JSd,  ZeUsArift  (1862),  p.  206-217,  312-314; 
Kascher,  Hai  Gaon  (Breslau,  1867).     (R  P.). 

Haictitea,  a  Mohammedan  sect,  who  profess  to  be- 
lieve in  Christ  as  well  as  in  Mohammed.  They  hold 
many  of  the  doctrines  pertaining  to  Christ  in  common 
with  orthodox  Christians.  They  also  believe  that  he 
will  come  again  to  judge  the  world  in  the  same  body 
which  he  had  on  earth ;  that  he  will  destroy  Antichrist, 
and  reign  forty  years,  at  the  close  of  which  the  world 
will  be  destroyed. 

Hal^  a  town  in  Palestine,  just  under  the  northern 
brow  of  Carmel,  on  the  shore  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Kishon,  seems  to  be  alluded  to  as  (near)  the  western 
terminus  of  Zebulon  (Gen.  xlix,  18,  r\Vl,  chAph,  ^  ha- 
ven;" see  Deut.  i,  7,  "side;"  Josh,  ix,  1,  "coasts;"  in 
both  which  passages  the  associated  geographical  terms 
are  likewise  technically  used  as  proper  names).  In 
fact  the  present  Arabic  name  (properly  Chaypha)  is  but 
the  Aramaean  form  (Xfi'^n,  the  cove)  of  the  Heb.  word 
(used  in  the  above  passages  only).  In  the  Talmud 
the  old  name  reappears  (nK)**n,  Cheyphah,  the  modem 

form ;  Gnecized  'H^ :  see  ReUnd,  Pattest,  p.  718).  By 
the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  a  place  called  Sycami' 

num  (Svra/ifVov,  Hebraized  fldliaplS,  Sekamunahf 
doubtless  as  a  mart  for ^4)  is  mentioned  as  situated  in 
Phoenicia,  near  the  foot  of  Carmel  (see  Reland,  p.  1024). 
In  the  Middle  Ages  the  place  was  called  Pojphyreon  by  a 
strange  mistake,  the  real  town  of  that  name  being  north 
of  Sidon.  It  was  also  known  as  Cayphas,  and  the  deri- 
vations given  are  ver}*  curious,  either  from  Cephas  or 
Caiaphas.  Haifa  is  now  a  small  but  growing  town  of 
about  two  thousand  inhabitants,  built  close  upon  the 
sandy  beach,  and  surrounded  by  a  shattered  walL  The 
interior  has  a  dreary  look,  which  is  not  improved  by  the 
broken  wall,  and  two  or  three  rusty  cannon  lying  about, 
half  covered  by  rubbish.  The  only  tolerable  honses 
appear  to  be  those  of  the  consular  agents,  who  abound 
here,  as  it  is  a  frequent  stopping-place,  especially  in 


HAIGHT 


508 


HALE 


fonl  weatheFi  for  the  Levant  steamers.  There  is  a  flour- 
ishing German  colony  in  the  neighborhood.  The  bay 
spreads  out  in  front,  its  sandy  beach  sweeping  grace- 
fully along  the  plain  to  the  low  point  on  which  the 
battlements  of  Acre  arc  seen  in  the  distance.  In  Haifa 
the  Christians  outnumber  the  Mohammedans;  and 
there  is  a  small  community  of  Jews.  Few  remains  of 
antiquity  are  visible  except  some  tombs  in  the  rocks; 
but  the  magnificence  of  former  buildings  is  attested  by 
the  fragments  of  marble,  granite,  por|)hyr}',  and  green- 
stone lying  in  the  shingle  on  the  beach.  Two  miles 
farther  south-west  are  the  remains  of  anothef  large 
town,  at  the  place  called  TtU  es-SemaL  There  can 
scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  this  is  the  ancient  Sycaminon, 
often  confused. with  Haifa,  but  a  place  distinct  and 
named  from  its  sycamine  fig-trees — a  stunted  specimen 
of  which  still  stands  near,  with  its  little  figs  growing 
out  of  the  stem.  See  Murray,  Handbook  for  ^yiia,  p. 
862;  Biidoker,  PalesttM,  p.  348;  Conder,  Tent  Work^  i, 
180;  ii,30G.     See  Cakhkl;  Kisiion. 

Haight,  BKKJAMI29  I.,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
Oct.  16, 1609.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
1828,  and  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  the 
same  city  in  1831 ;  was  ordained  that  year,  and  became 
rector  pf  St.  Peter's  Church  in  his  native  city;  in  1834 
of  St.  Pnul's,  Cincinnati;  in  1837  of  All-Saints*,  New 
York,  and  the  same  year  likewise  professor  of  pastoral 
theology  in  the  General  Theological  Seminar}^,  retain- 
ing the  latter  position  until  1855,  when  be  was  associ- 
ated with  Trinity  parish  in  the  same  city.  He  died 
there  Feb.  21, 1879. 

Hail,  Mary  I    Sec  Ayr  Mahia. 

Haimo.    See  Haymo. 

Hair,  Christian  Modes  of  Wearing.  In  the 
early  Church  the  clergy  sometimes  wore  long  hair,  but 
the  custom  of  cutting  it  short,  in  distinction  from  pa- 
gans, soon  became  general,  and  at  length  shaving  it  al- 
together, even  to  a  bare  spot  upon  the  crown,  was  in- 
troduced as  a  roonkisli  habit.  See  Tonsure.  Peni- 
tents cut  their  hair  short  as  a  sign  of  humiliation. 
Laymen  usually  wore  long  hair,  but  ringlets  were  re- 
garded as  a  mark  of  effeminacy.  Women  were  en- 
joined to  wear  long  hair,  but  modestly  arrayed.  False 
hair  w^as  strongly  denounced.  See  Smith,  Dicf.  of 
Cht-ist.  Antiq.  s.  v. 

Hair-cloth  has  often  been  worn  by  ascetics  as  a 
means  of  mortifying  the  flesh,  especially  hair-shirts.  In 
the  early  Church  penitents  were  sometimes  clothed 
with  it,  and  candidates  for  baptism  were  often  examined 
standing  upon  a  piece  of  hair-cloth.  The  dying  and 
the  dead  were  also  covered  with  it.  See  Smith,  Diet, 
of  Christ,  Anliq.  s.  v. 

Hairetites,  a  skeptical  Mohammedan  sect,  who 
profess  to  doubt  everything,  and  to  hold  their  minds  in 
constant  equipoise,  maintaining  that  it  is  impossible  to 
distinguish  truth  from  falsehood.  Their  usual  reply  in 
discussion  is, "  God  knows,  we  dp  not.*^  They  are,  how- 
ever, scrupulous  in  their  observance  of  Mohammedan 
laws  and  ceremonies,  both  civil  and  religious. 

Haitz,  FiOELis,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian,  w^as 
born  in  1801  at  Waldshut,  fiaden.  In  1826  he  was 
made  a  priest,  in  1845  canon  at  Freiburg,  and  died  June 
9,  1873.  He  wrote  Die  Katftoliicke  AbendmahUkhre 
(Mayence,  1872).     (B,  P.) 

Hajar  ei^aswad,  the  name  of  the  sacred  black  stone 
in  the  great  temple  of  Mecca.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  originally  an  aerolite  or  Bietylia.     Sec  Kaaba. 

Hajl.    See  Hadj. 

Hakemitea.    Sec  Druses  ;  Hakih. 

Hakka  Version.    See  Chinese  Versions. 

Hakluyt,  Riciiaao,  an  eminent  English  clergy- 
man and  historian,  was  bom  in  I>ondon  in  1553,  and 
educated  at  Christ  Church.  Oxford.     He  died  in  1610. 


He  published  Divert  Voyages  touching  the  Discoverie 
of  America,  and  the  Islands  Adjacent  unto  the  Same 
(1582).  He  was  prebendary  of  Westminster  in  1605, 
and  rector  of  Witheringset,  in  Suffolk.  See  Chalmers, 
Bioff.  Diet.  s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  «- 
thorSf  8.  V. 

Halak,  Mount.  Jebel  Maderahf  with  which  we 
may  probably  identify  this  mountain,  lies  on  the  south 
side  of  s  wady  of  the  same  name,  five  miles  south-west 
of  the  pass  of  Sufah,  and  is  a  round,  isolated  hill,  with 
numerous  blocks  of  stone  on  the  base  and  summit,  which 
Arab  tradition  ascribes  to  a  destructive  shower,  as  a 
punishment  for  inhospitality  on  the  part  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants  (Palmer,  Desert  of  the  Exodus,  p.  351). 

Halal,  what  is  permitted  and  sanctioned  by  the 
Mohammedan  law. 

Halcyon,  a  mythological  term  equivalent  to  rest 
or  quiet,  especially  applied  to  any  season  of  repose ;  a 
figure  drawn  from  the  so-called  *' halcyon  days,"  which 
are  a  fortnight,  one  half  before  and  the  other  after  the 
winter  solstice,  during  which  the  bird  halcyon,  or  king- 
fisher, was  fabled  by  the  Greeks  to  brood,  the  sea  re« 
maining  calm  during  the  time  of  incubation.  The 
myth  originated  in  the  classical  story  of  Halcyone  or 
Alcyone  (A\Kv6vfi),  a  daughter  of  iEolus  and  Enarcte, 
or  j£giale,  who  married  Ceyx,  and  lived  so  happily  with 
him  that  the  two  compared  themselves  to  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  and  were  punished  for  their  presumption  by  being 
changed  into  birds.  A  more  literal  version  of  the  stoiy 
is  that  Ceyx  having  perished  by  shipwreck,  Alcyone 
threw  herself  into  the  sea,  and  was  metamorphosed  into 
a  kingfisher. 

Halcyon  Church,  a  denomination  of  Christians 
which  is  said  to  have  arisen  in  the  interior  of  the  United 
States  in  1802,  who  reject  all  creeds  and  confessions. 
They  hold  that  there  is  but  one  person  in  the  Godhead, 
and  that  the  Father  reveals  himself  in  the  personality  of 
the  Anointed.  They  deny  etenial  punishment,  and*  be- 
lieve in  the  annihilation  of  the  wicked.  They  baptize 
only  adults,  and  t  hat  in  a  peculiar  manner.  The  persons 
to  he  baptized  walk  down  into  the  water  in  procession, 
attended  by  the  congregation,  and  accompanied  with 
vocal  and  instrumental  music  The  ordinance  is  then 
administered  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
They  devote  their  children  to  God,  not  by  baptism,  but 
by  dedicating  them  in  prayer,  and  placing  them  under 
the  guardianship  of  the  church  members. 

Hale,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  born  at  Old  Newbury,  Mass.,  in  1797. 
He  graduated  with  honor  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1818, 
and  immediately  became  principal  of  the  Saco  Acad- 
emy. In  1819  he  entered  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  and  became  a  minister  of  the  Congregational 
Church  in  1822.  The  four  years  thereafter  he  spent  as 
a  tutor  in  Bowdoin.  In  1827  be  was  called  to  Dart- 
mouth College,  N.  H.,  as  a  professor,  and  held  the  o&ce 
until  1835,  when  his  professorship  was  abolished  by  tho 
trustees  of  the  college.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1828,  and  presbyter  in 
1831.  After  his  return  from  a  visit  to  the  West  Indies, 
whither  he  went  for  recuperation  in  the  summer  of  183€, 
he  was  elected  to  the  presidency  of  Hobart  College,  in 
Geneva,  N.  Y.  In  1852  he  made  a  brief  visit  to  Europe, 
and  in  185G  resigned  the  presidency  of  the  college,  which 
he  had  held  for  twenty  years,  and  afterwards  lived  in 
retirement  in  his  native  place.  He  died  at  Kewbury- 
port,  Mass.,  July  15, 1863.  Dr.  Hale  was  the  author  of 
several  scientific  and  professional  works;  but  his  repo* 
tation  resta  largely  upon  his  work  as  an  instructor.  See 
Amei\  Quar.  Church  Rev.  Oct,  1863,  p.  607. 

Hale,  Bernard,  D.D.,  master  of  Peterhoose,  in 
Cambridge  Univenity,  was  bora  of  religious  parents, 
and  received  his  early  education  in  the  public  school 
of  Hartford.  Afterwards  he  removed  to  WestminMer, 
thence  to  Peterhouse,  of  which  he  became  a  fcUow. 


HALE 


609 


HALL 


After  three  or  four  yoars  spent  in  his  fellowship,  his  fa- 
ther's death  transmitted  to  him  a  fair  estate,  and  he 
resigned  his  office,  and  thereafter  lived  in  retirement, 
chiefly  in  Norfolk,  occupied  vrith  acts  of  devotion  and 
beneficence.  At  the  Kestoration  he  was  moved  by  a 
father  of  the  Church  to  enter  the  priesthood.  Immedi- 
ately several  preferments  were  offered  him,  some  of 
which  he  accepted,  but  with  the  understanding  that 
whatever  emoluments  he  reaped  therefrom  should  be 
dedicated  to  the  service  of  God.  He  largely  endowed 
the  College  of  St.  Peter.  He  died  about  1663.  See  The 
(Lond.)  ChriiHan  Remembrancer^  April,  1822,  p.  208. 

Hale,  Ecoch,  a  Congregational  minister,  brother 
of  Nathan  Hale,  the  Revolutionary  martyr,  and  father  of 
Hon.  Nathan  Hale,  of  the  Boston  Daily  A  dtertiser,  was 
bom  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  in  17&4 ;  graduated  from  Yale 
College  in  1773 ;  was  onlained  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Westhampton,  Mass.,  in  1779,  and  died  Jan.  14,  1837. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  General  (Con- 
gregational) Association  from  1804  to  1824.  See  Cong, 
Quarterfyf  1859,  p.  39;  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer, 
Pulpit,  ii,  572. 

HaleniuB,  Engelbbrtus,  a  Swedish  prelate,  son 
of  Lars,  was  born  OcL  8, 1700,  became  bishop  of  Skara 
in  1753,  held  lively  discussions  with  Swedenborg,  and 
died  Feb.  14, 1767,  leaving  some  sermons,  and  a  transla- 
tion of  Maimouidcs.     See  Hoefer,  N'ouv,  Biog.  GeneraUj 

&  V. 

Hales,  Alexander.    See  Alkxakder  Alesius. 

Hales,  Stephen,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  a  Church  of  Eng- 
land divine,  was  born  Sept.  7, 1677.  He  entered  Corpus 
Christi  College  in  J  696,  graduated  A.B.  in  1701,  A.M.  in 
1703,  and  B.D.  in  1711,  greatly  distinguishing  himself 
meanwhile  as  a  botanist,  anatomist,  and  astronomer.  In 
1710  he  was  presented  to  the  perpetual  curacy  of  Ted- 
dington,  Middlesex,  and  after>var(is  accepted  the  living 
of  Porlock,  Somersetshire,  which  be  exchanged  fur  the 
living  of  Farringdon,  Hampshire.  On  March  13, 1717, 
or  1718,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Koyal  Society. 
In  1725  he  published  a  valuable  work  on  Vegetable  Sta- 
tisticSf  and  in  1733  a  sequel  to  it,  entitled  Statistical  Es- 
says.  He  published  a  very  popular  work  on  Temper- 
once ;  and  in  1739  an  8vo  volume  entitled,  Philosophical 
£xperiment*  on  Sea-water,  Com,  Flesh,  and  other  Sub- 
stances, Dr.  Hales  also  published  several  sermons  and 
many  papers  in  the  Phil,  Trans,,  etc.  He  died  at  Ted- 
dington,  Jan.  4,  1761.  See  Masters,  Hist,  of  E,  C,  C, 
C.  ;  Annual  Register,  1764,  p. 42 ;  Gentleman^s  Magazine, 
vol.  Ixix;  Butler,  Life  of  llildesley,  p.  362 ;  Lysons,  En- 
virons ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors^  s.  v. 

Bales,  William,  D.D.,  an  Irish  divine,  was  born 
at  Cork,  April  8, 1?47,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1769.     After- 
wards he  served  as  a  college  tutor,  and  was  very  popu- 
lar.    In  due  time  he  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest; 
and  in  1788  was  appointed  to  the  rectory  of  Killesandra, 
in  Cavan,  which  ho  held  till  his  death,  Jan.  30, 1831. 
Dr.  Hal^  was  eminently  faithful  in  all  the  duties  per- 
taining to  the  ministerial  office.     He  was  amiable  and 
unselfish,  catholic  in  spirit,  and  blameless  in  life.     His 
works  are,  Sonorvm  Doctrina  (1778):  —  De  Afotibus 
PUtnetarum  {lldii)  i— Analysis  Equationum  (1784): — 
Observations  on  the  Political  Influence  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Pope's  Supremacy  (1787-88) :  — We  Rights  of 
Citizens  (1793):— TAe  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Political 
GoreTmment  and  Liberty  (1794) : — Methodism  Inspected 
(1803-5): — Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies  Erpressiug 
the  IHcifie  and  Human  Character  of  our  Lord  (1808): 
— A  nalysis  of  Chronology  (1809-14 ;  his  most  important 
publication)  '.—Origin  andPuiity  of  the  Primitive  Church 
in  the  British  Isles  (1818).     See  The  Church  of  Englaml 
Jfoifazine.,  March,  1842,  p.  147,  164;  Memoir  of  Dr, 
IJiiles  in  the  early  numbers  of  the  British  Magazine; 
Allibone,  Diet,  (f  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

SEalhnl.    The  modem  representative  of  this  place, 


HalkvU,  is  described  in  the  Memoirs  accompanying  the 
Ordnance  Survey  (iii,  805)  as  ^  a  large  stone  village  on 
a  hill -top,  with  two  springs  and  a  well;  also  a  fine 
spring  below  (*Hin  ed-Dhirweh).  On  the  west  is  the 
mosque  of  Neby  YAnis,  now  in  a  partly  ruinous  condi- 
tion, with  a  minaret.  There  are  rock-cut  tombs  south 
of  the  village.  The  hills  on  the  north  have  vineyards 
on  them,  and  there  are  other  tombs  here  also."  These 
last  are  elsewhere  more  fully  detailed  (iii,  329). 

Hali.  For  this  locality  Lieut.  Conder  accepts  (Teni 
Work,  ii,  377)  the  suggestion  of  the  modern  *Alia, 
which  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  at  nine  and 
three  quarter  miles  south-east  of  £s-Zib  (Ecdippa  on 
the  coast),  and  described  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs 
(i,170)  as  "  a  small  square  building  of  well-dressed  stone, 
without  draft,  probably  of  the  crusades;  a  large  num- 
ber of  cisterns  and  traces  of  ruins."  Among  the  latter 
are  added,  from  Guerin,  a  description  of  several  sepul- 
chral chambers  containing  sarcophagi.  The  village  of 
Malia,  which  lies  half  a  mile  north-west,  is  thought  to 
represent  the  Meltotb  of  Josephus  ( Wars,  iii,  3, 7),  and 
the  Mahalia  or  Chateau  du  Roi  of  the  Teutonic  knights 
(ibid.  p.  149, 155). 

HaliburtOD,  George  (l),  a  Scotch  prelate,  min- 
ister of  Perth,  was  made  bishop  of  Dunkeld  by  letters 
royal,  Jan.  18, 1602,  and  died  in  16C4.  See  Keith,  Scot- 
tish Bishops^  p.  98. 

Haliburton,  Qeorge  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
bora  in  1628,  consecrated  bishop  of  Brechin  in  1678, 
and  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Aberdeen  in  1682, 
where  he  sat  until  the  Revolution,  in  1688.  He  died 
nt  his  house  of  Dcnhcad,  in  the  parish  of  Coupar,  in 
Angus,  Sept.  29,  1715  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p. 
134, 168. 

Halidome  (or  Hallydome),  an  old  term  for  the 
Last  D&y — the  general  judgment. 

Hall,  Baynard  Rush,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
ministpr,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1798.  At  the 
age  of  four  he  was  left  an  orphan,  and  heir  to  a  large 
estate,  which  through  mismanogement  never  came  into 
his  possession.  In  Union  College,  where  he  graduated 
in  1820,  his  reputation  for  ability  and  scholarship  was 
of  the  first  rank.  He  was  educated  with  a  view  to  the 
law,  but  Providence  turned  his  steps  to  the  ministry. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1823,  with  bright  promise  of  success,  yet  most  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  teaching.  He  was  professor  in  Indiana 
University  the  same  year,  and  taught  in  after-years  in 
Trenton,  Poughkeepsie,  Newburgh,  and  Brooklyn.  In 
1846  he  left  the  Presbyterian  C!hurch  and  joined  the 
Reformed  Church  in  America,  but  remained  without 
charge.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  Jan.  23, 1863.  Dr. 
Hall  published  in  early  life  a  valuable  Latin  Grammar, 
His  volume  entitled  The Nno Purchase,or  Seven  Yearf 
in  the  West,  enjoyed  great  popularity.  Later  in  life  he 
published  a  work  of  acknowledged  merit,  entitled, 
Teaching,  a  Science,  He  contributed  freely  to  the  re- 
ligious periodicals.  See  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref, 
Church  in  A  merica,  s.  v.  j  Christian  Intelligeiictr,  1863. 
(W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Hall,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
born  at  Williamsport,  Pa.,  June  23, 1799.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Hamilton  College  in  1824;  studied  two  years 
in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary ;  was  ordained  evan- 
gelist, March  25, 1832 ;  became  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Home  Missionary  Society  in  1827 ;  and  so  contin- 
ued until  his  death  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  OcL  31, 1853.  See 
Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  49 ;  Nevin, 
Presb,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Hall,  David,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Yarmouth,  Mass.,  Aug.  5, 1704.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  College  in  1724;  in  November^  1728,  sup- 
plied the  pulpit  in  Sutton,  and  was  ordained  pastor  Oct. 
15, 1729.  His  church  shared  in  the  great  revival  of 
1740.    He  died  at  Sutton,  May  8, 1789.    Dr.  Hall  was 


HALL 


510 


HALLAHAN 


an  able  and  faithful  minister.    See  Sprague,  Atmali 
of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  i,  857. 

Hall,  EdiRrizi,  D.D^  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
born  at  Granville,  N.  Y^  Jan.  11, 1802.  He  graduated 
from  Middlebury  College  in  1826;  studied  theology 
privately;  taught  in  Middlebury  for  some  two  years; 
was  ordained  at  Hebron,  Aug.  27, 1880;  was  successive- 
ly pastor  at  Glenn's  Falls  and  Sandy  Hill  for  one  year 
thereafter;  at  Dloomfield,  N.  J.,  the  next  year;  over  the 
First  Congregational  Church  at  Norwalk,  Conn.,  for 
twenty>two  years,  and  in  1854  became  professor  of 
Christian  theology  in  Auburn  Theological  Seminary,  a 
position  which  he  retained  until  his  death,  Sept.  8, 1877. 
He  published  several  works  on  baptism,  and  other  eccle- 
siastical subjects.  See  Gen,  CaU  of  Auburn  TheoL  Sem, 
1888,  p.  2G6. 

Hall,  Qeorge,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom  in 
1612,  and  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  bishop  of  Norwich,  became  preb- 
endary of  Exeter  in  1689,  archdeacon  of  Cornwall  in 
1641,  bishop  of  Chester  in  1662,  and  died  Aug.  28, 1668. 
He  published  Sermons  (1655-66).  See  Allibone,  Diet, 
o/Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  r. 

Hall,  Qordon,  /r.,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Bombay,  India,  Nov.  4, 1828.  After 
preparatory  study  at  Ellington,  Conn.,  he  graduated 
from  Yale  College  in  1843,  and  from  Yale  Divinity 
School  in  1847.  After  a  term  of  service  as  tutor  in 
the  college,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Wilton,  Oct.  25,  1848,  and  June  2, 1852,  became  pastor 
of  Edwards  Church,  Northampton,  Mass.,  and  so  con- 
tinued until  his  death  at  Binghamton,  N.Y.,  Nov. 5, 1879. 
From  1870  he  was  a  corporate  m<}ml>er.of  the  American 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions ;  was  a  trustee  of 
Williston  Seminary ;  and  from  1878  was  visitor  of  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary.  See  Cong,  Year-book, 
1880,  p.  20 ;  Obituary  Record  of  Yale  Coliege,  1880. 

Hall,  Henry,  a  learned  English  divine,  was  bom 
in  London  in  1716,  and  was  educated  at  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  became  a  fellow  in  1738.  In  1750 
he  WAS  collated  to  the  rectory  of  Harbledown,  and  soon 
after  to  the  vicarage  of  Heme.  He  was  presented  to 
the  vicarage  of  East  Pcckham  in  1756,  and  was  at  the 
same  time  librarian  of  Lambeth.  He  died  at  Harble- 
down, Nov.  2, 1763.     See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Hall,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  at  Cariisle,  Pa.,  Aug.  22,  1744.  When  he  was 
eight  years  old  the  family  moved  to  North  Carolina, 
and  settled  in  Itowan  County.  He  was  blessed  with 
pious  parents,  who  taught  him  the  truths  of  the  gospel, 
and  thus  early  he  was  brought  into  the  Church.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1774;  was  licensed  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Orange  in  1775 ;  in  1778  became  pastor 
at  Bethany,  and  there  labored  faithfully  and  successful- 
ly until  his  death,  July  25,  1826.  Dr.  Hall  was  active 
in  the  scenes  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  published 
a  few  Sermons  which  he  preached  on  national  occasions. 
See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  iii,  381. 

Hall,  Jeremiah,  D.D.,a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
at  Swansev,  N.  H.,  May  21, 1805.  He  pursued  his  clas^ 
sical  studies  in  the  Brattleborough  Academy,  Vt„  and 
his  theological  studies  at  the  Newton  Seminary,  where 
he  graduated  in  1830.  He  was  ordained  Feb.  8, 1831, 
and  had  charge,  successively,  of  churches  in  Fairfax, 
Westford,  and  Bennington ;  afterwards  became  one  of 
the  pioneer  laborers  of  his  denomination  in  what  was 
then  the  territory  of  Michigan,  and  assisted  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Church  at  Kalamazoo,  of  which  he 
was  the  pastor  eight  years  (1835-43),  and  subsequently 
at  Akron,  O.  (1843-45).  For  some  time  he  was  prin- 
cipal of  the  Norwalk  Institute;  then  pastor  in  Gran- 
ville (1651-53) ;  president  of  Denison  University  (1858- 
68) ;  and  being  a  pastor  for  a  time  at  Shell  Rock,  la., 
returned  to  Michigan,  where  be  labored  as  occasion  of- 
fered nntil  his  death,  May  80, 1881.  See  Gen,  Cat.  of 
Newton  Sem,  p.  9.     (J.  C  S.) 


Hall,  Samuel  Read,  LL.D^,  a  Congregattonal 
minister,  was  born  at  Conydon,  N.  H.,  Oct.  27,  1795. 
He  was  educated  at  Kimball  Union  Academy,  and  was 
for  some  years  a  teacher;  studied  theology  with  Rer. 
Walter  Chapin  of  Woodstock,  Vt ;  was  ordained  at 
Concord,  March  5, 1828,  and  remained  pastor  there  un- 
til 1880.  During  this  time  he  estaUiidied  and  taught 
the  first  normal  school  in  the  country;  afterwards  be- 
came principal  of  the  Teacher's  Seminary  at  Andover, 
Mass.,  for  six  years ;  then  took  charge  of  Plymouth 
Academy,  N.  H.  (1886-89);  was  pastor  at  Craltsbanr, 
Vt.,  fourteen  years;  at  Browington  twelve  years,  and 
thereafter,  with  the  exception  of  two  years,  when  he 
was  acting  pastor  in  Granby,  remuned  without  charge 
until  his  death,  June  24, 1877.  He  was  moderator  of 
the  General  Convention  of  Vermont  in  1859.  He  pub- 
lished, The  Child's  Assistant  to  a  Knowledge  of  the  Ge- 
ography and  History  of  Vermont  (1827;  revised  ed. 
1868) :— Lectures  on  School  Keeping  (1829)  \— Lectures 
to  Female  School  Teachers  (1832):  — TAe  ChtUTs  /»- 
structor  (eod.) : — The  A  rithmetical  Manual  (eod.)  : — 
Practical  Lectures  on  Parental  Respon»ibUity,  and  the 
Religious  Education  of  Children  (1833):  — il  SAool 
History  of  the  United  States  (eod.^i—The  Alphabet  of 
Geology  (1868).  He  assisted  president  Hitchcock  in 
the  geological  survey  of  Vermont,  and  a  part  of  scciicm 
vii  in  the  published  Report  on  Northern  Vermont  was 
prepared  by  him.    (W.  P.  &) 

Hall,  Thomas,  a  learned  English  Nonconformist 
divine,  was  bora  at  Worcester,  July  22, 1610,  and  edu- 
cated at  Balliol  College ;  was  master  of  the  free  school 
at  KingVNorton,  and  curate  of  the  place ;  and  died 
April  18, 1665.  Among  his  works  are  many  eontio- 
versial  tracts,  and  commentaries  on  some  parts  of  the 
Scriptures.    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Hall,  Timothy,  an  English  prelate,  who  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Oxford  in  1688,  and  died  April  10^ 
1690,  published  some  Sermons  (1684, 1689).  See  Alti- 
bone.  Did,  ofBrit^  and  A  mer.  Authors,  s.  v. 

Hall,  Westley,  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, was  one  of  the  Oxford  Methodists.  Of  his  origin 
and  early  life  nothing  is  known.  He  became  one  of 
Wesley's  pupils  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  and  joined 
the  Methodists  some  time  prior  to  Oct.  25, 1782.  The 
date  of  his  ordination  must  have  been  as  early  as  1784, 
as  he  then  refused  a  living.  He  was  at  that  time 
deemed  a  young  man  of  ^  extraordinary  piety,  and  love 
to  souls.**  He  married  Wesley's  sister,  Martha,  whom 
he  afterwards  abandoned,  but  after  a  very  irregular  and 
dissolute  life,  partly  in  the  ministry,  but  chiefly  as  an 
open  Deist,  he  became  penitent,  and  died  at  Bristol,  Jan. 
8, 1776.     See  Tyerman,  The  Oxford  Methodists,  p.  886. 

Hallahan,  Margaret  Mart,  foundress  of  the  con- 
gregation of  St.  Catherine  of  Sienna,  was  born  in  Lon> 
don,  Jan.  23, 1808.  From  her  ninth  to  her  thirtieth  year 
she  lived  at  service,  part  of  the  time  in  Belgium.  In 
1834  she  received  her  habit  as  a  member  of  the  Do- 
minican  order.  In  April,  1842,  she  returned  to  Eng. 
land,  and  began  teaching  at  Coventry.  On  Dec  8* 
1845,  she  laid  the  foundation  at  Coventry  of  the  first 
English  convent  of  Dominican  nuns,  which  had  a  hard 
struggle  there;  although  at  Langton  (1851),  Stone 
(1853),  Stoke-upon-Trent  (1857),  Rhyl  (1864-66),  aiHl 
Torquay  (1864)  the  establishments  were  successfuL 
In  October,  1858,  mother  Margaret,  accompanied  by 
Rev.  Dr.  Nortbcote,  went  to  Rome,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
definite  settlement  as  to  the  future  government  of  the 
increasing  communities.  It  was  deemed  best  that  they 
should  be  united  in  a  congregation  under  one  superioreaa, 
with  one  novitiate,  the  whole  to  be  under  the  goveni- 
ment  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic.  She  was  appointed 
prioress-provincial  of  the  newly  formed  congr^atioa, 
which  afterwards  received  the  name  of  St.  CatheriDe 
of  Sienna. .  Her  last  work  was  (he  establishment  of  a 
house  at  Bow,  London.  She  died  at  Stone,  May  11, 
1868.    See  Ca/^i4/mafiac(N.Y.),  1880,  p.ttw 


HALLAM 


511 


HALSEY 


Walla wi    ROBKRT.  AlKXAKDKR,  D.D.,  a   PlTOtesUllt 

Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  New  London,  Gonn^ 
ScpL  30, 1807.  After  some  time  spent  in  teaching,  he 
graduated  from  the  General  Theological  Seminary  of 
New  York  city  in  1882;  in  August  of  the  same  year 
was  ordained  deacon  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  went  to 
Ueriden  as  rector  of  St.  Andrew's  Church,  where  he  was 
ordained  presbyter,  Aug.  2, 1888.  He  returned  to  New 
London  in  January,  1885,  as  rector  of  St.  James's 
Church,  a  position  which  he  held  until  his  death,  Jan. 
4, 1877.  In  1836  he  published  a  volume  of  Lectures  on 
tke  MormiRg  Prayer,  and  a  volume  of  Sermotu ;  also,  in 
1871,  a  course  of  Ijteturet  om  Afotee,  and  in  1873  a  ^if* 
tory  of  hit  Parish,  Church,  See  Obituary  Record  of 
Yak  CoUege,  1877. 

Hallbaaer,  FRiKDRicfi  Andrbas,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  German}',  was  bom  in  Thnringia,  Sept.  18, 
1692.  He  studied  at  Halle  and  Jens,  was  adjnnctus 
of  the  philosophical  faculty  at  Jena  in  1721,  professor 
of  elocution  in  1731,  professor  of  theology  in  1738,  and 
died  March  1, 1760.  He  wrote,  De  Luthero  (Jena,  17 17) : 
— De  Eedesia  Luiherana  (ibid.  1717) : — Conmeniaiiones 
PkUolopioB  in  Quadam  Loca  Vet.  Test.  (ibid.  1721)  :— 
IHsp,  in  Quadam  Loca  Novi  Test,  (ibid,  eod.)  : — Ftn- 
dides  TVitim  Dictorum  iV.  Test,  Luc.  xrut,  84,  Apoc,  xiv, 
13,  Rom.  ix,b  (ibid.  1736)  i—Messias  ex  Virgine  ExoH- 
turus  (ibid.  17^) : — Comment,  Theol.  in  Apoc.  it,  2  (ibid. 
1741): — Filius  Dei  Mundi  Creator  et  Pater  Nomimim 
(ibid.  1746)  :-^De  Jesu  sine  Poire  et  Matre  (ibid.  1748) : 
— Ohristtts  Pukkerrimus  I/ominum  Psa.  xlv,  2  (ibid. 
1749  >  See  Doring,  Die  geUkrten  Theologen  Deutsch- 
iamds ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  Lit.  i,  4,  736 ;  ii,  58 ; 
Jocher,  AUgemanes  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Eblley,  Bbeneser,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  Scotland,  Aug.  1,  1801.    He  graduated 
from  Edinburgh  University,  pursued  his  studies  in  the- 
ology under  Dick  and  Chalmers;  was  ordained  pastor 
at  Leith,  where  he  labored  for  ten  years,  and  then  re- 
moved to  America.    His  first  settlement  was  in  Salem, 
Washington  County,  N.  Y.,  as  pastor  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church.    After  serving  this  Church  ten 
yeftii^  he  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Second 
Street  Presbyterian  Church,  Troy,  where  he  remained 
seven  years,  and  then  became  pastor  of  the  Third  Pres- 
byterian Church,  Albany.    After  two  years  he  retired, 
in  1875,  as  its  pastor  emeritus.    From  1878  he  was 
chaplain  of  the  State  Senate.    He  died  Oct.  31, 1881. 
X)r»  Halley  was  unusually  well  read  in  classical  and 
English  literature,  but  his  leading  trait  was  his  passion 
for  pireachiog.    For  a  great  part  of  his  ministry  he  fol- 
lowed the  Scottish  method  of  writing  and  memorizing ; 
he  was  at  the  same  time  ready,  as  few  are,  to  respond 
to  a  sudden  demand  for  a  speech  or  a  sermon.    See 
New  York  Observer^  Nov.  10, 1881.     (W.  P.  S.) 

BaUey,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  filackheath,  near  London,  Aug. 
13,  1796.     He  joined  the  Church  at  an  early  age,  en- 
tered Homerton  College  in  1816«  and  five  years  later 
bef^an  his  ministry  at  St.  Neof s,  Huntingdonshire.    On 
the  opening  of  Highbury  College,  in  1826,  Mr.  Halley 
was  choaen  resident  and  classical  tutor,  which  post  he 
oocopied  for  thirteen  years.    In  1834  he  published  a 
reply  to  Rev.  James  Yates's  letter,  which  letter  defended 
Mr.  WeUbeloved's  Improved  Version  of  the  Scriptures, 
entitling  his  reply.  The  Improved  Version  truly  Design 
tutted  a  Creed.    This  pamphlet  soon  attracted  special 
attention  by  its  vigor,  keenness  of  criticism,  depth  of 
acholarship,  and  its  able  handling  of  the  Greek  text. 
It  soon  found  its  way  across  the  Atlantic    In  1839  he 
accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  Mozley  Street  Chap- 
el, Manchester,  and  in  1857  received  an  appointment  to 
the  piiocipalship  of  New  College,  from  which  he  re- 
tired in  1872.    He  spent  some  months  st  Spring  Hill 
College,  supplying  a  vacant  chair.     He  was.  an  inde- 
fatigable preacher,  tra%'elling  over  the  whole  country. 
He  died  at  Betworth  Park,  near  Arandel,  Aug.  18, 1876. 


Dr.  Halley  wrote  a  History  of  Puritanism  and  JVbaoon- 
formity  m  lAxncashire:— Lectures  on  the  Sacraments: 
^The  Lor^s  Supper.  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-booh, 
1877,  p.  367;  Allibooe,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Au- 
thors,  a.  v. 

Hallier,  Frait^is,  a  French  prelate,  was  bora  at 
Chartres  in  1695.  He  was  doctor  and  professor  of  the 
Sorbonne,  and  syndic  of  the  theological  faculty  at  Paris. 
While  at  Rome  in  1652  he  was  the  main  instrament 
of  having  the  five  propositions  of  Jansenius  condemned. 
In  1656  he  was  made  bishop  of  Cavaillon,  and  died  in 
1659.  He  wrote,  Defensio  Ecdesiastica  Ilierardtia 
(Paris,  1632):  — If om/a  ad  Ordinandos  et  Ordinaios 
(1634):— De  Sacris  JClectiombus  et  Ordinaiionibus  ex 
Antiquo  et  Novo  Ecdesim  Usu  (1636,  3  vols.  foL).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  Lit.  i,  461;  Jocher,  AUge- 
meines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  I>^ouv.  Biog.  G^ 
nirale,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

HaUook,  William  Allen,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  son  of  Rev.  Bloses  Hallock,  was  born  st  Plain- 
field,  l^lass.,  June  2, 1794.  He  graduated  in  1819  from 
Williams  College,  and  in  1822  from  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminary ;  the  next  three  years  was  agent  for  the 
New  England  Tract  Society,  and  in  1825  was  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  American  Tract  Society, 
which  he  was  largely  instramental  in  founding.  lie 
was  ordained  in  Middlefield,  Mass.,  Oct.  5, 1836,  and  be- 
came honorary  secretary  of  the  Tract  Society  in  1870, 
and  so  continued  until  the  close  of  his  life  in  New  York 
city,  Oct.  2, 1880.  He  was  for  several  years  editor  of 
the  American  Messenger,  and  besides  several  tracts, 
wrote  and  published  the  foUowing :— rA<  Life  ofHar^ 
Ian  Page: — The  Venerable  May  hews: — Life  of  Rev. 
Moses  Hallock  :—IAfe  of  Rev.  Dr.  Justin  Edwards.  See 
Cong.  Year4fook,  1881,  p.  24. 

Halloiz,  PiERRB,  a  Jesuit  of  Liege,  was  bora  there 
in  1572,  and  died  July  80,  1856.  He  is  the  author  of 
Illustrium  Ecd.  Orient.  Scriptorum  Vita  et  Documenta 
(Douay,  1633, 2  vols.  foL)  >~Vita  et  Documenta  S.  Jus- 
tini  (1622)  i^Origenes  Defensus,  S.  Origenis  Vila,  KtV- 
tutes  et  Documenta  Libris  IV  (Liege,  1648).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theol  Lit.  i,  854,  897, 899 ;  Jocher,  A  llge- 
meines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hallowe'en,  the  Scotch  term  for  the  eve  of  the 
feast  of  All-Saints  (q.  v.). 

Hallowmas.    See  All-Saikts'  Day. 

Hallnm  (or  Halom),  Robert  de,  an  English  prel- 
ate of  the  first  part  of  the  15th  century,  was  of  the 
blood  royal  of  England,  says  Pits  {De  Scriptoribus  BrU 
tanrnds,  an.  1410),  but  in  what  way  is  not  said.  He 
was  educated  in  Oxford,  became  chancellor  of  that  uni- 
versity in  1403,  afterwards  archdeacon  of  Canterbury, 
bishop  of  Salisbury,  and  June  6, 1411,  was  made  car- 
dinal. He  was  one  of  the  three  prelates  sent  to  repre- 
sent the  English  clergy  in  the  Councils  of  Pisa  and 
Constance,  in  which  last  service  he  died  at  Gotleby 
Castle,  in  1417.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed. 
Nuttall),iii,323. 

Hallymote  (1)  a  sacred  or  holy  court,  presided 
over  by  an  ecclesiastic ;  (2)  a  visitation  by  a  bishop  of 
some  particular  parish  or  church. 

Halaey,  Abram  Oothout,  D.D.,  a  Reformed 
(Dutch)  minister,  wss  bora  in  New  York,  Nov.  3, 1798. 
He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1822,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1827 ;  became  pas- 
tor at  North  and  South  Hampton  in  1829,  a  position 
which  he  retained  until  a  few  months  before  his  death 
at  Sweedsborough,  N.  J.,  Aug.  23, 1867.  He  was  a  man 
of  childlike,  catholic  spirit,  and  possessed  a  peculiar  unc- 
tion in  prayer.  He  was  eminent  as  a  preacher.  His 
theology  was  that  of  moderate  Calvinism,  and  he  held 
it  with  genuine  charity  towards  all  who  differed  from 
Iiim.  He  was  also  a  decided  preraiUenarian,  and  was 
thoroughly  versed  in  the  literature  of  that  question. 


HALSEY 


512 


HAMILL 


See  Gorwin,  Manual  of  the  Rff,  Church  in  America^ 
8.  V.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Halsey,  Job  Foster,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y^  July  12, 1800.  He 
received  his  preparatory  education  at  Ncwburgh  Acad- 
emy; graduated  from  Union  College  in  1819;  taught 
with  his  father  at  Newburgh;  studied  theology  with 
his  brother,  and  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of 
North  River,  May  1, 1823;  spent  from  1823  to  1826  at 
Princeton  Seminary;  was  oniained  by  the  Presbytery 
of  New  Brunswick  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  June  14, 1826,  and 
on  the  same  day  installed  pastor  of  the  Old  Tennant 
Church  in  that  place,  where  he  labored  until  May  6, 
1828 ;  was  agent  in  New  Jersey  for  the  American  Bible 
Society  in  1828  and  1829;  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1829 
and  1830,  for  the  American  Tract  Society,  and  in  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  in  1830  and  1831,  in  the  Sunday-school 
cause.  He  went  to  Allegheny  City,  and  was  installed 
pastor  of  the  First  Church  of  that  city,  July  1, 1831, 
and  labored  there  until  released,  April  23, 1836.  He 
was  a  professor  in  the  Marion  Manual  Labor  College  in 
Missouri,  in  1835  and  1836;  principal  of  Raritan  Sem- 
inary for  Young  Ladies,  at  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  from 

1836  to  1848;  was  installed  pastor  at  West  Bloomtield, 
now  Montclair,  Jan.  8,  1852,  where  he  remained  until 
1856;  was  installed  pastor  of  the  First  Church  of  Nor- 
ristown.  Pa.,  May  11,  1856,  where  he  labored  twenty- 
four  years.  Here  he  died,  March  24, 1882.  See  NecroL 
Report  of  Princeton  Theol,  Sem,  1882,  p.  12. 

Halsey,  Luther,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
uter, was  born  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  1,  1794. 
After  receiving  a  preparatory  education,  he  graduated 
from  Union  College  in  1812;  then  entered  upon  the 
study  of  medicine,  but  soon  relinquishetl  it  for  theolo- 
gy, and  in  1816  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Blooming  Grove,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  where 
his  labors  were  blessed  in  the  ingathering  of  many 
souls.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology in  the  Allegheny  Theological  Seminary,  and  in 

1837  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  Church  poli- 
ty in  the  Auburn  Theological  Seminary.  In  1844  he 
again  took  charge  of  the  Blooming  Grove  Church,  and 
in  1847  accepted  the  chair  of  Church  history  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary.  For  several  of  the  last 
years  of  his  life  he  occupied  a  retired  relation.  He 
died  in  New  York,  Oct.  29,  1880.  See  New  York  Ob- 
serverj  Nov.  11,  1880;  Gen,  Cat,  nj" Auburn  TheoL  Sem, 
1883,  p.  279.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Hamadryads  were  certain  rural  deities  in  the 
pagan  theogony,  or  nymphs  of  the  woods,  whose  fate 
de[jended  on  particular  trees  with  which  they  were 
associated. 

HambraeuB,  Jonas,  preacher  to  the  Swedish  am- 
bassador at  Paris,  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
there,  was  born  in  1588.  He  studied  at  Upsala,  Greifs- 
wald,  and  Rostock,  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Upsala, 
accompanied  some  noblemen  on  their  travels  in  1626, 
and  settled  at  Paris  as  professor  of  Oriental  languages. 
In  1635  he  became  preacher  to  Hugo  Grotius,  and  died 
in  1665.  He  wrote,  Disp,  de  A  ccentibus  Hebrcpta  ((ireifs- 
wald,  1616): — Insiitutio  Jlebraica  Compendiosa  (Ros- 
tock, 1618) : — /A)ci  Theologici  Latino- Suedici  (Stock- 
holm, 1G22).  He  translated  into  Swedish  the  Ethica 
Christiana  of  Dareus  (Rostock,  1618);  also  Erasmus's 
HapaKXTjOtc  ad  Ckristianos  Omnes,  vt  Libenter  Audiant 
et  /jeffant  Verbum  Dei  (1620).  See  Hambriius,  Di$p,  I, 
et  IL  de  Aferitis  ac  Fatis  Jona  Hambrcti  (Upsala,  1743, 
1749);  MoUer,  Cimbiia  Litterata;  Stiemmann,  BU^, 
Suioffothica,  p.  313;  Jocher,  AliffemeineM  OeUhrteri'LeX' 
ikon,  8.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hamburg,  a  noted  city  of  Germany.  When  the 
reformation  was  introduced  there  in  1529,  the  city 
adopted  the  Church  constitution  prepared  by  Bugen- 
hagen.  This  Kirchenordnung  provided  that  all  non- 
Lutherans  should  be  excluded  from  the  city  and  its  ter- 
ritory.     In  1507  members  of  the  Anglican  Church,  in 


1605  members  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Chnreb,  and  in 
1648,  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  Roman  Catholics,  were 
allowed  to  live  in  the  city,  bnt  they  could  not  become 
citizens,  nor  coold  they  cielebrate  worship  in  public. 
Tbeee  latter  restrictions  were  removed  by  the  new  civil 
constitution  of  Sept.  28, 1860.  The  Lutheran  Church 
is  governed  by  a  synod  consisting  of  fidy-three  mem- 
bers, of  whom  sixteen  are  clergymen,  thirty-five  lay- 
men, and  two  senators,  and  by  an  eccleaiastical  cottocil 
consisting  of  nine  members,  vis.  four  laymen,  three  ec- 
clesiastics, and  two  senators.  The  ecclesiastical  council 
has  the  executive  power,  and  carries  out  the  resolntions 
of  the  B}'nod,  which  meets  every  five  years.  In  the 
year  1877,  Hamburg,  with  a  territory  comprising  an 
area  of  about  eight  square  miles,  had  a  population  of 
406,014,  of  which  about  eighty-nine  per  cent,  were  Lu- 
therans, 13,796  were  Jews,  7771  were  Roman  Catholics, 
and  5585  belonged  to  other  evangelical  denominations. 
See  Plitt - Herzog,  Beal-Encyclop,  s.  v.;  Statistik  da 
hamburffischeti  Staates  (Hamburg,  1878,  part  vi).  (B.  P.) 

Hamel,  Jkan  Baptistb  du,  a  French  philosopher 
and  theologian,  was  bom  in  1624  at  Vire,  in  Normandy. 
In  1663  he  was  chancellor  at  Bayenx,  in  1666  secretary 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  and  died  Aug.  6, 
1706.  He  published,  BibUa  Lathna  Vulg.  etc  (Paris, 
1706  foL)  :—Theoloffia  Speculatira  et  Practica  (1691):— 
TheohgitB  Clericorum  SeminariiM  Accommodate  Sumr 
marium  (1694, 5  vols.).  See  Winer,  I/andbuck  der  theoi. 
Lit,  i,  60,  291 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeinet  Gelehrten-  Lezihrn, 
s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Hamelin,  a  French  prelate  of  the  12th  centun*, 
was  the  nephew  of  Odon,  dean  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours, 
and  a  scholastic  of  that  church  from  the  year  118G. 
He  was  elected  bishop  of  Le  Mans  in  December,  1190. 
and  consecrated  by  pope  Celestine  III  at  Rome  in  the 
beginning  of  the  following  year.  He  established  in  all 
the  parishes  of  his  diocese  the  capitulary  jurisdiction, 
and  being  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  king  of  Eng- 
land, refused  to  render  it  to  the  French  king.  Upon 
this  the  revenues  of  the  bishop  were  confiscated  by  the 
latter,  who  ordered  also  the  suspension  of  the  divine 
service  in  the  Church  of  Le  Mans.  These  troubles 
were  settled  in  1804.  Hamelin  abdicated  about  the 
middle  of  Lent,  1214,  and  died  pn>bably  Nov.  1, 1218. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Jiiog,  Ginerak^  s.  v. 

Hamelsveld,  Ysbraio)  van,  a  former  professor  of 
theology  at  Utrecht,  who  died  May  9, 1812,  at  Amster- 
dam, is  the  author  of  A  ardrijkunde  det  B^elt,  mii  Kar- 
ten  (Amsterdam,  1790,  6  vols. ;  Germ.  transL  BUlitthe 
Geoffraphie,  iAertetzt  mU  Anmerkungen,  von  Rudolf 
Jiinisch,  Hamburg,  1798-96):  — A Upemetne  Kerhefyke 
GeMchiedenis  der  Christenen  (Harlem,  1799  aq.,  23  vols.). 
See  Winer,  Nandbueh  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  149,537;  FUrst, 
BibLJud.i,m),     (B.  P.) 

Hamet,  a  Mohammedan  prophet,  who  bqcan  to 
teach  on  the  westeni  coast  of  Africa  in  1792.  He  re- 
jected the  ancient  doctrine  of  the  Caliphs,  introduced 
certain  modifications  into  the  Moslem  faith,  and  thus 
gathered  a  number  of  followers.  Hamet  was  finally 
killed,  and  his  followers  soon  dispersed. 

Hamill,  Hugh,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
l)om  at  Norristown,  Ps.,  Feb.  28,  1810.  He  reoeive<l 
his  preparatory  education  at  Norristown  Academy; 
graduated  from  Rutgers  College,  N.  J.,  in  1827 ;  en- 
tered Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  November 
of  the  same  year,  and  left  in  April,  1880;  then  spent 
the  winter  of  1831-32  at  Yale  Divinity  School;  was 
licensed  by  the  Presb^'tery  of  Philadelphia,  April  30, 
1830;  ordained  an  evangelist  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  OcL3I, 
1832;  became  stated  supply  at  Black  Rock  (now  the 
Breckenridge  Street  Church,  Buffalo),  from  Nov.  L 
1830,  until  Nov.  1,  1888;  began  t«  preach  at  Elkton, 
Md.,  and  Pencader  Church,  DeL,  where  he  was  in- 
stalled pastor  by  New  Castle  Presbytery,  Jan.  21, 1884; 
in  1887  became  connected  with  the  High  School  at 
Lawrenceville,  N.  J.,  where  he  remained  thirty-tbiee 


HAMILTON 


613 


HAMILTON 


yean;  but  about  1870  was  obliged  to  withdraw  from 
the  woric  of  teaching  oo  aooonnt  of  impaired  hearingi 
and  in  1873  took  up  his  residence  at  Newark,  DeL, 
where  he  spent  his  remaining  years  in  study,  and  died 
Aog.  1, 1881.  He  was  a  man  of  fine  scholarship,  and 
his  life  was  pure,  noble,  and  useful.  See  NecroL  Rqport 
ofPruuxUm  TkeoL  Senu  1882,  p.  20. 

ItTpmiit/^Ti^  Alfred,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Culpepper  Court-House,  Va.,  May  1, 1805. 
He  was  educated  at  Jefferson  College,  Pa.,  graduated 
from  the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny,  in 
1830;  was  licensed  by  the  Ohio  Presbyter}',  and  com- 
missioned by  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions  to  make  a 
tour  through  Ohio,  Kentuck}',  and  Tennessee.  lu  1886 
he  accepted  a  call  to  the  old  church  of  Fagg's  Manor, 
Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  in  New  Castle  Presbytery,  where  he 
remained  for  twenty-three  years  as  pastor.  He  died 
in  Chicago,  TIL,  Sept.  13, 1867.  He  was  for  some  yean 
associate  editor  of  the  NorthwtsUm  Pretbtfterian,  See 
Wilson,  PredK  Hist,  Almanac,  1868,  p.  103. 

Hamilton,  David,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Argyle  in  1506.  He  was  witness  to  the  grant  which 
James,  earl  of  Arran,  made  to  James  Hamilton,  his  son, 
of  the  lands  of  Finnart,  in  1507.  He  also  held  in  eom- 
mendam  the  two  abbeys  of  Drj'burgh  and  Glenluce, 
and  obtained  the  abbey  of  Sandal,  in  Kintyre,  to  be  An- 
nexed to  his  episcopal  see.  He  was  still  bishop  in  1520. 
See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  289. 

Hamilton,  David  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Canajoharie,  N.  Y.,  Oct  29, 1813. 
He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1839 ;  studied  and 
practiced  law  in  Amsterdam ;  graduated  from  the  Au- 
burn Theological  Seminary  in  1841 ;  entered  upon  his 
ministry  in  1843  in  Trumansbnrg;  subsequently  was 
pastor  of  three  other  churches,  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Jacksonville,  111.,  and  Ripley,  O.  There  was  an  interval 
of  two  years  between  his  labora  in  New  Haven  and 
Jacksonville,  which  was  spent  in  study  at  the  Universi- 
ty of  Berlin,  Germany.  He  died  at  Kingsborough,  N.  Y., 
July  4, 1879.  As  a  preacher  and  pastor  he  was  highly 
prized.  He  toiled  incessantly,  and  seemed  to  rest  in 
labors  that  would  utterly  break  other  men  down.  In 
these  efforts  hundreds  and  thousands  were  converted, 
and  the  churches  quickened  and  strengthened.  His 
A  utolofftf,  an  inductive  system  of  mental  science,  a  large 
octavo  of  seven  hundred  pages,  published  in  1873,  is  a 
monument  not  less  to  his  indu^ry  than  his  mastery  of 
philoeophy,  and  his  remarkable  powers  of  independent, 
bold,  sharp  thinking.  He  had  spent  years  in  the  prep- 
aration of  a  second  volume,  which  he  left;  unfinished,  in 
which  the  system  of  theology  was  to  be  elaborated  in 
accordance  with  his  mental  science.  See  Gen,  Cat.  of 
A  uhum  Thtol,  Senu  1883,  p.  273.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Hamilton,  Qavin,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first  a 
minister  at  Hamilton,  and  afterwards  promoted  to  the 
see  of  Galloway  in  1606,  and  because  the  revenue  was 
small,  king  James  gave  him  the  abbey  of  Dundrennan. 
He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Brechin,  Oct.  20, 1610, 
according  to  the  form  of  the  Church  of  England.  He 
had  also  a  grant  from  the  priory  of  Whitern  annexed 
CO  the  see  of  Galloway.  Here  he  sat  until  his  death,  in 
1614.     See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  280. 

Hamilton,  Henry  Parr,  an  English  divine,  son 
of  Dr.  Alexander  Hamilton  of  Edinburgh,  was  bom  there 
in  1794,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  with  high  honors  in  1816.  He 
held  a  living  for  several  years  in  Yorkshire,  and  in  1850 
was  made  dean  of  Salisbury.  He  died  Feb.  9, 1880. 
Dean  Hamilton  published,  The  Principles  of  Analytical 
Geometry :  —  A  nalyiical  System  of  Conic  Sections :  — 
Remarks  on  Popular  Educatum: — The  Education  of  the 
Lower  Classes,  and  several  sermons. 

Hamilton,  James  (l)i  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
reader  at  Petyn,  in  the  diocese  of  Moray,  and  afterwards 
f«ctor  of  Spot,  in  East  Lothian.    He  was  elected  to  the 

XII.— K  K 


see  of  Glasgow  in  1547.  In  1558  he  was  put  into  the 
see  of  Argyle,  and  about  the  same  time  got  the  sub- 
deanery  of  Glasgow  in  commendam.  It  is  not  certain 
whether  he  was  ever  consecrated  a  bishop.  He  became 
a  Protestant  at  the  Reformation.  In  1565  he  granted  a 
charter  to  Alexander  Stewart.  He  was  still  in  the  see 
in  1575.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  289. 

Hamilton.  James  (2),  a  Scotch  bishop,  was  bora 
in  August,  1610,  and  ordained  minister  at  Cambus- 
nethan  in  1634.  He  was  then  called  to  London  by  the 
king,  and  consecrated  bishop  of  the  see  of  Galloway  in 
1661.  He  died  in  1674.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  281. 

Hamilton,  James  (8),  M.D.,  an  intimate  friend 
and  helper  of  John  Wesley,  was  bom  at  Dunbar,  Scot- 
land, in  November  or  December,  1740.  When  about 
the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the 
Isis  man-of-war,  and  it  was  while  that  ship  was  off 
Malta  that  Dr.  Hamilton  became  religious.  His  health 
declining  after  four  years*  service,  he  settled  down  in 
his  native  town  as  surgeon  and  apothecary,  where  his 
eminent  success  soon  admitted  him  as  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians,  Edinburgh.  After  a  num- 
ber of  years  he  removed  to  Leeds,  and  subsequently,  on 
invitation  of  his  friends,  to  London,  where  he  became 
physician  to  the  London  Dispensary.  He  followed  his 
profession  until  his  death,  April  21, 1827.  Dr.  Hamilton 
joined  the  Methodist  society  on  his  return  to  Dunbar, 
and  ever  after  continued  an  earnest  and  devoted  mem- 
ber of  the  community  he  loved.  His  Christian  charac- 
ter was  pectdiarly  excellent.  He  co-operated  with  his 
friend  Wesley,  and  his  advice  was  sought  for  by  the 
Methodist  preachers,  by  whom  he  was  much  beloved. 
See  West,  Meth,  Mag,  July  and  August,  1829;  Steven- 
son, City  Road  Chapel,  p.  603. 

Hamilton,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made 
abl)ot  of  Paisley  in  1525,  and  went  to  Franco  to  punue 
his  studies.  In  1543  he  was  made  keeper  of  the  privy 
seal,  and  soon  after  lord  treasurer.  He  became  bishop 
of  St.  Andrews  the  same  year,  and  in  1545  was  trans- 
lated to  the  see  of  Dunkeld.  Under  the  regency  of  the 
earl  of  Moray,  he  was  accused  of  treason,  and  hanged 
publicly,  April  1,  1570.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  38,  95. 

Hamilton,  John  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made 
bishop  of  Dunkeld,  Oct.  19,  1686.  He  survived  the 
Revolution,  and  died  one  of  the  ministera  of  Edinburgh, 
and  sub-dean  of  his  majesty^s  chapel-royal.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  100. 

Hamilton,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
or  Scotland,  was  a  son  of  Dr.  William  Hamilton,  for 
many  yean  a  professor  in  Edinburgh  University,  and 
was  bom  and  educated  within  its  walls.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Edinburgh, 
and  served  the  Church  of  Cramond,  near  by,  and  Lady 
Yestor's  Old  Greyfriars'  Church  in  the  same  city.  In 
1754  he  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  divinity  in  the  uni- 
versity, where  he  labored  until  failing  health  caused 
the  election  of  Dr.  Andrew  Hunter  as  his  assistant,  and 
afterwards  m  his  successor.  Dr.  Hamilton  retired  soon 
arter  this  election,  in  1779,  from  active  work,  and  died 
April  3,  1787.  He  was  moderator  of  the  assembly  in 
1 754  and  1 760.  See  A  nnals  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
1739-^  ii,  386. 

Hamilton,  WilUam,  a  veteran  Irish  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  bom  near  Ncwry  in  1761.  He  became  a 
member  of  a  Methodist  society  at  the  ti^<^  of  fourteen, 
in  1788  received  an  appointment  to  the  Brookboro' 
Circuit,  and  for  twenty-nine  years  labored  for  the 
evangelism  of  Ireland.  He  was  the  first  preacher  who 
encouraged  Ouseley's  extraordinary  plan  of  labor,  in- 
ducing the  conference  to  sanction  it,  and  to  enroll  the 
missionary  on  their  minutes.  Hamilton  had  superior 
talents;  he  waa  an  effective  preacher,  singularly  calm 
himself,  but  as  singularly  powerful  over  the  passions 


HAMMER 


514 


HANDCOCK 


of  hii  hearers.  His  thoughts  wen  original  and  often 
homoxoos;  his  arguments  ingenious  and  irresistible; 
his  style  simple ;  tbe  effect  of  his  discourses  sometimes 
magical.  He  worked  with  his  might.  Ouseley  de- 
clared that  he  never  saw  a  more  indefatigable  laborer. 
Broken  down  in  the  labors  of  the  ministry,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  retire  from  the  active  service  in  1816.  He 
was  one  of  the  eight  preachers  who  received  a  rebuke 
of  the  Irish  Conference  for  the  administration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  He  died  Oct.  8, 1843.  See  Stevens, 
BitU  of, Methodism^  iii,  420, 435 ;  Mwutes  of  ike  British 
Conference,  1844;  Smith,  Bist,  of  Wetlevan  Methodism, 
ill,  24,  25. 

Hammer,  Christopu,  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Jena,  who  died  March  19, 1597,  is  the  author 
of  Padaffogus  Lmguarum  Quingue  Orientalium  (Jena, 
1 596).  See  J5cher,  A  Ugemdnes  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. ; 
PUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  860 ;  Steinschneider,  BUU,  Bandbuck, 
s.  V.    (B.  P.) 

HammerBchmld,  Johasn  Floriav,  a  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  was  bom  Hay  4, 1652,  in  Bohemia. 
He  was  chaplain  at  Budweis,  rector  of  the  archiepiscopal 
seminary*  at  Prague,  and  died  there  in  1787,  dean  and 
apostolical  prothonotary.  He  wrote,  Magnalia  8.  An- 
dres (Prague,  1685)  i—MagnaUa  8,  Joannis  Baptisfa 
(ibid.  1690)  :—MagnaUa  8,  Joamns  Evcmgelistm  (ibid, 
eod.)  i^Magnalia  8,  Matthia  (ibid.  1700).  See  Jdcher, 
AUgemanes  GeUhrten^Lexihon,  s.  v.;  Winer,  Bandbudi 
der  theoL  LiL  i,  566,  567.     (B.  P.) 

Hammon  (Josh,  xix,  28).  Tristram  thinks  (BiNe 
Places,  p.  293)  that  this  is  one  of  the  mounds  *<Just 
north  of  Alma  [see  Ummah],  bearing  the  name  of 
Bcmain;"  but  no  snch  name  appears  on  the  Ordnance 
Map,  nor  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs.  Tbe  BoomI 
which  has  been  thought  to  be  the  best  modem  repre- 
sentative of  Hammon  is  laid  down  on  the  Map  at  one 
and  a  half  miles  north-east  of  Nakmah,  as  Ain-Bamul; 
which  LB  described  in  the  Memoirs  (i,  157)  as  ''  a  large 
perennial  spring  of  good  water,  irrigating  gardens  and 
turning  a  mill  near  its  source ;  a  plentiful  supply."  No 
ancient  ruins  are  noted  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
Trelawney  Saunders  locates  it  {Map  of  the  0.  T.)  at 
Khurbet  el-Bima,  ten  miles  south-east  of  T}'re,  which 
consists  simply  of  *< large  heaps  of  stones'*  {Memoirs, 
i,  176)  without  any  special  marks  of  antiquity. 

Hammond,  Charles,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  son  of  Dr.  Shubael  Hammond,  was  bora  at 
Union,  Conn.,  June  15,  1813.  He  studied  at  Monson 
Academy,  and  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1839 ; 
entered  Andover  Theological  Seminar}-,  and  from  1842 
to  1844  attended  Yale  Divinity  School.  In  the  mean- 
while (1839^41),  he  was  principal  of  the  Monson  Acad- 
emy, and  afterwards  again  occupied  that  position  (1844- 
1859).  From  this  time  till  1868  he  was  connected  with 
the  Lawrence  Academy,  at  Groton,  and  then  was  a  third 
time  chosen  principal  of  the  Monson  Academy,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  retained  until  his  death,  Nov.  7, 1878. 
He  was  ordained  an  evangelist,  Oct.  5, 1855,  at  ToUand, 
Conn.  He  was  the  author  of  many  educational  articles, 
and  published  seversl  pamphlets.  See  Cong.  Year- 
book, 1879,  p.  4S, 

Hammond,  William,  an  English  Calvinistic 
Methodist  minister,  was  bora  at  Battle,  Sussex,  Jan.  6, 
1719.  In  1745  he  published  a  volume  of  original  Psalms, 
Bymns^  and  Spiritual  Songs.  Among  these  were  sev- 
eral which  are  found  in  many  of  our  modera  collections: 
Lord,  we  come  before  thee  now ;  Would  you  win  a  soul 
to  God?  and  A  wake  and  sing  the  song,  Mr.  Hammond 
was  an  educated  man,  having  been  connected  with  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge.  Later  in  life  he  joined  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  and,  upon  his  decease,  Aug.  19, 1783, 
was  interred  in  their  burying-gronnd  in  London.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  volume  entitled  The  Marrow  of 
the  Gospel  See  Belcher,  Bistoncal  Sketches  of  Bvmns, 
p.  163.    (J.  a  a) 

Hampulling-olotlL    See  Ampullino.cix>tr. 


Hamul,  the  angel  who  was  regarded  by  the  andent 
Persians  as  the  inspector  of  the  heavens. 

Hamza,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Druses,  was  a 
prophet  of  the  Egyptian  god  Hakem,  whom  tbe  Druses 
call  their  supreme  deity.  Hamza  is  an  honored  herow 
Seven  times  he  has  come  from  lieaven  to  the  earth. 
The  sacred  books  of  the  Druses  call  Hamza  the  guide 
of  the  compass,  the  straight  road  to  the  only  salvarion, 
the  establisher  of  troth,  tbe  Imam  of  all  times,  the  holy 
spirit,  the  final  cause  of  all  causes.  He  was  the  high- 
est Nezir  of  the  god  Hakem.  He  was  so  highlv  es- 
teemed by  the  latter  that  he  ordered  all  angels  to 'wor- 
ship him,  which  they  all  did  except  Sbeitun  (Satan), 
and  for  this  reason  the  latter  was  damned.  The  four 
other  prophets,  Ismael,  Mahommed,  Selami,  and  Ali,  are 
called  Hamza's  wives. 

Banap,  a  medi»val  term  for  a  drinking-cup. 

Hanan  (or  Hena),  Solomon,  a  Jewish  writer  of 
the  18th  centary,  is  the  author  of,  n«bo  1^33  O,  a 
large  Hebrew  grammar  (Frankfort,  1708):— n'10'»  O 
llpSrt,  another  grammatical  work  (Amsterdam,  1730)  : 
—nam  nnx,  also  a  Hebrew  grammar  (Berlin,  1733, 
and  often) :— min  '»-i:PtD  O,  a  compendium  of  He- 
brew grammar  (Hamburg,  1718):— nirt  ^"lyo,  m 
treatise  on  the  Hebrew  accents  (1718, 1762) :— nnana 
nbfin  '«*n50,  a  grammatical  commentary  on  the 
daily  prayers  (1726).  His  works  were  opposed  by  dif- 
ferent Jewish  writers,  against  whom  he  wrote  *^*'np 
©•'aaJ  and  D'^nx  mmp  (FUrth,  1744).  He  left  a 
number  of  philological  works  in  MS.  See  Fttrst,  BiU, 
Jud,  i,  879  sq.;  Steinschneider,  BibL  Handbuek,  s.  r.; 
De'  Rossi,  Diaaonano  8torioo  (Germ,  transl.).  pw  122. 
(B.  P.) 

BanbaUtes,  one  of  the  four  orthodox  sects  of  tbe 
Mohammedans,  which  derived  its  name  from  Ahmed 
Ibn-Hanbal,  a  devout  follower  of  the  prophet.  He 
maintained  the  eternity  of  the  Koran,  and  thus  bronght 
upon  himself  the  vengeance  of  the  caliph  al-Motasem, 
who  held  that  the  Koran  was  created.  Haobal  was 
imprisoned  and  scourged;  but  he  continued  to  propa- 
gate his  opinions  until  his  death,  which  occurred  aboat 
the  middle  of  the  8th  century.  The  Hanbalites  prevail 
principally  in  the  wilder  districts  of  Arabia,  their  aa»- 
tcre  habits  being  weU  suited  to  the  ample  mannera  of 
the  Bedouin. 

Hanckel,  Christian,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector,  for  several  years,  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  and  in  1858  in  Raddiffborough.  At  this  time  he 
was  president  of  the  standing  committee  of  his  dioceae, 
a  position  to  which  he  was  re-elected  several  sacoeaaivv 
years.  In  1866  he  retired  from  the  active  duties  of  the 
ministry^  and  In  1867  was  elected  honorary  rector  of 
the  same  church.  He  died  in  1870.  See  /Vof.  Episc 
Almanac,  1871,  p.  118. 

Hand,  Aaron  Hicks,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minia. 
ter,  was  bom  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  8, 181L  He  grad- 
uated from  Williams  College  in  1881,  and  from  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1837;  was  licenaed  by  the 
Presbytery  of  New  Brunswick  the  ssme  year,  and  or- 
dained by  the  Presbytery  of  Flint  River,  Ga^  in  1841. 
He  became  stated  supply  of  the  churches  of  Roawell 
and  MarietU  in  1888,  and  remained  until  1841.  He 
then  became  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Berwick,  Pa.,  and 
accepted  a  call  to  the  Church  of  Greenwich,  N.  J.  Hi# 
last  charge  was  the  Palisadea  Presbyterian  Chmvl^ 
N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  eight  years,  and  waa  in  con- 
sequence of  infirmity  compelled  to  resign.  His  labors 
in  all  the  churches  of  which  he  .was  pastor  w«re  at- 
tended with  revivals.  He  died  at  Easton,  Pa.,  Maveh 
8,  1880.  See  New  York  Observer,  March  18.  188a 
(W.P.a) 

Bandoock,  William  Johv,  noted  for  his  laUwa  ia 


HANDEL 


515 


HANLEIN 


connecUon  with  the  French  Wesleyan  work  under  the 
British  CoDfereoee,  was  bom  in  the  island  of  Jersey  in 
1813.  He  was  converted  in  his  nineteenth  year,  en- 
tered the  ministry  in  1888,  and  for  five  years  labored  in 
the  Math  of  France.  His  first  ctrcutt  extended  from 
the  Alps  to  the  Mediterranean.  In  1841  he  was  made 
soperintendent  of  the  work  in  the  Upper  Alps,  and  his 
labors  in  those  dreary  regions  were  the  most  fatiguing 
and  self-denying,  and  contributed  to  the  shortening  of 
his  days.  The  eighteen  years  following  1849  were 
spent  in  the  French  circuits  in  the  Channel  Islands, 
besides  pastoral  work  he  did  much  in  the  educational 
and  literary  line.  The  Wealeyan  day-schools  were  es- 
ublished  through  his  efforts,  and  for  several  years  he 
edited  the  French  Methodiit  Maigatme^  a  periodical  of 
large  cirealation  and  influence.  In  conjunction  with 
one  of  his  brethren,  he  prepared  the  new  Frtnch  Hymn- 
Book^  completed  in  1867.  Failing  health  compelled 
him  to  seek  a  change  of  climate,  and  the  same  year  he 
went  to  BirminghaoB.  In  1868  he  was  appointed  to  the 
Uxbridge  and  Kickmansworth  circuits,  and  died  at  the 
Utter  place,  March  25, 1870.  Ilandcock  was  studious, 
pious,  and  of  unassuming  manners,  evangelical  as  a 
preacher,  and  conscientious  iff  the  discha^  of  his  du- 
ties. He  wrote,  Sommaire  det  Loit  OrgamqueM  H  Ri^es 
de  DiteipUne  det  ^^tet  MModUfet  ^A  ngiderre  (Gnem- 
ney,  I898, 18mo),  and  an  Exposition  of  the  First  Epistle 
ofiSL  J<An  (Lpnd.  1861,  8vo).  His  biographer,  in  the 
WesUym  Methodia  Jfoffozine  (May,  1876,  art.  i)  (T.  J. 
McCartney),  characterized  the  latter  work  as  learned 
and  original.  See  also  MimUes  oftkt  British  Confer- 
enoe,  1870,  p.  2d. 

Handel,  Christiast  FniicnsicR,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian, who  died  at  Neisse,  Silesia,  Sept  6, 1841,  a  su- 
perintendent, is  the  author  of,  Evangeliscke  Christet^ 
iehre  (llth  ed.  Breslau,  1852): — UaterialieH  zu  einem 
voUstMigm  Unterricht  im  Christentkum  (dd  ed.  Halle, 
1840) :— ATcrser  Inbtyrif  der  christiichm  Religiondehre 
(Neisse^  1841)  -.^AUtkostbiti  oder  LUurgienfur  gekiUete 
GemeindkH  (1824).  See  Winer,  f/andbach  der  theoL  IM, 
tl,  216, 280, 281 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol,  i,  497.     (a  P.) 

Handkerchief  Holy.    See  Vbronica,  St. 

Handy,  Isaac  William  Kbb,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Dec.  14, 1815. 
A  part  of  his  early  education  was  received  from  Salmon 
P.  Chase,  afterwards  chief-justice  of  the  United  States. 
He  graduated  from  Jefferson  College,  Pa.,  in  1834;  en- 
tered  Princeton  llieologtcal  Seminary  in  November, 
IS35,  and  studied  there  between  one  and  two  years. 
He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  April  8, 1838 ;  ordained  by  Lewes  Presbytery, 
Nov.  22,  1838;  and  installed  as  pastor  of  the  churches 
of  Buckingham,  Blackwater,  and  LaureL  He  next 
went  to  Missouri  to  labor  as  a  missionary,  and  met 
with  much  success  at  Warsaw  and  vicinity.*  He  after- 
wards served  the  churches  at  Odessa,  Port  Penn,  and 
Middletown,  Del.,  where  he  labored  two  years.  From 
1868  for  two  yean  he  was  missionary  on  the  aastcm 
peninsula  of  Maryland.  His  next  pssCorate  was  at 
Portsmouth,  Va.  He  was  installed  pastor  of  AugusU 
Church,  in  Virgair,  May  18, 1870.  From  the  division 
of  the  Chflfi  in  1861,  Dr.  Handy  adhered  through- 
"■•dk.  rest  of  his  life  to  the  Southern  General  Assero- 
6fy.  Daring  the  civil  war  he  was  a  prisoner  for  fifteen 
months  at  Fort  Delaware  in  1863-64.  He  died  June 
14,  1878.  Dr.  Handy  was  many  years  a  trustee  of 
Delaware  College  at  Newark,  Del,'  a  member  of  the 
Presbyterian  Historical  Society,  of  the  American  Sci- 
entific Association,  and  of  the  MaryUnd  Historical  So- 
ciety. He  had  a  wide  reputation  for  accurate  research. 
See  NeeroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1879,  p.  87. 

Hane,  Philipp  Friedbich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  2, 1696,  at  Belltz,  in  Meck- 
lenburg. He  studied  at  Rostock  and  Jena,  was  in  1724 
librarian  at  Kiel,  in  1780  doctor  and  professor  of  theol- 
ogy, and  in  1783  member  of  consistory.    He  died  Sept. 


27, 1774,  leaving,  Leben  und  Thaten  TpnatU  LoyM  (Ro»> 
tock,  1721,  I725):~l>e  Conciliis  Lateranensilnts  (Kiel, 
1726): — De  Sacrorum  Christiattorum  in  Cimbria  Pru 
rnordUs  (1728) : — De  Melcmchfhonis  Moderalione  inAU" 
gusf^  Confess,  Negotio  Conspicua  (1730): — ffistoria  Cri- 
tica  A  ugust,  Confessionis  (1732)  i^Sermones  de  Tempore 
(1706).  See  Moeer,  Jetztid)ende  Theotogen ;  ^JochtT, 
AUgemeines  Gelehrtcn-Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Winer,  ffandbuch 
der  theoL  Lit,  i,  828, 829,  728, 827.     (R  P.) 

Baneberg;,  Danikl  Bonifacius,  bishop  of  Spires^ 
was  bom  June  16, 1816,  at  Tanne,  Bavaria.  He  studied 
at  Munich,  was  priest  in  1839,  and  commenced  ha  aca- 
demical career  in  1840.  In  1860  he  entered  the  newly 
founded  Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Bonifacius,  at 
Munich,  and  was  made  abbot  in  1854.  In  1861  he 
went  to  Algien  and  Tunis,  and  in  1864  to  Jerusalem. 
In  1868  he  was  called  to  Rome  as  oonsulter  of  the 
Romish  congregation  for  Oriental  iites»  and  at  the 
same  time  to  take  part  in  the  preparations  for  the 
Vatican  Council.  Like  many  others,  he  was  at  first 
opposed  to  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility,  but  finally 
yielded  to  it  In  1872  Haneberg  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Spires,  and  died  May  81, 1876.  He  published,  Ueber 
die  in  etner  mUnchener  Bandschrijl  oM/fbehaltent  ara." 
bisehe  PsahneniibereetzHngdes  Rabbi  Saadia  Gaon  (Rat- 
isbon,1841):— J>2e/^«e  Alterthumcr  der  ffebrder  (i84A; 
2d  ed.  1869)  :—Einleitung  indasAite  Teetament  (1845) : 
^GeschichU  der  bSbUschen  OffeiAarvmg  (1850;  8d  ed. 
1863}  i^Renan's  Leben  Jesu  beUuchiet  (1864)  :^Zur  Er- 
ketminissUhre  von  Ibn  Sina  und  Aiberttts  Magnnu  (Mu- 
nich, 1866)  '.—Cmvoncs  B.  ffippoigti  Arabice  e  Codidbus 
Romanis  (1870).  From  bis  manuscript  Schegg  pub- 
lished EvangeUum  nach  Johannes  ttbersetzt  und  erU&ri 
(1878-80, 2  vols.).  See  Schegg,  Erumerungen  an  Han^ 
berg  (Munich,  1877).     (a  P.) 

Haner,  Ghcmio,  a  Lntheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  April  8, 1672.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg, 
was  in  1736  superintendent  in  Transylvania,  and  di^ 
July  10, 1759,  leaving,  De  Suljecto  Philosophim  MoraUs 
(Wittenberg,  1691):— /)e  Lustrationeffebneorum  (1692) : 
— De  Litterarum  Uebraicantm  Oru/ine  (eod.) : — De  Puno- 
torum  Hebrmnrum  cum  Liitcris  Cotevitate  (1698):  — 
Historia  Ecdesiarum  Trtnuglvanicarum  a  Primis  Po^ 
pulorum  Originibus  ad  Hacusque  Tempora  (Frankfort, 
1694).  See  Benko,  Transylvania,  ii,  205,  429;  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theol  Lit,  i,  839;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  360; 
Jucher,  AUgemdnes  Gelehrien-Lexikon^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hanlfees,  an  orthodox  Mohammedan  aect,  who 
derived  their  name  from  their  founder,  Abn-Hanifa,  the 
first  Moslem  casuist,  who  flourished  in  the  8th  century. 
He  learned  the  principles  and  traditions  of  Mohamme- 
danism from  those  who  had  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
prophet,  and  was  a  lifelong  partisan  of  AU  (q.  v.),  al- 
though now  he  is  regarded  as  the  chief  authority  of  the 
Sonnites  (q.  v.).  He  was  iroprimned  for  refusing  to 
accept  the  oflSce  of  judge,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
poisoned  for  resisting  the  execution  of  a  severe  edict 
against  the  citizens  of  Mosul  in  767.  The  Hanifees 
are  usually  called  the  followers  of  reason,  because  they 
are  guided  chiefly  by  their  own  judgment  in  giving 
decisions,  while  the  other  Mohammedan  sects  adhere 
more  closely  to  the  letter  of  tradition.  This  is  now  the 
established  faith  of  the  Turks  and  Tartars,  but  it  has 
branched  into  numerous  subdivisions. 

Hftnleixx,  Hrikrich  Cahl  Alexandkb  von,  a  Lo- 
theran  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Anspacb, 
July  11, 1762.  He  studied  at  Eriangen  and  Gottingen, 
was  in  1788  professor  of  theology  at  Eriangen,  in  1808 
member  of  consistory  at  Munich,  in  1818  director  of  the 
Protestant  superior  consistory,  and  died  at  Esslingen, 
May  15,  1829.  He  wrote,  (Hmrvationes  ad  loca  Qu0- 
dam  Vet  Test.  (Gottingen,  119^)1  — Evrddtiuig  in  die 
Schriften  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Eriangen,  1794, 2  vols.; 
2d  ed.  1801-1803):— 5ym5oto  CriOca  ad  Interpretation 
nem  Vaiiciniorum  flciacud  (ibid.  1795)  :—C7oiitmen/a- 
ritts  in  EpistoUtm  Judm  (ibid.  1795-96)  '.—De  Lectoribus 


HANNA 


616 


HANSEN 


EpiiUda  Pauli  ad  Ephenos  (ibid.  1797)  i^Cura  m  Li- 
hroB  Novi  Fatderia  (1798-1804, 7  parts)  -.—Lehrfntch  der 
Ewleitvng  in  die  Sckriften  det  Neum  TeHamenU  (1802) : 
— EpistoUi  Juda,  Grace  (1804).  See  Doring,  Die  ge- 
lehrten  Theohgm  DeutschlandSf  a.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuch 
ier  theol  Lit,  i,  9,  75,  103,  210,  229,  278,  656;  ii,  173. 
(B.  P.) 

TT^nna,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  Oct.  4, 1799.  He  graduated  at  JeflTerson  Col- 
lege, Pa.,  in  1818 ;  was  licensed  by  the  Chartiers  Pres- 
bytery in  1820;  in  1821  became  pastor  at  Cadiz,  O.;  in 
1850  at  Washington,  Pa. ;  and  died  Feb.  9, 1864.  As  a 
preacher  he  was  clear  and  methodical,  though  his  doc- 
trines and  mode  of  treating  them  was  not  according  to 
the  modem  school.  See  Wilson,  Prfsb,  Hist.  Almanac, 
1865,  p.  205. 

Hanna,  William,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, son  of  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Hanna,  was  born  at  Belfast, 
Ireland,  in  1808.  He  received  his  literary  and  theolog- 
ical education  at  theUniversity  of  Glasgow,  Scotland,and 
entered  the  ministry  in  1885,  in  which  he  spent  a  labo- 
rious and  useful  life,  and  died  May  25, 1882.  tte  wrote 
the  biography  of  Dr.  Chalmers,  and  also  of  Wycliffe, 
and  an  interesting  history  of  the  Huguenots,  besides 
several  other  valuable  works. 

Hannapes,  Nicolas  db,  a  French  prelate,  the  last 
of  the  Latin  patriarchs  of  Jerusalem,  was  bom  at  Han- 
napes, in  the  Ardennes  mountains,  about  1525.  At  the 
age  of  twelve  he  joined  the  Dominicans  at  Rheims, 
afterwards  studied  at  the  convent  of  St.  Jacques,  Paris, 
was  ordained  priest,  and  taught  theology.  He  was 
called  to  Rome  by  ix>pe  Innocent  Y,  where  he  exercised 
the  functions  of  grand-penitentiary,  later  was  selected 
by  Nicolas  IV  as  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  1289 
apostolic  legate  in  Syria,  Cyprus,  and  Armenia.  Jean 
d'Acre  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  the  mission  was 
broken  up.  Hannapes  died  in  1291,  leaving,  Virtutum 
Vitiorumque  Exemplar  ex  Sacris  Litteris  Excerpta  (IHl- 
bingen,  1538) : — Dicta  Salutia  Nicolai  de  ffannapis,  ard. 
PrcBdicat.  (Mayence,  1609) :— Nicolai  Paitiarcha  Uye- 
roaoly,  Typicon  de  JejunUs  Gracorum^  etc  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraUf  s.  v. 

Hannathon.  For  this  site  Tristram  suggests  {BU 
ble  Places,  p.  253)  Deir  Hannan,  meaning  doubtless  what 
is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  as  Deir  IJanna,  three 
miles  south-west  of  Mnghar  (the  locality  which  we  had 
conjectured),  and  thus  described  in  the  Memoirs  (i,364): 
"  High  walls  all  round  the  village,  which  is  built  of 
stone.  The  walls  have  round  towers,  and  were  built 
by  Dhaker  el-'Amr's  son,  S*ad  el-'Amr.  It  is  situated 
on  the  top  of  a  high  ridge,  and  contains  about  four  hun- 
dred Christians.  It  is  surrounded  by  olive  groves  and 
arable  land.  Water  is  obtained  from  cisterns  and  an 
old  paved  hirheh  [pool]  to  the  north  of  the  village." 
No  ancient  remains  are  noted  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity. Mr.  Trelawney  Saunders  coincides  with  this  loca- 
tion (^Map  of  the  0,  T,),  Lieut.  Conder,  however,  pre- 
fers (Tent  Work,  ii,  337)  Kefr  'Andn,  which  is  too  for 
north,  being  five  miles  south-west  of  Sofed,  and  equally 
destitute  of  any  traces  of  antiquity  {Memoirs,  i,  203). 

Hannauer,  Gkoro,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1817.  In  1843  he  was  made 
priest,  in  1851  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Lyceum  in 
Ratisbon,  and  died  Jan.  11,  1868.  He  wrote  Udfer  den 
Urspining  der  Ideen  nach  Thomas  von  A  quin  (Ratisbon, 
1855).     (B.  P.) 

Hanneken,  Menno,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  March  1, 1595,  at  Blaxen,  in  Olden- 
burg. He  studied  at  Giesscn,  was  in  1619  conrcctor  at 
Oldenburg,  in  1626  professor  at  Marburg,  in  1646  super- 
intendent at  Lubeck,  and  died  Feb.  17, 1671.  He  wrote, 
Scutum  Veritatis  Catholicte  contra  Thomam  Ilenrici: 
^Synopsis  Theoloffite: — ExposiHo  Epistola  Pauli  ad 
Ephesios: — Doctrina  de  Justificatione  Ilotninis  coram 
Deo :  —  Grammaticd  T/ebraica :  —  Quaituor  Disput.  de 


Auffustana  Cot^fessume  Iwoariaia;  Tres  Disp.  Hebrao* 
Theologica.  See  MoUer,  Cimbria  Litterata  ;  Fttrst,  BibL 
Jud,  i,  361 ;  Steinschneider,  BibL  J/andbuch,  s.  v. ;  Jc- 
cher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (JB.  P.) 

Hanneken,  PhiUp  Ludwig;,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian  of  Germany,  son  of  Menno,  was  bom  at  Marbui^, 
June  5, 1637.  He  studied  at  different  universities,  was 
in  1663  professor  of  elocution  at  Giessen,  in  1668  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology  there,  in  1698  professor  at 
Wittenbeig,  and  died  Jan.  16, 1706,  leaving,  Annotaia 
Phihloffica  in  Josuam: — Dedaratio  Avgusianm  Con- 
Jessioms: — Mysterium  Antichristi  Ostensum: — DispW' 
taiiones  de  Prondentia,  de  Sessions  Christi  ad  Dexteram 
Dei,  de  Baptismo  Primarum  Chiliadum  ad  Christum  Con^ 
versarum,  de  A  more  Dei  Salutari  in  Judam  Prodiiorem, 
de  MorUfUS  Hegni  Christi  Illisque  Oppositis  Pietismo  et 
Chiiiasmo,  etc  See  MoUer,  Cimbria  Litterata  ;  FUrsr, 
BibL  Jud.  i,  361 ;  Steinschneider,  BibL  Handbueh,  s.  v. ; 
Jocher,  Allyemeines  Gelehrten^Lacihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hannover,  Nathan,  ben-Moses,  a  Jewish  writer 
of  the  17th  century,  is  the  author  of  nbl2KQ  y\\  or  a 
history  of  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Poland,  Lithua- 
nia, etc  (Venice,  1653 ;  transL  also  into  Judno-German) : 
— hl1*i3  X^VQ,  a  dictionary  of  the  Hebrew  language, 
with  the  corresponding  German,  Italian,  and  LaUn 
words  (Prague,  1660;  an  edition  containing  also  the 
French  was  edited  bv  Koppel  ben- Wolf,  Amsterdam, 
1701).  See  FOrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  861  sq. ;  De'  Rossi,  Di- 
zionaria  Storico  (Germ.  transL),  p.  122.    (B.  P.) 

Hanaoh,  Michael  Gottlikb,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  22,  1688w  He  studied 
at  Leipsic,  where  he  also  lectured  from  1709  to  1711.  It 
was  his  intention  to  publish  Kepler's  manuscripts,  whicb 
he  had  bought  at  Dantzic,  but  he  only  succeeded  ia 
publishing  the  first  volume,  as  he  could  not  get  the  sup- 
port necessary  for  such  an  undertaking.  Haoqch  died 
in  1752,  leaving,  De  Justificatione  FideUum  siA  Veteri 
Testamento,  contra  Paresin  Cocotjanam  (1702):  —  De 
Mediis  Cognoscendi  Existentiam  el  Divinitatem  Scr^ 
turcB  Sacr(B(1709) : — De FundtwientaU in  Fide  Dissensu 
(eod.).  See  During,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deuteck^ 
lands,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gdehrten-Lexihm,  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

HanaeU,  William  Forde,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Dec  5, 1815.  He  grad- 
uated from  Brown  University  in  1845,  and  from  IVince* 
ton  Theological  Seminary  in  1848;  was  ordained  in  1849 
in  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Philadelphia,  and  became 
pastor  of  the  Central  Baptist  Church  in  Poughkeepeie, 
N.  v.,  April  1,  1849.  In  April,  1853,  he  was  released 
from  that  Church,  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Ninth  Street 
Baptist  Church  in  Cincinnati,  O.,  Feb.  5, 1854.  His  ser- 
vices ended  here  July  18, 1858.  For  several  years  he 
resided  in  Philadelphia  without  pastoral  charge.  Re- 
moving to  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1872,  he  preached  fre* 
quently  for  various  churches  in  and  near  that  dt}*.  On 
going  to  Rainbow,  a  town  between  Hartford  and  Spring* 
field,  April  12, 1874,  he  became  deeply  interested  in  that 
field,  remaining  there  and  organizing  a  Church,  which 
was  coustituted  May  18, 1875.  The  last  time  he  ap- 
peared in  public  was  before  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
Hartford  Baptist  Association,  as  the  representative  of 
that  new  Church.  He  died  Nov.  26, 1875.  Dr.  Han- 
sell's  sermons  were  admirably  clear;  sound  in  doctrioe, 
graceful  in  construction  and  expression.  He  dwelt 
specially  on  the  person  and  work  of  the  Lord  Jesoa 
Christ  See  KecroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem. 
1877,  p.  39. 

Hansen,  Franz  Volkmar  Relnhard,  a  La. 

theran  theologian,  was  bom  in  1815.  In  1848  he  waa 
pastor  at  Keitum,  in  the  island  of  Sylt,  Schleswig,  hot 
was  deposed  by  the  Danish  government  in  1850.  Fiom 
1852  to  1862  he  was  court-preacher  to  queen  Amalie,  at 
Athens,  in  1864  provost  and  first  pastor  in  Schleswig, 
and  died  June  28, 1879.    He  is  the  author  of.  Die  A  a/^ 


HANSEN 


517 


HAPPINESS 


tfobe  DwUMands  und  die  Union  im  Zuaammenhanffe  der 
ZeitgetekiekU  (IS7S).    (B.P.) 

Hansen,  Lud'wlg,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  bom 
at  Hildeshelm,  Feb.  1, 1664.  He  studied  at  Jena,  was 
in  1689  pastor  at  bis  native  place,  and  died  Feb.  28, 
1694,  leaving,  Ditp.  dt  Damombus  (Jena,  1684) :  — />e 
SimpiicitaU  Dei  (eod.) : — De  Salute  Majorum  m  Po- 
patu  (1688).  See  Lauenstein,  Ilildesk.  Kirchenhietorie, 
vii,  88;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GelekrUn-Lexihon^  s.  v. 
(a  P.) 

Hnnaftn,  Petma,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was  bom 
July  6, 1686,  in  Schleswig.  He  studied  at  Kiel,  was 
deacon  in  1714,  in  1720  first  pastor  at  Pl6n,  HoUteio,  in 
1729  member  of  consistory  and  superintendent,  and 
died  in  1760,  leaving,  De  Attuto  JuUani  ApottcUi  Studio 
in  Abolenda  cum  Sckolit  JUUgiane  Christiana  (Plon, 
17d3)i  —  Diss.  SyuHi  de  Dijerentia  inter  Bdigionem 
NaiuraUm  el  Revelatam  contra  Tindalium  (1733).  Be- 
sides, he  published  a  number  of  ascetical  works.  See 
Moser  and  Xeubauer,  Jelztkbende  Tkeohgen;  Jdcher, 
AUgemeines  Gdehrten-Lexihon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hanflis,  Markus,  a  Jesuit  and  Church  historian  of 
Austria,  was  bom  April  23, 1683,  at  Volkermarkt,  in 
Carinthia.  He  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit  college  at 
Ebemdorf,  studied  at  Vienna,  and,  after  receiving  holy 
orders,  was  for  many  years  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Grata.  His  ecclesiastical  researches  made  him  con- 
ceive the  idea  of  producing  a  Germania  Sacra^  after 
the  pattern  of  the  GalUa  Ckrittiana  (Paris,  1656  sq.), 
UgheUi*s  ItaUa  Sacra  (Venice,  1717  sq.),  and  Whar- 
ton's An^ia  Sacra  (Lond.  1691),  and  he  undertook  a 
journey  to  Rome  with  a  view  of  examining  the  libra- 
ries there.  In  1727  he  published  the  first  volume  of 
his  Germania  Sacra:  3/etropolit  f^ureacentit  cum 
Epiecopatu  PataviensijCkronol^gice  Propotita  (foL) ;  the 
second  volume,  published  in  1729,  is  entitled,  A  rchio- 
piseopaius  Salisburgensis  ChronoL  Prop.;  the  third 
volume,  published  in  17M,  is  styled,  De  Epieoopatu 
Ratiabonensi  ProdiromuSj  sice  In/ormatio  Summatia  de 
Sede  Antiqua  HatidtonensL  The  freedom  with  which 
he  treated  local  legends  roused  such  an  opposition  to 
him  that  he  felt  compelled  to  renounce  literary  labor  in 
1756,  but  he  encouraged  others  to  continue  his  work. 
Hansiz  died  Sept.  5, 1766,  at  Vienna,  and  his  book  was 
continued  by  Ussermann  and  others.  See  Backer,  Ecri- 
cains  de  la  Conyxtgme  de  J^us,  ii,  285 ;  Werner,  Gesch. 
der  kathoL  Theohgie,  p.  132;  Rettberg,  Kirchen-Ge- 
Mchichte  Deutschiandsj  i,  2  sq. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop, 
des  Sciences  Religituses,  a.  v. ;  Plitt-Herzog,  ReaUEncg- 
Mop,  s.  V.     (R  P.) 

Hanstein,  Gottfbird  August  Ludwio,  a  Lu- 
theran  theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Magde- 
burg, Sept.  7, 1701.  He  studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1782 
teacher  at  the  cathedral-school  of  his  native  place,  in 
1787  preacher  at  TangermQnde,  in  1804  member  of 
consistory  and  preacher  at  Berlin,  and  died  Feb.  25, 
1821,  doctor  of  theology.  He  published  homiletical 
and  ascetical  works,  for  which  see  Doring,  Deutsche 
Kcuaelredaer ;  Winer,  I/andbueh  der  iheoL  Lit,  ii,  62, 94, 
97,  118,  ISO,  148, 156,  158,  164,  168,  170, 172,  173,  175, 
177, 197, 199, 203, 205, 206,  227, 233, 357 ;  Zuchold,  Bil)L 
TkeoL  i,  501.     (a  P.) 

fT^nwinnn,  the  ope^god  of  the  Hindfts,  son  of 
Pavan,  lord  of  the  winds.  There  is  a  reference  to  Ha- 
numan  in  the  Ramayana  (q.  v.),  in  which  the  monkey- 
chief  is  introduced  as  huding  the  natives  of  India, 
who  had  come  to  the  assistance  of  Rama.  In  memory 
of  this  service  a  small  pagoda  is  erected  to  his  honor 
in  the  temples  of  Vishnu. 

Baphraim.  .  This  place,  according  to  Tristram 
(^BAU  Places,  p.  287),  ^  is  probably  represented  by  the 
Uttla  village  of  et^A/uleh,  two  miles  west  of  Shunem, 
in  the  plain  f  the  position  which  we  had  assigned  it 
faee  laaACHAR],  and  which  is  adopted  by  Mr.  Grove 
in  Dr.  Smith's  Atlas,    It  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance 


Map  at  two  and  a  half  miles  due  west  of  Solam,  and 
is  described  in  the  Memoirs  (ii,  40)  as  '^  a  small  village 
of  mud  in  the  plain,  supplied  by  two  wells.  This  is 
possibly  the  Ophlah  of  the  lists  of  Thothmes  III  (on 
the  temple  at  Karaak).  Compare  el-Fueh  (one  mile 
to  the  east).  It  is  also  mentioned  by  Maria  Sanuto 
(A.D.  1321)  under  the  name  of  AfeL**  There  are  no 
other  indications  of  antiquity.  Lieut  Gonder  suggests 
(Tent  Workj  ii,  337)  the  identity  of  Haphraim  with 
Khurbet  el-Faniyeh,  which  is  laid  down  on  the  Ord- 
nance Map  far  away  from  Shunem,  at  two  and  a  half 
miles  south  of  Ain-Keimftn  (Jokneam),  on  the  north 
edge  of  Mount  Carmel ;  and  is  described  as  *'  a  steep  hil- 
lock ¥rith  traces  of  ruins,  and  on  the  north  a  good  spring 
in  the  valley  "  (Memoir,  ii,  58,  where  a  description  and 
plan  of  the  ancient  tombs  are  given).  In  this  latter 
location  Mr.  Trelawney  Saunders  coincides  {Map  of  the 
0,  T.). 
Hapt    See  Apia. 

Happaoh,  Johann  Caaiinir,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1726.  He  was  director 
and  professor  of  theology  at  the  Coburg  gymnasium  in 
1772,  and  died  Aug.  11, 1788,  member  of  consistory.  He 
wrote,  Comm,  de  Calumnia  Religiosa  et  Theologia  Civili 
Vetentm  Prasertim  Romanorum  (Coburg,  1749)  : — De 
Conatibus  QuHnudam  Trcmslationes  BHUiorum  Emen- 
dandi  (1772):— Z)c  Papgro  ad  ffiob  mi,  11  (eod.):— 
Explicatio  Nona  Cladis  BethsemUica,  1  Sam,  rt,  19  (3 
parts,  1774)  i—Progr,  III  ad  Gen.  xltii,  24  (1775)  :— 
Progr,  VI  Super  Quibusdam  Locis  Propheta  Rosea 
(1776, 1777).  See  Meusel,  GeUhrtes  Deutschland;  FOrst, 
Bibl,  Jud,  i,  362 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gdehrten-Lexihon, 
u  v.     (B.  P.) 

Happach,  Lorenz  Phillpp  Oottfried,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Jan.  6, 1742,  at 
Hoyersdorf,  near  Dessau,  studied  at  Halle,  was  rector 
and  chaplain  in  1764,  preacher  at  Alten  in  1772,  and  in 
1780  at  Mehringen.  He  died  Auly  20, 1814,  leaving 
Naimann  Syrus,  lUustrandum  (Bremen,  1774): — TAe- 
ologische  Nebenstunden  (Dessau,  1798-1805 ):  — Teftfr 
die  Beschaffenheit  des  kunfiigen  L^bens  nach  dem  Tode, 
aus  Ansichten  der  Bibel  (ibid.  1809-11,  2  vols.).  See 
Doring,  Die  qelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands ;  Winer, 
Ilandbuch  der  iheoL  Lit.  i,  475 ;  ii,  51.     (K  P.) 

Happeraett,  Rkksk,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Brandywine,  Pa.,  July  81, 1810.  He 
graduated  from  Washington  College,  Pa.,  in  1836,  and 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1889 ;  was  li- 
censed by  the  New  Castle  Presbytery  the  same  year, 
and  ordained  in  1841.  In  1844  he  was  appointed  agent 
for  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions,  and  in  this  posi- 
tion was  eminently  active  and  useful  In  1850  he  be- 
came assistant  secretary  of  the  board,  and  in  1859  was 
elected  corresponding  secretary.  He  died  Oct.  2, 1866. 
See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1867,  p.  154. 

Happiness,  absolutely  taken,  denotes  the  durable 
possesion  of  perfect  good,  without  any  mixture  of  evil ; 
or  the  enjoyment  of  pure  pleasure  unalloyed  with  pain ; 
or  a  state  in  which  all  our  wishes  are  satisfied ;  in  which 
senses,  happiness  is  only  known  by  name  on  this  earth. 
The  word  happy,  when  applied  to  any  state  or  condi- 
tion of  human  life,  will  admit  of  no  positive  definition, 
but  is  merely  a  relative  term ;  that  is,  when  we  call  a 
man  happy,  we  mean  that  he  is  happier  than  some  oth- 
ers with  whom  we  compare  him ;  or  than  the  general- 
ity of  others;  or  than  he  himself  was  in  some  other 
situation.  Moralists  justly  observe  that  happiness  does 
not  consist  in  the  pleasures  of  sense ;  as  eating,  drink- 
ing, music,  painting,  theatrical  exhibitions,  etc,  for  these 
pleasures  continue  but  a  little  while,  by  repetition  lose 
their  relish,  and  by  high  expectation  often  bring  disap- 
pointment. Nor  does  happiness  consist  in  an  exemp- 
tion from  labor,  care,  business,  etc. ;  such  a  state  being 
usually  attended  with  depression  of  spirits,  imsginary 
anxieties,  an<l  the  whole  train  of  hypochondriacal  affec- 
tions.   Nor  is  it  to  be  found  in  greatness,  rank,  or  ele- 


HABA 


618 


HARDTSCHMIDT 


Ttted  tUtioDfl^  as  matter  of  faet  abuodantly  testifies ; 
but  happiness  oonnsts  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  Diyine 
favor,  a  good  conscience,  and  uniform  conduct.  In  sub- 
ordination to  these,  human  happiness  may  be  greatly 
promoted  by  the  exercise  of  the  social  aiSections,  the 
pursuit  of  some  engaging  end,  the  prudent  constitution 
of  the  habits,  and  the  enjoyment  of  our  health* — ^Hen- 
derson's Buck,  Theol,  Did,  s.  v. 
Hara,  one  of  the  names  of  Siva  (q.  v.). 

Hararas,  Franz,  a  leametl  Dutch  Cathofic  divine, 
was  bom  at  Utrecht  in  1550,  and  educated  in  the  acad- 
emy there,  after  wbii  h  he  travelled  through  Germany, 
Italy,  and  Russia.  He  was  made  canon  of  Bois-le-Duc, 
then  of  Namur  and  Louvain.  He  died  at  the  latter 
.place,  Jan.  12,  1682.  His  principal  works  are,  Biblia 
Sacra  Expotitionibus  Priscorum  Patrum  LUteralibut 
et  AfyiHcis  lUtuirata  (1680)  ^~(7a/eiui  A  urea  in  IV 
EvangtUa  (1625) : — Vitoie  Sanctorum.  See  Chalmers, 
Siog.  Diet,  s.  v. 

Harald,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  the  see  of 
Argylc  in  1228.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  285. 

ITaTMtw^  a  term  used  by  Mohammedans  to  denote 
what  deserves  reprimand  or  punishment,  because  ex- 
pressly forbidden  by  the  law.  It  is  the  opposite  of 
Halal  (q.  v.).  The  word  Haram  also  signifies  a  sacred 
thing  from  which  infidels  are  to  abstain,  as  the  temple 
of  Mecca,  or  Mohammed's  tomb  at  Medina. 

Harbads,  a  name  substituted  by  Zoroaster  for  the 
magi  (q.  v.)  of  the  ancient  Persians,  and  designed  to 
denote  the  priests  of  the  Guebres.    See  Parskes. 

Harbait;  Bdrchard,  doctor  and  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Leipsic,  was  bom  in  1546,  and  died  Feb.  18, 
1614.  He  is  the  author  of,  Theses  de  Smalcaldiete  Con- 
/essionis  Articulis.'—Doctrina  de  Conjugio:— Capita 
Doctrinam  de  Confessione  Vera  Fidei  Compleetentia:-^ 
Capita  de  I^ge  Divina:-^De  Spiritu  Sancto:—De  Li- 
hero  l/ominis  Arbitrio: — De  Sacramentis  in  Genere: — 
De  Ministerio  Ecdesiastico.  See  Vogel,  I^pziger  A  n- 
naUn;  Freher,  Theatrum  Eruditorum;  Jocher,  Attge- 
meines  GeUhrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Harconrt,  Agnda  d',  a  French  nun,  sister  of  Kob- 
ert,  became  abbess  of  Longchamps,  and  died  in  1291. 

Haroonrt,  Qtiy  d',  a  French  prelate,  brother  of 
Robert,  became  bishop  of  Ltsieux  in  1303. 

Harconrt,  Louis  d*,  a  French  prelate,  became 
archbishop  of  Narbonne  in  1452,  and  died  Dec.  14, 1479. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Harconrt,  Philippe  d',  a  French  prelate  and 
statesman,  was  originally  archdeacon  of  Bayeux,  be- 
came bishop  of  that  see  in  1142,  and  died  in  the  abbey 
of  Le  Bee  about  1160.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  CM- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Harconrt,  Robert  d',  a  French  prelate  and  dip- 
lomat, became  bishop  of  Coutances  in  1291. 

Hardeiibere;h,  JAina  B.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Re- 
formed (Dutch)  minister,  was  born  at  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
June  28, 180O.  £arly  converted  and  consecrated  to  the 
ministry,  he  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1821,  and 
from  the  Theological  Seminary  at  New  Brunswick  in 
1824.  His  first  settlement  was  at  Helderberg  and 
Princeton,  N.  Y.  (1824-25).  He  was  then  called  to  suc- 
ceed Dr.  Isaac  Ferrisi  in  the  First  Church,  New  Brans- 
wick,  N.  J.,  where  he  remained  four  years  (1825-29). 
From  thence  he  went  to  Orchard  Street,  New  York  city, 
for  a  single  year,  when  he  succeeded  Dr.  Bethune  at 
Rhinebeck  (1830-36),  and  followed  him  again  in  the 
First  Church  of  Philadelphia  (Crown  Street),  where  he 
labored  successfully  until  1840,  and  then  accepted  the 
chaige  of  the  Franklin  Street,  or  North-west  Reformed 
Dutch  Church,  in  New  Vork.  Here  he  remained  six- 
teen years,  a  healer  of  old  dissensions,  and  a  leader  of 
the  people  to  new  and  long  prosperity.  Meantime  by 
his  exertions  the  church  edifice  in  Franklin  Street  was 
sold,  and  a  new  one  erected  in  Twenty-third  Street.  In 


1856  he  resigned  h»  pastorate  to  seek  rest  and  leen- 
peration  for  wasted  health  and  strength.  After  a  year 
in  Europe,  and  two  winters  in  the  South,  he  preached 
in  Savannah  and  Macon,  Ga.  Upon  his  return  from  a 
second  visit  abroad,  he  devoted  his  ample  means  and 
willing  services  to  the  founding  of  a  city  mission  on 
the  comer  of  Madison  and  (^vemeur  streets,  New 
York  city.  He  died  Jan.  24, 1870.  Dr.  Hardenbergh 
was  a  man  of  majestic  frame,  countenance,  and  bearing, 
handsome  beyoiMi  most  men,  dignified,  grscefnl,  and 
cultivated.  His  preaching  was  earnest,  evangelical, 
aimple,  direct,  scriptural,  and  practical.  ^'His  fervor 
was  intense.  At  communion  seasons  his  face  was 
radiant  with  emotion,  and  his  tones  thriUing  with  ten- 
derness. He  was  loyal  to  the  Church  of  his  fathen, 
active  in  her  benevolent  boards,  and  held  high  rank 
among  the  first  men  of  hb  period."  He  was  a  trustee 
of  Rutgen  College  from  1825  till  his  death,  and  was 
president  of  the  General  Synod  in  1842.  See  Memorial 
Sermon,  by  A.  R.  Thompson,  D.D.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Hardin,  Robkrt,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Greene  County,  Tenn.,  Jan.  8, 1789.  He 
was  educated  in  Greenville  College,  and  studied  theol- 
ogy privately;  was  licensed  by  Union  Presbytery,  or- 
dained by  French  Broad  Presbytery  in  1814,  and  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Westminster  and  St  Paul  chnrchea. 
He  died  in  Lewisbuig,  SepL  4, 1867.  Dr.  Hardin  was 
considered  by  his  brethren  as  a  man  of  great  moral 
worth  and  deep  piety,  and  theological  attsinments  far 
above  the  average.  See  Wilsmi,  Presh.  Hist,  A  ImanaCf 
1868,  p.  888. 

Harding;,  Neiikmiah  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Branswick,  Me.,  in  October,  1794. 
He  graduated  from  the  University  of  North  Carolina  in 
1825;  spent  two  years  in  Princeton  llieological  Sem- 
inary; was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Orange, 
April  18, 1829 ;  became  stated  supply  for  Milton,  N.  C, 
Bethany  and  Red  House,  and  died  at  the  former  place, 
Feb.  17, 1849.  See  Gen,  Cat.  of  Princeton  Theol,  Sent. 
1881,  p.  58. 

Hardouim,  Scant.    See  Chadcenl's. 

Hardt,  AirroK  Jcuus  von  der,  a  German  theolo- 
gian and  Orientalist,  was  bora  at  Branswick,  Nov.  18, 
1707.  He  was  professor  of  theolog}'  and  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  HelmstHdt,  and  died  June  27, 1785,  leaving, 
Epistola  Rabbinica  de  QuHntsdam  Priscorum  Ebraorum 
Bectoribus  Magnificis  (Helmstftdt,  1727):— i>u«.  cfe 
Zereda,  Gentino  in  Palestina  et  Pertea  Appido  (ibid, 
1728):  — Z>e  Sarepta  (eod.):  — jDe  Judaorum  Siatuto 
Scriptura  Sensum  Injledendi  (eod.): — Commentatio  in 
Frontem  Libri  Af oralis  Misehnki  PirbeAboth  (eod.) : — 
De  JubHao  Alosis  Levit.  xv  (eod.) :— Z)e  Sophismatibms 
Judieorum  in  Probandis  suis  ConstitutionAus  (1729) : — 
Babbi  Jsaaci  A  rama  Diss,  Babbimca  de  Usu  Lingua^ 
cum  Versione  Latina  (eod.)  :— Commentatio  de  Medraseh 
Sgmbolica  Veterum  Judaorum  fnierpretandi  Batione 
(eod.) : — De  Proverbio  Judaorum  de  CameUs  (eod.) : — 
De  Dirersa  Nominum  Dei  Jehovah  et  Elohim  Lectiona 
ac  Scriptione  (1748)  i—Grammaiica  Bebraiea  (1775) : 
— Z>e  Christo  Bege,  ex  SttJ-pe  Davidis  Oriundo  (1766)  : 
— Pentecostt  Judaorum  (1785).  See  Ddring,  Die  ge^ 
lehrten  Theohgen  Deutschlands ;  FUrst,  BUd,  Jud,  i, 362; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  GelehrtenrLexihon,  a,  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hardtachmidt,  Johamn  Nioolaus,  a  Luthermn 
theologian  of  Strasburg,  where  he  died  in  1706,  doctor 
and  professor,  is  the  author  of,  De  dvroxttpi^  Simsomt 
Lieita  ad  Judic.  xvi,  80  ■ — De  Jure  Dei  in  Homimes: — 
De  HamorrhoidSbus  ad  1  Sam.  rt,  5 : — De  Justifioatiomk 
ex  Fide  non  ex  Lege,  ad  Galat,  m,  11, 12 : — De  Perfecti^ 
one  FideHum  ad  Phil,  iv,  18 : — De  Beltgione  Eedesiastiea 
ad  1  Thess,  v,  21  :—De  Seeuh-  A  ureo  ad  Apocafypsis^  ase, 
5,  6:— Z>e  Duratione  Angehrum: — De  PeeoaHs  Eleeto^ 
rum  in  Judicio  Extremo  non  PubUoandis : — De  Munds 
jEtemitate:  —  Theses  Theologica  Adversus  Erroret 
Quosdam  PieHstioos,  See  Jficher,  AUgemeiaet  Gelehr^ 
ten-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 


HARENBBRG 


519 


HARMS 


Harenbars,  Jouann  Ghrutoph,  a  Luthenm  ibe- 
olpgion  of  Germaoyy  was  born  April  24, 1696,  stodied  at 
HelmsUidt,  and  was  rector  at  Gandersbeim  in  1720.  In 
1785  he  was  pastor,  and  accepted  a  call  in  1745  as  pro- 
fessor of  Iitstory  and  antiquities  to  Bmnswick,  where 
he  died,  Nov.  12, 1774.  He  wrote,  Kunt  EudeUung  tn 
die  j£ihiopi9chef  t<mderlich  JfabettinUche  alts  und  mue 
Tkeologie  (HelmsUidt,  1719) :— Z)e  Speeulartbus  Veto- 
rffm,  ad  Locum  1  Cor,  xiii,  12  (ibid,  eod.) : — Vert  Dwi" 
nigue  NataUs  Cireumcitionit  Judoiem,  Templi  Scdo^ 
numeif  Musioes  DcaridiceB  in  Saerit^  ei  Bc^itmi  CkritU' 
anorum  (1720):  —  Jura  Itrailiiarum  in  PakutiMam 
(Hildesbeim,  1724) : — De  A  rtieuUs  SuobaeenMtbut,  Fun- 
damento  Auguttcma  Confessionu  (Brunswick,  1780) : — 
Hittoria  Eodetim  Gundenheitnensia  Cathedralia  et  Col' 
Ugiata  Dipiomatiea  (Hanover,  1784)  i—Otia  Gunder*- 
heimen$iSf  Exponendia  Sacrit  Litteris  el  Historia  Eode- 
$iastica  Dicata^  CompUxa  XIII  OhstrvationeM  (Utrecht, 
1740):— Ztfwt  BeUgumstpdtier,  Celsut  und  Eddmatm 
(Leipsic,  1748) : — A  mot  Propheta,  ExpotituM  Interpreta- 
Hone  Nova  Latma  (Leyden,  1763) :  —  A  vflddrung  dea 
Bucket  Daniel  (1778, 2  vols.).  See  Doring,  Die  geUhr- 
ten  Theoloffen  Deuuddcmdt ;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL 
Lit  i,  21, 221, 226, 591, 722, 798 ;  Jocber,  A  Ogememee  Ge- 
lehrtenrLexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hareth.  lieut.  Conder  aryi^ues  at  length  ((2<tar. 
Statement  of  the  '*  Pal  Explor.  Fund,"  January,  1875,  p. 
42  sq.)  against  the  existence  of  any  forest  in  this  vi- 
cinity, and  therefore  prefers  the  reading  *^*^9  (ci^y)  to 
*^9^  (wood)\  but  his  reasoning  is  based  upon  a  miscon- 
ception (corrected  in  his  Tent  Work^  ii,  88)  of  the  Utter 
word,  which  usually  does  not  imply  timber^  but  simply 
a  copae  or  low  brushwood.  He  6nds  the  locality  in 
question  in  the  ''small  modem  village  of  Kkarda^  in 
the  hills  on  the  north  side  of  Wady  Ameba,  one  of  the 
heads  of  the  valley  of  Elah  (Wady  es-Sunt) ;  au  an- 
cient site,  with  the  usual  indications — wells,  cisterns, 
and  rough  eaves  in  the  hill-sides."  It  is  laid  down  on 
the  Ordnance  Map  seven  and  a  half  miles  east  of  Beit- 
Jibrin,  and  two  miles  east  of  Khurbet  Kila  (Keilah). 
This  identification  is  ooncorred  in  by  Tristram  (BMe 
Plaeea,  p.  43)  and  Trelawney  Saunden  {Map  of  the 
0.  T.). 

Harigara,  a  word  which,  when  pronounced  along 
with  Siva  and  Bama,  is  believed  by  the  Hindfts  to 
bring  down  numberless  blessings  upon  him  who  utters 
it.  The  moment  these  three  sacred  words  escape  from 
the  lips,  all  sins  are  cancelled ;  but  if  they  are  thrioe 
repeated,  the  gods  are  so  honored  that  they  are  at  a 
loss  to  find  a  recompense  equal  to  the  merit.  Such 
privileged  persons  are  no  longer  obliged  to  pass  into 
other  bodies,  but  are  straightway  absorbed  in  Brahm. 

Harington,  Edward  Chaklbs,  an  Anglican  cler- 
gyman, was  bom  about  1807;  graduated  from  Worces- 
ter College,  Oxford,  in  1827;  was  appointed  chancellor 
in  1847,  in  1857  resident  canon  of  Exeter  Cathedral, 
and  died  July  18, 1881.  He  wrote  numerous  works  on 
Church  history  and  polity,  for  which  see  Allibone,  Did, 
of  Brit,  and  Amer.  A  uthoray  s.  v. 

BaxiW  were  magicians  who  are  mentioned  by 
ancient  writers  as  waiting  on  the  altars  of  the  heathen 
to  receive  their  inspiration  from  the  fumes  of  the  sacri- 
fices. 

HarlaTiancHa,  a  sect  composed  of  dome  or  sweepers 
in  the  western  province  of  Hindustan,  the  members  of 
which  are  very  scarce,  or,  perhaps,  entirely  extinct. 

Harleaa,  Gottlibb  Christoph  Adolph,  a  Lu- 
thenn  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  NQremberg, 
Nov.  21, 1806.  He  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at 
Erlangen  and  Halle,  and  commenced  his  academical 
career  at  the  former  place  in  1828.  In  1886  he  was 
appointed  professor  and  university  preacher,  in  1838  he 
took  part  in  starting  the  ZeitachAfl^fur  Proteatantiamua 
und  Kircke,  and  in  1842  he  published  his  Chriatliche 
Etkik,  of  which  eight  editions  were  printed,  and  which 


was  also  translated  into  English  (Edinburgh,  1868). 
To  this  period  belongs  hb  activity  as  member  of  par-' 
liament  in  the  Bavarian  diet,  where  he  so  energetically 
fought  for  the  cause  of  Protestantism  that  the  ultra- 
montane minister,  Abel,  deposed  him  from  his  professor- 
ship, and  in  1845  sent  him  as  member  of  consistory  to 
Bayreuth.  In  the  same  year,  however,  he  was  called 
to  Leipsic,  where  he  labored  as  professor  and  preacher 
at  St.  Kicholai  till  1847,  when  the  king  of  Saxony  ap- 
pointed him  courUpreacher  and  vice-president  of  the 
consistory.  In  1852  Harless  was  called  to  Munich  an 
president  of  the  Protestant  superior  consistory,  and  di- 
rected the  affairs  of  the  Protestant  Church  in  Bavaria 
for  twenty-five  years.  He  died  SepL  5, 1879.  Besides 
his  Ethik,  he  published,  De  Beveiaiione  et  Fide  (Er- 
langen, 1880)  :—Coitunentar  iiber  den  Brief  Pauli  an 
die  Epkeaer  (1834;  2d  ed.  1858)  i—Die  kriiiache  Bear- 
beitung  dea  I^ebena  Jeau  von  David  Fr,  Strauaa  beleuchtet 
(1836) :  —  Theologia<Ae  Eneyklopadie  und  Methodologie 
(1837)  \—De  Supernaturaliamo  GentiUum  aeu  de  via  et 
Ratione  Superatitionem  a  Beligione  Rede  Diatinguendi 
(1838): — Lucubrationum  Evangtlia  Canonica  Spedan- 
tium  Para  I  et  II  (1841,  1842):— ZH'e  JSonntagaweihe, 
sermons  (2d  ed.  1860, 4  vols.)  \— Kircke  und  Ami  nach 
Uitkeriacker  Lekre  (1853)  :  —  Die  Ekeackeidungafrage 
(1861)  i—Daa  VerkSUniaa  dea  Ckriatentkuma  zu  KuUur- 
und  Lehenafrdgen  der  GegenwaH  (1863 :  2d  ed.  1866)  :— 
Jakob  Bdkme  und  die  Akkimiaten  (1870;  2il  ed.  1882) : 
—  GeachichtabUder  aua  der  luiker,  Kircke  lAclanda 
(1869)  i^Staai  und  Kircke  (1870).  See  Zuchold,  Bibl, 
Tkeol.  if  501-508 ;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  dea  Sciencea 
ReHgieuaeay  s.  v.;  SUihlin,  G,  Ckr.  A,  Ilarleaa,  in  ZeU- 
acknnfUr  kircklicke  Wiaaenackafl,  1880,  ii  and  iii;  but 
especially  Harleas*s  own  work,  Bruckatiicke  aua  dem  Le- 
ben  einea  aUddeuUeken  Tkeohgen  (Bielefeld,  1872-75,  2 
vols.),     (a  P.) 

Barmar,  John,  an  English  cleig3rman  and  scholar, 
was  born  about  1594,  at  Churchdowne,  near  Gloucester, 
and  educated  at  Winchester  SchooL  He  was  appoint- 
ed Greek  professor  in  that  school  in  1650,  and  in  1659 
was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Enhurst,  in  Hampshire. 
He  died  Nov.  1, 1670.  His  principal  works  are,  Edogee 
Senientiarum  d  SimUitudinumy  e  Ckryaoatomo  Deceijffte 
(Greek  and  Ijatin,  with  notes,  1622) :  —  Epiatola  ad 
Lambertum  Oabaldeatonum  (1649) : — A  Skort  Cateckiam, 
See  Chalmen,  Biog,  Did.  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit, 
and  Amer,  A  utkora^  s.  v. 

Harmon  (Heb.  Harmon',  "pia^^n,  probably  from 
0*^11,  to  be  kigk;  Sept.  r6  opoc  rb  Pofifiav;  Yulg.  ex- 
eeUua  mona ;  A.'  Y.  "  the  palace  **),  a  place  only  n)en. 
tioned  in  Amos  iii,  4,  as  that  to  which  the  inhabitants 
of  Samaria  would  be  led  forth  by  their  Assyrian  conquer- 
ors, evidently,  therefore,  some  unknown  locality  of  the 
captivity.  The  ancient  interpretations  are  obviously 
mere  etymological  conjectures,  chiefly  by  a  resolution 
of  the  first  part  of  the  name  into  ^il,  a  mountain ;  and 
the  latter  into  a  form  of  *^2p,  Armenia^  or  ^129"^,,  Rim- 
mon ;  which  are  unsuitable.  Kimchi  makes  it  equiva- 
lent  to  "jlQ^K,  a  town, 

Hanna,  Tiieodor,  brother  of  Louis  (q.  v.),  was  born 
in  1819.  When  thirty  years  of  age  he  was  called  as 
missionary  inspector  to  Hermannsburg,  and  succeeded 
his  brother  in  1865.  In  1878  Harms  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  those  ministera  who  left  the  State  Chureh  and 
formed  separate  congregations.  This  separation  was 
neither  in  the  interest  of  the  Chureh  nor  in  the  interest 
of  the  great  misnonary  work  with  which  Harms  was 
intmsted,  and  the  more  so  as  lie  had  not  those  talents 
which  would  qualify  him  to  become  a  party  leader. 
Friends  of  Harms  had,  therefore,  often  trieid  to  heal  the 
breach  between  the  State  Chnreh  and  the  Hermanns- 
buig  Mission,  but  all  efforts  were  in  vain,  on  account  of 
Harms  being  too  headstrong  a  person.  He  died  Feb.  16, 
1885*  Besides  a  biographical  sketch  of  his  brother 
Louis  (5th  ed.  1877),  he  pablish^,  Daa  HokeUed  kurz 


HARNEY  6! 

trUSrl  (Leipoc,  WO)  i—Dtr  wote  Brir/P^ri  (1878) : 
—Der  PtaUtr  trUdri  (!d  ed.  I8T0):— /to*  rfri(«  Sue* 
-Vmb  tan  m^tlrgt  (1H71) :— Oer  Utiinatg  h  M  iVe- 
rf^Cfli  {ltl71;  Sd  ti.l«n):—DU  Itltltn  Dinge  (1873 1 
3d  ed.  1875) :— iVr  PiwpjUi  ^obacti  erUan  (187B)  :— 
Zm  /e»B  fioMBi,  Pndiglm  (1B77).     (B.  P.) 

Hamey,  Martim,  «  Dominican  of  AsutFrdiin,  vu 
bom  May  6, 1634,  and  died  it  Lounin,  April  22, 1704, 
profoaor  of  Iheotogy.  He  «u  an  opponent  of  Ihe  Jio- 
KnistH,  and  vrrole  L'Ohi%M$BiKe  Raiaomabie  dtt  Catko^ 
liquri  df  Pngi-Bat  (Antwerp,  1636;  IraniL  alao  inM 
Latin).  See  Licbtenberger,  Eucfdop.  da  Saauct  Rdi- 
gimta,t.\.\  36c\xt,AUgoari»aGdthne»-Ltxiiot,KT. 

Hamlsoh,  Wiuiklm,  ■  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  wii  bom  Rt  Wilmaek,  Brandenburg,  Aug.  28,  | 
1786.  For  aoiDe  time  Hnt  teacher  it  Teacher*'  ^mi- 
nai^r,  in  BreaUu,  he  wai  called  in  1822  a>  director  to 
Weiaaenfels,  and  died  Aug.  15,  1864,  leaving,  Lathtr't 
kUmtr  KatKkimut  /Ur  <Ua  Sehuljugad  {18th  ed.  Ei.- 
leben,  186!)  -.^ViilUiamligtT  UaUrriM  in  nangfli4cktn 
ChriHailkiin  (Halts,  18SI,  2  rott.) :  —  EiilicBr/t  und 
Stofft  za  Unltrrtdimgm  ttUr  Lulher't  Uniwa  Kaltcliu- 
mut  (ISJ 1-45, 8  voU) :— f'^uficAe  Bttrachlvngm  Bber 
I.ulhn'i KalKkirmvi  {ISOB)  -.-DUGiKliichleda  Reichti 
GoUa  aa/Erdm  (2d  ed.  18+1)  -.—DU  kSnJiigi!  SltUong 
dir  SduiU  lu  Kirche,  Slaal  Hud  Haul  (Erfurt,  1BS8). 
See  Winer,  tftnidfmch  der  Ittol.  Lil.  ii,  70,  217, 233,  880; 
Zuchotd,  BibL  TheoL  i,  607.     (a  P.) 

BaiodiSrRiNOOF.  Lieut.  Coader  anggeaU  for  thii 
{Tail  IVbrl,  ii,  C9)  Ihe  modem  ^n  H-Jtma'm  ("faun- 
uin  of  Ihe  two  troopa"),  deaeribed  {iltmout  to  Ord- 
iNiHOE  Map,  a,  81)  ai  "■  anull  apring  of  fresh  waler, 
with  ■  cofwidenble  atream,  between  —  ' " 


10  HARRISON' 

oonaul  Bogen  atone  hundred  and  twenty  aouli,  and  the 
ItUage  at  twelve  feddana."  According  to  the  nme  >ii- 
thoiity,  however  (i,  96), "  Gutrin  Higgeata  that  we  hare 
the  ancient  name  of  Hamaheih  or  llarit'  three  and  a 
half  miles  aouth-weM  of  Jibrin,  in  the  north  of  Pales- 
tine, where  "  then  appear  lo  be  no  rutigei  of  ancient 
conUmctions,  except  a  circular  cislem  cut  in  the  rock. 
This  identification  is  eirenffthemd  by  Ihe  fact  that  the 
■ame  word  which  occnn  in  Ihe  name  Kir  Ilaroseth,  the 
modem  Kerak,  exists  in  the  present  local  dialect  of 
Hoib  under  the  same  form,  Harith  or  Harig"  (Md. 
p.  116). 

Haiples  ("ApirviaOi  ■»  Greek  mythology,  wen 
daughters  of  Thaumas  and  Electra   (an  Oceanid), 

ITerent  names,  Altllo,  Podirge,  Ocf  pete,  Cciano, 
Thyells,  Achola«,  Aellopoa,  Nicotboi!,  and  the  like.  In 
the  deaciiptions  of  them  there  Is  also  a  great  difleieDcc 


to  accommodate  hii  theoiy  of  the  location  of  Megiddo 
aa  near  Ihe  Jordan.  There  is  no  gooil  reaaon  to  desert 
the  traditionary  site  of /I  in  yniiij;  which  is  briefly  de- 
aeribed in  the  aame  .IfaniHrt  (ii,  79). 

BalOBheth.  The  tnodem  tUlIarWiiyk,  which  is 
thought  lo  represent  the  ancient  site,  la  placed  on  the 
OrdKniH  Map  nine  miles  south-east  of  Haifa,  and  ia 
described  In  the  accompanying  Mmoiri  (i,  370)  as  "a 
miserable  hamlat  of  mud,  on  high  ground,  with  an  open 
plateau  to  the  east,  and  a  spring  below  un  the  west 
('Ain  el-Ghafr).    The  population  in  1869  b  stated  by 


Antique  Figures  of  the  Barples. 
With  Homer  they  are  storm  goddeoea,  fleet,  but  be*s- 
tiful;  Heaiod  also  calls  them  awill  goddesses,  but  id 
fachyloB  they  appear  aa  hateful,  winged  mofnlen. 
They  were  usually  represented  as  eagles  wilh  naidcD 
faces.    At  times  they  had  human  imia  and  leg*,  which 


e  generally 


They 
sent  out  by  the  gods  to  puniab  criminal*. 

Harpooritaa,  in  Graeco- Egyptian ' 
the  name  of  an  Egyptian  ddty,  which 
originated  from  the  words,  Har-po- 
duTil,  i.  e.  "Har  tin  child."  This 
Her  the  Greeks  usually  called  Ifom, 
and  distioguiihed  him  as  Horua  Har- 
pocratea  from  another  Horus.  Both 
were  auia  of  Osiris  and  lui.  What 
Ihe  ancients  Bay  about  Harpociatea  ia 
quite  incomplete,  and  therefurc  dark 
as  to  its  slgniScsnce.  That  he  was 
not  the  god  of  ailrnce,aa  once  beliered, 
is  now  fully  accepted.  In  Rome  be 
was  worehipped  as  such,  but  probably 
only  because  he  had  hit  finger  in  hia 
mouth,  which  i>  bnt  the  (iguraiive 
reprsMntaliun  nf  sucking,  and  deiig- 
natea  him  aa  an  infant.  Deana  and 
cberries  were  olTe^  la  him,  and  on 

iqiecial  festive  days  he  was  fed,  by    I      

men,  wilh  milk,  bis  image  being  cat-     Mjftjljj^l 
tied   around   in    procession.     Among        \|J1-Wfy^  | 
animals,  scorpions,  snakes,  crocodiles,         FlgDre  oT 
lions,  and  leindaer  were  aacred  to  him.      Haipocraltt. 
See  HoHus. 

HarrliOD,  Ellas,  D.D.,  a  Presbrterian  minister, 
was  bom  In  New  York  city,  Jan.  ii.  l-SO.  He  grulu- 
aled  from  Princeton  College  in  1814,  apent  one  year 
thereafter  in  Ihe  theological  seminary  there,  was  li- 
censed by  the  Kew  Brunswick  Presbyleiy,  ordained  by 
the  Baltimore  Presbytery  in  1817,  and  installed  pastor 
of  the  first  Presbyterian  Church  in  Alexandria,  Va., 


HARRISON 


621  BARTER 


where  he  Ubored  faithfully  for  forty- mx  yetn.  He 
died  Feb.  18, 1868.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Prineettm  TheoL 
Sem,  1881,  p.  20;  Wilson,  Pretb,  ffitt.  Almanac,  1867, 
p.  154. 

Harriflon,  Jeptha,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  miniater, 
was  boni  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  in  December,  1796.  He 
gradaated  from  Princeton  College  in  1820,  and  studied 
two  years  in  the  theological  seminary  there;  was  or- 
dained in  1831;  became  stated  supply  at  Fair  Forest, 
S.  Cm  in  1832,  at  Salem,  Va.,  in  1836,  and  in  1888  be- 
came pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.,  where  he  labored  for  six  years  with  great 
acceptability.  He  afterwards  preached  in  Newcastle, 
Ky.  (1844-47) ;  Florence,  Ala.  (1848-60) ;  Aberdeen, 
Miss.  (1851 -M);  Burlington,  la.  (1855-68),  and  Ful- 
ton,  Mo.,  where  he  died,  Oct.  8D.  1868.  See  Gen,  Cat, 
of  Princeim  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  85 ;  Wilson,  Preih. 
Bist.Almanae,19M,p,l59i  Nevin, Prwfc. A'mycfop. s. v. 

HaxrlBon,  John  Chxistiazi,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  son  of  Kev.  Samuel  Harrison  of  the 
South  Carolina  Conference,  was  bom  in  Mecklenbnrg 
Co.,  N.  C  Oct.  1, 1809.  In  1819,  with  hU  parents,  he 
remored  to  Kentucky,  in  1827  was  converted,  became 
a  class-leader  in  1828,  an  exhorter  in  1829,  a  local 
preacher  in  1830,  and  later  in  the  same  year  united  with 
the  Kentucky  Conference.  His  first  field  of  labor  was 
Rock  Castle  Circuit,  where  he  remained  two  years.  He 
afterwards  filled  the  best  appointments  in  the  confer- 
ence, was' presiding  elder  twenty-one  years,  occupied  a 
seat  in  seven  general  conferences,  and  finally  died, 
March  11, 1878.  Mr.  Harrison  was  a  wise  counsellor; 
had  a  dear,  logical  mind ;  was  always  aflkble,  kind,  re- 
liable, and  pure-minded ,  and  full  of  faith  and  good 
works.     See  Minvtet  o/ Annual  Conferences,  1878,  i,  24. 

HarriBOD,  Thomas  (1),  an  eminent  English  Bap- 
tist preacher,  and  general  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  was 
bom  near  Nantwich,  Cheshire,  England.  As  one  of  the 
judges  selected  to  try  king  Charies,  he  did  not  shrink 
from  what  he  conceived  to  be  his  duty,  and  gave  his 
vote  for  the  execution.  He  was  the  warm  friend  of 
Cromwell  until  the  latter  declared  himself  protector. 
He  and  his  wife  were  baptized  by  immersion  in  1657. 
At  the  Restoration  he  was  arrested,  tried  as  a  regicide, 
and  executed  at  Charing  Cross,  London,  Nov.  13, 1660, 
his  body  being  subjected  to  the  most  revolting  treat- 
ment.   See  Cathcart,  Bapt,  Encyclop,  s.  v.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Harriaon,  Thomaa  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  Indepen- 
dent minister,  was  bom  at  Kingston-upon-HuU,  York- 
shire. In  his  youth  he  removed  with  his  parents  to 
New  England,  who  gave  him  the  best  education  that 
country  then  aJBTonled.  He  began  to  preach,  and  be- 
came chaplain  to  the  governor  of  Virginia,  a  great  en- 
emy of  Puritans.  Two  missionaries  from  England  set- 
tled in  Virginia,  but  the  governor  sent  them  out  of  the 
country.  After  this  the  Indians  rose  in  rebellion,  and 
murdered  five  hundred  English  persons.  Those  who 
escaped  the  massacre  Mr.  Harrison  gathered  into  a 
church,  but  the  governor  became  more  hardened,  and 
dismissed  his  chaplain,  who  had  become  too  serious  for 
him.  He  returned  to  London,  where  he  became  a  pop- 
ular preacher,  and  in  1650  succeeded  Dr.  Goodwin  at 
St.  Dunstan's  in  the  East,  He  then  removed  to  Broom- 
brough  Hall,  where  he  preached  continually.  In  1657 
he  went  to  Ireland  with  Henry  Cromwell,  son  of  the 
protector,  and  preached  for  some  years  at  Christ  Church, 
Dublin.  When  the  government  changed  he  returned 
to  England,  resided  at  Chester,  and  preached  in  the 
cathedral  till  silenced  in  1662.  He  returned  to  Dublin 
in  1663,  where  he  had  a  large,  respectable,  and  flourish- 
ing congregation.  He  was  an  agreeable  and  instrac- 
tive  preacher,  and  when  he  died,  in  Dublin,  there  was  a 
general  mourning  for  him  in  the  city.  He  left  a  valu- 
able library,  including  a  large  folio  System  of  Divinity 
in  manuscript,  and  published  Topica  Sacra,  or  Spiritual 
Pleadings,  and  a  Funeral  Sermon  for  Lady  Susamia 
B^nolds (IGbi).   8eeW'iiaon,IHt9entinffChurche8,i,22\. 


RazTOtee  Veraton.    See  HnmuwKB,  Dialbcts 

OF. 

HflTfiw  (Hercia,  or  Heraa),  a  mcdiieval  term, 
sometimes  employed  to  describe  any  triangular  candle- 
srick  for  tapers,  but  more  especially  used  to  designate 
that  which  is  employed  in  the  offices  of  TenebrsB,  in  Holy 
Week.  In  it,  at  this  service,  are  placed  fourteen  un- 
bleached wax  candles  to  represent  the  apostles  and  the 
three  Marys,  with  one  bleached  wax  candle  to  repre- 
resent  our  Saviour.  They  are  all  extinguished  in  the 
course  of  the  service,  save  the  last  named. 

Hart,  John  Beely,  LL.D.,  a  Presb3rterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Old  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  Jan.  28, 1810.  He 
studied  at  Wilkesbarre  Academy ;  graduated  from  Prince- 
ton College  in  1830,  with  the  highest  honors  of  the  class; 
the  following  year  taught  as  principal  of  an  academy 
at  Natches,  Miss.,  and  three  years  afterwards  graduated 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  During  the  last 
two  years  of  his  course  he  also  filled  the  position  of  tutor 
in  the  college.  In  1834  he  was  elected  adjunct  profesft- 
or  of  ancient  languages  in  Princeton  College,  and  filled 
that  chair  two  years.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presby- 
tery  of  New  Branswick,  Aug.  4, 1835.  In  1886  he  re- 
signed his  professorship  in  the  college,  purehased  Edge* 
hUl  School,  in  Princeton,  and  in  1842  was  elected  princi- 
pal of  the  Philadelphia  High  School,  continuing  there 
until  1859,  when  he  became  editor  of  the  periodicals 
published  by  the  American  Sunday-echool  Union,  and  in 
this  connection  began  the  Sunday-school  Times,  In  1862 
he  was  elected  principal  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Nor- 
mal School,  at  Trenton,  and  held  that  position  with  dis- 
tinguished usefulness  and  success  until  Febraary,  1871. 
From  1864  to  1870  he  also  gave  courses  of  lectures  on 
English  literature  in  Princeton  College,  where,  in  1872, 
he  was  elected  professor  of  belles-lettres  and  English 
literature,  which  chair  he  filled  two  years,  returning  in 
1874  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  engaged  in  literary 
pursuits  until  his  death,  March  26, 1877.  Dr.  Hart  was 
the  author  of  many  volumes,  an  enthusiast  in  the  cause 
of  education,  a  devoted  Sabbath-school  worker,  or  ele- 
gant culture,  accurate  scholarship.  During  the  months 
preceding  his  last  illness,  he  had  been  delivering  a 
course  of  popular  lectures  on  the  works  of  Shakespeare. 
He  was  an  humble,  consistent,  and  devout  Christian. 
See  Necrol,  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1877,  p.  29. 

Hart,  Joaeph,  an  English  Independent  minister, 
was  b(»ra  about  the  year  1712,  of  godly  parents.  He  had 
a  classical  education,  and  was  for  many  years  a  teacher 
of  languages.  He  was  long  in  bondage  on  account  of 
his  sins,  but  found  deliverance  under  a  sermon  preached 
in  the  Moravian  Chapel,  Fetter.lane,  London.  He  be- 
gan to  preach  at  the  Old  Meeting,  St.  John's  Court, 
Bermondsey,  in  1760,  and  afterwarils  settled  at  the  In- 
dependent Chapel,  Jewin  Street,  where  his  ministry 
was  abundantly  crowned,  and  he  gathered  there  a  pros< 
perous  Church.  He  would  not  allow  either  Arian  or 
Arminian  preacher  in  his  pulpit.  He  died  May  24, 
1768,  and  was  interred  in  BunhiU  Fields,  where  twenty 
thousand  persons  are  said  to  have  been  present.  His 
hymns  will  live  in  the  Church  to  the  end  of  time,  es- 
pecially the  one  beginning  *^  Come,  ye  sinners,  poor  and 
needy."  See  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches,  iii,  348; 
Gadsby,  Hymn  Writers, 

Harte,  Walter,  an  English  poet  and  divine,  was 
bom  about  1700,  and  educated  at  Marlborough  School 
and  at  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became 
vice-principal.  He  was  canon  of  Windsor  in  1751,  and 
subsequently  vicar  of  SL  Austel  and  of  St.  Blazy,  Corn- 
wall; He  died  in  March.  1774,  leaving  Poems  on  Sev- 
eral Occasions  (1727) :— Essay  on  Satire  (1730):— Es- 
say on  Reason  (1735):—^  Fast  Sermon  (1740).  See 
Chalmers,  Bioy,  Diet,  s.  ▼. ;  Allibone,  DicL  of  Brit,  and 
A  mer.  A  uthors,  &  v. 

HMrter,  Friedbicu  HEmRicH,  a  Lutheran  theolo> 
gtan,  was  bom  Aug.  1, 1797,  at  Strasburg.  He  studied 
at  his  native  place  and  at  different  German  universities, 


HARTGREP 


622 


HABTZHEIM 


wftft  in  1823  pastor  at  Ittenheim,  and  in  1829  at  Stras- 
burg.  He  exercifled  a  considerable  influence  in  the 
Church  and  in  the  school,  and  took  a  great  interest  in 
the  work  of  foreign  and  home  missions.  He  died  in 
August,  1874,  leaving,  besides  a  number  of  sermons,  Die 
Aug^urgische  Confeuion  (Strasbuig,  1884).  See  Lich- 
tenbcrger,  Encydop.  des  Sciences  ReUffieuKM^  s.  v. ;  Zuch- 
old,  Bibl.  TkeoL  i,  508  sq.     (R  P.) 

Hartgrep,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  wife  of  the 
Danish  king,  Hadding,  a  favorite  of  the  gods  and  a 
mighty  giant.  She  was  a  powerful  sorceress,  feared  on 
account  of  her  art,  and  worshipped  with  superstitious 
reverence.  By  her  assistance  her  husband  descended 
alive  into  the  infernal  regions,  to  combat  with  Hela. 

Hartley,  Robert,  a  practical  philanthropist,  was 
bom  in  England  in  1795,  and  removed  with  his  father 
to  New  York  in  1798.  He  grew  up  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  entering  the  ministr}*,  but  was  prevented  by 
feeble  health,  and  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  He 
devoted  his  life  to  works  of  charity  and  mercy.  He 
was  the  first  to  expose  the  iniquity  of  the  ^  swill  milk  " 
traffic  He  visited  Europe  and  learned  the  various 
systems  there  in  use,  and  on  his  return  formed  a  society 
for  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  poor,  which 
commanded  the  admiration  and  support  of  the  wisest 
and  best  men  in  the  city.  He  was  secretary  of  the 
Hospital  for  the  Ruptured  and  Crippled,  and  manager 
of  the  Presbyterian  Hospital,  Juvenile  Asylnm,  and  va- 
rious other  charities.  He  was  an  elder  in  the  Madison 
Square  Presbyterian  Church,  and  abounded  in  works 
of  piety  and  useftdnesa.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
March  8, 1881.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Hartman,  JoirANN  Adolph,  a  learned  German  di- 
vine, was  bom  at  MUnstcr  in  1G80.  After  being  several 
years  a  Jesuit,  he  became  a  Protestant  at  Cassel  in  1715, 
and  was  soon  after  made  professor  of  phUosophy  and 
poetry.  In  1722  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history 
and  rhetoric  at  Marpurg,  and  died  there  in  1744.  His 
most  esteemed  works  are,  HimL  Hassaica : — Vitae  Ponti- 
ficum  Romanorvm  Victoiis  II f^  Urhani  11^  Pascalii  II, 
Gelaaii Il^CaUiiU  lI^JIonoHill,  See  Chalmers, ^lo^. 
Diet,  s.  v. 

Hartmaim,  ChriBtian  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Kothen,  OcL  12, 
1767.  He  studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1702  con-rector,  and 
in  1796  rector,  in  his  native  place.  In  1810  he  was  dea- 
con of  St.  Agnes,  in  1815  director  of  all  the  schools,  and 
in  1822  member  of  consistory.  He  died  Feb.  5, 1827, 
leaving,  Uehersetzung  der  Pi-opheten  Nahvm,  IlahakuTc^ 
Ztphama  und  Obadja  (Leipsic,  1791)  i—Commentatio  in 
EpisloUun  Jud<B  (Kothen,  179S):~/)6  Studio  ReligUmis 
ChrUHancB  in  Scholu  Rite  InstUuendo  (ibid.  1797-98): 
— Geschickte  der  evangelisch'lutheritchen  St,  Agneshirche 
in  Cotken  (1799):— />m  biblische  Getchichie  mii  prakti- 
schen  Anmerkungen  (1802,  2  parts).  See  Ddring,  Die 
ffelekrten  Tkeologen  Deuttchkaidf,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Ilandbvch 
der  theol.  LU,  i,  273 ;  ii,  135.     (a  P.) 

Hartmano,  Heinxioh  Lud'wig;,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  Jan.  6, 1770,  was  in  1810 
professor  at  the  Grimma  gymnasium,  and  died  Feb.  13, 
1831,  leaving  CommenkUio  de  (Ecanomo  Imprcho  apud 
Lucam  xvi,  1-13  (Leipsic,  1830).  See  Winer,  Ilandbuch 
der  theol  LU.  i,  243 ;  Zuchold,  BihL  TheoL  i,  609.    (B.  P.) 

Hartmaim,  Joachim,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  1, 1715.  He  studied  at  Ros- 
tock, where  he  also  commenced  his  academical  career 
in  1739.  In  1748  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  di- 
vinity, by  presenting  De  A  ctu  Reprobis,  Vero  Redempti- 
onia  Chriiti  Objecto^  and  died  Nov.  6, 1795.  He  pub- 
lished also,  De  Vaticinio  Simeom$  Luc,  xii,  34,  85  (Ros- 
tock, 1744) :—  Ki»rf*c»fli  Exegeteoa  Dieti  2  Petri,  ii,  1 
(ibid.  1754) : — Progr,  A  rgumentorum  ad  Probandum  pro 
ImpoeniieRiia  Finali  Prastitcun  Satirfaetionem  ab  Uni- 
ffenaUtate  Gratia  et  dferiti  Chritti  Detumtorum  (ibid, 
eod.)  I— Jesus  Nazarenus,  Vents  Meuias  (ibid.  1757) :~ 


Specimen  Chronologia  BibUcm  (ibid.  1771) :  ^  Pro^. 
quo  ad  Institutum  Greiihaehii  Textum  N,  T,  GroBcum 
Mutandi  Quadam  Erponit  (ibid.  1775).  See  Doring, 
Die  gelehrien  Tkeologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v.;  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  440.     (a  P.) 

Hartmwnn,  Johaxm  Melchior,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  born  Feb.  20,  1764,  at  Nord- 
lingen.  He  studied  at  Jena  and  Gdttingen,  was  called 
in  1793  to  Marburg  as  professor  of  philosophy  and  Ori- 
ental languages,  and  died  Feb.  16, 1827,  leaving.  Com- 
mentaiio  de  Geographia  Afruxe  Edrisiana  (Gottingen, 
1792;  2d  ed.  1796):  —  Anfangsgrunde  der  hebraischen 
Spracke  (Marburg,  1797;  2d  ed.  lSi9) : — ffebrSische 
Chrestomathie  (ibid.  1797) :— Museum  JUr  biblische  und 
orientaliscke  Literatur  (ibid.  1807).  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlattds,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Hand' 
buck  der  theoL  Lit  i,  116, 166, 277.     (a  P.) 

Hartmaim,  Julius,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  June  1, 1806.  He  served  as  deacon 
at  different  places  in  WUrtemberg,  and  was  called  in 
1851  to  Tuttlingen.  In  1877  he  was  made  doctor  of 
theology,  and  died  Dec  9, 1879,  leaving,  Geschichie  der 
Rf/ormation  in  WUrtemberg  (1885): — Das  Leben  Jesu 
nach  den  Evangelien  (1837-<89,  2  vols.) :— JoAarni  Brent 
(1840, 2  vols.) : — A  eiteste  Katechetis<^e  der  evangelischen 
Kirehe{\8il):-^ErhardSchMpffderReformator{mQ), 
He  was  also  one  of  the  editors  of  Leben  und  ausgewahUe 
Schriften  der  Voter  und  Begribnder  der  btth.  Kircke,  for 
which  ho  wrote  the  life  of  Brens  (vol.  vi  of  the  collec- 
tion, Elberfeld,  1862),  and  contributed  to  Piper^s  Evan- 
gdische  KaUnder  and  Herzog's  Real-EncgUip,     (a  P.) 

Hartwell,  Jeaae  (l),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Charlemont,  Mass.,  in  March,  1781.  He  was  con- 
verted at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  ordained  at  Sandis- 
field,  Jan.  9, 1800.  A  large  part  of  hb  life  was  spent 
in  missionary  work,  under  appointment  from  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Missionary  Society.  His  tours  extended  be- 
yond New  England  to  the  Black  River  country,  N.  Y., 
and  into  different  sections  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Canada.  He  first  went  to  Ohio  in  1815,  and  is  believed 
to  have  baptized  by  ifnmersion  the  first  convert  in  the 
Westem  Reserve.  '  He  died  at  Perry,  O.,  Nov.  21, 1860. 
See  Watdiman  and  Rejlector,  Dec.  20, 1860.     (J.  a  S,) 

Hartwell,  Jeaae  (2),  D.D.,  an  eminent  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  New  Marlborough,  Mass.,  in  1794. 
He  graduated  with  high  rank  from  Brown  University 
in  1819 ;  for  two  years  thereafter  was  principal  of  the 
University  Grammar-school  in  Providence,  pursuing  at 
the  same  time  his  theological  studies.  He  was  ordained 
at  Providence  in  1821,  and  in  1828  went  to  South  Car- 
olina, and  became  an  instractor  in  the  Furman  Theologi- 
cal Sieminary,  supplying  vacant  pulpits  as  opportunitj 
presented.  Subsequendy  he  was  settled  as  a  clergyman 
in  Alabama,  and  was  an  instmctor  in  theology  in  what 
is  known  as  Howard  College,  in  that  state.  For  several 
years  he  resided  in  Arkansas,  where,  as  a  preacher  and 
teacher,  he  did  good  service.  He  became,  in  1855,  preai* 
dent  of  what  was  known  as  the  Mt.  Lebanon  University, 
in  Louisiana,  and  died  there,  Sept.  16, 1865.     (J.  C.  &) 

Hartzheim,  Caspar,  a  German  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Cologne  in  1678.  He  belonged  to  a  distin- 
guished family,  entered  the  Jesuit  order  at  Treves  in 
1698,  and  taught  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  theology 
successively  at  Treves,  Paderbom,  Cologne,  and  other 
places.  He  died  about  1750,  leaving,  Castum  Nova 
Ijfgis  Presbgierium,  etc  (Cologne,  1717):  —  Pietas  m 
Saloatorem  Mundi,  etc  (Mayence,  1728) : — Explicatio 
Fabularum  et  Superstitionum,  etc  (Cologne,  1734): — 
Vita  Nicola*  de  Cusa  (Treves,  1760y.-Solilegium  So^ 
landis  Animabus  Defunctorum  (Cologne,  1735;  in  Ger- 
man, 1743).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Hartaheim,  Joseph,  a  German  historian,  waa 
bom  at  Cologne  in  1694.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  be 
joined  the  Jesuits,  was  for  some  time  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  at  Milan,  afterwards  professor  of  phv- 


HARUSPEX 


623 


HASWELL 


loflophy  and  theology  at  Cologne,  and  died  May  17, 
1763,  leaving,  De  Initio  M^ropoleot  Ecdetiasfica  Colo- 
Rta  (Cologne,  1731, 1782)  :—Bibliotheca  Cohniensit,  etc. 
(ibid.  17^7)  :—Caialoffus  Colomenaia  (ibid.  1752):— Z)e 
Edenda  CoUectione  Coneiliorum  Cermanim  (ibid.  1758) : 
—ConeUia  Gtrmama  (1759-63,  5  voU).  See  D6ring, 
Die  ffeUkrten  Tkeologen  DeuUehlandty  s.  v.;  Winer, 
ffandbuch  der  theoi,  LU.  i,  662;  Jocber,  Altgemeines 
Geiehrtm-Lankon,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

Hamspea;  a  name  for  Etruscan  soothsayers,  who 
dirined  future  eventa  from  the  inspection  of  the  en- 
trails of  victims;  an  art  afterwards  introduced  into 
Rome.    See  Augur;  DivuiATiosc. 

Harvey,  Sir  Qeoxge,  a  Scottish  painter,  waa  bom 
at  St.  Ninians,  near  Stirling,  in  February,  1806.  He  was 
educated  in  art  in  the  Trustees*  Academy  at  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1826  became  an  associate  of  the  Scottish  Acad- 
emy ;  in  1829  was  elected  a  fellow,  and  in  1864  became 
its  president.  He  received  the  honor  of  knighthood  in 
1867,  and  died  at  Edinburgh,  Jan.  22, 1876.  His  best 
pictures  are  those  depicting  historical  episodes  in  relig- 
ions history  from  a  puritan  or  evangelical  sundpoint, 
such  as  CovenofUert  Preaching  ;  Covenanters*  Commun' 
ion;  John  Bumfon  and  hit  BUnd  Daughter;  Sabbath 
Evening;  The  Quiiting  of  the  Manee,  He  was  also 
equally  successful  in  subjects  not  directly  religious. 
See  Emyeiop.  Brit,  9th  ed.  &  v. 

Harvey,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  a  native  of  Connecticut  While  pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Goshen,  in  that  state,  he  became  deeply  in- 
terested in  the  conversion  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders,  and 
through  his  influence  the  first  two  missionaries  to  those 
islandc,  Messrs.  Bingham  and  Thurston,  were  selected 
and  ordained  at  Goshen,  Sept.  28, 1819.  Dr.  Harvey 
died  at  Harvey,  Mich.,  Feb.  4, 1878.  See  Presbglerian, 
March  1,  1873.     (W.  P.  S,) 

Hase,  Christian  OottiHed,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  who  died  at  Brandenburg  in  1766, 
is  the  author  of,  De  Meuia  in  Jnbo  (Halle,  1769)  x—De 
Stgh  Amoti  Pn^theta  et  Ejus  Vita  (1751)  i^Versuch 
eines  IjehrgebSudes  der  hebr,  Spraehe  (1750): — Versuch 
timer  A  ttslegung  det  hohen  Liedes  Saiomonis  (1765).  See 
Jocher,  A  ligemeines  Gelehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v. ;  Ft^,  BibL 
/iu2.i,865;  Steinschueider,£t2/.//um25iu;A,8.T.   (RP.) 

Haset  Theodor,  a  Reformed  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Bremen,  Nov.  30,  1682.  He  studied  at  Marburg, 
was  in  1707  professor  of  sacred  philology  at  Hanau,  in 
1708  preacher  at  Bremen,  in  17^  professor  of  theology 
there,  and  died  Feb.  25, 1731.  He  wrote,  De  Leviathan 
Join  et  Ceto  Jams: — De  dvoXarpii^  Christianis  et  Ju- 
dais  oHm  Ohjeeta  :—De  Decreto  Imperatoris  Tiberii  quo 
Christum  Referre  Voluit  in  Numei-um  Deomm : — Diss. 
V,  de  Bapiismo  Super  Mortuis,  de  A  quis.  IJieruchintinis 
per  EUsam  Conditisy  de  Temph  Oiws  Ifeltopolitano^  de 
Jeschurune  ad  Deut.  xxxii^  15,  and  contributed  largely 
to  the  Bibliotheea  Theolog.  Bremensis  and  Museum  Phi- 
hlogieO'Theologicwn.  His  dissertations  were  publuhed 
at  Bremen  in  1731,  under  the  title,  Dissertationum  et 
Observationum  Sacrarum  SylUige.  See  Wiuer,  Hand' 
buch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  275, 279,  548 ;  Jocher,  Ailgenteines 
GeUhrten-lAxihon,  a.  v. ;  FUrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  365.  (a  P.) 

HasenmtUler,  Daniel,  a  German  philologist,  was 
born  at  Eutin,  July  8, 1651.  He  studied  at  Kiel  and 
Leipsic,  was  in  1682  professor  of  Greek  at  the  former 
place,  in  1688  professor  of  homiletics,  and  in  1689  of 
Oriental  languages.  He  died  May  29,  1691,  leaving, 
Diss,  de  Linguis  OrieniaHbus  :^-De  Openbus  Sabbathum 
Depellentibus  : — Biblia  Parva  Grteca: — Janua  Hebra- 

ismi  Aperta:  —  ni2X  '^p'^B,  cum  Versione  Latina. 
See  Moller,  CinAria  Litterata ;  FUrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  365 ; 
Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten- Lexiiumf  s.  v.;  Stein- 
schneider,  BibL  Handbuch,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

HasenmtUler,  Blias»  a  German  Jesuit,  who  joined 
the  Lutheran  Chnrch  in  1587,  is  the  author  otHistoria 
Jesuitici  Ordutis  (Frankfort,  1588,  and  later,  Germ.  transL 


by  Melchior  Leporinoa,  ibid.  1594).  See  Winer,  Hand- 
bach  der  theok  LU.  i,  721 ;  J5cher,  AUgemeittes  Gelehien- 
Lexihon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hasert,  Christian  Adolf,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  (lermany,  who  died  Dec  23, 1864,  at  Greifswalde,  pas- 
tor, doctor,  and  professor  of  philosophy,  published,  Pre- 
digten  Uber  die  Epistdn  und  freie  Texts  (Greifswalde, 
1836-37,  2  vols.)  i-^Ueber  die  Vorhersagungen  Jesu  von 
seinem  Tode  und  seiner  Auferstehung  (Berlin,  1839):— 
U^xr  den  Bel^^ionsunterricht  in  VolksschuUehrer^Semi' 
narien  (Greifswalde,  1832).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der 
theoL  Lit.  ii,  138, 174, 177,  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  512. 
(B.  P.) 

HassaUf  a  Mohammedan  teacher,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Ali,  and  the  second  of  the  twelve  im&ms  of  that 
line.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  661,  he  was  im- 
mediately proclaimed  caliph  and  imam  in  Irak;  the 
former  title  he  was  forced  to  resign  to  Moawiyah,  the 
latter  or  spiritual  dignity  he  retained  in  reference  to 
his  followers.  He  was  poisoned  in  678  by  a  son  of 
Moawiyah,  as  is  supposed. 

Hasse,  Johann,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  iu  1822.  He  studied  at  Breslau, 
and  was  professor  of  exegesis  at  the  Pelplin  seminary. 
In  1859  he  was  appointed  vicar-general  of  the  Culm 
diocese,  in  1865  became  a  member  of  the  chapter,  in 
1867  cathedral  provost,  and  died  Sept  8, 1869,  at  Ha- 
nau,  on  his  return  from  the  episcopal  convention  which 
had  met  at  Fnlda.    (B.  P.) 

Hasse,  Johann  OottiHed,  a  Protestant  theok>- 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Weimar  in  1759.  He 
studied  at  Jena,  was  in  1786  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Konigsben;*  in  1788  professor  of  theology, 
and  died  April  12, 1806.  He  published,  Ubri  QuarH 
Begum  Sgroheptaplaris  Specimen  (Jena,  1782)  :-^Salo^ 
mo's  Weisheit  Hhersetst  mit  Anmerkungen  Qbid.  1784)  :— 
Idiognomik  Davids^  etc.  (ibid,  eod):  —  Aussichten  zu 
kSntigen  A  ufkl&rungen  Uber  das  A  tie  TestametU  (1785) : 
— Das  andere  Buch  der  MaccabSer  neu  ubersetzt  ( 1786) : 
-^Hebr.  SpracMehre  (1786-^)  :~I>e  DiaUctU  Lingum 
Syriacos  (1787): — Lectiones  Syro-ArabioO'SamaritanO' 
jEthiopica  (1788) : — Magazin  fur  die  bibUsch-orienfa* 
Us^  Literatur  (1788-Sd):^Christus  6  Tp&roQ  Kai  6 
ioxaroc  (ibid.  1790) : — Praktisehes  ffandbuch  der  ara^ 
m&ischen  oder  syrisch'-samaritanischen  Spraehe  (1791) : 
— A  ugustus  Christi  Nascituri  Forsan  non  Ignarus  (ibid. 
1805).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Thet^Mftn  Deutseh- 
lands,  a,  v.;  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  IM.  i,  74, 115, 
200,  232,  273,  277,  280,  423,  554,  555,  617;  FUrst,  BibL 
Ju </.  i,  865  sq.    (a  P.) 

Haasel,  Joh akm  BBRHHAnn,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  22, 1690,  at  WolfenbUttel. 
He  studied  at  Helmstadt,  was  preacher  in  his  native 
city  in  1721,  general  superintendent  there  in  1726,  and 
died  Feb.  23, 1755.'  His  publications  are  but  few,  and 
without  any  special  value  for  our  time.  See  Doring, 
Die  gelehrten  Theologen  DeutschlandSf  s.  v. ;  Jdcher,  A  U- 
gemeines  Gekhrten-Lexikottf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hassencamp,  Johann  Mathaus,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Marburg,  July  28, 
1743.  He  studied  at  his  native  place  and  at  Gdttingen, 
was  in  1769  professor  of  mathematics  and  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Rinteln,  and  died  Oct.  6, 1797,  leaving,  Com- 
mentatio  de  Pentateucho  Ixx  Inteipretum  (Marburg, 
1765) : — Versuch  einer  neuen  ErkUirung  der  70  Wochen 
Daniels  (1772): — Der  entdeche  wahre  Urtprung  der 
alien  Bibdiibersetzungai  (Minden,  1775) : — Annalen  der 
wueslen  theologischen  Literatur  vnd  Kirchengeschichte 
(1789-96, 8  vols.).  See  Driring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
DeutschlandSf  s.  v.;  Wiuer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i, 
9,865.    (a  P.) 

Hassidfieans.    See  Assidean. 

Haswell,  James  M.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  missionary, 
was  bom  at  Bennington,  Vt.,  Feb.  4, 1810.  He  gradu- 
ated from  the  Hamilton  Theological  Seminary  in  1886, 


HATCH 


624 


HAUQ 


and  Boon  after  was  appointed  missionary  to  Bunnahi 
where  be  arrived  in  February,  1886.  He  was  in  the 
employ  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  for 
more  than  forty  years,  during  which  time  he  visited  the 
United  States, Iflrst  in  1849,  remaining  a  little  more  than 
three  years,  and  again  in  1867,  making  a  stay  of  about 
nine  months.  His  first  work  was  among  the  Peguans, 
or,  as  they  are  now  called,  the  Talaings,  into  whose  lan- 
guage he  translated  the  New  Test.,  and  issued  from  the 
press  quite  a  number  of  tracts.  He  afterwards  learned 
the  Burmese  language,  and  was  for  a  long  time  recognised 
as  a  missionary  among  that  people.  He  died  Sept.  13, 
1876.    See  A  mer,  BapU  Magazine^  Ivii,  180.    (J.  C.  &) 

Hatch,  Frkdkrick  W.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  ordained  deacon  in  1810,  and  presby- 
ter in  1813,  and  had  charge,  successively,  of  the  parishes 
in  Edenton,  N.  C,  and  Frederick,  Md.,  after  which  he 
removed  to  Virginia  as  rector  of  Fredericksville  parish 
from  1820  to  1830.  While  there,  Thomas  Jefferson  was 
his  friend  and  parishioner.  In  1882-1886  he  officiated 
in  Christ  Church,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  was  chaplain 
to  the  United  States  Senate.  In  the  latter  year  he 
removed  to  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. ;  in  1843  to  Wisconsin, 
taking  charge  of  the^rishes  in  Southport  and  Bacine. 
In  1850  he  went  to  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  temporary  charge 
of  Christ  and  St.  George's  churches;  thence  travelled 
to  California  in  June,  1866,  laboring  as  a  missionary  in 
Mart'sville  and  other  places.  He  died  in  Sacramento, 
Cal.,'jan.  14, 1860,  aged  seventy-one  years.  Dr.  Hatch 
was  a  fine  linguist,  and  an  indefatigable  worker.  See 
Amer,  Quar.  Church  Rev,  1860,  p.  180. 

Hatd,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  son  of  the  giant 
Gyge  and  the  brother  of  Skoll ;  both  are  frightful  wolves, 
and  persecute  the  moon  and  the  sun.  At  Kagnarokr 
these  monsters  will  succeed  in  devouring  the  heavenly 
lights.     He  probably  emblematizes  the  eclipse. 

Hatfield,  Edwin  Franoia,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  at  Elizabeth  town,  N.  J., 
Jan.  9, 1807.  He  graduated  from  Middlebury  College 
in  1829,  spent  two  years  at  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary, was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church  at  St.  Louis  in  1832,  in  1835  accepted  a  call  from 
the  Seventh  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York  city,  and 
remained  its  pastor  for  twenty-one  years,  enjoying  a 
continuous  season  of  revival,  and  receiving  to  its  mem- 
bership one  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty-six  persons. 
A  colony  from  this  church,  in  1856,  organized  a  new 
church  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city,  and  Dr.  Hatfield 
became  its  pastor.  He  remained  at  this  post  until  his 
health  failed,  and  resigned  in  1863.  When  he  recovered 
his  health  he  was  appointed  financial  agent  of  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  and  afterwards  acted  as  secretary 
of  the  Home  Missionary  Societv.  He  died  at  Summit, 
N.  J.,  Sept.  22,  1883.  From  1846  he  was  stated  clerk 
of  the  General  Assembly,  jin  office  for  which  he  was 
peculiarly  fitted  by  his  methodical  habits  and  extensive 
acquaintance  with  the  history  of  the  Church.  He  was 
elected  in  1883  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly,  and 
performed  the  duties  of  that  office  with  great  ability. 
He  prepared  the  year-book  of  the  New  York  Observer 
during  the  time  of  its  publication.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  are,  Universalism  as  it  Is  (1841):  —  Afe- 
moir  o/EliAu  W,  Baldwin  (1848)  i—St.  Belena  and  (he 
Cape  of  Good  Uope  (1852):— rAc  Hittory  of  Elizabeth, 
N.J,  (1868):— rA«  Church  Hymn-book^  with  Tunes 
(1872):  — 7y<6  Chapel  Hymn  booh  (1873).  He  spent 
much  time  and  labor  in  preparing  for  publication  the 
Minutes  of  the  General  Assembly,  See  N,  Y,  Obsa-ver, 
Sept  27, 1883.    (W.P.S.) 

Hatfield,  Thomaa,  an  English  prelate,  was  preb- 
endary of  Lincoln  (1342)  and  York  (1343),  and  was  pro- 
moted to  the  see  of  Durham  in  1345.  He  died  near 
London,  May  8,  1381.  He  was  the  principal  benefac- 
tor, if  not  the  founder,  of  the  friar}'  at  Northallerton, 
in  Yorkshire,  for  Carmelites,  or  White  Friars.  See 
Chalmers^  Biog,  Did,  s.  v. 


Hatto  OF  Ybbcelu.    See  Ana 

Hauber,  Eberhard  David,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  May  27, 1695.  He  stud- 
ied at  Tubingen  and  Altdorf,  was  in  1726  superinten- 
dent, member  of  consistory,  and  first  preacher  at  Stadt- 
hagen,  accepted  a  call  in  1746  to  Copenhagen  as  pastor 
of  the  German  St.  Peter's  Church,  and  died  Feb.  15, 
1765,  leaving,  ExegUische  und  moralische  Gedanhen  fiber 
die  Siknde  LoCs  (Lemgo,  1732)  :—Harmonie  der  Evanye* 
listen  (Ulm,  1737) : — Untersuchung  der  Summen  Gddes 
1  Chron,  xxii,  14  (Stadthagen,  1765).  See  Doring,  Vie 
gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Jland" 
buch  der  theol.  Lit, i,429 ;  Jocher,  Allgananes  Gekhrten- 
Lexikon,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hauber,  Friedrich  Albert  von,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  who  was  bom  Dec  14, 1806,  at 
Stuttgart,  and  died  Sept.  14, 1888,  at  Ludwigsburg,  in 
WUrtemberg,  is  the  author  of,  Die  Diener  der  evangeli' 
schen  Kirdie  und  die  Zeit  (Stuttgart,  1849)  i^Recht  und 
Brauch'der  evang,'lutherischen  Kinke  WUrtemberg' s 
(1854-56,  2  vols.)  :  —  Ecangelisches  Ifauspredigtbuch 
(Ulm,  1862).    See  Zuohold,  BibL  Theol  i,  514.     (a  P.) 

Hauber,  Johannes,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  9, 1572,  and  died  at  Stuttgart, 
Oct.  1, 1620,  doctor  of  theology  and  court-preacher.  He 
wrote,  De  Bemissione  Peocatarum: — De  Problemate 
Theologico: — Utnim  Philosophandi  Ratio  ad  Materias 
Theologicas  Adhibenda,  See  Jdcher,  Aligemeines  Ge^ 
lehrteu'Lexikon,  i.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Haudriettes,  an  order  of  Roman  (Catholic  nuns 
hospitallers  at  Paris,  founded  in  the  reign  of  St.  Louis, 
by  Stephen  Haudry,  a  secretary  of  that  sovereign.  At 
first  it  was  limited  to  twelve  poiar  females,  but  the  num- 
ber gradually  increased,  and  the  order  was  confirmed 
by  several  popes.  They  afterwards  received  the  name 
of  Nuns  of  the  Assumption. 

Hauff,  the  name  common  to  several  Protestant  thc> 
ologians: 

1.  Carl  Victor,  was  bom  Sept  2, 1752,  in  Wttrtem- 
berg.  In  1791  he  was  professor  and  preacher,  in  1814 
dean  at  Ulm,  in  1816  dean  and  pastor  at  Cannstadt,  and 
died  Aug.  18, 1882,  doctor  of  philosophy.  He  publiahed, 
Ueber  den  Gebrauch  der  griechitdien  Profantcribenten 
zur  Erl&uterung  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Leipsic,  1796) : 
—Bemerkungen  iiber  die  Lehrai-i  Jesu  ntU  RUcksickt 
avfjUdische  Sprach-  und  Denkart  (Oflfenbach,  1798) : — 
Briefe  den  Werth  der  christlichen  Religionsurhtnde  als 
solche  betreffend  (Stuttgart,  1809-14,8  parts):  — />ie 
Authentie  und  der  hohe  Werth  des  Evangdium  Johamtia 
(Nuremberg,  1831).  See  Winer,  Ifandbuch  der  theoL 
Lit,  i,  130, 897, 401 ;  ii,  206 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  514. 

2.  Dakikl  Friedrich,  was  bom  May  80, 1749.  In 
1780  he  was  deacon  at  Ludwigslust,  in  iSOl  special  su- 
perintendent  at  Schomdorf,  WUrtemberg,  and  died  April 
17, 1817.  He  wrote,  BeweUfur  die  UnsterblichkeU  der 
Seele  aus  dem  Begriffder  PJlicht  (ZUllichau,  1794).  See 
Winer,  Hatuibuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  478. 

3.  Gottfried  August,  pastor  at  Waldenbuch,  WUr- 
temberg,  who  died  in  1862,  wrote,  Offettbarui^sglaube 
und  Kritik  der  hiblischen  Geschichtsbueher  (Stuttgart, 
1843)  '.—Behandlung  der  biUischen  Getchichie  des  alien 
Testaments  in  Volksschulen  (1850).  See  Zuchold,  BibL 
TheoL  i,  514.     (R  P.) 

Hang,  Balthaaar,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Stammford,  near  Calw,  July  4, 1781. 
He  studied  at  Tubingen,  entered  upon  hia  ministerial 
duties  in  1757,  and  died  at  Stuttgart,  Jan.  8, 1792.  He 
published,  Diss,  XII  Postrtma  Commata  Mard  XVI 
Esse  Genuina  (Tubingen,  1758):— Z>er  Christ  am  Sah^ 
bath  (1763-64,  8  vols.;  2d  ed.  1778):— />e  Poisi  Sacra 
EbrcBorum  (1768)  :—De  Motibus  Terra  in  Sacra  Sa"^ 
tura  Allegatis  (1788):— De  Re  Educaloria  Primorum 
Christianorum  (1784):— /)ic  AlterthUmer  der  Christen 
(1785).  See  Dtiring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutsche 
lands,  a,  y,     (KP.) 


HAUG 


52^ 


HAUTPOUL 


Hang,  Martin,  a  German  Orientalist,  was  born 
Jan.  80, 1827,  in  WUrtemberg.  He  studied  at  Tubin- 
gen and  63tcingen,  and  commenced  his  academical  ca- 
reer at  Bonn  in  1854.  In  1856  be  went  to  Heidelberg, 
to  assist  Bunsen  in  his  Bibelwerk,  In  1859  he  went  to 
India  as  proressor  of  Sanscrit,  returned  to  Germany  in 
1866,  and  accepted  in  1868  a  call  to  Munich  as  professor 
of  SanscriU  He  died  June  3, 1876,  leaving,  Die  fix^f 
Gdthd*  (Leipsic,  1858-60, 2  vols.) :  —JCssatfS  on  the  Sacred 
Language,  Wt-itinge,  and  Religion  of  the  Parteet  (Bom- 
bay, lSG2):^Ueber  die  Sehyi  vnd  Sprache  der  ztoeiten 
KeiUchrifigaUung  (Gottingen,  1855)  i-^Ueber  die  Pehle- 
witprache  w»d  dm  Bundeheech  (1854)  x—Euay  on  the 
Pahlavi  Language  (Stuttgart,  1870) :  —  The  Booh  of 
Arda  Vv-qf  (Bombay  and  London,  1872-74).  He  ed- 
ited and  translated  the  Aiiareya  Brahmana  of  the  JRig^ 
vedaf  his  mam  work  (Bombay,  1863, 2  vols.).  Besides, 
he  published  Ueber  die  urtpiUngliche  Bedeutung  dee 
WoTiee  Brahnui  (Munich,  1868) :  — ^roAma  und  die 
Brahmanen  (1871).    (R  P.) 

Haul,  in  None  mythology,  is  one  of  the  rivers  of 
hell,  which  spring  from  the  antlers  of  .the  reindeer 
^jkthymers.  Its  dew  flows  into  the  spring  Hwergel- 
mer,  and  from  this  all  the  rivers  flow. 

TTawUlr  fle  Vdralja,  Gboro,  cardinal  and  arch- 
bishop of  Agram,  was  bom  April  28, 1787,  at  Tymau, 
in  Hungary.  He  studied  at  his  native  place  and  at 
Gran,  was  in  1812  keeper  of  the  archiepiscopal  archives 
at  Buda,  in  1814  notary  of  the  consistory,  in  1825  dean, 
in  18S2  great  provost  of  Agram,  and  in  1837  bishop 
there.  In  1848  he  was  ennobled  and  appointed  first 
archbishop.  In  1856  he  was  made  cardinal,  and  died 
Blay  11, 1869.  His  pastoral  letters  are  published  under 
the  title,  Seleeliones  Encgclica  LUerm  et  Diciiones  Sacrte 
(Vienna,  1850-53, 8  vols.);  besides  he  wrote  Die  Auto- 
rifat,  ali  Pfincip  der  Ordnung  und  dee  Wohlergehens  in 
Kirche,  Staat  und  FamUie  (1865).     (B.  P.) 

Haunold,  Christoph,  a  German  Jesuit  and  *^  pr»- 
fec'tus  studiorum  "  at  Ingolstadt,  was  bom  at  Altenthan, 
in  Bavaria,  in  1610,  and  died  in  1689.  He  wrote,  D^' 
ttitiopro  InfaliibUiiate  Ecdesia  Bomana: — Inetitutitmes 
Theologia  :—Curtue  Theologieui  S,  Theologia  Specula^ 
tivm  Libris  IVc—Controvertia  de  Justi/ia  et  Jure  Pri- 
vatorutn,  etc  See  Alegambe,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum 
Societatis  Jetu ;  Winer,  llandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  404; 
Jocber,  A  Ugenuinet  Geiehtien'Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Haupt,  Carl  Gerhard,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  in  1778.  For  some  time  professor 
at  the  gymnasium  at  Quedlinburg,  and  also  deacon,  he 
was  appointed  in  1825  pastor  primarius  at  St.  Nicholai, 
and  died  Aug.  22, 1833,  leaving,  Tabellarischer  Abrite 
der  vortuglichUen  Religionen  und  Relv;ionsparieien  der 
jetzigen  Erdbewohner,  etc.  (Quedlinburg,  1821):  —  Die 
Beligionen  der  Welt  (Augsburg,  1836-37)  i^Uandbuch 
uber  die  Beligiont»y  Kirchen',  GeittUche-  und  Uaterrichtt* 
angelegenheifen  in  Preuseen  (Quedlinburg,  1822-23,  3 
vols.) : — Reportorium  der  PredigtentvUrfe  der  vorzug' 
lichiten  Kanzelredner  (1836) :  — Biblitchee  CatuaUext- 
Lexikon  (1826 ;  new  ed.  by  Wohlfartb,  1852)  \—CaauaU 
predigten  (Jl»2S)  :-^Chrittlicher  BetaUar  (1828)  :--i>w 
Ijehren  der  Religion^  erldutert  durch  Beitpiele  aut  der 
Bibelf  aut  der  Weltgeechichte  und  dem  praktiechen  Leben 
(1829,8  voli.)  .^Biblitche  Real- und  Verbal-Encgklo- 
padie  (1823-28,  8  vols.).  See  Winer,  llandbuch  der 
theoL  LiL  i,  512 ;  ii,  14,  M,  123, 162, 166,  337,  363 ;  Zu- 
chold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  515  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Hanxitmann,  Johakn  Gottfrird,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  19, 1712,  in  Sax- 
ony. He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1737  con-rector  at 
Gera,  in  1742  rector  and  professor,  and  died  Oct.  21, 
1782,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  Jlistoria  Lingua 
Hebrtem  (Leipsic,  1752)  i—Progr,  VU  ad  Zach.  ic,  17 
(Gera,  1756)  :—Hebraici  Sermonis  Elementa  cum  lUiut 
Ilietoiia  (Jena,  1760)  :—Programm  Uber  das  Alter  der 
Vocale  (1777).    See  FUrst,  Bibl.  Jud,  i,  367 ;  Stein- 


schneider,  BibL  Jlandbuch,  s.  v.;  Meusel,  Gelehriet 
Deutschkmd;  Jocher,  Allgetneims  Gekhrten-Lexikon^^r, 
(RP.) 

Haur,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  one  of  the  dwarfs 
created  out  of  earth. 

Hauaen,  Christian  August,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Sangerhausen,  in  Thn- 
ringia,  Aug.  6, 1668.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in 
1690  deacon,  in  1692  preacher  at  Dresden,  and  died 
Sept  20, 1733.  He  is  best  known  by  his  continuation 
of  Bebel's  Memorabilia  Hietoria  EccUtiatt,  Recentioris, 
etc  (Dresden,  1781).  See  Winer,  llandbuch  der  theoL 
Lit,  i,  379;  Jocher,  ABgemeinee  GekhrtenrLexikon,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Hftuale,  JoHAMN  Michael,  a  Roman  (Catholic  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  who  died  at  Vienna,  Jan.  16, 1867, 
court-chaplain  and  professor  emeritus,  is  known  as  one 
of  the  editors  of  Wiener  Zeittchrift  fur  die  geeammte 
kathoUtche  Theologie.  The  history  of  the  Vienna  Uni- 
versity he  wrote  for  the  Freiburger  Kirchen-Lexikon, 
Besides,  he  published,  Der  katholieehe  Charakter  der 
wiener  UmvertitiU  (1864):  — />ai/  die  wiener  Hoeh- 
tchuleparitatuch  werden  9  (1865).     (a  P.) 

HattsmeiBter,  Jacob  August,  a  Protestant  min- 
ister of  Germany,  was  bora  of  Jewish  parentage,  at 
Stuttgart,  Oct  6, 1806.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  joined 
the  Christian  Church  at  Esslingen.  Shortly  afterwards 
he  entered  the  Basle  Missionary  Institute,  where  he  re- 
mained for  about  six  years.  In  1831  the  London  Soci- 
ety for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews  called 
him  as  one  of  its  missionaries.  Before  he  left  for  Lon- 
don, he  was  ordained  by  dean  Herwig,  who  had  also 
received  him  into  the  Church.  In  1832  he  went  to 
Strasburg  as  missionary,  and  died  April  17, 1860.  He 
published,  MerkwUrdige  Latent-  und  Btkehrungtgeaehich' 
ten  (Basle,  1835)  i^-Leben  und  Wirhen  dee  Pastora  Bor- 
ling  (1852)  i—Der  Uwlerricht  und  die  Pflege  jMiacher 
Protelgten  (Heidelberg,  1852) :  —  Die  Judeiimisaion,  an 
essay  read  before  the  Evangelical  Alliance  held  at  Paris 
(Basle,  1856) : — Die  evangelieehe  Mission  unter  Israel 
(1861).    See  Zuchold,  J&iML  TAco/.  i,  520  sq.     (a  P.) 

Hanaaa  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  Haussa 
is  one  of  the  most  widely-extended  languages  of  west- 
em  Africa,  and  forms  very  much  the  medium  of  com- 
munication over  extensive  districts  on  both  sides  the 
rivers  Niger  and  Chadda.  The  gospel  according  to 
Matthew  was  translated  into  this  language  prior  to 
the  year  1841,  by  the  Rev.  C.  F.  Schon,  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society.  This  translation  was  carefully  re- 
vised by  the  help  of  two  natives  of  the  Haussa  country, 
and  was  printed  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety in  1856.  Since  then  the  following  parts  were  put 
into  circulation  by  the  same  society :  Genesis,  Exodus, 
gospel  of  John,  and  the  Acts.  See  The  Bible  of  Every 
Landf  p.  412.  For  the  study  of  the  language,  see  Baikie, 
Observations  on  the  Haussa  and  FulfuQa  Languages 
(Lond.  1861) ;  J.  F.  Schon,  Grammar  (fthe  Haussa  Lof^ 
guage  (ibid.  1862).    (a  P.) 

Hauteoourt,  Jean  Philipon  db,  a  Reformed  the- 
ologian of  Douai,  was  bom  Sept.  5, 1646.  He  studied 
at  Saumur,  was  preacher  there  in  1671,  professor  of  the- 
ology in  1677,  but  left  France  in  1685  on  account  of  re- 
ligious persecutions  and  went  to  Holland.  He  settled 
at  Amsterdam  in  1686,  was  professor  of  theology  there, 
and  died  Oct.  30, 1715.  He  wrote,  De  Mysterio  Pietatis : 
— De  Symbolo  Apostolico :  —  De  Peccato  in  Spiritum 
Sanctum: — De  Primo  Oraculo,  Gen.  tii,  15: — De  Lege 
ei  Etangelio  ad  Job.  i,  27 : — A  d  Historiam  Damoniaci 
a  Christo  Sanati,  Marc,  »,  20.  See  Vriemot,  Series 
Professorum  Franequeranorum ;  Jocber,  Allgemeines 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Hantpool,  Paul  Louis  Joseph,  a  French  prelate, 
was  born  at  the  castle  of  Salette  (Languedoc),  Aug.  2, 
1764.  He  entered  into  holy  orders  while  quite  young, 
became  a  priest  before  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  and 


» 


HAVECKER 


626 


HAVEN 


was  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  foreign  ooantries.  He  at 
first  emigrated  to  Switseiland,  and  afterwards  to  Cob- 
lentz  ill  1792.  The  family  Kosen  Kaski  engaged  him 
for  the  education  of  their  heir,  upon  which  abM  Hant- 
poul  directed  all  his  attention.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1818,  and  became  almoner  to  the  duchess  of  Angou- 
16me,  and  after  that  bishop  of  Cahors  in  1828.  Being 
weakened  by  age  and  infirmities,  he  bad  to  resign  in 
1842,  and  retired  to  hb  fismily  at  Toulouse.  He  died  in 
December,  1849.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Genirale^  a.  v. 

H&veoker,  Johann  Hbinrich,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1640.  He  studied  at 
Helmstadt  and  Wittenberg,  was  in  1665  rector,  in  1681 
deacon,  in  1698  pastor,  and  died  in  1722,  leaving,  De 
Victu  et  A  mktu  JohatmU  BapHtia  (Wittenberg,  1668) : 
—De  Mundi  Ortu  et  Interitu  (1664) :  — i/or^en-  und 
Abend-Seufzer  (1669).  He  also  continued  and  edited 
some  works  of  his  &ther-in-law,  Scriver  (q.  v.).  See 
Jocher,  AUffemtineM  GeUhrtat-Lexihm,  s.  r.     (B,  P.) 

Havemapp,  Michabl,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  29, 1597.  He  was  preacher 
and  professor  at  Stade,  and  died  Jan.  12, 1672,  leaving, 
Hodotophia  Evangdica  contra  Papalium  Ignem  Fa- 
tuum: — ChrMamsmi  Luminaria  Magna: — Gamologia 
site  Tradaius  de  Jure  Caunuhiorum : — Thtognona  the 
Theohgia  Antiquitnma  Motaica^  Prophetioa^  ApottO' 
lica  et  Rabbimca : — De  Christtttnorum  m  Ckristo  Per* 
Jectione  et  cum  Chritto  Vnione  (transL  into  German  by 
Speoer).    See  Witxe,  Diarium  Biographicum ;  Jocher, 

AUgememet  Gelehrtei^Lexihon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

» 

Haven,  Braatus  Otia^  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Nov.  1, 1820,  being  a  descendant  of  Richard  Ha- 
ven, of  Puritan  stock,  who  emigrated  from  the  west  of 
England,  and  settled  in  the  toM'n  of  Lynn,  Maasaohu- 
setta  Bay  Colony,  about  the  year  1640.  He  graduated 
from  the  Wesleyan  University  in  1842,  immediately 
took  charge  of  a  private  academy  in  Sudbury,  and 
thence  went  to  Amenia  Seminary,  filling  first  the  posi- 
tion of  teacher  of  natural  science,  and  afterwards  be- 
coming principal  of  the  institution.  In  1848  he  en- 
tered upon  the  work  of  the  ministry  in  the  New  York 
Conference,  and  occupied  the  following  positions:  Twen- 
tv-fourth  Street  (now  Thirtieth  Street)  Church,  New 
York  city,  1848  and  1849;  Red  Hook  Mission,  N.  Y., 
1850  and  1851 ;  Mulberry  Street  (now  St.  PauVs)  Church, 
New  York  city,  1852.  In  1858  he  was  elected  professor 
of  liStin  in  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  the  next 
year  was  made  professor  of  English  language,  literature, 
and  history.  In  1856  he  was  elected  editor  of  Zion's 
Heraldj  Boston,  and  tilled  the  position  with  eminent  ac- 
ceptability for  seven  years.  In  1862  and  the  year  fol- 
lowing he  was  a  member  of  the  Semite  of  the  State  of 
Massachusetts;  from  1858  to  1863  of  the  state  board 
of  education,  and  of  the  board  of  overseers  of  Harvard 
University.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  University  of  Michigan,  filling  that  position  till 
1869,  when  he  accepted  the  office  of  president  of  the 
North-western  University.  Here  he  remained  till  the 
General  Conference  of  1872  elected  him  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  Education  Society.  In  1874  he  was 
called  to  the  chancellorship  of  the  new  university  at 
Syracuse.  In  1880  he  was  made  a  bishop,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  the  duties  of  that  office  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  Salem,  Oregon,  Aug.  2,  1881. 
Although  a  fine  preacher  and  a  graceful  speaker,  he 
attained  chief  prominence  among  the  Methodists  of 
America  for  his  sound  scholarship  and  his  steadfast  in- 
terest in  the  cause  of  education.  His  principal  pub- 
lished works  are,  The  Young  3 fan  Advised  (1855):— 
The  PiUart  of  Truth  (1866):— and  a  Rhetoric  (1869). 
He  contributed  largely  to  the  periodicals  of  the  Church, 
and,  as  editor  of  one  of  the  Church  papers,  took  no  small 
part  in  the  diacosaion  of  many  important  denomination- 
al qaestiona. 

Haven,  Gilbert,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 


copal C^hurch,  cousin  of  the  foregoing,  was  bom  at 
Maiden,  Mass.,  Sept.  19, 1821.  His  father,  GUbert  Ha- 
ven,  Eaq.,  was  one  of  the  pioneer  Methodists  of  that 
place.  After  receiving  a  good  common-school  educa- 
tion he  engaged  in  business,  and  early  manifested  such 
capacity  as  to  have  the  most  flattering  oflfers  of  business 
connections;  but  feeling  an  ardent  desire  for  a  higher 
education,  refused  them  all,  prepared  for  college  at  Wes- 
leyan Univenity,  W^ilbraham,  where  he  was  converted 
in  1889,  and  in  1846  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University, 
Middletown,  Conn.  He  was  immediately  employed  as 
teacher  of  ancient  languages  at  Amenia  Seminary, 
Dutchess  (bounty,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1848  was  elected  princi- 
pal of  the  institution.  In  1851  he  joined  the  New  Eng- 
land Conference,  wherein  he  served  two  years  each  at 
Northampton,  Wilbraham,  Westfield,  Roxbury,  and 
Cambridge.  At  the  opening  of  the  rebellion  Mr.  Ha- 
ven was  commissioned  as  chaplain  of  the  Eighth  Regi« 
ment  of  Massachusetta  volunteers,  served  his  time  out 
(three  months),  then  spent  a  year  in  extensive  travel 
in  Europe  and  Palestine,  and  as  a  result  wrote  and  pub- 
lished his  book  on  Great  Britain  and  Western  Enrope, 
entitled  The  Pilgrim's  WatteL  On  his  retnm  he  re- 
sumed the  active  ministry,  and  was  stationed  at  North 
Russell  Street,  Boston,  where,  through  his  advice  and 
influence,  Grace  Church  was  purchased.  From  1867  to 
1871  he  was  editor  of  Zion's  flerM,  in  1868  and  1872 
was  a  delegate  to  the  General  Conference,  and  by  the 
latter  was  elected  to  the  bishopric.  May  24, 1872.  In 
this  office  he  devoted  himself  earnestly  to  its  arduooa 
labors,  and  was  ever  conspicuous  in  the  benevolent 
enterprises  of  the  Church.  He  visited  Mexico  in 
1878,  and  Africa  in  1876  and  1877.  His  death  at  the 
home  of  his  nativity,  Jan.  3,  1880,  was  remarkably 
triumphant.  Bishop  Haven  had  a  very  extensive 
knowledge  of  books  and  men,  a  retentive  and  ready 
memor}',  a  wonderful  conversational  ability,  and  great 
popularity  among  his  personal  acquaintances.  He  was 
noted  for  his  ardent  interest  in  reformatory  enterprises, 
his  radical  opposition  to  slavery,  and  his  advocacy  of 
political  and  social  equality.  His  boldly  enunciated 
views  on  these  subjects  gave  him  great  reputation  al- 
most wherever  the  English  language  is  spoken.  He 
was  equally  citiispicuous  for  his  faithful  advocacy  of  the 
central  doctrinea  of  evangelical  religion.  He  was  a 
careful,  snooessfnl  pastor;  a  preacher  of  great  simplic- 
ity, fluency,  and  power;  and  a  vigorous  and  facile 
writer.  His  other  publications  are,  Oceaskmal  Ser-- 
mons: — L\fe  of  Father  Taylor,  the  Sailors''  Preacher: 
— Our  NexiJoor  Neighbor;  or,  A  Winter  ta  Mexico^ 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1880,  i,  92;  Simp- 
son, Cyclop,  of  Methodism,  s.  v. ;  Daniels,  MemoriaU 
(Boston,  1880). 

Haven,  Joaeph,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  North  Dennis,  Mass.,  Jan.  4, 181 6L 
He  graduated  from  Amherst  College  in  1888,  spent  one 
year  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  and  graduated 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1889.  He  was 
ordained  Nov.  6  of  the  same  year  pastor  of  the  Ashland 
Congregational  Church,  Unionville,  where  he  remained 
seven  years,  next  was  pastor  of  the  Brookline  Church 
four  years,  and  was  then  apix>inted  professor  of  moral 
and  intellectual  philosophy  in  Amherst  College.  After 
occupying  this  post  for  eight  years  ho  waa  called  to  a 
professorship  in  the  Chicago  Theological  Seminary, 
which  post  he  occupied  until  his  death,  May  28,  187i. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  Mental  Philosophy^ 
including  the  Intellect,  Sensibilities,  and  the  Will  (BottOD, 
1858, 12mo).     (W.  P.  S.) 


Haven,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minii 
was  bom  in  Framingham,  Mass.,  Aug.  4, 1727  (OlSL). 
After  graduating  in  1749  from  Harvard  (^oU^gi^  he  was 
instructed  in  theology  by  Rev.  Ebeneser  Ihrkman.  He 
was  ordained,  May  6, 1752,  pastor  of  lAe  First  Church 
in  Portsmouth,  where  he  miniaMRd  until  his  death, 
March  8, 1806.    Possessing  MWiiiil  powers  of  oratory. 


HAVEN 


627 


HAWTREY 


he  Attained  an  extensive  popolarity.  Although  poor 
himself,  he  ministered  to  the  destitute  with  a  profuse 
liberality,  especially  during  the  Rerolutiooary  struggle. 
Aa  a  meana  of  usefulness  he  studied  medicine,  and  prac- 
tised gratuitously  among  the  poor.  After  1799  he  only 
preached  occasionally,  and  the  last  year  and  a  half  he 
was  incapable  of  performing  the  duties  of  his  office. 
On  account  of  his  unusual  pulpit  talents,  hia  friends 
likened  him  to  Whitefield.  His  printed  sermons  are 
numerous.  See  Sprague,  Annalt  of  the  Amtr,  Pulpit, 
1,495. 

Haven,  Thoma%  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Wrentbam,  Mass.,  in  1748.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1765,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Cong^gational  Church  in  Reading,  Nov.  7,  1770,  and 
died  May  7, 1782.  See  Sprague,  Amals  of  the  Amer, 
PulpU,  viii,  13a. 

Haverkamp,  Sigbkrt,  a  Dutch  scholar,  was  bom 
in  1683.  He  was  first  preacher  in  a  small  village,  but 
was  called  to  Levden  as  professor  of  history  and  Greek, 
and  died  AprU  25, 1742.  He  published,  S.  FL  TertuU 
Hani  Apologetiau,  etc.  (Leyden,  1718)  i^Jotepki  Opera 
Omma^  etc  (Amsterdam,  1726, 2  vola.  foL) i—Ahudacni 
Jlittoria  Jacobitarum  c  AtmotatU  Jo,  Nioolai  (Leyden, 
1740).  See  Winer,  Nandbueh  der  theoL  LU.  i,  102, 181, 
156,684,  912, 918;  KUrst,  BibLJudA,  866;  Jocher,  All- 
ffemeinu  GeUhrten-Lexikonj  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Havestadt,  Bkrnhard,  a  German  missbnary,  was 
bora  at  Cologne  in  1715.  He  entered  the  society  ojf  the 
Jesuits,  and  devoted  himself  to  preaching.  In  1746  be 
was  attached  to  the  missions  of  Chili.  He  started  from 
Hortsmar,  in  Westphalia,  sailed  from  Antwerp  to  Lisbon, 
and  arrived  two  months  afkerwanls  at  Rio  Janeiro, 
thence  crossed  the  pampas  and  Andes  to  Chili,  and 
reached  Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chili,  after  a  weari- 
some and  dangerous  journey  of  fifty -five  days.  He 
spent  fire  years  at  Concepcion,  thoroughly  exploring 
the  country.  Having  a  very  good  knowledge  of  the 
Cbilidugu  dialect,  he  was  enabled  to  make  some  few 
converta  among  the  Indians.  On  the  abolition  of  the 
Jesuit  order  in  the  Spanish  states,  Havestadt  was  ar- 
rested, June  29, 1768,  and  conducted  to  Lima,  whence, 
by  way  of  Panama,  he  returned  to  Europe.  He  died 
at  MUnster  after  1778,  where  his  Observations  appeared 
(1751-77).    See  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  GMrak,  s.  v. 

Hawaiian  Vendon  op  thb  Sgripturks.  The 
Hawaiian  is  a  dialect  of  the  Polynesian  language,  spoken 
in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  When  missionaries  landed  on 
the  island  of  Hawaii,  in  1820,  they  found  a  rode,  illiter- 
ate people,  whose  language  had  never  been  reduced  to 
writing.  It  was  theirs  to  catch  the  fleeting  sounds  and 
give  them  permanent  form  on  the  printed  page,  and  so 
energetically  did  they  pursue  their  work,  that  before 
two  years  had  elapsed  they  had  begun  printing  in 
Hawaiian.  To  express  the  proper  sounds  of  the  lan-^ 
guage  five  voweb  and  seven  consonants  sufficed,  but 
nine  additional  oonsonanta  were  employed  to  give  ex- 
pression to  the  foreign  and  Bible  names  with  which 
the  Hawaiians  would  need  to  become  acquainted.  In 
1826  the  gospel  of  Matthew  was  prepared  for  press,  and 
in  1828  a  small  edition  of  the  four  gospels  was  printed 
at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  at  the  expense  of  the  American 
Board  and  the  American  Bible  Society.  The  entire 
New  TesL  was  pubUsbed  at  Honolulu  in  1882,  and  a 
second  revised  edition  of  ten  thousand  copies  appeared 
in  1837.  Portions  of  the  Old  Test,  were  also  put  to  press 
liom  time  to  time,  and  the  complete  Hawaiian  Bible 
appeared  in  1889,  only  nineteen  years  after  the  arrival 
of  the  pioneer  misnonaries.  Six  years  later  it  was  es- 
timated by  Rev,  Hinm  Bingham,  one  of  the  translators^ 
that  twenty  thousand  Bibles  and  thirty  thousand  New 
Tests,  had  been  issued,  besides  many  thousand  de- 
tached portions,  and  that  the  American  Bible  Society 
had  contributed  ^2,420  towards  this  result.  A  bilin- 
gnal  Hawaiian  and  English  New  Test,  was  also  pre- 
pared in  1857  by  the  Amerieao  BiUe  Society,  and  of 


this  more  than  ten  thousand  copies  have  been  issued. 
See  BUble  of  Every  Land,  p.  375.  For  linguistic  helps, 
comp.  Andrews,  A  Dielioiutry  of  the  Uawaiian  Lan^ 
guage  (Honolulu,  1865) ;  Alexander,  A  Short  Synopsis 
of  the  Most  Essential  Points  in  Hawaiian  Grammar 
(ibid.  1864) ;  Chamisso,  Ueher  die  hawaOsche  Sprache 
(Leipsic,  1887);  Bishop,  Manual  of  Conversation  in 
Hawaiian  and  English  (Honolulu,  1854);  Remy,  Ka 
Motido  Hawaii,  Hietoire  de  PArchipel  HawaOen  (iles 
Sandwich).  Texte  H  Traduction  (Paris,  1862).    (B.  P.) 

Ha^irklna,  Edward,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  divine,  was 
bora  in  Somersetshire,  England,  in  1789.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London,  and  grad- 
uated with  high  honors  from  St.  John's  College,  Oxford, 
in  1811.  He  became  a  fellow  of  Oriel,  took  orders  in 
the  Church,  and  filled  several  posts  in  the  University 
of  Oxford  with  distinguished  ability.  In  1828  he  was 
appointed  provost  of  Oriel  College,  to  which  office  a 
canonry  in  Rochester  Oithedral  and  the  rectory  of  Pur- 
leigh  are  annexed.*  He  came  in  contact  with  that 
Catholic  movement  of  which  Oriel  College  is  the  rec- 
ognised centre,  and  its  fellows,  John  Henry  Newman 
and  Edward  Bouvine  Pusey,  the  leaders.  He  was  op- 
posed to  the  tractarian  or  "  Pusey ite  "  propsganda.  His 
own  position  on  theological  questions  was  in  the  ranks 
of  the  liberal  or  "Broad"  Church.  Dr.  Hawkins  was 
Bampton  lecturer  in  1840.  He  edited  Milton's  Poetical 
Works,  with  Notes,  published  a  volume  of  Discourses 
on  the  Historical  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
was  from  1847  to  1861  Ireland  professor  of  exegesis  in 
the  universitv.  He  died  at  Oxford,  Nov.  20,  1882. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

HaiPPthome,  Jamks,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Slabtown,  Burlington  Co.,  N.  J.,  April 
1,  1803,  and  in  early  life  removed  to  Kentucky.  He 
studied  with  Rev.  A.  A.  Shannon,  of  Shelby ville ;  grad- 
uated from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1828; 
was  licensed  by  the  l*resbytery  of  New  Brunswick, 
Feb.  6  of  that  year;  and  Nov.  21,  1829,  was  ordained 
over  the  churches  of  Lawrenoeburg  and  Upper  Ben- 
son, in  Franklin  County,  Ky.,  where  he  remained  till 
April  4,  1833,  after  which  be  preached  for  various 
churches  as  a  supply  for  three  years.  He  was  installed 
pastor  of  Plum  Creek  and  Cane  Run  churches  in  Shelby 
County,  Dec.  29,  1836;  dismissed  April  23, 1841,  after 
which  he  supplied  the  Lawrenceburg  Church  about  five 
years;  next  served  the  Church  at  Princeton  for  one 
year  as  a  stated  supply,  and  April  9, 1848,  was  installed 
as  pastor  there.  For  nearly  thirty  years  he  performe<l 
the  duties  of  this  pastorate  with  great  earnestness  and 
faithfulness.  He  was  a  man  of  spotless  integrity,  of  a 
lovable  disposition,  cultivated  in  mind,  Christlike  in 
spirit.  His  long  rides  over  rough  roads  in  inclement 
seasons,  while  supplying  weak  congregations,  had  in- 
jured bis  health  and  laid  the  foundation  for  weakness 
in  his  later  yeacs.  He  died  June  28, 1877.  See  Necrol. 
Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1878,  p.  15.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Hawtrey,  Edward  Cravk5,  D.D.,  an  English  di- 
vine, was  bom  at  Buraham,  Bucks,  May  7, 1789.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  admitted  as  a  scholar  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1807,  and  three  years  later  be- 
came a  fellow  of  that  college.  In  1814  he  was  made 
assistant  master  of  Eton  College,  in  1884  was  appointed 
bead  master,  and  in  1858  was  elected  provost,  which 
office  he  filled  till  his  death,  Jan.  27, 1862.  Dr.  Hawtrey, 
as  a  member  of  the  Roxburgh  Club,  was  well  known 
in  literary  circles,  and  his  intimate  acquaintance  with 
books  enabled  him  to  collect  a  library  of  great  value. 
He  was  an  accomplished  scholar  in  the  French,  Ger^ 
man,  and  Italian  languages.  His  //  Trifoglio  contains 
translations  of  poems,  with  a  few  original  pieces  in 
Greek,  Italian,  and  German;  the  versions  are  from 
French  and  English  into  Greek— from  Latin,  English, 
and  German  into  Italian— and  from  English  into  Ger- 
man, all  executed  with  surprising  accuracy.  His  ad- 
ministration at  Eton  gave  evidence  of  superior  wisdom 


HAT 


628 


HAZAR-SHUAL 


aad  judgment,  vastly  advancing  the  college  in  daasical 
preeminence.  See  Appl/etori$  A  unimal  CydoptediOf  1862, 
p.  683. 

Hay,  Qeorge,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Boman  Catholic 
prelate,  was  bom  of  Episcopal  parents,  in  Edinburgh, 
Aug.  24, 1729.  He  was  destined  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession, but  in  the  midst  of  his  studies  he  was  sum- 
moned to  join  the  Highland  army  as  surgeon,  in  1746. 
After  prince  Charleses  defeat,  he  was  kept  three  months 
in  Edinburgh  Castle,  and  then  detained  prisoner  a 
year  in  London.  By  the  act  of  indemnity  he  was  set 
free.  He  was  received  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  Dec  21,  1748,  by  father  John  Seton,  S.  J.,  of 
Garletou,  who  was  on  a  mission  in  Edinburgh.  On 
Sept.  10, 1754,  he  entered  the  Scotch  College  at  Rome, 
where  he  completed  his  ecclesiastical  studies  and  was 
ordained  a  priest.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1759, 
and  was  sent  into  Banffshire,  where  he  labored  for 
eight  years.  In  1769  he  was  made  coadjutor  to  bishop 
Grant,  vicar-apostolic  of  Scotland.  In  1771  he  appeared 
as  an  author,  and  began  that  serin  of  doctrinal,  moral, 
and  devotional  works  which  is  still  popular.  In  1798 
he  received  a  second  coadjutor  in  bishop  Cameron,  to 
replace  bishop  Geddes,  deceased.  A  few  years  aller- 
wards,  feeling  his  end  approach,  he  retired  to  the  Sem- 
inarv  of  Aquhorties,  and  devoted  his  remaining  days  to 
devotion.  He  died  Oct.  15,  1811.  See  (N.  Y.)  Cath, 
w4fmua^l880,  p.75. 

Hay,  Philip  Courtlandt,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  July  25, 1793.  He 
was  educated  at  Princeton  and  Nassau  colleges;  was 
licensed  by  the  New  Jersey  Presbytery,  at  Paterson,  in 

1820,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Mendham.  Subsequently  he  was  called  to  the  Second 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Newark,  where  he  labored  faith- 
fully for  twelve  years.  He  died  Dec  27, 1860.  See 
Wilson,  Presb.  Hiit,  Almanac,  1862,  p.  185. 

Hay,  William,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  born 
Feb.  17, 1647,  and  was  educated  at  Aberdeen.  He  re- 
ceived holy  orders  from  bishop  Scongal,  and  was  first 
settled  as  minister  at  Kilconquhar,  in  Fife ;  from  here 
he  was  removed  to  Perth,  and  afterwards  consecrated 
bishop  of  Moray  in  1688.  He  died  at  Castlehill,  near 
Inverness,  March  17, 1707.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bish- 
ops j  p.  155. 

Haycrolt,  Natiianibl,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish Baptist  minister,  was  bora  near  Exeter,  Feb.  14, 

1821.  He  pursued  his  studies  at  Stepney  College,  at 
Edinburgh,  and  Glasgow ;  was  settled  first  at  Si^ron, 
then  at  Broadmead  Chapel,  Bristol,  where  he  remaine<l 
eighteen  years,  during  which  time  he  attained  to  emi- 
nent distinction  among  the  ministers  of  his  denomina- 
tion in  EnglaniU  Resigning  his  pastorate  in  Bristol, 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Leicester,  and  died  Feb..  16, 1873. 
See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Ifand-book,  1874,  p.  274. 

Haye,  Jean  de  la,  a  French  Franciscan,  was  bom 
at  Paris,  March  20, 1593.  He  was  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  theology,  court  -  preacher  to  queen  Anne  of 
Austria,  and  died  Oct.  15, 1661.  He  edited  the  BiMia 
Maffna  (Paris,  1643,  5  vols.)  i^BibUa  Maxima  (1660, 
19  vols.) : — wrote  Comment,  in  Genesin  (3  vols.  foL) : — 
Apparatus  JCvangelicus :  —  Comment,  in  Apocalypsin, 
See  Witte,  Diaiium  Biographicum ;  Winer,  Hatuibuch 
der  theoU Lit,  i,  186;  Jochcr,  AUgemeiniS  GeUhrten-Lexi- 
kon,B,v,     (B.  P.) 

Hayer,  Jka9  Nicolas  Hubert,  a  Fronch  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Sarrelonis,  June  15, 1708.  He  taught 
theology  and  philosophy  among  the  Recollets,and  showed 
himself  one  of  the  strongest  defenders  of  the  Church  in 
his  time.  He  died  at  Paris,  July  16, 1780,  leaving,  La 
Spirituality  et  VImmortalits  de  FA  me  (Pariii,  1758)  :— 
7^  RigU  de  la  Foi  Vengie  (ibid.  1761)  \--UApostolicUi 
du  Mimsth^  de  VEglise  Romaine  (ibid.  1765):— rra«/« 
de  r  Existence  de  Dieu  (ibid.  1774) : — La  Charlettanerie 
des  Tnaidules  (1780).  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Btog,  Gent" 
raltf  s.  V. 


Haymann,  Chiistoph  (l),  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  15, 1677,  at  Keichen- 
bach.  Saxony.  He  studied  at  Leipaic,  and  died  in  1781. 
His  asoetical  writings  are  euumeratcd  in  Jocfaer,  ii^e- 
meitnes  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  ▼•     (BL  P.) 

Haymaxm,  Cbristoph  (2),  a  son  of  the  above, 
was  bom  Aug.  15, 1709.  He  died  at  Meissen  in  1788, 
doctor  and  professor  of  theolog}',  and  superintendent, 
leaving,  Comm,de  cX^py  {l7iG) i^Versuch  einer  bSb- 
lischen  Theohgie  in  Tabellen  (eod.) :— £irf«rw  Encgdicm 
in  1  Epist,  ad  Timoth,  (1758).  See  Meusel,  Gelehrtes 
Dtutsddand;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 
(RP.) 

Haymo  op  Fex-ersham.  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  13th 
century,  was  bom  at  Feversham,  Kent,  studied  at  the 
University  of  Paris;  where  Leland  says  he  was  **  inter 
Aristotelicos  Aristotelissimus,''  became  a  Franciscan, 
served  at  the  Church  of  St.  I>enis,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  was  made  provincial  of  his  order.  His  eminence 
in  counsel  leil  to  his  call  to  Rome,  where  he  was  chosen 
general  of  the  Franciscans.  Pits  entitles  bim  ''specu- 
lum honestatis,"  yet  Bale  makes  him  an  inquisitor  and 
persecutor  in  Greece.  At  the  command  of  pope  Alex- 
ander IV  he  corrected  and  emended  the  Roman  brevia- 
r}'.  He  died  at  Anagni,  Italy,  where  the  pope  in  per- 
son came  to  visit  him,  in  1260.  See  Fuller,  Wotihies 
of  England  (ed.  NuttaU),  ii,  150. 

Haymo  op  Hythb,  an  English  preUite,  was  bora 
at  Hyihe,  Kent,  and  made  bishop  of  Rochester  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  Edward  IPs  reign,  to  whom  he  was 
confessor.  In  his  native  town  he  founded  a  hospital, 
and  enlarged  the  episcopal  palace.  In  his  old  age  he 
resigned  his  bishopric,  lived  on  his  own  estate,  and 
died  about  1855.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed. 
Nuttall),  ii,  135. 

Haynea,  J.  A.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
in  King  and  Queen  County,  Va.,  Dec.  13,  1822.  He 
graduated  from  Columbian  University,  Washington, 
D.  C,  in  1848,  was  principal  of  Braington  Academy  for 
a  year,  and  then  entered  upon  a  course  of  medical  study, 
receiving  his  degree  from  the  Jefferson  Medical  College, 
Philadelphia,  in  1846.  Relinquishing  his  practice,  he 
entered  the  Christian  ministry,  being  licensed  in  1^58, 
and  ordained  in  1857.  For  a  time  he  labored  under  the 
auspices  of  the  State  Mission  Boani,  and  then  accepted 
an  appointment  as  principal  of  the  Clarke  Female  Sem- 
inary, at  Berry  ville,  Va.  Subsequently  he  was  pastor 
of  two  or  three  churches  in  Virginia,  a  part  of  the  time 
being  engaged  in  teaching.  He  died  in  January,  1880. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Eneychp,  s.  v.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Haynea,  Barnuel,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  educated  at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  was 
tutor  to  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  with  whom  he  travelled, 
and  who  in  1737  presented  him  to  the  rectory  of  Hat- 
•field,  in  Hertfordshire.  In  May,  1747,  he  was  presented 
to  the  rectory  of  Clothal.  He  died  June  9, 1752.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  p.  270 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brii,  and 
A  mer,  A  uthors^  s.  v. 

Hayter,  Thomas,  an  English  prelate,  became  bish- 
op of  Norwich  in  1749,  bishop  of  London  in  1761,  and 
died  Jan.  9,  1762.  He  published  Occasional  Sermons 
(1782-59).     See  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  v- 

thorSf  B,  V. 

Hasar-gaddah.  Tristram  {Bible  Places,  p.  20) 
coincides  in  the  location  **at  Jurrah  or  ^Ghurra^  a 
group  of  ruins  on  a  high  marl  peak  with  steep  sides, 
very  near  el-Milh,  on  the  road  to  Beersheba,"  and  so 
Lieut.  Conder  {(^ar.  Statement  of  the  **  Pal  Ezplor. 
Fund,"  Jan.  1875,  p.  25).  But  more  recently  the  latter 
suggests  {Tent  Work,  ii,  337)  Jndeidehf  the  position  of 
which  he  does  not  indicate. 

Hazar-aliiial.  The  location  of  this  place  at 
Sttweh  is  acquiesced  in  by  Tristram  {BSde  Places^  p. 
20),  Lieut.  Conder  {Quar,  Statement  of  the  "BaL  Ex. 
plor.  Fund,"  Jan.  1875,  p.  21),  but  not  by  the  latter  finally 


HAZELIUS 


529 


HEA 


(Tent  Work,  ii,  837),  nor  by  Trelawney  Saunden  {Map 
of  ike  0,  r.),  who  with  less  probability  locates  Jeshua 
(Neb.  xi,  26)  there.  It  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordncmce 
Map  as  Kkurhei  Saxoth,  four  and  a  half  miles  north- 
west of  TeIl>Milh,  and  described  in  the  accompanying 
Memoirs  (iii,  409)  as  **  a  prominent  hill-top,  crowned 
with  ruins,  consisting  of  foundations  and  heaps  of  stones. 
The  hill  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  built  of  large  blocks 
of  flint  conglomerate.  Other  ruins  of  a  similar  kind 
exist  in  the  valley  beneath." 

HaseliaB,  Ebhest  L.,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  professor, 
was  bom  at  Neusalz,  province  of  Silesia,  Prussia,  Sept. 
6, 1777.  He  was  educated  at  his  native  place,  Klein- 
welke,  and  Barby,  studying  theology  at  Neisky  in  a 
Moravian  institution,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the 
authorities  of  that  Church.  In  1800  he  was  appointed 
teacher  of  the  <3asBics  in  the  Moravian  Seminary  at 
Nazareth,  Pa.,  where  he  remained  eight  years,  having 
during  that  period  been  appointed  head  teacher  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  theological  department.  Join- 
ing the  Lutheran  Churoh,  he  taught,  in  1809,  a  private 
classical  school,  and  then  became  pastor  of  the  united 
congregations  of  New  Germantown,  German  Valley, 
and  Spruce  Run ;  also  conducting  a  classical  school  at 
New  Germantown.    In  1815  the  Hartwick  Seminarv 

m 

went  into  operation,  and  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Christian  theology  and  principal  of  the  classical  depart- 
ment. For  fifteen  years  he  served  this  institution,  act* 
ing  also  as  pastor  of  the  village  church.  In  1880  he 
became  professor  of  Oriental  and  Biblical  literature  and 
German  language  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Get- 
tysburg, but  resigned  in  1838  to  take  charge  of  the 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  synod  of  South  Carolina, 
holding  that  position  from  Jan.  1, 1834,  until  his  death, 
Feb.  20,  1853.  Among  his  published  writings  are, 
Lyk  of  Luther: — Life  of  StiUing: — Augtburg  Cotfu- 
non,wiih  Armotatioru: — Materials  for  Catechization  on 
Passages  of  Scripture : — History  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
in  America,  For  some  time  he  was  editor  of  the  EvcJi- 
gdiad  Magazine,  published  at  Gettysburg.  He  was  a 
most  accurate  classical  scholar,  and  a  very  successful 
teacher.    See  Pennsylcania  Coltege  Book,  1882,  p.  167. 


Of  the  places  thus  simply  designated,  the 
latest  authorities  make  the  following  identifications : 

1.  Hazor  op  Naphtali  (Jo6h.xi,  1, 10, 11, 13;  xii, 
19 ;  xix,  36 ;  Judg.  iv,  2, 17 ;  1  Sam.  xii,  9 ;  1  Kings  ix, 
15:  2  Kings  xv,  29)  is  identified  by  Grove  (in  Smith's 
Atlas}  with  Tell  ITuraweh^  south-east  of  Kedesh,  and 
by  Trelawney  Saunders  {Map  of  the  0,  T,)  with  Khur- 
hk  Harrah  (evidently  the  same  locality),  which  is  set 
down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  one  and  three  quarter  miles 
north-west  of  Lake  Huleh,  and  described  in  the  accom- 
panying Memoirs  (i,  237)  as  **  an  important  ruin  on  a 
hill-top.  There  are  considerable  remains  of  walls  of 
good-sized  masonry  and  foundations,  with  caves,  and 
two  rock -cut  tombs,  with  loculi.  A  few  stones  are 
moulded,  probably  door-posts  or  architraves.  Then 
are  a  number  of  cisterns.  The  principal  remains  are 
on  the  top  and  the  eastern  slope  of  the  hiU.  A  zigxag 
pathway  formerly  led  down  to  the  great  spring  of  'Aiu 
cl-Melliheh."  This  is  the  location  proposed  by  Wilson 
and  advocated  by  Gu^rin.  Lieut.  Conder,  on  the  other 
hand,  suggests  iiTent  Work,  ii,  837)  Badirek,  which 
occurs  in  a  Jebel  and  Meij  of  that  name,  one  and  a  half 
miles  west  of  el-Khureibeh  (Robinson's  site  for  Hazor), 
lying  two  and  a  half  miles  south  of  Kedesh,  and  three 
and  a  half  west  of  Lake  Huleh. 

Grove  and  Conder,  however,  both  seem  to  distinguish 
two  Hazors  in  the  above  passages,  and  they  locate  the 
■eoond  at  Hazzur,  a  rock-cut  tomb  in  Khurl>ei  Hazireh 
(ten  miles  west  of  Kedesh),  where  are  <*  foundations  of 
walls,  built  with  large,  well-dreased  stones,  a  few  small 
odlamns  and  broken  pieces  mixed  up  with  the  ruins; 
eight  rock-cut  cisterns,  one  rock-cut  birkeh  [pool],  and 
two  rock-cut  tombs"  (Memoirs,  i,  239;  comp.  p.  223). 
They  seem,  moreover,  to  identify  this  with  Eh-hazor 

XIL-Ll 


(q.  v.),  although  there  is  no  spring  there  now,  as  there 
is  at  'Ain  el-Khurbeh,  where  Saunders  locates  the  latter. 
This  last  geographer  places  Edrei  at  Haztreh,  but  it 
should  rather  be  identified  with  Khureibeh,  and  Hazzfir 
and  Hazireh  will  thus  be  left  to  represent  a  single 
Hazor,  as  the  names  respectively  indicate.  £n-Hazor 
may  then  be  appropriately  assigned  separately  to  Khur^ 
bet  Hax&r,  half  a  mile  north-west  of  a  hill  of  the  same 
name,  and  consisting  of  "  heaps  of  stones  and  cisterns" 
{Memoirs,  i,  896),  laid  down  five  miles  north-west  of 
Yakfik,  with  several  springs  in  the  vicinity  (^Ain  el- 
Tahlt,  one  and  a  half  miles  west,  sufficiently  copious  to 
supply  three  mills;  and  'Ain  el-Mansfirah  and  'Ain  el- 
Di&h,  one  mile  south).  But  the  specific  name, 'i4tA 
Hazur,  does  not  occur  on  the  Ordnance  Map,  although 
several  travellers  speak  of  it  here,  and  Tristram  even 
says  {BiUe  Places,  p.  273)  ''This  is  the  onlv  Ain-Ha^ 
zur." 

2.  Hazor  of  Bemjamix  aftbb  the  Captivity 
(Neh.  xi,  38)  is  identified  by  Grove  with  Yatur,  near 
Ashdod,  which  is  out  of  the  region  indicated.  It  has 
usually  been  made  the  same  with  Baavhazor  (q.  v.), 
which  Conder  and  Saunders  reasonably  locate  at  TeU 
A  sur,  four  and  a  half  miles  north-east  of  Beitin  (Bethel), 
''a  sacred  place  among  the  peasantry,  though  no  Mu- 
k&m  exists.  There  is  a  group  of  fine  oaks  on  the  hill- 
top, sacred,  apparently,  to  a  certain  Sheik  Hadherah 
(the  proper  Arabic  form  of  Hazor).  The  Kijal  el-AsA- 
wir,  or  *Men  of  'Asur,'said  to  be  companions  of  the 
Prophet,  are  also  invoked  by  the  Moslems.  This  ap- 
pears to  be  a  probable  survival  of  the  ancient,  cir/fw  of 
Baal  on  this  lofty  summit.  Here  Gudrin  found  ancient 
cisterns  cut  in  the  rock,  and  vaulted  houses  still  stand- 
ing. In  the  middle  of  the  plateau  was  a  wely,  dedi- 
cated to  sheik  Hassan,  on  the  site  of  an  old  church, 
now  destroyed,  of  which  some  ruins  remain,  especially 
four  fragments  of  columns  lying  on  great  slabs  which 
were  once  the  pavement  of  the  church ;  besides  these  n 
capital,  on  which  was  formerly  sculptured  a  cross  of 
square  form  "  (Memoirs,  ti,  371). 

Lieut  Conder,  however,  suggests  a  separate  location 
from  this  for  the  Hazor  of  the  post-exilian  history  at 
Jlazz&r  {Tent  Work,  ii,  119),  one  mile  east  of  Neby 
SamwU ;  a  ruined  site  {Memoirs,  iii,  43),  four  miles 
north-west  of  Jerusalem,  with  tombs,  cisterns,  and 
spring  ('Ain  Malahah)  adjoining. 

3.  Hazor  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  23)  is  combined  by 
Saunders  with  the  name  following  (contrary  to  the 

Heb.  text,  which  has  1  disconnective  between)  into  the 
compound  Hazor-Ithnan,  and  located  at  en-Ifora,  which 
he  lays  down  a  short  distance  south-east  of  Beersheba. 

Hazor-Hadattah  (Josh,  xv,  25)  is  identified  by 
Tristram  {Bible  Places,  p.  18)  with  "  the  ruins  called 
Hadadah,  a  watch-tower  on  the  edge  of  a  bluff  on  the 
high  ground  at  the  head  of  the  Zuweirah  valley,  south- 
west of  the  Dead  Sea."  This  point  is  beyond  the 
bounds  of  the  Ordnance  Map,  but  is  situated  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  eUHudeirah,  with  which  we  have 
identified  the  place,  and  where  Saunders  locates  an  im- 
aginary Hazor-Kinah  (adopting  the  suggestion  of  Tris- 
tram, Bible  Places,  p.  16)  and  also  Jagur  (q.  v.).    See 

JtTDAU. 


One  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  As- 
syrian gods,  as  he  combines  in  bis  numerous  titles  the 
attributes  of  several  classic  deities.  His  Accadian  name 
was  £n.ki,  or  the  **  Lord  of  the  Wnrid  "  (earth),  and  his 
Assyrian  name  read  phonetically  Ea  or  Ilea.  He  unites 
in  his  offices  the  attributes  of  Pluto  (Hades),  of  Poseidon 
(Neptune),  and  of  Hermes  (Wisdom).  Hea,  asjthe 
representative  of  the  Greek  Poseidon,  was  *'  Lord  oflthe 
Abyss,"  sar  abzu,  and  was  spoken  of  as  Hea  **  who 
dwells  in  the  great  deep.*'  In  a  list  of  his  titles  he  is 
called  ^  Lord  of  the  Madudu  or  Sailors,"  and  it  was  Hea 
who  taught  Hasis  Arda  how  to  build  the  ark  or  ship 
{dapu)  in  which  he  sailed  over  the  flood.  In  this 
character  of  the  god  of  water  and  ocean  he  was  assod- 


HEACOCK  6 

lied  with  ■  female  deity,  Bahu,  the  "Void,"  who  ma; 
be  idenliOed  wilh  the  boha  of  Geneaii  i,  2.  Hea  held 
dominion  ova  ■  liuse  numbei  of  ipiriu  who  dwelt  in 
the  abzu,  or  the  deep.  In  the  char«ct«r  o{  the  Greek 
Fluto,  or  lord  of  H«dea,  Hei  himMlf  aeldom  figured, 
but  hi*  eonion,  Nin-ki-gil,  tbe  "I^ily  of  the  Great 
Land,"  appetui  very  Trequenlly.  Ilea,  u  lord  of  Hade^ 
had  the  name  of  Nin-a-zn,  and  his  wife  wu  called 
Nin-ki-gal.  But  it  waa  in  the  character  of  the  nod 
ofwUdom,  the  "god  who  knows  nil  thingi,"  that  Hea 
Hgured  moH  prominently,  Nin-ni-mi  ki,  "  Lord  of  Wii 
dam,"  or,  as  the  Accadian  expressed  it,  the  "Lord  of  Ih 
Bright  Eye,"  It  was  Ilea  alone  who  could  deliver  ma 
from  the  variooa  apells  and  cixraes  with  which  the  con 
plicated  lyitem  oF  Chaldean  magic  beaethim.  Uealg 
delivered  Ishur  from  the  power  of  Ninki-gal.  in  lb 
legend  of  hei  deacent  into  Uadea.  Hea  had  for  hia  fi 
male  consort,  in  his  character  of  "Lord  of  Wisdom,"  lb 
goddeaa  Dav-kina,  the  female  dcilicalion  of  the  earth, 
who  was  probably  only  another  form  of  Nin-ki-gol,  and 
reaemblea  lhecUs»c  Persephone  or  ProacTpine;  though 
perhaps  Nin-ki-gal  and  Dav-kina  may  be  better  idenii' 
fied  with  Persephone  and  Ceres  (Demeler),  the  "Moth 
eiacd  Daughter"  of  the  Greeks. 

Beaoook,  GitoavxtioK  Williams,  D.D.,  a  Prtahy- 
t«Tian  Difaiiiter,  was  bom  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Au^  S,  1S22. 
He  graduated  from  WcMem  Reaerre  College  in 
and  from  the  Auburn  Theological  Seminary  in 
was  oiduned  pastor  of  the  Lafayette  Street  Presbyle^ 
rian  Cburch  in  hu  native  city,  Oct.  SO,  1S46,  and  re- 
tained thai  poeition  until  hia  death,  Hay  (S,  1877.  He 
waa  greatly  esteemed  and  beloved.  See  Geo,  Cat.  of 
A  uburn  TimL  San.  IBSS,  p.  264. 

BsadBtODO,  a  monument  placed  at  the  head  of 
a  grave,  aa  a  memorial  of  the  departed.  Andently, 
'  the  CUM!  in  aome  form  or  other  waa  invariably  uaed, 

Haadatotie  fa  Iba  Ctaorch-       HeadataMfathaCbnTch- 
jard  at  Telawortb,  Oi-  yard  at   Folkettone. 

ftuidahln.  KenL 

either  simply,  with  floriated  enda,  within  a  circle,  or  in 
acme  other  obvious  form.  During  the  Iflth  century 
the  crucilbrai  ahape  waa  diaplsced  by  other  forma  lera 
Christian,  neither  artistic  nor  orhamental. 

HaaUng.  Tonching,Le.amking tbepaiient'aface 
with  both  bandi,  to  remove  the  acrofula,  aigniflcantly 
called  the  king's  evil,  waa  practiced  hy  the  kings  of 
France  as  early  as  Clovia  or  PhiBp  I,  kings  of  Himgary, 
and  Engliah  aovettigns,  from  Edward  the  Confeaaot  to 
queen  Anne,  who  touched  Dr.  Jobnson.  Bradwardine 
Bays  that  crowds  resorted  to  the  kings  of  England, 
France,  and  Germany.  Solemn  prayer  and  the  sign  of 
thecruss,firBt  laid  aside  by  James  I,  were  used.  Henry 
II  and  Edward  I  practiced  the  touch.  The  ceremonial 
took  place  on  a  progress,  on  Good  Friday,  monthly, 
quarterly,  or  at  Michaelmas,  Easier,  and  Whitsuntide, 
and  lin  1683  from  All-Saints'  till  a  week  before  Christ- 
mas, and  from  Christmas  till  March  1,  The  first  form 
of  service  waa  drawn  up  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
The  goapel  (Mark  xvi,  14)  was  read  while  the  king 
laid  OD  his  hands,  and  during  another  (John  i,  1),  ac  the 
worda  "the  light," an  angel,  noble,  or  medal  wilh  St. 
Michael  stamped  on  it  was  attached  by  a  white  ribbon 


10  HEBDOMAS  MAGNA 

round  the  neck  of  the  patient,  who  bad  la  produce  a 
certifleate  of  hia  malady,  signed  by  the  parish  priest 
and  churchwardens,  and  was  examined  by  the  king's 
surgeon-in-waiting.  The  faculty  of  healing  waa  pop- 
ularly attributed  alao  totbe  nintb  son  of  a  ninth  loiiiOC 

BesUng-boa^  nwd  for  holding  the  ehriau  in  ex- 

Heallng-oolii,  a  piece  of  money  anciently  given 
by  kings  to  those  persona  who  were  "  touched  "  for  the 
cureoftheking'seriL  The  coin  was  pierced  and  worn 
round  the  neck  with  a  string  or  ribbon. 

Heallns-oll,  the  aaend  unetion,  made  of  ml  of 
divea  and  balm,  for  nse  in  the  sacrament  of  extnuM 


Hearing;  thb  Word  or  God  ia  an  ordinance  of 
divine  appointment  (Rom.  x,  17 :  Frov.  viii,  4, 5 ;  Hark 
iv,  21).  Public  reading  of  the  Scriptures  was  a  pan  of 
synagogue  worship  (Acts  xiii,  IG;  xr,21),aud  was  the 
praedce  of  the  Chrialians  in  primilire  times.  Undei 
the  former  dispensation  there  was  a  public  hearing  of 
the  law  at  stated  seasons  (DeuU  xxii,  10, 13 ;  Mcluviii, 
2,  3).  It  seems,  therefore,  that  it  is  a  duly  incumbent 
on  us  to  hoar,  and,  if  sensible  of  our  ignorance,  we  shall 
also  consider  it  our  privilege.  (1)  Aa  to  the  manner  of 
hearing,  it  shouU  be  coailaatiy  (Pror.  viii,  34 ;  James  i, 
94,25);  aUairmiy(Lukexxi,48;  Actsx,83i  Luke  iv, 
20, 22} ;  with  rvnma  (Paa.  Ixxxix,  7) ;  wilh/uif *  (Heb. 
iv,2);  withanendeaTorlorMauiwhatwebear(Beb.ii,  ' 
1;  Psa.cxix,Il);  •KiOiKakwiiilt.dociie^Mpotitimiljak.t 
X,  42);  withprajFn-(IjikexTlii).  {t)  The  aitcaUaga 
of  keai-ing  ace  iaformalirm  (2  Tim.  iii,  16) ;  ecmiaiom 
(1  Cor.  xiv,  !4, 25 ;  AcU  ii) ;  eomertiim  (Paa.  xi,  7 ;  AeU 
iv,4);  conjfnwilHHi  (Acts  xiv,  22 ;  xvi,  6);  csntnlaliat 
(Phil.  i.ib;  Jsa.  xl,  1,  2;  xxxv,  3,  4>— HendeiBon'a 
Bbck,  Did-afThtol.  s.  v.     See  Fbcacuiso. 

Heait-bnrlaL  The  heart  was  often  buried  apart 
from  the  body  In  the  place  it  loved  well  in  life,  as  De- 
vorgilU  founded  Sweet  Heart  Abbey  in  memoiy  of  th« 
heart-burial  of  her  husband.  Kichard  I's  heart  was 
buried  at  Rouen.  Robert  Bruce  desired  hia  heart  to  ba 
taken  to  the  Holy  L^nd  in  lieu  of  his  pilgrimage,  and 
lord  James  Douglas  carried  it  round  his  neck  in  a  utver 
case,  hung  hy  a  ulkcn  cord.  He  threw  it  forward  in 
advance  of  bis  men  at  ihe  great  battle  of  Salano,  and 
covered  it  with  his  body. 

Haatb,  NiCHoi.aa,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom  in 
London,  and  educated  at  Christ  College,  Cambridge, 
He  became  eneoesuvely  archdeacon  of  Stafford,  bishop 
of  Rochester  (1540),  of  Worcester  (16M),  archbishop  of 
York  (1665),  and  chancellor  of  England  under  the  rngn 
of  Hary.  lie  was  deprived  of  hia  offices  because  he  re- 
fused to  take  the  oalb  of  supremacy  under  Elizabeth, 
and  died  at  Cobbam  in  1660.  See  Hoefer,  JVou>.  Bicff. 
Ghimle,  s.  v. 

HabdomadaiU,  a  name  anciently  applied  to 
monks  from  their  weeUy  service. 

Hebdttnuu  Magna,  (ihe  gnat  veub),  an  appeUa- 
tion  given  anciently  lo  the  week  before  £lasler,  which 
wss  observed  with  great  solemnity.  The  use  of  this 
term  ia  thua  accounted  for  by  Chrysoslom:  "It  wss 
called  the  great  week,  not  because  it  consisted  of  longer 
days  or  more  in  number  than  other  weeks,  but  hecaoBB 
St  Ibis  lime  great  things  were  wronght  for  us  by  our 
Lord.  For  in  this  week  the  ancient  tyranny  c^  th« 
devil  was  dissolved,  death  was  extinct,  the  strong  maa 
waa  hound,  his  goods  were  spoiled,  sin  was  aboliahed, 
the  curse  was  destroyed,  paradise  was  opened,  heaven 
became  accessible,  men  and  angels  were  joined  togeth- 
er, the  middle  wall  of  partition  was  broken  down,  the 
barriers  were  taken  out  of  the  way,  the  God  of  peacv 
made  peace  between  thinga  in  heaven  and  things  on 


HEBDOME  5J 

ttnh."  Sh  CbljrMtlMU,  Hon.  ta  Ptal.  ale.  nra  it 
lUbdomadi  Mag»a ;  BingbaiD,  Amiiq.  bk.  xxi,  chap,  i, 
MCS4. 

Habd&ni  (ij^^ofiij,  t)u  hto^  day  of  tbe  month), 
■  r<Mivil  obMrved  by  the  ancient  Greelu  in  honor  of 
Apollo,  on  the  seventh  da;  of  every  month,  becauK  one 
of  tfaemnai  thebitlbdi.v  ortbit  god.  Tb«  chief  place 
ot  then  obserranees  wai  Athena.  UymnB  were  lang 
toApotlo,and  the  pwpla  walked  in  proacnkn),eaiTyiDg 
■prig!  or  laurel  in  their  handa. 
HebA,  in  Greek  mytbdi^,  was  the  daughter  of 
' '  of  youth  and  loveliDeas. 
She  ia  often  odd- 
founded  with  Hygea 
or  (be  goddem  of 
health,  but  the  btler 
may  be  recoRtiiacd 
by  her  long,  modest 
dren;  Hebe,  on  Che 
contrary,  appean 
with  ■  light  apron, 
and  half  naked.  Not 
■eldom  Cht  eagle  of 
Jupiter  is  found  at 
her  aide.  She  wu 
married  to  Herculei, 
and  bore  him  two 
■ona,  Aleziarea  and 
Anicetiu.  Although 
she  wai  a  daughter 
of  the  anpreme  dei- 


tioo,  for  abe  not  only  serrea  all  gnda  at  the  table,  but 
hameaaed  the  horses  of  Juno,  when  the  latter  advanced 
with  Minerva  against  the  Trojana. 

Hebenrtreit,  Jobatm  Chilstlmii,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Geimany,  was  born  April  •il,  1686.  He 
ilndied  at  Leipaic,  and  csinnienced  his  academical  ca- 
reel  there  in  1715.  In  1731  he  was  professor  of  He- 
brew, in  1732  doctor  of  divinity,  in  1740  professor  of 
tbeologr,  and  died  Dec.  6,  ITHC,  leaving,  De  fiaiextnc 
ad  lltuilr.  Eiech.  tiii,  17  (Leipeic,  1713):— £e  Jiubxo 
RomaExiilfffx  Actor. xiD,liq.(M<i- 111*) -—HtSer- 
lu  Camiiralibiii  ad  Eieri.  cHi,  6  <ibid.  eod.)  —Dt  Pen- 
Ircoile  VtUram  (ibid.  1715):— i>tM.  i-ix  in  Propketam 
AtaltKbiam  (itnd.  lTSl-46)  -.—Dt  MaacAa,  a  Rryia  Rt- 
meta,  ad  1  Rtg.  a,  13  C>bid.  1734)  z^De  l)iKrtpa<iHa  tt 
Contdua  Pialni  znu  H  2  Sam.  xxii,  8fi  (ibid.  1736)  :- 
De  0$iibai  Rtgti  Edam  Condnulit,  Amot  xi,  8  (ibid. 
eod.) : — Dt  Pant  Saptr  A  qiuna  Miltendo,  Coheltii  xi,  1 
(ibid.  1T37)  :—De  Et.  Ixiii,  19  non  DirtUendo  a  SeqiiaiU 
Capile  (ibid,  eod.) : — Dt  Erigendu  Copilot  in  Adeetilu 
Mtuia,  ad  Pi.  ctV,  3  tg.  (ibid.  1711):- D«  SabialAo 
aaU  Motaicim  Ltym  ExuUtUe  (ibid.  174S)  i—De  Elia- 
ltinio,Chrulil^,Pi.xxii,  lb;  Apoe.iii,6  (ibid.eod.): 
— Frotlema  Exegetiea  ad  Apoc  ii,  4 : — Qaid  lii  i;  liyarq 
q  rpurri  ab  Angela  Ephttino  Omtiat  (ilud.  1760): — 
Di  A'oniDu  Ckriiti  ifiip>,  Apoc  in,  H  (ibid.  1761)  :—D« 
Balomotiu  Idohlalna  ad  1  Rtg.  x,  4-8  (ibid.  I'fii).  See 
Doling,  Die  gtlthriai  Theohgea  Dtultchlundt,  t,  v. ; 
Winer,  0uiiiffli«AdBr(A<oi£t(.i,S81,G18i  Jocher,,1tt- 
jKmnnci  CeMrfm-LexiEon,  a.  T.    (B.  P.) 

Habeiutrelt,  Jottana  Frladrlob,  a  German 
theologian,  ho  of  Jobsnn  Paul,  wu  doclor  of  theology 
at  Leipsic  in  1726,  and  died  superintendent  at  Butt- 
•Udt,  Thnringia,  between  1760  and  1770.  He  wrote, 
Dt  Magorum  Utttiam  Exotcakntium  h'omint,  Patria 
el  Slalu  (Jena,  1709):— Z>e  Jiida  IicAaHolA  (WitUn- 
berg.  1712^ -—SiAtdiatma  HiMlorico-PkitoSogiam  dt 
Variit  Claitlianaivm  A'omnifrw  ( 1713  ) :  —  De  taKif 
OTpanvTifi  leu  Epitcopo  MUite  (Leipuc,  1726): — De 
RatlUmi  aaXDu  iTTpariMraii  (eod.):— £><  Harai  Car- 
poerafianamtn  (1712).  See  JAcher,  AUgemtaiet  Ge- 
kirieii-LescHam,  s.  v.;  Winer,  Bandbuci  der  thtol  Lit. 
i,  567,  640.     (B.  P.) 


1  HEBREW  LANGUAQE 

H«bwwtTelt  Jotaum  PkuI,  a  Latheran  tbM>1»- 
gian  of  Germany,  waa  born  June  S&,  1661,  at  Neoatadt- 
on-the-Orla.  He  atndled  at  Jena,  where  be  also  eom- 
meneed  bis  academical  career.  In  1697  tbe  unireraity 
at  Altdorf  honored  him  with  the  doctorate  of  divinity, 
and  in  1710  be  was  professor  of  theology  at  Jena.  He 
died  Hay  6, 1718,  leaving,  Thmiogia  Naturtdi*  (Jena, 
1693):  — />e  Tieahgit  MuU^ici  Calamma  Appttilit 
(eod.) : — De  iVoduf inafliHte  ; — Dt  Epiphania  d  ^ri- 
pimiit  :-~Dt  Sptmto  n  Kvptiii  Comb  GaUiam: — Dt 
EremitiM  an  AmicioreliM:—DeJoicBmt  ErtmUa; — De 
A  ugainaai  CoBfeuiotat  Namat  tt  Caaiii  :—De  Cammi. 
bat,  Ml  Vniga  Dicimtur,  ApoHolidi  (1696) :— At  TMto- 
logia  Exrgeliat  Natura  et  CotatitiilioBt:—Dt  Thtotagm 
ExegttuM  FiMi—Dt  Stripfurw  S.  Sam  (1697):- Ca 
Sumrna  Scr^ilura  Saav  Amlonlalt :  ~  De  Peecato 
OrigiBaU  i,ie9S):-Sgttrma  Tlitelegicum  (,1107) -.-De 
Duarum  CAriili  Natararvm  Conmunicaliaiie  (1710). 
Sea  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologtn  Dtvttchiande,  s.  v. ; 
Jocher,  Allgemtiiia  CtUKrln-Ltxikon,  s.  v.     (&  P.) 

Hebreir  Iiangtiaga.  Tbe  central  poatioo  which 
this  "sacred  toogua  "  occupies  bi  Biblical  literature  juati- 
Ses  us  in  supplementing  the  article  in  voL  iv  by  ■  aome- 
what  detailed  exposition  of  some  ot  its  leading  lexical 
and  gnmmstJcal  peculisrittee,  and  in  doing  so  we  take 
the  occasion  to  cdl  attention  to  some  features  and  lin- 
Kuiitic  principles  not  usually  apprehended.  These  il- 
lostrate  the  natural  simplicity  no  less  than  the  profound 
philosophy  of  the  language. 

I.  AoDl  Meaniiig; — 1.  It  hai  generally  been  assumed 
tbat  verbs  are  the  only  primitives  in  Hebrew,  and  bence 
the  lexicons  have  canstanlly  referred  all  words  to  some 
verbal  root,  Bnt  it  seems  mora  reaaonalile  to  analogy 
and  more  consonant  with  fact  to  admit  a  few  primi- 
tive nouns,  inch  as  3K,/u(*<r;  n»,6ioa<r,-  D^i?, wa- 
fer, etc  Accordingly  we  find  ni'  scarcely  used,  ex- 
cept in  Hiph.  as  a  denominative  from  I**,  hand,  in  tbe 
sense  of  ttrttdiag  out  iht  hand,  t.  g.  in  prayer  or  praise. 

3.  A  more  Important  fsct,  admitted  by  most  lexicog- 
raphen,  and  denied  of  late  by  only  a  few  schi^rs,*  is 
that  all  the  roots  primarily  seem  to  dedgnate  some 
physical  act  or  condition,  appreciable  by  the  senses. 
This  may  be  true  of  other  languages,  in  the  primitive 
forms,  but  it  is  eminently  characteristic  of  the  Hebrew. 
Not  only  were  the  people  who  used  it  a  constitutionally 
poetic  race,  affected  by  and  rcBecting  every  shadow  of 
tbe  imagination,  but  their  origiDally  nomadic  habita 
made  them  keenly  aensilive  to  every  accident  and  in- 
Buence  of  Bedawin  life.  They  had  tpcciflc  terma  for 
pitching  and  striking  thdt  tents  (fiin  and  9D9,  re- 
spectively), for  turning  out  of  the  road  to  stop  at  ■ 
house  (IW),  and  lodging  over  night  {■,"'V),ett  Tbey 
were  on  tbe  constant  lookout  for  an  enemy  (HjpS),  and 
they  had  a  term  fur  one  of  a  hostile  tribe  (3^M  as  op- 
posed M  Q^).  in  distinction  from  personal  enmity 
(ttliS)  or  individual  opposition  Cf  X)  The  nice  shades 
of  climactic  signiScation,  which  are  very  imperfectly 
developed  even  in  the  best  Hebicw  lexicons,  are  shown 
with  graphio  cleamesa  in  terms  for  anger:  P[3X,  la 
breatkl  hard  with  the  llrst  excitement;  tVyn,  (a  gloa 
with  the  rising  paairion;  finn,  tbe  jfuii  of  the  hot 
blood ;  DS;,  lofroih  with  intense  fury,  etc.  Attention 
to  the  ostennible  sign  of  a  root  will  enable  ua  to  note 
the  steps  of  tnnaitiun  from  a  primitive  to  a  derivative 
Hgnification:  c.  g.  nsn.tonuiUn-toone'a  self  in  a  brown 


•  We  look  with  BOmo  dialmet  npon  the  fashion,  prera- 
lant  In  certain  qnarters,  of  seeklnB  Hebrew  elTOoua  In 
the  ndlcils  fonnd  among  lbs  cnoelform  discloauras.  Tbe 
dialects  of  the  Assyrian,'' Accadlan,"  snd  early  Babrlon- 
lin  are  ret  In  too  cmde  a  state  of  elasslflcaUon  and  In- 
vesUeatlon  to  bear  out  macb  reliance  upon  them  for  such 
unrposes,  and  it  Is  donbUtal  if  tbey  ever  will  be  largely 
avnTlsbla  for  Irnstwnrlhy  comparlaon,  sxcopt  In  a  very 
general  mnnier,  sad  for  obacare  roots. 


HEBREW  LANGUAGE 


532 


HEBREW  LANGUAGE 


Study ;  henoe  to  nrnmutr  in  gradge,  or  medikUe  with 
pleasare.  The  constant  usage  of  terms  in  a  figurative 
sense,  with  an  eye  to  their  Uteral  import,  makes  every 
word  and  phrase  a  picture,  and  renders  eren  the  prosiest 
utterances  highly  poetical. 

8.  Hebrew  «yiionym«,  as  thus  appears,  have  received 
less  attention  than  they  deserve.  The  lexicographers, 
especially  Gesenins,have  occasionally  traced  distinctions 
in  the  use  of  words,  and  have  freely  compared  many  cog- 
nate roots,  resolving  moat  of  them  to  certain  supposed 
essential  ideas, but  this  last  has  helped  very  liule  towards 
a  practical  discrimination  of  their  real  meaning  and  prev- 
alent application,  and  no  general  system  of  comparing 
verbs  draely  resembling  each  other  has  been  instituted. 
Yet  it  is  ceruin  that  in  Hebrew,  as  in  all  other  primitive 
languages,  real  synonyms  are  very  rare,  and  in  no  other 
tongue,  perhaps,  are  terms  more  distinctively  employed, 
especially  in  the  physical  relations  of  life,  however 
vaguely  they  may  often  have  to  be  construed  in  their 
figurative  and  metaphysical  applications.  For  exam- 
ple, the  words  relating  to  the  senses  are  nicely  corre- 
lated to  each  other,  and  finely  shaded  off  in  compara- 
tive strength.  Thus  9iQti  is  to  hear  simply,  the  sound 
entering  one's  ears  whether  he  will  or  not.  But  n99 
is  to  pay  attefUioH  to  what  is  heard,  as  by  look  or  gest- 
ure ;  hence  to  anaweTf  as  expected  of  one  giving  heed 
to  another ;  and  finally  to  apeakf  i.  e.  in  reply  to  words  or 
thoughts  merely  implied.  Still  advancing,  I^^KH,  a 
denominative  from  "jtM,  the  ear  (probably  a  primitive, 
for  the  root  )TM  does  not  occur),  is  to  give  eavy  L  e.  turn 
the  ear  in  the  direction  of  the  sound,  or  listen,  but  not 
very  intently.  Finally,  !l*^12)prT  is  to  prick  up  the  ears, 
i.  e.  use  the  hand  for  increasing  the  volume  of  sound,  or 
hearken  earnestly.  So  likewise  MK*^  is  to  <ee  simply, 
without  any  special  effort,  IStlv ;  but  fltn  is  to  bekoU^ 
or  gaze  intently  at  some  striking  object,  as  in  a  vision, 
6pcua  or  ^lutpiut ;  and  O'^SH  is  to  look  at  closely,  for 
the  purpose  of  scrutiny  or  discovery,  vKoviu ;  while 
other  terms  are  of  special  and  narrow  import,  as  C)^pl29ri« 
to  vieWf  i.  e.  bring  into  the  field  of  vision ;  ^^^^  to  peept 
as  from  a  lurking-place ;  MB2C,  to  toatchf  as  an  enemy. 
In  addressing,  K^jD  is  simply  to  call  out  the  name  of  a 
person  spoken  to  or  of;  while  ^Qd<  is  to  say  something, 
the  words  being  added ;  and  ^a^  is  to  speak,  the  lan- 
guage not  being  given ;  but  ^W  is  to  halloo,  or  cry  out 
for  help;  p^2t  (less  strongly,  p^t)  to  shriek  from  dis- 
tress or  danger;  paM  to  groan  in  pain  or  sorrow;  and 
^^r;  merely  to  talk  loud,  out  of  folly  or  (Piel)  in  praiae. 
Among  pleasant  emotions  n^to  iitobe  glad  simply,  as 
evinced  by  a  quiet  and  satisfied  demeanor;  but  tb9  or 
yb^  is  to  exuU  with  demonstrative  expressions;  and 
*ffy  to  triumph  with  shouts  of  joy.  Among  unpleasant 
emotions  K^^  is  to /ear,  simply  in  a  general  sense ;  but 
bilS  is  to  palpitate  with  sudden  alarm  (Niph.  to  he 
j^anic-stricken) ;  ^llfi  is  to  hefright/ened  by  some  object 
of  terror;  V^29  is  to  dread  an  impending  cause  of  anx- 
iety; *1^ri  to  shudder  on  the  surface;  *19^  to  quake  in 
the  interior;  wh|le  b'^Si  and  V^H  are  merely  to  spin 
round  under  the  influence  of  any  violent  feeling,  wheth- 
er cringing  through  fear,  writhing  in  pain,  or  jumping 
for  joy  (especially  the  former  word),  hw  is  to  fte 
weak  in  the  ankles,  hence,  to  totter,  stamble,  etc. ;  but 
9^9  is  to  bend  the  knees,  hence,  to  bow  or  fall;  while 
*^a^  is  to  crouch  on  the  haunches,  like  an  animal  in  re- 
pose. For  terms  denoting  forever,  there  is  bb'l9,  the 
vanishing  point,  whether  forward  or  backward;  hence 
time  out  of  mind,  everlastingly ;  ^9,  the  terminus,  a 
fixed  point  beyond  which  one  cannot  pass;  and  nxs, 


the  goal  or  shining  mark  set  np  as  far  ahead  as  one  can 
well  see;  while  ^W  simply  denotes  coniinuitg.  Of 
negatives  there  is  Kb,  not,  the  direct  denial,  oifx ;  bK, 
far  from  it,  the  softer  or  deprecative  disclaimer,  uii; 
'|7M,  bg  no  means,  the  peremptory  exclusive ;  and  bs, 
not  at  all,  the  absolute  contradiction,  oii  fiti,  omnino.  So 
in  meteorology,  !19  is  a  misty  scud-doud,  so  called  from 
obscuring  the  landscape;  *|39  is  a  black  thundet'doud, 
so  called  from  veiling  the  heavens;  and  p^^  is  a  light 
JkeoS'-doud,  to  called  from  its  resemblance  to  dust  dif- 
fused in  the  sky.  In  brigandage  ^^Kig  is  an  andmsk 
for  a  surprise;  while  'IHO  is  a  covert  for  security; 
Kara  a  hiding-place  for  secrecy;  and  "^fb  or  MSD 
merely  a  lair  of  wild  beast,  as  screened  by  interlaced 
twigs.  In  orography  and  geography  generally,  Hebrew 
words  are  used  with  great  precision.  See  Topookaph- 
ICAL  Tkrms. 

II.  Vocalization, — Syllabification  is  very  simple  in 
Hebrew,  as  the  letters  (all  regarded  as  consonants)  are 
the  basis  of  articulation,  and  each  (with  the  frequent 
exception  of  the  quiescents)  has  its  own  vowel  (ex- 
pressed or  implied)  following.  The  pronunciation,  in- 
deed, is  not  certain,  as  Hebrew  ceased  to  be  a  living 
tongue  after  the  Babylonian  exile ;  but  the  sounds  of 
the  letters  probably  survive  in  the  cognate  Oriental 
languages,  especially  the  Arabic,  and  the  vowels  sup- 
plied by  the  Masoretes  doubtless  represent  those  tradi- 
tionally handed  down  to  their  own  times.  The  latter 
form  an  ingenious  and  apparently  complicated  but 
really  simple  and  natural  series,  of  which  the  written 
signs  are  sufficiently  distinct  and  philosophical. 

The  intricate  chain  of  vowel-changes  arising  in  de- 
clension is  remarkable  for  its  strict  oonformitv  to  the 
laws  of  the  vocal  organs,  and  euphony  is  its  fundament- 
al principle.  The  tone  usually  rests  on  the  final  syl- 
lable, as  being  in  general  the  most  significant  of  gram- 
matical relations,  and  hence  an  increment,  as  carrying 
the  accent,  has  a  constant  tendency  to  shorten  the  pre- 
ceding part  of  the  word.  The  oblique  forms  of  nouns 
and  verbs,  including  the  suflSxed  pronouns,  are  thus  lit- 
erally con^rueted,  and  the  balance  is  preserved  by  ab- 
breviating the  beginning.  In  this  sj'stem  two  features 
are  of  prime  and  universal  influence,  namely,  the  semi- 
vocal  character  of  the  gutturals  (inducing  a  series  of 
peculiarities  in  their  pointing),  and  the  necessity  of  the 
tone  for  either  a  long  closed  or  a  short  open  syllable. 
By  observing  the  effect  of  these  principles  and  a  few 
conventional  form-signs,  the  grammar  is  wonderfully 
simplified  and  clarified. 

III.  Doctrine  of  the  so-called  **  Tenses,"" ^1.  The 
"  PrsBter  '*  and  the  **  Future."  These  are  now  well  un- 
derstood not  to  denote  primarily  time,  but  some  other 
less  palpable  relation.  The  absence  of  a  present  tense 
is,  we  may  remark  in  passing,  really  logical,  for  the 
present  moment  is  but  the  dividing  line  between  the 
past  and  the  future,  and  shifts  its  position  every  instant. 
Ewald  suggested  the  names  "  Perfect " and  "  Imperfect* 
in  lieu  of  Pneter  and  Future,  mahitaining  that  the  for- 
mer denotes  a  completed  act,  and  the  latter  an  inchoate; 
and  some  later  grammarians,  including  Driver,  in  hia 
ingenious  monograph  on  the  subject,  have  hastily  adopt- 
ed this  nomenclature.  But  besides  the  inexactness  of 
these  terms  in  themselves,  and  the  liability  of  con- 
founding snch  a  use  with  that  of  the  corresponding 
tenses  in  English,  and  still  more  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
they  will  be  found  to  be  essentially  erroneons.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  most  cases,  these  two  reib-forms  in- 
disputably designate  the  two  relations  of  time,  anterior 
and  posterior;  and  the  consummation  or  incipiency  of 
the  act  or  state  is  comparatively  rare  as  an  important 
shade  of  the  thought  In  very  many,  indeed,  a  major- 
ity of  cases,  such  a  rendering  would  be  absurd.  For 
example,  that  remarkable  and  pregnant  announcement 
by  Jehovah  of  his  divine  self- existence,  ^VK  rPMM 


HEBREW  LANGUAGE 


533 


HEBREW  LANGUAGE 


rrntt,  /  iMff  k  wA<i<  /  imB  ie  (A.  y. "  I  >m  that  I  am," 
Exod.  ill,  14),  becomes  the  flAttest  nonsense  if  tnnsUted 
*'  I  begin  to  be  what  I  begin  to  be.^  Surely  this  can- 
not be  the  essential  conception  of  the  tense-form  in 
question.  The  true  distinction  is  rather  that  the  Fneter 
marks  an  act  or  state  as  a  matter  oifad^  oit  something 
intended  to  be  stated  as  such,  while  the  Future  denotes 
a  oonc^fion,  or  something  meant  to  be  so  stated.  They 
are  respectirely  the  objective  and  the  subjective  points 
of  view,  the  actual  and  the  imaginary,  the  absolute  and 
the  conditional,  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive,  the 
independent  and  the  relative.  Out  of  this  fundamental 
distinction  grow  all  the  subordinate  ones,  especially  the 
JMZ4/,  as  representing  the  only  real  facts,  and  the /u^rf, 
as  being  yet  but  a  fancy.  A  completed  act  or  state,  as 
un/ait  accompli,  of  course  thus  comes  in  naturally  un- 
der the  Praeter,  and  an  inchoate  one,  as  yet  conceptual 
in  part,  falls  appropriately  under  the  Future.  The  use 
of  either  as  "a  customary  Present"  is  but  a  device  of 
grammarians  in  order  to  bring  them  into  accord  with 
the  vague  signification  of  that  tense  in  other  languages, 
especially  the  English.  Continued  or  permanent  ac- 
tion or  condition  is  expressed  in  Hebrew  by  the  parti- 
ciple, which  is  in  itself  always  timeless.  When  a  proph- 
et expresses  his  vaticinations  in  the  Pneter  (as  notably 
in  Isa.  liii),  his  conceptions  become  to  him  realities,  and 
he  states  the  future  as  if  it  were  already  a  fact.  When, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  historian  uses  the  Future  for  his 
narrations  (which  less  frequently  occurs),  he  means 
thereby  to  mark  the  events  as  viewed  in  a  subordinate 
relation  either  to  his  own  mind  (optative)  or  to  some 

other  events  (subjunctive).  The  term  H'^MK,  there- 
fore, in  the  above  passage,  indicates  God's  revealed  at- 
tributes and  character  as  a  theme  of  human  apprehen- 
sion, w  bile  InStV^  signifies  his  simple  seff-exittence*  The 
repetition  "I  conceive  myself  to  be  what  I  conceive 
myself  to  be,"  or  '*  I  am  conceived  to  be  what  I  am 
conceived  to  be,"  would  then,  like  Pilate's  phrase, 
"  What  I  have  written  I  have  written,"  express  the 
permanence  and  truthfulness  of  that  conception.  God's 
absolute  essence  is  objectively  incommunicable. 

It  would  be  easy  to  exemplify  the  distinction  of  the 
mckpendaU  and  the  qualified,  as  represented  by  the  two 
so-called  *' tenses"  respectively.  Thus,  to  take  the  first 
instances  in  Genesis :  nn*^}!  (i,  2)  is  not  the  mere  cop- 
ula, but  emphasizes  the  fad  of  a  change  having  taken 
place  in  the  earth ;  whereas  M^^n^  and  n^2K7  C^h  6)i 
express  the  idea  that  no  growth  had  yet  been  visible 
or  observed;  and  M^SP*^  and  Mf^tcni  (ii»6)  denote  the 
appeariMnce  of  a  mist,  which  answered  these  purposes. 
So  we  may  render  Mjni  'I'^B^  (»i  10),  "was  divided 
a$  U  were,  so  as  to  form ;"  siCWan^  (ii,  25),  **/eli  no 
shame  of  themselves  mutually."  Very  often  in  poetry 
the  same  thought  is  expressed  in  the  successive  hemi- 
stichs  in  these  two  forms  successively,  for  the  sake  of 
variety;  first  objectively  or  absolutely,  and  then  sub- 
jectively or  relatively;  or  vice  versa.  The  convenient 
subterfuge  of  emplojring  the  present  tense  in  English 
to  render  these  obliterates  the  nice  shade  of  meaning 
conveyed  by  the  original,  and  largely  destroys  its  beau- 
ty and  effect.  A  slight  paraphrase  is  needed  to  bring 
out  the  delicate  turn  of  thought.  Generally  some  form 
of  the  Subjunctive  or  Potential  will  suffice  to  reproduce 
the  graphic  power  of  the  Future.  But  in  many  (if  not 
most)  cases  a  real  difference  is  intended.  Thus  Hfh** 
(Psa.  i,  2)  denotes  an  interior  characteristic  of  the  saint, 
whereas  the  preceding  Pneters  refer  to  his  outward  de- 
portment. So  even  in  Psa.  ii,  1,  2,  ^tiX^  and  !!*1Di*^ 
state  the  violence  of  the  wicked  as  an  act,  and  the  par- 
allel Futures  as  of  purpose, 

2,  ^Paragogtc^  and  ** Apocopate^  Fomu,  —  The 
most  important  of  the  additions  included  under  the 
former  of  these  terms  is  the  n    appended  to  verbs; 


(sometimes  likewise  to  nouns)  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
longing their  sound,  and  thus  naturally  increasing  their 
emphasis.  With  the  Pneter  this  is  chiefly  limited  to 
the  third  person,  as  this  alone  is  truly  objective.  With 
the  Future,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  more  appropriate  in 
the  first  and  second  persons,  giving  the  former  an  earn- 
est or  t))orough  significance,  and  softening  the  latter 
into  a  beseeching  tone,  an  effect  likewise  pr^uced  when 
used  with  the  Imperative. 

Apocopation  consists  in  throwing  off  in  the  Future 
and  Imperative  the  loosely  cemented  M  final  of  verbs, 
and  in  dropping  out  the  ^  characteristic  of  HiphiL  It 
imparts  a  curt  or  peremptory  stress  to  the  shortened 
form,  and  thus  serves  to  distinguish  the  jussive  from 
the  predictive  use  of  the  third  person  Future.  The  ten- 
dency to  apocopation  with  "vav  conversive"  in  the 
Future  arises  from  its  bringing  the  tone  forward,  in 
consequence  of  the  close  connection  with  the  preceding 
context,  and  especially,  it  would  seem,  on  account  of  the 
particle,  which  (as  we  shall  see  presently)  that  form 
appears  to  have  originally  included. 

8.  "  Vav  Conversive" — This  peculiarity,  which  the 
Hebrew  alone  of  all  the  Shemitic  tongues  exhibits,  has 
been  a  sore  puzzle  to  linguists,  and  only  in  recent  times 
has  receiveci  an  intelligible  explanation.  It  will  serve 
as  a  crucial  test  of  the  foregoing  theory  of  the  tense- 
meanings.  Its  most  usual  and  decided  form,  namely, 
with  the  Future,  demands  our  first  attention.  The  fact 
that  in  this  case  the  vav  is  pointed  with  Pattach  and  the 
Dagesh  shows  the  assimilation  of  some  older  consonant; 
in  fact,  there  seems  to  have  been  originally  some  parti- 
cle like  an  adverb  more  closely  pointing  the  sequence 
than  the  simple  "  vav  conjunctive  "  would  have  done, 
very  much  like  the  puerile  phrase  of  simple  story-tell- 
ers, who  string  each  incident  to  the  preceding  by  **  and 
then."  The  Hebrew  historian  sets  out  with  a  genuine 
Pr»ter  (either  expressed  or  implied),  to  indicate  that 
he  is  stating  matters  of  fact,  but  he  continues  his  nar- 
rative with  "  vav  conversive "  and  a  Future  to  denote 
a  consecutive  series,  the  latter  members  of  which  he 
conceives  and  represents  as  depending  upon  the  others. 
It  is  this  dependent  and  conceptual  relation  that  re- 
quires a  Future.  The  incidents  are  all  facts  (as  the 
particle  implied  in  the  pointing  intimates),  but  not  iso- 
lated or  independent  facts.  They  may  or  they  may  not 
be  logically  or  causally  connected,  but  they  are  viewed 
by  the  writer  as  historically  following  each  other,  and 
he  designedly  overlooks  anything  between  them.  Af- 
ter completing  such  a  series,  more  or  less  extended,  the 
writer  begins  a  fresh  series  with  another  Pneter,  and 
continues  it  for  awhile  with  *'  vav  conversive  "  again. 
The  whole  history  is  thus  divided  off  in  a  kind  of  para- 
graph style,  and  the  close  continuity  of  the  subordinate 
statements  is  maintained  in  each  paragraph.  If  he  had 
used  Pr»ters  with  or  without "  vav  connective"  through- 
out, the  incidents  would  have  been  merely  the  disjecta 
membra  of  history,  without  any  positive  bond  of  unity. 
The  style  would  have  been,  as  we  say,  comparatively 
incoherent. 

The  explanation  of"  vav  conversive"  with  the  Pra- 
ter is  more  difllcult.  From  the  absence  of  any  special 
pointing,  and  the  less  frequency  of  its  use,  we  are  en- 
titled to  infer  its  comparative  unimportance.  In  fact, 
it  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  imitation,  by  way  of  converse, 
of  the  "  vav  conversive  "  of  the  Future.  A  writer  sets 
out  with  a  Future  (in  form  or  effect),  and  continues  the 
conceptual  series  by  the  Pneter  to  indicate  that  he  has 
now  mentally  transported  himself  into  the  region  of 
fancy,  and  is  describing  things  from  that  vivid  impres- 
sion. It  thus  resembles  the  "  historic  present "  of  many 
languages,  in  which  a  narrator  views  the  scenes  re- 
counted as  if  actually  taking  pUce  under  his  eye. 

It  can  now  be  readily  seen,  in  the  light  of  the  above 
explanation  of  these  two  "tens^"  how  in  poetical  pas- 
sages (and  all  Hebrew  is  moi«  or  less  poetical),  the 
Pneter  and  the  Future  (either  simple  or  transformed  by 


HEBREW  VERSION 


534 


HEBREW  VERSION 


vav)  may  often  be  beautifully  interchimged,  aooordtog 
•8  the  writer,  for  variety's  sake,  wishes  to  represent  the 
same  scene  in  adjoining  bemistichs  as  either  actual  or 
conceptual;  and  this  closer  or  more  loose  method  of 
Gonsecutioni  by  means  of  simple  vav  or  vav  convertivej 
gives  him  a  wider  and 'nicer  play  of  conception  and 
expression.  These  are  among  the  delicate  shades  of 
meaning  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  transfer  to  a 
version.     For  example,  David  says  (Psa.  iii,  6),  **To 

Jehovah  should  I  caU  (K*;^|^t$)  [as  I  often  have  done], 
then  he  has  heard  me  C^-)?^^) ;"  L  e.  in  plain  prose, 
Whenever  I  call  he  hears  me,  but  in  poetic  fervor. 
When  I  think  of  myself  as  calling,!  immediately  know 
myself  as  heard. 

lY.  AffgUttinaHce  Modes  of  Dectension  and  Cotutntc- 

tioru—l.  Bp  Prefixes,— Of  these  a,  M,  1,  3,  and  b  are 
strictly  inseparable,  but  like  a  and  d,  they  probably 
represent  original  particles,  as  the  Arabic  article  d- 
(which  assimilates,  as  by  a  Dagesh,  with  the  "  solar  let- 
ters") indicates.  Whether  the  characteristic  9  of 
Niphal,  and  the  fl  of  its  infinitive  as  well  as  of  Hiphil, 
Hophal,  etc.,  had  a  similar  origin  is  difficult  to  decide. 
The  preformatives  of  the  Future  may  be  more  readily 
traced  to  the  full  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns. 

2.  By  Sufformaiivea  and  Affixes,— The  personal  end- 
ings of  the  tenses,  as  well  as  the  suffixes,  are  clearly 
fragments,  somewhat  modified,  of  the  pronouns  which 
they  represent.  The  71  directive  is  probably  an  en- 
clitic fragment  of  the  article  as  a  demonstrative.  The 
feminine  ending  H  was  a  softened  form,  like  H  para- 
gogic.  The  old  constructive  termination  of  masculine 
nouns  was  for  both  numbers,  and  the  dual  and  plural 
absolute  were  intensive  additions,  like  the  decimal  in- 
crease of  the  cardinal  numbers.  The  frequent  inter- 
change of  gender  in  the  plural  (notably  in  D^^ISJ,  H'laK, 
etc)  proves  that  this  was  a  later  or  comparatively  un- 
important variation.  The  feminine,  as  the  w^caker, 
takes  the  place  of  the  neuter  in  Greek  and  Latin  to  ex- 
press the  abstracL 

8.  By  Juxlapositioih— Here  we  may  enumerate  three 
classes  of  amalgamation:  (a)  compounds,  which  are 
rare  in  Hebrew,  except  in  proper  names,  and  in  cases 
of  union  by  Makkeph  (corresponding  to  our  hyphen 
only  in  removing  the  principal  tone) ;  {b)  dUptis^  by 
which  connecting  particles  are  dropped  as  unnecessary, 
especially  in  the  terse  style  of  poetry ;  and  (c)  inter' 
change  of  the  various  parts  of  speech,  which,  as  in  Eng- 
lish, allows  nouns,  pajtides,  etc,  to  be  freely  used  as 
adjectives,  adverbs^  etc,  and  conversely. 

y.  Emphatic  Position  of  Words, — Here  the  natural 
order,  in  contradistinction  from  the  artificial  arrange- 
ment of  the  Latin,  and  the  purely  grammatical  of  the 
English,  prevails.  As  with  foreigners  and  children 
speaking  a  new  language,  the  most  important  word« 
come  first  (of  course,  after  connectives,  negatives,  inter- 
rogatives,  etc,  which  qualify  the  whole  clause).  Hence 
the  predicate,  as  being  of  greater  extension,  precedes, 
and  the  subject  or  the  adjective,  which  are  but  an  acci- 
dent of  the  verb  or  the  noun,  follows;  except  when 
special  emphasis  requires  a  different  position,  or  when 
poetry  in  the  parallel  hemistichs  calls  for  a  pleasing  va- 
riety. In  this  respect  the  Hebrew  more  closely  resem- 
bles the  Greek,  which  often  resorts  to  the  same  expedient 
of  emphasizing  by  a  position  near  the  head  of  the  clause, 
like  our  *' nominative  independent,"  These  nice  shades 
of  emphasis  are  difikult  to  render  smoothly  and  ade- 
quately, but  it  might  be  done  far  more  accurately  than 
in  our  Authorized  Version,  which  is  habitually  negli- 
gent in  this  respect.  For  the  prosodiac  arrangement, 
see  Poetry,  Hebrew. 

Hebre^r  Vendon  of  the  New  Testambmt.  If 
we  may  believe  tradition,  translations  of  parts  of  the 
New  Test,  already  existed  at  a  very  early  period.  But 
as  there  is  no  certain  information  concerning  such  a 


version  into  the  language  of  the  Old-TesL  Seriptorefy 
the  history  of  this  work  can  only  be  traced  back  to 
the  year  1^7,  when  the  gospel  of  Matthew  was 
published  in  Hebrew  by  Sebastian  Hunster  (q.  v.). 
Great  attention  was  excited  by  this  book  at  the  time 
of  its  appearance,  on  account  of  an  ancient  tradition 
which  prevailed  in  the  Church,  that  Matthew  original- 
ly wrote  his  gospel  in  Hebrew.    It  was  very  evident, 
however,  that  MUnster's  publication,  n^Osn  T\y\t\, 
had  no  pretension  to  be  regarded  ms  the  text  of  the 
sacred  original,  nor  even  as  an  ancient  version,  for  the 
language  in  which  it  was  written  was  not  the  Syro- 
Chaldaic,  current  in  Palestine  at  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
but  the  rabbinical  Hebrew  in  use  among  the  Jews  of 
the  12th  century.    It  was,  moreover,  full  of  solecisms 
and  barbarisms,  and  bore  indubitable  marks  of  having 
been  translated  either  directly  from  the  Vulgate,  or  from 
an  Italian  version  thereof.    In  an  apology  for  this  work, 
dedicated  to  Henry  VIII  of  England,  MUnster  states 
that  the  MS.  from  which  he  printed  was  defective  in 
several  passages,  and  that  he  was  compelled  to  supply 
the  omissions  as  best  he  could  from  his  own  resouroes. 
It  passed  through  several  editions,  and  a  Hebrew  ver- 
sion of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  appended  to  it. 
Another  edition  of  the  same  translation  of  Matthew, 
but  printed  from  a  more  complete  and  correct  MS.  (i2e- 
cens  Judaunrum  Penetralibus  £rutum\  brought  for  the 
purpose  from  Italy,  was  published  by  Tillet,  bishop  of 
St.  Brieux,  at  Paris,  in  1555,  with  a  Latin  version  by 
Mercer  {Ad  Vulgatam  quoad  Fieri  Potuit  Acoomodata), 
The  latter  was  published  again  by  Dr.Herbst,  under  the 
title,  Des  ScJtemtob  ben-Schaphrut  Ae&i*.  Ueberseizung  des 
Evang,  Matthaei  naeh  den  Druchen  des  S.  MUnster  und 
J,  du  TiUet'Mereier  (Gottingen,  1879).    In  this  edirion 
the  editor  proves  that  the  author  of  this  veryton  was 
none  else  than  Shem-Tob  Isaac  ben-Schaphrut  (q.  v.), 
who  translated  this  gospel  for  polemical  purposes. 
Passing  over  the  other  translations  of  parts  of  the  gos- 
pels, we  mention  the  version  of  the  four  gospels  into 
Biblical  Hebrew,  made  by  Giovanni  Batista  Giona 
(q.  v.),  a  converted  Jew,  and  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Bome.    He  dedicated  it  to  pope  Clement  IX,  and  it 
was  published  at  Rome  in  16isS,  at  the  expense  of  the 
Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide.  But  this  translation, 
as  professor  Delitzsch  remarks,  fulfilled  less  than  might 
be  expected  from  a  man  bom  at  Safet,  in  Upper  Galilee, 
who,  besides,  was  a  Jewish  scholar.    The  first  transla- 
tion of  the  entire  New  Test,  into  Hebrew  was  made  fay 
Elias  Hutter  (q.  v.),  and  published  at  NUrembeig  in 
1600  in  his  Polyglot  Test  According  to  the  judgment  of 
professor  Delitzsch,  it  is  of  great  value,  and  is  still  worth 
consulting,  because  in  many  places  it  is  very  correct. 
A  revised  edition  was  published  in  London  in  IGGl,  un- 
der the  superintendence  of  W.  Robertson ;  but  the  greater 
part  of  this  edition  was  consumed  in  the  fire  of  London 
in  1666.     A  Corrected  New  Testament  in  Hibrew  was 
published  at  London  in  1798  by  the  Rev.  R.  Caddock, 
but  it  proved  not  to  be  acceptable  to  the  Jews,  for  whose 
benefit  it  was  published,  and  a  new  translation  became 
a  desideratum.   In  the  meantime  Dr.  Buchanan  brought 
from  India  a  translation  of  the  New  Test,  executed  in 
Travancore,  among  the  Jews  of  that  country,  the  trans- 
lator being  a  leanied  Jew.     The  MSw  was  written  in 
the  small  rabbinical  or  Jerusalem  character;  the  style 
was  elegant  and  fiowing,  and  tolerably  faithftd  to  the 
text.    Dr.  Buchanan  deposited  the  MS.  in  the  uni- 
versity library  at  Cambridge,  after  it  bad  been  tran- 
scribed by  Mr.  Yeates,  of  Cambridge,  into  the  square 
Hebrew  character.     A  copy  was  presented  to  the  Lon- 
don Society  for  the  Conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  it  was 
at  one  time  thought  that  it  would  greatly  promote  the 
object  of  the  society  to  print  and  circulate  the  produc- 
tion of  a  Jew,  evidently  master  of  his  own  ancient  lan- 
guage.  After  much  deliberation,  however,  a  more  strict- 
ly literal  translation  was  still  deemed  desirable,  and 
accordingly,  in  1816,  Mr.  Frey  and  other  learned  He* 


HEBREW  VERSION 


6S6 


HEBREW  VERSION 


bniits  rzeealed,  nadtr  the  patnin«ge  of  the  Jewi'  Sd-  I  iciiiaiiied  for  iodic  tiras  in  HSl  At  tbii  very  period, 
Ciny,  aneiTHlilionoftheNewTeM.  In  1818  thia  new  the  puUuher  of  the  Polyglot  Khle  (Mr.  Bagiter),  lo- 
editioD  left  the  aodety'i  pm*,  and  wu  speedily  ful-  quiring  a  Hehrevvenion  of  the  Mew  Teal,  for  the  Foly- 
lowed  by  another  iasue.  The  Britiib  and  Foreign  Bible  |  glot,  applied  to  the  Jevi'  Society  for  the  critical  emen- 
Sonety  aaaisted  materially  in  ttaia  work  by  parehasiiig  |  datione  they  had  been  ii       '         *     ' 


IB  time*  to  a  hunt  amounl.  AfWr 
had  been  in  circulation  for  aame  lime,  compUiuli  froni 
Hebrew  readen  in  variooa  parti  of  the  world  were  laid 
before  the  Jewi'  Sodety  Committee,  coucemiug  the 
rendering  of  certain  pawagee.  To  insure  rainnte  accu- 
rac}-,  the  committee  determined  on  a  thorough  reviaion. 
They  coniulted  kuds  of  the  moat,  eminent  men  in  En- 
rope,  and  proTeaaor  Geteniue  waa  recommended  to  them 
a*  the  dnt  Hebrew  scholar  of  the  age.  To  him,  there- 
fore, the  venion  waa  confided,  with  ■  requeK  of  a 
critiqae  apon  it,  and  suggntiona  ai  to  alterations.  G«- 
■enins  went  carefully  through  the  work  as  far  as  the 
Acts,  and  likewtie  through  the  book  of  Kevelalion. 
Numeroaa  other  engagements,  however,  compelled  him 
to  resign  the  task.  The  work,  together  with  Gesenius's 
notes,  was  then  transferred  by  the  Jews'  Committee  to 
Dr  Joachim  Neumann  (q  r  )  a  converted  Hebrew,  lect- 
urer on  Hebrew  at  the  ITnivers  ty  of  Breslau.  Dr. 
Neumann  commenced  tl  e  work  anew  and  hi*  Tevlsion, 
when  completed  was  acknoivledged  to  bear  the  stamp 
of  diligence,  accuncy  zeal  and  profound  scholarehip. 
The  limited  fandi  of  the  eocietr  however,  prevented 
the  pnbhcation  of  this  valuable  revision,  and  Ihua  il 


if  Geneniua  and  Neumann  were  in  consequence  banded 
to  Hr.  Bsgster,  and  were  incorponted  in  the  new  ver- 
sion executed  for  the  Polyglot  by  Mr.  Greenfield,  and 
published  in  1831.  In  comparing  this  edition  of  Green- 
field  with  the  second  of  the  Jews'  Society,  published  in 
1821,  the  student  will  easily  perceive  that  there  has  not 
been  made  a  very  great  progress  in  tbe  work  of  tnos- 

The  Jews'  Society  reaolved,  therefore,  on  a  revision  of 
the  edition  of  I82I.  A  committee,  connsting  of  Dr. 
H'Caul,  the  Bev.  M.  3.  Alexander  (afterwards  biahop  of 
Jemsslem),  Ihe  Rev.  J.  C  Keichanlt,  and  Ur.  S.  Hogs 
(the  well-known  translator  of  Butu/iin'i  Pilgrim'i  Frof- 
rtu  into  Hebrew),  was  intrusted  with  the  revision, 
which  waa  commenced  Nov.  1 4, 1836,  and  Bnished  Feb. 
8, 18B8.  The  prinlinR  was  commenced  in  December, 
1837,  and  was  finished  in  September,  1838.  Duly  con- 
sidning  and  apprecialing  (be  labors  oftheir  predeces- 
sors, Ihey  endeavored  to  conform  the  Hebrew  text  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  Greek,  following  in  most  duln- 
ous  cases  the  reading  oriheaulhoriied  English  venion ; 
and  were  much  pleased  to  find  that,  in  very  many  cases, 
even  the  coUocition  of  the  Greek  worda  furnished  tbe 
best  and  most  elegant  collocation  of 
the  Hebrew.  They  diligently  con- 
sulted the  Svriac,  Vulgate,  German, 
Dutch,  and  French  versions,  but  in 
difficulties  were  generally  guided 
by  the  Syriac  "Their  desire  waa, 
■s  far  a*  posNble,  to  furnish  ■  literal 
translation,  remembering  that  it  waa 
the  word  of  the  living  God  which 
(hey  wished  to  communicate.  They 
arrived  at  purity  of  style,  hut  always 
preferred  perspicuity  to  etegsnce. 
When  the  revision  waa  finished,  ihe 


HEBnOH(EL-KHALIL). 


^^^fS'^^'liiHlliW'^^^ 


MS.  was  read  tl 


■ugh  b. 


hper- 


d  then  by  all  to- 
gether, confronting  it  again  with 
the  Greek  texL  Some  alterations 
were  (hen  sugeeatcd,  and  even  in 
the  reading  of  the  proof-sheets  vari- 


-4\ 


The  edition  of  1888  was  csrefully 
examined,  and  April  1!,  1806,  the 
work  was  completed.  In  1SG6  tbe 
new  edition,  with  vowels  and  ao- 


it  of  labor 


■ney  spent 


ID  the  honor  of  biil 

spile  of  the  great  *i 
UESIowed  and  the  mo 
ir,  proved  itself  not  i 
plete  dttidtratiim,  especially  in  view 
of  the  criticism  conceniing  the  (eit 
as  well  Bs  the  accents,  which  pro- 
fessor Delilzsch  published  in  his  He- 
brew edition  of  Sl  Paul's  epistle  to 
the  Romsus.  Conuderitions  like 
these,  especially  the  desire  of  realiz- 
ing a  hope  cherished  for  about  forty 
years,  induced  profesvir  Delitiach  to 
undertake  a  new  version  of  the  New 
Teat,  en  tba  basis  of  (lie  Codix 


UtbniD,  IX  wen  from  the  Bosth.    (From  Ttaommi'i  Snallitm  Paitillii*  and  j'trtMokn.) 


Simnlieia.  Tbia  cditiou  vu  publiafaed  by  the  Britiih 
and  Foreign  Bible  Socktj  in  1877.  In  1878  profeM 
Dditzich  publiihed  ■  ■econil  edition  orbit  (niuluii 
uking  for  hi>  buia  tbe  Textus  Bterptui  of  tbe  Klze- 
eUitioQ  of  1624,  ropecting  the  exigenciet  or  Milii>) 
criticiim  in  all  the  more  imporlBnt  cue*  by  brncketetl 
iMdingi.  Tbu)  ■  aiiigle  parenihau,  (  ),  indicated  ■ 
puMge  with  weak  eupport,  although  from  an  early 
dale;  the  aame  with  ■  alar,  (*),  indicated  an  imporum 
varying  reading;  ■  double  parenlheaia,  ((  )),  indicated 
■  late  addition  to  the  text;  and  bracket!,  [  ],  indicated 
wordi  well  lupparted  hy  ancient  teatimon;-,  but  lacking 
in  the  lectived  text.  Thia  edition  alsoaold  rapidly,  an  ' 
the  third  edition,  again  reriaed,  appeared  in  188U,  wit 
a  alightly  larger  page  and  type.  A  fourth  edition  wi 
publiahed  in  ISSl.and  so  alao  a  fifth  in  1883.  It  abould 
be  obaerved  that  during  all  thit  time  the  iranilator  bad 
the  constant  help  of  many  learned  frienda,  eipecially  of 
Dr.  J.  H.  R.  Bieienthal,  who  bad  Irareraed  tbs  aame 
ground  bimadf,  and  of  the  author  of  the  worii  on  He- 
brew lenaea,  Rev.  S.  R.  Driver  of  Oxford.  See  DelitzH:b, 
Tit  HtbioB  XetD  Tritammt  oflht  Brilvh  and  Foreign 
BOh  Socieis  (Lcipaic,  1883).    (II.  P.) 

Hobron.  A  brief  but  excellent  deacription  of  thia 
Ttnerable  place  la  given  in  the  JUttnain  accompanying 
the  Ordnance  Survey  (iii,  806  H).),  and  tbe  latcat  and 
moat  complete  account  of  tbe  Haram  encbnrre  there 
may  be  found  in  the  aame  work  (p.  833  >q.).  We  give 
lome  iiilenating  particulan  from  Lieut.  Conder'a  Ttat 
Work  in  PahMtuu,  ii,79: 


"  Ileb 


,  terraced  hill ;  it  eitenda  alone  Iti 
part  reacbea  abant  aeven  huodrei: 
bJiiclDdliiR  the  Koaqae  Qnarter,  a 


well-hunt  reMivoIr,  occnpJH  port  u(  tbe  rMey.  Weal 
■>f  tba  cilT  la  an  open  etmii  below  the  Qnaranlloe,  anr. 
ninndedby  hi] la  which  are  envered  witb  <^lt«. 

"  The  cootraat  between  Hebron  aud  Bethlehem  I>  raad- 
■  ■ J— i  .  .u.  . .. ._....,.._  —  (jrance,  and 

u  jn  Hebron,  accnrd- 
acconnl:  and  abmil  six  hnndred 
the  Quarter  otthe  Oimer  Gale. 
«  ol  commerce  for  tba  >MiIhem 


antean ihonaaDd  H 


Tbt  lomi  la  tbe  CI 


raba,  who  bring  their  i 


rade  Is  glaaa  oruamenle  and 


rated  t1 


hoi),  al 


BooKtwa,  apparitiona  which  appeared  during  tba 
performance  of  certain  ceremoniea  in  honor  of  the  gsd- 
deea  Hccatfi  (q.  v.).  An  image  of  tbe  goddeaa  was 
rormed  of  incenie  of  Arabia,  mrrrta,  atyrax,  and  certain 
animala  called  aac*labot«.  Thete  were  all  ground  to 
powder,  made  into  a  paale,  and  moulded  into  an  imag« 
of  Hecate  Then,  in  tbe  preaencc  of  thia  image,  at  mid- 
night, under  a  lotua-tree,  the  ceremoniea  are  duly  per- 
formed, when  the  Hecalaa  appear  and  aatume  vaiiooi 


in  Greek  mytholngy,  ia  a  rayatical  figure, 
wrapped  in  deep  da[kneas,a>de»crlbcd  by  Heaiod.    She 
lUed  the  daughter  of  tbe  Titan  Petaei  by  Aateria,  bnl 


otfaen 


[be  a 

limea  Jopiter, 
Tartarua,  being 
aa  her  father,  ana  junu, 
Cere*,  Phena,  etc,  aa  her 
mother.  She  was  the  only 
one  among  the  Tilana  who 
aaaiated  Jupiter  in  the  war 
with  the  gianta;  tberefure 
■he  waa  not  hurled  iniD 
Tartama,  aa  were  the  oth- 
er*, but  wai  endowed  with 
gr«at  power  in  heaven,  on 
earth,  aa  well  a*  in  tbe  in- 
fernal regiona.  She  ia  uau- 
ally  repreaented  IrifoTmalc, 
from   which 


iphalna  or  Tricepa,  the 
thi«e-headed.  She  pimtiaed  the  key*  to  three  rtiada,le»J. 
Ing  reapeclively  to  Hadea,  to  heaven,  and  to  a  happy  life 
in  earth.  Her  work  waiiuually  at  night,  and  theivTote 
*he  haa  been  confounded  with  the  goddeaa  of  the  moon. 


HECHT 


537 


HEEDENREICH 


Greeks  oftly  on  extraordinarj  oocaaiooi,  conaisting  of 
one  handled  oxen.  The  wonl  is  tometimee  applied  to 
an  offering  of  other  animali  than  oxen;  and  it  is  used 
oocasionallv-  to  denote  any  huge  sacrifice,  a  definite 
narober  being  used  for  an  indefinite. 

Heohty  Chrtbtiav,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Aug.  81, 1696,  at  Halle.  He  stodied  in 
bis  native  place  and  at  Leipsic;  was  in  1728  pro-rector 
of  the  gymnasium  at  Idstein,  Nassau;  in  1744  first  pastor 
at  Esens,  in  £ast>Frisia ;  and  died  Jan.  18, 1747,  leaving, 
Dies,  de  8addncaiMmo  Aima  H  Caipha: — Aniiguiiaiei 
Karaorum : —  Varia  Variorum  JttcUeia  de  Synetii,  Cyr^ 
nentit  in  jEffypio  Epiacopi,  Fuga  Ittiut  Epiteopatut: — 
Commentatio  de  Seela  Scribarum  tive  ypaiifiarkiav. 
See  Winer,  Handbuck  der  tktoL  Lit,  i,  1,  4dl ;  Jdcber, 
AUgemeinei  Gdehria^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Heoke,  Joseph  yaw,  a  Soman  Catholic  theologian, 
was  bom  in  1795  at  Bruges.  In  1814  he  joined  the 
Jesuits,  was  for  some  time  professor  of  canon  law  at 
Freiburg,  Switzerland,  and  in  Belgium,  and  went  in 
1837  to  Brussels  to  take  part  in  the  continuation  of  the 
Ada  Sanctorufii,  He  wrote  on  Johannes  Capistranus 
(q.  T.)  and  Ignatius,  patriarch  of  Cbnstantinople  (q.  v.). 
Hecke  died  July  27, 1874.    (a  P.) 

Heokel,  Johaxm  Chxlstiail,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Grermany,  bom'  at  Augsburg  in  1747,  was  dea- 
con in  his  native  city  in  1780,  and  died  Dec.  7, 1798, 
leaving,  Ntuet  Beicht-  und  Communionbuch  (Augsburg, 
1778, 2  vols.) : —  Vertuch  einer  theologiichen  Etuychpddie 
und  Methodologie  (Leipsic,  1778),  and  some  ascetical 
works.  See  Doring,  JJie  geUhrten  Theologen  DtuUch' 
kmdtt  s.  V. ;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  ikeoL  Lit,  ii,  289. 

(a  P.) 

Heokel,  Johann  Frledrioh,  a  German  philok>- 
gist  and  theologian,  was  bom  at  Gera  about  1610.  AfUr 
finbhing  his  studies  he  travelled  in  Germany  and  Italy, 
where  he  connected  himself  with  Magliabecchi  and 
CinellL  On  his  return  he  became  successively  rector 
of  the  College  of  Reichenbach  and  sub-director  of  the 
College  of  Budolstadt.  He  spent  the  last  days  of  his 
life  at  Plauen  and  at  Oelsnitz,  where  he  died,  in  1715, 
leaving,  Memoria  FreitMnana  (Gera,  1664):  —  Die- 
iertatio  HittoricO'PhHolofficO'Tkeologiea,  etc.  (Chem- 
nitz, 1675) : — Sciagraphia  Theologorwn  EvangeUcorum 
(Dresden,  1678)  i^Theaphili  PittorH  Omithogamdum^ 
etc  (ibid,  eod.): — De  CorutuU  Duobiu  Numie  (Frankfort, 
1693) : — Mampvlum  Primum  EpittoUirum  Singularwm^ 
etc. (Plauen,  1695) .  See  Hoefer, Nouv. Biog,  GiSniraU,  s. v. 

Hooker,  Jacob  Chxlstiaii,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1727.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic  and  Gottingen,  was  in  1751  deacon  at  Meusel- 
witz,  in  Altenburg,  pastor  at  Eisleben  in  1764,  and  died 
April  14, 1779.  He  publLshetl,  De  Oratore  Sacro  (Gdt- 
tingen,  1748): — De  Erroribua  Vulgi  in  Librie  Sacria 
(eod.):  —  De  Um  JUUgumit  Christiana  (Economico  et 
Civili  (Kiel,  1770).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theolo- 
gen  Deutechkmde,  s.  v.;  J6cher,  AUgemeineM  Gelehrten' 
Lexikanf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Heoker,  Johann  Julinfl^  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  2,  1707.  He  studied  at 
Halle,  was  in  1735  preacher  at  Potsdam,  in  1788  at  Ber- 
lin, in  1750  member  of  consistory,  and  died  June  24, 
1768,  leaving  a  few  ascetical  works.  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theologen  Deuieehlandtt  s.  v.;  Jdcher,  AUge- 
meinee  Gelehrten-'Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hedlnger,  Jouanm  Rjeuvhard,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Stuttgart,  Sept.  7, 1664. 
He  accompanied  the  duke  Johann  Friedrich  of  Wttr- 
temberg  as  chaplain  to  France,  was  in  1692  military- 
preacher,  in  1698  cqurt-preacher  and  member  of  con- 
sistory, and  died  Dec.  28, 1704.  He  wroto,  De  Fctdere 
Gratim': — Qfuutionea  Vexatm  de  Tettamenii  Veterit  Na* 
tura  a  Novo  DitcrepantiOf  and  some  ascetical  works. 
See  Jocher,  A  Ugemeinet  Gelehrten-Lexikon^  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

Hedstrom,  Olif  G.,  a  noted  Methodist  Episcopal 


minister,  was  Ooro  in  Sweden  in  1808,  of  humble  par* 
ents,  who  gave  him  a  fair  education.  When  twenty- 
two  years  old  he  joined  a  band  of  adventurous  youths, 
who  volunteered  to  take  two  frigates  from  Sweden  to 
their  purchaseis  in  one  of  the  South  American  republica. 
After  a  tempestuous  voyage,  instead  of  reaching  Sonth 
America  they  landed  in  New  York.  Mr.  Hedstrom 
soon  made  arrangements  to  return  to  Sweden,  but  on 
the  eve  of  his  departure  was  robbed  of  his  money.  He 
was  shortly  afterward  led  to  Willett  Street  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  K.  Y.,  experienced  religion,  and  on 
reaching  his  Swedish  home  began  holding  Methodist 
class-meetings  and  prayer-meetings,  the  first  ever  held 
in  that  land.  In  1^5  he  retumed  to  New  York,  joined 
the  New  York  Conference,  and  in  it  travelled  the  fol- 
lowing circuits :  Charlotte,  Jefferson,  Coeymans,  Wind- 
ham,Catskill,  and  Prattsville.  In  1845  he  was  appointed 
to  the  Swedish  mission,  with  his  headquarters  in  the 
famous  Bethel  ship  for  Scandinavian  seamen,  foot  of 
Carlisle  Street,  N.  Y.  He  began  by  boarding,  when 
possible,  every  incoming  ship  from  Scandinavia  or  Den- 
mark before  it  touched  the  shore,  and  distributing 
among  the  emig^rants  Bibles  and  tracts,  telling  them 
where  they  could  find  good  temporary  homes,  and  invit- 
ing them  to  the  Bethel  ship.  In  a  single  day  he  might 
be  found  in  the  counting-room  of  the  rich  gathering 
funds  for  the  mission,  far  out  on  the  deep  seeking  the 
lost  sheep,  at  his  desk  answering  letters  from  all  parte 
of  the  world,  at  the  bedside  of  the  sick  and  dying,  and 
pleading  from  bis  pulpit  with  the  waiting  throng  to 
accept  Christ.  Thus  he  continued  till  his  death.  May 
6, 1877.  Mr.  Hedstrom  was  thoroughly  devoted  to  bis 
work,  had  a  simplicity  of  manner  and  fund  of  experi- 
mental Christianity  that  won  the  hearts  of  aU.  His 
religion  was  full  of  joy,  and  his  life  of  success.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  ConferenceSf  1878^  i,  42;  Simpson, 
Cyclop,  o/Methodismj  s.  v. 

Heeser,  Johann,  a  Reformed  theologian,  who  died 
in  1716,  is  the  author  otProdomus  Criticus  seu  Ohserva^ 
tiones  PhilologiceB  in  Onmes  Voces  Chaldaicas  et  MuUas 
Ilebraicas  Veteris  TestametUi  (Amsterdam,  1696, 1714): 
— ^T9n  "pfit  sioe  Lexici  Philologieif  Ilebrceo-Chaldao 
Saerij  Pars  I  (1714).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  867; 
Steinschneider,  BUA,  Bandbueh,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  AUge- 
meines  Gdehrten^Lexihon,  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

Hegelmayer,  Thomab  Gottfried,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  July  80,  1730.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen,  was  in  1761  preacher,  in  1777  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  and  died  April  18, 1786.  He  pub- 
luhed,  De  Sanctis  Mundum  et  Angdos  Judicaturis  in  1 
Cor,  m,  8  (Tubingen,  1755)  i—ChaldaisnU  Biblici  Fun- 
damenta  (1770) : — Commentatio  pro  loco  Eusdni  in  Hist, 
Ecdes.  fp,  18  (1777) :— />e  Peceato  Originali  atque  Spe- 
datim  (1778) :-^Oratio  in  Verba  Ps.  car,  1  (1780)  .--An 
et  quo  Sensu  Patres  Antenieteni  Christum  Dicerint  Crea^ 
turam  (1781):— IM  fooirvcvori^  (1784).  See  Doring, 
Die  gelehrten  Theologen  DeutschlandSf  s.v.;  Winer,  fland- 
buch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  1 10, 289, 402, 410, 422, 483, 446, 447, 
696,597.    (a  P.) 

Heguxu8nOB  (from  riyiofiaty  to  rule),  in  the  Greek 
church,  the  superior  of  a  convent,  the  abbot  or  ardd- 
mandrite  of  a  monasterv. 

Heidelberg  ConfeMion.  See  HEroELBBBO 
Catechism. 

Heidenreiob,  BeaiaB,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  at  Lemberg,  April  10,  1532.  He 
studied  at  Frankfort,  was  preacher  at  Lemberg,  Sch  weid- 
nitz,  and  at  fireslau.  In  the  latter  place,  where  he  died 
in  1589,  he  was  also  professor  of  theolog>'  at  the  gymna- 
sium. He  published  sermons  on  Ruth,  Joshua,  Joel, 
Amos,  Obadiah,  and  Micah.  See  Jocher,  AUgememea 
Getehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Heidenreloh,  JolianneB,  a  German  theologian, 
brother  of  Esaias,  was  born  April  21, 1542,  at  Lemberg. 
He  studied  at  Frankfort,  was  in  1573  doctor  of  theology 


HEIDRUN 


638 


HEiNsnrs 


and  profeflflor  of  philosophy,  and  finally  profenor  of  the- 
ology. He  died  March  81, 1617.  He  wrote,  Examiiiaiio 
CapUum  DoetruuB  FrxUrum,  tU  Haberi  VolmUf  m  Bohe- 
mia et  Moravia: — De  Patrfaclione  Trium  Peraonarum 
In  BapHimo  Chriati  Facta,  See  Jocher,  AUffemanet 
Gtkhrttn^Lexikon,  8.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Heidmn,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  was  a  she- 
goat,  said  to  stand  above  Walhalla,  or  the  heaven  of 
heroes,  and  feed  on  the  leaves  of  a  tree  called  Xjsrath. 
From  her  teats  flows  mead  enough  every  day  to  supply 
all  the  heroes. 

Heil,  an  idol  of  the  ancient  Saxons  in  England. 
This  image  was  dashed  to  pieces  by  Austin,  the  English 
apostle,  who  thereupon  built  Ceme  Abbey,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Frome,  in  Dorsetshire. 

Heilbronner,  Jaoob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  15,  1548,  at  Ebeilingen,  in 
WUrtemberg.  He  studied  at  different  nnivenities,  was 
in  1575  court-preacher  at  ZweibrUcken,  in  1577  doctor 
of  theology,  in  1581  general  superintendent  at  Amberg, 
in  1588  court-preacber  at  Keubnrg,  Bavaria,  in  1616 
general  superintendent  at  Bebenhausen,  WUrtemberg, 
and  died  Nov.  6, 1619,  leaving,  Sdiwmd^ddio-^alvinii- 
mut: — Synopsis  Docfrina  Calnmana  RefuUUa: — Fia- 
ffdlaiio  JesuiHca  oder  Jesuitisehe  Lekre  vomfreiwiUigen 
Creutz  der  Geisfilunff,  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  ihooL 
Lit*  i,  497 ;  Jocher,  AUgemeinet  GeUkrtm'Lexihm,  s.  v. 
(RP.) 

Heilbronner,  Johann  ChristUeb,  a  German 
convert  from  Judaism  (originally  Motet  Pro/eger),  who 
lived  in  the  18th  century,  and  instructed  id  Hebrew  at 
different  universities,  is  the  author  of  Traktat  Uher 
letaiat  liii  (Tubingen,  1710):  — JSTfare  BeweitthUmer 
dast  Jeaua  der  wahre  Mettiat  und  GoUes  Sohn  tei  (Dres- 
den, 17  lb):— Con/utaiio  Exceptionum  Jud,  conira  Genea^ 
hgiani  Chritli,  Speciatim  lUarum  in  Ckittuk  Emuna 
(1718;  also  in  German).  See  WoU;  BUbL  /7e^.  iii, 
863 ;  Kalkar,  Israel  und  die  Kirche,  p.  104 ;  FUrst,  BibL 
Jud,  i,  874;  Jdcher,  Allgemeinea  Gdihrten'Lexikon,  s.  v. 

(a  p.) 

Heilbronner,  Philip,  a  German  divine,  brother 
of  Jacob,  was  born  June  80,  1546.  For  some  time  a 
preacher,  he  was  called  in  1574  as  professor  of  theology 
at  the  gymnasium  in  Lauingen,  took  the  degree  as  doc- 
tor of  theology  in  1577,  attended  the  colloquy  at  Katis- 
bon  in  1601,  and  died  April  17, 1616.  He  wrote,  Loci 
Communes  in  Epistolas  ad  GalataSf  Timotheum  et  Titum: 
— Vaticinia  Prcphetarum  in  Locos  Communes  Digesta: 
— Posicottoquium  Ratubonense : — Antithesis  Doctrines 
Petti  Apostoli  el  PonHJicis  Romani: — Synopsis  Vario- 
rum JIujus  Temporis  Errorum: — Liber  de  Innooentia 
Lulheri,  etc  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrien-Lexi- 
ion,  8.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Helm,  Fraic^ois  Joseph,  a  French  painter,  was 
bom  at  Belfort,  Dec  16, 1787.  He  studied  in  the  ^le 
Centrole  of  Strasburg,  and  in  1808  entered  the  studio 
of  Vincent,  at  Paris.  In  1827  he  was  commissioned  to 
decorate  tbe  Galler}'  Charles  X  in  the  Louvre,  and 
completed  his  decorations  of  the  conference-room  of  tbe 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1844.  He  was  made  member 
of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1855,  and  died  Sept.  29, 1865. 
Among  his  paintings  of  religious  subjects  are.  Return 
of  Jacahf  in  the  Mus6e  de  Bordeaux ;  St,  John  ;  Res- 
urrection of  Lazarus,  in  the  CathMral  Autun ;  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St,  Cyr,  in  St.  Gervais;  Martyrdom  of  St, 
Laurence^  in  Notre  Dame ;  and  his  great  picture  of  the 
Massacre  of  the  Jews,  in  the  Louvre  See  Encyclop, 
Bfit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Heimdal,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the  son  of  Odin, 
born  of  nine  Jote-maidens,  so  that  all  were  mothers  of 
this  god.  From  them  he  inherited  beauty  and  great- 
ness, from  his  father  wisdom  and  power,  and  Odin  pUced 
him  as  guard  of  the  Bifrost  bridge,  where  he  lives  in  a 
beautiful  palace,  Himminbidrg  (heavenly  casUe),  and 
gazes  about  to  see  whether  mountain  giants  or  other 


enemies  oome  near  the  bridge.  When  he  is  awake  the 
gods  can  safely  slumber,  for  no  one  can  approach  with* 
out  his  knowledge.  At  night  he  can  see  a  distance  of 
one  hundred  mites,  he  hears  the  grass  and  hairs  grow, 
and  sleeps  as  little  as  an  eagle.  When  enemies  ap- 
proach he  takes  his  horn  and  makes  a  great  noise,  and 
the  Asas  and  the  Einheriar,  and  the  heroes  in  Walhalla 
assemble  for  combat.  This  takes  place  especially  at  the 
destruction  of  the  world.  He  has  a  surname,  Gullintani 
(gold-tooth),  from  the  fact  that  his  teeth  are  made  of 
gold. 

Heinemann,  Jebkmiah,  a  Jewish  writer  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  July  20, 1788,  and  died  at  Berlin,  Oct. 
16, 1855.  He  published,  Jedidja,  a  Jewish  review  (Ber- 
lin, lSi7-AS)  I— Gebete  an  den  hohen  Fe$ten  (LeipsiG, 
1841)  i—KatechiamuM  der  fid.  Religion  (1812)  :—Samm- 
lung  der  die  rdigiSse  und  hurgerlidie  Verfassung  der  Ju- 
den  in  den  Preuss,  Staaten  betreffender  Gesetze,  etc  (1821- 
^)\  —  AUgemanea  GebethuA  der  IsraeUten  (1888):  — 
Religions-  und  Schubreden  fur  IsraeUten  (eod.)  -.—Der 
Prophet  lesaia,  the  Hebrew  text  with  Rashi,  Chaldee, 
and  commentary  (1842) : — Der  Pentateuch,  with  Tar- 
gum,  Rashi,  German  translation,  and  Hebrew  commen- 
tary (1881>88).  See  FUrst^  BiU.  Jud.  i,  373  sq. ;  Kay- 
seriing,  Bibliothek  jOd,  Kamelredner,  i,  411 ;  Winer, 
ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  198,  523.     (B.  P.) 

Heiner,  Elias,  D.D.,  an  esteemed  German  Re- 
formed minister,  was  born  at  Taneytown,  Md.,  Sept  16, 
1810.  He  early  connected  with  the  Church;  studied 
theology  in  tbe  seminary  of  the  Reformed  Church  at 
York,  Pa.,  under  the  Rev.  Lewis  Mayer,  D.D. ;  was  li- 
censed and  ordained  in  1833,  and  installed  as  pastor  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  Kmmittsburg,  Md.  He  was 
called  to  Baltimore  in  1835,  where  he  remained,  faith- 
fully preaching  the  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God,  to  the 
close  of  his  life,  Oct.  20,  1863.  Dr.  Heiner  was  a  roan 
of  respectable  talents,  good  culture,  deep  piety,  and  great 
zeal,  combined  with  a  vast  amount  of  practical  tact. 
He  was  an  acceptable  preacher,  and  a  most  excellent 
pastor,  enjoying  to  the  last  the  full  and  unabateil  confi- 
dence of  his  people.  He  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
cause  of  missions,  as  well  as  in  all  the  other  benevolent 
operations  of  the  Church,  and  did  much  to  extend  the 
Reformed  Church  in  the  city  of  Baltimore  by  his  eanic»t 
and  disinterested  labors.  He  published  the  first  volume 
of  Dr.  Mayer's  IJistoty  of  the  German  Reformed  Church, 
to  which  he  prefixed  a  sketch  of  the  author's  life  and 
labors.  See  Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
iv,  271. 

Heinrioha,  Cahl  Friedrich  Erkst,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1798.  He  was  or- 
dained for  the  ministry  in  1823,  and.  was  from  1827 
pastor  at  Detmold.  He  died  Dec  30,  IS82,  doctor  of 
theology  and  member  of  consistory,  leaving  De  iis,  qua 
Potissimum  Contulerint  ad  Lutherum  Saerorum  Refor- 
matorem  Sensim  Efingendum  (Gottingen,  1819).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  742.     (a  P.) 

Heinroth,  Johann  Christian  Friedrich  AcorsT, 
a  German  psychologist,  was  bom  at  Leipsic,  Jan.  17, 
1778,  and  died  there  in  1848,  a  doctor  and  professor  of 
medicine.  Ho  wrote,  Piitodice  oder  ResuUate  fnier 
Forschung  iAer  GescAichte^  Philoscphie  und  Glauben  (Leip- 
sic, 1829) :~Z>er  Schlussel  zu  Himmel  und  ffdUe  im 
Menschen  (1829):~-/)w  LUge  (1834):— (?eidUdUe  und 
Kriiik  des  Mysticismus  (1880).  See  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theoL  Lit.  i,  863, 483, 493, 595 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL 
i,  681.     (a  P.) 

Heinsberg;,  Jban  i>s,  a  Belgian  prelate  of  the  15th 
century,  was  at  first  canon  of  Liege  and  arcbdeaeon  of 
Hesbaye,  and  became  bishop  of  Liege  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three.  In  1444  he  resolved  to  go  to  Palestiney 
in  pursuance  of  a  vow,  but  on  arriving  at  Venice,  wrote 
to  the  bey  of  Tunis,  and  was  refused  permission,  fie 
died  in  1459.     See  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Ghbrale,  sl  t. 

HeinsiuB,  Jorann  Gkoro,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  (xermany,  who  died  at  Reval  in  1783,  pahUsbed  D% 


HEINSON  s; 

Balko  SactrMit  Magru  (WitUoberg,  1119):— Kant 
Fragen  aut  dtr  KinAaA^one  da  Nmtn  Tetlamtatt 
(Jeu,  17S1,6  ftm:  M  ed.  17S]  tq.,  13  puU)  —fragen 
aiu  det  KirdiaJiiilorit  da  A  Um  Talantexit  (Ibid.  eod. 
Spirta).  See  Viinng,  Die  pddtrlat  T/i/ologea  DeuUch- 
limii,m.r.;  Jiicba,  Al^ammtt  Gdeirlen-Ltriion,  i.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Holnaoil,  JohaMS  ThiodOR,  ■  Lnlhenn  iheolo- 
giin  or  Gsrinaaj,  vu  bom  at  HinoTec,  July  6, 16G6. 
He  stailied  *t  Hdnuadt,  aod  coatinned  bit  Orienul 
■tuilieB  in  England.  In  1695  be  wu  first  preacher  at 
Melle,  in  tbe  duchy  of  Oinabrllck.  in  1698  general  »u- 
perinUndsnl  and  couit-preictaer  of  Eait  Friiia,  aectpt- 
ed  in  1711  a  all  bi  Hamburg,  and  died  Sept.  21, 17:26, 
■earing,  Dt  Neminibiu  tt  Eaaitia  Dei  ( HelraiCtdt, 
1690>:  — De  ParaJiio  ejiuyae  Amittimit  et  Cutlodia 
See  During,  Dit  gtUltrlai  Tkrohyen 
a.  v.;  flint,  BiU.  Jad.  i,  ST&;  Jiicher, 
A^emaKa  CcMrfcn-Loifon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hellio,  Saint,  a  French  monk,  «aa  bom  about  834, 
It  Herj,  near  Auxem,  It  ia  uppoaed  that  bia  aur- 
Dama  haa  been  given  to  him  more  on  accoant  of  his 
knowledge  than  for  hi*  actions.  At  the  age  of  seven 
be  was  intmsted  by  hii  parents  to  tbe  care  of  the  Bene- 
dictine monks  ofSt-Ciennsin  d'Auseire,  from  vbom  he 
received  bia  flnt  initruetion.  He  aftetHarda  went  to 
the  abbey  of  Fulda,  where  he  waa  inatracted  by  Haimon, 
adiacipla  otAlenin.  Some  time  later  he  left  Fulda  to 
go  to  Feiriire,  to  put  himself  under  the  discipline  of 
tbe  abbot  Lapua.  HediedaboutSSl.  For  bii  numerous 
writings  we  refbr  to  Hoefer,  A'om,  Biog.  GhUralt,  a.  t. 

Hel  (tortr),  in  None  mythology,  wai  tbe  danghter 
of  Loke  and  the  gianteas 
Angerbode,  liater  of  the 
wolf  Fearia  and  the  make 
Jormungand.  The  three 
aiateia  were  the  moat 
frightful  creations  of  the 
infenial  regions,  and  as 
the  Asai  knew  what  dan- 
gen  awaited  them  from 
theaemoiialetB,tb«yth] 
the  SI   ■ 


where  she  grew  nnlil  she 
eneitelad  the  vtbole  earth 
as  the  Hidgaid  anahe. 
They  also  chained  tha 
wolf  Fenris,  and  plaoed 
the  third  child  in  tha  in- 
femal  regira.  Theie  ahe 
nilea  over  all  who  do  not 
die  as  wairioii  on  tbe 
battle-Seld.  She  devours 
men,  and  livea  on  their 
msrroir  and  brain. 

Hela,  in  Slavonic  my- 
thology, wai  originally  ft 
Scandinavian  deity,  baC  ^ 
worshipped  alao  by  the  Figure  of  BsL 

Wends,  although  m  an- 
other sense,  and  with  the  attribotes  ofan  evil  and  angry 
deity.     Sbe  waa  represented  as  a  large  woman,  with  a 
lion's  open  moolh.    Sbe  wu  implorad  to  protect  froiD 
evil  advice. 

Hsid,  AvEnat  H.  U.,  ■  Lutheran  minister,  was 
bon]Feb.32,l806,atKnaop,near  Ktel.Ocnnany.  After 
preparatory  study  at  Kiel  he  entered  the  College  of 
Renzbnrg,  and  at  the  close othis  theological  coarse  was 
ordained  as  a  Lutheran  minister.  Instead  of  entering 
the  pastoral  work,  he  established  the  Held  Institute  at 
Kiel,  which  he  conducted  with  signal  ability  for  many 
yeata.  In  1847  he  arrived  in  America.  For  a  time  be 
was  assisUnt  pastor  of  Sb  Hsitbew's  Chureb,  New  York 
dly.  Snbaequently  he  rooDded  St.  Mark's  Church,  In 
Siitlli  SIfcet.    A  diviaioii  occurring  ' 


9  HELHEIM 

tkn,  a  large  portion  foDowad  him  and  (brmed  tbe  nn- 
clens  of  St.  John's  Church,  which  at  Bist  held  its  meet- 
ings in  the  old  Hope  Chapel,  and  afterwards  in  the  New 
York  University  building  on  Washington  Square.  In 
18&8  St.  John's  purchased  tbe  present  church  edlSoa  in 
Christopher  Street.  For  twenty-two  yean  be  waa  paa- 
tor  of  this  church,  and  gathered  about  him  one  oT  the 
largest  Lutheran  congregations  in  New  York.  Two 
years  befbre  his  death  he  waa  obliged  to  relinquish  the 
paslar«l«  on  account  of  declining  health.  He  died  in 
New  York  dty,  March  Bl,  1881.  See  Ludirrm  Otar- 
ver,  April  8, 1881. 

H«Id,  CbtI  Friediloh  WUhelm,  a  Protestant 
theologian,  waa  bom  in  1830  at  Treptow,  Pomerania. 
In  18GS  he  was  repetent  at  Gatlingen,in  1860  professoi 
at  Zurich,  in  1866  at  Brcslau,  and  accepted  a  coll  10 
Bonninl867.  He  died  Hay  80,1870,leaving  De  Opm 
Jau  C/iTitti  Salulari,  etc  (Giittingen,  1860) : — Tent 
der  Ckriet,  16  Apoiogetiedu  Vortragt  vber  die  Grund-^ 
lArmda  CHriMeKlhiau  (Zurich,  1865)  ■.^Moderm  Welt- 
antdUnung  und  CkriiteMlhum  (Breslao,  1866)  ■.—Srlbit- 
teUffmMee  Jem  u  Ifi  Betracktitngeikjur  die  Suchendea  va- 
serer  Zeil.     {h.  P.) 

Hold,  ClulJitlU],  a  Uerman  convert  fVora  Juda- 
ism, in  the  17th  ccnturv,  was  the  author  of,  Be«eit  ant 
dtr  SAift  nn  dm  drtieinigeit  GoU  (Kiel,  1681)  -.—  Vio- 
loria  CknMliaia  contra  JuAtoM  (Giessen,  1681).  Sea 
Wolf,fi>U:i/eir.ii!,S77;  FUrst,j?^Jsd.  1,876;  J5ch- 
er,  AUgemma  GiltkrtofLi^kon, «,  v.     (&  P.) 

Haldlng,  UrcKAsu    See  SmomiTs,  Hichacu 

Helffpta.  Of  BeiUL\f,  which  is  now  cenerslly  ac- 
oepted  as  the  modem  representative  or  this  pUce,  the 
following  is  the  description  in  the  MtnuAri  (i,  301)  ac- 
companying the  Ordnance  Sarvey ;  "A  village  built  of 
alone,  containing  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  Moslems 
(Goerin  says  eighty  Metswileh),  utuated  on  a  hill-top, 
with  a  few  olives  and  arable  land.  Two  cisterns  a>id 
•  birket  (pool)  near  by  supply  tbe  water." 

HBlSeoBtelii,  Sahuki,  D.D.,  a  prominent  German 
Reformed  minister,  son  of  Kcv.  John  C.  Albert  Helffen- 
itein,  was  bom  at  Gemantonn,  Pa.,  April  17,  1775. 
He  studied  privately,  partly  under  Rev.  Mr.  Stuck,  and 
partly  under  Bev.  Ur.  Melshelmer.  His  theological 
Studies  he  prosecuted  under  Rev.  Dr.  Willism  Hendet, 
the  elder,  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church  on  Kace  Street, 
Philadelphia.  He  entered  ths  ministry  in  1796  or 
1797.  After  preaching  fur  a  abort  time  in  HonlfCOOMry 
Coonty,  be  received  ■  call  to  the  Race  Street  Church, 
as  BucoesBor  to  bis  thGotagieal  preceptor,  who  died  about 
this  time.  Here  be  labored  for  ■  period  of  thirty  two 
or  three  years,  when  be  retired  from  the  active  duliea 
of  the  ministry,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  bia  days  at 
bia  private  residence  in  North  Wales,  Montgomery  Co., 
where  he  died,  Oct.  17, 18C6.  Dr.  HelfTenstein  was  a 
man  of  fine  talents,  thorough  education,  and  superior 
pulpit  abilities.  He  prepared  a  large  number  of  young 
men  for  the  ministry,  and  also  took  a  deep  interest  in 
the  eatablisbment  of  the  literary  and  theological  insti- 
tutions of  the  Reformed  Church.  In  1846  he  published 
a  work  on  didactic  theology,  which  probably  embodied 
the  substance  of  bis  lectures  to  the  students  whom  iti 
earlier  life  be  bad  under  tuition.  See  Harbaugh,  Fathen 
of  the  Germ.  Ref.  Ckun*,  iv,  81.     (D.  Y.  H.) 

Holgoland,  in  Norse  mythology,  wss  an  island  of 
the  North  Sea,  also  called  FoMtttlund,  from  tbe  gnd 
Foaete.  It  contained  only  herds,  sacred  to  the  god,  an 
altar,  and  a  apting,  to  driidc  from  whicb  was  very  bene- 
Bdal. 

Heltaelm,  in  Koree  mythology,  is  the  kingdom  of 
the  cruel  Hel  (q.  v.),  large  and  ciiended,  intersected  by 
tbirty-two  rivera,  which  spring  from  the  spring  Uwer- 
gelmer,  and  one  of  which  encircles  Ibe  entire  country. 
The  gold-covered  bridge,  Ojalar,  spun  Ibia  valley.  A 
maiden  giantess,  Modgudur,  wbo  keeps  guard  here,  in- 
qaircs  of  every  one  hia  name  and  family,  (od  shows 


HKLINQ  6 

them  the  vny  to  tb«  palace  of  Hd.  A  high  inm  l>t> 
tice  BDiTouiicIa  ibe  kingdom,  and  after  having  puMd 
this,  the  viaitor  flndi  hiraMirin  an«  of  the  nine  wnrlda. 
There  are  two  miidena  keeinog  guard  also  in  Hel'i 
palace;  they  have  iniD  blood,  which,  when  it  falla  to 
the  ground,  caoiei  quarrel  and  war.  Del'a  palace  con- 
tains ■  hall,  Eliud,  her  table  ia  called  Hnngar  (bungerX 
Ganglate  and  GangloC  are  her  Kn-ant  and  maid,  Kor 
her  bed,  Blick  and  BOl  her  coveting.  In  Hclbeim  or 
Niflheim  livca  the  evil  make,  Nidhiigr,  which  gnawaal 
one  of  the  three  roota  of  the  uh-tree,  YgdraaiL  There, 
in  ■  care,  the  dog  (iarmi  livea,  who  ia  lo  bring  about 
the  death  or  an  Asa  it  the  destruction  of  the  world. 
Hetbeim  is  not  a  place  of  puniabmenC,  bat  simply  the 
dwelling-place  of  ctioae  who  do  not  die  of  woaada  on 
the  baltle-Hdd.  After  the  end  of  the  worhl,  the  good 
are  aeparaled  from  the  bad,  the  former  go  (o  elenul 
joy  in  Uimle  (heaven),  the  Utter  to  Naatnmd, 

Belillg,MArniCE,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  waa  bom 
in  1623  at  Friedland,  Prussia.  He  studied  at  different 
uniTerBitiea,waa  in  ISM  rector  at  Eialeben,  ia  1666  aa- 
perintendent  at  Nuremberg,  and  died  Oct,  3, 1G95,  leav- 
ing, CoUoqaium  Sea  ei  Sfaivt  Virgmit  :^De  Perpetaa 
Efdtiia  C'imitrtatione  Minulrorum—De  ArgumaUa 
Librorum  Jmaa.  Jadicum,  Ruth  tt  1  LSiTOrum  SamM- 
ttU  tt  Locorum  Commimium  Contignatitma  Brtva^  See 
Zeltuer,  L^bea  uad  ScAH/itn  Ifelingt  (Altdorf,  1715] ; 
Jocher,  AUgemma  Gdr/nim-LexHam,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Holloa,  in  Gitek  mythology  (among  the  Itomans 
SdJ).  the  god  of  the  aun,  was  one  of  the Tilanidea,  broth- 
er c^Selane  and  Aumn,  nil  three  children  of  the  Titan 
Hyperion  and  the  'I'itanld  Thia.  llelioa  lidea  in  the 
wagoD  of  the  Bun,  drawn  by  four  flaahing  ateeda,  home 
from  sea  to  aea,  and  givea  the  world  the  day.  Aurora 
precedes,  opena  the  aun'i  portala,  strewa  roaea  on  hii 
path,  glowing  rayaand  golden  tocks  undulate  about  hia 
head,  a  light  drea^  woven  (torn  tlie  breath  of  Zephyrua, 


-I 

^^  ^ 

W^^              m 

Jf 

^^^^^    d^?/S^ 

^ 

^^ 

5L=^^^^r 

i 

^fe 

K^^S 

Antlqna  RepreaeulaUon  ol 


fliea  about  his  hipa,  when  he  comes  forth  out  of  his  pal- 
ace. The  latter  lies  in  the  west  of  the  known  world, 
where  the  sun  eets.  In  older  to  come  fmrn  here  to  the 
eaal,  he  sails  back  during  the  night  in  a  golden  canoe 
uatil  he  arrivei  again  at  the  east.  Near  hia  palace 
were  hia  heida  and  hia  gardens.  Ai  every  god  had  a 
seat  of  worship,  bo  Rhodci  was  especially  sacred  to  He- 
lioa.  Beaidea  thia  (he  castle  of  Corinth  bekinged  to 
him.  According  to  Diodoiua,  Hetioa  waa  a  son  of  king 
Hyperion  and  his  sister  Basilea.  The  brothers  nf  the 
king,  fearing  the  Utler  would  excel  them  in  power, 
murdered  bim  and  drowned  Helioa. 

Helkath-haz-anilm.  Triatram  thinks  {BQit 
Platti,  p.  115)  that  a  reminiscence  of  the  battle  here 
"aeems  to  be  preserved  in  a  broad,  smooth  valley  close 
toGiboon  [el-Jll],  called  trudy  (;-'-l*iar,'the  valeof 
the  soldier}'.'"     It  mna  north-west  from  the  villige. 

Helladlao,  bishop  of  Cxsakka,  in  Cippadocia, 
Bucceeded  hia  teacher,  Baul  the  Great,  in  that  aee  in 
378.  He  attended  two  councils  of  Constant iitople  iu 
881  and  391.     Hia  Hfe  of  St.  Baail  ia  cited  by  Dama- 


aeenoB,  but  the  authenticity  of  that  work  ia  doobtfi4 
See  Hoefer,  Neas.  Bag,  GMralr,  a.  r, 

Halladlaa,  biabop  of  TAKm:a,  Uved  about  A.D. 
4S0.  He  made  bimaelf  remarkable  by  his  affection  Ibr 
Nestoriu^  and  waa  deprived  of  hia  bishopric  on  that 
account.  But  it  was  reatored  to  him  again  on  the  cod- 
ditioD  that  he  would  Join  himself  with  these  who  pro- 
nounced the  anathema  against  Neslorius,  There  are 
extant  of  him  aix  lettera.  See  Hoefer,  tfimtt.  Biog.  Gi- 
^aU,  a.  r. 

Belm,  Jaiieb  Ibdeli,  D.D.,  a  Pieabylerian  mini*, 
ter,  and  aflerwarda  an  £ptacopal,waa  bom  in  Washing. 
ton  County,  Tenn.,  April  26, 1811,  He  graduated  from 
Georgetown  College,  Ky.,  in  188S,  and  thim  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  in  1836.  He  was  ordained  an 
evangelist  by  the  Presbytery  of  Weat  Tenneiaee,  June 
23, 1838;  labored  aa  a  missionary  in  Giles  County  in 
1887  and  1838;  was  pastor  at  Salem,  N.  J.,  in  18W; 
teacher  at  Newton  in  1852;  at  Pbiladelpbio,  Pa.,  in  I8G9, 
and  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1856.  He  waa  reordained  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  ]860i  waa  an  a*- 
siatant  rector  in  St.  Uarfc's  Cbureh,  Philadelphia,  Pa^ 
from  1860  to  1862;  rector  at  St.  Paul's  Church,  Sing 
Sing,  N.  Y.,  in  1863,  and  died  there  Oct.  15, 1880.  Se« 
Cn.  Cat.  of  Prinatott  Thtol.  Sm.  1881,  p.  94. 

Belmbrekar,  Theodore,  an  eminent  Dutch  paint- 
er, was  bom  at  Haarlem  in  IGZl,  and  was  instructed  in 
the  school  of  Peter  Gnhber.  On  the  death  of  that 
master  he  visited  Rome,  and  spent  some  time  in  Flor- 
ence and  Naplea.  He  finally  aettled  at  Bome,  wber« 
he  executed  for  the  chnrch  of  the  Jesuits  a  noble  land- 
scape, in  which  is  introduced  The  Temptalioit  of  Chitl 
in  lie  Often.  At  Naples,  in  the  refectory  of  the  Jeo. 
nits'  College,  are  three  sacred  aubjecCa,  most  admirably 
executed:  Cliritt  »  Ihe  Gardtn;  Ckritt  Canyimg  kit 
Cntf:«DiTkeCninJavm.  Helmbreker  died  at  Rome 
ieltiH.  SeeUoefer,A'DHP.fltf9.GMrats,a.*.;SpODDer, 
Biog.  BiMl,oflht  Fine  AiH.,a.\. 

Helmer.Cu  ARi.Es  Dowkb, 

a  Congregational  miniatet,  waa 
bom  at  Caoajohaiie,  N.  Y^ 
Nov.  18,  1827.  After  apend- 
ing  two  yeais  in  Hamilton 
College,  he  entered  Yale,  from 
wbich  ho  graduated  in  1853: 
The  two  yeara  fuliowing  he 
waa  a  teacher  in  the  Beaf-and- 
Dumb  Inatiturioa  in  New  York 
city.  In  1857  be  graduated 
from  Union  Theolo^cal  Sem- 
inary. The  next  two  yeara 
he  spent  in  Enrope.  He  waa 
ordained  paator  of  Plymouth 
Ch  nrch,U  ilwankee,  Wis.,8«pt. 
11, 1859,  from  which  he  was  diamiaeed,  May  31,  I86S; 
from  December,  1866,  to  December,  187S,  he  waa  pastor 
of  Union  Park  Church,  Chicago, IE;  from  March,  1877, 
until  his  death,  he  was  paator  of  Tompkins  Avenue 
Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  The  degree  of  D.D.  which 
was  offered  to  him  in  1876  by  Beloit  College,  was  de- 
clined. He  died  April  28, 1879.  See  Cong.  YioTJmit, 
1880,  p.  21. 

Helmlob,  WKHxas,  a  Dutch  Protestant  divine,  and 
one  of  the  early  promoters  of  the  reformed  religion  in 
that  country,  was  bom  at  Utrecht  in  1651.  In  1679  he 
was  chown  pntor  of  his  fellow-ciliiena.  In  1582  he 
"  preach  the  Pralestant  religion  openly 


.f  Ut™ 


He 


aterdam  in  1602,  and  died  Aug.  29, 1608,  leaving  Analg- 
luofthtPtaimtllMi).  See  Chalmeia,  fiti^  Mtf.  a.  v. 
Halmont,  Stotaa  Jaheb  vah,  a  Flemish  painter, 
the  aon  of  Matthew,  waa  bom  at  Antwerp,  April  17, 
1688,  and  studied  under  his  father,  also  the  fbie  worka 
of  great  maaten  at  Brussels.  Hia  prindpal  worka  ore 
in  the  charebes  at  Bruaselo.    In  the  Church  of  Uaijr 


HELMSTADIAN  CONTROVERSY  641 


HENDEL 


Magdalene  ia  a  fine  picture  of  the  Martyrdom  of  8i, 
Barbara;  in  St  Michael's  ia  the  Trvm^h  of  David; 
and  at  the  Cannelitea  one  of  hia  most  capital  works, 
representing  Eli$ha  Sacrificing  the  Priests  of  BaaL 
He  died  at  Brussels,  Aug.  21, 1726.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog,  Ghth-aUf  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
Arts,B,y. 

HelmBtadian  Controversy,  a  name  given  to 
the  controversy  raised  by  Calixtus  in  the  17th  century, 
from  Helnistadt,  the  place  where  it  originated.  See 
Gauxtimbs. 

Helwig,  Johann  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  26, 1668,  at  Berlin.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1693  adjunct  of 
the  philosophical  faculty  at  Wittenberg,  in  1695  adjunct 
of  the  cathedral  church  at  Reval,  and  in  1696  pastor  at 
Narva.  In  1718  he  was  again  at  Reval,  and  died  Feb. 
7, 1720,  leaving,  De  Nomme  Missm  in  Sanctorum  ffono' 
rem  CdebraUe  (Rostock,  1691):— jDs  ScepHdsmo  Car- 
tesU  (Wittenberg,  1692)  :^De  PanSbua  Facierum  contra 
Witsium  (eod.) : — De  Nomine  Jehovah  Patribus  Ignoto 
(eod.) : — De  Simons  Mago  (1693).  See  Gadebusch,  Lie- 
/fydische  Bibliothek;  Jdcher,  Attgemeines  Gdehrten- 
Lexiison,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Helwig;  Jaoob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  and  bikhop 
of  Esthonia,  who  died  Jan.  19, 1684,  is  the  author  of, 
Disp,  de  Emanuele : — De  Passione  Chrisii  ^tav^fHtfWov : 
—  De  Statu  Exinanitonis  ^lav^piinrov.  See  Witte, 
Diarium;  Jocher,  Attgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.; 
V\lnt,  BibLJud.  i,S78,    (a  P.) 

HemenwBy,  Fbamcis  Daha,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  Chelsea,  YL,  Nov.  10, 
1830. ,  He  was  converted  in  early  life,  graduated  from 
the  Concord  Biblical  Institute  in  1858,  taught  in  New- 
bury Seminary,  where  he  had  formerly  been  a  pupil, 
joined  the  Vermont  Conference,  and  in  1855  was  sta- 
tioned at  Montpelier,  where  he  remained  two  yean,  and 
then  located  on  account  of  ill-health.  In  1857  he  re- 
jmoved  to  Evanston,  IlL,  as  principal  of  a  preparatory 
school  there,  and  soon  after  was  elected  adjunct  pro- 
fessor of  Biblical  literature  in  the  Garrett  Biblical  In- 
stitute of  that  place.  He  was  afterwards  promoted  to 
the  chair  of  Biblical  exegesis,  and  finally  made  pro- 
fessor of  exegetical  theology,  having. meanwhile  be- 
come a  member  of  the  Michigan  Conference,  and  in 
1861  he  was  temporarily  a  pastor  in  Kalamazoo,  and 
the  following  year  was  transferred  to  the  Rock  River 
Conference,  and  stationed  in  Chicago.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  General  Conference  in  1876.  He  died  April 
19,  1884.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conference,  1884, 
p.  342. 

Hemiphorlmn  {fifit^6ptov)j  a  priestly  upper  gar- 
ment, probably  a  short  pallium  (q.  v.). 

Hemmen^ray,  Mosks,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  Framingham,  Mass.,  in  1785.  He 
greduat«i  from  Harvard  College  in  1755,  and  after 
preaching  at  Lancaster,  Boston,  Townsend,  and  Wren- 
tham,  Mass.,  and  at  New  Ipswich,  N.  H.,  for  short  peri- 
ods, ministered  a  year  in  Wells,  where  he  was  ordained 
regular  pastor,  Aug.  8, 1759.  Near  the  close  of  1810  he 
was  compelled  to  cease  pleaching  on  account  of  a  can- 
cer in  the  face,  and  he  died  in  Wells,  April  5, 1811. 
Many  of  his  published  writings  are  of  a  controversial 
character.  See  Sprague,  Annais  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit, 
1,641. 

Hempel,  Albert  Ephraim,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  April  24, 1670.  He  studied 
at  Leipsic  and  Wittenberg,  was  pastor  at  Nordhausen 
in  1692,  licentiate  of  theology  at  Wittenberg  in  1697, 
doctor  of  theology  in  1711,  and  died  March  25, 1722, 
leaving,  De  Spwds  Coroum  Christi  (Leipsic,  1686)  i—De 
Theologue  Onomatologia: — De  recvo^i^  Divina  ex 
Jer,  xxxij  10  (Wittenberg,  1691)  i—De  Chiliasmo  De- 
tcripto  et  Befecto  (1692)  :--ConsiUum  Dei  cirfa  Ifominis 
Creationem  ex  Gen.  i,  26  (1697):— />e  Resurrections 


SpiritualL    See  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  Gdehrien-Lexiton, 
s.  ▼.    (a  P.) 

Hempel,  Christian  Gtottlob,  a  Lutheran  theo* 
logian  of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1748,  at  Horbnrg,  near 
Merseburg.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  died  Feb.  11, 
1824.  He  published,  Beitrag  zur  richtigen  Erld&rung 
des  Kryptopelagianismus  (Leipsic,  1783):  —  IrrUchter 
und  Irrgdnge  (Kothen,  1790),  and  other  ascetical  works. 
See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  DeutsdiUmds,  a.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Hempel,  Bmat  'Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran  theolo* 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1745.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic  In  1769  he  was  univenity  preacher  at  Leip- 
sic, professor  of  philosophy  in  1776,  in  1787  professor  of 
theology,  and  died  April  12, 1799,  leaving,  Cuinam  S,S, 
Trinitatis  Persona,  Promulgatio  Legis  Praeipue  Tri- 
buenda  sU  (Leipsic,  1771)  :^De  Sapientia  Dei  (1773) :. 
Prima  Lingum  Ebrmm  Elementa  (1776, 1789)  t—Kurze 
und  trtue  BesekreUmng  der  Kennicotschen  Bibelausgabe 
(1777)  i—De  vera  Sign^ficaOone  VocahuU  Semen  (1787) : 
—De  Deo  InvisUfiU  (1790-91, 4  parts)  :—De  loco  GalaL 
m,20  (1792)*.— Ftciem  LiUeris  Sacris  ffabendam  Ba- 
tioni  Convenienter  Postulari  (1794, 4  parts).  See  Doring, 
Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v.    (&  P.) 

Hemphill,  Jokm,  D.D.,  an  Associate  Reformed  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  County  Derry,  Ireland,  in  1761.  He 
arrived  at  Philadelphia  shortly  after  the  close  of  the 
American  Revolution.  He  was  a  tailor  by  trade.  He 
graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1792,  was  ordained 
at  Groencastle  In  1794-95,  went  south  on  a  missionary 
tour,  and  retumed  to  Greencastle  in  May,  1795.  In 
1796  he  was  installed  pastor  o(  Hopewell,  Union,  and 
Ebenczer,  remaining  in  this  connection  untU  a  short 
time  previous  to  hia  death,  which  occurred  May  80, 
1832.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  IX, 
iv,  62. 

Heio,  a  name  fot  spirits  among  the  Lao-Tteu,  in 
China.  They  are  the  souls  of  those  who  are  neither 
good  nor  evil  They  are  generally  friendly  to  man, 
and  though  invisible,  they  perform  many  good  affioes 
for  him.  The  emperor  puts  his  country  under  their 
protection,  and  he  deposes  or  degrades  them  if  they 
neglect  their  duty. 

Henohman,  Huxphrky,  an  English  prelate,  was 
made  bishop  of  Salisburr  in  1660,  bishop  of  London  in 
1668,  and  died  Oct  7,  {675.  He  publbhed,  Diatriba 
Preeliminaris  11,  Hammondi  Tracts  de  Ccnfrmalions 
Prmfixa  (1661).  See  AUibone,  Dia,  of  BriL  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  s.  V. 

Henoke,  Gboro  Jouann,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1681.  He  studied  at  Halle, 
and  died  as  preacher  at  Glaucbau,  April  12, 1720,  leav- 
ing, De  Urd  LXX  Interpretum  in  Novo  Testamento 
(Halle,  l7Q9):-^Iniroductio  ad  Libros  Apocryphos 
1 1710):-^ Prolegomena  ad  Libros  Apocryphos  Veteris 
Testamenti  (1711):'/>e  Textu  Novi  Test,  Grceco:-^De 
Usu  Librorum  Apoeryphorum  Vet,  Test,  in  Novo  Testam. 
(eod.).  He  also  published  a  number  of  sermons.  See 
Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  GdehrienrLexikon,  s.  v.     ifi,  P*) 

Henokel,  Johamn  Otto,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Marburgf,  Nov.  22, 1636.  He 
studied  at  different  univereities,  was  doctor  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Rinteln,  and  died  Dec.  22, 1682, 
leaving,  Disputationes  de  Peecatis  C'-De  Mvdsterio  Ec^ 
clesiaslieo:—De  Latrone  Converso  •— />s  Peccato  Oiigi- 
ms:-^De  Omniscientia  Carms  Christi  r — De  Schismate, 
See  Gotx,  Elogia  Theologorum;  Jdcher,  Attgemeines 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  y.     (B.  P.) 

Hendel,  William,  D.D.,  an  eminent  German  Re- 
formed minister,  son  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  William  Hendel, 
was  bom  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  Oct  14, 1768.  After  com- 
pleting his  preparatory  studies  he  entered  Columbia 
College  in  New  York,  where  he  passed  through  a  regu- 
lar collegiate  course.  His  theological  studies  he  pur* 
sued  in  the  seminary  at  New  Branswick,  N.  J.,  under 


HENDERSON 


542 


HENNEBER6 


the  Rev.  Dra.  GroM  and  Livingston.  In  1792  he  was 
licensed  to  preach  the  gospel,  and  the  following  year 
ordained,  and  installed  as  pastor  of  the  Tolpehocken 
charge,  in  Berks  County,  Pa.  He  resigned  this  charge 
in  1823,  and  removed  to  Womelsdorf,  in  the  sane  coun- 
ty, where  he  died,  July  11, 1846.  Dr.  Hendel  mani- 
fested a  deep  interest  in  the  cause  of  education,  and  in 
consequence  had  to  suffer  some  persecution.  See  Har- 
h«ugh,  Fathers  of  the  Rrf,  Chmxh,  iii,  58.     (D.  Y.  H.) 

Henderson,  Isaac  J.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Natchez,  Miss.,  Jan.  6,  1812.  He 
graduated  at  Jefferson  College  in  1881,  and  from  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1885.  Soon  after  his  li- 
cense he  spent  two  years  as  an  evangelist  in  Mississippi, 
Arkansas,  and  Louisiana;  then  came  to  Galveston, 
Texas;  accepted  a  call,  and  in  a  short  time  eecuied 
funds  for  the  erection  of  the  first  Presbyterian  church 
there.  About  1850  he  accepted  a  call  to  Jackson,  Miss. 
In  1852  he  went  to  Prytania  Street  Church  in  New 
Orleans,  and  labored  over  eleven  yeaiiL  In  1866  he 
began  to  preach  at  Annapolis,  Md.  He  died  Dec  8, 
1875.  Dr.  Henderson  was  faithful,  pnctical,  and  inter- 
esting to  all  classes.  See  NeeroL  Report  of  Prmoeion 
TheoL  Sent,  1876,  p.  21. 

Henderson,  James,  M.D.,  a  Scotch  Congrega- 
tional medical  missionary,  was  bom  in  1880,  and  re- 
ceived a  careful  religious  training  by  a  pious  widowed 
mother.  He  began  life  as  a  shepherd-boy,  but  apent 
several  sessions  at  the  Edinburgh  Univeisity.  He  of- 
fered his  services  to  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
and  after  six  months  of  private  theological  instraction, 
during  which  time  he  received  his  degree  of  M.  D.  from 
the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  he  set  sail  for  Shanghai, 
China.  On  his  arrival,  in  1860,  he  immediately  ap- 
plied himself  with  his  characteristic  zeal  to  mediod 
work,  and  bis  thorough  devotion,  united  with  his  re- 
markable surgical  skUl,  soon  raised  the  reputation  of 
the  Chinese  hospital  to  the  highest  point.  In  June, 
1865,  he  was  seized  with  fever,  and  died  July  81  follow- 
ing.   See  (Lbnd.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1866,  p.' 258. 

Henderson,  Matthew  H,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  rector  for  several  years  in 
Newark,  N.  J.,  until  about  1856 ;  subsequently  he  re- 
moved to  Athens,  Ga.,  where  he  became  rector  of  Em- 
manuel Church,  and  there  remained  until  his  death, 
Dec.  2, 1872.     See  Prot.  Episc  A  Imanac,  1874,  p.  188. 

Henderson,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Washington  County,  Va.,  May  81, 
1764.  Being  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  he  strug- 
gled hsrd  in  obtaining  an  education.  He  was  licensed 
and  ordained  by  the  Abingdon  Presbytery  in  1788,  and 
was  pastor  at  Danbridge,  Tenn.,  where  he  remained 
more  thsn  twenty  years.  He  afterwards  preached  at 
Pisgah,  Murfrees  Spring,  Nashville,  and  Franklin.  He 
died  in  July,  1884.  Dr.  Henderson  was  a  most  earnest 
and  vigorous  supporter  of  gospel  orders,  especially  as 
connected  with  the  worship  of  God.  See  Sprague,  ilti- 
nalt  of  the  Amer,  Pulpitf  iii,  528. 

Hengel,  Wessel  Albert  van,  a  Dutch  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Leyden,  Nov.  12, 1779,  where  he  also  re- 
ceived his  theological  education.  In  1808  be  was  pas- 
tor at  Kalslagen,  in  1805  at  Driehuizen,  in  1810  at 
Grootrebroek,  in  1815  professor  of  theology  at  Frane- 
ker,  and  in  1818  professor  at  Amsterdam.  In  1827  he 
was  called  to  Leyden,  and  died  Feb.  6, 1871.  He  wrote, 
A  nnotaiiones  in  Loca  NommUa  Novi  Tettamenti  (Am- 
sterdam, 1824):  —  InetittUio  Oraioria  Saeri  (Leyden, 
1829) : — Commentarius  Perpetuut  in  Epietoiam  Paiji  ad 
PkUippen$e$  (1888) : — Commentarwt  Perpetuus  m  Prio- 
rii  PauU  ad  Coriuhioe  EpietoUe  Caput  Ctttiaium  Deei^ 
mum  (1851) : — Interpretatio  PauU  Epieiolm  ad  Honutnoi 
(1864-59, 2  vols.)  i^Fu/e  EpieUee  to  Strauee,  on  hie  Life 
ofJeeua  (2d  ed.  1824) : — Merilorum  Joannis  Henrici  van 
der  Palm  Conmemoratio  Brwii  (1840).  See  Winer, 
Haadbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  241;  ii,  61,  111;  Zuchold, 


BM.  TheoL  i,  585 ;  Liehtenbeiger,  Encgdop.  dee  Sciencee 
RdigUueee,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hengstenberg,  Wiudelu  von,  a  Protestant  the* 
ologian  of  Germany,  and  cousin  of  the  famous  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  Feb.  9, 1804,  at  Elberfeld.  He  studied 
at  Erlangen  and  Berlin,  and  for  a  number  of  years 
acted  as  tutor  to  prince  William.  In  1888  he  entered 
upon  his  ministerial  functions  at  Radensleben,  and 
about  the  same  time  was  ennobled.  From  1841  to 
1854  he  was  pastor  at  Teltow,  and  when  the  court- 
preacher,  von  Gerlach,  died,  Hengstenberg  was  appoint- 
ed as  his  successor,  in  1854,  at  the  reoommendation  of 
the  general  superintendent.  Dr.  Hoffmann.  After  the 
latter's  death  he  was  made  first  court-preacher,  and  died 
Sept.  25, 1880.  Hengstenberg  was  no  writer,  but  he 
left  lasting  memorials  in  such  institutions  as  Betbanien 
and  Bethetda,  in  the  capital  of  the  German  empire. 
He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  home  mission,  and  a 
preacher  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.     (B.  P.) 

Henicb,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  divine  of  Germany* 
was  bom  Jan.  1, 1616.  He  studied  at  different  univer- 
sities, was  in  1643  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Rinteln,  in 
1651  professor  of  theology,  and  died  June  27, 1671.  He 
wrot^.  Compendium  Theoloffia : — De  Veritaie  Religionie 
Chrittiana; — flistorite  Ecdesiaatioa  Partes  Tree: — In- 
stiiutionee  Theologica : — De  Gratia  et  Pnedeatmatione: — 
De  Sanctissimo  S.  Truntatis  3fystirio : — De  Veneratiotte 
Nomini*  Divini  Jehovah: — De  Auctoritate  AniigniteUie 
Ecdetiastica  et  Condliorum: — De  Bonie  FidtUum  Ope- 
ribus.  See  Sagittarius,  Introduetio  ad  Historiam  Ecdf 
tiatticamf  Jocher,  AUgemeiitet  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

cap.) 

Henil,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Vandals,  was  a  pro- 
tecting god,  who  was  worshipped  under  the  symbol  of 
a  staff,  with  a  hand  wearing  an  iron  ring. 

Henke^  Ernst  Ludwio  Thvodor,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Feb.  22, 1804,  at  Helm- 
stiidt.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Jena,  took  his  de- 
gree as  doctor  of  philosophy  in  1826,  and  commenced 
the  academical  career  at  Jena  in  1827  by  presenting 
his  De  EpietoUgf  qua  Barnabas  Tribuitur,  A  uthentia.  la 
1828  he  was  appointed  theological  professor  at  the 
'^  Collegium  Garolinum*'  in  Brunswick,  in  1888  was 
called  to  Jena,  in  1839  to  Marburg,  and  died  there,  Dec 
1, 1872.  He  published,  Georg  CaUxtue  und  seine  Zeit 
(Halle,  1858-^,  2  vols.)  i—Theologorum  Saxonieorum 
Coneeneue  RepetUue  Fulei  Vers  Lutheranm  (Marburg, 
1846):  —  Conseneue  RepetUue  Fidei  Vere  Lutheramee 
(ibid.  1847).  He  also  contributed  to  the  first  edition 
of  Henog's  Real-Encydop^^  to  the  IlalUsche  Encydop^ 
and  other  similar  works.  His  lectures  on  the  Church 
ffistory  since  the  Rrformation  were  published  by  Gass 
(Halle,  1874-78, 2  vols.) ;  those  on  homiletics  and  litur- 
gies by  Zschimmer  (ibid.  1876).  See  Mangold,  E,  L. 
TK  I/enke,  Ein  GedenkbiaU  (Mart>nrg,  1879) ;  Plitt^Her- 
zog,  Real'Encydop.  s.  v. ;  Zuchold,  BOL  TheoL  i,  586  sq. 
(RP.) 

Henley,  Samuel,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  college  of  Will- 
iamsburg, Virginia.  He  was  rector  of  Repdleshaniy 
Suffolk,  and  in  1805  principal  of  the  East  India  College 
at  Hertford.  He  died  in  1816.  He  published  several 
Sermone  (1771-1803).  See  AUibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and 
Amer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Henneberg;  Johaxix  Yaubktox^  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Gotha,  Feb.  4, 1782, 
and  died  March  18, 1831.  He  published,  Vorksungem 
aber  die  Leidensgeschiehte  Jeeu  (Gotha,  1820)  i—Com^ 
mentar  Uber  die  Geschiehte  Jeeu  Christi  (Leipsio,  1822) : 
—  Commentar  i&er  die  Geschiehte  des  BegrSbmseee 
Jeeu  (1826)  i^Homiiien  uber  die  Leidenegesdkichte  Jesm 
(Gotha,  1909):^ Die  Schrift  dee  Neuen  Testamemtm 
(1819).  See  Winer,  Bandbuch  der  theoL  Lft.  i,  658 ;  i|^ 
61, 153,  285,  806.     (a  P.) 


HENNEQUIER 


643 


HENRIQUEZ 


Hexmeqnler,  Jkbomb,  a  French  Dominictiif  wu 
bom  in  1638.  He  studied  at  Douay,  was  professor  of 
theology  and  philosophy  at  Cambn^  in  1675,  and  died 
March  18, 1712,  learing,  CuUiu  Marim  VirymU  Vindi- 
oaUu: — J)e  AbwUtione  SacramaUali  Perdpiatda  et 
Impmiimdcu  See  ^hard,  De  ScriptorSbus  Ordmit  Do- 
mMtoanomm ;  tocher,  A UffcmeitieB  GtUkrtea'Lexihon, 
s.  r.    (a  P.) 

Henneqnin,  Aimar,  a  French  prelate,  became  ab- 
bot of  ]£pernay,  and  afterwards  bishop  of  Kenoes.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  insurrection  of  the  Parisians, 
May  16, 1588.  In  February  following  the  duke  of  May- 
ence  appointed  him  general  counsellor  of  the  union. 
On  the  recognition  of  Henry  lY  (March  22, 1594)  the 
bishop  of  Kennes  retired  to  his  diocese,  where  he  died 
in  1596,  leaving,  Let  Con/estuma  de  SaitU  Ayguttm 
(Paris,  1577):  —  Brevi*  JJetcriptio  SaerificU  Miua 
(1579)  :—Imiiaiion  de  Jinu-Chritt  (Paris,  1582).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog*  Ginirale,,  s.  v. 

Henni,  John  Martin,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  was  bom  at  Obersanzen,  canton  Grau- 
bilnden,  Switzerland,  June  13, 1805.  He  studied  at  the 
gymnasia  of  St.  Gall  and  Zurich,  went  to  Rome  in  1824, 
and  was  there  educated  for  the  priesthood.  In  1827  he 
came  to  America  with  bbhop  Fenwick  of  Cincinnati, 
and  went  to  the  seminary  at  fiardstown,  Ky.,  where  he 
was  ordained  priest,  Feb.  2, 1829.  He  was  assigned  to 
the  spiritual  charge  of  the  German-speaking  Catholics 
of  Cincinnati,  and  was  also  made  professor  in  the  Athe- 
ncum  in  that  cit}',  which  has  since  developed  into  St. 
Xavier's  College.  He  was  afterwards  sent  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  the  north-westem  part  of  Ohio,  In  1834  he 
was  brought  back  to  Cincinnati  and  made  pastor  of  the 
Holy  Trinity  Church,  and  vicar-general  to  bishop  Pur- 
cell.  He  was  a  leader  in  everything  pertaining  to  the 
welfare  of  the  German  immigrants,  and  in  1836  he 
founded  and  became  the  first  editor  of  the  Wahrheita- 
frtund.  At  the  Fifth  Provincial  Council  at  Baltimore, 
in  1843,  Milwaukee  was  made  a  see,  and  Henni  was  ap- 
pointed its  first  bishop,  being  ordained  in  the  Cathedral 
of  Cincinnati,  March  19,  1844.  In  1847  St.  Mary's 
Church  was  opened,  a  cathedral  begun,  and  a  hospital 
founded  and  put  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 
Archbishop  Henni  established  an  orphan  asylum,  intro- 
duced the  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  and  built  two 
churchto.  In  1855  he  opened  the  seminary  of  St.  Francis 
de  Sales.  Henni  died  Sept.  7, 1881.  He  left  a  power- 
ful establishment,  with  three  dioceses,  185  priests,  258 
chuxchea,  125  schools,  25  religious  and  charitable  in- 
stitutions, and  200,000  Catholics.  See  (N.  Y.)  Catholu! 
Amatol,  1888,  p.  51 ;  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  //iff.  of  the 
Cath,  Church  in  the  U.  8.  p,  594. 

Hennig,  Balthasar  Gottlob,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  (vermany,  was  bom  Oct.  5, 1742,  not  far  from 
Leipsic.  Having  completed  his  studies,  be  was  called 
as  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  to  Thom,  and  died 
May  31, 1808,  superintendent  and  member  of  consistory. 
He  publisbed,  De  df^orofii^  rov  \6yov  rrjg  oXfiBiiaQ 
ad  Locum  2  Tim.  it,  15  (Leipsic,  1767)  :—De  CoUecti&ne 
Canonum  et  Decretorum  Dionysicma  (1769) : — De  Pra- 
wtaniia  A  Uegoriarum  Novi  Tetktmenti  (Thorn,  1778)  :— 
De  Regno  Meetim  ad  Loca  Pta,  Ixii  H  Ixxxix  {ill ft)  :— 
De  NotitOa  Vet,  et  Novi  Tettamenti  m  Doctritia  Chriati- 
ana  (1781):  — ZM  Rdigione  Chrittiana  (1790).  See 
Doring,  Die  geUhrten  Theologen  DetUachkmde,  s.  v. 
(a  P.) 

Hennig,  G^org  Emit  Siglsmand,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  1, 1746,  at  Jauer, 
in  Silesia.  In  1776  he  accepted  a  call  to  K5nigBberg, 
was  professor  of  theology  in  1802,  and  died  Sept,  23, 
1809,  leaving  Glaubew'  und  SittaUehre  (K5nigsberg, 
1793),  and  a  number  of  Sermons,  See  Doring,  Die  ge- 
Uhrten Theohgen  DeuteMands,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hexming;  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Greifswalde,  May  26,  1683.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  pastor  and  pro- 


fessor of  theology  at  his  native  place,  and  died  Sept.  28» 
1704»  leaving,  Z>e  Sabbathi  Chrittianorum  Moralitaie: 
— De  JuMtitia  Dinna  Euentiali: — De  Natura  ffommii 
ante  Peccaivm  Integra: — De  Onmipneeentia  Humana 
Christi  Natura: — De  PanHentia,  Confesrione  et  AbiO' 
lutione:-'De  Sensu  Scriptura  S,  Literaii: — De  Securif 
tate  Humana,  ad  Genu,  ix,  6 : — De  Messia  a  Deo  Per- 
cuasOf  ad  Etaia  UO,  4,  5:  —  De  Joanne  Baptittaf  ad 
MaUh,  iii^  1-4 : — De  ReconciUatione  Nostra  cum  Deo  per 
Mortem  Christi  ad  Rom,  r,  10 : — I}e  Pignore  Haredita^ 
tie  Nostra  Sanctissimo,  ad  Ephes,  iv,  30 : — De  Intercessi' 
one  Christi  Gloriosa,  ad  1  Joan,  ti,  1 : — De  Christicmi 
Homims  Natintate  et  Vita,  ad  1  Jo.  isi,  9.  See  Pip- 
ping, Memoria  Theologorum;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Ge- 
lehrten-Lexikon,  a,  v.     (B.  P.) 

Henrici,  Danikl,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Chemnitz,  April  5, 1615.  He  stud- 
ied at  different  universities,  was  professor  at  Leipsic, 
and  died  March  15, 1666.  He  wrote,  Tractatus  de  In- 
spiratione  Verborum  S.  Scriptura : — Dflineatio  Christi' 
anismi: — Disputationes  de  Immanudis  Conceptione  et 
Nativilate: — De  Evongdio  Prophetico: — De  Baptismo 
ad  Matth.  xxuii,  18-20 : — De  PrimogenUura  Christi : — 
De  Christo  Dei  et  Maria  Filio:^De  Messia  Officio 
Regio: — De  JudicOs  Ebraorum: — De  Incamatione 
FUii  Dei: — De  Religions  ZwingUo'Calviniana  m  Xr- 
ticulo  de  S.  Coena,  See  Freher,  Theairum  ErudUorum  ; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gekhrten^Lexihrn,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

HemlqueB,  Frey  (1),  a  Portuguese  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  who  died  in  1556,  on  the  Malabar  coast,  left 
Carta  a  S.  Ignacio  Escrita  de  Tand  (published  in  Ital- 
ian, Venice,  1559).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Giah-ale, 
s.  v. 

Henrlqnes,  Frey  (2),  a  Portuguese  ecclesiastical 
writer,  was  bom  at  Lisbon.  He  entered  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits  while  young,  and  taught  theology  in  sev- 
eral colleges  of  his  order.  He  died  in  1590,  leaving 
Constituifoes  das  Rdigiozas  de  Santa  Martha  de  Lidtoa, 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gindrale,  s.  v. 

HenriqiieB,  Henrique  (1),  a  Portuguese  mission- 
ary, was  bom  at  Villa  Vicoza  about  1520.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  associates  of  the  society  founded  by  Igna- 
tius, and  was  sent  to  the  Portuguese  establishments  in 
Asia.  He  was  well  versed  in  different  Shemitic  lan- 
guages. He  died  Feb.  6, 1600,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar, 
leaving,  Vocabulario  e  Artede  Grammat, da  Ling.  MaU 
abar: — Metho  do  de  Confessar: — Doutrina  Christad: 
— Vida  de  Christo,  N.  Senhora,  e  Santos: — Contra  as 
Fabulas  dos  Gentios: — 24  Cartas  Sobre  a  Missdo,  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Henriques,  Henrique  (2),  a  Portuguese  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Oporto  in  1536.  He  joined  the  Jesu- 
its, and  taught  philosophy  and  theology  in  the  colleges 
of  his  order  at  Cordova  and  at  Salamanca ;  but  after- 
wards went  to  the  Dominicans,  and  became  famous  by 
his  writings  against  the  Molinists.  He  finally  retumed 
to  the  Jesuits,  and  died  at  Tivoli,  Feb.  28, 1608,  leaving, 
Summa  Theohgia  Moralis  (Salamanca,  1591 ;  Venice, 
1596) : — De  Ciaribus  Eoclesia,  condemned  by  the  court 
of  Rome : — De  Justitia  Censurarum  in  Causa  ReipuUi- 
cm  Veneta  (MSS^  preserved  in  the  Vatican,  No.  5547) : 
— also  a  large  number  of  small  treatises.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Generate,  s.  v. 

Henriques,  CrlflQStomo,  a  Spanish  bbtorian, 
was  bom  at  Bladrid  in  1594.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he 
entered  the  order  of  the  Cistercians,  and  afterwards  he 
taught  philosophy,  theology,  and  history  in  various  col- 
leges of  his  community.  In  1622  he  was  sent  into  the 
Netherlands,  where  the  archduke  Albert  received  him 
very  kindly.  He  died  at  Louvain,  Dec.  28, 1632,  leav- 
ing mora  than  forty  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Henriques,  Bnrico,  an  Italian  cardinal,  was  bom 
in  the  district  of  Otranto  in  1701.  He  became  succes- 
sively legate  to  the  republic  of  San  Blarino,  ambassador 


HENRY 


644 


HEOTHINA 


to  Philip  y,  king  of  Spain,  and  cardintl  under  Bene- 
dict XIV|  and  was  charged  with  the  goTemment  of 
Bomagna.  He  died  April  26, 1756,  leaving  seTeral  ora- 
tions, for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrak^  s.  v. 

Henry  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  the  see 
of  Galloway  in  1226,  '27,  '28,  '31,  '87,  '40.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bitkopsj  p.  278. 

Henry  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  abbot  of  Hol3rTood- 
house,  and  was  made  bishop  of  Galloway  in  1265.  He 
raUfied  to  the  convent  of  Drybnrgh  all  the  churches 
granted  to  it  within  his  diocese.  He  was  bishop  of 
Galloway  in  1290.     See  Keith,  ScoUi$h  Buhopt^  p.  278. 

Henry  (8),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Gallo- 
way in  1384.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  273. 

fienry  (4),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  and  con- 
finned  bishop  of  Boss,  Oct.  19, 1468,  and  was  still  bishop 
in  1476.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  189. 

Henry  of  Lamgknstkin  (also  Henricus  de  Hassia), 
was  bom  in  Hesse  about  1825.  He  studied  at  Paris, 
where  he  afterwards  taught  philosophy,  theo]ogy,astron- 
omy,  and  mathematics,  and  finally  became  vice-chancel- 
lor of  the  university.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
opposition  to  the  prevailing  materialism  and  supersti- 
tion. In  1890  he  accepted  a  call  as  professor  in  the 
newly  founded  university  at  Vienna,  was  its  rector  in 
1893,  and  died  in  1397;  He  wrote.  Consilium  Pads  de 
Uuione  ae  R^ormatione  Kcdesia  (in  Hermann  von  der 
Hardt's  Magnum  (Ecum.  Const.  ConsiL  voL  ii) : — Secreta 
Saoerdotunif  qucs  in  Missa  Teneri  IM)eni,  Henry  of 
Liangenstein  is  now  counted  among  the  reformers  before 
the  Keformation.  See  Fabricius,  Biblioiheea  Medim  et 
T^finuB  LatittHatis  ;  Hartwig,  Ltben  und  Schrifitn  Hem' 
richs  von  Lanffenstein  (Marburg,  1858);  Plitt-Heizog, 
ReaUEnofdop,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  AUgtmeines  GddurUn-Lex- 
ikon,  s.  V.    (R  P.) 

Henry  of  Sandwich,  archdeacon  of  Oxford  in 
1269,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  London  in  1268.  He 
took  part  with  the  seditious  barons  against  king  Henry 
UI,  for  which  he  was  excommunicated  by  Othobon,  the 
pope's  legate.  He  went  to  Rome,  but  did  not  receive 
absolution  for  seven  years.  He  returned  home,  and 
died  Sept.  16, 1278,  and  was  buried  in  his  own  church 
of  St.  Paul's,  London.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England 
(ed.  Nuttall),  ii,  185. 

Henry,  Caleb  Spra^e,  D.D.,  a  ProtcsUnt  Epis- 
copal minister  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Rutland,  Mass., 
Aug.  20, 1804.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College 
in  1826 ;  studied  theology  at  Andover  in  1828,  and  for 
several  years  was  settled  as  a  Congregational  minbter 
at  Greenfield,  Mass.,  and  Hartford,  Conn.  In  1886  he 
entered  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  ment^  and  moral  philosophy  in  Bristol  College, 
Pa.  With  Dr.  Hawks  he  established,  in  1887,  The  New 
York  Review,  and  from  1889  to  1852  he  was  professor 
of  philosophy  and  history  in  the  University  of  New  York, 
a  part  of  the  time  acting  as  chancellor.  From  1847  to 
1850  he  was  rector  of  St.  Clement's  Church  in  that  city. 
He  aftenvards  held  rectorships  in  Poughkeepsie  and 
Kewburgh  and  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  and  died  at  New- 
burgh,  N.  Y.,  March  9, 1884.  Professor  Henry  was  the 
author  of  many  volumes  of  essays,  etc,  the  last  of  which, 
entitled  Dr.  Oldham  at  Graystones,  and  His  Talk  There, 
was  published  anonymously  in  186t). 

Henry,  Robert  (1),  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian 
divine,  was  bom  at  Muirtown,  St.  Ninian's,  Stirlingshire, 
Feb.  18, 1718.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh ;  licensed  to  preach  in  1746,  and  ofiiciated  at 
Carlisle  from  1748  to  1760,  and  at  Berwick-upon-Tweed 
from  1760  to  1768.  He  was  minister  of  the  church  of 
the  New  Greyfnars  from  1763  to  1776.  In  1774  he  was 
moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  He  died  Nov.  24, 1790.  As  an  author  he  is 
best  known  by  a  History  of  Great  Britain  (1771, 1774, 
1777, 1781, 1785,  6  vols.).  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet. 
s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  Authors,  s.  r. ; 
FasH  Ecdes,  Scoticana,  i,  16, 71. 


Henry,  Robert  (2),  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Dec.  6, 1792. 
He  graduated  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in 
1814,  was  president  of  the  College  of  South  Carolina  in 
1884  and  1886,  and  filled  in  succession  in  that  institution 
the  chairs  of  logic  and  moral  philosophy,  of  metaphjraies 
and  belles-lettres,  and  of  the  Greek  language  and  litera- 
ture. He  died  Feb.  6, 1866,  leaving  several  Sermons, 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  qf  BriL  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v.; 
Drake,  Diet,  of  Amer.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Henry,  Robert  W.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  a  native  of  Scotland.  He  came  to  America, 
and  became  pastor  in  Chicago,  IIL,  after  which  be  re- 
moved to  New  York,  and  was  installed  oo-pastor  with 
Rev.  Dr.  McElroy  of  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  Church. 
He  remained  in  this  charge  until  called  by  the  North 
Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  He  went  to 
Europe  in  May,  1869,  and  having  visited  the  East  he 
was  on  his  retum  home,  but  was  smitten  down  by 
Svrian  fever,  and  died  at  Alexandria,  Egypt,  Oct.  18, 
1869.     See  PrtOyterian,  Nov.  13, 1869.    (w.  P.  &) 

Henry,  Symmee  Clevee,  D.D.,  a  Presb3rterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Lamington,  N.  J.,  June  7, 1797. 
He  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1816; 
studied  theology  for  two  years  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary ;  was  ordained  evangelist  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Newton,  May  8, 1818;  became  stated  supply  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  immediately  after  his  ordination;  served  as  stated 
supply  at  Rochester,  N.Y.,  in  1819;  the  next  year  of  the 
Third  Church  of  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  preached  at  Cran- 
berry, N.  J.,  from  1820  until  his  death,  March  22, 1867. 
See  6^01.  Cat.  qf  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  20. 

Hensel,  Johann  Adax,  a  Lutheran  minister,  who 
died  in  Silesia,  Feb.  2, 1778,  is  the  author  of  Geschichte 
der  protestaniischen  Gemeinen  in  Schlesien  (Liegnitz, 
1768).  See  Winer,  Handbudk  der  theol.  Lit.  i,  808 ;  Jo- 
cher, AHfemeines  Gekhrtet^Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Henehaw,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  made  prebendary  of  Peterborough,  dean  of  Chiches- 
ter in  1660,  and  bishop  of  Peterborough  in  1668.  He 
died  March  9, 1678,  leaving.  Hone  Sueoessiva  (1631): 
^Dayfy  Thoughts  (1661).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  Amer.  Authors,  s.  v. 

Hensler,  Christxaiv  GornrBtsD,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  March  9, 1760,  in  Hobtein. 
In  1786  he  was  professor  of  theology  at  Kiel,  resigned 
his  office  in  1809,  and  thereafter  resided  in  Halle  until 
his  death,  April  24, 1812.  He  is  the  author  of  Bemer- 
kungen  After  Stellen  in  der  Psalmen  und  in  der  Genesis 
(Hamburg,  1791)  i—ErlSuterung  des  ersten  Buches  Sam- 
ueUs  und  der  Saiomonischen  DenksprOche  (1796): — 
lesaias  neu  iAersetzt  und  mit  Anmerkui^en  (1788): — 
Bemerkungen  Sber  Stellen  in  Jeremias  Weissagungas 
(1805): — Animadeersiones  in  Qjausdam  12  Prophetarum 
Minorum  Loca  (1786)  :—Der  Brief  des  Apostels  Jakobus 
iibersetzt  und  erUtuterl  (1801)  i—Die  WahrheU  und  Gdtt- 
UchkeU  der  christUchen  Religion  dargestelU  (1808).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  106, 196, 217, 220, 2^ 
269, 272, 886 ;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  884.     (B.  P.) 

Hentenlne,  Jouahhes,  a  Dominican  and  prafesnr 
at  Louvain,  where  he  died  Oct  2,  1666,  published, 
Bibiia  ad  Vetustissima  Exemplaria  Reeens  Castigata 
Jussu  CoUegarum  (Louvain,  1647) : — EuthgmU  Zigabeni 
Commentaria  m  is  Esangelia  (1644) : — (EoumenH  Com* 
mentarU  (1646)  i—De  Vera  Deo  Apte  Inserviendi  M^ 
thodo  (translated  from  the  Spanish,  1560).  See  Winer, 
Handbudi  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  60, 898, 898;  Jocher,  Attg^ 
meines  Gelehrten-Lezikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hensi,  Rudolph,  professor  of  Oriental  langoagee 
and  of  Old-Testament  exegesis,  who  died  at  Dorpat  in 
1829,  is  the  author  of  Libri  Eodesiasia  A  rgumenti  Brevis 
A  dumbratio  (Dorpat,  1837).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
theoL  Lit.  i,  82 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  689 ;  Flint  (who 
spells  the  name  Hense),  BibL  Jud.  i,  886.    (a  P.) 

HeothXna  (rd  iisOiv£),  in  the  Greek  Cbufch,  derig^ 


HEPBURN 


545 


HERBERSTEIN 


nates  (1)  tn  antiphonal  anthem  of  lauds;  (2)  gospels 
relating  to  the  resurrection.  See  Smith,  Did,  ofCkriH, 
Anltiq,uv, 

Hepburn,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  rector  of  Partoun 
and  abbot  of  Dunfermline  in  1515.  In  June  of  the 
fame  year  he  was  constituted  lord  treasurer.  In  1616 
he  became  bishop  of  Mora%'.  He  died  in  1524.  See 
Keith,  ScoUitk  Bitkopi,  p.  i4«. 

Hepburn,  Gtoorge,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  early 
preferred  to  the  provostry  of  Lincluden,  and  Feb.  9, 
1503,  was  elected  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Aber^ 
brothock.  In  1509  he  was  made  lord  treasurer,  and  in 
1510  he  was  elected  bishop  of  the  see  of  the  Isles.  In 
1512  he  was  comoMBtator  4>oth  of  Arbroath  and  Icolum- 
kill.  This  prelate  was  slain  with  the  Icing  on  the  un- 
fortunate field  of  Flodden,  Sept.  9,  1518.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  BuAopSj  p.  305. 

Hepburn,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  the  see  of  Brechin  in  1517,  and  was  still  there  in 
1582.  He  died  in  August,  1548.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
BiMhops,  p.  165. 

Hepburn,  John  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Dunblane,  and  one  of  the  lords  of  council  of  session 
in  1467.  In  1476  he  assisted  at  the  consecration  of 
dean  Livingstone  to  the  see  of  Dunkeld.  He  was  bishop 
of  this  see  in  1479.  He  died  in  1508.  See  Keith,  ^co/- 
iith  Bishops,  p.  178. 

Hepburn,  Patrick,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  prior 
of  St.  Andrews  in  1522,  and  in  1524  was  made  secretary, 
in  which  office  he  continued  until  1527.  He  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  see  of  Bloray  in  1535,  and  at  the  same 
time  held  the  abbey  of  Scone  in  perpetual  oommendam. 
He  was  bishop  of  Moray  still  in  1561,  and  probably  in 
1568.  He  died  at  Spynie  Castle,  June  20, 1573.  See 
Keith,  ScotUih  Bishops,  p.  150. 

Hepher.  This  place  Trelawney  Saunders  {Map 
of  the  0,  T,)  identifies  with  Khurbet  Kafir,  which  the 
Ordnance  Map  lays  down  eight  miles  northwest  of 
Hebron  (and  three  miles  east  of  Um-Burj,  the  neighbor- 
hood which  we  had  conjecturaUy  assigned),  and  the 
Memoirs  describe  (iii,  355)  as  '*  foundations  and  heaps 
of  stones.  It  has  the  appearance  of  an  old  site,  and  an 
ancient  road  passes  it." 

Heppe,  HsijfiucH  Ludwio  Julius,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  CiMsel  in  1820. 
He  studied  at  Marburg,  was  iu  1844  doctor  of  philoso- 
phy and  licentiate  of  theology*,  and  commenced  his  aca- 
demical career  at  Marburg.  In  1850  he  was  professor 
of  theology,  in  1864  he  was  honored  with  the  doctorate 
of  theology,  and  died  July  25, 1879.  He  wrote.  Diss,  de 
/a)co  Evanff.  Luces  xvi,  1-9  (Marburg,  1844) :  —  That" 
sachen  aus  der  Kurhessischen  Kirchengeschichte  (Casael, 
eod.):  —  Gesehichte  der  hessischem  Generalsynoden  von 
156»-1582  (1847,2  vols.):— //tutoriscAs  Untersuchwtffen 
iiber  den  Kassder  Catechismus  (ibid,  eod.) : — Einfuhrung 
der  Verbessenmgspunkte  in  /lessen,  etc  (1849)  i^Gesch. 
des  deutschen  Protestantismus  (1852-57,  3  vols.) : — IHe 
cor\fessiotieUe  Entwicklung  der  hessischen  Kirche  (1853) : 
— Die  conftssioneUe  EtUwiekUnff  der  alfprotestantischen 
Kirche  Deutschlands  (l8o4k)  i—Dogmatik  des  deutschen 
Protestaniismits  im  16  Jahrhundert  (Gotba,  1857,  3 
vols.) : — Gesehichte  des  deutschen  VoUcssdiulwesens  (1858- 
60,  5  vols.)  :  —  Dogmatik  der  evang,  -  re/omi.  Kirdie 
(1860)  ',—Die  Behenntnisschr^ften  der  r^hrm,  Kirchen 
Deutschlands  (eod.) : — Theodur  Beza,  I.,eben  und  ausge- 
wShke  Schri/len  (1861)  :—£tUstehung  und  Forthildung 
des  Lutherthums  (lHGa)i—Philipp  Melanchthon,  der 
Lehrer  Deutschlands  (1867)  i—Zur  Gesehichte  der  evang. 
Kirche  Rheisdands  und  Westfalens  (1867-70, 2  vols.)  :— 
Gesehichte  der  quietistisehen  Mystik  in  der  KathoL  Kirche 
(Berlin,  1875) : — Kirchengesdtichte  beider  /lessen  (Mar- 
burg, 1876,  2  vols.) : — Gesehichte  des  /Hetismus  in  der 
Rtformirten  Kirche  (Leyden,  1879).  See  Zuchold, 
Bibl,  TheoL  i,  539  sq. ;  Lichtenbergcr,  Encyclop.  des  Sci- 
ences Beligieuses,  s.  v.;  Zur  Erinnerung  an  H,  //eppt 
(Marburg,  1879).    (a  P.) 

XH.-M  u 


Heraolela,  a  festival  anciently  celebrated  at  Ath* 
ens  every  five  years  in  honor  of  the  Grecian  god  Hera- 
cles (q.  y.). 

Heraclldte,  suraamed  Cyprus,  from  his  place  of 
birth,  was  liberally  educated,  became  a  monk  under 
Evagrius,  and  deacon  at  ConstAutinople.  He  was  an 
ardent  friend  of  Chrysostom,  who  caused  his  election 
as  bishop  of  Ephesus  in  401;  but  he  was  afterwards 
persecuted  along  with  that  eminent  ecclesiastic,  and 
finally  shared  his  exile.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ, 
Biog.  s.  T. 

HeraoUteane,  the  followers  of  the  phibsopher 
HeraeUtus  (q.  v.). 

HeracliuB  (BraoUua  or  Bradius),  bishop  elect 
of  Hippo,  was  designed  by  Augustine,  Sept.  26,  426,  to 
become  his  successor,  but  owing  to  some  irregularity  he 
was  never  inaugurated  into  that  office,  and  the  fail  of 
Hippo  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals  abolished  the  see. 
There  are  attributed  to  Heraclius  two  sermons  found 
among  those  of  St.  Augustine.  See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog, 
GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Heraolius  (Eraole  or  Everard),  sixteenth  bish- 
op of  Liege,  was  of  a  distinguished  Saxon  family,  and 
was  educated  at  Cologne  under  the  care  of  Rathier, 
bishop  of  Liege.  He  became  provost  at  the  Collegiate 
Church  of  Bonn,  and  entered  upon  the  episcopal  see 
of  Liege  in  959.  He  devoted  his  attention  entirely 
to  the  cause  of  education,  establishing  new  schools, 
and  placing  at  their  head  wise  men,  whom  he  called 
from  Germany  and  from  France.  In  960  he  became 
involved  in  political  troubles,  during  which  he  died,  in 
971.  There  is  extant  of  him  a  letter,  written  about  943, 
to  Rathier,  bishop  of  Verona,  on  the  miraculous  healing 
of  a  cancer.     See  Hoefer,  Kouv,  Biog,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Heranaaikha  (from  the  Singhalese,  herana,  a 
novice,  and  si/cha,  a  rule  or  precept),  a  formular}'  re- 
quired to  be  committed  to  memory  by  the  Buddhist 
priest  during  his  novitiate.  It  contains  a  number  of 
obligations  which  the  young  priest  takes  upon  himself. 

Herberger,  Valkuius,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
bora  at  Fraustadt,  Prussian  Poland,  April  21, 1562,  and 
died  there.  May  18, 1627.  He  was  a  teacher  in  his  na- 
tive place  in  1584,  deacon  iu  1590,  and  pastor  in  1598. 
His  publications  are  still  highly  prized  in  the  German 
Evangelical  Church.  He  wrote,  Evangelische  Herxpos* 
tilte  (new  ed.  Beriin,  1853)  i^Epistolische  llerzpostiUe 
(ibid):  —  Geistreiche  Stoppelpostille: — Magnolia  Deu 
De  Jesu  Scriptura  Nucleo  et  Medulla  (Halle,  1854) :~ 
Passionszeiger  (ibid.  1S5S)  i—GeistUche  Trauerbinden : 
— Psallerparadies : — Erkldrung  des  Jesus  Sirach.  See 
Lauterbach,  Vita,  Fama  et  Fata  Valerii  Ilerbergeri 
(1708) ;  Ledderhose,  l^ben  Valerius  l/erbergers,  in  the 
SonatagslnbUothek,  vol.  iv,  parts  5  and  6  (Bielefeld,  1851); 
Specht,  Gesehichte  der  erangelisch  lulhei'ischen  Gemeinde 
zu  Fraustadt  (1855) ;  Plitt-llerzog,  Real-Encykhp.  s. v.; 
Lichtenberger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v. ; 
Zuchold,  Bill,  TheoL  i,  540;  Jocher,  AUgejneinu  Gelehr" 
ten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Herbeme,  bishop  of  Tours,  lived  about  the  9th 
century.  He  had  been  at  first  custodian  of  the  Oratory 
of  the  Seven  Sleepers,  a  dependency  of  Marmotitier, 
afterwards  abbot  of  that  monaster}',  which,  however,  is 
said  to  have  been  invested  by  the  Normans  in  858.  He 
then  travelled  through  Gaul,  but  finding  no  safe  asy- 
lum, finally  reappeared  in  the  city  of  Tours,  where  he 
was  received  as  a  sainL  Adalard,  archbishop  of  Tours, 
died  in  890,  and  Herberne  was  designated  to  succeed 
him.  After  the  desolation  of  Marmoutier,  the  Regular 
Canons  established  themselves  in  the  deserted  cloister 
there,  and  Herberne  failed  to  drive  them  away.  He  died 
in  916.  Some  critics  attributed  to  him  the  Tra'tatuc 
de  Reversions  8.  Martini,  which  was  published  iu  the 
BihUothitpty:  dj  CUtny,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GM- 
rale, 8.  V. 

Herbersteln,  Johank  Carl  Goaf  yon,  a  Ger- 


HERBERT 


646 


HERFT 


man  ooont  and  prelate,  was  horn  in  1732.  He  became 
bishop  of  Laybach  in  1772,  and  waa  one  of  the  meet  ar- 
dent promoters  of  the  ecclesiastical  innovationa  of  his 
day.  Pending  negotiations  with  the  pope  for  his  pro- 
motion to  the  archbishopric,  he  died,  Oct.  7, 1787,  leav- 
ing his  goods  to  the  poor  and  to  the  normal  school  of 
his  episcopal  city.   See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Herbert;  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  abbot  of  Kelso,  and 
chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  oonseciated  bishop 
of  Glasgow  in  1147,  by  pope  Eugenius  IIL  He  died 
bishop  of  this  see,  in  1164.  See  Keith,  Scottish  JBithopSf 
p.  232. 

Herbert,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  at  Youvnay, 
in  Maine.  He  waa  at  first  prior  of  Clermont,  in  Maine, 
and  then  abbot  of  Fontaines-les-Blanches,  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Tours.  Having  got  into  a  quarrel  with  Thi- 
bauld,  count  of  Blois,  he  returned  to  Maine,  where  he 
became  abbot  of  Clermont  in  1179.  Finally,  in  1184, 
^e  was  made  bishop  of  Rennes;  in  1190  he  accompanied 
Richard,  king  of  England,  to  Domfront.  While  at 
Rennes  he  had  a  difference  with  Andrew,  lord  of  Vitre, 
whom  he  excommunicated  until  he  obtained  his  entire 
submission.  In  1198  the  pope  sent  him  to  Bourgaeil, 
on  the  frontier  of  Tours,  to  restore  the  good  order  of 
that  monastery.  He  died  at  Rennes,  Dec.  11,  1198. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirakf  s.  v. 

Herbert  of  Bosham  waa  bom  at  Bosham,  Sussex, 
and  being  a  good  scholar,  was  a  manulnu  to  Thomas  k 
Becket,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  waa  present  at 
the  murder  of  that  prelate,  and  wrote  an  account  of  it. 
Going  over  to  Italy,  he  was  by  pope  Alexander  III  made 
archbishop  of  Beneventum,  and  in  December,  1178,  cre- 
ated cardinaL  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  See 
Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  244. 

Herbert  de  Losing,  a  Norman  prelate,  was  bom 
at  Hiesmes  (pagus  Oximiensis),  in  Normandy,  about 
the  middle  of  the  11  th  centur}-.  He  was  a  monk,  and 
afterwards  prior  of  the  abbey  of  Fecamp.  William 
Rufus  called  him  to  England  in  1087,  and  made  him 
abbot  of  Ramsey.  By  the  royal  favor,  or  some  other 
means,  Herbert  became  so  rich  that,  in  1091,  he  bought 
from  the  king,  for  the  price  of  1000  livres,  the  bishopric 
of  Thetford  for  himself,  and  the  abbey  of  Winchester 
for  his  brother  RoberL  This  most  scandalous  transac- 
tion was  generally  censured,  and  Herbert  went  to  Rome 
to  seek  absolution  from  his  simony.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  transferred  the  episcopal  seat  of  Thetfoni 
to  Norwich.  At  Thetford  he  founded  a  convent  of 
monks  of  Cluny,  and  built  a  cathedral;  also  a  monas- 
tery and  two  churches  at  Norwich,  three  churches  at 
Elmham,  at  L>iin,  and  at  Yarmouth.  The  last  years 
of  his  life  Herbert  consecrated  to  the  establishment  of 
ecclesiastical  discipline,  thus  effacing  the  spot  upon  his 
entry  into  the  episcopacy.  William  of  Malmesbury 
spealcs  of  Herbert  as  a  man  of  great  knowledge,  and 
Henry  of  Huntingdon  m«kcs  mention  of  his  writings. 
He  died  July  22, 1119.  According  to  Bayle,  he  com- 
posed a  book  of  Sermons^  eighteen  in  number,  two  trea- 
tises, De  Prolixitate  Tempontm  et  De  Fine  Afundi, 
monastic  rules,  a  collection  of  letters,  and  a  treatise,  i4d 
Anselmum,  etc.,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Geni- 
raUf  8.  V. 

Herbert,  William,  D.C.L.,  an  Engli&h  clergyman, 
was  bora  at  Highclere  Castle,  Bucks,  in  1778,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton,  and  at  Christ  Church  and  Merton  Col- 
leges, Oxford.  He  took  holy  orders  in  1814,  was  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  Spoffurth,  appointed  dean  of 
Manchester  in  1840,'and  died  in  1847.  He  published, 
The  Triumphs  of  Christianity :— Sermons  (1820):— rA« 
Spectre  of  the  Tomh^  etc  See  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit, 
and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

HerbioiOB,  John,  was  bora  at  Bitschen,  in  Silesia, 
in  1682,  and  was  deputed  by  the  Polish  Protestant 
churches  to  those  of  Germany,  Holland,  etc.,  in  1664. 
He  died  in  1676.    Among  his  works  is  De  Statu  Ecde- 


siarum  A  ugustasuB  Confestumis  in  PoUmia  (1670).    Sae* 
Chalmers,  Biog.  DicL  s.  ▼. 

Herbst,  Ferdinand  Ig;natiaB,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  of  Pkotestant 
parentage  at  Leipsic  in  1798.  He  studied  at  Jena  and 
Erlangen,  joined  the  chnrch  of  Rome  in  1882,  and  was 
preacher  at  Munich,  where  he  died.  May  11, 1865.  He 
publUhed,  BibUothek  ChrisUicher  Denker  (Leipaic,  1830- 
82,  2  vols.) : — Die  Kirche  und  ihre  Gegner  (Ratisbon, 
1833) : — A  nttoort  aufdas  Sendschreiben  tines  Gliedes  der 
evangelischen  Kirche^  etc  (Landshut,  eod.).  See  Winer, 
Tlandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  351 ;  Znchokl,  BibL  Theol.  i, 
541.     (a  P.) 

Herbst,  Johann  George,  a  German  Benedictine, 
waa  bom  at  Rottweil,  WUrtemberg,  Jan.  13, 1787.  In 
1812  he  xeoeived  holy  orders,  was  professor  of  theology 
at  Ellwangen  in  1814,  mi  1817  at  Tubingen,  and  died 
July  81, 1836.     He  published,  Observationes  Queedam  de 

Pentateucho: — De  Lingua  Beinr.  DM  et  MS  i-^EinleUvng 
in  die  heU.  SckrifUn  des  Alien  Testaments  (Freiburg, 
1840^2, 2  vols.>  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  885 ;  Lichten- 
berger,  Encgdop.  des  Sciences  ReUgieuseSf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Herder,  Felix,  a  Swiss  Reformed  theologian,  was 
bora  Jan.  81, 1741,  at  Zurich,  where  he  studied,  and  final- 
ly died,  Jan.  22, 1810.  He  published,  Predigten  iiber  die 
Gesehiehte  Josephs  (Zurich,  1784) : —  Versueh  eines  christ- 
lichen  ReHgionsunterrichts  (edited  by  J.  J.  Hess,  1811). 
See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  J)eutsehlands,  s.  v. ; 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  Lit.  i'i,  229, 839.     (B.  P.) 

Heredia,  Paulus  db.    See  Paulus  de  Heredia. 

Hereford  (or  Herford),  Nicholas,  an  English 
confessor  of  the  I4th  century,  was  educated  doctor  of 
divinity  at  Oxford,  became  a  secular  priest,  declared 
against  some  practices  and  principles  of  the  reigning 
religion,  maintaining  (1)  that  in  the  eucharist,  after  the 
consecration  of  the  elements,  bread  and  wine  still  Fe- 
mained;  (2)  that  bbhops  and  all  clergymen  ought  to 
be  subject  to  their  respective  princes;  (3)  that  monks 
and  friars  ought  to  mMntain  themselves  by  their  own 
labor;  (4)  that  priests  ought  to  rale  their  lives,  not  by 
the  pope's  decrees,  but  by  the  word  of  God.  From 
these  positions  many  heretical  opinions  were  drawn  by 
bis  enemies.  From  Oxford  he  was  brought  to  London, 
and  there,  with  Philip  Repington,  was  made  to  recant 
his  opinions  publicly  at  St.  PauFs  Cross  in  1382.  Rep- 
ington became  a  violent  renegade,  persecuted  his  party, 
for  which  he  was  rewarded  first  with  the  bishopric  of 
Lincoln,  then  with  a  cardinal's  cap.  Hereford's  recanta- 
tion did  not  much  avail  him,  as  archbishop  Arandel's 
jealousy  kept  him  a  prisoner  all  his  life.  We  know 
not  the  date  of  his  death.  Hereford  by  his  protest  an- 
ticipated the  Reformation,  but  he  probably  had  not  the 
stuff  to  make  a  Wycliffe  or  T\iidal.  See  Fuller,  Worthies 
of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  491 ;  Vox,  Acts  and  Monu- 
ments, iii,  26. 

Hereford  Use,  a  term  employed  to  designate  that 
rite. which,  taking  its  name  from  the  cathedral  of  Here- 
funi,  was  commonly  used  in  some  of  the  north-west 
counties  of  England,  and  in  parts  of  Wales,  prior  to  the 
Reformation.  It  differs  only  slightly  from  the  use  of 
Salisbury  in  the  prayer  of  oblation  and  in  the  commu- 
nion of  the  priest.  The  service-books  of  these  rites  are 
extremely  rare.  MSS.,  no  doubt,  were  everywhere  de- 
stroyed. Only  one  printed  edition  is  known — ^that  of 
Rouen,  dated  150?. 

Heres,  Mt.  For  this  Lieut  Conder  suggests  {Tent 
Work,  iii,  337)  Kefr  Hdrisy  but  he  gives  no  dew  to  the 
locality. 

Herft,  JoiiANK  Bbrxhabd,  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  April  27, 1745.  He  stud- 
ied at  MUnster,  took  holy  orders  in  1769,  was  in  1774 
cathedral  preacher  at  OsnabrUck,  canon  in  1778,  and 
dean  in  1790.  He  died  Mait:h  31, 1812.  His  writings 
are  sermons.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theolo^ 
DeutschlandSf  s.  r.     (B.  P.) 


HERma  51 

HaiinK  Davixl  Heixsich,  b  RtTurmcd  (htologiui 
of  Oanuiif,  WM  bom  at  Stoipe,  in  Fomerinii,  Dec  1, 
1T9S.  He  tta&ti  at  HilJe,  wu  la  17S7  prucli«  at 
NeuMaduEbenwalde,  and  accepted  in  1769  ■  call  u> 
Halie.  In  1786  be  wait  to  Breslao,  and  died  Aug.  21, 
1807.  He  puUiib«d,  Ot  cow  ■rofivilf  «  Deertto  Apo- 
tUiKco  (Halle,  17*8) :— Be  DoelTma  Biltami,  Nkolaila- 
ram  ti  Jaabdit  (eod.):-Voii  dir  ScMak  da  Apoldi 
Jokaiuia  (■  Epienu  {BnOta,  l7H)-^Ab^aitJbniffn 
nm  der  Selmkn  da-  Pmpietai  (ibid.  1777)  —Hittorudie 
Nackrickt  eon  dim  rrtttn  AufaagdiT  recoig^iick-rtfor- 
■Brfm  Kirda  w  BriadnAtTg  md  Prexur»  (Halle, 
1778),  besides  smnons.  See  Doring,  Die  gdikrtrn  TXr- 
iJogtn  DaiUcUmdi,i.\.\  Winer,  llmdbuclt  do-  iktoL 
Zif.  1,805;  ii,  223;  ¥)iTtt,  BibL  Jud.  \,  885.     (a  P.) 

Hvrlnga,  Jooocua,  ■  Dutch  divioe,  who  died  at 
ntredit  in  1840,  doctor  and  prafenor  of  theology,  ia  the 
author  crT,  Btoordtluiff  van  de  avaua  ui^are  der  Prole- 
gotnena  in  N.  Tat.  ran  J.  Jae.  Wetilein  ( Amaterdam, 
ie»!):  — I7r«rr  dm  Bfgrif,  die  Uneilbthrlickieii  uruf 
dem  rfciln  Gtivaiieli  der  biU.  krilti.  aui  dem  Holim- 
ditdim  jArrtrM  ton  Bedckaat  (Offenbach,  ISM)^  — 
Ueber  die  Lekrart  J'cnt  and  aeiner  ApotteL  (Cron]  the 
Dntch,  1792) ; — Tienial  Seemdnm  ler  aanprijiing  ran 
etruM.  dn^dai  (Amiterdam,  1836} ; — Opti-a  Exfg^ica 
H  Htrmmeutiea  (edited  by  H.  E.  Vinke,  Utrecht,  1846). 
Sea  WiiKT,  B<adb»di  da-  UtoJ:  £^  i,  18,  86,  92, 106, 
180,132,260,397,399;  ii,lll;  Zuehold,  BiU  TkeoLi, 
B43.    (a  P.) 

Haill-Kon,  in  Kalmuck  mylbologr,  is  the  prince 
of  bell ;  a  frigbtful  aod  evil-mipded  god,  the  judge  af 
DMO,  the  other  gods  being  too  merciAil  to  Judge  Ibe 


guilty.  To  implore  liia  favur  large  taciiGces  are  made 
to  him.  Sixteen  judgei  aasiat  him,  one  half  being 
malea,  the  other  hair  females. 

TKyBKRO,  a  Jewiah  conreit  or  the 

nalivo  of  Cologne.     His  Jewiah 

u  Judoh  Lm.    After  his  conversion  he  entered 


!  order 


le  Prem. 


e  OpuiculBB 


of  Csppenberg,  in  Westphalia. 
dt  Conrertiont  Sua,  preaerred 
at  Leipsie,  and  printed  with  Raymund  Martin's  Pujio 
t'idei,  Herman  also  wrote  Vila  S.  Godr/ridi  Cappen- 
itrgauit,  found  in  the  A  ela  Saactoran  under  Jan.  13. 
See  Dartolocci,  BOL  Sabb.  iii,  69 ;  Kalkar,  Iirat!  u«d  die 
KiriAe,  p.  85 1  Jucher,  AUgentina  GtteArlen  -  Ltiiion, 
s.  v.;  Neander,  Kirdungacltichte,  r,  101  sq. ;  Wolf,  BUJ. 
BAr.  i,  362;  Basnage,  Ilittaire  dri  Jui/i  (Taylor's 
tratwL),  p.  633;  Ftlrst,  BiU.  Jad.  i,  BS7.     (a  P,) 

Herman,  Z>ebreoht  Frederiok,  D.D.,  one  of 
the  earlier  minietera  of  the  Cermin  Keformed  Church, 
was  bum  in  the  principality  of  Anbalt-Kuthen,  Ger- 
many, Oct.  9, 17G1.  He  proaecnled  hia  literary  and 
theological  studies  in  Europe,  and  (or  a  while  sored  ■■ 
assistant  pastor  in  finmeti.    In  1786  he  emigrated  to  i 


HERUANT 

AtDMlca,  under  the  aosplces  of  the  synods  of  Holland, 
to  aid  in  augiplying  the  German  chorcbu  in  Penn- 
sylrania  with  the  meana  of  grace.  He  labored  (br  a  • 
sbort  tinte  in  and  around  Euton,  Pa.,  afterwirda  in 
Gennantown  and  Frankfn^,  near  Philadelphia,  and 
ftiuUy  in  Hontgomery  County.  He  died  Jan.30, 1848. 
Dr.  Herman  paid  much  attention  to  the  training  of 
young  men  for  Che  ministry.  He  was  in  his  day  a 
promioent  minister,  and  a  leaned  and  able  theologian. 
See  HarUugh,  FatMtn  of  lit  Germ.  Rrf.  Ckurch,  ti,  860. 
(D.  r.  H.) 

Hsimuidad,  societies  In  Spain  which  were  accus- 

med  to  supply  victims  to  the  Inquisition  (q.  v.). 

Hennann,  Bmll,  a  German  Protesunt  profcMor 
of  canon  law,  was  bom  at  Dresden,  April  9, 1812.  He 
studied  at  Leipaio,  where  he  also  commenced  hia  aca- 
demical career  in  1834.  He  waa  ptofesHir  at  Kiel  in 
1842,  in  1847  at  Guttingen,  and  in  1868  at  Heidelberg, 
In  1872  he  was  called  to  Berlin  aa  president  of  the 
Evangelical  Superior  Church  Council(06«'itiraU>iriiMi), 
and  occupied  thia  position  till  1877.  He  died  at  Goiha, 
April  16, 1885.  Hermann  published,  JokawK,Freikerr 
iM3c4ioar«iiierj(Leipsic,1841);— jlB/oriliB  det  kirch- 
licAoi  SfndioU  (Kiel,  1846) :—  t'rfw  die  SUltung  der 
RdigvmyoHemdiqfltn  im  Slaate  (Uoltingen,  1849);— 
feier  den  Entwrf  riner  KirckenOTdBvng  Jur  die  SdcS- 
nsdU  Laodaldrcln  (Berlin,  1861):— i>i'a  nothKoidigea 
Grundlaffen  «an-  die  coKtiMoriali  and  lynodale  Ordaung 
vereimgtnilm  Kirtlmrer/aaung  (ibid.  1863);  —  Dot 
ttaallicke  Vila  bei  Bitchn/iuiahlen  noch  dem  Heckle  dtr 
oberr/uiniidtn  Kirchmprocint  (Heidelberg,  1860).  See 
Zucbold,  BibL  Thiol  i,  646  sq.     (a  P.) 

Hannaiui,  Oottlob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Loliau,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  May 
37, 17!L  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1753  arch- 
in  at  Bischofiwenla,  in  1759  paslor  primarius  at 
ative  place,  and  died  Jan.  3,  1789.  His  publics, 
are  sermoni  and  ascetics!  worka.  See  DSring, 
Diegthirten  TlUolagta  Deultchlandi,  s.  y.     (a  P.) 

Hannann,  Johaim  Oot±Mad,  a  Lutheran  the. 
ilogisn  of  Germany,  waa  bom  in  Saxony,  Oct.  13, 1707. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1783  deacon,  received  a 
:all  in  1738  to  Amsterdam  aa  pastor  of  the  German  con- 
gregation, but  accepted  the  appointment  as  saperin- 
ceiident  at  Plauen.  In  1746  be  was  called  to  Dresden 
as  court-preacher  and  member  of  consistory,  and  died 
July30,179L  He  published,  ife  Fane  Azyma  el  Fer- 
mtntato  in  Cinia  Domini  (Leipuc,  1739),  besides  a  num- 
ber of  sermons.  See  Doring,  Die  gtltirltn  Titologen 
Dnltddand;  s.  v.;  Winer,  Handivck  der  lAeol  Lit.  i, 
603.    (a  P.) 

Hermaiiseii,  Christbm,  a  Lutheran  theologian, 
was  bom  in  1806  in  Denmark,  and  died  at  Copenhagen, 
Oct.  19,  1883,  doctor  and  proTeBSor  of  theology.  For 
more  than  forty  yean  be  belonged  to  the  unlverutv  at 
Copenhagen,  in  which  he  lectured  on  the  Old  TeM. 
He  was  one  of  Che  revisers  uf  the  Danish  Bible  iraiis- 
Ution.    (B.P.) 

Herman^  Goi>Ernoi,  a  French  thcologisii,  was 
bom  at  Ueauvais,  Feb.  6, 1617.  Having  compleUil  his 
studies,  he  was  appoinled  in  1642  canon  at  his  native 
place,  in  1644  priur,and  in  1C60  doctor  of  the  Sorboune. 
In  1661  he  took  holy  orders,  and  tetumol  to  Beauvais 
to  officiate  there  as  prieat  In  1690  Hermint  went  to 
Paris  to  see  hia  old  friends,  and  on  July  11  died  sud- 
denly in  the  street.  Of  hia  msiiy  writings  we  men- 
tion, Apologie  pom-  M.  Armwld  (1044-18) ;— in  Vie 
de  Saint  Jran  Chryioii6we  (1664  and  often);— Tte  dt 
Saint  Alhanaie  (1671,  2  vols.) :  —  J>J  Aiciligati  dr 
Saint  Batiit  mic  Rrmarqutt  (16TI-I727):  — Tm  de 
Sainl  Baiiie  et  de  Saint  Grigoire  de  Naiianze  (1674,  3 
vols.) ;—  Vie  de  Saint  A  nttrowe  (1678)  i—EBtrrtirnt  Spi- 
rilueli  nr  Saint  MaO/iieu  (1690,  B  volt.)  -.—Clatii  Dit- 
eiptina  Ecdetiailica,  wu  Index  ToHui  Jarit  Eedeti- 
(utM(16BB).    SetHuWet, La  Vie dtGodrfrofBerptant; 


Flgan  af  Bermannblf. 
it  father,  wbo  finally  up- 


HERMANUBIS  Si 

Nkmbigt  da  plat  CiMru  Di/euturt  et  Com/eaam  de 
la  VtriU,I,iy;  AbHgidttHi,LEedii.xi[iBi,yli:,DKl. 
.  niUorifiitet  Critique !  lliil. Cisirak  de rort-Jtoyal,'!*, 
Tiii',  haiiolA.Jaiaia.1  Joeim,  AUgenieiia  GtMrtat- 
Ltxikm,  «.  T.;  Winer,  ffondiucA  dtr  lluoL  Lil.  i,  SU, 
e&9,  T02,  T!8,  Sa4,  886,  8B7,  90! ;  Uchtenberger,  £«y- 
riiip.  du  Sdema  Rdigiaiia,  a.  V.  \  Hatta,  JVoNV.  Biog, 
GiitirriU,is.y.     (U.  P.) 

Hatmatiabl*.  Roiniiia  and  Greeks  aought  to  mika 
thcii  cultiii  accord  with  tlwt  of  Ibe  EgjpluBs.  Tbiu, 
Aaobis  of  the  Egrptiuti 
wucanfouadHlHitbllcr- 
tatv  of  the  Homuis  or 
Ucimei  of  tbe  Greeki, 
and  thus  thcra  originat- 
ed tbe  eoropoDnd  word 
Hennanubia  —  Mereuiy 
being  repre««nled  with 
Iheanake-a[a(F,inhamaa 
rurm,  but  with  a  dog'a 
head,  and  to  deiignate 
•till  cloMT  the  wuntiT 
of  his  worahip,  with  a 
crooidile  at  hit  feet. 
See  AauRtB, 

Hermenglld  (£r- 
miiiisildui),  Viaigotb 
prince  uf  Spain,  wu  the 
elder  of  the  two  aona  of 
the  Arian  king,  Leovi- 
gekl,  by  hia  ArM  wife, 

of  Bactica  on  hii  mar- 
riage.    He  icbelled  igaii 

tured  him  about  A.D.  572,  and  put  bim  to  death'.  Hi 
11  commemorated  ai  a  uint  by  the  Roman  Church  oi 
April  IS,  aa  he  had  embru^ed  the  Catholic  faith.  See 
Smith,  Did.  n/Ckritl.  Biog.  uy. 

Hormes,  Harmann  Daniel,  a  Lutheran 
gian  of  Germany,  wu  bom  Jan.  2,  17S4,  in  Pomerania. 
He  itudied  at  Halle,  wat  teacher  at  Uerlin  in  17&S,  in 
I76G  profeaaor  at  tho  Higdalene  f^j'miiiHum  in  Bre*- 
Uu,  in  1771  preacher  there.  In  179t  he  waa  called  to 
llerlin  as  member  of  the  examination  commisaion  of 
caiididatea  fur  the  miniatrv,  accepted  a  call  M  profeaur 
of  Ibeology  to  Kiel  in  1805,  ami  died  Nor.  12, 1S07. 
lleaidc*  aeveral  volume*  of  icrmoni,  be  publiahed,  Dtr 
Chiiil  anf  dm  Knmkabellt  (DmUu,  mt):  —  l>ie 
Lehrt  dor  htUigeit  Schrift  (17:5-79,  8  parta) ;— Scicma 
Arantutif  CandidaloniiH  S.S.  Mimtterii  Rilt  Intliluendi 
(Berlin,  1790) :— Siv/i  uirr  die  Lthirgriffe  dri  proli 
alimtitchm  Kirche  (Leiprie,  1800) :—  I'nwcA  iwechnSi 
liger  Betrachtiaigen  iiier  die  bOilitchm  Wriuagiaya 
(1801).  See  During,  DeaUdlt  KaiuelrtdHtr ;  Winer, 
l/andbuck  der  ihtoL  Lil.  i,  483.     (B.  P.) 

Bennes,  Joliann  Angnat,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Getniany,  waa  born  at  Magdeburg,  Aug.  21, 
1730.  He  Mudied  at  Halle,  wu  in  1767  preacher  at 
^leitendorf,  in  Mecklenburg,  and  in  I7G5  at  Wabren. 
He  leaigned  the  paitorale  di  ilie  Utter  place  on  account 
of  hii  liberal  viewa,  which  he  cxptcsKil  both  in  the 
pulpit  and  ill  writing,  anil  accepted  a  call  in  1774  lu 
Jericho,  in  Ihe  duchy  of  lla^iltburj;.  In  1780  he  was 
cppainted  firat  paator  at  At.  Ni^lmlia.  in  (Juedliuburg, 
and  in  1799  lirat  court- preacher.  He  died  Jan.  6, 182-J. 
He  pub!iihed,/yund£ucA  dcr  Jirfw*"!  (Uerlin,  1779;  llh 
ed.  1791) :— ConmiDiion&icjt  (1783,  5lh  ed.  1798):— 
fxhrbneh  dtr  Rtligim  Jaa  (Qnedliiiburg,  1798;  3d  ed. 
1822)  -.—l/al  Chriilui  aueh  /Sr  die  leilliehtn  SIm/rn 
'ler  SSrde gemg gelkimt  (1792).  See  Diirini", />fufjrA* 
Kamelrtdaei- :  W'mtr,  //undbucH  dtr  IkeoL  Li/.i,9;  ii, 
131,  218,282,  296,  317,  865.     (H.  P.) 

Bermea,  Jotaanu  Tlmotheus,  a  (ierman  iheo- 
logian,  brother  of  Hermann  Daniel,  v,ii9  bom  in  1738, 
He  Btudied  at  K^nigibcrg,  was  lor  aome  time  preacher 
in  Sileaia,  accepted  a  call  in  1772  to  Breelau,  and  died 


UERMON 

July  U,  1891,  anpniotendent  and  pastor  primariua  at 
St  Elicabetb.  His  publications  an  mostly  germooi. 
See  Doring,  DrutiAe  Kamdtvdaer;  Winer,  Handbtck 
dtr  ikeoL  Lil.  ii,  97,  111,  168, 172, 178, 341, 401.  (B.  P.) 
Morse  mythology,  was  the  son  of  Odin, 
to  Hercur;  in  the  Greek  syston,    H« 


Figure  nt  IlBCDod. 
I  a  herald  of  the  gods,  distinguished  by  his  qniekne 

HermogAnlans. 

Hennon.    We  give  the  latest 
r  this  remarkable  moi 
'idetlipt,  i,  261  aq.)  : 

D.U  A.H.  (rmm  R»beTab,wiiicii 
iiaaiuj  drat  lhron«h  Iha '- 


.. >r  hawthorn,  aud  houeyaackta  ._ 

—     ..  _  thna  ronched  the  boiiom  ofiba  maiu  peak, 
mslaling  entirely  of  jcny  rocka,  wrnn  h/aiinwaad  rain 

iiiloJagBed  teeth  and  ridge*,  en " 

orsrarel.  It  seemed  lnipossIb1< 
for  laden  mnlea,  to  toll  np:  bii 
and  the  bracing  mnniiialn  nir  seemea  to  ^tb  rigor  u> 

beted  up,  nnsslng  by  [hu  IiU]o  uitb  where  the  Initiated 

kiiaivu  dies.   BidfiO  nhn*e  ridee,  nf  met  anderai  — ■— ' 
apiieared,  eticli  teemliiely  Iha  Inil,  each  only  nldt 


TerWa  th 


!d™lt^«'lw 


h  onlj^ltltiiE 


HEROLD 


649 


HERRIGK 


above.  Not  a  crefttnre  was  to  be  seen,  except  an  occa- 
alonal  ynltare,  and  not  a  tree  or  shrob,  for  the  enow  cot- 
era  all  this  part  of  the  moantain  till  late  iu  anmmer.  By 
two  o'clock  we  reached  the  sntnmie. 

*'  A  ffloriona  panorama  repaid  ua  for  onr  labor.  8onth 
of  oa  lay  Palestine,  ▼iaible  as  far  as  Carmel  and  Tabor, 
Boroe  eighty  miles  away:  caetwnrd  a  broad  plain,  with 
detached  hills  on  the  dim  horizon  beyond;  westward 
the  Lebanon  and  the  eoldeu  sea;  northward, rooontains 
as  high  SB  Ilermon,  Lebanon,  and  Anti-Lebanon.  Aa  the 
snn  sank  lower,  Palestiue  tn^ame  more  distinct,  and  ap- 

gsnred  wonderfully  narrow.  The  calm,  green  Sea  of 
alilee  lay,  dreamlike,  in  its  circle  of  dark-j^y  hills. 
Tabor  was  Just  vivlbte  to  the  sonth,  and  fh>m  it  the  ulatean 
ran  ont  east  to  the  Iloms  of  Ilattin.  The  broken  cnain  of 
the  Upper  Galilaean  Hill»,  4000  feet  high,  lay  l)eneath  the 
eve,  and  terminated  in  the  I^adder  of  Tyre.  ll)e  mole  of 
Tyi^  Blood  out  blackagainBt  the  gleaming  water ;  and  the 
deep  gorge  of  the  LitAny  conld  be  jeen  winding  paft  the 
beautiful  fortress  of  Belfort.  Dim  and  misty  beyond,  lay 
the  ridge  of  Carmel,  from  the  promontory  to  the  peak  of 
Sacriilce.  The  white  domes  iu  Tiberias  were  shinine  in 
the  snn,  and  many  of  the  Galilean  towns,  including  SaTed, 
conld  be  distingnished.  The  scene  presented  a  great 
contrast  on  the  east  and  west.  In  the  brown,  desolate, 
and  boundless  plain  to  the  east  stood  the  distant  green 
oasis  of  Damascus,  and  the  white  city,  with  Its  tall  mina- 
rets. The  flat  horizon  was  broken  only  by  the  peaks  of 
Jebel  Kulelb,  the  *  Hill  of  Bashau,*  Bome  seventy  miles 


away.  Sonth 'east  of  Damascus  was  the  terrible  LeUa 
district,  a  basin  of  basalt  seamed  with  deep  gorges,  like 
rough  Rirrows,  and  with  isolated  cones,  into  which  one 


appeared  to  look  down*  so  distinctly  were  the  shadows 
marked  inside  the  hollow,  broken  craters.  No  trees  or 
water  relieved  the  duBkv  color:  but  the  great  dust  whirl- 
winds were  swirling  siowly  along  over  the  plain b.  the 
bodies,  as  the  Arabs  tell  ns,  of  huge  malignant  spirits, 
carrying  destruction  in  their  path.  At  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  little  villages  were  perched  on  the  rocks,  and  a 
stream  glittered  in  a  green  valley.  In  most  of  these  ham- 
lets there  is  a  temple  facing  the  rising  aun,  which  ajpiiears 
first  from  behind  the  great  plain  on  the  east  Ou  the 
west,  high  mountain  walls,  ridge  behind  ridge,  reached 
out  towards  BeyrOt,  and,  on  the  north,  cedar  cinmps  and 
ragged  peaks,  gray  and  dark,  with  long,  sweeping  shad- 
ows, were  thrown  In  strong  contrast  against  the  shining 
sea.  The  sun  began  to  set,  a  deep  ruby  flush  came  over 
all  the  scene,  ana  warm  purple  shadowB  crept  slowly  on. 
The  Sea  of  Galilee  was  lit  up  with  a  delicate  sreenish- 
yellow  hue,  between  its  dim  walls  of  hill.  The  flush  died 
out  in  a  few  minutes,  and  a  pale,  steel-colored  shade  snc- 
ceeded.  although  to  qb,  at  a  height  of  9150  feet,  the  sun 
was  still  visible,  and  the  rocks  around  us  still  ruddy.  A 
long  pyramidal  shadow  slid  down  to  the  eastern  foot  of 
Hermon,  and  crept  across  the  great  plain ;  Damascus  was 
swallowed  up  by  it,  and  flnally  the  pointed  end  of  the 
shadow  stooid  ont  distiuctiv  against  the  Bky  — a  dusky 
cone  of  dull  color  against  the  flush  of  the  afterglow,  ft 
was  the  shadow  of  tlie  monntalii  itself,  stretching  away 
'  for  seventy  miles  across  the  plain — ^the  most  marvellous 
shadow  perhaps  to  be  seen  anywhere.  The  sun  under- 
went strange  changes  of  »ha))e  in  the  thick  vapors — now 
almost  square,  now  like  a  domed  temple—until  at  length 
it  slid  into  the  sea,  and  went  out  like  a  bine  spark. 

"Our  tent  was  pitched  in  the  hollow,  and  six  beds 
crowded  into  it.  until  one  in  the  morning  we  continued 
to  observe  the  stars,  bnt  the  cold  was  very  considerable, 
though  no  snow  was  left,  and  the  oulv  water  we  had  was 
fetched  from  a  spring  about  a  third  of  the  way  down,  and 
tasted  horribly  of  the  gont-skin.  In  the  morning  I  ran 
to  the  peak,  and  saw  the  sun  emerge  behind  the  distant 
]>lain,  and  the  great  conical  shadow,  stretching  over  the 
sea  and  against  the  western  sky,  becoming  gradually 
more  blunt,  until  it  shrivelled  up  and  was  lost  upon  the 
hills  beneath. 

"The  top  of  Hermon  consists  of  three  rocky  peaks: 
two,  north  and  south,  of  equal  height— the  third,  to  the 
west,  considerably  lower.  On  the  southern  peak  are  the 
inlns  called  Kflsr  esh-ShabIb— a  rock-hewn  hollow  or 
trench,  and  a  circular  dwarf-wall,  with  a  temple  Just  be- 
low ^e  peak  on  the  south.  On  the  plateau  is  a  rudely- 
excavated  cave,  with  a  r(x;k-cnt  pillar  supporting  the 
roof,  and  a  flat  space  levelled  above,  probably  once  the 
floor  of  a  building  over  the  cave.  Or  all  these  obiects  of 
interest  we  made  careful  plans,  as  well  of  the  shape  of 
the  summit. 

"There  is  one  remarkable  natural  peculiarity  of  Her- 
mon still  to  be  noticed— namely,  the  extreme  rapidity  of 
Uie  formation  of  cloud  on  the  summit.  In  a  few  minutes 
a  thick  cap  forms  over  the  top  of  the  mountain,  and  aB 
quickly  disperses  and  entirely  disappears.** 

Hembuttera.    See  Moraiiams. 

Herold,  Adam,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  May  31,  1659,  at  Dresden.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg,  Giessen,  and  Kiel,  was  in  1683  rector  at 
Beval,  in  1692  superintendent  in  Saxony,  and  doctor  of 
theology,  and  died  March  2, 1711.  He  wrote,  Palladium 
Rtfvrmatorvm  a  tua  Sede  cap,  ix  aa  Rom,  Destruelum : 


-^Tabula  Synoptioa  Totiu*  Tkeologia :  —  Ditp.  utrum 
Chrittut  Ultimum  Patcha  Eodem  an  Diverso  a  JudatU 
Die  Comederit: — De  Judeeorum  Excommunieatione  : — 
De  Moffis  BethUhemum  Profectis,  See  Ranft,  Leben  der 
ckunSehtitchen  GeUhrten ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemevut  Gelthv' 
ten-Lexikonj  a.  v.     (R  P.) 

Hero*  (Eros),  metropolitan  bishop  of  Aries  in  the 
early  part  of  the  5th  century,  was  originally  bishop  of 
Tortosa,  in  Spain,  but  was  expelled  by  the  people  from 
Aries  in  412,  and  fled  to  Palestine,  where  he  took  part 
in  the  opposition  to  Pelagius.  After  A.D.  417  be  is  not 
heard  of.     See  Smith,  Did,  of  Chiisf,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Hero-'worahip.    See  Ii>olatrv. 

Herrad  op  Lakdspero,  an  abbess  of  Hohenburg, 
or  Odilienberg,  an  old,  celebrated  monaster^',  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  duke  Etliicot,  whose  daughter 
Odilia  was  the  flrst  abbess.  Herrad  succeeded  the  ab- 
bess Relindis  in  1167,  and  died  July  25, 1195.  She  is 
said  to  have  composed  the  flortiu  Deliciarum,  a  work 
containing  contributions  to  Biblical  history  and  to  Ihe  en- 
tire field  of  theology.  A  copy  of  the  ffoiiuSf  preserved 
at  the  Straaburg  library,  was  destroyed,  with  other  pre- 
cious documents,  at  the  bombardment  of  that  city,  Aug. 
24,  1870.  See  Engelhart,  Ifeirad  von  Landsperg  vnd 
ihr  Werk  Uortus  Deliciarum  (Stuttgart,  1818) ;  Le  No- 
ble, Noiict  sur  le  l/ortut  Deliciarum  de  Uerrade  de 
Landsperg  (Paris,  1839) ;  Piper,  Die  Kalendarien  der 
AngeUachien  vnd  das  Martyrologium  der  Herrad  von 
lAtndsperg  (Berlin,  1862) ;  Lichtenberger,  Enqfdop,  des 
Sciences  ReligieuseSj  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  A'ov r.  Biog,  GhisraUj 
8.V.     (RP.) 

Herregouts,  Henrt,  a  distinguished  Flemish  paint- 
er  of  historical  subjects,  was  born  at  Mechlin  about  1666. 
There  are  several  of  his  pictures  iu  the  churches  of 
Antwerp,  Louvain,  and  Bruges.  In  the  cathedral  at 
Antwerp  is  The  Maiiyrdom  of  St,  Matthew ;  and  at 
Bruges,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Anne,  is  his  masterpiece, 
representing  The  Last  Judgment,  He  died  at  Antwerp 
in  1724.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirnle,  s.  v. ;  Spoon- 
er,  Biog,  IJist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Herrera,  Abraham  de,  a  famous  Cabalist,  w^ho 
died  in  1639,  is  the  author  of,.D*^nbx  H'^S,  or  Casa  de 
DioSf  the  system  of  the  cabala  in  seven  divisions  (trauri. 
into  Hebrew  by  Aboab,  Amsterdam,  1655;  and  into 
Latin  by  Rosenroth,  in  his  Cabbala  Denudata,  vol.  ii, 
Sulzbach,  1678) :— 0*>crn  nriy,  or  Porta  dtl  Cielo^ 
also  on  the  Cabala  (Hebrew  transL  by  Alx>ab,  1655; 
Latin,  in  Cabbala  Denudata^  vol.  i).  See  FUrst,  Bibl" 
Jttrf.i,886.     (RP.) 

Herrera,  Augtistln  de,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  who 
died  in  1649  at  Seville,  is  the  author  of,  De  Origine  et 
Progressu  in  Ecdesia  Catholica  Rituum  et  Ceremoma- 
rum  in  SS,  Misses  Saaificio :  —  Continent,  in  Syntaxi 
A  nlonii  Nebrissensit,  See  Alegambe,  BibUotheca  Scrip- 
torum  Societatis  Jesu;  Jiicher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Herrgott,  Marquard,  a  Benedictine,  who  died  at 
Vienna  in  1762,  is  the  author  of  Vetus  Disciplina  Mo- 
nastica  (Paris,  1726).  See  Winer,  //andbuch  der  theol. 
Lit,  i,  711 ;  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a,  v. 
(R  P.) 

Herrlck,  Marcus  A,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  rector  of  the  Church  in  Woodstock, 
Vt.,  in  1853,  and  so  remained  until  1861,  when  he  be- 
came rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Sanbomton  Bridge, 
N.  H.  In  1870  he  was  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  in  Til- 
ton,  and  continued  to  hold  this  pastorate  until  his 
death,  Oct.  81, 1875,  at  the  age  of  fifly-five  yean.  See 
Prot,  Episc,  A  Imanac,  1876,  p.  150. 

Herrlck,  Robert,  an  English  divine  and  eminent 
poet,  was  born  in  London,  Aug.  20,  1591,  graduated  at 
Cambridge  in  1617,  and  was  presented  to  the  living  of 
Dean  Prior,  Devonshire,  in  1629.  In  1648  he  was  de- 
prived by  Cromwell,  bnt  was  reinstated  in  his  living  by 


HERRMANN 


650 


HERXHEIMER 


Charles  II,  in  1660.  He  died  in  October,  1674.  His 
works  are,  Hetperides ;  or.  The  WorhSf  both  Humane 
and  Divine,  of  Robert  Herrick  (1648).  To  this  Tolume 
was  appended  bis  Kobie  Nuniers  (1647).  See  Chal- 
mers, Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
A  uthors,  8.  V. 

Hemnann.  Christian  Gotthilf  Habtui,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Erfurt, 
Feb.  8, 1765.  He  studied  at  his  native  city  and  Got- 
tingen,  was  in  1789  catechist,  in  1790  professor,  and  ac- 
cepted a  call  in  1803  as  general  superintendent  and 
member  of  consistory  to  Heiligenstadt,  in  Pruiisia.  In 
1816  he  went  back  to  Erfurt,  was  in  1817  senior  of  the 
ministry  and  superintendent  of  the  Erfurt  diocese,  and 
died  Aug.  26, 1823.  His  publications  are  few  and  of  lit- 
tle value.  See  Doring,  Die  gdehrten  Tkeologen  Deuttch- 
lands;  Winer,  f/andbuch  der  theoL  LU,  ii,  236.    (B.  P.) 

Hertenatein,  Johann  Friedbich,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Ulm,  Aug.  11, 1676. 
He  studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1705  teacher 
at  his  native  place,  in  1728  preacher  at  Milnster,  and 
died  May  25, 1748.  He  is  the  author  of,  Disp.  de  Jura^ 
mentis : — De  CuUu  Divino  Naturali : — De  Magno  Piece, 
qui  Jonam  Vatem  DeglutivU: — De  Natura  Theoloffia 
XaturaUs: — De  Studio  SapiaUia  Veierum,  etc.  See 
Neubauer,  Jetztlebende  Theolotfen ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i, 
387 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrtat-Lexikon,  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Hertfelder  (von  ITetiinffen),  Bbrmhard,  abbot  at 
Augsburg,  was  bum  in  1587.  He  studied  at  Bome, 
was  prior  at  Salsburg,  and  in  1635  abbot  at  Augsburg. 
He  died  in  1664,  leaving,  BatiUca  SS,  Udcdrici  et  Afra 
(Augsburg,  1653  fol.)  i—Chronicon  Templi  et  SS,  Udalr 
rici  et  A/rce  (eod.) : — Bistoria  Sacrarum  ReUquiarum 
in  Basilica  Udalricana  (eod.,  Germ.  transL  by  Kistler, 
1712  fol.)  i—Scala  Ccdi  Meditationibus  Piit  et  Utilibut 
Instructa  (1655).  See  Jlittoria  Univertalis  Salisbur' 
ffennt,  p.  255;  Ziegelbauer,  Hist.  Litter.  Oidinis  Ben^- 
dictini;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoLLit.  i,  786;  Jbcher, 
A  Ugemeines  Geiehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hertford,  Coui(cil  of  {Concilium  Hertfordiense, 
or  IferutforduB),  was  held  at  Hertford,  the  principal 
borough  of  Herts,  Englapd,  Sept.  24, 673,  by  Theodore, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  the  bishops  of  East  Anglia 
(Bise),  Rochester  (Putta),  Wessex  (Lutherius),  Mercia 
(Winfred),  together  with  the  deputies  of  Wilfred  of 
Northumbria,  and  several  canonists,  being  present.  Ten 
canons  were  drawn  up. 

1.  Commands  the  observance  of  Easter  day  on  the 
Snudny  after  tho  fourteenth  day  of  the  moon  iu  the  first 
Jewish  mouth. 

2.  Commands  that  no  bishop  shall  intrude  upon  the 
parish  (parochlam)  of  another  bishop,  bot  shall  rest  con- 
tented with  the  goverameot  of  the  people  Intrasted  to 
him. 

8.  Enacts  that  It  shall  not  be  lawftil  for  any  bishop  in 
any  way  to  disturb  or  plunder  any  monastery. 

4.  Forbids  monks  to  emierate  from  one  monastery  to 
another  without  the  permission  of  the  abbot. 

C.  Forbids  clerks  to  leave  their  own  bishop  and  to 
wander  about;  forbids  to  receive  them  anywhere  ex- 
cept they  shall  bring  letters  commendatory  from  their 
bishop. 

6.  Bishops  and  other  clergy  coming  (^om  another  church 
to  be  contented  with  the  hospitality  shown  to  them,  and 
not  presume  to  perform  any  office  in  the  church  without 
the  permission  of  the  bishop  of  that  church. 

7.  Orders  the  holding  of^ synods  twice  in  every  vesr; 
and  addst  that  since  many  things  may  operate  to  hinder 
this,  one  shall  at  any  rate  be  called  evenr  year,  on  the 
kalends  of  August,  In  the  place  called  Cloveshooh  (or 
ClilTtfhoe). 

8.  Orders  that  bishops  shall  take  precedence  according 
to  the  date  and  order  of  their  consecration. 

9.  Declares  that  the  anestion  was  raised,  whether  the 
number  of  bishops  ouffht  to  be  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  increase  of  the  nithful,  but  that  nothing  was  de- 
termined. 

10.  Relates  to  marriages:  forbids  all  nnlawfVil  mar- 
riages ;  forbids  incest,  and  to  divorce  a  wife  except  for 
fornication ;  forbids  a  man  divorced  ft'om  his  wife  to  marry 
another  woman. 

See  Johnson,  JScdes.  Canons^  a.  d.  678 ;  BarfmSus,  A.  d. 

672 ;  Labbe,  ConciL  vi,  535 ;  Wilkins,  ConciL  i,  43. 


Herts,  JKirs-MiCHAsi;  a  Iknbh  poet  and  preieher, 
was  bom  July  26, 1766,  at  Qersloev,  near  Vordingborg. 
He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Ribe  in  1^19,  after  having 
passed  through  all  the  decrees  of  the  Church  hierarchy. 
He  died  June  2, 182ft,  leaving,  Det  Brfriede  Jerach  (in 
18  cantos,  Copenhagen,  1804)  :—De  JuUo  Firmico  Jf o- 
temo  (ibid.  1817)  -.--PradUeener  fibid.  1880)  -^Sind  in 
den  BUchem  d$r  KOmge  Spvren  aes  Pentateuch  und  der 
Mosaisdnen  Qesetze  zufinden  f  (Altona,  1822) :— also  i/e- 
fflotVs  in  the  Vidmshabelige  Parhandiinger  ted  SfoeHandt 
Stijis  Landemode^  I,  i-iii.  See  Hoefer,  Abvv.  Biog, 
GMrak,  s.  v. 

Hervaoua  (or  Huvanau)  of  Brittant,  an  abbot 
of  the  6th  century,  was  the  son  of  Huvamion,  a  pious 
and  accomplished  Gallic  noble,  was  bom  blind,  and 
educated  by  his  widowed  mother  for  the  monastic  life. 
He  built  a  monastery  upon  some  land  given  him  by 
Clovigonus,  in  the  town  of  Laungredec,  where  he  pre- 
sided till  extreme  old  age.  He  is  commemorated  as  a 
saint  on  June  17.    See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  a.  v. 

HervaBTiB  of  Maxmb  entered,  about  the  rear  1100, 
the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Bourg-Dieu,  in  Berry, 
and  spent  there  about  fifty  years.  He  devoted  himself 
entirelv  to  the  studv  of  the  Bible  and  fathers  of  the 
Church,  and  wrote  commentaries,  of  which  those  on 
Isaiah  and  the  Epistles  of  Paul  have  been  printed  (the 
former  in  1721  and  the  latter  in  1544,  among  the  works 
of  Anselm).  Both  are  found  in  Migne,  Patr,  Lat,  voL 
181.  Herveus  belongs  to  those  pious  theologians  of  the 
early  period  of  the  Middle  Ages,  in  whom  Christianity 
had  become  a  living  reality,  but  who,  fettered  by  the 
traditions  of  the  Church,  could  not  rid  himself  of  the 
latter.  See  Chemnitz,  Examen  Cone  Trid,,  de  Justifi" 
catione,  art.  7,  §  2;  Loci  Theologici,  de  JustijicaHonie^ 
cap.  I,  §  4 ;  Frank,  Die  Tkeologie  der  Konkordtenformdy 
ii,  54  sq. ;  Plitt-Herzog,  ReaUEucykhp,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

HervSBiia  of  Rheims  was  raised  to  that  archbish- 
opric in  the  year  900,  and  showed  great  energy  and 
fidelity  in  its  administration.  He  l>ecame  chancellor 
of  France  in  910,  and  died  July  2,  922.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

HerretuB,  Gentianus,  a  French  theologian,  was 
bora  in  1499  at  Olivet,  near  Orleans.  In  word  and 
writing  he  combated  (>ilvinism;  was  present  at  the 
coUoquy  of  Poissy  and  at  the  council  of  Trent.  In  1562 
he  was  made  canon  of  Rheims,  and  died  in  1584.  Besides 
a  great  many  translations,  he  published  of  bis  own, 
Oratio  ad  Concilium  Tridentmum  (Paris,  1556, 1568) :~ 
Caiechisme  ou  Sommaire  de  la  Foi  (1561) : — TVai^c  du 
Purgaioire  (1 562) : — Les  Ruses  et  Finesses  du  Diable  pour 
Ticker  a  A boUr  le  Saint  Sacrifice  de  Jssus-ChriU  (1 562). 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  LU.  i,  888;  Jocher, 
A  Ugememes  Gelehrteik-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Lichtenberger,  Eth 
cgdop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (B,  P.) 

Hervey,  Frkobrick,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate, 
fourth  earl  of  Bristol,  was  bom  in  1780,  and  educated 
at  Westminster  School  and  Corpus  Christ!  College, 
Cambridge.  He  was  originally  designed  for  the  bar, 
but  entered  into  holy  orders,  was  promoted  to  the  see 
of  Cloyne  in  February,  1767,  and  translated  to  that  of 
Derry  in  1768.  He  expendeid  most  of  his  patrimony  in 
liberality,  and  travelled  extensively  over  Europe.  He 
died  July  8, 1803. 

Henchelmer,  Salomon,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom 
in  1801.  He  studied  at  Marburg,  and  was  in  1831 
elected  land-rabbi  of  Beroburg,  and  died  Dea  25, 1884. 
He  published,  MlinM  *^niO^  Isradiiisehe  Glaubene^ 
und  PJUchtenlehre  (^linden,  1831;  27th  ed.  1877):— 
Praktische  Anleitung  zum  si^nellen  Erlernen  des  HdnrB- 
ischen  (Berlin,  1834;  6th  ed.  1873)  i-Tvm  fl^in,  Der 

Penlaleuek,^ic(mi\ 3ded.l865):— fi^^ain^l  &*«K*»29, 
Die  Propheten  und  Hagiograpken,  besides  a  nnmber  of 
Sermons.  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  387;  Kavserline, 
BibliothekJlidischerKttn»eiredH€r/u,lmi.    (RP.) 


HERZFELD 


1,  LiivT,  •  Jewiih  wriler  of  Germuiy,  wu 
bom  in  ISIO  at  Ellricb,  S«xddj.  He  itaaied  ac  Berlin, 
took  Ibe  d^ree  is  docCur  or  pbilowphy  in  1836,  wu 
■ppDiuted  l^d-nbbi  of  BniDiwich  in  IBIS,  and  died  ia 
1884.  He^blubtdiClirmahgiaJaJicum  etPrinomm 
Btgum  JIAraoTum  (BcTlin,  18»6)  i— P^Mp,  Hom  BuA 
KalKlM  (Bninawick,  18S8)  —Gacltichtii  da  VolUt  It- 
ratl  (1847;  9d  ed.  WSiy.—MtUonlogitcke  UiHrrta- 
tkasfftn,  etc  il8ea-SS):—ITamidigetchic6Ui  der  Judm 
dtt  Atl«nhunu  <^SJ9)  -.—PndigUK  (1858;  !d  ed.  186S), 
etc  See  FUnt,  Si'W.  /■<!  i,  S88 ;  ZuehaU,  BM.  ThtoL 
i,  MT;  KaywiliDg,  BibL  JidtMcker  KamarediuT,  ii, 
306  iq. ;  Monb,  Kminat  Itrtulilrt  of  tie  XJXik  Cm- 
Iny,  p.  138  iq.     (B.  P.) 

Berslleb,  CHRi8't:AS  Fiiikuricii  Cabi^  ■  Lutbei- 
III  theolaguRorGei- 


La  FrirrM  de  FfymoulA  tt  Johi  Darit/  (Uiuuine,  1846) : 
—Bfmerhmgen  6ber  Zmngti!i  Lthn  mm  da-  Vonrkuitg 
\ad  Gnudaaeahl  (ia  the  Stuilia  mtd  Krilikm,  1889)  :— 
and  ■  biographicil  aketcb,  Joham  Calcin  (Bule,  1843). 
{B.F.) 

Heshbon.  Tbe  followini;  ia  the  latest  deecriplion 
or  tbi>  otice  bmoDj  place  (TrUcnun,  l/oid  «f  Moot,  p. 
8S1); 


Ure<  pteee  of  wbIIIhe  at  the  wett  en 
Dd  hill  uu  which  Iha  o'd  roctrau  aiood, 


end  or  the  bold, 


nuny,  wu  bom  Dec 
4, 1760.     He  itudied 


luuiiim  there,  iu  1786 
ptracber  at  Bninden- 
barg,  and  died  Hatch 
19,I7M.  HeleftaeT- 
eral  columes  of  Str- 
oma. See  UiJring, 
Dk  jffciiTai  Theo- 
hgm  DtultfhUnidt ; 
Winer,  ItamHaci  dtr 
tlud.Lil.\i,l37,\i\, 
168, 19!.     (a  P.) 


(ird,  a  Roiiun  Cath- 
olic tbeologian  at 
Germany,  waa  bom 
in  1801  at  Franken- 
•tein,  Sileaia.  In 
1S2G  he  took  holy  or- 
ders, and  died  April 
17,  I8G7.  He  pablUheit,  KaiailimrtTagt  (flloeaii,  1856, 
i-<ro\M.):~Der  lalltolitdie  SttUoryrr  nachlmea  Amti- 
trrpJIidUmgm  mtd  AmIimTrichlaagm  (Breslau,  1839, 
3  Toll.)  :^Dit  Vtnealliing  da  htUiga  Bumahrotianli 
(Padecboro,  1859),    (B.  F.) 

R«n05,  Johum  Jmoob,  D.D,  a  Froteatant  tbe- 
ologian of  Germinv,  wia  boni  at  Basle,  Sept.  IS,  1805. 
He  entered  the  Dniveraitv  of  hia  native  town  in  18^2, 
aDdiTtervarda  studied  at  Berlin.  From  1885  till  I84G  he 
held  a  proleaaarabip  or  bislotical  theology  In  the  Acad- 
emy of  Liutanite,  and  ^as  invulved  with  hia  colleagnea, 
tilt  dittinguiahed  Vinet  and  Cbappuia,  in  the  alnifcglea 
which  reaulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Free  Church  of 
the  Canton  de  Vaud.  Here,  at  Baile,  be  publiilied  his 
/,i^eD/(fc!anfcft-/oniMr,(Elj*ifflparfiM(lB13,Svnla.). 
In  1847  Henog  waa  inrited  to  fill  a  cbair  at  the  Uni- 
t-enity  oT  Halle,  where,  in  1848,  he  pabliahed  in  the 
unirersity  progrimme,  Dt  Origiae  tt  Prittiao  Statu  Wal- 
dauium.  In  1861  he  leeeired  a  commiation  rnim  the 
Pnusiin  gOTemment  to  Tiait  Genevi,  Pari*,  London, 
and  Dublin,  in  order  to  inveidgate  the  aaurcea  for  the 
huMry  of  tbe  Waldenaei.  The  result  of  thia  miauon 
was  hia  work,  Oh  rtmamMcAn  Waldmer,  etc  (1868). 
At  thia  time,  alao,  he  coneeiTed  the  plan  of  bia  Rtnl- 
£tKsUapaditJHr  frotatanlucke  Tkeologie  und  Kircht, 
■hicbwiapDbliahediaiSToli.rn)mlg54tol868.  After 
b^inning  thia  work  bs  had  left  Halle  for  Erlangen,  to 
aneeeod  Dr.  Ehrard  ai  profeaaor  of  refanned  theolocy. 
In  1877  be  ralind  ftotn  active  academical  dutiei.  The 
Ua(  yean  of  bia  life  were  ocoipied  irith  hia  Abriadir 
gaamMtm  KinieiigtKiklUe  U876-S£,  8  toU.),  and 
with  tb«  pnpantioD  o[  a  aecond  edition  of  hia  Rtal- 
EiufUtfodit^  which  It  the  tjine  of  fail  death  had 
reached  tbe  tenth  volume,  or  the  aecond  third  of  the 
enlin  laork.  He  died  at  Erlangen,  Sept.  30,  lB8i. 
Beiides  tba  worka  alread,v  mentiooedi  he  alio  putdiahed, 


le  Editor. 


bought  by  LieuU  Conder  (Qaar. 
Slotrmait  of  the  "PaL  Eiplor,  Fund."  Jan.  1876,  p. 
Vi  aq.)  to  be  tl-Mnhath,  at  the  foot  of  the  white  chalk 
peaki  of  el-Otuu,  three  milca  weat  nrTell-Hilh,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Beenheba;  and  Tristram  (BSite  Ptaeei,  p. 
20)  accepts  the  identlReation;  bnt  it  reels  merely  upon 

HacpMTdaB,in  Greek  mytbok^^,  were  daugblera 
of  Atlaa  and  Heapeiia,  and  are  mentioned  as  Iwing  from 
three  to  aeven  in  number.  When  Juno  married  Jnpi- 
ter,  all  tbe  goda  braugbt  presents.  Earth  brought  forth 
a  tree,  on  which  grew  golden  apples.  Juno  command- 
ed the  siatete,  Heaperides,  to  guard  them.  But  the  lat- 
ter helped  themselTCa  to  tbe  apples.  She  therefoK 
sent  a  son  of  Typhon  and  Echidna,  the  frightful,  nerer> 
sleeping,  hundred-beaded  dragon  Ladon,  to  the  tree, 
who  scared  everything  away  that  eppraached.  Het- 
cule*  waa  sent  there  to  get  three  apples  out  of  the  gar- 
den for  EuryatbeuB.  According  to  Diodorus,  the  Hea- 
peridei  were  diaghtem  of  Atlaa,  seized  by  Buiiria,  and 
liberated  by  Hcrculea,  wherefore  the  latter  reoeiicd  Ibe 
desired  Mela  (apples)  fiom  their  tethei  ToluaUrily, 

Haa^  Carl  Bmaat  Chriatopb,  an  eminent  Ger- 
man engraver,  was  bom  at  Dannslildt  in  1756.  In 
1776  he  settled  at  Augsbnrg,  and  executed  aereral  flue 
plalea,  which  (gained  him  admiasion  to  the  Academy  in 
1780.  In  1782  the  elector  palatine  appointed  him  en- 
griTcr  to  the  court,  and  in  1787  he  viaited  Italy  for  im- 
piorement.  On  his  relnm  to  Germany  be  remained 
aome  time  at  Munich,  and  afterwards  practiced  the  art 
with  great  anccesa  at  DUsseldorf  until  1794,  when  be 
retnmed  to  Manich.  Among  hia  esteemed  pioducUona 
are  r^  .1  acewioia  ;  ThtUolg  Family ;  81.  Jeromt.  Ha 
diediaie3&    aeeafOoaa,BiBg.Hi1.^lk»Fiim  Art; 

Haaa,  laaao,  a  Jawiab  rabbi  of  Germany,  father  sf 


HESS 


552 


HEUSIN6ER 


Mendel  and  Michael,  was  bom  Feb.  12, 1702,  and  died 
Ang.  9y  1827.  He  edited  the  work  of  his  father  Joseph, 
rabbi  at  Cassel,  entitled  SjDI*^  trv\t  p,  a  commenUrj 
on  the  Haphtaroth,  homiletically  arranged  (Flirth,  1796), 
and  wrote  Ueber  den  Eid  der  Juden,  etc.  (Eisenach,  1824). 
See  Furst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  890.    (B.  P.) 

Hess,  Mendel,  a  Jewisb  rabbi  of  Germany,  was 
born  March  17, 1807.  He  studied  at  WUrzburg,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1827  in  the  rabbinate.  In  1842 
be  settled  at  Eisenach,  as  land  rabbi,  but  retired  from 
his  office  on  account  ot  bodily  infirmities,  and  died  Sept 
21,  1872.  From  183'J  to  1848  he  edited  J)er  Israel 
de»  19.  Jakrhundait^  in  which  he  advocated  reform 
among  the  Jews.  He  also  published,  Predigten  (Eise- 
nach, 1889-48, 8  vols.)  \-^Au»gewdhUe  Predigten  (1871). 
See  Furst,  B^  Jud.  i,  890 ;  Kayserling,  BiUiothek  jud, 
Kanzelredner,  ii,  153  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Heee,  Michael,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  brother  of  Mendel, 
was  bom  April  9, 1782.  He  studied  at  FUrth  and  Frank- 
fort, and  was  professor  of  the  Jewbh  high-school  at  the 
latter  place  from  1806  to  1855.  Hess  died  Feb.  26, 1860. 
Like  his  brother,  he  belonged  to  the  reform  party  among 
the  Jews.  He  published,  Freimuthige  PrUfuwf  der 
Schr^  dee  Herm  Riihe  vher  die  A  mpt-ucke  der  Juden 
an  das  deutsche  Bia-gerrecht  (Frankfort,  1816) : — /Vo- 
gramm  vber  den  ReUgiontuntetiricht  in  der  Schtde  der 
itradit.  Gemeinde  (1821).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  890 ; 
Kayserling,  Bibliothek  jud.  Kanzelredner,  i,  888  sq. ; 
Stem,  Michael  Hees,  ein  LehenMld,  in  Diesterweg's  Pa- 
dagog.  Jahrbuch,  1862,  p.  1-88.     (K  P.) 

Hess,  Etodomon,  a  Reformed  minister  of  Switzer- 
land, was  bom  at  Zurich  in  1763.  In  1801  he  was  first 
preacher  at  St.  Peter's,  in  his  native  place,  but  resigned 
his  office  in  1880,  and  died  in  1837.  He  published, 
Eratmue  von  Rotterdam  nack  seinem  Leben  utid  Schrif" 
ten  (Zurich,  179(V>92) i—Urtprungy  Gang  und  Folgen  der 
durih  Zvfingli  in  Zurich  beiirkten  Reformation  (1819) : 
^-Anna  Reinhardj  Gattin  und  Witttoe  von  Ulrich  Zirm- 
gli  (1819) :  —  Biographien  beruhmter  Schweizer  Re/or- 
matoren;  vol  i,  LebenMgeechichte  dee  (EeolamadiuM 
(1798);  Yols.  ii,  iii,  Leberugetchiehte  dee  H.  BuUinger 
(lS2»-2!9)i'^Andachten  und  Gebetsiibung  fiir  die  chriet- 
liche  Jugend  (1820).  See  Winer,  llandbueh  der  theoL 
Lit.  i,  579, 740, 748, 749 ;  ii,  372.     (a  P.) 

Heeae,  Johaxm  Heinzich  Gk>ttUeb,  a  Luther- 
an theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  Nov.  21, 1779.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  was  preacher  there  in  1808,  and  died 
June  29, 1828.  His  beist  work  is  Katechisationen  uber 
siUHch-rdigidee  Wahrheiten  (Leipsic,  1820).  See  Dor- 
ing,  Die  gekhrten  Theologen  Deutechlandt,  s.  v. ;  Wiuer, 
Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  ii,  269.     (B.  P.) 

Hesse,  Karl  Fiiedrlch,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Gennany,  was  bom  Nov.  5,  1706.  He  studied  at 
•Wittenberg,  was  in  1785  preacher  at  Dresden,  in  1747 
at  Stolpen,  in  1760  at  Meissen,  and  died  March  22, 1775. 
He  published  Theologitehe  AnnaUn  fur  1781-1750 
(leipsic,  1754).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
DeuieMxndt,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  llgemeinee  Gdehrten^Lexi- 
£oii,8.v.     (B.P.) 

Hesse,  Nicolas  August,  a  French  painter,  was 
bom  in  Paris,  Aug.  28, 1795.  He  studied  under  baron 
Gros  at  Paris,  and  then  went  to  Bome,  where  he  gained 
the  grand  prize  in  1868.  He  acquired  celebrity  by  his 
religious  paintings,  which  may  be  found  in  %'arious 
churches.  He  succeeded  Delacroix  in  the  Academy  of 
Fine  ArU  in  1868,  aud  died  June  14, 1869. 

Hessels,  Jkan,  a  Belgian  controversialist,  was  bom 
at  Mechlin  in  1522.  In  1556  be  was  made  doctor  of 
theology  at  Louvain,  in  1560  professor  of  theology,  and 
died  Nov.  7,  1566.  He  is  the  author  of,  Comment,  in 
Matthmum: — Comm,  in  Epietoku  Ccmonicat  Johanrne: 
— Comm,  in  Priorem  ad  Timotheum  et  in  Priorem  Petri : 
—ExpUeaSio  in  SymboUim  Apostolorum :  —  Explicatio 
Decatogi.  See  Andreas,  Bibliotheca  Bdgica;  Miraeus, 
&ogia  lUustrium  Belgii  Scriptorum;  Jocher,  AUge" 


meinet  Gelehrten-Lexibmy  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Norn,  Blag,  Gi- 
nSralCf  a,  y,    (R  P.) 

Hessus,  Hblius  Eobanvs,  one  of  the  most  excel- 
lent Latin  poets  of  Germany  during  the  16th  centu- 
ry, was  bom  Jan.  6, 1488,  at  Halgehaosen,  Hesse.  He 
studied  at  Erfurt,  was  rector  there  in  1509,  but  left  that 
place  on  account  of  the  then  existing  troubles.  In  1514 
he  was  again  at  Erfurt,  and  in  1516  he  was  professor  at 
the  university.  In  15i26  be  was  called  to  Nuremberg, 
but  retumed  to  Erfurt  in  1588,  and  accepted  a  call  to 
Marburg  in  158&  Hessus  died  Oct.  4, 1540.  He  de- 
serves a  place  here  on  account  of  his  zeal  for  the  Refor- 
mation. He  made  a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms, 
whence  Luther  called  him  the  rex  poetarum.  See 
Schwertzell,  Heliut  Eobanue  Hestus,  ein  LebenMld  au$ 
der  RfformaiioMzeii  (Halle,  1874) ;  Krause,  Helius  Eo- 
bonus  HessuSf  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werhe  (Gotha,  1879). 
(B.P.) 

Hesus,  in  Gallic  and  German  mythology,  was  the 
god  of  war.  His  image  had  the  form  of  a  dog.  The 
first  prisoner  of  war  was  sacrificed  to  him.  If  a  forest 
was  to  be  dedicated,  the  sturdiest  oak-tree  was  selected, 
and  the  name  Hesus  was  cut  into  it. 

Hesychius.  (1)  Bishop  of  Spolato,  in  Dalmatia, 
A.D.  405-429,  wrote  a  letter  of  thanks  to  Chrysostom 
for  his  sympathy  with  the  Eastem  Church  (in  the 
works  of  the  latter,  Ep,  183).  (2)  Bishop  of  CasUbala, 
in  Cilicia  Secunda,  censured  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus, 
A.D.  431,  for  opposition  to  Cyril.  (8)  Patriarch  of  Je- 
rusalem, A.D.  600.  (4)  A  noted  disciple  of  Hilarion, 
and  a  monk  of  Cypras  in  the  middle  of  the  4th  century, 
commemorated  Oct.  8. 

Heunisoh,  Caspar,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  at  Schweinfurt.  He  studied  at  Jena, 
and  died  Oct.  18, 1690,  a  superintendent.  He  wrote, 
Clavis  Apocalgptica  et  Ezechielica  (Rothenburg,  1684) : 
— In  Caniicum  Canticorum  Commeniarius  Apocalypti- 
cus  (Leipsic,  1688).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  891 ;  Jocher, 
Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Heusde,  Philip  Wilhklm  van,  a  Dutch  historian 
and  philosopher,  was  bom  June  17, 1778,  at  Rotterdam. 
He  studied  at  Amsterdam  and  Leyden,  was  in  1804 
professor  at  Utrecht,  and  died  at  Berae,  July  28, 1889. 
He  wrote,  Initia  Philosophic  Platonicts  (Utrecht,  1827- 
36,  8  vols.;  2d  ed.  Leyden,  1842)  :~^Brieren  over  den 
A  ard  en  de  Strekking  van  Hooger  Onderwije  (ibid.  1829 ; 
8d  ed.  1835;  Germ,  transl.  by  Weydmann,  Krefeld, 
1830) :— />e  Socratische  School  (ibid.  1834-89,  4  vols.; 
2d  ed.  1840-41)  .—Brieven  over  het  Beafenen  der  Wijs- 
geerte  (1837):  —  Charaeterismi  Prtndpum  Pkilosopho- 
rum  Veterum  (1839).  After  his  death  was  published 
De  School  van  Polgbius  (Amsterdam,  1841).  See  Ro- 
vers, Memoria  P.  Ileusdii  Commendata  (Utrecht,  1841). 

(a  P.) 

Heusden,  Hugo  Franciscus  van,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologian,  and  vicar  to  the  archbishop  of  Utrecht, 
died  Feb.  18,  1719,  leaving,  Batavia  Sacra  (Brussels, 
1724) : — Historia  Episcopatuum  Fcederati  Belgii  (Lvons, 
1719).  See  Wiuer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  823  aq. ; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  GeUhrten-l/exibon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Heusinger,  Jacob  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Gennany,  was  born  in  1719.  He  studied  at 
Jena,  was  in  1760  con*rector,  in  1759  rector  at  Wolfen- 
bUttel,  and  died  Sept.  27, 1778.  He  wrote,  Disp.  de  Lo^ 
cis  Matth.  arrt,  13,  20;  Luc.  m,  14;  Jac  ii,  18  (Jena, 
1746)  i—De  iv  Evangdiorum  Codioe  Grmco  in  BibUotJL 
Gueiferbgt.  (WolfenbUttel,  1752).  See  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theoL  Lit.  i,  101;  Meusel,  Gelehrtes  DeutschUmf; 
Jocher,  AUgemeiMes  Gelehrten-LexikoUf  s.  ▼.     (B.  P.) 

Heusinger,  Johaxm  Mioliael,  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man divine,  was  bom  in  September,  1690,  at  Sunder- 
hausen,  in  Thuringia,  and  was  educated  at  Gotha,  at 
Halle,  and  at  Jena.  He  was  appointed  a  professor  at 
Gotha  in  1730,  and  remained  there  until  1788.  Ho 
died  in  Maroh,  1751,  leaving  many  historical  works. 
See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 


HEUSSER 


553 


HIDALGO 


HetUMer,  Mvta,  the  best  femtle  song-writer  and 
bymniat  in  the  German  language,  was  bom  April  6, 
1797,  at  Hirze],  canton  Zuricb,  where  her  father,  Diet- 
helm  Schweizcr,  was  pastor.  In  1821  she  married  Dr. 
Heuaser,  an  eminent  physician,  who  died  in  1859,  and 
she  henelf  died  Jan.  2, 187G.  Some  of  her  poems  ap- 
peared for  the  first  time  under  the  name  of  Einer  Ter- 
horgenen  (a  hidden  one).  In  1857  the  first  volume  of 
her  poems  was  published,  and  in  1867  a  second  followed. 
In  the  English  some  of  her  songs  are  found  in  a  little 
volume  entitled  Hymns  from  the  Land  of  LutheVf  and 
also  in  SchaCTa  Christ  in  Song,  A  selection  of  her  po- 
ems was  published  at  London  in  1875,  under  the  title, 
Alpine  Lyrics,  See  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen 
Kirchenliedes,  vii,  377  sq.     (K  P.) 

Hewytt;  John,  D.D.,  an  English  clerg}*man,  was 
minister  of  St.  Gregory's,  near  St.  Paul's,  London.  He 
was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill  in  1658,  for  a  political 
conspiracy.  He  publbhed  nine  select  Samons  (1658) : 
Jtepentance  and  Conversion  the  Fabrick  of  Sahation, 
etc,  being  sereral  sermons  (eod.).  See  Allibone,  Diet, 
of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors^  s.  v. 

Hexapla,  an  edition  of  the  BiUe  prepared  by  Ori- 
gen(q.v.). 

Hey,  WiLiiELM,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  March  26, 1790.  He  studied  at  Jena, 
was  court-preacher  at  Gotha,  and  died  May  19, 1854. 
He  published,  Predigten  (Hamburg,  1830, 1882) :— AV- 
xiihlungen  aus  dem  Leben  JesufUr  die  Jugend  diehterisch 
bearMiet  (1888).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  552 ;  Wi- 
ner, ffandbttch  der  theoL  Lii.  ii,  103.     (B.  P.) 

Heyd,  Ludwio  Frrdinamp,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  Biarch  6, 1842,  is  the  author  of, 
Mekmchihon  und  TUbingeH  1512-1518  (Tubingen,  1889) : 
— Ulrichy  Ilerzog  zu  WUrtemberg  (1841-44, 8  vols.).  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  552.    (B.  P.) 

Heyde,  Johanh  Daniel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  April  27, 1714.  He  studied  at  Leip- 
sic,  was  teacher  at  Gera  in  1787,  and  died  Aug.  12, 1785. 
His  publications  are  sermons,  partly  his  own,  partly 
translations  from  the  French  of  Massillon  and  Bourda- 
loue.  See  During,  Die  gelehrien  Theoiogen  Deutsch' 
lands,  8.  V. ;  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  383 ;  J6- 
chcr,  A  Ugemeines  Gekhrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Heyin,  Albert;  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  1801.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and 
Berlin,  was  tutor  of  prince  Fredericl:  Carl  from  1880  to 
1844,  and  preacher  at  Sakrow  from  1844  to  1848.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  court -preacher  at 
Potsdam,  and  he  died  Dec  9,  1878.    (B.  P.) 

Heym,  Johaxm  Gk>ttlob,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  25, 1788.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg,  and  died  at  Dolzig,  in  Lower  Lusatia,  Jan. 
24, 1788.  His  publications  are  several  volumes  of  ser- 
mons. See  Doring,  Die  gelehrien  Theoiogen  Dentsch- 
lands;  Winer,  Handbueh  der  theol.  Lit,  ii,  192,  381; 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  558.     (B.  P.) 

Heyne,  Johakn,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  in  1804  at  Leobschntz,  Silesia.  He 
took  holy  orders  in  1827,  acted  as  priest  at  different 
places  till  1857,  when  at  his  own  request  he  was  made 
custos  of  the  cathedral-library  at  Breslau,  with  a  view 
of  perusing  the  archives  there.  He  died  Oct.  28, 1871. 
Heyne  is  the  author  of  Dohtmentirte  Geschichte  des 
Bisthums  und  Bochstifies  Breslau  (BresUii,  1860*^,  3 
voK).    (a  P.) 

Heynlln  de  Lapide,  Johanm bs,  one  of  the  last 
eminent  representatives  of  scholasticism,  was  a  native 
of  Germany.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  Basle,  and  Paris, 
and  in  the  latter  place  became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne. 
In  1473  he  settled  at  Basle,  and,  as  a  decided  realist, 
caused,  first  at  Basle,  afterwards  at  Tubingen,  whither 
he  moved  in  1477,  so  violent  a  contest  between  realism 
and  nominalism  that  he  finally  determined  to  retire  al- 
together from  pabUc  life,  in  1487.    He  spent  the  re- 


mainder of  his  life  in  a  Carthosian  monastery  in  Basle, 
and  died  in  1496.  Heynlin  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Aristotle  while  at  Paris,  but  it  was  not  published  until 
many  years  later,  by  his  pupil  Amerbach.  He  also 
directed  the  editing  of  the  works  of  St.  Ambrose,  which 
were  published  by  Amerbach  in  1492.  See  Trithemius, 
Liber  de  Scriptoribus  Ecdesiasticis  (1494) ;  Fischer,  Jo- 
hamtesffegnUn^genanni  a  Lapide  (Basle,  1851);  Vischer, 
Gesch,  der  UmvertiUU  Basel,  p.  158  sq.;  Plitt-Herzog, 
Real-Enegklop,  s.  v.     (B  P.) 

HI,  the  second  member  of  a  mystic  triad  composed 
by  Lao-Tseo,  the  celebrated  Chinese  philosopher.  It 
is  described  as  follows:  **That  which  you  look  at  and 
do  not  see  is  called  /;  that  which  you  hearken  after 
and  do  not  hear  is  called  Hif  that  which  your  hand  4 
reaches  after  and  cannot  grssp  is  called  Wei,  These 
are  three  beings  which  cannot  be  comprehended,  and 
which  together  make  but  one." 

Wltti^i,  in  Hind(i  mythology,  is  the  collective  name 
of  the  three  highest  castes  of  the  Hindiis — the  Brah- 
mins, Kshetrias,  and  Banians — priests,  warriors,  and 
business  men. 

Hiadninger,  in  Norse  mytholog}",  are  the  warriors 
who  fall  in  a  battle,  incited  by  the  beautiful  shield- 
maiden,  Hildur.  They  fight  until  the  destractioii  of 
the  world. 

Hicdt£e  Clcerai),a  sect  of  orthodox  ascetics  about 
the  time  of  the  emperor  Maroian,  who  lived  in  monas- 
teries, and  spent  their  time  in  singing  hymns,  accom- 
panied with  religious  dances. 

Hickmaxi,  Charles,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  a  native  of  Northamptonshire,  and  was  a  student  of 
Christchurch  College,  Oxford,  in  1667.  He  was  minister 
of  St.  Ebbe's  Church,  Oxford,  and  lecturer  of  St.  James's,* 
Westminster,  in  1692;  subsequently  rector  of  Hogsnor- 
ton,  Leicestershire,  and  finally  bishop  of  Derry  in  1702. 
He  died  in  1718,  leaving  some  Sermons  (1680-1713). 
See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Hiokman,  Henry,  an  English  Nonconformist  di- 
vine, was  a  native  of  Worcestershire,  and  educated  at 
Cambridge.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  was  deprived  at  the  Kestoratiou,  and  l)ecamc 
preacher  to  the  English  congregation  at  Leyden,  where 
he  died  in  1692.  He  published  several  controversial 
theological  treatises  (1659-74),  the  best  of  which  ap- 
peared without  his  name — Apologia  pro  Ministris  in 
A  nglia  {vulgo)  Noti-conformistis,  etc.  (1664).  See  Chal- 
mers^ Biog,  Diet,  s.  y, ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer, 
A  uthors,  s.  V. 

Hickok,  Miix>  Junsox,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  at  New  Haven,  Yt.,  Aug.  22, 1809.  He 
graduated  from  Middlebury  College  in  1835;  was  pro- 
fessor in  Delaware  College  three  years;  graduated  from 
Union  Theological  Seminar}',  N.  Y.,  in  1841 ;  became  a 
tutor  in  Middlebury  College ;  and  was  ordained  a  Con- 
gregational ministerrMay  4, 1842.  He  became  profess- 
or in  Marietta  College,  O.,  and  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Harmar;  two  years  thereafter  he  accepted  a  call  as 
stated  supply  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Utics, 
N.  Y.,  and  in  1845  was  installed  pastor  of  a  Church  in 
Rochester.  In  1854  he  was  stated  supply  of  a  Presby- 
terian Church  in  Montreal,  Canada ;  the  next  year  he 
was  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Scranton,  Pa., 
where  he  remained  until  1868.  His  health  failing,  he 
removed  to  Marietta,  C,  where  he  died,  July  19, 1873. 
See  Gen.  Cat.of  Union  rA«)t5ei».1876,p.l9.  "(W.P.S.) 

Hidalgo,  MicHAKL  T  CosTiLLAS,  Called  the  **  Wash- 
ington of  the  Mexican  Revolution,**  was  parish  priest 
at  Dolores,  department  of  Guanajuato,  Mexico.  He  ap- 
pealed to  his  parishioners,  raised  the  standard  of  Mex- 
ican freedom,  headed  the  dissentients,  and  was  pro- 
claimed generalissimo,  Sept.  17, 1810.  He  was  joined 
bv  adherents  from  everv  side,  and  in  six  weeks  was 
marching  on  Mexico  city  at  the  head  of  eighty  thou- 
sand men.    Five  provinces  recognised  his  authority. 


HIERACITES 


554 


HIGHMORE 


HidalgOi  howeveri  unfortunately  halted  in  his  advance 
on  the  capital,  the  royalista  had  time  to  rally,  and  he 
was  utterly  defeated  at  Paente  de  Calderon,  Jan.  17, 
1811,  and  after  in  vain  endeavoring  to  rally  the  na- 
tional army,  was  captured  by  treachery  while  endeav- 
oring to  escape  to  the  United  States.  He  was  executed 
ten  days  afterwards.  On  his  death,  Moreloa,  another 
priest,  assumed  the  command ;  a  congress  of  forty  mem- 
bers was  called,  but  after  the  defeat  and  execution  of 
Morelos,  it  was  dissolved  by  general  Teran,  who  suc- 
ceeded him.  The  revolt  was  entirely  quelled  in  1819. 
Mexico  gained  its  independence  in  1822,  which,  amid 
.  anarchy  and  continual  turmoil,  it  has  retained  until  the 
present,  barring  the  French  occupation  of  1862  to  1867. 
To-day  the  grateful  republic  of  Mexico  repeats  in  her 
decorations  and  uses  on  her  postage -stamp  the  mild 
features  of  her  illustrious  son,  the  priest-patriot,  Michael 
Hidalgo  y  Costillas.  See  (N.  Y.)  CatA.  Almanac,  1876, 
p.  105. 

HieraciteB,  a  heretical  sect  which  sprang  up  at 
the  end  of  the  8d  or  beginning  of  the  4th  century, 
founded  by  Hieracas  or  Hierax  (q.  v.). 

Hieratic  Writing,  a  species  of  sacred  writing  used 
by  the  ancient  Egyptian  priests,  especially  the  Hiero- 
grammatists  (q.  v.).  It  is  found  chiefly  on  the  papyri^ 
and  is  an  abbreviated  form  of  the  hieroglyphic  (q.  v.). 
The  matter  of  these  manuscripts  consists  almost  entire- 
ly of  texts  in  reference  to  purely  religious  or  scientific 
description,  and  of  religious  inscriptions. 

Hierodiac5ni  (from  Upoc»  Mcred,  and  Biokovoq, 
a  deacon)^  monies  of  the  Russo-Greek  Church  (q.  v.), 
who  are  &Iso  deacons. 

Hierodfilif  in  Greek  cultus,  were  persons  em- 
ployed l!>  the  servi<«  of  a  temple,  especially  in  Syria, 
Phcenicia,  and  Asia  Minor.  They  were  fenoales,  living 
near  temples,  who  hired  themselves  out  to  strangers. 
They  were  obliged  to  care  for  the  decorations  of  the 
temple,  knitting  and  cleansing  the  veils,  wreathing  the 
altars,  etc  The  priests  had  no  other  income  than  the 
presents  which  pilgrims  to  the  sanctuary  brought,  and 
in  order  to  draw  as  many  of  them  as  possible,  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  temple  were  occupied  by  numbers  of 
priestesses,  who  gave  the  presents  they  received  to  the 
temple,  as  is  still  the  case  in  India  with  the  Dewadasbies 
(Bajaderes).  In  Cappadocia,  in  the  temple-woods  of 
the  Comauian  goddess,  Strabo  met  over  six  thousand. 
This  custom  came  to  Greece  and  Sicily,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  worship  of  Venus,  and  many  a 
beautiful  temple  was  built  with  the  money  thus  ob- 
tained.   See  Diana;  Vkn us. 

HierogrammatiBts  (from  Up6f:,tacredj  and  ypa/i- 
ftarivQ,  a  acribe)^  the  sacred  scribes  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  They  employed  the  hUralic  writing  (q.  v.), 
in  transcribing  religious  writings  tm  papyri,  and  in  giv- 
ing an  account  of  religious  rites  and  ceremonies.  It 
was  their  duty  also  to  expound  the  sacred  mysteries  as 
far  as  they  were  allowed  to  be  made  known  to  the  peo- 
ple. They  carried  a  wand,  and  were  dressed  in  linen 
garments.    See  Scridr. 

Hieromanoy  (from  c^dc,  Mcred,  and  pavrtia,  di^ 
vinati<m)f  a  species  of  divination  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  which  consisted  in  predicting  fut- 
ure events  by  observing  the  various  appearances  which 
presented  themselves  in  the  act  of  offering  sacrifices. 
See  DiviNATiOM. 

Hieromonftchi  (from  Uppc,  sacred,  and  povaxoc^ 
a  monk),  monks  of  the  Russo-Greek  Church  (q.  v.),  who 
are  priests.  They  are  considered  sacred  monks,  and 
never  officiate  except  on  solemn  festival  occasions. 

Hieronymi,  WiLHEur,  a  preacher  of  the  German 
Catholics,  was  originally  a  Protestant,  but  joined  the 
movement  of  the  German  Catholics  in  1845,  and  died 
at  Mayence,  Sept.  14, 1884.  He  published,  Kein  Paptt- 
thum  !  Kein  Sffmbolzwang  (  Magdeburg,  1845  ) :  —  Die 
BegeUaner  ala  Li(Atfreuiide  (Darmstadt,  1846):— iTei^ 


niste  deiU$ck'hatkoii$chm  Geitiet  (1847):_/Veaet» 
Oder  A  utoriiSi,  written  against  bishop  Ketteler  (1862). 
SeeZucbold,£»6^7Aeo^i,654sq.    (a  P.) 

HieronymiiB  a  Sancta  Fide  (originally  Jothua 
Lorki)  was  a  famous  Talmudist  and  physician.  When 
rabbi  Salomon,  afterwards  bishop  Paulus  Burgensis 
(q.  v.),  had  embraced  and  was  preaching  the  Christian 
faith  in  Spain,  Joshua  Lorki  wrote  against  him.  But 
soon  this  zealous  enemy  of  the  gospel  became  himself 
an  ardent  confessor  of  the  truth,  and  failed  not  to  de- 
clare openly  the  reason  which  bad  given  rise  to  this 
change  in  his  religious  opinions,  by  publishing  two 
tracts  against  the  Jews,  Probationes  Novi  Test,  ex  Fe- 
tere  Testamento  (reprinted  in  the  BiU,  Mag,  Vet,  Pa-" 
trum,  xxix).  At  the  instigation  of  Hieronymua,  who, 
after  his  baptism,  entered  the  service  of  pope  Benedict 
XIII,  being  appointed  his  physician,  the  famous  con- 
ference was  held  at  Tortosa  (*Feb.  7, 1413.  to  Nov.  12, 
1414),  under  the  presidency  of  the  pope.  The  assembly 
was  convened  to  discuss  sixteen  points,  which  were  pro- 
posed by  Hieronymus.  Prominent  among  the  Jewish 
disputants  was  Joseph  Albo  (q.  v.).  The  result  of  this 
oonferenoe  ia  passed  over  by  Jewish  historians  with  re- 
markable silence.  According  to  the  Christians,,  all  the 
rabbis  present  declared  themselves  vanquished,  and 
signed  an  act  to  that  effect,  with  the  exception  of  Albo 
and  rabbi  Ferrer.  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  892 ;  Kalkar, 
Itrael  und  die  Kirche,  p.  28  sq. ;  Da  Costa,  Israel  and 
the  Gentiles,  p.  828  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Hieropoioi  (from  t^oCt  sacred,  and  irodta,  to  ffKrJbe), 
persons  anciently  employed  at  Athens  to  superintend 
the  oblations  and  sacrifices.  Ten  of  these  officers  were 
appointed  annually,  and  they  wore  at  their  girdles  a 
consecrated  axe  as  an  emblem  of  their  office. 

Higbert  {ffygbehri),  14tb  bishop  of  Lichfield,  A.D. 
779,  and  the  only  one  entitled  archbishop  of  that  see. 
See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Higglzui,  William,  D.D..  a  bishop  of  the  Church 
of  Ireland,  was  bom  at  Greenfield,  Lancaster,  England, 
in  1793,  and  was  educated  at  the  Lancaster  and  Man- 
chester grammar  schools,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, from  which  he  graduated  in  1817.  His  first 
clerical  duty  in  Ireland  was  as  chaplain  to  the  Rich- 
mond Penitentiary,  in  1820,  subsequently  he  was  chap- 
lain to  the  Magdalen  Asylum,  rector  of  Boscrea  in 
1828,  vicar^neral  of  Killaloe  in  1834,  dean  of  Limer- 
ick in  1844,  bishop  of  Limerick  in  1849,  and  bishop  of 
Derry  in  1853.  The  same  year  he  was  appointed  com- 
missioner of  national  education,  and  he  succeeded  bish- 
op Plunket  as  an  ecclesiastical  commissioner.  He  died 
at  Deny,  July  12,  1867.  See  Amer,  Quar,  Res.  Oct. 
1867,  p.  505. 

Higg%  Griffin  (or  Griffith),  D.D.,  an  English 
derg^'man,  was  bom  at  Stoke  Abbot,  or  South  Stoke, 
near  Henley,  Oxfordshire,  in  1589,  and  was  educated  at 
Reading  School  and  St  John's  College,  Oxford.  In  1627 
he  was  sent  to  the  Hague  as  chaphiin  to  the  queen  of 
Bohemia.  On  his  return  he  was  presented  to  the  living 
of  Cliffe,  near  Dover,  and  was  also  made  chanter  of  St. 
David's.  In  1638  he  was  made  dean  of  Lichfield.  He 
lost  all  his  preferments  when  the  Church  establishment 
was  overthrown.  He  died  Dec  16, 1659.  His  pub- 
lished works  are,  Problemata  Theokgica  (1680) :— if  »a- 
cellanea  Theses  TheotogicoB  (eod.).  See  Chalmers,  Biog, 
I>ict,s,y, 

High  Altar  is  the  chief,  central,  or  principal  altar 
of  a  church.  Other  altars,  in  old  documents,  are  often 
called  '^  low  altars,"  to  distinguish  them  from  thai  which 
is  the  chief  altar.  When  there  are  many,  chapels  in  a 
church,  clustering  on  either  aide  of  the  chief  chapel  or 
chancel,  the  principal  chanoel,  containing  the  high  altar, 
is  sometimes  called  the  "  high  cbanoeL"    See  Altar. 

Higlimore,  Joseph,  an  English  painter,  was  bom 
at  London  in  1692,  and  was  articled  to  an  attorney  in 
1707,  against  his  inclination.    He  employed  his  leisure 


Hnsi 


555 


HILLEL  MANUSCRIPT 


hour*  in  painting,  finaUy  eonunenccd  it  as  t  piofcsMon, 
and  soon  met  with  employment.  Shortly  afier  he  was 
eommtBsioned  by  the  duke  of  Richmond  to  do  some 
work.  In  1782  he  visited  the  continent  for  the  pur- 
pose of  seeing  the  DOsseldorf  Gallery,  and  two  years 
after  he  went  to  France  in  order  to  examine  the  gal- 
leries there.  He  executed  a  series  of  pictures,  which 
were  engraved  and  published  in  1745.  Among  his  sa- 
cred subjects  were,  The  Good  Samaritan;  The  Finding 
of  Motes ;  Bagar  and  IskmaeL  He  died  in  1780.  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  ike  Fine  A  rU,  s.  r. ;  Rose,  Biog, 
JJict,a,y. 

Hiisl  is  the  name  given  to  the  devil  among  the 
Finns.  He  is  described  as  having  only  three  fingers  on 
each  hand,  but  these  are  armed  with  large  nails,  with 
which  he  tears  in  pieces  all  who  fall  into  his  power. 
He  is  supposed  to  reside  in  the  forest,  whence  he  sends 
out  all  manner  of  diseases  and  calamities,  with  which 
he  afflicts  mankind. 

HUdebrand,  Joachim,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  Nov.  10, 1628.  He  studied  at  dif> 
ferent  universities,  was  in  1652  professor  of  theology 
at  Helmstadt,  in  1662  doctor  of  theology  and  general 
superintendent  at  Celle,  and  died  Oct.  18, 1691.  He 
wrote,  Diss,  de  Donatione  Constantini  Magtii  (Helmstadt, 
1661): — Sacra  Puhlioa  Veteris  EccUsub  in  Compendi- 
um Redacta  (1699) : — Exercit,  de  Veierum  ConcionUnts 
(1661) : — Rituale  Baptismi  VeUriSj  Publicis  Lectumibus 
OlUn  Dicatum  (ed.  Schmid,  iQ^)i— Rituale  Eiicka- 
ristim  Veteris  Ecclesim  (ed.  Schmid,  1712)  i—De  Nuptiis 
Veterwn  Christianorum  Libellus  (ed.  Schmid,  1714),  etc. 
See  Winer,  fJandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  574, 627, 628, 680, 
681,  684,  685,  688,  699;  Jocher,  AUgemnnes  Gdehrttn^ 
Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Just  von  Einem,  Commentarius  de  Vita 
et  Serais  Joach.  llildebrandi  (1743) ;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud. 
i,  893.     (R  P.) 

Hildxop,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
rector  of  Wath,  near  Rippon,  Yorkshire.  He  died  in 
1756,  leaving  a  number  of  sermons,  theological  treatises, 
etc.  (1711-52).  His  miscellaneous  works  appeared  in 
1754.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  A  uthors^ 
s.  V. 

SUle,  (1)  an  old  English  word,  signifying  to  put  on 
a  roof  or  cover.  In  old  documents  it  is  sometimes 
spelled  "helye,"  "hylle,"  and  "hyle;"  (2)  the  covering 
of  a  church  roof. 

Hilgers,  DEI13IHARD  JosEpn,  a  Roman  Catholic 
divine  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1808.  In  1827  he  took 
holy  orders,  was  pastor  at  Siegburg  in  1828,  took  the 
degree  as  doctor  of  theology  at  MUnster  in  1834,  com- 
roenced  his  academical  career  at  Bonn  in  1885,  and  died 
Feb.  7, 1874.  He  published,  Ueber  das  Verhditniss  twi- 
scken  Leih  und  Sede  im  Mentchen  (Bonn,  1884)  i^Sgmr 
bolitehe  TheOogie  {\Mi)i  ^KrititdU  DartteOtmg  der 
if aresien, etc  (1887):  —  UomiHen  (published  after  his 
death,  1874).    (R  P.) 

EUlgod  (or  Hilgot),  a  French  prelate,  was  at  first 
canon  of  St.  Genevieve,  and  afterwards  bishop  of  Soi»- 
sons  in  1085.  But  grave  difficulties  arose  against  his 
appointment,  in  consequence  of  which  he  resigned  about 
the  year  1087,  and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Marmon- 
tier.  He  died  Aug.  4, 1104.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Hill,  Bejijamlxi  BC,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  April  5, 1793.  He  entered  the 
preparatory  department  of  Pennsylvania  University, 
bnt  was  soon  called  to  New  Orleans  as  a  clerk;  and 
subsequently  studied  medicina  for  a  time  in  PhiUdel- 
phia.  He  was  converted  in  1812;  licensed  in  Febm- 
ary,  1815;  for  two  years  preached  in  Leioester  and 
Spencer,  Mass. ;  in  1818  was  ordained  in  Stafford,  Conn.« 
wherb  he  remained  three  years,  and  was  then  called 
to  the  pastorate  of  the  First  Church  in  New  Haven, 
where  he  continued  from  1821  tor  1829.  The  next  ten 
years  of  his  ministry  were  with  the  First  Church  in 


Troy,  N.  T.  In  1840  he  became  comsponding  seere* 
tary  of  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society, 
which  position  he  held  for  twenty-two  years.  He  died 
in  New  Haven,  Jan.  15, 1881.  See  Christian  Secretary, 
Jan.  19, 1881.     (J.CS.) 

Hill,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
in  Kings  County,  Ireland,  Jan.  6,  1800.  In  1822  he 
became  a  student  in  Horton  College,  completing  the 
course  in  two  years,  and  then  became  pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Middleton.  In  1884  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  the  Home  Mission  Society;  in  1842  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Heneage  Street  Church,  Birmingham, 
where  he  remained  until  1851,  when  he  removed  to  the 
United  States;  was  pastor  in  Belvidere,  III.;  chaplain, 
for  a  time,  in  the  Federal  army ;  connected  for  a  short 
period  with  the  University  of  Chicago,  and  finally  took 
up  his  residence  in  Belvidere,  where  he  died  in  1872. 
See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Band-book,  1878,  p.  278.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Hill,  William,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
at  Cudworth,  in  Warwickshire,  in  1619,  and  educated 
at  Merton  College,  Oxford.  He  died  in  1677.  He 
published,  Diongsii  Orbis  Descriptio  (1658,  1659,  1668, 
1678,  1688):— IToman's  Jjoohing  -  glass  (1660).  See 
Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Hill,  William  Wallace,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  in  Bath  County,  Ky,  Jan.  26, 1815. 
He  prepared  for  college  at  Mt.  Sterling  and  Paris;  grad- 
uated from  Centre  College  in  1885;  entered  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  the  ssme  year,  and  remained  two 
years.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New 
Brunswick,  April  24, 1838,  ordained  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Louisville,  Oct.  8  following,  and  installed  pastor  at 
Shelby ville,  where  he  served  four  years.  He  then  took 
charge  of  The  Protestant  Herald,  published  at  Bards- 
town,  but  removed  it  to  Frankfort,  as  a  more  central 
place  of  publication.  Ip  November,  1844,  he  again  re- 
moved with  his  paper  to  Louisville,  and  its  name  was 
changed  to  The  Presbgteiian  Herald.  As  a  religious 
newspaper  it  had  few  equals  in  the  land.  Its  publica- 
tion ceased  in  1862,  on  account  of  the  war.  From  1845 
to  1860  he  was  also  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
Western  Executive  Committee  of  the  Board  of  Domes- 
tic Missions.  He  then  foundetl  Bellewood  Female 
Semhiar}'',  near  Louisville,  and  was  its  principal  from 
1862  to  1874.  During  these  years  he  also  preached 
more  or  less  regularly  at  Plumb  Creek,  Middletown, 
and  Anchorage.  In  1874  he  accepted  the  charge  of 
the  Syuodical  Female  College  at  Fulton,  Mo.,  and  sup- 
plied the  Presbyterian  Church  of  that  place.  He  left 
Fulton  in  1877,  and  went  to  Sherman,  T^xas,  where  he 
commenced  teaching  in  Austin  College,  preaching  for 
the  Cburoh  there  at  the  ssme  time.  He  died  May  1, 
1878.  See  Neerol  Report  of  Princeton  Theol,  Sem.  1879, 
p.  89. 

Hille,  WiLHELM,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  Feb.  16, 1808.  He  studied  at  Gottin- 
gen,  was  from  1824  to  1833  teacher  at  the  gymnasia  in 
WolfenbUUel  and  Helrostiidt,  in  1838  pastor  at  Marien- 
thal,  in  1834  superintendent,  in  1840  general  superin- 
tendent and  pastor  primarius  at  Helmstiidt,  and  in  1845 
member  of  consistory.  In  1875  he  retired  from  his 
many  positions,  and  died  Oct  2, 1880.  As  Christianity 
had  become  a  reality  in  Hille,  who  had  freed  himself 
from  the  fetters  of  rationalism,  he  became  to  many  a 
leader  to  Christ,  He  published,  Oratiunculce  Synoda- 
&»  (Helmstadt,  1844)  .—Das  Kirchenjahr  (Berlin,  1858) : 
— Zeugnisse  von  Christo  (1859).  See  Zochold,  BiU, 
TheoL '\,bbl.    (R  P.) 

Hillel  ManQflcript.  Of  the  ancient  Hebrew 
MSS.,  now  no  more  extant,  the  most  famous  is  the  co- 
dex HilleL  As  to  this  name  there  is  a  difference  of 
opinion.  From  Jewish  history  we  know  that  there 
were  two  rabbis  by  the  name  of  Hillel,  one  who  lived 
in  the  first  century  before  Christ,  called  Hillel  I,  the 
Great,  the  other  who  lived  in  the  fourth  century  after 


HILLEL  MANUSCRIPT 


556 


HILPERT 


Christ,  called  Hillel  II.  Some,  w  Schickhard  (Ju«  Re- 
gium  H^raorum,  ed.  Carpzov,  Leipaic,  1674,  p.  89)  and 
Cuneus  (De  RepubL  Jlebr.  p.  159),  attribated  this  codex 
to  the  older  Hillel;  others,  as  David  Gans,  in  his  Tze- 
mack  Davidj  Buxtorf,  in  Tradatus  de  PwuUorum  Voca- 
liuitif  etc  (Basle,  1G48),  p.  3o8,  attributed  it  to  the  younger 
Hillel.  A  third  opinion  b  that  this  codex  derives  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  it  was  written  at  Hilla,  a  town 
built  near  the  ruins  of  ancient  Babylon,  so  FUrst  {Gtich, 
det  Karaerthumtj  p.  22  sq.,  138,  note  14),  and  Ginsburg 
{LevUa's  Massoreth  ha-Mauoretk,  p.  260,  note  40).  But 
none  of  these  opinions  seems  to  be  correct.  Against 
the  first  two  we  have  the  express  testimony  of  A  bra- 
ham  ben-Samuel  Sahkuto  (q.  v.),  who,  in  his  Book  of 
Genealogies,  entitled  Sepker  Yuehasin,  says  that  when 
he  saw  the  remainder  of  the  codex  (circa  A.D.  1600)  it 
was  900  years  old.  His  words  are  these :  *'  In  the  year 
4956,  on 'the  28th  day  of  Ab  (i.e.  in  1196,  better  1197), 
there  was  a  great  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  the  king- 
dom of  Leon  from  the  two  kingdoms  which  came  to 
besiege  it.  It  was  then  that  the  twenty-four  sacred 
books,  which  were  written  long  ago,  about  the  year  600, 
by  rabbi  Moses  ben-Hillel,  in  an  exceedingly  correct 
manner,  and  after  which  all  copies  were  corrected,  were 
taken  away.  I  saw  the  remaining  two  portions  of  the 
same,  viz.  the  earlier  prophets  (i.  e.  Joshua,  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  King<(),  and  the  lat«r  prophets  (i.  e.  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  EzekicI,  and  the  twelve  minor  prophets), 
written  in  large  and  beautiful  characters,  which  were 
brought  to  Portugal  and  sold  in  Africa,  where  they  still 
are,  having  been  written  900  years  ago."  Kimchi,  in 
his  grammar  on  Numb,  xv,  4,  wy^  that  the  Pentateuch 
of  this  codex  was  extant  in  Toletola  (nbl;3'^b*i:d3,  Fu- 
chaein,  ed.  Fillpowski,  Lond.  1857,  p.  220,  col.  2).  From 
this  statement  it  may  be  deduced  that  this  codex  was 
written  about  the  7th  centur)\  As  to  the  third  opin- 
ion, deriving  the  name  from  Hilla,  a  town  near  Babel, 
we  may  dismiss  it  as  merely  ingenious.  A  better  opin- 
ion seems  to  be  that  of  Strack  {Prolegomena,  p.  16), 
who  says,  "  Fortasse  tamcn  recte  cogitabis  eum  e  nu- 
mero  riav  D'^'^CID  in  Hispania  fuisse."  This  is  also 
the  opinion  of  the  famous  critic  Jedidja  Norzi  (q.  v.), 
who  remarks,  on  Gen.  i,  5 :  "  He  was  a  very  good  Mas- 
oretic  scholar,  and  a  scribe  in  the  city  of  Toletola." 
Whatever  uncertaint}'  may  be  about  the  derivation  of 
its  name,  certain  it  is  that  this  codex  is  very  important 
for  the  criticism  of  the  Old  Test,  Hebrew  text,  as  the 
many  quotations  which  we  find  in  Norzi's  critical  com- 
mentary, entitled  "^tS  nnSQ,  published  at  Mantua, 
1742-44,  Vienna,  1818,  Warsaw,  1860-66,  and  in  Lonza- 
no*s  critical  work,  entitled  T\y\T\  HIK,  indicate.  In  the 
12th  century  this  codex  was  perused  by  the  Jewish 
grammarian,  Jacob  ben-Eleazar,  as  David  Kimchi  testi- 
ties  in  bis  grammatical  work,  Michlul  (ed.  Furth,  1798, 
foL  78^  col.  2)f  and  rabbi  Jacob  ben-Eleazar  writes  that 
in  the  codex  Hillel,  which  is  at  Toletola,  he  found  that 

the  daleih  in  ^H'ltn  was  raphe  (Deut  xii,  1) ;  and  foL 

127,  coL  2,  in  fine,  he  writes :  '*  In  the  codex  Hillel, 

which  is  at  Toletola,  the  word  HfiXn  (Lev.  vi,  10)  is 

written  with  a  iiere,  fT&Kr,  and  not  hSKH,  as  our 

present  text  has."  We  subjoin  some  readings  of  the 
codex  Hillel: 

Gen.  iv,  8:  In  some  editions  of  the  Old  Test,  there  is  a 
space  left  between  l^^nx  and  "^tX^X  and  fa  marked  in  the 

margin  by  KpDfi,  L  e.  tpaee.  The  LXX,  Sam.,  Syr., 
Vol.,  and  Jems.  Targam  add,  "let  ns  go  into  the  field." 
The  space  we  have  referred  to  is  found  in  the  editions  of 
Buxtorf,  MeDnseeb  ben -Israel,  Walton,  Kissel,  Hutter, 
Clodin»,  Van  der  Uooght.  But,  says  Lonxano,  the  pUka 
is  A  mistake  of  the  pruiter,  for  in  the  M8S.  which  he  cou- 
f  nited,and  in  codex  Hillel,  there  is  no  space.  Thcaddition 
"  let  us  go  into  the  field,"  is  not  found  by  Symmachuij>, 
Theodotion,  and  Onkelos.    Even  Origen  remarks  divXtfw- 

Mcv  c«r  TO  fri^oviv  ty  'EfipatKif  ov  T[4fp<iirTtu  (tom.  ii,  80). 

Gen.  ix,  89 :  A  great  many  codd.  and  odd.  read  I'^H'^I 
bnt  codex  Hillel  *«n^1. 


Gen.  xix,  10:  l^^h^ri^^,  here  Lonxano  remarks  that 
the  second  mem  is  written  with  temete  in  codd.  and  in 
cod.  HiUel.  In  the  edition  of  Blr  and  Delltsach  the  word 
is  tbos  written,  iHian^n^i. 

Gen.  xix,  SO:  M  ni37SM.    Lonzano  says  that  K3  la 

T  T   *     T     * 

raphe,  bnt  In  cod.  nillel'lt  is  written  with  a  dageMh.  In 
B2r  and  Delitzscb*s  Genesis  it  Is  written  nipAe. 

Gen.xxvii,S5:  i^  KS^l  In  cod.  Hillel,  says  Lonzano, 
the  accent  darga  is  in  The  s^.  In  our  editions  it  is  in, 
or  rather  under,  the  heth;  BAr  and  Delltzsch  follow  the 

cod.  Hillel,  and  write  K2^1. 
'  -It- 

Gen,  xxxlx,  0:  hXHTa.    Norat  remarks  that  the  codex 

r  I  - 

Hillel  writes  with  teere  rxXn^. 

-  I  - 

Gen.  xlli,  10:  IIDXri.  In  the  margin  of  an  old  codex, 
belonging  now  to  f>r.  S.  Bftr,  the  editor  of  the  new  edi- 
tion of  tlie  Old  Test.,  in  connection  with  professor  De- 
lltzsch, it  is  written  I'IDMM  ^^n3,  i.  e.  in  the  codex  Hil- 
lel, the  reading  is  with  eegol,  '^'^DHn. 

Gen.  xlvi,  18:  TW\.  On  this  word  Lonzano  remarks 
that  in  Hillel  and  otber  codd.  the  vav  is  raphe,  1.  e.  Sllfiq. 

Exod.  X,  9 :  ^ddpTSil.  In  Hillel,  remarks  Lonzano,  li  la 

written  11'^  Xbo,'l.  e.  pUne  iraptSt. 

Exod.  xxxvi!,  8:  Sifl^.  In  Hillel  and  in  some  other 
codd.,  remarks  Lonzano,*lt  Is  written  with  e^vMOskepK 

Josh,  xxi,  85, 80 :  Cod  Kennic  17o.  807,  reads  in  the  mar- 
gin "^ibna  D'^p'idb  '^acn  nbx  •i3'»x«  »b,  l  e.  these 

two  verses  are  not  found  in  the  codex  Hillel.  Similar  is 
the  remark  in  a  H&  formerly  belonging  to  H.  Lotze,  of 
Leipsic. 

Prov.  Til!,  10:  A  great  many  codd.,  editions,  and  an- 
cient versions,  as  Syriac,  Vnlgate,  Targnm,  and  even  the 
Oraecns  Venetns,  read  here  pn3t  "^aDB,  while  the  Com- 

plntensian  text  and  other  codd.  read  y  nX  *^I9B19,  which 
is  also  supported  by  codex  Hlllelt  and  is  adopted  in  Bir'a 
ed.  of  Proverbs. 

These  few  examples  will  show  the  importance  of 
the  codex  Hillel  for  the  text  of  the  Old  Test.    (&  P.) 

HiUiger,  Johamm  Zacharias,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  1, 1693,  at  Chemnitz. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Wittenberg,  was  in  1717  ad- 
junct to  the  philosophical  faculty  at  the  latter  place,  in 
1724  professor  of  philosophy,  in  1726  superintendent  at 
Sayda,  in  Saxon v,  and  died  Jan.  16, 1770.  He  wrote, 
De  LUfro  Recti  ad  Joe.  x,  15  (Leipsic,  1714) :— i)e  awX^- 
raiQ  ad  Matth.  ix,  28  (1717) :— De  Vita,  Fama,  et  Scr^ 
tie  VaL  Weigelii  (1721) :— i>e  PlagU  Magnie  Pharaomi 
ad  Gen.  xii,  17  (1724) :—/)«  Canonica  Libri  EUker  Auo^ 
toritate  (Wittenberg,  1729) :— Z>e  A  ugustana  Confestume 
Nowna  Concionum  Saa'arum  Secundaria  (1783).  See 
Dietmann,  Churedchsiecke  Prieeler;  Zochxa,  AUgemaneM 
GeUhrten^ Lexihon,  s.  v.;  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  theoL 
Lit.  i,  775 ;  FUrst,  BiU.  Jud.  i,  394.    (R  P.) 

HiUyer,  Asa,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Massachusetts,  April  6, 1768.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1786;  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Sufiblk,  L.  I.,  in  1788;  caUed  to  BotUe  Hill  (now 
Madison),  N.  J.,  in  1789;  to  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Orange  in  1801 ;  resigned  his  charge  when 
he  was  seventy  years  of  age,  and  died  at  Orange,  Ang. 
28, 1840.  During  his  pastorate  at  Orange  he  made  a 
missionary  tonr  through  northern  Pennsylvania  and 
western  New  York,  and  preached  the  first  sermon  eyer 
heard  in  what  is  now  the  dty  of  Auburn.  See  Tuttle, 
Hist,  of  the  Presb.  Church  m  Madison,  N.  J.  (New  York, 
1855),  p.  89;  Aikman,  Historical  Discourse  Concerning 
the  Pralgierian  Church,  Madison,  N.  J.  (1876),  p.  8. 

HHpert,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  super- 
intendent at  HUdesheim,  who  died  May  10, 1680,  is 
the  author  of,  Disquisitio  de  Praiadamitis  :~-De  Judmo^ 
rum  Ftagdlatumtbus.'—De  Gloria  Ten^  Posteriorit: 
—HebrcBorum  Phihsophia  A  dversus  Judeeos  :—De  Agek^ 
pis:—De  PerseverasUia  Sanotorvm.  See  Wltte,  Dia^ 
rium  Biographicumf  FUrat,  ^»6^  Jud  i,  894;  Jdchttr, 
AUgemeima  GeUhrtm-Lexihon^  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 


HILSCHER 


567 


HINDUWI  VERSION 


HIlBoher,  Balthasar,  a  Luthenn  theologian,  was 
born  April  1, 1595,  at  Hinchberg,  SileBia.  He  waa  bach- 
elor of  theology  and  deacon  at  Leipeic,  and  died  Sept. 
18,  1680,  leaving,  De  Integriiate  Codicia  H^brcti: — De 
Evcmgtlio: — Dt  Juitificaiione: — Ditputaiionet  de  Invo^ 
eatione  Sanctorum,  de  Sanctis  AngeUt,  de  Imagine  Dei: 
— De  Ilommibus  in  Diluvio  ad  1  Petr,  mi,  19 : — Luther 
risfher  Busa-  und  Betwecker  wider  den  Pabet  und  eeine 
Jesuiter.  See  Gotse,  Ehgia  Theologorum  ;  Jocher,  A  U" 
gemeinee  GeleArteO'Lexikon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hilflcher,  Patil  Christian,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, waa  born  March  15, 1666,  at  Waldhcim,  in  Saxony. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1695  deacon  at  Dresden 
(Neustadt),  in  1704  pastor  there,  and  died  Aug.  8, 1780, 
leaving  a  number  of  ascetical  works,  for  which  see  Jo- 
cher, AUgemdnee  Gelehrten-Lexikonf  s.  v.;  FUrst,  BibL 
Jud.  i,  894.    (R  P.) 

Hllaey  (or  Hildealey),  Joiik,  bishop  of  Roches- 
ter in  1535,  died  in  1588,  leaving.  The  ManuaU  o/Prag- 
era;  or.  The  Prgmer  in  Englyehe  (1589) :— Dc  Veri  Cor- 
porie  Jam  in  Sacramento : — Ruolutiom  Concerning  the 
Sacramenls,  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  s.r. 

HUten,  JoHAN^RS,  a  Franciscan  of  Thuringia,  who 
died  in  1502,  is  rhe  author  of  Comment,  in  Apoealgpsin 
et  Damekm,  Hilton  made  himself  famous  by  his  so- 
called  prophecies.  See  Angeltia,  Bericht  von  Joh,  fJil- 
ten  und  semen  Weissagungen,     (B.  P.) 

HUtOD,  William,  an  English  painter,  was  bom  at 
Lincoln,  June  8,  1786.  He  studied  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy School,  and  afterwards  made  a  tour  in  Italy.  In 
1825  he  succeeded  Fuseli  as  keeper  of  the  academy,  and 
died  in  I^ndon,  Dec.  80, 1839.  Of  his  religious  pieces 
the  following  are  the  principal:  Christ  Crowned  with 
Thorns,  painted  in  1828,  lately  purchased  by  the  acad- 
emy, and  regsrded  as  his  masterpiece;  The  Angel  Re- 
leasing Peter  from  Prison,  painted  in  1831 ;  The  Murder 
of  the  ImwcentA,  his  exhibited  work  (1888) ;  and  Rdtehah 
and  Ahraham^s  Servant  (1829),  now  in  the  National 
Gallery.     See  Eneydop,  Brit,  9th  ed.  s.  v. 

Himmel,  Johankes,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
bom  Dec  27,  1581,  at  Stolpe,  Pomerania.  He  stud- 
ied at  different  universities,  and  died  at  Jena,  March  31, 
1648,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of,  Analytica  Dispositio  Librorum  BtbHoorum: — 
Menwriale  Biblicum  Generate  et  Speciale  cum  Chrono- 
logia  BiHica :  —  Compendium  JJisioria  Ecdesiasticte 
a  Naio  Christo  Usque  adLuiherum: — De  Scriptura  Sa- 
era  :^-Commjeniar,  in  Prophetas  Minores,  Epistolam  ad 
Galatas  et  Philenumem: — PostiUa  A  cndemica  in  Episto- 
las  et  Evangelia  Dominicalia  et  Festiealia : — De  Cano- 
nicatu,Jure  Canonico  et  Theologia  Scholastica: — Syn- 
tagma Dispuiationum  Theologicarutn,  See  FUrst,  Bild, 
Jud.  i,  894 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gdehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

(a  p.) 

HinduBtani  Veraioii  of  the  SciiipruRES.  Hin- 
dustani (or  f/'rd'u),  the  language  of  "  Hindu-stan,'' or 
<<  country  of  Hind,"  is  a  mixed  language,  and  owes  its 
formation  to  the  intercourse  of  the  Mohammedan  in- 
vaders with  the  conquered  natives  of  India.  At  the 
time  of  the  first  Mohammedan  invasions,  which  date 
from  the  10th  century,  Hinduwi, or  Hindi,  was  the  pre- 
vailing dialect  in  Northern  India.  On  their  permanent 
settlement  in  India  the  Mohammedans  adopted  this  dia- 
lect as  the  medium  of  communication  with  the  natives, 
bnt  they  greatly  altered  it  by  the  introduction  of  wonls 
and  idioms  from  the  Persian  and  Arabic,  their  own 
vernacular  and  liturgic  languages.  The  new  dialect 
thence  arising  was  called  Urku  (camp),  or  Urdu  Zaban 
(camp  Uinguage),  because  the  language  of  the  Moham- 
medan camp  and  court;  it  was  also  called  "Hindu- 
stani,'*  from  the  geographical  region  through  which  it 
ultimately  became  diffused. 

The  first  translation  of  any  portion  of  Scripture  into 
Hindustani  seems  to  have  been  made  by  K  Schulze,  a 


Danish  missionary.  His  version  of  the  Psalms  waa 
published  by  (Wallenberg  at  Halle  in  1746,  and  the  New 
TesL  in  1758.  But  the  most  important  translation  that 
has  been  made  into  this  language  is  that  of  the  New 
Test,  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Martyn,  which  appeared,  after 
much  delay,  at  Serampore  in  1814.  This  version  soon 
obtained  such  a  high  reputation  that  it  led  to  a  demand 
for  an  edition  in  the  Devanagari  (or  regular  Sanscrit) 
character,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Hindils  in  the  npper 
provinces.  An  edition  in  this  character  was  published 
in  1817  by  the  Calcutta  Bible  Society.  No  subsequent 
editions  of  the  Hindustani  Scriptures  were,  however, 
issued  in  this  dress,  for  it  was  found  by  experience  that 
the  Scriptures  in  the  Hinduwi  dialect  (q.  v. )  were 
far  more  acceptable  than  in  the  Hindustani  to  the  nu- 
merous class  of  natives  who  employ  the  Devanagari 
characters.  For  their  use,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
mention  (see  Hi3<duwi  Version),  Martyn*s  New  Test, 
was  eventually  divested  of  its  Persian  and  Arabic  terms, 
and  transferred  into  the  Hinduwi  idiom  by  Mr.Bowley. 

While  these  editions  were  issued  by  the  Calcutta 
Auxiliary,  the  publication  of  an  edition  in  London  had 
been  contemplated  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  since  the  year  1815,  and  was  published  in 
1819,  under  the  superintendence  of  professor  Lee.  Four 
thousand  copies  of  this  edition  were  sent  to  Olcutta. 
The  committee  at  the  latter  place  now  turned  their  at- 
tention to  the  publication  of  a  Hindustani  version  of  the 
Old  Test  The  first  portion  of  the  work  published  was 
the  Pentateuch,  which  appeared  in  1823,  and  in  1844 
the  Old  Test,  was  completeid,  and  editions,  both  in  Ara- 
bic and  Roman  characters,  were  distributed.  The  Hin- 
dustani version  of  the  Scriptures  has  undergone  subse- 
quent revision  at  the  hands  of  a  committee  appointed 
for  the  purpose,  and  Liter  editions,  both  of  the  Old  and 
New  Tests.,  have  appeared.  Some  of  these  have  been 
printed  in  the  Arabic,  and  others  in  the  Roman  charac- 
ter. At  present  there  exist  four  different  versions  in 
Hindustani,  one  by  Martyn,  the  second  by  Thomasen 
and  others,  the  third  Yates's  version,  and  the  fourth  the 
Benares'  version,  so  called  from  the  place  where  it  was 
made.    See  Bil^  of  Every  Land,  p.  94. 

Linguistic  Helps.— Gucin  de  Tassy,  Rudiments  de  la 
Langue  JJindoustanie,  aveo  Appendice  (Paris,  1829-88 ; 
12th  ed.  1868) ;  Vinson,  Elements  de  Ui  Grammaire  G^ 
nirale  IJvuloustanie  (ibid.  1884) ;  Craven,  The  Popular 
Dictionary  in  English  and  Hindustani  and  Hindustani 
and  English  (London,  1882) ;  Dowson,  A  Grammar  of 
the  Urdu  or  Hindustani  Lat^age ;  A  Hindustani  Ex' 
ercise  Book;  Fallon,  A  New  Hindustani- English  Dic- 
tionary (Benares,  1879) ;  English-Hindustani  Dictionary 
(1880).     (a  P.) 

Hindu'wl  Versioxi  of  the  Scriptures.  Hin- 
duwi (called  Hindi  by  the  Serampore  translators),  with 
its  various  dialects,  is  spoken  in  all  the  upper  provinces 
of  India.  Its  affinity  to  the  Sanscrit  is  very  remarkable, 
and  about  nine  tenths  of  its  words  may  be  traced  to  that 
language.  In  idiom  and  construction  Hinduwi  resem- 
bles Hindustani ;  the  chief  difference  between  the  two 
dialects  consists  in  this,  that  while  Persian  and  Arabic 
words  and  phrases  predominate  in  Hindustani,  the  Hin- 
duwi is  entirely  free  from  foreign  admixture,  and  the 
proper  mode  of  writing  it  is  in  the  Devanagari  or  regu- 
lar Sanscrit  characters.  Beside  these,  the  Kythi,  or 
Kaithi,  or  writer's  character,  an  imperfect  imitation, 
and  in  some  respects  an  alteration,  of  the  Devanagari, 
is  also  used  in  writing  and  printing  Hinduwi,  particu- 
larly by  the  trading  community,  and  it  is  said  that  of 
the  lower  class  of  natives  there  are  ten  who  read  and 
write  in  the  Kythi  for  one  who  transacts  business  in 
the  Devanagari. 

A  version  into  the  Hinduwi  language  was  commended 
in  1802,  and  in  1807  the  whole  of  the  New  and  parts  of 
the  Old  Test,  were  completed  and  ready  for  revision.  It 
is  one  of  the  versions  made  by  the  late  Dr.  Carey.  In 
181 1  the  New  Test,  was  published  at  Serampore,  followed 
in  1818  by  a  second  edition.    A  third  was  soon  ne^ed, 


HINDUWI  VERSIONS 


568 


fflNTON 


and  the  Serampore  miBsionaries  detennioed  to  publuh 
the  version  executed  by  the  Rev.  John  Chamberlain. 
In  1819  the  gospels  in  the  Devanagari  character  were 
published,  and  in  the  following  year  another  edition 
appeared  in  the  Kaithi  character.  The  further  publi- 
cation of  this  rereion  was  interrupted  by  the  death  of 
Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  the  Rev.  J.  T.  Thompson,  a  Bap- 
tist missionary,  long  resident  at  Delhi,  then  undertook 
the  revision  of  the  New  Test,  and  of  the  Psalms,  and 
under  his  superintendence  the  gospels  were  printed  in 
1824.  The  Old  Test.,  in  Dr.  Carey's  translation,  ap- 
peared in  1818.  From  time  to  time  new  editions  were 
published  in  both  characten  by  the  Serampore  miuion- 
ary  societies,  each  edition  having  been  subjected  to  a 
careful  revision. 

There  also  exists  another  Hinduwi  version  of  the  en- 
tire Bible,  known  as  the  Bowley  translation,  so  called 
from  its  author,  the  Rev.  William  Bowley,  for  many  years 
missionary  at  Benares.  His  New  Test  was  completed  in 
1826,  but  the  version  is  not  a  new  or  independent  transla- 
don,  but  is  throughout  substantially  the  same  asMartyn*s 
Hindustani  version,  from  which  it  differs  chiefly  in  the 
substitution  of  Sanscrit  for  Persian  and  Arabic  terms. 
Martvu^s  Testament  was  thus  adapted  to  the  use  of 
persons  speaking  the  Hinduwi  dialect,  by  Mr.  Bowley, 
agent  of  the  Church  MLsmonary  Society  at  Chunar. 
Being  unacquainted  with  the  original  languages  of 
Scripture,  he  consulted  the  English  A.  V.  in  all  pas- 
sages where  the  Hinduwi  idiom  required  him  to  alter 
Martyh*s  renderings,  referring  at  the  same  time  to  the 
best  oommentatois  on  Scripture.  In  the  same  manner 
he  undertook  the  transference  of  the  Hindustani  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Test  into  the  Hinduwi  dialect,  follow- 
ing in  his  translation  of  Isaiah  the  one  made  by  bishop 
Lowth.  The  idiom  of  the  version  was  excellent  After 
all,  it  was  felt  that  a  revision  for  the  purpose  of  conform- 
ing his  version  to  the  originals,  and  correcting  the  mis- 
apprehension of  Old  English  idiom,  was  exceedingly 
desirable.  After  the  formation  of  the  North  India  Bible 
Society  in  1845,  this  matter  was  taken  in  hand,  and  a 
revision  of  the  New  Test  undertaken.  The  committee 
consisted  of  Messrs.  Leupoldt,  Kennedy,  and  Schneider, 
and  the  work  was  carried  through  the  press  at  Secun- 
dra,  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Schneider,  in  1850 
and  1851.  These  copies  of  the  New  Test  were  de- 
stroyed during  the  mutiny  in  1857.  The  Rev.  J.  Ull- 
mann  was  then  sent  to  England  to  bring  out  a  new 
edition,  which  included  a  revision,  and  the  whole  was 
completed  in  1860.  Soon  after  the  revision  of  the  New 
Test  a  committee,  consisting  of  Messrs.  Schneider, 
Leupoldt,  Kennedy,  and  Owen,  was  appointed  to  revise 
the  Old  Test  This  was  brought  out  in  two  volumes 
at  the  .Allahabad  Mission  Press  in  1852  and  1855. 
These  copies,  too,  were  destroyed  in  the  mutiny,  and 
another  revised  edition  was  completed  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  former  editor ;  of  this  the  first  volume 
was  issued  in  1866,  and  the  second  in  the  beginning  of 
1869.  At  present  the  Hinduwi  version  is  undergoing  a 
thorough  revision.     See  Bibie  of  Every  Land,  p.  100. 

Linguistic  Helps, — For  the  study  of  the  language,  see 
Garcin  de  Tassy,  Rudunents  de  la  Langue  Bindoui  (Paris, 
1847);  Bate,  A  Dictionary  of  the  Iluuke  Language; 
Browne,  A  Hindi  Primer  (London,  1822);  Etherington, 
T/ie  Students  Grammar  of  the  Hindi  TAwguage  (Be- 
nares, 1873) ;  Kellog,  A  Grammar  of  the  Hindi  Lan- 
guage, in  whick  are  treated  the  standard  Hindi,  Braj, 
and  the  Eaetem  Hindi  of  the  Ramayan  ofTulsi  Das; 
also  the  Colloquial  Dialects  ofMarwar,  Kumaon,  A  vadh, 
Baghdkhand,  Bhojpur,  etei,  viih  Copious  Philological 
Notes;  Mathur&prasdda  Misra,  A  Trilingual  Diction- 
ary,  being  a  Comprehensive  Lexicon  in  English,  Urdu, 
oAl  Hindi,  exhibiting  the  Sylkdncation,  Pronunciation, 
and  Etymology  of  English  W^ords,  toith  their  Explana- 
tionin  English  and  in  Urdu  tmd  Hindi,  in  the  Roman 
Character  (Benares,  1865).     0,  P.) 

HINDUWI,  DIALECTS  O^  the,  aki>  of  Central 
IimiA,  VERSIONS  IN.     Thip  Hinduwi  comprehends 

\ 


many  dialects,  strictly  local  and  provincial,  which  differ 
from  each  other  chiefly  in  the  different  proportions  of 
Sanscrit,  Arabic,  or  Persian  terms  entering  into  their 
composition.  At  a  veiy  early  period  trandations  into 
these  different  dialects  were  executed  by  the  Serampore 
missionaries,  but  these  translations  were  not  afterwards 
reprinted;  some  have  been  practically  discontinued. 
See  Bible  of  Every  Land,  p.  103.  ^ 

1.  Braj,  or  Brij'bhasa.  This  dialect  is  spoken 
throughout  the  province  of  Agra.  In  1811  the  Rev. 
John  Chamberlain,  then  stationed  at  Agra,  commenced 
a  translation  of  the  New  Test  in  this  dialect,  and  in 
1818  he  had  finished  the  translation  of  the  gospels. 
After  much  delay  the  New  Test  was  completed  at  press 
in  the  year  1882. 

2.  BughekundL  This  dialect  is  spoken  in  a  district 
between  the  province  of  Bundelcund  and  the  sources  of 
the  Nerbudda  River.  A  translation  of  the  New  Test 
was  commenced  in  1814,  and  was  publbhed  at  Seram- 
pore in  1821. 

8.  Canaj,  or  Canyacuhja,  This  dialect  is  spoken  in 
the  Doab  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna.  A  version  of  the 
New  Test  was  commenced  in  1815  at  Serampore,  and 
completed  at  press  in  1822. 

4.  KousuUt,  or  Koshala,  This  dialect  is  spoken  in 
the  western  part  of  Onde.  In  1820  the  gospel  of  Mat- 
thew was  printed,  and  nothing  more  since. 

In  addition  to  the  Hinduwi  dialects,  strictly  so  called, 
there  are  several  other  Indian  dialects,  supposed  to  be 
corruptions  of  the  general  Hinduwi  stock : 

1.  Bikaneera*  This  dialect  is  spoken  in  the  province 
of  Bikaneer,  north  of  Marwar.  The  New  Test  was 
printed  at  Serampore  in  1828. 

2.  Buitaneer,  or  Viral,  This  is  spoken  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Buttaneer,  west  of  Delhi,  and  a  New  Test  printed 
in  1824  at  Serampore  is  extant  in  that  dialect 

3.  HarrotL  This  dialect  is  spoken  in  Harroti,  a  prov- 
ince west  of  Bundelcund.  A  version  of  the  New  Test 
was  printed  at  Serampore  in  1822. 

4.  Juyapoora,  This  is  spoken  in  the  province  of 
Joipoor,  east  of  Marwar  and  west  of  Agra.  Only  the 
gospel  of  Matthew  was  published  at  Serampore  in  1815. 

5.  Martoari,  This  dialect  is  spoken  in  the  province 
of  Joipoor,  or  Marwar,  north  of  Mewar.  In  this  dialect 
the  New  Test  is  extant  since  1821. 

6.  OodeypoorcL  This  dialect  is  vernacular  in  the 
province  of  Mewar,  or  Oodeypoor.  Only  the  gospel  of 
Matthew  has  been  published  at  Serampore  in  1815. 

7.  Oojein,  or  Ovjjuyuni,  This  dialect  is  vernacular 
in  the  province  of  Midwah  of  Central  India.  A  version 
of  the  New  Test  was  published  at  Serampore  in  1824. 

cap.) 

Hingnoh,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Hottentots,  is 
the  name  of  the  first  woman,  not  bom,  but  created. 
She  is  worshipped  as  their  chief  protecting  goddc 


Hinton,  Joiuf  Howard,  an  eminent  Engluh  Bap* 
tist  minister,  was  bom  at  Osdford,  Mareh  24, 1791.  He 
received  his  collegiate  education  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  and  having  decided  to  enter  the  ministry 
in  the  Baptist  denomination,  began  his  labon  at  Haver- 
ford-West,  where  he  remained  for  some  time,  and  then 
removed  to  Reading.  Subsequently  he  accepted  a  call 
to  become  the  pastor  of  a  large  congregation  worship- 
ping in  Devonshire  Square,  Bishopsgate,  London.  In 
1881  he  visited  America.  Returning  to  England,  he 
once  more  took  up  his  residence  in  Reading,  where  he 
became  again  a  pastor,  though  not  of  the  same  chnreh 
with  which  he  had  before  been  connected.  Here  for 
several  years  he  continued  to  reside,  until  he  letiicd 
from  the  pastorate  and  removed  to  BristoL  He  died 
there,  Dec.  17,  1878.  Mr.  Hinton  was  a  aomcwhat 
voluminous  writer.  Among  the  worka  which  he  pub- 
lished were  hU  Memoirs  of  WUUam  KmJT,  tL  diatin- 
guished  Baptist  missionary,  to  the  West  Indies: — A 
History  of  the  UnUed^States  (2  vols.  4to),  of  which  mv^ 
eral  editiona have  been  published;~yAeafa^.-—gfawcwfg 


HIPPAROHUS 


569 


HITCHCOCK 


of  Natural  Hidorff,  betidei  many  nialler  piodaetioni  on 
the  TolonUry  principle  in  education  and  r^igion.  His 
works  have  been  ooUeeted  in  seven  volomes.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Hipparohns,  a  maityr  at  Samosata,  with  several 
others,  A.D.  297,  under  Oalerim,  variooslj  commemo- 
rated March  15  and  Dec.  9. 

Hippooratla,  a  festival  held  by  the  Arcadians  in 
honor  of  Poseidon  (q.  v.),  in  coorse  of  which  it  was  cns- 
tomaiy  to  lead  horses  and  mules  in  procession  gayly 
caparisoned. 

Hippogrifll^  in  the  mythology  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
was  a  fabulous  animal,  half  horse,  half  griffin,  which 
cleaves  the  air  with  preternatural  swiftness.  The  Ital- 
ian poet,  Bojardo,  seems  to  have  invented  it.  Modem 
German  poets  use  the  name  frequently  for  the  muses* 
steed,  Pegtuus  (q.  v.). 

Hinnologlam  (ctp/ioXoyiov),  an  office-book  in  the 
Greek  Church,  consisting  mainly  of  a  collection  of  the 
Hlrmoi,  but  containing  also  a  few  other  forms. 

Bnnaa  (iipfwt).  The  Canons,  which  form  so  im- 
portant a  part  of  the  Greek  offices,  are  divided  into  nine 
ode%  or  practically  into  eight,  ut  the  second  is  always 
omitted.  Each  ode  consists  of  a  vaiying  number  (three, 
four,  or  five  are  the  numbers  most  frequently  fonnd)  of 
tntparia,  or  short  rhythmical  strophes,  each  formed  on 
the  model  of  one  which  precedes  the  ode,  and  which  is 
called  the  Hirmus.  The  Hirmus  is  usually  independent 
of  the  ode,  though  containing  a  reference  to  the  subject- 
matter  of  it ;  sometimes,  however,  the  first  troparion  of 
an  ode  is  called  the  HirmuSk  It  is  distinguished  by  in- 
verted commas  ('* ")  in  the  office-books^  Sometimes 
the  first  words  alone  of  a  Hirmus  are  given,  and  it  is 
not  unfrequently  placed  at  the  end  of  the  ode  to  which 
it  bebngs. — Smith,  Diet,  ofCkritt,  Antiq,  a.  v. 

Hinoh  (or  Hirs),  a  name  common  to  many  Jew- 
ish writers,  of  whom  we  mention  the  following: 

1.  BBX-JoNATRAM  hO'Levt^  who  flourished  in  the 
18th  century,  is  the  author  of  "^C^n  a'^rs,  a  commen- 
tary on  the  Pentateuch,  allegorical  and  homiletical 
(Dyhemfurt,  1712) :— "^V^n  h'^ZV,  glosses  on  Talmudic 
treatises  (1718). 

2.  ]iBii-Ni88A9,  who  flourished  in  the  18th  century, 
wrote  *)a2C  r'^KDH,  novellas  on  the  Pentateuch  (Am- 
sterdam, 1755). 

3.  Saxukl  bm'Semutel,  wrote  a  cabalistical  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch,  entitled,  niinn  ni^b2")a 
(1788).    See  FOist,  Bibl.  Jud,  i,  895  sq.    (a  P.) 

Hiraoh,  Panl  'Wilhelm,  a  Jewish  convert  of 
Germany  in  the  18th  century,  who  joined  the  Church 

in  1717,  is  the  author  of,  HtDlpn  nb^Q,  or  Enideckung 

der  Tehi/ot  oder  das  achadlicke  Blut  (Berlin,  1717)  r^ 

bzV^  rsns,  or,  Dat  mm  Gott  den  Chritlen  amft  neve 

gewordene  JiM-Getckenk  (1718)  t—BetchreSnmg  deijii- 
di$dun  WeUmaehi9'  Fates  (1725) :  -^Der  Juden  laeherUcke 
ZuriUtung  twn  Sabbat  (1722)^— BcjcAm5vn<7  dee  be- 
(riOftem  Efidea  Rabban  Jochanan's  (1728)  i-^Nadkrieht 
von  der  Bedeutung  der  beiden  Bedensarien:  Kapore  icerden 
und  Krie  reiseen  (1730).  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  898 ; 
Wolf,  Bibl,  Hebr.  iii,  907  sq.;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemtinea  Gelekr- 
tm^Lexikonf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

HirBOh,  Theodor,  a  ProtesUnt  theologian  and 
historian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  17, 1806,  at  Dant- 
zic  He  studied  at  Berlin,  was  for  some  time  professor 
at  the  Friedrich-Wilhelms  gymnasium  there,  and  in 
1888  at  Dantzic  In  1886  he  was  called  as  professor  of 
history  and  librarian  to  Greifswalde,  and  died  Feb.  17, 
1881.  He  published,  BeUrag  mtr  Rrformaiiontgeeehiehte 
Damige  (Dantanc,  1842):  — Die  Oher-Ifarrhirche  von 
8U  Marien  in  Danxig  (1843)  :—i)ans^  Handeh-  vnd 
Oeweibegeeekidtie  vxter  der  Herreekafi  dee  BeuUfke-i 
Ordene  (Leipnc,  1858).  He  also  edited,  with  Strehlke 
and  Tdppan,  Scryttortt  Bemm  Pnaeieamm  {1868  sq.). 

(RP.) 


Hixaohal,  Soix>mo9,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  born  In 
England  in  1762.  He  was  educated  in  Germany  and 
Poland,  and  was  for  some  time  preacher  at  PrenzUio,  in 
Prussia.  In  1802  he  was  called  to  London  as  rabbi  of 
the  synsgogue  in  Duke*s  Place,  but  gradually  his  juris- 
diction  was  extended  over  all  the  Jews  of  the  Ashkenazi 
Minhag  (i.  e.  German  rite)  in  London,  and  indeed  in 
England.  It  was  during  his  time  that  the  scattered 
elements  formed  by  the  English  Jews  were  gathered 
into  one  compact  mass,  and  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
Jews,  and  the  German  Jews,  who  were  formerly  spoken 
of  as  two  distinct  **  nations,**  became  closely  connected 
together  as  membeis  of  the  same  creed,  lie  died 
Oct.  81, 1842.     (a  P.) 

Hirsohfeld,  Hbrmavn  T.,  a  Jewish  rabbi  and 
writer,  who  died  at  Charlottenburg,  Prussia,  June  10, 
1884,  at  the  age  of  seventy,  is  the  author  of,  De  Litera- 
tura  Bfperdita  Hebrtaorum;  Mohehtglaube  und  Be- 
Ugionetekdndtmg  (1842): — Tractatut  Afaeeofh  ewn  Scko' 
Uie  Uermeneuticit  et  Ghteario  nee  non  Indidhut  (Berlin, 
1842)  i^Wltneeke  eines  Juden  (Posen,  1846)  .—Der  Geiet 
der  tabnuditchen  Auslegung  der  Bibel  (Berlin,  1847)  : — 
Untenuehungen  aber  die  Religum  (Breslau,  1866): — 
Udter  die  Lehre  von  der  Unsterblichieit  der  Seek  beiden 
vereckiedenen  VOlkem  (1868).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i, 
400;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  561.    (B.  P.) 

HIrt,  Alotsius  Ludwio,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine, 
professor  of  archeology  at  Berlin,  was  bom  June  27, 
1759,  at  Donaneschingen,  Baden,  and  died  June  29, 

1886.  He  is  the  author  of  Der  Tempel  SalonumtM  (Ber- 
lin, 1809).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  tkeoL  Lit,  i,  189 ; 
FttrB^  BOL  Jud.  i,  400.    (B.  P.) 

Hirsel,  Heimioh,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was  bom  at 
Zurich,  April  17, 1818.  He  studied  at  his  native  place 
and  at  TQbingen,  and  died  at  Zurich,  April  17, 1871, 
where  he  had  been  laboring  since  1857.  Hirzel  be- 
longed to  the  so-called  Proteetanten-Vertin,  See  Lang, 
Proteetantische  KinAenzeHung  (May  20  and  27, 1871) ; 
Lichtenberger,  Encgdop,  dee  Sciences  BeHgieuses,  s.  v. 

(RP.) 

HIrxel,  Lndwlg,  son  of  Bemhard  (q.  v.),  was 
bora  at  Zurich,  Aug.  27, 1801,  and  died  April  13,  1841, 
professor  of  theology.  He  is  the  author  of,  De  Penta^ 
teuchi  Versionis  Syriaca  quam  Pesckito  Vocant  Indole 
(Leipeic,  1825) : — De  Chatdaismi  Biblici  Origine  etAue- 
toritaU  Critica  (ISdO):— Das  Buck  Hiob  erkldrt  (1889; 
3d.  ed.  by  Dillmann.  1869).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der 
theoL  LU,  i,  56,  124;  FUrst,  Bibl,  Jud.  i,  402;  Zuchold, 
BOL  TheoL  i,  562.    (a  P.) 

Hita,  Ruiz.    See  Ruiz. 

Hitohoook,  Calvin,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  West  minster,  Vt.,  Oct.  25, 1787,  gradu- 
ated from  Middlebury  College  in  1811,  and  from  Ando- 
ver  Theological  Seminary  in  1814.  His  first  settlement 
was  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  where  he  was  ordained  Aug.  15, 
1815.  This  pastorate  was  finished  OcU  1, 1820,  and  he 
was  installed  at  Randolph,  Mass.,  Feb.  28  following,  and 
remained  there  for  more  than  thirty  years,  the  date  of 
his  dismissal  being  June,  1851.  His  residence  there^ 
after  was  at  Wrentham,  where  he  died,  Dec.  3, 1867. 
He  made  frequent  contributions  to  the  Boston  Recorder, 
and  published  some  Sermons,  See  Cong,  Quarlerig, 
1868,  p.  286. 

Hitohoock,  Henry  L.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  boro  at  Benton,  O.,  Oct.  31, 1818. '  He  studied 
at  the  Benton  Academy,  graduated  from  Yale  College 
in  1832,  and  spent  some  time  as  a  student  in  the  Lane 
Theological  Seminary.    He  was  licensed  to  preach  in 

1887,  and  installed  at  Morgan,  O.,  the  same  year.  In 
1840  he  began  to  preach  at  Columbus,  and  the  neStt 
year  was  installed  pastor  there.  In  1865  he  was  elect- 
ed president  of  Western  Reserve  College,  after  leaving 
which  position  he  lived  in  retirement  until  his  death 
at  Hudson,  O.,  July  6, 1878.  See  Nevin,  Presb,  Eneg^ 
dop,  M,y, 


HITCHCOCK 


560 


HO-CHANG 


Hitohoook,  Samuel  Austiii,  a  philantliropic 
layman  of  the  Congregatiocal  Cbarch,  was  bom  at 
Brimfield,  Mass.,  Jan.  9, 1794.  On  March  28, 1812,  he 
left  home  in  search  of  employment,  which  he  found 
with  a  merchant  of  Dudley.  In  1820  he  went  to.  Bos- 
ton and  entered  a  dry-goods  firm,  established  for  the 
sale  of  goods  manufactured  by  the  different  cotton-mills 
— the  first  in  New  England.  In  1881  he  went  to  South- 
bridge  as  agent  of  the  Hamilton  Woollen  Company. 
He  united  with  the  Old  South  Church,  in  Boston,  June 
28, 1827,  and  was  afterwards  connected  with  the  Church 
in  Brimfield.  In  1840  he  gave  $10,000  to  Amherst  Col- 
lege, and  this  was  followed  by  other  amounts  until  the 
aggregate  reached  8175,000.  To  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  his  donations  amounted  to  $120,000.  To  the 
town  of  Brimfield  he  gave  $10,000,  in  1855,  to  establish 
a  free  school,  and  subsequent  donations  increased  this 
to  $80,000,  and  it  was  called  the  Hitchcock  Free  High- 
School  In  1871  he  gave  $50,000  to  Illinois  College. 
These  are  only  samples  of  his  muuificence.  His  dona- 
tions aggregated  about  $650,000.  Mr.  Hitchcock  was 
withal  a  humble  Christian,  seeking  no  notoriety  in  the 
bestowal  of  his  wealth.  He  died  in  Boston,  Nov.  28, 
1873.     See  Cong,  Quatierfy^  1874,  p.  517. 

ntopadesa  (jffood  advice),  in  Hindfi  literature,  is 
a  famous  collection  of  ethical  tales  and  fables,  compiled 
from  the  larger  and  older  work  called  Ptmcka-tantra. 
It  has  often  been  printed  in  the  original,  and  translated 
into  various  languages. 

Hittites.  All  that  is  known  concerning  this  im- 
portant Canaanitish  people,  whose  history  is  often  re- 
ferred to  on  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  monuments 
under  the  name  Kketa,  has  been  collected  by  Wright, 
Empire  of  the  HiUUea  (Lond.  1884, 8vo). 

Hittorfl^  Jacques  Imack,  a  French  architect,  was 
bom  at  Cologne,  Aug.  20, 1793.  He  entered  the  School 
of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris  in  1810,  and  became  architect  to 
the  government  in  1818.  He  made  a  study  of  the  re- 
mains of  Qreek  architecture  in  Sicily,  and  followed  the 
Greek  artists  in  applying  colors  to  most  of  his  archi- 
tectural designs.  From  1824  he  was  engaged  in  the 
construction  of  important  public  buildings,  of  which  the 
Church  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  is  regarded  as  his  mas- 
terpiece. He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
in  1853,  and  died  in  Paris,  March  25, 1867.  His  prin- 
cipal productions  arc.  Architecture  Antique  de  la  Sidle 
(Paris,  1826-30, 3  vols.) :— /I  rchitecture  Polychrome  chet 
les  Greca  (1831)  i—Memoire  tur  Pompei  etPetra  (1866). 

Hitzig,  Ferdinand,  a  German  exegetical  scholar, 
was  born  at  Hauingen,  in  Baden,  June  23, 1807.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Halle,  commenced  his  aca- 
demical career  at  the  former  place  in  1830,  accepted  a 
call  to  Zurich  in  1882,  went  again  in  1861  to  Hei- 
delberg as  Umbreit*s  successor,  and  died  Jan.  22,  1875. 
At  Zurich  Hitzig  publicly  announced  himself  in  favor 
of  calling  Strauss.  Though  on  the  one  hand  a  man 
without  fear  or  hypocrisy,  and  on  the  other  of  a  po- 
lemic temperament  and  caustic  wit,  which  seemed  to 
exclude  personal  piety  and  gentleness,  yet  Hitzig  was 
of  a  pious  nature,  and  not  only  loved  the  Old  Test.,  but 
sought  to  serve  the  kingdom  of  God  by  his  investiga- 
tions. He  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  his  colleagues  and 
friends,  and  even  of  his  opponents.  We  can  adopt  the 
words  of  Keim,  in  the  dedication  of  his  llistcry  ofJesue 
(2d  ed.  Jan.  1875) :  "  To  the  memor>'  of  F.  Hitzig,  the 
honest  roan  without  fear,  the  faithful  friend  without 
deceit,  the  pride  of  Zurich  and  Heidelberg,  the  bold, 
restless  architect  of  Biblical  science."  Hitzig's  earliest 
and  by  far  the  best  work  is  his  Uebereeizung  vnd  A  m- 
legung  det  Prophcten  Jesaia  (Heidelberg,  1888) ;  his 
other  works  are,  Die  Pealmen,  hi^oriacScr  und  kriti- 
scher  Commentar  (1835-36, 2  vols. ;  new  ed.  1863-65)  :— 
Ueber  Johannes  Markus  und  eeine  Schrifien  (Zurich, 
1843):— £rr^««cAftcAte  und  Mythologie  dcr  PhUittaer 
(Leipsic,  1845)  i-^Dic  Spruche  Salomons  (Zurich,  1858) : 
^Die  zwol/kleinen  Prophften  (8d  ed.  1863)  i-^ertmiah 


(1841;  2d  ed.  1866):  — i&edUrf  (1947)  i^-Ecdetiastes 
{eod.):—Damil  (1850):— Au  ffohdied  (1855)  •.— £r«o5 
(1874) :  —  GetchichU  dee  Volket  Itrael  (Leipsic,  1869). 
As  to  the  value  of  Hitzig*s  commentaries  and  history, 
says  Kamphausen,  **  If  I  am  not  mistaken,  it  was  a  want 
of  oommon-eenge  which  prevented  this  gifted  and  truth- 
loving  investigator  to  such  a  remarkable  degree  from 
becoming  an  exemplary  exegete  and  a  trustworthy  his- 
torian. Ewald  was  fully  justified  when  he  complained 
that  Hitzig  made  that  which  was  beautiful  and  tender 
in  Solomon's  song  disagreeable  and  repulsive ;  that  he, 
in  an  almost  incredible  manner,  declared  the  first  nine 
chapters  of  the  Proverbs  to  have  been  the  last  com- 
posed, etc  But,  in  spite  of  this,  Hitzig  will  always 
have  a  place  of  prominence  among  his  contemporaries, 
and  his  worlcs  will  for  a  long  time  remain  a  fountain 
of  instruction  and  quickening  to  many."  Hitzig  also 
contributed  to  Schenkers  BiM^LexUeon^  to  the  Zeil- 
echryt  der  deuttdun  morgenUtniitdien  GeadUeha/t,  and 
other  periodicals.  See  Kneuker,  in  Protettantische  Kir* 
chcnzeUung  (1875,  coL  181-188);  Weech,  in  Badi$chc 
Biographicn,  i,  877-380  (Heidelberg,  1875);  Diestel, 
Geachickte  dee  A  ken  Teeiamente  in  der  christL  Kirche 
(Jena,  1869);  Kamphausen,  in  PlittrHerzog's  Real-En-' 
qfUop,  s.  T. ;  lichtenbei^r,  Encgdop,  dee  Sdencee  Rc" 
ligieusee,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hoadly  (or  Hoadley),  Johh,  D.D.,  an  Irish 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Tottenham,  Sept.  27, 1678,  and  was 
brother  to  the  celebrated  Benjamin  Hoadly,  bishop  of 
Winchester.  John  Hoadly  was  chaplain  to  bishop 
Bnmet,  and  by  him  install^  chancellor  and  canon  res- 
identiary of  the  Church  of  Salisbniy,  archdeacon  of 
Saram,  and  rector  of  St,  Edmund's,  and  was  afterwards 
made  canon  of  Hereford  by  his  brother,  when  bishop  of 
that  see.  He  was  advanced,  June  8,  1727,  to  the  sees 
of  Leighlin  and  Ferns.  He  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
Dublin,  Jan.  18, 1729.  In  November,  1739,  Dr.  Hoadly 
was  of  the  privy  council,  when  the  proclamation  was 
issued  requiring  all  justices,  magistrates,  etc,  to  search 
and  seize  arms  in  possession  of  any  papist,  and  to  prose- 
cute any  pnpist  who  should  presume  to  carry  arms  con- 
trary to  the  intent  of  the  proclamation.  Dr.  Hoadly 
adopted  the  flyntem  of  his  predecessor,  and  what  was 
then  styled  the  English  interest  in  the  country.  He 
died  at  Rathfamham,  July  19, 1746.  See  D' Alton,  Me- 
moire  of  the  Archbiehope  of  Dublin,  p.  830. 

Hobal,  an  idol  of  the  ancient  Arabians,  was  demol- 
ished by  Mohammed  after  he  had  taken  possession  of 
Mecca.  It  was  surrounded  by  three  hundred  and  sixty 
smaller  idols,  each  of  which  presided  over  one  day  of 
the  liuiar  year. 

Hoby,  James,  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  1788.  In  his  youth  he  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship and  counsel  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  Iviney,  and  in  1818 
became  co-pastor  at  Maze  Pond,  Southwark.  In  1824 
he  resigned  his  pastoral  work,  and  devoted  his  long  life 
to  the  advocacy  of  the  several  Baptist  funds  which  go 
to  the  support  of  the  aged  ministers  and  poorly  paid 
pastors.  He  paid  special  attention  to  the  claims  of 
churches  in  debt,  and  resided  successively  in  Birming- 
ham, Weymouth,  and  Twickenham,  in  order  to  assist 
poor  churches  around  each  of  those  places.  He  took 
great  interest  in  young  ministers,  and  in  the  Foreign 
Missionary  Society,  and  visited  America  in  its  behalf. 
He  was  widely  esteemed  and  greatly  beloved.  He  died 
at  Caterbam,  Surrey,  Nov.  20, 1871.  See  (Lond.)  Bap- 
tist ffand^book,  1872. 

Hoo  agd  {do  this),  a  form  of  words  solemnly  pro* 
nounced  by  a  herald  when  the  ancient  Romans  were 
about  to  engage  in  a  public  sacrifice.  It  implied  that 
the  whole  attention  of  the  people  was  to  be  fixed  on 
the  service  in  hand, 

Ho-Chang;,  a  name  given  in  China  to  the  priests 
of  Fo  or  Buddha.  They  strongly  inculcated  on  their 
followers  the  worship  of  the  three  gems.  See  Gwm% 
THH  Three  Sacked. 


HOCK 


661 


HODGES 


Hdck,  Hkimrich,  a  LDthenn  theologiiui  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  at  Hamburg,  Oct  18, 1700.  He  stadied 
at  Giessen  and  Wittenberg,  and  died  at  his  native  place, 
April  26,  1779,  pastor  of  Trinity  Church.  He  wrote, 
DoM  Evangdium  am  den  Evangeliit  (Hamburg,  1784-40, 
4  parts) : — Dcu  Siegel  der  Propheten  in  den  Leiden  Jem 
(1739, 1748, 2  parts) : — Beitrage  zrnn  rickiigen  underbcut" 
lichen  Verttcmde  emiger  SchriflsteUeH  (1749-62, 8  parts). 
See  Neubauer,  Jeittlebende  Theologen;  Thiess,  Hamf 
burg,  GeUhrten'Getckichte ;  Jocher,  AUgemeinei  Gdehr^ 
ten-Lexikortj  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Hdoker,  Jonas,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  in  1581.  He  studied  at  different  universities, 
was  in  1609  deacon  at  T&bingen,  in  1614  superintend- 
ent, and  died  June  7, 1617.  He  wrote,  SyUoge  Utility 
timorum  A  rtiadorum  itUer  A  uguitanm  Confetsiomt  The^ 
ologot  et  Poniificioe  ut  ei  CcUmnicaioe  Contraversorum : 
— Clavit  TkeologicO'PMlosopkica : — QutBstumes  Aiiptoi 
de  Digniiate  3.  Scriptura,  de  TremieubeUmUatifme,  See 
Fischlin,  Memaria  Theologorum  WQrtembergenrium ; 
J($cher,  AUgemdneM  Gelehrten-LexHon^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hodamo^  the  priest  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  island 
of  Socotra,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  off  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa,  who  worshipped  the  moon,  for  which  purpose 
they  had  temples  called  Moguamot,  The  hodamo  was 
chosen  annually,  and  presented  with  a  staff  and  a  cross 
as  the  emblems  of  his  office. 

Hodge,  Charles,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  Presby- 
terian divine,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Dec  27, 
1797,  his  fiither,  Dr.  Hugh  Hodge,  being  an  eminent 
physician  of  that  city.  Charles  was  fitted  for  college 
first  at  SomerviUe  Academy,  N.  J.,  and  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  entered  Princeton,  one  year  in  advance,  gradu- 
ating with  the  highest  honors  in  1815.  After  another 
year  of  classical  study,  he  entered  the  llieological  Sem- 
inary at  Princeton,  and  graduated  in  1819.  He  was 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphis,  Oct.  21, 

1819,  and  during  the  following  winter  preached  at  the 
Falls  of  Schuylkill,  the  Philadelphia  Arsenal,  and 
Woodbury,  N.  J.  Being  received  as  a  licentiate  from 
the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia  by  that  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, July  5, 1820,  he  was  appointed  the  same  year  to 
supply  the  churches  of  Georgetown  and  Lambertville 
for  a  number  of  Sabbaths  during  the  following  winter, 
and  the  next  year  "  for  Georgetown,  as  stated  supply 
for  one  half  his  time  during  the  ensuing  six  months;'* 
also  to  supply  Lsmbertville  and  Trenton  First  Church 
during  parts  of  the  years  from  1820  to  1828.    In  May, 

1820,  he  became  assistant  instractor  in  the  original 
languages  of  Scripture  in  the  seminary,  which  position 
he  held  until  1822,  and  was  then  elected  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  to  the  professorship  of  Oriental  and  Bib- 
lical literature.  At  this  time  he  founded  the  Biblical 
Repertory,  to  which  was  added  the  title  of  Princeton 
Review^  in  1829.  In  1825  he  went  to  Europe,  and  spent 
three  years  in  the  universities  of  Paris,  Halle,  and 
Berlin,  returning  in  1829.  Dr.  Hodge,  after  this,  de- 
voted all  bis  hours  not  required  in  seminary  duties  to 
the  conduct  of  his  magazine,  which  was  already  begin- 
ning to  take  rank  among  American  periodicals,  and 
also  to  studies  and  researches  for  A  CommetUary  on 
the  Epittle  to  the  Romans,  which  was  published  in  1885. 
This  work  was  abridged  in  1836,  and  then  rewritten 
and  enlarged  in  1866.  In  1840  he  published  A  Contti- 
tutional  History  o/ihe  Preihyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States,  in  two  volumes.  In  the  same  year  he  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  chair  which  he  had  filled  for  eighteen 
years,  to  that  of  exegetic  and  didactic  theology,  to  which 
was  united  that  of  polemic  theology,  in  1851,  when  the 
incumbent,  Dr.  Alexander,  died.  In  April,  1872,  his 
friends  and  pupils  commemorated  his  semi-centennial 
as  professor  in  Princeton  Seminary.  Dr.  Hodge  was 
chosen  moderator  of  the  General  Auembly — Old  School 
—in  1846.  He  died  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  June  19, 1878. 
His  works,  published  in  addition  to  the  above,  were, 
Questions  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Ronums  (1842, 18mo):— 

XII^N  w 


The  May  ofLffe  (18mo,  published  by  the  American 
Sunday-school  Union ;  republished  by  the  London  Re- 
ligious Tract  Society,  1842) :—  What  is  Predfyterianism  9 
(1856)  t'-Commentary  on  Ephesians  (N.  Y.  1866^  8vo) :— . 
Commentary  on  First  Corinthians  (1857) :— Commentary 
on  Second  Corinthians  (1959):— Reviews  and  Essays  Se^ 
lectedfrom  the  Princeton  Review  (ibid.  1857, 8vo)  iSeUc- 
tions/rom  the  Biblical  Repertory  and  Princeton  Review 
(ibid.  8vo) :—  What  is  Darwinism  f  (1874).  During  this 
time  be  was  busily  engaged  in  collecting  materials  for 
his  Systematic  Theology,  and  also  in  conducting  the  Re- 
view, It  is  said  he  contributed  one  fifth  of  all  the  articles 
published  in  that  periodical.  In  1872  the  Review  was 
united  with  the  Presbyterian  Quarterly  and  American 
Theological  Review,  The  Systematic  Theology,  in  three 
Tolnmes,  large  octavo,  is  the  work  of  his  life,  and  by 
this  his  power  is  best  demonstrated,  and  will  be  trans- 
mitted to  posterity.  It  is  published  in  Scotland  and 
Germany,  and  in  all  the  world  where  Christian  theolo- 
gy is  a  subject  of  study  this  work  is  held  in  the  highest 
esteem,  as  the  best  exhibition  of  that  sjrstem  of  Cal- 
vinistic  doctrine  known  as  Princeton  theology.  As  a 
writer  on  theological,  ethical,  and  ecclesiastical  subjects. 
Dr.  Hodge  was  easily  at  the  head  of  all  his  contempo- 
raries, and  the  distinguishing  grace  of  his  writings  was 
their  exquisite  clearness.  No  one  was  at  a  loss  to  know 
what  he  believed  and  what  he  intended  to  teach,  and 
the  authority  on  which  he  relied.  His  theology  was 
BiblicaL  In  the  profoundest  discussions,  a  text  of  Holy 
Scripture  is  a  rock  on  which  hb  stracture  of  argument 
rests.  Therefore  the  rationalism  of  modem  schools, 
infusing  itself  into  his  own  Church  and  the  literature 
of  the  day,  wss  to  him  a  shame  as  well  as  a  sin,  and  he 
resented  and  resisted  it  with  tremendous  energy  and 
effect ;  his  blows  were  those  of  a  giant.  No  man  has 
been  more  persistently  abused  than  Dr.  Hodge.  He 
has  been  represented  as  the  incarnation  of  bigotr}'. 
Those  who  could  not  answer  his  arguments  or  detect  a 
flaw  in  his  logic  had  to  fall  back  on  the  only  weapon 
left  in  their  artillerv.  No  roan  was  farther  removed 
from  intolerance,  bigotry,  and  persecution,  as  all  who 
knew  him  while  living,  and  now  revere  and  venerate 
him  dead,  know.  See  NecroU  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL 
Sem,  1879,  p.  9 ;  Memorial  Discourses,  by  Drs.  Paxton 
and  Boardman ;  Life,  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Hodge  (1880). 

Hod£;e,  John,  D.D.,  a  learned  and  respected  Eng- 
lish Presbyterian  clergyman,  was  educated  at  Taunton 
fur  the  ministry,  and  had  his  first  pastoral  charge  at 
Deal,  Kent.  He  removed  to  Gloucester,  where  he 
preached  for  some  years.  In  1749  he  accepted  a  call  to 
the  church  at  Crosby  Square,  London.  His  energies 
became  enfeebled  with  age,  church  members  died,  and 
he  resigned  in  1762  and  lived  in  retirement,  preaching 
occasionally  till  he  died,  Aug.  18, 1767.  He  bequeathed 
his  valuable  library  to  the  Taunton  Academy,  where  he 
was  educated.  He  published  a  volume  on  The  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  and  several  single  Sermons*  See 
Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches,  i,  854. 

Hodges,  Ricrmoud  E.,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  bom  in  1886.  When  an  apprentice  in 
London,  Mr.  Hodges  found  an  old  Hebrew  grammar, 
which  fascinated  his  mind,  and  made  him  determine 
to  become  a  Shemitic  scholar.  The  result  was  that, 
after  acting  as  scripture-reader  for  a  short  time,  he  was 
sent,  by  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among 
the  Jews,  first  to  Palestine,  then  to  Algeria,  where  he 
stayed  until  1865.  A  few  years  sfterwards  he  resigned 
his  connection  with  the  society,  in  order  to  devote  him- 
self more  fully  to  linguistic  studies.  For  some  time 
he  was  a  minister  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church, 
but  a  few  years  before  his  death  he  was  ordained  a 
clergyman  of  the  Established  Church  of  England. 
He  died  May  9, 1881.  Mr.  Hodges  published  Ancient 
Egypt  (1861);  in  1863  he  brought  out  a  new  and  re- 
vised edition  of  Craik's  Principia  Hehraica ;  in  1876  he 
published  a  new  edition  of  Cory's  Ancient  FragmentSf 


HODGSON 


662 


HOFMANN 


and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  apon  An 
Efi^ith  Vertion  of  the  Armenian  llitiory  of  Mo$a  of 
Khmmu  He  also  assisted  in  the  Old-Test,  portion  of 
the  work  known  as  Tht  HoUf  Bible  in  Paragraphs  and 
Sectumtf  faith  Smendationt  of  (he  Text^  and  contribated 
largely  to  the  Eneydopctdia  Briiamdca,  and  to  the  sup- 
plement to  the  English  Ewydopadia,     (B.  P.) 

Hodgson,  Fbancis,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  of  Wesleyan  parents,  in  Driffield, 
England,  Feb.  18, 1805.  He  sailed  to  the  United  Sutes 
in  his  yonth,  and  with  his  parents  settled  in  West  Ches- 
ter, Pa.,  where  he  developed  a  noble  manhood.  He  en- 
tered the  Philadelphia  Conference  in  1828,  and  served 
consecutively,  Dauphin  Circuit;  Elkton,  Md.;  SL 
George's,  Philadelphia;  Harrisbnrg  Circuit;  and  Co- 
lumbia. In  1836  he  was  transferred  to  the  New  York 
Conference,  and  stationed  at  Yestry  Street  charge; 
afterwards  at  Mulberry  Street ;  Middletown ;  Hartford ; 
and  New  Haven.  In  1845  he  received  a  retransfer  to 
the  Philadelphia  Conference,  and  was  sent  to  Trinity 
charge,  Philadelphia;  afterwards  at  Salem,  Pa.;  Har- 
risburg ;  St.  Paul's,  Wilmington,  Del. ;  St.  George's, 
PhiUdelphia;  Union;  Lancaster,  Pa.;  South  Philadel- 
phia District;  Fifth  Street,  Philadelphia;  and  Salem,  Pa. 
He  was  transferred  to  the  Central  Pennsylvania  Confer- 
ence in  1868,  and  stationed  successively  at  Danville, 
Lewisburg,  and  Chambersburg.  A  superannuated  rela- 
tion was  granted  him  in  1876  with  the  Philadelphia 
Conference,  and  he  retired  to  that  city,  where  he  died, 
April  16, 1877.  Dr.  Hodgson  was  a  persuasive  orator, 
a  successful  preacher,  a  profound  theologian,  and  a  skil- 
ful polemic,  as  well  as  a  man  of  deep  piety  and  unwaver- 
ing devotedness  to  the  Chureh.  See  Minutes  of  A  nmtal 
Conferences^  1878,  p.  76 ;  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of  Methodism, 

S.V. 

Hodnr  (or  Hoeder),  in  None  mjrthology,  was  a 
very  powerful  god  of  the  Asas,  but  blind ;  the  son  of 
Odin  and  Frigga,  therefore  Baldur's  brother.  The  lat- 
ter having  been  made  invulnerable  by  his  mother,  Loke 
showed  the  blind  Hodur  the  small  plant  mistletoe, 
which  the  latter  threw  at  Baldur,  who  died  and  was 
taken  to  Hel  in  the  infernal  regions.  A  third  son  of 
Odin  avenged  Baldur's  death,  by  slaying  Hodur  and 
sending  him  to  Hel.  Hodur  and  Baldur  remain  good 
friends,  because  the  former  committed  the  injury  in- 
voluntarily. 

Hoek,  Jan  van,  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  bom 
at  Antwerp  in  1597,  was  instracted  in  the  school  of 
Rubens,  and  became  one  of  his  most  distinguished  schol- 
ars. On  returning  to  Flanders  he  was  invited  to  Vien- 
na by  Ferdinand  II,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  the 
imperial  family,  and  some  historical  works  for  the 
churehes  and  public  edifices.  Among  his  historical 
works  is  a  picture  of  the  Deposition  from  the  Cross,  in 
the  Chureh  of  Our  Lady,  at  Mechlin,  highly  commend- 
ed. He  died  at  Antwerp  in  1650.  See  Hoefer,  iVbup. 
Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
ArtSfB,y, 

Hoeke,  Pvtbb  van,  a  Protestant  preacher  at  Ley- 
den,  who  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  is 
the  author  of,  Uyilegging  van  hit  Breefan  de  Hebr^en 
(Leyden,  1698)  i—Uytlegging  van  het  Boeck  Jobs  (1697) : 
— Uytlegging  over  de  Propheten  Nahum,  Habahih,  Ze- 
phaniOf  Haggaij  Zacharia  en  Malachia  (1709) : — LucU" 
brationes  in  Cateehismum  Palatinum  (1711) :— ^^raetf 
der  godddike  Waerheden  (1718).  See  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theoL  Lit,  i,  266 ;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Getehrten^Lexi- 
kon,B.Y.    (B.P.) 

Ho£^  LuDwio  Johannes,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was 
bom  Dec.  29,  1795,  at  Laage,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 
In  1819  he  entered  the  missionary  college  of  Rev.  J. 
Jtoicke,  at  Berlin,  and  in  1821  connected  himself  with 
the  London  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  among 
the  Jews.  In  1822  he  was  sent  as  missionary  to  Poland, 
and  was  ordained  in  1824.  In  1841  Hoff  was  stationed 
at  Cracow,  and  died  April  28, 1851,  a  faithful  servant, 


who  for  nearly  thirty-two  years  had  been  an  aictive  and 
most  laborious  missionary  among  the  Jews.    (B.  P.) 

BoffinanistB.    See  Hoffmann,  Daniku 

Hoffinazm,  August  Heinrich  (better  known  9» 
Bojfmann  von  FaUerdeben),  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Fallersleben,  LUnebuig,  April  2,  1798.  After 
studying  at  Gdtdngen  and  Bonn,  he  devoted  himself 
at  first  to  theology,  but  afterwards  betook  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  history  of  literature.  He  died  Jan.  20, 
1874.  Hoffmann  edited,  in  connection  with  Endlicher, 
Fragmenta  Theotisca  Versionis  Antiquissima  Ev,  8, 
Maii/uei  et  A  liquot  Bomiliarum  (Vienna,  1884) :— WiUi- 
ram's  Uebersetzung  ttnd  A  ustegung  des  Hohenliedes  (Bres- 
lau,  1B27):—Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirchenliedes  bis 
oufLuthei's  ZeU  (1882;  8d  ed.  1861) :— /Kn^aU<  und 
Benj.  Schmolcke  (1838).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
deutschen  LU.  i,  67;  ii,  287,  288;  Zuchold,  BOd.  TheoL 
i,669.     (a  P.) 

Hoffinazm,  ZVa&z,  a  Roman  Catholic  philosopher 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Aschaffenburg,  Jan.  19, 1804. 
He  studied  at  Munich,  was  in  1834  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  Amberg,  in  1885  at  WUrzbnxg,  and  died  Oct.  22, 
1881.  He  published,  VorhaUe  zur  spekukUicen  Lehre 
Baader'i  (Aschaffenburg,  1886)  i—SpdmlativeEntteicbe-' 
lung  der  ewigen  Selbsterzeugung  Gottes,  aus  Franz  wm 
Baader'i  sdmmtlichen  Schr{fien  zusammengestelU  (Am- 
berg, 1835  ) :  —  Baader*s  tdmmtliehe  Werbe  (  Lcipric, 
1851-60, 16  vols.):—  trrundrMf  der  aUgemanen  reinen 
Logik  (2d  ed.  WUrsboig,  1855)  >-BaaderU  Blitzstrahl 
wider  Rom  (2d  ed.  1871 )  :—Kirche  und  Staat  (1872) : 
—Philosophische  Schriften  (Erlangen,  1867-81,8  vola.). 
Hoffmann,  as  a  former  pupil  of  Baader,  contributed 
greatly  towards  propagating  his  master*s  philosophy. 
(B.  P.) 

Hoffinazm,  Ludwlg  Friedrioh  'Wilhelm, 
general  superintendent  of  Brandenburg,  was  bom  Oct. 
30, 1806,  in  Leonberg,  WUrtemberg.  His  father  waa 
the  founder  of  the  religious  colony  at  Korathal  (1819), 
and  his  brother,  Christoph,  was  the  originator  of  a 
movement  for  the  colonization  of  Palestine.  Hoffmann 
studied  at  Tubingen,  where  David  Strauss  was  his  fellow- 
student;  was  in  1829  vicar  at  Heumaden,  near  Stutt- 
gart, in  1884  at  Stuttgart,  and  accepted,  in  1839,  a  call 
to  fiiasle  as  inspector  of  the  Minion  Institute.  He  re- 
mained there  for  twelve  years,  giving  himself  up  with 
great  enthusiasm  to  his  duties  and  to  the  study  of  the 
history  of  missions.  During  this  period  he  published, 
Missionutunden  und  VoHr^  (Stuttgart,  1847,  1851, 
1858):-<-^tMUHH/^a^efi  (Heidelberg,  1847):— /He  Epo- 
chen  der  Kirchei^esehichte  Indien's  (1858)  i^Die  ckristL 
LUeraiur  als  Werkzeug  der  Mission  (eod.).  From  Basle 
he  passed  to  Ttibingen  as  professor;  and,  in  1852,  he 
accepted  the  call  of  Frederick  William  IV  as  court- 
preacher  to  Berlin.  He  exerted  a  greater  influence 
over  the  king  of  Prussia  than  any  other  man,  in 
favor  of  ecclesiastical  onion.  Hoffmann  was  an  inde- 
fatigable worker,  and  was  very  influential  as  an  evan- 
gelical preacher,  sympathizing  with  the  theology  of 
BengeL  He  died  Aug.  28, 1878.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  volumes  of  sermons  under  the  title,  Ruf  zum 
Herm  (Beriin,  1854-58,  8  vols.),  and  Ein  Jahr  der 
Gnade  in  Christo  (1864)  i—Die  Posaune  Jkutschlands 
(leei-eS^'.—DiegdttlicheStufenordnungimAlten  Testa- 
meni  (1854).  He  also  contributed  largely  to  the  flrst 
edition  of  Herzog,  etc.  See  Plitt^Herzog,  Real-Eneg- 
Uop,  s.  V. ;  Lichtenberger,  itneydop,  des  Sciences  JSe- 
Ugieuses,  s.  v. ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  572  sq. ;  Leben  umd 
Wirhen  des  Dr.  L,  Fr,  W,  Hoffmann  ^cfierlin,  1878,  writ- 
ten by  his  son  Karl).    (R  P.) 

Hofinaxm,  Johann  Christian  Koxirmd  (after- 
wards honored  by  Bavaria  with  the  title  von  Hofmami), 
a  German  theologian,  was  bora  Dec.  21, 1810,  at  Nu- 
remberg. He  studied  at  Erlangen,  where  the  Reformed 
theologian,  Krafft,  exerciied  a  lasting  influence  on  Hof- 
mann.  From  Erlangen  he  went  to  Berlin  in  1829,  at  a 
time  when  Hegel,  Schleiermacher,  Neander,  and  Heng- 


HOFMANN 


563 


HOFSTEDE  DE  GROOT 


■tenbeig  were  lecturing.  Afiter  teaching  eeyeral  yean 
at  the  gymnasium  in  Erlangen,  he  became  rtpeteiU  at 
the  univenity,  and  now  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
theology.  Thus  he  writes  in  1885,  "The  more  I  occu- 
py mj^f  with  Scripture  exegesis,  the  more  powerfully 
am  I  convinced  of  the  certainty  that  the  divine  Word 
is  one  single  work,  and  the  more  am  I  stimulated  with 
the  glad  hope  that  our  generation  will  witness  the  vic- 
*tory  of  the  truth  of  inspiration.  It  is  especially  the 
wonderful  unity  of  history  and  doctrine,  which  becomes 
clearer  and  clearer  to  me.  The  whole  Old-Test,  proph- 
ecy is  but  a  seeing  of  the  deepest  signification  of  his- 
torical events  and  conditions. ...  It  is  a  sheer  impossi- 
bility that  the  prophecies  of  the  prophets  and  apostles 
are  false,  while  their  doctrines  are  true ;  for  here  form 
and  contents,  fact  and  doctrine,  are  one,  which  is  the 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  revealed  truth.  ...  I 
pray  God  to  permit  me  to  see  the  Christ,  now  crucified 
by  his  enemies,  lifted  up  by  himself,  that  I  may  place 
my  hands  in  the  print  of  the  nails,  and  may  know  him 
in  the  glory  of  his  victory,  whom  I  have  heretofore  loved 
in  the  humility  of  his  conflict  and  suffering."  In  1838 
he  commenced  his  academical  career,  and  presented  as 
his  dissertation,  De  A  rgumenio  Pacdmi  Centetimi  Decimi, 
in  which  he  makes  David  the  author  of  that  psalm,  but 
denies  the  common  Messianic  interpretation,  by  refer- 
ring the  psalm  to  the  angel  of  Jehovah.  In  the  year 
1841  he  was  made  professor,  and  published  the  first  part 
of  his  famous  work,  WtUtagung  und  ErfuUung.  In  1842 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Rostock,  but  returned  to  Erlangen 
in  1845.  His  return  to  the  latter  place  marked  a  new 
period  of  prosperitv  for  the  university,  to  which  he  de- 
voted aU  his  energies.  He  died  Dec  20, 1877.  Hof- 
mann  took  not  only  a  deep  interest  in  ecclesiastical 
matters,  but  also  in  political  affairs,  and  was  for  several 
sessioBS  a  member  of  the  Bavarian  Parliament,  Among 
Hofmann*s  first  publications  were  some  historical  works, 
Getckickte  des  Avfruhrs  in  den  Setemun  wnter  Ludwig 
XIV  (1887):— JLe*r6«cA  der  WeUgadtichU  JUr  Gym- 
naaim  (l839 ;  2d  ed.  1843}:— Z>e  BeUU  ab  Antiocho  Epi- 
phone  AdetnuM  Ptolemaot  GetHt  (1885).  His  first  ef- 
fort in  theology  was  Die  siebenzig  Jahre  da  Jeremiat 
tmd  die  nebenzig  Jahrwocken  du  Daniel  (Nuremberg, 
1886).  Concerning  this  latter  work  he  wrote  to  a  friend : 
"  If  I  am  correct,  I  cause  a  great  revolution  in  the  Aa- 
syrian,  Chaldaean,  Egyptian,  and  Israelitish  chronology. 
Jerusalem  was  destroyed  in  605  B.C.;  the  seventy  years 
of  the  Captivity  go  from  605  to  585,  the  sixty-two  weeks 
of  Daniel  (7  X  62  =  484)  from  605  to  171,  the  sixty- 
third  from  171  to  164.  Thus  the  results  of  both  inves- 
tigations which  I  made  independently  from  each  other, 
agree  most  harmoniously  with  each  other."  Weiseo 
gwng  tmd  Er/^hng  tnt  cUten  und  neuen  Testament  (1841- 
44)  appeared  at  a  time  when  two  views  of  prophecy 
prevailed;  criticism  explained  it  away  as  presentiment, 
Hengstenberg  petrified  it  into  simple  prediction.  Hof- 
mann  brought  prophecy  into  closest  connection  with 
history,  and  treated  it  as  an  organic  whole.  History 
itself  is  prophecy ;  each  period  contains  the  germ  of  the 
future,  and  prefigures  it.  Thus  the  entire  sacred  his- 
tory, in  all  its  essential  developments,  is  a  prophecy  of 
the  final  and  eternal  relation  between  God  and  man. 
The  incamatbn  of  Christ  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
ttsential  fulfilment;  for  the  head  is  only  the  realization 
of  the  intended  perfect  communion  with  God,  when  it 
is  joined  with  the  body  of  believers.  The  word  of 
prophecy  connects  itself  with  prophetical  history,  both 
corresponding  with  each  other.  Each  event  in  the 
course  of  history  is  followed  by  a  progress  of  prophecy. 
When  God  gives  divers  forms  to  the  history  of  the  Old 
Test.,  he  thus  exhibits  the  different  sides  which  are  com- 
prehended and  united  in  the  person  of  Christ.  Prophecy 
in  the  course  of  history  becomes  ever  richer  and  richer 
in  its  forms,  but  points  only  to  one  goal— the  God-man. 
He  is  then  again  the  starting-point  for  new  prophecy 
and  new  hope,  for  his  appearance  is  the  prefigurement 
of  the  final  glorification  of  the  congr^ation  of  believ- 


ers. The  permanent  value  of  this  work  consists  in  the 
proof  that  the  Old  and  New  Tests,  are  parts  of  a  single 
history  of  salvation;  displaying  the  gradual  realization, 
by  divine  interpositions,  of  redemption  for  the  race. 
Between  1852  and  1866  Hofmann  published  his  second 
great  work,  Sehriftbeweit  (2  vols. ;  2d  ed.  1857-GO).  In 
this  work  he  attempted  to  prove  the  authenticity  and 
divine  origin  of  Christianity  firom  its  records.  He  la- 
mented the  usual  method  of  doing  this  from  single  pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  and  himself  sought  to  use  the  Bibli- 
cal record  in  its  entirety  as  one  organic  >^hole.  He 
started  from  the  idea  that,  to  understand  Christianity, 
it  was  not  necessary  to  describe  religious  experiences, 
nor  rehearse  the  doctrines  of  the  Scriptures  and  the 
Church,  but  to  develop  the  simple  fact  that  makes  us 
Christians,  or  the  communion  of  God  with  man,  medi- 
ated by  Christ.  Herein  he  differs  fundamentally  from 
Schleiermacher,  who  starts  out  from  the  sense  of  abso- 
lute dependence  in  the  Christian's  experience.  Hof- 
mann starts  with  the  new  birth.  The  results  at  which 
they  arrive  in  their  systems  are  therefore  so  entirely 
different.  With  Hofmann  all  is  historical,  with  Schlei- 
ermacher, nothing.  This  work  aroused  opposition.  The 
author  had  combated  the  doctrine  of  vicarious  atone- 
ment, and  the  charge  was  made  against  him  of  denying 
the  atonement  altogether.  Hofmann  had  expected  op- 
position. For  a  time  he  kept  quiet,  but  finally  he  re- 
plied in  Schutzechnflenfur  tine  neue  Weise^  alle  Wahr^ 
heit  zu  lehren  (1856-59).  Without  continuing  the  con- 
troversy, Hofmann  wrote  his  last  great  work,  Die  heilige 
Schrift  des  neuen  Testaments  zusammenhangend  untersudU 
(1862  sq.)f  in  which  he  endeavored  to  prove  scientifical- 
ly the  inspiration  of  the  Scripture  and  the  integrity  of 
the  canon.  After  Hofmann's  death  there  were  ^ub~ 
\iBhea,Theologische  Ethik  {1678)  :^  Ewydopadie  der 
Thedogie  (edited  by  Bestmann,  1879)  i^BibUsche  Her- 
metuutik  (edited  by  Yolck,  1880).  See  Stiihiin,  J.  Chr, 
K,  V.  H(yfinann,  in  Luthardt's  AUgemtine  Lutkerische 
Kirckenzeilung  (1878);  Grau,  Erinnerungen  an  J,  Chr. 
K.  9.  Ilofmam  (Gntersloh,  1879);  Plitt-Herzog,  ReaU 
EneyUop,  s.  v. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop.  des  Sciences 
ReUgieuses^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hofmann,  Leonhard,  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Jena,  who  died  Dec  14,  1737,  is  the  author 
of,  De  Ancilia  Ebraa  ad  Etek,  xxi,  7  (Jena,  1712)'.— 
Disp,  ad  PsaL  ft,  7  (1726) :— />s  Singulari  Uebraorum 
cura  Sepdiendi  MortuoSf  ad  Matt,  vUi,  22  (eod.) : — De 
Summo  ffdntBorum  Sacerdote  ante  diem  Eapiationis 
A  djurato  (1730).  See  Gotte,  GeUhrtes  Europa,  ii,  484 ; 
Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gdehrten-Lexikon^e,'9,\  FUrst, BibL 
Jiirf.  1,404.     (B.P.) 

Hoiflt&tter,  Hkinrich  von,  a  German  prelate,  was 
bom  in  1805  at  Aindling,  in  Upper  Bavaria.  He  studied 
at  first  jurisprudence,  and  was  already  promoted  in  1829 
as  ^  doctor  utriusque  juris,"  when  he  betook  himself  to 
the  study  of  theology,  received  holy  orders  in  1888,  and 
was  in  1886  appointed  cathedral-dean  at  Munich.  In 
1889  he  was  made  bishop  of  Passau,  and  died  May  12, 
1875.    (RP.) 

Hofstede  de  Oroot,  Pbtxr,  a  distinguished 
Dutch  theologian,  was  bom  Oct.  8,  1802,  at  Leer,  in 
East  Frisia.  In  1826  he  was  preacher  in  the  Beformed 
Church,  in  1829  professor  at  the  university  in  Groningen, 
but  resigned  his  professorship  in  1872.  He  died  Aug. 
27,  1884.  Hofstede  was  the  head  of  the  so-called 
''Groningen  school,"  the  adherents  of  which  called 
themselves  the  *'  Evangelicals."  They  represent  the 
theologico- ecclesiastical  middle -party,  between  the 
<< Liberals"  and  the  ''Orthodox,"  and  their  organ, 
Waarheid  in  LUfde,  edited  by  Hofstede  de  Groot,  Pa- 
reau,  and  Van  Oordt  (1887-72),  is  the  best  exponent 
of  this  school  With  Pareau,  de  Groot  published,  En- 
cgclopadia  Theologi  Christiani  (1840;  8d  ed.  1851),  and 
Dogmatica  et  Apologetica  Christiana  (1845).  His  own 
works  are,  Theologia  Naturalis  (1884;  4th  ed.  1861)  :— 
InstiiuHones  Histories  EccUeim  Christi  (1886) :— C^fMwe- 


HOQAN 


564 


HOLBEIN 


ding  der  Memekheid  (1847)  :—Kori  (herzigt  van  de  Leer 
der  Zonde  (1856) : — Over  de  evangelUch'^cUholicke  Godge- 
UerdheU  as  de  Gadgeleerdheid  der  Toekomtt  (eod.)  i—Het 
Evangelie  der  Apostelen  tegenovtr  de  Tvt^dmgen  en  de 
Wijeheid  der  Wereld  (1861)  i-^BatUides,  alt  enter  Zeuge 
fir  alter  und  AutoritSt  neutestamentlicker  Schr^ften 
(1868):  —  Oud'CaihoUche  Betoejung  in  het  Licht  der 
Kerkgetckiedenit  (1877).  See  Zocbold,  BibL  TheoL  i, 
577 ;  Brockhau8|  Convereatians-LexikoHf  ISth  ed.  8.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Hogan,  WiLUAK,  of  some  notoriety  in  Catholic 
controvenieBy  a  young  priest  of  inferior  education  but 
good  natural  parts,  who  had  been  dismissed  from  May- 
nooth  for  a  breach  of  discipline,  left  the  diocese  of 
limerick  in  1818  or  1819  for  New  York.  He  was  arst 
employed  in  the  ministry  in  Albany,  but  left  that  city, 
against  the  wish  of  Dr.  (Connolly,  then  bishop  of  New 
York,  and  was  temporarily  installed  by  Rev.  Dr.  De 
Barth,  administrator  of  the  see  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  9» 
pastor  of  St.  Mary's  Church  in  that  city.  In  December, 
1820,  bishop  Conwell  took  possession  of  the  see,  and 
having  reason  to  suspect  Hogan's  conduct  in  Ireland 
and  elsewhere,  withdrew  his  faculties.  Hogan  contin- 
ued to  officiate  at  Sl  Mary's  in  spite  of  the  censure  of 
his  bishop  and  the  refusal  of  the  archbishop  of  Balti- 
more to  entertain  his  appeal,  the  trustees  ef  the  church 
supporting  Hogan.  On  Feb.  11, 1821,  Conwell  excom- 
municated Hogan,  appointed  other  pastors,  occupied 
the  church  for  some  months,  but  in  the  summer  of  that 
year  Hogan  and  his  party  took  possession  of  the  church. 
Bishop  England  of  Charleston,  visiting  Philadelphia, 
and  having  promised  Hogan  a  mission  in  his  diocese, 
induced  Conwell  to  grant  him  power  to  absolve  the 
troublesome  ecclesiastic  on  proper  submission.  On  OcL 
18,  1821,  Englantl  absolved  him;  but  the  next  day 
Hogan,  hearkening  to  the  advice  of  his  trustees,  re- 
tracted, said  mass  at  St.  Mary's,  and  resumed  his  func- 
tions as  pastor.  England  then  re-excommunicated 
him.  Many  of  the  members  now  deserted  the  inter- 
dicted church  and  went  to  St.  Joseph's,  where  the 
bishop  had  installed  William  Y.  Harold,  former  pastor 
at  Sl  Mary's.  The  two  parties  became  more  and  more 
exasperated;  the  orthodox  (as  De  Courcy  and  Shea 
term  the  party  who  went  with  the  bishop)  hoped  to 
defeat  the  schismatics  by  electing  a  new  board  of  trus- 
tees. Every  male  occupant  of  a  seat  was  an  elector. 
The  election  took  place  in  the  church  on  Easter  Tues- 
day, 1822,  and  led  to  sad  results.  The  disorder  was 
frightful;  blood  was  shed;  and  the  schismatics  tri- 
umphed, preserving  Hogan  as  pastor.  At  the  close  of 
the  year  the  archbishop  of  Baltimore  (Mardchal)  re- 
turned from  Rome,  bringing  a  papal  brief  (Aug.  2, 1822), 
which  solemnly  condemned  the  schismatics  of  St,  Mary's. 
On  Dec  10, 1822,  Hogan  submitted,  and  received  from 
Conwell  his  exeat  and  removal  of  censures.  On  the 
14th  of  the  same  month  the  unhappy  priest,  circum- 
vented by  the  trustees  (it  is  said),  objected  that  the 
authenticity  of  the  brief  had  not  been  shown,  and  con- 
tinued to  officiate  and  preach  at  St.  Mary's.  He  pub- 
lished violent  pamphlets  against  his  diocesan  and 
bishop  England,  whom  he  sought  to  compromise.  Ho- 
gan at  length  grew  tired  of  his  rebellion,  left  PhiladeU 
phia  for  the  South,  married,  became  a  custom-house 
officer  in  Boston,  went  into  the  pay  of  the  enemies  of 
Romanism,  published  some  books  to  stimulate  the 
Know-Nothing  movement  {Popery  as  it  Was  and  Is, 
Boston  and  New  York,  1845: — Nunneries  and  A  urictUar 
Conffssionf  recently  reprinted  at  Hartford),  and  died  in 
1 85 1  or  1852.  The  above  account  is  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  opponents  of  Hogan.  The  historians  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  think  the  troubles  of  which  Hogan 
was  the  victim  were  due  largely  to  the  trustee  system, 
whose  influence  in  the  Catholic  Church  they  deem  per- 
nicious, and  it  has  caused  many  local  schisms,  of  which 
this  of  SL  Mary's  was  the  most  celebrated  and  scandal- 
ous^ and  was  not  healed  for  many  years.  For  an  ac- 
ooont  of  this  schism,  and  Tolumtnous  documents,  see 


bishop  England's  Works,  ▼,  109-282;  De  Courcy  and 
Shea,  nist.  ofCath.  Church  in  U,  S,  p.  217. 

Hogarth,  Wiluam,  a  celebrated  painter,  was  bom 
at  London  in  1697  or  1698,  apprenticed  to  an  engraver 
at  an  early  age,  and  at  the  expiration  of  his  apprentice- 
ship entered  the  Academy  of  St.  Martin's  Lane.  His 
first  painting  was  a  representation  of  Wanstead  Assem- 
bly. In  1725  he  engraved  some  prints  for  Beaver's 
Military  Punishments  of  the  Ancients,  As  a  painter, 
he  had  a  great  facility  in  catching  a  likeness,  and  adopt- 
ed a  novel  method  of  grouping  families.  He  therefore 
devoted  himself  to  the  delineation  of  the  calamities  and 
crimes  of  private  life,  and  the  vices  and  follies  of  the 
age.  His  series  of,  The  HartoCs  Progress ;  The  Raihis 
Progress,  gained  him  great  reputation.  He  was  an 
eccentric  genius,  and  his  talents  were  eminently  in  bur- 
lesque  and  satire.  He  did  not  excel  in  historioil  paint- 
ing, but  among  his  principal  plates  there  are  some  good 
works  by  him,  representing  The  Good  Samaritan;  The 
Pool  of  Bethesda;  Paul  Before  Felix;  Moses  Brought 
to  Pharaoh's  Daughter.  He  died  Oct  26, 1764.  See 
Spooner,  Biog,  nist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,s,y, 

Hoheisel,  Carl  Ludwig,  a  German  professor  of 
Greek  and  Oriental  languages,  was  bom  at  Dantzic, 
SepL  18, 1692.  He  studied  at  different  universities, 
and  died  at  bis  native  place,  April  7, 1732.  He  wrote, 
Observationes  Philolog.  -  Exegetiees,  Quibus  NonnuUa 
ivovorira  Esctite  Loca  lUustrantur  (Dantzic,  1729) : — 
Diss,  /,  Tide  Vaseulo  Manna  (Jena,  171 5).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  217 ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i, 404; 
Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Holbeiiif  Hams,  an  eminent  Swiss  painter,  designer, 
and  wood-engraver,  was  bom  at  Basle  in  1498,  although 
some  think  he  was  a  native  of  Augsburg.  He  was  the 
son  and  scholar  of  John  Holbein,  who  settled  at  Basle, 
and  resided  there  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  Hans  manifested  great  abilities,  and  painted 
portraits  of  himself  and  his  father,  which  were  engraved 
in  1512.  He  was  invited  by  an  English  nobleman  to 
visit  England,  but  declined  the  invitation.  Several 
years  afterwards  he  formed  an  intimacy  with  Erasmoa, 
and  painted  his  portraiL  The  latter  persuaded  him  to 
go  to  England,  and  gave  him  a  letter  to  Sir  Thomas 
More.  On  arriving  in  London  he  sought  out  that  noble- 
man, who  received  him  with  kindness,  giving  him  apart- 
ments in  his  house.  One  day  Holbein,  happening  to 
mention  the  nobleman  who  some  years  before  had  in- 
vited him  to  England,  Sir  Thomas  was  desirous  of 
knowing  who  it  was^  Holbein  replied  that  he  had  for- 
gotten the  title,  but  thought  he  could  draw  his  likeness 
from  memory ;  and  this  he  did  so  strongly  that  it  was 
immediately  recognised.  This  peer  was  either  the  earl 
of  Arund^  or  the  earl  of  Surrey.  Holbein  was  intro- 
duced by  Sir  Thomas  to  Henry  VIII,  who  immediately 
took  him  into  his  service,  assigning  him  apartments  in 
the  palace,  with  a  liberal  pension.  On  the -death  of 
Jane  Seymour,  Holbein  was  sent  to  Flanders  to  draw 
the  portrait  of  Christiana,  duchess  dowager  of  Milan. 
He  painted  in  oil,  distemper,  and  water -colors.  He 
had  never  practiced  the  last  until  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  acquired  the  art  from  Lucas  Cornell.  There 
are  but  a  few  historical  works  by  Holbein  in  England. . 
|The  most  important  is  that  in  the  Surgeons*  Hall,  of 
Henry  VIII  Granting  the  Charter  to  the  Company  of 
Surgeons,  At  Basle  are  eight  pictures  of  the  Passiom 
of  Christ;  and  in  the  library  of  the  University  a  Dead 
Christ,  painted  on  a  panel,  in  1521.  **It  has  been 
doubted  whether  the  celebrated  Dance  of  Death  was 
originally  designed  by  Holbein ;  but  this  has  been  oo- 
casioned  by  confounding  the  sets  of  prints  of  the  Donee 
of  Death  engraved  by  Matthew  Merian  with  the  wooden 
cuts  by  Holbein,  after  his  own  designs,  the  originals  of 
which  are  preserved  in  the  public  libniy  at  Basle." 
As  a  wood-engraver,  Holbein  is  said  to  have  executed 
some  works  as  early  as  1511,  and  he  engmved  a  great 
many  wood-cuts  for  the  publishen  of  Basle,  Zurich, 


Lyons,  and  Lcyden.  The  ma«t  imporUnt  of  thttf  $rt 
t  set  ot  wood-cuu,  entitled,  The  Danct  of  Dtatk, 
whicfa,  comptele,  coniiKB  oT  fifty-three  amall  upright 
ptatCT,  but  ia  »ldoni  found  Mbove  fortyaii.  There  are 
alio,  by  HotbeEn,  a  k(  of  ninety  nntll  cnu  of  mbjecta 
fram  Che  Old  Test.,  vhieb  were  publiahed  at  Lyoni  id 
]5t9.  He  made  ■  number  of  deiigni  from  the  Bible, 
which  were  eiif(raTed  and  published  at  L«ydtn  in  1647. 
Holbein  died  at  Lmdoa  in  1 654.  For  a  liat  of  hia  worka, 
■ee  Spooner,  Biog. Bil,  a/tit  Fine  ArU,t.r. 

Holcomb,  FnmERicK,  D.D„  a  Proteatint  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  officiated  for  many  yeara  in  Trinltv 
Church,  North  field,  Conn.,  until  1861,  when  he  becune 
the  miniiler  of  Chriat  Church,  Bethlem.  In  1866  he 
vraa  leeidinf;  in  Walertcvra  without  regnlar  pailonl 
work.  Id  1868  he  officiated  in  Christ  Church,  Harwin- 
ton,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Witertown,  and  continued 
in  this  work  until  his  death,  Hay  26, 1872,  at  the  a^e 
of  eighty-Bve  yews.  See  Pro*.  Epuc.  Almanac,  1873, 
p.  138, 

Holda  (or  Holla),  in  German  mythology,  wu 
originally  ■  friendly  godden  of  the  aocient  heathen 
Germuis,  probably  the  one  mentioned  by  Tacitus,  and 
compared  with  lais.  The  csme  is  derived  from  the 
Uetman  hM.or  Said, "ToiiA."  After  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  the  gnddeaa  became  a  spectre,  but  still 
with  friendly  rather  than  threatening  altrlbules.  The 
myths  about  her  are  nowhere  so  spread  as  in  Hesse 
and  Thuringia.  The  popular  belief  in  Holda  (Fran 
UolW)  is  spread  over  the  Rhone  into  Northern  France 
and  Lower  Saxony.  She  is  represented  as  a  bearenly 
bring,  encircling;  the  earth;  when  it  snows  she  makes 
her  bed  so  that  the  feathcn  fly.  She  enjoys  seaa  and 
wells;  at  noon  she  is  seen  bathing  and  disappearing  in 
the  stream.  Mortals  reach  bet  dwelling  through  a 
well.  Her  yearly  proeession  on  Chrtatmas  is  supposed 
to  bring  fmitfulness  to  the  coantiy,  but  she  also  rides 
with  the  furious  army,  or  leada  it.  She  loves  music, 
but  her  song  has  a  sorrowfut  tone, 

Holder,  Wiu.iam,  D.D.,  ■  learned  English  divine, 
was  born  in  Hottingbamshire,  and  educated  in  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge.  In  1642  he  became  rector  of 
Blechingdon,  OsJordshire.  He  was  esnon  of  Ely,  and 
of  St.  Paul's.  He  died  at  Amen  Comer,  London,  Jan.  24, 
1696,  leaving,  Ekmatt  ofBpetch  (1669)  i—DiMCBurt  im 
n™  (16»0:  — iVwicipfc»  of  nanwng  (1694).  See 
Chalmers^  Sui^  i>ic<.  s.  T. ;  Allibone,  iMct.  o^  £rit.  mKJ 
A«er.Aalion,t.v. 

HolebttOk,  Ladbkncc,  an  English  scholar,  pnba- 
' '    a  native  of  lineolnshiie,  waa  br  ' 


15  HOLLAR 

abbey  of  Ramsey,  and  was  one  of  the  HtM  Htbtaw 
scholars  of  his  agCi  a  language  then  so  nnknown,  even 
U>  the  priests,  that  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  Eras- 
mus, with  his  keen  wit,  says,  "they  counted  all  things 
Hebrew  which  they  did  not  understand"  {DiaL  per 
Belig.  Er.).  Holebeck  made  a  Hebrew  dictionary, 
counted  exact  in  those  days.  Kta  compUiM  that 
Robert  Wakefield,  the  flrst  Hebrew  prefasor  at  Cats- 
bridge,  purloined  this  dictionarv  to  hia  private  tue. 
Hokibeck  died  in  1410.  See  Fuller,  WortUtM  ofBng- 
Ia>KJ(ed.NuttaU),ii,290. 

HolliienB,  Bkautt  or,  is  a  phrase  occurring  sev- 
eral times  in  the  English  Bible  (always  aa  a  trontlatioii 
of  the  Heb.  Iiadralk'  ht'dak,  ti'Tp  n^TH,  omaiiKnt  of 
lanelily,  1  Chron.  xv,  29;  2  Chron.  xx,'21j  Fsa.  xzix, 
2 ;  ex  vi,  9 ;  in  the  plur.  of  the  cognate  term  I^H,  hoMr, 
Psa.  tx,  S),  which  simply  denotes  (pfaadtd  garmaai, 
such  as  an  warn  on  feslira  occasions,  i.  q.  "holiday 
suit,"  not  neccasarily  the  aacred  priestly  veatmenta, 
it  ia  usually,  if  not  exdusiv^y,  applied  to  nan- 


HoU,  Fkancib  XivKH,  a  German  Jesuit,  waa  bom 
at  Sehwaodoif,  Nov.  22, 1720,  and  died  March  6, 1784, 
profesaor  at  Heidelberg.  He  published,  J^talialtai  A'o. 
daia  Gtrmanica  (Heidelberg,  1779)  -.—Din.  Harmoiaa 
Jarit  tfatura,  Cammici,  CirUii  n  PiMid  Gtmaaia 
(1782).  See  Weidlich,  Biographitchu  S'otuai,  iti;  JS- 
cher,  A  tfjenuwi  Gtltltrtat-Lf^hm,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Hatd- 
ivcA  der  thtoL  Lit.  i,  779.      (R  P.) 

Hollar,  Wektzkl,  an  eminent  Bohemian  engraver, 
waa  bom  at  Prague  in  1607,  iladied  at  Frankfort  under 
Matthew  Uerian,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  published 
his  first  plates,  an  Eeet  Homo,  and  the  Fir^h  emit  In- 
famL  He  made  the  tour  of  Germany.  At  Cologne  he 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  the  earl  of  Arundel,  who 
look  him  into  his  employment,  About  Ihia  time  the 
dril  war  broke  ont,  in  which  Hollar  became  involved 
on  the  side  of  the  royalists,  and  was  made  a  prisonec  by 
the  oppoaite  party  in  1646.  On  obtaining  his  liberty  he 
went  to  Flanders,  and  aetlled  at  Antwerp.  In  1662  be  - 
returned  to  England,  but  gained  little  encouragement. 
He  died  March  28, 1677.  There  are  about  two  thousand 
four  hundred  prints  by  this  artist,  and  some  of  than 
possess  considerable  merit.  The  following  are  oaly  a 
fawofhis  sacred  subjects:  Tie  Virffin  SHddB^  lit  Ir^aU 
JaoM  and  Carating  SUJohn;  Tie  Uolg  Famify;  Tit 
Eax  Homo,  with  many  flguiea ;  The  QvH"  of  SkAa 
Yinlwg  Sobmint;  Tit  Magdaltn  in  the  Dttert  Kned- 
hg  itfort  a  Crucifix.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  UitL  o/At 
FimAtU,t.T, 


Baptetentatlon  of  HoUfc 


HOLLEY 


566 


H0LTZFU8 


HbUey,  HoKAC^  LL.D.,  a  UniCariaii  miniater,  was 
bom  at  Saliabury,  Conn^  Feb.  12, 1781.  He  was  fitted 
for  college  at  Williamatown,  Mass.';  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1808;  studied  law  for  a  few  months;  and  then 
commenced  the  study  of  divinity  under  president 
Dwight.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  December, 
1804,  and  was  ordained  and  installed  minister  of  the 
congregation  in  Greenfield,  Sept  18,  1805.  He  re- 
sigMd  this  charge  Sept.  18, 1808,  and  was  installed  as 
pastor  of  the  HolUs  Street  Church,  Boston,  March  8, 
1809.  He  accepted  an  invitation  to  the  presidency  of 
Transylvania  University  in  1818,  and  held  that  ofllce  till 
1827,  when  he  resigned  it,  with  a  view  to  taking  chai^ 
of  a  seminary  in  Louisiana,  but  was  attacked  with  yellow 
fever  in  New  Orleans,  and  died  July  81,  1827.  See 
Sprague,  AtmaU  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  viii,  265. 

Holliday,  Wiluax  Harrison,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  in  Berkeley  County, 
W.  Ya.,  Aug.  81, 1835.  He  was  converted  at  the  age 
of  eleven,  preached  his  first  sermon  at  sixteen,  entered 
Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1858,  and  in  1855 
was  admitted  to  the  Baltimore  Conference.  He  served 
as  junior  preacher  successively  on  Winchester,  Hills- 
borough, and  Warrenton  circuits.  In  1858  he  was  sent 
to  Snmmerfield  Circuit,  late  in  that  year  was  transferred 
to  the  Iowa  Conference,  and  appointed  to  Cascade;  re- 
turned a  year  later  to  the  Bidtimore  Conference,  and 
successively  served  Baltimore,  South  River,  and  Mont- 
gomery circuits.  South  Baltimore  Station,  East  Wash- 
ington, Winchester  District,  Eutaw  Street,  and  Harford 
Avenue.  He  died  March  23, 1879.  Dr.  Holliday  was  a 
self-sacrificing,  warm-hearted,  heroic,  successful  preach- 
er.   See  Mmuiea  ofAtmucU  Coirftrtncts,  1879,  p.  15. 

Holllng^vorth,  Richard,  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man, was  vicar  of  Westham,  and  rector  of  St.  Botolph's, 
Aldgate.  He  published  six  Sermaru  (1678-98),  and 
several  treatises  upon  the  famous  EUoon^BasililA  con- 
troversy. See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  BriL  and  A  mar,  A  k- 
thors,  s.  V. 

Holmboe^  Kristopfbr  Andrkas,  a  Norwegian 
Orientalist,  was  bom  March  19, 1796.  In  1825  he  was 
professor  at  Christiania,  resigned  his  office  in  1876,  and 
died  April  2, 1882.  He  is  the  author  of,  TraceM  du  Bud- 
kitms  en  Norvige  Avant  V Introduction  de  ChritUanitme 
(1857)  vSibeUk  ReaUOrdbog  (1868).     (a  P.) 

Holme,  John  Stanford,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  March  4, 1822,  and  was  a  de- 
scendant of  John  Holme,  one  of  the  first  Baptists  of 
Pennsylvania.  John  S.  prepared  for  college  at  New 
Hampton,  N.H.;  first  studied  law  in  Philadelphia;  but 
afterwards  graduated  at  Madison  University  in  1850, 
and  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Watertown,  N.T. 
Four  years  later  he  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the 
Pierrepont  Street  Baptist  Church,  now  the  First,  of 
Brooklyn,  where  be  remained  for  some  years,  and  then 
organized  Trinity  Baptist  Church  of  New  Tork,  and  was 
its  pastor  for  fourteen  years.  He  resigned  that  pastor- 
ate to  accept  that  of  the  Riverside  Baptist  Church,  at 
Eighty-sixth  Street  and  the  Boulevard,  but,  his  health 
failing,  he  passed  much  of  his  time  resting  in  Europe. 
He  died  at  CUfton  Springs,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  26, 1884.  Dr. 
Holme  was  known  for  his  literary  attainments,  having 
prepared  the  Plymouth  Cottedion  o/Hymnt  for  the  Bap- 
tist churches,  and  compiled  a  popular  work,  entitled 
Light  at  Evening  Time,  For  some  time  he  had  been  a 
member  of  the  staff  of  The  HomUetic  Monthly,  See 
Cathcart,  Bapl,  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Holmes,  David,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Newburgh,  N.  T.,  March  16, 1810. 
He  was  converted  in  his  youth,  and  in  1884  entered 
the  Oneida  Conference,  filling  many  of  its  best  stations 
till  1855,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  Southem 
Illinois  Conference.  After  effective  labors  in  it  of  five 
years  he  was  transferred  to  the  North-west  Indiana 
Conference^  wherein  he  served  La  Porte,  Delphi,  and 
Pittsburgh.    From  1861  to  1866  he  was  prindpid  of 


Battle  Ground  Collegiate  Institute,  and  in  1867  prin- 
cipal of  North-westem  Indiana  College.  In  1868  he 
re-entered  the  regular  work,  and  served  successively 
Simpson  Chapel,  Oreencastle;  Brookstown;  Montioello, 
and  Battle  Ground,  Mich.  He  died  Nov.  14, 1873.  Dr. 
Holmes  was  a  ripe  scholar,  an  excellent  logician,  a  thor- 
ough educator,  an  able  preacher,  and  an  author  of  mer- 
ited repute.  See  Minutet  o/Anmtql  ConfertnceSj  1874^ 
p.  98 ;  Simpson,  Cgdap,  ofMethoditm,  s.  v. 

Holmes,  Obadiah,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Preston,  Lancashire,  England,  in  1606,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  He  arrived  in  America  in  1689,  and 
continued  a  communicant  with  the  CongregatiousJists, 
first  at  Salem,  and  then  at  Rehoboth  eleven  years, 
when  he  became  a  Baptist,  and  Joined  the  Baptist 
Church  in  Newport,  R.  I.  In  1652,  when  the  minister, 
Mr.  Clark,  sailed  for  England,  Mr.  Holmes  took  charge 
of  the  church  in  Newport,  and  this  relation  he  held 
till  his  death,  Oct  15,  1682.  Mr.  Holmes  underwent 
great  persecution  for  his  religious  principles,  being  im- 
prisoned for  several  months,  and  publicly  whipped  by 
the  Puritan  authorities  in  1661.  See  Sprague,  Annalt 
of  the  Amer»  Pulpit,  vi,  28.  ' 

Holoboloa,  Manukl  (MavovrjiK  'OXopntKoc),  a 
Byzantine  prelate  and  philc^ogist,  who  lived  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  18th  century.  From  his  infancy  he  was 
attached  to  John  Lascaris,  who  was  placed  upon  the 
throne  at  nine  yean  of  age,  and  shared  with  Michael 
Palnologus  the  title  of  emperor.  When  Michael  or- 
dered the  young  prince  to  bie  blinded  and  sent  into  ex- 
ile, Holobolus,  who  then  was  still  a  student,  could  not 
conceal  his  indignation,  and  for  this  impradence  the 
emperor  ordered  that  hb  nose  and  lips  should  be  cut 
off.  He  was  then  imprisoned  in  a  monastery,  where  he 
pursued  his  studies  with  so  much  success  that  he  was 
put  in  charge  of  the  younger  monks  in  1267.  Shortly 
afterwards  the  emperor  was  reconciled  to  Holobolus, 
and  conferred  upon  him  the  dignity  of  a  rhetor,  or 
lecturer  on  the  Holy  Scriptures.  During  the  discus- 
sions which  were  taking  place  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  on  the  subject  of  a  reunion,  he  op- 
posed energetically  the  proposition  of  Michael  Palaolo- 
gus.  He  was  consigned  to  a  monastery  at  Nicna  in 
1278.  The  emperor  soon  after  brought  him  back  to 
Constantinople  with  a  cord  around  his  neck.  A  long 
captivity  did  not  change  at  all  the  sentiments  of  Holo- 
bolus, for  he  took  part,  in  1288,  in  the  deposition  of  the 
patriarch  John  Veccus,  a  partisan  of  the  Latin  union. 
Holobolus  left  PoUtieal  Verses  on  Midkael  Palaologus^ 
which  are  cited  in  the  GlosMrium  of  Du  Cange,  under 
'FflTiap  and  'Bpptivttau  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog, 
Ginirale,  s.  v. 

HolooauBt  (oXdravoTOC)  wholly  burned),  a  kind  of 
sacrifice  wherein  the  whole  offering  was  burned  or  con- 
sumed by  fire,  nothing  being  left  for  the  feast.  Amon;; 
the  heathen  it  was  analogous  to  the  Scripture  burnt' 
offering, 

Holon  OF  JuDAH.  For  thu  place  Lieut.  Conder 
conjecturally  proposes  (Tent  Work,  ii,  887)  Beit  'Al&n^ 
a  large  rain  nine  and  a  half  miles  west  of  Halhul,  con- 
taining **  foundations,  caves,  cistern,  with  heaps  of 
stones  and  remains  of  an  ancient  road"  (J/ianoin  of 
Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  821) ;  and  Trelawney  Saunders 
{0,  T,  Map)  locates  it  at  Khurbet  HanSn,  two  miles 
south-west  of  Hebron.  The  latter  position  is  possible, 
but  the  former  is  not  within  the  required  group  of 
towns. 

HoltxfoB,  Bartiiold,  a  Reformed  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Rtlgenwalde,  Pomerania,  Dec  11, 
1659.  In  1685  he  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Frank- 
fort, in  1686  court-preacher  at  Stolpe,  in  1696  professor, 
and  in  1698  doctor  of  theology  at  Frankfort,  and  died 
in  1717.  He  wrote  De  PrmdtttinaHone,  EUctione  H 
Reprobatione,  and  a  great  many  theological  treatises, 
which  were  published  in  one  volume  in  1714.  See  Jo- 
cher,  AUgemetnea  GetehrienrLexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 


HOLTZHALB  Ai 

Boltmhalb,  Datid,  a  Swim  thariegUn,  wm  bom 
•t  Zurich,  April  26,  1677.  Ha  atudied  aC  hia  natlTc 
pUcc  ind  It  LcydcD,  woa  in  17DS  prorcMor  at  Inblieil 
litentura  at  Zurieb,uid  died  Auk.4,  I7S1.  Ha  «ratc, 
Extpait  PUliAigim-Tinibgiea  Puilmi  xn;—De  Ca- 
ptidoitia  CrtatHTaa  Dto  ts  £tM,  Fieri  H  Operari; 
—Exavital  BUI,  ad  Jac  u,  b  —De  Sacra  Pauii  Matk- 
MuKtca  adEpk,  Hi,  IS  —De  Slatutii  am  Bmit  ad  Eat, 
93,2S:— T^TNU  Tluclogia  Naturalit.  See  Joehcr,  iltf- 
gtmdatB  GtUkriat-Lexiion,  a.  t.     (E  P.) 

Holtsnumn,  Cabl  Juuua,  ■  Pioteatant  theologiin 
of  GemiaaT,  wai  bom  at  Carlanihe,  May  6,  ISOl.  He 
itailied  at  Tubingen,  waa  profoaot  at  the  lycenm  io  bii 
Dative  place,  from  1841  Co  1861  pteacber,  and  at  tbe 
luna  time  teacher  in  Ibe  theological  KnuDary  at  Hei- 
delberg. In  1861  he  wu  made  a  prelate  and  a  member 
of  the  higher  ecdniaatical  couil.  He  waa  a  membei 
or  the  general  gvoods  held  in  1861, 1867, 1871,and  1876. 
He  died  doctor  of  tbeok^,  Feb.  23, 1877,  at  Carlaruhe. 

cap.) 

HolirvU,  WiLLUx,  an  Engliah  clergyman,  waa 
prebendarr  of  Exeter  in  1776,  and  died  Feb.  IS,  17W. 
aotoB  of  hli  poblicaliona  an,  Btaiititt  nfUimtr  (17Te) : 
—EHmOifrom  Popt't  Tran^lum  o/tht  Iliad  (1776) : 
—A  Mgliclogical,  EtgmlAogical,  okI  Biilorieal  Dic- 
fioiury  (1798).  Bet  iHiinae,  Diet  o/Bril.  and  Amtr. 
Antiori,  t.  V. 

HolydAy,  Babtxh,  D.D.,  a  learned  Engliih  divine, 
waa  bom  in  the  pariah  of  AU-Sainta  about  IGSS,  and 
educated  at  Chriaccburcli  College,  Oxford.  He  wai 
cbaplain  to  Charlei  I,  and  archdeaeoa  of  Oifotd.  He 
died  in  1661.  Hia  beat  known  wailca  are  ■  Traiulaliiiii 
afJuBnaal  and  Penitu  (1676) ;— SBn«j  of  the  Worid 
(1661)  ■.-^Twarg  Srrmoni.  See  Chalmen,  Biag,  Did. 
a.T.1  Al]i^ione,Dia.o/Bril.andAiiter.Atiliort,t.v. 

Holjnun,  Jom,  an  Engliih  prelate  of  tbe  IBth 
eeatarjr,  wai  bom  at  Codington,  BuckinghamabiTC,  ed- 
ucated at  New  College,  Oxford,  became  a  Benedictine  at 
Beading  nntU  that  nxinaaterr  wai  disaolred,  and  waa 
preferml  bj  queen  Marj  biibop  of  Bristol  in  ISM. 
Holynun  lived  peaceably,  not  imbruing  hia  hand)  in 
the  blood  of  Pmtcatanti.  He  died  De&  SO,  1668.  See 
Falter,  WoHkiao/Eagland(_eA.Sat.tall),i,197. 

HolMipfel,  JoitAXH  Tobias  Gottlikb,  a  Lulbeian 
theologian  of  Germany,  waa  bom  Feb.  34, 1773,  at  Uar- 
barg.  In  1798  he  waa  paator  and  profeaHi  of  Oriental 
languagea  at  Rinteln.anddied  Hay  9,1812.  He  wrote, 
Diiqiiii,  Quimum  /m.  xi  Inlilligndui  tit  Rtx  jElalem 
A  urtam  Ritliturui  (RiaCdn,180S)  ■.—OiadiaA  Beu  abtr- 
Kttl  und  erlaulerl  (1798) :— S.  F.  N.  Momt:  Fraltct. 
n  EpitU  Pauii  ad  RomanM  (ed.  1794).  See  FOrat, 
BiU.  JwL  i,  406 ;  Winer,  Hand. 
kcA  <&r  Oot  Z^  i,  218, 226, 266. 

(ap-) 

BoLsy,  in  Slavonic  mythd- 
cgj  {changed  by  the  ancient 
ebroniclera  into  Aldi,  Alca.tnd 
AUickit),  were  idola  of  the  Wenda 
•od  Slava,  repreaented  ai  two 
brothera.  The  giant -range  of 
moantalna  aeema  to  have  been 
tbe  eeat  of  their  worahip.  Tbe 
priest  who  aerred  them  lived  in 
a  aacred  wood,  which  at  the  aame 
time  waa  the  direlling-place  of 
the  goda^  Tbe  Romana  affirmed 
that  tbe  Bolzy  were  Caator  and 
PoUds,  and  that  the  prieatt  ware 

Homberg,  Bkbz,  a  Jewlah 
writer  and  teacher,  wbo  died  at 
Piagne,  Ang.  24. 1841,  ia  the  au- 
thor of,  V-a-t  'e>  11X3,  a  com- 


pared for  and  printed  in  Uen-  FIgur*  of  tbe  Holay. 


HONERT 

delaohn'a  PaUatatA  (Berlin,  17BS,'  and  often):  — 
B*^13^,  gloMca  on  tbe  Pentateuch,  alao  printed  in 
Mendelaaobn'*  work: — Uibir  dit  anriUitckt  imd  jioU- 
titcAt  Verbtuentts  dtr  IiratUlai  in  Bikmat  (1796)  :— 
l^-^l'ia,  cawehiam  for  laraelitM  (Augaburg,  1812):— 
1EB  '^mK,  or  ethics  according  to  the  Mosaic  law  and 
tbe  Talmud  (Vienna,  IR02, 2  parte}  i— I'lpi  p,  or  UAir 
daabauieahrieilai  und  SiOailehmJtir  Hit  itratiiliieit 
Jugead  (1814,  and  often).  See  FUrat,  BOL  Jud.  i,  406. 
(a  P.) 

Homa,  Bkkbt,  lord  Kai»et,  a  Scotch  lawyer  and 
phlloaopber,  waa  bom  in  1636  at  Kames,  Berwickihire. 
He  aCudied  law  at  the  Unirertity  of  Edinburgh,  and 
became  advocate  in  1724.    By  a  large  number  of  pub- 
licationa  on  tbe  eubject  of  juriipnidence,  he  obtained 
from  (he  beginning  a  large  clientahip;  then,  in  1762, 
Hcured  the  poat  of  Judge  at  the  conit  of  aeadoni, 
finally,  in  1708,  Ibe  dignity  of  a  juatin  of  the  high 
court  of  Scotland.    Hia  taala  for  agricolCaro  and  meta- 
pbyuca  gave  riae  (o  aonie  of  hie  finest  worka.    There 
are,  among  othera,  Ettagt  on  tht  Priacipla  of  Morality 
and  Kalaral  Rdtgion  (1761),  In  which  he  attcmpCa  to 
prove  that  tbe  laws  which  prevail  in  the  conduct  of 
have  their  foundation  in  the  conalitutiou  of  the 
ID  being,  and  are  aa  certain  and  immutable  aa  the 
pliyaical  law*  which  govern  the  whole  ayatem  of  the 
world:— fiflRorj  ofCritidim  (1762),  in  which  the  an- 
thor  tries  to  connect  lilenuy  criticiam  with  the  princi- 
ples of  philosophy,  very  much  admired,  and  atill  read  : 
■Skticka  oftkt  ffiilorj  of  Wan  (177S):— rAe  Caillt- 
an  Farmer  (1777),  being  an  attempt  to  improre  agri- 
culture by  aubjecting  it  to  the  test  of  rational  prind- 
plea:— /.ooae  Stnti  upon  Education  (1781),  chiefly  con- 
cerning the  culture  of  the  heart.     Home  died  Dec  27, 
1782.    See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet  &  v. 
HomluloUte  (from  Aoaio,  "  man,"  and  coh,  "tu 
inhip"),  a  term  of  reproach,  applied  by  the  Apollina- 
iin  (q.  V.)  and  others,  to  those  who  woiabipped  Jeans 
Christ. 

Bommol,  JOBAKB  Ciiristofh,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  waa  bom  Sept.  13, 1685,  at  Weiiaen- 
fela.  He  atudied  at  Leipaic,  was  in  1712  bachelor  of  ' 
1729  superintendent  at  Neusudi,  and  died 
Oct  17, 1746,  member  of  conuatory.  Brat  court-preacher, 
and  general  superintendent  of  the  duchy  of  Hildburg- 
hanaen.  He  wrote,  Ditp,  in  Uatlh.  zxif,  29  (Leipnc, 
1712):— i)c/'(d(fii<u  VHerii  TrUamaiti  Extra  Fcdaiam 
Judaieam  Viiitilfin  Diiperiit : — De  ConttqveiUiit  Evan- 
gdico-LHiktraaa  Eedtna  ab  Advtrtariii  Falio  /npu- 
ta»it!  —  Dt  PrarogaHni  Judaonm  Vet  Tut  See 
Knna%  JfcawroMia  von  BUdbvrgltaiiten,  p.  2M;  J6- 
cher,  Al^emtiate  GAItrten-Ltxil«m,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Fkbtus,  a  Befbrmed  theok^ian,  waa 
167S  at  Hnlst,  Holland,  and  died  July  6, 1642, 
a  doctor  of  theology,  preacher  and  prsfect  of  the  theo- 
logical college  at  Leyden,  Hommiua  wu  one  of  the 
tianalaton  of  the  Dutch  Bibte,  published  by  tbe  Sutes- 
geDetal,and  KTole,Coiirgiiim  Anti-BellariaiMianainiiice 
Di^utaiiona  Theologica  pro  Etongtlici*  centra  Ponti- 
Jidoti—Hanaeaia  Sgnodorum  Bt^arwn.  See  Wi- 
ner, Han^Mch  der  tieol.  Lit.  i,  182.  331 ;  Jocher,  Altg^ 
meimtGeltiirUn-LexHaiH,t.T.     (a  P.) 

Honeit  {Tabt  Ilajo),  van  Dkn,  a  distinguished 
Dutch  divine,  waa  bom  March  6, 1666,  at  Nordeu,Eaat 
Frisia.  He  atudied  at  Marburg,  Leyden,  and  Dart,  was 
preacher  in  1689,  and  succeeded  in  1714  hia  former 
teacher,  Solomon  van  Til,  aa  professor  of  theology  at 
Leyden-  He  died  Feb.  23,  1740,  leaving,  Vorlooptr 
ovtr  den  Brirf  an  de  Romeinen  (1696) :—  VerUaarins 
van  den  Brirf  Pauii  an  de  Roneinen  (Leyden,  eod.)  i— 
Btknoopte  SchttU  der  Godddglx  Waarhetden  (17DS)  z— 
VerUaanaig  over  Luc.  vii,8b  (I70e)  :—Thoge  Prirtler- 
ediap  van  Ckrittue  naar  da  OrdauHg  van  tftickiledtk 
{mS):—yerUaariagmndenaiiFiaim.  (nU):-TlnB- 
loffia  Nataralit  it  Rerdata  (171&)  ■.—Din.  dt  Titolcffim 


HONOK  CATHEDRA 


566 


HOOKER 


PropheUem  l^eeessUcUe  (1721) : — DiuertoHomB  Eutcri- 
ca:  1.  De  Creatione  Mundi;  2.  De  Situ  EdaUa;  8.  De 
Lingua  PrinuBva  (1738).  See  Moaer,  Lexikon  dor  TAe- 
ologen;  WineTrifandbuck  der  tkeoL  Lit  i,  125, 199;  JO- 
cber,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexihon,  8.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Honor  CathfidrSD,  an  ezpresBion  used  in  Spain  in 
the  6th  century,  to  denote  the  honoraiy  acknowledg- 
ment which  the  bishops  received  in  their  parochial  vis- 
itations. 

Honoriiu^  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  a  Roman 
by  birth,  and  was  distinguished  among  his  contempo- 
raries for  having  been  a  pupil  of  Gregory  the  Great. 
He  was  chosen  as  the  successor  of  Justus,  to  occupy  the 
see  of  Canterbury.  His  consecration  probably  occurred 
in  627.  His  reign  was  one  of  long  duration.  He  did 
much  for  England  in  the  way  of  prospering  her  Church. 
The  music  of  Canterbury,  introduced  by  Honorius,  was 
imitated  even  in  the  Celtic  churches,  and  the  tendency 
it  had  to  promote  civilization  in  England  cannot  be  de- 
nied. He  died  at  a  good  old  age,  greatly  lamented  by 
his  people,  and  was  buried  at  St  Augustine,  Sept  30, 
653.  See  Hook,  Lives  of  the  A  rMiihopt  of  Ccmter' 
htry,  i.  Ill  sq. 

Hcnthorst,  Gerard  (called  Gherardo  daUe  JVbm*), 
an  eminent  Dutch  painter,  was  bom  at  Utrecht  in  1592. 
After  studying  under  Abraham  Dloemaert  he  visited 
Borne,  and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  works  of 
Michael  Angelo  Caravaggio.  He  was  patronized  by 
prince  Giustiniani,  for  whom  he  painted  some  of  his 
best  works,  among  which  are  two  fine  pictures  of  8t, 
Peter  Delivered  from  Prison^  and  Christ  before  Pilate, 
There  is  a  torch-light  scene  by  Honthorst,  in  the  Church 
of  the  Madonna  della  Scala,  at  Rome,  representing  the 
Beheading  of  St.  John.  He  died  in  1660.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Genirdte^  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  t.  v. 

Honymaxi,  Aitdrbw,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  arch- 
deacon of  St  Andrews,  author  of  the  Seasonable  Case, 
and  Surveg  ofNaphtali,  He  was  made  bishop  of  Ork- 
ney in  1664,  and  died  in  February,  1676.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  228. 

Hook,  Walter  Fakquhar,  D.D.,  an  eminent  An- 
glican divine,  son  of  Dr.  James  Hook  (1771-1828),  dean 
of  Worcester,  grandson  of  James  Hook  (1746-1827), 
organist  at  St  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and  nephew 
of  Theodore  Edward  Hook  (1788-1841),  an  eminent 
English  author,  was  bom  in  London,  March  13, 1798. 
He  graduated  at  Christchurch  College,  Oxford,  in  1821, 
and  was  successively  curate  at  Wappingham,  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  in  Birmingham,  and  vicar  of  Trinity 
Church,  Coventry,  till  1837,  when  he  was  made  vicar 
of  Leeds.  Here,  during  his  incumbency  of  twenty-two 
years,  21  new  churches,  82  parsonages,  and  more  than 
60  schools  were  erected  in  his  parish,  chiefly  through 
his  instrumentality.  He  was  especially  popular  among 
the  working  classes.  In  1859  he  became  dean  of  Chi- 
chester, and  in  1862  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  appointed  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  George  IV, 
in  1827,  and  retained  the  office  under  William  IV  and 
Victoria,  preaching  on  the  accession  of  the  latter  his 
celebrated  sermon  on  //ear  the  Church,  of  which  more 
than  100,000  copies  were  sold.  He  died  Oct  80, 1875. 
Dean  Hook  was  eminently  conservative  in  theology, 
and  a  High-Churchman.  His  publications  are,  Church 
Dictionary  (7th  ed.  1854,  Svo)i—£eeies,  Biogrc^hy 
(1845-52,  vols,  i-viii,  12mo) : — Sermons  on  th«  Miracles 
(1847-48,  2  vols.  8vo) : — Sermons  on  Various  SvibjectM 
(2d  ed.  1844,  8vo)  i^  Sermons  before  the  Umversitg  of 
Oxford  (1847, 12mo):— rAe  /lights  of  /^resbyters  As- 
serted  (anonymous)  t—Ltoe*  of  the  Archbishops  ofCa^ 
terbury,  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  to  Juxon  (Lond. 
1860-77, 12  vols.  8vo)  i-^/Hsestablished  Church  in  the 
Uniied  States  (Lond.  1869,  8vo).  Dr.  Hook's  wife,  a 
model  of  a  saintly  and  beautiful  character,  was  the  au- 
thor (anon.)  of  Meditations  for  Every  Day  of  the  Year, 
and  The  Cross  of  Christ,     She  died  in  1871.    See 


ChurtA  of  England  Quar.  Rev,  April,  1881,  art.  x;  Mm 
of  the  Time  (Lond.  1856) ;  Ed,  Rev,  4th  series,  xii,  602 ; 
Eraser's  Magazine,  xix,  1 ;  Life  and  Letters  of  W,  V, 
Hook,  DJ),,  FJIJS,,  by  his  son-in-law,  W.  R.  W.  Ste- 
phens, prebendary  oif  Chichester  (Lond.  1880). 

Hooker,  Edward  'WiUlam,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  son  of  Rev.  Asahel  Hooker,  was  t^m  aft 
Goshen,  Conn.,  Nov.  24, 1794.  He  graduated  from  Mid- 
dlebnry  College  in  1814,  and  from  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1817 ;  was  ordained  at  Green  Farms,  Aug. 
15, 1821,  over  which  church  he  remained  pastor  until 
1829,  when  be  became  associate  general  agent  of  the 
American  Temperance  Society,  and  was  also  editor  of 
the  Journal  of  Humanity.  He  was  installed  pastor  of 
the  Church  at  Bennington,  Vr.,  FeK  22, 1882,  and  was 
dismissed  in  the  spring  of  1844.  From  Aug.  25  of  the 
latter  year,  for  four  years,  he  was  professor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  and  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Theological 
Institute  of  Connecticut,  at  East  Windsor  HilL  From 
1849  to  1856  he  was  the  regular  pastor  of  the  church  at 
South  Windsor;  after  which,  until  1862,  he  served  in 
the  same  relation  at  Fair  Haven,  Vt  He  died  at  Fort 
Atkinson,  Wis.,  March  81,  1875.  Dr.  Hooker  was  a 
trustee  of  Middlebury  College  from  1834  to  1844,  and 
was  a  corporate  member  of  the  American  Boaid  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  from  1840.  Among 
his  published  works  are,  Life  of  nomas  //ooker: — 
Early  Conversions: — Elihu  L^tvis,  etc;  also  several 
pamphlets,  among  them,  Marks  of  Spiritual  Ikolension  .• 
— Plea  for  Sacired  Music: — Believing  the  Truth: — 
Character  and  Office  of  the  Ho/y  Spirit,  etc,  with  vari- 
ous addresses  and  sermons.  He  was  abo  a  writer  for 
various  magazines  and  other  periodicals.  See  Cong, 
Quarterly,  1876,  p.  427. 

Hooker,  Henry  Bro'vm,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  son  of  Dr.  Thomas  Hooker,  was  bora  at  Rut- 
land, Vt,  Aug.  31, 1802.  After  attending  the  Castleton 
Academy,  he  entered  Middlebury  College,  from  which 
he  graduated  in  1821.  Four  years  afterwards  he  grad- 
uated from  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  was 
ordained  an  evangelist,  Oct  10, 1825,  and  for  one  year 
was  a  home  missionary  in  South  Carolina.  From  Blay 
2, 1827,  to  May  17, 1836,  he  was  pastor  in  Lanesboro*, 
Mass. ;  from  February,  1837,  to  June,  1858,  was  pastor  in 
Falmouth ;  from  1857  to  1873  was  secretary  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Home  Missionary  Society,  and  continued  to 
assist  in  the  ofBce  of  that  society  until  his  death,  July  4, 
1881.  From  1844  to  1851  he  was  a  member  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Board  of  Education ;  from  1845  he  was  a  cor- 
porate member  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions.  The  American  Tract  Society  pub- 
lished eight  tracts  from  his  pen;  and  he  also  wrote 
three  tracts  for  the  Tract  Society  of  Boston.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  two  Sunday-school  books :  Plea  for 
the  Heathen,  and  Put  0^'and  Put  On,  See  Cong.  Tear- 
book,  1982,  p.  3S. 

Hooker,  Hennan,  D.D.,an  Episcopal  clergyman, 
was  bom  at  Poultney,  Yt,  about  lciD6.  He  graduated 
from  Middlebury  College  in  1825,  studied  two  years  in 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  and  subsequently  took 
orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church ;  but  on  losing 
his  health  became  a  bookseller  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
where  he  died,  July  25, 1865.  He  is  the  author  of.  The 
Portion  of  the  Soul  (1885)  i-^Popular  /nfidelity  :^UseM 
of  A  dversity : — Maxims : — The  Christian  Life, 

Hooker,  Horace,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minii- 
ter  and  author,  was  bora  in  1793.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  Yale  College,  and  was  remarkable  for  the  elegance 
and  purity  of  his  style  as  a  writer.  He  early,  in  con- 
nection with  Rev.  Thomas  H.  Gallaudet  LL.D.,  under- 
took the  preparation  of  religious  books  for  the  young. 
Among  them  are.  The  YouthU  Book  of  Natural  Theolo^ 
gy,  in  two  parts,  and  a  series  of  twelve  volumes  of  Bible 
History ;  liso  a  popular  spelling-book  and  definer.  For 
a  period  of  more  than  twenty  jrears  he  was  secretary 
of  the  Connecticut  Miseionaxy  Society ;  also  for  several 


HOOLE 


669 


HOPPENSTEDT 


yean  chA(JUin  of  the  inaane  retreat  at  Hartford,  where 
he  died,  Dec  17, 1864.  See  AppkUnCs  Anmtal  Cydep. 
1864,  p.  628. 

Hoole,  BUjab,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Wedeyan  mis- 
aionary,  was  appointed  in  1819  to  Bangalore,  in  the 
Mysore  country,  to  which,  in  1828,  Seringapatam  was 
added.  **  He  rapidly  acquired  an  aoeonte  knowledge 
of  the  Tamil,  one  of  the  flnt-fmits  of  which  was  a 
translation  of  the  Mdhoditi  Hpimt*  It  was  thus  that 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  that  proficiency  as  an  Orien- 
tal scholar  which  was  afterwards  doly  acknowledged 
by  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  and  other  learned  bodies; 
at  the  same  time  travelling  widely  and  Uboring  with 
unwearied  diligence  in  his  evangelical  efforts,  and  en- 
during hardship  as  a  good  soldier  of  Christ"  After 
nine  years  he  returned  to  England  sick,  and  was  never 
afterwards  free  from  pain.  From  1880  to  1885  he  was 
superintendent  of  schools  in  Ireland.  Removing  to 
London,  he  was,  in  1834,  appointed  assistant  secretary, 
and  in  1886  one  of  the  general  secretaries  of  the  Mis- 
sionary Society,  a  position  he  held  to  the  end  of  his  life. 
In  the  administration  of  missionary  aflkirs  his  punctu- 
ality, suavity,  and  diligence  rendered  him  singularly 
efficient,  and  his  unobtrusive  services  became  more  and 
more  valuable  every  year.  He  was  also  honorary  secre- 
tary of  the  British  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Jews,  and  also  for  the  Home  of  the 
Attatics,  in  London.  Gentle,  uniformly  cheerful,  Dr. 
Hoole  was  to  the  end  of  life  a  diligent  student  He  died 
in  London,  June  17, 1872,  iu  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his 
age.  Dr.  Hoole  wrote,  Madrat^  Mywort^  and  the  South 
of  India:  A  Narrative  of  a  Afitnon  to  tho$e  Countries, 
from  1820  to  1828  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1844, 12roo)  :—The  Year^ 
Book  ofMiuione  (Lond.  1847, 8vo)  i—The  Mi$nonary^ 
a  poem  from  the  Swedish,  edited  by  Dr.  Hoole  (1861, 
24mo):~^yrMi»  and  the  WetUye  (1864)  i—Ladia^  Ta- 
mil Booh  (1860).  See  Mtmutet  of  the  BriOth  Confer- 
ence, 1872,  p.  82;  Stevens,  Hist,  of  Methodiem,  iii,  846 ; 
Osbom,  Meth,  Bibliography^  p.  117. 

Hooper,  William,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished 
Baptist  minister,  was  bom  near  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  Aug. 
81, 1792,  being  a  grandson  of  William  Hooper,  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
graduated  from  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  at 
Chapel  Hill,  in  1808;  studied  theology  one  year  at 
Princeton ;  was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  languages 
in  his  alma  mater  in  1817 ;  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal 
Church  iu  1818;  was  rector  of  a  church  in  Fayetteville 
from  1822  to  1824;  changed  his  sentiments  on  baptism, 
and  joined  a  Baptist  Chureh ;  returned  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  North  Carolina,  first  as  professor  of  rhetoric,  and 
then  resumed  his  former  chair  as  professor  of  ancient 
languages.  In  1888  he  was  called  to  South  Carolina, 
where,  for  eight  years,  he  was  in  the  department  of  in- 
struction in  the  Furman  Institute.  He  was  then  chosen 
president  of  Wake  Forest  College,  N.  C,  and  held  this 
office  for  six  years.  He  was  pastor  in  Newbem,  then 
president  of  the  Chowan  Female  Institute,  and  for  the 
last  years  of  his  life  was  engaged  in  teaching  at  Fay- 
etteville and  Wilson.  He  died  at  Chapel  Hill,  Aug. 
19, 1876.  See  Gen,  Cat.  of  Princeton  TkeoL  Sem.  1881, 
p.  15.     (J.CS.) 

Hdpfiier,  Johank  Gborg  CHRiariAif,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  4,  1765,  at 
Leipsic,  and  died  there,  Dec  20, 1827,  doctor  of  theol- 
ogy and  professor  of  philosophy.  He  wrote,  fn  LXX 
Vertionem  Jona  Spec.  IS  (Leipsic,  1787,  1788):— />e 
Origine  Dogmatie  Bonu^Pontif,  de  Purgatorio  NonnuUa 
(Halle,  1792)  i^Historia  Tobia  (1802)  i-^Ueber  doe  Le. 
hen  und  die  Vetdienete  dee  verewigten  Monte  (1798).  See 
Furst,  BibL  JiidL  i,  407 ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit. 
i,  51, 194, 800, 469, 865.     (B.  P.) 

Hopklnfl,  Henry  Hanrey,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Chester  County,  Pa.,  Nov.  12, 1804. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1882 ;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Caitle 


the  tame  year;  obtained  permission  to  labor  without 
the  bounds  of  the  presbytery,  and  at  once  proceeded  to 
Clinton,  La.  After  thb  he  went  to  Big  Spring  and 
Taylorsville,  Ky.,  and  served  as  pastor.  This  ration 
continued  about  nine  years,  and  was  dissolved  April  2, 
1844.  Dr.  Hopkins  next  took  charge  of  two  churehes 
at  (}ane  Run  and  Plum  Creek,  in  Shelby  County,  and 
•ubeequently  of  a  church  at  Owensboro.  He  died  April 
19^  1877.  He  was  a  devoted  pastor,  a  wise  counsellor, 
practical.  Judicious,  and  of  large  Christian  experience. 
See  Neerol.  Bepori  of  Princeton  Theol.  Sem.  1878^  p.  28. 

Hopkina,  Johns,  an  American  philanthropist,  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  was  bom  in  Anne 
Arundel  County,  Md.,  May  19, 1795.  He  received  a 
liberal  education,  and  engaged  in  the  wholesale  grocery 
business,  from  which  he  retired  in  1847  with  an  ample 
fortune.  He  then  became  president  of  the  Merchants^ 
Bank,  and  a  director  of  the  Bidtimore  and  Ohio  Railroad. 
He  died  in  Baltimore,  Dec  24, 1878.  Mr.  Hopkins*  ben- 
efactions amount  in  the  aggregate  to  over  $8,000,000. 
In  1878  he  founded  the  Hopkins  Free  HospiUl  of  Balti- 
more, at  a  cost  of  about  $4,000,000.  He  also  founded 
an  orphanage  for  colored  youth,  a  convalescent  hospital, 
and  the  Johns  Hopkins  University.  This  institution 
is  located  at  Gifton,  near  Baltimore,  and  has  four  hun- 
dred acres  of  land  and  an  endowment  of  $8,000,000. 
Poor  and  deserving  youth  of  Mar}*land  and  Virginia 
receive  free  scholarships. 

Hopkins,  Joaiah,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  horn  at  Pittsford,  Yt.,  April  26, 1785.  He  never 
attended  college,  though  he  had  a  good  academical  ed- 
ucation. He  was  licensed  by  the  Paulet  Congrega- 
tional Association  in  1809,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  Church  in  New  Haven,  Yt!,  in  1811. 
He  subsequently  became  pastor  of  the  First  Presby- 
terian Church  in  Auburn,  N.  Y.  He  died  at  Geneva, 
June  27, 1862.  See  Wilson,  Pretb.  Hist.  A  Imanae,  1868, 
p.  298. 

Hopkinfl,Ckuniiel,  Sen.^  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, S(tn  of  John  Hopkins,  of  Waterfoury,  Conn.,  gradu- 
ated from  Tale  College  in  1718 ;  was  oitiained  pastor  in 
West  Springfield,  Msss.,  June  1, 1720,  and  died  suddenly 
in  October,  1755,  in  the  sixty-second  year  of  bis  age. 
He  published  Historical  Memoirs  Belating  to  the  Hous- 
atonic  Indians  (1758).  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the 
Amer.  Pulpit^  i,  519. 

Hopkins,  Samuel,  Jun.,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  bom  in  West  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  Oct.  81, 1729.  He  gnduated  from  Yale 
College  in  1749,  and  was  a  tutor  there  from  1751  to 
1754 ;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Hadley,  in  February,  1756, 
and  died  there,  March  8, 1811.  A  volume  of  sermons 
was  published  by  him  in  1799.  In  many  respects  he 
was  a  remarkable  roan,  distingubhed  for  his  good-hu- 
mor, and  his  Calvinism  was  of  a  type  opposed  to  Hop- 
kinsianism.  See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit^ 
i,520. 

Hopkins,  Theodora  Aaa,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  July  25, 1805. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1824 ;  studied  the- 
ology privately,  and  was  licensed  by  the  Cayuga  Pres- 
bytery, June  19, 1828.  In  1829  he  accepted  a  call  from 
the  Congregational  Chureh  at  Pawtucket,  Mass.  His 
ministry  there  was  successful  and  very  acceptable.  In 
1886  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Brooklyn,  where  he  remained  until  his  death, 
Nov.  18, 1847.  See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit, 
iv,  741. 

Hoppenstedt,  August  Friedrich  Ludwio,  a 
Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  22, 
1768.  In  1789  he  was  inspector  of  the  Teachers'  Sem- 
inary at  Hanover,  in  1792  conrt^haplain,  in  1796  super- 
intendent, in  1806  general  superintendent  at  Harborg, 
in  1815  at  Celle,  and  died  April  24, 1880,  doctor  of  the- 
ology, abbot  of-  Looeum,  and  director  of  consistory  at 
Hanover.    He  pnblisbed,  Predigten  (Hanover,  1818- 19, 


HOPPER 


570 


HORNE 


S  vob.)  i—Lieder/Ur  VoUetmAmlen  (1798;  4th  ed.  1814). 
See  Winer,  Ilandbuch  dtr  tkeoL  LU,  i,  864;  U,  99, 171, 
265, 886 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  585.    (a  P.) 

Hopper,  Christophkr,  one  of  the  meet  efficient 
early  Methodist  preachers,  was  bom  at  Low-Goalbume, 
Ryton  Parish,  Durham  County,  England,  Dec.  25, 1722. 
In  his  Autobiography  (in  Jackson^s  Livet)  he  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  his  conversion  under  Methodist 
preaching,  about  1748,  and  of  his  subsequent  labors  af- 
ter 1749.  For  fifty  ye&rs  he  preached  throughout  the 
land,  in  churches,  ale-houses,  cock-pits,  now  before  a 
conference,  then  before  a  mob,  now  amid  the  piayeis 
and  tears  of  the  people,  then  amid  rotten  eggs,  the  sound 
of  horns  and  bells,  brickbats,  blows,  and  bludgeons. 
Four  times  he  visited  Ireland  (1750, 1752, 1756^  1776, 
the  first  time  with  Wesley).  In  1751  he  and  Wesley 
visited  Scotland,  the  latter  returning  in  a  few  days,  but 
Hopper  presring  on,  and  in  1759  introducing  Methodism 
as  far  as  Old  Aberdeen  and  Peterhead,  thus  planting 
Methodism  in  North  Britain.  Wesley  being  absent  from 
the  conference  at  Bristol  in  1780,  Hopper  was  elected 
president.  After  1790  he  resided  chiefly  at  Bolton, 
preaching  till  January,  1802.  He  died  March  5  follow- 
ing. Hopper  played  an  important  part  in  British  Meth- 
odism, and  not  merely  in  extending  its  borders.  He  was 
one  of  the  men  who  gave  to  it  Bramwell  and  Benson,  and 
his  melting  prayers  contributed  to  its  peace  and  union 
during  the  critical  conferences  of  the  last  decade  of  the 
18th  century  (see  Entwistle's  Memoirs),  He  was  of  an 
original  turn  of  mind,  had  fine  natural  abilities,  was  a 
diligent  student,  a  pioneer  preacher,  and  a  soul-saver. 
See  Jackson,  Earfy  Methodist  Preacktrs^  i,  179 ;  Crow- 
ther,  Portraiture  ofMethodum^  p.  850 ;  Stevens,  Eist.  of 
Methodism^  i,  iii  (see  index) ;  Smith,  Ui^,  of  WesL  Meth* 
oditmf  i,  iii  (see  index);  WesL  Meth,  Magazine^  Sept 
1808 ;  Everett,  Keen  and  Able  Little  Sketch ;  Weslegan 
Centenary  Takings  (8d  ed.  Lond.  1841),  i,  882. 

Hoppns,  John,  LL.D.,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  London  in  1789.  He  studied 
theology  at  Rotherham  and  Dunbar,  then  proceeded  to 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  where  he  took  his  degree 
of  M.A.,  and  was  the  most  distinguished  pupil  of  his 
year.  Thence  he  returned  to  London  and  took  the 
ministerial  charge  of  the  Carter  Lane  Chapel,  where 
he  labored  two  years.  He  next  became  professor  of 
mental  and  moral  philosophy  and  logic  in  University 
College,  London,  which  chair  he  occupied  for  thirty-eix 
years,  preaching  frequently  and  writing  extensively. 
He  died  in  London,  Jan.  29, 1875.  The  life  of  Dr.  Hop- 
pus  was  an  exemplification  of  his  oft-repeated  assertion 
that  *'No  service  a  man  can  render  his  generation  is 
greater  than  this,  to  try  to  'Justify  the  ways  of  God  to 
men.' "  He  wrote  a  masterly  exposition  of  Bacon's  A'o- 
vttm  Organon,  and  many  other  treatises  for  the  Society 
for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge:— a  prize  essay 
on  Schism  as  Opposed  to  the  Unity  of  the  Church : — a 
valuable  pamphlet  on  The  Crisis  ^Popular  Education, 
as  well  as  contributing  largely  to  the  Psychological 
Journal  and  Eclectic  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Tear^bookf 
1876,  p.  841;  (Lond.)  Evangelical  Magazine,  1875, 
p.  281. 

Hordicalia  (or  Hordioldla),  an  ancient  Roman 
festival,  celebrated  April  15,  in  honor  of  the  goddess 
Tellus.  On  these  oocamons  thirty  pregnant  cows  were 
sacrificed. 

Horem.  The  Surah,  which  is  accepted  by  Conder 
{Tent  Work,  ii,  887)  and  Tristram  (Bible  Places,  p.  274), 
but  not  by  Saunders  {0,  T.  Map),  as  the  representative 
of  this  ancient  site,  is  written  Khurbet  elrKurah  on  the 
Ordnance  Map,  three  and  a  half  miles  north-west  from 
Tarfin  (Iron),  and  so  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs 
(i,  242), "  heaps  of  stones  and  cisterns,  on  a  small  tell 
[mound];  a  birkeh  [pool]  in  the  valley.*'  This  last 
authority  suggests  0, 205)  ''  the  present  ruin  ffdrah," 
which  is  laid  down  at  two  miles  south-east  of  Tibnln, 
and  described  (ibid.  118)  as  ''heaps  of  small  unhewn 


stones,  with  two  olive-presses  and  a  spring  at  the  rain  f 
an  identification  not  adopted  by  Saunders. 

Horey,  in  the  mythology  of  the  negroes  in  East 
Africa,  was  a  dsomon,  having  a  resemblance  to  the  devil, 
whose  image  probably  reached  Abyssinia  through  the 
Christiana.  Those  people  practise  circumdsion  in  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  year.  Before  the  youths  are 
thus  dedicated  they  are  exposed  to  the  persecution  of 
this  evil  spirit,  who  manifests  his  presence  by  a  dull, 
deep  bowl  or  cry.  As  soon  u  this  cry  is  heard,  victuals 
are  prepared  and  placed  under  a  tree.  They  are  always 
found  to  have  been  eaten.  If  the  food  does  not  suffice, 
Horey  steals  a  boy  and  devours  him,  keeping  him  in 
his  stomach  until  more  food  is  brought,  whereupon  he 
gives  him  up  again.  Many  negroes  affirm  that  they 
have  been  ten  or  twelve  days  in  the  stomach  of  this 
monster. 

Hozman  (or  Horeman),  Wiluax,  an  English 
author,  was  bom  at  Salisbury,  Wiltshire,  about  1470. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  made  vice-provost  of  Eton,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  days,  and  died  April  12, 1585.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  general  scholarB  of  his  age.  He 
wrote  on  Orthography :— On  the  Quaniitue  of  PenuUi" 
mai/e  Syllables!  — A  Chromde,  Commentaries,  and  It^^ 
dexes  to  the  Chronicles  of  Others:  —  Commentaries  on 
Gabriel  Bid's  Divinity:— On  the  Divorce  of  Uenry  VIII: 
— On  Cato,  Varro,  Columdla,  Pcdladius,  De  Re  Rustiea. 
Other  books  he  left  unfinished.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of 
England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  885 ;  Lownde^  BibL  Manual, 
p.  1119. 

Hbrnblo^nrer,  Williak  Hekrt,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bora  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  March  21, 
1820.  He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1838; 
studied  law  one  year;  graduated  from  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1842 ;  became  a  missionary  to  **  the 
Pines'*  in  1848;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Petersen  in 
1844,  and  labored  there  with  great  success  and  useful- 
ness until  1877,  when  he  was  elected  by  the  General 
Assembly  professor  of  homiletics,  pastoral  theology,  sa- 
cred rhetoric,  and  Church  goverament  in  the  Western 
Theological  Seminar}',  Allegheny  City,  Pa.  He  died 
there,  July  16, 1888.  See  AT.  Y,  Observer,  July  19, 1888 ; 
Nevin,  Presb,  Eneydop,  s.  v. ;  NeeroL  Report  ofPrincty" 
ton  TheoL  Sem,  1884,  p.  28.     (W.  P.  &) 

Hornby,  John,  D.D.,  a  native  of  Lincolnshire,  bred 
a  Carmelite,  received  his  degree  at  Cambridge,  flour^ 
ished  in  1874,  and  was  buried  at  his  convent  in  Boston. 
He  participated  in  a  great  controversy  over  the  priority 
of  the  Dominican  and  Carmelite  orders,  John  Stock 
pleading  for  the  precedency  of  the  former,  and  Horaby 
preaching  and  writing  for  that  of  the  latter.  The  judges 
were  John  Donwick,  the  chancellor,  and  the  doctors  of 
the  university,  and  they  confirmed  the  opinion  of  Hora- 
by, under  the  seal  of  the  university.  Henry  YIII  made 
them  friends  by  thrusting  both  out  of  the  land.  See 
Fuller,  Worthies  ofEnglcmd  (ed.  KutuU),  u,  288. 

Home,  Robert,  an  English  prelate  of  the  16th 
century,  was  bora  in  Durham,  educated  at  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  advanced  dean  of  Durham  in  1551, 
and  prebend  of  York  in  1552,  but  in  the  persecution  un- 
der Mary  he  fled  to  Germany,  and,  fixing  hb  residence 
at  Frankfort,  became  the  head  of  the  episcopal  party. 
On  returaing  to  England  he  was  made  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, Feb.  16,  15^.  He  was  a  worthy  man,  but 
ground  between  the  papists  and  sectaries,  who  sported 
with  his  name,  and  twitted  his  person  as  dwarfish  and 
deformed,  apparently  having  no  worthy  cause  for  their 
opposition.  He  died  in  Southwark,  June  1, 1580.  He 
published  an  answer  to  Fuckenham's  Dedaration  of 
Scruples  of  Conscience  (1566),  touching  the  oaths  of  so- 
premacv.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nut- 
taU),  1,482. 

Home,  Thomas  Haxtwell,  D.D.,  a  minister  of 
the  Churoll  of  England,  was  bora  in  London,  Oct.  20, 
1780.    He  was  a  scholar  at  (Christ's  Hoqdtal,  but  did 


HORNEMANN 


5»1 


HOSMANN 


BOl  ftttend  the  umTecrity.  He  was  a  hairistei's  derk 
for  many  years;  was  ordained  in  1819,  and  did  parochial 
duty  in  London,  chiefly  at  Su  James's  Chnrch,  West- 
moreland Street,  Marylebone;  held  an  important  liter- 
ary appointment  in  the  British  Museum  for  a  long  time ; 
and  in  1888  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  appointed 
him  to  his  city  rectory,  a  position  which  he  held  at  the 
time  of  his  death,  Jan.  27, 1882.  Dr.  Home  was  an 
author  and  editor  of  considerable  celebrity.  Among 
his  works  may  be  mentioned.  An  Introdudion  to  tke 
Critical  Stu^  of  the  Holy  Scripiuret^  by  which  he  is 
chiefly  known  (see  Isttroductioms)  i—A  Comptndiwm 
of  the  Adadraitsf  Lavs  and  Regulatiom  of  the  Court 
of  Admiralty: — An  lUustraied  Record  of  ImporiaxX 
flvtni*  (in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Gillies  and  professor 
Shakespeare)  i^Dntm  Refuted :-^WiUit't  Itinerary:— 
Jewish  and  ChriUian  Piiviiegee  Compared  :-~PotUU 
Law  Dictionary: — Jfurphy'a  Arabian  Antiquitiee  of 
Spain : — CroAy't  Gazetteer : —  Van  Leemoeen^s  Commer^ 
tariee  on  the  Dutch  Law,  For  other  eocleMastical  and 
Scriptural  works  see  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
A  uthortf  s.  r.   See  i4  mer,  Quar,  Church  Rev,  1862,  p.  741. 

Homemami,  Glavdiub  Frkbs  wm,  a  Danish  the- 
ologian, bom  in  1751,  was  in  1801  professor  of  theology 
at  Copenhagen,  and  died  in  1830.  He  wrote,  Specimen 
Exercitaiionum  Crit,  in  Version.  LXX  Interpr,  ex  Phi- 
lone  (i-iii,  Gottingen,  1778-78)  :-^Obeervationes  ad  /^ 
Ustrationem  Dodrina  de  Canone  Vet,  Test,  ex  Phiione 
(Copenhagen,  1775): — Sylloge  LectUmum  Variorum 
LXX  (1778) : — Observationes  de  Ilarmonia  Linyuarum 
Orientaliumy  Ebraica^  Chaldttioa,  Syriaem  et  Arabiaa 
(1826-29)  :—Ser^9ta  Genuina  Gretc,  Patrum  Apostoli" 
cor,,  Greece etL<Uine,Edidit(iB2S,2vo]a,),  See  Winer, 
ffandhuch  der  theoL  LiL  i,  61,  77,  882 ;  Fllrat,  BibL  Jud, 
i,  407  sq.     (R  P.) 

Homer,  James,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  in  Ireland.  He  was  Dr.  McDowel's  col- 
league in  Mary's  Abbey,  Dublin,  ordained  co-pastor  in 
1791,  and  died  in  Januar}',  1848.  He  was  intrusted  by 
the  synod  of  Ulster  with  the  management  of  much  of 
its  public  business,  **  and  was  remarkable  for  his  tact 
and  shrewdness."  He  was  one  of  the  first  missionary 
agents  of  the  synod,  and  was  also  appointed  by  it  on 
the  committee  for  the  preparation  of  a  code  of  disci- 
pline.   See  Reid,  HisL  of  the  Prtsb.  Church  m  Irekmd, 

Homing,  Fribdbich  Theodor,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1809  in  Alsace.  In 
1885  he  was  pastor  at  Grafenstaden,  in  1845  at  Straa- 
burg,  and  died  there  in  1882,  president  of  the  consistory. 
Homing  was  a  strict  Lutheran,  and  founded,  in  1849, 
the  Lutheran  Missionary  Society.  He  wrote,  Evange^ 
Useh'lutherUche  Kirche: — and  with  Kittelmeyer  he 
published,  in  1868,  Gesanglnteh  fUr  Christen  A  ugsburger 
Cotfeseion,  He  also  edited  Kirehenblatt  JUr  die  Kirche 
Augsburger  Confession,  See  Lichtenberger,  Encydop, 
des  Sciences  ReHgieuses,  s.  v.    (R  P.) 

Horror,  a  passion  excited  by  an  object  which 
causes  a  high  degree  of  fear  and  detestation.  It  is  a 
compound  of  wonder  and  fear.  Sometimes  it  has  a 
mixture  of  pleasure,  from  which,  if  predominant,  it  is 
denominated  a  pleasing  horror.  Such  a  horror  seizes 
us  at  the  view  of  vast  and  hang^g  precipices,  a  tem- 
pestuous ocean,  or  wild  and  solitary  places.  This  pas- 
sion is  the  original  of  superstition,  as  a  wise  and  well- 
tempered  awe  is  of  religion.  Horror  and  terror  seem 
almost  to  be  synonymous;  but  the  former  refers  more 
to  what  disgusts,  the  latter  to  that  which  alarms  us. 

Horse-saorifioe,  a  ceremony  celebrated  by  vari- 
ous ancient  nations,  in  which  a  horse  was  oifered  in 
sacrifice  to  a  deity,  usually  the  sun.  The  BCassagetae,  a 
great  and  powerful  nation,  whose  territories  extended 
beyond  the  Araxes  to  the  extreme  parts  of  the  East, 
sacrificed  horses  to  the  sun.  The  practioe  prevailed  in 
Penia  in  the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  may  have  been  anterior 
to  that  sovereign.  Horses  were  sacrificed  to  Neptune 
and  the  deities  of  the  rivers,  being  precipitated  into  the 


sea  or  into  the  riven.  The  LacedsBmonians  sacrificed  a 
horse  to  the  winds,  which,  by  their  force,  carried  the  ash- 
es of  the  victim  to  a  distance.  Among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans a  horse  was  sacrificed  annually  to  Mars  in  the 
Campos  Martins,  in  the  month  of  October.  The  blood 
that  dropped  from  the  tail  of  the  October  horse,  as  it 
was  called,  was  carefully  preserved  by  the  vestal  vir- 
gins in  the  temple  of  Vesta,  for  the  purpose  of  being 
used  at  the  PaKUa  or  shepherd  festival.  In  the  Rig 
Veda  are  two  hymns  in  honor  of  the  horse-sacrifice, 
called  Aswamedha,  which  describe  the  horse  as  ** bathed, 
and  decorated  with  rich  trappings,  the  variously-col- 
ored goat  going  before  him."  The  horse  is  led  three 
times  round  the  sacrificial  fire ;  he  is  then  bound  to  a 
post  and  shiugbtered  with  an  ax ;  and  the  flesh  is  roasted 
on  a  spit,  boiled,  made  into  balls,  and  eaten ;  and  finally 
''The  horse  proceeds  to  that  assembly  which  is  most 
excellent;  to  the  presence  of  his  father  and  his  mother 
(heaven  aind  earth).  Go,  horse,  to-day,  rejoicing  to  the 
gods,  that  (the  sacrifice)  may  yield  blesungs  to  the 
donor."  The  horse-sacrifice  at  this  day  is  one  of  the 
great  annual  ceremonies  of  the  Hindds. 

Horaley,  Jomr,  an  eminent  English  clergyman  and 
antiquary,  was  bora  in  1685,  at  Mid-Lothian,  and  was 
pastor  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at  Morpeth.  He 
died  in  December,  1781.  He  wrote  Roman  Antiquities 
of  Britain  (published  posthumously,  1782).  See  Chal- 
mers, Biog.  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors^  s.  V. 

HoTBt,  Gboho  Conrad,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  June  26,  1767,  and  died  Jan.  26^ 
1882,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote.  Die  Visionen  Habor 
kuhs  (Gotha,  1798)  i^Theurgie  (Mayence,  1820)  i—Dae 
heiligeAbendmahl{iS\6)i-^Damonomagie  (1818,2  vols.) : 
—Mysteriosophie  (1816, 2  vols.)  i—Siona  (4th  ed.  1888, 
2  vols.)  :>-i:kiM6M>  (2d  ed.  1822).  See  Winer,  £rand&uo& 
der  theoL  Lit,  i,  229, 428, 458,  599 ;  ii,  76,  229,  882,  859, 
877;  Zochold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  588;  Ftlrst,  BibL  Jud  i, 
408.     (a  P.) 

Horton,  William,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  at  Newbnryport,  Mass.,  March  14, 
1804.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1824 ;  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1827 ;  was  ordained 
deacon  in  November  of  that  year,  and  presbyter  Oct. 
15, 1830.  He  was  pastor  at  St.  Paul's  Church,  Wind- 
sor, Vt;  in  1886  of  Trinity  Chnrch,  Saoo,  Me.;  at  St. 
Thomas's  Church,  Dover,  N.  H.  (1889-47) ;  at  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Brookline,  Mass.  (1849) ;  at  St.  Paul's  Church, 
Newburyport  (1858).  He  died  there,  OcL  29, 1868.  See 
Trien,  CaU  of  Andover  TheoL  Sem,  1870,  p.  75;  A  mer, 
Quar.  Church  Rev,  1864,  p.  669. 

Howah.  For  this  place  Lieut.  Conder  suggests  (r0i< 
Workf  ii,  887)  the  present  ^Ozsiyehj  meaning  apparently 
(see  Memoirs  to  Ordnance  Survey,  i,  51)  el^Ezziyah, 
laid  down  at  six  and  three  quarter  miles  south-east  of 
Tyre,  and  described  (ibid.  p.  48)  as  *<  a  vilkge  built  of 
stone,  containing  seventy  Drases;  situated  on  a  ridge, 
with  two  cisterns.  There  are  two  caves  to  the  north 
of  it."    The  identification  is  not  noted  by  Saunders. 

H(tachke,  Reuben  hah-Kohen^  a  Jewish  rabbi  of 
Rragne,  who  died  in  1673,  is  the  author  of,  Cdipb*) 
*^331K%  a  kind  of  midrashic  coUectaneum  (Prague, 
1660) »— bl^ian  *»3ai5t*1  a^pb^  a  cabalistic  midrash 
on  the  Pentateuch,  with  extracts  from  Mecbilta,  Pesik- 
ta,  Zohar,  etc  (Wilmersdorf,  1681).  This  hitter  work, 
without  any  value,  must  be  distinguished  from  the  fa- 
mous midrashic  work  entitled  Yalkut  Shimeoni,  See 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  i,  412  sq.     (R  P.) 

Hoomanzi,  Gustav  Christoph,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bora  May  16, 1695.  He  stud- 
ied at  Leipsic  and  Kiel,  was  deacon  in  1721,  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Kiel  in  1780.  In  1784  he  was 
appointed  first  court-preacher,  in  1749  general  super- 
intendent, and  died  July  10,  1766.  He  wrote,  Ditp, 
ExegeL  ad  GaL  Hi,  19  (Kiel,  1720)  u-Bypotyposis  Chro- 


HOSPITIUM 


572 


HOWARD 


Sacra  ( Hambaig,  1727 ) : — AtmoiaHomt  ad 
Hypotypotm  Chronc^ogia  Sacra  (1729): — De  Aeficr- 
rectione  Moriuorum  a  Chritto  Demoiutrata  Lite,  m,  87, 
dSi^De  BapHtmo  Apottohrum  hoe  de  Mytterio  Sennr 
tentiam  Evdvena  (1782):— iVmc^ui  Tkeologia  Cam- 
paraiiea  (eod.)  i^Chronoiogia  Sacra  lAbrorum  V.  TetL 
Obaervatumibut  ExegetkU  lUuttraia  (1784)  r—fseerei- 
taiiomtm  ExegeHcarum  ad  SS.  Evangdia  FatdcuU  III 
(1746  -  60) :  —  Chronologia  Jertmia,  ExedUeUt,  Hagga^ 
ZacharuBf  Esra  et  Nehmia  (1761)  t—Historia  Samue- 
/if,  SauU  el  Davidit  (1762)  i—Du^ukio  deJEra  Sdeur 
ddarum  el  Regum  Syria  Sucoutiom  (eod.) :— jSeaiuxM- 
turia  Obtervatumum  Sacrarum  (1768).  See  Moeer, 
JetMiMende  Theologen;  Winer,  Handbw^  der  ikeoL  Lit,  i, 
901 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugememu  GeUkrtert^LexikoHf  &▼.    (B.  P.) 

Hospititiin,  a  place  sometimes  attached  to  monas- 
teries in  former  times,  with  the  view  of  affording  tem- 
porary relief  to  travellers,  and  in  which  a  certain  num- 
ber of  the  poor  were  relieved  by  a  daily  alma.  It  waa 
also  called  a  Xenodochium, 

HoBBeiii,  the  second  son  of  Ali  and  Fatima,  and 
the  third  of  the  twelve  Imftms,  was  bom  A.D.  626.  He 
endeavored  to  dissuade  his  brother  Hassan  (q.  v.)  from 
resigning  the  caliphate  in  favor  of  Moawiyah,  but  on 
finding  his  remonstrances  unavailing,  he  entered  heart- 
ily into  the  support  of  the  new  caliph,  and  even  served 
in  his  army  when  the  Saracens  first  attacked  Constan- 
tinople. On  the  death  of  Moawiyah,  in  679,  his  son 
Tezid  succeeded,  but  Hoasein  contested  the  caliphate 
with  him,  having  been  deceived  by  the  promise  of  pow- 
erful support  from  the  professed  adherents  of  the  house 
of  Ali.  Overpowered  by  numbers,  and  deserted  by 
many  of  his  followers,  he  fell  by  the  hand  of  one  of 
Tezid*8  soldiers,  on  the  10th  of  the  Mohammedan  month 
Mohanem,  A.D.  680.  A  splendid  mosque  was  erected 
over  the  place  of  his  buriaL  The  pUoe,  which  was 
named  Meshed  Hatsein  (the  place  of  Hossein's  mar^ 
tyrdom),  is  a  favorite  resort  of  pilgrims  to  this  day. 

Hosaeiii's  Martyrdom,  AmnvERSABY  of,  a  re- 
ligious solemnity  observed  both  in  Persia  and  India 
with  extraordinary  splendor.  It  lasts  for  ten  days, 
during  which  the  Shiites  keep  up  continual  mourning 
for  the  martyr's  fate,  giving  themselves  up  to  sighs  and 
groans,  fastings  and  tears.  They  abstain  from  shaving 
their  heads,  from  bathing,  and  even  firom  changing 
their  clothes.  The  observances  consist  of  a  series  of 
representations  of  the  successive  scenes  in  the  life  of 
Hossein,  from  the  date  of  his  flight  from  Medina  to  his 
martyrdom  on  the  plains  of  Kerbela;  and  the  exhi- 
bition of  each  day  is  preceded  by  the  reading  in  a  plain- 
tive tone  a  portion  of  the  history  of  Hoasein. 

Hostia,  an  animal  among  the  ancient  Romans 
which  was  destined  for  sacrifice.  Sometimes  the  whole 
victim  was  consumed  upon  the  altar,  and  at  other  times 
only  the  legs  and  intestines  were  burned.  It  was  the 
smoke  ascending  from  the  sacrifice  that  was  considered 
pleasing  to  the  gods,  hence  the  more  numerous  the  ani- 
mals the  more  pleasing  the  sacrifice.  This  was,  no 
doubt,  the  reason  for  offering  a  heeaiomb.  The  animal 
selected  for  sacrifice  must  be  free  from  ali  blemishes  and 
diseases.  If  it  was  of  the  larger  sort  of  beasts  the 
horns  were  marked  with  gold ;  if  of  the  smaller  sort  it 
was  crowned  with  the  leaves  of  that  tree  which  the 
deity  for  whom  the  sacrifice  was  designed  was  thought 
most  to  delight  in. 

Hotchkiss,  Vklona  R.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  Spafford,  Onondaga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  June  6, 1816, 
and  graduated  from  Madison  University  in  1888.  His 
pastorates  were  in  Poultney,  Vt.  (1889) ;  Rochester,  N.Y.; 
Buffalo  (1849-64),  also,  subsequently,  from  1866  until  his 
death,  and  in  Fall  River,  Mass.  From  1864  to  1866  he 
was  a  professor  in  Rochester  Theological  Seminary. 
Dr.  Hotchkiss  ranked  very  high  as  a  scholar  and  an 
able  preacher,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  th«  strongest 
men  in  his  denomination.    He  died  in  Buffalo,  Jan.  4, 

1882.   (j.ca) 


Hdthniii,  WnxiAM  db,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  wis 
bom  in  England,  but  educated  at  Paris.  In  1280  he 
became  a  Dominican  friar,  and  was  twice  provincial  of 
that  order  in  England.  He  waa  appointed  to  the  see 
of  Dnblm,  Dec  8, 1297;  consecrated  at  Rome  in  1298 
by  the  pope,  and  died  on  his  letnra,  at  Dijon,  Aug.  27 
of  the  same  year.  See  D'Alfcon,  Memoirt  of  (he  A  rcA* 
biehopi  o/DubUm,  p.  110. 

Honghton,  Dahixi.  Cuit,  D.D.,  a  Presbjrteriim 
minister  (N.  S.),  was  bom  at  Lynton,  Vt.,  in  1814.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1840,  subee- 
quently  taught  a  few  years  in  Western  New  York,  and 
then  entered  the  ministry  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Genesee  Col- 
lege, in  Lima,  N.Y.;  was  for  some  years  professor  of 
moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  in  the  college,  and  at 
the  same  time  acted  as  financial  agent.  In  1868  he 
joined  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  in  1864  was  ap- 
pointed editor  of  the  Geneeee  EvangelitL  He  died  July 
8,1860.    See  Wilson,  iVei6.J?we.^/iiumae,  1861,  p.  160. 

House  of  EsqxNdttoii.  See  Bbth-Hammidbabh. 

Hoofle  of  Judgment.    See  Bbth-Duc 

Honee  of  Reading.    See  Bbth-Haiimikba. 

Honae  of  the  Ziivlng.    See  Beth-H  aim. 

Honee,  Erwik,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
waa  bom  at  Worthington,  O.,  Feb.  17, 1824.  He  waa 
converted  at  the  age  of  thirteen;  graduated  at  Wood* 
ward  College,  Cincinnati,  in  1846;  received  license  to 
preach  in  1849,  and  in  1866  entered  the  Cincinnati  Con- 
ferenee,  of  which  he  continued  a  member  till  his  death, 
May  20, 1876.  Mr.  House  commenced  contributing  to 
the  press  as  early  as  1887 ;  in  1847  waa  employed  as  aa- 
sistant  editor  of  the  Ladiea^  Repontory^  and  from  March, 
1861,  to  December,  1862,  had  sole  editorial  charge  of 
the  magazine.  He  published,  Skeichet/or  the  Yow^ 
(1847)  I— The  Mitsumary  in  Many  Lamle  :—The  HonA^ 
UmI: — Scripture  Cabinet: — The  Sunday-school  ffand- 
booL  He  waa  a  hearty  advocate  of  temperance.  As  a 
speaker  to  children  he  had  very  few  equals.  See  J/ii^ 
utes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1876,  p.  116;  SimpsoDt 
Cydop,  of  Methodism,  a.  v. 

Howen,  Jan  Danirl  van,  a  Dutch  theologian,  waa 
bom  Aug.  20,  1706,  at  Hauan.  He  studied  at  Mar^ 
burg  and  Utrecht,  was  in  1728  professor  at  Lingen,  in 
Westphalia,  in  1789  member  of  consistory,  in  1768  prc^ 
fessor  at  Campen,  and  died  in  1798.  He  wrote,  Spec^ 
men  JJistoria  Analyiica  (Lingen,  1782;  Amsterdam, 
1784) :  —  Historia  Ecclesiastica  Praymatica  Specimen 
ir-iU  (1747-62)  :—Disp.  de  Vera  jEtate  LegationU  A  the^ 
nagorapro  Chrietianis  (1762): — Antiquitaies  EvangeH' 
ca  {l7bS)  i-^Antiguitates  Romana  (1769) -.~/>e  Vera 
JStaU,  Digmtaie  el  Patria  MinueU  Fetids  (1762),  etc. 
See  Meusel,  Gelehrtes  VeuUchland;  Winer,  Ilandbueh 
der  theoL  Lit,  i,  609,  884,  910;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Ge- 
lehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hovey,  Eomvitd  Otis,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  East  Hanover,  N.  H.,  July  16, 180L 
At  twenty-one  years  of  age  he  began  hia  preparation 
for  preaching  the  gospel, at  Thetford  Academy;  in  1828 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  College,  and  in  1831  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  was  ordained  by 
the  Presbytery  of  Newburyport  the  same  year,  and  sent 
as  a  missionary  to  Wabash,  la.  His  great  work  waa  in 
founding  and  building  up  Wabash  (>^Uege,  Cniwfords- 
ville,  Ind.,  of  which,  in  ISS4,  he  was  appointed  financial 
agent  and  professor  of  rhetoric.  Subsequently  he  was 
made  professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology. 
He  was  also  treasurer  and  librarian.  He  died  there, 
March  10, 1877.  Sec  (N.  Y.)  Evangeliit^  March  29, 1877. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Howard,  Besaleel,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister, 
waa  bora  at  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  Nov.  22, 1768.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  (>>llege  in  1781 ;  immediately 
engaged  in  teaching  at  llingham,and  at  the  same  time 


HOWARD 


573 


HOYT 


pnnaed  a  coone  of  theology  nnder  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Gay.  He  preached  hU  first  sermon  in  1788 ;  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  tutorship  at  Cambridge,  and  during  this 
time  filled  vacant  pulpits  in  the  neighborhood  on  the 
Sabbath.  He  accepted  a  call  to  the  First  Church  in 
Springfield  in  November,  1784,  and  was  ordained  April 
27, 1785.  He  resigned  this  charge  on  account  of  ill- 
health,  Jan.  25, 1809.  In  1819  he  became  pastor  of  a 
%ew  Unitarian  Church  in  the  first  parish  of  Springfield. 
He  remained  there  until  his  death,  Jan.  28, 1887.  See 
Spragne,  AnnaU  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  viii,  181. 

Howard,  Iieland,  AJtf.,  a  leading  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Jamaica,  Windham  Co.,  Vt.,  Oct.  18, 
1793.  He  was  converted  about  1810,  and  commenced 
to  preach  in  1812.  He  was  a  ^'bom  preacher,"  but 
placed  himself  under  the  tuition  of  Kev.  Joshua  Brad- 
ley, of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Windsor,  for  one  year,  and 
then  pursued  his  studies  under  the  direction  of  Rev. 
James  M.  Winchell,  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.  He  was  ordained  pastor  in  Windsor,  Yt., 
Nov.  16, 1817,  where  he  remained  seven  years,  and  then 
of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Troy,  N.  T.,  five  yean, 
when  he  returned  to  his  former  pastorate  in  Windsor, 
Vt.,  and  had  charge  five  years.  His  other  pastorates 
were  Brooklyn,  N.  T.,  Newport,  R.  I.,  Norwich,  N.  Y., 
Fifth  Street  Church,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and, 
in  1852,  he  went  to  Rutland,  Vt.,  and  was  pastor  ten 
years.  He  died  there.  May  5, 1870.  He  was  chaplain 
of  the  House,  in  the  legislature  of  Vermont,  in  1881,  and 
of  the  Senate  in  1861.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Hoif^ard,  Leonard,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  rector  of  St.  George's,  Southwark,  London.  He 
died  in  1767,  leaving  a  number  of  Sermons  (1786-61), 
and  a  collection  of  Letters  and  State  Papers  (1758-56). 
See  Allibone,  DieL  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  utkors,  a.  v. 

Hoif^ard,  Robert;  an  Irish  Catholic  prelate,  was 
bom  in  1661,  became  bishop  of  Killala  in  1726,  of  £1- 
phin  in  1729,  and  died  about  1740.  He  published  some 
Sermons  (1738).  See  Allibone,  Diet.  ofBriL  and  A  mer, 
A  uthors,  s.  V. 

Howard,  Roger  8.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  employed,  in  1857,  as  a  teacher  in  Ban- 
gor, Me.,  and  remained  there  until  1859,  when  he  be- 
came rector  of  St.  Stephen's  Church,  Portland.  In 
1861  he  removed  to  Vermont;  in  1862  became  rector 
of  Trinity  Church,  Rutland;  in  1867  of  St.  James's 
Church,  Woodstock;  in  1870  president  of  Norwich  Uni- 
versity, and  rector  of  St.  Blary's  Church,  Northfield ;  in 
1872  was  called  to  the  rectorship  of  the  Church  of  the 
Reconciliation,  Webster,  Mass. ;  in  1879  he  removed  to 
Greenfield,  where  he  died,  April  16, 1880,  aged  seventy- 
two  years.  See  Whittaker,  Almanac  and  Directory^ 
1881,  p.  178. 

Howard,  Solomon,  I).D.,  LL.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  Nov.  14, 1811.  He  Joined 
the  Church  in  1828,  graduated  from  Augusta  College, 
Ky.,  in  1838,  and  entered  the  Ohio  Conference  in  1885. 
After  eight  years  of  successful  work  in  the  pastorate, 
he  was  for  two  years  principal  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan 
University.  From  1845  to  1852  be  was  in  educational 
work  in  Springfield,  O.  In  1852  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Ohio  University,  at  Athens,  where  he  re- 
inained  for  twenty  years.  He  died  Aug.  11, 1878,  at 
San  Jos^,  Cal.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  General  Con- 
ference of  1856.  He  was  emphatically  an  educator, 
and  many  a  poor  young  man  will  remember  his  sym- 
pathy for  him  in  his  struggles  for  an  education.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Confertnoes,  1878. 

How^ard,  'WilHam  D.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  28, 1814.  He 
was  among  the  early  graduates  of  Lafayette  College, 
and  in  1838  became  a  student  of  theology  with  Dr. 
William  Neill.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1837,  and 
the  next  year  ordained  pastor  of  the  Frankford  Church, 
now  in  the  bounds  of  Philadelphia.  In  1849  he  re- 
moved to  Pittsbnigb,  to  take  charge  of  the  Second 


PKsbyteiian  Churoh,  when  he  oonttnned  to  labor 
faithfnUynntU  his  death,  Sept.  22, 1876.  He  published 
occasional  Sermons.  See  PretHH^erioHf  SepL  80, 1876. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Howe,  George,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  minister  of 
the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church,  was  bora  in  1802. 
In  1888  he  was  elected  by  the  General  Assembly  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  theological  seminary  at  Charleston,  S.  C, 
and  subsequently  became  president  of  that  institution, 
which  position  he  retained  until  his  sudden  death,  April 
15, 1888.  For  half  a  century  his  life  had  been  devoted 
to  the  great  work  of  training  young  men  for  the  min- 
istry, and  though  dead  he  yet  speaks  through  the  liv- 
ing lips  of  hundreds  who  went  out  from  this  school  of 
the  prophets.  See  (N.  Y.)  Observer,  April  19,  1888. 
<W.  P.  S.) 

Hoif^e,  Obadiah,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  vicar  of  Boston,  Lincolnshire.  He  died  in  1682, 
leaving  Ths  UmversaUsi  Examined  and  Criticised 
(1648)  i-Sermans  (1664).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit^ 
and  Amer.  Authors,  s.  v. 

Howell,  Thobias,  an  English  prelate,  was  bora  at 
Naugamarch,  Brecknockshire,  educated  a  fellow  of  Je- 
sus College,  Oxford,  was  made  canon  of  Windsor  in 
1686,  bishop  of  Bristol  in  1644,  and  died  in  1646.  He 
was  a  meek  man  and  a  most  excellent  preacher.  See 
Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  NutuU),  iii,  515. 

Howie  J,  William,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  son 
of  William  Howley,  D.D.,  was  bora  Feb.  12, 1765.  In 
his  youth  he  attended  the  Winchester  School,  from 
which  he  went  to  the  University  of  Oxford,  obtaining 
a  fellowship  at  New  College.  In  1794  he  was  elected 
fellow  of  Winchester  College;  in  1809  was  appointed 
regius  professor  of  divinity;  and  in  September,  1818, 
succeeded  Dr.  Randolph  as  bishop  of  Loudon.  On  the 
decease  of  Dr.  Manners  Sutton,  in  1828,  he  became  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  He  died  Feb.  11,1 848.  Besides 
being  president  of  many  charitable  institutions,  he  was 
a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature.  See  Amer.  Quar. 
Church  Rev.  1848,  p.  149. 

Howman,  John,  an  English  Catholic  divine,  was 
bora  at  Feckenham,  Worcestershire,  about  1516,  of  poor 
parentage.  He  was  educated  by  the  Benedictines  of 
Evesham,  and  afterwards  at  Gloucester  College,  Oxford ; 
became  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Worcester,  afterwards 
to  Bonner,  and  vigorously  opposed  the  Reformation  in 
England.  In  1549  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower, 
but  was  released  on  the  accosion  of  Mary,  who  made 
him  dean  of  Westminster.  Elizabeth  offered  him  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury  on  condition  of  becoming  a 
Protestant,  but  he  refused,  and  was  again  imprisoned  in 
1560.  Being  released  in  1568,  he  finally  retired  to  the 
isle  of  Ely,  and  died  at  Wisbeach  in  1585,  leaving  an 
account  of  his  Cot{ference  with  Jane  Grey  (Lond.  1554, 
1626),  besides  some  Sermons  and  a  few  controversial 
pieces. 

Hoyer,  Frakz  Hkinrich,  a  Luthen^n  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  in  Holstein,  July  20, 1689.  He 
studied  at  Helmstadt  and  Giessen,  was  in  1665  third 
preacher  at  Norden,  East  Frisia,  in  1688  pastor  prima- 
rius,  and  died  May  20, 1699,  leaving  De  Usu  Loffices  in 
Theoloffia  (Giessen,  1660):— i>e  Usu  Metaphysics  in 
Theohgia  (eod.) :— /)e  Principio  Theologies  (eod.):— 
De  Deo  (eod.)  >^De  Qucestione  UUnam  Eodesia  Lutheri 
Fuerit  ante  Luiherum  (1664),  besides  writing  numerous 
asoetical  works.  See  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gekhrtm" 
Lexikon,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Hoyt,  Nathan,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bora  at  Gilmanton,  Belknap  Co.,  N.  H.,  Feb.  27, 1798. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  but  did  not  en- 
ter college  on  account  of  ill-health.  He  was  licensed 
by  Albany  Presbytery  in  1828,  and  ordained  by  the 
same  presbytery  in  1826.  He  first  labored  in  Troy, 
N.  Y.,a8  a  city  missionary,  and  on  his  removal  to  South 


HOYT 


674 


HUBBARD 


Carolina  became  pastor  of  the  Beech  Islaad  Church. 
His  next  pastorate  was  in  Washington,  6a.,  and  his 
third  and  last  was  in  Athens,  where  he  labored  with 
mach  zeal  and  efficiency  for  nearlv  thirty-six  years. 
He  died  July  12,  1866.  See  Wilson,  Pr^  Hui.  Al- 
manac, 1867,  p.  437. 

Hoyt,  Ova  Phelps,  DJ).,  a  Presbsrterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  New  Haven,  Vt.,  May  26, 1800.  He 
graduated  from  Middlebory  College  in  1821,  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1824.  Soon  after 
be  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Potsdam,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  until  1880,  then 
took  the  agency  of  the  American  Home  Missionary 
Society,  and  resided  in  Utica.  While  there  he  was 
editor  of  the  Western  Recorder  for  a  year  and  a  half. 
He  was  stated  supply  at  Cambridge  in  1885;  at  De- 
troit, Mich.,  in  1839 ;  at  Kalamazoo,  in  1840 ;  district 
secretary  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions,  in  1852;  supply  at  Elkhart,  la.,  in 
I860;  and  from  1863  resided  in  Kalamazoo, Mich.,  un- 
tU  his  death,  Feb.  11,  1866.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist, 
Almanac,  1867,  p.  299. 

Hreidmar,  in  Norse  mythology.  When  the  Asas 
Journeyed  through  the  world,  Odin,  Hiiner,  and  Loke 
came  to  a  river  with  a  waterfall  There  they  found  a 
viper,  devouring  a  salmon.  Loke  killed  the  viper,  and 
it  was  brought  to  the  village,  where  they  sought  a 
night's  lodging  of  the  rustic  Hreidmar,  who  was  a  pow- 
erful sorcerer.  Hardly  had  he  seen  the  viper,  when  he 
called  his  two  sons,  Tofner  and  Reigen,  and  told  them 
that  the  strangers  had  killed  Otter  (viper),  their  broth- 
er. Hreidmar  immediately  went  to  the  Asas,  who 
promised  to  pay  him  as  much  money  in  reparation  as 
he  desired.  The  sorcerer  tore  off  the  skin  from  the 
killed  viper,  and  ordered  it  to  be  filled  with  red  gold. 
Odin  sent  Ix>ke  into  the  land  of  the  black  elves  to  seek 
gold.  There  he  found  the  dwarf  Andwari,  who  gave 
him  all  the  money  he  had  in  his  possession.  But  the 
elf  still  had  a  small  ring  on  his  hand,  which  Loke  or- 
dered him  to  deliver  with  the  gold.  Andwari  obeyed, 
Mying,  *|  The  ring  will  be  the  death  of  its  possessor." 
The  hide  was  filled,  and  the  ring  laid  on  top,  and  thus 
the  Asas  were  free  from  all  debt  Hreidmar's  sons 
wanted  a  share  of  the  gold,  but  he  refused  them.  They 
consulted  with  each  other  and  slew  their  father.  Now 
Reigen  thought  he  might  take  one  half,  but  Tofoir  for- 
bid him,  ordering  him  to  go  off,  or  the  same  fate  should 
befall  him  which  came  upon  his  father.  Reigen  fled 
to  king  Htalfrek,  and  became  his  smith.  Tofnir  changed 
himself  into  a  snake,  and  guarded  the  gold.  The  smith 
found  an  avenger  in  Sigurd.  He  told  the  latter  where 
Tofnir  was.  Sigurd  dug  a  ditch  near  by  where  Tofnir 
was  accustomed  to  get  water,  and  waited  there  for  him, 
and  finally  slew  him.  Sigurd  then  went  to  Reigen 
and  killed  him.  Next  he  rode  to  Tofnir's  dwelling, 
and  took  all  the  gold  along  with  him.  Sigurd  then 
came  to  the  Hinderalps;  there  he  found  a  beautiful 
woman,  who  called  herself  Hildur,  but  whose  real  name 
was  Brynhildur.  He  married  her  and  rode  to  king 
Giuki,  who  had  two  sons,  Gunnar  and  Hogni,  and  one 
daughter,  Gudrun ;  the  latter  he  married,  and  entirely 
forgot  Hildur.  She  incited  Gunnar  and  Hogni  to  mur> 
der  Sigurd;  but  they,  being  bound  together  by  an  oath, 
could  not  become  traitors  to  him ;  so  the  third  broth- 
er, Guttorm,  killed  him  while  asleep,  with  a  sword. 
King  Atli,  the  brother  of  Brynhildur,  married  Gudrun, 
the  widow  of  Sigurd.  He  invited  Gunnar  and  Hogni, 
but  was  anxious  for  their  money.  They  hid  it,  where- 
upon he  made  war  upon  them,  caught  them,  and  killed 
both.  Shortly  after,  Gudrun,  to  avenge  the  murder  of 
her  brothers,  killed  two  of  Atli's  children,  and  gave  the 
king  some  nectar  to  drink  from  the  skulls  of  his  own 
children.  Thus  eventually  the  whole  generation  of 
Niflungar  was  annihilated. 

Hrugner,  in  Norse  mythology.    Thor,  the  mighti- 
est of  the  Asas,  had  gone  on  a  joomey  to  Idll  magidanB 


and  giants.  Odin  rode  on  his  wonderful  horse  Sleipner 
to  Jotunheim,  and  thus  came  to  the  mightiest  and  most 
frightful  of  giants,  Hrugner.  Odin  heguk  to  boast  of 
hia  horse,  and  Hrugner,  to  punish  him,  pursued  him  on 
his  own  horse,  Guldfaxi.  Odin,  however,  had  such  a 
start  of  Hrugner  that  the  latter  could  not  overtake  him, 
although  he  followed  him  to  the  walls  of  Asgard.  Here 
the  gods  invited  him  to  their  drinking-bout,  which  in- 
vitation he  accepted.  He  became  drunk,  and  began  t» 
tell  what  wondrous  things  he  intended  to  do.  The 
Asas,  tired  of  his  boasting,  mentioned  Thor's  name,  and 
suddenly  the  mighty  hero  appeared,  raised  his  frightful 
midlner,  and  inquired  who  had  invited  the  boasting 
giant.  Hrugner  argued  with  Thor  that  it  would  be 
small  honor  to  him  to  kill  him  unarmed,  and  challenged 
Thor  to  a  duel  on  the  boundary  of  Griotunagarder. 
This  Thor  accepted.  The  giants  in  Jotunheim  now 
made  a  monstrous  man  of  clay,  and  not  finding  a  heart 
strong  enough,  they  took  out  that  of  a  horse,  and  called 
him  Mokkurkalfi.  Hrugner  also  armed  himself.  His 
head,  heart,  and  dub  were  all  of  stone.  Thus  armed, 
ho  waited  for  Thor.  Thor  came  with  thunder  and 
lightning,  and  threw  his  hammer  at  the  giant  The 
latter  threw  his  club  at  Thor.  The  two  frightful  weap- 
ons struck  each  other  in  the  air.  The  stone  dub  burst, 
a  part  falling  on  the  earth,  the  other  striking  Thor  on 
his  head  and  stunning  him.  The  hammer  of  Thor 
shattered  the  head  of  Hrugner  so  that  he  fell,  his  mon- 
strous foot  resting  on  Thor's  neck.  The  huge  man  of 
day  fdl  at  Thialfi's  hand.  None  of  the  Asas  could  re- 
move Hrugner's  foot  from  Thor's  neck  until  Magni,  a 
son  of  Thor,  came  and  lifted  off  the  foot  without  any 
exertion.  Thor  presented  him  with  the  giant's  horse, 
Guldfaxi. 

Hu,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Celts,  was  the  supreme 
god  in  Britain.  He  seems  to  have  been  thought  very 
noble,  for  the  attributes  given  him  point  to  a  being  such 
as  can  be  ^represented  only  by  a  pure  rdigion.  The 
Celts  have  a  myth  that,  at  the  flood,  he  pulled  the 
monster  who  caused  the  flood  out  of  the  water,  and  thus 
dried  the  earth. 

Hubbard,  Bela,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Guilford,  Conn.,  Aug.  27,  1739. 
In  1758  he  graduated  from  Yale  College,  and  afbemrards 
studied  theology  at  King's  College,  New  York  dty.  On 
Feb.  5, 1764,  he  was  ordained  deacon  in  the  King's  Chap- 
el, London,  and  presbyter  in  St.  James*s  Church  on  the 
19th  of  the  same  month.  Returning  to  America,  he 
ofliciated  at  Guilford  and  Killingworth  until  1767,  when 
the  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts 
appointed  him  missionary  to  New  Haven  and  West  Ha- 
ven, Conn.  Between  these  places  he  divided  his  labors 
equally  until  the  Revolution ;  after  that,  until  1791,  he 
gave  only  one  fourth  of  his  time  to  West  Haven,  and 
from  that  time  onward  his  services  were  confined  almost 
entirely  to  New  Haven.  Although  a  royalist  during 
the  Revolution,  he  exercised  so  much  discretion  that  he 
was  not  seriously  embarrassed  in  performing  his  duties. 
Until  peace  was  dedared,  in  1788,  he  continued  to  re- 
ceive a  salary  of  £60  yearly  from  the  society  which 
employed  him,  but  after  that  time  he  became  entirely 
dependent  upon  his  parishes.  Rev.  Henry  Whitlock 
became  his  assistant  minister  in  1811 — ^Trinity  Church 
being  the  name  of  his  parish.  Dr.  Hubbard  died  in 
New  Haven,  Dec.  6, 1812.  He  was  not  considered  a 
brilliant  man,  but  was  distinguished  for  sound  judgment. 
His  style  of  preaching,  though  not  animated,  was  earn- 
est.   See  Sprague,  A  muds  of  the  A  mer,  Pulyit,  v,  284. 

Hubbard,  Benjamin  H.,  D.D.,  a  minister  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  1811. 
He  was  converted  in  early  youth,  licensed  to  preach  in 
1835,  and  shortly  afterwards  entered  the  Memphis  Con- 
ference. His  appointments  were,  Hatchie  Circuit,  Gal- 
latin and  Cairo,  Huntsville,  Ala.;  Columbia,  Tenn.; 
Trenton,  Jackson,  SomerviUe,  and  Athens,  Ala.  At  th« 
last-mentioned  place  he  was  connected  with  the  Taiip- 


HUBBARD 


575 


HUGHES 


neeaee  Cooferenoe  Femile  Institute  as  president  till 
1852,  when  he  was  transferred  to  Jacksoni  Tenn^  in 
connection  with  the  Jackson  Female  Institate,  where 
he  died.  May  2, 1858.  lie  was  a  fine  scholar  and  excel- 
lent preacher.  See  MimittM  of  Annual  Confgreiux§  of 
the  M,  E,  Church  Soutkt  1858,  p.  462. 

Hubbard,  Isaao  Q.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  for  many  years  was  rector  of  the  church  in 
Manchester  (St.  MichaePs),  Conn.,  until  1866,  when  he 
removed  to  Claremont,  N.  H.,  and  subsequently  became 
rector  of  Trinity  Church  in  that  town.  At  the  time  of 
his  death,  March  80,  1879,  he  had  in  charge  Union 
Church,  West  Claremont.  See  Prot,  Epitc  AlmanaCf 
1880,  p.  171. 

Hliber,  Fortunatcia,  general  definitor  of  the  order 
of  the  Franciscans  and  provincial  in  Bavaria,  who  died 
at  Munich,  Feb.  12, 1706,  is  the  author  of,  Menologium 
Francitcanum  (Munich,  1698,  2  vols,  fol.) : — Chronicon 
Triplex  Trium  Ordmum  S,  F^rancUci  per  Gemuxniam, 
See  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theol*  Lit,  i,  718;  J5cber, 
A  Ugememu  Gekhrten'LexikoH,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Huber,  Johann  Kepomuk,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  and  philosopher  of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug. 
18, 1830,  at  Munich,  where  he  also  studied  theology  and 
philosophy.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  professor  in  ex- 
traordinary and  in  1864  ordinary  professor  of  philosophy 
and  psBdagogics.  His  first  important  theological  work, 
Phiiotcphie  der  Kirdiencaier  (Munich,  1859),  was  placed 
on  the  Indexj  and  as  he  did  not  recant,  and  occasionally 
spoke  for  the  right  of  free  investigation,  the  ultramon- 
tane party  prevented  his  influence  among  the  students 
of  theology.  He  now  betook  himself  to  speak  and  to 
write  against  ultramontanism.  The  famous  work  against 
infallibility,  JanuSf  der  Pap*t  und  der  Condi  (Leipeic, 
1869),  Engl.  transL  JataiSf  ths  Pope  tmd  the  Council 
(Boston,  1869),  is  as  much  his  work  as  that  of  DoUinger. 
Under  the  name  of  QutrtniM,  he  published,  from  1869,  in 
the  A  uffiburger  A  Ugemnne  Zeitung^  his  Rdmitche  Brief e 
vom  ConciL  Against  Hergenrdther's  Antijanui^  he 
wrote  DoM  Papttihum  und  der  Stoat.  The  most  im- 
portant work  of  this  period  is  his  DartttUung  dee  JetuU 
tenordens  nach  eeiner  Verjasntng  und  DoctriUfWirktamF- 
heU  u,  Geschichte  (Berlin,  1878).  He  also  defended  the 
principles  of  Christianity  against  materialism  and  the 
destructive  tendencies  related  to  it.  Thus  he  wrote  in 
1870  a  criticism  on  Darwin's  theory,  and  in  1875  against 
H^kel,  in  his  Zur  Kritik  modemer  Schopfungdiehren, 
The  Alte  und  Neue  Glaube  of  Strauss  found  in  him  a 
severe  philosophical  critic  in  1873,  as  did  Hartmann  the 
philosopher,  Des  Unbewuutenj  against  whom  he  wrote 
Die  religidse  Frage  (1875),  and  Der  Petsimismut  (1876). 
Huber  died  March  19,  1879,  at  Munich,  to  the  great 
sorrow  of  the  Old  Catholics,  whose  most  gifted  leader 
he  was.  Besides  the  writings  already  mentioned,  he 
published.  Die  cartesischen  Beweue  vom  Dasein  Gottet 
(Augsburg,  1854) : — Johannes  Scotue  Erigena  (Munich, 
1861).  See  Zuchold,  Bibl.  TkeoL  i,  590 :  Lichtenberger, 
Encgdop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v. ;  Ziemgiebl,  Jo- 
lumnes  Huber  (Gotha,  1881).    (B.  P.) 

Hiibner,  Johannes,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  March  17, 1668,  at  Tyrgau,  Upper  Lu- 
satia.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1694  rector  at 
Merseburg,  in  1711  at  Hamburg,  and  died  May  21, 1731. 
He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  Zweimal  52  auser^ 
ksene  biblische  Hittorien,  which  were  published  in  more 
than  one  hundred  editions,  and'  were  translated  into 
other  languages.  This  biblical  history  is  also  largely 
used  in  German  parochial  and  Sabbath  schools.    (B.  P.) 

Hlibsch,  Abraham,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom  in 
Hungary  in  1831.  He  studied  at  Prague,  where  he 
also  acted  for  some  time  as  rabbi -preacher  of  the 
Meisel  synagogue.  In  1866  he  was  called  to  New 
York  by  the  congregation  Ahavath-Chesed,  and  died 
in  October,  1884.    Hubsch  is  known  as  the  author  of 

■^-niO  Biann  05   mbaa  ^fSn.le.DieJtafMegi^ 
/o(A,  etc  (Prague,  1866).    (a  P.) 


Huddesford,  Wxluam,  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
who  died  in  1772,  was  principal  of  Trinity  College,  Ox- 
foni.  He  published  Catalogus  Liborum  Manuscriptorum 
Viri  Clarissimi  Antonio  a  Wood  (1761).  See  Allibone, 
Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uihors,  s.  ▼. 

Haeiteoquizqui,  in  Mexican  mythology,  was  the 
high-priest.  His  word  was  not  only'ad\isory,  but  de- 
cisive. He  also  crowned  the  king.  He  opened  the 
breast  of  the  sacrifice,  and  tore  out  its  heart. 

Hneiteqnilhuitl,  in  Mexican  religion,  was  one 
of  the  three  great  festivals,  celebrated  by  human  sacri- 
fices, in  honor  of  the  great  mother  of  the  earth,  CenteotL 
It  took  place  on  the  last  day  of  the  eighth  month. 

Hnemataii],  a  Mexican  sage,  lived  at  Tezcuco  in 
the  7th  century,  and  was  considered  a  doctor  by  excel- 
lence of  that  Athens  of  the  New  World.  To  him  has 
been  attributed  the  composition  of  TtomaxHi  (the  dU 
vine  book),  a  sort  of  encyclopedia,  which  gave  in- 
formation, it  is  said,  of  the  emigrations  of  the  race  of 
the  Aztecs  after  their  departure  from  the  borders  of 
Asia  until  their  arrival  upon  the  plateau  of  Anahnac, 
specifying  the  various  halts  which  the  invading  nation 
was  obliged  to  make  on  the  borders  of  the  Rio  Giba. 
It  has  been  affirmed  that  the  Teomaxtli  was  among  the 
Aztec  books  that  were  condemned  to  the  fire,  without 
being  examined,  by  the  bishop  of  Mexico,  Zumarraga. 
It  is  possible  that,  in  point  of  mythology  and  history, 
the  importance  of  these  hieroglyphic  collections  has 
been  exaggerated,  and  so  it  is  hardly  possible  now  to 
estimate  the  extent  of  the  literary  losses  which  Mexico 
suffered.  If  the  work  of  H  uematsin  had  been  preserved 
to  our  time,  we  might  have  some  information  to  estab- 
lish the  real  signification  of  the  Mexican  hieroglyphica. 
When  we  remember  that  the  palace  of  Tezcuco  em- 
braced certain  departments  intended  only  for  the  doc- 
tors who  occupied  themselves  with  special  studies,  and 
recall  what  has  been  told  of  the  great  treasures  which 
were  stored  up  both  at  Mexico  and  at  Tezcuco,  and 
consecrated  exclusively  to  the  study  of  the  kingdom  of 
nature,  it  is  difficult  to  limit  the  office  of  Huematsin  to 
that  of  a  simple  theorist,  who  developed  barbariai)  tradi- 
tions and  fantastic  ideas.  This  learned  Aztec  seems  to 
have  derived  his  learning  from  close  observation.  See 
Nouv,  Biog.  GMrak^  &  v. 

Hughes,  John,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  minister, 
nephew  of  John  Thomas,  vicar  of  Caerleon,  Monmouth- 
shire, was  bom  at  Brecon,  County  Brecon,  May  18, 1776. 
He  was  educated  at  the  grammar-school  at  Brecon,  un- 
der the  care  of  Kev.  David  Griffiths.  Dr.  Coke  and 
other  distinguished  persons  received  their  education  at 
the  same  place  and  under  the  same  master.  In  1790 
Hughes  was  converted  under  a  sermon  by  John  M'Ker- 
sey,  and  joined  the  Methodist  Society.'  His  parents 
designed  him  for  the  Established  Church,  but  young 
Hughes  could  not  conscientiously  enter  its  ministry. 
In  1793  he  became  a  resident  with  his  uncle  at  Caerleon. 
In  1796  he  was  appointed  by  the  Conference  to  the 
Cardiff  Circuit.  In  1800  he  and  Owen  Davies  were 
appointed  the  first  missionaries  in  North  Wales.  In 
180d  he  was  superintendent  of  the  Welsh  Mission  in 
Liverpool.  His  remaining  circuits  were,  Swansea, 
Bristol,  Glasgow,  Korthwich  and  Warrington,  Maccles- 
field, Newcastle-undep-Lyne,  etc.  In  1832  he  became  a 
supernumerary  at  Knutsford,  Cheshire.  He  died  May 
16, 1848.  Hughes  deliberately-  declined  a  life  of  ease 
and  honor,  and,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  friends, 
chose  the  toils  and  privations  of  the  Methodist  ministry. 
From  this  course  he  never  swerved.  He  was  a  most 
diligent  worker,  producing,  amid  the  pressing  duties  of 
his  itinerancy,  works  of  great  and  lasting  value.  In 
1808  he  published  a  new  edition  of  the  Welsh  Hymn^ 
Booh;  he  translated  part  of  Dr.  Coke's  Commentary  on 
the  New  Testament  (1809);  while  at  Macclesfield,  1818, 
he  wrote  A  Plea  for  Rdigious  Liberty^  a  reply  to  Joseph 
Cook's  (*<Civis")  The  Danger  of  Schism,  pamphlets 
which  were  the  result  of  a  controversy  respecting  the 


HUGHES 


676 


HULSnJS 


Sunday-schools  origioated  by  David  Simpson,  and  which 
were  now  carried  on  by  the  Methodists;  Mora  Britain 
nioB,  or  Studie$  in  Early  Britiah  Hittoty  (Ix>nd.  1818, 
2  vols.  8vo),  a  work  which  received  the  encomiums  of 
Dr.  Thomas  Burgess,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  then  bishop 
of  St.  Davids,  of  Sharon  Turner,  in  a  letter  to  the  au- 
thor, of  Price,  of  David  M^Nicoll,  and  of  the  Ecketie 
Review,  It  embodied  the  results  of  many  years'  anti- 
quarian research,  and  is  a  work  of  great  value.  Hughes 
also  wrote,  but  did  not  publish,  a  work  entitled  History 
teal  Triads;  Consisting  f>f  Memorials  of  Remarkable 
Persons  and  Occurrences  among  the  Cymry,  translated 
from  the  Welsh,  with  notes  and  illustrations.  The 
manuscript  has  been  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 
He  received  several  prizes,  premiums,  and  medals  from 
the  Cambrian  Society  for  his  literary  productions.  His 
last  work  was  the  Memoir  and  Ranains  of  Fvssell, 
which  he  finished  in  18S9.  See  Robert  Jackson,  Me- 
moir in  Wesleyan  Methodist  Magazine^  March,  1847, 
p.  209  sq.;  Minutes  of  the  BriHsh  Conference,  1848; 
WesL  Meth.  Magazine,  Sept  1884,  p.  669;  Smith,  Hist, 
of  WesL  Methodism,  ii,  859, 861,  898  sq. 

Hughes,  Obadiah.  D.D.,  an  English  Presbyte- 
rian clergyman,  descended  from  a  distinguished  Puritan 
family,,  was  born  at  Canterbury  in  1695.  He  completed 
a  liberal  education  in  Scotland.  He  was  first  assistant 
minister,  then  co-pastor  at  Maid  Lane,  Southwark,  and 
lecturer  at  Old  Jewry.  In  1721  he  married  the  sister 
of  the  lord  mayor  of  London,  and  used  the  riches  she 
brought  him  in  doing  good.  He  was  one  of  the  preach- 
ers at  Salters*  Hall  in  1784  against  popery.  He  preached 
the  funeral  sermon  on  the  death  of  Rev.  Samuel  Say,  in 
1743,  at  Westminster,  and  the  church  there  called  him 
to  succeed  Mr.  Say  in  the  pastorate.  He  suffered  much 
from  the  death  of  friends,  and  himself  died  Dec.  10, 1751. 
See  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches,  iv,  96. 

Hug^o  (or  He'V^),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a  monk  of 
Arbroath,  and  bishop  of  Duukeld  in  the  tenth  year  of 
king  Alexander  II.  He  was  witness  to  a  charter  by 
king  William,  dated  at  Forfar.  He  died  in  January, 
1214.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  78. 

Hugo,  a  cardinal,  bishop  of  Ostia,  was  bom  in 
France,  and  probably,  as  the  authors  of  the  J/istoire 
LUieraire  assert,  in  the  diocese  of  Beauvaia.  He  be- 
came at  first  a  Cistercian  monk,  then  abbot  of  Trois 
Fontaines,  in  the  diocese  of  Ch&lons.  Pope  Eugenius 
made  him  cardinal  about  1151,  in  spite  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  St.  Bernard,  who  was  sorry  to  lose  such  a  man. 
Hugo  died  in  1158.  To  him  are  attributed  some  com- 
mentaries on  the  Old  and  New  Tests.,  also  a  book  on 
the  miracles  of  pope  Eugenius.  But  these  indications 
seem  to  be  conjectural,  and  it  may  even  be  supposed 
that  they  are  erroneous.  However,  there  is  one  of  his 
letters  which  has  been  written  on  occasion  of  the  death 
of  Eugenius.     See  llocfcr,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Huguea,  Theodor,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Gei^ 
many,  who  died  at  Cclle,  July  22, 1878,  doctor  of  theol- 
og}',  is  the  author  of,  Erbavliche  und  belehrende  Be- 
trachhtngen  uber  das  Gebet  des  Herm  (Celle,  1882) :~ 
Das  Verfahren  der  rtformirten  Synods  Niedersadisens, 
etc  (Hamburg,  eod.):—f/»iu»M^«feiJ»A«i  (1848):— £««- 
wurfeiner  voUstandigen  gottesdienstUchen  Ordnung  turn 
Gthrauch  fur  evangelisch-reformirte  Gemeirtden  (1846) : 
— Die  Confederation  der  reformirien  Kirchen  in  Nieder- 
sachsen,  Geschichte  und  Urkunden  (1878).  See  Zuchold, 
Bibl.  Theol.  i,  593.     (B.  P.) 

Huitzilopochtli  (also  MeadtU),  in  Mexican 
mythology",  is  the  supreme  deity  of  the  nation,  the  blood- 
thirsty god  of  war.  The  two  sons  of  a  widow,  Coatli- 
cue,  observing  that  their  mother  was  pregnant,  and 
being  afraid  of  the  disgrace  of  an  illegitimate  birth, 
resolved  to  murder  her.  Just  as  they  were  in  the  act 
of  doing  so,  Huitzilopochtli  sprang  out  of  her  body,  a 
god  of  war,  carrying  in  his  left  hand  a  shield,  and  in  his 
right  a  spear.  He  soon  conquered  his  mother's  murder- 
ers, and  pillaged  their  houses.    When  the  Aztecs  left 


their  dweUing-plaoes,  travelling  for  one  hundred  and 
sixty-five  days,  to  find  a  more  southern  country,  they 
were  directed  by  this  god,  whose  idol  they  carried  b^ 
fore  them,  to  the  valley  of  Mexico.  Here  they  built  a 
wooden  temple,  which  later  became  the  site  of  one  of 
stone.  In  ihvs  temple  his  image  stood,  frightful  and 
terrible.  The  most  horrible  sacrifices  were  made  in 
honor  of  this  god.  Hundreds  of  slaves  and  prisoners 
were  offered  to  him.  At  the  dedication  of  his  temple, 
seventy  thousand  human  beings  were  sacrificed,  by 
opening  the  breast  when  yet  alive,  tearing  out  the 
hearty  and  offering  it  to  the  idol  on  a  golden  spoon. 
See  Mexican  Reuqion. 

Hujukhu,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Caribbeans,  is 
the  heaven  which  lies  above  the  visible  heaven.  There 
are  all  earthly  joys  in  tenfold  greater  measure.  The 
trees  bear  better  fruit,  the  fields  flowers  more  beautifuL 
Fishing  is  easier  and  less  dangerous.  Every  man  has 
many  wives  who  care  for  him.  Sickness  and  death  are 
not  known  there. 

Hukkok.  Takuk,  the  modem  representation  of 
this  site,  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnanoe  Map  three  and 
three  quarter  miles  north-west  of  the  shore  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  (from  Khan  Minyeh),  and  is  described  in  the 
accompanying  Memoirs  (i,  864,  420)  as  a  "  stone-buUt 
village,  containing  about  two  hundred  Modems;  sur- 
rounded by  arable  land,  and  situated  at  the  foot  of  a 
hilL  There  is  a  good  spring,  and  many  cisterns  are 
found  in  the  village.  Gu^rin  says  that,  in  1875,  thfi 
village  was  reduced  to  about  twenty  houses.  There 
are  traces  of  ancient  remains  at  this  village,  and  a  rock- 
cut  birkeh  [pool]  with  steps  leading  down  to  it,  also  cut 
out  of  the  rock." 

Huldrer,  in  Norse  mythology,  are  the  mild,  wom- 
anly elves,  or  women  of  the  woods,  who  are  supposed  to 
be  seen  in  the  mountains  of  snow  in  Norway.    See 

HOLDA. 

HuUer,  Ghoro,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  in  1812.  He  took  holy  orders  in 
1836,  was  sub-regent  at  Aschaffenburg  in  1839,  in  1865 
cathedral-dean  at  WUrzburg,  and  died  June  22, 1870. 
He  published  Die  Idee  des  Gdttliehen  in  der  Wissen- 
schaft  und  die  sogenannte  freie  Wissenschaji  ( Wtlrz- 
burg,  1867).  After  his  death  were  published  three 
volumes  of  his  Volkspredigten,  edited  by  Joseph  Huller 
(Augsburg,  1871-78).     (R  P.) 

HttlBemann,  Wilhelm,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  March  7, 1781,  in  Westphalia,  and 
died  at  Uerlohn,  Feb.  1, 1865,  superintendent  and  doctor 
of  philosophy.  He  publbhed,  Die  preussische  Kirchen-^ 
agende  in  Hinsicht  avf  die  evangelisehe  Kirche  Uber* 
haupt  (Essen,  1825) :— Evangelisehe  BauspostiUe  (DUs- 
seldorf,  1827,  2  vols.;  2d  ed.  1844)  i^Die  Geschichte  der 
Aufertcedoing  des  Lazarus  (Leipsic,  1835) : — Christus 
und  die  Sunderin  am  Jaoobabrunnen  (1837) : — Predigten 
und  Gesange  uber  die  Epistdn  der  Sonn-  und  Festiage  des 
Kirchenjahres  (1838,  2  vols.).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch 
der  theoL  Lit,  ii,  275,  833,  358;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i, 
594;  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  KirchenliedeSf  viif 
66  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Hulfliua,  Anton,  a  Dutch  divine,  was  bom  in 
1615,  at  Kilda,  in  the  duchy  of  Bergen.  In  1644  he 
was  preacher  and  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Breda,  after- 
wards professor  of  theology  and  of  Hebrew  at  Leyden, 
and  died  Feb.  27,  168.5.  He  wrote,  Disputatio  Episto- 
lica  cum  Jaeobo  Abendana  super  Ilaggcei  ii,  9  (Lej^den, 
1666):  —  Abrabanelis  Comm,  in  LXX  Hebdomadibus 
Danielis  cum  Confutatione  (1658): — Autkentia  Codicis 
Ebrosi  Sacri  Contra  Criminationes  Is,  Voss  Vindieala 
{\G62)i'^Theologia  Judaica  (1658)  i^Komendajtor  Bi- 
blicus  HArmo  '  Latinus  (1659):  —  Compendium  Lexid 
Hd>raici  (1674): — Liber  Psalmorum  I/ebr,  rum  Anno^ 
iationibus  (1650) : — Oratio  de  Lingua  HtbraictB  Origim 
et  Prqpagatione  (IMi).  See  Fttrst,  ^fUl  JuciL  i,  416  sq. ; 
Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten'Lexihon,  s.  v.;  Stetn- 
schneider,  BUtL  Handbueh,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 


EHTLSniS 


611 


HUNDT-RADOWSKY 


HulsitWi  Halnrioh,  a  Befonned  tbeologian  of 
Holland,  was  born  Oct.  10, 1664.  He  stodied  at  differ- 
ent univenities,  was  in  1670  doctor  of  theology,  in  1681 
professor  at  Duisbarg,  and  died  March  29, 1728.  He 
wrote,  Summa  Theologim,9eit  Liber  de  MoUdtme  et  Open 
€t  Sabbaiko  Dei  (Leyden,  1688)  i^VUa  Itkid,  Uckai  et 
Samuel  swe  in  Ultima  PanemiaaUB  Salomtmia  CcgpUa 
Commeniariua  PropheHeus  (1698):~2)0  ValUbtu  Pro- 
phetarum  Sacris  (Amsteidam,  1701):^Coiii8ieRl.  tia 
leralit  Priici  PrmrogaUvoM  ae  bmut  tub  V.  T.  Diaaeri, 
15  Ineluntt,  etc.  (1718).  See  Donkel,  Naehrickten,  ii, 
825;  Jdcher,  AligemeineM  Oelehrten-Leseikon,  s.  v. ;  Fttrst, 
BibLJud,  1,417.    (B.P.) 

Humphrey,  Hemas,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Simsbury,  Conn.,  March  26, 1779.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1805;  was  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  Church  in  Fairfield  from  1807  to  1817; 
in  Kttsfleld,  Mass.,  from  1817  to  1828 ;  president  of  Am- 
herst College  from  1823  to  1845;  and  then  retired  to 
nttsfield,  where  be  died,  April  13, 1861.  Dr.  Humphrey 
was  the  author  of,  Tour  in  France,  etc  (2  vols.)  i^Do' 
mettie  Education: — Letters  of  a  Son  m  /As  Mutiatry: 
-^Life  and  WrUinge  of  Profeator  W.Fishe:^Life  of 
T.  H,  Gattaudet:^Sketchea  of  ike  History  of  Revivals, 
See  Appklon's  Annual  Cyclop.  1861, p.  542. 

Humphrey,  Zephaniah  Moore,  D.D.,  a  Pres- 
byterian  minister,  son  of  Rev.  Heman  Humphrey,  D.D., 
was  bom  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  Aug.  80, 1824.  He  grad- 
uated from  Amherst  College  in  1843 ;  studied  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  1846  and  1847;  graduated 
from  Andovcr  Theological  Seminary  in  1849 ;  preached 
in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  one  year  thereafter;  was  ordained 
in  October,  1850,  pastor  at  Racine;  became  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  Church  in  Milwaukee  in  1856;  of  a 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Chicago,  111.,  in  1859;  of  Cal- 
vary Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1868 ;  professor  in 
Lane  Theological  Seminary,  Cincinnati,  O.,  in  1875; 
and  died  there,  Nov.  13,  1881.  He  was  moderator  of 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
1871.  See  Gen.  Cat.  of  Union  Theol  Senu  187G,  p.  55 ; 
Trien.  Cat  ofAndover  Theol  Sem.  1870,  p.  180. 

Humphreys,  Hkctob,  D.D.,  a  Protestaut  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  bora  at  Canton,  Conn.,  June  8, 1797. 
He  pursued  his  studies  at  the  academy  in  Westfield, 
and  graduated  in  1818  from  Yale  College.  His  purpose 
was  to  enter  the  ministry  of  the  Congregational  Church ; 
but,  having  abandoned  this  project,  he  joined  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  communion,  and  was  admitted,  after 
due  preparation,  to  the  bar.  When  Washington  Col- 
lege was  established,  he  was  elected  its  first  professor  of 
ancient  languages.  His  predilection  for  the  ministry 
led  him  to  ordination,  but  he  continued  to  discharge 
the  duties  of  his  professorship  until  1881,  when  he  was 
appointed  president  of  St.  John's  College,  Annapolis, 
Md.  He  died  there,  Jan.  25,  1857.  Although  familiar 
with  all  branches  of  literature,  he  devoted  himself  par- 
ticularly to  natural  science,  and  he  published  many  ar- 
ticles urging  the  application  of  chemistry  to  agriculture. 
See  Amer.  Quar.  Church  Rev.  1857,  p.  146. 

Hundelker,  Johanm  Pktkr,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1751,  and  died  Jan.  26, 
1836.  He  published,  ffdusliche  Gottesverehrung  fur 
chriaUiche  Familien  (Hildesheim,  1784,  and  later):  — 
StraMen  dea  Lichta  aua  den  heiligen  If  alien  dea  Tempela 
der  Wahrheit  und  Erhetmtnisa  (Leipsic,  1824)  \-~Udut- 
lichea  Featbuchfiir  gdnldete  Genossen  dea  heUigen  A  bend- 
mahla  (1821, 2  vols.) : — WdhgeachenL  Erwechingen  zur 
Andacht  in  den  heiligen  Tagen  der  Einsetptung  und  der 
eratenAbendmahlafeier  (1823 ;  2d  ed.  1844).  See  Winer, 
ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lii.  U,  380, 882, 835, 367, 375 ;  Zuch- 
old,  BibL  Theol.  ij  696,    (R  P.) 

Hundeahagen,  Kabl  Dkrnhard,  a  Reformed  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  Jan.  10, 1810,  at  Friede- 
wald,  Hesse.  He  studied  at  Giessen  and  Halle,  com- 
roenoed  his  academical  career  at  the  former  place  in 
1630,  and  accepted  a  call  in  1884  as  professor  in  the 

XIL— 00 


newly  founded  university  of  Berae.  In  1846  his  anony- 
mous work,  Der  deutache  Proteatantiamua,  setae  Vergan- 
genheit  und  seine  heutigen  Lthensfragen,  appeared,  and 
fell  like  a  flash  of  lightning  in  that  troubled  period. 
"  This  remarkable  work,"  says  Schaff  (in  his  Germany, 
ita  Univeraitiea,  Theology,  and  Religion,  Philadelphia, 
1857,  p.  401),  *'  is  a  manly  and  bold,  yet  well-meant  and 
patriotic  exposure  of  the  religious,  political,  and  social 
diseases  of  modem  Germany,  and  represents,  almost 
prophetically,  the  peculiar  crisis  which  preceded  the 
outbreak  of  the  political  earthquake  of  1848.  The  au- 
thor develops,  first,  the  nature  and  object  of  Protestant- 
ism in  its  original  form,  then  he  traces  the  rise  and 
power  of  recent  anti  -  Christianity  in  Germany,  its 
causes  and  effects,  following  it  out  even  to  the  moral 
destitution  of  German  emigrants  in  foreign  countries ; 
and  finally  he  discusses  the  movements  and  questions 
which  agitated  the  country  in  the  last  ten  years  before 
the  revolution.  He  accounts  for  the  development  of 
modem  infidelity  in  the  bosom  of  German  Protestant- 
ism, to  a  considerable  extent,  by  the  political  reaction 
since  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  which  crippled  the  free 
motion  of  national  life,  violently  suppressed  all  political 
discontent,  and  indirectly  forced  the  bitter  hostility  to 
the  existing  order  of  things  to  vent  itself  intellectually 
upoii  the  Church  and  Christianity.  He  thinks  that  a 
healthy  religious  life  of  a  nation  can  only  unfold  itself 
on  the  soil  of  rational  political  freedom,  as  the  example 
of  England  and  the  United  States  prove  better  than  all 
arguments."  This  work  made  Hundeshagen's  reputa- 
tion, and  he  was  at  once  called  to  Heidelberg  as  pro- 
fessor of  New  Testament  exegesis  and  Church  history, 
where  he  continued  to  labor  for  twenty  years  (1847-67). 
In  1867  he  accepted  a  call  to  Bonn,  where  he  spent  his 
last  years  in  peaceful  and  friendly  relations  with  his 
colleagues,  although  a  great  sufferer  in  body.  He  re- 
joiced in  the  restoration  of  the  German  empire  in  1870, 
and  greeted  the  hour  of  his  departure  with  Christian 
fortitude  and  joyfulness.  He  died  June  2, 1878.  Hun- 
deshagen  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  original 
theologians  which  the  Reformed  Church  of  Germany 
has  given  in  this  century  to  the  service  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church.  His  peculiar  importance  consisted  in 
this,  that  in  his  own  way  he  showed  how  certain  feat- 
ures of  the  Reformed  Church  might  Im  advantageously 
applied  to  the  living  Christianity  of  the  day.  He  em- 
phasised the  ethical  principle  in  Protestantism  over 
against  a  mere  dogmatic  or  critical  intellectualism,  and 
laid  stress  upon  the  social  element  in  the  Church,  which 
was  languishing  by  reason  of  its  amalgamation  with 
the  State.  Besides  the  work  mentioned  above,  Hun- 
deshagen  published, />e  Agobardi  Architpiacopi  Lug- 
dunenaia  Vita  et  Scriptia  (Giessen,  19^1):— Epiatolas 
Aliquot  Ineditaa  Martini  Buceri,  Joannis  Calvini,  The- 
odori  BeetB  Aliorumque  ad  Iliatoriam  Ecdeaiasticam 
Magna  Britannia,  Edidit  (Berae,  IMO);^ Ueber  den 
Einjluaa  dea  Calviniamus  auf  die  Ideen  von  Staat  und 
staatMrgerlicher  Freiheit  (1842):— Z>»e  Confiikte  dea 
ZwingHemiamua,  Lutherthuma  vnd  Calviniamus  in  der 
bemischen  Landealarche  von  1522-1558  (1843) : -- Z>ie 
Bekenntniaa'Grundlage  der  vereimgten  evangeliachen 
Kirche  in  Baden  (1851) : — UAer  die  Natur  und  die  ge- 
achu^liehe  EtUwidclung  der  Humanitdtsidee  in  ihrem 
VerhaUniss  tu  Staat  und  Kirche  (1853):— Z>er  Weg  zu 
Christo  (eod.).  A  collection  of  his  essays  and  shorter 
writings  was  published  by  professor  Christlieb  (Gotba, 
1874,  2  vols.).  See  Christlieb,  K.  B.  ffundeshagen,  ein$ 
Lebensskizze  (Gotha,  1878)  ;  Riehm,  in  Theolog.  Siuditn 
und  Kritihen^  1874,  part  i ;  Plitt^Herzog,  Real-Encyklop. 
s.  V. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  Religieusea, 
s.  V. ;  Zuchold,  Bibl.  TheoL  i,  569  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Hundt-Radowsky,  Johasm  Hartwio  von,  a 
Protestant  writer,  was  bom  in  1759,  and  died  at  Burg- 
dorf,  Switzerland,  Aug.  15,  1835.  He  wrote,  Juden^ 
Spiegel  (WUrzburg,  1819)  >-Neuer  Judenapiegd  (1828) : 
^Dia  Judenachule  (1822)  i^Der  Chriatenapiegel  (Stutt- 
gart,  1880,  8  vols.).    See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL 


HUNGARI 


6?8 


HUNS 


14$.  1,879;  Flint,  BibL  Jud.  i, 417 ;  Zuchold, BOL  TkeoL 
1,697.    (B.P.) 

Hnngarl,  Anton,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  and 
writer  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Mayence  in  1809,  and 
died  Dec  17, 1881,  at  Rodelheim,  near  Frankfort-on.the- 
Main.  He  published,  ChristticJie  Redm  an  Somi'-  und 
Festtagm  (Mayence,  1838) : — Fetiiagtpredigten  (Frank- 
fort, 1841) :— CArwtocfora  (1840) :— Gr'ate  Aiusaat,  AV- 
zShlungenJiir  kaiholische  Christen  (1867)  i  —  Marten- 
PreiSf  erbauliehe  Unterhaltungen  (1866) :  —  Tempel  der 
Heiligen  zur  Ehre  Goiies  (7th  ed,  1867)  i^Muster-Pre- 
digten  der  katholischen  KaxadrBeredaamkeU  (1873-79, 
12  parts).     (B.  P.) 

Hungarian  Version  op  thb  Scripturks.  The 
Benedictine  missionaries,  who,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
11th  century,  brought  Christianity  to  the  Magyars, 
transmitted  to  them  also  a  translation  of  the  Psalms, 
the  gospels  and  epistles,  as  essential  parts  for  the 
divine  service.  In  the  life  of  Maigareth,  daughter  of 
king  Bela  IV,  who  died  in  1271,  we  are  told  that  she 
read  the  Psalms  and  the  history  of  the  passion  of  the 
Saviour  in  the  Hungarian  dialect — ffungarico  idhnMte 
(see  Pray,  Vita  S,  EUsabeihte  et  B.  Margar,  nid).  In 
consequence  of  the  many  invasions  made  into  Hungary, 
only  fragments  of  a  later  time  have  been  preserved. 
Thus  we  find  parts  of  the  Old  Test,,  translated  by  the 
Franciscans  Thomas  and  Valentinus,  in  a  Vienna  codex, 
written  between  1336  and  1444  (according  to  Revany, 
Aniiq,  Lit.  Hung.  Pestfa,  1808,  in  the  year  1460).  The 
translation  is  made  from  the  Vulgate.  The  four  gos- 
pels are  preserved  in  a  Munich  codex.  Both  were 
editied  by  Dobrentei,  Regi  magyar  ngelvenUkek  (1838), 
i,  3  sq. ;  (1842),  iti,  17  sq.  Psalms,  Song  of  Solomon, 
and  the  gospels  are  found  in  a  codex  of  the  episco- 
pal library  at  Stuhlweissenburg  (specimens  in  Toldy, 
Magyar  N,  Trodalom  Tdrtinete^  Pesth,  1862,  i,  247).  A 
second  complete  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  by 
L.  Bithory  (died  1456) ;  it  is  supposed  that  thb  trans- 
lation is  preserved  in  the  codex  Jord^nszky  at  Grau. 
This  codex  was  written  in  1519,  and  contains  Exodus 
vi-Judges,  and  all  of  the  New  Test  with  the  exception 
of  the  Pauline  epistles.  The  first  printed  edition  of  the 
Pauline  epistles,  by  B.  Komjdthy,  was  published  at 
Cracow  in  1533;  the  gospels,  by  Gabriel  Pannonius 
Pesthinus,  at  Vienna  in  1536 ;  the  complete  New  Test., 
by  John  Sylvester,  was  published  in  1541 ;  another  in 
1574.  A  translation  of  the  entire  Bible,  from  the  orig- 
inal, which  the  Jesuit  Stephen  Ss&nt<5  (Latin  Arator) 
prepared  towards  the  end  of  the  16th  centur}',  was  never 
printed,  whereas  the  translation  from  the  Vulgate,  made 
by  the  Jesuit  George  Kildi  {Szent  BiUia,  at  egint  Ke- 
retx-tghuigben  bevdtt  rigi  dedk  betObol,  Vienna,  1626),  is 
still  in  use  among  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  was  often 
reprinted  (Tymau,  1732;  Buda,  1783;  Erlau,  1862-65; 
the  latter  edition  revised  in  accordance  with  modem 
orthography ;  see  Dankd,  De  8,  Scriptura,  Ejusq,  Inter- 
pret,  Comm.  Vienna,  1867,  p.  243  sq.).  A  revision  of 
Kaldt's  New  Test,  was  undertaken  by  a  Reformed  pas- 
tor in  Hungary,  in  1669,  in  behalf  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  first  Protestant  edition  of 
the  whole  Bible  appeared  at  Visoly,  near  GUns,  in  1589. 
This  is  the  present  authorized  version  of  Hungary. 
The  translation  was  made  from  the  originals,  com- 
pared with  the  Vulgate  and  several  other  Latin  versions, 
by  Gaspard  Caroli,  or  Karoli,  a  Magj'ar  by  birth,  pastor 
of  the  Church  at  (SUns,  and  dean  of  the  Brethren  of  the 
Valley  of  Kascliau.  He  had  studied  at  Wittenberg, 
where  he  had  imbibed  the  principles  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  printing  was  done  at  Visoly,  where  a  print- 
ing-office was  established  for  that  purpose  by  count 
Stephen  Bathor^'.  The  sheets,  as  they  passed  through 
the  press,  were  corrected  by  Albert  Molnar,  subsequent- 
ly regent  of  the  college  at  Oppenheim.  He  afterwards 
subjected  the  whole  to  a  careful  revision,  and  published 
an  improved  edition  at  Hanau  in  1608,  under  the  title, 
BibUOf  az-wi:  Ittennek  0  is  Ujj  TetUm/entorndbanfog^ 


UdUxMt  SffSsi  Ssent  irds^  Magyar  nyelort  fordittatott 
Kdrdy  Gdspdr  dltai.  Molnar  subsequently  published 
other  editions  of  the  Bible,  and  separate  editions  of  the 
New  Test.  The  edition  of  1608  is  the  more  interesting, 
since  it  is  accompanied  with  a  Magyar  translation  of 
the  Heidelberg  catechism,  the  liturgy  of  the  Hungarian 
churches,  and  a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms. 

When  the  different  editions  were  exhausted,  another 
revision  of  the  Hungarian  Bible  was  undertaken  by 
count  Stephen  Bethlen  D'Iktar,  brother  to  prince  Ga- 
briel Bethlen.  He  assembled  a  number  of  learned  men 
to  prepare  the  work,  and  established  a  printing-press  at 
Warasdin.  In  1657  the  revision  was  completed,  and 
printing  was  commenced;  but  in  1660,  when  the  city 
of  Warasdin  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  almost  half  of  the 
copies  were  lost  or  destroyed.  The  remaining  copies 
were  saved,  and  taken  to  Claudiopolis,  or  Koloswar,  in 
Transylvania,  where  the  edition  was  completed  in  1661. 
Another  edition  (the  sixth)  of  the  Bible  was  published 
at  Amsterdam  in  1684-85,  by  N.  K.  M.  Totfalusi,  by 
whom  a  separate  edition  of  the  New  Test,  and  Psalms 
was  printed  during  the  same  year.  The  seventh  edi- 
tion of  the  Bible  was  published  at  Cassel  in  1704,  edited 
by  John  Ingebrand.  In  1730  an  edition  was  published 
at  Utrecht,  Stent  BibUa,  az'-az:  Istmnek  0  is  Ujj  Tea- 
tamentomdbanjbglahatott  egisz  Stent  irds^  Magyar  nye- 
lore  JbrdHiaiott  KdroH  Gdspdr,  which  was  followed  by 
others  in  1737  and  1794.  In  Basle  also  an  edition  was 
published  in  1751,  and  at  Leipsic  in  1776. 

Another  revlBion  of  the  Hungarian  Bible,  which, 
perhaps,  ought  rather  to  be  regarded  as  a  new  transla- 
tion, was  executed  by  Dr.  Comarin,  pastor  of  Debreczin, 
but  he  died  before  it  could  be  committed  to  press,  and 
the  MS.  was  sent  for  publication  to  the  celebrated  Vi- 
tringa.  Perhaps  the  edition  published  in  Holland  in 
1716-17  was  from  this  MS.  The  Jesuits  prevented  its 
circulation,  and  seized  and  destroyed  8000  copies. 

In  1812  a  Bible  society  was  formed  in  Presburg,  but 
with  the  Exception  of  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in  1823, 
no  editions  of  the  Hungarian  Scriptures  appear  to  have 
been  published  by  that  society.  In  1814  Dr.  Pinkerton 
found  at  Utrecht  upwards  of  2000  copies  of  the  author- 
ized Hungarian  Bible,  belonging  to  the  above-men- 
tioned edition  of  1794.  These  copies  were  purchased 
by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  trans- 
mitted to  Presburg  for  circulation. 

When,  in  1837,  Hungary  became  accessible  to  the 
operations  of  the  Bible  Society,  the  publication  of  the 
Scriptures  was  commenced  in  Hungary  itself,  and  the 
total  number  of  Hungarian  Bibles  and  Testaments 
printed  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  up  to 
March  31, 1884,  was  561,310. 

As  Caroly's  Bible  abounds  in  archaic  expressions, 
some  of  which  sound  rude  and  coarse  to  modem  ears, 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  of  late  made 
arrangements  to  secure  a  faithful  revision.  A  small 
number  of  a  revised  New  Test,  was  published  in  1876 
with  the  intention  of  elicidng  the  criticisms  of  Hun- 
garian scholars,  with  a  view  to  the  settlement  of  the 
text.  As  the  text  has  been  fixed,  the  British  and  For^ 
eign  Bible  Society  published,  in  1883,  an  edition  of 
10,000  New  Testa,  as  revised  by  bishop  Filo.  See  BUfU 
of  Every  Land,  p.  325.     (R  P.) 

Htingarian-Wendiah  Version.    See  Wend- 

ISH-HUNOARIAN  VERSION,  8.  V. ;  SLAVONIC  VERSIONS. 

By  way  of  supplement  we  add  that  an  edition  of  the 
New  Test,  and  Psalms  has  been  published  in  1882,  with 
a  slight  revision,  limited  to  orthographical  and  syntac- 
tical errors,  made  by  pastor  Berke.     (B.  P.) 

Huns.  For  a  general  description  of  this  people  and 
their  history  see  vol.  iv.  It  is  the  design  in  this  place 
to  pay  some  attention  to  particulars  which  are  merely 
alluded  to  in  the  former  article,  and  especially  to  exam- 
ine the  question  of  AtUla*s  influence  upon  Christendom. 

The  name  Huns  {Humd,  Oiwm,  Xovvoi)  is  a  com- 
paratively recent  om  in  history,  ond  its  derivation  is 


HUNS 


670 


HUNS 


altogether  uncertain.  The  usual  theory,  that  it  ia  only 
the  Chinese  Hun-Jo  transferred  into  the  dialects  of  the 
West,  is  not  so  wdl  established  as  to  make  it  impossible, 
or  even  unlikely,  that  Chinese  writers  may  have  first 
found  the  name  used  by  Byzantine  historians,  and  ap- 
propriated it  from  them.  It  is  evidently  a  collective 
name,  and  designates  a  people  composed  of  many  dis- 
tinct tribes,  which  are  mentioned  in  some  detaU  by  early 
writers. 

This  people  belonged  to  the  Turkish  family,  and  can 
best  be  accounted  for,  so  far  as  that  portion  which  en- 
ters  into  European  history  is  concerned,  by  regarding  it 
as  included  among  the  Scythian  tribes  of  which  the 
later  classics  make  mention.  An  Astatic  branch,  whose 
western  limits  did  not  reach  beyond  the  modern  Tur- 
kestan, is  wholly  outside  the  scope  of  our  inquiry.  The 
iluns  of  history  are  first  discovered  as  occupants  of  the 
district  about  the  Caspian  Sea,  lying  to  the  north  and 
north-east  of  the  Alans,  who  occupied  the  Caucasus  and 
adjoining  regions.  Emerging  thence,  they  engaged  in 
a  bloody  struggle  with  the  iUans,  whom  they  defeated 
and  afterward  incorporated  with  their  armies ;  and  the 
allied  nations  then  precipitated  themselves  on  the  Goths, 
whose  territories  lay  beyond  and  contiguous  to  those  of 
the  Alans,  and,  by  forcing  them  from  their  homes,  pro- 
duced the  general  irruption  of  barbarians  into  the  Roman 
empire.  In  the  revolt  of  the  Goths  against  the  empire 
the  Huns  crossed  the  Danube  as  allies  of  their  recent 
enemies,  and  though  they  were  for  a  time  less  conspicu- 
ous than  the  Goths,  they  were  yet  able  to  impose  a  trib- 
ute, under  their  king  Booas,  upon  the  Romans.  Bleda 
and  Attila,  the  sons  of  Mundzuk  and  nephews  of  Rouas, 
succeeded  the  latter  in  433;  and  after  the  death  of  Bleda, 
said  by  some  authorities  to  have  been  caused  by  his 
brother,  while  others  deny  the  charge,  Attila  became 
the  acknowledged  head  of  the  vast  hordes  collected  un- 
der or  affiliated  with  the  Hunnish  name,  and  entered  on 
a  career  of  conquest  and  diplomacy  which  made  him 
the  most  noted  personage  of  his  age,  and  under  the  em- 
bellishing hand  of  legend  and  myth  has  secured  to  him 
and  his  followers  a  notable  place  in  the  recollections  of 
the  world  for  all  time.  Seven  hundred  thousand  war- 
riors, Huns,  Alans,  Avars,  Bulgarians,  Acatzirs,  and 
many  other  tribes  are  s«(id  to  have  followed  him  into 
battle.  An  expedition  into  Persia  for  plunder  is  as- 
sumed by  some  writers  as  bis  first  distinct  enterprise ; 
but  history  gives  clear  evidence  of  but  three  campaigns 
conducted  by  Attila,  all  of  them  European  wars. 

1.  An  invasion  of  the  Eastern  or  Byzantine  empire 
in  441,  in  which  be  defeated  the  emperor  Theodosius  II 
in  successive  battles,  ravaged  Illyricum,  Thrace,  and 
Greece,  and  after  several  years  of  desultory  warfare  con- 
quered a  peace  in  447,  which  gave  him  possession  of  a 
territory  in  Thrace.  Having  devastated  the  country 
south  of  the  Danube,  he  accepted  an  indemnity  from  the 
emperor,  and  renounced  all  claim  to  its  control  In  ad- 
dition, he  exacted,  however,  an  annual  tribute  and  the 
return  of  deserters  from  his  army. 

2.  An  incursion  into  Gaul  in  450,  during  which  he 
took  the  towns  of  Treves,  Metz,  Rheims,  Tongres,  Arras, 
Laon,  St.  Quentin,  Strasburg,  etc.  Orieans,  which  was 
the  objective  point  of  the  campaign,  was  relieved  by  the 
Roman  general  iEtius  when  the  gates  had  already  been 
opened  to  the  Huns,  and  pillage  was  beginning.  Attila 
thereupon  retreated  precipitately  to  Chalons  on  the 
Mame,  and  was  there  attacked  by  the  united  armies  of 
iEtius  and  Theodoric,  the  Visigoth  king,  and  defeated 
in  a  terrible  battle  in  which  historians  report  a  slaughter 
of  from  252,000  to  800,000  men— the  last  great  battle 
ever  fought  by  the  Romans.  Returning  to  his  posses- 
sions on  the  Danube,  he  prepared  for  a  new  campaign, 
which  he  undertook 

3.  In  452.  The  ostensible  reason  alleged  for  his  in- 
cursion of  that  year  into  Italy  was  the  refusal  of  the 
emperor  Yalentinian  III  to  confer  upon  him  the  hand 
of  bis  sister  Honoris,  accompanied  by  a  dowry  of  half 
the  empire.    He  crossed  the  Julian  Alps  and  laid  siege 


to  Aquileia,  then  the  second  city  in  Italy,  and  at  the  end 
of  three  months  overcame  its  obstinate  resistance.  A 
century  later  the  historian  Jomandes  could  scarcely 
trace  the  ruins  of  the  place.  Other  towns  were  sacked, 
e.  g.  Milan,  Pavia,  Parma,  and  quite  certainly  also  Ve- 
rona, Mantua,  Brescia,  Bergamo,  and  Cremona.  The 
whole  of  Lombardy  was  ravaged,  and  Attila  was  pre- 
paring to  march  on  Rome  when  an  embassy  from  that 
city,  headed  by  Pope  Leo  the  Great,  succeeded  in  per- 
suading him  to  a  peaceful  evacuation  of  Italy.  Retir- 
ing into  Pannonia  by  way  of  Augsburg,  which  he  pil- 
laged, he  consoled  himself  by  adding  a  new  wife,  Ildico, 
Hilda,  or  Myoolth,  to  the  large  number  which  he  already 
ponessed;  but  on  the  morning  after  this  marriage  he 
was  found  dead,  having  ruptured  a  blood-vessel  or  been 
foully  dealt  with,  A.D.  453.  His  kingdom  fell  to  pieces 
almost  as  soon  as  the  great  king  was  dead ;  the  different 
nations  which  had  followed  his  banner  became  alienated 
from  each  other,  and  separated,  some  to  serve  in  the  ar- 
mies of  the  empire,  others  to  seek  alliance  with  tribes 
in  the  north  and  east,  which  were  of  similar  race  and 
character  with  themselves. 

The  effect  of  the  Hunnish  incursions  was  indirectly 
beneficial  to  Christianity.  The  Burgundians,  for  exam- 
ple, when  threatened  by  AttUa's  uncle,  Oktar  or  Ouptar, 
submitted  to  be  baptized,  in  the  hope  that  they  might 
thus  acquire  power  to  resist  the  foe.  The  deliverance 
of  Troyea  in  the  Ch&lons  campaign  by  the  supplications 
of  bishop  Lupus,  and  of  Rome  in  the  following  year  by 
those  of  Leo  the  Great,  convinced  the  mind  of  that  and 
succeeding  ages  that  piety  could  accomplish  what  ar- 
mies might  fail  to  achieve.  The  profound  impressions 
wrought  upon  the  mind  of  Christendom  appear  most 
clearly,  however,  in  the  legendary  histories  of  Attila, 
which  are  preserved  in  three  distinct  currents  of  tradi- 
tion— the  Latin,  Germanic,  and  Hungarian. 

The  Latin  legends  originated  in  the  reaction  from  the 
panic  into  which  Attila*s  conquests  had  thrown  the 
whole  of  Europe,  and  sprang  from  ecclesiastical  sources. 
They  seek  to  explain  his  successes  by  exaggerating  his 
power,  and  both  chronology  and  geography  are  violated 
in  the  attempt  to  magnify  his  career.  They  describe 
sieges  and  captures  which  never  took  place,  make  the 
Hunnish  army  to  sweep  over  the  whole  of  France,  derive 
the  name  of  the  city  of  Strasburg  from  the  fancy  that 
Attila  made  four  roads  through  the  city  walls,  and  de- 
spatch the  broken  remnants  of  his  army  after  the  battle 
of  Cb&lons  into  Spain  to  fight  the  Moors.  In  the  title 
"  The  Scourge  of  God,"  applied  to  Attila,  these  Latin 
legends  reach  their  culmination.  A  hermit  of  Cham- 
pagne says  to  Attila  before  Ch&lons— misplaced  in  that 
province  by  the  legend—'*  Tu  esjiaffdlmn  Dei—hut  God 
breaks,  when  he  pleases,  the  instruments  of  his  ven- 
geance. God  will  take  this  sword  from  thee  and  give 
it  to  another.**  At  Troves  Attila  announces  himself  to 
St.  Lupus  as  "the  king  of  the  Huns,  the  Scourge  of 
God;*'  whereupon  the  bishop  responds,  **  Welcome,  then, 
scourge  of  the  God  whom  I  serve.  Enter,  and  go  where 
thou  wilt."  The  Iluns  are,  however,  smitten  with  su- 
pernatural blindness,  and  see  nothing  until  they  have 
passed  through  the  city  and  out  at  the  opposite  gate. 
Some  of  these  legends  endow  Attila  with  diabolical  at- 
tributes, sarcasm,  pride,  and  hideous  ugliness,  joined 
with  a  sardonic  humor,  while  others  go  to  the  opposite 
extreme,  and  describe  him  as  a  champion  of  the  pope 
and  extirpator  of  heresies.  Some  of  the  latter  sort  even 
represent  him  as  preaching  morality,  encouraging  good 
marriages,  and  portioning  virtuous  maidens.  One  re- 
ports that  a  great  battle  was  fought  by  Attila  under 
the  walls  of  Rome,  on  the  conclusion  of  which  the  dead 
rose  again  and  continued  the  fight  with  great  fury  for 
three  days  and  nights;  and  the  location,  with  all  its 
details,  was  afterwards  pointed  out. 

The  Germanic  legends  differ  widely  from  the  Latin. 
In  them  Auila  is  a  hero,  the  type  of  royal  majesty,  fur- 
nished with  almost  superhuman  bravery  and  strength. 
He  is  as  wise  as  Solomon,  and  richer  and  more  generous 


HUNTINGTONIANS 


680 


HUTCH 


than  was  be;  The  great  Theodoric  and  Hennanaric 
are  always  associated  with  him,  as  his  inferiors.  The 
oldest  of  these  legends  is  a  fragment  of  the  8th  centnry 
at  Ftdda,  which  proves  that  they  were  circulated  in  the 
Frank  dialect  in  Gaul  during  the  Merovingian  period. 
The  Germanic  form  of  Attila  legend  was  current  in 
England  also  at  an  early  period,  and  receives  its  fullest 
development  in  the  Icelandic  and  Scandinavian  hand- 
ling. The  epiBodc  of  Walter  of  Aqnitaine  and  the  Ni- 
bdungenlied  are  offiihots  from  the  primitive  stock  of  this 
tradition. 

The  Hungarian  legends  associate  Attila  with  all  the 
phases  of  their  early  national  life.  Deriving  the  Mag- 
yar stock  from  Magog,  the  son  of  Japhet  and  king  of 
Scythia,  they  trace  it  down  to  Attila  and  his  son  Arpad, 
the  common  patrons  of  the  Magyars  and  Huns.  When 
the  Magyars  become  Christians,  it  is  because  Attila,  by 
his  docility  under  the  hand  of  God,  whose  scourge  he 
was,  has  prepared  the  way  for  their  conversion  through 
his  merits.  He  is  the  inseparable  patron  of  that  pe(v> 
pie,  changing  when  they  change,  and  living  through 
all  the  stages  of  their  national  existence. 

Attila  was  not  only  a  barbarian,  but  also  a  heathen, 
and  while  he  fought  Rome  rather  than  the  Church,  and 
even  showed  regard  for  the  sanctity  of  its  eminent  rep- 
resentatives, the  success  of  his  arms  was  universally  felt 
to  be  destructive  to  Christianit}-.  In  the  comae  of  time, 
accordingly,  the  minds  of  writers,  saturated  with  ideas 
derived  from  the  churchly  legends,  discovered  that  so 
mighty  an  impersonation  of  the  principle  of  evil  as 
was  Attila  could  be  no  other  than  AnUchrist  himself; 
and  artists,  under  the  same  influence,  represented  him 
as  having  almost  diabolical  features  and  goat's  horns. 
See  frontispiece  to  Italian  legend  of  Attila,  frequently 
printed  at  Venice  in  the  later  years  of  the  loth  century. 

For  the  later  history  of  the  Huns,  down  to  the  time 
when  the  name  and  people  became  extinct,  see  the  ar- 
ticle Huns  in  vol.  iv. 

Literature.— For  the  early  history  Ammianus  Mar- 
cellinus  and  Priscus,  especially  the  latter,  are  the  prin- 
cipal sources.  Sidonius  ApoUinaris  notices  the  invasion 
of  Gaul.  Later  authorities  are  Jomandes,  Prooopius, 
Agathius,  Gregory  of  Tours,  and  Cassiodoms.  Joman- 
des was  a  Goth,  bitterly  hostile  to  the  Huns,  and  open 
to  the  charge  of  excessive  credulity ;  but  he  is  the  only 
authority  for  certain  portions  of  Attila^s  histor}*. 

Among  modem  works  De  Gmgne»*»  Hittoire  desffmu 
must  be  assigned  the  first  place,  as  it  furnishes  all  the 
speculations  upon  which  the  earliest  accepted  history 
of  the  Huns  is  based.  Gibbon's  account  in  the  Decline 
and  Fall  (Milman's  ed.  vol.  vi)  is  scarcely  more  than  an 
abridgment  of  De  Guigncs's.  See  also  Creasy,  Dedrive 
BatlUi  of  the  World  (Ch&lons) ;  Neumann,  Volker  des 
Sudlidun  Rtuskinds ;  Klemm,  Attila  (1827) ;  J.  v.  Mill- 
ler,  Akikiy  der  Held  de$  6.  Jahrhunderts  (1806) ;  Herbert, 
AttilGfOr  the  Triumph  of  ChrittianUy  (1838) ;  Grimm, 
Deutsche  Heldentaffen  (Gottingen,  1829);  ZeuaSj  Deutsche 
V.  NacKbarstdmme  and  Ottjinnen,  Also,  Bertazzolo,  Vita 
San  Leone  Prima  et  di  Attila  FlageUo  di  Dio  (Mantua, 
1614, 4to).  Gibbon  gives  leading  authorities  on  Attila. 
See  the  Church  Histories  and  leading  Dictionaries,  etc, 
and  the  articles  Huks,  Lbo  I,  Pope,  etc,  in  this  Ctfdo^ 
padia, 

Hnntlxigtonlaxui,  a  class  of  Antinomians  (q.  v.) 
in  England,  followers  of  William  Huntington  (q.  v.),  a 
Calvinistic  Methodist  preacher  of  London.  Hunting- 
ton maintained  that  the  elect  are  justified  from  all  eter- 
nity, an  act  of  which  their  justification  in  this  world  by 
faith  is  only  a  manifestation ;  that  God  sees  no  sin  in 
believers,  and  is  never  angry  with  them ;  that  the  im- 
putation of  our  sins  to  Christ,  and  of  his  righteousness 
to  us,  was  actual,  not  judicial ;  that  faith,  repentance, 
and  holy  obedience  are  covenant  conditions  on  the  part 
of  Christ,  not  on  our  part ;  and,  finally,  that  sanctifica- 
tion  is  no  evidence  of  justification,  but  rather  renders 
it  more  obscure.  These  doctrines  still  continue  to  be 
taoght  in  a  number  of  chapels,  especially  in  Sussex. 


Hard,  Carlton,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  in  New  Hampshire  in  179$,  He  graduated 
from  Dartmouth  College  in  1818,  and  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1822;  was  ordained,  Sept.  17, 
1828,  pastor  at  Fryebnrg,  Mc,  and  died  there,  Dec  6, 
1855.  See  Trien.  Cat,  of  Aniovtr  TheoL  Sem,  1870, 
p.  51. 

Hard,  laaao,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  and  subsequently 
a  Trinitarian  minister,  was  bora  at  Charlestown,  Mass., 
Dec.  7,  1785.  He  graduated  at  Han-ard  College  in 
1806;  completed  his  theological  studies  at  Divinity 
Hall,  Edinburgh,  Scotland ;  and  preached  his  first  ser- 
mon in  London.  He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Uni- 
tarian Society  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  Sept.  15,  1818,  and  was 
dismissed  May  22,  1816.  Although  he  had  so  far 
changed  his  sentiments  as  to  become  an  avowed  Trini- 
tarian, he  was  called  to  be  the  pastor  of  the  Second 
(Unitarian)  Society  in  Exeter,  N.  H.,  and  was  installed, 
Sept.  11, 1817.  ^  Notwithstanding  a  conscientious  dif- 
ference of  opinion  on  certain  important  points,  he  con- 
tinued to  enjoy  the  cordial  respect  and  affection  of  his 
people.'*  In  his  advanced  years  his  society  secured 
for  him  the  services  of  colleague  pastors.  He  died  at 
South  Beading  (now  Wakefield),  at  the  residence  of  his 
son,  Oct  4, 1856.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer. 
Pulpitf  viii,  446;  Necrology  of  Harvard  CoUege,  p.  116. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Haret,  Gr^ooire,  a  reputable  French  engraver, 
was  bora  at  Lyons  in  1610.  The  following  are  some 
of  his  principal  plates:  Life  and  Passion  of  Our  Sat- 
iour,  a  set  of  thirty-two;  The  Stoning  of  Stephen;  St. 
Peter  Preaching;  Christ  Crowned  wiih  Thorns;  The 
Holy  Family  tcith  St.  Catharine,  He  died  at  Paris  in 
1670.  See  Hocfer,  Kouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts,B.r. 

Hascanawer,  a  ceremony  formerly  practiced  by 
the  North  American  Indians  of  Virginia  when  they 
wished  to  prepare  a  candidate  for  the  priesthood,  or  for 
enrolment  among  their  great  men.  The  principal 
men  of  the  place  where  the  ceremony  was  to  be  per- 
formed selected  the  handsomest  and  most  vigorous 
youths  for  the  purpose.  They  shut  them  up  for  sev- 
eral months,  giving  them  no  pther  sustenance  than  the 
infusion  of  certain  roots,  which  strongly  affected  the 
nervous  system.  The  result  was  that  they  quite  lost 
their  memory ;  they  forgot  their  possessions,  parents, 
friends,  and  even  their  language,  becoming  at  length 
deaf  and  dumb.  The  purpose  of  this  strange  treatment 
was  alleged  to  be  to  free  the  novices  from  the  danger- 
ous impressions  of  infancy,  and  to  relieve  the  mind  of 
all  prejudice. 

Huaaeyites,  the  followers  of  Joseph  Hussey,  a 
learned  but  eccentric  divine,  formerly  of  Cambridge, 
who  held  the  Antinomian  views  of  Tobias  Crisp  (q.  v.). 
He  maintained  also  the  pre-ex'istence  of  Christ's  human 
soul,  or,  rather,  of  a  spiritual  or  glorious  body,  in  which 
he  appeared  to  Adam,  Abraham,  and  others;  this  body 
being  the  image  of  God  in  which  man  was  created. 

Hutangi,  an  apartment  which  is  generally  found 
in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  Chinese,  and  devoted  to 
ancestor-worship  (q.v.).  The  room  contains  the  image 
of  the  most  illustrious  ancestor  of  the  family,  and  a 
record  of  the  names  of  all  the  members  of  the  family. 
Twice  a  year,  generally  in  spring  and  autumn,  the  re- 
lations hold  a  meeting  in  this  room,  when  rich  presents 
of  various  kinds  of  meats,  wines,  and  perfumes,  with 
wax  tapers,  are  laid  on  the  table  with  great  ceremony 
as  gifts  to  their  deceased  ancestors. 

Hatch.  (1)  A  mediieval  term  for  a  chest,  box,  or 
hoarding-cupboard,  found  in  use  in  the  VisioH  of  Piers 
Plowman.  (2)  This  word  was  sometimes  applied  to  an 
aumbry  for  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  altar,  as  in  the 
Aceowds  of  Louth  Spire;  or  (8)  to  one  for  the  sacra* 
mental  oil,  baptismal  shell,  stoles,  and  towel  used  in 
baptism.  (4)  Any  locker  for  books,  church  mask,  scon- 
ces, etc. 


L 


HUTOHINS 


681 


HYACINTHIA 


Hutohina^  Richard,  D.D^  a  minUter  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  Hervey's  tutor,  and  a  very  faithful  mem- 
ber of  the  Oxford  Metbodbt  Society.  He  became  a 
fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Dec.  8, 1720;  subrector,  Nov. 
6, 1739;  bursar  and  librarian,  Nov.  6, 1742;  rector,  July 
9, 1765;  and  died  Aug.  10, 1781.  His  only  publication 
is  a  Latin  sermon,  Eluddatio  Sexti  Capitis  Evangdii 
Secundum  Johannem  (1847,  8vo,  p.  51).  *'  In  more  re- 
spects than  one  Dr.  Hutcbins  continued  an  Oxford 
Methodist  long  after  all  his  old  friends  had  been  dis- 
persed."   See  Tyerman,  The  Oxford  Methodists,  p.  870. 

Hntchinaon,  John  Russbll,  D J).,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Columbia  County,  Pa.,  Feb.  12, 
1807.  He  graduated  from  Jefferson  College  in  1828, 
and  studied  two  years  in  Princeton  Seminary,  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia, 
April  22, 1829,  and  went  to  Mississippi  the  following 
October.  He  preached  at  Rodney,  Miss. ;  Baton  Rouge, 
La. ;  Yicksburg,  Miss. ;  Bethel  Church,  Prytanea  Street, 
and  Carrolton,  New  Orleans,  La.  Jan.  1,  1834,  he  be- 
came connected  with  the  College  of  Louisiana.  In  1842 
he  was  called  to  occupy  the  chair  of  ancient  languages 
in  Oakland  College,  Miss.,  which  he  held  twelve  years, 
and  for  a  time,  in  1851,  he  was  acting  president.    In 

1854  he  removed  to  New  Orleans,  purchased  property, 
and  established  a  classical  school  of  a  high  order.  In 
1860  he  took  charge  of  the  public  academy  in  Houston, 
Texas.  He  died  Feb.  24,  1878.  He  was  a  preacher 
for  nearly  half  a  century,  and  in  his  prime  a  roan  of 
mark.  See  Necrol,  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1878, 
p.  17. 

Hnth,  Caspar  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Dec.  25, 
1711.  He  studied  at  Jena,  commenced  his  academical 
career  in  1735,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen  in 
1743,  and  died  Sept.  14, 1760,  leaving,  Pauperes  Spiritu 
(Erlangen,  1745)  i—De  Schiloh  Vaticudum  (eod.) : — Spes 
Beffenitorum  Viva  per  Resurrectionem  Christi  (1746) : — 
Fides  Matris  Viveuiium  (1748)  :-^Schilo  BetlUehemita- 
nus  (  eod. ) :  —  Petrus  non  Petra  ( 1767 ) :  —  Qua^iones 
Theoioffica  (1758),  etc.  See  During,  Die  gekhrten  The- 
ohgen  DeuischlandSf  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrien- 
L^nkon,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  i,  418  sq.     (R  P.) 

Huth,  Johann  Ernest,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  at  Altenburg,  Jan.  4, 1873,  superin- 
tendent, is  the  author  of  De  Loco  Episiola  Paul*  ad 
Galatas  Hi,  19,  20  (Altenburg,  1854).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL  i,  600.     (R  P.) 

Huther,  Johann  Eduard,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  born  Sept.  10, 1807,  at  Hamburg.  He 
studied  at  Bonn,  G(5ttingen,  and  Beriin ;  was  in  1842 
religious  instructor  in  the  gymnasium  at  Schwerin;  in 

1855  pastor  at  Wittenforden,  near  Schwerin ;  and  died 
March  17, 1880,  leaving,  Cyprians  I^ehre  von  der  Kirche 
(Gotha,  1839)  :—Commentar  iiber  den  Brief  Pauli  an 
die  Cohsser  (Hamburg,  1841)  :—Der  BeHgions-  Unterricht 
in  den  Gymnasien  (Rostock,  1848).  For  Meyer*s  Com- 
mentary  he  prepared  the  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus 
and  the  Catholic  epistles.  See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  ThsoL 
i,  600.     (B.  P.) 

Hutter,  Edwin  W.,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was 
born  at  Allentown,  Pa.,  Sept.  12,  1813.  After  attend- 
ing the  village  school  he  entered  a  printing-office. 
When  seventeen  years  of  age  his  father  died,  and  he 
succeeded  him  as  editor  and  proprietor  of  two  weekly 
newspapers,  one  German,  the  other  English.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  resided  aC  Washington,  D.  C,  as  privste 
secretary  to  James  Buchanan,  then  secretary  of  state. 
Removing  to  Baltimore,  Md.,  he  studied  theology  under 
Dr.  B.  Kurtz,  at  the  same  time  discharging  the  duties 
as  office  editor  of  the  Observer,  Subsequently  he  took 
charge  of  St.  Matthew's  Church,  Philadelphia,  the  only 
pastorate  upon  which  he  ever  entered,  and  which  he 
served  with  great  success  for  twenty-three  years.  The 
Northern  Home  for  Friendless  Children  was  founded 
largely  through  bis  influence.    He  died  in  September, 


1873.    See  Fifty  Years  in  the  Lutheran  Ministry,  1878, 
p.  194. 

HuttexiaxiB,  the  followers  of  Hutter,  an  Anabaptist 
leader  in  Moravia  in  the  16th  century.  See  Anabap- 
tists. 

Hutton,  Manoiua  Smedes,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  born  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  June  9, 1803.  He  at- 
tended the  school  of  the  fiimous  blind  teacher,  Joseph 
Nelson,  in  New  York  city;  graduated  from  Columbia  Col- 
lege in  1823,and  from  the  theological  seminary  at  Prince- 
ton in  1826.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  the  same  year  by 
what  was  then  known  as  the  Second  Presbytery  of  New 
York,  and  acted  as  missionary  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  in  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.,  in  1827  and  1828.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  called  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
German  Valley,  and  remained  there  until  1834,  when  he 
waa  called  to  the  city  of  New  York  to  become  the  col- 
league of  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  James  M.  Matthews,  then 
pastor  of  the  South  Reformed  Church  in  Exchange  Place, 
the  church  which  he  had  attended  when  a  boy  and  up 
to  the  time  of  leaving  the  city.  After  the  great  fire 
of  Dec.  16,  1885,  which  destroyed  most  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  city,  including  the  Exchange  Place  Church, 
the  Church  divided,  and  the  pastor  went  with  that  por. 
tion  which  built  the  edifice  on  the  east  side  of  Wash- 
ington Square.  The  new  church  was  dedicated  in  184L 
For  many  years  this  was  one  of  the  best-known  church- 
es in  the  city.  The  neighborhood  was  one  of  the  most 
fashionable  in  the  metropolis,  and  the  congregation,  a 
very  large  one,  numbered  among  its  members  many  of 
the  most  intelligent  and  wealthy  of  the  residents  of  the 
west  side.  After  the  resignation  of  his  colleague  Dr. 
Hutton  remained  sole  pastor  until  1876,  when  the  Church 
disbanded,  caused  by  the  removal  from  time  to  time  of 
so  many  of  its  members  to  the  upper  part  of  the  city. 
Thereafter  Dr.  Hutton  continued  without  a  charge  un- 
til his  death,  April  11, 1880.  Dr.  Hutton  was  a  trustee 
of  Columbia  College,  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the 
New  York  University,  president  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation of  the  Reformed  Church  for  the  education  of 
young  men  destined  for  the  ministry,  and  a  director  in 
the  Bible  and  tract  societies.  By  virtue  of  his  descent 
from  revolutionary  stock,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  the  Cincinnati  for  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
general  chaplain  of  the  society  in  the  United  States. 
He  published  a  number  of  Sermons  and  Addresses,  for 
which  see  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref,  Church  in  Amet'" 
tea,  s.  V. ;  also  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem, 
1882,  p.  16. 

HuttOD,  Matthew^  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  prelate, 
was  prebend  of  Ely  in  1560,  Margaret  professor  of  di- 
vinity in  Cambridge  in  1561,  regius  professor  in  1562, 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall  and  prebend  of  London  the 
same  year,  dean  of  York  in  1567,  bishop  of  Durham  in 
1589,  archbishop  of  York  in  1595,  and  died  Jan.  15  or  16, 
1606. 

Hutton,  Matthew^  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  prelate, 
was  prebend  of  York  in  1734,  canon  of  Windsor  in  1736, 
prebend  of  Westminster  in  1739,  bishop  of  Bangor  in 
1743,  and  archbishop  of  York  in  1747.  He  was  trans- 
lated to  Onterbury  in  1757.  He  died  March  19, 1758, 
leaving  occasional  Sermons  (1741, 1744, 1745, 1747).  See 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Hwergelmer,  in  Norse  mythology',  is  the  spring 
in  the  centre  of  Helheim  and  Niflheim,  in  which  the 
drops  collect  that  fall  from  the  antlers  of  the  reindeer 
Aeikthymer.  There  are  so  many  of  them  that  the 
spring  supplies  thirty-seven  rivers  of  hell.  The  spring 
is  inhabited  by  many  snakes,  who  gnaw  at  the  root  of 
the  world  ash-tree,  YgdrasiL 

Hyaclnthia,  an  ancient  festival,  celebrated  annu- 
ally at  Amycbe,  in  Greece.  Tt  lasted  three  daj's,  on  the 
first  and  last  of  which  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the 
dead,  and  lamentations  were  held  for  the  death  of  Hya- 
cinthus,  all  the  people  laying  aside  their  garlands  and 
partaking  only  of  simple  cakes,  with  every  sign  of  grief 


ind  mourning.  The  iutermedUte  di;,  bowtTer,  naa 
ipeni  in  mitth  uid  rejoicings,  pe*na  being  sung  in  hOD- 
or  of  Apollo,  while  the  youth  tptat  the  day  in  g>m« 
of  Tiriooi  kinds. 

danghten  of  Allu  b;  bi«  wife  Aetb^^  vU.  Ambmie, 
Eodore,  Peiithoe,  Coronii,  Plesiri^  Pj-tho,  and  Tjrche. 
Tbeu  virgina  bewiiled  eo  immodenlely  the  dulh  oC 
tbeir  broChn  Hyw,  wlio  wm  deraiired  by  a  lion,  that 
Jupiter,  out  of  companion,  changed  them  into  atan  and 
placed  them  in  tbe  head  of  Tautua,  nbere  they  (till  re- 
tain their  grief,  their  rlwng  and  setting  being  attended 
with  eitraoidiniry  rains  (i!u,  lo  raia}. 

Some  malte  them  the  daughters  of  Lycurgus,  bom  in 
the  isle  of  Naxos,  and  transLsled  to  the  sliies  for  their 
care  in  the  education  of  Bacchus;  probably  beceiUO 
their  rains  were  of  great  heneflt  in  forwalding  the  vint- 
age, 

BjteaeB,  a  name  applied  by  Porphyry  to  the  priest- 
essea  of  Mitbtas,  or  the  aun. 

HjdriapIlOtlA  (from  i!^,  icattr,  and  ^fiti,  to 
bear),  a  ceremony  in  which  the  merried  alien  women 
carried  a  veasel  with  water  for  the  married  women  of 
Athena  aa  tbey  wallied  to  the  temple  of  Athena  in  the 
great  pioceaaion  of  the  PansthenaiA. 

Hjdiomaiioy  ((htm  CJwp,  water,  and  itamia, 
divwdim), «  ep«de*  of  dirination,  in  which,  by  the 
■id  of  certain  incantations,  the  imagea  or  the  goda  wets 
Been  io  the  water.  The  practice  nas  brought  from 
Persia,  and  employed  by  Numa  and  Pythagoras. 

HydropBTftatAtaa  (YlporapairT&Tai),  a  Greek 
term  for  ttioae  who  anciently  pretended  to  celebrate  the 
boly  commonioD  with  wat^r. 

HyKden,  BAn.-LrH.    See  Raxdi-ph  of  Chester. 

H7k6b,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  tbe  goddess  of 
health,  the  daughter  and  constant  companion  of  jGscu- 
lapiua.    See  Hkbe. 

Hjmack,  LvDvrio,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, waa  bom  July  4, 179o.  He  aludied  theology  and 
philology  al  Leipaic,  and  received  tbe  degree  of  doctor 
of  philoeopby  in  1817,  on  preaenling  hia  Adaolatiomi 
in  SeceniiorU  jEvi  Libero4  Kducandi  Ratitmem,  In  1827 
he  wa*  made  licentiate  of  theology  by  the  Harhurg 
L'nivcrnty,  for  writing  Quit  tit  juad  Dthtal  Religiimi 


2  IBO  VEKSION 

Chiittiana  Sfxui  J/iilKtru  faiprimu  Benatior  Fttni- 
narumPari.  In  1S56  he  publiahed  Gachidila  dafrtiai 
adelkkm  JuBQfravtiulifta  Fucibtck  nod  leiner  Aeitit- 
R>DUii,aDdinl8T0  be  celebnied  his  fiftieth  annivenaiy 
in  the  ministry,  and  the  Marburg  Univenity  honored 
him  on  that  occasion  with  the  diploma  of  doctor  nf 
theology.  He  died  May  10, 1883,  at  Fischbecit,  in  the 
county  of  Scbaumbnrg.     (B.  P.) 

HTparborfians,  in  Greek  mythology,  were  afahu- 
lous  people,  living  north  of  the  Riphaean  moontain- 
chain,  and  were  said  to  be  very  wise  and  happy,  living 
nuny  hundreds  and  even  thousanda  of  yean,  and  at  last 
dying  by  lea^ung  into  the  sea.  But  Ilcrodotoa,  Strabo, 
and  Pliny  afflnn  that  there  is  nothing  else  meant  than 
northeiu  nations,  and  that  these  are  extravagant  ac- 
counts of  ordinary  human  beinga. 

HypOTohfima,  the  aacred  dance  aioond  the  altar, 
which,  especialiy  among  the  Dorians,  was  vont  to  ac- 
company tbe  songa  used  in  the  worship  of  Apollo.  It 
was  practiced  by  both  men  and  women. 

Eytoklan  (oi  Hlirokln),  in  Notae  mythology, 
waa  a  Jote-woman,  a  mighty,  giant-like  aorceress.  She 
waa  called  by  the  Aaaa  to  set  the  ahip  afloat  i^n  which 
Baldur  was  to  be  burned.  Tbor  waa  so  angry  that  thia 
woman  excelled  him  in  strength  that  he  would  have  de- 
molished her  with  hi*  miUner  lud  not  the  Aaaa  inter- 
ceded for  her. 


iperor  Lndaa  Tema, 


I. 


laOOtaagSgl,  those  who  were  appointed  to  carry 
the  atatua  of  lacchu*  (the  mya^c  Bacchus)  in  solemn 
proceasion  at  tbe  celebration  of  the  Eleuunian  Myste- 
ries (q.  v.).  Their  heada  were  crowned  with  myrtle, 
and  they  beat  druma  and  brazen  instrumenia,  dancing 
and  singing  as  tbey  marched  along. 

lalan  Varaloi)  or  the  Scbiptubes.  The  laian 
ia  ■  dialect  spolien  in  Uvea,  one  of  tbe  Loyalty  islands. 
A  translation  of  Luke  for  tbe  iwelre  hundred  Protes- 
tants of  Uvea,  and  two  tribes  in  New  Caledonia,  waa 
prepared  by  Rev.  S.  Ella,  and  printed  iti  1868.  Mr.  Ella 
has  continued  since,  assisted  by  a  native  pundit,  in  the 
preparation  of  tbe  New  Test.,  which  was  printed  at 
Sydney  in  1878,  and  to  which  were  added  the  Psalms 
in  187a    (B.  P,) 

laldabaoUi  (ptob.  for  nina  t^jh^),  the  name 
given  by  the  Ophites,  in  the  Sd  century,  to  tbe  Demi- 
urge or  world-foimer.     See  Ofhitxs, 

Ibbar  (or  Ebur;  Lat.  Iberiui),  biahop  of  tbe  isl- 
and of  Bergeii-,  in  Wexford  Harbor,  Ireland,  where  he 
died  in  608,  is  commemorated  April  S3,  and  famous  for 
baying  driven  away  the  lats  from  Leinater,  See  Smith, 
DkL  of  ChrM.  Eiog.  a.  v. 

IblSMD.  The  modem  site,  Jflasith  (or  Beiaindi, 
aa  Triatnm,  SiUa  Ptaat,  p.  231,  and  Conder,  Tad  Work, 
ii,  >B7,  inanTedly  write),  is  thus  described  in  the  ife- 


uioiriawurnpanying  the  Ofdnance  Survey  (ii,84):  "It 
stands  in  the  plain,  anrronnded  with  arable  land,  and  is 
supplied  by  ciitems.  It  haa  a  kubbeh  (domed  place 
of  prayer)' on  tbe  north  aide.  This  place  aeema  not 
improbably  the  fatiuima  of  the  lists  arTliotbmes,msi- 
lioned  in  the  same  group  with  Saanach,  Anoharelh, 
and  other  places  on  the  plain  [fi/iar.  Slateneit  of  tbe 
'  PaL  Exptof.  Fnnd,'  July,  1876,  p.  H7)." 

Ibu-Al-Athlr,  an  Arabian  historian,  waa  bom  in 
1160  at  Jazlrat  Ibn-Omar,  in  Mesopotamia,  oud  died 
at  Uosol  in  12S1.  Ue  is  the  author  of  a  Urge  hiator- 
ical  work,  giving  the  history  of  the  worM  to  the  year 
1280,  which  was  edited  by  Toraberg,  onder  tbe  title, 
Ibn-tl-A  iAiri  CAronicon  qaod  Perfiautimum  InicrSiitar 
(Leyden,  1868-71, 12  voU).     {R  P.) 

Ibu-Amld.    See  Elkacis. 

Ibn-Sabba.    See  Sabda  Ibs. 

Ibn-Shem-Tob.    See  SBEit-To& 

Ibn-Waklur.    See  Wakxab. 

Ibo  Version  of  rm  Scmftdub.  Tbia  dialect 
is  spoken  by  the  Iboa  on  the  banks  of  the  mger,  in 
Welt  Africa.  The  first  part  of  the  NeWTest.,  the  gos- 
pel of  Hattbew,  was  published  in  tbia  dialect  in  1869, 
and  since  that  time  other  parts  were  added.  Up  to 
date  there  are  published  coly  Mght  books  of  the  Hew 


ICELANDIC  VERSION 


683 


IQLAXJ 


TesL  In  linguistic  respects  the  kngaage  has  been 
treated  by  J.  F.  Scbdn,  in  Oku  Iho,  GrammaHeal  EU" 
menu  of  the  Iho  Language  (1861).    (R  P.) 

Icelandio  Version  of  the  Scriptures.    See 

SCAMDINA\1AN  VERSIONS. 

Icheri,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Caribbeans,  are  the 
good  protecting  spirits  accompanying  fishermen  and 
hunters. 

looxftfl,  a  sect  of  religionists  in  Japan,  who  cele- 
brate the  festival  of  their  founder  annually  in  a  pecul- 
iar manner.  Under  the  impression  that  he  who  first 
sets  foot  in  the  temple  is  entitled  to  peculiar  blessings, 
they  all  rush  towanls  the  same  spot,  and  persons  are 
often  killed  in  the  press. 

Idalab.  For  this  site  Tristram  {BtbU  Places,  p. 
242)  and  Conder  (7>n<  Work,  ii,  837)  propose  ed^ 
Dalieh,  on  Carmel,  eight  and  a  half  miles  south-east  of 
Haifa,  and  thus  described  in  the  Memoirs  accompany- 
ing the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,281) :  **  A  stone  village  of 
moderate  size,  on  a  knoll  of  one  of  the  spurs  running 
out  of  the  main  water-shed  (or  ridge)  of  CarmeL  On 
the  south  there  is  a  well,  and  a  few  springs  on  the  west. 
On  the  north  is  a  little  plain,  or  open  valley,  cultivated 
with  com.  The  inhabitants  are  all  Druses,  numbered 
by  consul  Rogers  in  1859  at  800  souls."  But  this  posi- 
tion is  entire^  beyond  the  bounds  of  Zebulon,  and  the 
modem  name  Dalieh  is  too  indefinite  for  identification, 
being  likewise  applied  to  another  village  on  the  ridge 
of  Cfumel,  six  and  a  half  miles  farther  south-east.  The 
site  Kefr  Kireh  (proposed  by  Schwarz)  lying  one  and  a 
quarter  miles  south  by  west  from  TellReimfin  (Joknean), 
is  described  in  the  Memoirs  (ii,  60)  as  *'  evidently  an 
ancient  site,"  with  traces  of  ruins  and  broken  pottery 
on  the  hill  and  tombs  in  the  vicinity;  a  good  supply 
of  water,  and  a  small  milL  The  village  of  Jeida  is  an 
entirely  different  locality,  two  and  a  half  miles  west  of 
Semunieh,  and  destitute  of  antiquities  (Memoirs,  i,  270). 

Idaplan  (or  Idafeld),  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the 
dwelling-place  of  the  twelve  great  Judges  in  Asgard, 
whom  Odin  had  appointed  to  Judge  all  things. 

IdderaRabba(Ka?  V('^*^V(),le,tkeGreatAs8em^ 
Ug,  is  the  title  of  one  of  the  many  parts  which  compose 
the  Sohar,  the  famous  thesaurus  of  Jewish  mysticism. 
It  is  called  "  Great  Assembly,"  because  it  purports  to 
give  the  discourses  which  rabbi  Simon  ben-Jochal 
(q.  V.)  delivered  to  his  disciples,  who  congregated 
around  him  in  large  numbers.  Upon  the  summons  of 
the  Sacred  Light,  his  disciples  assembled  to  listen  to 
the  secrets  and  enigmas  contained  in  the  Book  of  Mys- 
teries. Hence  it  is  chiefly  occupied  with  a  description 
of  the  form  and  various  members  of  the  Deity;  a  dis- 
quisition on  the  relation  of  the  Deity,  in  his  two  as- 
pects of  the  aged  and  the  young,  to  the  creation  and 
the  universe,  as  well  as  on  the  diverse  gigantic  mem- 
bers of  the  Deity,  such  as  the  head,  the  beard,  the  eyes, 
the  nose,  etc. ;  a  dissertation  on  pneumatology,  demon- 
ology,  etc  It  concludes  with  telling  us  that  three  of 
the  disciples  died  during  these  discussions.  This  part 
of  the  Sohar  is  translated  in  the  second  volume  of  Ro- 
•enroth's  Kabbala  Denudata.    (K  P.) 

Iddera  Zutta  (KaiT  Kn^M),  i.  e.  M«  Sm<Ul  As- 

iembfy,  is,  like  the  Iddera  Halifa  (q.  v.),  also  one  of  the 
component  parts  of  the  Sohar.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  many  of  the  disciples  of  rabbi  Simon  ben- 
Jochal  had  died  during  the  course  of  the  cabalistic  rev- 
elations, and  that  this  portion  of  the  Sohar  contains  the 
discourses  which  the  Sacred  Light  delivered  before  his 
death  to  a  small  assembly  of  six  pupils,  who  still  sur- 
vived, and  congregated  to  listen  to  the  profound  msrste- 
ries.  It  is  to  a  great  extent  a  recapitulation  of  the 
Iddera  RaHtha,  occupying  itself  with  speculations  about 
the  Sephiroth,  the  Deity,  etc.,  and  concludes  with  re- 
cording the  death  of  Simon  ben-Jochal,  the  Sacred 
Light,  and  the  medium  through  whom  God  revealed 


the  contents  of  the  Sohar.  The  Iddera  Zutta,  too,  is 
translated  into  Latin  by  Rosenroth,  in  the  second  vol- 
ume of  his  Kabbala  Denudata,    (B.  P.) 

Ide,  Oeorge  Barton,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Coventry,  Yt,  in  1806,  his  father  being  a 
well-known  Baptist  cleigyman.  Rev.  John  Ide,  who,  in 
1800,  had  removed  from  New  York  to  northern  Ver- 
mont. His  father  gave  him  the  best  education  he  oould 
secure  for  him,  and  he  decided  to  enter  the  profession 
of  law,  the  study  of  which  he  commenced,  without  hav- 
ing taken  a  collegiate  course,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  in 
the  village  of  Brandon.  He  graduated  from  Middle- 
bury  College  with  the  highest  honors  in  1880;  soon 
after  was  ordained  at  Derby,  Conn.;  was  invited,  in 
1834,  to  a  church  in  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  in  1885  to  the  Fed- 
eral Street  Baptist  Church  in  Boston,  Mass. ;  in  1888  to 
the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  in 
1852  to  Springfield,  Mass.,  where  he  died,  April  16, 1872. 
Dr.  Ide  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  ministers  of 
his  denomination.  He  published  several  works,  among 
which  were  Life  Sketches  of  L\fe  Truths,  and  Bible 
Pictures,  He  also  wrote  several  Sunday-school  books. 
See  The  Watchman,  April,  1872.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Ide,  Jacob,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
bom  at  Attleborough,  Mass.,  March  29, 1785.  His  pas- 
tor. Rev.  Nathaniel  Holroan,  assisted  him  in  his  prepar- 
atory studies,  and  he  graduated  from  Brown  University 
in  1809,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1812.  He  was  ordained  Nov.  2, 1814,  over  the  Church 
in  West  Medway,  Mass.,  and  died  in  office,  Jan.  5, 1880, 
although  relieved  from  active  ser^'ice  in  1865.  Besides 
numerous  sermons  and  other  litefary  work,  he  edited 
the  works  of  Dr.  Nathaniel  Emmons,  in  seven  volumes. 
S^e  Cong,  Year-hook,  1881,  p.  26. 

Identiflm  (or  Identity),  the  doctrine,  advocated 
by  Fichte  and  Schelling,  of  the  entire  identity  of  God 
and  the  universe,  or  of  Creator  and  creation.  This  ulti- 
mately coincides  with  Pantheism  (q.  v.).  See  Erauth- 
Fleming,  Vocdb,  ofPhiL  Sciences, 

Idlzii,  the  term  used  by  the  Kaffirs  to  denote  sacri- 
fice. Sacrifices  are  offered  to  their  ancestors,  and  not 
to  God;  and  these  only  in  cases  where  they  wish  to 
avert  some  apprehended  evil. 

Idiomtta  (fully  arixflpd  ISiofitXa,  i.  e.  peculiar 
strophes')  are  stichera  that  have  no  periods  the  rhythm 
of  which  they  regularly  follow.  They  are  usually  said 
at  lauds  and  vespers  on  special  occasions,  sometimes  at 
the  burial  of  a  priest  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq, 
s.  V. 

Idnna,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the  loveliest  of  the 
Asas,  the  goddess  of  eternal  youth  and  immortality; 
not  created  or  born,  but  existing  from  the  beginning. 
She  is  the  wife  of  the  wise  Braga,  the  god  of  the  poetic 
art.  In  her  keeping  are  the  apples  of  rejuvenation, 
without  which  even  the  gods  would  become  aged,  there* 
fore  they  daily  eat  the  same. 

Ifays,  the  wooden  tablets  employed  by  the  Japanese, 
containing  inscriptions  commemorative  of  the  dead, 
mentioning  the  date  of  his  decease,  and  the  name  given 
to  him  since  that  event.  The  ifavs  are  carried  in  the 
funeral  procession,  along  with  the  body,  to  the  grave, 
and  one  of  them  is  placed  over  it,  remaining  there  seven 
weeks,  when  it  is  removed  to  make  way  for  the  grave- 
stone. Another  is  set  up  in  the  best  apartment  of  the 
house  during  the  period  of  mourning.  Sweetmeats, 
fruits,  and  tea  are  placed  before  it ;  and  morning,  noon, 
and  night  food  is  prepared  for  it  as  for  a  living  person. 
The  whole  household  pray  before  it  morning  and  even- 
ing during  seven  weeks,  and  other  religious  ceremonies 
are  observed. 

Iglau,  Treaty  of,  a  celebrated  compact,  ratified  at 
Iglau,  in  Bohemia,  which  closed  the  long-protracted 
war  between  the  Hussites  and  the  Roman  Catholics. 
It  was  dated  Nov.  80, 1488.    See  Hussites. 


IGNBPICroM 


884 


IMAMS 


Ignlaploiiim,  a  species  of  dirination  praetioed  by 
the  ancient  Romans,  consisting  of  observations  made  on 
the  flames  ascending  from  the  sacrificial  altar. 

^OZL  As  a  representative  of  this  Gonder  suggests 
{Tent  Work,  ii,  887)  Ei-Kkiam,  foar  and  a  half  miles 
north-east  from  Mimas  (at  the  great  angle  of  the 
Litany) ;  but  this  is  an  entirely  modem  village  of  about 
three  hundred  Christians  and  two  hundred  Druses  (Afe- 
moirt  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey,  i,  88),  and 
the  name  has  little  resemblance.  Tell  Diblinf  the  more 
probable  representative,  is  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Ordnance  Survey. 

Iko-aiu,  the  sect  of  the  worshippeTS  of  Amidai 
(q.  v.)t  the  most  numerous  and  powerful  ecdestastical 
body  in  Japan. 

Hah!  (the  divine)  of  Akbar  was  a  system  of  philo- 
sophic deism  introduced  by  Akbar,  the  emperor  of 
Delhi,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century.  He  pro- 
posed to  found  a  new  creed  on  the  basis  of  universal 
toleration,  combining  in  one  religious  body  the  Hindils, 
Mohammedans,  and  Christians,  along  with  the  followers 
of  Zoroaster.  His  object  in  establishing  a  new  creed 
was  both  political  and  religious;  he  was  the  only  one  of 
the  Delhi  emperors  who  regarded  India  as  his  country, 
and  who  sought  to  efface  from  the  memory  of  the  Hindfis 
the  fact  that  they  were  a  conquered  people,  Ilahif  or 
the  divine  system,  was  essentially  eclectic  in  character. 
The  fundamental  point  on  which  Akbar  insisted  was 
the  great  doctrine  of  the  Divine  Unity,  which  he  de- 
clared was  but  obscurely  revealed  in  the  prophets.  But 
while  he  thus  adopted  a  Mohammedan  basis  for  his 
creed,  he  took  care  at  the  same  time  to  declare  his  en- 
tire disbelief  of  the  divinity  of  the  Koran.  From  the 
time  of  his  rejection  of  the  Koran,  the  emperor  pro- 
fessed himself  to  be  an  impartial  inquirer  after  truth, 
and  accordingly  he  conversed  openly  with  the  teachers 
of  every  religion.  He  finally  decided  upon  a  system, 
which  was  the  revival  of  Zoroastrianism  in  a  modified 
form.  Having  acquired  sufficient  influence  over  the 
theologians,  doctors  of  the  law,  and  learned  men,  to  se- 
cure their  public  recognition  of  him  as  the  sole  protector 
of  the  faith,  Akbar  propounded  his  creed,  which  was 
accepted  by  several  HindAs  and  Mohammedans.  En- 
couraged by  his  success,  he  now  ordered  the  abolition 
of  the  old  confession  of  Islam,  "  There  is  no  God  but 
God,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet,"  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  another,  <*  There  is  no  God  but  God,  and  Akbar 
is  the  vicar  of  God."  He  next  abrogated  the  five  daily 
prayers,  the  ablutions,  fasts,  alms,  and  pilgrimages  en- 
joined upon  the  faithfuL  He  abolished  the  religious 
services  observed  on  Fridays,  and  dismissed  the  muez- 
zins. He  ordered  that  that  should  be  considered  as 
clean  which  was  declared  by  the  Koran  to  be  unclean. 
He  permitted  the  sale  of  wine,  and  the  practice  of  games 
of  chance.  He  forbade  the  marriage  of  more  than  one 
wife,  and  enjoined  the  postponement  of  the  circum- 
cision of  boys  until  twelve  years  of  age,  and  even  then 
the  ceremony  was  to  be  entirely  optionaL  He  finaUy 
ordered  the  lera  of  his  own  accession  to  the  throne  to 
be  used  instead  of  the  Hegira.  At  first  he  received  con- 
siderable support  from  various  sections,  but  his  system 
became  more  and  more  unpopular,  and,  on  the  accession 
of  his  son  Jehanghir,  the  empire  returned  to  Islamism. 

Ilicet  (for  ire  licet,  ^you  may  go"),  a  solemn  word 
pronounced  at  the  conclusion  of  the  funeral  rites  among 
the  ancient  Romans.  It  was  uttered  by  the  prafica  or 
some  other  person  at  the  dose  of  the  ceremony,  after 
the  bones  and  ashes  of  the  deceased  had  been  committed 
to  the  urn,  and  the  persons  present  had  been  thrice 
sprinkled  with  pure  water  from  a  branch  of  olive  or 
laurel  for  the  purpose  of  purification.  From  the  occa- 
sion on  which  the  word  iUeet  was  employed,  it  is  some- 
times used  proverbially  among  Roman  auth(»B  to  signify 
qU  it  over, 

nitbyla,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  is  the 
goddess  of  birth,  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Jono^  bom 


on  Crete,  in  the  AmnisJan  cave,  and  sister  of  Hebe,  Man, 
and  Yalcan.  Homer  speaks  of  a  number  of  Ilithjis, 
daughters  of  Juno,  who  send  the  arrow  of  pain,  but  help 
those  in  childbed.  Often  Ilithyia  is  identified  with 
Juno,  which  is  not  strange,  since  Juno  is  the  goddess  of 
marriage.  The  Greek  Ilithyia  was  also  identified  with 
Diana,  probably  because  the  latter,  being  the  goddess 
of  the  moon,  a  certain  influence  over  birth  might  be 
credited  her.  She  is  also  called  Ludna,  or  gemtaUi, 
Pindar  and  Ovid  make  her  the  daughter  of  Junob  In 
a  Grecian  temple  erected  to  her  she  was  represented 
em  wearing  a  loose  robe,  and  holding  in  one  hand  a 
flambeau* 

IllefloaB,  GmrDisALv  db,  abbot  of  St  Frontea, 
Spain,  who  died  in  1680,  is  the  author  of  ffistoria  Po»' 
Ufical  y  Caiolica  (Salamanca,  1574;  continued  by  L.  de 
Bavia,  M.  de  Guadalaxara,  and  J.  Bancs  de  Velasoo, 
Madrid,  1678,  6  vols.  foL).  See  Winer,  Handbudk  der 
theoL  Lit  i,  682 ;  Jocher,  A  Uffeouuus  Gdehrten-LexiktM, 
S.V.    (a  P.) 

IlUiiOB,  in  Chaldaic  mysticism,  was  the  second  of 
the  three  primary  principles  of  the  Chaldsans,  created 
with  Anos  and  Aos  by  the  uncreated  from  the  two  natu* 
ral  forces,  the  creating  and  conceiving  principles,  Asorcm 
andKisara. 

nmarineii,  the  third  of  the  great  deities  of  the 
Finns,  and  the  god  of  earth  and  of  metals. 

ImAm,  a  name  applied  by  way  of  excellence  to  each 
of  the  chiefs  or  founders  of  the  four  principal  sects  of 
the  Mohammedans. 

Im^Unate,  the  office  of  an  Im&m,  or  Mohammedan 
priest.    See  Iuauk,  voL  iv,  p.  506. 

ImAme,  the  Twelve,  the  twelve  Islam  chiefs,  ac- 
cording to  the  Persian  Mohammedans,  who  belong  to 
the  Shiites.  Ali  (q.  v.)  is  reckoned  the  first  Imam,  and 
immediate  spiritual  successor  of  the  Prophet.  Hassan 
(q.  V.)  was  the  second  Imam,  being  the  eldest  son  of 
Ali.  He  was  a  feeble-minded  prince,  and  surrendered 
his  caliphate  to  Moawiyah,  retaining  only  the  spiritual 
office.  Hossein  (q.  v.)  was  the  third  of  the  line.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ali,  the  fourth  Imam,  who, 
from  his  constancy  in  prayer,  received  the  names  of 
*'  the  Imam  of  the  Carpet,"  and  "  the  glory  of  pious 
men."  He  died  in  712,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Mohammed,  the  fifth  Imam,  who  was  a  diligent  student 
of  magic,  and  received  the  name  of  "  the  possessor  of 
the  secret."  The  sixth  Imam  was  Jaafar,  the  son  of 
Mohammed,  who  was  thought  to  be  eqiud  in  wisdom  to 
Solomon.  Jaafar  nominated  his  son  Ismail  his  succes- 
sor, but  the  heir-apparent  having  died  prematurely,  he 
named  his  second  son  Milsa  his  heir.  Ismail,  how- 
ever, had  left  children ;  hence  parties  arose,  some  holding 
to  one  as  the  lawful  Imam,  others  to  the  other.  The 
two  sects  were  called  Ismailiyah  (q.v.)  and  AeeateiM 
(q.  v.).  The  claim  of  Mfisa  to  be  the  seventh  Imam 
has  been  generally  admitted.  Ali,  the  son  of  MOsa, 
was  the  eighth  Imam.  He  is  called  by  the  Shiites 
'*  the  beloved,"  and  his  tomb,  termed  Meshed  Ali,  is  a 
favorite  object  of  pilgrimage.  The  ninth  Imam  was 
Mohammed,  the  son  of  Ali,  who  lived  in  retirement  at 
Bagdad,  where  he  died  at  an  early  age,  leaving  behind 
him  so  great  a  reputation  for  benevolence  that  he  re- 
ceived the  name  of  ^  the  generous."  His  son  Ali,  the 
tenth  Imam,  was  but  a  child  when  his  father  died,  and 
having  been  seized  by  the  caliph  Motawakkel,  who 
was  a  determined  enemy  of  the  Shiites,  he  was  con- 
fined for  life  in  the  city  of  Asker,  from  which  circum- 
stance he  is  called  **the  Askerite."  He  was  poisoned 
by  order  of  the  caliph  in  868.  His  son  and  successor, 
Hassan,  also  perished  by  poisoning,  leaving  the  sacred 
office  to  his  son  Mohammed,  the  twelfth  and  last  Imam, 
who,  at  his  father's  death,  was  a  child  only  six  months 
old.  He  was  kept  in  close  confinement  by  the  caliph, 
but  at  about  the  age  of  twelve  years  he  suddenly  disap- 
peared ;  the  Sonnites  allege  that  he  was  drowned  in  the 
Tigris,  bat  the  ShUtes  deny  the  fact  of  his  death,  and 


IMMER  61 

MWrt  tbit  be  ii  wmdning  om  tlw  sutb,  ind  will 
cootinue  »  to  winder  aDtil  the  appoinUd  period  alull 
utire  when  ha  >h*U  claim  and  Teeeire  unirenal  empire. 
Inmun',  AuiERT,  a  Proteatant  theologian,  waa  boni 
AiiK.II),18M,atUateraeen,SwiucTland.  Hettodiedlt 
Berne,  wh  in  1838  vicar  it  Bn^orT,  in  IMO  paXor  at 
BQren,  and  in  1B50  proreraor  o[  Lheologj  at  Betne.  In 
18S1  he  retired  ttom  his  profeaacnnhip,  and  died  March 
23,  ISM.  Beside*  some  theological  enajs  and  lectnre*, 
he  published  HtrmtTiatik  dts  Nan  TttUmml*  (Wit- 
tenberg, 1878;  Engl.  traiuIatlDn  by  A.  H.  Keirman, 
Andurer,  1877)  :~ltealalamealidit  Thrologie  (Bonn, 

leny  (a  p.) 

Impauatioii  (<rnm  in  pant,  "in  the  bread'^  the 
doctrine  that  Chnst's  pre«eac«  la  in  the  bread  in  the 
Loid'a  auppet.    It  ia  >f  Donnnoiis  with  coniuiefini/iiifiiHi 

(q.».). 
Isangoratio,  the  ceremon;  by  which  the  ancient 

Itomana  coaaecrated  »  penon  or  thing  to  the  goda.  It 
waa  pcrfonned  by  the  iiujiir*(q.v.),who  offered  prayer 
to  the  gods,  aaking  them  to  ahow  t^  lignt  whether  they 
accepted  the  conaecioted  obJecL  If  the  aign*  appeared 
favorable,  the  caniecraliaa  wai  regarded  u  complete. 
The  kiijga  of  Borne  weie  inducted  by  the  augura  aa 
the  high  print!  of  the  people;  bat  the  Inaugaration  of 
the j)aiiKn>  devolred  apon  the  college  of  pontift. 

Incenae-boat,  a  vesael  for  containing  incenae,  often 
formed  like  a  boat:  hence  ita  name.    Examples  oftbeN 


nOM    aw^Wf  Braisnlncenee-boat,  probably  of  the 
—Dt  PoUMaU     isih  cnHnry,  aald  to  baTa  belonged 
udaiaiiiaa  d  dc     to  Itae  piebendal  cbnrch  at  Thane, 
AuOorilali   Papa      "ifotd. 

M  Coiicitiit!—CoiUra  nagtUatorfi—CooIra  Errom 
Baiaminiwi!  — Dt  CognMoiH  /'uturaniiii.  See  HofC- 
mann,  Zeztoon  Umetrtalt ;  Trithemin*,  Dt  Scriptoribiii 
Eedaiaiticit ;  Jiicber,  AttganantM  Gilthiiat-Lfxiixm, 
*v.     (B.P.) 

India,  HrmoLOOT  or.    See  HimdCish. 

Indlx  Rayml,  in  PemTian  mythology,  ia  the  piiO' 
dpal  one  of  the  fonr  known  feativala  of  the  sun,  cele- 
brated yearly  in  honor  of  the  aupreme  deity  in  tbc 
Andes.  Il  began  when  the  aan  waa  at  ita  height,  and 
moved  towarda  the  equatorial  region.  At  the  fiiat  ray 
of  the  aun  all  Tell  on  their  kneea  and  worshipped  ' 
benerolent  god.  Atler  tbu  festiTal  eight  days  * 
spent  in  unbroken  pleaadte. 

Indo-Portosaaie  Veraioii  or  the  Bern 
v«KS.    Indo  -  Portiigneae  Is  a  dialsct  spoken  by  the 
Portngiieae  settlers  and  their  descendants  in  Ceylan  and 


part  of  CbaScriplare  into  tbii  dialect  dates  back  to  the 
year  1817,  when  the  Wealeyan  mtssioDat]',  Newatead, 
atatioDed  at  Negomba,  in  Ceylan,  commenced  a  transla- 
tion  of  tbe  Mew  Test,  for  the  benefit  of  this  people, 
whkh  waa  printed  at  Loodon  in  1836.  A  aecond  edition 
appeared  at  Colombo  in  1831,  and  tba  Pentateoch  and 
Paalms  were  printed  in  18SS.  A  KTised  edition  of  the 
Sew  Teat,  waa  pablished  in  18A3.    (K  P.) 

India,  in  Hindd  mythology,  to  tbs  god  of  the  son, 
one  of  the  twelve  Adityas,  tbe  son  of  the  god  Easyapa 


INDUCTION 

and  Aditi,  a  dnlj  of  the  sacood  claa^  bnt  very  tntich 
worahippel  He  rulea  over  space,  and  is  king  of  all  genii 
who  Uts  in  space,  or  in  the  anperlerrestrial  paradise. 
Daily  he  lides  around  the  earth.  Ha  sets  and  knows 
ererything,  for  be  bu  a  thousand  eyes.  Hia  wife  ia 
called  Sachi,  by  whom  be  had  a  son,  Jayanta.  The 
mountain  Hem,  towards  the  north  pole,  ia  bit  dwelling- 
place.  Amaiawati  is  the  name  of  his  celeitial  dty, 
VTerdayanta  ia  hia  palace,  Nandana  his  garden.  Ain- 
's  hia  flnt  elephant,  and  Haitala  cbarioteer.  H« 
rule*  oTcr  wind  and  rain. 


Figutg  of  indra. 

Indnotlon  (LaLMdacfio, from nibonv,"lo infer") 
ia  the  pbiloaophical  name  for  tbe  process  of  real  Infer- 
enee — in  other  worda,  the  act  or  procesa  of  reasoning  troia 
the  known  to  the  unknown,  or  from  the  limited  to  the 
unlimited.  "All  tbinga  that  we  do  not  know  by  actual 
trial  or  ocular  demonstration,  we  know  by  an  indactire 
operation.  Deduction  ia  not  real  iDfercnce  in  this  sense, 
since  the  general  proposition  covers  the  case  that  we 
apply  it  to;  in  ■  proper  deduction,  tbe  conclusion  ia 
more  limited  than  the  premiaea.  By  tbe  inductive  meth- 
od we  obtain  ■  concluuon  much  larger  than  the  prem- 
ises; we  adventure  into  tbe  aphereof  the  unknown,  and 
pninaunee  upon  what  we  have  not  yet  aeen.  . . .  Ac- 
cordingly, it  is  now  considered  a  part  of  logic  to  Uy 
down  the  rules  for  tbe  right  performance  of  this  greet 
operation."  One  of  tbe  greUest  problems  of  inductive 
inquiiy  is  that  peculiar  succession  denominated  cause 
and  ttket.  Hill,  in  hia  Logic,  baa  conaequentif  illus- 
trated in  detail  the  methods  to  he  adopted  to  ascertain 
definitely  the  true  causative  circumstance  that  may 
precede  a  given  e  Act.  They  resolve  themselves  mainly 
into  two,  "  One  ia,  by  comparing  together  different  in- 
stances in  which  the  phenomenon  occurs.  The  other 
is,  by  comparing  instancea  in  which  the  phenomenon 
doea  occur,  with  instancea,  in  other  mptctM  aimilar,  in 
which  it  does  noL  These  two  methods  may  be  respect. 
ively  denominated  the  metliod  of  agreement,  and  the 
method  of  difference." 

There  are  many  problenu  growing  out  of  the  applica- 
tion of  induction  to  the  great  variety  of  natural  phe- 
nomena. "Thus,  the  great  induction  of  universal  grav- 
ity was  applied  tUductittli/  to  explain  a  great  many  facta 
besidea  those  that  enabled  the  induction  to  be  made. 
Not  merely  the  motions  of  tbe  planets  about  the  sun, 
and  the  satellites  about  the  planets,  but  the  remote  and 
previoualy  unexplained  phenomena  of  tbe  tides,  the 
precession  of  the  equinoiea,  etc,  were  found  to  be  infer- 
ences from  the  general  principle.  This  mode  of  deter- 
mining caoset  is  called  the  deductive  method.  When 
several  agents  unite  in  a  compound  effect,  there  is  re- 
quired a  process  of  calculation  to  find  from  the  effects  of 
tbe  causes  acdng  sepantelj  tbe  combined  effect  due  to 
their  concurrent  action,  as  when  the  path  of  a  projectile 
is  dedaced  from  the  laws  of  gravity  and  of  force.  It 
is  the  deductive  stage  of  science  that  enables  math- 
emalieal  calculation  to  be  brought  into  play  with  aueh 


INDULGENCE 


fi86 


INOE 


remarkable  niocess  as  ia  seen  in  astronomy,  mechanics, 
etc. 

"  The  circDmstance  that  phenomena  may  resalt  from 
a  concurrence  of  causes,  leads  to  the  distinction  between 
ultimate  laws  and  derivative  or  subordinate  laws.  Thus, 
frravity  is  an  ultimate  law ;  the  movement  of  the  planets 
in  ellipses  is  but  a  subordinate  law.  These  inferior  laws 
may  be  perfectly  true  within  their  own  limits,  but  not 
necessarily  so  beyond  certain  limits,  of  time,  place,  and 
circumstance.  A  different  adjustment  of  the  two  forces 
that  determine  a  planet's  motion  would  cause  a  cir- 
cular or  a  parabolic  orbit;  and  therefore  when  phe- 
nomena result  from  a  combination  of  ultimate  laws  act- 
ing under  a  certain  arrangement,  they  are  not  to  be 
generalized  beyond  the  sphere  where  that  arrangement 
holds.  These  inferior  laws  aro  sometimes  mere  induc- 
tions that  have  not  been  resolved  into  their  constituent 
laws,  and  then  they  go  under  the  name  of  *  Empirical 
Laws.*  Thus,  in  the  hands  of  Kepler,  the  elliptic  orbit 
of  the  planets  was  only  an  empirical  generalization,  as- 
certained by  the  method  of  agreement;  Newton  con- 
verted it  into  a  derivative  law,  when  he  showed  that  it 
resulted  from  the  more  general  laws  of  gravity,  etc  The 
earlier  stages  of  induction  present  ns  with  many  of  those 
empirical  laws ;  in  some  subjects,  as  physiology,  medi- 
cine, etc.,  the  greater  number  of  inductions  are  of  this 
character.  The  cure  of  disease  is  especially  an  example 
of  this :  hardly  any  medicine  can  have  its  efficacy  traced 
to  ultimate  laws  of  the  human  system.  Hence  the  un- 
certainty attending  the  application  of  remedies  to  new 
cases,  and  also  the  want  of  success  that  often  attends 
them  in  ciroumsunces  where  we  think  they  ought  to 
succeed."  Induction  applies  also  to  the  laws  of  causa- 
tion, to  the  laws  of  uniformities,  and  to  those  of  coex- 
utence.    See  Mill,  Loffic^  especially  book  iv. 

Indnlg^ence.  The  use  of  this  wont  by  ecclesiastical 
writers  is  derived  from  that  of  the  Jurisconsults,  who 
employ  it  to  designate  a  remission  of  punishment  or  of 
taxes,  especially  such  a  general  amnesty  as  was  some- 
times proclaimed  by  an  emperor  on  an  extraordinary 
occasion  of  rejoicing.  Hence  the  word  passed  into  ec- 
clesiastical usage  in  the  sense  of  a  remission  of  penalties 
for  offences  against  church  discipline  and  order. 

Usually  there  were  four  stages  or  degrees  through 
which  offenders  had  to  pass  before  regaining  commun- 
ion :  (1)  weepers,  (2)  hearers,  (8)  kncelers,  (4)  bystand- 
ers ;  and  usually  several  years  had  to  be  spent  in  each. 
Now  the  bishop,  according  to  St.  Gregory,  might,  in 
proportion  to  their  conversion,  '*  rescind  the  period  of 
their  penance ;  making  it  eight,  seven,  or  even  five  years 
Instead  of  nine,  in  each  stage,  should  their  repentance 
exceed  in  depth  what  it  had  to  fulfil  in  length,  and 
compensate,  by  its  iucreased  zeal,  for  the  much  longer 
time  required  in  others  to  effect  their  cure."  Eventual- 
ly this  system  was  greatly  extended,  until  it  reached 
the  abuses  that  provoked  the  Keformation. 

Indulgentla  {indulgence^  a  name  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  haptitm  in  the  early  Christian  Church,  as  being 
attended,  when  blessed  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  with  absolu- 
tion or  the  remission  of  sins.  It  was  esteemed  the  most 
universal  absolution  and  the  greatest  indulgence  in  the 
ministry  of  the  Church. 

Inferise  were  sacrifices  which  the  ancient  Romans 
offered  at  the  tombs  of  their  deceased  relatives  at  cer- 
tain periods,  consisting  of  victims,  wine,  milk,  garlands 
of  flowers,  etc 

Infirmary,  Monastic.  In  bis  enumeration  of 
Christian  duties  Benedict  {RegnUx,  c.  4)  specifies  that 
of  visiting  the  sick ;  and  elsewhere  he  speaks  of  it  aa  a 
duty  of  primary  and  paramount  obligation  for  monks, 
quoting  the  words  of  Christ,  "^  I  was  sick,  and  ye  min- 
istered unto  me."  Beyond,  however,  saying  that  the 
sick  are  to  have  a  separate  part  of  the  monastery  as- 
signed to  them,  and  a  separate  officer  in  charge  of  them, 
that  they  are  to  be  allowed  meat  and  the  luxury  of 
baths,  if  necessary,  that  they  are  not  to  be  exacting, 


and  that  the  brethren  who  wait  on  them  are  not  to  be 
impatient,  he  gives  no  precise  direetiona.  Sabsequent- 
ly  it  was  the  special  duty  of  the  ^  infirmarius,"  the 
"  cellerarius"  (house-stowaid),  and  of  the  abbot  himself, 
to  look  after  the  sick ;  no  other  monk  might  visit  them 
without  leave  from  the  abbot  or  prior.  Everything 
was  to  be  done  for  their  comfort,  both  in  body  and  soul, 
that  they  should  not  miss  the  kindly  offices  of  kinsfolk 
and  friends;  and,  while  the  rigor  of  the  monastic  dis- 
cipline was  to  be  relaxed,  whenever  necessary,  in  their 
favor,  due  supervision  was  to  be  exercised,  lest  there 
should  be  any  abuse  of  the  privileges  of  the  sick-room. 
The  '*infirmarius"  was  to  enforce  silence  at  meals,  to 
check  conversation  in  the  sick-room  at  other  times,  and 
to  discriminate  carefully  between  real  and  fictitious  ail- 
ments. The  sick  were,  if  possible,  to  recite  the  hours 
daily,  and  to  attend  mass  at  stated  times,  and  if  unable 
to  walk  to  the  chapel,  they  were  to  be  carried  thither 
in  the  arms  of  their  brethren.  The  meal  in  the  side- 
room  was  to  be  three  hours  earlier  than  in  the  common 
refectory.  The  abbot  might  allow  a  separate  kitchen 
and  "  buttery  "  for  the  use  of  the  sick  mouks.  The  rule 
of  Cnsarius  of  Aries  ordered  that  the  abbot  was  to  pro- 
vide good  wine  for  the  sick,  the  ordinary  wine  of  the 
monastery  being  often  of  inferior  quality. — Smith,  DicU 
of  Chritt,  A  ntiq,  s.  v.    See  Hospital. 

luformera.  This  class  of  men  originated  before 
the  Christian  sera,  and,  indeed,  before  the  establishment 
of  the  Roman  empire.  When  persecution  arose  against 
the  Church,  the  informers  naturally  sought  gain,  and 
probably  some  credit  with  the  civil  authorities,  by  giv- 
ing information  against  those  who  practiced  Christian 
rites,  since  the  secret  assemblies  of  Christians  for  wor- 
ship came  under  the  prohibition  of  the  Lex  Julia. 
Tertullian  states  {ApoL  c.  6)  that  Tiberius  threatened 
the  accusers  of  the  Christians,  but  the  story  rests  only 
upon  his  statement  He  also  claims  M.  Aurelius  as  a 
protector  of  Christians.  Titus  issued  an  edict,  forbid- 
ding slaves  to  inform  against  their  masters  or  freedmen 
against  their  patrons.  Nerva,  on  his  accession,  repub- 
lished this  edict  **  Jewish  manners,"  i.  e.  probably 
Christianity,  is  especially  mentioned  aa  one  of  the  sul^ 
Jects  on  which  informations  were  forbidden.  In  Pliny's 
well-known  letter  to  Trajan  we  find  the  informers  in 
full  work.  The .  Christians  who  were  brought  before 
him  were  delated,  and  an  anonymous  paper  was  sent 
in,  containing  a  list  of  many  Christians  or  supposed 
Christians.  Trajan,  in  his  answer,  though  he  forbade 
Christians  to  be  sought  out  (i.  e.  by  government  ofll- 
cials),  did  not  attempt  to  put  a  stop  to  the  practice  of 
delation ;  thoee  who  were  informed  against,  if  they  con- 
tinued in  their  infatuation, must  be  punished.  In  the  sub- 
sequent persecutions  a  large  part  of  the  suffering  arose 
from  unfaithful  brethren  who  betrayed  their  frienda. — 
Smith,  Did.  of  ChriiU  A  ntiq.  a.  v.    See  Delatores. 

Inge,  Hugh,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Shepton  Mallet, in  Somersetshire;  educated  in  William 
of  Wickham*s  school  at  Winchester,  and  made  perpet- 
ual fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1484.  In  1496 
he  travelled  in  foreign  countries.  On  his  ratom  he 
was  successively  prebendary  of  East  Harptree,  sob- 
chanter  of  the  Church  of  Wells,  warden  of  Wapulham, 
in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln,  of  Dottying,  in  Somersetshire^ 
by  the  presentation  of  Richard  the  Abbot  and  the  con- 
vent of  Glastonbury,  and  of  Weston.  In  1604  he  was 
in  Rome,  at  which  time  he  was  one  of  king  Henry's 
orators,  selected  to  take  the  renunciation  of  all  preju- 
dicial danses  in  the  apostolic  bulls  for  the  trandation 
of  cardinal  Hadrian  to  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells,  and 
his  oaths  of  fealty  and  allegiance  to  that  monarch.  In 
161 2. he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Meath,  where  be  re- 
mained ten  years.  In  16S1  he  was  promoted  to  the 
see  of  Dublin.  In  16S7  he  was  made  chancellor  of  Ire- 
land. He  repaired  the  palace  of  St.  Sepokhre.  He 
died  in  Dublin,  Ang.  8, 1628.  See  D*Alton,  Mmoin 
of  ike  ArMulwj^  ofDubUn,  p.  182. 


INGELRAM 


687 


INLAGA 


Ingehram  (called  also  bj  some  Newbigging), 
a  Scotch  prelate,  was  rector  of  Peebles  and  archdeacon 
of  the  Church  of  Glasgow,  and  when  in  this  office  he 
was  made  chancellor  by  king  David.  He  was  elected 
and  consecrated  bishop  of  the  see  of  Glasgow  in  1164. 
He  died  Feb.  2, 1174,  leaving,  EpiHota  ad  JHpertos: — 
In  Evou^Ha  Vonumeaiia: — BaUonet  Begin  AdmmU' 
trandi.    See  Keith,  ScotHA  Biikopa,  p.  288. 

Ingelramne,  a  German  prelate,  brought  up  in  the 
schools  of  Goze  and  St.  Anold,  was  made  bishop  of 
Metz  in  768,  being  at  the  same  time  abbot  of  Senones. 
He  died  in  791.    See  Hoefer,  Noiuv,  Biog.  GinUrale^  s.  r. 

Ingen,  a  hero-god  of  Japan,  was  a  native  of  China, 
who  lived  about  1650.  He  was  a  zealous  Buddhist, 
and  was  looked  upon  as  an  illustrious  saint.  But  he 
was  more  especially  venerated  because,  in  answer  to  a 
hto,  or  special  prayer  which  he  offered,  a  plentiful  rain 
had  fallen  in  a  time  of  drought. 

Ingham,  Richard,  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Stansfield,  Yorkshire,  in  1810.  ^or 
some  years  he  was  a  student  at  Oxford  University,  and 
afterwards  in  the  academy  of  the  celebrateil  Rev.  Dan- 
iel Taylor,  in  London.  He  was  baptized  Nov.  20, 1829; 
ordained  deacon  of  a  Baptist  Church,  Dec.  26, 1832; 
licensed  to  preach,  April  5, 1883 ;  gave  np  his  secular 
business  in  1835,  and  pursued  a  course  of  theological 
study  at  Wisbeach;  was  ordained  April  2,  1889,  in 
Bradford,  and  remained  pastor  of  the  Tetley  Street 
Church  till  November,  1847,  when  he  removed  to  Louth. 
His  next  pastorate  was  in  Halifax,  from  1864  to  1862. 
After  two  or  three  brief  pastorates  in  other  places,  he 
returned  to  Bradford  and  became  pastor  of  the  Infirma- 
ry Street  Church.  His  death  took  place  June  1, 1873. 
He  published,  in  1865,  his  Hand-booh  on  Chritiian  Bap' 
Htnif  and  in  1871  his  Christian  Baptism,  iU  Subjects  tmd 
Modes,  He  also  published  his  Appeal  to  Friends,  on 
the  subject  of  baptism.  At  the  time  of  ht»  Heath  he 
had  completed  an  extended  work  on  the  Churca  Estab- 
lishment. Dr.  Ingham  filled  a  high  place  among  the 
scholars  and  preachers  of  that  branch  of  English  Bap- 
tists with  which  he  was  identified,  the  "  General  Bap- 
tists," corresponding  in  most  respects  with  the  Free- 
will BaptisU  of  the  United  States.  See  (Lond.)  Ditp- 
tist  Hand-hook,  1874,  p.  277.     (J.  C.  S.) 

TngUfi^  Alexander,  a  Scotch  prelate,  dean  of 
Dnnkeld,  archdeacon  of  St.  Andrews,  and  keeper  of  the 
roUs,  was  chosen  bishop  of  Dunkeld  in  1483.  But  the 
pope,  being  displeased  because  he  had  not  been  con- 
sulted first,  annulled  the  election.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  91. 

Inglia,  David,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch), 
and  afterwards  a  Presbyterian  minister,  son  of  Rev.  Da^ 
vid  Inglis,  was  bom  June  8, 1824.  He  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1841 ;  studied  divinity 
under  Drs.  Chalmers  and  John  Bro\vn ;  was  licensed  by 
the  Presbytery  of  Carlisle  in  1845,  and  came  to  America 
in  1846.  He  served  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
following  places :  Scotch  Church,  Detroit,  Mich.  (1846) ; 
stated  supply  at  Washington  Heights,  New  York  city ; 
Bedford,  N.'Y.  (1847);  St.  Gabriel  Street,  Montreal, 
Canada,  in  July,  1852 ;  Hamilton,  Ontario  (1855) ;  pro- 
fessor of  systematic  theology  in  Knox  College,  Toronto 
(1871) ;  pastor  of  Reformed  Church,  Brooklyn  Heights 
(1872),  where  he  died,  Dec.  15, 1877.  Dr.  Inglis  was  a 
powerful  and  eloquent  preacher  of  the  great  truths  of 
the  gospel.  He  was  prominent  in  the  deliberations  to 
further  the  union  of  the  different  branches  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada,  in  the  success  and  con- 
summation of  which  he  greatly  rejoiced.  His  publica- 
tions are.  Exposition  of  Iniematitmal  Svnday  -  school 
lessons  in  Sotoer  and  Gospel  Field  (1874-77)  i^Histor- 
ical  Sermon  in  Commemoration  of  the  Twemty-fifih  An- 
mversary  of  the  Church  on  Brooklyn  Heights  (1875) : — 
many  contributions  to  the  press  :^Kedtiier  Lectures,  in 
course  of  preparation  at  his  death.  See  Corwin,  Afan- 
ual  of  the  Btf,  Church  in  A  merica,  8d  ed«  p.  317. 


IngUfl,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1777.  He  graduated  from 
0>lumbia  0>llege  in  1795;  studied  theology  privately, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  New  York  Presby- 
tery in  1801.  In  1802  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Baltimore.  He  died  Aug.  15, 
1820.  He  published,  A  Sermon  on  Fasting,  Uumilia- 
tion,  and  Prayer  (1808):  —  A  Missionary  Sermon, 
preached  in  Philadelphia  in  1812: — and  a  Discourse, 
delivered  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Balti- 
more in  1814.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  PuU 
pit,  iv,  278. 

Inglis,  John,  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  England, 
was  bom  in  New  York  city,  Dec.  9, 1777,  where  his  fa- 
ther, Charles  Inglis,  D.D.,  was  rector  of  Trinity  Church. 
He  received  his  education  at  King's  College,  Windsor. 
In  1800  he  went  to  England  to  advance  the  interests 
of  his  alma  mater;  in  1801  he  took  orders,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  mission  of  Aylesford.  In  1816,  Rev.  Dr. 
Stanser,  rector  of  Sl  Paul's,  became  bishop  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  Dr.  Inglis  succeeded  him  as  rector,  and,  in 
1825,  to  the  bishopric  of  Nova  Scotia,  which  at  that 
time  included  New  Brunswick,  Newfoundland,  and  Ber- 
muda. He  died  in  London,  Oct.  27, 1850.  See  Amer, 
Quar,  Church,  Bev,  1851,  p.  154. 

Ingnersoit  are  the  spirits  of  fire  among  the  Green- 
landers,  and  live  along  the  strand.  They  were  former- 
ly human  beings,  but  when  the  flood  came  they  were 
changed  into  spirits  of  fire. 

Ingraham,  Joskpu  H.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  bora  at  Portlsind,  Me.,  in  1809.  He 
entered  Yale  College,  but  did  not  graduate ;  went  to 
Buenos  Ayies,  South  America,  as  a  commercial  clerk : 
was  for  several  years  after  his  return  a  teacher;  and 
about  1830  became  professor  in  Jefferson  College,  near 
Natchez.  While  here  he  was  widely  known  as  a  writer 
of  novels,  etc,  as  The  South-west,  by  a  Yankee: — La- 
Jitte .'^Burton:— The  Quadroon,  etc  About  1847  he 
was  confirmed  as  a  member  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church,  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  where  he  established 
a  flourishing  seminary  for  young  ladies.  He  was  or- 
dained deacon  in  1851,  and  presbyter  in  1852;  became 
missionary  at  Aberdeen,  Miss. ;  afterwards  was  rector 
of  St.  John's  Church,  Mobile,  Ala. ;  then  at  Riverside, 
Tenn.;  removed  to  Holly  Springs,  in  1868,  where  he 
revived  St.  Thomas's  Hall.  He  died  there,  Dec.  18, 
1860.  Besides  various  religious  pamphlets.  Dr.  Ingra- 
ham was  the  author  of,  The  PHnce  of  the  House  of  Da- 
vidc-^The  PiUar  of  Fire:— htid  The  Throne  of  David, 
which  were  very  populaf*  Seo  Amer,  Quar,  Church 
jeep.  1861,  p.  186. 

Initial  Hymn.    See  Introit. 

Initi&ti,  a  name  applied  to  the  faithful  in  the  early 
Christian  Church,  as  being  initiated,  that  is,  admitted 
to  the  use  of  sacred  ofilces,  and  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
sacred  mysteries  of  the  Christian  religion.  Hence  the 
fathers,  in  speaking  of  any  doctrines  which  were  not 
explained  to  the  catechumens,  were  accustomed  to  say, 
*'  The  initiated  know  what  is  said."  St.  Ambrose  ad- 
dressed a  work  especially  to  the  Initiati. 

Inlaga  are  a  class  of  spirits  whose  worship  forms 
the  most  prominent  feature  in  the  superstitious  prac- 
tices of  Southern  Guinea.  They  are  the  spirits  of  dead 
men ;  but  whether  good  or  evil,  even  the  natives  them- 
selves do  not  know.  The  spirits  of  their  ancestors 
the  natives  call  Abambo ;  but  the  Inlaga  are  the  spirits 
of  strangers,  and  have  come  flrom  a  distance.  Sick,  and 
especially  nervous,  persons  are  supposed  to  be  possesseil 
with  one  or  the  other  of  these  classes  of  spirits,  and  va- 
rious ceremonies  are  performed  to  deliver  them  from 
their  power.  The  patient  is  first  tested  by  the  priest, 
to  ascertain  which  class  of  spirits  has  possession  of  him ; 
he  is  then  exorcised,  and  when  sufficiently  recovered, 
sent  about  his  affairs,  but  under  certain  restrictions,  lest 
his  disease  return. 


msEs 


S88 


IRWING 


Ziine%  John  (I),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  coiuecmted 
bishop  of  the  see  of  Moray,  Jan.  28, 1407.  He  died 
April  25, 14U.     See  Keith,  ScottiMh  Bishops,  p.  142. 

Izmes,  John  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  dean  of 
Ross,  and  bishop  of  the  see  of  Caithness  about  1447. 
He  died  in  1448.    See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  214. 

Innaarolit  are  mountain  spirits  of  the  Greenland- 
ers,  extraordinarily  small,  but  quite  expert. 

Instltor,  Heinrich,  a  Dominican  of  the  I6th  cen- 
tury, is  the  author  of  Malleus  MaUfcarum : — Clypeus 
T,  R,  Eccksim  Befsnsioms  conira  Pickardos  et  Wal' 
daises  :—De  Plenaria  Potestate  PonHfids  et  Monarchia: 
—  Replica  Adversus  SenierUiam  Christum  Nownsi  sub 
ComUtione  t/i  Eucharistia  Adorandum: — Sermones 
XXX  de  Eucharistia.  See  Echard,  De  Scriptoribus 
Ordads  Dominicanorum ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemdnes  GelehrietP- 
Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Interciai  dies  were  days,  among  the  ancient  Bf»- 
mans,  which  were  devoted  partly  to  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  and  partly  to  ordinary  business. 

Invisibility,  an  attribute  ascribed  to  God  in  the 
Scriptures.  For  example,  Paul  (1  Tim.  i,  17)  calls  him 
**the  king  eternal,  immortal,  invisible."  Jesus  says 
(John  i,  18)  *<  No  man  hath  seen  God  at  any  time.**  He 
is  therefore  the  invisible  God. 

Ipabog;  in  Slavonic  mythology,  was  an  idol  of  the 
Wends,  brought  to  light  by  recent  antiquaries,  probably 
worshipped  on  Rtlgen  as  a  god  of  hunting. 

IperlOB,  Joannes  (sumamed  **  the  Lonff")^  a  Bene- 
dictine abbot  of  St.  Bertin,  was  a  native  of  Ypres,  Bel- 
gium, and  died  in  1883.  He  is  the  author  of  a  JSistory  or 
Chronicon  of  his  monastery,  from  the  year  590  to  1294. 
It  has  been  inserted,  under  the  title  of  Chronica,  site 
Historia  Monasterii  S.  Bertitd,  in  the  Thesaurus  Novus 
Aneodotorum,  etc,  iii,  446  sq.  (1717).  He  also  wrote  a 
life  of  Erkembod,  published  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum, 
under  April  12.  See  Andr6,  BibL  Belff.  ii,  669  (1789) ; 
Lichtenberger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences  RtHgieuses,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Irhov,  WiLHELM,  a  Dutch  theologian,  who  died 
Nov.  18,  1760,  at  Utrecht,  doctor  and  professor  of  the- 
ology, is  the  author  of  Conjectanea  PhiloL-CnU-Theolo' 
ffica  in  Psalmorum  Titulos  (Leyden,  1728).  See  Winer, 
ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  82;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  ii,  137. 

(a  P.) 

Irish  Presbyterian  Chnroh.  See  PreAyterian 
Church  in  Ireland,  s.  y.  Pbesbyterian  Chubches. 

Irish  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  The  Irish 
or  Erse  language  is  now  little  known  except  as  the  ver- 
nacular of  an  illiterate  population,  but  it  was  once  the 
language  of  literature  and  science.  The  Roman  letters 
are  often  used  in  Erse  compositions,  but  the  Irish  have 
an  ancient  alphabet  of  their  own,  for  which  they  feel  a 
truly  national  predilection.  The  origin  of  this  alphabet 
is  very  uncertain;  it  bears  some  resemblance  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  it  has  been  questioned  whether  the 
Saxons  derived  their  alphabetical  system  from  the  Irish, 
or  vice  versa.  In  the  dedication  of  the  Irish  Prayer- 
Book  of  1608,  it  is  confidently  asserted  that  the  Saxons 
borrowed  their  letters  from  Ireland. 

The  first  printed  New  Test.,  in  the  Irish  characters, 
was  published  in  1602.  When  bishop  Bedell  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  see  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh,  in  1629,  be 
undertook  the  translation  of  the  Old  Test  Not  being 
acquainted  with  the  language,  he  commenced  to  study 
the  same  at  the  age  of  fifty-seven.  His  next  measure 
was  to  secure  the  services  of  native  Irish  schdars,  and 
with  their  help  the  version  of  the  Old  Test,  was  com- 
pleted in  1640,  to  remain  in  MS.  till  1681.  After  due 
examination  and  revision  it  was  published  in  London 
in  1686,  together  with  the  New  Test, 

More  than  a  century  was  suflTered  to  roll  away  be- 
fore any  efiicient  measures  were  taken  to  reprint  the 
Scriptures  in  Irish,  until,  in  1809,  an  edition  of  2000 


New  Testib,  eonformable  to  the  aoeredited  version  of 
bishop  Bedell,  was  pablished  in  Koman  characters  by 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Other  edi- 
tions followed  in  1813, 1816,  and  1817.  In  the  latter 
year  also  a  complete  Irish  Bible  was  issued,  the  veniioa 
of  Bedell  being  employed  as  the  text  of  the  Old  Test. 
In  the  ooavBe  of  the  following  year  8000  copies  of 
the  New  Test.,  in  the  Irish  character,  were  published, 
and  in  1828  the  entire  Irish  Bible  appeared  in  the 
vernacular.  From  the  report  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  for  the  year  1881  we  learn  that  a 
ilvised  edition  of  the  New  Test,  is  to  be  published, 
ll  order  to  bring  about  such  a  reviuon,  twenty-five 
interleaved  New  Tests,  are  to  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  competent  Irish  scholars,  and  their  corrections  of 
archaisms,  obsolete  words,  and  orthographical  errors 
will  be  examined  by  the  chief  reviser  and  editor,  the 
Rev.  James  Goodman,  Canon  of  Koss,  and  professor  of 
Irish  in  the  University  of  Dublin.  As  the  first  instal- 
ment of  this  revision  the  Gospel  of  Luke  was  publuhed 
in  1884.     See  BibU  of  Every  Land,  p.  160.     (R  P.) 

Irmin  {frmensaule,  Irminsul,  etc),  in  German  my- 
thology, seems  to  have  been  a  principisl  god  of  the  an- 
cient Saxons.  At  Eresbuiig,  now  Stadtbergen,  on  the 
Dimel,  the  famous  pillar  Irmin  is  said  to  have  stood, 
that  was  destroyed  by  Charlemagne  in  772,  during  the 
Saxon  wars.  Might,  courage,  war,  were  all-important 
to  the  Germanic  nations;  therefore  it  is  quite  possible 
that  Irmin  was  a  god  of  war. 

Ir-Nahasb.  Deir  Nakhkhds,  the  probable  repre- 
sentative of  this  site,  lying  one  and  a  half  miles  north- 
east from  Beitjibrln,  is  merely  described  in  the  Mtt- 
moirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey  (iii,  275),  as 
*'a  ruined  birkeh  [pool],  and  a  cave  with  two  hundred 
and  fifty  niches  [for  burial]." 

Iron.  The  modem  representative  of  this  site,  Tarun, 
located  four  miles  north-west  from  £1-Jish  (Ahlab  or 
Gischala),  is  described  in  the  Memoirs  accompanying 
the  Ordnance  Survey  (i,  203),  as  '*  a  stone  village,  con- 
taining about  200  Metawileh  and  200  Christians.  It  is 
situated  on  the  edge  of  a  plain,  with  vineyards  and  ara- 
ble lands;  to  the  west  rises  a  basalt  top,  called  el-Buij 
[the  castle],  full  of  cisterns,  and  supposed  to  be  the  site 
of  an  ancient  castle;  there  are  large  stones  strewn  about; 
three  large  birkehs  [pools]  and  many  cisterns  to  supply 
water;  one  of  the  birkehs  is  ruined."  The  remains  of 
a  large  church  in  the  village  are  described  in  detail 
(p.  258). 

Iroquoia  Version  of  thx  Scbiftures.  This 
version  is  of  very  recent  date.  There  are  also  Iroquois 
Indians  in  the  provinces  of  Quebec  and  Ontario  who 
do  not  understsnd  the  Scriptures  in  Mohawk  published 
by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  For  the 
benefit  of  these  Indians,  the  Four  Gospels  were  pub- 
lished in  1880  at  Montreal  The  translation  was  made 
by  chief  Joseph  Oncsakeural,  revised  by  Jean  Dion  and 
the  Rev.  T.  Laforto.  Chief  Joseph  hsd  all  qualifica- 
tions for  the  translation,  since,  in  1865,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholic  misuonaries  at  Oka,  and 
with  the  approval  of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of 
Montreal,  he  prepared  a  translation  into  Iroqaois  of  the 
Gospels  and  Epistles  used  in  the  MissaL    (B.  P.) 

Zrpeel  is  conjectured  by  Conder  {Teid  Work,  ii,837), 
to  be  represented  by  the  modem  Roffat,  as  two  of  the 
radical  lettera  are  the  same.  This  place  lies  one  and  a 
half  miles  north  of  el-Jib  (Gibeon),and  is  thus  described 
in  the  Memoirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey 
(iii,  13,  also  155) :  ''A  small  hamlet  on  a  ridge,  with  a 
spring  to  the  west,  and  many  rock-cut  tombs. . . .  Traces 
of  ruins :  cisterns  cut  in  roclo,  and  rough  pillar-shafts, 
with  ruins  of  a  modem  viUsge  and  a  Muk&u. 

Inringites.  See  iBvrao,  Edwabd;  Catholic 
Apostolic  Chubch. 

Irwing,  Karl  Fribdrtch  von,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian  of  Germany,  who  was  bom  at  Berlin,  Nov.  21, 1728; 


ISAAC 


589 


ISOCHRIST^ 


and  died  there,  Dec  17, 1801,  member  of  ooDsUtorj,  is 
the  author  of  Venuch  fiber  dm  Urtprvng  der  Erhenatnm 
der  WahrheU  mid  der  Wistentcha/t  (Berlin,  1781).  See 
Winer,  Hcmdbuch  der  iheoL  Lit,  i,  430.     {K  P.) 

Isaac  Abrabamku    See  Abrabakkl,  IsAAa 

Isaac  DB  AooflTA.    See  Aoosta,  Isaac  de. 

Isaac  Alfkz  (or  Ai^ass).    See  Alfez,  Isaac 

Isaac  AussAin.    See  Ibn-Giath,  Isaac. 

Isaac  OF  Antxoch.    See  Isaac  the  Striait  (a). 

Isaac  Abama.    See  Abama,  Isaac. 

Isaac  Atuias.    See  Athias,  Isaac. 

Isaac  CA3fPANTON.    See  Campanton,  Isaac* 

Isaac  Camtasisl    See  Cabtabixi,  Isaac. 

Isaac  CARDOsa    See  Cardoso,  Isaac. 

Isaac  ben-Jehuda  ha -Levi,  a  Jewish  writer  of 
the  17th  century,  is  the  author  of  Ktn  ns^B  O,  a 
Gommentaiy  on  the  Pentateuch,  compiled  from  different 
authors  (Pngue,  1607).  See  Ftttst,  £iU,  Jud,  ii,  142. 
(B.P.) 

Isaac  Laxtbontx    See  Lampronti,  Isaac. 

Isaac  LoRiA.    See  Loria,  Isaac. 

Isaac  BES-MosES.    See  Profiat  Durak. 

Isaac  Nasib.    See  Nasir,  Isaac 

Isaac  ONQxmNiRA.    See  Oxquesira,  Isaac 

Isaac  Orobio.    See  Orobio,  Isaac 

Isaac  VES-SnuDoy  of  Prague,  who  lived  in  the  17th 
century,  is  the  author  of  ISI'^B  uy  ***niQ9  D*^^Q,  L  e. 
the  Midrash  Shocher  Tob  (a  midrash  on  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  and  Samuel),  with  short  glosses  (Prague, 
1618) :— V1*1B  0:9  VQIH,  i.  e.  the  Pentateuch  in  He- 
brew, with  a  JudsBo-German  commentary  (ibid.  1608). 
See  Fttrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  145 ;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario  Sto* 
rioo  (Germ.  transL),  p.  125.     (B.  P.) 

Isaac,  UsiEi^  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Amsterdam,  who 
flourished  in  the  17 th  century,  is  the  author  of  na^^Q 
"plsV,  i.  e.  a  Hebrew  grammar  (Amsterdam,  1657).  See 
Filrst,  BUd.  Jud,  i,  145;  De  Barrios,  Casa  de  Jacob 
(Amsterdam,  1683,  giving  a  Inography  of  Isaac  Usiel). 

cap.) 

Isaac  Viva.    See  Cantarint,  Isaac 

Isaacs,  Samuel  M.,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom  at 
Leeuwarden,  Holland,  Jan.  4, 1804.  His  father  having 
emigrated  to  England,  young  Isaacs  received  his  edu- 
cation there.  In  1839  he  came  to  New  York  to  take 
charge  of  the  congregation  Benai  Jeshurun,  then  wor- 
shipping in  Elm  Street.  In  1857  he  commenced  the 
publishing  of  the  Jewish  MettengeTf  which  was  intend- 
ed to  uphold  conservative  Judaism  against  the  so-called 
reformed  party.  In  1877  Isaacs  retired  from  his  min- 
istry of  the  Sliaare  Tcflla  congregation,  with  which  he 
bad  been  connected  since  1845,  and  died  May  19, 1878. 
He  was  highly  respected,  not  only  by  his  own  core- 
ligionists, but  also  by  Christians.     (B.  P.) 

Isbraniki,  a  sect  of  Russian  dissenters,  which  arose 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  The  name  which 
they  assumed  means  the  company  of  the  elect,  but  they 
were  reckoned  by  the  adherents  of  the  established  re- 
ligion among  the  JRaskohnka  (q.v.)  or  Schismatics.  The 
cause  of  their  separation  was  a  difficulty  concerning  the 
revision  of  the  church  books.  These  books  were  print- 
ed in  1562,  under  the  czar,  John  Basilidea,  from  manu- 
script copies,  which,  being  considered  incorrect,  were 
somewhat  altered  in  their  printed  form.  The  changes 
introduced  were  regarded  by  some  as  teaching  unsound 
doctrine,  and  a  sect  arose  who  adhered  to  the  former 
books,  and  called  themselves  Starovertsi,  or  believers  in 
the  old  faith.  These  dissenters,  however,  were  com- 
paratively few  in  number  till  about  the  middle  of  the 
following  oentniy,  when,  in  oonseqneoce  of  a  revision 


of  the  eharch  books  by  the  patriarch  Nikon,  the  cry  of 
unsound  doctrine  was  again  raised,  and  the  numb^  of 
dissenters  increased.  This  sect  was  tolerated  by  the 
state  under  Alexander  1. 

Ise  (or  I^je),  the  name  of  a  central  province  of  Ja- 
pan, to  which  the  religious  sect  of  the  Shiutrists  re- 
quires each  of  its  adherents  to  make  a  pilgrimage  once 
a  year,  or  at  least  once  in  their  Ufe.  In  Isje  is  the 
grand  Mia  or  temple  of  Teusio-Dai-Jin,  which  is  the 
model  after  which  all  the  other  temples  are  built.  Isje 
is  a  place  of  no  natural  attractions.  It  is  rather  re- 
garded as  a  monument  of  antique  poverty  and  simplic- 
ity. The  Mia  where  the  pilgrims  pay  their  devotions 
is  a  low  wooden  edifice  with  a  flat  thatched  roof,  and 
on  entering  nothing  is  to  be  seen  but  a  metallic  mirror, 
which  is  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  the  deity,  and  some 
white  paper,  which  is  considered  the  emblem  of  purity 
of  heart.  The  worshippers  do  not  presume  to  enter 
this  temple,  but  look  through  a  lattice  window  from 
without  while  they  say  their  prayers. 

Ishtar,  one  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians  alike,  although  she  was  generically  one  of 
the  deities  of  the  second  rank.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  the  moon-god  Sin,  and  was  identified  by  the  Chal- 
dnans  with  the  planet  Venus.  She  was  essentially  a 
wariike  goddess,  and  was  called  the  ''Goddess  of  Bat- 
tles and  of  Victories,"  in  which  attribute  she  was  often 
represented  as  giving  a  bow  to  the  Assyrian  king  in 
token  of  his  victories  over  his  foes.  She  was  .also,  as 
the  goddess  of  productive  nature,  the  keeper  of  all  the 
treasures  of  the  earth,  and  hence  was  figured  as  Allaf, 
the  "  Queen  of  the  Spear  or  Divining-rod."  In  another 
form  of  the  same  principle  she  was  the  goddess  of  sensual 
indulgence.  She  was  the  special  protectress  of  Erech, 
and  in  her  character  of  Anna,  or  Nana,  of  Nineveh, 
while  she  was  distinguished  also  at  Arbela,  another 
great  seat  of  her  worship,  as  Ishtar  of  Arbela.  Her 
offices,  names,  and  attributes  were  very  various,  and 
there  appears  to  have  been  two  Ishtars,  mother  and 
daughter,  one  the  great  nature  goddess,  the  other  the 
heroine  of  one  of  the  mythical  legends,  called  the  ^*  De- 
scent of  Ishtar  into  Hades."  There  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  confusion  3-et  remaining  to  be  cleared  away 
with  regard  to  the  relations  of  IshUr  to  Davcina,  Bilit, 
Ashtaroth,  and  Izdubar;  but  generally  the  mythologies 
agree  in  making  her  the  goddess  most  brought  into 
contact  with  men  and  the  under  world. 

Ising,  JoHANN  Christian,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  born  Oct.  24, 1617,  in  Austria.  He 
studied  at  Konigsberg,  and  died  there,  July  4, 1684,  ca- 
thedral deacon.  He  wrote  Exercitationet  Hisior,  Chro- 
noL  Gtograph,  et  Philol  in  Pentateuchum  et  Joeuatn. 
See  Arnold,  Hittorie  der  Iconigebergitchen  Universitdt; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gekhrtei^Lexikonj  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ismaillyah,  the  followers  of  Ismail  or  Ismail  (q.  v.). 

Isoard,  JoACtim  Jran  Xavier  d',  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  bom  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  Oct.  23, 1766.  His 
family  originated  in  Dauphind,  and  was  a  very  an- 
cient one.  He  lost  his  father  when  he  was  a  child, 
and  was  placed  into  the  seminary  of  Aix  by  his  mother 
When  the  Bonapartes  took  refuge  upon  the  continent, 
they  found  some  support  in  the  family  of  Isoard.  About 
that  time  he  departed  for  Italy,  and  connected  himself, 
in  1794,  with  the  count  of  Provence,  at  Verona.  On  his 
return  to  his  native  city  in  the  same  year  he  associated 
himself  with  a  royalist  band,  and,  it  is  said,  was  instru- 
mental in  saving  the  life  of  Lucien  Bonaparte.  When 
Pius  VII  was  brought  as  a  captive  to  France,  Isoanl 
followed  him.  Napoleon  proposed  to  him  some  high 
empbyments,  and  even  a  place  in  the  senate,  but  he 
refused.  After  the  death  of  cardinal  Fesch,  in  May, 
1889,  Isoard  was  designated  to  replace  him,  June  14. 
He  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  8  of  the  same  year.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Generale,  s.  v. 

IsOChrlBtaB  (from  i^oct  eqvial,  and  XpittroQt  ChriiC^^ 


ISOLANI 


690 


IZDUBAR 


some  followers  of  Origeiii  who  were  charged  ¥rith  mAin^ 
taining  that  the  apostles  were  raised  to  equal  glory 
with  their  master.  They  were  condemned  by  a  coun- 
cil at  Constantinople  in  553. 

laolani,  Giaoomo,  an  Italian  legislator  and  cardi- 
nal, was  bom  at  Bologna.  He  had  obtained  a  great 
reputation  as  a  scholar,  being  well  versed  both  in  civil 
and  canonical  law,  when,  after  the  loss  of  his  wife,  he 
decided  to  enter  the  ministry.  He  soon  became  dis- 
tinguished in  his  new  position,  and  after  he  had  filled 
several  important  functions,  pope  John  XIII  made  him 
cardinal,  in  1414,  and  left  him  his  vicar  at  Rome,  where 
he  was  made  prisoner  by  the  troops  of  Ladislas,  king  of 
Naples.  Finally  he  was  set  at  liberty  by  the  efforts  of 
Giacomo  SforQa  Attendole,  and  Fclippe  Ikfaria  Visoonti 
made  him  governor  of  Genoa.  He  died  at  Milan,  Feb. 
19, 1431,  leaving  several  ConsUiai  and  other  works  on 
law.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GiMrale^  s.  v. 

Isparetta  was  the  supreme  god  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  coast  of  Malabar.  When  the  earth  was  to  be 
created  he  changed  himself  into  an  egg,  from  which 
heaven  and  earth,  and  all  that  it  contains,  sprang. 

Israel  bkh-Mosbs,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, is  the  author  of  cbnn  bj  1'»*in^  d'^OP,  a  caba- 
listic exposition  of  the  Psalms  (Lublin,  1592,  preceded 
by  an  essay  9n  the  soul) :— *'bt3Q  ^5  *\'^*^t^^  D'»nr,  a 
cabalistic  exposition  of  Proverbs  (ibid.  eod.).  The  es- 
say on  the  soul  was  published  separately,  with  a  Latin 
translation  by  Voisin  (Paris,  1G35).  See  Furst,  BOL 
JttdLi,  149.    (RP.) 

laraell,  PauL    Sec  Riccius,  Paul. 

Israeli,  SamueL     See  Moitooco,  Samuel  la- 

BAELL 

Tarafll^  the  angel  who,  according  to  the  Mohamme- 
dans, will  sound  the  trumpet  which  is  to  summon  the 
world  to  judgment  on  the  last  day. 

Isselburg,  Heinrtoh,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany!  who  died  at  Bremen  in  1629,  is  the  author  of, 
AfeduUa  Papitmi  de  Arce  ac  Judiee  Controvertiarum 
Theolofficarum :  —  Digeriei  PnBopuarum  Controvert, 
inter  Romcmot  Pontifices  et  Protettantes  Orthodoxos: — 
Manuale  Pauperum  Spirittt: — De  Jure  Protettantium 
contra  Ponttf,  Rom,  Ejusque  Concilia^  Imperwm  atque 
Anathema:  —  Catechesit  BeUgionit  Chrittiana  Anato- 
men: — JJe  Ckaritate  ChrtMtiana.  See  Witte,  Diarium 
Bioffi-aphicum ;  Jocher,  AUgemdnes  Gelehrten-Lexihon, 
8.V.     (a  P.) 

Isthmian  Gambs,  one  of  the  great  national  festi- 
vals among  the  ancient  Greeks,  which  derived  its  name 
from  the  uthmus  of  Corinth,  where  they  were  celebrated. 
They  were  held  every  third  year,  in  honor  of  Poseidon, 
or,  as  some  allege,  ever>'  fifth  year.  See 
Games. 

Istio,  in  Teutonic  mythology,  was  one 
of  the  three  sons  of  Mannus,  and  the  father 
of  one  of  the  three  races  of  the  Germans. 

Ithun,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  held  im- 
prisoned under  the  ash-tree  Ygdrasil.  Prob- 
ably this  Ithun  is  identical  with  Jduna, 
who  guards  the  rejuvenating  apples  of  the 
gods. 

Itogay,  a  household  god  among  the 
Mongol  Tartars.  He  is  the  guardian  *of 
their  families,  and  presides  over  all  the 
products  of  the  earth.  The  Tartar  does  not 
presume  to  dine  until  this  god  and  his  fam- 
ily have  been  first  served,  by  covering  the 
months  of  the  idols  with  grease.  When 
the  people  have  din6d  they  throw  out  the 
fragments,  expecting  them  to  be  devoured  by  some  an- 
known  spirits. 

Ittur  Bopherim  (D*^*l&iD  1!|S»9,  ablaHo  teriba- 
rum)  denotes  the  removal  of  a  superfluous  1  which  had 
crept  into  the  text.    The  Masorites  have  noticed  five 


instances  of  such  a  superfluous  \  which  has  errone- 
ously been  prefixed  to  ^flK  in  Gen.xviii,5;  xxiv,  55; 
Numb,  xxxi,  2;  Psa.  Ixviii,  26,  and  to  the  word 
-]*^:3Bt9Q  in  Psa.  xxxvi,  7.  See  Nedarim,  foL  37, 
ool  2;  OdUah  re  OdUah,  sect.  217,  p.  128;  Lenz,  Dit- 
eertatio  de  Notts  Mcuorethicitf  Pitka,  Tikkun  Sopherim 
et  TUur  Sopherim  (Wittenboig,  1702) ;  Werchau,  De 
A  blatione  Scribarum  (Leipsic,  1715 ;  reprinted  in  Ha- 
siBus  and  Ikenius's  Thesaurutj  i,  19-26) ;  Trclgard,  De 
Ablatiottibus  et  Orduuttiombut  Scribarum  in  Matora 
Notatio  (Greifawalde,  1763);  Geiger,  Urtchrift  und 
Uebertetzungen  der  Bibel  (Breslau,  1857),  p.  25U254; 
Strack,  Prolegomena  Critica  (Leipsic,  1873),  p.  86* 
(B.P.) 

Ives,  DwioHT,  D,D,f  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
West  Springfield,  Mass.,  Sept.  20, 1805.  He  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1835,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  soon  after. 
He  removed  to  Alton,  lU.,  in  1886,  to  take  charge  of  the 
Baptist  church  in  that  place,  where  he  had  a  very  suc- 
cessful ministry.  The  climate  proving  unfavorable  to 
his  health,  he  returned  to  New  England,  and  became 
pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist  Church  in  SufBeld,  Conn., 
in  1839,  and  continued  in  oflice  until  1874.  His  pastor- 
ate here  was  one  of  great  ability,  and  singularly  blessed. 
He  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Connecticut  Literary  Institution,  a  seminary  of  a  high 
order,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Baptists  of  Connecti- 
cut  He  resigned  his  pastorate  in  April,  1874,  and  re- 
moved to  Conway,  Mass.,  where  he  performed  ministe- 
rial duties  as  his  health  would  permit,  until  bis  death, 
Dec.  22, 1876.    (J.CS.) 

Ixcuina  was  the  goddess  of  love  and  all  joys,  the 
Venus  of  the  Mexicans. 

I^on,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  the  son  of  Antion 
and  Perimela,  king  in  Thessaly.  He  married  Dia,  the 
daughter  of  Deioneus,  but  refused  to  pay  the  promised 
wedding  presents  to  her  father,  wherefore  the  latter 
took  possession  of  a  number  of  horses  of  Ixion  as  a  sub- 
stitute. Txiqn  promised  to  give  Deloneus  what  he 
wanted,  aud  caused  him  to  faU  into  a  cave  of  red-hot 
coals,  under  the  pretence  it  was  a  cave  of  gold.  It  was 
so  great  a  crime  that  no  man  would  purify  him.  Jupiter 
did  this  himself,  and  was  so  pleased  with  Ixion  that  he 
fed  him  at  the  table  of  the  gods.  A  new  crime  sprang 
up  in  the  heart  of  the  murderer.  He  longed  fur  the  love 
of  Juno.  Juno  forgave  him,  and  formed  Nephele  (a 
cloud),  by  whom  Ixion  became  father  of  the  Centaurs. 
Finally,  Jupiter's  patience  becoming  exhausted,  he 
threw  him  into  Tartarus,  whero  he  remains,  tortured 
by  the  Furies,  along  with  Sisyphus  and  Tantalus.  His 
penalty  is  to  turn  a  wheel  which  perpetually  reooila. 


Ixion  and  his  Wheel. 

lactitlon  is  the  .£sculapius  of  the  Mexicans^  the 
protecting  god  of  the  medical  art 

Isdubar  (or  Oizdubar,  Mast  of  Fire)  is,  accord- 
ing to  the  newly  discovered  Izdubar  Tablets,  an  early 
mythical  Assyrian  hero,  who  was  probably  a  form  of  the 


IZDITBAR 


591 


JACKSON 


■oIbt  deity.  He  was  a  great  cbieftaio,  aud  delivered 
the  city  of  Erech  when  it  was  assailed  by  the  giants. 
He  had  for  his  wife  the  goddess  Ishtar,  who  proved  an- 
faithfal  to  him,  and  sent  some  monstrous  bulls  to  destroy 
him.  These  animals  he  was  enabled  to  slay  by  the  as- 
sistance of  his  faithful  friend  and  adviser,  the  deified 
sage  Heabani,  who  was  ultimately  killed  by  an  unknown 
insect  or  reptile,  called  a  Tambnkki.  Izdubar  after- 
wards, becoming  afflicted  with  a  cuuneoua  disoider,  went 
by  the  advice  of  his  boatman,  Urbamsi,  to  seek  the  sage 
Adrahasis,  who,  having  survived  the  Deluge,  was  sup- 
posed to  be  able  to  cure  him  of  his  malady.  Adrahasis 
complied  with  his  request,  and  related  to  him  in  con- 
siderable detail  the  legend  of  the  flood.  Upon  return- 
ing to  Erech,  Izdubar  set  up  a  monument  in  memory 
alike  of  his  cure  and  of  the  story  related  by  his  bene- 
factor, and  then,  by  the  aid  of  enchantment,  had  the  soul 
of  Heabani  raised  up  to  commune  with  him.  Isdubar 
seems  after  these  events  to  have  become  a  king,  but  his 
history  is  so  mixed  up  with  a  mythological  series  of 


legends  that  his  real  character  is  uncertain,  as  also  aiSi 
of  course,  his  parentage  and  birth. 

Ized,  in  Persian  mythology,  is  a  name  of  the  twenty- 
eight  good  genii  of  the  second  rank,  who  recognize  Or- 
muzd  and  his  seven  assistants,  the  Amshaspands,  as 
their  ruler.  The  Izeds  are  male  and  female  beings  of 
greatest  purity  and  mildness,  created  by  Ormuzd,  the 
representative  of  the  highest,  invisible  god,  and  super- 
intend the  year,  the  month,  the  day,  the  hour,  guide 
men  on  Ufe*8  journey,  command  the  animal  aud  vegeta- 
ble world,  and  rule  the  natural  laws  and  elements,  and  are 
in  continuous  combat  with  Ahriman  and  his  evil  spirits. 

Isqulerdo,  Sbbastiako^  a  Jesuit,  was  born  at  Al- 
caraz,  Spain,  in  1601.  He  was  rector  of  the  colleges  at 
Murcia  and  Alcala,  and  died  about  1680.  He  wrote, 
Opvt  Theohgicum  et  Philosopkicum : — Praxis  Exercv- 
tioHum  Spiritualium.  See  Alegambe,  BiUiotktca  Scrip' 
iorum  Societads  Jesu ;  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrtm- 
Lexicon,  s.  v. ;  Antonii  Bibliotheca  l/ispaniccu    (B.  P.) 


J. 


Jaabes,  Isaac,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Constantinople, 
who  died  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  is  the 
author  of  ^Dn  rniD,  a  commentary  on  the  Hagiogra- 
pha,  consisting  of  ten  different  parts :  1,  Di7l?n  IS^p, 
on  the  Song  of  Songs ;  2,  D*ip  HQIB,  on  Ruth ;  8, 
O^liri  rp^:if  on  Lamentations;  4,  S*lO  '»n50,  on 
Coheleth;  5,  Dli^J  m:35,  on  Esther;  6,  •»"■>  minPl, 
on  the  Psalms;  7,'<"'^  '»mab,on  Proverbs;  8,  "^TC  n^n*^, 
onJob;  9,mntZ5"»  PD^.S,  on  Daniel;  10,»«»OlO  D">Oin, 
on  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  reprinted  in  Moses  Frankfurter's 
Rabbmic  Bible  (Amsterdam,  1724-27).  See  De'  Bossi, 
Dixumario  Storieo  (Genu.  transL),  p.  188;  F&rat,  BibL 
Jud»  ii,  2. 

Jaabes,  Joseph  ben-Abraham^  a  Jewish  rabbi  of 
the  16th  century,  belonged  to  those  exiles  who  left 
Spain  in  1492.  Jaabez  settled  at  Adrianople,  where  he 
became  rabbi  preacher.  He  wrote  n*i^nKM  ^QKt3,  or 
8}*8tem  of  Jewish  dogmatics  (Ferrara,  1554) :  —  ^10*^ 
n3*I^Kn,  or  Dogmatics  of  Judaism,  printed  with  the 
"system:"— D'^'^nn  *i'IK,or  faith  triumphant  over  phi- 
losophy (ibid.  eod. ;  Amsterdam,  1781 ;  Przemysl,  1873)  : 
— D*^bnn  hv  Q^lifi,  a  commentary  on  the  Psalms  (Sa- 
lonika, 1671).  See  De'  Rossi,  Dizionai^  Storieo  (Germ, 
transi),  132  sq.;  Fttrst,  BibLJudAh  1 :  Jellinek,  Joteph 
Jaabez^  tine  kurxe  Biographie  in  LitercUur'Blatt  dee 
OrienU,  1846,  coL  261  sq.     (R  P.) 

Jaafaxltes,  a  Mohammedan  sect  who  held  in  high- 
est reverence  the  memory  of  Jaafar,  the  sixth  of  the 
twelve  Imams.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  by 
Nadir  Shah  to  assimilate  the  Persian  Mohammedanism 
to  that  of  the  Turks,  acknowledging  Jaafar  as  the  head 
of  the  new  national  faith.    See  Imams,  thk  Twelve. 

Jaazer.  Khurbet  Sdr,  the  probable  representative 
of  this  locality,  b  laid  down  at  seven  miles  west  of  Am- 
min,  with  notes  of  a  pool,  tower,  and  sarcophagi  ad- 
Joining,  on  the  reduced  Map  of  the  Ordnance  Survey 
in  the  fragment  published  east  of  the  Jordan ;  but  the 
Memoirs  containing  details  have  not  appeared.  It  is 
situated  on  the  road  running  along  the  south  side  of 
Wady  Sir.  Tristram  says  {Bible  Places,  p.  887) :  "  It 
consists  only  of  grass-grown  mounds  and  rows  of  foun- 
dations at  the  very  head  of  the  valley,  above  a  marshy 
spring,  the  highest  source  of  the  Seir."  Merrill  says 
iEast  of  the  Jordan,  p.  405), "  Sar  we  made  to  be  8400 
feet  above  the  sea-level;"  the  Map  indicates  1890  feet. 

Jabbok.  Wady  Zerhoy  the  modem  name  of  this 
stream  (which  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
Zerka  Main,  farther  south,  near  Callirrhofi),  has  been 


explored  by  Dr.  MerriU,  whose  account  closes  thus 
(East  of  the  Jordan,  p.  881)  : 

"Its  winding  course  is  remarkable,  making  it  in  this  re- 
gard unlike  auy  other  river  of  Syria.  The  Jordan  is  more 
crooked,  having  almost  innumerable  short  bends;  bnt 
the  Jabbok  sweeps  far  out  Into  the  desert,  then  doubles 
back  uuon  itself,  and  forces  its  way  through  a  mountain. 
The  valley  is  seventy  or  more  miles  in  length,  and  is  ex- 
ceedingly fertile.  Alonz  Its  head -waters  lived  a  great 
and  powerftil  race,  which  existed  from  the  earliest  ad- 
vent of  the  Hebrews  In  this  region  clear  down  to  a  pe- 
riod snbseqnent  to  the  time  of  Christ.  ...  Its  capacities 
are  great,  liecause  every  acre  cau  be  reached  by  irnj^atlng 
canals.  Even  at  present  it  is  very  extensively  cnltivaied, 
and  contains  many  fine  farms.  Ou  the  hill-sides  there  are, 
at  certain  points,  some  niinscd  canols,  of  which  a  few  can 
be  traced  to  a  distance  of  Ave  or  eight  miles." 

Jabme  Acoo  was  a  goddess  worshipped  by  the 
Laplanders,  the  mother  of  death.  Her  dwelling  was 
deep  in  the  bed  of  the  earth,  and  the  departed  remained 
with  her,  until  their  destiny  was  decided  by  the  judges 
of  the  infernal  regions. 

Jabneel  of  Naphtali  is  identified  by  Conder 
{Teni  Work,  ii, 837),  with  Yemma,  a  modern  village  with 
a  spring  of  the  same  name,  four  miles  south-west  of  the 
Sea  of  Tiberias,  but  with  no  special  signs  of  antiquity 
(^Memoirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Map,  i,  365). 

Jabneh.  The  modern  site  Y^bnah  is  located  mid- 
way (four  and  a  quarter  miles)  between  Akir  (Ekron) 
and  the  shore,  and  is  thus  spoken  of  in  the  Memoirs  ac- 
companying the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,441):  *'  The  mod- 
em village  occupies  a  strong  position  on  a  rounded  hill, 
the  houses  being  mostly  of  mud.  The  only  remains  of 
interest  noted  were  the  church  in  the  village  and  the 
mosque  west  of  it,"  which  are  described  in  detail. 

Jaobja,  David.    See  Ibh-Jaciija,  David. 

Jachja,  Gtodalja.    See  Ibx-Jachja,  Gedalja. 

Jacbja,  Joseph.    See  Ibx-Jachja,  Joseph. 

Jachmaiin,  Joiianm  Gottlieb,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Oermany,  was  bom  at  Breslau,  Jan.  8, 1727.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1752  conrector  of  the  Mag- 
dalene Gymnasium  at  Breslau,  in  1767  provost  of  St. 
Mary's  and  St.  George's  churches,  at  OeLs  Silesia,  and 
died  Feb.  15, 1776.  He  wrote,  De  Sabbatho  ante  Legem 
Mosaicam  Existente  (Leipsic,  lliS)  i—Spicilegium  06- 
servationum  in  Matthai  Caput  xstiv  (1749) : — Observatio 
Exegetica  in  Its,  xxvi,  19  (1749).:— De  Beringeri  Edi" 
tione  N»  Test,  Germamca  (Breslau,  1757) : — Be  Josepho, 
pro'rtge  uEggptiorum  (1764) : — De  Justino,  Martyro  et 
Philosopho  (1765).  See  J5cher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrteth' 
Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jvd.  ii,  5.     (B.  P.) 

Jaokaon,  Abner,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  graduated  from  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, 0>nD.,  in  1837,  and  taught  there  for  several  years. 


JACKSON 


592 


JACOB 


In  1858  he  was  made  president  of  Hobart  College, 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  alao  held  the  Startin  professorefaip 
of  the  evidences  of  Chrbtianity.  In  1867  he  removed 
to  Hartford,  Conn.,  becoming  president  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, where  he  was  also  Hobart  professor  of  ethics  and 
metaphysics,  and  continued  in  that  position  until  his 
death,  April  19, 1874,  aged  sixty-three  years.  In  1873 
he  was  deputy  from  his  diocese  to  the  General  Con- 
vention, and  was  one  of  the  standing  committee  in  1871. 
See  ProL  Episc,  A  Imanac,  1875,  p.  144. 

Jackson,  Charles  Davis,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  at  Salem,  Mass.,  Dec. 
15, 1811.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in 
1833 ;  studied  theology  two  years  in  Andover  Theolog- 
ical Seminar}';  was  engaged  in  teaching  several  years; 
ordained  deacon  in  1841,  and  presbyter  in  1842;  served 
OS  rector  of  St.  Stephen's  Chcich  one  or  two  years;  of 
St.  Luke's,  Staten  Island,  from  1843  to  1847,  and  there- 
after of  St.  Peter's,  Westchester  County,  N.  Y.,  for  more 
than  twenty  years.  He  died  June  28, 1871.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  work  on  Popular  Education,  and  another 
on  The  Relalion  o/ Education  to  Crime,  besides  Sermons* 

Jackson,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  June  16, 1798.  He  graduated 
from  Brown  University  in  1817,  and  studied  theology 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  for  over  a  year  (1821) ; 
was  ordained  in  1822;  then  took  charge  of  a  Baptist 
Church  in  Charlestown,  Mass. ;  next  of  the  Firbt  Bap- 
tist Church  of  Hartford,  Conn.  (1836) ;  of  New  Bedford, 
Mass.  (1839) ;  of  the  Central  Church,  Newport,  R.  I. 
(1847),  and  continued  there  till  his  sudden  death,  March 
2,  1863.  See  Trien.  Cat,  of  Andover  TkeoL  Sem,  1870, 
p.  48. 

Jackson,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was  bora 
in  London,  Feb.  22, 1811.  After  studying  at  the  Read- 
ing School,  under  Dr.  Richard  Valpy,  he  entered  Pem- 
broke College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1833,  in 
the  tirst  class  in  classics.  He  was  appointed  to  the 
head-mastership  of  Islington  Grammar-school  in  1836. 
In  1846  he  was  made  rector  of  St.  James's  Church,  Pic- 
cadilly, an  appointment  which  soon  made  widely  known 
his  qualities  as  a  preacher  of  singularly  impressive 
earnestness  and  his  powers  as  the  administrator  of  a 
large  and  populous  district  In  1847  Dr.  Jackson  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  the  queen,  and  in  1845,  1850, 
1862,  and  1866  he  was  a  select  preacher  at  Oxford.  In 
1852  he  was  made  canon  of  Bristol  In  1858  he  deliv- 
ered the  Boyle  lectures  in  London,  and  in  the  same  year 
was  made  bishop  of  Lincoln.  He  was  transferred  to 
the  see  of  London,  Jan.  4, 1869,  and  died  Jan.  6, 1884. 
Dr.  Jackson  published  many  sermons  and  charges,  and 
a  popular  pamphlet  on  The  iSinfubuss  t^f  Little  Sim, 

Jackson,  Samuel  Cram,  D.D.,  a  (>>ngregational 
minister,  son  of  Rev.  Dr.  William  Jackson,  was  bom  at 
Dorset,  Yr.,  March  13, 1802.  He  graduated  from  Mid- 
dlebury  College  in  1821,  and  studied  for  some  time  in 
the  law  school  at  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  graduated  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1826 ;  was  ordained 
June  6  of  the  following  year  as  pastor  of  West  Church, 
in  Andover,  from  which  he  was  -dismtssed  in  Septem- 
ber, 1850,  and  became  assistant  secretary  of  the  State 
Boartl  of  Education,  also  acting  librarian  of  the  State 
Library,  which  office  he  held  until  1877.  He  died  July 
26, 1878.  Dr.  Jackson  published,  Bleuinga  of  the  Year, 
a  sermon  at  West  Andover,  Dec.  30, 18!27 :  —  Funeral 
Discourse  of  Rev,  S,  G,  Pierce,  Methuen,  May  10, 1839 : 
^Thanksgiving  Sermon,  Nov.  28,  1839 :— •  TAe  License 
Law  Vindicated: — Religious  Principle  a  Source  qfPub- 
he  Prosperity, '  —  The  Massachusetts  Ejection  Sermon 
(1843).    See  Cong,  Year-booh,  1879,  p.  45. 

Jackson,  Thomas,  an  eminent  Weslejran  Method- 
ist minister  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Sancton,  Yorkshire, 
Dec  10, 1783.  He  had  no  educational  advantages  in 
youth,  but  by  extraordinary  diligence  in  reading  and 
stady,continued  with  unabated  vigor  through  a  long  life, 
he  attained  to  a  goal  degree  of  learning,  though  he  was 


never  a  first-class  scholar.  He  was  converted  in  yoatb, 
entered  the  ministry  in  1804,  and  was  soon  brought  into 
notice  by  the  wise,  spirited,  and  faithful  manner  in  which 
he  discharged  the  various  duties  of  a  young  Wesleyan 
minister.  While  at  Wakefield  he  had  a  sharp  contest 
with  a  Dissenting  minister  of  Holmfirth,  Rev.  J.  Cock- 
in,  about  the  ''Five  Points,"  and  his  Four  Letters  to 
that  gentleman  were  the  beginning  of  his  long  career  as 
an  author  (Leeds,  1814^15, 8vo).  The  Caivinistie  Con^ 
trover^.  The  Times  of  Charles  the  First,  The  Common-^ 
weakh  and  the  RedoraHon,  the  writings  of  Wesley, 
Fletcher,  etc.,  and  The  Early  History  of  Methodism 
were  thoroughly  studied,  so  that  in  these  fields  Jackson 
became,/^zctfe  prinoeps,  and  his  works  in  these  lines  have 
great  and  enduring  value.  During  his  first  year  at 
Wakefield  (1814),  he  read  through  with  care  neariy 
sixty  volumes,  and  he  never  subeequently  diminished 
the  amount  of  his  reading.  From  1824  to  1843  he  was 
editor  of  the  MagoMine  and  Book -room  publications, 
and  during  these  eighteen  years  he  did  an  amount  of 
ministerial  and  literary  work  that  is  marvellous.  Dur- 
ing the  centenary  year  of  Methodism  (1838)  he  was 
made  president  of  the  conference,  was  requested  to  pre- 
pare a  volume  on  the  subject  of  the  centenary,  describ- 
ing the  rise,  progress,  and  benefits  of  Wesleyan  Method- 
ism, and  was  appointed  to  preach  the  centenary  sermon 
before  the  conference;  yet  Jackson  went  through  all 
this  extra  work,  and  the  great  success  of  the  movement 
was  largely  due  to  his  pen,  preaching  and  pleading,  hia 
godliness  making  itself  felt  through  all  Methodism.  In 
1849  he  was  for  the  second  time  elevated  to  the  presi- 
dency. For  nineteen  years  (1843-62)  he  was  theological 
tutor  at  Richmond,  being  painstaking,  perspicuous,  com- 
prehensive, and  copious  in  his  lectures,  and  **  unutterably 
anxious  to  perpetuate  sonnd  doctrine."  He  became  a 
superoumeraiy  in  1861,  taking  up  his  residence  in  the 
suburbs  of  London,  and  preached  and  wrote  as  long  as  he 
was  able.  "  His  old  age  was  beautifuL  Always  calm, 
cheerful,  benign,  often  overflowing  with  kindness  and 
love,  he  carried  a  happy  influence  wherever  he  went, 
and  excited  universal  love  and  admiration."  He  died 
at  Shepherd*s  Bush,  near  London,  March  10, 1873.  A 
list  of  Mr.  Jackson's  numerous  works,  which  are  largely 
contributions  to  Methodist  biography  and  literature, 
may  be  found  in  Osboro,  Methodist  Biiiography,  p.  122. 
See  RecoUeetions  of  my  Own  Life  and  Times,  by  Thomas 
Jackson  (Loud.  1878);  Minutes  of  the  British  Confer^- 
ence,  1873,  p.  25;  Smith,  IlisL  of  West  Mdhodiem  (in- 
dex, vol.  iii) ;  Stevenson,  City^Roc^  Chapel,  p.  284 :  Sun- 
day  at  Home  (Lond.  March  28, 1874) ;  Everett,  Wesl^an 
Takings,  i,  841. 

Jacob,  Rabbi,  is  the  name  of  a  Jewish  teacher  who 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  2d  century  of  our  «ra. 
We  have  a  recorded  maxim  of  his  in  the  treatise  Pirhe 
Aboth:  **Th\B  world  is  like  a  vestibule  beforo  the 
world  to  come ;  prepare  thjrself  at  the  vestibule,  that 
thou  mayest  be  admitted  into  the  halL  Better  is  one 
hour  of  repentance  and  good  works  in  this  world  than 
all  the  life  of  the  world  to  come ;  better  is  one  hour  of 
refreshment  of  spirit  in  the  world  to  come  than  all  the 
lifeofthUworld"(ch.iv,28,24).    (R  P.) 

Jacob  Erlandskn,  a  Danish  prelate,  was  original- 
ly dean  of  the  chapter  of  Lund,  in  which  capacity  he 
attended  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  1245.  He  afterwanla 
became  bishop  of  Roeskilde,  and  archbishop  of  Lund  in 
1253.  He  died  May  10, 1274.  See  Hoefer,  iVbtcv.  J&io^. 
GMrale,  s.  v. 

Jacob  BEM-IsAAC  of  Prague,  who  died  about  1628, 
is  the  author  of  SlS'^fit'll  na*^M:C,  or  a  Judso-German 
midrash  on  the  Pentateuch,  the  five  Megilioth  and 
Haftaras  (Amsterdam,  1648,  and  often ;  partly  translated 
into  Latin  by  Saubert,  Helmstftdt,  1660;  EngL  tcansL 
by  Hershon,  Lond.  1865) ;  a  modem  imitation  is  the 
La  Semaine  Jsrailitf^  by  B.  Crehange  (Paris,  1847> 
See  Filist,  Bibl.  Jud,  ii,  19  sq.     (a  P.) 

Jacob  Natta.    See  Katta, 


Jaoob  Sahfortai.    Sea  Sastobtai. 

Jacob  or  T:TBaMi,  archtoihop  of  NaplM,  who  died 
in  1308,  wu  at  Brat  in  Aii^um'hiUd  nnmk,  mid  had  the 
rtpulatian  oT  gteal  luminit.  Gandolfb,  in  hU  dinrr- 
tatign,  Dt  Dvealii  AuguMliaiaiBi,  ittributM  to  bim  a 
laifce  nutaber  or  worka,  which  are  >liU  unpublisfaed, 
Se«  Hoerer,  Nam.  Biog.  Gtoeralr,  t.  r. 

Jacobs  Carl,  a  Deiitdictinr,  who  dieil  at  SaliburE 
in  IG61,ia  the  author  of,  J7e  Gratia  Dirna  (1680):— 
Tiiarcmata  ac  Umma  Dodorii  Angdici  Samma 
(1842)-.— Veriiiw  J)ri/iieoniiihi»i(eod.):— iJeOeoPno 
«rtua(lM4):— CoiinntimfucJbarulicunCeod.).  See 
Hill.  Unheri.  StUiibaTg.  p.  SU)  Jticher,  AUgandmi 
Gdtkrtm-Lexibm,  t.  r.     (a  P.) 

JoOQb,  ZiOnia,  a  Frtnch  CarmdiiF,  wai  bom  at 
Chaloiu-eur-Saone  in  160§t  and  died  in  1670.  Upon 
joining  hia  order,  he  took  tbe  name  or  L/iuia  ile  Sl 
Charlea.  He  wrote,  BibUotkeca  Pantifida  (Lyona, 
16*S):Sogiam  Vtneraiait  Sororii  finuna  dt  Cam- 
bri.  TonuUBoit  JUomalU  3.  ^ufufBi)  (Paris,  1644)  :— 
BiiliolliHa  Furiiina  (16li):  — BibBagrapliiii  Gallica 
VmetrtalU  (IW6):— De  Clai-it  Scriptoribut  Citbiloaen- 
nbui  Ubri  Tra  (1652) :—Cufu Join*  Afiatiim  tt  Abha- 

See  Coame  de  St  £tienne,  llimoue  mr  U  P.  Loaii  At 
SuCkarUt;  Niccron,  ilimoirtt,  xl,  p.il7  aq.;  IJchlen- 
berger,  Entydop.  da  Scienca  RdiffUuseif  a.  v,     (B,  P.) 

Jacobaisi  (Iiat  Jttcobati«i),  Domnoo,  bishop  of 
Lueera,  waa  empiafed  in  various  important  affairs  by 
3iitiu  TT,  and  waa  created  cardinal  in  1617  by  Leo  X. 
He  died  Joty  2,  Ifi27.  He  left  a  TrtaUt  on  On  Co»n- 
eUi.    See  Cbalmera,  Biog.  Did. 

Jacobl,  Adam  Filedtlob  BmBt,  ■  German 
^rine.who  died  April  9,  lBOT,aaperintenilent  and 
ber  of  omtHstoTy  at  Cranicbfeld,  in  tbe  duchy  of  GoLba, 
ia  the  aulhiir  of,  ffnciler  lUIIgiontzuiltnui  in  IlolUnid 
(tiotha,  nn):  —  KalKhiiationm  ibrr  1!  auirrln 
Slach  dtr  AeiBjoi  SdiHJI  (Weimar,  1778)  :-ff,-/i; 
oai  dar  Bibd  n  UKlerrtdaiijfn  am  dtn  llaupiilr 
ieriOat  (ibid.  I'M).     Sft  Winer,  Handhnck  dtr  IheoL 
LU.  i,  8!4 ;  ii,  270,  3M.     (B.  P.) 

Jacobl,  Joluum  XMedrlcb,  a  Luibei 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  16, 1712. 
Ume  preacher  atOilerode  and  Brunswick,  be  was  called 
ia  1758  »  general  superintendent  orLUneburg  (o  Celle, 
and  died  March  !1. 1791.  He  wrote  a  number  of  ascet- 
ical  works.  See  Winer,  iloa^bueh  dtr  llttol.  LU.  i,  S3, 
885, 418,438, 188 1  ii,  40.     (B.  P.) 

a  name  applied  in  France  ID 
u  (q.  v.),  because  their  princi- 
pal convent  waa  situated  near  the  gate  of 
fit.  Jamc*  {Jaecbiu),  in  Paris.  At  the  coat- 
mencemeat  of  the  Urst  French  revaluiion  Ib« 
meelinga  of  iti  moat  leaknia  promoters  wem 
held  in  the  hall  of  this  convent,  and  from 
this 


JACOB'S  WELL 

lory  department  of  Jeffenon   CoD^e,  CannoDsburg, 
ra  which  he  eventually  graduated.     While  there 
joined  tbe  Preibyteriao  Church.     After  leaching 
a  taardiDg^chool  Hveral  moutbi  at  Belair.Hd.,  be 
moved  in  April,  1829,  to  Gettysburg,  where  be  taught 
matbetoaliea   in   the    Gettysburg   Gymnasium,  after- 
wards Pennsylvania  CuUt^,  in  whicb  he  was  elected 
profeMOT  of  matheoMtics  and  natural  science.    Having 
idled  theology  privately,  he  was  licensed  to  preach 
the  fall  of  18S3.    He  was  repeatedly  president  and 
•aaorer  of  bis  synod,  and  for  a  time  was  secretary  of 
e  General  Synod.     For  several  years  he  was  editor 
of  the  lAimiait  Rtcord  cmd  JovrnaL    In  1865  hit  de- 
partment waa  reatricled  to  mithemalics.     The  follow- 
ing year  ha  withdrew  from  college  inslniclion.     He 
died  July  31,  ISTl.      Although  a  Tuluminoua  writer, 
very  little  of  bis  work  was  publisbed  beyond  a  number 
of  review  articles  and  a  small  volume  entitled  Nota  m 
the  BaUb  ef  Gtttsibvrg.     See  F^  Yiari  tn  tht  Lu- 
litrm  J/Hulrjr,  1878,  p.  298. 

Jaoob'a  WoU.  The  fullowing  ia  tbe  latest  de- 
scription of  this  spot  (Sir  Yatib),  taken  from  Lieut. 
Gander's  Tail  Ifort  in  FalaHat,  i,7 1.  A  Toll  account 
is  given  in  the  Mtmoirt  accompanying  tbe  Ordnance 
Survey,  ii,172sq. 

"Tba  tmdlilan  of  Jscnh'*  Well  Is  one  IL  whlcb  Jews. 
Samaritans.  Moflema,  and  Chrlstlsiis  alike  serae.  There 
are  alao  other  teaaons  which  lead  tn  the  belief  Ibai  the 
IradlttoD  Is  trnslworlhT ;  the  proximity  of  J.iseph's  Tomb 
and  ofSych^ar,  and  dnall^  Iha  tact  of  a  well  eilrLlng  at  all 

7di .., 

the  Dilllty  ofsnch  a  work  can  only  be 


hundred  yards'  diatance.    No  ol 


dlggiDl 


Ibot  U  was  DeoBsary  tor .... 
niiuin  his  own  land.snrronnded 
IS  oy  sirancer*,  who  nay  natnrally  be  anppoaad 
giurded  Jeulonsly  their  rljibts  to  the  abrtnsa. 
-ig  ihe  well  Jacob  avnldcd  those  qnarrel*  from 
I  fiiDier  bad  snffered  In  the  Pfatllsilne  country. 

KminK  a  pnliiry  of  peace  which  appears  generally  to 
n  dlillngnlshed  bis  scllona 

"Tbe  well  Iban,  as  beliiE  una  n[  tbe  few  UDdoubled 
sites  mnda  sncred  bj  ihe  real  of  Christ,  Is  a  spot  of  great- 
er Interest  Ibst  anr  nenr  Shechem.  lU  nelRhborbood  I* 
not  marked  by  any  rery  prominent  monument,  and.  In- 
deed, it  would  be  quite  possible  ti>  psM  by  iL  wittaont 
knowing  of  tu  eileieiice.  Jnst  esst  of  the  gardens  of 
Baltla.  a  dusty  monnd  by  the  road  half  covers  ibestumpa 
of  three  fffanlre  eiilnmna.  After  a  tvm  momeDia'aesreb  a 
Id  by  (bis  the  vlalloc 

„_ —  _  ...lie  vault,  apparently 

luaaem,  Tba  vault  stretches  twenty  leet  east  and  west, 
and  is  ten  feel  broad,  tbe  bole  In  ibe  pointed  arch  of  the 
roof  being  In  Ihe  DOnh^asl  comer.  The  door  Is  corered 
wllh  hllen  stones,  wblcb  block  the  mnuih  of  ihe  well ; 
(tamngh  these  we  let  down  the  Icpa  aud  found  Ihe  drptb 
to  be  feieuty-llte  feet.    Tbe  dUneter  Is  ecTCn  feel  six 


otlier  name  for  revolutionist. 

Jaoobitea,  the  adherents 

r  James  II  of 

England,  particularly  tbe  no 

-juror^  who 

separated  from  the  high  Epi 

icopal  Church 

Mmply  because  they  would  not 

lake  the  oaih 

of  allegiance  to  the  new  kinp 

and  who  in 

the  pnblic  services  prayed  for  t 

eSluartfam- 

Dy.    They  were  most  numero 

1*  in  Scotland, 

but  were  much  lessened  by  tb 

defeat  of  Iho 

Pretender  in  1746,  and  still  m 

ore  so  by  bis 

death  in  1788.    See  Nos-junc 

RS. 

Jaoobitea,  Onnsn  of,  a 

Roniisb  onler 

i  by  Innocent 

Jsoobs,  MiciiABL,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Franklin  County,  Pa.,  Jan. 
18,  1806.     In  IBIS  ha  entered  Ibe  prepaia- 
XIL-P  r 


JACOBSON 


594 


JACOBT 


inches,  the  whole  depth  cat  through  allavial  soil  and  soft 
rock,  receivlDg  water  hy  inflltratlon  throagh  the  s!de«. 
There  appears  to  he  occasionallr  as  mnch  as  two  fathoms 
of  water,  out  in  summer  the  well  is  dry.  The  little  Taalt 
is  hailt  on  to  a  second,  mnning  at  rij^t  angles  northwards 
from  the  west  end,  hut  the  commnmcation  is  now  walled 
np.  In  this  second  vault  there  are  said  to  be  remains  of 
a  tessellated  parement,  and  the  bases  of  the  three  columns 
abore  mentioned  rest  on  this  floor,  the  shafts  sticking 
ont  through  the  roof— a  snfflcient  proof  that  the  vault  u 
modem.** 

Jaoobson,  Heimloh  Fiiedrioh,  a  German  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law,  was  bom  June  8, 1804,  at  Marien* 
werder.  He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  Berlin,  and  65t- 
tiogen,  commenced  his  academical  career  at  Konigsberg 
in  1826,  was  professor  there  in  1831,  and  died  March  19, 
1868.  He  published,  De  CodidbuM  Grtgoriano  et  Her^ 
mogaiano  (Konigsberg,  1826) : — Kirehenreektliche  Fier- 
siicAe  tur  Btgrundung  ektes  SysUms  det  Kirchmrtchit 
(1881):  —  De  FontimB  Juris  Ecdetiattiei  Boruttici 
ll9S8)i^Geschichte  der  Qudlm  da  Kirchenrechti  de$ 
PreustUchen  StaaU  (1837-44,  8  vols.)  \—Da9  evange- 
lische  Kirchenrechi  des  PreuuUchen  StaattM  und  »emer 
Provimen  (Halle,  1864-66, 2  voU).  See  Zuchold,  BM. 
rAeolL  i,  608  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Jaoobaon,  lumei,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Germany, 
was  bom  at  Halberstadt,  Oct  17, 1768.  He  was  one  of 
the  earliest  promoters  of  reform  among  his  coreligion- 
ists. In  1801  he  founded  an  educational  establishment 
at  Seesen,  in  Westphalia,  in  which  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian bo}*s  were  taught  side  by  side.  When  the  Icing- 
dom  of  Westphalia  was  erected,  Jacobsou  had  the  ear 
of  the  government;  a  oonsbtory  was  established,  and 
he  was  made  iu  president.  In  1805  Jacobson  intro- 
duced into  his  synagogue  an  organ,  German  hymns, 
confirmation,  and  the  German  sermon.  The  example 
set  by  him  was  followed  by  others  When,  in  1816, 
the  Idngdom  of  Westphalia  was  buried  under  the  rains 
of  Napoleon's  empire,  Jacobson  settled  at  Berlin,  where 
he  established  again  a  private  temple  of  the  modem 
style,  in  which  he  officiated  aB  high-priesL  He  died 
Sept.  13, 1828.  See  Jost,  Jacobton  und  die  neuem  JUcht- 
ungen  in  the  Israelititche  ilnna/m,  i,  29  sq.;  Kayserling, 
BSfHothek  jUdischer  Kanzelrednert  i,  18  sq. ;  M'Caul, 
SkeUAee  ofJudaitm  and  the  JewM^  p.  61  sq.     (a  P.) 

JaoobaoD,  Jacob  Hinioh.  a  Jewish  aseetical 
writer  of  Germany,  who  died  at  Dresden,  Jan.  10, 1885, 
is  the  author  of,  Pirhe  Aboih  oder  Rabbinitche  Gnomo^ 
logie  (Hebrew  text  with  German  translation  and  com- 
mentary, Breslau,  1840)  :--ItraelUischet  Gebetbuch  (He- 
brew and  German,  1848) :  —  2p3^*^b  HTaX  ^yi,  eine 
AuneaM  Jtraelititcher  Kanzdvortrage  zu  rdigidser  Be- 
khntng  und  Erbauung:—Katechetischer  Leitfaden  beim 
Unierricki  in  der  israditischen  Religion  (7th  ed.  1876) : 
—Die  GeMchichten  der  heUigen  Schri/ien  (8d  ed.  1876). 
See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  ii,  5  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Jaoobaon,  William,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Great  Yarmouth,  Norfolk,  in  1808.  He 
matriculated  at  St.  Edmund's  Hall  in  1823,  migrated 
shortly  afterwards  to  Lincoln  College,  on  obtaining  a 
scholarship  there,  and,  in  1829,  having  taken  his  degree, 
became  a  fellow  of  Exeter.  He  was  made  bishop  of 
Chester  in  1865,  and  died  at  Oxford,  July  12,  1884. 
The  chief  works  of  bishop  Jacobson  were  his  new  edi- 
tion of  Nowell's  CaieehinUf  his  reprint  in  six  volumes 
of  the  Works  of  Bishop  Sanderson,  and  his  edition  of 
the  Remains  of  Clement,  Ignatius,  md  Polgcarp  (1838 ; 
4th  ed.  1866, 2  vols.),     (a  P.) 

JaoobuB.    See  James. 

Jaoobns  Babad^us,  a  Honophysite  bisl\op  of 
Edessa,  is  said  to  have  been  bom  at  Tela  or  Constantia, 
fifty-five  miles  east  of  Edessa,  towards  the  dose  of  the 
5th  century.  He  was  early  trained  in  the  ministry, 
became  a  noted  ascetic,  was  called  to  the  Byzantine 
conrt,  bat  lived  there  a  complete  recluse,  and  was  made 
bishop  nominally  of  Edessa,  but  virtually  metropolitan, 
A.D.  541«    Amid  the  disastrous  and  troublesome  period 


in  which  he  lived,  his  courage  and  energy  prolonged 
the  cause  of  the  party  to  which  he  belonged,  especiidly 
in  the  famous  quarrel  with  Paul  of  Antioch.  He  died 
suddenly,  July  80, 678.  A  Liturgy  is  incorrectly  ascribed 
to  him  (Benaudiot,  Lit  Or,  i,  382),  also  a  Catechesis, 
largely  used  by  the  Jacobites  (Cave,  BisL  LiL  i,  524). 
See  Smith,  DieL  of  Christ.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Jaoobna  Sarugeksis,  made  bishop  of  Botns,  a 
little  town  in  the  district  of  Sarug,  in  Osstroens,  at  the 
age  of  sixty-seven,  A.D.  519,  and  who  died  two  years 
afterwards,  is  the  author  of  very  many  ecclesiastical 
worlcs,  both  in  prose  and  poetry,  chicfiy  of  a  ritualistic 
or  epistolary  character,  for  which  see  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Christ,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Jacobna,  Melaxchthok  Williams,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  at  Newarlc,  N.  J., 
Sept.  19, 1816.  He  entered  the  sophomore  class  at 
Princeton  College  in  his  fifteenth  year,  and  graduated 
in  1884  with  the  highest  honors.  In  1885  he  entered 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  where  he  not  only 
regularly  graduated,  but  spent  a  fourth  year  in  study,  at 
the  same  time  assisting  professor  J.  Addison  Alexander 
in  the  department  of  Hebrew.  In  1839  he  was  received 
by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York,  and  in  September  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  At  the  close  of  his  twelve  years  pas- 
torate here  the  Church  was  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
in  the  city.  In  the  fall  of  1850  he  made  a  tour  through 
Europe,  Egypt,  and  Paleatine,  and  returned  with  great- 
ly improved  health.  During  his  abaenoe  the  General 
Assembly,  in  May,  1851,  had  elected  him  professor  of 
Oriental  and  Biblical  literature  in  the  theological  sem- 
inary at  Allegheny,  which  position  be  accepted  on  his 
return,  and  was  released  from  his  pastoral  charge,  Oct. 
21, 1851.  In  January,  1858,  in  addition  to  his  work  in 
the  seminary,  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  Central  Church 
of  Pittsburgh,  which  he  served  for  twelve  years  with 
marked  success.  In  1866  he  made  a  second  tour  of 
Europe.  He  was  moderator  of  the  last  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  Old  School  Church  in  1869,  and  conjointly 
with  Bev.  P.  H.  Fowler,  D.D.,  presided  at  the  opening 
of  the  flrst  reunited  asaembly  in  1870.  He  presented 
the  able  report  on  snstentation,  which  waA  adopted  by 
the  General  Aaeembly  of  1871,  and  was  secretary  of  that 
scheme  for  three  years,  until  it  was  meiged  into  the 
Board  of  Home  Missions  in  1874.  In  1876  he  was 
elected  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education^  but  de- 
clined the  postdon  that  he  might  continue  in  the  min- 
istry. He  died  Oct  28, 1876.  He  had  just  attended 
a  meeting  of  the  Synod  of  Pittsburgh,  and  taken  an 
active  part  in  its  proceedings.  On  the  day  preceding 
he  had  taught  his  seminary  classes  as  osuaL  In  1848 
Dr.  Jacobus,  while  in  Brooklyn,  published  the  first  vol- 
ume of  his  Notes  on  the  New  TestamenL  Other  volumes 
followed  at  intervals,  the  two  Tolomes  on  Genesis  ap- 
pearing in  1864.  These  commentaries  have  had  an 
immense  sale,  and  are  found  among  all  denominations 
of  Christiana.  Besides  these  he  was  the  author  of 
many  other  and  smaller  works.  Dr.  Jacobus  stood  in 
the  front  rank  of  the  Biblical  scholars  of  his  age.  As 
a  preacher  he  maintained  all  through  his  ministry  a 
high  position,  while  on  the  platform  bis  addresses  were 
always  happy  and  effective.  He  was  a  moet  energetic 
and  persistent  worker,  and  his  industry  was  untiring. 
See  Necroi,  Rq^rt  o/Prineelon  TheoL  Sent,  1877,  p.  86. 

Jaooby,  Ludwio  S.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Old  Stielits,  Mecklenburg,  Ger- 
many, Oct  21, 1818.  His  parents  being  pious  Jews, 
he  was  devoutly  trained,  and  liberally  educated,  espe- 
cially in  the  ancient  languages.  In  1885  he  was  bap- 
tized by  a  Lutheran  minister.  In  1888  he  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  Cincinnati,  O.,  as 
a  physician.  He  also  devoted  himself  to  teaching. 
About  that  time  he  was  spirituslly  converted,  under 
the  preaching  of  Dr.  Nast  In  1841  he  was  sent  to  Su 
Louis,  Mo.f  to  start  the  first  German  mission  in  that 


dty. 


itdj  for  hii  eotia- 


tiymcD,  he  was  aent,  in  1B49,  to  Brcoien,  Gcimuiy, 
wbcic  he  formed  aHethadutEpucopalSociet}-.  Then 
he  oanCinued,  r«ithful  in  Ihe  Tirioiu  ofllm  of  prending 
elder,  putor,  editor,  book  igeot,  and  aaperintQideiit  for 
twtD^  yan.  He  theii  retarded  to  the  United  Stilei, 
and  vai  Uaosrened  to  Iba  Soath-matem  Gcnnan  Con- 
ference,  and  atationed  at  Ei^tb  Street  ebarge,  St.  Lou  ia. 
In  187S  be  n*  made  pitfidinK  elder  of  St.  Looi*  dia- 
trict,  whereon  he  Ubored  faithfnllr  uotU  near  bia  death, 
which  occurred  in  St.  Louia,  Mo.,  June  ai,  I8T1.  Dr. 
Jacob;'!  life  wb«  full  of  devotednew  and  energy,  and 
faia  death  full  of  peace  and  blesajnea.  See  MiniiUt  of 
Amuid  ConfirauxM,  187-1,  p.  88;  Kmpaon,  Cj/dop.  of 


Borchao  joined  the  latter 
iBoled  him  by  eayiag  that  bia 
uuuj  tuwu  ...u.^.^  ..u.  holieic  HDCtoiTj  of  the  world. 
The  thooaand  parti  were  to  becotse  go  inaiiy  bandi, 
each  with  oae  eje,  and  were  to  repreaent  ao  manj 


Joaopoiw  Ds  ToDL    See  Stabat  Hatxo. 

Jacqaemont,  FsAH^oia,  a  French  Janieniat,  was 
bom  ia  1767  at  BoEn,  in  the  dioeeae  of  L.todb,  and  died 
at  St.  titienne  in  1885.  He  pubiiaheU.  Imitructim 
la  AvaalagH  e<  la  Viritii  de  la  Bdigion  CkrUUmt 
(1796) -.—Avu  aux  Fidiln.  tie.  (1796) -.—Miaimet  de 
I'Egliie  Galliaaiie  (Lyons,  1818).  See  Uchtenberger, 
Eitq/dop.  da  SeieuxM  Rtligiatet,  a.  v.     ffi.  F.) 

Jad  Haohesaka.    See  MAmonuiEa. 

JaenboT^  archbiihop  of  Canterbury,  reeeired  bia 
education  at  St.  AuKuitine's,  and  wai  conaacrated  M 
Canlerbuij-,  Feb.  2, 766,  by  Egbert,  arehbiahop  of  Tort 
Tlie  great  erent  of  this  episcopate  i>  the  coavernDD  of 
the  bishopric  of  LichfieU  into  a  metiopoliLan  see  bj- 
Offa,  king  of  Uercii,  and  the  conseqaent  •poUaCion, 
with  the  loss  of  dominion,  authority,  and  dignity,  of  tbe 
archbishop  nf  Cantarbuiy.  There  was  much  to  render 
the  last  yean  of  Jaenbert'a  life  melaDchoIy,  for  the  pnw- 
peels  of  his  counlry  were  gloomy  in  the  extreme. 
Thwarted  and  discomfited  tu  tha  lut,  Jaenhert  pet- 
ceired  that  bis  orders  to  be  burieil  at  St.  Augustine's 
would  not  be  obeyed  by  his  chapter  if  he  died  without 
tbe  walla  of  the  monastery,  and  he  thererore  sought  an 
asylum  in  the  place  Endeared  to  him  by  the  recullee- 
turn  of  younger  and  happier  days.  He  commanded  hia 
stone  coffin  to  be  prepared ;  his  episcopal  robea  were  ar- 
ranged by  bis  bedside;  his  soul  was  comforted  by  the 
paalma  sung  and  the  Scripturva  read  to  him  by  brethren 
who  could  aympalhize  with  him  in  his  fsllen  fortunes. 
He  died  Aug.  11,790.  See  Hook, /.I'cu  of  tht  Ardt- 
iiMkopi  of  Canltrbury,  i,  212  sq. 

Jaeahlk,  in  I^maism,  was  a  Buddha,  who  fanoght 
Buddhism  to  Thibet,  A.D.  407.  Jakabiamuni.  tbe  fifth 
divine  Bnrcban,  and  the  supreme  god  of  the  l^maitea, 
caused  him  to  spring  forth  out  of  the  beautiful  Padma- 
flower,  knowing  what  sanctity  he  would  thereby  receive, 
and  authorized  him  to  bring  about  the  salvation  of  men. 
Jaesbik  undertook,  however,  only  to  save  the  meu  liv- 
ing in  the  snowy  countries  of  tbe  north ;  and  he  prom- 
ised to  carry  out  this  plan  with  all  perseverance,  Chough 
hia  bead  should  split  into  ten  and  his  body  into  a  thou- 
sand parts.  He  first  descended  into  the  kingdoms  of 
hell,  and  visited  the  kingdom  of  monsters  (Birid),  then 
that  of  animals,  of  men,  of  evil  genii,  Aanri  and  Tilgri, 
and  there  destroyed  all  pains  and  torture ;  for  as  soon 
as  his  holy  mouth  spoke  the  saving  words,  "Om-ma-ni- 
pad-mil-hum,"  hdl  no  longer  existed.  After  having 
accomplished  so  much,  he  began  his  Journey  on  earth, 
and  travelled  through  tbe  countries  beyond  the  moun- 
tains of  snow.  There  also  he  spoke  his  magic  worda, 
destroi'ed  evil,  brought  good  from  heaven,  and  led  men 
to  the  true  religicm.  Next  he  ascended  into  the  coun- 
try of  ths  deities  on  the  Ked  Mountain.  There,  to  hia 
consternation,  he  again  saw  many  millions  of  beings 
anmercifully  tortured  by  beuig  bathed  in  the  Otang  Sea, 
orseaoffire.  Thetorturesof Cheaeunlbrtunatesbrought 
forth  a  tear  from  each  one  of  his  e}'eB,  out  of  which  there 
sprang  two  goddesses,  who  promised  to  assist  him,  and, 
placing  themselves  in  hia  e)'eB,  their  power  was  mani- 
fotad  by  the  glances  of  Jaeshik.    He  spoke  tbe  above- 


mentioDcd  six  worda  alao  here,  aaved  tha  doonwd,  and 
converted  them  to  faith  in  the  supreme  god  Jakahiamnni, 
so  that  bis  work  was  almost  Onished.  Bat  all  the  aaved 
were  not  yet  strong  in  the  faith,  and  this  troubled  turn. 
He  longed  for  the  blessed  land  of  eternal  bappinea,  his 
homa ;  and  suddenly  his  head  spUt  into  ten  pans  and 


Figure  of  Jaethlk. 
Jafi,  Hftrdaohai  bm-Abrakaai,  a  famous  Jew- 
ish author,  residad  in  1661  at  Venice,  whence,  during 
a  persecution  of  the  Jews,  he  retreated  to  Bohemia, 
and  became  rabbi  in  the  synagogues  of  Grodno,  Lublin, 
Krtmnitz,  and  Prague.  He  is  the  author  of  tbe  Lebu- 
thim,  a  series  of  ten  works,  which  hold  a  high  place  in 
the  classics  of  modem  Judaism.  The  general  title  of 
the  scries  is  ni3^a  1013b,  Bo^al  Appartl,  from  Est. 
viii,  16;  and  tha  collection  itself  is  sometime*  called 

oiab  or  cniabn  ibo.    it  counts  of  (i)  lOaA 

Uidelh,  or  ••  the  Purple  Robe ;"  (2)  Lebuih  ha-cior,  or 
"the  White  Vestment;"  (S)  Libutk  alenf/i  xaiab,  or 
"the  down  of  God;"  (4)  Ltbaih  buti  rtargaman,  or 
"  the  Vestment  of  line  linen  and  purple;"  (6)  Lttiah  ir 
ShtMhoB,  or  "the  Vestment  of  the  City  of  Shushan." 
These  five  treatises  tnm  upon  the  objecca  of  the  ritual 
codices  of  the  Arba  Turim  of  Jacob  ben-Asher  (q.  v.), 
and  the  Shulchsn  Aruch  of  Joseph  Karo  (q.  v.).  Th« 
remaining  fiva  libmhim  are  eiegetical,  cabalistic,  and 
philosophical.  See  FQrst,£iilL/iiilii,7sq.;  Etheridge, 
Inlroduction  to  Htbrew  Ltttralurt,  p.  467 ;  De'  Ros^ 
Ditioaario  Slorica  (Germ,  transl.),  p.  186.     (B.  P.) 

JaA,  Bamnel,  a  rabbi  at  Constantinoplo  in  the 
latter  part  of  Che  16th  century,  ii  the  author  of  homilies 
on  the  Midrashim,  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  on  Esther, 
lamentations,  and  Ruth.  He  alterwards  published 
them  under  the  title  of  IStin  nB-<.  He  also  publiahcd 
homilies  on  the  haggadoth  of  tbe  Palestinian  Talmud. 
See  FUtsI,  Biil.  Jud.  ii,  9  sq.;  De'  Rossi,  Diximario 
Slorico  (Germ.  trsnsL),  p.  1S6,     (a  P.) 

Jaga,  in  HindQism,  is  one  of  the  costliest  and  most 


JAGER 


598 


JALLOOF  VERSION 


honored  sacrifioea,  which  the  Brahmins  offer  to  the  sun 
and  the  planets,  and  at  which  strictly  no  one  from  any 
other  caste  is  allowed  to  be  presenL  In  the  spring  of 
the  year  a  certain  spot  is  selected  and  cleansed.  A  hat 
is  built,  in  which  several  hundred  Brahmins  can  be 
accommodated  with  seats;  in  the  centre  of  this  the  holy 
pillar  is  erected,  Mahadewa*s  symbol.  Aroand  this  a 
fire  is  kindled  by  rubbing  together  two  pieces  of  wood; 
and  now  all  that  can  find  room  crowd  into  the  hut 
The  remaining  Brahmins  surround  the  holy  place,  so 
that  no  profane  eye  desecrate  the  sanctuary.  Then  a 
widow  is  strangled  (blood  is  not  allowed  to  be  shed) ; 
the  liver  is  roasted  with  butter,  divided  in  as  many 
parts  as  there  are  Brahmins,  and  given  to  them  on  a 
slice  of  bread,  which  they  are  obliged  to  eat.  Whoever 
does  this  is  said  to  be  specially  purified  and  made  sin- 
less; and  the  Brahmin  who  kindled  the  fire  and  per- 
fonned  the  sacrificial  ceremony  may  take  a  part  of  the 
fire  to  his  home,  where  he  is  to  keep  it  constantly  burn- 
ing, and  at  his  death  he  is  permitted  to  have  his  funeral 
pile  kindled  with  it,  by  virtue  of  which  he  enters  para- 
dise immediately,  without  any  transmigration  of  his 
souL  Of  course,  under  the  English  rule  these  barbari- 
ties are  no  longer  permitted. 

Jftger,  JoHAMN  WoLPOAKO,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Stuttgart,  March  17, 1647,  and 
died  at  Tubingen,  April  2, 1720,  doctor  and  professor  of 
theology,  chancellor,  and  provost  He  is  the  author  of, 
HUtoria  Ecdesiattica,  etc.  (1710, 2  vols,  fol.;  Hamburg, 
1709, 1717)  :—Examen  QuieUtmi: — Sqmratmuis  Bo^- 
ertuu  sub  Examen  Voeatut: — De  Dodrina  Communis 
eationu  IcUomatmn : — Compendium  Theologim  Pontiva, 
See  Jocher,  AUgemeina  Gekhrtm-lAxihonj^Y.^  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  thed.  Lit,  i,  286, 481, 579, 887.     (B.  P.) 

Jaghatai-Turki  ITartar]  (or  Tekke  Toroo- 
man)  Version  op  the  Soriptubes.  This  dialect 
is  vernacular  to  the  Usbek  and  Turkish  tribes  of  Tur- 
kestan and  Central  Asia,  and  a  version  of  any  part  of 
the  Scriptures  into  it  is  of  a  very  recent  date.  In  1879 
the  Rev.  James  Bassett  had  completed  a  translation  of 
the  gospel  of  Biatthew,  with  the  assistance  of  a  mirza 
from  Meshed.  After  a  careful  revision  made  at  Teheran, 
the  translator  carried  his  version  through  the  press  in 
London.  A  new  and  revised  edition  of  this  gospel  was 
again  printed  at  Tiflis,  and  most  of  the  vowel  points, 
which  were  so  numerous  in  the  first  edition,  were 
omitted.     (B.  P.) 

'  Jagnepawadam,  in  Hindfiism,  is  the  cord  of  the 
Brahmins,  a  sacred  mark  or  sign  of  the  highest  caste, 
which  no  one  else  is  allowed  to  carry  under  seven  pen- 
alties. It  is  made  of  nine  threads  of  wool,  which  are 
long  enough  to  be  wound  one  hundred  and  eight  times 
around  the  hand  (because  of  the  one  hundred  and  eight 
legends  of  Brahma).  These  nine  threads  are  divided 
into  three  parts,  corresponding  to  the  three  Vedas,  or 
holy  books,  and  they  are  then  suspended  over  the  right 
shoulder,  so  as  to  touch  the  hip  under  the  left  arm. 
This  Brahmin-cord  places  him  who  carries  it  above  the 
reach  of  the  civil  law. 

Jagouth  (or  7ag]i(!ith),  one  of  the  five  principal 
gods  of  the  ancient  Arabians.  He  was  usually  repre- 
sented in  the  form  of  a  lion,  and  is  mentioned  by  name 
in  the  Koran. 

Jahed,  Ab^-Osmak-Amr0,  a  Mohammedan  doctor 
of  the  sect  of  the  Motazelites.  The  name  of  Jahed,  by 
which  he  is  generally  designated,  is  only  a  surname 
given  to  him  on  account  of  his  brilliant  eyes.  He  was 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  Greek  literature.  He 
gained  a  great  many  adherents  by  his  writings  and 
eloquence.  Among  his  theological  books  one  is  cited 
as  being  composed  in  favor  of  Ali,  and  containing  more 
than  a  thousand  traditions  respecting  him.  The  best 
of  bis  works,  according  to  Ibn-Khallican,  who  cites  but 
two,  is  a  treatise  on  animals,  probably  borrowed  largely 
from  Greek  writers.  Jahed  died  at  Bussora,  A.D.  869. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraUt  s.  v. 


Jaifl,  ^GiDiUB,  a  Benedictine,  was  bom  at  Mitteb- 
wald,  Bavaria,  March  17, 1760.  In  1770  he  joined  his 
order,  was  in  1778  professor  at  the  Salzburg  Gymnasiam, 
and  in  1808  professor  of  theology  there.  In  1814  he  retired 
from  public  duties,  and  died  D^  4, 1822.  He  published, 
Predifftm  (Munich,  1808,  ^  vols.)  :—KcUechumu»  (WUrz- 
burg,  1811)  '.^Handbuch  sum  Unierriehie  in  der  chriH 
kathoL  Glaubent'  und  Sittenkkre  (1821),  and  other  ascet- 
ical  works.  See  Winer,  nandimch  der  ikeoL  LU,  ii,  112, 
241,  287,  846,  878.     (R  P.) 

Jaiah,  Baruch  ibn.    See  Ibn-Jaish. 

Jakobi,  Adam  Friedrich  Ernst,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  27, 1788.  He  studied 
at  Jena,  acted  for  some  time  as  private  tutor,  went  in 
1768  as  military  chaplain  to  Holland,  and  was  in  1776 
appointed  superintendent  by  duke  Ernest  of  Gotha, 
Jakobi  died  April  8, 1807.  He  wrote,  DiMs.  Thtoiogioa 
de  PeceaUs  Apotiolorum  A  ctualtbus  (Jena,  1764)  :—Ex~ 
ercitaHo  ExegetieO'Tkeoloffica  de  Monogamia  (Gotha. 
1776),  besides  a  number  of  historical  and  pedagogical 
works.  See  Ddring,  Die  gelehrten  Tkeohgen  Z>eii/jc&- 
landt,  a.  v.    (a  P.) 

Jakabiamuni,  in  Lamaism,  is  the  supreme  god  of 
the  Thibetians,  identical  with  Buddha  of  India,  an 
incarnation  of  Vishnu,  who  appears  for  the  fourth  time 
to  save  men.  He  is  the  present  sovereign  of  the  uni- 
verse. After  him  there  will  yet  come  nine  hundred  and 
ninety-six  Buddhas,  before  the  salvation  of  men  shall 
be  finished.  The  inliabitants  of  Thibet,  Mongolia,  Tar- 
tary,  China,  and  Japan  hold  him  to  be  the  only  god, 
creator  and  giver  of  their  religion. 

Jalaguier,  Prosper  Fri^i(ric,  a  French  Protes- 
tant theologian,  was  bora  Aug.  21, 1796.  Having  acted 
as  pastor  at  several  places,  Jalagnier  was  called  in  1883 
to  Montauban,  to  fill  temporarily  the  chair  of  Christian 
ethics.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
dogmatics,  and  occupied  this  office  till  his  death  at 
MonUuban,  March  22,  1864.  He  published,  Le  Te- 
moignage  de  Dieu  (1861) : — A  uthenticiU  du  Nouveau  Tee- 
iament  (eod.) : — Inapiration  du  Noutfeau  Teetameni  (eod.) : 
—Sin^  Expose  de  la  Question  Chrkienne  (1862)  z-rBu 
Principe  Chrkien  et  du  Catkolicisme,  du  Ralionalisme  et 
du  Proiestaniisme  (1865) :  —  Une  Vue  de  la  Question 
Scripiuraire  (1863).  In  these  works  he  defended  with 
great  firmness  the  reality  of  a  supernatural  revelation 
and  the  religious  authority  of  the  Scripture,  against  the 
writera  of  the  Bevue  de  Stra^urg,  See  Lichtenberger, 
Enegchp,  des  Sciences  Beligieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Jaldabaotb.    See  Ialdabaoth. 

Jalinder,  in  Hindd  mythology,  was  one  of  the 
mighty  diemons  which,  sprung  from  Danu,  are  classed 
and  recognised  under  the  name  of  Danuwas.  He  was 
dreaded  by  all  the  gods,  because  he  was  unconquerable ; 
but  this  was  only  by  the  marvellous  virtue  and  purity 
of  his  wife,  who  favored  no  one  in  heavcu  or  on  earth. 
The  dxemon  challenged  Shiva,  and  fought  with  him  in 
Mahadewa*s  form,  and  would  have  come  off  victorious 
had  not  Vishnu  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  god.  This 
he  did  by  taking  on  the  form  of  a  d»mon  just  like  Ja- 
linder, and,  coming  to  the  wife  of  the  latter,  overcame 
her  virtue,  and  immediately  the  dsemon's  strength  left 
him,  so  that  be  was  conquered  and  killed. 

Jalkat  (I3!|pb^),  i.  e.  collection,  is  the  title  of  a 
Midrashic  catena  of  traditional  expositions  from  upwards 
of  fifty  different  works  of  all  ages,  many  of  which  are 
of  great  value.  This  Mid  rash  extends  over  the  whole 
Bible.  The  latest  edition  is  the  one  published  at  War^ 
saw  (1876-77).  The  author  of  the  Jalkut  is  Simeon 
Cara(q.v.).    (B.P.) 

Jalloof  Version  op  thk  Scriptcres.  This  dia- 
lect (also  called  Join/,  Wolof,  Guiluf,  etc.),  is  spoken  by 
a  large  tribe  near  Bathurst,  Gambia,  West  Africa,  num- 
bering about  60,000  souls.  In  1881,  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  at  the  request  of  the  Wesleyan 
Missionary  Society,  resolved  to  print  a  tentative  edition 


JAM  MCESTA  6! 

ot  BOO  copies  or  Ibe  goapel  of  Hitthew.  The  tnniU- 
tion  wu  made  br  Rev.  R.  Dbcon,  of  Bathant,  Gimbii, 
who  twd  lued  fail  version  in  itae  aervice*,  and  rciund  it 
vai  UDdentood  and  liked  b;  tbe  people.  See  At6fe  of 
£ttrf  ImhJ,  p.  t07.     (a  P.) 

Jun  nuBSta  qumSCE  querela  is  the  banning 
of  tbe  grand  luirial-hymn  of  Prudencins  (q.  v.).  This 
bjiiiD,  which,  Bi  Trench  lays,  is  "  the  crowning  glory 
of  the  poetry  of  Prudenlins,"  brings  hefore  us  the  sn- 
dent  irorship  in  deKTta  and  in  caucombs,  and  of  which 
Herder  says  that  no  one  can  read  it  without  feeling  his 
heart  moved  by  its  touching  tone^  Tbe  fine  stanza 
runs  thus  in  the  original : 

Larrlinaa  loniaDdlM.  matrs*, 
Nnllus  sna  iiignora  plnniit, 
Hon  hsac  nparallo  tIib  est." 
And  in  Caswall's  tntnilation : 

'*Ceaae,  je  tearful  monmera, 
Tliai  Toor  hearts  to  rend. 

Rather  than  I  la  end.'^ 
A  Qertnan  tranilation  is  also  found  in  SchilTa  DmtHAti 
Guaugbiiek,  So.  488.    (a  P.) 

Jama,  in  Hind  Cl  mythology,  is  the  ruler  of  a  divinon 
of  Che  infernal  region  (Nark),  and  the  highest  Judge 
there,  who  decides  wbelher  the  departed  souls  are  to  be 
admitted  to  heaven  or  go  to  hell,  in  which  latter  case 
they  begin  their  wanderings  through  life  anew.  A  mir- 
ror, made  of  pare  Are,  portrays  to  him  the  deeds  of  all 

weighs  human  deeds,  and  leads  those  found  wanting  to 
Nark,  the  others  to  Suerga  (heaven).  He  is  a  protect- 
ing spirit  of  virtue  and  justice,  and  the  moat  honored 
compauioa  of  Shira.  Nevenhelesa,  he  is  represented 
in  a  frightful  appearance,  with  hideous  features,  a  num- 
ber of  anna,  heavy  weapons,  and  ridini;  on  a  black  buf- 
falo with  four  horns.     He  lives  in  Jamapui  (city  of 

Jam  anil  aga  (or  Uaoba  Alia)  was  one  of  the 

supreme  deities  of  the  Kalmucks.  He  is  represented 
BomewbaC  like  Herli-Kaii,  but  differs  froi 


HU  Cf 


lepal™ 


of  the  hands  snd  the  lolea  of  hla  teet  are  red.     Fla< 

and  skulls  are  his  crown,  and  snakes  his  armlets  sni 
anklets,  while  a  anake  hangs  over  both  ahonlders.  Hi 
girdle  is  a  string  ofhuman  hesds.  In  one  hand  be  hold 
a  sceptre,  in  anuiher  two  cordi.  In  two  he  holds  drink 
ing'VesBcls,  and  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  the  hide  of  an 
animaL  This  frightful  god  crushes  with  bis  leet  a  fu 
which  has  human  arms  and  feet,  but  a  bead  raembli 
an  eiepbant's.    This  idol  is  also  surrounded  by  good 


Jamandnga,  in  Thibetanian  mrthologr,  is  one  of 
the  eight  fearful  Rods  (Nadman-Dotahot),  who  by  their 
might  destroy  evil,  protect  the  world,  and  are  lealously 
worshipped  by  the  followers  ariamaiim.  Jamtnduga 
ban  einaiUlioD  of  the  god  MonBusharL     Jakahianuni, 


JAMMABOS 

ipreme  god,  gave  bitn  the  most  hateful  appearance 
le  could  devise,  in  order  that  he  might  conquer  the 
frightful  Tsholshitshalba,  the  moat  dreaded  of  all  evU 
dssmoos,  who  continually  seeks  to  destroy  the  world. 
In  tbisformJamandugaia  of  a  bluish  color,  surrounded 
by  flames  of  fire,  and  has  ten  heads,  in  three  rows,  one 
of  which  is  ibat  of  a  bull,  another  that  of  a  goat,  and 
the  reic  dialorted  human  facss;  but  the  laal  and  topmost 
one  is  that  of  a  beautiful  maiden,  to  denote  his  divine 
nature.  Twenty  arma  carry  Ihs  deadliest  weapons  and 
inslnimentB  of  torture,  and  with  twenty  feet  he  walk* 
on  a  heap  of  cnuhed  men.    See  Jauahdaqa. 

Jamas,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Antilles,  was  the 
mother  of  the  great  spirit  Jokahnna,  whom  Tonamca 
Mnt  to  the  earth  in  his  stead.  This  goddess  was  woi- 
shipped  on  the  island  Quisqneja  (Hayli).    She  had  ai 


Idoltta 


the  gods  together,  when  the  goddess  wanted  tj 
them  out  to  fulfil  her  wishes,  the  other  to  punish  the 
disobedient. 

Jambawat,  in  HindQ  mythology,  was  an  Avatar, 
an  incarnation  of  the  supreme  god,  in  the  form  of  a  giant 
bear.  Rama  (an  incarnation  of  Tishna)  appeared  for 
the  parpoae  of  conquering  Ravana,  the  giant  king  of 
Ceylon.  The  gods  all  supported  the  latter,  with  armies 
of  apes,  of  bears,  and  other  animals.  Brahma  gavethe 
bears  a  king,  Jambawat,  who  came  out  of  the  mouth 
of  the  god,  and  who  posaesKd  the  spirit  of  Brahma.  He 
now  wished  lo  make  tbe  expedition  to  Ceylon  alone, 
but  Srishna  fonght  three  days  with  him,  until  he  rec- 
ognised the  supremacy  of  Vishnu  (whose  incarnation 
Krishna  was).  Then  he  followed  Rama,  with  his  entire 
army  of  beaTS,  and  assisted  him  in  conquering  Ceylon 
and  its  ruler, 

Jamea,  John  Tbomaa,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  colonial 

bishop,  was  bom  in  England  in  17B6.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Charter  House  and  at  Chtial  Church,  Oxford,  be- 
came Ttcar  of  Flitton,  Bedfurdshire,  and  was  elevated  lo 
the  see  of  Calcutta.  He  arrived  in  that  city,  Jan.  IS, 
1838;  on  June  33  he  aet  out  on  a  viattalion  to  the  Up- 
per Provinces  of  Bengal,  and  died  while  on  hia  tray  lo 
the  ialandof  Penang,  Aug.Z2oftheaameyear.  Bishop 
James  had  acquired  some  celebrity  as  an  author  and 
traveller.  He  wrote  Journal  nf  TraetU  i»  Gtrnuaiii, 
SvtdBt,  Rvuia,  Poland,  etc  (Lnnd,  18ie,4lo):  —  Vichi 
IB  Suaia,  Poland,  etc.,  prepared  in  colors:— TAs  flm-- 
ith,  Dutch,  and  Grman  SdlooU  of  Pavaing  ( Lood. 
1823,  Svo).  See  (M.  T.)  Chriit.  Jounail,  IS29,  p.  191 , 
/InoiicJoarTio^  April,  1829;  PatiiRg  KisitUr,  %ejiUVt, 
1828;  Lowndes,  BiU.  Manual,  s.  v.;  BHrfMemoin  of 
Bp.  J.  T.  Jama  (Lnild.  1S3D,  Svo) ;  Dariing,  Cydop.  Bib. 


a  Presbyleri 


1  academic  and  collegiai 


He  I 


!oth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  pastor  oTtbe 
Second  Presbyterian  Church  in  Rochester,  N.  ¥.,  from 
1823  unUl  1830  or  1831.  and  then  for  a  time  of  the  Third 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Montgomery  Slreel,  Albanv. 
Ha  died  in  1868.  See  Uunsell,  Bitory  of  Albany,  ir, 
10.    (J.CS.) 

Jameaon,  Geokoe,  an  emiiKnt  Scouh  portrait 
painter,  was  bom  at  Aberdeen  in  1586,  and  studied  un- 
der Rubens  and  Vandyck.  Be  died  at  Edinburgh,  in 
1044.  The  largest  collection  of  his  works  are  at  Tay. 
mouth.     See  Spooatr.  Biog.  But.  o/ lia  f'ini  ArliiKv, 

Janxmaboa,  a  Shinto  order  of  mountain  priests  of 
Japan,  are  a  kind  of  wandering  monks,  dependent  on  the 
benevolence  of  the  people  for  subtialence ;  and  from  the 
circnmalancc  thai  Ihey  go  armed  with  swords  or  scimi- 

founder  lived  about  the  6th  cenum-.      He  wandered 

subjecting  himself  to  the  severest  privstions.  Hia  ful- 
loweis,  on  entering  the  order,  made  a  solemit  vow  lo 
renounce  all  temporal  sdvanlages  for  Ihe  prsapect  of 


JiiMMT 


£96 


JANOAH 


eternal  happiness.  In  cornve  of  time  they  became  di- 
vided into  two  orders,  called  Tojunfa  and  Fomaufiu 
Hie  fonner  are  obliged  to  go  on  a  pilgrimage  once  a 
year  to  the  mountain  of  Fikooean  (q.  v.).  The  other 
order  of  Jammabos  are  oUiged  annnaUy  to  pay  a  visit 
to  the  sepulchre  of  their  founder,  which  is  also  situated 
on  the  top  of  a  high  and  almost  inaccessible  mountain. 
In  preparation  for  this  hazardous  undertaking,  they 
practice  frequent  ablutions  and  severe  mortifications. 
During  their  pilgrimage  they  eat  only  herbs  and  roots. 
On  their  return  they  go  to  Miaoo,  and  present  a  gift  to 
the  general  of  the  religions  order  to  which  they  belong, 
who,  in  turn,  bestows  some  honorable  title  on  the  pil- 
grim. At  their  original  institution  the  Jammabos  were 
ShinioiMU,  but  they  have  blended  that  form  of  religion 
with  the  worship  of  strange  gods.    See  SHiiraa 

Jammy,  Pierre,  a  Dominican  of  Languedoc,  who 
died  in  1665  at  Grenoble,  doctor  of  divinity,  is  best 
known  as  the  editor  of  the  works  of  Albertus  Magnus 
(21  vols.  fol.  Lyons,  1661).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der 
theoL  Lit,  i,  914 ;  Jficher,  A  Uffemeinet  Gelehrien^Leiikon, 
8.V.     (B.P.) 

Jan,  JouAMN  WiLSELM,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
bom  Nov.  9, 1681.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in 
1718  professor  of  elocution,  in  1714  of  history,  in  1719 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology,  and  died  Aug.  27, 1726. 
He  wrote,  Judicia  ErudUorum  de  Origine  Electorum: 
— Hittoria  jErtB  Ckrittianm : — De  Ceruu  Romanorum 
Primo: — De  Articuiu  Suobacensibut  Augustana  Con' 
festUmit  Fundetmenio: — De  LUurgiii  Oriealalibui  in 
Dodrina  de  8,  Eucharittia,  etc.  See  Jdcher,  AUge- 
meinea  Gelehrten-Lexihonf  s.  v. ;  Winer,  ffandbuch  der 
iheoL  Lii.  i,  611.     (a  P.) 

Janes,  Edwin  K,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, twin  brother  of  bishop  £.  S.  Janes,  was  bom  at 
Sheffield,  Mass.,  April  (his  biographers  say  May)  27, 
1807.  He  spent  his  boyhood  near  Salisbury,  Conn., 
receiving  the  radiments  of  an  English  education; 
was  converted  while  teaching  school  in  Columbia, 
N.  Y.;  and  in  1832  entered  the  Philadelphia  Confer- 
ence. His  appointments  were,  Asbury  Church,  West 
Philadelphia;  Elizabeth,  Plainfield,  and  Irvington, 
K.  J.;  Asbury  Church,  West  Philadelphia;  then  to 
Haddington,  Middletown,  and  Odessa  Circuits,  Dei; 
then  Elkton  and  St.  George's  Church,  Philadelphia; 
then  was  transferred  to  the  New  York  Conference,  and 
sent  in  turn  to  Mulberry  Street  Church ;  South  Second 
Street,  WilUarosburgh ;  South  Fifth  Street  (which  was 
organized  by  him) ;  Bridgeport  and  Middletown,  Conn. , 
in  1864  and  1866,  presiding  elder  of  New  Haven  District ; 
South  Fifth  Street,  Williamsburgh,  three  years;  John 
Street  and  Forsyth  Street,  New  York  city ;  Flushing 
and  Whitestone,  L.I.;  Summerfield  Church,  Brooklyn, 
in  1866;  Central  Church  in  1867,  and  John  Street,  New 
York  city,  in  1868  and  1869,  where  he  closed  his  pas- 
toral life.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  district  secretary 
or  agent  of  the  National  Temperance  Society  and  Pub- 
lishing House,  which  office  he  held  until  his  death,  Jan. 
10, 1876.  Mr.  Janes  was  among  the  foremost  of  saintly 
men;  an  unrivalled  pastor;  a  man  of  extraordinary 
power  in  prayer;  of  rare  eloquence  in  exhortation; 
an  ingenious,  instractive,  effectual  preacher;  a  sound 
theologian,  and  a  devoted  temperance  worker.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conference*,  1876,  p.  61;  Simpson, 
Cydop,  ofMethoditm^  s.  v. 

Janes,  Edmund  Storer,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  of  highly 
respectable  but  not  wealthy  parents,  at  Sheffield,  Mass., 
April  27, 1807.  He  was  converted  in  1820,  and  united 
with  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  From  1824  to 
1880  he  was  engaged  in  teaching,  during  which  time 
he  studied  law  with  the  intention  of  making  it  the  pro- 
fession of  his  life;  but  in  1880  joined  the  Philadelphia 
Conference,  and  during  the  first  few  years  of  his  minis- 
try, in  addition  to  his  work  as  a  minister  and  his  theo- 
logical studies,  which  were  thorough  if  not  broad,  stud- 


ied medicine.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1832,  and 
elder  in  1884,  and  after  filling  various  important  chargea 
was,  in  1888,  appointed  agent  for  Dickinson  College.  In 
1840  he  was  elected  financial  secretary  of  the  American 
Bible  Society ;  and  in  1844  was  elected  to  the  bishopric 
in  conjunction  with  bishop  Hamline,  they  being  the 
last  of  the  bishopa  who  received  the  vote  of  the  undi- 
vided Church.  For  more  than  thirty-one  years  he  dis- 
charged his  duties  in  tlie  episcopal  office,  travelling  ia 
all  the  states  except  Florida,  and  in  most  of  the  terri- 
tories, besides  being  president  of  the  Missionary  Society, 
of  the  Board  of  Church  Extension,  and  of  the  Sunday- 
school  Union  and  Tract  Society  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  as  well  as  being  one  of  the  managers  of 
the  American  Bible  Society,  of  the  directors  of  the 
American  Colonization  Society,  of  the  trustees  of  the 
Wesleyan  University  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  of  the  Drew 
Theological  Seminary,  and  president  of  the  Minard 
Home,  Morristown,  N.  J.  Bishop  Janes  was  in  many  re- 
spects one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  in  the  history 
of  American  Methodism.  He  inherited  the  sterling 
mental  and  moral  qualities  of  his  Puritan  ancestors; 
possessed  a  mind  of  a  high  order,  enriched  by  generous 
culture,  and  disciplined  by  the  severest  training.  He 
was  a  model  platform  speaker,  ready,  earnest,  and  im- 
pressive ;  a  preacher  of  rare  power,  grasp,  and  eloquence ; 
and  an  administfator  of  peerless  activity,  clearness,  de- 
cision, patience,  and  comprehensiveness.  He  was  a  man 
of  inflexible  principle,  thorough,  conscientious,  and  un- 
tiring in  labor  and  devotion ;  and  a  Christian  of  the 
purest  humility.  He  died  Sept  18, 1876.  See  MinuUe 
(^Annual  ConfereneeM^  1876,  p.  866;  Simpson,  Cydop, 
ofMethoditm,  s.  v. ;  Life,  by  Dr.  Bidgaway  (N.  Y.  1 882). 

Jangamaa,  a  Hindfi  sect,  the  essential  characteris- 
tic of  which  is  wearing  the  lingam  (q.  v.),  or  symbol 
of  creative  production,  on  some  part  of  the  dress  or  per- 
son. The  type  is  of  small  size,  made  of  copper  or  silver, 
and  is  commonly  worn  suspended  in  a  case  round  the 
neck,  or  sometimes  tied  in  the  turban.  In  common  with 
the  worshippers  of  Siva  generally,  the  Jangamas  smear 
their  foreheads  with  ashes,  wear  necklaces,  and  carry 
rosaries  made  of  the  Rudrdhtha  seed.  The  clerical 
members  of  the  sect  usually  stain  their  garments  with 
red  ochre.  They  are  not  numerous  in  Upper  India; 
but  in  the  south  of  India  the  Jangamas,  or  Lingayet$,  aa 
they  are  often  called,  are  very  numerous,  and  the  offici- 
ating priests  of  Siva  are  commonly  of  this  sect.  They 
are  also  represented  aa  being  very  numerous  in  the 
Deccan.  Besides  the  Jangama  priests  of  Kedaroath,  a 
wealthy  establishment  of  t]bem  exists  at  Benares. 

J&nifich,  Rudolph,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Hamburg,  May  22, 1760.  He  stud- 
ied at  Gottingen,  was  catechist  in  his  native  city,  and 
in  1789  pastor  of  the  Lutheran  Church  at  Amsterdam. 
In  1796  he  was  recalled  to  Hamburg,  and  died  April  7, 
1826,  pastor  primarius  of  St  Catharine*s.  He  wrote, 
CogHationet  de  Ammi  ffumam  Libertate  (Hamburg, 
1770)  i—PredifftentwHrfe  After  die  tomi-  undfeattSgUcken 
Evangelien  (1797-1804,  8  parts).  See  Doring,  Die  ge- 
khrten  J'heologen  DeuUMxnds,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  ffandbuch 
der  theol  Lit.  i,l4S.    (a  P.) 

Janoah,  (1)  Or  Ephraix.  Of  Khurbet  TanAn^ 
the  modem  representative  of  this  place,  the  Memoirw 
aooompanyingthe  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,896)  give  only 
this  notice :  **  Traces  of  ruins  above  a  spring.**  (2)  Op 
Naphtau.  The  Tamik,  thought  by  some  to  represent 
this  place,  is  a  double  village,  nine  and  three  quarter 
milea  south-east  from  es-Zib  (Ecdippa,  or  Achaib), 
which  would  fall  on  the  border  between  Asher  and 
Naphtali,  and  is  thus  described  (from  Gu^rin)  in  the 
Memoin  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey  (i,  198) : 
'*  Cisterns  cut  in  the  rock,  and  many  cut  stones  scattered 
over  the  soil,  surrounding  platforms  or  employed  aa 
building  material,  show  that  we  are  here  on  the  site  of 
a  small  ancient  city,  the  name  of  which  is  faithfully 
preserved  in  its  modem  name."    Lieut  Conder,  how- 


JANSEN 


599 


JAPAN 


evert  dutinguishee  this  locality  from  the  Janoah  of  2 
Kings  XV,  29  (see  the  Memoirs  as  above,  i,  96 ;  bat  no 
description  of  the  place  is  given),  which  he  regards  as 
the  Jamh  lying  four  miles  south  of  the  Leontes  (Nahr 
Kasimlyeb),  and  six  and  a  quarter  miles  east  of  Tyre; 
but  this  would  fall  within  the  tribe  of  Asher. 

Janaen  (Lat  JanteniuM),  Jacquss,  a  Belgifin  theo- 
logian, was  bom  at  Amsterdam  in  1547.  He  studied  at 
Lou  vain,  was  in  1575  first  president  of  the  newly-founded 
Augustinian  college,  in  1580  professor  of  theology,  in 
1614  dean,  and  died  July  80, 1625.  He  wrote,  Inttructio 
Catkolici  Ecdeaiattas : — Enarratio  in  Exodi  xv  et  Deal- 
eron,  xxxH :  —*  Commentar.  in  Jobum :  — In  Nakum  ei 
Habacuc  Prophetcu: — In  Cantica  Caniicorum: — In 
Ptalmot  Davtdia: — In  Evangelium  Johatmit,  See  An- 
drea, BAUotheca  Bdgica;  Mineus,  Elogia  lUustrium 
Belgii  Senptorum;  Jocher,  AUgtmeiaes  Gdehrten'LeX' 
ikon,  s.  V. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences  Rdiff- 
ieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Janaena,  Elinga  Franctscus,  a  Dutch  Domini- 
can, who  died  in  1715,  was  one  of  the  most  famous  can- 
onists of  his  time.  He  wrote,  Autoritcu  D,  Thoma 
Aguinatis  (1604): — Certissimum  quid  Certiuima  Veri- 
tatispro  Doctrina  Doctorit  Annelid: — Controvertiat  in 
H(KrtUoos  Opusculum  (Antwerp,  1673)  i—Suprema  Ro- 
mani  Pontificis  A  tUoriiat  (1689) : — De  Romani  Pontifi- 
cit  AutorUaU  et  InfaUOnlitate  (1690)  :—Fonna  et  Esse 
Ecdesice  Christi  (1702)  i-^Disseriaiiones  de  Prindpali- 
oribus  QuastionUnts  hoc  Tempore  in  Scolis  Disputaiis 
(1707).  See  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences  Re- 
ligieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Janaaena,  Abraham,  an  eminent  Flemish  paint- 
er, was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1569,  and  at  an  early  age 
executed  a  number  of  works  for  the  churches  of  Flan- 
ders, which  rank  him  among  the  ablest  artists  of  the 
Flemish  school.  His  paintings  in  the  Church  of  the 
C^armelites  at  Antwerp,  representing  The  Virgin  and  the 
Infcad,  and  The  Enlombmmt^  are  highly  commended. 
In  the  cathedral  at  Ghent  is  an  Eece  Ilomo,  and  a  De- 
scent from  the  Cross  worthy  of  Rubens  himself.  His 
masterpiece  is  the  Resurrection  of  Lazarus^  in  the  col- 
lection of  the  elector -palatine.  He  probably  died  in 
1631.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale^  a*  v. ;  Spooner, 
Bicg,  Hist,  cfihe  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Jaziaaena,  Hana  Hennan,  a  Dutch  theologian, 
was  bom  in  1783,  and  died  at  Leyden  in  1855,  professor 
of  exegesis  and  dogmatics.  He  published  IJermeneutica 
Sacra  (Liege,  1818,  2  vols.;  Paris,  1851 ;  Turin,  1858), 
a  work  which  is  held  in  high  repute  among  Catholics, 
and  has  also  been  translated  into  French  (Paris,  1827, 
1833).  See  Lichtenberger,  Enqfciop,  des  Sciences  Rdv- 
gieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

JanimL  For  this  locality  Conder  suggests  (Tent 
Work,  ii,  337)  the  present  Bad  Nairn,  which  lies  three 
miles  east  of  Hebron  (a  position  possible,  perhaps,  for 
the  group  of  towns  with  which  it  is  associated  in  the 
sacred  text),  with  cisterns  in  the  vicinity,  and  thus  de- 
scribed (from  Gu6rin)  in  the  Memoirs  accompanying 
the  Ordnance  Survey  (iii,  325) : 

"  Here  I  saw  in  many  places  ancient  msterials  employed 
in  Arab  buildings.  Several  Aragmeuts  of  wall  still  upright 
in  good  cut  stones  attracted  my  attention.  I  visited  a 
mosque  which  covers,  according  to  the  tradition  of  the 
people,  the  tomb  of  Lot  The  coffin  shown  to  me  consists 
of  a  great  wooden  coffer,  covered  with  a  carpet,  and  prob- 
ably contains  the  body  of  some  modern  santon  revered 
nnder  the  name  of  Abraham's  nephew.  Around  this 
sanctuary  extends  a  conrt  surrounded  by  a  square  gallery, 
which  is  itself  euclosed  by  a  wall  built  of  stones  belong* 
ing  to  different  periods.  On  one  of  them  I  distinguished 
the  trece  of  a  mutilated  cross,  and.one  of  the  people  told 
me  that  the  mosque  ia  supposed  to  have  succeeded  a 
Christian  Church.  It  is  at  once  a  sacred  edifice  and  a 
fortress,  for  the  terraces  which  cover  the  gallery  are  pro- 
vided  with  a  parapet  pierced  with  loopholes. ...  I  was 
told  by  the  sneik  that  the  place  used  to  be  called  K^r 
JSsreik,  which  confirms  Robinson's  identification  of  ^e 
place  with  Jerome's  Capkar  Bamebo,** 

Janu%  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a  god,  concerning 
wbofe  original  signification  the  most  contrary  views  were 


held.  The  most  commonly  accepted  view  is  that  he  was 
a  deified  king  of  ancient  Italy.  About  his  worship  in 
Rome  the  following  is  related :  Nnma  dedicated  a  sane- 
tuaiy  to  his  honor,  which 
was  opened  in  time  of  war 
and  closed  in  time  of  peace. 
This  goes  to  show  that  he 
was  a  god  of  war,  as  also 
his  by-name  ''Quirinus." 
He  is  represented  with  a 
double  face,  sometimes  with 
four  headSb  In  his  right 
hand  be  carried  a  staff  (the 
symbol  of  augury),  in  his 
left  a  key  (god  of  doors,  for  Figure  of  Janus  on  an  an- 
Janua  signifies  door).     On  cientcoio. 

his  fingers  the  number  three  hundred  was  written  on 
one  hand,  the  number  sixty-five  on  the  other,  desig- 
nating him  the  god  of  the  year. 

Janvier,  Georob  Washinotok,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bom  of  Huguenot  descent  at  Cant- 
well's  Bridge  (now  Odessa),  Del.,  Jan.  22, 1784.  In  his 
twentieth  year  he  joined  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
began  his  preparatory  studies  with  his  pastor.  Rev.  Dr. 
Read,  and  continued  them  at  Princeton,  but  did  not 
graduate.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New 
Castle,  Sept.  26, 1810 ;  spent  one  year  in  itinerant  preach- 
ing; became  pastor  at  Pittsgrove,  X.  J.,  May  13, 1812; 
and  died  there  June  9, 1865.  He  was  moderator  of  the 
Synod  of  New  Jersey,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Hist,  A  Imanac, 
1866,  p.  115. 

Japan.  This  archipelago  in  eastern  Asia  consists 
of  one  large  island,  Hondo  (mainland  or  contitient),  not 
called  Nippon  by  the  natives,  but  formerly  so  named 
by  foreigners,  three  other  largo  islands,  Shikoku  {four 
provinces),  Kiushiu  (nine  provinces^  and  Yezo  («««- 
plored  land),  a  number  of  outlying  islands,  Sado,  Oki, 
Iki,  Tsushima,  Awaji,  Goto,  etc.,  and  the  more  distant 
groups,  the  Kuriles  (smokers),  Benin  (no  man*s),  and 
Riu  Kiu  (hanging  frittge-tassels  or  deeping  dragon),  with 
nearly  four  thousand  islets.  The  area  of  this  empire, 
called  by  the  natives  Nihon  or  Nippon  (sunrise),  or  Dai 
Nihon  Kokn  (great  land  of  the  sun's  root,  or  origin),  is, 
by  survey  of  1874, 146,571^  sqnare  miles,  and  the 
population,  by  census  of  1874, 83,623,873  souls.  Hondo 
contains  neariy  15,000,000  people,  and,  with  the  islands 
immediately  south  and  next  to  it,  may  be  called  Old 
Japan  (native  Oyashima,  eight  great  islands),  because 
historically  conquered  and  colonized  in  early  times. 
New  Japan  comprises  later  acquisitions  and  colonies, 
such  as  Ydzo  and  Riu  Kiu. 

The  origin  of  the  dominant  race  in  Japan  is  not  yet 
entirely  clear  to  scholars,  but  traditions  all  point  to 
Corea  and  northern  Asia  as  the  ancestral  seaU  of  that 
conquering  race  which,  near  the  Christian  ssra,  descend- 
ed upon  the  land  over  which  they  saw  the  sun  rise. 
They  found  other  races  on  the  soil  whom,  they  sub- 
dued. Many  of  the  subjugated  were  doubtless  of  near 
Asian  origin,  like  their  conquerors,  but  there  were  also 
the  straight-eyed,  black-haired  Ainos,  who  now  occupy 
only  Y^zo  and  the  Kuriles,  whither  they  were  in  early 
times  (from  the  4th  to  the  13th  century  of  our  »ra) 
driven.  The  conquerors,  by  the  superior  force  both  of 
their  fetiches  and  dogmas,  as  well  as  of  their  valor, 
arms,  and  agriculture,  made  conquest  only  after  long 
strngglea.  The  farmera  and  warrion  finally  pacified 
the  fishere  and  hunters,  and  established  both  their  po- 
litical rule  and  imported  religion,  Shinto,  over  **  all 
within  the  four  seas."  The  first  mikado  or  emperor, 
deified  as  Jimmu  Tenn5  (heavenly  king),  is  said  to  have 
begun  to  reign  B.C.  667,  in  his  miya  or  palace-temple, 
near  the  miyako  (city)  of  Kioto— but  of  Japanese  dates, 
until  the  introduction  of  almanacs  and  writing,  with 
methods  for  keeping  record  of  time,  from  China,  in  the 
8d  centaiy  and  later,  no  one  can  speak  with  certainty. 


JAPAN 


600 


JAPAN 


and  Japanese  traditions  that  antedate  the  Christian 
»ra  are  chronobgicaUy  worthless. 

The  first  form  of  government  was  a  rode  species  of 
fcadalum,  in  which  the  mikado  was  soaerain,  and  his 
relatives  or  captains  were  rulers  of  the  conquered  land, 
which  had  been  duly  parcelled  out  into  districts.  This 
order  of  things  continued  until  the  7th  century,  when 
the  centralized  system  of  pure  monarchy,  intfodueed 
from  China,  was  carried  out,  and  the  mikado,  as  sole 
ruler,  was  assisted  by  six  boards  or  ministries  of  gor- 
entment,  and  all  provincial  officers  were  appointed  in 
and  sent  out  from  Kidto.  Several  centuries  were  nec- 
essary to  bring  this  method  to  perfection,  and  in  the 
distant  provinces  military  families  who  had  kept  the 
peace  and  put  down  insurrections  at  first  made  them- 
selves necessary  to  the  central  government,  and  later, 
at  the  capital,  transferred  their  energies  to  ambitious 
schemes  in  the  palace  itself.  The  introduction  of 
Buddhism  led  the  roikados  to  neglect  the  sceptre,  and 
to  become  Buddhist  monks,  or  live  in  gross  licentioua- 
ness  under  cover  of  a  professedly  holy  life.  This  paved 
the  way  for  the  rise  of  the  shoguns  (known  later  as 
knbo  same,  **  Tycoon,"  etc),  who  gradually  concentrated 
the  powers  of  the  executive  in  their  own  hands,  while 
nominally  the  mikado  was  the  fountain  of  honors.  Ex- 
aggerating the  mikado's  ** spiritual"  importance  for  his 
own  ends,  the  shogun  usurped  the  functions  of  military 
and  civil  administration,  and  held  the  army,  the  treas- 
ury, and  the  appointing  power.  Yoritomo,  at  Kama^ 
kura,  in  1192,  began  the  dual  system  of  government, 
which,  with  slight  intermissions,  lasted  until  1868, 
though  lyeyasu,  at  Tedo,  in  1604,  establisheil  the  or- 
der of  things  in  Japan  with  which,  until  1868,  foreign- 
ers have  been  most  familiar.  Side  by  side  with  this 
spectacle  of  two  rulers  and  two  capitals  grew  up  the 
elaborate  feudalism  of  Japan,  which  has  so  attracted  the 
attention  of  students,  and  which  in  its  perfected  devel- 
opment was  unique  in  Asia. 

The  story  of  the  introduction  of  Portuguese  Chris- 
tianity into  Dai  Nippon,  as  given  by  professor  Schem 
in  volume  iv,  is  in  the  main  an  admirable  one.  We 
note  only  the  following  needed  corrections:  Tan^a 
{teed  island)  for  Yanega,  Hid^yoshi  for  Fide  Yose,  lye- 
yasu for  Yie  Yazoo,  Hirado  for  Firando,  Yedo  for  Yeddo, 
Bakafu  for  Rankfu,  Is6  for  Isyay,  Riobu  for  Ryoby,  etc 
We  may  add  that,  in  1877,  most  interesting  relics--docu- 
menta,  books,  tapestry — of  the  Japanese  embassy  to  the 
pope  were  discovered,  and  that  while  in  Japan,  in  1878, 
the  writer  identified  the  place  of  imprisonment  and 
burial  of  *^  Sedotti "  ( Jean  Baptiste  Sidotti),  *' the  last 
Catholic  priest*'  who,  in  1709,  landed  in  Japan,  and 
**  was  never  again  heard  of"  until  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown, 
D.D.,  unearthed  the  account  of  his  inquisition  and  trial, 
written  by  a  Japanese  scholar.  Further,  the  recently 
found  correspondence  of  the  Dutch  superintendents  of 
D^shima  requires  us  to  relieve  the  Hollanders  of  much 
of  the  odium  resting  on  their  names  for  assisting  with 
cannon  to  crush  the  '*  Christian  "insurrection  at  Shi  ma- 
bara,  in  1627  (not  **  at  the  close  of  the  16th  century  "), 
in  whicH  very  much  fewer  than  seventy  thousand 
"Christians"  were  either  concerned  or  injured. 

For  two  centuries  and  a  half  after  the  expulsion  of 
the  Romish  priests,  the  supposed  extirpation  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  sealing  of  all  the  doors  of  the  empire  against 
foreign  influences,  Japan  rested  in  peace  in  the  calm  of 
despotism.  But  while  the  successors  of  ly^yasu,  in 
Yedo,  supposed  that  the  duarchy  feudalism  and  national 
isolation  were  permanently  establi^ed,  great  currents 
of  thought  began  to  move  under  the  surface.  These 
were  finally  to  break  out  in  floods  that  shonld  sweep 
Away  the  old  and  bring  in  a  new  ara  never  dreamed 
of  by  ancient  or  modem  man  in  Japan.  These  move- 
ments were  intended  to  effect  the  overthrow  of  the 
shogun  and  his  abasement  as  the  emperor's  vassal,  the 
replacement  of  the  mikado  on  his  throne  as  sole  ruler, 
the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system,  the  disestablish- 
ment of  Buddhism,  and  the  restoration  of  Shinto  as 


the  state  cultos.  All  was  ready,  or  nearly  so,  for  up- 
heaval, when  the  squadron  of  American  steamers,  under 
commodore  Matthew  Calbraith  Perry,  swept  into  the 
bay  of  Yedo,  July  8, 1853.  After  his  treaty,  and  those 
made  later  by  Townsend  Harris,  our  oonsul-general,  and 
European  envoys,  and  the  opening  of  the  ports  to  for- 
eign residence  and  commerce,  the  men  who  had  wrought 
to  undermine  the  sh5gunate  bent  their  energiea  to  the 
expulsion  of  the  foreigners  and  the  dictatorial  isolation 
of  *^  the  holy  country  "  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  The 
advent  of  foreigners  precipitated  a  crisis  lung  preparing, 
and  in  the  chaos  of  conflicting  elements  that  kept  the 
country  in  commotion  from  1859  to  1870  foreigners 
resident  on  the  soil  could  see  little  but  the  occasional 
outbursu  of  incendiarism,  assassination,  riots,  and  bkrad- 
shed,  culminating  in  the  civil  war  of  1868-70.  In  this 
the  progressive  party  was  successful  The  mikado  was 
reinstated  to  supreme  power  in  the  capital,  which  had 
been  removed  from  Kioto  to  Yedo  (toy-«2oor)— which 
received  the  new  and  more  appropriate  name,  TGki5 
(easfa-n  capital)— the  ofilce  of  shogun  was  abolished,  and 
iu  last  incumbent  retired  to  Shidzuoka  (where  he  died 
in  1884),  feudalism  was  abolished,  and  the  three  hun- 
dred or  less  petty  territorial  rulers  or  daimios  were  re- 
tired to  private  life  in  Tokio,  the  hereditary  pensions 
of  the  military-literati,  or  idle  privileged  classes,  were 
capitalized  and  extinguuhed,  society  was  reconstructed 
on  the  simplified  basis  of  **  the  three  classes,"  nobles, 
gentry,  and  common  people.  From  the  centralized 
government  in  Tokid  now  proceeded  the  most  radical 
measures  of  reform,  political,  social,  and  moral,  which, 
in  their  rapidity  and  frequency,  served  to  show  that 
the  mikado's  advisers  were  making  all  haste  to  be 
'<  civilized."  The  goal  of  their  agonizing  race  was  the 
equality  of  Japan  among  the  nations  of  Christendom, 
and  the  abolition  of  the  odious  extra-tcrritoriality  clause 
from  the  treaties.  Dependence  was  not  placed  alone 
upon  development  of  industrial  and  military  resources, 
although  these  were  carefully  attended  to,  and  wisely, 
for  new  Japan  was  not  yet  purged  of  the  old  spirit  of 
feudalism.  Several  insurrections  had  to  be  quelled,  one 
of  them,  the  Satsuma  rebellion  in  1877,  being  on  a  scale 
which  threatened  for  a  time  the  very  existence  of  the 
government,  and  cost  the  country  twenty  thousand  Uvea 
and  a  hundred  million  dollars.  By  means  of  telegrapha, 
steamers,  improved  rifles,  ships,  and  cannon,  backed  by 
the  valor  of  peasant  conscripts,  led  by  officers  of  modem 
education,  peace  was  won  after  seven  months'  war. 
Political  education  by  means  of  newspapers  (now  two 
thousand  in  number  in  Japan,  or  more  than  in  both 
Spsin  and  Russia)  and  debating-dubs  proceeded  apace, 
resulting  finally  in  the  establishment  of  local  assem- 
blies, a  franchise  based  on  property  qualification,  and 
the  solemn  oath-bound  promise  of  the  mikado  that^  in 
1890,  a  national  parliament  should  be  formed,  and  the 
government  (changed  from  absolute  despotism)  become 
a  limited  monarchy.  And  this  in  Asia !  Such  is  the 
political  outlook  in  Japan.  Let  us  now  glance  at  her 
religious  condition. 

When  the  treaties  lifted  the  seals  from  the  closed 
doors  of  the  empire,  and  roissionariea  from  the  three 
great  divisions  of  the  Christian  Church  entered  Japan, 
the  Roman  Catholics  searched  at  once  for,  and  soon 
found,  remnants  of  the  17th  century  converts,  number- 
ing in  all  probably  five  thousand.  Preserving  a  few 
Latin  words  of  sacred  import,  and  some  of  the  chara<H 
teristic  forms  of  the  Roman  ritual,  with  here  and  there 
an  image  or  picture  of  the  Virgin  or  of  Jesus,  these  de- 
scendants of  the  martyrs  were,  despite  their  debased 
and  half  heatheniAh  condition,  KiruUnu,  With  thia 
advantage  of  historio  continuity  the  Roman  Catholics 
began  their  work  simultaneously  with  the  Ruaso>Greeka 
and  American  Protestants.  Persecutions  soon  broke 
out,  and  were  carried  on  both  by  the  old  ehSgun's  and 
the  new  mikado's  government.  The  writer  has  a  Wvid 
recollection  of  seeing,  on  a  bitter  cold  winter's  day,  in 
Che  mountains  of  Echizen,  a  gang  of  these  wretcKicd 


JAPAN 


601 


JAPANESE  VERSION 


priaoitera  roped  together  and  led  bv  Jailers  while  tramp- 
ing in  the  snow  to  their  place  of  duress  in  the  volcano 
craters  of  Kaga.  The  intercession  of  diploniatiati>  and 
especially  of  the  Rev.  G.  F.  Yerbeck,  then  the  tmated 
servant  uf  the  government,  and  president  of  the  Im- 
perial Uni\'ersity  of  T5ki5,  finally  stopped  these  inhu- 
man  proceedings.  Fear  of  the  censure  of  Christian  na^ 
tioos,  and  their  threatened  final  refusal  to  expunge  the 
extra-territoriality  clause  from  the  treaties,  have  com- 
pelled the  Japanese  to  cease  from  persecution  in  every 
form.  In  1872  the  anti-Christian  edicts,  which,  since 
1600,  had  denounced  '*  the  corrupt  sect,"  and  promised 
rewards  to  informers,  were  removed.  Later,  both 
Buddhism  and  Shint5  were  disestablished,  the  depart, 
ment  of  religion  was  abolished,  and  the  vexatious  bur- 
ial laws  repealed,  **  and  thus  it  has  been  brought  to  pass 
that  Christianity  has  been,  by  the  action  of  the  Japan- 
ese government  itself,  placed  upon  a  footing  of  perfect 
equality  with  the  old-established  and  rec<^^ixed  re- 
ligions of  Japan.  In  other  worda,  within  twenty-five 
years  from  the  first  Protestant  mission  in  the  empire, 
Christianity  secures  a  position  before  the  law  which  it 
gained  in  ancient  Rome  only  after  the  delays  and  per- 
secutions of  over  three  centuries." 

About  twenty  Protestant  missionary  societies  now 
have  representatives  in  Japan,  most  of  them  from  Amer- 
ica. In  addition  to  the  usual  methods  of  missionary 
work  by  the  foreign  teachers,  the  Japanese  themselves 
carry  on  matters  pretty  much  in  their  own  way.  Al- 
most every  form  of  Christian  effort  in  vogue  among  us 
is  quickly  adopted  by  the  Japanese  brethren.  Preach- 
ing services  hcJd  in  public  balls  and  theatres  by  a  number 
of  speakers  during  several  days  in  succession  are  very 
popular  and  effective.  Social  meetings  for  the  promotion 
of  harmony  and  Christian  fellowship  are  frequently  held 
in  individual  churches  or  unitedly  by  different  churches 
or  denominations.  The  Japanese  are  good  public  speak- 
ers, enjoying  the  privilege  of  a  participation  ip  social 
worship,  and  being  emotional  and  sympathetic.  There 
are  few  of  those  pauses  of  dead  silence  which  so  afflict 
our  own  meetings  for  prayer.  The  telegraph,  now  ram- 
ifying throughout  Japan,  often  bears  such  messages  as 
these,  **  Konnichi  Mitami  Kudari,  Kltokwai  furuu  "  (to- 
day the  Holy  Spirit  has  come  down,  and  the  meetings 
are  full  of  fervor).  Prayer-meetings  held  exclusively 
for  and  by  women,  scripture -reading  leagues,  young 
men's  Christian  associations,  popular  lecture  courses, 
and  religious  periodicab,  edited  by  native  Christians, 
supplement  the  foreign  missionary's  work,  and  that 
of  the  American,  Scotch,  and  Bible  societies,  and  thus 
fill  the  whole  land  with  light  and  truth.  Old  mission- 
aries declare  that  the  native  Church  members,  who  are 
very  apt  at  first  to  join  the  Church  from  intellectual 
conviction,  show  a  most  cheering  growth  in  spiritual 
knowledge.  The  preaching  of  the  young  licentiates  or 
pastors,  at  first  dealing  almost  exclusively  with  moral- 
ity, becomes  more  spiritual,  Christ  and  his  cross  being 
the  prominent  theme.  The  complete  New  Test,  has 
now  been  in  the  hands  of  tlie  Japanese  for  five  years, 
and  the  year  1886  will,  D.  V.,  see  the  completed  Bible 
in  their  homes.  The  Scriptures  are  published  in  three 
styles  of  print  and  diction,  so  that  all  classes  may  read 
them.  Ninety  thousand  copies  and  portions  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  tracts 
were  distributed  by  the  tract  societies  last  year.  Turn- 
ing away  from  China  u  the  mother  country  of  knowl- 
edge and  inspiration,  the  Japanese  now  look  to  Europe 
and  America.  A  company  of  literary  men  and  scholars 
are  endeavoring  to  do  away  with  the  use  of  Chinese 
ideographs,  and  to  print  books  and  newspapers  in  the 
Roman  character.  Familiarity  with  their  own  pho- 
netics, or  syllabary  of  forty  -  eight  letters,  makes  the 
final  adoption  of  the  Roman  alphabet  easy.  The  Ro' 
maji'kai  is  the  newspaper  in  which  they  are  showing 
how  a  native  boy  may  now  learn  to  read  better  in  ten 
m<mths  than  he  could  of  old  in  ten  years. 

Much  of  the  literary,  social,  political,  as  well  as  moral 


progress  made  by  the  Japanese,  results  either  directly 
or  indirectly  from  missionary  labor,  suggestion,  or  stim- 
ulus. In  addition  to  their  preaching,  teaching,  trana> 
lation,  and  healing,  they  have  conferred  upon  natives 
and  foreigners  alike  a  lasting  benefit  of  incalculable  im- 
portance by  their  aids  to  the  mastery  of  the  language, 
and  their  other  publicationsL  The  following  statistics 
of  Christianity  in  Japan  are  from  the  paper  read  before 
the  Osaka  Confeienoe  in  April,  1888 : 


Bishops 

Missionaries 

Priests  (Japanese) 

Ordained  Ministers. 

Unordalned  STangellata,  I 

Catechlsta,  etc J 

Bible  women 

Converts 

Contributions 

Schools : 

Theological 

Stndenta 

Mixed , 

Scholars 

Bore* 

Scholars 

GWs* 

Scholars 

Sunday 

Scholars 

Organised  churches 

Churches  or  chapels. 

Preachlof;  places 

Hospitals 

In-patients 

Dispensaries. 

Patients 


ProtMl- 
■at. 


145 


100 

8T 

4867 

819,064 

7 

71 

80 

lOSO 

0 

464 

16 

066 

100 

4180 

«B 

7 

6 

706 

8 

04,806 


Roman 
Cfttholle. 


8 


06,180 

8 

71 

74 

8000 


80 


GfMk. 


5 
11 

106 


818T8 


148 

1»1 


Of  the  dangers  that  beset  the  churches  of  Christ  in 
Jspan  we  do  not  here  speak,  but  refer  the  reader  to  the 
following  recent  works  for  a  more  thorough  study  of 
the  country  and  people,  and  the  work  for  Christ  in  the 
sunrise  kingdom. 

Literature. — Tratuactioru  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
Japan  (1874-85),  wA.  i-xiv ;  L6on  Pag4s,  Hittoire  de  la 
Religion  Chritienne  au  Japon ;  Griffis,  The  Mikado^i  Em^ 
pire  (New  York,  1876;  4th  ed,  1884);  Corea,  the  Her- 
mit  Nation  (ibid.  1882) ;  Bird,  Unbeaten  Trackt  in  Japan 
(ibid.  1881);  Rein,  Japan  (ibid.  1884),  and  the  works 
of  baron  De  Hubner,  E.  Warren  Clark,  £.  J.  Reed,  Isa- 
bella Carruthers,  W.  Gray  Dixon,  Henry  Faulds,  and 
others.    (W.  £.  G.) 

Japanese  Veraion  or  thb  Sciupturss.  The 
honor  of  translating  the  first  portion  of  Scripture  into 
the  language  of  the  extensive  empire  of  Japan  belongs 
to  the  late  Dr.  GUUlaff  (q.  v.).  About  the  year  1835 
three  shipwrecked  Japanese  mariners  arrived  at  Macao 
on  their  voyage  homewards,  and  during  the  few  months 
that  they  remained  in  that  city  Dr.  GUtzlafi*  availed 
himself  of  their  aid  in  translating  the  gospel  of  John 
into  their  language.  This  translation  was  printed  at 
Singapore  about  1838.  In  this  version  the  word  used 
for  God  was  Gokuraku,  the  term  the  Buddhists  use  for 
paradise  or  the  state  of  supreme  bliss.  For  LogoM  or  the 
Word  he  used  Kathihoi  mono^  the  wise  or  clever  person ; 
for  Holy  Spirit,  Kami  While  in  England  Dr.  Gutzlaff 
proposed,  in  1849,  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, to  have  the  Scriptures  printed  in  the  Japanese 
tongue.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  epistles  of 
John  were  consequently  printed  according  to  GUtzlalTs 
translation. 

As  the  style  of  hb  version  was  found  inferior,  and 
little  likely  to  prove  acceptable  to  the  better  educated 
in  Japan,  a  new  translation  was  underteken  by  Dr. 
Bettelheim,  a  medical  missionary  and  convert  from 
Judaism.  He  was  sent  to  the  Loochoo  islands  in  1846, 
and  while  there  made  a  translation  of  the  New  Test. 
While  in  Hong  Kong  he  published  the  gospel  of  Luke, 
under  the  care  of  the  bishop  of  Victoria,  and  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 
edge.   It  was  printed  on  blocks,  in  royal  octavo  size, 


JAPANESE  VERSION 


602 


JAPANESE  VERSION 


with  GtltzlaiTs  Chtnete  tnuislation  at  the  top  of  the 
page,  and  Bettelheim^  in  the  Loochoo  dialect,  at  the 
bottom,  in  Katakana,  or  the  character  used  for  scientific 
works.  When  Bettelheim  left  Japan  in  1854  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  Chicago,  and  from  this  place  he  of- 
fered, in  1860,  to  sell  his  translation  to  the  United  States 
government.  The  government,  wishing  to  know  its 
merits,  sent  a  copy  of  one  of  the  gospels  and  a  grammar 
he  had  compiled  to  its  minister  resident  in  Japan,  Mr. 
Harris,  to  be  examined  by  scholars  there  and  reported 
on.  Mr.  Harris  not  knowing  what  better  to  do,  sent  it 
to  Drs.  Brown  and  Hepburn,  two  missionaries,  bat 
whether  from  the  peculiarities  of  the  dialect,  or  out  of 
very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  Japanese  langoage  at 
that  early  day  of  their  residence  there,  they  could  not 
make  anything  out  of  it.  So  it  was  returned  to  Mr.  Har- 
ris with  an  unfavorable  reporu  Dr.  Bettelheim,  how- 
ever, revised  his  work  in  Chicago,  with  the  assistance 
of  a  Japanese,  bringing  it  more  into  conformity  with 
the  pure  Japanese.  This  revision,  consisting  of  the 
four  gospels  and  Acts,  was  offered  to  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  purchased  by  them.  It  was 
printed  at  Vienna  in  1872  for  that  society,  in  the  Hira- 
gama  character,  which  is  more  generally  understood  in 
Japan  than  the  Kantakana,  in  which  it  was  written. 

This  publication  was  the  only  direct  effort  made  by 
that  society  as  a  temporary  measure  until  something 
better  could  be  prepared.  The  committee  appointed  by 
the  missionary  convention  commenced  its  sittings  in 
June,  1874.  There  were  invited  to  meet  and  participate 
in  the  work  of  translation  the  Rev.  R.  S.  Maday,  of  the 
American  Episcopal  Mission ;  Rev.  N.  Brown,  D.D.,  of 
the  American  Baptist  Mission ;  the  Rev.  John  Piper, 
of  the  Church  Missionary  Society ;  and  the  Rev.  W.  B. 
Wright,  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  GospeL 
Mr.  Piper  and  Mr.  Wright,  owing  to  their  reuding  at 
such  an  inconvenient  distance,  could  not  meet  the  com- 
mittee. Dr.  Nathan  Brown  sat  with  the  committee 
about  eighteen  months,  until  January,  1876,  when  he 
resigned,  and  continued  to  prosecute  the  work  of  transla- 
tion alone.  The  other  members  of  the  committee  con- 
tinued at  the  work  of  translation  and  revision  with  but 
slight  interruption.  Dr.  Maday  being  absent  about 
eighteen  months,  owing  to  other  duties,  and  Dr.  Brown 
being  compelled  through  ill-health  to  cease  work  in 
July,  1879.  The  committee  finished  their  work  of 
translation  and  revision  of  the  New  Test.  Nov.  8, 1879, 
about  five  years  and  six  months  after  they  had  com- 
menced, ^e  work  was  cut  on  blocks  and  published 
in  the  following  order:  Luke,  August,  1875;  Romans, 
March,  1876;  Hebrews  and  Matthew  (revised),  Janu- 
ary, 1877 ;  Mark  (revised),  April,  1877 ;  epistles  of  John, 
June,  1877;  Acts,  September,  1877;  Galatians,  January, 
1878;  John,goepel  (revised),  May,  1878;  1  Corinthians, 
August,  1878;  2  Corinthians,  September,  1878;  Ephe- 
dans,  Philippians,  1st  and  2d  Thessdonians,  June,  1879; 
Philemon,  James,  Ist  and  2d  Peter,  Jude,  Colossians, 
Revdation,  April,  1880.  As  to  the  literary  style  of  the 
trandation — a  matter  of  no  small  importance — the  fol- 
lowing statement,  made  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  C  Hepburn 
on  the  occadon  of  celebrating  the  completion  of  the 
Japanese  version  of  the  New  Test.,  April  19, 1880,  at 
Tokio,  will  be  of  interest: 

"  In  this  country,  where,  from  the  earliest  times,  the 
Chinese  language  and  literature  has  bad  such  a  powerfhl 
Influence  upon  uie  cultivation  and  language  of  the  people, 
it  was,  at  the  very  first,  a  matter  of  considerable  anxiety 
in  what  literary  style  our  work  should  be  brought  out  to 
make  it  most  acceptable  and  nselhl.  The  concindon  was 
not  difficult  to  arrive  at:  that— avoiding  on  the  one  hand 
the  9uasi-Gblnese  style,  only  intellifflble  to  the  highly  ed- 
ncated,  scholarly,  and  comparatively  very  small  portion 
of  the  people ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  a  vulgar  colloquial, 
which,  though  easily  understood,  might  make  the  Script- 
ures contemptible— we  should  choo«e  that  style  which, 
while  respected  even  bv  the  so-called  literati^  was  eaay 
and  iutelligible  to  all  classes.  We  thus  adhered  to  the 
vernacular,  or  pure  Japanese,  and  to  a  style  which  may  be 
called  classical*  in  which  many  (tf  their  best  books  In- 
tended for  the  common  reader  are  written.  And  our  more 
enlarged  experience  bos  given  us  no  reason  to  regret  our 


first  determination,  but  rather  to  be  more  and  more  satis- 
fied wlih  it,  and  to  believe  that  in  this,  as  well  as  In  many 
other  matters,  we  have  beeu  under  the  guidance  of  a  kind 
and  all-ruling  Providence.*' 

The  committee  had  assistance  from  several  Japanese 
scholars,  among  whom  Mr.  Okuno  and  Mr.  Matsuyama 
are  mentioned.  Of  the  latter  it  is  sdd,  ''He  has  been 
with  the  committee  from  the  first  and  throughout  its 
whole  work.  He  has  been  our  chief  dependence,  as- 
sistant, and  arbiter  in  dl  cases  of  difficulty.  Whatever 
virtue  there  is  in  our  Japanese  text,  it  is  mainly,  if  not 
dtogether,  owing  to  his  scholarly  ability,  the  perfect 
knowledge  he  hu  of  his  own  language,  his  oonscientioua 
care,  and  identifying  himself  with  the  work.**  At  prea* 
ent  the  New  Teat,  is  circulated  in  Japan  in  the  follow- 
ing editions : 

1.  The  Standard^  or  Kanamefirt,  New  Te»t4tment—Th\B 
Is  a  repnbllcatlon  of  the  New  Test  completed  in  1880, 
xrMh  such  changes  as  the  translation  committee  finally 
decided  upon. 

5.  The  Romaniged  yew  Tutament;  or,  Warera  no  ehu 
/jfetii  KirUuto  no  Shin  Taku  zen  dto.— This  is  the  Japan- 
ese of  the  Standard  New  Test.,  In  Roman  letter.  The 
transliteration  was  done  by  Dr.  Hepburn.  The  DecUp  Oa- 
uUe  of  Yokohama.  Oct  1M880.  has  the  foUowioe  notice 
concerning  the  editor:  **The  labors  of  this  modest  but 
excellent  philanthropist  and  Japanese  scholar  in  thecauaea 
of  learning  and  Christianity  in  Japan  are  well  known. 
His  dictionary,  Japanese-English  and  Bnelish-Japanese, 
was  the  first  work  of  Its  kind  published  in  this  country, 
and  notwithstanding  the  more  elaborate  and  copious  con- 
tribution of  Mr.  Satow,  it  still  retains  ita  high  rank  for 
accuracv  and  ceneral  nsefhlnesa.  In  the  midst  of  other 
occupations,  IJr.  Hepburn  has  found  time  to  add  to  hia 
literary  reputation  a  comdete  Romanized  version  of  the 
New  Test,  a  piece  of  work  which  can  be  but  imnerfectly 
Mtlmated  by  Its  extent,  wbich  embraces  six  bunored  and 
fifty-three  closely  printed  royal  octavo  pagea 

*' Of  the  quality  of  the  translation  we  do  not  fed  compe- 
tent to  form  an  opinion.  Dr.  Hepburn's  close  association 
with  the  gentlemen  who  undertook  the  work  is  itself  a 

guarantee  of  excellence ;  but  we  may,  at  a  later  time, 
ave  occadon  to  notice  It  critically. 

*^The  American  Bible  Sodety  is  to  be  congratulated  on 
this  vduable  addition  to  its  library,  and  the  thanks  of 
all  who  desire  the  promotion  of  good  works  are  due  to 
those  whose  labor  has  yielded  this  good  fmlt." 

8.  The  Comfwm  Readar*ey  or  SohirakofUL  Ifew  Teetament 
—In  this  the  common  cursive  Japanese  character  is  used, 
almost  done,  with  but  very  few  Chinese  characters.  It 
is  intended  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  moat  Illiterate.  Tlie 
first  volume  will  appear  in  a  few  days,  and  the  entire 
work  will  be  finished,  we  hope,  before  the  close  of  the 
year.  It  will  be  a  volume  slightly  thinner  than  the  Stand- 
ard New  Test  The  Rev.  Mr.  Knox,  of  the  Presbyterian 
Mission,  has  kindly  superintended  the  proof-reading. 

4.  The  Shinkatatana  Neva  TeetamenU—ln  this  style  the 
angular  Japanese  kana  are  used,  with  many  Chinese  char- 
aetera.  It  is  thought  that  this  will  be  the  mvorite  edition 
with  the  scholarly  classea.  It  is  of  Just  about  the  same 
size  aa  the  Standard,  and  its  cost  and  selling  price  will  be 
the  same.  The  proof-reading  of  this  work  haa  been  un- 
der the  supervlsiou  of  Dr.  Hepburn. 

6.  The  Chino^apaneee,  or  JETunton,  New  Teetament  and 
Pealfne.^The  New  Test  was  prepared  by  the  Rev.  D.  C. 
Greene,  D.D.,  and  the  Psalms  by  the  Rt  Itev.  W.  C.  Will- 
lame,  D.D.  This  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Bridgman  and 
Culbertson  Chinese  translation  for  the  use  of  Japanese 
readers.  In  the  words  of  Dr.  Qreene,  **  The  word  mtnten 
is  the  name  givea  to  the  diminutive  characters  written 
on  the  right  side  of  the  Chinese  ideographs.  These, 
which  consist  for  the  most  port  of  the  Japanese  phonetic 
characters,  serve  to  supply  the  terminations  of  the  Jap- 
anese verbs  and  such  Articles  as  are  not  found  in  the 
Chinese  construction.  Besides  the  kunten,  there  are  eer- 
tdn  numerals  and  arbitrary  signs  placed  on  the  left  of 
each  column,  which  Indicate  the  Japanese  order  of  thought 
By  the  insertion  of  these  marks,  this  book  becomes  sub- 
stantially a  translation  into  Japanese  of  the  Chlneae  ver- 
don  above  mentioned." 

A  commencement  with  the  translation  of  the  Old  Teat, 
into  Japanese  haa  also  been  made.  Ddegatea  of  tb« 
Protestant  misdona  in  Japan  met  in  Tokio,  May  10, 1878; 
to  oondder  prindpally  plana  for  translating  the  Old 
Test  A  permanent  tianalation  committee  was  ar- 
ranged for,  to  consist  of  one  member  flrom  each  mission^ 
to  be  dectcd  by  the  misabn  itadf^  who  are  to  aangn  the 
work  of  tnnsUting  the  different  portiona  of  the  Old 
Test  to  various  sab-oommittees ;  and  the  reeulta  of  their 
labors  are  to  be  submitted  to  a  general  revising  com* 
mittee,  to  be  appointed  by  the  permanent  oommitteei 
The  revidon  committee  -U  made  up  of  Df&  Hcptmniy 


JAPHIA 


603 


JEBIS 


BrowD,  MicUy,  luid  the  Rer.  Keatn.  Green  and  Piper. 
As  to  the  progress  made  in  the  Old  Teat,  translation,  we 
learn  from  the  different  reports  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  that  most  of  the  books  have  been 
translated,  and  that  some  have  already  been  printed. 
Besides  the  reports  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  compare  also  the  Bible  Society  Record  of  the 
American  Bible  Society.    (B.  P.) 

Japhla.  Its  modem  representative,  Y4fa,  lies  one 
and  a  half  miles  south-west  of  Nazareth.  It  contains 
no  ancient  remains,  except  a  few  broken  colamns,  and 
about  thirty  cbtems.  For  a  description  of  the  numer- 
ous grain-pits  cut  in  the  rocks  see  the  Mtmoiri  accom- 
panying the  Ordnance  Survey,  i,  858  sq. 

Jazmntfa  of  Judah.  The  modem  representative 
of  this  place,  Khurhet  el-Tarmuk,  lies  one  and  a  half 
miles  north-west  of  Beit-Netttf,  of  which  the  Memoirt 
to  the  Ordnance  Survey  give  only  this  meagre  descrip- 
tion (iii,  128) :  ^  Heaps  of  stones,  foundations,  and  cis- 
terns," with  a  reference  to  '*  section  A,  Jarmnth,"  which 
contains  no  allusion  to  it. 

Jarrom,  William,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Ely  Place,  Wisbeach,  Cambridgeshire,  July 
29, 1814.  After  leaving  school  he  spent  some  time  in 
study  at  home,  and  in  teaching  the  classics.  He  was 
for  some  time  pastor  of  a  church  at  Northampton,  where 
he  also  conducted  a  schooL  He  resigned  his  pastorate 
in  1841,  but  continued  his  school  until  he  went  as  a 
missionary  to  China  in  1845.  While  there,  he  labored 
at  Ningpo  with  much  success.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1851,  and  settled  at  Isleham  in  1852.  He  removed 
to  Kegworth  in  1856,  where  he  opened  a  boanling- 
sehool,  and  preached  frequently.  In  1868  he  went  to 
Barton  as  oo- pastor,  and  in  1874  to  West  Vale,  near 
Halifax,  as  pastor.  He  finally  removed  to  Coningsby, 
near  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  where  he  taught  and  preached 
untU  a  few  days  before  his  death,  Feb.  28, 1882.  See 
Baplitt  Hcmd-book  for  1883,  p.  266. 

Jattir.  The  modem  representative  of  this,  JTAtfr- 
5d  AUirj  lies  four  and  a  quarter  miles  south-east  of  ed- 
Dhoheriyeh,  and  nine  and  three  quarter  miles  north  of 
Tell  Hilh  (Mohidah),  and  is  thus  described  in  the  Me^ 
moirM  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey  (iii,  408) : 
**  Foundations,  and  heaps  of  stones ;  a  great  many  caves ; 
a  mined  masonry  tomb ;  several  fallen  pillar-shafts  and 
datema.  There  is  a  kubbeh  [dome]  at  the  min,  which 
stands  on  a  knolL  Many  of  the  caves  have  masonry 
arches  to  the  doora.  A  large  building  remains,  four 
oonraes  of  the  wall  being  left  Below  the  mins  on  the 
hiU«de  is  a  large  oil-press." 

Janbert  {De  Barrauli),  Jban,  a  French  prelate  and 
theologian,  was  the  son  of  Emeri,  count  of  Barrault,  and 
studied  at  La  Fl^che,  both  philosophy  and  theology,  as 
an  abbot  of  St.  Pierre  de  Solognac,  in  the  diocese  of 
Limoges.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Bazas  at  Rome, 
in  Augnst,  1612.  Two  years  afterwards  h^  was  at  the  as- 
sembly of  the  clergy  at  Paris.  He  had  been  designated 
as  grand-almoner  to  Henrietta  Maria  of  France,  queen 
of  England,  but  the  Protestants  succeeded  in  preventing 
him  from  getting  that  position.  In  1680  he  was  ap- 
pointed archbishop  of  Aries.  He  presided  over  the  as- 
sembly of  the  clergy,  in  1685,  at  Paris,  where  he  died, 
July  80, 1648,  leaving  Erreun  ct  FautteUi  Remar^aUa 
(Bordeaux,  1622-81).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ghtl- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Jauk  (or  Yank),  one  of  the  five  deified  men  men- 
tbned  in  the  Koran  as  having  been  worshipped  by  the 
ancient  Arabians.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been 
•ntedilnviana  who  had  been  distinguished  for  their 
virtues.  The  Arabians  represent  Jauk  under  the  figure 
of  ahorse. 

Javanese  Veraion  of  thb  Scriptubes.  The 
language  spoken  on  the  island  of  Java  is,  next  to  Ma- 
lajiD,  which  is  distinct  from  it,  the  most  polished  and 
most  cultivated  of  Polynesian  dialects.    Since  A.D. 


1400,  when  the  Javanese  embraced  Mohammedanism, 
many  Arabic  words  have  been  adopted,  by  which  the 
native  deficiency  of  the  dialect  in  abstract  terms  has 
been  in  some  measure  supplied.  There  are  two  prin- 
cipal styles  of  langiuige,  called  boao  kromo  and  boio 
tiffoho.  The  boeo  hromo  is  the  higher  style,  used  in  ad- 
dressing persons  of  superior  rank,  etc.;  and  the  hoeo 
ngoko  is  the  lower  style,  used  in  addressing  persons  of 
lower  rank ;  it  is  also  found  sometimes  in  older  writings, 
and  in  narratives,  etc 

The  preparation  of  a  Javanese  version  was  first  sug- 
gested by  Dr.  Wm.  Hunter,  of  Calcutu,  in  1812.  When 
the  Java  Bible  Society  was  fomied,  in  1814,  the  trans- 
lation was  one  of  the  first  things  considered,  but  the 
language  was  found  very  difficult  of  acquirement  to 
Europeans.  At  length  the  Rev.  Gottlob  BrUckner,  a 
native  of  Germany,  stationed  as  minister  of  the  Dutch 
Churoh  at  Samarang,  undertook  the  difficult  task.  In 
1820  he  commenced  the  translation  of  the  New  Test., 
which  was  printed  in  1881  at  Serampore.  The  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Test,  was  undertaken  by  the  Bev.  Mr. 
Gericki,  a  missionary  of  the  Ketheriands  Society.  In 
1881  he  completed  a  version  of  the  Psalms,  which  he 
sent  to  Holland,  to  the  Netherlands  Society,  for  publica- 
tion. 

Mr.  Gericki  also  made  a  fresh  translation  of  the  New 
Test.,  on  the  basis  of  the  preceding.  The  printing  was 
conducted  at  the  Hague,  under  the  eyes  of  the  trans- 
lator. Professor  Boorda  assisting  him  in  the  correction 
of  the  proof-sheets.  The  revised  New  Test,  was  issued 
in  1848,  and  in  1857  the  Old  TesL  was  also  published, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Netherlands  Society.  Of 
late,  however,  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
has  undertaken  to  publish  a  revised  edition,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Kev.  P.  Janaz  of  Djapara,  supported  by  Mr. 
Haifenden,  the  society's  agent  in  Singapore.  "The 
people  of  Java,"  the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  for  1888  states,  *<are  said  to  number 
19,000,000.  Of  these  8,000,000  are  Javanese,  8,000,000 
Sundanese,  and  8,000,000  Malays.  From  many  sources 
the  committee  leam  that  the  existing  version  of  the 
Bible  is  full  of  errors,  some  of  which  give  a  false  mean- 
ing to  the  passages  in  which  they  occur,  and  that  for 
'practical  purposes  it  is  almost  worthless.  Mr.  Haffenden 
has  returiied  from  a  journey  in  Java,  where  he  found  the 
want  of  an  intelligible  version  of  the  Scriptures."  This 
induced  the  Brituh  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  to  au- 
thorize the  Rev.  Jansz,  who  for  over  thirty  years  has 
been  a  missionary  in  Java  of  the  Baptist  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  the  Netherland  Colonies, 
and  who,  besides,  is  the  author  of  a  Javanese  Grammar 
and  Dictionary  which  have  reached  a  third  edition,  and 
of  several  religious  books  in  the  Javanese  tongue,  to 
prepare  a  new  version.  In  this  work  of  retranslatiou 
Mr.  Jansx  has  the  aid  of  two  educated  native  Christians. 
In  its  revised  form  the  gospel  of  Luke  was  printed  at 
Singapore  in  1884.  See  Bible  of  Every  Land,  p.  869. 
(B.P.) 

Jawas  were  the  physicians,  priests,  and  advisers  of 
the  sooall  kings  among  the  nations  inhabiting  Florida. 
They  claimed  to  have  convene  with  the  spirits. 

Jawinna,  in  Lettian  mythology,  was  a  friendly 
goddess  of  the  ancient  heathen  Prussians,  who  blessed 
the  sown  fields  with  fruitfulness. 

Jay,  GuiDo  Micrakl  lk.    See  Lejat. 

JeaiL    See  John. 

Jeanrat,  Edmk,  an  eminent  French  engraver,  was 
bom  in  Paris  about  1680,  and  studied  under  Bernard 
Picart.  The  following  are  some  of  his  best  works: 
The  Meeting  of  David  and  Abigail  f  John  (he  Baptist 
Bapliting  the  Jew$;  The  Interview  between  Jacob  and 
Rachel;  The  Finding  of  Moeee,  See  Spooner,  Biog, 
Hitt,  of  the  Fine  ArtM,n,y, 

Jetaia  (or  Jebiaa),  in  Japanese  mythology,  was  the 
yoanger  brother  of  the  sun  deity,  but  because  ho  was  ill- 


JECHIEL  ( 

rormed  he  wu  cut  off  by  hit  pucnU.  Ht  liTecl  by  fiih- 
ing,  and  amused  gnat  wealth.  Aflci  hit  death  be  wai 
vronhipped  ai  goil  of  the 

CD  goda  of  wealth.  He  ii 
repreaented  aa  the  god  of 
weu™,  the  protector  or 
■ailora  and  Bthermen,  ait- 
ting  on  a  lotua-flower,  or 

a  fith  in  hia  handed 

Jeohlel,  in  the  Tal- 
mud, il  the  aupreme  gmio* 
oTthe  good  genii  ruling  the 
animal  kingdom.  Subor- 
dinate to  him  are  Pa^l, 
Gaviel,  and  Chamiel. 

JeoUel  nK  PitaAno. 
See  Pesabo,  JRCRIEL.  Flgnn  of /ehla. 

JeoMel  Natiiax.     See  N.^tiiak  BiK-jKcmKu 

J«daja  PiiaiHi.    See  rExini,  Jkdaja. 

JellTld.  The  probable  repreaenlaliTe  of  this  place 
tt-Ytkudlj/tA,  eight  and  a  quarter  milei  aouth  hy  eaat 
froiD  Yafi,  il  deicribed  in  Ihs  Jleneiri  accompanying 
the  Ordnance  Surrey  (ii,  !68)  aa  "a  large  mud  village, 
Bupplied  by  a  pond,  and  aurronnded  by  palm-treea.  " 
Drake  atalei  the  population  at  800  to  1000  aoula. 
cording  to  the  Sunaritana,  Judah  (Neby  HOdah) 
buried  her«." 

Jahoda  ben-Eliezer,  a  Jewiih  writer  ot  the  14th 
century,  ia  the  author  of  n'13n;i  nniS,  or  a  commen- 
tary on  the  PenUteuch,  in  which  he'ea^daUy  expUint 
difficult  puaages  of  Kathi.  This  commentar; ,  in  which 
more  than  one  hundred  Jeviih  auchoritiei  are  quoted, 
waa  publiaheil  at  Leghorn  in  1783.  See  FUnil,  BUJ. 
Jud.n,M;  l}t'Rom,Dai<iniiriaSlorica{OtTm,tnntL\ 
p.  141.     (tt  P.) 

Jehnda  bbn-IlaI,  a  Tanaile  of  the  !d  century,  and 
teacher  of  the  famouB  Judah  hak-Kodeah  (q.  T.),'wa»  a 
cooper  by  trade.  While  he  apent  hia  da.vi  in  manual 
labor,  he  apent  hia  nights  in  peraeTering  itudy.  After 
attaining  the  degree  of  labbi,  he  still  labored  at  hTi 
trade.  Ho  far  from  being  ashamed  of  this,  he  gloried  in 
it,  and  used  aomelinies  to  have  a  tub  or  hogshead  of 
his  own  workmanship  brought  into  the  lecture-room, 
which  he  uud  as  a  pulpit.  His  honeit  intqcrity  pro. 
cured  him  the  tide  ot  ha-diaiid.  oi  "the  Juat."  In  the 
department  of  Scripture  expoiition  he  paid  particular 
attention  to  the  tbiid  book  of  Moses,  or  Lariticos,  and 
it  is  eonndeied  that  the  book  "  Sifra  "  was  firat  com- 
posed by  him,  though  more  fully  eUlwrated  afteniards. 
See  Hamburger,  Real-Encj^iop.  ii,  4S!  aq. ;  Baeher,  Dit 
Agada  dtr  Tanallai  (Stnuburg,  1884),  p.  101, 128,  IK, 
290,246,367,291,441..    (R  P.) 

Jehtll.  nccording  to  the  Talmud,  ia  the  supreme 
genius  of  the  genii  ruling  the  fire.  Subordinate  to  him 
are  Seraphiel,  Uabrial,  Kuriel,  Tamael,  Shiioshiel,  Ha- 
damiel,  and  SamleL 

JolttalM,  JuDA  LOw,  a  Jewish  author,  bom  in 
lT73,and  died  at  Vienna,  Jane  G,  1838,  ia  the  author  of 
n*>S^M  ^IcV  {ti3^,  or  a  grammar  of  the  Aratnnan 
language  (  Prague,  18IS ) ;  betides,  he  tranalated  into 
German.Jub  (Vienna,  1834),  the  TwelTeUinorProphelB 
(1835),Chrouiclcs(eod.),  Samuel  (1833),  Eiekiel  (1836), 
Daniel,  Eini.  Nehemish  (eod.),  which  he  published  with 
his  own  comments.  See  Fum,  RiU  ./uj.  i,  62.  (aP.) 
Jejeebh07,  Sir  J aksxtjkk,^  Partee  philanthropist, 
was  bom  in  Bombay,  July  15,  I7B3.  He  made  Toyagea 
between  India  and  Chins,  and  aniasseil  a  large  fortune, 
possessing  at  his  death  about  *4,0OO,0O0.  Aa  early  as 
1B32  he  released  the  deblun  caiifliied  in  the  Jail  by 
paying  their  debts;  and  hia  donatinna  to  public  objects 
were  estimated  at  about  »1,600,000,  He  reeeired  the 
boDor  of  knighibood  from  Queen  Victoria  in  1842,  and  a 


gold Aedal iu  1848.   Heeiidawedhaa)iilala,Bchoota,med- 

ical  inatiiutions,  and  other  benevolent  establishments. 
A  school  at  Bombay  for  the  education  and  support 
of  poor  Parsee  children  hs  endowed  at  an  expense  of 
4260,000.  HebniltcomfortablepUocsofrefugeforthB 
convenience  of  travellers  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
liy,  the  eauaeway  which  unilai  tbe  islands  of  Bom- 
bay and  Salsette,  the  water-works  at  Poonab,  the  bridges 
at  Earia,  Parta,  and  Bartba,  and  man?  other  public 
works.  In  16Ai  he  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  ■ 
baronet.  He  died  at  Bombay,  April  11, 1869.  A  status 
waa  erected  to  his  memory  in  the  town-hall  of  Bom- 
bay, and  exposed  to  view  Aug.  1, 1859.  See  Applelon'a 
Ama:Cydop.i.y. 

Jejoml  {fyare-treading)  ia  ■  ceremony  observed 
annually  among  Che  Japancae,  of  trampling  upon  tbe 
crucifix,  and  images  of  the  Virgin  Hary  and  other 
aainta.  It  was  designed  to  expreae  the  abhorrence  of 
the  Japanese  for  the  religion  which  the  Jesi  '      '     ' 


InedU 


The! 


about  a  foot  long,  cast  in  brasa,  and  kept  in  a  particu- 
lar box  fur  the  purpose.  The  ceremony  took  plsce  in 
presence  of  the  street  officers  Each  hooae  was  entered 
by  tnma,  two  messengers  carrying  the  box.  The  im- 
ages were  laid  upon  the  bare  floor,  and  the  list  of  the 
household  being  called,  they  were  required  in  turn  lo 
tread  upon  them.     Young  children,  not  yet  able  to 


walk,  * 


«  held  in  their  mother! 


tbe  images  with  tt 

Jekire,  an  evil  spirit  among  the  Japanese,  which 
they  expel  by  exorcism. 

JoU,  Richard  Wiluah,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  bom  in  London  in  17S8,  and  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1830,  and  beoame  a  fellow  of 
Oiiel  College  and  a  tutor.  In  1B26  be  became  precep- 
tor in  the  royal  family.  He  was  made  canon  of  Christ 
Church  in  1831,  Bampton  lecturer  and  principal  of 
King's  College,  Loudon,  in  1844.  He  died  in  Oxford, 
Sept.  19, 1871.  Among  hia  pnbliabed  works  arc,  Srr- 
MOiu,  Doctrinal  ami  Pratlieal  (1835)  :—Tlie  Ueant  of 
Grace  (Bampton  Lectures,  1844):— and  a  new  eilition 
of  the  If  oris  o/  Bu\ap  Joed  (1847-48,  8  vols.). 

JominB,  tbe  Judge  of  the  wicked  after  death,  among 
le  Japaneta,  who  beholda  in  a  large  mirror  all  the 
ost  secret  transactions  of  mankind.  Litarceaion  by 
the  priests  with  Amidss  in  behalf  of  the  sinner,  and 
liberal  pieaents  on  the  part  of  hia  relatives,  are  sore  to 
release  him  btfore  the  expiration  of  tbe  allotted  time 
for  punishment.  The  figure  of  Jemnui,the  king  of  the 
and  on  each  side  of  bim  are  two 
large  devils,  one  acring  aa  his  aecietary,  and  ragislering 

a  book  all  the  «ns  of  mankind,  while  tbe  other  dic- 
les  what  the  secretary  is  to  record.  This  idol  is  sit- 
uated in  a  templeof  Jemma,a  short  diitancefrom  Mil- 
delightful  grotto.  Tbe  walls  are  covered  with 
frightful  [MCturea  of  tortures  which  the  wicked  are  sup- 
posed to  undergo.  This  temple  is  resorted  to  byciowda 
of  people  from  all  pails  of  the  country,  with  obUtions 
and  money  in  their  hands,  to  redeem  the  souls  from 
dreaded  punishments.     SccJaha. 

Jmimllld,  in  Iranian  history,  the  mythical  hero  who 
led  the  Aryan  tribes  lo  their  Gist  emigration  to  Aca, 
and  who  taught  tbem  the  arta  of  drilliation.  He  is 
"  '  '    have  taught  tbem  idolatry  alto.     Uia 


realm 


a-KkaeU 


Janlobaii,  Gorrixm  Friedbictr,  a  Lutheran  tbeo- 
logian  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  £6, 1G80,  and  died 

Leipaie,Sepl.l7,17S5,ptofeMor  of  ethics.     Be  is  the 

thor  of  HiUaria  H  Examai  Bklia  ClemaHit  XI  ear- 
Ira  OHsmetMn  Emita  (Lmpsic,  17U).  See  Winer, 
"andlMch  dtr  UiroL  Lit.  i,  652.     (B.  P.) 

Jenlnga,  SAMtmL,  a  diatinguitbed  miniater  oftha 
Society  of  Friends,  was  bom  at  Coleshill,  Buekingbam- 
'  ire,  England,  about  16W,  and  emigrated  to  New  Jer^ 

r  in  1680,  having  for  some  lime  been  an  apptoved 


JENKTN  6C 

minuter  in  hii  denominatioD.  Soon  ifter  hia  urird 
he  wu  mj^intcd  by  |[av«nu>i  Byllingf,  at  New  Jer- 
N7,  M  hij  deputy.  Thii  pmition  l)c  occupied  antil 
1^3,  nthen  the  Provlnciil  Aaaembly  chcM  him  gov- 
emoi  of  the  colony  Tor  one  year.  Up  to  the  time 
of  hi*  remoril  to  Pbiladrlpfaii,  in  1692,  he  occupied 
tbt  higbesl  oScea  iii  the  province.  In  Pentiivlvuiia 
ha  ■biiitien  were  highly  mppr«ciAied,  uid  he  wu  nom- 
inated to  (he  commiwon  ot  the  peace.  When  the 
coDtroveny  arose  with  Ueo^^  Keith  (q.  r.)  be  became 

the  early  part  o(  lfi94  sailed  for  London  ai  respondent 
iu  the  appeal  of  Keith  to  the  London  YeaHy  Ueeting, 
where  be  ably  vindicated  the  came  of  hta  American 
brethren  from  the  uperaions  of  tbeir  detractor.  On 
re  turning  from  England  be  removed  from  Philadelphia 
to  Burlinglon,  his  former  home  in  NewJenej-.  In  1702 
be  was  appoinled  ■  member  of  the  Provincial  Council, 

which  station  he  distinguished  himself  by  a  bold  and 
fearleia  opposition  to  the  arbitrary  misrule  of  the  bigot- 
ed lord  Cornbury."  In  hia  spiritual  vocation  we  are 
tdd  that  he  was  "an  able  minister  of  the  gospel,  and 
labored  much  therein,  lo  the  comfort  and  edification  of 
many  people,  both  in  the  province  of  New  Jersey  and 
other  places.  He  was  one  of  those  rare  individuals  in 
whom  waa  concentrated  a  variety  ol  qualifications  and 

power  of  truth,  he  was  made  eminently  useful  to  his 
fellow-men,  both  in  his  ministerial  and  civil  capacity." 
He  died  at  Burlington  in  i;»8.  See  Dowden,  UimI.  ••/ 
f^fieni*  m  AKeriea,Ki,iiA.     (J.  C.  &) 

Jsnkyn,  T.  W.,  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Congr^^tionnl 
minister,  was  bom  in  South  Wales  in  1796.  He  gave 
early  evidence  of  earnest  piety;  bei;an  to  preach  while 
in  his  yonth  ,  studied  at  Homenon  College,  and  settled 
flnC  at  Oswesliy  in  1833.  While  in  that  border-town 
of  hia  native  country  he  published  Tht  Eidtnt  nf  the 
^ /onenfli/,  by  which  be  acquired  both  literary  and  theo- 
logical celebrity,  and  which  led  to  hia  being  appointed 
to  the  theological  chair,  even  tuatly  to  the  presidency,  of 
Coward  College.  Ueanwhite  he'  removed  to  Stafford, 
and  there  wrote  and  published  On  lAi  UmoK  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  and  lie  Chirck  in  the  Conrertion  of  the  World. 
In  1837  he  relinquished  his  charge  in  Stafford,  and,  pro- 
ceeding to  Uermany,  formed  friendships  with  (he  distin- 
guished theologians  of  that  country.     When  Coward 


S  JERICHO 

College  was  amalgamated  with  Higbbnry  and  Home rfon 
colleges,  in  1850,  Dr.  Jenkyn'i  services  were  no  longer 
required.  Being  anxious  to  do  good,  he  went  to  Roch- 
ealer,  to  establish  a  new  interest  in  that  town,  and  after 
a  abort  visit  to  America  returned  and  labored  there  to 
his  dying  day,  Hay  26, 1858.  Dr.  Jeniiyn  was  social  in 
his  habits,  an  impasiioned  lover  of  music,  and  no  less 
enthusiastic  in  his  devotion  to  theological  science.  See 
(Loud.)  Cons-  Year-booi,  1859,  p.  203. 

Jcnnlnga,  Obadiah,  D.D.,  a  Presbriertan  minis- 
Eer,  wu  bom  near  Basliengridge,  N.  J.,  Dec  IS,  17T8, 


it  Jeffen 


1  Colleg. 


'ears,  and  was  admitted 
(o  the  bar  in  1800.  He  Joined  the  Presbvterisn  Church 
in  1811,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1816,  by  the  Presby- 
tery of  Oliio,  and  soon  afterwards  accepted  ■  call  to  tbe 
Preabytcnan  Church  in  Sleubenville,  O.,  where  he  la- 
bored with  gresl  lidelity  and  success  for  six  years,  and 
then  accepted  a  call  to  Washington,  Pa. 


.  to  Naa' 


d  till 


the  clote  of  his  life,  Jan.  12, 183!.     See  Sprague, 
of  the  Avier.  Fulpil,  iv,  643. 

Jenny,  RoBanr,  LL.D.,  a  Prolestsnt  Episcopal  df  r- 
gyman,  son  of  archdeacon  Jenny  of  Wsiievlown,  in  the 
north  of  Ireland,  arrivnl  in  America  in  1715,  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel, 
having  been  appointed  aaustani  to  the  Rev.  William 
Tesey,  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Hew  York  city.  In 
1722  he  waa  (tuisrerred  lo  Hye,  and  remained  there 
until  1'^  when  be  assumed  charge  of  the  church  in 
Hempstead,  L  I.  In  November,  174!,  by  license  of  the 
Inshop  of  London,  he  became  rector  of  Christ  Church, 
Philadelphia,  which  post  he  held  until  the  close  of  his 
life.  His  ministry  covered  fifty-two  yean.  He  die<l 
in  Januarj-,  1762,  aged  seventy-five  years.  SeeSprague, 
AanalM  of  lite  A  wi.  Pulpit,  \;1<1 

Jarioho.  Fur  a  description  of  TtU  et-SaUan,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  see  the  J/emair( 
accompanying  the  Ordnance  Surrey  (iii,  222).  The 
folloniiig  account  of  the  locality  in  general  ia  from 
Conder,  Tent  Work,  ii,  2  sq. : 

"  KeuchlBg  Jerlclio  we  were  again  disappointed.  The 
long  ffroves,  which  sppesr  so  cbHrmLnc  at  a  diBlance.  are 
eritrrelj  composed  of  tboruyshmbs.  Thed^m  or  riftmAiM 
growslnlo  a  tree,  with  small  greeu  leaves  and  formidable 

_j.,.i...  » vi.  — iiher  species,  f>)rm«  long  hedges  of 

Id  [be  cruel  -crown  of  thongs'  was 
Qu  It  Is  called  ipina  CKritti.    The 


Erier.of'whicii'lliii 


JERUSALEM 


606 


JESHUA 


zakkiAn^  or  balsam-tree  (JbdbmUtt).  \b  equally  thorny,  and 
beneath  thesejgrow  potsonoaB  nightshade  and  other  nox- 
lons  plants.  The  distant  beanty  of  the  eroTee  Ib  only  a 
mockery,  and  the  environs  of  Jericho,  when  reached,  are 
OS  stony  and  anlovely  as  any  other  part  of  the  conutry. 

**Yet,  in  some  respects,  the  place  is  still  charming. 
Here,  late  in  natnmn,  the  sound  of  running  water  and 
the  song  of  birds  greeted  onr  ears.  Among  the  high 
moonda,  or  telliil,ohre  and  dusty,  a  flresh,  beautiful 
stream  was  flowing  from  'Ain  es-SultAn,  the  site  of  the 
first  Jericho.  The  great  spring  wells  up  in  a  stony  pool, 
under  a  high  hillock,  and  oppcisite  to  this  tell  is  a  Jungle 
crowned  by  a  very  large  castor-oil  tree  and  other  thick 
foliage.  In  this  grateful  shade  the  birds  have  found  a 
retreat  The  grent  gray  shrikes  (Alni  ZertUt)  sit  on  the 
top  branches,  und  the  queer  'hopping  thrushes,'  with  their 
tails  stuck  up  like  nipiers,  bound  about  beneath.  The 
bulbnl  also  sings  in  the  groves— a  gray  bird  with  a  black 
head  and  a  curions  yellow  patch  at  the  root  of  the  tail. 
Still  more  beantifal  are  the  great  Smyrna  kingfishers 
(iifrtt  A'uJkr),  in  their  blue  corns  and  chocolate -colored 
waistcoats,  white -Uiroated,  with  bills  like  red  sealing- 
wax;  and  the  gray  African  species  {Abu  Kubeia)^  which 
also  fiutters  above  tbe  stream.  Last,  but  not  least,  come 
the  lovely  sun-birds  {Swoeids^  peculiar  ttt  the  Jordan  val- 
ley, darting  about  like  little  black  wreiip,  but  renplendent, 
wnen  seen  close,  with  all  the  colors  of  the  prism. . . . 

"There  is  only  one  natural  position  for  a  large  town  in 
the  plains  of  Jericho,  namely,  the  neighborhood  of  the 
beautiful  fountain  called  *the  Sultan's  Sjpring,*  near  the 
foot  of  the  Quarantania  precioice.  Nothing  can  well  ex- 
plain the  choice  of  a  new  posliion,  but  tbe  fact  that  Jeri- 
cho was  cursed  by  Joshua,  andthat  the  curse  was  fulfilled. 
Thus  it  is  by  the  spring  that  we  naturally  place  the  Jeri- 
cho of  Joshna's  time,  and  this  view  receives  confirmation 
ttom  the  account  of  the  fiight  of  the  spies  *to  the  moun- 
tain :*  for  if  situated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
great  crag  of  Kflrfintfil,  the  city  was  bo  near  that  the  fugi- 
tives might  easily  have  crept  through  the  cime  Jungle  and 
thorn -groves  to  the  shelter  of  one  of  the  innumerable 
caverns  in  tbe  face  of  its  precipices. 

"Of  ancient  Jericlio  nothing  now  remains  but  the 
Jnright  spring,  and  the  shapeless  mound  above  it.  We 
can  hardly  wonder  at  this  when  we  find  that  even  the 
Jericho  of  Herod  has  disappeared,  and  that  only  a  vague 
conjecture  can  be  made  as  to  the  position  of  Thrax  and 
Taurua,  the  zreat  towers  which  once  defended  It.  It 
seems  probable  that  this  second  town  stood  south  of  an- 
cient Jericho,  and  even  closer  to  the  hills,  for  the  great 
aquednct  which  brought  water,  a  distance  of  four  miles, 
from  the  fine  spring  at  the  head  of  the  wild  Kelt  chasm, 
leads  Just  to  the  opening  of  the  plain,  and  seems  to  be 
the  only  one  of  the  numerous  aqueducts  which  dates  back 
to  Roman  times.  At  the  month  of  the  pass,  also,  is  the 
rock  fort  colled  Jnbr  or  Chubr,  in  which  title  we  may 
recognise,  as  my  companion,  Mr.  Drake,  pointed  out,  a 
relic  of  the  name  Cupros,  which  was  given  to  a  tower 
above  Herod's  Jericho. 

"Jerome  tells  us  that  there  were  in  his  day  two  Jeri- 
chos,  and  in  A.D.  833,  tbe  anonymous  pilgrim  of  Bordeaux 
found  a  town  at  the  foot  of  tbe  pass.  Here  also  we  have 
remains  of  a  bridge  which  has  the  opiu  rttieulatum  of 
Uoman  masonry,  and  this,  with  a  few  strewn  fragments 
and  with  two  great  mounds  of  sun-dried  briclc,  seems 
all  that  is  left  of  the  second  Jericho.  The  Byzantine,  or 
4th-century  town,  mentioned  by  Jerome  as  tbe  second 
Jericho,  is  no  doubt  represented  by  the  foundations  and 
fragments  of  cornice  and  capital,  over  which  the  rider 
stumbles  among  the  thorn  groves  east  of  the  *Aiu  es- 
Sultftn. 

**By  A.D.  TOO  Jericho  had  again  disappeared,  and  thus, 
in  the  18th  century,  we  find  the  site  once  more  moved. 
The  modem  Brlha  then  springs  into  existence  near  a 

Esouare  tower,  such  n^  the  Crusaders  erected  along  their 
tlgrlm  roads^  and  a  tradition  of  the  *  Garden  orAbra- 
am '  comes  into  existence  as  early  as  the  time  of  S8»- 
wulf  (A.D.  1108).  In  the  14th  century  sir  John  Maunde- 
ville  finds  Jericho  a  little  village,  ana  Abraham's  garden 
is  then  stated  to  be  at  the  foot  of  the  Quarantania.  Fe- 
tellus  makes  the  distance  between  Jericho  and  the  latter 
mountain  two  miles,  and  thus  it  is  pretty  clear  that  the 
modern  Brlha  represents  the  site  wnich  was  created  in 
the  Crusading  period." 

Jerusalem,  Stmod  of,  1672.  Of  all  synods  which 
were  held  at  Jerusalem  since  the  apostles'  time,  this  is 
the  most  important.  The  doctrines  of  Cyril  Lucar 
(q.  V.)  were  condemned  by  his  successor,  Cyril  of  Bcrr- 
hoi$,at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  1688,  and  again 
by  the  next  patriarch,  Parthenius,  at  the  Synod  of  Jassy 
in  1642.  The  metropolitan  of  Kiew,  Petnis  Mogilas, 
also  found  it  necessary  to  protest  against  these  doc- 
trines ;  and  his  confession,  i^oioioQ  ofioXoyia  rrjc  ire- 
OTtta^  rrjc  Ka^oXtKrjc  ^al  dnovroXuctiQ  iackKFiag  r^c 
<ivaroXciC7Ct  ^a^  sanctioned,  in  1648,  by  the  patriarchs 
of  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and 
Moscow.   Thus  an  effective  barrier  was  erected  against 


the  Calvinistie  invasions  of  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Eait- 
em  Church.  Nevertheless,  both  the  Reformed  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  theologians  continued  to  bint  that  the 
Greek  Church  was  leaning  respectively  either  this  or 
that  way.  In  the  oontroveiiy  between  the  Reformed 
minister,  Jean  Claude,  and  the  Jansenists,  Nicole  and 
Anumld,  concerning  the  eucbariat  and  tranaubetantia- 
tioo,  the  former  alleged,  in  support  of  his  views,  the 
dogma  of  the  Eastern  Church,  such  as  it  appeared  in  its 
oldest  form,  and  such  as  it  had  been  revived  by  Cyril 
Lucar;  while  the  latter  appealed  to  the  dogma  of  the 
Eastern  Church  in  its  oecumenical  form.  In  1660  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  Nectarine,  puUisbed  a  book 
against  Claude,  and  in  1672  his  successor,  Dositheus, 
convened  a  synod  at  Jerusalem  for  tbe  purpose  of  still 
further  defending  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
The  synod  was  attended  by  sixty -eight  representa- 
tives, and  resulted  in  the  so-called  Skidd  of  Orthodoxy^ 
March  20, 1672,  one  of  the  most  important  confessional 
works  of  the  Eastern  Church,  the  full  title  of  which  is, 
'Affiric  h^oloiiag^  4  ^^iroXoyia  koX  IXeyx^C  irp^c 
rode  S*a9vpovrag  n)y  avaroXuci^v  la^fimav  alptrf 
cdc  0povecj/  kv  Tciic  Tipi  ^lov  gal  r&v  dtiufv,  utc  ra- 
KO^povovtriv  oirot  airroi  oi  KaXovivoc  itiXovon.  Tlie 
first  part  is  directed  against  the  Calvinists,  and  con- 
tains a  strong  condemnation  of  the  views  ascribed  to 
Cyril  Lucar,  and  at  the  same  time  an  adroit  vindication 
of  him  personally,  flatly  denying  that  he  ever  held  such 
opinions,  ever  wrote  the  books  containing  them,  et& 
The  second  part  is  critico-dogmatical,  and  presents  a 
full  confession  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  faith  in  the  form 
of  a  refutation  of  the  theses  of  Cyril.  This  second  part, 
or  trvvTofioQ  ofioXoyia,  treats  in  eighteen  deertta  and 
four  guastioneM  the  following  subjects :  1.  Trinity ;  2. 
The  holy  Scriptures  and  their  interpretation  by  the 
Church ;  8.  Predestination ;  4.  Origin  of  the  evil ;  5.  Re- 
lation of  divine  Providence  to  the  evil;  6.  Original  sin ; 
7.  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God ;  8.  The  mediatorship 
of  Christ  and  the  saints;  9.  Faith  acting  in  charity; 
10.  Church  and  episcopacy;  11.  Church  membership; 
12.  Infallibility  of  the  Church ;  13.  Justification  by  faith 
and  works;  14.  Ability  of  the  natural  and  of  the  regen- 
erated man ;  15.  Seven  sacraments;  16.  Infant  baptism ; 
17.  Eucharist;  18.  State  after  death.  The  four  ^<e- 
#/tone«  are :  1.  Can  all  Christiana  read  the  Bible?  2.  Is 
the  Bible  conspicuous  for  all  ?  8.  What  conatitotea  th» 
holy  Scriptures?  (acceptance  of  the  apocryphal  books); 
4.  What  is  to  be  believed  concerning  images  and  ven- 
eration of  the  aaints?  The  synodtcal  acts  were  first 
published  in  Greek  and  Latin,  Paris,  1676,  and  again  in 
1678.  The  best  editions  are  found  in  Harduin,  Ada 
ConciL  xi,  179  sq.,  and  in  Kimmel,  Moratmenta  Fidei 
EccL  Orienlalu  (Jena,  1850).  See  also  Gas^  SymboUk 
der  gneehitehen  Kirche  (Berlin,  1872),  p.  79  sq. ;  Schaff, 
Creeds  of  Chrittefidom,  i,  61  -  67 ;  Plitt-  Herzog,  Real- 
Encjfkkp,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Jemahalmi  Takchum.    See  Takchum  of  Jxru- 

8AUCBL 

Jervifl,  William  Henlbt,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  born  in  1618,  and  educated  at  Harrow, 
where  he  won  some  of  the  first  prizes  in  tbe  school  at 
the  unusually  early  age  of  fifteen,  and  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  he  took  a  second  class  in  1835.  He  waa 
for  some  years  rector  of  St  Nicholas,  Guild funl,  and  held, 
up  to  his  death,  a  prebendal  stall  at  Heytesbury— abol- 
ished by  recent  legislation,  so  that  the  dignity  died  with 
him,  Jail.  27, 1882.  Mr.  Jervis,  who  took  his  wife's  name 
some  years  ago,  was  a  son  of  the  late  dean  Pearson  of 
Salisbury,  and  elder  brother  of  canon  Pearson  of  Wind- 
sor. To  the  general  public  he  is  best  known  as  the . 
author  of  a  leame<l  and  interesting  work  on  the  History 
qfiht  Ckurch  of  France^  from  the  Concordat  of  Boulogne 
to  the  Close  of  the  First  Empire  (London,  1872-82, 8  . 
vols.).    (B.P.) 

Jeahna.    For  this  Biblical  site  Lieut  Conder  pn>- 
poaea  {Tent  Work,  ii,  838)  the  ruin  and  tell  es-Sawek,  four 


JESHUA  6( 

and  a  qauter  miln  noith-wnt  of  Tell-Milb  (Holidih), 
which  i*  thus  dacribed  in  tha  MtmeirM  ucompanpog 
the Ordninee Sumy  (iii,  109):  "A  pitnninuit  hill-top, 
crowned  with  niiaa,eo[i*i>Uiigof  tbandatioDi  ind  heapi 
of  ftonei.  The  hill  ii  urrounded  by  ■  wall  bnilc  of 
UfgB  blocki  of  ainC  congtomentc  Other  roeka  of  * 
nmilw  kind  exiat  ia  the  Ttlley  beneath."  The  piece 
propoaed  by  Schwen  i>  probably  Eihaa,  one  and  ■  half 
milea  nonh-eaat  of  Sonh  (Zursh),  and  two  and  a  quu- 
ter  fouth-weiit  oS  KetU  (Cheuloii),  "■  loutl  village 
■tear  the  foot  of  the  hill,  with  a  well  to  the  weit,  and 
olive-treea  beneath"  {Atemoiri  to  Ordnance  Surrey, 
iii,  IS) ;  but  thia  ia  probably  Eahtaol  (q.  v.). 

Joshtia  (ha-LttBi)  DKN-JosEF,  ■  Jenith  writer  of 
the  IGth  century,  ia  the  author  of  oV?  ni3''!9ri,  or  ■ 
methodology  of  the  Talmud  (Conatantinogile,  lUO,  and 
often  nnce).  It  waa  tianilated  into  Laliii  by  L'Em- 
peranr,  under  the  title,  Claeii  Talmudica  (Leyden,  1 E35} ; 
■1*0  by  Buhuyim,  Clarit  Tabnudiixt  Uaiima  (Hanau, 
1711) ;  and  bvStraTc,  Ixigica  Hebraica  RaHmeiila  (Jena, 
1697).    SeeFnrat,£>6£Jii<f.ii,Miq.    (B.  P.) 

JeBsauu,  accoidiDK  to  Epiphanins,  a  iiamo  given 
to  the  etily  ChiiUians,  either  from  Jease,  the  faiher  of 
David,  or,  more  probably,  from  the  name  of  (he  Lord 

Jmm'b  Tomb  ia  traditionally  ghown  in  a  comer 
of  a  mined  monaiterv  on  the  hillude  between  Hebron 
and  Abraham'!  Oak  (Conder,  Tat  Work,  il,  84). 

J«n]  dnlolB  meiiiOilA.  3m  Bukabd  or 
Ci.jUB7^nx'B  Hthnb. 

Jeter,  JnHncuK  Bell,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minialer, 
wa*  bom  in  Bedford  County,  Ta.,  July  18,  IBOi.  Hia 
early  edacation  waa  limited.  Ha  wai  coDTarted  in 
18!1;  began  to  preach  in  183S;  waa  ordained  May 
1,  ml,  at  High  Hilla  Church,  Snaaex  County,  where  he 
remained  about  two  yeara;  then  ren»vRl  to  Campbell 
County,  and  became  paitorof  the  Hill'i  Creek  and  Union 
Hill  charchea.  In  the  aulomn  of  18S7  he  waa  inatalled 
paator  of  Horattico  Church,  in  I^ncaater  County,  and 
Mbaeqnently  of  the  Wicomico  Church,  in  Northumber- 
land County.  In  the  latter  port  of  1885  he  waa  called 
to  the  paatfliate  of  the  Pint  Baptiac  Church  in  i 
nond,  when  for  thirteen  yean  and  a  half  be  waa 


JEZREEL 

neotly  tuceaaafuL  In  the  fall  nf  1819  ha  waa  called  lo 
Second  Baptut  Chnrcb  in  Sl  Looia,  whero  ha  re- 
ned  three  yeara,  and  then  Tctiuncd  to  Richmond  to 
become  paator  of  the  Grace  Street  Church.  He  re- 
aigned  in  1670.  He  became  the  lenior  editor  of  the 
Religioui  BtrtJd,  the  leading  organ  of  the  Baptist  de- 
nomination in  the  BDuth,  in  1866.  and  occupied  that 
pMition  dll  the  dose  of  his  life,  Feb.  18, 18S0,  Among 
the  books  of  which  be  was  Iha  author  were,  Mtmoirt 
0/  Rrv.  A .  W.  Clopttm  r—Mimoin  of  J.  L.  S/iueh,  Mii- 
lionarylo  Ciina: — Manoin  of  Stt.  Andrea  Broaddut: 
—Mtmoirt  of  Ret.  Daniel  Wia  .-—CampbiUiim  Eram- 
Httf .-  —  Camfb^irm  St-fxamined,  both  of  Iheae  woriu 
placing  Dr.  Jeter  among  the  Brat  polemic  writers  ol  hia 
limes.  The  Chriiliim  Mirror  and  the  Sial  nf  Htann 
were  publiihni  bv  the  American  Tract  Society.  See 
the  Rdigiout  l/u  „ld,  Feb.  SO,  1880.     (J.  C.  S.) 

JetUall.      For  this  place  Lieut.  Condci  aoggcM* 
(Tml  H'orjt,ii,8B8)i/o<  Til,  a  ruined  site  four  and  ■ 
quarter  milea  aouib-east  of  Yalo  (Ajalon),  contai 
Toundation*  and  a  Uukam"  (jl/motr.  "   ' 


iii,  86), 

JesteeL  Zrr'ia,  the  modem  npruentatire  of  tbU 
noted  place,  is  briefly  described  in  the  Mtmoirt  accom- 
panying the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,  88),  but  more  graph- 
ically by  Conder  {Ttnl  Work,  i,  121) : 

"C'roBsliiB  Iha  vallev.  we  see  befnra  ns  the  fiteor  Jes- 
rael,  on  a  knoll  flra  hundred  feel  high.    ~'  '  '      ' 

very  petiillar,  for  while  on  (be  north  ai  _ 
sLopea  are  iteep  end  rugged,  on  tha  Bonth  tbv  ■h.v,,^  ■■ 
very  eradaal,  and  (he  (raTCller  coming  nonhwiids  Is  as- 
tonished to  look  down  enddanlT  on  the  vnllar,  with  lU 
two  sprinea,  one  fAIn  JUOd)  welling  out  from  a  conglom- 
erate clUTTand  formlug  ■  pool  about  one  bniirired  yards 
long,  with  muddy  bordera :  (he  other  <'AId  Tub'aau),  (he 
Cruradera'  Ponntaln  of  Tnbanla,  where  (be  Christian 
armlea  were  lad  '  miraculODaly '  tOr  three  daya  on  the  Sab 
which  still  swarm  In  moat  of  tlie  great  apiings  near. 

id  aacends  ttotn  near  (beee  iprlngs  and 
''    '  f'whlch  was  reopsnod  by  lbs 

„ ibrms  a  shallow  pool  between 

racks  of  black  bafalt.  coTend  wHb  red  and  orangC'ColDred 
lichen,  and  alio  full  of  Utile  flfh ;  thence  It  passes  oo  the 
east  side  beneath  (ha  kaoll  nrzetln  [Jausel)  to  the  plain 
on  lb*  fonih.  Climbing  np  (o  the  vlllan.  we  are  again 
rlruck  by  the  absence  of  any  trscea  of  anilqnllTi  the 

i.ul1dlngs.  It "  —- ■— 

ni.dnnfi-ihe„ 

...-  1 .1.,-  .. idenl!  yet  U 


»  by  the  '  Dead  Sprlngj^ 


le  site  la 


jroSIN-JOMBAJA 


608 


JOBSON 


undoubted,  and  hat  never  been  really  lost  Here,  from  a 
tower,  perhaps  siandine  wbere  the  modern  one  la  erect- 
ed, the  vratcnmnu  conld  see  down  the  broad  Taller  of 
Jezreel  as  far  as  Bethshau,  and  watch  the  dnst  ana  the 
gleam  of  the  armor  advaucinff.  The  cunrae  of  the  two 
horsemen  and  of  Jehn's  chariot  was  distinctly  seen  be- 
neath the  hill,  and  the  diatancee  are  snfflciently  extensive 
to  give  time  for  the  snccesslon  of  even u. 

*'0n  the  east  and  south-east  there  are  rock-cnt  wine- 
presses on  the  mgged  hills,  where  no  dirabt  the  'portion 
of  the  field  of  Naboth '  and  his  vineyard  are  to  be  placed 
—a  good  instance  of  the  decay  of  vine  cultivation  In  Pal- 
estine." 

Jidsin-Jombaja,  in  LamaUm,  was  a  young,  beau- 
ttful  god,  a  Burchan,  aaaistant  or  friend  of  Jakshiamunt, 
when  the  latter  founded  bis  religion.  He  usually  is 
placed  beside  the  statue  of  the  supreme  god  in  the 
Lama  temple,  and  is  represented  as  a  very  soft,  femi- 
nine personage,  with  four  arms,  the  body  light-yellow 
color,  the  dress  blue.  Jidsin-Jombaja  was  instructor 
of  astrological  and  other  secret  sciences,  and  taught  the 
wise  men  iu  these  branches. 

Jijelia  (or  Jlemona),in  Slavonic  my thotogy,  was 
a  youthful  goddess  of  hunting,  comparable  in  many 
things  to  Diana  of  the  Romans,  but  wanting  the  hostile 
attributes  of  the  latter.  She  was  regarded  as  a  friend- 
ly companion,  and  as  giving  success  in  bunting.  She 
subdues  the  wild  animals,  drives  the  reindeer  within 
range  of  the  hunter,  and  favors  the  most  courageous 
and  most  worthy ;  hence  many  young  people,  whose 
family  relations  were  not  positively  known,  were  called 
her  sons  and  daughters,  in  case  they  were  beautiful  and 
daring.  She  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  goddess  of 
love,  at  least,  she  was  implored  by  the  Slavs  for  chil- 
dren, unless  she  is  mistaken  for  the  similarly  named 
Jijindla,  who  was  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  mar- 
riage. 

Jllabog  was  a  Wendian  and  Slavic  deity,  repre- 
senting the  moon,  with  a  half-moon  on  the  breast,  and 
the  arms  raised  in  the  form  of  a  half-moon.  He  was 
also  a  god  of  time  (his  name  is  from  /a«,  '*  time  "),  be- 
cause the  Wends  measured  their  time  according  to  the 
moons. 

Jinaa,  saints  among  the  Jainas  (q.  v.)  in  India.  A 
saint  is  called  a  Jimif  as  being  the  victor  over  all  hu- 
man pasuons  and  propensities.  He  is  supposed  to  po»> 
sess  thirty -six  superhuman  attributes,  four  of  which 
regard  his  person;  eleven  refer  to  his  supernatural 
powers ;  while  the  remaining  nineteen  are  of  celestial 
origin,  as  the  raining  of  flowers  and  perfumes,  the  sound 
of  heavenly  drums,  and  the  menial  offices  rendered  by 
Itidra  and  the  gods.  The  Jinaa  are  twenty -four  in 
number,  and,  although  similar  in  their  general  charac- 
ter and  attributes,  are  distinguished  from  each  other  in 
color,  stature,  and  longevity.  Two  of  them  are  red,  two 
white,  two  blue,  two  black,  the  rest  are  of  a  golden  hue, 
or  a  yellowish  brown.  In  regard  to  stature  and  length 
of  life,  they  undergo  a  gradual  decrease  from  Rishabha, 
the  first  Jina,  who  was  five  hundred  poles  in  stature, 
and  lived  8,400,000  great  years,  to  Mahavira,  the  twen- 
ty-fourth Jina,  who  had  degenerated  to  the  size  of  a 
man,  and  was  not  more  than  forty  years  on  the  earth. 

Jina  (i.e.^entt),  according  to  the  Mohammedans,  an 
intermediate  race  between  angels  and  men.  They  are 
said  to  be  made  of  fire,  but  with  grosser  bodies  than  the 
angels,  to  propagate  their  species,  and,  though  long- 
lived,' not  to  be  immortal;  also  to  have  inhabited  the 
earth  previous  to  Adam,  under  a  succession  of  sovereigns. 
Mohammed  professed  to  be  sent  as  a  preacher  to  them 
as  well  as  to  men.  In  the  Koran  there  is  a  chapter 
bearing  their  name,  in  which  they  are  introduced  as 
saying:  ** There  are  some  among  us  who  are  upright, 
and  there  are  some  among  us  who  are  otherwise;  we 
are  of  diflferent  ways,  and  we  verily  thought  that  we 
could  by  no  means  frustrate  God  in  the  earth,  neither 
could  we  escape  him  by  flight;  therefore,  when  we  heard 
the  direction,  wo  believed  therein.  There  are  Moslems 
among  us,  and  others  who  swerve  from  righteousness." 

Jiraik,  Jobann  Valentin,  a  Roman  Catholic  prel- 


ate of  Bohemia,  was  bom  June  19, 1798.  In  1881  be 
was  made  bishop  of  Budweis,  in  Bohemia,  and  died  Feb. 
28, 1888.  He  is  the  author  of  Populdre  Dogmatik  odor 
Gictttbemkhre  der  katholiteken  Kin^^  edited  by  Be 
Schda  (4th  ed.  Vienna,  1885) : — ^in  the  Bohemian  lan- 
goage  Jiraik  published  Twenty  Frieiidfy  LeUen  Ad- 
drtBsed  to  the  ProtettanU  m  Bohemia  (1842).  See  Zu- 
chold,  B&L  TheoL  i,  679  sq.    (B.  P.) 

Jiau,  a  god  among  the  Japanese,  whose  office  it  Is  to 
convey  souls  to  the  infernal  regions. 

Joachim  of  Kobsun,  the  first  bishop  of  Novgo- 
rod. He  was  commissioned,  in  992,  by  the  metropoli- 
tan of  Kiew,  Leonce,  with  evangelizing  the  northern 
part  of  Russia,  and  has  the  honor  of  having  planted 
Christianity  there,  and  having  founded  the  Church  of 
SC  Sophia,  at  Novgorod,  where  he  died  in  1030,  after  a 
useful  episcopate.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale^ 
a.  V. 

Joan  OF  Yalois,  Scmd  and  queen,  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Louis  XI  of  France  and  Charlotte  of  Savoy,  and 
was  bom  in  1456.  She  was  plain  in  face  and  aomewhat 
deformed,  and  her  father,  who  wished  a  son,  treated 
her  with  contempt  This  dislike  increased,  until  on 
one  occasion  the  king  rushed  into  the  room  to  kill  her, 
and  her  life  was  only  saved  by  the  countess  of  Linier^s. 
In  her  twelfth  year  Joan  was  married  against  her  will 
to  duke  Louis  of  Orleans,  who  also  treated  her  with 
coldness  and  contempt  Louis  XI  died  in  August,  1483, 
and  his  son  succeeded  him  as  Charles  VIII,  under  the 
regency  of  his  elder  sister  Anne.  The  husband  of  Joan, 
thinking  the  regency  ought  to  have  been  intrusted  to 
him,  endeavored  to  stir  up  an  insurrection,  was  unsuc- 
cessful, and  fled  to  Francis  II  of  Brittany,  the  bitter  foe 
of  France.  War  broke  out,  and  Joan  stood  as  an  angel 
of  peace  and  reconciliation  between  the  contending 
parties.  Twice  she  obtained  pardon  for  her  captured 
husband,  and  he  as  often  returned  to  his  perfidy.  After 
the  death  of  Charles  VIII,  April  7,  1498,  the  duke  of 
Orleans  ascended  the  throne  iLi  Louu  XII.  He  at  once 
obtained  a  divorce  from  pope  Alexander  YI,  by  taking 
an  oath  that  bis  marriage  with  Joan  was  not  com- 
plete. He  gave  her  the  duchy  of  Berry  and  Pontoise. 
She  resided  at  Bourges,  where  she  spent  time  and  rev- 
enues in  the  exercise  of  charity.  In  1500  she  founded 
the  order  of  the  Annunciation  for  women.  Joan  took 
the  habit  herself  in  1504,  but  died  Feb.  4, 1505,  and  was 
buried  at  Bourges.  Her  body  was  torn  from  its  resting, 
place  in  1562,  and  bunied  by  Calvinists.  She  is  com- 
memorated in  the  French  martyrology  on  Feb.  4.  Her 
canonization  began  under  Clement  XII,  and  was  com- 
pleted by  Pius  YI,  in  1775,  but  she  was  venerated  at 
Bourges'from  the  time  of  her  death.  See  Baring-Gould, 
Lives  of  the  SaiiUSf  ii,  109. 

Joaaaf  I,  the  fourtli  Russian  patriarch,  was  elected 
Feb.  C,  1634,  and  died  Nov.  28, 1642.  He  left  a  ritual, 
containing  the  synodal  statutes  of  his  predecessor  Phi- 
laret     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhihaU^  s.  v. 

Joaaaf  H,  the  sixth  patriarch  of  Russia,  was  raised 
to  that  dignity  Dec  29, 1667.  He  assembled,  in  the 
first  year  of  his  patriarchate,  a  council  to  anathematize 
the  sectaries ;  at  this  council  were  present  Paisi,  the  pa- 
triarch of  Alexandria  and  Macarius  of  Antioch ;  its  prin- 
cipal motions  are  inscribed  in  the  Slongebuik,  or  missal 
of  1668.  There  are  extant  of  his  works,  a  pastoral  letter 
(1668) :— another  directed  to  the  sectaries,  entitled  Gezl 
Pravlema  (reprinted  in  1758):— an  Inttmcticm  on  the 
Manner  of  Painting  the  Imagee  (1668) :— and  another 
on  The  Manner  of  Behaving  One's  Self  at  the  Church 
(reprinted  at  Moscow  in  1786).  He  died  Feb.  17, 1672. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genirale,  a.  v. 

Jobaon,  Frkderick  James,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Connection,  was  bom  July  6, 1812, 
at  Lincoln,  England.  He  was  converted  in  his  eigh- 
teenth year,  received  on  trial  by  the  conference,  and 
appointed  to  the  Patrington  Circuit  in  1834.  He  sooa 
became  known  and  highly  esteemed  as  a  man  of  sape- 


JOCEUNE 

itot  gifis  uid  exeell«nt  ipiril.  Be  wu  a  rqiieientatiTe 
of  (he  Wealerm  Church  lo  Amnicin  Hethodiim  in 
1851>,and  to  AiuCnlU  in  IS6a  Ho  Slled  the  ippoiiil. 
ment  of  book  steward  flfteca  yean,  and  wu  elected 
pre«d«iC  of  the  eonfentice  in  1S69.  In  ISSO  be  be- 
canie  a  supenuimeriry.  and  died  at  Hull,  Jan. «,  IBSl. 
Dr.  Joluon  publitlied  Ckaptt  and  School  ArrAUtdm 
ll8S0):—.imrrica  and  Americia  Mn/ioSm  (18£T)  > 
AHUralia,  teitk  Kola  bg  Ike  Waf  of  Egypt  (1862).  Aa 
a  preacher,  his  fine  natural  temper,  bis  sound  judgment, 
eonibuied  with  ■  most  vivid  imagination,  his  cultivated 
taste,  and  intense  eamestoess  Qtled  hioi  for  that  e 
sive  usefolaesa  which,  by  Ihe  grace  oF  God,  he  acbiered. 
His  lalenU  were  much  in  request  for  Tunenl  aennona 
and  memorial  tribute*  for  his  brethren  in  the  Methodist 
be^y.  I'hres  of  such  pioduclions,  U>  the  memory  oT  the 
llev.  J.  fiimting,  U.  J.  Draper,  and  Dr.  Hannah,  wen 
published  separatdr.  See  iliaula  of  lit  Briliik  Con- 
ferata,  1B81,  p.  £7. 

Jooeliua,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  bishop  of 
the  Ki  of  tilaSROw  in  117^  and  consecrated  by  Eskilu% 
archbishop  of  Landen,  in  Denmark,  June  1,  lir~ 
Charavalle.  He  died  atHelroee  in  1199.  He  enl 
.the  cathedral  of  Glasgow, and  is  said  to  have  rebi 
in  the  aame  state  it  continues,  and  dedicated  il  in  1197. 
See  Keith,  SeoOiik  Biihopi,  p.  235, 

Jocelyn  (oi  JooBUao)  of  Wells,  an  early  Eng- 
lish prelate,  was  bom  and  educated  at  Wells,  Somerset' 
shire,  of  which  he  liecame  the  bishop  in  1S06,  and  was 
(he  fint  to  fix  the  title  of  Bath  and  Wells  lo  the  old 
see  df  (ilaslon.  The  nwnka  of  Glastonbury  purchased 
their  exemption  from  Ihe  territory  of  the  see  by  part- 
ing with  fuur  manors  to  the  new  diocese  of  Wells. 
Jocelyn,  with  archbishop  Langton,  waa  banished  c 
account  of  obstinacy  against  king  John.  Alter  6.\ 
years  exile  in  France  he  Tetnmed  lo  bis  see,  and  d< 
voted  himself  to  the  beantifjlng  and  enriching  of  his 
cathedral.  He  erected  sume  new  prebends,  and  to  the 
use  of  the  chapter  appropriated  many  churches,  in- 
creasing the  revennes  of  the  offices,  and  he  ^ve 
three  manors  to  Ihe  episcopal  see.  He,  with  Hugo, 
biihap  of  Lincoln,  was  Ihe  Aral  founder  ofSc.  John's,  in 
Wells,  and  at  his  own  cost  built  a  ehar>el  at  Woker, 
and  another  at  Wells.  The  cathedral  of  Wells  was  his 
masterpiece,  however.  He  died  TSov.  19,  Vii^.  See 
Fuller,  WortkieM  of  Englaiid  (ed.  Nuttail),  iii,  93. 

Jooolyn,  George  Bkiiih,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minisier,  was  bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Jan. " 
1824.  Shortly  afterwards,  with  his  parents,  he  removi 
to  Cincinnati,  and  from  Ihence,  in  1830,  lo  New  Alban 
Ind.,  where  he  was  converted  at  the  age  of  fourlee 
In  1842  he  graduated  si  Indiana  Asbury  Univetsily. 
He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1S43,  and  in  the  same  year 
was  admitted  lo  Indiana  Conference,  and  appointed  to 
Paoli  Circnil.  In  1814  he  was  sent  to  Kodcport,  where 
his  health  soon  failed;  at  his  own  leqaesl  he  was  dis- 
continued, and,  removing  to  Vincennea,  Ind.,  opened  a 
aelecl  schooL  A  few  months  later  in  tbe  same  jear  he 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  preparatory  department  of 
l^nceunes  Universjiv,  which  position  he  held  till  Sep- 
tember, 1849.  when  'he  returned  lo  New  Albany  and 
opened  Ihe  De  Pauw  Femalo  College.  In  1863  he  was 
elected  proreteor  of  mathematics  and  natural  science  in 
Wbiuwater  College,  and  in  I86S  to  the  presidency  of 
the  same  inslitotion.  Failureofheallhled  him  lospend 
IBM  as  agent  fur  a  western  railway  company,  and  for 
the  Northwestern  University.  In  1867  he  waa  trana- 
ferred  to  lows,  and  appointed  to  Fifth  Street  Church, 
Dea  Moines;  in  1859  to  Zion  Church,  Burlington ;  and 
in  1861  was  elected  president  of  Iowa  Wesleyan  Uni- 
veiaity  at  Mount  Pleasant,  serving  meantime  as  pastor 
of  Univenity  and  Asbury  ChapeU  In  1864  be  waa 
elected  pnaident  of  Albion  College,  Hich.,  and  tnns- 
fened  from  the  Iowa  to  the  Detroit  Conference.  Ss- 
rigning  hia  presidency  in  1869,  he  was  liansfeired  to 
the  Uichigaa  Conference,  and  slaliraed  at  DivikMi 
XIL-Q«j 


19  JOGHEGEIB 

street.  Grand  Bapids.  In  1871  ha  waa  n^Iected  pi«d- 
dent  of  Albion  College,  which  office  he  loslained  tiU  hia 
death,jBn.!7,l877.  Dr.  Jocelyn  ponened  Urge  natu- 
ral endowments,  intellectual  and  spiritual,  which  be 
palitatly  and  thoroughly  cultured,  placing  him  in  Ihe 
furemoai  rank  of  iustructora  of  his  age.  As  a  preacher 
he  had  few  superion  in  power  of  thought,  perspicuity 
of  style,  and  impresslreness  of  manner.  See  Mitaita 
of  Amual  Catfcrmca,  1877,  p.  106;  Simpson,  Cyciip. 
of  Mtthoditm,  a.  v. 

JooluuiBii,  Isaao  karLtvi.     See  Iiaac  Livtia. 

Jnf>Tianati  Salomo.  ■  conrert  from  Judaism,  was 
a  native  of  Pnseii.  In  I6fi7  he  waa  baptized  at  Dantilc, 
was  in  ICG9  professor  of  Hebrew  there,  and  died  July  1, 
1683.  He  published,  Pro^mmma  ds  JubOau  tlArao- 
rum  (Danliic,  165S) :  —  Drmcmilmticiif  88,  Jeium 
Ckrittam  Verum  tl  jEltmBia  Mntiam  E—r  (FmnkfoK, 
1660):  — Dn-  nrkaaeae  Mttnai  (Danlzic,  1688):— 
Zerthfille  Fautemia,  odtr  Widtrleffoag  dn  Bucia 
Fajjtmri  von  Irra^Erldtmg  (1681).  See  Fum,  BiU. 
Jad.  ii,  97.    (B.  P.) 

JoBl,  David,  a  Jewish  writer,  was  bom  at  Schwerin, 
in  the  duchy  ofPosen,  in  1813.  After  having  complcled 
his  studies  4ie  was  rabbi  at  Schwersenti  and  then  at 
KroloBchin.  In  1879  he  was  called  to  the  Talmudic 
chair  of  the  Babbinical  Seminary  at  Breslau,  where  he 
died.  Sept,  8, 188S.  Ha  is  Ihe  author  of  ^mn  V^'O, 
or  Dit  Rtligvm^Uotepkie  det  Sohar  (l^ipaic,  1849). 

(a  P.) 

1*001,  Hoymann,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  who  died  at 
Hinchberg,  in  Sileiia,  Dec  20,  1884.  published,  Dai 
Priraip  do-  Palnarchen  (Dttsseldorf,  1857)  —Falprt- 
diglaifurdit  kokaiFtiltaffidriJakin  (Sd  ed.Hirsch- 
berg,  1872).     (a  P.) 

Joga,  in  Hindflism,  is  the  world's  age,  according  to 
which  the  whole  Indian  chronoli^y  is  regulated.  The 
earth,  according  to  Ihis  system,  stands  12,000  divine 
years,  of  which  each  contains  S60  comoMHi  years,  to- 
gelher,  4,320,000  of  our  years.  These  4,000,000  years 
are  divided  into  four  Jagas,wbich  have  thdr  particular 
names.  The  Snt  is  called  Krila-Joga,  and  lasts  4000 
divine  years;  the  second,  Tieta-Joga,  iaaling  3000  di- 
vinayean;  the  third,  DwaparJoga,  lasting  2000  divine 
years;  and  the  Ust  is  called  KaJi-Joga.  In  this  «a 
live,  and  it  lasts  1000  divine  years.  Between  each  of 
''  ■■  '        -■  -  'ilight  period,  after  the  flrac, of 

ie)-ears, 

third,  of  400  divine  years,  after  ths  fourth,  of 

le  years.    This  entire  period  is  called  Haha- 

Joga,DtSadir-Joga.    1000  Maha-Jogaa  are  4,820,000,000 

of  our  years,  and  this  makes  one  day  of  Brahma.    The 

night  is  equally  long,  together,' 8,640,000,000.     In  this 

night  all  things  are  disaolved  nntil  Brahma  wakes  up  and 

re-enlivena  them.    Such  a  Sadir-Jogs,  taken  360  times, 

Brahma,  namely,  3,110,400,000,000 

ahma  lives  JOO  such  years,  namelj, 

811,040,000,000,000.     After  Brahma's  death  an  equally 

kmg  p^iod  of  destruction  fbllowo.    After  622,060,000,- 

000,000  yeara  Bishma  comes  to 

again,  and  the  circle  of  days 

nights  begin  anew.    Thelail- 

mcniioned  figure  forma  a  day  of 

"■  bna;  860  of  these  dsyi  form 

ofhisyears.   His  life  lasts  IDO 

h  years,  making  a  round  aum  of 
22,394,880,000,000,000,000.  Prob- 
ibly  Shiva  woidd  have  a  still  long- 
Tlife  bad  tbe  Shivaitea  not  made 
heir  god  immorlot. 

Jogl,  in  Hinduism,  are  peni- 
en  la  who  torture  Iliemselvet,eilh- 
■I  for  money  or  aa  an  act  of  piety, 

Jopiagsir,  in  Hindu  mythol- 
ogy, is  the  principal  enemy  of  the   Figure  of  Joptcgelr. 


0  divine  years,  after  the  second,  of  60 


JOGUES 


610 


JOHN 


eastern  Buddha,  and  seems  to  be  identical  with  Dewadd, 
He  is  represented  as  a  child,  wound  about  by  an  angry 
snake ;  although  it  seems  not  to  be  the  child,  but  the 
snake,  that  is  the  evil  dsmon,  for  Krishna  killed  the 
monstrous  snake  Kalinak,  as  a  child,  by  treading  oh  its 
head. 

Jogues,  Isaac,  a  French  Jesuit  missionary,  was 
bom  in  Orleans,  Jan.  10, 1607.  He  entered  the  Jesuit 
school  at  Bouen  in  1624,  studied  theology  in  Paris,  and 
took  orders  in  1686.  He  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to 
Canada  the  same  year,  and  reached  Quebec  July  2. 
He  labored  earnestly  among  the  Uurons  and  Dinouda- 
dies  for  several  years.  In  1642,  in  company  with  father 
Raymbault,  he  went  to  Sault  Ste.  Marie  to  establish  a 
mission  among  the  Algouquins.  He  returned  to  Quebec 
with  a  party  of  Hurous  for  supplies  for  the  mission,  and 
on  his  way  back  fell  into  an  ambuscade  of  Iroquois, 
when  almost  the  whole  party  was  killed  and  Jogues 
taken  prisoner.  He  was  now  subjected  to  the  most  cruel 
treatment,  and  afterwards  condemned  to  death.  He  be- 
came aware  of  his  impending  fate  through  the  Dutch 
citizens  of  Albany,  and  effected  hb  escape.  He  made 
his  way  to  New  Amsterdam  (New  York),  and  from  there 
sailed  to  Europe.  He  returned  to  Canada  in  1644,  and 
in  1646  went  with  M.  Bourdon  to  confirm  the  peace  in 
the  Mohawk  castles.  Peace  being  established,  he  set 
out,  Sept.  27  of  the  same  year,  to  found  a  Mohawk  mis- 
sion, but  was  put  to  death  by  the  Mohawks  at  Caugh- 
nawaga  (now  Fonda),  N.  Y.,  Oct.  18, 1646.  A  Life  of 
Jogueif  by  the  Rev.  F61ix  Martin,  appeared  at  Paris  in 
1873. 

Johannsen,  Johanh  Christian  Gottbkro,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian,  was  bom  June  20, 1798,  at  Nortorf, 
Holstein.  In  1818  he  was  preacher  ot  GlQckstodt,  was 
called  in  1825  as  pastor  primarius  of  St.  Peter's  at  Copen- 
hagen, and  died  in  1858,  doctor  of  theology.  He  pub- 
lished, Auftchwung  zu  dem  Ewigm  (Altona,  1820,  2 
parts) :  —  U^er  <Ue  Grundsatze  emeM  Lehrbudies  der 
chrUtL  Religion  (ibid.  1828)  i—ReligimuvortragefUr  dm- 
hendt  Verehrer  Jetu  (ibid.  1828, 2  parts)  t-^Unterguchung 
der  RechtmStngheit  der  VerpjUdUung,  etc.  (ibid.  1888) : 
— Die  A  nf&ngt  det  Symbohwangea,  etc  (Leipsic,  1847) : — 
Die  augJburgitche  Confeanon  (ibid.  eod.).  See  Zuchold, 
Bibl,  TkeoL  i,  624  sq. ;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  ihecl  Lit. 
i,  837, 478, 751 ;  ii,  16, 74, 100, 180, 284 ;  Farst,  BibL  Jud, 
ii,  99.     (R  P.) 

John  is  the  name  of  several  early  Scotch  prelates : 

1.  Consecrated  bishop  of  the  see  of  Glasgow  in  11 15. 
Some  time  after  he  made  a  visit  to  the  Holy  Land.  He 
rebuilt  and  adorned  the  cathedral  church,  and  conse- 
crated it  in  July,  1136;  divided  the  diocese  into  two 
archdeaconries  of  Glasgow  and  Teviotdale,  set  up  the 
offices  of  dean,  subdean,  chancellor,  treasurer,  sacrist, 
chantor,  and  succentor,  and  settled  a  prebend  upon  each 
of  them  out  of  the  donations  he  had  received  from  the 
king.  He  was  witness  to  a  charter  of  St  David's  to  the 
monastery  of  Newbottle  in  1140.  He  died  May  28, 
1 147.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  282. 

2.  A  monk  of  Sais,  in  Normandy,  and  bishop  of  the 
see  of  the  Isles  about  1151.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  297. 

3.  Consecrated  (with  Hugh)  bishop  of  St.  Andrews 
in  1 178.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  12. 

4.  Bishop  of  Caithness  in  1185,  and  witness  to  king 
William  in  a  donation  to  the  abbey  of  Kinloss,  at  the 
time  when  Hugo  was  chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  206. 

5.  Bishop  of  Galloway  in  1189.  He  became  a  monk 
of  Holyrood  House  in  1 206,  and  died  in  1209.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  272. 

6.  Bishop  of  Abefdeen  about  1200,  and  such  in  1201. 
He  died  in  1207.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  105. 

7.  Probably  bishop  of  the  Isles  in  1226.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.*299. 

8.  Bishop  of  Dunkcld  in  1856,  and  was  still  such  in 
1365.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  84. 


9.  Probably  bishop  of  the  Isles  about  1388.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  804. 

10.  Bishop  of  Ross  in  1420,  and  witness  in  the  same 
year  to  a  resignation  made  by  William  Graham  of  his 
barony  of  Kerdale  into  the  hands  of  Thomas,  earl  of 
Moray.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  189. 

11.  Bishop  of  the  Isles  about  1490,  and  privy-council- 
lor to  king  James  IV,  from  whom  he  received  the  ab- 
bacy of  Icolumkill  in  1 507.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  305. 

12.  Bishop  of  Argyle  in  1499.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  288. 

13.  Joannes  Electus  Sodoren,  sat  in  the  Parliament 
in  1524.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  806. 

John  OF  Chur  (sumamed  Riiiberg).  From  the  be- 
ginning of  the  14th  century  we  often  meet  in  the  myasic 
writings  of  South  Germany  with  the  name  of  Friends 
of  God  (q.  v.).  One  of  them  was  John  of  Chur,  the 
son  of  a  rich  merchant.  Suddenly  arrested  in  a  wild 
career,  he  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  mystical  contem- 
plations, lie  renounced  all  his  fortune,  to  which  he 
had  fallen  heir  by  the  death  of  his  father,  and  distrib- 
uted it  for  benevolent  purposes.  He  reganied  suffering 
as  a  special  gift;  of  divine  grace,  and  even  evil  thoughts, . 
doubts,  and  impure  desires  he  believed  were  to  be  pa- 
tiently endured  rather  than  striven  against,  for  they 
were  dispensed  by  God.  He  taught  that  the  perfect 
man  ^  has  become  one  with  God,  when  he  wants  noth- 
ing else  except  what  God  wills."  About  the  year  1357 
he  soiight  to  unite  his  friends  who  were  of  the  same 
^irit  into  a  society.  From  indications  in  his  writings 
we  conclude  that  Chur,  or  Coire,  in  the  canton  of  the 
Grisons,  Switzerland,  was  his  native  city.  In  1365  he 
determined  to  separate  himself  from  the  bustle  of  the 
town,  and  in  company  with  two  friends,  led  by  a  little 
black  dog,  they  went  into  a  mountain,  where  they  built 
a  chapel.  By  and  by  they  were  joined  by  two  others, 
and  of  these  ^'five  men,"  John  of  Chur  speaks  in  a  sepa- 
rate treatise.  He  probably  died  in  1882.  His  writings 
consist  of  letters  and  tracts.  See  Acquoy,  Het  Klooster 
te  Wiadesheim  en  Ziju  Inoloed  (Utrecht,  1875);  Prcgcr, 
in  the  ZeUschrift  fiir  die  historitche  Theoiogie  (1869), 
i,  109  sq.,  137  sq. ;  Der  Gottesfreund  im  Oherlcmd  und 
Nikolaus  von  Basd,  in  the  IJistorisch-politist^  Blatter 
(Munich,  1875),  Ixxv;  Der  Gottesfreund  im  Oherland, 
in  the  Jahrbuch  fUr  schweizerische  Geschichte  (Zurich, 
1877);  Besuch  eines  Cardinqls  beim  Gottesfreund  tm 
Oberland,  in  the  Theolog,  Quatialschrift  (Tubingen, 
1876),  iv;  Jundt,  f^es  Amis  de  Dieu  cm  QuatortUme 
SiscU  (Paris,  1879);  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Encgilop,  s.  v. 
(B,  P.) 

John  ''thb  CoxfSTAirr,"  ekctor  of  Saxony  (1525- 
82),  one  of  the  most  zealous  of  the  princely  supporters 
of  the  Reformation,  was  bom  at  Meissen,  June  80, 146& 
He  early  imbibed  a  love  for  a  military  life,  and  in  sev- 
eral campaigns  under  Maximilian  I,  against  the  Hun- 
garians and  Venetians,  displayed  great  decision  and 
courage.  When  the  Reformation  struggle  began  be 
was  already  fifty  yean  of  age,  bnt  followed  it  up 
from  the  ver}'  beginning,  and  with  his  son,  John  Fredr 
erick,  soon  became  a  follower  of  Luther,  of  whose  ser- 
mons he  often  took  notes.  He  bade  the  priests  of  his 
realm  preach  the  gospel  and  administer  the  sacraments 
according  to  the  institution  of  Christ.  At  the  diet  of 
Spires,  in  1526,  he  openly  espoused  the  cause  of  Luther, 
in  connection  with  the  other  evangelical  princes. 
He  was  threatened  by  a  league  of  Catholic  princes, 
formed  at  Breslau  in  1528,  with  exile  from  his  land  and 
people  unless  he  delivered  up  Luther  and  restored  the 
old  order  of  things.  He  expressed  his  refusal  to  com- 
ply by  marshalling  bis  troops,  which,  however,  it  did 
not  become  necessary  to  use.  At  the  second  diet  of 
Spires,  in  1529,  he  signed  a  protest  against  the  action  of 
the  majority,  which  forbade  all  religions  innovations  or 
discussions  on  the  mass  until  the  convention  of  an  cbcu- 
menical  council.    He  acknowledged  obedience  to  the 


JOHN 


6U 


JOHN 


emperor,  except  where  it  oooflicted  with  the  honor  of 
God  and  the  salvation  of  souls.  At  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg, in  1530,  bis  conduct  was  heroic.  In  spite  of  all 
personal  annoyances  he  stood  firmly  by  the  side  of  the 
evangelicals.  *  In  1581  he  entered  into  a  league  of  de- 
fence with  the  evangelical  princes  and  cities  for  six 
years,  which  forced  upon  the  emperor  the>  religious 
peace  of  Nuremberg,  July  23, 1532.  He  died  Aug.  16 
of  the  same  year.  Luther  preached  hb  funeral  sermon 
from  1  Thess.  iv,  13-18,  and  Melanchthon  pronounced  a 
memorial  address  soon  after  in  Latin.  Luther  honored 
him  as  a  pious,  sincere  prince.  John  was  a  man  of 
peace,  and  yet  a  good  soldier  of  Christ.  See  Spalatin's 
Bvagraphyl'm  Mencke,  Script,  rerum  Germ,  iii,  1003  sq. ; 
Ranke,  iMuUche  Getdnckte  im  ZeUalier  der  Rrfomta- 
iion,  i-iii ;  Gietdchel-BUlau,  GachicAte  de*  sacksisckm 
Volbts  uttd  Staatea^  i,  419  sq.;  Plitt,  Evdeitung  in  dia 
Auffiutana;  Plitt-Herzog,i?«a/-£fKyU(^.s.v.;  Lichten- 
berger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  ReUffieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

John,  patriarch  ov  Coxstantwople,  known  for  his 
connection  with  the  measures  of  the  emperor  Michael 
Paloologus,  looking  to  the  union  of  Christendom.  He 
at  first  refused  his  aid,  and  declared  the  Latins  heretics, 
fur  which  he  was  imprisoned.  While  in  prison  he 
found  leisure  to  examine  the  older  Greek  literature  con- 
cerning the  dissensions  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
churches,  and  these  investigations  changed  his  mind. 
He  was  released  and  made  patriarch,  but  after  the  death 
of  the  emperor  retired  to  a  monastery,  in  1283.  He  was 
again  restored,  and  again  exiled,  dying  in  1298  in  Bithy- 
nia.  The  Greek  Church  excludes  his  name  from  the 
number  of  the  orthodox,  but  not  the  Latin  Church ; 
hence  his  writings  are  found  in  Leo  Allatius*s  Crada 
Orthodoxa,  tom.  i,  it.  See  Gaas,  in  Plitt-Hcrzog,  Real- 
Encyhlop,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

John  OP  Darlington,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  a  native 
of  Darlington,  Durham,  trained  a  Dominican,  and  a  great 
clerk,  "qui  literatura  poUebat  excellenter  et  cursilio** 
(Mat.  Paris).  Henry  III  made  him  his  confessor,  "which 
argueth  his  piety,  that  so  devout  a  prince  used  him  in 
so  conscientious  an  office."  He  afterwards  became  arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  being  the  choice  of  pope  John  XXI, 
in  order  to  settle  impartially  the  rival  claims  of  William 
de  la  Corner,  king's  chaplain,  the  choice  of  the  prior 
and  convent  of  Trinity  Church,  and  of  Fromund  le  Brun, 
the  pope's  chaplain,  the  elect  of  the  dean  and  chapter 
of  St.  Patrick's.  The  pope  set  both  aside.  John  was 
also  collector  of  Peter's  Pence  in  Ireland  to  popes  John 
XXI,  Nicholas  III,  and  Martin  IV.  He  wrote  many 
books.  Returning  to  England,  he  died  in  1284,  and 
was  buried  at  Preaching  Friars.  See  Fuller,  Worlhiet 
f>f  EwfUxad^  i,  486. 

John  OF  Flandbbs,  a  Flemish  prelate,  was  the 
son  of  Gny,  count  of  Flanders.  He  became  at  first 
provost  of  St.  Peter  of  Lille,  and  of  St.  Donatian  of 
Bruges.  Nicholas  III  provided  him  wiili  the  bish- 
opric of  Metz,  Jan.  2, 128K),  but  he  neglected  the  duties 
of  that  charge,  and  only  took  its  revenues  to  acquire 
grounds  at  Flanders.  After  a  short  time  he  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Liege,  and  took  possession  of  his 
new  Church,  Oct.  31, 1282.  In  1285  he  got  into  diffi- 
culties with  the  sheriffs  of  Liege,  and  left  the  city,  tak- 
ing with  him  his  clergy,  Vmd  retiring  into  the  borough 
of  Huy.  His  exile  lasted  twenty-two  months.  After 
his  return  to  Liege  he  made  a  league  with  his  brother- 
in-law,  the  duke  of  Brabant,  against  Kenaud,  count  of 
Gueldera.  In  1288,  while  hunting,  according  to  the  cus- 
torn  of  those  tiroes,  he  was  seixed  and  imprisoned  for 
five  months,  until  he  paid  a  ransom.  He  died  Oct.  14, 
1292.  He  published,  in  1287,  Sytiodal  SiatuUs,  collect- 
ed by  D.  Mart^ne,  Tkes,  A  need,  tv,  829.  See  Hoefcr, 
iVbirr.  Biog,  GeniraU^  a.  v. 

John  OF  TUB  GsATB  (so-callcd  from  an  iron  grating 
which  surrounded  his  sepulchre),  5atnf,  bishop  and  con- 
fessor, was  a  Breton,  bom  in  1098.  He  made  rapid  prog- 
ress in  his  studies,  and  was  made  bishop  of  Aleth.    As 


a  bishop  his  life  was  embittered  by  a  series  of  lawsuits 
with  the  monks  of  Marmoutiers.  He  wbhed  to  remove 
his  episcopal  see  to  the  isUnd  of  St.  Malo,  Aleth  being 
exposed  to  pirates.  But  the  monks  claimed  the  Churvh 
of  St.  Malo,  the  pope  decided  in  their  favor,  and  Lu- 
cius II  at  length  condemned  John  to  lose  his  see.  He 
then  retired  under  the  protection  of  St.  Bernard  to  Clair- 
vaux,  until,  on  the  death  of  Lucius,  a  monk  of  Qairvaux 
(Eugenius  III)  was  elevated  to  the  papal  throne.  John 
appealed  again  and  was  heard.  His  rights  were  re- 
stored, and  the  monks  of  Marmoutiers  were  obliged  to 
cede  the  Church  of  St.  Malo  to  the  bishop.  It  was 
during  his  bishopric  that  the  strange  heresy  of  the 
fanatical  Eon  de  I'^toile  (q.  v.)  broke  out,  and  John 
tried  by  persuasion  and  instruction  to  disabuse  of  their 
heresy  such  of  the  enthusiasts  as  overran  his  diocese, 
and  succeeded  in  converting  many.  John  of  the  Grate 
died  Feb.  1,  1163.  Ho  immediately  received  popular 
reverence  as  a  saint,  and  numerous  miracles  are  said  to 
have  augmented  the  reverence  of  the  people.  In  1517 
Penis  Brigonnet,  ambassador  of  the  king  to  Rome,  ob- 
tained from  Leo  X  permission  for  him  to  be  commem- 
orated in  a  solemn  office  as  a  confessor  bishop.  Mon- 
signor  Antoine  Joseph  des  Laurents,  last  bishop  of  St. 
Malo  but  one,  examine<l  John*s  relics,  Oct.  16,  1784. 
During  the  revolution  they  were  ordered  to  be  cast 
into  the  sea,  but  the  order  was  countermanded,  and  the 
sexton  was  required  to  bury  them  in  the  common  fosse 
in  the  cemetery'.  In  November,  1799,  M.Manet,  a  priest 
who  had  remained  through  the  Reign  of  Terror  in  St. 
Malo,  verified  the  relics.  In  a  sealed  box,  March  7, 1823, 
they  were  deposited  in  their  ancient  shrine,  and  Nov. 
IC,  1839,  by  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  they  were  finally 
installed  with  great  ceremony,  and  are  now  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Malo.  The  authorities  for  the  life  of  John  of  the 
Grate  are  Albert  us  Magnus  of  Morlaix,  and  the  letters 
of  Bernard  and  Nicholas  of  Clair  vaux.  His  festival  is 
observed  as  a  double  b}*  the  Church  of  St.  Malo,  in  Brit- 
tanv,  and  his  name  appears  in  Saussaye's  supplement 
to  the  Gallican  martyrolog}\  See  Baring-Gould,  Livu 
ofilu  Saints,  ii,  26  (sub  Feb.  1,  his  day). 

John,  a  metropolitan  op  Kibw,  was  raised  to  that 
dignity  in  1164  by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
Lucas  Chrysobergee.  He  is  famous  for  his  letter  to 
pope  Alexander  III,  of  which  a  rara  book  entitled  JSTt- 
rilovoi  (Moscow,  1644)  gives  some  extracts.  John  died 
May  12, 1166.     See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  Ginirule,  s.  v. 

John  OF  MoKMOUTH  (so  called  from  the  place  of 
hia  nativity),  a  doctor  of  divinity  and  canon  of  Lincoln, 
was  chosen  bishop  6f  Llandaff  in  1296,  after  a  vacancy 
in  that  see  of  seven  years,  the  pope  remitting  the  elec- 
tion to  archbishop  Kilwarby,  who  called  John  of  Mon- 
mouth. He  became  a  great  benefactor  to  the  bishopric, 
procuring  for  it,  among  other  revenues,  the  rector}*  nf 
Newland.  He  was  a  learned  and  pious  theologian.  Ht* 
died  April  8,  1328.  See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  Engiatf<l 
(ed.  NutUll),  u,  434. 

John  Baptist  of  Salbrko,  a  Jesuit,  and  friend  of 
pope  Clement  XI,  was  born  in  1670.  He  accompanied 
the  nephew  of  the  pope,  Albani,  to  Germany  and  Po- 
land as  theological  adviser,  and  succeeded  in  converting 
Frederick  Augustus  of  Saxony  to  ihe  Church  of  Rome. 
In  acknowledgment  of  this  deed  John  Baptist  was  made 
cardinal,  and  died  in  1729.  He  is  the  author  of  Sped' 
men  OriaUaHs  Ecdetim  (Rome,  1706).  See  Lichten- 
berger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.    (R.  P.) 

John,  Frederick  (sumamed  the  Mnf^vanimovs), 
elector  of  Saxony,  son  of  John  the  Constant  (q.  v.)i  was 
born  at  Torgau,  June  80,  1608.  Brought  up  in  the 
Church  of  the  Reformation,  he  became  its  nnwavering 
advocate,  and,  like  his  father,  he  was  on  terms  of  most 
intimate  friendship  with  Luther,  with  whom  he  carried 
on  an  imintemipted  correspondence.  He  increased  the 
endowment  of  Wittenberg  University  from  the  sequel* 
trated  revenues  of  convents,  and  in  1648  founded  the 
Univtiaity  of  Jena.    Hia  relations  to  the  emperor  were 


JOHNES 


612 


JOKTHEEL 


nnpleaumt.  In  1686  he  entered  into  a  leoiBnDation  of , 
the  Smalcald  league,  by  which  the  Protestant  princes 
bound  themselves  to  mutnal  protection  for  ten  years. 
In  1544  the  emperor  Charles  V  was  left  free  to  give  his 
whole  attention  to  the  aflhirs  in  Germany.  A  war 
broke  out.  Frederick  was  finally  defeated,  and  taken 
prisoner  at  Mtthlberg,  April  24, 1547.  He  remained  in 
prison  till  1552,  and  died  at  Weimar,  March  3,  1554. 
John  Frederick  remained  true  to  the  cause  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church  in  spite  of  his  many  misfortunes.  See 
MuUer,  Geaekickie  Johaim  Friedrich  da  GrosnaHkigen 
(Jena,  1765);  Ranke,  Deutsche  Gesckichie  tm  ZeiiaUer 
der  Reformation,  iv,  190  sq. ;  Burkhnrdt,  Die  Gefaxtgrn- 
aehqft  Joh.  Fr.  d,  GrossmMigen  (1868) ;  Plitt-Hensog, 
Beal-Eneyihp.  s.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  Ewrydop,  des  Sci- 
enoea  ReUgieiuet,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

JohneSi  Timotht,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minuter  of 
Welsh  extraction,  was  bom  at  Southampton,  L.  I.,  Msy 
24,  1717.  He  graduated  from  Yale  CoUege  in  1787, 
was  ordained  by  the  New  York  Presbytery,  Feb.  9, 
1748,  pastor  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  and  had  great  success 
in  his  ministry  there,  which  closed  with  his  death. 
Sept  17, 1794.  In  1777  general  Washington,  on  one  oc- 
casion, communed  with  his  congregation  while  in  the 
Vidnity .  See  Sprague,  .4  mials  of^he  A  mer.  Pulpit,  iii, 
16.    (W.  P.  a) 

JohnB,  Henry  Van  Dyke,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  at  New  Castle,  Del,  in 
1&3,  being  the  youngest  son  of  the  Hon.  Kensey  Johns, 
chief-justice  of  Delaware  and  United  States  senator. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  College,  afterwards  stud- 
ied at  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  and 
continued  his  theological  studies  under  the  direction  of 
his  brother,  bishop  Johns  of  Virginia.  His  ministry 
began  at  Wilmington,  Del ;  he  was  for  some  time  rec- 
tor of  the  Church  at  Frederick,  Md. ;  thence  he  was 
called  to  Trinity  Church,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  subse- 
quently to  Cincinnati,  O. ;  then  to  the  rectorship  of 
Christ  Church,  BalHmore,  Md.,  where  he  continued  un- 
til 1853,  when  Emanuel  Church  was  built  by  a  portion 
of  his  congregation,  and  he  became  its  rector,  a  position 
which  he  occupied  until  his  death,  April  22, 1859.  See 
Amer,  Quar,  Church  Rev,  1859,  p.  352. 

Johne,  John,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bora  at  New  Castle,  DeL,  July  10, 1796. 
He  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1815 ; 
studied  two  years  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary ; 
in  his  eighteenth  year  joined  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church,  and,  June  10, 1819,  wsa  ordained  deacon, 
and  in  1820  presbyter.  His  first  parish  was  AU-Saints' 
Church,  Frederick,  Md.,  and  in  1829  he  became  rector 
of  old  Christ's  Church,  in  Baltimore.  In  1837  a  new 
church  was  erected,  called  the  Church  of  the  Messiah, 
of  which  he  was  rector  until  be  became  assistant  bishop 
of  the  diocese  of  Virginia,  May  21, 1842.  In  1849  he 
was  elected  president  of  William  and  Mary  College, 
where  he  remained  until  1854.  He  died  at  Alexan- 
dria, Va.,  April  5, 1876.  Ho  was  a  leader  of  the  Evan- 
gelical side  of  his  Church,  and  commanded  admiration 
from  men  of  all  shades  of  opinbn  by  the  purity  of  his 
life  and  the  sincerity  of  his  convictions.  See  NtcroU 
RepoH  o/PrineeUm  Theol  Sem.  1877,  p.  12. 

JohnBon,  Oeorge  Henry  Saoheverell,  an 

eminent  Anglican  clergyman  and  mathematician,  was 
bora  at  Keswick,  Northumberland,  about  1808.  He 
graduated  from  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in  1828,  ob- 
tained several  scholarships  and  a  tutorship  therein,  be- 
came professor  of  astronomy  in  1889,  of  moral  philosophy 
from  1842  to  1845,  preacher  at  Whitehall  in  1852,  dean 
of  Wells  in  1854,  and  died  Nov.  6, 1881.  He  published 
a  Treatise  on  Optics  (1836) :— i9ennonf  (1857):— and 
wrote  the  annotations  on  the  Psalms  in  Uie  Speaker's 
Commentary, 

Johnson,  Samuel,  a  Unitarian  writer,  was  bora 
at  Salem,  Mass.,  Oct.  10,  1822.  He  graduated  from 
Haryaid  College  in  1848,  and  ijrom  Harvard  DiYinity 


School  in  1846;  became  pastor  of  a  ''Free  Chnreh"  at 
Lynn  in  1858;  in  1870  removed  to  Salem,  and  in  1876 
to  North  Andover,  where  he  died,  Feb.  19, 1882.  Al- 
though not  an  ordained  minister,  he  was  intimately 
associated  with  the  humanitorian  tendencies  of  modera 
UhiUrianism,  and  an  ardent  opponent  of  slavery,  speak- 
ing and  writing  eloquently  on  kindred  subjects  of  re- 
form. He  published  A  Booh  of  Hymns  (1846):— rA« 
Worship  ofJetus  (1868) :— and  Oriental  ReUgums  (hta 
principal  work,  vol.  i,  Boston,  1872). 

Johnson,  Samnel  R.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  graduated  from  the  General  Theological 
Seminary,  was  for  many  years  a  professor  of  systematic 
divinity  there,  and  a  prominent  member  and  secretary 
of  the  standing  committee  of  his  diocese.  In  1872  he 
became  rector  of  Sc.  Thomas's  Church,  Amenia  Union, 
N.  Y.,  and  died  Aug.  18, 1878.  See  Prot,  Episc  A  fota- 
nac,  1874,  p.  188. 

Johnson,  'V^illiam  L.,  D.D.,  a  Protestont  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  a  graduate  of  the  General  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  rector  in  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  for  at  least 
eighteen  years,  and  died  there,  Aug.  4, 1870,  aged  eight}' 
years.    See  Prot,  Episc,  A  Imanae,  1871,  p.  118. 

Johnston,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bora  at  Crawford,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  28, 1778.  He 
graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1801 ; 
studied  theology  privately  in  Princeton ;  was  licensed 
by  the  New  Bmnswick  Presbytery  in  October,  1806.  In 
1807  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  united  congregations  of 
Newburgh  and  New  Windsor,  N.  Y.  In  1810  he  was 
released  from  the  congregation  of  New  Windsor,  but 
remained  as  pastor  at  Newburgh  until  his  death,  Aug. 
26, 1855.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit, 
iv,  894. 

Johnstone,  Wiluam  O.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Ireland,  April  17, 1822,  but  re- 
ceived his  education  in  this  country.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  Kensington  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  fur  more  than  thirty  years,  and  his  services  in  every 
department  of  Church  work  were  constant  and  untir- 
ing. He  died  suddenly,  Jan.  16, 1883.  See  (Phila.) 
Predfyterian,  Jan.  20, 1888.     (W.  P.  S,) 

Jokneam.  Of  TettJCdmun,  the  modera  represen- 
tntive  of  this  place,  a  brief  account  may  be  found  in  the 
Memoirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,  48), 
and  of  the  few  remaining  antiquities  (p.  69).  A  freer 
description  is  given  by  LieuL  Conder  (Tent  Work,  i, 
131): 

"North  of  Lejjdu  the  grent  WAdy  el<Mllb  runs  down 
from  the  white  plateau  of  the  *  Breexy  Land,'  which  U 
separates  flrom  the  sootbera  end  of  Camel.  Here  at  the 
month  stands  a  huge  tell  or  mound  called  Kelm&n,  on 
which  are  remains  of  a  little  Byzantine  chapel,  and  of  a 
small  fort  erected  hj  the  famous  nstlve  chief  I)hahr  el- 
'Amr.  The  Samaritans  have  a  curious  legend  connected 
with  this  site.  According  to  them  Joshua  was  challenged 
by  the  giants,  and  enclosed  here  with  his  army  In  seven 
walls  of  iron.  A  dove  carried  his  message  thence  to  Na- 
bib,  king  of  the  tribes  east  of  Jordan,  who  came  to  his 
assistance.  The  magic  wnlls  fell  down,  snd  the  king  of 
Persia,  Shobek,  was  transfixed  by  an  arrow  which  uailed 
him  on  his  horse  to  the  ground. 

"The  present  name  is  a  slight  modification  of  the  an- 
cient Jokneam  of  Carmei,  but  the  Ornsaden  seem  to 
have  been  puzxled  by  it,  and  transformed  Keimftn  into 
Cain  Mons,  or  Monnt  Cain,  whence  arose  the  curious  1^- 
end  that  Cain  was  here  rlaln  with  an  arrow  by  Lamera, 
which  they  supposed  to  be  the  murder  referred  to  In  the 
Song  of  Lsmech  (Qeo.  Iv,  88).  The  chspel  no  donbt  shows 
the  spot  once  held  to  be  the  site  of  the  death  of  Cain,  but 
the  derivation  of  the  name  was  as  fanciful  as  that  of 
Haifk  fh>m  Cephas  or  fh>m  Caiaphas  the  high-priest" 

Joktheel  of  Judah.  For  this  town  Tristram 
proposes  {BibU  Places,  p.  40)  Khur^  Mesheifrefek, 
near  Gaza,  on  the  ground  that  '*the  word  is  the  Arabic 
equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  ;*'  and  a  writer  in  the  Quar, 
Statement  of  the  **  PaL  Explor.  Fund  "  (Jannary,  1881,  p. 
68)  proposes  '<the  large  ruin  KulUtneh,  touth  of  Geser, 
as  the  words  are  from  similar  root&"  But  both  these 
identifi^cations  are  very  pracariona. 

Jol.    See  TuLB. 


JOLOWICZ 


613 


JONES 


Jolof  Version.    Sea  Jaxxoof  Ysrsiov. 

Jolo^OSi  Hktmaich,  a  Jewish  scholari  who  died 
at  KonigBberg,  Prania,  in  1875,  is  the  author  of,  Die 
Jbti»dkreitende  Entwidodung  der  Cultur  der  Juden  m 
Deutschland  (Berlin,  ISn^i—Har/enkldnffe  der  heiiigen 
VorzeU  (Uipsic,  1846)  \—BliHheH  rahbmUcher  WeUhtit 
(Thorn,  1845)  -.—Die  Bimmelfahrt  und  Vision  de§  Pro. 
Tpheten  Jesaia  (Leipsic,  1864) : — Die  germanuche  Welt 
in  ihrer  Beriihrung  nut  dem  ChritterUhume  (ibid.  1854) : 
— BlSlhenkranz  morgenWndiicker  Dichtungen  (1860)  : — 
Getchichtt  der  Juden  in  Kdnigtberg  (1867).  See  FUrst, 
BibL  Jud,  ii,  100  sq.;  Zuchold,  Bibl.  TheoL  i,  626. 
(B.P.) 

Jona  bbn-Ganacr.    See  Ibn-Gasv acii. 

JonS,  SucNO,  a  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Upsala,  was  bom  in  1590,  and  died  in  1641.  He  pub- 
lished, i:r&m«nto/«  Thtologieumy  etc  (Upsala,  1625) : — Ca- 
teehesis  Minor  (ibid.  1627) : — InMtilutionum  Ilebraicarum 
pars  EkmentariUf  etc.  (1637) : — Insti/utionum  JIthrai' 
earum  pars  Secunda  (1638).  See  Stiernmann,  BibL 
Sttio '  Gothiea^  p.  847;  Jocher,  AUgtmeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexihony  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

JoneSk  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  born  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Nov.  8, 1796. 
He  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1814 ;  pursued 
bis  theological  studies  under  the  direction  of  bbhop 
Griswold,  at  Bristol,  R.  I.;  took  charge  of  a  school  for 
some  years  in  Bardstown,  Ky.;  was  ordained  deacon  in 
1822;  in  1824  became  rector  of  Zion  Church,  in  Charles- 
town,  Ya. ;  in  1851  of  St.  PauFs  Church,  in  Richmond, 
and  afterwards  was  settled  as  rector  of  St.  Peter*s  Church, 
in  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  where  be  remained  seventeen 
yearn  (1857-74),  and  then  having  had  a  stroke  of  paral- 
ysis, he  was  obliged  to  abandon  all  ministerial  labor. 
He  died  at  Perth  Amboy,  Feb.  15, 1874.  *'He  had  a 
high  rank  among  the  clergy  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
for  scholarship  and  useful  service,  and  was  a  gentleman 
of  genial  manners  and  refined  taste."    (J.  C  S.) 

Jonea^  Arthur,  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Uanrwst,  Denbighshire,  Feb.  12, 
1776.  He  was  converted  when  about  eighteen  years 
of  age,  joined  the  Calvinistic  Methodists,  and  soon  be- 
came an  exhorter  and  preacher.  He  was  ordained  at 
Bangor  in  1810,  where  he  labored  earnestly  as  pastor; 
in  1815  he  removed  to  the  Welsh  churches  at  Deptford 
and  Woolwich,  Kent;  in  1828  he  returned  to  his  former 
charge  at  Bangor;  in  1854  he  retired  to  Chester,  where 
he  died,  Feb.  29, 1860.  He  published  several  tracts  and 
sermons,  besides  his  work  entitled,  Pyngeian  A  thrnwir- 
aethol  (doctrinal  points).  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book, 
1861,  p.  215. 

JoneSk  Inigo,  an  eminent  English  architect,  was 
bora  in  London  in  1572.  He  went  to  Venice  and  stud- 
ied the  works  of  Palladio,  and  his  reputation  procured 
biro  the  appointment  of  chief  architect  to  Christian  IV, 
king  of  Denmark,  who,  in  1606,  brought  Jones  with 
him  to  England.  He  was  induced  to  remain,  and  was 
appointed  architect  to  the  queen,  and  subsequently  to 
Henry,  prince  of  Wales.  He  invented  many  ingenious 
decorations  and  wonderful  machines.  Among  his  works 
are  the  palace  of  lord  Pembroke,  at  Wilton,  in  the  coun- 
ty of  Wilts;  the  queen*s  chapel,  St  James ;  the  facades 
of  Holyrood  House;  and  Heriot*s  Hospital,  Edinburgh. 
He  died  in  London,  July  21,  1652.  A  collection  of 
Inigo  Jones's  architectural  designs  was  published  by 
Kent  in  1712  and  1724.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  A  ris,  a.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginh-ale,  s.  v. 

JoneSk  John  CoUler,  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
was  bora  at  Plympton,  Devonshire,  Oct.  7,  1770.  He 
graduated  from  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  June  6, 1792, 
and  shortly  after  was  elected  to  a  Petrean  fellowship. 
Entering  holy  orders,  he  became  curate  of  Mortlake,  in 
Surrey,  but  afterwards  accepted  a  chaplainship  on  board 
the  Xanatrf  and  was  present  in  the  action  off  cape  St. 
Tiocent,  in  1797.    lu  1808  he  became  one  of  the  tutors 


of  his  college ;  in  1812  a  public  examiner;  select  preach- 
er in  1819;  and  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Cole  was  elected  to 
the  rectorship  of  Exeter.  Dr.  Jones's  other  official  ap- 
pointments were,  delegate  of  accounts  in  1824;  vice- 
chancellor  from  October,  1828,  to  1882 ;  and  Joint  cura- 
tor of  the  Sheldonian  Theatre  in  1829.  He  was  also 
vicar  of  Kidliogton,  and  an  acting  magistrate  for  the 
county  of  Oxford.  He  died  in  1838.  His  inflexible  in- 
tegrity,  gracefulness  of  manner,  and  kindness  of  disposi- 
tion won  for  him  the  esteem  and  love  of  all  with  whom 
he  came  in  contact.  See  (Lond.)  Christian  Remem' 
brancer^  Sept.  1838,  p.  568. 

Jones»  John  Bmlyn,  LL.D.,  a  Welsh  Baptist  min- 
ister,  was  bora  at  Newcastle  Emlyn,  Carmarthenshire, 
Jan.  8, 1820.  He  was  baptized  at  the  age  of  thirteen ;  re- 
ceived a  good  education ;  was  ordained  in  1852  co-pastor 
at  Pontypridd;  was  then  pastor  in  EbbwVale;  then  in 
Cardiff;  in  1865  removed  to  Merthyr;  in  1869  to  Llan- 
dudno, North  Wales,  and  finally  returned  to  Ebbw  Yale, 
where  he  died,  Jan.  18, 1873.  He  was  ever  busy  with 
his  pen,  as  with  his  tongue,  contributing  largely  to  both 
the  Welsh  and  the  English  newspaper  press.  He  pub- 
lished Welsh  translations  of  GiWs  Commentary  and 
UamUoti^s  Grammar,  He  wrote  Hants  Prydain  Fawr 
am  yr  Haner  Canri/Diwedda/Q*  The  History  of  Great 
Britain  for  the  Past  Half  Century  ").  For  several  years 
he  was  busily  engaged  in  writing  his  Y  Parthsyllydd^ 
Sef,  Haner  yr  Holl  Fyd  ("  The  History  of  the  Whole 
World*'),  one  volume  of  which  was  published.  See 
(Lond.)  Baptist  Handbook,  1874,  p.  282.     (J.  C  S.) 

JoneSk  Samuel  Beach,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Nov.  28, 1811.  He 
studied  at  Yale  College ;  spent  four  years  in  Princeton 
Theological  Seminar)'  (1832-36);  acted  one  year  as 
assistant  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Missions;  was  or- 
dained in  1837;  became  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
Oakland  Seminary,  Miss.,  in  1838;  was  pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  at  Bridgeton,  N.  J.,  from 
1839  to  1868;  preached  in  Fairfield  from  1870  to  1875, 
and  died  at  Bridgeton,  March  19,  1883.  See  (iV:  F.) 
Observer,  March  22,  1883.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Jonea^  Thomaa  (1),  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was 
bora  in  Lancashire,  and  educated  at  Christ  College, 
Cambridge.  His  first  promotion  was  to  the  chancellor- 
ship of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral;  in  1581  he  was  elected 
its  dean ;  in  May,  1584,  dean  Jones  was  promoted  to 
the  see  of  Meath,  and  on  May  12  was  consecrated  in 
St.  Patrick's  Church.  Having  presided  over  that  see 
twenty-one  years,  he  was  translated  to  that  of  Dublin 
in  1605,  and  was  consecrated  Nov.  9  of  the  same  year. 
In  1611,  he,  and  the  other  archbishops  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  held  a  council  in  Dublin,  wherein  it  was 
decreed  that  the  suffragans  should  reside  in  their  re- 
spective dioceses,  visit  all  the  churches,  and  institute 
such  regulations  as  would  be  best  calculated  to  prevent 
sectarianism  and  extirpate  popeiy.  In  1613  he  was 
one  of  the  justices  in  commission  with  sir  Richard 
Wingfield.  In  1614  he  had  a  grant  of  the  temporali- 
ties of  the  bishoprics  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh  during 
vacancy.  During  the  episcopacy  of  archbishop  Jones 
he  repaired  a  great  part  of  Christ  Church.  He  died  at 
his  palace  of  St.  Sepulchre's  in  April,  1619.  See  D' Alton, 
Memoirs  of  the  A  rchbishops  of  Dublin,  p.  250. 

Jonea,  Thomaa  (2),  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
near  Havod,  Cardiganshire,  Wales,  April  2, 1752.  He 
was  educated  at  the  grammar-school  of  Ystradmeirig, 
and  ordained  in  1774.  Having  labored  in  the  curacy 
of  Llangevelin  and  Eglwysvach  from  1774  to  1778,  he 
removed  to  Leintwardine,  Herefordshire,  England, 
thence  to  Longnor,  Shropshire,  and  from  this  place  to 
Oswestry,  iflis  next  curacy  was  Loppington;  and  in 
1785  he  was  appointed  to  the  living  of  Creation,  North- 
amptonshire, where  he  remained  till  the  increasing  in- 
firmities of  age  obligetl  him  to  reign  his  office  in  1838. 
He  died  Jan.  7, 1845.  His  works  are,  Jonah^s  Portrait 
(1818,  12mo;  9th  cd.  1845,  Svo) -.-^Scripture  Directory 


Jopps,  rrnm  IhB  Sonlh-WMt    [Ftom  Thomaon's  EeuOen  T^tttUna  and  Jenudtm.} 
(Lond.  1811,  8vo;  8lh  ed.  1839,  12ino):  — rA«    Tiiu    nnolher,  bat  no  promlneot  bulldlnB  brMlriog  tbo  Og 

ave  (1831,  ISmo;  new  eil.  184T,  IGrao) :—Soier  Vital    tba  dliliince  Iha  dim  blna  Jndmn  b 
n/rt«.Wtffc™ii,«{IR3a,12mo)!-/-m,«(owio/Li/e(3d    •hiidow. 

etl.  IS48,  ISrao):- .VufM  «/"  F^s-Jint  Strtmm;  edited    ?_'?!. l»._<!!''!!<Li?*..^",_°'./?!H;».'f??I_' 

b;  Rer.  Jobn  Owen  (ISM,  ISaiii).  See  Tht  (Load.) 
CAruririn  Cuardum,  Jiilv,  1815.  p.  381,  329;  Allibune, 
Did.  n/Bril.  and  A  au.-.'A  Hthori, «.  v. 

Joppa.  or  (he  mwlern  l»/u  (called  Ji^ii  by  the 
Eiiropeini)  a  lolcnbly  Tull  ■ccoiiiit  ia  given  In  the 
Afemoiri  ■ccDmpinyiiig  the  Oidnance  Surrey  (ii,  275 
•q.);  and  the  descrir>l>»ii  by  Lieut.  CondeiCrm  Wait, 
i,  1  eq.)  cautaini  aomc  iiilereMing  particulan : 

"The  tnvn  ruee  from  llie  Pbore  .in  n  br.iivu  hill'-ck; 
ibe  daik,  lat-ruofed  buuaes  climbiog  the  bill  one  ubuve 

.     crowded  wilh  r  moIleT  n- 

aemblnce,  apeclDiena  otty. 
er7  Levnnlhie  DallaonlilT. 
HBCh  deck  paxeneer  bnd 
bis  beddiuE  viib  lilm,  and 
the  jtenerai  effect  wna  "" 


Ss£ 

;!.'S"-. 

ow 

ancient  limn  1 
lUediip.wiuDe 

Vp"SiiV« 

,iT.a' 

or  a 


JETS 

ninbfcliaa  illeVne  onl  of 
the  ngi  In  niieipoctad 
places.  Apart  from  tbe  reet 
ant  a  gronp  of  siTBrtbT  Bed> 
oniD,  vrlih  their  hnge  bead- 


wlih  a  1 


iKllliB  a 


,    IxniDd 


best  drea^ea,  the  blRck  bair 
elnuk.  with  red  slipper*. 
The  rii|;;:ed  dark  fkcea  with 
white  lienrdi  nod  anu. 
BC>Rhed  eyea  won  a  cnri- 

BUlned^ll^'il'y  and'hadlf 
eoDcealed  cnrlnritT  con. 
earning  Ihe  mHidan  of  clt- 
llliatiuu  (DrronndlDB  Ibem. 
The  coloring  of  iheaa  rarl. 
oaa  smDpe  woold  ba*e  been 


Tlau  of  Joppa  add  lU  KiTtima 


n  artlat.    Tba 

*«  by  patchca 

al'lir''Llke"alt  Oriental  col- 
or, It  waa  tiiie<l  ftota  any 
KiDdiueis  of  elbcl  bj  tba 
rEflmaasexordall  brown 
>r  Indlaii  which  predonii- 

i:e£ed  by  a  Beet  el 


dull  tl.    . 


JORDAENS 


615 


JORMUNQAND 


lonjT,  flat  boats  with  atardv  rowera,  and  into  these  the  pas- 
eeugers  were  precipitated,  and  their  luggage  dropped  in 
after  them.  The  swell  was  so  great  that  we  were  In  constant 
danger  of  being  capsized  ander  the  accommodation-lad- 
der.  As  we  rowed  off,  and  sank  In  tlie  trongh  of  the 
waves,  the  shore  and  town  disappeared,  and  only  the 
nearest  b()ats  were  visible  high  up  on  the  crest  of  the 
rollers.  The  exciting  moment  of  reaching  the  reef  came 
next ;  the  women  dosed  their  eyes,  the  rowers  got  into  a 
regular  swing,  chanting  a  rude  rhyme,  and,  waiting  for 
the  wnye,  we  were  saddenly  carried  past  the  nely  black 
rocks  into  smooth  water  close  to  the  wharf.  The  land- 
ing at  Jaffa  has  been  from  time  immemorial  an  exciting 
scene.  Wo  have  the  terrible  and  graphic  account  of  the 
old  pilgrim  (S«wulf)  who,  'from  bis  sins  or  from  the 
badness  of  the  ship,'  was  almost  wrecked,  and  who  wit- 
nessed from  the  shore  the  death  of  bis  companions,  help- 
less in  a  great  storm  in  the  offing.  We  have  the  account 
of  Richard  Lion-Heart  springing,  Ailly-armed,  into  the 
surf  and  flglitiug  his  way  on  shore.  The  little  port  made 
by  the  reef  has  been  long  the  onlv  place  south  of  Acre 
where  landing  was  possible :  but  the  storms  which  have 
covered  the  beach  with  modem  wrecks  were  equally  fatal 
to  the  Genoese  galleys  and  crusading  war-ships. 

"The  town  of  Jnffa  contains  little  of  interest,  though 
it  is  sufficiently  striking  to  n  new-comer.  The  broad  ef- 
fects of  light  and  shadow  are  perhaps  enhanced  here  bv 
the  numerous  arched  streets  and  the  flights  of  steps  which 
climb  from  the  sea-level  to  the  higher  part  of  the  town. 
The  glory  of  Jaffa  consists  in  its  beautiful  wardens, 
which  stretch  inland  about  a  mile  and  a  half,  ana  extend 
north  and  south  over  a  length  of  txvo  miles.  Oranges, 
lemons,  palms,  bananas,  pomegranates,  and  other  fruits 
grow  iu  thick  groves  surrounded  by  old  cactus  hedges, 
having  narrow  Taues  between  them  deep  in  sand.  Sweet 
water  is  found  in  abundance  at  a  moderate  depth.  The 
scent  of  the  oranges  is  said  to  be  at  times  perceptible 
some  miles  from  land,  to  approachine  ships.  Still  more 
carious  is  the  fact  that  the  beaulifhl  little  sunbird,  pecul- 
iar to  the  Jordan  valley,  is  also  to  be  found  In  these  gar- 
dens. How  this  African  wanderer  can  have  made  Its 
way  across  districts  entirely  unfitted  for  Its  abode,  to 
spots  separated  by  the  great  mountain  chain,  it  is  not 
easy  to  explain. 

*U>utside  the  town  on  the  north-east  is  the  little  Ger- 
man colony,  the  neat  white  houses  of  which  were  built 
originally  by  an  American  society  which  was  almost  ex- 
terminated oy  fever,  and  finally  broken  up  by  internal 
differences,  caused,  1  understand,  by  some  resemblance 
in  the  views  of  the  chief  to  those  of  Brigham  Young. 
The  land  and  buildings  were  bought  by  the  thrifty  Ger- 
man settlers,  members  of  the  Temple  Society,  with  the 
views  and  history  of  which  sect  1  became  further  ac- 
quainted during  the  following  winter.    See  Falutihk, 

COI.OirUT8  IK. 

**The  soil  of  the  Jaffa  plain  Is  naturally  of  great  fer- 
tility. Even  the  negligent  tillage  of  the  peasantry  pro- 
duces fine  harvests.  Tm  Germans  ploughed  deeper,  and 
were  rewarded  by  a  crop  of  thistles,  which  to  a  good 
farmer  would  have  been  a  sulject  of  satisfaction  as 
proving  the  existence  of  virgin  soil,  only  requiring  to  be 
scoured  by  other  crops  for  a  vear  or  two  in  order  to  yield 
fine  harvests  of  corn.  At  this  time  of  year,  the  barlev 
had  been  gathered  in,  and  only  the  dry  stubble  was  left*' 

Jordaena,  Jakob,  an  eminent  Flemish  painter,  was 
bom  at  Antwerp,  Blay  19,  1594,  studied  under  Adam 
van  Oort,  and  copied  the  pictures  of  Titian  and  Paul 
Veronese.  He  was  employed  by  the  king  of  Spain  to 
do  some  imporunt  work.  His  paintings  are  very  nu- 
merous, and  abound  in  the  churches  and  public  edifices 
of  the  Netherlands.  Some  of  the  most  celebrated  are 
St,  ApoUonia,  in  the  church  of  the  Augustines  at 
Antwerp;  Chritt  Disputing  with  the  Doctortj  in  that  of 
St.  Walburg  at  Fumes ;  The  Triumphal  Entry,  He 
died  at  Antwerp,  Oct,  18, 1678.  There  are  a  few  other 
etchings  by  him,  among  which  are  the  following :  The 
Flight  into  Kgypt ;  Christ  Driving  the  Traders  from  the 
Temple ;  The  Descent  from  the  Cross,  See  Hoefcr, 
Now,  Biog,  GdniraUj  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  Arttf  s.  v. 

Jordan  Valley.  We  extract  some  interest!  ng  par- 
ticulars  on  this,  the  one  great  rirer  of  the  Holy  Land, 
from  Lieuf.  Conder's  Tent  Work  in  Palestine  (ii,  85  sq.), 
which  summarizes  the  whole  information  in  a  clear  and 
compact  form.    (See  map  on  following  page.) 

"The  Jordan  Valley  is  not  onlv  the  most  remarkable 
feature  of  Palestine,  but  one  of  toe  most  curious  places 
in  the  world.  It  has  no  exact  counterpart  elsewhere,  and 
the  extraordinary  phenomenon  of  clouds  sweeping  as  a 
thick  mist  600  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  one  which 
few  European  eyes  have  seen,  but  which  we  witnessed  in 
the  early  storms  of  the  spring  of  1874. 

"  The  Jordan  rises  aB  a  ftill-grown  river,  issuio^  €rom 


the  cave  at  BaniAs,  about  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Iu  the  short  distance  of  twelve  miles  it 
falls  not  less  than  1000  feet,  passing  throneh  the  papyrus- 
marshes,  and  reachioff  the  Huleh  I^ke.  This  lake  is  four 
miles  long,  and  from  Its  southern  extremity  to  the  north 
end  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  is  ten  and  a  half  miles.  The 
second  lake  has  been  determined,  by  our  line  of  levels,  as 
683  feist  below  the  Mediterranean ;  thus  in  twenty-six  and 
A  half  miles  there  is  a  fall  of  1088  feet,  or  more  than  sixty 
feet  to  the  mile. 

"The  Sea  of  Galilee  is  twelve  and  a  half  miles  long, 
and  thence  the  Jordan  flows  sixty-flve  miles,  measuring 
in  a  straight  line  (the  bends  make  it  a  good  deal  more)  to 
the  DeadT  Sea,  129S  feet  below  the  Mediterranean.  The 
fall  in  this  distance  is,  however,  not  regular.  Above  the 
Jisr  Mujftmi'A  it  is  over  forty  feet  to  the  mile.  From  the 
south  end  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  DAmieh  ford  is  a 
distance  of  forty-two  milee,  and  a  fall  of  ouly  400  feet. 
From  the  Dilmieh  to  the  mouth  of  W:\dy  el  *Aujeh  is  thir- 
teen miles,  with  sixty  feet  fall,  and  thence  to  the  Dead 
Sea  is  ten  miles,  with  ninety  feet  of  fitll. 

"It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  total  direct 
length  of  Jordan  is  about  104  miles,  or  only  bairthe  length 
of  the  Thames:  that  the  fall  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee  is  over 
sixty  feet  to  the  mile ;  thence  to  the  DAmieh.  at  first  forty 
feet,  afterwards  not  quite  eleven  feet  per  mile ;  from  the 
DAmieh  to  the  'Anjeh  not  much  over  four  and  a  half  feet 
to  the  mile :  and  for  the  last  ten  miles,  about  nine  feet 
per  mile.  The  break  down  of  the  immense  chasm  may 
thus  be  said  to  commence  immediately  north  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee. 

"The  valley  may  be  divided  into  eight  sections.  First, 
the  portion  between  Bantas  and  the  Huleh,  where  It  is 
some  five  miles  broad,  with  steep  cliffe  some  8000  feet  high 
ou  either  side  and  a  broad  marsh  between.  Secondly, 
from  the  Huleh  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  where  the  stream 
runs  close  to  the  eastern  hills,  and  about  four  miles  from 
the  base  of  those  on  the  west,  which  rise  towards  the 
high  Safed  mountains,  more  than  8800  feet  above  the  lake. 
Thirdly,  for  thirteen  miles  from  the  south  end  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  to  the  neighborhood  of  BeisAn,  the  valley  is 
only  one  and  a  half  miles  broad  west  of  the  river,  and 
about  three  on  the  east,  the  steep  cliffs  of  the  plateau  of 
Kaukab  el-Hawa  on  the  west  reaching  an  altitude  of  1600 
feet  above  the  stream. 

"  South  of  BeisAn  is  the  fourth  district,  with  a  plain 
west  of  Jordan,  twelve  miles  long  and  six  miles  broad, 
the  lino  of  hills  on  the  east  being  straight,  and  the  foot 
of  the  mountain  on  this  side  about  two  miles  from  the 
river.  lb  the  neighborhood  of  BeisAn  the  cross  section 
of  the  plain  shows  three  levels:  that  of  the  shelf  ou  which 
BeisAn  stands,  about  800  feet  below  sea-level ;  that  of  the 
GhOr  itself,  some  400  feet  lower,  reached  by  an  almost  pre- 
cipitoua  descent :  and  that  of  the  Zor,  6r  narrow  trench, 
from  -half  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  and  about  IBO  feet 
lower  still.  The  higher  shelf  extends  westward  to  the 
foot  of  Gilboa:  it  dies  away  on  the  south,  but  on  the 
north  it  gradually  rises  into  the  plateau  of  Kaukab  and 
to  the  western  table-land  above  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  1800 
feet  above  Jordan. 

"After  leaving  the  BeisAn  plain  the  river  passes  through 
a  narrow  valley  twelve  miles  long  and  two  to  three  miles 
wide,  with  a  raised  table-land  to  the  west,  having  a  level 
averaging  about  600  feet  above  the  sea.  The  BeisAn  plain 
is  fhll  of  springs  of  fresh  water,  some  of  which  are  thermal, 
but  a  large  current  of  salt  warm  water  fiows  down  WAdy 
MAleh,  at  the  north  extremity  of  this  fifth  district. 

"  In  the  sixth  district,  the  DAmieh  region,  the  valley 
again  opens  to  a  width  of  about  three  miles  on  the  west, 
and  five  on  the  east  of  Jordan.  The  great  block  of  the 
Kurn  SQrtfibeh  here  stands  out  like  a  bastion,  on  the 
west,  8400  feet  above  the  river.  Passing  this  monntalu 
the  seventh  district  is  entered— a  broad  valley  extending 
from  near  FusAil  to  *Osh  el-GhttrAb,  north  of  Jericho.  In 
Uils  region  the  GhAr  itself  is  five  miles  broad  west  of  the 
river,  and  rather  more  on  the  east ;  the  lower  trench,  or 
ZoTf  fs  also  wider  here,  and  more  distinctly  separated 
fh>m  the  Qh6r.  A  curious  geographical  feature  of  this 
region  was  also  discovered  by  the  survey  party.  The 
great  affluents  of  the  FAr*ah  and  'AiUeh  do  not  fiow 
straight  to  Jordan,  but  turn  south  about  a  mile  west  of 
it,  and  each  runs,  for  about  six  miles,  nearly  parallel  with 
the  river ;  thus  the  mouth  of  the  FAr'ah  is  actually  to  be 
found  Juf>t  where  that  of  the  next  valley  is  shown  on  most 
maps.  This  curious  feature  was  not  discovered  even  by 
Captain  Warren,  and  nothing  more  surprised  me,  in  sur< 
veying  the  district,  than  the  unsuspected  parallel  courfo 
of  the  streams.  The  whole  of  the  valley  in  the  seventh 
region  is  full  of  salt  springs  and  salt  marshes,  but  the 
Far'ah,  flowing  from  the  2Bnon  springs,  is  a  perennial 
stream  of  f^h  water. 

"The  eighth  and  last  district  Is  that  of  the  plain  of 
Jericho,  which,  with  the  corresponding  basin  (OhOr-es- 
SeisebAn)  east  of  Jordan,  measures  over  eight  miles  north 
and  south,  and  more  than  fourteen  across,  with  Jordan 
about  in  the  middle.  The  Zor  is  here  about  a  mile  wide, 
and  some  ^)0  feet  below  the  broad  plain  of  the  GhAr." 

Jormungand,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  Mid- 
gard- snake,  the  daughter  of  Loke  and  the  giantess 


616  JOSEPH 


Hnp  oT  Ibc  Joidiin  Pb 


Anj^rbode,  iln  the  nsler  of  (he  wa  t  Ffniu  and  the 
b  0  KeU.  The  godi  threw  Jotmungaml  to  the 
ncfut,  when  iho  grt\r  ao  u  bi  encirele  tha  earth. 
^Vhcn  ahe  (1rink\  there  ia  low  tiile^  urbcn  ahe  girea 
Luck  the  water  a^aiii,  it  is  high  tide.  Thus  ahe  will 
lire  until  Kagnarokr  (irorlil'a  end)  Goinea.  Thor  wiU 
Ihen  Omj  bcr  with  hia  miulner,  or  hammer,  but  will 
himaelf  be  drowned  in  the  poiaoooua  aticama  iaauing 
from  bet  mouth. 

Jose  BKuXFtALKFTA  (sumamed  the  tiMer),  a  Jew- 
iih  rabbi,  waa  born  at  Sepphoria,  in  Palestine,  about  the 
vear  BO  A,D.  Inrolred  ill  the  poliiicsl  acbemea  of 
rabbi  Akiba  (q.  v.),  he  waa  obliged,  in  the  year  124,  to 
uce  biniKir  from  the  lionian  aword  by  fleeing  lo  Asia 
Minor,  from  whence,  on  the  de«th  of  the  emperor 
Hadrian,  in  IS6,  be  retunxed  lo  Sepphoria,  and  died  as 
(he  head  of  a  acbool  in  that  place,  in  150.  Joae'a  life  ia 
•aid  to  have  been  an  edifying  example  uf  man]  con- 
duct, diligence  in  acquiring  and  communioiting  knowU 
tdge,andiui  amiable  modesty  and  humility,  "t  would 
rather,"  said  he,"beHleanieiiDaMhoalthan  be  ronnder 
of  the  achooL  I  would  rather,  in  the  fulfilmtnl  of  my 
duty,  die  a  bitter  death,  than  be  iiifamous  in  the  too 
well  beaten  way.    1  would  rather  orenlo  my  duty  than 


fa  t  n  1  would  rather  coUeel  for  the  poor  ll 
du  nbu  np  among  them,  gain  caasideratioii  for  mys«I£ 
I  would  rather  be  nnjuaily  blamed,  than  really  do  what 
is  wrung."  Jose  is  the  author  of  a  historical  work, 
which  has  been  preaerred,  and  is  pnsseaaed  of  lasline 
interest,  Ihe  Sedtr  Olum  (q.  v.).  See  Hamburger,  Rmt. 
£i«yll^,p.  ii.  4S3  sq. ;  IWher,  Die  Agada  ier  TaamlBt 
(Sirasburc,  ltl34),  pp.  20,  87,  99, 110, 139,  MT,  2S3,  34!, 
346, 247, -284,  SOa,  387, 381, 422,  *38 ;  FUnt,  £21.  JmI  U, 
lOJaq.     (D.P.) 

Joaenhaiu,  JonAn^nis,  a  Protestant  tbeologiaii, 
for  aome  time  inspector  of  the  Baale  Hianontry  IsMa- 
tute,  who  died  Dec  S&,  1884,  is  the  author  of,  Dii  Btrr- 
iKhtrit  Jati  Ciritii  da  Seima  Goim  (StatXgMit,liK) : 
—BOJtT  aiadrr  Uimnardt  (Baale,  1B58}  -.^A  iLu  At 
etmgtliKkea  MUtiimtgrfOickq/)  la  Bairl  (2d  ed.  iUd. 
1859).    See  Zucbold,  BM.  TlitoL  i,  628.    (a  P.) 

JtMBph  BBS-JaaKOA  im-Mfir  (anmaiiied  Bo- 
Sfjanli,  i.  c.  "the  Spaniard'),  wa*  bom  in  1496  at 
Avignon,  whilhei  hia  father  had  retired  on  leanng 
Spain.  He  ia  the  autbra  of  a  hiatoiical  work,  entitled 
C't^n  ^^3n,  Cinmida  e/  He  Kiigi  of  Fnma  md 
lit  UHomoK  SoMnigu,  in  two  paito,  the  fint  fnim  the 


JOSEPHINISM  6: 

erutiDD  lill  I&iO,  ind  the  aecond  of  trtnuetion*  fiom 
thit  lime  till  1&63  (Venice,  15Mt  AmatenlKiTi,  17S3). 
DiuaUreued,  anil  coiitcrnponiy  with  Ihoee  evenu,  he 
muM  be  recanled  u  in  impiTtiil  hiitoriin.  Thii  work 
hu  lieen  tran^ted  in  put  into  Ijuin  by  Lauii  Femnd, 
SyHeptii  tin  Cauptdiu  Libri  Jlrbraid,  etc  (Firi*, 
iH70),  An  Engliah  inntlttiaD  of  the  whole,  by  C.  H. 
Biiliobloliky,  hu  mide  thii  iatemting  work  iccwible 
to  English  reiden,  The  Chronkla  of  R.  Jotrpk  Un- 
Jatluia  Har,  lit  SfpHanS  (Lond.  1830,  2  vols.).  Sec 
f\iia,  BibLJad.u,U6;  T.l\itn<igt,  Iiilrod.  U>  Htbr.  lit. 
f-tba-,  Uaio,HitUrt"ftluJnc4p/ Spain  and  Pajivgal, 
p.4fil;  lai^CadtickUdMj»di«lkuiHt,\ii,i^.  (EP.) 
Joaapblnlain.  Undei  tbU  lerm  we  genenll;  un- 
dcntand  Iboae  elclesiMlieil  reforms  which  wfre  intro- 
duced by  JoMph  II,  tieiman  emperor  Trom  1780  to  1790. 
It  wu  Juaeph'i  object  to  form  *  nulioaat  Auilriitii 
Cji«ral,coDgnieDC  with  the  territory  of  the  >l»te,do«e- 
ly  connected  with  the  sunnily  cenlnlized  Mcular 
gOTemment,  and  u  fir  u  possible  indepenilent  of  Home. 
Aa.  on  miny  pmnls  ilong  the  bnundirins  Auatrian  da- 
minion*  nnged  under  the  luthority  of  foreigii  bishops, 
>  new  ciicumsciiplion  of  ibe  dioceees  wu  neceuir]', 
ind  it  w«9  carried  out  with  little  ceremony.  A  new 
oath  of  tubjection  to  the  temporal  ruler  wu  demanded 
of  the  bishops.  All  imperil!  decrees  were  sent  to  the 
bithops,ind  again  by  them  to  the  piBtars,who  had  to 
make  them  known  to  their  flocka  from  the  pulpit.  On 
the  other  hand,  no  pipol  bulls  or  briefs  cfluld  be  pub- 
lished in  the  country  without  an  imperial  "placet." 
Omnected  with  this  morement  wu  the  educaliim  of 
Iht  cltrgj/.  The  Ibeologrcil  stadenti  were  Ibrbidden  to 
visit  the  "Collegium  German ico-Uungari cum"  in  Rome, 
which  inUitute  wu  replaced  by  the  "Collegium  Ger- 
manicum  et  Hungaricum"at  Pavii.  The  philotogicnl 
ind  theological  achoula  in  the  monuleries  were  cloaed, 
and  diocesan  •eminiries  were  opened  under  Itie  super- 
intendence of  an  imperial  committee.  For  i  he  divne 
Mrncei  the  use  of  the  German  language  wu  prescribed, 
and  the  Latin  wu  abolished.  Pllgrimagea  outdde  of 
the  country  were  forbidden.  Rules  were  given  in  re- 
ipect  Id  the  luiurioui  omimentalion  of  the  charches, 
the  magnificent  proceuiani,  the  biilliiut  illumi  oat  ions. 
AU  rdigioai  ordtri  not  engiged  in  preachiug,  teaching, 
or  nnreiDg  the  nek,  were  dissolred.  Between  177D  and 
1786  the  number  of  monasteries  unk  from  3136  to  1435, 
and  that  of  miHiks  and  nuns  from  64,890  to  14,!iS0.  On 
Oct.  13, 1781,  an  tdid  ofrfUgioai  loUrolioH  wu  promul- 
gated, according  to  which  the  Evsngelicals  of  the  Anga- 
burg  and  Helvetic  confessions  obtained  a  limited  free- 
dom of  worship.  Cicil  disqualifications  arimng  from 
dummiaalional  differences  were  abolished.  Even  the 
position  of  the  Jews  wu  improved.  Previous  to  that 
eilict  of  toleration,  on  May  4,  an  imperial  decree  had 
enacted  that  the  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope,  and  the 
"Professio  fldei  Tridentin.),"  usual  at  the  distribution 
of  degrees,  vere  abrogatcfl,  and  that  the  bulls  "In  cmiia 


Domi 


"Unig. 


books  of  the  liturKy.  The  Roman  curia  became,  of 
course,  greuly  abinnei!  at  these  proceedings,  and  in  Jan- 
uarj",  1783,  pope  Pius  VI  went  in  person  to  Vienna.  He 
wu  politely  received  without  effecting  my  change,  and 
the  more  so  since  the  emperor  had  the  support  of  the 
moat  influential  prelates  of  Austro-Hungiria.  Joseph, 
however,  died  Feb.  30, 1790,  and  his  cirly  death  pre- 
vented his  reforms  from  taking  root.  During  bit  itn- 
mediale  aocceiaori  the  old  order  wu  again  revived.  See 
his  biographies  by  GeiNler  (Halle,  1783,  l&vola.):  Hen- 
ael  (Leipric,  IT90)  ;  Fenl  O'i™"'.  »>J-)  i  Huber  (ibid. 
1793);  Heyne  (LeipeiclS18.3  vols.);  Raraahom  (ibid. 
1861);  Heynert  (Vienna,  1863);  Riehl  irnd  Reintihl, 
Kaittr  Jauf  II  all  H'form.  an/ larchlich.  Cfbiett  (ibid. 
1 881)1  Frank,  Da$  Tulrrafo-ralmt  KaUfr  Jmfi  II 
(ibid.  1882);  Schmidt,  Knmr  ^ow/// (Berlin,  1876) ; 
Leistner,  Kaiter  Joirfi  II  unverfftttliche  Gedanten, 
.iMfprwAe  md  BttHrbmgni  (Vienna,  1878);  Beer, 
/o*^ // (in  Ibe  A»ai  PJafarct ,  Leipaic,  1842,  roL  ix) ; 


1  JOSHUA'S  TOMB 

alao  Rinke,  Die  druUcheH  SfSchle  vnd  dtr  Fiirittnlnaid 
(Leipsie,  3871,  vol,  i);  Plitt-Henog,  Rial-EneyUitp, 
a.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  Kirydop.dn  Sdttioti  Rrtigieuni, 
a.  T.  Joitpi  II.    (B,  P.) 

Toaepliltaa  is  the  tiame  of  a  congregation  of  mi»- 
vonary  priests  of  Sl.Jaseph,organizedal  Lyons  in  1656, 
by  a  ceniin  Crelenet,  a  native  of  Champiitte,  in  Bur- 
gundy, and  a  surgeon  by  profession,  who  cousecraled 
himself  to  the  aeniee  at  the  hoapilil  in  Lyons.    The 

the  country.and  then  to  engage  in  charilabla  works  in 
the  different  collegea. 

There  exisa  also  an  organi- 
zation of  females,  known  u 
"  Siaten  of  St.  Joseph,"  which 
wat  iiutituted  by  the  bishop  of 
Puy  in  16&0.  l-hesa  aisteni, 
beaidea  doing  charitable  works, 
have  to  care  for  the  bospiula, 
govern  the  houses  of  refuge, 
and  are  charged  with  the  tn- 
struclion  of  orphans  and  little 
children  in  i)ie  schools,  and 
with  visiting  the  sick.  Their 
vows  are  very  simple,  and  they 
can  aiwaya  be  relieved  from 
them  by  the  bishop  in  whose 
iher  live.    See  Hely 


llut.A 


Ordi-a 


186  sq, ;   Lichlenberger,  Enty-  | 

dap.  ia   Sdenea  RiligitiiKt,     Sister  of  St.  Joeeph. 

a.v.    (RP.) 

Jtueph'B  Tomb  {Kabr  Yiff)  ia  briefly  described 
in  the  Mtjaoiri  accompanying  the  Oidnancc  Survey 
(ii,  194),  snd  more  popularly  iu  Lieut,  Conder's  ToK 
ironl;(ii,7t)aa  follows: 

"About  Bli  hundred  711  rda  north  of  the  we]]  [nF  Jacob] 
Is  the  inidltlimBl  Inmb  of  Joeeiih,  venemied  b^  the  1 


onllT  iu  Pale 


The 


build  Ins  stands  eul 

■lid  roolle**,  the  walla  wbltewnahed  au^  in  ei»jd  lepnlr. 
fjr.uanlnecrlpllononlhesoBthwall.luBuEnsh.lnfonnx 
the  visitor.  It  waa  rebuilt  hj  eonanl  Roger*,  Ibe  friend  of 

•nil  HI,  ihA  north  Is  another  hnlldlDK  nf  equal  riie,  bnt 
'lly  ruinous,  snrmonnted  bj  n  little  dome, 
,. 1.1 •  of  llie  Moslem  cenotaphs 


The  tomb  lIK 


Itself  regembles 
'     '    with  SI 


suited  TV 


n  feet  long  a 


-      '  iced  ntkew 


which  tb 


t,  book  in 


iR  backwards  and  fiirwatda  11  ._ 

Iiant^a  prayer,  no  dunbt,  npproprlale  to  the  place. 
"The  moBi  carious  point  to  notice  Is,  however,  the  ei- 
iteuce  of  iwn  short  plllarr,  one  at  the  hud,  and  the  niber 
t  lbs  font  of  the  tomb,  having  shallow  ciip->boped  Iml- 
iwa  af  their  lops.  These  hullowi  are  blackened  by  Are, 
■I  ihe  Jews  bsvo  the  ciii<tom  of  bomliif-  ssctlAces  on 
lem,  small  irilclef,  tncb  nt  bandkerchlafe,  E"ld  lace,  or 
liawlf.  being  cnusamed.  Whether  Ibia  practice  Is  also 
bserved  bf  the  Samirluns  is  doobtlhl. 

ipproilmatelj  no 


lohammedans 


iploln  tl 


Lord  Jneeiib,'  1  have  never  hi 
held  ID  be  ontv  eetabllrhed  slni 
The  venersllon  In  which  the  1 
lem  jMaaontiy  Is,  at  all  event 

Joshua's  Tomb.    lieu 

tradiliona  on  the  subject  u  fo 

"The  •  Holy  KInB  Jn»l 
hnve  been  bnrled  al  Kef 
Tlmoath  Hares,     This  1 


I  nine  miles  south  nt  Na- 


nentlona  the  tomba  of  Joshnn.  NOn,  and  Caleb.  The  8q- 
narllons  alio  bold  that  Cnleb  wna  bnrled  wilh  Joshtis. 
nd  thus  we  have  Ihe  carious  result  that  Jews  and  Sa- 
irltans  ngrea  aa  to  (be  site  nt  these  tombs,  both  placing 


fsir 


le  alls  for  Joabna'a  tomb,aiMl  tb 


JOTES 


618      JUD^O- ARABIC  VERSION 


place  Is  marked  on  (he  map  of  Marino  Sunato  (A.D.  ISS^ 
lu  tlie  relative  positiuu  of  Kofr  HAria. 

*'  The  modern  Tillage  hna  three  sacred  places :  one  of 
Kebv  NQn,  the  second  Neby  Lash'a,  the  third  Neby  Kifl. 
In  tne  first  two  we  reco^rulse  Nnu  and  Joshua;  Neby 
Klfl  was  a  hIstoi:ic  character,  bat  his  shrine  possibly  oc- 
cnples  the  place  of  the  medlsTal  tomb  of  Caleo. 

"  The  site  of  Joshna's  tomb  seems  therefore  to  be  pre- 
served by  an  indigenous  trndilion  at  least  as  authentic 
as  that  of  Joseph's  tomb.  It  has  been  supposed  that  Je- 
rome indicates  a  diflfcrcnt  site,  but  a  careful  reading  of 
his  account  of  St  Paii1a*s  Jonrney  seems  to  show  that  he 
also  refers  to  the  tombs  at  KeAr  HAris.'* 

For  another  traditional  site  of  Joshua's  tomb  see 

Tisinath-Herbs. 

Jotea,  in  Norae  mythology.  These  forms  of  Scan- 
dinavian deities  seem  to  have  a  historic  background. 
They  were  probably  the  aborigines  of  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope, who  were  driven  from  their  possessions  by  the 
companions  of  Odin;  hence  the  undying  enmity  be- 
tween the  Jotes  and  the  Asas.  Fable  makes  the  Jotes 
to  be  monstrous  giants  and  magicians,  living  in  dark 
caves  and  grottos.  They  and  the  Thnsses  seem  to  have 
been  derived  from  one  family. 

Jou&oi  (Lat.  Joffredus),  Jean  db,  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  born  at  Luxueil  (Franche-Comt^)  about  1412. 
He  studied  at  Dol,  Cologne,  and  Pavia,  and  taught 
three  years  in  the  last-named  place.  He  assisted  at 
the  Council  of  Ferrara  in  1438,  and  was  engaged  in  sev- 
eral important  religious  and  diplomatic  missions.  In 
1430  he  became  bishop  of  Arras,  and  in  1461  cardinal. 
He  died  Nov.  24, 1473.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Gin^ 
rale,  s.  v. 

Jouffroy,  Franqois  Gaspard  dr,  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  born  in  1723  at  the  castle  of  Gonsans,  near 
Besanfon.  He  became  canon  of  St.  Claude,  then  bish- 
op of  Gap  in  1774,  and  of  Mans  in  1778.  Being  elected 
a  deputy  of  the  states  -  general  in  1789,  he  protested 
against  the  decrees  of  the  assembly,  and  went  into  ex- 
ile in  1792.  He  was  received  by  the  chapter  of  Pader- 
bom  (Westphalia),  and  given  a  revenue  of  six  thousand 
two  hundred  florins.  He  died  there  in  1797.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Bioff,  Genh'ale,  a.  v. 

Joulonka,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Antilles  na- 
tions, is  the  monstrous  spirit  whose  feathered  head  may 
be  seen  in  the  rainbow.     See  Juluka. 

Jouveuet,  Jkan,  an  eminent  French  painter,  was 
bom  at  Rouen,  Aug.  21, 1G47.  At  the  age  of  seventeen 
he  went  to  Paris  and  studied  with  Nicholas  Poussin, 
and  at  twentj'-seven  produced  his  celebrated  picture  of 
Ckrut  Curing  the  Paralytic,  in  the  Church  of  Notre 
Dame.  Soon  after  he  painted,  in  the  Hospital  of  the 
Invalides,  between  the  windows  of  the  dome.  The  Twelve 
Apostles,  with  A  ngels.  In  1665  he  was  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academj",  and  painted  for  his  reception  the 
picture  of  Queen  Esther  before  Ahasuerus — one.  of  the 
finest  works  in  the  halls  of  the  Academ}'.  About  this 
time  he  executed  four  pictures  for  the  Church  of  St. 
Martin  aux  Champs,  representing  Mary  Magdalene  at 
the  Feet  of  our  Saviour ^  in  the  House  of  Simon  the  Phar- 
isee; Christ  Driving  the  Money-changers  from  the  Tem- 
ple; The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes;  The  Raising 
of  Lazarus,  His  most  famous  work  is  the  Deposition 
from  the  Cross,  painted  for  the  Church  of  the  Capu- 
chins, at  Paris,  where  he  died,  April  5, 1717.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Jowett,  Joseph,  LL.D.,  a  learned  English  clergy- 
man, was  bom  about  1750 ;  admitted  in  1769  to  Trinity 
College;  in  1773  removed  to  Trinity  Hall,  where  he 
became  assistant  tutor,  then  fellow  and  principal  tutor, 
and  afterwards  regius  professor  of  the  civil  law,  which 
oflSce  he  retained  till  his  death,  Nov.  13, 1818.  In  ad- 
dition to  his  professorship  he  held  the  living  of  Weth- 
enfield,  in  Essex.  Dr.  Jowett  was  a  scholarly  man,  a 
humble  Christian,  and  a  devoted  friend  of  the  Bible 
Society  and  kindred  associations.  See  (Lond.)  Chris- 
Han  Observer,  Dec  1813,  p.  820. 


Jowett,  'WilUam,  a  Church  of  England  divinc^, 
was  bora  in  1789.  He  graduated  at  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1810,  and  was  the  first  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England  who  volunteered,  in  1813,  for  the 
foreign  service  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society.  His 
field  of  labor  was  in  the  countries  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  fruits  of  hb  observations  were,  Christian  Re^ 
searches  in  the  Mediterranean  from  1815  to  1820,  and 
Christian  lUsearches  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land  in 
1823  and  1824.  He  was  also  the  author  of,  Time  and 
Temper:  a  Manual  of  Selections  ftvm  Holy  Scripture ^ 
with  ThoughU  on  Education  (4th  ed.  1852)  x— Helps  to 
Pastoral  Visitations  (2d  ed.  1848, 8  parts).  From  1832 
to  1840  he  acted  as  clerical  secretary  to  the  Church 
Missionary  Society;  for  many  years  held  the  Sunday 
evening  lectureship  of  St.  Mary*s,  Aldcrmanbury ;  and 
in  1851  succeeded  the  Hev.  K.  Bickersteth  as  St.  John's 
chaplain.  He  died  at  Clapham,  Surrey,  Feb.  20, 1865. 
See  Hardwicke,  Annual  Biography,  1856,  p.  208. 

Joy  of  the  La^  Festival  of  the,  is  a  name 
given  to  the  ninth  day  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
among  the  modem  Jews.  On  that  day  three  MSS.  of 
the  Pentateuch  are  laid  upon  the  desk,  and  three  por- 
tions are  read  by  three  different  persons,  one  portion 
from  each  MS.,  the  first  closing  with  the  end  of  Deute- 
ronomy. Another  immediately  begins  with  the  first 
of  Genesis,  to  indicate  that  man  should  be  continually 
employed  in  reading  and  studying  the  word  of  God. 

Joyoe,  Thomas,  a  Dominican,  proceeded  D.D.  in 
Oxford,  and,  living  there,  became  provincial  of  liis  or- 
der both  in  England  and  Wales.  From  this  place,  with- 
out ever  having  any  other  preferment,  pope  (dement 
V  created  him  cardinal  of  St.  Sabine — a  contradiction, 
aa  some  call  attention,  between  the  friar*s  profession  and 
practice.  He  had  six  brethren,  all  Dominicans,  and 
Fuller,  refusing  to  liken  them  to  the  seven  sons  of  Sceva 
(Acts  xix,  14),  all  exorcists,  terms  them  ^  a  week  of 
brethren,  whereof  this  mbricated  cardinal  was  the  do- 
minical letter."  Thomas  flourished  in  1310,  and  was 
buried  in  his  convent  at  Oxford.  See  Fuller,  Worthies 
of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  12. 

Juanea,  Juan  BAPTiSTA,an  eminent  Spanish  paint* 
er,  was  bora  at  Valencia  in  1528,  and  studied  at  Rome, 
but  afterwards  settled  at  Valencia.    He  is  ranked  br 

• 

the  Spanish  writers  as  one  of  the  greatest  artists  of 
the  glorious  age  of  |>ope  Leo  X.  Pacheco  bcfstows 
upon  him  the  highest  encomiums,  and  Palomino  Ve- 
lasco  does  not  hesitate  to  prefer  him  to  Morales,  or  even 
to  Raphael  himself.  Juanes  limited  himself  to  sub- 
jects of  sacred  history,  and  his  works  are  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  churehes  and  convents  of  his  native  city. 
There  is  a  fine  picture  by  him,  representing  The  Bap- 
tism  of  Christ,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Valencia.  There 
are  three  others,  representing  The  Nativity ;  The  Mar- 
tyrdom  of  St,  Inez;  The  Burial  of  a  Monk,  Another 
fine  picture  is  a  Dead  Christ,  in  the  Ghureh  of  San  Pe- 
dro. He  died  in  1579.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the 
Fine  A  lis,  8,  v. 

Jubilation,  Gift  of,  a  privilege  alleged  by  thenr- 
gic  mysticism  to  be  granted  to  eminent  Romish  saints, 
by  which  they  are  enabled  in  their  last  moments  to 
sing  a  triumphant  death-song. 

Jabin  (or  Q«buin),  Saint,  a  French  prelate,  was 
the  son  of  Hugues  III,  count  of  Dijon.  Having  entered 
the  ministry,  he  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  the  Church 
of  Langres.  In  1077  he  attended  the  provincial  Coun- 
cil of  Lyons  at  Autun,  became  arehbishop  of  Lyons,  and 
died  there,  April  18, 1082.  He  is  invoked  in  cases  of 
gout  and  the  stone,  with  which  he  had  himself  been  af- 
flicted during  his  life.  There  are  extant  of  Jubin  six 
letters  treating  of  the  primacy  to  his  see,  printed  by 
Descordes,  Dom  liran,  Baluze,  etc.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Gensrale,  s.  v. 

Judceo-Arabio  Veraioii  of  the  Schiptursb. 
This  is  not  properly  a  version,  but  Arabic  in  Hebrew 


JUD^aOERMAN  VERSION     619 


JUMALA 


characten.  As  early  aa  1820  the  printing  of  an  edition 
of  the  Arabic  New  Test,  in  Hebrew  characters  was  sug- 
gested to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Noth- 
ing, however,  was  done  for  the  many  thousand  Jews  in 
Egypt,  Tunis,  and  the  whole  north  of  Africa,  Yemen, 
Syria,  and  Mesopotamia  (to  whom  the  Arabic  is  ver- 
nacular, but  who  seldom  read  or  write  except  in  He- 
brew characters),  until  1846,  when  the  Bombay  Auxili- 
ary' Bible  Society  commenced  for  their  use  an  edition 
of  the  gospels  of  Matthew  and  John,  with  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  and  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Wilson  of  Bombay. 
The  work  was  published  in  1847,  and  has  ever  since 
been  circulated.     (B.  P.) 

Judaeo- German  Version  op  tiik  ScuirruRica. 
Like  the  above,  this  is  the  German  New  Test,  in  rab- 
binical characters.  The  first  edition  of  this  testament 
was  printed  at  Cracow  in  1540 ;  the  work  was  executed 
by  John  Herzuge,  a  converted  Jew,  on  the  basis  of  Lu- 
ther's version;  but  the  book  of  Revelation  is  omitted. 
In  1820  the  London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity 
among  the  Jews  undertook  to  furnish  the  German  Jews 
with  copies  of  the  German  Scriptures  in  rabbinical  char- 
acters. The  society's  first  edition  appeared  in  1820; 
the  German  text  was  from  Lnther's  version,  published 
by  Meyer  at  Frankfort  in  1819,  and  the  transcription 
into  rabbinical  characters  was  made  by  Mr.  Judah 
D'AlIcmand  of  London.  In  1859  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  published  the  Judao-German  Old 
Test.,  under  the  care  of  Rev.  R.  Konig,  and  in  1869  the 
book  of  Psalms,  carefully  revised  by  Rev.  W.  Edwards 
of  Breslau,  was  printed  at  Vienna.     (B.  P.) 

Judaeo-Perelan  Verelon  op  the  Scriptures. 
This  is  the  Persian  New  Test,  in  Hebrew  characters, 
arid  designed  for  the  Jews  in  Persia.  When,  in  1841, 
Dr.  Hfiberlin  applied  to  some  Christian  friends  for  aid 
in  imparting  the  Scriptures  to  the  Persian  Jews,  he  re- 
ceived in  reply  from  Herat  a  copy  of  Martyn's  Per- 
sian New  Test,  written  in  Hebrew  characters,  under 
the  care  of  Dr.  Login.  Dr.  Haberlin  laid  the  version 
before  the  Calcutta  committee,  and  they  agreed  to  re- 
fer the  matter  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
The  latter  requested  the  Calcutta  Society  to  print  an 
edition  of  two  thousand  New  Teats,  in  this  form,  and 
arrangements  were  made  to  have  the  edition  printed  at 
Calcutta,  under  the  eye  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Yates.  The  death 
of  the  latter  rendered  this  plan  abortive,  and  after  the 
Bombay  Society  had  transmitted  to  London  manuscript 
copies  of  the  Judaeo- Persian  gospels,  an  edition  of  one 
thousand  copies  was  completed  at  London  in  1849,  un- 
der the  superintendence  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Wilson  of  Bom- 
bay.   These  are  all  the  printed  parts  extant.     (B.  P.) 

Jndaso-Polish  Version  op  the  Scriptures. 
See  Russia,  Versions  op  (20). 

Jndaeo-Spaniflh  Version  op  the  Scriptures. 
The  Jud»o-Spanish  is  spoken  by  the  Jews  of  Turkey, 
who  are  descendants  of  the  Jews  formerly  settled  in  the 
Spanish  Peninsula,  but  forcibly  ejected  from  Spain  in 
1492,  and  from  Portugal  in  1497,  by  the  merciless  man- 
date of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  As  to  the  versions  of 
the  Old  Test.,  compare  the  art.  Romanic  Versions. 
A  translation  of  the  New  Test,  into  JudsDo-Spanish  was 
undertaken  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Pinkerton,  and,  in  1823,  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Leeves,  their  agent  in  Turkey,  undertook  the 
translation  which  was  printed  in  1829  at  Corfu.  It  was 
afterwards  revised,  and  reprinted  at  Athens  in  1844. 
In  1874  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  under- 
took a  careful  revision  of  the  New  Test.,  with  the  as- 
aiatanoe  of  the  Rev.  J.  Christie  of  the  Scottish  Mission- 
ary Society.  This  new  edition  was  printed  at  Constan- 
tinople in  1877,  and  is  now  in  circulation.  The  Old 
Test,  in  Judam-Spanish,  with  Hebrew  in  parallel  col- 
umns, has  also  been  published  by  the  American  Bible 
Society,     (a  P.) 

Judd,  BbthbL)  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episcopal  minis- 


ter, was  bom  at  Wateitown,  Conn.,  in  the  spring  of  1776. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1797,  and  immedi- 
ately entered  upon  his  preparation  for  the  ministry; 
was  ordained  deacon  in  1798,  and  his  ministerial  life 
covered  sixty  years  of  activity.  At  different  |)eriods  he 
was  engaged  in  the  dioceses  of  Connecticut,  New  York, 
Western  New  York,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  and 
Florida,  and  was  one  of  the  early  presidents  of  St.  John's 
College,  Annapolis,  as  well  as  rector  of  the  Church  in 
that  city.  Among  the  missionary'  stations  was  that  of 
St.  Augustine,  Fla.  During  fifteen  years  lie  was  rector 
of  St.  James's  Church,  New  London,  Conn.,  a  charge 
which  he  resigned  on  being  appointed  president  of  the 
Episcopal  Academy,  Cheshire.  lie  died  at  Wilming- 
ton, DeL,  April  8, 1858.  He  was  a  ripe  scholar,  and  an 
earnest  and  effective  preacher.  See  A  mer.  Quar,  Church 
i^er.  1858,p.d42. 

Judea.    See  JudjKA. 

Juel  was  the  most  noted  festival  of  the  Scandinavian 
worship,  which  was  celebrated  in  the  longest  night  as 
a  new  yeor's  celebration.  Sacrifices  and  vows  were 
made  to  the  gods  for  fruitfulncss  for  the  coming  year. 
In  honor  of  the  god  Freir  a  huge  boar  was  butchered, 
and  the  sacrifice,  called  the  Jula-pig  or  Julablot,  was 
made  in  the  presence  of  the  king.  A  golden  boar  was 
brought  into  the  hall,  all  laid  their  hands  on  it  and 
made  the  most  binding  vows.  Then  four  weeks  of 
eating,  drinking,  dancing,  and  playing  followed.  The 
name  YuU  for  Christmas  is  thought  to  have  thus  orig- 
inated. 

Jng.    See  Joga. 

Juhlea,  a  name  given  to  aerial  spirits  or  demons 
among  the  Laplanders,  from  whom  they  receive  a  sort 
of  adoration,  though  no  statues  or  images  of  them  exist. 
Their  worship  is  conducted  under  particular  trees.  On 
Christmas-eve,  and  the  day  following,  they  celebrate 
the  festival  of  the  Juhles.  On  this  occasion  th^  rig- 
idly abstain  from  animal  food;  and  they  carefully  re- 
serve some  fragments  of  the  food  employed,  which  they 
suspend  in  a  box  behind  the  house,  for  the  refreshment 
of  the  spirits. 

Jnign6,  Antoine  ^l^norr  UUyst,  Ledere  de^  a 
French  prelate  of  high  family,  was  bom  at  Paris  in 
1728.  He  studied  in  his  native  city,  became  bishop  of 
Chalons  in  1764,  and  during  the  French  revolution  took 
refuge  at  Chambery,  afterwards  at  Constance,  and  final- 
ly at  Augsburg.  In  1802  he  returned  to  France,  but 
lived  privately  in  Paris  till  his  death,  March  19, 1811. 
He  left  some  ecclesiastical  works,  for  which  see  Hoefcr, 
A^our.  Bioff,  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Julien,  Simon  (called  Julian  of  Parma),  an  emi- 
nent French  painter,  was  bom  at  Toulon  in  1736,  stud- 
ied under  Bardoa  at  Marseilles,  and  afterwards  visited 
Paris,  where  he  became  a  pupU  of  Carlo  Vanloo,  and 
gained  the  grand  prize  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He 
then  visited  Rome  with  the  royal  pension,  and  remained 
in  that  city  ten  years.  On  returning  to  Paris  he  soon 
gained  a  reputation,  and  was  elected  an  academician. 
Among  his  best  performances  is  an  altar-piece  for  the 
chapel  of  the  archbishop  of  Paris,  at  Conflans,  repre- 
senting SL  Afdhony  in  a  Trance,  He  died  at  Paris, 
Bleb.  28, 1800.  See  Spooner,  Bioff,  TJist.  of  (he  Fine  A  rU^ 
s.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GhUraUy  a.  v. 

Jnlnka,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Caribbeans,  is  a 
mighty  spirit,  living  on  fish,  doves,  and  other  animals. 
He  is  of  gigantic  size,  walks  over  land  and  sea,  and  his 
head  projects  far  above  the  clouds.  His  forehead  is 
decorated  by  a  beautiful  bandage,  made  of  the  feathers 
of  the  colibri,  splendidly  colored ;  this  he  shows  morn- 
ing and  evening.  It  is  the  rainbow.  The  remainder 
of  the  body  remains  hid  in  the  clouds.  If  this  spirit 
does  not  find  enough  to  eat  he  causes  sickness  among 
the  inhabitants.    See  Jouu)uka. 

Jumala,  the  supreme  deity  of  the  Laplanders.  He 
was  represented  by  a  wooden  idol  in  human  form,  seat- 


JUMNOXJTRI 


620 


EA6IR  PANTHIS 


ed  on  a  sort  of  altar,  with  a  crown  on  his  head  and  a 
bowl  in  his  lap,  into  which  the  devotees  throw  their 
voluntary  offerings. 

Jomnoutrl,  a  village  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Jumna,  which  is  considered  by  the  Hindiis  as  a  spot  of 
remarkable  sanctity.  Pilgrimage  to  this  place  from 
the  low  countries  was  thought  to  impart  to  the  adven- 
turer virtues  almost  equal  to  deification. 

Jung,  Andreas,  a  Protestant  professor  of  Strasbnrg, 
who  was  bom  in  1793,  and  died  in  1863,  is.  the  author 
of,  Geschickte  det  Reichstags  zu  Speyer  in  dem  Jahre 
1529  (Strasburg,  ^830):  —  G€Schichie  der  Reformation 
der  Kirche  in  Strassburg  (ibid,  eod.) : — Die  offentlichen 
Ribiiotheken  Sirassburg's  (1836,  1844).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL  i,  634 ;  Schmidt,  Discours  A  cadsmique  Pro- 
nond  a  la  Memoirs  de  Af.  A .  Jung  (1864) ;  Lichteuber- 
ger,  Encydop.  des  Sciences  ReligieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Junge,  Christian  Gottfried,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg,  Oct.  20, 1748. 
He  studied  at  Altdorf,  commenced  his  ministerial  ca- 
reer in  1769,  was  in  1783  professor  of  theology  at  Jena, 
in  1793  pastor  at  his  native  city,  and  died  March  27, 
1814.  He  wrote,  De  Durations  Pcenarum  Infemalium^ 
etc.  (Altdorf,  1783) :— />e  Ptrnarum  Divinarum  vi  Emen- 
datrice  (eod.).  Besides  a  number  of  ascetical  works 
and  sermons,  he  also  published  the  third  edition  of  Do- 
derlein's  Summa  Instilutionis  Theohgi  Christiani  (1793). 
See  Doring,  Die  gekhrten  Theologen  Deutschtands^  s.  v. ; 
Zuchold,  BUA,  Theol  i,  634 ;  Winer,  JIandbuch  der  theoL 
LU.  i,  23, 298 ;  ii,  280.     (R  P.) 

Jtmkhelm,  Johann  Zacharias  Leomiiard,  a 
Lutheran  thcohigian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Anspach, 
Sept.  8, 1729.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  was  in  1754 
vicar  at  bis  native  place,  and  two  years  later  pastor 
there.  In  1757  he  was  rector  of  the  gymnasium  in 
Anspach,  in  1764  court-preacher,  and  died  Aug.  17, 1790. 
He  wrote,  De  A  rgumento  pro  ReHgione  a  Constantia 
Afatigrum  (Gottingen,  1751) : — Progr,  ad  1  Petr,  tr,  1,2 
(1762)  \—De  ProvidetUia  Divina  (eod.)  i^Decas  Quas- 
tionum  Synodalium  (1783-90).  He  also  published  Ser- 
mons.  See  Doring,  Die  gekhrten  Theologen  Deutsch- 
lands,  8.  V. ;  FUrst,  Bibl,  Jud.  ii,  167 ;  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theol.  LU,  i,  394, 444 ;  ii,  288.     (B.  P.) 

Junkln,  David  X.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  near  Mercer,  Pa.,  Jan.  8, 1808.  He  graduated 
from  Jefferson  College  in  1831,  and  studied  two  years 
at  Princeton  Theological  Seminar}'.  In  1835  he  was 
ordained  pastor  at  Greenwich,  N.  J.;  in  1841  became 
professor  of  belles-lettres  in  Lafayette  College;  in 
1848  pastor  of  the  F  Street  Church,  Washington,  D.  a ; 
in  1853  at  Hollidaysbnrg,  Pa.;  in  1860  chaplain  at 
Annapolis,  Md.;  in  1866  pastor  of  the  North  Church, 
Chicago,  111.,  and  in  the  same  year  at  Newcastle,  Pa. 
He  died  at  Martinsburg,  W.  Va.,  April  22,  1880.  Dr. 
Junkin  was  an  eloquent  and  successful  preacher,  and  a 
ready  writer,  being  the  author  of  several  valuable  books, 
among  which  was  one  entitled  The  Oath  a  Divine  Or- 
dinance, and  an  Element  of  the  Social  Constitution  (N.  Y. 
1845,  12mo).  See  New  York  Observer,  May  6,  1880; 
Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  Theol,  Sem,  1881,  p.  83.    (W,  P.  S.) 

Juatl,  Leonhard  Johann  Karl,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  MUnchhausen,  Hesse, 
Dec  5, 1753.  He  studied  at  Marburg  and  Gottingen, 
was  in  1774  deacon  at  Marburg,  and  commenced  his 


academical  career  in  1775.  In  1779  he  was  profeoor, 
and  Bocceeded  bis  brother  as  first  pastor  of  St  £liza> 
beth.  He  died  May  12, 1800,  leaving,  IFeMio^uii^a^ 
sang  Mosis  an  die  Israeliten^  Deut,  xxxU  (Gdttingen, 
1774):  —  De  Bileami  Asina  Loquente  ad  Numb,  xxH 
(Marburg,  eod.) :  ~  £7ie5er  die  den  JEggptem  von  den. 
Israeliten  bei  ihrer  Abreise  abgeforderien  Geraihe, ExodU 
Vy  11, 12  (1777)  >-^Ueber  den  Genius  des  Sokrates  (1779). 
See  DQring,  Die  geUhrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. ; 
Furst,  BibL  Jud.  ii,  157 ;  Winer; Handbuch  der  theoL  lAL 
i,  28.     (R  P.) 

Jii8tioera»  Itinerant,  officers  appointed  by  Rich- 
ard I  of  England  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  the 
Jews  residents  within  the  kingdom.  They  were  in- 
Btracted  to  protect  the  Hebrews  against  all  oppression, 
to  secure  them  in  their  interests  and  property,  to  decide 
all  controversies  between'  them  and  the  Christians,  to 
keep  the  seal  of  their  corporation,  and  the  keys  of  their 
public  treasury. 

Justiniani,  AgOBtino,  a  Dominican  and  bishop 
of  Nebbio,  in  the  isle  of  Corsica,  was  bom  at  Genoa  in 
1470,  and  died  in  1536,  on  the  way  from  Genoa  to  Cor- 
sica. He  edited,  Philonis  Judai  Quesstiones  et  Respon- 
stones  super  Genesin: — R,  Mosis  JEgyptii  Ductor  Dubi- 
tantium: — Porcheti  de  Sglvatieis  Victoria  contra  Impios 
Ilebneos: — Liber  Jobi  Veiitati  ffebraictB  Restituius, 
and  pnblished  Psalterium  Jfebr.,  Grac,  A  rab,  et  Chald, 
cum  Tribus  Lat,  Inierpretationibus  et  Glossis  (Genoa, 
1516).  See  Jocher,  A  Ugenteines  GelehrtenrLexikon^  s.  r. ; 
Winer,  JIandbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  86 ;  Lichtenberger, 
Encyclop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

JqBtJniani,  Benedetto,  a  Jesuit  papal  preacher 
at  Rome,  who  died  Dec  19, 1622,  at  Toulouse,  professor  of 
theology,  wrote  ExpUxnationes  na  Omnes  Epistolas  PaitU 
(Lyons,  1612, 2  vols.)  :—Explanationes  in  Omnes  Episto- 
las Catholicas  (ibid.  1621):  —  Apologia  pro  Libertate 
Ecclesiastica  ad  Gallo '  Francos,  See  Jocher,  AUg^- 
meines  Gdehrten- Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
iheoLLit,i,2bS,26S.    (B.  P.) 

Justus,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  accompanied 
Laurentius  and  Mellitus  when  they  departed  ftom 
Rome,  in  601,  to  join  the  mission  at  Canterbury.  He 
was  a  Roman  by  birth ;  was  also  first  bishop  of  the  see 
of  Rochester.  He  was  translated  to  Canterbury  in  624. 
The  great  event  of  his  short  occupancy  of  the  latter  see 
was  the  extension  of  the  Kentish  mission  to  Northnm- 
bria.  This  was  effected  by  the  marriage  of  Edwin,  the 
king  of  Northumbria,  with  Ethelburga,  the  sister  of 
i)adbald,  king  of  Kent.  Justus  consecrated  Paulinua, 
July  21, 625,  to  be  archbishop  of  York.  He  died  Nor. 
10, 627.  See  Hook,  Lives  of  the  A  rchbishcps  of  Canter^ 
buiy,  i,  100  sq. 

Juttah.  Its  modem  representative  Yutta  is  thus 
described  in  the  Memoirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance 
Survey  (iii,  310) : 

*  "A  large  viUnge  standing  on  a  ridee.  It  is  boilt  of 
stone,  but  some  of  the  inhabitants  Inre  In  tents.  Tb^ 
water  supply  Is  from  cisterns.  On  the  soath  there  are 
rack -cut  tombo,  and  rock  wine-presaes  are  found  all 
around  the  village.  The  neighborhood  is  extremely 
Btony.  Sonth  of  the  village  are  scattered  olives,  which 
are  conspicuous  oblects ;  on  the  west,  a  little  lower,  under 
a  cliir,  is  a  small  olive-yard :  to  the  south-west  a  few  flgs. 
The  inhabitants  are  very  rich  in  flocks ;  the  village  owna, 
it  is  said,  17,000  sheep,  besides  goats,  cows,  camels,  horses* 
and  donkeys.   The  sbelk  alone  bos  9B0  sheep.*' 


K 


Kabasilas.    See  Cabasilas. 

EUtbir  Panthls,  among  the  Hindiis,  are  the  fol- 
lowers of  Kabir,  whom  they  allege  to  have  been  the  in- 
carnate deity.  They  believe  that  he  lived  in  the  worM 
three  hundred  years,  from  1149  to  1449  A.D.,  and  that 
as  a  ehild  he  was  found  floating  on  a  lotos  in  a  lake  or 
pond  near  Benares.   He  b  also  claimed  by  the  Moslems 


as  a  professor  of  their  faith.  The  Kabir  Panthia  being 
in  the  mtiin  favorers  of  Vishnn,  they  are  inclnded  among 
the  Vaishuara  aects,  althoogh  they  worship  no  Hindft 
deity,  nor  do  they  practice  any  of  the  Hind&  ceremonies. 
Those,  however,  who  have  retired  ftom  the  world,  and 
given  themselves  to  a  life  of  sedosion,  abstain  from  all 
the  ordinary  practices  of  the  Hind(is,and  employ  them- 


KABYLE  VERSION 


621 


EADESHBARNEA 


Belies  chiefly  in  chanting  hymns  to  the  invisible  Kabir. 
They  believe  in  one  God,  the  creator  of  the  world, 
who  has  a  body  formed  of  the  five  elements  of  matter, 
and  a  mind  endowed  with  the  (bree  Gunas  or  quali- 
ties of  being.  He  is  free  from  the  defects  of  haman 
nature,  and  can  assume  what  iiarticular  shape  he  will; 
in  all  other  respects  he  does  not  differ  from  man,  and 
the  pure  man,  the  Sadh  of  the  Kabir  sect,  is  his  living 
resemblance,  and  after  death  is  his  associate  and  equal. 
Their  moral  code  is  brief,  but  judicious  in  the  main. 
Humanity  is  the  first  virtue,  and  the  shedding  of  blood, 
whether  of  man  or  animal,  is  regarded  as  a  heinous 
crime ;  because  life  is  the  gift  of  Gud,  and  must  not  be 
violated  by  his  creatures.  Truth  is  another  g^reat  prin- 
ciple of  morality,  and  ignorance  of  God  is  attributed  to 
falsehood.  Retirement  from  the  world  is  desirable,  aa 
a  check  upon  the  passions  and  desires.  The  last  point  in 
the  code  is  implicit  devotion,  in  word,  act,  and  thought, 
to  the  Guru  or  spiritual  guide.  This  sect  is  ver}*  wide- 
ly diffused  throughout  India.  It  is  further  divided  into 
various  branches,  twelve  of  these  being  traced  up  to  the 
founder,  among  whom  a  difference  of  opinion  aa  well  as 
descent  prevails.  Of  the  establishments  of  thb  sect,  the 
Kabir  Cbaura,  at  Benares,  is  pre-eminent  in  dignity, 
and  is  a  constant  resort  for  pilgrims.  Their  doctrines 
are  taught  in  a  great  variety  of  works  in  different  dia- 
lects of  India ;  but  the  great  authority  to  which  they 
are  wont  to  refer  is  the  Vijek,  which,  however,  gives 
more  attention  to  the  defects  of  other  systems  than  to 
the  explanation  of  its  own. 

Kabyle  Version  of  the  Scripturrs.  The  Ka- 
byle  is  spoken  in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  and  it  is  only  of 
late  that  a  gospel  in  the  Kabyle  vernacular  has  been 
published.  From  the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreigpfi 
Bible  Society  for  1884  we  learn  that,  in  order  to  secure 
as  accurate  a  version  as  possible.  Dr.  G.  Sauerwein  was 
sent  out  to  Algiers.  He  retumcid  with  a  version  of  the 
gospel  of  St.  John,  made  from  the  French,  by  an  Arab 
who  assisted  Pfere  Olivier  with  his  Kabyle-French  dic- 
tionary. Dr.  Sauerwein  has  revised  that  gospel  from 
the  Greek,  and,  according  to  the  report  for  1685,  it  was 
passing  through  the  press.    (B.  P.) 

Kaddiah  (is3'^'7p)f  in  Jewish  usage,  means  a  pray- 
er said  by  a  son  for  his  deceased  father  or  mother  dur- 
ing the  first  eleven  months  after  their  death.  This 
prayer  has  to  be  repeated  morning  and  evening  at  the 
dose  of  the  synagogue  service,  and  runs  thus,  "  May 
his  greni  name  be  exalted  and  sanctified  throughout 
the  world,  which  he  has  created  according  to  his  wilL 
Hay  he  establish  bis  kingdom  in  our  lifetime,  and  in 
the  lifetime  of  the  whole  house  of  Israel,  S(K>n,  and  in  a 
short  time,  and  say  ye  Amen,  Amen.  May  his  great 
name  be  blessed  and  glorified  for  ever  and  ever.  May 
his  hallowed  name  be  praised,  glorified,  exalted,  magni- 
fied, honored,  and  most  excellently  adored;  blessed  is  he, 
far  exceeding  all  blessings,  hymns,  praises,  and  beati- 
tudes that  are  repeated  throughout  the  world,  and  say 
ye  Amen.  May  our  prayer  be  accepted  with  mercy 
and  kindness.  May  the  prayers  and  aiipplications  of 
the  whole  house  of  Israel  be  accepted  in  the  presence 
of  their  Father,  who  is  in  heaven,  and  say  ye  Amen. 
Blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord,  ifrom  henceforth  and 
forevermore.  May  the  fulness  of  peace  from  heaven, 
with  life,  be  granted  unto  us,  and  all  Israel,  and  say  ye 
Amen.  My  help  is  from  the  Lord,  who  made  heaven 
and  earth.  May  he  who  maketh  peace  in  his  high 
heavens  bestow  peace  upon  us,  and  on  all  Israel,  and 
say  ye  Amen." 

Besides  this  Kaddish,  there  is  also  one  used  by 
the  rabbins  after  having  delivered  a  lecture  or  com- 
pleted their  study.  This  is  called  the  "  Kaddish  of  the 
Kabbins,"  and  runs  thus,  ^  Unto  Israel,  their  rabbins, 
their  disciples,  and  all  their  successors,  who  diligently 
study  the  law,  who  are  in  this  and  every  other  place ; 
may  there  be  unto  them,  and  to  you,  abundant  peace, 
grace,  fkvor,  mercy,  long  life,  enlarged  maintenance,  and 


redemption,  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord  of  heaven 
and  earth,  and  say  ye  Amen.  May  the  fulness  of  peace,** 
etc.    See  Hamburger,  JUal^Enqfklop.  s.  v.     (B.  F.) 

EUtdesh-barnea.  The  search  for  this  interesting 
locality,  and  the  controversy  concerning  its  site,  still 
continue.  The  most  recent  and  enterprising  explorer 
is  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  D.D.,  editor  of  the  Sunday-Sckool 
Timet,  who  has  written  an  elaborate  and  magnificent 
work  on  the  subject  (Kadesh-Bameat  its  Importcmce 
and  ProhahU  Site,  etc.,  New  York,  1884,  8vo).  After 
great  pains,  while  on  a  trip  through  the  Sinaitic  desert, 
he  succeeded  in  reaching  *Ain  Keukis,  which,  in  his 
map  of  the  region,  accompanying  his  volume,  he  locates 
fifty-five  miles  west  by  north  of  Petra,  and  seventy-five 
north-east  of  the  castle  of  Nukl.  His  description  of  the 
spot  is  as  follows  (p*  272) : 

**  Jt  was  a  marvellous  si{2:bt  I  Out  fi-om  the  barren  and 
desolate  stretch  of  the  buniiiig  desert-waste,  we  had  come 
with  magical  suddenness  iuto  an  oasis  or  verdure  and 
beauty,  unlocked  for  and  hardly  conceivable  !u  such  a  re- 
gion. A  carpet  of  grass  covered  the  ground.  Flg-treee, 
ladeu  with  frnit  nearly  ripe  enonsb  for  eating,  were  along 
the  shelter  of  the  southern  hlilstde.  Shrubs  and  flowers 
showed  themselves  in  variety  and  profusion.  Running 
water  gnr^led  under  the  waving  grass.  We  had  seen 
uothliiK  luce  It  since  leaving  Wady  Felrftn;  nor  was  it 
equalled  In  loveliness  of  scene  by  any  single  bit  of  land- 
scape, of  like  extent,  even  there. 

** Standing  out  from  the  earth-covered  limestone  hills 
at  the  north-eastern  sweep  of  this  picturesque  recess  was 
to  be  seen  the  *  large  single  mass,  or  a  small  bill,  of  solid 
rock,'  which  Rowlands  looked  at  as  the  cliff  (tela)  smitten 
hy  Moses,  to  cause  it  to  'give  forth  his  water,*  when  its 
llowlug  stream  had  been  exhausted.  From  nndemeatb 
thl8  ragged  spur  of  the  north-easterly  monutaiu  range  is- 
sued the  now  abundant  stream. 

"A  circular  wall,  stoned  up  from  the  bottom  with  time- 
worn  limestone  blocks,  was  the  first  receptacle  or  the 
water.  A  marble  watering-trough  wns  near  this  well- 
better  finished  than  the  troughs  at  Beersbeba,  but  of  like 
primitive  workmanship. '  The  month  of  this  well  was 
onlv  about  three  feet  across  it,  and  the  water  came  to 
witnin  three  or  four  feet  of  the  top.  A  little  distance 
westerly  firom  this  well,  and  down  the  slope,  was  a  second 
well,  stoned  up  much  like  the  first,  but  of  greater  diame- 
ter: aud  here  again  was  a  marble  watenug-trough.  A 
basin  or  pool  of  water,  larger  than  either  of  the  wells, 
but  not  stoned  up  like  tnem,  was  seemingly  the  principal 
watoriiig-place.  It  was  a  short  distance  south-westerly 
from  the  second  well,  and  It  looked  as  if  it  and  the  two 
wells  might  be  supplied  from  the  same  subterranean 
source— the  springs  under  the  rock.  Around  the  margin 
of  the  pool,  as  also  around  the  stoncNl  walls,  camel  and 
goat  dnuff— as  if  of  flocks  and  herds  for  centuries— was 
trodden  down  and  commingled  with  the  limestone  dust 
so  as  to  form  a  solid  plaster-oed.  Another  and  yet  larser 
pool,  lower  down  the  slope,  was  supplied  with  water  uy 
a  stream  which  rippled  and  cascaocd  along  ita  narrow 
bed  from  the  upper  pool ;  and  yet  beyond  this,  westward, 
the  water  gurgled  away  under  the  grass  as  we  had  met  it 
when  coming  in,  and  finally  lost  itself  in  the  parchins 
wady,  from  which  this  oasis  opened.  The  water  IteelT 
was  remarkably  pnre  and  sweet :  unequalled  by  any  wo 
had  found  after  leaving  the  Nile." 

Meanwhile  the  bite  indefatigable  Rev.  F.  W.  Holland, 
after  several  ineffectual  attempts,  had  at  length  success- 
fully achieved  a  visit  to  the  same  spot,  and  an  account 
of  it  from  his  field-book  is  given  in  the  Quarter^  State^ 
ment  of  the  "  PaL  Explor.  Fund  "  for  Jan.  1884.  The 
accompanying  sketch'  map  of  his  route  places  'Ain  Ka- 
deis  at  about  the  same  distance  as  above  from  Petra 
and  Nukl  respectively,  and  gives  it  an  elevation  of  one 
thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty-five  feet  above  the 
sea.    The  place  is  thus  described  (p.  9) 

y  There  are  three  springs,  two  on  the  hill-side,  and  one 
in  the  bed  of  the  wady ;  from  the  lower  spring  on  the  hill- 
side a  good  stream  of  water  flows  for  about  one  hundred 
yards  down  the  wady,  forming  pools  at  which  the  goats 
are  watered;  the  camels  go  to  the  spring.  The  upper 
spring  on  the  hillside  is  a  |K>or  one  now :  it  is  built  round 
with  large  rough  stones  to  a  depth  of  five  feet,  and  there 
Is  a  rude  stone  trough  here  and  at  the  lowest  spring.  The 
three  springs  are  not  more  than  forty  yards  apart.  The 
wady,  which  is  stony  throughout,  has  a  bed,  below  the 
springs,  nearlv  fifteen  feet  deep,  between  stony  >or/«.  As 
one  a:<cends,  the  mountains  become  lower  and  less  steep ; 
there  is  much  pasturage  on  them :  the  lower  strata  are 
chalk  with  flints;  the  upper,  hard  limestone  (uummu- 
Iltic?):  large  masses  have  nllen  down  and  lie  In  the  val- 
ley. There  are  a  few  fig-trees  and  a  bed  of  coarse  graaa. 
Abont  fifty  yards  higher  op  the  wady  than  'Ain  ^deia 


EAGUBU  VERSION 


VklDtlT  at  'AID  Kideli. 


'  old  t>ilcrln|[-DliUM; 

Kmlfth-bamea,  and  the  concliuion  hti  been  mlopted 
by  a  large  number  or  Biblical  Khiilim.  The  uame  and 
character  of  Ihe  plaee  have  certainly  been  Mtahliihwl 
aa  coincident,  but  will  the  poaiiion  is  unaatiiTactory. 
'Ain  Knieii  ia  nearly  midu-ay  between  tlie  Arabah  and 
the  Hcdilernuican,  anit  after  all  the  argunienta  of  Dr. 
Trumbull  and  athe^^  thi<  aeema  loo  far  wot  to  suit  the 
requiremeniB  of  the  Scriptural  account,  particularly  the 
joumeyi  of  the  Israelites.  Especially  ia  the  attempt 
ID  remove  Ihe  well-ciitablitheil  position  of  Uounc  Hor 
to  some  localilv  weal  of  the  Arabah,  for  the  purpoM  of 
accommodaling  this  idem  ideal  ion  (ai  Dr.  Trumbull 
(loei  not  hesilalc  la  dn)  too  herculean  an  underukliig. 
That  the  cumpanlively  late  name,  "Idumsa,"  may 
have  been  cxleniled  «o  as  to  include  the  reeion  imme- 
ilialely  south  of  Palestine,  tre  may  TCry  well  concede, 
without  admitting  that  the  older  deaignalion  of ''Edom" 
ever  passed  the  Arabah,  which  is  the  natural  and  still- 
existing  boundary.  The  reawning  of  Dr.  Trumbull  to 
the  cunliary,  however  ingenious  and  learned,  leemi  too 
much  like  a  piece  of  special  pleading  for  a  foregone  and 
favorite  tbeor}-,  and  parti  of  it  are  clearly  dcfectire, 
eipecially  as  to  the  conquering  march  of  Joshua  (Joab. 
XV.  19,  where  "  from  Kadesh-baniea  even  unto  Gaza," 
cridonily  marks  the  eastern  and  the  western  limits  r«- 
apectiveiy),  Che  allegcil  contradiction  between  the  re- 
fuaal  of  a  paeaage  by  Kdom  to  Ihe  Israelites,  and  Iheir 
burial  of  Aaron  on  the  Iraditiotial  Mount  Hor  (fur  they 
did  not  thereby  acquire  any  title  or  cross  the  urritor>-), 
and  Ihe  imagioar)-  "Wall  Koad."  See  Shur.  We 
cannot  help  thinking  that  more  thorough  e^cplontion 
of  the  uortli-eastem  part  of  the  Sinaitic  desert  will  yet 
bring  to  light  other  nisea  of  a  similar  character,  and 
among  them  one  still  bearing  the  not  uncommon  name 
of  Kadeah,  or  perhaps  some  trace  of  the  distinctive  term 
Jlanua.  I.ieut.  Cnnder  expresses  a  similar  conviction 
(Caur.  Slaftmem  of  the  "PsL  Esplor.  Fund,"  Jan.  1886, 
p.2iBq.). 

Kadr,  At,  the  title  of  the  ninety-seventli  chapter 
of  (be  Koran,  which  contains  an  account  of  God's  send- 
ing donn  tbe  Korau  from  heaven  to  Klohammed.  It 
rcprcsenla  Goil  as  saving,  "The  night  Al  Kadr  is  better 
than  a  thousand  months."  Which  nighl  this  is  has 
not  beeu  definitely  asccruincd. 

Kadroma,  in  TbibeUnian  mythology,  was  a  god- 
Jess  who,  changed  into  an  ape,  married  the  god  Cenresi, 
Jikewise  an  ape,  and  by  him  became  the  mother  of  the 
.■Dtire  population  of  Thibet, 

KbIBt  Version  op  tiik  ScRiPTDnES.  The  Kaffir 
ia  spoken  hy  the  KslTres  {q.  v.),  and  was  reduced  to 
writing  bv  the  Hev.  W.  D.  Bovce,  a  Wesleyan  mission- 
ary, who, 'in  connection  with  the  Revs.  Wm.  Shaw  and 
IV.  J.ShrewsbuTT,  commenced  in  18S0  a  translation  of 
the  Scriptures,  which  waa  completed  in  the  course  of 
font  years.    T'his  Iranslalion,  however,  formed  but  Ihe 


basis  of  that  eventually  published,  and  it  nis  not  till 
1841  that,  after  a  very  careful  revision,  Ihe  New  Tesl. 
was  publishe<l.     A  vigorous  revision  was  again  under- 
taken, and  in  1845  the  letised  N'ew  Test,  was  published, 
which  was  used  by  all  the  missionaries  laboring  among 
Ihe  Kaffre  tribes.     A  new  and  again  carefully  revised 
edition  of  the  New  Tes*.  wai  completed  in  18S4  at  the 
lunt  Coke  Wesleyan  miaslon  press,  and  in  1859  tbe 
ire  Old  Tesl.,  after  a  careful  revidon,  was  completed 
press.     In  1865  Ihe  commitlea  of  Ihe  Iteitish  and 
reign  Bible  Society  announced  that  Ihe  revised  Kaffir 
jle,  which  bad  been  sluwly  progressing  for  some  lime 
.ler  Ihe  etlitorial  supervision  of  the  Her.  J.  W.  Apple- 
yard,  was  completed  and  ready  fut  circulation.     The 

ous  eSbrta  have  been  made  to  render  the  work  an  ac- 
curate and  faithful  translation  of  the  Hebrew  and  Ureek 
texts;  and  Ihe  proficiency  of  &Ir.  Appleyard  in  the 
knowledge  of  Che  KaSr  language,  combined  with  great 
critical  can,  aSbid  every  reasonable  gnaranlee  that  this 
version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  will  prove  correct,  intel- 
ligible, and  idiomalic,  and  in  all  respects  admirably 
adapted  to  the  people  among  whom  it  will  now  circu- 
late.    Its  appearance,  after  king  aud  earnest  expeeta- 

missionaries  laboring  where  Ihe  Kaffir  Isnguage  is 
apoken."  In  16G9  Ihe  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  again  announced  that  Ihe  Iranslalion  of 
this  Bible  was  abonC  lo  undergo  revision:  "A  board  of 
revisers,  which  consists  of  representatives  of  the  varioua 
churches  in  Soutli  Africa,  haa  been  farmed,  and  ita  la- 
bora  already  commenced.  The  difficully  here,  aa  in  so 
many  other  cases,  is  Co  make  tbe  translation  idiomalic 
without  aacrillcing  the  exact  sense  of  the  ascred  orig- 
inal." In  1871  the  four  goi^ls  were  announced  aa 
completed,  and  one  of  them  was  printed  as  a  specimen, 
in  order  to  elicit  further  criticisms,  if  needful,  before  the 
text  is  finalir  settled.  In  1874  the  board  of  icrisen 
lost  one  of  its  most  valuable  helpers,  the  Rev.  J.  W. 
Appleyanl,  shortly  after  the  reviuon  of  the  New  Teat, 
was  completed,  which  was  issued  together  with  tbe  nn- 
revised  Old  Test,  in  1878.  The  rerision  of  the  Old 
TesUia  still  inprogreasi  from  July  8, 1874,  to  Jan.  Si, 
1862,  the  Old  Test,  waa  revised  up  to  Jeremiah  xztL 
Seefli4fco/feKryia«l,p.428Bq.     (tt  P.) 

Kager,  Joilanx  MATTiiiAa,  an  eminent  German 
painter,  waa  bom  at  Muoich  in  lUC,  and  went  to  Italy- 
while  young,  where  he  spent  several  years  studying  cbc 
beat  works  of  the  great  masters.  He  died  at  Augsburg 
in  1634.  His  works  are  chiefly  in  the  churches  and 
public  edifices  of  Munich.  He  etched  a  few  plates  bom 
his  own  designs,  among  which  are  the  following:  TAt 
Adoration  qftht  ShgilUnU;  Tlu  Baptitm  o/CknH  ^ 
SUJokn;  The  Holf  FamUg;  St.  Ftorcu  Stmandat 
Ey  tht  Monk*  n/  hii  Order ,-  The  Virffia  and  Child  in 
Ihe  Clmidi.  See  Hoefer,  Nour.  Biog.  GMmk,  a.  v.; 
Spooner,  liiog.  Ilin.  o/lkt  FiK  Arlt,  a.  v. 

Kagiun  Taralon  or  im  Scnrrinwa.    Tbe 


EAHANA  6 

Easuru  is  a  dialect  tpokFii  bv  ■  tribe  of  East  Eqailo- 
rial  Africa,  anii  in  thia  reniacular  the  goipels  of  Mat- 
thew and  Luke,  together  with  the  booka  at  RutU  and 
Jonah,  were  puhliahed  bj  the  British  and  Foreign  ItiUle 
Society  in  IHS4,  the  translation  having  t>eea  made  bv 
roi^DDiiy  Lut.     (RP.) 

Kahnnn  BAit-TA<THurA,a  Jewisli  writer,  was  bom 
at  Pum-Naharn  about  830,  was  in  B97  reclor  *t  Ihe 
college  of  Pnmbaditha,  in  Babylon,  and  died  in  413. 
Kahana  is  iho  author  of  an  baf^adic  work,  entitled 
PaiUa  de  Rab  Kakamt  (^Xins  311  Kt^p^CB),  com- 
I>ti>ing  a  cycle  of  lessons  both  from  the  Pentatench  and 
the  Pmpheta,  for  all  the  fetlinils  and  principal  Sabbaths 
or  the  year,  and  embodying  the  traditional  explanalii 
of  these  ponions  of  Scripture.  This  midraab  was  fiir 
long  time  only  knoirD  from  cituione  (inind  in  the  Jalki 
and  Anieh.  In  the  year  1888,  however,  S.  Buhti  pub- 
liihed,  at  Lrck,  an  edition  of  the  Paikia  according  to 
a  lia  which  had  been  fuund  at  Zefath,  and  copieit  in 
Egypt,  with  critical  annotations,  emendations,  etc.,  and 
an  elaborate  introduction.  See  Zunz,  GmiatlitrulUche 
VaHrage  der  Judai,  p.  185-226,  239-251  i  Furst,  Bibl. 
Jvd.  »,  169  sq.;  Geiger,  JSdttche  ZeUickriJi,  18G9, 
p.  187-195;  Theodor,  Zur  Corapaiilioa  itr  tri/adiidim 
llDmiliai,  iu  Frankel-GiKti's  Momlichiifu  1879,  p,  97- 
113, 164-175,  271-278,  037-339, 15i-4aT,  GrUtz,  Gach. 
cI.Judfli,iv,495sq.     (R  P.) 

ElUller,  Iiadwlg  AugOBt,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
f!tan  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  <i,  1773,  st  SoDimer- 
feld,  rnissia.  Having  completed  his  studies,  ho  wi 
appointed  in  1798  preacher  at  Canig,  near  Guben,  i 
[809  deacon  and  in  1812  archdeacon  at  Cotbua,  in  181 
member  of  consistory,  preacher,  and  professor  of  theotog_ 
at  KiinigBberg,  where  he  died  in  1866,  a  doctor  of  theol- 
ogy. He  published,  Chririlicht  Silladehit  (Kontgsberg, 
1833)  :  —  BatTiige  tu  den  Vtriudun  neuatr  Ztil,  den 
Kalkotidsimii  za  Utalinrea  {ibid.  1828):— jSupenw^i 
ralitmiu  uni/  Ralionalitmui  vt  iAran  ffemeimehafltidun 
l/npruitfft,  etc.  {Leipsic,  1818)  :— Ceitr  SchaSrmerti, 
Bigtuleruiui,  tehdjitart  unci  wahTt  Grdste  (Kiinrgsberg, 
1820)  :—Prfdigtm  Siei-  dot  aUfinKlisviachenden  OliiubeH 
an  ien  Sokn  Gatlta  {ibid.  1826)  -.—DU  thrilliche  Lrhrt 
nncA  (for  heaigtn  Schrift  {2d  ed.  1830):— ITiaswsrfrt^- 
lidier  A  briu  dir  chrittlichai  Silladtkre  (ibid.  1835, 1836). 
See  Zuchold,  Ribl.  Theol.  i,  638;  Winer,  Haadtucll  dtr 
liioL  LU.  i,  see,  815,  AM,  868,871,385;  ii,  22, 26, 48, 78, 
167, 177, 197, 200, 234, 361 ;  Dr.  Ludavj  A .  KSUtr,  Mil- 
Ikrilaiigm  Itiitr  arin  Ldm  vnd  leirn  Schr^ften,  von  S.  A. 
KahUr  (Kdnigsberg,  1856).     (B.  P.) 

Kolller,  IKTlgand,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Get- 
many,  nephew  of  Johannes  Kahter  (q.  v.).  was  bom  at 
Wohnar,  Uesse-Casset,  March  37, 1699.  He  studied  at 
Rintetn,  where  he  also  commenced  liis  academical  ca- 
reer, and  where  be  died,  Nov.  14,  1747,  professor  of 
theology,  having  uken  two  years  previous  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  theology  at  Gottingen.  He  wrote,  Dt  Verii 
<t  Ficlii  Texlui  Sacii  Trajtctionibut :  —  Dt  Mtlhodo 
Sludii  Thtologici:—Dt  irotnpaiouf  rijc  rrimwe  ad 
Sum,  FBI,  19  -.-De  Jmoetntia  Dei  diva  Laptum  Pri- 
morum  Parenlam.  See  Moser,  icciton  ietUlOeader 
GoltagtUkrlta!  Neubauer,  Nachricht  von  jtltlletenden 
Golte^eUhrlea!  Jocher,  AUgtmeaee  Gtlthrtat-Lexiton, 

S.V.   (a  P.) 

KaiotnortB.  in  Pendm  mythology,  as  represented 
in  the  Zend-Avesta,  is  the  Brst  man,  who  proceeded  out 
of  the  right  hip  of  Ibe  bull  Abudad  aller  Ahriman  had 
the  same  killed.  He  wis  both  a  man  and  s  woman,  the 
object  of  worship  by  the  angels.  Thus  Abriman's  plan 
to  deatroy  the  generation  which  was  to  populate  the 
earth  did  not  succeed.  He  therefore  sent  a  Dew,  Aato- 
jad,  beaidea  a  thousand  other  genii  of  the  infemal 
region,  to  battle  against  him.  Kaiomorts  withstood 
thirty  years  beTota  he  auccumbcd.  The  liquids  flowing 
from  hia  body  fructiBed  the  earth.  The  sud  grew  into 
an  immense  tree,  which,  instead  of  fruit,  bore  ten  haoMn 


!3  KALASTRI  LIN6a 

paira,one  of  which,  Mesbia  and  Meihiane,  were  the  pro- 
genitors of  Ihe  human  race.  They,  too,  were  seduced 
by  Ahriman,  and  live  sinful  and  condemned,  suSering 
the  punishoient  of  theii  ain  onto  the  resurrection. 

KalMT,  GtottUeb  PUllpp  Clulatlaii,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Uermany,  vraa  bom  at  Hof,  May  7, 
17S1.  Ill  1801  he  was  teacher  at  the  gymnaaum  of  his 
naiire  place,  in  1809  deacon  at  MQnchberg,  in  1814  at 
Erlangen,  in  1816  professor  of  theology  there,  and  died 
in  1813,  member  of  consistory  and  doctor  of  theology. 
He  wrote,  De  Apologelkit  Eeaag,  Joannit  CuntUiit 
(Erlangen,  1821-25)  i—Gniadriu  rina  Sytleua  der  neu- 
tnl.  Hermeneulii  (ibid.  1817):— De  Moiaicu  SpmiolU 
el  Centti(ibid.  1827):— Commenrnrius  in  Priora  Geoeitot 
Cajnia  (1830): — Lilerdrstichichle  drr  mtlanch<honitthen 
Original-Aaigtthe  der  augAurjiichen  Con/enioa  {Nu- 
remberg, eod.): — imjuot  Araniiiica  C'lua  in  Nor,  Tt- 
liam.  etc  (1831)  —Die  biblilehe  Tkeotonie  orler  JudaU- 
mm  and  CkrUtianumui  {Erlangen,  1814, 1821,  2  vols.) : 

—  Cotlectittim  dtr  daeidiiiAm  KOnige  in  Jemialem 
(1833]  i—Dai  ITokelied  «'n  CuUedicgeeang  a«f  Seruba- 
W  (lS2b):^ErlaiileniagdtrfilnfFialiiA<kker(,lB^y. 

—  Utier  die  Uriyracke,  etc  (1840).  See  Winer,  Band- 
buck  der  Ikeal.  Lil.  i,  87, 107, 139, 200,  3.3,215,  245,  29S, 
301,829,340;  ii,  20,  81,60,  99, 172;  Fllist,  fliW.  J'mt  ii, 
162 ;  Zuchold,  SiU.  TAsif.  i,  640;  Diestel,  CmcA.  dH  .4  ben 
TeHamenlM,  p.  668  sq.,  697, 713  sq.,  747, 756.     (R  P.) 

Kaiser,  Nikolans,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Nov.  8, 1734.  He  studied  at  Witten- 
berg and  Erlangen,  was  in  1763  rector  at  Redwitz,  and 
died  March  14,  1800.  He  published,  De  Lulkeiv  In- 
ttrprde  (Hof,  1768):  — Z)e  Joamat  lliaaii  Manyrio 
(ibid.  17G9):  — Z;i!  rnfiiaUa  Mukanimtdii  Secia,  etc. 
imi):—De  llterilu  Lulken  ia  Ifymnodiam  (1773):- 
Dt  Voto  Paulino  •iCor.xiU,  13  {1774) :  — /nAa2l  der 
avgiburgiichen  Coi^tuion  (1783).  See  DSring,  Die 
gelehrttn  Tkeologen  DeuUcklandt,  s.  v,     (a  P.) 

Kala  Maba.  the  male  form  of  the  HindQ  god 
Siva,  in  liis  character  of  Time,  the  great  destroyer  of 
alt  things. 

Kalanda-Biothers.  SeeCALESDARuxFRATitEs. 

Kalaatii  Unga,  in  Hinda  mythology,  is  one  of 
the  commonest  representations  of  Siva.  A  pious  In- 
dian had  nociced  that  the  right  eye  of  ibe  god  wept. 
Immediately  he  took  out  hia  right  eye  and  put  it  into 


BcpresenlatloQ  ofKaloatrl  Unga. 


the  idoL  Soon  after  the  left  eye  began  to  run,  and  the 
friend  of  the  god  aacriflced  his  left  eye,  and,  as  he  was 
blind,  he  made  use  of  hia  foot  to  find  the  spot  wbere 

thia  eye  wu  to  be  put  in. 


KALEWA 

Kalewa,  in  None  mythtHogy,  vu  one  of  tbe  Bnt 
gt^a  of  [he  far  north,  signing  long  beton  the  Ana, 
mighty  giani,  anil  filhet  of  ifae  hunter  HiUi,  an  eT 
gud,  whose  frightrul  hahiUtion  U*  pUce  of  (Uianatiaa. 

Kail-age.    See  Kavtuoa. 

Kallka  Pniana,  one  oTthe  ucred  wriiings  of  the 
HindCts,  which  U  chUHv  devoted  to  a  lecital  of  (he  dif- 
feient  modes  of  warahip|iing  end  appeuing  the  goddeaa 
Kali  (q.  v.).    See  I'lrHANAa. 

Kallnsk,  in  HindCl  niTtholi^-,  i 
thouaand-headed  snake.  Vishnu  aougl: 
riding  on  his  giant  bird,  Garodha.  When  the  aerpent 
aaw  him  coming  it  hid  in  the  river  Jumna,  iiho«  wa 
ter  it  poisoned.  When  Visbnii,  in  hii  ninth  Aralai 
waa  uill  a  tioT,  lie  decided  to  deliver  the  world  from 
this  reptile  and  its  offspring.  The  reptile  encircled 
with  a  thousand  fangs,  but  the  gnd  walked  on  ita  hi 
and  crushed  them  all  but  one.  Ue  then  sent  it  to  tbe 
inlemsl  region),  where  its  poison  is  used  to  torture  the 
damneil. 

EallBCtl,  AtAitcua  H.,  ■  Jewish  writer  and  com- 
menlstor,  nas  bom  at  Tieptow,  Prusaia,  Hav  10,  leSS. 
He  studied  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  and  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  philosophy  in  1S4§.  In  tbe  same  year  he 
left  hia  native  country  on  account  of  politics!  disturb- 
ances, anil  went  to  Engbnd,  where  he  look  up  a  per- 
manent residence.  Ue  became  secretari-  to  chief  rabbi 
Adler,  at  London.  Here  he  published'  his  llutorical 
and  Cri/ical  Conunetiltiriti  m  CentiU,  Ezodiu,  and  f^cil- 
icut  (tSbo-T2,*  yo]t.):~Btllrac  Grammar  (186S.18G5, 
2  pam):— Bible  Sluditi:  I.  Tie  Prophtda  of  Balaam ; 
or,  The  //fftmo  and  Ikt  llenlkn  (1877);  II.  Tht  Bock 
Kf  Jonah  (1878).     Kaliacb  died  Aug.  28, 1885.     (RP.) 

Kalkl  (or  Kalkln,  also  called  Kallgia),  the  Ujdk 
A  ratar,  or  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  which  is  yet  futare, 
and  in  which  he  will  appear  at  the  dose  of  tbe  Kali- 
j-uga  (q.  r^  "  when  the  practices  taught  by  the  Vcdas 
and  the  iostitntea  of  the  law  shall  have  cused."    Ac- 
cording to  the  Vishnu  •  Purana,  be  will  then  be  bom 
"in  the  family  of  tuAnuyaina  [i.  e.  possessing  the 
glory  of  Vishnu),  an  eminent  Brahmin  of  Sambhsla 
village,  endowed  ivilh  the  eight  superhuman  facul 
He  will  then  destroy  all  the  barbarians  and  thi( 
and  all  whose  minds  are  devoted  to  iniquity." 
expectation  of  tbe  Hiiidfl,  in  reference  to  the  deli 
ance  from  present  evils  by  Vishniii  is  remarkably  i 
iUr  to  the  Hebrew  expecUtion  of  the  coming  Meaa 

Kalmuck  Mythology  ia  nearly  related  to 
of  Thibet,  the  latter  extending  through  India,  CI: 
Cashmere,  Tarlary,  and  far  uoith.  But  this  mythoiogy 
has  been  greatly  altered  and  modified  by  climatic,  so- 
cial, and  other  circumstances.  According  to  the  fables 
of  the  ZoDgarian  Kalmucks  and  Tartars,  tbe  earth  was 
originally  covered  with  water.  A  great  winil-slonn 
arose,  causing  such  s  commotion  of  the  waters  that 
from  the  ensuing  chaos  eighty  mountains  sprung  up, 
half  of  which  formed  a  great  range.  Seven  goda  de- 
scended from  beaven  to  visit  the  earth,  and  several  of 
them  aatislied  their  hunger.  The  earth  tben  contained 
honey,  and  not  knowing  ila  origin,  two  of  the  deiiiea 
ate  of  the  honey,  and  an  lost  the  privilege  of  returning 
with  tha  other  five.  They  tben  populated  the  earth. 
There  are  a  thousand  deities,  who  reign  alternatelj-. 
Six  have  finished  their  reign;  the  seventh,  Shak  Ju- 
meni,  rules  at  present.  Maidiri  (the  prophet),  will  fol- 
low. But  before  be  begins,  the  world  will  come  to  an 
end,  the  destroyer  will  come,  surrounded  by  seven  suns, 
which  will  set  fire  to  the  work).  A  rain-stotm,  follow- 
ing, will  put  out  tbe  Hre,  and  Maidiri  will  go  to  heaven 
to  take  possession  of  hia  throne.  Then  the  earth  will 
be  entirely  depopulated,  all  men  having  gone  to  para- 
dise, and  the  inhabitants  of  hell  will  come  up  to  inhabit 
iL  Their  spirits  take  poeBonon  of  orher  animals,  from 
tbe  lowest  insect  upwards,  and  thus  the  transmigrition 
will  continue,  nntil  tbe  vrortt  spirit  of  bell  shall  have 


4  EAMDEVA 

become  human,  and  worthy  of  paradise.  To  teach  that 
happy  place  is  usually  only  poesible  at  the  end  of  each 
world  period,  but  those  men  who  have  led  a  holy  life 
reach  the  gatea  of  paradise  at  death. 

KslmncklBn  Version.  By  way  of  supplement 
to  tbe  article  Klssla,  Vkiuiions  of,  !1,  we  will  add 
that  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  pub- 
lished, in  18S1,  the  four  gospels,  in  the  translation  of 
professor  Poidnejeff,  who  is  also  preparing  tba  nmaiii- 
der  of  the  New  Test     (UP.) 

Kaltbott  JoBAim  Paui.,  a  Romin  Catholic  theo- 
li^ian,  who  died  at  HOnster  in  1839,  ia  the  author  of. 
Juf  Matriaonii  Velemm  Indomm  (Bonn,  1829) : — 
Grammatii  der  Heir.  .Spracie  (Ratisbon,  1837)  —Itaiid- 
buck  der  Bebr.  A  Itertkamfr  (HUnsler,  1889).  See  Zu- 
chold,  BibL  TieoL  i,  643 ;  FUnt,  BiiL  Jud.  ii,  167  sq. ; 
Winer,  Ifandbuch  der  lieoL  IM.  i,  148.     (R  P.) 

Kalybtt.     See  Chafei- 

Kama,  in  Hindfl  mytbology,  is  the  Indian  god  of 
love;  verbally  the  word  means  "desire."  He  ia  the 
BOD  of  heaven  and  disappointment,  and  is  also  called 
the  heart -entering,  bodilcas,  rtBlleas  god,  sumamea 
which  are  all  very  signiScanL  Tenderness  (Reiti)  is 
his  wife,  and  Vasaant  (blooming-time)  his  companion, 
whocontinually  fills  hisquiver  U'itb  buds  as  arrow-poiuta. 
Ilia  favorite  residence  is  at  Agra,  [or  there  tbe  women 
are  the  moat  beautiful  of  all  portions  of  India.    Kama 


baa  a  vlaible  fonn,  bat  bccanae  he  dlatnrbed  Han,  the 
ruler  of  creation,  in  his  practices,  the  latter  burned  bim 
to  ashes  by  one  look,  and  since  then  he  is  called  bodi- 
less. He  is  represented  riding  on  a  parrot.  His  bow 
is  made  of  sugar-cane.  His  arrow-pointa  are  the  roay- 
red  blooming  buds  of  the  amra-tree.  The  gods  sought 
to  induce  ^va  to  a  new  marriage,  and  tberefoR  tuned 
to  the  god  of  love,  under  wboea  inflaeace  Siva  mna 

KamdevB,  in  HindCl  mythology,  is  the  divine  cow 
that  can  fulfil  all  deures,  produced  while  the  Amrila 
was  ill  process  of  preparation,  by  turning  the  moanlun 
Handar  into  the  sea  of  milk.  She  waa  presented  bjr 
Indra  to  tbe  Brahmin  Jamadagai,  who  waa  therefon 
supernatural,  wealthy,  and  honored  eveiywbere.  An 
evil-minded  king,  Shaw  kawser,niler  of  Ayadbya,  caiM 

him  with  hia  wbole  min  of  followere,  and  cotcr- 


OUJthl 


KAMISIMO  6S 

wn  given  with  the  aid  of  the  row.    Then  he 
tbe  row,  which  wib  rafaMd, 
mftde  w«T  on  the  Bnhmin ;  but 
ly,  inJ  ucendcd  Rg*iii  to  heaven.     Tba  kiag 
i{^  hy  killing  the  wi>e  Bnbiuini  tbtrt- 


upou  Ibc  cc 

min,  Ptnau  Rim*,  aod  called  him  to  aTcoge  Cbc  death 
of  his  fithec;  the  cow  lo  utitted  him  that  the  evil 
king  was  •lain. 

KKmlalmo,  a  gaiment  of  oereiDoar  amoag  the 
JipancK,  worn  on  TeUival  and  other  •oloiin  ooeariona. 
Il  cansiata  o{  two  porta,  a  ihort  cloak  without  tleevea, 
called  talasrmi,  and  a  ahoit  petticoat,  called  ratana, 
faatencd  about  the  waiit  by  a  band. 

KSmpfer,  Petir  Cheubtiah,  a  Proleatant  theo- 
logian  of  Germany,  waa  bora  Nov,  18, 1702.  He  Mod- 
ied  It  Rotlocli,  waa  in  1736  profeant  of  metaphyiica 

took  hia  degree  aa  doctor  or 
divinity  in  1749.  He  died 
May]a,17fi5.  Hiswriiings 
are,  Dt  Uiu  Ttmiaontni 
Kcdaiaiticonim  (Boalnck, 
i7S0):—JM  UUerit  Alqm 
Panetu  in  Scripltra  Wmt 
Trilamtnli  Iltbraitit  (ibid. 
1734)  -.-De  OrigiiH  Algvt 
Indole  rav  Ktri  rt  CitiM 
(ibid.  1739)  1^  Ot  Litleru, 
Voailiimt  el  Aaxniibai  in 
Scriplara  V.  T,  BtbraiciM 
(ibid,  17*3)  :-J/oJi/»  Pra- 
dicatiomt  Paldina  prr  Ext- 
gain  Dicli  1  Cor.ii,4  SUUia 
(ibid,  1749),  See  Doring, 
Bit  ffeUhiitH  Thtologe* 
DiuUiMaiid4,».y.  (aP.) 
KampfKlialtA,  Faim 
WiuiKui,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic theoloKiaa  of  Germany, 
wiabom  Not.  12,  ISSl,  at 

Wickede,  in  WcMpbalib  He  aladied  at  Padeibnra, 
Uunater,  and  Berlin,  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  pbi- 
loaophy  in  IS£9,  and  rommeneed  hia  academical  career 
in  Bonn,  whera  he  wta  also  made  profaaar  in  IBSI. 
He  died  Dec,  8,  1872,  a  member  of  the  Old  Catholic 
Church.  He  publiahed,  De  Gtorsio  Wialio  (Paderbom, 
186«):^7>>a  Uniea-tUdl  F.rfnrt  in  iirtm  Frrlidllniti 
tur  S^omalion  (Treve^  1858-60, 1  rola.)  -.—Dt  Joama 
Cralo  Rubiano  (Bonn,  186!)  —Zut  Cachicklt  du  Mit- 
IrblltTM  (ibid.  1864)  -.—Joiinm  Caluia,  tone  Kircki  und 
ion  Staat  «  <;«i/(Leip*ic  1869,  toL  i).  Sec  Zuchold, 
BiiL  ThtoL  i,  644 ;  Lileratitcktr  Uandatitr  JUr  dut 
kalMitche  DeultcUand,  1871,  coL  111  tq.i  IS73,  coL 
171  iq.     (a  P.) 

EainTTl-Klinmn  (iJuire  /or  dtatk),  modea  of  lui- 
cide  formeily  prescribed  in  the  HindU  Shaalria  (q.T.). 
The  eommoneat  mode  ia  drowning  in  the  Gangea,  but 
■ometimca  the  auicide  aubmita  to  being  buried  alive. 
There  waa  forraetly  an  inatrument  kept  by  which  a  per- 
aon  could  decapliaia  himself.  It  conaiated  of  a  aharp, 
eresccDt-ahaped  knife,  with  a  chain  and  uiirup  to  each 
born.  The  davotM  placed  the  aharp  edge  on  the  back 
of  his  neck,  and  his  feet  in  the  atiirupa,  then  gave  a 
violent  Jerk  with  hia  legs,  and  hia  bead  was  instantly 
severed  from  his  body. 

Kunali  or  Ashkb.  The  modem  village  X'lmi, 
which  has  uaually  been  identiOed  with  this  site.  Ilea 
seven  and  a  quarter  miles  aonth-eaat  of  Tyre  i  but  this 
ia  too  far  aouth  for  the  reqnirementa  of  the  Biblical  ac- 
count (Josh,  xii,  28).  The  anliquitin  in  Ibe  vicinity, 
including  the  remarkable  figure*  on  iho  rocks,  are  de- 
scribed in  the  tttmoirt  occompaDying  tbe  Ordnance 
Survey  (i,  64).  A  more  probable  poaition  is  that  of 
'Ait  ATonal,  "twenty  miles  farther  north,  on  the  edge 
of  tbe  billa^  tea  miles  inland,  but  in  sight  of  Sidou" 
XII.— R  B 


S  EAin'HAI 

(Ttistrao),  BOle  Plaea,  p,  296 ;  where,  howeTer,  the  au- 
thor confounds  the  description  of  this  with  that  of  the 
foregoing:  see  hia  Land  of  Itrad,  p.  AS).  It  liea  be- 
yond tbe  limits  of  the  Ordninoe  Surrey, 

KMlobellyaB,  s  Hindu  sect,  not  uncommon  in  tbe 
south  of  India,  whose  worship  ii  that  of  SaJai,  the  per- 
soniSed  energy  of  the  divine  nature  in  action.  Iliey 
insist  upon  a  community  of  women,  and  are  far  gone  in 


the  mrlbology  of  the  Finlanders,  is 
I  mniical  inMrament,  like  a  litJiaij  the  magicians  use 
it  in  all  their  magical  cures  and  conjuraiions. 

Konon.  in  Japanese  mythology,  waa  the  son  of 
Amido.  According  to  Ficard  (_CirimomtM  tt  Coatumi* 
Religiaaa,  vii),  this  god  is  half  fish,  half  man,  or  he 
enwla  out  of  the  throat  of  a  proporCionallj  large  flah, 
Tbe  form,  almost  entirely  fenule,  is  clothed  in  a  light 


Pignrs  of  Eanon. 


garment,  the  neck  decorated  with  pearls,  and  the  head 
with  dowers.  It  baa  four  hands,  two  of  which  are  lift- 
ed up,  and  two  are  down.  The  latter  carry  a  sceptre 
and  a  flower,  the  uplifted  right  hand  ia  closed  to  a  fist, 
the  left  carries  a  ring.  Before  this  figure  there  lies  a 
large,  open  Bea-ibelliOut  of  which  a  man  projecli  in  the 
position  of  worship.  This  idol  stands  in  the  temple  of 
the  god  St  Osaka,  where  it  is  worshipped  as  a  fiab  or 
aea  deity ;  alao  as  creator  of  aan  and  moon, 

K'jwthpl  yd  Hajiuahlak,  in  the  mytholt^  of 
the  Kamtchitkiana.  Our  figure  repreeenls  both  idoli 
of  the  north  Asiatic  nstiona,  especially  of  the  inhsb- 
Just  aa  they  aland  in  the  aacred 


Fignrea  of  Kintbal  and  BajoasUak. 


KAPALIEA 


626 


EARASS  VERSION 


comer  of  the  oommon  hut  where  the  man  keeps  his 
vespons.  They  g^nt  auooess  in  hunting  and  fishing, 
and  therefore  the  latter  is  represented  half  fish-formed. 
They  had  no  separate  cultus,  nor  temples,  nor  priests. 

Kapalilca,  a  sect  of  HindCis,  who  formerly  sacri- 
ficed human  yictims  to  Kali  and  other  hideous  monster 
gods.  The  devotee  of  this  sect  is  thus  described,  **  His 
body  is  smeared  with  ashes  from  a  funeral  pile,  around 
his  neck  hangs  a  string  of  human  skulls,  bis  forehead 
is  streaked  with  a  black  line,  his  hair  is  woven  into  the 
matted  braid,  his  loins  are  clothed  with  a  tiger's  skin,  a 
hollow  skull  is  in  his  left  hand  for  a  cup^  and  in  his 
right  he  carries  a  bell,  which  he  rings  incessantly,  ex- 
claiming aloud,  JIoI  iSambhu  Bkairava — Ho!  lord  of 

Kapfl^  SiXT  Carl,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  GOglingen)  Wtlrtemberg,  Oct.  22, 
1805.  He  studied  at  Tttbingen,  where  he  became  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  William  Hofacker.  After  fill- 
ing the  positions  of  vicar  at  Tuttlingen,  teacher  at 
Hofwyl,  and  rtpet&U  at  TCkbingen,  he  became,  in  1838, 
pastor  of  the  colony  of  pietists  at  Korathal.  In  1843 
he  was  dean  at  MUnsingen,  and  in  1847  at  Herrenberg. 
In  1860  he  was  made  general  superintendent  and  mem- 
ber of  the  superior  consistory,  and  in  1852  he  became 
the  greatly  beloved  and  infiuential  pastor  of  the  "Stifls- 
kirche,"  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  preached  twenty«seven 
years.  He  died  Sept.  1, 1879.  Kapff  was  the  most  per- 
fect representative  of  the  type  of  piety  prevailing  in 
Wttrtemberg  in  the  last  generation ;  as  a  preacher  he 
was  not  eloquent,  but  his  earnest  manner  won  the  heart. 
His  infiucnce  as  pastor  was  very  great,  and  3'et  he 
found  time  to  write.  He  published,  Predifften  uber  die 
alten  EvcmgeHen  det  Kirchenjahres  (8d  ed.  1875)  i—Pre- 
digtm  Uber  die  alten  Episteln  (6th  ed.  1880)  i—Commu- 
nionbuch  (19th  ed.  eod.),  etc.  See  Burk,  in  Plitt- 
Herzog,  Real-Encykhp, ;  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop,  det 
ScienctM  Religieutes,  s.  v.;  Carl  Kapff,  Lebensbitd  von 
Sixt  Carl  iTo;?/ (Stuttgart,  1881) ;  Zuchold,  nibL  Tkeol, 
i,640  8q.     (B.P.) 

Blapp,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  Dec  12, 1739.  He  studied  at  Leipsic 
and  Erlangcn,  was  in  1765  teacher  at  the  gymnasium 
in  Hof,  in  1774  doctor  of  philosophy,  in  1777  court- 
preacher  and  professor  of  theology  at  Bayreuth.  In 
1801  he  was  made  doctor  of  divinity,  and  died  Aug.  18, 
1817,  leaving,  Epittola  super  Dictis  Biblicit  Quibuidam 
Novi  Tettamenti  (Hof,  1767)  :—Paralipomena  de  Magit^ 
Matfk,  11,  1  sq.  ( 1771 ) :  —  Progr,  Periculum  Versionit 
Psalmi  Secundi  cum  Brevibus  ScholOt  (1781) : — Brevit 
Paraphrastica  ErpUcatio  Matlh,  9,  88-42  (1788),  etc. 
See  During,  Die  gelekrten  Theologen  DeuttchUxnda^  s.  v. 

(RP.) 

Kapp,  Johann  Erhard,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  March  23, 1696.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic,  was  in  1720  doctor  of  philosophy,  in  1727  pro- 
fessor, and  died  March  7,  1756.  He  published,  De 
NwmuUit  Indulgeniiarum  Quetstoribut  (Leipsic,  1720): — 
De  Ckry»o»thomi  adCtesareum  Monachum  Epistohj  etc. 
(ibid.  1728)  '.^NachkM  einiger  grdsttentheilt  nocA  tinge- 
druckten  Urkunden,  etc.  (4  parts,  1727-dS) :  —  ttittotia 
Concilii  Lateranensisy  etc.  (1731),  etc.  See  Ddring,  Die 
gelekrten  Theohgen  Deutschlands, s.  v.;  Winer,  ffandbuch 
der  tkeol  Lit.  i,  8,  684, 740, 760.     (R  P.) 

Kapp,  Johann  Georg,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  8, 1737.  He  studied  at  Jena, 
Leipsic,  and  Krlangen.  In  1761  he  was  preacher,  and 
in  1781  subdeacon  at  Bayreuth,  and  died  Oct.  11, 1814. 
He  published,  Confuno  homanenrium  circa  Pofestatem 
Papa  (Erlangeu,1768):— />c  Mentis  Pkilippi  Melanck- 
tkonU  (1794).  See  During,  Die  gelekrten  Tkeologen 
DeutsddandM,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Kara,  Joseph  ben-Simeon^  a  Jewish  writer  of  the 
11th  century,  is  the  author  of  n*^irn  C31*^B,  or  glosses 
on  Rashi's  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch ;  in  the  same 


manner  be  wrote  on  the  Prophets,  Job,  Ezra,  and  C3iioi»> 
ides,  and  the  five  Megilloth.  A  collection  of  gloases 
from  Kara's  commentaries  is  given  in  Q**3S;3  "t^ssa 
(Breslan,  1847) ;  the  commentary  on  Hosea  was  pub- 
lished from  a  MS.  in  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary 
at  Breslau  in  1861.  See  Zunz,  Gottesdienstlicke  Vor- 
irSge  der  Juden^  p.  801,  898 ;  2ur  Getckickte  vnd  Lite^ 
ratur,  p.  68-70;  Geiger,  BeitrS^  zurjSdiscken  Literature 
getckickte  (Breslau,  1847),  p.  17-29;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  ii, 
109  sq. ;  De'  Rossi,  Dixionario  Storico  (Germ.  tranaL), 
p.  157  8q.    (a  P.) 

Karaite-Tartar  (or  Crimean  Tartar)  Ver- 
sion OF  THE  Scriptures.  The  Karaite-Tartar  is 
veraacular  among  the  Karaite  Jews  of  the  Crimea. 
As  to  this  division  among  the  Jews,  see  Karaites. 
They  have  long  been  in  possession  of  a  Tartar  version 
of  the  Old  Test.  When  and  by  whom  it  was  made  is 
unknown.  When  Dr.  Pinkerton  was  travelling  in  the 
Crimea  he  purehased  a  complete  copy  of  this  version. 
The  two  books  of  Chronicles  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
inserted  in  this  version,  but  it  comprises  the  other  books 
of  the  Old  Test.  The  translation  is  such,  that  although 
the  words  are  mostly  of  Tartar  origin,  yet  it- would  not 
be  intelligible  to  any  Tartar  nation.  The  words  are 
ranged  in  exact  order  of  the  Hebrew,  and  the  style, 
construction,  grammatical  observances,  and  idioms  are 
all  conformable  to  the  Shemitic  type.  This  version  is, 
in  fact,  so  truly  Bdnrew  in  its  character,  that  to  the 
Turks  and  Tarurs  it  is  a  sealed  book.  See  Bible  of 
Every  Land,  p.  850. 

In  point  of  practical  utility  it  is  deficient,  and  for  this 
reason  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  only  pub- 
lished a  small  edition  of  the  book  of  Genesis  in  1819,  at 
the  mission  press  of  Astrakhan.  A  subsequent  edition 
of  the  entire  Old  Test,  was  published  by  the  Jews  of 
South  Bussia.  The  imperial  library  at  Su  Petersburg 
is  now  in  possession  of  some  codices  which  were  lately 
procured,  and  are  described  by  Strack  in  the  Catalog 
der  ffebr,  Bibelkandsckr\fien  der  haiterlieken  ojjfentlicken 
Bibliotkek  in  St,  Petersburg  (Leipsic,  1875),  p.  167  sq., 
which  he  conjointly  published  with  A.  Harkavy.  On 
page  189  we  find  the  first  three  verses  of  the  book  of 
Leviticus,  of  which  we  subjoin  the  first,  together  with 
the  Hebrew : 

nebrew.  -<  .      "^ 

It  mtist  be  observed  that  the  first  word  does  not  belong 
to  the  translation,  but  it  is  the  first  word  of  the  Hebrew 
text,  which  is  always  placed  at  the  beginning  of  each 
verse.  Dr.  H.  Dalton,  in  his  Das  Gebet  des  Uerm  m 
den  Spracken  Russkmds  (St.  Petersburg,  1870),  gives  the 
Lord*s  Prayer  in  the  Karaite-Tartar  which  was  prepared 
by  the  late  A.  Firkowitsch  (q.  v.).     (K  P.) 

Kara  laingia,  a  sect  of  Hindd  ascetics,  found  only 
occasionally  among  the  most  ignorant  portions  of  the 
community.  They  wander  about  in  a  nude  state,  and 
profess  to  worship  Siva. 

Karasa  (or  Torkiah-Tartar)  Version  of  thk 
Scriptures.  The  version  generally  denominated  the 
Karass  is  so  called  because  a  town  of  that  name,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  was  the  place  of  its  publica- 
tion. It  has  also  been  improperly  termed  the  Nogag 
version,  on  account  of  its  having  been  found  intelligible 
to  the  Nogata,  a  tribe  of  Tartars  dwelling  on  the  banks 
of  the  Kouban  and  Konma,  in  the  steppes  to  the  north- 
ward of  Mount  Caucasus.  A  more  correct  demgnation 
for  this  version  is  that  of  Turkisk'Tartar,  because  it 
consists  principally  of  words  that  betong  in  oommon  to 
the  Turks  and  Tartars.  It  exhibits  the  Turkish  Ian* 
guage  in  a  oomparatively  pure  state,  and  corresponds 
in  style  and  language  with  such  books  as  are  drcnlated 
among  the  Tartan  in  the  south  of  Russia,  and  is  there- 


Karalte 


■{ 


KAREN  VERSION 


627 


KASINA 


fora  Intelligible  to  all  the  different  Tartar  hordes  scat^ 
tcred  through  that  extensive  region. 

The  first  yersioa  of  the  Scriptures  written  in  this 
plain,  unadorned  Turkish  style  was  that  published  at 
Oxford  in  1666.  The  translation  was  made  by  William 
Seaman,  formeriy  chaplain  to  an  English  ambassador  at 
the  Porte.  This  version,  not  being  free  from  faults, 
was  used  by  Mr.  Brunton,  Scottish  missionary  at  Ka- 
rass,  as  the  basis  for  a  new  translation,  for  which  he  was 
eminently  fitted  on  account  of  his  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  language.  In  1807  he  published  the  gospel  of 
Matthew.  He  completed  the  translation  of  the  New 
Test,  and  died  while  it  was  carried  through  the  press. 
After  his  death  the  sheets  were  corrected  by  Mr.  Fra- 
zer,  and  the  edition  was  completed  in  1818.  In  1815 
another  edition  of  this  translation  was  published,  with 
a  few  emendations  and  an  introduction  by  Mr.  Dick- 
son, one  of  the  Scottish  missionaries,  who  also  under- 
took  a  translation  of  the  Old  Test,  about  the  same  time. 
The  Psalms  were  completed  and  published  at  Astra- 
khan in  1815,  and  a  second  edition  in  1818.  The  Pen- 
Uteuch  was  published  in  1878.  Other  books  of  the  Old 
Test,  were  translated,  but  not  printetl.  From  the  an- 
nual report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
for  1888,  we  learn  that  Mr.  Saleman  is  examining  the 
text  of  the  New  Test,  with  a  view  to  a  new  edition,  the 
previous  edition  having  been  exhausted.  From  the  re- 
port of  1884  we  learn  that  the  revision  of  the  New  Test, 
having  been  completed,  the  Bible  Society's  committee 
have  decided  to  print  a  new  edition,  and  that  the  re- 
viser is  now  engaged  in  examining  certain  MS.  trans- 
lations of  the  Old  Test,  handed  over  by  the  National 
Bible  Society  of  Scotland  to  the  British  Society.  See 
BibU  of  Every  Landy^.Wt.    (&P.) 

gardoio.    See  CABDoaa 

B^f^ri>n«ti  Venlon.    See  Russia,  Ykrsioxs  of. 

B^f^r^w  Veraion  or  thb  Scriptubcs.  Karen  is 
-  a  language  spoken  by  the  KareensyKarenes,  or  Careians, 
a  wild  and  simple  people  scattered  over  all  parts  of  the 
Burmese  territories,  and  of  the  British  provinces  of  Te- 
nasserim ;  they  are  also  found  in  the  western  portions 
of  Siam,  and  northward  among  the  Shyans.  See  £»- 
bU  of  Every  Land^  p.  15. 

Till  a  comparatively  recent  period,  however,  Karen, 
which  ia  remarkably  harmonious  and  well  adapted  for 
poetry,  was  totally  nnknown  to  Europeans.  About  1835, 
the  missionaries  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  Wade  and  Mason,  acquired  the  language,  and 
for  the  first  time  reduced  it  to  writing,  by  employing 
Che  Burmese  alphabet,  with  a  few  additional  characters 
to  express  the  peculiar  sounds  of  the  language.  These 
two  missionaries  translated  the  entire  New  Test  into 
Karen,  which  was  printed,  in  1843,  at  Tavoy,  by  the  aid 
of  the  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Besides 
the  translation  into  the  Karen,  translations  into  the  dif- 
ferent dialects  prevalent  among  the  Karens  were  made. 
The  Karen  has  four  principal  dialects,  the  Bghai,  Sgan, 
Pwo,  and  Mopgha.  Into  the  latter  dialect  nothing  has 
as  yet  been  translated.  As  for  the  others,  there  exist 
in  the 

Bgkai-'K€trmj  parts  of  the  Bible  published  since  1859, 
and  at  piesent  tfiere  are  published  Genesis,  and  twenty 
diapters  of  Exodna,  I^Mdlns,  St  James  and  St  John's 
epistles. 

PwO'Karm,  PSalms^  Daniel,  and  -Jonah  since  1861, 
added  to  which  was  Isaiah. 

SgaU'Karen,  the  Pentateuch  since  1864. 

The  Karen  language  has  been  treated  by  Wade,  in 
Grammar  of  the  Karen  Latifmage  (1861).    (B.  P.) 

Karma,  a  term  used  by  the  Buddhists  to  denote 
action,  both  meritorious  and  otherwise.  When  a  hu- 
man being  dies,  hb  Karma  is  transferred  to  some  other 
beiog,  regulating  allithe  eiicnnstances  of  his  existence. 

Kanna-vlaaya,  one  of  the  four  things  which,  ao- 
oording  to  Buddhists^  cannot  be  understood  by  one  who 
is  aot  «f  their  naoiber.    Karwuk-vitaya  denotes  how  it 


is  that  effects  are  produced  by  the  instrumentality  of 
Karma  (q.  v.)  The  other  three  things  which  only  a 
Buddhist  can  understand  are,  (1)  Irdki-visaya^  how  it 
was  that  Buddha  could  go,  in  the  snapping  of  a  finger, 
from  the  world  of  men  to  the  Brahma-Jokas ;  (2)  Ixfka- 
viaaya,  the  size  of  the  universe,  or  how  it  was  first 
brought  into  existence ;  (8)  Buddka-viaaya,  the  power 
and  wisdom  of  Buddha. 

Karrer,  Piiilif  Jacob,  a  Protestant  minister  of 
Germany,  was  born  at  Blemmingen,  Oct.  20, 1762.  In 
1818  he  was  called  as  dean  and  preacher  to  Kempten, 
Bavaria,  and  died  in  1834.  He  is  the  author  of,  Stun" 
den  der  Andacht  (Kempten,  1825): — Nachrichten  von 
den  proteetantiechen  Pfarrortem  im  Kimgreich  Baiern 
(ibid.  1825, 1826)  :— /V«fe  und  Gdfr&vche  in  der  katko- 
Utchen  und  protestantitchen  Kirdu  (Erlangen,  1829) : — 
DoM  geanderte  und  ungeanderte  aug^ryi$che  Glauhent- 
hehenntmu  (Kempten,  1830) : — Neue*  voUsfdndtg-richtig- 
hiUiachee  Spruchregister  (ibid.  1833).  See  Zuchold, 
BUjL  TheoU  i,  647;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i, 
785  i  ii,  264, 804, 317.     (R  P.) 

Kfliraten,  Hbrmahm  RuDou*n  A.,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  member  of  consistory  and  doctor 
of  theology  and  philosophy,  was  bom  at  Kostock,  May 
20, 1801.  In  1825  he  was  ordained  as  assistant  preach- 
er, and  in  1828  was  appointed  second  preacher  of  St 
Mary's^  at  his  native  place.  In  1848  he  was  called  as 
psstor  to  Dobberan,  at  the  same  time  being  appointed 
superintendent  of  his  diocese.  Two  years  later  he  was 
called  as  pastor  primariua  to  the  Schwerin  cathedral 
In  1876  he  retired  from  the  ministry,  and  died  March 
20, 1882.  He  is  the  author  of,  Lehrbuch  der  chrietlkken 
Rdigion  (Rostock,  1888):— Z>m  Kirche  und  dat  Symbol 
in  ikrem  imieren  Zueamtnenkange  (Hamburg,  1842)  : — 
Grundkkren  der  populdren  proteslantiacken  Dogmaiik 
(Rostock,  1847)  >— />»e  proteetanttscke  Kirche  u.  deren 
zeitgemoMee  Reorganizaiion  (Leipsic,  1850)  i^Die  letzten 
JHnge  (3d  ed.  Hamburg,  ISBl)  :  —  PopuUire  Symbolik 
(Ndidlingen,  18G0, 1868).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i, 
648.    (B.P.) 

Kartan.  The  aite  which  we  have  proposed  for 
this  is  marked  as  Khan  Katanah^  four  and  a  half  miles 
north  of  Safed,  on  the  Map  of  the  Ordnance  Survey, 
but  is  not  described  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs^ 
Tristram  suggests  {BibU  Placet^  p.  274)  a  trace  of  the 
name  in  Wady  Kerkerah,  which  he  vaguely  describes 
as  ^  running  down  to  the  sea." 

Kaahmir  VeraiozL    See  CSashmxrian  Yebsiox. 

Kaal  {the  magmJScent)  is  the  ancient  name  of  Be- 
nares, and  the  name  by  which  it  is  still  called  among 
the  Brahmins. 

TT^Tlnft  is  an  ascetic  rite  among  the  Buddhists,  by 
the  practice  of  which  they  hope  to  acquire  supernatural 
powers.  There  are  ten  descriptions  of  this  rite:  1. 
Pathawi,  earth;  2.  Apo^  water;  8.  T^,  fire;  4.  Wdyo^ 
wind;  5.  Nila^  bine;  6.  A7a,  golden ;  7.  Ldhita,  blood- 
red;  8.(7c2ito,white;  9.ilJiM»,light;  10.  Aibwa,  space. 

The  priest  who  performs  the  Pathawi4easina  forms 
a  small  circle  which  he  can  easily  fix  his  eye  upon. 
The  circle  must  be  of  day  of  a  light-red  color,  placed 
upon  a  frame  made  of  four  sticks,  covered  over  with  a 
piece  of  cloth,  a  skin,  or  a  mat,  upon  which  the  clay  is 
to  be  spread  free  from  foreign  substances.  After  pre- 
paring the  earth-circle  according  to  these  and  other 
directions  with  the  utmost  exactness,  the  priest  sits 
down,  and,  gaatng  upon  the  circle,  meditates  upon  the 
evils  arising  from  the  repetition  of  existence,  and  the 
best  modes  of  overcoming  them;  on  the  benefits  re- 
ceived by  those  who  practice  the  dhyanas  and  other 
modes  of  asceticism;  on  the  excellences  of  the  three 
gems;  and  he  must  endeavor  to  secure  the  same  ad- 
vanti^^  ^^  °>^^  continue  to  gaze  and  to  meditate 
until  he  receive  the  nemitta,  or  inward  illumination,  by 
which  all  scepticism  will  be  removed,  and  purity  at- 
tained. 


KATE 


628 


KEDESH 


In  performing  the  AfXhKanna  the  priest  pours  wa- 
ter into  an  alms -bowl  or  similar  vcssdy  and  having 
chosen  a  retired  place,  must  sit  down  and  meditate, 
gazing  upon  the  water,  and  reflecting  that  the  perspi- 
ration and  other  fluids  of  his  own  body  are  composed 
of  the  same  material. 

The  Tijo-Katina  is  practiced  by  taking  wood,  dry 
and  firm,  cutting  it  into  small  pieces,  and  pladng  it  at 
the  root  of  a  tree,  or  in  the  court  of  the  voiharoy  where 
it  must  be  ignited.  He  must  then  take  a  mat  made 
of  shreds  of  bamboo,  or  a  skin  or  a  cloth,  and  making 
in  it  an  aperture  one  sfian  and  four  inches  in  diameter, 
he  must  place  it  before  him;  and,  looking  through  the 
aperture,  he  must  meditate  on  the  fire,  and  reflect  that 
the  fire  in  his  own  body  is  of  a  similar  nature,  flickering 
and  inconstant. 

The  Wayo-Katina  is  performed  by  sitting  at  the  root 
of  a  tree,  or  some  other  convenient  place,  and  thinking 
of  the  wind  passing  through  a  window  or  the  hole  of  a 
wall;  the  NUa-Kasmay  by  gazing  on  a  tree  covered 
with  blue  flowers,  or  a  vessel  filled  with  blue  flowers, 
or  a  blue  garment  covered  with  flowers;  the  PUa-Ka- 
sina  by  gazing  on  a  golden-colored  object;  the  LokiiO' 
Katma  on  a  circle  made  with  vermilion ;.  the  OdatU' 
Katuta  on  a  vessel  of  lead  or  silver,  or  the  orb  of  the 
moon;  the  Aloka-Karina  by  gazing  on  the  light  pass- 
ing through  a  hole  in  the  wall  or  the  side  of  a  vessel; 
and  the  Akaia-Kanna  by  gazing  at  the  sky  through 
a  hole  in  the  roof  of  a  hut,  or  through  a  hole  of  the 
prescribed  dimensions  in  a  skin. 

From  the  practice  of  Kasina  in  any  one  of  its  forms 
a  Buddhist  expects  to  derive  many  advantages.  More 
especially  does  he  expect  the  power  of  working  mira- 
dea,  according  to  the  species  practiced.  The  Kasina  is 
exercised  in  fourteen  different  ways.  See  Hardy,  EaU- 
em  Manachitnif  p.  252  sq. 

Kate,  Gerhard  ten,  a  Dutch  theologian,  was  bom 
in  1699.  He  studied  at  Utrecht,  was  in  1724  professor 
at  the  Lingen  Gymnasium,  in  1728  of  philosophy  at 
Deventer,  in  1742  of  Oriental  languages  and  Church 
history  at  Harderwyck,  and  died  Nov.  28,  1749.  He 
wrote,  Z>e  Omnipreuentia  Dei  :^De  Regno  Dei  et  Chruii : 
-^De  Regni  Dei  et  Chisti  Fatis  inter  Gefdetc—De  Re- 
bus Jesu  Chriati  ex  Pi-opketia,  See  Jochcr,  A  UgemeixuM 
GeUhrten-Lexikon^  s.  v.     (H.  P.) 

Kftoffer,  JoiiANN  Ernst  Budolp,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1793,  at  Reichenbach, 
in  Upper  Lusatia.  In  1820  he  was  con-rector  at  Baut- 
zen, Saxony,  in  1824  professor  at  Grimma,  in  1830  sec- 
ond court-preacher  and  member  of  consistory  at  Dres- 
den, and  died  Sept.  10,  1865,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
published,  besides  a  number  of  sermons,  Examinatio 
Noviatima  BreUchneideti  de  loco  Rom,  r,  12  (Dresden, 
1834):— Z>«  Bibtica  ^ai^  alwviov  Notione  (ibid.  1838) : 
—Handbuch  fiir  den  Reiigioneunterricht  hdherer  Volkt- 
tchuUn  (ibid.  1849)  >-Ueberhlickder  GetchichUderchrief' 
licben  Kircke  (ibid.  1857)  :—BiUitche  Stvdien  (1842-46, 
4  vols.).  See  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  258 ;  ii, 
107, 2S4 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  654  sq.     (K  P.) 

Kaufioianxi,  Joh  ann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Nuremberg  in  1566.  He  studied  at 
different  universities,  was  in  1592  preacher  at  Witten- 
berg, in  1597  at  Bmnswick,  and  in  1611  at  Schweinfurt. 
He  died  May  8, 1616,  leaving.  Enchiridion  Ordinando- 
rum:—DeHamariig€nia: — Catechitmut  Lutheri  Afinor 
Notis  lUustratvs,  See  Rethmeycr,  Braunschtceit/iache 
Kirchen-fliatorie ;  Zeltner,  Bias,  de  Joh,  Kavfmann ;  Jo- 
cher,  AUffcmeinea  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Kauta,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Antilles  islands,  was 
a  mountain  of  caves  in  Hayti,  called  also  Quiaqueja, 
Two  of  these  caves  are  the  cradle  of  humanity.  The 
first  pair  were  guarded  here  by  a  mighty  giant,  until 
the  latter  was  petrified  by  the  sun^s  light. 

Kavanaush,  Hubbard  Hikde,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in 
Clark  County,  Ktm  Jan*  l^f  1^2,  and  was  of  Irish  ex- 


traction on  bis  (ather*s  side.  When  young  he  learned 
the  printing  business.  He  was  converted  at  sixteeo, 
and  at  twenty-one  became  an  itinerant  minister.  For 
some  years  he  was  engaged  in  the  work  of  a  circuit 
preacher,  but  graduaUy  rose  to  the  highest  positions  in 
the  Church,  and  in  1854  was  elected  bishop.  He  died 
March  19, 1884.  Before  the  division  of  the  Church  h« 
was  a  member  of  the  general  conferences  of  1832, 182C, 
and  1844,  on  the  last  occasion  leading  the  Kentucky 
delegation.  At  this  time  he  seems  not  to  have  taken 
any  public  part  in  the  debates  on  slaver}*,  though  h« 
fully  sympathized  with  the  position  of  the  Southern 
del^ates,  and  bis  name  was  signed  to  all  their  doca- 
ments.  Bishop  Kavanaugh  was  closely  identified  with 
the  Southern  Church  from  its  origin,  and  one  of  the 
most  vigorous  men,  phj-sically  and  intellectually,  that 
Methodism  has  placed  in  the  episcopacy.  His  presence 
was  commanding,  his  voice  good,  his  language  copioua, 
and  bis  power  in  the  pulpit  great.  See  (N.  Y.)  CAHis- 
tiitn  Advocate,  March  27,  1884;  Simpson,  Cydop,of 
Afethodiantf  s.  v. ;  Minutea  of  the  A  nnual  Con/erenoea  qf 
the  M.  E.  Church  South,  1684,  p.  155. 

Xayser,  August,  a  I^iestant  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Strasburg,  Feb.  14, 1821.  For  some  years  assistant 
librarian  at  the  university  of  his  native  place,  and  pri- 
vate tutor  from  1848  to  1855,  he  accepted,  in  1858,  a  call 
as  preacher  to  Stoasweiler.  In  1868  he  went  to  Nealiof, 
in  Alsace,  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Stras* 
burg  in  1878,  and  died  there,  June  17, 1885.  Kayaer 
belonged  to  the  so-called  liberal  Protestants,  and  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  Revue  de  ThMoffie.  He  pub- 
lished De  Juatim  Martyria  Dodrina  (Strasburg,  1850), 
but  his  main  work  is  Daa  vorexUiache  Buch  der  Urge^ 
achiehte  Israela  und  aetM  Eneeiterungen  (1874).    (B.  P.) 

Kaxan- Tartar  Veraion  of  the  ScRiFTuaks. 
The  Kazan-TartaiB  number  about  a  million  souls.  A 
translation  of  the  gospel  of  Matthew,  in  this  dialect,  waa 
prepared  by  professor  Ilminski,  which  was  printed  in. 
1878.  This  was  tentative.  The  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  being  satisfied  with  the  translator's  abili- 
ties, agreed,  in  1877,  to  print  the  gospels  in  the  Arabic 
and  Cyrillic  characters,  so  that  they  might  be  read  by 
Mohammedans  of  Kazan,  who  would  not  read  them  in 
the  Buss  character.  As  professor  Ilminski  proceeded 
very  slowly  in  the  preparation  of  the  gospels,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Dr.  Gottwald,  the  committee  agreed  to 
send  Mr.  Saleman,  of  the  University  librar}'*  for  six 
weeks  to  Kazan,  to  arrange  with  some  one  for  the  p|^- 
pose  of  bringing  out  a  New  Test,  in  the  language  of  the 
people,  adapted  from  some  of  the  sister  dialects.  Mr. 
Saleman  was  to  edit  the  work  at  St  Petersburg,  and 
refer  all  local  peculiarities  to  the  reviser  at  Kazan. 
This  was  agreeii  upon  in  1880.  During  the  year  1882 
the  gospel  of  Matthew,  translated  by  Mr.  Saleman,  waa 
printed  at  the  Kazan  University  Press,  under  the  care 
of  professor  Gottwsld,  the  censor's  authorization  having 
been  obtained  for  the  entire  New  Test.  In  addition  to 
the  gospel  of  Matthew,  that  of  Mark  is  to  be  printed 
during  the  year  1885.     (B.  P.) 

Ke,  one  of  the  entities  and  essences  in  the  dualistie 
system  of  the  Chinese  philosophers.  It  oonuats  of  mat- 
ter most  ethereal  in  its  texture,  and  may  be  styled  the 
ultimate  material  element  of  the  universe,  the  primary 
matter  which  acts  as  the  substratum  on  which  things 
endued  with  form  and  other  qualities  rest,  or  from 
which  they  have  been  gradually  evolved.  The  Ke, 
when  resolved  into  its  constituent  elements,  gives  birth 
to  two  opposite  essences,  Yang  and  Yin,    See  CniKA. 

Kedde,  Joiiamk,  a  German  Jesnit,  who  died  March 
27, 1657,  is  the  author  of,  EccUaia  Antigua  Romam- 
Catholka: — Examen  Re/ormata  Rdigionia: — Ilortulut 
S,  ScripturcB : — PalUum  Reformatm  Religionia : — ffor^ 
tuluM  Paaaionia  Chriati: ^Gloria  Vera  Eceleaia^  See 
Alegambe,  BibUoiheca  Scriptorum  Societatia  Jeau ;  J6- 
cher,  A  llgemeinea  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Kedeali  of  Issacbab  (or  Kiabion)  has  of  kte 


been  Triib  great  probability  idcnlilied  irilli  Teli  Abu 
Kudeii,  Ifiafi  l<to  miles  louth-easC  o/  LeJJtlD,  atid  de- 
■cribRl  ill  Ihe  iSrmoiri  iccompanying  llie  Onlnanoe 
Survey  (ii,  69)  IS  "An  artiBdal  mouml,  with  tncci  of 
niina,  Katlered  pottery,  mil  ghu);  and  on  tba  oonb  an 
flings." 

Kedesta  or  Napktali  is  now  repreaented  by  Kadtt, 
four  and  a  quarlai  mila  narth-w«t  of  thf  bke  oTHuleh ; 
ill  extcniive  ruina  are  copionaly  d««c>ibed  in  tba  Mt- 
moirt  (i,  226  aq.)  accompanying  the  Ordnanca  SuiTcy. 

Keeue,  Sahlui^  D.D.,  a  rroteacant  Epiacopal  cler- 
gvman,  waa  boin  in  Baltimnre  Cnuitly,  Mil.,  Mav  U, 
1734.  He  graduated  from  the  college  in  Philadeiphia 
in  June,  17&9;  mi  ordained  deacon  by  the  biahop  or 
Hochexec  in  tba  palace  at  Fulbam,  Enghiari,  Sept.  11, 
17£0i  aiid  pmbyler  eight  daya  after.  Ha  became  in- 
cumbent or  St.  Anii'a  patinh,  Md.,  March  SO,  1762 ;  of 
9t.Luke'<  pariah, Queen  Anne  County.  July  27,  I7GTi 
an<l  in  1779  be  wai  rrctoi  of  Cheitei  pviah,  which  he 
aerred  for  two  yeara,  and  iben  took  cha^e  oCSt.  Jnhn'a 
pariah,  Queen  Anne  and  Caroline  countiea,  probably  in 
connecliau  with  Si.  Luke'a,  when  be  remained  until 
1792,  living  on  bt>  own  eaute.  In  1803  he  appeara  id 
have  reugned  St.  Luke'a,  although  atill  reiiding  there, 
and  in  1806  he  became  rector  of  St.  Michael')  Church, 
Talbot  County,  where  he  remained  until  hia  death,  Hav 
e,  ISIO,  but  after  1807  ceaaed  to  be  il 


«ore: 


appoint 


n  178 


one  of  the  auperii 

and  one  of  the  alanding  commiltee  from  1788  to  1793. 

See  Spragur,  A  mail  nf  Iht  A  mtr.  PalpU,  t,  B 11. 

Kohana,  a  apcclei  of  dirinilion  by  arrowa,  prac- 
ticeil  by  the  ancient  Arabiaua.  Seven  blunt  arrowa, 
called  Ailam,  each  having  ■  particular  mark,  were 
placed  in  a  bag,  and  on«  was  then  drawn  out  and  the 
oracle  read  by  the  diviner.  It  waa  al»  a  custom  osed 
b.,ll,.4,y™,. 

Kebreln,  iloaiirii.  a  Raman  Catholic  theahigian  of 
Germany,  wai  bom  Oct.  20. 1808,  at  Hfldeahtim,  near 
Unyence.  Me  ttudied  at  Gieaaen,  waa  in  183£  teacher 
at  the  g}-mnaaiuni  in  Darmstadt,  in  1837  at  Mayence, 
in  185B  director  of  the  seminary  at  HonUbaui,  and 
died  March  15,  1876.  He  published.  Gfcliiekle  drr 
kaOolUcin  KatadbtrtdtamktU  (Ratisbon,  1843,2  vols.) ; 
—  Zar  Cttchiehtt  drr  dtaln^m  Bib^iibtritltmg  tor 


Lmhtr  (Stuttgart,  \^\):^K,ilh'-Utcht  Kirchadudtr. 
Il!l«mm,  Fialmtn  (1S59-OS,  3  vuIh.)  :  ~  Lulnaiicht  Se- 
gutaim  da  MillrluUeri  am  flamUdriflm  (1873) ;— Oil 
dtuUche  kathiAisckt  Litd  ia  tiintr  Kiaundxlung  (1874). 
(D.P.) 

Kelloli.  Tbe  modem  repreaenlalive  of  lhii,A:Aur- 
Wt  Kiln,  liea  aeven  mitea  caal  of  Deit-jibrin,  and  eight 
and  a  quarter  nortb-weat  of  Hebron,  and  ia  a  ruined 
village  with  two  ivella  Id  the  north,  and  a  Urge  leri- 
binth  to  the  south.  It  is  only  cumirily  mentioned  in 
the  Jfenwiri  accompanying  the  Onliiance  Survey  (iii, 
314).  In  the  neighborhood  weat  of  it  the  English  en- 
gineers " found  ■  sacred  place  dedicated  to  ffrby  Auo* 
nuiH,  Ihe  name  now  attacheil  to  a  aacred  tree  near  the 
ruin  called  Khurbet  Shermeh,"  which  lieuL  Conder 
explains  as  a  travesty  of  the  native  Nfph»a  Ntemana, 
or  "Monument  of  ihe  Faithful,"  and  equivalent  to 
Barolh  Salia,  which  Sozomen  says  (Ifiil.  Ecdri.  Tii,29) 
waa  Ihe  name  of  a  place  in  hia  day  ten  aladia  froai 
Keilah,  where  the  totnb  of  Mieali  waa  still  found  (Qvar. 
SlalrmeiU  of  "  i'al.  Eiplor.  Fund,"  July,  1877,  p.  142}. 

Kelm,  Carl  Theodor,  one  o(  the  moat  prominent 
theologians  of  Uermany,  was  boni  at  Stuttgart,  Dec  17, 
1825.  He  ttudied  at  Maulbronn  and  Ttlbingcn,  where 
Baiir  exercised  a  great  influence  on  Ijim.  Fur  aome 
time  pastor  at  F.nlingen,  he  was  called,  in  18C0,  as  pru- 
feaaor  of  New-Test,  exegeais  to  Zurich,  and  ia  1873  to 
(iiesKn,  where  he  died,  Nov.  17,  18TB.  Kelm  pub- 
lished. Die  Rrfonaatum  dtr  Rtii^HaA  Ubn  (Stutigart, 
1851);  —  Schie£bttc&t  R'/nrmalioJUgiichichle  bit  turn 
ang^rgtr  Rrichilag  (185C) : — AtiUnviiai  Blarrr,  dtr 
ichicObitche  R'/ormalor  (ISSO) :  —  K'/aniialiofablaatr 
iir  Radutladl  FMlmgm  (eod.).  When  he  went  to 
Zurich  be  turned  hia  studies  to  the  beginnings  of 
Christianity,  and  in  this  department  won  a  lasting  repu- 
tation by  the  following  works:  Die  gnehiditkhtWUrde 
Jaa  ChHMi  (Zurich,  1860)  i-ZW  gtKiichlHehe  Ckri. 
afu(I86o;  iiiA.\6Ge,y.—J>ii  GnchicHleJemvonKa' 
tara  (i8G7-72,3  vak;  Engl,  trantl.  Juui  ofNazanlk, 
Loud.  1873-82.  6  vols.),  a  life  of  Jesus  IVam  a  rational- 
iitic  itandpoini,  though  very  learned  and  inatiuctive^ 
A  popular  form  of  this  lire  orJaius  he  publiahed  under 
Ibe  title,  Die  Gnchidde  Jaa  nachdinErgtbmtien  heuiigir 
WiatBKAaJi  (Zurich,  1874 ;  U  ed.  IS7o).  At  Uieaaea 
he  published  CtUai  aahm  Worl  (1873),  and  Sre  yeara 
later  hia  loat  work,  .iua  dtn  Vrciriiienihum,    After 


EEIMANN 


630 


KENNARD 


bis  deatb,  H.  Zeigler,  his  literary  executor,  pobUshed 
from  MS.  Rom  und  dot  Chritimlhum  (BerliD,  1881),  a 
work  of  sterling  valae.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encydop. 
des  ScUncet  R^gieuset,  a.  v.,  and  tbe  sketch  by  Ziegler, 
prefixed  to  Rom  und  dot  ChruUnthwn,    (B.  P.) 

Keimann,  Christian,  a  Lotbenn  bymn- writer 
of  Germany,  was  bora  Feb.  27, 1607,  in  Bohemia.  He 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1643  con-rector  at  Zit- 
tau,  and  in  1639  rector.  He  died  Jan.  13, 1662.  Of 
bis  many  hymns  some  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish, as:  Meinen  Jetum  last  ich  nicht  ("Jesus  will  I 
never  leave,"  in  the  Moravian  Ifymn-book,  No,  892) : — 
Freuet  euch  ihr  Christen  alle  {"  O  rejoice,  ye  Christians, 
loudly,"  in  Chorale  Book  for  EnffUtnd,  No.  83).  See 
Koch,  Gesch.  d.  deulschen  Kirchenltedes^  iii,  869  sq. ;  KHm- 
mel,  Chr,  Keimann,  Ein  BeUrag  zur  Geschichte  des  Ziir 
iauer  Gymnasiums  (Zittau,  1856).     (B.  F.) 

Keith,  Alkxahdbr,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister 
of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  was  bora  in  Keith  Hall, 
Aberdeenshire,  in  1791.  He  received  bis  education  at 
Karischal  CoUege,  Aberdeen.  From  1816  to  1843  he 
was  a  clergyman  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scot- 
land, at  St.  Cyrus,  Kincardineshire,  and  subsequently  a 
minister  of  the  Free  Church,  but  for  many  years,  on 
account  of  failing  health,  he  was  unable  fo  attend  to 
parochial  duties.  The  first  edition  of  Evidences  of  the 
Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion^  Derived  from  the  Lit- 
eral Fulfilment  of  Prophecy,  a  work  which  became  a 
text-book  in  the  colleges  of  England  and  Scotland,  was 
published  in  1828  (last  ed.  by  his  son,  with  photographic 
illustrations).  Several  other  works  on  similar  subjects, 
among  which  was  Christianity  Demonstrated,  were  pub- 
lished between  1831  and  1861.  As  one  of  the  deputa- 
tion of  the  Scottish  Church  to  Palestine,  be  visited 
many  of  the  scenes  of  Scripture  prophecy,  and  an  ac- 
count of  this  mission  was  published  under  the  title  of 
A  Narrative  of  the  Mission  to  the  Jews.  Dr.  Keith 
died  at  Buxton,  Feb.  8, 1880.  See  N.  Y,  Observer,  Feb. 
18, 1880.    (W.  P.  a) 

Kelam  (the  science  of  the  Word),  a  term  used  by 
the  Mohammedans  to  describe  their  scholastic  divinity. 
The  writings  on  the  Kelam  are  very  numerous,  and 
very  diverse  in  their  teachings. 

Kellach.    See  Ckllacb. 

Kellaoh  (1),  a  Scoteh  prelate,  was  bishop  of  St. 
Andrews  before  the  year  892  or  893,  and  held  a  pro- 
-vincial  council  under  king  Constmntine  IH  in  906L  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  6. 

Kellach  (2),  a  Scoteh  prelate,  was  chosen  bishop 
of  St.  Andrews  about  971,  and  confirmed  by  the  pope. 
He  raled  this  see  twenty-five  years,  and  died  in  996. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  6. 

KeUer,  Andreas,  a  Swiss  theok>gian,  was  bora  at 
Schaffhauaen  in  1756.  For  a  time  preacher  of  the 
Waldensian  congregation  at  Neuhengstrett,  WUrtem- 
beig,  he  was  called  to  Illnau,  in  the  Zurich  canton,  and 
died  in  1884.  He  is  the  author  of  Kurzer  Abriss  der 
Geschichte  der  Wurtemberger  Waldmser  (Tubingen, 
1796).    (RP.) 

Keller,  Oeorg  Heimlch,  a  Lotheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1624.  He  studied  at  Tubin- 
gen, was  in  1658  deacon,  in  1659  superintendent,  in  1670 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  Tttbingen,  and  died 
Oct.  1, 1702.  He  wrote,  De  Remissione  Peccatorum  in 
Veteri  Testamento  contra  Joh,  Coccejwnc-^De  Rrfor^ 
maiione  Ecclesia:—De  Convementia  et  Disconvenientia 
AharbamUs  inter  Mosen  et  Jeremiam  ad  Deul,  xviii, 
15-18  :^De  Messia  Jehovah  ad  Psa.  U,  7.  See  Fisch- 
hn,Memoria  Theologorum  Virtcmberyensium ;  Jocher, 
AOyemeines  Gekhrten^Lexilum,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Kelts.    See  Cbltig  Rjclioiok. 
Kemglsel.    See  Cemoillx. 
Kemons,  in  African  mythology,  is  the  only  relig- 
ious festival  celebrated  by  the  Abysnnian  negroes  in 


the  country  of  Darbaiga,  to  their  god  Mnasa  Gozxa,  bj^ 
sacrificing  a  cow. 

Kemp  (or  Kempe)^  Johh,  a  distinguished  Ang- 
lican prelate  and  statesman,  was  bora  at  Olantcigh,  in 
the  parish  of  Wye,  County  Kent.  He  went  to  school  at 
Canterbury;  became  a  fellow  of  Merton  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  graduated'  in  laws ;  but  confined  his  practice 
to  canon  law;  and  in  1418  was  employed  as  a  military 
man,  to  hold  musters  at  Caen,  and  to  inspect  troopa. 
The  fint  dignity  to  which  he  was  called  was  the  arch* 
deaconry  of  Durham ;  it  does  not  appear  when  he  was 
appointed,  but  he  was  in  possession  of  it  in  1419.  In 
January  of  the  same  year  Kemp  was  elected  to  the  se^ 
of  Rochester.  The  following  year  Henry  V  made  him 
keeper  of  his  privy  seal ;  and  within  two  yean  he  was 
nominated  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Normandy.  He 
was  transUted  to  the  see  of  Chichester,  Feb.  28, 1421 ; 
was  again  translated,  and  sat  as  bishop  of  London,  Nor. 
17  of  the  same  year.  On  his  appointment  as  a  member 
of  tbe  council,  which  took  place  immediately  after  the 
accession  of  Henry  Yl,  Kemp  resigned  the  great  seal 
of  Normandy.  He  was  sent,  in  May,  1423,  with  a  letter 
from  the  council,  in  the  king's  name,  to  the  duke  of 
Bedford,  regent  of  France ;  and  was  also  commissioned 
to  thank  the  regent,  in  the  name  of  the  king,  for  his 
diligence  and  service  in  the  government  of  France  and 
Normandy.  In  February,  1424,  he  was  sent  to  the 
marches  of  Scotland,  to  treat  for  the  release  of  the  king 
of  Scots.  About  a  month  before  his  translation  to  tbe 
see  of  York,  which  occurred  in  1426»  Kemp  was  ap- 
pointed to  succeed  Beaufort  as  lord  high  chancellor  of 
England,  which  office  he  reteined  six  years,  and  then 
retired  on  the  plea  of  ill-health.  He  resumed  this  of- 
fice, however,  in  1450.  In  1483  he  was  chosen  to  rep- 
resent the  Church  of  England  at  the  Council  of  Basle; 
he  was  also  in  the  year  following  at  the  head  of  an  em« 
bassy  to  France,  and  again  in  1439.  In  the  latter  year 
Kemp  was  created  cardinal-priest,  with  the  title  of  St. 
Balbina.  He  established  a  college  at  Wye  as  early  aa 
1431.  He  enjoyed  many  important  positions  up  to 
1452,  when  he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Cantertniry, 
July  21.  Kemp  attended  to  his  duties  faithfully  to 
the  last.  He  died  suddenly,  Feb.  24, 1454.  See  Hook, 
Lives  of  the  Arehbishcps  of  Canterbury,  v,  188  sq. 

Kemper,  Joiiamn,  a  convert  from  Judaism,  and 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  arehaology  at  Upeala,  where 
he  died  in  1714,  translated  the  New  Test,  into  Hebrew, 
with  annotAtiona.  Under  the  title,  nCQ  ^pO,  he 
wrote  an  apology  of  Christianity,  based  upon  tbe  famoua 
cabalistic  storehouse,  the  Zohar.  A  specimen  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title.  Phosphorus  Orthodoxa  Fidei  .  .  . 
ex  Pervetusto  LUnro  Sohar  Deprompta,  by  A.  Norrel 
(Amsterdam,  1720).  See  Jocher,  Allyemeines  GeUhr^ 
ten-Lexihon,  s.  v. ;  FUrat,  BM,  Jud,  s.  v.  •«  Krakowia;** 
Delitzsch,  Wissenschaft,  Kunst,  Judenthum,  p.  804  sq. 
(B.  P.) 

Kendall,  Jamks,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Sterling,  Mass.,  Nov.  8, 1769.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  College  in  1796,  passed  two  yeara 
as  assistant  teacher  in  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  at 
the  same  time  pursuing  bis  theological  studies  under 
the  direction  of  Rev.  Dr.  Tappen,  professor  of  divinity 
at  Harvard  College;  was  licensed  by  tbe  Andover 
Association  in  1795;  in  the  same  year  was  chosen  tutor 
of  Greek  in  the  college,  and  removed  to  Cambridge. 
He  commenced  preaching  at  Plymouth,  as  a  candidate, 
in  1799,  and  was  ordained  there  in  January,  1800.  He 
was  the  sole  pastor  of  the  Church  for  thirty-eight  years, 
preaching  frequently  in  other  pulpita,  and  died  Mftrch 
17, 1859.  Dr.  Kendall  published  a  great  many  single 
sermonsk  In  his  theological  views  he  is  briieved  to 
have  been  an  Arian.  See  Sprague^  A  fmats  of  the  A  «cr. 
PulpU,  viii,  427. 

Kengllliis.    See  Cbhoillb. 

Kennard,  JoaspH  H.,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Baptist 


EEKNEY 


091 


HJfiRR 


minitter,  wm  bom  of  Quaker  pazentag«  near  Haddoi" 
flcM,  N.  Jn  April  24, 1798.  White  residing  in  Wilmiog- 
ton,  DeL,  he  became  a  Christian,  and  united  with  the 
Baptist  Church  in  that  city,  where  he  was  licensed  to 
preach,  Sept.  5,  1818.  In  1819  he  was  agent  for  for- 
eign missions  in  Delaware  and  New  Jersey.  He  became 
pastor  in  Bnrlington,  N.  J.,  Nov.  14, 1819,  and  in  Janu- 
ary, 1822,  of  the  Scoood  Hopewell  (N.  J.)  Church,  where 
he  remained  until  called  to  the  Bloekley  Church,  in  what 
was  then  the  sobnrbe  of  Philadelphia,  Oct.  1, 1828.  His 
labors  in  this  field  were  abundant  and  successfuL  He 
acted  also  as  a  nussionary  in  all  the  section  of  country 
around  his  home.  In  January,  1832,  he  became  pastor 
of  what  is  now  the  Fourth  Baptist  Church  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  six  years  thereafter  of  the  Tenth  Baptist 
Church,  where  his  labors  were  attended  with  remark- 
able success.  He  died  there,  June  24, 1866.  With  all 
the  great  benevolent  societies  of  his  own  denomination 
he  was  in  hearty  sympathy,  and  with  a  truly  Christian 
spirit  he  labored  with  his  brethren  of  other  denomina- 
tions for  the  promotion  of  the  cause  of  God  and  humanity. 
See  J.  Spencer  Kennard*s  Memoir  (Am.  Bapt.  PubL  Soc., 
Phila.).    (J.a&) 

Blennere,  Sawt,    See  Cainner. 

Kenney,  Wrslky,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Washington  County,  Pa.,  Hay  8, 1808. 
He  was  converted  in  his  nineteenth  year,  licensed  to 
preach  in  1881,  and  in  1832  entered  the  Pittsburgh  Con- 
ference. His  fields  of  labor  were :  Connellsville  Circuit ; 
Washington,  Pa.;  Liberty  Street,  Pittsburgh;  Wheeling, 
Ya. ;  agent  for  Allegheny  College ;  Smithfield  Street, 
Pittsburgh;  Beaver  Street,  Allegheny  City;  Wheeling; 
presiding  elder  of  Barnesvtlle  District,  O. ;  secretary  of 
the  Wesleyan  Sabbath  Union,  Washington,  Pa.;  and 
Chaplain  Street,  Wheeling.  In  1852  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Newark  Conference,  wherein  he  served  Central 
Church  and  Clinton  Street,  Newark ;  in  1855  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Philadelphia  Conference,  wherein  he  ser\-ed 
Trinity  Church  and  Wharton  Street,  Phila. ;  Asbury, 
Wilmington,  Del.;  Fifth  Street,  Phila.;  St.  Stephen's, 
Uermantown;  idle  one  year,  1866;  £aston,Md.,  1867-69; 
Oilessa,  Del.,  1870-72 ;  presiding  elder  of  Dover  District, 
Wilmington  Conference,  from  1873  till  his  death  in 
Smyrna,  DeL,  June  24, 1875.  Dr.  Kenney  was  well  edu- 
cated, though  not  a  college  gradimte.  He  excelled  as 
a  preacher,  a  model  in  pathos,  clearness,  instructivencss, 
and  spirituality.  See  Minute*  of  Armual  Conferences^ 
1876,  p.  29. 

Kenresi,  in  Thibetan  mythology,  is  the  mighty 
arranger  of  chaoa.  Not  bom  of  men,  but  created  by  the 
supreme  god,  he  adopted  as  an  ape  the  name  Prairvupo^ 
took  the  goddess  Kadroma  as  female  ape,  by  the  name 
of  Prasrinmo,  and  populated  Thibet,  from  whence  the 
whole  earth  became  inhabited.  We  find  him  in  a  sec- 
ond incarnation,  under  the  name  of  Gnia-^kriu^kengo, 
in  Thibet,  where  he  was  teacher  of  the  people,  law- 
giver, and  king.  He  taught  them  agriculture,  civilised 
them,  and  left  the  kingdom,  which  he  had  reigned  over 
for  ninety-one  years,  to  his  sons,  of  whom  there  were 
twenty-two,  who  tc^ther  ruled  one  thousand  one  hun- 
dred and  two  years. 

Keraxnianfl,  a  Mohammedan  sect,  deriving  their 
name  from  their  founder,  Blohammed  ben-Keram,  who 
maintained  that  God  is  possessed  of  a  bodily  form. 

Keraxl,  a  Hindd  sect  who  worshipped  Devi  in  her 
terrific  forms,  and  were  wont  to  offer  up  human  sacri- 
fices. The  only  votaries  belonging  to  this  sect  still 
remaining  in  India  are  those  who  inflict  upon  them- 
selves bodily  tortures,  and  pierce  their  flesh  with  hooks. 

Kerbela,  among  the  Mohammedans,  is  a  place  held 
by  the  Shiltes  (q.  v.)  aa  peculiarly  sacred,  because  it  is 
the  seat  of  the  tomb  of  Hossein  (q.  v.),  the  son  of  AIL 
It  is  situated  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  twenty. eight  miles 
north-west  of  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  It  is  a  favorite 
place  of  pilgrimage  to  the  Persian  Mohammedans,  who 


eany  away  small  porttona  of  the  sacred  soil,  put  it  in 
little  bags,  which  they  place  before  them  during  their 
devotions  to  bow  their  heads  upon,  and  thus  worship  on 
holy  ground.  The  pilgrims  resorting  annually  to  Ker- 
bela are  estimated  at  eighty  thousand,  and  they  bring 
with  them  from  Persia  eight  thousand  oorpaea  annually 
to  be  interred  in  the  sacred  spot. 

Kerfoot,  JoRM  Barbbtt,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  March  1, 
1816,  and  educated  at  Flushing  Institute  and  St.  PauFs 
College,  New  York,  where  he  graduated  in  1884.  He 
took  deacon's  orders  in  1837,  and  priest's  in  1840; 
became  president  of  St  James's  College,  Maryland,  in 
1842,  and  continued  in  that  relation  till  1864,  when  he 
became  president  of  Trinity  College.  He  was  conse- 
crated biahop  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Jan.  25, 1866,  and  re- 
mained in  that  office  until  his  death,  July  10, 1881. 

Kerioth  of  Simbon.  Its  probable  representative, 
Khurhet  el'Kureiiei/t,  lies  twelvr  miles  south  of  Hebron, 
and  is  thus  described  in  the  Manoirs  accompanying  the 
Ordnance  Survey  (iii,  409) : 

"Tracea  of  a  large  rain  and  caves;  apparently  a  large 
town. 

**Ga6rin  says  that  the  ruius  cover  an  extent  of  st  least 
160  metres  in  circumference.  The  direction  of  many 
streets  can  still  be  dlstlnffuished.  The  houses,  whose  re- 
mains are  strewn  everywhere  over  the  ground,  appear  to 
have  been  conatructed  of  materials  regularly  cut ;  most 
of  them  had  caves  or  cellars  below  them,  cut  fn  the  rock. 
He  also  observed  at  the  western  end  of  the  site  the  ruins 
of  a  Christian  church,  forming  a  rectangle,  lyin?  east  and 
wear.  Heaps  of  well-cnt  stones  marked  its  outline.  It 
was  80  paces  loof;  by  17  broad,  aud  was  preceded  by  a 
square  alrinm  87  paces  on  each  side." 

KerlcaesBandi,  in  Hindd  mythology,  was  the  first 
Buddha,  who  appeared  at  the  time  when  men  reached 
the  age  of  forty  thousand  years,  to  take  their  sins  upon 
him.  He  does  not  now  reign ;  the  present  regent  is  the 
fourth,  and  is  called  Shagkiamuni. 

Kern,  Frledrloh  Heiurlch,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  April  20, 1750,  and  died  at 
Tubingen,  Feb.  8, 1842,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology. 
He  wrote,  Observatumei  ad  Librum  Jobi  (Tubingen, 
1826)  i—CommentationiM  de  Virtuie  Chrittiana  (part  i, 
\9^y.'-DerBrirfJaMi  mUersuekt  umd  erJddrt  (1838). 
See  Zuchold,  BibL  Theoi,  i,  666;  Winer,  Ilcmdbuch  der 
£Aeo/.  Zir.  i,  16, 206, 485.    (B.P.) 

Kero,  Gk>ttlob  ChxUtian,  a  Lutheran  hymn- 
writer  of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  18, 1792.  He  studied 
at  Tubingen,  was  in  1820  deacon  at  Besighein,  Wurtem- 
berg,  in  1824  professor  at  the  theological  seminary  in 
Schonthal,  and  died  Aug.  5, 1835.  Of  his  many  hymns, 
one  has  been  translated  into  English:  Wie  hOmU* 
ick  tein  vergeeten  ("Oh,  how  could  I  forget  Him!"  by 
Wink  worth,  Lifra  Germaniea,  ii,  142).  Kem*s  sermons 
were  published  by  W.  Hoffmann  and  L.  Volter,  Stutt- 
gart, 1887.  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TkeoL  i,  666;  Koch, 
GetfA,  d.  deutscAen  Kircheniiedes,  vii,  210  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Kern,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
w^  bom  July  80, 1766.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  and 
Gottingen,  was  in  1781  professor  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Ulm,  and  after  1790  preacher  there  besides.  He  died 
Jan.  17,  1801,  leaving,  AUfftmeine  Chronologie  fwr  die 
ZeUm  nach  Chritti  Geburi  (Leipsic,  1779)  :—Der  Katho* 
lidmnue  und  der  Protetfantismus  in  ikren  pegeneeHigen 
Verhditniuen  (Ulm,  1792)  :^Die  Lekrc  von  Gott  (1796) : 
—  Die  Lehre  von  der  FreiheU  und  Untterblichkeit  der 
mentcMicAen  SeeU  (1797).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrien 
Theologen  DeuUchUtndSf  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Bandbuck  der 
iheol  Lii.  i,  405,  412.     (a  P.) 

Kemunos,  in  Gallic  mythology,  was  a  god,  repre* 
sented  with  horns  and  deer-ears,  on  a  baa-relief  found 
at  Notre-Dame,  Paris,  in  1702. 

Kerr,  Richard  Hall,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman, 
was  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  Feb.  8, 1769.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Trinity  College  in  1788,  was  ordained  and 
appointed  domestic  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Sodor  and 
Man  in  1789,  and  in  the  following  year  went  out  to 


EESSEN 


632 


KETTELL 


India,  where  he  was  appointed  principal  of  the  Porta- 
guese  College  at  Mankeim,  Bombay.  In  1798  he  be- 
came one  of  the  Eoat  India  Company's  chaplains;  in 
1796  the  superintendent  of  the  Military  Male  Orphan 
Asylum  at  Egmone,  Madras;  and  in  the  same  year  jun- 
ior chaplain  of  Fort  St.  George,  which  office  he  held  in 
addition  to  the  presidency  of  the  orphanage.  In  1804 
he  was  appointed  senior  chaplain  of  Madras,  in  which 
position  he  labored  earnestly  till  his  death,  April  15, 
1808.  Dr.  Kerr  was  an  accomplished  scholar,  an  im- 
pressive preacher,  and  very  zealous  in  all  his  duties.  See 
The  (Lond.)  Chi-istian  ObseiTer,  Feb.  1812,  p.  80, 150. 

Keahub  Chimder  Sen.    See  Skn. 

Kesflen,  Andrew,  LL.D.,  a  Wesleyan  preacher,  the 
son  of  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland, 
was  born  in  Glasgow  in  1814.  He  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  that  city,  from  which  he  received  his  de- 
gree, early  united  with  the  Methodists,  began  to  exhort 
at  the  age  of  lifteen,  was  receiveil  by  the  British  Wes- 
leyan  Conference  in  1840,  and  devoted  all  his  attain- 
ments to  the  missionary  cause.  For  fifteen  years  he  was 
principal  of  the  Government  Normal  Training  Institu- 
tion in  Colombo,  Ceylon,  fur  native  Christian  school- 
masters. He  was  eminently  fitted  for  such  work  by  bis 
scholarly  attainments,  his  gift  of  teaching,  and  his  inter- 
est in  the  work.  On  his  return  to  England  he  devoted 
several  years  to  the  training  of  missionary  students. 
Ilis  pastoral  labors  were  unwearied;  his  unassuming 
kindness  made  him  the  true  friend  of  the  poor,  and  his 
genial  disposition  won  the  love  of  all.  His  life  was 
pure  and  upright,  and  his  piety  was  beautiful  in  its 
unaffected  meekness,  its  implicit  trustfulness,  and  its 
ardent  catholicity.  He  resided  in  London  during  the 
latter  part  of  hin  life.  Kessen  died  while  on  a  visit  to 
Jersey,  July  19, 1879.  See  Minutes  of  the  BrUith  Con- 
fereticft  1879,  p.  40. 

Kesaler,  John  S.,  D.D.,  a  learned  and  pious  minis- 
ter of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Switz- 
erland, Aug.  19, 1799.  "  After  graduating  at  the  canton 
school  of  Chur,  he  pursued  and  completed  his  theolog- 
ical studies  at  the  University  of  Basle  in  1821,  and  soon 
after,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-two,  he  was  ordained 
to  the  gospel  ministry  at  Devos,  in  the  canton  Glaris." 
In  this  field  he  labored  up  to  1840,  when  he  emigrated 
to  America,  and  became  pastor  of  several  congregations 
in  the  vicinity  of  Woodstock,  Va.  In  1845  he  received 
a  call  to  become  assistant  pastor  to  the  Rev.  J.CBucher, 
in  Reading,  Pa.  He  removed  to  Baltimore  in  1847, 
and  took  charge  of  a  German  congregation  lately  or- 
ganized. In  this  chaise  he  spent  seven  years  of  ear- 
nest labor,  when  he  was  called  to  assist  his  son  in  carry- 
ing forward  an  institution  established  in  Allentown,  Pa., 
to  train  young  men  for  the  profession  of  teacliing.  In 
connection  with  his  duties  in  the  seminar}*,  he  also  had 
charge  of  several  country  churches.  Here  he  ended 
his  long  and  useful  life,  Dec.  22, 1804.  Dr.  Kessler  was 
a  man  of  superior  talents,  finished  education,  amiable 
disposition,  and  great  humility.  He  contributed  largely 
to  the  KirehenzeitUHfff  and  also  to  Dr.  SchafTs  Kirchen- 
freundj  and  is  the  author  of  an  unfinished  work,  Bibli- 
cal Dictianaty.  He  also  aided  in  getting  up  a  German 
hymn-book  for  the  use  of  the  Reformed  Church.  See 
Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  the  Germ.  Re/,  Church,  iv,  167- 
174.     (D.  Y.  H.) 

Kestner,  Christian  August,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1794,  and  died  at  Jena, 
Oct.  27, 1821,  professor  of  theology.  He  is  the  author 
of,  U^r  dtn  naiurhistoriaehen  Kampf  unter  den  beiden 
ersten  Anionineny  etc.  (Jena,  1818)  i— Die  Agape  unter 
Damitian't  Regierung  (1819)  i—Dt  Euselni  A  uctoritate  et 
Fide  (1815).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  578, 
676»  892.     (B.  P.) 

Kethubah  (nn^ns,  witten,  i.  e.  the  Jewish  mar- 
riage contract).    See  Mabriaok. 

Ketteler,  Wilhelm  Emanuel,  baron  ron,  an  emi- 


nent German  ecdeatastic,  was  bom  in  MUnster,  West- 
phalia, Dec.  25, 1811,  of  a  noble  race,  renowned  in  Ger- 
man annals  in  the  Church  and  in  the  field.    From  1824 
to  1828  he  went  to  the  Jesuit  College  at  Brieg,  thenoe 
to  the  universities  of  G5ttingen,  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and 
Mmiich.    At  Heidelberg  he  had  as  fellow-student  von 
Bismarck,  afterwards  prince-chancellor  of  the  German 
empire.    In  1883  the  young  baron  entered  the  army, 
and  from  1884  to  1888  he  occupied  important  civic  po- 
sitions in  his  native  town.    In  the  latter  year  he  re- 
turned to  Munich  to  study  theology;  in  1844  he  was 
ordained  priest,  and  was  pastor  at  Beckum,  Westphalia, 
two  yean,  Hopsten,  three  years,  and  provost  of '  the 
Church  of  St.  Hedwige,  Berlin.     In  1848  he  received 
into  the  Roman  Church  the  distinguished  authoress, 
Ida,  countess  of  Hahn-Hahn.     In  1850  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  bishopric  of  Mayence,  where  his  labors  were 
incessant  and  fruitful     He  reopened  the  Episcopal 
Seminary,  which  had  been  closed  for  a  quarter  of  a 
centnr>'.  May  1,1851,  and  furnished  it  with  a  fine  staff 
of  professors.    After  twenty-five  \Qa.n  it  was  closed  by 
order  of  the  German  government.    Monsignor  von  Ket- 
teler opened  the  smaller  Seminary  of  Mayence,  Aug.  11, 
1864,  and  May  8, 1889,  the  one  at  Dreiburg,  both  of 
which  disappeared  under  the  new  German  code.     He 
conducted  numerous  conferences  and  retreats,  revived 
the  ecclesiastical  spirit,  introduced  severe  examinations, 
and  reinvigoratcd  the  body  ecclesiastic  of  his  diocese. 
In  1850  bishop  von  Ketteler  recalled  to  Mayence  the 
order  of  Capuchins ;  in  1858  he  reinstalled  the  Jesuits 
in  his  diocese;  in  1854  he  established  at  Mavence  a 
congregation  of  Franciscan  Sisters,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  care  for  the  indigent  sick;  in  1856  he  founded  an 
asylum  for  unemployed  <!lomestics;  in  1854  the  countess 
of  Hahn-Hahn  established  at  his  suggestion  a  convent 
of  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  wherein  the  pious  ftnm- 
dress  remained  till  her  death.     Two  vears  after  he  in- 
troduced  the  Sisters  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration.    In 
the  same  year  he  founded  the  orphanage  of  St.  Mary  at 
Neustadt  for  poor  and  unprotected  girls,  and  placed  it 
under  the  direction  of  the  congregation  of  Finthen  (a 
village  near  Mayence),  a  charitable  association  of  re- 
ligious women,  devoted  to  the  free  instruction  of  the 
poor,  which  he  himself  had  founded  in  1851.    For  poor 
orphans  he  instituted  the  hospital  of  St  Joseph  at  Klein- 
ziromem,  also  a  school  of  the  Christian  Brothers  at 
Mayence.     In  the  last-named  year  he  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Catholic  Working-men's  Circle,  which  has 
many  thousand  members  in  Germany,  and,  as  a  com- 
panion to  it,  the  Catholic  (^sino,  established  at  the 
Hotel  Frankfort^  Mayence.    Baron  von  Ketteler  was  at 
once  a  patriotic  German  and  a  devoted  son  of  the  Church. 
He  was  equally  effective  in  the  national  assembly,  on 
the  platform,  and  in  the  pulpit.    He  was  a  man  of  gi- 
gantic frame,  princely  bearing,  tempered  by  Christian 
sweetness,  a  model  for  his  priests,  and  beloved  by  hia 
people.     When  on  his  fifth  visit  to  Rome,  in  1877,  to 
assist  in  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  episcopate  of 
Pius  IX,  he  caught  the  typhoid  fever,  of  which  he  died, 
July  18  of  the  same  year.   Von  Ketteler*s  literary  works 
were  mostly  of  a  polemical  character,  mainl}*  on  ques- 
tions of  present  interest,  bearing  the  stamp  of  his  in- 
trepid character,  practical  mind,  and  vast  knowledge  of 
men  and  books.    See  (N.  Y.)  Cath,  A  ImanaCy  1878,  p.  81, 
Kettell,  Georok  F.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
divine,  was  bom  in  Boston,  May  18, 1817.    He  received 
an  exhorter's  license  in  1840,  in  1841  was  licensed  to 
preach,  and  soon  took  charge  of  the  Church  in  Haddam, 
Conn.     In  1847  he  was  received  into  the  l^ew  York 
Conference,  and  became  pastor  successively  at  Haddam, 
Madison,  and  Windsor,  Conn.    In  1847  he  was  appoint- 
ed pastor  of  Vesey  Street  Church,  New  York  city. 
Afterwards  he  had  charge  of  churches  in  Ponghkeepsie, 
Rhinebeck,  Philadelphia,  and  Brooklyn.    He  died  in 
the  last-named  place,  March  19, 1888.    Dr.  KettcU  was 
a  most  eflicient  preacher  and  paator.     He  brooght  the 
principles  of  divine  revcUtioo  to  bear  upon  qnestions 


KEUX 


633 


EHORS 


of  practicAl  ethics  with  a  subtle  power  that  tmoonted 
to  genius.  Some  of  these  sermons  are  said  to  have  been 
attended  with  remarkable  power.  See  Mmutet  of  An- 
nual Confertfieu,  186^  p.  92. 

Ketu;  Jom  le,  an  eminent  English  architectural 
engraver,  was  bom  in  London  in  1783,  and  studied  with 
Basire.  His  works  embrace  nearly  all  the  choice  pub- 
lications in  England,  illustrative  of  Gothic  architecture, 
that  appeared  in  his  time,  as  BrittoiCt  A  rehitectural  A  n- 
tiquitiett  CathedraU^  etc ;  G^ikie  Speeimen$  and  Gothic 
JCxamples;  the  plates  of  the  first  volumes  of  Neale*s 
CkurAet.  He  died  in  1846.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  ArtSf  s.  v. 

EUiakls,  one  of  the  Vaishnava  (q.  v.)  Sects  of  the 
Hindds,  founded  by  Kil,  an  indirect  disciple  of  Rama- 
nand.  They  are  few  in  number,  and  either  reside  in 
certain  limited  districts  or  lead  wandering  lives.  They 
are  distinguished  from  the  other  Taishnava  sects  by 
the  application  of  clay  or  ashes  to  their  dress  or  per- 
sons. Those  who  reside  in  fixed  establishments  dress 
like  the  other  Yaishnavas,  but  those  who  lead  a  wan- 
dering life  go  ei titer  naked  or  nearly  so,  smearing  their 
bodies  with  a  pale  gray  mixture  of  earth  and  ashes. 
They  worship  Siva,  Vislinu,  Sita,  and  Hanumar. 

Khandaa,  in  Buddhist  philosophy,  are  the  elements 
of  sentient  existence,  of  which  there  are  five :  1.  The 
organized  body,  or  the  whole  of  being,  apart  from  the 
mental  processes;  2.  Sensation;  8.  Perception;  i.  Dis- 
crimination ;  5.  Consciousness.  The  four  last  Khandas 
are  results  or  properties  of  the  first,  which  roust  be  un- 
derstood as  including  the  soul  as  well  as  the  body.  At 
death  the  Khandas  are  believed  to  vanish  entirely. 

EUiandoba,  in  Hinduism,  is  an  incarnation  of  Siva, 
which  is  also  called  Bhairav  (q.  v.). 

Kharejites  (or  rero^ers),  a  Mohammedan  sect,  who 
originally  withdrew  from  Ali,  and  maintain  that  the 
Imam  need  not  be  of  the  tribe  of  Koreisb,  nor  even  a 
freeman,  provided  he  be  just  and  qualified.  They  main- 
uin,  too,  that  if  unfit  he  may  be  deposed,  and  that  the 
office  itself  is  not  indispensable. 

KhaxleBter,  in  Zeodic  mythology,  are  a  series  of 
wicked  beings,  who  were  especially  created  to  punish 
the  crimes  of  mankind.  They  were  destroyed  in  the 
deluge  by  Tashter,  the  creative  spirit. 

BSiaBi  Version  op  tiir  Scriptures.  The  Khasi 
(or  Khassee)  is  the  langusge  of  the  Cossyahs,  Cassias, 
or  Khasias,  a  race  of  Tartar  or  Chinese  origin,  ruled 
by  a  number  of  petty  rajahs,  who  form  a  sort  of  con- 
federacy. The  first  version  of  Holy  Scripture  in  this 
language  was  prepared  by  a  lady.  She  was  the  widow 
of  one  of  the  chieftains  of  the  country,  and  Dr.  Carey 
availed  himself  of  her  intelligence  in  translating  the 
New  Test.  The  preparation  of  this  version  occu- 
pied ten  years;  it  was  printed  at  Seraropore  in  1824. 
For  about  seven  years  it  remained  a  sealed  book,  for  no 
opportunity  occurred  of  distributing  it  among  the  peo- 
ple for  whom  it  had  been  prepared.  In  1832  some  of 
the  missionaries  at  Serampore  visited  Cherrspoonjee,  a 
place  in  the  Khasi  country,  and  their  attention  was 
drawn  afresh  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  people.  A 
missionary  station  was  formed  there,  and  Mr.  Lish,  the 
first  missionary  who  entered  upon  the  work,  turned 
his  attention  to  a  revision  of  the  Khasi  version,  and  in 
1834  he  produced  a  new  or  amended  translation  of  the 
gospel  of  Matthew,  which  was  printed  at  Serampore  in 
Roman  characters.  In  1841  the  Rev.  Thomas  Jones  of 
the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists  occupied  this  station, 
and  executed  a  new  translation  of  Matthew's  gospel,  in 
Roman  characters,  which,  in  1845,  he  offered  to  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  A  small  edition 
was  printed  as  an  experiment.  After  its  value  and 
fidelity  was  fully  attested  by  competent  persons,  the 
translation  of  the  entire  New  Test,  was  continued  by 
the  missionaries  engaged  on  the  above  station.  In 
1871  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  announced 


that  the  tnmaUting  and  printing  of  the  New  Test  into 
this  North-east  India  mountain  dialect  has  been  brought 
to  a  successful  conclusion  by  the  Rev.  W.  (i.  Lewis,  who 
was  materially  aided  in  his  labnra  by  the  late  Rev. 
W.  T.  Meller.  The  report  for  1879  ststed  that  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Calvinistic  Methodist  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society  were  revising  the  New  Test.  The 
Rev.  W.  6.  Lewis,  who  read  the  proofs,  is  engaged  in 
revising  manuscript  translations  of  parts  of  the  Old 
Test,  and  is  also  translating  the  book  of  Psalms.  Since 
then  the  Pentateuch  has  been  published  (1884).  See 
Bible  of  Every  Land,  p.  17.     (R  P.) 

EUiata  (or  scarf  o/ blesnnfft)^  an  article  considered 
indispensable  in  Thibet,  because  it  bestows  upon  the 
individual  who  possesses  it  many  blessings  from  above. 
It  is  a  piece  of  silk,  nearly  as  tine  as  gauze,  and  of  so 
pale  a  blue  as  to  be  nearly  white.  It  is  about  three 
times  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  and  the  two  ends  are  usually 
fringed.  They  are  of  all  sizes  and  prices,  for  a  Khata 
is  an  article  which  neither  rich  nor  poor  can  dispense 
with,  and  they  are  used  on  all  imaginable  occasions. 
See  Hue,  Travels  in  Tartary,  Thibetf  and  China, 

Khatib,  an  ordinary  Mohammedan  priest,  who  con- 
ducts the  worship  of  the  mosque  on  Fridays.  He  re- 
cites the  prayers,  and  often  preaches  a  sermon. 

Khatmehi  a  recitation  of  the  entire  Koran,  which 
occupies  about  nine  hours,  and  is  customary  at  the 
funerals,  weddings,  and  public  festivals  of  Mohamme- 
dans, being  regarded  as  meritorious  in  those  who  bear 
the  expense. 

EUielfnn,  a  mythical  fiat-nosed  satyr,  with  crown, 
leopard's  skin,  and  goat's  tail,  who,  on  an  Etruscan  mir- 
ror, is  conjoined  with  the  goddess  Munthukh. 

Khem  (or  Horus-Khem,  '*  The  Bull  of  his  Moth- 
er'*),  an  ithyphallic  deity  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
generally  represented  as  standing  upright,  with  his 
right  arm  extended  in  the  act  of  scattering  seed,  and 
having  behind  it  the  threshing  instrument,  which  is 
usually  called  a  JUxgdlum,  His  left  hand  and  arm  are 
closely  enveloped  in  a  thick  robe,  which  swathes  him 
like  a  mummy.  His  phallus  is  erected ;  and  his  head- 
dress consists  of  two  upright  plumes  similar  to  those  of 
the  deity  Amen-Ra ;  he  weara  a  large  and  richly-orna- 
mented collar  round  his  neck.  Mythologically,  Khem 
represented  the  idea  of  divinity  in  its  double  character 
of  father  and  son.  As  father  he  was  called  the  husband 
of  his  mother,  while  as  a  son  he  was  assimilated  to  the 
god  Horns.  He  properly  symbolized  generative  power, 
surviving  death,  indeed,  but  submitting  to  a  state  of 
rigidity  and  inertion  over  which  he  could  not  triumph 
till  his  left  arm  was  freed.  In  the  one  hundred  and 
forty-sixth  chapter  of  the  Egyptian  Ritual  of  the  Dead, 
the  deceased  is  said  to  exclaim,  when  his  soul  is  re- 
united to  his  body, "  that  he  has  overcome  his  bandages, 
and  that  it  is  given  him  to  extend  his  arm."  Khem 
was  also  the  symbolic  deity  of  vegetable  life,  and  it  was 
probably  in  allusion  to  this  theory  that  in  a  vignette  to 
the  Book  of  the  Dead,  the  new  birth  of  the  deceased  is 
represented  by  a  tree  growing  out  of  his  person  while 
he  lies  upon  a  bier.  The  g^eat  festival  of  germination, 
in  the  Egyptian  husbandry,  was  held  in  honor  of  the 
god  Khem,  and  it  is  fully  figured  on  the  walls  of  the 
palace  temple  of  Rameses  III,  at  Medinet  Habu.  See 
Rawlinson,  Flitt.  of  Ancient  Egypt,  i,  831  sq. 

EUiemah,  one  of  the  principal  female  disciples  of 
Buddha  (q.  v.). 

Khirkhali  (a  torn  robe),  a  name  given  to  the  dress 
generally  worn  by  dervishes  (q.  v.),  which  Mohamme- 
dans claim  was  the  dress  worn  by  the  ancient  prophets. 

EUiodum.    See  Gotama. 

EUlors,  a  god  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Slavonians, 
an  image  of  whom  existed  at  KioflT  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity.  They  were  accustomed  to  offer 
to  this  deity  the  hororay,  or  wedding-cake,  and  to 
rifice  hens  in  his  honor. 


} 


EHOTBEH 


Khotbeh,  a  pxayer  wlneh  Mohamiiwd  wia 

tomed  to  ndtet  and  in  which  example  he  waa  followed 
by  hia  socoesaon.  It  ooDsttta  of  two  parte:  the  fiiat 
appropriated  to  the  deity,  the  propbeta,  the  fint  four 
caliphs  and  their  oootemporaries;  the  second  inclndca 
the  prayer  for  the  reigning  sovereign.  Other  kbotbehs 
ate  offered  at  certain  stated  seasons. 

Xhxiahna.    See  SLbibhha. 

TK^mTibflP*^"^!  an  order  of  beings  among  the  Bad* 
dhists,  who  are  believed  to  be  the  attendanta  of  Wirudha, 
one  of  the  four  guardian  Dewasi  They  are  monsters 
of  iomiense  size  and  disgusting  form,  have  blue  gar- 
ments, hold  a  sword  and  a  shidd  of  sapphire,  and  are 
mounted  on  blue  horMS.  They  form  one  of  the  thir^ 
teen  orders  of  intelligence  exdusive  of  the  supreme 
Buddbas. 

Kiddoahin  (r01*I*^P,  betrothal).  See  Marriaok. 

Kiel,  Tobias,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  at  BallsUidt,  near  Gotha,  Oct.  29, 1584.  He 
studied  at  Jena,  and  died  as  pastor  of  his  native  place, 
in  1627.  He  is  the  author  of  several  hymns,  one  of 
which,  Htrr  Gott  mm  tckleuM  den  liimmel  av/,  has 
been  translated  into  English  (£yra  Germ,  ii,  p.  278), 
**  Lord  God,  now  open  wide  thy  heaven."  See  Koch, 
Getchickte  des  deutschen  KtrckenUedei,  ii,  268  sq. ;  Bruck- 
ner, Kirchen  und  Schulm  Stoat  tsi  Herzogthum  GotMa^ 
vol.  iii  (Gotba,  1760).     {B,  P.) 

Kienlen,  Hkuiiuch  Wilhslm,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Berlin  in  1816.  He 
studied  at  Strasburg,  was  pastor  at  Colmar  in  1842,  in 
1858  at  Strasburg,  and  died  in  1876.  He  published, 
JSiebzehn  Fest-HomUien  iiher  Lekrtexte  (Bssle,  1844) :— 
EncyHopddie  dtr  Wiuentchqften  der  proteatantitcken 
Thidogie  (Darrost^t,  1845)  i—Commeniaire  eur  VApoe- 
algpte  (Paris,  1870).  Besides,  he  contributed  to  the 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  Herzog's  JUaUEnqfldopadie^  Re- 
vue de  Thiologie,  Revue  d* Alsace,  etc.  See  Lichten- 
berger,  Encyck^,  dee  Sciences  ReUffieutes,  s.  v. ;  Zuchold, 
^tM.  TAeo^  i,  668.     (RP.) 

Blierkegaard,  SOrkn  Aabt,  a  Danish  philosoph- 
ical and  theologicid  writer,  was  bom  Hay  5, 1818,  at 
Copenhagen.  He  spent  bis  whole  life  in  his  native 
city,  and,  being  rich  and  unmarried,  became  a  father  to 
the  poor.  In  1888  he  published  peeudonymously  From 
the  Papere  of  a  Living^  and  in  1841  a  dissertation  On 
the  Idea  of  Irony,  In  the  same  year  he  went  to  Ber- 
lin to  acquaint  himself  with  Schelling's  philosophy. 
In  the  following  year  he  returned  home,  and  from  1843 
to  the  time  of  his  death,  Nov.  11, 1855,  he  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  literary  activity.  In  1848  he  published 
his  Wheihar—Or^  in  two  parts,  representing  respectively 
the  flBSthetical  and  the  ethical  type  of  life,  and  placing 
indirectly  before  the  reader  the  question:  Which  of 
these  two  types  ought  to  be  chosen?  In  the  same 
year  he  published  a  small  collection  ot Sermonti — Biit 
qfPhiloiophy  (1844)  i^St^itione  along  the  Road  of  Life 
(1845):  — £«&•  of  the  Field  (1849) :  —  TVoiwiv /or 
Chrietiamty  (lSbO):—How  Christ  Looks  upon  Ogieial 
Christianity  (1855),  etc  During  twelve  years  he  pre- 
pared about  thirty  volumes  fur  the  press^  and  about 
as  many  he  left  in  manuscript.  All  his  writings,  as 
it  would  seem,  were  executed  according  to  a  precon- 
ceived plan:  and  the  subjects  chosen  were  so  written 
that  all  criticism  grew  sUent.  According  to  Kierke- 
gaard Christianity  is  no  scientific  theory,  but  life  and 
existence.  Hence  he  rejected  altogether  the  ideas  of 
creed,  Church,  priest,  etc  A  Christian  is,  according  to 
him,  an  insulated  individual,  alone  with  God,  and  in 
contact  with  the  world  only  through  suffering.  Some 
of  his  writings  were  translated  into  German.  As  yet 
we  have  no  biography  which  gives  a  satisfactoty  rep- 
resentation of  his  philosophical  and  religious  stand- 
point See  the  article  **  Kierkegaard,"  in  Nordisk  Kon- 
versatitmS'LexHon  (1879) ;  Petersen.  Dr.  Sdren  Kierko- 
gaard^s   Christendomsforkyndslse  (Christiana,  1877); 


684 


KING 


BiaitMsen,  CknttUehe  Etkik,  §  69,  70»  when  Kierke^ 
gaard  is  compared  with  Vinet ;  Ltttke,  KirehL  ZustSnde 
m  den  Oandinavist^m  Landem  (Elberfeld,  1864),  p.  46- 
58;  Henche,  in  Zeiischrift  fiir  bah.  Kirehe  und  Theo- 
logie,  1864,  p.  29&-4)10 ;  Brandes,  Sdren  Kierkegaard,  mm 
literarisd^  Charaklerbild  (Leipaio,  1879} ;  Hichelsen, 
in  Plitt-Herzog's  RealrEfkcykUtp,  s.  ▼.    (R  P.) 

Xiloonoatb,  Wiluax  db,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
elected  bbhop  of  the  see  of  Brechin  about  1260.  He 
died  at  Borne  in  1275.  See  Kxiih,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  169. 

KilUkelly,  Brtax  B.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  bom  on  the  island  of  Barbadoes  in 
1807.  He  became  rector,  in  1858,  at  Kittanning,  Pa.; 
about  1857  of  two  churches,  All-Saints,  in  Pkradise,  and 
Christ  Church,  in  Leacock ;  and  in  1864  retumcd  to 
Kittanning.  In  1866  he  was  rector  of  Grace  Church, 
Mount  Washington,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
made  a  missionary  under  the  eccleuasticid  authority 
of  the  diocese,  residing  at  Kittanning,  and  oflSciating  at 
McKeesport  and  vicinity,  in  which  service  he  contin- 
ued until  within  a  short  time  of  his  death,  April  11, 
1877.    See  ProU  Episc  A  Imanac,  1878,  p.  169. 

Kimball,  Joskph,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Newbnigh,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  17,- 1820.  He 
graduated  from  Union  College  in  1839,  and  from  New- 
burgh  Theological  Seminary  in  1843 ;  was  licensed  by 
the  Associate  Reformed  Church  the  same  year;  waa 
pastor  at  Hamptonburgh  from  1844  to  1852 ;  at  Hebron; 
at  Broekport;  at  FishkiU-on-the-Hudson,  from  1863  to 
1865;  at  Brooklyn,  from  1865  to  1874,  and  died  Dec  6 
of  the  latter  year.  Dr.  Kimball  was  an  able  theologian, 
a  laborious  preacher,  and  a  sympathetic  pastor.  See 
Corwin,  Mcaaud  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America, 
3d  ed.  p.  828. 

Kinoaid,  EuGEXio,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Baptiat 
misuonary,  was  bom  at  Mount  Zion,  Pa.,  in  1797,  and 
brought  up  in  southern  New  York.  He  wss  one  of  five 
students  who  fomied  the  first  class  in  what  is  now 
Madison  University,  Hamilton,  N.  T.  While  pursuing 
his  studies,  he  decided  to  become  a  foreign  missionary. 
The  war  between  England  and  Burmah  led  to  the  tem- 
porary postponement  of  his  plan.  Meanwhile  he  waa 
pastor,  for  a  time,  of  the  church  at  Galway,  and  then» 
for  five  years,  performed  missionary  labor  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts  of  central  Pennsylvania.  In  the  spring 
of  1880  he  sailed  from  Boston  to  Burmah,  reaching 
Maulroain  towards  the  close  of  that  year.  He  com- 
menced at  once  the  study  of  the  language,  giving 
twelve  hours  a  day  for  six  days  to  his  work,  and  preach, 
ing  on  the  Sabbath  to  the  English  soldiers  stationed  in 
that  section  of  Burmah.  Having  acquired  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  language,  he  spent  a  year  preaching  to  the 
Church  in  Rangoon,  and  then  went  to  Avs,  the  capital, 
and  subsequently  spent  three  months  in  visiting  every 
town  and  village  along  the  banks  of  the  Irrawaddy. 
For  nearly  two  months  he  lived  in  his  boat,  subjected 
to  severe  hardships;  but  he  heroically  continued  hia 
work  among  the  natives,  and  at  the  end  of  fifteen  montha 
had  baptized  eleven  converts,  and  organized  them  into 
a  church.  After  many  years  spent  in  laborious  service 
for  bis  Master,  Dr.  Kincaid  returned,  in  1865,  to  the 
United  States,  broken  down  in  health,  and  took  up  hia 
residence  in  Girard,  Kan.,  where  he  died,  April  3, 1888^ 
Sec  Cathcart,  Bapiiit  Encydop,  p.  658.    (J.  a  S.) 

King;  George  Ivee,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Adams,  N.  Y.,  June  1 ,  1815.  He  stud- 
ied at  Lowville,  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1888, 
and  from  Aubum  Theological  Seminary  in  1841;  waa 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Columbia,  at  Hudson, 
in  April,  1840;  and  for  a  time  was  principal  of  Unioo 
Academy,  at  Belleville,  preaching  to  two  feeble  church- 
es on  alternate  Ssbbaths.  In  the  fall  of  1843  he  waa 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Westeroville  Church,  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Utica.  In  1846  he  contracted  throat- 
disease  by  overwork,  and  then  spent  two  years  travel 


KING 


635 


KIRCHHOFEK 


Uog  ID  the  Southern  States  to  rettort  hii  hedth;  in 
1848  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Chorch  at  Hanover, 
N.  J.;  in  1856  of  the  First  Church  in  Qnincy,  IlL^  in 
1868  of  the  First  Church  in  Jeneyville.  He  died  in 
New  Orleans,  La.,  Maich  12, 1878.  See  HitL  of  the 
Prab,  Church  in  JUinoii,  toL  i  $  Om.  Cat  of  Aubum 
TheoL  Sem.  1883,  p.  246. 

King,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Chestnut  Level,  Lancaster  Co.,  Pa.,  Dec  5, 1740. 
He  was  educated  at  Philadelphia  College;  studied  the- 
ology privately ;  Was  licensed  by  the  Second  Presbytery 
of  PhiladelphU  in  March,  1767;  in  1769  was  caUed  to 
the  pastorate  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Conoco- 
cheague.  Pa.,  where  he  remained  to  within  a  short  time 
of  his  death,  which  occurred  Jidy  6, 181 1.  See  Sprague, 
A  imaU  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  iii,  281. 

King.  Jonas,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Congregational 
missionary,  was  born  at  Hawley,  Franklin  Co.,  Mass., 
July  29,  i792.  He  graduated  from  Williams  College 
in  1816,  and  from  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Andover 
in  1819.  At  the  foundation  of  the  new  college  at  Am- 
herst, in  1821,  he  was  elected  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages and  literature,  having  spent  a  part  of  the  inter- 
vening time  in  miuionary  latran  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  visited  France  to  better  prepare  himself  for  the 
duties  of  his  professorship.  He  offered  his  services  to 
the  American  Board  for  three  years,  and  in  September, 
1822,  left  Paris  for  Malta.  In  January,  1828,  he  reached 
Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  There,  with  others,  he  spent 
three  months  preaching,  distributing  tracts  and  copies 
of  the  Bible.  After  passing  some  time  in  the  Holy 
Land,  he  returned  to  his  native  country  in  1827.  Hav- 
ing been  invited  to  proceed  to  Greece  in  one  of  the 
vessels  which  was  to  carry  out  supplies  to  the  afflicted 
inhabitants  of  that  country,  he  resigned  his  professor- 
ship, which  he  had  nominally  held  six  years.  In  1880 
lie  again  put  himself  under  the  direction  of  the  Ameri- 
can Board,  and  in  1831  established  a  school  at  Athens, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  May  22, 1869.  He 
wrote  numerous  works  in  modem  Greek,  andi,  on  account 
of  some  sentiments  thus  expressed,  he  was  sentenced 
to  fifteen  days'  imprisonment  and  expulsion  from  the 
kingdom.  The  sentence,  however,  was  not  executed, 
on  account  of  an  official  protest.  His  principal  work  is 
The  Oriental  Church  and  the  Latin  (N.  Y.  1866).  See 
Trim,  Cat. of  Andover  TheoL  Sem^  1870,  p.  1819;  Me- 
moire  of  A  mer,  Mietionariet,  p.  109;  and  hts  Memoir 
(N.Y.1879). 

King,  VriUiam,  D.D.,  an  English  Independent 
minister,  was  bom  in  Wiltshire,  June  9, 1701.  He  had 
pious  parents,  who  educated  him  at  the  Univenity  of 
Utrecht,  Holland,  where  he  began  to  preach.  He  re- 
turned to  England,  and  was  ordained  pastor  atChesham, 
Bucks,  in  April,  1725.  He  had  oiTera  of  preferment  in 
the  Church,  but  being  a  dissenter  from  conviction,  he 
refused  them.  In  February,  1740,  he  settled  as  pastor 
at  Hare  Court,  London }  in  1748  was  appointed  one  of 
the  merchants'  lecturen  at  Pinner's  Hall,  and  delivered 
one  hundred  and  ninety-two  lectures  there,  the  last  in 
January,  1769.  He  was  also  evening  lecturer  at  Silver 
Street,  and  a  lecturer  at  lime  Street.  He  died  March 
4, 1769,  and  was  interred  at  Bunhill  Field.  See  Wilson, 
IHsienting  ChurcheSf  iii,  299. 

Kingo^  Thomas,  a  famous  hymn-writer  of  Denmark, 
was  bom  Dec  15, 1634,  at  Stangerap,  in  the  island  of 
Zealand.  He  studied  theology  at  Copenhagen,  and 
was  appointed  pastor  of  his  native  parish  in  1668,  and 
bishop  of  Funen  in  1677.  He  died  in  1703.  Kingo  was 
8  poet  tK>m,  and  a  powerful  Christian  character,  and  he 
hu  given  the  Danish  Church  some  of  its  very  best 
hymns.  He  published  A  anddige  Sjunge^Chor,  a  collec- 
tion of  hymns,  1674 ;  and  another  collection  in  1681. 
He  also  compiled,  at  the  instance  of  the  government,  a 
new  hymn  •  book,  known  as  Kingo**  Psalmebogj  1699, 
which  is  still  in  use.  See  Xordieh  Conver»ation§4exiam 
(1879),  s.  v.;  Brandt  og  Helweg,  Den  Danshe  Psalmo- 


Uittorie  (Copenhagen,  1847);  MichelseD,  in 
Piitt-Herzog*s  Real-Eneghlop,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Kingslbrd,  Edwabd,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  Boston,  linoolnshire,  England,  in  1788.  He  re- 
onived  a  liberal  education,  and  had  a  high  reputation 
as  a  scholar.  He  was  for  several  yean  an  officer  in  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company.  While  in  this 
position  he  was  converted,  and  at  once  devoted  himself 
to  the  work  of  the  ministry.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  pastor  in  England,  and,  in  1838,  came  to  America. 
He  labored  for  a  few  yean  in  Utica,  N.  T.,  and  then 
removed  to  Alexandria,  D.  C.  He  was  highly  esteemed 
and  respected  wherever  he  resided,  his  pulpit  efforts 
being  of  more  than  ordinary  excellence.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  July  27, 1859.  See  Watdiman  and 
Rffleetor,  Aug.  11, 1859.    (J.  C  S.) 

BUngsley,  Charlks,  an  eminent  English  clergyman 
and  writer,  was  bom  st  Holne  Vicarage,  near  Dartmoor, 
Devonshire,  June  12, 1819.  He  graduated  from  Magda- 
len College,  Cambridge,  in  1842 ;  the  same  year  became 
curate  of  Evenley,  Hampshire,  and  rector  in  1844,  a 
position  which  he  retained  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  In 
1859  he  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  history  at 
Cambridge,  but  resigned  in  1869,  on  being  offered  a  can- 
onry  in  Chester  Cathedral,  which  four  yean  later  was 
exchanged  for  one  in  Westminster  Abbey.  He  was 
also  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  queen,  and  one  of  the 
chaplains  to  the  prince  of  Wales.  He  died  Jan.  23, 1875. 
Kingsley  belouged  to  the  "  Broad  Church  "  party,  and 
was  an  earnest  advocate  of  social  improvement.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  popular  works,  most  of  them 
of  a  fictitious  character,  but  highly  instractive,  the  most 
noted  of  which  perhaps  was  his  Hypaiia  (1853) : — also 
Alexandria  and  her  Schools  (1854).  He  frequently 
contributed  to  Frater't  Magazine,  the  North  British 
Review,  and  wrote  some  articles  for  the  Encychpadia 
Britannica  (8th  ed.).  He  was  also  known  as  a  poet. 
See  his  Letters  and  Memoir,  by  his  widow  (Lond.  1876, 
2  vols.  8vo ,  abridged  ed.  N.  Y.  1877). 

^iniira  Venion  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
Kinika  is  vernacular  to  the  tribes  of  the  Wanika,  in 
eastem  Africa.  The  late  Dr.  Krapf,  who  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  grammatical  and  lexicographical  stractura 
of  the  Kinika  language,  likewise  prepared  a  Kinika  ver- 
sion of  the  gospels  of  Luke  and  John,  and  of  the  epistles 
to  the  Romans  and  Ephesians.  But  only  the  gospel  of 
Luke  was  printed  in  1848  at  Bombay,  in  the  American 
Mission  press.  In  1881  the  gospel  of  Matthew  was  pub- 
lished, the  translation  having  been  made  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Wakefield,  a  missionary  at  Ribe  since  1861. 
See  BiUe  of  Every  Land,  p.  438.     (a  P.) 

Kinnininimd,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  prelate  and 
doctor  of  theology,  was  bishop  of  Aberdeen,  April  1, 
1829.  While  he  was  in  office  there,  the  city  of  Aber^ 
deen  was  bunied  by  thirty  English  ships,  in  1338. 
He  died  soon  after.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  110. 

BUppuxim  (D*^*1B3,  expiations,  atonement),  a  name 
given  by  the  Hebrews  to  the  great  day  of  atonement 
(q.  v.),  because  on  that  day  the  sins  of  the  whole  peo- 
ple were  undentood  to  be  expiated  or  pardoned. 

Kirohhofer,  Johavses,  a  Protestant  theologian, 
was  bora  Dec.  15, 1800,  at  Schaffhausen,  in  Switzerland. 
He  studied  at  Gdttingen  and  Halle,  was  in  1827  pastor 
at  Hofwyl,  in  1829  professor  of  theology  at  the  Coilegy- 
um  I/umanitatis,  in  his  native  city;  in  1842  he  was 
elected  deacon  at  St.  John's,  and  in  1854  pastor  there. 
He  died  Feb.  27, 1869.  Kirchhofer  took  a  very  active 
part  in  the  ecclesiastical  affain  of  his  countn'.  For  a 
time  he  was  the  president  of  the  synod,  and  as  such 
exercised  a  great  influence  upon  the  younger  theolo- 
gians. Of  his  writings  we  mention  especially,  Qudlen- 
sammlung  zur  Gesehichte  des  neutestamentUchen  Canons 
(Zurich,  1842-44):— Z>t//aden  zur  Bibelkunde  (2d  ed. 
Stuttgart,  1860).     See  Dr,  Johannes  Kirchltofer,  Dtkan 


EIRGHESE-TARTAR  VERSION    636 


I      -• 
und  r/iiiriT  w  Sehujphautn  (SchnOliBUKii,  ISTI); 
Zuchold,  ^iit  rA«t  i,  687.    (B.  P.) 

KlrgbMe-Tftitar  Tanloii  of  tiib  Scbiptliiis. 
Tbe  KiigbcM-Taclii  ia  a  dialect  tpokcn  by  the  Kirgbue 
iu  Siberia  and  Turkntin.  In  1818  the  New  Test,  waa 
traiulated  by  Chariea  Frazer,  a  Scuttish  miwimiarr. 
Since  tliii  muaion  wa*  abandoned,  nothing  was  done 
fur  llie  ciiculatioii  uf  tlie  Word  ofCod  imong  Ih  is  peo- 
ple, numbering  about  1,500,000,  In  1879,  however,  the 
Biitiah  and  I'ureign  Uilile  Society  issued  an  edition  of 
three  thousand  copies  of  Mr.  Frazri'ii  New  Test.,  it  be- 
ing printed  at  the  Kazan  Univenity  preii,  under  [he 
care  of  proressai  Gottwaldl,  who  arranged  the  verKi  in 
the  new  edition  as  they  atud  in  thedreeii  and  English, 
besides  reviling  a  few  passages  which  were  bidlv  ttaus- 
Uted.     See  BOU  «/Etay  Land,  p.  349.     (R  I'.) 

Xlrlntll  Bbema  {He  rtading  n/lht  Sima),  Ibi 
ndlal  by  the  Jews  o(  certain  puuget  of  the  Old  Test., 
called  8twma(q.T.). 

Kirin,  ■  fabnlous  monster,  eonspicuoui  in  Chinese 
and  Japanese  legends.    It  i*  supposed  lo  be  not  only 


Kiritllliu,  A 


»  BoxiFACiua,  QL'EBim- 


Kiljatb-Jeuim.  Lieut.  Conder  regards  Ibis  as  • 
iliffereiit  pla^  from  the  simple  Kirjath,  and  was  in- 
dined  at  first  to  locate  it  at  Scba  {Tent  Work,  i,  !2), 
but  fbialty  at  Khuiitt  Arms,  two  and  a  quarter  mile* 
•oulb  ofCheaalon  or  Kesla  (JVenoiV)  accompanying  tbe 
Ordnance  Surrey,  iii,  46  sq.,  «here  he  argur*  the  ques- 
tion at  length);  but  most  peognpheis  itill  incline  (o 
the  position  at  Karytt  Enob  (or  simply  tl-Kmyti),  > 
TuU  description  of  the  archeology  of  which  is  giren  in 
the  same  Memoiri  (iii.  132  sq.). 

Kitk,  Edwabd  NoRRis,  D.D.,  a  CongregatiDnal 
minister,  was  bom  in  New  York,  Aug.  14,  IS02.  He 
graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  ii  '~*~ 
studied  law  eighteen  montfah  and  in  I""' 
I  from  li^DcctoD  Tbeological  Seminary, 


EIREHAM 


037 


ELEUTQEN 


time  as  agent  for  the  American  Board  of  Foreign  Mia- 
uoxa  in  tbe  Southern  States,  and  in  1828  was  settled 
over  a  Presbyterian  Church  in  Albany,  N.  Y.  In  1887 
ho  went  to  Europe,  preaching  in  London,  and  several 
months  in  Paris.  In  1839  he  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  1842  became  pastor  of  the  Mount  Vernon 
Congregational  Church  in  Boston,  where  be  labored 
until  1871,  when  the  failure  of  his  health  caused  him  to 
transfer  the  active  duties  of  his  office  to  a  colleague, 
lie  visited  Paris  in  1856,  in  the  interests  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  to  establish  Ameri- 
can Protesunt  worship  in  that  city.  He  afterwards 
became  president  of  the  American  Missionary  Associa- 
tion. He  died  in  Boston,  March  27,  1874.  Dr.  Kirk 
was  a  preacher  and  writer  of  rare  strength  and  brillian- 
cy. He  published  two  volumes  of  Sermont : — Lecturet 
on  the  Purahles: — a  translation  otGauneiCi  Thiopneu*- 
tie,  and  other  works.    See  Cortff*  Quarltrljf,  1878,  p.  259. 

SUrkham,  Robrrt,  a  minister  of  the  Church  of 
England,  was  one  of  the  Oxford  Methodists.  He,  in 
connection  with  the  Wesleys  and  Mr.  Morgan,  were  the 
four  young  men  who  began,  in  November,  1729,  to  spend 
evenings  together,  reading,  chiefly,  the  Greek  Test. — 
the  inception  of  that  movement  which  has  so  changed 
the  religious  life  of  the  worlfL  He  was  the  son  of  Kev. 
Lionel  Kirkharo,  of  Stan  tun,  in  Gloucestershire ;  was  a 
ver}'  intimate  friend  of  Wesley's,  and  earnest  in  his  de- 
sire for  higher  life,  faithfully  keeping  the  rules  of  the 
Oxford  Methodists.  In  1781  he  left  Oxfoid  and  be- 
came his  uncle's  curate.  These  facts  are  the  limit  of 
our  knowledge  concerning  him.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  no  record  of  his  life  can  be  found.  See  Tyerman, 
The  Oxford  Methodists,  p.  1. 

Kialar  Aga,  the  chief  of  the  black  eunuchs  in  Tur- 
key, who  is  intrusted  with  the  superintendence  of  all 
the  mosques. 

Kiflt,  NiooLAus  Christian,  a  Dutch  theologian, 
was  bom  April  11, 1793.  After  having  completed  h'ls 
studies  at  Utrecht  he  was  made  doctor  of  theology  in 
1818,  and  was  called  as  pastor  to  Zoelen,  in  the  province 
of  (vuelderland.  In  1823  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden,  and  inaugurated  his  lectures  by  a 
discourse  on  Be  Proffressione  Ingenii  Ilumani  m  Dog- 
fnatum  Historia  Christiana  Animadvertenda.  In  con- 
nection with  his  colleague,  Koyaards,  Kist  published 
Arehief  roar  Kerkelijke  Geschiedtnis  Jnzonderheid  von 
Nederiand  (Le%'dcn,  1829-49,  20  vols.;  supplement  in 
2  vols.  1852-54).  With  W.  Moll  he  published  A  rchives 
Historieo-EccUtiastiques  (Amsterdam,  1857-59, 2  vols.). 
Of  bis  other  works  we  mention,  Orations  iv  qua  Ec' 
desia  Reiqve  Christiana  Spectant  Uistoriam  (Leyden, 
1853)  i^JJe  Vrije  WU  o/de  Afensch  sen  Redelijk  en  Zeds- 
lijk  Vrijwerkend  Wezen  (1859).  Kist  died  Dec  11, 1859. 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  !M.  i,  644, 574;  ii,  111 ; 
Zuchold,  Bibl.  Theoi  i,689  sq. ;  Lichteuberger,  Emydop. 
des  Sciences  ReligieuseSy  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Kisw^aheli.    See  Swaiiili. 

KitcheiL  This  part  of  a  monastic  establishment 
invariably  adjoined  the  refector}%  behind  it,  in  Benedic- 
tine houses,  and  on  the  side,  usually,  in  Cistercian  ar- 
rangements. The  ordinary  shape  was  square,  but  there 
%vere  exceptions :  thus,  a  bottle-Atrm  was  adopted  at 
Marmoutier,  a  round  at  Chartres,  Tillers,  Saurour,  and 
STendome,  an  octagon  at  Puntlevoy,  Caen,  Durham, 
Glastonbury,  and  with  little  apses  at  Fontevrault.  At 
Westminster  there  was  a  vaulted  way  to  the  hall ;  at 
Canterbury  a  covered  alley ;  but  in  the  smaller  orders  a 
hatch  or  window  formed  the  means  of  communication. 
There  was  also  a  kitchen  for  the  infirmar}',  and  the  ab- 
bot had  his  own  kitchen. 

Kitchener  was  the  marketer  and  purveyor  who 
bought  the  provisions  for  kitchen  use,  and  was  over- 
seer of  the  cooks,  butchery,  and  fishponds.  He  visited 
the  sick  every  morning,  and  saw  that  the  broken  meat 
was  reserved  for  the  poor. 


^^tchi  Manlto,  the  name  by  which  the  Great 
Spirit  was  known  among  the  various  tribes  of  American 
Indians,  especially  in  Canada.  He  is  the  chief  of  their 
good  divinities.    See  Manito;  Indians. 

Kito,  a  god  whom  the  Chinese  soldiery  honor  aa 
their  patron. 

Xitoo^  8  particular  prayer  which  ia  osed  by  the 
Japanese  in  all  aeasons  of  public  distress. 

Kitn,  homage  or  reverence  paid  by  one  person  to 
another  among  the  natives  of  Japaiu  Inferiors  being 
seated  on  their  heels,  according  to  the  Japanese  fashion, 
testified  their  respect  for  their  superiors  by  laying  the 
palms  of  their  hands  on  the  floor,  and  bending  their 
bodies  so  low  that  their  foreheads  almost  touched  tbe 
ground.  The  superior  responded  by  laying  the  palms 
of  his  hands  upon  his  knees,  and  nodding  or  bowing,' 
more  or  less  low,  according  to  the  rank  of  the  other 
party. 

Ki^Kraoa,  a  deity  among  the  savages  in  Virginia. 
They  represented  this  god  with  a  lighted  pipe  in  his 
mouth,  which  a  priest,  cunningly  concealed  behind  the 
idol,  smoked,  thus  proving  the  god  to  be  alive. 

Klaprotb,  Heinbicii  Juuus,  a  German  Oriental- 
ist, was  bom  in  Berlin,  OcL  11, 1783.  In  1802  he  pub- 
lished, i4ma/i«diet  Afagatin,  and  was  made  adjunct  to 
the  academy  for  Asiatic  languages  at  Sl  I'etersburg : — 
Reise  in  den  Kaukasus  und  Georgien  in  den  Jahren  1807 
und  1808  (Halle,  1812-14,  2  vols.;  transl.  into  French, 
Paris,  1823).  In  1812  he  lea  the  Russian  civil  service, 
went  in  1814  to  Italy,  in  1815  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
made  professor  uf  the  languages  of  Asia  in  1816.  He 
died  Aug.  20, 1835.  Besides  the  above  works,  he  pub- 
lished, Geogr,'historische  Beschreibung  des  dttlichen 
Kaukasus  (Weimar,  1814) : — Reise  nach  Georgien  und 
Imirethi  (Berlin,  1815): — Verzeichniss  der  chinesischen 
und  mandschuischen  BUcher  und  ^fanuskripte  der  kdnigL 
BibHothek  in  Berlin  (Paris,  1822): ~ .4 «{a  Polyglotta 
(1823)  i-~Tabkaux  Ilistorigues  de  FAsie  (1884, 4  vols.) : 
— Memoires  Relatifs  a  PAsie  (eod.) : — Collections  d^A n- 
tiquiiU  Egyptiennes  (1829):— £ramffi  Critique  des  Tra- 
vaux  dufeu  M,  ChamiuyUion  sur  les  Hiiroglyphes  (1832) : 
— Aper^u  GhUral  des  Trois  Royaumes,  TraduU  de  VOri- 
ginal  Japonais-Chinois  (1833).     (a  P.). 

Klaufling,  HsiNRicir,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  Dec  28, 1675,  in  Westphalia.  He 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  commenced  bis  academical  ca- 
reer there  in  1696,  and  was  doctor  of  theology  in  1710. 
In  1719  he  was  called  to  Leipsic  as  professor  of  theology, 
and  died  Oct.  2, 1745.  His  writings  are  very  numerous, 
and  their  titles  are  given  b}'  J'OcherfAUgemeiaes  Gelehr^ 
ten-Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Klein,  Anton,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian,  was 
born  in  1788.  In  1811  he  received  holy  orders.  He 
was  for  some  time  professor  of  Church  history  at  (xriitz 
and  Vienna,  and  died  at  the  latter  place,  April  9, 1867. 
He  is  the  author  of,  llistoriu  Ecdesia  Christiana  (Griitz, 
1827,  2  vols.) : — Geschichte  des  Christenthums  in  Oester- 
reicA  and  ^teiermorJ:  (Vienna,  1840-42, 7  vols.),   (a  P.) 

Klemm,  Johann  Conrad,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  23,  1655.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen,  was  in  1687  professor  there,  and  died  Feb.  18, 
1717.  He  wrote.  Do  voce  ^ap^poq  ad  1  Cor,  xiv,  11 : 
— Vindida  Locorum  Pentateuchis  Corruptioms  Accusa- 
torum: — De  KOivantiq.  ^iiaQ  ^iffftutQ  ad  2  Petr,  t,3,4 : — 
De  ConeUio  Benedicti  XII J: — De  Papatu  Hierarchico: 
— De  Sonunibus  IlebraiciSf  etc.  See  Neue  Zeitungen 
von  gelehrten  Sachen;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrien" 
Lexikonj  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Kleutgen,  Joseph,  a  Jesuit,  was  bom  at  Dortmund, 
Sept.  11, 1811.  In  1834  he  joined  his  order,  and  re- 
ceived holy  orders  in  1837.  For  some  time  he  lectured 
on  rhetoric  and  philosophy  at  Freiburg  and  Brieg, 
Switzerland,  went  to  Rome  in  1843,  where  he  became 
professor  at  the  Collegium  Germanicum.  He  died  at 
St.  Anton,  in  Tyrol,  Jan.  14, 1883,  leaving.  Die  Theologie 


KNAK 


638 


KNOX 


d/tr  VorzeU  (MUnstcr,  1858-65, 2  vols. ;  2d  ed.  1867-78) : 
~/>»e  PhUosophie  der  VorzeU  (1860-68,2  vols.)  i—ItuH' 
tuHones  Theologica  (1881,  vol.  i) : — Da»  Evangelium  des 
Matthdus  nadk  teinem  vmeren  Zuaamm/enkcmg  (1882). 

(a  p.) 

Slnak,  GusTAV,  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Germany, 
was  born  in  Berlin,  July  12, 1806.  He  studied  in  his 
native  city,  was  in  1884  pastor  at  Wosterwitz,  in  Pom- 
erania,  in  1849  Go6sner*s  suooessor  at  the  Bethlehem 
Charch  in  Berlin,  and  died  July  27, 1878,  at  Dilnnow,  in 
Pomerania,  whither  he  had  gone  to  restore  his  feeble 
health.  Knak  was  famous  alike  as  preacher  and  hymn- 
writer.  See  Znchold,  BibL  Theol  i,  701;  Koch,  Getch. 
d,  deutschen  KircheuliedeSf  vii,  194;  Wangemann,  Guttav 
Knak,  Ein  Prediger  der  Gereck^ghat^  die  vor  Gott  ffiU 
(Berlin,  1879).    (R  P.) 

BInapp,  Jacob,  a  distinguished  Baptist  evangelist, 
generally  known  as  "  Elder  Knapp,'*  was  bom  in  Otsego 
County,  N.  T.,  Dec  7, 1799.  Having  pursued  his  stud- 
ies at  Hamilton,  he  first  settled  in  Springfield,  near  his 
native  place,  and  then  in  Watertown.  After  having 
been  in  the  pastoral  office  for  eight  years,  he  felt  that 
he  must  henceforth  devote  himself  to  the  work  of  an 
evangelist.  At  this  time  he  had  what  ho  always  con- 
sidered a  remarkable  religious  experience.  His  early 
labors  as  an 'evangelist  in  some  of  the  great  cities  and 
villages  of  our  land  were  followed  by  wonderful  results. 
Thousands  of  conversions  took  place.  In  some  of  these 
places  "  his  preaching  gathered  such  crowds  and  pro- 
duced such  excitement  that  mobs  threatened  his  meet- 
ings, and  police  force  had  to  be  employed  to  suppress 
popular  violence.  By  the  terrors  of  the  law  rather 
than  by  tender  exhibitions  of  God's  love,  he  sought  to 
drive  men  to  the  Cross  for  salvation.*'  Many  of  his 
sermons  were  models  of  reasoning  and  eloquence,  the 
most  gifted  men  feeling  the  impression  as  well  as  the 
ignorant.  He  died  at  his  residence,  near  Rockford,  IlL, 
March  2, 1874.  See  Jeffrey,  Memoirs  of  Jacob  Knapp  ; 
The  Baptist  Weekly,  March  12, 1874.     (J.  C.  a) 

Knlobln,  Chablks,  a  minister  of  the  Church  of 
England,  was  one  of  the  Oxford  Methodists,  and  a  fel- 
low of  Corpus  Christi  College.  He  left  Oxford  at  about 
the  same  time  the  Wesleys  did,  and  became  rector  of 
Dummer,  a  small  village  of  about  four  hundred  inhabi- 
tants. In  his  parish  he  kept  up  the  habits  of  the  Ox- 
ford Methodists,  visited  from  house  to  house,  catechised 
the  children,  and  had  public  prayers  twice  each  day. 
In  1786  he  was  chosen  dean  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
but  retained  his  rectory  at  Dummer.  While  at  Oxford 
he  kept  the  old  Oxford  Methodist  spirit  of  work  alive, 
visiting  the  prisoners  and  ministering  unto  them.  Mr. 
Knichin  never  revived  the  friendship  between  him  and 
the  Weslej's,  but  followed  them  in  their  struggles  after 
higher  life  until  he  himself  experienced  salvation  by 
faith.  At  the  time  when  the  Established  churches  re- 
fused the  Wesleys  their  pulpit,  Mr.  Knichin's  was  one 
of  eight  to  which  they  had  access.  He  was  intensely 
religious,  "lived  it,  looked  it,  breathed  it."  He  died  Jan. 
4, 1742.    See  Tyerman,  The  Oxford  Methodists,  p.  868. 

Knlepstro.    See  RKiPSTRa 

Knife,  Euchabistic,  was  a  knife  with  which  to 
prepare  the  sacramental  bread  and  for  dividing  the 
eulogis,  anciently  found  in  most  sacristies.  The  holy 
loaf,  out  of  which  they  were  cut,  was  ordered  to  be  pro- 


Eacharistlc  Kulfe,  with  a  Hard-wood  Handle,  preserved  at  St  Andrew's,  VeroeUL 

Tided  by  the  parish  by  the  Salisbury  oomstitation  of 
1254.  King  Athelstan  left  his  knife  on  the  altar  of 
Beveriey,  as  a  pledge  for  his  redemption  of  a  row  of 
benefaction. 


Knigbt,  Franklin  La&yette,  D.D.,  a  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  clergyman,  was  born  in  Maine,  in  Au- 
gust, 18244  He  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in 
1846 ;  after  teaching  for  several  years,  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  in  a  Southern  university;  in 
1858  was  ordained,  and,  for  some  time,  exercised  his 
ministry  in  the  state  of  Maryland;  in  1859  he  was  in^ 
vited  to  be  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  New  Jersey.  For 
a  few  years  he  was  principal  of  the  Diocesan  Training 
and  Theological  School,  in  Tennessee.  Kesigning  this 
position,  he  removed  to  Washington,  D.  C,  where,  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  his  life,  be  was  assistant  minister 
in  the  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  and  also  in  St.  John's. 
He  died  there  in  April,  1876.  Dr.  Knight  was  a  classi- 
cal teacher  of  repute,  of  blameless  life,  retiring  in  dispo- 
ntion,  highly  esteemed  and  respected.  See  History  of 
Bowdoin  College,  p.  622.     (J.  C.  S.) 

BUiight,  Richard,  D.D.,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist 
minister,  was  bom  in  Devon,  England^  in  1789.  He 
was  accepted  by  the  British  Conference,  and  sent  to 
Newfoundland  in  1816.  He  endured  persecutions  and 
hardships,  escaped  perils  oft,  was  appointed  to  Halifax, 
N.  S.,  in  1832,  labored  thenceforth  principally  in  Nova 
Scotia  until  his  death  at  Sheffield,  N.  B.,  May  28,  I860. 
Apparently  stem  and  unapproachable  at  first^a  kind  heart 
and  large  sjrmpathies  dwdt  in  Knight's  stalwart  frame. 
Inflexible  when  right,  humble,  dignified,  zealous,  can- 
tious,  courageous,  3'et  gentle;  he  was  an  excellent 
preacher,  well-read,  and  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
prominent  ministers  in  the  Maritime  Provinces.  Dr. 
Knight  was  a  strong  friend  of  temperance,  and  pub- 
lished an  address  on  the  subject  He  also  published 
a  Lecture  on  the  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  ofReve-' 
lotions  (St.  John's,  N.  E,  1850).  See  Huestis,  Memori- 
als of  Meth,  Ministers  in  East  Brit.  America,  p.  56; 
Morgan,  BibL  Canadensis,  p.  214. 

KnoU,  Albrrt  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1796.  He  received  holy 
orders  in  1818  at  Trent,  and  Joined  in  the  same  year 
the  order  of  the  Capuchins.  In  1820  he  was  teacher 
of  religious  philosophy,  in  1828  profestor  of  dogmat- 
ics, in  1847  custos-general  at  Borne.  He  died  at  BoU 
zen,  Tyrol,  March  80, 1868.  Knoll  published,  Institu- 
tiones  Theologia  Generalis  seu  Fundamentalis  (Inns- 
brttck,  1846;  4th  ed.  1865) :  —  JSsponfio  Begulm  K  F. 
Minorum  S.  P.  Francisci  Assisi  Congesta  (ibid.  1850) : 
— Institutions  Theologies  Theoretica  seu  Dogmatico^ 
Polemioa  Concimata  (Turin,  1862-64,  6  vols.).  After 
his  death  was  published  fnstilutiones  Theologia  Theo» 
retica  seu  DogmaOco-Polemica  (1865, 2  vols.).    (B.  P.) 

Blno^lton,  Miles  Justik,  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
missionary  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union, 
was  bom  at  West  Wardsborough,  Vt.,  Feb.  8,  1825. 
When  quite  young  he  was  sent  to  the  academy  at 
West  Townsend,  and  while  there  determined  to  aster 
the  Christian  ministiy.  His  college  and  theological 
studies  were  pursued  at  Madison  University,  Hamilton, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  graduated  in  1858.  He  was  ordained 
at  West  Wardsborough,  Oct.  8  of  the  same  year,  and, 
with  his  wife,  Lucy  Ann  (St.  John),  embarked  for  (Thina, 
and  arrived  in  June,  1854,  at  NingpO)  where,  with  sin- 
gular earnestness  and  marked  success,  he  labored  for 
nearly  twenty  years.  He  died  there.  Sept,  10,  1874. 
Among  the  qualities  which  made  him  a  model  misnon- 

ary  were  his  remarkable  sin- 
gleness of  purpose,  his  per- 
sistency in  active  labor,  and 
his  gentle  bearing  towards 
the  people.  See  Amer.  Bapt, 
Miss.  Magazine,  y,  p.  91. 

(J.  0.  a) 

Xnoz,   Andrew  a 

Scotch  prebte,  of  the  same  family  with  the  Scottish 
reformer,  was  bom  at  Ranforly,  in  Renfrewshire.  He 
was  educated  at  Glasgow,  was  first  minister  at  Lodi* 
wianoch»and  then  at  Paisley.    King  James  made  him 


KNOX 


630 


KOHLMAN 


bbhop  of  the  IdiM  in  April,  1606,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  attention  to  the  propagation  of  religion. 
In  1622  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Raphoe,  in  Ire- 
land, where  he  remained  nntit  his  death,  Nov.  7, 1682. 
See  Reid,  Hid.  of  the  Prttb.  Churdk  m  Ireland;  Keith, 
ScoUM  Biakope,p.20S, 

B^nox,  Hugh,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minuter,  was 
bom  in  Ireland,  and  came  to  America  in  1751.  He 
spent  several  yean  in  teaching,  leading  a  somewhat 
dissipated  life ;  but  he  shook  off  his  follies  and  en- 
tered Nsssau  Hall,  and  graduated  in  1754.  He  stud- 
ied divinity  with  president  Burr.  At  his  ordination, 
preparatory  to  his  accepting  a  call  to  the  island  of 
Saba,  the  New  York  Presbytery  was  so  much  pleased 
with  his  trial  sermon  on  the  DignUy  and  fmporfance 
of  the  Gotpel  Mimsiryf  that  they  unanimously  requests 
ed  it  for  publication.  A  sermon  preached  by  him,  On 
the  Svmer'e  FauUinees  and  InahUitp^  was  published  by 
bbhop  Hobart  in  1806,  and  became  the  subject  of  much 
controversy  on  the  distinction  between  natural  and  moral 
inability.  The  Presbytery  corresponded  with  him  year^ 
ly  through  Dr.  Bodgers,  and  expressed  regret  on  tiear- 
ing  after  the  Revolution  of  the  declining  condition  of 
his  flock.  The  celebrated  Alexander  Hamilton,  in  early 
boyhood,  was  placed  under  the  instruction  of  Dr.  Knox. 
He  pnbluhed  two  volumes  of  sermons  on  interesting 
subjects,  at  Glasgow,  in  1772.  He  spent  the  dosing 
years  of  his  life  at  St.  Croix,  and  died  there  in  October, 
1790.  See  Webster,  /fiii.  of  the  Pretb,  Church  in 
America,    (W.P.S.) 

BCnoz;  John  P.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  July  26, 1811.  He  graduated 
from  Rutgers  College  and  the  Theological  Seminary, 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  Church  of  Nassau,  N.  Y.  After  this  he  ser\'ed 
as  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Utica,  for  two 
yearsL  He  then  went  to  St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  where  he 
spent  ten  yean  of  ministerial  labor,  and  then  returned 
to  the  United  States  and  accepted  a  call,  in  1855,  to 
the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Newtown,  L.  I.  In  this 
old  church  he  labored  with  zeal  and  success  until  his 
death,  June  2,  1882.  See  iV.  Y,  Obeerver,  June  8, 1882. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Knox,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  prelate,  and  son  of 
Andrew  Knox,  was  made  bishop  of  the  Isles  upon  his 
father's  translation,  in  1622.  He  died  in  1626.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bithope,  p.  808. 

Knoz,  ^QV'Uliam  Eaton,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Knoxboro,  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  16, 1820.  He  graduated  from  Hamilton  College  in 
1840,  and  punued  his  theological  studies  at  Auburn 
Seminary.  In  1844  he  was  ordained  pastot  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Watertown,  and  in  1848  of  that  in 
Rome.  In  1870  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  Pint  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Elroira,  where  he  continued  for  the 
rest  of  bis  life.  He  died  at  Blue  Mountain  Lake,  in 
the  Adirondacks,  Sept.  17, 1883.  He  occupied  an  ele- 
vated position  among  his  clerical  brethren.  See  IT.  T, 
Obeerver,  Sept,  28,  1883;  Gen.  Cat,  of  Auburn  Theo!. 
Bern.  1883,  p.  70.     (W.  P.  S.) 

BUitite.     See  Canutb. 

Koch,  Aognst,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Helmstiidt  in  1818.  For  some  time  privatdocent 
at  Zurich,  he  retired  from  that  position,  and  died,  Biareh 
4,  1882,  at  Oberkaufungen,  near  Cassel.  He  wrote, 
Commentar  iiber  den  Brief  PauU  an  Philemon  (Zurich, 
1846)  >-CommaUar  Ober  den  ertten  Brief  Pauli  an  die 
Thetaalonicher  (1849 ;  2d  ed.  1865).  See  Zuchold,  BibL 
Theol  i,  706  sq.     (R  P.) 

Koch,  Eduard  Emil,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  who 
died  April  27, 1871,  at  Erdmannhausen,  near  Marbach, 
is  the  author  of  Getchichte  dee  KtrckenUedes  undKirehm- 
geeangee  (Stuttgart,  1866-70, 7  vols.),  the  best  hymno- 
k^cal  work  now  extant.    (^K  P.) 

Kooh,  Tgnatlas,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 


dergyman,  fint  appean  in  the  reeord  as  rector  of  St 
John*s  Chureh,  Western,  Missonri.  In  1865  he  became 
rector  of  St.  John's  Chureh,  Valparaiso,  Ind.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  a  teacher  in  Palmyra  0>llege  in 
Miasoori.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  a  missionary  to 
the  Gremian  population  in  Maysville,  Ky.,  and  served 
in  this  relation  until  about  1870,  when  he  was  elected 
principal  of  St.  John's  Academy,  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  be- 
sides performing  missionary  work  in  adjacent  places. 
Here  he  remained  untU  his  death,  which  occurred  Dec. 
8, 1872.     See  Proi.  Epitc  A  bnanae,  1873,  p.  134. 

K5eher,  Hermann  Friedrxch,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1747  at  Osnsbrtlck,  and 
died  April  2, 1792.  He  is  the  author  of.  Nova  Biblio- 
theea  Hebraica  (Jena,  1783-84, 2  vols.) :—  Vereuch  einer 
Erkldrung  der  Geeehiehte  SauVe  mit  der  Betriigerin  su 
Endor  (Gera,  1780)  i—Spedmen  Obeervatvmum  PhiUh' 
hgicarum  in  1  8am,  ii  (Jena,  1772)  : — Comm,  Sittene 
ExpUeationem  Vocum  *1»M^1  et  Klp'^l  Gen,  t,  8,  5,  ds 
Deo  Uturpatorum  (1778)  i—Comm.  ad  Genet.  t»,  18-20,  de 
Vocatit  ab  Adamo  Animantibut  (1779) : — Stricturarum 
Aniinuuorethiearum  in  Kirjan  et  Chetib,  ad  Librum 
Judicum  Specimen  (1760).  See  FUrst,  £t^  ./ad  ii,  194  $ 
Winer,  Handbueh  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  69.    (a  P.3 

Kodeah.    See  Kaddisr. 
Kodom.    See  Gotama. 
Kohen.    See  Cohen. 

Eloheii,  Jacob  Shalom,  a  Jewish  writer  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Meseritsch,  Dec.  23, 1771,  and  died 
at  Hamburg  in  1846.  He  is  the  author  of,  h*113:?n  1^0, 
or  Hittoriech-kriiieche  DareleUung  deajUduchen  Gottee^ 
diduf<«(Leipsic,1819):— n*^-^n9  y\xA  nim,  a  Hebrew 
grammar  (Berlin,  1802,  and  often) :— ni1'l*in  M")1p,  or 
Ilietory  of  the  Jewish  People  (  Warsaw,  1838  ) :  — 
D*1p  K")pS,  or  Die  game  heiiige  Schrifi  (Hamburg; 
1824,  i  vols.),  etc  See  FUrst,  Bibl  Jud,  ii,  195  sq. 
(B.P.) 

KohlbiUgge,  Hebhan  Frtkdricft,  the  founder  of 
the  Dutch-Reformed  congregation  at  Elberfeld,  was 
bora  at  Amsterdam,  Aug.  15,  1803.  He  was  of  Lu- 
theran parentage,  and  after  studying  theology  became 
preacher  to  a  Lutheran  congregation  in  Amsterdam. 
But  the  rationalism  of  his  colleagues  brought  him  into 
a  conflict  which  resulted  in  his  deposition.  He  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  at  Utrecht,  and 
after  liTing  for  several  years  in  retirement  Joined  the 
Reformed  Church.  While  travelling  through  the 
Rhine  regions  in  1834,  where  just  at  that  time  a  kind 
of  revival  took  place,  he  preached  often,  and  made  a 
deep  impression.  After  many  difficulties,  the  Reformed 
congregation  at  Elberfeld,  which  had  separated  from 
the  state  establishment,  chose  KohlbrUgge  for  its  min- 
ister (1847),  constituting  itself  as  a  member  of  the 
Church  of  the  NetherUnds.  At  Elberfeld  KohlbrUgge 
labored  with  great  success  till  his  death,  March  5, 1875. 
Besides  a  considerable  number  of  sermons,  he  published, 
Dae  eiebente  Cttpitel  dee  Brirfee  Pauli  an  die  Bdmer 
(8d  ed.  1855):— IFbstt  das  A  lie  Testament  (eod.)t  etc 
See  Zuchold,  BUd.  TheoL  i,  709  sq. ;  PUtt-Herzog,  Real^ 
EncgJdop.  s.  v. ;  lichtenberger,  Encgdop.  dee  Scieneei 
Seligieusest  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

yA^^iw^yr.  Ahtrony,  an  eminent  Roman  Catholic 
author,  was  bora  at  Kaizersberg,  near  C}olmar,  July  18, 
1771.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  April,  1796,  joined  the 
fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  in  1799  he  served  those 
who  were  taken  with  the  plague  in  Hagenbrunn,  and 
was  appointed  chief  chaplain  of  the  Austrian  military 
hospitals  in  Padua,  whose  moral  and  physical  state  was 
described  as  frightful  He  exercised  the  ministry  in 
Upper  Germany  and  in  Prussia  until,  in  1805,  he  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus.  In  1807  he  was  sent  to  America, 
a  part  of  the  time  superior  of  the  Jesuit  missions.  In 
1809  he  visited  Thomas  Paine  on  his  death-bed,  in  com- 


KOI  VERSION 


640 


EORSHA 


pany  with  father  Benedict  Fenwick.  A  faithful  aooount 
of  it  is  in  the  United  States  Catholic  Magazine,  1842, 
p.  858.  In  1818  the  *< Catholic  Question  in  America** 
was  discussed  in  the  courts  of  New  York,  in  which 
Kohlman  took  an  important  part.  The  case,  was  re- 
ported by  William  Simpson,  Esq.,  one  of  the  coanael, 
and  published  in  New  York  by  Gilletpy.  In  18tN>-21 
Kohlman  published  his  Unitartanimn  PkHosopkieaUjf 
and  TheolagicaUy  Examined  (2  vols.  8vo),  going  through 
three  editions  in  a  short  time.  He  was  rector  of  Wash* 
ington  Seminary  in  1824,  when  the  so-called  Mathingly 
Miracle  took  place,  an  account  of  which  was  published 
by  Wilson  (i2mo).  In  1825  this  keen  and  learned 
Jesuit  was  called  to  Rome  to  teach  moral  theology  in 
the  Gregorian  University,  just  restored  to  the  Jesuits 
by  Leo  XII,  who  held  him  tu  great  esteem,  and  had 
placed  at  his  8cr\'ice  his  private  library.  Kohlman  died 
in  Rome,  April  10,  1836.  See  CaiL  Almanac,  1872, 
p.  80;  De  Courcey  and  Shea,  IJist,  of  the  Cath,  Church 
in  the  U,  S,  p.  356  sq. 

Koi  Version  of  Tini:  ScKiprunES.  The  Kois,  who 
are  a  branch  of  the  Gonds  in  Central  India,  number 
about  one  hundred  thousand  souls.  At  the  request  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  published,  in  1884,  a  tentative  edition  of 
five  hundred  copies  of  the  gospel  of  Luke  and  the  1st 
epistle  of  John.  The  translation  was  made  by  general 
Haig,  assisted  by  three  Kois  who  understood  the  Telugu 
Bible.  The  translator  read  also  the  proofs  of  the  edi- 
tion.   (B.  P.) 

Koltach,  Christian  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1671  at  Meissen.  He  studied 
at  Halle,  was  inspector  of  the  Royal  School  there  from 
1700  to  1705,  head  master  of  the  g^mmar-school  at 
Elbing,  in  Prussia,  from  1705  to  1725,  and  died  in  1735. 
Koitsch  was  a  man  of  eminent  piety,  and  his  love  to 
Jesus  finds  expression  in  his  hymns,  of  which  a  few  are 
preserved.  The  most  beautiful  of  his  hj'mns,  0  Ur- 
sprung  des  LebenSj  0  ewigee  Licht,  is  found  in  an  Eng- 
lish translation  in  the  Moravian  //gmn-Bool%  No.  540. 
See  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirchenliedes,  iv,  870 
sq.    (B.P.) 

Koive,  the  ancient  pagan  high-priest  of  the  Prus- 
sians. When  it  thundered  they  believed  that  their 
Koive  was  conversing  with  their  god  Perkun,  hence 
they  fell  down  before  that  deity,  and  implored  of  him 
to  send  them  more  favorable  weather. 

KojalO'wlcz,  Albert  Wxjuk,  a  Polish  Jesuit,  who 
died  at  Wilna,  Oct.  6, 1677,  u  the  author  of,  CoUoquia 
de  Sincero  et  non  Adulterato  Usu  S,  Scriptura  ad  PrO' 
handos  Articulos  Fidei:  —  De  Elections  Unius  Fierce 
ChrisiiantB  Heligionis.  See  Witte,  Diarium  Biogra* 
phicum;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikonf  m,t, 
(B.  P.) 

Kol  Nidrej  O^^^^}  bs,  all  the  vows  of,  being  the 
initial  words)  is  a  Jewish  prayer  which  opens  the  ser- 
vice for  the  day  of  atonement.  It  is  repeated  three 
times  in  the  most  solemn  manner,  and  runs  thus,  "All 
TOWS,  obligations,  oaths,  or  anathemas,  whether  termed 
D31p  fiS'^p  or  otherwise,  which  we  shall  have  vowed, 
sworn,  devoted,  or  bound  ourselves  to,  from  this  day  of 
atonement  until  the  next  day  of  atonement  (whose  ar- 
rival we  hope  for  in  happiness),  we  repent,  aforehand, 
of  them  all ;  they  shall  all  be  deemed  absolved,  forgiv- 
en, annulled,  void,  and  made  of  no  effect;  they  shall  not 
be  binding,  nor  have  any  power;  the  vows  shall  not  be 
reckoned  vows,  the  obligations  shall  not  be  obligatory, 
nor  the  oath  considered  as  oaths."  This  liturgical  for- 
mula has  been  turned  against  the  Jews,  as  if  by  it  they 
absolved  themselves  from  all  obligations,  and  therefore 
could  not  be  bound  by  an  oath.  But  it  must  be  con- 
sidered that  the  Kol  Nidrey  speaks  only  of  vows  made 
voluntarily,  and  not  of  oaths  made  to  others,  for  the 
latter  were  regarded  as  inviolable  except  by  the  per- 
sonal consent  of  the  individual  who  had  received  the 


oath.  The  Kol  Nidrey  dates  from  about  the  9th  cen- 
tury, and  in  MS.  its  form  variea.  In  its  general  form 
it  might  be  used  by  bad  men  to  escape  obligations. 
But  hatred  of  the  Jews  has  turned  the  possibility  into 
a  fact,  and  against  this  charge  the  Jews  have  protested 
at  all  times.  See  Lehmann,  Die  Absdiaffung  des  Kol 
Nidre  (Mayenoe,  1868);  Aub,  Die  Eingeaigsfeier  des 
Versdhnungstages  (ibid,  eod.) ;  Eisenmenger,  Etitdecktes 
Judenthum  (Konigsbeig,  171 1),  ii,  489  sq. ;  Bodenschatz, 
Kirchliche  Verfassung .  der  heuiigen  Juden,  ii,  chap.  5 ; 
Strack,  in  Plitt-Herzog,  ReaUEncykhp,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

Konkani  Version  op  thr  Scriptures.  The 
Konkani  (or  Kunkana)  is  the  proper  language  of  the 
Concan,  a  long,  narrow  tract  of  land,  the  continuation 
of  Malabar  and  Canara.  It  is  a  dialect  of  the  Bfarathi, 
influenced  by  the  Davidian  languages  of  South  India. 
It  is  B^ken  by  upwards  of  one  hundred  thousand  in- 
habitants, chiefly  on  the  western  coast.  The  majority 
of  the  people  belong  to  the  Hindii  faith,  but  many  are 
Roman  Catholics;  some  of  them  speak  the  language 
with  a  mixture  of  Portuguese  words.  A  version  of  the 
New  TesL  into  this  language  was  executed  at  Seram- 
pore  between  the  years  1808  and  1819,  and  was  printed 
in  the  Devanagari  character.  In  1821  the  Pentateuch 
left  the  press.  Of  late  (1888)  the  gospels  of  John  and 
Matthew  have  been  published  by  the  Madras  Auxiliary 
Society,  in  a  revised  form,  so  as  to  be  better  understood 
by  aU  classes.   See  Bible  of  Eveiy  Land,  p,lf9.   (BwP.) 

Konrad.    See  Conrad. 

Koopmann,  Wilhelm  Hki2sricit,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germsny,  was  bom  Sept.  4, 1814,  at  Ton- 
ning,  in  Holstein,  and  died  May  21, 1871,  a  general  su- 
perintendent, with  the  title  *'  bishop  **  of  Holstein.  He 
wrote,  Die  Scheidewand  zwischen  Chrisienfhum  ttnd 
Widerchristeathum  (Heide,  1843)  i—Die  grundt-echtlicke 
Confusion  in  Staat,  Schule,  vnd  Kirche  (1850)  i—Das 
evangelische  Christenihum  in  seinem  VerhSlinisse  zu  der 
modemen  Kultur  (Hamburg,  1866) : — Die  Rechtfertigung 
allein  durch  den  Glauhen  an  Christum  (Kiel,  1870) : — 
Phantasie  und  Offenbantng  (eod.)*  Besides,  he  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  Kirchliche  Blatter  of  Holstein.  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  718  sq. ;  Gedenkblaiter  an  Dr, 
theoL  W,  H,  Koopmann,  vseUand  Bischof  Jur  Ilolsttin 
(Altona,  1871).    (h.  P.) 

K5pke,  Rudolf  Anastasius,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian and  historian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Konigsberg, 
Aug.  28, 1818.  He  studied  theology  and  history,  waa 
teacher  at  the  Joachimsthalsche  gymnasium  in  Berlin 
from  1888  to  1842 ;  commenced  lecturing  at  the  univer- 
sity in  1846,  and  was  made  professor  in  1856.  He  died 
June  21, 1870,  Besides  his  editorial  work  on  the  J/oru- 
menta  Germania;,  he  wrote,  De  Vita  tt  Scriptis  Ijuid" 
prandi  Episcopi  Cremonensis  (Berlin,  1842) : — Widuhind 
von  Corvei  (1867)  :—lfrotsuil  von  Gandersheim  (1879). 

(a  P.) 

K5pkeii,  David  Hkinrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  4, 1677,  at  Lunebuig.  He 
studied  at  HelmstUdt,  Jena,  and  Rostock,  and  com- 
menced his  academical  career  at  the  latter  place.  In 
1704  he  was  doctor  of  theology,  in  1708  professor  of 
philosophy,  and  died  in  1745.  He  wrote,  De  FiUo  Dei 
ex  jE^pto  Divimius  Vocato: — De  Dome  jEgyptiacis 
Quibus  Abeunies  Israelites  Donati  Fuerunt:—Disp,  If 
de  Jesu  Christo  sub  Meiu  et  TristUia  A  cerbissime  />o- 
knte: — De  Via  Bationis  ad  Bevelationem : — De  TheoUh- 
gia  et  Religione:—De  Revdatione  Divincu  See  Bitlio* 
theca  Lubeoensis ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrfet^LexVoon^ 
S.V.     (RP.) 

Kordovero,  Mosks.    See  Mosks  CoRDovsRa 

KorelBh,  Jkhuda.    See  Ibk-Koreibh. 

Kom,  Ssua    See  Nobs. 

Koxaha,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  is  a  god  of  phyai* 
cians  and  the  medical  art.  Some  regard  him  as  the 
same  with  Bacchus*    He  is  representeid  naked,  with  a 


EOSTER 


641 


ERAUSE 


wieaiH  tboot  his  oeek.    Beer  and  nectar  were  offered 
to  bim.    His  idol  stood  in  Kiew,  on  a  large  barrel. 

K6ster,  F.RicDRicH  Burchakd,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1791  at  Loccam,  and 
atndied  at  Gottingen.  In  1822  be  went  to  Kiel  as  pro- 
fessor of  tbeology,  was  appointed  in  1840  general  super- 
intendent of  tbe  diicbiea  of  Bremen  and  Verden,  re- 
signed bis  position  in  1860  on  account  of  feeble  liealtb, 
and  died  at  Sude,  Dec  16,  1878.  Of  bis  works  we 
mention.  Dm  Budi  liiob  und  der  Prediffer  JSahnw't 
Obenetzt  (Scbleswig,  1832) :— Z>e  Fidei  Modesfin  No- 
strit  Temporibus  Mcuimapere  Commendanda  (Kiel,  etxl.) : 
— Erlduterutiffen  der  Actft^vn  S^r\/l  aus  den  KlastUcem 
beaanders  aus  Homer  (1S3B) :  —  Lie  Psalmen  ubertetzt 
(Konigsberg,  1837)  :—l)ie  Propheten  des  A  Uen  und  Neuen 
Testaments  dargestelk  ( Leipsic,  1838 )\^IHe  bUdische 
fsehre  von  der  Verstu^ttng  (Gotba,  1859).  See  Zucbold, 
BibL  TheoL  i,  722 ;  Winer,  Ifandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  88, 
205,  280,  861,  870,  892,  445,  489,  599;  ii,  31 ;  Lichten- 
berger,  Fsncydop,  des  Sciences  Seliffieuses,  s,  v.;.FUr8t, 
BibL  Jud,  ii,  206.     (R  F.) 

Kdthe,  Friedrich  August,  a  Lntberan  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  July  30, 1781,  at  Lubben,  in  Low- 
er Lusatia.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1803  after- 
noon preacher  tbere,  in  1810  professor  of  Church  history 
and  practical  theology  at  Jena,  in  1817  doctor  of  theol- 
ogy, in  1819  first  preacher  and  member  of  consistory  at 
AllsUUit,  in  Weimar,  and  died  OcL  28, 1850.  He  pub- 
lished. Die  symboL  Bucher  der  evang,- lather,  Kirche 
(Leipsic,  1830):  —  Ek^fluss  des  kirchmhistorischen  Stu- 
diumSfetc.(lS\0):^Stimmen  der  Andacht  (1823):  — 
Die  christlicke  Volksbildttng  (1881)  i^UOer  die  Kirchen- 
einigung  (1837):  —  Die  Psalmen  in  Kirchenmehdien 
Ubertragen  (1845) :— (7eu//icAe  Lieder  (edited  by  C.  B. 
Meissner,  1851,  after  the  author's  death).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL  ii,  723;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i, 
16, 26, 322, 530, 862, 866 ;  ii,  19, 823, 325, 338, 343 ;  Koch, 
Getch.  des  deutschen  Kirchetdiedes,  vii,  257  sq.     (D.  P.) 

Kottmeier,  Adolpii  Gboro,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
ii'nn  of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  31,  1768,  at  Neuen- 
kirchen,  near  OsnabrUck.  In  1789  he  was  teacher  at 
Halle,  in  1790  preacher  at  Haddenhauaen,  near  Minden, 
in  1792  at  Harturo,  in  1810  cathedral- preacher  at  Bre- 
men, and  died  Sept.  20, 1842,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
was  an  ascetical  writer  uf  some  renown.  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL  i,  723;  Winer,  Hundbueh  der  theoL  Lit,  ii, 
07, 99, 185, 283, 294, 375.     (a  P.) 

Konnboum  {ten  thousand  images^  a  place  in  the 
country  of  Amdo,  in  Thibet,  where  grows  a  wonderful 
tree,  known  as  the  Tree  of  Ten  Thousand  Images.  The 
lamasery  of  Konnboum  contains  nearly  four  thousand 
lamas,  and  is  a  great  resort  for  pilgrims  from  all  parts 
of  Tartarv  and  Thibet. 

Kouotina,  in  the  mytliokigy  of  the  Caribbcans, 
Is  the  head  of  all  idols,  from  whom  all  the  rest  ilcc. 
Their  flight  causes  the  thunder. 

Kouren  of  thb  Thousand  Lamas,  a  celebrated 
lamasery  in  Tarury,  which  dates  from  the  invasion  of 
China  by  the  Mantchous.  The  ground  and  revenues 
were  given  by  a  Chinese  emperor,  who  had  recently 
come  into  possession  of  the  throne,  in  token  of  his  grat- 
itude for  a  favorable  prophecy  given  by  a  lama  before 
his  conquest.  It  was  designed  originally  to  maintain 
a  thousand  lamas,  but  haa  made  such  progress  that  it 
now  contains  more  than  four  thousand.  The  chief  offi- 
cer of  the  establishment  is  also  governor  of  the  district, 
and  makes  laws,  administers  justice,  and  appoints  mag- 
istrates.    See  Lamaism. 

KoUBOla.    Sec  Hiifuuwi,  Dialkcts  of. 

XoQWiRronpaBSBllBit;  in  Finnish  mytholog}*,  is 
a  lively  festival  among  the  nations  living  in  the  far 
north,  which  was  begun  with  a  bear  bunt.  It  ia  not 
known  in  honor  of  what  deity  this  festival  was  cele- 
brated. 

Xoackox.    See  Goiooac 

XIL-^8 


Knibbe,  Otto  Carbtkh,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  Dec  27, 1805.  He 
studied  at  Bonn,  Berlin,  and  Gottingen,  was  in  1888 
professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Hamburg,  in  1840  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  university-preacher  at  Hostock, 
in  1851  member  of  consistory,  and  died  Nov.  14, 1878, 
doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  De  Codice  Canonum  fui 
Apostolorum  Nomine  Cireuff\feruntur  (Gottingen,  1829) : 
— UAer  den  Ursprung  und  InhaU  der  apostolischen 
Consiitutionen  des  Clemens  Romanus  (Hamburg,  eod.) : 
— Die  Lehre  von  der  SOnde  und  vom  Tode  (1836) : — 
Vorlesui^fen  Hber  das  Leben  Jesu  (1889)  :—DU  etange^ 
lische  LandesJdrche  Preussens  (Berlin,  1849)  x—Das  lu^ 
theiische  Behnmimss  (1859) : — Wider  die  gegemcHjiige 
Richtung  des  StaatsUbens  m  VerhSltniss  tur  Kirche 
(Bostock,  1878).  See  Zuchold,  £iULrAeo/.i,  724.  (a  P.) 

Kragb,  Tiibodor,  a  Lutheran  theologian  and  mis- 
sionary of  Denmark,  was  bom  in  1795.  After  having 
passed  his  theological  examination,  he  went  to  Green- 
land as  a  missionary.  He  translated  a  great  part  of 
the  Old  Test  and  many  ascetical  works  into  Green- 
landtsh,  and  published  a  prayer-book  and  collection  of 
sermons  in  that  language.  He  died  March  25, 1888, 
at  Oesby,  near  Hadersleben,  in  Scbleswig.  See  FUrst^ 
BibL  Jud,  ii,  207.     (B.  P.) 

Krake^ts,  Barthold  vom,  a  German  Lutheran 
divine,  was  bom  in  the  isle  of  RUgen  in  1582.  lie 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Greifswalde,  general  superintendent  of  Pomer- 
ania,  and  died  Nov.  7,  1642.  He  wrote.  Comment,  in 
ffoseam  et  Jonam : — De  Bonis  Christianorum  Ojteribus : 
^De  Jesu  Christo  ^lav^pwir^,  etc.  See  Freher,  TAe- 
atrum  Eruditorum;  Witte,  Afemoria  Theologoi-um  f 
Jocher,  Al/gemeines  GeUhrten-Lexikon^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Krapf^  JoHAMN  LuDWio,  a  famous  German  mis- 
sionsry,  was  bora  Jan.  11, 1810,  at  Devendingen,  near 
Tubingen.  He  studied  at  the  latter  place,  and  entered 
the  service  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  in  1887. 
He  was  sent  to  Africa,  where  he  labored  till  1855,  when 
the  poor  state  of  his  health  obliged  him  to  return  to 
Europe.  He  retired  to  Korathal,  and  spent  his  time 
in  translating  the  Scriptures  into  different  dialects  of 
east  Africa.  He  died  Nov.  26, 1881,  while  at  prayer  on 
his  knees.  Of  his  works  we  mention,  Reisen  in  Ost- 
aftika  in  den  Jakren  1837-55  (Korathal,  1858, 2  vols.) ; 
— hia  Dictiona»y  of  (he  Suahili  /Mnguage  was  ptiLlishcd 
after  his  death  (Lond.  1882).     (R  P.) 

Kratise,  Hrinrioh,  a  Protestant  writer  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Weissensee,  near  Berlin,  June  2, 1816. 
He  studied  theology  under  Twesten  and  Neander  at 
Berlin,  and  at  one  time  thought  of  devoting  himself 
to  lecturing  at  the  university.  With  great  success  he 
passed  the  examination  bb  licentiate,  in  1843,  and  pub- 
lished an  essay,  Ueber  die  Wahrho/Ugkeit  (Berlin, 
1844),  which  obtained  the  approval  of  professor  Nitascb. 
When  about  to  comntence  his  public  lectures  at  the 
univeruty,  he  met  with  an  opposition,  the  head  of 
which  was  his  former  teacher,  Twesten.  Krause  aban- 
doned the  theological  career,  and  betook  himself  to 
Journalism.  In  1852  he  commenced  publiBhiug  Die 
Profestamische  Kirchenzeitung,  to  which  he  devoted  all 
hia  talenta.  The  Kirchemeitung^  as  the  organ  of  the 
ao -called  Protestanien-Vereinj  became  the  battle-field 
against  orthodoxy,  and  Krause's  pen  was  especially  di- 
rected against  men  like  Heng»tenberg,  Stahl,  and  Lett. 
In  his  attacks,  Krause  was  supported  by  such  liberal 
theologians  as  Sydow,  Jonas,  Ztttel,  Karl  Hase,  Karl 
Schwarz.  and  others.  Besides  his  journalistic  work, 
Krsuse  lectured  in  public  on  religious  subjects.  In 
1864  the  univerBity  at  Zurich  honored  him  with  the 
doctorate  of  tbeology.  Krause  died  at  his  native  place, 
June  8, 1868.  See  H.  Spttth,  Protestantische  Bavsfeine, 
Leben  und  Wirken  des  Dr,  Heinrich  Krause  nebst  einer 
Autufcdkl  aus  seimen  pubUcistisehen  Aibeiten  (Berlini 
18«8)^  StrOhlin,  in  Lichtenbeiger,  Enegchp,  du  Sd^ 
set,  a.  T.    (a  P.) 


KRAUSSOLD 


642 


KUNTH 


Kranaaold,  Lorbsz,  a  Lothenn  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  Oct.  22, 1881,  first  pastor  at  Bayreuth, 
member  of  consistory,  doctor  of  Uieology  and  philosophy, 
published  a  number  of  sermons  and  asoetical  works,  for 
which  see  Zuehold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  782  sq.;  Winer,  Hand- 
buck  der  thed.  Lit.  ii,  217, 240, 288, 866, 408.     (B.  P.) 

Krantb,  Charles  Porterfibld,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  Lutheran  divine,  eldest  sou  of  Dr.  Charles 
Philip  Krauth  (q.  v.),  was  bom  at  Martinsburg,  Va^ 
March  17,  1828.  He  graduated  from  Pennsylvania 
College,  Gettysburg,  in  1839;  studied  theology  under 
Drs.  Schmucke  and  Schmidt;  was  ordained  in  1842, 
and  became  pastor  in  Baltimore,  Md.  He  subsequently 
occupied  the  same  position  in  Winchester,  Ya.  (1848- 
55),  and  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  In  1859  he  was  called  to  the 
pastorate  of  St.  Bfark's  Lutheran  Church,  Philadelphia, 
and  two  yean  afterwards  becaron  editor  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Misiionary,  In  1864  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  and  Church  history  in  the  new  Lutheran 
Seminary,  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1868  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  of  which 
he  became  vice-provost  five  years  subsequently,  a  po- 
sition which  he  retained  until  his  death,  Jan.  2, 188S. 
He  had  continued  preaching,  having  temporary  charge 
of  various  churches  in  the  same  city,  and  spent  some 
time  in  the  West  Indies  in  1852,  a  visit  which  occa- 
sioned his  Sketeket  of  the  Danish  West  Indies,  He  is 
the  author  of  a  large  number  of  works,  among  which 
we  mention,  a  trandation  of  Tholuck's  Commentary  on 
John  (1859):  — CoiMerpo/tpe  Reformation  (1872) :~ 
Berkeley's  Philosophical  WrUings  (1874) :— and  an  en- 
larged edition  of  Fleming's  VocalnUary  of  Philosophy 
(1877).  He  was  several  times  president  of  the  Luther- 
an council,  a  member  of  various  litetmry  societies,  and 
a  member  of  the  American  Committee  on  Bible  Revis- 
ion. His  rare  attainments,  ripe  scholarship,  genuine 
catholicity,  wise  conservatism,  and  noble  spirit  ikiade 
his  influence  wide  and  deep,  not  only  in  his  own  de- 
nomination, but  far  bevond  iu  See  Luth,  Church  Rev, 
July,  1883. 

KroBkaa.    See  Crescab. 

Kilta  (or  Batya),  the  age  of  truth,  according  to 
the  Hindii  system,  being  the  earliest  in  the  history  of 
the  human  race,  the  one  in  which  man  sprang  from  the 
hand  of  his  Creator,  pure  and  sinless,  not  divided  into 
conflicting  orders,  and  with  all  his  faculties  working 
together  in  harmony. 

Kritzler,  Hbinrich,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  in  1829.  For  some  time  preacher 
in  Frilnkisch-Grambach,  Hesse,  he  was  called  in  1875 
as  professor  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Herbora, 
and  died  April  11,  1878.  He  wrote,  Die  Ileldenzeiten 
des  Christenthums  (Leipsic,  1856):  —  Humanitdt  und 
Chtistenthum  (Goths,  1867,  2  vols.):  — /Ke  deufsche 
evanpelische  Kirche  in  der  Gegenwart  (1869)  \—Civitas 
Christiana  (Wiesbaden,  1874).    (a  P.) 

Krodo,  in  German  mythology,  was  a  god  repre- 
sented as  a  roan  standing  on  a  large  fish,  holding  a  ves- 
sel of  flowers  in  his  right  hand,  in  his  left  a  wheel.  He 
is  said  to  have  a  similarity  to  Saturn,  but  wherein  it 
consists  is  hard  to  telL 

Kromayer,  Johanm  Abraiiasi,  a  German  theo- 
logian, grandson  of  Jerome  (q.  v.),  was  born  in  1665  at 
Ohrdrnf^  in  Thuringia.  He  studied  theology  at  Jena, 
was  in  1691  deacon,  in  1696  pastor  and  superintendent 
at  his  native  place,  and  died  April  19, 1738.  He  wrote, 
De  Usu  Lingua  Arahiete  in  Addiscenda  Lingua  Ebnea 
ft  ExpUcanda  Sacra  Scriptura: — Comment,  TheoL  de 
Potestate  Ecdesiastica : — Dispositiones  Memoriales  Li' 
brorum  et  Capitum  BibUeorum  tum  Veteris  turn  Novi 
Test€unenti: — Specimen  Fontium  Scriptures  Apertorum 
Editum  in  lUust,  Vaticiniis  IJosea^  JoeUs  et  A  mosL  See 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gekhrten-LexUconf  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Kahattrya,  the  military  caste  of  the  Hindfis, 
sprung  from  the  arm  of  Biahma,  whoie  oiBoe  it  is  to 


protect  their  fellows  from  internal  violence  and  outward 
assault  Their  duties  are  to  defend  the  people,  give 
alms,  and  read  the  Yedas;  and  at  any  age  up  to  twenty- 
two  and  twenty-four  they  most  be  invested  with  the 
mark  of  the  caste.  It  no  longer  exists,  however,  as  a 
distinct  caste  or  division  of  societv. 

* 

Xuallna,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Caribbeana,  is 
the  head  of  the  heavenly  spirits.  He  causes  thunder 
by  pursuing  those  who  have  been  guilty  of  a  sin. 

KUchler,  Carl  Gustav,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1796,  and  died  at  Leipsic  in 
1868,  professor  of  philosophy  and  licentiate  of  theology. 
He  wrote,  Pneeepta  Pauli  Apostoli  de  Tradenda  Reli- 
gionis  Doctrina  (Leipsic,  1820) : — De  Simplidtate  Scrips 
torum  Sacrorum  in  Commentariis  de  Vita  Jesu  Chrisii 
Commentatio  (1821,  1827):— Ft/a  Jesu  Chrisii  Grteoe, 
etc.  (1885)  :—De  Locis  A  liquot  Evangeliorum  ab  Ora^ 
toribus  Sacris  Perperam  haud  Raro  Usurpatis  (1847). 
He  also  published  some  sermons.  See  Zuehold,  BibL 
TheoL  i,  748  sq. ;  Winer,  TIandbuch  der  theoL  LiL  i,  551- 
568;  ii,  265.    (R  P.) 

Ktthn,  AxDRBAS,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many,  was  bom  at  Dresden,  May  29, 1624.  He  studied 
at  different  universities,  and  died  at  Dantzic,  Sept  80, 
1702.  He  wrote,  De  Jure  Dei  in  Creaturas : — De  Or* 
dine  Decretorum  Divinorum: — De  Puncfo  et  Momenta 
Discrfpantia  Inter  Lutheranos  et  Reformatos:  —  De 
Pemicie  et  Morte  Judm  Matt,  xxvii,  5:  —  Aphorismi 
Practid  ex  Theohgia  Morali,  See  Jdcher,  AUgemeinef 
Gdehrten-Lexikofi,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Kulik  (or  Kvtlik6ta),  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
NagaSf  or  serpents,  in  Hind{L  mythology,  who  com- 
plained to  the  Lord  of  the  universe  that  for  no  fault  of 
his  he  was  continually  tormented  by  the  Surcu^  or  in- 
ferior gods.  In  answer  to  his  prayer,  Brahma  is  said 
to  have  enjoined  that  he  should  receive  adoration  like 
the  devas  from  each  human  being,  and  that  mortals  who 
refused  to  pay  such  worship  to  him  should  be  cut  off  by 
some  unnatural  death,  and  deprived  of  the  power  of 
rising  higher  in  the  scale  of  created  beings.  See 
Hardwick,  Christ  and  Other  Masters, 

Kumano-GKx)^  a  species  of  ordeal  in  use  among 
the  Japanese  for  the  detection  of  crime.  The  goo  is  a 
piece  of  paper,  formally  sealed  with  the  signet  of  the 
JammabM  (q.  v.),  on  which  are  drawn  several  mysteri- 
ous characters,  and  the  figures  of  various  ill-omened 
birdsL  All  goos  are  not  of  equal  value ;  the  most  pow- 
erful, and  those  most  dreaded  by  the  dasmons,  come  from 
a  place  called  Kumano.  The  ordeal  above  named  con- 
sists in  making  the  accused  party  swallow  a  small  piece 
of  goo  in  a  certain  quantity  of  water.  If  he  be  guilty, 
the  goo  twinges  and  gripes  him  in  the  most  violent 
manner,  till  he  is  obliged  to  confess  his  guilt. 

Xomaon  Version  op  the  Scriptures.  The 
Kumaon  dialect  is  closely  allied  to  the  Hinduwee,  and 
is  spoken  in  the  province  of  Kumaon,  subject  to  Great 
Britain.  A  version  of  the  Kew  Test,  was  oomroenoed 
at  Serampore  in  1815,  and  was  completed  at  press  abont 
the  year  1826.  It  has  never  been  reprinted  since.  See 
BibUof  Every  Land,  p,  lis,    (a  P.) 

Ktmatmann,  Friedricr,  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg  in  1811. 
In  1847  he  was  made  professor  of  canon -law  at  the 
University  of  Munich,  and  died  Aug.  15,  1867.  He 
published,  Rhabanus  Maurus  (Mayence,  1841):  —  Die 
gemischien  Ehen  unter  den  diristlichen  Confessionen 
Deutschlands  dargestellt  (1889) : — Grundsiige  eines  per* 
gUiehenden  Kirchen-Rechtes  der  dkristlichen  Confessionem 
(Munich,  1867).     (R  P.) 

Kunth,  JoHANN  Siaxi7Ni>,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Liegnitz,  Silesia,  Oct  8, 1700. 
He  studied  at  different  universities,  was  pastor  and 
superintendent  at  Barath,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  and  died 
in  1779.  Kunth  is  known  as  the  author  of  the  beaottful 
hymn,  Es  ist  noch  eine  Ruhe  vorhanden  (EngL  traniL  ia 


WinkwoTth,  Ij/ra  Ccrmonnr,  i,  195 :  "  Yci,  there  re- 
mainHh  vela  rat  !">  8««KDch,i;eia)ia(rtifeiilnif«t4(n 
XircHsiUHbi,  ir,  4U  aq.     (R  P.) 

Ktmze,  John  CuKisTOPHEit,  D.D^  i  Lutheran 
■uiiiiiteT,  «u  ban)  in  Siixony,  and  nlucated  st  iba 
Orphan  Honae  and  the  University  or  tlalle.  Upon  a 
Tequiaition  from  the  St.  Michael  and  Zion  ehuicbei  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  ha  waa  Klccted  by  tha  theological 
foculty  of  Halle,  and  ordained  as  rector  of  those  ch arches 
in  1781.  Fourteen  yearg  he  waa  connected  with  [he 
Lutheran  congiegations  itt  Philadelphia,  onder  vaiioua 
ttamea,  and  then  he  accepted  a  call  to  a  church  in  New 
York  city,  where  he  labored  about  twenty-four  yean. 
At  one  time  he  waa  professor  or  Hebrew  in  Columbia 
College.  Sj  eipres  appointment  of  the  founder  of 
Haitwick  Seminary  he  wa*  made  professor  of  the<J<^y 
id  that  iudtntion,  a  poaition  which  he  continued  to 
bold  until  hia  death,  July  M,  1807,  at  the  age  of  nxty- 
chree  Jan.  It  was  said  of  him  that  he  waa  the  nxMt 
learned  tbeok^n  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America. 
Hia  library  waa  extensive,  and  he  had  a  large  acquaint- 
aiice  with  Oriental  lilenture.     Aa  a  preaehei,  he  waa 


MofHr.Strei- 
beck,  he  publiahed  an  Kv^ith  LvC^eran  Ilynut-baoh  in 
1795.  See  Quar.  Rn.  o/Enmg.  Lalk.  Ciurrk,  vii,  377 ; 
Lmimm  Mwriwr,  Feb.  16, 1SS3. 

EnpMy,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Pemriana,Has  an 
evil  apirit,  whom  they  did  not  worahip,  hut  at  the  men- 
tion of  vboae  name  they  spat  on  tbe  ground,  s  sign  of 
conWmp*. 

Ktirdlib  Tenlon  of  tub  ScniprunEa.  The 
Kurdish  is  in  all  probabilliy  a  remnant  of  the  old  Farsi 
or  Parii  language,  and  bears  mnch  resemblance  to  moil- 
em  I'cTMan.  Like  most  dislecti  used  merely  for  oral 
communication  tliraugh  a  large  extent  of  territory,  the 
language  of  tb«  Kurdi,  having  no  literature  or  written 
standard  of  appeal,  undergoes  very  coniiilerable  altera- 
lions  and  modiEcationa  in  different  places,  by  inter- 
mixture  with  the  language  of  neighboring  nations. 
Thus  the  Kurds  dwelling  in  the  Ottoman  empire  have 
adopted  many  Turkish  words,  while  corrupted  Syriac 
words  hare  crept  into  tbe  dialects  of  the  tribes  who 
live  in  the  vicinity,  or  have  embraced  llie  religion,  of 
the  Kestoriaa  Chiuliana.  In  1B92  the  Iter.  H.  Lecve* 
proposed  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  to 
hava  a  version  in  Kurdish  made.  The  preparation  of 
tbe  version  was  intrusted  to  biahopttehevris,  at  Tabreei. 
In  1B27  Hr.  Leeves  forwarded  to  the  committee  the 
portion*  of  the  New  Test,  which  had  been  translated. 
But  this  translation  was  not  intelligible  to  the  Kurds. 
lnlSi6  the  above  society  publiahed  in  Armeno-Kunlish 
the  goBpel  of  Matthew,  which  wai  foUowedby  the  other 
gospels.  Ill  the  Armcno  -  Kunliah  dialect  the  entire 
New  Teat,  ia  now  extant.     See  Bibk  nf  Ectry  Land, 

p. 82.  cap.) 

Knrko  was  ■  god  of  the  Uthuuriana,  or  heathen 
Pruasians.     Hia  seat 
gods  of  tbe  ancient 
FtnaBSna   presided; 

the  eonntry  hia  idol 
stood  under  mighty 
oak-trees.  Theflnt- 
fmita   of  the   field 


13  KUTUCHTA 

the  drink  of  immortality,  it  threatened  to  dnk  in  the 
waves;  but  ViBhnu,in  hia  aecond  incarnation,  supported 
it  a*  a  tortoise,  and  thus  the  world  now  stands. 

Ktimdn,  in  Lamaism,  isone  of  the  seven  holy  relics 
placed  on  the  altars  in  the  temple  of  the  Lamaite  deity. 
It  ia  a  drum,  in  which  all  tha  prayers  arc  written  on  a 
long  strip  of  parchment,  wound  around  two  tolls.  If 
one  of  these  rolls  is  turned  by  a  crooked  handle,  the 
prayers  wind  themaelve*  around  this  roll  from  the  other. 
Thus  these  prayers  all  appear  in  order  under  the  cover 
nf  Kunida.  Praying,  among  the  Kalmucks,  Tamuls, 
Mongolian^  etc,  means  to  turn  this  handle  and  let  (iod 
read  them.  Thoae  praying  continue  their  daily  occn- 
pationa  during  prayer  without  disturtring  the  sanctity 
of  the  act. 

Kaaa,  the  sacred  grass  of  the  HiiidQs,on  nrhicb  tha 
Fogi,  or  Hindu  ascetic,  is  required  to  sit  motionleas  and 


mountain  Uandar 
was  moved  into  the 
milky  aea,  for  the 
purpose  of  preparing 


Ktuaien  Versloii  op  the  Scriptuiies.  The 
Snsaien  ia  a  dialect  spoken  in  Strong  Island,  Microne^a, 
In  ISGS  the  gospel  of  John  was  pabtiabed  in  this  lan- 
guage by  the  American  BiUe  Society.     (B.  P.) 

Ktiula,  merit,  among  the  Buddhists,  which  ia  in- 
cluded in  Karma  (q.  v.).  "There  ar«  three  principal 
meanings  of  the  word  bunla,  viu,  freedom  frofn  sick- 
ness, exemption  from  blame,  and  reward;  but  aa  used 
by  Buddha,  its  primary  idea  ia  that  of  cutting,  or  ex- 
cision. It  has  a  cognate  use  in  the  word  hito,  the 
sacriflcial  grass  that  cuts  with  both  ita  edge*  the  hand 
of  him  who  lays  hold  of  it  carelesely.  That  which  is 
cut  by  kusala  is  tUtia,  evil  desire,  or  the  cleaving  to 
Biala  is  the  opposite  of  kusala.  That 
is  neither  kusala  not  lUtutsU  ia  aviijdJtrala ;  it 
followed  by  any  consequence;  it  receives  no  re- 
eiiher  good  or  bad."     See  Hardy,  Eailtm  Mona- 

ckiim,  pp.  s,s,ine,»n. 

KUster,  Sahi-ei.  Christian  UorrPiilBn,  a  Luther- 
an theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Havelberg,  Aug. 
18, 17C2.  Fnm  1804  till  1829  he  was  director  of  the 
teachers'  seminsry ;  in  1880  he  was  appointed  superin- 
tendent and  first  preacher  at  the  Friedricht-Wenter 
Church,  and  died  at  Neuetadt-Ebenwalde,  Aug.  12, 
1838,  doctor  of  theok^'.  Besides  sermons  and  ascetical 
works,  be  published  Bit  Pialnm,  mil  Ein/tilUHsai  aaJ 
Aromrtmyai  h/aiiei/el  (Berlin,  tS33).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TliroL  i,  764 ;  Winer,  F/andivch  drr  IttoL  f.il.  ii, 
251,  2S7,  260,  29S,  302,  806,  816,  839,  S42,  S9«.     (&  P.) 

KntmohlEer,  Johanh  Baptist,  a  Soman  Catholic 
prelate,  was  bom  April  1 1, 1810,  at  Wiese,  in  Austro- 
Silesia.  He  studied  at  OlmUtx,  was  made  priest  in 
18S3.  and  doctor  of  theology  in  1834.  From  that  lime 
on  tilt  18£1  he  acted  aa  professor  of  moral  theology  at 
Olmlllz,  was  then  appointed  court-chaplain  at  Vienna, 
and  in  I8fi2  cathedral-provost  and  general-vicar  of  the 
Vienna  diocese.  He  was  the  right  hand  of  cardinal 
Rauscher  (q.  v.),  and  took  an  active  part  in  all  eccle- 
siastical affairs.    At  the  special  request  of  the  latter  he 

prince-archbishop  of  Vienna  was  made  in  1870.  In 
1877  he  was  made  cardinal,  and  died  Jan.  27, 1881.  He 
was  a  very  moderate  prelate,  and  Austria  owes  it  to 
him  that  she  waa  enabled  to  bring  about  tbe  present 
religion*  legislation,  without  coming  into  a  bitter  con- 
flict with  the  Roman  see.  He  slways  went  with  the 
government  patty.  He  ^mte,  Dii  gtmiKklm  EhtK,tim 
dan  taHotiich-liirdiUchai  Slrndpusklt  (Sd  ed.  Vienna, 
1842):— />at£jtovci(  (far  totiofiiobn  KirdU  (186S-(i7, 
fivola.).     (B.P.) 

KntnobtB,  the  chief  priest  of  the  Kalmuck  Tartars 
and  Western  Mongols.  Fnrmeriy  he  was  subject  to  the 
Dslai-Lama  (q.  v.)  of  Thibet,  hut  in  course  of  time  he 
made  a  schism  among  the  Lamsisla,  and  established 
himself  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Dalai- Lama  him- 
self. He  ia  regarded  a*  a  very  sacied  persanagc,  and 
there  is  more  or  lea*  of  mystery  always  connected  with 
hia  person  in  the  mincis  of  tbe  common  people. 


KUZMANY 


644 


LACmSH 


Xusmany,  Carl,  a  Protestant  theologian,  who  died 
at  PresbuTg,  Hungary,  Aug.  14, 1866,  and  was  for  some 
time  professor  at  Vienna,  is  the  author  of  PrakUtche 
Theoiagie  der  evpngelitchen  Kirche  augsburgitcher  vnd 
helvetischer  Confession  (8  vols.).  See  Zuchold,  Bibl, 
TheoL  i,  764  sq.     (R  P.) 

KTKrambak,  the  first  officer  at  the  court  of  the 
Dairi'(q.  v.)  in  Japan,  and  who  represents  that  pontiff 
when  the  dignity  devolves  on  a  wonaan  or  a  child. 

KTKran-shi-in,  one  of  the  three  divinities  unknown 
to  the  original  Buddhists,  but  worshipped  in  China  as 
scarcely  inferior  to  Gotama  Buddha  hiiDself.  He  is 
also  known  by  the  name  of  Padma-pani,  or  lotus  bearer. 
In  many  districts  of  Thibet  he  is  incarnate,  under  the 
name  of  Padma-pani,  in  the  person  of  the  Dalai-Lama 
(q.  v.).  In  Thibet  and  Mongolia  he  is  represented  with 
innumerable  eyes  and  hands,  and  sometimes  with  as 
many  as  ten  heads.  In  China  this  deity  is  exhibited 
with  a  female  figure  and  female  decorations. 

Kynlnmund,  Alvzakdeb  ue,  a  Scotch  prelate, 


was  elected  bbhop  of  Aberdeen  in  1357.  Here  be  re- 
mained until  about  1876,  when  he  was  sent  on  an  em- 
bassy from  king  Robert  11  to  renew  the  ancient  league 
with  France,  and  died  at  Scone  the  year  after  his  return, 
in  1882.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Biskops,  p.  111. 

Kyrko  -  Handbok,  the  ritual  of  the  Swedish 
Church,  revised  and  published  in  1811,  It  is  divided 
into  fifteen  chapters,  containing  the  Psalms,  the  morn- 
ing prayer  and  communion  service,  the  evening  prayer 
and  the  holy-day  service,  the  Litany,  the  forms  of  bap- 
tism, confirmation,  marriage,  and  churching  of  women, 
the  funeral  service,  the  forms  of  consecration  of  churches 
and  of  bishops,  the  form  of  ordination  of  priests,  etc. 

Kyrko-Ordningen,  a  book  containing  the  laws 
regulating  the  government  and  discipline  of  the  Church 
of  Sweden,  first  published  in  1686. 

K3rrko-racL  {church  cotmcil),  a  church  court  in 
Sweden,  inferior  to  the  diocesan  consistories,  and  near- 
ly answering  to  a  presbytery.  It  is  composed  of  clergy- 
men, and  of  laymen  elected  by  the  parishionera. 


L. 


Laan,  Petkr,  a  Dutch  theologian,  was  bom  Dec  24, 
1G96.  He  studied  at  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  acted  as 
preacher  at  different  places  from  1722  to  1789.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  called  as  professor  of  theology  and 
university  preacher  to  Franeker,  and  died  April  4, 1743. 
He  published,  Disp,  ad  Inscript.  Psalini  xxxi: — Ad  Job 
r,  23 : — Dt  Tokrantia  CiviU  ad  Socinuinos  non  Extent 
dendOf  Gmuinis  Mennonitis  Miniine  Iniqua,  See  Jo- 
cher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrten'LexUwi,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Labaree,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister  and  distinguished  educator,  was  bom  in  Charles- 
town,  N.  H.,  June  8, 1801.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1828,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
in  1831 ;  was  ordained  at  Bradford,  Mass.,  Sept-.  26  of  the 
same  year,  and  for  a  time  was  a  home  missionary  in 
Tennessee.  From  1832  to  1837  he  was  professor  of  an- 
cient languages,  and  president  of  Jackson  College ;  tor 
the  next  three  3'ears  secretary  of  the  Central  American 
Educational  Society.  He  was  called  to  the  presidency 
of  Middlebury  College,  Vk,,  in  1840,  and  remained  in 
iiflicc  twenty-six  years.  From  1867  to  1869  he  resided 
in  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  preaching  for  a  part  of  this  time 
at  South  Weymouth.  His  residence  thereafter  was  in 
West  Roxbury  (1870-76),  Charlestown,  N.  H.,  and  Wal- 
pole  from  1880  till  his  death,  Nov.  15, 1883.  See  Boston 
A  dvertiseTf  Nov.  21, 1883 ;  Trim.  Catalogue  of  A  ndoter 
TheoL  Sem.  1870,  p.  94 ;  ^\  Y,  Observer,  Nov.  22, 1888 ; 
Cong,  Year-booh,  1884,  p.  27.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Labb6,  Martin,  a  French  prelate  and  missionary, 
was  born  at  Le  Luc,  near  Caen.  He  entered  the  Socie- 
ty of  Jesus,  and  requested  to  be  sent  to  the  foreign 
missions.  He  went  to  Cochin  China  in  1678,  and  re- 
turned in  1697.  Innocent  XII  made  him  bishop  of 
Tilopolis.  After  a  short  sojourn  in  Europe  the  abbot 
returned  to  Cochin  China,  whero  he  lived  fifteen  years, 
in  the  midst  of  fatigues  and  perils.  He  died  in"l723, 
leaving  a  letter  to  [lope  Clement  XI,  on  the  worship  of 
the  Chinese ;  also  a  memoir  on  the  persecutions.  See 
lloefer,  Kouv,  Biog,  GeniralCf  s.  v, 

Laberenz,  Gottfried,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Fnlda,  May  6, 1802.  He 
received  holy  onlers  in  1825,  and  was  appointed  at  the 
same  time  professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  of  Old- 
Test,  exegeain.  In  1829  he  was  cathedral  dean,  in  1836 
doctor  of  theology,  and  died  March  18, 1875,  at  his  na- 
tive place.  He  wrote,  De  Vera  Jona  Interpretatione 
(Fulda,  1886)  i^KatholUche  liomiktik  (Ratisbon,  1844) : 
^Grammatik  da'  Jlebr,  Sprache  (Paderbora,  1867). 
(B.  P.) 

LabOQChdre»  Pierre  Antoine,  a  noted  French 
Protestant  painter,  was  bom  atNantei*,Nov.26,1807,and  | 


stmlied  in  Germany  and  in  England.  He  had  been  placed 
at  first  in  a  commercial  house  at  Antwerp,  and  made,  iit 
1827,  a  journey  to  the  United  States,  as  secreury  of 
M.  Bates,  and  in  1832  went  to  China  as  supercargo  of 
a  vessel  of  Nantes,  which  belonged  to  his  elder  brother. 
Painting,  however,  seems  to  have  been  his  predominat- 
ing passion,  and  a  visit  to  Antwerp  decided  his  voca- 
tion, and  ho  accordingly  became  a  pupil  of  Paul  Dela- 
roche.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1873.  Labouch^re  chiefly 
painted  historical  subjects,  especially  those  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  Germany.  He  left  a  set  of  subjects  drawn 
from  the  life  of  Luther,  which  have  been  engraved,  and 
are  accompanied  with  a  text  by  Merle  d'Aubigni.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

La  Bmydre,  Stephen  dk,  a  French  prelate,  was 
elected  bishop  of  Nantes  some  time  before  1218,  and 
was  involved  in  a  contest  with  Peter  Mauclerc,  duke  of 
Brittany,  on  the  privileges  of  the  clergy,  which  resulted 
in  the  bishop's  forcible  expulsion  from  his  diocese  in 
1219.  He  withdrew  to  Rome,  but  after  soma  months 
returned  to  his  functions,  and  died  at  Nantes,  Feb.  8, 
1227.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GiuiralCf  s.  v. 

Labjnrintb.  At  St.  Bertin*s,  in  SL  Omer,  there  was 
one  of  those  cnrious  floors,  representing  the  Temple  of 
Jerusalem,  with  stations  for  pilgnms,  and  actoally  vis- 
ited and  traversed  by  them  as  a  compromise  for  not 
going  to  the  Holy  Land  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow.  The 
labyrinth  at  Sens  \ras  destroyed  in  1768;  those  of  Arras 
and  Amiens  shared  the  same  fate  in  1826.  There  ia  a 
round  labyrinth  in  the  centre  of  the  nave  of  Chartre«v 
inlaid  with  lead ;  another,  of  encaustic  tiles,  in  the  chap- 
ter-house of  Bayeux ;  and  a  third,  of  octagonal  shape, 
in  the  nave  of  St.  Quentiu. — ^Walcott,  Sac  ArchceoL  s.  v. 

X«a  ChartreB»  Pierre  de.  See  Peter  of  Char- 
tres. 

* 

La  Chartres,  Renond  de.  See  CIeiartres, 
Renouq  dv. 

Xaaohiah.   On  the  identification  of  this  place,  Lieut. 

Conder  remarks  {Tent  Work,  ii,  168) : 

**  We  visited  Um  LofiSj  the  sire  proposed  by  Dr.  Rob- 
inson, and  could  not  but  cnnclnae  that  no  ancient  or 
important  city  ever  stixid  there,  nor  has  the  name  any 
raalcsl  similaritj  to  that  of  Lachlsh.  [This  Is  sorely  a 
mistake,  for  the  fnltisl  L  Is  at  least  the  same,  and  no  more 
can  be  said  in  favor  of  bis  own  proposal]  Mnch  nearer, 
indeed,  wonid  be  the  title  el-Heapt  applying  to  a  large  nn- 
cieut  site  with  springs,  near  the  foot  or  the  bills,  ab<iut  In 
the  proper  position  mr  Lachish.  The  modern  site  means 
'  A  water-pit,'  and.  If  it  is  a  corrnption  of  Lachish,  it  would 
afford  a  second  instance  of  chausre  wblch  is  well  known 
to  have  taken  place  in  the  case  of  Michraash— the  k  being 
chanf^ed  to  a  guttural  K  The  distance  from  Beit  Jibriu 
to  Tell  el-Hesy  Is  not  much  mater  than  that  given  iti 
the  Onomastieoti  fur  Lachish,  while  the  proximity  of  Egloa 


LACHRYMATORY 


645 


LAFO  ALJEMIN 


OAJIAn),  aod  the  poiUion  sooth  of  Beit  Jlbiin,  on  a  prin- 
cipal road,  near  toe  hi!l9,  and  by  one  of  the  only  springs 
iu  the  plain,  all  seem  to  be  points  strongly  oonflrming 
this  view." 

Tell  el'Hesy  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  ten 
and  a  half  miles  south-west  of  Beit  Jibrin,  and  is  de- 
scribed in  the  accompanying  Memoirs  (iii,  290)  as  *'a 
truncated  oone,  with  a  broad,  flat  top,  and  traces  of  ruins 
round  its  base.  There  are  several  springs  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, but  the  water  is  bad/'  This  site  was  known 
in  the  Middle  Ages  bb  Alkatti  (Boheddin,  Vita  Salad, 
p.  228).  But  Tristram  {BibU  Places^  p.  86)  and  Trelaw- 
ney  Saunders  (^Map  of  the  0.  T.)  still  adhere  to  Um- 
Lakhitf  which  Ues  three  miles  north-west  of  Tell  el-Hesy, 
and  twelve  and  a  half  miles  west  by  south  from  Beit 
Jibrin.  Its  reraaine  are  thus  described  by  Guerin  (Ju- 
dma,  ii,  299) :        ^ 

"These  mins  cover  a  space  of  abont  a  kilometre  and  a 
hnlf  in  drcnmferenoe.  Thev  are  »itoated  partly  on  a  hil- 
lock, and  partly  in  the  midst  of  Helds,  either  cnitivated  or 
bristling  with  thistles  and  brambles.  A  mnltitode  of  ex- 
cavattoiis  show  that  stones,  the  fragments  of  ancient  boild- 
iugs,  have  been  taken  f^om  the  place.  There  remains, 
however,  a  good  onantity  of  materials  scattered  on  the 
ground.  In  one  of  these  holes  I  found  a  Corinthian  capi- 
tal of  gravish  white  marble,  waiting  for  some  one  to  carry 
it  ofll  Fifteen  ancient  tiloe  coutiuue  to  serve  the  AralM 
of  the  neighborhood.** 

Lachrymatory,  a  small 
glass  or  earthen  veasel,  former- 
ly supposed  to  have  been  used 
among  the  ancient  heathens  to 
receive  the  tears  of  surviving 
lelatives  or  friends,  wept  for 
the  dead,  but  now  shown  to 
bare  been  merely  pots  of  oint- 
ment or  perfume,  which,  with 
their  contents,  were  buried  with 
the  urns  and  ashes  of  the  de- 
ceased.   See  TsARa. 

laacroix  {De  Cheorieree), 
Jean  Baptiate  de,  a  French 
prelate,  belonged  at  first  to  the 
order  of  the  Knights  of  Stalta, 
was  afterwards  abbot  of  Gi- 
roont,  in  the  diocese  of  Auch, 
**  Lachrymatory  **   (from  and  embarked  in  1683  for  Can- 

£e  a1Ia*°^^^^"^^*  "^^  ^°  P'*"^  ^®  ^**®  Indians. 

He  was  consecrated  bishop  of 

Quebec  while  on  a  visit  to  Paris  in  1688.    Ho  returned 

soon  afterwards  to  Canada,  where  he  built  a  hospital, 

in  which  he  died,  Dec.  26, 1727.    He  left  Etat  Prisetd 

de  FEglite  H  de  la  CoUrnie  datu  la  Nouvelle '  France 

(Paris,  1688).     See  Hoefcr,  ^^ouv,  Biog,  GiniraUf  s.  v. 

Xaacroix,  John  Pow^er,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  born  at  Haverhill,  O.,  Feb.  18^ 
1838.  In  his  boyhood,  while  at  farm  work,  he  displayed 
an  insatiable  thirst  for  Ixwk  knowledge.  He  graduated 
at  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  Delaware,  in  1857; 
soon  after  went  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  spent  two 
years  in  teaching ;  and  then,  having  cleared  himself  of 
college  debt,  returned  north,  and  in  the  fall  of  1859  en- 
tered the  Ohio  Conference.  His  fields  of  labor  were 
Tarlton  Circuit,  Spencer  Chapel,  Ironton,  and  Piketon. 
He  spent  sixteen  mouths  of  close  application  in  the 
universities  of  Germanv  in  1865  and  1866,  and  in  the 
fall  of  the  latter  year  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  modem 
languages  and  history  in  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, which  office  he  held  till  his  death,  Sept.  22, 1879. 
His  tranalations  of  De  Pressens^'s  Religion  and  the  Rtign 
of  Terror;  or.  The  Church  During  the  French  Revolu' 
tion,  Naivelle's  Problem  of  Evil,  Wultke*s  Christian 
Ethics^  together  with  his  own  Life  of  Rudolph  Stier^ 
will  perpetuate  his  name  in  scholarly  circles.  Dr.  La- 
croix  also  contributed  many  able  articles  to  this  cyclo- 
pedia, as  well  as  writing  a  valuable  Manual  on  Ethics 
for  the  Chautauqua  Literary  Circle,  and,  in  connection 
with  a  fellow-professor,  an  Introductory  Book  of  LcUin. 
He  was  the  special  friend  of  young  men,  and  hundreds 


,yj#^ 


of  students  who  came  imder  his  influence  at  the  univer« 
stty,  now  scattered  all  over  the  land  and  in  other  na- 
tions,  bear  cheerful  testimony  to  his  great  personal 
worth.  As  a  thinker  and  writer  he  was  bold,  inde- 
pendent, and  progressive,  fervent  in  his  attachment  to 
truth,  ardent  in  his  devotion  to  the  Church,  broad  in 
charity,  and  incapable  of  bigotry  or  prejudice.  See 
Minutes  ofAmmal  Conferences^  1879,  p.  47. 

Xaada  (or  Lado),  in  Slavonic  mythology,  was  the 
goddess  of  beauty  and  love,  worshipped  in  Kiev.  Lei 
(love),  Did  (return  love),  and  Polol  (marriage)  were  her 
sons.  There  are  still  traces  of  an  idol  worship  in  the 
yearly  celebrated  festival  of  Lada  and  Did,  which  falls 
on  the  Thursday  before  Whitsuntide. 

Xaadvocat,  Billiard  Nicolas,  a  French  prelate, 
was  bom  at  Paris  in  1620.  He  entered  the  ministry, 
was  received  in  the  Sorbonne,  Dec.  24, 1652,  and  be- 
came canon  of  Notre  Dame  and  vicar-general  of  the 
coadjutor  of  Paris,  Albert  de  Conti,  cardinal  of  Retz, 
whom  he  assisted  for  several  years  in  his  political  in- 
trigues, in  the  administration  of  his  diocese,  and  whom 
he  accompanied  to  Rome  in  1675.  In  1677  he  obtained 
the  episcopal  see  of  Boulogne-sur-Mer.  He  governed 
his  diocese  wisely,  where  he  also  founded  a  seminary 
and  some  establishments  of  instruction  and  of  charity. 
He  died  April  14, 1681,  leaving  Vindici4B  Parthemces 
(Paris,  1679),  which  maintains  that  the  Virgin  Mary 
was  taken  up  into  heaven  t>odily.  He  also  composed 
the  first  rules  which  were  observed  in  the  Hdtel  Dieo 
de  ParisL     See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

LaeUus,  Laurentivs,  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  in  Francouia,  April  15, 1572.  He  stud- 
ied at  Jena  and  Wittenberg,  was  in  1599  deacon,  and 
attended  the  colloquy  at  Ratisbon  in  1601;  in  1602  he 
was  rector  at  Heilbronn,  in  1605  first  preacher  at  Onolz- 
bach,and  died  July  26, 1634.  He  wrote,  Criterium  Fidei : 
— Index  flaresium  Controversiartim  et  Schisnuitum,etc : 
^Exegesis  A  rticuli  de  Persona  et  Officio  Christi  BeUar- 
mine  Opposiia,  See  Freher,  Theatrum  Eruditorum; 
Witte,  Diarium  Biographicum ;  Jdcher,  Allgemeines 
GeUhrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Laetoa,  Georo,  a  preacher  at  Lublin,  Poland,  who 
died  March  27,  1649,  is  the  author  of,  Peregrinatio 
Pauli  Romana : — Comment,  Pract,  in  PauU  Conversion 
nem:—De  Ratione  Concionnandi  ad  Mefhodum  Anglic 
canam  Conformata*  See  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theol. 
Lit,  i,  569;  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Xaa  Ferromiaya,  Julks  Basilk  Fkrron  de,  a 
French  prelate,  was  lx>m  at  the  castle  of  St.  Mards-l^s- 
Ancenis,  Jan.  2, 1735.  After  he  had  finished  his  stud- 
ies, he  entered  into  orders,  and  followed  cartlinal  Ber- 
nis  to  Rome,  to  the  conclave  which  elected  Clement 
Xiy,  in  1769.  On  Dec  24  of  the  same  year  he  was 
nominated  bishop  of  St  Brieuc,  and  was  transferred  to 
the  bishopric  of  Bayonne  in  1774,  and  to  the  episcopal 
see  of  Lisieux,  where  he  remained  until  1790.  He  re- 
fused to  take  the  oath  to  the  civil  constitution  of  the 
clergy,  and  left  France  in  1791.  He  was  pursued  by  the 
French  soldiers,  and  retired  to  Bavaria,  where  he  died, 
May  15, 1799.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  dnirale^  s.  v. 

Lafitau,  PiKRRR  Francois,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Bordeaux  in  1685.  He  studied  among  the  Jes- 
uits, and  for  some  time  was  very  active  in  the  alTairs 
of  Jansenism.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  as  an  ambassador, 
was  consecrated  there  bishop  of  Sisteron  in  1719,  and 
took  possession  of  his  see  the  following  year.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  immoral  early  in  life,  but  afterwards 
a  pattern  of  piety.  Lafitau  died  at  Sisteron,  April  3, 
1764,  leaving  several  works  on  practical  religion,  for 
which  see  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  GMrale^  s.  v. 

Lafo  al-jemin  (the  thief  on  the  right  hand),  a  fea- 
ttval  observed  by  the  Syrian  Christians  in  commemo- 
ration of  the  penitent  thief.  It  occurs  on  the  octave 
of  Easter. 


LAFORET 


646 


LAKUM 


Laforet,  Nicolas  Joseph,  a  Boiiian  Catholic  the- 
ologian, vraB  born  in  1828  at  Graide,  Namur  (Belgiopi). 
In  1848  he  was  called  as  professor  to  Louvain,  and  died 
Jan.  26, 1872.  He  wrote,  Sistaire  de  la  ThSologie  Dog^ 
moHque: — Vie  el  Travaux  ^Arnold  Tiit: — Let  Dog^ 
mes  CathoUquet:  —  La  Papauti  et  la  CiviUtaHon: — 
riittoirt  de  la  Pkihtophie,     {B.  P.) 

Laga,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  the  goddess  of  the 
refreshing  springs  and  waters.  She  lives  in  Soquabekr, 
a  silver  palace,  by  which  the  waters  of  the  earth  flow. 
Odin  visits  her  daily  to  bathe  there. 

Lagarto^  Pedro,  a  Portngaese  prelate  and  theo- 
logian, was  bom  at  Setobal  about  1524.  In  1540  he 
joined  the  monks  of  Arrabida,  who  lived  under  the  rule 
of  SL Francis;  afterwards  studied  theology  at  Salaman- 
ca, and  was  elected  in  1576  provincial  of  Arrabida.  He 
died  July  28, 1590,  leaving  Summa  Utilit  Omnium  AV- 
tabilium.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  a,  v. 

LagomaralnJ,  Grronimo,  a  celebrated  Italian 
Humanist,  was  bom  Sept.  30, 16d8,  at  Porto-Santo-Maria 
(Spain).  In  1708  he  went  to  Italy,  and  commenced 
his  studies  in  the  College  of  the  Jesuits  at  Prato,  in 
Tuscany.  In  1721  he  began  to  teach  rhetoric  at  the 
College  of  Arezzo.  Four  years  afterwards  he  went  to 
Rome  to  complete  his  theological  studies,  after  which 
he  retumed  to  his  duties  at  Arezzo.  In  1732  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at  Florence,  and  in 
1751  to  that  of  Greek  in  the  Collegium  Gregorianuro 
at  Kome,  which  position  he  occupied  until  his  death, 
May  18, 1778.  He  left  several  works  on  classical  liter- 
ature, for  which  sec  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginh-ale^  s.  v. 

Lagrange  (d^A  rguien)^  Hknri  de,  a  French  prel' 
ate,  was  bom  at  Calais  in  1613,  of  an  ancient  family  of 
the  15th  century,  which  had  been  settled  at  Berry.  He 
went  to  Poland  about  1674,  where  he  finally  devoted 
himself  to  the  Church,  and  was  consecrated  cardinal,  in 
1695,  by  Innocent  XII.  After  the  death  of  Sobieski, 
his  son-in-law,  the  queen  retired  with  her  father  to 
Rome,  where  Lagrange  died  seven  years  afterwards, 
May  24, 1707.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginlrale,  s.  t. 

Lagrange,  Louis  Jean  Fraiv^oxs,  an  eminent 
French  painter,  was  born  at  Paris,  Dec.  30, 1724,  and 
studied  under  Charles  Vanloo.  He  gained  the  grand 
prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  his  picture  of  Joseph 
JCxplautinff  the  DrtamMfWad  at  the  age  of  twenty  visited 
England,  and  was  employed  by  Antonio  Verrio  upon 
the  large  picture  of  JSt»  Batihohmew't  /loepitaL  He 
was  also  unanimously  chosen  by  the  commissioners  to 
paint  the  cupola  of  St.  Paul's.  He  died  in  Paris,  June 
17, 1801.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GiniraUf  s.  v. ;  Spoon- 
er,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts^  s.  v. 

laagOB,  Daniel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bora  in  1618  at  Colberg,  Pomerania.  He  studied 
at  Konigsberg  and  Wittenberg,  was  in  1653  doctor  of 
theology,  and  for  some  time  professor  of  theology  at 
Greifswaldc.  He  died  May  30, 1678,  leaving.  Comment, 
Super  Epietoht  Pauli  ad  GaUitat^  Epheeios,  PhiUppen- 
eea :  —  Examen  Trium  Confunonum  Reformatarum^ 
Afarchiacte^  Lipsiensis  et  Thoruniensis :  —  Vindicia 
Evangeliorum  Domimcalium  et  Festivalium  contra 
Thorn,  Stapleton,; — De  iiriviKiifi  Jesu  Deeantato  ad 
Pta,  xvi,  10, 11 : — De  OnmipratserUia  Humana  Chrieti 
Natures : — De  Bonorum  Operum  Necessitate  ad  SalU' 
tern.  See  Witte,  Diarium  Biogtvphicum ;  Jocher,  A  U- 
gemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Laha,  a  tablet  suspended  in  a  Buddhist  Wihara 
(q.  V.)  in  Ceylon,  upon  which  anything  might  be  writ- 
ten which  was  intended  for  the  information  of  the 
priests. 

Lahai^  in  Lamaism,  are  heavenly  spirits  who,  long 
before  the  creation  of  the  world,  lived  in  unspeakable 
felicity,  which  was  of  an  earthly  nature.  Above  the 
earth  there  were  twenty  worlds  inhabited  by  these  be- 
ings, the  highest  four  of  which  were  so  purified  that 
their  inhabitants  lived  without  food.    When  the  world 


was  created  many  of  these  Lahas  descended  to  it,  and 
became  so  earthly  they  were  subjected  to  its  laws. 
When  they  ate  of  the  fraits  of  this  earth  tbey  became 
black,  and  the  sun  and  moon  were  therefore  created  to 
give  light  to  this  otherwise  dark  world.  The  human 
family,  as  also  the  sunken  animal  world,  is  indebted  to 
the  Lahas  for  their  existence. 

Lahmam  is  doubtless  the  present  Khurbet  el-Lahm^ 
located  on  the  Ordnance  Map  at  two  and  a  half  miles 
south  of  Bcit-Jibrin,  and  described  in  the  accompany- 
ing Memoirs  (iti,  283)  as  ^  foundations,  heaps  of  stones, 
wells,  cisterns,  and  caverns.  The  masonry  seems  prob- 
ably of  Byzantine  date,  bnt  the  site  to  be  older." 

Lain,  Saint,    See  Latuihus. 

Laing,  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first  rector  of 
Tannadice,  in  the  shire  of  Angus,  and  Linlithgow,  and 
was  next  preferred  to  the  office  of' high  treasurer  in 
1465,  which  office  he  held  until  1468,  at  which  time  he 
was  made  lord-register,  and  about  the  same  time  en- 
joyed the  rectories  of  Suthct  and  Newlands.  He  was 
pl^moted  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Glasgow  in  1474 ;  was 
made  lord  high  chancellor  in  1482,  and  died  Jan.  11, 
1482-83.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  253. 

Lairease,  Gerard,  an  eminent  Flemish  painter, 
was  bora  at  Liege  in  1640.  He  studied  under  Bertholet 
Flemael,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  had  gained  consid- 
erable reputation  from  his  efforts.  He  visited  Utrecht, 
and  afterwards  removed  to  Amsterdam,  where  his  rep- 
utation rose  so  high  that  the  Dutch  esteem  him  their 
greatest  historical  painter.  He  died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1711.  The  following  are  some  of  his  best  works:  The 
Fall  of  our  First  Parents ;  A  dam  and  Eve  Driven  from 
Paradise;  Joseph  and  his  Brethren;  The  Child  Jesus. 
See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Lftis,  Giuseppe  Mauia,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom 
March  24, 1775,  at  Rome,  of  Bavarian  parentage.  He 
was  educated  at  first  among  the  Jesuits,  and  finished 
his  studies  at  the  University  of  La  Sapienza,  where  he 
also  took  the  degree  of  a  doctor  in  utroquejure^nn^  was 
ordained  priest.  A  short  time  after  he  became  vicar- 
general  .to  cardinal  Galefii,  and  commendatoxr  abbot  of 
Subtaco.  In  1817  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Hippone 
inpartibus,  and  administrator  of  the  diocese  of  AnagnL 
He  died  at  Terentius,  July  18, 1836,  leaving  De  Uni^ 
vei-sa  Christi  Ecclesia,  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GM- 
rede,  s.  v. 

Lakahana,  a  Hindii  name  for  the  characteristic 
beauties  or  signs  of  a  supreme  Buddha.  These  were 
divided  into  three  classes:  1.  The  two  hundred  and 
sixteen  Mangalga-lakshana,  of  which  there  were  one 
hundred  and  eight  on  each  foot:  2. 
^he  thirty -two  Mahapurusha*lak- 
shana,  or  superior  beauties;  8.  The 
eight  Anawganjana ' lakshanaf  or  in- 
ferior beauties. 

Lakshmi,  in  Hindft  mythology, 
was  the  goddess  of  beauty  and  loveli- 
ness, the  wife  of  Vishnu,  generated 
from  the  foam  of  the  sea,  similar  to 
Venus  Anadyomene  of  the  Greeks. 
She  is  also  the  goddess  of  plenty,  and 
as  such  is  called  Sri  or  Shiri,  She  is 
also  the  goddess  of  felicity,  and  thus 
identical  with  Mangola  Demta,  She 
often  serves  poets  as  an  ideal  of  wom- 
anly beauty. 

Lakmn.     This  site  Trelawney 
Saunden  {Map  of  the  0,  T,)  con- 
founds with  that  of  Adam,  locating  it 
at  Damieh;  perhaps  from  misunder-        tj^^y^ 
standing  the  ambiguous  language  of      «  Laksnmi. 
Tristram  {Bible  Places,  p.  278),  who  thinks  that  "La- 
kum  may  be  traced  in  Kefr  Kama"  which  is  laid  down 
on  the  Ordnance  Map  at  two  and  a  quarter  milM  south* 


LA  LANE 


64? 


LAMPS 


west  of  Damieb,  and  eight  milei  west  from  the  south 
end  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  aoconpanying  Memoirs 
(i,  891)  say  of  it :  "  There  are  roins  in  this  village,  and 
portions  of  fine  limestone  colnmns,  but  no  capitals. 
There  is  also  a  circular  basalt  olive-press  and  cisterns." 
La  Lane,  Noel  de,  one  of  the  most  famous  French 
theologians  of  the  17th  century,  was  bom  of  a  noble 
family  at  Paris,  and  died  in  1673.  In  1663  he  was  sent 
to  Rome  to  defend  the  cause  of  Jansenius,  and  his  fa- 
mous speech,  which  he  delivered  before  pope  Innocent 
X,  is  contained  in  the  twenty-second  chapter  of  the 
sixth  volume  of  the  Journal  de  Samt'A  mour.  He  was 
a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  abbot  of  Notre  Dame  de  Tal- 
croissant,  and  wrote,  De  Initio  Piae  Voluntatit: — La 
Grace  Vidorieutec—Examen  de  la  ConduUe  des  Relig' 
ieueee  de  PorURoyal^  etc.  (1664)  i^Lettre  tur  le  Litre 
de  M.  ChamiUardy  etc.  -.—Dtfente  de  la  Foi  dee  Religi- 
eutes  de  Port^Royal  (1667, 2  parts).  See  Lichtenberger, 
Eneydop,  dee  Sciences  Beligieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Lallonette,  Ambrose,  a  French  theologian,  was 
bom  in  1664  at  Paris,  and  died  May  9, 1724.  He  wxipte, 
Discours  sur  la  Prisence  R4ette:-^IJistoire  des  Traduc- 
tions Franfaises  de  FEcriture  Sainle: — Extraits  sur 
Differens  Points  de  Morale: — Avis  pour  Lire  Utile- 
ment  VRvangUe.  See  Moreri,  Dictionnaire ;  Jdcher,  A  ll- 
gemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikony  s.  v     (B.  P.) 

La  Marche,  Jean  Frav^ois,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  in  the  diocese  of  Quimper  in  1729,  of  a  noble  fam- 
ily from  Brittany.  After  the  peace  of  Aix-Ia-Chapelle 
he  left  the  army  to  embrace  the  ecclesiastical  calling. 
He  was  first  canon  and  grand-vicar  of  Treguier,  then 
abbot  of  St.  Aubin  des  Bois,  and  in  1772  was  elected 
bishop  of  St.  Pol  de  Leon.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  Revolution  La  Marche  refused  to  obey  the  civil 
constitution,  and,  Jan.  8,  1791,  fled  to  London,  where 
be  was  befriended  by  Burke  and  other  Englishmen, 
who  charged  him  with  the  distribution  of  means  of 
relief  to  the  French  emigrants.  This  position  he  held 
until  his  death,  Nov.  25, 1806.  He  wrote,  MandementSf 
also  a  Lettre  Pastorale  and  an  Ordonnance,  the  last  in 
London,  Aug.  20, 1791,  to  warn  his  diocesans  against 
schism.     See  Hoefer,  JVbur.  Biog.  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Lamasexy,  a  collection  of  small  houses  built  around 
one  or  more  Buddhist  temples  in  Tartar^'  and  Thibet, 
as  a  residence  for  the  Lamas.    See  Lahaism. 

Lamb,  Andrew,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of 
Brechin  in  1610,  and  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Gallo- 
way in  1619,  which  he  held  until  his  death  in  1634.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  167-281. 

Lambert,  Bernard,  a  French  theologian,  the  last 
of  the  Jansenistic  school,  was  bom  at  Saleraes,  Prov- 
ence, in  1788.  When  made  professor  of  theology,  Lam- 
bert published  some  theses,  which  were  at  once  censured 
by  the  Roman  see,  and  he  had  to  leave  Limoges  in  con- 
sequence. He  then  went  to  Grenoble,  where  he  re- 
mained some  time.  The  episcopal  see  of  Lyons  was 
then  occupied  by  the  famous  Monkazet,  who  gathered 
abont  himself  all  opposed  to  the  Jesuits,  including  Lam- 
bert. When  Lambert  went  to  Paris,  monsieur  de  Beau- 
mont, an  opponent  of  the  Jansenists,  was  archbishop 
there,  and  refused  to  receive  father  Lambert  into  his 
diocese;  but  some  bishops  interfered  in  his  behalf,  and 
he  was  admitted  on  condition  that  he  would  write  only 
against  philosophers  and  unbelievers.  Lambert  died  at 
Paris,  Feb.  27, 1818.  Of  his  many  writings  we  mention, 
Apologie  de  VEtai  ReUgieux: — TraiU  sur  le  Sacrifice  de 
Jssus-^hrisi  (1778) '^Idh  de  VCEwore  des  Seeours  Se- 
ton  les  Seniimenis  de  see  VMtables  Difaueurs  (1786)  :-- 
Traiii  Dogmatique  et  Moral  de  la  Justice  Chrkiams 
(1788):./^  Veriti  et  la  Samieii  du  Christiamsme 
(1796)  i^Exposiium  des  PrUseUons  et  des  Promesses 
Faiies  a  VJE^Use  (1806, 2  vols.),  a  work  in  which  he 
admits  the  doctrine  of  the  Millenarians,  and  the  theory 
i>r  those  who  regarded  the  pope  as  antichrist.  See 
Lichtenberger,  Encgelop,  des  Sciences  Beligieuses,  s»  v. 

(a  P.) 


Lambeiton,  William,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  chan- 
cellor of  the  Church  of  Glasgow  in  1292,  and  elected 
bishop  of  St.  Andrews  in  June,  1298.  Bishop  Lamber- 
ton  strenuously  opposed  the  encroachments  made  by 
king  £dward  I  of  England  upon  the  constitution  of 
Scotland,  and  contributed  his  hearty  endeavors  to  set 
and  keep  king  Robert  Brace  upon  the  Scottish  throne. 
He  died  in  1828.  He  built  a  palace  for  the  bishop  of 
St.  Andrews,  also  ten  churches  belonging  to  the  dio- 
cese, and  did  a  great  many  other  good  and  noble  works. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bisht^u,  p.  21. 

Lami,  Bernard.    See  Laht. 

Laml,  Fran90i8,  a  French  Benedictine,  was  bom 
at  Montireau,  near  Chartres,  in  1636,  and  died  at  St. 
Denis,  April  4, 1711.  After  having  served  in  the  army, 
he  embraced  a  monastic  life  at  the  age  of  twenty-three. 
In  spite  of  his  controversies  with  Bossuet,  Malebranche, 
Araauld,  Nicole,  Duguet,  and  others,  he  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  all  who  knew  him  for  his  sincerity  and  piety. 
He  wrote,  De  la  Connaissance  de  Soi-M^me  (Paris, 
1694-98, 6  vols. ;  improved  ed.  1700)  \—Le  Nouvel  A  thi- 
isme  Renversif  Conire  Spinosa  (1696)  : — Viriti  Evidenie 
de  la  Religion  ChrMenne  (1694):— i)M  Sentiments  de 
PUti  sur  la  Profession  Religieuse  (1697) : — Lemons  de 
la  Sagesse  sur  VEngagement  au  Service  de  Dieu  (1708) : 
— VIneridule  Ameni  a  la  Religion  par  la  Raison  (1710) : 
Ias  Gemissements  de  VAme  sous  la  Tyi'annie  du  Corps 
(1700):  —  Confectures  sur  Divers  Effets  du  Tonnerre 
(1689).  See  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop.  des  Sciences  Re- 
ligieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Lamp,  The,  a  ceremony  practiced  by  the  Maronites 
(q.  v.),  by  way  of  anointing  for  the  sick.  They  make 
a  cake  somewhat  larger  than  the  consecrated  wafer  of 
the  Romanists,  and  put  upon  it  seven  pieces  of  cotton 
twisted  with  little  pieces  of  straw,  and  place  all  together 
in  a  Itasin  with  some  oil.  Having  read  a  portion  of 
one  of  the  gospels  and  epistles,  with  some  prayers,  they 
set  fire  to  all  the  cotton.  They  now  anoint  with  this 
oil  the  forehead,  breast,  and  arms  of  every  one  present, 
and  particularly  of  the  sick  person,  saying  at  each  unc- 
tion, **  May  the  Almighty,  by  his  sacred  unction,  pardon 
all  thy  sins,  and  strengthen  thy  limbs  as  he  did  those 
of  the  poor  man  who  was  troubled  with  the  pal83%** 
Then  they  let  the  lamp  bum  till  all  the  oil  is  exhaust- 
ed. This  rite  is  administered  to  the  sick,  and  is  not 
confined  to  the  dying,  as  in  the  case  of  extreme  unction 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Lampadephorla  (from  Xa/i  wac,  a  torch,  and  ^pu, 
to  bear),  ancient  Grecian  games,  celebrated  in  honor  of 
Prometheus,  Athena,  and  Hephsstus,  who  taught  men 
the  use  of  fire.  The  game  consisted  in  carrying  an  un- 
extinguished torch  through  certain  distances  by  a  suc- 
cessive chain  of  ranners,  each  taking  it  up  at  the  point 
where  another  left  it,  and  the  one  who  permitted  it  to 
go  out  losing  the  game. 

Lampftdon  Hemflra  (from  Xo^wac*  a  tordk,  and 
rifiipa,  a  day),  the  name  given  to  the  fifth  day  of  the 
Eleusinian  Mysteries  (q.  v.),  because  on  that  day  the 
initiated  marched  two  and  two  in  procession,  each  with 
a  torch  in  his  hand,  into  the  temple  of  Ceres  at  Eleusis. 

Zrfuipeter  Brethren.    See  Aoapbmoke. 

Lampfl,  Christian.  Many  of  these  of  ancient 
manufacture  have  been  discovered  in  the  catacombs 
and  elsewhere.  They  were  in  general  of  similar  form 
to  those  used  by  the  Romans  at  the  time,  but  often  with 
Christian  emblems  upon  them.    See  Fish. 

Lampfl,  Festival  oi^  a  feast  celebrated  annually 
in  Rajastban,  in  honor  of  the  Hindd  goddess,  Lakshmi 
(q.  v.).  The  festival  is  called  Dewali,  and  every  city, 
village,  and  encampment  exhibits  a  most  brilliant  spec- 
tacle from  the  illumination.  On  this  day  it  is  incum- 
bent upon  every  votaiy  of  Lakshmi  to  try  the  chance 
of  dice,  and  from  their  success  in  the  Dewali  the  prince, 
the  chief,  the  merchant,  and  the  artisan  foretell  the 
state  of  their  coffers  for  the  ensuing  year. 


LAMPSACUS 


648 


LANDERER 


LampsftoaSt  Couscilof  (ConeiUum  Lamptaeeumjf 
held  At  Lampsaki,  on  the  Hellespont,  A.D.  864,  ai  Pagi 
•hows.  Orthodox  bbhops  were  invited  to  it;  and  it  is 
described  as  a  coancil  of  Uomodusians  by  Sosomen  (vi, 
7)  if  the  reading  is  correct.  But  those  who  directed 
it  must  have  been  really  Semi-Arians;  for  they  pro- 
fessed to  be  partisans  of  the  Homodusiaa  fonnuk,  and 
of  the  creed  published  at  Antioch,  besides  siding  with 
Macedonius,  by  whom  the  godhead  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
was  denied.  What  made  Sozomen  think  well  of  them 
probably  was  that  they  were  treated  with  marked  favor 
by  Valentiuian;  while  they  condemned  the  extreme 
party  which  Valens  espousiBd,  and  which  he  ordered 
them  into  exile  for  dissenting  from.  On  thLB,  too,  they 
seem  to  have  despatched  a  still  more  orthodox  account 
of  themselves  to  Rome,  which  contented  Liberius  (Soci- 
uus,  iv,  12;  comp.  Mausi,  iii,  878). — Smith,  DicL  of 
Chritt,  A  ntiq.  s.  v. 

Lamaon,  William,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Dan  vers,  Mass,  Feb.  22, 1812.  Ue  studied  at 
the  South  Reading  (now  Wakefield)  Academy, graduated 
from  Waterville  College  (notv  Colby  University)  in  1835, 
and  was  a  tutor  there  one  year.  In  the  autumn  of 
1837  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Glouces- 
ter, Mass.,  where  he  remained  until  1839,  and  then 
went  to  the  Newton  Theological  Institution  and  studied 
two  years.  He  was  pastor  in  Thomastou,  Me.,  about 
two  years  (1841  and  1842),  and  then  returned  to  Glouces- 
ter as  pastor  until  1848.  His  next  settlement  was  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  and  his  last  in  Brookline,  Mass. 
(1859-75),  where  he  died,  Nov.  20, 1882.  See  C:athcart, 
Bapt,  Encydop.  p.  669.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Lanoa  (Xoy^iy,  cuUtUut),  a  liturgical  instrument  of 
the  Greek  Church,  in  the  shape  of  a  small  knife  formed 
like  a  spear,  is  used  in  the  common  Greek  rite  in  the  pre- 
paratory office  of  prothesls,  to  divide  the  host  from  the 
holy  loaf  previous  to  consecration.  This  earlier  frac- 
tion, the  primitive  antiquit}*  of  which  is  doubtful,  is 
Uisttuctly  symbolical,  and  has  no  reference  to  the  sub- 
sequent distribution,  far  which  another  fraction  has  al- 
ways been  made.  The  typical  allusion  to  the  circum- 
stances of  our  Lord^s  Passion  leoeives  greater  force  and 


Andent  Lftancical  Lanoe. 


Modem  liturgical  Lance. 

vividness  in  the  Greek  Church,  from  the  use  of  the 
"  holy  spear**  for  the  division  of  the  loaf,  as  commem- 
orative of  the  piercing  of  our  Lord's  body  by  the  Roman 
soldier.  The  priest  makes  four  cuts  to  separate  the 
host  from  the  oblation,  and  also  stabs  it  more  than  once, 
accompanying  every  cut  or  stab  with  appropriate  texts 
of  Scripture,  e.  g. "  He  was  led  as  a  lamb  to  the  slaugh- 
ter," "One  of  the  soldiers  with  a  spear  pierced  his  side," 
etc. 

The  use  of  the  holy  spear  is  not  found  in  the  purely 
Oriental  liturgies,  e.  g.  those  of  the  Syrians  and  Kg}'p- 
tians,  a  fact  which  leads  Renaudot  to  question  whether 
the  rite  is  of  primitive  antiquity,  since  these  churches 
borrowed  their  discipline  from  the  Greek  Church  in  the 
earliest  ages.  It  is  entirely  unknown  in  the  Westem 
Church.— Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq,  s.  v. 

Lyncher,  Kaiil  Adolph  Fkiidinand,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Schonebeck,  near 
Msgdeburg,  Jan.  4, 1796.  For  some  time  rector  of  the 
Lyceum  and  preacher  at  Stolberg,  in  Saxony,  he  was 
called  as  member  of  consistory  and  preacher  to  Nen- 
stadt  in  1828,  and  died  in  1865,  a  doctor  of  philosophy. 


He  published  sermons  and  some  ascetical  works.    See 
Znchold,  BibL  Theol,  ii,  761  sq.     (a  P.) 

Lanckiaoli,  Friedrich  von,  a  German  writer,  was 
bom  at  Leipsic,  March  12, 1618.  He  studied  at  his  na- 
tive place,  was  magister  of  philosophy  in  1640,  and  died 
Oct.  22,  1669,  a  bookseller  at  Leipsic.  He  published 
Concordaniia  Germanico ^ llebraico - Gracee  (Leipsic; 
1677,  fol.  often  reprinted ;  best  edition  that  of  Reinec- 
cins,  1718).  See  Wirfer,  Ilandbueh  der  iheoL  Lit.  i,  175 ; 
Jdcher,  A  Ugemdnet  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Iianda^  Council  op  {Concilium  LandaveRte), 
Three  such  are  given  in  Mansi  (ix,  763  sq.)  dated  A.D. 
560 ;  but,  even  if  genuine,  they  were  simply  meetings 
of  the  bishop,  his  three  abbots,  and  his  clergy,  for  ex- 
communicating or  absolving  great  ofTeiiders:  in  the 
1st  case  Meuric,  in  the  2d  Morgan,  kings  of  Glamorgan ; 
in  the  3d  (vwaednerth,  king  of  Gwent ;  all  of  them  un- 
der Oudoceus,  third  bishop  of  LlandafT,  and  therefore 
scarcely  before  the  7th  century.  **  The  book,  however, 
in  which  these  records  occur  is  a  compilation  of  the  12tb 
century  "  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  Councils  and  DocumeniM^ 
i,  125, 147).— Smith,  Did.  of  Christ.  A  ntiq.  s.  v. 

Landal,  William,  a  Scotcli  prelate,  was  eariy  rec- 
tor of  the  Church  of  Kinkell,  and  was  promoted  to  the 
see  of  St.  Andrews  in  1841.  He  was  still  bishop  of  Su 
Andrews  in  1378,  and  present  at  the  famous  act  of  Par- 
liament, April  4,  that  year.  He  died  in  the  abbey  of  St. 
Andrews,  on  St.  Thecla*s  day,  Oct  15, 1385.  See'  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  24. 

Landauer,  Moses  H.,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Germany, 
who  died  Feb.  8,  1841,  is  the  author  of,  Jehova  uni 
Elohim,  etc.  (Stuttgart,  1836) :—  Wesen  vnd  Form  det 
PaOaieuchs  (1838)  i—UtbersicM  der  Geschkhte  und  Lite- 
ratur  der  Kahbaia  (published  in  Literaturblatt  des  Ori- 
ents, vi,  178  sq.).  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  ii,  219  sq. ;  Zueh- 
old,  J9i5;.  7A«o^  ii,  762.    (a  P.) 

Irfuiderer,  Maximilian  Albrut  von,  a  German 
theologian,  one  of  the  most  leamed  and  able,  though 
not  one  of  the  best  known,  representatives  of  the  school 
of  theology  occupying  an  intermediate  position  between 
the  old  supranaturalism  and  modem  rationalism,  was  bom 
at  MaiUbronn,  Wttrtemberg,  Jan.  14, 1810.  He  studied 
at  Tubingen,  where  Doraer  (q.  v.)  was  his  fellow-stu- 
dents In  1839  he  was  deacon  at  Goppingen,  in  1841  pro- 
fessor at  Tubingen,  and  died  April  13*,  1878.  Rejecting 
the  Hegelian  principle  of  absolute  knowledge,  Landerer 
emphasized  the  religious  experience  in  the  department 
of  systematic  theology.  He  did  not,  however,  forcibly 
separate  it  from  the  revelation  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
central  doctrine  in  systematic  theology  he  regarded  as 
the  perfect  union  of  God  and  man  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth ; 
and  he  laid  special  emphasis  on  the  humanity  of  Christ, 
insisting,  however,  upon  his  supernatural  birth  and  ab- 
solute sinlessness.  Being  not  as  imposing  in  presenoe 
as  Baur  or  Beck,  yet  he  became  one  of  the  most  inflo- 
ential  of  the  theologians  of  his  school,  and  the  more  in- 
timately  the  students  came  in  contact  with  him,  the 
more  highly  they  leamed  to  respect  him.  Landerer 
published  ver>*  little.  For  the  first  edition  of  Herzog 
he  contributed  thirteen  articles,  the  most  prominent  cJT 
which  was  the  one  on  Melanchthon.  For  the  Jahr^ 
bUeher/Ur  deuische  Theologie  he  wrote  on  **The  relation 
of  grace  to  the  freedom  of  the  will  in  the  application  of 
salvation."  After  his  death  some  of  his  former  pupils 
published  from  his  manuscripts,  Zur  DogmaOk,  Zwei 
akademisehe  JSoden,  together  with  Landerer^s  GedSekt'^ 
nissrede  auf  F.  C,  Baur  (ed.  by  Buder  and  Weiss,  TO- 
bingen,  1879)  \—Ihtdi^en  (ed.  by  P.  Lang,  Heilbionn, 
1880) : — Neueste  Doffmengesckichte  von  Semmler  bis  OMf 
die  GegemoaH  (published  by  Paul  Teller,  1881).  See 
Worte  der  Ervmerung  an  Dr.  M.  A.  Landerer  (Tubin- 
gen, 1878) ;  Wagenmann  in  Jakrimoher  fur  deutscke 
ThfologU  (1876),  part  iii;  WUrtmberyisckts  KircJua^ 
und  Sehulblati  (eod.).  No.  36-28;  Protestaniische  Kir^ 
chenzeitung  (eod.),  No^  20;  Schmidt,  in  Plitt-  Henog, 


LANDI 


649 


LANFRANCO 


RtaUEnofUop,  i.  r. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encycbp,  da  Sck- 
encet  Religkute*^  8»  r.     (B.  P.) 

j^ttnAA^  Gasparo,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was 
bom  at  Piacenza  in  1766,  and  studied  the  grand  pro- 
ductions of  Correggio  and  the  Caracci.  He  gained  the 
grand  prize  at  the  Academy  of  Parma  for  his  fine  pict- 
ure of  Tobias  and  Sarah^  after  which  he  was  sent  to 
Kome  by  the  marquis  of  Landi,  and  studied  under  Pom- 
pco  Ratoni.  After  gaining  a  nnmber  of  prizes  at  the 
exhibitions,  he  was  chosen  professor  of  the  Academy 
of  Sr.  Luke  by  pope  Pius  YI.  In  1813  he  was  com- 
missioned by  the  French  government  to  execute  sev- 
eral works,  and  was  appointed  a  director  of  the  School 
of  Design  establishetl  in  the  convent  of  Apollinarius. 
His  masterpiece  is  the  picture  in  the  Church  of  the 
Dominicans  at  Piacenza,  representing  Christ  Ascending 
Mount  Calvary.  He  died  at  Rome,  Feb.  24, 1880.  See 
Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  GhtiraU^  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  BisU 
of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Landia,  Robkut  Wharto3i,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Pres- 
byterian divine,  son  of  Samuel  Calvin  Landis,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  old  Huguenot  family  of  Calvin,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  8, 1809.  He  was  con- 
verted at  seventeen.  Joined  the  Baptist  Church,  of  which 
his  parents  were  members,  and  commenced  his  theolog. 
ical  studies  in  the  same  year.  lie  remained  but  fifteen 
months  at  an  academy,  and  three  months  under  a  pri- 
vate tutor,  before  entering  upon  his  pastoral  labors.  At 
twenty  he  united  with  the  Presbyterian  Church,  was 
licensed  in  1881,  and  ordained  in  1832.  He  continued 
bis  studies  while  carr}'ing  forward  his  work  as  pastor, 
and  became  possessed  of  rare  literary  attainments.  In 
1885  be  was  pastor  at  Providence  and  Norristown ;  in 
1839  at  Alleutown ;  in  1842  at  Bethlehem,  N.  J. ;  in 
1849  at  Hillsdale,  N.  Y. ;  in  1852  at  Greenville ;  in  1853 
at  Paterson,  N.  J.;  in  1856  at  lona,  Mich.;  in  1860  at 
Somerset,  Ky.;  in  1867  at  Wilmington,  Del.  In  all 
these  places  his  preaching  was  attended  with  marked 
effect  upon  his  hearers,  and  large  numbers  were  con- 
verted. In  1868  he  became  professor  in  Danville  The- 
ological Seminary,  where  he  remained  one  year.  He 
died  at  Danville,  Ky.,  Jan.  24,  1883.  Dr.  Landis  was 
the  author  of  several  valuable  works,  and  contributed 
largely  to  the  religious  and  literary  journals.  See 
Kevin,  Presb,  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Iiandoii,  Skymoub,  a  veteran  Blethodtst  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  May  8,  1798,  at  Grand  Island,  in 
Lake  Champlain,  N.  Y.  He  was  converted  in  1815,  and 
in  1818  joined  the  New  York  Conference.  He  served 
the  following  charges :  Charlotte  Circuit,  Yt. ;  Ticon- 
deroga  Circuit,  N.  Y.  (twice);  St.  Albans  Circuit,  Yt.; 
Chazy  Circuit,  N.  Y.;  Whitehall  Circuit;  Poultney, 
Yt.;  Sandy  Hill  and  Gleus  Falls,  N.Y.;  York  Street, 
Brooklyn  (twice);  Lansingburgh,  N.  Y. ;  New  York; 
Khinebcck;  New  burgh;  Sugar  Loaf ;  Hudson;  Hemp- 
stead, L.  1. ;  Sag  Harbor ;  West  Winsted,  Conn. ;  Grand 
Street,  Brooklyn,  L.I.;  Grcenpoint;  Southport,  Conn.; 
Watertown.  N.  Y. ;  Mount  Yernon ;  Astoria,  L,  I. ;  Ami- 
tyville  and  New  Bridge;  Springfield;  Orient.  He  was 
presiding  elder  of  Hartford  and  Long  Island  districts. 
He  died  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  July  29, 1880.  His  effective 
ministry  closed  at  Orient  when  he  was  seventy -four 
years  old,  after  an  active  ministerial  career  of  fifty-five 
consecutive  years.  lu  1852  and  1860  he  was  a  delegate 
to  the  General  Omference,  and  in  1856  and  1864  he  was 
a  reserve  delegate.  He  was  a  man  of  excessive  difil- 
dence,  with  a  oonscienilousness  and  firmness  equally 
marked.  Of  majestic  figure  and  handsome  face,  his 
amiability  of  disposition  and  other  personal  qualities 
made  him  a  welcome  ornament  in  every  circle  of  socie- 
ty.    See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences,  1881,  p.  80. 

Landri  (Lat.  Landericus),  Saint,  twenty -eighth 
bishop  of  Paris,  occupied  that  see  about  650,  under  CIo- 
vis  II,  between  Audebert  and  Chrodebert.  He  showed 
his  love  for  the  poor  during  the  famine  which  desolated 
Paris  in  651,  by  sacrificing  all  his  own  means,  and  sell- 


ing  even  the  vessels  of  the  altar  to  help  them.  A  tra- 
dition generally  accepted  in  the  diocese  of  Paris,  and 
admitted  by  the  BoUandists,  attributes  to  St.  Landri 
the  founding  and  endowing  of  the  hospital  called  Hotel 
Dieu.  The  monk  Blarculfe  dedicated  to  Landri  his 
Formules,  which  he  had  probably  collected  at  his  in- 
stigation. The  name  of  this  prelate  is  found  among 
those  of  the  twenty-four  bishops  who  signed  the  charter 
of  emancipation  which  Clovis  II  accorded,  in  658,  to 
the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  founded  by  Dagobert  I.  The 
last  breviary  of  Paris  places  the  death  of  St.  Landri  in 
656,  and  his  festal  day  on  June  8,  but  he  is  usually  com- 
memorated June  10.  He  was  interred  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Germain  TAuxerrois,  then  called  St.  Germain  le 
Bond.  See  Hoefer,  iVotrr.  Biog,  GMraky  s.  v. ;  Smith, 
Did,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

Landxiot,  Jean  Fbax^ois  Anne  Thomas,  a  dis- 
tinguished French  prelate,  was  bom  at  Conches-les- 
Mincs  in  1816,  and  died  at  Rheims  in  1874.  He  was 
vicar-general  of  Autun,  in  1856  bishop  of  La  Rochelle, 
and  in  1866  archbishop  of  Rbeims.  He  published,  Dis- 
cours  et  Instructions  Pastorales  (1856-60,  3  vols.) : — 
ConfirenceSf  Allocittions,  Discours  et  Mandements  (1856- 
64,8  vols.) :— /^a  Femme  Forte  (1863 ;  8th  ed.  1868) :~ 
La  Femme  Pieuse  (1863,  2  vols.;  7th  ed.  1874)  i-^La 
Prikre  Chritieme  (1862,  2  vols.;  6th  ed.  1874) .—Z^ 
Christ  de  la  Tradition  (1865, 2  vols.)  :—Les  Beatitudes 
Evangiliques  (1866).  See  Lichtenberger,£>K;ycfop.(2ff 
Sciences  Rdigieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Lane,  Aaron  D.,  a  veteran  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Lansingburgh,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  29, 1797.  He 
studied  at  the  Lenox  Academy,  Berkshire  Co.,  Mass. ; 
graduated  from  Union  College,  N.  Y.,  in  1816,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  He  was  licensed  by 
the  Presbytery  of  Columbia,  Oct.  26, 1819 ;  was  onlained 
pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Waterloo,  Seneca 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1821,  having  scr^-ed  as  stated  supply  for 
nine  months.  At  Waterloo  he  continued  to  labor  zeal- 
otisly  and  successfully  over  fourteen  years,  until  com- 
pelled by  bronchial  affection  to  cease  from  preaching. 
He  continued,  however,  to  labor  among  his  former  peo- 
ple, loved  and  appreciated,  until  his  death  at  W^aterloo, 
Nov.  2, 1880.  See  XecroL  Report  of  Princeton  Theol. 
5m.  1881,  p.  11.     (W.P.S.) 

Lane,  Bd^^ard  'William,  an  English  Oriental- 
ist, was  born  Sept  17,  1801,  at  Hereford.  He  studied 
at  Cambridge,  and  spent  some  years  in  Egypt  (1825- 
28;  1833-85).  He  published  An  Account  of  the  Man^ 
nei's  and  Customs  of  the  Modem  Egyptians  (Lond.  1836, 
and  often ;  Germ,  transl.  Leipsic,  I8.06) : — Selections  of 
the  Kur'dn  (Lond.  1843) \— Arabian  Society  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  (1858).  In  1842  he  went  for  a  third  time  to 
Eg^'-pt,  and  after  his  return,  in  1849,  began  the  publi- 
cation of  his  main  work,  Arabic -English  Lexicon,  of 
which  he  published  five  parts  (1863-74),  and  died  Aug. 
9, 1876.  Lane's  nephew,  Stanley  Lane  Poole,  continues 
the  work  of  the  deceased.    (B.  P.) 

Lanfranoo  (or  Lanfranchi),  Giovanni,  an  emi- 
nent Italian  painter,  was  born  at  Parma  in  1581,  and 
studied  under  Agostino  Caracci.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  painted  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  tcith  Saiftts,  which 
was  greatly  admired,  and  placed  in  the  Church  of  San 
Agostino,  at  Piacenza.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  vbit- 
ed  Rome,  becoming  the  pupil  of  Annibale  Caracci,  who 
employed  him  in  the  Farnese  palace,  and  in  the  Church 
of  San  Jago,  where  he  executed  a  number  of  works.  His 
fresco  paintings  in  San  Agostino,  particularly  his  As- 
sumption  of  the  Virgin,  were  greatly  admired.  Among 
his  other  good  works  were,  Moses  Stjiking  the  Rock; 
Abraham  Offering  Isaac;  and  The  Flight  into  Egypt, 
He  procured  the  commission  to  paint  the  cupola  of  Sail 
Andrea  della  Vallc.  It  was  a  wonderful  work  of  art, 
and  represented  The  Virgin  seated  in  the  clouds,  sur- 
rounded  with  taints,  and  contemplating  the  figure  of 
Christy  which  is  in  the  upper  part  of  the  picture.  In 
1646  he  was  invited  to  Naples  to  paint  the  cupola  of 


LANITREDINI 


650 


LANGE 


the  treasury  at  that  place.  He  was  emplojed  by 
Urban  Till'  to  patnt  a  pictare  for  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter,  representing  that  apostle  walking  on  the  sea.  He 
died  at  Rome  in  1647.  There  are  a  number  of  excel- 
lent plates  by  him,  as  follows:  The  Messengers  of  Moses 
Returning  from  the  Land  of  Canaan;  also  a  series  of 
pictures  of  subjects  from  the  Pasnon  of  Christ,  for  the 
chapel  of  the  Crucifix.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GM- 
raUf  s.  V. ;  Spooncr,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Lanfredini,  Jacopo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was  bom 
at  Florence,  Oct.  26, 1670.  He  became  civil  auditor  of 
cardinal  Camerlingue  in  1722,  and  the  following  year 
was  declared  domestic  prelate,  member  of  the  conslsto- 
rial  congregation,  and  referendary  of  both  signatures. 
Benedict  XI£I  ordained  him  priest,  March  16,  1727. 
Clement  XIII,  his  compatriot,  appointed  him,  in  1780, 
to  a  canonship  in  St  Peter's.  After  having  been  suc- 
cessively secretary'  of  the  congregation  of  the  council, 
voter  of  the  signature  of  grace,  datary  of  the  peniten- 
tiary, he  was,  in  1785,  made  cardinal,  and  bishop  of  Osi- 
mo  and  Cingolt,  in  the  bounds  of  Ancona.  He  died 
May  16, 1741.     See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Lanfrey,  Pikrrb,  a  French  hiMorian,  was  bom  at 
Chambery,  in  Savoy,  OcU  26, 1828.  He  studied  at  the 
ColI6ge  Bourbon  in  Paris,  and  published,  in  1857,  UEglise 
et  Us  Philosopkes  an  XVI U*  Sisek,  In  1858  he  issued 
Essai  sur  la  Revolution  Franfaise,  Histoire  PMique 
des  Popes  followed  in  1860,  but  his  main  work  is  His- 
toire de  NapoUon  I  (1867-75, 5  vols.;  Germ.  transL  Ber- 
lin, 1869-76).  He  died  Nov.  15, 1877.  Of  his  (Eutnes 
ComplsteSf  the  first  volume  was  published  in  1879. 
(B,  P.) 

Lang,  Heinrlcb,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  Nov.  14, 1828,  at  Frommen,in  WUrtem- 
berg.  He  studied  at  Schonthal  and  Tubingen,  and 
was  in  1848  appointed  pastor  at  Wartau,  in  Switzer- 
land. Here  he  commenced,  in  1859,  the  publication  of 
the  Zeiistimmen  aus  der  re/ormirten  Schtoeiz,  the  organ 
of  the  liberal  reformed  Church  party.  In  1863  he  was 
called  to  Meiien,  and  in  1871  he  was  elected  pastor  of 
St.  Peter*s  at  Zurich.  He  died  Jan.  18, 1876,  leaving, 
Predigten  (St.  Gall,  1B62)  :—Versuch  einer  christJicken 
Dogmaiik  (Beriin,  1858 ;  2d  ed.  1868)  i^Ein  Gang  durch 
die  christliche  Welt  (1859)  iStunden  derAndackt  (Win- 
terthur,  1862-65, 2  vols.)  i—Religiose  CAaraktere  (1862). 
See  Mayer,  Heinrich  Lang,  L^fensbild  einesjreisinnigen 
Theologen  (  Basle,  1877  ) ;  Lichtenberg^r,  Encydop,  des 
Sciences  Religieuses,  a.  v.;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  763. 
(B.  P.) 

Lang,  John,  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  was  bom  at  Vassal  borough.  Me.,  in  1790.  He 
fell  A  special  interest  in  the  North  American  Indians, 
and  about  1840  was  appointed  one  of  a  deputation  sent 
out  by  the  New  England  Yearly  Meeting  to  tlie  Indians 
west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  with  a  view  of  suggesting 
and  maturing  plans  for  their  improvement  President 
Grant  appointed  him  on  the  Board  of  Indian  Commis- 
sioners, a  position  which  he  held  till  his  death.  *.*  Both 
as  a  commissioner  and  as  a  private  citizen  he  served 
the  government  several  times  in  missions  of  great  deli- 
cacy and  difiiculty,  accomplishing  the  service  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  government,  and  securing  amicable 
relations  with  the  tribes  visited."  He  is  represented 
as  having  been  "  a  man  of  splendid  physique  and  great 
vigor,  both  of  boily  and  mind,  yet  gentle  and  unassum- 
ing in  manner,  genial  and  sympathetic,  most  apprecia- 
tive of  others,  and  forgetful  of  self  in  his  efforts  for  the 
good  of  his  fellows."  He  died  at  his  native  place.  May 
25, 1879.     See  Friends'  Review,  xxxii,  681.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Langbeoker,  Emanukl  Chaistiam  Gottlieb,  a 
German  hymn-writer,  was  bora  at  Berlin,  Aug.  81, 1792, 
and  died  Oct.  24, 1843.  He  published,  Gediekte  (Berlin, 
1824,  1828,  2  collections) :  —Das  deutsche-tvangelisd^ 
Kirchenlied  (lSSO):^Gesang- Blatter  aus  dan  16.Jahr- 
kundert  ( 1838  )  :  —  Lebett  und  Lieder  von  P.  Gerhard 
(1841).    Some  of  bis  spiritual  songs  are  found  in  the 


hymn-books  of  Germany.  See  Koch,  Gesdkiehte  det 
deutschen  KirchenUedes,  vii,  40  sq. ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL 
ii,763.    (RP.) 

Langbeln,  Bebnhard  Adolph,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian, was  bora  in  1815  at  Wurzen,  Saxony.  In  1841 
he  was  deacon  at  Meissen,  in  1853  church  counsellor  At 
Dresden,  in  1866  first  court-preacher  there,  and  died 
July  17, 1878,  doctor  of  theology.  Langbein  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  preachers  of  Germany,  and  the 
author  of  ooany  volumes  of  sermons  and  ascetical  worka. 
Of  the  latter  we  mention.  Vie  Reise  aus  dem  irdischem 
nach  dem  Mmmlischen  Vaterhause  (8d  ed.  Leipsic,  1869) : 
— Tagliche  Erquiching  aus  dem  HeiUbrunnen  (2d  ed. 
1866):  — i>er  chrisOiche  GlauJbe  nach  dem  Behamtmst 
der  lutherisehen  Kirche  (1873).  See  Zuchold,  BibL 
TAeoA  ii,  763  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Lange,  Abraham,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, who  died  Dec.  20, 1615,  at  Weimar,  doctor  of 
theology,  and  general  superintendent,  wrote  ExpUcaHo 
Catechismi  Lutheri: — ExpUeatio  Psalmi  Ixiv: — Re- 
sponsum  ad  iv  Quautiones  de  Salute: — Responsum  Lu- 
theranum  ad  Anhallinorum  Calvinianorum  Dejensionem 
de  ImagimbuM  Abolendis,  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  £7e- 
lehrten-Lexikon^  s.  v.    (R  P.) 

Lange,  Friedrioh  Albert,  a  German  philosoph- 
ical writer,  and  son  of  the  famous  theologian  Johann 
Peter  (q.  v.),  was  bom  Sept.  28,  1828,  at  Wald,  near 
Solingen.  He  studied  at  Zurich  and  Bonn,  was  in  1852 
professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Cologne,  and  in  1855 
privatdocent  of  philosophy  at  Bonn.  In  1861  be  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  Duisburg  gymnasium,  wat 
cidled  in  1870  to  Zurich,  in  1873  to  Marburg,  and  died 
Nov.  21, 1875.  His  best  work  is  Gesehichte  des  Maie* 
ricJismus  und  Kritik  seiner  Bedeutung  in  der  Gegenwart 
(Iserlohn,  1865 ;  2d  ed.  1873-75, 2  vols. ;  Engl,  transl.  by 
E.  C.  Thomas,  Boston,  1877  sq.,  8  vols.).  See  Vaihinger, 
Hartmann,  Duhring  und  Lange  (Iserlohn,  1876).  (B.  P.) 

Lange,  Friedrioh  Conrad,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  May  12, 1738.  He  studied 
at  Copenhagen,  was  in  1771  con-rector  at  Altona,  in 
1776  court-preacher  at  Gltickstadt,  in  1783  member  of 
consistory,  in  1788  doctor  of  theology,  and  in  the  same 
year  provost  and  first  pastor  at  Altona.  He  died  Jan. 
9, 1791,  leaving,  besides  sermons,  De  Resurrectirme  Cor- 
porum  Nostrorum  per  Spiritum  Sanctum  (Altona, 
1787) ; — De  Jesu  Christo,  Mortuo  quidem  quoad  Car^ 
pus  J  Spititu  vero  Vivente  (ibid.  1789).  See  Doring, 
Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v.;  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  ii,  89, 141.     (B.  P.) 

Lange,  Johann  Chriatian,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec  25, 1669,  at  Leipaac 
He  studied  at  his  native  place,  and  commenced  hia 
academical  career  there  in  1694.  In  1697  he  went  to 
Giessen,was  in  1716  member  of  consistory  and  superin- 
tendent, in  the  same  year  doctor  of  theology,  in  1718 
general  superintendent,  and  died  Dec.  16,  1756.  He 
wrote,  Theologia  Christiana  in  Numeris  (Leipsic,  1702) : 
— Ordo  Salutis  sub  Ratione  Theohgici  ProUematis  De^ 
lineatus  (Giessen,  1704;  2d  ed.  1744)  :-—ThemaUi  Se- 
lecta  ex  VarOs  Phiiosophia  Parttbus  Deprompta  (1710) : 
— De  A  ntiquissimo  et  Novissimo  Theologo  hoc  est,  etc. 
(1716).  See  Ddring,  Die  ^Uhien  Theologen  DeuUck- 
lands,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Lange,  Johann  George^  a  German  missioiiaiy 
among  the  Jews,  was  bom  in  Silesia,  Nov.  30, 1804. 
In  1824  he  was  admitted  to  the  mission  seminary  at 
Berlin.  At  the  end  of  1826  he  was  engaged  by  the 
London  Jews*  Society,  and  entered  their  seminary  in 
1827.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  as  missionary,  and 
stationed  at  Amste^m.  Towarda  the  end  of  that 
year  he  was  sent  to  Warsaw.  In  1841  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  Lublin,  and  alter  many  yean  of  labor  thae 
was  again  placed  at  Warsaw  in  1853.  Towards  the  end 
of  1854  he  was  sent  to  Brealau,  where  he  died,  Ang.  14, 
1869.    Mr.  Lange  was  not  ordained,  but  bad  from  tli< 


LAN6E 


651 


LANGUET 


Evangelical  Consittorjr  the  regular  perminion  to  preach 
in  any  of  the  Pruasian  churcheSi  and  to  give  lectures  to 
the  Jews.     (R  P.) 

Lange,  Johann  Ziobegott  Ferdinand,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  26, 1798. 
He  commenced  his  academical  career  in  1824,  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  1828,  in  1838  doctor  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Jena,  and  died  in  1855.  He  wrote, 
Beitrdge  zur  dJUetten  Kirchengetchichte  (Leipsic,  1828, 
1831,2  vols.)  :—/>«■  Glavbe  an  Jesus  Chi-istus  den  WeU* 
heUand  (1830): — Die  Kmiertawfe  in  der  evangeHschen 
Kirche  (Jena,  1834)  i—A  nleiiung  zum  Stadium  der  chrisU 
lichen  Theotogie  (1841) :  —  7*(r6e/^  dor  Kircken-  und 
Dogmm-Geschichte  (2d  ed.  1848)  i—Der  Pivtestcmtismus 
in  kirchlicker  und  poiitischer  Hinsicht  (1844)  :-./^Ar. 
buck  der  christlichen  Kirchengesckichte  (2d  ed.  1845)  :— 
ExercituHones  Examinaforia  ad  Theohgiam  Dogmati- 
cam  et  Historiam  Dogmatum  Spedans  (Leipsic,  1846) : 
Geschichte  des  Protestantismus  (Elberfeld,  1847).  See 
Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  801, 367, 484, 451, 548 ; 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  767.    (R  P.) 

Ziange,  Jobann  Peter,  D.D.,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  German  Protestant  theologians  of  the  19th 
century,  was  bom  in  Sonroboro,  near  Elberfeld,  of  Re- 
formed parents,  April  10, 1802.  He  studied  at  Bonn, 
was  in  1826  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Langen- 
berg,  and  in  1882  at  Duisburg.  He  first  attracted  pub- 
lic attention  by  poems  and  a  brilliant  series  of  articles 
in  Hengstenberg*8  Evangelical  Church  Gazette,  at  that 
time  the  leading  orthodox  joamal  in  Germany.  When 
Strauss  published  his  famous  Life  of  Jesus,  Lange 
wrote  in  reply  an  able  defense  of  the  historical  char- 
acter of  the  Gospel-accounts  of  the  infancy  of  our  Sav- 
iour. Soon  afterwards,  in  1841,  he  received  a  call  as 
professor  of  theology  to  the  University  of  Zurich,  a 
position  to  which  Strauss  had  been  called  before,  but 
which  he  was  prevented  from  occupying  by  a  rebellion 
of  the  people  against  their  infidel  government.  It  was 
there  that  Lange  prepared  his  great  work  on  the  L\fe 
of  Jesus  (1844-47,  8  vols.),  which  b  a  positive  refuta- 
tion of  the  infidel  work  of  Strauss,  and  one  of  the  most 
original  and  ingenious  among  the  many  biographies  of 
the  Son  of  Man.  It  has  been  made  known  to  the  Eng- 
lish-reading public  by  a  translation  published  by  Clark, 
in  six  volumes.  In  1854  Lange  was  called  to  Bonn, 
and  died  July  8, 1884,  on  the  same  day  on  which  pro- 
fessor Doraer  (q.  v.)  died.  Lange*s  works  are  numerous ; 
Christliehe  Dogmatik  (Heidelberg,  1849-62, 8  vols.)  :— 
Das  apostoHsche  Zeiialter  (1853-64,  2  vols.).  But  the 
work  by  which  he  is  best  known  and  has  made  him- 
self most  useful  is  his  Theological  and  Jlomiletical  Bi- 
ble Work  (1857-68),  well  known  in  this  country  by  the 
English  translation  in  twenty-four  volumes.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  voluminous  commentary  has  been  marked. 
Lange  conceived  the  plan,  wrote  the  commentary  on 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Matthew,  Mark, 
John,  Romans,  James,  and  the  Apocalypse.  The  other 
books  were  prepared  by  a  number  of  German  and  Dutch 
divines.  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Lange 
wrote  a  number  of  asoetical  and  poetical  works  of  high 
character.  He  was  a  poetical  tbeok)gian,  and  a  theo- 
logical poet,  and  though  having  a  theological  system 
of  his  own,  was  thoroughly  evangelical  and  in  essential 
harmony  with  the  Reformed  type,  but  adapted  to  the 
OKxiem  currents  of  thought.  Some  of  his  poems  have 
been  translated  into  English.  See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  Theol, 
ii,  764-767 ;  Scbaff,  Biographical  Sketch  of  Lange,  in  the 
introduction  to  the  American  edition  of  the  Bible  Work; 
Koch,  Gesch,  des  deutschen  Kirchenliedes,  vii,  361  sq. 

(a  P.) 

Lange,  Samuel  Qottlieb,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  April  6, 1767,  at  Ohra,  near 
Dantzic.  He  studied  at  Jena,  and  commenced  his  the- 
ological career  there  in  1795.  In  1798  he  was  called  to 
Rostock  as  professor,  was  in  1799  doctor  of  theology, 
and  died  June  16, 1828b    He  wrote,  Versuch  einer  Apo- 


logie  der  Offevharvng  (Jena,  1794) : — Die  8chr\ften  Jo* 
hannis  Obersetxi  vnd  erkldri  (1795)  t—Diss,  Bistorieo- 
Critica  I  et  II  de  Justini  Martyris  Apologia  pro 
Chrittiams  ad  Antoninum  Pium  (eoil): — Awfuhrliche 
Geschichte  der  Dogmen  der  christl,  Kirche  (Leipsic, 
1796)  t-^Sgstem  der  theologischen  Moral  (1803) :~  Versio 
Germanica  Epistoles  Pauli  ad  Romanos  (1820-21).  See 
Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deufschlands,  s.  v. ;  Wi- 
ner, Uandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  288, 367, 592, 897.   (B.  P.) 

IrfUigeao  (or  Ztanghao),  Jkan  de,  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  bom  at  Langeac,  io  Auvergne,  near  the  close  of 
the  15th  century,  of  a  noble  Sicilian  family.  He  early 
embraced  the  eoclesiaslical  calling,  and  received  numer- 
ous benefices,  being  preceptor  of  the  Hotel  Dicu  of  Lan- 
geac, rector  of  Coulange,  count  of  Brionde,  dean  of  the 
chapter  of  Langeac,  archdeacon  of  Retz,  treasurer  of  the 
Church  of  Puy,  count  of  Lyons,  provost  of  Brionde,  ab- 
bot of  SU  Gildas  des  Bois,  of  St.  Lo,  of  Charli,  of  £u,  of 
Pibrac,  then  bishop  of  Avranches,  a  see  which  he  re- 
signed in  favor  of  Robert  Cenalis,  after  occupying  it  six 
months,  and  took  possession  of  the  bishopric  of  Limoges, 
June  22, 1583.  He  was  also  prothonotary  of  the  sacred 
see,  counsellor  of  the  grand  council,  grand-almoner  of  ■ 
the  king  in  1516,  master  of  requests  in  1518,  ambassa- 
dor to  Portugal,  Poland,  Hungary,  Switzerland,  Scot- 
land, Venice,  Ferrsra,  England,  and  finally  to  Rome.  At 
Limoges  he  established  an  episcopal  residence,  repaired 
the  cathedral,  and  elaborately  ornamented  it.  His 
memory  is  revered  at  Limoges,  where  he  is  still  called 
**  the  good  bishop.**  Wherever  he  was  sent  he  firmly 
defended  the  rights  of  the  king.  At  Rome  even,  he 
strongly  maintained  the  liberty  of  the  Gallican  Church. 
He  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  literature.  During  his 
embassy  at  Yenjce,  he  had  as  secretary  Stephen  Dolet, 
who  dedicated  to  him  three  of  his  books.  He  died  at 
Paris,  May  22, 1641.  Only  a  collection  of  synodal  stat- 
utes'in  MS.  remain  of  his  works.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Ginerale,  s.  v. ;  Biog,  Universelle,  s.  v. 

Iiangelier,  Nicoijvs,  a  French  prelate,  raised  to  the 
see  of  Sl  Brieuc  in  1664,  was  invested  by  Pius  IT,  Aug. 
5  of  the  same  year,  and  took  the  oath  of  the  king,  Feb. 
8, 1565.  His  administration  was  full  of  trouble.  Hav- 
ing, in  effect,  taken  the  part  of  the  League,  he  became 
one  of  the  active  counsellors  of  the  duke  of  Mercosur. 
But  the  citizens  of  St.  Brieuc  and  the  better  part  of  the 
diocesan  clerks  remained  faithful  to  the  cause  of  the 
king,  and  straggled  with  all  their  might  against  the 
encroachments  of  their  bishop.  Langelier  was  never- 
theless a  distinguished  prelate,  who  well  understood 
canonical  questions.  He  died  at  Dinan,  in  September, 
1595,  leaving  Nota  in  Canones,  the  manuscript  of  which 
formed  part  of  the  groundwork  of  SL  Germain,  at  the 
Imperial  Librar}',  No.  870.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GinSrale,  s.  v. 

Langfaana,  Frikorich,  a  Swiss  rationalistic  theo- 
logian, was  bom  in  1829.  He  studied  at  Berne,  where 
he  became  a  member  of  the  ministerium  in  1853.  He 
died  April  17, 1880,  at  Beme,  as  professor  of  systematic 
theology.  He  was  one  of  the  main  movers  and  pro- 
rooten  of  the  reform  movement,  and  his  writings,  as 
Pietismus  und  Chrisienfhum  im  Spiegel  der  ausseren 
Mission  (1849): — Pietismus  und  aussere  Mission  vor 
dem  Richterstuhl  ihrer  Vertheidiger  (1866):  — />a# 
Christenthum  und  seine  Mission  im  Lichte  der  Welfge^ 
schichte  (Zurich,  1875),  are  the  best  proofs  of  his  neolo- 
gy. See  Zur  Erinnerung  an  Professor  F.  Langhans,  in 
the  Protestantische  Kirchemeitung,  No.  28,  29,  for  1880; 
Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Ziangnet,  Hubert,  one  of  the  qiost  prominent 
French  writers  of  the  16th  centurj',  was  born  at  Vi- 
teaux,  near  Autun,  in  1578.  He  studied  theology,  canon 
law,  history,  and  natural  sciences  in  Poictiers,  Padua, 
and  Bologna ;  visited  also  Spain,  and  was,  by  the  read- 
ing of  Melanchthon*s  Loci  Theologici,  induced  to  go  to 
Witteobeig,  where  he  remained  from  1549  to  1560,  mak- 


LANIGAN 


652 


LAPLAND 


ing  frequent  jounieys  in  Germany  and  Scamlinavia.  At 
what  period  be  definitely  embraced  the  Refurmation  i» 
not  known.  In  1560  Languet  entered  the  service  of 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  which  he  left  in  1577.  The  last 
years  of  his  life  he  spent  in  the  Netherlands,  in  intimate 
connection  with  WiUiam  of  Orange.  Languet  died  at 
Antwerp,  Sept.  30, 1581.  His  letters,  which  are  of  the 
greatest  interest  fur  the  history  of  bis  time,  were  edited 
by  Ludovicus,  under  the  title  Arcana  Secttli  AT/,  ffu' 
berti  Langueti  Epiatolm  (Halle,  1669).  But  his  main 
work  is  VindicUB  contra  Tyrarmoa  (Edinburgh  and 
Basle,  1579;  French  transl.  by  Fran^oisi,  Paris,  1581; 
German  by  Freitzschke,  Leipsic,  1846).  In  an  elabo- 
rate manner  he  treats  the  question  whether  subjects 
(for  instance,  Protestants)  have  a  right  to  revolt  when 
oppressed  for  their  religion's  sake  by  their  princes.  See 
Philibert  de  La  Mare,  Vie  de  Languet  (Halle,  1700); 
Chevreul,  Etude  sur  le  Seiziime  SiicUt  Hubert  Languet 
(2d  ed.  Paris,  1856);  Haag,  La  France  Protetfanie; 
Viguie,  Etude  aur  Us  Thiotiea  Politiquea-Libiralea  au 
Seizteme  SikcU;  Hotman,  Z/ti  Franco 'Gallia  (Paris, 
1879) ;  Scbolz,  Hubert  iMnguet  alt  kursdchsitcher  Be- 
richterstatter  und  Getandter  in  Frankreich  (1560-1572; 
Halle,  1875);  Blasel,  //ubert  languet  (Oppeln,  1872); 
Plitt-Herzog,  ReaUEncyhhp,  s.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  En^ 
cyclop,  des  Sciences  Religveuses^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Lanlgan,  John,  D.D.,  an  Irish  clergyman,  was  bom 
at  Cashel  in  1758,  and  educated  in  the  Irish  college  at 
Rome,  where  he  took  onlers.  He  was  then  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  Hebrew,  divinity,  and  the  Scriptures,  at 
Pavia,  where  he  remained  until  the  university  was  de- 
serted  in  consequence  of  the  war  in  1796,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Ireland,  and  was  elected  to  a  similar  pi>sition 
in  the  College  of  Maynooth.  He  declined  the  appoint- 
ment, however,  and  was  chosen  to  a  position  in  the  rec- 
ord tower  of  Dublin  castle  in  1799,  and  remained  there 
until  1821,  when  he  was  seized  with  insanity,  and  died 
in  a  lunatic  asylum  at  Finglas,  near  Dublin,  Julv  7, 
1828.  He  published,  Institutionet  BibUrts  (1794):  — 
Protestants*  Apology  /or  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
(\d09):— Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland  to  the  Thir- 
teenth Century  (Dublin,  1822,  4  vols.).  See  Appletons* 
Amer,  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
A  uthorSf  s.  v. 

Lanini  (or  Laniuo),  Bernardino,  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  was  boni  at  Vercelli  about  1522,  and 
studied  under  Gaudenzio  FerrarL  He  was  much  em- 
ployed at  Milan  and  Novara,  where  he  painted  the  per- 
sonification of  The  Deity  in  the  dome  of  the  cathedral, 
also  several  subjects  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  and 
the  picture  of  Our  Saviour  after  the  Flageilation,  be- 
tween two  Atigelst  in  San  Ambrogio,  at  Novara.  He 
died  about  1578.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
A  rtSf  s.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gen^raUj  s.  v, 

Lanitho,  a  diemon  of  the  air,  worshipped  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Molucca  blands. 

ZtanBing,  Dirck  Cornelius,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  bom  of  a  distinguished  family 
at  Lansingburgh,  N.  Y.,  March  3, 1785.  He  graduated 
from  Yale  College  in  1804.  While  in  college  he  was 
converted,  and  immediately  felt  impelled  to  preach  the 
gospel.  He  studied  theology  under  Rev.  Dr.  Blatch- 
ford  of  Lansingburgh,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Columbia  in  1806.  In  the  autumn  of 
that  year  he  went  to  an  untried  field  and  visited  from 
house  to  house  over  a  circuit  of  twenty-five  miles,  and 
soon  gathered  a  church  where  the  town  of  Onondaga 
now  stands,  and  continued  pastor  fur  eight  years.  Then, 
on  account  of  failing  health,  he  retired  to  a  farm,  preach- 
ing as  he  was  able  till  he  became  pastor  at  Stillwater, 
where  he  remained  two  and  a  half  years,  and  two  hun- 
dred converts  were  atlded  to  the  Church.  In  1816  he 
supplied  the  Park  Street  Church  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and 
such  an  interest  was  awakened  in  his  preaching  that  in 
a  few  weeks  more  than  eighty  persons  were  converted. 
He  next  accepted  a  call  from  the  First  Presbyterian 


Chmich  in  Auban,  N.  Y.  Here  be  remained  twelve 
3'ears,  and  his  own  enthusiasm  kindled  a  corresponding 
feeling  in  the  hearts  of  thoae  who  heard  his  preaching 
and  saw  his  labors,  and  more  than  a  thousand  souls 
were  converted  and  added  to  the  Church.  During  a 
part  of  the  time  he  occupied  the  chair  of  sacred  rheto- 
ric in  the  Theological  Seminary.  In  1829  be  took 
charge  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  in  Utica, 
and  in  a  short  time  five  hundred  persons  were  convert- 
ed under  his  ministry.  In  1833  he  was  installed  pastor 
of  a  Free  Church  in  New  York  city,  then  worshipping 
in  Masonic  Hall,  but  was  obliged  to  retire  in  1885  on 
account  of  ill -health.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  labored 
chiefly  as  an  evangelist  in  central  and  western  New 
York,  and  one  year  in  Illinois.  In  1846  he  returned  to 
New  York  city,  and  took  charge  of  a  feeble  church  in 
Chrystie  Street.  In  1848  he  assumed  the  care  of  the 
church  on  Clinton  Avenue,  Brooklyn,  where  his  labors 
were  crowned  with  great  success,  but,  his  health  giving 
way,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  in  1855.  In  the  spring  of 
1856  he  removed  to  Walnut  Hills,  Cincinnati,  O.,  where 
he  supplied  the  Vine  Street  Congregational  Church. 
For  fourteen  weeks  he  preached  twice  each  Sunday,  un- 
til the  second  Sunday  in  December,  when  he  suddenly 
failed.  This  was  his  last  sermon.  He  died  at  Walnut 
Hills,  March  19, 1857.  Dr.  Lansing  projected  the  Au- 
burn Theological  Seminary,  and  by  his  personal  efforts 
secured  an  endowment  of  $100,000.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  original  board  of  tmstces  of  Hamilton  College. 
He  published  Sermons  on  Important  Subjects  (1825). 
See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer,  Pulpitf  iii,  407 ;  Nevin, 
Presb,  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Lao,  Andri£,  an  Italian  Carmelite,  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Padua  in  the  16th  century,  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  and  leamed  supporters  of  papacy  in  his 
time.  After  having  published  a  dogmatical  treatise  of 
small  importance,  Disputationes  Th^logica  ad  D.  Tho^ 
mam  et  de  Consctentioy  he  made  himself  conspicuous  and 
popular  among  the  clergy  by  publishing  Breris  de 
Summo  Pontifix  Tractatus,  etc.  (2d  ed.  Rome,  1668). 
See  Lichtenberger,  Encydop.  des  Sciences  Religieuses^ 
s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Ziao  Kyun,  in  Chinese  theology,  was  the  originator 
of  a  religious  sect,  whose  followers  are  called  **  children 
of  immortality.*'  He  came  two  hundred  years  after 
Confucius.    His  priests  were  magicians  and  sorcerers. 

LaosynacteB  (Xaoot;v<i«r9(,*)i  ui  oflloer  in  the 
Greek  Church,  whose  duty  it  is  to  collect  together  the 
deacons  and  the  people. 

Lapaccl,  BartoijOMMeo,  an  Italian  prelate,  waa 
bom  about  1896  at  Florence.  He  was  adroittetl  to  the 
Dominican  order,  received,  in  1427,  the  diploma  of  doc- 
tor, and  was,  at  the  Council  of  Florence,  one  of  the  ten 
theologians  who  maintained  the  articles  of  union  of  the 
Greek  with  the  Latin  Church.  Pope  £ugeniua  IV  rec-> 
ompensed  him  for  this  service  by  appointing  him,  in 
1439,  master  of  the  sacred  palace  in  place  of  Torqnemada, 
who  was  made  cardinal.  Being  sent  to  Greece  in  1443, 
in  company  with  F.  Condelmerio,  he  became  bishop  of 
Argoli.  Two  years  later  he  was  at  Constantinople, 
where  he  disputed  publicly  with  Mark  of  Ephesua  At 
this  time  he  occupie<l  the  see  of  Caron,  and,  abandoning 
it  when  the  Turks  became  masters  of  the  city,  he  re- 
tired to  Florence,  where  he  died,  June  21, 146(6.  He 
wrote  De  Sensibilibus  Deliciis  Parodist  (Venice,  1498), 
and  manuscript  treatises  upon  several  points  of  theolo- 
gy, also  some  sermons,  etc.  See  Hoefer,  iVovv.  Biog^ 
GhUralCy  s.  v. 

•  Ziapide,  CoBNELiuB  a.   See  Cornklius  a  Lapidk. 

Irfipland  Mytholoot.  The  accounts  on  this  sub- 
ject  are  very  scant,  because  the  Lappa  never  had  m. 
public  divine  worship,  but  conducted  their  religious  ser* 
vices  privately  in  their  homes.  They  had  a  conception 
of  a  supreme  being,  which  the  North  American  Indians 
call  the  Great  Spirit,  the  Laplanders,  Jamula.    The 


LAPPISH  VERSION 


653 


LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD 


latter  sec  three  forces  of  nature  combined  in  the  su- 
preme god.  They  have  the  god  Ttermes,  thunder,  the 
god  Stoijunkare,  the  ruler  of  earth,  protector  of  the 
woods,  and  the  goddess  Baiwe,  the  sun.  These  three 
were  united  in  Jamula.  Besides  these  supreme  deities 
they  have  numerous  others,  who  are  subordinate,  but 
not  servanta  of  the  former;  they  have  their  own  small- 
er circles,  as,  for  instance,  the  spirits  of  air,  the  water 
deities,  mountain  deities,  and  the  dreaded  evil  deities 
of  death,  who  separate  the  soul  from  the  body,  giving 
the  latter  to  corruption,  and  bringing  the  former  into 
distant  regions  of  good  hunting  and  fishing.  They 
made  sacrifices  of  that  which  they  considered  most 
costly,  young  male  and  female  reindeer.  They  offered 
sacrifices  generally  in  the  fall  for  the  whole  people.  This 
was  the  only  custom  which  pointed  to  a  public  divine 
worship.  They  had  no  priests  nor  temples;  therefore 
every  father  of  a  household  was  priest  and  magician 
for  his  family,  and  taught  his  own  sons.  In  the  au- 
tumn, if  none  of  the  three  gods  accepted  the  offerings, 
they  were  sad,  because  the  gods  were  angry.  Although 
Christianity  has  entered  among  them,  there  are  many 
heathen,  who  still  adhere  to  their  original  usages. 

Isappiflh  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
Lappish  is  vernacular  to  the  Laplanders.  The  earliest 
religious  work  in  the  Lapponese  is  a  manual  contain- 
ing the  Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus, 
the  dominical  gospels  and  epistles,  published  at  Stock- 
holm in  1648.  This  work  was  not  generally  understood, 
on  account  of  the  peculiarity  of  the  dialect  in  which  it 
was  written,  and  accordingly  another  manual  was  pub- 
lished in  1669.  It  is  not  known  at  what  time  the  New 
Test  was  translated  into  Lapponese.  The  first  edition 
of  which  there  is  any  account  was  published  in  17&5, 
from  which  a  new  edition  was  prhited  by  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  1811.  In  the  same  year 
the  Old  Test,  was  published.  Of  late  efforts  have  been 
made  to  give  to  the  Laplanders  of  Russia,  Sweden,  and 
Norway  versions  in  their  respective  vernacular,  and 
thus  there  exist  now,  besides  the  Lappish  version  prop- 
er, the  New  Test,  and  Psalms  in  Norwegian-Lapp,  the 
gospel  of  Matthew  in  Swedish-Lapp,  and  the  same  gos- 
pel in  Russ-Lapp.  See  Bible  of  Evtry  Land,  p.  822 ; 
QuIaian  Version.    (D.  P.) 

La  Poype  {de  Verttieu)^  Jean  Claude  dk,  a 
French  prelate,  was  born  in  1655,  of  an  ancient  family 
of  Poitou.  He  became  vicar  to  M.  de  St.  Georges,  arch- 
bishop of  Lyons,  and  in  1702  was  called  to  the  episcopal 
see  of  Beziers.  This  he  refused,  and  the  same  year  be- 
came bishop  of  Poictiers.  In  1716  he  was  one  of  the 
prelates  who  signed  the  article  demanding  of  the  pope 
an  explanation  of  the  bull  Unigenitus.  He  died  Feb. 
3, 1732,  near  Poictiers.  He  was  in  part  author  of  an  es- 
timable work  entitled,  Compendiota  Instiluiionet  Thto- 
ioffices  (Poictiers,  1708).  The  questions  are  here  treated 
with  great  precision  and  metlKKl.  See  Hoefcr,  Nouv. 
Biog.  GMraltj  s.  v. 

Lara,  David  de,  a  Jewish  writer  of  Portuguese  de- 
scent, who  died  at  Hamburg  in  1674,  is  the  author  of, 

na^.ns  "^rs,  a  Talmudico-Rabbinic  lexicon  (Hamburg, 
1667) :— *m-l7  de  Cowenientia  Voeabulorvm  Rabbini' 
corum  (Amsterdam,  1638).  See  FUrst,  Bibl,  Jud.  ii,  222 ; 
De'  Rossi,  JHzionario  Storico  (Germ.  transL  p.  174  sq. ; 
Pcrles,  David  Cohen  de  Lara^t  Rabbiniscket  Lexikon 
(BresUu,  1868).    (a  P.) 

Lararimn,  that  part  of  an  ancient  Roman  house 
which  was  appropriated  to  the  Lares  (q.  v.),  and  where 
the  morning  devotions  were  offered  up. 

Larentalia,  a  festival  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
which  was  held  in  honor  of  Acca  lAzrentia  (q.  v.).  It 
was  also  observed  in  honor  of  the  Lares  generally. 

La  Roche  (Atmon)  CharloB  Antolne  de,  a 
French  prelate,  was  bom  at  the  chateau  of  Mainsat, 
Feb.  17, 1697.  He  was  at  first  canon  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Macon,  and  vicar-general  of  Limoges,  before  being  con- 


secrated bishop  of  Sarepta,  Aug.  5, 1725.  He  occupied 
successively  the  sees  of  Tarbes,  1729,  Toulouse,  1740, 
Narbonne,  1752,  before  being  appointed  grand  almoner, 
July  13, 1760,  and  archbishop  of  Rheims,  Dec.  5, 1762. 
He  was  created  cardinal  in  1771,  invested  the  following 
year  with  the  abbey  of  St.  Germain -des-Pr^s,  and 
consecrated  Louis  XVI  on  Trinity  Sunday,  June  11, 
1775,  having  previously  baptized  him,  given  to  him 
his  first  communion,  and  confirmed  his  union  with 
Marie  Antoinette  of  Austria.  He  presided  over  all  the 
assemblies  of  the  clergy  of  France  from  1760  to  1775, 
having  assisted  at  all  the  preceding  assemblies  from 
1735.  He  was  at  the  time  of  his  death  dean  of  the 
French  episcopacy,  having  as  his  coadjutor  Alexander 
Angelique,of  Talleyrand  Perigord,  afterwards  archbish- 
op of  PariSi  He  was  distinguished  for  his  modest  piety 
and  extreme  benevolence.  He  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  27, 
1777.     See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog,  CiniraU,  s.  v. 

La  Roohe  (Aymon),  Ralph  de,  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  born  about  1160.  He  was  a  Cistercian  monk, 
was  at  first  abbot  of  Igny,  in  the  diocese  of  Rheims,  and 
in  1224  was  deemed  worthy  to  succeed  St.  Bernard  at 
Clairvaux.  Having  occupied  this  see  for  eight  years, 
he  was  called  to  govern  the  Church  of  Agen,  from 
which  Gregory  IX  transferred  him,  in  1285,  to  the  met- 
ropolitan see  of  Lyons.  Here  he  died  March  5, 1236. 
His  memory  is  celebrated  March  5,  and  he  is  called  the 
Happy  Ralph  de  la  Roche.  See  Hoefer,  Kovv,  Biog, 
Ginirale,  s»  v. 

La  Roohefoncanld,  Domlnlqne  de,  count  of 
St.  Elpis,  a  French  prelat«,  was  bom  in  1713  at  St.  El- 
pis,  in  the  diocese  of  Mende.  He  was  a  descendant  of 
a  poor  and  ignorant  branch  of  the  house  of  La  Roche- 
foucauld, which  the  bishop  of  Mendes,  of  Cboiseul,  dis- 
covered in  one  of  bis  pastoral  visits.  Frederic  Jerome 
de  la  Rochefoucauld,  archbishop  of  Bourges,  made  known 
this  discovery,  and  took  upon  himself  the  direction  of 
the  studies  of  young  Dominique.  He  placed  him  at 
the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpioe,  and  having  made  him 
grand  -  vicar,  gave  him  the  archbishopric  of  Alby  in 
1747.  Being  a  member  of  the  assemblies  of  the  clergy 
in  1750  and  1755,  he  zealously  defended  the  rights  of 
the  Galilean  Church,  and  was  invested  with  the  abbey 
of  Cluny  in  1757.  Two  years  later  he  was  transferred 
to  the  see  of  Rouen,  and  in  1778  made  cardinal.  Elect- 
ed deputy  of  the  clergy  of  the  bailiwick  of  Rouen  to 
the  States-General  in  1789,  he  came  out  strongly  against 
the  principles  of  the  revolution.  He  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  protest  of  Sept.  12, 1791,  against  the  in- 
novations made  by  the  national  assembly  in  the  mat- 
ter of  religion.  In  the  preceding  April  he  had  pub- 
lished a  pastoral  instmction,  which  the  tribunaj  of 
Rouen  had  torn  and  burned,  as  being  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  the  constituent  assembly.  After  Aug.  10, 1792, 
the  cardinal  La  Rochefoucauld  retired  to  Germany,  and 
died  at  Munster,  Sept.  2, 1800.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
GhteraUf  s.  v. 

I*a  RoohefoQcaiild,  Frangoia  de,  a  French 
prelate,  was  bora  at  Paris,  Dec.  8, 1558,  being  the  son 
of  Charles  I,  of  La  Rochefoucauld,  count  of  Randan,  and 
of  Fulvie  Pic  de  la  Mirandole,  lady  of  honor  to  the 
queen.  He  was  destined  by  hia  uncles  for  the  priest- 
hood, and  completed  his  studies  at  the  College  of  Cler- 
mont in  a  very  brilliant  manner.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  was  invested  by  the  cardinal  of  Guise  with  the  rich 
abbey  of  Touraus,  and  scarcely  had  he  reached  his 
twenty-seventh  year  when  Henry  III  appointed  him 
bishop  of  Clermont.  Being  a  partisan  of  the  Holy 
League,  he  sought  to  excite  Anveigne  in  revolt  against 
the  king;  but  the  inhabitanta  of  Clermont  revolted 
against  their  bishop,  and  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge 
at  his  chateau  in  Mozun.  In  1589  the  bishop  of  Cler- 
mont called  an  assembly  of  the  states  of  his  province 
at  Billoro.  La  Rochefoucauld  addressed  them  in  a  ve- 
hement discourse,  in  which  he  accused  the  king  of  be- 
ing in  harmony  with  the  Protestanta.    This  led  the 


LA  ROCIffiFOTJCAULD 


654 


LARUE 


assembly  to  embmoe  the  side  of  the  sacred  anion.  His 
father,  who  governed  in  the  League,  was  killed  in  1590, 
and  Henr>'  IV  abjured  some  years  later.  The  bbhop 
of  Clermont  yielded,  and  composed  a  work  upon  the  spir- 
itual authority  of  the  popes,  remaining  silent  upon  the 
temporal  power.  Some  time  after  Martha  Brossier  ex- 
cited the  wonder  of  the  credulous  world.  Francois  de 
la  Rochefoucauld  and  his  brother,  Alexander,  travelled 
from  city  to  city,  interrogating  the  evil  spirits  concern- 
ing the  real  presence  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  eucharist 
They  were  at  length  obliged  to  desist  from  this  ridicu- 
lous business.  Francois  de  la  Rochefoucauld  yielded, 
and  in  1607  was  made  cardinal  and  bishop  of  Senlis.  In 
1618  he  became  grand  almoner  of  France,  and  in  1619 
of  the  abbey  of  St.  Genevieve.  In  1622  he  was  made 
president  of  the  Council  of  the  States,  and  charged  with 
the  reformation  of  the  al^beys  of  France.  This  reform 
occupied  the  rest  of  hia  life.  He  died  at  the  abbey  of 
St,  Genevieve,  Feb.  14, 1645,  and  an  elegant  tomb  was 
erected  for  him.  Full  of  zeal  for  literature,  La  Roche- 
foucauld enriched  various  libraries  with  Greek  and  Lat- 
in MSS.  He  wrote,  Statutt  Synodaux  pour  PEgUie  df. 
ClermofU  {ib99) :—Statuis  Synodaux  pour  V^Ute  de 
Senlis  (Paris,  1621):— /)«  rAutoriU  de  P^glue  en  ce 
^iConcerne  la  Foiet  la  lieliffion  (ibid AeOZfieOi).  His 
l.\fe  was  written  by  La  Mariniere  (Paris,  1647).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrale^  s.  v. 

La  Rochefouoanld  (Batkiu),  Fran^iB  Jo- 
aeph  de,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  at  AngoQleme  in 

1785.  He  was  bishop  of  Beauvais  in  1772,  and  by  this 
title  peer  of  France,  and  was  sent  by  the  clergy  of  the 
bailiwick  of  Clermont,  in  Beaavais,  to  the  States-General, 
which  became  the  constituent  assembly.  He  there  de- 
fended the  privileges  of  the  clergy.  Chabot  having 
denounced  him  before  the  legislative  assembly  as  taking 
part  in  an  anti-revolutionary  meeting,  he  fled  with  his 
brother,  the  bishop  of  Saintes,  to  the  house  of  their  sis- 
ter, the  abbess  of  Soissons,  and  then  started  for  Paris. 
They  were  arrested  at  Carmes,  and  assassinated  at  Paris, 
SepU  2, 1792.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  GSnhale^  s.  v. 

La  Rochefoucaald,  Fr6d6rio  Jerome  de 
Roye  de,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  July  16,  1701. 
He  was  son  of  Francois  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  of  Roye, 
count  of  Rouncy.  He  embraced  the  ecclesiastical  call- 
ing, and  in  1729  was  called  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Bo<irges.    Elected  coadjutor  of  the  abbey  of  Cluny  in 

1786,  he  became  titular  abbot  in  1747,  by  the  death  of 
the  cardinal  of  Auvergne.  The  same  year  he  was  made 
cardinal,  and  the  following  year  was  sent  to  Rome  as 
ambassador.  In  1755  the  king  appointed  him  to  the 
abbey  of  St.  Yandrille,  and  charged  him  at  the  same 
time  with  the  schedttle  of  benefices.  He  presided  over 
the  assemblies  of  the  clergy  in  1750  and  1755.  In  1756 
Louis  XV  made  him  grand  almoner.  He  died  April 
29, 1757.  He  was  a  prelate  of  mild  and  conciliatory 
character.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale^  s.  v. 

La  Rochefonoauld  (Bayers),  Pierre  Ziouia 

de,  a  French  prelate,  brother  of  Francois  Joseph,  was 
bora  in  1744  in  the  diocese  of  Perigueux.  In  1770  he 
was  made  commendatory  prior  of  Nanteuil  by  the  car- 
dinal La  Rochefoucauld,  and  general  agent  of  the  clergy 
in  1775,  which  office  he  held  until  1780.  In  1782  he 
was  called  to  the  bishopric  of  Saintes.  Being  sent  to 
the  States-General  by  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  seneschal 
of  Saintes,  he  voted  at  the  national  assembly  with  the 
minority.  Having  taken  flight  with  his  brother,  the 
bishop  of  Beauvais,  he  perished  with  him  at  Paris,  in 
the  prison  of  Cannes,  Sept.  2, 1792.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

La  Rocheposay,  Hrnri  Louis  Chasieignier  de,  a 
French  prelate,  son  of  Louis  Chasteignier,  was  bom  Sept, 
6, 1577,  at  Tivoli,  Italy.  Having  been  educated  by  the 
celebrated  Scaliger,  he  received  at  Rome  the  four  minor 
orders  in  1596,  and  the  priesthood  at  Paris  at  the  hand 
of  Heniy  de  Gondi,  who  was  then  cardinal  of  Retz.  Co- 
adjutor of  Geoffroi  de  St.  Blin,  bishop  of  Poictiers,  he 


succeeded  him  in  1611,  and  bore  witness  three  years 
later  to  his  fidelity  to  the  king  by  opposing  the  entrance 
of  the  prince  of  Conde  and  his  troops.  The  conduct  of 
this  prelate  appears  little  in  conformity  with  the  can- 
ons, and  gave  rise,  on  the  part  of  the  celebrated  Jean 
du  Vergier  de  Hauranne,  abbot  of  St,  Cyran,  to  a  de- 
fence, ingenious  as  well  as  paradoxical:  Apologie  pour 
Meerire  Henri  Chasteignier  de  la  Rocheposag,  etc  (1615). 
La  Rocheposay  assisted  at  the  assembly  which  was  held 
at  Rouen  in  1627,  under  the  presidency  of  Gaston  of 
France,  then  at  the  synod  of  Biordeaux,  and  at  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  clergy  in  1628.  He  occupied  him- 
self zealously  in  trying  to  purge  Poitou  of  the  doctrines 
of  Calvin.  He  died  July  30, 165 1 ,  leaving  several  works, 
as  RecueU  des  Axiomes  de  Pkilosophie  et  de  ThMogie : — 
Rimarques  Francoises  sur  8U  MattMeu  (Poictiers,  1619) : 
— Exerciiationes  in  Marcum,  Lucam^  Joatmem  ei  Ada 
Apostohrum,  etc  (ibid.  1626):— /n  Genesin  (1628):— 
In  Librum  Job  (eod.) : — In  Exodum  et  in  Libros  Ku- 
meroruniy  Josue  et  Judicum  (1629) :— /n  Prophetas  Ma" 
jores  et  Minores  (1680)  :—Dissertationes  Etkico-PoUti- 
ca.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginircde,  s.  v. 

Laron  (or  Loron),  Jourdain  de,  a  French  prel- 
ate, was  at  first  provost  of  St.  I.«onard,  which  position 
he  occupied  until  the  death  of  Girard,  bishop  of  Lim- 
oges. Several  competitors  claimed  the  succession  to 
Girard,  but  Jourdain  de  Laron  obtained  it,  and  the  duke 
of  Aquitania  conducted  him  in  triumph  to  his  episcopal 
city.  He  was  the  sub-deacon,  but  in  two  years  was  or- 
dained deacon,  priest,  bishop,  by  Isbn,  bishop  of  Saintes, 
assistant  of  the  arehbishop  of  Bordeaux  and  Boson, 
Araauld,  Isombert  This  ordination  was  not  partici- 
pated in  by  the  archbishop  of  Bourges,  who  had  Lim- 
oges in  his  province.  The  archbishopric  of  Bourges 
was  at  that  time  occupied  by  Gauslin,  son  of  Hugh 
Capet,  and  therefore  brother  of  king  Robert;  and  he, 
through  jealousy,  caused  the  excommunication  of  Jour- 
dain and  bis  whole  diocese.  Jourdain,  after  a  time, 
made  a  journey  to  the  Holy  Land.  On  his  return,  in 
1028,  he  consecrated  his  cathedral.  In  1031,  at  the 
Council  of  Bourges,  he  discoursed  against  the  armed 
hordes  which  devastated  the  country,  which  discourse 
was  resented  hy  the  bishops.  He  died  in  1052.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouc.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

LazToque,  Patrice,  a  French  spiritualistic  philos- 
opher, was  bom  in  1801  at  Beaume.  He  had  taught 
with  great  success  at  different  colleges,  and  was  succes- 
sively rector  at  Cahors,  Limoges,  and  Lyons.  The  last 
position  he  held  till  1849,  when  some  differences  arose 
between  him  and  archbishop  Bonald.  In  1851  he  took 
his  dismission,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1879.  He  pub- 
lished, Cours  de  Pkilosophie:  —  Examen  Critique  des 
Doctrines  de  la  Religion  Chretienne  (1859),  a  kind  of 
manifesto  of  deism: — Rhmvaiion  Rdigieuse  (1860),  a 
kind  of  religious  programme  of  the  future,  destined  to 
unite  all  on  the  mins  of  positive  religion.  See  Dumur, 
in  the  Rhfue  Chrkienney  1861,  p.  581  sq. ;  Lichtenberger, 
Encgdop,  des  Sciences  Retigieuses,  s.  v.     (li.  P.) 

IiarBO'W,  Friedrich,  a  German  Orientalist,  who 
died  at  Beriin,  Oct  8, 1870,  is  the  author  of,  De  Dialeo- 
iorum  Lingua  Syrtaae  Reliquiis  (Beriin,  1841)  :—Des 
heiligen  A  thanasiuSy  Bischo/  von  Alexandria,  Festbrirfe 
(Leipsic,  1852):  — />m  GenesU  iOerseftt  und  sckwier^ 
Stdkn  erldMtert  (Beriin,  1843>     (a  P.) 

Lame,  Charles  de,  a  French  Benedictine,  was 
bom  at  Corbie,  July  12, 1684,  and  joined  his  order  at 
Meaux.  Being  charged  by  Montfauoon  with  the  edi- 
tion of  the  works  of  Origen,  he  only  saoceeded  in  pob- 
lishing  the  first  two  volumes.  While  superintending 
the  print  of  the  third  volume,  he  was  seixed  with  a 
paralytic  stroke,  and  died  Oct.  5, 1789,  at  Paris.  Sc« 
Lichtenberger,  Encgebp,  des  Sciences  ReUgieuses,  s.  ▼. 
(a  P.) 

Irfune,  Vincent  de,  a  French  theologian,  nephew 
of  the  foregoing,  was  also  bom  at  Corbie.  He  contin- 
ucfl  the  work  commenced  by  Sabathier,  Bibliorum  Sa» 


LASAULX 


655 


LATIL 


crontm  LatmeB  Venionu  Aniiqua  $eu  Verrio  Vetut 
Ttaiica  (Rheims,  1748-49, 8  vob.).  Lame  died  at  6t 
Germain-des-  Pr^  March  29, 1762.  See  Lichtenberger, 
Eneydop,  dt»  Sciences  ReligieuteSf  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Zrfwanlx,  Amalie  ▼on,  a  Roman  Catholic  phi- 
lanthropist, rister  of  Ernst  (q.  v.)»  H'aa  bom  at  Coblents 
in  1815.  She  joined  the  Sisters  of  St  Borromeo,  and 
as  sister  Augustine  was  made  mother  superior  at  Nanc}'. 
She  was  sent,  in  1849,  to  Bonn,  and  took  charge  of 
the  hospital  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  In  the  German 
wars  against  Schleswig  and  Austria,  and  during  the 
Franco-Gemaan  war  of  1870,  she  proved  herself  a  true 
Samaritan.  Her  early  education,  which  she  received 
from  pupils  of  Hermes,  whose  views  were  condemned  at 
Rome,  her  connection  with  the  Catholic  professors  of 
the  University  of  Bonn,  who  refuseil  to  subscribe  to  the 
decisions  of  the  Vatican  council,  led  her  to  oppose  the 
papal  dogmas.  She  cared  not  for  the  menaces  of  the 
Ultramontanes,  but  followed  her  calling  as  before.  Her 
self-denying  and  faithful  attention  to  her  onerous  du- 
ties finally  broke  down  her  health.  While  on  her  bed  of 
sickness,  the  general  mother  superior  of  Nancy  demand- 
ed of  her  that  she  should  recant  and  accept  the  Vatican 
decrees,  but  she  would  not  yield.  At  last  she  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  place  of  her  lifelong  activity,  and 
died  in  1872.  When  she  was  dead,  the  dress  of  the 
order  was  taken  from  her  corpse.  See  Reinken,  A  maUe 
von  fMtaulx  (Bonn,  1878) ;  Lecoultre,  Courte  Notice  sur 
AnUU*,  de  Laaaulx  (Paris,  1879);  Lichtenberger,  En- 
cgelop.  des  Sciences  ReligieuseSf  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Lasaolx,  ZhnBt  ▼on,  a  German  antiquarian,  was 
bora  at  Coblentz,  March  16, 1805.  He  studied  at  Bonn 
'and  Munich,  spent  some  time  at  Vienna,  Rome,  Athens, 
Constantinople,  and  Jerusalem,  was  in  1885  professor  of 
philology  at  WUnburg,  in  1844  professor  at  Munich, 
and  was  deposed  in  1847.  In  1848  he  was  a  member 
of  the  German  National  Assembly,  and  went  with  the 
Roman  Catholic  fraction  in  all  religious  questions.  In 
1849  he  was  reappointed  to  his  professorship,  and  died 
May  10, 1861.  He  published,  Der  Unltrgang  des  lielU' 
nismus  durch  die  christlichen  Kaiser  (Munich,  1854) : — 
Die  PhUosophie  der  schonen  Kimste  ( I860):—  Ueber 
die  iheoloffische  Grundlaffe  alter  philosophischcn  Systeme 
(1856) : — Wahrheit  der  Thalsachm  gtgrUndfter  PhUoso- 
phie der  Geschichte  (eod.)  i^Des  Sokrates  Lebettf  Lehre 
vnd  Tod  (1867) : — Die  prophetische  Kraft  der  mensch- 
liehen  Seek  in  Dichtem  und  Denkeim  (1858).  The  last 
four  books  were  put  on  the  papal  index.  See  Holland, 
Ervmerungen  an  Ernst  ton  Lasaulx  (Munich,  1861). 

(a  p.) 

Iia  SauBsaye,  Danikl  Chantrpik  dr,  a  Walloon 
preacher  and  Dutch  publicist,  was  born  nt  La  Have, 
Dec  10, 1818.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  was  preacher  at 
the  Walloon  Church  in  Lecuwarde  (1842->^),  and  at 
Leyden  (184^62).  Here  he  edited  a  periodical  enti- 
tled Ernst  en  Vrede  (1858-58),  in  which  he  defended 
the  ethical  principle  and  supematoral  in  Christianity 
against  the  so-called  *^  modem  theology,"  inaugurated 
by  J.  H.  Scholten.  In  1862  he  accepted  a  call  to  Rot- 
teidam,where  he  edited  another  journal.  In  1872  he  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  dogmatics  and  Biblical  theology, 
which  was  formerly  occupied  by  P.  Hofstede  de  Groot, 
and  died  shortly  afterwards,  Feb.  13, 1874,  doctor  of 
theology,'a  distinction  conferred  on  him  by  the  Bonn 
University  in  1858.  He  published,  L*£xtf/eiice  Perma- 
nenie  du  People  Juif  Expliqu^  par  son  Avenir  (Ley- 
den, 1849) : — Thungnages  contre  F Esprit  du  Siecle  (Am- 
sterdam and  Leyden,  1852)  :—JUJlexions  sur  VEssence 
et  les  Besoins  de  VEglise  (Leyden,  1855) : — Appreciation 
de  la  Doctrine  de  fEglise  R^ormie,  de  J.  11.  Scholten 
(Utiecht,  1859)  :  —  ^<u<2r«  BMques  (1869^1):  —  /^ 
Crise  Religieuse  en  J/oUande  (Leyden,  1860)  i—Sermons 
(Leyden  and  Rotterdam,  1860-66,  5  vols.) :— An-fn  en 
Rigtingy  i.  e.  Lift  and  Tendency  (Rotterdam,  1865)  -.—Le 
Sumaturel  dans  VHistoire  (Groningen,  1874).  See  Lich- 
tenberger, Eneydop,  des  Sciences  Rdigkusef^  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 


Iiaaharon.  Gonoeraing  this  place  Keil  remarks 
{Commentargt  Josh,  xii,  18), "  Knobel  supposes  it  to  be 
the  place  called  Sarunehf  to  the  west  of  the  lake  of 
Tiberias,  and  conjectures  that  the  name  hnv  been  con- 
tracted from  Lassaron  by  the  apheresis  of  the  liquid. 
This  is  quite  possible,  if  only  tee  could  look  for  iMsha' 
ron  so  far  to  the  north.  Bachiene  and  RosenmtUler 
imagine  it  to  be  the  village  of  Sharon,  in  the  celebrated 
plain  of  that  name,  between  Lydda  and  Arsof."  Nev- 
ertheless, Conder  (Tent  IVork^'u,  838)  and  Trelawney 
Saunders  (^Afap  of  the  0,  T)  adopt  the  above  position 
at  Sarona,  which  ia  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  at 
six  miles  west  of  the  south  end  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
and  described  in  the  accompanying  ^femoirs  (i,  414, 
quoting  from  Gu^rin)  thus,  "llie  houses  are  rudely 
built  on  two  hillocks,  which  lie  round  a  valley  watered 
by  a  spring,  which  is  contained  in  a  sort  of  square 
chamber,  the  roof  of  which  is  formed  of  large  slabs,  and 
which  is  preceded  by  a  large  vaulted  chamber  in  very 
regular  cut  stones,  the  whole  of  ancient  appearance." 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  state  (Ononwst,  s.  v.  Sarona)  that 
the  region  between  Tabor  and  the  lake  of  Tiberias  was 
called  Sharon  in  their  time. 

Lassen,  Chribtian,  a  famous  German  Orientalist, 
was  bom  Oct.  22, 1800,  at  Bergen,  Norway.  He  studied 
at  Christiana,  Heidelberg,  and  Bonn,  spent  some  years 
at  London  and  Paris  copying  and  comparing  Indian 
MSS.,  and  published  with  Bumouf  the  Essai  sur  le 
Pali  (Paris,  1826).  Having  returned  to  Bonn,  he 
commenced  his  academical  career  by  publishing  Com- 
mentatio  Geographica  atque  JJistorica  de  Pentapota- 
mia  Indica  (Bonn,  1827).  In  1830  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor, and  died  May  8, 1876.  He  published  editions  of 
Jayadeva's  Gitagovinda  (1887) :  —  Gymnosophista,  sive 
IniiccB  Philosophies  Documenia  (1832):  —  Anthologia 
Sanscriiica  (1838;  new  edition  by  Gildemeister,  1865, 
l9l^)i  —  Tn8titutiones  Lingua  Praa-iiicw  (1837);  but 
his  main  work  is  Indische  A  Ueiihumshunde  (1844-62, 
4  vols.;  2d  ed.  vol.  i,  1866;  vol.  ii,  1873).  In  his  Die 
altpersischen  Keilinschr^en  (1886)  he  deciphered  for 
the  first  time  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.     (B.  P.) 

LaBseninSt  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
bora  at  Waldau,  in  Pomerania,  April  26,  1636.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  and  travelled  exten- 
sively. On  account  of  his  writings  against  the  Jesuits 
he  was  imprisoned  at  Vienna.  He  was  taken  to  the 
Turkish  frontier  for  the  purpose  of  being  sold  as  a 
slave  to  the  Turks,  but  he  managed  to  escape.  He 
took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  theology  at  Greifswalde, 
was  appointeil  court-preacher  at  (Copenhagen,  and  died 
Aug.  29, 1692.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  and  wrote 
a  great  many  ascetical  works.  See  3Ioller,  Cimhria 
Litteruta;  J ochWf  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikonf  s,y.; 
Zuchold,  Bibl,  Theol.  ii,  769.     (B.  P.) 

Lathrop,  John,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  May  17, 1740.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  College  in  1763.  For  some  months  after 
his  graduation  he  was  engaged  as  assistant  teacher  in 
Moor's  Indian  School  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  and  at  the 
same  time  studied  theology.  He  was  licensed  soon 
after  this,  labored  as  a  missionary  among  the  Indians, 
and  in  1767  was  invited  to  settle  both  at  Taunton  and 
Reading.  In  1768  he  accepted  a  call  to  become  pastor 
of  the  Old  North  Church  in  Boston,  preaching  in  that 
city  until  his  death,  Jan.  14, 1816.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Corporation  of  Harvard  University  in  1778. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  counsellors  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  vice-president  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bible  Society,  and  president  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts (^ngregational  Charitable  Society.  His 
publications  consisted  of  single  sermons.  See  Sprague, 
A  nnals  of  the  A  mer,  Pvlpit,  viii,  68. 

Latil,  JKA2I  Baptibtr  Maiuk  Anne  Antoink,  duke 
de,  a  French  prelate,  was  Iwra  in  one  of  the  Isles  of  Sainte 
Marguerite^  March  6, 1761.  Being  destined  for  the  ec- 
clesiastical calling,  he  entered  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice 


LATIMER 


656 


L'ATJBESPINE 


at  Paris,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1784.  Shortly  after 
he  was  appointed  grand-vicar  of  the  bishop  of  Yence, 
who  charged  him  with  representing  him  at  the  bailiwick 
assembly  of  his  diocese  at  the  convocation  of  the  States- 
General.  On  the  breaking-out  of  the  French  Kevolu- 
tion  Latil  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  the  civil  constitu- 
tion of  the  clergy,  and  withdrew  to  Coblentz,  but  in 
1792,  having  returned  to  France,  he  was  arrested  at 
Montfort  TAmaury,  and  remained  for  some  time  in  the 
prisons  of  that  city.  Having  recovered  his  liberty,  he 
retired  to  Germany,  and  settled  at  Dllseeldorf,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  preaching.  He  had  determined  to 
set  out  for  America,  when  the  count  of  Artois  sent  for 
him,  in  1794,  and  made  him  almoner.  Latil  from  this 
time  never  left  this  prince,  and  at  the  restoration  be- 
came his  chief  almoner.  Appointed  bishop  of  Amydea, 
tn  partibui  mfidtlium^  he  was  consecrated  April  7, 1816 ; 
became  bishop  of  Chartrcs  in  1821,  and  archbishop  of 
Rheims,  Aug.  11, 1824.  He  consecrated  Charles  X  in 
the  metropolis  of  Rheims,  May  29, 1825.  He  was  made 
a  peer  of  France  in  1828,  made  count  by  Charles  X,  and 
also  minister  of  state.  Pope  Leo  XII  made  him  car- 
dinal, March  12, 1826,  and  the  king  gave  him  the  title 
of  duke.  .  The  same  year  he  signed  the  declaration  of 
the  clergy  of  France  touching  the  independence  of  the 
temporal  power  in  civil  matters.  He  was  accused,  how- 
ever, of  being  a  great  partisan  of  the  Jesuits,  and  of 
urging  Charles  X  to  adopt  measures  which  aided  the 
revolution  of  July.  In  view  of  this  Latil  fled  to  Eng- 
land. He  soon  returned  to  France  and  maintained  his 
episcopal  see,  but  refused  the  oath  as  peer  of  France. 
He  died  at  Geminos  in  December,  1839.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Bioff,  GeniraUf  s.  v. 

Latimer,  James  Elijah,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Oct.  7, 1826. 
He  graduated  from  Wesleyan  University  in  1848,  and 
the  same  year  became  teacher  of  languages  in  New- 
berry Seminary,  Y t.,  and  of  Latin  and  geology  in  Gen- 
esee Wesleyan  Seminary,  Lima,  N.  Y.;  in  1851  princi- 
pal of  New  Hampshire  Conference  Seminary,  Northfield, 
N.  H. ;  in  1854  principal  of  Fort  Plain  Seminary,  N.  Y. ; 
in  1858  Joined  East  Genesee  Conference,  and  was  pas- 
tor in  Elmira  and  Rochester,  where  he  made  a  deep 
and  permanent  impression  by  his  learning  and  devo- 
tion. After  this  he  travelled  and  studied  in  Europe. 
In  1869  he  became  pastor  of  a  Church  in  Penn  Yan, 
N.  Y. ;  in  1870  professor  of  historic  theology  in  school 
of  theology  of  Boston  University,  and  in  1874  dean  and 
professor  of  systematic  theology  in  the  same  school. 
He  died  at  Aubumdale,  Mass.,  Nov.  27, 1884.  Professor 
Latimer  took  high  rank  as  a  student  of  German  litera- 
ture. He  possessed  a  genial  temper,  and  was  greatly  be- 
loved by  «dl  under  his  instruction.  His  sermons,  essays, 
and  lectures  are  highly  commended.  See  Alumni  jiec- 
ord  of  WesU  Urdo.  1881,  p.  91 ;  Meth,  Rev,  Blarch,  1886. 

Latlnnfl,  Latimus,  an  Italian  critic,  was  bom  at 
Vitcrbo  in  1513.  He  acted  as  secretary  to  cardinals 
Famese  and  Colonna  at  Rome,  and  died  Jan.  21, 1593. 
He  wrote,  Obsei'vationes  et  Emendationei  in  TertulUa- 
num: — BiUioiheca  Sacra  et  Prof  ana  (edited  by  D.  Ma- 
cer,  Rome,  1659) : — Epistoln^  Conjedura  et  Obtervatione$ 
Sacra  Pro/anaque  Eruditione  Omatm  (2  vols.).  See 
Freher,  Theairum  Eruditorum ;  Teissier,  Elogea  des  Sa- 
vatu ;  Jocber,  A  llgemeineg  GeUhtien-Lexikon^  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Latoniuflk  Bartuoloslaus,  a  German  controver- 
sial writer,  was  bom  at  Arlon,  Luxemburg,  in  1485.  He 
taught  Latin  at  Treves,  and  rhetoric  at  Cologne  and  Frei- 
burg. In  1584  he  was  called  to  Paris,  and  visited  Italy 
in  1539.  In  1541  he  was  appointed  counsellor  at  the 
electoral  court  of  Treves,  with  his  residence  at  Coblentz, 
and  died  in  1566.  Of  his  controversial  writings  we 
mention,  Responsio  ad  Epistolam  Buceri  (1543)  i^Ad- 
veraut  Bucerum  de  Controversiis  QuUiuadam  A  Itera  De- 
/ensio : — Responsio  ad  Convicia  et  Calumnias  Petri  Da- 
iheni  (concerning  the  communion  and  the  sacrifice  of  I 
the  mass,  Frankfort,  1558) :  —  Be  Docta  SinpUcitate  \ 


Prima  Eccksios  (1559).  At  the  instance  of  the  em- 
peror Charles  V,  he  also  took  part  in  the  Ratisbon  Col- 
loquy in  1546,  and  was  appointed  by  him  imperial  coun- 
sellor in  1548.  See  Du  Pin,  Bibl.  Eccles.  xxvi,  145  sq. ; 
Jocher,  AUgetneines  GeUhrten,' LexUcon^  s.  v.;  Wagen- 
mann,  in  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Enc^Jdop,  s.  r.     (B.  P.) 

Latdna,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  the  daughter  of 
Coeus  and  Phoebe,  therefore  a  Titanide.  Being  loved 
by  Jupiter,  she  reaped  the  hatred  of  Juno.  The  latter 
took  an  oath  from  the  earth  not  to  grant  Latona  a 
place,  and  persecuted  her  by  the  frightful  dragon 
Python.  Everywhere  the  earth  refused  to  receive  her. 
At  last  an  island,  Deloa,  arose  from  the  sea,  which  had 
not  existed  when  Juno  exacted  the  oath,  where  Diana, 
hanlly  born,  assisted  her  mother  in  the  birth  of  her 
twin  brother  Apollo.  Being  one  of  the  oldest  goddesses, 
she  was  everywhere  highly  worshipped.  Apollo  and 
Diana  would  not  forgive  the  smallest  insult  to  their 
mother,  as  is  fully  shown  by  the  fate  of  Niobe,  with 
whom  she  had  stood  on  intimate  friendship.  Herodo- 
tus relates  that  she  was  also  worshipped  in  Egypt. 

Latour  {WAuvergne  Lauraffais),  Huouks  Robert 
Jkan  Charles  dk,  a  French  prelate,  was  bora  at  the 
chateau  of  Auzeville,  near  Toulouse,  Aug.  14j  1768.  In 
the  care  of  his  nnde,  a  canon  of  Caatres,  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  entered  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpioe, 
and  pursued  a  course  of  theology  under  Emery.  In 
1792  and  1798  he  was  secretly  ordained  sub -deacon, 
deacon,  and  priest  by  the  bishop  of  Limoges  of  Argen- 
tre.  He  refused  the  oath  to  the  civil  constitution  of 
the  clergy,  and  withdrew  to  Picardy,  to  the  house  of 
his  aunt,  the  countess  of  Yergy,  and  there  performed 
secretly  the  offices  of  his  ministry  at  Amiens.  He  was 
finally  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison.  A  contrac- 
tor of  the  republican  army  rescued  him  by  taking 
him  into  his  service.  The  first  consul  appointed  him 
bishop  of  Arras,  May  9, 1802.  The  young  bishop  re- 
constracted  his  diocese,  and  founded  in  it  all  sorts  of 
institutions.  On  all  occasions  he  manifested  his  admi- 
ration for  the  chief  of  the  state,  who  had  restored  peaoe 
to  the  Church,  and  advanced  the  glory  of  France.  The 
events  of  1814  modified  his  opinions,  and  on  April  8  he 
sent  his  approval  to  the  act  of  forfeiture  of  the  emperor. 
The  restoration  brought  to  him  an  offer  of  the  bishop- 
ric of  Rheims,  which  he  refused.  The  government  of 
July  offered  still  more  important  archbishoprics.  La- 
tour  wished  to  remain  in  his  see,  but  accepted  the  Ro- 
man purple,  Dec  14, 1840.  He  died  July  20, 1851 .  He 
left  some  catechisms,  sermons,  etc  See  Hoefer,  Xouv, 
Biog,  GhUrale,  s.  v. 

Latuinuflk  SaisU,  traditionary  first  bishop  of  Sees, 
commemorated  June  20,  is  said  to  have  been  sent  into 
Gaul  by  Clement  of  Rome,  and  is  assigned  to  some  pe- 
riod earlier  than  A.D.  500.  He  is  believed  to  be  the 
saint  popularly  known  as  St,  Lain^yihom  the  BoUandista 
place  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century. 

Lan,  JoiiAKN  TiiKODOR,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  at  Schleswig  in  1818.  In  1843  be 
was  appointed  second  pastor  at  Hettstadt,  near  Hu- 
sum,  in  1855  pastor  at  Ottensen,  near  Altona,  and  died 
Dec  20, 1878.  He  is  the  author  of,  Gregor  /,  der  Grotte^ 
naeh  aeinem  Leben  und  Lehre  geschiUkrt  (Letpsic,  1855)  : 
— Reformationsgesehidite  in  Schleswig  (Hamburg,  1867). 
See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  770.     (R  P.) 

Laub,  Hardknack  Otto  Konsad,  bishop  of  Vi- 
borg,  was  bora  in  1805.  Having  completed  his  theo- 
logical studies,  he  was  appointed  to  a  pastorate  in  the 
isle  of  Funen.  In  1854  he  was  made  bishop  of  Yiborg, 
and  held  tliis  position  till  1877,  when  feeble  health 
obliged  him  to  retire  from  his  ecclesiastical  duties.  He 
xpent  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Copenhagen,  and  died 
May  27, 1882.  He  was  highly  honored  by  the  con- 
gregations as  well  as  by  the  ministers  of  his  diocese. 
(B.P.) 

L'AubeqpUxeb  Oktbritl  do.    See  Au»c8p»b. 


L'AUBESPINE 


657 


LAURENTn 


L'Aubesptiie,  Sebatftiaii  de,  a  French  prelate 
and  diplomalist,  was  bom  in  fieauce  in  1518.  Hia  high 
ability  won  for  him  from  Francis  I  the  gift  of  many 
ecclesiastical  benefices,  espedaliy  that  of  the  abbey  of 
Basse  Fontaine,  in  the  diocese  of  Troyes.  Being  sent 
to  Switzerland,  be  there  combated  the  influence  of  the 
emperor,  in  1543*.  At  the  Diet  of  Worms,  he  prepared 
the  work  of  the  honorary  ambassador,  the  count  of 
Grignan.  a  man  more  distinguished  by  his  ancestry 
than  by  his  own  merit  (1645).  Henry  II  afterwards 
sent  him  to  negotiate  with  the  people  of  Strasburg  in 
1548,  and  to  modify  the  treaty  of  aUiaace  with  the 
Helvetian  cantons.  On  his  return  to  France  he  was 
charged  with  an  embassy  to  Flanders,  but  he  soon  re- 
sumed his  former  functions  in  Switzerland,  and  still 
negotiated  with  ability  and  honor.  Then  he  was  ap- 
pointed ambassador  to  Philip  II  of  Spain.  From  1558 
he  held  the  bishopric  of  Limoges,  in  which  city  he  al- 
ready held  the  rich  abbey  of  St,  Martial.  After  render- 
ing various  services  to  the  king,  and  being  driven  from 
the  court,  he  withdrew  to  Limoges,  and  devoted  all  his 
attention  to  works  of  piety  connected  with  the  episco- 
pacy. Here  he  died  in  1582,  and  was  interred  in  his 
cathedral  For  mention  of  his  works  see  Hoefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  GhUraU^  s.  v. 

Zrfiiider,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  rector 
of  Ratho,  promoted  to  the  see  of  Dnnkeld  in  May,  1440, 
and  died  Oct  11  foltowing.  See  Keith,  ScoUi^  Buh- 
opt,  p.  87. 

Iiander,  George,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  vicar  of 
Crail  in  1425,  and  was  afterwards  master,  or  preceptor, 
of  the  Hospital  of  St,  Leonard's.  He  was  promoted  to 
the  bfshopric  of  Arg>-le  as  early  as  1427,  and  was  still 
bishop  in  1462.     See  Keith,  ScoUitk  Bishops,  p.  287. 

Lauder,  Robert,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  probably 
promoted  to  the  see  of  Dunblane  in  1448,  and  in  1451 
was  sent  jointly  with  the  bishops  of  Glasgow  and  Mo- 
ray into  England.  He  was  probably  bishop  there  in 
1465.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  177. 

Lauder,  Thomaa,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  preferred 
to  the  see  of  Dunkeld  in  1452,  which  see  he  retained 
until  1476,  when  he  resigned  his  charge  on  account  of 
advanced  age.  He  died  Nov.  4, 1481.  See  Keith,  Scot' 
tish  Bishops,  p.  89. 

Iiauder, 'William,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  preferred 
to  the  see  of  Glasgow  in  1408.  He  was  bishop  there 
and  lord  chancellor,  April  14, 1424.  He  died  about  1426. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  248. 

Laudiatl,  a  society  which  was  instituted  in  Flor- 
ence, in  1816,  for  the  performance  of  religious  lauds. 
The  society  still  exists,  and  is  in  active  operation. 

Laue,  JoHAMN  Gottfrikd,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  20, 1683.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic,  was  in  1708  con-rector  at  Quedlinburg,  in  1710 
deacon,  in  1715  pastor  at  Diffurt,  and  died  May  30, 
1721.  He  wrote,  Meditationes  Exegftico-practicm : — 
Apparatus  ExegeticO'homiUticus:  —  I/istoiia  Arcana 
Vsteris  TtstamaUi  ad  Judic,  II  el  1  Sam.  Ill : — Disput, 
an  Turrium  tt  Campanarum  Usus  in  Ecclesia  Deo  Dis- 
pUeeatf  See  Leporinus,  Germania  Literaia  Vivensj 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  GelehrteU'I^exikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Iiaufeia,  iu  Norse  mythology,  was  a  Jote-woman, 
the  wife  of  the  giant  Farbaute,  and  the  mother  of  Loke, 
the  evil  one  among  the  Asas. 

Xrfiniiawater,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Finns,  was 
an  evil  goddess,  whose  children  were  the  plagues  and 
sicknesses  of  men. 

.  Launoy,  Matthisu  dk,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Fert^Alais,  but  embraced  the  Reform 
mation  at  Geneva  in  1560,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
evangelical  ministry.  He  was  pastor  at  Heidelberg  in 
1678,  afterwards  at  Sedan,  where  he  had  adulterous  re- 
lations with  one  of  his  cousins,  and  was  thus  obliged  to 
kavt  the  place.    Being  excommunicated,  he  abjured 

XII.— T  T 


Protestantism,  and  became  one  of  the  most  furious 
preachers  of  the  League.  To  j  ustify  his  second  apostasy 
he  published,  mfense  ds  Launoy  (Paris,  1578),  and 
DMaration  ei  Hffutatiom,  etc.  (1579).  To  secure  the 
favor  of  the  Catholics,  he  pablished  R^nse  Chretienne 
a  xxiv  A  riicUs,  etc.  (1581).  In  consideration  of  his 
return  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  he  was  made  canon  of 
St.'Gervais  de  Soissons,  and,  with  Boucher,  was  one  of 
the  first  four  pillars  of  the  League.  He  belonged  to  the 
council  of  sixteen  who  decreed  the  assassination  of 
president  Brisson.  After  the  capitulation  of  Paris, 
Launoy  went  to  Flandens  where  he  probably  died.  See 
Labitte,  De  la  Dimocratie  Chez  Us  PrSdicateurs  de  la 
Ligue  et  la  France  Protestanief  Lichtenberger,  £neyklqp, 
des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Laurel,  a  plant  which  was  sacred  to  ApoHo,  the 
god  of  prophecy,  and  much  used  by  those  who  pretend- 
ed to  inspiration.  The  heads  of  ancient  seers  were 
usually  adorned  with  laurel  wreaths,  while  they  carried 
in  their  hands  a  laurel  branch  as  a  magic  wand.  The 
heads  of  victors  in  the  national  games  were  also  crowned 
with  laurel  wreaths;  hence  the  expression,  ''winning 
the  laurels.'* 

Laurence  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  bishop 
of  the  see  of  the  Isles  in  1249,  but  was  drowned  the 
same  year.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  299. 

Laurence  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  bishop 
of  the  see  of  Argyle  about  1261.  About  1269  he  rati- 
fied to  the  monks  of  Paisley  the  churehes  of  Kilfinan 
and  Kilkeran.  He  was  still  bishop  in  1299.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  286. 

Laurent,  Johanh  Thkodor,  a  French  prelate,  was 
born  July  6, 1804,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  made  him- 
self especially  conspicuous  by  his  opposition  to  the 
Hermesians  (q.  v.),  and  in  recognition  of  his  merits  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Cherson,  in  partibus  infidelium. 
As  he  could  not  reside  in  Hamburg,  where  be  intended 
to  live,  he  went  to  Rome,  and  was  in  1841  appointed 
apostolic-vicar  at  Luxemburg,  but  was  recalled,  in  1848, 
on  account  of  his  too  rigorous  procedure.  He  retired  to 
Simpelvelde,  in  the  province  of  Limburg,  and  died  Feb. 
20,1884.     (RP.) 

Laurentla.    See  Acca. 

Laurentie,  Pibbrk  Skbastxkn,  a  French  Roman 
Catholic  historian  and  publicist,  was  bora  Jan.  21, 1793, 
at  Houg  (department  of  Gers).  In  1817  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  at  the  College  Stanislas  in  Paris,  and 
in  1818  professor  of  history  at  the  Polytechnic  Institute. 
In  1823  he  was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the  pub- 
lic schools,  but  he  lost  this  position  in  1826  on  account 
of  his  opposition  to  the  ministry  headed  by  YillMe, 
whom  he  had  attacked  in  his  Journal,  /.a  Quotidienne, 
Laurentie  now  devoted  himself  entirely  to  his  Journal, 
wlrich,  for  a  time,  was  called  V  Union  Monarchiqtie,  and 
after  1848  merely  L*  Union,  Laurentie  die<l  at  Paris, 
Feb.  9, 1876.  Besides  his  articles,  he  published,  De  la 
Justice  au  xix  Steele  (1822)  i—De  VOrigine  etdela  Cer- 
titude des  Connaisances  Humaines  (1826) : — Introduction 
a  la  Philosophie  (\&29)  i^Thiorie  Catholiqufs  dts  Sci- 
ences  (1836;  4th  ed.  1846):-//u/otre  de  France  (184U 
43,  8  vols.):— Z>s  Bois  et  le  Pope  (1860) :»iZam«  et  U 
Pape  (eoA^i—Ilistoire  de  V Empire  Romain  (1861-68, 
4  vols.)  \—VA  thiisme  Scimtijigue  (1862) : — Le  Livre  de 
M,  Renan  sur  la  Vie  de  Jesus  (1863).  See  Lichtenber- 
ger, EncycUtp,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Isaurentii,  Laurkxtius,  a  German  hymn-writer, 
was  bom  June  8, 1660,  at  Huaum,  in  Hoist ein,  and  died 
May  29, 1722,  at  Bremen.  He  published  Evangelia 
Melodica,  or  spiritual  hymns  and  songs,  according  to 
the  Christian  year,  some  of  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English ;  thus,  Du  wesentliches  Wort  (<'  O 
thou  essential  Word,"  in  Lyra  Germ,  i,  15);— TKer  im 
Herzen  wiO  er/ahren  ("  Is  thy  heart  athirst  to  know," 
in  Lyra  Germ,  i\,  45):— Jesus  was  hat  dich  getriden 
(^*  Jesus!  what  was  that  which  drew  thee,"  in  ffynms 


LAURENTIUS  6i 

fnm  tha  Land  of  LMillua;it.79)i—Fliail  Or  Avgm, 
Jliatt  ma  Tkramai  (ibid.  p.  92)  -—EnBrntlBi  tmk  ikr 
Fnmnai  (ibid.  p.  61),     (B.  P.) 

LaoraatlaB,  ^QMi.  Ineirlj 
ChriBtian  art  Sc  Liunnce  usual- 
ly caihM  a  copy  of  the  gospets, 
to  denote  bii  office  of  deacon. 
In  the  Charcb  of  St.  Laurence,  in 
Agra  Tenno,  at  Rome,  there  ii 
a  mosaic  of  tbe  Gtti  cenuiiy,  rep- 
resenting the  roulfr  wicb  an 
open  book  in  his  band,  on  wtiicb 
may  be  read  the  words  "diiper- 
•itydedit  paupetibus"  (Ciimpini, 
Vtl.  Mao.  lab.  Uvi,  2),  in  altumon 
to  his  kindness  to  tbe  poor. 

LaurontiaB,  a  Scotch  praL      j/  -^ 
ate,  irsB  promoMd  til  the  see  of         '-  ] 
Dunblane  in  1160,  anil  was  wit- 
ness to  ■  charter  to  tbe  abbey  oT 
Dunfennline.     See  Keith,  Seot- 
tith  Bitiopt,  p.  170. 

LAiirentlus,    Jacob,   • 
Dutch  theologian,  who  died  at  Xarlr  Retireaentatlai 
Amsterdsm,  Mnrch  19, 1664,  is        of  81.  Lan  rente. 
the  author  of,  R-faUttio  Tripar- 

lila  Fabala  Fapitlica  de  Purgatorio,  Lia^  Palivm  <t 
Patrorum :  —  Commenl.  in  Epitl.  JacM  ac  UlTam^t 
Petri:  -^Expotitio  Septem  Epijtolarum  qaat  Johanna 
in  Inmla  Palhnui  Scripeii: — Apaleyiu  CaUchttit  Hei- 
d^tergauit  amtra  Coppemltimun: — HrpHeatio  inLoca 
D^dUora  EpiHolarum  Paaii:  —  Expontio  Iliitoria 
Jot^hi  Cm.  xxxvi.—De  Vtra  et  Lrffilinia  S.  SoipHira 
tt  Palnaa  A  udorilale.  See  Witte,  IHarium  Bioffra- 
phieam;  iOchfi,  AUgamina  GdArUn-LnHtm,  s.  v. 
(HP.) 

Xianrentiiis,  FaolTiB,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  March  30,  IBM.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic,  was  superintendent  at  Dresden, 
24, 1624,  docior  of  theologj-.  He  wrote, 
Aailtgatig der  2  BSthtr  Samtulit : —Autltguug da Pto- 
pktioi  AmoM: — Prtdigttn  iibrr  den  Propheim  Jtma; — 
EMdrto^  da  xxii  Fialnu  :—Explicalio  SgoAJi  Atha- 
najt"t,elc.  See  Witte,  Diariam  Emdilorum ;  Jiicher, 
A  Uprmtiua  GMtrtm-IjtxUan,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Laorettl  (or  Ltiiireti),To>t»Aso  (called  S  Sici- 
liano),  B11  cminFiit  Sicilian  pnioler,  was  bom  at  Pulenna 
about  1530,  studied  under  Sebastiano  del  Fiombo,  a 
settled  early  in  life  at  Dologni.     He  Bubsequentiv  v 
ited  Rome,  at  the  iuTitalion  of  Gregory  XIII,  tofliii 
the  ceiling  oTthe  Sala  de  Constantino.   He  was  honor 
with  the  appointment  of  president  of  the  Academy 
St.  Luke.    He  died  about  IGIO.    Among  his  principal 
works  at  Romo  are  the  fresco  painling;s  of  (ba  I/iitory 
o/Bratv;  at  Bologna  are  the  Cioimbig  oftht  Virgin, 
inSanlaMiUia;  the  ftuurrKfion,  inSan  RiscoRioBlag- 
giore.     Ha  died  about  1592.     See  ^HHner,  Biog.  Hilt. 
of  Iht  Fine  Aril,  a. -r.;  Hoefer,  S'auc.Biog.  GeairaU, 

IfBtule,  RoBEDT,  a  .Scotch  prelate,  was  first  minis- 
ter and  then  dean  of  Edinburgh.     He  was  adranced 

lain  bis  deanery,  and  continued  to  exercise  a  particular 
ministry  at  tbe  Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  Edin- 
burgh until  bis  death  in  1677.  See  Keith,  ScouM 
Siihopi,  p.  168. 

Lauterbaoh,  Erbard,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  Dec  16, 1649,  at  Naumburg,  doctor 
of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  De  Pradtiliaalioiit:—De 
Ptnona  Chnili.—De  Officio  ChrM  Rfffio  .—Dt  JumH- 
foiatUmt  i/ominu  Peeealorit  Coram  J)b>: — De  TVipu- 
dioSoliMPatiAali!—Ssiilaymad«Prae^itFideiAr- 
licttlii.  See  Witte,  i)Mtn'unt  BioffraphicaiH;  JOcber, 
A  t^cmeina  Gdthrtta-LaileOH,  ».  t.     (E  P.) 

Iiaat«rbaob,  Bamml  Frtedrioh,  a  Uitbenu 


LAVALETTE 

tbetdoglan  of  Poland,  was  horn  at  Fransladt,  Oct.  IB, 
1663.  He  studied  at  Brralau  whI  Wiltenbwg,  and  died 
at  his  native  plaoe,  June  1, 1728.  He  is  the  author  of, 
-,5<>c>ina>nnri  Qlim  in  Piioma  (Frankfort  aitil 
1726) :—  Vita,  Fama  et  Fata  Valerii  flerbergeri, 
SteVliner,  HaadtuchderlAtoL  Lit.  i,77Qi  Jiicher,  >1U- 
gemana  GdctrUfLadian,  %.  v.     (B.  P.) 

bav&bo  (/  mU  atah)  is  a  term  expressing  the  act 
of  washing  the  priest-celebrant's  fingera  prior  to  the 
celebration  of  mass.  This  occurs  in  the  Kngiish  rite, 
by  custom,  after  the  offertory.  The  act  is  pel  ' 
BS  a  sign  of  the  purity  with  which  he  should  a] . 
[he  altar.  In  the  Roman  rite,t>efore  the  priest  aasunica 
the  sacerdotal  Teslments,  he  washes  the  tips  of  hii  fin- 
gen.  This  custom  seems  to  hare  been  almost  nnivm- 
sal.  Whenever  sacrifice  was  about  to  be  oSered,  tha 
minister  of  the  altar  performed  special  ablnlions.  Such 
g  the  Jews,  having  been  ex- 


pressly enjoined  by  the  law  of  Hoasa  (Exod.  xxz,  17- 
21).  In  the  Western  Church  priests  ordinarily  recite 
the  last  six  Terses  of  Psalm  xx*i  during  the  act  of 
washing,  a  practice  which  is  lefened  to  by  seTeral  la- 
thers, among  otben  Sl.Clemeiit  and  St.Cyril,and  which 
became  common  throughout  the  whole  Church  about 
the  8th  century.  In  St-Cyril's  Caledielica!  Lrdirei, 
that  bishop  remarks,  "You  have  seen  the  deacon  pro- 
vide water  for  the  priest  of  sacrifice  and  presbj-tcn    - 

around  to  wash  their  hands That  washing  of  handf 

is  a  symbol  indicating  that  you  ought  to  be  pure  frwn 
every  sin  and  prevarication." 

Lavaletta,  Louia  dk  Nooaubt  d'Epkrhos,  ■ 
French  prelate,  was  bom  at  Ango&leme  in  1693,  and 
was  tbe  third  and  last  son  of  the  duke  of  Epemon. 
Being  destined  by  his  parents  for  the  ecdcaiastical  oil- 
ing, he  was  sent  while  very  yonng  to  tbe  abbeys  of 
SL  Hesmin  of  Gard,  Bardona,  in  1611 :  of  Gimont,  gt. 
Viclorde  Marseille,  the  Gr«sse,elc  in  1621.  As  arch- 
bishop of  Toulouse  be  assisted  at  the  Statea-Oeneral 
held  at  Paris.  Promoted  to  the  Roman  purple,  Jan.  II, 
1621,  he  tocdi  part  in  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  tbs 
same  year,  and  of  that  held  at  Paris  in  1625.  In  1628 
he  resigned  tbe  archbishopric  of  Toulouse  in  fkvor  of 
Charles  de  Monlchol,  his  former  preceptor,  and  derated 
himself  to  military  service.  At  his  death,  which  oo- 
curred  Sept.  28, 1639,  the  pope  retiised  him  the  honon 
customarily  rendered  to  a  cardinal,  under  tbe  pretext 
that  be  had  commanded  the  armiea  of  the  beretiea 
agunst  the  Cathdits.  Sec  Hoefer,  Kom.  Biog.  Gint- 
■alt,».y. 


LAVER 


659 


LEBLANC 


Zrfi:v0r  or  Rbobscbbatiok,  a  name  tomatiiiies  giTen 
in  the  eady  Christian  Church  to  baptism. 

Lavoxiia,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  a  protecting 
goddess  of  thieves  and  deceivers  at  Rome,  who  had  a 
temple  near  the  Lavemalian  g^te. 

La^  James,  a  Scotch  preUite,  was  promoted  to  the 
see  of  Orkney  in  1606,  where  he  continued  until  1616, 
when  he  was  translated  to  the  bishopric  of  Glasgow. 
See  Keith,  SeoUUh  Bithcps,  p.  227. 

Lawa  Ailek,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Laplanders, 
was  one  of  the  three  deities  who  are  constant  compan- 
ions of  the  sun. 

La^^kapatim,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  was  wor- 
shipped by  the  Poles  as  a  field-god,  and  his  favor  en- 
treated before  ploughing. 

Lawrence,  Francia  BfBngiliani,  D.D.,  a  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  clergyman,  was  a  graduate  of  St  Paul's 
College,  at  College  Point,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1852  of  the 
General Thoologiod  Seminary;  in  1868  he  was  assistant 
minister  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Communion,  New 
York  city,  and  remained  such  until  1869,  when  he  was 
chosen  rector,  and  continued  in  that  relation  until  his 
death,  June  11,  1879,  at  the  age  of  fifty-three  years. 
See  iVo<.  ^jpifc  ^  ^moiun:,  1880,  p.  171. 

Zrfiwrenoe,  Bamnel,  D.D.,  an  English  Presby- 
terian clergyman,  was  bom  at  Nantwich,  Cheshire,  in 
1693.  His  father  was  a  Dissenting  minister.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Glasgow  University,  became  tutor  in 
the  family  of  chief  baron  Ward,  and  settled  as  a  min- 
ister first  at  Newcastle,  StafToid,  in  1714.  In  1727  he 
became  pastor  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  but  his  health 
failing,  in  1783,  he  had  to  go  south,  and  settled  at 
MonKwell  Street,  London,  where  he  bad  a  crowded  au- 
dience for  many  years,  and  his  ministry  was  very  suc- 
cessful. He  was  learned,  serious,  cheerful,  modest  and 
polite,  zealous  and  pious.  He  died,  Oct.  1, 1760,  and 
was  interred  in  Dunbill  Fields.  See  Wilson,  Diiteniing 
Churchetf  iii,  208. 

Lawaon,  Gboroe,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scotch  divine, 
was  bom  Mareh  18,  1749,  near  West  Linton,  Peebles- 
shire. At  twenty  he  had  finished  his  studies,  and  was 
licensed  to  preach.  In  1771  he  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Beigher  Secession  Chureh  at  Selkirk,  where  he 
continued  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  For  more 
than  thirty  years  he  was  also  professor  of  divinity  in 
the  school  of  theology  at  the  same  place,  and  died  there 
Feb.  21, 1820.  He  was  a  man  of  marked  ability,  ex- 
tensive scholarship,  and  earnest  piety.  Dr.  Lawson 
published  many  volumes  of  Sermons  and  Lectures  ;  also 
Discourses  on  the  Whole  Book  of  £slhcr,  etc  (Edinb. 
1804, 12mo;  Lond.  1809,  l2mo) -.^Lectures  on  the  Whole 
Book  of  Ruthf  etc  (Edinb.  1805,  12mo)  :~£.edifres  on 
the  History  of  Joseph  (1807,  2  vols.  12mo)  i—ExposUion 
of  the  Book  of  Proverbs  (1821, 2  vols.  12mo;  posth.  pub. 
from  80  MS.  vols,  left  by  the  author).  See  Maclarlane, 
Ufe  (Edinb.  1861;  N.  Y.  1881). 

Itayxitz,  Frxkdricii,  a  famous  German  hymnolo- 
gist,  was  born  Jan.  80, 1808,  at  Nemmendorf,  in  Upper 
Franoonia.  He  studied  at  Erlangen,  was  in  1^7  preach- 
er in  Hirscblach,  and  died  at  Schwaningen,  near  Ans- 
pach,  in  1859.  He  is  the  author  of,  Kern  des  deutschen 
Kirehengesanges  (8d  ed.  Nordlingen,  1858-56)  i-^fMur- 
gisdke  GemrindegesSnge  (ISob) :  —  Geistliehe  Melodien 
meist  aus  dem  16.  und  17.  Jahrhunderi  (8d  ed.  Erlangen, 
1860)  :^Die  IMurgie  eines  voUstHndigen  Bauptgottes- 
dienstes  (1849).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  772 ;  Koch, 
Geschichte  des  deutschen  KirchenlsedeSf  Yiif  62  aq.  (B.P.) 

Iiasama,  Lavi,  a  Jewish  scholar,  was  bom  in  1822 
at  Filehne,  duchy  of  Posen.  He  studied  philosophy 
and  Oriental  languages  at  Berlin,  and  for  twenty-five 
years  was  rabbi  at  Prenzlau.  When  Dr.  L.  Frankel 
(q.  v.),  the  director  of  the  Jewish  nbbinical  seminary, 
died,  he  was  called  in  1876  as  his  successor.  Lazarus 
died  April  16, 1879.  He  was  a  great  Talmodist,  and  a 
dever  thinker.    In  1877  he  published  a  very  inter- 


esting brochure,  Zvr  CharahlerUUb  der  ttdmudisehm 
Ethik.    (RP.) 

Xiaxzarl,  DoNAxa    See  Brajcavtb. 

Le,  in  the  philosophical  system  of  Confucius  (q.  v.), 
is  the  ultimate  immaterial  element  of  the  universe  It 
is  the  absolute,  regarded  in  association  with  material 
essences,  and  manifesting  itself  in  virtue  of  such  asso- 
ciation as  the  cause  of  organization  and  order.  The 
spirit  of  man  is  strictly  of  one  substance  with  this  prin- 
ciple. The  Le,  therefore,  is  identical  with  the  Tai-ki, 
the  Great  Extreme.  Beyond  it,  as  the  highest  pinnacle 
of  heaven,  the  one  ultimate  power,  the  entity  without 
an  opposite,  no  human  thought  is  capable  of  soaring. 
*'The  absolute  is  like  a  stem  shooting  upwards;  it  is 
parted  into  twigs ;  it  puts  out  leaves  and  blossoms ;  forth 
it  springs  incessantly  until  its  fmit  is  fully  ripe;  yet 
even  then  the  power  of  reproduction  never  ceases  to  be 
latent  in  iL  The  vital  juice  is  there ;  and  so  the  abso- 
lute still  works  and  works  indefinitely.  Nothing  hin- 
dere  or  can  hinder  its  activity  until  the  fmits  have  all 
been  duly  ripened,  and  activity  gives  place  to  rest." 

Iieaofa,  Bkriah  N.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Middletown,Vt.,  April  28, 1801.  He  joined  the 
Chureh  in  1815,  and  was  ordained  in  October,  1826,  over 
the  Chureh  at  CorawalL  His  subsequent  pastorates 
were  in  Middlebury,  Fredonia,  Wyoming,  Hamilton,  and 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  in  Middletown,  Conn.  His  useful 
life  closed  Jan.  23, 1869.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encg- 
cfcp.p.676.    (J.CS.) 

Leavitt;  Jonathan,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Comish,  N.  H.,  OcU  21, 1800.  He 
was  educated  at  Kimball  Union  Academy,  graduated 
from  Amherst  College  in  1825,  and  was  a  member  of 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  for  two  years.  He  was 
ordained  an  evangelist  in  1828,  and  became  a  home 
missionary  in  Pendleton  and  Wilmington,  S.  C,  alter- 
nately; in  1830  was  temporary  supply  successively  in 
Lincolnton  and  Macon,  Ga.,  Westbrook,  Me.,  Atworth, 
N.  H.,  and  Waltbam,  Massi  He  was  acting-pastor  at 
Bedford  in  1835,  was  installed  in  1837,  and  remained 
until  1840,  when  he  was  next  installed  pastor  of  Rich- 
mond Street  Chureh,  Providence,  R.  I.  He  was  with* 
out  charge  from  1863  until  his  death,  at  Providence, 
Oct.  7, 1877.  See  Triau  Cat,  of  Andover  TheoL  Sem, 
1870,  p.  80.     (W.P.S.) 

Leavitt,  Joahna,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Heath,  Franklin  Co.,  Mass.,  Sept.  8, 1794^ 
He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1814,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1819.  He  soon  secured 
a  lucrative  practice  in  his  native  town,  and  afterwards 
in  Putney,  Vt,  but  left  it  to  enter  Yale  Divinity  School, 
where  he  graduated  in  1825.  The  same  year  he  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  C!ongregational  Chureh  in  Strat- 
ford, Conn.  After  a  highly  successful  pastorate  of  three 
yean  he  resigned  and  became  secretary  of  the  Seaman's 
Friend  Society,  and  editor  of  the  Sailor's  Magazine^ 
New  York  city.  In  1831  he  became  editor  of  the  New 
York  Evangelist!  in  1837  of  the  Emancipator f  in  1848 
managing  editor  of  the  Independent,  retaining  this  po- 
sition tiU  his  death,  which  occurred  Jan.  16, 1878,  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Dr.  Leavitt  was  a  man  of  great  suav- 
ity of  manner,  a  graceful  writer,  and  an  eloquent  speak- 
er. He  published,  Easg  Lessons  in  Beading  (1828)  :-— 
Christian  Lgre  (1881)  -.-^nd  a  series  of  Readers  (1847). 

Iieblano,  Guillaume,  a  French  prelate,  was  bora 
at  Alby  in  1561.  The  position  of  his  uncle,  a  distin- 
guished theologian  of  the  same  name,  aided  his  access 
to  ecclesiastical  honors.  Having  been  chamberlain 
to  pope  Sixtus  y,  he  was  appointed,  in  1588,  to  the 
buhopric  of  Veuce,  which  a  bull  of  Clement  Till  reu- 
nited, in  1591,  with  the  episcopal  see  of  Grasse.  This 
reunion,  which  the  chapter  of  Veuce  vigorously  repelled, 
became  to  Leblanc  a  gre^t  source  of  embarrassment  and 
litigation.  He  was  even  the  object  of  an  attempted 
aaussination,  and  songht  to  destroy  the  act  of  union  by 


LEBLANC 


660 


LE  COZ 


tbe  ptrlUment  of  Aix.  He  died  at  Aix,  Nov.  21, 1601. 
For  mention  of  hit  works,  see  Hoefer,  Nauv,  Biog,  GS- 
fUraUf  B.  r. 

Leblano  (de  Beaulieu),  Jean  Claude,  a  French 
prelate,  was  bom  in  Paris,  May  26, 1768.  After  being 
canon-regular  of  St.  Genevieve  before  the  Revolution, 
he  became,  in  1791,  constitutional  rector  of  the  parish 
of  St.  Genevieve,  and  subsequently  of  St.  l^tienne  du 
Mont.  He  was  chosen  archbishop  of  Kouen  on  the 
death '  of  Gratian ;  consecrated  Jan.  18, 1800,  at  Paris, 
and  held  in  his  metropolitan  church  a  council  of  the 
bishops  of  his  diocese  the  following  October.  In  1801 
he  assisted  at  the  national  council  held  at  Paris.  After 
the  sighing  of  the  Concordat,  he  gave  in  his  resigna- 
tion, and  in  1802  was  appointed  bishop  of  Soissons.  He 
established  a  seminary  in  his  episcopal  city.  Being 
invited,  in  1815,  to  be  present  at  a  reception  of  tbe 
emperor  after  bis  return  from  the  island  of  Elba,  Le- 
blanc  wrote  to  the  minister  to  give  assurance  of  his 
fidelity  to  Louis  XVIIL  This  declaration  was  pub- 
lished, and  tbe  bishop  of  Soissons  withdrew  to  England. 
The  return  of  the  king  recalled  him  to  his  diocese,  and 
in  1817  he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Aries,  re-estab- 
lished by  the  new  Concordat.  Having  resigned  in 
1622,  he  withdrew  to  the  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions 
at  Paris,  took  charge  of  the  Savoyards,  and  was  ap- 
pointed member  of  the  chapter  of  St.  Denis.  He  died 
July  13, 1826.    See  Hoefer,  liouv,  Biog,  GMrak^  s.  v. 

Iiebonah.  The  modem  site,  el-Lulbanf  is  laid 
down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  ten  miles  north  of  Beitin 
(Bethel),  and  ia  briefly  described  in  the  accompanying 
Memoirs  (ii,  286,  360)  as  well  as  by  Gu^rin  (^Samariaf 
ii,  112).  Five  pillars  still  remain  standing,  which  seem 
to  have  been  part  of  an  andent  chapel. 

Lebrecht,  FtJitCHTicGOTT  S.,  a  Jewish  scholar,  was 
bom  at  Memmelsdorf,  Bavaria,  in  1800.  He  made  bis 
Talmudical  studies  at  the  rabbinical  seminary  in  Pres- 
burg,  Hungary,  and  his  philological  at  Hidle,  under 
Gesenius.  In  1832  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  died, 
Oct  13, 1876.  Lebrecht  contributed  largely  to  the  Li- 
teratur-BUUt  det  Otients  (1841-44),  and  in  connection 
with  Biesenthal  edited  the  dictionary  of  David  Kimchi, 
called  Liber  Radicum.  Besides,  he  wrote  an  essay,  Hand- 
m^ri/ten  und  ertte  A  usgaben  des  babtflonischen  TalmudSf 
published  in  YKtMcnfcAq/l/icsAe  BldNer  aus  der  V'eitel 
£phraimischen  LehranttaU  in  Berlin  (1862),  and  Die 
8UuU  BetheTf  in  MagazinJUr  die  WiuenMchaft  des  Ju- 
dfinthunu  (Berlin,  1876),  p.  27-40,  77-93.  See  FQrst^ 
BiM.  .Aid  ii,  226  sq.    (&  P.) 

Iiebnm,  Charles,  an  eminent  French  painter,  was 
bom  in  Paris,  March  22, 1619.  In  1662  he  commenced 
his  great  work.  The  BoHUm  o/  AlexandtTf  which  gained 
him  a  great  reputation.  In  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame 
are  two  of  his  most  celebrated  pictures.  The  Stoning  of 
St,  Stqthen,  tokd  The  Marhfrdom  of  St.  Andrew,  He 
died  in  Paris,  Feb.  12, 1690.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog. 
G^nirale,  s.  v.;  Spooner,  Biog.  UitL  of  the  Fine  Art*, 
a.  V. 

Lebmn,  Jean  Baptiate  (suroamed  Ikimarett), 
a  French  scholar,  was  bora  at  Kouen,  and  partly  edu- 
cated at  Port  RoyaL  He  labored  in  different  dioceses, 
and  died  at  Orleans,  March  19,  1731,  never  having 
been  willing  to  proceed  to  a  higher  order  than  that  of 
aoolyth.  He  left  an  edition  (the  second)  of  the  Lstin 
work  of  John,  bishop  of  Avranches,  De  Divinis  Officiis 
(Rouen,  1679, 12mo) :— An  edition  of  St.  PauUnttt,  with 
notes,  etc  (Paris,  1686) : — A  Concordance  of  the  Books 
of  Kings  cmd  Chronides  (Lat.) : — Le  Voyage  LUurgique 
de  France,  published  under  the  name  of  the  Sieur  de 
MolSon  (Paris,  1718, 8vo)  .—The  Breviaries  of  Orleans 
and  Nevers  :--^actaniutSf  the  edition  which  passed  in 
lh|S.  to  his  brother,  a  bookseller  at  Rouen,  and  from  him 
to  Langiet  du  Fresnoy,  who  published  it  (2  vols.  4to). 
He  was  working  at  a  new  edition  of  the  Martyrologg 
of  Usuardus  when  he  was  put  into  tbe  Bastile,  where 
he  regained  five  years.    SiehuidQn,Eccks,Di€t,§,r, 


lie  Camilfl^  J^tibmitb,  a  French  prelate  and  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Paris,  Nov.  24, 16i32,  of  an  andent 
family  in  the  magistracy.  He  became  doctor  of  the 
Sorbonne  in  1660,  and  almoner  of  the  king,  Louis  XIV, 
while  still  a  minor.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Greno- 
ble in  1671,  and  from  that  time  a  great  change  took  place 
in  his  life.  He  was  indulgent  to  the  faults  of  others,  and 
gave  an  example  of  charity,  modeaty,  and  piety.  In 
1686  Louis  XIV  demanded  the  hat  of  the  cardinal  for 
M.  de  Harlay,  archbishop  of  Paris.  Innocent  XI  not 
liking  this  prelate,  sent  the  Roman  purple  to  Le  Camus. 
This  irritated  Louis  XIV,  and  he  called  for  the  new 
cardinal,  wishing  to  reproach  him,  but  the  bishop  of 
Grenoble  disarmed  him  by  hia  pleasantry.  Le  Camus 
left  all  his  goods  to  the  poor  of  bis  diooeee.  He  found- 
ed two  seminaries,  one  at  Grenoble,  the  other  at  St 
Martin  de  Misere,  and  several  establishmenta  of  charity. 
He  died  at  Grenoble,  Sept.  12, 1707.  For  mention  of  hia 
works,  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GSdrale,  s.  v. 

Lecanomanoy,  a  speciea  of  divination  (q.  v.),  per- 
formed by  means  of  a  basin,  with  wedges  of  gold  or 
silver  marked  with  certain  characters.  The  wedges 
were  suspended  over  the  water,  and  the  dsemon  formal- 
ly invoked,  when  he  gave  the  response  in  a  low  biasing 
sound  passing  through  tbe  water. 

Leoerf  de  la  VieviUe,  Phiuppb,  a  French  Bene- 
dictine, who  died  Biareh  11, 1748,  is  the  author  of,  Bi» 
bUotheque  Histovique  et  Critigue  des  A  vteurs  de  la  Con^ 
gregation  de  Saint^Maur  (Hague,  1726)  i—D^fense  de  la 
Bibliothequej  etc  (Paris,  1727)  i—ffistoire  de  la  ConsH- 
tuiion  UmgenUus,  en  ee  gu*  Regards  la  Congregation  de 
Saint-Maw  (Utrecht,  1726).  See  J&cher,  A  Ugewtnms 
Gelehrten-LeseikoUf  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Leob,  John,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  elected  to  the 
bishopric  of  Dunkeld,  Scotland,  in  1309,  and  was  canon 
of  the  Church.  In  1810  he  was  promoted  to  the  see  of 
Dublin.  In  1812  he  was  constituted  lord  treasurer  of 
Ifeland.  He  died  Aug.  10,.1813.  See  D*Alton,  ifemotra 
of  the  Archbishops  ofDubUn,  p.  120. 

Le  Courrayer,  Pierre  Fram^ois,  a  French  the- 
ologian, was  bom  at  Rouen  in  1681.  At  the  age  of 
sixteen  he  was  admitted  to  the  congregation  of  Sl 
Genevieve,  and  soon  he  instructed  there  in  philosophy 
and  theology,  was  canon  in  1701,  and  librarian  in  1711. 
A  dissertation  which  he  published  at  Brussels  in  1728, 
under  the  title  Sur  la  VdUditi  des  Ordinations  des  An- 
glais, csMed  forth  the  opposition  of  Gervaise,Hardouin, 
and  Lequien,  and  an  assembly  of  twenty-two  bishops 
who  met  at  SL  Germain-des-Pr^s  condemned  the  work, 
together  with  Le  Courrayer's  rejoinder  to- his  opponent. 
Finally  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  abbot  of  St. 
Genevieve  and  cardinal  Noailles;  but  about  the  same 
time  the  Oxford  University  made  him  doctor  of  theo- 
logy. He  intended  to  write  against  the  cardinal ;  but, 
afraid  of  being  imprisoned,  went  to  England,  where  he 
was  received  by  archbishop  Wake  of  Otntetbury.  Le 
Courrayer  died  at  London  in  1776.  He  published  a 
French  translation  of  Sarpi's  History  of  the  Cotmeil  of 
Trent,  with  notes  (London,  1736,  2  vols.).  See  La 
France  Protestemte;  Nicrologes  des  Hommes  CMkbrcM; 
Lichtenberger,  Enc^fdop,  des  Sciences  BdigieMses,  s.  v. 
(a  P.) 

lie  Cob,  Clauds,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Plounevez  Parzay,  Brittany,  Sept.  2, 1740.  He  pursoed 
his  studies  at  the  College  of  Quimper,  and  was  a  pro- 
fessor there  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution.  In  1791  he 
was  elected  constitutional  bishop  of  the  department  of 
Ille-et-Yilaine,  and  the  same  year  deputy  at  the  legis- 
lative assembly.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror  he  waa 
imprisoned  and  sent  to  Mont  Michel,  where  he  re- 
mained fourteen  months.  Obtaining  his  liberty  in 
1795,  he  resnmed  his  episcopal  duties,  and  adhered  to 
tbe  encyclicals  published  by  the  synod  of  the  conatito- 
tional  bishops  reunited  at  Paris.  Le  Cos  presided  over 
the  national  council  of  tbe  same  bishops,  held  at  the 
capitol  from  Aug.  16, 1797,  to  Nov.  12  of  the  same  year* 


LED 


del 


LE66E 


In  1799  he  aaembled  a  synod  at  Rennes,  bot  the  prietti 
of  his  diocese  did  not  all  recognise  his  authority.  Being 
called  to  the  presidency  of  the  coondl  of  1801,  be  op- 
posed the  project  of  a  French  sacramentarian.  At  the 
time  of  the  Concordat  of  the  first  consul  with  the  pope, 
Le  Cos  resigned,  and  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Be- 
san^on.  In  1804  he  went  to  Paris  to  visit  the  pope, 
and  after  some  dtiflcalties  signed  an  article  of  adhesion 
and  submission  to  the  briefs  of  the  holy  father.  He 
died  at  YiUevieux,  near  Lons  le  Saulnier,  May  8, 1816, 
leaving  a  namber  of  works,  for  mention  of  which  see 
'  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Bioff.  CMrukf  s.  v. 

ZiOd  (or  Leda),  in  Slavonic  mythology,  is  the  god 
of  war;  also  among  the  Russians.  He  appears  armed 
with  sword  and  shield,  a  helmet  on  his  head,  and  a 
spear  in  his  hand. 

Iteding,  in  Norse  mythology',  is  the  chain  with 
which  the  wolf  Fenris  was  chaiuedi. 

Ziee,  Henry  'Waahijigtoxi,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Ham- 
den,  Conn.,  July  26, 1815.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in 
1838;  becsime  rector  at  Springfield,  Masn,  in  1840 ;  and 
in  1848  of  St.  Lulce*s  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  where  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Iowa,  Oct.  18, 1854.  His  epis- 
copal residence  was  at  Davenport.  Griswold  College, 
located  in  that  place,  became  the  object  of  his  special 
care.  He  died  Sept.  26, 1874.  ^tt  Prot.  Epiae,  Almanac, 
1875,  p.  144. 

Lee,  Riohard  Henry,  LL.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  rector  of  Trinity,  Wash- 
ington, Pa.,  died  at  that  place,  Jan.  8, 1865,  aged  sev- 
enty-five years.  For  many  years  he  was  professor  in 
Washington  College.  See  Amer,  Quar,  Church  Rtv. 
April,  1866,  p.  140. 

Lee,  Samnel,  P.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  London,  England,  in  1625.  From  his  fa- 
ther, Samuel  Lee,  he  inherited  a  large  estate.  After 
remaining  some  time  at  St.  Paul's  school,  he  went,  in 
1640,  to  Oxford,  and  continued  his  studies  there  until 
1648,  when  he  received  the  degree  of  M.A.  Soon  after 
he  was  appointed  to  a  fellowship  in  Wadham  College, 
and  became  proctor  of  the  university  in  1656.  At  that 
time  he  was  a  lecturer  in  Great  St.  Helen's  Church  in 
London.  In  1677  he  became  associated  with  the  cele- 
brated Theophilus  Gale,  as  minister  in  a  nonconforming 
congregation  in  Holbom.  In  September,  1679,  he  was 
leaching  at  Bignel,  in  Oxfordshire^  where  he  remained 
for  some  time.  Afterwards,  for  several  years,  he  was 
pastor  of  an  Independent  Church  at  Newington  Green. 
Although  strongly  advised  to  enter  the  Established 
Church,  conscientious  scruples  forbade  it.  In  1686  he 
landed  in  New  England,  and  was  employed  to  preach 
in  Bristol,  R.  I.  The  next  year,  in  May,  he  was  chosen 
pastor  of  the  newly  organized  Cli  u  rch  there.  As  religious 
toleration  began  to  prevail  in  England,  he  resolved  to 
return  thither.  Resigning  his  pastorate  in  Bristol,  he 
set  sail  in  1691,  but  was  captured  by  a  French  privateer 
and  carried  to  St.  Malo,  where  he  died  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  same  year.  It  is  said  of  him  that  there  was 
scarcely  a  department  of  knowledge  with  which  he  was 
not  familiar.  At  one  time  he  devoted  a  great  deal  of 
attention  to  astrology,  but  disapproved  of  it  afterwards, 
and  bumed  a  hundred  boolcs  relating  to  it.  His  benev- 
olence was  manifested  in  frequent  gifts  to  the  poor. 
Besides  a  number  of  sermons,  he  published  several  books. 
His  Triumph  of  Mercy  was  popular  in  New  England, 
and  was  reprinted  in  Boston  in  1718.  Another  work, 
Orbis  Miracuhtm ;  or.  The  Temple  of  Solomon  Portrayed 
by  Scripture  Light  (1659,  foL),  printed  at  the  expense 
of  the  University  of  Oxford,  was  much  admired.  An- 
other, De  £xeidio  Anti-Chriati  (eod.  fol.),  was  a  study 
of  popery.  See  Sprague,  AnrulU  of  the  Amer»  Pulpit  ^ 
W209. 

Lee,  'WiUiam,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  born  in 
Inland  in  1815.    He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 


Dublin,  where  he  was  dected  fellow  in  1839,  in  1857 
was  appointed  professor  6f  ecclesiastical  history,  and  in 
1868  lecturer  on  divinity.  In  1874  be  was  archdeacon 
of  Dublin,  and  he  died  Ifay  11, 1888.  He  is  the  author 
especially  of,  Introductory  Lecturea  on  Ecdetiattioal  Hie* 
tory  (1858)  '.r—ExambuUion  of  Remarks  of  Baden  Powell 
(1861);  but  is  best  known  by  his  Lecturea  on  the  /n- 
quiration  of  the  Holy  Scripturea  (1852). 

Leeohman,  John,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  Baptist  minis- 
ter and  missionary,  was  bom  at  Glasgow,  Sept.  2, 1808, 
and  became  a  Baptist  in  1820.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Hatdane  Institution,  Grantown,  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  in  the  Baptist  Ojllege,  Bristol,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow.  He  was  ordained  a  missionary  to 
India  at  Edinburgh,  July  8, 1882,  and  sailed  from  liver- 
pool  on  the  25th  for  the  mission  station  at  Serampore. 
He  began  work  as  tutor  in  the  college,  and  preacher  of 
the  gospel.  In  1885  he  was  ordained  co-pastor  of  the 
Church  at  Serampore.  In  1837  he  saUed  for  England 
for  the  benefit  of  his  wife's  health,  and  to  awaken  great- 
er interest  at  home  in  the  mission  in  India.  In  1838 
he  was  induced  to  settle  as  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Ir- 
vine, Ayrshire.  He  removed  to  London  in  1848  as  pas- 
tor of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Hammersmith,  In  1850  he 
was  sent,  with  the  Rev.  Joshua  Russell,  as  a  deputation 
to  India  and  Ceylon,  in  which  they  spent  tome  four 
months.  He  resigned  his  pastorate  in  1868,  and  re- 
moved to  Bath  for  rest  and  recuperation.  He  after- 
wards  engaged  in  various  public  labors,  and  at  the  close 
of  1867  accepted  the  pastorate  at  Kensington  Chapel. 
He  ceased  to  preach  in  1870,  and  died  March  16, 1874. 
See  (Lond.)  Bapi.  ffand-Book,  1875,  p.  284. 

Leeohman.  'William,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  divine,  was 
bom  in  1706,  educated  at  the  Univeiaity  of  Edinburgh, 
licensed  to  preach  in  1781,  ordained  minister  of  Beith 
in  1786,  elected  professor  of  theology  in  the  University 
of  Glasgow  about  1743,  principal  in  1761,  and  died  Dec 
8, 1785.  He  was  held  in  high  estimation  by  his  breth- 
ren in  the  ministry,  having  been  elected  by  them,  in 
1740,  to  the  moderatorship  of  the  Synod  of  Glasgow  and 
Ayr,  and  in  1757  of  the  General  Assembly.  He  was  a 
ripe  theologian,  a  powerful  preacher,  and  a  warm  advo- 
cate of  all  institutions  of  a  worthy  character.  A  col- 
lective edition  of  his  sermons,  with  a  life  of  the  author, 
by  James  Wodrow,  D.D.,  was  published  (Lond.  1789, 
2* vols.  8vo ;  new  ed.  1816, 2  vols.  8vo).  See  The  (Lond.) 
Christian  Observer,  Dec.  1812,  p.  758 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Le  Fanchenr,  Michel,  one  of  the  most  famous 
Protestant  preachers  of  the  17th  century,  was  bora  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Geneva  in  1585.  In  1607  he  was 
ordained,  and  appointed  pastor  at  Annonay.  His  fame 
as  a  pulpit  orator  was  soon  made  known,  and  the  au- 
thorities of  Geneva  wished  him  to  come  there.-  But  Le 
Faucheur  declined,  and  in  1609  went  to  Paris.  In 
1612  he  was  called  to  Montpellier,  and  at  different  pe- 
riods represented  the  churches  of  Languedoc  at  the 
synodical  assemblies.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1657,  leav- 
ing, Sermons: — Traiti  de  F Action  de  tOraieur  (Paris, 
1657)  i^Traiti  de  la  Cene  du  Seigneur  (Geneva,  1635). 
See  Bayle,  Diet,  Bistorique;  Haag,  La  France  Pro* 
teatanie,  vi ;  lichtenberger,  Encgdop,  dea  Sdenoea  Be- 
UgieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Is6ger,  Saint,    See  Leodegar. 

Legge,  George,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Huntley,  Aberdeenshire,  Oct,  10, 
1802.  He  became  a  student  of  King's  College,  Aber- 
deen, in  1819,  completing  his  curriculum  in  1825,  and 
receiving  his  degree  of  M«A. ;  was  converted  in  1828 ; 
entered  Highbury  College  to  prepare  for  the  ministry 
in  1830,  and  in  1832  became  pastor  at  Bristol.  In  1835 
he  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  Gallowtree-gate 
Chapel,  Leicester,  and  in  that  capacity  continued  till 
his  death,  Jan.  24, 1861.  In  1859  he  was  chairman  of 
the  Congregational  Union.  Dr.  Legge  was  a  man  of 
noble  qualities,  endowed  with  a  strong  intellect,  a  glow- 


LEGOBIEN 


862 


LEJAY 


ing  imagination,  a  loving  heart,  and  great  constancy 
of  porpose.  His  principal  pablications  were,  PrindpUa 
of  Nonconfomntif :  —  Christiamty  in  Harmomf  vtith 
MaxC»  Nature^  Prueni  and  Progreuive :  —  The  Range 
and  Limitations  of  Human  Knowledge^  besides  several 
single  sermons.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year  "book,  1862, 
p.  247. 

Legobien,  Charles,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  bom  at 
Su  Malo  in  1653;  in  1671  he  entered  the  society  of 
Jesus;  shortly  after  taught  at  Tours;  then  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  became  first  secretary,  and  afterwards 
superintendent,  of  the  missions  of  his  order  to  China. 
He  published,  about  1702,  a  collection  of  letters  from 
missionaries  in  China,  etc.,  entitled  Leilret  Itdifaniet  et 
CurieuaeSy  J^criies  des  Mitnona  Etrangeret.  He  died 
March  5, 1708,  at  Paris.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  GM- 
rale,  s.  r. 

Le  Gtouvemeur,  Guillavme,  a  French  prelate, 
was  bom  at  SL  Malo.  After  being  canon,  then  dean 
of  the  cathedral  of  his  native  place,  he  became  bishop, 
Jan.  29, 1610.  He  assisted  as  deputy  of  the  clergy  to 
the  states  of  Brittany  in  1614,  founded  in  his  diocese 
several  establishments  of  charity  and  religion,  and  oc- 
cupied his  time  in  collecting  the  ecclesiastical  regula- 
tions laid  down  by  his  predecessors.  He  died  at  St. 
Malo,  June  25, 1680.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale, 
s.  V. 

Legras,  Lomss  dk  Marillac,  Madame,  foundress 
of  an  order  of  nuns,  was  bom  at  Paris,  Aug.  12, 1591. 
She  was  daughter  of  Louis  de  Marillac,  brother  of 
the  celebrated  guard  of  the  seals,  and  of  the  marshal 
of  this  name.  In  1618  she  married  Antoine  Legras, 
secretary  of  the  queen  Marie  de  Medicis.  Being  even- 
tually left  a  widow,  she  devoted  herself  entirely  to  re- 
ligious matten.  In  connection  with  Vincent  de  Paul 
she  bore  an  important  part  in  the  establishment  of  va- 
rious charitable  institutions.  They  founded  the  insti- 
tution of  the  sisters  of  charity  called  Steurs  Grisett  on 
account  of  the  color  of  their  costume.  Placed  at  the 
head  of  a  community  of  this  order  at  Paris,  madame 
Legras  devoted  herself  with  great  self-  abnegation  to 
the  care  of  the  sick.  She  aided  Vincent  de  Paul  in 
bestowing  large  charities  in  various  ways.  Her  death 
occurred  at  Paris  in  1662.  See  Hoefer,  A^otiv.  Biog,  GS- 
nirale,  s.  v. 

Le  Hennuyer,  Jean,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom 
in  1497  at  St.  Quentin.  He  was  successively  chief 
almoner  of  Henry  11,  Francis  II,  Charles  IX,  and  Henry 
UI.  Appointed  bishop  of  Lodeve  in  1557,  and  after- 
wards of  Lisieux,  he  was  spiritual  director  of  Catherine 
de  Medicis  and  of  Diane  de  Poictiers.  In  this  position 
he  always  showed  a  disposition  to  persecute  the  Prot- 
estants, although  some  acts  to  the  contrary  have  been 
falsely  attributed  to  biro.  He  died  in  1578.  See  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Ziebi.    On  the  identification  of  this  site  Lieut  Con- 

der  remarks  as  follows  (Tent  Work  in  Palettine,  i,276) : 

"  A  little  way  north-west  nf  Zoreah,  seven  miles  from 
Beit  'At4b.  Is  a  low  hill,  on  the  slope  of  which  nre  springs 
called  'Ayan  Abu  MehArib.  or  the  ^  fountains  of  the  place 
of  battles.'  Close  by  is  a  little  Moslem  chapel,  dedicntcd 
to  8beik  I^edhlr,  or  *the  Nazarite  chief;'  and,  higher 
up,  a  min  with  the  extraordinary  title  Ism  Allah--' the 
name  of  Qod.*  The  Nnzarite  chief  is  probably  Samson, 
whose  memory  Is  so  well  preserved  iu  this  small  district^ 
and  the  place  is  perhaps  connected  with  a  tradition  or 
one  of  his  exploits.  The  Ism  Allah  is  possibly  a  cormp- 
tton  of  Esro'a  Allah— *  God  heard'— in  which  case  the  in- 
cident intended  might  be  the  battle  of  Ramath  Lehl. 
Finally,  we  were  informed  by  a  native  of  the  place  that 
the  springs  were  sometimes  called  *Ay&n  KAra,  in  which 
name  we  should  recognise  easily  the  En  hak>Kore,  or 
'fonutaln  of  the  crier '  (Judges  xv,  19).  To  sav  that  this 
spot  certainly  represents  Ramath  Lehi— *  the  hill  of  the 
Jaw-bone  '—would  be  too  bold.  It  seems,  however,  clear 
that  a  tradition  of  one  of  Samson's  exploits  lingers  here ; 
the  position  is  appropriate  for  the  scene  of  the  slanghter 
with  the  Jaw-bone,  and  we  have  not  socceeded  in  fluding 
any  other  likely  site." 

Lehmanji,  Wxlhelm  Frikdrich,  a  Lutheran  min- 


ister, was  bom  Oct.  16, 1820,  in  Wttrtemberg.  In  1824 
he  came  with  his  parenu  to  America.  He  studied  at 
the  theological  seminaries  of  Colambus,  O.,  and  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  and  was  for  some  time  preacher  at  Som- 
erset, O.  In  1846  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
Univenity  at  Columbus.  He  died  Dec.  1, 1880.  For 
many  years  he  was  president  of  the  Lutheran  Synod  of 
Ohio.     (RP.) 

Lehmiw;  Adam  Toeodor  Albsrt  Franz,  a  La- 
theran  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Soest,  Dea 
2, 1777.  He  entered  the  ministry  in  1801,  was  in  1819  ^ 
dean  and  pastor  at  Anspach,  and  died  Aug.  18, 1887, 
doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  Die  Lehre  von  der  Fier- 
#^Afiufi^  des  Menechen  mit  GoU  durch  Christum  (Sulz- 
bach,  1821) :  —  Uder  die  Taufe  (Heiddbeig,  1807)  :— 
Aufaatxe  theologischen  Inhalts,  etc.  (1885):— X>w  Rechi" 
fstiigungslehre  der  evangditchen  Kirche  in  ihren  Haxipt-' 
momaden  dargesUUt  (1836).  See  Winer,  Handbuek  der 
theoL  LU,  i,  489,  450;  ii,  19,  65,  75,  100,  166;  Zuchold, 
BUd,  TheoL  U,  780  sq.     (R  P.) 

Leib  Olmai,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Laplanders, 
was  a  deity  of  the  atmosphere,  who  made  the  weather 
favorable  to  hunting  and  fishing. 

Leiffthus^  in  Norse  mythology,  was  one  of  the 
rivers  of  hell,  which  take  their  origin  from  the  spring 
Hwergelmer. 

Lelghton,  Hbnrt  DB,a  Scotch  prelate,  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Moray,  March  8, 1414,  where  he  con- 
tinued ten  years.  In  1424  he  was  translated  to  the  see 
of  Aberdeen.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent 
to  London  for  negotiating  the  ransom  of  king  James  I, 
and  returned  home  with  him.  He  died  in  1441.  See 
Keith,  ScoUiah  Biahopa,  p.  118-142. 

Leimburg,  Joiianm  Lgiss  von,  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1821.  For  tome  time 
dean  at  Bregenz  and  Innsbr&ck,  he  was  in  1879  ap- 
pointed prince -bishop  of  Brizen,  and  died  April  ^ 
1884.  He  was  a  man  of  peace,  and  tolerant  against 
non-Catholics,     (a  P.) 

Leinbaofa,  Thomas  Hartman,  an  earnest  and  suc- 
cessful minister  of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  waa 
bom  ip  Berks  County,  Pa.,  Jan.  18, 1802.  He  studied 
privately  under  the  Rev.  Dr.  F.  L,  Herman;  waa  li- 
censed and  ordained  in  1822.  After  serving  for  several 
years  a  few  congregations,  located  partly  in  Lancaster 
and  partly  in  Berks  County,  he  accepted  a  call  Jiom 
the  Tulpehocken  charge,  where  he  concluded  his  long 
and  useful  ministry,  March  81, 1864.  Father  Leinbach 
was  celebrated  as  a  **catechiB^"  which  eminently  fitted 
him  for  the  particular  field  to  which  he  was  called.  He 
waa  besides  a  very  able,  earnest,  and  effecdve  preacher, 
and  a  most  conscientious  and  aucoessful  pastor.  See 
Harbaugh,  Faihera  of  the  Germ,  Ref  CAiircft,  iv,  175. 
(D.  Y.  H.) 

Leiptr,  in  Norse  mythology,  was  one  of  the  rivers 
of  hell,  which  have  their  source  in  the  spring  Hwer^ 
gelmer. 

Loire.    See  Lethra. 

Loiter,  Samuel  B.,  D.D.,  a  German  Reformed  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Leitenburg,  Md.,  April  19,  1809. 
His  literary  and  theological  training  he  received  at 
York,  Pa.  He  was  licensed  and  ordained  by  the  Mary> 
land  Classis  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  1885;  imme- 
diately left  for  the  West,  and  settled  in  Ohio,  where 
he  successfully  exercised  his  ministry  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  sute.  Dr.  Leiter  was  a  man  of  good  nat- 
ural parts  and  extensive  requirements,  which  be  con- 
scientiously employed  in  the  service  of  his  Master.  He 
died  March  81, 1883.    (D.  Y.  H.) 

Lojay  (Lat.  Laiua\  Claude,  one  of  the  fathers  of 
the  Jesuit  order,  was  bom  at  Alse,  in  Fancigny,  in  the 
diocese  of  Geneva,  about  1505.  He  commenced  his 
studies  at  the  College  of  La  Roche,  and  completed  them 
at  Paris.    He  allied  himself  in  friendship  with  Peter 


LE-EE 


669 


LE  NEVE 


Fture,  whieh,  In  1685,  led  to  bii  becoming  a  Jesuit,  and 
n  great  help  to  hia  oider.  In  1645  he  aesiated  at  the 
Cooncil  of  Trent.  He  afterwards  directed  the  College 
of  Botilogne,  where  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
theology.  He  then  returned  to  Germanyi  taught  at 
Ingolflt&dt,  then  at  Vienna,  in  June,  1661,  where  he 
died,  Aug.  €,  1562.  He  composed  various  worlu,  which 
were  only  published  in  the  Sptadum  PrmauU*  ex  Sacra 
SeripturiBf  Catumum  et  Doetorun  Verbis  (IngoUtUdr, 
1626,  and  in  voL  xvii  of  the  GSuvret  of  P.  Gretser,  liat- 
uibou,  1741).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GtniraU^  a.  v. 

Le-ke,  one  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Chinese.  It 
b  the  acknowledged  guide  to  rites  and  manners,  pre- 
scribing niles  for  all  the  relationships  of  life,  and  the 
established  orders  of  society.    See  CoMFUCtua. 

Lekkio^  in  Finnish  mythology,  was  an  evil  spirit 
of  the  woods,  who  appeared  in  various  frightful  forms. 

Iiel,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  was  the  god  of  love,  son 
of  Lada,  the  goddess  of  beauty,  and  brother  of  Did  and 
FoleL 

Lelli  (8a%n£)y  Camillo  db,  founder  of  an  order  of 
Italian  friars,  was  bom  at  Bucchianioo,  May  26, 1660. 
An  uloer,  resulting  from  his  early  vices,  led  him  to  en- 
ter a  oonvenL  The  Franciscans  rejected  him,  and  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  received  at  the  hospital 
of  St.  James.  He  speedily  recovered,  and  was  altera 
wards  expelled  for  misconduct.  In  1669  he  enrolled 
himself  among  the  troops  of  Venice,  and  after  the  dose 
of  the  war,  having  been  dismissed,  hired  out  to  the 
Capuchins  of  Manfredoniow  He  wished  to  become  a 
monk,  but  was  repulsed  on  all  sidea  on  account  of  his 
infirmity.  He  returned  to  the  hospital  of  St.  James, 
where  this  time  his  good  conduct  obtained  for  him  the 
position  of  steward.  Thinking  that  the  diseases  even 
then  were  not  well  treated  at  the  hospitals,  he  completed 
his  studies  among  the  Jesuits,  was  made  priest,  and 
founded  in  1684  the  congregation  of  Clercs  Regulars,  es- 
pecially intended  for  the  care  of  the  sick.  This  con- 
gregation, being  approved  by  Sixtus  V,  March  8, 1586, 
was  established  as  a  religious  order  by  Gregory  XIV, 
Oct.  15, 1591.  St.  Camillo  de  Lelli  resigned  his  super- 
vision in  1607,  and  was  beatified  bv  Benedict  XVI  in 
1742.  He  died  at  Rome,  July  14, 1614.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  GhihaU^  s.  v. 

Le  Maire,  Guillaumb,  a  French  prelate,  was  chosen 
as  successor  to  Nicolas  Gellent,  bishop  of  Angers,  having 
been  first  chaplain  and  penitentiary  of  the  cathedral 
The  newly  elected  bishop  went  to  Vincennes,  May  16, 
1291,  and  took  the  oath  to  king  Philip.  Some  years 
later  he  excommunicated  David  de  Lesmaisuns,  baili- 
wick of  Angers,  and  his  sub-bailiwick,  Darien  l^doyn. 
The  difficulty  was  concerning  the  ecclesiastical  immu- 
nities. In  the  unfortunate  condition  of  his  treasury  the 
king  objected  to  the  subsidies,  and  his  oflkers  levied 
upon  the  goods  of  the  Church  as  well  as  others.  This 
was  opposed  by  Guillaume  Le  Maire,  together  with  oth- 
er bishops.  He  argued  this  question  against  the  ooant 
of  Anjou.  The  whole  administration  of  Le  Maire  was 
laborious  and  discordant.  He  died  May  18, 1814,  leav- 
ing a  historical  work,  for  mention  of  which  see  Hoefer, 
Nom.  Biog.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Le  Maitre,  Aktoihv,  a  French  writer,  brother  of 
Isaac  Louis  le  Maitre  (better  known  as  de  Sacg^^  was 
bom  at  Paris  in  1607.  For  a  time  he  practiaed  law  with 
great  success,  but  abandoned  his  profession  and  joined 
the  recluses  of  Port  Royal.  He  died  Nov.  4, 1658.  Le 
Maitre  is  the  author  of,  Vif.  de  Sttint  Bernard: — VAu- 
mAne.Chriiienne  (Paris,  1658,  2  vols.):— Fief  de  S,  Ig- 
nace,  de  S.  Jean  Climaquty  et  dee  Martyre  di  Lgo%  in  the 
Viee  det  Samtt,  published  by  Du  F6ss^  (1685) ;  from  the 
Latin  he  translated  Chrysostom's  treatise,  De  Sacerdo^ 
Ho,  See  CUmencet,  IJitt,  GMrale  de  PorURogait  vol 
ii  and  iii ;  Besoigne,  IJisfoire  de  PAbbage  de  Port-Rogal, 
vol.  iii;  De  Valine,  Antoim  k  Maitre  et  see  ContempO' 
rathM;  Sapey,  Gviliaume  du  Voir  et  Anioim  le  Maitre; 


licbtenbcrger,  JSnegdqp,  da  Sdeneu  Xeiigieiueif  9,  v, 
(a  P.) 

Le  BCire.    SeeMuLSva. 

Lemke,  Hkinrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Dec.  81, 1601,  at  Lubeck.  He  studied 
at  different  universities,  and  died  at  Bergen,  Norway, 
March  7, 1674.  He  wrote,  Vindicatio  Librorum  Apo^ 
lyphorum  Vettrit  et  Noti  Tettamenti: — VindiceUio  Ith- 
camati  Vert  Meeeia  Promisti  ex  7%ilmud  et  Rabbino* 
rum  SeripHM  Desumta : — Schola  Papistarum  ReformaUu 
See  Moller,  Citnbria  Liiierata;  Jocher,  Allgemeiaet  Go- 
lehrten^Lexihorij  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Lemolne,  Jkam,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Cressy,  in  the  18th  century.  Having  completed  bis 
studies,  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  at  the 
University  of  Paris,  and  made  a  journey  to  Rome,  where 
he  was  well  received,  and  appointed  auditor  of  the  rota. 
His  commentary  upon  the  sixth  book  of  the  JDecretalet, 
which  he  wrote  at  Rome,  gained  for  him  the  title  of 
cardinaL  Boniface  VIII  appointed  him  legate  to  France 
in  1802,  and  in  this  position  he  strove  to  re-establish 
peace  between  Philip  the  Fair  and  the  holy  aee.  He 
acted  with  so  much  discretion  that  he  won  the  esteem 
of  the  king  without  losing  his  credit  with  the  pope. 
He  assisted,  in  1805,  at  the  conclave  held  at  Perugia 
for  the  election  of  Clement  V,  and  accompanied  that 
pontiff  to  Avignon,  where  he  died,  Aug.  22, 1818.  His 
body  was  borne  to  Paris,  and  interred  in  the  church  of 
the  college  which  he  had  founded  in  1808  in  that  city, 
on  Rue  St.  Victor,  upon  the  site  of  the  houses,  chapel, 
and  cemetery  which  had  belonged  to  the  Augustinian 
monks. 

His  brother,  AMD&tf  Luioihb,  bishop  of  Noyon,  aided 
him  in  the  founding  of  the  college  which  bore  the  name 
of  the  cardinal  Lcmoine.  He  died  in  1315,  and  the  two 
brothers  were  laid  in  the  same  tomb.  See  Hoefer,  Nottv, 
Biog.  Genirale,  s.  v. 

LeiiaBii%  JoHAKM  Cascutus,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1578,  at  Lenna,  near  Upaila. 
He  studied' at  Wittenberg,  Helmstadt,  and  Rostock,  waa 
professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Upsala,  and  died 
April  25, 1669,  doctor  of  theology,  archbishop  of  Swe- 
den, and  pro-chancellor  of  the  Upsala  Academy.  He 
wrote,  Comm,  in  Evangelium  Johannis : — Comm.  in  Lu- 
ea  Acta  Apottolorum:—Contm.  in  Canomcas  Epistolas 
Jacoibi,  Petrif  Johannis  et  Juda :  —  Brevis  Informatio 
de  Veritate  et  ExoeUentia  Christiana  Religionis : — Judi- 
cium de  Unione  a  Calviaianis  Petita,  See  Witte,  Dia- 
rium  Biographieum ;  JcJcher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrten- 
Lezikon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  185. 
(B.  P.) 

Lenet,  Pbiubkbt  Bbbnabd,  a  Fnencb  monk,  was 
bom  at  Dijon,  Aug.  24, 1677.  Having  been  received 
among  the  canons  regular  of  St.  Genevieve,  he  soon  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  piety  and  learning.  For  a 
time  professor  at  Senlis  and  at  Provins,  he  became  di- 
rector of  the  seminary  at  Rheims,  and  abbot  of  Grand- 
Val-des-^coliers,  in  the  diocese  of  Langres.  Being  ac- 
cused of  Jansenism,  Lenet  was  obliged  to  retire  from  his 
position,  and  died  in  1748.  He  wrote  some  works,  for 
which  see  Nicrologie  des  Plus  CeUbres  D^fenseurs  de  la 
Veriiiy  vol  iii ;  Lichtenberger,  Encgchp.  des  Sciences 
ReligieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Le  Neve,  John,  an  EngFish  clergyman  and  biog- 
rapher, was  bora  Dec.  27, 1679,  and  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  became  rector  of  Thomton- 
le-Moor,  Lincolnshire,  about  1721,  and  died  about  1741. 
He  was  an  industrious  collector  of  biogrsphical  mate- 
rials, and  has  given  to  the  world  several  important  col- 
lections. They  include.  Lives  of  the  Most  Illustrious 
Persons  who  Died  in  1711-12  (London,  1718-14,  2  vols. 
8vo):  —  Fasti  Ecdssia  Anglicana  (1716),  of  which  a 
new  edition  was  published  (1854,3  vols.8vo)  by  T.  Duffus 
Hardy,  assistant  keeper  of  the  public  records,  with  a 
continuation  to  the  year  of  publication;  the  first  edi- 


LENFANT 


964 


LEOPARD-WORSHIP 


doir  doDUined  eleren  thooBaiid  entrieiy  while  the  new 
edition  oootains  more  than  thirty  thooaand  names  of 
clergymen  '.^Memoriak  Cotuxmmg  Dr.  Richard  Field 
(\7 16)  i^Afonumenta  Anglieana  (1700-19,  9  rolkSvo): 
-"Lives  of  the  ProtetUuU  Bi$hop$  (1720) :— Lives  of  the 
ArchbUhops  (1728).  See  Biographical  Notice  of  Le 
Neve  in  Hardy*s  edition  of  the  Fasti, 

Lenfant,  David,  a  French  Dominican,  who  died  at 
Paris,  May  31, 1688,  is  the  author  of,  Concordantioe  Au^ 
jfustimanm  (1656-1656,  2  vola.  foL):— i7t&/ta  AuffUsUnu 
ana  (2  vols.)  :^St.  Bemardi  Biblia  (1665)  :—3L  Thomm 
Aguinatis  Biblia  (1657-59, 3  vols.) :— ^if^otr«  GMrale 
de  Tons  les  Siecles  (1684,  6  vols.).  See  Lichtenberger, 
Encychp,  des  Sciences  Reliffieuses,  s.  v.;  Jocher,  Allge- 
meines  Gelehrten-Lezihonf  8.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Lenglet-Dufresnoy,  Nicolas,  a  French  writer, 
was  bom  at  Beauvais,  OcU  5, 1674.  He  studied  theol- 
ogy at  Paris,  and  took  holy  orders,  but  soon  exchanged 
his  clerical  dress  for  that  of  a  politician  and  diploma- 
tist. He  died  Jan.  16, 1755.  Of  his  numerous  works 
we  mention  the  following,  bearing  upon  theology :  iVb- 
vum  Jesu  Christi  TeslamcrUum  Notis  llistoricis  et  Criti- 
CIS  lUustratum  (Paris,  1703, 2  vols.;  reprinted  1735):— 
Imitation  de  Jesus-Christ,  Traduite  et  Revue  (1771)  :— 
Traiti  IJisiorique  et  Dogmatique.  du  Secret  Inviolable  de 
la  Confession  (1713  and  often) :— Refutation  des  Errturs 
de  Spinosa,  avec  sa  Vie  a  la  Tke  (Amsterdam,  1731) : 
— TrdUe  Ilistorique  et  Dogmatique  des  OpirationSt  des 
Visions  et  des  Revelations  Partieulisres  (1751,  2  vols.) : 
— RecueU  des  Dissertations  Anciennes  et  Modemes  sur 
Us  Apparitions^  Us  Visions  et  Us  Songes  (1752, 4  vols.). 
He  also  edited  Lueii  Cacilii  Lactantii  Opera  Omnia 
(1748, 2  vols.),  the  most  complete  edition  of  Lactantius*s 
works.  See  Michault,  Mhnoires  pour  Servir  i  VHis- 
toire  de  la  VU  et  des  Ouvrqges  de  CAbbi  Lenglet;  Lich- 
tenberger, Encgdop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Lengnioh,  Karl  Bbxjamin,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Dantzic,  Feb.  19, 1748. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  >ras  in  1772  second  preacher  at 
his  native  place,  and  died  Nov.  5, 1795,  leaving,  Predig- 
ten  (Dantzic,  1770) : — Beilrag  zur  Kemitniss  seltener  und 
merkwOrdiger  Bikher  (ibid.  1776, 2  vols.)  i—Nachrichten 
%ur  BOcher-  und  MUnzkunde  (ibid.  1780-82, 4  vols.).  See 
DGring,  DU  deutschen  KanzeUedner,  p.  200.     (B.  P.) 

Lenormant,  Charles,  a  French  archasologist  and 
numismatician,  was  bom  in  Paris,  June  1,  1802.  In 
1828  he  travelled  in  Egypt,  was  in  1887  conservator  at 
the  national  library,  and  after  1835  acted  as  Guizot's  sub- 
stitute at  the  Sorbonne,  where  his  lectures,  savoring  too 
much  of  Bomish  orthodoxy,  often  caused  disturbances, 
especially  in  1846,  so  that  he  had  finally  to  give  up  his 
lecturing.  lu  1848  he  was  called  as  professor  of  Egyp- 
tian archnology  at  the  College  de  France,  and  died  at 
Athens,  Nov.  24, 1859.  Of  his  works  we  mention,  7Vi- 
sor  de  Numismatique  et  de  Glgptique  (1886-50, 5  vols.) : 
^^e  des  Monuments  Chrankographiques  (1844-67,  8 
vols.).     (RP.) 

Xaenonnant,  Frail9oiik  son  of  Charies,  was  bora  in 
Paris,  Jan.  17, 1837.  He  pursued  the  same  studies  which 
distinguished  his  father.  In  1862  he  was  sub-librarian 
of  the  Institute,  in  1874  professor  of  archieology  at  the 
large  Paris  library,  and  died  Dec  10,  1883,  leaving, 
Manuel  eP/Iistoire  A  ndeHnedeV  Orient  Jusqu*  aux  Guerres 
InUiques  (8d  ed.  1869, 3  vols. ;  transL  into  German,  Ber- 
lin, 1869, 2  vols. ;  2d  ed.  1871)  i—LeUres  Assgriohgiques 
et  ipigraphiqufs  (1871-72,4  vols.):  —  Les  PremUres 
CivUisations  (1874, 2  vols. ;  Geim.  transL  Jena,  1875)  :— 
Jjes  Sciences  Oceukes  en  AsU  (1874-75;  Germ,  transl. 
Jena,  1878),  two  parts;  the  first  treating  of  La  Magk 
chez  Us  ChaUUens  et  Us  Origines  Accadiennes;  the  sec- 
ond of  La  Divination  et  la  Science  des  Presages  chez 
Us  ChakUens: — Les  Origines  de  VlHetoire  d'Apres  la 
BibU  et  Us  Traditions  des  PeupUs  Orisntaux  (1880-82, 
2  vols.;  EngL  transL  New  York,  1882) :— J/ontiatef  H 
i/itfatifef  (Paris,  1883).    (R  P.) 

ZiOO,  Qottlob  Bdnard,  a  Lgtheran  theologian  of 


Germany,  was  bom  in  1608,  and  died  at  Waldenborg', 
liay  7, 1881,  member  of  oonstatory  and  doctor  of  the- 
ology. He  is  the  author  of,  Gesehichte  der  ckriatHehem 
Reunion  und  Kirche  (Leipsic,  1881) : — Das  Leben  Gel" 
UrVs  (Dresden,  1846)  :—Stimmen  aus  der  Kirche  (1845) ; 
-"PauU  Epistola  %  ad  Timotheum  Greece  (1887)  :^G^ 
sMchte  der  Rrformation  in  Dresden  und  Leipzig  (1889) ; 
^Das  Leben  August  Uermann  FranMs  (1848).  See 
Zochold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  786.     (R  P.) 

Xiao,  Helnxloh,  a  famous  German  historian,  waa 
bom  at  Rudolstadt,  March  19, 1799.  He  studied  at 
Breslau  and  Jena,  and  commenced  his  academical  ca- 
reer at  Erlangen  in  1820.  In  1834  he  was  at  Berlin, 
accepted  a  call  to  Halle  in  1880,  and  died  April  24» 

1878.  Leo  was  orthodox  in  religion,  and  conservative 
in  politics,  and  from  this  standpoint  wrote  his  Lehr- 
buck  der  Umiversalgeschichte  (Halle,  188&-44,  6  vols.; 
8d  ed.  1849-^).  Liberalism  found  in  him  a  violent  op. 
ponent,  and  the  liberal  tendencies  in  State  and  Cbnreh 
he  assailed  in  Studien  und  Skizzen  zur  Naturgesehichte 
des  Staates  (ibid.  1888),  DU  Begelingen  (1888),  Signa-^ 
tura  Temporis  (1849),  more  especially  in  the  Krtuz^ 
Zeitttngt  the  organ  of  the  politicad  conservatives,  and  in 
Evangelist  Kirthemeitung,  the  organ  of  orthodoxy. 
Hb  political  tendencies  were  acknowledged  by  king 
Frederick  William  IV,  and  in  1868  he  was  made  n 
member  of  the  Prussian  upper  house  fur  life.  See 
Lichtenberger,  Enegdop,  des  Sciences  Rdigieuses,  s.  v.; 
Brockhaus,  Conversations-Leadkon,  s.  v.     (Bw  P.) 

Leo,  RndoU^  a  Lntheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  Msy  6, 1806,  at  RudolsUdt.  He  studied  at 
Jena  and  G5ttiilgen,  waa  tutor  of  prince  Gunther  of 
Schwarzbuig-Rudolstadt  from  1829  to  1839,  and  pro- 
fessor at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  place  from  1889 
to  1844.  In  the  latter  year  be  was  appointed  second 
deacon,  in  1851  court-preacher  and  member  of  consistory, 
and  in  1852  general-superintendent.  He  retired  from 
the  ministry  in  1879,  and  died  Jan.  18, 1883.    (a  P.) 

Zieonard,  Alexahdbb  S.,  S.T.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bora  in  New  Ifork  city,  June 
28,  1806.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in 
1825;  was  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  for  twenty 
years;  ordained  deacon  in  1848;  assistant  at  SLClemenCs 
Church,  N.  Y. ;  rector  of  Emmanuel  Church,  in  the  same 
city,  from  1849  to  1865,  and  died  there.  May  17, 1878. 
Sec  Prot,  Episc  A  bnanae,  1879, p.  169;  Church  A  bnanac, 

1879,  p.  98. 

Leonbard,  Matthai  d*Udinb,  a  famous  Domini- 
can,  who  died  in  1470,  provincial  of  Lombardy,  was  a 
doctor  of  law  and  divinity.  He  preached  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  Italy,  especially  at  Florence,  before  pope 
Eugene  IV  and  his  court.  His  Sermones  have  often 
been  printed.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encgcfop,  des  Scietk^ 
ces  ReligieuseSf  s.  v. ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  GeUhrten^LeX' 

a»R,s.v.  (a  p.) 

Zieoni,  Otta vio  (called  il  eav,  Padovano  and  Pado- 
vanino'),  an  eminent  painter  and  engraver,  was  bom  in 
Rome  in  1578.  Among  his  historical  works  is  The  Virgin 
and  Infant,  in  Santa  Maria  della  Minerva ;  The  A  mib»- 
curtton,  in  San  Enstachio ;  and  St,  Carlo,  SL  Franeeveo, 
and  St.  NiccolOf  in  San  Urbano.  He  waa  chosen  direc- 
tor of  the  Academy  of  SL  Luke,  and  was  appointed 
knight  of  the  order  of  Christ,  on  which  occasion  he 
painted  the  Martyrdom  of  St,  Martina,  for  the  Church 
of  the  Academy.  As  an  engraver,  he  did  not  succeed 
very  weU.  He,  however,  executed  a  number  of  works^ 
He  died  in  1630.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GMrale^ 
s.  V. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  IlisL  of  the  Fine  Arts,»,y, 

Zieopard-^ronhip.  The  leopard  is  hekl  in  great 
dread  by  the  natives  of  different  parts  of  Africa,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  ferocity,  but  from  the  aopersti- 
tious  notion  that  wicked  men  mekamorphoae  themselves 
into  these  animals,  and  commit  all  aorta  of  depredationa 
without  tbe  liability  or  possibility  of  being  killed.  In 
southern  Guinea  large  villages  are  sometimes  aban* 


LEPCHA  VERSION 


685 


L'ESPINE 


4loMd  by  their  inbftbitanta,  becauae  they  are  mfnid  to 
attack  these  animals  on  acooont  of  their  supposed  su- 
pernatural powers.  Id  Dahomey,  the  leopard  is  ao- 
eonnted  so  sacred  that  if  any  one  should  kill  it  he 
would  be  convicted  of  having  committed  sacrilege,  and 
would  be  offered  in  sacrifice  to  the  offended  god  as  a 
propitiation.  The  leopard  is  there  looked  upon  as  an 
impersonation  of  the  supreme  god,  whom  they  call  Seh, 
If  any  one  is  killed  by  a  leopard,  his  relatives  rejoice  at 
the  event,  and  treat  the  animal  with  great  kindness. 
See  Lbopabd. 

ZiOpoha  Version  or  tiik  Scriptukes.  Lepcha 
is  a  dialect  spoken  by  an  aboriginal  mountain-tribe  in 
north-east  India,  near  Darjeeling.  The  first  attempt 
at  a  translation  into  that  dialect  was  made  by  the  Rev. 
W.  Start,  in  1855  or  1856,  who  printed  the  gospel  of 
Matthew  at  his  own  expense.  The  Calcutta  Auxiltaiy 
Bible  Society  published,  in  1871,  the  gospels  of  Matthew 
and  John,  Genesis,  and  part  of  Exodus.    (B.  P.) 

Xiepaim^  Kabl  Richard,  a  noted  German  E^p- 
tologist,  was  bom  at  Naumbarg,  Dec  28, 1810.  Well 
prepared  by  seven  years  of  classical  training  at  Pforta, 
be  went  in  1829  to  Leipaic  and  Gottingen  to  study 
philology.    When  he  took  his  degree,  he  showed  at 

-  once  bv  his  dissertation  that  he  knew  how  beat  to  util- 
ize  the  principles  of  comparative  philology  by  apply- 
ing them  to  the  solution  of  difficult  problems  of  classi- 
cal scholarship.  He  took  for  his  subject  the  Umbrian 
Inscriptions,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  what  has 
proved  in  the  end  one  of  the  roost  successful  achieve- 
ments of  the  science  of  language — namely,  the  deci- 
pherment and  grammatical  analysis  of  the  £ugubian 
tables.    In  1888  he  went  to  Paris  to  attend  lectures, 

■and  study  in  librsries  and  museums.  In  1884  he 
publuhed'Pol&^opAte  aU  MUld/Ur  dU  Sprachfor- 
tehtngt  for  which  was  awarded  by  the  French  Institute 
the  Prix  VoiMy,  In  1885  another  essay  of  his,  Ueber 
die  AnordHung  und  Verwanditckajl  de»  aemititchai,  t»- 
diseken^  SthiopiscAen,  altpertiacken  und  cdiagypti»chen 
Alphabet*^  was  read  before  the  Berlin  Academy;  and 
in  the  same  year,  while  still  at  Paris,  he  wrote  his  pa- 
per, Uiher  den  Urtprung  und  die  Verwandttchq/l  der 
Zahhodrier  tn  der  indagermamscheny  temiiiechen^  und 
der  koptitchen  Sprache,    At  the  time  of  his  residence 

'  at  Paris,  Champollion*s  star  was  just  rising,  but  Egyp- 
tian studies  were  only  in  their  infancy.  Lepsius  felt 
attracted  towards  these  new  studies.  Having  acquired 
the  first  principles  of  the  decipherment  of  hierogl3'phs 
from  Champollion's  works,  he  proceeded  from  Paris  to 
Italy,  which  was  rich  in  Eg}'ptian  antiquities.  He 
spent  some  time  with  Bosellini,  at  Pisa,  and  then  set- 
tled down  to  steady  work  at  Rome.  Here  he  was  at- 
tracted by  Bunsen,  who  did  everything  he  could  fur 

]  him.  By  his  I^tre  it  M,  Rosellim  *ur  t Alphabet  Ilii- 
rogUfphique  (1887),  Lepsius  took  his  position  as  one  of 
the  leading  £g>'ptologists  of  the  day,  and  thus  entered 
upon  a  career  which  he  never  left  again.  But,,although 
Egypt  formed  the  principal  object  of  his  studies,  his 

'  classical  tastes,  too,  found  ample  food  in  Italy,  as  was 
shown  by  his  edition  of  the  Inscripiicnes  Vmhrica  et 
Otca  (Leipsic,  1841),  and  by  his  papers  on  Die  Tyrrhene- 
echen  Pela»ger  in  Etrurien  (1842).  From  Italy  he  went 
to  England,  where  he  spent  two  years  studying  in  the 
Irtish  Museum,  and  shaping  plans  for  future  work.  In 
1842  we  find  Lepsius  established  as  professor  at  Berlin. 
In  the  meantime  he  had  published  some  of  his  best- 
known  works — his  Autwahl  der  teichtigtten  Urhtnden 
dee  Sgyptiechen  A  Iterthum*  (1842,  fol.  with  23  tables),  and 
Jku  Todtenbueh  der  uEggpter  (eod.  with  79  tables).  In 
the  same  year  followed  the  great  expedition  to  Egypt, 
projected  by  Bunsen,  and  carried  out  at  the  expense  of 
the  king  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William  IV.  Lepsius  was 
the  leader,  and  he  acquitted  himself  of  this  most  difficult 
task  with  perfect  success.  Every  student  of  Egyptol- 
ogy knows  the  fruits  of  that  expedition,  as  gathered 

.partly  in  Denkmdler  aue  Egypten  und  jEihiopien  (1849- 


59, 12  vols,  of  the  largest  fblio^  with  894  Ubles).  In  1849 
he  publisbed  his  Chronolngie  der  .^gypter, one  volume; 
the  second  never  appeared.  Without  enumerating  the 
many  works  which  he  published  after  his  return  from 
Egypt,  we  will  state  that  in  1866  he  went  to  the  land 
of  the  Pharaohs  once  more,  and  this  second  expedi- 
tion was  crowned  by  .the  discovery  of  a  new  trilingual 
tablet,  a  worthy  companion  of  the  Rosetta  stone.  In 
1869  be  paid  his  last  visit  to  the  land  of  his  lifelong 
love,  being  present  at  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal,  and 
afterwards  travelled  with  the  crown-prince  of  Prussia 
to  Upper  Egypt  and  Nubia.  The  last  years  of  his  life 
were  devoted  chiefly  to  the  elaboration  of  his  Nubian 
Grammar,  a  work  of  enormous  labor,  full  not  only  of 
new  materials,  but  of  new  views  on  the  relationship  of 
the  numerous  languages  of  Africa.  "  Taken  all  in  all," 
says  Max  Muller,  *'  Lepsius  was  the  perfect  type  of  the 
German  professor,  devoted  to  his  work,  full  of  ideals, 
and  convinced  that  there  is  no  higher  vocation  in  life 
than  to  preserve  and  to  add  to  the  sacred  stock  of  hu- 
man knowledge,  which,  though  it  is  seen  by  the  few 
only,  has  to  be  carried,  like  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant, 
from  battle  to  battle,  and  kept  safe  from  the  hands  of 
the  Philistines."  Lepsius  died  July  10, 1884,  only  one 
day  after  Dorner  and  Lange.  Like  a  Christian,  he 
prepared  himself  for  his  last  journey,  being  strength- 
ened before  his  departure  by  the  Lord's  Supper,  which 
he  received  from  the  hands  of  the  court-preacher.  Dr. 
KogeL  Besides  having  received  diflerent  orders  from 
the  hands  of  kings,  he  was  made  doctor  of  theology  by 
the  Leipsic  University  in  1859.  He  also  introduced 
the  so-called  missionary  alphabet,  or  Standard  Alphas 
bet  for  Reducing  Unwritten  Languages  and  Foreign 
Graphic  Systems  to  a  Uniform  Orthography  in  Euro- 
pean Letters,  a  system  which  gained  support  both  by 
scholars  and  missionaries.  See  Max  MttUer,  in  the 
Academy  (Lond.  July  19,  1884) ;  Ebers,  Richard  Lep- 
sius, ein  LebensbUd  (Leipsic,  1885 ;  a  list  of  Lepsius's 
works  is  found  on  p.  37&-390) ;  DUlmann,  Geddchtniss- 
rede  auf  Karl  Richard  Lepsius,  read  before  the  Ber- 
lin Academy  of  Sciences,  July  2, 1885  (Berlin,  1885). 
(B.  P.) 

Le  Qnlen,  Aktoisib.    See  Anthony  lk  Qdikx. 

Lerad,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  a  mighty  tree,  stand-  • 
ing  in  Walhalla,in  whose  boughs  the  reindeer  Eiktbyr- 
nir  and  the  goat  Hejdrun  live  and  find  nourishment. 
From  the  drops  which  fall  from  the  antlers  of  the  for- 
mer all  the  rivers  of  ibfi  world  are  formed. 

Lercarl,  Nicolas  Marie,  an  Italian  cardinal,  was 
bom  at  Tabia,  Genoa,  Nov.  19, 1675.  He  filled  various 
offices  at  the  pontifical  court,  and  afterwards  became 
successively  governor  of  Lodi,  of  Benevento,  of  Came- 
rino,  of  Anoona,  of  Civita  Yecchia,  and  of  Perugia. 
Being  called  to  Rome  in  1724  by  Benedict  XIII, 
irith  whom  he  had  allied  himself  at  Benevento,  he  was 
consecrated  archbishop  in  partibus,  and  two  years  later 
appointed  prime -minister.  The  foreign  ambassadors 
refusing  to  treat  with  him,  under  the  pretext  that  hu 
position  was  not  sufficiently  honorable,  he  was  made 
cardinal  in  December,  1726.  In  his  position  as  secre- 
tary of  state  he  showed  himself  an  able  negotiator,  and 
several  times  thwarted  the  purposes  of  the  imperial 
court.  In  1780,  on  the  death  of  Benedict  XIII,  he  was 
despoiled  of  his  honors,  and  arraigned  before  a  congre- 
gation of  cardinals  to  give  an  account  of  his  adminis- 
tration. H  is  integrity  was  established,  but  his  influence 
was  gone.  He  died  March  20, 1757.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog,  Genirale,  s.  v. 

Leschies,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  were  evil  spirits 
of  the  woods,  whose  existence  is  still  believed  by  the 
Russians  and  Lithuanians.  They  were  similar  to  the 
Pan  or  Fauns  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  were 
brought  north  probably  by  the  latter. 

Lesly.    See  Lkslky  ;  Leslib. 

L'Espl&e  (Lat«  Spina,  or  Spincsus^,  Jban  de,  a 


LESTANG 


66« 


LEWIS 


French  tbedogian,  wm  born  about  1606.  At  first  a 
monk,  he  renounced  Romanism  in  1661,  and  joined  the 
Reformed  Church.  After  the  Poissy  Colloquy,  be  was 
for  some  time  preacher  at  Fontenay-le-Comte,  and  af- 
terwards at  La  Rochelle.  In  1564  he  published  his 
JHteoura  da  Vray  Sacrifice  et  du  Vray  Saerificateur, 
In  1568  he  was  pastor  at  St.  Quentin,  in  1572  at  Paris, 
in  1576  at  Saumur,  in  1578  at  Angers,  and  died  in  1594 
at  Saumur.  Besides  his  Ditcovrtf  he  published,  TraUi 
de  VApoMtasie  (lbS3):^Diaiogue  de  la  CSne  (eod.),  etc. 
See  Bayle,  Dkt.  Hut,  et  Critique,  s.  v.  **  Spina  ;**  Tmcent, 
Bedkerdkee  tur  lee  Commencemau  et  Premiers  Progr^i  de 
la  Information  en  la  ViUe  de  La  BocktUe  (Rotterdam, 
1693) ;  Lichtenberger,  Eneychp,  dee  Sciences  HeUgieutetf 
s.  T.    (R  r.) 

Lestang,  Christofiie,  a  French  prelate,  was  bom 
at  Brives  in  15G0.  When  not  more  than  twenty  years 
of  age  he  was  made  bishop  of  Lode%'e,  in  which  posi- 
tion he  devoted  himself  to  the  destruction  of  Calvinism, 
then  very  rife  in  Languedoc,  and  for  this  he  received 
of  Henry  III  a  pension  of  twelve  thousand  crowns  per 
month.  The  League  counted  him  among  its  most  fer- 
vent advocates.  He  had  a  contest  with  the  duke  of 
Montmorency.  Lestang  lost  all  the  revenues  of  his 
bishopric,  and  the  palace  which  he  had  built  was  de- 
stroyed. To  make  amends,  Henry  III  gave  to  him  the 
episcopal  house  and  the  revenues  of  the'  bishopric  of 
Carcassonne,  which  Montmorency  had  enjoyed.  In 
1604  he  was  made  bishop  of  Carcassonne.  Louis  XIII 
made  him  commander  of  his  orders,  grand  master  of  his 
chapel,  member  of  his  private  council,  and  director  of  his 
finances.  I^estang  continued  to  fill  important  offices 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Carcassonne,  Aug.  11, 
1621.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Giaeralef  s.  v. 

Lestonao,  Jeannb  dk,  foundress  of  an  order  of 
French  nuu^  was  bom  at  Bordeaux  in  1656.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  a  councillor  of  the  parliament  of  Bor- 
deaux, and  of  Jeanne  d'Eyquem  of  Montagne,  sister  of 
the  celebrated  philosopher  Michel  de  Montague.  Al- 
though her  mother  was  a  Protestant,  her  father  and 
uncle  made  her  adopt  the  Catholic  religion.  In  1573 
she  married  Gaston  de  Montferrand.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband  she  consecrated  herself  to  the  Virgin,  and 
entered,  in  1603,  the  house  of  the  Feuillantines  of  Tou- 
louse. Shortly  after,  Jeanne  de  Lestonac  placed  her- 
self at  the  head  of  a  society  of  young  ladies,  the  greater 
part  taken  from  Calvinistic  families.  These  new  nuns 
bore  the  name  of  Jesuitines.  Cardinal  de  Sourdis  op- 
posed the  foundation  of  this  order,  but  the  pope  favored 
it  and  ordered  its  consecration,  which  took  place,  March 
25, 1606,  and  it  was  confirmed  by  a  brief  of  Paul  V, 
April  7, 1607.  The  order  grew  rapidly  in  importance. 
At  the  time  of  the  death  of  Jeanne,  she  had  control  of 
twentv-nine  houses  of  Jesuitines.  She  died  at  Bor- 
deaiix,  April  2,  1640.  After  her  death  some  of  her 
bones  were  sent  to  the  principal  convents  of  the  order, 
or  were  used,  according  to  some  hagiographers,  to  per- 
form various  miracles.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  CM- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Lestrange,  Louis  Hbnbi  de  (dom  Avgustine),  the 
renovstor  of  the  order  of  La  Trappe,  was  bom  at  Yive- 
rais  in  1754.  On  his  nomination  as  coadjutor  to  the 
archbishop  of  Vienne  in  1780,  he  retired  to  La  Trappe, 
in  the  department  of  Ome,  near  Mortaqoc,  the  seat  of 
Cistercian  monks  since  11^,  but  reformed  by  the  abbe 
de  Ranee  in  1662,  and  which  has  given  its  name  to  all 
monasteries  which  have  adopted  the  rigorous  rule  of 
Ranee.  See  Trappists.  In  1791  the  French  govern- 
ment seized  the  property  of  the  monks  of  La  Trappe, 
and  Lestrange  led  twenty-four  of  the  religious  to  Val 
Sainte,  canton  of  Fribourg,  Switzerland,  where  they  were 
heartily  welcomed,  constituted  an  abbey  by  Pius  VI, 
and  Augustine  placed  at  its  head.  On  the  invasion  of 
Switzerland,  in  1798,  by  a  French  army,  the  Trappists 
were  compelled  to  flee.  They  wandered  with  their 
leader  through  various  parts  of  Austria  and  Bavaria, 


uottl  Paul  I  promised  them  hospitality  in  his  states^ 
and  they  estaUished  themselves  in  Rossian  Poland  in 
1799.  In  the  following  year  the  cur  issued  a  okaae 
ordering  all  French  emigrants  to  leave  his  territories. 
Angnstine  then  led  his  brethien  to  Protestant  Pmssi«, 
where  they  found  a  temporary  a^lnm.  Then  it  was 
that  a  party  of  them,  guided  by  Urban  Guillet,  em- 
barked at  Amsterdam  for  Baltimore,  May  29, 1808.  The 
deliverance  of  Switzerland,  in  1804,  soon  permitted  the 
monks  to  return  to  Val  Sainte,  and  in  1805  Napoleon 
granted  them  authority  to  establish  themselves  in  his 
empire.  Mont  Valerian,  which  rises  at  the  gates  of 
Paris,  soon  beheld  a  monastery  of  this  austere  order 
arise,  but  when  the  emperor  began  to  persecute  the 
pope,  the  fervent  disciples  of  Rancd  and  Lestrange  re- 
sisted him.  In  1810  Dom  Augustine  accordingly  made 
his  monks  solemnly  retract  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the 
consdtution  of  the  empire,  and  Napoleon  ordered  all 
houses  of  La  Trappe  to  be  closed,  and  the  abbot  Les- 
trange to  be  tried  by  court-martial;  but  Augustine  es- 
caped to  Switzerland,  and  thence  traversing  Germany, 
pursued  by  the  imperial  police,  embarked  at  Riga  for 
London,  and  thence  for  the  United  States.  There  (in 
the  city  of  Boston)  he  found  a  second  colony  of  Trap- 
pists, under  Vincent  of  Paul,  awaiting  him.  Dom  Ao- 
gnsttne  Lestrange  arrived  in  New  York  in  1818,  to 
which  place  he  ordered  Guillet  from  Missouri,  and  Vin- 
cent of  Paul  from  Boston,  and  concentrated  at  one  place 
the  scattered  and  feeble  forces  of  the  brethren.  The 
energetic  Lestrange  also  founded  a  community  of  Trap- 
pist  nuns.  Meanwhile  the  fall  of  Napoleon  opened 
France  to  the  Trappists,  and  Dom  Angnstine  returned 
to  restore  the  black-gir<Ued  monks  to  their  home.  He 
embarked  for  Havra  in  October,  1814,  with  twelve 
monks,  the  sisten  and  pupils,  when  he  restored  the  or- 
der to  Europe.  Lestrange,  the  indefatigable  and  heroic 
successor  of  Bernard  and  Raned,  died  at  Lyons,  France, 
July  16, 1827.  See  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  BisL  of  tke 
Caih,  Church  inthe  l/,S,p,  870. 

Letfete,  in  Norse  mythofegy,  was  one  of  the  twelve 
famous  Asa-horses  mentioned  in  the  Edda. 

Lethe,  in  Greek  mythology,  is  the  stream  of  for- 
getfulness,  out  of  which  the  souls  drank  when  entering 
Eh'sium. 

Lethra  (now  .Leire\  in  the  island  of  Zealand,  the 
city  of  the  gods  among  the  ancient  Danes.  This  was 
the  holy  place  when  the  nation  assembled  to  o£fer  up 
their  sacrifices,  to  present  their  prayers,  and  to  receive 
the  choicest  blessings  from  the  gods. 

Lettish  VexBion.    See  Slavonic  Vsbsioxs. 

Leuohare,  Patrick  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  in- 
vested with  the  see  of  Brechin  in  1354,  and  some  time 
after  was  made  lord  high  chancellor  of  the  kingdom. 
In  1870  he  resigned  his  office  of  chancellor.  He  was 
bishop,  and  present  at  Parliament  in  187&  See  Keith, 
Scottish  BithopSf  p.  162. 

Levi,  GiusKPPB  Emamuklo,  a  Jewish  writer,  was 
bom  at  Vercelli,  Italy,  in  1814.  In  1848  he  was  ap- 
pointed ^^laureatus"  (graduate)  professor  of  literature 
at  the  Univeruty  of  Turin,  and  died  June  10, 1874,  leav- 
ing, ParahoU,  Legends  e  Pensieri  BaccoUi  dei  Libri 
Talmudici: — Chrittiani  et  Ebrei  nel  Medio  Evo  (Germ, 
transL  by  Seligmann,  Leipsic,  1863) : — Teocrazia  Afosa- 
ica: — AiUobiografia  di  un  Padre  di  FamigH: — Cers- 
moniaJe  per  le  Cemta  di  Pasgua: — J)ei  Pregi  deUa 
Lingua  Ehraica^  Biscorso  Academico,     (B.  P.) 

Le^iriB,  Isaac  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  l)om  at  Wilton,  Conn.,  Jan.  1, 1778.  He  graduated 
firom  Yale  College  in  1794,  with  hb  twin-brother,  Zecfa- 
ariah  Lewis.  Remaining  at  New  Haven,  he  prosecuted 
the  study  of  theology,  and  was  ordained  May  80, 1798L 
He  was  installed  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Cooperstown,  N.  Y.,  in  1800 ;  in  1806  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  in  Goshen ;  and  in  1813  preached  in  Bria- 
tol,  R.  L ;  subsequently  served  in  New  Rochelle  and 


LEWIS 


667      LIBELLI  POENITENTIALES 


West  Ftnns,  K.  T^  as  a  stated  supply,  and  succeeded 
his  father  io  Greenwich,  Conn.,  in  December,  18 18.  He 
assumed  charge  of  the  Church  in  Bristol,  R.  I.,  Nov.  12, 

1828.  In  September,  1881,  the  failure  of  bis  voice  com- 
pelled him  to  resign  his  charge,  though  he  still  preached 
occasionally  until  the  time  of  his  death,  which  occurred 
in  New  York  city,  Sept.  23, 1854.  See  Sprague,  A  muxlt 
of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  i,  667. 

ItevrtB,  John  TV.,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister  of 
Georgia,  was  bom  near  Spartansburg,  S.  C,  Feb.  1, 1801. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  practiced  with  success,  but 
was  drawn  to  the  ministry,  and  ordained  in  1882.  About 
1840  he  removed  to  Canton,  Ga.,  where  he  was  pastor 
for  a  time,  and  afterwards  of  other  churches  in  Chero- 
kee County.  In  such  secular  concerns  as  he  under- 
took he  exhibited  good  judgment  and  sagacity.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  war  he  was  a  senator  in  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederate  States,  and  had  much  to  do  with  the 
establishment  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Georgia.  As  a 
preacher,  he  was  instrumental  in  the  conversion  of 
many  souls.  His  death  took  place  in  Cherokee  County, 
Ga.,  in  June,  1865.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Enctfckp, 
p.  691.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Lewis,  Samuel  Seymour,  D.D.,  a  minister  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Spring- 
field, Tt.,  Sept.  4, 1804.  His  early  education  was  ac- 
quired in  the  district  school,  but  at  the  age  of  fiteen 
he  entered  the  High  School  at  South  Berwick,  Me., 
where  he  prepared  for  college.  After  entering  Dart- 
mouth, failing  sight  compelled  him  to  dissolve  his  con- 
nection with  it,  and  he  entered  into  partnership  with  a 
friend  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  devoted  himself  to  mercan- 
tile pursuits.  Consulting  a  distinguished  oculist  in  New 
York,  he  was  assured  that  he  was  simply  near-sighted, 
whereupon  he  immediately  closed  up  his  business,  and 
entered  Trinity  (then  Washington)  College,  Hartford, 
Conn.    At  the  end  of  two  years  he  graduated,  Aug.  6, 

1829.  Shortly  after  he  entered  the  General  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  in  New  York  city,  but  before  the  end  of 
the  year  he  was  elected  a  tutor  in  Trinity  College, 
which  post  he  held  until  he  was  ordained  deacon,  June 
10, 1882.  In  the  fall  of  that  year  he  took  charge  of 
Christ  Church,  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  was  admitted  to  priest's  orders.  Accepting  an 
invitation  from  Mobile,  he  went  there  in  the  latter  part 
of  1835,  occupying  the  only  parish  in  the  city,  and  that 
a  feeble  one.  Here  he  remained  for  ten  years.  He  died 
there  July  9, 184S.  His  style  of  preaching  was  of  the 
evangelical  type,  and  he  was  especially  successful  as  a 
pastor.  See  Sprague,  A  nnaU  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit f  v, 
714. 

Lewie,  Tayler,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  Bib- 
lical scholar  and  Congregational  divine,  was  bom  in 
Northumberland,  Saratoga  Co.,  N.  Y.,  March  27, 1802. 
He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1820,  studied  law 
in  Albany,  and,  being  admitted  to  the  bar,  entered  on 
the  practice  of  his  profession  al  Fort  Miller.  In  1888 
he  gave  up  the  practice  of  law,  and  opened  a  classical 
school  at  Waterford,  and  in  1835  removed  his  school  to 
Ogdensburg.  In  1838  he  was  chosen  professor  of  Greek 
in  the  University  of  New  York,  which  chair  he  occu- 
pied until  1849,  when  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
Greek  language  and  literature  in  his  Alma  Mater,  and 
occupied  that  position  until  his  death,  May  11,  1877. 
Through  all  the  years  of  his  professorate  he  was  a  thor- 
ough, indefatigable  student  of  Oriental  and  Biblical  lit- 
erature. He  employed  his  attainments  to  defend  and 
illustrate  the  truths  of  divine  revelation.  Among  his 
first  publications  were  translations  and  texts  of  Plato's 
works,  accompanied  with  valuable  notes  and  critical 
dissertations.  In  1855  he  published  his  Six  Days  of 
Creation^  the  work  by  which  he  became  widely  known 
as  one  of  the  ablest  defenders  of  divine  revelation.  Dr. 
Lewis  contributed  largely  to  magazines,  both  monthly 
and  quarterly,  and  his  contributions  to  religious  jour- 
nals were  almost  without  number.    To  mention  onlv 


one,  the  New  York  Observer^  that  paper  contains  numer- 
ous valuable  articles.  Among  them  are,  **  State  Rights,** 
^'A  Photograph  from  the  Ruins  of  Ancient  Greece,** 
<*  Heroic  Periods  in  a  Nation's  History,"  "  A  Defence  of 
Capital  Punishment,'* ''  The  People  of  Africa,  their  Char, 
acter,  Condition,  and  Future  Frospeds.**  He  was  one 
of  the  authors  of  the  recently  published  Life  ofPresidaU 
Nott,  of  Union  College,  and  the  translator  of  Genesis 
and  Ecclesiastes  in  Lange  s  Commaitary,    (W.  P.  S.) 

Lewie,  "VlTilUam  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  bom  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Dec.  22, 
1808.  He  was  rector  for  a  number  of  years  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  until 
1861,  when  he  became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Water- 
town,  Conn.,  of  which  he  continued  to  have  charge  un- 
til 1874.  He  died  at  the  Utter  place,  OcU  2, 1877.  He 
published,  Sermons  for  the  Christian  Year: — Confession 
for  Christ  .--The  Early  Called :— Position  of  the  Church, 
besides  several  tracts.  See  Prot.  Epise.  Almanac,  1878, 
p.  169 ;  Alllbone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Lewie,  Zechariah,  a  Congregational  minister  and 
editor,  son  of  Rev.  Isaac  Lewis,  D.D.,  was  bom  at  Wil- 
ton, Conn.,  Jan.  1, 1778.  With  his  twin  brother,  Isaac, 
he  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1794,  and  after  study- 
ing theology  at  Philadelphia  under  Ashbel  Green,  D.D., 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1796 ;  and  in  the  same  year 
was  appointed  tutor  in  Yale  College,  remaining  in  that 
ofilce  until  1799.  While  a  theological  student  he  was  a 
private  tutor  in  general  Washington's  family.  Con- 
vinced that  his  health  was  too  much  impaired  to  fulfil 
the  duties  of  the  ministry,  he  became  the  editor  of  the  • 
Commercial  Advertiser,  and  New  York  Spectator,  con- 
tinuing in  that  employment  until  1820.  For  sis  years 
he  was  corresponding  secretary  of  the  New  York  Re- 
ligious Tract  Society,  out  of  which  sprang  the  Ameri-  « 
can  Tract  Society.  Resigning  this  position  in  Febru- 
ary, 1820,  he  was  elected,  in  May,  a  secretary  of  the 
United  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  which  ofilce  he 
held  f«)r  fire  years.  For  several  years  he  was  editor  of 
the  A  merican  Missionary  Register,  which  he  began  to 
publish  in  July,  1820.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
Nov.  14, 1840.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer,  Pul-^ 
pt^i,666. 

Lha  Ma,  in  Lamaism,  is  one  of  the  five  upper  worlds 
through  which  the  soul  of  the  departed  has  to  wander. 

Lhamoghiuprul,  in  Lamaian  mythology,  was  the 
wife  of  the  Thil>etanian  king,  Sazan,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful,  pure,  and  sacred  nymphs  of  the  lower  heaven. 
See  Cio  CoMCiOA. 

Lha-Sea-Morou,  an  annual  festival  observed  by 
the  Lamas  of  Thibet  on  the  third  day  of  the  first  moon, 
at  Lha-Ssa.  It  lasts  six  days,  and  is  designed  to  give 
the  devout  an  opportunity  to  implore  the  blessings  of 
the  Tal6-Lama,  and  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  cele- 
brated Buddhist  monastery  called  Morou,  which  occu- 
pies the  centre  of  the  town.  See  Hue,  Travels  m  Tar* 
tary  and  Thibet, 

Lib&men,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient  Romans  to 
denote  the  bunch  of  hair  which  was  cut  from  the  fore- 
head of  the  victim  about  to  be  sacrificed,  and  which 
was  thrown  into  the  fire  as  a  kind  of  first-fruits. 

Libanomanoy  ( from  Xlfiavoc,  the  frankincense 
tree,  and  fiavrtia,  divination),  a  species  of  divination 
(q.  V.)  which  was  performed  by  throwing  a  quantity  of 
frankincense  into  the  fire,  and  noting  the  odor  which  it 
emitted.  If  it  burned  quickly  and  gave  out  an  agree- 
able smell,  the  omen  was  favorable;  but  if  the  reverse 
took  place,  it  was  unfavorable. 

LibelU  PcBIlltenti&lee  (certificates  of  penitence), 
documents  frequently  issued  during  and  after  the  8th 
centur}'  by  the  Romish  priesthood,  granting  immediate 
absolution  to  those  who  confessed  their  sins  to  the 
priest,  and  declared  themselves  reaily  to  fulfil  the  ap- 
pointed  penance,  even  though  they  were  not  prepared 
to  partake  of  the  communion.     Great  opposition  was 


LIBER  ALDUS  6C 

mida  to  tbU  pncikc  bj  tbe  letbnnen  in  the  time  of 
Chuleiiugae^    See  Pemitentiau 

Uber  Album  (»*««  boot)  of  the  indeot  monu- 
teries'ond  guilds  coatainolR  penonal  hiilory  orviaiuui 
or  benefictara,  frequentl/  tcconled  in  the  handwriting 
of  the  penons  tbeoiKlvei  coniiiiemoriitAl. 

IilbervIlB,  a  feaUval  obHrred  inniullf  ti?  Ihe  an- 
cient Honuns  on  March  17,  in  honor  of  Liber  or  Bac- 
chus. A  piuceiHon  of  pneau  and  priciteues,  wearing 
)vf  garlandi,  marched  through  the  cilj,  Imiing  wine, 
boney,  cakes,  and  aweetoieats,  along  with  a  portable 
altar,  having  in  Ihe  middle  of  it  a  flra-pan,  in  which 
the  aaeriflcea  were  burned.  On  thii  ocowlon  the  Ro- 
man jouthi  who  had  reached  the  age  of  uxteen  were 
inreated  with  the  toga  rinlii  or  drea*  of  manhood. 
The  lAberaUa  were  much  more  innocent  in  their  char- 
acter than  the  Bacdanalia  (q.  v.),  and  continued  to  be 
celebrated  in  Rome  after  that  feaiiTat  wai  suppmaed. 

laibfira  noB  (ddivtr  at)  U  the  amplification  of  the 
petition, "  Deliver  us  from  evil,"  in  the  Lord'i  Praj-er, 
fonnd  in  atmoM  all  liturgiea.     For  inatancc,  that  of 
Qallican  (which  ii  rariahle)  ia  on  Chrittmaa  day_' 
bera  noa,  omnipoteni  Deui,  ah  omni  malo  et  euModi 
in  omni  opere  bono,  peifecia  reritai  et  vera  libartai 
Deua,qui  regnas  in  ancula  •nculorun).''    Many  liturgies 
contain  aupplicaiioni  for  Ihe  intercetrion  of  saiul 
Ihe  Libera  wu.— Smith,  Diet,  of  ariil.  A  nlig.  >,  v. 

Iaiberl,PiETno,an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was 
at  Padua  in  160a,  and  Uodied  under  Aleuindro  Vbtd- 
tari,  alio  the  worka  of  tbe  beat  masters,  as  Michael  J 
gelo.  Raptiael,  Coneggio,  and  Utian.     Among  his  t 
productions  arc  the  iturdtr  of  the  IimocmlM,  at  Veni 
!foah  Juil  Landed  from  Ike  Art,  in  the  cathedral  at 
Ticenuj  and  TjIc  Delv^,  in  the  Charch  of  Santa  Maria 
Msggiore,  at  Bergamo.     Others  of  hia  grand  pictures 
are  thei)«(rTictt(mi>//'ji(iraoA't  IfotI,  in  the  cathedra] 
at  Vicenza;  Mom  SlriiiBg  lie  Ancit,  at  Dergamo;  and 
the  Sagiringt  qf  J<^.     He  died  in  16R7.    S^  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hilt,  nftia  Fine  Arlt,  a,  v.;  HoeTer,  Kout.  Biog. 
Gei^ale,  s.  r. 

LibuttlL  Some  would  locate  this  plaoa  at  BtU- 
JibriiL,  and  others  at  Ibm,  on  the  coaat  loadi  but  Tris- 
tram [BitU  Plaat,^**) and Trelawney  Saunden (ifap 
pfthe  O.T^j  accept  the  identification  with  Arak  r^ 
iletuMi/eh,  which  the  Onhance  ifap  laya  down  at  six 
and  a  halK  milea  west  of  Deit-Jibrin,  and  the  acoom- 
panyiiig  Memoiri  describe  thus  (iii,ifi9) :  "A  mud  vil- 
lage on  a  flat  plain,  surrounded  with  arable  land,  and 
supplied  by  Ihteo  wells.  It  ia  of  moderate  aiie 
two  sacred  places.  The  curious  mound  north  of 
remarkable  feature  in  the  landscape,  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  high,  and  conuiting  of  natural  rock,  but  scarped, 
and  appearing  to  have  been  artificially  made  steeper. 
On  the  lop  ia  a  aacred  maiam,  with  a  few  hedges  of 
prickly  pear.  This  site  is  evidently  ancient  and  im- 
portoat.  The  hills  near  it  are  of  very  white  chalk,  and 
tbe  Dame  libnnh  signiHes  'milk  white.'" 

Zilbr*  [a  balaiKt),  the  seventh  sign  of  Ihe  lodiac 
It  was  supposed  that  those  who  were  bom  under  this 
constellation  loved  equity.  There  were  other  kindred 
auperuiiioua  connected  with  this  sign  by  the  ancients. 

Ubs,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  the  south-west  wind. 
lie  wu  represented  in  Athena,  on  the  tuirer  of  winds, 
aa  a  youug  man,  clothed  in  a  light  mantle.  I 
See  Noita. 


LICHTENSTEIN 

10-17  (HdmsUdt,  1771)  ^;V^ni  LOer  JM  eum  OdgiMa 
Ilemeri  Comparari  Pouiit  (1778) :~Detery>lie  Daa- 
rim  Codiaaa  Hdmiicanim  adiuB  Pamnt  Cogmtomm 
(1776):  — AecoiftD  Cadicu  Hebr.  US.  Hilmiladiaiiit 
Qunfi  (1777),  etc  Bee  Ditiag,  Die  s^rW  Titobstm 
iMultMcmdi,  s.  v.;  FOnt,  BiiL  Jad.  u,  Ub;  Winer, 
IIoHdiuiA  derlAeoL  Lit.  1,96 ;  ii,  167.  (Bl  P.) 
LichUiuitelii,  Fiiedrioh  Wlllwlm  Jacob,  > 

Lutheran  ninister  of  Germanv,  waa  bom  of  Jewish 
uuich,  Oct.  8, 1826.  In  18*2,  his  mothei 
ing  the  Church,  he  was  baptized,  togcliier  with  hia 
blather  Moritz,  at  Wllnburg,  In  1S4S  he  commenced 
his  theologicat  stndiea  at  Erlangen,  and  pursued  the 
same  at  Halle.  In  184B  he  was  ordained,  and  appointed 
oaaiauut  pastor  at  Munich.  In  186S  the  Unirenity 
of  Erlangen  bestowed  on  him  the  diploma  of  doctor  of 
philosophy,  for  a  work  entitled,  LebaugeiiAicUe  det 
/Itrm  Jttu  Chrttli  in  chroaoiogitdtr  Uiheriicil  (Er- 
langen, 1856).  In  1868  be  was  called  lt>  Culmbacb, 
and  died  March  24, 1875.     (R  P.) 

lalobtenBteln,  Ooorga  Pbllip,  a  Lutbenn  min- 
ister of  Germany,  waa  bam  at  Franhfart-on-lbs-Haia, 
March  26, 1606,  of  Jewiah  parents.  Towards  the  end 
of  that  same  year  he  was  baptiied,  together  with  hia 
father,  who  made  on  open  profession  of  Christ,  tieh- 
tenttein  made  bis  philosophical  studies  at  Gieasen  and 
Marburg,  and  his  thetdogieal  at  Stnsburg.  He  waa 
offered  by  tbe  Swedish  fleld-msnhal,  count  Horn,  who 
was  at  that  time  in  Germany,  the  chaplaincy  Ot  the 
court  of  Sweden,  but  he  preferred  (a  remain  st  home, 
and  waa  ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1634.  He  mmis- 
tered  for  several  years  in  Ihe  neighborhood  of  Frank- 
fort, till  he  was  called,  in  1S67,  to  the  pastorate  of  St. 
Catharine's  Church.  He  died  Feb.  7, 16S2,  his  funeral 
sermon  being  preached  by  hia  friend,  tbe  famous  Dr, 
Spener.     (B.  P.) 

ZdchtBiutelii,  Johannes  Leopold,  a  Preshjr- 
leriaii  minister,  was  horn  of  Jewish  parentage,  at  Hech- 
ingen,  April  10, 1813.  At  the  age  of  uxteen  be  was  ' 
appointed  teacher  at  Hahsheim,  in  Upper  Alsace.  When 
twenty-one  year*  old  hia  way  led  him  to  Basle,  where 
a  Hebrew  Christian  prepared  himself  for  miasionary 
work.  To  bring  this  lost  aheep  back  to  the  fold  of  the 
synagogue  waa  Lichtenitein'a  intention,  but  the  would- 
be  victor  was  soun  conquered,  and  the  former  teacher 
became  now  a  disciple  of  ChriaL  On  Sept.  38, 1S31,  he 
waa  baptiied  at  Stiasburg,  adding  Ihe  name  Johaniwa 
to  his  Jewish  name  Leopold.  Soon  after  his  baptism 
he  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  attended  the  £cole  de 
TheoL  Otatoire,  and  where  Merle  d'Aubigne  was  one  of 
his  teachers.  From  Geneva  he  went  to  Stiasburg,  and 
attended  tbe  upper  classes  of  thePraleatantgymnaaiuiD. 
Having  paaaed  his  examination  in  1889,  he  then  went 
to  Erlangen,  where  HolTman,  Harless,  Thiersch,  and 
others  were  hia  profesaon.    In  1841  he  wept  to  Berlin 


Ziiolitenateln,  Anton  Angiut  Helnrioh,  a 

Lutheran  theologian  of  Uermanj,  was  bom  Aug.  Sli, 
I'tA,  at  Helmatlldt,  where  he  also  pursued  his  studies, 
III  1T7S  he  commenced  hia  academical  career  in  his  na- 
tive pincp,  was  in  1777  rector  at  the  Johanneum  at 
Hamburg,  and  in  1782  profsaipr  of  Oriental  language* 
there.  In  1798  he  was  called  to  his  native  place  as 
professor  of  theolog)',  geueisl  superintendent,  and  first 
preacher  at  St.  Stephen's.  He  died  Feb.  17, 1816,  leav- 
ing, Hvctrinunin  TAeologicanm  i^ameit  ad  1  Cur.  iH, 


LICHTENSTJEIN 


669 


LIOATURE 


to  oompleto  his  theological  itiidics  nnder  HengUcnberg, 
Suhl,  Neandflr,  Twetteo,  and  others.  In  1842  he  was 
ofdained  for  the  ministry  at  Erlangeo,  and  accepted  a 
call  from  the  Jewish  Missionary.  Society,  at  Straahurg. 
In  1845  he  reoeiTed  a  call  from  New  York,  to  act  as  su- 
perintendent of  the  Jewish  mission  there,  which  he 
aeoepted.  In  1847  he  left  his  position,  and  in  1848  was 
appointed  pastor  of  the  German  Presbyterian  Gboxch 
at  Paterson,  N.  J.  From  1851  to  1854  he  labored  at 
New  Albany,  Ind.;  accepted  a  call  of  the  German  Re- 
formed Church  at  BuflTalo,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained 
till  1862,  when  the  First  German  Beforroed  Church  of 
Cincinnati,  O^  called  him  aa  its  pastor.  In  1866  he 
exchanged  his  position  for  the  pastorate  of  the  First 
Gennan  Presbyterian  Chnrch  there,  and  fell  asleep  in 
Jesus,  Nov.  8, 1882.    (a  P.) 

Llohtensteiii,  Morits,  a  Lutheran  minister  of 
Germany,  brother  of  Jacob,  was  bom  Jan.  8, 1824.  Like 
bis  brother,  he  studied  theoIoir>'  first  at  Erlangen,  and 
subsequently  at  Halle.  In  1855  he  entered  actively  upon 
the  ministerial  career,  by  being  made  curate  to  an  aged 
minister  at  BUiglen,  in  Franconia.  In  1857  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  of  Tann.  The  place  proving  inju- 
rious, Lichtenstoin  was  transferred  to  Rittersbach,  Cen. 
tral  Franconia,  in  1860,  and  died  Sept.  8, 1876.    (a  P.) 

Zdcnon.    See  Likmox. 

Zilda,  David  db,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, is  the  author  of,  *111  ^1313,  or  a  cabalistic  com- 
mentary on  Ruth  (Amsterdam,  1610) :— *11"1  *1*^;,  hom- 

Uies  on  the  Pentateuch  (ibid.  1719) :— obpS  *^«^9,  or  a 
commentary  on  the  618  precepts  (1690).  His  writings 
were  edited  and  published  under  the  title  of  *1^  *1BD 
*\Z  b9,by  his  son  (Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1727).  See 
FQrst,J9i6J:/tfdii,247.    (a  P.) 

Ziiebamiaiiii,  Frahz  Lvopold  Bruko,  a  Roman 
CSatholic  theologian,  was  bom  at  Molsheim,  near  Stras- 
burg,  in  1759.  At  the  time  of  the  French  revolution, 
to  avoid  being  imprisoned,  he  fled  to  Germany,  but  re- 
turned to  his  parochial  work  at  Eraolsheim  in  1795. 
In  1801  he  was  called  to  Straabuig  as  cathedral-preacher 
and  episcopal  secretary,  but  returned  again  to  Eraols- 
heim in  1808.  In  1804  Liebermann  was  imprisoned  un- 
der the  pretext  of  having  relations  with  the  Bourbon 
family.  He  was  released,  however,  in  1805^  and  his 
friend,  the  bishop  of  Mayence,  appointed  him  auperior 
of  the  clerical  seminary  and  canon  at  the  cathedral  of 
Mayence.  Liebermann,  who  died  in  1844,  is  the  author 
of  Jnitiiutionei  Tkeologia  Dogmatica  (1819,  5  vols.),  a 
work  still  used  in  the  seminaries  of  France,  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  America.  It  has  also  been  translated 
into  French  in  1856.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  det 
Sciencei  Rdigieuiet^  a.  v. ;  Winer,  IltJmdbuch  der  theoL 
LiL  I,  907.    (a  P.) 

Zdebetnit;  Fiukdrich,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  Oct.  17, 1881,  at  Chariottenburg, 
near  Berlin,  doctor  of  theology,  is  the  author  of.  Die  Ehe 
nach  ihrer  Idee  und  nach  ihrer  geichiehtlicken  EtUwidX' 
lung  (Berlin,  1884):— Der  Tag  de*  Ilerm  und  seine 
Feier  (1837)  : — Cht'itlliche  Andachtsstunden/ur  Frauen 
und  Jungfrauen  evangeUscker  Konfession  (1847)  i—Utber 
die  Verehrung  der  Heiligen^RtUguien  und  Bilder  (1845) : 
— KiUeehitmut  der  chrisdichen  I^hre  (1858) :  —  JMse 
nach  dtm  Morgenlande  (1858)  i—Dr,  Beck  und  eeine  8teU 
lung  tur  Kirche  (1857) : — Ueber  die  Heuckelei  und  wir 
der  dieselU  (1859).    See  Zuchold,  BUd,  TAeoL  ii,  793  sq. 

(B.P.) 

Liebner,  Karl  Thkodor  Aijbert,  a  prominent 
Protestant  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Schkolen, 
near  Naumburg,  March  8, 1806.  He  studied  at  Leipsic, 
Berlin,  and  Wittemberg,  was  in  1832  pastor  at  Kreisfeld, 
in  Saxony,  in  1835  professor  at  Gottingen,  in  1851  at 
Leipsic,  and  in  1855  general  superintendent  and  court- 
preacher  at  Dresden.  He  died  June  24, 187 1 ,  at  Meran, 
Switzerland.    Liebner  is  the  author  of,  Hugo  von  St, 


Vtetorund  dieikeobgieekenRieit»u^fen$ebier  Zeii  (htip- 
sic,  1882)  i^Die  ckriitlkke  IhgmaHk  out  dem  ckrittoh^ 
gieeken  Princip  dargettelU  (Gottingen,  1849)  z^fniroduC' 
tio  tfi  />o;iiui<ic<iiii  Chrittianam  (Leipeic,  1854).  Besides, 
he  published  Predigten  in  der  Universitdti'Kircke  ge^ 
hallen  (Gottingen,  1841;  2d  ed.  1856)  :~/Vwfi^.£M- 
tr&^  tur  FOrderung  der  Erhemdniu  Chrieti  in  der 
Gemeinde  (1861),  and  contributed  krgely  to  the  Jahr. 
buekerJUrdeuUdeTheologie.  Set  Zwi\io)Ay  BibL  Theol. 
ii,794;  hichtmberger,  Encgclop,  da  Sciences  Religieuset, 
s.  v. ;  Plitt^Henog,  Reat-EncgUop,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Zilemaeker,  Nicolas  (called  the  J2o«e),an  eminent 
Flemish  painter,  waa  bora  at  Ghent  in  1575,  and  first 
studied  under  Mark  Gerards,  and,  after  the  death  of 
that  master,  with  Ottovenius.  The  name  of  Rose  waa 
given  him  when  a  boy  on  account  of  his  ruddy  cheeks. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  painters  of  the  Flem« 
ish  school,  and  his  works  are  in  almost  every  town  in 
the  Low  (Countries.  He  painted  sacred  and  historical 
subjects.  In  the  Church  of  St.  Nicholas,  at  Ghent,  are 
two  of  his  best  works.  The  Good  Samaritan^  and  The 
Fall  of  (he  Bebel  Angels^  which  last  is  conudered  hia 
masterpiece.  Also  in  the  Church  of  St.  James  are  sev- 
eral of  his  works,  one  of  which  is  a  grand  composition, 
representing  The  Last  Judgment,  He  died. at  Ghent  in 
1647.  See  Hoefer,  iVotrr.  i^M^.  (^^ra/f,  a.  V. ;  Spooner, 
Biog,  BiMt,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Ziievens  (Livena,  or  Lywyna),  Jan,  a  Dutoh 
painter  and  engraver,  was  bora  at  Leyden,  Oct.  24, 
1607,  and  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  George  van 
Schooten,  but  when  ten  years  of  age  was  placed  under 
Peter  Lastman.  He  painted  a  number  of  fine  works 
while  quite  young,  which  procured  him  a  favorable  re- 
ception at  the  court  of  England,  where  he  resided  three 
years.  At  Brussels,  in  the  Church  of  the  Jesuits,  is  his 
VititaHon  of  the  Virgin,  and  in  the  Church  of  St.  James, 
at  Antwerp,  a  fine  picture  of  The  Holg  FamUg,  In 
1641  he  returned  to  Leyden,  where  he  executed  his  cel- 
ebrated pictures  of  David  and  Bathsheba  and  The  Sae^ 
rijice  oj  Abraham,  He  died  probably  in  1668.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  some  of  his  best  prints :  The  IMg 
Familg;  The  Virgin  Presenting  a  Pear  to  the  I^fani 
Jesus;  St,  John  the  Evangelist;  St,  Jerome  in  a  Cell, 
holding  a  Crucifix;  The  Raising  of  Lazarus,  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist, 
of  the  Fine  A  rts^  s.  v. 

Ijlf  and  Iilfthnuwer,  in  Norse  mythology,  are  two 
human  beings  who  hide  themselves  with  Ragnarokr 
(destraction  of  the  world),  and  feed  on  dew.  From 
them  all  men  are  born  who  will  inhabit  the  rejuvenated 
earth  after  the  fire  of  Sutur. 

IJfu«n  Version  or  thb  Scriptures.  Lifu  ia  a 
language  spoken  on  the  Loyalty  Islands.  In  1869  the 
book  of  Psalms,  in  the  Lifu  language,  was  printed  in 
the  isUnd  of  Mare.  In  1872  the  New  Test,  was  printed 
in  England,  under  the  care  of  the  translator,  the  Rev. 
M.  Macfarlane,  one  of  the  missionaries  at  Lifu.  In  1877 
the  Pentateuch  was  issued  from  the  press,  under  the 
editorship  of  the  Rev.  S.  M.  Cresgh,  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary. Society.  From  the  report  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  of  1885,  we  leara  that  the  com- 
pletion of  the  revision  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
was  made  Aug.  29, 1884.  The  translator.  Rev.  S.  M. 
Creagh  "  is  now  copying  the  corrections  made  in  the 
parts  already  printed,  viz.  Pentateuch,  Psalms,  and  New 
Test.,  and  the  number  of  changes  in  these  amount  to 
52,310.  The  whole  is  being  prepared  for.  publication." 
The  same  translator  is  also  preparing  marginal  refer- 
ences.   (B.  P.) 

XJiur,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  a  dwarf  formed  of  and 
living  in  the  earth.  He  was  slain  by  Thor  at  Baldur's 
funenl,  and  thrown  into  the  buraing  ship. 

Xaigatnre  (ligatura,  Ugamenium,  SiatCi  irapiafifiOf 
etc)  was  a  kind  of  amulet  worn  by  the  ancient  heathen, 
either  upon  their  own  persons  or  those  of  their  animals, 
for  the  purpose  of  averting  evil.  Their  use  is  condemned 


LIGHTENSTEIN 


670 


LINDEMANN 


by  early  GhristUn  writers  (Chrysostom,  ffomiL  adv,  Jud, 
viii,  7 ;  Const,  ApoatoL  viii,  82,  etc.).  See  Smith,  Diet, 
of  Christ.  A  tUig,  a.  t. 

Zilghtensteili,  Johit,  D.D.,  a  member  of  the  Cin- 
ciDnati  Presbytery,  was  bom  at  Ilechingen,  Hohenzol- 
lem,  Germany,  in  1818.  The  occasion  of  his  conver- 
sion was  his  zealoas  efforts  to  bring  back  to  the  Jewish 
faith  a  companion  who  had  become  a  Christian.  At 
different  nnivereities  he  enjoyed  the  teachings  of  snch 
men  as  Merle  D'Aubigne,  Hengstenberg,  Neander,Stahl, 
and  Schelling.  He  was  ordained  in  1842,  and  was  for 
a  time  a  missionary  among  the  Jews  of  Alsace.  He 
came  to  New  York  in  1846,  on  the  invitation  of  the 
Society  for  Ameliorating  the  Ckmdition  of  the  Jews, 
and  waa  superintendent  of  their  mission-house.  He 
afterwards  became  pastor  of  a  German  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  and  subsequently  of  a  Ger- 
man Reformed  Church  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  where  he  re- 
mained eight  years.  He  removed  to  Cincinnati  in  186C, 
took  charge  of  the  First  German  Presbyterian  Church, 
and  continued  there  until  his  death,  Nov.  8, 1882.  He 
was  a  ripe  scholar,  an  able  preacher,  and  a  thoroughly 
evangelical  man.  See  N,  Y.  Obtervtr^  Nov.  28, 1882. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Lights,  Feast  of,  a  name  applied  by  Josephus  to 
the  Jewish  Feast  of  Dedication  (q.  v.). 

Lights  of  Walton,  a  class  of  enthusiasts  who  ap- 
peared in  the  17th  century  at  Walton-on-Thames,  Sur- 
rey, England.  The  story  of  their  origin  is  related  as 
follows :  In  the  lieginning  of  Lent,  1649,  Mr.  Fawcet, 
then  minister  of  Walton,  having  preached  in  the  after- 
noon, when  he  had  concluded  it  was  nearly  dark,  and 
six  soldiers  came  into  the  church,  one  with  a  lighted 
candle  in  a  lanteni,  and  four  with  candles  unlighted. 
The  first  soldier  addressed  the  people,  declaring  that  he 
had  received  in  a  vision  a  message  from  God,  which 
they  must  listen  to  and  believe  on  pain  of  damnation. 
The  message  consisted  of  five  lights:  1.  The  Sabbath  is 
abolished ;  '*  and  here,*'  said  be,  "  I  should  put  out  my 
first  light,  but  the  wind  is  so  high  that  I  cannot  light 
it."  2.  Tithes  are  abolished.  8.  Ministers  are  abol- 
ished. 4.  Magistrates  are  abolished,  repeating  the  same 
words  as  he  had  uttered  under  the  first  head.  Then 
taking  a  Bible  from  his  pocket,  he  declared  that  it  is 
also  abolished,  as  containing  only  beggarly  elements, 
which  are  unnecessary  now  that  Christ  is  come  in  his 
glory,  with  a  full  measure  of  his  Spirit.  Then  taking 
the  lighted  candle  from  his  lantern,  he  set  fire  to  the 
pages  of  the  Bible,  after  which,  extinguishing  the  can- 
dle, he  added, "  and  here  my  fifth  light  is  extinguished." 

Lig;it80ll,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  was  the  god  of 
atonement  and  rest.  The  wives  pray  to  him  after  hav- 
ing been  angry  with  their  husbands. 

Liknon  (Xcicrov),  a  long  basket,  in  which  the  im* 
age  of  Dionysus  was  carried  in  the  Diotuftia,  The 
Liknon  was  the  winnowing  fan  into  which  the  com  was 
received  after  threshing,  and  was,  ver\*  naturally,  used 
in  the  rites  of  both  Bacchus  and  Ceres.  It  was  also 
employed  to  carry  the  instruments  of  sacrifice,  and  first- 
fruits  or  other  offerings.     See  Bacciiits. 

LiUenthal,  Max,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom  at  Mu- 
nich in  1815.  He  studied  at  his  native  place,  and  grad- 
uated in  1837  as  doctor  of  philosophy.  In  1889  he  re- 
ceived a  call  as  director  of  the  Hebrew  school  at  Riga, 
Russia.  In  1845  he  resigned  his  position  and  went  to 
New  York  city,  where  he  was  elected  rabbi  of  three 
congregations,  an  oflice  which  he,  however,  resigned  to 
open  a  Jewish  boarding-schooL  In  1855  he  accepted  a 
call  to  the  congregation  at  Cincinnati,  and  died  April  1, 
1882.  Besides  sermons  and  addresses,  he  published, 
Z7e6cr  dm  Urtpruwf  der  juduch-alexandiimschm  ReU- 
ffionsphilosophie  (Munich,  1839)  i—BiUiof^raphiscke  No- 
tizen  iiber  die  kdnrditchim  Manuscripte  der  kdnigl.  BibliO' 
thek  zu  Miinchen  (printed  in  the  Beilarft  der  allgemeinen 
Zeitung  de$  Judenthums,  1848).  See  Fttrst,  BiH,  Jud,  ii, 
249  sq.     (B.  P.) 


T«in»hj  the  name  of  the  fint  wife  of  Adam,  according 
to  rabbinical  tradition.  She  waa  made  of  the  earth  aa 
waa  Adam  himself,  and  would  not  submit  to  be  ruled 
over  by  her  husband.  Seeing  no  possibility  of  an 
agreement  between  herself  and  him,  she  fled  away 
to  the  sea,  where  she  became  the  mother  of  a  race  of 
dasmons,  and,  aa  a  punishment  for  refusing  to  return 
to  Adam,  one  hundred  of  her  children  were  to  die  ev- 
ery day.  Lilith  became  noted  in  Jewish  legend  as  a 
destroyer  of  infants,  and  for  this  reason  they  adopted 
the  custom  of  writing  the  names  of  three  protecting  an- 
gels on  slips  of  paper  or  parchment,  and  binding  them 
upon  the  infant,  to  prevent  the  evil  influence  of  Lilith. 
Among  modem  Jews,  when  a  woman  approachea  the 
period  of  her  confinement,  the  husband  inscribes  on  each 
of  the  walls  or  partitions  around  the  bed,  along  with 
the  names  of  AdaJn  and  Eve,  the  words  **  Begone,  Lilith.** 
On  the  inside  of  the  doors  also  he  writes  the  names  of 
three  angels,  which  it  is  believed  will  defend  the  child 
from  the  injuries  which  it  might  otherwise  receive  from 
LUith. 

Lillie,  Adam,  D.D.,a  Scotch  Congregational  mini»> 
ter,  was  bom  in  Glasgow  in  1808.  He  embraced  re- 
ligion very  early  in  life,  studied  at  the  university,  and 
becoming  animated  by  a  strong  missionary  desire,  of- 
fered his  services  to  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
studied  three  years  at  Gosport,  and  in  1826  sailed  to 
India.  His  health  failing  caused  his  retum  to  Glasgow 
in  the  following  year.  He  then  settled  as  teacher,  soon 
after  became  itinerant  minister,  in  1888  was  chosen  oo- 
pastor  at  Musselburgh,  and  in  1834  accepted  an  invita- 
tion to  the  pastorate  at  Brantford,  Ontario,  where  he 
continued  during  life.  In  1840  Dr.  Lillie  added  to  hia 
pastorate  the  tutorship  of  the  Canadian  Institute  for 
the  training  of  a  local  ministry.  He  died  Oct,  19, 1869. 
Dr.  Lillie  was  an  eminent  Christian  and  scholar,  and  a 
prodigious  worker.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Tear-Book,  1870, 
p.  805. 

Limui^  an  article  of  dreaa  worn  around  the  loina  by 
the  ancient  Roman  papth  or  ofilciating  priest,  at  the 
sacrifices. 

Lincoln,  Richard,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  waa  pr»> 
moted  to  the  siae  of  Dublin  in  1767.  He  encouraged  hia 
people  to  a  continuance  of  peaceful  and  Christian  dispo- 
sitions, and  forcibly  appealed  to  those  of  another  com- 
munion as  to  Catholic  loyalty  and  love.  He  died  in 
1762.  See  D*Alton,  Memoirs  of  ike  Archbishops  of 
Dublin,  p,4G9, 

Lincoln,  Thomas  Oliver,  D.D.,  a  Ba()tist  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  May  4,  1809.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1829,  and  from  Newton 
Theological  Institution  in  1884;  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Kenncbunkport^  Me.,  Dec.  10, 
1834,  and  afterwards  served  the  Free  Street  Chnrch  in 
Portland ;  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  Mount  Holly,  N.  J. ;  Man> 
Chester,  N.  H. ;  Utica  and  Elmira,  N.  Y. ;  WiUiamsport, 
Pa. ;  and  Roadstown,  N.  J.  He  died  at  Bridgeton,  Jan. 
20, 1877.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Linde,  Johann  Wilheui,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  24, 1760,  at  Thorn,  and  died 
Feb.  16,  1840,  at  Dantzic,  superintendent  and  member 
of  consistory.  He  is  the  author  of,  Senteniia  Jesu  iSt- 
racidae  (Dantzic,  1795)  :^De$  Sohnes  Sirach  Sittenlehre 
(Letpsic,  1782, 1795)  i—Beinhard  und  A  mnum,  oder  Pre* 
digten'ParaUek;  als  Bettrag  zur  ffomiietik  (K5niga- 
berg,  1800).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  iheoL  Zt^.  i,  288 ; 
U,  48, 64 ;  FUrst,  Bibl,  Jud,  ii,  250.     (B,  P.) 

Lindemann,  Joachim,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  April  7,  1662,  at  Rostock.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1684  magiater 
in  his  native  city,  in  1688  archdeacon,  in  1692  professor, 
and  died  Dec  14, 1698,  a  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote, 
De  Obligaiione  ComcientieB : — De  PnejudicOs  PhUosophp- 
ds: — De  Sanctorum  cum  Chritto  lUdivivorum  Reeur^ 
rfcdone,  ex  Matt,  xxviit  62,  53 : — De  ProtO'Canomeis 
et  DeuterO'Canonicis  S,  iScripturm  Libris : — De  lis  quee 


LINDESAT 


671 


LINDSAY 


Theologia  NatwnUu  IffnoraL    See  Jdcber,  AUgetneinu 
Gdekrtm^Lexikon^  a.  v.    (a  P.) 

ZilndeMiy.  David,  •  Scotch  prelate,  waa  preferred 
to  the  see  of  Ron  in  1600,  and  still  continued  his  min- 
istrr  at  Leith  until  his  death,  which  occurred  about 
1618.  In  1604  he  was  one  of  the  commiasioQera  for 
uniting  the  two  kingdoms.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bisk" 
ops,  p.  201. 

laindesay,  Patrick,  a  Scotch  prelate,  waa  first 
minister  at  St.  Yigtan's,  in  Angus.  In  October,  1618, 
he  was  preferred  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Ross,  and  con- 
secrated Dec  15  of  the  same  year.  From  this  he  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Glasgow,  April  16, 1688.  He 
died  at  Newcastle  in  1641.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Sish^ 
ops,  p.  202, 264. 

Iiindet,  Robert  Thomas,  a  French  prelate  and 
politician,  was  bom  at  Reruay  (£ure)  in  1748.  He 
was  pastor  of  the  parish  of  St  Croix  in  that  town,  when 
he  was  elected  deputy  of  the  clergy  of  the  bailiwick 
of  Evreux  to  the  Sutes-General  of  1789.  In  1791  he 
was.  elected  constitutional  bishop  of  £ure.  In  No- 
vember, 1792,  he  married  publicly.  In  1798  he  re- 
signed his  episcopate,  and  all  his  offices  in  1798,  and 
lived  thereafter  in  obscurity,  until  finally,  by  the  law 
of  amnesty  of  1816,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  France. 
After  staying  some  time  in  Switzerland  and  Italy,  he 
was  permitted  to  come  home  to  his  native  countT}', 
where  he  died  in  August,  1828.  He  wrote,  Lettre  Cir^ 
culaire  au  Clergi  de  son  Diocese : — Letlres  aux  Rtligi- 
eases  des  Monasthres  de  son  Diockse,  See  Hoefer,  Nohv, 
Biog»  Gsnsrale,  s.  t. 

Llndley,  Daniel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  mission- 
dry,  was  bom  in  America  in  1800.  After  receiving  his 
theological  education,  he  was  ordained,  and  went  with 
five  others  to  South  Africa  in  1884.  In  1836  he  esub- 
lished  a  mission  on  the  Allovo  river.  Port  Natal,  and 
commenced  his  lifelong  work  of  laboring  to  convert 
the  Zulus  to  Christ.  On  account  of  the  numerous  wars 
in  that  country,  his  mission  was  broken  op,  and  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time  he  was  prevented  from 
carrying  out  his  great  design.  He  lived,  however, 
to  see  a  great  moral  and  civil  revolution  among  the 
inhabitants  of  that,  country,  and  his  zeal  and  persever- 
ance in  the  great  cause  in  which  ho  was  engaged  were 
crowned  with  success.  After  toiling  for  thirty-seven 
years,  he  waa  obliged,  on  account  of  his  wife's  illness, 
to  retum  to  the  United  States.  He  travelled  exten- 
sively throughout  the  country  advocating  the  cause  of 
missions,  until  1877,  when  he  was  stricken  with  paraly- 
sis, from  which  he  never  recovered.  Dr.  Lindley  died 
in  New  York  in  August,  1880.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Lindley,  Jacobs  D.D.,  a  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  June  18, 1774,  in  westem  Penns}*!- 
vania,  and  was  the  fifth  in  descent  from  Francis  Lind- 
ley, one  of  the  passengers  in  the  Matffiower,  Jacobus 
father  erected  a  block-house  between  the  Monongahela 
river  and  Wheeling,  as  a  defence  against  prowling  Ind- 
ians, in  the  winter  of  1774  and  1775;  and  it  waa  long 
known  as  Fort  Lindley.  Young  Jacob  became  a  com- 
municant about  1786.  For  a  time  he  was  a  student  at 
an  academy  near  his  home,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
entered  the  institution  afterwards  known  as  Jefferson 
College,  at  Cannonsburg,  Pa.  In  1798  he  entered  Prince- 
ton College,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1800.  Having 
studied  theology  for  a  time,  he  was  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  Washington  Presbytery,  and  in  1808  removed 
to  Beverly,  O.  The  first  board  of  trustees  of  Ohio  Uni- 
versity sdected  him  to  organize  and  conduct  that  in- 
stitution, for  which  purpose  he  went  to  Athens  in  1808. 
For  several  years  be  bad  charge  of  the  infant  college, 
and  was  the  prime  mover  in  securing  the  erection  of 
the  college  buildings,  and  in  founding  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Athens.  During  a  part  of  his  twenty  years' 
labor  there  he  was  the  only  Presbyterian  minister  in 
that  section  of  Ohio.  About  1828  he  waa  partially  re- 
Ueved  by  the  appointment  to  the  presidency  of  Rev. 


Dr.  Wilson,  of  Chillicothe;  although  he  remained  about 
a  year  longer  in  the  college  as  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy and  mathematics.  Subsequently  he  spent  one 
year  at  Walnut  Hills,  Cincinnati ;  then  a  year  or  two 
at  the  Flats  of  Grace  creek ;  after  which  he  accepted 
a  call  from  the  Upper  Ten  Mile  congregation,  within 
whose  bounds  waa  his  birthplace.  While  here,  in  west- 
era  Pennsylvania,  he  received  a  mandate  from  his  pres- 
b3rtery  forbidding  ministerial  intercourse  with  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterians.  Refusing  obedience  to  the 
mandate,  charges  were  brought  against  him,  which  he 
showed  to  be  groundless,  and  then  he  demanded  from 
his  presbytery  a  letter  of  dismission.  This  was  grant- 
ed, and  in  this  way  his  connection  with  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  was  severed.  He  became  a  Cumberland 
Presbyterian,  but  continued  his  pastoral  relation  with 
the  Upper  Ten  Mile  congregation  for  two  or  three  years. 
Subsequently  he  took  charge  of  a  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian congregation  at  Beverly  (then  Waterfonl),  O. 
In  1887  he  removed  to  Alabama,  still  preaching  and 
teaching  as  opportunity  offered.  From  1848  Dr.  Lind- 
ley spent  his  winters  in  the  South,  and  his  summers  in 
the  North.  He  died  at  Connellsville,  Pa.,  Jan.  29, 
1857.  In  1846  he  published  a  small  volume,  entitled 
Infant  Philosophjf.  See  Beard,  Biographioal  Sketches, 
2d  series,  p.  45. 

Lindner,  Frledrlch  'Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1779  at  Weida.  He 
commenced  his  academical  career  at  Leipsic  in  1806, 
was  in  1825  professor  of  catechetics,  retired  in  1860,  and 
died  Nov.  1, 1866.  He  published.  Die  wichiigsten  That- 
sacken  und  UriheiU/ur  und  gtgen  Missions-  und  BibeU 
geseUschafien  (Leipsic,  1825): — Die  Lehre  vom  Abend- 
mahU  (1881).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  800 ;  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  454, 587.     (B.  P.) 

Lindner,  "WiUielm  Bruno,  a  Lutheran  theolo* 
gian  of  Germany,  who  died  at  Leipsic  in  1876,  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  De  Joviniano 
et  Viffikmtio  (Leipsic,  1839) : — Lehrbuch  der  chnstlichen 
Kirchengeschichie  (1848-54,  8  vols.)  i—BiUiofkeca  Pa- 
trum  Ecclesiasticorum  Selectissima  QSb7) : -^  Sermons, 
delivered  in  the  Universitv  Church  (1844)  i-^Christo^ 
logical  Sermons  (1855).  See  Zuchold,  BiN.  TheoL  ii, 
8C0sq.     (B.P.) 

Lindo,  Elia  H.,  a  Jewish  writer,  who  died  in  Lon- 
don, July  11, 1865,  is  the  author  of  Bistory  of  the  Jews 
of  Spain  and  Portugal  (London,  1849).  From  the  He- 
brew he  translated  a  work  of  Menasseh  ben-Israel :  The 
Conciliator,  a  Beconcilemeni  of  the  Apparent  Contradic- 
tions in  Holy  Scripture  (1842, 2  vols.).  See  Fttrst,  Bibl. 
Jud.il,  251,    (RP.) 

Lindsay  (properly  Alexander  "William 
Cramrford),  Lord  (known  after  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther as  Count  of  Crawford  and  Balcarres),  an  English 
writer,  waa  bora  OcL  16,  1812.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  graduated 
in  1S38  as  master  of  arts.  He  then  travelled  exten- 
sively, and  published  in  1888  his  Letters  on  Egypt, 
Edom,  and  the  Holy  Land,  in  two  volumes.  In  1844  he 
published  A  Letter  to  a  Friend  on  the  Evidence  and 
Theory  of  Christianity,  and  in  1846  Progiession  by  An- 
tagonism, In  1861  he  issued  his  Scepticism;  in  1870 
(Ecumenicity  in  Helation  to  the  Church  of  England,  and 
in  1872  Etrusaxn  Inscriptions.  He  died  at  Florence, 
Dec  18, 1880.  A  large  work  on  comparative  history 
of  the  religions  of  antiquity,  which  he  intended  to  pub- 
lish under  the  title  of  The  Beligion  of  Noah,  was  left 
incomplete.    (B.  P.) 

Lindsay,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
preacher  at  St  Madoes,  and  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  whera 
he  continued  until  1638,  when  be  renounced  his  office, 
abjured  episcopacy,  submitted  to  Presbyterian  parity, 
and  accepted  from  the  then  ralers  his  former  church  of 
St.  Madoes.  He  acquired  the  barony  of  Evelick,  in  the 
carse  of  Gowrie.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  98. 

Lindsay,  David,  a  Scotch  prelate,  waa  minister 


LINDSAY 


672 


LION-WORSHIP 


at  Dandee,  made  bishop  of  Brechin,  and  contecrated 
at  Sl  Andrews,  Nov.  23, 1619.  He  was  translated  to 
the  see  of  Edinburgh,  Sept.  17, 1684.  He  was  deposed 
and  excommunicated  for  reading  the  liturgy  in  the 
High  Church  of  Edinburgh,  July  28, 1637.  He  went 
to  England,  and  died  soon  after.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops  f  p.  61. 

Lindsay,  Ingeram,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Aberdeen  in  1442,  and  also  in  1448, 1452,  and  1468, 
when  he  probably  died.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops^ 
p.  114. 

laindBay,  Jameo,  D.D.,  an  English  Presbyterian 
clergyman,  was  bom  and  educated  in  Scotland,  where 
he  b^n  to  preach.  He  came  to  London,  and  was  or- 
dained pastor  at  Blonkwell  Street  in  May,  1788.  In 
1787  he  was  appointed  allemoon  preacher  to  the  Pres- 
byterians at  Stoke-Newington,  where  he  fixed  his  resi- 
dence, and  opened  an  academy.  In  1808  he  removed 
to  Old  Ford,  and  received  his  diploma  from  Aberdeen 
University.  He  published  two  funeral  sermons,  and 
was  minister  at  Monk  well  Street  in  1811.  See  Wilson, 
Distaaing  Churches,  iii,  216. 

Zilndsay,  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  promoted  to 
the  see  of  Glasgow  about  1826.  This  prelate  was  killed 
in  1885,  while  returning  from  Flanders  to  Scotland. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  244. 

Zdndaay,  'William,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  minister 
at  Perth,  and  consecrated  bishop  of  the  see  of  Dunkeld, 
May  7,  1677.  He  died  in  1679.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  99. 

lainegar,  John,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  see  of  Dublin  in  1784,  and  held  the  office  until 
1789,  without  being  molested  in  any  way.  The  act  of 
king  William,  "for  disarming  the  Papists,"  was  en- 
forced, and  this  caused  some  disturbance.  He  died  in 
1766.  See  IVAlton,  Memoirs  of  the  Archbishops  of 
DubUn,  p.  466. 

laingam.    See  Linoa. 

laingayets.    See  Jasoamas. 

Linn,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Sherman's  Valley  (now  Perry  County),  Pa., 
Sept.  4, 1788.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in 
1806,  and  studied  theology  with  Dr.  Williams.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Carlisle, 
Sept.  27, 1809,  visited  the  congregations  of  Spruce  Creek 
and  Sinking  Valley,  and  was  ordained  pastor  in  1810. 
He  was  called  to  take  charge  of  the  churches  of  Belle- 
fonte  and  Lick  Run,  but  in  1889  was  released  from  the 
latter,  that  he  might  give  his  whole  time  to  the  former. 
In  1861  Rev.  J.  H.  Barnard  was  appointed  co-pastor. 
Dr.  Linn  died  at  Bellefonte,  Feb.  23, 1868.  See  /Vejfry- 
terian,  March  14, 1868.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Iiiniley,  Joel  H.,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Cornwall,  Vt.,  July  16, 1790.  Under  pri- 
vate tuition,  and  afterwards  at  the  Addison  County 
Grammar-school,  he  acquired  his  preliminary  training, 
and  graduated  from  Middlebury  College  in  1811.  For 
a  year  he  taught  school  in  Windsor,  and  in  1812  began 
the  study  of  law.  In  1813  he  was  appointed  tutor  in 
Middlebury  College,  hohling  that  position  for  more  than 
two  years,  still  prosecuting  bis  legal  studies.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  December,  1816,  went  into  a  Isw- 
partnership,  and  continued  in  practice  until  1822.  Pre- 
viously, in  1812,  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  for  a 
time  studied  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  After 
eight  months  of  missionary  labor  in  South  Carolina  he 
returned  to  New  England,  was  ordained,  in  1824,  pastor 
of  the  South  Congregational  Church  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
and  remained  until  1882,  in  which  year  he  was  installed 
pastor  of  the  Park  Street  Church,  Boston.  He  resigned 
to  assume  the  presidency  of  Marietta  College  in  1886, 
and  held  that  position  for  about  ten  years.  Then  for 
two  years  he  was  in  the  service  of  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Collegiate  and  Theological  Education  at 
the  West    In  December,  1847,  he  bMame  pastor  of  the 


Second  Congregational  Chnrch  in  Greenwich,  Conn., 
and  died  there  March  22, 1868.  He  publisbed  a  volume 
of  lectures  on  the  Rdations  omd  Duties  of  the  Middk- 
Aged,  besides  orations,  addresses,  reviews,  and  serroona. 
See  Cong,  QuarUHy,  1868,  p.  880. 

Llntner,  Gbobob  A.,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
was  bom  at  Minden,  Montgomery  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Feb^  16, 
1796.  At  an  early  age  he  was  admitted  to  Union  Col- 
lege. After  graduation  he  studied  theology,  and  waa 
licensed  to  preach  in  September,  1818.  The  following 
year  be  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  Schoharie, 
and  CobleskiU.  He  waa  one  of  the  recognised  leaders 
of  his  synod  in  opposition  to  what  he  called  the  **  Quit- 
man Dynasty  of  Rationalism.**  After  a  time  he  and 
others  became  dissatisfied  with  the  old  synod,  and  at  a 
convention,  in  1880,  at  Schoharie,  the  Hartwick  Synod 
was  organized,  of  which  he  was  chosen  the  first  presi- 
dent. In  1887  certain  members  of  this  synod  withdrew, 
and  formed  the  Franckean  Synod,  on  the  widest  latitu- 
dinarian  basis.  The  movement  was  revolutionary,  and 
led  to  controversy  and  contesu  in  the  courts.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  Church  in  Schoharie  until  1849,  a  pe- 
riod of  thirty  yeark  From  1827  to  1831  he  was  editor 
of  the  Lutheran  Magasvse,  In  1841  and  1843  he  was 
president  of  the  General  Synod  of  the  United  States., 
The  liturgy  of  the  Lutheran  Church  of  America,  pub- 
lished by  order  of  the  General  Synod  of  1882,  was  pre- 
pared by  him.  During  his  ministry  he  organized  three 
new  churches  as  the  result  of  his  work — one  at  Breaks- 
been,  one  at  Middlebuig,and  another  at  Central  Bridge. 
From  1887  until  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  president 
of  the  Schoharie  County  Bible  Society.  The  last  years 
of  his  life  he  visited  the  Lutheran  churches  in  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  in  behalf  of  the  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society.  He  died  Dec  21, 1871.  See  Fict  Yearw 
in  the  Lutheran  Mimstrjf,  1878,  p.  206. 

Zilntrup,  Sbykrin,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Den- 
mark, who  died  BCarch  18, 1781,  at  Copenhsgen,  waa 
bishop  of  Wibuig,  in  Jutland,  in  1720,  and  in  1726  court- 
preacher  and  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote.  Specimen 
Calumma  Papao-Calciniana  in  AugusL  Cotfets,  IwoQ" 
riatam: — De  ^iipiofiax^^  Paulina  1  Cor.  aw,  32: — De 
Poigmaihia  Scr^Aorum  Sacrorumf  Spedatim  PanU 
ApostoU: — Meleiemata  Criiioa  tv  ad  Selectiora  N,  7*. 
Iroco,  etc  See  MoUer,  Cimbria  Litterata  ;  Jocher,  A  U^ 
gemeines  GeUhrten-Lexihou,  s.  v.    (&  P.) 

Zdon-^TOTBhip  was  parlicnlarly  prevalent  in  the 
city  of  Leontopolis,  Egypt.  The  lion  was  the  symbol 
of  strength,  and  therefore  typical  of  the  Egyptian  Her- 
cules. The  lion  was  also  sacred  to  the  Egyptian  Mi- 
nerva. In  southem  Ethiopia,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
modem  town  of  Shendy,  the  lion-beaded  deity  seems 
to  have  been  the  chief  object  of  worship.  He  holds  a 
conspicuous  place  in  the  great  temple  of  wady  Owiteb, 
and  on  the  sculptured  remains  at  wady  Benat,  at  the 
former  of  which  he  is  the  first  in  a  procession  of  deities, 
consbting  of  Rd,  Neph,  and  Ptah,  to  whom  a  monarch 
is  making  offerings. .  According  to  Plutarch,  **  the  lion 
waa  worshipped  by  the  Egyptians,  who  ornamented  ths 
doors  of  their  temples  with  the  gaping  mouth  of  that 
animal,  because  the  Nile  began  to  rise  when  the  sun 
was  in  the  constellation  Leo.**  Mithras,  which  is  a  so- 
lar god,  was  represented  with  a  lion's  head.  In  his 
mysteries  the  second  degree  wss  that  of  the  lion.  Adad, 
the  god  of  the  Syrians,  was  seated  on  the  back  of  a  lion, 
which  represents  his  solar  nature.  In  South  Americs 
the  first  discoverers  found  at  Tabasco  an  image  of  a 
lion,  to  which  the  natives  offered  human  sacrifices. 
Dr.  Livingstone,  in  his  Travels  m  AfrieOj  mentions  a 
tribe  who  believe  thst  the  sonls  of  their  chieft  enter 
into  lions,  and  therefore  they  never  attempt  to  kill 
them ;  they  even  believe  that  a  chief  nuiy  metamoiw 
phose  himself  into  a  lion,  kiU  any  one  he  chooses,  and 
then  retum  to  the  humsn  form ;  therefore  when  thsy 
see  one  they  commence  dspping  their  hsnds^  which  la 
their  usual  mode  of  salotation.    See  Liox. 


LIPOVNICZKY 


673 


LITTRE 


Llpovniosky,  Stephan  von,  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  who  died  Aug.  12, 1885,  bishop  of  Groea-War- 
dein,  Hnngary,  took  an  active  part  in  the  political  events 
of  1849.  After  the  supprcaaion  of  the  Hungarian  revo- 
lution he  was  condemned  to  death.  Being  pardoned 
by  the  emperor  of  Austria^  Lipovniczky  resumed  cler- 
ical duties,  and  finally  became  the  incumbent  of  one  of 
the  most  important  episcopal  sees  of  Hungary.    (B.  P.) 

Lippincott,  Calkb  Atmobb,  a  veteran  Methodist 
Epbcopal  minister,  was  bom  in  Pemberton  township, 
K.  J.,  July  26, 1803.  His  parents  were  of  Quaker  de- 
scent, and  he  was  brought  up  a  moral  youth,  but  was 
full  of  animal  spirits,  and  fond  of  all  the  follies  of  the 
age.  He  was  converted  among  the  Methodists  in  1825, 
commenced  circuit  work  in  1829,  and  in  1880  entered 
the  Philadelphia  Conference,  wherein  he  served  Tuck- 
erton  Circuit,  Warren  Circuit,  Newton,  Frankford,  Ger- 
mantown,  Philadelphia,  and  Asbury  (West  Philadel- 
phia). He  then,  in  1842,  was  transferred  to  the  New 
Jersey  Conference,  and  was  sent  in  turn  to  Birmingham 
Mission,  Columbus  Circuit,  Northampton,  Flemington, 
Bofdentown,  Morristown,  Flanders,  Kahway  District, 
Stanhope,  Hackettstown,  Cross  Street,  Paterson,  and 
Union  Street,  Newark ;  then  served  as  tract  agent ;  was 
then  sent  to  Hurdtown,  Hope,  Berkshire,  Hurdtown  and 
Longwood,  and  Chester  and  Denville,  at  which  latter 
place  he  died,  June  17, 1871.  Mr.  Lippincott  was  a  man 
of  remarkable  powers  of  mind.  He  was  a  natural  ora- 
tor, possessed  raarvelloua  powers  of  description,  over- 
flowed with  wit  and  good  humor,  and  was  pre-eminent- 
ly a  revivalist.  See  Minutes  qf  Annual  ConfermceSf 
1872,  p.  84^ 

lais  (or  Lys),  Jan  tan  dkr,  an  eminent  Dutch  art- 
ist, was  bom  at  Oldenburg,  Germany,  in  1570,  but  stud- 
ied at  Haarlem,  under  Henry  Goltz,and  afterwards  went 
to  Italy,  where  he  studied  the  works  of  Paul  Veronese 
and  Domenico  Pieti.  His  subjects  are  pri  ncipally  taken 
from  sacred  history.  The  chief  of  them  are  a  picture 
otAdam  and  Eve  Mourning  over  the  Body  ofAhel,  and 
in  San  Nicolo,  at  Venice,  is  a  celebrated  painting  by 
him,  representing  St,  Jerome  in  the  Desert,  He  died  at 
Venice  in  1629.  See  Hoefer,  iVbirr.  Biog,  GiniraUf  s.  v. ; 
Spooner,  Bioff,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

LIbco,  Fribdrich  Gust  a  V,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  12, 1791,  at  Brandenburg. 
He  entered  upon  his  ministerial  duties  at  Berlin  in  1814, 
and  died  there,  July  5, 1866,  doctor  of  theology.  Lisco 
was  a  prolific  writer,  and  published,  Predigten  iiber  die 
Gleichnisse  Jesu  (  Berlin,  1828  ) :  —  Vie  0£enbarungen 
Gottes  in  Geschichie  und  Lehre  (2d  ed.  Hamburg,  1835) : 
—  Die  Parabeln  Jesu  exeffeiisch-homiletisch  bearbe^et 
(5lh  ed.  Berlin,  1861)  :—/>!>  Bibel  mii  ErUdrungen,  etc, 
(1852,  2  vols.)  i—Das  chiistliche  Kirchenjahr  (4th  ed. 
eod.  2  vols.)  i—Biblische  Betrachtungen  iiber  Johannes 
den  Tdu/er  (1836) : — Die  Wunder  Jesu,  exegetisch-homi- 
ktisch  bearbeitet  (2d  ed.  1844) : — Das  christlick-^xposto^ 
Usche  Glaubensbekenniniss  (4th  ed.  1851)  i^Die  Scheide- 
Uhren  der  proiestanlischen  und  rOmischen  Kirche  (1845) : 
^Dies  Ira,  Ifymnus  avfdas  Weltgericht  (1840)  i—Sta- 
bat  Mater,  IJymnus  aufdie  Schmerzen  der  Maria  (1843), 
etc.  See  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol  ii,  802-804 ;  Winer,  Hand- 
buck  der  7A«o/.Z.ir.ii,87,119,123,201,306,310,357,359. 
(B.P.) 

Litaolan^.  There  is  a  curious  tradition  among 
the  Bechuanas  in  South  Africa,  to  the  effect  that  a  mon- 
ster of  immense  size,  at  a  remote  period  of  time,  swal- 
lowed up  all  mankind  except  a  single  woman,  who  con- 
ceived miraculously  and  brought  forth  a  son,  to  whom 
she  gave  the  name  of  Litaolan^.  This  son  of  the  wom- 
an attacked  the  monster  and  was  swallowed  up  alive, 
bat  being  armed  with  a  knife  he  cut  open  an  outlet  for 
himself  from  the  belly  of  the  monster,  and  thus  he  ob- 
tained deliverance,  and  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  in 
him.  Thus  saved,  men  sought,  without  success,  to  de- 
stroy their  rescuer. 

Litd  (XiT^),  in  the  Greek  Church,  a  proceasion  ao» 

XII.-U  o 


compsnted  with  prayer,  made  on  rarious  occasions  of 
public  calamity  and  intercession.  Forms  of  service  on 
such  occasions  are  given  in  the  Greek  eucholog}'.  See 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  a.  v. 

LitSraB  ClerXoaB  (clerical  letters),  a  name  given  by 
Cyprian  to  letters  written  by  a  bishop  in  ancient  times 
to  a  foreign  Church,  and  which  were  sent  by  the  hands 
of  one  of  the  derg}',  usually  a  sub-deacon. 

Lithomaiicy  (from  Xt0oc,  a  stone,  and  fiavnia, 
divination),  divination  performed  by  means  of  stones. 
The  stone  used  for  this  purpose  was  washed  in  spring 
water  by  candle-light,  and  the  person  engaged  in  di- 
vining, having  purified  himself,  covered  his  face,  re- 
peated a  form  of  prayer,  and  placed  certain  characters 
in  a  certain  order.  Then  the  stone  was  said  to  move 
of  itself,  and  in  a  soft,  gentle  murmur  to  give  the  an- 
swer.   See  Divination. 

Lithuanian  Veraion  of  the  Scriptures.  See 
Slavonic  Versions. 

Litta,  Lorenzo,  a  learned  Italian  prelate,  was  bom 
at  MiUn,  Feb.  23, 1756.  After  studying  at  the  Clem- 
entine College,  in  Rome,  he  was  appointed  apostolical 
prothonotary  in  1782,  in  1793  became  archbishop  th 
partibus  of  Thebes,  and  the  year  following  departed  for 
PoUnd  as  nuncio.  In  1797  he  went  in  the  same  capac- 
ity to  Russia.  He  died  May  1, 1820,  leaving  Lettres 
Diverses,  etc.  (Paris,  1809).  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
Ginerale,  s.  v. 

laittle,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Boscawen,  N.  H.,  March  80, 1800.  He  was  con- 
verted at  six  years  of  age^  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1826,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nar}' in  1829.  The  same  year  he  was  ordained  as  a 
missionary  under  the  auspices  of  the  American  Educa- 
tion Society,  for  labor  in  the  West.  In  1831  he  be- 
came pastor  at  Oxford,  O.,  and  two  years  later  Western 
agent  of  the  American  Missionary  Society;  in  1838 
pastor  at  Madison,  Ind.,  a  position  which  he  occupied 
for  ten  years.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  home 
missionary  work  in  the  Presbyterian  Church.  He  died 
at  Bladtson,  Feb.  25, 1882.  He  was  remarkably  suc- 
cessful in  pastoral  labor,  and  in  organizing  missions  and 
raising  funds  for  their  support 

Littr^,  Maximilien  Paul  ^mile,  the  leader  of 
positivism  in  France,  was  bom  in  Paris,  Feb.  1, 1801, 
He  at  first  chose  medicine  as  his  profession,  and,  though 
he  did  not  practice,  much  of  his  varied  intellectual  ac- 
tivity was  directed  to  the  scientific  and  historical  side 
of  the  subject ;  indeed,  his  first  work  of  great  importance 
was  his  edition  and  translation  of  Hippocrates,  the  first 
volume  of  which  appeared  in  1839,  while  the  last  came 
out  on  the  eve  of  the  appearance  of  his  famous  Diction- 
noire  de  la  Langue  Fran^aise,  In  the  same  year,  when 
his  Hippocrates  appeared,  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres,  and  in 
1844  he  took  FaurieFs  place  in  the  company  charged 
by  the  Academy  with  the  continuation  of  the  Histoire 
Litteraire,  in  which  he  did  much  good  work.  A  great 
part  of  his  time  and  energy  was  also  taken  up  by  his 
connection  with  Comte  and  positivism  (q.  v.).  He 
himself  was,  by  temperament,  inclined  not  to  polemics 
against  religion,  but  to  a  kind  of  ignoring  of  it  in  favor 
of  science;  and  he  had  translated  Strauss's  Leben  Jesu 
within  four  years  of  its  publication.  He  adopted  posi- 
tivism, as  it  at  first  presented  itself,  with  vigorous  par- 
tisanship, and  produced  in  1845  an  excellent  analysis 
of  the  Philosophie  Positive.  His  subsequent  refusal  to 
follow  Comte  (q.  v.)  in  his  later  excursions  gave  rise  to 
the  acrimonious  polemic  between  the  party  of  which 
he  waa  the  real  chief,  and  the  thorough-going  disciples 
of  the  Politique,  the  Synthase,  the  Cafechisme,  and  the 
rest.  A  very  few  years  before  bis  death,  Littre,  in  his 
^  testament,"  expressed  his  attitude  towards  Christian- 
ity, in  words  from  which  it  is  evident  that  he  had  no 
hostility,  nor  even  indifference,  towards  Christianity. 
He  siniii^y  could  not  believe  in  it.    It  was  an  extreme 


LIVELY 


674 


LIVINGTOUN 


inability,  which  his  intellect  oonid  not  overcome,  as 
may  be  learned  from  his  own  words : 

"Some  plons  soolshaTe  tronbled  themselves  abont  my 
cnneclence.  It  has  seemed  to  them  that,  not  being  an 
absolute  contemner  of  Christianity,  and  heartily  acknowl- 
edging that  it  possessed  grandeur  and  conferred  blessings, 
there  were  chords  In  my  heart  that  it  might  touch.  It 
was  A  beginning  of  faith,  they  thonght,  to  entertam  nei- 
ther hoBtUity  nor  contempt  for  a  faith  which  has  reigned 
for  many  centaries  over  mcu*s  consciences,  and  which 
even  now  is  the  consolatitm  of  so  many  faithfal  stmls. 
As  I  never  experienced  nor  expressed  repnlslon  or  un- 
easiness in  flnaiug  myself  the  subject  of  the  feelings  that 
I  have  Just  sketched,  and  as  age  and  illness  warned  me 
of  my  approaching  end— as  they  have  never  abandoned 
the  hope  that  I  might  experience  the  sovereign  effect  of 
divine  grace,  nor  ceased  to  appeal  from  the  mature  man, 
too  proud  of  his  strength,  to  tne  old  man,  henceforth  ac- 
cessible to  the  promptings  of  his  weakness— I  reply  to 
these  solicitotions,  wlthont  wishing  to  wound  their  feel- 
ings, by  saying  that  I  neither  share  their  faith  nor  expe- 
rience any  misery  at  being  unable  to  believe.  I  have 
questioned  myself  In  vain.  It  is  impossible  for  me  to 
accept  the  conception  of  the  world  which  Catholicism 
imposes  upon  its  true  believers :  but  I  feel  no  regret  at 
being  outside  these  creeds,  and  I  can  feel  within  me  no 
desire  to  enter  within  their  paie." 

And  yet  he  died,  June  2, 1881,  within  the  pale  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  having  shortly  before  his  death  been 
baptized.  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Littr6 
also  published,  Conaervation^  Revolution  tt  Potitivisme 
(Paris,  1852) : — A  vguste  Comte  et  la  PhUosophie  Positive 
(ibid.  1863):— ^mi/c#  en  CompUition  avec  let  Aryens 
pour  Vlligiinonie  du  Monde  (Leipsic,  1880).  Compare 
Caro,  LUtri  et  le  Pontivisme  (Paris,  1888).     (R  P.) 

Lively,  Edwahd,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  of  the 
16th  centur}',  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  divinity  in 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  a  leanied  Orientalist,  and 
one  of  the  translators  of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the 
Bible.  He  died  in  1605.  He  published  annotations 
on  several  of  the  Minor  Prophets  (1587):— and  Chro- 
nology of  the  Persian  Monarchy  (1597).  See  McQure, 
Translators  Revived, 

Liverance,  Galfrid,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Dunkeld  in  1236, 1239, 1247,  and  in  1249.  He  died 
at  Tippermuir,  Nov.  22  of  the  last-named  year.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  79. 

Livese  Version  of  thb  Scriptitrks.  The  Li- 
vcse  is  a  dialect  spoken  by  a  remnant  of  the  Finnish 
people  in  the  peninsula  of  north-west  Courland,  known 
by  the  name  of  Livs,  inhabiting  Livonia,  a  name  given 
to  the  largest  of  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia.  The 
Livs  number  about  five  thousand  souls.  The  gospel 
of  Blatthew  was  transcribed  for  them  into  the  Lettish 
character  by  the  academician  Widemann,  at  the  e.x- 
pense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and 
carried  through  the  press  in  1879.    (B.  P.) 

laiving,  a  term  often  used  in  England  to  denote  a 
benefice  (q.  v.). 

Xdving;,  an  English  prelate,  is  first  met  with  as 
bishop  of  WeUs,  to  which  see  be  was  consecrated  in 
999.  In  1013  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Canter- 
bur}'.  He  continued  for  seven  years,  but  in  that  time 
did  very  little  more  than  to  repair  the  roof  of  the  cathe- 
draL  He  did  not  receive  the  pallium.  He  died  in  1020. 
See  Hook,  Lives  of  the  A  rcMnshops  of  Canterbury,  i, 
472  sq. 

Living  Buddha.    See  Buddha,  Livimo. 

Livingstone,  David,  LL.D.,  etc.,  an  eminent 
African  traveller  and  missionary,  was  born  March  19, 
1813,  at  Blantyre,  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland.  At  the  age 
of  ten  he  became  a  "  piecer"  in  a  cotton  factory,  and  for 
many  years  was  engaged  in  hard  work  as  an  operative. 
An  evening-school  furnished  him  with  the  opportunity 
of  acquiring  some  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin,  and 
finally,  after  attending  a  course  of  medicine  at  Glasgow 
University,  and  the  theological  lectures  of  the  late  Dr. 
Wardlaw,  professor  of  theology  to  the  Scotch  Independ- 
ents, he  offered  himself  to  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
by  whom  he  was  ordained  as  a  medical  missionary  in 


1840.    In  the  summer  of  that  year  he  landed  at  Port 
Natal,  in  South  Africa.    Circumstances  made  him  ac- 
quainted with  the  Kev.  Robert  MofEitt,  himself  a  dis- 
tinguished missionary,  whose  daughter  he  subsequently 
married.    For  sixteen  years  Livingstone  proved  him- 
self  a  faithful  and  zealous  servant  of  the  London  Mia- 
sionary  Society.     The  two  most  important  results 
achieved  by  him  in  this  period  were  the  discovery  of 
Lake  Ngami  (Aug.  1, 1849),  and  his  crossing  the  con- 
tinent of  South  Africa,  from  the  Zambezi  (or  Leeambye) 
to  the  Congo,  and  thence  to  Loando,  the  capital  of 
Angola,  which  took  him  about  eighteen  months  (from 
January,  1858,  to  June,  1854).     In  September  of  the 
same  year  be  left  Loando  on  his  return  across  the  Con- 
tinent, reached  Liuzanti  (in  lat.  18^  17'  south,  and  long; 
23°  50'  east),  the  capital  of  the  great  Makolulo  tribe, 
and  from  thence  proceeded  along  the  banks  of  the 
Leeambye  to  Quilimane,  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  which 
he  reached  May  20, 1856.    He  then  took  ship  for  En^ 
land,  where  he  arrived  Dec.  12  of  the  same  year.    The 
reception  accorded  him  by  his  countrymen  was  most 
enthusiastic.     Probably  no  traveller  was  ever  more 
affectionately  honored.    This  was  owing  not  merely  to 
the  importance  of  his  discoveries,  though  it  would  be 
difficult  to  overestimate  them,  but  to  the  thoroughly 
frank,  ingenuous,  simple,  and  manly  character  of  the 
traveller.    In  1857  Livingstone  published  his  Mission^ 
ary  Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa,  a  work  of 
great  interest  and  value.    "  In  all  his  various  journeys," 
said  Sir  Itoderick  Murchison,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society,  held  shortly  after  Livingstone's 
return,  *'he  had  travelled  over  no  less  than  eleven 
thousand  miles  of  African  territory.  ...  By  his  astro- 
nomical observations  he  had  determined  the  sites  of 
numerous  places,  hills,  rivers,  and  lakes,  nearly  all  of 
which  had  been  hitherto  unknown,  while  he  had  seized 
upon  every  opportunity  of  describing  the  physical 
features,  climatology,  and  geological  structure  of  the 
countries  which  he  had  explored,  and  had  pointed  out 
many  new  sources  of  commerce  as  yet  unknown  to  the 
scope  and  the  enterprise  of  the  British  merchant.*^ .  In 
185iB  the  British  government  appointed  him  consul  at 
Quilimane,  whither  he  returned  in  the  course  of  the 
year;  it  also  furnished  him  with  a  small  steamer,  thet 
he  might  pursue  his  explorations  of  the  Zambezi  River 
and  its  tributaries.     Livingstone  started  up  this  river 
in  January,  1859,  but  after  ascending  it  for  over  two 
hundred  miles  his  farther  progress  was  impeded  by  the 
magnificent  cataracts  of  the  Murchison.    In  March,  fol- 
lowing, he  started  for  a  second  journey  up  the  Shive,  a 
branch  of  the  Zambezi,  and  on  the  18th  of  April  dis- 
covered Lake  Shirwa.     Then  followed  the  discovery 
of  Lake  Nyassa  on  Sept.  16.     In  1864  he  was  order^ 
by  the  British  goveniment  to  abandon  the  expedition, 
and,  returning  to  England,  he  published  bis  second 
book  of  travels,  entitled  A  Narrative  of  an  Expfditiou 
to  the  Zambezi  and  its  Tributaries,     In  August,  1865, 
Mr.  Livingstone  left  England  on  his  third  journey  to 
Africa ;  discovered  Lake  Liemba  in  April,  1867,  south 
of  Tanganyika,  and  going  westward  thence  found  Lake 
Maero  on  the  8th  of  September.     But  after  eight  years 
of  lonely  wandering  in  a  previously  unknown  region, 
and  after  achieving  discoveries  which  will  permanently 
benefit  mankind,  the  heroic  traveller  was  overtaken  by 
death.     Having  made  repeated  attempts  to  find  the 
sources  of  the  Nile,  and  being  thwarted  every  time,  in 
the  last  instance  by  severe  illness,  he  requested  his  fol- 
lowers to  take  him  to  Zanzibar,  aa  he  was  going  home. 
After  suffering  intensely  for  several  days,  he  died.  May 
1, 1878.    His  body  was  brought  to  England  and  interred 
in  Westminster  Abbev.    See  (Lond.)  Christian  Observer, 
Jan.  1875,  p.  14 ;  Life,  by  Blaikie  (Lond.  1874) ;  WaUer, 
Last  Journals  (ibid.  eod.). 

Livingtonn,  Jamks,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first 
rector  of  Forteviot  and  Weems,  then  dean  of  Dunkeld, 
and  afterwards,  in  1476,  bishop  of  Dunkeld.  He  was 
constituted  lord  chanceUor,  Feb.  18, 1483,  and  died  at 


LIVINUS 


675 


LOFTUS 


Edinburgh  in  the  saine  year.    See  Keith,  Scottith 
Bishops^  p.  90. 

Livinus,  Sainff  called  the  apostle  of  Brabant,  was 
bom  in  Ireland,  it  is  said  of  noble  parents,  and  received 
his  education  there.  He  was  bishop  of  Dublin  in  656. 
Being  actuated  by  religious  zeal,  he  intrusted  his  dio- 
cese in  Ireland  to  the  management  of  its  archdeacon, 
and  went  to  Ghent  with  three  of  his  disciples,  and,  for 
a  month,  offered  up  mass  at  the  tomb  of  St.  Baro  every 
day,  and  afterwards  went  to  £sca  and  preached  the 
gospel,  and  converted  numbers.  He  was  murdered  by 
some  of  the  pagan  inhabitants,  Nov.  12, 656.  See  D' Al- 
ton, Memoirs  of  the  Archbitkopt  ofDuUiVf  p.  16. 

laivonian  Veraion  of  tub  Scuipturks,  See 
Lettish  in  the  art.  Slavo»ic  Yebsiokb. 

Ljada,  in  Slavonic  mytholc^i^,  was  a  go<l  of  war 
amdng  the  Poles,  to  whom,  before  and  after  battle, 
human  sacrifices  were  offered. 

Llewelyn  (or  Uywelyn),  Thomas,  LL.D.,  a 
Welsh  dissenting  minister,  was  bom  at  Penalltan-isaf, 
Glamorganshire,  about  1724,  and  having  secured  a  liberal 
education,  became  the  principal  of  au  academical  insti- 
tution in  London.  He  died  in  1783.  Although  never 
the  pastor  of  any  church,  he  preached  frequently,  and 
was  recognised  as  a  minister  of  the  gospeL  He  was  a 
ripe  scholar  and  a  judicious  writer.  His  works  are, 
JJittorieal  A  ccount  of  the  British  or  Welsh  Versions  and 
EdUions  of  the  Bible  (Lond.  1768,  %vo)  i— Historical  ttnd 
Critical  Remarks  on  the  British  Tongue,  etc.  (1769, 8vo). 
See  The  (Lond.)  Theoloffic^f  and  BUbUeal  Magazine, 
Nov.  1806,  p.  467;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 
Authors,  a,  y, 

Lloyd,  HuMPnnEY,  D.D.,  etc.,  an  eminent  English 
divine  and  scientist,  was  bom  in  Dublin  in  1800.  He 
entered  Trinity  College  in  1815,  was  elected  scholar  in 
1818,  and  graduated  in  1820.  In  1824  ho  was  made 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Trinity  College,  and  was  soon  or- 
dained a  minister  of  the  United  Church  of  England  and 
Ireland.  In  1831  he  resigned  the  office  of  tutor,  and 
was  elected  to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy,  and 
afterwards  gave  his  attention  almost  wholly  to  scien- 
tific investigations.  He  died  Jan.  17, 1881.  Dr.  Lloyd 
was  a  fellow  of  the  royal  societies  of  London  and  Edin- 
burgh, and  honorary  member  of  the  philosophical  so- 
cieties of  Cambridge  and  Manchester,  and  other  scien- 
tific societies  of  Europe  and  America.  In  1846  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy;  in  1856 
he  received  the  degree  of  D.CL.  from  the  University 
of  Oxford;  and  in  1867  was  chosen  president  of  the 
British  Association.  His  works  are  chiefly  scientific 
See  Men  of  the  Time,  s.  v. 

Loans,  Elias  hen-Moses  (sumamed  Baal  Shem\ 
who  died  at  Worms  in  1636,  rabbi,  is  the  author  of  a 
cabalistic  commentary  on  the  Song  of  Solomon,  entitled 
O'^in  rn  (Basle,  1599>,  and  on  Koheleth  or  Ecde- 
siastes,  entitled  '^t'^  blb=U  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  ii, 
253;  Etheridge,  Introdvction  to  Hebrew  Literature,  p. 
860;  Ginsburg,  Commentary  on  Koheleth^  p.  74.    (B»  P.) 

Iidber,  Christian,  a  Lntheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  Feb.  2, 1683,  at  OrlamUnde,  in  Thuringia. 
He  studied  at  Jena,  M'as  in  1705  adjunct  of  the  philo- 
sophical faculty,  in  1711  superintendent  at  Konneburg, 
in  1717  doctor  of  theology,  in  1731  general  superintend- 
ent at  Altenburg,  and  died  Dec.  26, 1747.  He  wrote. 
Diss,  Super  2  Tim,  m,  l^'.—De  Statu  Animarum  Cre- 
dentium  Post  Moiiem: — An  Judas  Proditor  Jnterfuerit 
Sacrm  Cetnes:  —  De  Potestafe  Ligandi  et  Secandi  ad 
Matt,  XV,  19 ;  xviO,  16 : — De  Natura  Humana  a  Filio 
Dei  Demum  in  Tempore  Assumta: — De  Origine  McUi, 
etc  See  Mover,  Lexikon  JetztUbender  Gottesgtlehrten ; 
Jdcher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-I^zikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Locftldfl,  a  name  anciently  given  to  ecclesiastics 
who  were  ordained  to  a  ministerial  charge  in  some 
fixed  place.    At  the  Council  of  Valentia,  in  Spain,  a 


decree  was  passed  that  no  priest  should  be  ordained  un- 
less he  would  give  a  promise  that  he  would  be  a  looalis. 
Indeed,  ordination  at  large  was  not  considered  valid. 

Locherer.  Jokanm  Nkposiuk,  a  Boman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Freiburg,  Aug.  21, 
1773,  and  died  at  Giessen,  Feb.  26, 1837,  doctor  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology.  He  wrote,  Gesehickte  der  christli- 
chen  Religion  und  Kirche  (Ravensberg,  1824-34, 9  vols.) : 
— Lehrhueh  der  chrisf lichen  Archdologie  (Frankfort, 
1832)  i-^f^hrbuch  der  Patrologie  (Mayence,  1837).  See 
Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  14,  643,  608,  854; 
Zuchold,  BiU.  Theol,  ii,  806.     (Q,  P.) 

Lockwood,  Samukl,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  b<>rn  at  Nnrwalk,  Conn.,  Nov.  80, 1721.  After 
graduating  from  Yale  College  in  1745,  he  studied  the- 
ology under  the  direction  of  his  brother,  Rev.  James 
J^ockwood,  of  Wethenfield.  A  society  having  been 
formed  in  Andover,  in  1747,  embracing  Coventry,  Leb- 
anon, and  Hebron,  he  was  called  to  preach,  as  a  candi- 
date, in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year.  Of  this 
parish  he  was  ordained  pastor,  Feb.  26, 1749,  O.  S.  He 
died  in  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  June  18, 1791.  His  man- 
ner in  the  pulpit  was  marked  by  gravity  rather  than 
vivacity;  but  he  was  very  popular  with  his  people. 
See  Sprague,  AnnaUpfthe  Amer.  Pulpit,  i,  465. 

Loctilus,  a  name  given  to  a  place  for  a  coffin 
among  the  ancient  Romans. 

Lo*debar,  Tristram  remarks  {BibU  Places,  p.  329), 
"  may  be  Dibbin,  near  Jerash,  where  I  found  a  fine  an- 
cient fountain  and  other  remains." 

Lodrone,  Paris,  a  German  prelate,  was  bom  about 
1570  at  the  castle  of  Lodrone,  in  the  Italian  TyroL  He 
was  the  youngest  of  a  nobleman's  family,  and  was  des- 
tined for  the  roinistr3'.  In  1619  he  became  prince- 
archbishop  of  Salzburg.  In  the  midst  of  the  excite- 
ment of  the  Thirty  Year's  War,  he  determined  to  pre- 
serve in  that  country  a  complete  neutrality,  and  assured 
to  the  adherents  of  both  creeds  equal  protection,  which 
certainly  was  a  singular  example  at  that  time.  In 
1628  he  founded  the  University  of  Salzburg,  which  oc- 
cupied a  very  distinguished  place  among  all  the  older 
ones.  After  that  he  commenced  the  reconstraction  of 
the  cathedral,  and  founded  several  establishments  for 
the  public  benefit,  Lodrone  died  at  Salzburg  in  March, 
1653.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Loebenatein,  Alois,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  came  to  America  in  1852,  and  located  at 
Femme  Osage,  Bio.  He  had  studied  theology  at  Vi- 
enna, and  soon  was  employed  as  pastor  in  one  of  the 
Evangelical  churches.  The  year  succeeding  be  joined 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  was  appointed 
successively  to  Belleville,  111. ;  Netvport,  Ky. ;  Buckeye 
Street,  Cincinnati,  O.;  Indianapolis,  Ind.;  professor  of 
theology  at  Wallace  College,  Berea,  O.,  which  position 
he  held  for  eight  years;  Lafayette,  Ind.;  Toledo,  O.; 
Walnut  Street,  Detroit,  Mich. :  Beaubien  Street,  East 
Saginaw.  He  died  at  the  last  appointment  in  1881. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Central  German  Conference. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1881,  p,  812. 

LoftuB,  Adam,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Swinshead,  in  Yorkshire,  and  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge.  In  1561  he  was  rector  of  Pains- 
town,  in  the  diocese  of  Mesth.  In  1562  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  see  of  Armagh,  and  was  consecrated  by 
Hugh,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  at  the  close  of  that  year. 
In  1564  he  was  elected  dean  of  St.  Patrick's.  In  August, 
1567,  he  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Dublin.  In  1568 
this  prelate  consecrated  Dr.  Lancaster  as  his  own  suc- 
cessor in  Armagh,  at  Christ  Church.  In  1578  he  was 
appointed  chancellor.  In  1582  Loftus  was  one  of  the 
lords  Justices  of  Ireland.  In  1583  he  was  the  unjust 
Judge  that  illegally  sentenced  the  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop  of  Cashel,  Dermot  Hurley,  to  the  cruelties 
of  death  oir  Osmantown  Green.  In  1597  I^ftus  was 
again  one  of  the  lords  justices  of  Ireland,  and  also  in 


LOHENGRIN 


676 


LORD 


1599.  At  the  close  of  that  year  he  was  named  as  one 
of  the  assistant  councillors  to  the  lord  president  of 
Munster,  and  in  1603  bad  pardon  of  intrusion  and  alien- 
ation in  reference  to  the  manors,  etc.  He  died  April 
b,  1605.  See  D*AUon,  Memoirs  of  the  ArchbithopM  of 
Dubtinf  p.  240. 

Lohengxili)  in  British  fable,  was  the  famons  gnard 
and  protector  of  the  sacred  Graal.  He  saved  £lsa,  the 
princess  of  Brabanr,  from  a  magician,  by  coming  to  her 
as  a  swan.  She  mnrried  the  valiant  knight,  but  on 
condition  that  she  i\->>uld  not  inquire  as  to  his  ancestry. 
Finally  she  asked  AWout  this,  and  Lohengrin  fled  on 
his  swan  back  to  the  ^lacred  Graal. 

IiOhmanii,  Dooislav  Rudolf,  a  Lutheran  minis- 
ter of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec  28, 1825.  He  studied 
at  Gottingen  and  Halle,  was  in  1853  pastor  at  Ftlrsten- 
walde,  in  1865  at  Springe,  and  died  Dec.  15,  1879,  at 
Gorbersdorf,  Hanover.  He  published,  Kurze  Fragtlucke 
turn  kleinen  KatechismuM  Lufher's  (Berlin,  1858) : — 
A  thanasitUj  der  Vafer  der  RechtglaubigheU  (2d  ed.  1860) : 
— Lulherische  und  unirte  Kirche  (1867).  See  Zuchold, 
/?iW.  Theol,  ii,  809.     (B.  P.) 

Loll  (or  Lull),  in  German  mythology,  was  a  fright- 
ful god  of  the  Franks,  who  had  a  sacred  grove  contain- 
ing a  brazen  image  in  the  region  of  Schweinfurt. 

LoUardaof  Kyle.    See  Lollards. 

LommatzBCh,  Kakl  Heikrich  Eduard,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  2!2, 1802, 
at  Grosschonau,  near  Zittau.  He  commenced  his  aca- 
demical career  at  Berlin  in  1829,  was  in  1832  professor 
at  the  theological  seminary  in  Wittenberg,  and  died 
Aug.  19, 1882,  doctor  of  theolog>\  Lommatzsch  is  es- 
pecially known  as  the  editor  of  De  la  Rue*s  edition  of 
Origenis  Opera  Omnia  (Berlin,  1881-48, 25  vols.).   (R  P.) 

Long,  CLEStEirr,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  New  Hampshire  in  1807.  He 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1828,  studied 
theology  for  two  years  in  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary as  a  member  of  the  class  of  1834,  and  was  ordained. 
He  was  a  tutor  in  Westem  Reserve  College,  and  be- 
came professor  of  intellectual  and  moral  philosophy  in 
that  institution  in  1884;  professor  of  theology  in  1844; 
professor  of  theology  in  the  theological  seminary  at 
Auburn,  N.T.,  in  1852;  professoir  of  intellectual  philoso- 
phy and  political  economy  in  Dartmouth  College  in 
1854.  He  died  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  Oct  14, 1861.  See 
Trien,  Cat.  of  Andover  TheoL  Sem,  1870,  p.  112. 

LongBtreet,  Augustus  Baldwin,  LL.D.,  a  Bfeth- 
odist  minister,  was  bora  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  Sept.  22, 1790. 
He  studied  in  the  Litchfield  (Conn.)  Law  School,  and 
settled  in  his  native  state.  In  1823  he  represented 
Greene  County  in  the  state  legislature,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  was  made  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  the 
state.  During  the  Nullification  excitement  he  estab- 
lished the  A  vffiuta  Sentinel,  In  1838  he  entered  the 
ministry,  and  from  1839  to  1848  was  president  of  Emory 
College,  in  Oxford.  He  was  then  for  a  short  time  pres- 
ident of  Centenary  College,  Jackson,  La.,  and  from  1849 
to  1856  president  of  the  University  of  Mississippi.  Still 
later  be  was  president  of  South  Carolina  College.  He 
died  Sept.  9, 1870.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
Southem  periodicals,  and  published  many  separate 
works,  among  the  best  known  of  which  is  his  humorous 
collection  of  Georgia  Scene*.  See  Obituary  Record  of 
Yaie  CoUege,  1872. 

Longtieil,  Richard  Oli\'er  dk,  a  French  prelate, 
was  bom  about  1410,  of  an  illustrious  family  of  Nor- 
mandy. He  was  archdeacon  of  Eu,  and  became,  in 
1453,  bishop  of  Coutances.  Having  been  designated 
among  other  commissaries,  by  the  pope,  in  1455,  to  re- 
vise the  proceeding  in  the  case  of  Joan  d*Arc,  he  ex- 
hibited great  zeal  in  rehabilitating  the  memory  of  that 
female  hero.  King  Charles  YII  sent  him  as  ambassa- 
dor to  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  placed  him  at  the 
head  of  bis  council.    He  also  obtained  for  Longueil 


from  the  pope,  Calizttn  III,  the  cardinars  hat,  in  1456. 
In  his  devotion  to  the  Church  that  prelate  ventured  to 
oppose  in  the  parliament  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  for 
which  he  was  fined  not  less  than  10,000  livres.  Pins 
II  gave  him  the  bishoprics  of  Oporto  and  of  St.Rnffina, 
also  the  legateshipof  I7mbria,and  made  him  archpriest 
of  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter.  He  died  at  La  P^rouse. 
Aug.  15, 1470.    See  Hoefer,  A^otrv.  Biog,  GSnerale,  s.  r. 

Lonsano,  Menachem  di,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the 
17th  century,  is  the  author  of  STTin  "MX,  or  critical 
work  on  the  text  of  the  Pentateuch  (Amsterdam,  1659 
and  often).  He  compared  ten  BISSl,  chiefly  Spanish 
ones,  with  the  text  of  Bomberg's  quarto  Bible,  published 
in  1544,  some  of  them  being  five  or  six  hundred  years 
old.  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  ii,  255  sq. ;  De'  Rossi,  Dizia^ 
nario  Storieo  (Germ.  transL),  p.  184  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Loochooan  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  See 
TuKUDH  Version. 

Loomifl,  Harmon,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  st  Georgia,  Vt.,  Oct.  26,  1805.  He  re- 
ceived his  preparatory  education  at  St.  Albans'  Acad- 
emy, and  at  a  high-school  in  his  native  plocc;  gradu- 
ated from  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1832,  and  in 
the  same  year  entered  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
where  he  spent  two  years.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  North-westem  Congregational  Association  of 
Vermont,  Oct.  10,  T834.  In  1835  he  entered  Princeton 
Seminary,  but  left  in  January,  1836,  and  became  stated 
supply  of  the  Union  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York 
city.  He  was  ordained  by  a  Congregational  Council 
at  Vergennes,  Vt.,  Ang.  31,  1836.  Soon  after  he  ac- 
cepted the  position  of  chaplain  for  the  American  Sea- 
man's Friend  Society  of  New  York,  and  began  preach, 
ing  to  seamen  in  New  Orleans,  Jan.  8, 1837.  This  he 
did  four  years,  spending  his  summers  in  the  North  and 
raising  funds  for  the  society.  From  1841  to  1845  he 
preached  as  stated  supply  to  the  Presbyterian  Church 
at  Mount  Joy,  Pa.  In  the  last-named  year  he  entered 
upon  the  duties  of  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Seaman's  Friend  Society,  in  New  York,  and  contin- 
ued in  that  ofllce  till  1871.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  Jan. 
19, 1880.  Dr.  Loomis  published  a  number  of  volumes 
and  pamphlets,  and  did  much  to  promote  the  temper- 
ance cause.  He  was  a  roan  of  sincere  and  earnest  pie- 
ty. Sec  NeeroL  RepoH  of  PrinceUm  TheoL  Sem,  1880, 
p.  25. 

Lorck,  JoBiAii,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Copen- 
hagen, was  bom  Jan.  3,  1728,  at  Flensburg,  and  died 
Feb.  8, 1785.  He  publuhed.  Die  Bibelgetchichie  in  ems- 
gen  Beiir&gen  erlaufert  (Copenhagen,  1779) : — BeitrSge 
tu  der  nevesten  Kirchenqetchiehte  in  den  kdniglidken 
danitehen  Reichen  (1757-62, 2  vols.).  See  Winer,  Haml- 
buch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  69, 832.     (&  P.) 

Lord,  Jeremiah  Skidmore,  D.D.,  a  Reformed 
Dutch  minister,  was  bora  at  Jamaica,  N.  Y.,  May  10, 
1812.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York  in  1836,  and  from  the  Uuion  Theological 
Seminary  in  1839 ;  was  ordained  Aug.  20  of  the  same 
year,  becoming  pastor  at  Montville,  N.  J.;  went  to 
Grigstown  in  1843,  to  Harlem,  New  York  city,  in  1848, 
and  died  there,  April  2, 1869.  See  Gen.  Cai.  of  Union 
TheoL  Sem.  1876,  p.  14 ;  Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Ref. 
Church  in  America^  p.  356. 

Lord,  John  Chase,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Washington,  N.  H.,  Aug.  9, 1805.  He 
studied  at  Plainfield  Academy,  and  Bladison  and  Ham- 
ilton colleges,  from  the  last  of  which  he  graduated  in 
1825.  After  two  years'  editorial  experience  in  Canada 
he  went  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  began  the  study  of  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828.  He  united  with  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Buffalo  in  1830,  and  soon 
after  entered  Aubum  Theological  Seminary,  from  which 
he  graduated  in  1838,  and  was  called  to  the  Chnrch  at 
Geneseo,  where  a  wonderful  revival  occurred.  In  1835 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Central  Church  at  BnflUo,  and 


LORD 


911 


LO^NG 


remained  until  he  give  up  effectiTe  work  in  the  miDis- 
tiy  in  1878.  He  dieil  there,  Jan.  21, 1877.  Dr.  Lord 
was  the  author  of,  fAcfuree  to  Yonnff  Men  (1888): — 
LecturtM  on  Cinlization  (1851),  bendes  sermons  and 
pamphlets.  See  (N.  Y.)  EvangelUt,  April  26, 1877 ;  Gen. 
Caf,  of  A  ubum  TheoL  Sem,  1888,  p.  263 ;  Nevin,  Predk 
EneydojK  a.  v,     (W.  P.  S.) 

Lord,  'William  Hayes,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  son  of  president  Nsthan  Lord,  was  bom  in 
Amherst,  N.  H.,  March  II,  1824.  He  graduated  from 
Dartmouth  College  in  1843,  and  three  j'ears  after  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary;  was  ordained  pastor 
at  Montpelier,  Vt^  Sept.  20, 1847,  and  died  there,  March 
18, 1877.  He  was  a  trustee  of  the  Washington  County 
Grammar  School  from  1853,  and  president  from  1865. 
From  1847  to  1875  he  was  director  of  the  Vermont  Bi- 
ble Society,  and  held  the  same  relation  to  the  Domestic 
Missionary  Society  from  1853  to  1877.  After  1870  he 
was  president  of  the  Vermont  Historical  Society,  of 
which  he  had  been  for  some  time  previously  a  mem- 
ber. In  1876  be  was  appointed  fidi  commissioner  of 
Vermont.  He  was  moderator  of  the  General  Conven- 
tion of  Vermont  in  1861 ;  was  corporate  member  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commisnoners  for  Foreign  Missions 
from  1878;  and  the  following  year  became  editor  of  the 
Vemumt  Ckronide.    See  Conff,  Quarterly^  1878,  p.  446. 

iKire,  Dallas  Daytom,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  born  at  Mauricetown,  N.  J.,  in  1815. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  at  twenty- 
one  entered  the  Philadelphia  Conference,  soon  receiving 
the  most  important  charges.  In  1847  Mr.  Lore  sailed 
for  South  America  as  a  missionary,  and  for  seven  vears 
was  the  pastor  of  a  large  and  intelligent  congregation 
in  Buenos  Ayres,  proving  himself  eminently  successful 
both  among  the  foreign  and  native  population.  Upon 
his  return  he  was  sent  on  a  tour  of  exploration  to  New 
Mexico  to  inspect  the  condition  of  the  mission  field. 
In  1856  he  was  transferred  to  the  Newark  Conference, 
and  after  serving  several  prominent  charges  within  its 
bounds,  received  a  transfer  to  the  Genesee  Conference, 
and  was  appointed  to  Grace  Church,  Buffalo.  In  1864 
he  was  elected  editor  of  the  Northern  Christian  Advo- 
ctttft  in  which  office  he  continued  till  his  death,  at  his 
residence  near  Auburn,  Jan.  20, 1875.  As  a  theologian. 
Dr.  Lore  was  diligent  and  comprehensive  in  his  re- 
searches, and  careful  in  his  conclusions.  As  a  preacher 
he  was  earnest,  direct,  and  practicaL  As  an  editor  he 
achieved  success  by  his  strong  and  forcible  style,  by 
the  boldness  and  wisdom  of  his  conclusions,  and  by  his 
devotion  to  the  truth.  His  zeal  in  tlie  cause  of  Chris- 
tian missions  was  truly  marvellous,  and  highly  exem- 
plary. See  MvuiteM  of  Annual  Conferences^  1875,  p. 
119;  Simpeon,  Cyclop,  afMethoditm,  s.  v. 

laoretz,  AliimEW,  one  of  the  early  pioneer  minis- 
ters of  the  German  Reformed  Church  in  America,  a 
.Swiss  by  birth,  was  educated  in  Europe,  and  emigrated 
to  America  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century. 
''About  the  year  1789  he  commenced  preaching  and 
ministering  in  a  wide  field,  embracing  a  large  part  of 
both  the  Carolinas,  from  Orange  County,  in  North  Car- 
olina, to  beyond  the  river  Saluda,  in  South  Carolina,  a 
distance  of  two  hundred  and  fiOy  miles."  He  died  in 
1812.  Mr.  Loietz  was  a  man  of  superior  natural  abil- 
ity, extensive  learning,  great  zeal  and  energy,  and,  in 
his  day, "  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  pulpit  orators  in 
the  Carolinas.**  See  Harbaugh,  Fathers  of  the  Gemu 
Itef  Church,  iii,  15.     (D.  Y.  H.) 

Loiimer,  rsTBR,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  Pres- 
byterian divine,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in 
1812.  He  graduated  from  the  university  there,  was 
ordained  in  1836,  and  installed  pastor  of  the  River  Ter- 
race Church,  London,  which  was  then  in  connection 
with  the  Church  of  Scotland.  He  was  at  one  with 
thoee  who,  in  1843,  formed  the  Free  Church  of  Scot«> 
land,  and  along  with  his  congregation  became  a  con- 
stituent part  of  the  Synod  of  Berwick  in  1844,  which, 


until  recently,  was  known  as  the  Synod  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  England.  From  that  time  forward 
the  first  desire  of  his  life  was  the  advancement  of  that 
Church  to  a  position  worthy  of  its  name.  He  was  con- 
nected with  the  London  Theological  College  from  the 
date  of  its  establishment  in  1845,  when  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  Hebrew  and  Biblical  criticism.  He  was 
made  the  first  principal  in  1878,  and  died  suddenly, 
July  28, 1879.  He  was  the  author  of  several  valuable 
works,  among  them,  The  Life  of  Patrick  Hamilton: — 
The  Life  of  the  Scottish  Reformer,  John  Knox: — ^and 
A  flistory  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England,  a 
work  on  which  he  had  spent  years  of  diligent  research, 
but  which  he  was  only  able  to  complete  in  part. 

Loriqnet,  Jkan  Nicolas,  a  French  Jesuit,  famous 
on  account  of  his  historical  falsifications,  was  born  Aug. 
5, 1760,  at  Epemay,  Champagne.  He  was  professor  at 
the  Seminary  of  Argenti^re,  which  was  closed  by  Na- 
poleon in  1807.  The  events  of  1814  made  the  Jesuits 
come  forward  in  great  numbers,  and  their  colleges  were 
multiplied.  Loriquet  was  intrusted  with  the  direction 
of  the  schools  at  Aix,  Provence,  and  St.  Acheul,  Picardy, 
and  the  pupils  who  were  under  his  charge  were  imbued 
with  that  spirit  which  has  been  detrimental  to  modem 
society.  In  1880  the  people  of  St.  Acheul  destroyed 
the  school  there,  and  the  reverend  fathers  had  to  quit 
the  place.  Loriquet  went  to  Switzerland,  where  he 
worked  in  behalf  of  bis  order.  Under  Louis  Philippe 
he  returned  to  France,  and  died  at  Paris,  April  9, 1845. 
Loriquet  was  a  prolific  writer.  For  a  list  of  his  works, 
see  Lichtenberger,  Encydop.  des  Sciences  Religieuses, 
s.  V.     (R  P.) 

Lorraine  (or  Gtol^e),  Claudk,  an  illustrious  French 
painter,  was  born  in  a  small  town  of  Champagne,  in  the 
diocese  of  Toul,  Lorraine,  in  1600,  and  went  to  Rome 
early  for  instruction,  where  he  made  great  improvement 
in  his  studies,  but  met  with  many  reverses,  and  often 
was  almost  penniless.  Godfrey  Waal  admitted  him 
into  his  academy,  where  he  remained  probably  two 
years.  Agostino  Tassi  became  interested  in  Claude, 
took  him  into  the  bosom  of  his  family,  and  made  him 
his  familiar  companion.  Claude,  naturally  of  a  relig- 
ious disposition,  feeling  profound  gratitude  for  the  many 
ben^ts  he  had  received,  soon  after  leaving  Tassi  and 
quitting  Rome,  about  1625,  performed  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  holy  Virgin  of  Loretto,  where  he  remained  some 
days  in  devotional  meditation.  From  thence  he  made 
a  tour  through  Italy,  traversing  Romagua,  Lombardy, 
and  on  to  Venice,  where  he  practiced  his  profession  for 
some  time.  In  1627  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  soon 
found  abundant  employment.  One  of  his  earliest  pa- 
trons was  cardinal  Bentivoglio,  for  whom  he  painted 
two  pictures  which  established  his  reputation.  About 
this  time  he  was  employed  by  cardinal  Crescenzi  to 
decorate  the  rotunda  of  his  palace ;  he  was  also  similar- 
ly engaged  in  the  Muti  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  and  of 
the  Medici  alia  Trinita  de*  Monti.  These  were  suc- 
ceeded by  commissions  from  the  duke  of  Bracciano, 
the  duke  de  Bouillon,  and  the  prince  dc  Leaucour,  for 
each  a  picture.  The  fame  of  Claude  now  extended 
to  every  part  of  Europe,  and  he  received  commissions 
from  the  most  distinguished  persons.  His  works  were 
not  confined  to  Rome,  Milan,  Parma,  Lombardy,  and 
Venice,  but  extended  also  to  Paris,  Lyons,  Montpellier, 
Avignon,  Antwerp,  Amsterdam,  and  Madrid.  He  dieil 
Nov.  21,  1682.  See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine 
Arts,  s.  V. 

laOBing;  Herbkkt,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom 
probably  at  Hoxon,  Suffolk,  his  father  being  an  abbot, 
wives  in  that  age  not  not  being  absolutely  forbidden  the 
deiigy,  though  his  father  might  have  become  abbot  in 
his  old  age.  Herbert  bought  a  better  preferment  for 
himself,  however,  giving  £1900  to  king  William  Rufua 
for  the  bishopric  of  Thetford.  Simony  was  a  fashion- 
able sin  at  that  time.  He  afterwards  went  to  Rome, 
retamed  to  England,  removed  his  bishopric  from  Thct- 


LOTTO 


678 


LOW 


ford  to  Norwich,  built  the  fine  cathedral  there  and  five 
beautiful  parish  churches,  and  died  Julv  22, 1119.  See 
Fuller,  H'orthiet  of  Engkmd  (Nuttall),  iit.  Id,  166. 

Lotto,  Lorenzo,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was 
probably  bom  at  Bergamo  in  1490,  and  apparently  stud- 
ied  at  Venice  under  Giovanni  Bellini.  His  principal 
works  are  in  the  churches  at  Bergamo,  Venice,  and  Ke- 
canati.  His  picture  of  the  Virffin  and  Infant  is  consid- 
ered one  of  his  best  performances.  In  the  Church  of 
Santo  Spirito  is  another  exquisite  picture  of  the  Virgin 
and  Tn/antj  with  St.  John  Standing  at  the  Foot  of  the 
Throne^  Embracing  a  I^anh,  Other  masterpieces  are  to 
be  seen  at  Bergamo  in  the  churches  and  private  col- 
lections, and  place  him  almost  upon  a  level  irith  the 
first  luminaries  of  art-.  He  died  in  1560.  See  Spooner, 
Biog,  Jlist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog, 
GitUraUy  s.  v. 

ZtOtze,  Hrrmann  Rudolf,  a  philosopher  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  May  21, 1817,  at  Bautzen,  Saxony.  He 
studied  medicine  and  philosophy  with  such  success  that, 
five  years  after  his  entrance  to  Leipsic  University,  he 
was  able  to  qualify  as  a  teacher  in  both  faculties.  In 
1844  he  was  called  to  Gottingen  as  professor  of  philoso- 
phy. Before  going  there,  however,  he  had  published 
his  metaphysics  in  1844,  and  his  logic  in  1843.  In  1881 
he  was  called  to  Berlin,  and  died  the  same  year.  Lotze 
was  a  determined  opponent  of  materialism  in  philoso- 
phy. ^  It  is  the  glory  of  Hermann  Lotze,"  says  Joseph 
OK>k, "  to  have  broadened,  by  exact  and  not  mystical 
methods,  the  philosophical  outlook  upon  human  nature, 
to  have  taken  the  emotions  in  all  their  ranges  into 
view,  as  well  as  the  intellectual  faculties ;  and  thus, 
gradually,  through  the  strictest  methods  of  modern  re- 
search, to  have  risen  to  a  philosophy  of  the  soul  and  of 
the  whole  composite  nature  of  man,  in  harmony  with 
the  truths  of  all  the  sciences^mental,  moral,  aesthetic, 
and  physical."  Others,  however,  see  in  the  philosophical 
system  of  Lotze  a  decided  tendency  to  that  insidious 
form  of  idealistic  pantheism  which  comes  near  to  deny- 
ing the  objectivity  of  matter,  or  at  least  to  resolving  all 
phenomena  into  pure  deity.  See  Scepticism,  Recent 
Phasks  op.  Lotze  published,  Meiaphytik  ( Leipsic, 
1841 ) : — AUgemeine  Pathologie  und  Therapie  aU  tnecha- 
nische  Naturw%*»enschaften  (1842;  2d  ed.  1848):— ^y- 
item  der  Phiiotophit  (2  vols. ;  vol.  i,  Tj>gik,  1843 ;  new 
ed.  1874;  vol.  ii,  Metaphysik,  1878;  2d  ed.  1884;  Engl, 
transl.  edited  by  B.  Bosanquet,  Oxford,  1883, 2  vols.)  :— 
Uebcr  den  Begnff  der  Schonheit  (Gottingen,  1845)  :— 
Geschichte  der  Aetthetik  in  Deufschland  (Munich,  1868): 
^AUgemeine  Phyiiologie  dee  korperlichen  Lebent  (Leip- 
sic, 1851)  '.—Medizimtche  Pegchologie  (1852)  i^Mikro- 
koemus  (1856-64, 3  vols. ;  4th  ed.  1884)  i—Grundziige  der 
Piychologie  (1881).  See  Caspari,  Hermann  Lotze,  eine 
kritisch'historitche  Studie  (Breslau,  1883);  Tfleiderer, 
Lotze't  philosophische  Wdtanachauung  (Berlin,  1882 ;  2d 
ed.  1884) ;  Cook,  SpirUual  Religion  in  lAttze't  Philoso- 
phy (Boston  Monday  morning's  locture,  published  .in 
the  [N.  Y.]  Independent^ 'Much  20,1884);  Gardiner, 
Lotze's  Theistic  Philotophv  (Pretb,  Review, Ocioher,  1885). 
(B.  P.) 

IiOUis,  Saint,  bishop  of  Toulouse,  was  born  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1274,  at  the  castle  of  Brignoles,  in  Provence.  He 
was  the  second  son  of  Charles  II,  the  hunchbacked  king 
of  Naples,  and  of  Mar}^  the  daughter  of  Stephen  V,  king 
of  Hungary;  was  educated  by  the  disciples  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, took  the  habit  of  their  order,  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1296  at  Naples,  notwithstanding  the  solicita- 
tions of  his  family,  who  wished  to  have  him  married  to 
the  sister  of  the  king  of  Aragon.  From  his  fourteenth 
to  his  twentieth  year  he  served  as  hostage  to  his  father, 
and  was  imprisoned  at  Barcelona,  where  he  was  treated 
very  cruelly.  Pope  Boniface  VIII  appointed  him  to  the 
see  of  Toulouse,  Dec  27, 1295,  although  he  was  not  yet 
of  the  required  age,  and  chargetl  him  with  administer- 
ing  the  diocese  of  Parniers.  Louis  divided  his  time 
between  the  study,  works  of  piety,  and  the  pastoral  du- 


tiesi  also  making  great  efforts  to  destiny  the  Albigen- 
ses.  In  1297  he  went  to  Paris  with  bis  father.  "A 
princess,"  says  one  of  his  biographers,  "sought  to  test 
his  virtue ;  in  fact,  she  omitted  nothing  to  ae<lnce  him, 
but  the  holy  prelate  disregarded  her  carenes  and  her 
threatenings."  He  went  away  from  the  court  as  soon 
as  possible,  and  was  invited  to  visit  Aragon  and  Cata- 
lonia. He  resolved,  however,  to  go  to  Rome,  in  order 
to  surrender  into  the  hands  of  the  pope  the  burden  of 
the  episcopacy ;  but  on  arriving  at  Brignoles  he  was  at- 
tacked with  fever,  and  died  Aug.  19, 1297.  His  body 
was  at  first  taken  to  Marseilles,  and  afterwards  to  Ara- 
gon. Pope  John  XXII,  who  had  been  the  preceptor 
of  Louis,  canonized  him,  April  7,  1317.  See  Hoefer, 
iVbtir.  Biog.  GiniraU,  s.  v. 

Loundres,  Hknry  de,  an  Irish  prelate,  previously 
archdeacon  of  Stafford,  sacoeeded  to  the  see  of  Dublin 
in  1218.  In  July  of  the  same  year  be  was  appointed 
lord-justice  of  Ireland,  where  be  continued  untU  121&. 
He  was  present,  June  15  of  that  year,  in  England,  when 
the  king  executed  the  Magna  Charta  at  Runnymede. 
In  1216  king  John  conferred  upon  archbishop  de  Loun- 
dres  and  his  successors  the  manor  of  Timothan,  to  which, 
in  1217  and  1225,  various  other  grants  were  annexed. 
During  the  time  this  prelate  presided  over  the  see  of 
Dublin,  he  erected  the  collegiate  Church  of  St.  Patrick 
into  a  cathedral.  He  constituted  William  Fitz-Guy  the 
first  dean,  and  appointed  a  precentor,  chancellor,  and 
treasurer,  to  whom  be  allotted  lands  and  rectories.  He 
died  in  Jul}',  1228.  See  D'Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  A  rcA- 
bishops  ofbubliny  p.  79. 

LoiuiBbury,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Florida,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  4, 1789.  He  grad- 
uated with  the  highest  honors  from  Union  CoUege  in 
1817  •  studied  theology  for  more  than  a  year  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.;  then  became  missionary  in  Sullivan  County, 
N.  Y.,  from  1821  to  1828 ;  was  ordained  by  the  presbytery 
of  Geneva,  Sept.  4  of  the  latter  year;  preached  at  Ovid 
from  1823  to  1849;  was  afterwards  stated  supply  at 
Homer,  Hector,  and  Romulus;  then  went  again  to 
Ovid,  where  he  died,  Oct.  29, 1867.  See  Wilson,  Presft. 
Hist,  A  Imanac,  1868,  p.  217;  Gen.  Cat.  ofPrisuxton  Theoi. 
^«m.  1881,  p.  27. 

Loup  (Lat.  Lupus),  Saints  a  F.rencb  prelate,  was 
born  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bayeux.  There  is  a  le- 
gend, according  to  which  St.  Rufflnian,  bishop  of  Ba- 
yeux, educated  the  young  Loup,  who  soon  became  the 
most  learned  and  most  distinguished  among  all  the 
clerks  at  Bayeux.  Thus,  at  the  death  of  Ruffinian,  he 
was  elected  by  the  whole  people  his  successor,  and  con- 
secrated by  Sy  1  vester,  archbishop  of  Rouen.  Saint  Loup 
died  about  the  vear  465.  To  him  has  often  been  at- 
tributed  the  Life  of  St.  Raimbert,  bishop  of  Bayeus. 
See  Hoefer,  Xouv,  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Ztoup,  SaitMt,  bishop  op  Lyons,  Sept.  25, 542.  He 
began  as  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  the  lale  of  Sainte- 
Barbe,  on  the  Saone,  near  Lyons.  He  became  the  supe- 
rior of  it,  and  Saint  Virentiol,  in  the  see  of  Lyons,  in 
523.  He  presided  at  the  third  council  of  Orleans,  May 
7,  588,  at  which  there  were  passed  thirty-three  canona 
to  restore  discipline  in  the  Church  of  France.  He  died 
Sept  25, 542,  and  is  said  to  have  been  buried  in  the  her> 
mitage  of  the  Isle  of  Sainte-Barbe.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog,  Generale,  s.  v. 

Loup,  Saint,  of  Troyes.    See  Lupus. 

Low,  David,  an  Anglican  bishop,  was  bom  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Brechin,  Scotland,  in  1768.  He  re* 
ceived  his  education  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 
then  studied  with  bishop  Gleig  at  Stirling,  and  was 
settled  in  charge  of  the  congregation  at  Pittenweem  in 
1790,  where  fur  more  than  half  a  century  he  fulfilled 
the  duties  of  the  pastoral  office  without  intermtsion. 
Dr.  Low  was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  united  diocese 
of  Argyle,  Ross,  and  Moray,  in  1819.  Some  years  anh- 
sequently  he  effected  a  separation  between  the  diocese 
of  Ross  and  Moray  and  that  of  Argyle,  retaining  the 


LOW 


679 


LOWENTHAL 


saperintendenee  of  the  former.  He  resigned  the  see  in 
1850,  and  died  at  Fettenween,  Jan.  26, 18M.  He  was 
especially  intimate  with  Scottish  traditions  and  histor^ 
ical  lore,  and  was  a  captivating  conversationalist.  See 
A  mer,  Quar,  Church  Rev»  1855,  p.  315. 

Ldw,  Leopold,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was  bom  in  1811 
in  Moravia.  He  studied  at  Prague,  and  was  in  1848 
chief  rabbi  of  Great  Kanizca,  Hungary.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  after  its  sup- 
pression was  imprisoned  and  condemned  to  death.  lie 
was,  however,  pardoned,  and  in  1851  became  chief 
rabbi  at  Szegedin,  where  he  died,  Oct.  13, 1875.  Low 
was  a  voluminous  writer,  his  essays  having  been  pub- 
lished in  four  volumes,  under  the  title  Getammelte 
£hAriften  (Szegedin,  1876>  Still  valuable  are  his  Bei- 
trdgt  eiirjuditchen  AUerthuauhmde  (Leipnc,  1870): — 
Attgemeine  EmUilung  und  GttdnehU  der  SchriftauaU' 
sung  (Great  Kanizca,  1855).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  ii, 
266.     (a  P.) 

Lo'wder,  Charles  Fuob,  an  Anglican  clergy-man, 
of  some  fame  in  the  history  of  city  missions  and  of 
English  ritualism,  was  born  at  Bath,  June  22, 1821,  and 
graduated  at  King's  College  School,  London,  and  JSxe- 
ter  College,  Oxford.  He  served  his  apprenticeship  to 
London  church-work  under  Skinner,  at  St.  Barnabas, 
Fimlico,  from  1851  to  1856.  It  was  a  time  of  vehe- 
ment anti-Catholic  agitation.  The  ritualism  of  Skin- 
ner and  Lowder  consisted  in  (1)  Procession  of  cler- 
gy and  choristers  from  and  to  the  vestry;  (2)  Obei- 
sance towards  the  altar  on  entering  and  retiring  from 
the  sanctuary;  (8) The  eastward  position;  (4)  Col- 
ored coverings  varied  for  the  season  on  the  altar. 
Bishop  Blomfield  allowed  some  of  these,  but  disspproved 
of  others.  These  troubles  dragged  on  until  the  Lush- 
ington  judgment  disheartened  the  High-Church  part}% 
and  the  first  decision  of  the  privy  council  in  December, 
1855,  was  welcomed  as  a  deliverance  by  hearts  which 
could  not  foresee  the  very  different  treatment  which 
the  Kubric  on  ornaments  was  to  receive  from  that  same 
body  in  the  Ridsdale  judgment.  Yet,  at  the  beginning, 
the  ritualism  of  St.  Barnabas  **  roused  such  a  storm  and 
provoked  such  outrage  that  towards  the  end  of  1850 
the  religious  people  of  the  district  were  so  horrified  by 
the  blasphemous  cries  of  the  mob  that  they  were  fain 
to  keep  within  their  houses.**  In  1856  and  1857  Low- 
der took  charge  of  mission  congregations  at  Katdiff 
Highway  and  Welldose  Square,  where,  amid  many 
physical  discomforts,  and  among  the  rough  population 
of  that  wild  East  London  district,  he  left  '*  the  record 
of  a  very  noble  life,  full  of  unconscious  greatness,  to 
which  the  term  heroic  would  not  be  misapplied."^  He 
was  not  a  man  of  brilliant  abilities  or  social  attractive- 
ness, by  no  means  eloquent  as  a  preacher,  not  always 
a  good  judge  of  character,  his  asceticism  impaired  his 
health  and  his  working  force,  yet  one  could  speak  of 
his  calm,  unexcited  courage,  his  splendid  patience,  his 
unsparing  laboriousness,  his  habitual,  far-reaching  char- 
ity, bis  burning  love  of  souls,  his  intense  loyalty  to 
Christ  as  a  personal  Saviour.  In  1858  Lowder  wel- 
comed a  coadjutor,  Alexander  Heriot  Mackonochie, 
since  so  conspicuous  in  the  English  Church.  In  1859 
six  clergy  were  laboring  in  the  parish,  with  a  large 
staff  of  lay  assistants,  fifty -four  services  were  held 
weekly,  and  six  hundred  children  were  under  instruc- 
tion in  the  six  schools  which  had  been  set  on  foot. 
'This  outburst  of  missionary  energy,  with  services  so 
ritualistic,  excited  opposition.  In  September,  1859, 
Lowder  came  near  being  murdered  by  a  mob  lashed 
into  fury,  and  in  the  beginning  of  1860  "  the  whole 
service  was  interrupted  by  hissing,  whistling,  and 
shouting;  songs  were  roared  out  during  the  service 
and  lesson ;  cushions  and  books  wera  hurled  at  the  al- 
tar ..  .  the  dergy  were  spat  upon,  hustled,  and  kicked 
within  the  church,  and  only  protected  from  greater 
outrages  by  sixty  or  eighty  gentlemen  who,  unasked, 
came  to  the  icacue."    The  mob  gutted  St.  Gcofge*t 


(Hiurch  of  eveiy thing  savoring  of  the  Roman  service, 
and  the  bishop  (Tait)  for  the  most  part  gave  way  to 
the  rioters.  After  the  storm  had  passed,  the  patience 
and  Christian  spirit  of  Lowder  and  his  associates  began 
to  make  itself  felt  upon  the  rough  zealots.  Some  of 
them  became  choristere  in  other  churches,  or  assisted 
priests  in  mission  work.  New  agencies  for  good  sprang 
up,  one  of  which  was  the  Working  Men's  Institute. 
The  Church  of  St.  Peter's,  London  Docks,  was  conse- 
crated June  31, 1866,  Lowder  being  its  first  vicar.  Then 
came  the  visitation  of  cholera,  which  conquered  the 
people  and  bowed  their  hearts  once  for  all  to  the  pastor 
who  gave  himsdf  up  with  such  absolute  devotedness 
to  the  work  of  hdping  them.  Lowder  did  not  set  up 
a  system  in  place  of  a  Person,  or  his  own  office  as  the 
substitute  for  an  absent,  instead  of  the  witness  for  a 
present.  Lord.  The  root -idea  of  confession  was  the 
heinousness  of  sin  and  the  promise  of  pardon  through 
the  blood  of  Christ,  and  confession  and  absolution  were 
freely  offered  to  all  those  who  needed  it.  He  had 
rituals,  because  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  put  before 
the  eyes  of  the  people  the  image  of  the  worship  of 
heaven,  and  the  outward  appointments  of  the  Church 
gave  an  air  of  comfort  and  dignity — a  lesson  for  the 
people  to  take  back  to  their  squalid  homes.  As  the 
result,  not  only  was  open  sin  swept  away  from  the 
streets  of  St.  Peter's,  where  before  streets  were  peo- 
pled by  houses  of  ill-fame,  but  five  hundred  communi- 
cants of  St  Peter's  were  lifted  above  the  suffering  life 
into  joy  and  peace.  Lowder's  health,  undermined  for 
a  long  time,  broke  down  in  1874  or  1875.  In  August, 
1880,  he  went  abroad,  never  to  return.  In  the  Tyrol, 
at  Zell-am-See,  at  the  age  of  sixty,  among  strangera, 
Sept.  9, 1880,  this  great  nn<)  heroic  spirit  passed  away. 
See  Charles  LovHler^  a  biography,  by  ihe  author  of  the 
Life  of  St.  Teresa  (2d  ed.  Lend.  1882 ;  N.  Y.  eod.) ; 
Church  of  England  Quar.  Rev.  April,  1882,  p.  57  sq. ; 
Ttoeaty'One  Yean  in  St.  George^  Mission,  by  Rev.  C.  F. 
Lowder,  M.A.  (Lond.  8vo). 

Lo'wentlial,  I8iix)r,  a  famous  missions r}'  and 
translator  of  the  Bible,  was  a  native  of  Poland,  and 
of  Jewish  parentage.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  had 
to  flee  hb  country,  being  suspected  by  the  govern- 
ment of  conspiracy.  He  came  to  America,  and  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  went  about  as  a  pedler,  hawking  jew- 
elry and  stationery.  In  or  near  Princeton,  living  a 
life  of  retired  though  literary  habits,  was  a  much-re- 
spected clerg}'man,  who  had  more  than  one  conver- 
sation with  the  eloquent  pedler.  Perceiving  in  him 
talent  of  no  common  order,  he  offered  to  assist  him 
in  the  prosecution  of  his  studies.  An  appeal  to  some 
princely  merchants  of  New  York  speedily  procured  the 
funds  necessary  to  send  the  young  man  to  Princeton 
College.  At  this  time  he  was  a  bigoted  Jew,  but  his 
course  of  studies,  his  intercourse  with  tutors,  brought 
about  his  conversion,  and  he  received  boptisro.  Hav- 
ing completed  his  studies,  he  offered  himself  as  a  mis- 
sionar}*  to  the  American  Presbyterian  Board.  To  In- 
dia he  directed  his  steps,  and  fancying  from  what  he 
had  read  that  among  the  Afghans  might  be  found  traces 
of  the  lost  tribes,  he  proposed  that  he  should  be  sent  to 
Peshawur,  as  a  missionary  to  the  Afghans.  There,  in 
1856,  he  commenced  his  work.  With  rare  ability  and 
perseverance,  he  had  so  perfected  himsdf  in  the  difficult 
language  of  the  Afghans  as  to  prepare  a  translation  of 
the  entire  New  Test.;  and  although  the  execution  of 
the  work  devolved  wholly  upon  himself,  it  was  marked 
by  close  adherence  to  the  original  texts,  and  by  an  idi- 
omatic power  of  expression  which  earned  the  warmest 
commendation  of  the  PushtA  linguists  who  were  capa- 
ble of  pronouncing  a  critical  opinion  on  the  result  of 
his  labors.  The  question  of  translating  the  Old  Test, 
had  been  discussed,  and  as  the  importance  of  giving 
the  Afghans  a  complete  Bible  was  deeply  felt,  Mr.  LQw- 
enthal  had  expressed  his  willingness  to  undertake  this 
great  and  responsible  task.  But  the  Divine  Master  had 
otherwiie  appointed,  and  before  ho  had  fairly  entered 


LUBERSAC 


680 


LUDOVICI 


npon  the  duty,  he  wis  assassinated,  April  27, 1864.    See 
PushtO  Version.    (B.  P.) 

Lubersao,  Jisan  Baptistk  Joseph  i>k,  a  French 
prelate,  was  boni  at  Limoges,  Jan.  15,  1740.  He  be* 
came  first  grand-vicar  of  the  archbishop  of  Aries,  in 
1768  almoner  of  the  king,  and  in  1775  bishop  of  Treguier. 
In  1780  he  was  transferred  to  Chart  res.  Having  been 
sent  by  the  clergy  to  the  States-General,  he  refused  to 
recognise  the  constitution  of  the  clergy,  and  Blarch  15, 
1791,  was  forced  to  emigrate.  In  1801  he  resigned  his 
bishopric.  After  his  return  to  France  he  was  appointed 
canon  of  the  chapter  of  St  Denis.  *  He  died  Aug.  30, 
1822,  leaving.  Journal  de  VEmigration  du  Clery4  de 
France  en  A  ngUterre  (Lond.  1802) :  —  ApologU  de  la 
Rdigion  et  de  la  Monarckie  Reunies  (ibid.  cod.).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Luoa,  Antonio  DE,canlinal-bL}hop  of  Palestrina  and 
vice-chancellor  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  was  bom  Oct. 
28, 1805,  at  Bronte,  Sicily.  In  1863  he  was  made  car- 
dinal, and  died  Dec.  29, 1883.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
prominent  members  of  the  college  of  cardinals,  chief  of 
the  apostolic  chancery,  and,  with  the  cardinals  Pitra 
and  Hergenrother,  bad  charge  of  the  archives  and  the 
Vatican  library.     (B.  P.) 

Laoarlnoa,  RicGiNALDO,an  Italian  Dominican,  who 
died  Oct.  10, 1671,  is  the  author  of,  Epiacopus  Regvlaru : 
— Manuals  Controvertiarum  Thomisticarum : — Ifermes 
Biblicu9: — BMiotheca  Scriptorum  Ordinit  Prtedtetmti' 
unu  See  Echard,  De  Scriptoribus  Ordinu  Dominica'' 
norum;  Ughelli,  Italia  Sacra  ;  Jocher,  AUgemeinea  Ge^ 
khrten'Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ziucatelli  (or  Ztooatelli),  PiBTRO,a  distinguished 
Boman  painter,  was  bom  in  1660,  and  studied  under 
Ciro  Ferri.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  St  Luke  in  1690,  and  executed  some  works  for  the 
public  edifices  at  Rome.  His  paintings  in  the  Church 
of  San  Agostino,  and  in  the  Collegio  Fuccioli,  are  high- 
ly commended.  He  died  in  1741.  See  Spooner,  Biog, 
Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  r/#,  s.  v. 

lauoohi,  MiCHiEL  Anoblo,  an  Italian  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Brescia,  Aug.  20, 1744.  He  made  his  profession 
at  Monte  Cassino,  where  be  was  appointed  to  teach 
philosophy  and  theology.  He  visited  the  principal 
libraries  of  Italy,  and  collected  a  number  of  ancient 
MSS.,  now  in  the  Vatican.  Pius  VII  called  him  to 
Rome,  made  him  cardinal,  Feb.  28,  1801,  and  intmsted 
him  with  the  censorship  of  books.  He  died  at  Subiaco, 
Sept  29, 1802,  leaving  several  works  on  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classics.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genirale, 
s.  v. 

Luoena,  Lorenzo,  a  Spanish  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian, was  bora  in  1807.  He  was  ordained  deacon  by 
the  bishop  of  Cordova  in  1830,  and  priest  in  1831  by  the 
suffragan  bishop  of  Seville.  For  eight  yeara  he  acted 
as  professor  of  theology  at  the  College  of  St  Pelagius, 
in  the  University  of  Seville,  and  for  three  yean  held 
the  office  of  provisional  president  there.  In  1842  he 
was  appointed  honorary  canon  of  Gibraltar  Cathedral, 
and  reader  in  the  Spanish  language  and  literature  in 
the  Tayloriau  Institution  at  Oxford,  in  1861.  He  as- 
sisted in  preparing  the  new  edition  of  the  Spanish  Bible, 
generally  known  as  that  of  Cipriano  de  Valera,and  pub- 
lished bv  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Societv.  He 
died  at  Oxford,  Aug;24, 1881.     (R  P.) 

Luohai^  in  Mongolian  mythology,  is  a  mighty 
dragon,  inhabiting  the  great  sea,  constantly  growing, 
and  destined  finally  to  devour  the  universe. 

Luoiiis,  Saintf  of  Britain,  lived  in  the  2d  century, 
fiede,  in  his  Eccleinaatical  History^  says  that  in  154,  un- 
der the  Roman  emperors,  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Verus, 
and  during  the  pontificate  of  Eleutherus,  a  British  king 
Lucius  wrote  to  the  pope,  announcing  that  he  wished 
to  become  a  ChrisUan.  Eleuthems  favorably  received 
the  communication,  and  sent  priests  to  instract  the 
Britons  in  the  Christian  faith.    A  similar  acooaot  may  I 


be  found  in  a  number  of  other  traditions.    See  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.  s.  v. 

Lncias,  Johann  Gottlieb,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept  8,  1665,  at  Dresden. 
He  studied  at  Leipeic,  was  in  1687  bachelor  of  theologi", 
in  1698  licentiate^  in  1708  doctor,  and  in  1712  superin- 
tendent at  Pima.  Lucius  died  April  27,  1722.  He 
wrote,  De  Lege  jEtema : — Vindida  DissertationU  Carp* 
zoviana  de  Descensu  Chrisii  ad  Inferos: — De  ^temi' 
tate  Dei: — De  Convivifcatione  Fidelium  cum  Christo  ex 
IIos.  vt,  2 : — De  CohabUatione  et  CongloHficatioue  Fide- 
Hum  cum  Christo  ex  Joh.  xvii,  24.  See  Jocher,  AUge^ 
meines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Laoiufl,  Ludovicua,  a  German  Protestant  theo- 
logian, was  bom  at  Basle,  Feb.  9, 1577.  For  some  time 
professor  of  Hebrew,  in  the  place  of  Buxtorf,  he  was 
called  »s  deacon  and  rector  to  Baden,  and  died  June  10, 
1642.  He  wrote,  Bistoria  Jesuitiea : — Nota  i»  Apoca- 
lypsin  Johannis: — Dissertatio  Arnica  cum  Joa.  Pisca- 
tore  de  Causa  Meritoria  Justifcationis  Nostra  Coram 
Deo: — Anii-ChistiOccidentalis  in  Ilungaria Persecutio: 
— Synopsis  Anti-Sociniana : — De  Fide  et  Moribus  Chri- 
stianorum: — Dictionarium  Novi  Testamenti: — Compen- 
dium Theotogice: — Semi-Pelagianismus  Remonstraniium: 
— Ilistoria  Augustini  ex  Operibus  Ejus  Collecta.  See 
Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  i,  531;  Jocher,  AUgt' 
meines  Gdehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ludger,  Saint,  a  German  prelate,  was  bora  in  Friea- 
land.  In  his  early  youth  he  studied  under  the  disci- 
pline of  St  Gregory,  who  goveroed  the  school  as  well  as 
the  Church  of  Utrecht.  In  802  he  is  noticed  at  Rome, 
and  next  at  Monte  Cassino,  where  he  staved  two  veara; 
finally  returaing  to  the  barbarians,  he  preached  the 
gospel  to  the  Saxons  and  the  Frieslanders,  where,  about 
the  same  period,  he  became  chief  of  the  Church  of  MUn* 
ster.  He  died  March  26,  809,  leaving  a  single  work, 
The  L\fe  of  St,  Gregory,  Abbot  of  Utrecht  (published  in 
the  Acta  Sanctorum'),  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  GM- 
rale,  s.  v. 

Ludl  Fnnfibrea  (funeral  games)  were  celebrated 
at  the  funeral  pyre  of  distinguished  persons  among  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  They  were  private  en- 
tertainments, given  by  survivon  in  honor  of  their  de- 
ceased friends,  and  were  sometimes  continued  for  two 
or  three  days. 

Lndl  Martifilea  (martial  games)  were  celebrated 
every  year  among  the  ancient  Romans  in  the  drcua, 
Aug.  1,  in  honor  of  Mars. 

Ludki  (Polish  Lndachi)  were  conceived  by  the 
Wends  to  be  earth-spirits.  At  night  they  have  feasts; 
they  come  into  houses  by  wsy  of  subterranean  passages, 
do  not  allow  themselves  to  be  disturbed,  and  avenge 
every  provocation  by  a  knavish  trick.  German  super- 
stitions also  admit  of  such  ghost-like  beings. 

LudlO'W,  Gabriei^  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Aoquackanonck,  N.  J.,  April  23, 1797. 
He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1817,  from  New 
Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  in  1820,  and  was  li- 
censeil  b^'  the  Classis  of  New  Brunswick  probably  the 
same  year.  He  was  stated  supply  at  Albany  for  six 
months  thereafter,  and  at  Neshanic,  Somerset  Co.,  N.  J., 
from  1821  until  his  death,  Feb.  19, 1878.  He  was  genial 
and  sympathetic,  strong  in  thought,  as  well  sui  indepen- 
dent He  published  several  sermonSi  See  Corwia, 
Manual  of  the  Bef,  Church  in  A  maica,  3d  ed.  p.  366. 

LudOTloi,  Christian,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  at  Landshut,  Silesia,  in  1663.  He 
studied  at  Breslau  and  Leipsic,  commenced  his  academ- 
ical career  in  1687,  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
in  1699,  doctor  of  theology  in  1724,  and  died  at  Leipsic, 
Jan.  15,  1732.  He  wrote,  Isagoge  m  AcoesUutitionem 
Hebraicam:  —  IMraismus,  Chaldaismus,  Targumicth' 
TalmudicO'Rabbimeus  et  Syriasmus  ad  Harmomam  el 
Compendium  Redacti  :-^Diss.  Vin  Rabbi  Levi  hen  Germm 
Cimmeniarium  Rabbinicum  in  IIiubum:^-Sdktiiamsa 


LUDWIG 


681 


LUPOLD 


de  A  utorUms,  qui  de  ScriptorUnts  Eedenoiticu  EgerufU : 
— JIUtoria  ConcUi  Nicceni,  See  Winer,  I/andbuch  der 
tkeoL  Lit,  i,  681, 663;  Jocher,  ^i/^iR«tiiM  Gelehrten-LeX" 
iibn,  s.  v.;  FUrstf  BibL  Jud,  s.  v.  Ludowig,  ii,  274. 

(a  P.) 

Ludwig,  Edmund  A.,  a  German  Reformed  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Switzerland.  He  received  a  lib- 
eral education,  and  obtained  the  deg^e  of  doctor  of 
philosophy  from  a  European  university.  After  coming 
to  America  he  became  professor  of  languages  in  Wash- 
ington College,  Lexington,  Ya.  Subsequently  he  went 
North,  engaging  as  editor  and  teacher  for  some  years. 
In  1868  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  but  failing  to  secure 
a  call,  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Erie,  Pa.,  in 
teaching  and  as  organist.  He  died  in  1880.  He  was 
a  proficient  scholar  and  devoted  Christian.  See  Har- 
baugh.  Fathers  of  the  Germ,  Ref.  Church,  v,  881. 

Luigi  de  Gonzaga,  an  Italian  saint,  was  bom 
March  9,  1568,  at  Castiglione,  being  the  son  of  Ferdi- 
nand of  Gonzaga,  marquis  of  Castiglione.  After  being 
educated  at  the  conrt  of  Francis  de  Medicis,  he  went 
to  Spain  with  his  father,  where  Philip  II  gave  him  as 
a  page  to  prince  James.  In  1585,  leaving  his  worldly 
goods  to  his  brother  Rodolph,  he  entered  upon  the  novi- 
tiate of  the  Jesuits  at  Rome.  He  died  June  20,  1591, 
and  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation,  but 
some  time  later  his  body  was  transferred  to  a  chapel 
which  had  been  built  under  his  invocation  by  the  mar- 
quis Scipio  Lancelloti.  He  was  beatified  in  1621  by 
Gregory  XV,  and  canonized  in  1726  by  Benedict  XIII. 
See  Hoefer,  Houv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. 

Loini  (or  Lovini),  Bernardino,  an  eminent  Ital- 
ian painter,  was  probably  bom  at  Luino,  a  small  town 
in  the  Milanese  province,  on  the  Lago  Maggiore,  in 
1480,  and  is  generally  considered  to  have  been  a  pupil 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  His  two  pictures  of  Mary  Mag- 
dalene and  St,  John  Embracing  the  Lamb,  in  the  Am- 
brosian  Gallery  at  Milan,  are  excellent  works.  He  was 
no  less  distinguished  for  his  frescos,  of  which  the  most 
celebrated  is  Christ  Crowned  tnth  Thorns,  in  the  same 
gallery.  He  died  in  1530.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of 
the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ghirale,  s.  v. 

Lukaftzewics,  Joseph  von,  a  Polish  historian, 
was  bom  Nov.  80, 1797,  at  Kromplewo,  near  Posen,  and 
died  Feb.  18, 1872.  His  works  having  been  translated 
into  German,  we  give  the  German  titles:  Historische 
Nachricht  iiber  die  Dissidenten  in  der  StaA  Posen  im  16. 
ttnd  17,  Jahrhuttdert  (Posen,  1832 ;  German  by  Dalitzki, 
Darmstadt,  1843): — l/d)er  die  Kirchen  der  bOhmischen 
Briider  im  ehemaUgen  GrosspoUn  (Posen,  1835;  Ger- 
man by  Fischer,  GrUtz,  1877) : — Geschichte  der  Kirchen 
des  hdvetischen  Bekemttnisses  in  Litauen  (1842,  2  vols. ; 
German,  Leipsic,  1850):  —  Geschichte  des  helveiischen 
Bekenainisses  m  KUinpolen  (1858):  —  Geschichte  aUer 
hatholischen  Kirchen  in  der  ehemal^en  posen^schen  Did- 
cese  (185&-63, 8  vols.).     (R  P.) 

Luke,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  dean  of  St.  Bfartin  le 
Grand,  London,  and  treasurer  of  the  king's  wardrobe. 
He  was  elected  to  the  see  of  Dublin,  and  obtained  the 
royal  confirmation,  Dec.  18, 1228.  His  election  was  set 
aside  at  Rome  as  not  being  canonical,  and  he  was  re- 
elected, but  not  confirmed  by  the  pope  until  1280. 
About  1287  be  improved  the  buildings  of  Christ's 
Church,  and  endowed  that  of  St.  John,  without  the 
New  Gate,  with  two  burgages  and  six  acres  of  land  in 
St.  Kevin's  parish.  In  1240  he  granted  to  the  vicars 
serving  mass  at  the  altar  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  in  St. 
Patrick's  Cathedral,  a  certain  portion  of  the  revenues 
of  the  Church  of  Alderg.  In  1247  archbishop  Luke 
made  an  act  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  the  residence 
of  the  prebendaries  of  Sl  Patrick's  Cathedral.  In  the 
following  year  he  made  the  Church  of  Larabrien  a 
prebend  of  the  same  cathedral  He  died  in  December, 
1255.  See  D'Altoo,  Memoirs  of  the  Archbishops  of 
Dublin,  p.  90. 

Lnmpklxi,  John,  a  distingnished  Baptist  minister 


of  Georgia,  was  bom  in  Pittsylvania  0>unty,  Va.,  Nor. 
4,  1785,  but  went,  when  a  child,  to  Georgia,  and  was 
reared  in  Oglethorpe  County,  where  he  spent  his  whole 
life.  Socially,  his  relations  were  of  a  high  character. 
One  of  his  brothers,  Wilson  Lumpkin,  was  governor  of 
the  state  three  years,  and  another  brother,  Joseph  Hen- 
ry, chief-justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Georgia.  His 
ordination  took  place  in  1808,  and  his  ministry  was  ex- 
ercised in  different  parts  of  the  county  in  which  he 
lived.  Three  new  churches  were  formed  during  his 
life,  through  his  personal  efforts.  He  died,  greatly  la- 
mented, Aug.  1, 1889.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encychp, 
p.  724.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Ziund,  JoHANN,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  Sept.  11, 1638,  at  Flensburg.  He  studied  at 
Leipsic,  was  in  1672  deacon  at  Tundern,  Schleswig,  and 
died  Sept.  13, 1686.  He  is  the  author  of  Beschreibung 
des  Levitischen  Gotiesdienstes,  which  was  published  by 
his  son  under  the  title,  Judische  I/eiligthiimer.  An 
edition,  with  notes,  was  published  by  Job.  Christ.  Wolf 
(Hamburg,  1738).  See  Moller,  Cimbria  Lifterata ;  J6- 
cher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  //and- 
buch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  1 37.     {B,  P.) 

Lundy,  Francis  J.,  D.C.L.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman  of  the  diocese  of  New  York,  became  assis- 
tant minister  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Newburgh,  in  1867, 
and  died  April  7,  1868,  aged  fifty- three  years.  See 
Prot,  Episc,  A  Imanac,  1869,  p.  109. 

Lupercalia,  a  noted  Roman  festival,  was  celebrated 
annually  on  Feb.  15,  in  honor  of  Luperais,  the  god  of 
fertility,  or,  as  is  alleged  by  many,  in  honor  of  Pan, 
Plutarch  calls  it  the  feast  of  wolves,  and  declares  it  to 
have  been  of  a  lustnil  or  ceremonially  purifying  char- 
acter. Whatever  may  liave  been  its  origin,  it  was  in 
some  way  ccmnected  with  the  legend  that  Romulus  and 
Remns  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf,  and  accordingly  the 
rites  of  the  Lupercalia  were  observed  in  the  Lupercal, 
the  place  where  this  nursing  was  supposed  to  have  oc 
curred.  On  the  appointed  day  the  Luperci  (q.  v.)  as- 
sembled and  offered  sacrifices  of  goats  and  young  dogs. 
A  peculiar  ceremony  then  followed.  Two  youths  of 
high  rank  were  led  forward  to  the  priests,  who,  having 
dipped  a  sword  in  the  blood  of  one  of  the  victims  which 
had  been  sacrified,  touched  their  foreheads  with  it ;  after 
which  some  of  the  other  priests  came  forward  and  wiped 
off  the  blood  with  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth  which  had 
been  dipped  in  milk.  The  youths  now  burst  into  a  fit 
of  laughter,  and  forthwith  the  general  merriment  which 
characterized  this  festival  began.  The  priests  having 
feasted  themselves,  and  indulged  freely  in  wine,  cov- 
ered their  bodies  over  with  the  skins  of  the  goau  which 
they  had  sacrificed.  Thus  fantastically  dressed  they 
ran  up  and  down  the  streets,  brandishing  thongs  of 
goat-skin  leather,  with  which  they  struck  all  they  met, 
particularly  the  women,  who  hailed  the  infiiction  of  the 
sacred  lash  as  a  species  of  ceremonial  lustration.  This 
festival  was  long  observed  in  commemoration  of  the 
founding  of  Rome,  but  having  been  neglected  in  the 
time  of  Julius  CiBsar,  it  was  revived  by  Augustus,  and 
continued  to  be  celebrated  until  the  reign  of  the  em- 
peror Anastasius. 

Luperci,  the  most  ancient  order  of  priests  among 
the  Romans.  They  were  sacred  to  Pan,  the  god  of  the 
countr}*,  and  particularly  of  shepherds,  whose  flocks  he 
guarded.  Plutarch  derives  the  name  from  lupa,  a  she- 
wolf,  and  traces  their  origin  to  the  fabulous  she-wolf 
which  suckled  Romulus  and  Remus.  They  formed  orig- 
inally a  college,  consisting  of  two  classes :  the  FabU, 
or  Fabiani,  and  the  Quinctilii,  or  QuinctUiani,  Julius 
Cesar  instituted  a  third  class,  under  the  name  of  Julii 
or  Juliani.  At  first  the  Luperci  were  taken  from  the 
higher  classes  of  society,  but  in  course  of  time  the  whole 
order  fell  into  disrepute. 

Lupoid  OK  Bebekburo  (or  Eolofstkin),  a  learn- 
ed German  prelate,  after  having  studied  jurispradeuce 
at  Bologna,  under  the  direction  of  John  Andreae,  be- 


LUPUS 


082 


LUTHERANS 


camo  canon  snocessively  at  Mayenoe,  at  WUrzburg, 
and  at  Bambergi  of  which  place  he  had  been  elected 
bishop. in  1352.  He  died  Jul}-  20,  1863,  leaving,  De 
Zelo  Vettrum  Principum  Germanorum  in  Religionem 
(Basle,  1497) : — De  Juribus  el  TramUUio  Imperii  (ibid, 
eod.).    See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ghtirak^  8.  r. 

Lupua  (originally  Wolf),  CiiRisriAy,  a  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  was  born  June  12, 1612,  at  Ypern. 
He  joined  the  order  of  the  Augastinians,  was  in  1653 
doctor  of  theology  and  professor  primarius  at  Lonrain, 
and  died  July  10, 1681.  He  wrote,  Diu,  cfa  Mdetii  et 
Aril  Personis,  Moribus  Atque  Erroribus: — De  Symboh 
Apotiolico  et  Nicceo: — De  Synodo  Nicana: — De  Con^ 
cilio  8ardicensi:—De  ConcUio  Conttantinopolitcmo : — 
De  Synodo  Ephetina: — De  Latrocinio  Ephesino: — De 
Synodo  Sexta: — De  Synodo  Trvllana:  —  Scholia  et 
Nota  in  Canones  et  Decreta  Synodorum  Generalium  et 
Provincialium  (5  vols.).  After  his  death  was  published 
from  his  manuscript,  Sumtnum  RomanoB  ApottoUca  8e- 
dis  Privilegium  Quoad  Evocationes  et  Appellationea 
(Venice,  1729).  See  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehtien-Lex- 
ikojiy  8.  v.;  Winer,  llandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  659,  664, 
913,  920.     (a  P.) 

Luther's  (rwo)  CateohiamB.  By  way  of  sup- 
plement to  the  article  Luther  (q.  v.),  we  add  that  both 
these  catechisms,  the  larger  one  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
tinuous exposition,  and  the  smaller  one  arranged  in 
questions  and  answers,  appeared  in  1529,  although  the 
preparatory  work  dates  back  to  the  very  beginning  of 
Luther's  reformatory  activity.  In  1518  Johann  Schneider 
collected  and  published  the  various  expositions  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer  which  Luther  had  given  in  his  sermons 
and  lectures.  This  induced  Luther  to  publish  his  ex- 
position in  an  authentic  form.  In  the  same  year  he 
published  a  Latin  exposition  of  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, and  in  1520  these  sporadic  efforts  came  to  a  pre- 
liminary consummation  in  his  Eyn  Kurczform  dei  zehnen 
Gepoth: — Eyn  Kurczform  des  GUiuhena:^Eyn  Kurcz 
form  des  Vatter  Unaere.  After  1524  Luther's  attention 
was  very  strongly  drawn  to  the  school.  His  An  die 
Radherm  ailer  Stedle  deutichee  Lands :  dass  sie  chritt- 
liche  Schulen  auffrichten  und  haliien  soUen  caused  many 
evangelical  schools  to  be  founded,  and  the  necessity 
arose  for  a  trustworthy  handbook  in  the  elements  of  true 
Christianity.  *  This  necessity  was  the  more  felt  by  Lu- 
ther himself,  when,  in  his  tour  of  visitation  through 
Saxony  in  1528,  he  saw  how  sorely  both  the  ministers 
and  congregations  stood  in  need  of  such  a  book,  and 
thus,  in  1529,  both  the  larger  and  smaller  catechisma 
appeared.  Luther's  catechisms,  however,  are  not  the 
first  attempts  of  the  kind.  There  existed  such  works 
by  Brenz,  Althammer,  and  Lammer,  but  Luther's  cate- 
chisms soon  took  the  lead,  and  were  immediately  trans- 
lated into  Latin.  The  smaller  catechism,  which  soon 
became  an  almost  symbolical  book  in  the  Lutheran 
churches,  consists  of,  I.  The  Ten  Commandments;  II. 
The  Creed;  IIL  The  Lord's  Prayer;  lY.  The  Sacra- 
ment of  Baptism;  Y.  The  Sacrament  of  the  Altar;  to 
which  is  added,  in  the  editions  since  1564,  a  sixth  part, 
Confe^ion  and  Absolution,  or  the  Power  of  the  Keys. 
Considering  the  smaller  catechism  as  a  whole,  it  is  in- 
deed the  ripe  fruit  of  many  exertions,  the  full  expres- 
sion after  many  trials.  Wherever  Lutherans  are  found, 
this  catechism  too  is  used.  See  Plitt-Herzog,  Real- 
Encykloj),  ».  v.     (B.  P.) 

Lnther'B  HymnB.  It  was  a  saying  among  the 
Koman  Catholics  in  the  time  of  Luther,  that  "  by  his 
songs  he  has  done  more  harm  to  the  Romanists  than  by 
his  sermons."  And  such  is  the  fact.  ^  For,"  says  Mr. 
Coleridge,  **  Luther  did  as  much  for  the  Reformation  by 
his  hymns  as  by  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  In  Ger- 
many the  hymns  are  known  by  heart  by  every  peasant; 
they  advise,  they  argue,  from  the  hymns,  and  every  soul 
in  the  Church  praises  God,  like  a  Christian,  with  words 
which  are  natural  and  yet  sacred  to  his  mind."  Luther 
was  intensely  fond  of  both  music  and  poetry,  and  his 


poetical  talent  we  best  perceive  in  his  hymns.  Alto- 
gether be  wrote  about  thirty-six  hymns,  which  may  be 
divided  as  follows:  (a)  Translations  of  Latin  hymns;  (b) 
Amplifications  of  German  hymns  from  the  Latin ;  (e) 
Correction  and  revision  of  German  hymns;  (d)  Hymns 
baaed  upon  Latin  psalms;  (e)  Hymns  based  upon  pas- 
sagea  of  the  Bible ;  (f )  Original  hymns.  Spangenbierg, 
in  his  preface  to  the  Cithara  Lutherif  in  1545,  speaka 
tbua  of  Luther's  hymns,  "  One  must  certainly  let  thia 
be  true  and  remain  true,  that,  among  all  Meister-singers, 
from  the  days  of  the  apostles  until  now,  Luther  is,  and 
always  will  be,  the  best  and  most  accomplished ;  in  whose 
hymns  and  songs  one  does  not  find  a  vain  or  needleas 
word.  All  flows  and  falls  in  the  sweetest  and  neatest 
manner,  full  of  spirit  and  doctrine,  so  that  his  every 
word  gives  outright  a  sermon  of  its  own,  or,  at  least,  a 
singular  reminiscence.  There  is  nothing  forced,  nodi- 
ing  foisted  in  or  patched  up,  nothing  fragmentary.  The 
rhymes  arc  easy  and  good,  the  words  choice  and  proper, 
the  meaning  clear  and  intelligible,  the  melodies  lovely 
and  hearty,  and  in  summd  all  is  so  rare  and  majestic,  so 
full  of  pith  and  power,  so  cheering  and  comforting,  that, 
in  sooth,  you  will  not  find  his  equal,  much  less  his  mas- 
ter." The  most  famous  of  Luther's  hymns  is  the  Refor- 
mation hymn,  EUCfeste  Bury  ist  unser  Gott,  which  haa 
been  translated  into  very  many  languages.  A  collec- 
tion of  the  translations  of  this  hymn  in  nineteen  lan- 
guages haa  been  published  by  B.  Pick  (Rochester,  1880) ; 
an  enlarged  edition,  comprising  twenty-one  languagea 
(28  £nglish;  2  Dutch;  1  Danish;  1  Swedish;  5  Latin; 
3  French;  1  Spanish;  1  Russian;  1  Polish;  1  Bohe- 
mian ;  1  Wendish ;  1  Lettish ;  1  Lithuanian :  1  Finnish ; 
1  Esthonian;  1  Hebrew;  1  Accra;  1  Tshi;  1  Zulu; 
1  Hungarian ;  1  Italian),  was  published  by  the  same 
author  in  1883.  But  this  is  not  the  only  hymn  which 
has  been  translated  into  English.  In  fact,  all  his  hymna 
are  translated,  as  may  be  seen  from  Pick's  Luther  as  a 
Jlymnist  (Philadelphia,  1875).  An  edition  giving  the 
German  text,  with  the  English  translation  and  notes, 
was  publbhed  by  Scribner's  Sons  (New  York,  1883). 

(a  P.) 

IiUtherazifl,  Separate.  When,  in  1817,  the  union 
between  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  churches  was 
established  in  Prussia,  the  protest  of  J.  G.  Scheibel,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Breslan,  found  much  sympathy 
among  the  Lutherans.  For  several  years,  however,  the 
movement  was  confined  within  the  boundaries  of  rios- 
pie  literary  polemics,  especially  between  Scheibel  and 
David  Schultz,  also  professor  at  Breslau.  But  when 
the  breaking  of  the  bread  was  introduced  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Lord's  Supper  by  a  cabinet  order  of 
1830,  Scheibel  refused  to  obey,  and  asked  permission  to 
continue  administering  the  Lord's  Supper  after  the  old 
Wittenberg  agenda.  The  permission  was  not  granted, 
and  Scheibel  was  suspended.  Soon  he  saw  himself  at 
the  head  of  about  two  or  three  hundred  families,  who 
left  the  State  Church  and  organized  themselves  into  a 
new  Church.  They  petitioned  the  minister  of  public 
worship  to  be  acknowledged  as  a  Church  organization, 
but  this  he  refused  to  do.  The  many  vexations  which 
Scheibel  had  to  undergo  induced  him  to  leave  the  coun- 
try. In  the  meantime  the  party  had  progressed  very 
rapidly  under  the  leadenhip  of  professor  Huschke.  A 
synod  was  convened  at  Breslau  in  the  year  1884,  and  it 
was  declared  that  nothing  but  complete  separation  from 
the  State  Church,  and  the  formation  of  an  independent 
organization  could  satisfy  the  Lutheran  conscience. 
Persecutions  then  began.  Several  ministen  were  kept 
in  prison  for  many  years.  A  number  of  weO-to-do  lay- 
men were  reduced  to  poverty  by  money  fines.  Kot 
a  few  emigrated  to  America,  among  others,  Grabaa 
(q.  V.)  and  Yon  Rohr,  who  formed  the  so-called  Bnffaki 
Synod'.  With  the  succession  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm  lY, 
in  1840,  a  change  took  place,  and  July  23, 1845,  the  oon- 
cession  for  the  foundation  of  a  free  Church  was  given, 
and  in  1850  the  Church  numbered  fifty  paston  and  about 
fifty  tbouMnd  members.   Similar  movements  took  place 


LUTKENS 


683 


LUZZATTO 


also  outside  of  Prussui,  in  Saxony,  Hene,  and  Baden.  Per- 
hapa  no  separation  front  the  State  Church  made  a  deep- 
er impression  than  that  of  Thcodor  Harms  (q.  v.)  at 
Hermanaburg,  Hanover.  The  reason  fur  bis  separa- 
tion was  neither  dogmatical  nor  constitutional!  but  a 
few  changes  which  were  introduced  by  the  government 
in  the  marriage  formularies.  Harms  refused  to  accept 
these  changes,  and  was  suspended,  Jan.  22, 1878.  He 
immediately  formed  an  independent  society,  which 
soon  absorbed  the  majority  of  the  old  congregation. 
Meanwhile  the  relation  between  the  Separate  Lutherans 
and  the  State  Church  Lutherans  was  often  very  un- 
pleasant, and  bitter  controversies  arose.  Finally,  dis- 
sensions broke  out  among  the  Separate  Lutherans  them- 
selves, and  a  party  headed  by  pastor  Dietrich,  of  Jabel, 
organized  the  so-called  Immanuel  Synod  in  opposition  to 
the  party  headed  by  Huschke  of  Breslau.  This  was  in 
1862.  A  similar  split  was  caused  in  Saxony  by  the 
Missouri  Syjiod.  This  synod  was  organized  by  a  cer- 
tain Stefan,  who  had  emigrated  in  1840  to  America. 
Stefan,  who  was  deposed  of  his  office  on  account  of 
gross  immorality,  was  succeeded  by  the  still  living  pro- 
fessor Walther  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Some  of  the  Misaou- 
rians  had  returned  to  Saxony,  and  formed  at  Dresden  a 
Lutheranervereifi,  which  soon  occupied  a  prominent  po- 
sition, under  the  leadership  of  pastor  Ruhland.  The 
latter  soon  made  war  against  the  Immanuel  Synod  as 
being  un-Lutheran,  and  so  likewise  against  the  Separate 
Lutherans  of  Breslau.  The  Lutheran  churches  of  the 
State  he  condemned  altogether,  and  finally  a  split  was 
caused  among  the  Missourians  themselves.  The  Sepa- 
rate Lntherans  of  Germany  are  now  against  each  other. 
See  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Encyklop,  a.  v.     (R  P.) 

LUtkens,  Fkanz  Julius,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Oct,  21, 1C50.  He  studied  at  Wit- 
tenberg, was  in  1676  rector  of  Brandenburg,  in  1679 
deacon  at  Magdeburg,  in  1684  pastor  primarius  and 
provost  at  Stargard,  Pomerania,  in  1704  court-preacher 
and  professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen,  and  died  Aug. 
12,  1712.  He  wrote,  Collegium  Biblicum: — Commen- 
tarius  in  Epitioku  ad  Colostensei  el  Titum : — Disstrtat, 
de  Ideis  in  Mtnte  Divina: — De  Mtsna  Davidis  FUio: 
— De  Zohar  A  ntiquo  Judasorum  Monumenio,  etc  See 
Jocher,  A  Uffemeines  Gelehrten^Lexibm,  &  v.     (R  P.) 

Liitolf,  Adolf,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian,  was 
bom  in  1824.  He  studied  under  Hirscher  and  Dollin- 
getj  and  after  having  spent  some  yean  at  St.  Gall,  Lu- 
cerne, and  Solothura,  as  teacher  and  as  priest,  was  called, 
in  1868,  to  Lucerne  as  professor  of  Church  history  and 
canon  of  St.  Leodegar.  He  died  April  8, 1879,  leav- 
ing Forschungtn  und  QueUen  zur  Kirchenge$chiclUe  der 
Schweiz  (Lucerne,  1871).     (B.  P.) 

Lntterbeok,  Johann  Anton  Berniiard,  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  MUn- 
Bter.  In  1842  he  was  professor  of  Catholic  theology  at 
Giessen,  but  after  the  determination  of  bishop  Kettcler, 
in  1851,  to  ordain  no  candidate  who  had  pursued  his  the- 
ological studies  at  Giessen,  Lntterbeck  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  philosophical  faculty.  After  the  Vatican 
Council  he  joined  the  Old  Catholics,  and  died  Dec.  30, 
1882.  He  is  the  author  of,  Ilermenim  aua  dem  Gebiete 
der  reliffiosen  Spekulation  (2d  ed.  Maycnce,  1851)  i—Der 
neuUstamentliche  Lehrbegrijf  (1852,  2  vols.)  '.—Die  Cle- 
mentinen  und  ihr  VerhcUtniu  zum  Ufifehlharkeitsdogma 
(1872) : — Tjeopold  Sckmid  iiber  die  religiose  A  u/gabe  der 
Deutschen  (1875).    Sec  Zuchold,  Bibl.  Tkeol  ii,  842  sq. 

(B.P.) 

LiUEombourg,  Baudoin  de,  a  Franco-German 
prelate,  brother  of  emperor  Henry  VH,  was  bom  in 
1285.  While  quite  young  he  lost  his  father,  Henry 
IV,  count  of  Luxembourg,  and  was  educated  with  care 
by  his  mother,  Beatrice  of  Avcsncs,  at  the  University 
of  Paris,  where  he  studied  belles-lettres,  philosophy, 
theology,  and  jurisprudence.  He  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop of  Treves  in  March,  1308,  at  Puictiers.  In  April, 
1310,  he  assembled  a  provincial  council  at  Treves.  From 


this  time  Baudoin  is  no  more  noticed,  except  in  mili- 
taxx  expeditions  against  rebellions  chiefuina.  He  died 
Jan.  2 1 ,  1354.     See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Diog.  Genirale^  s.  v. 

Luxexnboarg;  Ztouis  de,  a  French  prelate,  was 
proposed  in  1414  for  the  bishopric  of  Therouanne.  He 
declared  himself  for  the  English  party,  was  made  chan- 
cellor by  Henry  VI,  in  1425,  and  attended  in  1431  at 
the  crowning  of  that  prince  as  the  king  of  France,  at 
St.  Denis.  During  several  political  excitementa,  and 
particularly  during  the  time  of  an  insurrection  against 
the  English,  in  April,  1436,  this  prelate  took  great  in- 
terest in  the  cause  of  the  English  in  France,  thus  gath- 
ering npon  himself  the  hatred  and  displeasure  of  the 
French.  He  finally  had  to  take  refuge  in  the  Bastile, 
and  on  its  surrender  retreated  to  Rouen,  where  he  was 
made  archbishop,  and  would  have  received  the  cardi- 
nal's hat,  but  would  only  accept  it  on  condition  of  being 
nominated  by  the  king  of  England.  This  prince  gave 
him,  some  time  afterwards,  the  bishopric  of  Ely,  when 
he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  .in  England.  He  died  at 
Hartford,  England,  Sept.  18, 1443.  See  Hoefer,  A'otrr. 
Biog»  Ginirale^  s.  v. 

Luzembonrg,  PhUippe  de,  a  French  cardinal, 
was  bom  in  1445.  He  was  the  son  of  Thibauld  de 
Luxembourg,  who,  after  having  lost  his  wife,  was  re- 
ceived into  orden,  and  became  bishop  of  Mans.  The 
first  church  which  Philippe  held  in  charge  was  that  of  Le 
Mans,  which  he  obtained  in  1477,  after  the  death  of  his 
father.  In  1483  he  presided  oyer  Tours,  and  Feb.  8, 
1496,  was  nominated  as  bishop  of  Therouanne,  but 
was  not  appointed  till  Nov.  12,  1498.  In  1516,  after 
Philippe  had  occupied  several  more  or  less  important 
positions  in  France,  he  became  legate  of  the  pope  in 
that  country.  He  was  one  of  the  richest  prelates  of  the 
kingdom.  He  founded  the  College  of  Mans  at  Pari^ 
and  accomplished  also  several  very  extensive  missions 
by  order  of  the  king,  for  which  he  had  no  rcgnlar  allo- 
cations. He  died  at  Le  Mans,  June  2, 1519.  See  Hoe^ 
fer,  A'oiir.  Biog.  GMraie,  &  v. 

Luxembourg,  Pierre  de,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  at  the  castle  of  Ligny-sur-Ornain,  July  20,  1869. 
He  began  to  study  theology  at  Paris  in  1877.  While 
still  a  child,  he  was  made  canon  of  Paris  in  1879,  and 
of  Cambray  in  1882.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was 
provided  with  the  bishopric  of  Metz  by* Clement  VH. 
At  sixteen  the  same  pontiff  appointed  him  cardinal* 
deacon  at  Avignon.  He  died  July  2, 1887,  and  was 
buried  at  the  cemetery  of  St.  Michnl,  at  Avignon. 
There  are  a  few  books  which  have  been  erroneously 
attributed  to  him,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  iVour.  Biog, 
Genirale^  s.  v. 

Luynea,  Paul  d' Albert  DB,a  French  prelate,' was 
bom  at  Versailles,  Jan.  5,  1708.  He  had  at  first  the 
name  of  count  of  Montfort,  and  was  intended  for  the 
military  career,  but,  renouncing  it,  entered  a  seminar}*, 
was  received  into  orden,  appointed  abbot  of  Cerisy  \i\ 
1727,  and  bishop  of  Bayenx  in  1729.  He  held  several 
synods,  and  organized  missions,  preaching  himself.  Ho 
became  archbishop  of  Sens,  Aug.  18, 1753.  De  Lnynes 
assisted  at  the  conclaves  of  1758, 1769,  and  1774. '  As 
an  abbot  of  Corbie,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  order  of  St.  Esprit  in  1759.  He  adhered  to  the 
acts  of  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  1765.  He  died  at 
Paris,  JaiL  21, 1788,  leaving  several  episcopal  letters. 
See  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Ginerale,  s.  v. 

Luz  (Judg.  i,  26),  Lieut  Conder  suggests  {Memoirs 
to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  i,  95),  may  be  the  present 
Kkurbet  el-Lu8weiziyeh^\  mined  site  four  and  a  half 
miles  north-west  of  Banias,  and  consisting  of  basaltic 
stones  scattered  and  in  rough  walls"  (ibid.  p.  120). 

LuzzattO,  Philoxkne,  a  Jewish  Orientalist,  was 
bom  at  Trieste,  July  10, 1829.  At  a  very  early  age  he 
mastered  different  languagea,  and  in  1849  published 
Le  Santeritisme  de  la  Langue  Assyrienne,  In  1850  he 
wrote,  Etudes  tur  let  Inscriptions  Assyriennes  de  Per- 
tepolitf  ffamadan.  Van  et  Khorsahad : -^  Notice  suf 


PrcMDt  Appenrnnca  ot  Ljiddi.    (From  Thommi^  SboUWrn  FaUtUnt  and  Jtnuatm.] 


Abou-Jouiou/niudal  Iba-Skaproui  (18j2),  Whilo  on 
bia  (ravels  be  wu  Mken  aick,  but  Rt  kn^lh  arriveri  at 
Padua,  and  died  Jan.  !5,  1854.  The  Mimoirr  lur  ki 
Ju\ft  SAbi/uinie  oa  Falaiehai.  wu  pgbliihed  after  bia 
deatb  in  the  Aivhiect  Itratiilu  otParii.     (a  P.) 

Xijrcfia,  I  featjvet  iniOHg  the  ArraUiina,  celebrated 
in  honot  of  Zeua  Lyaeut.  It  ia  Mid  to  bare  betn  in- 
•titutnl  by  Lycaon,  the  son  or  Petasj^ua,  who  aacriflcoil 
a  child  on  the  occauon,  and  sprinkled  the  allar  with 
ita  blood,  Plularch  aaya  that  the  Ljcea  waa  celebrated 
in  a  nanner  Mmilar  lo  the  Raman  Lupercalli. 

Lydda.  Ludd,  the  modeni  repieNntalire  of  thia 
place,  i(  briefly  described  in  tlie  JlemtMri  accoinpany- 
iriK  Ibe  Ordnance  Survev  (ii.  Sb2),  and  iti  traditiuoal 
Church  of  St.  George  in  detail  (iUd.  p.  SGT> 

Lyell,  Thomas,  D.D.,  ■  Pmutunt  Epitcopal  cler- 
gTman,  waa  bom  in  Virginia  in  1775.  While  quite  a 
young  man  he  became  a  miniarer  in  the  Methodist 
EpiKOpal  Church!  and  during  that  lims  via  one  of 
the  chaplaina  to  Congreaa.  In  1804  he  was  otdained 
deacon  in  the  Protcttant  Episcopal  Communion,  and 
became  rector  or  Cbriat  Church,  New  York  city,  which 
poaition  he  occupied  anlil  bii  death,  March  6,  1848. 
Dr.  Ly ell  wai  elected  aecrelarj  of  the  convention  of  tbe 
dioceae  of  New  York  in  1811,  which  olSce  he  continued 
to  hold  annually  until  he  declined  re-election  in  I81S. 
Chosen  k  deputy  to  the  General  Conrention  in  1818, 
he  waa  elected  aucceaiTdy  to  tha  pnaition  during 
twenty -ain  yeara,  He  was  a  powerful  eitempore 
apeaker,  and  ■  preacher  of  more  than  ordinarv  ability. 
SeeAner.  Qaar.  CjIbi-cA  Sai.  1848,  p. 302. 

Iiyncll,  PatUCK  Miebex,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catbolic 
prelate  and  scholar,  was  bom  at  Clonca,  County  Mona- 
ghan,  Ireland.  March  10,  ISIT.  In  1819  his  parents 
came  lo  America.and  settled  at  Cheraw,  S.  C.  At  that 
lime  there  was  but  one  priest  in  the  stale.  Dr.  Galla- 
gher, though  Dr.  England  arrived  next  year  to  be  the 
first  bishop  or  Charleston,  and  opened  St.  John  Che  Bap- 
liat'a  Seminary,  at  which  Patrick  Lynch  was  one  of  the 
cariiest  pupils.  He  waa  sent  to  the  College  of  th«  Prop- 
aganda, Rome,  where  he  was  one  of  ita  moat  brilliant 
students,  and  waa  ordained  prieot  and  graduated  doctor 
of  divinity.  In  1840  he  returned  to  Charleston,  and 
became  assistant  pastor  of  the  cathedral,  of  St.  Mary'a 
Church,  principal  of  the  Collegiate  Institute,  and  vicar- 
general.    On  the  death  of  bishop  Reynold^  in  1856, 


Lynch  became  administrator,  and  on  March  14, 1848,  he 
waa  consecrated  bishop  of  Charleston.  The  civil  war 
soon  came,  and  with  it  the  destruction  of  bia  cathedral, 
home,  and  other  Church  properly  in  Charleston  anil 
ihronghout  the  state.  The  real  of  his  life  was  aconataDt 
toil  with  debt,  which  waa  too  much  for  his  naturally  td- 
liust  conaliiulion  and  vigDrous  mind,  and  brought  him 
prematurely  to  bis  end.  He  died  in  CbarleBt(m,Feb.26, 
1882.  Bishop  Lynch  was  noted  for  bia  quiet  benevotetiec 
and  literary  activity.  In  1848  be  took  charge  of  a  hoa- 
pital  dntinc  Ihe  yellow  fever,  and  in  ISTl,  on  another 
outbreak  uf  the  diaeose,  waa  never  abaent  from  hia 
post.  He  waa  a  thorough  scholar,  and  a  devoted  aln- 
dent  of  applied  «ience.  He  was  a  contributor  to  mag- 
azinea,  author  of  leltera  to  the  Catholic  World  on  the 
Vatican  Council,anicleB  on  the  Blood  o/ SI.  Jamariat, 
in  the  same,  now  publiabed  anonymously  in  book  form, 
contributed  to  the  A  nuiieim  Catholic  Qharlnlg  Rrrier, 
and  edited  and  revised  Deharbe'a  Sffia  o/  Calrckinu. 
He  waa  pleasant  and  affaUe  in  social  intercooise,  and  a 
fincoralur.     See(N.Y.)  CurWtc /Imiiiil,  1888,  p.  G7. 

Lynd.  Samuei.  W.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa„  Dec.  23, 1T96.  He  was  bap- 
Miedby  Rev,  Dr.  William  Staughton  in 


educ 


n  1834  w 


II  Philadelphia,  from  uhich  he  waa  ai 


iih  his 


1  laid 


conducted  a  female  institution 

be  began  hialaboraaa  pastor  of  the  Sixth  Street  Church, 

Cincinnati,  O.,  his  ministry  being  eminently  successful, 

Louis,  Mu.,  and  became  pastor  of  Ibe  Second  Church  in 
that  cily.  About  1848  he  wsa  elected  president  of  th« 
theological  institute  in  Covington,  Ky.,  and  remained 
in  thia  position  until  1854,  when  he  look  up  hia  reu- 
dcnce  on  a  farm  near  Chicago.  Hia  other  pastorates 
were  at  Lockport,  III.,  the  North  Cburch,  Chicago,  and 
the  Mt.  Auburn  Church,  Cincinnati,  O.  lie  died  at 
Lockport,  III.,  June  IT,  1870.  See  J/fa>K«  «/lllAmi~ 
Teriaiiti,  1876,  p.  14.     (J.  C  8.) 

Lyiig,GEon(i  WiDiKLH.B  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Norway,  was  born  in  I8!7.  In  1B69  he  was  prorenor 
at  Chriatiania,  and  died  May  19,  ISSl.  Lvng  is  the 
author  of  IltdaukabeU  Lrmtlildb,  Lea  history  of 
heathenism  (1863).        (a  1'.) 

Lyngwe,  in  Nona  mythology,  is  on  island  in  the 


LYON 


685 


MACASSAR  VERSION 


aea  Amtswartner,  where  the  wolf  Feiiris  is  held  by  the 
chain  Gleipner. 

LyOD,  Gtoorge  Armstrong,  D.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  March  1, 
1806.  He  graduated  ftoro  Dickinson  College,  Pa.,  in 
1824;  spent  one  year  in  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, and  was  ordained  by  the  Erie  Presbytery,  Sept. 
9, 1*829,  pastor  of  the  First  Church,  Erie,  Pa.,  which  of- 
fice ho  held  until  his  death,  at  Avon,  N.  Y.,  March  24, 
187 1.    See  Gen.  Cat.  of  Princeton  Theol.  Sem.  1881,  p.  54. 

Lyon,  Jamea  Adair,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  near  Jonesborough,  Tenn.,  April  19, 1814. 
He  graduated  from  Washington  College  in  1832,  and 
afterwards  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary;  was 
ordained  as  an  evangelist  by  the  Holston  Presbytery, 
and  after  serving,  for  five  years,  as  a  stated  supply,  the 
churches  of  Rogersville  and  New  Providence,  became 
pastor  of  the  Columbus  Church,  Miss.,  where  he  remained 
six  years.  He  then  spent  a  year  in  foreign  travel,  and 
after  his  return  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Westminster 
Church,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  In  1850  he  established  a  select 
high -school  for  young  ladies  there,  which  he  taught 
three  yean^  and  returned  to  his  old  charge  at  Colum- 
bus. In  1870  he  was  elected  professor  of  mental  and 
.moral  science  in  the  University  of  Mississippi,  at  Ox- 
ford, which  position  he  held  for  ten  years,  when  failing 
health  compelled  him  to  resign.  As  a  writer,  he  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  Southern  Quarterly  Review.  He 
was  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly,  and  repeat- 
edly elected  to  important  positions  in  connection  with 
literary  and  theological  institutions,  among  them  to  the 
presidency  of  Washington  College,  and  the  chair  of 
didactic  theology  in  Danville  Seminary,  Ky.  He  died 
at  Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  May  15, 1882.  See  Necrol.  Re- 
poH  of  Princeton  TheoL  Seni.  1883,  p.  31 .    (W.  P.  S.) 

Lyser,  a  name  common  to  a  number  of  eminent 
Lutheran  theologians  of  Germany,  of  whom  we  men- 
tion: 

1.  Christian,  doctor  of  theology,  pastor  and  super- 
intendent at  Sangerhauscn,  who  died  Oct.  5, 1671,  is  the 
author  of  Dissensus  Lutheranorum  et  Jawtenistarum. 

2.  Friedrich,  who  died  in  1645,  doctor  of  theology, 
is  the  author  of  Di*p,  Tnaugurali*  de  Dieto  Apostolico 
Rom.  tr,  22,  23. 

3.  Friedrich  Wilhblm,  son  of  Polycarp  III,  was 
born  at  Leipsic,  Sept.  4,  1622.  He  studied  at  different 
universities,  was  in  1650  Saturday-preacher  at  Leipsic, 


in  1651  deacon  at  Halle,  in  1662  superintendent  at 
Langensalza,  in  1664  cathedral- preacher  at  Magdeburg, 
and  died  Aug.  25, 1691. 

4.  Johannes,  brother  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  was 
bom  Sept.  80, 1631.  In  1664  he  was  inspector  and  pas- 
tor at  Pforte.  Being  an  advocate  of  polygamy,  he  was 
dismissed.  He  roamed  about  through  Holland,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Italy,  and  France.  In  the  latter  country 
he  died,  in  1684. 

5.  Polycarp  I  (q.  v.). 

6.  Polycarp  II,  son  of  Polycarp  I,  was  bom  Nov.  20, 
1586,  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  was  also  promoted  as 
doctor  of  theolog}'.  He  wrote,  Centuria  Qutestionum 
Theolofficarum  de  Arliculis  Chrittianai  Concordia; — 
An  Syncreiismut  in  Rebut  Fidei  cum  Calvinianu  coU 
PostU,  et  in  PolUica  Conrertatione : — Comment,  in  A  u- 
ymtanam  Confessiofiem  et  Formulam  Concordia: — 
Analysis  Scholasiica  et  Theohyica  in  Epistolam  ad 
Galatas .' -^  Dissert,  de  Sacramentis,  Lvser  died  Jan. 
15, 1633. 

7.  Polycarp  III,  was  bom  at  Halle,  July  1, 1656. 
He  studied  at  Jena  and  Leipsic,  and  commenced  his 
academical  career  at  the  latter  place  in  1682.  In  1685 
he  was  pastor  at  Magdeburg,  in  1687  superintendent, 
in  1690  doctor  of  theology,  in  1695  general  superintend- 
ent, and  died  Oct.  11, 1725. 

8.  Wilhelm,  bora  at  Dresden,  Oct.  26, 1592,  studied 
at  different  universities,  and  died  at  Wittenberg,  Feb. 
8, 1649,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote, 
TrifoHuni  Verm  Religionis  Veteris  Testatnenti  Adami- 
ticay  A  brahamiiica  et  Tsraeliticoi : — Summarium  LocO' 
rum  Thwloyicorum : — Sy sterna  TheticO'Exegeticum: — 
DisquisHio  de  Pradeslinatione : — Exercitationes  21  in 
Eeangelium  Joatmit :  —  Diss,  de  Genealoyia  Christi  ad 
Matth.iy  1-16.  See  ZocYMV^AUgemeines  Gelekrten-I..eX'' 
a»ff,s.v.     (RP.) 

Lyaiiia,  Johann  Heinrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  June  29, 1704,  at  Konigsberg, 
Prussia,  He  studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1726  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  his  native  place,  in  1730  doc- 
tor of  theology,  and  died  May  29,  1745.  He  wrote. 
Dissert,  II  de  Historia  et  Usu  Lingua  Syriaca : — De 
SHeniio  Sacra  Scriptura: — De  Commodo  Christi  Jugo 
ad  Matth.  xi,  80 :  —  De  Chfisto  Ilomine  avafiaprirnf 
ex  1  John  iuy  5  i—De  A  ngeh  NativUaiis  Christi  Pracone. 
See  Arnold,  IJistorie  der  kon^sbergischen  Universitat ; 
Gotten,  Jetztlebendes  gelehrtes  Europa;  Jochcr,  AUge- 
meines  Gelehiiea-Lexikony  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 


Maarath.  For  this  site  Mr.  Tyrwhitt  Drake  pro- 
poses (Qiiar.  Statement  of  the  *'  PaL  Explor.  Fond," 
April,  1874,  p.  76)  the  Mons  Mardes  where  St.  Euthy- 
mius  found  rains  (^Acta  Sanctorum,  ii,  306),  now  Khir' 
bet  Afird,  near  Mar  Saba,  on  a  round,  isolated  hill,  con- 
taining the  remains  of  an  aqueduct,  wells,  and  cisteros 
(Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  212) ;  but  Lieut. 
Conder  suggests  (Quar.  Statement,  Jan.  1875,  p.  13)  an 
ancient  site  near  Beit  Ainfim,  where  a  valley  has  the 
corresponding  Arabic  name,  Wady  el-Moghair,  This 
Utter  rain  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map,  two  miles 
north-east  of  Hebron,  without  any  name  attached.  La- 
ter, however,  Lieut.  Conder  suggests  {Tent  Work,  ii,  338) 
Beit  Ummar,  six  miles  north  of  Hebron,  probably  the 
Betumair  of  Eusebius  {OnomoMt.  s.  v.  Baalthamar).  It 
is  ^  a  small  but  conspicuous  village,  standing  on  the 
watershed,  and  visible  from  some  distance  on  the  north. 
An  ancient  road  passes  through  it.  Haifa  mile  north-east 
is  a  good  spring,  Ain  Kufin.  The  mosque  has  a  small 
tower  to  it  The  surrounding  neighborhood  is  covered 
with  brushwood'*  {Memoirs  to  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  808). 

Mab,  in  poetic  art,  is  queen  of  the  fairies  (q.  v.). 

Maoarlana.  See  Macarius  .forprus,  and  Maca- 

BIUS  OF  AlEX.\NDRLA. 


Macarlitea  is  the  name  of  a  Jewish  sect,  whose 
founder  is  believed  to  have  been  Benjamin  Nahavendi 
(q.  v.),  a  Karaite,  who  flourished  about  the  opening  of 
the  9th  century.  Their  most  peculiar  doctrine  was  that 
God  is  too  elevated  to  reveal  himself  directly  to  man, 
and  that  revelation  was  therefore  made  by  messenger — 
an  angel,  a  vice-god.  If  the  Bible  speaks  of  God's  man- 
ifestation to  man,  it  refers,  they  held,  to  the  manifesta- 
tion of  the  divine  being  in  the  person  of  his  messenger, 
who  was  the  first  being  God  created.  This  angel  was 
the  creator  of  the  world,  not  God  himself.  (Quite  like 
the  evolution  theory  in  our  day,  advocated  by  Mivart, 
who  likewise  holds  that  God  was  only  indirectly  the 
creator  of  the  world.)  In  this  and  many  other  respects 
the  Macariites  much  resemble  the  Mohammedan  sect 
of  Motazalites,  See  FUrst,  Gesch.  d.  Karaerihums,  i,  26 
sq. :  Rule,  Karaites^  p.  105, 109 ;  Grtitz,  Gesch.  d.  juden^ 
v,  230  sq.,  518  sq. 

Maoaasar  (and  Bngia)  Veraion  op  the  Script- 
ures. The  Bugis  and  the  Macassar  dialects  are  the 
most  prevalent  of  those  spoken  among  the  various  na- 
tive states  comprised  in  the  lai^e  island  of  Celebes. 
They  both  resemble  the  Malayan ;  the  Bugis  being  the 
must  cultured  of  the  two,  and  possessing  a  separate  al- 
phabet.   A  translation  in  each  of  these  dialects  was  be- 


gnn  by  Dr.  Leydto  about  the 
rut  iSlO,  but  lived  onlv  to 
coinptele  Eho  v«niDD  afthegDi- 
pel  of  Mark,  nhieh  hu  nrret 
been  printed.  In  1U9  Dr.Ma- 
lhe>  was  sent  oat  by  the  Neth- 
eilanda  Society  to  Celebei  to 
study  ibete  languagea,  but  Cbe 
result  hai  not  tranapired.  See 
SOh  ofErtTf  Land,  p.  874. 

Macbeth,  ■  Seolcb  preUto, 
wu  probably  bishop  of  Ron 
about  I13G.  He  died  in  1128. 
See  Keilb,  ScoltiiA  BiAopt,  p. 

SfBodonald,  i\xvx  Mad- 
ISO:(,  D.D.,  s  Congregational 
mi  n  liter,  wna  born  at  Ltmerick, 
Me.,UBy22,1812.  In  1H28  ho 
entered  Bowdoin  College, 


end  of  t' 


n  College,  Scbenecladi 
entered   the  juiiioi   cUu,  and  "" 

ivas  graduated  with  bigh  honor  *.  t^ttn 

in  1832.     He  then  spent  a  year 

in  the  theological  seminiry  at  Bangor,  He.,  and  thence 
10  Yale  Divinity  School,  graduating  in  18S.i.  He  was 
licensed  (o  preach,  Aug.  6, 1B84,  and  ordained  pastor  vt 
the  Tliird  Congregational  Chureh  of  Berlin,  Conn„ 
knoirn  as  the  parish  of  Worthingtun,  April  1,  1B8S. 
In  1837  he  accepted  a  cull  to  the  recently  fomied  Second 
Congregational  Church  in  New  London;  in  1841  to  the 
I'reabyterian  Church  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.  i  in  I8fi0  tn  the 
Fifteenth  Street  Church  in  Kew  York  city ;  in  1863  be 
waa  inalalled  aa  paataror  the  First  Presbyterian  Church 
nt  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  hero  he  continued  over  twenty- 
two  yenra.  He  died  April  19,  1876.  Dr.  MacdoniM 
was  a  man  of  untiring  indnalry.  In  a  high  degree  his 
ministrations  were  able,  raried,  and  eTangellcal.  As  a 
preacher  he  waa  solid,  dignified,  iostructire,  earnest, 
and  tender.  He  publiahed  a  Dumber  of  hia  senncms  at 
various  times,  also  about  six  volumes,  among  which  the 
best  known  is  My  Father'i  Home;  or.  The  ffeatm  «f 
Ike  Biblr.  His  greatest  and  most  valuable  work  ap- 
peared since  his  decease,  Tkt  Lift  and  ITri/irijn  of  SI. 
Joha.  See  K<croLli/parto/PriactlonThoLSem.l8", 
p.y. 

MaoCaghweU  (Lat.  CartUai),  Hloii,  an  Irish 
Frsnciscan  of  the  17th  century,  studied  at  Salamanca, 
and  lectured  at  l^juvain.  Urban  Vlll  appointed  him 
archbishop  of  Arm sgh  and  primate  of  Ireland.  He  died 
SepL  22. 1626,  in  (be  flfiy-Sfth  year  of  bis  age.  He 
wrote,  Scoli  Commmlaria  U  Quataor  Libroi  SmII. 
{Antwerp,  1620,  3  vols. ) :  —  jlpofoyiit  Apologia  Scoli 
contra  Nic  JanKnium  (['aria,  m23):  —  Dua  Tradalvi 
pro  Tueada  Oitaranliii  (ibid.  1622).  See  ChalmErs, 
Biog.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Jeiler,  iu  Wetier  u.  Welte,  KlrcheB' 
Lezibm,K1.     (It  P.) 

Uaofiulane,  John,  LI.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Dunfermline,  Fifeibire,  in  1807. 
0  preach  in  I83<^  and  the  fallowing 


orate  of  tl 


congi¥gation  of  Klncanline.<in-Forth.  In  1840  he  was 
called  to  Ulasgow,  where  he  remained  till  I8GI,  when 
he  removed  to  London.  Hero  he  labored  most  fsith- 
fully  and  with  much  success  fur  twelve  years.  He  died 
Feb.  7, 187a.    Aa  a  preacher  Dr.  Mocfariane  was  power- 

and  ready.  Hia  works  sre^  Juh'J^e  n/(«a  H'urU.-— 
Ckritlian  Miaiotu  lo  Iht  lltallurB  (tilasgow,  1812} :_ 
Momtaiat  o/tkt  BiMe  (2d  ed.  ISM  j  Sd  ed.  1366)  i—TAe 
^'igkt  Lamp  (I860,IS&1,  1863):  — 7'A«  llidi«g-Plaix 
(1862;  Bd  ed.  IB-M ) !  —  Ifiy  Werpeil  Thoat  (1854). 
See  The  (Lond.)  t'nangrlieal  Magannt,  June,  1876,  p. 
848 ;  Allibone,  Wet  k/BHI.  onJ  Amer.  ,4iirfDr»,  s.  v. 

This  place,  represented  by  the  mod- 


em ifataar,  is  fuUj  described  by  Tristram  (Laud  of 
ifoob,  p.  271  aq.).  The  fonreas  stands  on  a  round  hill 
at  the  eastern  end  of  a  narrow  and  isolateil  ridge,  on 
which  the  inhibited  city  must  have  been  builu  It  is 
very  different  in  character  frum  any  other  ruins  in 
Hoab.  Nothing  remaina  but  a  few  cuursea  of  atones 
above  the  fonndatious.  But  the  whole  building  mate- 
rial has  been  collected  by  the  baud  of  man  into  one 
prodigious  moos  on  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  where  it  r^ 
mains  in  wild  desalslion,  a  monument  of  the  vengeance 
taken  by  the  liomin  legions  against  Ibe  last  desperate 


Castte-maand  orilacbssma.     (From  s  Phalognph  by  tha 

patiiota  of  the  Jewish  revolts.  I'he  outline  of  the  foi^ 
tress  may  still  be  traced  very  clearly,  and  in  it  two  dun- 
geons,one  of  them  deep,  and  its  sides  scarcely  broken 
in.  One  of  them  must  have  been  the  prison-bouae  of 
the  Baptist. 

MacHale.    See  McHai^. 

Maoh&tUB,  SainI,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of 
the  Islea  In  498  and  618.  To  this  aaint  there  are  nunr 
churches  dedicated  in  Scotland.  See  Keith,  Scotliik 
Bitliopt,  p.  206. 

Maohasor.    See  Mackzor. 

Machlr  or  Tolkim,  who  flourished  towards  iha 
end  of  the  Ilth  century,  is  the  autbor  of  bsil  rpSK, 
or  an  eschatolony  of  Judaism,  in  three  parta— the  flnt 
treala  of  the  suS^ngs  in  the  HeaaiaDic  time,  of  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Ueasiah,  Tesurrection,  lost  Judgment,  and 
world  to  come ;  the  second  treats  of  reward  and  puniah- 
ment,  paradise  and  hell ;  the  third  of  the  oral  law 
(Kimini,  162G  and  often) ;  a  Judaeo-German  iranaiatinn 
appeared  at  FUrth  in  1691,  and  Ihe  Ant  part  was  tnn*. 
lated  into  Latin  by  Hukius,  Traetalui  de  Mt—ia  (re- 
printed in  hie  Tkeologia  Judaiea,  Breda,  1658).  See 
Kfirst,  Bill.  Jud.  ii,  286;  De'  Bnssi,  Diiimario  Slorico 
(Uenn,  tnniL),  p.  190  aq.,  and  his  BtbliolkKa  J*daica 
Antickritliami,  p.6t.     (D.  P.) 


MACE 


687 


MADUWA 


Mack,  Martin  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  born  Feb.  17, 1805.  In  1882  he 
was  professor  of  New-Test.  exegesis  at  Tubingen,  and 
in  1839-40  rtctor  magmfieuB  of  the  university.  Hts 
publication  of  Die  Emtegnting  der  gemitchten  Ehen  (Tu- 
bingen, 1840)  brought  him  in  conflict  with  the  govern- 
ment He  was  deposed  from  his  office,  and  relegated 
to  the  Ziegelbach  parish  in  WUrtemberg.  He  died 
Sept.  24, 1885,  leaving,  Bericht  Hber  Strauss'  hrUische 
Bearbeitung  det  Ldiens  Jesu  (T&bingen,  1887)  :—Com- 
mentor  fiber  die  Piutoralbrufe  des  Apostels  Paulus  (2d 
ed.  1841).  See  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  552. 
(a  P.) 

Maok,  'William,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Flushing,  L.  I.,  July  29, 1807.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Union  College,  Schenectady,  in  1831,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1834.  He  wss  li- 
censed by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York,  Feb.  4  of  that 
year;  ordained  at  Rochester,  Feb.  5,  1835;  and  subse- 
quently was  pastor  at  Knox  ville  and  Columbia,  Tenn.  In 
1868  be  became  a  voluntary  evangelist,  devoting  half  his 
time  to  the  Presbytery  of  Columbia,  and  the  other  half 
bevond  its  bounds.  From  the  time  of  the  division  of 
the  General  Assembly,  in  1861,  he  adhered  to  the  south- 
em  portion.  He  was  for  some  time  president  of  Jack- 
son College  at  Columbia.  He  died  Jan.  10, 1879.  See 
Necrol,  Beport  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1879,  p.  81. 

MaoKenxie,  Murdoch,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bora 
in  1600,  received  Episcopal  ordinstion,  and  went  as  chap- 
lain to  a  re^roent  under  Gustavus  Adolphus.  After 
his  return  fmm  German}*  he  became  minister  at  Contin, 
next  St  Inverness,  and  afterwards  at  Elgin.  He  was 
made  bishop  of  the  see  of  Moray,  Jan.  18, 1662.  From 
this  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Orkney  in  1677, 
where  he  continued  until  his  death,  in  Febraary,  1688. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  152-228. 

Maolaren,  John  Finlby,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  at  Manlius,  Onondaga  Co.,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  7, 1803.  He  graduated  from  Union  College  in 
1825,  studied  three  winters  (1825-28)  in  Princeton  The- 
ological Seminary,  was  licensed  in  1828,  and  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Church  at  Geneva  in  1830.  He  edited 
the  Christian  Magazitie  at  that  place,  afterwards  settled 
at  Hagerstown,  Md.  (1845),  and  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  (1846). 
He  was  president  for  a  time  (18554)8)  of  the  Western 
University  of  Pennsylvaniiu  He  died  at  Princeton, 
March  14, 1883.  ^Necrol.  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL 
Sent.  1883,  p.  18. 

Maoleaxi,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  early  minister  at 
Morevera,  Dunoon,  and  Eastwood,  from  which  last 
charge  he  was  advanced  to  the  see  of  Argyle  in  1680. 
He  died  there  in  1687.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.292. 

Maclean,  Robbrt,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  probably 
bishop  of  the  Isles  about  1549.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bish^fP.807. 

Bffaoleod,  Nobmam,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  June  8,  1812,  at  Campbelton,  a  sea- 
port of  Scotland.  He  was  educated  at  a  school  in 
Morven,  and  at  Glasgow  University,  where  be  was  ex- 
ceedingly popular.  In  1837  he  obtained  his  first  minis- 
terial charge,  the  parish  of  Loudoun,  in  Ayrshire,  which 
he  served  for  five  years.  About  this  period  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  Scotch  Kirk  took  place,  and  in  the  contro- 
versy which  preceded  and  followed,  Mr.  Madeod  took 
an  active  part.  He  adhered  to  the  Established  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  in  1843  was  appointed  to  the  parish  of 
Dalkeith.  In  July,  1851,  he  was  inducted  minister  of 
the  Barony  parish,  Glasgow,  which  contained  87,000 
souls.  At  that  time  he  assumed  the  editorship  o(Good 
Words,  designed  as  a  popular  periodical,  with  a  spirit 
and  aim  decidedly  Christian.  Of  his  journey  to  the 
Holy  Land  in  1867,  he  gave  a  full  account  in  his 
Jiastvard.  He  was  also  the  author  of  several  other 
popular  works.  In  1862  he  was  chosen  by  the  General 
Assembly  to  represent  the  Church  in  India ;  and  his  re- 


ception, when  he  returaed,  was  very  warm.  He 
unanimously  elected  by  the  General  Assembly  to  the 
office  of  moderator,  in  1869.  From  1871  his  health 
gradually  declined,  and  he  died  June  16,  1872.  Dr. 
Macleod  was  a  genial,  large-hearted  man,  whose  untir- 
ing energy  and  Christian  philanthrophy  placed  him  in 
the  first  rank  of  public  benefactors.  See  (Lond.)  Chris^ 
tian  Observer,  December,  1876,  p.  907 ;  Memoir,  by  his 
brother  (Lond.  1876). 

MacMahon,  Bernard,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
divine,  was  bora  in  Ireland  in  1816.  He  studied  for  the 
priesthood  in  France,  and  about  1842  went  to  Africa 
with  the  first  vicar  apostolic  of  Cape  Colony,  Mgr.  Grif- 
fith, and  he  continued  until  the  last  to  labor  among  the 
English-speaking  Catholics  of  the  colony.  He  was  soon 
after  made  vicar-general,  holding  that  position  under 
bishops  Grimley  and  Leonard,  or  to  his  death.  He  was 
a  hard  worker,  a  close  student,  and  a  model  priest.  Pius 
I  appointed  him  domestic  prelate.  He  died  at  Cape 
Town,  Feb.  1,  1882.  See  (N.  Y.)  Cath.  Atmual,  1883, 
p.  117. 

Macnaughton,  Donald,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
elected  bishop  of  Dunkeld  in  1436,  and  died  on  his  way 
to  Rome  the  same  year.  See  Keiih, Scottish  Bishops,p.S7. 

Madagascar  Version.    See  Malaoasi. 

Madhavia,  an  order  of  Hindft  mendicants,  founded 
by  Madho,  an  ascetic  They  travel  up  and  down  the 
country  soliciting  alms,  and  playing  on  stringed  instra- 
ments. 

Madhwaohaxia,  a  division  of  the  Yaishnava  sect 
of  the  Hindiis,  founded  by  Madhwacharya  (q.  v.).  They 
have  their  headquarters  at  Udipi,  where  their  founder 
erected  a  temple,  and  deposited  an  image  of  Krishna. 
Their  appearance  is  thus  described :  *'  The  ascetic  pro- 
fessors of  Madhwacharya*s  school  adopt  the  exteraal 
appearance  of  the  VomHs,  laying  aside  the  Brahmanical 
cord,  carrying  a  staffand  a  water-pot,  going  bare-headed, 
and  wearing  a  single  wrspper  stained  of  an  orange  color 
with  an  ochrey  day;  they  are  usually  adopted  into  the 
order  from  their  boyhoo<l,  and  acknowledge  no  social 
affinities  nor  interests.  The  marks  common  to  them 
and  the  lay  votaries  of  the  order  are  the  impress  of  the 
symbols  of  Vishnu  upon  their  shoulders  and  breasts, 
stamped  with  a  hot  iron,  and  the  frontal  mark,  which 
consists  of  two  perpendicular  lines  made  with  Oopichcm- 
dmia,  and  joined  at  the  root  of  the  nose  like  that  of  the 
Sri  Vaishuivas ;  but  instead  of  the  red  line  down  the 
centre,  the  Madhwacharis  make  a  straight  black  line, 
with  the  charcoal  from  incense  offered  to  Narayana,  ter- 
minating in  a  round  mark  made  with  turmeric." 

lyr^iltTi^nTitth,  For  this  site  LieuL  Conder  sug- 
gesU  {Tent  Work,  ii,  338)  Um  Deimneh,  twelve  miles 
north-east  of  Beersbeba,  consisting  of  **  heaps  of  stones, 
foundations,  and  two  or  three  caves  "  {Menunrs  to  Ord- 
nance Survey,  iii,  399) ;  but  the  name  has  little  resem- 
blance. 

Madon  is  perhaps  the  modera  ruin  Khurbet  Madin 
((^nder,  Tent  Work,  ii,  338),  a  quarter  of  a  mile  south 
of  Hatttn,  near  Lake  Tiberias,  consisting  of  "  heaps  of 
ruins,  some  well-dressed  stones  "  {Memoirs  to  Ordnance 
Survey,  i,  403). 

Madraasea  are  colleges  in  Mohammedan  countries, 
for  the  training  of  priests  who  are  to  officiate  in  the 
mosques. 

Madrazo,  Josii  Madrazo  t  Aodda,  a  Spanish 
painter,  was  bora  at  Santander,  April  22,  1781.  He 
studied  at  the  Academy  of  Madrid,  under  David  in 
Paris,  and  in  Rome.  Returning  to  the  former  city  in 
1818,  he  became  director  of  the  Academy,  and  after- 
wards of  the  museum.  He  died  there.  May  8,  1859. 
Among  his  principal  paintings  are  Jesus  in  the  House 
of  Ananias;  The^Sacrtd  Heart  of  Jesus;  and  The  Seiz- 
ure of  Breda, 

Madnwa,  the  place  in  which  the  Bona,  or  sacred 
books  of  the  Buddhists,  are  publicly  read.    It  is  usually 


MAQALUANUS 


Pnaent  Aiiptiirum  of  UigdnliL    (Vram  Tboi 


Central  Pahttint  and  rAsnfciiLl 


■  temporary  glniclure,  the  roof  having:  •everal  breaks  or 
eomputmentt,  gradually  ilecreBBing  in  aize  u  they  ap- 
proach th«  (op,  in  the  form  or  a  pagoda,  or  or  a  pynmid 
composed  of  Kreral  plalfbrrna.  There  ia  one  or  these 
atnictBrta  in  the  precincts  of  npmrly  all  [he  icUiarat 
(q.T.).  In  the  centre  uf  the  inwrior  area  is  an  elcTlted 
phttfann  for  the  coiiTonience  of  the  priesta,  and  the  peo- 
ple sit  around  it  upon  mata  ipreacl  on  the  ground.  The 
platform  is  sometimes  occupied  by  several  priests  at  the 
aame  time,  one  of  whom  Teidi  a  portion  of  the  sacred 
books,  in  «  tone  between  singing  and  reading.  The 
Hadutra  is  also  used  for  other  purposes.  In  it  there  is 
a  labyrinth  made  of  withs  omamenlFd  with  (he  cocoa- 
nut  leaf;  and  the  people  amuse  themselves  by  finding 
their  way  through  its  intricate  maics.  In  some  in- 
atances  tines  are  drawn  upon  the  ground  in  in  open 
apace,  and  these  lines  an  reganlcd  as  the  limits  of  the 
regions  assigned  to  pirticiilar  ilEemons.  Dancers  ap- 
proach these  lines  and  defy  the  damons,  receiving  llie 
applause  of  the  people  fur  their  boldness. 

MagalllBnaa,  Coamas.  a  Jesuit  and  profenor  of 
theology  at  Coimbra,  who  died  Oct.  9,  IGS«,  wrote  Catt- 
chiimut  Japonnua;  —  Comment,  in  Sfofiu  Catitiea  el 
BenetUdioiiet  PalriareiianaiH ;  —  Cotamefit.iii  JoMUam: 
—CommrBt.m  Epiilolat  Pavti  ad  Timolhtam  tt  Tttum: 
— Kxplanalioaei  JUoraItt  ia  Indirum  flitloriam  i—Oput 
/fiirarchicum  ifH  dt  PTindpnlu  Eccltiiailico  /.ibri  Ilf. 
Sec  Witte,  Diarium  Bimp-opltinm ,-  Jticher,  A  Ufftmeiim 
Gel/htieii-UxUvfi,  s.  y.     (B.  P.) 

Magaw,  Sahukl,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  EpiKopal 
clergyman,  (^aduatcd  from  the  Univeraity  of  Peiinsyl- 
Tania  in  lTfi7.  Having  received  ordination,  he  became 
a  missionary  of  the  SiKiely  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Uospcl  in  Foreign  Parts,  and  served  as  inch  in  Dover 
and  Duck  Creek,  Del.  In  1779  he  was  invited  to  St. 
Paul's  Church,  Philadelphia,  but  did  not  accept  the  rec- 
torship until  January,  1781.  In  17S6  the  Rev.  JoM^ph 
Pilmore  became  his  assistant,  but  Dr.  Magaw  continuied 
rector  until  1804.  lie  was  vice-provost  of  the  Univer- 
uty  of  Pennsylvania  from  1782  to  1791.  About  1800 
be  aided  in  founding  the  Philadelphia  Academy,  which 
had  a  brief  eiisleuce.  He  was  secretary  of  several  of 
the  early  convenlionsofthe  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  Pennsylvania.  Hi*  death  occurred  in  Fbiladelpbia, 
Dec.  1, 181S.  Sec  Sprague,  d  nroli  o/lht  Amtr.  Pitlpil, 
v,S4G. 


MagdalB.  The  present  site,  r^JfrjIi;^  is  merely  "a 
mud  and  stone  village,  containing  eighty  Moalema;  ait- 
ualed  in  the  ploin;  of  partly  arable  soil-,  no  gardena" 
(.VmdiVi  Iq  Ordnance  Surve.r,  i,  361,  comp  p.  369). 

Magluu.    See  Maoi, 

Maexaw,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  niniiter, 
was  bom  in  Bart  Township,  Lancaster  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  1, 
1775.  He  graduated  from  Franklin  College,  L^ncaater, 
about  1799.  After  atudving  theology,  be  was  liccnaed, 
Dec  IG.  1801,  by  the  Presbyleiy'  of  Uiddletown; 
preacbed  as  a  missionary  for  a  year  or  twoj  and  was 
ordained  April  4,  1804,  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Weat 
N'olljngbam,  Cecil  Co.,  Md.  Here  he  remained  till 
1810,  when  a  church  was  formed  in  Upper  West  Kot- 
tingham,  which  he  also  served  till  I8S1.  In  ISSS  he 
organized  a  church  at  Cbarleslown,  of  which  be  was 
pastor  till  his  itealh,  Oct.  20, 1896.  Besides  preaching. 
Dr.  Magraw  waa  engaged  for  many  years  in  teachirui. 
(J.  C.  &) 

Blagtl  <l«t.  Maeer),  DoMtnioo,  a  Roman  Catbolie 
preUte,  was  bom  March  !8,  1004,  and  died  Uarch  i, 
1672,  at  Tileibo.  He  is  the  author  of  KnHtia  di  Vo- 
caio^i  £K^niu(in(Rame,  IGSOj  Lat-transl.  br  himself 
and  hia  brother  Ceroid,  Hierulexicow,  etc,  Sd  cd.  1677 
ful.;  latest  edition,  Venice,  1712).  See  Winer,  fioivJ- 
biuA  der  IhtoL  Lit.  i,  608.    (B.  P.) 

Magyar  Toraion.    See  Hdhgaiiljui  TKasioH. 

Maban,  Hilo,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  clergy. 
man,  was  bom  at  SnCTolk,  Ya.,  Hay  U,  1819.  He  wai 
educated  at  St.  Paul's  College,  Flushing,  H.  Y. ;  en(ere>I 
the  ministry  in  1S4G;  in  1851  became  profeaaor  of  eccle- 
aiastical  bistoiy  in  Ihe  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  city  i  in  1864  removed  to  Baltimore,  Md.,  u 
rector  of  Sl.Paul'B  Church,  and  in'this  parish  continued 
to  ser>-e  until  hia  death,  Sept.  S,  1870.  He  publtabed 
several  religious  works,  including  Palimmi,  a  ciirioua 
chronological  treatise,  which  were  collected,  with  a 
memoir,  by  Rer.  J.  H.  Hopkins,  Jr.  (N.  Y.  1872-76,  8 
vols.).     See  Prol.  Kpitc  Atmanac,  1871,  p.  118. 

Mahn.  EiuiBT  Acat'sr  Pniurp,  a  Lutheran  theu- 
logian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  18, 1 787.  In  IS18  he 
was  professor  of  Oriental  literature  at  Roatacfc,and  died 
in  18S7.  He  is  the  author  of,  Brridtligiatgat  tu  dns 
mTkandam  WSrttrbicktm  tind  CawmeUarai  filer  die 
£cAn>?ni  (Ciitangen,  1817}:- 


MAICHEL  6E 

Wd  ErMnrngrll  n  idniiftHffm  SltOm  da  AUtm  Tata. 
mml*  (ibid,  sod.) :—  Veber  dia  Modalilat  dit  oritnla- 
Sieien  Studium*  (3ulilMUib,  1821)  ■.—Obtnatioma  Ext- 
getica  ad  D^teOiara  Qupdan  Vel.  Tat.  (GoCtingcn, 
1812):  — DariUiimig  der  Lmeegrap\ia  (RudidMult, 
1817) : — C<mn.  n  joa  iJiinhu  Qmiftiur  gtaiigiiitla- 
mm  ApoMolorumgiit  Seriplit  Dittmgtrmtur  Tenpara 
(GOttinjtrm,  leil).    SKvVlimT.HmdlmtideTtkeoLIjil. 

i,\']a,i'a,fiM;iiani,BM.Jai.\\,-m.    (&p.} 

MahrattK  Teraloii.    8«e  Harathi. 

UbIcIibI,  Dasikl,  ■  Lutheran  theologiin  of  Ger- 
man]-, wu  bom  Aug.  U,  less,  dI  Stullgirt.  He  «u<]- 
ied  at  Tubint^n,  and  tnvclled  tbrough  Switutland, 
France,  Eitglind,  Holland,  lad  Germany.  In  1721  he 
wM  appoiuced  profeaMr  it  Tubingen,  and  in  1730  was 
made  doctar  of  dirinicy.  He  died  Jan.  20,  1762.  He 
wrote,  De  Fadtre  Lrgati  dim  Adamo  Inilo  (I'llbineeo, 
1719)  :—De  PradpaU  BibHolliidi  Parinauibut  (Cam- 
bridge, 1730;  Leipuc,  17S1):  — 0«  Rtcta  Tlindogiam 
Nalarijtm  Tradadi  Raliont  (Tubingen,  ITSO);  — iJe 
Fide  HarOidt  Strcanda  (ibid.  1741-42)  —la  Locum 
Eeda.  iu,  19-31  (ibid.  174S).  See  Doring,  Dit  gtU&r- 
(m  Tkeoiogn  DtultAlandi,  a.  r.     (B.  P.) 

MalUy,  FsAtrco'«i>'.B  French  preUu,wu  bom  at 
Paria,  March  i,  1858.  In  1698  he  wai  appuiuted  arch- 
tushop  of  Arlea,  and  in  1710  he  succeeded  the  famona 
Le  Tellier  in  the  arctabiihopric  of  Kbeima.  Uiilly  Ht- 
liaguiihed  himwlf  by  bis  aidenc  aeal  for  the  RcmaD 
•ee.  When  Lhe  bull  Unigetitiu  was  pnmulgaMd,  he 
forced  it  upon  bii  clergy.  His  paatoral  episUea  were 
cflfn  suppressed  by  the  parliament.  Fope  Clement  XI, 
in  consideiatioD  of  bit  great  aervicea,  made  Hsilly  car- 
dinal nitbout  coniuUing  fint  the  court  of  France,  and 
the  lalur  forbade  the  arcbbisbop  to  wear  the  inaignia 
of  his  new  dignity.  But  tbeie  prohibiiory  measures 
were  nol  always  carried  out,  and  touii  XV  allowed  him 
to  wear  the  cardinal's  hat.  Hailly  died  in  the  abbey 
orSt.Thierry,  SepLlS,  1T2I.  See  LicbCetiberger,  £•- 
Cfdop.  da  SdoKti  SeUgieiaa,  t.  v.     (B.  P,] 

MftlD,  Thoxai,  D.Dn  moderator  of  tbe  Free  Charch 
General  Aaaembly  of  Scotland,  wat  ordained  pastor  of  the 
High  Church  in  Kdinburgh  in  1839,  which  poution  be 
held  until  hia  death.  May  23, 1881.  In  1880  he  was  a 
delegate  from  the  Free  Church  Aanmbly  to  the  Gen- 
eral Council  of  tb«  Preabjterian  Church  held  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  poesetsed  Hue  talenta  aa  a  preacher,  and 
proved  himaelf  a  siuaxaaful  pastor. 

BtalsOD,  JoHANK  Gkoho,  a  Lutheran  Ihaologian  of 
Germany,  waa  bom  at  Neu- 
atadt-on-the-Aiach,  May  2i,  - 
I7S0.  HeUadiedatErlaugen 
and  HaUe,  and  acted  for  tame 
time  as  teacher  at  diffeHnt 
■chooli.  In  1779  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  paslorate  Rt 
Uotlenheim,  and  died  Jan.  28, 
1784.  He  wrote,  Erptiealio 
Pndmi  Staaidi  (Culmbach. 
1771):— Super  Jfurti.  mi,  18 
(itNd.  i772^:—Dt  J/irtKulif 
(ibid.  1774)  -.—Dt  Loco  Sam. 
«,  IB  (ibid.  1776) :— Be  /«- 
morUxUuae  (ibid.  1779);— /« 
i%ifq9II.n',IB(ibid.eod.).  Bee 
Diirii^.  Dit  gtlrirtm  Thtnk- 
gtnDtmltdUandi,t.v.   (B.r.) 

Bfajal,  Uathiku  (called 
Z>eniAaj,fnni  his  birth-place), 
■  young  Hugaenot  minister, 
"themartyrofVenioua.'was 
a  pastor  at  Viraoaia,  whn. 
haring  attended  the  national 
eynod  of  Das-Languedoc,  Aug. 
18, 1744,  was  arretted  forirea- 
ton  Feb.  1  following,  and  d»- 
qnte  the  entreatiea  of  hia 
XIL-Xx 


MALAGASI  VERSION 

parisbioDera,wat  executed  Feb.  S,  1746,  on  the  esplanada 
of  Montpellier,  at  the  age  of  twenly-aiz  years.  8m 
Lichtenberger,  EHegdop.  da  Sdtaea  Jtdigiaaa,  a,  t. 

Major,  Joiia:(n  ToBiak,  a  UHheran  theologian  of 

nnany,  waa  bom  at  Jena,  Feb.  i,  101b.  After  com- 
pleting his  Btudie*  at  Leipiic  and  Jena,  he  travellad 
through  Holland,  France,  and  Italy,  waa  made  in  1646 
doctor  of  theology,  and  elected  prtifcasor  at  Jena  in 
1646.  He  died  April  !5,  196b.  Major  wrote,  Com- 
mrnlatimei  it  Epiilolam  ad  Hebraet ;  —  Dt  Natvra 
tt  CuUk  Angelorum: — De  Oratione  pro  Drjundit:— 
Di^UaHmKt  dt  Polatalt  Claeiua.  See  Witte,  Dto' 
TiumBiogropliicvm;  3Sctttr,AllgemeineiGrlekrlm-I.,txi- 
ton,t.v.;yfiatr,aaii^niiAdirlluioLLil.i,i^.    (B.  P.) 

Majtuna,  a  little  town  on  the  tea-shore  of  Palet- 
tine,  aeven  nadia  from  Gua,  and  contidered  aa  its  sea- 
port (Strabo,  xTi,  769);  now  represented  by  the  little 
Tillage  ofNaiih  (Van  da  Velde,  SarratiM,  ii,  186). 

UaJtlB.     See  Hat. 

Ualckodab.  "£/-J/ii?Adr('the  CareO.^I"  »M 
which  captain  Warren  propoaei  for  Hakkedah,  ts  a  re- 
markable place,  and  one  of  the  most  contpicuoua  lilea 
in  the  plain.  A  promantor;  of  brown  aandy  rocli  jula 
out  Boulhwardt,  and  at  the  end  is  the  village,  climbii^ 
up  the  hilltide.  The  hula  are  of  mud,  and  aUnd  in 
many  cases  in  front  of  cares ;  there  are  also  small  ex- 
cavations on  the  Dorlh-eaat,  and  remaina  of  an  old  Jew- 
iih  lomb,  with  Kakim.  From  the  cares  the  modern 
came  is  derived,  and  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  this  is 
the  only  village  in  tha  Philittine  plain  at  which  we 
found  euch  caves.  The  ptoiimity  of  Gedetoth  (Ka- 
trah)  and  Naauiah  (Na'aneh)  to  El-Mughfir  alto  in- 
creaaea  [he  probability  that  captain  Warren's  identiS- 
cation  of  Kl-Mughir  with  Makkedah  is  correct,  for 
thoae  places  were  near  Makkedah  (Joih.  xv,  41) " — 
(Conder,  Tmt  Work,  ii,  174).  Tbit  position  is  defended 
at  length  br  the  same  writer  in  the  liuar.  SCatemail 
of  the  "  PaL  Explor.  Soc"  187G,  p.  1G6.  The  place  ia 
situated  nine  mile*  nortb-eaat  of  Ashdod,  and  ia  brieajr 
described  in  the  Mtmoin  accompanying  the  OrdnanM 
Surrey,  ii,  411,  and  iU  aiiliquitiea,  ibid.  p.  427. 

Makoa,  a  god  of  the  ancient  Slavonians,  who  was 
repretented  partly  at  a  man  and  partly  at  a  fish.  At  ■ 
later  period  he  prended  over  rain,  and  wai  invoked 
when  the  fielda  wertL  in  want  of  water. 

^>*'aliigiiii'  VeraloD  or  thk  ScRirrunu.  Mala- 
gati  it  the  language  spoken  on  the  island  of  Hadagatear 
(q.  T.).     Tha  goapel  waa  not  proclaimed  to  the  people 


MALAY  VERSION 


OOO 


MALAY  VERSION 


of  thU  isle  till  1818,  when  the  Rev.  Measn.  Jones  and 
Beaven  were  sent  to  labor  among  them  by  the  Chnrob 
Missionary  Society.  The  translation  of  the  Bible  oo- 
cupied  the  greater  part  of  the  time  of  the  missionaries 
during  eleven  years.  The  New  Test,  was  completed  in 
1825,  and,  after  having  been  revised  twice,  was  printed 
in  1830.  Parts  of  the  Old  Test  was  printed  in  1882 
and  1836,  and  about  the  latter  year  the  whole  of  the 
Old  Test,  was  printed  at  Madagascar.  The  persecu- 
tion, well  known  in  history,  commenced  about  this 
time,  and  lasted  till  1851.  The  Rev.  Messrs.  Freeman 
and  Jones  (formerly  missionaries  in  Madagascar)  had, 
in  anticipation  of  the  day  when  they  might  be  enabled 
to  resume  their  labors,  employed  themselves  since  their 
return  to  England  in  the  complete  revision  of  the  Mala- 
gas! Scriptures.  This  revision  has  been  accomplished, 
and,  in  the  immediate  prospect  of  the  island  becoming 
again  open  to  the  efforts  of  the  Christian  ministry,  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  determined  to  print 
an  edition  of  five  thousand  copies  of  the  Malagasi  Bible 
from  the  revised  MS.  This  work  was  accordingly  com- 
menced, under  the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Grif- 
fiths (formerly  a  missionary  on  the  island),  with  the  aid 
of  the  Rev.  T.  W.  MeUer ;  but,  afler  advancing  as  far  as 
the  completion  of  the  New  Test,  with  the  Old  Test,  as 
far  as  the  10th  chapter  of  Judges,  it  had  been  deemed 
advisable  to  suspend  further  progress.  The  revision  of 
the  text  had  advanced  as  far  as  the  end  of  Job.  Tlie 
work  given  np  in  1858  was  again  mumed,  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  unfinished  parts  of  the  Old  Test,  lefl  by 
the  late  Rev.  Mr.  Griffiths,  together  with  a  profusion  of 
MS.  corrections,  very  difficult  to  decipher,  was  happily 
brought  to  an  end  in  1864,  through  the  able  assistance 
of  Mr.  Sauerwein  and  the  editorial  superintendent  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  A  revised  edi- 
tion of  the  Malagasi  New  Test,  with  marginal  refer- 
ences, was  printed  at  London  in  1869,  under  the  care 
of  the  Rev.  R.  G.  Hartley,  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  while  the  Old  Test,  under  the  editorship  of  the 
Rev.  R.  Toy,  was  published  in  1871.  For  a  long  time 
the  need  of  a  thorough  revision  of  the  entire  Bible  in 
the  Malagasi  had  been  felt  From  the  report  for  1878 
we  learn  that  a  Joint  board,  represenUng  all  the  mis- 
sions on  the  island,  has  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
securing,  as  far  as  possible,  a  thoroughly  accurate  and 
idiomatic  standard  version  of  the  Bible  in  the  Malagasi 
tongue.  This  board  has  ever  since  been  at  work,  and 
from  the  report  for  1885  we  learn  that  the  preliminary 
revision  of  the  Bible  was  completed  Sept  15, 1884.  See 
BibU  of  Every  Land,  p.  886.  For  linguistic  purposes, 
see  Parker,  A  Coneue  Grammar  of  the  Malagcuff  Lan^ 
ffuage  (London,  1883).    (B.  P.) 

Malay  Veraion  of  tiik  Scripturks.  The  Script- 
ures, either  in  whole  or  in  part,  were  translated  into 
Malayan  several  times.  The  first  translation  was  made 
by  John  Van  Hasel,  a  director  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, formeil  in  1602.  When  he  had  completed  a  ver^ 
sion  of  the  gospel  according  to  Matthew,  he  handed  over 
the  MS.  to  Peter  de  Carpentier,  the  general  of  the  com- 
pany, and  soon  after,  in  1612,  another  version,  prepared 
by  Albert  Comelisson  Ruyl,  was  delivered  to  the  same 
individual,  in  order  that  the  two  versions  might  be  com- 
pared. RuyFs  was  preferred,  and  he  now  devoted  him- 
self to  the  completion  of  the  New  Test ;  but  only  lived 
to  translate  as  far  as  the  close  of  the  gospel  of  Mark. 
His  MSS.  were  sent  to  Holland,  and  were  printed  with 
the  Dutch  version  at  Enkhuysen  in  1629,  and  again  at 
Amsterdam  in  1638.  Van  Hasel,  far  fn>m  being  dis- 
couraged at  the  preference  with  which  RuyPs  version 
was  regarded,  persevered  with  his  translation,  and  com- 
pleted a  veision  of  the  four  gospels,  of  which  Luke  and 
John  were  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1646.  Van  Ha- 
sel also  translated  the  PUdms,  in  concert  with  Justus 
Heum,  who,  for  fifteen  years,  presided  over  the  Dutch 
Church  in  India.  The  first  portion  of  this  version  was 
printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1618,  and  the  entire  Psalter 
appeared  in  1689.    Heum  likewise  translated  the  Acts 


of  the  Apostles  into  Malayan,  and  revised  the  gospels 
of  Van  Hasel  and  Ruyl,  according  to  the  Greek,  or  rath- 
er, perhaps,  conformed  them  to  the  Low  or  Belgic  ver- 
sion of  1637.  This  revision,  together  with  the  Acta, 
and  the  Dutch  version  in  the  margin,  was  printed  at 
Amsterdam  in  165L  This  was  reprinted  at  Oxford  in 
1677,  at  the  expense  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle,  and  un- 
der the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Hyde,  keeper  cf  the 
Bodleian  Library.  A  second  impression  of  the  samo 
work,  in  every  respect  similar  to  the  first,  was  printed 
at  Oxford  in  1704,  and  the  copies  were  sent  to  the  East 
for  distribution.  These,  and  all  the  editions  above  men- 
tioned, were  printed  in  Roman  characters.  At  length, 
in  1668,  the  entire  New  Test  was  printed  at  Amsterdam 
in  Roman  letters,  translated  by  Daniel  Brower.  He 
lived  and  died  in  the  East;  he  also  prepared  a  version 
of  the  book  of  Genesis,  which  was  printed  in  1662,  and 
again  in  1687,  at  Amsterdam.  A  standard  Malay  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  and  New  Test  Scriptures  was  com- 
menced by  Dr.  Bf.  Leidekker,  a  Dutch  minister  of  Ba- 
tavia  in  1685.  He  translated  most  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  Test  twice ;  and  in  the  New  Test,  had  advanced 
as  far  as  the  6th  verse  of  the  6th  chapter  of  the  epistle 
to  the  Ephesians,  when  he  was  called  away  in  170L 
After  his  decease  Petrus  Van  der  Vorm  was  appointed 
to  complete  the  work,  which  he  did  before  the  dose  of 
the  year.  In  1722  the  Dutch  government  appointed 
four  ministers  to  examine  and  correct  the  work.  Be- 
sides Van  der  Vorm,  there  were  Arnaldiis  Brandts,  Cor- 
nelius Ninaher,  and  George  Ilendrick  Wemdly.  The 
work  was  completed  in  1728.  Two  copies  appear  to 
have  been  made,  one  in  Roman,  and  the  other  in  Are* 
bic  characters.  The  former  was  printed  at  Amsterdam 
(1781-38),  under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  G.  H.  Wemdly 
and  Dr.  Serruns,  aided  by  two  Malay  chaplains.  The 
latter  was  published  at  Batavia  in  1758,  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Dutch  governor,  Jacob  Mossel.  In  1818 
George  Livett,  Esq.,  a  resident  at  Amboyna,  addressed 
the  Calcutta  Bible  Society  in  behalf  of  the  Amboj'nese 
Christians,  who  were  almost  destitute  of  Bibles.  The 
society  had  three  thousand  copies  of  the  Malayan  New 
Test  printed  at  Serampore  in  1814,  the  text  being  that 
of  1781.  This  edition  was  in  Roman  characters.  But 
as  there  were  Malayan  districts  where  the  Arabic  was 
still  in  use,  the  same  society  determined  upon  printing^ 
two  editions  of  the  Scriptures,  one  in  Roman,  the  other 
in  Arabic  letters.  The  former  was  completed  in  1817, 
when  the  entire  Bible  from  the  text  of  1731-88  left  the 
press;  the  latter  was  not  published  until  1822,  the  text 
of  1758  having  been  carefully  revised  and  corrected  for 
that  purpose  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hutchings  and  major 
Mclnnes.  While  these  editions  were  published  far- 
ther supplies  of  the  Malayan  Scriptures  were  prepared 
in  London,  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  Auxiliary  Bi- 
ble Society  at  Amboyna.  In  1819  the  New  Test  in 
the  Roman  character,  from  the  text  of  1738,  was  printed 
by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Sodety,  under  the 
care  of  professor  Lee,  and  in  1822  the  entire  Bible  from 
the  same  text  was  issued.  In  1820  the  Netherlands 
Bible  Society  supplied  the  Malays  with  the  New  Teat 
which  was  printed  at  Haarlem,  and  in  1824  the  whole 
Bible  was  published  for  the  Malays  by  the  same  socie- 
ty, in  an  edition  of  five  thousand  copies.  These  editions 
were  printed  in  Arabic  characters  from  the  edition  <»f 
1758,  under  the  superintendence  of  professor  Wilmer. 
In  1822  the  same  society  printed  an  edition  of  New 
Tests,  and  Bibles  in  the  Roman  character  from  the  text 
of  1733.  In  1830  the  Calcutta  Society  printed,  at  Singa- 
pore, an  edition  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  copies  of 
Matthew's  gospel,  in  Arabic  characters,  as  the  first  step 
towards  giving  a  fresh  edition  of  the  entire  New  Test 
This  measure  was  adopted  in  consequence  of  the  desii^e 
manifested  among  the  Western  Midays  themselves  to 
read  the  Scriptures— a  circamstance  never  known  be- 
fore, for  the  Bible  had  previously  been  urged  upon  them 
rather  than  freely  accepted,  and  their  Mohammedan 
prejudices  bad  been  deemed  impregnable.    In 


MALATALIM  VERSION 


691 


MALCOLM 


qnence  of  their  increased  demand  for  the  ''Engliahman'a 
Koran,"  the  CalcatU  Society  pobliahedi  in  188S,  a  re- 
vised edition  of  one  thousand  copies  of  the  Goepels  and 
the  Acts,  and  one  thousand  five  handred  copies  of  the 
entire  New  Test,  from  the  edition  oonrected  by  Mr. 
Hatchings.  The  printing  was  carried  on  at  Singapore, 
under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  Mesan.  Thomson  and  Bum, 
of  the  London  Missionary  Society.  Another  version  of 
the  New  Test,  less  literal  and  more  idiomatic  than  for- 
mer translations,  was  executed  by  the  agents  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  and  of  the  American  Bible 
Society,  at  Singapore.  Editions  in  both  the  Arabic  and 
Roman  characters  were  printed  in  1866,  under  the  care 
of  the  Rev.  B.  P.  Keasberry.  The  latter*  had  also  un- 
dertaken a  translation  of  the  Old  Test.,  of  which  he  had 
already  prepared  a  considerable  part,  when  his  death, 
in  1875,  put  a  stop  to  the  work.  Since  1814  the  Java 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society  has  contemplated  the  plan 
of  publishing  the  New  Test,  in  Low  Malay,  which  is 
spoken  in  the  lower  parts  of  Java.  An  edition  of  the 
New  Test  in  the  Low  Malay,  which  was  commenced 
by  Mr.  Robinson,  a  Baptist  missionary,  and  completed 
by  Dr.  Medhnrst,  left  the  press  at  Singapore  in  1838. 
Some  Christians  at  Sourabaya  prepared  a  translation 
of  the  Psalms,  which  was  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1847, 
under  the  care  of  professor  Yetti,  by  the  Netherlsnds 
Bible  Society.  In  1877  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  published  the  translation  of  the  book  of  Ex- 
odus of  Mr.  J.  L.  Marten,  which  the  Rev.  E.  W.  King, 
who  brought  it  to  England  from  Java,  superintended. 
See  BiUe  of  Every  Land,  p.  860. 

Linguistie  Helps. — Dennys,  A  JTandbooh  of  Malap 
Colloquial,  at  Spoken  in  Singapore;  Maxwell,  A  J/ofi- 
ual  of  the  Malay  Lcmguage  (1882) ;  Swettenham,  Ko- 
caJMary  of  the  English  and  Malay  Languages  (Singa- 
pore, 1881, 2  vols.) ;  Favre,  Grammaire  de  la  Langue 
Malaise  (Paris,  1876);  Didionnaire  MalaiS'Franfais 
(1875,  2  vols.);  Dietumnaire  Franfois-Malais  (1880,  2 
vols.),    (a  P.) 

Malayallm  Venion  of  tiik  Scmpruiuca.  The 
Malayalim  is  spoken  along  the  western  coast  of  Penin- 
sular India,  from  cape  Comorin  to  the  borders  of  Canara, 
and  from  the  sea  to  the  western  Ghauts.  This  region, 
sometimes  distinguished  by  the  general  name  of  Malay- 
ala,  comprises  the  British  district  of  Malabar,  under  the 
Madras  presidency,  and  the  territories  of  the  several 
rajahs  of  Travancore,  Cochin,  and  Coorg.  The  natives 
in  general  are  Hind&s.  When  Dr.  Buchanan,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  visited  the  Syrian 
Christiana  at  Malaysia,  he  found  that  several  attempts 
had  been  made  by  them  at  different  times,  though 
without  success,  to  effect  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
into  Malayalim,  their  vernacular  language.  At  the 
suggestion  of  Dr.  Buchanan  the  design  was  carried  into 
execution,  and  the  bishop,  Mar  Dionysius,  engaged  to 
superintend  the  translation.  On  his  second  visit  to 
Travancore,  in  1807,  Dr.  Buchanan  found  that  the  trans- 
lation of  the  four  gospels  had  been  completed  by  Tim»- 
pah  PiUay  and  Rembar,  a  catanar  or  priest  of  the  Syr- 
ian Church.  The  translation  had  been  made  from  the 
Tamul  version  of  Fabricins,  and  an  edition  of  five  thou- 
sand copies  of  these  gospels  was  printed  at  Bombay  at 
the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Soci- 
ety. Timapah  Pillay  was  subsequently  placed  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Thompson,  at 
Madras,  in  order  to  complete  the  translation  of  the 
New  Test,  which  was  accomplished  in  1813.  This 
version,  however,  did  not  prove  satisfactory,  and  Mr. 
Spring,  chaplain  at  Tellicherry,  proposed  to  enter  upon 
a  complete  revision  of  Timapah  Pillay's  version,  so 
as  to  render  it  acceptable  to  the  natives  of  Malabar; 
while  Mr.  Bailey,  who  was  stationed  at  Cottayam,  en- 
gaged to  execute  a  new  translation  for  the  benefit  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Travancore.  Both  these  transla- 
tions were  completed  in  1819,  and  on  examination  Mr. 
Bailey's  version  was  preferred  by  the  Madras  Bible  So- 
ciety, at  whose  expense  the  New  Test  was  published 


at  Cottayam,  in  1830.  The  translation  of  the  Old  Test 
was  likewise  completed  by  Mr.  Bailey  the  same  year, 
and  this  work  was  submitted  to  a  sub-committee,  formed 
in  1882,  in  connection  with  the  Madras  Society,  for  the 
publication  of  a  Malayalim  version  of  the  Old  Test  In 
1884  some  parte  of  the  New  Test  were  printed  in  Loo- 
don,  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Bailey,  who  had  been  com- 
pelled to  visit  England  on  account  of  his  health.  The 
remainder  of  the  New  Test  was  printed  by  him  at  the 
mi8sio&>press  in  Cottayam.  Complete  editions  of  both 
the  Old  and  New  Tests,  in  Malayalim  have  since  been 
issued  from  the  Cottayam  press.  The  version  previous- 
ly in  current  use  was,  however,  admitted  to  stand  in 
need  of  further  revision,  and  a  publishing  committee 
was  appointed  for  the  purpose.  In  the  report  for  1866 
we  read  that  the  revision  of  the  New  Test  has  been 
completed,  together  with  that  of  the  first  three  books 
of  the  Pentateuch.  In  1858  the  revision  had  proceeded 
as  far  as  the  end  of  the  second  book  of  Samuel,  while 
in  1868  we  are  told  that  the  Old  Test  had  been  re- 
printed, with  a  few  corrections.  In  1871  we  read  that 
**  the  New  Test,  in  this  southern  Indian  language,  is 
about  to  be  revised,  but  the  plan  of  operations  has  not 
yet  been  fully  decided  upon.  The  bishops  and  pastors 
in  the  Syrian  Church  of  Malabar  have  undertaken  to 
aid  the  English  and  German  missionaries  in  the  work.** 
The  meeting  of  delegates  appointed  for  that  purpose  took 
place,  according  to  the  report  of  1872,  July  26, 1871,  at 
Cannanore.  The  delegates  present  were  the  Rev.  Messrs. 
Baker  and  Justus  Joseph,  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  and  Fritz  and  Miller,  of  the  German  Basle  Mis- 
sion. The  work  of  the  delegates  progressed  very  slow- 
ly. In  the  report  for  1877  we  read  that  the  revision  of 
the  New  Test  was  carried  on  as  far  as  Heb.  v,  and,  said 
the  Rev.  H«  Baker,  convener  of  the  delegates,  *'  I  trust 
in  a  few  months  to  see  the  end  of  the  New  Test,  and 
shall  hope  to  praise  God  for  enabling  me  to  do  the  little 
I  have  done  towards  this  edition."  His  wish,  however, 
haa  not  been  fulfilled,  for  to  use  the  words  of  the  report 
for  1879,  **  the  Malayalim  Revision  Committee  haa  lost 
its  senior  member,  the  Rev.  H.  Baker,  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  Cottayanu  This,  together  with 
the  dialectical  differences  in  the  language  as  spoken  in 
North  and  South  Malabar,  has  made  the  task  very  dif- 
ficult The  revision  has  been  carried  on,  however,  in 
the  New  Test  to  the  end  of  James,  the  first  two  gospels 
having  undergone  a  second  revision."  From  the  report 
for  1888  we  learn  that  the  revision  of  the  New  Test 
had  been  brought  to  a  close  in  1882,  and  that  an  edition 
of  eight  thousand  copies  has  been  printed.  The  Old 
Test  is  now  in  the  course  of  revision.  See  Bible  of 
Every  Land,  p.  145.  For  linguistic  purposes,  see  Gon- 
derty  A  Malayaikn  and  English  Dictionary,     (B.  P.) 

Malbin,  Meier  Lbibiscr,  a  Jewish  author  and 
rabbi,  was  bom  in  Russia  in  1810.  In  his  early  youth 
his  intellectual  powers  roused  the  utmost  admiration; 
in  his  sixteenth  year  his  fluency  in  the  Talmud  was 
extraordinary,  his  memory  enabling  him  to  repeat  folio 
after  folio.  When  eighteen  years  of  age  he  became 
rabbi  at  Wreschcn,  in  the  province  of  Posen.  From 
Wreschen  he  was  called  to  Kempen,  and  after  a  long 
residence  there,  to  Bucharest.  Being  obliged  to  leave 
Roumania  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  the  Jewish 
Reform  party,  he  returned  to  Russia.  After  a  short 
residence  there  he  went  to  Kdnigsberg,  in  Prussia. 
Malbin  died  Sept  8, 1879,  at  Kiev,  on  his  way  to  a  new 
position  at  Esenstockau,  in  Russia.  He  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  the  Pentateuch,  the  five  Megilloth,  and 
Isaiah,  for  which  see  Lippe,  BibUographisches  LexHam 
(Vienna,  1881),  s.  v.  In  his  expositions  he  proved  him- 
self not  only  an  elegant  Hebrew  writer,  but  also  a  deep 
thinker.    (B.  P.) 

Malcolm,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Caith- 
ness at  the  time  of  the  parliament  in  Scone,  April  8, 
1878.  He  died  in  1421.  See  Keith,  SeoUish  Bishops, 
p.  218. 


MALCOM 


602 


MALUE  DASIS 


Malcom,  Howard,  D.D^  LUD^  a  BapdBt  minister, 
waa  bora  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  19, 17d9.  He  grad- 
uated from  Dickinson  College  in  1818 ;  entered  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminaiy  in  1818,  and  remained  two 
years;  was  licensed  to  preach  by  Sampson  Street 
Chnrcb,  in  Philadelphia,  June  8  of  the  same  year;  be- 
came pastor  in  Hudson,  N,  Y.,  May  14, 1819;  first  gen- 
eral secretary  of  the  American  Sunday-school  Union, 
and  travelled  widely  in  iCk  service,  but  resigned  this 
position,  July  5, 1827.  He  soon  after  became  pastor  of 
Federal  Street  Church,  Boston,  Mass.  In  1885  he  went 
abroad  as  a  deputy  of  the  Baptist  Triennial  Conven- 
tion, to  visit  its  foreign  mission  stations  in  India,  China, 
Siam,  and  Burmah,  and  on  his  return  published,  in  two 
volumes,  an  account  of  his  travels.  Next,  he  was  pas- 
tor of  Sampson  Street  Baptist  Church,  Philadelphia, 
Nov.  25, 1849.  He  was  president  respectively  of  Geoi^ge- 
town  College,  Ky.,  and  the  University  of  Lewisbnrg, 
Pa^  which  latter  position  he  left,  Aug  5, 1857.  On  ac- 
count of  an  affection  of  the  throat  the  later  years  of  his 
life  were  devoted  to  the  Baptist  Historical  Society. 
He  died  March  25, 1879.  Dr.  Malcom  was  president  of 
the  American  Peace  Society,  and  vice-president  of  the 
American  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Among  his  published 
volumes  are,  Bibie  Dtetionary  (1828,  1858)  i^TraotU 
in  Sottth-^aslem  Ana  (1889) : — EoBUnt  of  the  A  tonement 
{im>):'-Thtoiogkal  Index  (1870).  He  also  edited 
many  volumes.  See  NeeroL  Report  ofPrinoetcn  TheoL 
8em.  1879,  p.  18. 

Maldlvian  VexBion  of  thb  Schipturbs.  The 
Maldivian  language  u  a  very  mixed  one,  containing 
more  Cingalese,  Hindustani,  Sanscrit,  and  Arabic  words 
than  the  Malay.  The  natives  have  two  alphabets  of 
their  own,  one  very  peculiar,  the  other  resembling  the 
Persian. 

The  four  gospels  were  translated  into  Maldivian  by 
Dr.  Leyden,  for  the  Calcutta  Bible  Society,  but  for  va- 
rious reasons  it  had  not  been  printed  up  to  1880.  See 
Bible  of  Every  Land,  p.  150. 

Madek-tana,  a  deity  adored  by  the  Yezedees 
(q.  v.),  in  the  Lebanon  range.  He  was  represented 
either  as  a  cock,  or  a  man  with  a  cock's  head. 

Malgrln,  John.    See  Alorin. 

MalUeet  Version  of  the  Scripture8.  The 
Maliseet  is  a  dialect  spoken  by  the  Indians  of  New 
Brunswick.  The  Maliseet  Indians  are,  since  1870,  in 
the  possession  of  the  gospel  of  John,  which  was  trans- 
lated by  the  Rev.  S.  T.  Rand,  and  published  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Before  the  publi- 
cation of  this  gospel  they  were  only  acquainted  with 
such  fragments  and  quotations  of  Scripture  as  are  found 
in  the  Roman  mass-book.     (B.  P.) 

Mallet,  Fbiedrigh  Ludwio,  a  distinguished  Re- 
formied  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  4, 1798, 
at  Braunfels,  near  Wetzlar.  He  studied  at  Herbom 
and  Tubingen,  and  was  in  1815  appointed  assbtant  to 
pastor  Buch  of  SL  Michael's,  at  Bremen,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1817.  In  1827  he  was  called  to  the  pastorate 
of  St.  Stephen's,  and  died  May  5, 1865.  Mallet  was  a 
most  excellent  preacher,  and  a  prolific  writer.  His 
publications,  however,  are  mostly  polemic,  caused  by  the 
rationalism  and  infidelity  which  he  sought  to  combat. 
See  Zuchold,  Bibi.  TheoL  ii,  849  sq. ;  Hupfeld,  Friedrich 
Ludwig  Mallet  (1865);  Meurer,  Zur  Erinnerung  an 
Friedr,Ludw.MalUt  (1866) ;  Wilkens,  Friedrich  Mallet, 
der  Zeuge  der  WahrheU  (1872);  Plitt  -  Herzog,  i&a/- 
EncyMop,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Mallinckrodt;  Paulinb  von,  foundress  of  the 
Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  was  bom  at  Minden,  West- 
phalia, June  8, 1817.  She  was  the  sister  of  Hermann 
von  Mallinckrodt,  the  eminent  leader  of  the  Catholic 
party  in  the  Prussian  legislature,  a  speaker  and  politi- 
cian of  great  power,  who  died  suddenly  in  Berlin,  May 
26, 1874,  aged  fifty-three  years.  When  living  with  her 
father  in  Paderboro,  Pauline  set  up  a  little  asylum  for 
blind  children.    She  resolved  to  secure  a  permanent  I 


organisation  for  carrying  out  her  dnigna,  Aug.  21, 18401 
In  November,  1850,  she  took  ber  vows,  and  soon  the  sif- 
ters of  Christian  Charity  was  established.  For  twenty 
yean  the  new  institution  enjoyed  the  favor  of  both  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In  May,  1872,  the 
laws  against  the  Catholic  Church  were  passed  by  the 
Prussian  government,  and  every  house  not  devoted  ex- 
clusively to  nursing  the  sick  was  dosed,  and  its  inmates 
dispersed.  In  April,  1878,  mother  Pauline  yielded  to 
the  wishes  of  the  German  Catholics  in  America,  took 
with  her  a  detachment  of  sisters,  and  founded  a  house 
in  New  Orleans.  In  order  to  make  proper  proviuon 
for  the  American  undertaking,  she  established  another 
house  at  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  which  is  for  America  what 
the  house  at  Paderbom  had  been  for  Germany.  In 
1874  she  received  a  request  from  the  Chilian  govern- 
ment to  make  a  foundation  in  their  country.  In  1876 
she  went  to  Rome,  and  received  the  pope's  approval  of 
her  congregation  and  the  erection  of  two  provinces  for 
North  and  South  America.  She  sailed  for  America  in 
October,  1879,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  and  visited  every 
house  in  the  two  Americas.  She  then  set  out  to  visit 
ber  houses  in  Belgium,  Germany,  and  Bohemia,  return- 
ing to  Paderbom  in  March,  1881.  There  she  died,  April 
80  of  that  year.  There  were  then  (1881)  twenty-eight 
houses  of  the  sisters  of  Christian  Charity  in  the  United 
States,  and  forty  in  North  and  South  America.  See 
(N.  Y.)  CathdUe  Amaial,  1882,  p.  94. 

Maltese  Veraion  of  thk  Scriptures.  The 
Maltese  spoken  by  the  natives  of  Malta  is  a  curious 
mixture  of  Arabic  and  Italian,  the  grammar  being  Ara- 
bic, but  a  large  number  of  Italian  words  have  been 
grafted  into  the  vocabulary.  Many  years  ago  the  four 
gospels  were  translated  into  Maltese  by  Mr.  Yargalli, 
and  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society.  Afterwards  the  Society  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tian Knowledge  had  the  work  revised,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  New  Test  translated,  by  Dr.  Camilleri,  a  native 
of  Malta,  and  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England. 
The  book,  however,  did  not  meet  with  that  acceptance 
which  had  been  hoped  for,  owing  not  sp  much  to  any 
defects  in  the  translation  as  to  the  awful  ignorance  of 
the  people,  and  their  benighted  adherence  to  the  prieata. 
A  deep  interest  having  been  taken  by  a  few  Englishmen 
living  on  the  island  in  the  spiritual  welfare  of  this  people, 
the  question  was  again  mooted  of  printing  a  gospel  in 
the  Maltese,  as  there  are  about  10,000  Maltese,  principal- 
ly women  and  children,  country  people  and  villagers,  who 
read  their  own  language.  In  1870  a  translation  of  Mat- 
thew's gospel  was  made  by  a  native,  and  sent  over  to 
England.  After  the  MS.  had  been  examined  and  reported 
on  by  the  editorial  superintendent  and  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Camilleri,  it  was  printed  under  the  editorship  of  the 
last-named  gentleman,  and  the  orthography  was  made 
as  simple  as  possible,  so  as  to  present  no  difficulties  to 
those  who  were  able  to  read  at  all  in  their  mother 
tongue.  This  was  in  1871.  In  the  report  for  1872  we 
read :  ^  The  edition  of  Matthew  in  this  language  hav- 
ing proved  a  great  boon  to  religious  inquirers  among^ 
the  Maltese,  it  was  resolved  that  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles should  be  printed.  A  third  portion,  namely  the 
gospel  according  to  John,  has  now  been  translated, 
and  is  about  to  be  printed.  The  services  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Camilleri  have  proved  exceedingly  valuable  in  aid- 
ing the  preparation  of  these  works,'*  The  two  gospela 
and  the  Acts  are  the  only  parts  of  the  New  TesL  which 
the  Maltese  enjoy  at  present.  See  Bible  of  Every  Land, 
p.  53.    (B.P.) 

Maluk  DaslB,  a  subdivision  of  the  Ramavandi 
Vaishnavas  of  Hindustan,  founded  by  Maluk  DAs,  who 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Akbar  the  Great,  in  the  16th  een« 
tury*  They  worship  Vishnu,  in  the  character  of  Rama, 
and  accept  as  their  chief  authority  the  Bkagavat  Gila, 
The  adherents  of  this  sect  are  said  to  be  numerous,  ee- 
pecially  among  the  laboring  and  trading  classes,  to  the 
latter  of  which  their  founder  belonged.    The  principal 


MALUMIGISTS 


893 


MANES  VERSION 


efUUuhment  of  this  sect  is  at  Kan  Manikpnr,  the 
birthplace  of  the  founder^  and  still  occupied  by  his  de- 
■cendantB;  and  bendes  this  establishment  they  haTe 
six  other  MaVha  at  .Allahabad,  Benares,  Biudraban, 
Ayadhya,  Lucknow,  and  Jagunnatb,  which  last  is  of 
great  repute,  because  rendered  sacred  by  the  death  of 
MaluklMs. 

Malmnigists,  a  sect  of  Mohammedans  who  teach 
that  God  may  be  known  perfectly  in  this  world  by  the 
knowledge  which  men  have  themselves. 

Malvoisin,  Williabi,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  the  see  of  Glasgow  in  1200.  See 
Keith,  ScottUh  Bithopt,  p.  236. 

Mamakurs,  a  kind  of  bracelets  worn  by  tlie  na- 
tives of  the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands,  particularly  Am- 
boyna,  and  which  the  women  regard  as  preservatives 
against  all  enchantments. 

Mamiani  (<2eflia  Hovtre),  Trbekzio,  comU^  a  fa- 
mous Italian  philosopher,  was  bom  Sept.  16, 1799,  at 
Pesaro.  He  studied  at  Rome,  but  had  to  leave  his 
country  on  account  of  his  participation  in  the  insurrec- 
tion of  1881.  He  went  to  France,  but  returned  to  Ita^ 
ly  in  1848.  In  1857  he  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Turin,  and  in  1860  he  was  made  minister  of  public  in> 
struction.  In  1870  he  took  op  his  abode  at  Rome,  and 
published  the  philosophical  Journal,  La  FUotofia  delie 
Seuole  ItaHaae,  Besides,  he  wrote,  Ritmovamenio  ddia 
Filosojia  AnUca  ItaUana  (Paris,  1884 ;  2d  ed.  Florence, 
ISSe)  i^Diaioffki  di  Scieruut  PHma  (Paris,  1846):^ 
Cm^emoid  d^w  MetaJUico  (Florence,  1865, 2  vols.)  :— 
Ptkolyia  di  Kant  (Rome,  1877):— /.a  Seligume  deW 
Avvenire  (Milan,  1879):  —  Crttica  dtUa  Rw^asione 
(ibid.  1880)  i^Qftutiom  SoeiaU  (Rome,  1882).  Mami- 
ani died  May  20, 1885.     (a  P.) 

Man,  ALsxAifDBR,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of 
the  see  of  Caithness  in  1389,  and  was  witness  to  a  char- 
ter of  the  earl  of  SutherUnd  in  1400.  He  died  in  1409. 
See  Keith,  ScoUith  Biakops,  p.  218. 

Man  of  Sin.    See  Sin,  Ma5  of. 

Manabosho,  a  deity  worshipped  by  the  Chippewa 
Indians,  concerning  whom  legendary  stories  are  told 
which  closely  resemble  those  related  of  Litaolan^  (q.  v.). 

Manwh,  the  tutelary  god  of  the  Hodhail  snd  other 
tribes  of  ancient  Arabia,  occupying  the  country  between 
Mecca  and  Medina.  The  idol  was  a  large  stone,  the 
worship  of  which  consisted  of  the  slaughter  of  camels 
and  other  animals.  Though  the  idol  was  destroyed  by 
order  of  Mohammed,  the  rite  is  still  continued. 

Manohoo  (also  Mantohoo,  Mandahou)  Ver- 
sion or  THK  ScBiPTVicBS.  The  Manchoo  belongs 
to  Manchooria,  an  extreme  region  lying  north  of  Corea 
and  north-east  of  China  proper.  It  is  also  the  court 
language  of  Pekin.  An  imperfect  and  very  unfaith- 
ful translation  of  part  of  the  Scriptures  into  Manchoo 
is  said  to  have  been  executed  by  some  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries; and  in  1818  an  abortive  attempt  towards 
the  production  of  a  version  was  made  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  governor  of  Irkutsk.  The  prosecution  of 
this  important  work  ultimately  devolved  upon  Lipoff- 
zoff,  a  learned  member  of  the  Russian  Bible  Soci- 
ety, who  had  resided  fourteen  years  at  Pekin,  by  ap- 
pointment of  the  Russian  government,  with  the  view 
of  studying  the  Chinese  and  Manchoo.  The  transla- 
tion was  carried  on  under  the  superintendence  of  Dr. 
Pinkerton,  and  in  1822  an  edition  of  the  gospel  of  Mat- 
thew was  printed  at  St.  Petersburg,  at  the  expense  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  awful  flood 
which  occurred  in  that  city  in  1824  destroyed  the 
greater  part  of  this  edition.  The  entire  New  Test,  was 
pnblisfaed  by  the  same  society  in  1885,  the  translation 
of  Mr.  LipofTzoff  having  been  revised  by  Mr.  George 
Borrow,  of  Norwich.  'Diis  edition,  which  is  beautiful- 
ly printed,  was  forwarded  to  London,  and  there  it  prob- 
ably still  remains,  under  the  custody  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  until  a  proper  time  comes  for 


the  distribution  and  circulation  of  the  copies.  See  BiUe 
of  Every  Land^  p.  884.  The  language  has  been  treated 
by  Gabelentx,  EUmenU  de  la  Grammaire  Mandckoue 
(1888);  Adam,  Grammaire  de  ia  LanjpiB  Mandehotm 
(Paris,  1878) ;  Harlez,  Manuel  de  la  Langue  Handehoue 
(ibid.  1884) ;  KUpioth,  ChreaUmaJtkie  Mandehoue  (ibid. 
1828).    (RP.) 

Manoo  Capao,  the  founder  of  the  ancient  Peru- 
vian empire,  was  deified  after  his  death,  and  altars  were 
erected  for  his  wiurship.  Both  he  and  his  wife  were  re- 
garded as  children  of  the  sun,  who  had  been  sent  from 
heaven  to  earth,  that  they  might  found  a  kingdom. 

Mandar,  in  Hindd  mythology,  is  the  great  moun- 
tain which  the  gods  carried  into  the  milky  sea,  wound 
the  snake  Adisseschen  about  it,  and  by  churning  it  pro- 
duced the  food  of  the  gods,  Amrita. 

Mandingo  Version  or  thk  Scbiftures.  The 
Mandingo  is  the  most  important  language  of  modem 
NegroUnd,  and  predominates  in  many  powerful  states 
on  both  sides  of  the  Gambia.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Macbrair, 
a  Wesleyan  missionar)%  was  the  first  to  undertake  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  in  this  widely  extended 
language.  The  gospel  according  to  Matthew  was  print- 
ed in  London  under  his  superintendence,  in  1888,  by 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  translation 
of  the  other  three  gospels  is  still  in  manuscript.  See 
BibU  of  Every  Land,  p.  406.    (a  P.) 

Mands  is  a  term  by  which  the  ancient  Romans 
used  to  designate  the  souls  of  the  departed.  Sacrifices 
were  offered  in  their  honor,  and  a  festival  called  Fera- 
lia  (q.  v.),  dedicated  specially  to  the  Manes,  was  cele- 
brated  annually  on  Feb.  19. 

Manger,  Sakusl  Hkinrich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  who  died  at  Franeker  in  1788,  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  De  S^hra 
Deque  Nomme  *^*«3T  (Utrecht,  1751)  i—Commentariut 
in  Librum  Prophetm  Ilosea  (Franeker,  1785).  See 
Winer,  flandbuch  der  theoL  Lit  i,  225 ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud, 
ii,  820.     (a  P.) 

Man-ho-pa,  the  Great  Spirit,  worshipped  by  the 
North  American  Indians,  whom  they  propitiate  by  pres- 
ents, and  by  fastings  and  lamentations  during  the  space 
of  from  three  to  five  days.  Their  traditions  state  that 
the  great  waters  divide  the  home  of  the  Great  Spirit 
from  the  abode  of  the  red  man;  but  there  is  a  very 
general  belief  among  them  that  he  resides  in  the  ex- 
treme west. 

Maniple  (Lat  mampu/um).  Doubtless  this  was 
nothing  more  than  a  strip  of  the  finest  linen,  attached 
to  the  left  arm  of  the  priest  by  a  loop,  with  which  to 
wipe  the  chaKce  previous  to  the  first  ob- 
lation, that  is,  at  the  offertory.  Soon, 
however,  it  began  to  be  enriched  with 
embroidery,  like  the  stole,  and  finally 
became  merely  an  ornament  worn  by 
the  priest  and  his  assistants,  just  above 
the  left  wrist,  at  the  celebration  of  the 
eucharist.    It  is  now  of  the  same  width 

and  color  as  the  stole  and  the  vestment  

or  chasuble,  fringed  at  the  ends,  and  Audent  Hani- 
generally  about  a  yard  and  a  quarter  in  ple  of  the  ISth 
length.  It  has  been  kept  op  in  the  <*nt  (French). 
English  Church  ever  since  the  alterations  in  the  16th 
century,  ordinarily  in  the  shape  of  a  napkin  folded  like 
a  band,  for  use  at  the  eucharist;  and  at  St.George*s 
Chapel,  Windsor,  at  Durham  and  Westminster,  some  of 
the  ancient  maniples  can  still  be  seen  which  have  been 
occasionally  worn. 

Manks  (or  Manx)  Version  of  the  Scripturbs. 
This  language  is  spoken  to  some  extent  on  the  Isle  of 
Man,  the  ancient  Mona.  It  is  characterized  by  the  in- 
corporation of  many  Scandinavian  words,  which  were 
doubtless  introduced  during  the  continued  sway  of  the 
Danes  and  of  the  Norwegians,  who  succeeded  the  Sax- 
ons in  the  government  of  the  island.    The  present  ver< 


MAKN 


694 


MAims 


■ion  of  the  Manks  Bible  was  commenced  in  the  jail  of 
Castle  Rushen  by  the  excellent  bishop  Wilson,  in  con* 
cert  with  Dr.  Walker,  one  of  his  vicars,  in  1722.  The 
gospel  of  Matthew  was  translated  by  Dr.  Walker,  and 
printed,  nnder  the  direction  and  at  the  expense  of  the 
bishop,  in  London,  in  1748.  The  other  gospels  and  the 
Acts  were  left  in  a  state  of  readiness  for  the  press  by 
this  venerable  bishop,  who  died  in  1755.  His  successor, 
Dr.  Mark  Hildesley,  entered  with  the  utmost  ardor  and 
anxiety  on  the  prosecution  of  the  translation  of  the  New 
Test,  which  was  finally  published  in  London  in  1767,  by 
aid  of  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge. 
About  the  time  of  the  completion  at  press  of  the  New 
Test,,  the  bishop  made  arrangements  for  the  translation 
of  the  Old  Test.,  dividing  it  for  this  purpose  among 
twenty-four  different  individuals.  When  the  work  was 
completed  it  was  committed  for  final  revision  to  Dr. 
Moore  and  Dr.  Kelly.  The  latter  was  then  only  eigh- 
teen years  of  age,  but  very  proficient  in  the  knowledge 
of  Manks,  which  was  his  native  language.  Dr.  Kelly 
transcribed  the  whole  version,  from  (genesis  to  Revela- 
tion, for  the  press,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Moore, 
corrected  and  revised  the  proof-sheets.  In  1772  the  Old 
Test,  was  completed  and  published,  and  in  1776  the  So- 
ciety for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  published  the 
second  edition  of  the  Manks  Scriptures;  other  editions 
have  since  been  issued  by  the  same  society.  In  1810 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  published  a  stere- 
otyped edition  of  two  thousand  copies  of  the  New  Test., 
and  in  1819  the  entire  Bible  was  published  by  the  same 
society.  Since  then  no  further  editions  of  the  Manks 
Scriptures  have  appeared,  as  the  Bible  in  English  is 
now  in  general  circulation  on  the  island.  See  Bible  of 
Every  Cani,  p.  166.    (a  P.) 

^>^flniij  Carl,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  Sept.  22,  1806,  at  Konigsbacb,  Baden.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen ;  was  in  1838  preacher  at  Wilhelms- 
dorf,  WUrtemberg;  in  1842  at  Hochstetten,  Baden;  in 
1852  at  Wossingen,  near  Durlach,  and  died  at  Eppingen, 
Dec.  1, 1861.  He  published,  Wie  und  wodurdi  it  Afar" 
tin  Luiker  der  gi-osse  Bibel  -  Uebertetzer  geworden  f 
(Stuttgart,  1885) : — Jubel-BuchUin  der  evangelithen  Re^ 
formatum  in  WUrtemberg  (ibid.  1836) : — Die  augsbur^ 
gische  Confeuion  erhldrt  (Carlsruhe,  1842): — Evange' 
litcher  Coiifirmaiiotu-Unterricht  (1850):  — (Fa«  thut 
utuerer  Kirche  nothf  (1843)  :^Die  Bibel  ale  dot  Wort 
des  lebendigen  Goties  an  die  MemckkeU  (1855).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  LU,  i,  788 ;  ii,  808 ;  Zuchold, 
BibL  Theol  ii,  851 ;  Koch,  Gescb.  det  deuiecken  Kircken- 
liedes,  vii,  802  sq.     (B.  P.) 

^^^P^T'^ffll".  in  Norse  mythology,  was  one  of  the 
nine  worlds  of  Northern  fable,  the  middle  designed  as 
the  habitation  of  men. 

Manning;  Jaoob  Merrill,  D.D.,  a  CV>ngrega- 
tional  minister,  was  born  at  Greenwood,  N.  T.,  Dec  81, 
1824,  He  studied  at  Prattoburg,  in  1850  graduated 
from  Amherst  College,  and  in  1853  ifrom  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Mystic 
Church,  Medford,  Mass.,  Jan.  5, 1854,  and  dismissed  Feb. 
17, 1857«  The  latter  year  he  was  installed  as  associate 
pastor  of  Ofd  South  Church,  Boston,  and  so  remained 
until  1872,  when  he  became  the  sole  pastor.  He  be- 
came pastor  emeritus,  March  15, 1882,  and  died  Nov. 
29  of  the  same  year.  Among  his  published  addresses 
and  sermons  are  the  following:  The  Death  o/ Abraham 
Lincoln  (1865)  :-.P<czce  under  Liberty  (eod,)  i-^Half 
Truths  and  The  Truth  (1873):— ZTeZ/v  to  a  Life  of 
Prayer  (1875),  etc    See  Cong,  Year-book^  1883,  p.  26. 

Manning,  John  H.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed (Dutch)  Church,  graduated  from  Rutgers  Col- 
lege in  1844,  and  New  Brunswick  Seminary  in  1847 ; 
was  licensed  by  the  Classis  of  New  Brunswick  the  same 
year ;  was  pastor  at  Spotswood  from  1847  to  1854 ;  South 
Brooklyn  from  1854  to  1878,  and  thereafter  remained 
without  a  charge  until  his  death,  Oct,  25, 1878.  See  Cor- 
win,  3fanual  of  the  Ref  Church  w  A  mericOf  8d  ed.  p.  866. 


Manning,  fikunnel,  LL^D.,  an  English  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Leicester,  Nov.  26, 1821.  He  was 
educated  at  Bristol  College,  and  spent  a  few  terms  of 
study  in  the  Glasgow  University.  In  1846  he  accepted 
the  pastorate  of  the  Church  at  Sheppard's  Butout 
Frome,  where  he  remained  fifteen  years.  His  labors 
were  eminently  successful,  and  his  influence  was  widely 
felL  He  contributed  to  the  Edectic  Review,  the  CAtm- 
tian  Spectator,  and  other  periodicals;  and  in  1857  took 
the  entire  editorial  management  of  the  Baptiet  Maga* 
tine.  In  1861  he  became  book  editor  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society,  an  office  which  he  was  in  a  high  degree 
qualified  to  adorn.  His  talents  for  the  next  fifteen 
years  were  devoted  to  the  elevation  of  literature  to  the 
Christian  standard.  In  1876  he  became  secretary  of 
the  same  society,  and  remained  an  efiUcient  officer  until 
the  close  of  his  life,  Sept.  13, 1881.  Among  his  publi- 
cations are  several  illustrated  volumes,  vix. :  Itcdian  Pict' 
ures: — Smu  Pictures: — Spanish  Pictures: — Ameri^ 
can  Pictures:— Those  Jlofy  Fields :-^nd  The  Land  of 
the  Pharaohs.  See  (Lond.)  Bc^tist  Handbook,  1882, 
p,807. 

Manser,  Gborok  K,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Aug.  8, 1803. 
He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1827 ;  studied 
law ;  for  several  years  was  secretary  of  civil  and  mili- 
tary affairs,  but  afterwards  entered  the  ministry ;  and 
for  about  nine  years  was  rector  of  the  parish  in  Mont- 
pelier,  Yt,  which  he  himself  had  organized.  In  1850 
he  took  charge  of  St.  Peter*s  Church  in  Bennington, 
where  he  remained  until  death,  Nov.  17,  1862.  See 
Amer,  Quar,  Chur<^  Rev.  April,  1863,  p.  151. 

Mansfield,  Richard,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
in  1724.  In  1741  he  graduated  from  Yale  College,  and 
devoted  two  years  to  study  as  a  resident-graduate.  For 
three  years,  from  1744,  he  was  principal  of  a  grammar- 
school  in  New  Haven.  In  1748  he  was  ordained  in 
London  by  the  archbishop  of  (Canterbury,  and  received 
an  appointment  from  the  Society  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts.  Returning  to  America  in 
1749,  he  began  his  missionary  work  in  Derby,  (Conn., 
in  connection  with  West  Haven,  Watcrbury,  and  North- 
bury,  a  position  which  he  retained  until  his  death,  in 
April,  1820.  In  1775  he  was  compelled  to  flee  for  a 
time  from  his  churches  and  family  to  the  town  of  Hemp* 
stead,  because  of  his  adherence  to  the  English  crown. 
See  Sprague,  i4niia/!»  o/the  Amer,  Pulpit,  v,  131. 

Mantohoo  Version.    See  Manchoo. 

Mantelldtom  is  a  large  cape  of  silk  reaching  from 
the  neck  to  below  the  waist, 
with  open  spaces  for  the 
arms  on  each  side.  It  u 
commonly  worn  over  the 
rochet,  and  is  no  doubt  the 
foreign  equivalent  to  the 
English  chimere.  Ancient- 
ly it  was  of  scarlet  satin  in 
England.  Foreign  bishops 
commonly  wear  a  mant^e^ 
turn  of  purple  silk,  lined  with 
silk  of  the  same  color,  only 
lighter  in  shade.  Abroad, 
in  some  places,  monsignori, 
canons,  vicars-general,  apos- 
tolical prothonotaries,  and 
doctors  in  canon  law  wear 
the  mantelletum ;  .in  which 
case  it  is  usually  of  black, 
though  sometimes  of  scarlet 
or  brown  silk.  The  mantelleUim  is  by  some  affirmed  to 
be  the  same  as  the  mozelte, 

'NTanfin  The  Pratino,  an  insea  said  to  have  been 
worshipped  formerly  by  the  Hottentots.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  erect  position  and  motion  it  assumes 
when  alarmed.    It  was  regarded  by  the  Hottentots  as 


Mantelletum  of  Violet 
Silk  (French). 


MANTRA 


695 


MANUSCRIPTS 


ft  Cfeatura  of  bad  omen,  and  to  kill,  or  eren  to  inJoM  it, 
waa  looked  upon  aa  in  the  highest  degree  unlncky. 

Mantra,  a  secret,  the  communication  of  which  forms 
the  chief  ceremony  of  initiation  in  all  Hindft  sects.  It 
generally  consists  of  the  name  of  some  deity,  or  a  short 
address  to  him ;  it  is  conveyed  by  the  teacher  to  the 
disciple  in  a  whisper,  and  when  once  known,  is  carefully 
concealed  from  aU  the  uninitiated.  The  word  mantra 
is  also  employed  generally  to  denote  a  spell  or  enchant- 
ment, and  also  a  hymn  or  a  prayer. 

Mamiscripts,  Hbbhbw.  That  Hebrew  MSS.  ex- 
isted at  a  very  early  time  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing passage  in  the Mishna  (Sapherim,yit  4) :  **R.  Simon 
ben-Lakuh  says,  three  codices  (of  the  Pentateuch)  were 
found  in  the  court  of  the  temple,  one  of  which  had  the 
lewling  I'lr^a,  the  other  "^a^a^T,  and  the  third  differed 
in  the  number  of  passages  wherein  X^n  is  read  with  a 
jfod  Thus  in  the  one  codex  it  was  written  'f\TTQfdw€U- 
inff  (Deut.  xxxiii,  27),  while  the  other  two  codices  had 
njija ;  the  reading  of  the  two  was  therefore  declared 
valid,  whereas  that  of  the  one  was  invalid.  In  the  sec- 
ond codex,  *^S3^r9^t  was  found  (Exod.  xxiv,  11),  while 
the  other  two  codices  had  "^^'STM;  the  reading  in 
which  the  two  codices  agreed  was  declared  valid,  and 
that  of  the  one  invalid.  In  the  third  codex  there  were 
only  nine  passages  which  had  M**n  written  with  a  yod 
(as  it  is  generally  written  Kin  with  a  vav),  whereas  the 
other  two  had  eleven  passages;  the  readings  of  the  two 
were  declared  valid,  and  those  of  the  one  invalid."  The 
minute  prescriptions  contained  in  the  Talmud  concern- 
ing the  material,  color,  letters,  writing  instruments,  etc, 
ibr  the  manuscripts,  only  prove  the  fact  that  such  man- 
uscripts existed,  otherwise  St.  Jerome  could  not  have 
written  ''Veterum  libroruro  fides  de  Hebraicis  volumini- 
bus  examinanda  est"  {Epiat.  ad  Lucinium),  The  great- 
est care  was  exhibited  in  writing  of  MSS.,  and  three 
mistakes  were  sufficient  to  make  a  copy  worthless  (Ife- 
ROcAoM,  foL  29,  col.  2). 

When  the  study  of  the  Talmud  was  no  longer  attrac- 
tive amid  the  disorder  and  frequent  closing  of  the 
Babylonian  academies,  and  ulterior  development  of  the 
traditions  became  exhausted,  attention  was  more  direct- 
ed to  Scripture.  The  number  of  MSS.  increased,  "and 
to  them  the  various  systems  of  vowel-points  and  ac- 
cents, together  with  the  first  elements  of  grammar,  were 
appended.  But  not  all  of  these  MSS.  are  now  extant, 
some  are  only  known  from  the  quotations  made  from 
them  by  different  writers.  In  treating,  therefore,  of  the 
different  MSS.,  we  shall  have  to  speak  of  two  kinds — 
of  such  as  are  lost,  and  of  such  as  are  extant. 

A.  Lost  MAMOSOBirra. 

1.  The  Codex  HUM  (q.  v.). 

9.  The  Codtx  SarUntki  (q.  v.). 

8.  The  Jericho  Fentateuch.  Concerning  this  VCin 
^rV^'V^  Ellas  LeTlU  writes  thus:  "Tbe  Peotatench  of 
Jericho  is  donbtless  a  correct  codex  of  the  Pentatench 
derived  from  Jericho.  It  discusses  the  plene  and  d^eetioeM 
as  ninTinilf  *the  abominations*  (Lev.  xvUI,  27),  which 
is  In  thTs  Pentateuch  withont  the  second  vav.  So  also 
1^*1^*1,  which  occurs  twice  in  the  same  cbspter  (Numb. 
xTii/lS,  n),  of  which  the  first  is  pfene  (written  In  the 
Jericho  codex),  and  the  second  de/eelive.** 

4.  The  Codex  Sinai  (q.  v.)> 

&  The  Codex  Ben^NaphtaH.  Moses  ben-David  Naph- 
tall,  a  contemporary  of  lien-Asber,  fionrfshed  about  A.D. 
900-MO.  Be  dlstingnlshed  hlmfelf  by  his  edition  of  a 
revised  teit  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  in  opposition  to 
Ben-Asher,  In  which  he  had  no  ereat  success,  inasmuch 
as  the  different  readings  he  collated  and  proposed  are 
very  insignificant,  and  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
vowel-|)oints  and  accents.  The  codex  itself  Is  lost,  but 
many  of  its  readings  are  preserred,  e.  g.  by  Klmchi  in  his 
Chranvmar  and  Lexteen^  while  a  complete  list  of  these  dif- 
ferent readinga  la  appended  to  Bomoerg's  and  Buxtorfs 
Rabbinic,  ana  to  Walton's  Polyglot  Bible  FUrst,  In  his 
Coneordanee,  p.  187,  sec.  48,  has  also  given  the  variations 
between  these  two  schohirs. 


The  roost  important  difference  between  Ben-Naphtall  and 
Ben-Asher  is  the  reading  of  H*^  rsnbiS,  Song  of  Songs, 
viii,  e,  as  two  words,  while  Ben-Asher  reads  it  as  one 
word,  n*^ranbv,  both  readings  having  the  same  mean- 
ing. In  a  very  convenient  form  these  variations  are  giv- 
en by  Bilr  and  Belitxoch  in  their  edition  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  Old  Test,  on  OeneeU^  d.  81,  Job,  p.  M,  Pealme^ 
p.  188,  Proverbe,  p.  Mjleaiah,  p.  90,  Mliiwr  FrophtU,  p.  90, 
Etra,  Xehemiah,  and  Daniel,  p.  91, 196,  Btekiel,  p.  112. 

Our  printed  editions  have  for  the  most  part  the  read- 
ing of  Ben-Asher ;  very  seldom,  however,  that  of  Ben- 
Naphtall  is  found,  with  the  exceptiiin  of  such  codices  as 
have  the  Babylonian  system  of  punctuation,  and  which 
always  follow  Ben-NsphtalL  The  editions  in  which  the 
reading  tV^  ranbtt?  (1.  e.  Ben-Naphtalfs)  is  found  are: 

Bomberg's  Rabbinic  (1617)  and  his  quarto  edition  (1618), 
Stephen^s  (1643),  MUuster's  (1646),  Butter  (1687),  Antwerp 
Polyglot  (1671),  Bragadln's  Hebrew  Bible  (1614),  Slmonrs 
(1767-18S8),  Jahn's  (1800),  Bagster's  0839),  Basle  ediUon 
(1887),  Uahn-RosenmUller's  (1868). 

B.  ExTAMT  MAHVSoairrs. 

L  In  order  to  have  a  correct  opinion  of  the  codices  ex- 
tant, the  following  points  must  be  observed : 

1.  Whether  the  Ms,  uaa  written  for  mtblie  or  private  ute» 
Those  written  for  public  nse,  common ly  called  "  synagogne 
rolls"  or  "sacred  copies,**  were  prepared  with  that  care  and 
minuteness  of  which  prescripiinns  are  given  in  theTalmnd, 
while  the  others  were  less  carefully  made.  They  are  writ- 
ten sometimes  in  the  equare,  at  others  in  the  rabbinieal 
character.  Their  site  Is  entirely  arbitrary.  They  are  in  to- 
lio,  quarto,  octavo,  and  duodecimo.  Of  those  written  iu  the 
eqtiart  eharttcter,  the  greater  number  are  on  parchment, 
some  on  paper.  As  to  the  square  character  emploved  In 
the  MSS.,  It  has  varieties.  The  Jews  themselves  distin- 
guish in  the  synagogue  roll  (1)  the  Tom  letter,  with  sharp 
comers  and  perpendicular  coronnlae,  used  among  the 
Oerman  and  Polish  Jews:  (2)  the  Velehe  letter,  more  mod- 
em than  the  Tom,  and  rounder,  with  comnnlse,  particular* 
Iv  found  in  the  sacred  copiea  of  the  Spanish  and  Oriental 
Jews. 

i.  Whether  the  eopyieU  in  writing  and  correcting  the  MS,, 
had  regard  to  aonu  vereion  or  noL  That  snch  was  some- 
times the  case  may  be  seen  from  a  MS.  containing  the 
Psalms,  and  belonging  to  the  15th  century,  known  as 
Scallger  8  (because  ScaMger  once  had  It),  and  preserved  at 
the  Academy  of  Leyden  (oomp.  Heidenbelm,  iu  bis  Deuteehe 
VierUljahreeehrifi  11, 466-468). 

8.  What  He  date  ie.  The  Jews  employed  different  dates 
in  their  MSS.  Some  nsed  the  " Seleucidlc **  or  ** Greek** 
sera  (D'^a^^H  "paori),  called  also  u£^a  Contraetuutn 

(ni"i:9D  'p3Q),  which  wss  employed  until  the  llth  cen- 
tury, and  ceased  entirely  In  the  year  A.D.  1611.  Another 
computation  was  the  reckoning  from  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  (A.M.  8888,  A.D.  68).    A  third  computation  was 

the  ssra  of  the  creation  (0^19  rK'^nsb,  nx*^"12b),  and 
waa  introduced  by  Enropesn  transcribers.  When  it  he- 
came  more  general,  after  the  year  of  the  world  4000,  the 
4000  years  were  gradually  omitted.  This  system  of  men- 
tioning only  the  hundreds  sud  lower  numben  was  called 
*'  the  small  Kra"  (pp  Onfib,  abbreviated  p  fib),  In  con- 

tradlsllnctloo  from  the  fhll  numbering  (bl*ia  Zd'^B). 

In  order  to  find  out  to  which  year  A.D.  one  of  the  years 
of  the  Seleucidlc  or  Greek  «ra,  or  of  the  Jewish  computa- 
tion, either  from  the  creation  or  from  the  destruction,  cor- 
responds, it  must  he  home  in  mind  that  the  Jewish  civil 
calendar  commences  with  the  month  ofTishri,  ^^V^H,  cor- 
responding to  our  September  or  October,  and  the  Seleu- 
cidlc sera  with  the  first  of  October,  819  B.O.  Thus,  e.  g. 
the  year  988  of  the  Seleucidlc  sra  would  be  the  year  8(i-tt 
B.C.,  I.  e.  819—983=90,  allowing,  however,  some  months 
because  of  the  difference  In  the  calendar  80-SO. 

In  Jewish  MSS.  we  frequently  find  the  small  sera,  or 

"pp  Idl&b.  Thus  cod.  9  of  Kennicott  has  an  epigraph 
which  states  that  it  was  written  in  the  year  64,  thst  is  6064. 
By  adding  to  this  number  the  number  940  (1.  e.  the  differ- 
ence between  the  Jewish  and  Christian  computation),  we 
get  6304 :  deducting  from  this  4000  (i.e.  the  time  from  the 
creation  to  the  birth  of  Christ),  we  get  the  year  A.  D.  1804 ; 
or  the  same  date  may  be  had  by  adding  to  the  year  64  the 
number  940=804.  combined  with  the  fifth  thonsand=1804. 
The  date  according  to  the  »ra  of  the  destruction  of  Jem- 
salem  la  found  by  adding  63  to  the  given  date :  thns  the 
year  900  after  the  destruction  would  be  900-f-68=:968,  or 
A.D.  1886  would  be  the  year  1817  after  the  destruction 
(i.  e.  1886—68=1817). 

4.  Where  the  codieee  were  written,  u  there  Is  a  difference 
between  the  Spanish  and  the  German,  the  Eastern  sud 
Western  codices. 

(a)  Aeto  the  Spanieh  and  Oerman  eodiete,  there  Is  a  great 
diversity  of  opinion.    Kennicott  and  Be'  Roaal  speak  of 


MANUSCRIPTS 


696 


MANUSCRIPTS 


the  German  yenr  bis:bl7,  while  Jewish  authorities  prefBr 
1  he  Spanish  codices.  Thns  Ellas  Levlta  tells  ns,  ** Most  of 
the  correct  codices  I  foand  to  be  Spanish,  and  it  Is  upon 
these  that  I  relied,  and  it  is  their  method  which  I  followed. 
. . .  The  Spanish  codices  are  more  correct  than  all  other 
exemplars." 

{b)A9to  the  SoiUm  and  Wutem  eodieetu  At  the  beffln- 
Blng  of  the  Christian  era  there  were  two  rlTal  academies, 
one  in  Palestine  and  the  other  in  Babylonia.  Both  had 
their  Talmnd  (q.  v.),  respectively  known  as  the  Palestinian 
and  Bab}ionian  Talmnd,  bnt  also  their  codices,  in  which 
thev  diflfered  from  each  other.  And  thns  we  find  in  Rab- 
binical AS  well  as  in  Biblical  codices  marslnnl  notes,  giving 
the  passsges  where  the  Eastern  and  Western  differ  ft-om 
each  other.  Thus,  e.  g.  cod.  Kennic  616  (Florent.  18,  Laar. 
ill,  8,  scr.  an.  1S91),  "The  Westerns  or  Palestinians  read 

|-|*i'nD9,  the  Easterns  or  Babylonians  n'*')*^09.*'  These 
Tarlatlons  were  first  collected  by  Jacob  ben-Chayim  tn 
the  Rabbinic  Bible  (Venice,  16S6),  under  the  title,  qibn 

baa  "^sa  pi   bxno'»  ■j^nx'^aa  I'^aw   K*ipon. 

Chaylm  does  not  give  the  sonrce  from  which  he  took 
these  variations,  bntM orlnns  {SxereitL  Biblie.  p. 400.  Paris, 
ICflO  fol.)  testifies  that  he  saw  a  list  of  these  variations  in 
someMSa 

As  to  the  Eastern  and  Western  readings,  which  were 
pnbllshed  by  Chsylm,  we  must  observe  (1)  that  twne  auur 
in  the  PenUUeuA ;  (8)  that  thtm  reading9  only  rtfw  to  Is(- 
tert  and  toords  (with  two  exceptions,  vis.  Jer.  vl,  0,  where 
the  Eastern  write  p*^fi73  ns?,  i.  e.  nS9  with  a  mappik, 

and  Amos  ill,  A,  where  they  note  p*^l)73  rTID9,  i.  e.  ni99 
with  a  mappik);  (8)  eAsjr ssMom  ehangt  ths  smss,  as  for  the 
most  part  they^  concern  the  omission  or  addition,  or  per- 
mutation or  transposition,  of  quiescent  letters  (I«amen.  v, 
81,  nin*i  is  read  by  the  Occidentals,  while  the  Orientals 

have  ^y^^)  I  (4)  there  are  two  hundred  and  eixfeen  varioue 
readinge  in  Cha^im'eBiMe  (and  In  all  Rabbinic  Bibles  which 
followed  that  of  Chaylm),  vis.  Joshua,  11:  Jndges,  8;  Bam. 
10 ;  Kings,  81 ;  Isa.  18 ;  Jer.  84 ;  Esek.  88;  Minor  Prophets, 
18 ;  Chron.  11 ;  Psa.  8 ;  Job,  18 ;  Prov.  8 ;  Rnth,  T ;  Song  of 
Songs,  8:  Eccles,  8;  Lamen.  8;  Esth.4;  Dan.  8;  Bxra,7. 
(6)  The  European  or  Western  Jews  follow  the  reading  of 
the  Western  pKan^S),  and  thus  it  happens  that  in  the 
one  or  the  other  codex  we  find  another  reading  from 
that  of  the  Eastern  codices.  Thus,  in  8  Kings  zvili,  89, 
Norxi  (q.T.)  remarks  on  the  reading  in-t^o  DSrX  h^:trb, 
that  those  codices  which  read  *^*I*^)3  follow  the  Babylonian 
(baa  *^aaa),  but  the  Palestinian  codices,  which  we  fol- 
low, give  in  the  list  uf  variations  1'T'^Q. 

EL  After  these  preliminaries,  wo  will  speak  of  the  ex- 
tant codices. 

1.  The  Codox  (^f  Aeher.    See  Aeher  MantueripL 

8.  The  Codex  cf  Cahira,  This  codes  contains  the  proph- 
ets, and  is  preserved  at  Cahira,  in  the  synagogue  of  the 
Karaites.  It  was  written  in  the  year  887  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple,  or  in  the  year  4CB0  of  the  ereatlon«3 
A.D.  896. 

8.  Codex  Kmnic.  188.  This  codex  contains  the  loter 
prophets,  and  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum  (Sloane, 
4T06).    See  Sloane  Codex, 

4.  The  Codieee  q/Damosetis  and  Ouber,  The  former  codex 
the  Iste  Dr.Moses  Margollonth  saw  at  Damascns,be)onging 
to  the  family  Farrbi.  It  Is  resarded  as  vwr  sacred,  and 
the  Jews  themselves  are  only  allowed  to  look  at  it  onco  a 

year,  that  is  on  the  feast  of  Tllin  msa,  i.  e.  "  the  Joy 

of  the  Law,**  which  takes  place  at  the  termination  of  the 
Feast  of  Tabemsclea.  Dr.  Margolionih,  who  saw  it,  says 
that  this  codex  *'  deserves  the  palm  for  beauty  and  execu- 
tion.'* According  to  a  notice  added  later  on  the  title-page, 
it  should  belong  to  the  8d  century.  Another  codex,  Dr. 
Margollonth  states,  is  at  Guber  or  Juber,  near  Damascus. 
"There  is  a  synagogue  at  that  small  place  which  is  con- 
sidered  the  most  ancient  in  the  world ;  and,  moreover, 
Hebrew  writers  affirm  that  it  Is  built  over  the  cave  of 
BlUab.  The  MS.  there  is  by  no  means  so  fine  a  master- 
piece as  the  Damascus  one,  but  is  certainly  much  older. 
A  most  awful  anathema  Is  written  on  the  cover,  against 
any  one  selling  or  stealing  it'*  (Fiigrimaffe  to  the  Land  of 
my  Fathere,  i,  267). 

6.  Codieee  Kennieottiani.  Of  these  we  ennmerato  the 
following: 

(1)  Cod.  68a-contalning  the  Prophets  and  Haglographa, 
written  about  1018  or  1010,  now  in  the  Imperial  Librsry  at 
Vienna. 

(8)  Cod.  686— containing  the  Pentateuch,  HaphUroth, 
and  MeglUoth  [I.e.  Song  of  Songs,  Ruth.  Lamentations, 
Bccleslastes,  and  Estherr(CsesensB  BIbL  MalatesL  Patram 
D.  Franc  Conyent.  pint,  xxix,  cod.  8),  of  the  end  of  the 
11th  century.    It  commences  with  Gen.  II,  18. 

(8)  Cod.168— Joshua.  Judges,  Samuel  (FlorentlsBBIblioth. 
Laurent  pint.  1,  pars  il,  cod.  46),  of  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century. 


(4)  Cod.  184— Prophets,  with  both  Targnms  (Cartemb^ 
BIblloth.  publ.),  A.D.  1106.  This  is  the  famous  CodeA 
Reuchllnisnns,  which  hnn  the  epigraph :  *'  In  the  year  4866 
A.M.  and  1088  since  the  destrnction  of  the  temple.**  The 
Targum,  according  to  this  codex,  has  been  published  by 
Lagarde,  Leipsic,  1872. 

Besides  these  we  may  mention : 

(6)  Cod.  198~PeotAteuch,  without  poInU  OCediolani  BlU. 
Ambros.  G.  2),  A.D.  1287,  or  somewhat  earlier.  Of  various 
readings,  the  following  are  marked  by  De'  Roed: 

Exod.  xli,  81,  nr*lB  KHp*^!,  so  also  Sept,  Ynlg.,  Syr. 
Lev.  xil,  7,  pan  rr'by,  Sam.,  Sept.,  Syr. 

XXV,  86,  yn^K  *^m,  Sam.,  Sept. 

(6)  Cod.  201— Prophets  and  Hogiographa,  of  the  ISth 
century  (Norlmb.  Biulioth.  Ebner).  Jeremiah  follows  the 
book  of  Samuel,  and  1  Kings,  Bseklel,  and  Isaiah  follows 
Jeremiah. 

(7)  Cod.  810— Bible  of  the  18th  century  (Parlsils  BIblloth. 
Reg.  10). 

(8)  Cod.  884— Prophets  and  Haglographa,  of  the  19th 
century  (Recloroonti  Biblloth.  Reg.). 

(9)  Coo.  866— Prophets,  In  large  4to,  of  the  18th  centurr 

g^^arisiis  San-German.  8).    Jer.  xxix,  19  to  xxxvlii,  8  and 
osea  iv,  4  to  Amos  tI,  12  is  wanting. 

(10)  Cod.  898— Pentateuch,  with  the  MegiDoth  and  Ma- 
sorab  in  foL ,  A.  D.  1 144  (Toleii  ap.  Bayerum).   The  epigraph 

rends,  ** Written  hyb,  L  e.  4904  A.M.**  DeuL  Til,  18, 7aisa 

nm*^  for  2PaC9,  confirming  the  reading  of  the  Sam.  and 

Sept 

(11)  Cod.  531— Prophets  and  Haglographa.  with  the  Ma- 
sornh  and  Targum,  fol.,  2  vols.,  A.D.  1198  (Bononlc.  BIb- 
lloth. a  Salvatoris  Canon.  Reg.  646, 647).  The  epigraph 
bears  the  date  063  (+240) =1198. 

(19)  Cod.  826— Hsgiogrspha,  Joshua,  Judges,  SamneL 
4to,  A.D.  1198  (ParlsTis  Bibl  RegUn.  4S). 

6.  De*  BoetCe  Codieee,  Of  these  we  particularise  the  f<^ 
lowing: 

(1)  God.  684— fragments  of  Leviticus  and  Numbers,  4ito, 
8th  century,  containing  Lev.  xxi,  89  to  Mumb.  1, 60i  Lev. 
xzli,4»  V*^it1  a,  so  Sept 

(2)  Cod.  603— Penuteucb,  in  4to,  9th  or  10th  century, 
commencing  with  Gen.  xlil,  14  to  Deut  xv,  18. 

Exod.  xxi,  80,  Dai29a  is  omitted,  as  in  Sam. 

xxii,  9,  ht^nah  balX,  Sam.,  Sept,  Byr.f  AisU 

xxiii,  88,  •»oa"»am  "^nnm,  sam.,  sept 
xxiv,  18,  ta^aaxn,  sam. 

18,  91S*in'«1  nv«  b9*i1,  Sept  Mfitiom^. 

xxxTii,6,cna  pxn  PK  riKOb.  8am.,AnU 

xxxix,  88, 1»T^'na%  Syr.,  Arab. 

«  LeT.iiSflSUCn  p,Sam. 

Til,  6,  baX*^  omitted,  Ynlg. 
(8)  Cod.  868— PenUteuch,  MegUloth,  Haphtarotb,  la  foL, 
11th  or  ISth  century. 
Lev.  It,  14,  bnx  nnfibH,  Sept,  Ynlg. 

T,  8,  •,nan  a'^-^pm,  sept 
xi,4o,  D'»oa  yn'\^  I'^naa  oaa%sept(butnotia 

the  Complnt  and  Aldine). 
xix,  87,  Mbl,  Sam.,  Yulg.,  Arab. 

Deut  i,  40,  Dab  ^70'\  ia&,  Sam. 

iii,  14,  ^*«2t*^1,  Sam.,  Sept,  Syr.,  Arab.,  Targ.,  Jons* 
than.' 

aa*^stn,  sam. 

vi,2,"]'^aan,  8ept.,Yulg. 

xxxlv,  2,  •'bnea  7"»»ba,  Sept.,  Syr. 

(4)  Cod.  874— Pentateuch,  with  points,  4to,  11th  or  iSth 
century :  It  ends  with  Deut  xxxli,  61,  and  has  the  Maa(K 
rah  finaUs. 

Gen.xxxi,85.  n'^as  bx  bm  •ICHm.Syr. 

Numb,  xxix,  11,  nsOa\  Sept 

27,t3aElS13a,Sept,8yr. 

7.  The  Odeeaa  MSS.  In  the  year  1845  E.  M.  Primer  pnb- 
llshed hii  Broepeetue  der  der  Odeeeaer  Geedteeha/t  /Hr  Os- 
oehiehte  und  AUerthumer  geMronden  dUeaten  vna  rabbi' 
nieehen  Manuoeripte^  whereby  a  number  of  MSS.  became 
known  to  the  literary  world.  They  were  bought  In  1868, 
and  are  now  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  St  Petersburg.  A 
▼ery  accurate  caulogne  of  them  wna  published  byHar- 
ksyy  and  Strack  (Leipsic  and  St  Petersburg,  1876).  Of 
these  codices  only  two  are  of  great  importanee,  vis.,  one 
containing  the  later  prophets,  dated  A.D.  916.  and  another 
conUlning  a  complete  Old  Test  with  both  Masoraha,  on 


MANUSCRIPTS 


491  leaTen,  snld  to  be  a  copy  of  Asber's  codez  (T)l  It  li 
dated  A.D.  1009.  Of  tbe  latier,  BIr  and  Delltxech  availed 
tbemoelvea  in  tlieir  Hebrew-Iiiitln  edition  of  the  Psalme 
and  iu  tbe  edition  of  Job,wbere  a  fac-eimile  of  tbat  eodex 
is  also  eiveD.  The  former  has  been  pabliehed  by  II.  L. 
Strack  (Prophttarwn  PotUriorum  Cotk»  BabtfUmuui  P»- 
tropolitamiMf  Lipsiae,  1876)  In  fac-simDe,  by  means  of 
pboto-ltthoffraphy,  at  tbe  expense  of  tbe  emperor  Alezan- 
der  II  of  Rnssla.  The  whole  work  wsa  done  in  three 
years,  and  Is  a  monument  to  the  editor  and  his  Inape- 
rial  patron.  The  text,  snrroiinded  with  Hasuretic  notes, 
and  ftimisbed  with  the  so-called  Babylonian  system  of 
▼ocallzation,  occupies  449  folio  psges.  The  Latin  preCsce 
gives  tbe  history  of  the  codex,  and  the  critical  nnnotatlons, 
which  follow  the  text,  are  intended  to  help  the  student  in 
the  perusal  of  the  snme.  The  following  list  of  vnrions 
readings  does  not  affect  tbe  vowel  point«,  but  merely  the 
consonants.  The  reading  of  Van  der  Hooght  la  given  first: 

laa.  1, 7,  C3**'^9 — D3'^*1]?1,  and  so  many  oodd.,  8yr., 
Arab. 
SS,  D'^aob — t3**>^ob,  thus  some  older  and  mod- 
em editions,  as  MUnster,  Butter,  Michaelis, 
Ilahn-RosenmUlIpr,  Letteris,  BAr-Detltiscb. 
Ill, »,  te'^a'^ban — O'^a'^iani,  so  a  great  many  codd., 
all  versions,  Rashi.  Klmchl,  Ibn-Bzra. 
Ir,  1,  IsrtoiDI — "^a'»nPCWI,8osomecodd.,8ept, 
8yr.,  Arab.,  Vnlg. 
vil,  14,  bK19Q9 — bK  13)39,  thus  many  codd.  and 

editions,  as  M&nster,  Butter,  Clodins-BUrke- 
lin,  Michaelis,  Relneccins,  Slmonls,  Bahu- 
RoeenmQIler,  Stler  nnd  Thelle's  Polyglot,  the 
Warsaw  Rabbinic  Bible. 

z,  18,  *f3^M — n*lf1%  so  many  codd.  and  editions. 

'  zv,s,ba — bat 

n9*l*13 — h^t'^d,  so  many  codd.,  and  editions 
of  Athlas,  aodius,  Opltc,  Mkhaelis,  Beiuec- 
dns,  Simonis,  Letteris,  Bilr-Delitsscb. 

4, 1«B3 — lOCai 

xfi,7,nto*in — nti->n. 

10,  3?yni  Kb — 5r"^'»  Kbi.  the  Kbi  Is  found  in 
many  codd. ,  Sept,  Syr.,  Targ.,  Vulg.,  Arab, 
xlx,  13,  Ijnni — 'Ufnn,  many  codd.,  Vulg.,  Tnrg., 
Norxl,  and  a  great  many  editions. 
xx,«,^ba'n — yoy^,  codd.,  Sept.,  Syr.,  Vulg., 
Arab, 
xxi,  IS,  Mnj( — MI1M,  so  many  codd. 

xxvill,  2,  ''STxb — nifT^b,  so  many  codd. 

xxix,  19,  '»3i^axi — ^^a'^SHi. 
w,  n«5ai — nn5«. 

xxx,«,  O^'lir,  Kethlb,  D'^'T'a?.  Keri — C*'*!''?,  Ke- 
thlb  nnd  Keri. 

xxxiii,  1,  -ja  naa — ia  "naa. 
xxxiv,  18,  wiTap— toiap. 
xxxv,9,rT«iT»  Kb— n'^n-'  «b\ 
xxxvi,«,np«a-> — npv  a^u 
15,  Kb— «bt 

zxxvll,9,b7 — bK. 

IT,  la*^? — "I'^a'^^P,  Sept,  Syr..  Vulg. 

8S,  pn  -.OK — pniOK. 
vzxviu,  11,  bnn — nbn. 
14,  mm — ■'anK. 

18.  i^na©''  Kb — 'fia©'^  Kbt 
xxxix,6,*imi  Kb — "ini**  Kbt 
xiiii,i9,  nny — nr^t 
xiiv,«4,  •^r.K'^o — "^riK  '^c 

xlv.Sl,  1X51'' — 121513,  but  by  a  later  hand  iai51\ 

xMx,9,  lOKb — ICKbl,  many  codd..  Sept,  Vulg., 
Syr.,  Tnrg. 
111,9,1331 — 133*11. 

llv,  9,  '^13  ''D — '^a'^3. 

ivi,i,  mni  bK — mm  by. 

Jzlll,  11,  h3?*1 — '^9\  so  many  codd.,  Vulg.,  D.  Kiracbl, 
Abarbanel,  Solomon  ben-Melech. 


691  MANUSCRIPTS 

lztv»9, 13MKn  Kb — IS^Kn  Kbi,  Bomasyeodd. 

ixv.io,  mm  Kb— mm  Kbi. 
ss,  i»Z3'»  Kb — ira*'  Kbi. 
ixvi.  9,  •'■^ai  b5 — -tiaT  bK. 

17,  "TTIK,  Kethlb,  nHK,  Keri  —  nHK,  Kethlb 
and  Keri. 
This  very  Incomplete  list  from  the  prophet  Isaiah  (space 
prohibits  onr  glting  readings  ttom  the  other  prophets)  la 
sufficient  to  show  the  sreat  Importance  of  this  codex. 

8.  The  FirkowUseh  M88.  This  fomous  collection  of  the 
Karaite  Abraham  Flrkowltsch  (q.  v.)  was  bought  for  the 
Imperial  Library  at  St  Petersburg  In  the  year  1808,  nnd  la 
also  described  by  Barkavy  and  Strack  In  their  Cataioput. 
Altogether  this  collection  contains  146  MSS.,  of  which  47 
are  tynoffogvs  roUi  (l-«  on  leather,  6-47  on  parchment), 
three  of  which  contain  only  the  entire  Pentateuch  (So.  10, 
dated  A.D.  940, 49,  dated  A.D.  9S0,  and  No. 47),  snd  the  rest 
manutcrivts  in  book  form  (vis..  No.  48-146;  of  which  48- 
183  are  without  translation,  184-146  with  translation,  the 
translations  being  either  Arnhic,  Tnrtnr.  or  Persian).  In 
the  several  parts  of  the  Old  Test  edited  by  Bir  and  De- 
litzsch,  the  prefaces  also  contain  notices  ooocemlng  manu- 
scripts used  by  the  editors. 

ZtTtfratifre.— Tjcbsen,  TetUamen  de  Variis  Codiatm 
ffehaicorum  , .  .  GenerUms  (Rostock,  1772) ;  Bffrtyif 
Tentamen,  etc  (Leipsic,  1774) ;  Eichhom,  EwUUuny  in 
das  A  Ut  Tettamenty  ii,  456-684  (4tb  ed.  Gdttingen,  1828) ; 
De*  Rossi,  Proleg.  i,  ziz-xxi,  §  19;  De  Wette,  Einlti- 
tung,  §  14(^146,  8th  ed.;  §  108-114,  7th  ed.;  Stnck, 
Prolegomena  Crkica^  p.  9-58.  For  a  description  of 
manoseripts,  see  Le  Long,  BibUoth,  Sacra,  I,  ch.  ii,  p.  49- 
61  (ed.  Paris,  1728  foL);  Wolf,  BibL  f/ebreM,  ii,  298^24; 
iv,  79-98 ;  Kennicott,  Disteit,  Gentralii  (Oxford,  1780 
foL ;  ed.  Brans,  Brunswick,  1788) ;  De*  Rossi,  I,  Itx-xciv; 
xcvii-cxxv;  cxxvi-cxxxv;  lY,  xxii-xxviii;  ManU' 
tcripti  Codieet  Bebraici  BtbUotheca  (Parma,  1808,  8 
vols.) ;  G.  Bw  De'  Rossi,  Libri  Stampati  di  Lefterafvra 
Sacra  Ebraica  ed  OrieniaU  delia  BtbUotheca  del  Doit, 
p.  79-62  (ibid.  1812);  Kocher,  Aora  BibUotheca  Be" 
braica,  ii,  42-46 ;  RosenmUlIer,  HandbuchfSr  die  Liter» 
atur  der  bibl,  Kriiik,  etc.,  ii,  17  sq.;  Winer,  Bandbuch 
der  theol.  Lit,  i,  96 ;  Catalogu$  Univertitatii  Lipeienns,  * 
torn.  88  (exeg.  appar.),  fol.  206-205.  Besides  these  worlis, 
compare  tbe  different  catalogue  of  public  libraries,  vis., 

I.  Vatican:  Asserofini,  BibHotheece  Awstoliem  VatieavuB 
Codie^mi  Banu  Scriptomm  (kitalogua  (Rome,  1706  fol.). 

8.  Bodleian:  Uri,  Catalogua  (Oxford,  1767),  and  Stein- 
9chnelder,  Conspeetu$  Codd,  MSs.  Bebraorum,  etc-  (Berlin, 
1857). 

8.  Cambridge:  Schllter-Sslnessy,  CalaloffusoftAefledrsio 
MS&mreterved  in  the  Univereitg  Library  (Cambridge,  1876). 

4.  Parle:  Catalogue  dec  Manveerite  Hibreux  et  Samari- 
torn  de  la  BiUioth&w  ImpMale  (Paris,  1866). 

B.  Vienna:  Krafft  und  Deutsch,  Die  handeehri/lliehen 
hebrdieehen  Werke  der  k,  Ho/bibliothek  gu  Wien  (Vienna, 
1847). 

6.  St  Petereburp:  Catalog  der  hebrdieehen  Bibelhand- 
eehriften  der  haieerliehen  fifentiichen  BiUiothek  in  St.  iV 
ter^ntrg,  by  Barkavy  and  Strack  (1876). 

7.  Munich:  Stelnschneider,  Die  httbrdieehen  Handeehri/' 
ten  der  k.  Ho/-  und  Staate-BiUiothek  in  MOnehen  (1675). 

8.  Berlin:  Stelnschneider,  FerzncAniM  der  hebrdieehen 
HandeehHften  der  kdnigliehen  Bibliothek  nSlS). 

9.  Leyden:  Stelnschneider,  Cataiogue  Codieum  HebreeO' 
rum  BibL  Aead.  Lugd,  Batavia  (Leyden,  165S). 

10.  Leipeie:  Catalogue  Librorum  Jfanii  Seritttorwn, . . . 
Codieee  Linguarum  OrientaHumDeeeripeerunt^hy  Fleischer 
and  Delltssch  (Grimma,  188S). 

II.  Hamburg:  Stelnschneider,  Cato/047d«r£randseAH/tsii 
in  der  Stadtbibliathek  zu  Hamburg  (1877). 

18.  Thrill.*  Codieee  Manueeripti  Bibliotheca  Begim  Tau- 
rineneie  Aihenai,  edd.  Pasiuns,  Rivantella,  Bertn  (Turin, 
1749). 

18.  Dreeden:  Fleischer,  Catalogue  Codieum  MSS,  Ori- 
enteUium  Biblioth,  Reg,  Dreedeneie  (Dresden,  1881). 

14.  Florence:  Bisconius,  Bibliotheea  Bbraiem  Qrceem 
Florenttnee  &  BibliotheecB  Medieeo-LaurentioMe  CaUUogue 
(Florence,  1757). 

10.  Ceeena :  Mueeioluef  Catalitffue  Codieum  Manuseripto^ 
rum  Malateetiana  Cceeenatie  Bibliothecee  (1780, 1784, 9  vols, 
fol.). 

16.  Parma,    See  above,  De*  Rossi. 

17.  Spain  and  Portugal:  Nenbauer,  Notee  eur  dee  Manu' 
eerite  Hibreux  EMelant  dane  Quelouee  Bibliothiquee  de 
VEepagne  et  du  Pnrtugal,  in  the  Arehivee  dee  Mieeione 
Seientfjlquee  et  Littirairee,  II,  v,  483-485  (Paris,  ISCS). 

The  various  readings  found  in  the  St.  Petersburg 
manuscripts  and  in  such  as  have  of  late  come  to  light, 


I 


MANWANTARA 


698 


MARBURY 


bat  are  enumerftted  hy  BUr  and  DeliUsch  in  the  differ- 
ent parte  of  their  Old-Test,  edidon,  have  been  made  use 
of  by  the  latter,  and  are  given  in  a  very  convenient  form 
in  the  Appendices  Criticce  et  MatoretieeBf  %'iz.  Genesia, 
p.  74  sq.;  Job,  p.  38-56;  Paalma,  p.  88-128;  Proterbs, 
p.  80-54;  Isaiah,  p.  65-62;  Ezekiel,  p.  78-107;  Minor 
Prophets,  p.  59-85;  Daniel,  p«  62-85;  Ezra-Nehemiah, 
p.  99-119  (these  last  three  books  printed  together). 
Qf  the  St  Petersburg  manuscripts,  professor  Delitssch 
has  also  made  use  in  his  commentary  on  Song  of 
Songs  (p.  178-184)  and  Ecclesiaates  (p.  425-435),  pub- 
lished at  Leipsic  in  1875.  A  comparison  of  the  Codex 
Babylonkua  from  the  year  916,  and  of  the  MS.  from  the 
year  1009,  with  Hahn's  edition  of  the  Old  Test.,  which 
in  the  main  is  a  reprint  of  Van  der  Hooght,  has  been 
made  by  Strack  with  reference  to  Isaiah,  and  the  result 
was  published  in  the  Zeitsckrifl/ur  hith,  Theologie,  1877, 
p.  17-52.  All  these  various  readings  do  not  essentially 
impair  the  authority  of  the  Masoretic  text,  nor  material- 
ly alter  the  meaning  of  any  important  passage.    (&  P.) 

Man'wantara,  a  grand  period  of  time  in  HindA 
chronology,  including  seventy-one  maha-yugs,  or  divine 
ages,  being  the  reign  of  one  Manu  (q.  v.),  with  his  pos- 
terity of  sons  and  grandsons.  The  reigns  of  the  four- 
teen Manus  who  reigned  in  succession  extended  to 
one  thousand  maha-fugt^  or  one  halpa, 

Manx  Versioi}.    See  Mankb. 

Maori  (or  Ne^w  Zealand)  Version  or  thk 
Scriptures.  The  Maori  is  the  most  cultivated  of  all 
the  Polynesian  dialects.  See  New  Zsalamd.  The 
first  copies  of  portions  of  the  New  Test  were  printed  in 
1882,  having  been  translated  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Yate,  but 
the  first  complete  edition  of  the  New  Test  did  not  ap- 
pear till  1840.  A  second  was  printed  in  1843,  and  a 
third  in  1844,  all  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society.  A  revised  edition  by  bishop  Will- 
iams and  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Meller  was  published  more 
recently.  The  Old  Test  was  completed  in  1856,  the 
translation  being  that  of  the  Rev.  It  Maunsell.  In  1859 
a  revision  of  the  Bible  was  undertaken,  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1867.  This  revised  edition  has  also  been  print- 
ed since.     See  BibU  of  Ecei-y  Land,  p.  383.     (B.  P.) 

Maphrida,  the  second  dignitary  of  the  Jacobite 
Church  (q.  v.)  in  the  East 

Maracaa,  idols  of  the  Brazilians.  The  word  is  a 
corruption  of  Tamaraea,  which  is  the  name  of  a  cer- 
tain fruit  about  the  size  of  an  ostrich's  egg,  and  shaped 
like  a  gourd.  These  idols,  indeed,  were  nothing  more 
than  the  fruit  Tamaraca  dressed  up  in  beautiful  feath- 
ers, and  fixed  on  a  staff,  which  the  priests  stuck  in  the 
gn.>und,  and  ordered  the  people  to  bring  food  and  drink 
before  it 

Marae  is  the  name  given  in  the  South  Sea  islands 
to  a  heathen  temple.  All  were  uncovered,  and  resem- 
bled oratories  rather  than  temples.  The  form  of  the 
interior  or  area  was  frequently  that  of  a  square  or  par- 
allelogram, the  sides  of  which  extended  forty  or  fifty 
feet  Two  sides  of  this  space  were  enclosed  by  a  high 
stone  wall;  the  front  was  protected  by  a  low  fence, 
and  opposite,  a  solid  pyramidal  structure  was  raised,  in 
front  of  which  the  images  were  kept  and  the  altars 
fixed.  These  piles  were  often  immense.  Within  the 
enclosure,  the  houses  of  the  priests  and  keepers  of  the 
idols  were  erected.  Ruins  of  these  temples  are  found 
in  every  situation ;  on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  on  the  ex- 
tremity of  a  point  of  land  extending  into  the  sea,  or  in 
the  recesses  of  an  extensive  and  overshadowing  grove. 

Maramba,  an  idol  of  the  negroes  of  Angola,  Congo, 
etc,  in  Africa.  It  stands  erect  over  against  the  temple 
dedicated  to  ite  peculiar  service,  in  a  basket  formed  like 
a  bee-hive.  To  this  divinity  the  negroes  make  partic- 
ular application  for  success  when  they  go  hunting  or 
fishing,  and  for  the  relief  of  such  as  are  sick.  Those 
also  charged  with  crime  are  obliged  to  plead  their  cause 
before  it    In  order  to  do  this  the  accused  prostrates  i 


himself  at  the  feet  of  the  idol,  embraces  it  with  the 
profouudest  veneration,  and  says,  **  Behold,  Bfaramba, 
thy  servant  is  come  to  justify  himself  before  thee."  If 
the  defendant  is  guilty,  he  is  said  to  fall  dead  on  the 
spot  The  devotees  usually  carry  little  images  in  small 
boxes  about  with  them,  Maramba  always  marches  at 
the  head  of  their  armies,  and  he  is  presented  with  the 
first  morsel,  and  the  first  cup  of  wine  served  at  the  king's 
Uble. 

Marathi  Version  of  the  ScRipruREs.  The  Ma- 
rathi,  which  is  spoken  by  the  Marathas  or  Mahrattas 
(q.  v.),  may  be  regarded  as  a  link  between  the  Sanscrit 
dialects  of  northern  India  and  the  languages  of  the 
Deccan.  Some  of  the  words  and  idioms  are  obviously 
of  cognate  origin  with  the  Bengalee,  while  in  others  a 
notable  approximation  may  be  detected  to  the  Tamil, 
Telinga,  and  the  other  languages  of  the  South.  Two 
different  characters  are  used  in  writing  Marathi,  the 
Modior  Modhe,  a  kind  of  running  hand,  which  is  de- 
rived from,  and  still  retains  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
Devanagari  (or  Sanscrit  character),  and  the  Balboodh 
or  Balborah,  which  appears  to  be  almost,  if  not  quite, 
the  Devanagari  itself.  The  former,  vulgarly  termed 
Modi,  is  most  generally  understood,  being  employed  in 
all  transactions  of  business;  but  the  latter  is  preferred 
for  printing,  because  it  possesses  several  letters  in  which 
the  Modi  is  deficient;  it  is,  besides,  uniform  and  regu- 
lar in  appearance,  while  the  Modi  varies  as  much  in 
style  as  the  handwriting  of  different  individuals  in 
Europe. 

A  version  of  the  Scriptures  in  Marathi  was  com- 
menced at  Serampore  in  1804.  The  first  few  copies  of 
the  gospel  of  Matthew  were  printed  in  the  Devanagari 
character,  but  this  character  was  soon  replaced  by  the 
Modi,  as  the  more  generally  intelligible  to  the  natives. 
This  latter  character  was  employed  in  all  the  subse- 
quent Serampore  editions.  In  1811  the  New  Test  was 
completed,  and  in  1820  the  Old  Test  left  the  pressi  A 
second  and  revised  edition  of  the  New  Test  appeared 
about  the  year  1825. 

Another  version  of  the  Marathi  Scriptures  was  com- 
menced in  1817  by  American  missionaries,  and  in  1826 
the  entire  New  Test  was  published  by  them,  with  th« 
aid  of  the  Bombay  Auxiliary  and  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society.  An  improved  and  carefully  revised 
edition  of  this  Test  was  printed  in  1880.  In  1834  th« 
Bombay  Bible  Society  undertook  another  revisal  of  the 
Marathi  New  Test  and  determined  upon  issuing  an 
edition  in  the  Balboodh  character.  The  printing  of 
this  edition  was  commenced  in  1885,  but  in  the  same 
year  it  was  found  necessary  to  print  a  separate  edition 
of  the  gospels  in  the  Modi,  or  current  character,  for  the 
use  of  the  lower  class  of  natives. 

While  these  editions  of  the  New  Test  were  in  coarse 
of  preparation,  the  American  missionaries,  together  with 
the  Riev.  J.  Dixon  of  the  Church  mission  at  Nassuck, 
zealously  prosecuted  the  translation  of  the  Old  Test 
into  Marathi,  which  was  completed  at  the  American 
mission  press  in  1855.  Mr.  Dixon,  by  whom  the  great- 
er part  of  this  important  version  was  made,  did  not  live 
to  see  the  completion  of  this  edition  at  press.  From 
the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for 
1863  we  learn  that  the  entire  Bible  has  been  revised, 
published,  and  put  into  circulation.  In  the  report  for 
1881  it  is  suted  that  the  revision  of  the  entire  Bible 
has  again  been  inaugurateil,  with  the  assistance  of  Rev. 
Baba  Padmanji.  The  revision  work  is  still  in  progress. 
See  Bible  of  Every  Land,  p.  126. 

For  lingubtio  purposes  see  Ballantyne,  A  Grammar 
of  the  Mahratta  Language  ,•  Bellairs,  A  Grammar  of 
the  Marathi  Language;  Molesworth,  A  Dictionary^ 
Marathi  and  English  (Bombay,  1857) ;  Padmanji,  A 
Compendium  qf  Molesworth*s  Marathi  and  English  Dio^ 
tionary;  Navalkar,  The  Students  Marathi  Grammar 
(new  ed.  Bombay,  1879).    (a  P.) 

Marbnry,  Alkxaudkb  M.,  M.D.,  DJ>^  a  Procee- 


MARCELLIUS 


699 


MARIETTE 


tant  Epiacopal  dergyman,  was  rector  in  PeteiBviUe, 
Mil.,  for  seven  years  preceding  1858,  when  he  became 
rector  of  St.  Paul's,  Aquasco,  in  which  relation  he  re- 
mained until  his  death  in  1873.  See  Proi,  £jnse.  AU 
fwmaCf  1874,  p.  188. 

MarcelliiUt  Hbnricus,  a  Jesuit,  who  died  at  Bam- 
berg, Apnl  25, 1664,  wrote,  Cawmu  ExpUeanda  Sacrm 
Scr^aiura: — Ve  Augustimmo  Corporis  et  Sanffuims 
Domini  Sacramento : — Theoloffia  Divinm  Scriptura: — 
De  JusHficatioM  Chrittiana : — Comfnentarius  in  Librum 
Jotua: — TeMimoniMm  DctmeUt  de  Regno  Chritti  Inex' 
pugnabUi: — Enchiridion  Militia  Christiana,  See  Ale- 
gambe,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Societatis  Jesu ;  Jocher, 
Aligemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (U.  P.) 

Marcello,  Bbnvdetto,  an  eminent  Italian  com- 
poser of  sacred  mmdc,  was  bom  at  Venice,  July  24, 1686. 
He  made  a  thorough  study  of  music  under  various 
masters,  and  at  the  same  time  studied  law  and  became 
an  advocate,  holding  several  offices  under  the  govern- 
ment. He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Forty,  and 
treasurer  at  Brescia,  where  he  died,  July  17, 1739.  .  His 
most  esteemed  work  is  his  music  for  Giustiniani's  ver- 
sion of  Fiftg  Psalms,  of  which  a  fine  edition  was  pub- 
lished by  John  Garth,  of  Durham,  in  eight  volumes  fo- 
lio, with  English  words.  His  other  works  consist  of 
oratorios,  masses,  cantatas,  madrigals,  and  different  parts 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  service.  He  also  left  a  MS. 
treatise  on  music. 

Marchant;  Jacques,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, who  died  at  Couvtn,  Belgium,  in  1648,  is  the  au- 
thor of  Rationale  Evangelitantium  (transL  into  French 
by  Ricard,  Le  Rational  des  Pridieateurs  de  VRvangite, 
Paris,  1876,  4  vols.)  x—Horlum  Pastorum  (French,  Le 
Jardin  des  Pasteurs\  a  treatise  on  faith,  hope,  and 
ehari^: — Virga  Aaronis  Fhrens  (French,  X>a  Verge 
tTAaron^on  the  sacerdotal  life: — Candeltibrum  Mysti- 
cum,  on  the  seven  sacraments.  Merchant's  works  were 
published  in  French  by  Ricard  and  Berton,  in  nine 
volumes.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop,  des  Sciences 
Religieuses,»,v,;  J Qcher,  A Ugtmeines  Gdehrten^LexOon, 
S.V.    (RP.) 

MarcuB,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a  native  of  Gallo- 
way, in  Scotland,  and  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  the 
Isles  in  1275,  and  consecrated  the  same  year.  He  was 
also  lord  high-chancellor  of  Scotland.  He  held  a  synod 
at  Kirk-Bradden  in  March,  1291,  where  thirty -nine 
canons  were  made.  He  died  in  1808.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  800. 

Mareahall.  The  ruined  site,  Khurbet  Merash,  is 
three  quarters  of  a  mile  south-west  of  Beit-Jibrin,  and 
consists  merely  of  "  traces  of  ruins,  cisterns,  and  caves  " 
{Memoirs  to  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  284). 

MargetBon,  Jamks,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was 
bom  in  1600,  at  Drighlington,  in  Yorkshire,  and  re- 
ceived his  education  in  Peterhouse  College,  Cam- 
bridge; was  promoted  to  the  parish  of  Watlas^  in  1635 
was  advanced  to  the  deanery  of  Waterford ;  in  1637  to 
that  of  Deny,  and  in  1639  was  made  dean  of  Christ 
Church,  Dublin.  Throughout  the  troubled  period  of 
1641  his  charity  and  benevolence  to  the  sufferers  were 
singularly  eminent.  In  July,  1647,  he  joined  in  a  re- 
monstrance to  the  commissioners  of  the  English  Parlia- 
ment, praying  liberty  for  the  use  of  the  common  prayer 
in  their  respective  churches,  and  rejecting  the  directory 
ordered  to  be  used  instead.  Soon  after,  the  war  obliged 
him  to  flee  to  England,  where  he  was  thrown  into  pris- 
on. He  finally  was  released,  and  sought  refuge  in  Lon- 
don. When  Charles  II  was  restored  to  the  throne, 
Margetson  was  selected  to  fill  the  metropolitan  chair 
of  the  province  of  Dublin,  and  was  consecrated  Jan.  27, 
1660.  In  1662  he  enforced  the  principle  of  jurisdiction 
and  control  over  the  pulpits  of  his  diocese.  About  this 
time  Margetson  was  one  of  the  spiritual  peers  who  voted 
for  the  third  reading  of  the  Act  of  Settlement.  During 
the  time  he  presided  over  the  see  of  Dublin  he  liberally 
contributed  to  the  repair  of  both  its  cathedrals.  In  1663 


he  was  translated  to  the  province  of  Armagh.  He  was 
also  afterwards  chosen  vice-chancellor  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin.  He  died  in  August,  1678.  See  D' Alton, 
Memoirs  of  the  A  rchbishops  o/DvbUn,  p.  275. 

Margolionth,  Mosss,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  a  minister  of 
the  Church  of  England,  was  bora  of  Jewish  parentage 
in  1818,  at  Sawalki,  in  Poland.  In  1887  he  arrived  in 
England,  and  in  the  year  following  openly  professed 
Christianity.  In  1840  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, and,  after  completing  his  studies,  was  ordained  in 
1844.  He  held  various  positions  in  the  Episcopal  Church, 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death,  Feb.  25, 1881,  he  was  vicar 
of  Little  Linford,  near  Newport  Pagnell,  Bucks,  Eng- 
land. He  is  the  author  of  many  works :  Fundamental 
Prineiples  of  Modem  Judaism  Investigated  (Lond.  1848) : 
—The  Jews  in  Great  Britain  (ibid.  1846)  :—A  POgrim- 
age  to  the  Land  of  my  Fathers  (ibid.  1850,  2  vols.):— 
Uietory  of  the  Jews  m  Great  Britain  (1861,  3  vols.)  :— 
Abyssinia,  its  Past,  Present,  and  Future  (1866):— 7^ 
SpirUofProphe€y(1864):Sacred Minstrelsy:  A  Led- 
ure  on  Biblical  and  Post-Biblical  Hebrew  Music  (1868)  : 
—The  Oracles  of  God  and  their  Vindication  (1870)  :— 
Vestiges  of  the  Historic  Angh^/febrews  in  East  AngUa 
(eod.):— rA«  Poetry  of  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch  (1871): 
— The  Lord^s  Prayer  no  Adaptation  of  Existing  Jewish 
Petitions  (1876).  Besides,  he  left  a  great  many  woihs 
in  Ma    (B.P.) 

Marie  (Madeleine)  db  la  Trinit^  the  founder 
of  a  religious  order,  was  bora  June  3, 1616,  at  Aix,  in 
Provence.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  soldier,  and  hav- 
ing resolved  at  the  age  of  fifteen  never  to  marry,  placed 
herself  under  the  direction  of  a  Capuchin,  Yvan,  who 
composed  for  her  a  book,  entitled  Conduite  a  la  Perfec- 
tion Chrkienne,  With  his  assistance  she  founded,  in 
1632,  the  order  of  La  Mis^ricorde.  This  order,  begin- 
ning in  1637,  at  Aix,  had  considerable  difficulties,  being 
much  opposed  by  the  archbishop  of  that  place,  but  ap- 
proved by  the  bishop  of  Avignon,  and  sustained  by  the 
Jesuits.  She  died  at  Avignon,  Feb.  20, 1678.  The  or- 
der of  La  Misericorde  was  approved,  in  1642,  by  pope 
Urban  VIII,  and  followed  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginhrale,  s.  v. 

Mariette,  AuousTE  Ferdinand  Francois,  a  French 
archaeologist,  was  bora  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  Feb.  11, 
1821,  While  yet  a  very  young  man  he  was  intrasted 
with  the  task  of  arranging  the  papers  of  his  deceased 
cousin,  Nestor  THote,  the  companion  of  Champollion  in 
Egypt  from  1827  to  1829.  Thenceforth  Auguste  Mari- 
ette became  inspired  with  an  eager  interest  in  Egyptian 
archaeology,  and  devoted  his  attention  to  the  study  of 
hierogljrphic  and  Coptic  literature.  In  1849  he  received 
a  post  in  the  Egyptian  department  of  the  Louvre,  and 
was  shortly  afterwards  sent  to  Egypt  for  the  purpose 
of  seeking  and  purchasing  Coptic  MSS.  in  the  mon« 
asteries  of  that  country.  Soon  after  bis  arrival  at 
Cairo  he  made  the  great  discovery  of  the  long-lost 
Serapeum,  or  burial-place  of  the  sacred  bulls.  This, 
together  with  other  undertakings,  is  graphically  de- 
scribed in  his  own  narrative,  I^  Serapdum  de  Mem-i 
phis  (Paris,  1857).  He  had  not  long  returned  to  France 
when  he  was  offered  and  accepted  the  appointment  of 
oonser%'ator  of  monuments  to  the  Egyptian  goverament. 
In  this  position  he  undertook  a  long  series  of  important 
excavations  in  various  parts  of  Egypt.  The  magnificent 
temples  of  Denderah  and  Edfu  were  completely  disin- 
terred, and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  valuable  inscrip- 
tions were  brought  to  light  The  Sphinx  was  laid  bare ; 
the  m3r8terious  building  known  as  the  Temple  of  the 
Sphinx  was  discovered ;  extensive  works  were  proceed- 
ed with  at  Karaak,  Deir  el-Bahari,  Medinet  Habu,  and 
Abydos;  but  we  cannot  catalogue  his  archcological 
achievements.  The  Bulak  Museum,  and  the  many 
magnificent  volumes  in  which  he  has  recorded  the  re- 
sults of  his  labors,  are,  after  all,  the  noblest  monuments 
to  his  memory.  His  Denderah  (1878->75,  5  vols.)  ^— his 
Monuments  Divers  (1872):— his  Abydos  (1870) :— hia 


MARKHAM 


700 


MARSHALL 


magnificent  Kamak  (1875) :— JDetV  d^Bahari  (1877) : 
— LuU  Gioffraphiqiu  des  PyUma  de  Kamak  (1875),  etc, 
bear  witness  to  his  extraordinary  industry,  and  would 
alone  be  enough  work  and  honor  for  any  one  man.  He 
died  at  Cairo,  Jan.  19, 1881.    (a  P.) 

Markham,  William,  D.C.L.,  arcbbisbop  of  York, 
was  born  in  Ireland  in  1719,  but  was  brought  to  Eng- 
land in  his  infancy,  and  at  an  early  age  entered  West^ 
minster  School  He  was  afterwards  sent  to  Christ 
Church  College,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  the  degree 
of  M.A.  in  1745.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  to  the  office 
of  high  master  of  Westminster  School,  the  duties  of 
which  he  discharged  with  great  industry  and  success 
for  about  fourteen  years.  In  1759  he  was  made  a  preb- 
endary of  Durham,  in  1764  resigned  his  mastership  of 
Westminster,  and  in  the  following  year  was  preferred 
to  the  deanery  of  Rochester,  which,  in  1767,  he  vacated 
for  that  of  Christ  Church.  In  1771  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Chester,  and  in  1777  translated  to  the  archi- 
eptscopal  see  of  York,  from  which  he  was  removed  by 
death,  Nov.  8, 1807.  The  virtues  of  this  distinguished 
prelate  were  of  a  most  benevolent  and  amiable  kind* 
With  great  learning  he  was  modest;  and  though  raised 
to  the  highest  station  he  was  meek  and  humble.  See 
(Lond.)  Anmtal  Reguter,  1807,  p.  789. 

Marlow,  Michael,  a  Church  of  England  divine, 
was  born  near  London,  in  November,  1758.  He  was 
educated  at  Merchant  Taylor's  School,  from  which  he 
was  elected  to  a  scholarship  at  St.  John's  College  in  the 
eighteenth  3'ear  of  his  age.  He  was  admitted  actual 
fellow  in  1779;  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  April  5, 1780; 
that  of  M.A.  Feb.  11, 1784;  and  became  B.D.  in  April, 
1789,  being  the  vicar  of  St.  Giles's,  in  the  suburbs  of  Ox- 
ford, and  tutor  of  the  college.  In  March,  1795,  he  was 
unanimously  elected  president  of  St.  John's,  and  pre- 
sented by  the  society  to  the  rectory  at  Handborough, 
near  Woodstock.  He  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  on  March 
24  of  the  same  year;  served  the  office  of  vice-chancellor 
of  the  university  during  four  years,  viz.  from  Michael- 
mas term,  1798,  to  the  same  terra,  1802 ;  and  was  pre- 
ferred to  the  prebendal  stall  of  Canterbury  in  1808.  He 
was  nominated  one  of  the  select  preachers  of  the  uni- 
versity in  1805,  and  again  in  1817 ;  was  likewise  a  dele- 
gate of  accounts,  one  of  the  commissioners  of  sewera, 
and  curator  of  the  Sheldonian  Theatre.  He  died  Feb. 
16, 1828.     See  (Lond.)  Annual  Regiittr^  1828,  p.  222. 

Marokki,  Samuel.    See  Morocco,  Samuel. 

Marperger,  Bbbniiard  Walther,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  May  14, 
1682.  He  studied  at  Altdorf  and  other  universities,  was 
in  1705  preacher  at  Nuremberg,  in  1724  court-preacher 
at  Dresden,  and  died  March  29, 1746,  a  doctor  of  divin- 
ity. He  wrote,  Auslegung  der  ertten  Epitttl  Johannis 
(Nuremberg,  1710) : — Diss.  Inauguralis  de  Nexu  Veri- 
tatii  cum  Pieiate  (Altdorf,  1724;  Germ.  transL  by  GrlUT, 
Leipsic,  eod.) : — De  Agno  ad  Arte  Comua  Ligando^  ad 
lUustr.  Pta,  xcviU,  8  (Dresden,  1734),  et&  See  Doring, 
Diegekhrien  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Hai^ 
Intch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  841 ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugememes  Gdehrtei^ 
Lexikoti^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Marqnesan  Veraion  of  the  Sciuptubbb.  The 
Marquesan  is  a  dialect  spoken  in  the  Marquesas  or 
Washington  group  of  islands,  situated  about  nine  de- 
grees south  of  the  equator,  at  a  distance  of  nine  hnn- 
dred  miles  north-east  of  Tahiti.  Ever  since  1797  va- 
rious efforts  have  been  made  at  different  intervals  to 
proclaim  the  glad  tidings  of  the  gospel  in  these  isl- 
ands. For  a  long  period  these  attempts  were  ren- 
dered abortive,  till  at  length,  in  1884,  the  Rev.  Messrs. 
Bodgerson,  Stall  worthy,  and  Darling,  agents  of  the  Lon- 
don Missionar}'  Society,  met  with  some  encouragement 
in  their  endeavors  to  instnu^t  the  people,  and  reclaim 
them  from  idolatry.  Mr.  Darling  devoted  himself  to 
the  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  or,  rather,  to  the  adap- 
tation of  the  Tahitian  version  to  the  Marqueaan  dialect 
Single  extracts  of  Scripture  were  published,  but  the  first 


complete  book  of  the  New  Test— the  gospel  of  Jobs- 
was  not  published  till  1866.  This  is  up  to  date  the  only 
g^ospel  printed  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
Se%  Bible  of  Evei-y  Land,  ^B80,     (a  P.) 

Marryat,  Zephaniah,  DJ).,  an  English  Indepen- 
dent minister,  was  bom  abont  1684.  He  was  first  aa 
assistant  preacher  at  Union  Street,  Sonthwark,  with 
Mr.  Samuel  Palmer,  who*  had  a  oontroversy  with  the 
Rev.  John  Wesley's  father,  and  succeeded  as  sole  pastor 
in  1710.  He  became  a  master  of  Greek  literature.  In 
1720  he  acquired  reputation  by  a  published  work.  The 
Exalted  Saviour,  intended  to  correct  prevailing  errors 
on  the  Trinity.  He  superintended  a  large  charity-school 
in  Gravel  Lane,  and  preached  a  Sunday-evening  lecture 
at  Lime  Street.  In  1743  he  was  chosen  divinity  tutor 
at  an  academy  held  in  Plasterers*  Hall,  and  was  very 
successful.  He  was  also  one  of  the  Merchant  Lecturefs. 
He  died  suddenly,  Sept  15, 1754.  See  Wilson,  Diuent- 
ing  ChureheSf  iv,  199. 

Manden,  J.  B.,  an  English  divine,  was  bom  about 
1808.  He  graduated  from  St.  John's  College,  Gam- 
bridge,  in  1827,  and  was  ordained  to  the  curacy  of  Bura- 
lem,  Staffordshire,  from  whence  he  removed  to  the  cu- 
racy of  Harrow,  Middlesex.  From  1883  to  1844  he  held 
the  rectory  of  Tooting,  Surrey,  during  the  minority  of 
his  successor.  From  1844  to  1852  he  was  vicar  of  Great 
Missenden,  Bucks,  and  from  1852  to  his  death,  in  1870, 
incumbent  of  St.  Peter's,  Birmingham.  Mr.  Marsdeo 
published,  The  Hislcry  of  the  Earlg  Puriiant^from  ike 
Reformation  to  the  Opening  of  the  Civil  War: — The 
Bittory  of  the  Jjater  Puriian$jfrom  the  Opening  of  tke 
Civil  War  to  1662:— 7*^6  Churchmanehip  of  the  New 
Tettament: — Ditcourtee  for  the  Festivals  of  the  Churdk 
of  England: — The  Law  ofFastit^,  as  set  forth  in  Uohf 
Scripture,  a  pamphlet:  —  Sermons:  —  The  Coming  of 
Christ : — Salmons  from  the  Old  Testament : — ChrisHan 
Churches  aind  Sects : — Life  of  the  Rev,  Samuel  Marsden, 
of  New  South  Wales  :^Life  of  the  Rev.  Hugh  Stowell, 
of  Manchester : — Two  Sermons  on  the  Life,  Ministry, 
and  Death  of  the  Rev,  Richard  Marks,  author  of  The  Ret- 
rospect, He  was  also  editor  of  the  Christian  Observer 
from  1859  to  1869.  Although  not  gided  as  a  preacher, 
he  was  a  ripe  scholar,  and  his  writings  demonstrate  his 
ability  as  an  author.  See  (Lond.)  Christian  Observer, 
August,  1870,  p.  683 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer. 
Authors,  S.V. 

Mamelna,  Nicholas  J.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  bom  in  Mohawk  Val- 
ley in  1792.  He  graduated  from  Union  College  in 
1810,  and  from  New  Brunswick  Seminary  in  1815;  waa 
licensed  by  the  Classis  of  New  Brunswick,  became  pas- 
tor at  Greenbush  and  Blooming  Grove  from  1815  to 
1822,  New  York  city  from  1822  to  1858,  and  thereafter 
was  without  a  charge  until  his  death,  BiUy  5, 1876.  Hia 
publications  are.  Translation  qf  Elijah  (1825): — Tke 
Good  Old  Wag  (1880)  i^Gospel  Ministry  (1842) :— J/m- 
isterial  Appeal  (1850) : — A  Sermon  (eod.).  See  Cor- 
win,  Manual  of  the  Reformed  Ckurch  in  ilmerioa,  3d  ed. 
p.  867. 

Marah,  Sxdnet  Habpeb,  D.D.,  a  Congtegatiooal 
minister,  son  of  Rev.  Dr.  James  Marsh,  waa  bora  at 
Hampden  Sidney,  Va.,  Aug.  29, 1825.  He  graduated 
from  Vermont  University  in  1846;  from  1846  to  1851 
waa  employed  in  teaching ;  and  the  following  year  at- 
tended Union  Theological  Seminary.  After  his  ordi- 
nation aa  an  evangelist.  May  1, 1853,  he  went  to  Oregon 
in  the  service  of  the  Society  for  Promoting  Collegiate 
Education ;  became  principal  of  Tualatin  Academy,  at 
Forest  Grove;  was  chosen  president  of  Pacific  Univer^ 
sity,  when  it  was  incorporated,  in  1854,  and  held  that 
office  until  his  death,  Feb.  5, 1879.  See  Cong.  Year* 
book,  1880,  p.  28. 

Marshall,  Alexander  ^^aahington,  D.D.,  aa 

Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  Chadeston,  S.  C,  Aug. 
10, 1798.  He  graduated  from  the  General  Theological 
Seminary  in  1828,  and  in  October  of  that  year  was  op* 


MARSHALL 


701 


MARTIN 


daincd  deacon,  and  took  charge  of  St  David's  Chnicb, 
Cheraw,  S.  C  Having  been  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood, March  14,  1880,  he  continued  there  until  1841, 
when  he  was  called  to  the  organization  and  care  of  a 
city  mission,  worshipping  in  St.  John's  Chapel,  Charles- 
ton. He  died  in  that  city,  Nov.  7, 1876.  See  Obituary 
Record  of  Yak  Coiiepe,  1877. 

Marshall,  George,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  Pennsylvania  in  1806.  He  graduated  from 
Jefferson  College,  and  entered  upon  his  ministry  at 
Bethel  in  1832,  in  which  relation  he  continued  until 
his  death,  April  30, 1872.  Dr.  Marshall  was  well  known 
in  western  Pennsylvania  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  In  the  councils  of  Ihe  Church 
he  was  always  heard  with  respectful  attention,  and  his 
words  were  direct  and  weightv.  See  Pretbyterian,  May 
18, 1872. 

MaraoUier,  Jaoqubs,  a  French  ecclesiastical  writer, 
was  bom  at  Paris  in  1647,  and  died  at  Uz^s  in  1724 
He  is  the  author  of,  Hittoire  de  VOrigine  de$  Dixmt$^ 
dei  Bhi^fiees  et  de$  Autre*  Bient  Temporeb  de  Vtgliie 
(Lyons,  1689)  '.—Hittoire  de  tinquisitum  tt  de  ton  Ori- 
ffine  (Cologne,  1693;  based  upon  liroborch's  Hittoria 
Inquititionit) : — Hittoire  du  Minittkre  du  Cardinal  de 
Xvnenet  (Toulouse,  1693;  Paris,  1739):  —  Hittoire  de 
Henri  VII,  Roi  dlAngUUrre  {y^T)x  —  La  Tm  de  St, 
Franfoit  de  Salet  {ViW)  i—Apologie  ou  Jutt^fieation 
d^tratme  (1713)  i—Entreiiem  tur  let  Devoirt  dela  Vie 
Cimle^  et  tur  Plutieurt  Pointt  de  la  Vie  Morale  Chri- 
tietme  (1714).  See  lichtenberger,  Enegclop.  det  Scienr- 
eet  Reliffieutetj  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbueh  der  tkeol.  Lit,  i, 
696, 716, 870.     (R  P.) 

M&rtena,  Kabl  Ahdrkas  August,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  AprU  18, 1774,  and 
died  March  17, 1882,  at  Halberstadt,  doctor  of  theology 
and  first  preacher.  He  wrote,  Uther  die  tywholitcken 
Bucher  der  evangeliteh-lutheritchen  Kirche^  etc.  (Halber- 
stadt, 1830) :  —  Ueber  Pietitmutf  tein  Weten  und  teine 
Gffahren  (ibid.  182S)  :—Theophanet  oder  Ober  die  gdtt- 
Ueke  Offenbarung  (ibid.  1819)  .—EUutherot,  oder  Unier- 
tuehung  Uber  die  Freiheit  det  mentehlichen  Willent 
(Magdeburg,  1823): — Jetut  auf  dan  Gip/el  teinet  ir- 
ditehen  Lebent  (HalbersUdt,  1811).  See  Winer,  Hand- 
bueh der  theol.  Lit,  i,  335, 365, 369, 482, 550 ;  ii,  159 ;  Zu- 
chold,  BibL  TheoL  u,  855.     (E  P.) 

Martenaen,  Hans  Labskic,  one  of  the  most  prom- 
inent Danish  liOtheran  theologians,  was  bom  Aug.  9, 
1808,  at  Flensborg.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen,  and  in 
1882  passed  the  ecclesiastical  examination  and  received 
a  gold  roedaL  The  same  year  he  received  from  the 
government  a  travelling  scholarship,  and  visited  Ber- 
lin, Munich,  Vienna,  and  Paris,  giving  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  the  philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
On  his  return  to  Denmark,  in  1836,  he  became  a  licen- 
tiate in  theology,  submitting  a  thesis  on  the  A  utonomy 
of  the  Human  Contcienoe,  which  was  afterwards  trans- 
lated from  the  Latin  into  Danish  (1841),  and  into  Ger- 
man (1845).  The  next  year  he  began  to  lecture  to  the 
younger  students  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen  on 
moral  philosophy.  The  material  of  these  lectures  was 
published  in  his  Outline  of  a  Sgttem  of  Moral  Philot' 
ophy^  in  1841.  His  lectures  on  Speculative  DognuUik, 
from  1840,  when  he  became  professor  ordinarius,  awak- 
ened extraordinary  interest.  "It  was  a  new  and  un- 
heard-of gospel,  in  charming  language,  that  flowed 
from  his  inspired,  enrapturing  lips.  Not  merely  did 
the  students  contend  with  one  another  for  places  in  his 
lecture  -  room,  but  men  advanced  in  years,  of  various 
callings,  were  found  regular  hearers."  His  popularity 
became  greater  still  when,  in  1845,  he  became  court- 
preacher,  and  his  Hegelianism  began  to  give  a  coloring 
to  the  conscience  of  his  generation.  The  public  was 
thoroughly  prepared  to  receive  his  doctrines  gladly 
when,  in  1849,  he  published  the  roost  successful  and  fa- 
mous of  his  contributions  to  theological  literature,  his 
Chrittian  Dogmatictf  which  has  been  translated  into 


moat  European  langnagea^  even  into  modem  Greek, 
and  haa  exercised  as  wide  an  influence  on  Protestant 
thought  as  any  volume  of  our  century.  In  Germany 
it  has  enjoyed  a  popularity  even  wider  than  in  Scan- 
dinavia, and  has  been  honored  by  a  formal  refutation 
from  the  propaganda  at  Rome.  It  was  not,  however, 
unchallenged  at  home,  a  severe  attack  upon  it  having 
been  made  by  piofesaor  Rasmus  Nielsen,  supported  se- 
cretly by  Kirkegaard  (q.  v.).  In  1854,  when  bishop 
Mynster  died,  Martenaen,  who  had  refused  the  bishop- 
ric of  Sleswig,  accepted  the  primacy  of  Denmark,  and 
began  his  administrative  labors  in  the  Church  with 
acts  of  great  vigor  and  determination.  He  became  in 
consequence  cordially  detested,  and  violently  attacked 
by  all  those  sections  of  the  Danish  Lutheran  body 
which  wavered  to  this  side  or  to  that  from  a  hier- 
archical orthodoxy.  A  great  part  of  Martensen's  time 
and  energy  henceforth  was  tJiken  up  with  polemics 
against  Grundtvig,  Nielsen,  the  Catholics,  and  the 
Irvingites.  Many  of  his  Uter  writings  are  of  this 
purely  controversial  character,  his  Expoture  of  the  So- 
called  Grundtvigiamtm,  which  he  styled  "  a  leaven,  but 
not  a  principle,"  his  CathoUcitm  and  Protettantitmf 
against  the  claims  of  the  Vatican  Council,  his  Social" 
itm  and  Chritiendom,  The  time  at  his  command,  after 
faithful  adminbtration  of  his  duties,  was,  during  his 
earlier  years,  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  his  Syttem 
of  Chrittian  Ethict  (1871-78;  German,  1878-79;  Eng- 
lish, 1878-82),  and  his  final  scientific  work  in  the  line 
of  his  early  studies  of  the  mvstics,  on  Jacob  Bohme 
(1879;  German,  1882;  English,  by  T.  Rhys  Evans,  1885). 
As  a  fitting  conclusion  of  his  literary  activitv,  he  pub- 
lUhed  his  Autobiography  (1888).  Dr. Martenaen  died, 
Feb.  3, 1884,  and  was  buried  with  great  solemnity  in  his 
own  cathedral  of  Our  Lady.  The  king  and  the  Conser- 
vative party  knew  what  they  owed  **  to  the  rigid  Tory 
prelate,  whose  fsce  was  set  like  a  flint  against  the  mod- 
em spirit  in  politics,  in  literature,  in  philosophy.  He 
was  a  great  man,  a  man  who  did  honor  to  Denmark. 
It  ia  n(»t  the  critics  of  his  own  country  only,  it  is  the 
more  impartial  Germans,  who  have  declared  Hans  Lar- 
sen  Martenaen  to  be  the  greatest  Protestant  theologian 
of  the  present  centuri'."  See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  The^,  ii, 
856;  Quarterly  Revievo  (Lond.  April,  1884);  Lutheran 
Churdk  Review  (Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July,  1884 ;  Expoti- 
tor  (Loud,  and  N.  Y.,  Jan.  1885).     (R  P.) 

Martignjt  Alkxakdrk,  a  French  archcologist, 
was  bom  April  22, 1808,  at  Sauveroy,  France.  He  re- 
ceived holy  orders  in  1832,  and  died  Aug,  19, 1880,  at 
Belley.  He  is  the  author  of  the  famous  Dictionnaire 
det  Antiquiih  Chritiennet  (Paris,  1864;  2d  ed.  1877). 
In  1865  he  published  a  French  translation  of  De'  Roeai*s 
BuUetino  di  A  rcheologia  Crittiana.    (B,  P.) 

Martin  (better  known  as  abbot  Chaifrey),  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  French  writer,  was  bora  at  Abries  in 
1813.  In  1889  he  received  holy  orders,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  the  seminary  in  Embmn.  He  was 
honorary  canon  of  different  chapters,  and  died  at  Paris 
in  1872.  He  published,/^  Panorama  det  Prtdicationt 
(1851-55,  3  vols.:  8th  ed.  1864):— Za  Bibliotheque  det 
PrHicateurt  (1867-68,  4  vols.)  i—Theologie  Morale  en 
Tableaux  (1857)  i— Repertoire  de  la  Doctrine  Chritienne 
(1857;  2d  ed.  1859-68,  3  volt.)  i—Porlraift  Littirairet 
det  PUtt  Cilebret  Pr^ieateurt  Contemporaint  (1858)  :— 
Moit  de  Marie  det  Pridicateurt  (eod.  2  vols.)  i—Ser- 
mont  Nouveauz  tur  let  Mytteret  de  Notre  Seigneur  J^ 
tut'Chritt  (1860,  2  vols.):— Ttei  det  Saintt  a  VUtage 
det  Pridicateurt  (1861-68, 4  vols.).  See  Lichtenberger, 
Encydop,  det  Sdencet  ReHgieutet,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Martin,  Benjamin  N.,  D.D.,a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister  and  educator,  was  bom  at  Mt.  Holly,  N.  J..  Oct  20, 
1816.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1837,  and 
from  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1840.  After  serving  the 
Congregational  Church  in  Hadley  for  five  years,  he  was 
installed  pastor  of  the  Fourth  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.    In  1852  he  was  appointed  professor  of 


MARTIN 


70S 


MARTINI 


logic,  intellectual  and  moral  pbilaeophy,  in  the  Univer- 
rity  of  New  York  city,  which  position  he  held  until  his 
death,  Dec.  26, 1888.  Among  the  clergy  atid  literary 
circles  professor  Blartin  enjoyed  a  large  acquaintance. 
He  was  very  popular  among  the  students,  and  gave  up 
his  whole  time  to  the  university.  He  contributed 
largely  to  many  religious  journals,  and  was  the  author 
of  several  books.  One  of  his  many  lectures  was  delivered 
before  the  Yale  Theological  School,  entitled  The  Theol- 
cgifoftke  Doctrine  of  the  Forces.  See  N,  Y,  Obeerver, 
Jan.  8, 1884 ;  Conff.  Year-book,  1884,  p.  80.    ( W.  P.  a) 

Martin,  Bon-Ziotila  Henri,  a  celebrated  Fkench 
historian,  was  bom  at  St.  Quentin,  Feb.  20, 1810.  He 
studied  at  Paris,  and  like  all  the  other  young  men  of 
his  epoch,  fell  under  the  influence  of  the  romantic 
school,  and  commenced  his  literary  career  with  writing 
verses  for  periodicals.  But  he  soon  betook  himself  to 
hb  life-long  study  of  the  history  of  France.  Paul  Iju 
croix  suggested  that  Martin  should  help  him  in  prepar- 
ing an  immense  historical  work  in  furty-etght  volumes. 
It  was  not  to  be  a  history  of  France,  but  a  collection  of 
extracts  from  chronicles  and  histories,  extending  from 
the  earliest  period  to  1880.  The  first  volume  appeared 
in  1888,  when  Martinis  colleague  deserted  him ,  and  he 
concluded  the  book  in  1886.  He  then  wrote  the  first 
volume  of  a  history  of  Soissons;  and  believing  his  stud- 
ies had  fitted  him  for  the  task,  he  commenced  the  pro- 
digious labor  of  writing  a  complete  history  of  France. 
His  interest  In  the  hbtory  of  the  Gauls  makes  his  first 
volumes  the  most  attractive  of  all.  As  successive  edi- 
tions were  called  for,  he  spent  his  time  In  painstaking 
revisions  of  his  history,  incorporating  every  new  dis- 
covery, and  keeping  his  book,  up  to  the  fourth  edition, 
in  1878,  entirely  abreast  of  the  knowledge  of  the  time. 
In  1878  and  1879  he  published  a  history  of  France  from 
1789  to  1880,  in  four  volumes,  as  a  sequel  to  his  great 
work.  In  1878  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acade- 
mic Fran^aise,  in  place  of  Thiers.  Martin  died  Dec. 
14, 1888.  With  him  expired  the  last  of  the  great  his- 
torians bred  in  the  school  of  Thierry.  See  Hanoteux, 
Henri  Martin  (Paris,  1885).     (R  P.) 

Martin,  Conrad,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate  of 
Germany,  was  bom  May  18, 1812,  at  Geismar,  Prussia, 
and  studied  under  Allioli  and  Dollinger,  as  well  as  un- 
der Gesenius,  Tholuck,  and  Tuch.  For  some  time  re- 
ligious instructor  at  Cologne,  Martin  was,  in  1844,  ap- 
pointed professor  and  inspector  of  the  clerical  seminary 
in  Donn.  In  1856  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Paderbom, 
and  from  that  time  was  the  obedient  servant  of  the 
papal  see.  As  a  member  of  the  Vatican  Council,  he 
belonged  to  those  bishops  who  advocated  the  infallibil- 
ity of  the  pope.  He  was  the  first  who  openly  protested 
against  thfe  Prussian  May-laws  of  1878,  and  thus  he 
came  in  oonfltct  with  the  government.  He  was 
fined,  and  finally  imprisoned  at  WeseL  He  escaped 
into  Belgium,  and  died  in  exile,  July  19, 1879,  at  St, 
Guibert.  He  was  buried  at  Paderbom.  He  wrote, 
f^hrbueh  der  katholitchen  Religion  fur  hdhere  Lehratt' 
etalten  (5th  ed.  Mayence,  1878)  i—Lehrbuch  der  katho^ 
litehen  Moral  (5th  ed.  ibid.  1865):— />»e  Wissemchq/l 
von  den  gottiichen  JHngen  (8d  ed.  ibid.  1869)  :—Die  Ar- 
beiten  du  vaHkamtchen  KonziU  (Paderbom,  1870): — 
Vaticam  Concilii  Docttmentorum  CoUeetio  (ibid.  1871) : 
— Drei  Jahrt  aua  tneinem  Leben  (Mayence,  1877),  de- 
scribing his  imprisonment  and  escape : — Bliehe  int  Jen- 
9eiu  (ibid.  1877)  i^-ZeiOUder  (ibid.  1879,  posthumous). 
(B.P.) 

Martin,  Jacques,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ge- 
neva, was  bom  in  1794.  While  yet  a  student,  he  was 
obliged  to  take  part  in  the  campaigns  against  Ger- 
many, which  the  first  Napoleon  inaugurated.  He  fought 
in  the  battles  atLeipeic  and  Waterloo,  and  in  1815  went 
to  (jeneva.  For  two  years  he  followed  commercial 
pursuits,  and  then  betook  himself  to  theological  study. 
In  1818  he  was  enrolled  as  a  student,  and  in  1822 
graduated,  presenting  for  his  thesis,  IJUniti  de  la  Foi, 


Martin  sooa  distinguished  himself,  both  as  an  instnio 
tor  and  pulpit  orator,  and  his  writings  were  not  only 
often  reprinted,  but  some  of  them,  as  VOraimm  Z>mkm»- 
eale,  were  eren  translated  into  other  languages.  He 
died  in  1874.  See  Bouvier,  Jaeque$  Martin^  Pridiea-' 
teur  Patriate,  in  the  Etreimes  Rd^ietuea  (1877),  and  the 
same  in  lichtenberger's  Enegd^,  des  Sdencee  Beligi' 
eueee,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Martin,  James,  D.D.,  an  Associate  minister,  waa 
bora  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  May  12, 1796.  He  graduated 
from  Union  College,  Schenectady,  in  1819,  and  after  a 
course  in  theology  iji  the  theological  seminary  of  Phil- 
adelphia, was  licensed  Sept.  2, 1822,  and  soon  after  took 
charge  of  an  Associate  Reformed  congregation  at  Al- 
bany. He  edited  the  Religiou*  McnUor  in  1888.  In 
1842  he  was  elected  professor  of  didactic  theology  and 
Hebrew  in  the  theological  seminary  at  Cannoosbui^, 
Pa.  lie  died  June  15, 1846.  See  Sprague,  i4imai!f  of 
the  A  m€r.  Pulpit,  IX,  iii,  112. 

Martin,  Johann,  a  Reformed  theologian,  who  died 
at  Groningen  in  1665,  is  the  author  of,  Analynt  Popm- 
larit  in  Malachiam  Prophetam: — Analysis  Popularit 
in  Epistolasad  Philippenses  et  Thessalonioenses.  See 
Benthem,  IfoUdndischer  Kirchen'Staat ;  Jocher,  AUge- 
tneines  Gelehrten^Lexihon,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Martin  (Paschoud),  Joseph,  a  Pratestant  theo- 
logian, was  bom  at  Nlmes,  OcL  14, 1802.  He  studied  at 
Geneva,  was  for  some  time  pastor  at  Luneray,  and  in 
1828  at  Lyons,  where  he  labored  with  his  former  dasa* 
mate,  Adolphe  Monod.  In  1887  he  was  called  to  Paria» 
but  after  two  yean  of  work  was  obliged  to  retire  from 
the  active  ministry  for  a  time  on  account  of  an  in- 
curable disease.  In  1889  be  commenced  publishing  a 
monthly  journal,  entitled  Le  Disciple  de  Jisus  Christ, 
In  1858  he  founded  V Alliance  Chritienne  UniverselU, 
on  the  following  basis :  '*  Love  of  God,  the  Creator  and 
Father  of  all  men ;  love  of  all  men,  the  immortal  creat- 
ures and  children  of  (vod ;  love  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  son 
of  God  and  Saviour  of  mankind.**  Adolphe  Monod  was 
the  first  who  wrote  against  the  principles  of  this  jour- 
nal In  1851  the  consistory  of  Paris  appointed  the 
younger  Athanase  Coquerel  as  his  assistant,  and  made 
him  retire,  under  the  pretext  of  heresy,  in  1864.  In 
spite  of  the  protests  of  his  medical  advisers,  Martin  re- 
sumed his  ministerial  functions.  In  1868  he  succeeded 
Athanase  Coquerel,  the  father,  as  president  of  the  pres- 
bytery, and  died  May  24, 1878,  at  Loges,  near  Yersailles^ 
See  Lichtenberger,  Eneydop,  des  Sciences  ReUgiaues, 
S.V.    (RP.) 

Martin,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  at  Chestnut  Level,  Lancaster  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  9, 
1767.  He  was  converted  in  his  twenty^second  year, 
graduated  from  ^he  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1790, 
was  licensed  bv  the  Baltimore  Presbvterv  in  Mav,  1798, 
and  soon  after  was  installed  pastor  of  the  congregation 
at  Slateridge,  Yosk  O.,  laboring  there  faithfuUy  for 
five  years,  and  then  accepted  a  call  from  the  congrega- 
tion of  Chaneford,  where  he  remained  until  1812.  He 
died  June  28, 1845.  Dr.  Martin  published  several  ser- 
mons :  two  in  which  the  doctrine  of  election  is  proved 
and  illustrate<l  (1806) ;  one  on  Regeneraiion,  printed  in 
the  Spruce  Street  lAtHures;  and  one  entitled  ChUdren 
are  an  Heritage  of  the  Lord.  See  Sprague,  il  ima^  of 
the  Amer»  Pulpit,  iv,  118. 

Martinet,  August,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine,  who 
died  OcL  11, 1877,  at  Bamberg,  doctor  and  professor,  ia 
the  author  of,  Hdrdischt  Sprache^Schule  Jur  Universi' 
taten  (Bamberg,  1885): — Chrestomathie  aus  modemen 
neuhdirSischen  iSchryim  entnominen  (ibid.  1837).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  117 ;  FUrst,  Bibi  Jud. 
ii,282.    (RP.) 

Martini,  Christian  David  Anton,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  22, 1761.  He 
studied  at  Gdttingen,  and  for  some  time  acted  as  teach- 
er at  his  native  place.  In  1789  he  was  made  professor 
of  theology  at  Rostock,  in  1791  doctor  of  theology.    In 


MARTINI  11 

18M  bi  wn  e*ll*d  to  WDnburg,  in  1807  to  MUMt,  tlHl 

fat  1809  lo  Hunicb.  Hiniu  died  6«pC  1,  INIGl  He 
wiDW,  CoKoatnlalio  PhiloIogKO-CHHea  n  /Asm  Entia 
tti,  18;  liii,  12  (Rntock,  1791} : —A'uMMi  Catartaitu 
dt  Dicmtatt  CkriiU  SaitaUia,  etc  (ibid.  179S)  —Per- 
nculioioM  ChrutianonM  tub  Inperaloriiui  Roauaai 
CauK*  tt  ^tetOM  (ibid  1802-1808) :- ftier  die  Eiit- 
JUrUHg  der  diritlL  Bdigiam  aU  Slaaltntigion,  elc 
(Munich,  1814),  See  DOrinK,  Dit  gtkkriat  Theologn 
DtnltMatid;  «.  t.;  Winer,  Jiamilitick  dir  IheoL  Lit. " 
319, 667, 674, 680, 697, 698.  (a  F.) 
.  Mortliil,  Jacob,  ■  Lntheno  theologian,  wu  hot 
at  LingenMein,  dut  Droden,  Suonj,  Oci.  16, 1670, 
■nd  died  et  Wittenberg,  Hiy  80,  1649,  doctor  ind  pro- 
fcnorof  tbeology.  He  wrote,  Oi^iKaltonundf  ifuno 
Dtau; — Dt  CaHia  Pteeali:—LiM  Hi  dt  ShUm: — 
Vimiicia  Ecdttia  Lulhtrana  amlra  Vattriarmm  Mag- 
mMiH.'—Sgilma  Theulagiaim :—CoUtgiiim  AHli-Cabii- 

Biblica  in  GtHoim — Pariitionei  tt  Qiuitiintrt  Melctpkf- 
Bca: — De  Tkeologia  Comtihitionttt  Vtrbo  I)fi  ScHpIo: 
—Qaomodo  Sola  Fiia  JuM^ctt.  See  Witir,  Hemoria 
TktologoTVm;  itHlbtt,  AUgrwmia  Gtkhr 

^v.  (a  P.) 

Bffamta  (Saint),  Litubot  op,  one  or  the  twelre  lit- 
nrgi«  contiined  in  the  mieul  of  the  Uironites,  pnb- 
liihed  u  Rome  in  1692. 

JXaxx,  Jacob,  ■  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of  Oer- 
man^.vaa  bom  Sept.  8,1808.   In  1829  be  receired  b(4y 
order*,  waa  in  1836  proreaior  or  Chnrch  biatory 
oanon  law  at  TrcTei,  in  I86I  doctor  of  tbeology,  in 
member  or  the  chapter,  and  died  Feb.  16, 1876.    He  is 
the  author  or,  Unachm  dtr  kAikUbi  FtrbrtHnKff  dtr 
Rtformalion  tunac/ut  in  IkulfMaxd  (Ha.Tenoe,  1884); 
— Dtr  Bitdertlrril  dtr  bjfZantinuditn  Kaiitr  (TreTii^ 
1839) :  —Dai  WaUfahrtm  in  dtr  taOotacim  Sirdu 
(HifEnce,  1842)  ■.—Garkiehit  da  hrOigtn  ffocta  n  der 
DemldTdii  III  T'rin-  (1844)  -.-DU  AuitiUui^  da  it" 
ffm  Bodrl  (IS4&)  i—Caipar  Olenan  odrr  der  Calrii 
■wt  in  T'ier  im  Jakrt  1669  (1846) :  ~  CcicAicAfe  thi 
EriMiflf  Trier  bit  turn  Jakre  1816  (1866-64,  6  vols.). 
See  ZuchoU,  dtK  Tkeol  ii,  868.     (R  P.) 

MasBda.  The  ruina  of  this  stronghold,  now  called 
8Mtk,  an  minutely  delineautd  in  the  Mtmoin  accom- 
panying the  Ordnance  Sun-ey  (iii,  417  sq.).  See  alKi 
Tristram,  L(nHi<^Jfoa6,  p.  46  aq.  The  fullowing,  from 
Conder'i7'en/(rort(ii,140),si 

"The  rock  of  Haaada  meat 
weit,  by  CM  yards  north  aud  so 
laat  \b  hdght  abaTO  the  plain 


lead  dp  to  the  pUtmn  on  ihs  top,  tbat  on  the  eait  belne 
■  wladInK  ascent,  now  almoat  Impaiaahls,  but  by  whtcE 
captain  warren  went  np:  this  Is  ippanntly  tM  path 
called  the  'Serpent'  by  Jutephns.  The  second  path,  on 
"le  west,  ascends  from  a  iiarnnr  sloplag  bank  or  white 
larl,  which  ia  atwat  lOOU  feet  high,  sod  which  Josepbn* 
Ills  the  'White  Promontory;'  npon  Ihls  rises  llw  ereal 
_imp,  aboBt  HO  feet  high,  which  the  Romans  piled  np 
asalnst  Uia  rock  dnring  the  *lei»,  a  work  an  laboilnun 
tnat  It  siiiiiia  alowit  iDcredlbte  that  hnniin  efforts  canlil 
accomplished  It  In  so  short  n  time.  At  the  top  I'f 
■mp  Is  the  masonry  wall  which  the  beileiteni  bnlll 
Ibnndatlon  fat  their  englnee,  befl>re  dlacaTerlDg  iho 
great  tragedy  that  had  been  enacted  vrltbln  the  tortreaa, 
where  the  gatrlaon  had  fallen  by  one  nnniber'i  swords. 

"A  failgnlng  climb  bmnght  ns  tn  ihe  plateau  at  Iba 
lop,  Hare  la  a  pointed  arcbway,  IndlcailTe  of  Crusading 
maaona,  and  acorsd  with  tbe  Irlbe-marha  of  Ihe  Jibsllu 
and  RuahUdeh  Arabs,  which  were  on  a  (brmer  occsslon 
mlitaksn  by  a  dlstlognlshed  frenchman  for  planetary 

■n, 


with  taps  and  a 


We  rell  to  work  a 

plan  and  describe  ihe  _    „      ..  ^ 

pallT  na  the  north-west  port  of  the  rock,  and  they  are  of 
TBrlons  dites.  The  m»t  ancient  appenr  to  b«  ibe  long 
mds  walla,  leaemblloK  Ihe  bulldlugi  at  Uerodlom  (Jebel 
FureldlB),  hot  the  mAl»rity  or  the  masonry  Is  to  be  aicrlbed 
totheChrlftlansofiheDihorlSIhcenlurlea.  There  Is  ■ 
chapel  on  Ihe  platsan,  and  nlao  ■  ca**.  In  wblch  I  [Mnnd 
a  euriooa  Inacrlptlon  with  emasea,  which  If,  apparenlly,  a 
new  dlfCiiTery.  It  Is  patutsd  In  red,  and  raeemblea  sune 
of  the  Wlb  and  Ulh  century  inscriptions  near  Jetlcho. 

*"rha  meet  aitiaordlnary  featnre  of  this  wondertnl 
place  bss  y«t  to  be  noticed.  Tbe  Romani  Id  ihsir  attack 
on  Maaadn  riillnwad  Ibe  same  method  which  had  reduced 
Jemsalam.  Ther  anrrounded  the  nntasppy  Jews  with  ■ 
wall  ot  ctrcnm*all*tlon.  Looking  down  fnim  the  turn- 
ndt,  Ihe  rnlns  of  this  wall— n  dryatous  parapst,  rnunlni; 
serosa  Ihe  plain  and  Dp  the  euuiheni  blll-alopea— conld 
be  distinctly  traced. 

"Two  large  camps,  also  wsHed  with  atone,  lay  spread 
ont  behind  t^la  Una  on  the  weat  aud  east,  and  all  smaller 
ones,  tike  redoabtB,on  tbe  low  Ernnnd  ;  the  eiilire  len_gib 
of  Ihe  wall  was  not  less  than  SOW  yards,  ns  ineosnrcd^DO 

eighteen  boodred  yesrs  ago." 
Mubotbeons,  tbs  disciples  of  Uaebolheui,  who 


dbyso 


M(q.y.). 


■ebeeni 


Bffudua,  HiCTOB  GnTTrRiicT).  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  April  13, 1663.  He  studied  at  different 
uniTeraties,  went  to  Fiance  in  1682  as  chaplain  lo  the 
Danish  embassy,  and  was  made  In  16S6  doctor  and  pm- 
feasor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen.  He  died  Sept.  SO, 
1709,  leaving,  ZM/ensB  de  la  Rrligtim  tmienetne ; — B^ 
rielii  eon  den  Unterteiied  der  Uitkeritcien  vnd  rr/omt- 
irten  Llkrt:—De  Profmatione  Iliulia  Comeetvta  ;— 
De  Pallia  Paidi:—Scktdiatmala  Tria  Sacra,  Sciliett 
1,  J>i  CmdemUt  COKeHU  Trideulim;  S,  De  Polgmalkia 
Scripiomm  Saeronnt  i  3,  Dt  SrHHoiiaxif  PavlL  See 
JOobar,  AOgmeixet  GelekrUn- 1 jxHob,  b.  v.;  Winer, 

Jfaiidbath  der  theoi  Lit.  i,  846, 

168.     (B.  P.) 
Muon,   Charlei^  D.D.,  a 

PrMestant  Episcopal  clergyman, 
was  bom  July  26, 1812,  at  Porta- 

-  mouth,N.H.  He  graduated  with 
honor  from  Harvard  College  in 
I88S;    studied   theology   at    tbe 

^  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  city;  was  ordained 
deacon  and  priest  by  bishop  Gris- 
wolJ;  became  rector  of  St.  Pe- 
ter's Church,  Salem,  AJan.,  in 
Hay,  1837;  and  of  Grace  Church, 
Doslon,  in  1847,  which  position 
he  held  until  bis  death,  March 
28,1862.  For  a  long  time  he  was 
a  member  of  the  standing  eom- 
millee  of  the  diocese,  and  waa 
prominent  in  varioua  misaionaTf 
enterprises.  See  Amtr.  i^ar. 
-     C*urc*  JteB.  1862,  p.  786. 

UsBon,  Cyms,  D,D.,  a  Pres- 


MASON 


lOi 


MATHEMA 


1884;  spent  two  yean  in  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary; was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York, 
Dec  7, 1826,  pastor  of  Cedar  Street'  Church,  New  York 
city;  in  1886  became  pastor  of  the  Beneficent  Congre- 
gational Church,  Providence,  B.  I.;  in  1886  professor 
of  political  economy  and  ethics  in  the  University  of 
New  York,  a  position  which  he  retained  ontil  1860. 
He  died  in  New  York  city,  May  28, 1866.  See  GtiL  Cat, 
of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  60. 

Mason,  Sumner  IL,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Cheshire,  Berkshire  Co.,  Mass.,  June  14, 
1819.  He  was  for  two  years  a  member  of  Yale  College 
(1888-40) ;  then  became  a  member  of  the  First  Bap- 
tist Church  in  New  Haven,  and  devoted  the  next  seven 
years  to  teaching,  most  of  the  time  in  Nashville,  Tenn., 
where  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  Sept.  7, 1844;  and  stud- 
ied theology  under  Rev.  Dr.  Howell  He  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church,  Lockport,  N.  Y., 
Aug.  22, 1849;  then  became  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist 
Church  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  March  4, 1866,  where  he 
continued  an  able  and  successful  minister  until  his  death, 
Aug.  26, 1871.  A  volume  of  his  sermons  and  essays, 
edited  by  Rev.  A.  Hovey,  D.D.,  with  a  sketch  of  his  life 
and  character,  by  Rev.  O.  A.  Steams,  D.D.,  was  issued 
by  the  Riverside  (Cambridge)  press  in  1874.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Maaaarooo,  Robbrt,  D.D.,  an  Irish  Methodist 
preacher,  was  bom  at  Londondeny  in  1790.  He  joined 
the  Methodist  society  in  his  eighteenth  year,  and  in 
1811  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Irish  Conference.  He 
was  a  pious,  pradent,  intelligent,  and  devoted  Methodist 
preacher  for  nearly  fifty  years,  and,  in  1859,  from  failing 
health,  became  a  supernumerary,  but  as  a  scholar  and 
gentleman  he  continued  to  labor  as  treasurer  of  the 
Methodist  Annuitant  Society  and  Auxiliary  Fund,  and 
closed  his  useful  life  in  Dublin,  March  8,  1871.  He 
filled  several  official  positions  in  Irish  Methodism,  was 
an  able  advocate  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, and  a  useful  guide  to  young  ministers  in  study- 
ing the  original  text  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Maoaooh,  Stephen  C,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  first  appears  in  the  records  as  a  mission- 
ary in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  1867,  and  remained  there  until 
1869,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  **  Mission  of  the 
North-west,"  which  was  then  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
Joseph  C.  Talbot,  D.D.,  missionary  bishop.  Dr.  Mas- 
Boch  was  especi^ly  to  minister  to  the  Germans  and 
Bohemians  in  Osage,  Neb.  Shortly  after,  he  removed 
to  Arago,  devoting  himself  to  the  same  work,  and  re- 
mained in  this  sphere  of  labor  until  1866,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Baltimore,  Md.  In  1868  he  was  a  resident 
of  Covington,  Ky.  He  died  May  80, 1870.  See  ProL 
Episc.  Almaruic^  1871,  p.  118. 

Maatxlcht,  Peter  ton,  a  Dutch  theologian,  was 
bom  in  1630.  lie  studied  at  Duisburg  and  Utrecht, 
was  for  some  time  professor  of  Hebrew  and  of  theology 
at  Frankfort,  and  in  1669  professor  at  Duisburg.  '  In 
1677  he  was  called  to  Utrecht,  and  died  Feb.  10, 1706. 
He  wrote,  Theologia  TheoreHeo-Practica  (2  vols.):— 
£zercitationes  A  nalyttca  et  Ezegetica  ad  Eta,  liii : — 
SfftUagma  de  Fide  Salcifica :  —  Vwdicim  Veritatts  ei 
AutoritattB  Sacra  Scripturm  in  Rdnii  Philotophicis 
contra  Wtttichium:  —  AcadendiB  Ultrajectina  Votum 
SymboUcum,  See  MoIIer,  Cimbria  Litterata;  Jdcher, 
AUgemsinet  Gelehrten'Lextkon^  s.  v.;  Winer,  Bandbuch 
der  ih€ol  Lit,  i,  804.     (B.  P.) 

Matahiti  (Afaoa  Rod),  the  ripening  or  completing 
of  the  year,  a  festival  regularly  observed  in  Huahine, 
Polynesia.  Men,  women,  and  children  attended  this 
festival,  but  the  females  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
sacred  enclosure.  They  held  a  sumptuous  banquet  an- 
nually, the  time  of  which  was  regulsted  by  the  blos- 
soming of  reeds.  When  the  prayers  were  finished  at 
the  marcBf  and  the  banquet  ended,  each  individual  re- 
tumed  to  his  home  or  family  mane  to  offer  special 
prayers  for  the  spirits  of  departed  relatives,  that  they 
might  be  liberated  from  the  jw,  or  state  of  night,  and  | 


ascend  to  roAnfinioaiioa,  the  mount  Mem  of  Polyneaiay 
or  return  to  this  world,  by  entering  into  the  body  of 
one  of  its  inhabitanta. 

Xffatamoroa,  Maitubl,  a  Spanish  Protestant,  was 
bora  Oct.  8, 1886,  at  Lepe,  in  the  province  of  Hoelva. 
In  1860  he  entered  the  ndlitary  school  at  Toledo^  bat 
the  life  of  the  soldiers  which  he  witnessed  there  caused 
such  a  didike  for  a  military  career  that  be  left  the 
school  and  went  to  Malaga,  where  bis  mother  was  then 
residing.  On  a  visit  to  Gibraltar  he  casually  attended 
a  service  held  by  Francisco  de  Paula  Ruet  (q.  v.),  who 
impressed  him  so  deeply  that  Matarooros  bought  a 
New  Test^  which  convinced  him  of  the  errors  of  Ro- 
manisi|i.  Through  Ruet,  Matamoros  came  into  rela- 
tions with  a  committee  in  Edinburgh,  and  later,  with 
one  in  Paris,  which  prosecuted  the  evangelizatioa  of 
Spain.  He  went,  under  commission  of  the  latter,  to 
Granada,  Seville,  and  Barcelona  (1860).  At  Granada 
he  became  acquainted  with  Jos6  Alhama,  a  hat^maker, 
who  had  been  converted  through  the  instromentality 
of  an  American  tract,  and  was  preaching  the  gospeL 
When  arrested  letters  were  found  on  his  person  from 
Matamoros,  Morin,  Carrasco,  and  Gonzalez,  all  of  whom 
were  likewise  imprisoned.  Two  years  Matamoros  waa 
kept  at  Granada  awaiting  his  trial.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  a  deputation  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  and 
the  efforts  of  queen  Elizabeth  of  Prassia,  Matamoros  was 
released.  May  28, 1868,  on  condition  that  he  should  leave 
the  country.  He  went  on  a  visit  to  England,  where 
he  was  cordially  welcomed,  and  afterwards  to  Lausanne, 
where  he  attended  the  theological  seminary.  On  a 
visit  to  Pan,  in  southem  France,  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  an  American  lady,  whom  he  induced  to  estab- 
lish there  a  Spanish  school.  Retuming  to  Lausanne  in 
May,  1866,  he  died  just  a  few  days  before  the  time  set 
for  his  ordination,  July  31,  and  two  years  before  his 
country  was  opened  to  Protestant  missions  (1868).  Ilia 
name  will  not  be  forgotten  beside  that  of  Ruet,  Carraa- 
00,  Alhama,  and  other  evangelists  in  Spain.  See  Lich- 
tenberger,  Encyclop,  det  Science*  ReligUuHtj  s.  v. ;  Plitt- 
Herzog,  Real-Encykiop.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Mateer,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  Hill  Head  parish.  County  Down,  Ireland. 
He  graduated  from  Belfast  College,  and  after  removinfr 
to  the  United  States  entered  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  remaining  one  year,  and  then  went  to  the 
Western  Theological  Seminary,  where  he  graduated  in 
1864.  He  was  ordained,  and  installed  pastor  of  the 
church  of  Leatherwood,  Pa.,  and  also  of  the  Licking 
Church.  After  twent^'-one  years  of  successful  labor  he 
was  relessed,  and  installed  over  Sligo  Church,  frooa 
whence  he  was  transferred  to  New  Bethlehem,  where  be 
remained  till  1881.  He  died  in  Bethlehem,  Oct  1, 1888. 
See  Neerol  Report  of  Princeton  Theol  Sem,  1884,  p.  88. 

Mat'b,  the  residence  of  a  monastic  community 
among  the  HindAs.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  build- 
ings, including  a  set  of  huts  or  chambers  for  the  Ma" 
haut  or  superior,  and  his  resident  ChHas  or  disciples;  a 
temple  sacred  to  the  deity  whom  they  worship,  or  the 
Sam&dh,  or  shrine  of  the  founder  of  the  sect,  or  some 
eminent  teacher;  and  one  or  more  sheds  or  buildings 
for  the  accommoidation  of  the  mendicants  or  travellers 
who  are  constantly  visiting  the  Mat'h,  both  ingress  and 
egress  being  free  to  all.  The  number  of  permanent 
pupils  in  a  Mafh  varies  from  three  or  four  to  thirty  or 
forty ;  besides  whom  there  is  also  a  considerable  num« 
ber  of  out-door  members.  Most  of  the  Mat'hs  have  a 
small  endowment  of  land,  which  they  either  let  at  a 
fixed  rental,  or  cultivate  on  their  own  account.  Besides 
this  they  often  receive  generous  contributions  from  lay 
votaries,  alms  gathered  by  members  who  go  out  to  seek 
them,  and  the  profits  arising  from  traffic  covertly  car^ 
ried  on. 

Matbfima  (/la^if/ia,  a  lesion),  a  name  usually  given 
in  the  ancient  Greek  writers  to  the  creed,  probably  be> 
cause  the  catecbnmens  were  obliged  to  leam  it. 


MATHER 

Idathei,  R.  CoTTOH,  LL.D^  an  Engluh  Congicgi- 
tiooal  miuialer,  wm  bam  *t  Neir  Windanr,  Hanctaeater, 
Not.  8, 1808.  He  griduiled  fiom  Gliigow  Univeniiy, 
■ludied  two  yean  st  Homertoa  Theological  College, 
wu  ordiined  June  1, 1888,  Bod  the  ume  ifur  proceeded 
to  loilii  in  the  service  of  Chs  Loodoa  Hininnuy  Soci- 
Mf,  settling  in  Benares,  where  he  resided  till  May,  1SS8, 
then  left  Toi  Mintpore,  in  order  to  eetablish  a  new  mii- 
■ioD  in  that  city,  laboring  there  the  rest  of  hii  misaiaa- 
uylira  with  great  succas.  He  wrote  Iraeta,  theological 
treatises,  and  works  of  a  varied  chaiacter,  both  in  H  indU 
and  Urdu.  He  died  April  SI,  1877.  See  (Lend.)  £va>i- 
j((tcaiJWojoitn«,July,lB77,p.420i  (Lond.)  Cdbj.  Kair. 
book,  18TB,  p.  SSS. 

Mathlen,  Jacques  Uakik  Adiuen  C^airr,  a 
French  prelate,  was  bom  at  Paris,  Jan.  26, 179a  He 
first  studied  law,  but  afterwards  betook  himself  to  the 
study  of  theology,  entered  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpiee, 
was  ordained  priest,  and  became  secretary  to  the  bishop 
of  Evreui  in  1828.  In  1SS3  he  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Langres,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  raised  to 
theaichiepiacopalseeofBeaan^n.  Inl8fiObewasmade 
cafdinil.  As  ■  membei  of  the  senate  he  was  a  zealooi 
defender  of  the  lights  of  the  Chareh,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  interdict  of  the  goTemment,  he  published  the 
papal  encyclical  of  Dec  8,  ISM.  Uathieu  died  at  Be- 
sanfon  in  ISii.  Of  his  brochares  we  especially  men- 
tion Lt  Poaroir  Ttmponl  in  Papa  JutliJU  par  VHit- 
loire(lSe3).  See  Lichtenberger.JElKycfop.rfu  5cMiw«» 
S^igieaK;  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

UBtByaTBtBTB,  in  HindO  mythal<^.  Is  the  in- 

aa  a  Ssh,  the  Msja- 
Bsb,  with  the  sur- 
name Cexit.  The  fa- 
ble is  t(dd  as  follows : 
Brahma  had  (alien 
asleep  \  the  giant  Ha- 
Jagrina  atule  froni 
the  sleeping  god  the 
four  Vedas,  the  lawa 
of  the  world,  and  the 
lawless  world  now 
sank  into  lbs  king- 
ilora  of  eviL  Then 
Vishnu  saved  the 
world  in  the  form  of 
a  fish,  by  following 

the   giant,  who   bid       j.,        „,  ^j,^  ^^ 

imder  the  sea,  attd 
compelling  him  to  surrender  the  books. 

Matteson,  L-  J.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  wai  bom 
at  Laurens,  Otsego  Co.,  N.  Y.  lie  pursued  his  studies 
at  Hamilton,  graduating  from  the  college  there  in  I8&8, 
and  from  the  theological  seminary  in  1860.  His  pas- 
(oralea  were  at  Watertown  and  Sing  Sing,  Brattleboro', 
Vt.,  and  Troy  and  Cortland,  M.  Y.,  where  he  died,  May 
6,1878,     (J.C.S.) 

MattlUBaa  (or  MacbabimiB),  a  Scotch  prelate, 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  see  of  Ross  in  1272,  and, 
while  attending  a  council  at  Lyons,  died  there  in  1274. 
See  Keith,  Scollidi  Buhopi,  p.  186. 

MatthKI,<>>u»>o  Chiiistiak  HuDoi.rH,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  boni  in  1798  at  Hameln, 
and  ilied  at  Goitingen,'Nor.  20, 1873,  professor  of  theol- 
ogy. He  puhlisheil,  Sgnopie  dtr  vitr  Eraniidim  mbit 
Kriiik  iArei-  WundercrtiMunsrn  (Gottingen,  1826)  :— 
Dtr  Riiisiontglaabe  da-  Apold  Jau  (ibid.  1826-30,  2 
vols.):— CtB  Ltkrt  com  Ceirte  iddtr  ihrt  Gtgntr  (ibid. 
1834)  -.-Nrnt  A  utirgung  dtr  Bibtl  xtir  Krforichimg  md 
Dartlrlliiiig  iAra  Glanbrni  (ibid.  183]} ;— Der  Mytticit- 
mutnacA  itinrm  BfjTift,Urtpningt,imd  Unatrth  (ibid. 
lSii2)  \  ~  Autlfgvng  dti  Evanffelittini  Johamiu  (ibid. 
1887)  -.—Dia  Macht  Knd  Wiirde  dtt  FirUm,  aafehritl- 
licAm  Standpmktt  (Leipsic,  1841)  -.—DoiirBia  ChriiH 
de  Janjuramio  (1847)  -.^Dat  VtrkSUmu  da  CknUen- 
IIL— Tt 


>S  MATTHEWS 

thumt  air  Politit  (1860)  -.—DU  A  luUguvg  da  l-'o/enm- 
ssr  nact  dtm  kBckittn  Grmdialie  dtr  Audtj/uiig  da 
Nam  TatanmU  (18S3).  See  Ziichold,  BiU.  ThtoL  ii, 
859;  Winer,ffai»diiiiArf(r(AeotZ4(.i, 108,246,294,864. 
488.     (a  P.) 

SSattlieir,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  formerty  arch- 
deacon of  Lothian,  and  became  bishop  of  Aberdeen  in 
1164.    See  Keith,  ScottUh  BMopi,  p.  103. 

Matthews  (J3im£)  ZAttagy,  one  of  the  twelve 
lituigiei  of  the  Haronites,  conuined  in  their  missal 

Matthews,  John,  D.D.,  ■  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Guilford  County,  N.  C,  Jan.  19, 1772.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1801,  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Orange,  and  crossed  the  desert  country  to  Natchei, 
Miss.,  acting  as  a  missionary  there.  In  April,  1803, 
be  returned  to  North  Carolina,  and  shortly  alter  re- 
ceived a  call  to  the  churches  of  Xutbush  and  Grassy 
Creek,  where  he  continued  till  1806,  then  removed  to 
Hartinsburg,  Va,  and  after  a  year  resigned  this  for  the 
charge  at  Shepherdslown.  Here  be  continued  till  1836, 
preaching  as  slated  supply  of  this  I^urch  and  that  of 
Chatlestown,  and  frequently  also  at  Harper's  Ferry.  He 
next  took  a  charge  at  Msrlinjburg  and  Chsriestown, 
and  when  the  theological  seminary  wss  esublished  at 
Hanover,  Ind.,  he  was  invited  to  become  professor.  He 
died  at  New  Albany,  May  19,1848.  His  publications 
are,  Lelleri  on  Iht  Diciat  Purpoir,  and  The  Inftaaet 
o/lki  Bible. 

Matthswi^  John  Daniel,  D.D.,  a  Presbvterian 
minister,  was  bom  si  Shepherdstown,  Va^  June  9, 1809. 
He  gradoatcd  from  Jefferson  College  in  1827,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1831.  He  was  or- 
dained an  evangelist  by  the  Presbrtcrv  of  Georgia,  be- 
came a  sUted  supply  of  St.  Mary's  in'l832,  and  subse- 
quently of  the  Second  Church,  Philadelphia.  In  1833  he 
was  installed  pastor  of  Opequan  andCedarcburehes,  Va. 
He  became  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Norfolk  in  1837, 
■nd  after  Ave  years  removed  to  the  McChord  Church, 
Lexington,  Ky.  After  this  he  supplied  the  churches 
of  Hopewell,  Paducah,  and  Henderson.  For  six  years 
he  was  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  Ken- 
tucky, after  which  he  supplied  the  churehes  of  Jackson 
Street,  Mobile;  Second  Church,  Baltimore;  New  York 
A«nue  Church,  Washington  City;  Portland  Avenue 
Church,  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  Deniiison.Tex.  He  died 
at  Dallas,  March  7, 1884.  See  X/erol.  B^ri  of  Prinee- 
ton  Tktol.  Bern.  1884,  p.  13. 

Matthewa,  Joseph  MHowell,  D.D.,  a  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  in  Anguau  County, 
Vs.,  Dec  8, 1804.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  removed  with 
hia  parents  to  Kentucky,  and,  settling  on  a  farm,  was 
given  a  thorough  private  academical  education,  which 
he  increased  by  personal  effort.  He  joined  the  Church 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  was  licensed  tii  preach  in  1826, 
in  1827  began  a  school  or  acaderov  for  boj's  in  Hills. 
borough,  O,  which  he  continued  till  1831,  when  he 
entered  the  Ohio  Conference.  In  1831-82  he  served 
the  Church  in  Chillicothe.  and  in  1833  in  Cincinnati. 
There  bis  health  failed,  and  he  retired  to  a  farm,  where 
he  spent  nearly  six  years.  In  1839  he  opened  the  Oak- 
land  Female  Seminary,  where  he  did  noble  work  until 
1856,  when  he  took  charge  of  the  Hillsborough  Female 
College.  In  1S60  lie  iMcame  piedideiit  of  Jcsaaniiue 
Female  College,  Nicholaaville,  Ky.,  but  in  1868  returned 
to  Hillsboiough,  and  opened  a  private  boarding-school. 
In  1872  he  again  accepted  a  call  to  the  presidency  of 
Hillsborough  Female  College,  where  he  remained  un- 
til ill.health  led  him,  in  1877,  to  resign  his  office,  and 
retire  to  hit  home  in  ihe  suburbs  of  Hillsborough,  where 
ha  died,  Aug,  6,  1879.  See  Minvla  of  Amaol  Full 
Coffftrmca,  1879,  p.  16. 

SlatthewB,  Robert  C,  D.D..a  Presbvterian  min- 
imer,waa  bom  at  Shephardstonn,  Va.,  Aprir2, 1822.  He 
was  educated  in  Illinois,  where  be  practiced  law 


,  al^er  a  yes 


larj',  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  ol 


MATTHIA 


706 


MAURITIUS 


the  FtesbyterUn  Church  in  Hoomoath,  IlL,  Dec  20, 
1852.  HU  labors  in  this  Cbnrch  were  attended  with 
great  Bucceaa.  He  died  there,  Nov.  15, 1881.  See  AT.  F. 
Observer,  Dec.  1, 1881.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Matthia,  ChrlBtiaii,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germanji  was  born  in  1584.  He  studied  at  Strasburg 
and  Gieasen,  was  in  1614  rector  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Durlach,  in  1618  professor  of  theology  at  Altdorf,  in 
1629  professor  at  Sora,  in  Denmark,  in  1689  at  Leyden, 
and  in  1641  pastor  of  the  Lutheran  congregation  at  the 
Hague.  In  1645  he  resigned  his  position,  retired  to 
Utrecht,  and  died  Jan.  22, 1655.  He  wrote,  ExercUa- 
(tones  Metaphysica  xii: — MHhodica  Scriptura  Sacra 
Loca  Vimdicandi  Ratio: — Historia  Patriarcharum:^ 
Analysis  Typica  Evangelii  Maithcei: — Antiloyia  BibU- 
COB,  etc  See  MoUer,  Cimbria  Litterara;  Jocher,  AW- 
gememes  Gelehrteth^Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B,  P.) 

Matthia,  VToU  ChrlBtiaii,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Denmark,  was  bom  Jan.  28, 1734^  He  studied 
at  Kiel,  was  in  1762  military  preacher,  in  1770  pastor 
at  Rendsburg,  in  1778  member  of  consistory,  and  died 
Jan.  29, 1787.  He  wrote,  Diss,  Historia  Samudis,  SauU 
et  Davidisy  ad  Annorum  RatUmes  Diyesta  (Kiel,  1752) : 
— Beschreibung  der  Kirckenver/assung  in  den  Jlerzog- 
thihwm  Schlestoig  und  HoUtein  (Flensburg,  1778-86,  2 
rola.) : — Schriftmdssige  B^rachtung  iiber  das  Leiden  und 
Sterben  Jesu  Christi  (ibid.  1786).  See  Doring,  Die  ge- 
lehrten  Theologm  Deuischlands\  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuch 
dertkeoLLU.i,83S.    (K  P.) 

MatQta,  in  Roman  mythology,  was  originally  an 
ancient  Italian  goddess  of  day-dawn,  and  later  con- 
founded with  Leucothea  (q.  v.),  and  with  Albunea 
(q.  v.).  Her  festival  was  celebrated  June  11,  at  which 
mothers  took  the  children  of  their  sisters  on  their  arms, 
because  Ino  (Leucothea)  had  brought  up  her  sister*s  son, 
Bacchus. 

Manohart,  Imxanuel  David,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  June  2, 1764,  at  Tubingen,  was 
in  1793  deacon  at  Nttrtingen,  in  1803  superintendent  at 
Keuffen,  Wurtembcrg,  and  died  Feb.  6, 1826.  He  wrote, 
Aphorismen  Qber  das  Erinnerungsvermdgen  in  Beziehung 
aufden  Zustand  nach  dem  Tode  (Tubingen,  1792):— 
KirchUche  Statistik  des  Kdnigreieks  WUrtemberg  evan- 
gelisch  lutherischen  AniheUs  ( Stuttgart,  1821 ):  — i4 n- 
dachl^ch  /Ur  Confirmanden  und  Neuoonfirmirte  (^V^- 
blngen,  1824).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  LiL  i, 
477,489,;  ii,874.     (B.  P.) 

Maul  &ta  {aUar'raiting)f  a  religious  ceremony  in 
Polynesia.  Numbers  of  figs,  with  abundance  of  plan- 
tains, were  placed  upon  the  altars,  which  were  newly 
ornamented  with  branches  of  the  sacred  mtro,  and  yel- 
low leaves  of  the  coooanut-trec  These  rites  extended 
to  every  tnarm  in  the  island,  and  were  deugned  to  se- 
cure rain  and  fertility  for  the  country  gained  by  con- 
quest or  recovered  from  invasion. 

Maukisoh,  Johakm,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many,  was  bom  Aug.  14, 1617.  He  studied  at  Leipsic, 
and  died  at  Dantzic,  June  8, 1669,  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology.  He  wrote,  Notm  Phiiologico^Theologica 
Hotitiam  Dei  Naturalem  ex  SeUctis  Scriptures  Diotis 
ExpUcanSes : — Paulus  anti-Calvinianus,  A  bsolutum  X>e- 
eretum  per  Totam  Epistolam  ad  Romanos  EUdens: — 
Scripta  antuPapisHca :  —  ExercUationes  de  Universali 
Gratia: — De  Ecclesia  in  Genere: — Programmata  de 
Promissione  Messia  ex  Psa.  xl,  de  Adventu  Messim  ex 
Psa,  xiv,  7,  etc  See  Witte,  Memories  Theologotvm ; 
Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gdehrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Maulavl,  the  name  usually  given  to  a  Mohamme- 
dan priest  in  India. 

Manpertny  (or  Manpertuis),  JBAM-BAprtsTB 
Dboubt  db,  a  French  ecclesiastical  writer,  was  bom  at 
Paris  in  1650.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  col- 
lege of  Louis-le-Grand,  and  for  a  time  dedicated  him- 
self to  poetry  and  literature.  In  spite  of  his  talents  he 
did  not  achieve  anything,  owing  to  the  life  of  dissipa- 


tion which  he  led,  and  which  cost  him  not  only  his 
fortune  but  the  best  part  of  his  life.  At  the  age  of 
forty  he  renounced  the  joys  of  this  world  and  led  a  re- 
tired life.  In  1692  he  retired  to  the  abbey  of  Sept- 
Fonts,  and  five  years  later  was  made  a  priest  by  the 
archbishop  of  Yicnne.  He  returned  to  Paris,  and  died 
at  St-Germain-en-Laye,  March  10, 1736.  He  wrote, 
Pensks  Chritiennes  et  Morales  (1703)  i~~Histoire  de  la 
Riforme  de  VAVbaye  des  Sept-Fonis  (1702):— 1^«  Sen- 
timents d'un  Chrkien  Touchi  d^un  Veritable  Amour  de 
Dieu  (1716)  i-^VHisloire  de  la  Sainte  tglise  de  Vienne. 
Besides,  he  translated  into  French  the  Institutions  of 
Aacfan/fttt;  Salvianus*s  treatise  on  Prortdoicf,  etc  See 
Lichtenberger,  Encydop.  des  Sciences  Reiigieuses,  s.  v. 

(RP.) 

Manrer,  Franz  Joseph  Valkntin  Doxinik,  a 
Protestant  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Rott- 
weil,  Feb.  14, 1795.  In  1820  he  received  holy  orders, 
but  in  1821  joined  the  Evangelical  Church.  For  some 
time  he  was  collaborator  at  the  Thomas  School  in  Leip- 
sic, but  afterwards  retired  to  Stuttgart,  devoting  him- 
self entirely  to  literary  work.  He  died  in  1856.  He 
published,  Commentar  iiber  das  Buck  Josua  (Stuttgart, 
1881):  —  Commentarius  Grammaticus  Criticus  in  Vet, 
Testamentum  (Leipsic,  1832  sq.;  voL  i  oontuns  all  the 
historical  books,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Lamentations; 
voL  ii,  Ezekiel,  Daniel, and  the  minor  prophets;  vol.  iii, 
Psalms  and  Proverbs).  There  is  great  diBproportioii 
in  the  mode  of  treatment.  All  the  historical  booka 
from  Genesis  to  Esther  are  comprised  in  two  hundred 
and  fifty  pages,  and  it  b  only  after  Isaiah  that  the  treat- 
ment begins  to  be  more  ample,  and  is  then  really  val- 
uable Maurer's  work  was  continued  by  August  Heil- 
igstedt  Besides,  Maurer  published,  Prahtischer  Cursus 
Uber  die  Formerdehre  der  hebr.  Spraehe  (Leipsic,  1887)  : 
—  Kurzgejasstes  hdnraisches  u,  chalddisckes  Worter*- 
buck  (Stuttgart,  1851).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol. 
Lit.  i,  14,  194,  208;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoU  ii,  861  sq.; 
FUist,  £i5^  Jttd  ii,  836  sq.    (R  P.) 

Mauritian  Creole  Version  of  the  Scripi^ 
URB8.  This  version  is  intended  for  the  mixed  popula- 
tion  of  Mauritius.  A  translation  of  the  gospel  of  Mat- 
thew was  made  by  the  Rev.  S.  H.  Anderson,  who  was 
bom  in  Mauritius,  and  spent  thirty-two  years  on  the 
island,  ten  of  which  he  was  minbter  to  the  Protestant 
negroes.  The  same  gentlemen  also  states  that  tho 
Mauritian  Creole  is  spoken  by  350,000  of  the  360,000 
inhabitants  of  the  island,  and  that  it  is  the  only  medium 
of  communication  among  all  the  languages  and  dialects 
of  the  island.  Mr.  Anderson's  translation  was  published 
during  the  year  1884  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  and  as  the  report  of  that  society  for  1885  states, 
^  the  whole  consignment  was  bought  up  before  it  was 
even  unpacked,  and  that  half  of  it  was  secured  by  bbh- 
op  Boyston  for  the  inhabitants  of  Seychelle."     (B.  P.) 

SSanrltii,  Fribdrich  Maximii.ian,  a  Lutheran  the> 
ologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Basle,  Aug.  17, 1724. 
He  studied  at  Halle,  was  for  some  time  private  tutor, 
in  1757  rector  at  Minden,  in  1768  professor  of  theolog3' 
and  member  of  consistory  at  Butzow,  and  died  March 
5, 1799.  He  wrote,  Diss,  de  Perseverantia  Credentium 
Usque  ad  Finem  (Halle,  1753)  i—Versuch  einer  Erlda- 
rung  der  schweren  Stelle  Zach.xii^  11-14  (Rinteln,  1764, 
1772):~i>»e  GdtUichkeit  der  heUigen  Schrifl  (Minden, 
1765)  i—De  fneamatione  Filii  Dei  (BUtzow,  1769-72) : 
— Quantum  Intersitf  Jesum  Resurracisse  (ibid.  1770)  :— 
De  Inhabitatione  Dei  (ibid.  1775).  See  Ddring,  Die  ge~ 
lehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v.    (B,  P.) 

MaurititiB,  Caspar,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  March  2, 1615.  He  studied  at  Bostock 
and  Konigsberg,  was  in  1644  professor  at  Bostock,  in 
1650  doctor  of  theology,  in  1662  pastor  at  Hamburg, 
and  died  April  14, 1676.  He  wrote,  Exerdtationes  mifi- 
Calvinianas,  anti'Soctmana,  Logiae^  PoUtiees: — In 
Formulam  Concordia: — Theses  de  Cosfissione  et  Abeo- 
lutione  Pric€Ua:'^IHssertationes  de  Gratia  Irresistibili: 


MAURITUS 


W7 


McALL 


^De  Nettoriamtmo  :^De  Eccktia  c-^De  GmtUimn  m 
Veteri  Tettamento  ad  Regnum  Ccdontm  VocaHone: — De 
Faio  CaMmttico : — De  Simonia : — Tlpuh-ov  if^ev^oc  So- 
cimemontm.  See  MoHer,  Cimhria  Littevata  ;  Jocher, 
AUgemeiaM  GeUkrttn-l^exiion,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

MauxitUB,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  fint  abbot  of  In- 
chaifrayf  and  became  bishop  of  the  see  of  Dunblane  in 
1819.  Hie  was  bishop  there  in  1883.  See  Keith,  Soot- 
tisk  Bishops^  p.  176. 

Mauxo  nra  Qht  red  #asA),  a  very  sacred  relie,  held 
in  the  highest  ettimalioii  by  the  natives  of  Tahiti,  one 
of  the  S^ety  Islands.  It  **  was  a  piece  of  network, 
about  seven  inches  wide  and  six  feet  long,  upon  which 
the  red  feathers  of  the  paroquet  were  neatly  fastened. 
It  was  used  at  the  inauguration  of  their  greatest  kings, 
Just  as  the  crown  is  with  us,  and  the  most  honorable 
appellation  which  a  chief  could  receive  was,  ilrit  mauro 
lira, '  King  of  the  Red  Sash.^  A  new  piece,  about  eigh- 
teen inches  in  length,  was  attached  at  the  inauguration 
of  every  sovereign ;  to  accomplish  which  several  human 
victims  were  required.  The  first  was  for  the  wuiu  raa 
itH,  or  the  stretching  it  upon  pegs  in  order  to  attach  to 
it  the  new  piece.  Another  was  necessary  for  the /ate 
ratif  or  attaching  the  new  portion ;  and  a  third  for  the 
piu  raa,  or  twitching  the  sacred  relic  off  the  pegs. 
This  not  only  invested  the  sash  itself  with  a  high 
measore  of  solemn  importance,  but  also  rendered  the 
chiefs  who  wore  it  most  noble  in  public  estimation.** 
See  Williams,  Narrative  of  Mitaiomary  EaUiyiiam  m 
ike  South  Sea  ItioMde. 

Mansoldnm,  a  name  originally  applied  to  the 
magnificent  sepulchre  erected  by  Artemisia,  at  Halicar- 
nassus,  &C.  852,  to  the  memory  of  her  husband,  Man- 
solus,  king  of  Caria.  The  term  has  now  come  to  denote 
any  costly  tomb. 

Maut  (or  MntX  a  chief  Egyptian  goddess,  the  wife 
of  Amen-Ra,  and  the  second  member  of  the  great  Theban 
triad.  She  was  considered  as  the  mother  goddess /kit 
txceUenee^  or  the  great  receptive  female  principle;  and 
she  was  generally  represented  as  seated  upon  a  throne, 
wearing  either  the  Pshent,  or  sacred  double  crown,  or 
else  the  body  and  plumes  of  a  vulture  as  her  head-dress. 
She  was  dressed  in  a  long  robe,  often  richly  ornamented, 
and  she  held  in  her  right  hand  the  usual  Crux-ansata, 
and  in  her  left  the  papyrus  staff  of  the  goddesses.  Her 
chief  tiUes  were, "  The  Mother,"  "  The  Lady  of  Heaven," 
and  "The  Regent  of  all  the  Gods."  The  vulture  was 
both  her  symbol  and  her  sacred  bird.  Her  analogues 
were  in  some  of  her  attributes  the  Hei-a  and  Cybde 
and  TkermuthU  of  the  Greeks,  and  possibly  the  Boma 
Dta  of  the  Romans. 

BffaxweU,  John,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  prebite,  was  first 
minister  at  Morthlack,  and  then  in  the  city  of  Edin- 
burgh in  1620.  He  was  advanced  to  the  see  of  Ross  in 
1683;  deprived  in  1688,  and  fled  to  England  for  pro- 
tection. He  died  Feb.  14^  1646.  See  Keith,  ScoOiik 
Biskope,  p.  203. 

Majc^rell,  Robert,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  rector 
of  Forboiton  in  1621,  and  soon  alter  provost  of  the  col- 
legiate church  in  Dumbarton.  He  was  bishop  of  Ork- 
ney till  after  1586.  He  bnilt  the  stalls  in  his  cathe- 
dral, and  fttmiahed  the  steeple  with  a  set  of  bells.  See 
Keith,  SootHek  Biekope,  p.  228. 

May,  Johann  Heinzich  (1),  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  6, 1658.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg,  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Giessen,  and  died  Sept.  3, 1719,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
published.  Be  Canone  Veterit  Test  (Giessen,  1689)  :— 
Animadvernones et  SiipplemefUa  Coeeeji  Lexicon  (Frank- 
fort, 1689,  fol. ;  8d  ed.  1714)  i—Diss,  JVde  Sacra  Scrip- 
tura  (ibid.  1690)  :—<9efecfu)ra  Vet.  Teatamenti  Oracula 
Explieamta,  etc  (eod.)  .--BibUa  Bebraica  fibid.  1692) : 
— he  iMitratiomkut  et  PurifieaUonSbue  Bebraorum 
(ibid,  eod.):— />«  Salis  Usu  Sjpnbolico  (ibid,  eod.):— 
Tkeologia  Davidis  (ibid.  1698)  :^Ebraica  Ungum  EJtu- 


que  AccetdwtHombui  Neceaaitat  et  UtUitae  (ibid.  1696): 
-^Tkeaiogia  Jeremiana  (ibid.  1703) : — Theologia  Jesai- 
ana  (ibid.  1704),  etc.  See  Doring,  Die  geUkrten  Tkeo- 
logen  DeutackloHda,  s.  v.  (where  105  titles  of  his  writings 
are  given) ;  Lichtenberger,  Eneydop.  des  Sciencee  lU^ 
Ugietuee,  s.  v.  AfaiuM;  Jdcher,  AUgemeinee  GeUhrten^ 
Lexiiom,  s.  v.  «<  Msjua.**     (R  P.) 

May,  Johann  Heinrioh  (2),  a  German  theolo- 
gian, sun  uf  the  foregoing,  was  bom  at  Durlach,  March 
11, 1688L  He  studied  at  Altdorf  and  Jena,  was  professor 
at  Giessen,  and  died  June  18, 1732.  He  published,  De 
Jure  Amd  StpUmi  (Giessen,  1707)  i—Maimon,  Tract* 
de  Jure  Atud  Stptimi  et  Jubihti  (1708) : — Jura  Fimbria 
arum  (1710):— A  Itaaci  Abarbaneiit  njlTD''  5'»73«a 
(1712):  — Obeervationa  Sacra  (1718-16;  1716-27):— 
Diss,  de  SckeckiMah  (1728)  :—De  Tiara  PonUficu  Max- 
imi  (1728)  i—De  A  rU  et  A  Uarihue  Veterum  (1732).  See 
Doring,  Die  geUkrten  Theohgen  DeuttdtUmda^  s.  v. ;  Jo- 
cher, ^£^eN9e^(;e^Ai^«ft-Lenlx)R,s.  v.'' Majus.*'  (&P.) 

Mayan  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  Mayau 
is  the  vernacular  of  a  tribe  of  Indians  inhabiting  Yuca- 
tan, a  peninsula  to  the  east  of  Mexico,  projecting  north- 
ward between  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean 
sea.  In  1864  only  a  part  of  the  gospel  of  Luke  was 
published  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Biblo  Society  in 
this  dialect.  In  1869  the  gospel  of  John  was  printed 
in  England,  the  translation  having  been  made  by  the 
Rev.  &  Fletcher.  See  Bible  of  £verg  Laud,  p.  468. 
(a  P.) 

BCayer,  Gkoro  Karl  Wilhelm,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1807  at  Asch- 
bach,  Franoonia.  He  received  holy  orders  in  1887,  was 
cathedral  chaplain  at  Bamberg  in  1888,  in  1842  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the  lyoeum,  in  1862 
member  of  the  chapter,  and  died  July  22, 18i58.  He 
wrote,  Geitt  undNatur  un  epeculativeH  Syeteme  GiaUker'e 
(Bamberg,  1842):— Z>er  Meneck  nach  der  GiaubenaUhre 
der  altem  Kircke  (1854,  6  vols.) :— Commenfar  uber  die 
Briefe  dea  Jokanma  (Vienna,  1851):  —  Aechtheit  dee 
Evangeliums  nach  Johannea  (ibid.  1854) : — Die  patri-' 
arehaiiaehen  VerheiaauiHfen  tmd  die  meaaiama^en  Paalr- 
men  (Nordlingen,  1859)  :—Meaaiamache  Propkezeiungen 
(Vienna,  1868-66, 2  vols.).    (BP.) 

MayerhofE;  Erkst  Theodor,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Nenrappin,  Dec.  5, 1806, 
and  died  at  Berlin  in  December,  1887,  licentiate  and 
private  lecturer  in  theology.  He  published,  Die  Petri" 
HJacAeR  Schrifien  (Hamburg,  1885) :— JbAona  Reuchlin 
und  aeim  ZeU  (Berlin,  1880) :— />ie  Waldeueer  in  unaem 
Tageu  (ibid.  1^)  z^Anagariua  oder  der  An/angapunbt 
dee  Chriatenthume  in  Sehweden  (ibid.  1887;  transl.  from 
the  Swedish  of  H.  Renterdahl): — Der  Brief  an  die  Co* 
loaaer  (published  after  the  author's  death  by  L.  Maver- 
hoff,  ibid.  1838).  See  Winer,  JETandbuch  der  tkeoLLiL 
i,  91, 578, 883 ;  Znchold,  BibL  TheoL  it,  863.    (R  P.) 

Mayitrl,  a  future  Buddha,  who  is  destined  to  ap- 
pear at  the  end  of  five  thousand  years  from  the  death 
of  Gotama  Buddha,  and  will  continue  for  ages  to  be  the 
teacher  of  the  human  race. 

Mayronina,  Frax^is,  a  Franciscan,  and  doctor 
of  the  Sorbonne,  styled  doctor  iliuminatuaf  who  died  in 
1825,  is  the  author  of,  Commentarii  in  Geneain: — De 
Artieulia  Fidei: — Compendium  LSbrorum  S,  Avgustini 
de  Citniate  Dei: — CommenLin  Auguatini  Librum  Con- 
feaaionum:  —  CommenL  in  Dionyaium  Areopagitam  de 
Mgttica  Theologia  :-^l&0O  Quaationea  de  VarOa  Locia 
Sacra  Scripturea  et  Dtdnia  Theologicia: — Comment,  in 
Orationem  Domimcan,  etc.  See  Gaddius,  De  ScriptO' 
ribua  Eedeaiastida ;  Jocher,  AUgemdnee  GelehrteU'Lexi' 
Am,s.v.    (B.P.) 

Mc  All,  Robert  Stephens,  LL.D.,  an  English  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  bom  at  Plymouth,  Aug.  2, 
1792.  He  was  educated  at  Hoxton  Academy  and  at 
the  University  of  Edinbuigh,  studying  medicine  chief- 
ly.   At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  became  pastor  at 


McAULEY 


10S 


McCLUSKEY 


Macclesfield.  In  January,  1827,  he  accepted  the  charge 
of  the  Moaley  Street  Church,  Manchester,  where  he  died, 
July  27, 1898.  He  was  a  preacher  of  rare  eloquenoet 
See  (Loud.)  Evang,  Magazine,  January,  1889,  p.  1. 

MoAuley,  Catherixe,  foundress  of  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  was  bom  at  Stormanstown  House,  County  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  Sept  29, 1787.  When  of  age  she  formed  a 
regular  system  for  the  distribution  of  food  and  clothing 
to  the  needy,  and  called  in  the  lame  and  blind  to  pai^ 
uke  of  her  bount}'.  She  also  erected,  in  1824,  a  large 
building  in  a  fashionable  quarter  of  Dublin.  She  made 
a  novitiate  in  the  Presentation  Convent  in  Dublin,  pro- 
fessed Dec  12,  1831,  and  was  appointed  by  the  arch- 
bishop superior  of  her  order,  the  objects  of  which 
were,  the  education  of  the  poor  and  the  protection  of 
good  women  in  distress.  When  the  cholera  visited 
Dublin,  in  1832,  she  and  her  sisters  nursed  the' hospital 
patients  until  they  recovered.  The  women  admitted 
into  her  houses  of  refuge  were  taught  various  useful 
employments,  and,  as  soon  as  possible,  provided  with 
good  situations.  Her  order  developed  rapidly.  Many 
ladies  of  distinction  joined  it.  Houses  were  established 
in  London.  Ten  houses  were  founded  in  Ireland  dur- 
ing her  lifetime,  and -two  in  England,  and  in  the  course 
of  for^  years  there  were  over  two  hundred  convents  of 
the  order  in  Great  Britain,  United  States,  Newfound- 
land, South  America,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand,  with 
more  than  three  thousand  sisters.  She  died  in  DubUn, 
Nov.  11, 1841.  Her  life  has  been  written  by  Mother 
Austin  of  New  Orleans  (New  York,  1866).  See  (N.  Y.) 
Cath,  A  bnanae,  1882,  p.  78. 

MoBiide,  John,  a  very  prominent  minister  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland  during  its  early  hbtory, 
who  suffered  persecution  from  the  Esublished  Church 
because  he  boldly  advocated  the  rights  of  Independency, 
was  a  native  of  Ireland,  educated  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  where  he  was  enrolled  in  1666.  About  1670 
he  waa  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Tyrone  to  the 
pastoral  charge  of  the  congregation  of  Clowe,  in  the 
county  of  Armagh,  where  he  officiated  nearly  twenty 
years.  In  1694  he  succeeded  Kev.  Patrick  Adair  as 
minister  of  the  Belfast  congregation,  where  he  labored 
until  his  death  in  1718.  He  was  a  popular  preacher, 
and  an  able  and  expert  disputant.  See  Keid,  Hitt,  of 
the  Pretb,  Church  m  Irekmd. 

McCabe,  Edward,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate, 
waa  bom  in  Dublin  in  1816.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
parish  priest  of  St,  Nicholas,  one  of  the  poorest  and  most 
populous  localities  in  Dublin.  Archbishop  Cullen  ap- 
pointed him  one  of  his  vicars-general  in  1868,  trans- 
ferring him  to  the  important  parish  of  Kingstown.  In 
1877  Dr.  McCabe,  as  bishop  of  Gadara  in  partibuif  was 
appointed  bishop-auxiliar}*.  He  was  confirmed  cardinal 
by  the  pope,  March  24, 1879,  and  died  Feb.  10, 1886. 

MoCabe,  James  D.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector  of  a  church  in  Wheeling,  Va.,  In 
1853 ;  in  1857  he  was  serving  in  Baltimore,  being  rec- 
tor of  SL  Stephen's ;  in  1861  he  was  rector  of  St.  James's 
Parish,  Tracy's  Landing,  Md.,  where  he  remained  until 
1867,  when  he  was  chosen  rector  of  Zion  Church,  iffUr^ 
bans;  to  this  charge  was  added  the  pastorate  of  St. 
Peter's,  Montgomery  County,  in  1871.  In  1873  he  ofli- 
ciated  in  Baltimore  without  regular  charge.  He  died 
Aug.  1, 1876,  aged  sixty-seven  years.  See  Prot,  Episc 
A  ImanaCf  1876,  p.  149. 

McCabe,  John  Collins,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  ordained  deacon  in  1847,  was  rector 
for  many  years  in  Hampton,  Va.,  until  1855  or  1856 ; 
then  he  became  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Ascension, 
Baltimore,  Md.,  remaining  until  1860,  when  he  accepted 
the  rectorship  of  St.  James's  Church,  West  Kiver,  and 
remained  until  1868.  Subsequently  he  went  to  Vir- 
ginia, and,  immediately  after  the  civil  war  in  the  South, 
became  rector  of  St.  Matthew's  Church,  Bladensburg ; 
in  1868  was  rector  of  Sr.  Ann's,  Middletown,  Del. ;  in 
1873  rector  of  Trinity.  Chambersburg,  Penn.    He  died 


Feb.  27, 1876,  aged  sixty-five  years.    See  Prot,  Epite. 
Almanac,  1876,  p.  149. 

MoCaffirey,  John,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  scholar 
and  divine,  was  bom  at  Emmittsburg,  Md.,  Sept.  6, 1806. 
He  was  educated  at  Mount  St.  Mary's  College  and  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  that  place,  was  ordainetl  deacon  in 
1881,  priest  in  1888,  and  was  almost  immediately  made 
president  of  that  college,  a  position  which  he  resigned 
in  1871.  He  was  twice  offered  the  mitre,  but  declined. 
He  died  at  the  college,  Sept.  25, 1881.  See  (N.  Y.)  Cath. 
Annual,  1883,  p.  64. 

McCarrell,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Hanover,  Washington  Co.,  Pa., 
Sept.  22, 1817.  He  graduated  from  Washington  Col- 
lege in  1841,  after  which  he  entered  upon  a  course  of 
theological  training.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presby- 
tery of  Washington  in  1845,  and  ordained  an  evangelist; 
served  for  a  time  the  churches  of  Wolf  Run  and  Unity 
as  a  stated  supply,  and  afterwards  at  Claysville,  where 
he  was  installed,  Dec  6, 1852.    He  died  there,  April  18, 

1881.  See  Nevin,  Praib,  Encgclop,  s.  v.     (W.  P.  &) 

McOintoolc,  John  David,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Nicholas  County,  Ky.,  Feb.  24> 
1886.  He  graduated  from  Hanover  College,  Ind.,  in 
1858,  and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminar}'  in  1862 ; 
was  licensed  by  Philadelphia  Central  Presbytery  the 
same  year,  and  ordained  an  evangelist,  April  11, 1864,  by 
Ebenezer  Presbytery,  at  Augusta,  Ky.  He  first  sup- 
plied the  Church  of  Flemingtburg  in  1862 ;  in  Novem- 
ber, 1863,  went  to  Cabell  County,  Va.,  and  supplied  the 
Westem  (now  Huntington)  Church,  doing  evangelistic 
work  until  April,  1865,  when  he  took  charge  as  stated 
supply  of  Catlettsburg  Church,  Ry.,  in  connection  with 
Huntingdon  Church ;  was  installed  pastor  of  the  latter 
Church,  June  7,  1878,  by  Greenbrier  Presbytery,  and. 
released  May  15,  1876;  installed  pastor  of  Columbus 
Church,  Miss.,  by  the  Presbytery  of  Tombeckbee,  April 
29, 1877,  a  relation  which  he  held  until  his  death,  Dec 
12,  1881.     See  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  Theol.  Sent, 

1882,  p.  54. 

McCloskey,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  Boman  Catholic 
prelate,  was  bora  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  March  20, 1810. 
He  studied  at  Mount  SL  Mary's  College  and  Seminar^i', 
Emmittsburg,  Md. ;  was  ordained  priest,  Jan.  9,  1834 ; 
studied  two  years  in  Borne,  and  one  in  France,  and  on 
his  return  became  pastor  of  SL  Joseph's  Church,  New- 
York.  In  1841  he  became  first  president  of  SL  John's 
College,  Fordham ;  in  1842  resumed  the  rectonhip  of  St. 
Joseph's  Church;  in  1848  waa  coadjutor  of  bishop  Hughes; 
in  1847  first  bishop  of  Albany;  in  1864  archbishop  of 
New  York ;  in  1875  cardinal-priest,  and  in  1878  cardi* 
nal  He  died  Oct  10, 1885.  Cardinal  McCloskey  waa 
a  very  energetic  prelate,  establishing  religious  and 
charitable  houses  in  his  diocese,  and  actively  promoting 
the  interests  of  his  Church. 

McCloskey,  John  (2),  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
divine,  was  bom  at  Carlow,  Ireland,  in  1817,  soon  after 
which  his  parents  settled  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  In  1880 
he  entered  Mount  SL  Mary's  College,  Emmittsburg, 
Md^  where  he  was  ordained,  Dec.  18, 1840,  and  at  the 
solicitation  of  the  college  authorities  was  allowed  to 
remain  as  professor.  He  was  made  vice-president  in 
1841,  and  on  the  retirement  of  Dr.  McCaffrey,  in  1871, 
was  chosen  president,  which  position  he  held  for  seven 
years.  On  the  appointment  of  Dr.  Wattecson  to  the 
bishopric  of  Columbus,  in  1880,  he  once  more  resumed 
the  presidency.  lie  was  connected  with  the  coUe^ 
for  thirty -five  years,  devoting  heart  and  soul  to  hia 
work,  and  never  taking  a  vacation.  He  was  kind  to 
all,  over -indulgent,  and  beloved  by  alL  He  died  at 
Emmittsburg,  Dec  24, 1880.  See  Catholic  A  nnual,  1883, 
p.  61. 

McClnskey,  Joinv,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Lancaster  Valley,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  June  17, 
1795.  He  received  his  early  education  at  the  common 
schools  in  Washington  County,  and  graduated  from  Jef- 


McCOWN 


709 


McEWEN 


ferson  College  in  1822.  After  leaving  college  he  wts 
a  year  and  a  half  a  teacher  in  the  academy  at  New- 
town, Backs  Co.  He  next  tanght  for  a  year  at  New 
Hope,  when,  at  the  invitation  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ezra 
Styles  Ely,  he  went  to  Philadelphia,  and  spent  a  year 
studying  theology  under  his  guidance.  In  Novemher, 
1825,  he  entered  Princeton  Seminary,  and  remained  a 
year,  when  he  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Phil- 
adelphia. After  supplying  for  six  months  the  Church 
of  West  Alexander,  he  accepted  a  call  to  become  its 
pastor,  and  was  ordained  Oct.  8, 1828.  In  1854  he  be- 
came an  agent  for  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Educa- 
tion ;  in  1855  assistant  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Nesham- 
iny,  Bucks  Co.,  and  in  1858  pastor  elect  of  the  Church 
at'  Smyrna,  Del.  He  founded  there  a  church  school, 
in  1864  a  female  school  in  West  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1870  a  school  in  Hightstown,  with  the  special  view 
to  the  education  of  the  children  of  missionaries  free  of 
charge.  In  the  same  year  he  returned  to  West  Phila- 
delphia, and  for  four  years  was  associate  principal  of  the 
Mantua  Academy.  He  spent  several  years  at  Wooster, 
O.,  from  whence  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  where  he 
died,  March  8 1 ,  1880.  See  A>cro/.  Heport  of  Prmeeton 
Theol.  Sem.  1881,  p.  24.    (W.  P.  S.)  * 

McCo^vn,  Burr  Harrison,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  at  Bards- 
town,  Ky.,  OcL  29, 1806.  He  was  educated  at  Su  Jo- 
seph's College,  in  his  native  place,  was  converted,  and 
joined  the  Methotlists  in  early  life.  Before  his  majority 
he  enteretl  the  Kentucky  Conference,  and  in  1880-31  was 
stationed  at  Louisville.  In  1884  he  was  professor  of  an- 
cient languages  in  Augusta  College,  and  in  1844  occupied 
a  similar  position  in  Transylvania  University.  He  after- 
wards taught  at  Goshen  Academv,  Forest  Academy,  and 
Pine  Hill,  where  he  died,  Aug.  29, 1881.  Dr.  McCown 
was  an  interesting  preacher,  a  diligent  student,  an  im- 
pressive instructor,  and  an  earnest  Christian.  See  Min- 
utes of  the  M.  E,  Church  South,  1881,  p.  285. 

McCron,  John,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was 
bom  in  Manchester,  England,  Oct  23, 1807.  In  1831 
he  arrived  in  America.  For  some  time  he  and  his  wife 
were  engaged  as  teachers  in  Mechanicsburg,  Pa.  After 
a  course  of  study  in  the  Gettysburg  Theological  Semi- 
nary, he  was  inducted,  in  1839,  into  the  Lutheran  min- 
•istr^'.  Having  been  sent,  the  same  year,  as  a  mtssionaty 
to  Pittsburgh,  he  organized  the  first  English  Lutheran 
Church  in  that  city.  From  that  time  he  continued  to 
serve  a  number  of  congregations  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  Maryland,  the  longest  pe- 
riod of  service  having  been  given  to  Baltimore,  where 
be  spent  twenty  years.  Leaving  Baltimore,  he  became 
principal  of  the  female  seminary  at  Hagerstown,  where 
he  remained  two  or  three  years.  In  1846  he  was  a  del- 
egate to  the  World's  Evangelical  Alliance  in  London. 
While  residing  in  Baltimore  he  co-operated  with  Drs. 
Seiss  and  Passavant  in  editing  the  Evangelical  Psalm- 
istf  a  book  of  tunes  adapted  to  the  Lutheran  Hynauhook, 
published  in  Philadelphia  in  1860.  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, April  26, 1881.  See  Lutheran  Obterver,  Mav 
6,  1881. 

MoColkragh,  John  W.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  employed  as  a  professor  in  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  in  1853  and  1854.  In  1858  he  was  teaching 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  the  following  year  was  rector  of 
St.  Mary's  Hall,  in  that  city,  a  position  which  he  held 
until  1861.  While  in  Tennessee  he  was  a  member  of 
the  standing  committee  of  the  diocese ;  was  a  delegate, 
in  1855,  to  the  General  Convention;  served  on  the 
missionary  and  education  committees  of  his  own  dio- 
cese, and  held  various  other  important  positions.  In 
1861  he  removed  to  Waverley,  N.  Y,  In  1864  be  was 
rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Alton,  111.,  and  remained  in 
that  parish  until  his  death,  at  Waverlev,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  14, 
1867.     See  Prot,  Episc.  A  haanac,  1868.' p.  104. 

MoDaniel,  James,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  near  Fayettevillc,  N.  C«  in  1803.    He  united  with 


the  Church  in  1827,  and  soon  after  begto  to  preach. 
Chiefly  through  his  instrumentality  the  Church  in  Fay- 
ettevillc was  formed,  and  he  was  called  to  be  its  pastor, 
in  which  relation  he  continued  for  thirty-six  years,  and 
then  was  pastor,  for  six  years,  of  the  First  Church  in 
Wilmington,  during  a  part  of  the  time  acting  as  editor 
of  a  religious  journal.  For  nineteen  years  he  was  pres- 
ident of  the  North  Carolina  Baptist  State  Convention, 
organized  in  1830.  He  died  in  1870.  "  Dr.  McDaniel 
possessed  in  a  rare  degree  the  gifts  and  graces  of  the 
orator,  and  many  are  the  traditions  of  the  pathos  and 
power  of  his  preaching  in  his  younger  days."  Seo 
Cathcart,  Baptitt  Encydop,  &  v.    (J.  C.  S.) 

MoDonnell,  Bichard,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Irish  cler- 
gyman and  collegian,  was  born  at  Douglas,  County 
Cork,  Ireland,  in  1787.  He  graduated  from  Trinity 
College  in  1805,  and  became  a  fellow  in  1808.  He  stud- 
ied law  at  first,  wai  called  to  the  Irish  bar,  then  took 
holy  orders;  in  1816  was  elected  professor  of  oratory  by 
competitive  examination ;  became  senior  fellow  in  1836 ; 
bursar  for  many  years,  and  in  1852  was  appointed  pro- 
vost, which  office  he  held  till  his  death,  Jan.  24, 1867. 
Dr.  McDonnell's  administration  of  fifteen  years  was 
marked  by  improvements  in  the  undergraduate  course, 
and  by  a  great  advance  in  the  status  of  the  college. 
See  AppUtoiCM  Annual  Cydop,  1867,  p.  589. 

Mcmhenny,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  Lancaster  District,  N.  C,  in  March,  1781. 
He  graduated  from  Washington  College,  Ya. ;  studied 
theology  there  under  Dr.  Baxter.;  was  licensed  in  1808 
as  an  evangelist;  became  pastor  at  Lexington  the  same 
year,  and  died  in  that  relation,  Jan.  2, 1871.  See  Nevin, 
/'rf  «5.  Eitcyclop,  s.  v. 

McZSlhiney,  Gkorok,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  born  near  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in 
1799.  He  studied  first  in  London,  next  at  Paris,  and 
then  under  Bev.  £.  D.  Barry,  of  Baltimore,  Md. ;  when 
nineteen  3'ears  old,  he  began  the  study  of  theology 
under  Rev.  Dr.  Wyatt,  of  the  same  cltj'.  In  1820  he 
was  ordained,  and  began  his  labors  in  the  parish  of  St. 
James,  Baltimore  County.  In  1826  he  removed  to  a 
parish  in  Charles  County,  and  shortly  after  visited  Eu- 
rope. On  his  retura  home  he  resumed  charge  of  his 
first  parish,  and  in  September,  1829,  went  to  Princess 
Anne  parish,  Somerset  Count3\  In  October,  1834,  he 
became  rector  of  St.  Anne^s  Church,  Annapolis,  and  so 
continued  until  his  death,  May  2, 1841.  As  an  agent 
in  behalf  of  the  convention  to  obtain  funds  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  episcopate,  he  secured  more  than  850,000. 
See  Sprague,  AnnaU  of  the  Amer»  Pulpit,  v,  646. 

McElroy,  James,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clerg}*man,  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  and  was  educated  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  was  ordained  by  bishop 
Chase  in  1829,  and  officiated  successively  in  Ohio,  Vir- 
ginia, and  California.  During  the  five  years  preceding 
his  death  he  occupied  the  St.  Paul's  Mission  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. He  died  in  Oakland,  Cal.,  June  21, 1880.  See 
Whittaker,  Almanac  and  Directory,  1881. 

McElroy,  Josepll,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was.born  near  Newville,  in  the  Cumberland  valley,  Dec. 
29, 1792.  He  graduated  from  Jefferson  College  in  1812, 
and  studied  theology  in  New  York  under  Dr.  John  M. 
Mason.  lie  was  licensed  in  1815  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Monongshela;  began  preaching  in  Pittsburgh,  and 
established  the  First  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  there.  After  laboring  successfully  for  seven 
years,  he  was  called  to  succeed  Dr.  Mason  in  the  Scotch 
Presbyterian  Church,  New  York.  He  was  among  the 
most  eloquent  preachers  in  that  city.  For  the  last  five 
years  of  his  life  he  was  emeritus  pastor  of  the  Scotch 
Church.  He  died  in  New  York,  Sept.  16, 1876.  See 
Presbyterian,  Sept.  30,  1876.     (W.  P.  S.) 

McEwen,  Abel,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  born  at  Winchester,  Conn.,  Feb.  13, 
1780.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  with  honors  in 
1804,  and  was  settled  pastor  in  New  London  in  1806, 


McFARLAND 


no 


M'KOWN 


which  was  hU  only  pastorate,  as  he  retired  from  the  ac- 
tive duties  in  I854|biit  preached  occasional!}*  afterwards, 
and  died  Sept.  7,  18G0.  Dr.  McEwen  originated  the 
New  London  County  Home  Missionary  Society,  was  a 
strong  advocate  of  temperance,  Sunday -schools,  and 
education.  Over  four  hundred  solid  and  exhaustive 
essays  delivered  by  him  in  the  New  London  County 
Preacher's  Meeting  are  preserved.  He  published,  Half- 
century  Sermon: — Biographical  Sketches  of  .Litchfield 
County  Mimstas: — Congregationalitta  in  their  Relation 
to  Other  Religious  Sects.  See  Cottg,  Quarterly,  1863,  p. 
263. 

MoFarland,  Francis,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  Jau.  8, 1788. 
His  parents  came  to  America  in  1793.  He  graduated 
at  Washing^n  College,  Pa.,  in  1818,  and  spent  over 
one  year  thereafter  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminaiy. 
He  was  ordained  evangelist  by  the  Presbytery  of  New 
Bnmswick,  N.  J.,  Aug.  1, 1822;  became  pastor  at  Bethel, 
Ya^  and  died  at  Staunton,  Oct,  10, 1871.  He  was  for 
six  years  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the 
Old-school  Presbyterian  Church.  See  Presbyterianf 
Oct.  28, 1871 ;  Gen,  Cat.  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881, 
p.  24. 

MoFarland,  Francis  Patrick,  D.D.,  a  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  wa0  bom  at  Franklip,  Pa.,  April  6, 1819. 
He  studied  at  a  private  academy  in  his  native  town, 
and  then  at  Mount  St  Mary's  Seminary,  Emmittsburg, 
Md.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathe- 
dral, New  York,  by  archbishop  Hughes,  May  18, 1845, 
and  was  for  one  year  thereafter  professor  at  St.  John's 
College,  Fordhara.  Thence  he  went  to  St.  Joseph's 
Church,  New  York  city,  where  he  remained  three  months, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  pastorate  of  the  church 
at  Watertown,  N.  Y.  In  1851  he  was  appointed  pastor 
of  Sl  John's  Church,  Utica,  and  remained  there  until 
his  election  to  the  episcopacy  of  Hartford,  March  14, 
1858.  This  diocese  then  included  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island,  and  Providence  was  the  seat;  but  in 
1872  Hendricken  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Providence, 
and  McFarland  removed  to  Hartford,  where  he  died, 
Oct.  12, 1874.  Bishop  McFarland  was  modest,  dignified 
in  office,  zealous,  and  studious.  See  (N.  Y.)  Cath,  A  ^• 
manaCf  1875,  p.  105. 

McGMll,  JoHK,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was 
bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.4, 1809.  During  his  child- 
hood his  parents  moved  to  Bardstown,  Kj'.,  where,  at  the 
College  of  St,  Joseph,  John  was  educated.  He  studied 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practised  his  profes- 
sion there  and  at  New  Orleans.  He  then  embraced  the 
sacred  calling,  studied  two  years  at  St.  Mary's  College, 
Baltimore,  and  on  his  return  to  Bardstown  was  ordained 
priest,  June  13, 1830.  He  subsequently  studied  at  Rome, 
became  missionary  in  Kentucky,  and  was  the  zealous 
colleague  of  Dr.  Spalding.  His  Conferences  on  the 
dogmas  of  the  Church,  at  Bardstown,  made  him  distin- 
guished as  a  controversialist.  He  was  editor  of  the 
Cathdic  Advocate,  pastor  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  on  the 
division  of  Virginia  into  two  dioceses,  and  the  transla- 
tion of  bishop  Whelan  to  Wheeling,  Dr.  McGill  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Richmond,  and  consecrated,  Nov.  10, 
1850.  His  labors  were  great.  As  a  learned  and  con- 
vincmg  preacher  he  was  pre-eminent.  His  controversial 
sermons  were,  it  is  said,  unsurpassed.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  councils  of  Baltimore  for  twenty  years,  and 
was  an  earnest  member  of  the  Council  of  the  Vatican. 
While  attending  its  sessions  his  health  failed  him,  he 
returned  home,  and  died  at  Richmond,  Va.,  Jan.  14, 1872. 
See  (N.  Y.)  Caih.  Almanac,  1873,  p. 42. 

McQilire,  Edwabd  C,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  in  the  borough  of  Winchester, 
Vs.,  in  1793.  In  1813  he  officiated  for  one  year  a&  lay- 
reader  in  the  Church  at  Fredericksburg,  when  he  was 
ordained  deacon,  and  after  a  rectorate  of  forty-five  years 
at  Sl  George's  Church  in  that  city  he  died  there,  Oct. 
8,  1858.     Dr.  McGuire  was  a  very  successful  minis- 


ter of  the  gospel    See  Amer,  Qjmr.  Church  Rev,  1859; 
p.  680. 

MoHale,  Johh,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was  bom 
in  1791  at  Tubber-navine,  County  Mayo,  Ireland.  After 
completing  his  education,  he  became  lecturer  and  pro- 
fessor of  dogmatic  theology  at  Maynooth,  holding  the 
position  about  eleven  years.  He  was  then  named  co- 
adjutor-bishop of  Killala,  **  cam  jure  successionis,"  and 
consecrated  with  the  title  of  bishop  of  Maroma  "  in 
partibus  infidelium."  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Kelly  be 
was  promoted  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Tuam,  which 
he  held  until  his  death,  Nov.  7,  1881.  He  published 
Evidences  and  Doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church,  1827, 
which  was  translated  into  French  and  German.  He 
translated  sixty  of  Moore's  Irish  Melodies  into  the 
Irish  language,  retaining  the  same  metre  as  the  origi- 
nals. In  1861  he  produced  a  large  octavo  volume, 
comprising  six  books  of  Homer's  Iliad,  with  an  Irish 
translation  in  heroic  metre.     (B.  P.) 

MoJilton,  John  N.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1805.  He 
was  ordained  deacon  in  1841 :  was  for  a  long  time  chap- 
lain of  the  Maryland  Hospital,  in  that  city,  and  sabse- 
quently  had  the  rectorship  of  Mount  Zion  Church  added 
to  his  labors;  in  1867  he  was  rector  of  that  Church  and 
of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah ;  in  the  following  year 
he  went  to  New  York  city,  officiating  there  until  1874, 
after  which  he  resided,  without  special  work,  in  that 
city  until  his  death,  April  13, 1875.  See  Prot.  Episc, 
Almanac,  1876,  p.  149. 

MoKeen,  Silas,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Corinth,  Vl,  March  16, 1791.  He  received 
his  preparatory  studies  at  Haverhill  Academy,  and  his 
theological  studies  were  conducted  by  Rev.  Stephen 
Fuller  at  Berkshire.  He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Church  in  Bradford  in  1815,  where  he  continued  twelve 
years;  the  following  year  he  was  reinstallctl,  remaining 
there  twenty-four  years.  Subsequently  he  became  act- 
ing pastor  of  the  Church  at  Fairlee,  and  four  3'ears 
thereafter  returned  to  Bradford,  where  he  died,  Dec.  10, 
1877.  He  was  moderator  of  the  General  Convention  of 
Vermpnt  in  1846.  Dr.  McKeen  published  several  ser- 
mons and  addresses.    (W.  P.  S.) 

McKiulej,  Damikl,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Dec.  7, 1800.  He  graduated 
from  Dickinson  College  in  1824;  spent  more  than  a  year 
thereafter  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary ;  was  or- 
dained by  the  presbytery  of  Carlisle,  Oct.  80, 1827 ;  was 
pastor  at  Bedford,  1827-31 ;  Cariisle,  1883-38 ;  agent  for 
the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1838-41 ;  pastor  at  Cham- 
bersburg,  1841-47 ;  pastor  of  Sixth  Church,  Pittsbuigb, 
1850-52;  agent  for  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions, 
1852-55 ;  and  died  at  Chambersburg,  Dec  7  of  the  latter 
year.    See  Gen.  Cat.  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.  50. 

McKinney,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  1805.  Many  years  before  removing  Co 
Texas  he  resided  in  Tennessee,  where  the  early  part  of 
his  ministerial  life  was  spent.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Presbytery  of  Brazos,  and  a  leading  minister  of 
the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church,  indefatigable  in  ad- 
vancing all  its  interests.  He  was  the  first  president  of 
Austin  College,  Texas.  He  died  at  Huntsville,  Nov.  S7, 
1879.     (W.  P.  S.) 

AfKown,  J.  Lb  Gramob,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal  minister,  was  bom  at  Guilderland,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  18, 
1824.  He  was  of  Scotch-Irish  descent,  and  reared  in 
the  Reformed  Church,  but  at  the  age  of  fourteen  united 
with  the  Methodists.  At  seventeen  he  entered  Troy 
Conference  Academy,  and  later  graduated  firom  Wee- 
leyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1849.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  Oneida  Conference  the  same  year,  but 
ill-health  soon  obliged  him  to  retire  from  regular  pastoral 
work,  though  not  from  active  duty.  For  eight  years 
he  gave  his  energies  to  the  education  of  youth,  during 
which  time  he  was  professor  of  Newark  Wesleyan  Sem- 
inary, president  of  Richmondville  Union  Semioaryi  of 


McLAIN 


711 


McREE 


Coopentown  SemiDaiy,  and  of  Pittabargh  High  SchooL 
His  health  iroproviDgi  in  1858  he  was  stationed  at 
Union  Chapel,  Cincinnati.  Thence  he  was  transferred 
to  the  New  York  Conference  in  1859,  and  appointed  in 
turn  to  Trinity  Church,  New  Yoric  city;  Washington 
Street,  Poughkecpsie ;  St.  James's  Church,  Kingston ; 
and  St.  James's  Church,  New  York  city.  In  1867  he 
was  stationed  in  the  city  of  Dubuque,  and  in  1868  at 
Union  Chapel,  Cincinnati,  O.  His  subsequent  fields  of 
labor  were :  president  of  Albion  College,  Mich.,  1871 ; 
pastor  of  Third  Street  Church,  Bockford,  IlL;  Wabash 
Avenue  and  Ada  Street  churches,  Chicago;  Hedding 
Church,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.;  KoseTille;  and  in  1878  he 
was  appointed  to  Milton  -  on  -  the-  Hudson,  New  York 
Conference,  but  died  before  entering  upon  his  work,  in 
RoscTille,  May  2, 1879.  He  was  refined,  amiable,  stu- 
dious, and  thorough.  He  excelled  as  a  pastor.  See 
MwtUet  of  Annual  Conferences  f  1880,  p.  45. 

Mclialn,  William,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Ohio,  and  served  several  churches  as  pas- 
tor. His  last  charge  was  the  First  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Washington  city,  D.  C,  which  position  he  resigned 
to  become  financial  secretary  of  the  Colonization  Soci- 
ety, with  which  he  was  identified  for  many  years.  He 
died  at  Washington,  Feb.  15, 1873,  aged  sixty-six  years. 
See  (N.  Y.)  Presbyterian,  March  1 ,  1878.     (W.  P.  S.) 

McLean,  Daniel  Vkach,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  and  member  of  the  Presbytery  of  Monmouth, 
N.  J.,  who  died  at  Red  Bank,  Nov.  28, 1869,  was  an  able 
preacher,  a  good  scholar,  and  a  friend  of  temperance, 
education,  the  Bible  cause,  and  every  Christian  and  be- 
nevolent movement.    (W.  P.  S.) 

MoLeod,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  rector  for  a  number  of  years  at 
Huntington,  Pa. ;  in  1857  at  Clearfield,  having  charge 
of  St.  Andrew's  Church,  and  subsequently  serving,  in 
addition,  as  missionary  at  Phillipsburg.  In  1864  he 
was  chaplain  in  the  United  States  Hospital,  Wilming- 
ton, DeL,  whence  be  was  sent,  in  1866,  to  Fort  Dela- 
ware, as  army  chaplain.  In  1871  he  was  removed  to 
Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  serving  in  the  same  position. 
He  died  at  Meadeville,  Pa.,  Feb.  9,  1877,  in  his  sev- 
enty-seventh year.  See  ProLEpisc»  A  Imancu:,  1878, 
p.  169. 

McLeod,  John  Niel,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bom  in  New  York  city,  Oct.  11, 1806. 
He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1826;  studied 
theology  under  his  father,  with  whom  he  was  associ- 
ated as  pastor  in  1828,  and  whom  he  succeeded  in  1833. 
He  died  in  New  York,  April  27, 1874.  He  had  been 
for  many  years  stated  clerk  of  the  synod  of  his  denom- 
ination, and  professor  in  the  theological  seminary  then 
at  Philadelphia. 

MoMaster,  AuoErnxoy  S.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Mercer,  Pa.,  Nov.  17, 1807.  He  grad- 
uated at  Union  College,  and,  after  completing  his  theo- 
logical studies,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Galway  in  1833,  whence  he  went  in  1838  to 
Pittsburgh,  subsequently  to  Wcstfield,  and  finally  to 
Poland,  O.,  where  he  labored  with  zeal  and  success  for 
twenty-four  years,  until  failing  health  obliged  him  to 
resign.  He  died  at  Leetonia,  Oct.  2, 1882.  See  (N.  Y.) 
Observer,  Oct  12, 1882.     (W.  P.  S.) 

MoMastera^  Sterling  Y.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bora  at  Guilford  Court- 
House,  N.  C,  Dec  13, 1813.  He  graduated  at  the  State 
University,  was  ordained  in  1846,  and  officiated  in  1853 
as  rector  of  a  church  in  Alton,  111.  In  1858  he  removed 
to  Palmyra,  Mo.,  as  president  of  SL  Paul's  College  in 
that  place,  and  remained  in  this  position  until  1861, 
when  he  became  chaplain  of  the  27th  regiment  of  Il- 
linois Volunteers,  United  States  army;  in  the  following 
year  he  officiated  in  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  and  soon  after  be- 
came rector  of  Christ  Church,  in  that  place,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death.  He  died  Nov.  5, 1875.  See 
Prof,  Epitc  Almanac,  1876,  p.  150. 


MoBflillan,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Fagg*s  Manor,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  Nov. 
11,  3752.  He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in 
1770,  was  licensed  by  the  Newcastle  Presb3rtery  in  1774, 
and  spent  the  two  following  years  preaching  in  various 
parts  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  In  1776  he 
joined  the  Donegal  Presbytery,  and  was  stationed  at 
Chambersburg,  where  he  labored  earnestly  for  several 
yean.  He  died  Nov.  16, 1833.  See  Sprague,  Annals 
of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  iii,  350. 

McMillan,  John  (2),  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  South  Carolina,  but  in  early  life  re- 
moved to  Xenia,  O.,  and  afterwards  went  to  Philadel- 
phia, where  be  received  his  education.  He  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  Church  of  Allegheny 
City,  Pa.,  which  position  he  held  for  fifteen  years  with 
great  usefulness  and  succesSb  He  served  during  the  war 
as  chaplain  of  a  Pittsburgh  regiment,  and  afterwards  had 
charge  of  a  church  at  Mount  Pleasant  for  ten  years. 
He  next  became  pastor  of  the  Fifteenth  Street  Church, 
Philadelphia,  where  he  remained  until  his  death  at 
Nantucket,  Sept  1, 1882.  See  (N.  Y.)  Observer,  Sept.  7, 
1882.     (W.  P.  S.) 

MoMoUen,  Robkrt  Burks,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Abbeville  District,  S.  C,  Feb.  9, 
1807.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of  Alabama 
in  1833 ;  spent  two  years  in  the  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary ;  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Tusca- 
loosa, April  8, 1837 ;  became  pastor  at  Clinton,  Ala.,  the 
same  year;  professor  of  chemistry  in  East  Tennessee 
University  in  1841 ;  pastor  of  First  Church  of  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  the  same  year;  president  of  Stewart  College  in 
1858,  and  died  at  Clarkesville,  Jan.  14, 1865.  See  Gen. 
Cat,  of  Princeton  Tkeol.  Sem.  1881,  p.  100. 

MoMnrdie,  Henky,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  di- 
vine, was  born  in  London,  May  21, 1822,  and  was  brought 
up  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  entered 
a  commercial  house  in  Liverpool,  and  during  the  Trac- 
tarian  movement  joined  the  Catholic  Church.  He  ac- 
companied bishop  O'Connor  of  Pittsburgh  to  America, 
and  entered  Mount  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  where  he  grad- 
uated. He  was  ordained  priest  at  Loretto,  Pa.,  by  bish- 
op O'Connor,  Aug.  15, 1854.  He  retumed  to  Mount  St. 
Mary's,  became  professor  of  theology  and  moral  philoso- 
phy, afterwards  director  of  the  seminary,  was  vice-presi- 
dent from  1873  to  1875,  and  was  a  hard  worker  to  the 
day  of  his  death,  which  took  place  at  the  seminar}*, 
Emmittsburg,  Md.,  Jan.  20, 1880.  Dr.  McMurdie  had*a 
mind  which  saw  through  the  most  abstract  questions. 
Ho  had  a  marvellous  command  of  English,  and  was  a 
fine  preacher.    See  (N.  Y.)  Catholic  A  nnual,  1883,  p.  68. 

McPheetera,  Samuel  Browm,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bom  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Sept,  18, 
1819.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of  North 
Carolina  in  1841;  studied  law;  graduated  from  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1843 ;  was  ordained  evan- 
gelist in  1848 ;  became  pastor  of  the  Pine  Street  Church, 
SL  Louis,  Mo.,  in  1851,  and  in  1861  of  Mulberry  Presby- 
terian Church,  Shelby  County,  Ky.,  where  he  died, 
March  9, 1870.  See  Gen, Cal.of  Princeton  Theol.  Sem, 
1881,  p.  141. 

McQueen,  Donald,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Chesterfield  District,  S.  C,  June  21,  1810, 
of  a  Scotch-Irish  family.  He  graduated  from  South 
Carolina  College  in  1832,  and  from  the  theological  sem- 
inary at  Columbia  in  1836.  Hb  sole  pastorate  was  at 
Sumter,  to  which  was  for  a  time  added  that  of  the  ad- 
Joining  town  of  Concord ;  he  died  at  the  former  place, 
Jan.  22, 1880.     See  Nevin,  Presb.  Encydop,  s.  v. 

MoRee,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Iredell  County,  N.  C,  May  10, 1752,  of  parents 
who  had  emigrated  from  Ireland  in  1730.  He  was  ed- 
ucated in  New  Jersey  College,  studied  theology  pri- 
vatel}',  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Orange  in  April,  1778,  and  became  pastor  in  Mecklen- 
burg County,  N.  C,  where  he  remained  twenty  years. 


McSPARRAN 

Ha  died  Much  28, 1840.    See  Spngoo,  AmaU  o/tht 

A'ntr.Palpil,iU,a2i. 

hioBiptmai,  JAitE9,  D.D.,  an  English  cler^DiiD, 
gnduated  H.A.«  the  UniTenity  of  Glugow,  Scotland, 
in  1709,  and  WM  Klcclcd  by  tbs  Sodctj  for  tbe  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  PitU  at  a  migtioniiy 
over  the  NarraganwtC  Parish,  R.  I.  He  was  ordained 
Aug.  21, 1720,  as  deacon,  by  the  bishop  of  LoDdoo,  and 
Sept.  25  following,  as  presbyter,  by  the  archbishop  of 
Canlerbury.  Besides  ofbciacing  in  Nairagansett,  lie 
was  requind  to  preach  at  Bristol,  Freetown,  Swansey, 
aiid  at  Little  Compton.  In  1725  he  oiMsted  in  estab- 
lishing a  Church  in  New  London,  Conn.  In  17B6  he 
viuied  England,  and  again  in  1T54.  He  died  at  3oDth 
Kingstown,  R.  I.,  Dec  1, 175T.  He  published  a  work 
entitled  Aimriai  DiuMti,  etc.  (Dublin,  ITsS).  See 
Spragne,  Annalt  of  the  Amer.Puljnl,  v,  M. 

McViokar,  Williah  Auoustitb,  D.D.,  a  Proleat- 
ant  Episcopal  clergynuin,  was  bom  in  the  dty  of  Mew 
Yarh,  April  24,  18S7.  He  graduated  from  Columbia 
College  in  1S46,  and  from  the  General  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1849;  became  succcsiuvely  rector  at  Morris- 
town,  N.  J.,  and  at  Dobl)s  Ferry  and  Irrington.  N.  V. ; 
tben  of  tbe  AmericBQ  Chapel  at  Nice,  France,  anil  fur 
Dine  years  previous  to  bia  death  was  rector  of  Cbriil 
Church,  New  York  city.  He  died  SepL  24, 1S77.  Sec 
Pm.  Epiic.  AlmanacWe,  p.  169. 

HcWtalr,  WiLUAU,  D.D.,  a  Preibylerian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Ireland,  Sept.  9,  1759.  He  was  prepared 
for  college  at  Belfast,  and  at  nineteen  years  of  age  en- 
teied  the  Univeruty  of  Glasgow.  He  was  licensed  by 
the  Presbytery  of  Killyleagh  in  1783.  In  1783  be  sailed 
for  Americji,  and  in  1793  settled  near  Savannah,  and 
took  charge  of  an  academy,  in  connection  with  bis  pas- 
toral duties.  He  died  Jan.  SI,  1851.  See  Sprague, 
i  mab  of  tht  A  mtr.  I'uipil,  iii,  439. 

MoWlloiter,  Alkxahdeb.    See  Hacwudrtkb. 

Mead,  Bdward  N.,  D.O.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  gradaatcd  from  the  General  Theological 
Seminary,  and  resided  for  some  time,  without  regular 
charge,  first  in  Neir  Yntk  city,  and  then  in  Tarrytown, 
being  secrelan-,  in  1S59,  nf  the  board  of  trustees' of  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  an  office  which  he  held 
for  eighteen  years.  In  iset  he  tuinistered  at  St.  Mary's 
Church,  Beechwood,  N.  Y.  He  died  at  Sing  Sing,  Oct. 
19, 1877.     See  Prol.  Epitc.  Alaumac,  1878,  p.  169. 

Mead,  Hiiain,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Cornwall,  Vt.,  Hay  10, 1827.     He  studied 
■t  Burr  Seminar;-,  Manchester,  and  grad- 
uated from  Middlebury  College  in  1850. 


teaching  at  FlushiuR,  N'.Y.  From  1862 
to  1854  be  was  a  tutor  in  Middlebury 
CoUege.  In  1857  he  graduateil  from 
Audover  Theological  Seminary.  He 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
South  Hadley,  Htsa.,  Sept.  23,  1868, 
rrom  which  he  was  dismissed,  Nov.  15, 
1867.  From  Decl7, following, to  Sept. 
22,  ISG9,  he  was  pastor  at  Nashua,  N.  1{. 
,  Vrom  1870  until  hit  death  be  was  pro- 
fessor of  sacred  rbeloric  and  pastoral  ^ 
theology  in  Oberlin  College.  He  died  "* 
in  Oberlin,  O.,  May  18,  1S81.  AiDong 
his  publications  is  the  -if anuat  of  Praise, 
fvr  Sand.ig  anJ  Social  Worthip  (1880). 
See  Cung.  I'eor-fioot,  1882,  p.M. 

Mead,  ^VUliam  Cooper,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  a  Proleslint  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, was  born  at  Greenwich,  Conn., 
and  onlained  deacon  in  1824  by  bishop 
Croes.  Previous  to  1886  he  was  leeloi 
of  Christ  Church,  Reading,  Pa.,  and  oT 
Trinitr  Cburch,  Philadelphia,  and  frDin 
that  date  of  St.  Panl't  Cburch,  tTorwalk, 
Conn.,  until  bit  death,  July  17, 1879,  al 


2  MEDEBA 

the  age  of  eighty  yean.  For  more  than  forty  yean 
he  served  on  the  standing  committee,  and  in  the  general 
convention.     See  Frot,  EpiicAlmiaiat,  p.  171. 

Mean^  John  Ot-ivtrit,  D.D.,  a  Congngational  min^ 
ister,  was  born  at  Augusta,  Me.,  Ang.  1, 1822.  He  gnd- 
uHted  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1848,  and  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1849,  having  meanwhile  served 
four  years  an  purser  in  the  navy.  He  was  ordained  Dec 
S,  18S1,  pastor  at  East  Medway,  MuL,  a  ponUon  which 
he  held  fur  four  years,  and  in  1857  became  paitor  of  the 
Vino  Street  Congregational  Church,  it  Roibary,  where 
he  remained  for  eighteen  years.  In  1873  he  resigned 
bis  poution  to  become  secretary  of  the  Mianachusetla 
Sunday-Khool  Publication  Society,  but  was  soon  called 
into  a  wider  sphere  of  usefulness,  the  secretarysbip  of 
tbe  American  Board  of  Commiaiioncn  for  Foreign 
Missions,  which  he  behl  at  the  time  of  his  death,  Dec. 
8,  1883.  Dr.  Means  also  served  on  the  Boston  School 
Board.  He  was  president  of  the  Roxbuiy  Atheimim, 
and  held  other  trusts.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the 
Koyal  Geognpbical  Society  of  England.  He  visited 
Europe  in  tbe  interest  of  tbe  missionary  aociety,  and 
was  highly  esleemed  by  all  denominations. 

Meora,  JoEis  Williah,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  mm. 
ister  and  educator,  was  born  at  Ueading,  Pa.,  Aug.  10, 
1S25>  He  graduated  from  Delaware  CullE|;e  at  the 
head  of  bis  class  in  18M,  and  from  Yale  Diviniiv  School 
in  1851.  He  was  ordaineil,  in  1852,  pastor  at  Camden, 
N.  J.;  in  1864  became  pastor  at  Elkton,  Md.;  in  1867 
at  Milfonl,  Del;  in  IS60  became  joint  editor  of  tbe 
Amti-ican  Prtibt/teri/m,  at  Philadelphia,  and  later  eole 
editor  and  proprietor  until  1870,  when  that  paper  wa* 
merged  in  the  Etangdiit.  In  1871  he  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  metaphysics  in  Hamilton  CoUege,  a  poaition 
which  he  retained  untir  his  death,  Nov.  10, 1881.  Dr. 
Meart  took  great  interest  in  the  questions  of  the  day, 
and  in  1878  be  organized  the  movement  against  the 
Oneida  community  which  gained  such  force  that  they 
were  compelled  to  abolish  the  objectionable  system  of 
complex  marriage.  He  was  prominent  as  a  prohibi- 
tionist, and  was  tbe  candidate  of  that  party  for  goveiDor 
in  ono  campaign.  He  was  the  author  of  acveral  well- 
known  religious  works,  among  them  Tht  Bible  u  Ibe 
WotIoIv^,  and  The  MaTij/ri  n/  Franct. 

Medeba.  The  ruins  of  this  site  are  extensivelv 
described  by  Tristram  (tmrf  o/ A/ooft.  p.  821  sq.)  and 
Merrill  {Eatt  of  tht  Jordan,  p.  S52).  They  consist  es- 
pecially of  two  columni,  tlill  standing,  with  their  archi- 


MEDICO 


IIS 


MEINERTZHA6EN 


trnve,  the  remaiiu  of  a  temple,  and  a  tkone  Tetenroir, 
one  hundred  and  twenty  yards  Bquare,  still  perfect,  with 
the  usual  signs  of  an  ancient  town. 

Medico,  SiXTO,  a  Venetian  Dominican,  was  bom 
■bout  1601.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Venice, 
In  1M5  professor  of  theology  at  Padua,  and  died  Not. 
29, 1661.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  £)e  Fctnert 
Judmonm  (Venice,  1661).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jvd,  ii, 
888 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugememu  GekhrUn-Lexihonj  s.  v.  (R  P.) 

Medina,  Samuel  db,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  16th 
century,  was  bom  at  Medina  del  Campa  He  was  a 
philosopher.  Jurist,  and  teacher  of  repute,  and  became 
the  head  of  the  college  at  Salonica.  In  1696  he  pub- 
lished his  C^pDB,  a  collection  of  answers  to  legal  de- 
cisions, and  left  a  volume  of  homilies,  which  were  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  bstliatt}  "p.  by  bis  grandson, 
at  Mantua,  in  1622.  See  De'  Rossi,  Dizunuuio  Storico 
(Germ.  traiisL),  p.  216;  Lindo,  History  of  the  Jews  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  p.  869 ;  Kavserling,  6*efcA.  d.  Juden 
«•  Portugal,  p.  89 ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  ii,  839.     (B.  P.) 

Meelftthrer,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Culmbach,  in  Franconia,  Dec  26, 
1670.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  preacher  and 
teacher  at  different  places,  and  died  Dec.  3, 1640,  at 
Ansbach.  He  is  the  author  of,  Manuale  Lexici  Ihbra* 
id  (Leipsic,  1617) : — Clavis  Lingua  JItbraa,  etc.  (Nu- 
remberg, 1698,  1628)  x—Compendiota  Instiiutio  Grants 
matica  /lehr,  (Ansbach,  1607;  Jena,  IG2S)  iSgnopnt 
Imtitut,  IIdfi\  (Leydenf  1642): — Vindicia  Eeangeliea: 
— Vindicia  Apottolicm,  etc.  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  ii, 
840 ;  J5cher,  A  UgemeineM  Gdehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.   (D.  P.) 

MeeliQhrer,  Rudolph  Martin,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Ansbach.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  and  was  made  a  li- 
centiate of  theolog}'.  In  1712  he  joined  the  Romish 
Church,  but  returned  to  the  Lutheran  Church  again  in 
1726.  He  then  went  to  GoLha  and  Holland,  and  while 
on  his  way  home  was  imprisoned  by  the  imperial 
government,  and  retained  at  Eger.  When  MeelfUhrer 
died  is  not  known.  He  wrote,  Comuntua  Veterum  He- 
hraorum  cum  Eccletia  Christiana  (Frankfort,  1701)  : — 
Causes  SynagogoB  Errantis  (Altdorf,  1702): — Jesus  in 
Talmude  (ibid.  1699)  :—Z)e  Versionibus  Talmudis:—De 
Meritis  I/ebraorum  in  rem  Literariam: — De  Impedi- 
men/is  Conversitmis  Judceorum,  See  Winer,  Handbuck 
dsr  theoL  Lit,  i,  668 ;  FUrst,  BiXA.  Jud.  ii,  840  sq. ;  Jocher, 
AUgtmeines  Gekhrten^Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Megas,  Joseph  ibn.    See  Mioas. 

Megidda  Lieut.  Conder  {Tent  Work, ),  128  sq.; 
and  still  more  extensively  in  the  Memoirs  to  the  Ord- 
nance Sur\'ey,  ii,  90  sq.)  impugns  the  grounds  of  iden- 
tity between  this  place  and  Legio  (now  Lejjdn),  and 
prefers  Khnrbet  el-Mujedda,  a  min  three  miles  south- 
west of  Beisan ;  but  this  is  too  far  from  the  Kishon. 

Meharry^  Alkxaiider,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bora  in  Adams  County,  O.,  Oct.  17, 
1831.  He  was  carefully  and  religiously  trained;  was 
converted  in  his  thirteenth  year;  in  1833  entered  into 
mercantile  business;  received  license  to  preach  in  1841, 
and  in  the  same  year  joined  the  Ohio  Conference. 
His  fields  of  labor  were  Blendon,  Bambridge  Circuit, 
Jacksonville,  Deer  Creek,  Frankfort,  and  Augusta  Cir- 
cuit, Ky.  In  1848  and  1849  he  ser\'ed  New  Street  and 
East  Cincinnati  missions.  He  then  acted  as  agent  for 
the  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  for  six  years,  as  well  as 
part  of  the  time  as  agent  for  the  Springfield  High- 
school.  His  next  appointments  were  Franklin,  Middle- 
town,  Finley  Chapel,  Cincinnati,  and  Wilmington.  In 
1866  and  1867  he  was  agent  for  the  Cincinnati  Wesley- 
an College;  from  1868  to  1870  was  pastor  at  Eaton; 
in  1871  served  as  presiding  elder  of  Ripley  District;  in 
1872  and  1873  of  Sprin^eld  District;  from  1874  to 
1877  held  a  superannuated  relation;  and  in  1878  was 
appointed  financial  agent  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity.    He  died  in  Germantown,  Nov.  18  of  that 


year.  Dr.  Meharry  was  a  plain,  practical,  bold,  and 
uncompromising  preacher;  a  man  of  great  energy,  an 
indefatigable  worker.  See  Minutes  of  A  imual  Confer^ 
ences,  1879,  p.  16. 

Mehdi^is,  a  Mohamme<1an  sect  in  India,  who  take 
their  name  from  believing  their  Wall  or  saint  to  have 
been  the  promised  Mehdi  or  MahadL  A  pretender 
aroee,  who  claimed  to  be  the  twelfth  Imam.  He  was 
bora  at  Benares,  in  the  year  A.D.  1448,  and  declared 
himself  to  be  the  Mahadi,  at  the  black  stone  at  Mecca, 
about  A.D.  1496.  He  died  at  Khorassan,  in  the  year 
A.D.  1606,  after  which  his  followers  dispersed,  without, 
however,  giving  op  their  belief  in  the  reappearance  of 
their  leader  as  the  long-expected  Mahadi.  They  were 
subjected  to  a  severe  perMcution  by  Aurungzebe,  but  are 
still  found  in  small  communities  in  various  parts  of  India. 

Mehrixig,  Heinrich  Johann  Friedrich,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian,  who  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-one 
years.  May  8, 1879,  at  Papendorf,  near  Pasewalk,  where 
he  occupied  one  and  the  same  pastorate  over  fifty-six 
year8,  is  th^  author  of.  Das  SOndenregister  im  Homer-' 
brief  oder  neue  ErHdrung  der  Stellt,  Rom,  t,  8-32 
(Wriezen-on-the-Oder,  1864) : — Der  Brief  Pauli  an  die 
Bomer  (SUttin,  1858, 1  part).  See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL 
U,864.     (a  P.) 

Meier,  Christoph  Paulus  (originally  Sohmon 
ben-Meir),  a  rabbi  at  Frankfort,  who  embraced  Christi- 
anity, and  was  baptized  Aug.  6,  1673,  at  Nordhausen, 
is  the  author  of,  Judischer  Narrenspiegel  (Wittenberg, 
1686)  i-^  Jewish  Ceremonies  (ibid.  1678;  Dantzic,  1682) : 
Tractatus  de  Brevi  et  JHdicula  Judaorum  ExposUione 
Cantici  (DanUic,  1678),  etc.  See  Wolf,  BibL  Hebr,  i, 
1010,  iii,  982;  iv,  967;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Schudt,  J&d,  Denhturdigteiten,  ii,  124; 
Diefenbach,  Judaus  Conversus,  p.  169  sq. ;  FUrst,  BibL 
Jud.  ii,  841.     (B.  P.) 

Meier,  Frledrloh  Christ,  (originally  Isi-ael 
Meier"),  a  Jew  who  embraced  Christianity,  and  was  bap- 
tized with  his  daughter,  at  Altona,  near  Hamburg,  Sept. 
21, 1701,  wrote,  Licht  tu  erieuchten  die  Juden  (Leipsic, 
1711;  Halle,  1713):-.i>fr  gUldene  Leuchter  im  A,  T, 
(Hamburg,  1718)  i— Balsam  des  Lebens,  on  Jewish  cere- 
monies (Brunswick,  1719) : — Der  91  Psalmgedeutet  (Ros- 
tock, 1704) :— Moses  mit  Christus  verglichen  (Hamburg, 
I7lb):  — GlaubenOekentniss,  etc.,  or  nmK  ^^tV  D 
SSHJ*;  (Altona,  1701).  See  Wolf,  Bibl,  'llebr,  i,  990 ;  iii, 
947 ;  iv,  969 ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten  -  Lexikon, 
s.  V. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  ii,  341.     (R  P.) 

Meier,  debhard  Theodor,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Hanover,  May  16, 1638. 
He  studied  at  Helmstttdt,  was  in  1660  professor  of  the- 
ology, and  died  Dec.  22,  1693.  He  wrote,  Iniroductio 
in  Universum  Theologim  Moralis  Studium  (1671) : — 
PoUtia  Ecclesia  Primitives  ad  PoUtiam  Civilem  Forma" 
ta : — Historia  Religionum  Chtistiana,  Judaicas,  Geniilis 
ei  Muhamm/edanoB,  etc.  See  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  theoL 
Lit,  i,  810,  624,  636,  664,  904;  JOcher,  A  Ugemeines  Ge- 
lehrten-Ijonhon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Meiner,  Johanm  Werner,  a  Lutheran  theologian, 
bora  at  Romershofen,  Franconia,  March  6,  1723,  was 
rector  at  Langensalza,  and  died  March  23, 1789.  He 
wrote.  Die  tpahren  Eigenschafien  der  hebrdischen  Sprache 
(Leipsic  1748): — Analysis  et  Versio  iii  Ecdesiasta 
(ibid.  1761) : — A  ujiosung  der  tomehmsten  SchwietigkeUen 
der  hebr,  Spraehe  (Langensalza,  1767) :  —  Progr,  I J  de 
Bebntorvm  Censibus  (1764-66) : — Beit  rag  tur  Verbes- 
serung  der  BibelObersetzung  (Ratisbon,  178 1 ).  See  FUrst, 
BibL  Jud.  ii,  341  sq.;  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  theoL  Lit. 
i,  116.     (a  P.) 

Meinertzhagen,  GusTAv.a  Protestant  theologian, 
who  died  at  Bremen  in  1866,  is  the  author  of,  Predigten 
(Bremen,  1834) :  —  Die  Hoffimng  der  Gldubigen  (ibid. 
1842) \-~Vorlentngen  iiber  die  Christologie  des  Alten  Te- 
staments (ibid.  1848)  :—Die  religiose  Bedeutung  der  bib- 
lisdun  Winder  (}Sio):^U^er  Werth  und  Bedeutung 


MEINHART 


714 


MELECH 


derhiblitchen  Gesckidtte  (1849)  :-^Die  Vermekung  ChrisH 
(1855).  After  his  death  AcheliM  published  Naehgelat- 
tene  Predigten  (1857).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii, 
865  »q.     (a  P.) 

Meinhart^  Georo  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Ohrdruff,  in  the  county 
of  Hohenlohe,  April  5, 1651.  He  studied  at  Jena  and 
Wittenberg,  was  in  1683  superintendent  at  Arnstadt,  and 
died  April  10, 1718,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  Medi- 
tationes  in  Zackaria  ix,  9 : — Ditputationes  de  Prapheta 
Most: — De  Natirceis  Disputationea  Tres: — De  Corban 
Distertationes  Trea:—De  Pauli  Natiraatuc-^De  Sde- 
nolatria  a  Jeremia  Improbata:  —  De  Fabrica  Templi 
MyiticL  See  Unschuldige,  JVacAi'tcA/«n,*  Jocber,  ui^ 
gemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikorif  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Melntel,  Johamn  Gkoro,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  the  18th  century,  is  the  author  of  Notts  Sekctissu 
tnorum  Commentatorum  Judaicorum  in  PscUmos  Davidi 
(Schwabach,  1744) : — Monarchie  der  Hebrder  (Nurem- 
berg, 1751):  —  Probe  exMr  hititt^en  Polyglottenbibel 
(ibid.  1764-70):  — ^urM  ErJdUrung  des  Bucket  Hiob 
(1771): — Meiapkrcuis  Libri  Jobi,Mve  Jaibut  MetricuM 
(1774).     See  Ftirst,  BibL  Jud,  ii,  842.     (B.  P.) 

Meinwerk,  bbhop  of  Paderbom  from  1009-  t^o 
1086,  was  of  noble  descent.  He  was  educated  at  Hal-, 
berstadt  and  Hildesheim,  and  became  royal  chaplain 
under  Otto  III.  Henry  II  made  him  bishop,  and  took 
him  to  Italy  in  1013.  Meinwerk  also  accompanied 
Henry's  successor,  Conrad  II,  to  Italy  in  1026,  and  by 
the  services  which  Meinwerk  thus  rendered  he  greatly 
advanced  the  cause  of  the  Church.  By  the  munificence 
of  his  royal  patrons  he  was  enabled  to  devote  much  of 
his  time  in  the  interest  of  the  school  and  in  founding 
new  monasteries.  He  died  June  5, 1036,  but  was  not 
canonized  until  1376.  His  life  is  found  in  Pertz,  J/onu- 
menta  Germanice,  xi,  104-16 1.  See  also  Wattenbach, 
Deutsche  Geschichtsquelten  (Berlin,  1878),  ii,  29-33,  279; 
Otto,  De  Uenrici  I J  in  A  ries  LUterasque  Meritis  (Bonn, 
1848) ;  Hirsch,  Jahrbucher  dea  deuttchen  Reich*  unter 
Ifeinrich  II;  Bresslau,  Jahrbucher  dea  deutschen  Reicha 
vnter  Konrad  II;  Plitt-Herzog,  RecU'Encyklop,KV, 

(a  P.) 

MeiB,  Friedrick  Ermst,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  June  26, 1658.  He  studied  at 
Jena  and  Leipsic,  was  in  1688  conrector  at  Ichleusingen, 
in  '1691  superintendent  and  pastor  primarius,  in  1699 
doctor  of  theology,  and  died  Dec  20, 1744.  He  wrote, 
De  Sanguine  VetOo  ex  Genea,  ia;,  3,  4 :  — De  Morte  ex 
Ronu  r,  12 : — De  Reaurredione  Mortuorum  ex  Joh.  v, 
28,  29: — De  Extreme  Judido  ex  2  Cor.  v,  10: — De  In- 
Jerno  ex  Mutt,  xxr,  41 :  —  De  Deo  Unkrino  ex  Eaa, 
xlviii,  16 : — De  Chriato  Jeau  Nazarena  ex  Eaa.  xxviOj 
26 :— Z)«  Saiptura  Sacra  ex  2  Tim.  Hi,  16,  17  :—De 
Awjelia  ex  Ebr.  a,  14: — De  Provideniia  Dei  ex  1  Pet.  », 
7 : — Explanatio  Prioria  Hemiatichii  1  Cor,  xr,  17,  centra 
Spinozam: — Explieafio  Jer.xxxii^  17,  contra  Spinozam, 
etc.  See  Ludovici  Notitia  Ephororum  SchUiuingenr 
aium;  Ne}ihat.uety  Jetztlebende  Tkeologen;  ZocYi^r,  AUge- 
meinea  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Meisner,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Torgau,  April  4,  1615.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg,  was  rector  at  his  native  place,  after- 
wards doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg, 
and  died  in  1681.  He  wrote,  Theologia  Naturalia  Tri- 
bua  DiaaertaHonibua : — Compendium  Theologia  Di^u- 
tationibua  xxH: — Fasciculi  Diaputationum  Theohgica- 
rum  ad  Genea.  •*,  6, 7 : — De  Protevangelio  Paradmaco  ad 
Genea.  ut ,  15 : — De  Con/uaione  Linguarum  Babglonica  ad 
Genea.  xi,  1-9  :—De  Chriato  Redemtore  Vivo  ad  Jobi  xix, 
25  i—De  Plerop/ioria  Iliobi  in  Gakm  Redivivum  ad  Jobi 
xix,  25  sq. : — De  Origine  et  Progreaau  Ariamami: — De 
Peraecutiottibua  et  Martgribua  Veterum  Chriatianorum : 
— De  Vetera  Novoque  Ilomine : — De  Maria  Dei  Gene- 
trice:— 'De  Tranaaubatantiatione  el  Miaaa: — De  Spiriiu 
Sancto  contra  Socinianoa: — Num  Chriatua  in  Triduo 
MorUa  vent*  Parmanaerit  Homo  9 — De  Peocaio  in  Spi- 


rHum  Sanctmn,  See  Witte,  Diarium;  Joeher,  AlXgB* 
meinea  Gelehrten* Lexihon,  a.  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
theol.  Lit.  i,  425.     (K  P.) 

Meisner,  Johann  Heinxicb,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian, was  bora  at  Leipsic,  Dec.  11,  1765,  and  died 
there,  April  10,  1818,  doctor  and  professor  of  phileeo- 
phy.  He  published,  AVra  Veleria  Tealantenti  Clavi* 
(Leipsic,  1800,  2  vols.) : — In  Carmine  Davidia  2  Sam, 
xxUi,  1-7  (1783):— (ZTconoffita  Cap.xii  ffoaea  (1788). 
In  connection  with  Doderlein  he  published  BibUa  He- 
braica  cum  Variia  Lectiombua  (1798).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  89, 120 ;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  ii, 
847.     (a  P.) 

M^arkon.  This  is  held  by  Lieut  Conder  {Teni 
Work,  i,  280)  to  be  the  JVdAr  el- A  ujah,  a  stream  turbid 
with  yellow  sand,  running  into  the  Mediterranean  a 
few  miles  north  of  Jaffa. 

Meklenburg,  Jacob  Hirsch,  a  Jewish  writer, 
who  died  at  Konigsberg,  April  6, 1865,  is  the  author  of 
il^apni  atisn,  or  Die  Schnjl  und  die  Ueberlie/erung 

(Leipsic,  1839),  etc.  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  ii,  348 ;  Zuch- 
old,  J9t6/.  7A«o/.  ii,  867.     (B.  P.) 

Melcher,  Johann  T^yilhelm,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  who  died  at  Freienwalde,  Feb.  10, 
1880,  is  the  author  of,  Verhdltniaa  der  tier  kanoniaehen 
Evangelien  unter  einander  (Berlin,  1847)  :—BeUrage  turn 
Veratancbdaa  der  IleHigenachrift  (1859).  See  Zuchold, 
Bibl.  TheoL  ii,  869.     (B.  P.) 

Meloher,  Joaeph,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  stud- 
ied and  took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Modena,  was  ordained 
in  1830,  and  became  chaplain  to  the  court.  In  1843 
he  came  to  America  with  bishop  Rosati,  and  was  sta- 
tioned at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  whence  he  was  transferred 
to  St  Mary's  Church,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  of  which  diocese 
he  became  vicar-generaL  He  remained  pastor  there 
until  he  was  made  the  first  bishop  of  Green  Baj',  Wis., 
July  12, 1868,  He  introduced  several  working  orders, 
such  as  the  Ursulines,  Franciscan  Tertiaries,  Servites, 
etc.  Dr.  Melcher  died  Dec  20, 1873,  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
six,  leaving  a  flock  of  60,000  and  sixty-nine  churchrm 
See  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  ffiat,  of  the  Cath.  Church  in 
the  United  Statea,  p.  598. 

Melchiadea.    See  Miltiadbs. 

Melohlor,  Johanm,  a  Reformed  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  in  1646.  He  studied  at  different  uni- 
versities; was  in  1667  pastor  at  Freeh,  in  the  duchy  of 
Jttlich,  in  1672  at  Kattekircben,  in  1677  at  DUsseldorf,  in 
1682  doctor  of  theology,  and  died  at  Dillenburg,  Oct.  1&, 
1689.  He  wrote,  Clavia  Prophetiea  Caniici  Cantioorum 
Salcmonia : — Comnteniariua  in  ProphUam  Michaam  : — 
ParaUeliamua  Locorum  Veteria  Teatamenti  in  Novo  Ci" 
tatorum : — A  nalyaia  Epiatola  ad  Romanoa : — Explana- 
tio Epiatoke  ad  Coloaaenaea : — Commentariua  in  Epiaio- 
lam  ad  Hebrnoa :  —  Quasationea  in  Apocalgpain :  —  De 
Religione  ejuaque  Natura  et  Principio  contra  Spinozam  : 
— De  GEconomia  Dei  circa  Gentea  et  Judaoa  ex  Para^ 
bola  Lucm  xv,  11-32.  Melchior's  Latin  writings  were 
published  at  Francker  in  1706,  with  a  biography  written 
by  Johann  Heinrich  Florinus.  See  Joeher,  AUgemeinet 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Melech,  Salomo  Ibk-,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  16th 
century,  was  a  resident  at  Constantinople,  where  he 
published,  in  1554,  his  *t&^  bbs^,  <<The  Perfection  of 
Beauty,"  scholia  on  the  Hebrew  Bible.  It  has  been 
repeatedly  edited,  but  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Am> 
Bterdam  (1685,  foL),  with  Abendana's  additions.  It  ia 
a  very  valuable  contribution  to  grammatical  exegesia, 
since  it  is  brief  and  condensed,  giving  almost  exclusively 
grammatical  andt  lexical  explanations,  for  the  most  part 
from  Kimchi's  writings.  Ithasbeen  highly  valued  among 
Christians,  and  several  parts  of  it  have  been  translated 
into  Latin ;  that  on  Canticlea,  by  Chr.  Molitor  (Altdorf, 
1659) ;  on  Joahua  and  Malachi,  by  Nik.  Kdppen  (Greifs- 
walde,  1708, 1709) ;  on  Ruth,  by  J.  a  Carp«>v,  reprinted 
in  his  Collegium  Rabbinica-BibUcum  (Leipsic^  1705) ;  on 


MELLOR  71 

JonoA,  by  G.  Cbr.  Baicklia  <Fnnkbrt-oii-tbe'MaiD, 

1E97),  Job.  Leiuden  (ibid.  1692),  uul  E.  Cbr.  Fibriciiu 
(tiiillingen,  1792);  on  Obadiah,  by  Brodbrrg  (Upula, 
17II),elc.  See  Font,  fitUlJuiJ.ii,SaO;  Ecberidgr, /n- 
(ivducfiiMi  to  Jewith  Lil.  p.  117;  De'  U«iu,  Daimmria 
Storico  Dfgli  Autori  (Germ.  traiuL  by  Ilamburf^r), 
p.217i  Wolf,  Biit  i/<ir.  i,  1073  Iq.:  iii,  105o»q.    <B.  P.) 

MeUor,  EitoCH,  D.D.,  an  English  Conprgiliunal 
ninlNcr,  «u  born  it  Salendine  Nook,  neur  Huclden- 
field,  Nar.20,  IS2S.  He  itudied  in  HudilenfleldColltgt, 
giadu&tKl  A.M.  rrom  (he  Univenity  nf  Edinburgh  in 
1845,  and  aftenrardi  tlndicd  theology  in  the  Lancubire 
Independent  College.  About  the  cIibc  or  the  yeer  1S4T 
he  accepted  I  be  pastorate  of  tbecburcb  at  Squire  Koid, 
HaliTix.  Hii  Tame  u  ■  preacher  ipread  rapidly,  and 
he  wu  rrequeatl;  invited  to  larger  lleldB  at  userulneag. 
In  18GJ  he  became  paator  at  the  church  *t  Great  George 
Street,  Liverpool,  where  he  achieied  aignal  aucceu.  In 
1867  he  returned  to  hia  former  charge  in  llatirai,  where 
he  met  with  a  hearty  welcome,  and  continued  to  labor 
UDlil  the  cloae  of  life,  Oct.  26, 1881.  He  wa>  active  in 
the  intereati  of  hia  denomination,  and  was  often  called 
to  poaitioni  of  honor  in  that  connection.  He  pnblithed. 
The  Aionaanas  ill  Rtlatirm  to  Pardon,  tic-.—Rilual- 
itm  and  ilt  Sdaltd  Dogman—Prittlhood  in  Ike  Light 
nfike  f/ea  Tutamoil.  See  (Lend.)  Cong.  YiarJmIc, 
1882,  p.  815. 

Blalo,  Datid  Abematar,  a  converted  Spaniah  Jew, 
via  bora  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  Of  bit 
eariy  life  wo  know  nothing  lieyoud  the  fact  that  for  »ev- 
eral  year*  he  wa>  an  inmate  of  the  prison  of  the  Inqui- 
■ition.  Whether  be  was  committed  lliere  becauae,  u 
Hilman  ilatea,  he  waa  baptized,  and  waa  suapected  of 
not  being  ■  true  Christian,  or  in  order  to  crush  out  of 
him  the  betrayal  of  wiine  of  hia  kindred,  or,  as  Kayser- 
Bing  atates,  becauae  he  translated  aoma  of  David's  I'salms 
into  Spanish,  is  very  dif&cult  to  lay.  He  wa-  released 
in  1611,  and  found  a  refuge  in  Holland,  wbi^rg  s  great 
many  of  bis  countrymen  and  co-religion iata  had  aellled. 
He  aoon  became  the  head  of  the  synagogue  at  Amster- 
dam, lecturing  at  the  aame  time  at  the  Academy  of  De 
loaFintoa.  Hclo,whoni  BBrriosca]la"traductorbani 
nioso  del  Paalteiio  mialerioso,"  is  especially  known 
the  translator  of  the  t^ma  into  Spaniah,  which  w< 
printed  at  Frankfort  in  ISSO,  under  the  title.  Lot  Ftitla 
de  Dacidm  Variia  A'uai,  and  which  leada  to  the  anp- 
poaition  that  he  went  thither  on  hia  way  to  Holland,  and 
apenc  some  time  there.  Sea  UrBtz,  Gtich.  d.  Juifen 
(Leipwe,  1868),  x,  B  sq. ;  Kayserling,  StphaTdim,  p.  169 
aq.;  De'  Hoesi,  Diiionario  Storico  (Germ,  transl.  by 
Hamburger),  p.  S18;  Hilman,  flufory  o/(AeJ«w<  (N.Y. 
1870),  iii,  464 ;  De  loa  Klos,  Eitudioi  S<Art  lot  Judiot  de 
Eipatla,  p.  621  Mf.;  Taat,BibLJiid.ii,Sil.     (B.  P.) 

Meloa,  JoHANN  GEOtto,  ■  Lutheran  theol<^an,  was 
bom  Aug.  S4, 1770,  at  Grosaenmonnta,  near  Meraeburg, 
and  died  at  Weimar,  Feb.  16, 18^,  profeasor  at  [he  sem- 
inary. He  published,  Bibliieke  GachickUn  da  AUtn 
md  yeuen  TaUtmenlt  (Weimar 
1820) :— CMfAtciM  dtr  R'/or- 
ptatioa  JUr  BGrgtr-  uad  Land' 
tchttlai  (6th  ed.  edited  by  Rothe, 
"    "  I,  1837 ) !  —  Beichrabung 


dtt 


r  Zetl 


Jem  (Weimar,  1822,  2d  ed 
1830):  — (Pcue  det  Chruten- 
Ihunu  (1824).  See  Winer, 
Haitdbudt  dtr  theoL  Lil  ii,  254, 
262,  309,  S18;  Zuchnld,  BAl. 
TheoL  ii,  869 ;  FUrst,  BtbL  Jud. 
ii,851.     (B.P.) 

Melpomeni,  in  Greek  my 
tbohjgy,  waa  the  muse  of  Irag- 
edy.     See  Muses, 

MeUtielmer,  Ludi 

H,  a  Proleatant  theo-  -  f^^  nw.\ai\ugm 
la  horn  itapt.  18, 1771     walls  orSarr-'-— 


MEMBERSHIP 

itered  upon  hia  miniaterial  functions  in  1795  at 
Kleinflachiingeu,  Bavaria,  was  in  180C  pastor  at  Bu- 
chingen,  and  died  Aug.  8, 1827,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
published.  Dm  Buck  Hiob  mttritch  Hherttlil  und  tiliu- 
ten  (Mannheim,  lS23):^Z>u  Sprvdu  Salonomi  libir- 
mil  mit  AHmerkangen  (1821).  See  Winer.  Ilandiuck 
dtr  iktoL  Lit.  i,  206,  212  ^  FUrat,  Bibt.  Jud.  ii,  S5I. 
(B.P,) 

THE  CiiRirnAn  CnuRCtt,  Coa- 


We  n 


ly  prai 


Cbnrcl 


a  generi 


m  (q.  v.),  and  ll 


if  Cbiiitendom,  except  the  so-ealled  Baptists  (q.  v.), 
administer  the  rite  to  infanta  as  well  as  to  adults,  the 
parents  or  friends  of  the  former  engaging,  either  for- 
mally or  presumably,  as  aponsora  (q,  v.),  the  future  as- 
sumption of  the  baptismal  vows  on  the  part  of  the  chil- 
dren baptized,  who  meannhile  occupy  a  subordinate  or 
preparatory  stage  of  membership  as  catecbumens  (q.  v.). 
I.  BaiaU'rmdpla.—l.  Of  an  Idtat  Ckarader^-ThK 
Church  of  God,  in  its  broadest  aenae,  consists  of  all  who. 


ihether  on  earth  oi 


e  been 


by  Jesua  Christ,  and  quickened  by  the  Holy  Spirit, 
and  have  not,  by  resislance  of  the  Spirit,  forfeited 
God's  favor.  The  visible  Church  is  the  wliole  num- 
ber of  tboee  who,  on  earth,  participate,  in  aome  degree, 
in  the  common  Christian  life,  faith,  and  organic  felbiw- 
sblp.  The  conditiona  of  church- membership  will  vary 
according  aa  the  visible  Church,  in  the  form  it  was  de- 
signed to  assume,  be  regarded  aa  one,  universal,  un- 
changeable, and  divine,  or  otherwise.  Again,  the 
"'        '  '        '    ved  aa  uniform  in  its  atandard  of 


hical  a 


The  I 


ing  ideals: 

(I)  The  Chi-itlian  Li/t— What  is  it?  When  does 
itl>egin?  Herecomea  in  thequestion  of  infant  or  adult 
memberahip.  See  r.sDO-BArTisM.  The  term '- life,"  like 
the  term  "death," is  ambiguous,  meaning  both  the  bid- 
den force  which  renders  spontaneous  action  poasible  in  ■ 
favorable  environment,  in  forms  of  existence  above  tbe 


rity  1 


aulting  froi 


When  a  man  loves  God  and  his  neighbor  he  is  aaid  to 
be  spiritually  aiivet  but  this  must  mean  thethecithilula 
in  action  a  force,  the  existence  of  which  must  have  pre- 
ceded tbe  display  of  it.  Unless  we  are  Peiagiana,  we 
must  attribute  the  origin  of  spiritual  life,  the  capaUlity 
of  spontaneous  religioua  acUvily,  to  the  influence  of 
God's  Spirit  on  the  human  mind.  Accurately  to  de- 
termine the  moment,  when  life  begins  is  aa  dlCBcult  in 
tbe  spiritual  aa  in  the  phyaical  realm  :  all  that  can  be 
done  is  to  fljt  a  period  beyond  wbicb  it  is  not  reason- 
able to  believe  that  the  life-giving  contact  is  delayed. 
Put  that  periodofiEvudivyii't^iriC,  or  birth  from  above, 

some  one  aspect:  put  it  aC  the  moment  of  conscious 
and  faith,  and  they  will  assume  another. 


■Ufe,"  I 


irely  capacil 


■for  t 


.  but,  alao,  action  itseir— I 
alive  who  acts  holily.  He  is  dead  who  lives  in  sin. 
On  our  conceptions  of  what  the  divine  standard  of  liv- 
ing is,  and  of  the  time  when  and  the  means  by  which 
the  trantiliou  from  mere  capacity  fui  living  to  actual 
living,  the  moral  change,  renewal,  or  converaion,  occurs, 
will  depend  the  conditiona  of  membership  in  our 
churches.  Is  there  auch  a  divine  and  unchangeable 
atandard?  Does  it,  if  it  exists,  cover  principles  onli', 
or  overt  acts  akne,  or  motives  also  ?  How  fbr  are  mo- 
livea  capable  of  being  tested  by  Church  auihorilies? 
la  the  beginning  of  Christian  living  coincident  with 
auch  faith  aa  secures  reverent  obedience  to  known  di- 
vine 1aw,or  with  tbe  faith  that  gives  assurance  of  ac- 
ceptance? To  what  extent  is  individual  liberty  in  tbe 
application  of  fundamental  principlea  of  holy  living 
admiaaiUe?   If  tbe  relation  of  Cbiiatian  bvebiamuaa- 


MEMBERSHIP 


718 


MEMBERSHIP 


ments  or  buBineBs  is  doubtful,  have  Church  authorides 
the  right  to  excommunicate  him  in  whom  spiritual  life 
may  still  exist,  and  whom  God  mav  still,  in  a  measure, 
approve?  A  Just  separation  from  the  Church  of  Christ 
is  separation  from  Christ.  Is  it  right  to  enforce,  in  what 
professes  to  be  the  Church  of  Christ,  rules  that  would 
be  legitimate  only  in  a  voluntary  club,  organized  for 
special  purposes  within  the  Church,  but  not  cotermi- 
nous with  the  Church?  On  the  decision  given  here 
will  greatly  depend  the  conditions  of  membership  in 
Christian  organizations. 

(2)  The  Ideal  of  Doctrine,.  —  Om  department  of 
church  woric  is,  by  the  application  of  truth,  to  lead  into 
action  the  latent  spirituid  capability  implanted  by  the 
Spirit  of  God.  This  implies  the  instruction  of  those 
formally  enrolled  in  the  organization.  What  shall  they 
be  taught?  Has  Christianity  any  one,  universal,  un- 
changeable, and  divine  standard  of  doctrine  ?  If  so,  is 
it  confined  to  facts,  or  does  it  embrace  theories,  also? 
What  arc  the  facts?  How  much,  if  any,  of  this  code 
of  doctrine  must  be  demanded  of  members  of  the 
Church?  On  the  answer  to  these  questions  will  also 
depend  the  conditions  of  membership. 

(8)  The  Christian  Ideal  of  Organic  FellovBthip*—!'^ 
there  a  divinely  authoritative  standard  of  organic 
Church  relations?  Are  divine  blessings  promised  to 
Christians  in  their  organic  capacity,  or  in  their  indi- 
vidual capacity  only  ?  If  a  divinely  approved  stand- 
ard of  life  and  truth  are  universally  imperarive,  and  if 
failure  to  reach  that  standard  is  an  object  of  mercy  only 
when  circumstances  have  rendered  perfection  impossi- 
ble in  him  who,  nevertheless,  sought  conformity  to  that 
standard,  can  the  presentation,  propagation,  and  enforce- 
ment of  life  and  truth  in  the  world  be  left  to  purely 
voluntary  relip^ous  organizations,  guerilla  warfare,  and 
free-lances?  Or  is  there  one  visible  organism,  superior 
to  all  clubs  and  societies,  the  heir  of  special  promises, 
so  long  OS  it  is  faithful  to  its  obligations,  and  one,  a  just 
excision  from  which  is  excision  from  God?  Though 
our  Lord  did  not  condemn  him  who  cast  out  devils, 
even  when  he  followed  not  the  disciples,  were  not  his 
preparatory  instructions,  his  special  commission,  and  his 
peculiar  promises  given  to  the  disciples  whom  he  was 
organizing?  Let  covenant  blessings,  with  correspond- 
ing obligations,  be  attached,  even  if  they  are  not  exclu- 
sively so,  to  a  visible  organism ;  and  introduction  into 
that  organism  must  bring  at  once,  if  they  have  not 
been  received  l)cfore,  the  promised  blessings;  and  these 
blessings  are  then  to  be  retained,  not  sought  for,  unless, 
after  the  reception  of  them,  they  have  been  forfeited. 
Let  covenanted  blessings  be  the  inheritance  of  individ- 
uals only,  apart  from  all  organic  connection,  on  the  oc- 
casion of  personal  acts  \  then,  prior  to  those  acts,  it  can- 
not be  assumed  that  such  blessings  are  ever  given,  even 
when  the  individuals  concenied  are  the  infant  children 
of  believers;  while  the  discredit  thrown  upon  any  or- 
ganic connections  possible  prior  to  the  personal  actions 
must  react  on  the  conditions  of  membership  assumed 
subsequently  to  these  acts. 

2.  Principles  of  a  Practical  Character.  —  (1)  The 
terms  of  Church  membership  further  depend  upon  the 
source  whence  wo  derive  our  knowledge  of  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Christian  Church.  The  life  of  one  of  the 
original  apostles  continued  beyond  the  date  of  the 
"Acts  of  the  Apostles,*'  and  of  the  Epistles:  must  the 
form  of  the  Church  which  existed  prior  to  the  writing 
of  these  books  be  authoritative,  and  the  form  which 
history  shows  to  have  probably  arisen  with  his  sanction 
be  ignored?  Is  the  constitution  of  the  Church  one  of 
cast-iron?  When  was  it  cast?  At  the  close  of  the 
New-Test,  canon  ?  After  the  first  three  general  coun- 
cils? After  the  first  seven?  Or,  is  there  a  living 
Spirit,  ever  present  with  the  Church,  guiding  it  by 
Scripture,  by  reason  and  common-sense,  by  history  and 
the  evident  necessities  of  spiritual  life  in  changing  cir- 
cumstances? Is  our  knowledge  of  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  gained  from  the  Bible  alone,  or  from  the 


Bible  and  something  else  ?  The  conditions  of  member- 
ship will  be  determined  by  the  answers  given  to  these 
questions. 

(2)  These  conditions  are  affected,  also,  by  principlea 
of  Scriptural  interpretation.  What  language  did  the 
Saviour  use?  If  he  speaks  of  **  water  and  the  Spirit,** 
is  his  word  to  be  interpreted  by  Hebrew  or  by  Greek 
analogies?  If  he  nses  the  term  ^aari^tai,  or  if  his  re. 
porters  use  it  in  rendering  the  word  he  may  have  em- 
ployed, must  the  Church  limit  her  conduct  by  the  latest 
edition  of  Liddell  and  Scott?  Or  are  the  words  of 
New-Test.  Scripture  to  be  regarded  as  so  much  the 
product  of  the  Holy  Spirit  that  all  modifying  hu- 
man literary  elements  are  eliminated  from  them  ?  Is 
there  a  development  of  practice  indicated  even  in 
the  New  Test.,  and  must  any  given  passage  be  inter- 
preted as  of  perpetual  obligation  by  etymolog>%  apart 
from  the  light  thrown  upon  it  by  this  principle  of  de- 
velopment? Have  we  any  right  to  say  that  the  gov- 
erning office  of  the  apostolate  was  to  be  changed,  but 
that  the  introduction  of  Christian  families,  as  well  as 
adult  converts,  into  the  Church  was  to  lead  to  no 
change?  In  a  word,  must  the  practices  which  are 
legitimate  in  the  Church  be  limited  by  a  system  of  in- 
terpretation based  upon  a  bald  literalism?  Or  may 
rites  and  ceremonies  vary  when  interpretation  judges 
of  the  obligation  of  such  forms  by  the  light  thrown 
upon  the  Scriptures  from  the  thousand  avenues  of  a 
living,  perpetually-speaking  Providence,  so  long  as  the 
decision  is  not  contrary  to  the  spirit  and  principles  of 
the  New  Test.  ?  These  questions  will  suggest  the  bear- 
ing of  hermeneutics  on  membership  in  the  Chureh. 

IL  Illustrations  of  these  Principles  in  the  Practice  of 
Different  Denominations.— 1.  A  ncient  Episcopal  Churches. 
—These  include  the  Greek  or  Eastern  Church,  with  ita 
various  branches,  the  Koman  Church,  the  English  or 
British  Church,  and  the  National  Churches  of  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  and  Norwoy. 

(1)  The  Greek  or  JCastern  Church.  —  "  Previous  to 
baptism,  the  child,  though  not  two  months  old,  must  be 
solemnly  initiated  into  the  Chureh,  as  a  catechumen, 
through  the  medium  of  its  sponsors,  when  exorcism  i« 
used."  Four  prayers,  with  blowing  on  the  child'» 
mouth,  forehead,  and  breast,  and  commands  to  the  evil 
spirit  to  depart  and  return  no  more,  precede  the  trine 
immersion  or  affusion  of  baptism.  In  Alexandria  and  the 
Syrian,  or  Jacobite,  Church  affusion  exists.  Among 
the  Armenians  both  forms  are  united.  The  Copta,  iu 
exorcism,  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  thirty-seven  times. 
Chrism,  or  anointing  with  holy  oil,  follows  immediately 
after  baptism,  and  answers  to  confirmation  iu  the  West- 
ern Church.  Within  seven  days  after  this  another 
washing  occurs,  followed  by  tonsure,  or  cutting  the  hair 
in  the  form  of  a  cross.  Confession  four  times  in  the  , 
year  is  prescribed,  but  is  generally  practiced  but  once, 
aa  is  also  communion.  In  the  absence  of  a  priest  or  a 
deacon,  lay  baptism  is  recognized,  if  it  has  been  admin- 
istered in  the  name  of  the  Trinity.  Chrism  only  ia 
enforced  where  such  baptism  has  taken  place.  The 
Montenegrin  Church  in  South  Albaiiis,  however,  re- 
baptizes  Roman  Catholics.  The  popular  impression 
that  the  Greek  Church  recognises  the  baptism  of  no 
other  Church  is  denied  by  Archbishop  Piston,  in  bis 
supplement  to  M.  Duten's  (Kuvres  MiUeSy  ii,  170: 
"Baptismum  aliarum  ccclesiarum  Christianarum  non 
irritum  esse  putamus,  et  qui  ex  iia  ad  nos  veniunt,  non 
iterate  baptismate,  sed  solo  sacro  chrismatc  tnunctos,  re- 
cipirous."  (**  We  do  not  consider  the  baptism  of  other 
Christian  churches  invalid ;  and  we  receive  those  who 
come  to  us  from  them  only  by  anointing  them  with  the 
holy  chrism,  without  repeating  their  baptism.")  Submis- 
sion to  the  faith  of  the  Church  is  demanded.  The  com- 
munion is  administered  in  both  kinds,  even  to  infants, 
bread  and  wine  being  mixed  together,  and  given  in  a 
spoon  by  the  officiating  priest.  Adult  candidates  then 
reverentially  salute  the  clergy  by  hand-kissing,  and  are 
congratulated  b}*  their  friends  as  orthodox  Christiana. 


MEMBERSHIP 


YIY 


MEMBERSHIP 


No  Russian  who  has  been  educated  in  the  Greek 
Church  can  lawfully  depart  from  iu 

(2)  The  Roman  Church,— The  leading  conditions  of 
membership  in  this  Church  are  involved  in  her  defini- 
tion of  the  term  "  Church/'  as  "  the  society  of  the  faith- 
ful who  are  baptized  and  united,  by  the  profession  of 
the  same  faith,  participation  in  the  same  sacraments 
and  the  same  worship,  to  each  other,  and  who  are  under 
one  head  in  heaven,  viz.  Christ,  and  one  head  on  earth, 
viz«  the  pope,  his  vicar.*^  "The  Church,  though  it 
consists  of  good  and  bad  members,  docs  not  include 
heretics,  schismatics,  or  (at  least  in  the  full  sense  of 
membership)  persons  severed  from  her  unity  by  the 
greater  excommunication.**  "  Whether '  pure  schismat- 
ics '  (1.  e.  persons  holding  the  full  faith  of  the  Church, 
but  separated  by  schism)  may  still  be  called  members 
of  the  Church  "  is  a  question  ''agitated  in  the  theologi- 
cal schools."  Baptism  is  believed  to  be  ''  the  origin  of 
spiritual  life,  and  the  door  of  entrance  into  the  Church." 
The  candidate  is  presented  at  the  door  of  the  church- 
building,  receives  catechetical  instruction,  submits  to 
exorcism,  has  salt  put  into  his  mouth,  and  the  sign  of 
the  cross  made  upon  different  parts  of  his  body,  is 
touched  on  ears  and  nostrils  with  saliva,  renounces 
Satan,  his  works  and  pomps,  is  anointed  with  oil,  and 
makes  profession  of  his  faith,  by  sponsors  in  the  case  of 
infants,  before  baptism.  Baptism  is  by  trine  affusion. 
Then  follow  chrism,  robing  in  white,  holding  a  burning 
light,  and  receiving  a  name  of  some  sainL  Confirma- 
tion with  a  chrism  of  olive-oil  and  balsam,  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  with  prayer  and  imposition  of  hands,  in  the 
name  of  the  Trinity,  follows  either  immediately  or,  as 
is  usual,  at  from  seven  to  twelve  years  of  age.  Confes- 
sion at  least  once  a  year  is  imperativi!.  The  greater 
excommunication  is  reserved  only  for  the  most  heinous 
offences. 

(3)  The  Church  of  £ngland,'-T\\ia  Church  regards 
the  spirit  and  principles  of  the  Bible  as  forever  bind- 
ing; but  she  refuses  not  the  guidance  of  subsequent 
Providential  direction.  Her  terms  of  membership  are 
founded  upon  the  following  principles.  The  Church's 
ideal  of  life,  doctrine,  and  order,  as  given  by  Christ  and 
his  apostles,  is  divine  and,  wherever  possible,  impera- 
tive. Life  is  most  important;  and,  while  order  is  not 
indifferent,  it  may  need  to  yield  to  the  demands  of 
truth  and  life.  Hence  she  does  not  exclude  from  the 
pale  of  the  Church  those  who,  for  the  sake  of  truth  and 
life,  have  believed  themselves  compelled  to  violate  even 
her  own  historic  order,  but  accepts  their  acts  of  bap- 
tism, if  performed  with  water  in  the  name  of  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  and  considers  ail  thus  baptized  to 
be  members  of  Christ's  Church.  Where  the  obstacles 
to  truth  and  life  which  rendered  the  presentation  of 
order  morally  impossible  have  been  removed,  she  re- 
gards a  return  to  the  primitive  apostolic  order  impera- 
tive for  the  maintenance  of  unity.  Hence,  while  en- 
deavoring to  remove  from  herself  those  obstacles,  when 
she  sees  them  to  be  such,  she  abstains  from  such  inter- 
changes of  membership  as  would  imply  that  the  divis- 
ion of  the  Church  on  diverse  bases  of  life,  doctrine,  or 
order  is  normal  or  ordinarily  legitimate.  Her  first  con- 
dition of  membership  is  baptism.  In  this,  the  sign  of 
the  cross  is  made  on  the  forehead.  It  may  be  admin- 
istered by  lay  hands,  and  in  any  of  the  various  modes. 
Before  baptism,  the  divinely  imparted  capacity  for 
spiritual  action  and  enjoyment  may,  in  her  opinion,  as 
truly  exist  as  after  it;  but,  inasmuch  as  the  Christian 
covenant,  in  Matt,  xxviii,  19, 20,  is  regarded  as  given 
to  Christians  in  their  collective  capacity,  and  not  as  in- 
dividuals only,  it  is  believed  that,  in  baptism,  the  cov- 
enant blessing  b  surely  given.  This  blessing  of  the 
vitalizing  Spirit  is  called  *'  regeneration,"  not  because 
the  moral  change  now  commonly  so  called  is  therein 
wrought,  but  because  the  divine  capacity  for  holy  liv- 
ing, then,  at  least,  certainly  imparted,  but  impossible  by 
mere  human  nature,  is  then,  also,  first  openly  manifested 
or  declared,  just  as  natural  birth  first  openly  manifests 


the  life  which  was  before  concealed.  Hence,  her  second 
condition  of  membership,  confirmation,  is  an  opportu- 
nity given,  after  instruction,  publicly  to  assume  those 
responsibilities  for  which  candidates  are  supposed  to 
have  been  previously  prepared  by  that  faith  which, 
working  by  love,  brings  the  divinely  imparted  capacity 
into  action,  producing  the  moral  change,  renewal,  or 
conversion  demanded.  Church  membership  is,  there- 
fore, a  home  privilege,  with  spiritual  power  believed  to 
be  graciously  conferred  prior  to  all  personal  choice,  to 
counteract  inherited  tendencies  of  evil,  and  to  enable 
the  child,  from  the  beginning,  to  see  and  discharge  the 
duties  of  Christian  faith  and  love,  a  privilege  to  be  re- 
tained, and  not  first  to  be  sought  after  a  period  of  blien- 
ation  more  or  less  prolonged.  Provision  is  made  for 
the  admission  of  adults  by  baptism,  if  this  has  not  been 
previously  given,  and  by  confirmation.  She  imposes 
upon  candidates  no  dogmatic  theories,  but  only  the 
facts  embodied  in  the  Apostles'  Creed.  Her  moral  de- 
mands cover  no  "  doubtful  disputations,"  but  only  the 
faith  and  love  which  are  essential  to  Christianity.  Her 
ceremonial  demands  enforce  no  more  than  attendance 
upon  prayer,  the  word  and  the  two  sacraments  of  our 
Lord.  Her  law  of  discipline  for  the  punishment  and 
exclusion  of  lay  offenders  is,  unfortunately,  so  greatly 
obstructed  by  legal  considerations  as  to  have  become 
almost  obsolete.  Believing  that  she  represents,  not  a 
voluntary  society,  but  the  Church  of  God,  having  main- 
tained her  historic  connection  in  all  essentials  with  the 
Church  of  apostolic  times,  she  considers  those  baptized 
by  her  as  hers  until  they  die  or  are  formally  excluded 
or  dismissed. 

(4)  On  the  principle  that  the  majority  of  the  mem- 
bers of  a  Church,  in  their  corporate  action,  are  and  re- 
main the  same  Church,  the  established  churches  of 
Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway  may  be  classed  among 
ancient  episcopal  churches,  though  called  Lutheran. 
In  their  terms  of  membership  they  do  not  essentially 
differ  from  other  episcopal  churches. 

2.  Modem  EpUcopal  ChurcheM^  and  Quati- Episcopal 
Churchet,  Originating  tince  the  Reformation,  and  Com- 
miuing  the  Rights  of  Ordination  and  Supervision  to  One 
Man,  Assisted  bg  Others, — (1)  The  Scottish  Episcopal 
CAurcA.— The  origin  of  this  may  be  dated  from  the 
revival  of  episcopacy  by  Charles  II,  in  1^61.  Its  terms 
of  membership  are  similar  to  those  of  the  English 
Church. 

(2)  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  CnHed 
States. — ^This  was  founded  as  a  separate  body  in  1784, 
and  has  the  same  conditions  of  admission  as  the  Eng- 
lish Church ;  but  an  intention  to  be  confirmed  as  soon 
as  possible  suffices,  in  certain  cases,  to  secure  member- 
ship. The  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  baptism  may, 
on  request,  be  omitted.  Letters  of  transfer  to  other 
denominations  are  sometimes  given. 

(3)  Moravians  (European,  origin,  1727 ;  American, 
1800). — In  Europe,  baptism,  with  laying  on  of  hands, 
introduces  children  into  the  Church  as  catechumens, 
among  whom,  prior  to  admission  as  full  members,  adult 
converts  take  their  place.  In  America,  full  member- 
ship involves  a  profession  of  faith  in  the  Bible  as  the 
word  of  God,  confidence  in  the  forgiveness  of  the  can- 
didate's sins,  determination  to  follow  holiness  and  to 
obey  the  Church,  and  reception  in  open  congregation 
by  the  pastor,  after  opportunity  has  been  given  for  the 
statement  of  objections  to  the  reception.  Retention  of 
membership  depends  upon  obedience  to  laws,  some  of 
which  forbid  the  sale  or  use  of  intoxicants,  or  the  rent- 
ing of  property  to  liquor-dealers,  br  signing  petitions 
favoring  them,  and  union  with  secret  societies.  Exclu- 
sion b  by  a  vote  of  the  class,  or  congregation,  after  ad- 
monition and  examination.  Transfer  to  other  bodies 
may  take  place  "  by  a  vote  of  the  charge,"  and  a  ccrtifi-^ 
cate  signed  by  the  pastor. 

(4)  The  English  Weslegans.— To  be  members  of  the 
society,  persons  are  required  to  desire  salvation,  to  meet 
in  class,  to  avoid  evil  and  do  good,  according  to  the  de- 


MEMBERSHIP 


718 


MEMBERSHIP 


noTDinational  standard  of  evil  and  good,  and  attend 
'*  the  ordinances  of  God."  The  communion  is  not  re- 
fused to  godly  persons,  though  they  belong  to  the  con- 
gregation only,  and  not  to  the  society.  Baptized  chil- 
dren are  not  members  of  the  Wesleyan  organism,  and 
are  sometimes  sent,  for  confirmation,  to  the  Church  of 
England. 

(6)  The  Meihodul  Episcopal  Church  of  the  Untied 
Stales  of  America, — The  conditions  of  membership  in 
this  Church  are  less  affected  than  in  other  Methodist 
churches  by  the  transition  from  a  voluntary  society  of 
adults  formed  for  a  special  purpose  to  a  self-governing 
Church.  .  Membership  begins  by  reception  as  a  proba- 
tioner, on  giving  evidence  of  desire  for  salvation  from 
sin.  After  six  months,  on  recommendation  of  the  lead- 
ers and  stewards,  baptism  having  been  received,  and 
satisfactory'  assurances  of  faith  and  loyalty  having  been 
given  to  the  preacher  in  charge  before  the  Charch, 
full  membership  is  conferral.  Members  of  other  bodies 
are  received,  on  recommendation  from  the  proper  au- 
thorities, and  on  assurance  of  loyalty  to  the  principles 
and  practices  of  the  M.  £.  Church.  Baptized  children 
of  Methodist  parents,  though  regarded  as  in  visible 
covenant  relation  with  God,  and  as  objects  of  the 
Churches  care,  do  not  seem  to  be  in  any  sense  members 
of  the  Methodist  Church  until,  after  having  attended 
class  for  six  months,  they  are  publicly  received  in  regu- 
lar form.  After  reception  into  full  membership,  attend- 
ance upon  class-meeting,  while  strongly  recommended, 
is  no  more  imperative  than  attendance  npon  other  use- 
ful services.  For  crimes  duly  proved,  members  may  be 
expelled;  after  removal  to  parts  unknown,  the  name 
may  be  dropped ;  on  transference  by  certificate  to  an- 
other denomination,  and  on  withdrawal  while  character 
is  unimpeached,membership  censes. 

(6)  The  Methodist  Church  of  Canada,— This  con- 
forms to  the  conditions  of  membership  among  the  Eng- 
lish Wesleyans,  attendance  upon  class -meeting  being 
essential,  dancing  and  similar  amusements  being  for- 
bidden, and  children,  though  baptized,  not  being  mem- 
bers of  the  organization. 

(7)  The  Wesleyan  Methodists  of  the  United  States 
(dating  from  1842). — This  adds  to  the  usual  Methodist 
conditions  of  membership  special  rules  against  secret 
societies,  as  Freemasons,  Odd-Fellows,  etc.,  intoxicants 
and  tobacco. 

(8)  Apostolic  Catholic  Church  (dating  from  1832).— 
In  addition  to  baptism,  "the  conditions  under  which 
any  person  can  become  a  member  of  one  of  the  congre- 
gations gathered  under  the  restored  apostleship"  are 
"that  he  should  fully  and  heartily  recognise  the  au- 
thority of  this  apostleship,  so  that  he  can  sincerely 
work  with  it,  submit  to  the  commandments  of  the  apos- 
tles, recognise  the  grace  of  Christ  in  them,  and  all  the 
ministries  authorized  by  them.  Should  any,  after  more 
or  less  time,  lose  their  confidence  in  these  restored  min- 
istries, and  separate  themselves  from  the  congregations, 
they  are  still  remembered  and  prayed  for  as  negligent 
or  lapsed  members,  and  their  names  are  kept  on  a  sepa- 
rate register." 

(9)  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  —  Baptism  and 
confirmation  admit  to  this  Church  persons  bom  of 
parents  within  its  pale.  Communicants  of  other  de- 
nominations are  received  by  letter  or  other  satisfactory 
evidence  of  membership,  confirmation  being  optional 
with  them.  As  no  discrimination  between  denomina- 
tions is  made,  there  seems  to  be  no  guarantee  that  even 
baptism  has  been  duly  received.  Assent  to  the  prin- 
ciples, doctrine,  discipline,  and  worship  of  the  Church  is 
demanded.  Membership  may  cease  during  life  by  pre- 
senting a  written  statement  of  intention  to  withdraw, 
or  by  exclusion  by  the  Church  courts  for  offence.  Some 
differences  of  practice  exist  in  different  localities. 

8.  Presbyterian  Churches,  in  which  the  Right  of 
Ordination  Resides  in  a  Body  of  Premiers,  —  These 
churches  are  governed  by  prindplea  which  do  not  differ 
fundamentally,  though  they  differ  in  details  and  in  ver- 


bal expression,  from  those  of  episcopal  churches.  <<  The 
basis  of  Chnrch  membership  is  the  covenant  of  grace 
which  Christ  condescends  to  make  with  his  people,  of 
which  covenant  faith  is  the  essential  condition,  and 
baptism  the  visible  sign ;  and,  as  infants  cannot  in  their 
own  person  exercise  faith,  their  membership  must  in 
the  first  instance  rest  upon  the  faith  of  their  parents, 
until  they  come  to  an  age  intelligently  and  voluntarily 
to  embrace  and  profess  Christ  themselves.*'  **  Every 
child  of  believing  parents  is  by  his  birth  a  citizen  of 
God's  kingdom  and  an  heir  of  its  privileges,  subject  to 
the  condition  of  subsequent  i^rsonal  faith.'*  One  par- 
ent, at  least,  or  one  guardian,  in  the  absence  of  paren- 
tal custody,  if  '*  presumptively  believing,**  must  make 
**an  express  engagement  to  train  the  child  to  godli- 
ness.'* Children  are  to  be  taught  the  Catechism,  the 
Apostles*  Creed,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  to  pray  and  to 
obey  Christ.  Baptized  children  are  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Church.  In  baptism,  there  is  a  grace 
<* conferred  by  the  Holy  Ghost;**  yet  the  grace  of  re- 
generation is  not  necessarily  connected  with  baptism, 
but  is  so  in  the  case  of  "such  as  that  grace  belongeth 
unto."  "  The  first  element  in  the  process  of  regenera- 
tion b  the  quickening  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  exerted 
directly  on  the  soul."  These  principles  differ  not  sub- 
stantially from  those  of  the  Church  of  England,  which 
can  be  properly  understood  only  when  viewed  in  their, 
relation  to  Pelagianism.  Hooker  defines  regeneration 
as  "  that  infused  divine  virtue  of  the  Holy  Ghost  which 
gives  to  the  powers  of  the  soul  their  first  disposition 
towards  future  newness  of  life;"  and  he  says  that 
**  grace  is  not  absolutely  tied  to  sacraments,"  but  that, 
in  sacraments,  "God  imparts  the  saving  grace  of  Christ 
to  all  that  are  capable  thereof."  Though  differences  of 
opinion  may  exist  as  to  the  appropriateness  of  words  to 
the  representation  of  facts,  yet,  on  the  facts  themselves, 
both  Presbyterians  and  the  Church  of  England  seem 
very  nearly  to  agree.  Among  Presbyterians,  unbap- 
tized  adults  are  received  on  profession  of  faith  in  Christ 
and  on  baptism.  The  enforcing  of  doctrinal  conformity 
to  the  thcoloprical  standards  is  not  necessary  or  univer- 
sal. The  fuith  in  Christ  demanded  is  not  necessarily 
such  as  brings  assurance  of  forgiveness.  Proper  letters 
from  other  evangelical  churches  adroit  to  membership. 
Censures  are  given  for  offences  against  lawful  authority, 
nature,  and  Christianity,  and  excommunication  awaits 
contumacy.  These  principles  generally  apply  to  Pres- 
byterian churches  in  all  lands,  the  Beformed  Presby- 
terian Church,  the  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church,  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  etc 
The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  makes  confirmation  the 
public  reception  of  members  after  examination  in  Bible 
and  Church  history  and  doctrines.  Presbyterian  Lu- 
therans consider  confirmation  to  be  the  public  recep- 
tion of  candidates,  with  the  blessing  of  the  minister, 
after  a  doctrinal  examination;  but  variety  of  practice 
arises  from  the  large  congregational  liberty  allowed. 
The  United  Presbyterians  of  the  United  States  pre- 
scribe rules  against  the  use  of  hymns,  secret  societies^ 
and  open  communion. 

4.  Congregational  Churches,  or  those  in  fchick  each 
Congregation  is  Supreme  over  its  own  Affairs,  —  (i) 
Orthodox  Pcedobaptisi  Chunks, '— Credible  personel 
faith  in  Christ  and  consecration  to  bis  service  are  the 
sole  conditions  of  entrance,  the  individual  Church  being 
the  judge  of  such  credibility.  Children,  prior  to  per^ 
sonal  faith  and  consecration,  arc  in  no  sense  members, 
but  are  to  be  watched  over,  that  they  may  become  such. 
Opinions  and  practice  differ  as  to  what  children  are 
eligible  for  baptism,  whether  those  of  members  only,  or 
others.  Absence  for  a  year  in  parts  unknown,  transfer 
to  other  churches,  and,  in  some  instances,  resignation 
without  transfer,  lead  to  erasure  of  the  name  from  the 
church  roll;  and  contumacious  offences  lead  to  exdo- 
sion  by  the  Church.  The  Evangelical  Union,  or  Mori- 
sonians,  differ  from  other  Congregationalists  chiefly  in 
the  Arminian  doctrines  professed,  and  in  making  saving 


MEMBERSHIP 


719 


MEMBERSHIP 


fkith,  OD  which  membera  are  accepted,  to  be  such  that 
it  18  not  only  invariably  accompanied  by  anurance  of 
acceptance,  but  that  it  renders  prayer  before  it,  and  for 
it,  an  offence. 

(2)  Orthodox  Antipadobaptist  Churches, —  **  The 
Baptist  theory  is  that  the  Church  should  consist  of  per- 
sons in  whom  the  divine  life  haa  been  begun  by  regen- 
eration, and  who  have  been  baptized  on  profession  of 
their  faith  in  Christ  as  their  Saviour."  Hence,  on  pro- 
fession and  immefBion,  if  the  profession  satisfies  the 
local  Church,  membership  is  conferred.  Excision  is 
similar  to  that  in  pisdobaptist  churches.  Some  Baptists 
in  England  do  not  regard  baptism  with  water  as  essen- 
tial to  membership.  Free-Will  Baptists  receive  bap- 
tized persons  of  other  evangelical  churches  on  testi- 
mony of  a  letter  of  recommendation  by  vote  of  the  local 
Church.  Seventh-Day  Baptists  add  to  the  usual  con- 
ditions of  membership  a  trine  immersion,  with  laying 
on  of  hands  and  prayer,  and  the  observance  of  the 
seventh  dsy  of  the  week,  instead  of  the  first  **  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ"  demand  immersion  on  profession  of 
faith  in  Christ,  and  acceptance  of  the  Bible  as  the  rule 
of  faith  and  morals.  Exclusion  is  the  act  of  the  con- 
gregation, on  conduct  judged  by  them  intolerable. 
Mennonites  baptize  none  before  eleven  or  twelve  years 
of  age,  and  then  by  pouring  water  on  the  head.  Strict 
Mennonites  prohibit  bead-ornaments,  fine  clothing,  and 
rich  furniture,  and  advocate  the  separation  of  the  ex- 
communicated from  social  intercourse. 

(3)  Uttitariatu, — These  are  generally  Congregation- 
alists,  though  in  Transylvania  they  are  Episcopal,  and 
in  Ireland  Presbyterian.  In  the  United  States  the  au- 
thority that  receives  into  membership  is,  in  many  cases, 
a  circle  of  persons  known  as  the  **  Church,"  inside  of  a 
larger  organization  known  as  the  "  Society  "  or  parish. 
Baptism,  and  the  signification  to  the  pastor  of  a  wish  to 
join,  with,  in  some  churches,  a  public  recognition  by 
giving  "  the  band  of  fellowship,"  usually  admits  to 
membership ;  but  intimation  to  the  pastor  of  a  desire 
for  membership,  and  consent  of  his  advisers,  it  is  prob- 
able, would  admit  to  fellowship,  even  without  baptism 
or  public  reception.  In  many  congregations  the  rent^ 
Ing  of  a  sitting,  and  qualifying  for  a  vote  in  parish 
business  by  accepting  the  bj'-laws  of  the  congregation, 
entitle  to  all  the  privileges  of  membership.  There  is 
no  form  of  exclusion.  Simple  forms  of  covenant  some- 
times exist.  ''An  unformulated  consensus  of  opinion, 
a  fidelity  in  public  worship,  a  reverential  support  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  a  deep  interest  both  in  piety  and  ethics, 
and  a  readiness  in  benevolent  work,"  arc  not  always 
absent  from  even  such  loose  bonds  of  union. 

(4)  UnivtrtalUts, — Persons,  whether  baptized  in  Uni- 
versalist  churches  or  not,  of  years  of  discretion,  usually 
sixteen,  are  received  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  congre- 
gation, after  application  has  been  made  one  month  pre- 
viously, in  open  meeting  of  the  Church,  in  person,  by  a 
friend,  or  by  letter.  Strangers  must  present  evidences 
of  Christian  faith  and  character.  The  only  profession 
of  faith  authorized  by  the  whole  body  is  given  in  three 
articles,  which  recognize  (a)  the  Bible,  as  containing  a 
revelation  of  God^s  character,  and  man's  duty,  interest, 
and  destiny ;  (6)  one  God  of  love,  revealed  in  one  Lord, 
Jesus  Christ,  by  one  Holy  Spirit  of  grace,  who  will 
finally  lead  all  men  through  holiness  to  happiness;  and 
(c)  the  obligation  of  good  works  arising  from  the  in- 
separable connection  of  holiness  and  happiness. 

6.  AfucelUmeous. — (1)  European  Protestant  Churches, 
L  National  Reformed  Churches  qf  France  and  Stoitzer^ 
land, — (a)  Children,  after  baptism,  are  first  instructed, 
then  examined  before  the  pastor,  or  the  presbyterial 
assembly  (conseil  prednftiral)^  or  consistory,  then  re- 
ceived publicly,  often  after  profession  of  personal 
faith,  and  finally  admitted  to  communion  at  Easter. 
(6)  Adults  from  without,  on  introduction,  declare  to  the 
assembly  and  the  pastor  adhesion  to  the  general  princi- 
ples of  the  Church,  bear  a  share  in  the  expenses,  and, 
unless  in  the  case  of  foreigners,  must  enjoy  civil  and 


political  rights.  Excommunication  is  pronounced  from 
the  pulpit,  in  general  terms,  without  a  particular  appli- 
cation, iu  Lutheran  National  Church, — Nearly  the 
same  system  exists  here.  iii.  Free  Churches, — Admis- 
sion is  said  to  be  by  public  profession  of  faith.  Uni- 
formity of  practice  does  not  exist  among  the  Keformed 
churches.  In  some  cases,  in  Free  c&urches,  rebaptism 
of  converts  exists,  generally  by  affusion,  but,  in  the  case 
of  Baptists,  by  immersion. 

(2)  New  Church,  or  Swedenborffians, — Baptized  in- 
fants receive  full  membership  by  confirmation  on  arriv- 
ing at  years  of  discretion.  Members  coming  from 
without  are  usually  baptized,  though  opinions  and 
practice  on  rebaptism  are  not  uniform.  In  excluding 
members,  in  addition  to  the  directions  in  Matt,  xviii, 
17,  the  following  principle  prevails:  "He  who  differs  in 
opinion  from  the  minister  ought  to  be  left  in  peace,  so 
long  as  he  makes  no  disturbance ;  but  he  who  makes 
disturbance  ought  to  be  separated." 

(3)  Fiiends,  or  Quakers, — Membership  for  persons 
native  to  the  body  is  a  birthright,  but  it  confers  rights 
of  work  and  service  on  committees  only  after  proved 
steadfastness.  Admission  of  persons  from  without  is  by 
request,  examination  by  a  committee  of  similar  sex  with 
the  candidate,  and  acceptance  by  the  following  monthly 
meeting.  Excision  is  only  after  contumacious  resist- 
ance of  official  efforts  for  reform,  the  final  one  of  which 
is  the  presentation  of  a  written  *' testification"  before 
the  monthly  meeting.  This  follows  a  failure  of  two 
official  interviews  between  the  offender  and  the  com- 
mittee appointed  in  the  case.  Only  after  a  second  fail- 
ure to  secure  reform  is  official  record  made  of  offences. 

(4)  Plymouth  Brethren,— ApphcBtion  must  first  be 
made  through  one  of  the  brethren  to  a  Saturday  meet- 
ing of  the  leaders  of  the  various  assemblies  of  the  place. 
The  candidate  is  then  visited  by  leading  men,  and 
rigidly  examined  on  doctrines  and  separation  from  all 
other  Christian  bodies.  Satisfactory  examination  re- 
sults in  recommendation  to  the  Saturday  meeting;  and, 
if  approved,  the  person  enters  next  Lord's  Day  by  com- 
muning, 'fhe  mode  of  baptism  is  an  open  question. 
Fellowship  or  excision,  among  *'  Close  Brethren,"  relates 
not  to  one  assembly,  but  to  all  in  the  world.  From  de- 
cisions of  the  Saturday  meeting  there  is  no  appeal. 
The  chief  and  most  influential  Saturday  meeting  is  that 
of  London,  England.  Among  "Open  Brethren,"  indi- 
vidual assemblies  are  not  bound  by  the  excisions  of 
others.  "  Brethren  "  avoid  the  use  of  the  term  "  mem- 
bers," as  of  an  organization. 

(5)  The  Reformed  Church  tn  A  merica. — This  demands 
baptism,  profession  of  faith  before  the  consistory,  com- 
posed of  pastor,  elders,  and  deacons,  or  a  letter  of  recom- 
mendation from  some  other  church. 

(6)  The  Evangelical  ilMOcta/ioR.— This  body  holds, 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  admission  to  Meth- 
odist churches,  that  traffic  in  liquor  is  unlawful. 

(7)  The  "Church  of  Christ:'— This  adopts,  as  neces- 
sary terms  of  membership,  belief  that  Jesus  is  the  Son 
of  God,  repentance  and  a  righteous  life,  profession  of 
faith  by  word  of  mouth,  and  immersion  in  the  name  of 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit. 

(8)  The  ""  Church  of  God,'' —  This  body,  believing 
that  immortality  and  incorruptibility  arise  from  the 
likeness  of  Christ's  resurrection,  which,  with  them, 
means  being  immersed,  make  immersion,  with  the  ordi- 
nary demands  of  Congregational  churches,  imperative 
for  membership. 

(9)  "Christians"  (or  the  Christian  Connection), — 
This  demands  no  more  than  a  profession  of  Christian 
faith  and  a  corresponding  life,  the  congregation  being 
the  judge  of  the  life,  and  the  person  himself  of  the  faith. 

This  list  of  organ izatipns,  calling  themselves,  as  a 
whole,  or  in  part,  the  Church  of  Christ,  is  by  no  means 
complete;  but  a  sufficient  number  has  been  given  to 
show  on  what  comparatively  unimportant  grounds  the 
majority  of  sectarian  differences  are  based,  and  to  sug- 
gest the  question  whether,  in  our  reaction  from  corporate 


M£MMI 


720 


MEPEHAM 


intolerance,  we  have  given  due  weight  to  the  calm  state- 
ments of  Christ,  and  the  earnest  pleadings  of  St.  Paul, 
on  the  subject  of  the  unity  of  Christ's  body,  the  Church. 
For  further  particulars,  see  each  religious  body  in  its 
alphabetical  place.     (J.  R.) 

Memml,  Simone  (called  also  3/ar^fm),  an  eminent 
Italian  painter,  was  born  at  Siena  in  1285,  and  was 
probably  a  pupil  of  Giotto.  He  was  invited  by  the 
pope  to  Avignon  to  do  some  work  for  him.  His  great 
picture  in  St.  Peter's  has  perished,  but  there  are  sev- 
eral of  his  works  in  the  churches  at  Florence,  Pisa,  and 
Siena.  In  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa  are  several  frescos 
of  (he  history  of  St.  Kanieri,  and  the  far-famed  Auump' 
(ion  of  the  Virgin  amid  a  Choir  of  Angels,  His  large 
pictures  may  be  seen  at  Florence,  among  which  are 
several  of  Christ,  of  St.  Peter  the  martyr,  and  St.  Do- 
menico.  There  are  some  more  of  this  class  of  pictures 
in  the  churches  of  Siena.  Memmi  died  at  Avignon  in 
1344.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Ginirale,  s.  v. ;  Spooner, 
Biog,  BisL  of  (he  Fine  A  litf  s.  v. 

Memra  {(he  Word)^  a  name  employed  in  the  Tar- 
gum  of  Onkelos,  and  later  Hebrew  books,  for  the  ex- 
pression of  the  name  of  the  deity  in  all  his  relations  to 
man.    See  Word. 

Menachem  ni  Fano.    See  Fano,  Menacbbm. 
Menaohem  ben-Jacob.    See  Saruk. 
Menaohem  bkn-Jehuda  Lonsako.     See  Lov- 

SANO. 

Menaohem  da  Nola.    See  Nola. 

Menachem  di  Rkcamatb.    See  Rbcanati. 

Menachem  ben-Salomo,  of  France^  a  rabbi  who 
lived  in  the  12th  century,  is  the  author  of  *|nh  )M,  a 
dictionary  of  the  Hebrew  language,  written  about  1148. 
Specimens  of  this  lexicon  were  published  by  Dukes  in 
T'  hv  yZp  (Esslingen,  1846).  He  also  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch,  entitled  SIS)  bsti},  a  speci- 
men of  which,  under  the  title  hhiiXi  pHSID,  was  pub- 
lished at  Hamburg  in  1784  (in  a  Latin  translation  by 
Delitzsch,  in  his  Jeshurun  give  Isagoge  [Grimma,  1888], 
p.  184-188).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  ii,  853 ;  De*  Rossi, 
Diziomtrio  S(orico  (Germ,  transl.),  p.  218 ;  Zunz,  Zur 
Geschichte  und  Litera(ur,  p.  71  sq.,  108.     (R  P.) 

Menagect,  Francois  Gi7iLLAUME,an  eminent  his- 
torical painter,  waa  bom  in  London,  July  9,  1744,  and 
was  instructed  under  Deshays,  Boucher,  and  Yien.  He 
carried  off  the  grand  prize  of  painting  in  1766,  and  vint- 
ed  Rome  with  the  royal  pension.  In  1780  he  was  chosen 
an  academician,  and  afterwards  appointed  professor.  In 
1800  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  became  professor  of  the 
Academy  of  Painting.  He  has  a  fine  picture  in  the 
sacristy  of  the  Church  of  St.  Denis.  He  died  Oct.  4, 
1816.  See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biog.  GhUraU,  s.  v. ;  Spooner, 
Biog,  Hiat.  of  the  Fine  A  lis,  s.  v. 

Menche,  Heinricii  Gottlikb,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  born  April  24,  17^9.  He  stud- 
ied at  Marburg,  entered  the  ministry  in  1820,  was  pastor 
at  Rdddenau,  Hanover,  from  1851  to  1882,  and  died  June 
21, 1884,  at  Mlinden,  doctor  of  theology.     (B.  P.) 

Mende  VeraiGn  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
Mende  is  spoken  by  a  considerable  population  to  the 
south  and  south-east  of  Sierra  Leone.  A  version  of 
Matthew  had  been  prepared  at  an  early  period  by  Amcr. 
ican  missionaries,  who  had  settled  on'the  border  of  the 
Mende  country.  A  translation  of  the  four  gospels  was 
made  by  the  Rev.  J.  F.  Schon,  of  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society,  the  standard  alphabet  of  Prof.  Lepsius 
(q.  V.)  being  adopted  for  the  version.  Mr.  Schon  was 
aided  in  the  work  of  translation  bv  Harvey  K.  Ritchcll, 
of  the  Mende  countr}\  In  1871  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
were  printed  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society ; 
the  translation  having  been  made  by  the  Rev.  H.  John- 
son^a  native  African  clergyman.  In  1872  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  was  published.  The  remainder  of  the 
New  Test,  is  still  in  manuscript.     (B.  P.) 


Mengs,  AsnoMio  Raphael,  a  distinguished  painter, 
was  bom  at  Anszig,  in  Bohemia,  March  12, 1728,  and 
studied  the  works  of  Raphael  at  Rome  when  but  thirteen 
years  of  age.  In  1744  he  was  appointed  painter  at  Dresden 
by  the  emperor  Augustus,  with  a  salary.  His  first  great 
work  was  The  HolyFamilg^vrhich  was  exhibited  at  Rome, 
and  gained  him  great  reputation.  In  1754  he  received 
the  direction  of  the  new  academy  at  Rome,  and  in  1757 
waa  employed  by  the  Celestinea  to  paint  the  ceilings  of 
the  church  of  St.  Eusebius.  In  1761  he  was  invited  to 
Madrid  by  Carlos  III,  and  granted  a  liberal  pensioD. 
He  executed,  among  other  works.  The  BeMoenifrom  the 
Cross  and  The  Council  qfihe  GodSj  for  the  king's  court. 
He  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  was  engaged  by  Clement 
XIV  to  paint  in  the  Vatican  a  picture  of  Jamts  DiOtatn^ 
to  History f  and  The  Holy  FamXUf,  After  an  absence  of 
three  years  he  returned  to  Madrid,  where  he  oommenoed 
his  celebrated  work  in  the  dome  of  the  grand  saloon  of 
the  royal  palace  at  that  place.  But  his  health  waa  fail- 
ing, and  he  died  at  Rome,  June  29, 1779.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GkUrak^  a.  v. ;  Spooner,  Biog,  BisL  of  the 
FineAfiSfB,  v. 

Mentxer,  Joramn,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Gei^ 
many,  was  bom  at  Jahmen,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  July  27, 
1668.  He  studied  at  Wittenbeiig,  was  in  1691  preacher 
at  Merzdorf,  in  1698  at  Hauswalde,  in  1696  at  Kemnitz, 
near  Bemstadt,  and  died  Feb.  24, 1784.  He  wrote  aboot 
thirt3'*four  hymns,  some  of  which  are  translated  into 
English,  as  Lob  sei  (&r,  (reiur  Gott  und  Vaier  (in  Chorale 
Book  for  England,  No.  8,  *«  I  praise  Thee,  O  my  God 
and  Father");  0  doss  ieh  tausend  Zungen  kStte  (by 
Mills,  in  Uorm  GermanicsBf  p.  189,  *'0h  that  I  had  • 
Thousand  Voices  T*) ;  Wer  das  Kleinod  wiU  erkmgen  (in 
Lyra  Gemumica,  ii,  222,  "  He  who'd  make  the  Prise 
his  Own").  See  Otto,  Lexikon  dor  dberlausHtisckm 
8chr{ftstdler,\\,JiAl'4M\  Koch,  Gesekiehiedesdattsdken 
Kircheniiedes,r,  220  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Menzel,  Karl  Adolph,  a  German  historian,  waa 
bora  at  GrUnberg,  Dec  7,  1784.  He  studied  at  Halle, 
waa  in  1809  professor  and  in  1814  pro -rector  at  St, 
Elizabeth's,  in  Breslau.  He  died  Aug.  19, 1855.  He  ia 
the  author  of,  Stoats^  und  Religionsgeschichte  der  KOnig- 
reiche  Israel  und  Juda  (Breslau,  1858) : — Rdigion  und 
Staatsidee  in  der  vorehrisdichen  ZeU  (edited  bv  Wuttke, 
Leipsic,  1872).     (R  P.) 

Menzel,  Wolfgfang,  a  German  historian  and  crit- 
ic, was  born  at  Waldcnburg,  June  21, 1798.  He  studied 
at  different  universities,  was  for  some  time  teacher  at 
Aarau,  went  in  1824  to  Heidelberg,  in  1825  to  Stuttgart, 
and  died  April  23, 1873.  Of  his  many  works  we  only 
mention,  Christliche  Symbolik  (Mayence,  1854, 2  vols.) : 
— Kridk  des  modernen  Zei(bewuss(seins  (2d  ed.  1873) : — 
Die  vorchristliche  Uns(erhlichkeitsfrage  (1869,  2  vols.). 
His  Denhoiirdighei(en  were  published  bv  his  son  Karl 
(Bielefeld,  1877).     (B.  P.) 

Mepeham,  Simon,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  waa 
bom  at  Meopbam,  in  Kent,  and  educated  at  Merton 
College.  He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of 
the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  became  a  Biblical  divine. 
He  waa  ordained  priest  at  Canterbury  on  St.  Mat- 
tiiow*8  day,  1297,  and  became  rector  of  Tunstall,  in 
the  diocese  of  Norwich.  He  was  elected  archbishop 
on  Dec  11, 1327,  and  received  the  temporaUties  from 
the  king  at  Lynn  on  Sept.  19, 1329.  His  attention 
was  chiefly  directed  to  the  state  of  morals  and  disci- 
pline in  the  Church.  We  occasionally  6nd  him  inter- 
posing his  good  offices  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between 
parties  at  variance.  His  endeavor  to  compel  diocesana 
to  attend  to  their  spiritual  duties  rendered  him  any* 
thing  but  popular  among  his  suffragans.  Notwith- 
standing, he  was  in  all  things  respectable,  in  nothing 
great.  But  the  age  demanded  something  more  than 
respectable  mediocrity,  and  Simon  Mepeham,  by  con- 
fining himself  to  his  religious  duties,  was  regaided  aa 
mean-spirited  by  those  who  looked,  in  his  position,  for 
one  who  could  lead  them  in  temporal  aa  well  as  in 


MERAGE 


721 


MESSIANIC  HOPE 


epiritual  things.    He  died  Oct  12, 1888.    See  Hook, 
LitotM  o/tkeA  rMiihopt  cf  Canterbury^  iii,  4d2  0q. 

Merage,  Lkilat  al  (the  night  of  the  ascen9um\  a 
night  accounted  sacred  by  the  Mohammedans,  because 
in  it  the  propbet  made  his  famoos  journey  to  heaven. 
It  is  commemorated  on  the  28th  of  the  month  Regeb. 

Mercado,  Moses  hen-Jsrad  (fe,  a  rabbi  of  Amster- 
dam, who  flourished  in  the  17th  centur}',  is  tbe  author 
of  C^bnr.l  r^np  B,  or  a  commentary  on  Ecclesiastes 
and  the  Psalms,  published  after  the  author's  death  by 
Jacob  de  Mercado  (Amsterdam,  1653).  See  FQrst,  BibL 
Jud.  ii,  368.     (R  P.) 

Meroerabiirg  Theology.  See  Gkbmah  Rb- 
FOKMKD  Church  im  America. 

Mereditli,  Wiluam  C,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  rector  of  TiUotson  Parish,  Curds- 
ville,  Va^  for  many  years,  nntil  1861,  when  he  became 
rector  of  Christ  Churth  in  Winchester,  and  remained 
in  this  pastorate  until  his  death,  Nov.  1, 1876.  See 
ProL  Epuc  A  Imtmae,  1876,  p.  160. 

Mergilet,  Akdrkas,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Dec  17, 1669,  and  died  March  21, 1606, 
at  MUhlfeld.  He  is  the  author  of,  BibUdia,  etc  i-^Sen- 
tentuB  Inrignet  Pairum  Ecdesia: — Papa  I/omd  Peccaii, 
See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  it,  868;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Ge- 
lehrten-Lexikont  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Merla  -  pujah,  an  annual  festival  among  the 
Khonds  in  Orissa,  in  which  human  sacrifices  were 
oJSered  until  the  practice  was  forbidden  by  the  British 
government.  The  victims  are  called  mena$y  and  con- 
sist of  HindiUs  procured  by  purchase  in  the  plains  by 
the  Panwas,  a  class  of  Hiudd  servitors.  The  design 
of  this  barbarous  ceremony  was  to  propitiate  Bura-Pen- 
non  (q.  v.),  their  earth-god,  and  thus  to  secure  a  favor- 
able harvest 

Bl^rode,  Francois  Xavier  Marie  Frj^d^Iric 
Ghislaik  db,  a  Bopnan  Catholic  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Brussels  in  March,  1820.  He  was  descended  from  a 
noble  Spanuh  family,  and  entered  the  Belgian  army  in 
1841,  serving  with  distinction  as  a  volunteer  in  Algeria 
under  marshal  Bugeaud.  He  began  the  study  of  the- 
ology at  Bome  in  1848,  and  took  priest's  orders  in  1860. 
He  was  then  appointed  chamberlain  to  the  pope  and 
canon  of  St.  Peter's,  and  in  1860  was  made  minister  of 
military  aflfaire.  He  resigned  this  office  in  1866,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  disagreement  with  cardinal  Antonelli,  but 
was  appointed  archbishop  of  Melitene,  June  22, 1866,  and 
private  almoner  to  the  pope.  He  opposed  the  dogma  of 
papal  infallibility  in  1869,  bnt  in  1870  accepted  the  de- 
cision of  the  Vatican  Council.  He  died  at  Bome,  July 
24, 1874.  His  wealth  was  largely  devoted  to  the  found- 
ing  of  charitable  institutions,  to  the  improvement  of 
the  streets  and  squares  in  Kome,  and  to  archssological 
excavations. 

Meronotb.  It  has  been  suggested  {Memoirs  to 
the  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  814)  that  this  may  be  repre-> 
sented  by  Khurbei  Marrtna^  a  ruined  site  seven  miles 
north  of  Hebron. 

MeroB.  Tristram  {BiUe  Placet,  p.  230)  identifies 
this  site  with  that  of  Murutiae,  about  four  miles  north- 
west of  Bethshan,  remarking  that  **  it  would  command 
the  passagi^  from  the  plain  of  Jezreel  to  the  Jordan ;" 
bnt  there  do  not  seem  to  be  any  traces  of  antiquity 
there  (Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  86). 

Merrick,  John  Anstiii,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
oopal  clergjrman,  was  a  missionary  in  1868,  in  Fort 
Ripley,  Minn.;  in  1867  he  was  rector  in  Paris,  Ky.,  be- 
ing pastor  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  and  professor  of  Orien- 
tal and  Biblical  literature  in  Shelby  College.  In  1866 
he  became  rector  of  St.  Luke's  Church,  Hastings,  Minn.; 
in  1866  was  president  of  the  Sewanee  Mission  and- 
Training  School,  in  Winchester,  Tenn.  The  next  year 
he  went  to  San  Joe^,  Cal.,  as  a  missionary.  The  year 
following  he  was  a  professor  in  St.  Augustine  College, 
Benicia.    In  1870  he  was  officiating  in  Martinez ;  in 

xn.— Z  z 


1872  he  removed  to  West  Farms,  N.  Y.,  where  he  re- 
sided without  charge  until  his  death,  July  16, 1877, 
aged  fifty  yean.  See  Prot.  Episc,  Almanac,  1878, 
p.  169. 

Merrick  (or  Meryek),  Rowland,  an  English 
prelate  of  the  16th  century,  was  bom  at  Bodingan,  An- 
glesea,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  prin- 
cipal of  New  Inn  Hall,  and  afterwards  a  dignitary  in 
the  Church  of  St.  David's,  and  here  he  and  others,  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  violently  prosecuted  Robert 
Farrar,  his  diocesan,  and  prevailed  so  far  that  the  lat- 
ter was  imprisoned  (see  Fox,  Ads  and  Monuments,  an. 
1666).  Dr.  Merrick  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Bangor, 
Dec.  21, 1669,  and  died  Jan.  24, 1666.  See  Fuller,  Wor- 
thies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  609. 

Merseburg,  Mm  ahem.  See  Mexarem  or  Mebsk- 

BURO. 

Merwan  ibk-Gavach.    See  Ibk-Gamacu. 

M^aengny,  Francois  Philippe,  an  ascetic  writer 
of  France,  was  bom  at  Beauvais,  Aug.  22, 1677.  He 
was  educated  at  Paris,  and  when  the  famous  Bollin 
(q.  V.)  had  chai]^^  of  the  college  at  Beauvais,  M^senguy 
was  tutor  there.  Under  Rollings  successor  he. became  sub- 
principal  of  the  college,  but  being  opposed  to  the  bull 
Umgemlus,  had  to  resign.  At  last  he  retired  to  St.-Ger- 
main-eu-Laye,  and  died  Feb.  19, 1763.  He  published,  Le 
Nouveau  Testament  Traduit  en  Fran  fats,  A  vec  des  Notes 
Liiterales  (Paris,  1729, 1762, 3  vols.):— KtVs  des  Saints 
(1730, 6  vols. ;  new  ed.  1740, 2  vols.)  i—A  brigd  de  VBis* 
toire  et  de  la  Morale  (1728)  i—Ahrigi  de  Vtiistoire  de 
PAncien  Testament,  etc  (1737>88,  3  vols.)  i^Mitsel  de 
Paris  (1738) :— A«  Processional  de  Paris  (1739)  .^Ex- 
positions de  la  Doctrine  Chritienne  (1744,  6  vols.) : — 
Exercises  de  Piete  (1760) : — La  Constitution  Unigenitus 
(1748),  etc.  See  Lequcux,  Mhnoire  de  Feu  M.  FA  IM 
Francois 'Philippe  Misengug,  in  Nicrologe  des  Plus 
CHebres  Difenseurs  ei  Amis  de  Ui  VMti,  vi,  202-218; 
Picot,  Mhnoires  du  Dix-Uuitieme  Steele,  voL  iv ;  Notict 
Historique  sur  les  Rites  de  VEglise  de  Paris ;  Lichten- 
berger,  Encgdop,  des  Sciences  ReUgieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Meshia  and  Meshiaxia,  ancestors  of  the  human 
race  according  to  the  system  of  the  ancient  Persians. 
Ahriman  (q.  v.)  and  Orrouzd  (q.  v.)  were  the  primary 
principles  of  creation,  and  from  the  antagonism  which 
the  nniverse  thus  presented  man  was  the  only  excep- 
tion. Ahriman,  the  evil  principle,  had  no  other  re- 
source but  to  slaXiK'aiomor/tf,  the  primitive  human  be* 
ing,  who  was  at  once  man  and  woman.  From  the 
blood  of  the  slain  Kaiomorts  sprang  Meshia  and  Mes» 
hiana,rsh.o  were  soon  seduced  by  Ahriman, and  became 
worshippers  of  tbe  Devs,  to  whom  they  offered  sacri- 
fices. Evil  was  thus  introduced  into  the  world,  and  the 
conflict  between  the  good  and  evil  principles  extended 
also  to  man.  .     . 

Meaalanio  Hope.  By  way  of  supplement  to  the 
article  Messiah  (q.  v.),  we  give  in  general  outlines  a 
history  of  the  expectation  of  the  Messiah  as  developed 
in  the  apocal3rptic  wrirings. 

Of  the  deepest  influence  upon  the  development  of  the 
messianic  idea  were  the  prophecies  of  Daniel,  the  ea- 
sence  of  which  is  the  reign  of  the  pious  (see  ii,  44;  vii, 
14, 27).  The  apocrypha  of  the  Old  Test,  contain  but 
few  messianic  allusions,  because,  for  the  most  part,  they 
are  historical  or  didactic,  and  not  prophetic.  But  this 
does  not  mean  that  the  messianic  idea  was  not  enter- 
tained by  the  authors.  Besides  the  hope  of  a  return  of 
the  dispersed  of  Israel  (Bamch,  iv,  86,  37 ;  v,  6-9 ;  2 
Mace  ii,  18),  of  a  conversion  of  tbe  Gentiles  (Tobit, 
xiii,  11-18 ;  xiv,  6, 7),  and  the  perpetual  existence  of 
the  Jewish  nation  (Ecdus.  xxxvii,  26 ;  xliv,  13),  we  also 
find  the  idea  of  an  everlasting  kingdom  of  the  house 
of  David  (Eccles.  xlvii,  11 ;  1  Mace,  ii,  67). 

The  richer,  however,  flows  the  stream  of  messianic 
prophecies  in  the  oldest  Jewish  Sibylline  Oracles  (q.  v.), 
especially  iii,  662-794.  Veiy  few  messianic  com- 
ments are  found  in  tbe  groandwork  of  the  Book  of 


MESSIANIC  HOPE 


722 


MESSIANIC  HOPE 


Enoch  (q.  v.;  aee  xc,  1&-38),  but  more  in  the  Ftalter 
of  Solomon  (q.  v. ;  see  Pu.  xvii,  11 ;  xviii,  6-9),  and  in 
the  Assumption  of  Moees  (q.  v.).  The  messianic  time 
is  also  depicted  In  the  Book  of  Jubilees  (q.  v.)*  All 
these  documents  prove  sufficiently  that  the  messianic 
J)ope  had  not  been  dead  in  the  last  centuries  before 
Christ,  and  this  is  corroborated  by  the  Targum  of  Onke- 
lus  and  Jonathan.  Another  important  witness  is  Phihf 
who,  in  De  ExecrationSnu,  §  8, 9  (eiL  Mang.  ii,  485  sq.), 
and  De  Praitniis  ei  PaaUt,  §  15-20  (ibid,  ii,  421^28), 
speaks  of  the  messianic  hope. 

But,  aside  from  these  witnesses,  we  have  the  New 
Tesu,  which  fully  proves  that  the  messianic  idea  in  tlie 
time  before  Christ  was  by  no  means  extinguished  in 
the  consciousness  of  the  people  (see  Matt«xi,  8;  xvi, 
13  sq.;  xxi;  Mark  viii,  27;  xi;  Luke  vii,  19,  20;  ix, 
18  sq. ;  xix ;  John  xii).  For  the  time  after  Christ  we 
need  no  evidence.  The  many  political  events  prove, 
beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt,  that  the  people  expected 
the  beginning  of  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth.  Jose- 
ph us  himself  confesses  that  the  messianic  hope  was  one 
of  the  most  powerful  instruments  in  the  insurrection 
against  Rome,  although,  to  please  the  Romans,  he  re- 
ferred the  messianic  prophecies  to  Vespasian. 

As  for  the  messianic  hope  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  the  apocalypses  of  Baruch  and  Ezra  give 
ample  descriptions.  What  is  expressed  there  finds  its 
reflection  in  the  Jewish  prsyer  called  Skemoneh  Etreh 
(q.  v.),  especially  in  the  10th,  1 1th,  14th,  15th,  snd  17th 
petitions.  Thus  far  the  historical  outline.  We  come 
now  to  the  tystematic  arrangement  of  messianic  dog- 
matics. 

1.  Signs  of  the  Last  Times,  —  Almost  everywhere, 
when  reference  is  made  to  eschatology,  we  meet  with 
the  same  thought,  that  the  beginning  of  the  time 
of  salvation  is  to  be  ushered  in  by  great  tribula- 
tions. The  basis  for  these  speculations  was  no  doubt 
Dan.  xii,  1,  "There  shall  be  a  time  of  trouble,  such 
as  never  was  since  there  was  a  nation,  even  to  that 
same  time."  Thus  originated  in  the  rabbinic  dogma 
the  doctrine  of  the  n*^a^n  "iin,  "the  birth-pains 
of  the  Messiah  "  (see  Matt,  xxiv,  8 :  xdvTa  Sk  ravTa 
apx>i  utiiviitv).  Glowing  descriptions  of  the  signs  of 
the  last  times  are  found  in  OracSibjflLiUf  79b -807 
(comp.  4  Ezra  v,  1-18 ;  vi,  18-28 ;  ix,  1-12 ;  xiii,  2»>81 ; 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  Ixx,  2-8;  Book  of  Jubilees  [see 
Ewald's  Jahrbiichem,  iii,  23  sq.] ;  Mishna,  SoUif  ix, 
15).  See  also  Matt,  xxiv,  7-12, 21 ;  Mark  xiii,  19 ;  Luke 
xxi,  23;  1  Cor.  vii,  26;  2  Tim.  iit,  1 ;  and  comp.  Schdtt- 
gen,  ^orce  //efrrauxF,  ii,  509  sq.,  550  sq. ;  Bertholdt, 
ChiHstoloffia  Judmorum,  p.  45-54 ;  Gfrorer,  Das  Jahr- 
hundert  des  /leils,  ii,  225  sq.  800-804;  Oehler,  in  Her- 
zog's  Real'Encykiop.  ix,  486  sq.  (2d  ed.  ix,  666) ;  Ham- 
burger, Real-Encyklop,  art.  **  Messianische  Leidenszcit," 
p.  735-738. 

2.  Elijah  tAe  Forerunner  of  the  Messiah,— From  Mai. 
iii,  23, 24  (A.  V.  iv,  5, 6)  it  was  inferred  that  the  prophet 
Elijah  was  to  return  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  Messiah. 
This  idea  is  already  presupposed,  Ecchis.  xlviii,  10, 11 
(see  also  Matt,  xvii,  10;  Mark  ix,  11 ;  also  Matt,  xi,  14 ; 
xvi,  14;  Mark  vi,  15  ^  viii,  28;  Luke  ix,  8, 19;  John  i, 
21).  The  object  of  his  message  is  to  make  peace  on 
earth  (see  Mishna,  Eduyath^  viii,  7),  and  to  harmonize 
differences  {Baba  Meziay  iii,  4,  5;  i,  8;  ii,  8).  Besides 
these  things,  he  was  to  anoint  the  Messiah  (Justin, 
DiaL  cunt  Tryph,  c.  8,  49),  and  to  raise  the  dead  (Sota^ 
ix,  15  8.  f.).  Besides  Elijah,  some  also  expected  the 
prophet  like  Motes  (Deut.  xviii,  15;  comp.  John  i, 
21 4  vi,  14;  vii,  40),  while  still  others  thought  that 
Jeremiah  (Matt,  xvi,  16)  was  to  be  the  forerunner  of 
the  Messiah.  In  Christian  writings,  Enoch  is  men- 
tioned as  one  who  was  to  come  back  (f  r.  Nicodemi,  c. 
25;  see  also  Thilo,  Codex  Apocryph.  Nov.  Testanunii, 
p.  756-768).  On  the  forerunner  of  the  Messiah,  comp. 
Schottgen,  u.  s.  p.  533  sq. ;  Lightfoot,  l/orm  ffebr.  on 
MatL  xvii,  10 ;  Bertholdt,  u.  s.  p.  68-68 ;  Gfrdrer,  u.  s.  p. 


227-229;  Alexandre,  Oroc.  ^S^AL  Ist  ed.  ii,  518-516; 
Der  Prophet  Elia  in  der  Legende  (Frankers  Manats^ 
schrift,  1863,  p.  241-255,  281-296);  EUas  who  was  to 
Come  {Journal  of  Sacred  Literature  and  Biblical  BeO' 
ord,  new  series,  1867,  x,  371-^76);  Castelli,  //  Messia 
seeondo  gli  Ebreif  p.  196-201 ;  Weber,  System  der  alt-- 
tynagogakn  palastinischen  Theologie^  p.  837-839. 

3.  Appearance  of  the  Messiah, — After  these  prepara- 
tions, Messiah  comes.  It  is  by  no  means  correct  to  say 
that  pre-Christian  Judaism  expected  the  Messiah  only 
afler  the  judgment,  and  that  through  the  influence  of 
Christianity  the  idea  had  become  prevalent  that  the 
Messiah  himself  was  to  judge  his  enemies.  For  in  the 
books  of  Baruch  and  Ezra,  Enoch,  and  in  the  Tati^ums, 
in  the  Psalter  of  Solomon,  and  in  Philo,  Messiah  ap- 
pears everywhere  as  conquering  hostile  powers. 

As  to  his  names,  the  common  one  is  the  A  nointed,  the 
Messiah  (Enoch  xlviii,  10;  Iii,  4;  Baruch  xxix,  8; 
XXX,  1;  xxxix,  7;  xl,  1;  Ixx,  9;  Ixxii,  2;  Ezra  vii, 
28,  29,  where  the  Latin  translation  is  interpolated; 
xii,  82 :  "  nnctiis  ") ;  Greek,  xpiarbQ  Kvpiov  (Psalt.  of 
Sol.  xvii,  86;  xviii,  68),  Hebrew,  TV^tW  (Mishna, 
Berachothf  i,  fi),  Aramaic,  KH^lSt)  •  (ibid.  Sofa,  ix,  15), 
or  Kn*^r^  Kslb^  (in  the  Targums).  Peculiar  to  the 
Book  of  Enoch  are:  ''the  Son  of  man"(xlvi,  1-4; 
xlviii,  2;  Ixii,  7,  9,  14;  Ixiii,  11 ;  Ixix,  2G,  27;  Ixx,  1^ 
and  the  "  Elect  One  "  (xlv,  8,  4 ;  xlix,  2 ;  11, 3,  5 ;  Hi,  6, 
9;  liii,  6;  Iv,  4;  1x1,8;  Ixii,  1).  Very  seldom  is  he 
called  the  *«Son  of  God**  (cv,  2;  4  Ezra  vii.  28,  29; 
xiii,  32, 37, 52 ;  xi  v,  9),  and  only  once  he  is  called  "  Son 
of  the  woman  "  (Enoch  Ixii,  5).  He  was  to  corocyf  xim 
the  tribe  of  David  (Psalt.  of  Sol.  xvii,  5,  23 ;  Matt,  xxii, 
42;  Mark  xii,  35;  Luke  xx,  41 ;  John  vii,  42;  4  Ezra 
xii,  32;  Targum  on  Isa.  xi,  1 ;  Jer.xxiii,  5;  xxxiii,  15). 
Hence  "Son  of  David  "is  the  common  designation  of 
the  Messiah  .(in  the  New  Test,  after  vcoc  ^aviS,  in  the 
Targum  on  Hosca  iii,  5:  ^1^  *^3iin  the  Shemoneh  Esreh, 
15th  petition,  ^1^  H^X).  As  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of  David  he  must  also  be  bom  at  Bethlehem,  in  the  city 
of  David  (Micah  v,  1,  and  the  Targum  in  looo;  Matt,  ii, 
5;  John  vii,  41, 42). 

Whether  the  pre-Christian  Judaism  tbonght  of  the 
Messiah  as  a  mere'  man  or  as  a  being  imbued  with 
higher  power,  especially  whether  it  ascribed  to  him  pie* 
existence,  cannot  be  decided  with  certainty.  In  gen* 
eral  it  can  be  saiil  that  he  was  expected  as  a  human  kisiff 
and  ruler,  but  endowed  with  special  g{fU  and  powers  hff 
God,  This  is  especially  evident  from  the  Psalter  of 
Solomon  (xvii,  28,  47, 85,  41,  46,  42).  The  same  idea 
we  find  in  Orac,  SibylL  iii,  49.  But  his  pre-existence  is 
also  described  in  the  Book  of  Enoch,  xlvi,  1,2;  Ixii,  7 ; 
xlviii,  3, 6;  xlvi,  1,  8;  xlix,  2-4;  comp.  also  4  Ezra  xii, 
32 ;  xiii,  26,  52.  Ami  this  idea  of  pre-existenoe  cannot 
be  ascribed  to  Christian  influences,  because  it  fully  har- 
monizes with  the  Old-Test,  idea  concerning  the  Mes- 
siah (comp.  Micah  v,  1 ;  Daniel  vii,  13, 14). 

4,- The  lAist  Eneanies, — On  the  appearance  of  the  Mes- 
siah the  enemies  of  the  Israelites  and  of  God  will  raus> 
ter  their  forces  for  a  last  decisive  conflict.  The  picture 
which  Ezekiel  drew  of  the  armies  of  Gog  and  Magog, 
and  the  representation  given  in  Daniel  xi,  are  abun- 
dantly reproduced  in  Orac,  Sibyll,  iii,  663  sq. ;  4  Ezra 
xiii,  83  sq. ;  Enoch  xc,  16,  except  that  the  conflict  does 
not  concent  the  Messiah,  but  the  congregation  of  God. 
In  general,  it  is  supposed  that  the  leader  in  this  conflict 
is  the  ahtichrist,  who  is  called  in  rabbinic  writings 
^rmatf#(Olb*^ai«). 

5.  Destruction  of  the  Enemies. — From  the  dangera 
which  will  thus  gather  round  them  the  Israelites  are 
to  be  delivered  by  the  signal  destruction  of  their  foesu 
Comp.  Assumptio  Mosis  x ;  Enoch  xc ;  Orac  SibylL 
iii,  652  sq.;  Psalt.  of  Sol.  xvii,  27,  89;  Apoc.  Baruch 
xxxix,  7-xI,  2;  Ixx,  9;  Ixxii,  2-6;  4  Ezra  xii,  82,  88; 
xiii,27,28,8d<88. 

6.  Renovation  of  Jerusalem,  —  Sioee  the  messianie 


MESSIANIC  HOPE 


723 


MESSIANIC  HOPE 


kiogdom  is  to  be  founded  in  the  Holy  Land,  JeniBalem 
must  be  renewed.  This  renovation  will  take  place  by 
purifying  the  holy  city  from  the  Gentiles,  who  now  live 
in  it  (Psalt.  of  Sol.  xvii,  25,  83).  Besides  this  view 
there  was  another,  that  there  already  existed  in  the 
pre-mcssianic  time  a  more  glorious  Jerusalem  than  the 
earthly  one,  with  God  in  heaven,  and  that  this  was  to 
come  down  on  earth  at  the  beginning  of  the  messianic 
time  (Enoch  liii,  6;  xc,  28,  29;  4  Ezra  vii,  26;  Apoc 
Baruch  xxxii,  4).  See  also  Schottgen,  />e  HieroiO' 
Itftna  CoiUsti  [Norm  JJebr,  i,  1205-1248);  Meuschen, 
Novum  TeHamerUum  ex  Talmttde^  p.  199  sq. ;  Wetstein, 
Novum  Teat,  ad  Galaiat,  iv,  26 ;  Eisenmenger,  Ent" 
(lecktet  Judeiiihum,  ii,  839  sq.;  Bertholdt,  u.  s.  p.  217- 
221 ;  Gfrorer,  u.  s.  ii,  245  sq.  808 ;  Weber,  u.  s.  p.  866  sq. 

7.  Gathering  of  the  Dispersed. — That  the  dispersed 
of  Israel  should  have  part  in  the  mesttanic  kingdom 
and  return  to  Palestine  was  a  matter  of  course,  even 
though  there  were  no  prophecies  of  the  Old  Test.  In  a 
poetical  manner  this  is  described  (Psalc.  of  Sol.  xi,  xvit ; 
Baruch  iv,  36,  87 ;  v,  5-9 ;  Philo,  De  Exsecrationibus, 
§  8,  0 ;  4  Ezra  xiii,  39-47).  As  this  hope  was  so  gen- 
eral, it  is  strange  that  rabbi  Akiba  should  have  doubted 
the  return  of  the  ten  tribes  (SanhedriUf  x,  8  s.  f.). 

8.  The  Kingdom  of  Glory  in  Palestine. — The  messianic 
kingdom  has,  it  is  true,  the  messianic  king  at  its  head, 
but  its  supreme  niler  is  God  (see  Orac,  Sibyll,  iii,  704- 
706,  717,  756  -759;  Psalt.  of  Sol.  xvii,  1,  88,  51 ;  She- 
month  Esrehf  11th  benediction;  Joseph.  War,  ii,  8, 1). 
Hence  it  is  often  called  the  kingdom  of  God  (fia<n\iia 
Tov  ^eoD,  so  especially  in  the  New  Test,  by  Mark  and 
Luke ;  Orac.  SUfglL  iii,  47, 48 ;  fiafftXtia  }Ltyi<mi  aBavd- 
TOV  paffiXiioc ;  see  PsalL  of  Sol.  xvii,  4 ;  Assumptio  Mo- 
sis  X,  1, 8).  Besides,  we  also  find  "  kingdom  of  heaven," 
fiamXda  r&v  ovpavwv*  For  the  latter  expression, 
see  Schottgen,  De  Regno  Calorvm  {I/ora  //ebr,  i, 
1147-1152) ;  Lightfoot,  flora  ad  MattK  iii,  2 ;  Wetstein, 
tra  Matth,  iii,  3;  Bertholdt,  u.  s.  p.  187-192;  De  Witte, 
Biblische  Dogntatik,  p.  175-177 ;  Tholuck,  Beigpredigt^ 
p.  66  sq. ;  Fritzsche,  Evang,  Matthcn,  p.  109  sq. ;  Kui- 
noel,  in'Matth,  iii,  8;  Wichelhaus,  Comment ar,  zu  der  Lei- 
densgeschichie  (1855).  p. 284  sq.;  Keim,  Geschichte  JesUf 
ii,  83  sq.;  SchUrer,  Der  Begriffdes  IJimmelreiches  aus 
j&dischm  Quellen  erlSutert  {Jahrbucher  fur  prof .  Theo- 
logie,  1876,  p.  166-187) ;  Cremcr,  BibL  Theohg,  Worter- 
buchj  s.  V.  PamXila, 

To  the  glory  of  the  messianic  kingdom  belongs,  above 
all  things,  the  dominion  over  the  world  (see  Isa.  ii,  2  sq. ; 
xlii,  1-6;  xlix,  6;  Ii,  4,5;  Jer.  iii,  17;  xvi,  19  sq.; 
Micah  iv,  1  sq.;  vii,  16  sq.;  Zeph.  ii,  11 ;  iii,  9;  Zech. 
viii,  20  sq. ;  and  especially  Dan.  ii,  44 ;  vii,  14, 27).  This 
hope  has  also  been  held  by  later  Judaism,  but  in  a  dif- 
ferent manner;  see  Orac.  Sibgll.  iii,  698-726,  7G6-788; 
Philo,  De  Prcsnu  et  Pern.  §  16 ;  Enoch  xc,  30, 87 ;  PsalL 
of  Sol.  xvii,  32-85.  Otherwise  the  messianic  time, 
mostly  on  the  basis  of  Old -Test,  passages,  is  repre> 
sented  as  a  time  of  pure  joy  and  happiness.  There  is 
no  war  {Orac  SibyU.  iii,  871-380,  751-760;  Philo,  De 
Prcsm.  et  Pan,  §  16 ;  ApocaL  Baruch,  Ixxiii,  4, 5).  Even 
the  wild  beasts  serve  man  (Orac,  SibylL  iii,  787-794; 
Philo,  u.  s.  §  15;  Targum  on  Isa.  xi,  6).  Earth  is  very 
fertile  (.Orac,  SibyU,  iii,  620-623,  748-750;  Baruch, 
xxix,  5-^) ;  men  are  rich  and  well  to  do  (Philo,  §  17, 
18) ;  they  become  nearly  one  thousand  years  old,  and 
yet  do  not  feel  their  age,  but  are  like  boys  (Ewald,  Ju- 
bUeeSf  iii,  24).  All  enjoy  bodily  strength  and  health ; 
women  bear  children  without  pains,  etc.  (Philu,  §  20 ; 
Baruch  Ixxiii,  2, 3,  7 ;  Ixxiv,  1).  But  these  external 
gifts  are  not  the  only  ones.  They  are  but  the  conse- 
quence of  the  fact  that  the  messianic  congregation  rep- 
resents a  holy  people,  sanctified  by  God,  and  led  in 
righteousness  by  the  Messiah.  He  allows  no  unright- 
eousness to  dwell  among  them,  nor  is  any  one  who  knows 
malice  in  their  midst.  Hence  they  are  all  holy  (PsalL 
of  Sol.  xvii,  28, 29, 36, 48, 49 ;  xviii,  9, 10).  The  life  in 
the  messianic  kingdom  is  a  perpetual  Xarp^viiv  dtip  iv 
dcwniTi  Kai  diKat^ffvvri  ivtjmov  aifvov  (Luke  i,  74, 75). 


With  this  kingdom  of  gbry  in  Palestine  the  eschato- 
logical  expectation  generally  closes;  indeed,  many  re- 
gard it  as  without  an  end.  But  afterwards  the  messi- 
anic kingdom  is  described  as  of  a  limited  period,  and 
in  the  Talmud  the  duration  of  this  time  is  a  matter 
of  debate  {Sanhedrin,  fol.  99,  coL  1).  The  same  view 
we  find  in  the  Apoc.  Baruch  xl,  3,  and  4  Ezra  xii,  34; 
vii,  28,  29.  Wherever,  therefore,  a  temporal  duration 
is  ascribed  to  the  messianic  kingdom,  at  the  end  of  the 
time  a  renovation  of  the  world  and  the  last  judgment  is 
still  expected. 

9.  Renovation  of  the  World, — The  hope  of  a  renova- 
tion of  heaven  and  earth  is  founded  on  Isa.  Ixv,  17 ; 
Ixvi,  22  (see  also  Matt,  xix,  28 ;  Rev.  xxi,  1 ;  2  Pet.  iii, 
18).  Accordingly,  a  distinction  was  made  between  the 
present  world  and  the  world  to  come,  h-rtn  &^i!?il  and 
Man  DVirn;  in  the  New  Test.,  6  ai^v  ovtoc  and  u 
a'ldtv  6  piKKutv  or  6  ipx6fuvo(.  But  there  was  a  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  Some  would  make  the  new  world 
commence  with  the  beginning  of  the  messianic  time 
(Enoch  xlv,  4,  5),  others  with  its  end  (4  Ezra  vii,  80, 
81).  In  accordance  with  these  different  views,  the  mes- 
sianic time  is  either  identified  with  the  world  to  come, 
or  is  still  reckoned  to  the  present  world.  But  the  older 
and  more  original  view  is  the  one  which  identifies  the 
days  of  the  Messiah  with  the  world  to  come.  On  the 
*'  world  to  come,"  see  Mishna,  Berachoth,  i,  5 ;  Psa.  i,  1 ; 
Kiddushin^  iv^,  14;  Baba  Mezia^  ii}  H  ;  Sanhedrin^  x, 
1^;  Aboth,  iv,  1,  16;  r,  19;  Apoc.  Baruth  xliv,  15; 
xlviii,  50;  Ixxiii,  3;  4  Ezra  vi,  9;  vii,  12,  13,  42,  43; 
viii,  8.  Comp.  also  Rhenferdius,  De  Saculo  Futuro  (in 
Meuschen,  u.  s.  p.  1116-1171) ;  Witsius,  De  Sceculo  hoc 
et  EuiurOf  u.  s.  p.  1171-1188;  Schottgen,  n.  s.  1153- 
1 158 ;  Lightfoot,  ad  Matth.  xii,  82 ;  Wetstein,  ad  Matth. 
xii,  32 ;  Koppe,  Novum  Test,  vi ;  Episf.  ad  Ephes,  Exc.  i ; 
Bertholdt,  u.  s.  p.  88-43 ;  GfrQrer,  u.  s.  ii,  212-217 ;  Bleck, 
H^Serbrief  ii,  1,  20  sq.;  Oehler,  in  Herzog's  Real- 
EncyUop,  ix,  434  sq.;  2d  ed.  ix,  664  sq.;  Geiger,  Jii- 
dische  ZeOsehrifi,  1866,  p.  124 ;  Weber,  u.  s.  p.  354  sq. 

10.  General  Resurrection, — Before  the  last  judgment 
is  held,  a  general  resurrection  of  the  dead  occurs.  In 
general,  there  was  a  firm  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  which  is  for  the  first  time  intimated  in  Dan.  xii, 
2,  and  this  belief  was  held  by  all  who  were  more  or  less 
inflaenced  by  Pharisaism.  Only  the  Sadducees  denied 
the  resurrection  (Joseph.  Ant,  xviii,  1,  4;  War,  ii,  8, 
14),  and  the  Alexandrian  theology  substituted  for  it  an 
immortality  of  the  soul  (Wisdom  of  SoL  iii,  1  sq. ;  iv,  7 ; 
V,  16).  The  time  between  death  and  resurrection  is  for 
the  righteous  a  time  of  preliminary  happiness,  and  for 
the  wicked  a  preliminary  state  of  misery.  The  litera- 
ture on  that  subject  is  very  rich.  See  Bertholdt,  u.  s. 
p.  176-181,  203-206;  Gfrdrer,  u.  s.  275-285,  808  sq.; 
Herzfeld,  Gesch,  d,  VoOces  Israel,  iii,  807-810,  328-333, 
849-851, 504-506 ;  Langen,  Das  Judenthum  in  PaUtstina, 
p. 838  sq.;  Bothe,  DogmatUcj  ii, 2, 68-71, 298-308 ;  Oehler, 
Theologie  des  Alien  Testaments,  ii,  241  sq.;  Hermann 
Schultz,  Alttestamentliche  Theologie,  2d  ed.  p.  713  sq. 
807  sq. ;  Hamburger,  Real-Encyklop.  ii,  98  sq.  (art.  ^  Be- 
lebung  der  Todten");  St&helin,  Jahrb.JUr  deutsche 
TheoUtgie,  1874,  p.  199  sq. ;  Weber,  u.  s.  p.  371  sq. ;  Grobt 
ler.  Die  A  nsichten  uber  Unsterbiichkeit  und  A  uferstehung 
in  der  judischen  Literatur  der  beiden  letzten  Jahrh.  vor 
Christus,  in  Sludien  und  Kritiken,  1879,  p.  651-700. 

11.  Last  Judgment.  Eternal  Blessedness  and  Damna- 
tiou. — A  last  judgment  after  the  end  of  the  messianic 
period  can  only  be  thought  of  where  the  messianic  king- 
dom is  of  a  finite  duration  (see  Baruch  i,4;  4  Ezra  vii, 
33-35).  God  himself  is  the  judge  of  all  roeu  (Baruch 
Ii,  4,  5;  4  Ezra  vi,  2).  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
all  Israel  have  a  part  in  the  future  world  {Sanhe» 
driHf  X,  1),  with  the  exception  of  the  wicked  in  Israel 
(x,  1^).  They,  together  with  Israel's  enemies,  go  down 
into  the  fire  of  Gehenna  (Baruch  xliv,  15;  Ii,  1,  2,  4-6; 
4  Ezra  v,  1-8, 59).  As  a  rule  this  damnation  Is  regard- 
ed as  everlasting;  but  there  is  also  the  view  which 


MESSMER 


724 


MEXICAN 


aacribes  a  limited  daimtion  of  heU-pnniahment  (Mishha, 
Eduyoth,  ii,  10).  The  righteoiu  and  pioua  vrill  be  re- 
ceived into  paradiae,  and  will  behold  the  majesty  of 
God  and  of  his  holy  angels.  Their  face  shall  shine 
Itlce  the  san,  and  they  shidl  live  forever  (Bamch  li, 
8, 7-14;  4  Ezra  vi,  1-8, 68-72;  AssumpUo  Hosts  x, 
9, 10). 

Literature, — Besides  the  works  of  Sehdttgen,  Ber- 
Iholdc,  De  Wette,  Girdrer,  Weber,  Hamburger,  already 
mentioned,  see  Moraht,  De  tit,  qvce  ad  Cognotcendam 
Judaorum  Pcdettinensutm,  qui  Jeau  Tempore  Vivebant, 
ChriiUdogiam  Evangelia  Nobit  Exhibeant,  Deque  Tjocie 
Meseiame  in  Ittia  AUegatU  (Gottingen.  1829);  Von 
CoUd,  Bibiieche  Theoloffie  ( 1836),  i,  479 -6U;  Mack, 
Die  mestianitchen  Erwartungeu  uid  Anticklen  der  Zeii- 
genoMten  Jesu  (in  TUb.  Tkeol.  QaartaUchrifl^  eod.  p.  8- 
66,193-226);  Bruno  Bauer,  Kritik  der  evangeliechen 
Geachiekie  der  Sgnoptiher  (1841),  i,  891-416;  Zeller, 
Udter  die  Behauptung  date  dat  vorchristUcke  Juden^ 
ikum  nock  ieine  meeriOMtcke  Dogmatik  gehabt  hAe 
Irheol,  JahrbUcher,  1843,  p. 86-62) ;  HeUwag,  in  Theol, 
Jahrbueher  von  Bauer  und  Zeller  (1848)«  p.  161-160; 
Hilgenfeld,  DtejOdiecke  Apocafyptik  in  ihrer  geediieht- 
lichen  Entwidxlung  (Jena,  1867) ;  Oehler,  art.  *<  Messiaa," 
in  Herzog,  Real-EncgUop,  ix,  406  sq. ;  2d  ed.  ix,  641  sq. ; 
Colani,  Jetua-Ckriet  et  lea  Croganoea  Meaaianiquea de  aon 
Tempa  (2d  ed.  Strasburg,  1864),  p.  1-68 ;  Langen,  Daa 
Judenthum  in  PaUUtina  zurZeit  Chriati  (Freiburg,  1866), 
p,  891^461 ;  Ewald,  Geachichte  dea  Volkea  larael  (8d  ed. 
1867),  V,  186-160;  Keim,  Geachichte  Jeau  (eod.),  i,  289- 
260  (Engl,  transl.  p.  808-821 ;  Lond.  1878) ;  Holtzmann, 
Die  Meaaiaaidee  tur  Zeit  Jeau  {Jahrb,fur  deutache  Th^- 
ohgie^  1867,  p.  889-411) ;  the  same,  in  Weber  and  Holt2- 
mann's  Geachichte  dea  Volkea  larael  (eod.),  ii,  191-211 ; 
Hausrath,  Neuteatamentliche  Zeitgeachichte  (1868),  i,  172- 
184;  2ded.(1878).  p.  166-176;  EngL transL (Lond.  1878) 
i,  191-204;  Weiffenbach,  Qum  Jeau  in  Regno  Caleati 
Dignitaa  ait  Synoptioorum  Sententia  Exponitur  (Gienen, 
1868),  p.  47-G2;  Ehnvd,  Wiaaena<^/lliehe  Kriiik  der 
evangeliachen  Geachichte  (&d  ed.  eod.),  p.  886-849;  Wit- 
tiohen,  Die  fdee  dea  Reichea  GoUea  (Gottingen,  1872), 
p.  105-165;  Anger,  Vorleaimigen  uber  die  Geachichte  der 
meaaianiachen  fdee  (edited  by  Krenkel ;  Berlin,  1878), 
p.  78-91 ;  Castelli,//  Meaaia  SeeondogU  Ebrd  (Fkrrence, 
1874);  Vemes,  Hiatoire  dea  Idaea  Meaaianiquea  depuia 
Alemtndre  Juaqu^a  VEmpereur  ffadnen  (Paris,  eod.); 
Schonefeld,  C/eber  die  meaaianiache  Hoffnung  wm  200  vor 
ChriatobiagegenbOnachChriato  (Jena,eod.);  Drummond, 
The  Jewiah  Meaaiah  (Lond.  1877) ;  Stapfer,  Lea  Idaea  Re^ 
ligieuaea  en  Paleatine  a  FEpoque  de  Jeeua-Ckriat  (2d  ed. 
1878),  p.  111-182;  Reuss,  Geackickle  der  keUigen  Sckrif- 
tendeaAlten  Teatamenta  (1881 ),  § 656, 666 ;  Hamburger, 
Real'Encgkhp./ur  Bibel  und  Talmud,  II  Abtheilung 
(1888), articles:  « Messianische  Leiden8zeit,*'**Mes8ta9," 
**  Hessiasleiden,"  "  Messias  Sohn  Joseph,**  **  Messiaszeit '* 
(p.  786-779) ;  also  A  rmilua,  Belebung  der  Todten,  Ewigea 
Leben,  Lohn  und  Strafe,  Paradiea,  VergeUung,  Zukunfia- 
mahl ;  Pick,  Talmudic  Notieea  concerning  Meaaiah  {Pre*' 
bgterian  Review,  July,  1884);  Old  Teatatnent  Paaaagea 
MeaaiamcaUg  Applied  by  the  Ancient  Synagogue  (ffe- 
braica,  October,  1884  and  seq.) ;  Schttrer,  Lehrbuch  der 
NeuteatamentUchen  Zeitgeachichte  (Leipsic,  1874),  p.  668 
sq. ;  2d  ed.  with  the  title  Geachichte  dea  jOdiachen  Volkea 
im  ZeUaUer  Jeau  Chriati  (1886),  ii.  417  sq.    {B,  P.) 

Messmer,  Joseph  Anton,  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  OcL  17, 1829,  and  died  at 
Munich,  Dec  28, 1879,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology. 
He  published,  Ueber  den  Uraprung,  die  Eniwickelung 
und  Bedeutung  der  BaaiWta  in  der  chriatlichen  Baukunat 
(Leipsic,  1854)  '.—Johann  Micfiael  Sailer  (Mannheim, 
1875 ) :  —  Dr.  Joaeph  Hubert  Reinkena,  hatholiacher 
Biachof  (Linz,  1874).     (R  P.) 

Metatron,  an  angel  frequently  mentioned  by  rab> 
binical  vrriters,  and  to  whom  they  ascribe  superior  pre* 
rogatives.  He  is  said  to  be  ^  the  king  of  angels,"  and 
to  "  ascend  to  the  throne  of  glory  above  nine  hundred 


firmaments  to  carry  up  the  prayers  of  the  Israelites." 
He  is  soppoeed  by  some  to  have  been  the  aogel  who 
oondocted  the  Israelites  througli  tin  wilderness^  and 
by  others  to  have  been  Enoch* 

Meta'VTlIall,  a  heretical  Mohammedan  sect,  who 
maintain  that  the  allegorical  and  not  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  the  Koran  is  binding  on  the  faithful.  They  aa^ 
found  principally  in  the  district  lying  to  the  south  and 
east  of  Tsrre,  in  the  regions  contiguous  to  the  sources 
of  the  Jordan,  and  in  CeUe^Syria  proper.  They  are 
Shiites,  and  recognise  the  supreme  ImAmate  of  AU 
(q.  T.). 

Metoalt  Kendrick,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  devoted  nearly  the  whole  of  his  active  life 
to  educational  work.  For  many  yean  he  was  Hobart 
professor  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  and  liter- 
ature in  the  Hobart  Free  (College,  Geneva,  N.  T.  For 
some  time  he  was  a  member  of  the  standing  commit- 
tee of  his  diocese.  In  1867  he  was  electee!  professor 
of  rhetoric,  and  chaplain  of  the  college.  The  following 
year  he  was  Horace  White  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature,  a  position  which  he  retained  until 
his  death,  Oct.  80,  1872.  See  Prot.  Epiac  AlmoHoe, 
1878,  p.  184. 

Metonlo  Cycle.    See  Ctclk. 

Menrer,  Mobitz,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  Aug.  8, 1806,  at  Pretzsch,  on  the  Elbe. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1833  teacher  at  the  sem- 
inary in  Weissenfels,  in  1884  deacon  at  Waldenbur^, 
in  1836  archdeacon,  and  in  1841  pastor.  He  died  at 
Callenberg,  Hay  10, 1877.  He  b  the  author  of  bio- 
graphical sketches  on  Luther,  (Catharine  von  Bora, 
Melancbthon,  Bugenhagen,  Myconius,  etc.  Besides,  be 
published,  J/oMf,  derKnecht  Gotta  (Waklenburg,  18S6) : 
—Der  Tag  zu  Schmalkalden  (Leipsic,  1837) ;  Der  Kir- 
cherAau  vom  StandputdUe  und  nach  dem  Brauche  der 
lutheriachen  Kirche  (ibid.  1877).  See  Zuchold,  BibL 
TheoL  ii,  876 ;  Uchtenberger,  Encychp,  dea  Sciences  Re^ 
ligieuaea,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Mevlevies,  an  order  of  rigid  Mohammedan  monksL 
The  novice  receives  his  preliminar>'  training  in  the 
convent  kitchen  during  the  period  of  a  thousand  and 
one  days,  after  which  he  is  received  into  the  order. 
Their  doctrines  are  chiefly  those  of  the  Persian  Sujie 
(q.  v.).  Contrary  to  the  teachings  of  the  prophet  they 
have  introduced  music  and  dancing  into  their  worship. 
They  are  the  best  endowed  of  all  the  orden  of  Moslem 
monks;  yet  they  use  only  the  coarsest  fare  and  the 
plsinest  raiment,  while  they  distribute  much  of  their 
revenue  in  alms  to  the  poor.  They  are  the  Dancing 
Derviahea  of  Turkey,  and  consist  chiefly  of  the  higher 
class  of  Turks.    See  Dkrvish  ;  MouAMMKOANisai. 

Mexican  Relioioub  Bslieps  and  Fables.  The 
wondrous  country  lying  between  North  and  South 
America  was  long  inaccessible,  and  much  told  of  It 
was  fabulous,  until  A.  von  Humboldt  and  some  modem 
travellers  lighted  up  the  darkness  which  hung  over 
the  country.  The  Mexicans  accepted  four  wmid  pe- 
riods, according  thus  singularly  with  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans:  the  first  is  called  Atonatiuh,  the  period 
of  water ;  it  began  with  the  creation  of  the  world,  and 
its  destruction  by  the  flood;  the  second,  Tlahonatiuhy 
the  period  of  earth,  closed  with  an  earthquake,  which 
ended  the  human  race,  and  the  sun  belonging  to  this 
period ;  the  third  is  called  Ekekatonatiuk,  the  period  of 
air,  in  which  men  and  the  enn  perished  in  a  frightful 
storm ;  the  fourth  is  called  Tletonatiuk,  the  period  of 
fire,  the  period  in  which  we  live,  and  which  will  end 
by  a  nniversal  destruction  by  fire.  At  the  end  of  each 
period  all  men  perished  except  a  few  pain;  they  did 
not  die,  but  were  changed  into  fish,  apes,  and,  lastly, 
into  birds.  The  Noah  of  the  Mexicans  was  called 
CojECox,  and  his  wife  XokiqaetzaL  They  saved  tbem- 
selves  in  a  small  ship,  and  landed  on  the  mountain 
GolhoMan.  Their  children  learned  from  wise  birds 
languages. so  difierent  that  they  oo«ild  not  understand 


MEXIOAJf  VERSION 


725 


METER 


each  other.  Th«  protteCing  goddess  of  the  hanum 
laoe,  Omeeihnatl)  lived  in  a  splendid  city  of  heaven ; 
she  gave  birth  to  many  children,  and  lastly  to  a 
stone  knife,  which  the  children  threw  to  the  earth, 
whereupon  sixteen  hundred  heroes  (demi-gods)  sprang 
ftom  it.  These  had  no  human  beings  about  them, 
for  all  of  the  latter  had  perished  by  the  catastrophe 
of  the  third  period.  They,  therefore,  sent  a  herald  to 
their  mother  iu  heaven,  to  give  them  power  to  pro- 
duce children.  The  mother  told  them  to  get  a  bone 
of  a  dead  human  being  from  the  god  of  the  infernal 
region,  and  if  they  would  sprinkle  it  with  their  blood 
men  would  be  produced,  but  they  should  beware  of  the 
god.  Xolotl,  one  of  tbe  demi-gods,  received  a  bone 
ftom  Hietlanteuetli,  and,  heeding  the  warning,  fled  as 
fast  as  he  could,  pursued  by  the  god.  They  sprinkled 
the  bone  with  their  blood,  and  a  boy  and  a  girl  were 
formed,  who  propagated  the  extinguished  race.  How- 
ever, from  this  originated  the  horrible  custom  of  human 
sacrifices.  The  sun  was  still  lacking.  The  heroes  col- 
lected about  a  great  fire,  and  said,  whoever  should  Jump 
in  first  would  become  a  sun.  Nanahuatzin  sacrificed 
himself,  and  soon  appeared  as  the  sun.  But  he  said  he 
would  not  move  until  all  the  heroes  had  been  slain. 
The  hero  XolotI  then  killed  them  all,  and  finally  him- 
self. Their  dress  fell  to  their  servants,  men,  and  the 
Spaniards  found  in  various  temples  clothes,  divinely 
worshipped,  which  were  said  to  belong  to  these  demi- 
gods. In  the  same  manner  the  moon  originated;  be- 
cause the  fire  was  not  so  intense  it  did  not  receive  such 
splendor.  The  Mexicans  hold  the  souls  of  men  to  be 
immortal;  fallen  warriors  and  mother^  dying  in  child- 
bed come  into  the  houw  of  the  sun,  where  they  live  in 
pleasuresL  The  number  of  deified  heroes,  kings,  and 
demi-gods  soon  reached  three  thousand.  They  had 
also  a  distinct  idea  of  a  supreme  being,  Teotl  (god), 
sprung  from  himself,  the  originator  of  all  things.  A 
being  opposed  to  the  latter  was  Tllatewlblotl,  i.  e.  the 
sensible  owl.  The  Mexicans  believed  this  dssmon  ap- 
peared to  torture  men  and  frighten  them.  Besides  this 
good  and  this  evil  principle  there  were  three  classes  of 
gods;  to  the  first  belonged  the  mother  of  all  gods,  the 
god  of  providence,  the  deities  of  the  constellations,  of  the 
elements,  of  war,  of  hunting,  of  fishing,  of  contracts,  of 
punishment,  of  protection,  etc ;  to  the  second  class  be- 
longed the  gods  of  time ;  to  the  third  class  the  family 
gods.  Their  idols  were  placed  in  their  temples,  and 
priests  and  priestesses  placed  over  them,  and  sacrifices 
made.  Tbe  supreme,  or  at  least  tbe  most  worshipped 
of  their  gods  was  the  bloodthirsty  Huitrilopochtli. 

Meidoan  (or  Astoo)  Version  of  thv  Script- 
UBKS.  At  a  very  early  period  efforts  were  made 
to  provide  the  Mexicans  with  the  Word  of  God  in 
their  own  vernacular.  Didacas  de  Santa  Maria,  a 
Dominican  friar,  and  vicar  of  the  province  of  Mex- 
ico (1579),  is  said  to  have  translated  the  epistles  and 
the  gospels  into  Mexican;  and  Louis  Rodriguez,  a 
Franciscan  friar,  prepared  a  translation  of  the  Proverbs 
and  other  fragments.  But  of  these  translations  noth- 
ing is  known  at  present.  In  1829  Mr.  Thomson, 
agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  caused 
a  translation  of  the  New  Test,  to  be  made— a  move- 
ment which  the  bishop  of  Puebla  not  only  favored, 
but  also  consented  to  superintend.  Three  persons 
were  appointed  by  the  bishop  to  execute  the  transla- 
tion, but  unhappily  the  bishop  died  in  1880,  and  the 
only  portion  of  Scripture  that  has  hitherto  been  printed 
in  Mexican  consists  of  the  gospel  of  Luke,  which  Dr. 
Pazos  Kanki  had  translated  about  the  vear  1829.  From 
the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for 
the  year  1870,  we  see  that  at  the  request  of  Mr.  J.  W. 
Butler,  a  native  Mexican  has  been  engaged  to  revise 
or  retranslate  the  gospel  of  Luke.  The  version  was 
made,  and  after  having  been  committed  to  an  inde- 
pendent perM>n  for  examination,  was  printed.  This 
is  the  onlv  part  of  the  Mexican  Scripture  now  extant 
8%e  BiUe'o/ Avery  Land,  iL  A05.    (a  P.) 


Meyboom,  Lddwio  Tubon  Pbtrvs,  a  Dutch 
theohigian,  was  bom  at  Emden,  April  S,  1817.  He 
studied  at  Groningen,  where  he  also  took  his  degree  as 
doctor  of  theok)gy.  In  1854  be  was  called  to  Amster- 
dam, in  spite  of  the  protest  of  the  orthodox  party,  and 
died  Nov:  18, 1874.  Meyboom  bekmged  to  the  so-called 
Groningen  school,  which  believes  in  a  personal  God,  the 
historic  Christ,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  in- 
cessant energy  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Chureh.  He 
published,  De  Idtu  H  Rebtu  m  Facto  AwAit,  m  re 
Ckrutkma  aple  Coi^iiotit  ( Groningen,  1840  ) :  —  i>e 
/VoMcifct  Hemtterhvni  MeriHi  (ibid.  eod,)>-Hutory 
of  the  Kingdom  of  God  { 1862-^  8  vols.)  i^Life  of 
Jenu  (1854  sq.)  i—PrmeipUs  of  the  Neo-Chrittian  Ta^ 
dtnqf  (2d  ed.  1874).  See  Lichtenbefger,  Emtydop.dea 
Sdauxa  RtUgitutet^  sl  v.;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii, 877. 
(a  P.) 

Meyer,  Chrietian  GtotUob,  a  Lutheran  minister 
of  Germany,  was  a  convert  from  Judaism.  From  the 
preface  of  Prof.  Semler,  given  to  the  German  transla- 
tion of  Levita's  MoMtordk  ha-Mauorethf  we  learn  that 
Meyer,  who  was  a  native  of  Posen,  was  admitted  into 
the  Church  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Schultze  of  Halle.  After 
his  baptism  Meyer  studied  theology  at  Halle,  and  here 
it  was  that  he  transUted  Levita*s  work,  at  the  instance 
of  Semler.  After  having  completed  his  studies  Mey- 
er was  admitted  into  the  ministry,  and  in  1788  was 
called  to  the  pastorate  at  Dassensee,  in  the  duchy  of 
Grubenhagen.  Besides  Levita*s  work,  he  also  pub- 
lished SeHtentias  RaUrinorum  de  Sueeeesione  ab  Intee- 
tato  et  Testamentaria  (Halle,  1775).  See  Fttrst,  BibL 
Jud,  ii,  870;  Levita,  MaeeoreUk  h<i-Mauoreth  (Germ. 
transL1772).    (a  P.) 

Meyer,  GMtlob  WUhelm,  a  Lutheran  theok>- 
gian  of  Germany,  waa  bom  at  LUbeck,  Nov.  29, 1768. 
In  1801  he  was  univenity  preacher  at  GotUngen,  in 
1864  professor  and  preacher  at  Altdorf,  and  in  1818 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen.  He 
died  May  19, 1816,  leaving,  De  NoHone  Orei  apud  He- 
brao*  (Lttbeck,  1798)  i—De  Fadere  cum  Jekova  (Gdt- 
tingen,  1797) :  —  Vertuch  euur  ffermeneuHk  de»  A  Iten 
TatamenU  (Ltlbeck,  1800)  i—Gnrndriet  emer  ffermtneu- 
tik  det  AUen  und  Nfuen  Testaments  (Gbttingen,  1801): 
—Gesehichte  der  SchrifterWtrung  seii  der  Wiederherstel- 
lung  der  WissensehaJUn  (1802-1806, 5  vols.)  z^Apologie 
der  geschichiUchen  A  uffassung  der  kistorischen  Biieher 
(Sukbach,  181 1).  See  Ftlrst,  BibL  Jud.  ii,  871 ;  Winer, 
Handbueh  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  104,  106-111,  294-885,  588; 
ii.96,177.     (a  P.) 

Meyer,  Heiiirloh  Angnet  Wilheliii,  a  famous 
German  exegete,  was  bom  at  Gotha,  Jan.  10,  1800. 
He  studied  at  Jena,  passed  his  candidate's  examination 
in  1821,  and  in  1828  was  installed  pastor  at  Osthausen. 
In  1829  appeared  the  first  part  of  his  work  on  the  New 
Test.,  including  the  Greek  text  and  a  German  transla- 
tion. In  1880  followed  his  Libri  Symbolici  Ecclesim 
Lutkeranm,  In  the  same  }'ear,  having  previously  ob- 
tained citizenship  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  Meyer 
was  appointed  pastor  at  Harste,  near  Gottingen.  In 
1882  appeared  the  second  part  of  his  work  on  the  New 
Test,  containing  the  pommentary  on  the  synoptic  gos- 
pels. Tbe  original  design  was  to  embrace  the  whole 
commentary  in  two  large  volumes,  but  this  he  soon 
found  to  be  impracticable;  besides,  he  discovered  that 
his  own  strength  and  time  would  not  be  sufficient 
to  complete  the  work  without  assistance;  accordingly 
he  secured  the  services  of  Drs.  Lttnemann,  Huther,  and 
Dtlsterdieck.  In  1837  he  was  called  as  superintend- 
ent to  Hoya,  where  he  remained  only  four  years.  In 
1841  he  was  caUed  to  Hanover,  where  he  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  as  member  of  consistory,  superintendent,  and 
head  pastor  of  St.  John's  Church.  In  1845  Bfeyer  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  from  the  facul- 
ty of  the  University  of  Gottingen.  In  1848  he  gave 
up  his  pastorate,  retaining  only  his  position  in  tbe  con- 
sistory.   In  1861  he  was  made  member  of  the  superior 


MEYER 


726 


MICHOJT 


oonsbtory,  but  in  1865  he  retired  from  public  life  on 
a  pension,  which  he  received  from  the  goyerament. 
He  died  June  21, 1878. 

Meyer's  reputation  beyond  Hanover  rests  upon  his 
commentaries  on  the  New  Test.,  and  the  excellenoe  of 
his  work  was  acknowledged  not  only  in  his  \}wn  land, 
but  in  England  and  America,  through  Clark's  transla- 
tion. Meyer  lived  to  see  many  editions  of  his  work  ap- 
pear, and  continued,  down  to  the  time  of  his  death,  to 
work  diligently,  making  improvements.  He  grew  with 
his  work,  and  in  each  stage  of  his  growth  he  ex- 
pressed hiraseir  in  his  commentaries  just  as  he  felt. 
His  study  of  the  New  Test  produced  in  him  a  more 
perfect  experience  of  the  saving  grace  and  truth  of  the 
Gospel.  As  is  the  case  with  most  scholars,  Me}'er  be- 
came somewhat  more  dogmatical  in  his  old  age.  The 
student  who  compares  the  last  editions  of  the  commen- 
tary with  the  first  will  find  wide  differences :  Me3'er  was 
constantly  correcting  himself,  and  with  relentless  hon- 
esty removing  from  his  work  what  he  had  come  to  re- 
gard as  defects.  Since  his  death,  the  continuation  of 
Meyer's  commentary  in  new  editions  has  been  intrusted 
to  Prof.  Weiss  in  Berlin,  who  has  associated  himself 
with  such  scholars  as  Wendt,  Henrici,  Sieffert,  and  oth- 
ers. Sec  a  biographical  sketch  of  Meyer  by  his  son,  in 
the  fourth  edition  of  the  Commentary  on  ike  PkUippians  ; 
DUsterdieck  in  Plitt-Herzog,  Keal-Encyklop,  s.  v. ;  Lich- 
tenberger,  Encydop.  dee  Sciencee  ReUgieuteef  s.  v. ;  Zuch- 
old,  BiU,  Theol.  ii,  879.     (B.  P.) 

Meyer,  Johaxm  Andreas  Oeorg^  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  HUdesheim  in 
1768,  and  died  March  29, 1841,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
wrote,  Ueber  das  Verdieiut  dee  Chrietentkunu  (Erfurt, 
1793) :— />e  chatHsmate  t&v  yXuKraHv  (Hanover,  1797): 
— Vereuch  einer  Vertheidiffung  uttd  Erlduterung  der  Ge- 
ickichte  Jeeu  (ISOb^i—Natur-  Anahgiettj  etc  (Ham- 
burg, 1839).  See  Winer,  J/andbuch  der  theoL  LM*  i, 
896,  399,  550 ;  Zuchold,  Bibl.  Theol  ii,  879.     (B.  P.) 

Meyer,  Johann  Matthiaa  ▼on,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Ansbach  in  1814.  In 
1839  he  was  vicar,  in  1843  director  of  the  teacher's  sem- 
inary at  Schwabacb,  in  1844  preacher  at  Nordlingen, 
in  1849  at  Munich,  and  in  1855  dean  there.  In  1872 
he  was  made  member  of  the  superior  consistory,  and 
became  its  president  at  the  death  of  Harleas  (q.  v.). 
Meyer  died  Sept.  15, 1882,  doctor  of  theology,  and  mem- 
ber' of  the  council  of  the  Bavarian  empire.  He  pub- 
lished a  few  sermons,  for  which  see  Zuchold,  BibL  THeoL 
ii,  880.     (R  P.) 

Meyer,  Louis  Oeorg  Frederic,  a  Lutheran 
minister  of  France,  was  bora  at  Montbeliard,  Jan.  1, 
1809.  He  studied  at  Strasburg,  was  in  1829  teacher  in 
Switzerland,  in  1831  professor  of  French  at  Leipsic,  and 
in  1833  he  accompanied  two  young  men  to  Paris,  and 
took  up  his  abode  in  the  house  of  John  Monod.  In 
1837  he  succeeded  Mr.  Boissart  as  pastor  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church  at  Paris,  was  in  1857  president  of  con- 
sistory and  ecclesiastical  inspector,  and  died  Oct.  11, 
1867.  Meyer  advanced  the  cause  of  home  missions 
within  his  church,  and  originated  many  institutions. 
After  his  death  were  published  Sermone,  Lettree  et 
Fragments,  See  Lichtenberger,  Encgclop.  des  Sciences 
Religieuses^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Meyr,  Mslchiok,  a  philosophical  writer  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  June  28, 1810,  at  Ehringen,  near  Ndrd- 
lingen.  He  studied  at  Munich  and  Heidelberg,  and 
died  at  Munich,  April  22, 1871.  Of  his  many  writings 
we  mention,  i>ie  Religion  des  GeisUs  (Leipsic,  1871): 
^GoU  und  Sein  Reich  (Stuttgart,  1860) :— Dm  Ge- 
sprache  Uber  Wakrheit,  Giite  vnd  Schdnheit  (1863): 
Die  Fortdauer  nach  dem  Tode  (2d  ed.  Leipsic,  1875)  :— 
Die  Religion  und  ihrejeizt  gth(kene  Forthildung  (1871). 
After  his  death  Bothmer  and  Carriere  published  from 
his  manuscripts  Gedanken  iiber  Kunst,  Religion  und 
PhilosopkU  (Leipsic,  1874).     (B.  P.) 

Mezger,  Kabl  Ludwio  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran 


theokigiaii  of  Crermany,  was  bora  at  Schonndorf,  March 
18, 1810.  In  1845  he  was  professor  at  the  seminary  in 
Schenthal,  and  died  Oct  16, 1886,  doctor  of  theology. 
He  is  the  author  of.  Liber  Ruth  ex  Hebraico  ta  Latisutm 
Versus  Perpetuaque  Interpr^atione  lUustratus  (Tubin- 
gen, 1856):  —  liulfsbuch  zum  Verstdndniss  der  Bibei 
(1879).     (a  P.) 

MexxaohulianB,  a  Mohammedan  sect  who  be- 
lieve  that  those  who  have  any  knowledge  of  (sod** 
glory  and  essence  in  this  world  may  be  saved,  and  are 
to  be  reckoned  among  the  faithful. 

Miall,  Edward,  an  English  Independent  minister 
and  journalist,  was  bom  at  Portsmouth  in  1809.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Dissenters'  College  at  Wymond- 
ley,  Herts,  and  served  for  three  years  an  Independent 
congregation  at  Ware,  and  afterwards  one  at  Leices- 
ter. In  1841  he  went  to  London,  and  established 
the  Nonconformist^  a  paper  in  the  interests  of  religious 
equality,  becoming  proprietor  and  editor,  a  position 
which  he  continued  to  occupy  until  liis  death,  April  30, 
1881.  He  was  several  times  a  representative  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  wrote  numerous  works  on  political  and  eccle- 
siastical subjects. 

Mic-Mao  Version  of  thk  ScnipruRBS.  The 
Mic-Macs,  or  Souriquois  of  French  writers,  are  a  North- 
American  -  Indian  tribe,  inhabiting  the  |)euinsula  of 
Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward's  Island,  and  the  eastern 
portion  of  New  Brunswick.  A  version  of  the  Bible  into 
that  language  is  of  recent  origin.  The  gospels  of 
Matthew  and  John  were  the  first  portions  issued  in 
1854,  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  In 
1856  the  book  of  Genesis  and  the  gospel  of  Luke  were 
also  published,  the  translations  being  made  by  the  Rer. 
S.  T.  Rand,  who  continued  the  work.  Several  portions 
of  the  Old  Test.,  and  the  entire  New  Tc»t,,are  at  pres- 
ent published.  The  language  has  been  treated  by 
Maillard,  Grammar  of  the  Mic-Mac  Language  (1864). 
(B.P.) 

Michel  Angelo.  See  Caravaogio;  Michakl 
Amorix). 

Michmnnh.  On  this  interesting  locality,  Lieut. 
Conder  remarks  as  follows  {Tent  Work,  ii,  112*8q.) : 

"The  site  of  the  Philistine  camp  at  Michmash,  which 
Jonathan  nnd  his  armor-bearer  attacked,  is  very  minutely 
described  by  Joeephas.  It  was,  he  snys,  n  predpice  with 
three  tope,  ending  In  a  long,  sharp  tongue,  and  protected 
by  sarronuding  cliffs.  Exactly  ench  a  natnrai  fortreaa 
exists  Immediately  east  of  the  village  of  Michmash,  and 
It  Is  still  called  *^the  fort*'  by  the  peasantry.  It  Is  a 
ridge  rising  in  three  rounded  knolls  above  a  perpendicu- 
lar crag,  ending  in  a  narrow  tongne  to  the  east,  with  cliffs 
below,  and  having  an  open  valley  behind  it,  and  a  saddle 
towards  the  west  on  which  Mlchmash  itself  is  sitnate. 
Opposite  this  fortress,  on  the  south,  there  is  a  crag  of 
e^ual  height  and  seemingly  impassable;  thus  the  de- 
scription of  the  Old  Test  is  fully  borne  out— *a  sharp 
rock  on  one  side,  and  a  sharp  rock  ou  the  other*  (t  Sam. 
xlv,  4). 

"The  southern  clifl^  as  we  have  noticed  above,  was 
called  Seneh,  or  *  the  acacia,*  and  the  same  name  still  ap- 

8 lies  to  the  modem  valley,  dne  to  the  acacia-trees  which 
ot  its  conrse.  The  northern  cliff  was  named  Bosez,  or 
*  shining,' and  the  true  explanation  of  the  name  only  pre- 
sents itself  on  the  spot.  The  great  valley  mns  nearly 
due  east,  and  thns  the  southern  cliff  is  almost  entlrelv 
in  shade  during  the  day.  The  contrast  is  snrprising  an  A 
pictnresque,  between  thedarl^  cool  color  of  the  south 
side  and  the  ruddy  or  tawny  tints  of  the  northern  cliflf, 
crowned  with  the  gleaming  white  of  the  upper  chalky 
strata.  The  picture  is  nnenanf^d  since  the  days  when 
Jonathan  looked  over  to  the  white  camping-gronnd  of 
the  Philistines,  and  Bozez  most  then  have  shone  as  bright- 
ly as  It  does  now,  in  the  taW  light  of  au  Baatem  suo.*^ 

(See  illustration  on  following  page.) 

Miohon,  Jean  Hippolttb,  a  French  abbot  and 
religious  writer,  was  born  at  La  Roche -Fressange  in 
1806.  He  pursued  his  theological  studies  at  the  tera- 
inary  of  St.  Sulpice  in  Paris,  accompanied  De  Saulcy 
to  the  East  in  1850  and  1860,  and  was  honorary  cati- 
on* of  Angouldme  and  Bordeaux.  He  died  in  1881, 
leaving,  La  Femme  ft  ht  FamiUe  dans  le  CatkoHeisms 
(1845)  i^Apologie  Chretieme  au  Dix^Katvienu  Sikeh 


MIDDELDORPF 


Tbs  Tallaf  of  Uichmaib. 


(1863)  !-Vw  <&  Jhm  (1805, 3  voU.)  -.-SolalioH  Nov- 
vtlU  dtla  Qaatimda  Lieux  Sainli  (1852);— I'njn','/e 
BdigUux  m  Orient  (1854, 2  vols.).  S«  Licht*iibergcr, 
iJKycIi^i.  (fci  Saenca  RAigitata,  a.  t.     (B.  P.) 

MiddeldorpC  HiiiiBioi.a  Proteiunt  theiiluciiii 
of  Uerman;,  >u  twni  at  Hamburg,  Aug.  3, 1788.  Hi- 
commcDced  hii  «c»Jemic«l  career  at  Ftantfort-on-tlie- 
OAtJ,  wai  in  1811  profeMur  of  theolngy  at  Urealau,  in 
1814  member  of  cotwisuiry,  and  ilied  in  1887,  doctor  of 
theulogv.  He  piiljlished,  Naham  tUtiirlit  mil  Aamrr- 
jhmj™ '(Hamburg,  \e(l») —Sgabola  Eitj^fiai-Crilica 
ad LH>riim  EcdtiiatU  iFitnklun,  IS]]):— Commtnlatio 
Je  Itti/ulu  Lilfrariit  in  Uiipama  (Giiitineen,  1812):— 
Cura  Ilexafiarit  in  Jobum  {Br«liu,iei7) :— Ccmm.  de 
Pradmlio  tt  Thtelogia  PmdailiaBa  (1823,1826)  —Co- 
dtx  Ssriaca-ntxaplant  (IBSS).  See  Winer,  HarMuch 
dtr  liifl.  IM.  i,  66,  213,  228,  911 ;  FurX,  BM.  Jud.  ii. 
877.    (Rr.) 

Mlddlm.  Fi»  thia  aita  Tristram  auggeUa  (BOU 
riacti,  p.  87)  Kharba  Mird,tvio  milea  oorth-eut  of 
Mar  Saba,  the  Uoiu  Jtarda  of  [be  Uiddle  Agea,  a  ruin 
on  a  wrong  hLlK  *ilh  an  aqueduci,  wella,  and  archea 
ilUtnoin  to  (be  Ordnance  Sun-ej,  iii,  212). 

Mldgmrd,  in  Koru  mytliology,  ii  the  earth,  the 
babitatiaa  of  men,  a>  Aiigird  ia  the  dwelling  of  the 
Aaal. 

MldTKsh.  Bv  way  nf  luipplempnl,  tra  add  here  [h< 
following  worka,  liclonginj;  m  (he  Midraihie  literature 

I.  Exrgrtkal.  I.  Agadali  BerahM,  on  Geiini*,  ir 
eighty-three  aecliona  (Veniee,  1618>,  Sea  Zuni,  Got- 
tadieatHicki  VoHiiige,  p.  2M;  Steinachneidet,  Calaio- 
gm  LOnmrn  I/tbr.  yt  BiiL  BodL  3727-8729. 


MIDRASH 

9.  Uoaai  bad.Darahan  of  Kar> 
bonne,  of  the  Ilth  century,  wrote 
■nnotationa  on  aome  book)  of  tlio 
Bible.  Raymund  Martini  ofVen 
quota  liim  in  the  Pvgio  Fidri. 
See  Zimr,  u.  a,  287-293',  Putey,  in 
iHlroduction  to  liii.  Ckapler  of 
I$aiuh,  aceording  to  Iht  Jadih  In- 
terprittr;  vol.  ii  (Oifunl,  1877); 
Neubauer,  Th»  Book  of  TMt  (ibid. 
1878),  p.  vu4s,  >x-uiv. 

S.  J/iirw*  AofUHn,  on  the  Pen- 
tateuch, probablv  of  the  lOlh  cen- 
tury (Zuui,  p.  281 ).  Thepartper- 
taining  to  Exodus  vaa  edited  afler 
a  Munich  MS.  by  Freimann,  alto 
with  the  Latin  title,  Vtkukir,Opui 
ConfinoD  Midraihim  tt  UalactoA, 
etc  (Leipaic,  1873). 

i,  JUidraiA  Jonah.  publUhed  at 
Prague  in  1696.  See  Zuni,  p.  370, 
271. 

II.  Ilataciic  Midraik,  viz.  Slittl- 
loth  (i.  e.  queaciona)  of  Rabbi  Aeba 
of  Shabcha  ( about  750  ),  on  lawa 
■nd  uugea,  aa  contained  in  Ihe 
Pentateuch.  Beat  edition  ia  that 
publiahed^t  Dyhrcrrnfurth  in  1786, 
witb  the  cammentary  of  Jeaaiah 
Berlin  or  Pik  (q.  v.).  Sea  Zuni.  p. 
G6,M,34S;  Sleinachneider, p. 4SSD. 
11 L  /litnneal  llaggaiMh,  vii. 
1.  Seder  OUim  (q.  v.). 

%  Megillalh  TaamU,  a  Calendar 
oonlaining  Ihe  non-festive  daya  uf 
the  2d  centuri'.  Comp.  Schmilg, 
Utber  KniMtthvoff  vnd  hiMtorvcAen 
Wtiih  dfi  Singttkaltndtri  iltgit- 
lalh  Tuavilk  (Leipaic,  1874).  Sea 
Braun,  Ealilrhuag  mid  Wrrli  dtr 
Mrgiilalh  Taniilk,  in  GrSti,  Afo- 
natuckrif^,  187C,  p.  876-384,  410- 
418.445-460!  Wolf,  BiW.  fWr.  1, 68 
■q.,  384  aq.,  ii,  1876  aq.,  iii,  1196  aq„ 
iv,  1024 1  Zuni,  p.  127,  128;  Ewald,  Gadi.  d.  Volktt  I- 
rot/, iv, 497  •q.,vii,  402aq.;  Griitz,  Ceadt.  d  Juiioi,  iii, 
416-438;  F^tat.fiU  JW.i,9;  Derenboui^,  A/uftn'ra  rfe 
'    Paltilmt,  p,  439-446,  giriiig  the  text  and  a  Frencli 

8.  JatippoK  (q.  v.). 

4.  ^rpAsr  ha-Jmlua;  a  hiatory  from  Adam  to  the 

idgea,  written,  pethapa,  in  the  ISlh  centurv  (Venice, 

123).  8eeZunz,p.l&4-166j  SteinBchneider,p.8581- 
S6B6. 

C  mdraih  Foyiwu,  ware  of  Ihe  aona  of  Jacob  with 
Ihe  Canaanitea  and  Eaaa,  printed  in  Btlh  Aani'Slidraii 
(ed.  Jellioek),  iiL    SeeZunz,p.l46. 

G.  Ptiach  -  kagsada,  for  Ihe  Kaeter  featiraL  See 
Zuni,  p.  136 1  Stcinaohneider,  p.  2<i71. 

7.  Slidratk  Petiralk  A  oron,  and  8.  MUratk  Ptiinilh 
Uo$kt,oa  the  laat  daysof  Moao  and  Aaron.  See  Zunc, 
p.UGj   SleitiBchiieider,  p. 3996-1000;   Belk  kant-md- 


9.  Ktlkik  FMad  had-Dani  (1.  e.  II 
Danlte),  lowarda  the  end  of  the  9 
taining  Ihe  fable  of  the  Jewa  bevo 
See  Bah  ham-Midrath,  ii,  iii 


1.4934;  Zun 


[».  1B9, 


iltookofEldadlhe 


10.  Sfpker  ZenbtaM  (q.  r.). 

11.  ^Uu  Gorion  Ireala  of  Ibe  narralire  aa  contained 
in  Ihe  Book  of  Cather,  printed  in  Bak  han^MUraik,  L 
Sea  Zuni,  p.  279. 

12.  Sfegiiialk  Anliockot,  on  Ihe  Wara  of  the  Aa- 
moonana.  See  Znni,  p.  1S4.  The  Hebrew  waa  often 
printed,  aee  Steinachneiiler,  p.  1382- IS8S.  The  Ara- 
maic text  waa  flrat  published  by  Filipowaki  at  the  end 
t)HutCioia(^narU{loai\i>ji,  1861);  ibenbySluiki 


MIECZTSLAW 


728 


MILES 


( W4naw,1868X and  by  JeUinek  in  Beth-ham.AtidrathfVl 
A  new  edition  is  in  the  course  of  preparation  hy  Charles 
H.  H.  Wright,  The  Megittaih  Antiochos,  a  Jewish  Apoe- 
ryphoH  ufith  the  Chaldee  Textf  etc. 

13.  Midrash  £le  Ezkerah,  so  called  from  the  first 
words,  "These  will  I  remember,"  Ps.  xlii,  5  (Hebrew 
text),  describes  the  martyrdom  of  ten  eminent  teachers. 
See  Zunx,  p.  142«;  Steiuschnetder,  p.  8780-3782;  Beth 
ham-Midrcuhf  ii,  vi. 

lY.  Of  a  purely  legendary  character  are :  1.  Midrtuh 
Vayoehoj  the  tndition  about  Armilus  (the  Roman  anti- 
christ). See  Zons,  p.  282;  Steinscbneider,  p.  878i- 
8739;  Beth ham-Midnuh^x, 

2.  Midrash  Etreh  haddAaroth,  on  the  Ten  Command- 
ments. See  Zunz,  p.  142';  Steinschneider,  p.  8761, 
4986*;  Bethham-Midrash/u 

8.  ChiiUmr  Maasioth  (i.  e.  story-books).  See  Zunz, 
p.  130^;  Steinschneider,  p.  8869  sq.;  on  the  numerous 
Hebrew  and  JudsBO-German  story-books,  see  ibid.  p. 
8869-8942. 

y.  Ethiad  Midrashim,  viz.  1.  The  Alphabet  of  Ben- 
Sira,    See  Siba. 

2.  Derech  Eretz  and  Derech  Erttz  Sutta.  See  Tax/- 
MUD  (voL  X,  p.  184). 

8.  Thama  de  Be-MUjahMf  a  melange  from  the  Bible, 
Talmud,  and  Prayer-books,  thrown  into  the  form  of  in- 
structions by  the  prophet  Elijah.  See  Zunz,  p.  112- 
117;  Steinschneider,  p.  41 11, 4112. 

4.  Midrash  Themura,  See  Zunz,  p.  1 18 ;  Steinschnei- 
der, p.  8793;  Beth  ham^MidrashtU 

y L  CabaUstief  Mystic,  Metaphysical,  ef c,  Midrashimf 
viz.  1.  7%e  Book  Jezirah.    See  Jkzikah. 

2.  A  Iphabeth  ofRaibi  A  kiba.  Sec  Zunz,  p.  168 ;  Stein- 
schneider, p.  8895-8401 ;  Beth  ham-Midrash,  iu*,  Lat. 
transL  by  Kircher  in  his  (Edipus  jEg,  (Rome,  1662),  ii, 
225;  Bartotocci,  BUbL  Rdbbiaica,  iv,  27;  FUrst,  BiH. 
Jud,  i,  28  sq. 

8.  The  Great  and  Small  nnlachoth.  See  Zunz,  p. 
166, 167 ;  Steinschneider,  p.  8467..8469. 

4.  Midrash  Kotten,  a  kind  of  romantic  cosmology. 
See  Zunz,  p.  169;  Steinichneider,  p.  8748-3746;  Beth 
ham'Midrash,  ii. 

6.  Sepher  Razid  (which  must  be  distinguished  from 
a  later  ^  Sepher  Rasiel  hag-gadoV  a  kind  of  commen- 
tary on  the  book  Jezirah).  See  Zunz,  p.  187;  Stein- 
schneider, p.  4042. 

Collections  of  Midrashim, — ^Ad.  JeUinek,  Beth  ham- 
Midrash  (roL  i-ir,  Leipsic,  1858-67;  v,  vj,  Yienna, 
1873, 1877) ;  Horowitz,  Sammbtng  Kleiner  Midraschim 
(part  i,  Frankfort  and  Berlin,  1881). 

Translations  of  Midrashim,  —  In  Latin  many  are 
found  in  Ugolino's  Thesaurus  Antiqtdtatum  Saprarum; 
in  German,  WUnsche's  Bibliatheca  Rabbimea  comprises 
the  Midrcuh  Raibboth  (on  the  Pentateuch  and  flye  Me- 
gillotb,  i  e.  Esther,  Song  of  Solomon,  Lamentations,  Ec- 
desiastes,  and  Buth),  Proverbs,  and  Pesikta  de  Bob  Ka- 
hanah  (Leipsic,  1880  sq.).  See  Plitt-Herzog,  Beal- 
EneyUop.  M.y.    (&  P.) 

MieozjnlKW  AMD  THB  Chrxstian  Chukch  in 
Poland.    See  Poulkd,  Eoclbsiastical  History  op. 

Migafl^  JosEFH,  Ben-MHr  Ibn-Hal-Levi  (also  called 
/7dram[cSnn],  from  the  initials  of  ISra  pH  n^ih, 
Babbi  Ibn-Migas),  one  of  the  greatest  Talmndical  schol- 
ars of  his  time,  was  bom  at  Granada  in  1077.  When 
twelve  years  of  age  be  went  to  Cordova  to  attend  the 
lectures  of  Isaac  ben-Jacob  Alfasi  (q.v.),  with  whom  he 
stayed  for  fourteen  years.  The  master  who  gave  him 
the  ordination  (na*^QO)  was  very  proud  of  this  scholar, 
of  whom  he  used  to  say,  that  even  in  the  age  of  Moses 
none  could  be  found  like  him,  and  he  appointed  h'im  as 
his  successor  in  the  presidency  of  the  College  of  Cordova, 
which  post  be  held  for  thirty-eight  years  (1108-41), 
until  his  death.  His  renown  attracted  many  students, 
even  from  Egypt.  From  all  parts  his  Talmndical  de- 
cisions were  sought  for,  and  the  greatest  ornament  of 
his  school  was  the  celebrated  Motes  liaimonidca  (q.v«). 


He  wrote  nowUaa  and  deoisions^  whieh  are  ennmeistad 
by  Flirst  See  GrHts,  Gest^  d  Juden,  vi,  116  sq.; 
^aunschweiger,  Geseh,  d,  Juden  in  den  romamsdken 
Staaten,  p.  61  (Wurzbuig,  1865);  De'  Roasi,  Dieionario 
Storieo  Degli  Autori  Ebrei  (Germ.  transL  by  Hambur- 
ger), 8.  ▼. ;  lindo,  History  of  the  Jews  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  p. 65;  Fttrst,  BibLJud.  ii,876.    (a  P.) 

Migdal-eL  Jlfnj^,  with  which  Tristram  (BtUs 
Places,  p.  274)  and  Conder  (Tent  Work,  ii,  888)  identify 
this  place,  lies  three  and  three  quarter  miles  north-west 
of  Tibnin,  and  is  a  considerable  village,  with  ancient 
wine-presses,  sarcophagi,  cisterns,  etc  {Memoirs  to  the 
Ordnance  Survey,  i,  187). 

Migdal-gad.  The  supposed  modem  represent*- 
tive  of  this  site,  et^Mejd^  three  miles  north-east  of 
Asealon,  is  an  important  place  of  1500  inhabitants,  but 
without  signs  of  antiquity  {Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance 
Survey,  ii,  410). 

Migne,  Jaoquks  Paul,  a  Boman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  St.  Flour,  Cantal,  France,  Oct.  25, 1800. 
He  was  educated  at  the  theologicd  seminary  in  Orleans 
acted  for  some  time  as  professor  at  Chftteaudun,  and 
after  bis  ordination  served  as  curate  in  the  diocese  of 
Orleans.  In  consequence  of  a  controversy  with  hia 
bishop  respecting  his  (Migne's)  book  upon  the  **  liberty 
of  the  Priests,**  he  went  to  Paris,  and  started  UUmtere 
Beligieux,  later  called  simply  VUnivers,  In  1888  be 
sold  his  interest  in  the  paper,  and  went  to  Petit  Moo- 
trouge,  netfr  Paris,  where  he  soon  built  up  an  enormous 
printing  establishment,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
"Imprimerie  Catholique.**  From  this  proceeded  the 
famous  PeUrohgia  Cursus  Contpletus  site  BibHotheca 
Universalis,  Integra,  Un\formis,  Commoda,  (Eeonomiea 
Omnium  SS,  Patrum,  Doctorum  Seriptorumqm  Ece^ 
riastieorum  ^i  ab  csvo  ApostoUeo  ad  Usque  Innooen^ 
IT  Ten^ra  Floruerunt  (Latin  leries,  221  vols.,  1844  sq. ; 
2d  ed.  1878  sq.;  1st  Greek  series,  104  vols.;  2d  ed.  56 
vols.,  both  since  \9biy,^CoUecti(m  des  Orateurs  Saeris 
(100  vols.,  1846-48),  etc  In  1868  this  immense  estab- 
lishment was  burned  to  the  ground.  Migne  died  Oct. 
25, 1875,  at  Paris.  See  Lichtenberger,  Eneydop,  des 
Sciences  Reli^euses,  s.  v.;  yapereau,  ZHctiomaire  des 
Contemporains,  ed.  1880,  p.  1290.     (a  P.) 

BCikehi»  William  S^  D.Dm  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  Orange  County,  N.  Y.,  May  18, 1820.  He  grad- 
uated at  Madison  University  in  1843,  and  from  the 
theological  department  of  the  same  institution  in  1845 ; 
soon  after  became  pastor  in  Rondout,  N.  Y.,  remain^ 
ing  there  four  years;  then  at  Sing  Sing  six  years;  next 
at  the  Sixteenth  Street  Church,  New  York  city,  and  had 
a  successful  ministry  for  seventeen  yeari;  and  finally 
of  the  East  Church,  in  the  seventh  ward  of  the  same  city, 
where  he  died,  June  20, 1888.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
Eneydop.  sl  v.    (J.  C  S.) 

Miles,  Henry,  D.D.,  an  English  Presbyterian 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  1699,  and  entered  the  ministry 
in  early  life  He  was  the  minister  of  a  church  at  Toot- 
ing, Surrey,  for  many  years;  a  learned  and  ingenioos 
man  of  considerable  ability,  and  an  eminent  Christian. 
His  skill  in  natural  science  led  to  his  being  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Roval  Society.  In  1787  he  was  chosen 
assistant  minister  at  the  Old  Jewry  Church,  where  he 
preached  once  on  the  Lord's  Day  for  seven  years,  but 
resigned  in  1744,  and  confined  himself  to  Tooting,  where 
he  died,  much  regretted,  Feb.  10, 1768.  See  Wilson, 
Dissenting  Churches,  ii,  884. 

Miles,  James  Browning,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Rutland,  Mass.,  Aug.  18, 1822.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1849,  and  from  Yale  Di- 
vinity School  in  1854,  having  one  year  (1852)  attended 
the  Theological  Seminary  at  Andover ;  also,  from  1852  to 
1854,  acting  as  tutor  in  Yale  College.  He  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  First  Church,  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Jan.  2, 
1856,  from  which  he  was  dismissed  in  Oetitber,  1871,  to 
become  secretary  of  the  American  PteoeSoeie^.  About 
the  same  time  he  became  secretaiyef  the  IntecnatioQal 


MILLER 


»2» 


MTTTEKNACHT 


Gode  Society.    He  died  mi  Wofcester,  Not.  18, 1875. 
8ee  Cong.  Q^arterlyf  1876,  p.  481. 

Millan,  Saint,    See  Emiliaicus. 

Millennial  Aaiooiation,  Americav.  See  Ad- 
vjurriyra,  Evangbucau 

Miller,  Ebenexer,  D.D.,  a  ProteeUnt  Episcopal 
dergymaoi  gradnated  from  Harvard  College  in  1722; 
obtained  ordination  in  England  in  1727 ;  beoime  a  mi»- 
sionary  of  the  Society-  for  the  PropagaUon  of  the  Gos- 
pel, and  as  such  was  made  rector  of  the  Church  in  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  Dec  26, 1727.  He  died  Feb.  11, 1768.  See 
Spngue,  A nnaU  o/ihe  Amer. Pulpit^  v,  110. 

Miller,  Joaiah,  an  English  minister,  vr ho  died  Dec 
22, 1880,  at  London,  where  he  had  for  a  long  time  been 
secretary  to  the  London  City  Mission,  is  best  known  for 
his  writings  on  hymnology.  His  first  volume  in  this 
branch  of  religious  literature^  Our  Hymns,  their  A  uMors 
and  Origin,  appeared  in  1866 ;  three  years  later  a  second 
edition  was  published,  under  the  altered  title  of  Stngers 
and  Songs  of  the  Church  (Lond.  1869),  which  has  also 
been  reprinted  in  New  York.    (B.  P.) 

Miller,  Samnel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Jan.  28, 1816,  being  the 
son  of  professor  Samuel  MiUcr  of  Princeton  College. 
He  graduated  from  the  college  there  in  1838,  and  the 
theological  seminary  in  1844,  having  been  tutor  in  the 
college  for  several  years  in  the  meantime.  He  studied 
law,  and  while  engsged  in  its  practice  prepared  a  full 
report  of  the  great  suit  between  the  Old  and  New  School 
branches  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  the  time  of  the 
disruption.  He  was  ordained  in  1844,  and  after  serving 
as  stated  supply  at  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Mount 
Holly,  N.  J.,  for  many  years,  became  pastor  in  1860. 
He  also  established  a  classical  school  of  a  high  order, 
which  continued  there  from  1846  to  1867.  From  1868 
he  was  stated  supply  at  Columbus  for  twenty  years,  and 
for  four  years  of  the  churches  of  Zuckerton  and  Bass 
Biver.  He  was  relieved  from  the  charge  of  Mount  Holly 
Church  in  1878,  but  continued  to  supply  various  pulpits. 
In  1880  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  of  Oceanic, 
where  he  labored  until  failing  health  obliged  him  to  re- 
sign. He  died  at  Hount  Holly,  Oct.  12,  1888.  See 
Necrol,  Report  of  Princeton  Theol.  Sem.  1884,  p.  82. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

MiUs,  Cyrus  Taooart,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Paris,  N.  Y.,  May  4, 1819.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Williams  College  in  1844,  and  from  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  1847 ;  was  ordained  in  1848, 
and  in  1849  went  out  as  a  missionary  to  Ceylon,  having 
charge  of  the  Battacotta  Seminary.  In  1856  failure  of 
health  obliged  him  to  return.  From  1856  to  1868  he 
was  stated  supply  at  Berkshire,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1860  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Oahu  College,  in  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  where  he  remained  four  years,  and  then 
resided  for  a  year  at  Ware,  Mass.  In  1866  he  went  as 
agent  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  Foreign  Missions 
to  California,  where  he  established  in  Brooklyn  a  female 
seminary.    He  died  in  California  in  1884. 

Minot;  Thomas,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  conflecrated 
archbishop  of  Dublin  on  Palm  Sunday  in  1368.  In 
1366,  the  revenues  of  the  precentor  of  SL  Patrick's  hav- 
ing been  much  reduced  by  the  invasion  of  the  Irish  from 
the  mountains,  he  united  to  that  dignity  the  Church  of 
Kilmactalway.  This  addition  was  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  the  incumbent  to  live  hofpitably,  give  alms, 
and  answer  the  expenses  and  charges  of  bis  office.  About 
1370  Minot  repaired  part  of  St.  Patrick's  Church,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  In  1373  he  was  one  of  those 
who  advised  the  customs  and  assessments  imposed,  and 
other  arbitrary  measures  enforced  by  William  de  Wind- 
sor, lord  deputy.  In  1374  he  erected  the  Church  of 
Rathsallagh  into  a  prebend,  and  in  1375  had  the  royal 
mandate  to  attend  a  council  t<i  consider  and  provide 
against  the  hostilities  of  the  O'Briens  of  Thomond,who 
"fovaded  Munster.    But  in  Jnne  of  1375  he  died  in  Lon- 


don,    See  D* Alton,  Memoirs  of  ike  Archbishops  of 
DuUin,  p.  138. 

BSira  Bala,  a  subdivision  of  the  Vallabhacharis 
(q.  v.),  originated  by  Mir&  Bai,  who  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Akbar,  and  was  celebrated  as  the  authoress  of 
poems  addressed  to  Yishn{t.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
a  petty  rajah,  the  sovereign  of  a  place  call^  Mert4. 
Further  than  that  her  history  is  enveloped  in  fable. 

Mima,  AuAM  Ebdmanv,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  Nov.  26, 1666.  He  studied  at  Wit- 
tenberg, was  in  1684  conrector  at  Zittau,  and  died  June 
3, 1727.  He  wrote,  Philohgia  Sacra  (Leipeic,  1699): 
---PhUologia  Bihlica  (1713)  \—Jsagoge  BibUca  (1687): 
— Summarium  Ebrtscs  Lingua  zvU  TabuUs  Indusum 
(1719) : — Onomasticon  Biblicum  sive  T^exicon  Nomhaan 
Propriorum  (1721)  >^De  Ehntorvtm  Sectumibus  Legal' 
ibus  et  Prophet,  (1683)  i^BibUsches  A  ntiquiOUenrLexicon 
(1727) : — Kurte  Fragen  aus  dsr  Jteien  Mechamk  vnd 
Baukunst  der  Ebrder  (1713)  -.—Kurze  Fragen  aus  der 
Heraldica  Sacra  (1719) : — Kurte  Fragen  aus  der  Mu" 
sica  Sacra  (1707),  etc.  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  ii,  381 ; 
Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikun,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Mialer,  Johaxm  Nicolaus,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1616.  He  was  archdeacon  at 
Marburg,  was  in  1662  professor  of  theology  and  Hebrew 
at  G  lessen,  in  1664  doctor  of  theology,  and  died  Feb.  20, 
1683.  He  wrote,  Scrutinium  Scriptura  Sacrcs: — Sg» 
nopsis  Theologica  Totius  Christiana  ReOgionis : — Theeg» 
nosia  sive  de  Deo  T?iuno  et  \6yi^  Incamaio : — Speculum 
anfi-JesuUicum: — Diss.  Vde  Sacra  Scriptura  ex  Joh, 
V,  89 : — De  Dido  Prophetico  Esa.  liii,  4  i^De  Mysterio 
Sanctm  TrinUatis.  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrtei^ 
Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Mitchell,  Jacob  Ducll6,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  2,  1806. 
When  eighteen  years  of  age  he  entered  the  College  of 
New  Jersey,  where  he  graduated  in  1827,  and  in  the 
same  year  went  to  Princeton  Seminary  and  studied  two 
years  there.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Oneida 
Presbytery,  SepL  18, 1829 ;  first  labored  in  Albany,  and 
was  ordained  as  an  evangelist,  Nov.  17  of  the  same  year. 
He  afterwards  served  at  Shepherdstown,  Martinsburg, 
and  Smithfield,  in  Jefferson  Co.,  Ya.  In  this  early  period 
of  his  ministry,  and  for  yean  following,  when  he  labored 
far  and  wide  in  Virginia  as  a  revival  preacher,  all  testi- 
monies agree  that  he  exhibited  extraordinary  pulpit 
power.  In  1832  he  became  pastor  at  Lynchburg,  From 
1835  to  1837  he  served  as  secretary  of  the  Centeal  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions  for  Yii^nia  and  South  Carolina. 
In  1868  he  became  pastor  at  Peaks,  near  Liberty,  Ya., 
where  he  labored  for  fourteen  years,  having  very  great 
success  in  winning  souls.  Next  he  went  to  Alexan* 
dria  and  labored  as  an  evangelist  in  the  Chesapeake 
Presbytery,  and  in  1878  and  1874  acted  as  general 
agent  for  Hampden  Sidney  College.  He  died  June  28, 
1877.  See  Necrol.  Report  of  Princeton  Theol  Sent.  1878, 
p.  23. 

Bffitcliell,  John  8.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  on  Block  Island,  R.  I.,  in  1800.  In 
his  twenty-third  3'ear  he  entered  the  Genesee  Confer- 
ence; from  1837  to  1842  was  agent  of  the  American 
Bible  Society  in  Maryland:  in  1860  was  transferred  to 
the  New  York  East  Conference,  in  which  he  took  prom- 
inent appointments  as  pastor  and  presiding  elder;  in 
1864  was  secretary  of  the  Freedmen's  Relief  Associa- 
tion, and  finally  superintendent  of  missions  in  Yirginia 
and  North  Carolina.  He  died  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
16, 1882.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1883, 
p.  93.    . 

Mithrlon,  a  temple  of  Mithras,  the  Persian  sun- 
god. 

Mittemaoht,  Johanx  Seaastiax,  a  Lutherap 
theologian  of  German}',  was  bom  at  Hardesleben,  in 
Thuringia,  March  80,  1613.  He  studied  at  Jena  and 
Wittenberg,  and  was  in  1688  pastof  at  Teuileben.  Thn- 


ringit.    Id  164S  be 

at  Gen,  «nd  died  Feb.  2S,  1679.  He  wrote,  Gram- 
maiita  Ebritai—Dt  Nalivilatii  Domini  Anno,  Menie 
ac  Dit : — Nola  Phiialiigica,  Thtolo^iot,  CkronoLigica 
tt  Jliitorica  in  Fabridi  Hiitoriam  Sacrant : — De  A  bra- 
hami  Nomiiie  et  Patria  Ur:—De  Ttmpofe  tt  lorn  KJu- 
tioait  Spuiiai  Sancli  ad  Actor,  ii,  1 :  —  KxpUcatio 
Philotogica  Didi  fx  Pmccrb.  xtii,  Ifi:  — iid«ific 
Pkilol^ica  Join  xxiii,  11, 1!:— /(nit  m  Locum  aii  Ife- 
braai  cap.  ziil,  7.  See  Witte,  Diariam;  JOcber,  A  Ugt- 
mmtj  Cdehrtm-Ltxilam,  t.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ulzpeh   av  Bexjahih.     ReipeetinK  cbis  place 
IJeuL  Condor  remarln  {Ttnt  Work,  ii,  117) : 
"Tbere  ore  pleiitr  <'t  Mliuehi  In  PiileiUiie.  lint  In  ixial- 

ItTe'ro  is  □□  uome  of  Ihe'kiiid  <>a  tin  na  fan  jet  been  dlB 
entered),  Cur  Sb'atlil  la  u<>t  HpunreuHr  dsrifed  fmm  Hli- 
peh.  but  It  a  name  Yery  llk«  that  of  Jehnmnhal,  and  the 
iinliiea  "f  the  place  wj  (bat  U  waa  called  aher  a  Jewlrh 
UiiE'  In  cioiadlng  tlinea  the  town  aeema  to  be  alao  meii- 
lltined  under  the  tills  JeboaapbaL 

'■  The  early  ChtiatlmiB  placed  Hlapeh  la  qnlle  another 
direction,  and  Nol>  it  Bert  NQbn.  nhlch  la  hmnaa  In  lite 
hiiiorv.iridchardLlou'Iiearl.  TbcirslMrorUliueh wna 
uear  Srtbn,  west  iif  Jernanloni,  and  here  we  fonnd  a  ruin 
with  Ibe  title  ShD fa,  which  bi  meaning  li  eqnlTslent  tn 
the  Uebren  Ulipeta  ;  bnt  thla  place  caiiuot  be  deacrlbed 
na  'OTBr  agalual  Jeroaalem,'  and  iU  recovery  la  Ibna  a 

"There  la  one  other  alia  which  hna  been  propoaed  for 
Hlipehi  thoneb  It  la  msrel;  a  conjactnre,  and  not  n  name 


le  chDrcb  la  the  cenalaph  iinw  n> 
ae  the  tonib  of  Samael— a  moden 
rhh  a  green  cloth. 
:riieadera,  with  their  mnal  eontem 
thla  hill  aa  ihe  ancleiit  Shiloh ;  Ihr 
,  and  added  beeldea  a  title  of  ibeir ' 
m  Jeraaalem,'  aaya  Sir  John  Han 
ly,  n  'ery  Aiir  and  dellcloiia  place. 


bowerer.  to  be  only 
who  l>  n  tolerably  t 
allea.  dlKredlla  the  i 


irom  the  Mohan 
ered  the  aepQlchi 

a  V'*:"  i; 


bbl  Benjamin  of  Tndela, 
a  rejtiirda  Jewlih  aacred 

una  took  liamleb.  which  ia  Bnmabi 
jdnnf.'  aaya  the  rahhl,  'they  diacoT- 


ir  Ihe  Jei 

cabled  Sl 

Sainuel  of 

Neby  Samwll  ia  fully  described  ia  the  ifemoin  to  the 
Onlnaucc  Suney,  iii,  12,  H9. 

UoabiUc  Stone.    See  Mesha. 

Uobab,  wbkt  may  be  either  done  or  omiu«d,  «e- 


Che  caliph  Hahadi,  ' 
at  length  defeated  them.  Their  name  ia  derired  from 
an  Arabic  word  tignifyini;  white,  the  color  of  their  dre*>, 
by  which  they  were  dialinuuiihed  from  the  adhereoU 
of  the  caliph,  who  were  clothed  in  black  garmenta. 

HobedB  are  the  uEBciating  prieala  iioDnK  (be  Far- 
aeea  of  India.  They  read  the  holy  booka  in  the  tem- 
plea,  and  auperlnlfnJ  all  the  rtligioua  ceremoniea,  but 
being  themadrea  unlearned,  they  aeldom  underataod 
the  meaning  of  what  they  read,  or  the  prayera  they 
redtc.  The  moUdi  are  distinct  from  the  diulirt,  who 
are  ductora  and  expounden  of  the  law.  There  ia  alao 
an  iufarior  order  of  clergy  among  the  Paraeea,  called 
kii-bidM,  who  have  immediate  charge  of  the  aacreil  Are, 
and  eweep  and  take  care  of  the  temple.  The  prieata 
receive  (heir  office  by  inheritance,  and  hare  no  fixed 
aalary,  but  are  paid  for  tbcir  aerricea.  Many  of  them 
follow  aecular  emploj'menla. 

Moberley,  Georok,  D.D.,D.CL.,  bd  Engiiah  pret- 
ate,  waa  bom  in  St.  Peteiaburg  in  1803.  He  waa  edu- 
cated at  Wincheater  School,  and  graduated  from  Ualliol 
College,  Oxford,  in  1825;  waa  for  aome  yean  tutor  ami 
fellow  there;  in  ISBA  waa  appointed  head-maatfr  of 
Wincheater  School;  in  1866  rector  of  Brixton,  in  tba 
file  ot  Wight;  in  1866  a  canon  of  Cheater;  in  1869 
biahop  of  Saliabuiy,  and  died  July  7,  ISSo.  Dr.  Mober- 
ley  waa  the  author  of  numeroua  aennone  and  eiaay*, 
alao  one  of  the  five  clergyman  who  published  rBTiMd 
veraiona  of  acreral  parts  of  the  New  Teat. 

MSbliu.    8eeM<K&ii;B. 

■Codln.  Et-Mfdieh,  the  modem  representatire  of 
this  place,  famous  iu  the  Maccabaean  history,  ia  luHy 
dcBcribed  in  Ihe  JUtmoin  accompanying  the  Ordnance 
Surrey,  ii,  B4I  aq.    (See  UluitratioD  on  p.  TSi.) 

MofEHt  Niotrt  de,  •  Scotch  prclale,  wai  elected 
biabop  of  the  aee  of  Glaagnw  in  1268.  He  cUed  at 
Tinningbam,  in  Eaat  •  Lathiao.  See  Ecitb,  Seotliti 
Buhopt,  p.  241. 

Moflat.  Robert,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Engliih  mi*- 
nonary,  was  bora  at  Inreiieitbing,  Fifeahite,  Scotland, 
Deo.  21, 1796.  He  wai  originally  a  gardener,  and  waa 
brought  up  within  the  fold  of  Iha  Seceaaion  Cbuich,  to 
which  his  parents  belonged.  In  1816,  having  reaolved  to 
hecome  a  miiaionar]'  Co  the  heathen,  he  offered  hia  aer> 


Bnlnad  Tomb  at  Hedlch. 


TiCM  to  Ihe  Loiidnii  Miauoniiy  Sociely,  mil  arriving 
■t  Cape  Town  in  1817,  immediucly  procenled  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  Cape  Colonf  lo  Namaqualaiid,  when 
be  entered  upon  hii  labon  it  the  kraal  of  Arricaner,  a 
chief  whose  name  had  long  been  a  terror  to  Ihe  people 
or  the  neighboring  diitricta  of  the  colony,  but  who  had 
lately  become  a  cmrert  to  Chriatiantty.  Here  Moffat 
labored  Tor  three  or  four  yean  with  great  huxch,  Chiia- 
tianily  and  civilization  advancing  together.  But  the 
utnition  being  unauiialile  for  a  principal  miaaion-atation, 
he  travelled  and  laboreil  at  several  stationa  in  siicceiaion 
in  the  connlries  m  Ihe  north  and  noith-ea«t  of  Cape 
Colony,  ilii  remarknUe  personal  adventures  and  hair- 
breadth escapes  in  these  Journeys  are  graphically  de- 
acribed  in  his  work,  Sfiaionary  Lahari  and  Scrwt  in 
SoHlktrn  Africa  (Lend.  1842, 8vo),  which  he  wrote  and 
published  during  a  visit  of  several  years  to  Dritain, 
Tendered  necessary  by  the  state  or  his  health.  In 
America  also  Mr,  HofTat's  booli  maile  many  friends  fur 
the  African,  and  our  miiaionary  labon  in  that  Seld  were 
largrly  inspired  by  his  appeals.  During  his  stay  in 
England  Muffal  also  carried  thtougli  Ihe  press,  at  the 
expense  of  the  Dritisb  and  Foreign  Evangelical  Soci- 
ety, a  veraioti  of  the  New  Tost,  and  the  Psalms  in  tha 
Bechuana  language.  In  1843  he  returned  to  his  labora 
in  Africa,  aiiit  continuctl  his  work  there,  with  great 
succesa,  till  18T0,  when  he  returned  in  Scotland.  In 
1878  he  received  a  public  gratuity  or.C6800  as  a  Cesli- 
moniat  of  bis  missionary  aerviccfc  He  died  near  Lon- 
don, Aug.  9, 1888.  Besides  tbe  publicalion  already  men- 
tioned, we  have  from  him  Ihe  IlKuana  IJsma-book 
(Lond.  Relig.  Tract  3oc.  1843,  ISnw).  itnfaft  FarrKtB 
Smicri  were  edited  bv  Dr.  Campbell,  and  published  in 
1843  (8vo).  Uoflbt'i  daugliter  wao  the  wife  of  Ihe  cel- 
ebrated missionary  and  traveller,  the  late  Dr.  living- 
stone.  See  Yonge,  Pionetri  and  Fomdtri  (Lund.  1872, 
12mo) ;  Bayard  Taylor,  Cgdop.  of  Mod.  Trartl  (N.  Y. 
1856J,  p.  661  aq.;  Min.  Ci/tlop.  (ibid.  I87B.  8vo),  a.  v.; 
ChriUian  at  Work,  Aug.  16,  l8SSi  Ijft  aad  LtAort 
(N.  y.  1883);  (Und.)  Conj-  rtar-book,  1884,  p.  Sll. 

Mogoa,  a  pagan  deity,  mentioned  by  Camden  in 
bis  Ilriiaimia  as  having  been  worshipped  anciently  by 
the  Cadeni,  who  inhabited  that  part  of  England  noir 
called  Northumberland.  In  the  year  1607  two  altan 
were  found  in  that  district,  bearing  inscriptions  declar- 
ing them  to  have  been  dedicated  to  that  goiL 

MohAwlc  Veralon  of  the  ScnirrtJBEB.  The 
Hohawk  was  spoken  by  the  Indian  tribes  weal  of  the 
falls  of  the  Niagara.  For  the  brnedt  of  theie  peoples 
the  Driliah  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  published  Isaiah 
■nd  the  goapela  of  Luke  and  John  in  the  vemaciitai  of 
the  Hohawk  Indians,  while  the  Pentateuch  and  Piainu 
are  translated  but  not  yet  publiaheJ.  See  Biili  nf 
Entry  Lami.  p.  466.     (B.  P.) 

MokKiina.     See  Atha  eks-Hakeh. 

Moklflsoa,  an  order  of  deities  of  the  negroes  of 


MOLL 

Congjo,  Angola,  etc,  in  Africa.  They 
arc  a  kind  of  genii  or  spirits,  and  are  in 
Bubordination  to  a  superior  being,  called 
by  the  natives  Zamban-Pixigo.  Their 
idols  are  composed  either  of  wood  or 
atone;  a  few  are  erected  in  temples  or 
chapels,  but  Ihe  much  greater  part  in 
the  public  streets  and  highways.  -Some 
are  in  the  form  of  funr-fooi'ed  beaata, 
others  are  like  birds.  To  these  Ihe  ne- 
groes bow,  and  offer  sactiOees  lo  appease 
their  anger,  or  lo  obtain  their  favor. 

MaklndjT«,  a  sect  of  the  Ansariana 
(q.v.). 

Moladah.     Kl>u,b<t  tl-Mili,  ihe 
probable  representative  of  Ihis  locality, 
ia  seven  miles  and  three  quarters  south- 
west of  Tell  Arad,  and  thirteen  and  a 
quarter  east  of  Beersheba.     It  is  briefly 
described  in  ihe  Mmoirs  accompanying  Ibe  Onlnance 
Surrey  (iii,  415),  and  more  fully  by  lYistratn,  BiHe 
/■Jans  (p.  IS),  as  follows; 

"The  two  wells  are  Id  the  tbnllow  valley,  very  Bnely 
bnlll  orniatble,Bl)out*eTeiiiy  feel  deep.  Iheir  sides  pcnmt 
wlih  Ibe  mpea  of  tha  watar-drnweia  of  many  eentnrtes. 
The  gronud  amund  Is  strewn  with  records  ol  the  Roman 
nccupatlon.  Fmgmenls  otahafts  and  cnpltals,  probnbly 
Ihe  support  of  roofg  that  covered  tlis  wells,  and  eight 
large  marble  waler-tronBh^llearonndtheBiouths.   There 

stands  samalflsololed'-IeU'orhlll,  cmerrd  with  ruins, 
ai>d  now  used  is  a  burrlng-gronnd  of  ihe  Dliuli 


nthj 


m  that 


r  svd  mder  period,  and  i 


it  city  L. 
onld  dearly  irsce  n,^  ■iit,„i  ui  . 

r  four  r«t  hlgb.  Tke'tracH  u^'u"l 
T  walls  cover  an  ntenslie  aien  bo 
lie  ciladel ;  and  near  lis  fool,  ou  i 
itllnes  of  a  bDlldliic,  prohablv  a  E 
■  ""—  — Ina  feem  l.i  belong  lo 
e  perhaps  tbe  remalna 

e  sometimes  applied  lo  t 


that 
Molhediten,  a 

AjUAosiMB  (q.  v.). 

Mt'lltor,  Wii.HiiLJi,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  24.  1B]9,  ai  Zweibtuckcn. 
He  firsl  practiced  law, but  in  1849  betook  himself  lo  Ibe 
study  of  theology  at  Bonn,  received  holy  orders  in  1861 
at  Spires,  waa  in  18£7  cathedral  dean  and  in  1864  doe- 
tot  of  theology,  a  distinction  conferred  on  him  by  pope 
Piua  IX.  In  1868  the  samo  pope  called  him  to  Rome 
as  consultcr  lo  the  Vatican  council.  Molitor  died  Jan. 
I,  1880,  at  Spires.  Ho  published,  Utber  taaimuciti 
GtriehlMetrfuirtn  grgm  Kttrikrr  (Msyence,  1856)  :— 
DU  Immmilal  dei  Doma  :u  Spiytr  (ibid.  1859);  — 
FalmprrdigteH  (1871) :— /Vn%ni  anf  dif  Sam-  vxd 
Fallaje  drt  hi(haliK-hm  KinAtryakra  (3  vols.);  also, 
in  conneclion  wiih  UtUsksmp.  Papt  Piui  IX  in  itinm 
Ltba  urni  Wtriai  (8d  ed.  1873).     (B.  1*.) 

Moll,  Carl  Benifaard,  a  Protestant  thenlogian 
of  (jetmsny,  wss  born  st  Wolgasl,  Pomersnia,  Nov.  SO, 
1806.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  (ireifswaldc.and  en- 
tered the  ministry  in  1830  at  Naugard.  In  1834  he  waa 
called  to  Ldknili,  neat  Sleitin,  in  1846  lo  Stetlin,  in 
1860  as  profesaor  of  iheology  lo  Halle,  and  was  made, 
in  1860,  general  superinlendenl  of  the  province  of 
Pmasia.  He  died  Aug.  17, 1878,  si  Kunigsberg,  leav- 
ing. Die  fffgtmcdrligf  Nolh  dtr  erangrliKkea  Kircht 
PratMtBi  (Pasewalk,  1843):— /)□>  Hal  in  Chritio  in 
Pndiglm  (Halle,  1852)  -.—Dat  Sijiltn  der  praktinitn 
Theohgit  im  Grundriitt  darffrlldU  (1848)  -.^Ckritlalo- 
gia  in  Epittola  ad  Htbraoi  (1864-56)  -.—Dt  Juno  A  llri- 
butonm  Dei  Diicrimiat  (JB56)  -.—Zrugnitie  rom  Ltbtn 
H  ChriHo  »  Prtdigtn,  (1866).  For  Unge's  BiMmrh 
he  wrote  the  commentary  on  Ihe  Psalms  and  on  the 
Epislle  to  the  Hebrews.  See  Zucbold,  HiU.  Thiol  ii, 
892  aq.     (B.  P.) 

Moll,  Wlllem,  ■  Dutch  theologian,  was  bom  FebL 
28, 1812,  at  Dun.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  was  jn  1887 
pastor  at  Da  Vuursche,  in  the  province  of  Ulrecbl,  in 


MOLL£B 


732 


MONGOLIAN  VERSION 


1844  at  Ambeim,  in  1846  pmfeaaor  of  ilieology  at  Am- 
sterdam, and  died  Aug.  18, 1879.  H6  ia  the  author  of, 
Kerk  getchiedenia  v<m  Nederiand  voor  de  Hervorming 
(Utrecht,  1864-71, 6  vols.)  t—Gesdiiedans  van  het  herke- 
lijke  Leven  der  Ckristenm  ffedurmde  de  sea  eertte  Eeuwen 
(Amsterdam,  1844-46,  2  vols.;  2d  ed.  Leyden,  1856, 
1857): — Anffelus  Merula,  De  hervcrmer  en  Martdaar 
dee  Gdoofe  (1851):— JoAoimef  Brvgnuam  en  hei  gode- 
diautig  Leven  oraer  Vaderen  in  de  mj/iiende  Eeiuo  (1854). 
MoU  founded  the  society  which  from  1856  to  1863  pub- 
lished the  Kalender  voor  de  ProteaUtnUn  m  Neda'Umd, 
See  Aoquoy,  Levenaberickt  rem  Willem  MoUj  in  Jaar' 
hek  van  de  Koninklijke  Akademie  van  Wetenechappen, 
1879,  p.  66-137;  Rogge,  WiUem  MoU,  in  Mannen  van 
BeteekenU  in  onze  Dagen,  1879;  Nippold,  Die  ramtech- 
katholieche  Kirche  un  Kanigreich  der  Niederkmde  (Leip- 
aic,  1877),  p.  486-489;  Plitt  -  Herzog,  Real-EncgUop, 
a.  V. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  dee  Scienoea  Religieuaea, 
8.V,     (a  P.) 

M^er,  Arnold,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Oct.  9, 1791,  at  Duisburg.  In  1817  he 
was  militar}'  preacher  at  MQnster,  in  1829  pastor  at 
Minden,  and  died  in  1858.  He  published,  Fiir  chriat- 
liche  Erbauung  (  Ratisbon,  1832,  2  vols. ) :  —  J^O/tfoftef 
Sehatzkaatlein  zur  tdgUchen  Erbauung  ckriailieher  PUger 
(1831)  I— Tabor  und  Sinai  (MUnster,  1884)  i^Der  Tiaeh 
dea  Iferm  (2d  ed.  1852)  i—Daa  Evangeliumjur  Kinder 
(1839): — Friedrich  Adolph  Krvmmaeker  und  aeine 
Freunde  (Bremen,  1849, 2  rols.) :— Der  liturgiache  TheU 
dea  evangdiadten  Gotteadienatea  in  den  preuaaiacken  Lan- 
den  (Bielefeld,  1850):— //ii&/«5ueAyi{r  den  liturgiacken 
TkeU  (3  parts,  1851-52).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TkeoL  ii, 
893  sq.;  Winer,  Uandbuck  der  tkeol.  Lit,  i,  544;  ii,  255, 
270, 287, 810, 833, 837, 368, 392, 396.     (B.  P.) 

Mdller,  Jens,  a  Danish  theologian,  was  bom  in 
1779,  and  died  Nov.  25, 1838,  doctor  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Copenhagen.  He  published,  Tkeologiak 
BiUiotiek  (Copenhagen,  1811-21, 20  vols.)  i^-yuie  tkeoL 
BiUiotk,  (1821  sq.  20  vols.)  i-~Tidaakrift  for  Kerke  og 
Tkeolog,  (1832, 1833, 4  vols.) '.'^Compendium  ikeologia 
agmboL  ecdea.  Lutkerana,  See  Winer,  ffandbuek  der 
/AeoiL  LA.  i,  12, 338.    (RP.) 

MSller,  Johann  Friedrioh,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Erfurt,  Nov.  18,  1789. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  was  in  1814  professor  at  the 
teachers'  seminary  in  his  native  city,  in  1815  deacon, 
in  1829  pastor,  in  1831  senior  of  the  Evangelical  minia- 
terium,  and  in  1832  member  of  consistory.  In  1848 
Moller  was  called  as  general  superintendent  to  Magde- 
burg, and  died  April  20, 1861.  He  wrote,  Comtnentatio 
in  verba  Ckriati,  Matt,  vii,  12-14  (Erfurt,  1835)  v^tland^ 
reickung  der  Kircke  an  die  Sckule  (2d  ed.  Magdeburg, 
1852)  i—Kritiack-evctngeKacke  Unienoeiaung  (ibid.  1855) : 
— besides  he  published  a  number  of  sermons.  See  Zu- 
chold, BM  TkeoL  ii,  895  sq.;  initt-  Herzog,  Beal- En^ 
egUop,  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Moller,  Martin,  a  Lutheran  hymn-writer  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Nov.  11, 1547,  at  Leissnitz,  Saxony. 
In  1572  he  was  called  to  the  ministiy  at  Kesselsdorf, 
and  in  1575  to  Sprottau,  Lower  Silesia.  In  1600  he 
was  appointed  pastor  primarius  at  Gbrlttz,  in  Upper 
Lausatia,  and  died  March  2, 1606.  Besides  his  Praxia 
EvangeUorumf  a  practical  exposition  on  the  gospels  of 
the  Christian  year  (1601,  4  vols.),  he  wrote  several 
hymns,  some  of  which  are  translated  into  English,  as 
Nimm  von  una  Hen'^du  treuer  GoU  (in  Jacobi,  Paalmo* 
dia  Germamea,  i,  123, ''  Remove  from  us,  O  faithful 
God"),  0  Jeau,  auaa  toer  dein  gedenkt  (ibid,  i,  ISO  sq., 
*'  When  thought  brings  Jesus  to  my  sense *0t  ^^^  ^o^t 
toie  manckea  Herteleid  (Ckorale  Book  for  Englandj  No. 
136,  *'  Ah  God,  my  days  are  dark  indeed  '*).  See  Koch, 
Geackickte  dea  deutacken  KirckenUedea,  ii.  211  sq. ; 
J6cher,  Allgemeinea  Gelekrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B, P.) 

MolungO^  the  name  given  to  the  Supreme  Being 
by  some  of  the  tribes  of  Central  Africa. 

Molybdomanoy  (from  fi^v^oc,  lead,  and  pav* 


nia,  dtvinaHon^,  a  species  of  divination  among  the 
ancient  heathen,  in  which  they  drew  conjectures  con- 
oeming  future  events  from  the  motions  and  figures  pie- 
sented  by  melted  lead. 

Mondari  Version  of  the  Scbiptures.  The 
Mondari  is  spoken  by  the  Koles  of  Chota  Nagpore,  Ben- 
gal Presidency.  The  Rev.  N.  Nottrott,  of  the  German 
Missionary  (Gosner's)  Society,  translated  the  gospel  of 
Mark  into  the  Mondari  in  1875,  which  was  printed  ia 
1876  by  the  Calcutta  Auxiliary.  In  1879  the  gospel  of 
Luke  was  printed,  and  between  1881  and  1882  the  goa- 
pels  of  John  and  Matthew  foUowed.  The  work  of 
translation  was  done  by  the  missionary  already  men* 
tioned  and  the  Rev.  L.  Beyer.  Each  translator  revised 
the  work  of  the  other  by  the  help  of  native  assistanta^ 

cap.) 

Mone,  Framz  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  writer  of 
Germany,  was  bora  May  12, 1796,  at  Mingolsheim,  near 
Brachssl  He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  commenced  hb 
academical  career  there  in  1817,  was  professor  in  1819, 
and  from  1826  also  first  librarian  of  the  universitv.     In 

m 

1827  he  accepted  a  call  to  Louvain,  but  returned  to 
Heidelbei^  in  188L  Mone  died  at  Karlsmhe,  March 
12, 1871,  leaving,  Geackickte  dea  Ileiden/kuma  im  ndrd- 
licken  Europa  (Heidelberg,  1822-23,  2  vols.)  i—Lalei' 
niacke  ffgmnen  dea  MittelaUera  (  Karlsruhe,  1855-57,  8 
vols.) . —  Lalmniacke  und  grieckiacke  Ifeaaen  aua  diem 
2,biaB.Jakrkundert(lSW).  See  Winer, /faiMi5tfc&  der 
tkeol.  Lit.  i,  514.    (R  P.) 

Xffongolian  Veraion  of  the  Scripturks.  In 
the  Mongolian  there  exist  different  versions: 

I.  Tke  Buriat,  or  Nortkem  Mongolian,  for  the  Buriata 
about  lake  Baikal,  in  Siberia,  and  for  the  Kalka  trities 
of  Mongolia.  In  1824  the  New  Test,  was  printed  at  St. 
Petersburg,  under  the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Schmidt, 
who,  with  the  aid  of  two  learned  Buriata,  had  com* 
menced  the  translation,  but  during  the  work  one  of 
the  Buriata  died.  The  surviving  Bnriat  was  after- 
wards associated  with  Messrs.  Swan,  Stallybrasa,  and 
Tuille,  missionaries  at  Selinginsk,  in  the  translation 
of  the  Old  Test,  and  the  reviaion  of  the  New  Test. 
The  Old  Test,  waa  translated  from  the  Hebrew,  with 
constant  reference  to  such  critical  apparatus  as  oould 
be  obtained.  The  style  of  writing  adopted  in  this 
version  holds  a  middle  place  between  the  vulgar  ool* 
loquial  language  of  the  people,  which  varies  in  dif- 
ferent districts,  and  the  aibstruse  modes  of  expreasion 
employed  in  some  of  their  books.  It  is  above  the  com- 
mon business  dialect,  but  not  so  much  higher  as  to  place 
the  aubject  beyond  the  reach  of  any  one  of  common  un- 
derstanding. The  Old  Test,  was  completed  at  Khodon, 
in  Siberia,  in  1840,  and  during  the  same  year  Measra. 
Swan  and  Stallybrass  accomplished  a  fresh  translation 
of  the  New  Test,  from  the  original  Greek,  based  on  the 
version  previously  made.  An  edition  of  this  Testament 
was  completed  at  press  in  1846  at  the  expense  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  while  a  reprint  of 
it  waa  undertaken  in  1878  by  the  Academy  of  Scienoea 
at  St.  Petersburg,  under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Schiefner, 
in  the  Mongolian  type  instead  of  the  Manchu  char- 
acter, reducing  thereby  the  size  of  the  book  by  two 
thirds.  Thia  edition  was  completed  at  press  in  1880, 
under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Pozdnieff,  professor  of  Mon- 
golian in  the  St.  Petersburg  University,  who  had  taken 
the  place  of  superintendent  after  the  death  of  professor 
Schiefner. 

II.  Tke  Kalmuck,  or  Weatem  Mongolian,  for  the  Kal- 
mucka  of  the  Don  and  Volga,  in  Russia,  and  Eleutha, 
Kalmucks,  and  Soungars,  of  Mongolia.  In  thia  dialect 
there  exist  trsnslationa  of  the  goapela  of  Matthew  and 
John  and  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  published  between 
1815  and  1822.  Concerning  these  efforts  of  translation 
and  the  Kalmucks  themselves  we  read  the  following  in 
the  annual  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety for  the  year  1877 :  "  The  Kalmucks  are  a  Mongolian 
tribe,  inhabiting  the  great  salt  steppe  of  the  province 


MONOD 


783 


MONTGOMERY 


of  Astrakhan,  abont  whose  mode  of  life  and  habits  not 
much  is  known  in  Western  Eorope.  While  it  is  not 
likely  that  they,  at  the  present  time  at  least,  in  any 
way  answer  to  the  description  given  of  themselves  to 
the  patriarch  Nicon  by  thirty  of  their  chiefs,  aa  re- 
corded by  Macarius,  and  quoted  by  dean  Stanley  in  his 
Eastern  Church — where,  being  brought  into  the  pres- 
ence of  the  patriarch,  they  are  represented  as  saying  to 
him,  *  When  we  have  conquered  a  man,  we  cut  away 
his  nose,  and  then  carve  him  into  pieces  and  eat  him. 
Good  Lord,  whenever  you  have  any  men  deserving  of 
death,  do  not  trouble  yourself  about  their  guilt  or  pun- 
ishment, but  give  them  us  to  eat,  and  you  will  do  us  a 
great  kindness'— they  are  certainly  in  a  very  low  state 
of  civilization,  even  though  their  chiefs  are  sometimes 
educated  in  Russian  schools.  Mission  work  was  begun 
among  them  early  in  the  present  century,  and  by  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  and  circulation  of  the  Script- 
ures, parts  of  which  had  been  translated  into  Kalmuck 
by  the  missionary  Conrad  Xeitz,  and  others,  and  subse- 
quently revised  by  Dr.  Schmidt,  laboring  under  the 
auspices  of  the  emperor  Alexander  I,  and  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  a  number  of  conversions 
took  place.  But  days  of  trouble  and  persecution  fell 
upon  the  mission,  and  in  a  recent  letter  the  pastor  of 
the  Moravian  settlement  of  Sarepta,  founded  with  the 
express  purpose  of  evangelizing  the  Kalmucks,  informs 
your  agent  that  at  present  no  thorough  knowledge  of 
Kalmuck  is  possessed  by  any  of  the  brethren.  A  search 
made  in  the  archives  of  the  village  revealed  the  pres- 
ence of  a  few  copies  of  the  gospels  of  Matthew  and 
John,  besides  a  number  of  Kalmuck  tracts.  A  copy  of 
each  of  the  gospels  having  been  sent  by  your  agent  to 
London,  specimen  pages  of  a  reduced  and  convenient 
size  have  been  printed  by  the  photographic  process. 
These  were  fonvarded  to  Sarepta,  and  we  now  await 
the  result  of  their  critical  examination  by  learned  Kal- 
mucks, if  there  be  any,  and  to  know  the  opinions  of  the 
brethren  themselves.  Should  these  be  deemed  satis- 
faetoiy,  and  the  committee  otherwise  see  fit  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  printing  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  ver- 
nacular of  this  tribe,  future  reports  may  contain  some- 
thing more  interesting  and  instructive  about  the 
progress  of  Bible  work  among  its  members."  From 
the  report  for  the  year  1880  we  learn  that  the  agent  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  at  St  Petersburg 
has  been  authorized  to  employ  M.  PozdnielT  and  arch- 
priest  Smimoflf  to  translate  the  gospel  of  Matthew.  M. 
Pozdnieff,  as  an  eminent  Kalmuck  scholar,  will  make 
the  translation,  and  archpriest  Smirnoff,  who  lives 
among  the  Kalmucks,  will  see  that  the  words  and 
idioms  are  suited  to  the  people.  On  this  plan  there  is 
reason  to  hope  that  an  excellent  translation  will  be 
produced,  and  the  question  of  proceeding  with  the  oth- 
er books  of  the  New  Test,  will  depend  on  the  manner 
in  which  the  gospel  of  Matthew  is  received.  In  the 
report  fur  1884  we  read  the  gratifying  statement  that 
the  committee  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
have  authorized  the  publication  of  an  edition  of  two 
thousand  copies  of  the  New  Test,  prepared  by  professor 
Pozdnieff.  New  type  has  been  cut  at  the  expense  of 
the  above  society  and  cast  at  the  expense  of  the  academy. 

III.  The  Southern,  or  KaUthas  CoUoguiaL  In  this 
dialect,  used  in  Chinese  Mongolia,  the  gospel  of  Matthew 
has  been  translated  bv  the  Rev.  J.  Edkins  and  Dr.  J. 
J.  Schereschewsky,  aided  by  a  native  Lama,  and  was 
printed  in  1872  under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  J.  Edkins,  of 
Peking.  This  is  the  only  part  now  extant.  See  B^te 
of  Every  Lani^  p.  887. 

For  the  study  of  tbe  language,  see  Schmidt,  Gram-' 
matik  der  mangolitchen  Sprache  (1881) ;  Zwick,  Gram^ 
vuitik  der  wettntongoliechen  Sprache  (1851);  Castren, 
Versuch  emer  biitjaikchen  Sprachlehre  (1867).     (B.  P.) 

Monod,  Horace,  an  eminent  French  Protestant 
minister,  the  youngest  son  of  Jean  (q.  v.),  was  bom  in 
Paris,  Jan.  20, 1814.  He  stndied  at  Lausanne  and  Stras- 
burg,  and  in  1888  was  deaeon  at  ManeiUea.    In  1842 


he  waa  appointed  member  of  consistory,  and  died  Jnly 
18, 1881.  For  forty  years  he  preached  in  the  Same 
church  with  great  success.  He  published  eight  vol- 
umes of  Sermont  and  a  French  transition  of  Hodge^s 
Conunentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Xonums,  See  Lich- 
tenberger,  Eneydop,  du  Sdeneee  ReUffieutes,  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Monoirai.    See  Moxadoijogy. 

Moimon,  Abraham,  a  Jewish  savant  who  flour- 
ished towards  the  end  of  the  16th  century,  was  a  native 
of  Egypt,  and  died  at  Constantinople.  He  wrote  n^To, 
i.  e.  DecUionee  et  Responta^  which  are  incorporated  in 
Salomo  Cohen^s  Deeinons  (Salonica,  1696)  and  in  those 
of  Joseph  di  Trani  (Constantinople,  1641).  See  FUrst, 
BM  Jud.  ii,  888 ;  Wolf,  BibL  Jlebr.  iii,  52 ;  Jocher,  A  U- 
ffememes  GeUhrten-LexUcon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Montandon,  Aogustk  Laurent,  a  French  Prot- 
estant theologian,  was  bom  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in 
1808.  He  studied  at  Geneva,  was  for  some  time  pastor 
at  Luneray,  and  accepted  a  call  in  1832  to  Paris  as  pas- 
tor adjunctus.  He  published  Ricilt  de  VA  ncien  et  du 
Nouveau  Teetament,  and  took  a  great  interest  in  the 
different  religious  organizations,  especially  in  the  work 
of  the  Bible  Society,  to  which  he  rendered  great  ser- 
vices.   Montandon  died  in  1876.     (B.  P.) 

Monteflore,  Sir  Moaks,  a  Jewish  philanthropist, 
was  bom  Oct.  24, 1784.  He  was  an  opulent  merchant 
of  Lomlon,  and  was  successively  knighted  and  raised  to 
a  baronetcy  for  his  public  labors;  having  served  as 
sheriff  of  London  in  1887,  and  also  high-sheriff  of  Kent. 
He  went  in  1840  on  a  benevolent  mission  to  the  East, 
and  on  others  in  1840  and  1867,  in  behalf  of  his  op- 
pressed brethren.  In  the  latter  year  he  founded  a  Jew- 
ish college  at  Ramsgate.  In  1876  he  visited  Jerusalem 
the  seventh  time.  He  died  at  Ramsgate,  July  28, 1885. 
See  his  Centenary  Biography^  by  Lucien  Wolf  (I/>nd. 
1884 ;  N.  Y.  1885) ;  The  A  merican  Hebrew,  Oct.  9, 1885. 

Montet,  Joseph,  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Milhau,  Aveyron,  in  1790.  He  studied  at 
Lausanne  and  Geneva,  and  was  made  a  licentiate  of 
theology  at  the  latter  pUce,  on  presenting  Diaputatio 
Theolig.  de  A  uthentia  Librorum  Novi  Teetamentij  in  1818. 
In  1814  he  was  called  as  pastor  to  R^almont,  Tarn;  in 
1825  he  was  made  professor  of  Church  history  atMontau- 
ban,  and  dean  of  the  faculty  in  1835.  In  1865  he  re- 
tired from  active  duty,  and  died  Feb.  24, 1878.  See 
Lichtenberger,  En^dojK  dee  Sdencea  Beligieueea,  s.  v. 
(RP.) 

Montlbrt,  Sbct  at.  In  the  11th  century  a  mystic 
Christian  sect  appeared  in  the  north  of  Italy,  having  its 
headquarters  at  Montfort,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Turin. 
Their  presiding  oflScer  was  one  Gerhard,  who  was  called 
upon  by  Heribert,  archbishop  of  Milan,  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  his  doctrines.  They  were  considered  heretics, 
and  subjected  to  great  persecution,  which  they  bore  with 
the  spirit  of  martyrs;  but  the  sect  made  little  progress. 

Montgomery,  Robert,  a  distinguished  English 
missionary,  was  bom  at  Bangor,  Aug.  19, 181 1.  He  stud- 
ied at  Edinburgh,  was  licensed  by  his  presbytery  about 
the  end  of  184),  and  a  few  weeks  afteni'ards  was  set 
apart  for  the  mission  to  India.  In  1843  he  was  stationed 
at  Poorbunder,  on  the  western  aiast,  and  three  years 
later  was  transferred  to  Surat.  He  early  acquired  a 
scholarly  knowledge  of  Gujarati,  into  which  he  trans- 
lated the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and  the  prophecy  of. 
Isaiah ;  likewise  two  little  volumes  by  Dr.  Barth,  en- 
titled. Scripture  Stories  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 
He  also  prepared  a  Dictionary,  English  and  Gujarati, 
which  stands  now  as  a  help  to  all  students  of  that  lan- 
guage. He  wrote  several  hymns,  three  of  which  are 
included  in  the  Gujarati  Book  of  Praise,  When  ho 
returned  in  broken  health  in  1876,  advantage  was  taken 
of  his  presence  to  appoint  him  moderator  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly.  He  was  one  of  the  delegates  at  the 
general  missionaiy  conference  in  London  in  1879. 
Montgomery  died  in  November,  1880.    (B.  P.) 


MOODIE 


734 


MORNING  HYMN 


Moodie,  William,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian 
minister^  who  died  June  11, 1811,  in  the  fiffcy-third  vear 
of  his  age,  was  one  of  the  ninisters  of*  St.  Andrew's 
Church,  Edinburgh,  from  1787,  and  professor  of  Hebrew 
and  Oriental  languages  in  the  University  from  1798. 
He  was  a  man  of  considerable  literary  acquirements, 
very  popular  as  a  preacher,  and  the  author  of  several 
works.  A  volume  of  his  Sermont  has  been  published, 
to  which  is  prefixed  a  biography  of  the  author  (Edin- 
burgh, 1818, 8vo).    See  Fa»ti  EccUs,  ScoticantB,  i,  73. 

Moody,  JoiiN,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Dauphin  County,  Pa.,  July  4, 1776.  After  grad- 
uating from  Princeton  College,  in  1796,  he  studied  the- 
ology with  Rev.  James  Snodgrass,  and  was  licensed  by 
the  Presbytery  of  Carlisle  in  1801.  In  1803  he  was 
ordained  by  the  same  presbytery  pastor  of  Middle  Spring, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death,  in  1857.  During 
the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  was  unable  to  perform  his 
ministerial  work.  He  was  a  laborious,  faithful,  and  suc- 
cessful pastor.     See  Alexander,  Piinc.  Col,  ISfh  Cent, 

Moore,  John  L.,  D.D.,  a  pioneer  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  in  Lewis  County,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  17, 1803.  He  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  twenty- two;  graduated  from  the 
Hamilton  Institute  in  1831;  was  ordained  the  same  year 
at  Watertown ;  visited  and  preached  in  several  of  the 
larger  towns  of  Ohio,  under  the  direction  of  tiie  Home 
Mission  Society;  and  in  1884  settled  in  Piqua,  in  that 
state,  spending  half  his  time  with  a  new  chureh  at  Troy. 
Next  he  was  pastor  at  Dayton  for  two  years,  snd  then, 
for  eight  years,  was  in  the  service  of  the  Ohio  Conven- 
tion, acting  a  part  of  the  time  as  an  agent  of  the  college 
at  Granville,  now  Denison  University.  After  a  short 
pastorate  in  Springfield,  he  devoted  himself  to  promot- 
ing the  interests  of  the  theological  seminar}*  at  Fair- 
mount.  In  1855  he  became  an  exploring  missionary  in 
Ohio,  and  finally  gave  up  public  life,  preaching  occa- 
sionally. He  died  in  Topeks,  Kansas,  Jan.  28,  1878. 
See  Ca'thcart,  Baptist  Encyciop,  p.  812.     (J.  C  S.) 

Moore,  Smith  William,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Chureh  South,  was  bom  Nov.  1, 
1818,  in  North  Carolina.  He  was  converted  in  1837, 
and  entered  Randolph-Macon  College  in  1838,  but  was 
obliged  to  leave  a  few  months  before  graduation.  He 
then  taught  school  in  Tennessee  for  two  years,  preaching 
in  the  meanwhile,  and  joined  the  Tennessee  Conference 
in  1844,  when  he  was  ordained  deacon.  From  1849  to 
1852  he  was  professor  in  the  Female  Institute  at  Athens, 
Ala.,  when  he  was  elected  president,  which  position  he 
resigned  in  1853  to  accept  the  vice -presidency  of  La 
Grange  College.  After  a  few  months  he  resigned  this 
position,  and  being  transferred  to  Memphis  Conference, 
became  president  of  Bascom  Female  Seminary,  a  position 
he  retained  several  years.  One  year  he  was  agent  of 
the  Book  and  Tract  Society,  and  at  the  same  time  one 
of  the  editora  of  the  conference  paper,  Chiistian  A  dvo' 
cate.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  president  of  Andrew 
College  at  Trenton,  Tenn.,  where  he  continued  four  yeara. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  was  given  to  the  itinerancy, 
his  last  appointment  being  Central  Church,  Memphis, 
in  1879.  Ue  die<l  at  Brownsville,  SepL  2,  1880.  Dr. 
Moore  was  a  polished  scholar,  skilled  theologian,  and 
faithful  Christian.  His  preaching  was  clear,  strong, 
instructive,  and  impressive.  He  was  generous,  kind, 
studious,  prayerful,  laborious,  pure  in  heart,  chaste  in 
speech,  consistent  in  life,  catholic  as  well  as  evangelical, 
and  profoundly  earnest  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M,  £.  Church 
South,  1880,  p.  167. 

Moore,  Thomas  Vemer,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Newville,  Pa.,  Feb.  1, 1818.  He 
graduated  from  Dickinson  College  in  1^88;  became 
agent  for  the  Pennsylvania  Colonization  Society;  grad- 
uated from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1842; 
was  ordained  pastor  at  Carlisle  the  same  year;  was  set- 
tled at  Greencastle  in  1845 ;  the  Firet  Church,  Kich- 
mond,  Va.,  in  1847 ;  editor  of  the  Central  Presbyterian^ 


and  pastor  of  Fint  Chnroh,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1869^ 
and  died  there,  Aug.  6, 1871 .  He  was  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  in  1867.  His  chief  published  works 
are.  Commentary  on  Sagyai,  Zechariah,  and  Malaeki 
(N.  Y.  1856)  '^Etfidenees  of  ChnstianUy  .-^Occasional 
Sermons,  His  oontribntions  to  religious  Journals  were 
numerous.  See  Gen,  Cat  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881, 
p.  124 ;  Nevin,  Presb,  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Morabitea,  a  Mohammedan  sect  found  chiefly  in 
Africa.  They  were  founded  about  the  8th  century  by 
Mohaidin,  the  last  son  of  Hossein,  who  was  the  grandson 
of  Mohammed.  They  live  in  sequestered  places,  like 
monks,  either  separately  or  in  small  communities;  are 
very  licentious  in  their  habits,  and  follow  many  prac- 
tices utterly  opposed  to  the  Koran. 

Moxaht,  Adolph,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Nov.  28, 1805,  at  Hamburg.  He  studied 
at  Halle  and  Gdttingen,  and  for  nine  years  acted  as 
teacher  at  his  native  place.  In  1838  he  was  deacon  at 
Molln,  in  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg,  in  1846  pastor,  and 
died  Dec.  6, 1884.  He  published,  Versuch  einer  Mefho" 
dik  des  Beligionsunierrichtes  (2d  ed.  Merseburg,  1833) : 
— Ilarfenklange,  eine  Sammlung  christUcher  Gedickte 
(LUneburg,  1840),  besides  a  number  of  sermons.  See 
Zuchold,£»U. rA«oAii,908;  Yi^ocYi^GeschiditcdesdeutseKen 
Kirchetdiedes,  vii,  296.     (B.  P.) 

Moravia,  Akdbew  dr,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Moray  from  1224  to  1242,  in  which  year  he  died. 
This  prelate  laid  the  foundation  of  that  magnificent 
church  which  was  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Trinity,  and 
ordered  to  be  the  cathedral  church  of  Moray  forever. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  138. 

Moray,  David,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  the  see  of  Moray  in  1299,  at  Avignon.  He 
died  Jan.  20,  1326.  This  prelate  founded  the  Scota 
College  at  Paris  in  1325.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops^ 
p.  140. 

Moray,  Gilbert,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  the  see  of  Caithness  in  1222.  He  died  at 
Scrabister  in  1245,  after  having  built  and  consecrated 
the  cathedral  church  of  Caithness,  at  Dornoch.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  207. 

Mordvinian  VeraiozL    See  Russia,  Yersioxs 

OP. 

Morgan,  W.,  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  in  Pembrokeshire  in  1801.  He  studied  at  Aber- 
gavenny, was  ordained  pastor  of  a  small  church  ia 
Holyhead,  April  19, 1825,  and  died  Sept  15, 1872.  See 
(Lond.)  Baptist  Handrhook,  1873,  p.  267.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Mdrikofer,  Johamk  Karl,  a  Swiss  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Frauenfeld,  Switzerland,  in  1799.  In  1830 
he  was  rector  of  the  Git3'.school  of  his  birthplace,  in 
1868  pastor  at  Gottliebeii,  in  1870  at  Winterthur,  and 
died  at  Zurich,  Oct.  17, 1877.  He  is  the  author  of,  Die 
schioeizerische  Literatvr  des  iuAtzehnten  JahrhundertM 
(Leipsic,  1861)  i—Bilder  aus  dem  IdrchUchen  'Leben  der 
Schveiz  (1864)  i^Ulrich  Zwinyli  nach  den  urhmdiickeH 
Quellen  (1867-69,  2  vols.)  i-^ohann  Jacob  Breitinger 
(Zurich,  1874):  —  Geschichte  der  evanyeUschen  FlUckt- 
linye  in  der  Schweiz  (1876).  See  Lichtenbergcr,  £ii-> 
cyclop,  des  Sciences  Reliyieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Morning  Hjrmn.  Imh^ApostoUcalConstUutiom 
mention  is  made  of  a  hymn  for  the  morning,  which  ta 
there,  however,  called  the  morning  prayer.  Other 
writers  term  it  the  hymn,  the  angelical  hymn,  and  the 
great  doxolog}'.  It  ran  in  these  words:  '*Glor}'  be  to 
God  on  high,  on  earth  peace,  good  will  towards  men. 
We  praise  thee,  we  laud  thee,  we  bless  thee,  we  glorify 
thee,  we  worship  thee  by  the  great  High  Priest,  thee 
the  true  God,  the  only  begotten,  whom  no  one  can  ap- 
proach, for  thy  great  glory.  O  Lord,  heavenly  king, 
God  the  Father  Almighty:  Lord  God,  the  Father  of 
Christ,  the  immaculate  Lamb,  who  taketh  away  the  ain 
of  the  world,  receive  our  prayer,  thou  that  sittest  upon 
the  cherubima.   For  thoa  only  art  holy,  thou  only,  Lord 


MORRISON 


785 


MUENSCHER 


JeaiiB,  the  Christ  of  God,  the  God  of  every  created 
being,  and  our  King.  Bjr  whom  unto  thee  be  gloiy, 
honor,  end  adoration."  This  hymn  was  used  daily  in 
the  ancient  morning  service,  and  is  still  used  in  the 
modem  Greek  Church. 

Moniflon,  John  Huhtbr,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Wallkill  Township,  Orange  Co., 
N.  Y.,  June  29, 1806.  He  studied  at  Bloomfield  Acad- 
emy, N.J. ;  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1884; 
and  from  the  theological  seminary  there  in  1837 ;  and 
was  ordained  the  same  year.  Soon  after,  be  sailed  for 
India,  and  thenceforward  his  whole  ministerial  life  was 
spent  in  the  foreign  missionary  work,  in  connection  with 
the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  including 
two  brief  visits  to  his  native  land.  During  one  of  these, 
in  1868,  lie  was  elected  moderator  of  the  General  As- 
sembly. It  was  at  his  suggestion,  while  in  India,  that 
the  first  week  of  January  was  set  apart  for  united  prayer 
for  the  conversion  of  the  world  to  Christ.  He  lived 
and  labored  successively  at  Allahabad,  Agra,  Sabsthu, 
Simla,  Ambala,  Lahore,  Rawal  Pindi,  Dehra  Doon,  and 
died  at  the  last-named  place,  Sept.  16, 1881.  Dr.  Mor- 
rison was  a  man  of  rare. devotion  to  his  work.  See 
Hea-oL  Repori  o/ Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1882,  p  86. 

Morse,  Ihtrbpid,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
deigyman,  was  rector  of  Su  Paul's  Church,  in  Steuben- 
ville,  O.,  for  many  years,  until  1865,  when  be  removed 
to  Gambler.  He  died  Feb.  15, 1866.  See  Prot,  £pisc, 
Almimac,  1867,  p.  101. 

Moras,  James,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  bora  at  Kewburyport,  Mass.,  Oct.  25, 1779. 
After  acquiring  the  radiments  of  an  education  at  the 
public  schools  of  his  native  town,  he  commenced  to 
ieara  the  joiner's  trade ;  but  in  his  seventeenth  year 
entered  Harvard  College,  and  graduated  in  1800.  He 
taoght  the  grammar-school  in  Brookline  after  leaving 
college,  and  began  the  study  of  theology.  Soon  after, 
he  was  employed  as  lay-reader  at  Cambridge,  and  some 
time  later  completed  his  theological  course  under  bishop 
Bass.  He  was  ordained  dea- 
con, July  3,  1808;  became 
assistant  to  the  bishop  in  St. 
PauVs  Church;  in  Novem- 
ber following  rector;  and 
died  in  that  position,  April 
26, 1842.  Among  his  liter- 
ary remains  are  a  number 
of  publbhed  sermons,  ad- 
dresses, etc  See  Sprague, 
AtmaU  of  the  Amer,  Pidpit^ 
v,492. 

Mortar,  a  broad  bowl 
of  brass,  latten,  or  copper, 
either  with  a  pricket  for  a 
thick  lighted  taper,  or  else 
filled  with  a  mixture  of  per- 
fumed wax  and  oil,  in  which 
a  broad  wick  was  kept  burn- 
ing both  at  festivals  and  fu-  Mort"f  «t  St.  Mary  Mngda- 
^^.  lou  College,  Oxford. 

Moflche,  Gabriel  Christian  Bexjashn,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Grossen- 
Erich,  in  the  principality  of  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen,  March  28, 1723.  He  studied  at  Jena,  and  for 
some  time  assisted  his  father  in  the  ministry.  In  1748 
he  was  preacher  at  Erfurt,  and  lecturer  at  the  university, 
in  1759  superintendent  at  Amstadt.  in  1773  preacher  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  died  Feb.  8, 1791 .  He  pub- 
lished, De  A  tmo  Sexaguimo  Judceis  Sacro  (Jens,  1744) : 
— Dt  Summa  Summi  Nvminu  Sapientia  in  DiUctu  Le- 
gatorum  (Erfurt,  1750):— Commen/af to  de  Contemplatione 
Mortis  A  tque  Reeurre^Uionis  Jeeu  Christi  Erga  //ominit 
Amor  (ibid.  176S)i—De  Reditu  Chruti  in  Viiam  (Arn- 
stadt,  1759): — Triplex  Gloria  Ctrleetis  Magnitudo  (ibid. 
1768),  besides  a  number  of  sermons  and  ascetical  works. 
See  Doring,  Die  deuttckm  Kamelredaer  dee  achtzehnten 


vnd  ftauueknten  JakrhmtderfM,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  JJandbueh 
der  theoL  Lit.  i,  192 ;  ii,  196, 291.     (K  P.) 

Mofllems,  a  name  derived  from  the  Arabic  verb 
talamaf  to  be  devoted  to  God,  and  applied  to  those  who 
believe  in  the  Koran,  and  who,  in  the  Mohammedan 
sense,  form  the  body  of  the  faithful 

Mota  Version  or  the  Scriptures.  The  Mota 
is  a  dialect  spoken  by  the  natives  round  Port  Moresby, 
New  Guinea,  hence  it  is  also  called  the  Port  Moresby  or 
New  Guinea  dialect  The  Rev.  J.  Chalmers  translated 
the  first  three  gospels,  and  of  these  the  gospel  of  31  ark 
has  been  carefully  revised  by  the  Rev.  W.  G.  Lawes, 
and  an  edition  of  five  hundred  copies  was  printed  at 
Sydney  during  the  year  1881  by  the  New  South  Wales 
Auxiliary  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
Mr.  Lawes,  who  is  preparing  other  portions  for  the  press, 
says,  concerning  the  gospel  of  Mark :  **  This  is  the  first 
portion  of  the  Scriptures  translated  into  any  language 
of  south-east  New  Guinea.  The  Dutch  missionaries  at 
Doreby,  at  the  extreme  north-west  of  the  island,  I 
think,  translated  a  portion  into  the  language  spoken 
there,  but,  with  that  possible  exception,  this  is  the  be- 
ginning of  the  work  of  translation  on  New  Guinea." 
From  the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety for  1888,  we  learn  that  the  gospel  of  Mark,  which 
has  been  circulated,  is  more  widely  read  than  was  ex- 
pected. The  gospels  of  Matthew  and  Lnke  were  also 
revised  by  Mr.  Lawes,  and  printed  at  Sydney  in  1882, 
while  the  gospel  of  John,  which  he  translated  himself, 
was  published  in  1884.    (B.  P.) 

Moullni^,  Charles  £tikkkb  Francois,  a  Swisa 
Protestant  theologian,  was  born  July  28,  1757.  He 
studied  at  his  birthplace,  Geneva,  and  was  ordained 
in  1781.  In  1793  he  was  pastor  at  Saconnet,  in  1794 
at  Dardagny,  and  from  1795  to  1829  at  Geneva.  He 
died  Aug.  3, 1836.  Moulini<$  was  a  prolific  writer,  who 
left  seventeen  volumes  in  monuscript  to  the  library  of 
the  ministers'  association  at  Gepeva.  Of  his  published 
works  are  to  be  mentioned,  Lail  de  la  Parole  (1789),  a 
catechism : — Notice  sur  les  Litres  A  pocryphes  de  PA  ncien 
Testament  (1828).  See  Gautier,  Notice  sur  la  Vie  ft  les 
£criis  de  M,  le  Pasteur  Moulinii^  in  the  Chretien  ivanr 
geHque  of  Lausanne,  1866,  p.  535  sq.,  648  sq.;  Henri  de 
Goltz,  Geneve  ReUgieuse  au  dix-neuvieme  SieclCf  p.  122 ; 
Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  ReligieuseSj  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Moiiltan  (or  Wach  or  Ooch)  Veraion  of  thb 
ScRiPTURBB.  This  dialect  is  spoken  north  of  Sindh, 
between  the  Indus,  Chenaub,  and  Gharra  rivers.  There 
exists  a  version  of  the  New  Test,  in  that  dialect,  which 
was  printed  at  Serampore  in  1819.     (B.  P.) 

Moxah  is  probably  represented  by  the  modem 
Khurbet  Reit-Miua^  situated  one  mile  north  of  Kuloni- 
gob  (Menunrs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  17 ;  comp. 
Conder,  Tent  Worky  i,  25). 

Mpongwe  Veraion  of  thr  Scriptures.  The 
Mpongwe  is  spoken  by  a  West-African  tribe,  for  which 
various  detached  portions  of  the  Scriptures  have  been 
translated  bv  the  missionaries  of  the  American  Board 

w 

of  Missions,  and  several  editions  of  these  portions  of  the 
Old  and  New  Test,  have  been  issued  bv  the  American 
Bible  Society.     (B.  P.) 

MUcke,  August  Philip,  a  Beformed  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  May  29, 1783.  In  1805  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  Accum,  the 
only  Reformed  congregation  in  Oldenburg,  and  cele- 
brated his  seventy-fifth  anniversary  in  1880.  He  died 
Feb.  13, 1882,  being  at  the  time  the'  Nestor  of  the  Prot- 
estant clergy  of  Germany.  He  published.  Vie  Dog^ 
matik  des  19.  Jahrhunderts  (Gotha,  1861)  -.—Die  heutige 
Unionscontroverse,  etc.  (Leipsic,  1872) :  —  Das  aposto^ 
lische  GUxuhembeketrntmss  (Beriin,  1873).     (B.  P.) 

Muenadier,.  JosKPH,  D.  D.,  an  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bora  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Dec.  21, 1798.  of  German 
descent.    He  graduated  from   Brswn  University  in 


MUHLENBERG 


736 


MULLER 


1821,  studied  onti  year  at  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary, and  was  admitted  to  priest's  orders  March  18, 
1825,  his  first  parish  being  South  Leicester,  now  Roch- 
dale, Mass.,  where  he  remained  until  1827,  when  he  be- 
come rector  of  St.  John's  Church,  Northampton.  For 
two  years  (1831-^)  he  was  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
Saoo,  Me.,  and  then  was  professor  of  sacred  literature 
in  the  Episcopal  Seminary  at  Gambier,  Ohio.  From 
1841  to  1854  he  was  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church  at  MU 
Vernon,  and  remained  at  that  place  without  parochial 
charge  until  his  death,  Feb.  16, 1884.  Dr.  Muenscher 
had  a  decided  musical  taste,  and  in  1839  published 
Church  ChoiTf  a  collection  of  sacred  music.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  was  editor  of  the  Gambier  Ohta-ver  and 
the  Western  Episcopalian,  and  contributed  largely  to 
theological  reviews  and  religious  periodicals.  In  1865 
he  published  a  Manual  of  Biblical  Interpretation,  in 
1866  a  Revised  Version  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  in  1870, 
Orthography  and  Pronunciation  (^  the  English  Lan^ 
guage.  See  Necrology  of  Brown  University,  1883-84. 
(J.  C.  8.) 

Muhlenberg,  Wiluax  Augustus,  D.D.,  LUD., 
a  distinguished  Protestant  Episcopal  dergyman,  great- 
grandson  of  Dr.  Henry  Melchior,  was  bom  in  Phila- 
delphia, SepL  16, 1796.  He  entered  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  when  but  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  grad- 
uated in  1814.  Having  pursued  a  course  of  theological 
study,  he  became  a  clergyman  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  1817,  and  fur  five  years  was  assistant  rector  of 
Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  being  associated  with 
bishop  White.  In  1821  he  became  rector  of  St.  James* 
Church  in  Lancaster;  in  1828,  principal  of  St.  Paul's 
College  in  Flushing,  L.  I. ;  in  1846,  rector  of  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Communion,  in  the  city  of  New  York ;  in 
1858,  superintendent  and  pastor  of  St.  Luke's  Hospital, 
New  York  (which  he  was  largely  instrumental  in  found- 
ing, as  also  the  church  village  of  SL  Johnland,  on  Long 
Island),  holding  this  office  until  his  death,  April  8, 
1877.  In  1824  there  appeared  in  the  Episcopal  Re- 
corder, of  Philadelphia,  his  admirable  h^-mn,  entitled, 
*'  I  would  not  live  alway,"  which  has  been  incorporated 
into  nearly  every  standard  church  hymn-book.  Man}' 
years  afterMr'ards,  when  be  was  the  editor  of  the  Evanr 
gdical  Co/Ao^ic,  Dr.  Muhlenberg  explained  the  circum- 
stances of  its  histor}'.  He  was  the  author  of,  Church 
Poetry  (1828) :  —  Music  of  the  Church  (1852) :  —  The 
People^s  Psalter  (1858).  His  life  was  devoted  to  pub- 
lic labors  of  Christian  evangelism  and  philanthropy. 
See  his  Life  and  Work,  bv  Anne  Ayres  (N.  Y.  1880). 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Miihlhfiniier,  Carl  August,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1825,  at  Kleinkems,  in 
Baden.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  was  for  some  time 
vicar  and  deacon  at  Carlsruhc,  and  in  1852  pastor 
at  Sulzfeld.  In  1857  he  was  called  as  member  of  the 
ecclesiastical  council  to  Heidelberg,  but  retired  in  1864, 
when  the  liberal  party  had  obtained  its  influence  upon 
ecclesiastical  affairs.  He  went  as  pastor  to  Wilferdin- 
gen,  where  he  died  Jan.  20, 1881.  MuhlhHusser  seemed 
to  have  been  predestinated  to  be  the  leader  of  the 
Christian  party  of  his  country.  Everywhere  his  coun- 
sel was  asked  for,  and  his  work  was  appreciated  by  the 
Bonn  University,  which  honored  him  with  the  doctor- 
ate of  divinity.  He  published,  Die  christliche  Weli- 
onschauung  (  Heilbronn,  1876  ) :  Christenthum  und  die 
Presse  (ibid,  eod.)'-  — he  also  edited  R.  Rothe's  Erste 
Brief  Johannis  prakliseh  erkldrt  (Wittenberg,  1878)« 
(B.P.) 

Moir,  Jamee,  D.D.,  a  Presbjrterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Cumnock,  Scotland,  April  12, 1757.  After  the 
usual  course  of  classical  and  philosophical  studies  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  at  which  he  graduated  in  1776, 
he  prosecuted  his  theological  studies  at  Edinburgh.  In 
1781  he  was  ordained  an  evangelist  and  sent  to  Ber- 
muda, in  1785  joined  the  New  Branswick  Presbytery, 
and  in  1789  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Chorch 


in  Alexandria,  Va.,  where  he  died,  Aug.  8, 1820.    See 
Sprague,  AnnaU  of  the  Amer*  Pulpil,  til,  516. 

MtiJr,  John,  a  famous  Sanscrit  scholar,  was  bom  at 
Glasgow  in  1810.  He  studied  at  his  native  place,  anil 
in  1828  went  to  Bengal  in  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company,  where  he  interested  himself  in  the  moral  and 
religiona  welfare  of  the  natives,  and  for  this  purpose 
published,  among  other  works,  in  1889,  A  Sketch  of  the 
Argument  for  ChrisHanHy  against  Hinduism,  and  Ex-" 
aminaiion  <^Rdigions.  In  1858  he  returned  to  his  na- 
tive country.  He  died  March  8, 1882,  at  Edinburgh. 
Muir's  main  work  is  Original  Sanscrit  Texts,  on  the  Ori- 
gin and  History  of  the  Peoph  of  India,  their  Hdigion  and 
Institutions  (Lond.  1868-73, 5  vols.),  which  is  indispensa- 
ble for  the  student  of  ancient  Hindii  life  and  thought, 
dealing  principally,  as  it  does,  with  the  Vedic  period  of 
Indian  literature.  The  first  volume  discusses  the  le* 
gendary  accounts  of  the  origin  of  the  caste ;  the  seoood, 
the  primitive  home  of  the  Hindils;  the  third,  the  opin- 
ions of  Hindd  writers  on  the  Vedas;  the  fourth,  the 
contrast  between  Vedic  and  later  Hindd  theology;  and 
the  fifth,  the  ooamobgical  and  mythological  oonc^tiooa 
of  the. Indians  in  the  Vedic  age.     (B.  P.) 

Mtdii&ead,  Andrew,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first  rec- 
tor of  Codzow,  and  next  preferred  to  the  see  of  Glasgow 
in  1455.  He  was  oue  of  the  commissionerB  who  went 
to  England  in  1462,  in  order  to  negotiate  a  trace  be- 
tween the  two  nations.  He  died  Nov.  20, 1478.  This 
prelate  founded  the  vicars  of  the  choir  at  Glasgow,  and 
beautified  the  cathedral.  He  also  established  a  hoe- 
pital,  which  he  dedicated  to  St.  Nicholas.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  252. 

HffwHyyi^  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  English  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  London,  Sept.  2, 1820.  He  gave 
his  heart  to  the  Saviour  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  joined 
the  Church  a  year  later.  He  was  educated  at  Gowaid 
College,  and  in  1841  graduated  B.A.  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  London.  In  1842  he  was  accepted  for  service 
by  the  London  Missionary  Society.  He  then  studied 
for  a  time  in  Edinburgh  University.  He  was  ordained 
Sept.  5, 1848,  and  sailed  for  India  on  the  9th.  On  his 
arrival  at  Calcutta  he  entered  the  institution  at  Bhow- 
anipore,  and  in  1846  became  pastor  of  the  native  church 
there,  in  which  office  he  continued  for  twenty  3*eara. 
He  rendered  important  service  to  the  society  by  the 
collection  of  carefully  prepared  statistics.  In  1866  be 
retumed  to  England  to  assist  Dr.  Tidman  in  the  foreign 
secretaryship  of  the  society.  This  office  he  held  till 
his  death.  In  1870  he  visited  America  to  attend  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  American  Boanl  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions. In  1873  he  visitetl  Madagascar  in  the  iotereat 
of  the  mission  there.  While  making  a  journey  to  the 
heart  of  Africa  to  establish  the  mission  at  Tanyanyika 
he  died,  July  10, 1878.  Dr.  Mullens  is  the  author  of, 
Tufelve  Months  in  Madagascar  (Lond.  1878):— Kedai»- 
tism,  Brahmanism,  and  ChrisOanity: — Religious  Aspects 
of  Hinduism:  ^Missions  in  India,  and  several  other 
works  on  missionary  subjects.  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year- 
book, 1880,  p.  842. 

MttUer,  Alexander,  a  Roman  Catholic  canonist 
of  Germany,  who  was  bom  at  Zell  in  1780,  and  died  at 
Mayenco  in  1844,  is  the  author  of,  EncyUopddisckes 
Handbfuch  des  gesammten  in  VeutscMand  Kirchenreekts 
(Erfurt,  1829-82,  2  vols.)  i-^UAer  die  NothwendigkeU 
der  Reorganisation  des  Corpus  Evangdicum  (Leipsic, 
1880):— i>a«  Chrislenikum  nach  setker  PJlanzut^  und 
Au^reitung,  etc.  (1881)  i^Havpt^arakter  und  Grund^ 
fehler  des  romisdken  Katholictsmus  (eod.) :— i>6n»itat 
der  Neue  (1888)  i^Der  Ertbischof  von  Kiiln  m  Opposi- 
tion mit  dim  preussischen  Staaisoberhaupte,  etc  (eod.  8 
vols.).  See  Zuchold,  BiU.  TheoL  i,  885 ;  ii,  909 ;  Winer, 
Handbuch der theoL Lit.i,bSi;  ii, 5, IL     (K P.) 

MUller,  Chxlstian  €k>ttfiied,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  Dec.  28, 1747,  at  ZoUita, 
near  Marienborg.  In  1780  he  was  rector  at  Schleitz, 
in  1786  at  Naumburg,  in  1788  at  Zeitz,  and  died  Aug. 


MULLER 


737 


MUNIER 


10, 1819,  leaving,  De  Uw  Venioms  Vulgata  (Scbleitx, 
1782-85): — Formula  AuyuHana  Confeu*  (Leipaic, 
lBO»):'—Reformatumsffeickickte  der  Stadt  Zeitz  (1817) : 
-^Obtervati.  in  6  Loca  Cypriam  (Gen,  1777).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  tkeoL  UL  i,  109,  820,  802,  906; 
Flint,  BihL  Jud.  ii,  406.     {B.  P.) 

Milller,  Johann  Oeorg  (1),  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate  of  Germany,  waa  bom  at  Coblentz,  Oct  16, 1798. 
He  studied  at  different  aniTenitiea,  took  holy  orders  in 
1821,  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  in 
1827.  In  the  same  year  be  was  professor  of  Church 
history  and  canon  law  at  the  clerical  seminary  in 
Treves,  in  1847  was  elected  bishop  of  MUnster,  and  died 
in  1870.  He  published,  Ueber  die  Aeehiheit  der  zwei 
ersten  KtipUel  dee  EvanffeUume  nach  MattkauM  (Treves, 
1830) : — Die  hildlichtn  DarttdUmgeu  im  Sanehutrium  der 
ckrietlicken  Kirchen  (ibid.  1886).  See  Winer,  Hcmdbueh 
der  tkeoL  Lit  i,  86,  686 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TkeoL  ii,  916. 
(a  P.) 

MiUler,  Johann  Oeorg  (2),  a  Swiss  theologian, 
was  born  at  Basle  in  1800,  and  died  there  in  1876,  doc- 
tor and  professor  of  theology.  He  published,  BHche  in 
die  Bibel,  etc  (Winterthur,  1828-80;  new  ed.  1840) :~ 
Ueber  die  Texteskritik  der  Sckrijten  dee  Juden  Philo 
(Basle,  1889):— />es  Judm  Philo  Buck  con  der  Welt- 
itchdp/uftg  (Berlin,  1841) : — the  art  Philo  in  the  first  edi- 
tion of  Heizog*s  Real'Encyldop.:  —  Die  me»n€im»^en 
Ervoartungen  dee  Judm  Philo  (Basle,  1870)  i—Erlddrung 
dee  Bamabaibrirfei  (Leipsic,  1869).  After  his  death 
Riggenbach  and  Orelli  published  Dee  Flaviue  Joeephtu 
Sekrijl  gegen  den  Apioru  Text  und  ErUarvng  (Basle, 
1877).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  916;''FQrst,  Bibl, 
Jud,  ii,  406.     (B.  P.) 

Mttller,  Johann  Tobias  Immannel,  a  Luther- 
an theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1804,  and  died 
Aug.  19,  1884,  at  FUrth,  dean  and  Church  oounsellor. 
He  edited  Veil  Dieirich'e  HauepoetiUe  (Nordlingen, 
1846),  and  is  best  known  by  his  edition  of  Dae  evange^ 
litche  Konkordienbuch^  etc.  (Stuttgart,  1860  and  often). 
(B.P.) 

MiUler,  Julins,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, and  brother  of  Karl  Ottfried  (q.  v.),  was  bom  at 
Brieg,  in  Silesia,  April  10,  1801.  He  studied  jurispm- 
dence  at  Brcslau  and  Gottingen,  according  to  the  wish 
of  his  father,  and  at  both  universities  Muller's  disserta- 
tions gained  prizes,  so  that  in  1871  the  faculty  at  Gdt- 
tingen  made  him  doctor  of  laws.  But  the  ideal  of  a 
higher  life  was  presenting  itself  to  his  mind,  and  he 
betook  himself  to  the  study  of  theology  at  Gottingen. 
He  soon  felt  that  the  then  Gottingen  theology  could  not 
satisfy  him,  and  so  returned  to  Breslau,  in  1822,  to  con- 
tinue his  theological  studies.  While  Tholuck  was  on  a 
visit  to  Breslau,  Muller,  at  the  suggestion  of  a  friend, 
visited  him.  He  afterwards  carried  on  a  correspondence 
with  Tholuck,  whose  personality,  rather  than  theology, 
influenced  him.  In  the  spring  of  1823,  Muller,  by  the 
urgent  advice  of  Tholuck,  went  to  Berlin,  where  Strauss, 
Neander,  and  Tholuck,  but  not  Schliermacher,  met  the 
demands  of  his  heart  and  mind.  In  1826  he  was  called 
to  the  pastorate  of  Schonbrunn  and  Rosen,  near  Streh- 
len.  Here  he  wrote  his  Zur  Beurtheilwig  der  Sehrijt: 
die  hatholieche  Kirehe  Sehleeiene  (Breslau,  1827).  A 
second  edition  was  soon  called  for.  Soon  after,  he  came 
into  conflict  with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  by  re- 
fusing to  introduce  the  new  liturgy,  and  in  Blay,  1880, 
announced  this  as  his  final  decision  to  the  "  consistori- 
um."  His  official  relations  to  the  Church  were  thus  en- 
dangered ;  but  he  waa  happily  delivered  from  the  in- 
convenience of  a  removal  from  his  pastorate  by  a  call, 
in  1881,  to  Gdttingen,  as  university-preacher,  with  the 
promise  of  a  professorship  as  soon  as  he  should  publish 
a  learned  book.  In  1882  be  commenced  his  academical 
career  by  publishing  LtUheri  de  PradeetinaJtume  et  Li- 
bera A  fidtrio  Doctrina.  He  soon  was  made  professor. 
In  1834  an  urgent  call  as  professor  of  systematic  theol- 
ogy to  Marburg  could  not  be  refused,  and  when  M&ller 

XII^A  A  A 


preached  his  last  sermon  in  Gdttingen  (March,  1886), 
LQcke,  in  behalf  of  the  university,  presented  him  with 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity.  The  contributions 
which  MttUer  made  to  the  Studien  und  Kritihen  after 
1888  prepared  the  way  for  the  work  which  has  immor- 
talised his  name.  Die  ehrittliche  Lehre  von  der  Bundie 
(EngL  transL  The  ChrieHan  Doctrine  of  Sin,  Edinburgh, 
1877,2  vols.),  of  which  several  editions  have  been  pub- 
lished. In  1889  Mailer  accepted  a  call  to  Halle,  where, 
with  Tholuck,  he  became  the  chief  centre  of  attraction 
to  the  stndentSL-  In  1860  he  founded,  in  connection 
with  Neander  and  Kitzsch,  the  Deuteche  ZeiUckr\ftJUr 
chrietL  Wieeenechaft  und  d^rieiUckee  Leben,  to  which  he 
contributed  many  valuable  articles,  which,  for  the  mosi; 
part,  have  appeared  in  his  Dogmatieche  Abhandkmgen 
(Bremen,  1870).  In  the  summer  of  1878  he  resigned 
his  professorship,  and  died  Sept  27  of  the  same  year. 
A  provision  of  his  will  stipulated  that  all  his  manu- 
scripts should  be  destroyed.  His  M'orks,  besides  those 
already  mentioned,  are  De  Miraeulorum  Jeeu  Ckrieti 
Natura  et  Necessitate  (Marburg,  1889):  — £u<Aer»  et 
Calvud  SententicB  de  Sacra  Coma  Inter  se  Comparaiee 
(Halle,  1853) : — Die  evangelieche  Union,  ihr  Weeen  und 
gotUiches  Recht  (Berlin,  1864),  besides  several  volumes 
of  sermons.  See  Schulze,  Dr.  Julius  Muller  (Bremen, 
1879);  Zum  Gedachtnits  an  Dr,  Julius  Midler  (ibid. 
1878) ;  Kfthler,  Dr.  Julius  Muller,  der  kallesche  Dog- 
matiker  (Halle,  1878);  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Encgklcp. 
s.  V. ;  Schwarz,  Zur  Geschichte  der  neueeten  Theologie 
(8d  ed.),  p.  363  sq. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop.dee  Sciences 
Religieuses,  s.  v. ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  917.    (a  P.) 

Mlincb,  Ekkst  Hbrmakk  Josieph  von,  a  distin- 
guished Roman  Catholic  historian  of  Germany,  was 
bom  at  Rheinfelden,  Oct  26,  1798.  He  studied  at 
Freiburg,  was  in  1819  teacher  at  Aarau,  in  1824  pro- 
fessor at  Freiburg,  in  1828  professor  of  Church  history 
and  canon  law  at  Liege.  In  1881  he  accepted  a  call 
to  Stuttgart  as  librarian  to  the  king,  and  dird  June  0, 
1841.  He  published,  Die  J/eerziige  dee  christUchen  Eu' 
ropa  wider  die  Oemanen  (Basle,  1822-26,  6  vols.) : — 
Franz  von  Sickitigens  Thatm  (Stuttgart,  1827-29,  3 
vols.)  i—Sammlung  alter  SUeren  und  neueren  Konkordate 
(1830-31,  2  vols.)  i-^GeschichU  des  Monchthunu  (1828, 
2  vols.) : — AUgemeine  Geschichte  der  katholischen  Kirehe 
(1838) :  —  Rontieche  Zustandc  und  kathoUsche  Kirchen- 
fragen  (eod.): — Denkwurdigkeiten  zur  politischen  Re- 
formations' und  Sittengeschichte,  etc  (1839) :  —  A  Uge- 
meine  GesckichU  der  neuesfen  Zeit  (1833-86,  6  vols.). 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  696,  701,  747; 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  920 ;  especially  the  author's 
Erinnerungen  und  Studien  aus  den  ersten  87  Jahren 
eines  deutschen  Gelekrien  (Carlsruhe,  1886-88,  8  vols.). 

(a  p.) 

Milnchen,  Nicolaus,  a  Roman  Catholic  canonist, 
who  died  at  Cologne,  Jan.  29, 1881,  doctor  of  theology 
and  cathedral-provost,  is  the  author  of,  Ud)er  die  Be- 
strafung  der  Geistlichen  nach  dem  Entwurfe  des  Straf- 
gesettbuehes  fur  PreuMm .  (Cologne,  1848)  '.—Die  Amti- 
entfemung  der  Geistlichen  (ibid,  eod.) : — Das  kanonische 
Gerichlsverfahren  und  Strafreeht  (2d  ed.  1878,  2  vols.), 
(a  P.) 

MQnohmeyer,  August  Friedrich  Otto,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  waa  bora  in  1807.  He 
studied  at  Gdttingen  and  Berlin,  was  pastor  at  Katlen- 
burg,  in  Hanover,  and  finally  at  Buer,  near  Osnabrttck. 
He  died  Nov.  7, 1882.  MUnchmeyer  belonged  to  the 
orthodox  party  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  published, 
Gedenkbuch  fUr  Konfirmanden  (12th  ed.  1882)  i—Das 
Amides  Neuen  Testaments  nach  des  Lehre  der  Schrift  und 
der  Bekenntnisse  (Osterode,  1863) : — Das  Dogma  von  der 
sichtbaren  und  unsichtbaren  Kirehe  (Hanover,  1864) : — 
Zur  Kirehenregimentsfrage  (ibid.  1862) : — Hutchke  und 
Mejer  (1864)  :—Die  Offenbarung  St.Johannis  (1870)  :— 
Harfenkldnge  (1866).  See  Zuchold,  BM.  TheoL  ii,  921. 
(a  P.) 

Muniar,  David,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Geneva, 


MURCH 


938 


MYSLENTA 


was  bom  in  1798.  He  studied  at  his  birthpkoei  and 
was  admitted  to  the  ministry  in  1819  on  presenting  De 
Evcmgelio  PrunUivo,  In  the  same  year  be  went  to 
Havre  and  then  to  Paris.  In  the  latter  place  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Cousin,  and  Jean  Monod.  In  1826 
Munier  was  called  to  Ch^ne,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Geneva,  and  in  18*26  he  commenced  his  lectures  on  the 
New  Test,  at  the  theological  faculty  at  Geneva,  where 
he  was  rector  from  1882  to  1837.  In  1858  he  founded 
The  SociiU  des  Protettants,  and  took  a  lively  interest 
in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  the  Church. 
His  public  life  has  been  divided  into  three  periods: 
from  1825  to  1847  a  partisan  in  the  Church  and  the 
academy;  from  1847  to  1862  a  religious  conciliator; 
from  1862  to  1872  a  laborious  veteran.  He  died  Oct. 
9, 1872.  His  discourses  were  on  ne  Parables  (1838) : 
—  Th€  Miracles  ( 1841  ):-^The  Reading  of  the  Bible 
(1850) :— rA«  Divinity  of  Christianity  in  History  (1858), 
etc  See  De  la  Rive,  in  the  Journal  de  Genhve ;  Lichten- 
berger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences  HeUgieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Murob,  WiLUAM  Harris,  D.D.,  an  English  Bap- 
tist minister,  was  bom  at  Honiton,  Devon,  May  17, 1784. 
He  was  baptized  in  May,  1802,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Rippon,  and 
united  with  the  Carter  Lane  Church,  Loudon.  Sub- 
sequently he  became  assistant  pastor  with  the  cele- 
brated John  Foster,  and  then  sole  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Sbeppard's  Barton,  Frome.  In  1827  he  was  appoint- 
ed president  and  theological  tutor  at  Stepney  College, 
London.  In  1844  he  resigned  his  post  on  account  of 
ill-health,  and  a  year  afterwards  became  pastor  of  the 
Church  in  Rickmansworth,  Herts,  where  he  remained 
till  1851.  After  preaching  in  and  around  London  for  a 
few  years  he  removed,  iu  1856,  to  Bath,  where  he  died, 
July  12,  1859.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Handbook,  1861, 
p.  100.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Mnrray,  Andrew  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected 
bishop  of  the  see  of  Ross  in  1218,  but  refused  to  be  con- 
secrated.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  185. 

Murray,  George,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Church 
of  England,  the  second  son  of  lord  George  Murray,  bish- 
op of  St.  David's,  was  bora  in  1784.  He  was  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  graduating  B.A.  in  1806.  In 
1814  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man,  and 
in  1827  was  transferred  to  the  diocese  of  Rochester, 
which  was  then  but  a  small  bishopric,  comprising  nine- 
ty-six benefices;  but  under  the  administration  of  bishop 
Murray  the  number  was  augmented  to  five  hundred  and 
sixty-four.  He  died  Feb.  16,  1860,  being  at  the  time 
the  senior  of  the  English  bishops.  He  was  a  church- 
man of  the  old  school,  and  held  himself  aloof  from  ex- 
tremists.    Seo  A  mer,  Quar,  Church  Rev.  1860,  p.  184. 

Maagrave,  Georok  Washikoton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Oct.  19, 1804.  He  studied  at  the  classical  acad- 
emy of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Wylie,  and  although  he  did  not 
enter  college  on  account  of  ill-health,  he  pursued  his 
studies  privately  under  the  tuition  of  Rev.  Dr.  Archi- 
bald Green,  and  finally  entered  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  in  1826,  and  spent  nearly  two  years  there. 
In  1828  he  was  licensed  by  the  Third  Presbytery  of  Bal- 
timore, and  in  1830  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Third 
Presbyterian  Church  of  that  city.  He  continued  there 
twenty-two  years,  laboring  with  great  success.  In  1836 
he  was  chosen  a  director  of  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary, and  continued  in  that  relation  until  the  time  of 
his  death.  He  was  also  a  trastee  of  Princeton  College. 
Having  received  the  appointment  of  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication,  he 
resigned  his  pastoral  charge  and  removed  to  Philadel- 
phia. He  was  also  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Board 
of  Domestic  Missions.  He  finally  accepted  an  invita- 
tion to  the  pastorate  of  the  North  Tenth  Street  Church, 
Philadelphia,  where  he  labored  until  1868.  Having  re- 
signed the  post  of  corresponding  secretary  of  Domestic 
Missions,  he  was  reappointed,  and  continued  until  the 
board  was  removed  to  New  York.    He  was  elected 


moderator  of  the  Old  School  General  Assembly  in  Che 
same  year.  Dr.  Mnsgrave  took  a  prominent  part  ia 
the  convention  which  met  in  Philadelphia  in  1867,  com- 
posed of  delegates  from  both  branches  of  the  Preabyteriau 
Church,  the  object  of  which  was  to  promote  the  reunion 
of  the  two.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  First  General 
Council  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Edinburgh  in 
1879.  He  was  also  president  of  the  Presbyterian  His- 
torical Society.  Dr.  Musgrave  was  a  man  of  warm  at- 
tachments and  strong  convictions,  honest  in  his  views, 
and  fearless  iu  maintaining  them.  He  died  at  Phila- 
delphia, Aug.  24, 1882.  See  NecroL  Report  ofPrincetom 
7Aeo/.  ^em.  1883,  p.  22.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Mnakokee  (or  Creek)  Version  op  the  Script- 
ures. The  Muskokee  is  spoken  by  the  Creek  Indians, 
who  possess  in  their  vernacular  the  gospels  of  Matthew 
and  John,  the  epistles  of  John,  James,  Titus»  and  Epbe- 
sians-HiU  published  since  1868  by  the  American  Bible 
Society,  in  1 879  the  printing  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apoetles 
was  commenced  at  the  New  York  Bible  House.    (B.  P.) 

Mneeard,  Pierre,  a  French  Protestant  theologisn, 
was  born  at  Geneva  in  1627,  where  he  also  studied 
theolog}'.  In  1654  he  was  ordained,  was  in  1656  min- 
ister at  Lyons,  and  attended  the  national  svnod  at  Lou- 
dun  (1659.1660).  In  1669  he  was  preiddent  of  the 
provincial  synod  held  at  Is-sur-Thil,  and  in  1675  he 
accepted  a  call  as  pastor  of  the  French  Church  At  Lon- 
don. He  died  in  1686.  Besides  two  volumes  of  ser- 
mons and  other  minor  works,  he  published  Les  Confar- 
mitis  des  Cirimonies  Modemes  (Leyden,  1667 ;  new  ed. 
Amsterdam.  1744 ;  a  German  transL  was  publ'ished  at 
Leipsic,  1695).  See  Winer,  JIandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i, 
624 ;  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences  ReUffieusea^ 
S.V.    (RP.) 

MaBBttlmazi-Bengali  Version.  See  Bexoau 
Version. 

MatUation  op  Sblf.    See  Bodt,  MunLAtioN 

OF  THE. 

Mnnrling,  Willem,  a  Dutch  theologian,  who  died 
at  the  Hague,  Dec.  9,  1882,  doctor  of  theology,  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Groningen,  and  one  of  the  foand- 
ers  of  the  Groningen  school.  In  later  yeare  he  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  so-called  liberal  theolc^ansi 
He  published,  besides,  a  work  on  Practical  Theology 
(2d  ed.  1860,  2  vols. ) :—Ora/io  de  WesseU  Ga^fortii 
(Amsterdam,  1840),  and  a  series  of  essays  in  the  Gnm- 
ingen  periodical  Waarheid  en  Liefde,    (B.  P.) 

Musel,  Phiupp  Ludwio,  a  Reformed  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  lx>m  Nov.  24, 1756,  at  Prenzlau,  and 
died  Dec.  81,  1881,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology, 
member  of  consistor}',  superintendent  and  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  Church  at  Frankfort-on-the-Odei^  He  pub- 
lished, Ueber  die  Verpflichtung  auf  die  symbotisehen 
BOcher  der  evangelischen  Kirche  (Berlin,  1831): — Vor- 
lesungen  Uber  Christenthum  undDeismus  (Dantzic,  1794) : 
—Chnstophilos  (Beriin,  1830)  i^Ueber  den  Glauben  an 
die  im  Neuen  Testament  erzdhlten  Wunder  (£lberfeld, 
1815).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  iheoL  Lit.  i,  336,  385, 
393, 463  i  ii,  38  ^  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol.  ii,  923  sq.    (R  P.) 

Myrldielin,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  one  of  the 
nine  worlds  denigned  as  a  dwelling-place  of  the  dwarft. 

Myslenta,  Ccelestin,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  March  27,  1588.  He  studied  at 
different  universities,  took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  di- 
vinity at  Giessen  iu  1619,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Konigsberg  in  the  same  year,  and  died  April  80, 1658. 
He  wrote,  De  Sacrificiis'Veteris  TestamesUi.'^De  Mjf 
sterio  Trinitatis:—De  jEtcma  DimstiiaU  Chrisii:^De 
Christi  ad  Inferos  Descensu  Vera  et  ReaU.'—Dum  Qms^ 
stianes  de  Fide: — De  Just^fioaiione  Hominis  Peceatoris 
Coram  Deo  : — De  Sacramento  Baptismi: — De  EecUsia 
Dei: — De  Divina  Nostri  PradesHnaticsss  ad  VUam 
jEiemam.  See  Witte,  Memorim  Theologontm;  Arnold, 
Jlistorie  der  hdnigsbergisehen  Universitatf  Jddier,  Alt' 
gemeines  GelehrteO'Lexikon,  s.  r.     (B.  P.) 


NAAMAH 


738 


NAMA  VERSION 


N. 


Naamah.  Na^anehf  the  latest  proposed  represent- 
ative of  this  place,  is  merely  described  in  the  Memoir$ 
accompanying  the  Ordnance  Snrvey  (ii,  408)  as  *'a 
small  mud  village  on  low  ground." 

Nllbe,  Frikdrich  August  Axx>lph,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1800  at  Ddbris, 
near  Zeitz.  In  1824  he  was  catechist  at  St.  Peter's,  in 
Leipsic,  and  private  lecturer  there ;  in  1833  deacon  at 
Konigstein,  and  died  in  1855.  He  publishedi  Novum 
Tettamentttm  Grae.  etc.  (Leipsic,  ISSl):— Compendium 
Historim  EcdmatHca  (1882):  — ^rem  tA  Nov,  Tett, 
Commentarius  (1887):  —  Stimmtn  der  Andacht^  etc. 
( 1844).  Zuchold,  Bibk  TheoL  ii,  925;  Winer,  Hand- 
bueh  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  46, 802, 493, 538.     (B,  P.) 

Nachtigall,  Johann  Karl  Christoph,  a  Protes- 
tant  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Ilalberstadt, 
Feb.  25, 1758.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  in  1778  ac- 
cepted a  call  as  teacher  at  the  cathedral  school  of  his 
native  place.  In  1808  he  was  made  a  doctor  of  theol- 
ogy, in  1812  general  superintendent,  and  died  June  21, 
1819.  He  is  the  author  of,  Chrestomathia  J/dn-aieOf 
etc.  (Halle,  1788) :— Die  Ge§ange  David*  (Leipsic,  1796): 
— Exegetitchet  ffandbuch  des  Alten  Testamettis  (1797- 
1800,  9  parte) :  —  Koheleih  ( 1798-1799,  2  vols. ).  See 
Winer,  ffandbuch  der  tkeoL  Lit,  i,  208, 213;  FUzst,  BibL 
Jud,  iii,  9;  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutsch- 
lands,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Nadab,  the  ecclesiastical  head  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans in  Persia.  His  office  corresponds  to  that  of  the 
Mujfi  (q.  V.)  in  Turkey,  but  with  this  difference,  that 
the  iMi«2a5  can  divest  himself  of  bis  spiritual  functions, 
which  the  mufti  cannot  do. 

Nadhamiana,  a  heretical  Mohammedan  sect, 
which  maintained  that  God  could  do  evil,  but  that  he 
never  does  it,  lest  he  should  appear  a  wicked  and  im- 
perfect being. 

Nagaa,  a  class  of  Hindi!  mendicant  monks  who 
travel  about  in  a  nude  state,  but  armed  with  warlike 
weapons.  They  are  not  limited  to  one  sect,  there  being 
Vaiehnata  and  Smva  Nagas.  The  Sikh  Nagas,  how- 
ever, differ  from  those  of  the  other  secu  by  abstaining 
from  the  use  of  arms,  and  foUowing  a  retired  and  relig- 
ious life. 

Nagel,  Johann  Andreas  Michael,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  29, 1710,  at  Sulz- 
bach,  Bavaria.  He  studied  at  Altdorf,  Jena,  and  Leip- 
sic, commenced  his  academical  career  at  Altdorf  in  1737, 
was  in  1740  professor,  and  died  Sept.  29,  1788.  He 
wrote,  De  Mojo  Disputandi  Doctorum  Judaorum^  etc 
(Altdorf,  1737): — De  Linffua  Aramtea  (1739)  :>-Con;«- 
tjationet  A  ranuBm^  etc  (eod.) : — De  Lingua  Orbie  Bab^ 
Umici  (}7iO):—Ob$ervationet  in  Genes,i,\  (1741):— /» 
Genes, ij2  (l74S):^De  Ludit  Sacularibus  Romanorum^ 
etc  (1743) :— De  Tribue  Codidbue  Manuecripiis  Ebrai- 
cu  (1749):— De  StUo  Mods  (1755)  .—Diss,  ad  Genes, 
»iz,  26  (eod.)  :—Ad  Genes,  xlix^  24  (1756)  i^Ad  Amos 
Hi,  1 1  (1757)  :^Ad  Malach,  ii,  15  sq.  (1765)  ;  —  Adl 
Reg-  XX,  14  (1766)  i—A  d  Nehem,  vt'tt,  8  (1772),  etc  See 
Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. 
(  where  149  titles  of  his  writings  are  given ) ;  Fttrst, 
Bibl,  Jud,  iii,  13  sq. ;  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  LU,  i, 
70,  96, 144.     (B.  P.) 

Nagel,  Zaeopold  Jalina^  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1809  at  Stecklin,  Pomerania. 
He  studied  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  was  preacher  at  Kolzow, 
and  afterwards  military  preacher  at  Stargard.  In  1848 
he  resigned  his  office  and  joined  the  separate  Lutherans 
(q.  v.).  In  1858  he  was  called  to  Breslan,  the  main  seat 
of  the  independent  Lutherans,  and  died  Jan.  17,  1884. 
He  published.  Die  Erretlung  der  evavgelisch4utherischen 
Kirehe  in  Preussen  (2d  cd.  Erlangen,  1868):  — Die 


K&npfe  der  evangelisch-lutherischen  Kirdke  in  Preussen 
(Stuttgart,  1869).     (a  P.) 

Nttgelabaoh,  Carl  Wilhiclm  Eduard,  a  Luther- 
an theologian  of  Germany,  who  died  Feb.  9,  1880,  at 
Gunzenhausen,  Bavaria,  doctor  of  theology,  is  the  au- 
thor of,  Der  Prophet  Jeremias  und  Babj/lon  (Erlangen, 
1850):— ITctf  ist  christlichf  (Nuremberg,  1852):— Der 
Gottmensch,  die  Grundidee  der  Ojfenharung  (1853) : — Der 
Prophet  Jeremia  (Bielefeld,  1868)  i^Der  Prophet  lesaja 
(1877),  the  last  two  works  for  Lange*s  Bibelwerh:  — 
Ildfrdische  Grammntik  (4th  ed.  1880)  i—Gedanken  iiber 
die  Wiedergfburt  (1871).     (B.  P.) 

Nagle,  Nano,  foundress  of  the  Presentation  order, 
was  bora  at  Ballygriffin,  on  the  banks  of  the  Blackwater, 
Ireland,  in  1728.  She  was  educated  in  Paris,  and  while 
in  that  city,  in  1750,  resolved  to  devote  herself  to  the 
poor  children  of  her  native  country.  She  privately 
opened  schools,  first  in  Dublin  and  then  at  Cork.  She 
afterwards  assumed  the  habit  of  the  Uisulines;  but 
since  that  order  undertakes  principally  the  education 
of  the  children  of  the  wealthier  classes,  Miss  Nagle  left 
them,  and  recraited  new  auxiliaries,  who  became  the 
root  of  a  new  order  which  was  approve<l  after  her  death 
by  pope  Pius  VI,  in  1791.  She  also  established  an  as}*- 
lum  for  aged  females,  and  the  splendid  building  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  South  Presentation  On  vent,  Cork, 
is  the  result  of  her  work.  There  were  in  1873  fiftv 
convents  of  the  Presentation  order  in  Ireland.  Miss 
Nagle  died  April  26, 1784.  See  (N.  Y.)  Oath,  A  Imanac, 
1874,  p.  83 ;  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Cuth, 
Churdi  in  the  U,  8,  p.  868;  L\fe  of  Miss  Nano  Nagle, 
by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Coppinger  (Dublin,  1848);  Dubtin 
Review,  1844,  p.  368. 

Naglfiar,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the  greatest  ship 
of  the  world,  built  out  of  the  nails  of  the  dead,  and  de- 
signed to  bring  the  inhabitants  of  Muspelheim  to  com- 
bat against  the  Asas,  when  Ragnarokr,  the  destruction 
of  the  world,  begins. 

Nahalal.  Malul,  the  site  proposed  by  some  for 
this  place,  is  described  in  the  Memoirs  accompanying 
the  Ordnance  Survey  (i,  274)  as  "a  mud  vilUge  on  a 
hill,  with  open  ground  on  the  west,  where  stands  the 
prominent  ruin  Kusr  ez-Zlr." 

Naln.  AVui,  the  present  representative  of  this  place, 
so  interesting  in  New-Test,  histoiy,  is  thus  described  in 
the  Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,  86) : 

**Tbis  little  viUaffe  stands  on  a  small  plateau  at  the  foot 
of  Jehel  ed-Dahv,  in  a  position  elevated  above  the  plain. 
It  is  of  stone  ana  road,  with  a  little  mosqae  called  Makam 
Sidna  Alsa  on  the  north.  There  are  nnmerons  traces  of 
ruins,  exteudino:  bevond  the  boundary  of  the  modern  ham- 
let to  the  north,  snowing  the  place  to  have  been  onoe 
larger;  bat  these  rains  have  a  modern  sppearance.  There 
Is  a  small  spring  north  of  the  vlllnge:  a  second,  Aln  el-Bss, 
exl«ts  on  the  west,  and  beside  it  are  rock-cut  tnroba,  much 
defaced,  and  a  tree.**   (See  illnstrallon  on  following  pnge.) 

Nakib,  the  chief  of  the  Emirs  (q.  v.)  among  the 
Turkish  Mohamme<Ians,  who  is  held  in  great  respect  as 
being  the  head  of  the  descendants  Of  the  prophet,  and 
has  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  the  other  emirs. 

Nama  Version  of  the  Sckipturrs.  The  Nama 
is  spoken  in  Namaqualand  (q.  v.).  In  1815  the  Rev.  C. 
Albrecht  commenced  a  translation  of  the  gospel  of  Mat- 
thew into  the  Nama,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  he 
'completed  the  version.  Ten  years  subsequently  a  trans- 
lation of  the  gospels  was  effected  by  the  Kev.  Schmelcn, 
of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  which  was  printed  at 
Cape  Town  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.  In  1846  the  gospel  of  Luke  was  printed, 
having  been  retranslated  by  Mr.  Knudsen,  a  Khenish 
missionary.  These  two  translations  differed  from  each 
other  chiefly  in  this,  that  in  the  former  no  signs  what- 
ever are  used  to  represent  the  various  dicka  which  occur 


Prewi  t  AppMnnce  ol  Nnln     (From  Tbonuon  i  Onfral 


■  tr«n*Ulioa  wu  f;t,m  made  by  >  mUaioniTy  of  the 
Rhealah  Sociely,  Iha  Rev,  G.  Knialeiii.  Tbe  British 
and  Foreiga  Bible  Sociely  hiviog  conaented  lo  meet 
Ihe  eipeuie  or  printing  ta  edition  of  the  New  Teit.,  the 
tnnilatUT  weoi  to  Europe  for  tlie  purpOM  of  carrying 
the  work  through  the  pren,  which  waa  completed  in 
1866.  lo  addition  to  tha  New  Test,  Mr.  KrHuleio 
liBDilated  tbe  Pwlnii,  which  were  printed  during  the 
year  1872.  On  Occ  2S,  1881,  Ur.  KrSnlein  completed 
Iha  iniulation  oT  the  Old  Teat.,  early  pottioni  of  the 
UDM  having  been  begun  on  May  !8,  1873.  The  tru»- 
latOT  i>  now  reviairg  into  nne  barmonioua  whole  the 
entire  book*  of  the  Old  Teat.  Sea  Diih  n/ Everg  Lmd, 
P.4S0. 

For  tbe  language,  lee  Tindall,  Grammar  nfNamaqm 
UoUaitol;  Wallrnann,  Dit  PormenfcAre  der  Nainaqua 
Spraehe  (1Sd7)  ;  Hahn,  Dit  Spraclu  itr  Satna  (18:0). 
(B.  P.) 

JTanuul,  tbe  Sre  prajen  whicb  the  Hohammedana 
repeat  regularly  every  twenty-rour  boun.  Tradition 
•aya  that  the  prophet  wai  commanded  by  God  to  im- 
pow  upon  hii  diiciplea  tbe  daily  obligation  of  fifty 
ptmyen.  Dy  the  advice  of  Uoiea  he  aolicited  and  ob- 
tained permiuion  to  reduce  them  to  five,  whicb  are  in- 
diapenaable.  Tbe  timea  of  prayer  ire,  1.  Daybreak; 
2.  Noon;  3.  Aftemoon;  1.  Evening;  and  6.  Tbe  first 
watch  of  ibe  night.  On  Friday  (theii  Sabbath)  a  aiith 
prayer  ia  added,  to  be  repeated  between  daybreak  and 
noon.  If  the  prayen  are  not  repeated  at  tbe  prescribed 
boon  they  are  uaeleu.  The  arrival  of  each  of  the 
lioun  of  prayer  is  publicly  announced  by  the  Uueuin 

Cq-v.). 


Naai,  tb«  name  given  by  tbe  Jews  to  the  pi 
of  tbe  great  Sanhedrim,  whi>  waa  held  in  high  mpect 
by  Ihe  court.  Ho»e>  ia  Mid  by  tbe  rabbin*  to  hare 
been  (he  first  to  flU  tbe  office.  Till  Ihe  captivity  the 
lovereign  or  chief  ruin  acted  aa  Kaii,  but  after  that 
time  the  two  ofBcea  became  entiKly  dialinct,  the  right 
of  holdinji:  tbe  office  of  liati  belonging  to  the  deacmd* 
ita  of  HUlel. 

Nasr  waa  one  of  the  five  godi  of  the  ancient  An- 
iens, meniioDcd  in  the  Koran.  He  waa  tbe  aupmne 
Fity  of  the  Arab*  of  Yemen,  and,  ai  tbe  name  rigniOea 
an  eagle,  he  may  have  been  the  aun.god. 

■■•au,  Charlkb  WiLUAX,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
Her,  waa  bom  in  rbiladelphia,  April  IS,  1801,  Uia 
early  education  was  received  in  that  city  and  at  th« 
academy  of  Joseph  P.  Englea.  He  gradualed  from  tbe 
eraity  of  Pennaylvania,  July  B,  1821,  and  spenl  the 
ling  year  in  aludying  Hebrew  under  Dr.llanka. 
ivember,  1822,  be  entered  Princeton  Semiuaiy,  but 
ill-health  caused  him  tK  leave  in  one  year.  Ue  waa 
ticenaed  by  Ihe  Preabyterj'  of  Philadelphia,  April  2S. 
1824 ;  was  staled  supply  at  Noiriatown,  Norrilon,  and 
Providence  from  April  28. 1826,  until  be  was  ordained 
by  the  same  body,  Nov.  16  following.  He  bad  charge 
of  a  school  for  boya  at  Uontgomery  Square,  Pa.,  and 
waa  profeaaor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  Lafayette  College. 
During  the  eight  years  spent  here  he  supplied  the  Dur- 
ham Church.  He  waa  president  of  Ljifayette  C^U^e 
for  one  year,  and  was  proprietor  and  principal  of  a  fe- 
male 'seminarv  it  Lawrenceville,  N.  J.,  for  twenly-fonr 
.  He  died  Aug,  6, 1878.  See  A'acrot  Rrpen  of 
PrmaUm  TktoL  8<m.  IS79,  p.  31. 
Naat,  JoiuxH,  a  Lutberan  the(d(f[ian  of  GennaDy, 


■  XATIGAY  7^ 

WMbamNoT.17,173S,atL«oaberK,Wnnemberg.  For 
aome  tine  he  acUA  u  profeMor  it  tbe  ^mnuium  in 
Stuttgart,  in  ITS9  he  wu  puLor  at  P]a:hiiigm,  uid 
difd  Dec  !4, 1807.  He  la  tbe  autbor  of,  Huloritci- 
eritudit  IVadiricU  von  dn  trcii  niTcn  ttulidiai  Bibtl- 
aiugabm,  etc.  (Stuttgart,  nsiy.  —  LiUaariKAt  Kack- 
ridu  von  dtr  koeUaiUeSai  BiMiitatdtieig,  etc  See 
Winer,  Handlmdk  <far  (*»i.  l.V.  I,  ITS;  Znchold,  BibL 
TIUoL  ii,  939.    (a  F.} 

KaUUs  BplaoopltiM.     See  Natal  Days. 

NaUsa;,  a  hoiuehold  god  of  the  Hongoliin  Tir- 
tara,  ia  the  guardian  of  familiea,  anil  preajdea  oTei  the 
piodacla  of  (he  earth.  Every  tinuaa  baa  an  image  of 
Kaligay,  with  hii  wife  nntl  children;  the  romer  ia 
plaeeil  at  hia  left,  and  tbe  Ulter  in  front  of  bim.  No 
one  preaatnea  (o  eat  at  dinner  lill  Natigay  and  hia  fam- 
ily  are  flrst  wrred.  The  enUnaininent  conriita  in  gir- 
ing  tbe  mouthaofthe  imagea  a  chorougb  greasing,  afler 
whicb  the  frigmenla  are  throira  out  of  doon,  Tor  the 
■ccomniodalioD  of  nme  unknown  apirita. 

NatiTltBiiaiU,  a  name  given  by  Danrna  to  a  he- 
rclieal  aect  of  tbe  *lh  ccniury,  who  denied  the  elertul 
geneiaiion  of  the  aon  of  God,  mainUining  that  he  waa 
eternal  aa  God,  bat  not  u  the  aon  of  God. 

lXnti.vity,CauBca  or  TUB,  alBtlhUhtm.  Oflhia 
antique  menxirial  of  otir  Saviour'a  birth  we  extract  a 
general  account  Tram  one  of  Lbe  laleat  authorities  (Cou- 
der,  ToU  Wort,  i,  !8S  iiq.) : 

"Ths  tradition  which  Indlcatea  the  grotto  In  the  old 
baallica  at  Belhlehcm  aa  the  fiLe  nf  the  atiihle  where 
Chrlit  waa  bora,  la  ths  moat  Teaeroble  of  Ita  kind  ' 
iMCDCC,  the  ^aea  belug  nntlced  by  Justin  Hartjr  I 
adcentat;.  itls  almcwt  the  onl*  alia  which  <»  "•■' 

earlier  than  tbe  time  of  C.in ' -■  ■ 

aamaa  to  ma  credible,  beeaaa 
PaleMlne,  there  are  Innpii^n: 
In  rDCb,  reaeRibtlntt  the  _     __  ___      _    __ 

I  have  planned  and  measured  nt  Tekoa,  'Aali,  and  other 
piBcaa  BoQlh  of  Bethlehem,  and  the  nanoen  eilt~'  - 
them  lean  no  douht  aa  to  tlielr  att  and  cGaracler. 

"Thecredlbtlltir  orihis  Iradltloii  Ihua  sppeire  b. 

Itrealer  than  that  attaching  In  the  Uler  dUcoverle*.  by 

which  the enibnalaatic  Helens  and  ths  poll tIc'Cc 

aeuled  the  scenes  of  other  Chtiatlsneveiita:  aoi 

grotto  with  Ita  rockj  niauger  maT,  It  seems  to  l . 

cepted  erea  Iit  the  moat  sceptlcnl  or  modern  eiplorera. 

•^^Tha  Chnrcb  of  th-  vi.^n  .,— j.  i~ia.  .  ...-_ 
mnnutety.  In  which 
HndacoT^montctrei: 

ua  le  thna 


.  _Jd  the  tradlllu 

ihroDxhont  thli  t»rt  o 
9  InaUncea  of  slnlileB  cii 

KToito.    Such  I 


411  in,  ureeK,  ano 
Thob«>ll(cHw 

tTldance.  tn  order  of  ( 

jhnrchliil'niBsOne.ani 

-Id.    II  has  eacaped  deatmetlon  on  evi 
Iher  churches  In  Palestine  were  iiTer: 

in."1uUel 


eenlnrr,  altbongb  tbreatened  hj  (he  Uoalama.  In  thia 
baslllcn.  therefore,  we  have  the  onlj  nudliiputed  erection 
or  the  lima  of  Cimstantine  In  Palestine,  aud  Its  value  csn- 
-  '  B  i>TerTated. 

rclillsclargi  anthorlllei  are  of  opinion  that  oar  In- 
iiion  oi  to  the  progreiB  ot  Bjinntlue  srt  In  lbe  Seat 
la  aiill  retr  Imperfect.  U.  de  VogU  haa  done  mnch  to 
aluddite  lbe  snbiect,  In  hia  work  ou  the  great  bDlldlnss 
of  uorlham  Sjrria,  manT  of  whkh  are  dated  with  exacti- 
tude.   In  PalaaUna  we  bate  two  vnlnabls  cumplea,  one 


«th  cental^  srchliectur      .   . 
Justinian^  (iirtreaa  on  Geii- 

ycoinparem'  -  —     • 
M.  -■-  "—• 


ifath  a 

»lm,wllhwhlch  

and  In  the  llial  we  dnd  H.  da  ViwU's  opinion  conflrmad, 
with  respect  lo  the  ilowuera  wlui  which  Bjisntlne  art 
developed  In  aljle  In  the  East,  in  cmiparlsuii  with  Ihe 
more  rapid  progress  of  Ihe  WeaMm  Roniniiesqn*. 

"The  basilica  la,  moreoter,  Interesting  baeaoae  lla  no- 
enl  plan  reaamblei.  rerj  cloaalr,  the  dereripllon  elven 
bT  Bnseblu*  of  Oiniianllne-a  bnlbUnga  orer  the  Boir  Se|K 


ired  bf  a  doo 


.nillica  Itaeir,  which  Ci_ 
illh  Ibnr  rows  of  elsren 
if  about  tblnr  jardr,  and 


'alia  m 


lofwhlehaDdahatlBof 


and  four  al'leh 
Tomrani  encD,  a  total  breadth 
.  lenRIh  nbouLeqaal. 
tt,  ahme  the  piUsra,  which  are 
■—  1  clerestorj,  with 


;'£,; 


abora  tbe 
bnllt  Bi 


a  Ihe  enal  end 


oflbe  baallica,  aepnrailngoir  tbe  chancel,  whkh  hi..  .. 
auses,  north,  sonth,  aud  east,  and  whkh  forma  tbe  Or 
cbureh.  Beuealh  the  chancel  la  Ihe  Rrallo  of  tlie  Na 
Itj.  North  of  tbe  haalllca  la  Ihe  mote  modern  Li 
chapel  nfULCslherlnF.lhini  which  n  stidtcase  leads  du 
to  TSRlta  communtmlng  with  the  grotto. 

"The  pillar  rhsria  are  mnnolllhs  of  red  nnd  whits  n 
ble,  paluiei?  - 
scrawled  o; 

Corl 

rsted  all  onr  wllh  glass  moaolc,  ^gmeiils  of  which  ailll 
remain,  repratenllng  acanea  In  our  Lord'a  life,  portraits 
ofanEelsandoCBcr^tnmcluiracletBiWhh  srabesquea  and 
OreeE  Inaerlptlona.  lluae  memlca,  wlih  ibose  on  tbe 
chancel  walls,  wen  sieCDled  bjr  order  of  Ihe  Greek  em- 
peror, Maunel  Comuenoa.  In  the  middle  of  Ihe  lltb  een- 
Lurr.  The  roof  nbove.  once  painted  and  Hided,  wna  put 
■81,  the  floe  rnftert  hnTltii;  becTi  stTta  iijr  Philip 
'undv,  the  lead  <Htr1nped  off  later  ht  Ihe  Moalema 
J  bnllela)  by  KdwardlT  ofEngland :  nnd  the  wnrli 

Further  ivalomilnns  were  mnde  hi  MTS,  aud  n'gnln  In  ini 
and  18«,  but  ths  niojoriiy  of  the  work  appeara  lo  belong 
UJ  lbe  original  ilruclnre  of  the  lime  of  Conilaulliie." 

The  following  detailed  description  of  lbe  holy  pUcea 
in  the  Church  ia  taken  from  Poner'a  Ilandiockjor  Pat- 
«lw,p-S01aq.j  seeBlviBildeker,/>aJ«(iw,  p.!Uaq.i 
Wiiaon,  Land!  of  At  Bibli,  i,  S90  aq. 

"On  tbe  aonlh  aide  of  iba  church  we  Qrat  deaceud  a 
lighted  bj  a  ^mnier- 

plelnreof  tbo''5l'rEi'n."  Tlila'aial'rcaM  leada  to  a  low  vnult, 
, ..,,.  ^ J. _  j^g  ^g^j  [„j„  ^ 


luln  1, 
.tBLiri, 


n  few  at 


Bnaeblna— Dol  tbe  bl 
extending  n 


lofSt. 


D.    Paaalng 

Svifii 


MdelhenlllirsandlombBol^Pauh 
nod  Siialachin  (her  dnnghlei ),  will 
nid*  [ilctures  of  the  two  ulnta  orei 
them.    Opposite  thie,  on  tbe  weat,  li 

It  a  portmlt  of  the  great  fnlber  reel' 
llig  on  n  Hon.  From  the  north  end 
oMbe  chamber  n-e  aaceiid  by  tbre< 
etepa  lo  another  square  Tanll,  somi 
IweiitT  feet  on  eacb  ilde  and  nlui 

hlsh.aurronudedbjasu 

In  tlieaiudir  n[  Jerome— uow  a  chapel. 


This 


I  fide,  nud 


f«et.  'BrrollwPB, 
the  |]]U3tr)oas  rec 
irtlouofhlilire; 
Dded  ho  heard  I 
il  tramp  which 
.on  all  mankind 
intljr  rIngliiR  In  t 
that  with  a  atone 

rrl  Ilea,  and,  w 


his 


track  bis  hodj, 
em  of  jretm  nnd  sn- 
lond  cries,  baaonght 


flliht  of  lUlri  on  thetnDlt>.iiDdUiaiId«<if  the  cnl- 

to,  It  tbe  amsll  chiiMl  of  The  Prmepitm  or  'Uin- 
Cer.'  Ud  lu  iTFil  gidg  Is  tb«  plaes  of  lb*  miDger, 
iiow  nprcKnled  br  n  mirbbi  Irongb.  The  rml 
/ViswrnniH,  HI  lbs  Luina  tell  ox,  wm  Iniig  ngn  car- 
ried swij  to  Rome,  dud  !■  depurlted  In  Suiim  llarlk 
Minlare,     OTer  ihg  place  li  ■  gund  |iiiluilnji  by 


merejr  at  tbe 


ihow  laborinni  work!  if  bich 
rUle  ortheFulberarUie  "'- 
lb*  biblhal  Kholiir  ■   '  ' 

resurd  wllti  pwnllu ...  .. 

that  for  mnn  J  Tean  It  formed  the  hi 

Ibal  ramarknlile  nnii  whoee  Dame  ll 

•'  RelnrnliiB  Ui  the  chapel        '    ' 


lat  he  pmdon 
earned  him  lH 

-      -...    laaapoH    - 

id  Uia  ecclealiulicnt  hliloriaii 


iDlered,  we  obaervi 


e,  behind  a  montn  a 

miirdered  by  Berod'a  order  were  bsried,  miwca 
lbl>  teMon,  Che  A  liar  of  Mt  iKnoeenU.    A  mdi  ] 

""  Adjolbl^"  ' 

the  CASMi  at  jamtph,  l>elnE  11 

v-.id  or  HiiT  I.  futd  vo  haTe  rell.v. 

ut  the  linllTllT.    from  Ihls  we  enter  a 

end  ofit  we  lliid  a  door  <iii  the  lerc  ^pen 

.VoHetlf ,  a 
y-ctght  feel 
lI!  Mmlclrci 

Duri  vblch  are  (he  wor<l>,  Uio  \>%  T[iiai:<i[  IC.- 

bnro  otthe  Virgin  TAxrj.'  Itmind  the  etar  are  smpeiided 
aiileea  allver  rnmM.  onllnnallT  kepi  bnrnlncri  and  !«- 
...-j.i. 1 1_.... ..1 «e  arelluleElU  [ilcl- 


re  or  Ihe  MaiJTltT  at  Bethlehem. 


CMU,  wffk  U«  ShijAirit.  On  the  oppnalie  ride  uf 
Ilia  grotto  la  the  atatlim  of  the  wIh  men,  marked 
br  no  allnr  haTlhg  1  palutlng,  IppBrBDlt;  bj  Ihe 
aama  aitlab 

'^Theae  variona  grotloea  are  Rilnnleir  menaared 
olTb*  rule  aadllDe.  and  dlalilbatedplecemeBl  among 

hat  been  for  >  few  iDChee  of  a  wall,  nr  tbe  fnclloo 
of  an  altar;  and  motv  Uiao  once  Ihe  qaeftlnii  <>f  the 

opening  and  ahnttlDs  of  one  of  tbe  iloora  baa  well- 
nigh  lovolTed  Europe  In  war !" 

n«tlvi^  of  tb«  Bleuad  Vligln,  ■  festi- 
val  obeeived  by  Che  Church  of  Rotne  aunuallf  oo 
Sept.  8, 

ITattiTallam,     See  SopnciBH,  Lat>»t 

Nasaieth.  Tbe  l^tnt  descriplioiti  oT  tfaia 
memorable  place  miT  be  found  in  Conder^a  T'oi' 
Work  (i,  1S8),  and  the  J/emoirt  accompanjing 
the  Ordnance  Surrey  (i,  !76,  S!8). 
Neale,  Roi.Lin  Heber,  D.D.,  a  distitiKuiaheil 
BtptuIminialer,waibamBtSauthington,Conn..Feb.l3, 
1B07.  He(>TaduatedfroinCDliimbianCo]lege,Wa>hlnB- 
(on,  in  1830,  and  from  ibe  NewtonTheo]n){ica]  Seminary 
inISB3;  for  a  abort  lime  waa  paitur  in  South  Boataiiana 
Kew  Haven ;  and  in  1837  of  the  Fint  llapiiat  Church 
in  Uoaton,  where  he  remained,  with  creac  uaefulnea^ 
nearly  forty  yean.  He  died  Sept.  18, 1879.  (J.QS.) 
JVeandor,  Connd,  a  Lutheran  theoloi^en  of  Ger- 
many, who  lired  at  Ihe  beginninif  of  the  ITth  eentnry, 
belonged  to  the  moat  excellent  Hebraiita  of  Ma  time, 
and  tranalaled  into  Hebrew  Tiit  Epiitla  o/He  Cliri*- 
turn  Year  {\jt\^\e,li»e):-lMhtT't  SmaUtr  CalKkUm 
(Wittenberg,  Xb^y.—The  NittK  and  AlheMonim  Cim- 
ftuim  (ibiiL);  betide*,  he  wrote,  i)a  (?an»hu  Aeeatt. 
Ihii  /Mr.  qui  in  Siinv  /tiblicit  Rrprrimlur  (Leipaic, 
Io9fl)^-£fc>n«K(ifc  Wroiwm  (1590) :— rnSiita  Koea 
Cmjagaliowm  lltbraaram  (I&9G).  See  Jbcher,  All. 
ffmriiKi  Grltliritil-f^iitaii.Kr.;  ViXnC.BiiLJuiLii.tt. 
(tt  I'.) 

NeBndar,  Jolm,  a  Preabyterian  m 
of  Jewiah  parentage,  Noi.  12, 1812,  at  1 
province  of  Poaen.  He  waa  educated  ii 
with  Talmudical  Judaiam,  and  in  1886  waa  called  to 
Ilremertehe,  near  Bremerhaven,  to  occupy  a  rabbinical 
position  there.  In  1838,  however,  he  joined  the  Church 
at  llrenwn,  and  became  a  mia^nary  to  the  Jewa  In 
184&  NeanJer  arriveil  in  New  York,  and,  u  in  Ger- 
many, labored  among  Ihe  Jewi.  In  I8J6  he  woa  or- 
dained by  the  Dnieh  Ker.irmetl  Church,  and  in  1863 
Milled  at  Urooklyn,  tf.  Y„  when:  he  orgao- 
ized  the  t'irai  (ierman  Presbyterian  Cburcb, 
in  ttliich  he  labored  for  more  than  thirty 
years.     He  died  Nov.  6, 188S.     (a  P.) 

NebaU&t.  Its  inodeni  repteeentative, 
Itril  fi'tiala,  is  "  a  village  of  moderate  aiie 
at  ihe  edge  of  Ihe  plwn,  with  a  well  to  the 
ensi.  and  containing  ciatemt  with  large  cut 
i>ionca''(.Vrnoii'(  to  Ihe  Ordnance  Surrey, 
ii,  29G,  30G). 

Nebo  {E:naii,!9i  Xeh.vii,33).  For 
thia  aite  Lieut.  Conder  propotcs  (TaU  Work, 
ii.  339)  .Viitd,  wveii  miln  north-weM  of 
liebron,  described  in  the  J/moira  in  the 
Onlnanee  Survey  (iii,  309}  as  "a  omall 
village  perched  on  a  low  hill,  with  a  well 
about  a  mile  to  the  eaoL" 

Nab<v  HouKT.  Thia  vicinity  ia  in- 
cluded in  tbe  redaeed  Hop  at  lh«  Ord- 
nance Sarrey  coat  of  the  Jordan,  and  ia 


iinister,wasbom 
n  accordaoee 


NEGEER 


743 


NEUBAUER 


described  by  Lieut  Conder  in  tbe  Qitar,  Statement  of 
the  "  PaL  £xplor.  Fund,"  Oct.  1881,  p.  275  sq.  It  was 
also  visited  by  Dr.  Blerrill,  and  his  investigations  (^East 
of  the  Jordan t  p.  241  sq.)  conflrna  the  views  expressed 
by  us  under  the  art.  Pisqah.  Tristram  remarks  (Bibk 
Placet^  p.  349),  ^'  A  recent  traveller  has  endeavored  to 
show  that  Jebel  Shiagha,  the  spot  where  these  ruins 
sund,  is  Pisgah.  The  arguments  adduced  would  be 
equally  conclusive  in  behalf  of  any  of  the  many  flat- 
topped  mounds  of  the  neighborhood,  one  of  which  must 
have  been  Pisgah,  although  its  Arabic  equivalent,  Feth- 
khah,  seems  to  have  dropped  out  of  the  local  nomen- 
clature." 

Neoker,  Thbodor,  a  Protestant  minister,  was  bom 
at  Trieste,  May  7, 1830.  He  was  a  prominent  member 
of  the  Church  at  Geneva,  where  he  was  the  means  of 
founding  the  Evangelical  Society  and  of  promoting  the 
cause  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  He 
labored  for  the  cause  of  the  evangelical  schools,  not  only 
in  Geneva,  but  also  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  where  he 
went  for  this  special  purpose.  He  also  visited  England 
and  France  to  promote  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  during 
the  winter  of  1870  and  1871  he  labored  among  the  Prot- 
estant French  prisoners  in  Germany.  In  fact,  there  was 
no  branch  of  home  mission  work  in  which  he  was  not  en- 
gaged, and  his  sudden  death,  Jan.  10, 1881,  was  a  heavy 
loss  to  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Geneva.    (B.  P.) 

Negro  Dialect  of  Surinam.    See  Surinasl 

NeieL  For  this  place  Lieut  Conder  suggests  {Tent 
Work,  ii,  339)  Khurbet  I'Vintn,  a  ruined  site  eight  and 
a  half  miles  east  by  south  from  Acre,  described  in  the 
Memoirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey  (i,  822) 
as  *'a  terimced  hill,  with  heaps  of  stones  on  the  top; 
the  masonry liewn  but  small;  on  the  north  is  a  welL" 

Neill,  Hbmry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  15, 1815.  He  entered  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1829;  made  a  profession 
of  religion  in  1832 ;  entered  upon  a  ix>st-graduate  course 
at  Amherst;  in  1836  became  tutor  or  assistant  teacher 
in  Andorer  Theok)gical  Seminary;  in  1889  was  ordained 
pastor  at  Hatfidd,  Mass. ;  subsequently  was  pastor  at 
Lenox,  Mass.,  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  New  Branswick,  N.  J. ; 
in  1878  organized  a  Presbyterian  Church  at  Bryn 
Mawr,  near  Philadelphia,  and  died  there,  April  21, 1879. 

Nekeb.  For  this  place  Lieut.  Conder  suggests 
(^Teni  Work,  ii,  339)  the  present  Khurhet  Seyadeh,  four 
miles  south-west  of  Tiberias,  described  in  the  Memoir* 
accompanying  tbe  Ordnance  Survey  (i,  405)  as  "  ruined 
Arab  houses,  all  basaltic  and  apparently  modem."  Tris- 
tram sutes  {Bible  Places,  p.  278),  **  But  a  far  more  sat- 
isfactory identification  has  been  recently  discovered  in 
Nahib,  a  site  in  the  Ard  el-Hamma,  tbe  plain  between 
Tabor  and  the  sea  of  Galilee.**  This  is  precisely  the 
situation  of  Seyadeh,  but  the  name  Nakib  does  not  ap- 
pear there  on  the  Ordnance  Map, 

Nekir,  in  Mohammedanism,  is  one  of  the  two  an- 
gels who  wake  up  every  dead  body,  and  ask  for  the 
faith  of  its  former  possessor.  If  he  be  trae,  he  is  re- 
freshed with  the  dew  of  paradise,  and  laid  to  rest  again ; 
but  if  he  Is  not  favorable  to  Islam,  he  is  whipped  with 
two  iron  rods  until  he  yells  aloud,  and  then  is  cast  into 
a  snake's  nest,  where  poisonous  reptiles  gnaw  at  him 
until  the  resurrection. 

^elson,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh,  in  October,  1820. 
After  graduating  from  Edinburgh  University,  he  stud- 
ied at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and  Heidelberg.  He  became  pas- 
tor at  Greenock  in  1851,  and  exercised  there  a  useful 
ministry  of  twenty-six  years.  In  1855  he  visited  Amer- 
ica, and  published,  as  the  result  of  his  observations,  an 
Essay  on  National  Education  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  He  travelled  extensively  on  the  Continent, 
officiating  as  pastor  of  several  of  the  Free  churches. 
He  also  spent  some  time  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  Syria, 
his  failing  health  requiring  repeited  respite  from  labor. 


He  was  an  earnest  advocate  for  tbe  union  between  the . 
Free  and  tbe  Reformed  Presbyterian  churches  in  Scot- 
land.   He  died  at  Abden  House,  Edinburgh,  Jan.  26, 
1878.     (W.  P.  8.) 

NelBon,  Renbeiii  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Andes,  N.  T.,  Dec.  13, 1818.  He 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  at  seventeen  was 
licensed  to  exhort,  at  eighteen  to  preach,  studied  the 
next  year,  and  in  1840  entered  the  Oneida  Conference. 
He  preached  one  year  on  Otsego  Circuit,  and  one  on 
Westford,  serving  meantime  as  principal  of  the  Otsego 
Academy,  at  Cooperstown.  In  1844  the  Oneida  Confer- 
ence  founded  the  Wyoming  Seminary,  at  Kingston, 
Pa.,  and  Mr.  Kelson  was  chosen  its  first  principal,  which 
office  he  filled  for  twenty-eight  years,  with  but  one 
year's  exception,  during  which  be  was  presiding  elder 
of  Wyoming  District.  In  1872  be  was  elected  agent 
of  the  Methodist  Book  Concern,  in  New  York  city, 
which  office  he  held  till  his  death,  Feb.  20, 1879.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1879,  p.  67;  Simpson, 
Cyclop,  of  Methodism,  s.  v. 

Neugfonese  (or  Mar6)  Venilon  of  thk  Script- 
URE8.  The  Nengone  is  spoken  in  tbe  Loyalty  Islands. 
In  1854  a  mission  was  commenced  on  the  island  of 
Mar6,  under  the  auspices  of  the  London  Missionary  So- 
ciety. The  missioiuuries,  the  Revs.  S.  M.  Creagh  and  J. 
Jonea,  devoted  themselves  assiduously  to  the  task  of 
translating  portions  of  the  Scriptures  into  the  native 
language.  The  Nengonese  New  Test,  was  published 
in  1865  at  the  Mare  misuon  press.  In  1867  a  second 
edition  was  issued  at  Sydney  under  tbe  care  of  tbe 
Bev.  J.  Jones.  In  1869  a  revised  edition  was  printed 
in  England,  whilst  the  books  of  Genesis  and  Exodus 
were  printed  at  Mar^.  In  1874  the  Book  of  Psalms  had 
been  added  to  the  translations  and  editions  of  Script- 
ure already  existing,  and  was  issued  from  the  press  in 
1877,  under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  S.  M.  Creagh.  From 
the  annual  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety for  1885  we  leam  that  the  translation  of  the  entire 
Pentateuch  is  now  undergoing  revision.  See  Bible  of 
Every  Land,  p.  394.     (h.  P.) 

Nepanleee  (or  Kharpoora)  Version  op  ths 
ScfUPTUBES.  Nepaulese  is  the  principal  dialect  pre- 
vailing in  Nepaul  (q.  v.),  and  was  exclusively  used  by 
the  higher  castes.  It  is  becoming  prevalent  through- 
out the  whole  country,  and  is  rapidly  superseding  the 
other  dialects.  In  1812  a  version  was  oommenced  at 
Serampore,  and  an  edition  of  1000  copies  of  the  New 
Test,  was  issued  in  1821.  Of  late  a  new  translation  of 
portions  of  the  New  Test,  into  this  dialect  was  made 
by  the  Rev.  W.  Stuart.  In  1850, 1000  copies  of  Luke 
were  printed,  and  in  1852  a  revised  edition  of  1000  was 
sent  to  press,  together  with  1500  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  From  the  annual  report  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  for  1885  we  leara  that  the  Scotch 
Mission  at  Darjeeling  has  printed  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Proverbs,  the  Gospels,  and  Acts.  See  Bible  of  Every 
Land,  p.  121.     (B.  P.) 

Nesselmann,  Rodebich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1815,  and  died  June  12, 1881, 
at  Elbing.  He  is  the  author  of,  Kern  der  keiligen 
Schrift  (Elbing,  1845) : — Uebersicht  uber  die  Eniwicke- 
lungsgeschichie  der  christlichen  Predigt  (1862): — Buck 
der  Predigten  {1S62)  i—Chrisaiche  Predigien  (1865):— 
Die  avgihurgische  Confession  erldufert  (1876) : — J/aus- 
und  Predigtbuch  (Rbnig^berg,  1878).  See  Zuchold, 
Bibl,  Theol,  ii,  936.     (R  P.) 

Netophah.  The  probable  representative  of  this 
site  appears  as  Khurbet  Umm  Toba  on  the  Ordnance 
Map,  at  two  and  a  quarter  miles  north-east  of  Bethle- 
hem, but  no  description  is  given  in  the  accompanying 
Memoirs, 

Neubaner,  Ernst  Frie3>rich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Magdeburg,  July  31, 
1705.  He  studied  at  Halle  and  Jena,  and  commenced 
his  academical  career  at  Halle  in  1729,  was  in  1732 


NEUBIQ 


744 


NEZIB 


professor  at  Giessen,  in  1786  at  Halle,  and  ^ed  Manh 
15,  1748,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  De  Varia  Ti^ 
dole  ItUerpreium  Sacra  Scnptura  (Jena,  1727): — De 
Sahmoma  ad  LcetUiam  £xhortaiioHibue  (1729):  —  De 
Phrcui:  Caro  et  Sanffuis  (1729):— />e  MichaU  Arth- 
angelo  (1732) : — De  Corpore  Mosii  (eod.) : — De  PkrO' 
tibua:  Videre  et  Gustare  Mortem  (1745),  etc  See 
Fttnt,  BibL  Jud,  iii,  29 ;  Doring,  Die  gekhrttn  Tktoiogm 
DeuisdUand$f  sl  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  tkeol,  LU,  i, 
105,  851;  Jocher,  AUgemeinta  GeUhrten-Lexikon^  a.  t. 
(RP.) 

Neubig;  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Calmbach,  May  6, 1780.  For  some 
time  rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Hof,  he  was  called  in 
1818  as  professor  of  the  gymnasium  at  Bayreuth,  and 
died  in  1865.  He  is  the  author  of,  Die  pkilotopkiicke 
itnd  ehrittliche  Gotittkhre  (Nuremberg,  1881) :— PAt/o- 
Mophie  und  Ckri$tefUhum  (Bavreath,  1882)  i-^Die  philo- 
topki»che  UntterhlickheUslehre  (1884):— Das  Chritten^ 
tkum  ah  WeU-Jieiiffion  (Ratisbon,  1889):—/^  Jesus 
ChriatuM  mit  voUem  Reekie  den  Tod  einee  Verbreehere 
fftatqrhenf  (Erhingen,  1886).  See  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  iheoL  Lit.  i,  412,472,  483;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  U, 
936.     (fi.  P.) 

Neudeoker,  Chbistian'  Gottrom>,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Gotha  in  1807,  and 
died  there  in  1866.  He  is  the  author  of,  AUgemeinee 
Lexicon  der  ReUgioni'  und  christlu^en  Kirchengetchickte 
(1834-B7,  5  vols.): —  Urkunden  aue  der  Reformations' 
gesdUehte  (Cassel,  1986) i ^ MerhoUrdige  Aktenstkeke 
cats  dan  ZeitaUer  der  Reformation  (Nuremberg,  1888) : 
^Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament  (Leipsic,  1840):— 
Neue  Beitrdge  tur  Geschichte  der  Reformation  (1841,2 
▼ols.) :  — Geschiekte  der  deutschen  Rrformaiion  (1842)  *. — 
GeseMchie  des  evctngeUs^en  ProtesUmHsmus  in  Deutsck- 
land  (1844, 2  parts)  i^Pacification  der  evangeUsch-prO' 
testantisehen  Kirche  Deutschlands  (1846).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  512,  741 ;  Zuchold,  BibL 
Tkeol,  ii,  986.     (B.  P.) 

Nenffer,  Christiam  Ludwio,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  born  at  Stuttgart,  Jan.  26, 1769. 
In  1791  he  ?ras  preacher  at  the  orphan  asylum  of  his 
native  place,  in  1803  deacon  at  Zell,  in  1819  preacher 
at  Ulm,  and  died  July  29, 1839.  He  is  the  author  of, 
Das  Gebet  des  Herm' (Stuitgutj  ISQ2) '.-^VermScktmss 
fur  ekristUch  gesimUe  Sdhne  vnd  Tdekter  (2d  ed.  Ulm, 
1836):— Dcr  Christ  an  den  Grabem  der  VoUendeten 
(1837).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  ii,  842, 
376, 389 ;  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  ii,  937 ;  Koch,  Gesch.  des 
deutsch.  Kirehenliedes,  vi,  207.     (a  P.) 

Neuiville,  Edward,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  in  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1802.  From 
an  early  age  he  was  educated  by  a  prominent  merchant 
of  Charleston,  S.  C.  For  some  time  be  was  a  member  of 
Columbia  College,  New  York  city,  but  did  not  graduate. 
Then  he  entered  the  General  Theological  Seminary. 
In  1824  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and  settled  in  Prince 
William's  Parish,  S.  C,  where  he  officiated  until  the 
winter  of  1827,  when  he  was  called  to  the  rectorship 
of  Christ  Church,  Savannah,  Ga.  He  died  there,  Jan. 
1, 1851.  His  sermons  were  attractive,  without  being 
remarkable  for  strength.  He  especially  excelled  as  a 
reader  of  the  liturgy  of  bis  Church.  See  Sprague,  An^ 
nals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit ,  v,  661. 

Netunann,  Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  in  1884  at  Colombier,  in  canton 
Neufcbatel,  formerly  professor  of  theology  at  Breslau, 
afterwards  at  the  academy  in  Lausanne,  is  the  author 

of.  Die  Wasser  des  Lebens  (Berlin,  1848) :— D'lsbo  nST 
Sacra  Veteris  Testamenti  ( Leipsic,  1854  ) : — Jeremias 
nusgelegi  (1856-58,  2  voL«.)  -.-^Symboligue  du  Culte  de 
tAndemie  Alliance  (Lausanne,  1860) : — Die  Weissagun- 
gen  des  Sakharjah  (Stuttgart,  eod.):— Dis  Stiftshiitte 
in  BUd  und  Wort  (  Gotha,  1861 )':  —  Die  messianischen 
Erscheinungen  bei  den  Juden  (1965): ^Geschichte  der 


messiamschen  Weimagmg  *m  Alten  Testament  (eod.). 
See  Zuchold,  BiU.rAso(.ii,  988.    (a  P.) 

JXevreU,  Samukl,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Cincinnati,  O.,  April  23, 181L  He  gradu- 
ated from  Hanover  College  in  1884;  was  ordained  pas- 
tor in  Lebanon  in  1836,  where  he  served  ?rith  great  ac- 
ceptability and  usefulness  for  nine  years,  and  thereafter 
was  pastor  at  Paris,  IlL,  where  he  died,  June  28, 1879. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

New  Ghiinea  Version.    See  Moru. 

Newhall,  Falss  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bora  in  Saugus,  Mass.,  June  19, 1827. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  twelve ;  graduated  frona 
Wesleyan  University,  Conn.,  in  1846;  taught  for  sev- 
eral years  thereafter;  Joined  the  New  England  Confer- 
ence in  1851,  and  occupied  several  of  its  most  important 
appointments;  in  1863  became  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  in  his  alma  mater;  in  1867-68  travelled 
and  studied  in  Europe;  in  1871  returned  to  the  itinerant 
work  as  a  pastor;  in  1873  was  elected  president  of  the 
Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  but  soon  experienced  an  at- 
tack of  insanity,  from  which  he  never  afterwards  fully 
recovered.  He  died  April  6, 1883.  Dr.  Newhall  waa 
an  eloquent  speaker  and  writer.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  sermons,  essays,  etc.  See  A  lumni  Record  of  WesL 
Universitgy  1882,  p.  77, 610;  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer- 
ences, 1883,  p.  91. 

Newman,  William,  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  1772,  and  early  in  life  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Church  at  Waltham  Abbey,  Essex.  For  some 
time  he  was  an  associate  with  the  eminent  John  Ryland, 
as  a  teacher.  In  May,  1794,  he  wras  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Chnroh  at  Bow,  and  subsequently,  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Baptist  College  at  Stepney,  was  chosen  iu 
president  and  theological  tutor.  For  the  prosperity  of 
this  seat  of  learoing  he  labored  most  faithfully  for  many 
years.  He  died  Ddc  22, 1885.  See  ^ap/ifl  {/nion,  1836, 
p.  19.    (J.C.&) 

Newton,  Alfred,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minist^, 
was  bom  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  Nov.  11, 1808.  He  grad- 
uated from  Yale  College  in  1828,  was  tutor  there  frona 
1881  to  1834,  and  in  the  latter  year  graduated  from  the 
Divinity  SchooL  In  the  spring  of  1885  he  was  invited 
to  supply  the  pulpit  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Norwalk,  O.,  and  was  ordained  the  same  year;  was  in- 
stalled pastor  July  24, 1888,  and  sustained  that  relation 
nntil  Aug,  1, 1870.  He  remained  as  pastor  emeritus  of 
the  Church  and  a  resident  of  the  town  till  his  death, 
Dec  81, 1878.    See  Obit,  Record  of  Yak  College,  1879. 

Ne^Tton,  Roger,  D«D.,  a  Congregatkuial  minister, 
was  bora  at  Durham,  Conn.,  May  28, 1737.  He  gradu- 
ated fipm  Yale  College  in  1758 ;  studied  theology  under 
Rev.  Elizur  Goodrich ;  was  constituted  pastor  of  the 
Church  in  Greenfield,  Nov.  18, 1761 ;  and  died  Dec  10, 
1816.    See  Sprague,  A  nnals  ojfthe  A  mer.  Pulpit,  i,  513. 

Newton,  Thomas  Heniy,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  25, 1821. 
He  graduated  from  Lafayette  College  in  1846,  and 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1849;  waa  li- 
censed by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  and  waa 
ordained  an  evangelist  by  the  same  presbytery,  Nov.' 
13, 1850,  but  was  never  settled  as  a  pastor.  In  1849  he 
began  to  labor  on  the  island  of  St.  Thomas  as  a  chaplain, 
under  the  appointment  of  the  Seaman's  Friend  Society; 
in  1859  as  chaplain  at  St.  Louis;  in  1863  was  mission&ry 
in  south-westera  Missouri,  where  he  organized  a  church 
at  Linn  Creek.  He  afterwards  resided,  in  infirm  health, 
at  Carlinville,  111.  The  last  two  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  near  Richmond,  Va.  He  died  at  Waverly  Station, 
Nov.  19, 1880.  See  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL 
Sem,  1881,  p.  69. 

JXevr  Zealand  Version.    See  Maorl 

Neaib.  The  modern  representative  of  this  site, 
Beit'Nusib^  is  laid  down  as  a  rain  on  the  Ordnance  Map, 
eight  miles  nocth-west  of  Hebron,  and  described  in  the 


NGUNESE  VERSION 


745 


NICOLAS 


aocompinyiog  Memoin  (lit,  824)  as  oontUUog  of  *' cis- 
terns and  caves,  foundations  and  ruined  walls,  with  a 
few  pillar  shaftsL . . .  The  buildings  seem  to  date  back 
to  the  Byzantine  period,  judging  from  the  character  of 
the  masonry;  but  the  cisterns  and  caves  are  perhaps 
earlier.** 

Ngnnese  Venlon  or  thb  ScaipruaEs.  Ngunese 
is  a  language  spoken  on  the  island  of  Nguna,  one  of  the 
Sandwich  Island  group,  which  lies  six  miles  north  of 
Efate,  and  has  a  population  of  about  a  thousand  souls; 
but  from  Nguna  fourteen  islands  are  visible,  with  a 
population  of  about  seven  thousand  five  hundred  souls, 
who  use  the  same  language,  or  dialects  of  the  same. 
The  islands,  with  their  population,  are  as  follows:  Efate, 
dOOO ;  Lekpa,  100 ;  Mosa,  200 ;  Pele,  200 ;  Nguna,  1000 ; 
Emau,  600;  Mataso,  100 ;  Emae,  800 ;  Ewose,  80 ;  Valea, 
20;  Tongariki,  200;  Buninga,  150;  south  end  of  Epi, 
150.  On  Emae  and  the  Tonga  group  different  lan- 
guages are  spoken  on  each  side  of  the  islands,  but  the 
Ngunese  is  understood  throughout  them  all.  In  1881, 
at  the  request  of  the  New  Hebrides  Mission  Synod, 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  published  an 
edition  of  two  thousand  copies  of  the  gospels  of  Mat- 
thew and  John.  The  translation  was  made  from  the 
Greek  by  the  Rev.  Peter  Milne,  a  missionary  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  New  Zealand,  and  who  for  ten 
years  has  labored  chiefly  on  Nguna,  Pele,  and  Mataso, 
each  of  these  islands  having  a  church  and  a  school,  with 
a  church  attendance  of  one  hundred  and  fidy,  and  an 
attendance  at  school  of  one  hundred.    (B.  P.) 

Niasian  Varsioii  op  the  Scripturbs.  Niaaian 
is  spoken  on  the  island  of  Nias,  which  lies  near  Sumatra, 
and  contains  a  large  population,  estimated  by  the  Rev. 
J.  Denninger  at  eighty  thousand  souls.  Up  to  the  year 
1871  nothing  had  been  done  for  the  island  in  the  way 
of  printing;  but  Mr.  Denninger,  of  the  Barmen  Evan- 
gelical Missions,  who  labored  for  many  years  in  this 
and  the  adjoining  island,  committed  the  language 
to  writing,  prepared  a  gprammar  in  it,  and  transhited 
some  parts  of  the  Scripture.  In  1878  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  printed  the  gospel  of  Luke,  and 
this  is  at  present  the  only  part  of  Scripture  extant. 

(a  p.) 

Nichols,  Samukl,  D.I>.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  Nov.  14, 1787.  He  graduated  from 
Yale  College  in  1811;  was  ordained  by  bishop  Hobart 
in  1818;  from  1815  to  1887  was  rector  of  St.  Matthew's 
Church,  Bedford,  Conn. ;  resigning  this  charge,  he  re- 
tired from  the  active  ministry,  and  died  in  Greenfield, 
July  17, 1880.  See  Whittaker,  A  Imanac  and  Directory^ 
1881,  p.  174. 

Nicholaon,  Ed^rard  O.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal  clergyman,  appears  in  the  records,  in  1864,  as  hav- 
ing a  parish  in  the  city  of  Mexico;  the  following  year 
he  removed  to  Kentucky ;  in  1870  he  became  a  resident 
of  New  York  city,  where  he  remained  until  his  death, 
Sept.  1, 1872,  at  the  age  of  fifty-four  years.  See  Prot. 
EpucAlmanaCf  1873,  p.  183. 

NioholBon,  Joseph  B.,  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
antiquarian,  and  author,  was  bom  in  1795.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  in  1820;  in  1826  became 
domestic  chaplain  to  his  royal  highness  the  duke  of 
Clarence;  in  1885  he  was  appointed  rector,  and  in  1846, 
rural  dean  of  St.  Albans,  where  he  continued  till  his 
death,  July  27,  1866.  He  was  also  appointed  surro- 
gate for  the  archdeaconry  of  St.  Albans,  and  in  1862  was 
nominated  an  honorable  canon  of  Rochester  Cathedral. 
Dr.  Nicholson  was  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  a  member  of  the 
Numismatical  Society;  was  vice-president  of  the  Archa)- 
ological  and  Architectural  Society ;  a  magistrate  for  St. 
Albans  and  the  county  of  Hertford.  In  1851  he  pub- 
lished the  first  edition  of  a  work  entitled,  The  A  bbey 
ofSUAlJbcms,  and  soon  after  an  enlarged  edition.  See 
AppUion^9  Annual  Cydopadiay  1866,  p.  596. 

Nickels,  Chbibtophkr  Mardenbobouoh,  D.D.,  a 


Congregational  minister,  was  bom  at  Femaqnid,  Me., 
Jan.  18, 1806.  He  giaduated  from  Brown  University 
in  1880,  for  one  year  thereafter  was  principal  of  an 
academy  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  and  in  1885  graduated 
from  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  spending  a 
year  meantime  as  tutor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  Brown 
University.  The  last-named  year  he  became  the  min- 
ister of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Gloucester,  Mass., 
where  he  remained  for  nearly  thirteen  years,  and  was 
greatly  blessed  in  his  work.  For  the  benefit  of  his 
wife's  health  be  went  to  New  Orieans,  and  while  there 
preached  at  the  Bethel,  and  founded  a  seamen's  home. 
In  the  summer  of  1850  he  came  back  to  the  North,  and 
for  five  3'ears  had  charge  of  the  Congregational  Church 
at  Barre,  Mass.;  next  of  the  Central  Presbyterian 
Church,  Newark,  N.  J.,  a  position  which  he  resigned  on 
account  of  ill-health,  in  1864,  and  then  spent  a  year  in 
Europe  and  the  East.  In  1867  went  abroad  the  second 
time,  and  after  seven  years  he  took  up  his  reudence  in 
Newark,  N.  J.,  whence  he  removed  to  Princeton,  and 
finally  to  New  London,  Conn.,  where  he  died,  July  10, 
1878.  See  Brown  UnUtitUy  Necrology,  1879'- 80. 
(J.  a  S.)       • 

Nloolai,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian,  who  died 
at  Tubingen,  Aug.  12, 1708,  is  the  author  of,  Libri  4  de 
Sepulckrit  ffebraorum  (Leyden,  1706) : — De  Juramentis 
ffebraontm,  GrtBcorumj  Romanorum^  A  liorumque  Popv^ 
lorum  (Frankfort,  1700).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  ill,  82; 
Winer,  Handbuck  der  iheoL  Lit,  i,  145,  515,  684,  844; 
Jocher,  Allgemeines  GeUhrten-Tjexikon^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Nioolai,  Johann  David,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Hambnrg,  Feb.  25, 1742.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  was  in  1770  sub-rector  at  Stade, 
in  1778  rector,  in  1781  cathedral-preacher  at  Bremen, 
and  died  April  3, 1826.  Besides  a  number  of  sermons 
he  published  Da»  Neue  Tettamenf^  etc.  (Bremen,  1775- 
76,  2  vols.).  See  Doring,  Die  deuUchen  Kanzelredbter^ 
p.  264-270;  Winer,  Bandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  ii,  159. 
(a  P.) 

Nioolai,  Otto  Nathanael,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  April  5, 1710.  He  studied 
at  Leipsic,  was  in  1788  deacon  at  Naumburg,  in  1742  at 
Magdeburg,  and  died  in  1788,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
wrote,  De  OuUme  Regie  Edom  Combuetis  (Leipsic,'  1788) : 
-^Schediatma  Philologiatm  de  Angelo  lerailitarum  per 
Deeerium  Duce  (1784)  i^Meletema  ExegtHcum  de  Pro- 
pheiarum  Veterum  Judaieomm  Veetitu  (Magdeburg, 
1746)  :-^De  Vmea  Dei  Satis  Quidem  Culta  (HelmstMdr, 
1747):  — Z)e  Terroribue  IJiskia  in  Faucibus  Mortis 
(17A9)i-^De  Servis  Josephi  Medicis  (1752):— Z>e  Gra^ 
tia  Dei  Prwaiiva  (1760).  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  82 ; 
During,  Die  gelehHen  Tkeologen  Deutschlands.  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Nioolas  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  bishop  of 
the  Isles  in  1208.  He  went  to  Ireland  to  visit  the 
monastery  of  Benchor.  He  resigned  his  bishopric  in 
1217.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops^  p.  298. 

Nioolas  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  to  the 
sec  of  Caithness  in  1278,  but  was  never  consecrated  on 
account  of  some  objection  of  the  pope.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  210. 

Nicolas  LB  Gros,  a  French  theologian,  was  burn 
at  Rbeims  in  1675.  He  distinguished  himself  in  phi- 
losophy and  theolog}',  and  was  made  canon  of  the  ca- 
thedral at  Rheims  by  the  archbishop  Le  Tellier.  On 
account  of  his  opposition  to  the  bull  IJnigenitus  (q.  v.), 
Gros  was  deposed  of  his  office  and  excommunicated  by 
Tellier's  successor,  the  archbishop  Bfailli.  Gros  had  to 
leave  the  country,  and  finally  settled  at  Utrecht,  and 
was  made  professor  of  theology  in  the  seminary  at 
Amersfoort.  He  died  in  1751.  Gros  publisbedj  Du 
Benrersemeni  des  Libertis  de  VEgUse  Gallicane  dans 
r Affaire  de  la  Constitution  Unigenitus  (1716, 2  vols.)  :— 
Manuel  du  Chretien: — Meditations  sur  la  Concorde  des 
Evangiles  (Paris,  1730,3  vols.)  i—MUitationssur  PEpitre 
aux  Bomains  (1785, 2  vols.)  x—MUitations  sw-  les  Epiires 


NICOLSON 


746 


NISBET 


CathoUquet  (1754,  6  vols.) :  —  Jf o/»/«  InvmeStUa  ^Ai^ 
tachement  a  VEfflise  Romaine  pour  de»  Caikoliqnes: — 
L(i  Sainte  BibU  Traduite  (Cologne,  1799):-^  Dogma 
JCodena  circa  Usuram  Expotitum  et  Vmdieatum,  See 
Jocher,  AUffemeines  Geldirten^Lexihon^  a.  v.;  Lh  Nou^ 
velifs  EccUsioMtiques  of  Jan.  80  and  Feb.  6, 1758;  Mi- 
fnoires  pour  SetTtr  A  VllUtoire  EecUsitutique^  etc.,  vol. 
iv;  Liclitenberger,  Encydop,  de»  Sciencet  Rdigieute*^ 
8.  V.     (R  P.) 

Nicolson,  Jambs,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  minuter 
at  Mcigle,  when  he  was  preferreil  to  the  see  of  Dunkeld 
in  160G.  He  died  Aug.  17, 1607.  See  Keith,  ScoitUh 
BishopSj  p.  98. 

Nieden,  Frikdrich,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  Nov.  25, 1812.  He  studied  at  Bonn, 
and  was  ordained  in  1839.  In  the  same  jear  he  was 
called  as  pastor  to  Friemersheim,  in  the  county  of 
Moers,  in  1866  to  Coblentz,  was  made  general  superin- 
tendent in  1877,  and  died  March  19, 1883,  doctor  of 
theology.    (B.  P.) 

Nielsen,  Nikolai  Johann  Bmst,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1806  at  Rendsburg. 
He  studied  at  Kiel  and  Berlin,  was  in  1882  pastor  at 
Sarau,  Holsteio,  in  1840  prcn-ost,  in  1848  doctor  of  the- 
ology, in  1851  superintendent  at  Eutin,  in  1853  pastor 
at  Oldenbuig,  retired  in  1879,  and  died  Jan.  26, 1883. 
He  published  several  volumes  of  sermons,  and  some  as- 
cetical  works,  for  which  see  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii, 
940  sq.     (a  P.) 

Nieleen,  Rasmtui,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Den- 
mark, was  bom  in  1809.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen, 
and  commenced  his  academical  career  there  in  1840. 
For  more  than  forty  years  he  labored  as  university 
teacher,  and  died  Sept. 80, 1884.  Nielsen  was  a  follower 
of  Kierkegaard,  and  an  opponent  of  Martensen*s  specu- 
lative  system  of  theology.  Of  his  works  which  have 
been  translated  into  German,  we  mention  2>e>'  Brief 
PauU  an  die  Romer  (Leipsic,  1843)  i^Vorittungen  Uber 
phUotophiscke  Propddeutik:  —  Die  Logik  dtr  Grund- 
ideett: — Religionsphilosophie  and  AUgemeine  Wisten- 
schajisiehre  in  ihren  Urundzugen  (1880).     (a  P.) 

Niemann,  Eduard,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  26, 1804,  at  Neuenkirchen,  in 
the  principality  of  OsnabrUck.  After  completing  his 
theological  studies,  he  was  appointed  preacher  at  his 
birthplace  in  1825,  and  in  182is  was  called  to  Hanover. 
Here  Niemann's  sermons  soon  attracted  all  classes  of 
society,  and  in  1882  he  was  appointed  court-prcachcr. 
In  1841  be  became  a  member  of  consistor^^,  in  1855 
general  superintendent,  and  died  Aug.  12, 1884,  doctor 
of  theology.  He  published  several  volumes  of  sermons, 
for  which  see  Zuchold,  Bibl.  Theol  ii,  941  sq.     (a  P.) 

Niemann,  Sebastian,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  April  2, 1625.  He  studied  at  dif- 
ferent universities,  commenced  his  academical  career  at 
Jena  in  1651,  was  in  1654  professor,  in  1657  doctor  of 
theology,  in  1666  superintendent  and  member  of  con- 
sistory, in  1674  general  superintendent  at  Schleswig, 
and  died  March  6, 1684.  He  is  the  author  of,  Ditputa- 
tiones  de  Miraculit:  —  De  anti-Chrigto : — De  Visione 
Diei  Christi  ab  A  brahamo  Desiderata,  etc : — De  Aferiio 
Bonorum  Operum  conira  BeUamUnum : — De  Peedobap' 
tismo: — De  Viribus  Liberi  Avbilrii  in  Conversione : — 
De  Xikolaiii*  ex  ApocaL  ii,  15 : — De  Conciiii  Niaeni  I 
ei  (Kcumenici  Auctoritate  ct  Integriiate: — De  Uceresi 
NicolaUarum,  etc  See  Moller,  Cimbria  IMerata ;  Joch- 
er, A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-fjcxikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Niemeyer,  Hermann  Agathon,  a  German  di- 
vine, son  of  August  Hermann,  was  bom  at  Halle,  Jan. 
5,  1802.  He  pursued  his  theological  studies  at  his 
native  place,  and  commenced  his  theological  career 
there  in  1825.  In  1826  he  was  calie<l  to  Jena,  but  rc- 
tumed  in  1829  to  Halle,  and  died  Dec.  6, 1851.  He 
published,  De  Docetis  Comment,  IIist,'-Theolog.  (Halle, 
1823)  i—De  Jndon  Pelunotm  Viia,  Scriptit  H  Doctrina 


(tbtd.1^):— Co2Zecf»o  Con/e$nomtm  m  EcdetUg  ie»- 
formatit  PMieaiarum  (Leipsic,  1840).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  LH.  i,  162,  586, 640,  896;  Zocbold, 
BUd.  TheoL  ii,  943.     (B.  P.) 

Niemeyer,  Johann  BartholomaBtui,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  German}',  was  bom  June  24, 1644. 
He  studied  at  Helmstlldt,  and  died  there,  May  8, 1708» 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  De  Semi^ 
ne  MuUerit  Contrituro  Caput  Serpeniili: — De  Di$c^dma 
EecUtiaMiea: — De  Conjugiit  Ijfge  Dtvina  Prohiititc 
— De  Exittentia  Dei  nee  non  Atheimno  ei  Deiemo: — De 
XominUmt  et  Eueniia  Dei: — De  Medioeritate  Ratkmit 
in  Virtute  Obaervanda.  See  Jocher,  Al^etneinea  (7«- 
iehrten'Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  liandimch  der  ikeoL  Lit, 
ii,  22.     (a  P.) 

Nieremberger,  Nicolaus,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  May  9,  1648.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg,  was  in  1678  teacher  at  the  gymnasium  io 
Ratisbon,  in  1681  professor  of  theology,  and  died  Sept. 
29, 1700.  He  wrote,  De  RHibut  Metuta  (Wittenberg, 
1674;  2d  ed.  1714)  \—De  Deprecatume  Calieit  Christi 
(1677) : — De  Angelica  de  Corpore  Christi  Disceptatione 
(1682) :— y;«  A  Iphabeto  Ebraico  (1691)  i—De  Scripiuraf 
Sacra  Subjecto  (1694) : — De  Nofis  Numerorum  EbraictM 
(eod.):— XM  Auctoritate  Scriptura  S,  Classiea  (1699)  : 
— De  Nomine  Hin*'  (1701): — Diss.  Pentagrammata 
mon*'  IHXOYX,  Jesus,  etc  (1702)  x—De  TripUci  Ge- 
nere  Apocryphorum  (1704).  See  Doring,  Die  geUhrien 
Theologen  Deutsehlands,  sl  v.     (a  P.) 

Niermeyer,  AstgtsKj  a  Dutch  theologian,  was 
bora  Sept.  2, 1814,  at  Ylaardingen,  Holland.  He  stud- 
ied at  Leyden,  and  was  in  1840  called  to  the  pastorate 
at  S'Heer-Arendskerk,  Zealand.  His  leisure  he  devoted 
to  the  exegesis  of  the  New  Test.,  and  in  1846  and  1850 
received  the  golden  medal  from  the  Hague  Society  for 
the  Defence  of  the  Christian  Religion,  by  presenting 
papers  on  the  authenticit}"  of  Paul's  epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  and  on  the  writings  of  John.  These  eze- 
getical  labors  induced  the  theological  faculty  to  honor 
their  author  with  the  doctorate  of  theolo^,  and  when 
his  teacher.  Van  Hengcl,  died  (1853),  Niermeyer  waa 
appointed  hw  successor.  He  died  April  10, 1855.  Nier- 
meyer's  prihcipal  works  are,  Authenfidti  de  VEpitre 
aux  Ephhiens  (1847-48,2  vols.) :— i^/af  Aetuel  de  In 
Critique  du  Nouveau  Testament,  a  poem  (1849) :— J/apo- 
«m  de  Critique  et  dExegese  (Leyden,  1850-52, 8  vols.) : 
—.4  utkenticiti  des  ta-its  Johanniques  (1852-53, 2  vols.). 
See  Lichtenbergcr,  Encgclop,  des  Sciences  Religieuees^ 
S.V,     (a  P.) 

Nina,  LoRKNzo,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate  of  Italy, 
was  born  at  Recanati,  near  Anoona,  May  12, 1812.  He 
was  made  a  priest  in  1845,  and  was  appointed  by  Piua 
IX  assessor  inquisiiionis  and  pnefectus  studii  at  the 
lyceuro  of  Sr.  Apollinaris.  In  1877  Nina  was  appointed 
cardinal-deacon,  and  in  1879  cardinal-secretary  of  the 
stAte.  In  his  latter  capacity  he  endeavored  to  bring 
about,  a  modus  vicendi  with  the  German  goveramenu 
In  1880,  at  his  own  request,  he  was  relieved  from  the 
office  of  secretary  and  appointed  prefect  of  the  con- 
gregations of  councils.  Nina  died  July  27, 1885.  See 
Men  of  the  Time  (1879),  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ningpo  CoUoqnial  Veraioo.  See  Cbinbsb 
YisRSiOKa. 

Ninian,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  promoted  to  the  Be« 
of  Galloway,  April  27, 1459,  and  was  present  in  Parlia- 
ment at  the  forfeiture  of  the  earl  of  Roas  in  1476.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  276. 

Niabet,  Hekry,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  at  Launceston,  Glasgow,  in  1817,  of 
devout  parents.  He  joined  the  Church  in  1835,  grad- 
uated at  Glasgow  University,  studied  two.years  (1886- 
37)  at  the  Theological  Hall  of  Glasgow,  offered  his 
serrices  to  the  London  Missionary  Society,  attended 
Chcshunt  College  for  two  sessions,  and,  in  1840,  in 
company  with  his  fellow -student  and  oo-worker,  Dr. 


NIUEAN  VERSION 


141   NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS 


Qeoige  Turner,  was  ordained  and  appointed  to  Tanna, 
an  island  in  the  New  Hebrides,  whither  they  at  once 
iaile<l.  Here  they  carried  on  operations  for  a  short 
time,  but  on  account  of  an  insurrection  among  the  na- 
tives were  obliged,  under  cover  of  night,  to  flee  for  life. 
They  landed  at  Samoa,  set  out  afresh  on  their  mission- 
ary life,  and  soon  met  great  success.  In  1844  they  es- 
tablished the  Samoan  Mission  Seminary;  which  sent 
forth  more  than  six  hundred  native  agents  before  Dr. 
Nisbet's  decease.  May  9,  1876.  He  possessed  a  wdl- 
stored  mind,  and  was  humble,  cultured,  and  eminently 
adapted  to  his  work.     See  Conff,  I'ear-bookf  1877,  p.  402. 

Niuean  (or  Savage  Island)  Version  op 
THE  Scriptures.  Nine  is  a  lone  island  four  hundred 
miles  from  any  other  land,  the  nearest  groups  being 
the  Friendly  Islands,  in  the  west,  and  the  Samoan,  in 
the  north.  In  1849,  after  long  opposition,  a  Samoan 
teacher  was  received  in  the  island.  In  the  course  of 
time,  amid  his  evangelistic  labors,  he  translated  the 
gospel  of  Mark,  which  was  sent  to  the  missionaries  of 
Samoa,  and,  after  revision,  printed  by  them.  When,  in 
1861,  the  Rev.  W.  G.  Lawes  and  his  wife  went  to  Niue 
as  the  first  missionaries,  taking  with  them  the  printed 
gospel,  they  found  that  the  other  three  gospels  and 
Acts  had  been  translated. by  the  native  teachers.  The 
translation  was  revised  by  the  Rev.  G.  Pratt,  of  Samoa, 
and  printed  at  Sydney,  together  with  the  epistle  to  the 
Philippians  and  John's  epistles,  in  1862,  by  the  New 
South  Wales  Auxiliary.  The  New  Test,  was  completed 
by  Mr.  Lawes  and  printed  at  Sydney  in  18C7.  The 
book  of  Psalms,  also  translated  bv  Mr.  Lawes  and  re- 
vised  by  the  Rev.  Bf  r.  Pratt,  was  printe<t  in  1869  or  1870. 
The  whole  has  been  once  more  revised,  and,  together 
with  the  books  of  Genesis  and  Exodns,  was  printed  in 
London  in  1873.  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Lawes. 
From  the  annual  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  for  the  year  1882  we  learn  that  the  society  has 
published,  not  only  a  new  edition  of  five  thousand  copies 
of  the  New  Test,  and  Psalms,  but  also  three  thousand 
copies  of  the  Pentateuch  as  prepared  by  Mr.  Lawes,  who 
continues  the  translation  of  the  other  books  of  the  Old 
Test.    (R  P.) 

Nob.  The  probable  representative  of  this  place, 
acquiesced  in  by  Tristram  (^Bible  PlaceSf  p.  120),  and 
substantially  also  by  Conder  (  Teni  Work^  ii,  117),  is 
laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  as  Khurhet  es-Sdma, 
at  less  than  half  a  mile  north-east  of  Shafat,  and  de- 
scribed in  the  accompanying  Memoirs  (iii,  125)  as 
"  heaps  of  ruins ;  a  cistern  fourteen  paces  by  four,  with 
a  rubble  roof;  and  a  crumbling  building,  apparently 
modem.'  There  is  a  remarkable  knoll  of  rock  in  the 
place,  whence  the  name  '  ruin  of  the  heap.'  The  top  of 
this  knoll  is  surmounted  by  the  remains  of  a  small 
vaulted  chamber.  There  are  also  a  few  rock-cut  tombs 
on  the  south-east,  now  closed." 

Nobbe,  Masom,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  and  after- 
wards a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  at  Williams- 
town,  Mass.,  March  18, 1809.  He  studied  at  Stockbridge 
Academy;  graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1827; 
spent  a  year  in  New  York  city  in  studying  mtKlero  lan- 
guages and  in  teaching ;  went  to  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  in  1828,  and  spent  one  year;  became  a  tutor 
in  Williams  College, continuing  his  theological  studies; 
was  licensed  June  14, 1831,  by  Berkshire  Congregational 
Association,  while  ^  tutor,  and  was  ordained  by  the  same 
body,  Feb.  15, 1832,  at  Williamstown.  His  successive 
fields  of  labor  were  as  follows :  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  from  1832  to  1839 ;  Eleventh  Church 
in  New  Vork  city,  from  1839  to  1850;  associate  pastor 
with  Rev.  Dr.  Duncan,  of  the  Independent  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1850  and  1851 ;  principal 
of  a  young  ladies'  seminary  in  Washington,  D.  C,  from 
1851  to  1853,  at  the  same  time  gathering  and  organ- 
izing the  Sixth  Street  Church;  chaplain  in  the  navy, 
from  1853  to  1861;  supply  to  the  First  Congregational 
Church  of  WalliAm8town,'Mas8.,  in  1865  and  1866.    On 


returning  to  Washington,  in  1870,  the  Sixth  Street 
Church  elected  him  to  be  its  pastor,  and  without  being 
installed  he  thenceforward  served  until  his  death,  Oct. 
24, 1881.  See  NecroL  Beport  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem. 
1882,  p.  24. 

Nobillo  (or  NobiUs),  Flami!«io,  an  Italian  the- 
ologian, who  died  at  Lucca  in  1590,  edited,  at  the  in- 
sunce  of  pope  Sixtus  V,  Vettts  Ttttamentvmjnxta  LXX 
(Rome,  1587)  :—4ind  translated  the  Septuagint  into  Lat- 
in ;  Vetua  Tettamentum  Secundum  LXX  Latine  ReddUum 
(ibid.  1588).  He  also  wrote  Annotalionet  in  VeterU 
Tettamenti  LXX  Inierprete*,  which  are  found  in  the 
London  Polyglot.  See  Winer,  Jfandbuch  der  theol.  Lit, 
i,  47,  48,  886;  Jocher,  Allgemeinet  Gelehrlen -  Lexikonf 
8.  v.     (a  P.) 

Nodhamiana,  a  heretical  Mohammedan  sect,  who, 
to  avoid  falling  into  the  error  of  making  God  the  au- 
thor of  evil,  asserted  that  neither  directly  nor  indirectly, 
permissively  nor  authoritatively,  had  God  any  connec- 
tion whatever  with  evil.  They  denied  also  the  mirac- 
ulous character  of  the  Koran. 

Nolasque,  St.  Pierre,  a  French  monk,  founder  of 
the  order  of  the  Beata  Maria  Virgo  de  Mercede  pro 
Redemptione  Captivorum^  was  bom  in  1189  at  Le  Mas 
des  Saintcs  Puelles,  in  Languedoc.  In  1228,  Nolasque,  in 
company  with  some  other  knights  and  priests,  organ- 
ized the  order  mentioned  above,  the  special  object  of 
which  M-as  to  redeem  Christian  captives  in  Mohamme- 
dan countries  in  extreme  cases,  when  there  was  danger 
of  a  conversion  to  Islam,  even  with  the  sacrifice  of  lib- 
erty and  life.  At  first  the  order  occupied  a  portion  of 
the  royal  palace  at  Barcelona,  but  in  1282  a  splendid 
monastery  was  built  and  dedicated  to  St.  Eulalia,  the 
patroness  of  Barcelona.  The  order  was  confirmed  by 
Gregory  IX,  in  1230,  and  soon  spread  over  Spain,  Italy, 
and  France.  Nolasque  died  in  1256,  and  was  canon- 
ized by  Urban  VIII  in  1628.  By  Benedict  XIII,  the 
order  was  transformed  into  a  common  mendicant  order 
(1725),  and  a  century  later  it  was  swept  away  by  the 
revolution.  See  Acta  Sanctorum  Bolland,  ad  31.  Jan, 
it,  980  sq. ;  Holstenius-Brockie,  Codex  Begularum  Mo- 
nasiiearumf  iii,  433  sq. ;  Helyot,  I/isloire  dea  Ordrea 
Monastiqftea  (Paris,  1714-19);  Giucci,  Iconngi-ajia  Sfo^ 
rica  Degli  Ordini  Religioai,  etc  (Rome,  1844),  vii, 88  sq. ; 
Gams,  Kirchengeackichte  Spaniena,  iii,  236-239 ;  Plitt- 
Herzog,  Real-Encykhp,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Iforse  (or  Icelandio)  Version.  See  Scandi- 
navian Versions. 

North,  Simeon,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational  di- 
vine, was  lx>rn  at  Berlin,  Conn.,  in  1802.  He  graduated 
from  Yale  College  in  1825;  was  tutor  there  the  follow- 
ing year,  professor  of  languages  in  Hamilton  College, 
N.  Y.,  from  1829  to  1839,  and  thereafter  president  until 
1857.  Ho  died  Feb.  9, 1884.  Dr.  North  was  the  au- 
thor of  several  sermons,  etc. 

North  American  Indians,  Bkligious  Ideas  of. 
It  is  not  necessary'  to  separate  all  the  small  tribes  ac- 
cording to  their  religious  usages,  fur  they  had  much  in 
common,  and  will  here  be  treated  accordingly.  They  do 
not  believe  that  a  drj'ad  was  (bought  to  inhabit  every 
tree,  but  the  natives  believed  in  protecting  spirits  of 
the  woods  and  trees.  Those  spirits  were  called,  among 
the  northern  tribes,  Nantena  (singular  Ohkt),  Among 
tlie  Iroquois  the  whole  company  of  spirits  was  called 
Ayotkon^  or  IJondatkona  (singulor  Maniiu),  As  ruler 
of  all  good  spirits  Tharonhiaonagou  was  worshipped, 
who  was  the  grandson  of  the  goddess  of  all  evil,  Ata- 
hentsik.  Both  were  regarded  as  living  in  the  land  of 
the  blessed.  Exalted  over  these  was  the  great  spirit 
who  dispensed  grace;  he  could  do  as  much  good  as  he 
pleased, but  no  evil, although  he  conld  hinder  evil.  But 
only  those  receive  his  grace  who  do  good  and  abandon 
evil.  Sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  the  natural  forces,  are 
objects  of  nature.  In  dreams  the  great  spirit  sends 
protecting  beings,  who  are  guides  all  through  life. 
Only  in  Vifginia  was  there  a  visible  representation  of 


NORTHALIS 


748 


NUPfi  VERSION 


sopreme  being»— a  huniAn  figure,  with  an  apron,  in  a 
sitting  potture.  There  are  manv  of  these,  who  are  called 
Kiwata,  and  are  considered  protectors  of  the  dead.    In 
the  southern  part  of  North  America  the  cultns  took 
another  form.    There  idolatry  was  rife,  and  there  were 
priests,  temples,  and  bloody  sacrifices.    In  Florida  the 
first  male  bom  was  brought  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  sun, 
and  this  shows  the  transition  to  the  Mexican  cultus. 
In  all  acts  of  worship,  politics,  or  friendship,  the  tobacco- 
pipe  played  a  noteworthy  part.    The  natives  were  also 
persuaded  of  a  futtire  life;  bat  their  ideas  oonceniing 
it  were  taken  from  their  present  existence.    They  be- 
lieved in  a  continuation  of  life,  but  urtth  higher  joys 
and  all  possible  success  in  hunting,  fishing,  and  war; 
therefore  they  buried  with  the  dead  his  clothes  and 
weapons,  nourishment  for  the  journey,  and  even  his 
pipe  and  tobacco.    They  assembled  around  the  dead, 
and  praised  his  deeds  of  bravery  and  valor.    All  his 
friends  and  relatives  visited  him,  and  after  a  meal, 
which  was  first  handed  to  the  departed,  the  aboriginal 
Americans  left  their  village  and  journeyed  away  with- 
out the  dead,  who  became  a  prey  to  the  wild  animsls. 
Others,  who  had  permanent  dwelling-places,  buried 
their  dead  in  various  ways.    A  singular  practice,  only 
found  among  the  North  American  tribes,  was  the  vol- 
untary death  of  aged  people.    When  they  became  sick, 
they  awaited  their  death  with  the  greatest  composure. 
Their  physicians  informed  them  that  they  were  unable 
to  heal  them.    Then  the  dying  made  the  necessary  ar- 
rangements, and  died  jovially  and  without  fear.    This 
was  the  natural  death.    But  to  old  people,  who  could 
not  fish  and  hunt,  life  became  a  burden.    The  father 
usually  ordered  bis  son  to  kill  him  with  the  club.  Then 
the  friends,  relatives,  and  children  accompanied  him 
into  the  woodsL    Two  dogs  were  killed,  that  their  souls 
might  herald  the  coming  of  a  warrior  into  the  other 
world.    The  old  man  then  smoked  a  pipe,  conversed 
with  his  friends,  sang  his  song  of  death,  and  gave  the 
sign  to  his  son,  whereupon  the  latter  slew  him  with 
his  club.    A  small  hut  was  then  built  ov^er  the  buried 
body.    The  friends  of  the  departed  gave  away  all  his 
goods,  even  the  most  costly  and  precious.   Their  sorrow 
was  touching.    They  tortured  themselves  in  the  fieshy 
parts  of  their  body,  and  sometimes  lost  so  much  blood 
that  they  died  themselves.    Often,  when  a  child  died, 
its  mother  killed  herself  in  the  hope  of  iiourishing  it 
beyond  death,  for  they  feared  that  without  such  nour- 
ishment the  child  would  die  a  second  time.    The  cos- 
mogony of  the  North  American  tribes  differed  from  the 
others  in  that  men  were  first  created  and  then  the  world. 
All  human  beings  originated  from  woman,  and  the  Turtle 
tribe,  living  in  the  central  point  of  the  world,  was  the 
first  and  noblest    See  Imdiams,  Amkrican. 

Northalifl,  Bichard,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bom  in 
London,  and  became  a  Carmelite  friar.  He  obtained 
a  high  reputation  fur  his  preaching,  learning,  and  ac- 
quirements, and  attracted  the  notice  of  the  king,  who 
advanced  him  to  the  bishopric  of  Ossory  in  1886.  About 
1S90  he  was  constituted  a  commissioner  by  the  king  to 
inquire  into  the  state^  losses,  abuses,  and  government  of 
Ireland ;  in  particular,  to  report  how  and  on  what  secu- 
rity Nigel  O'Neill  was  enlarged.  In  1891  and  1394  he 
was  employed  by  the  same  monarch  in  the  quality  of 
an  ambassador  to  pope  Boniface  IX,  and  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1898.  Having  spent  nine  years 
in  the  prelacy  of  Ossory,  he  was,  in  1396,  promoted  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Dublin.  He  died  July  20, 1397. 
See  D*Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  A  rchbishops  of  Dublin^ 
p.  149. 

Norton,  Arou8TC8TiiKorx>KK,D.D.,a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  -at  Comwall,  Conn.,  March  28«  1808. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1882 ;  studied  the- 
ology privately ;  was  licensed  as  an  evangelist ;  labored 
first  at  Windham,  N.  Y.,  and  afterwards  at  Griggsfield, 
Naples,  Pittsfleld,  and  Atlas,  in  southern  Illinois.  He 
organized  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  in  St.  Louis, 


Mo.,  and  in  1889  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Alton,  UL,  where  he  labored 
for  nineteen  years.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  district 
secretarv  of  Church  Extension  and  Home  Missiona  fur 
the  West,  and  was  enabled  in  due  time  to  report  every 
church  in  his  field  as  supplied  with  a  minister.  In 
1879  he  published  a  large  volume  of  seven  hundred 
pages,  on  the  Uitiory  o^  the  Prttbytenim  Church  in 
lUinou,    He  died  at  Alton,  AprU  29, 1884. 

Norway  Lapponeae  Veraion.    See  QuXkiav 
Verbiox. 
Norwegian  ▼ersion.  See  ScAKDiKAviA^i  Vkb- 

8IOX8. 

Nott;  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  14,  1801.  He  graduated 
from  Union  College  in  1828.  In  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year  he  entered  Andover  Theological  Seminar}*, 
where  he  studied  until  June,  1825.  He  then  entered 
Princeton  Seminary^*  June  80,  and  studied  there  until 
September,  1826.  H#  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Albany,  May  8,  1827,  and  ordained  as  an  evan- 
gelist the  same  month.  He  was  tutor  in  Union  Col- 
lege from  1880  to  1889,  and  was  assistant  professor  of 
rhetoric  in  the  same  institution  for  fifteen  years.  From 
1889  to  1841  he  was  sUted  wpply  to  the  Church  at 
Rotterdam,  N.  Y.  Thence  he  went  to  the  South  aa 
stated  supply  of  the  churches  of  Goldsboro*  and  Ever- 
ittsville,  in  North  Carolina.  Returning  to  the  North, 
he  became  supply  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  at 
Aurisville,  Montgomery  Co.,  N.  Y.  He  died  at  Fonda, 
May  18, 1878.  See  NecroL  Repot-t  o/Prineetom  Theoi, 
Senu  1879,  p.  28. 

NovitiOli  is  a  name  applied  by  TertuUian  to  cat- 
echumens, because  they  were  just  entering  upon  that 
state  which  made  them  candidates  for  eternal  life. 

Nubian  Veraion  ok  thk  Scriptures.  From 
the  annual  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety for  1885  we  leara  that  an  edition  of  five  hundred 
copies  of  the  gospel  of  Mark  has  been  published  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Mohammedans  in  and  around  Dongola, 
East  Africa.  This  version,  made  in  the  Fadidja  dialccr, 
was  prepared  by  the  late  professor  Lepsius  (q.  v.),  and 
published  as  an  appendix  to  his  Nubian  Grammar. 
From  the  latter  it  was  republished,  with  permission  of 
the  translator's  son  and  of  the  publisher,  in  Roman 
characters,  under  the  editorship  of  professor  Reinisch, 
Vienna,     (a  P.) 

Nap6  Veraion  op  thr  ScRirruRio.  Nupd  is 
spoken  in  a  territory  of  Central  Africa  situated  between 
Yoruba  on  the  south-west  and  Haussa  on  the  north,  di- 
vided into  two  portions  by  the  river  Rowara,  which  runs 
through  it  from  a  north-westerly  direction,  till  it  winds 
its  way  southerly  after  it  has  cleared  the  bases  of  the 
Rennell  mountains.  The  south-west  portion  of  Nup6  is 
a  belt  of  land  not  more  than  twentv-five  miles  from  the 
river's  bank  to  its  boundary  with  Yoraba  land  at  Saregi, 
formerly  a  mutual  place  of  meeting  in  their  hunting  ex- 
peditions between  the  two  tribes,  but  now  it  is  an  im- 
portant town,  inhabitetl  by  both  tribes,  the  Yorubas, 
however,  being  the  more  numerous  and  inflnentiaL 
The  breadth  of  the  northern  portion  of  Nup4  is  much 
larger,  or  some  three  or  four  days*  journey  serosa,  or 
about  sixty  or  seventy  miles  broocl  towards  Haussa  from 
the  river's  bank.  The  extreme  length  of  the  country 
from  Kpatatshi,  the  last  town  of  Nu^)^  on  the  boundary 
of  Busa,  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  river  to  the  tribes  of 
Is^itakotsi,  next  to  Muye,  and  Bidon  of  Kakanda,  on 
the  lower  parts  of  the  river,  is  about  one  hundred  and 
sixty  miles.  Such  is  the  geogrophical  position  of  the 
Nup^  country,  as  described  by  the  Rev.  S.  Crowther, 
who,  in  connection  with  the  Rev.  J.  F.  Schdn,  trans- 
lated the  first  seven  chapters  of  Matthew  in  the  Nup^ 
which,  at  the  request  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
were  published  iu  1860  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bi- 
ble Society  as  the  first  instalment  of  an  entirely  new 
translation  in  a  language  spoken  over  a  vast  extent 


NUTTING 


749 


OGDEN 


of  ooantry.    At  present  tfaere  are  extant  the  gospels  of 
Matthew  and  Mark  in  the  Nnp6.    (a  P.) 

ITtitting;  Rupus,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Old  Groton,  ftliddlesex  Co.,  Mass.,  July  28, 
1798.  He  gradoated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1818, 
and  for  several  years  thereafter  took  charge  of  a  young 
ladies'  seminary  at  Catskill,  N.  Y. ;  in  1821  became 
principal  of  Randolph  Academy,  Vt.,  which  position  he 
held  seven  years,  meantime  completing  his  theological 


course  under  the  celebrated  Dr.  John  Holt  Rice.  In 
1828  he  became  professor  of  languages  in  the  Western 
Reserve  College  at  Hudson,  Ohio ;  in  1840  resigned  his 
chair,  and  two  years  later  removed  to  Romeo,  N.  Y., 
taking  charge  of  the  branch  of  the  State  University 
then  located  there.  In  1847  he  established  an  academy 
at  Lodi  Plains,  Washtenaw  Co.,  Mich. ;  in  1870  remove<l 
to  the  city  of  Detroit,  where  he  died,  July  12,  1878. 
(W.  P.  a) 


0. 


Oak,  Council  (or  Stnod)  op  thb.    See  Chalcb- 

DON,  COUHCILS  OP. 

ObL    See  Old  Man. 

O'Brien,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  rector  of  2ion  Parish,  Pontiac,  Mich., 
died  at  that  place,  Dec.  13,  1864,  aged  seventy -one 
vears.  See  Amer,  Qftar,  Church  Rev,  April,  1865,  p. 
140. 

O'Brien,  Matthe'W,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
clergyman,  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  where  he  enjoyed  a 
high  reputation  as  a  preacher.  About  1800  he  came 
to  New  York,  and  was  attached  to  St.  Peter's  Church. 
He  afterwards  left  New  York  in  consequence  of  difficul- 
ties which  arose,  and  died  in  Baltimore,  Oct.  20, 1816. 
Dr.  O'Brien  published  Sermons  on  the  Mott  Important 
Subjects  of  Morality  and  Religim  (Cork,  1798).  See 
De  Courcy  and  Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Church  m  the 
United  Statest\),3bl, 

O'Bryan,  William,  the  founder  of  the  Bible  Chris- 
tian Societies,  was  born  at  Gun  wen,  in  the  parish  of 
Loxulion,  Cornwall,  Eng.,  Feb.  6, 1778.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  obtained  a  clear  manifestation  of  God's 
pardoning  mercy,  and  almost  immediately  began  to 
preach.  In  1809  he  was  engaged  as  a  supply  in  the 
place  of  a  Wesleyan  minister.  lu  1810  he  was  formally 
excluded  from  the  Wesleran  Methodist  Society  for 
preaching  in  an  irregular  way,  and  in  1814  he  relin* 
quished  buuness  in  order  to  devote  himself  wholly  to 
the  work  of  the  ministry.  Hearing  that  there  were 
fourteen  parishes  in  the  east  of  Cornwall  and  the  west 
of  Devon  in  which  there  was  no  evangelical  preaching, 
he  visited  them.  His  labors  were  successful,  souls  were 
converted.  He  organized  the  first  class,  or  society, 
which  afterwards  received  the  appellation  of  Bible 
Christians,  at  Shebbear,  in  the  county  of  Devon,  Oct. 
9,  1816.  Twenty-two  persons  gave  their  names.  At 
the  session  of  the  first  conference  held  at  Baddash, 
Launceston,  Aug.  17,  1819,  be  was  elected  president. 
He  filled  this  oflice  each  succeeding  year  until  1828. 
Unpleasant  circumstances  arising  between  himself  and 
the  brethren,  in  1829  he  left  the  conference.  At  the 
conference  in  1830  William  O'Bryan  sought  reconcilia^ 
tion  with  his  brethren,  and  a  satisfactory  union  was 
effected.  Afterwards  he  left  the  denomination  of  his 
own  free  will.  He  came  to  the  United  States,  crossed 
the  Atlantic  between  New  York  and  England  several 
times,  and  died  at  a  good  old  age,  in  New  York  city. 
His  remains  are  interred  in  Greenwood  Cemetery 
Brooklyn.  See  Jubilee  Volume  of  Bible  Christians 
(1865);  BiBLB  Chbistiaks. 

OohUtree,  Michakl,  a  Scotch  prelate,  waa  dean  of 
the  Church  of  Dunblane  in  1426,  and  was  made  bishop 
in  1480.  He  was  bishop  at  Dunblane  in  1489  when  he 
appended  his  seal  to  a  solemn  agreement  between  the 
queen-dowager  and  a  committee  of  parliament,  about 
the  keeping  of  the  young  king,  James  II.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  BishopSf  p.  177. 

O'Connor,  Michakl,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  prel- 
ate, was  bom  at  Cork,  Irdand,  Sept.  27, 1810.  He  was 
educated  at  Queenstown,  and  entered  the  Propaganda 
at  Rome  in  1888.  He  became  president  of  the  Roman 
•Catholic  Seminary  of  St.  Charles  Borroroeo,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  in  18S8.    He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Pittsburgh 


in  1848,  translated  to  the  see  of  Erie,  Pa„  in  1868,  and 
referred  to  his  former  diocese  in  1864.  He  resigned  his 
episcopal  office  and  united  with  the  Jesuits  in  1860.  He 
died  at  Woodstock  College,  Md.,  Oct.  18, 1872. 

Odenheimer,  William  Hknky,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Aug.  11, 1817.  He  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  1835,  and  from  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  in  1838 ;  was  ordained  deacon  by 
Bishop  Onderdonk,  of  Pennsylvauia,  in  the  same  year, 
and  presbyter  in  1841.  After  this  he  became  rector  of 
St.  Peter's  Church,  Philsdelphia,9f  which  he  remained 
pastor  until  his  election  as  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  New 
Jersey,  April  27,  1859.  The  consecration  to  this  office 
occurred  Oct.  13  of  the  same  year,  in  Richmond,  Ya. 
In  1874,  when  the  diocese  was  divided,  Bishop  Oden- 
heimer selected  the  "  northern  ^  portion.  He  died  at 
his  residence  in  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Aug.  14, 1879.  See 
Prot,  Episc  Almanac,  1880,  p.  170. 

Oelreiob,  Bebkhard,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  at  Itzehoe  in  1626.  He  studied 
at  different  universities,  was  in  1664  court^preacher  at 
Stockholm,  in  1665  doctor  of  theology,  and  in  1668 
pro-chancellor  and  professor  of  theology  of  the  acad- 
emy at  Lunden.  He  then  went  to  Bremen  as  super- 
intendent and  pastor,  and  died  March  80,  1686.  He 
wrote,  De  Testamento  Christi  non  Violando: — De  An- 
gelo: — De  Sacra  Scriptura: — De  Ecdesia  Lutherana, 
See  Witte,  Diarium  Biographicum ;  Moller,  Cimbria 
Literata ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gekhiien  -  Leacikon,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Oelrioha,  Johakn  Gisoro  Arxolp,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Hanover,  June  8, 
1767.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  Marburg,  and  Erlan- 
gen,  was  promoted  as  doctor  of  philosophy  in  1787,  and 
died  at  Gdttingen,  March  7, 1791.  He  is  the  author  of, 
De  Ratione  site  Relatione  Filii  cum  Patre  Senientia  (G5t« 
tingen,  1787),  a  prize  essay : — De  Doctrina  Platonis  de 
Deo,  etc  (Marburg,  1788)  : — Commentarii  de  Scriptori- 
bus  EccUsuB  Latina  Priorum  VI  Seeculorum,  etc  (Leip- 
sic,  1791).  See  Winer,  Handbueh  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  596, 
597, 854;  Doring,  Die  geUhrien  Theologen  Deutschlands, 
s.  ▼.     (a  P.) 

Oemler,  Christiah  Wilhklm,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  DennstMdt,  near  Weimar, 
Sept  20, 1728.  He  studied  at  Jena,  acted  for  some  time 
as  private  tutor,  and  was  in  1755  preacher  at  Dennstttdt. 
In  1764  he  was  called  to  Neumark,  was  in  1766  arch- 
deacon at  Jena,  in  1776  superintendent  and  first  preach- 
er, and  died  June  2, 1802.  He  published,  Der  Prediper 
an  dem  Kranhenbette  (Jena,  1770): — Repertorium  fur 
Pastoraltheologie  und  Casuistik  (1786^89,  4  parts  )»» 
and  a  number  of  other  ascetical  works,  for  which  see 
D5ring,  Die  deutsdim  Kanzdrtdntry  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Hand' 
buch  der  theol.  Lit,  ii,  88, 40, 49, 50, 54.     (a  P.) 

Ogden,  Joseph  Mkrkkb,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  Sept.  21, 
1804.  He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1828, 
and  from  the  Theological  Seminary  there  in  1826; 
spent  two  years  in  evangelistic  work  in  Pennsylvania ; 
was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Chatham  in 
1828,  of  which  he  became  pastor  emeritus  in  1878,  but 
continued  to  reside  there  until  his  sudden  death,  Feb. 


OGILBY 


750 


ONCKEN 


18, 1884.    See  Nterol  Repori  of  Princeton  Thtol  8em, 
1884,  p.  9. 

Ogilby,  Frederick,  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  born  in  Ireland,  Dec  27,  1818.  He 
graduated  from  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
in  1834,  and  from  the  General  Theological  Seminary 
in  1887;  officiated  successively  in  Grace  Church,  New 
York  city,  and  in  Burlington,  N.  J.,  under  bishop 
Doane ;  then  became  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  As- 
cension, Philadelphia,  Pa.,  from  1842  to  1858;  and  for 
the  last  twenty-three*years  of  his  life  he  was  an  assist- 
ant minuter  in  Trinity  Parish,  New  York  city.  He 
died  March  25,  1878.  See  Prof,  Epuc,  Alnutnac,  1879, 
p.  170. 

O'Hanly,  Donat,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  educated 
in  Ireland,  and  went  to  England,  where  he  became  a 
Benedictine  monk  at  Canterbury.  He  returned  to  Ire- 
land, and  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1085. 
He  died  Nov.  28, 1096.  See  D'Alton,  Memoirt  of  the 
Archbishope  ofDubtitif  p.  85. 

O'Hanly,  Saxnnel,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  a  nephew 
of  Donat  O'Hanly,  and  became  a  Benedictine  monk. 
He  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  and  sucoeeded  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Dublin  in  1095.  He  died  July  4,  1121. 
See  D'Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  Archbishopi  of  Dublin^ 
p.  41. 

Qjib^ray  Version.    See  Chippeway. 

Old  BCan  of  Obt,  a  remarkable  idol  of  the  Ostiac 
Tartars,  who  live  near  the  river  Obt  It  consists  of 
wood,  and  has  a  nose  resembling  the  snout  of  a  hog,  in 
which  is  a  hook  of  iron.  The  eyes  are  made  of  glass, 
and  the  head  is  embellished  with  a  large  pair  of  horns. 
Its  devotees  oblige  it  to  change  its  place  of  residence 
every  three  years,  transporting  it  over  the  Obi  from 
one  station  to  another  with  great  solemnit}',  in  a  vessel 
made  for  that  purpose.  When  the  ice  dissolves,  and 
the  river  overflows  its  banks,  the  Ostiacs  flock  to  this 
idol  in  a  body  and  beseech  it  to  prove  propitious  to 
their  fishery.  If  the  season  fails  to  answer  their  ex- 
pectations they  load  the  god  with  a  myriad  of  reproaches, 
and  insult  him  as  an  old,  impotent,  and  despicable  deity ; 
but  if  they  prove  successful  in  fishing,  the  god  is  allowed 
part  of  the  booty. 

Oliver,  Gbobor,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
at  Papplewick  in  1782,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1808.  He  took  or- 
ders, and  in  1809  became  head-master  of  King  Edward's 
Grammar-school  at  Great  Grimsby.  He  became  vicar 
of  Soopwick  in  1881,  incumbent  of  Wolverhampton  in 
1834,  rector  of  South  Hykeham  in  1847,  and  died  at 
Lincoln,  March  8, 1867.  He  filled  the  highest  offices 
in  the  Masonic  order,  and  wrote  numerous  works  on 
local  ecclesiastical  history  and  Freemasonry,  for  which 
oee  Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Author*^  sl  v. 

Oilier,  Pierre,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Montau- 
ban,  was  bom  at  that  place  in  1578.  In  1606  he  was 
pastor  at  Saint-Andrd  de  Valborgne,  in  1610  at  Alais, 
and  in  1621  at  Montauban,  where  he  died  Oct  5, 1645. 
He  was  the  successor  of  Pierre  Berauld  in  the  theologi- 
cal chair,  and  wrote  La  Conference  de  St,  Antoine  entre 
Pietre  Oilier,  et  Paecai  (MonUuban,  1624).  See  Lich- 
tenberger,  Encjfdop,  dee  Sdencet  Religieutes,  s. v.  (B.  P.) 

OUivant,  Alfred,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  prelate,  was 
born  at  Manchester,  England,  in  1798.  He  studied  at 
St.  Paul's  school,  London ;  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1821,  and  became  a  fellow.  In  1820  he 
was  elected  Craven  University  scholar,  and  in  1822 
Tyrwbitt  Hebrew  scholar.  He  was  vice-principal  of 
St.  David's  College,  Lamfetcr,  from  1827  to  1843,  and 
from  1843  until  1849  held  the  regius  professorship  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge.  He  became  bishop  of  Llandaff 
in  1849,  and  died  Dec.  16, 1882.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  sermons  and  some  other  practical  works.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Old  Test,  company  of  the  Bible  Re- 
.vision  Committee. 


OUnsteadi  Lem itel  Greoobt,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  bom  at  Maltaville,  N.  Y.,  Jaly  5, 
1808.  He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1884,  and 
pursued  his  studies  in  the  Western  Theological  Sein* 
inary.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Beaver 
in  1837,  and  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Erie,  April 
20, 1848.  He  then  visited  Europe,  sojourning  in  Rome 
for  several  yeaxv.  His  principal  business  was  teaching-. 
During  the  war  of  the  rebellion  he  acted  as  chaplain 
for  some  three  years.  He  died  March  18, 1880.  As  a 
scientific  scholar  and  antiquarian  Dr.  Olmstead  has 
had  few  equals  among  his  brethren  of  the  Presbytery. 
See  Necrol.  Report  of  Princeton  TkeoL  Sem.  1881,'p.  54. 

OlonetBiazi  ▼enton.     See  Russia,  Ybrsioics 

OP. 

OlahauBen,  Detlev  Johann  WUhelm,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  80, 1766, 
at  Nordheim,  Hanover.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and 
after  completing  his  studies  acted  as  private  tutor  at 
different  places.  In  1794  he  was  deacon  at  Oldedoe, 
Holstein;  in  1801  first  preacher  at  GlUcksUdt;  in  1816 
superintendent  at  Eutin,  and  died  Jan.  14,  1828.'  He 
wrote,  Prolegomena  zu  einer  Kritils  alter  togenannten  Be^ 
weieejur  und  wider  Offenbarungen  (Copenhagen,  1791) : 
— De  Immortalitate  J/ominvm  Sublata  et  Dodrina  de 
Animi  SimpUeitate  Ceria  (ibid.eod.)  i—De  Utu  Rationie 
in  ReUgione  Revdala  (1792) :— AeArfrudk  der  Moral  vmd 
Religion  (2d.ed.  1799) : — Predigten  itber  die  game  ckriM- 
liche  PJlichtenlehre  (Altona,  1798-1805,  8  vols.).  See 
Winer,  //andbuch  der  iheol.  Lit,  ii,  126, 153,  203,  286; 
Doring,  Diegelehrten  Tkeologen  Deutsehlande,  sly.  (B.  P.) 

Olflhanflen,  Justus  a  famous  German  Orient- 
alist, brother  of  Hermann,  was  bom  May  9, 1800,  at 
Hoheufelde,  Holstein,  and  studied  at  Kiel,  Berlin,  and 
Paris.  In  1828  he  was  professor  at  Kiel,  and  in  1845 
member  of  the  Danish  Academy  of  Sciences.  Four 
years  after  Holstein  was  annexed  by  Denmark,  in  1848, 
Olshausen  was  deposed  of  his  professorship.  He  waa 
appointed,  in  1853,  head-librarian  and  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  at  Konigsberg;  in  1858  he  waa  called 
to  a  position  in  the  ministry  for  education  at  Berlin, 
from  which  he  retired  in  1874.  Olshausen  died  Dec.  28, 
1882.  Besides  his  contributions  to  the  monthly  reports 
of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences,  Olshausen  pub- 
lished, Kmendationen  tun*  A  Iten  Testament  (Kiel,  18i26) : 
— Zur  Topographie  des  alten  Jerusalem  (  1888): — Er» 
kldrungder  Psalmen  (Leipsic,  1858) : — Lehrbueh  der  £^e5r. 
Sprache  (Brunswick,  1861) : — Die  Pehlewi'Ijegenden  avf 
den  Mvnzen  der  letztm  Sassamden  (Leipsic,  1848) : — 
Ueber  den  Charakter  der  in  den  assgriscken  KeUm^ 
sehrifien  erhaltenen  semitiscken  Spraehe  (Berlin,  1866). 
See  Winer,  Handbuck  der  tkeoL  Lit,  i,  98, 151, 520;  FUrat, 
BibL  Jud,  ill,  47.    (B.  P.) 

O  Inz  beata  txlnitas.    See  Ambrosian  Htmns. 

O  mlranda  Tanitas.  See  Bebnabd  of  Clair- 
vAcx's  Hymxs. 

Onaohus  (or  Onaous),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  piob* 
ably  bishop  of  the  Isles  about  1304.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  301. 

Oncken,  John  Gkrhard,  D.D.,  a  German  Baptist 
minister,  was  born  in  Varet,  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
Oldenburg,  Jan.  26, 1800.  He  went  to  England  in  hia 
youth,  and  was  converted.  The  British  Continental 
Society  sent  him  in  1828  as  a  missionary  to  Germany, 
his  labors  being  principally  confined  to  Hamburg  and 
Bremen,  and  the  province  of  East  Frisia.  In  1828  he 
became  the  agent  of  the  Edinbuigh  Bible  Society.  He 
and  six  others  were  immersed,  April  22,  1884,  in  the 
river  Elbe,  near  Hamburg,  by  Rer.  Baroaa  Stan,  then 
of  the  Hamilton  Theological  Seminary,  pursuing  his 
studies  in  Germany.  At  the  dose  of  1879  there  were 
in  Germany  16,602  members  of  Baptist  churches,  and 
the  gospel  waa  preached  in  1178  preaching  stations. 
Later  statistics  would  largely  swell  these  numbers. 
Mr.  Oncken  was  ordained  soon  after  his  baptism,  and 


ONEIROCRinCA 


761 


OPORIN 


*'  bis  life  was  one  of  apostolic  toil  and  blessed  saccen  in 
spreading  tbe  gospel  tbrough  Germany."  His  pastoral 
relation  witb  the  Cburcb  at  Hambui^  always  remainedi 
and  that  city  was  made  the  centre  of  his  evangelistic 
labors.  He  frequently  visited  England  to  solicit  funds 
to  carry  on  his  work  in  Gennany,  and  in  185d  came  to 
the  United  States  for  the  same  purpose.  He  died  Jan. 
1\  1884,  in  Zurich,  where  he  had  resided  for  two  years. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encychp,  p.  869.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Oneirooritioa  (from  ovupoc^  a  dream,  and  gpivia, 
to  judge),  the  art  of  interpreting  dreams,  which  among 
tbe  ancient  Egyptians  was  the  duty  of  the  hierogram- 
mateis,  or  sacred  scribes.    See  Dreams. 

Oneiromanoy  (from  vvitpoCf  a  dream,  and  /lav- 
rfia,  dwinatum),  divination  by  means  of  dreams,  or  the 
interpretation  of  dreams  in  reference  to  future  events. 
See  Dreams. 

Ono.  The  probable  representative  of  this  place, 
Ka/rAna,  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Atap  at  nearly 
five  miles  north  by  west  of  Ludd  (Lydda),  and  described 
in  the  accompanying  Memoirs  (ii,  251)  as  *'a  mud  vil- 
lage, surrounded  with  palms  and  other  trees  in  gardens, 
and  has  a  well  (sebll)  to  the  north.** 

Onttphlo,  one  of  the  sacred  bulls  of  the  ancient 
EgyptiansL  It  was  of  a  black  color,  had  shaggy  re- 
curved hair,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  emblem 
of  the  retioceding  sun. 

On3rintt%  Adam  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  March  29, 1754,  at  Wurz- 
burg,  and  died' there  Sept.  9, 1836,  doctor  of  theology, 
cathedral  dean,  and  vicar-general.  He  is  the  author  of, 
De  V$u  Interpretationii  AUegorica  in  Novi  Fmderis 
Tabulis  (Bamberg,  1803)  t^Der  104.  Psaim  HberseUU  vnd 
mU  Anmerkunffen  (Wilrzburg,  1807):  — /)m  Weitheit 
Siraeh*s  au*  dem  Grieehitchm  mit  Anmerkungen  (1786- 
88):  — Z>ie  GlauhenMUkrt  der  hathoL  Kircke  praititeh 
vorgetrageti  (Subcbach,  1820-28,  8  parU)  i—lHe  Sitten- 
lehre  der  katkol,  Kircke  in  tystematischer  Form  (1826) : 
— Dae  Jjeben  vnd  die  Lehre  Jem  nach  Mattkdut,  Markus, 
und  Ltikat  in  Homilien  vorgetragen  (1831) : — Geichichie 
des  Alten  vnd  Neuen  TettamenU  (1789-97,  5  parte):— 
Homilien  vnd  Betraditvngen  uber  die  Leidentgeschichte 
Jetu,  seine  Avferstehvng  u,  Uhnmelfahrt  (WUrzburg, 
1827).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  48  sq. ;  Winer,  JJand- 
bvch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  109, 233, 307, 317, 596 ;  ii,  118, 258, 
402.     (B.P.) 

Oojein  Venioii.    See  Hisduwbb,  Dialects  of. 

Oostersee,  Johahh  Jacob  tan,  a  noted  Dutch 
theologian,  was  bom  April  1, 1817,  at  Rotterdam.  He 
studied  at  Utrecht,  and  on  leaving  the  university  in  1840 
was  made  doctor  of  theology  for  presenting  his  Dis- 
puiatio  Theologica  de  Jesu,  e  Virgine  Maria  Nato,  In 
1841  he  was  preacher  at  Eemnes,  in  1848  at  Alkmaar, 
in  1844  at  Rotterdam.  In  1862  he  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Utrecht,  and  ofiened  bis  lectures  with  a 
Latin  oration,  De  Sceptieismo  Hodiemis  Theologis  Caufe 
VHan^.  Oosterzee  lectured  upon  almost  all  the  branches 
of  theology,  and  soon  became  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  evangelical  school  of  Holland.  In  learning,  elo- 
quence, and  piety  he  ranked  with  the  greatest  divines 
of  his  age.  He  was  also  a  voluminous  writer.  Several 
of  his  works  have  been  translated,  and  commend  them- 
selves very  highly  to  practical  and  conservative  religious 
minds  in  Great  Britain  and  America.  Oosterzee  died 
July  29, 1882,  at  Wiesbaden,  Germany,  where  he  had 
gone  to  restore  his  broken  health.  Besides  his  opening 
addresses,  as,  I/oe  moet  het  modem  Xaturalisme  hesfreden 
verdenf  (1863)  i^ZoUen  wijnog  Theohgie  studeeren  of 
nietf  (1865)  i—Wdhe  Theologie  is  in  Staaf,  de  Sformen 
van  dezen  Dagen  te  verduren  f  (1866) : —  Van  ttelhe  Tkeoh- 
gen  is  ietsgoeds  roorde  Toekomst  der  Kerb  te  verwaehUn  f 
(1867) :— and  valuable  essays  which  he  published  in  the 
Jaarboeken  voor  wetenschappelijke  Theohgie,  edited  by 
himself,  and  in  other  reviews,  we  mention,  Jacques 
Saurin  (1855)  i—Chrittologie  des  Oude  en  Niewee  Ver- 


bonds  (1855-57,  2  parte):— £re<  Leven  van  Jezus  (2d  ed. 
1863-65)  :—lfistorie  o/ Roman  f  het  Leven  van  Jezus  door 
Benan  vorhoping  toegeUcht  (1863)  :—Het  Johannes  Evan- 
gelie,  een  viertal  apologetische  Voorletingen  (1867):— Z>« 
Theoiogie  des  Nieurcen  Verbonds  (2d  ed.  1872;  Engl,  transl. 
Lond.  1870;  4th  ed.1882) :—  1  'oor  Keik  en  Theologie,  Me- 
dedeelingen  en  Bijdragen  (1871-75, 2  parts)  i-^Christelijke 
Dogmatick  (2d  ed.  1876, 2  |)art8 ;  Engl.  transL,  Lond.  and 
New  York,  1874;  2d  ed.  1878)  :—Prac/uc^  Theologie 
(Engl  transl.  1878, 2  parte)  i—Theopntustie  (1882).  For 
Lange's  BibU  Work  Oosterzee  wrote  the  commentary 
on  Luke  (1859 ;  Engl,  transl  New  York,  1866) ;  the 
Pastoral  Epistles  and  Philemon  (1861 ;  transl  1868) ; 
and  with  Lange  he  prepared  the  commentary  on  James's 
epistle  (1862;  Engl  transl.  1867).  His  Sermons  com- 
prise twelve  volumes.  Oosterzee  left  an  autobiography 
and  a  work  upon  apologetics.  See  Zockler,  in  Beweis 
des  Gkntbens,  1882;  Evans,  in  Catholic  Presbyterian, 
October,  1882;  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  ii,  959 ;  Neve  evan^ 
gel,  Kirchenzeitung,lS82,  No. 86;  Luthardt,  Lutherische 
Kirchenzeiivng,  1882,  col.  810.     (B.  P.) 

Ophni.  The  modem  representative  of  this  place, 
Ju/na,  is  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  at  two  and 
three  quarter  miles  north-west  of  Beitin  (Bethel),  and 
thus  described  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs  (ii,  294) : 

**An  IroporUint  Christian  viHage,  with  a  Latin  chorch 
and  convent  (MAr  YftMf),  on  au  ancient  road  from  the 
north  to  Jerusalem.  The  octagonal  apse  of  this  chnrch. 
with  colored  glass  In  Its  east  window,  and  a  red-tllea 
pointed  roof,  forms  a  cousplcnoos  featnre  of  the  village 
as  seen  from  the  sonth.    Ijie  place  is  ritnated  In  a  small 

Slain,  and  on  the  sooth,  higher  op,  is  a  spring  called  AIn 
elasAm.  The  road  crosses  tbe  vaJley-bea  by  a  small  foot- 
bridge (now  broken),  with  an  inscrfptiou  In  Arabic,  and 
on  the  sonth  of  this  is  a  Greek  chnrcn  of  St.  George,  with 
a  fine  walnnt-tree  and  two  meiss-trees.  There  are  ruins 
of  a  town  in  the  village,  and  pillar-shafts,  as  If  of  a  former 
chapel,  east  of  tbe  Latiu  monastery.  The  hills  ond  valleys 
are  cnltivated  with  olives,  vines,  tigs,  pears,  onricots.  and 
pomegrauatesL  The  population  is  stated  by  Robinson  al 
two  hundred,  some  Latins,  some  Greeks." 

The  Greek  church  is  particularly  described,  ibid.  p.  823. 

Ophrah.  (1)  Op  Bbnjamin.  The  probable  mod- 
em representative  of  this  place,  et'Tagibeh,  lies  four 
miles  north-east  of  Bethel  on  the  Ordnance  Map,  and 
is  thus  described  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs  (ii, 
293) :  ''A  large  village  in  a  conspicuous  position,  with 
well-built  stone  houses.  A  central  tower  stands  on  the 
top  of  the  hill;  on  either  side  are  olive  and  fig  gardens 
in  the  foreground.  The  view  is  extensive  on  both 
sides.  A  ruined  church  of  St.  George  existe  near,  and 
there  are  remains  of  a  ruined  castle  in  the  village.  The 
inhabitante  are  Greek  CbristiansL"  The  archsological 
remains  are  minutely  described  (ibid.  p.  870).  (2)  Or 
Mamasseh.  For  this  place  Lieut.  Conder  suggeste 
{Tent  Work,  ii,  330)  the  modem  Ferata,  south-west  of 
NablAs;  but  this  is  not  within  Manasseh,  and  is  pro- 
posed by  Gu6rin  for  Pirathon  (q.  v.).  It  is  more  prob- 
ably (Tristram,  BiUe  Places,  p.  203)  A  rrabeh,  which  Is 
laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  at  two  miles  south- 
west of  Dothan,  and  described  in  the  accompanying 
Memoirs  (ii,  154)  as  a  very  large  village  on  the  slope 
of  a  bare  ridge,  with  remains  of  an  ancient  town. 

OpitB,  Paul  Frikdbich,  a  German  scholar,  son 
of  Heinrich,  was  born  at  Kiel,  March  26,  1684.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1721  professor 
of  Greek  and  Oriental  languages  at  his  native  city,  in 
1727  professor  of  philosophy,  and  died  Oct.  5, 1747.  He 
published,  De  Custodia  Templi  Biei-osolgmitani  Aoc- 
tuma  (Kiel,  1710) :— 2>e  Gigantibus  (1715):— />«  Amico 
Israelitarvm  in  Festo  Tabetnacvlorum  Consortia  (1717) : 
—De  Christo  Apostolo  et  Pontifice  Con/essionis  Nostra 
(1721) : — De  Iladriani  Jmperatoris  Nomine,  Indole,  ViV' 
tvtibus  ac  Viiiis  (1722) :  —  De  Iladriani  Imperatoris 
Moribus,  Ervditisgue  cum  Doctoribus  Judaorum  Con- 
troversiis  (1723).  See  VbiiDg,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
Deutschlands^  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Oporin,  Joachim,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Sept.  12|  1695.    He  studied  at  different 


OPPENHEIM 


752 


ORNITHOMANCT 


nnirenitiefl,  and  commenced  hia  academical  career  at 
Kiel  in  1719.  In  1788  he  was  professor  of  theology,  in 
1785  went  to  GOttingen,  and  died  Sept.  6, 1768|  doc- 
tor of  theology.  He  published,  Hittoria  CriticcB  de 
Peremdlate  Animi  Humam  (Kiel,  n\^)'.  — Hittoria 
Critica  Doctrina  de  Immortalitate  MorfaUum,  etc 
(Hambarg,  1785)  :—De  MtMna^eum  Infant  Etset  (1789) : 
— De  FirmHate  ac  Intpiratione  Divina  (1740)  :--Clavis 
EvangdU  Joannia  (G5ttingen,  1748)  '.—Zachariat  avf$ 
Neue  Obenetzt^  etc:— Disf.  Oraatla  Esaias  c  40-55 
(1750),  etc  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  49 ;  Doring,  Die 
gtUhrten  Theohgen  DeuUcMandt,  s.  r.,  where  a  complete 
list  of  Oporin's  writings  is  given.     (B.  P.) 

Oppenheilii,  David,  a  modem  Jewish  writer,  was 
born  Dec  18, 1816,  at  Leipnik,  Moravia.  He  received 
a  thorough  rabbinical  education,  was  in  1846  rabbi  at 
Jamnitz,  in  1857  at  Gross -Beeskerek,  Hungary,  and 
died  Oct.  21, 1876,  at  Vienna.  Oppenheim  contributed 
to  ail  the  leading  Jewish  journals  and  reviews,  and 
caused  a  great  stir  among  Soman  Catholics  by  keenly 
criticising,  in  the  Wiener  Mitheilungen^  an  article  on  the 
histor}'  of  the  Jews  in  Austria,  which  had  appeared  in 
the  Freiberger  Kirchenlexikon,  Oppenheim  laid  bare 
the  falsehoods  and  misstatements  of  that  article,  and 
elicited  the  rejoinder  of  Sitter  von  Pawlikowski,  who, 
in  his  book  of  a  hundred  sheets,  on  the  relation  be- 
tween Jews  and  Christians,  devoted  no  less  than  seventy 
pages  to  refute,  or  rather  to  insult,  Oppenheim.  One 
of  his  ancestors  was  David  ben-Abraham  Oppenheim 
(q.v.)     (a  P.) 

Oreads  were  nymphs  who  presided  over  the  moun- 
tains, daughters  of  Jupiter.  They  were  very  numerous, 
Diana  having  a  thousand  to  attend  her.  These  nymphs 
were  accredited  with  having  first  reclaimed  men  from 
devouring  each  other,  by  teaching  them  to  subsist  on 
acorns  and  chestnuts. 

Orebb  The  Rock.  Tristram  {BibU  Places^  p.  280) 
acquiesces  in  the  identification  of  this  with  the  remark- 
able peak  two  and  a  half  miles  north  of  Kiha  (Jericho), 
called  0$h  d^Ghurah,  which  is  the  most  prominent  of 
all  the  conical  peaks  that  terminate  the  terrace  ranning 
down  into  the  Jordan  valley,  and  is  about  five  hundred 
feet  above  the  plain  (JfemotVi  accompanying  the  Ord- 
nance Survey,  iii,  167). 

0*Reilly,  Bkrnard,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  bish- 
op, was  bom  in  Ireland  in  1803.  He  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  Nov.  10, 1850,  and  died  at  sea 
in  January,  1856. 

Orenburg-Tartar  Version  of  the  Scrtptube. 
As  the  name  indicates,  this  version  is  intended  for  the 
Tartars  in  the  vicinity  of  Orenburg.  The  version  made 
into  that  dialect  is  not  an  original  translation,  but  mere- 
ly  an  accommodation  of  Mr.  Brunton's  Harass  Version 
(q.  V.)  to  the  peculiar  idioms  and  orthography  of  the 
Kirghisian  Tartars,  residing  in  the  Russian  government 
of  Orenburg.  Mr.  Charles  Frazer,  one  of  the  Scottish 
missionaries  at  Astrachan,  prepared  a  translation  of  the 
New  Test.,  which  left  the  mission-press  at  Astrachan 
in  1820,  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.  Since  1871  a  part  of  the  Old  Test,  has  also 
been  published.    (B.  P.) 

Oriental  Ziiteratore  and  Languages  is  the 
common  designation  for  the  languages  and  literatures 
of  all  the  peoples  of  Asia,  as  well  as  of  those  of  Moslem 
Africa  and  Europe.  Even  during  the  Middle  Ages 
the  attention  of  European  savants  was  turned  towards 
the  Oriental  languages,  especially  the  Arabic,  and  this 
for  two  main  reasons.  In  iYie  Jir»t  place,  it  was  religious 
zeal  which,  by  the  knowledge  of  the  Arabic,  intended 
to  refute  the  Mohammedans  and  convert  them  to  Chris- 
tianity. For  this  purpose  pope  Innocent  IV  ordered 
that  chairs  for  instruction  in  Arabic  should  l)e  found- 
ed at  Paris,  and  popes  Clement  IV  and  Honorius  IV 
phowed  also  a  great  interest  in  the  matter.  Under 
Clement  V,  the  synod  held  at  Vienne,  in  1811,  resolved 


that  professors  of  Arabic  and  Chaldee  should  be  ap- 
pointed at  Paris,  Rome, Oxford,  Bologna,  and  Salamanca. 
Pope  John  XXII  especially  instructed  the  bishop  of 
Paris  to  see  that  these  languages  were  taught  in  the 
Soibonne.  In  the  iecond  place,  it  was  a  scientific  inter- 
est which  led  to  the  study  of  Oriental  literature,  in  or- 
der to  make  the  Western  nations  acquainted  with  the 
medical,  astronomical,  and  philosophical  writings  of  the 
Arabs,  and  with  the  works  of  Aristotle,  which  were  ex- 
tant only  in  Arabic  translations.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  12th  century  we  meet  with  Latin  translattooa 
from  the  Arabic,  which  increased  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  were  printed  in  the  15th  century.  The 
Reformation  revived  the  study  of  Oriental  languages 
by  their  application  to  Biblical  exegesis.  For  the 
Church  of  Rome  the  study  of  Oriental  languagea  be- 
came a  matter  of  necessity,  because  of  her  missionary 
stations  in  the  East,  and  thus  pope  Urban  VIII  founded, 
in  1627,  at  Rome,  the  Collegium  pro  Fide  Propaganda, 
where  the  Oriental  languages  were  taught.  Tbroagh 
the  Jesuits  in  China  and  Japan,  Europe  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  eastern  languages  of  Asia  and  their 
literature.  In  a  more  scientific  manner  the  study  of 
the  Oriental  languages  was  taken  up  in  the  middle 
of  the  18th  ccntur;'.  The  Englishman,  William  Jonea, 
while  a  resident  in  East  India  (1780-90),  called  special 
attention  to  the  riches  of  the  Indian  literature,  and 
founded  at  Calcutta,  in  1784,  the  Asiatic  Society.  At 
Paris,  Silvestre  de  Sacy  made  the  study  of  Arabic  of 
special  interest,  and  attracted  students  from  all  parta  of 
Europe.  Till  towards  the  end  of  the  18th  century  the 
study  of  the  Oriental  languages  had  only  occupied  a 
subordinate  position  in  the  curriculum  of  sciences ;  but 
with  the  formation  of  the  different  Asiatic  societies  the 
study  of  Oriental  languages  had  become  a  specialty. 
The  societies  for  promoting  this  study  are  as  follows, 
of  which  the  first  three  are  the  most  important  in  Eu- 
rope: 

1.  The  AHatie  Soeiety  of  Benffal,  fonnded  In  17S4,  by 
Sir  WIHiftm  Jones,  at  Cslcntta,  published  the  Aefatie  MU- 
eearehen  (Calcutta,  ITSS-ISSB,  IT  vols.),  which  were  part- 
ly translated  Into  French  and  German.  Since  188S  the 
Aeiatie  ReeeareheB  have  been  superseded  by  the  Jour- 
nal df  the  Aeiatie  SoeiUy  9if  BengtU.  which  li»  tniblished 
nonlhly.  Under  the  oaspices  of  this  society,  out  at  the 
expense  of  the  Anglo-Indian  government,  since  1846  the 
Bihliotheca  Indiea^  a  collection  of  Oriental  works  In  the 
original,  with  a  translation,  of  which  iit  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1880  more  than  five  Imndred  nombers  had  already 
appeared,  is  published.  Besides  the  Asiatic  Society  there 
exist  a  f^reat  many  branch  societies,  which  also  have  their 
owuperiodicals. 

5.  The  Soeiiti  Aeiatimie^  nt  Paris,  fonnded  in  1898  by  Sil- 
vestre de  Sacy  (q.  v.),  Klaprotb  (q.  v.),  Abel  R^mnsat, 
Jomard,  Chtey,  and  others,  which,  besides  editing  the 
Journal  AHatique^  siuce  1828,  also  pnblishes  Oriental 
work^  partly  lu  the  original,  partly  in  translations. 

8.  The  Soifol  Atiatie  Soeieht  of  Ortai  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, which  was  <»pened  by  Colebrooke,  March  19, 1S8S. 
In  the  place  of  the  TVaneaetiona  (1824-84,  8  vols.),  it  now 
publishes  the  Journal  tf  the  Roffol  Aitiatie  Soeietj^, 

4.  The  Deuteehe  morgenldndtttrhe  OeeelUehaft,  fonnded 
in  184&  Its  Journal  is  Zeiteehrift  der  deuteehen  OeeeU^^ 
tehafL 

6.  The  Soeiiti  Orientate  de  France,  nt  Paris,  with  the 
Revue  de  VOrient  as  its  orgnn  since  1S4A. 

6.  The  Syro-Bgyptian  Society,  at  Londou,  with  Origimt 
Papers  as  the  Journal  since  ISaH, 

7.  The  Koninglijke  ItietUOt  voor  de  Taal-,  Land-  en  Vol- 
kenkunde  van  Neederlandeeh  IndQ,  at  Amsterdam,  which 
publishes  the  Bijdragen  since  18B8. 

a  The  Ameriean  Oriental  Soeiety,  at  Boston,  founded 
in  1848,  with  the  Journal^  since  1848,  for  its  orgaji. 

See  Benfey,  Geeehidiie  der  Sprackwiteentehqft  und 
orientaliechtr  PhUohgie  in  Deuttddand  (Munich,  1869) ; 
Zenker,  BibUotheea  Orieatalie  (Leipsic,  1846-41, 2  vols.) ; 
TrUbner,  Oriental  Literarg  Record  (Lond.  1865  sq.); 
Friderici,  BibUotheea  OrientaUe  (Leipeic,  1876-^  )i 
Klatt  u.  Kuhn,  IMeraUtr-BlaH  fur  orienlaUetke  Phih- 
/o^  (ibid.  1888  sq.).     (a  P.) 

Oriua  Veraion.    See  Urita  Vbrbion. 

Omithomaiioy  (from  opvic*  a  hird,  and  ftetynia, 
divination),  a  species  of  divination  practiced  among  the 
andent  Greeks  by  means  of  birds.    See  Acoirur. 


OSBON 


m 


OSTRANDER 


'  Oabemtui,  Claodiaxus.    See  OsBSRai  or  Gloc- 

CB8TBR. 

OBbOD,  Abiathar  Mann,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  at  Pittafield,  Mass.,  in  1808. 
He  entered  the  New  York  Conference  in  1829,  with 
which  he  ever  after  remained  connected,  and  in  which 
he  occupied  many-  of  the  roost  important  appointments, 
as  pastor  and  presiding  elder,  and  also  as  a  member  of 
the  General  Conference.  He  died  Aug.  6, 1882.  He 
often  wrote  for  the  periodicals,  and  published  a  small 
Tolume  on  the  prophecies  of  DanieL  See  Minutei  of 
Annual  ConferenceSy  1888,  p.  89. 

Osgood,  Samuel  (1),  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Fr}*eburg,  Me.,  in  February,  1774. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1805,  and  in 
1809  settled  as  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational 
Church  in  Springfield,  Me.,  where  he  continued  till  his 
death,  Dec  8, 1862.  Dr.  Osgood  was  an  able  preacher 
and  an  active  reformer.  He  published  a  number  of 
sermons  and  addresses.  See  AppleUnCt  A  nnual  Cyclop, 
1862,  p.  681. 

Osgood,  Samuel  (2),  D.D.,  LUD.,  a  ProtesUnt 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  at  Charlestown,  Mass., 
Aug.  80,  1812.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  College 
in  1832,  and  entered  the  Unitarian  ministry  in  1835. 
In  1837  he  was  settled  over  a  church  in  Nashua,  N.  H. 
Previous  to  this  he  had  been  the  editor,  with  James 
Freeman  Clarke,  of  The  Western  Meuenffer,  at  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  a  periodical  which  for  a  time  maintained  a 
high  literary  rank.  In  1841  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Westminster  Church.  From  1849  to  1869  he  was  pas- 
tor of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah  in  New  York  city. 
From  1850  to  1854  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  The 
Chrittian  Enquirer^  a  Unitarian  Joumal  published  in 
that  city.  Having  resigned  his  charge,  he  travelled 
abroad  for  seven  months.  Returning  to  New  York,  he 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  1869.  He  died  in  New  York  city,  April  14, 1880. 
Dr.  Osgood^s  contributions  to  different  magazines,  re- 
views, and  newspapers  were  of  a  high  order;  the  same 
is  true  of  the  occasional  orations,  lectures,  and  addresses 
which  he  delivered  from  time  to  time.  He  was  a  very 
versatile  student,  although  perhaps  his  strong  point  was 
that  of  theology  and  Christian  morals;  an  excellent 
German  scholar,  and  familiar  with  all  the  great  Ger- 
man theologians;  also  fond  of  historical  researches,  and 
a  prominent  member  of  the  New  York  Historical  Soci- 
ety, of  which  for  a  long  time  he  was  home  correspond- 
ing secretary.  But  although  of  studious  habits,  he  al- 
ways took  a  warm  interest  in  current  public  events, 
as  a  pubUo4pirited  citizen,  ever  ready  to  cooperate  in 
the  advancement  of  any  scheme  for  promoting  litera- 
ture or  art.  His  last  public  work  was  the  reading  of 
his  paper  before  the  Historical  Society  on  Channins^t 
Place  M  American  Hittory,  Much  of  Dr.  Osgood^s 
literary  work,  scattered  through  periodicals  or  printed 
in  a  pamphlet  form,  it  is  impossible  here  to  catalogue. 
He  published,  among  other  works  of  greater  or  less  im- 
portance, translations  from  OLshausen  and  De  Wette, 
The  Hiitory  ofPoMsion  (1889),  and  Human  Life  (1842). 
Among  his  original  works  are.  Studies  in  Chrittian  Bi- 
ography  (1851):— rAs  Hearthstone  (1854) :— (7o<i  with 
Men;  or^  footprints  of  Providential  Leaders  (eod.) : — 
Milestones  in  our  L{fe  Journey  (1855) : — The  Holy  Gos- 
pels, illostrated  by  Overbcck  (iSbe):— Student  Life 
(1860) : — American  Leaves  (1867).  Among  hia  princi- 
pal addresses  before  the  New  York  Historical  Society 
waa  one  upon  Thomas  Crawford  and  Art  in  America, 
in  1875.  He  also  delivered  a  discourse  before  the  so- 
ciety on  its  sixty -second  anniversary,  Nov.  20, 1866. 
Many  of  his  essays  will  be  found  in  The  International 
Review,  The  North  American  Jieview,  The  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  Harper's  Monthly  MagoMwe,  and  other  periodi- 
cals. It  is  stated  that  he  wtt  unflntshed  a  work  en- 
titled The  Henaissanee  of  Art  in  America,  which  was  to 
iodude  his  papers  upon  Bryant  and  Cbanning. 

XII.— Bbb 


Osgood,  8.  Mm  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Henderson,  Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y.,  March  2, 1807,  In 
his  early  manh<«>d  he.  resided  in  Cortland,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  one  of  the  pnblishers  of  the  Cortland  Chronicle,  In 
1831  he  came  back  to  Watertown,  and  in  1884  received 
an  appointment  as  missionary  printer  at  Maulmain, 
Burmah.  He  returned  to  the  United  SUtes  in  1846, 
and  performed,  for  a  period  of  about  twenty-nine  years, 
roost  valuable  service  as  onepf  the  financial  agents  of 
the  Missionary  Union.  He  received,  in  1860,  an  ap- 
pointment as  district  secretary  of  the  Missionary  Union 
for  the  West,  which  he  heM  until  his  death,  at  bit 
home  In  Chicago,  July  9, 1875w  See  Cathcart,  Baptiet 
Encyclop.  p.  876.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Oaiander.  By  way  of  supplement  we  add  the  fol- 
lowing: 

1.  Gottlieb,  was  bom  at  Stuttgart,  March  15, 1786, 
and  died  Dec  6, 1827,  dean  at  Knittlingen.  He  ia  the 
author  of  different  theological  essays,  for  which  see 
Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  DeutsehUmds,  iii,  168; 
Ersch  u.  Graber,  A  llgemeine  Encydop.  p.  261  sq. 

2.  JoHAMM,  a  son  of  Johann  Adam  (1),  was  bom 
at  Ttlbingen,  April  2, 1 657.  After  completing  his  stud- 
ies he  travelled  through  France,  and  at  Paris  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  La  Chaise,  who  in  vain  endeavored 
to  convert  him  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  Having  re- 
turned, Osiander  was  in  1686  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Tubingen ;  a  few  years  later  professor  of  Greek  and 
philosophy,  and  assistant  preacher  to  his  father.  Osi- 
ander  died  Oct  18, 1724,  having  held  the  highest  civic 
and  ecclesiastical  positions.  See  Schmidt,  Leben  Johann 
Osiander's  (1843);  Ersch  u.  Graber,  AUgemeine  Ency- 
c2op.  Theil  8,  vol.  vi,  p.  263  sq. 

3.  Johann  Ernst,  a  brother  of  Gottlieb,  was  bom 
June  28,  1792,  at  Stuttgart.  In  1820  he  was  deacon 
at  Metzingen,  in  1824  professor  at  Manlbronn,  in  1840 
dean  at  Gdppingen,  in  1860  doctor  of  theology,  and  died 
April  8, 1870,  senior  of  the  Protestant  clergy  of  Wttr- 
temberg.  He  is  the  author  of,  PhiUpp  Melanchthon, 
eine  Rede  (Stuttgart,  1880) :  —  Zum  Andenken  Dr,  Gott- 
fried Menken's  (Bremen,  1832) :  —  Apohgie  des  Ldens 
Juu  gegen  Strauss  (Stuttgart,  1837) : — J^ehrbuch  turn 
christlichen  Religionsunterricht  (1^9):  —  Commentar 
uber  die  Brief e  Pauli  an  die  Konnthier  ( 1849, 1858). 
See  Winer,  Hamibuch  der  theoL  Lit.  U  552;  Zuchold, 
BiU  TheoL  ii,  968  sq. ;  WUrtemhergisehes  Kirchenblatt, 
1870,  p.  195 ;  Plitt-Hersog,  Reat-EncyUop,  s.  v. 

4.  Johann  Rudolf,  son  of  Johann,  was  bom  Majr 
21, 1689,  at  Tubingen,  and  died  Oct  25, 1725,  professor 
of  theology.  See  Gass,  Geschichte  der  protest*  Dogma* 
tik,\\i,n^.    (a  P.) 

OMitiUlan  Version.  See  Russia,  Versioxs  of. 

Ostjaklan  Veraion.   See  Russia,  Vkiuionb  of. 

Ostrander,  Daniel,  a  veteran  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  at  Plattekill,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  9, 1772. 
He  was  converted  at  sixteen,  entered  the  New  York 
Conference  in  1793,  was  for  fourteen  years  on  circuits, 
for  eight  on  station  (New  York,  Brooklyn,  and  Albany), 
and  for  twenty-eight  years  was  presiding  elder«  From 
1808  to  18-iO  inclusive  he  was  elected  member  of  every 
General  Conference.  He  retired  in  1848,  and  died  Dec. 
8  of  that  year.  He  was  firm,  faithful,  wise  in  pursuing 
his  course,  ever  at  his  post,  and  always  ready  to  serve. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences,  1843-44,  p.  472; 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  vii,  221. 

Oatrander,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  ( Dutch ) 
minister,  was  bom  at  Plattekill,  N.  Y.,  March  11, 1781. 
He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1799;  studied 
under  Dr.  Froeligh ;  was  licensed  by  the  Classis  of 
Paramus  in  1800;  became  pastor  at  Coxsackie  in  1801 ; 
at  CatskiU  (or  Leeds)  in  1810;  Caatsban  in  1812;  also 
at  Saugerties  village  in  1839;  and  stated  supply  at 
Hurley  in  1811.  He  was  without  a  charge  from  1862 
until  his  death,  Nov.  22, 1872.  Fifteen  Sermons  of  his 
are  published  in  Gordon's  Memoir  of  him,  with  selec* 
tiona  from  his  autobiography,  and  extracts  from  hia 


OTET  11 

Utlen.    Sea  Carwia,  Manual  ofRrf,  Cletrtk  it  Amer- 

ira,8d*d.p.896. 

Otay,  Janis  Hervkt,  D.D.,  a  tnahap  of  the  Prot- 
estant Epiicopil  Cbnrch,  wu  bom  at  liberty,  Bedrord 
Co.,  Ta.,  JiD.  27,  1800.  Ue  graduated  at  the  Unirer- 
Atj  or  North  Carolina  in  IB20,  was  oidained  deacon  in 
1836,  and  preabyter  in  1827;  afurwarda  became  rector 
of  St.  Paul'«,  in  Franltlin,  Tmn,  troni  which  pariah  be 
vaa  elected  biahop  of  the  dioceae,  the  cooaecration 
taking  place  in  Christ  Church,  Phiiadetphta,  Jao.  14, 
ISM.  He  died  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  April  !S,  18S8. 
From  his  urbanity  aod  piety  he  aaoally  went  by  the 
name  of  "  the  good  biabop."  He  was  the  author  or 
numerous  Semioiu,  etd^  and  a  rolume  oti  Tk*  Unilg 
of  tkt  CKarA  (1862).  See  ^mer.  Qiiar.  C*iirc*  Bt- 
nw,  Jul7,  1863,  p.  S21. 

OIJI  (Tsohi,  or  Twl)  Veraton  ar  thk  Schipt- 
UREs.  The  laoguage  distinj^uished  as  "  Aahanlee  I'rop- 
er,  orOtJi,"lB  apokenio  the  south  of  Aiante(Aahantee), 
in  Fantee,  Akim,  Akwapim,  and  in  Akwam.  Tlierc  are 
trifling  dialectic  di  (Terences  in  the  language  apoki 
these  several  districts,  but  it  may  be  conridercd,  never- 
thelesi,  oae  and  the  same  with  the  Akwapim  or  Oiji, 
the  best  cultivated  of  tbeui  alL  In  1846  the  miuinn- 
aries  of  the  Basle  Hisaionary  Society  commenced  tbi 
preparation  of  a  reraianoflhe  New  Teat,  into  Aabantee, 
and  completed  the  gospels  of  Matthew  and  Luke.  Since 
181>fi  the  Kev.  J,  G.  Cbriataller,  one  of  the  miauonsries 
stationed  at  Acropong,  has  prosecuted  the  task  of  Script- 
ure trantlation  into  the  Otji  language,  aud  the  Tour  gna- 
peta,  after  a  careful  revision,  were  printed  in  1857  by 
Iba  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  In  1861  the 
book  of  Genesis,  the  epistle  to  the  Romsns, 
general  epistles  of  John  followed,  and  in  IB6{ 
lire  New  Teat.wat  in  eirculaliuu.  la  1870 
Teat,  waa  printed  in  Europe,  under  the  anperin 
of  the  tranalator,  and  since  then  the  entire  Bible  has 
been  in  circulation.     (R  P.) 

OtJI-horero  Veraioa  of 
Otji-herero  is  the  lams  as  the 
by  a  sooth-westem  African  tril 
the  South  African  Auxiliary  Bible  Sociel;  printed  in 
18T5  the  book  of  Psalms  in  that  language,  the  trantla- 
tion having  been  prepared  by  the  Rev.  H,  Brincker,  of 
the  Rhenisli  Misaionary  Society.  In  1879  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  at  the  request  of  Dr.  Fabri, 
of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  printed  the  New 
Test.,  which  was  slso  translated  by  Mr.  Brincker,  and 
revised  by  a  committee.     (RP.) 

Otablrbanl,  in  Kalmuckian  worship,  waa  a  god  of 
third  rank,  represented  under  a  aingalar  rami.  Heap- 
pears  only  clothed 


is  contracted,  with 
head  turned  back, 
as  if  in  convnl- 
aions.    This  dei^ 

•n  Va  oombat  the 


Flgnra  of  OtahiibaDL 


piU  is  put  into  the  ebannel,  and  Calli  into  tba  moMh    • 

Otter,  Wii.UAH,D,D.,  an  Engliab  prelate,  was  bora 
at  Cuckney,  Nottinghamshire,  Oct.  29, 1768.  He  wu 
educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  be  be- 
came fellow  and  tutor;  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Colneworth,  Bedfordsbire,  in  1804,  with  which  he  haU 
the  vicange  of  Sturmer,  in  Easex;  appointed  to  Cbet- 
wyniJ,  Shropshire,  In  1810;  to  Kinlet,  in  1816i  Si. 
Mark's,  Kenninglon,  in  ISSfi;  waa  principal  of  King's 
College,  London,  in  1831,  and  consecivted  bishop  of 
Chichester.  Oct. 2, 1836.  HediedAug.SO,  1840.  Bish- 
op Otter  wss  an  accomplished  scholar,  an  able  presctker, 
UamelesB  in  life,  and  held  in  high  esteem  by  all  who 
knew  him.  He  published  three  Tradi  respecting  lb« 
Bible  Society  against  bishop  Marah  (1812-13)  -.-Lift 
and  Remairu  o/ E.D.CtarktilS2i,ilo;  1825,2voU, 
8vo)  —Li/e  (1/  r.  R.  ifallhui  (1HS6).  After  hU  deatb 
srolume  wis  published  of  hia  Pailoral  A  lUrfuu  (1841, 
8vo).  See  (Loiid.)  Gtntlmta't  Magaaat,  Nov.  1840, 
p.  639;  London  Athmaltm,  1840,  p.  864;  Tkt  (Land.) 
ChtwtUm  Btrnttubranar,  Jsn,  1841,  p.  1 ;  Allihone,  Diet. 
!•/ BriL  and  A>nir.  Aiilkor;*.  V. 

Otthor,  Jacob,  the  reformer  of  Estlingen,  was  bom 
at  Lautcnburg,  iu  Alaacc.  He  itudied  at  Freiburp;, 
where  Wimpheling  waa  his  teacher,  and  while  a  re^ 
dent  at  Strasbiirg  Cither  published  the  eermons  of 
Geiler,  of  Kaiaerberg,  iu  a  I^tin  translation,  in  ISIO. 
In  1620,  while  preacher  at  Wulfenweiler,  near  Freiburg, 
ha  openly  declared  himself  an  adheient  of  Lutlier. 
In  IB22  he  was  preacher  at  Kenzingen,  in  the  Bretsgaa, 
but  he  left  that  place  In  1524  on  account  of  the  oppou- 
tion  which  be  met  from  the  civil  and  ecderiastical 
autharitiea.  Otther  went  to  Neckanteinach,  near  Hei- 
delberg, and  abolished  there  (be  mass  and  other  papiatic 
usages.  In  1627  he  left  that  place,  and,  after  a  short 
stay  at  Straaburg  and  in  Switzerland,  finally  settled 
in  1632  at  Esalingen,  where  he  brought  about  the  work 
of  reformation,  which  bad  beea  commenced  by  Ambio- 
sius  Blaser.  Otther  died  in  the  eariy  part  of  1547. 
See  Seckendorf,  Auifuhrlidie  Hiilorie  da  Lutirrlkamt 
(Leipsic,  1714) ;  Keim,  Sr/onMliomilSUtr  der  ReidiM- 
wtadt  Eidmga  (1860)  and  SchviSbiKAt  Rf/orsiatioiu- 
geickidiU;  Plitt-Uerzog,  Etal-EHcyUap.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Otto,  liKOroLO  MAR-m  vov,  a  Lutheran  theekt- 
gian,  was  bom  at  Warsaw,  in  Poland,  Nov.  2,  ISlSl 
He  atudied  at  Dorpat  and  Berlin,  and  acted  for  some 
tjme  as  vicar  at  Kalish.  In  1844  he  was  paator  at  Pe- 
trikau,  and  in  1849  at  Warsaw,  where  he  developed  ■ 
great  activity  in  founding  many  Christian  institntiona. 
Having  taken  part  in  the  Polish  revolution,  he  was 
impriaoued  and  suspended  from  bis  office.  From  ISM 
to  1876  he  served  as  pastor  at  Teaben,  in  Austrian 
Sileaia,  and  when  permiision  wsa  granted  for  bis  re- 
turn to  his  lutive  town,  he  resumed  his  pastorale  Ibcie 
again,  wbere  he  died,  Sept.  22, 1885.  In  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  great  eSbrts  fur  propsgating  theologicBl 
literature  in  the  Polish  language,  the  Leipaic  Univeraty 
confemNl  on  him  in  18G4  the  degree  of  doctor  of  dirio- 
ity.  He  published.  The  Augsburg  Confession  in  tbe 
Polish  language,  in  1862 : — HatOTy  of  lie  Svangeticol 
ChurtA  of  lit  Ausibu'-g  Confaiiou  of  Wanaw,from 
1652  to  1781  (1SB2).  He  afterwards  published  an  evan- 
gelical review,  tbe  Zviiufm  Etcaag^iczm/.     (B,  P.) 

Onseel,  Philifp,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Gcp- 
nuny,  was  bom  at  Danldc,  Oct  7,  1671,  and  studied 
tbeijogy  and  medidm  at  different  nnivenitlea.  In 
1711  he  was  preacher  at  Leyden,  in  1717  professor  at 
Frankfort,  and  died  April  12,  1724,  doctor  of  theology 
and  medicine.  He  wrote,  Ik  Lrpra  Culii  Bebraoi-mm  .■ 
^^Inirodttdio  in  A  ccaasalioiian  Htbraemm  Metricom : 
— Dt  Afxxntuatione  iliitraomrA  Protaifa: — Dt  Anetort 
Deccdogi :^-I>» Nimnabui  Dtcalogi: — Dt  DecalagotoK 
Itraili  Data: — Dt  Dtnario  rrgiii  Calonat; — Di  JVu- 
lara  Deailagi.  See  FtlnC,  BiU.  J»d.  ili,  60;  Jecber, 
A  l^tmtiMa  Gdehrltn-Leakon,  t.  V.     (Q.  P.) 


OUTREIN 


166 


PABISCH 


Ovtrwlii,  JoKAHir  r>\  a  Reformed  iheologuui,  was 
bom  at  Middleburg,  Oct.  17»  1668.  He  stadied  at 
Franeker,  and  was  preacher  there  in  1687.  In  1688 
he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  academyi  in  1691 
preacher  at  Ambeim,  in  1708  at  Dort,  in  1708  at  Am- 
sterdam, and  died  Feb.  20, 1722.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer.  A  complete  list  of  his  many  writings  is  given 
in  Jocher,  AUgGneinet  GtUhrten'lAxibon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Ontremont,  Hbctor  Auikrt  Chaclbt  d',  a 
French  prelate,  was  bom  at  Tours,  Feb.  27,  1825.  He 
became  titular  of  St.  Gatien  of  Tours  in  1862,  bishop  of 
Agen  in  1871,  archbishop  of  Mans  in  1874,  and  died 
Sept.  16, 1884. 

Onvxier,  Ludwio  Bknjamiv,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Prenzlov,  Prussia,  May 
7, 1785.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  was  for  some  time 
private  tutor.  In  1768  he  was  made  court-preacher  at 
Darmstadt,  in  1770  member  of  consistory,  and  in  1772 
professor  of  theology  at  Giessen.  Ouvrier  died  Oct.  1, 
1792.  He  published,  Unfertuchung  id)er  die  LehrsSine 
da  ChriMtemhumM  (Beilin,  1778) :— /)e  Tkeohgia  Pcpu- 
lari  ( Giessen,  1775  ) :  —  Atmotatumei  Quiedam  ad  2 
Par,  n,  2;  Judas  6  (1776):  — Z>e  Neceantate  Satufao 
tionia  a  Paulo  Rom,  trm,  8  AMterta  (1777):— />e  The- 
ologia  Morali  (1779)  i^-An  A  dor.  tV,  24  Spiritut  Sane^ 
tut  Dicatur  Ufuverti  Creator  (1780) : — De  Jitdem  m  JU- 
turrtctione  RestUuauU*  Corporibui  (1781) : — GetchtehU 
der  JUligioneH  nebst  ihren  Griinden  und  Gegtngrimden 
(1781-83, 2  vols.).  See  Doring,  Die  gdtkrim  Tkeologeh 
Deuitchlandt,  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

Orerkampk  Gioro  Wilhslm,  a  Lutheran  theok^ 
gian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  9, 1707,  at  Gteifswalde, 
and  died  at  his  birthplace,  July  27, 1790,  professor  and 
senior  of  the  university.  He  wrote,  De  Sigtdjieaiume 
Verborum  QHtlnis  Induraiio  Pharamnt  in  Hisioria  Mo» 
ioiea  Exprimitur  (Jena,  1786) : — De  Judau  PrimarvU 
Chrittiam  Nominit  ffosHbut  (eod.) : — De  Judaie  Fruttra 
a  GuiHdmo  Whistono  alOique  Corrvptioma  Bebreti  Co' 
dicta  JfuwodaHi  (Greifswalde,  1789) : — De  HebreBorum 
po  Potdifida  Maximi  in  Summo  Expiationia  de  Viea- 
rio  (eod.)  z—DePeceato  ac  Poena  larailia  Typida  (1748) : 
— De  Dimnitua  PrtadUdo  ac  Defiuto  Tempore  NaHvitOf 
tia  Meaaia  (eod.)  i—De  Philoaophia  Orientali  (1744)  :— 
De  Magia  ex  Oriade  ui  Vera  Sapientibua  (1749)  :->/)« 
Sahmomj  Verm  SapientuB  Magiatro,  ex  Libro  Cokeletk 
OaUnao  (1754) : — MdeUma  Quadrageaimale  m  lea,  liii, 
7,  8,  9  (1760)  :—Commeniatio  in  Pa.  xxxii  (1770)  :~De 
DiaiineUone  in  Judaoa  et  Gnaeoa,  in  Gracoa  et  Barharoa 
(1782).  See  FUrst,  BibLJud.  iii,  60  sq.;  Doring,  Die 
gdehrten  Tkeohgen  Deutackianda,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Owen,  Isaac,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Milton,  Vt.,  March  8, 1809.  Two  years 
later  be  removed  with  bis  parents  to  Indiana.  He  was 
converted  in  bis  sixteenth  year,  in  his  twenty-third 
was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  1884  entered  the  Indiana 
Confennce.  For  fourteen  years  he  filled  without  in- 
terraption  the  regular  appointments  given  him  by  that 


Cooferanoe,  and  during  the  last  four  years  of  the  time 
served  with  great  efficiency  as  agent  of  the  Indiana 
Asbory  University.  In  1848  he  received  a  transfer  to 
California  as  a  missionary.  Upon  his  arrival  in  Cali- 
fomia  the  interests  of  the  work  were  mainly  placed  in 
his  bands.  For  many  years  he  filled  the  office  of  pre- 
siding elder;  twice  he  was  elected  to  the  General  Con- 
ference ;  once,  upon  the  non-arrival  of  the  bishop,  he 
was  chosen  to  AU  his  place  and  preside;  and  he  was  al- 
ways among  the  foremost  in  Church  and  literary  en- 
terprises. To  no  one  man  was  California  more  indebted 
for  her  progress  in  morals  and  social  reform  than  to  Dr. 
Owen.  He  died  Feb.  9, 1866.  Industry,  zeal,  and  faith- 
fulness marked  bis  life.  See  Minutea  of  A  nnual  Con/er* 
enoM,  1867,  p.  288 ;  Simpson,  Cgdop,  ofMeikodiam,  s.  v. 

Orren,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Bedford,  N.  Y.,  June  14, 1814.  He  graduated 
from  Princeton  College  in  1885,  and  from  the  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  there  in  1888 ;  was  ordained  in  1889  for 
the  miasion-field,  in  which  he  did  his  life-work.  Lending 
in  India  in  1840,  and  assigned  to  the  station  of  Allaha- 
bad, he  continued  to  labor  there  without  release  or  rel- 
axation for  fonr-and-twenty  years.  After  the  death 
of  his  first  wife,  in  1864,  he  obtained  a  short  release, 
and  crossed  the  Himalaya  mountains  Into  Thibet.  Five 
years  later  he  undertook  a  visit  to  his  native  land.  In 
acknowledgment  of  the  value  of  his  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  HindA,  the  North  India  Bible  Society  pie- 
sented  him  money  to  visit  Palestine.  He  visited  Egypt, 
Jerusalem,  Constantinople,  Germany,  and  Scotland  on 
this  tour,  and  was  intending  to  visit  America.  He  died 
at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  Dec.  4, 1870. 

Cywl-headed  Minerva.  The  idea  of  this  goddess 
is  due  to  the  imaginative  enthusiasm  of  Dr.  Schliemann, 
who  believed  that  he  saw  an  owl-headed  Athena  in  the 
mde  attempts  at  the  imitation  of  the  human  face  on 
vases  and  other  otyects  discovered  by  him  at  Hissarlik. 
The  faces  of  certain  images  of  Apollo,  found  on  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
are  rader  than  those  of  the  Hissarlik  antiquities.  Sim- 
ilar faces  are  also  found  on  the  Etruscan  bUckware  from 
Chinsi,  where  the  spout  of  the  vase  serves  as  a  nose, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  ornamentation  originated  in 
two  eyes  being  set  on  each  side  of  a  vessel's  spout  or 
mouth,  to  ward  off  the  evil  eye.  Two  large  eyes  are 
sometimes  introduced  on  Greek  vases  in  the  midst  of  a 
group  of  figures.    See  BIinsrva. 

Ozygrftphua  (from  o^vc,  awift,  and  ysra^M,  to 
write)t  a  name  sometimes  given  by  the  Greek  fathers 
to  the  Notary  (q.  v.)  of  the  ancient  Christian  Church. 

O'sem  (Heb.  O'taem,  D^fit,  atrengthf  Sept.  *Atr6n 
V.  r.  'AffAft  and  *Aedv;  Yulg.  Aaaom  and  Aaom),  the 
name  of  two  men  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 

1.  The  fourth  of  the  sons  of  Jerahmeel  by  his  first 
wife  (1  Chron.  U,  25).    KG.  eir.  1666. 

2.  The  sixth  son  of  Jesse,  and  brother  of  David  (1 
Chron.  ii,  15).    B.C.  dr.  1100. 


P. 


Pabifloli,  Fbakcis  Joseph,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  emi- 
nent Roman  Catholic  scholar  and  divine,  was  bom  at 
Zlabings,  Monvia,  March  80, 1825.  In  his  fourteenth 
year  he  was  sent  to  the  gnunroar-school  of  Znaim,  and 
from  there  to  the  high-school  of  BrUnn ;  in  1848  entered 
the  University  of  Vienna;  and  in  1847  the  archiepis- 
copal  seminary  in  the  same  city.  In  March,  1850,  he 
was  ordained  priest,  and  was  given  a  chaplaincy  near 
Vienna.  In  1851,  on  the  invitation  of  Archbishop  Pur- 
cell,  of  Cincinnati,  he  came  to  America,  and  was  placed 
in  charge  of  Whiteoak,  seven  miles  from  Cincinnati 
In  1858  he  began  to  give  a  few  hours  a  week  to  teach- 
ing ecclesiastical  history  and  German  in  the  Seminary 
of  Mount  St.  Mary*8  of  the  West.  Later,  he  studied 
theology  and  canon  law  at  the  College  of  the  Propa- 


ganda in  Rome.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  and  after  four 
years  of  arduous  study  graduated  doctor  of  theology 
and  doctor  of  civil  and  canon  law.  From  1858  to  1860 
he  practiced  as  a  jurist  to  the  congregation  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  In  1861  Dr.  Pabisch  returned  to  the 
United  States,  and  on  his  arrival  at  Cincinnati  was 
given  the  chair  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  canon  law 
at  the  Seminary  of  Mount  St.  Mary's,  and  in  1863  suc- 
ceeded to  the  rectorship.  On  the  financial  downfall  of 
that  institution,  his  intellect  gave  way,  and  he  was 
taken  to  the  Mount  Hope  Retreat,  near  Baltimore, 
where  he  died,  Oct.  2, 1879.  In  connection  with  Rev. 
Thomas  S.  B^ime,  Dr.  Pabisch  translated  Alzog's  Urd- 
veraal  Church  Biatorg  from  the  German  (Cincinnati, 


PACHACAMAC 


756 


PAINTING 


1874»  1876, 1878, 3  vols.  8vo),  with  additions  on  the  hw- 
toTy  in  England  and  America.  See  (N.  Y.)  Caih,  iin- 
nualf  1881,  p.  90. 

Faohacamao,  the  supreme  god  of  the  Peruvians. 
This  deity  had  a  magnificent  temple  in  a  valley  called- 
Pachacama^  built  by  the  Incas  or  emperors  of  Peru. 
Such  immense  treasures  had  been  laid  up  in  this  temple 
that  Pizarro  found  900,000  ducats  in  it,  though  four 
hundred  savages  had  taken  away  as  much  as  they  could 
carry.  The  Peruvians  had  so  great  a  veneration  for 
this  deity  that  they  offered  him  whatever  they  esteemed 
most  precious,  and  so  great  was  their  awe  of  him  that 
they  durst  not  look  upon  his  image.  Even  their  priests 
and  kings  entered  his  temples  with  their  backs  towards 
his  altar,  and  came  out  again  without  daring  to  turn. 

Faohmanii,  Theodor,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Austria,  for  some  time  professor  of  canon  law  at 
the  university  in  Vienna,  who  died  Feb.  2, 1881,  doctor 
of  theology,  is  the  author  of  Lehrbuck  de»  Kirchenrtchta 
(Yieona,  1858, 8  vols. ;  8d  ed.  1868-66).  See  Zuchold, 
iSiM.  7%eol  ii,  969.     (a  P.) 

Packard,  Alphkus  Sfrimo,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister  and  educator,  was  born  at  Chelmsford, 
Mass.,  Dec.  20, 1799,  and  was  the  son  of  Rev.  Dr.  Heze- 
k&ah  Packard.  He  studied  at  the  Phillips  Academy 
of  Exeter,  and  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1816. 
He  was  elected  tutor  of  the  college  in  1819,  and,  in  1824, 
professor  of  languages  and  classical  literature ;  from  1842 
to  1845  filled  a  vacancy  in  the  chair  of  rhetoric  and  ora- 
tory;  in  1864  was  called  to  the  chair  of  the  Collins  pro- 
fessorship of  natural  and  revealed  religion ;  and  in  1888 
and  1884  was  acting  president  He  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Maine  Historical  Society  in  1828,  and  was  long 
its  secretary  and  librarian.  He  died  suddenly  at  Squirrel 
Island,  Boothbay  Hariwr,  Me.,  July  18, 1884.  His  ser- 
mons, lectures,  and  contributions  of  various  kinds  to  the 
press  were  numerous.    See  Boston  Advertiser^  July  14, 

1884.  (J. as.) 

Paddock,  Zacabiah,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Northampton,  N.  Y.,  Dec  20, 1798. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  licensed  to 
preach  in  1818,  and  the  same  year  entered  the  Genesee 
Conference.  His  most  responsible  appointments  were : 
Ridgeway,  Clarence,  Batavia,  French  Creek,  Westmore- 
land, Buffalo,  Rochester,  Auburn,  Cazenovia,  New  York 
Mills,  Sauquoit,  Ithica,  Btnghamton,  Oxford,  Utica, 
Wilkesbarre,  Honesdale,  and  Chenango  {  upon  most  of 
which  he  was  eminently  successful  He  took  a  super- 
annuated relation  in  1870,  and  died,  a  member  of  the 
Wyoming  Conference,  at  his  home  in  Binghamton, 
N.  Y.,  July  4, 1879.  Dr.  Paddock's  name  in  American 
Methodism  in  his  declining  years  became  a  synonym 
for  gentleness,  sweetness,  and  purity.  Ho  published 
several  small  volumes,  and  wrote  quite  extensively  for 
the  Church  papers  and  periodicals.  See  Minutes  of 
Annual  Conferences^  1880,  p.  86. 

Padilla,  Frahcbsoo  dk,  a  Roman  ^Catholic  theolo- 
gian, for  some  time  professor  of  theology  at  Seville, 
who  died  at  Malaga,  May  15, 1607,  canon  and  doctor  of 
theology,  is  the  author  of  Historia  Ecclesiastica  de  Es- 
panna  (Malaga,  1605, 2  vols,  foL).  Sec  Winer,  Hand- 
buck  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  816;  Jdcher,  A  l^emeilies  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon^  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Page,  David  Cook,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was,  in  1853,  rector  of  a  church  in  Memphis, 
Tenn.;  about  1858  removed  to  Allegheny,  Penn.,  as 
rector  of  Christ  Church,  and  there  remained  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  rest  of  his  life.  A  short  time  previ- 
ous to  his  death  he  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
Natchez,  Miss.  He  died  in  Allegheny  City,  Penn., 
May  7, 1878,  aged  seventy-six  years.  See  Prot,  Episc 
Almanacy  1879,  p.  170. 

Pagendarm,  Johank  Gerhard,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  LUbeck,  Dec.  2, 1681. 
He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  acted  for  some  time  as 


preacher  at  different  places.  In  1780  he  oommeooed 
his  academical  career  at  Jena*  and  died  May  28, 1754. 
He  wrote,  ,De  Codies  Judaomm  Otsnensium  Ebreeo 
(Jena,  1780)  i^De  Hebdomatibus  Dcmidis  (1746)  i-'De 
nsbia  *i3H  et  nsDi  ^SH  ad  GeiL  xi,  29,  in  the  BibU- 
otheea  Lubecensis,  vi,  Ko.  5.  See  During,  Die  gelehrtem 
Tkeologen  Deiitschlands,  s.v.;  Fttrst,  BibLJud.  iit,  62; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gtkhrten-Lexihon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Pahari  Version  or  thk  Scripturk.  The  Pa- 
hari  is  spoken  by  the  Paharis,  a  hill  tribe  in  the  Raj> 
mahal  district,  Biengal,who  are  supposed  to  be  among 
the  earliest  settlers  in  the  country.  The  Rev.  £.  Droese, 
of  Bhangalpore,  who  has  spent  nearly  a  quarter  of  a 
century  among  the  Paharis,  and  who  is  the  only  Euro- 
pean that  knows  much  of  their  language,  has  translated 
the  gospel  of  Luke,  which  was  published  by  the  Cal- 
cutta Auxiliary  Bible  Society  in  1881.  The  aame 
scholar  alBO  prepared  a  translation  of  the  gospel  of  John, 
which  was  published  in  1888.  l*hese  are  the  only 
parts  of  the  Scripture  which  are  yet  printed.    (B.  P.) 

Paine,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Person  County, 
N.  C,  Nov.  12, 1799,  of  Baptiit  parents.  In  eariy  l^e 
he  removed  to  Tennessee;  was  converted  Nov.  9, 1817; 
licensed  to  preach  the  same  year;  the  next  year  was 
admitted  into  the  Tennessee  Conference,  and  after  la- 
boring on  several  circuits  and  in  important  stations,  was 
elected  president  of  La  Grange  College,  Alabama,  in 
1880,  a  position  which  he  retained  until  bis  elevation 
to  the  episcopacy  in  1846.  He  had  been  a  member  of 
every  Grenend  Conference  from  1824,  and  was  active  in 
the  discussion  that  le<l  to  the  division  of  the  Methodist 
Church  in  1844.  His  extensive  labors  as  a  bishop 
ckised  with  his  death,  Oct  20, 1882.  He  was  a  very 
able  preacher,  a  ready  speaker,  and  a  devoted  Christian. 
He  wrote  L^e  and  Times  of  Bishop  AfcKendree.  See 
Minutes  oj  Annual  Conferences  of  the  J/.  E,  Ckurek 
South,  1882,  p.  147 ;  Simpson,  Cyckp,  of  Methodism,  s.  r. 

Paine,  "William  Pomeroy,  D.D.,  a  Congr^a- 
tional  minister,  was  botn  at  Ashfleld,  Mass..  Aug.  1, 
1802.  He  studied  at  Ashfield  Academy ;  in  1827  grad- 
uated from  Amherst  College,  and  in  1882  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminary ;  from  1829  to  1881  he  was  tutor 
in  Amherst  College.  His  only  pastorate  was  of  the 
Church  at  Holden,  Mass.,  where  he  was  regularly  or- 
dained and  installed,  Oct.  24, 1888.  He  resigned  this 
charge  in  February,  1875,  but  remained  pastor  emeritoa 
until  his  death,  Nov.  28, 1876.  See  Cong.  Quarlerfy, 
1877,  p.  421. 

Painting;  Christian.  The  first  law  which  gov- 
erned the  early  Christian  sculptors  and  painters  was  to 
present  Christ  as  the  source  and  centre  of  their  life, 
and  so  to  depict  him  that  other  figures  in  their  com- 
positions should  appear  like  rays  emanating  from  him. 
With  respect  to  the  contents  and  spirit  of  representa- 
tion, it  may  be  said  that,  during  the  entire  period  of 
early  Christian  art,  both  sculpture  and  painting  were, 
for  the  most  part,  limited  to  symbolical  expression.  In 
the  beginning,  symbolical  representations  were  alone 
permitted.  Soon,  however,  the  art  impulse  partially 
broke  away  from  these  fetters;  yet  art  still  remained  a 
sort  of  bibUa  pauperum,  and  served  chiefly  as  a  mere 
reminder  of  the  themes  of  sacred  history.  Even  at  a 
later  period,  when  works  of  art  were  empbyed  in  mul- 
titudes for  church  decorations.  Biblical  scenes,  especially 
from  the  Apocalypse,  were  still  preferred.  As  earh'  aa 
the  4th  century  we  find  a  portrait-like  representatioa 
of  sacred  personages  accompanying  these  forms  of  ar- 
tistic symbolism.  It  was  even  believed  that  veritable 
portraits  of  Christ,  the  Bladonna,  and  the  Apostles,  ex- 
isted in  paintings  from  the  hand  of  St.  Luke,  and  in 
sculpture  from  that  of  Nicoderous,  in  the  napkin  of  St. 
Veronica,  yea,  even  in  the  so-called  dxtipoiroiiyrotc 
(**  likenesses  of  celestial  origin  "). 

In  the  first  third  of  the  early  Christian  period,  from 
the  8d  century  to  the  second  half  of  the  5th  oentuiy^ 


PAINTINQ 


161 


PAINTING 


of  which  nameioos  woiks  of  ait  in  the  so-called  oeme- 
teries  (cataoombe  of  Rome,  Naples,  Syracuse,  etc.)  have 
been  preserved,  painting  still  maintained  the  ancient 
plastic  method  of  representation  (as  may  be  seen  also  in 
the  paintings  in  the  cemeteries,  in  the  mosaics  of  Santa 
Cosunaa  and  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  in  Rome,  San  Gio- 
vanni in  Fonte,  and  San  Nazario  e  Gelso  at  Ravenna). 
In  the  second  third,  till  the  8th  century,  painting  sought 
more  and  more  to  adapt  the  antique  forms  to  the  ideal- 
istic, transcendental  spirit  of  Christianity,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  mosaics  of  Santa  Pudentiana  and  Santi 
Coema  e  Damiano  at  Rome,  of  San  Appollinare  Nuovo, 
San  Appollinare  in  Classe,  and  San  Yitale  at  Ravenna, 
and  some  miniatures.  After  the  8th  century,  painting, 
and  in  fact,  the  entire  art  of  early  Christianity,  lapsed 
into  a  continually  deepening  decline,  till  the  llth  cen- 
tury, as  may  be  seen  in  the  mosaics  of  San  Prassede, 
San  Marco,  and  others  in  Rome,  and  miniatures  of  vari- 
ous manuscripts,  and  the  Iconoetasis  (q.  v.)  of  Greek  and 
Russian  churches. 

With  the  new  life  which  the  llth  century  ushered 
in  in  Western  Christendom,  architecture  reached  not 
only  the  climax  of  its  own  development,  but  also  as- 
serted a  decided  preponderance  over  sculpture  and 
painting.  One  spirit  and  one  life  prevailed  in  all  three 
of  the  sister-arts.  The  newly  awakened  art  impulse 
developed  itself  in  the  Xorth,  especially  in  Germany, 
much  later  in  Italy.  Here  the  earliest  movement  took 
place  in  the  12th  century,  and  the  following  century 
had  been,  ushered  in  before  the  first  endeavors  were 
made  by  single  artists  of  lesser  rank  to  blend  the  By- 
zantine style  with  the  ancient  Italian,  and  thus  to  in- 
fuse new  life  into  the  old  Christian  types.  The  **  Ro- 
manesque" style  of  painting  first  reached  complete- 
ness in  Giovanni  Cimabue  and  in  Duccio  di  Bonin- 
segna  of  Sienna  (fi.  about  1282).  On  this  wise  there 
grew  up  two  schools  of  paindng— that  of  Florence  and 
that  of  Sienna;  the  Florentine  of  a  severer  type,  ap- 
proaching nearer  to  the  early  Christian  (Byzantine), 
the  Siennese  characterized  more  by  tenderness  and  sen- 
timent, more  independent,  and  likewise  more  graceful 
in  the  rendering  of  form.  These  two  masters  were 
foUowed  by  Giotto  di  Bondone  of  Florence  (1276-1836), 
known  under  the  tide  of  **  the  father  of  Italian  paint- 
ing," but  in  fact  only  the  founder  of  the  Gothic  style  of 
painting.  He  was  a  bold  reformer,  and  broke  through 
the  traditions  of  art  and  servile  adherence  to  the  early 
Christian  types.  The  best  pupils  of  Giotto  were  Taddeo 
Gaddi,  and  his  son,  Angelo  Gaddi,  Giottino,  Orcagna, 
Spinello,  Aretino,  Antonio  Yeneziano,  and  others. 

In  (Germany,  the  beginnings  of  the  Romanesque  style 
may  be  traced  back  to  the  llth  century.  An  improve- 
ment is  manifest  in  the  12th  century,  especially  in  the 
famous  altar  of  Terdun  (of  the  year  1180,  now  in  the 
monastery  of  Neuburg,  near  Vienna),  in  the  mural 
paintings  of  the  grand  hall  of  the  monastery  of  Brau- 
weiler,  near  Cologne,  and  the  ceiling  of  the  central  aisle 
of  St.  Michael,  at  Hildesheim.  Far  more  numerous  and 
important  are  the  works  still  preserved  from  the  period 
of  the  Gothic  style,  in  which  the  peculiar  spirit  of  me- 
disBvalism  first  attained  to  complete  artistic  expression. 
The  development  of  glass-painting  mast  especially  be 
noted — probably  a  German  invention,  dating  at  the 
end  of  the  10th  century— examples  of  which  are  seen 
in  the  windows  of  St.  Cunibert,  at  Cologne,  in  the  choir 
of  Cologne  Cathedral,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Catharine, 
at  Oppenheim,  and  in  Strasburg  Cathedral.  In  easel 
pictures,  which  previously  appear  to  have  been  very 
little  painted,  there  is  manifest  no  higher  artistic  en- 
deavor until  the  middle  of  the  14th  century.  After 
this  three  separate  schools  may  be  distinguished :  1. 
The  Bohemian,  or  school  of  Prague,  founded  by  Charles 
IV ;  2.  The  Nuremberg  school,  the  chief  representative 
monuments  of  which  are  several  altar-shrines  in  the 
Frauenkirche,  in  St.  Laurence,  and  St.  Sebald,  at  Nu- 
remberg ;  3.  The  school  of  Cologne,  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant, whose  chief  representatives  were  master  Wil- 


hdm  (abont  1860)  and  master  Stephan  Lochner  (about 
1430). 

With  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  broke  forth, 
in  opposition  to  the  spirit  of  mediasvalism,  a  decided 
endeavor  after  greater  truth  of  expression  in  art — an 
endeavor  in  light,  color,  drawing,  and  composition,  to 
bring  the  spiritual  import  of  representation  into  har- 
mony with  the  laws  and  principles  of  nature.  This 
naturalistic  development  first  manifested  itself  in  Italy 
in  the  Florentine  school.  Fra  Giovanni  Angelico  da 
Fiesole  (1387-1455),  although  in  other  respecU  wholly 
dominated  by  the  spirit  of  medinvalism,  was,  never- 
theless, the  first  who  sought  to  penetrate  into  the  psy- 
chological meaning  of  the  human  countenance.  Over 
against  him,  already  decidedly  emandpa^d  from  medi- 
svalism,  stands  Tommaso  di  San  Giovanni  da  Castel, 
called  Masacdo  (1401-28),  one  of  the  greatest  masters 
of  the  15th  century.  With  Fra  Angelico  are  associated 
the  names  of  Benozzo  Gozzoli  and  Gentile  da  Fabriano; 
with  Masaocio  those  of  Fra  Filippo  Lippi,  his  son  Filip- 
pino,  Domenioo  Ghirlandajo,  and  Bastiano  Mainardi. 
Other  Florentine  artists,  as  Antonio  Pallajuolo  and  An- 
drea del  Yerocchio,  who  were  also  sculptors,  strove  by 
anatomical  studies  to  transfer  plastic  forms  to  painting 
in  a  more  vigorous  modelling  of  the  human  figure; 
while  Luca  Signorelli  of  Cortona  (1440-1521),  by  the 
nobleness  and  artistic  truth  of  his  compositions,  presents 
a  strong  contrast  with  the  deeper  sentiment  of  the 
Umbrian  school,  which,  with  its  chief  theatre  in  the 
vicinity  of  Assisi,  is  an  antithesis  of  the  Florentine. 
Celebrated  masters  of  the  Umbrian  school  were  Pietro 
Perugino  (1446-1526),  the  teacher  of  Raphael,  and  the 
hitter's  father,  Giovanni  Santi  (died  1494),  as  well  as 
Raphael's  friend,  Francesco  Francia  (died  1517).  The 
remaining  schools  of  Italy,  as  the  Venetian,  with  its 
Giovanni  Bellini  (abont  1430-1516),  the  school  of 
Padua  and  Mantua,  with  masters  like  Francesco  Squar- 
cione  and  Andrea  Mantegna  (1431-1506),  follow  the 
Florentine. 

Italian  painting  reached  its  climax  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury. The  most  celebrated  roasters  of  that  period  were 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Cesare  da  Sesto,  Andrea  Salaino, 
Francesco  Melzi,  and  especially  Luini.  The  Venetian 
school  of  the  16th  century  sought  to  realize  by  means 
of  color  the  noble  results  to  which  Leonardo  had  at- 
tained. In  the  quality  of  color  this  school  achieved 
a  supremacy  over  all  others.  Its  chief  master  was  Ti- 
tian. With  him  labored  the  distinguished  pupils  of 
Giorgione— Fra  Sebastiano  del  Piombo,  Giacopo  Palma, 
called  //  VeeckiOf  and  Pordenone.  Among  Titian's  own 
pupils  the  most  distinguished  was  Jacopo  Robusti, 
called  Tintoretto.  In  the  renowned  Paul  Veronese,  we 
have  a  master  of  color  of  the  highest  rank.  The  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  Lombard  school  in  the  16th  century 
was  Parma.  lis  chief  master  was  Correggio.  The 
Florentine  school,  and,  later,  almost  the  entire  paint- 
ing of  Italy  after  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century, 
were  ruled  by  Michael  Angelo,  and  by  such  lesser  lights 
as  Ricciarelli,  Venusti,  Sarto,  and  others.  The  greatest 
of  the  five  great  masters  is  Raphael.  His  best  pupils 
were  Giulio  Romano  (1492-1546),  Gaudenzio  Ferrari, 
and  Giovanni  da  Udine. 

In  the  Netherlands  a  new  impulse  was  given  to 
Christian  painting  by  Hubert  van  Eyck  (died  1426), 
the  inventor,  or,  rather,  the  improver,  of  oil  painting, 
and  his  younger  brother  and  pupil,  John  van  Eyck 
(died  1441).  Their  principal  pupils  were  Pieter  Chris- 
tus,  Rogier  van  der  Weyden,  and  particularly  Hans 
Memling.  The  influence  thus  begun  made  itself  felt 
in  Holland,  where  a  similar  school  was  founded,  whoso 
chief  masters  were  Lucas  van  Leyden,  and  his  contem- 
porary Jan  Mostaert.  At  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  a  number  of  artists  followed  the  style  of  the 
Van  Eycks.  The  most  distinguished  of  these  was  Quin- 
tin  Massys,  the  smith  of  Antwerp  (died  1529). 

Similar  was  the  career  of  German  art  during  this 
period.    The  Gothic  style  had  a  long  supremacy ;  but 


PAINTING 


758 


PALESTINE 


•bout  the  middle  of  the  15th  eentary  all  the  Gernum 
schoolfl  followed  the  Italian.  The  chief  masters  of  this 
period  were,  in  the  school  of  Cologne,  Johann  von  Meh* 
lem,  the  painter  of  the  Death  of  the  Virgm;  in  the 
school  of  Westphalia,  the  master  of  liesbom  monas- 
tery ;  in  the  school  of  Ulm  and  Aagsburg,  liartin  Schon 
(aboat  1480),  the  somewhat  younger  Bartholomftos 
Zeitblom,  and  his  successor,  Martin  SchalTner,  of  Ulro, 
and  Hans  Holbein,  father  of  the  renowned  Holbein  the 
younger,  of  Augsburg;  in  the  school  of  Nuremberg, 
Michael  Wohlgemuth  (1434-1519),  and  more  especial- 
ly his  pupil  Albrecht  DUrer.  Mention  must  also  be 
made  of  the  Saxon  school,  whose  head  was  the  well- 
known  Lucas  Cranach  (1472-1553),  the  friend  of  Luther, 
whose  best  pupils  were  his  sons,  John  and  Lucas  Cra- 
nach the  younger.  The  only  artist  who  can  be  com- 
pared with  the  great  master  of  Kurembei^g  is  Hans 
Holbein  the  younger  (1497-1554).  His  most  charac- 
teristic works  are  the  Darmstadt  Madonna^  a  copy  of 
which  is  at  Dresden,  and  his  well-known  Dance  of  Death, 

In  the  second  half  of  the  16th  century  the  painting 
of  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  lost  its  independence 
by  servile  imitation  of  Italian  masters.  But  in  Italy, 
too,  we  find  a  sudden  decline,  which  clearly  evidences 
that  art  had  passed  its  zenith.  A  second  race  of  pupils 
became  mere  imitators,  even  exaggerating  the  one- 
sidedness  of  Titian,  Correggio,  and  Michael  Angelo. 
The  best  examples  of  these  so-called ''  mannerists"  were 
Fr.  Salviati,  and  Giorgio  Vasari.  In  opposition  to  this 
confusion,  at  the  end  of  the  century  arose  the  Bolognese 
school  of  the  Garaccis,  whose  advent  marks  for  Italy 
the  commencement  of  the  fourth  period  of  modem 
painting.  Ladovioo  Caraoci,  and  his  nephews  and  pu- 
pils, Agostino  and  Annibale  Caraoci,  established  a  sort 
of  eclectic  system,  whose  purpose  it  was  to  imitate  the 
chief  distinguishing  qualities  of  the  five  great  masters 
of  painting.  Their  best  pupils  were  Domenichino  (1581- 
1641),  Guercino  (1590-1666),  Franc  Albani  (1578-1660), 
and  especially  Guido  Reni  (1575-1642),  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  alL  A  second  school  of  Italian  painting 
arraying  itself  in  opposition  to  the  idealism  of  the  great 
masters,  and  developing  a  one-sided  realism  and  nat- 
uralism, was  founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. Its  principal  representative  was  Mic  Angelo  Ame- 
righi  da  Caravaggio,  whose  pupils,  the  two  Frenchmen, 
Moyse  Valentin  and  Simon  Vonet,  and  the  eminent 
Spanish  master,  Gius.  Sibero,  called  Spagnoletto,  trans- 
planted their  influence  to  France  and  Spain.  Notwith- 
standing the  eminent  talents  exercised  to  uphold  the 
fame  of  Italian  painting,  yet  in  the  18th  century  it 
reached  its  lowest  level  of  decadence.  It  was  in  Spain 
that  the  new  revival  of  Catholicism  in  art  found,  in  the 
17th  century,  its  strongest  support  The  five  great 
masters  who  represent  the  oompletest  development  of 
painting  in  Spain  were  almost  all  from  the  school  of 
Seville.  They  were :  1.  Jos^  Ribera ;  2.  Francesco  Zur- 
baran  (1599-1662) ;  8.  Diego  Velasquez  da  Silva  (1599- 
1660),  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  portrait-painters;  4. 
Alonzo  Cano;  5.  Bartolome  Murillo.  The  flourishing 
period  of  Spanish  painting  was  of  short  duration ;  and 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  17th  century  the  schools  of 
Spain  degenerated  into  mere  factories  of  art,  such  as 
Luca  Giordano  of  Italy  introduced. 

In  the  Netherlandis,  painting  maintained  a  certain 
elevation  of  rank  for  a  somewhat  longer  period.  Here 
two  distinct  schools,  that  of  Brabant  (Belgium)  and 
that  of  Holland,  developed  themselves  out  of  national 
divisions.  The  former  had  its  masters  in  Peter  Paul 
Rubens,  and  in  his  pupils,  viz.  Jac  Jordaens,  Caspar 
de  Grayer,  and,  above  all,  Anton  van  Dyck  (1599-<1641). 
The  latter  was  represented  by  Theodorde  Keyser,  Franz 
Hals,  Barth,  Van  der  Heist,  and  others,  who  were  almost 
exclusively  portrait-painters.  A  far  higher  develop- 
ment was,  however,  reached  in  the  famous  Rembrandt, 
whose  most  distinguished  pupils  and  successors  were 
Gerbrandt  van  der  Eeckhout,  Solomon  Koning,  and  Fer- 
dinand BoL 


France  and  Germany  can  daim  no  position  of  tno- 
portance  during  this  period  in  a  brief  review  of  Chris- 
tian painting.  In  Ciermany,  the  Thirty  Years*  War 
had  nearly  uprooted  all  elements  of  culture,  and  when, 
in  the  18th  century,  the  country  began  to  recover  from 
these  devastations,  masters  of  only  subordinate  rank, 
as  Balth.  Denner,  Dietrich,  and  Raphael  Mengs  (1728- 
79),  appeared  upon  the  stage.  In  France,  the  older 
and  better  masters,  like  Nic  Poussin,  Eustache  Lesueur, 
and  others,  strove  in  vain  to  make  head  against  tbe 
theatrical  style  represented  by  Charles  Lebrun,  the  fa- 
vorite of  Louis  XrV.  Since  the  diflfusion  over  Europe 
of  that  immoral  and  irreligious  spirit  which  preceded 
and  followed  the  French  Revolution,  Christian  painting 
has  naturally  experienced  a  marked  decline.  But  in 
Germany,  France,  and  Belgium  individual  schools  have 
again  grown  np,  the  excellences  of  which,  in  the  ap- 
preciation of  the  grand  and  the  beautiful,  cannot  be 
denied.  In  Germany,  Munich,  Dlisseldorf,  Berlin,  and 
of  late  Vienna,  must  be  mentioned  as  the  principal  seats 
of  revived  painting,  in  which  sacred  themes  oocapy  a 
most  significant  place,  and  these  treated  both  in  a 
Catholic  and  a  Protestant  spirit,  the  former  by  Corne- 
lius, Overbeck,  Furich,  H.  Hess,  Schrandolp,  and  others ; 
the  latter  by  Lessing,  Httbner,  Bendemann,  Deger,  Von 
Gebhardt,  and  others.  On  the  whole,  however,  modem 
religious  painting,  corresponding  to  the  religious  con- 
dition of  the  present  time,  seems  partly  a  mere  endeavor 
to  revive  a  greatness  and  power  which  has  perished, 
and  partly  a  blind  effort  to  reach  a  new  goal,  which  is 
still  enshrouded  in  darkness. 

The  best  modem  works  on  the  history  of  Christian 
painting  are,  Kugler,  ffandbueh  der  Getchidite  der  Ma- 
lerei  teii  Cofutantin  dem  Grosaen  (2d  ed.  Berlin,  1847 ; 
4th  ed.  by  LUbke,  1872) ;  Ch.  Blanc,  Uuloirt  des  Pern- 
tree  de  Toutes  let  EcoUm  depuis  la  Benaistanoe  jvs^a'a 
iios  Jourt  (Paris,  1851  sq.)-,  W.  L&bke,  GeachidUe  der 
Ualiemachen  MaUrei  vom  4.  5m  16.  Jahrhundert  (8th  ed. 
Stuttgart,  1880) ;  A.  Woltmann,  Geichichte  der  Malerei 
(Leipsic,1878;  EngL  tronsL  Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1881) ;  Rus- 
kin.  Modem  PakUers  (Lond.  184^-^,  5  vols.) ;  Crowe 
and  Cavalcaselle,  Storia  deUa  Pittura  in  Italia  did  Seook 
II  al  Secolo  X  VI  (Florence,  1875) ;  the  art  Malerei  in 
Plitt-Herzog,  Real'Encyldop, ;  and  Pemture  in  Lichten- 
berger,  Encychp,  det  SctenceB  Religietues^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

PalaBt^ma.    See  Ttre. 

Palestine,  Colonists  in.  On  this  subject  we 
present  an  extract  from  Lieut.  Conder*s  Tent  Work  in 
Palettinet  ii,  305  sq.  t 

"  The  German  colouf sis  belong  to  a  reUgions  society 
known  as  the  *  Temple,' which  origlnatea  among  the 
Pietists  of  Wfirtembnr^,  who,  without  leaving  the  Lu- 
theran Church,  separated  tbemeelves  from  the  world, 
and  engaged  in  Sunday  meetings  for  prayer  and  edifica- 
tion. The  Pietists  accept  as  their  standard  the  explana- 
tion  given  by  Dr.  J.  A  Beogel  (in  his  Gnomon  qf  the  Xmo 
Teet,)  of  tbe  prot>becie8  in  the  Revelation.  Amoue  the 
Mends  and  disciples  of  Bengel  was  a  certain  Dr.  Hoff- 
mann, who  obtained  fh>m  Frederick,  the  eccentric  king 
of  WCirtemburg,  a  tract  of  barren  land  at  Komthal,  whers 
bis  disciples  established  a  Pietist  colony,  which  be  in- 
tended to  tratiffptant  later  to  Palestine.  Hot&nann.  how- 
ever, died,  and  his  followers  remained  contentedly  on 
their  lands ;  but  Hoflfhiann's  son  was  not  forgetftil  of  hia 
father's  desicns,  and  instituted  a  new  colony  at  Kirschen- 
hardthof,  with  a  special  view  to  Its  final  removal  to  the 
Holy  Land.  Among  his  earliest  disciples  was  Herr  O.  B. 
Hardegg,  who  became  in  time  a  leader  among  the  Temple 
Pietists. 

**The  younger  Hoffmann  (Christopher)  visited  Palee- 
tlne  about  18Kt,  and,  In  186T,  a  small  trial  expedition  of 
twelve  men  was  sent  out  They  settled  in  reed  huts  near 
Semfioieh,  on  tbe  edge  of  the  Plain  of  Eedraelon,  west 
of  Nazareth ;  and  in  Bt)Ite  of  the  warning  of  friends  who 
koew  tbe  nnhealtby  climate  of  that  place,  they  remained 
In  the  malarious  atmosphere  of  the  low  ground  near  the 
springs,  until  they  all  died  of  fever. 

"Ou  Aug.  0,  1S6S.  Christopher  Hoffhiann  and  G.  D. 
nardegg  left  KIrscnenhardtnof,  and  in  October  they 
reached  Palestine;  after  visiting  varioos  places,  they  re- 
solved on  settling  at  Haifa  and  Jaffa,  and  oonght  land  tii 
both  places.  Toe  Haifa  colony  was  the  first  founded, 
that  at  Jaffa  being  some  six  months  yonnger.  Hardesg 
became  president  of  the  former,  and  Hcmnaan  of  the 
latter. 


PALESTINE 


769 


PALESTINE 


**Tlie  religions  'views  of  ftae  eolooists  are  not  eisllj 
understood,  and  I  belieTe  that  most  of  them  have  rather 
Tague  ideas  of  their  own  iDtentions.  Theif  main  motive 
for  establishing  colonies  lu  Palestine  is  the  promotion  of 
conditions  favorable  to  the  fhlfllment  (whicn  they  expect 
to  oocnr  shortly)  of  the  prophecies  of  the  Revelation  and 
of  Zecharlah.  They  suppose  it  to  be  a  dnty  to  separate 
themselves  firom  the  world,  and  to  set  an  example  of  a 
eommuDity  living,  as  closely  as  possible,  on  the  model 
of  the  apostolic  age.  The  spread  of  infidelity  in  Germany 
appears  to  be  the  main  canso  of  this  separative  teiideucy 
aiiione  the  Pietists. 

"The  tenets  of  the  Temple  Society  are  probably  best 
summarized  In  the  *  Profession  of  Faith  of  the  Temple,* 
published  by  Herr  HoflinanD,  and  Including  Ave  articles 
as  below : 

"  *  1.  To  prepare  for  the  qreat  and  terrible  day  of  the 
second  coming  of  Jesns  Christ,  which,  from  the  t>i(^ns  of 
the  times,  is  near.  This  preparation  is  made  bv  the  unild- 
Int;  of  a  spiritual  temple  1m  all  lands,  specially  In  Jern- 
saleni. 

"  *Z.  This  temple  Is  composed  of  the  jsittB  of  the  Spirit 
(1  Cor.  xii,  4),  which  make  the  true  Church,  and  every  one 
should  strive  to  possess  them. 

**  *  3.  The  means  to  obtain  these  Is  to  seek  the  kingdom 
of  Ood,  as  described  by  the  prophets  (li*n.  li,  8:  xlx,  85 ; 
Ezek.  xl,  4S}. 

***4.  The  temple  of  Jerusalem  is  not  a  bnlUlIng  of 
dead,  but  of  lively  stones ;  of  men  of  every  nnti«>n  (1  Pet. 
11,4-10)  united  In  the  worship  of  Ood  in  spirir  nnd  irnth. 

*' '  6.  The  Temple  service  consists  of  sacriflres  such  as 
are  described  In  toe  New  Test.  (Rom.  xii,  1 ;  lleb.  xiii,  15, 
16 1  James  1. 87).' 

••The  writings  of  Hardetrg  are  far  more  diilhse  and 
mystic.  The  main  pecniiarity  which  I  have  been  able  to 
extract  from  them  Is  the  belief  that  it  Is  not  to  the  Jews, 
bnt  to  the  true  Israel  (by  which  he  apparently  under- 
stands the  Temple  Society  to  be  Intended),  that  prophe- 
cies of  a  return  to  Palestine  are  to  be  supposed  to  reter. 

"  1  have  stated  as  far  as  possible  the  apparent  religions 
beliefs  of  the  community,  bnt  there  seem  to  be  many 
shades  of  doctrine  among  them;  all,  however,  agree  in 
an  expectancy  of  some  Immediate  chance  in  the  world's 
alKiirs^in  the  arrival  of  Armageddon  and  the  Millennium, 
and  in  the  fulfilment  of  all  prophecy. 

"  In  1376 1  had  the  opportunity  of  attending  one  of  the 
Suodsy  services.  In  the  colony  at  Haifa.  The  couffrega- 
tlon  was  devout  and  earnest :  the  senice  waa  slmpTe  and 
free  from  extravagance  of  any  kind.  The  president  of- 
fered np  a  lone  prayer  In  German,  a  hymn  was  sung  with 
the  usual  musical  good  taste  of  Germans,  and  a  chapter 
of  the  prophecy  of  Zecharlah  read.  The  president  tnen 
delivered  an  exhortation,  announcing  tne  Immediate 
advent  of  the  Saviour,  who  would  *  suddenly  come  to 
his  temple.'  Other  elders  followed,  speaking  with  much 
earnestness,  and  another  hymn  wiis  sung,  after  which 
the  congregation  qnietlv  dispersed  from  toe  bare  school- 
room in  which  they  had  assembled.  A  discussion  of  the 
alTiiirs  of  the  colony  often  Immediately  ancceeds  the  re- 
ligions service& 

**  Of  the  history  of  the  Jaffa  colonv  we  gathered  com- 

Kratively  little.  They  have  two  settlements—one  called 
rdna,  abont  two  and  a  half  mike  north  of  the  town, 
consisting.  In  1878,  of  ten  houses ;  the  second,  nearer  the 
walls  of  Jaffa,  was  bought  from  the  surviving  members 
of  an  American  colony  which  came  to  grief,  and  this  set- 
tlement included  thirteen  houses,  with  a  school  and  a 
hotel,  the  latter  kept  by  Hardegg's  s<m,  who  also  rep- 
resonts'the  German  government  in  Jaffa. 

"In  1872  the  Jaffa  colony  numbered  one  hundred  men, 
seventy  women,  and  thirty-flve  children :  two  of  the  col- 
onists were  doctors,  and  some  twenty  were  mechanics, 
the  rest  being  farmers.  They  employed  a  few  natives, 
nnd  cnltivated  four  hundred  acres  of  corn-land,  pnyint; 
the  ordinary  taxes  to  the  Turka  The  children  are  taught 
Arabic,  and  European  laugunees,  also  Latin  and  Greek. 
The  houses  are  clean,  airy,  and  well  built,  and  the  colony 
wears  an  aspect  of  industry  and  enterprise,  which  con- 
trasts with  toe  squalor  and  decay  of  the  native  villages. 

"With  the  Haifa  colony  we  became  more  Intimately 
acquainted,  by  living  In  one  of  the  honses  for  three 
months,  during  the  winter  of  1878-73,  and  aeain  In  the 
hotel  of  the  colony,  for  abont  two  months,  during  1875, 
when  we  saw  a  good  deal  of  the  working  of  the  com- 
munity. 

'*  In  1878  the  colonists  numbered  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
four— forty  single  and  forty-seven  married  men,  thirty- 
two  single  and  fifty-one  married  women  (four  widow*), 
and  elgnty-fonr  children.  There,  were  about  fifty  me- 
chanics, and  the  settlement  consisted  of  thirty-one  dwell- 
ing-houses. The  land  was  four  hundred  and  fifty  acres 
of  arable  ground,  with  one  handred  and  forty  olive-trees, 
and  seventeen  acres  of  vineyard. 

"In  the  first  three  years  of  Its  existence  only  seven 
deaths  occurred  in  the  colony,  bnt  the  mortality  increased 
later:  In  1878  there  were  elf>:hteen  deaths  amon^  the  two 
hundred  and  five  colonists  at  Jnffa,  which  were  due  prln- 
clpallv  to  fever,  bnt  such  a  death-rate  has  never  yet  oc- 
cnrred  at  Haifa. 

**  The  little  village  of  well-built  stone  honses  Is  situated 


west  of  the  walltd  town  of  Halfii,  nnder  the  shadow  of 
the  Carmel  range.  A  broad  street  rnns  np  fi^m  the  shore 
towards  the  mountain,  and  the  greater  number  of  the 
buildings  stand,  In  their  gardens,  on  either  side.  Close 
to  the  beach  is  the  CarmelHotel,  kept  by  a  most  obliging 
and  moderate  landlord,  and  a  little  farther  up  are  the 
school  and  meetlnff-honse,  in  one  bnildinff.  Mr.  Hard- 
egg's  dwelling,  fariber  eaat,  la  the  largest  nonse  In  the 
colony.  The  total  number  is  stated  at  eighty-five.  In- 
cluding buildings  for  agricultural  purposes. 

"In  1876  the  colonists  numbered  three  hundred  and 
eleven,  having  been  reinforced  principally  by  new  arrl- 
vnls  nrom  Germany ;  the  Increase  of  accommodation  since 
1878  was  thna  far  ftreater  than  that  of  settlers.  The  land 
had  also  increased,  in  the  same  period,  to  six  hundred 
acres,  with  one  hundred  acres  of  vineyards  and  gardens ; 
bnt  the  soil  of  the  newly-acqnlred  property  near  Tlreh,  In 
the  plain  west  of  Carmel,  is  of  very  poor  Quality,  nnd  the 
Germans  have  not  yet  succeeded  In  their  iavorite  scheme 
of  obtaining  grounds  on  the  top  of  the  mountain,  where 
the  climate  and  soil  are  both  good. 

"  The  live-stock  consisted  of  seventy-five  head  of  cat- 
tle, two  hundred  and  fifty  sheep,  goats,  and  pigs,  and 
eight  teams  of  horses.  A  superior  American  threshing- 
machine  had  been  Imported.  The  trades  followed  are 
stone-cuttine  and  masons*  work,  carpentry  and  wagon- 
making.  Blacksmiths,  coppersmiths,  tinsmiths.  Joiners, 
shoemakers,  tailors,  butchers,  harness -makers,  turners, 
soap-makers,  vintners,  and  qnarrymen  are  also  found 
among  the  colonists.  There  has  been  an  attempt  to 
trade  In  sosp,  olive-oil,  and  olive-wood  articles,  but,  for 
these  undertakings,  more  capital  is  required  than  the 
Germans  at  present  possesi*.  A  good  windmill  and  an 
olive-press  have  been  brought  from  England.  A  tannery 
was  also  being  put  up  in  1S75,  nnd  a  general  shop  exists, 
which  the  natives,  as  well  the  Germans,  frequent. 

"  The  colonists  were  many  of  them  employed  on  the 
English  orphanage  at  Nazareth,  which  Mr.  Shnmacher 
designed  and  built :  and  all  the  masons'  and  carpenters* 
work  WIIS  executed  by  the  Germana  The  colonists  also 
have  done  much  to  clear  the  road  from  Haifa  to  Nazareth, 
though  they  have  not  made  It.  considering  that,  from  a 
professional  point  of  view.  It  is  not  yet  a  made  road  at 
all.  Their  wagona  are  now  driven  between  the  two 
places,  and  the  natives  employ  them  for  moving  grain. 

"The  schools  in  the  colony,  for  the  children  nnd 
younger  men,  are  two  iu  number.  In  the  upper  school, 
Arabic,  English,  French,  and  German,  aritliroetic,  draw- 
ling* g^ogi^Aphy«  history,  mathematics,  nnd  music  are 
taught ;  in  the  lower,  Arabic  nnd  German,  writing,  arith- 
meuc,  and  ainglog ;  in  both  religious  Instruction  is  given ; 
and  the  girls  are  taught  knitting,  sewing,  and  embroidery. 

"The  colony  has  thns  been  sketched  in  Its  religious 
and  practical  aspects.  Though  much  talk  has  been  ex- 
pended on  the  question  of  colonizing  the  Holy  Land, 
there  is  no  other  practical  attempt  which  can  compare  In 
Importance  with  that  of  the  Temple  Society.  It  remains 
to  be  seen  what  the  success  of  the  undertaking  will  be. 

"  The  colonists  belong  entirely  to  the  peasant  and  me- 
chanical classes,  nnd  even  their  leaden  are  men  compar- 
atively uneducated.  As  a  rule  they  are  hard-working, 
sober,  honest,  and  sturdy;  and,  however  nivstic  their 
religions  notions  may  be,  they  nre  essentially  shrewd 
ana  practical  in  their  dealings  with  the  world.  They  are 
a  pious  and  God-fearinj;  people,  and  their  natural  domes- 
ticity renders  it  highly  improbable  that  they  will  ever 
split  on  the  rock  which  wrecked  the  former  American 
colony,  whose  president,  it  appears,  endeavored  to  fol- 
low the  exaniple  of  Brlgham  Young  by  introducing  polyg- 
amy. The  German  colonists  have  also  a  fine  field  for 
enterprise,  in  the  Introduction  into  Palestine  of  European 
improvements,  which  are  more  or  less  appreciated  by  the 
natives :  and,  as  they  have  no  other  commnnitv  to  com- 
pete with,  they  might  be  able  to  make  capital  of  their 
civilized  education.  The  wine  which  they  sell  Is  compar- 
atively excellent,  and  finds  a  ready  market,  as  do  also 
many  of  their  manufactured  nrtlclei*. 

"Such  is  one  side  of  the  picture,  but  when  we  turn  to 
the  other  we  find  elements  of  weakness,  which  seem  to 
threaten  the  existence  of  the  colony. 

"  In  the  first  place,  there  is  apparently  no  man  in  the 
community  of  sufficiently  superior  talent  or  education,  or 
with  the  energy  and  force  of  character,  which  would  be 
required  to  control  and  develop  the  enterprise.  The 
genius  of  Brigham  Young  triumphed  over  the  almost 
insuperable  difflcnlties  of  his  audacious  nndertaking, 
despite  even  the  prejudice  which  the  establishment  of 
polygamy  naturally  raised  against  his  disciples.  How- 
ever superior  in  piety  and  purity  of  motive  the  leaders 
of  the  Haifa  colony  may  be,  they  cannot  compare  with 
the  Mormon  chief  in  the  qualities  to  which  his  success 
was  due. 

**  In  the  second  plnce,  the  colonists  are  divided  among 
themselves.  In  1876  we  fonnd  that  Herr  Hnrdegg  had 
been  depfHied  (temporarily,  I  understood,  till  he  changed 
his  views)  from  the  leadership  of  the  colony,  and  he  had 
been  succeeded  by  Herr  Shnmacher,  a  master-stonemason 
and  architect,  who  is,  moreover,  the  representative  of  the 
American  government  at  Hnirn.  This  deposition  of  the 
original  leader  had  caused  dlsrensions  among  the  Ger- 


PALI  VERSION 


I  la  qnlte  Incapable  of  apprec 


n  added.    Th< 

'  Ungtbeli 


bejond  ■  pDlliical  ooo,  for  tbe  aettlameDl  ul 
la  tba  coabUT.  Tba  coloblitL  Uerclure,  bars  nerer  ob- 
talaed  tltlv-diMda  to  Lbe  Unda  ibn  ban  bonibt,  and 
tban  OD  ba  lUUa  doubt  that  ahonld  the  Torka  deem  " 
expadlant,  Um*  would  antireljdanr  tba  rlshtaf  '     ~ 

mua  to  boldlbalt  propeii;.    Mot  onl;  do  ifaa]>  a 

favor  to  tba  colonj,  tbooKb  lia  praieDce  baa  been  moat 
baneOcIal  totbe  nelgbbartiond,  Got  tha  iDtarlor  afllclala, 


illbt 


iljdoifaajiaxtaDd 

of  tbe  Oermani  u' Dblsin  jTii 
nee  ID  tM  coorta,  wubaDl  an;  ragatd  to  lbe  'ciutom  o. 
lbe  coaolry'  (that  Ir,  to  briber]'),  bare  ilirown  eTerr  ob- 
ataclfl  tbei  can  davlae  In  lbs  waj  of  tba  comma ull7,1>otb 

"  Tlis  dlfflcnUlea  of  Iks  coloolat*  ara  alao  Incraaaad  bi 
Iba  Jealonar  of  lbe  Cannallte  monlca.  The  falhera  ~" 
aaaaenod  Unda.gradnallrextaDdlDK  alonjr  Carmel  ro 


lUllael  ta  directed  aEalilat  lb«  Oei 

"Tba  pecDllar  vlawB  of  the  coli , , 

Ibem  to^  resardid  with  diafiiTor  by  InHaenUal  Baro- 
PMU  bi  tha  cooDUT,  wbo  tnlgbl  do  ninch  la  help  tbem. 
'  Ther  are  iTnlded  aa  rellgtooa  vlalanarlea,  whnaa  want  of 
worldl;  wlfdom  migbt,  at  an;  time,  embroil  Uialr  pro- 
tactora  In  dUBcnUlea  not  eully  anuiotiiBd  g>ar, 

"  Tbe  commDaUj  hia  Ibnalu  iimegle  wlih  a  pealllra- 
I7  hoatlla  goTemmeDt,  while  It  recelTH  uo  *  err  ilniroaa 
■npport  bum  aujr  one.  The  diOcnlUea  are  pertecllr  nail 
kiiowD  to  lbe  untlTe  peaaaalrj,  wlin,«lih  the  character- 
latiG  maamieaa  of  tba  Brrlana,  lake  iha  nuportnolty  to 
Inal  wllh  Inaoleuce  pemla  wbom  fbe;  betlave  Ihej'  can 
Inaalt  wbh  Impoultr.  The  iiropertj  uf  tba  culoulila  la 
diaragardedi  tbe  iiatlva  ffoaUiarda  drlra  their  beaau  Inl- 
ihe  cum,  and  aaTanl  rlui*  hare  occnired,  wblch  rtanlle 
lu  Criala  from  which  the  coloDlala  got  do  aatiatetluo. 

"The  iudlacretloa  of  the  judhht  men  baa  broagbt 
malar  dUBctililea  OD  (ha  commaullT;  ibe;  bare  repaid 
laaoleoce  wllh  aammuy  pnnlabDeni.  and  taititg  do 
balp  front  tbe  goTemtneiit,  baia  lu  tniuij  Inatancea  taken 
tbe  law  Into  Ibelr  own  tuuida,  Tbna  tba  colon*  flada  It- 
•altal  ftndwUh  theaurronadlRKTlllnKeri  and  the  hoatlle 
filing  la  not  unlike];  to  lead  &)  ver?  aeHoua  dlfllcnllii 


Palllna 


laatiH 


eiclleu 


"Tbere  are  olher  reawu*  which  mlllUle  agiilnal  the 
Idea  of  tbe  final  aacceea  of  the  colonj.  Tbe  SyrUn  cli- 
mate la  Dpi  adxpted  tu  Karupeana,  and  Tear  br  rear  It 
mnaC  lufalllblT  [ell  .>u  theOermana,  eipoasd  —  ■<- 

beallbleat  place  in  Paleallue.  jel  eren  hen. 

(Tom  rarer  and  dncDter*,  and  ir  Ibcr  iboald  aiienipt  to 
•  pread  Inland  the;  will  dud  Ibelr  dllBculUe)  fiom  climate 
iiicreaM  tenfuld. 

"  The  chltdrao  of  tbe  preeenl  sreneratlnn  wllL  probablr, 
like  tbuae  of  the  Cmiadlng  teitlcn  In  Palaailne,  be  IdI^ 
rliir  In  pbiilquaand  puwerof  endaranceto  their  fa tberv. 
C'aaea  of  iDtanaarrlaga  with  oatlvea  bare.  I  bellere,  al- 
ready occurred  i  Ilia  children  of  anch  marrlagcB  are  not 
nullkely  to  combine  lbe  bnd  qnalliM  of  both  natluna, 
■bd  majba  compared  to  lbe  Pgllaiil  otCnuiBdlng  tlmr- 
It  aeema  to  me  tbat  It  la  onlj  by  conatant  relnfiircemei 
from  aennacy  tbat  Ihe  original  character  of  the  coin 
can  be  mallilalaed ;  and  ihe  whole  comminiUy,  In  Falea- 
tlna  and  In  OenDnny,  la  aald  not  to  nnniber  mora  than 

■'Tbeaxpeclatlannitbalmmedlalanimimenlorpropb' 
ecy  haa  alao  reanlled  In  the  CDia  nf  many  of  Ihe  poorei 
mBmban  of  the  aommanliy.  <ibo.  living  on  their  capital, 
hare  eihanated  It  bcKiie  ibat  tullllmcnt  baa  occurred. 
Tbe  colony  li  Ibaa  In  danger  of  diaaolntlon,  by  Ihe  giad- 
nnl  abaoriitlan  of  lbe  pniperty  lulo  Ihe  handa  of  Uioae 
who  orlgliiallr  pnaKUed  Iha  moat  capital;  and  la  any 

caae  It  liTerrllielT  to  I.Mluorf -■--■- ' 

ilmpllclly,  aume  of  Ihe  men 

,      aDdhlredlabareriofotheri 

^'Tbeualanldealre  oflhofe  memberawbo  And  Ihem- 
aelrea  withont  money  la  to  make  a  Uiellboxd  by  any 

lue  Kparately  (or  blmaetK  tbe  pcogreiaof  tba  colonT,  aa 
a  whole,  la  not  unlikely  lo  be  fbrgotten,  and  lbe  memlien 
may  very  probably  be  diaperaed  uier  Falaallnc.  fi>IIi>wlng 
(hair  rarloaa  tnidea  where  beat  IbcT  um  make  money." 

Pali  Version  of  tub  Scbiptobks,  Pali,  thongh 
no  longer  a  vernacular  language  in  any  country,  haa 
for  agea  be«n  eiUbUahcd  aa  tbe  religious  and  learned 
Unguage  of  the  Buddhlata  in  the  ialand  of  Ceylon,  in 
the  Burman  empire,  in  Siam,  Laoa,  Pegu,  Ava,  and 
thmugboul  aliDoat  the  whole  of  the  eaalem  peninaula 
of  India.  Aa  >  language  it  ia  immediately  derived  froni 
Ihe  Sanscrit,  and  waa  probably  tbe  native  language  of 
Magadba,  (be  birthplace  of  Buddha.    A  veraion  into 


the  Pali  waa  ooammiced  in  1818,  under  tbe  ■nqrioea  of 
(be  Colombo  Kbla  Society,  by  Ur.  Tolfrey,  aagiated  Vj 
two  learned  Buddhiat  prieata,  Tbe  Tenion  had  ad- 
TODced  aa  far  aa  tbe  end  of  tbe  epialle  to  Fbileoiaa, 
nheti  Mr.  Tolfrey  died,  in  1817.  In  1825  the  Rev.  Ben- 
jamin Clongb  reaumeil  the  work,  and  finally,  in  1835, 
the  whole  New  Teat,  wai  printed  in  PalL  One  of  the 
Baddhiit  ptieats  who  aauated  Mr.  TolTrey  in  lbe  (rana- 
latian  became  a  aincere  convert  to  Chriitiinity,  and 
auhaequently  devoted  hia  whole  attenlion  to  tbe  com- 
pletion  and  revtaion  of  thia  important  work.  See  BAU 
o/Evtrf  Land,  p.  SI  Ki.     lfi.P.) 

PalUum,  a  pieoe  ot  pontifical  dieaa.  It  ia  tbe  pe- 
culiar mark  of  pTima(ea,melropalitana,Bnd  orchbiahi^ia^ 
and  ■  few  privileged  biahopa,  to  be  worn  by  them  at 
couacib,ordinalioaa,andonoerlBia  occaHona  in  churck. 
Ita  other  namea  wer«  annpAonon,  tuper)iirnieralt,  anil, 
in  the  wrilinge  of  TbeodtuM 
and  SuUregory  Nazianien, 
Utra  floli.  It  ia  a  circuhu 
acarf  of  plain  lamba'  wool, 
worn  like  a  collar  about  tlM 
neck,  and  havinic  two  falt- 
iog  enda  fastened  over  tba 
cbaauble  by  three  gold  pina 
fixed  on  tbe  left  ahoulder, 
the  breaat,  and  back,  the 
number  three  tlgnifying 
charily,  or  the  naila  of  tbe 
cmaa.  Before  the  8tb  cen- 
tury it  wu  ornamented  with 
two  ot  four  red  or  putple,  but 
now  with  ail  black,  croaa- 
et,  faatened  with  gold  pin*, 
which  auperseded  an  earlier 
ontament,  the  Good  Shepherd,  or  one  cron,  in  the  4(lt 
century.  It  haa  been  auppoaed  to  be  the  laet  relic  of  an 
abbreviated  toga,  redneed  to  ita  Uticlave  by  degree*. 
'  e  time  of  (jregory  tbe  Great  it  waa  made  of  while 
cloth,  wi(hout  aeam  01  needlework,  hanging  down 
from  the  ahouldert.  See  Pau. 
Palm,  JoHAXs  Gbodo,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
cnnany.wotbomat  IIanoTer,Dec7, 1697.  He  ttuil. 
i  at  Jena,  waa  for  aometimecourt-cbaplainatn'alrcik 
bhUel,  in  1737  paator  at  Hamburg,  and  died  Feb.  17, 
174S.  He  i>  tho  author  of,  Einlritiaig  m  die  GacUdUt 
der  augtburgitdtm  Cot^tmon  (Hamburg,  1730):  — J)e 
CodtcAvi  Vtttrit  tt  ffori  Talamaiti  Quiiiit  fMllttru  n 
oafiaenda  tHltrprtlalioiie  Grrmanica  vtat  al  (IT3A)  ; 
GitdikkU  dtr  BiMi&rr$tUmg  Dr.  Marlm  LulJter't 
(edited  by  J.  H.  Giilie,  Halle,  1772}.  See  Doring,  Dm 
pMirltK  T/Kologrn  DtvlidtlaHd;  a.  v.;  Wiuer,  Haitd. 
buck  der  IttaL  Lit.  i.lBI;  JHeba,  AUgemriiia  GfUArlat- 
L«iii«,a.v.  (IJ.P.) 
PalmttT,  BdwKrdHeniT,  an  Engliah  OrienioliaC, 
aabom  at  Cambridge,  Aug.  7,  ISID.  In  1S68  he  (oalc 
port  in  tbe  expedition  for  exploring  the  Sinai  territory, 
and  made  an  examinalion  of  tbe  tiamea  of  plaoei,  tradi- 
iODt,anit  antiquities  of  Arabia  I^tisa.  With  the  aame 
ibject  in  view  he  explored,  in  connection  with  Tyrwhitt 
Drake,  (be  deaert  E(-Tib  and  Uoab,  in  ise9  and  ISTa 
Upon  hia  return  (0  England  he  waa  made  profeaaoT  of 
'  ic  at  Cambridge  in  1S7].  In  1878  he  aeltkd  at 
London,  and  in  18S2  went  on  a  aecret  minion,  al  the 
e  of  the  Engliah  government,  into  tbe  deaert  eaat 
Suei  canal.  On  hia  aecond  trip  through  the 
de*erthewaaktlled,in0clober,1883.  Palmer publiabed 
translation  of  Tbonuu  Moore'a  Pamdite  and 
Ikt  Peri  {ldG6):—0rieptat  Msticim  (iiesy.—ltrpert 
on  Oc  Btdaim  nf  Sinai  and  liar  Tradiiiota  (1870)  :— 
The  Dttrt  of  Ikt  Kxodiu  (1871):—-*  /fuMry  nf  H, 
Jeteith  yalion  (1874;  Uerm.  tranoL  Gothi,  1876) : ^^ 
Grtnnnar  (ff  Ike  Arabit  Language  (Londoo,  1874) : — 
■  "  ■  ■EmglitMDieliomay(^lBJS):^LifinfHimn 
i  (1878),  and  for  Max  Hlllhr'a  Sacred  Awb 
D/(ie  £aal  he  tnnaUted  tlie  KooiL    SeeBeaont,/,/* 


PALMER 


161 


PARADISE 


and  AehieeemetUt  cf  Edward  Jfenry  Palmer  (London, 
1883).    (RP.) 

Palmer,  Heinzloh  JnUna  B.,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germanj,  was  bora  at  Giesaen,  June  28, 1808. 
In  1828  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  gyntnasium 
in  Darmstadt,  and  died  in  1866,  a  doctor  of  philosophy'. 
He  poblished,  Bdigidte  Vortr&ge  (Mayence,  1888;  sec- 
ond series,  Darmstadt,  1889)  i—Lehrbuch  der  Religion 
find  der  GeacKkhU  der  ehrittL  Kirche  (1849,  2  vols.)  :— 
Der  chriitHche  Glaube  and  das  ckriitUde  Ijiben  (4th  ed. 
1862) : — Die  cot^feetiondUn  Fragen  der  Gepemeart  vatn 
InrchenreehUiehen  und  iheologimien  Standpunhte  (1846). 
See  Winer,  Handbtuh  der  theoL  Lit,  ii,  191;  Zuchold, 
J9tU.rJUol.ii,  971  sq.    (a  P.) 

Palmer,  Karl  Clkzlatlaii,  father  of  Heinrich  Ju- 
lius, was  bora  at  Delitzsch,  May  2, 1759.  In  1787  he 
was  professor  at  Leipsic,  and  died  at  Giessen,  July  17, 
1888,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  De 
Nexu  inter  Tkeologiam  Moralem  et  PubUeam  Rdtgionie 
JntdtuHo  (Leipsic,  1788) : — PauUte  wid  Ganutlielfein 
Beitraff  zur  aUeeten  Ckrittenffeechichte  (Giessen,  1806) : — 
Predigten  iAer  die  EvangdUn  dee  ganzen  Jahret  (1817). 
See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  495, 569;  ii,  184. 
(B.P.) 

Palmer,  Walter  C  M.D.,  a  devoted  Methodist 
evangelist,  was  bora  Feb.  9, 1804.  He  was  converted 
in  1817,  and  among  the  hallowed  associations  of  the 
**  Old  Allen  Street  Church  "  in  New  York,  grew  up  to  a 
beautifuUy  developed  Christian  character.  He  prac- 
ticed medicine  for  many  years  in  that  city,  and  at 
length,  in  connection  with  his  saintly  wife,  gave  up  his 
time  to  Ubors  for  the  conversion  and  sanctification  of 
souls,  travelling  extensively,  and  holding  meetings  ev- 
erywhere in  this  country  as  well  as  in  Great  Britain. 
He  died  at  Ocean  Grove,  July  29, 1883.  See  (N.T.) 
Chriitian  Advocate,  Jan.  8, 1^;  Simpson,  Cydop,  ojf 
JfethodUnif  a.  v. 

Palpa  Version  of  the  Scbipturbs.  Palpa  is  a 
dialect  spoken  in  the  small  statei  north  of  Oude,  below 
the  Himalayas.  A  version  of  the  New  Test,  was  com- 
menced at  Serampore  in  1817,  and  completed  at  press 
about  1882.     See  Bilfle  of  Every  Land,  p.  122.     (a  P.) 

Paniel,  Karl  Frikdbich  Wilhblm,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Mannheim,  April 
19, 1802.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  was  for  some  time 
preacher  at  K&ferthal,  near  Mannheim,  in  1834  at  Zie- 
gelhausen,  near  Heidelberg,  in  1839  pastor  at  Bremen, 
and  died  in  1867,  doctor  of  theology.  He  published, 
A  Ugememe  Uebereickt  derfen^en  Gegenstdnde,  wekhe  dot 
gegenwdrtige  Bedmfmu  der  evangeliech-jnviestanliecken 
Kirche  Badene  empfiehlt  (Mannheim,  1882)  i—HomUeH- 
echee  Magazin  (Heidelberg,  1836,  2  vols.) : — Pragma^ 
Heche  Oeichichte  der  ehriMAen  Berediamkeit  und  der 
Ilomiletik  (Leipsic,  1889^0).  See  Zuchold,  Bil^  TheoL 
ii,  972  sq.;  Winer,  JIandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  ii,  129. 
(a  P.) 

Paula  XdtSras  {**  bread  briefs")  were  letters  of  rec- 
ommendation, by  which  a  secular  lord  ordered  a  mon- 
astery or  other  institution  of  charity  to  receive  a  certain 
person  for  support.  The  right  of  issuing  such  letters 
was  connected  with  the  duty,  originally  imposed  upon 
Buch  institutions,  of  showing  hospitality  to  princes  and 
other  great  lords  when  they  were  travelling.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  the  emperor  of  Germany  exercised  a 
very  extensive  right  of  this  kind ;  but  the  custom  ex- 
isted also  in  other  countries.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
18th  century  the  princes  of  the  diflRerent  countries  re- 
fused to  admit  such  royal  briefs  in  their  respective  ter- 
ritories, and  Frederick  the  Great  openly  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge such  a  brief,  and  asked  to  be  let  alone  in 
future  with  such  imperial  orders.  See  KlUber,  LitterO' 
tur  dee  deutschen  Staaterechte  (Eriangen,  1791),  p.  MO- 
548, 548 ;  H&berlin,  Pragmaiieche  Geechichie  der  neueeten 
kaieerUchen  Walkapitulation  (Leipsic,  1792),  p.  97; 
Plitt-Heraog,  ReairEncykhp.  s.  v.  **  Panisbrief."   (a  P.) 


Paniter,  DAvm,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  vi<!ar  of  the 
Church  of  Carstairs,  in  the  diooese  of  Glasgow,  prior  of 
St  Mary's  Isle  in  Galloway,  and  some  time  commenda- 
tor  of  the  abbey  of  Cambuskenneth.  In  1543  he  was 
principal  secretary  of  state.  He  was  made  bishop  of 
the  see  of  Ross  about  1545,  and  was  still  there  in  1556. 
He  probably  died  in  1558.  See  Keith,  ScoUiek  Biik- 
opt,  p.  192. 

Paqjabi  Version.    See  Punjabi  Yebsion. 

Pape,  Heinrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Gei^ 
many,  was  bora  at  Bremen  in  1745.  He  studied  at 
Gottingen,  was  preacher  at  different  places  in  the  duchy 
of  Bremen,  and  died  April  17, 1805.  He  is  the  author 
of,  Dae  58.  Capitel  leeaid  vbereetzt  und  erlddrt  (Bremen, 
1777)  :—Dae  Evangelium  Lucd  umeehrieUn  und  erldu- 
tert  (1777-81, 2  vols.) ;  besides,  he  wrote  some  ascctical 
works,  for  which  see  Doring,  Die  geUhrten  Theologen 
Deutechlande,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Pappelbaum,  Georo  Gottueb,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Stargard,  March  16, 
1745,  and  died  at  Berlin,  March  6^  1826,  doctor  of  the- 
ology and  archdeacon.  He  published,  Untersuchung 
der  rauiechen  Handechrifi  dee  Neuen  Tettamente  (Ber- 
lin, ll^):^Codide  Novi  TeetamenH  Raviani  in  Bibli" 
otheca  Regia  Berclinenei  PubUca  Ateervaii  Examen, 
etc.  (Leipsic,  1796)  i^Codioem  Gracue  Apoetolorum  A  da 
et  Epiiiolae  Continene  Berolim  in  BUfHotheca  Viri  Ge- 
neroeieeimi,  etc.  (Berlin,  1815).  See  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theoL  Lit.  i,  100, 101 ;  Zuchold,  Bibl.  Theol.  ii,  978. 
(B.  P.) 

Papat,  JoHAMK  Georo  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Ludwigstadt, 
Bayreuth,  Oct  21,  1754.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and 
Eriangen,  was  in  1788  professor  of  philosophy  at  the 
latter  place,  in  1794  dean  at  Ziradorf,  near  Nuremberg, 
in  1818  doctor  of  theology,  and  died  June  7, 1821.  He 
wrote,  De  A  utheniia  Capitie  XXI  Joamiie  (Eriangen, 
1779)  :—De  Fauetie  Christiana  Religionis  Initiis  (1786) : 
—Geschichte  der  chrietlichen  Kirche  (1787)  :—De  fpeo- 
rum  Chrietianorum  Culpa  in  Vexationibue  Afotis  a  Ro- 
manie  (1789-90)  :--2>«  Apostolica  EccUsia  Exemplo 
Caute  Adhibendo  (17^):  —  Commeniar  Uber  die  Gt- 
eehichfe  der  chrietL  Kirche  nach  dem  tchrochh'tchen 
Lehrbuch  (1792-1801).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL 
Lit.  i,  536,  591 ;  ii,  24;  Doring,  Die  geUhrten  Theolth- 
gen  Deutechlande,  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Para  (du  Phanjaa),  Francois,  a  philosophical 
writer  of  France,  was  bora  in  the  castle  Phanjas,  Dau- 
phin6,  in  1724.  He  Joined  the  Jesuits  of  Embron,  and 
soon  distinguished  himself  as  a  philosopher  and  math- 
ematician. Para  died  at  Paris  in  1797.  Of  his  works 
we  mention,  EUmente  de  Mkaphyeiguee  Sacree  et  Pro- 
fane (2d  ed.  Paris,  1779, 8  vols.) :— £«  Pnucipee  de  Ut 
Saine  Philoeophie  ConciHee  avec  Ceux  de  la  Religion 
(1774,  2  vols.)  i—Instiiutiones  Philoeophicai  (published 
posthumously,  in  1800):— TViMeau  JUttorique  et  Phi- 
loeophique  de  la  Religion  (1784).  See  Lichtcnberger, 
Encydop.  dee  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Paradiae.  There  have  been  at  least  four  notable 
attempts  in  very  recent  times  to  .discover  this  long- 
sought  locality ;  two  of  them  by  American,  and  two  by 
German  authors.  Their  theories  have  been  put  forth 
'with  the  greatest  assurance,  and  in  most  cases  support- 
ed by  a  vast  array  of  learning;  but  they  all  seem  to 
have  failed  to  satisfy  the  judgment  of  the  literary 
world,  or  to  add  anything  substantial  towards  a  reason- 
able solution  of  the  question. 

1.  The  view  of  Friederich  Delitzsch,  the  eminent 
Assyriologist,  son  of  the  well-known  commentator,  has 
already  been  given  under  the  art.  Eden.  Brilliant  as 
are  the  researches  of  his  work,  its  conclusions  have 
been  rejected  by  the  most  careful  and  competent  crit- 
ics. See  Halevy,  in  the  Revue  Critique,  1881,  p.  457  sq. ; 
Noldecke,  in  the  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  morgenlmuL  GeseU- 
sehaJX,  1882,  p.  174;  Lenormant,  in  Les  Origine  de  VHiS' 


PARADISE 


962 


PARIZEE 


iotrtf  voL  ii.    We  cite  (from  The  Nation^  N.  Y.,  March 
15|  1888)  some  of  the  geographical  objections : 

**  Why,  if  the  stresm  of  Eden  be  the  middle  Eophrates, 
Is  it  left  nnuamed  in  the  nnrrative,  though  it  is  certain 
that  the  Hebrews  were  perfectly  familiar  both  with  the 
middle  and  the  upper  course  of  that  river  f  ...  If  the 
Itnoer  Tigris  be  meant  by  the  Hiddekel,  why  is  this  river 
described  as  flowing  in  firont  of  Assyria,  which  lay  abov9 
the  centra]  Mesopotamian  lowland  asserted  to  be  Eden  ? 
How  shonld  a  writer,  familiar  with  the  whole  conrse  of 
the  Tie^ris,  deem  its  lower  part  a  branch  of  the  Euphrates  f 
. . .  Why  is  Havilah,  if  the  Arabian  border-land  so  well 
known  to  the  Hebrews  be  meant,  so  fhlly  described  by 
its  products  f  Who  tells  us  that  the  gold,  the  bdellium, 
and  the  ehoham  of  Babylonia  were  also  characteristic  of 
the  adjoining  Havllahr* 

%  A  modem  traveller,  Rev.  J.  P.  Newman,  D.D.,  had 
previously  indicated  a  somewhat  similar  position  to  the 
above  {A  Tkouiand  Mila  on  Iloneback,  N.  Y.  1876, 
p.  69),  namely,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris ;  and  he  was  confident  that  ancient  tablets 
would  yet  be  exhumed  fuUy  establishing  this  location. 
But  the  inscriptions  recovered  by  Smith,  Rassam,  and 
others  in  that  vicinity  do  not  confirm  the  theory,  and 
it  has  thus  been  brushed  aside  with  the  multitude  of 
other  conjectures  that  preceded  it. 

8.  A  more  startling  conclusion  is  announced  by  Rev. 
William  F.  Warren,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  president  of  the  Bos- 
ton University,  ^  that  the  cradle  of  the  human  noe, 
the  Eden  of  primitive  tradition,  was  situated  ai  ike 
North  pole,  in  a  country  submerged  at  the  time  of  the 
deluge  "  {Paradite  Found,  Boston,  1885,  8vo).  This  is 
the  outcome  of  his  researches  in  early  traditions,  no- 
ticed under  our  art  Cosmology.  The  author  brings 
to  the  support  of  this  view  an  amazing  amount  of 
reading  and  investigation,  which  we  have  not  space 
to  criticise  in  detaiL  To  such  as  are  prepared  to 
accept  the  mythologies  of  antiquity  as  having  a  hia- 
toricid  basis,  and  to  place  the  Biblical  account  on  a 
level  of  authority  with  them,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  extend  the  origin  of  the  human  race  to  a  date  con- 
temporary with  the  thermal  asra  of  geok>gy,  this  book, 
which  is  written  in  a  fascinating  style,  and  illustrated 
with  a  copious  reference  to  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject, will  prove  at  least  an  ingenious  and  plausible,  if 
not  a  conclusive, argument;  but  for  those  who  maintain 
the  literal  accuracy  of  the  history  in  Genesis,  and  the 
substantial  agreement  of  the  topographical  conditions 
there  given  with  the  present  conditions  of  the  earth*s 
surface,  it  cannot  appear  other  than  a  most  preposterous 
and  chimerical  hypothesis.  The  great  objection  which 
we  see  in  it  is  the  setting  aside  as  an  unintelligible 
narrative  the  only  professed  and  historic  description 
which  we  possess  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  and  then  re- 
sorting to  the  rague  and  conflicting  testimony  of  pa- 
ganism, combined  with  the  scanty  and  problematical 
indications  of  oosmological  science,  for  an  identification 
that  is  at  last  claimed  as  decisive  and  final.  If  the 
Biblical  passage  (Gen.  ii,  10-U),  with  iU  explicit  items, 
fails  to  point  out  the  true  spot,  we  may  as  well  give  up 
the  attempt  as  hopeless.  To  us  that  account  seems 
sufiiciently  clear  and  consistent;  and  we  believe  that 
explorations  in  the  region  thus  designated  will  vindi- 
cate the  accuracy  of  the  Scripture  language  beyond 
any  reasonable  doubt.  It  is  a  question  of  exegesis  and 
geography,  not  of  mythological  comparison. 

4.  The  last  formal  production  in  this  line  ia  an  at- 
tempt to  show  that  Paradise  was  situated  about  sixty- 
five  miles  south-east  of  Damascus,  in  a  shallow  alluvial 
basin,  amid  the  wild  basaltic  crags  of  the  desolate  vol- 
canic region  known  as  the  Hauran  {Die  Ayflontng  der 
Paradiea-frage,  by  Moritz  Engel,  Leipsic,  1885,  8vo). 
An  elaborate  effort  is  made  to  identify  the  names  and 
circumstances;  but  the  agreement  is  most  fanciful  and 
indistinct.  Eden  is  the  present  Ruhbe,  an  Arabic  term 
for  a  rich  patch  of  soil;  the  fuor  rivers  are  the  wadies 
which  pour  down  the  surrounding  slopes  in  the  rainy 
season;  while  the  most  violent  processes  of  rationalism 
are  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  disposing  of  the  as- 


sociated names  and  features  of  the  nairative :  e.  g.  Um 
cherabim  are  volcanoes  of  the  Hauran ;  Cain  is  only  a 
more  specific  title  for  Adam;  Cain's  sons  and  Lamech*a 
wires  are  mountain -peaks  adjacent,  etc  It  would 
seem  as  if  the  ne  plue  uUra  of  atMurdity  has  now  been 
reached  in  the  vagaries  on  this  subject,  and  it  is  time 
to  return  to  sober  examination  of  the  given  data,  if  any 
success  is  to  be  achieved  in  the  exposition. 

Faiah.  The  probable  site  ia  Khnrbet  Farah,  laid 
down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  at  five  and  a  half  miles 
north-east  of  Jerusalem,  and  deacribed  in  the  aoeom- 
panying  Memoin  (iii,  209)  as  **  heaps  of  stones  only." 

Fanurarama  is  the  sixth  avatar,  or  incamatioo 
of  VishnCl,  in  which  he  appean  aa  Rama,  the  son  of 
Jamadagui,  armed  with  a  paraw,  or  axe.  Arjnna,  king 
of  the  Haihayas,  had  obtained,  as  a  reward  for  faia 
pious  deeds,  a  thousand  arms  and  sovereignty  over  all 
the  earth.  The  gods,  alarmed  at  his  power,  applied  to 
Yishnfi,  who  decided  to  be  bom  as  a  son  of  Jamadagui, 
in  order  that  he  might  slay  him.  Jamadagui  waa  a 
pioua  aage,  who  had  married  Rennka,  a  princeaa»  and 
had  obtained  by  her  five  sons,  the  last  of  whom  waa 
Rama,  or  VishnA  incarnate.  On  a  certain  occasion  Ar- 
juna  came  to  the  hermitage  of  Jamadagui,  and  waa 
there  hospitably  received  by  the  saint,  who  could  treat 
him  and  his  followers  sumptuously,  as  he  possessed  a 
fabulous  cow  of  plenty,  that  not  only  supplied  him  with 
the  milk  and  butter  required  for  his  sacrificial  offerings^ 
but  with  everything  else  he  wished  for.  Pleased  with 
the  precious  qualities  of  this  cow,  and  disregarding  the 
kind  treatment  he  had  received,  Arjuna  carried  off  with 
him  the  cow  and  her  calt  When  Rama*  who  waa  ab- 
sent at  this  time,  returned  to  the  hermitage,  he  took  op 
his  axe  (or  his  bow)'  and  slew  Arjuna  and  his  army. 
The  sons  of  Arjuna,  to  avenge  their  father's  death,  at- 
tacked the  hermitage  and  succeeded  in  killing  Jama* 
dagui.  Thereupon  Rama  made  a  vow  to  extirpate  the 
whole  Kshattrljra,  or  military  race,  and,  not  satisfied 
with  destroying  the  sons  of  Aijuna,  he  killed  every 
Kshattrlya  whom  he  met  afterwards.  It  is  said  that 
**he  cleared  thrice  seven  times  the  earth"  (ue.alew 
as  many  generations)  *<  and  filled  with  their  blood  the 
five  large  lakes  of  Samautapauchaka,  from  which  be 
offered  libationa  to  the  race  of  Bhrigu."  lie  then  pei^ 
formed  a  solemn  sacrifice,  and  distributed  the  land  and 
great  richea  among  the  ministering  priests.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  legend  is  in  essence  historical, 
recording  a  great  atruggle  in  prime^'al  times  between 
Brahmans  and  Ksbattrtyaa,  of  which  we  have  the  pai^ 
allel  in  the  history  of  Vasishtha  and  Yiswamitra  (q.  v.). 

Pareau,  Louis  Gerlagh,  a  noted  Dutch  theolo- 
gian, son  of  John  Heniy,  was  bom  at  Deventer,  Au^. 
10,  1800.  He  studied  at  Utrecht,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  on  pre- 
senting CommefOatio  CriHea  ad  1  Cor,  xHL  On  the 
same  day  (Sept.  28,  1820)  he  waa  also  made  doctor 
of  philosophy  **  honoris  causa."  After  ministering  for 
some  time  at  Nederiangbroek  and  Voorbuig,  he  waa 
made  professor  of  moral  theology  at  Groningen  in  183L 
He  opened  his  lectures  with  an  address,  De  A  mmo  non 
AfinuM  Theohgorum  guam  Tngenio  Academka  Inttitw^ 
tione  Infomumdo,  Pareau  was  twice  rector  of  tb« 
university  (in  1843  and  1858),  and  died  Oct  27,  1866. 
He  is  the  author  of,  IttUia  Insiitutionii  Chtisiiana  3fo- 
raUs  (Groningen,  1842): — DogmaHea  H  Apologetioa 
ChritUana  (1845): — in  connection  with  Hofstede  de 
Groot,  Hermeneutica  Codicis  Sacri  (184fi) :  —  A'luyofe- 
pcBdia  Theologi  ChrisUam  ( 1851 ),  also  in  connection 
with  Hofstede  de  Groot.  See  Lichtenberger,  Eaegdcp, 
des  Sdencet  Rdigieu$et,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Pazlsek,  Alexius  Viscsnz,  a  Roman  Cathc^c 
theologian  of  Austria,  waa  bom  at  Prague,  Nov.  10, 
1748.  In  1785  he  joined  the  Dominicans,  and  received 
holy  ordera  in  1771.  For  a  time  tutor  at  the  grammar- 
school  in  Prague,  he  went,  in  1783,  to  Khittau,  Bohemia, 
aa  director  of  the  (Serman  grammar-achooL     In  1786 


PARE 


763 


PARSONS 


he  was  made  episoopal  notary  at  Budweia,  in  1802  doc- 
tor of  theology,  in  1811  dean  of  the  theological  faculty 
at  Prague,  and  died  April  15, 1822.  He  is  the  aathor 
of  a  Domber  of  ascetical  works,  for  which  see  Doring, 
Dib  geUhrten  Theologm  DeHtsekktmb^  a.  v.;  Winer, 
ffandbueh  der  IheoL  Lii.  ii,  258, 850.     (R  P.) 

Park,  Calvin,  D.D^  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Northbridge,  Mass.,  Sept.  11, 1774.  He 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1797,  three  years 
after  was  appointed  tutor  in  the  univenity,  and  in  1804 
was  elected  professor  of  languages.  From  1811  to  1825 
be  was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  metaphysics. 
In  1800  be  was  licensed  to  preach,  in  1815  ordained  an 
evangelist,  and  from  1826  to  1840  was  pastor  of  the 
Evangelical  Congregational  Church  at  Sioughton.  He 
died  there,  Jan.  5^  1847.  His  literary  taste  was  exqui- 
site, and  he  instinctively  perceived  the  beauties  and 
defects  of  a  literary  performance.  See  Sprague,  A  imal* 
of  the  Amer,  PulpU,  ii,  460. 

Park,  RoaweU,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  minister  and 
educator,  was  bom  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  Oct  1, 1807.  He 
was  educated  at  Union  College,  and  at  West  Point  Mil- 
itary Academy,  where  he  graduated  in  1881.  He  then 
served  as  a  lieutenant  of  engineers  until  September, 
1886,  when  he  accepted  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy 
and  chemistry  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  a 
position  which  he  held  until  1842.  He  took  orders  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1843,  and  taught 
and  preached  in  Pomfret,  Conn.,  from  1846  to  1852. 
He  became  president  of  Racine  College  in  the  latter 
year,  and  chancellor  in  1859.  He  founded  a  school  in 
Chicago  in  1868,  and  died  there,  July  16, 1869.  Dr. 
Park  published,  Sekctumi  of  Poems  (1886):>-i4  Shdch 
of  the  Hittorjf  and  Topography  of  WeH  Pointy  etc. 
(1840)  i^PatUoloffy  (1841)  i-^Hand-hooh  for  American 
Travdler$  in  Europe  (1853).  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  vthors,  s.  v. 

Parker,  Charles  Carroll,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Underbill,  Vt.,  Sept.  26,  1814. 
He  graduated  from  the  University  of  Vermont  in 
1841 ;  studied  one  year  at  the  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary, N.  T. ;  taught  at  Burlington,  Yt.,  one  year ;  was 
a  Ck>ngreg8tional  pastor  at  Tinmouth  from  1848  to 
1864 ;  thereafter  served  at  Waterbuiy  until  1867 ;  at 
Boston  Centre,  Me.,  until  1868;  at  Goshen  until  1871, 
and  finally,  as  a  Presbyterian  minister,  at  Parsippany, 
N.  J.,  until  his  death,  Feb.  15, 1880. 

Parker,  Joel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
bom  at  Bethel,  Yt.,  Aug.  27, 1799.  He  graduated  from 
Hamilton  College,  N.  Y.,  in  1824;  was  ordained  in  1826, 
and  settled  at  Rochester,  where  he  remained  until  1880 ; 
was  pastor  of  Dey  Street  Church,  New  York  city,  from 
1880  to  1838 ;  at  New  Orleans  from  1888  to  1888,  and  at 
the  Broadway  Tabernacle,  New  York  city,  from  1888  to 
1840.  He  was  chosen  president  and  professor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  the  latter 
year,  and  retained  the  position  two  years.  During  the 
next  ten  years  he  ser%'ed  the  Clinton  Street  Church, 
Philadelphia.  He  became  pastor  of  the  Bleecker  Street 
Churcli,  New  York  city,  in  1852,  and  of  the  Fourth  Ave- 
nue Presbyterian  Church  in  1854.  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  )Iny  2, 1878.  Dr.  Parker  was  for  some  time  associ- 
ate editor  of  the  Presbyterian  Quarterly ^  and  published, 
among  other  works,  Lectures  on  Univertalism  (Rochester, 
1829)  i^AforseU  for  a  Young  Student  (about  1832):— 
Reasonings  of  a  Pastor  with  the  Young  of  his  Flock: — 
Sermons  on  Variotu  Suhfects  (1852).  See  AUibone,  Diet, 
of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

Parker,  John,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bom  in  Dub- 
lin, and  was  made  a  petty  canon  of  St.  Patrick's  in  1642. 
He  was  subsequently  prebendary  of  St.  Hichan*s  and 
dean  of  Killala,  whereupon  he  took  his  degree  of  bach- 
elor of  divinity  in  Trinity  0>llege,  Dublin.  He  was 
chaplain  to  the  marquis  (afterwards  duke)  of  Orroond. 
In  1649  he  was  cast  into  prison  by  Cromwell,  on  sus- 
picion of  liaving  been  employed  as  a  spy  by  the  mar^ 


qnia,  who  was  then  laboring  to  restore  Dublin  to  the 
king.  On  hia  release  he  was  promoted  to  the  bish- 
opric of  Elphin,  whence  he  was  translated,  in  1067, 
to  Tnam,  and  in  1678  to  the  archdiocese  of  Dublin. 
With  his  sees  he  held  in  commendam  the  rectory  of 
Gallowne,  the  treasurenhip  of  St  Patrick's,  Dublin, 
and  the  prebend  of  Desertmore,  in  the  church  of  St. 
Finbar,  in  the  diocese  of  Cork.  He  died  Dec.  28, 1681. 
See  D'Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  A  rchhishops  of  DubUmy 
p.  283. 

Parker,  Linns,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  at  Rome,  N.  Y.,  April 
28, 1829.  He  went  to  New  Orleans  in  his  sixteenth 
year,  at  once  joined  the  Poydras  Stmday-school,  and 
became  a  dry*goods  clerk.  He  volunteered  in  the  Mex- 
ican war,  and  soon  after  his  retum  received  license  to 
preach,  and  in  1849  entered  the  Louisiana  Conference, 
in  which  he  filled  the  most  important  appointments, 
including  the  presiding  eldership  (1870),  the  editorship 
of  the  New  Orleans  Christian  Advocate  (in  connection 
with  his  ministerial  labors),  and  membership  in  the 
General  Conference,  until  his  election  as  bishop  in  1882. 
He  died  in  this  latter  work,  March  5, 1885.  He  was  a 
most  faithful  pastor,  a  loving  friend,  and  a  graceful 
writer.  See  Minutes  of  A  nnual  Conferences  of  the  M. 
E,  Church  South,  1885,  p.  159;  Simpson,  Cyclop,  of 
Methodism,  s.  v. 

Parmelee,  Simeon,  D.D.,  a  centenarian  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bora  at  West  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
Jan.  16, 1782.  He  was  a  student  of  Middlebury  Col- 
lege for  a  few  months;  then  studied  theology  with 
Rev.  Lemuel  Haynes,  of  West  Rutland,  Yt.  He  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  atWestford,  Aug.  81, 1808, 
and  was  dismissed,  Aug.  8, 1837. '  From  Nov.  9  of  that 
year  to  April  26, 1843,  he  was  pastor  in  Williston.  He 
served  for  a  time  as  acting -pastor  at  Underbill,  and 
was  installed  there  Sept.  11, 1844,  and  dismissed  Nov. 
9,  1854.  From  1852  to  1854  he  was  acting  -  pastor 
at  Milton;  from  1854  to  1857  at  Tinmouth;  from  1857 
to  1^63  at  Underbill;  from  1863  to  1866  at  Swanton. 
With  the  exception  of  a  short  time,  during  1868  and 
1869,  when  he  again  supplied  Westford,  he  resided  afler 
1866, without  charge,  at  Osnego,  N.  Y.  He  died  there, 
Feb.  10, 1882.     See  Cong,  Year-bool;  1 883,  p.  27. 

Paraona^  John,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was  bora 
at  Oxford,  July  6^  1761.  He  graduated  from  Wadham 
College;  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  Balliol ;  and  appointed 
to  the  college  livings  of  All-Saints'  and  St  Leonard's, 
in  Colchester.  He  was  recalled  to  Oxford  by  his  elec- 
tion to  the  mastership  of  Balliol,  Nov.  14, 1798 ;  received 
the  office  of  vice-chancellor  in  1807 ;  was  promoted  to 
the  deanery  of  Bristol  in  1810 ;  instituted  to  the  vic^ 
arage  of  Weare,  Somersetshire,  in  1812 ;  and  consecrated 
bishop  of  Peterborough  in  1818.  He  died  March  12, 
1819.  Bishop  Parsons  was  an  humble  Christian,  a  ripe 
scholar,  an  able  preacher,  and  a  wise  administrator.  See 
The  (Lond.)  Christian  7?em«fi{5rancer,  June,  181 9,  p. 384; 
November,  p.  669. 

Paraons,  Justin  "Wright,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Westharoptnn,  Mass.,  in  1824.  He 
graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1845,  and  from 
Union  Theological  Seminar^'  in  1848 ;  was  ordained  by 
the  New  York  Presbytery,  Dec.  26, 1849,  and  immedi- 
ately thereafter  sailed  for  Thessalonica,  Greece.  After 
laboring  at  this  post  until  1854,  he  was  transferred  to 
Smyraa,  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1857  to  Baghchijeb,  Tur- 
key, thence  again  in  1861  to  Nicomedia,  and  then,  after 
an  absence  in  the  foreign  field  for  twenty  years,  he  re- 
turoed  to  his  native  land  on  a  short  visit  for  the  bene- 
fit  of  his  health.  Having  again  entered  upon  his  M'ork, 
in  July,  1680,  he  was  making  a  missionary  tour  on 
the  mountains  east  of  the  sea  of  Marmora,  accompanied 
by  his  servant,  when  they  encamped  for  the  night;  the 
next  moraing  they  were  found  by  the  roadside  mur- 
dered by  a  iMind  of  Ziireks.  See  N,  Y,  Observer,  Aug. 
12,1880.    (W.P.S.) 


PARSONS 


764 


PATTISON 


FaxBOnB,  Levi,  D.D^  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Northampton,  Blass^  Ang.  20, 1779 ;  graduated 
from  Williams  College  in  1801 ;  subsequently  spent  two 
years  as  tutor,  and  trained  for  the  ministry  under  Dr. 
Hyde  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  licensed  in  1807,  and 
the  same  year  became  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Marcellus, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  twenty-six  yean.  He  then 
supplied  Tnlly  for  one  year,  and  Otisco  for  another; 
next  went  to  his  former  charge  in  Marcellus,  held  it 
six  years  longer,  and  then  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
ministry  with  the  Third  Church  in  Marcellus,  and  at 
Borodino.  He  died  Nov.  20, 18&4.  See  Mears, /Veriy- 
terianiam  in  Central  New  York^  p.  628. 

Pasch,  GKeorg,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  Sept.  2B,  1661,  at  Dantzic  He  studied  at 
Rostock  and  Wittenberg,  was  in  1689  professor  at  Kiel, 
and  died  Sept.  SO,  1707.  He  wrote,  Dist,  de  RechabUU 
ex  Jerem.  xzxv^  an  essay  preitared  while  yet  at  the 
gymnasium  (Dantzic,  1681)  :^De  OperatioiUbuM  Damo- 
num  (Wittenberg,  1684)  i—Diu.  Phytica  de  PluraUiate 
Mundorum  contra  Carienanoe  (eod.)  i—Utrum  Ponii- 
Jleii  Coganlur  Coficedere  Lutheranot  in  ReUgione  tua 
Salvarif  (Kiel,  1689)  :—De  PhUosophia  Charaderittaca 
et  Pantndka  (1705):— Z>c  Variit  Modii  MoraUa  Tra- 
dendi  lAber  (1707).  See  Doring,  Die  geUhHen  Theolo- 
gen  DeutMcklands^  s.  t.;  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  Gekhrten- 
Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Paach,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, who  died  at  Hamburg  in  1709,  is  the  author  of. 
Be  EcUpH  Solie  in  Die  PaitUmii  ChrieH: — De  Numero 
Bettia  Apoealgtiea: — De  Tikkun  Sopherim: — De  An- 
gdorum  Lingua  Sine  Lingua: — De  Signo  Cahdi — De 
SchemhamphoroMch  :^—De  Voce  I/ebraica  S^h :  —  De 
Serpenie  Seductore :  ~^  De  Morie  JmmortaUum  Mortit 
Ckritti  Tettium  Judai  ei  GentUia:—De  Johanme  Bap- 
tiita.  See  Jdcher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  r. 
(B.  P.) 

Paterson,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Dumbarton,  ou  the  Clyde,  in  1801.  His 
early  education  was  obtsined  at  the  burgh  school  of 
his  native  town;  and  he  began  life  as  a  school-teacher. 
He  entered  the  University  of  Glasgow  with  the  idea 
of  becoming  a  physician,  but  never  took  his  degree. 
During  his  course  there  he  labored  as  an  evangelist 
with  the  Glasgow  City  Mission.  He  was  invited  by 
Dr.  Marshman  to  become  a  missionary  to  Serampore, 
but  declined  the  invitation.  In  1829  he  hired  a  small 
room  in  Glasgow,  fitted  it  op  with  forms,  and  began 
preaching  to  a  congregation  of  veiy  poor  persons.  Here 
a  Church  was  organized,  and  removals  were  made  from 
time  to  time  to  better  quarters.  In  1850  he  undertook 
-the  editorship  of  the  Scottish  Temperance  Review^  and 
subsequently  of  the  Scottish  Review,  He  was  one  of 
the  originators  (in  1846)  of  the  Glasgow  Commercial 
College,  and  long  one  of  the  instractors.  He  died  Jan. 
29, 1880.     See  (Lond.)  Bapt,  Hand-book,  1881 ,  p.  884. 

Paterson,  John  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first 
minister  at  Foveran,  and  next  at  Aberdeen.  He  was 
advanced  to  the  see  of  Ross,  Jan.  18, 1662,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death  in  1679.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  203. 

Paterson,  John  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first 
minister  at  Ellon,  Aberdeenshire,  and  afterwards  at  the 
Tron  Church,  and  dean  of  (he  city  of  Edinburgh.  He 
was  preferred  by  the  interest  of  the  duke  of  Lauderdale 
to  the  see  of  Galloway,  Get.  23, 1674,  where  he  contin- 
ued until  March  29,  1679,  when  he  was  translated  to 
Edinburgh.  In  1687  he  was  put  into  the  see  uf  Glas- 
gow, where  he  continued  until  the  revolution  in  1688. 
He  died  at  Edinburgh,  Dec.  8, 1708.  See  Keith,  Scot- 
tish Bishops,  p. 64,270,  282. 

Paton,  James,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  bishop 
of  Dunkeld  in  February,  1571.  He  was  deprived  in 
1575,  and  died  July  20, 1596.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bish- 
ops, p.  96. 


Patrlal,  Francis  XATncR,  a  Jesoit,  who  died  at 
Rome,  April  28, 1881,  professor  of  exegesis  at  the  Col- 
legium Romannm,  is  the  author  of,  De  Interprtiatume 
Seripturarum  Saerarum  (1844, 2  vols.) : — De  EvoMgdiia 
(18fid,  2  vols.) : — CommtmUtrius  in  Evangelium  JoasmsM 
(1857)  :--Cojiimen/.ti»  fran^e^uim  if  am' (1862).  (RP.) 

Patten,  David,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  10, 1810.  He 
graduated  at  the  high  -  school  there,  went  thenoe  to 
Wilbraham  Academy,  where  he  was  converted  in  bis 
eighteenth  year,  and  afterwards  to  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, Middletown,  Ck)nn.,  where  he  graduated  in  1834. 
In  1882  he  Was  licensed  to  preach,  and  employed  as 
supply  at  Hartford,  and  also  supplied  Power  Street 
Church,  Providence,  R.  I.,  during  his  last  college  year. 
On  completing  his  course  at  Wesleyan  he  was  at  once 
called  to  the  principalship  of  Wilbraham,  and  in  1835 
entered  the  Kew  England  Conference.  He  served  as 
principal  at  Wilbraham  seven  years,  then  entered  the 
pastoral  office,  and,  receiving  a  transfer  to  the  Provi- 
dence Conference,  was  sent  in  turn  to  Chestnut  Streeiy 
Boston;  Nantucket;  Elm  Street,  Bedford;  Fall  River, 
and  Mathewaon  Street,  Providence,  serving  two  years 
in  each  place,  and  one  year  to  Warren.  In  1852  he 
was  appointed  presiding  elder  of  Providence  District, 
which  office  he  filled  until  his  election,  in  1854,  to  Uie 
professorship  of  theology  in  the  Biblical  Institute  at 
Concord,  N«  H.  By  unceasing  eflbrts  he  secured  an 
enlarged  endowment  for  the  institute,  its  removal 
to  Boston,  its  establishment  on  an  assured  financial 
basis  as  a  department  of  Boston  University,  and 
tained  his  position  in  its  chair  of  homiletics  and 
toral  theology  until  1878.  He  then,  on  account  of 
impaired  health,  relinquished  his  office  and  became 
agent  of  the  university  and  secretary  of  the  board  of 
trustees,  devoting  to  its  interests  his  unfailing  lore 
and  unflagging  zeal  until  his  death,  March  26, 1879. 
The  estimate  placed  npon  Dr.  Patten's  character  and 
worth  by  his  conference  is  made  manifest  by  his  three 
elections  to  the  General  Conference  in  1848, 1852,  and 
1864.  See  Minutes  ofAwmal  Conferences,  1879,  p.  SO ; 
Simpson,  Cyclop,  of  Methodism,  s.  v. 

Patten,  "William,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Halifax,  Mass*,  about  1760,  and  grad- 
uated from  Dartmouth  College  in  1780.  He  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Second  Church  at  Newport, 
R.  I.,  May  24, 1786,  dismissed  April  15,  1838,  and  died 
in.  1889.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the.  Amer,  PtUpitf 
i,  592. 

Patterson,  Andrew  OurHA^cr,  D.D.,  a  Preaby- 
terian  minister,  was  bom  in  Fayette  County,  Pa.,  July 
1,  1794.  He  graduated  from  Washington  College  in 
1814,  spent  one  year  in  theological  study  at  Prince- 
ton, and  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of  Redstone, 
April  18, 1821 ;  preached  at  Mount  Pleasant  and  Swick- 
ley  churches  until  1834,  was  agent  for  the  Domestic 
Board  of  Missions  until  1886,  preached  at  Beaver  Church 
from  1887  to  1839,  and  at  New  Lisbon  from  1840  to 
1851 ;  then  became  stated  supply  at  Bethel,  O.,  for  one 
year,  and  settled  as  pastor  from  1853  to  1857.  He  su|>- 
plied  College  Comer  for  a  short  time,  and  died  at  Ox- 
ford, O.,  Dec  14,  1868.  See  Gen.  Cat,  of  Princeton 
TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  28. 

Pattioon,  Dorothy  Wyndlow  (usually  called 
Sister  Dora),  an  EnglL»h  philanthropist,  was  bom  at 
Hauzwell,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  16, 1882,  being  the  daughter 
of  the  rector  there.  In  1864  she  Joined  the  "  Sbterhood 
of  Good  Samaritans,"  a  religious  order  recognised  by 
the  Church  of  England,  and  the  next  year  became  a 
nurse  in  the  Cottage  Hospital  at  Walsale,  where  she 
devoted  herself  in  the  most  exemplary  manner  and 
with  rare  skill  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  both  in  body  and 
soul,  until,  exhausted  in  strength,  she  retired  in  1878, 
and  died  Dec  24, 1878.  See  her  Biography,  by  Mar- 
garet  Lonsdale  (London  and  Boston,  1880). 

Pattison,  Mark,  D.D.,  an  English  deigymai^ 


PATTON 


765 


PAWSON 


was  bom  at  Hornby,  Yorkshire,  in  1818,  and  educated 
at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  He  became  a  fellow  of  Lin- 
ooln  College  in  1840  and  rector  in  1861.  He  died  Julj 
81, 1884,  leaving  nnmerona  easaya  and  reviews  on  lit- 
erary and  educational  subjects.  See  Mtn  o/  the  Ttme, 
a.v. 

Fatton,  WiLUAM,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  and 
subsequently  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug.  28, 1798.  He  graduated  from 
Bfiddlebury  College  in  1818,  attended  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  from  1819  to  1820,  and  in  the  latter 
year  (June  8)  was  ordained  an  evangelist  in  Charlotte, 
Yt.  Having  gathered  a  Presbyterian  congregation  in 
New  York  city,  named  the  Central  Presbyterian  Church, 
he  was  installed  pastor  May  7, 1822,  and  remained  in 
charge  until  Sept.  15, 1884.  The  three  years  following 
he  was  secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Education  So- 
dety.  From  October,  1837,  to  October,  1847,  he  was 
pastor  of  the  Spring  Street  Church,  New  York  city, 
and  from  1848  to  1852  was  pastor  of  the  Hammond 
Street  Congregational  Church.  During  the  next  ten 
years  he  resided  in  New  York  without  charge;  then 
removed  to  New  Haven,  Conn.,  where,  in  1868,  he  was 
acting-pastor  of  the  College  Street  Church.  Subse- 
quently he  resided  at  New  Haven  without  charge, 
until  hia  death,  Sept.  9, 1879.  From  1864  Dr.  Patton 
was  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  American  Mis- 
sionary Association.  Besides  important  articles  in  va- 
ribus  periodicals,  he  published,  in  1888,  a  revised  and 
enlarged  edition  of  The  Cottage  BiUe,  in  two  volumes. 
The  same  year  he  published  The  Village  TeHament, 
and  in  1859  the  same  work,  revised,  under  the  title 
of  The  Cottage  Testament,  His  other  works  are,  The 
Chrietian  Psalmist  (1886)  :—The  Laws  of  Fermentatum, 
etc  (1871)  I— 'The  Judgment  of  Jerusalem  (1877)  :-r- 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  (1878)  i—BtbU  Principles  Illustrated 
hy  Bible  Characters  (1879).  He  also  issued  editions  of 
Kdwards  on  Revivals  and  Finney  on  Bevivalsj  besides  a 
number  of  pamphlets.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of 
temperance  and  a  powerful  lecturer  on  that  subject 
He  made  fourteen  voyages  to  Europe,  at  first  for  health, 
and  afterwards  as  a  delegate  to  various  religious  bodies. 
Dr.  Patton  was  a  clear,  forcible,  and  copious  writer,  a 
bold  and  impressive  speaker,  valiant  for  the  tmth,  an 
humble  and  devout  Christian.  See  NecroL  Report  of 
Princeton  Theol.  Sem.  1880,  p.  8 ;  Cong,  Year-book,  1880, 
p.  25 ;  Filial  Tribute,  by  Dr.  William  W.  Patton  (Wash- 
ington,  1880). 

Paul,  John  dk  St.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  prebendary 
of  Donnington,  in  the  cathedral  of  York,  and  canon  of 
Dublin,  when  he  was  advanced  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Dublin,  Sept.  12, 1850.  In  1860  he  was  one  of  the 
three  whom  the  king  appointed  to  explore  for  such 
mines  of  gold  and  silver  as  were  thought  to  be  abun- 
dant in  various  parts  of  Ireland.  In  1861  he  had  an 
especial  writ  of  summons  to  a  great  council  to  be  held 
in  Dublin,  on  which  occasion  he  is  said  to  have  labored 
with  his  usual  good  sense  and  judgment  to  effect  a  gen- 
eral amnesty  and  pardon  of  such  of  the  Irish  and  Eng- 
lish as  were  then  opposed  to  the  government  He  died 
Sept  9, 1862.  See  D'Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  A  rchbish- 
ops  of  Dublin,  p.  184. 

Faull,  Carl  T77illielxii,  a  German  jurist,  was  bora 
at  Llibeck,  Dec  18, 1792.  He  studied  jurispradence  at 
Gottingen  and  Tubingen,  and  occupied  the  highest 
positions  in  his  profession  at  his  native  place,  where  he 
died,  March  18,  1879.  For  a  number  of  years  he  be- 
longed to  the  officers  of  bis  Church,  which  he  served 
everywhere,  and  for  which  he  undertook  the  publication 
of  a  new  hymn-book  in  1882.  Having  thus  become 
interested  in  hymnology,  he  continued  his  studies,  and 
published  as  their  result,  Geschichte  der  UUteckischen 
GesangbQcher  und  Beurtheilung  des  GegemeSrtigen  (Ltt* 
beck,  1875).  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  mission 
among  the  heathens,  and  for  a  number  of.  years  stood 
at  the  head  of  the  missionary  society  at  Lttbeck.    To 


this  period  belong  hb  Der  laheehisehe  Verein  zur  B&- 
firdarung  der  evangeUschen  Mission  unier  den  Heiden 
im  Jdhre  1866  (ibid.  1857)  and  Nothgednmgene  Erkia- 
rtmg  in  Sachen  des  lUbeekisehen  Vereins  (ibid.  1857). 
His  essay,  Peter  Ileyling,  der  erste  deutsche  MissionSr, 
in  WwmecWB  A  llgem.  Missions-Zeitschrijl  (May,  1876), 
is  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  historv  of  missions  and 
the  Church.     (R  P.) 

Panll,  ChriBtian  'V71111am  Henry,  a  miniater  of 
the  Church  of  England,  was  bom  of  Hebrew  parentage, 
at  Breslau,  Silesia,  Aug.  11, 1800.  He  received  a  strict 
Jewish  education.and  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  while  yet 
in  the  synagogue,  published  a  volume  of  sermons  under 
the  title  Predigten  fur  fromme  IsraeWen  (Halle,  1824, 
by  nirseh  Prinz,  as  his  Jewish  name  originally  was). 
When  twenty-five  years  of  age  he  embraced  Chris- 
tianity at  Minden;  on  coming  to  England  was  for  some 
time  a  student  at  Cambridge,  and  while  there  was  in- 
vited to  come  to  Oxford,  where  he  was  appointed  lect^ 
urer  in  Hebrew.  This  post  he  held  for  thirteen  years, 
and  published, in  1839,  his  i4  nalecta  I/ebraica,  In  1840^ 
he  was  ordained,  and  sent  to  Berlin  by  the  Society  for 
Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews.  In  1843  he 
was  stationed  at  Amsterdam,  but  resigned  his  position 
in  1874.  He  then  retired  to  Luton,  Bedfordshire,  Eng- 
land, and  died  May  4,  1877.  He  also  published.  The 
Great  Mystery f  or.  How  can  Three  be  One?  and  A 
Translation  of  the  Chaldee  Paraphrase  of  Isaiah  (Lond. 
1871).     (a  P.) 

Panll,  Qeorg  Jacob,  a  Reformed  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Brunswick,  July  24,  1722.  He 
studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1746  director  of  the  Reformed 
gymnasium,  in  1750  cathedral  preacher,  in  1751  preach- 
er at  Berlin,  in  1774  again  at  Halle,  and  died  Feb.  28, 
1795.  He  published,  De  Occasione  Psalmi  xxxiv  Conseri- 
bendi  (Halle,  1747)  i^De  Conciliando  Ijhxi  Marc,  xv,  25 
et  Joh,  xix,  14  (1748)  i—De  A  uctoribus  ClassicU  in  Chris- 
tianorum  Scholis  Caute  Tradandis  (1749) : — Entwurf 
ewer  katechetischen  und  populdren  Theologie  (2d  ed. 
1785  ) :  —  Heidelbergischer  Katectiismus  ( 1781 ).  See 
Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. 
(a  P.) 

Paulinians  is  a  name  sometimes  applied  by  the 
Arians  to  the  ancient  Christians,  from  Paulinus,  bishop 
of  Antioch. 

Patunier,  Louis  Daniel,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  France,  was  bom  at  Autretot,  Feb.  23,  1789.  He 
studied  at  Lausanne,  and  in  1818  accepted  a  call  to  a 
parish  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bolbec.  In  1817  he  waa 
called  to  Rouen,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  hia 
life.  Besides  his  ministerial  functions,  he  instmcted  in 
a  parochial  school,  which  he  had  founded  in  1820,  or- 
ganized different  Christian  societies,  and  succeeded  in 
opening  a  Protestant  hospital.  Paumier  died  Sept.  15, 
1865,  highly  honored  by  both  Pmtestants  and  Roman 
Catholics.  See  Lichtenberger,  Eneydop,  des  Sciences 
Religieuses,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Pawvon,  JoHK,  a  prominent  minister  in  early  Meth- 
odism, was  bora  at  Thomcr,  near  Leeds,  Nov.  12, 1787. 
He  was  early  convicted  under  Bfethodist  preaching, 
and  after  a  long  straggle  was  joyfully  brought  into  the 
light.  He  preached  his  first  sermon  in  1761,  in  1762 
Wesley  sent  him  to  York,  and  from  that  time  to  Feb.  8, 
1806,  when  he  preached  his  last  sermon  at  Wakefield, 
he  exercised  his  ministry  with  marked  diligence,  abil- 
ity, and  success.  He  was  frequently  appointed  to  the 
large  cities,  and  in  1785  Wesley  ordained  him,  with 
Hanby  and  Taylor,  for  Scotland,  in  which  country, 
owing  to  the  Scottish  character,  creed,  and  mode  of 
worship,  Pawson  was  convinced  Methodism  would  nev- 
er make  much  headway.  Triumphantly  his  bus^*  life 
was  closed  at  Wakefield,  March  19, 1806.  Twice  Paw- 
son  was  elected  president  of  the  conference  (1798  and 
1801).  <<  During  the  trials  which  followed  Wesley's 
death,  he  was  one  of  the  pillars  of  the  shaken  stracture 
of  Methodism."   He  wrote  in  favor  of  giving  the  sacra- 


PAT  W 

menu  Co  [he  wcielie*  in  1793,  commended  Kilhun'i 
pampbUC  UD  tbe  urns  HibjecC,  propowd  tbe  loluCuiii  of 
the  difScultiea  at  Che  conference  in  London  ia  tbe  eeme 
yeer,  piiblitbed  a  levued  and  entirged  copy  or  the 
Largt  iliinUa  (I7S7},  end  An  Affectionaie  Aidrtu  to 
the  Junior  I'reachen  (1T98).  He  beliered  Metbodiet 
goverameut  wm  not  giifflcienllj  aiticutited,  bvored  the 
■ppoiatmenC  or  biehopa,  lad  the  diTuion  of  EDgland 
ioto  tout  Methodut  dioceaee,  end  introduced  lenricei  in 
the  Eaublished  Church  houre.  He  wu  ■  mm  of  sound 
judgment,  piely,  and  zeal,  and  Adam  Clarke  publiahed 
a  worthy  eulogy  of  him  in  the  i/rlhodiit  Magaiina 
(Loud.  1807).  See  Jackion,  Early  Mtlk.  Freadun,  iv, 
I  aq, ;  SUvens,  HUl.  of  Mtthodiim,  iij,  202  (ko  Index) ; 
Smith,  ilitt.  of  Mtthodiim,  li  (aee  Index)  ;  Ctowther, 
Porlraiture  nf  Melkodum,  2d  ed.  p.  S8S  aq. 

Pay,  Stephsn  Ds,a  Scotch  prelate,  was  prior  of  (be 
abbey  of  St.  Andrews,  and  in  ISSB  waa  elected  biabop 
of  Che  Bimc.  But  he  wai  taken  priaoner  by  tbe  £ng- 
Uth  at  eea,  on  hi*  way  to  Hume,  and  died  in  March, 
IBS*.    See  Keith,  Smiliih  Biiiopi,  p,  26. 

Payne,  QAorge,  LL.D.,  an  English  Congr^ational 
minister,  waa  the  pan  of  a  UaptiaC  minister  at  Walgrare, 
NorthMnplonahire,  and  at  ■  very  early  age  gave  indi- 
cations of  superior  intelligence.  He  waa  educated  in 
Honton  College  and  the  UnireniCy  of  Glasgow.  In 
1807  he  ijecame  aMisCant  to  the  Rer.Edwar  Faraons, 
of  Leeds,  and  in  the  following  year  Co  the  Rer.  George 
Lambert,  of  Hull.  In  1812  he  removed  to  Edinburgh  la 
piator  of  Albany  Street  Chapel,  where  he  labored  eleven 
years.  In  18S4  he  waa  called  to  the  theological  chair  in 
Lancashire  College,  Blackbam.  ARer  Ave  yean  in  ibeC 
capacity  he  became  president  and  theological  professor 
of  the  Weitem  College,  Exeter,  where  he  remained  un- 
til bis  death,  June  19,  lft48,  at  Che  age  of  aixty-eeven. 
He  pablislicd,  Woiw  Sottrtigslg : — Original  Sin  (Lon- 
don Congregational  Lectures  for  1S44) : — Etaatat*  of 
Mtntal  luid  Moral  Sdaice  :—EUmaai  of  Langtagt  :— 
and  «  Craetate  on  Con^n^traaJun.  See  (Lond.)  Cong. 
r«ir-t<»jl.tS48,  p.234;  (Lond.)  fcai^.  Jfof.  1848, 
p.  893,415. 

Payao,  Jobn,  D.D.,  a  miasionaiy  bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Charch,  was  consecrated  in  Sb 

Paul's  Church,  Alexandria.  Va.,  July 

of  Weetem  Africa.      He  rasignod  his  jurisdiction 
October,  1871,  and  returned  (o  the  United  States,  fixii 
bis  residence  at  Oak  Grove,  Va.,  where  he  continued 
reside  until  hla  deaCfa,  OcC.  2B,  1874,  aged  sixty 
SeePror.  £>n>c.  ^'nuDiac,  1876,  p.144. 

Pftyaoa,  Ckakles  Huirt,  D.D.,  a  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  bom  in  Leominster, 
Maaa^  Sept.  28,  1S3I.  He  graduated  aC  Am- 
herst College  in  1862,  and  from  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  in  1867 ;  nu  Or- 
dained pastor  of  the  mission  chapel  connected 
with  the  Madison  Square  Chapel  in  1860, 
where,  with  the  exception  of  a  year  and  a 
half  spent  at  Berlin  and  Heidelberg,  he  la- 
bored uninterruptedly  with  great  zeal  and 
success  unlil  his  death.  Jan.  24,  is;7. 

Peok,  JsaSE  TBVBSi>Ktx,  D.D.,  LLD.,  a 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  waa 
bom  It  Uiddlefield,  tStsego  Co.,  N.  Y„  April 
4,  1811.  He  was  converted  when  sixteea 
years  old,  immetUatelyuDiled  with  the  Church,  Antique  Peclorali 
H  of  Study  preparatory 


i6  PEEBLES 

preacher  of  the  Foundry  Chnrab  in  Washingtoo,  D.C.; 
in  1854  BGcretaiy  of  the  Tract  Society  of  the  Heth- 
odiac  Episcopal  Church ;  in  1866  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Greene  Screec  Clinreh,  M.  Y.  He  was  next 
stationed  at  Powell  Street,  San  FranciMO;  in  1860 
waa  made  pre^ding  elder  of  San  Francisco  District. 
At  tbe  close  of  that  year  he  became  pastor  in  Sacta- 
menCo  CiCy,  and  after  two  years  was  stationed  aC  Santa 
Clara.  From  1864  to  1866  he  was  pastor  of  Howard 
Street  Church,  San  Francisco,  and  was  for  several  yeara 
president  of  Che  board  of  tniscees  of  tbe  University  of 
the  Pacific,  also  president  of  Che  California  State  Bible 
Society,  In  1866  he  was  appointed  to  Peckskill,  N.  Y. ; 
in  1867  to  Hudson  Street,  Albany,  where  he  remained 
three  years,  and  «u  then  stationed  at  Centeuuy 
Charch,  Syracuse.  In  I8i2  he  waa  elected  biabop,  and 
at  once  entered  upon  the  duties  of  thac  office  with  great 
eameatneaa  and  inCensiCy  of  inlRest,  also  striving  to 
advance  the  interests  of  Christianity,  wherever  his  in- 
liuencc  was  felt.  He  waa  a  delegate  to  the  Uetb- 
odiit  (Ecumenical  Conference,  held  in  London  in  1881, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  bia  able  and  digni- 
Scd  manner  of  presiding.  He  died  at  Syracuse,  Hay 
17,  IS83.  Bishop  Peck's  religioos  experience  waa  e»- 
pecially  rich  and  full,  and  his  life  most  conNStent  aiid 
irreproachable.  He  was  devoted  to  Methodism,  bat  his 
bmad,  catholic  apiric  led  him  to  regard  Christiana  of 
all  denominalions  as  brothers  in  Christ.  His  sennooa 
were  clear  and  strong ;  as  a  pastor  he  wi*  loving  and 
faithful;  and  as  a  bishop,  untiring  in  bia  energy  till  at- 
tacked by  disease,  wbicb  rendered  further  labor  impoa- 
sible.  He  was  author  of.  The  CtHlral  Idta  of  Chrit- 
liamlg:—Thii  True  tVomm.-^What  mutt  I  Do  to  ba. 
^aredf— and  The  Bittury  oftlU  Great  Rtpabtic  S«e 
Minnla  of  Amrnid  Conferataa,  ISBS,  p.  76;  Simpno, 
Cjefo/>.  of  Methodiia,  s.  v. 

Pscthalmiu,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  biabop  of  the 
see  of  Galloway  about  7S0.    See  Keitb,  SeMith  Bitk- 


op.,p. 


271. 


to  the  ministry.  After  two  years  he  waa  hcenaed  as  a 
local  preacher,  and  in  1832  was  admitted  into  tbe  Oneida 
Conference,  and  sent  to  Dryden  Circuit.-  Tbe  next  year 
he  was  appointed  to  Newark,  and  luccessively  to  Ska- 
neateles  and  Potsdam,  when  be  became  prindpal  of 
(iovemeur  High  School,  and  remained  four  yean.  In 
1841  he  WIS  etecled  principal  of  Troy  Conference  Acad- 
emy, at  Ponltncy,  Vc,  a  position  which  he  retained  till 
1848.  In  1849  he  waa  chosen  president  of  Dickinson 
College  at  Carlisle,  Pa.;  in  1862  he  became  senior' 


other  bishops  nn  Che  breast,  ove 
It  is  sometimes  called  a  rt^onak  or  nilwiiaJ.  Its  tiaa 
appean  to  have  been  common  during  Che  Middle  Age^ 
for  several  examples  occur  on  monumental  effigies,  but 
since  the  14tb  century  it  seemi  to  have  been  disnaed. 
It  was  placed  round  the  neck,  and  hung  on  the  breast, 
eicher  by  a  chain  of  gold  or  by  three  or  more  silver-gilt 
pearl-headed  pins. 

Feeble*,  Johh,  a  Scotch  prelata,  after  enJoyioK 
several  pnuseworthy  poucions,  was  preferred  to  tb« 


PEGUESE  VERSION 


?«7 


PERICOPE 


atchdeaoonry  of  St  Andxewi,  eonstituted  lord  cfaan- 
celior  in  1877|  tnd  in  the  ttme  year  became  bishop  of 
Donkeld.    He  died  in  1896.    See  Keith,  ScoUith  Bitk- 

Pegneoa  Versioii  op  the  Scripturks.  The 
Peguese  is  still  spoken  in  Pegu,  t  country  which  for- 
merly included  all  the  sea-coast  and  the  mouths  of  the 
riveTB  of  the  Burman  empire,  but  the  Burmese  portion 
of  which,  comprising  by  far  the  greater  part  of  its  ex- 
tent, is  now  a  province  of  the  British  Indian  empire. 
The  Pegnese  language  is  supposed  to  be  more  ancient 
than  the  Burmese,  although  the  alphabet  is  the  same, 
except  two  additional  consonants.  A  translation  of  the 
New  Test  was  printed  at  Maulmein  in  1847.  This  is 
the  only  part  of  the  Bible  now  extant  See  Bible  of 
Every  Land,  p.  11  sq.    (K  P.) 

Peip,  Albkrt,  a  Christian  philosophical  writer  of 
Germany,  who  was  bom  at  Zirke,  Posen,  in  1880,  and 
died  Sept  29, 1875,  professor  of  philosophy  at  Gottingen, 
is  the  author  of,  Christu*  vmd  die  KunU  (Berlin,  1858) : 
— Die  Wittetuchqft  und  das  getdiidUlicke  Chrietenthum 
(eod.)  '.—BeweU  dee  Christenihume  (1856)  i^ChtHstoeo- 
phie  (1858) : — Philosophie  und  umere  Mission  (Dresden, 
i860) : — Jacob  Bohme  (Leipeic,  eod.) : — Die  Kirckok' 
wad  Staats-Parteien  (1861): — Jacob  Bdhme,  in  seiner 
SteOung  zurKirche  (Hamburg,  1862)  i—Zum  Beweis  des 
Clauhens  (GUterslob,  1867) :— /)a#  Krevz  und  die  Welt- 
weisheit  (Hanover,  1869) : — BelitfiontphHosophie  (pub- 
lished by  Theodore  Hoppe  from  Peip's  academical  lec- 
tures, 1879).  SeeZuchold,jBi&(.rAeo^ii,981sq.  (B.P.) 

Peking -Mandarin  Version.  See  Ghuissk 
Yer8io3(s,s.v.*' Mandarin  Dialect" 

Pelargna,  Christoph,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Schweidnitz,  Silesia,  Aug.  8, 
1565.  He  studied  at  different  universities^  was  in 
1586  professor  of  philosophy  at  Frankfort,  in  1589 
doctor,  in  1591  professor  of  theology,  and  died  June 
10,  1683.  He  wrote,  CommeniarH  in  Petdateuekum, 
Matthaum^  Lucam,  Johannem  et  Acta  Apostolorum: — 
De  Coneiliis: — Epitome  Universm  Theologim^  seu  JSx- 
pUcatio  Quattuor  Librorum  Damaseem  de  Ortkodoxa 
Fide : — De  Asomsione  Christi  in  Cedum : — Compendium 
Theologicum  Doctrina  Christiana  t'—Josias  Imago  Pi' 
orum  Begum  ac  Principum.  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines 
GeUkrien-LexOnn^^yr.     (a  P.) 

Pelham,  Gkorgb,  D.C.L.,  an  English  prelate, 
youngest  son  of  the  earl  of  Chichester,  was  bom  Oct 
18, 1766.  He  studied  at  Clare  Hall,  University  of  Cam- 
bridge; was  appointed  prebend  of  Chichester  Cathedral 
in  1790,  bishop  of  Bristol  in  1808,  translated  to  Exeter 
in  1807,  and  to  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln  in  1820.  He 
was  also  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the  king  and  canon  resi- 
dentiary of  Chichester.  He  died  in  May,  1827.  Bishop 
Pelham  published,  Charge  to  the  Clergy  of  the  Diocese  of 
Bristol  (1804, 4to)  -.—Sermon  at  St  Paul's  (1805, 4to). 
See  (Lond. )  Christian  Remembrancer,  March,  1827, 
p.  191;  (N.  y.)  Christian  Journal,  1827,  p.  160;  Alli- 
bone,  Diet*  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  ▼. 

Pella.  For  the  latest  account  of  this  place,  see 
Merrill,  Beyond  the  Jordan,  p.  442  sq. 

PeltanuSt  Theodoe  Axton,  a  German  Jesuit,  bom 
at  Pelte,  near  Liege,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Ingol- 
stadt  from  1562  to  1574,  and  died  at  Augsburg,  May  2, 
1584.  He  wrote,  De  Peceaio  OriginaH: — De  Christi- 
amorum  SepuUuris,  Exequiis  et  Anniversariis: — Theo' 
hgia  Naturalis  et  Mystica:^Paraphrasis  ac  SdtoUa 
in  Proverbia  Salomonis  c—^Catena  Gracorum  Patrum 
in  Proverbia*  See  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lex- 
Oon,*.  ▼.;  FUrst  BibL  Jud.  iii,  70;  Winer,  liandbuch 
dertheoLLit,i,880,86&,    (B.P.) 

Penny,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bora  in  Ireland,  was  educated  at  Trinity  CoUege,  Dublin, 
and  at  the  Univerrity  of  Glasgow.  Two  years  after  he 
came  to  America  he  taught  in  the  academy  at  Flush- 
ing, L.  L    In  1821  be  took  charge  of  the  First  Church, 


Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  in  1682  of  that  at  Northampton,  Hasa^ 
and  in  1885  became  president  of  Hamilton  College. 
After  leaving  that  institution,  in  1889,  he  removed  to ' 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  and  from  there  to  Pontiac,  where 
his  health  failed,  and  be  returned  to  Rochester.  He 
died  there,  March  20, 1860.  Dr.  Penny  was  a  man  of 
superior  abilities  and  fine  education.  In  1829  he  vis- 
ited his  native  land  and  organixed  temperance  societies 
there.  BeeMesmfPresbyteriamsmin  Central  New  York, 
p.  819,  630. 

Pepys,  Henrt,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  prelate,  the  son 
of  Sir  WiUiam  WeUer  Ptepys,  was  bom  April  18, 1788. 
He  was  educated  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
taking  the  degree  of  KA.  in  1804  and  M.A.  in  1807; 
became  rector  of  Morton,  Essex,  in  1822,  also  of  West^ 
mill,  Hertfordshire,  in  1827,  and  prebendary  of  Wells  in 
1886.  In  1840  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Sodor  and 
Man,  and  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Worcester  in 
1841.  He  died  at  Hartleybury  Castle,  Worcestershire, 
Nov.  18,  1860.  See  Amer.  Quar.  Churth  Rev,  1861, 
p.  706. 

Peroh^,  Napoleon  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  was  bora  at  Angers,  France,  Jan.  10,  180&L 
He  was  educated  for  the  Church,  and  was  ordained  a 
priest  Sept  19,  1829.  In  1837,  when  bishop  Flaget 
went  to  Europe  in  the  interests  of  his  diocese,  father 
Perchd  offered  his  services  as  a  missionary,  which  were 
accepted,  and  on  his  arrival  in  America  he  began  his 
labors  in  Kentucky  and  founded  a  church  in  Portland. 
In  1842  he  was  transferred  to  New  Orleans  and  ap- 
pointed chaplain  of  the  Ursuline  convent,  which  office 
he  held  until  April,  1870.  Father  Perche  founded  at 
New  Orleans  the  Propagateur  Caiholique,  of  which  he 
was  principal  editor.  On  May  1, 1870,  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop  coadjutor  of  New  Orleans,  and  on  the 
death  of  Odin,  May  25, 1870,  he  became  the  archbishop 
of  the  diocese.  He  died  there,  Dec.  27, 1888.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  energy,  far-seeing  judgment,  and  great 
eloquence,  and  his  many  charitable  acts  endeared  him 
to  the  people,  afnong  whom  he  labored  with  zeal  and 
fidelity. 

Percy,  Hugh,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  prelate,  was  bora 
in  London,  Jan.  19, 1784,  being  a  son  of  the  first  earl 
of  Beverley.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Rochester 
in  June,  1827,  and  was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Car- 
lisle in  the  following  September.  He  was  also  chan- 
cellor of  Salisbury  and  prebendary  of  St  Paul's.  He 
died  suddenly  at  Rose  Castle,  near  Carlisle,  Feb.  12, 
1856.     See  A  mer.  Quar.  Church  Rev.  1856,  p.  145. 

Perea.    See  Pkraa. 

Pexfect,  The,  an  appelhtion  frequently  applied  in 
the  early  Christian  Church  to  those  who  had  been  bap- 
tized, and  thereby  been  admitted  to  the  full  privileges 
of  Christians,  having  a  right  to  partake  of  the  Lord's 
Supper. 

Perlo5pd  {mpiKoirfi)  is  the  title  of  those  sections 
of  Holy  Scripture  which  were  appointed  to  be  read  in 
the  services  of  the  Church.  The  synagogue,  with  its 
parashtoth  (q.  r.)  and  haphtaras  (q.  v.),  no  doubt  fur- 
nished the  pattern  which  in  the  different  sections  of 
the  Church  took  a  different  shape.  Little  of  this  proc- 
ess has  been  recorded :  it  belongs  to  what  Basil  calls 
the  Aypa^rrjt  UgXtfciac  fivtrrripta. 

The  oldest  document^  which  speak  of  reading  the 
Scriptures  in  the  church  belong  to  the  Greek  Church, 
and  they  are  the  more  important  since  the  Greek 
Church  is  the  mother  of  all  the  Oriental  churches,  and 
thus  the  origin,  not  only  of  their  liturgies,  but  also  of 
their  lectionaries.  The  sources  at  our  disposal  show 
the  remarkable  wealth  of  the  Greek  Church  in  this  re- 
spect ;  for  not  only  do  the  Sundays,  the  prominent  days 
of  Christ's  history,  and  the  many  saints*  days,  have 
their  regular  gospel  and  epistohry  lessons,  but'such  are 
also  assigned  to  every  day  in  the  week.  Thus,  for  the 
period  between  Easter  and  Pentecost,  as  Chrysostom 
already  states,  the  Acts  and  the  gospel  of  John  were 


PERICOPE 


788 


PERICOPE 


read  oontinoouAty.  For  the  rett  of  the  Chorch  year, 
three  separate  and  independent  series  of  lenons  are 
employed-^ne  series  for  the  Sundays,  beginning  with 
the  second  after  Pentecost;  one  series  for  Uie  Sabbaths, 
begiuAing  in  the  Pentecost  week;  and  one  series  for 
the  five  weekdays  between  the  Sunday  and  Sabbath. 
All  three  series  select  both  from  gospels  and  epistles, 
following  the  order  of  the  books  and  chapters  in  the 
New  Test.  History  explains  this  strange  phenomenon. 
It  is  very  evident  that  the  Greek  Church  at  first  intro- 
duced lessons  for  the  Sundays,  later  for  the  Sabbaths, 
and  still  later  for  the  weekdays.    ■ 

Next  in  importance  is  the  Armenian  system,  which 
has  only  become  known  by  professor  Petermann's  trans- 
lation from  the  Armenian  Church  Almanac^  published 
at  Venice  in  1782,  and  in  German  translation  found  in 
Alt^s  Kiirhenjahrf  ii,  136, 225.  Scripture-reading  is  a 
most  important  part  of  the  Armenian  church-service — 
more  so  than  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  lessons  from 
both  the  Old  and  New  Tests,  are  employed.  Among 
the  S^'rians  we  find  for  the  most  part  the  Greek  read- 
ing-system, while  the  Nestorian  system  of  Bible-lessons 
contains  for  the  first  time  a  series  of  lectiones  Hlecta, 
which  in  some  respects  deserves  to  be  placed  at  the 
side  of  the  Romish  pericope  system. 

The  documents  with  reference  to  the  reading-system 
of  the  Jacobite  Christians  are  quite  ample;  a  list  of 
the  New^Test.  pericopes  of  the  Jacobites  is  found  in 
the  edition  of  the  Syriac  New  Test,  published  by  Wid- 
manstadt  (Vienna,  1855).  The  Maronites  have  virtual- 
ly the  same  plan  of  Scripture-reading  as  the  Jacobites. 
While  the  lectionary  plan  adopted  by  the  Alexandrian 
churches  was  only  a  branch  of  the  Greek,  that  of  the 
Coptic  churches  was  entirely  distinct,  and  is  a  portion 
of  the  Coptic  liturgy  of  St.  Basilius.  A  Latin  transla- 
tion is  found  in  Renaudot's  Collection^  i,  137  sq.,  from 
which  it  is  evident  that,  in  every  chief  service,  the 
Copts  read  from  four  different  parts  of  the  New  Test. 
Virtually  identical  with  the  Coptic  is  the  Ethiopic  sys- 
tem.    See  Renaudot,  i,  499, 507  sq. 

A  proper  transition  from  the  eastern  to  the  western 
systems  would  be  the  North-African  lectionaries,  if  we 
were  in  possession  of  such.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Mozarabic,  prevalent  among  the  African  and  Spanish 
Christians  in  the  18th  century,  no  list  has  been  pre- 
served. 

In  the  Occidental  Church  we  have,  in  reference  to 
the  public  reading  of  Scriptures,  a  phenomenon  similar 
to  that  ob8er\'ed  in  the  Church  of  the  East.  As,  here, 
rhe  Byzantine  system  was  most  predominant,  so,  in 
the  West,  the  Roman  system  gradually  supplanted  all 
the  rest,  A  difference  between  the  two  consists  in 
this,  that  the  non-Byzantine  systems  of  the  East  were 
mostly  followed  by  txxlies  that  stood  opposed  to  the 
Byzantine  Church,  while  the  non-Roman  system  found 
a  home  in  bodies  ou  doctrinal  and  fraternal  footing  with 
the  Roman  Church. 

To  the  reading-systems  no  more  extant  belongs  the 
Capuan.  Of  its  existence  we  have  ample  proof  in  the 
Cod.  Fuldensis,  corrected  in  the  year  545  by  bishop 
Victor,  himself  of  Capua.  That  the  Christians  of  Gaul 
once  pursued  a  peculiar  plan  in  the  public  reading  of 
the  Scriptures  is  manifest  from  a  letter  of  the  mission- 
ary Augustine  to  Gregory  the  Great  Besides,  there 
are  other  scattered  evidences  (torn  Hilary  (854),  Sido- 
nius  (472),  Salvianua  (440).  See  Mabillon,  De  IMurg, 
Galliciina,  p.  29  sq.  Then  we  have  a  capitular  of 
Charlemagne,  abolishing  the  Gallic  liturgy  in  favor 
of  the  Romish.  Under  the  title,  Mieta  Ambrotiana, 
the  very  ancient  liturgy  and  reading -system  of  the 
Milan  Church  is  still  preserved.  Its  original  form  can- 
not be  definitely  determined,  as  the  different  printed 
texts  do  not  agree  among  themselves.  Concerning  the 
Mozarabian  liturgy,  comp.  the  art  s.  r.  Of  the  Old 
British  and  Irish  systems  not  a  single  trace  remains, 
the  Roman  having  entirely  supplanted  them.  The 
Roman  system  of  Scriptural  reading,  like  the  whole 


Roman  liturgy,  has  passed  through  three  stages — thai 
of  its  origin  and  development,  down  to  the  time  of  the 
Carlovinians,  that  of  supremacy  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  that  of  fixed  and  formal  codification  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent 

The  oldest  traces  of  it  are  found  in  the  5th  century, 
about  the  time  of  Jerome,  to  whom  Bemo  and  later 
writers  ascribe  its  origin.  It  consisu  of  a  double  list — 
one  of  the  epistle,  and  the  other  of  gospel  selections — 
partly  chosen  fredy,  and  partly  with  partiality  for  cer- 
tain books. 

In  the  second  period,  this  sjrstem  made  its  greatest 
conquests ;  in  France  supplanting  the  Gallic,  in  Ger- 
many entering  with  Christianity.  It  also  experienced 
some  internal  changes  during  this  time,  especiaUy  on 
account  of  the  many  saints'  days  and  the  introductioa 
of  the  Corpus  Christi  festival  in  1264. 

Finally,  the  Council  of  Trent  declared  the  papal  sjta- 
tem  the  only  legitimate  one  for  the  Roman  Church, 
only  allowing  those  churches  the  use  of  any  other 
which  could  prove  that  the  latter  had  been  in  constant 
use  there  for  the  past  two  hundred  years. 

With  the  reformation  effected  by  Luther  and  his 
Grerman  Bible,  the  traditional  character  of  church  ser- 
vices necessarily  had  to  change  also.  The  Bible  waa 
read,  studied,  and  explained.  The  most  complete  sys- 
tem of  Bible-lessons  was  introduced  in  England,  to  some 
extent,  also,  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  This  whole 
subject  is  treated  by  Ranke,  Fortbettand  det  hertdrnm* 
lichen  Perihopenhwet  (Gotha,  1859). 

The  old  pericope  system  has  a  peculiar  history  with- 
in the  section  of  the  Protestant  Church  that  has  re- 
tained it  In  England,  Cranmer,  in  composing  the 
prayer-book,  simply  took  the  epistles  and  gospels  as 
found  in  the  missal  of  the  English  bishoprics,  omitting 
only  those  intended  for  days  not  celebrated  by  Protee- 
tants.  This  latter  was  also  done  in  Germany;  but 
some  other  changes  were  made  here,  especially  at  the 
close  of  the  Epiphany  and  Trinity  Sundays.  In  the 
pre-reformatory  system  there  were  no  lessons  for  the 
sixth  Sunday  after  Epiphany,  nor  for  the  twenty-aixth 
and  twenty-seventh  Sundays  after  Trinity.  Thia  de- 
fect was  remedied  successfully  during  the  16th  century 
by  an  unknown  master  in  liturgies,  and  the  present  ar- 
rangement is  the  result 

The  subordinate  services,  such  as  the  matins, Tespen, 
as  also  services  during  the  week,  prayer-meetings,  and 
the  like,  found  great  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the  Refonnera. 
Luther,  in  1526,  the  Zurich  order  of  worship  for  1535^ 
and  the  Geneva  liturgy,  gave  directions  for  the  use  of 
lessons  in  such  services.  l*he  Church  of  England  pu^ 
sued  its  own  plan  in  arranging  the  daily  lessons.  Not 
content,  as  the  Continental  reformers  were,  with  se- 
lecting only  certain  sections  of  Scripture  to  be  read, 
Cranmer  arranged  for  morning  and  evening  senriees 
such  a  course  of  lessons  that  in  every  year  the  entire 
Old  Test,  with  the  exception  of  the  Psalter  and  the 
purely  ritual  sections  of  the  Pentateuch,  was  read 
through  once,  the  New  Test,  three  times,  and  the  Psalter 
twelve  times,  L  e.  was  to  be  chanted  through  once  a 
month.  In  Germany,  the  services  during  the  week  in 
course  of  time  became  almost  extinct. 

The  public  Scriptural  reading,  thus  reduced  to  the 
regular  gospel  and  epistolary  lessons  for  the  different 
Sundays,  could  not  long  satisfy  the  Church.  Already 
Spener  advocated  an  enlarged  pericope  system;  and 
since  1769,  when  the  movement  was  started  by  the  elec- 
tor George  of  Hanover,  the  evangelical  authorities  in 
the  various  provinces  of  Germany  have  sought  to  rem- 
edy this  defect,  especiaUy  by  the  adoption  of  new  series 
of  pericopes.  See  Suckow,  Die  kirchL  Perikopen  (1830) ; 
Matthilus,  Die  evang,  Perikopen  dee  Kirckenjahret  (Ana- 
pach,  1844-45,  2  vols.) ;  F.  Strauss,  Dae  evangditchm 
Kirdkenjahr  (Berlin,  1860) ;  Piper,  Dtr  wrbemerie  cmub- 
geL  Kalcnder  (1850) ;  Bobertag,  Dae  evang,  Kirehenfakr 
(2d  ed.  Berlin,  1857) ;  Grimmert,  TabeUariecke  Ueber^ 
eicki  der  gewChnUeken  neuen  Perikopen  rtikm  (Zeibit, 


PERIN6ER 


969 


PERSIAN  VERSION 


1874);  VthtfDie€9anff.tmdqri$t,Penkopende$Kirt^eH' 
John  (Wieabaden,  1876, 8  toIb.)  ;  Sommer,  Die  eoam^ 
u.  epitt.Perihopm  (ErUmgen,  1875,  2  vols.);  Plitt*Her- 
zog,  ReaUEncyUop,  a.  t.;  Lichtenbei^er,  Ewychp,  det 
Sdencu  ReHgiaues^  a.  ▼.    See  Lesson.     (B.  P.) 

Pexinger,  Gustay,  a  Swedish  theologian  of  the 
17th  century,  and  professor  of  Oriental  languagea  at 
Upsala,  is  the  author  of  Uitiona  Lingum  ti  ErudUUmii 
Arabum;  and  translated  into  I^tin  the  Talmudic  trea- 
tises Aboda  Sarah  and  Tamid,  both  published  at  Alt- 
dorf  in  168a  See  Jocher,  AUffemeaee  GeUhrten-Lexp- 
ibn,  8.  T. ;  FUrst,  BM,  Jud,  iii,  78.     (a  P.) 

Perkinfl,  Aaron,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  May  6, 1792.  He  was  con- 
verted in  1811,  and  ordained  June  8, 1818,  pastor  at 
Lattentown,  N.  T.,  where  he  remained  twelve  years^ 
Twice  he  was  pastor  of  churches  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  He  died  in  October,  1881,  at  Red  Bank,  K.  J. 
He  was  remarkably  successful  in  his  ministerial  labors. 
See  Tk€  Ckrittian  at  Work,  Oct.  20, 1881.    (J.  C  &) 

Perkins,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Yergennes,  Vt.,  Feb.  9, 1796.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Union  College  in  1817,  and  spent  two  years 
thereafter  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  In  1820 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Allen- 
town,  N.  J.,  where  he  labored  faithfully  for  forty-three 
years.  He  retired  from  active  service,  and  died  at 
Allentown,  June  80, 1880.  See  Getu  Cat,  of  Princeton 
TheoL  Sent,  1880,  p.  25. 

Permian  Version  op  thk  Scbxpturks.  The 
Permian  is  a  sister  dialect  of  the  Syijenian  and  Wotjak, 
and  the  three  peoples  who  live  in  the  north-east  of 
European  Russia,  in  the  Perm,  Wjatka,  and  Archangel 
governments,  belong  to  a  common  race.  Mr.  Schiefner 
estimates  the  number  of  the  Permians  at  60,000,  the 
Syrjeniaas  70,000,  and  the  Wotjaks  200,000.  From  the 
annual  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
for  1880,  we  leara  that  the  gospel  of  Matthew,  prepared 
for  prince  Louis  Lucien  Bonaparte  by  P.  A.  Popou,  has 
been  revised  and  translated  into  the  Russ  character  by 
the  academician  Wiedemann,  and  published  by  the 
above  society.  From  the  report  for  1882  we  leara  that 
the  Holy  Synod  have  sanctioned  the  publication  of  the 
gospel  of  Matthew,  long  delayed  by  the  censorial  au- 
thorities, and  that  the  portion  will  now  be  circulated 
throughout  the  government  of  Perm,  among  the  popu- 
lation of  about  60,000  souls.     (B.  P.) 

Perreyre,  Hsmri,  a  Roman  Catholic  writer  of 
France,  was  bora  at  Paris  in  1831.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  was  made  a  priest,  and  in  1861  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  Church  history  at  the  Sorbonne.  He  died  in 
1865,  leaving  La  Jcunde  de»  Afalades,  an  asoetical  work. 
Father  Gratry,  the  teacher  of  Perreyve,  wrote  Vie  de 
l/enri  Perrtypt  (Paris,  1866).  See  Lichtenberger,  En^ 
^ciop,  det  Scieneet  Rdigieutei,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Perrine,  Matthew  La  Rue,  D.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  bom  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  May  4, 1777. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1797,  studied 
theology  under  Dr.  John  Woodhull  of  Freehold,  and  was 
licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Branswick,  Sept  18, 
1799.  On  the  24th  of  June,  1800,  he  was  ordained,  and 
for  four  months  acted  as  a  missionary  in  westera  New 
York.  On  June  16, 1802,  he  was  installed  as  pastor  of 
rhe  Presbyterian  Church  at  Bottle  Hill  (now  Madison), 
N.  J.  In  1809  he  made  another  missionaiy  tour,  and  on 
Oct.  31, 181 1,  was  installed  as  pastor  of  the  Spring  Street 
Church,  New  York  city.  Here  he  continued  till  the  sum- 
mer of  1820,  when,  by  his  own  request,  the  relation  was 
dissolved.  In  1821  he  was  elected  to  the  professorship 
of  eodesiastical  history  and  Church  polity  in  the  Aubura 
Theological  Seminary.  He  died  Feb.  11,1836.  Dr.  Per- 
rine  had  the  lepatation  of  being  an  accurate  and  thorough 
scholar.  He  was  of  a  speculative  and  metaphysical  turn. 
As  a  preacher  he  waa  always  instractive  and  interesting. 
He  published,  Ldiert  Ctmotming  the  Plan  of  Salvation 
(New  York,  1816):— il  Sermon  Before  a  French  Mie- 

XII.-OCC 


sumory  SoeUtff  in  M  F.  (1817)  i-^An  Ahetract  of  Bibli- 
cal Geography  (1836).  See  Alexander,  Princeton  College 
inthelSthCenturg;  Gen,Cat,  of  Auburn  Tkeol,Sem.l88iy 
pw  196;  Aikman,  Hittorical  Diecourte  (1876),  p.  18. 

Perrine,  'William  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bora  at  Lyons,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  8, 
1827,  and  moved  with  his  parents  to  Michigan  in  1883. 
He  was  converted  at  the  age  of  thirteen ;  in  1868  gradu- 
ated at  the  Spring  Arlx>r  College,  having  entered  the 
ministry  in  1851.  The  following  are  his  successive  ap- 
pointments: South  Albion,  Jackson;  Lafayette  Street, 
Detroit;  Adrian,  Ann  Arbor;  superannuated  two  years; 
Flint;  professor  in  Albion  College  four  years;  presiding 
elder  of  Lansing  District;  professor  again  in  Albion 
College;  St.  Joseph,  Albion,  Marengo,  Parma,  Concord. 
He  died  in  Albion,  Mich.,  Jan.  22, 1881.  Dr.  Perrine 
was  a  fine  pulpit  orator,  and  had  great  versatility  of 
his  talent  He  took  especial  interest  in  Sunday-schools 
and  Bible  studies,  having  visited  Palestine  in  1867.  See 
Minuteg  of  Annual  Cotfertnceay  1881,  p.  812;  Simpson, 
Cgdop,  of  Methodism^  s.  v. 

Perry,  Gidbox  Baboock,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  at  South  ELlngstown, 
R.  L,  Oct.  12, 1800.  Among  several  parishes  of  which 
he  was  rector  were  St  Paulas,  Cleveland,  On  and  Grace 
Church,  in  the  same  city.  He  was  also  the  founder  of 
St  James*s  parish  in  Cleveland.  Subsequently  he  was 
rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Natchez,  Miss.,  and  of  Grace 
Church  in  Hopkinsville,  Ky.,  where  he  died.  Sept  30, 
1879,  having  been  fifty.seven  years  in  the  ministry. 
See  Providence  Journal,  Oct  IS,'^  1879.     (J.  C  S.) 

Persian  Version  of  thk  Scriptdrbs.  By  way 
of  supplement  we  add  the  following :  **  As  the  style  in 
which  the  gospels  of  the  Polyglots  is  written  has  long 
been  antiquated  at  Ispahan,  several  efforts  were  made 
during  the  present  century  to  produce  a  version  in  the 
poUshed  dialect  now  spoken  by  the  Persians.  A  trans- 
lation of  the  gospels  was  made  under  the  superintendence 
of  colonel  Colebrooke,  and  printed  at  Calcutta  in  1804. 
In  1812  the  Rev.  I*  Sebastiani  had  advanced  nearly  to 
the  end  of  the  Epistles,  in  a  translation  of  the  New  Test 
from  the  Greek,  and  during  the  same  year  the  gospels 
of  this  version  were  pri  nted  at  Serampore.  In  the  mean- 
time another  translation  of  the  New  Test  was  progress- 
ing at  Dinapore,  under  the  superintendence  of  Henry 
Martyn.  The  translators  were  Sabat  and  Mirza  Firat. 
This  version  was  completed  in  1808,  but  it  was  so  replete 
with  Arabic  and  abstrase  terms,  intelligible  only  to  the 
learaed,  that  the  Rev.  H.  Martyn  determined  upon  vis- 
iting Persia  in  person  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  a  clear 
and  idiomatic  version.  In  181 1  he  reached  Shiraz,  the 
seat  of  Persian  literature,  and  remained  there  nearly 
a  year,  in  the  meantime  executing  from  the  original 
Greek  a  translation  of  the  New  Test  The  state  of  his 
health  compelled  him  to  retura  to  England,  but  ho  ex- 
pired during  hisjouraey  homeward,at  Tokat,  AsiaMinor, 
in  1812..  Copies  of  the  work  were  deposited  with  Sir 
Gore  Ousele}',  the  English  ambassador  in  Persia,  who, 
on  returaing  to  England  by  way  of  St  Petersburg,  met 
with  prince  Galitzin,  then  at  the  head  of  the  Russian 
Bible  Society.  The  suggestion  made  to  the  prince  to 
have  an  edition  of  Martyn's  Test  printed  was  complied 
with,  and  in  less  than  six  months  the  impression  was 
completed. 

In  1818  a  communication  was  received  by  the  cor- 
responding committee  at  Calcutta  from  Meer  Seid  Ali, 
the  learaed  native  employed  by  Mr.  Martyn,  at  Shiraz, 
in  which  he  informed  the  committee  that  the  manuscript 
of  the  Persian  New  Test,  and  of  the  Psalms  (which  had 
likewise  been  transUited  at  Shiraz)  was  in  his  possession, 
and  he  waited  their  orders  as  to  its  disposaL  He  wa« 
directed  to  take  four  copies  of  the  manuscript,  and  for- 
ward the  same  to  Calcutta,  while  lie  was  invited  himself 
for  the  purpose  of  superintending  the  publication.  The 
Psalter  and  the  New  Test  passed  through  the  press  at 
Calcutta  in  1816.    The  Psalter  waa  reprinted  at  Lon- 


PERSONALITY 


770 


PETER 


doiii  under  the  saperintendence  of  Dr.  Lee,  in  1824,  and 
the  Nefir  Tedt,  edited  by  the  same  scholar,  in  1827. 
Other  editions  followed  in  1837  and  1847. 

Of  all  the  editions  of  the  Persian  New  Test,  the  most 
Incorrect  seems  to  have  been  that  printed  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1815,  and,  at  the  request  of  the  missionaries,  the 
issue  was  stopped  by  the  Russian  Bible  Society.  The 
Rev.  W.  Glen,  of  the  Scottish  mission  at  Astrakhan, 
was  in  consequence  led  to  undertake  a  version  of  the 
Psalms  in  Persian,  for  the  benefit  of  the  numerous  In- 
dividuals speaking  that  language  who  resort  to  Astra- 
khan and  the  south  of  Russia.  In  1826  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  made  arrangements  with  the 
Scottish  Missionary  Society  for  the  services  of  Mr.  Glen 
in  making  a  translation  of  the  poetical  and  prophetical 
books  of  the  Old  Test.  In  the  meantime  Mirza  Jaffier 
had  been  engaged  by  the  same  society  to  produce  a 
translation  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Test  at 
St.  Petersburg,  under  the  eye  of  Dr.  Pinkerton,  and  ac- 
cording to  specific  directions  given  by  Dr.  Lee.  The 
only  portion  of  Mirza  Jaffier's  version  which  was  pub- 
lished is  the  book  of  Genesis,  printed  at  London  in  1827, 
under  the  care  of  Dr.  Lee.  Mr.  Glen's  version  of  the 
Psalms  and  Proverbs  was  published  at  London  in  1830- 
81,  and  again  in  1836.  The  entire  Old  Test.,  translated 
by  Mr.  Glen,  left  the  press  in  1847. 

In  1824,  the  Rev. T.Robinson  had  commenced  another 
translation  of  the  Old  Test,  which  was  printed  in  1888. 
A  Persian  version  of  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  was  pur- 
chased by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in 
1838.  This  version  had  been  executed  by  Mirza  Ibra- 
him, of  the  East  India  College  at  llaileybnry,  and  was 
published  in  1834. 

Since  1872  a  revision  of  H.  Martyn*8  New  Test  has 
been  undertaken  by  the  Rev.  R.  Bruce,  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  stationed  at  Julfa,  near  Ispahan, 
which  was  completed  in  1877.  The  same  translator 
also  commenced  the  revision  of  the  Old  Test  From 
the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for 
1879,  we  learn  that  Mr.  Bruce  and  the  Revs.  J.  Bassett 
and  J.  L.  Potter,  of  the  American  Presbyterian  Mission, 
have  formed  themselves  into  a  committee  for  the  re- 
vision of  the  Persian  Scriptures.  The  different  books 
of  the  Old  Test  were  dutributed  among  the  different 
revisers,  and  each  will  carefulh*  examine  the  work  of 
the  others.  The  revised  New  Test,  too,  was  to  be  sub- 
jected to  a  joint  revision.  From  the  report  ibr  the 
year  1882,  we  learn  that  the  latter,  after  having  been 
thoroughly  revised  by  the  translator  and  professor 
Palmer  of  Cambridge,  was  published  by  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  £)ciety.  As  for  the  Old  Test.,  the 
work  of  revision  is  progressing  slowly.     (B.  P.) 

Peraiaii-Je'wiBh  Veraioii*  See  Jwaso-Ver- 
8IAN  Yrrsiok. 

Personality  is  an  attribute  of  conscious  beings 
only,  and  thus  distinguishes  individuals  from  each 
other.  In  the  Trinity  it  is  simple  and  absolute,  so  that 
the  three  persons  of  the  godhead  are  not  three  beings, 
since  they  have  a  common  consciousness.  In  man  it  is 
compound,  consisting  of  a  body  and  a  soul,  which  are 
not  homogeneous,  as  are  the  three  divine  peraons,  and 
yet  constitute  but  a  single  being,  inasmuch  as  the  con- 
sciousness essentially  resides  in  the  soul,  which  is  there- 
fore per  te  the  real  person,  and  remains  such  after  the 
separation  from  the  body.  In  Jesus  Christ  there  was  a 
double  or  complex  personality,  because  he  had  a  com- 
plete human  soul  (as  well  as  body),  and  was  also  filled 
liypostaticall}'  with  the  divine  spirit.  He  consequently 
may  be  said  to  have  had  a  sort  of  double  consciousness ; 
fur  the  divine  spirit  did  not  always  commnnicate  every- 
thing to  the  human  spirit,  and  the  latter  could  not  be 
commensurate  with  the  former.  Yet  he  was  not  two 
persons,  inasmuch  as  the  two  natures  were  indissolubly 
blended,  and  the  twofold  personality  likewise.  The 
partial  lack  of  homogeneity  between  the  divine  and  the 
human  spirit  in  him  did  not  negative  this,  just  as  the 


still  greater  diarimilarity  between  human  flesh  and  aool 
does  not  negative  unity  in  man. 

Perthes,  Fribdrich  Matthias,  a  Protestint  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  son  of  Friedrich  Christoph,  was 
bom  at  Hamburg,  Jan.  16,  1800.  In  1842  he  was  pas- 
tor at  Moorbnrg,  near  Hamburg,  and  died  Aug.  29, 
1859.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  Dfs  Bitehoft 
Jokfumet  Chrytottomus  Lthen  (Hamburg,  1853).  See 
Znchold,  BibL  Tkeoi,  ii,  984.     (a  P.) 

Pertz,  GeoRO  Heinrich,  a  famous  German  histo- 
rian, was  bom  at  Hanover,  March  28, 1795.  In  1823 
he  was  secretary  of  the  royal  archives  at  Hanover,  in 
1842  head-librarian  at  Berlin,  and  he  died  at  Munich, 
Oct  7, 1876.  He  edited  Ijsibniz-geiammdte  Werht  (Han- 
over, 1848  sq.),  and  published  UAar  LabmzaCi  HnA- 
lickes  Glauhauhekemaniu  (Beriin,  1846) :  —  UAer  die 
gedrucktm  A  blassbrie/e  von  1454  vnd  1455  (1857).  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  Theoi,  ii,  984.     (B.  P.) 

Peruvian  Religion.  In  the  earliest  times  the 
inhabiunu  of  the  kingdom  of  Peru,  which  Manco  Ca- 
pac,  the  first  inca,  mled,  seem  to  have  been  believers  in 
the  coarsest  fetichism.  They  only  had  one  supreme 
deity,  the  mother  of  all.  Mama  Kocha,  in  honor  of 
whom  wild  animals,  plants,  and  prisoners  of  war  were 
sacrificed.  The  devouring  of  fallen  or  sacrificed  eoc» 
mies  was  a  sacred  custom  of  the  Pemvians.  A  great 
flood  had  overflowed  the  country,  and  after  this  Manoo 
Capac,  and  his  wife,  Mama  0€llo,  children  of  the  win, 
came  from  a  foreign  country  to  the  shores  of  the  sea 
Titicaca,  where  they  built  the  city  of  Cuzco,  collected 
the  remaining  people,  and  gave  them  laws  and  sacred 
teachings,  which  were  carefully  yreser^'ed  until  the  ar* 
rival  of  the  Spaniards.  The  supreme  being  of  the  later 
Peruvians  was  called  Pachacamac,  who  was  the  creator 
of  all  beings,  also  of  the  sun ;  the  latter  was  his  only 
visible  representative  on  earth,  and  vma  therefore  di- 
vinely worshipped;  but  the  god  htmself  was  exalted 
above  the  sacrifices  of  mortals.  The  moon  and  stars  also 
had  temples,  like  the  sun,  but  of  less  splendor,  inasmuch 
as  all  that  was  of  gold  in  the  temples  of  the  sun  was 
made  of  silver  in  those  of  the  moon  and  stars.  There 
were  male  and  female  priests:  of  the  latter,  the  maid- 
ens of  the  sun  were  of  two  kinds;  the  higher,  from  the 
Inca-family,  dedicated  their  whole  lives  to  the  service 
of  the  sun,  and  there  were  more  than  fifteen  hundred 
of  these  in  convents.  If  unfaithful,  they  and  their 
whole  family  were  to  be  exterminated,  according  to  the 
law  known  as  ^'hard  law.**  But  in  the  entire  history 
of  Peru  not  an  instance  of  this  occurs.  The  second  dasa 
of  servants  of  the  sun  did  not  live  in  the  capital,  Cuaco, 
but  in  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  and  were  chosen 
from  all  classes.  The  conditions  of  reception  were  beauty 
and  purity.  When  the  crael  Piurro  came  to  Peru,  the 
immense  riches  were  carried  off  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
the  beautiful  daughters  of  the  Incas,  the  virtuous  sun* 
maidens,  became  a  prey  to  the  insolent  warriors. 

Peruvian  Veralon.    See  Quichuav. 

Peecheck,  Christian  Adolph,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  I'eb.  1, 1787,  at  Johnadorf, 
Saxony.  In  1816  he  was  pastor  at  LUckendorf,  in  1831 
deacon  at  Zittau,  and  died  in  1859,  doctor  of  philosophy. 
He  is  the  author  of,  Gfchkhte  der  Colestiner  det  OjjhifUf 
urkundlich  er/ortdU  und  dargesteUt  (Zittau,  1840)  :— . 
Geschickte  der  Gegenreformaiion  in  Bohmen  (Leipaic^ 
1843-44,  2  vols.) :— Die  bdhnmchen  Exulcmim  in  Sack'- 
sen  (1857): — Die  Auswandarung  ffhubauireuer  Proie^ 
itantm  aus  Bohmen  und  Saduin  im  xviL  Jahrhundert 
(1858).    See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  984  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Peter  {Saint\  Festxyalb  or.— L  Lepotitio  Petri  m 
Catacombae  et  PauH  in  via  Oitienri,  The  CtUalogtia 
Liberianui  (854)  first  mentions  the  entombment  of  the 
bones  of  Peter  and  Paul  as  having  taken  place  in  the 
year  of  the  consuls  Tuscns  and  Bassus  (358),  and  gives 
the  date  as  ///.  CaL  JuUi,  that  is,  June  29.  A  fcsfti- 
I  val  in  commemoration  of  that  day  is  recorded  in  the 


PETERMANN 


771 


PFANNKUCHE 


Latin  Church  by  Prudendus  in  the  4th  eentuiy,  by 
Augustine  {Semu  296-299),  Maxim,  of  Turin  (ibid. 
e6-C9),  and  Leo  the  Great  (ibid.  82-84)  in  the  6th; 
after  the  6th  it  ia  noticed  in  all  martyr  chronidea. 
In  the  Greek  Church  it  is  stated  by  Theodoras  Lector, 
in  his  Church  history  ( ii,  16 ),  as  having  been  cele- 
brated in  Constantinople  towards  the  close  of  the  reign 
of  Anastasius  I  (618) ;  after  the  7th  century  it  is  given 
in  all  calendars,  even  those  of  Copts,  Ethiopians,  and 
Armenians.  In  1743  Benedict  XIV  decreed  a  celebra- 
tion of  eight  days  for  the  city  of  Rome;  and  in  1867, 
the  eighteenth  centenary,  It  was  renewed  with  great 
magnificence  by  Pius  IX. 

II.  Fethtm  Cathedra  Petri  AnliockemB,  for  Feb.  22, 
mentioned  in  the  Calmdarium  lAberianum^  and  cele- 
brated in  commemoration  of  the  accession  of  the  apos- 
tle Peter  to  the  episcopal  chair,  without,  however,  speci- 
fying the  locality  of  the  chair.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  the  Calendarium  of  Polemius  Silvius  (448).  In 
the  Ambrostan  Liturgy,  and  in  the  Sacramentarium  of 
Gelasius  I,  the  festival  is  omitted  altogether;  but  is 
found  again  in  the  SacrameiUarium  of  Gregor}*,  and 
after  his  time  always. 

III.  FeMtvm  Coikedrm  Petri  Romame^  Jan.  18,  was 
generally  confounded  with  II,  but  became  independent- 
ly established  in  the  8th  centary,  and  formally  fixed 
during  the  Carlovingian  age,  to  which  time,  also,  belongs 
the  final  recognition  of  the  tradition  of  the  double  epis- 
copacy of  St.  Peter. 

lY.  Feitum  Sanctum  Petri  ad  Vineula  or  in  Vinevliif 
also  called  Fewtum  Catenarum  Petri,  Aug.  1,  is  not  men- 
tioned until  the  9th  century,  in  Wandalbert's  Martyro- 
logimm^  and  Pfeeudo  -  Beda*8  ITomiL  de  Vineulis  Sancti 
Petti  (Beda,  0pp.  iii,  96).  In  the  Greek  Church  it  is 
celebrated  Jan.  16,  in  the  Armenian  Feb.  22.  The  lat- 
ter Church  also  celebrated  a  festival  of  '*  the  finger  of 
the  apostle  Peter"  (Assemani,  EuchoL  Ecdes.  Orient.), 
and  the  Abyssiiiiane  commemorate  on  July  81  a  festi- 
val in  honor  of  St.  Peter  (Ludolf,  iJist.  ACikiop.  p.  424), 
b«it  the  origin  and  signification  of  the  latter  is  not 
known.  See  Augusti,  DenkwBrdiffheifen,  iii,  176  sq.; 
Sinker,  in  Smith's  Dict.o/Ckri»t.AtUiq.ii,ie2S-ie2S; 
Xillcs,  KaUndarium  Afanuaie  Utriu§que  Fcdetia,  Ori- 
eiU.  et  Occident,  vol.  it ;  Zijcklcr,  in  Plitt-Uerzog,  Real' 
Knq^dop.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Peter  of  Bijois.    Sec  Blksek,  Petbh. 

PetennanD,  Julius  Ueinricii.  D.D.,  a  famous 
German  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Glanchau,  Aug.  12, 
•  1801.  In  1837  he  was  professor  of  Oriental  literature 
at  Beriin,  from  1852  to  1865  he  travelled  through  Asia 
Minor  and  Persia,  in  1867  and  1868  through  Palestine 
and  Syria.  He  died  in  June,  1876.  Besides  his  con- 
tributions to  different  periodicals  and  C3'clopiedias,  he 
published,  Grammatioa  Lingv<B  ArmeniaccB  (Berlin, 
1837) : — De  Ottikanis,  A  rabicis,  A  rmenim  Gvbematori' 
bvM  (1840) : — Beit  rage  zu  finer  Geschichfe  der  neuesten 
Reformen  dee  Oimawiachen  Reicka  (1842) : — PauU  Epi- 
afola  ad  PktUmonem.  etc  (1844) :  —  Porta  Linffvarum 
Orientaltum  (1864-72, 6  vols.) :— 7?f we  in  den  Orient  (2d 
ed.  Lei})eic,  1865,  2  voIa)  : — Liber  Magnv»  Vtiigo  LU>er 
Adam*  AppeUatus  (1867): — Pentnteuchut  Samaritanus 
(Beriin,  1872  sq.,  3  vote.>     (K  P.) 

PeteneD,  Aitovst,  a  Protestant  the(»logian  of  Ger- 
many, who  died  at  Gotha,  Nov.  1, 1875,  doctor  of  theol- 
ogy and  general  superintendent,  is  the  author  of,  Die 
J(ke  der  ehrittUchen  Kireke  (Lcipsic,  1839-46,  3  vols.) ; 
JSchleiermacher  alt  Re/ormator  der  deutechen  Bildung 
(Gotha,  1869):  — Z>ie  profestantische  LehrfreiiteU  und 
t/<re  (?reR2eiii  (Frankfort,  1865).    (B.  P.) 

Peterson,  Williait,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
instaUed  prebendary  of  the  Church  at  Exeter,  Aug.  16, 
1^19 ;  elected  canon  zestdentiary,  June  2, 1621 ;  and  ad- 
vanced to  the  deanery,  July  18, 1629.  He  died  Dec  6, 
1661,agedaeventy-fonr  years.  Dr.  Peterson  was  a  man 
of  exemplary  life,  faithful  in  preaching  the  gospel,  and 
charitable  to  the  poor. 


PetraBiM,  a  name  common  to  several  Swedish  theo- 
logians, of  whom  we  mention  the  following: 

1.  iEacHiuua,  who  died  at  Abo  in  1667,  professor 
and  doctor  of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  EnarrationeM  in 
Evangelia  Domimcalia  et  FettwaUa: — De  Veteris  et 
Novi  Tettamenti  Ditcrimine:—De  Anti^Chritto  Magna, 
besides  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Finnish. 

2.  LAuaiCMTius,  who  died  Jan.  7, 1666,  is  the  author 
of  Cantieum  Caniieorum  Salomonis,  Paraphrati  turn 
Ligata  ffebraa  et  Danica,  turn  Prota  Latina  Adoma- 
turn  (HafnisB,  1640). 

3.  Nicolas  (1)  was  bom  at  Husnm,  Sept.  10, 1669. 
He  studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1600  doctor 
of  theolog}',  and  died  at  Batzeburg,  Jan.  7, 1641,  a  super- 
intendent. 

4.  Nicolas  (2)  was  born  at  Zealand  in  1601.  He 
studied  at  different  universities,  was  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  at  Copenhagen,  and  died  Oct.  4, 1634. 
He  is  the  author  of,  Nomendator  Hebneut  (Hafniae, 
1629) : — Lexicon  Ifebraicum  cum  Grammatica  I/ebraica 
(1627, 1683):  — JftfMB  Ilebram  seu  CoUoquia  Ilebraa 
(1628). 

5.  Sevkriv,  bom  in  1609,  and  died  Nov.  26,  1657, 
professor  at  Copenhagen,  is  the  author  of,  Grammatica 
Hebraa  (1642)  : — Fundamenta  Lingua  Stmcta  (1647) : 
— Disquititio  de  Fundamenio  PkUoeophia  Jdoralis. 

6.  Thkodork,  who  died  at  Copenhagen  in  1673,  is 
the  author  of,  Propkdia  Joelis  uEthiop.,  Interpret,  Latina 
ad  Verbum  Donata  (Leyden,  1661)  : — Prophetia  Jona 
yEtkiop.  et  ex  AUthiop,  in  Lot.  ad  Verbum  Ve^ea  et  No- 
fit  afque  Adagiis  JUustrafa  (1660): — Vaticinium  Jfa- 
lachia  jEthiop.  Latino  Idiomate  ad  Verbum  Donatum 
(1661).  See Jdcher, A Ugemeinex  GeMnten-I^exihon, s. v.; 
Fttrst,  BtU.  Jud.  iii,  80 ;  Winer,  IJandbuch  der  theol.  Lit. 
i,  63, 64.     (R  P.) 

PetniB,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Orkney  in 
1270,  and  was  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  by  Eric, 
king  of  Nonvay,  to  negotiate  a  marriage  between  that 
monarch  and  Margaret,  daughter  to  Alexander  III,  king 
of  Scotland.  lie  died  in  1284.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bi8Aopt,p.^iO. 

Peyzat,  Napoli^x,  a  Protestant  theologian  and 
historian  of  France,  was  bom  at  Bordes-sur- Arise, 
Ari^ge,  Jan.  20, 1809.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  pas- 
tor at  St.-Gennain-en-Laye,  and  he  died  April  4, 1881. 
He  is  the  author  of  Patteurt  du  Detert  (1842),  a  work 
which  has  been  styled  "un  b^n^dictin  romantique." 
This  work  was  foltowed  by  VHistoire  de  Vigilance: 
— Lee  Reformateurt  de  la  France  et  de  VltalU  au 
Douzieme  Siecle  (Pierre  de  Brueys,  Arrigo,  Ab^lard, 
Araaud  de  Brescia,  St.  Bernard,  Berenger  ) : — f^  Col' 
loque  de  Poitay  : — Le  Siage  du  Mae  eTA  zU:—L*Uigtoir€ 
dee  AUngeois: — Biranger  et  Lamennaie,  Corre$pondence 
et  Souvenirt  (Paris,  1861),  this  last  a  charming  volume. 
See  Mme.  Xapd^n  Peyrat,  Napoleon  Peyraf,  Poete,  Hi- 
ttorien,  Pasteur  (Paris,  1881);  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop. 
des  Sciences  Religieuses,  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Peyron,  Amadeo,  a  famous  Italian  Orientalist  and 
antiquarian,  was  bora  at  Turin,  Oct.  2,  1785.  In  1815 
be  succeeded  bis  fonner  teacher,  the  abbot  Valperga  di 
(klttso,  as  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Turin,  and 
he  died  April  27, 1870.  He  is  especially  known  by  his 
Ijexieon  Lingua  Coptiea  (Turin,  1886)  and  Grammatica 
Lingua  Coptiea  (1841);  besides,  he  wrote  a  number  of 
essays,  published  in  the  Jfemorie  of  the  Tmoo  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.     (B.  P.) 

Pfannkaohe,  Heixrtch  Friei)rich,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  Nov.  28,  1766.  For 
some  time  private  tutor  at  GCttingen,  he  was  in  1803 
called  to  Giessen  as  professor  of  Oriental  languages, 
and  he  died  Oct  7, 1833,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote, 
Exercitationes  in  Ecdesiasta  Salonund  Vulgo  Tributi 
Locum  Vexaiistim.  cap.  xi,  7-an't,  7  (Gottingen,  1794) : 
-^Obeervat.  PkHohg.  et  Critic,  ad  quadam  Psabnorum 
Loea,  Specimen  (Bremen,  1791):  —  De  Codieum  MSS. 
I/ebr.  Veteris  Testamenti  et  Versionum  Chaldaicaivm  m 


PFEFFINGER 


772 


PHARAOH 


LectUmShu  AntirmoMoreikU  Contensu  (Gieaseo,  1808). 
See  WiDer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  LU,  i,  218;  FUnt,  BOL 
JucL  iii,  81  aq.     (a  P.) 

PfefBnger,  Daniel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Strasburg,  who  died  Nov.  24,  1724,  doctor  and  pro- 
feaeor  of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  De  MaXo  efutqw 
CautU  InhinteeU:  —  De  Cretenrium  Aritiit  ad  Tit,  t, 
12:— Dum  Ditputt,  in  Propketiam  Haggai: — De  Ne- 
thinaig  ad  Jos.  ix,  27  et  Etdr,  viii,  20 :— />•  Viro  Per- 
/ecto  ad  Ephes,  tV,  18,  lAi  —  De  CuUu  Angdorum  ad 
ColoMS,  u,  18  :—De  CAriHo  pro  Nobit  Excito  ad  Dan. 
ix,  26:— 2>e  Pasnitentia  Dei  ad  Genes,  vt,  6,  7:— />e 
Prophetarum  Falsorum  Furtia  ad  Jerem,  xxUi,  80 : — 
De  MichaU  Angehrum  Auxiliatore^  etc.  See  Jdcfaer, 
Ailgemeinee  Gekhrtm-Lexikon^  %,  v.     (B.  P.) 

Pfeilfer,  Aagaflt  Fzledriob,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Erlangen,  Jan.  18, 
1748,  where  he  also  commenced  his  academical  career 
in  1769.  In  1776  he  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages, 
in  1805  head  librarian  of  the  university,  and  he  died  July 
15,  1817.  He  wrote,  De  Ingenio  Oratorio  (Erlangen, 
1770): — De  Jobo  Patientiam  et  Christum  Pradicanie 
(1771):  —  De  Jobcsi  Libri  Scopo  (eod.):  —  Progr.  in 
Versionem  Sgriacam  ad  i  THmoth.  Epistola  (1776)  :— 
Ueber  die  Musik  deraUen  Hdn-aer  (1778)  .—Uebraische 
Granmatik  (3d  e<1.  1802):  — iVeue  Uebersetzung  des 
Propheten  Hoseas  (1785): — PkHonis  Judcei  Opera 
Omnia,  etc.  (1785-92,  6  vols.;  2d  ed.  1820):— Pro^. 
super  Ps.  ex  (1801)  i^Progr,  super  Ps.  hxii  (1808):— 
BiNiorttm  Ilebraicorum  et  Chaldaorum  Manuale  ad 
Prima  Linguartim  Studia  Concinnavit  (1809).  See 
Ddring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlcmds,  s.  v. ; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  88 ;  Winer,  Bandtmch  der  iheoL 
Xi^.  i,  116, 145,  522.    (a  P.) 

Pfeilfer,  Joaohlm  Elirenfried,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  and  father  of  August  Friedrich, 
was  bom  at  Gttotrow,  Pomerania,  Sept.  6, 1709.  He 
studied  at  Rostock,  and  commenced  there  his  academ- 
ical career  in  1787.  In  1748  he  accepted  a  call  to  Er- 
langen as  professor  of  theology,  was  made  doctor  of 
theology  in  the  same  year,  and  died  Oct.  18,  1787. 
He  published,  Diss,  de  Mah  Morcdi,  etc  (Jena,  1787) : 
•— iXs  Lege  Iiierpretandi  Prima  et  Fundameniali  (1740) : 
—  Elemada  HermmeuticoB  Universalis  (1748): — De 
Calore  sub  Nube  Torrente,  etc  (eod.) : — Tnnilas  Per- 
sonarum  in  Unitate  Dei,  etc.  (eod.) : — Messias  ^tdv^put' 
irog  ad  Jerem.  xxiii,  5,  6  (eod.) : — Messias  Satis/actor 
Hominum  ex  fes.  Hit,  4, 5, 6  (1744) : — Prooessio  Spiritus 
Sandi  a  FiUo  Dei  ex  les.  adv,  8  (1745) :— ifesnu<  mm 
Spiritus  Sanctus  sed  Dei  Patris  Filius  ex  Ps.  O,  7 
(1751) : — Lux  Orta  Populo  in  Tenebris  Sedenti  ex  les. 
wit,  28  (1754)  :-^CognUio  Justi  Servi  Dei  Justifica  ex 
les,  im,  1 1  (1755) : — Spes  Resurrectionis  apud  Jobum  xix, 
25,  26,  27  ( 1760-61 ),  etc  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten 
Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v.  (who  gives  sixty -seven 
titles  of  Pfeiffer*s  works);  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  ti,  88  sq.; 
Winer,  Jlandbuch  der  iluoL  Lit.  i,  105,  422,  425,  608. 

(a  P.) 

Pfltaer,  Johann  Jacob^  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Kuremberg,  Oct.  29,  1684. 
He  studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1718  deacon 
at  his  birthplace,  in  1717  professor  of  theology  at  Alt- 
dorf,  in  1718  doctor  of  theology,  in  1724  pastor  at 
Nuremberg,  and  died  March  10, 1759.  He  published, 
De  Apotheosi  Pauli  et  Bamaba  a  Lgstrensibus  Frustra 
Tentata  (Altdorf,  1718) :— Z)«  AppoUine,  Dodare  Apos^ 
tolico  ex  Actor,  xriii,  24-28  (eod.):  —  De  Benefidis 
Typicis  (1723),  etc.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theolo- 
gen Deutschlands,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  iii,  84.    (a  P.) 

Pharaoh  op  the  Exode.  Owing  to  the  deep  in- 
terest in  the  iiistory  of  that  event,  extraordinary  efforts 
have  been  made  by  Biblical  scholars  to  identify  this 
Egyptian  king,  whose  name  is  not  given  in  the  sacred 
narrative.  Most  writers  have  been  content  to  compare 
the  chronologies  of  Egypt  and  the  Bible  together,  and 
rest  in  the  simple  synchronism,  a  result  necessarily  prob- 


lematicalf  from  the  acknowledged  uncertainty  of  both 
these  chronological  schemes.  l*hBS  the  Speaker's  Comf 
mentarg  (i,  455,  Amer.  ed.)  concludes  that  the  Egyptian 
monaroh  in  question  was  Thothmes  III ;  but  this  result 
depends  opon  a  series  of  chronological  calculations  and 
comparisons  every  step  in  which  is  debatable.  The 
most  favorite  identiBcation,  however,  of  late,  has  been 
with  Menephthah  I,  son  of  Kameaes  11,  or  the  great 
Sesostria.  This  is  adopted  by  Bragacb,  Bunsen,  Cha- 
bas,  Eben,  Lenormant,  Lepsio%  Rawlinson,  De  Roug^, 
YigottiDux,  and  others.  We  give  the  reasons  pro  et 
con. 

1.  Josephus  cites  {Apion,  i,  26  sq.)  Hanetho  as  stating 
that  Moses  was  identical  with  a  certain  Osarsiph,  or 
Egyptian  priest  of  Heliopdis,  who  headed  a  revolt  of 
a  band  of  lepers  in  the  reign  of  Amenophis;  and  Uiis 
prince  appean  to  be  the  Menephthah  (or  Memeph* 
thah)  of  the  monuments,  and  the  Amenophath  or  Ame- 
nephtiies  of  the  19th  dynasty  of  Manetbo'a  lists,  by 
reason  of  his  association,  in  the  above  accoant  in  Jose- 
phus, with  Sethos  or  Barneses  as  his  son,  and  Bhampses 
(or  Barneses)  as  his  father.  But  Josephns  himself  ex- 
pressly and  somewhat  passionately  oontradieta  the  iden- 
tification in  question,  and  he  alleges,  and  goes  far  to 
prove,  numerous  inconsistencies  and  fallacies  in  it,  ar- 
guing, in  short,  that  the  whole  story  is  a  mendacious 
invention,  and  especially  dwelling  upon  the  (act  that 
the  insurgents  in  that  case,  so  far  from  succeeding  in 
their  escape  trwn  Eg^pt,  were  ultimately  subdued  and 
destroyed  by  the  Egyptians.  The  statements  of  Ma- 
netho  himself,  as  extant  in  Synoellus  and  Euaebina, 
make  no  mention  of  this  identification,  but  varionsly 
name  Amosis  (head  of  the  18th  dynasty)  and  Achen- 
cheroes  (ninth  king  of  the  same  dynasty)  as  the  Pha- 
raoh of  the  Exode. 

In  another  passage  {Apian,  i,  82, 88)  Josephns  gives 
a  similar  narrative  from  Cheremon ;  but,  as  he  justly 
shows,  the  contradictions  of  the  story  are  there  still 
more  apparent  In  a  third  account,  from  Lysimachus 
{ibid,  84)  the  Egyptian  king's  name  is  given  as  Boc- 
choris,  and  so  all  trace  of  identity  disappears.  Josephns 
himself  repeatedly  affirms  that  Manetho's  own  work 
gave  Tethmosis  (or  Thummoses,  son  of  Alisphragrou- 
thusis  [Misphragmuthosis])  as  the  name  of  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  Exode. 

2.  The  circumstances  of  Rameses  II,  father  of  the 
Eg}'ptian  king  under  consideration,  arc  supposed  to 
favor  his  identification  with  the  Pharaoh  of  the  op- 
pression, and  so  to  coincide  with  the  theory  in  ques- 
tion. Thus  he  was  a  great  builder  of  cities,  especially 
(it  is  alleged)  of  Pi-Tum  and  Pi-Ramses,  which  are 
held  to  be  the  Pithom  and  Raameses  of  the  Bible.  But 
the  last  Identifications  are  extremely  doubtful,  and  the 
name  Rameses  appears  as  that  of  a  district  as  early  as 
Joseph's  day  (Gren.  xlvii,  11).  The  identification  of  aii 
oppressed  or  conquered  people  in  his  reign,  named 
Aperu  on  the  monuments,  with  the  Hebrews,  is  equally 
doubtful,  both  in  the  reading  and  application ;  it  is  at 
all  events  certain  that  the  people  so  named  were  Jor^ 
eign  serfs,  and  that  they  were  employed  in  large  num- 
bers at  a  period  considerably  later  than  the  Exode 
(Brugsch,  Hist,  of  Egypt,  ii,  129).  Opposed  to  this  iden- 
tification is  the  well-known  character  of  the  Rameses 
in  question  as  a  Just  and  humane  prince,  who  cannot 
have  been  guilty  of  the  atrocious  policy  of  drowning 
all  the  male  children  of  a  portion  of  his  subjects. 

8.  The  character  and  circumstances  of  Menephthah 
himself  are  not  given  with  sufficient  detail  in  the  Egyp- 
tian chronicles  or  monuments  to  enable  us  to  say  with 
definiteness  whether  tliey  agree  or  disagree  with  the 
Biblical  aocoimt.  There  is  nothing  in  them,  however, 
which  tallies  with  the  overthrow  at  the  Red  Sea.  If, 
as  the  history  in  Exodus  implies,  and  as  later  Scrip- 
tural notices  expressly  affirm  (e.g.Psa.cxxxvi,  15),  the 
Egyptian  king  was  himself  drowned  tbere^  it  cannot 
have  been  Menephthah,  who  certainly  reigned  much 
longer  than  the  brief  interval  between  Moses*  return  to 


PHASAELIS 


lis 


PHILIP 


Egypt  (Exod.  iv,  19 ;  corop.  ii,  15)  and  the  Exode. 
Moreover,  Menephthah  was  one  of  a  large  family  of 
sons  bom  to  Rameses  during  his  long  leign,  and  this 
militates  decidedly  against  the  adoption  of  Hoses  as 
heir  through  a  daughter.  Dr.  Schaff  adduces  {Through 
JBibU  Landtf  p.  102)  a  circumstance  mentioned  by  He- 
rodotus (ii,  111),  that  the  successor  of  Sesostris  (sup- 
posed to  be  Rameses  II)  was  smitten  with  blindness 
for  ten  years  as  a  punishment  for  hurling  his  spear  into 
the  Nile  during  an  extraordinary  overflow;  but  this 
looks  to  us  very  little  like  the  catastrophe  at  the  Red 
Sea ;  and,  besides,  the  historian  calls  the  king  in  ques^ 
tion  Pheron,  and  he  names  his  successor  Proteus,  words 
which' have  no  place  in  the  dynastic  listSi 

4.  Finally  and  conclusively,  the  chronology  of  the 
period  will  not  allow  this  identification.  The  lowest 
date  for  the  Exode  is  the  Rabbinical,  B.C.  1312 ;  Usher's 
is  1491;  Hales's,  1614;  our  own,  1658;  while  the  dates 
assigned  to  the  end  of  Menepbthah's  reign  are  as  fol- 
lows: Mariette,  cir.  KC  1288;  Lepsius,  1278;  WUkin- 
son,  1200;  ours,  1175.  The  difference,  in  any  esse,  is 
from  a  quarter  of  a  century  to  four  centuries  and  a 
half.  It  is  useless  to  plead  the  uncertainty  of  the 
dates  in  either  line,  because  it  is  precisely  here  that 
both  the  Egyptian  and  the  Biblical  chronologies  begin 
to  be  definite;  and  the  tendency  of  modem  criticism 
is  to  widen  rather  than  contract  the  discrepancy  at  this 
point.  This  objection  has  not  escaped  Josephus,  w ho  ex- 
pressly remarks  {Apion,  \,  27)  that,  according  to  Manetho, 
** Moses  lived  many  generations  earlier"  than  the  king 
in  question,  or,  more  definitely  (Udd,  26),  518  years,  or, 
according  to  his  own  detailed  estimate  {ibid.  15),  ex- 
actly 827  years.  Our  calculation,  483  years,  is  near- 
ly a  mean  between  these.  Josephus  further  states 
(^Apion,  ii,  2)  that  '*  Solomon  built  the  temple  612  years 
after  the  Jews  came  out  of  Eg}*pt"  (he  elsewhere 
makes  it  variously  592  and  632  years  —  in  our  own 
scheme  it  was  648  years) ;  and  he  fortifies  this  date  by 
a  reference  to  the  then  well-known  contemporaneous 
Tyrian  annals.  He  adils  (ibid,)  that  the  date  of  the 
Exode,  according  to  the  above  notice  of  Lysimachus 
(i.  e.  as  occurring  under  king  Bocchoris)  would  make 
it  "  1700  years  ago,"  or  about  B.C.  1630,  which  again  is 
substantially  our  date.  We  conclude  therefore  that 
Josephus  at  least  (from  whom,  be  it  noted,  the  whole 
basis  of  this  proposed  identification  is  derived)  was 
clear  and  consistent  as  well  as  definitely  grounded  in 
his  chronology,  both  in  its  Biblical  and  its  Egyptian 
relations;  and  like  him  we  must  decidedly  reject  this 
synchronism.    See  MANKTHa 

PhaBaSlis.  The  present  Khurhtt  Fatail  is  Isid 
down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  at  twelve  and  a  half  miles 
north  of  Riha  (Jericho),  and  is  briefly  described  in  the 
Memoin  accompanying  (ii,  392). 

Phelps  Eliakim,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Belchertown,  Mass.,  March  20, 1790.  From 
1811  to  18i3  he  was  a  member  of  Brown  University, 
but  graduated  in  1814  from  Union  College.  He  was 
ordsincd  at  Brookfield,  Oct  28, 1816,  as  the  colleague 
of  Rev.  Ephraim  Ward,  and  continued  to  minister  there 
until  Oct.  25, 1826.  During  the  succeeding  three  years 
he  was  principal  of  the  Ladies*  High-school  at  Pitts- 
field.  In  Febraary,  1830,  he  was  installed  pastor  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  held 
that  position  until  September,  1835.  From  1886  he 
was  secretary  of  the  American  Education  Society  in 
Philadelphia,  and  of  the  same  in  New  York  to  1845. 
For  one  year  he  was  acting-pastor  at  Kingston,  R.  I., 
and  served  in  the  same  relation  at  Putnam,  Conn.,  from 
1856  to  1858.  His  residence  from  1871  to  1874  was  at 
Andover,  Mass.,  and  from  1874  to  1880  at  Weehawken, 
N.  J.  During  1831-85  he  was  a  commissioner  of  Au- 
bum  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  and  for  the  last  year 
of  that  term  was  president  of  the  commissioners.  He 
died  at  IVeehawken,  N.  J.,  Dec.  29, 1880.  Dr.  Phelps 
published  a  volume  of  addresses,  entitled  The  Ministry 


We  Need^  besides  pamphlets,  etc  See  CmiQn  Tear-look, 
1881,  p.  31. 

PhenomenaliBm.  See  ScEirricis^f,  Latest 
Phasks  of. 

Philaret,  archbishop  of  Tscheroigow,  who  died  in 
1866,  was  one  of  the  most  Icsmed  historians  of  the 
Russian  Church.  He  is  the  author  of  a  work  on  Cyril 
and  Methodius,  the  Apostles  of  the  Slavs  (1846;  Germ, 
transl.  Milan,  1848).  He  also  wrote  on  the  Service  of 
the  Rustian  Church  in  the  Pre-Mongolian  Time  (1847) : 
—History  of  the  Russian  Church  (4th  ed.  1862, 6  vols.) : 
—Review  of  Russian  Literature  from  862  to  1858  (1859, 
2  vols.),     (a  P.) 

Philip,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  in  the  see  of  Brechin 
in  1351.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  162. 

FhiUp  the  Magnanimous,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  bom 
at  Marburg,  Nov.  23, 1504,  was  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent characters  in  the  history  of  the  German  Reformat 
tion.  He  was  only  five  years  old  when  his  father  died, 
and  only  fourteen  when  he  was  declared  of  age.  He 
was  present  at  the  diet  of  Worms  in  1521,  but  had,  at 
that  time,  not  yet  decided  with  respect  to  religious 
matters.  He  was,  however,  one  of  those  who  insisted 
that  the  safe -conduct  accorded  to  Luther  should  be 
kept  sacred.  He  visited  Luther  in  his  lodgings,  and 
on  his  return  allowed  mass  to  be  celebrated  in  Ger- 
man at  Cassel.  In  February,  1525,  he  opened  his 
country  to  the  reformation,  in  May  he  joined  the 
Torgau  Union,  and  in  June  he  appeared  at  the  Diet 
of  Spires  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Protestant  party, 
surprising  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops  by  his  theolog- 
ical learning,  the  imperial  commissioners  by  his  out- 
spokenness, and  king  Ferdinand  himself  by  the  open 
threat  of  leaving  the  diet  immediately  if  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  edicts  of  Worms  was  insisted  upon.  The 
great  task  he  had  on  hand  was  to  unite  the  German 
and  Swiss  Protestants  into  one  compact  party,  and  at 
the  Diet  of  Spires  (1529)  he  succeeded  in  baffling  all 
the  attempts  of  the  Roman  Catholics  to  produce  an 
open  breach.  The  conference  of  Marburg,  in  the  same 
year,  was  also  his  work,  and  it  had,  at  all  events,  the 
effect  of  somewhat  mitigating  the  hostility  of  the  theo- 
logians. Nevertheless,  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg  (1580), 
the  Lutherans  appeared  to  be  willing  to  buy  peace  by 
sacrificing  the  interests  of  the  Zwinglians.  Philip  priv- 
posed  war,  open  and  immediate;  but  the  Lutherans 
suspected  him  of  being  a  Zwinglian  at  heart,  and  their 
suspicion  made  him  powerless.  He  subscribed  the  Con- 
fessio  A  ugustana,  but  reluctantly,  and  with  an  express 
reservation  with  respect  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord*s 
Supper.  Finally,  when  he  saw  that  nothing  could  be 
done,  while  he  knew  that  the  emperor  could  not  be 
trusted,  he  suddenly  left  Augsburg.  This  resoluteness 
made  an  impression  on  the  other  Protestant  princes; 
and  in  March,  1531,  he  was  able  to  form  the  SroaJcaldian 
League,  though  he  was  not  able  to  procure  admission  to 
it  for  the  Swiss  Reformed.  He  also  opened  negotiations 
with  the  king  of  Denmark ;  in  1532  he  compelled  the 
emperor  to  grant  the  peace  of  Nuremberg;  in  1534, 
after  the  brilliant  victory  at  Laussen,  he  enforced  the 
restoration  of  duke  Ulrich,  of  WUrtemberg,  by  which 
that  country  was  opened  to  the  Reformation ;  in  1539 
he  began  negotiations  with  Francis  I,  and  in  1540  he 
again  proposed  to  wage  open  war  on  the  emperor. 
But  at  this  very  moment  his  authority  was  greatly  im- 
paired, and  his  activity  much  clogged,  by  his  marriage 
with  Margarethe  von  der  Saal— a  clear  case  of  bigamy. 
The  theologians,  even  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  con- 
sented, provided  this  marriage  was  kept  secret.  The 
duchess  of  Roonlitz,  the  sister  of  Philip,  would  not  keep 
silent,  and  the  question  arose  what  the  emperor  would 
do.  The  case  was  so  much  the  worse,  as,  in  1586, 
Philip  had  issued  a  law  which  made  bigamy  one  of  the 
greatest  crimes  in  Hesse.  The  emperor,  however,  sim- 
ply used  the  affair  to  completely  undermine  the  politl. 
cal  position  of  the  landgrave,  but  the  profit  he  drew 


PHILIP 


in 


PIDERIT 


from  it  was,  nevertheless,  no  small  one.  During  the 
difficult  times  which  followed  after  the  peace  of  Crespy 
(1544),  the  Protestant  party  had  no  acknowledged  head ; 
during  the  Smalcaldian  war  (1546-47),  no  acknowledged 
leader.  After  the  war,  the  emperor  treacherously  seized 
the  landgrave,  and  kept  him  in  prison  for  five  years. 
After  his  release,  in  1552,  Philip  spent  all  his  energies 
in  ameliorating  the  condition  of  his  country,  which 
had  suffered  so  much  from  war.  But  he  still  had  a 
lively  interest  in  religious  matters,  and  acted  the  part 
of  a  mediator,  especially  between  the  Protestants  and 
Koman  Catholics ;  tliiia  he  was  very  active  in  promoting 
the  conference  of  Naumburg  in  1544  and  that  of  Worms 
in  1557.  Philip  died  March  81, 1567.  See  nommel,  PhUipp 
der  Groumufkige  (Giessen,  1830,  8  vols.) ;  Lenz,  Briff- 
wedutl  Landgraf  Philipp's  mit  Bucer  (vol.  i,  Leipsic, 
1880) ;  Wille,  Philipp  der  Groummkige  v,  die  Restitution 
//et-zog  Ulrich'i  von  Witrtemberg  (Tubingen,  1882); 
Plitt-Herzog,  ReaUEnofldop,  s.  v. ;  Lichtenberger,  En- 
eydop,  de$  Sciences  Religieusetj  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Philip,  Herman2(,  a  medical  missionary,  was  bom 
of  Jewish  parentage  at  Brunswick  in  1813.  While  a 
student  of  medicine  he  joined  the  Prussian  army,  which 
he  left  after  some  years'  senuce  in  order  to  Join  a  broth- 
er of  his  who  was  in  Java  in  the  Dutch  service.  Philip 
embarked  at  Rotterdam  for  Batavia,  but  owing  to  some 
accident  which  happened  after  the  vessel  had  left  the 
harbor,  he  came  to  £ngland.  At  London,  through  his 
employers,  he  became  acquainted  with  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  who  spoke  to  him  of  Christ  and  made  him 
think  of  the  Saviour.  Philip,  with  the  recommenda- 
tion from  this  minister,  went  to  Scotland.  At  Glasgow 
he  became  acquainted  with  Dr.  Duncan,  who  encour- 
aged  him  in  his  inquiries.  On  Dec.9, 1839,  the  Kirk 
session  of  St.  Luke's  Church  at  Edinburgh  admitted 
him  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  Philip  now 
went  through  a  regular  course  of  theological  studies, 
and  commenced  his  missionary  labors  in  1841,  along 
with  the  Kev.D.  Edward,  among  the  Jews  in  Moldavia. 
Being  convinced  of  the  great  advantage  to  a  mis- 
sionary of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  medicine,  Philip, 
after  nine  years*  missionary  labor,  returned  to  Edin- 
burgh to  complete  his  medical  education.  This. done, 
ill  1850  he  was  sent  to  Algiers,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Scottish  Society  for  the  Conversion  of  Israel,  as 
medical  mi8sionar>%  From  Algiers,  in  1852,  he  was 
sent  to  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  In  1860  Philip,  who,  by 
this  time,  bad  the  degree  of  D.D.,  in  addition  to  that 
of  M.D.,  was  engaged  by  the  British  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  among  the  Jews,  and  was 
sent  to  labor  at  Jaffa,  the  seaport  of  Palestine,  where  he 
remained  for  six  years.  When  the  cholera  raged  at 
Jaffa  in  1865,  and  the  population  was  panic-struck,  and 
the  civil  and  military  authorities  had  fled.  Dr.  Philip 
was  the  only  practitioner  at  Jaffa,  and  acted  not  only 
as  physician,  but  also  as  governor  and  police.  The 
Malta  Times  of  September,  1865,  states  that  ^'  the  calls 
and  appeals  which  Dr.  Philip  had  were  constant,  inso- 
much that,  when  passing  through  the  streets,  the 
crowds  thronged  upon  him  to  kiss  his  hands  and  feet ; 
and  while  Christians  and  Jews  offered  up  masses  and 
prayers  for  him,  the  Mohammedans  forgot  their  proph- 
et, and  the  sound  was  heard  in  the  mosques,  *  There  is 
but  one  God,  and  the  doctor  !* "  In  1866  Dr.  Philip,  at 
his  own  request,  was  removed  to  another  field,  and  sent 
to  Leghorn,  where  he  remained  until  1870,  when  the 
door  was  opened  to  him  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the 
Jews  in  Rome.    He  died  Feb.  3, 1882.     (B.  P.) 

PbiUppi,  Friedzloh  Adolph,  a  noted  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  of  Jewish  parentage 
at  Berlin,  Oct  15, 1809.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
entered  the  Berlin  University  to  study  philosophy. 
In  1829  he  went  to  Leipsic  for  the  study  of  phi- 
lology, and  in  the  same  j'ear  joined  the  Lotheran 
Church.  In  1880  he  was  promoted  as  doctor  of  phi- 
losophy, and  acted  for  two  years  as  teacher  at  Dres- 


den. In  1832  he  returned  to  Berlin,  passed  his  exam- 
ination, and  in  1838  received  the  **  facultas  docendL** 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  languages  at  the 
Joachimsthal  Gymnasium,  a  position  which  he  resigned 
after  eighteen  months  in  order  to  prosecute  theological 
studiesb  Having  passed  his  examination,  he  was  in 
1836  made  a  licentiate  in  theology,  and  commenced  to 
lecture  in  1887.  In  1841  Philippi  was  called  as  pro- 
fessor of  theology  to  Dorpat,  in  1851  to  Rostock,  and 
died  Aug.  29,  1882.  He  wrote,  De  Celn  Adversarn 
Chrittianorum,  Phihsophandi  Genere  (Berlin,  1886)  :— 
Der  thaiige  Gehor$am  Christi  (1841)  i—Comrne/dar  Uber 
den  Brief  PauH  an  die  Bomer  (Frankfort,  8d  ed.  1866; 
Engl  transl.  Edinburgh,  1878) :— but  his  main  ^ork  is 
Kirchlicke  Glaubentkkre  (Gtlterslothe,  1854-82,  6  vote.), 
a  learned  and  able  vindication  of  strict  Lutheran  ortho- 
doxy. After  Philippics  death  there  were  published  from 
his  manuscripts,  and  edited  by  his  son,  ErJddrung  det 
Brief  es  Pauli  an  die  Galaier  (Gtttenlothe,  1884)  z—Sym' 
bolik,  Akademisehe  Vorlesungen  (1883) : — Predigten  und 
Vortrage  (eod.).,  See  Mecklenbtirgi»ehes  Kircken"  und 
ZeifMa^  1882,  No.  19^21;  PHtl-Uenog,  Beal^EntyUcp. 
8.  y. ;  Zucbold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  993  sq.     (R  P.) 

PhiUppi,  Heinrlob,  a  Jesuit  who  died  at  Aaga- 
burg,  Nov.  80, 1636,  is  the  author  of,  Introductio  Ckrono- 
hgtca  ieu  de  Compuio  EccUsiastico  : — Qutestiones  Chro- 
nologica  in  Vetus  Testamenium :  —  Chronologiee  Vet, 
Testamenti  Accuratum  Examen:  —  Generalis  Synopsis 
Sacrorutn  Temporum: — De  Annis  Domini^  Julitma^ 
Nahoncaeans^  et  yEra  Juliana  Cotnponendis : — Xotee  et 
Qu€Bsiione8  Chronologica  in  PenSateuchum  et  Prophetas,. 
See  Jdcher,  A  Ugemeines  Gekhrien-ljexihon,  s.  v.    (R  P.) 

Phillips,  Georo,  a  German  professor  of  canon  Uw, 
was  bom  Jan.  6,  1801,  at  Konigsberg,  Prussia.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  and  commenced  his  academical 
career  at  Berlin,  where  he  Joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  In  1833  he  went  to  Munich,  in  1849  to  Inne- 
bruck,'in  1851  to  Vienna,  and  died  Sept.  6, 1872.  His 
main  works  are.  Das  Kirchenreckt  (Ratisbon,  1845-72, 
7  vols.): — lAhrbuch  de»  Kirchenrechts  (2d  ed.  1871) :— 
Deutsche  Beichs"  und  Becktsgeschichte  (4th  ed.  1859,  2 
vols.) :— rermtscAte  SiAHfen  (Vienna,  1856-60, 3  vola.). 
See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  ii,  995 ;  Licbtenberger,  En^^ 
dop*  des  Sciences  Beligieutet,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Philippus  Arabs.    See  Philip,  Empkror. 

Pfainehas,  Hill  am>  Tomu  of.  According  to 
Lieut  Conder  these  have  been  identi6ed.  He  says 
(Tent  Work/i,  77)1 

"The  vnia<re  of  'Awertnh.  called  Abearthah  to  the 
Snmnritan  dialect,  stands  In  ttie  Plain  of  the  MKkhoah, 
aud  is  sacred  to  the  Samaritans  and  to  the  Jews  as  cod- 
tninliig  the  tombs  of  Phhichaa  and  Elenxar,  Ablahna  and 
Ithamar.  It  is  probably  to  be  recognisod  as  the  Hill  nf 
Phinebas,  where  Eleasar  was  barled  according  to  the 
Bible  (Josh,  xxiv,  88),  and  which  Is  described  as  m  Mount 
Ephralm. 

''In  1878  I  visited  the  vniflse  and  examined  the  two 
principal  monument?.  That  of  Bleaiar,  west  of  the  house*, 
IS  a  mde  stmctnre  of  masourj  in  a  court  open  to  the  air. 
It  is  eighteen  feet  long,  plostiired  all  over,  and  shaded  by 
a  spleudid  terebinth.  In  one  comer  Is  a  little  mosque 
with  a  Samaritan  Inscription  bearing  the  date  1180  of  the 
Moslem  nra.  The  tomb  of  Phinebas  is  apparently  an  cilder 
bnildluf^,  and  the  walls  of  its  court  have  an  arcade  of 
round  arches  now  supportins  a  trellis  covered  with  a 
grnpe-viue ;  the  floor  Is  paved.  A  Samaritan  Inscription 
exists  here  as  well  as  at  the  little  mosque  adjacent.  The 
tombs  of  Ithamar  and  of  Ablshna,  the  snppoMd  anther 
of  the  famous  roll,  are  shown  by  the  Samaritans,  close  bj.** 

(See  illustration  on  following  page.) 

Piderit,  JoHANN  BuDOLPii  Akton,  a  Lathenn 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  Aug.  18, 1720,  at  Pyr^ 
mont.  He  studied  at  Jena  and  Marbttrg,and  commeaoed 
his  academical  career  at  the  latter  place  in  1746.  In 
1747  he  was  professor  of  philosopliy,  in  1759  doctor  of 
theology,  in  1766  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
**  Collegium  Carolinum  "  in  Cassel,  and  died,  after  hav- 
ing experienced  in  a  high  degree  the  **  odium  theologi. 
cum,"  Aug. 2, 1791.  He  published,  De  Vohintate,  Deereto 
et  Bonkate  Dei  (Jena,  1738)  i—Diss.  InauguraBs  de  An^ 


fiHt  (1746);— d  Chararleriiat  AiUaiiruH  (1760):— 
Diu,  tiii  dc  EmiibHi  Tttobgomai  iMjidi  drat  8a- 
tram  Seripturaat  (HarbuTg,  nf^)  ■.—Obfrralioita  n 
Pta.x<:{yibS):—BntragHMrVBikailigmig}ai  ErlSu- 
itnoff  del  Kammt  Jer  kriiigai  Sdtri/l  (I77&),  tte.  See 
D'onag,  Die  yekkrlrn  TMeaiogtn  Datidibnidt,  t.y.; 
FUni,  BM.  Jad.  iii,  99.    (a  P.) 

Flo,  LouiB  FnA:((ois  Ditatiui  EooiTAnn,  >  French 
prelatt,  (ms  bom  ot  I'ontgDuin  (Eure-el-Loir)  in  IttlG. 
Fnr  Kline  time  ricir-genEnl  of  Cbartru,  be  wai  ip- 
poinud  in  1849  Inihop  of  Tuitien,  and  made  himHlC 
conipicnauiby  hii  ml  indermdiDg  thetempord  power 
of  the  pope.  Hi  oppoecd  the  imperial  government  in 
■  serin  of  putoral  leltere,  ind  UKmbled,  in  January, 
1868,  ■  pnivindal  cwindt  at  Poitien  In  diKUU  Ihe  re- 
ligious intcreau  oT  his  diocese  and  of  France.  From  the 
xvty  beginning  of  the  iMuinenicil  council  in  ISiO  he 
waa  one  of  the  most  ardent  defenders  of  papal  infatli- 
biUly.  Pie  nu  made  cardinal  in  1B79,  and  died  at 
Ani^ulSme  in  1880.  He  publiihert,  /nsrnrefion  SfKvdale 
nr  le$  Krrtait  de  hi  FtiloMopMe  Modmu  (1B6S)  ;_/ii- 
itTvelim  tar  Iti  PraapaUt  Errturi  det  Tempi  Praent 
.  (tSM)  -.  —  DucoiirM  PronoHci  a  tOttatiim  da  Senia 
Saletmel  pour  la  SaldaU  de  FA  rmie  PovlijicaU  (1860). 
See  Trolley  de  I'nTaue,  Lt  Cardinal  Piertiei  (Evvrf 
(Peril,  IS83) ;  Liebtenberger,  Eneydop.  del  Sntnem  Rt- 
hgieutei,  a.  t.     (B.  P.) 

Pisdmonteae  Veraloi]  or  the  ScRirruRia. 
As  early  as  1881  ■  tnnslalinn  of  the  New  Tml,  faith- 
fully rendered  from  Martin's  French  version  into  roodem 
FiedmonleH,  waa  forwarded  to  the  Britiib  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  by  lieutenant-colonel  Deckwith.  Th. 
transUtioR  was  made  by  Mr.  Bene,  pastor  of  I*  Tout 
and  Ur.  Gegmet  of  Lausanne.  An  edition  waa  com 
ijeled  at  press  in  1834,  bat  in  1810  the  New  TeU.  ws 
put  on  the  index  of  forbidden  books  at  Koine.  Ii 
I8ST  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  issiieil  the 
gospels  in  parallel  columui  with  the  French  teil,  am' 
in  1841  the  Piedmonlese  version  of  tbe  Psalms,  exeeuie< 
from  Diodati's  Italian  version,  was  publiihed.  Thi 
edition  had  abo,  in  psraliel  columns,  the  Italian  texl 
Of  late,  however,  things  have  changed  fur  the  bettei 
and  the  British  and  Foieign  Bible  Society  now  freely 
drculales  the  Kedmontese  New  Test.,  the  Psalms  with 
the  Italian  text,  and  the  gospels  with  Iba  French,  in  par- 
allel colnoina.  See  fliWe  o/fiWTy  tonJ,  p.  2B6.  (a  P.) 
pjoree.  OAorge  Poator,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  son  of  Dr.  Lovick 
Pierce,  waa  bom  in  Greene  County,  Ga,  I'eb.  B,  1811, 
He  graduated  from  Franklin  College,  Athens,  began  to 
atudy  law,  hnt  waa  aoon  after  converted,  and  in  1831 
wui  received  into  the  Georgia  Conference,  in  which  he 
filled  impostant  ■nwuitnwatB  until  hia  election  aa  pita- 


Ident  of  the  Georgia  Female 
College  at  HacoD  in  1840.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  mem- 
orable General  Conference  of 
1844  Having  returned  to  the 
pastoral  work,  he  was  called 
in  1B4S  to  the  preii<lenc>'  of 
Emort  College,  and  in  1864  to 
the  episcopaci  an  office  which 
he  filled  with  eminent  abilily 
until  his  death  Sept.  3, 1884. 
He  was  a  laborious  pastor,  an 
eloquent  preacher,  and  a  most 
upright  Chnalian.  See  Mo- 
ult* n/Aimuat  Can/rtttKfi  rif 
Ike  At  t  Church  South,  IjBi. 
p  laZ  Simpson,  Cgdop.  of 
Mrlhodim,  B.  \ 

Plaroe  Iiovlck,  D.D..  a 
distingnished  minister  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Chiuth 
South,  was  bom  in  Holibx 
County,  N.  C.  March  24, 178^. 
In  early  chililliood  he  removed  with  hia  parents  to  South 
Carolini)  in  1803  was  converted;  in  1804  began  to 
preach;  and  Jan.  1, 1805,  entered  the  South  Carolina 
Conference^  In  it  he  served  Pedee  Circuit :  Apalachee 
Circuit, Ga.;  in  1807  Augusta  Stalion;  in  ISOSwasmade 
presiding  elder;  in  1812,  whHe  stationed  at  Milledge- 
ville,  he  waa  drafted  to  serve  as  ■  soUicr,  bat  was  soon 
commissioned  as  chaplain,  in  which  capacity  he  acted 
during  the  war;  about  that  lime  he  studied  medicine, 
and,reliringfromthocoiiference,  followed  its  practice  for 
about  six  yean.  In  18!3  he  re-entered  the  eSerlive 
ranks,  and  was  stsliuned  at  Augusta.  From  that  time 
ha  lllied  the  chief  appointments.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  first  General  ConCere nee,  which  met  in  1819,  and 
was  always  elected  to  represent  his  conference  in  the 
General  Conferences.  He  read  much  and  wrote  a 
great  deal;  was  alwava  readv,  clear,  cogent,  coherent, 
and  powerfuL  He  d'ied  at  ihe  residenn!  of  his  son, 
bishop  PierccinSparta.Ga.,  Nov.  11,1879.  See  JfiV 
ula  o/ Annual  Cmftrencri  of  the  M.  E.  Chvrch  South. 
1879,  p.88;  Simpson,  CjcIqp.o/JfrtioiiiBn,  s,  V. 

Plfliiaa,  Ubbax  (originally  Bimbauni),  a  Protes- 
tant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Schwedt,  Fom- 
erania,  in  IMfl.  He  studied  law  and  theology,  was  for 
•ome  lime  doctor  ind  professor  of  tbeokigy  at  Frank- 
fort, afterwards  pastor  at  Brandenburg,  and  superin- 
tendent St  Cllstrin.  In  IMS  he  was  appointed  auper- 
inlendent  at  Dresden,  and  in  the  same  year  professor 
of  theology  and  general  superintendent  at  Wittenberg. 

prisoned,  but  was  finally  released  at  the  intercession  of 
queen  Eiiubeth  of  En|;Iand.  Pieriua  then  went  to 
Bremen,  and  died  Hay  1%  1616,  superintendent.  He 
wrote,  7"(pHJ  Dodrina  Orthodi-ia  de  Fenona  H  Officio 
CkritH  :—Examtn  und  Erldultrung  der  in  der  Lekhen- 
prtdigt  A'ic.  CrtWi  Jirgrbrachttn  tmm  Rrligvm*-Strnr- 
tigktittn: — Apologia  trnd  Veraiihtortung  dei  Uber  ^icoL 
CrtU  naeh  gthallener  Lficietpredigi  angtil^tten  Exami- 
■u.  SeeWiner,?<ndftucAdn-lA»i./.iy.i,7D9;  JOcher, 
AUgeineimet  Gdehrten-Lexiion,  s.  r.     (B.  P.) 

Flaire,  Jkah  Hknri  Graxu,  D.D.,  a  minister  of 
the  National  Beformed  Church  of  France,  was  bom  at 
Neufchntel,  Switzerland,  lowants  Ihe  close  of  the  last 
IS  educated  at  Neufchatel  and  at  the 
ny ;  was  called  to  be 
ith  Tinec  at  Baslr,  in  18-:^,  where 
his  piety,  leal,  and  eloquence  were  the  means  of  an  ex- 
tensive revival  of  religion.  In  1827  he  was  called  to 
Parii  to  take  charge  of  the  House  of  MiuioiiH,  virtually 
a  theological  seminar^-,  in  which  Ur.  Pierre  also  acted 
aa  profesior  of  theology  and  languages,  being  a  flne 


Univernty  of  Tllbin| 


PIETISTS 


770 


PIQUET 


eventoallf  called  to  L'OratdTe,  the  great  Protestant 
Cbarch  of  Paris,  where  he  remained  for  twenty  years. 
While  Yinet  was  compared  to  Pascal,  and  Adolph 
Monod  to  Saarin,  Dr.  Grand  Pierre  was  called  the 
Bourdaloae  of  the  revivaL  He  vinted  America  in 
1870  in  order  to  attend  the  Evangelical  Alliance.  He 
died  near  Basle,  Switzerland,  July  10, 1874.  Dr.  Pierre 
published  a  considerable  number  of  works,  commenta- 
ries, sermons,  etc.,  which  had  a  wide  circulation.  His 
last  production  was  a  volume  of  sermons  dedicated  to 
his  former  parishioners.  For  many  years  he  was  edi- 
tor of  VEteperanoe^  the  principal  religions  paper  of  the 
orthodox  Protestants  of  France.  See  (N.  Y.)  Preaby- 
terian,  Aug.  8, 1874.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Pietists,  Catholic,  a  name  which  was  applied  to 
th»  brethren  and  sisters  of  the  pioos  and  Christian 
schools  founded  by  Nicholas  Barre  in  1678.-  They  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  education  of  poor  children  of 
both  sexes. 

Pikullos  (Pikollos,  or  Potollos)  was  the  de- 
stroying principle,  the  third  person  of  the  trinity  among 
the  Lithuanians,  or  ancient  heathen  Prussians,  being 
the  opposite  of  Potrimpos,  the  preserving  principle.  An 
image  of  this  god  stood  at  Koroowe,  in  a  hollow  of  the 
sacred  oak-tree.  He  was  represented  as  an  old  beard- 
ed man  with  pale  face,  the  head  bound  by  a  white 
cloth.  Three  skulls,  one  of  a  man,  another  of  a  horse, 
and  the  third  of  a  bull,  were  his  symbols.  Human  be- 
ings, cattle,  horses,  and  goats,  were  sacrificed  to  him, 
and  their  blood  was  poured  out  at  the  foot  of  the  great 
oak-tree  to  cause  its  constant  growth.  Potrimpos  was 
loved,  Pikullos  feared.  He  found  joy  in  men's  misery. 
He  was  not  worshipped  among  other  nations,  but  was 
compared  with  Pluto,  and  with  the  moon,  lAke,  Hel, 
and  Odin  of  the  Scandinavians. 

Pilet,  Jkan  Alexandre  Samuet^  a  Reformed  the- 
ologian, was  bom  at  Tverdon,  Switzerland,  Sept.  19, 
1797.  He  studied  at  Lausanne,  and  was  ordained  in 
1821.  In  the  same  year  he  was  called  to  Merges  as 
director  of  the  college,  and  in  1828  succeeded  Louis 
Henri  Manuel  as  pastor  of  the  French  Reformed  Church 
at  Frankfort -on- the -Main.  In  1884  he  returned  to 
Switzerland,  and  was  in  1836  appointed  professor  of 
Biblical  literature  at  Genoa.  He  died  April  5, 1865. 
Pilet  was  one  of  the  Old-Test  translators  of  the  French 
Bible,  called  the  Ver*um  de  Lausanne,  See  ChrSfien 
EvangHique  (1868) ;  A.  De  Montet,  Dictum.  Biogr,  det 
Genevois  et  det  Vaudoia  qui  se  $ont  DiMinguis^  etc  (Lau- 
sanne, 1878) ;  Uchtenberger,  Eneydop,  det  Sciencet  Re- 
liffieutetf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Pilgrims,  Poor,  an  order  of  Roman  Catholic  devo- 
tees, which  originated  about  the  year  1500.  They 
commenced  in  Italy,  but  passed  into  Germany,  where 
they  wandered  about  as  mendicants,  barefooted  and 
bareheaded. 

Pilxnore,  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Moray,  April  3,  1325,  and  continued  bishop 
there  for  thirty-seven  years.  He  died  in  the  castle 
of  Spynie  in  1862.  See  Keith,  ScoUith  Bithopt,  p. 
140,  187. 

Pin  (acut)  in  ecclesiastical  use.  Pins  made  of 
precious  metal,  and,  in  later  roediieval  times,  enriched 
with  jewels,  were  used  for  attaching  the  archiepiscopal 
(or  papal)  pallium  to  the  planeta  or  casnla  (chasuble). 
The  eariiest  mention  of  these  is,  probably,  the  descrip- 
tion given  by  Joannes  Diaconus  of  the  pallium  of  Greg- 
ory' the  Great.  Their  first  use,  therefore,  must  probably 
date  between  the  close  of  the  6th  and  the  beginning  of 
the  9th  century.  Innocent  assigns  to  these  pins  a  cer- 
tain mystical  significance.  See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Ckritt, 
Antiq,  8.  V.  "Acus." 

Pinckney,  Miles.    See  Carr,  Thomas  (1). 

Pinkerton,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Scoteh  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  1780.  He  left  Scotland  in  1805 
as  missionary  among  the  tribes  of  the  Caucasus^  under 


the  patronage  of  the  Edinburgh  Missionary  Society. 
In  1809  he  took  np  his  residence  at  Moscow,  and,  in 
company  with  Drs.  Paterson  and  Henderson,  undertook 
the  visitation  of  the  Russian  empire  with  the  view  of 
putting  the  Bible  into  universal  circulation.  When 
those  labors  were  suspended  by  imperial  authority,  Dr. 
Pinkerton  travelled  over  the  entire  continent  of  Europe 
for  the  purpose  of  organizing  societies  for  the  dissemi- 
nation of  the  Bible,  both  in  Protestant  and  Catholic 
countries.  He  died  April  7, 18&9.  See  (Load.)  Canff, 
Year-hook,  1860,  p.  204. 

Pinkham,  Johk,  a  veteran  Free-will  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Dover,  N.  H.,  Jan.  Sfi,  1808.  When  he 
was  two  years  of  age  his  parents  moved  to  Casco,  Me., 
where  he  was  converted  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  at 
eighteen  became  a  public  ezhorter.  In  1880  he  waa 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Sandwich,  N.  H., 
where  he  remained  for  seven  years,  and  then  removed 
to  Gilford,  where,  for  eight  years,  his  labors  were  great- 
ly blessed.  His  next  settlement,  of  five  years,  was  at 
Alton.  He  was,  for  the  next  two  years,  a  resident  of 
Dover,  and  spent  most  of  the  time  in  assisting  pastors 
in  revival  work.  He  then  returned  to  Casco,  chiefly 
occupied  as  an  evangelist.  He  died  there,  Jan.  8, 1882. 
Sec  Morning  Star,  March  1, 1882.     (J.  a  S.) 

Pinkney,  William,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop,  was  bom  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  April 
17, 1810.  After  graduating  from  St.  John's  College^  in 
his  native  city,  be  became  a  rector  in  SomerMt  County 
in  1836,  at  Bladensbuig  in  1888,  and  at  Washington  in 
1856;  was  consecrated  assistant  bishop  of  Maryland 
Oct.  6, 1870,  and  became  sole  bishop  Oct.  17, 1879!  He 
died  July  4, 1883.  Bishop  Pinkney  was  decidedly  evan- 
gelicaL 

Pinner,  Moses,  a  Jewish  author,  who  died  at  Ber- 
lin in  1880,  doctor  of  philosophy,  is  the  author  of,  Ccm*. 
pendium  det  babglomtehen  Talmud  (Berlin,  1832):  — 
Talmud  Babli  Tractat  Berackot  mit  interptinctirtaH 
Texte,  mii  hdnr.  Commeniar  nebet  deuttcker  Uebertetzung 
(1842): — Pi'Otpectut  der  aUen  kebr.vnd  rabbimtekgm 
Manutcripie  nebtt  einem  Ftustimile  det  Propheten  Hor- 
babtk  (Odessa,  1845):  — O/oie*  Sendtckreiben  am  die 
Nationen  Europa^t  und  an  die  StSnde  Norwegen't  (184B)  : 
— A\\fruf  an  die  ortkodoxen  Babbiner  Europa^t  (1858) : 
— Getckiekte  der  neuen  Reformen  der  jUd,  Gemeinde  in 
Berlin  und  ikre  Bekdmp/ung  (1857).  See  Fttrst,  BibL 
Jud.  ui,  108:  Zuchold,  BibU  TkeoL  ii,  996.     (a  P.) 

Pinney,  John  Brooke,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec.  25,  1^06. 
He  graduated  from  the  University  of  Georgia  in  1828, 
having  studied  law  while  in  college;  graduated  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1832;  was  ordained 
by  the  Presbytery  of  Philadelphia  the  same  year,  and 
soon  after  went  to  Africa  in  the  service  of  the  American 
Colonization  Society  as  agent  for  the  colony  of  Liberia. 
He  returned  in  1847,  and  was  installed  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  at  Washington,  Pa^  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  appointment  as  secretary  of  the  New 
York  State  Colonization  Society,  a  position  which  he 
occupied  from  1848  to  1863,  and  again  several  yeaia 
later.  He  made  two  visits  to  Africa  to  promote  the  in- 
teresta  of  the  colony  of  Idbeiia.  His  entire  life  was  de- 
voted to  the  welftre  of  the  African  race,  and  he  engaged 
in  his  work  vrith  indomitable  zeal  and  energy.  He  had 
worn  himself  out  long  before  his  end  came,  but,  though 
infirm,  he  labored  to  the  last.  He  died  at  his  planta- 
tion,  near  Ocala,  Fla.,  Dec.  25,  1882,  and  was  buried 
under  the  shade  of  the  oaks  near  his  honse,  six  black 
men  acting  as  pall -bearers.  See  Necrol.  Report  of 
Princeton  Tkeol.  Sem.  1883,  p.  26.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Piquet,  FRANgoia,  an  eminent  Boman  Catholic 
missionary,  was  bom  at  Bourg-en-Brasse,  France,  Dec 
6, 1708.  Having  been  educated  at  the  seminary  of  St. 
Sulpice,  Paris,  he  was  admitted  to  that  order,  and  in 
1738  was  sent  to  Montreal,  of  which  the  Solpicians  were 
the  founders  and  pastors.    In  1740  he  was  plsced  io 


PIRATHON 


777 


PLANCK 


charge  of  the  Iroquois  miasion  at  the  Lake  of  the  Two 
Mountaih&  He  aooompaoied  the  Iroquois  in  their  en- 
suing campaign,  and  tried  to  found  a  mission  at  Otwe- 
gatchie,  but,  protected  by  count  de  la  Gallissonifere  and 
Bigot,  he  began  his  work  on  the  site  of  Ogdensburg,  in 
1749.  The  Mohawks  burned  his  mission  buildings  a 
few  months  after,  but  in  two  years  he  received  three 
thousand  in  Christian  instruction.  In  May,  1762,  a 
bishop  conferred  the  sacraments  for  the  6nt  time  with- 
in the  present  limits  of  New  York  Sute.  The  fall  of 
Canada  approaching,  Piquet,  in  1759,  had  to  abandon 
Oswegatcbie,  and  retired  with  his  converts  to  Grande 
Isle  des  Galops,  where  he  built  a  chapeL  His  register 
closes  July  23, 1760.  He  then  returned  to  Europe,  and 
the  traveller  Bossu  met  him  at  Corunna  in  1762.  In 
France  he  was  occupied  in  various  duties  in  the  Church, 
and  died  at  Yeijon,  July  15,  1781.  See  (N.  Y.)  Caik. 
Almanac,  1877,  p.  60;  De  Courcy  and  Shea,  Ilitt.  of 
the  Caih,  Church  in  the  U,  S,  p.  447. 

Pirathon.  The  modem  FertUa  is  laid  down  on 
the  Ordnance  Map  at  Ave  and  a  half  miles  south-west 
of  NablAs,  and  described  in  the  accompanying  Memain 
( ii,  162 )  as  "  a  small  village  of  ancient  appearance, 
standing  on  a  tell  or  mound,  with  a  rock-cut  tomb  to 
the  south  and  a  sacred  muk&m  to  the  east."  It  has  ''a 
few  cisterns  and  the  remains  of  a  sarcophagus  ^  {ibid. 
p.  285).  Instead  of  this  identification  Lieut.  Conder, 
with  less  probability,  suggests  Ferdn,  lying  ten  miles 
west  of  Sebusdeh,  and  described  (ibid,  p.  164)  as  "  a 
small  village  on  a  slope,  at  the  edge  of  the  plain,  with 
a  few  trees  and  a  well  to  the  cast.  The  inhabitants  are 
all  Greek  Christiana." 

Pizie,  WiLUAH  Robinson.  D.D.,  a  Scotch  divine, 
son  of  Rev.  George  Pirie,  D.D.,  of  Slains,  Aberdeen- 
shire, was  bom  in  that  village,  July  26,  1804,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Abeideen.  He  was  appoin ted 
minister  at  Dyce  in  1880 ;  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
university  of  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1843 ;  minister  at  Greyfriars,  of  the  same  city,  in 
September,  1846;  professor  of  divinity  or  Church  his- 
tory in  united  miiversities,  Marischal  and  King's  col- 
leges, in  1860,  and  in  May,  1877,  principal  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  same,  a  position  which  he  occupied 
until  his  death,  Nov.  4, 1885.  Dr.  Pirie  was  active  in 
every  movement  which  agitated  the  Scottish  Church 
during  the  forty  years  of  his  public  life.  He  was  the 
author  of  Natural  Theology  (£diob.  1868).  See  Faeti 
EceUs.  Scoticanttf  iii,  501. 

Pirksoma,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Greenlanders, 
is  the  goil  to  whom  all  other  deities  are  subordinate, 
and  who  distributes  rewards  or  punishments  according 
to  moral  actions. 

FiBBOBki,  Gbobo  Christoph,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Johannisberg,  Prussia, 
Aug.  23, 1725.  He  studied  at  Konigsbeig,  and  in  1748 
was  teacher  at  the  cathedral  school.  In  1778  he  was 
doctor  of  theology,  and  died  Oct.  II,  1789.  He  wrote, 
Canonica  Librorum  Omnium  Vet.  Testament,  etc.  (Ber- 
lin, 1775) : — Aoyra  rou  dtov  Judaorum  Fidei  C^'tdita, 
etc  (Konigsberg,  1778) : — Bekuchiung  der  aogenannten 
bSbUachen  hdmonohgie  (eod.): — De  Errore  Ireneei  in 
DetermiHanda  jEtaie  Christi  (eod.) : — De  MiracuUme 
Spiritus  SancH  Donis,  etc.  (eod.): — Vindicim  PMoUiuh- 
nim,  etc.  (1779):  —  Advereatia  de  AocommotUuiombut 
Veleris  Ttttamenti,  etc  (1781):— ^n  Liber  Jonae  non 
nistoriam  eed  Fabulam  Contineat  f  (1789).  See  Doring, 
Die  gelehrten  Theolotfen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. ;  ¥^nt,BibL 
/tfci.  ui,  105.    (a  P.) 

Pisoator  (L  e.  Fiaoher),  Pktsr,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  born  at  Hanau,  April  7, 1571. 
He  studied  at  different  universities,  waa  for  some  time 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Jena,  in  1605  professor  of  theology, 
and  died  Jan.  10, 161 1,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  De 
Baptiemo: — De  JEtema  Prtedettinatione  Salvandorum  : 
— Problemata  Sacra  : — Comm,  in  Formulam  Concordia  : 
—  DistertationeM  in  Libroe  Symbolicoe :  —  Qumttionea 


Mieodlanem  I/ebrwh-Chaidao^yriaco^GrtKO-Latina: 
—De  Peeeaio  e  Psalmi  IL  Enarraiiane.  See  Winer, 
Handbuek  der  thtoL  Li/,  i,  840;  Jdcher,  AUgem>einet  Gt^ 
lehrten-JLexikoH,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Piaohon,  Johann  Karl,  a  Reformed  theologian, 
was  bora  at  Cottbus,  in  Lower  Lusatia,  Oct.  12, 1764. 
He  studied  at  HaUe,  was  in  1790  cathedral-preacher 
there,  in  1799  court-preacher  at  Potsdam,  and  died 
Nov.  18,  1805.  He  published  several  volumes  of  ser- 
mons. See  Dc^ring,  Die  deufi<Aen  Kanzelredner^  p.  297 
sq. ;  Winer,  I/amlbtich  der  theol.  Lit.  ii,  62, 96,  149,  222, 
292,  828,  881.     (h.  P.) 

PiaoictUl  (little  JUhes),  a  name  which  the  early 
Christians  sometimes  assumed,  to  denote,  as  Tertullian 
alleges,  that  they  were  born  again  into  Christianity  by 
water,  and  could  not  be  saved  but  by  continuing  there- 
in.   See  IcHTHUS. 

PiatOrte  (balcers)  was  a  term  of  reproach  applied 
to  the  early  Christians  in  consequence  of  their  poverty 
and  simplicity. 

Piatoxina,  HaBacAiiN  Alexaxdkk,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  Aug.  27, 1811,  at  Wal- 
beck.  He  studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1848  preacher  at 
SUpplingen,  near  Magdeburg,  and  made  himself  con- 
spicuous by  his  opposition  against  the  so-called  Friends 
of  Light  (q.  v.),  and  by  advocating  the  right  of  the  Ln- 
theran  Church  in  the  State  Church  of  Prussia.  In 
1849  he  left  the  State  Church,  having  the  year  before 
published  Avfrvf  an  alle  Lutheraner  inmerhalb  der 
preuMgiecktH  Landeekirchf,  became  Lutheran  preacher 
at  Weraigerode,  afterwards  at  WolUn,  and  finally  su- 
perintendent at  Breslau,  where  he  had  to  pass  through 
many  trialsi  In  1863  he  was  called  to  Basedow,  Bleck- 
lenburg,  and  died  April  27, 1877.  He  published,  Dae 
chriitliche  Leben  in  Liedern  (Dresden,  1840) : — Was  und 
wo  iet  die  lutheritche  Kirche9  (Msgdeburg,  1844): — 
Richtige  Erkldrung  der  Dibelstellen,  etc  (1846) : — Ueber 
Krq/i  vnd  Form  der  Abeolution  (Leipsic,  1858).  See 
Zucbold,  J9»ML  TAeoiL  ii,  998  sq.    (a  P.) 

Pitliom.  This  has  recently  been  identified  by 
Edouard  Naville,who  has  carried  on  excavations  under 
the  auspices  of  the  **  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,"  with 
Tell  d-Maekhutah,  or  Abu  Ketheid  (usually  thought  to 
be  the  site  of  Heroopolis),  and  he  has  published  the 
results  of  his  explorations  in  a  volume  entitled  The 
Store^y  of  PHhom  (Lond.  1885).  The  identification 
rests  chiefly  on  the  discovery,  upon  the  spot,  of  a  statue 
of  a  squatting  man,  in  red  granite,  the  lieutenant  of 
king  Osorkon  II,  "Ank-renp-nefer,  the  good  recorder 
of  Pithom  "  (p.  4, 5, 18),  together  with  an  inscription  on 
a  large  monument  of  Rameses  at  Ismaileh,  containing 
the  words  **  the  lord  of  Theku,  of  Sucooth."  This  is 
certainly  somewhat  slender  ground,  but  it  may  per- 
haps be  provisionally  accepted  for  the  present.  Mr. 
Naville  found  the  remains  of  what  he  regards  as  a 
large  temple  with  numerous  chambers,  indicating  the 
existence  of  a  city  there  in  ancient  times,  but  he  was 
unable  to  make  out  its  plans,  or  to  unearth  it  to  any 
great  extent. 

Pitiacua,  Martih  Frikdrich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1721.  In 
1756  be  was  preacher  at  his  birthplace,  in  1768  professor 
of  Oriental  languages,  and  died  Nov.  18,  1794.  He 
wrote,  Vertuch  von  der  Religion  der  StammeiUm  dee 
mentchlichen  Geechlechte  (Hamburg,  1768) : — Eximiutn 
Divinte  Sapientia  Specimen  (1763): — Ueber  den  Kanon 
der  BOcher  dee  Alten  Testaments  (1776):— Zur  Beur^ 
theUtatg  der  von  Herm  Hofrath  Lesehtg  herausgegebenen 
Fragmente  einee  Ungenamtten  von  Duldung  der  Deisten 
(1779).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutsche 
lands,  s.  v. ;  FOrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  106.     (R  P.) 

Planck,  Karl  Christian,  a  philosophical  writer 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Stuttgart,  Jan.  17, 1819.  He 
studied  theology  at  Tubingen,  and  commenced  his  aca- 
demical career  in  1848  as  lecturer  in  philosophy.     In 


PLATT 


778 


PLUMER 


1856  be  was  profeasor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Ulm,  in 
1869  at  the  seminary  in  Blaubeuren,  in  1879  ephoras 
of  the  seminary  at  Maulbronn,  and  died  June  7, 1880. 
He  published,  Geietz  und  Ziel  der  neueren  Kunttent' 
wicMung  (Stuttgart,  1870)  i—Sede  und  Geitt  (1871) :— 
WahrheU  und  FlachheU  des  Dancvmmui  (1872):— 
Grundiw  der  Logik  (1878) : — Anihropohgie  vnd  /yjf- 
chohffie  (1874) : — Loffisches  Causal ffetetz  und  ncUUrliche 
Zweckthdtigheit  (1877): ---Ziel  und  Eniwichelungngetetz 
der  alien  PhUosophie  (1877) : — Teslcanent  einet  Deutschen 
(edited  after  the  author's  death  by  K.  Kostlin,  Tubin- 
gen, 1881).     (a  P.) 

Piatt,  Jambs  McClurb,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Athens,  Pa.,  Dec  31, 1826.  He  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York  in 
1847,  and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1853 ; 
became  pastor  at  Lawesville,  O.,  the  same  year;  at 
Leetsdale,  Pa.,  in  1867;  and  at  Bath,  N.  Y.,'in  1869, 
where  he  died,  April  14, 1884.  See  NecroL  Report  of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sent,  1885,  p.  47. 

Plesken,  Meinhaiu>,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Bremen,  June  8, 1696.  He  stud- 
ied at  Wittenberg.  In  1720  he  was  called  as  sub-rector 
to  the  cathedral  school  of  his  birthplace,  in  1725  as  pas- 
tor to  Stade,  in  1788  he  was  member  of  consistory',  in 
1743  general  superintendent,  and  in  1748  doctor  of  the- 
ology. Plesken  died  May  80,  1757,  leaving,  Judas 
Iscariotes  Sacrcs  Euchaiistia  Cotwivtts  (Bremen,  1716) : 
— />e  Columms  Aeneis  Jadtin  ei  Boas  (1719):  — Z>« 
Benjamino  Parvo  (1720)  x—De  Ifomine,  in  Cvjus  Naso 
est  Spiritus  (eod.)  :—De  Qutbnsdam  pro  Ezistentia  Dei 
Argument  SoUieitcUis  (1725).  See  Doring,  Die  ge- 
lehrten  Theohgen  Deutschlands,  s.  v.;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud, 
iii,  107.     (R  P.) 

Pleasing,  Johaxx  Fribdrich,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  born  at  Conitz,  Prussia,  Oct<  28, 
1720.  He  studied  at  Jena  and  Leipsic,  was  in  1746 
preacher  at  C5then,  in  1764  at  Wernigerode,  and  died 
pec.  81, 1793.  He  wrote,  Versuch  vom  Ur sprung  der 
Abgotterei  (Leipsic,  1757-58,  2  vols.):  —  Die  Avferste^ 
hungS'Geschichte  Jesu  Christi  (1785;  2d  ed.  1788):— 
Harmonische  Geschichte  der  Auferstehung  Jesu  Christi 
(Wernigerode,  1789) :— r/«&er  Golgotha  und  Christi 
Grab  (Halle,  eod.).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theolo^ 
yen  Deutschkmdsy  s.  v. ;  Winer,  I/andbuch  der  theol,  IM, 
i,  560, 661.     (a  P.) 

Pleaaner,  Solomon,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Germany, 
was  born  at  Breslau,  April  19,  1797.  He  received  a 
thorough  rabbinic  education,  was  in  1822  instructor  of 
religion  at  Festenberg,  Silesia,  in  1830  instructor  at  the 
teacher's  seminary  in  Berlin,  and  died  at  Posen,  Aug. 
25, 1888,  where  he  had  acted  as  rabbi  for  nearly  forty 
years.  He  is  the  author  of,  Die  apocryphischen  Ditcher 
des  A  lien  TestametUs  ifCs  IMrSische  Ubirsetzt^  etc  (Bres- 
lau, 1883) :  —  Materialien  filr  tiefere  Einblidee  in  das 
AUe  Testament  und  die  rablnnischen  Schrifien  (Berlin, 
1886),  also  with  the  title  Belehrungen  u.  Erhauungen 
(ibid,  eod.): — Die  hostbare  Perle  oder  das  Gd>et  (1887- 
ifi)i-^Jiitiseh'Mositischer  Religionsunierrichi  (1888- 
Z^y.—Rdigiose  VortrSge  (1B40) :  —  Festreden  (1841). 
See  Farst,  BibU  Jud.  iii,  107.     {K  P.) 

Flitt,  Ghiatav  Leopold,  a  noted  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  March  27, 1836,  at  Genin, 
near  Lubeck.  He  studied  at  Erlangen  and  Berlin, 
and  commenced  his  theological  career  at  the  former 
place  in  1862.  In  1866  he  was  made  professor,  and  in 
1872  doctor  of  theology.  He  died  Sept.  10, 1880.  Plitt, 
who  is  best  known  as  the  associate  editor  of  the  second 
edition  of  Herzog's  Real-  Encykhpadie  fur  Protestan- 
tische  Theologie  und  Kirche^  published  the  following 
works:  De  Auctoritafe  Articulorum  Smalcaldicorum 
Symbolica  (Erlangen,  1852)  :—Festpredigten  des  heiUgen 
Remhard  (I860):  —  Mehnchthon^s  Loci  Communes  in 
ihrer  Urgestalt  (1864): — Einleiiung  in  die  Avgustana 
(1867-68,  2  vols.):  — i4tf«  ScheUing's  Leben  in  Brie/en 
(1869-70, 8  vols.) :— />m  A  Ibrtchtsleute  oder  die  Evange- 


Utche  Gemeinscha/l  (1877):— Z>m  Apohgie  der  Augu- 
stana  (1878) : — Grundtiss  der  SgmboWt/Ur  Vorlesungesi 
(1875): — Jodokus  Trutfdier  von  Eisenach^  der  Lekrer 
Luther's  (1876) :— <7a5rW  Biel  als  Prediger  (1879):— 
Dr,  Martin  Luthet^s  Leben  und  Wirken  (edited  after 
Plitt*s  death  by  Petenen,  Leipsic,  1883).  See  Plitt^ 
Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Flitt,  Johann  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  27,  1727,  at  Wetter,  Hease. 
He  studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1749  preacher  at  Cassel,  in 
1755  professor  at  Rinteln,  in  1762  preacher  at  Fiank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  and  died  April  7, 1773,  doctor  of  the- 
ology. He  wrote,  De  Gloria  Dei  in  Promulgatione 
Legis  Sinaiticce  (Gottingen,  1755):  —  De  Nexu  inter 
Bonitatem  Dei  Infimiam  et  Justitiam  ejus  Punitiram 
Arctissimo  (1756): — De  Vero  Conceptu  Ceremoma  Re^ 
ligionis  (Rinteln,  1759): — Testimonia  Quorundam  Ec- 
clesia  Patrum  pro  Baptisma  Infantum  (1760): — De 
Pceni/entia  Caini  (1761) : — Theohgische  Uniersuchungen 
(1764-71,8  vols.);  besides  he  published  a  number  of 
sermons  and  other  ascetical  works.  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theohgen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Hand- 
buch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  451.     (K  P.) 

Plmn,  Fribdrich,  a  Danish  Lutheran  theologian, 
who  died  at  Oilensee,  Jan.  18, 1883,  doctor  of  theology 
and  bishop  of  Funen,  is  the  author  of,  Elfteredninger  am 
den  udenlandske  nyere  theologiske  og  pastorale  Litteratur^ 
etc.  (Copenhagen,  1818  w(\!)i—Observationes  tn  Textum 
et  Versiones  Afaxime  Grtecas  Obadia  et  ffabacuci  (1796). 
Sec  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  12,  224;  FUrst, 
BibL  Jud.m,  107.     (a  P.) 

Plumb,  Elijah  Whiton,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Halifax,  Yl,  July  28, 1798.  He 
attended  Hopkins  Academy  at  Hadley,  Mass.;  spent  one 
year  in  Harvard  College ;  graduated  from  Middlebur>> 
College  in  1824;  taught  school  the  next  two  years  in 
Brattleboro',  Yt. ;  from  1826  to  1828  was  similarly  em- 
ployed in  Hampton,  N.H.;  studied  theology  with  Daniel 
Dana,  D.D.,  of  Newbury  port;  was  ordained  pastor,  May 
18,  1831,  at  Pawlet,  Yu,  and  dismissed  Oct.  29, 1845; 
from  1846  to  1851  was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Potsdam,  N.  Y. ;  in  1853  became  principal  of  St.  Law- 
rence Academy ;  and  from  1864  to  1867  was  acting  pas- 
tor in  Sterling,  111.  The  two  succeeding  years  be  re- 
sided at  Potsdam  without  charge,  and  then  removed  to 
East  Bloomdeld,  which  was  his  residence  until  his  death, 
July  12, 1879.     See  Cong,  Tear-hook^  1879,  p.  26. 

Flumer,  William  Swan,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  bom  at  Greensburg  (now  Darlington), 
Beaver  Co.,  Pa.,  July  26,  1802.  He  graduated  from 
Washington  College,  Ya.,  in  1825,  and  from  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  in  1827 ;  having  been  licensed  to 
preach  in  1826,  he  soon  after  organized  a  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Danville,  subsequently  another  at  Warren- 
ton,  N.  C,  and  preached  also  at  Raleigh,  Washington, 
and  Ncwbern,  in  the  same  state.  In  1884  he  became 
a  pastor  in  Richmond,  Ya.,  and  in  1837  founded  the 
Watchman  of  the  Souths  a  weekly  religious  joumal, 
which  he  edited  for  eight  years.  The  same  year  he 
removed  as  pastor  to  Baltimore,  Md.  In  1854  he  be- 
came professor  of  didactic  and  pastoral  theology  in  the 
Western  Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny  City,  Pa.; 
in  1866  was  called  to  the  chair  of  theolog}'  in  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Columbia,  S.C.,  where  he  remained 
until  it  was  closed  in  1880.  He  died  at  the  Union 
Protesunt  Infirmary,  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  22  of  the  seme 
year.  Dr.  Plumer  was  the  author  of  many  excellent 
works,  among  which  are,  A  rgument  Against  the  Indigo 
criminate  Incorporation  of  Churches  and  Religious  So^ 
cieties  (1847,  8vo):  — TAe  Bible  True,  and  In/ideiit$ 
Wicked  (New  York,  18mo):— P^m  Thoughts  for  CkiU 
dren  (Philadelphia,  ISmo)  i-^Short  Sermons  to  UitU 
Children  (18mo)  -.^Thoughts  Worth  Remembering  (New 
York,  8vo)  -.—The  Saint  and  the  Sinner  (Philadelphia, 
18mo):^7Vie  Grace  of  Christ  (1858,  12mo):~AoiiM 
Against  the  Bible  and  the  BibU  Against  Rome  (1854r 


PLUNKET 


779 


POLYANDER 


ISnoo)  i—Chi-ist  our  Theme  and  Gldry  (1855,  8ro):— 
The  Church  and  her  Enemies  (Philadelphia,  1856, 18mo) : 
— The  IjOvo  of  God  a»  Contained  in  the  Ten  Command^ 
menu  (ibid.  1864,  l2mo):—VUal  GodUneu  (New  York, 
1865,  12mo):  — JeAovoA  Jirek  (Philadelphia,  1866, 
12mo)  :-^Studies  in  the  Book  of  Ptalms  (1866)  i—The 
Rock  of  our  Salvation  (New  York,  1867, 12mo):— TVm 
Words  of  Truth  and  Love  (Philadelphia,  1868, 18mo) : 
— alflo  commentaries  on  the  epiatlea  to  the  Romans  and 
Hebrews,  works  of  great  merit : — ^besides  Memoirs  and 
Select  Remains  of  WilUam  Nevins,  D,D.  (1836, 12roo): 
— ^and  an  abridgment  of  Stevenson  on  the  Offices  of 
Christ  (Philadelphia,  1837, 16mo).  He  wrote  more  than 
fifty  religious  tracts,  issued  by  six  religious  societies, 
several  single  sermons,  and  oontriboted  largely  to  vari- 
ous religious  journals  and  papers.  See  Necrol,  Report 
of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  20;  Allibone,  Did,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  a.  y. 

Flunket,  Thomas  Lord,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Church  of  Ireland,  was  bom  in  1799,  being  the  eldest 
son  of  William  Conyngham  Plunket,  the  Irish  chan- 
cellor, distinguished  at  a  lawyer,  an  orator,  and  a  states- 
man, and  whom  he  succeeded  as  second  baron  in  1854. 
Dr.  Plunket  was  appointed  dean  of  Down  in  1831,  and 
promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Tuam  in  1839.  He  be- 
came ecclesiasUcal  commissioner  in  1851,  and  died  at 
Tourmakready,  County  Mayo,  Oct.  19,  1866,  being  at 
the  time  patron  of  ninety-five  livings  in  bis  united  dio- 
cese of  Tuam,  Killala,  and  Achonr}*.  He  was  an  inde- 
fatigable laborer  in  the  missionary  department  of  his 
work,  especially  in  Connaught.  See  A  mer,  Quar,  Church 
Ret.  January,  1867,  p.  655. 

Pluquet,  Frak^ois  Akdb^  Adrikv,  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal writer  of  France,  was  born  at  Baycux  in  1716.  He 
was  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  College  de  France, 
canon  of  Cambray,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1790.  He  pub- 
lished, Examen  du  Fatalisme  (Paris,  1757,  2  vols.) : — 
Didionnaire  dee  llerisies^  des  Erreurs  et  dta  Schismes 
(1762,  2  vols.) : — Essai  PhUosophique  et  Politique  sur  le 
Luxe  (1786):— /)e  la  Superstition  et  de  V  Enthousiaeme 
(published  after  his  death,  1804).  See  Lichtenberger, 
Encychp,  des  Sciences  Reliffieuses^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Pogatschar,  Johasi nks,  prince  bishop  of  Laybach, 
was  bom  at  Brezov,  Jan.  22, 1811.  From  1838  to  1852 
he  occupied  the  theological  chair  at  the  Laybach  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  was  made  prince  bishop  in  1875,  and 
died  Jan.  25,  1884.  For  many  years  he  edited  the 
Laybach  Church  GazettCftLnd  in  the  ecclesiastico-politi- 
cal  affairs  he  sided  with  the  Austrian  government  in 
behalf  of  the  new  school-laws.     (B.  P.) 

Poblman,  Hknrt  Nkwman,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran 
minister,  was  bom  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  March  8, 1800.  In 
August,  1820,  he  graduated  from  Hartwick  Seminary 
—  the  first  stadent  in  the  first  Lutheran  theological 
seminary  in  the  United  States.  In  March  following  he 
received  license  to  preach  in  Khinebeck,  and  in  May 
was  ordained  in  New  York  city.  After  serving  a  few 
months  in  two  small  churohes  at  Saddle  Biver  and 
Kamapo,  N.  J.,  he  took  charge  of  the  Lutheran  churches 
in  Hunterdon  County,  which  at  that  time  numbered 
three,  many  miles  apart.  For  twenty-one  years  he 
continued  in  this  work,  until  each  of  these  congrega- 
tions was  able  to  support  its  own  pastor.  The  great 
event  of  hu  ministerial  life  was  a  remarkable  revival 
of  religion  at  New  Germantown  during  the  winter  of 
1839-40.  In  1843  he  became  pastor  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Ebenezer  Church  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  re- 
mained in  this  pastorate  about  three  years.  Of  the 
General  Synod  he  was  three  times  elected  president, 
and  was  a  delegate  from  1836  to  every  meeting  of  that 
body.  At  the  time  of  his  admission  to  the  ministry  the 
General  Synod  had  just  been  formed,  and  the  New  York 
Minister! um,  a  party  to  the  original  convention,  had 
already  withdrawn.  This  led  to  the  creation  of  two 
parties  in  the  ministerium,  resulting  in  1830  in  the 
formation  of  the  Hartwick  Synod.    Dr.  Poblman,  with 


a  few  other  friends  of  the  General  Synod,  decideil  to 
remain  with  the  ministerium ;  and  in  1886  the  minis- 
terium renewed  its  connection  with  the  General  Svnod. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  work  of  organizing 
churches.  On  Sept  8, 1867,  after  the  New  York  Minis- 
terium had  decided  to  withdraw  from  the  General  Syn- 
od, a  new  synod  was  organized,  and  Dr.  Pohlman  was 
elected  its  first  president,  and  held  this  position  un- 
til his  death  in  Albany,  Jan.  20, 1874.  For  many  years 
he  was  a  trustee  of  the  State  Idiot  Asylum  at  Syracuse. 
During  thirty  years  he  was  a  trustee  of  Hartwick  Sem- 
inary. For  three  years  he  assumed  the  duties  of  cor- 
responding secretary  of  the  Lutheran  Mission  Board  in 
New  York,  and  for  some  time  afterwards  was  an  active 
member  of  the  executive  committee.  See  Quar,  Rev. 
ofEvang,  Luth,  Churchy  iv,  359. 

Poihdexter,  Abram  Maer,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  divine, 
was  bora  in  Bertie  County,  N.  a,  Sept.  22, 1809.  He 
studied  at  Columbian  College,  Washington,  D.  C,  but 
did  not  graduate.  He  united  with  the  Church  in  1831, 
was  licensed  in  1832,  and  ordained  in  1834.  Most  of 
his  life  was  spent  in  Halifax  County,  Va.  For  a  time 
he  acted  as  financial  agent  of  Columbian  and  Kichmond 
Colleges,  was  secretary  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Pub- 
lication Society,  and  officially  connected  with  the  For- 
eign Mission  Board  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention. 
He  died  May  7, 1872.  Dr.  Poindexter  ranked  high  as 
a  preacher,  especially  on  occasions  where  a  large  body 
of  the  people  were  assembled.  He  was  also  distin- 
guished as  a  moat  skilful  debater.  See  Cathcart,  Bap- 
tist Eneydop.  p.  924.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Polanns,  Amaiidur,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was  bora 
at  Oppeln,  Silesia,  in  1561,  and  died  at  Basle  in  1610, 
professor  of  theology  and  Old-TesL  exegesis.  Polanus 
was  one  of  the  ornaments  of  the  Basle  University,  and 
wrote.  Analysis  Malachios  (Basle,  1597): — Commenfa- 
rius  in  Daniekm  (Ib9&):—Anafjfsis  Hosea  (1601)  — 
Commentarius  in  Ezechielem  (1007) :— Exegesis  Aliquot 
yaticiniorum  Vderis  Teetamenti  de  Chridi  Nativitafef 
Passione  d  Morte^  Resurrediome  d  Adscensu  in  Ccelo 
(1608):— Z>s  jEtema  Dei  Prcedestinatione  (1600):— 
Symphonia  Catholica  (1607) : — Theses  Bdiarminio  po- 
tissimum  Oppositm  (publbhed  after  Polanus's  death  by 
J.  G.  Grosse,  1613) : — Institutiones  de  Concionum  Sacra- 
rum  Mdhodo  (1604)  '.^Syntagma  Theologia  Chridiana 
(1612).  See  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  Re^ 
ligieuseSf  s.  v.;  Jocher,  A llyemeines  Gelehrien-Lexikon, 
a,  V.    (B.  P.) 

P61e%  AicciEirr  Mttroixkit  of  the.  The  Poles, 
a  Slavic  people,  had  a  religious  system  agreeing  with 
that  of  other  Slavonic  mythologies,  and  it  is  an  error  to 
call  them  fire-worshippers,  or  to  say  they  worshipped 
Roman  gods,  as  some  aflirro.  Gnesen,  the  capital  of 
Poland,  the  seat  of  prince  Primas,  contained  a  row  of 
great  temples,  of  which  now  only  a  few  traces  may  be 
found.  There  stood  the  temple  of  Nija,  the  god  of  the 
soul;  of  Perun,  the  god  of  thunder,  etc  There  the 
principal  gods  of  Slavonic  heathendom  were  worshipped 
with  bloody  sacrifices.  This  warlike  nation  had  many 
gods  of  war,  but  some  superintended  also  domestic  con- 
cerns. 

Poliflh  Version  or  thk  Scriptures.  The  re- 
vision of  the  New  Test  from  the  Greek,  undertaken  for 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  1878,  by 
Messrs.  Manitius,  Diehl,  Poplooski,  and  Fecht,  of  War- 
saw, was  completed  in  1881,  and  an  edition  of  five 
thousand  copies  was  published  at  Vienna  under  the 
care  of  the  Bible  society's  agent,  Mr.  £.  Millard.  See 
Slavonic  Version.    (B.  P.)     -» 

Polyander,  Johann,  a  Reformed  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Bletz,  March  28, 1568.  He  studied  at  difTerent 
universities,  was  in  1588  pastor  at  Dort,  in  1611  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Leyden,  and  died  Feb.  4,  1646. 
He  wrote,  Concertatio  anti  -  Sodniana :  —  Syntagma 
Exerdtationum  Theologicarum : — Miscellanea  Traty 
tatumes  Theologica: — De  Existentia  Jem  Chridi  Es- 


POLYCHRONIUS 


780        PORTUGUESE  VERSION 


seniiali  tt  Gloria  Dwina  ecnUra  CrtlUum:^Barmonia 
Looorum  Saerm  Scripturm  imriean.  Duerepantium: — 
DuptUatio  atbfemu  Invocatumem  SaneUtrum: — Antuh' 
tatione*  in  Jonam.  See  Jocher,  AUgemamM  GeUkrtm^ 
Lexibm^  a.  ▼. ;  Menniua,  Aikenm  Batava.     (B.  P.) 

Polychroniiia,  bishop  of  Apamea,  and  brother  of 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  was  one  of  the  most  prominent 
exegetes  of  the  school  of  Antioch  in  the  4th  oentuiy.  Of 
his  life  nothing  further  is  known.  He  wrote  commenta- 
ries on  Job,  Daniel,  and  Esekiel.  Of  his  commentary  on 
Daniel  we  have  a  great  many  fragments.  He  explains 
the  book  as  referring  to  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  not 
to  the  anti-Chrbt;  in  the  fourth  monarchy  he  sees  the 
Macedonian  empire,  and  in  the  ten  heads  the  diadochai. 
He  everywhere  contends  for  the  historical  sense  and 
opposes  the  allegorical  interpretation,  as  well  as  the 
theory  of  a  twofold  sense.  Though  he  was  never  for- 
mally condemned,  yet  he  was  nevertheless  considered 
a  heretic  See  Plitt»Herzog,  Real- Etiof Hop,  s.  v.,  bat 
more  especially  Bardenhewer,  PoUfchronia$  (Freiburg, 
1879),  and  MoUer's  review,  in  Schllrer,  Tk«oL  Litera- 
turzeitung,  1879,  ooL  265  sq.     (R  P.) 

Polyor&tes^  bishop  of  Ephesos,  A.D.  196,  is  known 
in  Church  history  by  his  opposition  to  the  Roman  bish- 
op, Victor,  in  the  famous  Paschal  controversy  (q.  v.). 
Eusebius  has  preserved  Polycrates'  letter  of  protest, 
which  is  given  in  English  bv  Schaff,  Jlistory  of  the 
Christian  Church  (N.  Y.  1883),  H,  216  sq.  See  also  Eu- 
sebius,  nist,  EccUm,  v,  24  (ed.  Heinlchen,  i,  250  sq.); 
Ccillier,  Hitt.  dee  AuU  Saer,  et  Ecdee,  ii,  203  sq.;  Lich- 
tenberger,  Encydop,  dee  Sciencee  Religieueee,  s.  v.   (R  P.) 

Fontaniis,  Heixuiob,  a  Protestant  theologian, 
who  died  at  Utrecht,  Sept.  5, 1714,  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  De  Sale  Sacrificiorum : 
— De  RUu  Mereionie  in  Baptiematt,  See  Jocher,  A  //- 
ffemeines  GeUhrten^Lexihrn,  s.  v.;  Winer,  tiandbuch  der 
theoL  LiL  i,  G30.     (R  P.) 

Pontanuft,  Jaoob.  a  Jesuit,  was  bom  at  Dritok, 
Bohemia,  in  1542,  and  died  at  Augsburg,  Nov.  25, 1626, 
professor.  He  edited  Cyrilli  Alex,  Comment,  in  Duo- 
dedm  Propheiae  Minores,  Gneoe  et  Latine  cum  Notts 
(Ingolstadt,  1607).  See  Winer,  ffandbueh  der  theol. 
LiL  i,  889 ;  J5cher,  A  Ugemeknes  Gelehrten^Lezikonf  s.  v. 
(R  P.) 

Poole,  Gborob  Atlifpb,  an  English  theologian, 
was  bom  in  1809.  He  was  a  scholar  of  Emmanuel  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  in  1 881.  After  hold- 
ing several  curacies  and  a  benetioe  at  Leeds,  he  settled 
l^rmanently  in  Northamptonshire,  first  aa  vicar  of  Wel- 
ford,  from  1848  to  1876,  and  then  as  rector  of  Winwick, 
from  1876  to  1888.  Poole,  who  died  Sept.  25  of  the  lat- 
ter year,  ranked  as  one  of  the  leading  English  authori- 
ties on  ecclesiastical  architecture.  He  published  a  va- 
riety of  sermons  and  theological  works,  including  an 
account  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  St,  Cyprian  (1840). 
His  chief  works,  however,  related  to  eodesiolog3%  In 
1842  appeared  Appropriate  Character  of  Church  Archi- 
lecture: —Churches,  their  Structure  (1845)  i^History  of 
Ecclesiastical  Ar^Ueatufe  m  England  (1848);  in  con- 
Junction  with  Mr.  J.  W.  Hugall,  he  issued  an  account 
of  the  Churches  of  Scarborough,  Filey,  and  Neighbor- 
hood, and  Gu^  to  York  Cathedral,  Poolers  last  work 
was  History  fthe  Diocese  of  Peterborough,  for  the  series 
of  Diocesan  Histories,  in  the  course  of  publication  by 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  (  R  P.) 

Popo  Versloii  of  the  Scrii*ture8.  The  Popo 
or  Dahomey  is  spoken  at  Dahomey,  between  the  Yolta 
and  Lagos.  A  translation  of  Matthew  and  Mark  was 
made  by  the  Rev.  T.  J.  Marshall,  a  native  minister,  and 
printed  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  at 
London  in  1884.  Other  parts  of  the  New  Test  are  now 
being  translated.     (R  P.) 

Porter,  Herschel  8.,  D.D.,  a  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  bom  in  Butler  County,  Ky.,  Feb. 
12, 1816.    After  studying  at  various  academies,  he  was 


licensed  to  preach  in  May,  1885,  and  in  September,  1837, 
was  ordained  at  Glasgow,  Ky.  He  spent  about  four  yean 
aa  an  itinerant  in  Kentucky,  travelled  also  for  some  time 
as  an  agent  for  Cumbeiland  College ;  then  served  a  year 
as  pastor  at  Fayetteville,  Tenn. ;  subsequently  made  an 
extensive  preaching  tour,  passing  through  most  of  the 
Southern  States,  returning  to  Kentucky  in  1848.  He 
spent  several  months  of  that  year  in  Western  PennsyK 
vania,  then  went  to  Philadelphia  to  organize  a  con- 
gregation, and  remained  there  until  the  spring  of  1851. 
In  the  fall  of  that  year  he  settled  in  Memphis,  Tenn., 
and  labored  there  until  the  latter  part  of  1855.  He 
died  there  Oct  5  of  the  same  year,  professor  of  natoivl 
history  in  the  Memphis  Medical  College.  In  1853  he 
was  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly.  Dr.  Potter 
was  devoted  to  science,  and  was  proficient  in  astronomy 
and  geology.  He  published  a  series  of  Astronomical 
Sermons,  400  pp. : — The  A  Umement : — and  a  work  on  the 
Foreknowledge  and  Deereee  of  God,  See  Beard,  J9to- 
graphical  Sketches,  1st  series,  p.  807. 

Porter,  Noah,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  Dec.  15, 1781,  at  Farmington,  Conn.  After  his 
graduation  he  taught  for  some  time,  and  then  studied 
theology ;  was  ordained  over  the  Congregational  Church 
in  his  native  town,  Nov.  5, 1808,  where  he  had  a  long 
and  successful  ministry.  From  1828  to  1862  he  was  a 
member  of  the  corporation  of  Tale  College,  and  was 
long  a  member  of  the  prudential  committee.  He  died 
at  Farmington,  Sept  24, 1866.  A  number  of  his  oeca- 
sional  discourses  were  published,  and  among  them  A 
Half-Century  Discourse,  preached  Nov.  12, 1866.  See 
Obituary  Record  of  Yale  College,  1867. 

Porterfield,  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bbhop 
of  Glasgow  in  1571  and  1572.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  260. 

Portaguese  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  By 
way  of  supplement,  we  add  the  following:  The  first 
New  Test,  of  Almeida  was  printed  at  Amsterdam  in 
1681 ;  a  second  or  revised  edition  was  published  at  Ba- 
tavia  in  1698,  and  another  again  at  Amsterdam  in  1712: 
In  1744  wera  published  at  Tranquebar  the  books  of  Job, 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles,  and  in 
1751  followed  the  four  greater  prophets;  the  first  three 
of  which  were  translated  by  Almeida,  and  the  fourth 
(Daniel),  by  C.  F.  Walther,  missionary  at  Tranquebar. 
A  second  edition  of  the  entire  Old  Test,  was  publiahed 
at  Batavia  in  1748.  In  this  edition  a  version  was  given 
of  the  books  left  untranslated  by  Almeida,  by  Jacob  op 
den  Akkcr,  one  of  the  Dutch  missionaries  at  Batavia. 
Between  1721  and  1757  two  revised  editions  of  the 
Pentateuch  and  of  the  Psalms,  two  revised  editions  of 
the  New  Test.,  and  one  of  the  four  gospels,  were  printed 
at  Tranquebar  and  Batavia.  Another  edition  of  the 
Old  Test,  was  printed  at  the  latter  pUux  between  1788 
and  1804,  and  no  further  editions  appear  to  have  been 
given  of  this  version  until  it  was  republished  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

A  Catholic  Portuguese  version  of  the  entire  Script- 
ures, from  the  Vulgate,  was  published  in  twenty-three 
volumes,  with  annotations,  at  Lisbon,  from  1781  to  1788, 
by  Don  Antonio  Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  a  Portuguese 
ecclesiastic.  An  edition  containing  his  latest  eorreo- 
tions  was  commenced  at  Lisbon  in  1794^  but  waa  not 
completed  till  1815.  On  account  of  the  numerous  cor- 
rections, this  edition  may  be  regarded  as  a  new  version. 

A  third  translation  of  the  Scriptures  was  aceom- 
plished  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Boys,  at  the  expense  of 
the  Trinitarian  Bible  Society.  This  version,  baaed  on 
Almeida's  translation,  but  faithfully  made  in  accordance 
with  the  original,  was  published  in  London ;  the  New 
Test,  in  1848  and  the  Old  in  1847. 

When  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  under- 
took  the  publication  of  the  Portuguese  Scriptures,  the 
version  of  Almeida,  the  only  Protestant  one,  was  sdect> 
ed.  But  this  publication  was  not  received  as  was  an- 
ticipated, perhaps,  because  Almeida  was  a  converted 


PORUBSSKY 


781 


POWER 


ProtesUnt,  but  mostly  because  it  was  an  antiquated 
version,  many'Df  the  words  being  obsolete,  and  the  style 
not  idiomatic  The  complaints  against  this  version 
were  laid  before  the  society,  and  in  1818  an  edition  of 
Pereira's  version  of  the  New  Test,  was  printed,  which 
was  followed  by  another  edition  of  both  the  entire  Bible 
and  the  New  Test,  in  1821,  Mr.  Cavalho  correcting  the 
press.  Another  edition  of  Pereira's  New  Test,  was 
printed  in  1823,  and  a  revised  edition  of  the  whole  Bible 
was  given  in  1824,  under  the  care  of  Messrs.  Da  Costa 
and  Green.  In  1857  the  American  Bible  Society  pub- 
lished a  Portuguese  New  Test.,  the  version  used  being 
a  translation  made  in  London  from  the  Greek.  Of  late 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  undertaken 
a  revision  of  Almeida's  Bible  translation,  the  version 
and  idiom  being  modernized.  This  edition  was  printed 
in  Lisbon  in  1874,  the  text  being  accompanied  with  oc- 
casional alternative  renderings,  and  with  the  most  im- 
portant references  from  the  Old  to  the  New  Test.  The 
orthography  and  style  have  been  modernized,  and  the 
translation  has  been  compared  with  the  original  through- 
out by  the  society's  editorial  superintendent,  who  has 
been  assisted  by  competent  natives  in  completing  the 
edition.  The  same  society  published,  in  1879,  an  edition 
of  the  Portuguese  Bible  of  Figueiredo,  with  alternative 
readings  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek,  under  the  care  of 
the  Rev.  Robert  Stewart  and  the  editorial  superinten- 
dent. From  the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  for  1885,  we  learn  that  steps  have  been  taken, 
in  connection  with  the  American  Bible  Society,  for  the 
formation  of  translation  committees  in  Spain  and  Brazil 
for  the  production  of  a  new  version  of  the  Scriptures, 
which  will  be  acceptable  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic 
(B.  P.) 

Porubaaky,  Gustav,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Presburg,  March  18,  1812.  He  received  his 
classical  and  theological  training  at  the  lyceom  of  his 
native  place,  which  at  that  time  was  one  of  the  most 
prominent  Protestant  schuols  of  Austro-Hung4ry.  To 
continue  his  studies  he  went,  in  1833,  to  Vienna,  and 
two  years  later  to  Berlin.  In  1837  he  was  called  as 
pastor  of  the  Germane- Slavic  congregation  at  Tyrnau, 
and  in  1840  he  accepted  a  call  to  Vienna.  In  this  im- 
portant position  he  developed  all  his  faculties  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Church,  school,  and  mission,  and  his 
efforts  were  acknowledged  by  the  Vienna  faculty,  which 
honored  him  in  1871  with  the  doctorate  of  theology. 
He  died  July  17,  1876.  He  published,  EvangelUche 
Kcmzelvortragv  ( Vienna,  1833 ) :  —  Ftitandachten  Uber 
doM  Leiden  und  Sterben  Jetu  Christi  (1854)  : — JaeobuSf 
der  Zeuge  vom  kbendiffen  Glauben  (1861) : — Die  Reekie 
der  ProUatanten  in  Oeetetreich  (1867).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL  ii,  1005;  Roskoff,  Zur  Enmurung  an  Dr. 
GuHav  Poruhttky  (Vienna,  1876).     (B.  P.) 

PosainiUi,  Pikrrb,  a  French  Jesnit,  was  bom  at 
Narbonne  in  1590.  He  was  an  excellent  Hebrew  and 
Greek  scholar,  and  died  at  Rome  towards  the  end  of 
the  17th  century.  He  published,  Tkeeaurue  Atoeticutf 
etc  (Paris,  1684) : — CoUationee  laidoriantB^  etc  (Rome, 
1670)  i^Nili  Opera  (1639)  i—NiU  EptUoke  (1667),  etc 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  iheol,  LiL  i,  878, 880, 881, 896, 
897,  898;  Jocher,  AUgemeinei  Geiehrten- Leaeikon,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

PoatmiUenarians.    See  Pkrmillbkauiaks. 

Fotrimpos,  in  Lettish  mythology,  was  a  chief 
deity  of  the  Lithuanians  and  ancient  Pmssians  before 
the  occupancy  of  the  country  by  the  Germans,  being 
the  second  person  in  the  Northern  trinity,  which  con- 
sisted of  Perkunos,  Potrimpos,  and  Pikollos.  He  was 
the  god  of  victory  in  war,  and  in  peace  the  giver  of 
fmitfulness,  of  blessing,  and  of  domestic  felicity.  His 
image  stood  at  Romowe.  It  represented  a  friendly, 
laughing  youth.  As  Perkunos  was  a  god  of  the  warm- 
ing and  destraetive  fire,  so  Potrimpos  was  a  god  of  the 
fmctifying  and  destmctive  water.  Ears  of  com  and 
wheat  were  offered  to  him,  and  his  head  was  decorated 


with  field  products.  Many  children  were  also  burned  as 
sacrifices  to  him.  In  a  large  brass  ura  a  snake  was  kept 
and  fed  in  honor  of  him;  therefore  the  snake  was  al- 
ways a  sacred  animal  among  the  Pmssians.  It  seems 
possible  that  Potrimpos  was  a  female  deity,  and  the 
wife  of  Donnerer— at  least,  some  modem  writers  affirm 
this.  Perhaps  this  was  the  mother  of  the  gods,  whom 
Tacitus  mentions  as  worshipped  among  the  JBsthyans. 

Potter,  Louis  Joseph  Ahtoinb  db,  a  Belgian 
writer,  was  bom  at  Bruges  in  1786,  and  died  at  Bm»- 
sels  in  1859.  He  puhHahtdfComideratuma  tur  tIJiS' 
toire  dee  Principaux  Condiee,  etc  (Brussels,  1816 ;  Paris, 
1818, 2  voXb.):-^  Esprit  de  F^lite,  etc  (Paris,  1821,  6 
vols.).  These  two  works  were  republished  under  the 
title  ffiefoire  PAiloenpkique^  Politique  ei  Ctitique  du 
Christiamtme  et  dee  Eglieee  Chriiiemiet  (ibid.  1836-37, 
8  vols.),  and  an  abridged  edition,  entitled  Rhunii  de 
VBiHoire  du  Christianisme  ( 1856,  2  vols.) :  —  Vie  de 
Seipion  Riccij  EvSqtie  de  Pietoie  (Brussels,  1825, 8  vols. ; 
Paris,  1826,  4  vols.)  :-^Lettres  de  Pie  V,  mr  let  Ajf  aires 
Religieuses  de  Son  Tenqts  en  France  (1827)  i—CaUckisme 
Rationnd  (eod. ;  reprinted  by  baron  de  Ponnat  in  1862). 
But  all  of  Potter's  works,  written  in  the  philosophical 
spirit  of  the  18th  century,  were  placed  on  the  "  Index  " 
at  Rome.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encydop.  des  Sciences 
Rel^ieuseSf  s.  v. ;  IViner,  Uandbuch  der  (keoL  Lii,  i,  543, 
866.     (a  P.) 

Potton,  Richard  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made 
bishop  of  Aberdeen  about  f  256,  and  died  in  1267.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops^  p.  108. 

Poaohen,  Levin,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Konigsberg,  Oct.  26,  1594.  He 
studied  at  the  theological  university  of  that  city,  was 
in  1621  professor,  in  1623  second  court  -  preacher,  in 
1626  professor  of  Hebrew,  in  1640  doctor  of  theology, 
in  1646  attended  the  colloquy  at  Thoren,  and  died  May 
4, 1648.  He  wrote,  Commentar,  in  Propketiam  Joel: — 
Explicatio  Historia  Passionis  Christi:  —  Disputat.de 
Usu  PhUosophies  m  Theologia :  —  De  Protevangelio 
Paradisiaco:  —  De  Resun-ectione  Jesu  Christi:  —  De 
Pia  et  Vera  PhUosophandi  Ratione:—De  Ecclesia: — 
De  Baptismo: — De  Resurrectione  Mortuorum:  —  De 
Duabus  in  Christo  Naturis^  etc  See  Amold,  Historie 
der  honigsbergischen  UniversitSti  J6cher,  AUgemeines 
Gelehrien'Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Poujonlat,  Jean  Joseph  Francois,  a  Roman 
Catholic  writer  of  France,  was  born  at  Fare,  Bouches- 
du-Rhone,  in  1800.  He  studied  at  Aix,  and  in  1826 
went  to  Paris,  and  there  published,  conjointly  with 
Michand,  the  BiNiothe^ie  des  Croisards,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  1830  to  the  East  Poujonlat  died  at 
Paris  in  1880.  He  wrote,  Hisioire  de  JerttsaUm^  Tableau 
Religieux  et  Philosophique  (1811-42,  2  vols.;  4th  ed. 
ISbG)  i^ffisfoire  de  S.AuffUstin  (1844,  3  vols.;  8d  ed. 
1860, 2  vols.)  i—Lettres  sur  Bossuet  (1854)  :—U  Cardi- 
nal Maury ^  sa  Vie  el  ses  (Euvres  (1856;  2d  ed.  1859) : 
— Vie  de  Monseigneur  Sibour^  Archevfque  ek  Paris: — 
Le  Pere  Ravignan,  sa  Fi>,  ses  (Euvres  (1858) : — Le  Pope 
et  la  LSberii  (iam):^Examen  de  la  Vie  de  JUus  de 
Mom,  Reaan  (1863).  See  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop,  des 
Sciences  ReligieuseSf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

PotlUdxi,  NiooTaAS,  a  Reformed  theologian,  was 
bora  at  Mesnils,  near  Luneray,  Seine-Inf6rieure,  Jan. 
18,  1807.  He  was  pastor  of  NanteuiM6s-Meaux  in 
1882,  in  1833  at  Havre,  in  1857  at  Lausanne,  and  in 
1862  at  Luneray.  Poulain  died  at  Geneva,  April  8, 
1868.  He  published,  Qtf*e»/-ce  gu^un  Christiamsnie  sans 
Dogmes  et  sans  Miracle?  (1868): — R4ponse  a  Trots 
Lettres  deM.  Albert  ReviUe  (18^)  :  —  V(Euvre  des 
Missions  JtvangiUques  (1867),  an  apologetical  work  of 
great  value.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encgchp.  des  Sciences 
Religieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Power,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  at  Nottingham,  C!hester  Co.,  Pa.,  in  1746.  He 
graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1766,  was  licensed 
to  preach  by  the  l*resbytery  of  Newcastle  June  24, 


PILEBENDA 


782 


PRIAPUS 


1772,  and  settled  in  the  weBtern  part  of  Pennsylrania. 
In  1776  he  became  pastor  of  Mt.  Pleasant  congrega- 
tion, and  retained  this  position  until  1817.  He  died 
Aug.  5, 1880.  See  Sprague,  A  trnak  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit, 
iii,  826. 

PrSDbenda,  Richard  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  the  see  of  Dunkeld,  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Andrews,  Aug.  9, 1169.  He  died  in  1178.  See 
Keith,  ScatttBh  Bithopt,  p^  74. 

Pnebenda,  Robert  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
elected  bishop  of  Dunblane  in  1*268.  In  1268  he,  with 
one  other,  was  sent  to  protest  against  the  contributions 
imposed  upon  the  Scotch  clergy  by  Ottobon.  He  was 
still  bishop  here  in  1282.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bi$hop9, 
p.  178. 

PraBtoxluB,  a  name  common  to  several  Lutheran 
theologians  of  Germany,  of  whom  we  mention  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  Andreas,  who  died  Dec.  20, 1586,  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  doctor  of  theolog}*^,  is  the  author  of  Propo- 
titionet  de  Jesu  ChristO,  Dei  et  Matia  FUio.  See  Jd- 
cher,  A  Ugemeinei  Gtkhrtm'Lexikon,  s.  r. 

2.  Christian  Gottlier,  bom  Aug.  30,  1698,  at 
Bertzdorf,  Upper  Lusatia,  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and 
died  in  1738  at  Bernstadt,  in  his  native  province.  He 
wrote  A  moenitatet  Bibltca^  comprising  only  the  Penta- 
teuch (1724-29,  6  parts).  See  During,  'Die  gelehiien^ 
Theoloffen  DeutMcklands,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeine$  Ge- 
UhrteH'Lexihon,  s.  v. 

3.  Ephraim,  was  bom  at  Dantzic,  I^Iarch  11, 1657. 
He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1685  preacher  at 
MUnsterberg,  in  1698  at  his  native  city,  in  1705  at 
Thorn,  and  died  Feb.  14, 1728.  He  wrote,  Exercitationm 
tkeol,  de  Jona: — Atkeui  Propria  Gladio  Jugulatut  ex 
Ecd,  m,  18-21  i-^Bibliotheca  ffomiUtiea  (Leipsic,  1691- 
98, 8  parts ;  2d  ed.  171 1-19).  See  D<5ring,  Die  ffelehtien 
Theologen  DaittchlatidM^  s.  v.;  Jdcher,  AlU/emeinet  (7e- 
lehrten  LexHam,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Prakrit!.    See  Pr.vcritt. 

Prateolufl^  Garrirt^  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  France,  was  bom  at  Marcoussi  in  loll,  and  died  at 
Peronne,  April  19, 1688,  doctor  of  theology.  His  main 
works  are,  De  Vitis,  Sectis  et  Dogmatibui  Omnium  Ha- 
reUcorum  (Cologne,  1569):— ^u/owie  de  VKtai  et  Suede 
de  VEglise  (Paris,  1585).  See  Winer,  JJandbuch  dei'  theoL 
Lit,  i,  637 ;  Lichtenberger,  Enq/dop,  dee  Sciences  Beligi- 
euseSt  s.  v.     (R.  P.) 

Fra^e,  Joiiann  Hkinrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  born  Sept.  17,  1710.  He  studied  at 
HelmstMdt,  was  in  1735  preacher  at  Homeburg,  his 
native  place,  in  1743  at  Stade,  and  in  1749  general  su- 
perintendent of  Bremen  and  Yerden.  In  1787  his  alma 
mater  honored  him  with  the  doctorate  of  theology.  He 
died  Feb.  1, 1791.  His  writingis  comprising  almost  all 
departments  of  tbeolog}',  are  given  in  D&ring,  Die  ge- 
lehrten  Kanzelredmr,  p.'299-305;  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
tkeoL  Lit.  i,  119, 799 ;  ii,  282, 290.     (a  P.) 

Pratt,  James,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  rector  in  Portland,  Me,  for  several  years 
prior  to  1858 ;  then  of  the  Church  of  the  Covenant,  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  where  he  remained  until  1860,  when 
he  took  charge  of  Trinity  Church,  Chicago,  111.  Al>oat 
1864  he  left  that  parish,  and  in  1866  was  residing  in 
New  York  city ;  in  1868  he  removed  to  Philadelphia 
as  the  financial  secretary  of  the  Evangelical  Knowl- 
edge Society  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
During  several  years  he  resided  in  Philadelphia  with- 
out assuming  the  duties  of  the  regular  pastorate,  until 
1873,  when  he  became  rector  of  St.  Philip's  Church,  in 
that  city.  He  died  Jan.  17, 1874,  aged  sixty-five  years. 
See  Prof.  Episc.  A  ImanaCj  1875,  p.  144. 

Pratt,  John,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister  and  educa- 
tor, was  bora  in  Windham  County,  Conn.,  OcL  12, 1800. 
After  spending  a  few  years  in  Columbian  College,  he 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1827.     For  a 


short  time  he  was  a  professor  in  Transj'lvania  Univer- 
sity, Ky.,  and  then  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of 
the  First  Baptist  Church  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  In 
1881,  for  six  months,  he  had  charge  of  the  South  Read- 
ing, Mass.  (now  Wakefield),  Academy,  and  then  was 
invited  to  preside  over  the  Granville,  O.,  Literary  and 
Theological  Institution.  In  1887  he  resigned,  and  ac- 
cepted the  professorship  of  ancient  languages  in  that 
institution,  and  held  this  position,  with  occasional  in- 
terruptions, for  twenty-two  ^-ears  (1887-59),  when  he 
retired  to  private  life.  He  died  Jan.  4,  1882.  Sec 
Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop.  p.  98&     (J.  C.  S.) 

Pratt,  Nathaniel  Alpheus,  D.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  bom  at  Centre  Brook,  Cbnn.,  Jan'  29, 
1796.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1820,  and 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1823,  and  was 
ordained  Feb.  25,  1824.  From  this  time  till  1826  he 
labored  fur  the  Shrewsbury  Church,  N.  J.  From  1827 
to  1840  he  was  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Darien,  Ga.  He 
organized  a  Church  in  Roswell,  in  1842,  where  he  con- 
tinued until  his  death,  Aug.  30, 1879.  During  the  time 
at  Roswell  he  taught,  for  five  years,  a  boarding-school 
for  boj's.  Sec  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  Tkeol.  Sem. 
1880,  p.  11. 

Premillenarlans  is  a  popular  designation  of  a  class 
of  theologians  who  understand  "  the  first  resurrection," 
spoken  of  in  Rev.  xx,  5,  as  predicting  a  sepanite  and 
literal  revivification  of  the  saints  previous  to  the  millen- 
nium, and  their  personal  reign  with  Christ  on  earth  dur- 
ing that  period,  in  opposition  to  the  usual  or  post-mil' 
lenarian  view,  which  explains  it  in  a  figurative  and 
spiritual  sense.  Among  the  advocates  of  the  premil- 
lennial  scheme  have  been  counted,  with  more  or  less 
reserve,  such  eminent  names  as  those  of  Mode,  Jurieu, 
Daubuz,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  archbishop  Newcome,  bish- 
ops Newton,  Horsley,  and  Heber,  doctors  GiU,  Toplady, 
Bengel,  Doroer,  Nitzsch,  Delitzsch,  Van  Oosterzee,  Hof- 
mann,  Aubelen,  Ebrard,  Rothe,  Lange,  Christlieb,  Lu- 
thardt,  Gaussen,  Godet,  Trench,  Ellicott,  Ryle,  Hoare, 
Tregelles,  Elliott,  Alford,  Bickersteth,  Bonar,  Tyng, 
Lord,  and  many  other  learned  and  pious  divines,  e^>e- 
cially  among  Protestants,  while  the  great  majority  of 
scholars  and  writers  of  Christendom,  in  all  ages  and  de- 
nominations, have  been  ranged  on  the  opposite,  or  post- 
millennial  side,  of  whom  we  need  mention  only,  amoni; 
modems,  Whitby,  Faber,  Brown,  Barnes,  Hengstenberir, 
Stuart,  and  Wordsworth.  The  histoiy  of  the  Chiliastic 
doctrine,  both  Jewish  and  Christian,  is  well  summa- 
rized in  the  Speaker's  Commentary^  excursus  at  the 
end  of  Rev.  xx.    See  Rksurrkction,  The  First. 

Preston,  William,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Woodbury,  Conn.,  Aug.  26, 1801. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  College,  was  first  a  clerk  in  New 
York  city,  then  studied  theology  in  Alexandria,  Va.,  was 
tutor  in  Kenyon  College  for  a  year,  and  on  Oct  12, 1828, 
was  admitted  to  deacon's  orders  by  bishop  Chase  of  Ohio. 
He  began  his  ministry  in  the  town  of  Worthington,  but 
soon  removed  to  Trinity  Church,  Columbus,  where  he 
remained  for  twelve  years.  In  1841  he  accepted  a  call 
from  the  parish  of  St.  Andrew's,  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
where  he  continued  ten  years.  He  was  then  called  to 
his  former  parish  in  Columbus,  but,  owing  to  ill-health, 
removed  some  four  years  later  to  Christ  Church, 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  where  he  labored  until  1856,  when 
he  went  back  to  his  old  charge  in  Pittsburgh.  In  1878 
he  resigned  this  post,  and  after  a  time  removed  to  Bed- 
ford, Pa.,  where  he  was  rector  of  Sl  James's  Church. 
He  died  there,  April  25,  1875.  See  OhU,  Bee.  of  Yale 
College,  1875. 

PrlapuB,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  the  son  of  Bac- 
chus and  Venus.  The  angry  Juno  touched  the  body 
of  the  pregnant  Venus  so  that  she  gave  birth  to  a  bide- 
oos  child  with  unnaturally  large  genital  oiigans.  The 
older  writers  do  not  know  him.  He  was  worshipped  as 
the  god  of  country  frnitfulnest,  and  his  statues  were 
placed  in  gardens. 


PRICE  7( 

Ptloe,  Thox AS,  LL.Dn  an  EnglUh  Baptiit  minuter, 
iTM  bom  It  Briuol,  April  !1,  ISOJ.  He  *u  eonverud 
>t  fifteen,  anil  baplunl  in  BRMdmeid  Chapel  bv  Dr. 
KyUnil.  In  J«»  he  iludied  in  tbe  Biiatol  Acadeni;r, 
and  ificrwanli  at  the  GlMgov  and  tbe  Edinburgh  uni- 
venitiea;  waa  ordained  in  \SSi  coputcr  of  the  Devoo- 
ahire  Square  Church,  London,  and  in  162S  became  paitor. 
He  d«ltr«red  popular  lecturea,  which  he  pnbliahed  in  two 
volum(4  in  188«,  irilh  the  title,  A  Ilulorg  ofProtMavt 
Sonanjformily.  He  reaigned  hia  paatorate  the  aame 
year,  and  became  one  of  the  foundenof  tbe  Anti-State- 
Church  Aeiocialion,  now  tbe  Liberation  Societir ;  he  waa 
appMMed  treiMircr,  anil  waa  one  uf  the  •ociely'i  DKWt 
lealoiia  advocates.  A  diaeau  in  hit  throat  alterljr  in- 
capacitated him  from  public  speaking,  to  he  devoted  hia 
energiea  to  the  founding  of  the  Dieaenten  and  General 
Fire  end  Life  Auutance  Companf.  He  also  became 
proprietor  and  editor  of  the  Kdtclic  Revitv^  which  he 
conducted  for  nineteen  yeara.  In  1S4B  he  became  a 
conGrmed  invalid,  and  died  May  29,  I8G7.  Bee  (Lond.) 
Baplitt  Hand-book,  ISeS,  p.  12a. 

Priohard,  JoHS,  D.D.,  a  Welih  Baptiat  minitter, 
wa>  bom  near  Amlwch, Watea,  in  Kfarch,  1796.  He  piii- 
iued  his  itudiei  in  the  College  of  Abergavenny,  and 
waa  onliined  aa  paitor  of  the  Church  at  Llangollen, 

a  college  waa  eatabliihed  in  the  place  where  he  resided, 
in  186!,  fur  training  young  men  for  the  ministry,  of  which 
he  was  for  a  time  tbe  president.  He  died  Sept.  7, 1B76. 
See  Cathcait,  Bapliti  Encydop.  p.  S39.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Friei^  1  name  common  to  several  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian*. 

1.  Joachim  Hiixricii  (1),  waa  bom  Nov.  12, 17U, 
at  Roatocli,  where  he  began  his  theological  studies,  which 
he  continued  at  Jena.  At  the  univereitj  uf  hia  birth- 
pUce  Pries  commenced  hia  academical  career  in  1789. 
In  1745  he  was  appointed  professor,  in  1749  he  took  Ibe 
degree  of  doctor  of  theology,  and  died  Aog.  1,  I'GS, 
U«  is  tbe  author  of,  Dt  hob  CotuHmmalii  Palrilmi  Vile- 
Til  TeMtamaUi  o4  Dictum  PauU  Ebr.  ri,  89, 40  (Koslock, 
1749) :— Quo  Sauu  jElrmitat  Dei  Fixa  lil  Sfomariiiint 
(175S)  -^De  Jona,  Ckriili  Typo  (1763)  -.-De  Frmnt- 
tenliuDa  Aale Abraham  (YJbh'y-.—Dt Proptitliitl Apo- 
il^lii{17bT)'—DtI<ifuttibiiUaltApatlalaniiH{i7B'i),etc 
St»  Ddring,  Dit  gdekrlm  Tktologai  DtuitcUandt,  e.  v. 

2.  JoACHiK  HEixHiCH(i),  son  uf  the  preceding,  was 
bom  at  Roatock,  Sept.  24, 1747.  He  studied  at  the  uui- 
vrnities  of  his  ostive  place  and  Jena.  For  some  time 
preacher  at  Ribniti,  he  waa  appointed  profeatur  of  the- 
uh>gy  at  Koatock  iii  1779,  look  (he  degree  of  doctor  of 
theology  in  1791,  and  died  OcL  24,  1796.  He  wrote, 
pTogr.  in  Deal,  iri.'i,  IB  (Kiiatock,  m9):-Sapie«lia  Re- 
tUmplorit  in  Appaiiliovibui  Poil  BauirKlioiKn  (I78U}: 
-XalHra  Jaa  ChriMi  Diitaa  (1782);  — -Wor<«oriiBi 
Rtnrrtclio  Vtlerit  Fucdert  am  Incognia  (1783):— iie 
Ptinmii  piiiai  Epitlolii  ad  Galala*  Scripta  at  (178G) : 

-De  Marie  Ckriiti  Viauia  (1788)  —Dt  A'anen  Pa- 
KhalBm  a  Ckriilo  Pal  BaptiinumtCeltbraloriim  (1789). 
See  During,  Die  gtUhrtea  Tluologa  DtaltdiUotdt,  >.  v. 

3.  JoKAMi  UAnniEt.,  who  died  at  Gtlstrow  iu  1788, 
rector,  wrote, /Vo^.  I'a  60Wi.zU,43  (Boslnck,  HM):— 
Dt  Diriaa  Ltgnm  iloiaicarum  Pratlaiaia  (17o6);— 
Dt  Dirina  Lrgam  ifoiaicann  Indole  (17AS):  — £c 
Dicina  Lege,  etc.,  Witriurlom  Oppoiila  (1757)  :—D«  It- 
ralilarwaTlucaa4iaPraila<aia(\nia):~DeLXXI-i- 
(erpirtiftiM  (1768).    See  FUrat,Bi6i.  Ji,iiii,121.  (UP.) 

Prime,  Sauuei.  Ibk.i.cl-s,  D.D.,  an  eminent  I'rea- 
bjterian  divine,  son  of  Dr.  N.  8.  Prime,  was  bom  at 
Ballaton,  Saratoga  Ca„  N.T.,  Mov.4, 1812.  He  grulu- 
ated  from  Williama  College  in  1829,  and  from  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  iu  1S3B ;  was  ordained  the  same 
year  aa  psaloi  at  Bailslun  Spa,  in  1837  assumed  the 
same  relation  at  Hatteawan,  but  on  account  of  failing 
health  resigned  in  1810,  and  became  editor  of  the  New 
York  Obttretr;  iu  1841  one  of  tbe  secretaries  of  the 
American  Bible  Sodetyi  in  1849  editor  of  tbe  Prabf 


PROMETHEUS 

leriait,  but  tbe  next  ytarresamed  the  editonhip  of  the 
Ohtemtr,  with  which  he  remained  connected  until  big 
death,  July  18, 1889.  Dr.  Prime  was  a  Mne  scbolai,  a 
genial  Chiiatian,  and  a  facile  wiitFr.  Iteaidea  unmeroua 
anonymous  works,  he  published  many  popular  writings, 
thechief  of  which  ire  eaumented  iu  Allibone's  Dicl.nf 
Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  ulkori,  s.  v^  tbe  most  important  be- 
ing travels  and  biographies,  and  several  volumes  on 
prayer. 

Frlndle,  Ci:ri;s,  D.D„  a  noted  Uethodiat  Epiacopal 
minister,  waa  bom  at  Canaan,  Litchfleld  Co.,  Conn., 
April  11, 1800.  He  was  converted  in  1816,  licensed  to 
preach  in  1821,  and  the  same  year  Joined  the  Mew  York 
Conference,  was  appointed  to  the  I'laitsbnrgb  Circuit, 
and  thereafter  for  over  half  a  century  continued  with 
but  a  single  month's  intenuinion  the  active  dutiea  of 
the  ministry:  twenty-one  yean  in  New  York,  nineteen 
in  Vermont,  six  in  Haasachuaells,  and  ten  in  Ohio,  when 
he  retired  in  1877,  in  the  full  possession  of  his  bodily 
and  mental  powers.  In  1848  he  waa  a  chief  leader  in 
the  formation  of  the  Wealeyan  Methodist  connecticra 
in  America,  which  seceded  from  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  on  account  of  its  alleged  connection  with 
slaveryi  but  this  being  nmoved  by  the  war  of  Ibe 
Rebellion,  he  relumed  to  his  farmer  church  in  1S67. 
H*  died  at  Cleveland,  O.,  Dec  1, 1886.  Dr.  Prindle  was 
a  man  of  great  pulpit  power  and  singular  purity  of 
character. 

Proal,  PiEBRR  AtJEXis,  D.D.,a  Protestant  Epiaciv- 
pal  mintsier,  was  bam  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1796.  He 
was  ordsined  deacon  In  New  York,  Sept,  IB,  1818,  his 
first  parish  being  St.  John's  Church,  Johnstown,  where 
lie  remained  lor  asliorttlmei  then  he  took  cliarge  of  St. 
George's  Cburcb.  Schenectady ;  in  1836  he  became  rec- 
tor of  Trinity  Church,  Ulica,  a  position  which  he  re- 
tained until  the  spring  uf  1857,  when,  on  account  of  im- 
paired health,  he  resigned.  He  died  in  that  city  Sept. 
lo  following.  Dr.  Pmal  ivas  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent clerg)-men  of  the  diocese  of  Weetem  New  York, 
from  its  organiiation  held  the  post  of  secretary  of  the 
convention,  and  iras  deputy  to  the  General  Convention. 
He  waa  an  earnest  and  forcible  preacher.  See  ^nwr. 
Quar.  Ciurch  Rev.  1857,  p.  4&5. 

Promethena,  in  Greek  myihology,  was  the  son 
of  the  Tiian  Japetus  and  the  Occanid  Clymene,  full  of 
wisdom,  art,  and  might,  a  friend  and  companion  of  the 
gods,  who  loved  him  fur  hie  gifts,  hut  in  whom  he 
awakened  hatred  when  he  doubted  their  omniaciencs. 
He  onea  sought  to  prove  Jupiter's  knowledge,  and  the 
latter  never  forgot  his  audacity,  but  planned  his  de- 


ADdent  Ifedal  reumcDlIng  Promelhens  fnmlng  n  hn- 
man  Ugan  of  clay,  on  tbeliend  of  which  Hlnerva  holds 
a  BnlierfiTd*  the  symbol  ofibe&iu),  while  a  Suaks  be- 
hind bim  ■ymbollse*  bis  era Hh less. 

Btruetion.  Vulcan  nailed  him  to  the  Caucasus,  anil 
the  eagle  of  Jupiter  daily  came  down  and  devoured  his 
liver,  which  grew  again  at  night  For  a  long  lime  he 
bore  these  tortures  with  patience,  for  be  knew  a  mortal 
would  eventually  liberate  him.  This  Hercules  did  by 
shooting  the  eagle.  According  to  others  Chiron  liber- 
ated him.     A  thin]  myth  miUies  Jupiter  himaelf  tbe 


PRONIEU 


784 


PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 


liberator  of  the  great  Titan.  Promethena  waa  married 
to  Asia,  and  waa  the  father  of  Deucalion.  According 
to  the  ancient  story,  he  provoked  the  gods  by  forming 
a  man,  and  then  stealing  fire  from  hearen  to  animate 
the  form. 

Pronier,  Ci^ab  Louis,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Plainpalaia,  near  Geneva,  Oct.  19, 1884.  He  was  in 
early  life  in  basineBS  in  the  United  States,  but  returning 
in  1853,  studied  theology  at  Geneva  and  Berlin.  In 
1860  he  assisted  professor  Gaussen  in  his  academical 
duties  at  Geneva,  and  in  1868  became  his  successor. 
In  1870  Pronier  founded  the  Liberii  Chrkienne,  a  Jour- 
nal designed  to  plead  the  separation  of  the  Church  from 
the  State.  In  1873  he  went  as  a  delegate  to  the  Evan- 
gelical Alliance,  held  at  New  York  city,  never  to  return 
again  to  Genera,  for  the  ^  Ville  du  Havre,"  upon  which 
he  embarked  with  two  other  members  of  the  alliance,  An- 
tonio Carrasco  of  Madrid,  and  Cook  of  Paris,  collided  with 
the  '*  Loch  Earn,**  and  went  down,  Nov.  22, 1873.  Pronier 
published,  Qfte$tions  Jndiicrites  Adressies  a  Mme»  Ar* 
mengaud  et  a  3f.  Ed,  KtUffer  (Geneva,  1867) :— £a  Sviue 
Romande  et  U  Proteatcmtitme  Liberal  (Lausanne,  1869) : 
—La  Libtrti  Eeligieu$e  el  h  S^bus  (Geneva,  1870). 
See  Ruffet,  Vie  de  Ci$ar  Pronier  (Geneva,  1875) ;  Lich- 
tenberger,ijuyc/€»p.  det  Sdencet  ReUffieutet,  s.  v.   (B.  P.) 

Prosper,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  bishop  of 
the  see  of  Caithness  about  1461,  but  resigned  in  faror 
of  John  Sinclair.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bithcps,  p.  214. 

Pmdentiiift'  Htmxs.   See  Salvetb  Flokks  Mab- 

TrRUK. 

Prsypcov,  Samukl,  a  Socinian  of  Poland,  who 
died  June  19,1670,  had  studied  at  Leyden,and  occupied 
high  offices  in  his  country.  But  being  a  Socinian,  he 
had  to  leave  Poland,  and  went  to  Brandenburg.  He 
wrote,  Cogitationei  Sacm  ad  Imiium  Evang,  MaUk, 
et  Omnea  Epiatolat  Apoitolieas  (Amsterdam,  1692  fol.) : 
—  Vita  Fautti  Soam  (1686),  etc,  to  be  found  in  BibHo- 
theca  Frati'um  Pohnorunu  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
tkeol  Lit,  i,  288, 771 ;  Jocher,  A  Ogemeines  GeUkrten-Lexi' 
kOTIf  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

PaelluB,  MiCHAKL,  one  of  the  most  famous  Byzan- 
tine writers  of  the  11th  century,  was  born  about  the 
year  1020  at  Constantinople.  He  studied  at  Athens, 
and  held  for  many  years  the  first  chair  in  philosophy  in 
his  native  city.  The  emperor  Constantine  Ducas  ap- 
pointed Psellus  tutor  to  the  imperial  princes,  and  when 
Michael  Ducas,  his  former  pupil,  died,  in  1078,  Psellus 
retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died  in  1106.  On  ao> 
count  of  his  many  writings  Psellus  was  styled  woXo- 
ypaftttraro^.  His  principal  works  are,  De  Omnffaria 
Doctrina  157,  iidavKoXia  voproiairrt,  a  metaphysical 
exposition  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of  all  science : — De 
Dcemonum  Operatione  irtpl  ivtpytioQ  icu/iovutVy  a  dia- 
logue, edited  by  Boissonade  (Paris,  1838),  and  of  special 
interest  for  the  study  of  the  sect  of  the  Euchitcs.  A 
comparison  between  the  ancient  Christian  and  Attic 
orators  is  contained  in  Charakteres  SS,  Gregorii  Theo- 
logif  BatUii  Magni,  Jok,  Ckrytoatomi^  Gregorii  Nyttenu 
All  of  Psellus's  works  are  found  in  Migne,  Patrologia 
Grcccm,  vol.  cxxiL  See  Leo  Allatius,  Diatriba  de  Peellis 
(Paris,  1804;  reprinted  in  Migne)  ^  Dimitracopoulos, 
Orthodox  Greece  (Leipsic,  1872,  Greek),  p.  8;  Sathas, 
Michel  Psellus  (Paris,  1874, 2  vols.) ;  Lichtenberger,  En- 
cgdop,  des  Sciences  Seligieuses,  s.  v. ;  Plitt-Herzog,  Real- 
Encydop.  b.  v.     (R  P.) 

Pseudepigrftpha  of  thb  Old  Tbstamsmt.  Af- 
ter a  careful  examination  of  the  scope  of  the  Biblical 
canon,  the  ancient  Church  divided  the  mass  of  Biblical 
literature,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  into  three 
classes:  1,  the  canonical  and  inspired;  2,  the  non-ca- 
nonical, but  on  account  of  their  long  use,  worthy  of  be- 
ing read  in  the  churches  (avrcXeyoftcva  and  itvayiyvbh- 
vKSfuvaj  iKKKfi9iaK6fitva^i  and,  8,  the  other  books  of  a 
Biblical  character  in  circulation  (Biblical  name  in  the 
title,  a  Biblical  form.  Biblical  contents,  but  differing 
greatly  in  spirit  and  truth  from  the  canonical  books), 


called  apocryphal,  or  such  as  ahoold  be  kept  secret  (dwo- 
Kpv^),  Virtually  the  aame  books  which  the  ancient 
Church  called  apocrypha  are  embraced  nnder  the  name 
Pseudepigrapha  by  the  Protestant  Church.  Since,  after 
the  example  of  Jerome,  the  non-canonical  books  of  the 
Old  Test,  received  the  name  apocrypha,  it  became  neo* 
essary  to  find  a  new  one  for  the  third  class.  The  name 
y\ftvi%iriypafa  is,  indeed,  taken  only  from  a  aingle  and 
outward  mark,  namely,  the  apnriooa  character  of  the 
author's  name  which  they  bear.  It  is  neither  anffi- 
oiently  comprehensive,  nor  does  it  distinguish  suffi- 
ciently this  dass  of  writings  from  the  antilegomena ; 
nor  is  it  applicabfe  tt>  all  tlie  writings  of  the  third  dass. 
For  many  reasons,  however,  it  is  probably  the  best  term 
that  could  be  found. 

As  there  is  an  Old  and  a  New  Test,  so  likewise 
there  are  pseudd-epigrapha  of  each,  all  writings  that 
claim  either  to  have  been  written  by  or  to  treat  of  Okl- 
Test.  pMersonages,  whether  these  writings  are  of  Jewish 
or  Christian  origin,  being  called  pseudepigrapha  of  the 
Old  Test. ;  and  those  writings  which  pretend  to  be  gos- 
pels, acts  of  the  apostles,  epistles  of  apostles,  and  reve- 
lations under  a  New-Test,  name,  being  termed  pseude- 
pigrapha of  the  New-Test  The  latter  class  might 
probably  be  better  called  apocrypha  of  the  New  Test 
(in  the  old  sense  of  the  word). 

In  the  following  the  pseudepigrapha  of  the  Old  Test., 
those  that  are  extant  as  well  as  those  of  which  only 
fragments  are  preserved,  or  which  are  only  known  by 
name,  will  be  treated.  We  premise  a  few  remarks  on 
the  origin  and  development  of  this  whole  class  of  liter- 
ature. The  rapid  growth  and  spread  of  pseudepigraphic 
literature  among  the  Jews  and  Christians  in  the  last 
century  before,  and  the  eariy  centuries  after,  Christ,  is 
a  peculiar  phenomenon,  for  which  other  nations  have 
only  distant  analogies;  and  it  is  all  the  more  remark- 
able, because  such  writings  are  in  direct  contradiction 
to  the  duty  of  strict  truthfulness  demanded  by  both 
Mosaism  and  Christianity.  That  these  books  were 
used  only  in  sectarian  circles  cannot  be  proved.  It  is 
true  that  heretics  in  early  days  of  the  Church  frequent- 
ly adopted  this  method  of  promulgating  their  errors, 
but  this  was  in  the  period  of  the  decay  of  this  lit- 
erature, and  we  must  remember,  on  the  other  hand, 
that,  in  the  course  of  the  centuries  during  which  it 
fiourished,  it  generally  was  employed  for  honorable  and 
usually  noble  purposes,  and  by  roemben  of  the  ortho- 
dox Church.  There  is  no  doubt  that  their  origin  is 
not  to  be  explained  as  an  imitation  of  the  secret  books 
in  possession  of  the  priesu  of  the  Gentile  temples,  but 
that  they  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  peculiarity  and  life 
of  the  Jewish  congregation,  and  were  then  transferred 
to  the  Christian  Church.  Above  all,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  it  was  the  custom  of  Jewish  writers 
not  to  prefix  their  names  to  their  productions,  as  these 
were  written  for  the  benefit  of  the  congregation,  not  for 
the  author's  glorification.  Different  was  the  practice 
with  the  prophets,  i^ho,  with  their  names,  guaranteed 
the  truth  of  the  revelation.  Thus  the  names  of  the  au- 
thon  of  neariy  all  other  books  have  been  hidden  from 
posterity.  This  custom  of  omitting  the  author's  name 
explains,  to  some  extent,  the  origin  of  writings  under 
a  strange  name.  The  other  weighty  reason  lies  in  the 
inner  rupture  in  the  spiritual  life  of  the  Jews,  which 
began  before  the  captivity,  but  showed  itself  in  great 
potency  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  new  Jerusalem. 
With  the  ruin  of  the  old  political  and  religious  organi- 
sation, and  the  sofferings  nnder  heathen  supremacy,  the 
freedom  of  the  national  spirit  was  also  broken,  the  Holy 
Spirit  of  revelation  withdrew,  the  state  of  aflain  and 
the  teachings  of  former  days  became  decisive  for  the 
new  period;  and  as  all  this  led  to  the  formation  of  a 
canon  in  the  flnt  centuries  after  the  exile,  it  also  in- 
creased the  reverence  for  the  old  history,  the  old  per- 
sons and  writings,  so  much,  that  these  ruled  and  de- 
cided the  whole  spiritual  life  of  the  people.  The  ex- 
amination, study,  and  application  of  the  sacred  writings 


PSEUDEPIQRAPHA 


19S 


PSEUDEPIQRAPHA 


were  the  fundamenUl  objects  of  these  times.  Although, 
through  association  with  other  naticms  and  educational 
forces  (Persians,  Greelca,  Romans)i  and  through  a  more 
systematic  and  deeper  investigation  of  the  old  liooks, 
new  knowledge  and  aims  were  bom,  and  although,  in 
extraordinary  and  dangerous  times,  prominent  men 
felt  themselves  called  upon  to  speak  to  the  congre- 
gation, yet  the  lack  of  personal  influence  always  in- 
duced such  authors  to  put  their  thoughts  and  words 
into  the  mouth  of  some  pious  man  of  antiquity,  and 
conform  the  shape  and  style  of  their  writings  to  those 
of  the  Old  Test.  A  thorough  acquaintance  with  these 
latter  facilitated  the  application  of  their  contents  to  later 
circumstances.  Such  revivification  of  ancient  persons, 
which  makes  them  the  bearers  of  later  thoughts,  was 
common  to  all  literature;  and  it  was  but  one  step 
further  to  ascribe  a  whole  book  to  them.  In  many  re- 
spects this  kind  of  literature  can  be  compared  with  the 
dramatic  works  of  other  nations ;  but  to  call  it  inten- 
tionally fraudulent  is  hardly  to  be  justified,  for  the  mul- 
titude of  such  books  shows  that  the  knowledge  of  their 
late  origin  was  constantly  present  to  the  minds  of  the 
readers.  Yet  the  danger  of  leaving  a  false  impression, 
at  least  in  the  minds  of  the  less  cultivated  part  of  the 
congregation,  although  for  the  contemporaries  compar- 
atively small,  was  constantly  growing  with  time,  es- 
pecially when  Christianity  brouglft  these  later  spiritual 
productions  of  the  Jews  to  nations  who  did  not  under- 
stand them.  The  opposition  of  the  early  Christian 
Church  against  such  books  can  thus  be  easily  under- 
stood, but  theological  science  must  investigate,  and 
make  all  ponible  use  of  them.  The  pseudepigraphical 
form  was  chiefly  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  instruction, 
exhortation,  and  consolation  in  the  great  trials  and 
troubles  of  post-extlic  days.  What  the  prophets  had 
been  for  the  past,  the  later  writings  were  intended  to 
be  for  the. present,  by  the  prophetical  character  which 
they  assumed.  Most  of  the  pseudepigraphical  works 
are  prophetical  in  their  nature,  some  also  apocalypses, 
in  imitation  of  the  book  of  Daniel. 

Besides  the  pseudepigraphical  literature,  the  so-called 
haggadic  midrash,  as  we  find  it  in  the  later  Targumim, 
Midrashim,  and  Talmud,  as  well  as  in  the  Pseudepi* 
graphs,  was  especially  cultivated. 

With  the  rise  of  Christianity,  a  new  element  was 
introduced  into  this  literature,  and  contributed  to  its 
growth  and  development,  not  through  the  Essenes,  as 
modem  Jewish  writers  would  have  it,  but  through  the 
Judaizing  sects  and  the  gnosticism  arising  from  them, 
especially  in  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt.  In  the  hands  of 
the  sects  and  heretics  they  later  became  instmments 
for  dangerous  purposes,  which  resulted  in  the  antago- 
nizing attitude  of  the  Chureh.  The  number  of  Jewish 
and  Christian  pseudepigrapha  was  undoubtedly  very 
large.  Even  in  the  apocalypse  of  Ezra  (4  Ezra  xiv, 
46  Lat.,  xiv,  51  Ethiop.),  seventy  apocryphal  writings 
are  distinguished  from  the  twenty-four  canonical  boolu, 
which,  however,  is  probably  a  round  number  that  be- 
came authoritative  for  later  times.  It  is  probable  that 
those  preserved  are  the  best  of  their  class.  Of  many 
we  have  only  the  titles,  or  short  extracts  in  the  Chureh 
Fathers.  The  last  decades  have  discovered  some  that 
were  regarded  as  lost,  and  the  future  may  yet  fumish  us 
others.  They  have  more  than  a  passing  interest,  they 
have  historical  value,  because  they  were  the  popular 
literature  of  their  day.  According  to  their  contents,  the 
pseudepigrapha  may  be  divided  into  different  elaases,  viz. : 

I.  LvBtOAL  PoRKT.    To  tbis  class  belong  : 

I.  T?u  PtaUer  ^  Solomon  (q.  v.>.  By  wny  of  snppfe- 
ment  to  the  literature  we  sda  Pick,  Tht  PaaUer  of  iSoto- 
mon  (Greek  and  English,  in  the  Pre»l»yteri€tn  RevUw, 
October,  18S8),  and  an  art  by  Dean  In  the  Sxponlor  (Lond. 
December,  1883). 

%  A  pseadepfgnphon  of  Aa/8iA,  mentioned  In  the  Con- 
aUL  ApotL  vl,  1«.  Whether  tbia  is  Psa.  cli  of  the  Greek 
Bible,  or  a  larger,  independeut  work,  cannot  now  be  de- 
cided. 

II.  Paoravno  WainHQf.  ITnder  this  bead  we  tun- 
marata  t 

XII.— D  D  D 


a.  The  so-called  Apoedlyptn  or  JUfMlaUoiu,  This  Is  the 
name  assigned  to  those  books  of  flctltions  prophecy 
which,  after  the  spirit  of  prophecy  had  departed  f^om 
Israel,  were  written,  in  the  manner  of  genuine  prophetic 
books,  to  solve  the  problems  snggested  by  the  fate  snd 
sufferings  of  the  people.  Thev  seek  a  solution  of  the  in- 
tricacies of  the  present  in  preaictlons  of  the  glory  of  the 
fbtnre.  Accordfuglv,  they  do  not  imitate  the  old  prophets 
In  their  chief  peculiarity,  namely,  to  counsel  and  warn 
the  people  on  account  of  their  sins,  but  they  undertake 
a  snoordlnate  offlce.  that  of  foreseeing  and  foretelling 
the  fntnrei  their  chief  object,  while  they  nevertheless 
endeavor  to  erect  their  prophetic  bnildinff  on  the  foun- 
dation of  the  inspired  seers.  The  chief  contents  of 
these  revelations  are  the  Messianic  times  In  their  rels^ 
tlon  to  the  present  time  and  circumstances.  Not  that 
the  fact  that  the  Messianic  time  would  come,  but  when 
sod  how,  was  the  question  for  the  waiting  congregation. 
The  books  that  seek  to  answer  these  questions  are  called 
apocalypses.  Their  contents  are  most  varied  and  pecul- 
iar, their  explanation  manifold  and  strange :  the  topics 
discussed  all  referring  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  king- 
dom of  God,  snd  the  fhtnra  of  the  chosen  people :  their 
style  enigmatical  and  highly  figurative.  A  portion  of 
these  apocalypses  have  been  treated  bv  lAck^Ct  JSinUitunij 
in  dU  Ojfenbaruna  du  Johannes  (8d  ea.  Bonn,  1848) :  Hll* 

Senfeld,  Die  jUdisehe  Apoealyptik  (1867);  Langen,  Dom 
udenthum  in  Paldttina  zur  Zeit  Jeau  (1866);  Schftrer, 
Lehrbtteh  der  N,  T.  ZeitgetehiehU  (1874  ;  2d  ed.  with  the 
title,  GtteK  du  jM.  Volke§  im  ZeUaUer  Juu  ChrUti, 
1866). 

8.  The  Enoch  and  Koah  WriUnge,  combined  In  the  Bw^ 
qf  Enoch  (q.  v.).  We  add,  by  way  of  supplement  to  the 
literature,  Dnimmond,  The  Jemeh  Meaeuih  (Lond.  1S77), 
p.  17  sq. ;  The  Book  qf  Enoeh^  in  the  Britieh  and  Foreign 
Evangelical  Rttiew  (Lond.  July,  1879) ;  Blssell,  The  Apoe^ 
rpvha  of  the  Old  Teetament  (New  York,  1880),  p.  665  sq. ; 
Schodde,  The  Book  of  Enoch  Translated,  with  Introduction 
and  Notee  (Andover,  1682) ;  Laurence.  Book  of  Enoch  the 
Prophet,  fyranelatedf  teith  Text  eorreetea  by  hie  Lateet  Notee* 
with  an  Introduction  by  the  Author  of  Evolution  and 
Chrietianity  (Lond.  1883) ;  Enoch'e  Ooepel,  In  the  Expoei- 
tor.  May,  1884;  Dictionary  of  Chrietian  Biography  (ed. 
Smith  and  Wace),  s.  v.  Enoch,  Book  of. 

4.  The  AvaXn^it  Mmvv^mt,  Aeeumptio  Moeie  (q.  v.). 

5.  The  Fourth  Book  of  Ezra^  see  Esdbas,  Book  of,  and 
add  Glldemelster,  E»r€B  Liber  IV.Arabiee  (Bonn,  1877); 
Bensley,  The  Mieeing  Fragment  OT  the  Latin  Tranelation 
of  the  Fourth  Book  of  Ezra  {QAxnbnA^e,  1876);  Drummond, 
n.  s.  p.  84-117. 

6.  The  present  Jewish  Ezra  revelation  found  an  en- 
trance Into  the  Church,  but  nsnnny  with  some  modlflca- 
tloui.  In  the  editions  of  the  Vulgate  It  has,  besides 
these,  lonir  additions  In  front  and  at  the  close.  These. 
In  the  MSS.t  are  written  as  eeparaU  Ezra  books,  one  of 
which,  at  least  (chap,  i  sq.).  Is  of  Christian  origin,  to  Im- 

Sress  the  Importance  of  Christianity  upon  the  stubborn 
ewB ;  the  other,  probably  a  portion  of  an  Independent 
Jewish  work.    Both  are  translations  from  the  Greek. 

7.  The  \6^ot  ko<  awmcaXv^tt  rov  &fiov  wpo^firov  'E<rdpo|A 

nai  Ikfavmov  rov  ^eov,  published  by  Tlschendorf,  lu 
ApocaL  Apocr,  (Leipsic,  186C),  p.  S4-SS,  from  a  Paris  MS., 
has  no  vaiae.  On  other  Ezra  uteratnre,  see  Tlschendorf, 
Studien  und  KrUiken  (1861),  part  li ;  Lttcke,  1.  c. 

8.  Closely  related  to  the  Ezra  prophecies  Is  the  apoca- 
lypse of  Barach,  published  In  a  Latin  translation  from 
a  Syriac  MS.  in  the  Ambroslana  at  Milan,  by  Cerlaut 
(Monum.  Sacra,  I,  II,  p.  73  sq.).  In  1866,  and  DyTrltzsche 
(p.  664-699),  also  In  Syriac,  by  tiie  former,  In  1871.  It  Is  a 
revelation  to  Baroch  concerning  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  ensuing  captivity,  and  the  second  destrac- 
tlon,  to  which  are  added  visions  of  the  Messianic  future. 
It  Is  allied  in  contents  and  style  to  4  Ezra,  and  called 
forth  by  the  same  historical  events,  but  Is  a  later  produc- 
tion. The  original  language  is  Greek.  See  Ewald,  Odttin- 
ger  Gelehrien  Anzeige,  1867,  p.  1706  sq. ;  Ewald,  Oeechichte 
(8d  ed.),  vll,  83  sq. ;  Langeu,  De  Apoe,  Baruch  Comment, 
(Freiburg,  1867) ;  Hilgenfeld,  ifesatas  Judawrum,  p.  Izlli 
sq. :  Fritzsche,  n.  s.  p.  xxz  sq. :  SchUrer,  n.  s.  p.  648  sq. ; 
Renan,  Journal  dee  Savants,  1877,  p.  222  sq. ;  Drummond, 
u.  s.  p.  117-182 ;  Kneucker,  Das  Buch  Baruch,  p.  190  sq. 
(Leipsic,  1879). 

9.  Whether  the  Pseudepigraphon  Baruehi  mentioned  In 
the  Synopsis  Pttalmi  Athanaeii  Is  the  same  as  the  above 
is  uncertain.  We  silll,  however,  possess  a  Christian  Ba- 
rach book,  for  which  see  BAauoii,Boox  or,  In  the  supple- 
ment of  this  Cyclopodla. 

10.  Slim  BeveUUio  et  Visio,    See  Euas,  ApooALvrsa  of. 

11.  Aseensio  et  Visio  Isaice.    See  Asosksiom  of  Isaiau. 

IS.  An  apocalypse  or  prophecy  of  Zephanlah  Is  men- 
tioned In  the  four  cataloeues  of  the  Apocrypha,  and  is 
also  quoted  by  Clemens  Alezand.  Stromata,  v,  11,  {  78. 

18.  An  apocryphon  of  Jeremiah,  in  Hebrew,  used  by 
the  Nazarenes,  Is  mentioned  by  Jerome  (see  Fabrlclns, 
2d  ed.  1, 1102  sq.),  as  the  source  of  the  quotation  in  Matt 
unrll,  9 ;  but  this  is  probably  fictitious. 

Concerning  the  apocalypses  of,  14.  Habakknk :  16.  Bze- 
kiel :  16.  Daniel ;  17.  Zecharlah,  the  father  of  John  the 
Baptist,  we  have  no  ftirther  information. 

la  An  apocalypse  of  Mosea,  distinct  from  the  Bosk  qf 


PUFENDORF 


786 


PUNSHON 


JubiUet  (Ka  81),  and  the  AmumpHo  Moti$  (No.  4).  we 
know  only  from  Syncellos.  Protiu$  AmphiL,  and  othen 
(Fabrlciaa,  p.  888),  who  mention  it  as  the  source  of  Gal 

19.  A  Lamech  book  is  mentioned  in  the  catalogoes  of 
Cotelier  and  Montfaucon ;  and 

sa  The  Gnostic  Sethltes  poasessed  an  apocalypae  of 
Abraham  (q.  t.). 

SL  A  &a^Mq  r'mv  wfmrowXaffrwt  according  to  Fabricint, 
ii,  83,  contained  the  mention  that  Adam  was  taken  into 
Paradise  when  forty  days  old.  It  is  probably  a  portion 
of  the  Vita  ddami  (No.  86). 

98.  The  TutammU  fifths  Twelve  Patriarchi  (q.  ▼.);  to 
the  literature  must  be  added  Pick,  The  Teetammti  tiftht 
Twelve  Patriareha,  in  the  Lutheran  Church  Review  (Phil- 
adelphla,  July,  19Btf) ;  Bchnapp,  Die  TeetamenU  dtr  twdlf 
Ftttriarehen  (Halle,  1884). 

88.  An  apocryphon,  tAv  rpt&¥  m<yrptapx&¥,  is  mentioned 
in  the  Conet  AposL  ti,  16. 

84  An  apocryphal  testament  of  Jacob,  mentioned  in 
the  Deeretwn  Waeii  (Fabricins,  1, 487. 798). 

9Bu  A  irpovcvxv  '\^n^  "prairer  or  blessing  of  Joseph,** 
Is  fi^nently  mentioned,  and  is  also  connted  amnug 
those  read  (vap*  'E/S^aioir)  by  Orlgen  and  others  (Fabri- 
cins, i,  766-768).  It  seems  to  have  been  strongly  caba- 
lisUc. 

86.  A  aio^fiKq  Um&oim  is  mentioned  in  the  four  cata- 
logues and  in  the  Caiena  of  Nlcephorus,  i,  cul.  176. 

ST.  Concerning  the  itcAn^n  '£C«mov,  Aee^Jee.  cap.  1-^, 
see  Na  11. 

88.  The  testaments  of  Adam  and  Noah  are  portions  of 
the  Vita  Adami  (No.  86). 

c.  Other  booke  coneeming  the  Prophete: 

89.  In  the  acts  of  the  Nicene  synod  (Fabric,  i,  846)  men- 
tion is  made  of  fiiftXot  Xi^Mv  tiwartK^v  Mwiiv^Mt.  What 
book  is  meant  is  uncertain.  The  later  Jews  had  a  work, 
Pettrat  Moehe,  the  death  of  Moses. 

80.  Liber  Eldad  et  Medad  is  mentioned  in  Paetor  Hermof, 
i,  Tis.  8,  8,  and  dted  as  the  holy  writings  genernlW  are; 
later  authorities  mention  it  as  an  apocryphon  of  the  Old 
Testament  ^ 

in.    BOOKB    OK    HlSTORlOAL    MaTTBBS    AMD   Ha00A2>I0 

Wazmvos.    These  include: 

81.  The  Book  of  Jubileee  (q.  t.).  To  the  literature  we 
add  Dmmmond,  p.  148-147;  Desne,  The  Book  qf  Jubi- 
lee$t  in  the  Monthly  ExpoeUor,  August  and  September, 
1888 :  Billmann,  Beitrdge  out  dem  Buehe  der  JubuOen  tur 
Kritik  dee  PentateuehrTextes  (Berlin.  1883,  in  reporU  of 
the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences);  Schodde,  The  Book  of 
Jubileee  (translation,  etc,  in  Bibliotheea  Sacra^  October, 
1886  etc.). 

89.'  Jatmee  et  Mambree  treats  of  the  contest  between 
Moses  and  the  Egyptian  sorcerers  (Bxod.  Tii,  11).  Cf.  8 
Tim.  ill,  a  See  Heath,  Quar.  Statement  of  the  "  PalesL 
Kzploration  Fund,"  Oct  1S81,  p.  811  sq. 

n.  Manasseh*8  conversion  (8  Chron.  zxzlli,  11)  early 
gaye  rise  to  an  apocryphon  of  Manasseh,  used  both  by 
Christian  writers  and  by  the  Targum  on  Chronicles  (Fa- 
bricius,  i,  1000  sq.). 

84.  A  novel  based  on  Gen.  xll,  46,  we  have  in  Aeenath 

(Q«  ▼•)• 

86.  Booke  of  Adam,  see  Adam,  Book  of.  To  the  litera- 
ture we  add,  Trumpp,  in  Abhandlungen  der  baprieehen 
Akademie  der  Wieeeneeha/ten  (Munich,  1680, 18S2) ;  Meyer, 
Vita  Adee  et  Evte,  in  the  same  Journal  (1879);  Malan, 
The  Book  qfAdam  and  Eve  (Lond.  1SS8). 

86.  A  gnostic  writing,  called  iVonCo^  after  the  wife  of 
Noah,  is  mentioned  by  Epiphanlns,  Hcer.  86. 

87.  An  Bbionitic  book,  Ivafiaiuoi  'laiumfiov  (Gen.  zzyiii), 
also  mentioned  by  Epipbanius  (Fabricius,  i,  487). 

On  the  Jewish  Midrashim.  See  Midsasu,  in  this  Sup- 
plement 

Later,  this  class  of  literature  was  used  for  worldly 
and  evil  purposes,  and  stood  in  the  service  of  quackery, 
witchcraft,  and  soicery.  The  name  of  Solomon  was, 
above  all  others,  connected  with  this  kind  of  works; 
sometimes,  also,  that  of  Joseph  and  Abraham  (Fabri- 
cius, i,  1048, 890, 785).  See  PUtt-Herzog,  ReaUEncyUop, 
s,v.    (RP.) 

PBeudo-Iaidorlan  Decretals.    See  Decbe- 

TAUB,  PbEUDO-ISIDORIAM. 

Pofendor^  Samuel,  a  (^rman  historian,  was  bom 
at  Chemnitz,  Saxony,  in  1632.  He  lectored  on  juris- 
prudence at  Heidelberg  and  Lnnd,  and  finally  settled  at 
Berlin  as  historiographer  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg. 
Pufendorf  died  in  1694.  His  principal  work  is  De  Jure 
Naturoi  et  Gentium  (Lund,  1672  and  often;  transL  into 
German,  English,  and  French).  Though  essentially 
enly  an  elaboration  and  systematization  of  the  ideas 
of  Grotius,  it  forms  the  foundation  of  the  modem  con- 
ception of  the  doctrine  of  natural  and  international 
rights.    Previously  that  doctrine  had  been  baaed  on 


the  decalogue  and  developed  in  accordance  with  tbe 
idea  of  the  j uattce  of  God.  Bat  Pnfendorf  emancipated 
tbe  natural  law  from  theology,  without  opposing  the  dog- 
mas of  the  latter,  because  he  recognised  in  religion  the 
means  of  realizing  tbe  right  and  God  as  its  author.  Pn- 
fendorf s  work  attracted  great  attention,  but  also  met 
with  mncb  opposition ;  indeedi  Buddsus  and  Wolff  were 
the  first  who  fully  recognised  it.  Among  his  other  works, 
bis  De  Habitu  ReUgionie  Chrittiana  ad  Vitam  CirHem 
(Bremen,  1687)  has  also  theological  interest  as  a  defence 
of  his  colleagues^  system.  In  a  work  publtsbed  after  his 
death,  in  1695,  entitled  Jub  Fedale  Divmum  eem  de 
Catueneu  et  Dieteneu  PrateeioHiiumf  he  demonstrates 
the  impossibility  of  uniting  the  Lutherans  and  Beformed 
as  long  as  the  latter  retain  tbe  doctrine  of  absolute 
predestination.  See  Stahl,  Die  Philoeophie  dee  JMkts 
(8d  ed.  Heidelberg,  1854),  i,  182;  Hettner,  Literature 
gttckiehte  dee  XVI I L  JakrhunderU  (Bmnswick,  1856- 
62),  iii,  88  sq. ;  Bluntschli  und  Brater,  Deufsches  Staat*- 
WdrUrhtch,  viii,  424-489 ;  Dioysen,  Zur  Kritik  Pufem- 
dorfs, in  Ahhanidbmgen  tur  neueren  Geachiehte  (Leipsic, 
1878);  VfaMick^GeechiehUderproteetaMtiicken  Tkeoloffie, 
ii,  62  sq.;  Plitt-Herzog,  Real'Encgkhp,  a.  v.;  Ucbten- 
beiger,  Encgdop,  dee  Scieneet  Rd^ieueetf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Pullen  (Pulley,  Pnley,  Pulby,  or  Bnllen), 
RicRART).    See  Poij.KTir. 

Piinjer,  Gkorg  Christiaii  Bbrkiiabd,  a  Protes- 
tant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Friedrichs- 
gabekoog,  Schleswig-Holstein,  June  7, 1850.  He  stud- 
ied at  different  universities,  took  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  philosophy  in  1874,  and  commenced  his  academical 
career  at  Jena  in  1875.  In  1880  he  was  made  profesKNr, 
and  in  1883  doctor  of  theology.  PUnjer  died  May  13, 
1885.  He  is  the  author  of.  Die  Beligionelehre  KaHCs 
(Jena,  1874):  —  De  Michcelie  Serveti  Doctrina  Com-' 
tnentatio  Dogmafioo^hietorica  (1876): — Gee^ickte  der 
christlicken  Religionsphilosophie  eeit  der  RrformaHcm 
(Branswick,  1880,  1883,  2  vols.):  — Die  Avfgoben  dee 
heutigen  ProteetantitmuB  (1885).  Besides  contributing 
to  different  encyclopedic  works  and  literary  joumalai, 
he  sUrted  in  1881  the  Theologiecker  Jakreeberickt^ 
giving  an  annual  review  of  all  theological  works  pub- 
lished in  German,  French,  English,  Dutch,  etc,  a  work 
indispensable  to  the  student  in  spite  of  its  many  de- 
ficiencies.    (B.  P.) 

Punahon,  Wiluam  Moruct,  LL.D.,  an  emineot 
Wesleyan  Methodist  minister,  was  bora  at  Doncaster, 
Yorkshire,  England,  May  29,  1824.  His  home  infln- 
ences  were  decidedly  Methodistic,  and  at  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  gave  himself  to  Christ.  He  at  once  con- 
scientiously devoted  himself  to  a  rigid  course  of  self- 
culture  and  energetic  usefulness,  which  be  continued 
until  his  death.  In  1840  he  removed  to  Sunderland, 
where  he  became  an  accredited  local  preacher.  In 
1843  he  began  his  preparation  for  the  ministry,  under 
that  devoted  missionary,  Benjamin  Clough,  at  Wool- 
wich. He  was  accepted  as  a  probationer  by  the  ocm- 
ference  in  1844,  and  went  to  the  theological  school  at 
Richmond,  but  did  not  complete  his  course,  as  he  was 
sent  to  Maidstone  Circuit  to  supply  a  vacancy.  In 
1845  be  was  appointed  to  the  Whitehaven  Circuit.  In 
1867  he  was  appointed  by  the  conference  as  its  repre- 
sentative to  the  Canadian  Conference,  and  also  elected 
to  its  presidency.  He  arrived  in  America  in  1868,  and 
met  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  at  Chicago  the  same  year,  to  which  he  was  tbe 
representative  of  the  Wesleyan  Church.  He  visited 
the  Creneral  Conference  of  1872,  and  his  speech  before 
that  body  at  that  time  was  probably  by  far  tbe  best  be 
ever  delivered  in  America.  Tbe  Wealevan  Church  hon> 
ored  bim  by  making  him  president  of  the  conference  in 
1874.  In  1875  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretarka 
of  the  Foreign  Minionary  Society,  which  position  be 
held  until  his  death,  in  London,  April  14, 1881.  Dr.  Pon- 
shon  was  undoubtedly  tbe  greatest  orator  which  the 
Weslejran  body  of  England  has  produced  in  tbia 


PURCELL 


787 


PUTNAM 


tary.  He  was  by  luitare  poetic,  and  hb  style  was  large- 
ly controlled  by  this  tendency,  highly  ornate,  with  great 
beauty  and  variety  of  illustration.  In  early  life  his  dis. 
oourBes  were  rhetorical  rather  than  logical,  but  during 
the  latter  part  of  his  career  his  efforts  "  combined,  as  far 
as  would  be  possible,  the  Ciceronian  and  Demosthenic 
styles."  These  qualities,  eoupled  with  a  wonderful  voice 
and  great  personal  magnetism,  gave  him  a  power  over 
an  audience  which  is  seldom  equalled.  His  character 
as  a  Christian  was  specially  attractive.  *'  A  remarkable 
fact  in  the  history  of  Mr.  Punshon  is  that  he  displayed, 
in  the  important  positions  in  which  he  was  placed  in 
later  years,  very  great  practical  sagacity,  and  proved 
that  a  great  semi-poetic  orator  may  be  a  successful  man 
of  affairs."  He  published  several  volumes  of  sermons 
and  addresses,  also  one  of  poems.  See  Minutes  of  the 
British  Cofi/erena,  1881,  p.86;  (N.  Y.)  Christian  Ad- 
vocate, April  21, 1881 ;  also  his  Biography  (Lond.  1881). 

Paroell,  John  Baptist,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  was  born  of  humble  parents  at  Mallow, 
County  Cork,  Ireland,  Feb.  26, 1800.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  he  left  his  home  for  the  United  States,  and  in  June, 
1820,  entered  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmittsburg, 
Md.  After  three  years  he  received  minor  orders,  and  the 
following  year  was  sent  to  France  to  complete  his  the- 
ological course  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris. 
On  May  21, 1826,  he  was  ordained  priest  by  archbishop 
Quelen  in  the  Notre  Dame  cathedral  Immediately  on 
his  return  to  America  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  and  in  1828  he 
became  president  of  it.  On  Oct.  18,  1S33,  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Cincinnati.  By  his  unflagging  zeal 
he  saw  his  large  diocese  flourishing  with  its  churches 
and  charitable  and  religious  foundations.  In  1886  he 
had  his  great  public  debate,  which  lasted  a  week,  with 
Alexander  Campbell.  In  1850  Cincinnati  was  made  an 
archiepiscopal  see,  and  Purcell  and  Hughes  received 
the  pallium  together  in  the  pope's  private  chapeL 
Bishop  PurceU  died  at  St.  Martin's,  O.,  July  4,  1888. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  vigor,  devotion,  and  labor,  nat- 
urally generous  and  charitable.  His  latter  years  were 
made  unhappy  by  the  memorable  financial  disaster 
which  overtook  him,  and  which  caused  him  to  retire 
some  time  before  his  death  to  a  monastery.  He  left 
debts  to  the  amount  of  one  million  of  dollars.  He  pub- 
lished several  volumes,  chiefly  sermons  and  biographies. 
See  Cath,  Annual,  p.  34;  Gilmour,  Funeral  Oration 
(N.  Y.  1883). 

Purinton,  Jesse  M.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Coleraine,  Mass.,  Aug.  12, 1809.  He  united  with 
the  Church  at  the  age  of  eleven,  studied  at  Hamilton, 
N.  Y.,  and  was  ordained  in  1834^  His  pastorates  were 
in  his  native  place;  Arcade,  N.  Y.;  Forestville  and 
Mount  Moriah,  Pa.,  and  at  Morgantown,  W.  Va.  For 
several  years  he  was  a  missionary  in  north-western 
Virginia,  and  assisted  pastors  much  in  times  of  revival. 
He  died  at  Morgantown,  June  17, 1869.  See  Cathcart, 
Baptist  Encydop.  p.  950.     (J.  a  S.) 

Pnnrianoe,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Feb.  19,  1807.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Mary's  College  and  at  the  U.  S.  Acad- 
emy at  West  Point,  subsequently  studied  law,  and 
graduated  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1835.  He  was  ordained  an  evangelist  by  the  Presby- 
tery of  Louisiana  in  1837 ;  served  one  year  thereafter 
as  stated  supply  at  Baton  Rouge;  at  Carmel,  Miss.,  in 
1841,  and  pastor  from  1846  to  1854.  He  was  president 
of  Oakland  College  from  1855  to  1860;  resided  at  Car- 
rolUon«  La.,  from  1861  to  1862;  at  Natchez,  Miss.,  in 
infirm  health,  from  1863  to  1871,  and  died  there,  July 
1 4  of  the  latter  year.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  Princeton  TheoL 
Sent,  1881,  p.  90;  Nevin,  Presbjfterian  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Foaey,  Edwabd  Bouvbrib,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  an  emi- 
nent Anglican  divine,  son  of  the  late  Hon.  Philip  Bou- 
verie  (half-brother  of  the  first  earl  of  Radnor),  who 
assumed  the  name  of  Pusey  by  royal  license,  was  bom 


in  1800.  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  with  high  honor  in  1822, 
and  the  next  year  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  in  Oriel 
College.  After  studying  in  Germany  for  two  years,  he 
was  appointed  in  1828  regius  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Oxford  University,  a  position  to  which  is  attached  a 
canonry  in  Christ  Church,  and  he  retained  these  offices 
until  his  death,  Sept.  16,  1882.  His  connection  with 
the  Tracts  for  the  Times,  and  the  controversies  grow- 
ing out  of  them,  are  detailed  under  Puskyism  (q.  v.). 
Dr.  Pusey  was  a  High-churchman  of  the  purest  morals 
and  the  stanchest  orthodoxy,  and  also  a  scholar  of  no 
ordinar}'  character.  Besides  his  doctrinal  writings,  he 
published  several  exegetical  works  (on  the  minor  proph- 
ets and  Daniel),  and  a  number  of  small  volumes  on 
Church-histor}'.  See  his  Life,  by  Bigg  (Lond.  1883) ; 
Memorial  Sermon,  by  Liddon  (ibid.  1884). 

Fuseyites,  a  term  often  applied  to  the  High-Church 
party  in  the  Anglican  Church,  from  their  adherence  to 
the  views  of  Dr.  Edward  Pusey  (q.  v.),  but  repudiated 
both  by  him  and  by  them. 

Pnflhtti  Venlon  of  the  Scbiptvrbs.  By  way 
of  supplement  we  add  here  the  following.  The  first 
attempt  to  produce  a  Pushtu  version  of  Soripture  seems 
to  have  been  made  by  Dr.  Leyden,  who  in  1811  fur^ 
nished  the  corresponding  committee  of  Calcutta  with  a 
translation  of  the  gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark.  At 
his  death  the  translation  was  continued  by  the  Seram- 
pore  missionaries,  with  the  aid  of  some  learned  natives 
previously  in  the  employ  of  Dr.  Leyden.  In  1819  the 
New  Test,  was  published  at  Serampore,  and  in  1882  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Test, 
were  also  issued  there.  Considering  the  circumstances 
under  which  these  versions  were  made,  they  were  very 
fair  productions,  in  spite  of  their  deficiencies.  A  need 
for  a  new  translation  was,  however,  felt  more  and  more, 
and  efforts  were  made  in  that  direction.  Previous  tu 
the  mutiny  in  India,  the  gospel  of  John,  translated  by 
the  Rev.  R.  Clark,  and  that  of  Luke,  by  captain  James, 
had  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  North  India  Aux- 
iliary Bible  Society.  But  both  were  destroyed  with  the 
press  at  Agra,  in  1857.  Copies,  however,  were  soon 
ready  for  publication,  to  which  were  added  the  gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Mark,  and  the  Acts  as  translated  by 
the  Rev.  J.  Lowenthal  (q.v.).  In  1864  the  entire  Pushtu 
New  Test,  was  printed,  the  translation  having  been  made 
by  Mr.  Lowenthal.  He  was  not  allowed  to  translate 
the  Old  Test,  into  the  Pushtu.  Before  he  had  fairly 
entered  upon  the  duty,  he  was  killed,  in  1864.  The 
work  of  translating  the  Old  Test,  was  taken  up  by  the 
Rev.  T.  P.  Hughes,  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  in 
1878.  Besides  Mr.  Hughes,  the  Rev.  T.  J.  L.  Mayer,  also 
of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  has  been  engaged  in 
translating  the  Old  TesL,  and,  assisted  by  Quazi  Abdur 
Rahman,  he  translated  the  Psalms,  which  were  printed 
in  1881.  From  the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  for  1885  we  leam  that  considerable  prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  translation  work,  both  in  the  Old 
and  New  Tests.,  and  preparations  are  in  progress  for  a 
revision  of  the  New  Test.  The  bishop  of  Lahore  has 
arranged  to  have  meetings  of  the  revision  committee 
in  Kohat  and  at  Murri,  when  it  is  hoped  that  the  differ- 
ent translations  will  be  harmonized  under  the  guidance 
of  the  bishop,     (a  P.) 

Putnam,  Israbl  Warburton,  D.D.,  a  0>ngrega- 
tional  minister,  was  bora  at  Danvers,  Mass.,  Nov.  24, 
1786.  He  entered  Harvard  College  in  1805,  but  left  in 
his  sophomore  year,  and  graduated  from  Dartmouth  in 
1809.  He  began  the  study  of  law ;  in  1811  united  with 
the  Church  in  Salem,  and  not  long  afterwards  began 
the  study  of  theology,  graduating  from  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1814.  In  October  of  that  year  he 
preached  at  Brookfield  and  in  various  other  places,  and 
in  January,  1815,  accepted  a  call  to  the  First  Church  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.  Some  time  after  he  engaged  in  a 
controversy  on  Unitarianism  with  Dr.  Nathan  Parker, 


PUTO 


788 


QXnCHUAN  VERSION 


pastor  of  the  Soath  ParUh  Church  in  Portsmoath.  In 
October,  1885,  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Old  Pil- 
grim Church,  Middleborough,  Mass.,  and  continued  in 
that  relation  until  his  death,  Bfay  8, 1868.  See  C<mg. 
Quarterly,  1868,  p.  317. 

Pnto  (Pooto,  Pouto,  or  Poo-Teon-Shan) 

is  a  small  rocky  island  off  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Chusan,  coast  of  China.  It  is  about  seventy  miles  from 
the  mainland,  near  Ningpo,  in  latitude  80°  25'  north,  and 
longitude  122°  40'  east,  and  is  about  five  miles  long  and 
from  one  to  two  broad.  It  is  famous  in  the  annals  of 
Chinese  Buddhism,  as  having  been  devoted  to  the  re- 
ligious rites  and  services  of  that  faith  for  more  than  a 
thousand  years.  It  has  numerous  shrines  and  temples, 
and  here  Chinese  Buddhism  may  be  seen  in  its  perfec- 
tion, its  rites  being  carefully  practiced  in  the  great 
temple. 

PyrSDnm,  a  fire  temple  of  the  ancient  Persians.  It 
was  simply  an  enclosure,  in  the  centre  of  which  was 
placed  the  sacred  fire,  and  the  building  was  so  con- 
structed that  the  rays  of  the  sun  could  not  fall  on  this 
fire.  The  first  pymnm  was  built  by  Zoroaster,  at  Balk, 
in  Persia;  and  thence  the  sacred  fire  was  eonveyed  to 
other  fire-temples  both  in  Persia  and  India.  See  Par- 
bees  ;  ZoaOASTKR. 

Pyre  (irvp<£,  from  irvp,/r*),  the  funeral  pile  of  wood 
on  which  the  ancient  Greeks  often  burned  the  bodies 
of  their  dead.  The  body  was  placed  upon  the  top  with 
oils  and  perfumes,  and  in  the  heroic  age  it  was  custom- 
ary to  bum  animals  and  even  slaves  along  with  the 
corpse.  When  the  body  was  consumed  and  the  pyre 
burned  down,  the  fire  was  extinguished  by  throwing 
wine  upon  it,  and  the  bones  were  collected,  washed  with 
wine  and  oil,  and  placed  in  urns. 

Pyt,  Henri,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  France,  was 


bom  April  5, 1796,  at  Sainte  Croix,  canton  of  VAody 
Switzeiiand.  He  studied  at  Geneva,  and  in  1818  went 
to  Saverdun,  France,  where  be  acted  as  an  eraogelist. 
In  1819  he  entered  the  senptoes  of  the  London  Conti- 
nental Society,  and  was  ordained  at  London  in  1821. 
He  was  pastor  at  Bayonne  and  B^am,  bat  most  of  bis 
time  he  spent  in  missionary  work  at  Boologne-sur-Mer, 
Versailles,  and  Paris.  Pyt  died  at  the  latter  place,  June 
24, 1885.  Of  his  literary  work  we  mention  the  revisioa 
of  the  New  Test,  into  the  French  Basque,  which  he  un- 
dertook at  the  instance  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society.  See  Guers,  Vie  de  Henri  lY  (Pftris.  1850); 
A.  de  Montet,  Diet.  Biogr,  de  OaAve  et  de  VaMd^  ii,  944 ; 
lichtenberger,  JSincyetop.  da  Sciences  HeUjpeyeeSf  a.  r. 
(B.  P.) 

Pythia,  the  priestess  of  ApoUo  at  Delphi,  who  gave 
forth  the  oracular  responses  of  the  god.  At  first  there 
was  only  one  Pythia,  but  afterwards  there  were  always 
two,  who  altemately  took  their  seat  upon  the  tripod. 
See  Oracle. 

Pjrthian  Gtainei,  one  of  the  four  great  national 
festivals  of  the  Greeks.  They  were  celebrated  on  s 
plain  in  the  neighborhood  of  Delphi  in  honor  of  ApoUo, 
Artemis,  and  LetO|  and  on  one  occasion  they  were  held 
at  Athens.  They  are  said  to  have  originated  in  a  musi- 
cal contest,  which  consisted4n  singing  a  hymn  in  honor 
of  Apollo,  with  an  accompaniment  on  the  cithara.  The 
other  exercises  customary  at  the  Grecian  games  were 
subsequently  added.  Originally  they  were  celebrated  at 
the  end  of  every  eighth  year,  but  in  the  forty-eighth 
Olympiad  they  began  to  be  held  at  the  end  of  every 
fourth  year,  and  were  regularly  observed  down  to  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century.  Lesser  Pythian  games  were 
celebrated  in  many  other  places  where  Apollo  was  wor- 
shipped.   See  Games. 


Quade,  Michael  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  July  28, 1682,  at  Zachau, 
Pomerania.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg  and  Greifs- 
walde;  was  in  1716  rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Stettin, 
and  died  July  11, 1757.  He  wrote,  De  Diat^sio  Are- 
opaffiia  Scriptieque  eidem  Suppotilis  (Greifswalde, 
1708):— Z>e  Apcttasia  a  Lutheranismo  ad  Papismum 
Sternum  Exitiota  (1711):  — Z)c  Vita  Juda  Apottoli 
(eod.)  i—De  Ritu  Veterum  Vota  Soleendi  et  Nuncupandi 
VariiMque  Votorum  Generibus  (1780).  See  Ddring,  Die 
gdehrten  Theologen  Deutschlandt,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Qnagatl  Vendon  of  the  Scriptures.  Qua- 
gutl  is  the  vernacular  spoken  by  the  Indians  of  Van- 
couver's Island.  From  the  report  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  for  1882  we  leam  that,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  gospel  of 
Matthew,  translated  by  the  Rev.  A.  J.  Hall,  the  only 
European  who  has  studied  the  Quagutl,  has  been  printed 
by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  same 
society  also  published,  in  1884,  the  gospel  of  John,  pre- 
paied 'likewise  by  Mr.  Hall.    (B.  P.) 

Qnarles,  Frahcu,  an  eminent  author  and  poet, 
was  bora  at  Stewards,  near  Rumford,  Essex,  England, 
in  1502.  He  was  educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  occupied  various  civil 
office  until  the  rebellion  of  1641  in  Ireland,  and  he 
died  Sept.  8,  1644.  Quarles  was  a  man  of  learning 
and  ability,  and  the  writer  of  many  books  in  prose 
and  verse,  which  are  admirable  for  their  moral  and  re- 
ligious character.  The  following  are  a  few  of  his  works : 
EmUems,  in  five  books:  — ii  Feast  for  Wormt^  in  a 
Poem  on  the  Hittory  of  Jonah  :^Hada$»ah^  or  Hie- 
tory  of  Queen  Esther  .'-^The  History  of  Samson :-^ob 
Militant,  with  Meditations  Divine  and  Moral:— Sion's 
Sonnets  Sung  by  Solomon  the  King:^Sioris  Elegies 
Sung  by  Jeremy  the  Prophet  .'-^Pantmologia,  or  the  Quin- 


tessence of  Ifsditation:  — Divine  Fancies,  Digested  into 
Epigrams,  Meditations,  and  Observations:  —  Midmgkt 
Meditations  on  Death: — Manual  of  Devotion: — Hiero- 
gfyphics  of  the  Hfe  of  Man : — The  Enchiridion,  conUtim- 
ing  Institutions  Divine  and  Moral,  See  Chalmers,  Biog, 
Did,  s.  y. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors, 
s.y. 

Qaetsalooatl,  an  idol  or  god  of  the  Blexicans,  par- 
ticularly worshipped  by  all  persons  concerned  in  traffic 
Forty  days  before  the  feast  of  this  god,  the  merchants 
purchased  a  well-shaved  slave,  who  durbg  that  tioae 
represented  the  deity,  spending  his  time  in  dancing  aod 
rejoicing,  and  on  the  day  of  the  festival  was  sacrificed 
to  the  deity  at  midnight,  his  heart  being  first  offered 
to  the  moon,  and  then  laid  before  the  idoL  This  doty 
was  worshipped  under  another  name  at  Cholula,  when 
he  was  looked  upon  as  the  god  of  the  air,  the  found- 
er of  the  city,  the  institutor  of  penance,  and  the  author 
of  sacrifices.  He  was  represented  sitting  on  a  kind  of 
pedestal,  habited  in  a  cloak  ornamented  with  red  croasea. 
His  devotees  drew  blood  from  their  tongues  and  ean  to 
procure  his  favor;  and  before  going  to  war  sacrificed  to 
him  five  boys  and  as  many  girls  of  three  years  of  age. 

Quiohuan  Vendpn  of  the  Scriptures.  Qui- 
chua  was  the  predominant  language  of  Peru  during  the 
sovereignty  of  the  ancient  Incas.  It  still  prevails  on 
the  plateau  of  the  Andes,  from  Quito  to  Santiago  d^ 
Estero,  and  in  some  districts  it  is  exclusively  spoken. 
Before  the  year  1880  the  Quichuans  were  entirely  with- 
out the  word  of  God  in  their  vernacular.  At  the  ro> 
quest  of  the  Rev.  F.  K.  Lett,  the  Bridsh  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society's  agent  for  Buenos  A^Tes,  the  gospel  of 
John  was  translated  by  the  Rev.  J.  H.  GibUm-Spila- 
bury,  of  the  South  American  Missionary  Society,  and 
an  edition  of  one  thousand  cofnes  was  published  at 
the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Societr 


QUINBY 


789 


RA6NAR0ER 


This  if  th«  fifst  portion  of  the  word  of  God  tnuuUted 
and  published  in  the  Quichoan.    (B.  P.) 

Qoinby,  HosBA,  D.D.,  •  Free-will  IfaipUst  minister, 
trts  bom  at  Sandwich,  N.  H.,  Aug.  25, 1804  He  was 
converted  in  1824,  and  graduated  from  WaterviUe  Col- 
lege, now  Colby  University,  in  1832.  He  became  prin- 
cipal of  the  Paraonsfield  Seminary,  Me.,  and  having 
been  ordained  June  2, 18S8,  preached  habitually  during 
his  nearly  8ev«n  years*  connection  with  the  institution. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Morning  Siar^  and 
began  to  write  a  history  of  the  Free  Baptist  denomina* 
tion,  which  was  published  in  part  in  the  Quarierly 
Magazine,  For  a  few  years  he  was  pastor  and  teacher 
at  Meredith  village,  N.  H.  Upon  the  establishment 
of  the  Smithville  Seminary,  afterwards  Lapham  Insti- 
tute, in  North  Scituate,  R.  I.,  in  1846,  he  was  appointed 
its  principal,  and  was  very  successful  in  the  manage- 
ment of  its  siTairs.  Subsequently,  as  the  seminary  was 
greatly  embarrassed  finsncially,  it  was  sold  to  Mr. 
Quinby,  and  carried  on  by  him  as  a  private  enterprise 
for  several  years.  For  thirty  years  he  did  double  work 
as  preacher  and  teacher,  and  may  be  said  to  have  been 
the  father  of  the  educational  interests  of  his  denomina- 
tion. In  January,  1855,  he  became,  a  second  time,  pastor 
of  tho  church  in  Meredith,  and  resumed  his  work  as  a 
teacher.  On  Feb.  28, 1857,  he  entered  upon  his  duties 
as  pastor  of  the  church  in  Pittsfield,  N.  H.,  at  the  same 
time  having  charge  of  a  high -school  in  the  village. 
His  next  settlements  were  at  Lebanon,  Me.,  in  1861,  and 
Lake  Village,  N.  H.,  in  1864.  In  1868  he  removed  to 
Concord,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  work,  and  to 
his  duties  as  chaplain  of  the  New  Hampshire  state 
prison,  for  several  years.  His  last  pastorates  were  at 
Nottingham,  October,  1872;  Pittsaeld,  January,  1875, 


and  Mellon  Mills,  in  Bfay,  1876,  where  he  died,  Oct  11, 
1878.    (J.  a  a) 

Quinet;  Edoab,  a  French  philosophical  writer,  was 
bom  at  Bourg,  Bresse,  Feb.  17, 1808.  He  studied  at 
Paris  and  Heidelberg,  was  for  some  time  professor  at 
Lyons  and  Paris,  and  died  at  Versailles,  March  27, 1875. 
He  published,  De  la  Grece  Modeme  dam  ie$  Rapports 
avee  VA  ntiquUi  (1880) :— Z>«  FA  venu  det  Religions  :—De 
la  RdvoluHon  tide  la  Philoiophiec^Det  la  Vie  de  Jiius 
par  Straust  (essays  written  for  the  R4vu€  des  Deux- 
Mondes  and  R^e  de  Paris,  His  treatise  on  the  life 
of  Jesus  was  translated  into  German  by  Kleinc,  1889) : 
— GMe  des  Religions  (1842):  —  V  Ultramontanisme  ou 
la  Societi  Modeme  et  FtgHse  (1843;  Germ,  transl., 
Leipsic,  1845):  —  Le  Christianisme  ei  la  Ricoluiion 
Frangaise  (1846) : — PhUosophis  de  rBistoire  de  France 
(1855):— Quef^jon  Romaine  deoant  rHistoire  (1867) :~ 
La  CrkUion  (1870, 2  vols.).  His  works  were  published 
in  11  vols.  (1856-1870).  See  Chsssin,  Edg.  Quinet,  sa 
Vie  ei  son  (Euvrt  (Paris,  1859);  Vinet,  LitUrature 
Franf,  au  Vix^NeuvUme  Sikde ;  lichtenberger,  fney- 
dop.  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Quistorp,  JouAKif  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Rostock,  March  19, 1717.  He 
pursued  his  theological  studies  at  the  university  of  his 
native  place,  was  in  1743  professor  at  Kiel,  in  1747  court- 
preacher  at  £utin,  in  1754  professor  at  Bostock,  and 
died  Dec  26,  1766.  Besides  several  volumes  of  ser- 
mons, Quistorp  published,  De  Chrisio  Legem  et  Prophe- 
tas  non  Solvente^  sed  Impknte  ( Rostock,  1759  )i  —  De 
Sacris  Pcmitentia  Viciimis  Jansenistarum  (1760):~jD« 
Recentissima  Loci  de  Angelis  Bonis  ex  Tkeologia  Bog^ 
matiea  Proscriptione  TeUeriana  (1764).  See  Doring, 
Die  gekkrten  Theologen  DeuUchlands^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 


IL 


Rabbah  (Josh,  xv,  60)  is  conjectured  by  Lieut. 
Conder  (Tent  Work,  ii,  889)  to  be  the  present  Khurbet 
Rubba,  laid  down  on  the  Ordnance  Map  at  five  miles 
northeast  of  Beit-Jibrin,  and  described  in  the  accom- 
panying Memoirs  (lii,  860)  as  consisting  of  "caves,  cis- 
terns, and  heaps  of  stones,  rained  walls,  bases  of  pillars 
and  shafts  much  worn,  two  lintel  stones  with  crosses, 
each  measuring  about  seven  feet  by  two  and  a  half 
feet." 

Rabbaniam  is  th^  name  of  a  school  of  Jewish  doc- 
tors in  Spain,  which  flourished  for  nine  generations, 
covering  the  period  from  the  beginning  of  the  11th 
century  to  the  end  of  the  15th,  after  which  they  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Gaons  (q.  v.).  The  founder  of  this  school 
was  rabbi  Samuel  Hallevi,  sumamed  Haragid,  or  the 
prince,  who  lived  in  1027.  The  last  of  the  line  was 
rabbi  Isaac  Aboab,  of  Castile,  who  left  that  kingdom 
after  the  edict  of  banishment  in  1492,  and  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  Portugal.   See  Schoocb,  Hebrew. 

Rabbath-Ammon.  Some  additional  particulars 
respecting  Amman  are  given  by  Merrill,  East  of  the 
Jordan,  p.  386  sq. 

Rabbith.  Tristram  {BUtle  Places,  p.  237)  thinks 
this  may  be  the  modem  Arrahehy  which,  however,  does 
not  lie  *'  in  the  plain  "  of  Esdraelon,  but  about  two  miles 
southwest  of  Dothan;  while  Lieut.  Conder  suggests 
(Memoirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  228) 
Rdba,  a  small  stone  village  lying  about  nine  miles 
southwest  of  Beisftn,  and  therefore  entirely  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  Issachar. 

Rabe,  Johann  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  16,  1710,  at  Lindfluhr,  near 
Wursburg.  He  studied  at  Altdorf,  was  in  1741  deacon 
at  Anspach,  in  1764  archdeaoon,  in  1778  pastor  and 
member  of  consistory,  in  1790  general  superintendent. 
Rabe  died  Feb.  12, 1798.  He  is  best  known  by  his  Ger- 
man translation  of  the  Mishna  (Anspach,  1760-63,  6 
parts),  and  by  his  trsnslation  of  the  treatises  Benichoth 


and  Peah,  according  to  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  (1777, 
1781).  See  FQrst,  BUA.  Jud.  iii,  127;  Winer,  Hand- 
htu^  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  212,  528,  524,  525;  Doring,  Die 
geUhrten  Theologen  BaUsehlands,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

RacoTian  Cataohiam,  a  Socinian  catechism 
which  was  published  in  Poland  in  the  17th  century.  It 
was  prepared  by  Schmak,  a  learned  German  Socinian 
who  had  settled  in  Poland,  and  by  Moekovzewski,  a 
learned  and  wealthy  nobleman.  It  derived  its  name 
from  being  published  at  Racow,  a  little  town  in  south- 
ern Poland,  the  seat  of  a  famous  Socinian  school  The 
catechism  was  published  in  Polish  and  Latin,  and  after- 
wards translated  into  Grerman  and  English.  In  1652  the 
English  parliament  declared  it  to  contain  matters  that 
are  blasphemous,  erroneous,  and  scandalous,  and  ordered 
*Uhe  sheriffs  of  London  and  Middlesex  to  seize  all 
copies  wherever  they  might  be  found,  and  cause  them 
to  be  burned  at  the  Old  Exchange,  London,  and  at  the 
New  Palace,  Westminster."  A  new  English  translation 
was  published  in  1817  by  Abraham  Rees,  with  a  his- 
torical introduction.  There  was  also  a  smaller  cate- 
chism, drawn  up  by  Schmalz  in  German,  and  first  pub- 
lished in  1605.    See  Catkciiism;  Soci29IANISM. 

Radha,  in  Hindd  mythology,  was  the  first  wife  of 
the  god  Krishna.  She  was  afterwards  adored  as  the 
goddess  of  love. 

Radolfiia,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  the  see  of  Brechin  in  1202.  He  died  in  1218.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  157. 

Radvulfi  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  ordained  bishop  of 
the  see  of  Galloway  in  790.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishr 
ops,  p.  272. 

Rae,  William,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  bishop 
of  Glasgow  in  1335,  and  died  in  1867.  See  Keith,  Scot^ 
tish  Bishops,  p.  244. 

Ragnarokr  (Divine  twilight),  in  Norse  mythology, 
is  the  final  destmction  of  the  world,  which  threatens 
the  Scandinavian  deities,  the  Asas,  their  treasures,  their 


RAIT 


790 


RAMATH-MIZPEH 


creations,  and  also  the  earth  and  ita  inhabitants.    The 
Edda  gives  the  following  description  of  it: 

"There  will  come  a  winter,  called  Fimbnlweter,  In 
which  snow  will  fall  from  all  sides,  with  a  severe  frost 
and  roQgh  winds,  wherebj  the  warmth  of  the  sun  will  be 
dtfitroyed.  Tbree  snch  winters  will  sncceed  each  other 
without  a  summer  intervening.  Bat  previous  to  these 
there  will  be  three  years  of  blood j  war  over  the  whole 
earth.  Brothers  will  slay  each  other,  and  even  parents 
will  not  ppnre  their  chilaren.  Then  the  wolf  SkoU  will 
devonr  the  sun,  another  wolf,  Hati,  the  moon.  The  stars 
will  disoppear  from  the  heavens,  the  earth  will  reel,  the 
trees  will  oe  torn  out  by  their  roots,  the  mountains  fall, 
and  all  chains  and  bauds  burst  asunder.  The  Fenrls- 
wolf  will  tear  himself  loose,  the  sea  boil,  because  the  Mid- 
gard- snake  will  seek  the  shore.  Then  also,  the  ship 
rf  agllar  will  become  loose.  It  is  made  out  of  the  nails  of 
human  beings.  The  spaut  Hrymer  is  pilot.  The  wolf 
Fenris  precedes  it  wilh  open  month.  The  Mid^rd- 
snake  vomits  poison,  which  contaminates  the  air  and  the 
Water.    In  this  tnmnlt  the  heavens  will  burst,  and  Mup- 

f)eV»  sons  come  riding,  led  by  Surtnr,  who  is  surrounded 
>y  Are,  and  whose  sword  shines  brighter  than  the  snu. 
when  they  ride  over  Bifrfist  (rainbow  bridge)  it  will  col- 
lapse. Muspel*s  eons  will  come  to  Fenris  and  the  Mld- 
Sird-snake.  Loke,  Hrymer,  and  all  Hrymtnvses  will  Join 
em.  Mnspers  sons  will  have  their  own  order  of  battle. 
Then  Hetmaal  will  blow  Into  the  Oiallar  horn  and  wake 
np  all  the  eods.  Odin  will  ride  to  Mimer's  well  to  ect 
advice  for  him  and  his.  The  ash-tree  Tgdrasil  will  mil, 
and  everything  be  taW  of  fear  in  heaven  and  earth.  The 
Asas  win  prepare  themselves  with  the  Einheriars  and 
proceed  to  the  plain.  Before  them  will  ride  Odin  with  a 
golden  helmet,  a  good  armor,  and  the  never-failinc  spear 
Gungna.  He  will  battle  against  Fenris.  Thor  will  flght 
at  his  side  against  the  Midgsrd-snake.  Freir  will  cora- 
*bat  against  Sbriur,  and  willfSill.  The  cause  is  the  lack 
of  a  good  sword,  which  he  gave  to  Skimer.  The  dog 
Oramr  will  tear  himself  loose,  cansiue  much  misery.  He 
will  combat  Tyr.  and  the  two  kill  each  other.  Thor  will 
slay  the  snake,  but  fall,  poisoned  by  the  snake's  venom. 
The  wolf  will  devonr  Odin,  bnt  Tidar  will  rend  open  his 
Jaw  and  pnll  Odin  out  After  all  this,  Surtnr  will  throw 
fire  nnd  bum  the  whole  earth.  But  then  there  shall  arise 
out  of  the  sea  a  beantUhl  green  earth,  in  which  corn  will 

STOW.  Tidar  and  Vali  will  live  on  the  Ida-plain  where 
ormerly  Asgard  lay.  There  Thor's  sons  also,  Mogni  and 
Modi,  will  appear  with  the  hammer,  Miolner.  H6dur,  Dal- 
dnr,  and  Hel  will  also  be  there.  There  will  likewise  be 
two  hnman  beings.  Lif  and  Lifthrasir,  who  will  become 
the  progenitors  oitne  new  race  of  men." 

Rait;  JoHir,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of 
the  see  of  Aberdeen  in  1861.  He  died  in  1365.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  111. 

Raitb,  Balthasar,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Oct.  8, 1616.  He  studied  at  Tubingen, 
was  there  in  1666  profesaor  of  theology,  and  died  Dea 
6,  1683,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  (iucutiomtm 
Anii-Judaicarum  Trias  de  Messia  (Tubingen,  1667)  :— 
Vadum  Talmudicum  Quoad  Priora  Capita  Testatum 
(1658):— Z>e  Prosdytkmo  Judaico  ~  Chrisliano  (1666). 
See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  s.  t. ;  Jdcher,  Attgemeines  Geiehr- 
ten-LexihoHf  s.  v,    (B.  P.) 

Rajmahali  Veralon  of  the  Scriptures.  See 
Pabari. 

Rakkon  is  thought  by  Lieut.  Gonder  (^Memoirs  to 
Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  263)  to  be  identical  with  the  pres- 
ent Tell  er-Rekkeitt  close  to  the  Aujeh  (supposed  to  rep- 
resent Mejarkon),  and  five  and  a  half  miles  along  the 
shore  north  of  Joppa,  where  "  cisterns  and  traces  of  ruins 
are  said  to  exist  under  the  sand '  (ibid.  p.  275).  Tristram 
strangely  says  {Bible  Places^  p.  51 ),  *'  Mejarkon  and 
Rakkon  have  recently  been  identified  with  Oyun  Kara, 
in  the  plain  of  Sharon,  three  miles  sooth-east  of  Joppa.** 
>  See  Bamath-lehi. 

Raleigh,  Alexander,  D.D.,  an  English  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  Castle  Douglas,  Jan.  3, 1817, 
and  removed  to  Liverpool  in  his  youth.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  BUckbum  Theological  Academy,  which 
became,  during  his  course,  Lancashire  Independent  Col- 
lege. In  1844  he  went  to  Greenock  as  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  Church,  and  there  labored  until  com- 
pelled by  declining  health  to  resign.  In  1850  he  became 
pastor  at  Rotherham,  and  in  1855  of  the  Elgin  Place 
Church,  Glasgow.  In  1859  he  accepted  an  invitation 
from  the  Church  at  Hare  Court,  for  which  the  new 
chapel  at  Canonbury  had  then  just  been  built    The 


church  was  greatly  blessed  under  bis  labors.  From  a 
▼ery  small  number,  it  was  increased  to  nearly  one  thoii« 
Band  members.  Other  churches  were  established  in  the 
neighborhood,  and,  for  a  time,  a  joint  pastorate  was  ar« 
ranged  with  Stamford  Hill.  His  last  pastorate  was  at 
Kensington,  begun  in  1875,  and  continued  until  his 
death,  April  19, 1880.  **  The  work  of  Dr.  Raleigh  was 
of  exceptional  quality  and  power,  and  entered  largely^ 
into  the  religious  life  of  the  churches.  Few  ministries 
have  been  more  fruitful.  His  preaching  was  remark- 
able for  the  freshness,  vigor,  beauty,  and  felicity  of  his 
thought  and  style,  but  especially  for  the  unwavering 
belief  and  fervid  aJSection  with  which  he  held  and  set 
forth  the  g^reat  evangelical  truths"  of  the  gospel.  He 
published  four  rolnmes  of  sermons,  entitled.  Quiet  Rett" 
inff-Plaoesc-^The  Story  of  Jonah:— The  Little  SanetH- 
ary: — The  Story  of  Esther.  His  widow  has  published 
the  posthumous  volume.  The  Way  to  the  City.  See 
(Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1881,  p.  887. 

Ralph  OF  EsccRES,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
eminent  for  his  literary  attainments  and  for  his  sur- 
passing affability.  The  year  of  his  birth  is  unknown. 
He  was  yet  ver>'  young  when  he  joined  his  father  at 
St.  Martins  and  became  a  monk  in  1079.  In  1089  he 
sen'ed  the  oflices  of  sub-prior  and  prior,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  elected  abbot.  He  remained  abbot  of  Seez, 
France,  for  sixteen  years.  He  became  bishop  of  Roches- 
ter in  1108,  and  was  elected  to  the  see  of  Canterbury 
April  26, 1114,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  OcL 
20, 1 122.  See  Hook,  Lives  of  the  A  rchbishops  of  Can- 
terbury, ii,  278  sq. 

RalatOD,  James  Grieb,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minbter,  was  bom  in  Chester  County,  Pa.,  Dec.  28, 1815. 
He  graduated  from  Washington  College  in  1838,  and 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1842,  having 
been  licensed  meanwhile  as  a  preacher.  On  account 
of  his  weak  lungs  he  was  engaged  in  teaching  most  of 
his  life,  but  organized  a  church  at  Conshohocken,  near 
Philadelphia,  in  1845,  and  the  same  year  founded  the 
Oakland  Female  Institute  at  Norristown,  Pa.,  of  which 
he  continued  the  head,  with  a  period  of  intermissinn 
(1874-77),  untU  his  death,  Nov.  10, 1880.  See  Aecro/. 
Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1881,  p.61;  Nevin,i^esfr. 
Encydop.  a.  v. 

Ramah  op  Asher.  The  Ordnance  Map  exhibits 
no  name  corresponding  to  this  in  the  required  locality 
except  Khurbei  Rwneh,  which  lies  six  miles  and  a  balV 
from  the  shore,  between  F^-Zib  (Ecdippa)  and  Ras  en- 
Nakurah,  and  is  described  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs 
(i,  180)  as  **  heaps  of  scattered  stones ;  a  few  cisterns." 

Ramah  of  Benjamin.  Er-Ram  lies  five  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem,  and  is  ''  a  small  village  in  a  con- 
spicuous position  on  the  top  of  a  high  white  hill,  with 
olives.  It  has  a  well  to  the  south.  .  .  .  The  houses  ate 
of  stone,  partly  built  from  old  materials"  (Memoirw  to 
Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  13).  The  rennains  in  the  vicinity 
are  described  (ibid.  p.  155). 

Ramah  of  Napiitalt.  Er-Ramieh  lies  seven  miles 
and  a  quarter  south-west  of  Safed,  and  is  described  in 
the  Memoirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Survey  (i, 
202)  as  "  a  small  stone  village,  containing  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  Moslems,  situated  on  a  hill-top  in  a 
valley,  with  a  few  figs,  olives,  and  arable  land ;  the  val. 
ley  to  the  west  turns  into  a  swamp  in  the  winter,  owing 
to  its  having  no  drainage ;  there  are  cisterns  and  a  large 
pool  for  water  supply."  **  There  are  several  large  saiw 
cophagi  round  this  village,  and  one  olive-press**  (ibid, 
p.  255).    (See  illustration  on  p.  791.) 

Ramath-lehi.  For  this  Lieut.  Conder  suggests 
(Tent  Work,  i,  277)  Ayvn  Kdra,  a  name,  he  says,  some^ 
times  given  to  the  springs  Ayun  Abu-ifehari,  on  the 
slope  of  a  low  hill,  seven  miles  from  Beit  At&b,  a  little 
way  (three  miles  and  a  half)  north-west  of  Zoreah ; 
and  this  he  thinks  represents  the  ancient  En  hak-Kore, 

Ramath-mispeh  is  conjectunilly  located  by  Tria- 


RAMATH-NEGEB 


>i.w   of  Hfstfin   Pntesll 
MeiTlU    iT^ii.,    at    Ungtli    (_F..iil   »/  Ihe    ^JT 
Jordan,  ji.  3&i  »ij.)  Cor  in  iJentiij-  wi  ' 
Kutat  er-Rubad,      '  "  ■      - 

■bare  tfoL, 

Ruiiat)l-ll«Keb  it  ngardfd  by  TrUtnm  (Btfib 
Piocci,  p.  1?)  u  prnbably  Ibe  preKot  "Kurmeh,  Muth- 
Vnt  o(  Dhullam,  when  aloiie  fot  many  mites  walcr  La 
■Iwiys  CO  be  IbuDd  in  plenty,  and  vbere  the  rarjne  ii 
craued  by  ■  ttrang  dam  lo  letain  it.  The  iralli  of  a 
fortifled  Uwd  are  ye£  clearly  to  be  traced,  with  exlen- 
■ire  mini,  and  it  i*  at  the  head  of  the  tooM  Treqaented 
pau  into  FiIeitiQe  frotn  the  •outh-eul." 

RamatbalJII-SOpIllm.  Lieut.  Condei  ii  inclined 
(rent  Wort,  ii,  116)  Id  identiry  Cbu  wttli  Afn  ABak, 
oat  of  Beth-horon,  an  the  oeM  alope  of  Mt.  Ephraim, 
overlooking  the  tnaritime  plain  but  he  admiti  that  the 
coDUectioDi  are  very  much  disputed. 

Rambaob,  TxleSxloh  Ebeihurd,  a  Lutheran 
theologiiD  of  Germany,  wa>  bom  at  rruUendorf,  near 
Goth*,  Aug.  21,  1708.  He  atudied  at  Uille,  wu  in 
1730  teacher  there,  in  1734  deacon,  in  1736  preacher 
M  TeupiU,  in  1740  deacon  at  Halle,  in  1766  member 
of  the  upper  consiilory  at  Breilau,  and  died  in  1776. 
Bambach  is  beu  known  a*  crantlator  of  the  works  of 
Sherlock.  Baque^  Lenfant.  Dentler,  Saurin,  Chilelain, 
Sercei,  DoddridRe,  Kidder,  BWckhouie,  Watt,  Sarpi, 
andothera.  See  Doling,  Dttgtlthrlen  Tiroto^tDfulnA- 
landi,  I.  V. ;  Winer,  llandiuth  der  IheoL  Lit.  i,  ibO,  458, 
607,667,678,683:  ii,!9;  Flitt-Herzog,  AAi/-i.'fii^^. 
I.T.     CB.P.) 

Rambkob,  Johonn  Jaoob^  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, was  boni  March  7, 1787.  He  itudied  at  Halk, 
wai  in  1760  rector  at  Magdeburg,  in  1766  at  QuedJin- 
buTg,  in  1774  fint  preacher  there,  in  1786  pastor  at 
Hamburg,  and  died  Aug.  6, 1818.  He  wmle,  Dt  Adia- 
phorii  in  Vlroqat  Satranab)  Obeiii  (Halle,  1768) : — 
Dt  Actioiniin  ProphiUtrum  Symloiidi  (Hagdeburf;, 
1760),  beaideg  ■  number  of  Mrmona.  See  Dtjring,  Di» 
iatStehm  KaiatlrtdiitT,p,Sa6-Slb.    (B.P.) 


Runotb-Gllead.  I>r.  Uerrill  atroogly  urges  the 
claims  of  JeroA  u  the  site  of  this  place  (£a<(  oftlu 
Jordan,  p.  284  sq.),  but  Triatnun  iBitU  Plaea,  p.  887) 
adheres  to  ttSi^ 

Ranuaf,  Edwabd  Bairikbiiah,  LL,D.,  a  Scottish 
clergyman  and  latbor,  was  bom  at  Balmain,  Kincar- 
dineshire, Jan.  SI,  1798,  and  graduated  from  3c  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1816.  He  look  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England,  and  was  a  curate  in  Somersetshire 
for  seven  years.  In  1880  he  became  miniiter  of  St. 
John's,  Edinburgh,  and  in  1841  dean  of  the  Reformed 
EpiaeopalChnrch  of  Scotland.  He  died  at  Edinburgh, 
Dec  27,  1872.  His  publications  includ^  a  ifanual  of 
CataJictiail  Iiutnietion  (6th  ed.  Edinburgh,  1861 ;  9th 
ed.IS6S)i-_5<niMHu/or  Adetnt  (1860) :  — £crip(Hni 
DoUrif  nf  Ikt  EueAarvl  (1868) :  — Aoiu'ntKHKCf  of 
SaXtiMk  Ufa  and  Ciaradtr  (tod.) :  —  Duiertilia  ^ 
ChriMian  Ckaradtr  lUtutmled  n  tlit  Lica  of  the  Four 
Grtai  Apoitia  (eod.): — Prrtnt  Stale  of  oar  Camn 
Laa  Cotuidered  (\m9) :  — Chtiuian  L^i  (1862):  — 
EpiMcopol  Churci  of  Scotland  (cod.)  -.—Too  Leclurti 
OH  Handd  (eod.) :— CAriXian  ItaponiibSi/g  (1864):— 
Thomai  Ckalmen,  D.D..-  a  Biographical  Notice  (1867) : 
—FvIpU  TabU^^ali  (1868),  and  other  works.  See  Alli- 
\ioae,lAcl.ofBril.aiidAiner,Aulh>ri,t.v. 

Raiiuey,  Jamaa  (I),  a  Scotch  prelile,  was  rector 
of  Hamilton,  and  in  1670  was  made  dean  of  Glasgow. 
He  was  preferred  to  the  see  of  Dunblane  and  la  the 
arcbi  episcopal  see  of  Glasgow.  In  May,  1684,  he  was 
tranalaled  from  Dunblane  to  Boss,  and  here  he  con- 
tinued undl  the  abolilioo  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland  In 
1688.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  Oct.  23, 1696.  See  Keith, 
Scoltiih  Biikopi,  p.  201. 

Run>e7,  Jtunei  (!),  D,D.,an  Associate  mintiier, 
waabomln  LancasterCounly,  Pa.,  March  32, 1771.     It 


RAMSEY 


192 


RATISBONNE 


is  supposed  that  he  commenced  his  Hsssirsl  studies 
under  his  minister,  Dr.  Anderson,  when  twenty -five 
years  of  age.  He  was  licensed  at  Buflalo,  N.  Y.,  by 
the  Presbytery  of  Cbartiers,  in  1808 ;  ordained  and  in- 
stalled pastor  of  the  couj^regation  of  Cbartiers,  Sept  4, 
1805,  and  in  1821  was  cliosen  professor  in  the  Western 
Seminary,  to  which  office  was  added  the  professorship 
of  Hebrew  in  Jefferson  College.  In  1842  he  resigned 
his  professorship  and  continued  his  duties  as  pastor. 
He  died  March  6, 1865.  See  Sprague,  ArmaU  of  the 
Amer.Pulpit,IX,  mJ7, 

Ramsey,  Peter  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  former- 
ly a  monk  of  Arbroath,  but  was  bishop  of  Aberdeen  in 
1260.  He  died  in  1266.  See  Keith,  SooUith  Bishops, 
p.  107. 

Randall,  Benjamin,  the  founder  of  the  Free-will 
Baptists,  was  bom  in  1749,  and  converted  under  the 
preaching  df  Whitefield.  He  Joined  the  Baptists,  but 
in  1779  was  silenced  for  holding  Arminian  views  re- 
specting the  atonement  and  the  wilL  He  was  never- 
theless ordained  at  Durham,  N.  H.,  in  1780,  by  a  party 
of  seceders,  and  disseminated  his  opinions  so  success- 
fully that  in  1781  he  was  Joined  by  a  company  who^  in 
1761,  had  seceded  on  similar  grounds  in  North  Carolina, 
called  **  Separate  Baptists,"  and  thus  the  Church  now 
called  Free  Baptists  was  fonned.    Randall  died  in  1808. 

Randall,  David  Auatin,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  Jan.  14, 1818.  He 
united  with  the  Church  in  1827 ;  removed  west,  and 
was  licensed  to  preach  June  80, 1888;  was  ordained  at 
Richfield,  O.,  December,  1889,  where  he  was  pastor  of 
the  Church  for  five  years,  during  which  period  he  edited 
a  Washiiigtonian  paper,  and  was  an  earnest  advocate 
of  temperance.  He  removed  to  Columbus  in  1845,  and 
became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Journal  and  Messenger, 
From  1860  to  1865  he  was  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Co- 
lumbus, then  spent  several  years  abroad,  and  on  his  re- 
turn published  a  volume  entitled  The  Uandwriitng  of 
God  in  E^fyptj  Sinai,  and  the  ITofy  Land,  For  six  years 
Dr.  Randall  was  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Ohio 
Baptist  Convention.  He  died  at  Columbus,  July  27, 
1884.    See  Cathcart,  Bqp^Ml  fTncyc/bp.  p.  956.    (J.CS.) 

Randall,  Gtoorge  Maxwell,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  Warren,  R.  I.,  Nov.  23, 
1810.  He  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1885, 
and  from  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  New 
Tork  in  1888.  Soon  after  he  became  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Ascension  at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  where  he 
remained  six  years,  and  then  removed  to  Boston  to 
take  charge  of  the  newly  constituted  Church  of  the 
Messiah,  where  he  continued  from  1844  to  1866.  Dur- 
ing most  of  this  time  he  was  the  editor  of  the  Chrisiian 
Witntss,  the  leading  organ  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
New  England.  He  was  chosen,  in  the  fall  of  1865,  mis- 
aionaiy  bishop  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  New  Mex- 
ico, and  performed  the  duties  of  that  office  most  faith- 
fully for  seven  years.  He  died  at  Denver,  CoL,  SepL 
28, 1878.  Bishop  Randall  publuhed  several  sermons 
and  tracts. 

Randolph,  John,  D.D.,  a  bishop  in  the  Church  of 
England,  was  bom  in  1749.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Randolph,  president  of  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  at  which  college  John  was  educated. 
After  occupying  different  academical  posts  and  ecclesi- 
astical preferments,  he  was,  in  1790,  raised  to  the  see 
of  Oxford,  translated  to  that  of  Bangor  in  1807,  and 
thence  to  London  in  1811.  He  performed  with  zeal  and 
assiduity  the  duties  of  his  function,  and  died  July  28, 
1818.  His  publications  were  chiefly  occasional  sermons 
and  charges,  and  a  Latin  preelection  on  the  study  of  the 
Greek  language.  See  (Lond,)  Annual  Hegister,  1818, 
p.  120. 

Ranit,  MiCHAKL»  a  Luthenm  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Sept.  9, 1700.  He  studied  at  Leipsic, 
was  in  1726  assistant  preacher  to  his  father  at  Droysig, 
in  1729  deacon  at  Nebra,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 


1748.  In  1749  he  was  preacher  at  Beerwalde,  Altco- 
buTg,  and  died  April  18,  1774  He  is  the  author  of, 
A  eta  L^iuiensium  A  cademiea  (Leipsic,  1728-24, 15  parts) : 
-^Leben  und  Thaien  Pdbst  Benedict  XIV.  (Hamburg, 
1748) : — Corpus  Doetrina  Evangelioo^Lutherana  (Leip- 
sic, 1754-66):  —  Commeniatio  PhUdhgica  de  Amicis 
Sponsi  ad  Joh.  iu,  29  (1768)  :^DeiUliche  ErUarung  da 
ur.,  ar.  trad  xi,  Capitds  dor  Epittel  PatUi  an  die  Rdwttr 
(1760),  etc  See  Ddring,  Die  gdehrttn  ThenAogem 
Deuischlands,  s.  v.;  Winer,  ffandhueh  der  theoL  Lit,  i, 
694,857.    (a  P.) 

Rapheleng;  Fraitcxs,  a  famous  Dutch  Hebrsiat, 
was  born  at  Lanoy,  near  Ryssel,  Feb.  27, 1589,  and  died 
at  Leyden,  July  20, 1697,  professor.  He  wrote.  Gram 
matioa  HAraioB  LSbeUus  (printed  in  the  Antwerp  P<4y- 
glot,  1669-72)  :—CofN;MiMKttm  Thesauri  Santis  Pagnmi 
Lingua  Hebraica  (1572): — Varia  Lediones  et  Emenda^ 
tiones  in  Chaldaieam  BUbiiorum  Paraphrasing  (in  the 
Antwerp  Polyglot),  and  published  the  Syriac  New  Teat, 
in  Hebrew  letters  (1575).  See  FQrst,  BihL  Jmd.  iii, 
188;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  iheoL  LiLi,122;  lichten- 
berger,  Encgdop,  des  Sciences  Beligieuses,  s.  v.  ^'Ravleii- 
ghien."    (a  P.) 

Rappolt;  Frikdrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Jan.  26, 1615,  at  Reicbenbacfa,  Silesia. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  there  professor  in  1651,  and 
died  Dec.  27, 1676,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  Ob- 
servationes  m  Epistolas  ad  Titmn  et  Coloss» : — Theologia 
Aphoristica  SancU  Joamns: — De  fnspiratume  Divina  ; 
— De  Peoeato  Orighns: — De  Gratia  JustyScatiofiis  ad 
Mich,  VM,  18-20.*— 2>e  Christo  SacerdoU  Non  Testa-- 
menti  ad  Ilebr,  ix,  24-26.  J.  a  Carpzov  published  Rap- 
polfs  Scripta  Theohgica  et  Exegetica  (1695).  See  Wi- 
ner, JlanSuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  510 ;  J5cher,  A  Ugememes 
Gekhrten-Lexihm,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Rarotongan  Veraion  of  the  Scriptures.  Bj 
way  of  supplement^  we  add  that  a  revised  edition  of  the 
Rarotongan  Bible  was  printed  at  London  in  1872.  The 
revision  was  undertaken  by  the  Rev.  R.  W.  E.  Kranse, 
who  retumed  to  Europe  on  account  of  illness.  The 
revisers'  chief  object  was  to  substitute  native  wonls, 
wherever  it  was  possible,  fur  the  foreign  words  which 
had  been  used  to  a  large  extent  in  the  version  in  the 
first  instance.  In  this  labor  Mr.  Krause  was  aided  by 
the  advice  and  suggestions  of  the  Rev.  G.  Gill,  who  had 
to  complete  the  latter  portion,  owing  to  the  alerm- 
ing  and  serious  illness  of  the  original  reviser.  From 
the  report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for 
1884,  we  leam  that  the  Rev.W.  Wyatt  Gill,  who'  has 
had  forty  years*  experience  of  the  South  Sea,  is  now  en- 
gaged for  the  Bible  Society  Committee  on  a  thorough 
revision  of  the  Rarotongan  Bible,  and  from  the  report 
for  1886  we  see  that  the  reviser  has  reached  the  dose 
oftheNewTesL    (B.  P.) 

Raak,  Erasmus,  a  Danish  Orientalist,  was  bom 
Nov.  22, 1807,  and  died  Nov.  14,  1832,  at  Copenhagen, 
professor.  He  is  the  author  of,  Der  euldeste  hebraiste 
Tidsregning  indtil  Moses,  efter  Jatdeme  pa  ng  hearhefdel 
og  forsgnU  med  et  Karl  over  Paradis  (Copenhagen, 
1828 ;  Germ.  transL  by  Mohnike,  Leipsic,  1836)  i—Ueber 
das  Alter  und  die  Echtkeit  der  Zaid-Spracke  (Germ, 
transL  by  Hagen,  Berlin,  1826).  See  Winer,  Handlmch 
der  theoL  Lit.  i,  158,  520;  Zuchold,  BUd.  TheoL  a.  v.: 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Rathle^  Ernst  Ludwio,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1709,  and  died  April  19, 1768, 
superintendent  at  Nienburg,  in  the  county  of  Hoya. 
He  wrote,  De  Simsdacro  N^ucadneMoris  A  ureo,  ad  Dim, 
Hi,  1  (Helmstadt,  1780):— />e  Corpore  Mosis  ad  J^nst. 
Juda  vm  (Hanover,  1788) : — De  Maocabms  Saerortim 
A  ntiqui  FsBderis  Librantm  ExuKbus  (1789) : — Ilistoria 
A  uiographorum  Apostolicomm^nbii),  etc  SeeDoring, 
Diegelehrten  Theologen  Deutschkmds,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Hand- 
buch der  theoL  Lit.  i,  78, 416, 482, 667 ;  Fttnt,  BibL  Jud, 
iii,  188  sq.     (a  P.) 

Ratisbonne,  ALFoicao  Maria,  head  of  the  Bomaa 


RATTOONE 


?9d 


RECLAM 


Catholfc  religiout  Society  of  Zion,  at  JeniialeiBy  w«8 
bom  at  Strasburg,  of  a  reapectable  Jewish  family,  hit 
father  being  the  prendent  of  the  laraelitiah  Consistory. 
According  to  the  yaima  niUa  sua  Ctnufernone  (Venice, 
1842),  Ratisbonne  owed  his  eouTersioa  to  the  appari- 
tion  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  which  took  place  at  Rome,  Jan. 
20, 1842,  in  the  Ohareh  of  San  Andrea  delle  Fntte.  He 
became  henceforth  the  devotee  of  the  Virgin,  and  desired 
to  bury  himself  forever  in  a  monastery,  and  to  retain  in 
his  own  breast  the  secret  of  the  mjrsterious  vision  with 
which  he  was  favored.  But  he  was  led  to  publish  what 
he  had  seen,  for  the  good  of  othen,  and  was  for  some 
time  subsequently  the  lion  of  the  day.  The  general 
of  the  Jesuits  came  to  visit  htm,  and  he  was  even  pre- 
sented to  the  pope.  In  honor  of  the  auspicious  event,  a 
three  da3rs'  annual  festival  was  appointed  to  be  held  in 
the  Church  of  San  Andrea  delle  Fratte.  Batisbonne 
died  May  6, 1884.    (E  P.) 

Rattoone,  Eujah  D.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jer^ 
sey  in  1787  ^  was  ordained  deaooo,Jan«  10,1790;  soon 
after  took  charge  of  8l  Ann's  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.; 
in  1792  became  professor  in  Columbia  College  of  Latin 
and  Greek,  and  in  1794  was  made  professor  of  Grecian 
and  Roman  antiquities;  resigned  in  1797  to  assume  the 
lectorship  of  Grace  Church,  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  in  which 
position  he  remained  until  April,  1802,  when  he  became 
associate -rector  of  St.  PauFs  Church,  Baltimore,  Md. 
A  few  years  after  he  resigned  this  charge,  and  Trinity 
Church,  in  the  same  city,  was  built  for  him,  where  he 
ministered  until  the  fall  of  1809,  when  he  leffc  Baltimore 
for  Charleston,  S.  G,  having  been  selected  president  of 
the  Charleston  College.  His  death  occurred  there  in 
the  summer  of  1810,  of  yellow  fever.  He  was  an  ac- 
complished scholar,  and  an  eloquent  preacher.  See 
Sprague,  AnnaU  of  the  Amer,  PufyU^  v,  26& 

Rtttze,  JoHAMN  GoTTLiKB,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  at  Zittau,  Sept  29, 1889,  teacher 
at  the  gymnasium,  was  the  author  of,  Dis  kockttm 
Prme^nm  der  SehrifUrkianmg  (Uipsic,  1824)  ^-j?e- 
trackhm^m  iiber  die  kaniiaehe  JUUffioiulehre  imterhaib 
der  Grenzen  der  blotsen  Vemunfl  (Chemnitz,  1794) :~ 
ErUuUerung  eutiger  ffauptpmkte  in  Sckleiermacher^B 
GiatthentUhre  (Leipsic,  1828)  -^Annchten  vom  dem  Na- 
tOrUcheH  und  l/ebmuUUrlichen  in  der  chrietL  Religion 
(1803): — Die  Nothwendigkeii  den  RationaUtmuM  und 
tein  VerhaUniu  zur  chritUichen  Offenbarung  zu  pri^en 
(Zittau,  1884)  ;—Z)ai  Suchen  nach  iVahrheil  (1823),  etc 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  Lit.  i,  108, 284, 805, 866, 
872, 878, 405, 481, 505 ;  ii,  238 ;  Zochold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Ran,  SsBALDua,  a  Dutch  Orientalist,  who  died  in 
1810  at  Utrecht,  professor,  was  the  author  of,  Exercita' 
tiones  Philotogioa  ad  HubiganUi  Prolegomena  (Leyden, 
1785) '.^Diatribe  de  Epulo  Funebri  Geniibue  Dando, 
lee.  XXV,  &-8  (Utrecht,  1747).  See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii, 
134;  Winer,//am26ucA(ferMeo/L/:,tl.i,94,218,227.  (B.P.) 

RaulBton,  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first  rector 
of  Cambuslang  and  sacrist  of  Glasgow,  next  provost 
of  Bothwell,  and  then  dean  of  Dunkeld.  In  1444  he 
was  preferred  to  be  royal  secreUry,  and  in  1447  keeper 
of  the  privy  seal  He  was  consecrated  bbhop  of  the 
see  of  Dunkeld,  April  4, 1448.  In  1449  he  was  consti- 
tuted lord  high-treasurer.  In  1451  he  was  employed 
in  an  embassy  to  England.  He  died  in  1452.  See 
Keith,  Scoitiik  Biehope,  p.  88. 

RaUBOh,  Emil  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  Sept  28, 1884,  at  Rengshausen, 
Hesse,  was  the  author  of,  Zeugniste  wnt  Chritio  dem 
Gekreuzigten  (Cawcl,  1887;  2d  cd.  1852) :— CAmrficAe 
Prediglen  turn  Vorleeen  in  der  Kirehe,  und  eur  Muelichen 
Erbauung  (1840)  :  —  iTaiadftifeA  6n  dem  Kotechitrnvt- 
Unterrieht  (1866)  t^Vie  HerrUehkeii  dee  fferm  (1866)  : 
—  Z>*B  ungednderte  augeburger  Con/euion  erldutert 
(Dresden,  1872).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit. 
ii,  108 ;  Zucbolf i,  BibL  TheoL  a.  v.    (B.  P.) 


Raymond,  Jobm  Howard,  LL.D.,  an  eminent 
Baptist  educator,  was  bom  in  New  York  city,  March  7, 
1814b  He  entered  Columbia  College  when  he  was  but 
fourteen  years  of  age,  where  he  remained  until  nearly 
the  close  of  the  Junior  year,  when  he  was  "  suspended," 
and,  as  he  always  admitted.  Justly.  Subsequently  he 
went  to  Union  College,  Schenectady,  where,  in  1832,  he 
.graduated  with  high  honors.  On  leaving  college  he 
studied  law  for  two  years  in  New  York  and  New  Ha- 
ven. When  he  became  a  Christian,  he  pursued  his 
theological  studies  at  the  Hamilton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, where  he  graduated  in  1888,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach.  For  ten  years  (1840-50)  he  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  English  literature  in  Madison  University, 
and  filled  the  same  chair  in  Rochester  University  from 
1851  to  1855,  when  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Polytechnic  Institute  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  held  that 
position  until  his  election,  in  1864,  to  the  presidency  of 
Yassar  College.  He  died  at  Poughkeepsie,  Aug.  14, 
1878.  See  Dr.  Edward  Lathrop,  in  The  Baptist  Week- 
i^,  Aog.  22, 1878.    (J.a&) 

Ra3r&ald,  Odbricb.    See  Rikald. 

ReadI,  Trouas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Maryland  in  March,  1746.  He  was  educated 
at  the  old  Academy  of  Philadelphia;  in  1768  received 
license  to  preach,  and  began  hb  ministry  at  Drawyer's 
Creek,  DeL;  in  1772  he  was  installed  as  the  pastor; 
and  in  1798  accepted  a  call  from  the  Second  Presbyte- 
rian Church  of  Wilmington.  He  resigned  this  pastoral 
chargQ  in  1817,  and  died  July  14, 1823.  See  Sprague, 
A  nncds  qfthe  A  mer.  Pulpif,  iii,  801. 

Reooard,  Gotthelf  Christian,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian oi  Germany,  was  bom  at  Wemigerode,  March 
18, 1735,  and  died  at  Kdnigsberg,  Oct.  8,  1798,  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  De  Neomenia 
Judaorum  Paschali : — De  Fuga  Infantis  Jesu  in  jEggp- 
turn.  See  Winer,  Handbut^  der  iheoL  Lit,  i,  155 ;  FUrst, 
BibLJud.s.v.    (aP.) 

Reoohi,  Immanubl  Hatim,  a  Jewish  author  of 
Ferrara,  who  died  at  Leghorn  in  1748,  is  the  author  of 
ao^n  nvss,  a  treatise  on  the  stractnre  of  the  taber- 
nacle, the  holy  vessels,  etc  (Venice,  1716)  :~11'^3  iltn, 
a  cabalistic  commentary  on  the  Psalms  (Leghorn,  1742) : 
— n*f09  *)in,  a  commentary  on  the  Mishna  (Amster- 
dam, 1781),  etc    See  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Reohenberg,  Adam,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  Sept.  7, 1642,  at  Leipsdorf,  Saxony. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he  began  his  academi- 
cal career  in  1666.  In  1677  he  was  professor  of  lan- 
guages, and  in  1678  commenced  his  theological  lectures. 
In  1699  he  was  doctor  of  theology,  and  died  Oct  22, 
1721.  He  published,  Athenagora  Apologia  pro  Chrir 
stianis  (Leipsic,  1684)  :  —  Athenagorm  Liber  de  Resur- 
redume  Mortuorum  (eod.)  : — A  thenagorte  Opera  Grace 
et  Latins  cum  A  mmadtersionibus  (1688) : — Xovum  7V- 
stamentum  Gnecum  cum  Prafaiions  et  Libris  ParaUe- 
lis  (1691, 1702, 1709):— i>e  Justiiia  Dei  UUrice  (1699): 
— A  ugusUni  En^iridion  ad  Laurentium  cum  Prafaiione 
de  Studio  Theologico  (1705)  :—Exercitationes  in  Novum 
reftomentom,  Bistoriam  Ecdesituticam  et  Literariam 
VarU  Argumenti  (1707;  2d  ed.  1714) :  —  i/ifro^extcon 
RealCf  hoe  est  BibHo^Theologicum  et  Historieo-Ecclesp' 
asticum  (1714)  :-^De  Theohgim  et  PhUosophia  Pugna 
Apparenie  (1717).  See  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theol.  Lit. 
i,  821,  446,  633,  884,  903 ;  Doring,  DU  geUhrten  Theolo- 
gen  Dtutschlands,  s.  v.;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  GeUhrten- 
LexiboH,9.v.    (a  P.) 

Reolam,  Peter  Christiast  Friedrich,  a  Protes- 
tant theologian,  was  bora  at  Magdeburg,  March  16, 
1741.  In  1765  he  was  catecbbt,  and  in  1768  preacher 
of  the  French  congregation  at  Berlin.  He  died  Jan. 
22, 1789.  He  published,  Mhnoires  pour  Servir  a  VHis- 
toire  des  RefugUs  Frangais  dans  les  Etats  du  Roi  a  Ber* 
lin  (1782-94,  8  vols.) ; ->  Jl/^motre  Historique  sur  la 
Fondaiion  des  Colonies  Frangaises  dans  les  Etats  du 


RECTORAL  VIEW 


794 


REGINALD 


Rot  (l78S)i—PeniUt  PkUoiophiquet  mr  la  HeligUm 
(eod.)  i-^SermoM  tur  Dietn  Textet  de  f Venture  SainU 
(1790,  2  ToU.).  See  Doriog,  Die  j^rUn  TheologeH 
DeuUehkmdt,  &  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rectoral  View  op  the  Atomexknt  ia  a  phrase 
expressive  of  the  aspect  of  the  sacrifice  of  Jesus  Christ 
upon  the  cross  as  it  bears  apon  the  divine  goyemment. 
While  the  reconciliation  of  legal  justice  with  pardoning 
mercy  is  indeed  thus  beautifully  exemplified,  yet  it  is 
a  very  partial  representation  of  the  atonement  which 
would  make  this  the  final  cause  or  constraining  pur- 
pose of  it.  *<That  God  may  be  Just  and  yet  the 
justifier  of  him  that  believeth  on  Christ  **  is  truly  an 
important  result  of  the  vicarious  redemption  by  the 
Saviour,  but  to  put  it  forth  as  the  one  grand  motive  or 
impulse  in  the  divine  mind  is  to  reduce  the  scheme  of 
salvation  to  a  mere  piece  of  governmental  policy,  the 
retrievement  of  an  original  blunder,  an  expedient  to 
remedy  a  constituttond  defect  in  the  divine  plan. 
The  atonement  would  have  been  equally  necessary  and 
equally  efficacious  had  Adam  been  the  sole  erring  or 
even  the  sole  intelligent  creatura  in  the  universe.  It 
was  required  by  tbe  nature  of  God  himself,  and  is  de- 
manded as  a  full  theodicy  by  the  moral  sense  of  the 
sinner  likewise,  who  is  thus  *'  without  excuse."  Neither 
the  prophylactic  nor  the  curative,  the  coercive  nor  the 
punitive,  ends  of  government  are  normally  involved  in 
it,  and  except  as  an  exhibition  of  infinite  and  sovereign 
love  it  is  logically  abortive.    See  Atonemknt,  Tue- 

ORV  OF. 

Redepexming,  Eonst  Ritdolf,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Stettin,  May  24, 1810. 
He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and  commenced  his 
academical  career  at  the  latter  place.  In  1886  he 
was  professor  there,  and  in  1839  went  to  Gottingen, 
where,  in  connection  with  bis  professorship,  he  acted 
as  university -preacher.  In  1865  he  was  called  as 
superintendent  to  Ilfeld,  and  died  March  27, 1888.  He 
is  the  editor  of  Origemt  de  Pfine^nie  (Leipsic,  1836), 
and  the  author  of^  Origines,  Eine  DareUUuug  eeinee 
Leben*  und  seiner  Lehre  (Bonn,  1841-46,  2  vols.)  :— 
Vortchldge  und  leitende  Geikmken  zu  einer  Kirchenord- 
nung  fur  doe  protestantieche  Deuttchhnd  (Gdttingen, 
1848): — Umriite  imd  Beetandtkeile  einer  kirMichen 
Lekrordntmg  (lSi9) '.^ChrietUche  Wahrheiien  JUr 
uneere  Zeit  (1850).  See  Znchold,  BibL  Thtol,  s.  v. 
(RP.) 

Redalob,  Gustav  Mobitz,  a  Lutheran  thoologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  May  21, 1804.  In  1885  he  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  in  1841  professor  of 
Biblical  philology  at  Hamburg,  and  died  Feb.  28, 1882, 
doctor  of  philosophy  and  theology.  He  published,  De 
Partieula  ffebaica  "^S  Origine  et  Indole  (Leipsic,  1885) : 
— De  Hebrteis  Obttetricantibut  Commeniatio  (eod.): — 
Die  Levirate-Ehe  bei  den  Hebraem  (1886)  i—Der  Begriff 
dee  X(M  bei  den  J/ebrdem  08I8&) iSprackliehe  Ab- 
Kandlungen  zur  Tkeologie  (1840):  — />»  Integrum  der 
SteUe  Hotea  vii,  4-10  in  Frage  gettelU  (Hambuig,  1848) : 
—  Die  alttestamendichen  Ncunen  der  Bevdlkmtng  dee 
wirhUchen  und  idealen  Itradiienttaates  etymohgiech 
betracktet  (1846)  i^Der  Schdpfunge-Apolog  Gen.  ii^  4-ii*, 
24  auijtihrlich  erlSufert  (eod.),  etc  See  FUrst,  BibL 
Jud,  8.  V. ;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

ReeB,  George,  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  near  Brynberian,  Pembrokeshire, 
in  1797,  of  eminently  pious  parents.  He  Joined  the 
Church  in  1818,  and  soon  began  preaching.  He  re- 
ceived his  ministerial  education  at  the  Carmarthen 
Presbyterian  College,  and,  on  completing  his  courw, 
taught  and  preached  for  some  time  in  the  English 
portion  of  Pembrokeshire.  Thence  he  removed  to 
Fishguard,  where,  with  great  efficiency,  he  conducted 
a  grammar-school  forty-three  years.  In  1835  he  was 
ordained  pastor  at  Gideon.  Ilis  last  five  yean  were 
spent  in  confinement  from  paralysis.  He  died  Aug.  81, 
1870.     Dr.  Rees  was  a  thorough  Hebrew  and  Greek 


scholar.     His  character  was  most  exemplary, 
(Lond.)  Cong,  Year-boeik^  1871,  p.  838. 

Reese,  Dahkl  C,  D  J).,  one  of  the  four  biothera 
who  became  distinguidied  ministen  in  the  Methodist 
Protestant  (^uich,  was  bom  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Feb. 
17, 1810.  He  was  converted  in  his  fourteenth  year, 
and  in  1880  became  an  itinerant  minister  in  the  Mary- 
land Conference  of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Choreh, 
in  which  he  soon  took  a  prominent  position.  For  years 
he  filled  the  onerous  duties  of  conference  steward,  was 
repeatedly  elected  a  representative  to  the  General  Con> 
ferenoe,  and  was  a  member  of  the  convention  whicli 
met  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  in  1867.  From  1871  to  1878 
he  was  president  of  the  Maryland  Annual  Conferenoe, 
and  for  forty-four  years  faithfully  served  the  Chnrdi  as 
an  itinerant  minister.  In  1875,  on  account  of  iteStibb 
health,  he  was  granted  a  superannuated  relation,  and 
died  April  28, 1877.  See  Cobhauer,  Fotudere  of  the 
Meih.  ProL  CAiercA,  p.  808. 

Reerei,  Williaus,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Protestant  Chureh,  was  bom  in  Kent,  England, 
Dec  5, 1802.  His  parents  being  poor,  his  eariy  edu- 
cation was  limited.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three,  and  united  with  the  Chureh.  Landing 
in  America  about  the  time  of  the  loiganiaation  of  the 
Methodist  Protestant  Chureh,  he  united  with  the  Ohio 
Conference  at  its  first  session.  In  1888,  at  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Pittsburgh  Conference,  he  became  one  of  its 
membeis,  and  was  frequently  its  president.  At  various 
times  he  was  elected  delegate  to  the  general  conferences 
and  conventions  of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Chnreh. 
He  died  April  20, 1871.  See  Cobhauer,  Fondere  of  the 
Meth,  ProL  Ckmrek,  p.  437. 

RefomierB  is  a  term  usually  applied  in  a  religious 
sense  to  those  who  were  most  prominent  in  bringing 
about  the  great  reformation  of  the  16th  century.  The 
principal  of  these  were  Wydiffe,  Huss,  Luther,  Calvin, 
Zwingli,Me]anchthon,CEcolampadius,  Bncer,  Besa,Gran- 
mer,  Latimer,  Ridley,  and  John  Knox.  There  am  also 
many  othen  who  are  fairly  entitled  to  be  called  refonncis. 

Regalia  Petri  (the  royaUiet  of  Peter)  are  regarded 
by  Roman  Catholics  as  belonging  to  the  pope  in  bis 
capacity  of  sovereign  monaroh  of  the  universal  Choreh. 
This  claim  to  royal  prerogative  is  founded  on  canon 
law,  and  has  been  asserted  by  the  popes  with  naore  or 
less  stringency  since  the  7th  century.  Among  these 
claims  are  the  following :  '*  To  be  superior  to  the  whole 
Church,  and  to  its  representative,  a  general  oonnci] ;  to 
call  general  councils  at  his  pleasure,  all  bishops  beini; 
obliged  to  attend  his  summons;  to  preside  in  general 
synods,  so  as  to  propose  matter  for  discussion ;  to  pro- 
mote, obstruct,  or  overrale  the  debates;  to  confirm  or 
invalidate  their  decisions;  to  define  points  of  doctrine; 
to  decide  controversies  authoritatively,  so  that  nooe 
may  contest  or  dissent  from  his  Judgment ;  to  enact, 
establish,  abrogate,  suspend,  or  dispense  with  ecdesiss- 
tical  laws  and  canons;  to  relax  or  do  away  with  eccle- 
siastical censures  by  indulgences,  pardons,  etc.;  to  dis- 
pense with  the  obligationa  of  promises,  vows,  ostlia, 
legal  obligations,  etc. ;  to  be  the  fountain  of  all  pastoral 
jurisdiction  and  dignity;  to  constitute,  confirm,  judge, 
censure,  suspend,  depose,  remove,  restore,  and  reconcile 
bishops;  to  exempt  colleges  and  monasteries  from  the 
Jurisdiction  of  their  bishops  and  ordinary  superiors ;  to 
judge  all  persons  in  spiritual  causes  by  calling  them  to 
his  presence,  delegating  Judges,  and  reserving  to  him- 
self a  final,  irrevocable  Judgment  i  to  receive  appesla 
from  all  ecclesiastical  Judicatories,  and  reverse  or  con- 
firm their  sentences;  to  be  accountable  to  no  one  for 
his  acts*,  to  erect,  transfer,  and  abolish  episcopal  sees; 
to  exact  oaths  of  obedience  from  the  clergy;  to  found 
religious  orders ;  to  summon  and  commission  soldiera  by 
crusade  to  fight  against  infidels  or  persecute  heietica." 

Reginald  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a  Norw^isn, 
and  bishop  of  the  Ides  about  U81.  See  Keith,  iSoof* 
/mA  J?uAop«,  p.298. 


REGINALD 


705 


REID 


Reginald  (2),  a  Scotoh  prelate,  m»  coiueeimted 
bishop  of  the  lales  in  1217.  He  died  aboat  1226b  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bithopt,  p.  299. 

Regino,  bom  at  Altiip  on  the  Rhine,  near  Spires, 
was  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  PrUm,  and  elected 
abbot  there  in  892.  In  899  he  resigned  his  position 
and  went  to  Treres,  where  archbbhop  Ratbod  made 
him  head  of  the  monastery  of  St  Martin.  Regino  died 
in  915.  He  is  the  author  of,  LSni  duo  de  Ecdeaiatlicig 
DitcipUms  H  ReUgkne  ChrUHana  (best  edition  by  Was- 
seischleben,  Leipsic,  1840} : — Dt  Harmonica  fnsHiutione 
(printed  in  Goossemaker's  ScriptortB  ck  Murioa  Medii 
JSviy  Paris,  1867,  ii,  l-78>  But  his  greatest  work  is 
the  Chronicon,  the  first  world's  history  written  in  Ger- 
many, comprising  the  time  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to 
the  year  SM06.  The  best  edition  of  the  Chromcon  is 
found  in  MomtmaUa  Sacra,  i,  686-^12  (Germ.  transL  by 
DUmmler,  in  Geg^iekUchreiber  der  deuticken  Vorzeii, 
fierltn,  1857,  vol.  xiv,  part  80).  See  Wattenbach, 
Deutsche  GeschiiAisqmeUen  (4th  ed.  Berlin,  1877X  i>  211- 
214,  297  sq. ;  Ermisch,  Die  Chromk  des  Regino  his  818 
(Gottingen,  1872);  Plitt-Hex20g,  Real'Encydop,9.Y, 
(B.  P.) 

R^glfl,  Jean  Frav?ois,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  bom 
Jan.  31, 1597,  at  Font>Couverte,  Narbonne.  In  1616  he 
Joined  his  order,  and  intended  to  go  as  missionary  to 
Canada.  Being,  however,  denied  this  by  his  supe- 
riors, he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  missionary  work 
at  home  and  in  churohes,  chapels,  hospitals,  prisons,  and, 
in  fact,  everywhere  he  preached  and  exhorted.  R^gis 
died  Jan.  81, 1640,  and  was  canonized  by  Clement  XII, 
June  16, 1737.  See  Daubenton,  Vie  de  Francois  lUgis ; 
Petit-Didter,  Les  Saints  Enlevjs  et  Restiiuis  aux  Jisui- 
ies;  Monlezon,  Histoire  de  VB^ise  de  Notre-Dame  du 
Puy  (1854);  Lichtenberger,  Encyckp.des  Sciences  Re^ 
ligieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Rehhof^  JoHANM  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Tondero,  Aug.  24, 1809.  He 
studied  at  Kiel  and  Berlin,  was  for  some  time  arch- 
deacon at  his  native  place,  and  in  1887  provost  and  first 
pastor  at  Apenrade.  In  1851  Rehhoff  was  called  to 
Hamburg  as  pastor  primarius  of  St.  Michael  In  1870 
he  was  senior  of  the  Hamburg  ministerium,  resigned  in 
1879  his  pastorate,  and  died  at  Kiel,  Jan.  9, 1883.  Reh- 
hoff published  some  homiletical  works,  for  which  see 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v. ;  also  Zum  Geddchiniss  an  Dr, 
Johamt  A .  J2^Ao/ (Hamburg,  1883).    (B.  P.) 

Rehkop^  JoHANN  Fbiedrich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Leipsic,  Jan.  20,  1738. 
He  studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  place,  was  in 
1761  deacon  at  Zwickau,  in  1764  archdeacon  at  Reichen- 
bach,  in  1769  doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  Helm, 
stadt,  in  1778  superintendent  at  Dresden,  and  died  March 
15, 1789.  He  published,  Vitm  Patriarcharum  Alexan- 
drinorum  (Leipsic,  1757-59)  :—De  ZwickaviensUms  Lit- 
terarum  OrieniaUum  Siu€^o  Claris  (1768)  :—Janua  He- 
brtea  Lingua  Veteris  Testamenti  Glim  Adomata  a  Ret- 
neccio  (1769)  i^De  Triniiaie  (1770)  i^Michce  et  Mathtei 
in  Loco  Natali  MtssuB  Consensus  (1772):  — De  Vote 
ScripturcB  Sacra  (eod.) : — Legatus  Fecialis  ad  Jfalach. 
Ui  (1773):  — /)«  Persona  Jesu  Christi  Seripturarum 
Novi  Testamenti  Expositio  (1775),  etc  See  Doring, 
Die  geiehrien  Tkeotogen  Deutschlands,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Reichel,  Gdstav  Theodor,  a  Moravian  minister, 
was  bora  Dec.  15, 1808,  at  Bertheladorf,  Saxony.  In 
1852  he  was  made  a  presbyter,  and  labored  for  some 
years  at  Sarepta,  when,  in  1857,  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  executive  board  of  the  Unttas  Fratmm.  For 
nearly  twenty-four  years  he  devoted  his  entire  energy 
to  the  service  of  his  Church,  and  his  rich  experience 
was  of  great  value  to  the  executive  board,  whose  presi- 
dent he  died,  Jan.  28, 1882,  at  Herrahut.     (B  P.) 

Reiohhelm,  Carl  August  Wilhblm,  a  Reformed 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  20, 1817,  at  Brom- 
berg,  and  studied  at  Berlin,  where  he  was  assistant 
preacher  at  the  cathedral  for  some  time.    In  1842  he 


was  appointed  military  preacher  at  Frankfort-on-the^ 
Oder,  in  1849  superintendent  at  Belzig,  in  1853  first 
preacher  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Frankfort,  and 
died  Dec.  6, 1879,  member  of  consistory.  He  published, 
Sinaif  Predigtem  Uber  das  GeseU  (Belzig,  1855)  i—Chri-^ 
stuSf  die  reehte  Speise  und  der  rechte  Frank  (Frankfurt, 
1857),  sermons  on  the  fourth  and  fifth  chapters  of  John. 
See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Reichlin-Meldegg,  Cabl  Alexander  von,  a 
Protestant  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  of  Catholic 
parentage,  at  Gravenau,  Bavaria,  Feb.  21, 1804.  For 
some  time  professor  at  the  gymnasium,  and  afterwards 
of  the  University  of  Freiburg,  he  joined  the  evaogcUcal 
Church,  Feb.  19, 1832,  was  in  1840  appointed  professor 
at  Heidelberg,  and  died  in  1857.  He  was  the  author  of. 
Die  Theologie  des  Magier  Manes,  etc.  (Frankfort,  1625) : 
—  Gesehichie  des  Christenihums,  incomplete  (Freiburg, 
1881) : — Die  motaische  GesdUchte  vom  brennenden  Dorru 
huscke  {Exod,  ut.  1-4)  erlddrt  (1831)  :-~Heinrich  E,  G, 
Paulus  und  seine  Zeit  (Stuttgart,  1858, 2  vols.),  the  best 
biography  of  the  famous  Heidelberg  rationalist.  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL 
Lit.  i,  119,  548, 642.     (a  P.) 

Reid,  James  Seaton,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland,  was  a  native  of 
Lnrgan,  and  the  twenty-first  child  of  his  parents.  He 
was  ordained  minister  of  Donegon,  July  io,  1819,  from 
which  place  he  removed  to  Carrickfergus  in  1823.  In 
1827  he  was  nnanimonsly  chosen  moderator  of  the  Sy- 
nod of  Ulster,  and  in  1830  was  appointed  its  clerk.  In 
1838  he  was  chosen  professDr  of  ecclesiastical  hbtory  of 
the  Belfast  Institution.  In  April,  1841,  he  was  nom- 
inated for  the  chair  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  history  in 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  by  the  crown,  which  position 
he  held  until  his  death,  March  26, 1851,  in  the  fifty- 
third  year  of  his  age.  He  is  the  author  of  History  of 
ike  Presbyterian  Church  m  Ireland  (3  vols.  8vo).  Dr. 
Reid  spent  about  twenty  years  in  collecting  materials 
for  the  work,  and  putting  it  into  print.  The  first  two 
volumes  were  publuhed  during  hb  life.  At  his  death 
he  lefr,  in  MS.,  about  seven  chapten  of  the  third  volume. 
Dr.  W.  D.  Killen  was  chosen  to  finish  the  work,  which 
he  did,  and  published  the  third  and  last  volume  in  1868. 
This  work  is  a  monument  of  historical  research,  and  is 
valued  not  only  for  its  eccleuastical  history,  but  also  for 
reclaiming  many  civil  facts  which  would  otherwise  have 
been  lost 

Reid,  Numa  Fletcher,  D.D.,  a  minister  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  son  of  Rev.  James 
Reid,  was  bom  in  Rockingham  County,  K.  C,  July  8, 
1825.  He  was  a  boy  of  remarlcable  and  unyielding  in- 
tegrity and  filial  affection ;  was  educated  at  Emory  and 
Henry  College;  began  school-teaching  in  his  eighteenth 
year  at  Thompsonville ;  in  1846  opened  an  academy  at 
Wentworth,  where  he  labored  with  great  success  for  five 
years;  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1847,  and  trav- 
elled Wentworth  Circuit  two  yeara  as  supply,  and  in 
1851  entered  the  North  Carolina  Conference.  His 
fields  of  labor  were:  1852-^. Tar  River  Circuit;  1854, 
Front  Street,  Wilmington ;  1855-56,  Raleigh  Station; 
1857,  Greensboro'  Station ;  1858-59,  presiding  elder  of 
Salisbury  District;  1860-63,  of  Greensboro'  District; 
1864-67,  of  Raleigh  District;  1868-71,  of  Greensboro' 
District;  and  in  1872  was  again  sent  to  Raleigh  Dis- 
trict, but  ill-health  led  him  to  exchange  for  work  on 
Greensboro'  District,  where  he  died,  June  14,  1878. 
Dr.  Reid  was  four  tiroes  elected  to  the  General  Confer- 
ence, and  three  times  headed  the  list  of  delegates.  In 
all  the  relations  of  life  he  was  a  model  man.  He  was 
learaed,  logical,  solicitoui,  and  eminently  successful. 
See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  if.  E,  Church 
Southf  1873,  p.  805. 

Reid,  Robert,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bora  at  Aiken- 
head,  and  was  educated  at  St.  Salvator's  College.  He 
was  first  sub-dean,  in  1526  was  nominated  abbot  of  Kin- 
loss,  and  in  1540  was  made  bishop  of  Orkney,     He 


REIHINQ 


706 


REMONSTRANCE 


died  at  Dieppe,  Sept  14, 1568.  See  Keitb,  SeoUvh 
Bishopif  p.  223. 

Reihing,  Jacob,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  1579  at  Augsborg.  He  joined  the 
JesoitB  at  Ingolstadt,  Uaght  theology  and  philosophy 
there  and  at  Dillingen,  and  was  in  1618  appointed  coart- 
preacher  to  the  apostate  oount-palatine,  Wolfgang  Wil* 
helm.  In  1615  Reihing  published  at  Cologne,  Muri 
Civitatit  Sancta^  etc,  a  kind  of  apology  for  his  roaster's 
apoetasy,  which  elicited  rejoinders  from  the  Lutheran 
theologians  Balthasar  Melsner  and  Matthias  Ho^  von 
Ho^negg,  and  from  the  Reformed  theologian  BaaseoourL 
Reihing,  not  satisfied  with  this  apok^^,  commenced  to 
Romanixe  the  Palatinate.  But  the  careful  study  of  the 
Bible,  wh\ph  be  found  necessary  in  order  to  dispute  with 
the  Protestants,  had  its  influence.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1621  Reihing  suddenly  fled  to  Stuttgud,  and 
joined  the  Evangelical  Church  Nov.  28  of  the  same  year. 
In  1622  he  was  made  professor  of  theology  at  Tubingen, 
and  died  May  5, 1628.  His  writings  are  mostly  polem- 
ical. See  Oehler,  in  Mariettas  Wahren  Pratettanten, 
ToL  ill,  1854 ;  PUtt-Herzog,  Real-Encyklop,  s.  v.    (K  P.) 

Reimann,  Jacob  Fbikdhich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  22, 1668.  He  studied  at  dif- 
ferent universities,  was  in  1692  rector  at  Osterwiek,  in 
1698  at  Halberstadt.  In  1704  he  was  appointed  pastor 
primarius  at  Ermsleben,  in  the  principslity  of  Halber- 
stadt, in  1714  cathedral  preacher  at  Magdeburg,  in  1717 
superintendent  at  Hildesheim,  and  died  Feb.  1,  1748. 
Reimann  was  a  voluminous  writer.  See  J5cher,  AUpe- 
metMS  Gdehrtm'LexikoHf  s.  v. ;  FOrst,  BibL  Jud,  a.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Reinaldns,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a  monk  of  Mel- 
rose when  he  was  made  bishop  of  the  see  of  Roes  in 
1195.  He  died  in  1218.  See  Keith,  ScottiMh  Bitkopt, 
p.  185. 

Reindl,  Gbobo  Karl  yok,  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Bamberg,  Nov.  8, 1808. 
For  some  time  tutor  of  the  Bavarian  royal  family,  be 
was  in  1847  appointed  dean  of  the  chapter  of  the  epis- 
copal diocese  Mfinchen-Freising,  and  died  at  Munich, 
Dec.  28,  1882.  He  wrote.  Die  Sendung  det  Prcphetm 
Jonas  naeh  Nimvth  (Bamberg,  1826):  —  Abrii  der 
dirUllicken  Kirchenffttehickte /Ur  KathoKken  (1884) :— 
TempelderhSusHckenAndachtiRtitytion.lHl'),  (a P.) 

Reineooios,  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Salzwedel  in  157L  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg,  was  for  some  time  pastor  at  Tangermflnde, 
and  in  1601  provost  at  Berlin.  In  1609  he  was  called 
to  Hamburg,  and  in  1611  was  appointed  inspector  of 
the  newly -founded  gymnasium.  Reineocius  died  in 
June,  1618.  He  wrote,  Petnopiia  she  A  rmaiura  Theo- 
iogioa  (Wittenberg,  1609):  —  Artifickan  Disputandi 
(eod.)  —Clams  Sanda  ThtologUs  (Hamburg,  1611,  2 
vols.): —  Veteris  ac  Novi  TestameiUi  Cofwententia  tt  Dif' 
firentia  (1612): — Calvimanorum  Orttts^  Cursus  et  Exitus 
(eod.).    SeePlitt-Herzog,  j?ea/-i:ficy%»,s.v.    (a  P.) 

Reinerdlng,  Fbanz  Hkinrich,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Grermany,  was  bom  Sept.  16,  1814,  at 
Damme,  Oldenburg.  He  studied  at  Mftnster  and  at  the 
*'  Collegium  Romanum  "  in  Rome.  In  1838  he  was  a 
doctor  of  philosophy,  in  1840  he  received  holy  orders, 
and  in  1842  took  the  degree  of  a  doctor  of  theology'. 
For  some  time  professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Vechta, 
Oldenburg,  Reinerding  was  in  1851  professor  at  Fulda, 
in  1858  at  St.  Cuthbert's  College  in  £sh,  Enghind,  in 
1868  again  at  Fulda,  and  died  Feb.  25, 1880.  He  pub- 
lished, Der  Paptt  und  die  Bibel  (Mttnstcr,  1855)  t^Die 
Principien  des  Hrehlichen  Bechtes  in  Avfkef^atg  der 
Mischehen  (1853) :  — C^thmim  XIV,  und  die  AvfMnmg 
der  Gesellschaft  Jesu  (Augsburg,  1854): — Der  heilige 
Bomf actus  aU  Apostel  der  Deutschen  (1855): — Theo^ 
logics  Fundamenialis  Traetaius  Duo  (MUnster,  1864) :— 
Beitrdge  zur  LiberiuS'  und  Sonoriusfrage  (1865): — 
GedatJoen  uber  die  phUosophischen  Studien  (Vienna, 
1866),    (B.P.) 


Retnliard,  Michakl  HnxiKioR,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bora  Oct  18, 1676.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1699  con-rector  at  Meissen,  in 
1700  rector  at  Hildburghanseo,  in  1713  preacher  at 
Pretsch,  in  1721  superintendent  at  Sondershauaen,  in 
1780  court-preacher  at  Weissenfels,  and  died  Jan.  1, 1782. 
He  published,  De  Confessione  TripoUUaia  (Wittenbag^ 
1694):~2>e  Cibis  Hebrmorum  Prok&iHs  (1697)  :->/>• 
Sepukura  AmmaUum  ffebnsis  UsiUUa  (eod.) : — EU' 
menta  Lingum  Hebrmes  (2d  ed.  Hildbarghansen,  1719): 
-De  Saeco  ei  dnere  ex  Antiquitate  Bebreui  (1698)  ^~ 
'Opyavo^aXdnov  Musiatm  Codids  Hebrmi  (eod.): — 
Pentas  Conatuum  Saerorum  (1709)  i—De  Variasisbms 
Novi  Testamenii  LeeHonibus  a  MilKo  Aliisgue  CoOecHs 
ad  MaUh.  %  (1711)  i—De  Liturgia  Ecdemm  EvaageKeet^ 
etc.  (1721).  See  FUist,  BibL  Jud,  a.  v. ;  Winer,  ffattd- 
buchdertheoLLiLi,8,dS2i  Donng,  Die  gdehrten  Tkeo- 
logen  Deutsehkmds,  s.  v. ;  JHchet,  AOgemeines  Gelekrtm' 
Lexihon,  s.  v,    (a  P.) 

Relnka,  Laubemtius,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  Feb.  6, 1797,  at  Langforden, 
Oldenbnfg.  He  studied  at  Mttnster  and  Bonn,  took 
holy  orders  in  1822,  and  commenced  his  academical 
career  at  MUnster  in  1827.  In  1881  he  was  profeaeor, 
in  1884  doctor  of  theology,  and  in  1847  of  philosophy, 
the  latter  degree  being  conferred  on  him  "  honoris  cauaaL" 
In  1852  Reinke  was  made  capitular,  in  1862  honorary 
member  of  the  *'  Soci^t^  litt^raire  **  of  the  Louvain  Uni- 
versity, in  1865  honoraiy  member  of  the  college  of  doe- 
tors  of  the  Vienna  theological  faculty,  and  in  1866  **  oon- 
snltor  congregationis  de  propaganda  fide  pro  negotiia 
ritua  orientalis."  Reinke  died  June  4, 1879.  fie  wrote. 
Exegesis  CrUiea  in  fesaim  cap,  lii,  18-/tt«,  12  (Mllnater, 
1886)  i—Exegesis  Critica  in  lesaia  cap.  is,  2-4  (1888) :_ 
Die  Weissagung  von  der  Jungfrau  und  torn  ImmanmH 
(19^)  i— Ueber  das  vukun/tige  gliieUieke  lAios  des 
Btammes  Juda  {1H9)  i—Beiirdge  eur  ErklSruvg  den 
alten  Testaments  (1851-72, 8  vols.)  :—Der  Prophet  Mala- 
cki  (Giessen,  1856)  i—Dis  messianisdken  Psalmen  (1857- 
58,  2  voIil): — Kurze  Zusammenstellung  aiUer  Abeeei^ 
ckungen  vom  hebr.  Text  in  der  PsalmenObersetzung  der 
LXX.  und  Vulgata,  etc  (1858):  — Z>»0  nussianischm 
Weissagungen  bk  dm  grossen  und  Ideinen  Propheien  den 
AUen  Testaments  (1859-62,  4  voU)  :—Zur  Kritik  der 
alteren  Versionen  des  Propheien  Nakum  (MUnster,  1867)  : 
—Der  Propket  Ifaggai  (1868)  :—Der  Propket  Z^pkanja 
(eod.)  :—/>«•  Propket  Habakuk  (iS70y,^Der  Propkei 
Jf  icfta  (1874).     (B,P.) 

Reinxnund,  J.  F.,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  spent 
his  boyhood  and  early  manhood  in  Lancaster,  C,  to 
which  pUce  he  removed  with  his  parents  when  thirteen 
years  of  age.  His  education,  classical  and  theological, 
was  secured  at  Wittenberg  College.  Findlay  was  the 
scene  of  his  first  pastoral  labor.  From  FindUy  he  went 
to  Lancaster,  from  which,  after  a  successful  pastorate, 
he  removed,  in  1868,  to  Springfield,  where  he  was  em- 
ployed as  superintendent  of  public  schools.  In  1878 
he  received  and  accepted  a  call  to  Lebanon,  Pa.  Dr. 
Reinmund  was  a  member  of  the  committee  of  the  Gen- 
eral Synod  that  revised  the  Hynm  and  Tune  Book^  In 
the  hope  of  restoring  his  failing  health  he  went  to 
Jacksonville,  Fla.,  but  never  returned.  He  died  April 
26, 1880.    See  Lutkeran  Observer,  May  7, 1880. 

Rekem  is  thought  by  Tristram  (Bible  Places,  pw 
122)  to  be  the  present  village  of  ilta  Karim^  about  four 
miles  west  of  Jerusalem. 

Remeth  is  regarded  by  Tristram  and  (>onder  as 
the  present  er^Ramek,  five  and  a  half  miles  north-west 
of  Sebustieh,  **  a  conspicuous  village  on  a  hilly  knoll 
above  the  small  plain,  with  a  high  central  house.  It 
is  of  moderate  sice,  with  olives  below.  The  sides  of 
the  hill  are  steep  "  (Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey, 
ii,  154). 

Remonatranoe,  AmnmAK.  This  is  a  document 
drawn  up  by  Uytenbogaert,  and  presented,  in  1610,  to 
the  states  of  Holland,  against  the  decrees  of  the  Synod 


REMUSAT 


797 


REUCHLTN 


of  Doct  It  specifies  the  fire  GslTinistie  points  of  doc- 
trine, end  then  in  fire  articles  states  the  Anninisn  p<^ 
sitions.    On  this  aooonnt  it  gives  rise  to  what  is  known 

as  the  QUIMQUARTICULAB  (^MTBOTSRST  (q.  ▼.)•      1^0 

Galvinistic  party  afterwards  presented  a  CotMter./Zemoii- 
strtmoe.    See  Schaff,  Creeda  of  Chritimdom^  iii,  645. 

R^mtuiat,  Charlbs  db,  a  French  statesman  and 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1797,  and  died  June 
6, 1676.  Besides  Etiaii  de  Philo$ophie  (Paris,  1884, 
2  Tols.)  and  Philoiophie  Hdiginm  (1864),  he  wrote 
biographies  of  Abelard  (1846),  Anselm  of  CBntert>ury 
(1858 ;  Germ,  transl  by  Wurzbach,  Ratisbon,  1854),  and 
Bacon  (1858).     (B.  P.) 

Remy,  Frakz,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Germany, 
who  died  at  Berlin,  May  8,  1882,  was  a  follower  of 
Schleiermacher,  and  published  Hauscmdachten  au$ 
SMnermadtev^M  Prtdigten  in  tdglickm  Betrachtungtn 
(BeriiD,  1861-^2,  2  vols.).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TKeol 
s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Renegger,  Michael.    See  Rbnmgbr. 

Reni,  GuiDO,  an  eminent  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Bologna  in  1575,  and  first  studied  nnder  Denys 
Calvert;  afterwards  entered  the  school  of  the  Garacd, 
and  was  a  brilliant  papiL  He  soon  acquired  distinc- 
tion, and  early  executed  some  fine  works,  particularly 
his  picture  of  8U  Benedict  in  ike  Deaert^  for  the  cloister 
of  San  Michele,  in  fiosoo.  He  afterwards  went  to  Rome, 
and  executed  the  Mcaipdiom  of  8t,  CecUia,  for  the 
church  of  that  saint,  and  the  Cme{fixum  of  8U  Peter 
also.  He  now  rose  rapidly  in  public  estimation.  His 
roost  celebrated  works  in  the  palaces  at  Rome  are  his 
Magdalen^  in  the  Barberini  collection,  and  his  fresco 
of  Awrortu  The  paintings  of  Guido  are  numerous, 
and  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  principal  collections  in 
Italy  and  throughout  Europe.  He  rained  himself  by 
gambling,  and  died  at  Bologna,  Aug.  18, 1642.  To  form 
a  fair  estimate  of  his  powers,  we  are  to  judge  by  his 
best  pictures,  such  as  The  Magdaien,  at  Rome;  The 
Jfiraele  of  the  Mcuma^  at  Ravenna;  The  Cone^ioitf 
at  Forli ;  .The  Murder  of  the  Ifmocenie,  and  The  Be- 
peittance  of  Sf,  Peter ^  at  Bologna;  The  PurffictUion^ 
at  Modena;  and  TheAsmmption^  at  Genoa,  with  many 
other  works  at  Rome,  Bologna,  and  elsewhere.  See 
Spooner,  Biog.  ffist,  of  the  Fine  Arts^B,  v. 

Rennaoke,  Christoph  Huldrbich,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1797.  From  1825 
to  1881  he  acted  ee  tutor  of  the  duchess  Helena  of 
Mecklenburg,  afterwards  duchess  of  Orleans.  From 
1881  to  1871  be  was  pastor  at  Dargun,  in  Mecklen- 
burg, when  he  retired  from  the  ministry  and  lived  ee  a 
patriarch  among  his  people.  He  died  April  27, 1881, 
at  Rostock.  Rennecke  was  a  brother-in-law  of  the 
well-known  professor  of  Halle,  Dr.  A.  Tholuck,  with 
whom  be  corresponded  on  the  most  important  topics 
of  the  time.  He  wrote.  Die  Lehre  vom  A  mt  der  SehOis- 
eel  (Ifalchin,  1845) : — Begrtkndung  dei;  Lehren  von  der 
SHrnkf  von  der  Per$on  Christi  (Magdeburg,  1848) : — 
Die  Lehre  vom  Staate,  etc.  (Leipsic,  1850).  See  Zuch" 
o\A,BibLTheoLB,y.    (EP.) 

Resnxrectioii,  The  Finar,  is  a  phrase  occurring 
in  Rev.  XX,  4-6 : 

"  And  I  saw  thrones,  and  they  sat  upon  them,  and 
Judgment  was  given  unto  them :  and  /  aaw  the  boqIb  of 
tbem  that  were  beheaded  for  the  witness  of  Jesus,  and 
for  the  word  of  God,  and  which  had  not  wonblpped  the 
beast,  neither  bis  image,  neither  had  received  nu  mark 
upon  their  foreheads,  or  in  their  hands ;  and  they  lived 
and  reigned  with  Christ  a  thousand  jears.  But  toe  rest 
of  the  dead  lived  not  again  until  the  thousand  years  were 
flnlahed.  This  is  the  first  resurrection.  Blessed  and  holy 
<i  be  that  hsth  part  in  the  first  resorrection :  on  such  the 
second  death  hnth  no  power,  but  they  shall  be  priests  of 
God  and  of  Christ,  and  shall  reign  with  him  a  thousand 
years.'* 

Interpreters  have  been  divided  as  to  the  distinction  in 
time  here  denoted  bv  the  two  successive  resurrections. 
It  waa  the  general  opinion  of  the  early  Christians  (but 
not  universal ;  see  Hengstenberg,  Apocaigp.  ii,  848  note. 


Carter's  ed.)  that  the  thousand  years  were  to  be  com- 
puted from  the  birth  of  Christ;  and  coupled  with  this 
reckoning  was  often  expressed  a  belief  in  the  literal 
resurrection  of  saints  at  that  time,  prior  to  the  general 
resurrection;  but  it  is  hardly  a  fair  statement  that 
**  those  who  lived  next  to  the  apostles  and  the  whole 
church  for  three  hundred  years,  undentood  these  words 
in  their  literal  sense  "  (Alford,  CommeHt,  ad  loa).  Bish- 
op Wordsworth  affirms  (fireek  TeeL  with  Hotee,  ad  loc.) 
that  the  spiritual  interpretation  ''is  that  which  has 
been  adopted  by  the  best  expositors  of  the  Western 
and  Eastern  churches  from  the  days  of  St.  Augustine 
to  those  of  bishop  Andrews."  A  glance  at  the  con- 
spectus given-  in  such  works  as  Poole's  8gnop$ia  CritU 
oorum^  and  WolflTs  Cune  in  N,  T^  at  this  place,  will 
suffice  to  show  the  great  discrepancy  in  the  earlier  in- 
terpreters on  the  subject,  and  that  in  Elltcott's  Borw 
Apocaigptieaj  ad  loc,  displays  an  equal  divergence  in 
modern  times.  Those  who  hold  the  literal  view  main- 
tain (1)  that  this  is  the  only  plain  meaning  of  the  text, 
and  (2)  that  it  is  sustained  by  several  other  passages 
which  speak  of  a  distinction  of  the  righteous  as  raised 
first  (especially  1  Thess.  iv,  16).  But  these  latter  pas- 
sages do  not  require,  nor  even  admit,  so  long  an  inter- 
val between  the  resurrection  of  the  saints  and  that  of 
others,  which,  moreover,  are  elsewhere  represented  as 
substantially  simultaneous  (John  v,  28,  29 ;  Rev.  xx, 
12) ;  indeed.  Scripture  everywhere  (unless  in  the  pas- 
sage in  dispute)  knows  of  but  one  future  advent  of  our 
Lord,  and  that  the  final  and  universal  one,  at  least  after 
the  figurative  one  at  the  destroction  of  Jerusalem.  See 
EscBATOLOOY.  Moreover,  such  a  temporal  and  earth- 
ly reign  of  Christ  as  the  literalists  here  require,  is  at 
variance  with  the  whole  spirit  and  economy  of  the  Gos- 
pel ;  and  we  may  add  that  the  anticipations  which  such 
a  theory  engenders  have  been  the  bane  of  Chiiiasm 
(q.  v.),  and  the  fosterer  of  fanaticism  in  all  ages.  See 
MiLLEMARiANS.  Finally  and  conclusively,  the  passage 
in  dispute  itself  explicitly  limits  the  resurrection  in 
this  case  to  the  "souls"  of  the  martyr*  (not  all  saints), 
apparently  meaning  a  revival  of  their  devoted  spirit,  or, 
at  most,  their  glorification  (as  in  the  case  of  the  "  two 
witnesses,"  Rev.  xi,  11,  12);  and  not  a  word  is  said 
about  a  terrestrial  reign,  but  only  one  "  with  Christ," 
i.  e.  in  the  celestial  or  spiritual  sphere.  The  modern 
literature  of  the  discussion  is  very  copious,  but  quite 
sporadic,  and  no  complete  treatise  has  yet  appeared  on 
the  subject.  The  best  is  that  by  David  Brown,  D.D., 
Christ's  Second  Coming  (Lond.  1846, 1847, 1850). 

Rettig,  Heimrich  Christian  Michael,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Giessen  in 
1795,  where,  after  completing  his  studies,  he  also  estab- 
lished himself  as  academical  teacher.  In  1832  he  pub- 
lished Die  freie  protesiantische  Kirche  oder  die  ib'rcA- 
lichen  VerfassungsgnmdsdUe  des  Evangdiums,  in  which 
he  advocates  separation  of  State  and  Church.  In  1888 
he  was  called  to  Zurich  as  professor  of  theology,  and 
died  March  24, 1886.  Of  his  works  we  also  mention, 
Ueber  das  Zeugniu  Justins  Uber  die  A  pokalypse  (Leipsic, 
1829):— Ouajriofwf  PhUippenses  (Giessen,  1831).  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v. ;  Plitt^Herzog,  ReaUEncyhlop, 
s.  V. ;  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  92,  268,  555 ;  ii, 
18.     (RP.) 

Renohlin,  a  name  common  to  several  Lutheran 
theologians,  of  whom  we  here  mention  the  following : 

1.  Christoph,  the  teacher  of  the  famous  Bengel,  bom 
in  1660,  studied  at  Tttbingen  and  Wittenberg,  and  died 
at  the  former  place,  June  11,  1707,  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology.  He  wrote,  De  A  rtifcio  Jacobi  MagicOf 
etc. : — De  Diluvio  Mosaieo,  etc : — De  Nova  Creatione 
Ephes.  ii,  10:  — De  EvangeUo  ad  Rom,  i,  16, 17:~Z>0 
Credendis  e  Seriptune  8aera  Dietis  Exegesi  Theologica 
Demonstratis:^-'De  Dubitatione  Carlesiana  :^De  A  rio' 
nitmo,  etc.    See  J(k:her,  Attgemeines  GeUhrten-Lesikon, 

S.V. 

2.  Frikdbich  Jacob,  bom  at  Gentheim,  near  Stra*- 


J 


REUDEN 


798 


REVESZ 


burg,  ia  1695,  and  died  at  the  latter  place,  June  8, 1768, 
doctor  and  professor  of  theol<^,  ia  the  author  of  Db 
Dodrina  Cypriana  (1751-56,  8  parta).  See  Winer, 
HoMdbttck  der  theoL  Lt^  i,  906. 

3.  HsBSfAMN,  who  died  at  Stuttgard  in  1878,  doctor 
of  philosophy,  wrote,  Dat  ChriataUhum  in  Frcmkrtkh 
vmerhalb  tmd  austerkalb  der  Kirche  (Hamburg,  1887) : 
—  GetchichU  von  Pori^RotfcU,  etc.  (1889,  2  vols.):  — 
PoMcaTs  Leben,  etc  (Stutrgaid,  1840).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL  s.  v.     (B.  F.) 

Reuden,  Ambrosius,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  1,  1548,  studied  at  Leipsio 
and  Jena,  and  died  at  the  latter  place,  June  1, 1615. 
He  wrote.  Compendium  GrammaHcm  Ebtaiea  (Witten- 
berg, 158(5):  —  liogoge  Grammatica  in  Linguam  Ho- 
braieam  (1604)  :—Isagoge  BikUoa  (Hambuig,  1602)  :— 
(Economia  Veteria  et  Novi  Tettamenii,  Ottaidau  quid 
ibi  Obeervandum  sit  (Leipsic,  1608),  etc  See  Jdcher, 
AUffemeines  GeteJurten-Lexikon^  s.  v.;  FUnt,  BibL  Jud, 
B.V.     (RP.) 

Reuso,  Jerkmias  Fbiedrich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  Dec  2,  1700.  He  studied 
at  Tubingen,  trarelled  eztensively,  was  in  1781  ap- 
pointed court-preacher  and  professor  at  Copenhagen, 
in  1742  doctor  of  theology,  in  1749  genend  superin- 
tendent of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  in  1757  professor  at 
Tubingen,  and  died  March  6, 1777.  He  published,  De 
Utu  ExperietUia  Spiritualie  in  Scripturarum  InUrpre- 
taiione  (2d  ed.  Ldpeic,  1785):  —  MdeUma  de  Sentu 
Septem  Parabolarum  MaUK  xiU  Prophetico  (1788)  :— 
Melelema  de  Spiritus  ScmcH  TeHimonio  (1784) :— Diw. 
gua  Illustre  Oraculum  Zachar,  rt,  12,  18  ExpUmatur 
(1768):— 2>e  Auctore  Apocalypaeoe  (1767),  etc  See 
Doring,  Die  gelehtien  Theologen  Deutschiandiy  s.  v. ; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Renter,  Chiiatlaii,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  at  Schlawe,  Pomerania,  June  17, 
1675.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  in  1702  was  deacon 
there,  in  1708  pastor  at  Zerbet,  in  1711  doctor  of  the- 
ology, and  died  April  6, 1744.  He  published,  De  LI- 
baniOf  NobUe  Gnecorum  Khetore  (Wittenberg,  1699) : — 
De  CuUu  Dei  A  dvernu  Ildbbesiwn^  Chtrburg  et  SpinO' 
tarn  (1702):— /)e  Macario  ^gypiio  (1703)  x—De  Fttd^ 
ribuM  et  Tettameatis  (1706) : — De  Predhut  BecUorum  in 
Calls  pro  Homiimbus  in  Terris  (1714) : — De  Lege  Mo- 
raU  non  Abrogaia  ex  J  oh,  i,  18  (eod.) : — ^ucaiwfia  rov 
vofiov  ex  Rom,  viU  (1716) : — Tgpus  Dodrina  et  Theolo- 
ffim  Moralis  (1718):— JE/ec/a  Theologica  (1720).  See 
Doring,  Die  gelehrten   Theologen    DeutschlandSf  s.  t. 

(a  P.) 

Renter,  Qnlrinnfli  a  German  scholar,  pupil  and 
successor  of  Zach.  Uninus,  was  bora  at  Mosbach,  Sept. 
27, 1558.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg.  In  1578  be  went 
to  Neustadt,  where  his  former  teachers  lectured  at  the 
newly-founded  academy.  In  1580  Renter  went  to  Brea- 
lau  as  private  tutor,  but  returned  to  Neustadt  in  1588. 
In  1590  he  was  again  at  Heidelberg,  became  in  1601 
doctor  of  theology,  in  1602  professor  of  Old  Test  theol- 
ogy, and  died  March  22,  1618.  Of  his  writings  we 
mention,  CVrtfura  Catecheseos  ffeidelbergensis: — Dia- 
triba  de  Ubiquitate: — Tradatus  de  Ecdesia: — Apho' 
rismi  Theol(^ici  de  Vera  Rdigione: — Disaeriatio  de 
SiKaiwfiari  Legis  in  Christo  d  Christianis  ad  Rom, 
vUi: — Commeniarius  in  Obadiam  Propftetam  una  cum 
lUusiriorum  Quorundam  de  Messias  Persona  d  Officio 
Vaiidnioruni  Explicationej  etc  See  Freher,  Theatrum 
Vivorum  Clariss,;  J ocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten 'LeX" 
ikon,  s.  V. ;  Iselin,  Hislorisches  Unioersal'Lexihony  s.  v,  \ 
Plitt-Herzog,  Reat-EncgUop,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

R6v6bb,  Embrii,  a  fieformed  theologian  of  Hun- 
gary, was  bora  in  1826.  He  studied  at  Debrecxin  and 
Buda,  and  after  spending  some  time  for  literaiy  pur- 
poses in  Belgium,  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  Germany, 
became  pastor  of  two  country  congregations  in  succes- 
sion, but  was  removed  in  1856  to  Debreczin,  where  he 
labored  nntU  his  death,  Feb.  18,  1881.     Hia  learn- 


ing and  character  made  him  the  leader  in  the  Re* 
formed  Church  of  Hungary.  When,  on  Sept.  1,  1859, 
the  emperor  of  Austria  issued  the  famous  '*  Patent,** 
which  was  followed  by  the  edict  issued  by  the  minis- 
ter of  public  worship,  the  Protestants  of  Hungary  felt 
grieved,  for  the  object  of  the  ** Patent"  and  the  edict 
was  nothing  less  than  a  complete  reoiganization  of  the 
Beformed  Church,  involving  the  destruction  of  self- 
goverament  and  the  transference  of  ecclesiastical  leg* 
islation  to  the  civil  authority.  This  attempt  to  deprive 
the  Reformed  Church  of  her  inherent  rights  aroused 
the  spirit  of  self-defence  against  the  intrusion  of  the 
secular  power,  and  Revesz  came  forward  with  his  A 
Proteatdns  Egyhdzalhotrndng,  etc,  i.  e.  Fundameniai 
Principles  of  the  Protestant  Church  Constitution  Ac» 
cording  to  the  Statements  of  the  Leading  RrformerMj 
Cotfeseions,  and  Church  Organvuttions  (1856),  which 
appeared  as  a  reply  to  the  order  issued  by  the  Austrian 
imperial  cabinet.  In  this  work  he  sets  forth  the  viewa 
of  the  Reformers,  especially  Calvin,  regarding  the 
Church's  inherent  and  indefeasible  right  of  self-gov- 
erament,  and  delineates  the  organizations  of  the  Ger- 
man, Swiss,  French,  and  Scottish  Reformed  churches. 
His  next  production  was  Opinion  Regarding  the  Chief 
Points  of  the  Hungarian  Protestant  Church  Constitutiom 
(1857).  The  Hungarian  Reformed  Church  protested 
against  the  intrusion  of  the  secular  power,  and  appealed 
to  a  national  free  synod.  All  who  dared  to  speak  publicly 
against  the  edict — and  among  these  was  Revesa— were 
summoned  before  the  civil  courts,  and  some  were  eren 
committed  to  prison.  A  great  deputation  of  Protestanta 
was  sent  (Jan.  25, 1860)  to  the  emperor  at  Vienna,  with 
a  petition  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  '* Patent"  and  the 
edict.  The  leading  spirit  in  this  movement  waa 
Rev^.  On  May  15, 1860,  the  *" Patent"  was  with- 
drawn, and  amnesty  was  granted  to  all  who  were  suf- 
fering for  their  opposition  to  the  decrees.  Another 
straggle  began  when,  under  the  new  constituticm,  in 
1868,  the  Hungarian  parliament  hurriedly  passed  the 
law  for  the  secularization  of  the  elementary  schools. 
R£v6sz,  with  his  usual  deep  and  wide  insight,  and  true 
Protestant  instincts,  stood  forth  to  criticise  and  assail 
the  hiw  on  its  dangerous  side.  With  the  view  of  en- 
lightening and  directing  public  opinion,  as  well  as  vin- 
dicating the  right  of  the  Protestant  Church  to  manage 
her  own  schools,  a  right  secured  by  constitutional  law, 
he  started  a  scientific  monthly  magazine  in  1870, 
called  the  Hungarian  Protestant  Observer  {Magyar 
Proteatdns  Figgelmezo),  A  still  brighter  career  waa 
reserved  by  Providence  for  the  Observer  in  the  field  of 
polemics.  The  views  of  the  German  so-called  **  Prot- 
estant Union"  found  mqny  advocates  in  Hungary 
among  the  professors  of  divinity  and  ministers.  The 
*'modera,"  or  rationalistic  tendency,  based  on  mere 
negations,  and  claiming  unrestricted  freedom  in  relif^ 
ion  and  doctrine,  began  to  exercise  its  terrible  infln- 
enoe  in  the  professorial  chairs,  religious  newspapera, 
and  public  meetings.  After  some  preparatory  skir- 
mishes, the  ** Liberals"  founded  the  *' Hungarian  Prot> 
estant  Union"  at  Pesth,  in  October,  1871,  declaring  its 
chief  aim  to  be  *'  to  renew  the  religious-moral  life  in 
the  spirit  of  Jesus,  and  to  harmonize  it  with  universal 
culture."  This  Protestant  Union  denied  revelation, 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  highly  extolled  Unitarian- 
ism.  But  when  it  had  reached  its  height  R^r^aa 
raised  the  banner  of  evangelicalism,  and  erery  num- 
ber of  his  monthly  review  was  eagerly  read  in  both 
camps.  The  chief  work  by  him  against  the  nega- 
tive theology  appeared  in  a  separate  form,  A  Magyar 
Oostdgi  Protestdns  Egyldrdl,  i.  c  Concerning  the  Hun^ 
garian  Proteatant  Union,  reprinted  from  the  pages  of 
the  Observer.  It  is  an  effective  and  conclusive  defence 
of  evangelical  Plrotestantism.  So  severe  was  the  attack 
on  the  so-called  "  new  Reformers"  that  the  rationalistic 
Unitarian  Union  soon  lost  its  prestige,  evangelical  prin- 
ciples were  saved,  and  the  famous  association  silently 
dissolved.    Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  B^ 


REYNOLDS 


790 


RICE 


▼6sz  pabliabed,  KdMn  Mete  h  a  KdMnizmui,  I  e.  The 
Life  of  Caknn  and  Calvimam  {  Pesth,  1864  ).  This  ia 
the  first  clasric  history  of  Calviu^s  life  in  Hongarian : — 
Joannes  Sylvester  PamumiuSf  a  Hungarian  ProtestcaU 
Reformer  (Debreczin,  1859):  —  Manias  Divay  Biro, 
the  First  Hungarian  Rrformer:  his  Life  and  Works 
(1863).  In  1865  R6v6tz  fiUed  the  chair  of  Church  his- 
tory,  an  office  which  he  resigned  in  1866,  but  a  volume 
of  general  Church  history  is  the  fruit  of  thia  one  year's 
professorship.  In  1871  the  Protestant  faculty  of  theol- 
ogy at  Vienna  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  theology.  Rivte  never  accepted  promotion  to  any 
of  the  higher  positions  in  ecclesiastical  government, 
wishing  to  remain  a  simple  minister.  For  Heizog's 
JUal-Encyldopadie  R6v6sz  wrote  in  German  the  article 
on  Devav  and  the  Hungarian  reformation.  See  Cath- 
oUe  PreAyterian  Review,  I>ec  1881.  (R  P.) 
Revised  Version.    See  Authorizkd  Yebsion. 

Reynolds,  lepriatius  Aloysius,  D.D.,  a  Roman 
Catholic  ecclesiastic,  was  bom  near  Bardstown,  Ky., 
Aug.  22, 1798,  and  educated  at  St  Mary's  College,  Bal- 
timore,  Md.  He  became  a  priest,  and  was  successively 
vicar-general  of  Kentucky,  rector  of  Sl  Joseph's  Col- 
lege, and  president  of  Nazareth  Female  Institute  of 
Kentucky.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Charleston, 
a  Cn  March  18, 1844,  and  died  in  that  city,  March  6, 
1855. 

Reynolds,  Walter,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  the  son  of  a  baker,  bom  in  Windsor.  Of  all  the 
primates  who  have  occupied  the  see  of  Canterbury,  few 
seem  to  have  been  less  qualified  to  discharge  the  duties 
devolving  upon  a  metropolitan  than  he.  He  was  not 
equal  to  the  situation  as  regards  his  talents,  learning, 
piety,  or  his  virtues.  He  was  elected  to  the  see  of 
Worcester,  and  was  duly  consecrated  at  Canterbury,  by 
arehbishop  Winchelsey,  Oct.  13, 1308.  Here  he  was  a 
failure,  but  he  had  some  friends,  and  it  is  due  to  them 
that,  Jan.  4, 1814,  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Can- 
terbury, and  was  also  made  chancellor.  He  died  a  de- 
spised old  man,  Nov.  16, 1327.  See  Hook,  Lives  of  the 
Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  iit,  455  sq. 

Reynolds,  ^V'ilUam  Morton,  D.D.,  an  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  born  at  Little  Falls  Forge,  Pa.  He 
entered  the  ministry  in  early  manhood,  being  at  first 
identified  with  the  Lutheran  Church ;  was  professor  of 
Latin  in  Pennsylvania  College  for  several  years;  after- 
wards president  of  Capital  University,  Columbus,  O. ; 
and  was  also  at  one  time  president  of  Illinois  State 
University,  Springfield.  He  changed  his  ecclesiastical 
relations  about  1868,  entering  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  and  was  connected  with  the  diocese  of  Illinois. 
During  the  last  five  years  of  his  life  he  was  rector  suc- 
cessively at  Harlem  and  Oak  Park,  III.  He  died  at 
Chicago,  Sept  5, 1876,  aged  sixty-four  years.  See  Lu- 
theran Observer,  Sept.  15, 1876. 

Rhadamanthos,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  Ju- 
piter ,and  Europa,  and  brother  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete, 
was  a  person  of  such  justice  that  he  was  fabled  to  be  one 
of  the  three  judges  in  the  infernal  regions. 

Rhadegnnda,  Baku,    See  Bradsolr. 

Rhegias  Urbanus.    See  Regius. 

Rheinwald,  George  Friedrich  Hkinrich,  a 
Protestant  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  May  20, 
1802,  at  Schamhausen,  near  Stuttganl,  and  died  at  Bonn 
in  1849,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology.  He  is  the 
author  of,  Die  hirehliche  Arch&ologie  (Berlin,  1830) :— 
De  Pseudodoetoribus  CohssensUms  Commentatio  Exe- 
getico  -  Bistoriea  (Bonn,  1834) :  —  Commentar  uber  den 
Brief  Pauli  an  die  PhiHpper  (Berlin,  1827)  i—Ahdardi 
Diaiogus  inter  PhOosophum  et  Christiamtnt  (1881): — 
Abelardi  Epitome  Theol&gia  Christiana  (1885) :— and 
edited  AUgemeines  Repertorium  Jttr  die  theologische  Li- 
teratur  und  kirchiiche  Statistik,  vol.  i-xlvii  (1883-44). 
See  Winer,  Handhueh  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  11,  268,  572,  608, 
878, 879 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol  s.  v.     (a  P.) 


Rhemoboth.    See  Sababaitbs. 

Rhode,  JoRASH  Gottlieb  Heikrich,  a  Protestant 
theologian,  was  bora  in  1762,  and  died  at  Breslan,  Aug. 
28, 1887.  He  wrote,  Ueber  religiose  BUdung,  Mytholo- 
gie  und  Philosophie  der  Hindus  (Leipdc,  1827,  2  vols.) : 
^'Die  heilige  Sage  und  das  gesammte  ReHgionssgstem  der 
tdten  Baetrer,  Meder,  Perser  und  des  Zendvolkes  (Frank- 
fort, 1820) : — GregorU  Barhebrcsi  Scholia  in  Psalmum 
«  et  xvOi  Edka,  Translata,  eta  (Breslan,  1882)  i-^Pro-' 
legomenorum  ad  Qutestionum  de  Evangdio  Apostoloque 
Mardoms  Denuo  Instituendam  Caput  i-m  (1884).  See 
Winer,  Handbuck  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  519,  521;  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL a.r.    (a  P.) 

Rlbbeok,  Conrad  Gottlucb,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Stolpe,PomeTania,  March 
21, 1759.  He  studied  at  Halle,  was  in  1779  teacher  at 
his  native  place,  in  1786  pastor  at  Magdeburg,  in  1805 
at  Berlin,  and  died  June  28, 1826,  doctor  of  theology 
and  member  of  the  superior  consistory.  He  published 
ascetical  and  homiletical  works,  for  which  see  Ddring, 
Die  deutschen  Kantebredner,  s.  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theoL  Lit,  i,  495;  ii,  92, 148, 168, 168, 175, 177,  202, 
205, 207, 282, 294, 831.     (a  P.) 

Ribov,  Gboro  Heinrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  Feb.  8, 1703,  at  LUchau,  Han- 
over, and  studied  theology  at  Halle.  In  1722  he  went 
to  Bremen  as  teacher  at  the  gymnasium,  and  in  1727 
to  HelrostMdt,  where  he  commenced  his  academical 
career.  In  1782  he  accepted  the  pastorate  at  Qued- 
linburg,  in  1786  was  called  to  Gottingen,  and  made 
doctor  of  theology  in  1737.  In  1739  he  was  appointed 
professor  at  the  university,  but  resigned  his  position  in 
1759  to  accept  a  call  to  Hanover.  Ribov  died  Aug.  22, 
1774.  -  Of  his  publications  we  mention,  De  lis  in  ^i- 
bus  Christum  ImUari  nee  Possumus  nee  Par  est  (Gotiin- 
gen,  1787)  -.—Institutiones  Theologia  Dogmatica  (1740) : 
— De  Apostolatu  Judaioo,  Speciatim  Paulino  (1745) : — 
De  Termino  Vaticiniorum  Veteris  Tesiamenti  Ultimo 
(1748)  :^De  A  ntiquitatibus  Judaico-Christianis  (1752) : 
— De  Initio  Muneris  Apostolici  Sancti  Pauli  (1756) : — 
De  Methodo  qua  Theoh^gia  Moralis  est  Tradenda  (1759). 
See  Doring,  Die  gekhrten  Theologen  Deuischlands,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Rioe,  Benjamin  Holt,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Bedford  County,  Va.,  Nov.  29, 
1782.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Orange  Presbytery, 
Sept.  28, 1810 ;  in  1814  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Pres- 
by terian  Chureh  in  Petersburg,  Vs.,  where  he  remained 
for  fifteen  years;  in  1882  was  elected  secretary  of  the 
Home  Missionary  Society ;  in  1883  was  chosen  pastor 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  where  he 
remained,  discharging  his  duties  faithfully,  for  fourteen 
years,  and  then  became  pastor  of  the  church  near  Hamp- 
den-Sidney  College,  Va.  He  died  Jan.  24, 1856.  Dr. 
Rice  possessed  superior  powers  as  a  preacher.  See 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  iv,  625. 

Rioe,  John  Holt,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
brother  of  the  foregoing,  was  bora  July  23, 1818,  at  Pe- 
tersburg, Va.  He  graduated  from  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  in  1888,  pursued  the  study  of  law  for  three  years 
in  Princeton,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practiced  for 
a  time  at  Richmond,  Va.  He  graduated  from  Princeton 
Seminary  in  1845,  and  the  same  year  was  licensed  by  the 
NewBranswick  Presbytery.  For  several  months  he  as- 
sisted his  father,  who  was  at  that  time  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Princeton.  Then  going  south, 
he  labored  a  year  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  as  city  mission- 
ary. In  1847  he  began  to  preach  at  Tallahassee,  Fla. 
He  next  became  pastor  of  the  village  church  at  Char- 
lotte Court-House,  Va.,  and  was  released  in  1855.  For 
a  time  he  served  as  agent  of  the  Presbyterian  Board 
of  Publication  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  In  1856 
he  was  installed  pastor  of  Walnut  Street  Church  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  where  he  remained  till  186L  During 
the  civil  war  he  preached  in  the  South,  at  Lake  Prov- 
idence, La.,  and  Brandon  and  Vicksburg,  Miss.    In  1867 


RICE 


800 


RIDLEY 


h«  went  to  MobilCi  in  1869  to  Franklin,  Tenn^  and  tf- 
lerwards  to  Mason,  till  1876.  After  this  he  labored  as 
an  evangelist,  preaching  to  the  poor  and  destitute.  He 
died  Sept.  7, 1878.  After  the  division  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian  Church,  in  1861,  he  adhered  to  the  Southern  Gen- 
eral Assembly.  Dr.  Rice  had  a  knowledge  wide  and 
varied ;  his  sermons  were  often  of  a  very  high  order. 
See  NecroL  RepoH  of  Princettm  TkeoL  Sem,  1879,  p.  49. 

Rioe,  Samuel  D.,  D.D.,  a  general  superintendent 
of  the  Methodist  Church  in  Canada,  was  bom  in  Maine 
in  1815.  He  studied  for  some  time  at  Bowdoin  Coll^^, 
and  was  converted  in  his  seventeenth  year.  In  1887 
he  entered  the  itinerant  ministry.  With  the  exception 
of  a  year  at  the  SackviUe  Wesleyan  College,  he  spent 
six  years  in  the  city  of  St.  John.  From  1853  to  1857 
he  was  treasurer  and  moral  governor  of  Victoria  Col- 
lege; from  1857  to  1860  stationed  in  the  city  of  Ham- 
ilton; from  1863  to  1878  governor  of  the  Wesleyan 
Ladies'  College  there;  in  1873  and  1874  president  of 
the  conference;  in  1860  appointed  to  Winnipeg,  where 
he  remained  for  three  years  as  chairman  of  that  district. 
In  1882  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Methodist  Church 
of  Canada ;  and  at  the  first  session  of  the  General  Con- 
ference of  the  United  Methodist  churches  he  was  elected 
senior  general  superintendent.  He  died  Dec  11, 1884. 
Dr.  Rice  was  a  man  of  tall  and  commanding  appearance. 
As  a  presiding  officer  he  was  dignified  and  firm  ^  as  a 
preacher,  earnest  and  forcible;  as  a  pastor  and  adminis- 
trator his  principle  was  "  not  to  mend  our  rules,  but  keep 
them."  He  was  a  man  of  strong  faith  and  lofty  cour- 
age. See  (Canada)  Chrittian  Guardian,  December, 
1884. 

Richard  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  to  the 
see  of  Su  Andrew's  in  1163.  He  died  in  1178.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  11. 

Richard  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  bishop  of 
Moray  in  1187.  He  died  at  Spynie  in  1208.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  186. 

Richard  (8),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  probably  bishop 
of  Dunkeld  in  1249.    See  Keith,  Seoiiish  Bishops,  p.  80. 

Richard  (4),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  bishop  of 
the  Isles  in  1252.  He  died  m  1274.  See  Keith,  Scot- 
tish Bishops,  p.  300. 

Richard,  archbishop  of  Canterbur}',  was  by  birth  a 
Norman.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  early  life.  When 
the  primary  education  of  Richard  was  finished  he  was 
received  into  the  monastery  of  Christ  Church,  Canter- 
bury, and  his  manner  being  noticed  by  archbishop  The- 
obald, he  selected  him  to  be  one  of  his  chaplains. 
Richard's  firat  preferment  was  to  the  place  of  prior,  in 
the  monastery  of  St.  Martin,  Dover,  in  1140.  He  was 
consecrated  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  April  7, 1174,  at 
Anagni,  and  ''a  more  amiable  man  than  archbishop 
Richard  never  sat  in  the  chair  of  Augustine."  In  1176 
he  was  sent  to  Normand}',  to  arrange  a  marriage  be- 
tween the  princess  Joanna  and  William,  king  of  Sicily. 
Ten  years  after  he  was  seized  with  a  violent  chill  when 
making  a  journey  to  Rochester,  and  died  while  there, 
Feb.  IC,  1184.  See  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Aixhbishops  of 
Canterbury,  ii,  508  sq. 

Rioharda,  John,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Farmington,  Conn.,  May  14,  1797.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1821  j  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1824;  was  for  a  year  agent  for  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions; 
pastor  at  Woodstock,  YL,  from  1827  to  1881;  associate 
editor  of  the  Vermont  Chronicle  from  1831  to  1837,  and 
pastor  of  the  Church  at  Dartmouth  College  from  1841 
until  his  death,  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  March  29,  1859. 
**  Dr.  Richards  was  a  comprehensive  scholar,  faithful  to 
Christ,  and  heartily  devoted  to  the  best  interests  of 
mankind.  No  man  ever  questioned  his  learning,  in- 
t^rity,  and  piety."     See  Conff.  Quarterly,  1859,  p.  81& 

Richardson,  EUas  Hnntijigton,  D.D.,  a  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  bom  at  Lebanon,  N.  H.,  Ang. 


1  ] ,  1827.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1 850, 
and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1853;  was 
ordained  at  Goflstown,  May  18, 1854,  and  remained  there 
two  yeara,  then  was  pastor  at  Dover  until  1863;  next 
of  the  Kichmond  Street  Church,  Providence,  R.  I.,  until 
1867 ;  of  the  First  Church,  Westfidd,  Mass.,  untU  1872 ; 
of  the  Center  Church,  Hartford,  Conn.,  until  1879,  and 
finally  of  the  Center  Church,  New  BriUin,  untU  his 
death,  June  27, 1888.  See  The  Conffrepationalist,  Jolw 
6,1888.    (J.  a  a) . 

Rlchardflon,  Merrill,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Holden,  Mass.,  Oct.  4, 1811.  He 
graduated  ih>m  Middlebury  College  in  1835,  then  Unght 
for  two  years  in  the  Academy  of  Middleburv,  and  grad* 
nated  at  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1889.  He  was  or- 
dained  pastor  at  Terryville,  Conn.,  Oct.  27, 1841,  remstn* 
ing  there  neariy  five  years.  From  1847  to  1849  he  was 
acting  pastor  at  Durham,  when  he  was  reinstalled  at 
Terryville.  From  this  chaige  he  was  dismissed,  Jan. 
18, 1858.  The  same  month  he  was  installed  pastor  of 
the  Salem  Street  Church,  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  here  he 
remained  until  September,  1870.  The  following  No- 
vember he  assumed  charge  of  the  New  England  Church, 
New  York  city,  from  which  he  was  dismissed  in  May, 
1872.  From  June  12, 1878,  he  was  in  charge  of  the 
Church  at  Milford,  Mass.,  until  his  death,  Dec.  12, 1876. 
During  1847  and  1848  he  was  secretary  of  the  Connecti- 
cut School  Board.    See  Cong,  Quarterly,  1877,  p.  423. 

Richmond,  Edward,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Middleborough,  Mass.,  in  1767.  He 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1789;  studied 
theology  under  Rev.  Dr.  Gumey,  of  North  Middle- 
borough;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Stough- 
ton,  Dec  5, 1792;  dismissed,  Jan.  15, 1817;  installed  at 
Dorchester,  June  25  following;  dismissed  in  1838;  then 
resided  for  several  yeara  in  Braintree,  and  died  in  Bos- 
ton, April  10, 1842.  Dr.  Richmond  was  a  candid  man, 
a  close  and  acute  reasoner,  and  was  much  respected  aa 
a  minister  and  a  neighbor.  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the 
Amer,  Pulpit,  ii,  417. 

Richter,  Johann  Qeorg,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1727  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
also  puraued  his  theological  studies.  In  1750  he  com- 
menced his  academical  career,  was  in  1751  professor, 
and  in  1756  doctor  of  theology.  He  died  June  14, 1780, 
leaving, De  Arte  Critica  Scripturte  Interprete  (Leipsic, 
1750) : — De  Vitiis  CrUieis  Ludani  et  Leeicorum  Grm^ 
corum  (1752) : — Sinffulares  Qu4gdam  Martini  Lutheri 
de  Mairimonio  Sententia  (eoiL)  i—De  Paulo  in  Vitism 
Bevocati  Nuncio  ad  Act.  xii,  82,  83  (1756):— />«  ifir- 
nere  Sacro  Johanni  Baptistte  Divinitus  Dtkgato  (1757): 
— De  Theologo  Dei  I/omine  ad  2  Tim,  Hi,  17  (1765) : — 
Tabula  Theoloyia  Dogmaticm  ad  Usus  Lediomtm 
(1771).  See  Daring,  Die  geUhrten  Theologen  Deutsck'- 
lands,  B,y,     (B.P.) 

Richter,  Karl,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  in  1804  at  Warendorf.  In  1826  he 
was  director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Rietbeig,  in  1828 
professor  at  Paderbom,  in  1887  director  at  Culm,  ia 
1844  canon  and  professor  at  Pelplin,  in  1849  at  Posen, 
in  1867  at  Treves,  and  died  Aug.  24, 1869,  doctor  of 
theology.    (B.  P.) 

RiddeU,  MoBTUCSR  a,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  East  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  Bfay  8, 1827.  Afler 
pursuing  secular  business  for  several  years,  he  studied 
at  the  Hamilton  Institution,  graduating  in  1858,  and 
was  soon  after  ordained  pastor  in  New  Brunswick,  N.J^ 
where  he  took  high  rank  as  a  preacher,  and  his  eight 
yean'  ministry  was  eminently  succeesfuL  His  labors, 
during  a  revival  of  remarkable  power,  broke  down  hia 
health,  and  he  was  obliged  to  suspend  his  ministerial 
work.  All  his  efforts  to  regain  his  wasted  strength 
proved  futile, and  he  died  at  OtUwa,  Kan.,  Fek  1, 1870. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop.  p.  988.    (J.  a  S.) 

Ridley,  Jobbpr  James,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  £plae»* 
pal  clergyman,  was  bom  in  North  Carolina  in  18ia  He 


RIEDERER 


801 


RIG6S 


wfl8  confinned  in  1835;  mads  deacon  in  1840,  and  pre»- 
byter  in  1844;  became  lector  in  Oxford,  N.  d,  in  1868» 
and  tbe  following  jear  in  ClarksriUe,  Tenn.  While 
in  this  parish  be  received  the  degree  of  M.D^  after 
having  pomaed  a  conne  of  stady  in  medicine.  In  1860 
he  removed  to  Knoxville,  as  president  of  East  Tennes- 
see University;  the  following  year  returned  to  Clarks- 
ville,  as  rector  of  Trinity  Church;  in  1866  was  rector 
of  St.  FauFs  Church,  Louisborg,  N.  C;  in  1867  of  St 
Thomas's  Church,  Somerville,  Tenn.;  about  1870  of 
Zion's  Church,  Brownsville,  where  he  died,  March  10, 
1878. 

Riederer,  Johakn  BarthoijOxaus,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg,  March 
8, 1720.  He  studied  at  Altdorf  and  Halle,  was  in  1744 
afternoon  preacher  at  Nuremberg,  in  1745  preacher  at 
Altdorf,  in  1752  professor,  in  1758  doctor  of  theology, 
in  1769  archdeacon,  and  died  Feb.  5, 1771.  He  wrote, 
I>e  Gemwio  Sermt  Jertnu  xxxi^  8  (Altdorf,  1753)  i—De 
Pavli  Pradicantu  inler  Gentes  EvangeUum  Succetttbtu 
(1759)r,  etc  See  Doring,  JHegekhrten  Tkeohgen  DeuUch- 
lands,  s.  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL LU.  i,  167,  817, 
546,  630,  750 ;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  s.  v.    {B,  P.) 

XUeger,  Gheorg  Conrad,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  March  7, 1 687,  at  Cannstadt.  In 
1715  he  was  vicar  at  Stuttgard,  in  1718  deacon  at 
Urach,  in  1721  professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Stutt- 
gard, in  1783  pastor  of  8U  Leonhard,  in  1742  dean,  and 
died  April  16, 1743.  Rieger  was  an  excellent  preacher, 
and  his  sermons  and  ascetical  writings  have  been  re- 
peatedly reprinted.  See  Schmidt,  Getchichie  der  Prtdigt 
(Gotha,  1872),  p.  196-198;  Znchold,  BibL  TheoL  8.V.; 
Plitt-Herzog,  ReaUEneyldop,  s.  v. ;  Doring,  DUgeUhrten 
Theologen  Deutschkaid9,B,y,\  Lichtenberger,  fnc^c/op. 
det  Scienoes  ReligieiueM,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Rieger,  Karl  Helnricfa,  son  of  Georg  Conrad, 
was  bora  at  Stuttgard,  June  16, 1726.  In  1758  he  was 
vicar  at  Stuttgard,  in  1754  second  deacon  at  Ludwigs- 
burg,in  1757  court  chaplain,  and  in  1779  court  preacher 
at  Stottgart!,  and  died  Jan.  15, 1791.  After  his  death 
were  published,  ITefter  die  evangelitchen  Texte  an  den 
Sonn-,  Fesi'  und  Feiertagen  (Stuttgard,  1794) :  —  Ueber 
das  Neue  Testameni  (1828, 4  vols.)  :—  Ueber  die  Pealmen 
und  die  zwdl/Jdeinen  PmpheUn  (1835,  2  vols.)  i^Ueber 
das  Leben  Jtsu  (1838).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v. ; 
Plitt-Herzog,  Reat^Enofldop,  s.  v. ;  Lichtenberger,  En^ 
cydop,  des  Sciences  ReHgieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rlegler,  Georo,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  April  21,  1778.  In  1806  he  re- 
ceived holy  orders,  and  was  for  some  time  priest  of 
different  congregations,  called  in  1821  as  professor  to 
Bamberg,  and  died  in  1847.  He  is  the  author  of, 
Kriiische  Gesehichfe  der  Vulgaia  (Sulzbacb,  1820):— 
HebrSische  Sprachsehule  (together  with  A.  Martinet, 
Bamberg,  1835) : — Das  Buch  Ruth  avs  dem  Hebrdischen 
mii  ErWuterungen  (WUrzbnrg,  1812)  :—Der  xviiu  Psabn 
erlautert  (1823):— i>ie  Khgelieder  Jeremias  erlatUert 
(1820):— CArtrt/tcA*  3foral  (1828,  3  vols.):— /?«•  Eid 
(2d  ed.  1826):— Bt5/ticAe  Hermeneutik  (1835):— I>m 
Eucharistie  nach  Schrtft  und  Tradition  (1845) :— Dcm 
keilige  Abendmahl  mit  Controversen  (1845).  See  Zuch- 
old, BibL  TheoL  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BiU,  Jud,  s.  v. ;  Winer, 
ffandbudi  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  62, 117, 203, 210, 220, 817, 489, 
870;  ii,  350, 887.    (B.P.) 

Riea,  Frakz  Ulrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  3, 1695,  at  Breidenbach,  Hesse, 
and  studied  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg.  In  1721  he 
was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Marburg,  in  1725  doctor, 
and  in  1728  professor  of  theology.  Ries  died  Nov.  6, 
1755,  and  left  De  Jesu  Nazareno  tn  Vatidniis  Veteris 
TestamenH  Pradieto  (Marburg,  1722) :— De  Deo  Spiritu 
doiaftartp  (1724):— />e  Morbo  Pauli  ApostoU  ad  2 
Corinth,  xm,  7  (eod.):— De  Atheis  Eorumque  StuUiiia 
(1725)  r — De  Saoerdotis  Summi  in  Sanctum  Sanctorum 
Ingressu  (1726):  —  De  DivinUate  Sacra  Scr^Oura 
(1748)  •.— i>e  SaluU  Protophstorum  (1750)  i—De  AsyUs 

XIL— £  B  s 


Atw  Urbibus  Btfugii  (1758).  See  During,  Die  gelehrten 
Theologen  Deutschkmds,  a.  v.;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Riffel,  Caspar,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian,  some 
time  professor  of  theology  at  Giessen,who  died  in  1856, 
a  doctor  of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  ChristUche  Kir* 
chengeschichte  der  fieuesten  Zeit  (Mayence,  1847,3  vols.) : 
— IHe  Aufhdnmg  des  JesuUef^Ordens  (3d  ed.  1855): — 
DarsteUung  der  VerhdUmsse  zwischen  Kirche  und  Staai 
(1841).     (a  P.) 

Rifian  Version  op  ths  Scriptures.  Rifi  is  a 
dialect  of  Shilha,  Morocco.  A  translation  of  the  gos- 
pel of  Matthew  into  this  dialect  was  made  by  Mr. 
William  Mackintosh,  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  at  Morocco,  which  was  printed  by  the 
same  society  in  1855,  in  Arabic  type.    (B.  P.) 

Rigaud,  Strprbm  Jordan,  D.D.,  a  colonial  bishop 
of  the  Church  of  England,  matriculated  at  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford ;  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1841 ;  was 
ordained  deacon  in  1840  and  presbyter  in  1842 ;  became 
fellow,  tutor,  and  examiner  of  Exeter  College  in  1845- 
46;  head  master  of  Queen  Elizabeth  School,  Ipswich,  in 
1850;  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Antigua  in  1857, 
his  jurisdiction  comprising  seven  hundred  and  fifty-one 
square  miles.  He  died  of  yellow  fever  at  Antigua,  West 
Indies,  Bfay  16, 1859.  Bbhop  Rigaud  was  the  author 
and  editor  of.  Letters  of  Scientific  Men: — Newton  and 
Contemporaries : — Defence  ofHaUey  against  the  Charge 
ofRdigious  InfideUly :— Sermons  on  The  Jjoris  Prayer, 
etc    See  Amer,  Q,uar.  Church  Rev.  1859,  p.  588. 

Rigdon,  SiDMBT,  a  prominent  Mormon  leader,  wss 
bom  in  St.  Clair,  Beaver  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb.  19,  1798,  and 
received  a  fair  English  education.  He  learned  the 
printer's  trade,  and  was  working  in  an  office  in  Pitts- 
burgh when,  about  1812,  a  manuscript  was  offered  for 
publication  by  an  eccentric  preacher  named  Solomon 
Spaulding,  which  Was  entitled.  The  Manuscript  Found, 
or,  The  Book  of  Mormon.  Rigdon  wss  so  much  inter- 
ested in  the  work  that  he  made  a  copy  before  it  was 
returned  to  Spaulding,  who  died  a  short  time  after. 
About  1817  Rigdon  became  a  Campbellite  preacher, 
with  an  evident  leaning  towards  Adventism.  In  1829 
he  became  acquainted  with  Joseph  Smith,  and  arranged 
with  him  to  have  the  Book  of  Mormon  published,  as  the 
basis  for  a  new*  sect.  From  this  time  he  was  closely 
identified  with  the  Mormon  movement,  going  with  the 
new  body,  and  suffering  persecution  with  them.  He 
was  a  candidate  for  the  leadership  on  the  death  of 
Smith,  and  on  the  election  of  Brigham  Young  refused 
to  acknowledge  his  authority.  Accordingly  he  wss  ex- 
communicated, and  returned  to  Pittsburgh.  He  after^ 
wards  lived  in  obscurity,  and  died  at  Friendship,  N.T., 
July  14, 1876.    See  Mormons. 

Riggs,  Stephen  R.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  venerable  Pres- 
byterian missionary  to  the  North  American  Indians, 
was  bom  at  Stenbenville,  O.,  March  28, 1812.  He  grad- 
uated from  Jefferson  College,  and  pursued  his  theological 
studies  at  Allegheny  Seminary.  He  was  ordaineQ  anil 
commissioned  as  a  missionary  to  the  Dakota  Indians  in 
1836.  He  commenced  his  labors  at  Laquiparle,  where 
he  made  encouraging  progress  in  teaching  and  convert- 
ing the  red  men.  He  reduced  the  Dakota  language  to 
a  written  form,  published  text-books  for  spelling  and 
reading,  and  translated  the  Bible.  He  also  published  a 
Dakota  Dictionary.  Upwards  of  fifty  books,  consisting 
of  original  writings  and  translations  in  connection  with 
a  history  of  Dakota,  constitute  the  literary  work  of  his 
life.  In  1880  Dr.  Riggs,  Hon.  W.  £.  Dodge,  and  justice 
Strong  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  were  ap- 
pointed a  committee  by  the  Presbyterian  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  United  States  to  present  to  Congress  the  need 
of  securing  to  Indians  the  righte  of  white  men.  Dr. 
Riggs  was  the  author  of  the  memorial  which  was  read 
to  the  Senate  committee  by  justice  Strong.  More  than 
forty  years  of  his  life  were  spent  among  the  Indians,  and 
he  lived  to  see  six  of  the  churches  of  Dakota  tranaferred 


RIMMON 


802 


RITUAL  OP  THE  DEAD 


to  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  He  died  at  Beloit, 
Wis.,  Aug.  24, 1888.  See  PreOyterian  Horns  MMonarfff 
SepL  1883 ;  Nerin,  Prttb,  Encydop.  s.  v.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Rimmon.  On  the  identification  of  this  ro€k  with 
that  of  Rununon,  see  the  Quar,  SttOemeni  of  the  **  Palest. 
Explor.  Fond,"  Oct.  1881,  p.  247.  The  Tillage  Rtmtmeh 
is  not  described  in  the  Memoirt  acoompanying  the  Ord- 
nance Sorrey. 

Rinok,  Friedrioh  Theodor,  a  Lotheian  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  born  April  8,  1770,  at  Stare, 
Pomerania.  He  commenced  his  academical  career  in 
1792  at  Konigsberg,  was  in  1800  professor  of  theology, 
in  1801  first  preacher  at  Dantzic,  and  died  April  27, 1821, 
doctor  of  theology.  He  is  the  author  of,  J>e  Lmgmarum 
OriaUaiium  cum  Graoa  Mira  Conoadadia  (Konigsberg, 
1788)  \—A  rahUcheif  tyritekei,  nnd  chaJdouehu  Ludueh 
(eod.);  —  Commentani  in  Hoitm  Vaiiama  Specimen 
(1789) : — Neue  Scanndung  der  Reiten  nack  den  Orient 
(1807).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  iheol.  Lit.  i,  151, 528 ; 
Furst,  Bibl.  Jud,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rinok,  Heinrioh  'Wllhelm,  a  Lutheran  minis- 
ter of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1822  at  Bischofingen,  Baden. 
For  some  time  inspector  of  the  **  EvangeliciJ  Society  " 
at  Elberfeld,  he  was  in  1855  elected  pastor  of  the  Lu- 
theran congregation,  and  died  in  January,  1881.  He  is 
the  author  of.  Die  ckristUeke  GlaubenMlekre^  ttchiftge- 
m&u  dargetidU  (Basle,  1854) :—  Vom  Zustande  naek  dem 
Tode  {2ded.lS66)i'-DieZeichen  der  letzienZeUunddie 
Wiederkunji  ChritH  (1857)  i—Bikatn  tmd  EHea  (1868) : 
^Homilien  iiber  den  Jacobutbritf  (1870)  >-Den  ertten 
JohanneAritf  (IS72) :— ZHe  drei  ersten  Kapitel  der  Offen- 
barung  Johcmms  (1875).     (B.  P.) 

Rinok,  ^V'ilhelm  Friedrlch,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Dietlingen,  near  Pforz- 
heim, Feb.  9^  1793. '  In  1813  he  was  pastor  of  the  German 
evangelical  congregation  at  Venice,  in  1821  at  Blscbof- 
fingen,  in  1827  at  Eyringen,  in  1885  at  Grenzach,  Baden, 
and  died  in  1856.  He  is  the  author  of,  Lehrbegriff  von 
den  keUigen  A  bendmahl  (Heidelberg,  1818)  i^Dae  Send- 
tchreiben  der  Koriniker  an  den  Apoitel  Paulut  au$  dem 
Armeniechen  (1823)  i^LucubrcUio  Critioa  in  Ada  Apo- 
Holorum,  Epistolat  Catkolicaa  et  PauUnoMf  etc.  (1838)  :— 
Vie  angefocktenen  Erzdhtungen  in  dem  LAen  Jem  5»- 
huchtet  (1842)  i^Apokalyptiii^e  Fortchungen  (Zurich, 
1853).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v.;  Winer,  Hand^ 
buck  der  theol  Lit.  i,  108,  276, 454 «  ii,  89,  224.     (R  P.) 

Ripley,  Ghorgr,  LL.D.,  a  Unitarian  divine  and 
author,  was  bora  at  Greenfield,  Mass.,  Oct.  8, 1802.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1828,  and  from  the 
Cambridge  Divinity  School  in  1826;  the  following  year 
became  pastor  of  the  Purchase  Street  Unitarian  Church, 
Boston.  After  remaining  a  few  years  he  resigned,  and 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  literary  pursuits.  In 
1847  he  became  literary  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribmne^ 
and  retained  that  position  until  his  death,  July  4, 1880. 
He  publisbed,  Diteourtea  on  the  Philosophy  of  Religion 
(1839) :— Letters  on  the  Latest  Forms  of  Infidelity  (1840) : 
— Specimens  of  Foreign  Standard  Literature  (1842). 
Among  his  greatest  literary  labors  are,  Appleton's  New 
American  Cydopatdia,  which  subsequently  was  revised 
and  greatly  enlarg^.  He  was  also  editor  of  an  A  nnual 
Cyclopadioj  published  by  the  same  house.  He  trans- 
lated Philosophical  Essays^  by  M.  Victor  Cousin  (Edin- 
burgh, 1857).  He  edited,  in  connection  with  R.  W. 
Emerson  and  S.  M.  Fuller,  The  Dial,  and  with  C.  A. 
Dana,  Parke  Godwin,  and  J.  S.  Dwight,  The  Harbin- 
ger, He  contributed  numerous  articles  to  the  Chris- 
tian Examiner,  and  Putnam's  and  Harper's  Magazines. 
See  (N.  Y.)  Observer,  July  8, 1880;  Allibone,  Did,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v.     ( W.  P.  S.) 

Rist,  JoHANX  vos,  a  German  hymn-writer,  was  bom 
March  8, 1607,  at  Pinneburg,  Holstein,  and  died  Aug.  81, 
1667.  He  is  the  author  of  about  six  hundred  and  fifty- 
eight  religious  hymns  and  poems.  Some  are,  indeed, 
of  little  v^ue ;  but  very  many  of  them  are  really  good, 
and  some  belong  to  the  first  rank.   They  were  even  read 


with  delight  among  Roman  Catholics,  and  an  emprsM 
once  lamented  **  that  it  were  a  great  pity  if  the  writer 
of  such  hymns  should  be  sent  to  helL"  Rist  was  very 
much  honored,  and  attained  the  highest  titles  in  Church 
and  State  open  to  a  clergyman,  imd  the  emperor  hon- 
ored him  in  1654  with  the  crown  of  poet-laureate  and 
a  patent  of  nobility.  Quite  a  number  of  Rist's  h3rmiis 
have  been  translated  into  English,  as  *'Auf,  anf,  ihr 
Rdchsgenossen"  (  Lyra  Germ,  ii,  28) :  — **  Wach'  anf, 
wach'  auf,  du  sich're  Welt"  {iUd.  i,  4)  -.— «  Wie  wohl 
hast  dn  geUbet"  {ibid,  ii,  144) :— *< Folget  mir,  mil  mis 
das  Leben"  (Und.  i,  188)  ^-<' Werde  mnnter  mein  Ge- 
mUtbe  "  {ibid,  ii,  1 12)  i-^**  Ehf  und  Dank  sei  dir 


gen"*  {ibid,  i,  205)  :  — *<0  Traurigkeit,  O  Hersekid'' 
{Christian  Singers,  p.  191)  t~<<  Werde  Licht,  dn  Yolk 
der  Heiden  "  {ibid.  p.  80) :— **  OoU  sei  getobet,  der  al- 
leine"  (ibid.  p.  192)^-"0  Ewigkeit  du  Donnerwort" 
(Jacobi,  Psalmodia  Germ,  i,  97).    (R  P.) 

Rltter,  HEDfiUCH,  a  philosophical  writer  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Zerbst,  Nov.  11,  1791.  He  com- 
menced his  academical  career  at  Berlin  in  1817,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  1824,  in  1888  at  Kiel,  in  18S7 
at  Grottingen,  and  died  Feb.  2, 1869,  doctor  of  thecdogy. 
He  wrote,  Der  Panthdsmut  und  die  Halb'Kantitmer 
(Berlin,  1827)  i^Ueber  die  Erbemtmss  Gottes  in  der  WeU 
(Hamburg,  l9M)i-^Ueber  das  B&se  (Kiel,  1889):— CTeBer 
die  Emanationslehre  (G6ttingen,  1847)  ^-UAer  Lumnge 
pkilosopkische  und  religidse  Grundsatze  (1848) :  _  £7is- 
sterbUchkeU  (Uipsic,  1861)  i—Die  ehrisUiche  PkUosopiie 
naek  ihrem  Begnff(iB6B-b9, 2  yciB.y.^Eni9dapadie  der 
phUosophischen  Wissentckaften  (1864, 8  vols.)  i—Ueber 
dasBdse  undseineFolgen(Goibn,  1869).— PAt^sopAwoie 
Parodoxa  (Leipsic,  1867>    (B.P.) 

Ritual  of  the  Dead  is  the  name  given  by 
Egyptologists  to  the  oldest  sacred  book  of  the  Egyp- 
tian theology.  Portions  of  this  book  date  from  the 
time  of  king  Gagamakhem,  a  monarch  of  the  third 
dynasty,  the  text  itself  being  in  many  places  aooom- 
panied  by  a  gloss,  which  was  added  at  a  later  period, 
to  render  it  intelligible.  The  deities  principally  men- 
tioned in  it  are  Osiris,  Anubis,  Horns,  and  Turn ;  Amen 
Ra,  as  a  distinct  divinity,  being  only  indirectly  referred 
to.  Although  the  mystical  work  is  now  treated  as  one 
book,  it  is  really  made  up  of  a  collection  of  not  leas  than 
eighteen  separate  treatises,  including  three  supplemental 
chapters  and  two  litanies,  which  seem  to  have  been 
added  at  the  time  of  the  new  empire.  Selections  from 
chapters  and  illustrations  from  the  ritoal  abound  on  the 
walls  of  many  of  the  tombs  of  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth dynasties,  and  notably  on  that  of  Seti-Menepthah 
I,  in  the  Biban  el-Moluk.  Other  chapters  were  used  aa 
mystical  formula  to  avert  diseases,  others  as  a  part  of 
the  religious  worship  of  the  Egyptians,  and  a  few  ob- 
scure passages  as  secret  mysteries,  the  meaning  of  which 
is  now  lost.  Many  hundred  of  papyri  have  been  found 
in  the  mummy-cases,  which  contain  different  portiooa 
of  the  ritual,  with  their  accompanying  vignette  and 
rubric,  but  a  complete  recension  and  comparison  of  all 
the  existing  texts  have  not  yet  been  effected.  The 
text  of  the  ritual  underwent  no  less  than  three  different 
revisions,  viz.,  in  the  ancient  empire,  in  the  period  of 
the  nineteenth  dynasty,  and  in  the  reign  of  the  Saitie 
kings.  This  last  ,was  the  edition  which  is  most  com- 
monly met  with,  but  there  appears  to  have  been  an 
attempt  at  a  partial  re-edition  in  the  Ptolemaic  period. 
The  chief  divisions  or  books  of  which  the  Ritual  of  tba 
Dead  is  composed  are  as  follows : 

CHAFnaw 

1.  The  Matil  Testation  of  Ueht  (first  book)..UxTL 

2.  The  Egyptian  Faith xvii-xx. 

8.  The  HoBurrecUon  of  the  Deceased xxi-xxvf. 

4.  The  Preservation  of  the  Body  In  Hades..xxvii-xliL 

6.  The  Protection  In  Hades xUif-1U 

&  The  Celestial  Diet m,liU. 

7.  The  Manifestation  of  light  (second 

book ) liv-l  XXV. 

8.  The  Metamorphoses Ixxvi-xc. 

9.  The  Protection  of  the  Soul ;  or,  Forms 

for  Yarlons  Occasions xd^xvL 


KIVEItGODS 

ID.  Tha  Otriss  Into  and  onl  o(  Badei cxrli-cuiT. 

11.  TIN  Hall  or  Um  Two  TraUu cut. 

11.  Tba  Oodi  aflba  Orbit... 

IS.  TbaPmainorUisSiUi,' 

oTUm^d 

14.  TlH  FntiTri  (Ufaj)  of  Iha  KamM  of 
UwOodi ( 

IB.  Tha  HoiiH  oT  Oilrli  \  or,  The  Chkptar 

ol  Uaklsit  the  Amnleu ciUt-cIiI. 

ID.  Tba  OrknUUoD el»ll,dilH. 

IT.  TheThiM  Sapplenigiitiil  Chipien cIiIt-cIitI. 

18.  The  A«^at*ncea  ot  Homa t,U. 

From  thcM  it  will  be  Ken  that  the  trrangcment  of  the 
ehaplen  U  incoiiKciiCive  so  for  u  thrir  lubjeeti  are 
conctrned,  ind  there  i>  every  reason  to  belieyB  th»t 
the  order  in  which  they  now  occur,  eapeciilly  in  the 
English  tranaUtion,  ii  eonewhat  aibitraFy.  The  ritual 
i*  rarely  found  written  in  Hieratic,  and  uill  mora  rare- 
ly in  Demotic  The  flneR  e!tan3[.le*  are  thoee  in  the 
moKDins  of  the  Luurre  and  Turin. 

RlTtft-godA.  Deities  of  ttn«iiu  were  wonhipptd 
at  all  timea  by  the  Greeka  and  Komaoa,  each  bearing 
the  name  of  lha  rirer  over  which  be  ruled. 

RlTim,  Tbk  Four.  In  ancient  art  our  Lord  ii 
frequently  repreaented,  either  in  penon  or  under  the 
flgnre  of  a  liinb,  atanding  upon  a  hillock  from  whence 
iasne  four  itreama  of  water.  These  are  supposed  by 
many  (o  sl^ify  the  four  riven  of  Eden,  which  went 
forth  to  water  the  earth  (Geo.  ii,  10) ;  olbei*  (Cypriao, 
J^  78,  9  10,  ad  Jabaia*.;  Bede,  Expoi.  m  Gat.  n; 
Tbeodoret,  /a  Pialm.  xlt ;  Ambroee,  D«  Paraduo,  c  3) 
discern  in  them  the  four  gos- 
pels, flowing  fhna  the  source 
of  eternal  life  to  ^iread 
throughoDt  the  world  the 
richea  and  the  life-giving  \  /J i  I 
power*  of  the  doctrine  ot  W'-UL 
Christ.  Anbrose,  again  (ibid.), 
is  of  opinion  that  the  fonr 
riven  are  emblemsof  the  fonr 
cardinal  virtues.  The  flnt 
four  <Bcanienical  conncila,  so 
often  by  early  wriiera  placed 
on  a  par  with  the  gospels  <y./ 
themselves,  are  sometime*  j  'M 
cotnpared  to  tbe  four  riven 
of  faradiae.  Jesse,  bishop  of 
Amiens  in  the  8ih  century, 
in  writing  to  his  clergy,  thua 
illoMiates  the  veneration  due  *°['^J  Fonr  m«™'n'n^ 
to  these  augnst  assemblies  a,,  tm  Lord's  Feel, 
(Longneval,  Hiil.de  r£gi.Gal- 

licane,  v,  144).  In  several  sarcophagi  of  ancient  Gaul 
we  find  two  stags  qnencbing  their  thirst  at  these stresms; 
these  are  supposed  tn  represent  Christians  partaking 
of  the  gospels  and  the  eucharist  of  tha  "  well  of  water 
springing  up  into  everlasting  life."  See  Cbobb.  The 
two  Bta^  are  occasionally  found  in  mosaics;  in  that  of 
the  ancient  Vatican,  for  example  (Ciampini,  De  Saci: 
.£di/.  tab.  xiii).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Chriil.  A  miq.  s.  v. 

RIva%  BASii.E,a  Pmleelant  theologian  of  Fnnce, 
was  bom  at  Hazamet  in  1SI5.  In  1844  he  was  called 
aa  pastor  to  Pont-de-Leam,  Tarn,  and  died  in  1876, 
He  puUiriied,  Lt  CiriitiamtTne  Orlliodoxt  tt  U  Chru- 
Hamtme  Liberah—Le  CkrMtn,  It  Vrai  ChrMien:—U 
Dogme  dt  CEgUM  r^Opimon  (fun  PoMtrur  de  Compagut 
ear  la  Cri*e  du  Prolabaliime  Fraiifmi: — Lt  Grande 
Foi  de  TouteM  lei  Orthodotia,  etc  See  Lichtenberger, 
Enrydop.  da  Snmeei  Rd^ieiuee,  s,  v.     (B.  P.) 

Robbina,  Cha^lxh,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  miiilMer, 
was  bom  at  Lynn,  Uasa.,  Feb.  14, 1810.  He  sisduated 
from  Harvard  College  in  IS29,  and  from  the  Cam- 
bridge Divinity  School  in  183S.  He  was  ordained  Dec 
4  of  that  year  pastor  of  tbe  Second  Church,  Boston,  as 
(he  successor  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson.  This  was  hia 
only  pastorate,  and  continued  (la  fortVHine  vears.  He 
died  at  Weston,  Mass.,  Sept.  11,  1882.  Among  his 
published  writings  are  A  Bittory  o/t/it  Srcowi  Ckardt 


>3  ROBERT 

ia  Bctlem,  milk  Liaee  of  [iKreat  and  Coltoit  Malktr, 
and  several  sennona.  He  edited  the  works  of  Henry 
Ware,  Jr.  (4  vols.),  compiled  Tht  Social  Sym^ooi, 
and  a  Hj/tm-book/or  Ckristian  WarMp.  Sea  fiotton 
AdBtrtiter,  Sept.  la,  1888.     (J.  C  3,) 

Rob«rt  (1),  a  Scnicb  prelate,  was  elected  bishop  of 
Rosa  in  11S2,  hut  was  not  consecrated  until  llWt.  He 
diedinllW.    Ste  Ktilii,  SmUiik  BiMkopt,  p.  8. 

Robert  (!),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  an  Englishouui, 
and  was  brought,  with  Ave  others,  into  Scoilond  by 
Alexander  T,  to  instruct  the  people  and  to  be  good  ex- 
amples to  them  in  the  observance  of  tbe  monastic  rules 
prescribed  by  St.  Augustine.  He  was  made  prior  of 
Scone  in  HIS,  and  in  1I2K  became  bishop  of  St.  An- 
drews, He  was  consecrated  in  112Gor  113T.  He  died 
in  this  see  in  1169.  This  prelate  founded  the  priory  of 
I^ichleven,  1o  be  annexed  to  his  new  foundation.  See 
Keith,  SeoUiih  Bitkope,  p.  8. 

Robert  (S),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  ot  the  sec 
of  Boss  in  1214.    See  Keith,  Scolliih  Biihopt,  p.  186. 

Robert  (4),  a  Scotch  preUte,  was  bishop  of  Bnchin 
in  1466.     See  Keith,  ScoUitk  Bithope,  p.  163. 

Robert  (6),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  at  Dunketd 
in  1484,  and  was  witness  to  a  charter  of  appraisement 
by  king  James  IH  of  the  lands  of  Botdland  of  Ketnes, 
from  James,  earl  of  Bucban,  to  Robert,  lord  Lisle,  Hay 
19, 1486.     See  Keith,  ScoUM  Biikopt,  p.  Bl. 

Rob«rt  (6),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  the 
Isles  in  1492,  and  received  a  charter  from  John,  lord  of 
the  IbIm,  of  tbe  Church  of  Kilberrv,  which  was  united 
to  the  bishopric  of  a  mensal  Church.  He  was  in  this 
see  in  1492.    See  Keith,  Saatliik  Bitkopi,  p.  306. 

Robert,  Cttrl  Wlllielm,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Casset,  March  2],  1740.  He 
studied  at  Marburg  and  Gdttingen,  and  was  ordained 
in  1762.  In  1764  he  was  second  preacher  and  profenor 
at  Marbnrg,  in  1768  doctor  of  theology,  and  in  1771 
member  of  coniustory.  In  1778  Robert  resigned  his 
theological  position  and  commenced  his  career  in  the 
facnlty  of  law.  In  1779  he  took  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor of  law,  in  1797  he  waa  called  to  Caasel,  and  died 
April  8, 1803.  He  published,  lit  yomae  inoi  8coO  aon 
Affwrn  Ckriili  Mrnmi,  etc  (Marburg,  17G8):  — ffwy- 
d^iadia  et  Melkodi  Thealogici  Brevii  Ordiiuaio  (1769) : 
•^Klkiai  Chrittiana  Compo^um  (1710)  z—Cauta  Belli 
aliralilu  ArhenuiCaBatiaoe,eU!.{lT7S).  SeeDOring, 
Ditgdekrten  Tktologa  DmUddaiidi,  a.  v.     (a  P.) 

Robert,  Chatnpart,  archbishop  of  Cantertniry, 
was  by  bjrth  a  Norman.  He  was  abbot  of  Jumiige»,'a 
monastery  on  the  Seine.  Hehad  formerly  been  a  monk, 
and  was  made  bishop  of  London  in  1044.  In  1051  he 
was  tranalsted  to  the  see  of  Csnterbury.  In  1062  he 
was  deposed,  and  retired  to  his  monasleiy  at  Jumiegea, 
where  ho  died.  See  Hot*,  Licet  of  Ike  Ardbiihopt 
of  dateriury,  i,  494  sq. 

Rabort,  Joseph  T.,  LL.D.,  a  Baptist  minister 
and  educator,  was  bom  at  Robenvilie,  S.  C,  Nov.  28, 
1807.  He  was  baptized  in  October,  1822,  and  grad- 
uated from  Brown  Univeraity  in  1828  with  the  highest 
honors  of  his  class.  During  1829  and  1830  he  was  a 
remdenl  graduate  and  medical  student  at  Yale  Col- 
lege, and  in  1831  took  his  deBree  at  the  South  Can>- 
lina  Medical  College.  In  18B2  he  was  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  Roberlviile  Church,  pursued  his  theok^cal  stud- 
ies at  tbe  Furman  (9,  C)  Seminaiy,  and  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Robertville  Church  in  1884,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1839,  when  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  pas- 
tonle  of  the  Church  at  Covington,  Ky.  In  18il  he 
took  charge  of  the  Church  at  Lebanon.  About  1848 
he  went  to  the  Pint  Ciiurch  at  Savannah,  Ga.(  in 
1B50  he  became,  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Portsmouth, 
O.;  in  1868  professor  of  mathemaljes  and  natural  sci- 
ences in  Burlington  University,  la.;  in  1864  professor 
of  languages  in  the  Iowa  Sute  Univernly,  and  in  1869 
president  of  Burlington  Univenify.     lie  returned  to 


ROBINSON 


804 


ROGERS 


Georgia  in  October,  1870,  and  in  July,  1871,  became 
principal  of  the  AaguBta  Institute.  Subsequently  this 
institution,  established  for  tbe  education  of  colored 
ministers,  was  removed  to  Atlanta,  and  in  1879  was  in- 
corporated with  tbe  Atlanta  Baptist  Seminary,  under 
the  presidency  of  Dr.  Robert.  He  died  March  5, 1884. 
See  Cathcarty  Baptist  Encycbp,  p.  992.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Robinflon,  Stuart,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Strabane,  Ireland,  Nov.  26, 1816.  He  re- 
ceived his  preparatory  education  under  Rev.  James  M. 
Brown,  D.D.,  in  Berki  ley  County,  Va.,  and  Rev.  William 
H.  Foote,  D.D.,  at  ]»i>inney;  graduated  from  Amhent 
College,  Mass.,  in  18aG;  went  thence  to  Union  Theo- 
logicid  Seminary  in  Virginia,  and  spent  one  year;  then 
Uught  from  1837  to  1839;  from  1889  to  1841  studied 
at  Princeton  Seminary;  was  licensed  by  Greenbrier 
Presbytery,  Va.,  April  10, 1841;  and  was  ordained  by 
the  same  presbytery,  OcL  8, 1842,  at  Lewisburg  (now 
in  West  Virginia),  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Kanawha 
Saline,  from  which  he  was  released  May  8, 1847 ;  was 
installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  by 
tbe  Presbytery  of  West  Lexington,  June  18  following, 
and  labored  there  until  Sept  3, 1852 ;  removed  to  Bal- 
timore, Md.,  and  supplied  the  Fayette  Street  Church 
in  1852  and  1858 ;  then  organized  the  Central  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  same  city,  and  was  installed  its 
pastor  May  10  of  the  latter  year,  and  released  Oct  27, 
1856;  was  professor  of  pastoral  theology  and  Church 
government  in  Danville  Theological  Seminary,  Ky.,  in 
1866  and  1857 ;  pastor  of  the  Second  Church  of  Louis- 
ville from  1858  to  1881,  at  which  time  be  was  released 
on  account  of  the  failure  of  his  health.  He  died  in 
Louisville,  Oct  5, 1881.  Dr.  Robinson  was  a  man  of 
rare  learning,  and  one  of  the  finest  expositoiy  preach- 
ers in  the  country.  He  wrote  much  and  published 
much,  but  his  principal  productions  are  the  two  vol- 
umes, The  Chvtrch  of  God,  and  Discourse*  on  Redemp^ 
tion.  See  yecroL  Report  oj  Princeton  Tkeol.  Sem,  1882, 
p.  42. 

Roohat,  AuousTE  Louis  Philippb,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Switzerland,  was  born  July  17, 1789,  at 
Grassier,  Vaud.  In  1812  he  was  ordained,  and  acted  as 
preacher  at  different  places.  In  1825  he  founded  an 
independent  Church  at  Rolles,  in  which  he  labored  till 
his  death,  March  7, 1847.  Rochat  wrote,  MUUations 
(1882)  \^La  Nature,  la  Constitution  etleButde  VEglise 
itu  Christ  (1887) : — AfMitations  sur  Diverges  Portions  de 
la  Parole  de  Dim  (1838)  i-^CEuvru  Posthumes  (1848). 
See  Bumier,  Notice  sur  Auguste  Rochat  (Lausanne, 
eod.);  A.de  'iioniet^  Dictionnaire  des  Genev.etdes  Vaud, 
ii,  883, 384 ;  Lichtenbeiger,  Encjfdop,  des  Sciences  Rc' 
liffieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Rockwell,  Joel  Edson ,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
isUr,  waa  bom  at  Salisbury,  Vt,  May  4, 1816.  In  1837 
he  graduated  from  Amherst  College,  and  in  1841  from 
Union  Theological  Seminanr,  N.  Y.  The  same  year 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Vala- 
tie ;  in  1847  of  the  Hanover  Street  Church,  Wilming- 
ton, Del ;  in  1851  of  the  Central  Presbyterian  Church, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  After  laboring  constantly  for  eighteen 
years,  he  spent  five  months  in  Europe  for  the  benefit 
of  bis  health.  During  the  war  of  the  rebellion  he 
served  as  a  member  of  the  Christian  Commission.  In 
1878  he  became  pastor  of  the  Edgewater  Presbyterian 
Church,  on  Staten  Island,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death,  July  29, 1882.  Besides  fulfilling  the  duties  of  an 
active  pastor  during  all  these  years,  he  was  a  prolific 
writer,  and  contributed  to  a  number  of  religious  peri- 
odicals. See  (N.  Y.)  Observer,  Aug.  3, 1882 ;  Evangelist, 
same  date.    (W.P.S.) 

Rockwood,  Elisha,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, waa  bom  at  Chesterfield,  N.  H.,  May  9, 1778.  He 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1802;  taught  an 
academy  in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  two  years;  was  tutor  in 
Dartmouth  College;  while  there  studied  theology, 
and  in  1806  was  approbated  by  the  Londonderry  Pres- 


bytery. After  preaching  as  an  occasional  supply  in 
several  places  in  Vermont  and  Massachusetts,  he  waa 
ordained  in  Westboro*,  Oct  28, 1808;  was  dismissed 
March  11, 1885;  and  finally  was  pastor  in  Swancey, 
N.  H.,  from  Nov.  16, 1836^  until  his  death,  June  19, 1858. 
See  Hist,  of  Mendon  Association,  p.  164.     (J.  C  S.) 

Rddiger,  Moritz,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Sangerhausen,  April  29, 1804,  and 
died  at  Halle,  Oct  18, 1837,  doctor  of  philosophy.  He 
is  the  author  of  Synopsis  Evangeliorum  Pericopis  Azr- 
aUelis  (2d  ed.  Halle,  1889).  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TkeoL 
s.  V. ;  Winer,  Handhuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  245.     (B  P.) 

Roe,  Charles  Hill,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  Kings  County,  Ireland,  Jan.  6, 1800,  his  father 
being  a  clerg^'man  of  the  Established  Church.  Hav- 
ing become  a  Baptist,  he  entered,  in  1822,  Horton  Col- 
lege, Eng.,  and  on  the  completion  of  his  studies  became 
pastor  of  the  Church  in  Middleton,  Lancashire,  not  con- 
fining his  labors  to  his  own  church,  but  preaching  ex- 
tensively in  all  the  neighboring  region.  He  acted  as 
secretar}'of  the  Home  Mission  Society  from  1884  to  1842; 
and  then  became  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Birmingham, 
where  his  labors  were  greatly  blessed.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1851,  accepted  a  call  to  Belvideiv,  DL, 
and  during  a  part  of  the  time  of  the  civil  war  was  chap- 
lain of  a  regiment  He  visited  England  in  behalf  of 
the  freedmen,  and  raised  funds  for  educational  purposes 
among  them.  After  a  two  years'  pastorate  at  Wauke- 
sha, Wis.,  and  two  years*  service  for  the  University  of 
Chicago,  he  died  at  Belvidere,  June  20, 1872.  See  Oath- 
cart,  Baptist  Encgdop,  p.  1008.     (J.  C  S.) 

Roger  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  loid  high  chan- 
cellor in  Scotland  in  1178,  and  was  made  bishop  of  the 
see  of  St  Andrews  in  1188.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bisk^ 
ops,  p.  13. 

Roger  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Rosa  in 
1340,  and  is  witness  to  a  grant  which  Duhcan,  eari  of 
Fife,  made  to  Robert  Lauder  about  that  pericNd.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  188. 

Rogers,  Ebeneser  Piatt,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  born  in  New  Yoric  dty,  Dec.  18i, 
1817.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1837 ,  stud- 
ied at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  nearly  one  year^ 
then,  because  of  weakness  of  the  eyes,  two  years  in 
private  with  Rev.  L.  R  Atwater,  D.D.,  at  Fairfield, 
Conn. ;  was  licensed  by  the  South  Association  of  Litch- 
field County,  June  80, 1840,  and  ordained  by  the  Hamp- 
den Association  at  Chioopee  Falls,  Mass.,  Nov.  4  foU 
lowing.  His  successive  fields  of  labor  were,  Chioopee 
Falls,  1840<-4d;  Northampton,  184a^6;  Augusta,  Ga^ 
1847-54;  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1854-56;  Albany,  N.  Y*., 
1856-62^  New  Y'ork  city,  1862-81.  Part  of  these  labon 
were  in  the  Congregational  Church,  part  in  the  Presby- 
terian, and  part  in  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church.  He 
died  at  MontcUir,  N.  J.,  Oct  22, 1881.  He  publiabed 
aeveral  volumes  on  religious  subjects,  besides  many  ser- 
mons. See  NecroL  Report  of  Primxton  TheoL  Sem^l88Z, 
p.  38. 

Rogers,  Ferdinand,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episoopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  New  York  state  in  1816.  He 
was  ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1887,  and  took  chai|^ 
of  his  first  parish  at  Brownsville,  where  be  remained 
till  1846,  when  he  accepted  a  rectorship  in  Greene^  and 
continued  there  till  his  death«  Jan.  17, 1876.  See  Appl^ 
ton*s  Annual  Cyclop.  1876,  p.  628. 

Rogers,  Riohard,  an  English  Puritan  minister, 
was  bom  about  1550,  and  entered  the  ministiy  in  1675w 
He  preached  through  the  eastern  counties  of  Enf^and 
forty-three  years,  suffering  molestation  from  the  ofll- 
oers,  but  acquiring  considerable  prominence  among  the 
dissenting  divines.  He  died  at  Weathenfield,  Essex, 
April  21, 1618.  His  publications  include  Seven  Tinaatioes 
(Lond.  1605,  foL  and  aeveral  other  editions),  a  kind  of 
theological  manual,  much  used  by  the  early  divines  of 
New  England  i-^Certain  Sermons  (1613)  i-^ComtneHtarg 


ROGERUS 


805 


ROSECRANS 


on  the  Whole  Booke  of  Juigea  (1615).  Mr.  Chester, 
in  his  John  Rogen  (1861),  p.  23^-244,  disputes  Cslamj's 
of^repested  sssertion  that  this  divine  was  a  descendant 
of  the  martyr.  See  Allibone,  DieU  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  e,x. 

KogemB,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  witness  to  a  charter 
dated  March  4, 1328,  at  Ross.  See  Keith,  ScoUUh  Biah- 
ope,  p.  187. 

Rognon,  Loins,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  France, 
was  bom  at  Lyons,  Feb.  4,  1826.  Having  completed 
his  stadies,  he  was  snoeessively  pastor  at  Yals  (1850), 
MontpeUier  (1852),  and  Paris  (1861).  He  died  April  15, 
1869,  leaving  MeUmgee  Philoeophiqttes,  Bdigieux  et  Lit- 
Urairesj  and  Sermone  (Pftris,  1870).  See  Lichtenberger, 
Eneyclop,  dee  Sckneee  ReUgieueee,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rohrbacher,  Rbn^  Frak^ois,  a  Boman  Catholic 
theologian  of  France,  was  bom  at  Langatte  in  1789. 
For  some  time  professor  of  theology  in  the  clerical  sem- 
inary at  Nancy,  he  went  in  1849  to  Paris,  and  died  in 
1856.  Rohrbacher  is  the  author  of,  Hietoire  Umvereette 
de  rEgliee  Catholique  (Nancy,  1842-49,  29  vols. ;  2d  ed. 
Paris,  1849^^),  afterwards  translated  into  German : — 
CaiSchieme  du  Sene  Commun  (2d  ed.  1858) :— £a  Religion 
MUiUAe  (2d  ed.  1852, 2  vols.) :^  Dee  Rapporte  Katurtle 
entre  lee  deetx  Ptueeaneee  (B^n9on,  1888,  2  vols.)  :^De 
la  Grdoe  ei  de  la  Mature  (eod.)  t— Motifs  qui  ont  Rameni 
a  rEgliee  Caiholique  ttn  Grand  Nombre  de  Protestante  et 
d^A  utree  BeUgiomaires  (Paris,  1841 , 2  vols.).  See  Lich- 
tenberger, Eneydop,  dee  Sciences  Religieueee,  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Rohrer,  Fkakz,  one  of  the  best  historical  scholars 
of  Switierland,  wss  bom  at  Stanz  in  1832,  and  studied 
theology  at  the  universities  of  Freiburg  and  Tubingen. 
He  was  ordained  in  1856,  and  was  for  some  time  pastor 
of  Kerns.  His  chief  attention,  however,  was  given  to 
historical  research,  which  his  subsequent  position  as 
librarian  at  St.  Gall  enabled  him  to  prosecute  with 
greater  freedom.  After  the  death  of  Dr.  Ltltolf  he  be- 
came president  of  the  Historical  Society  of  the  Five 
Cantons  and  editor  of  the  Geechichtrfreund,  He  was 
also  one  of  the  most  active  members  of  the  Swiss 
Geeehichtsforechende  Geeellschajt,  and  undertook  its  con- 
tinuation of  the  great  historical  work  left  incomplete 
by  Kopp,  and  afterwards  by  Ltttolf,  the  Geeehichie  der 
eidgendesischen  BUnde,  of  which  a  new  volume  lately 
appeared,  under  his  care,  bringing  down  the  history  to 
the  peace  of  Austria  with  Lucerne  and  the  Forest  Can- 
tons (lddO-<86).  After  serving  as  rector  of  the  gymna- 
sium at  Altdorf,  he  was  made  a  canon  of  the  Stifts- 
kirche  at  Luzerne  in  1873,  where  he  died  in  September, 
1882.  He  described  himself  to  the  last  as  a  theologian 
of  the  **  Richtung  der  Laoordaire."    (R  P.) 

Rohiich,  TiHOTREUs  WiuiELH,  a  I*rotestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Alt-Eckendorf  in  1802. 
He  studied  at  Strasburg  and  Gottingen,  and  performed 
the  ministerial  functions  at  Fllrdenheim,  in  Alsace. 
In  1837  he  was  called  as  pastor  to  Strasburg,  and  died 
in  I860.  Rohrich  published,  Geeehichie  der  Reformation 
in  Eleaee  vnd  besonders  in  Straesburg  (1880-82, 8  vols.) : 
-^Matihiae  ZeU  {IBW):—Miiiheiiungen  aue  der  Ge- 
eehichie der  evangeUschen  Kirche  dee  Elsaeeee  (1855, 
8  vols.): — besides,  he  contributed  largely  to  the  ZeU' 
eehrifl  fUr  hieiorische  Theologie  and  the  Strassburger 
theohgieche  Beiirage,  See  Reoss,  in  Denkechrijt  der 
theologiscken  Geeellechaft  sic  JStrauburg  (Jena,  1861 ) ; 
Lichtenberger,  Encgdop.  dee  Sciences  Rdigieueee,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Rohtlieb,  JoHANMBS,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Swe- 
den, was  born  in  Germany  in  1806.  Educated  at  German 
universities,  he  was  in  1833  made  assistant  pastor  of 
the  German  Choicb  of  St.  Gertrude,  at  Stockholm,  and  in 
1889,  on  the  death  of  the  pastor,  succeeded  to  his  office, 
by  appointment  of  the  king.  In  1853  Rohtlieb  became 
the  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in 
Sweden,  which  he  served  until  his  death.  In  1875  he 
retired  from  the  pastoral  chaige  of  his  congregation, 
and  died  April  ll,  1881,  a  doctor  of  theology.     (R  P.) 


Rokeby,  William,  an  Irish  prdate,  was  a  native 
of  Rokeby,  in  Yorkshire,  and  a  doctor  of  the  canon  law. 
He  was  a  brother  to  Sir  Richard  Rokeby,  lord  tieasurer 
of  Ireland.  He  received  hia  eariy  education  at  Rothe- 
ram  and  finished  at  Oxford,  when  he  was  presented  by 
the  monks  of  Lewes,  in  1487,  to  the  rectoiy  of  Sandal, 
near  Doncaster.  At  the  close  of  the  15th  century  he 
was  nominated  to  the  vicarage  of  Halifax,  in  York- 
shire ;  in  1498  was  constituted  lord  chancellor  of  Ire- 
land, and  afterwards  advanced  to  the  see  of  Meath,  in 
1507.  On  Feb.  5,  1511,  be  was  translated  by  pope 
Julius  II  to  the  see  of  Dublin,  the  temporalities  of 
which  were  accorded  to  him  in  June  following.  In 
1514  this  prelate  confirmed  the  establishment  of  a  col- 
lege of  clerks,  founded  at  Maynooth  by  Gerald,  earl  of 
Kildare,  which  was  subsequently  remodelled.  In  1520' 
he  was  despatched  by  the  lord  deputy  and  council  to 
Waterford  for  the  purpose  of  pacifying  such  discords 
and  debates  as  existed  between  the  earl  of  Desmond 
and  sir  Piers  Butler.  Archbishop  Rokeby  died  Nov. 
29, 1521.  See  D'Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  A  rchhishope  of 
DuUin,  p.  178. 

Roll,  Rbxnuabd  Heisrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Unna,  Hesse,  Nov.  2,  1683, 
and  studied  at  Rostock.  In  1710  he  was  rector  at  his 
native  place,  in  1712  at  Dortmund,  in  1730  professor  at 
Giessen,  and  died  Oct.  2, 1768,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
published,  De  Nummo  ConfessionaU  et  Oblatorio  (Ros- 
tock, 1707)  i^Bibliotheca  Nobilium  Theologorum  Bieto- 
rico-Theologica  Seleda  (1708):— i>0  Sectarum  Philo- 
eophicarum  Scriptoribue  GrcBcie  Potiorilms  (1709-10) : 
—De  Objecto  Psalmi  Ixix  (1714):— 2>e  Paulo  Apoetoh 
Polyhietore  (1715): — Jcbue  Scepticismi  immerito  AccU' 
satue  (1719):  —  tineamenta  Theologies  NaturaUs  sive 
Philosophicte  (1728)  :—De  Fide  Centurionis  Capemaitici 
ad  Matth,  viii,  1  sq.  (1730).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten 
Theologen  Deutechlande,  s.  v.  ( where  ninety  titles  of 
Roll's  works  are  given).     (B.  P.) 

RoUock,  Peter,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  made  titular 
bishop  of  Dunkeld  by  king  James  VI.  He  was  one  of 
the  lords  of  session,  and  accompanied  the  king  to  Eng^ 
land  in  1603.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  97. 

Rood,  Heman,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Jericho,  Yt.,  Jan.  29, 1795.  He  graduated 
from  Middlebury  College  in  1819,  was  preceptor  at 
Montpelier  Academy  for  two  years,  and  in  1822  tutor 
at  Middlebury  College.  In  1825  he  graduated  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminaiy ;  the  next  year,  July  12, 
became  pastor  at  Gilmanton,  N.  H. ;  in  April,  1880,  at 
New  Milford,  Conn.;  in  September,  1835,  professor  of 
sacred  literature  at  the  Gilmanton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, and  occupied  that  position  until  November,  1843. 
The  next  ten  years  he  was  employed  in  teaching  at 
HaverhilL  From  1858  to  1858  he  was  acting-pastor  at 
Quechee,  in  Hartford,  Vt.,  and  from  1858  to  1864  served 
in  the  same  relation  at  Hartland.  From  1864  to  1878 
he  resided  without  charge  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  and 
thereafter  at  Westfield,  N.  Y.,  until  his  death,  June  8, 
1882.    See  Cong.  Year-book,  1883,  p.  31 . 

Roolwer,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Ross  about 
the  year  900,  and  is  buried  at  St.ManghoIds,  in  the  Isle 
of  Man.    See  Keith,  Scottieh  Bishops,  p.  296. 

RoflecraxiB,  Stlvkster  Hortox,  D.D.,  a  Roman 
Oitholic  prelate,  was  bom  at  Homer,  O.,  Feb.  5,  1827. 
He  entered  Kenyon  CoUege,  but  on  joining  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  went  to  St.  John's  College,  Fordham, 
N.Y.,  where  he  graduated  with  high  honors  in  1846. 
He  studied  five  years  in  the  College  of  the  Propaganda 
at  Rome,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1852.  Returning 
to  the  United  States,  he  became  an  assistant  at  the 
cathedral  of  CindnnaU,  a  position  which  he  held  for 
seven  years,  and  was  at  the  same  time  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Mt.  St  Mary's  Seminary  iind  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  Cincinnati  Catholic  Telegraph,  In  1859  arch- 
bishop Purcdl  established  a  college  in  connection  with 
the  seminary  for  the  education  of  Catholics,  and  Dn 


ROSENBAUM 


806 


ROTHE 


Roflecnms  was  appointed  president,  which  podtion  he 
filled  nntil  the  college  was  closed,  March  25, 1862.  He 
was  made  anxiliary  bishop  of  Cincinnati  in  1868,  and 
when  Ckilumbas  was  erected  into  a  diocese  he  was  ap- 
pointed its  first  bishop,  the  duties  of  which  office  he 
faithfully  discharged  until  his  sudden  death,  Oct.  21, 
1878.     See  (N.  Y.)  Catholic  A  tmucU,  1879,  p.  91. 

RoAenbauin,  Johann  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1797.  In  1825  he 
was  professor  of  dogmadcs  in  the  clerical  seminary  at 
Treves,  in  1842  pastor  at  Andemach,  in  1862  member 
of  the  chapter  at  Treves,  and  died  April  18, 1867,  doctor 
of  theology.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Zeit^ 
Khrijlfur  Theologie  und  Philosophies  published  at  Bonn, 
and  printed  in  defence  of  Hermes  and  his  philosophical 
system,  C^cfter  Glauben  (Treves,  1883).    (B.  P.) 

Roaenkranz,  Joha»n  Kabl  Friedbxch,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  philosopher  of  Germany,  was 
bom  April  28, 1805,  at  Magdeburg.  He  studied  at  dif- 
ferent universities,  and  commenced  his  academical  ca- 
reer at  Halle  in  1828.  In  1831  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor, and  was  called  to  Kdaigsberg  in  188S,  where  he 
died,  June  14, 1879.  In  his  philosophical  system  he 
was  a  follower  of  Hegel,  and  published,  Der  ZtDe\fel  am 
Glauben,  Kritik  der  Schrijten :  De  Tribu*  Jmpostoribus 
(HaUe,  1880):— ZMc  Naiurrdigum  (Iserlohn,  1881):— 
EncyciopddU  der  theohgitchen  Wistenachajlen  (Halle, 
eod.;  2d  ed.  1845) :— Kritik  der  Schkiertnacher'sehen 
Glauhenslehre  (Kdnigsberg,  1886)  i—Ueber  ScheUing  und 
Hegel  (1848)  i—Kritik  der  Principien  der  Strauat'echen 
GUxubenkkhre  (Leipsic,  1845)  i^Neue  Studien  (1875-77, 
8  vok.).  See  Lichteuberger,  Encyclop,  de»  Sciences  Re* 
ligieuseSf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rosenroth.    See  Knobb  yon  RosKicROTa. 

RSser,  Jacob,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  at  Sondershausen,  Sept.  21,  1641,  studied  at 
different  universities,  and  died  at  Quedlinburg,  Nov.  6, 
1689,  superintendent  and  court -preacher.  He  wrote, 
De  Mantfestaltione  Nommis  Jehovah  ad  Exod,  vi,  2:— 
De  FictiHa  Denominatione  Misses  a  Papicolis  ex  DeuU 
xvi,  lOi—De  Dagone  1  Sam,  r,  ^Ai—De  Morte  Juda 
Proditoris  Jetu  Christi: — De  Genealogia  Christi  Secun- 
dum Lucam^  etc.  See  Jocher,  AUgememes  Gelehrten- 
Lexikon^  s.  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoU  Lit,  i,  567. 
(B.  P.) 

RoAetta  Stone.    See  Hieroglyphics. 

Rosminl  (Serbatt),  Antonio,  an  Italian  ecclesias- 
tic and  philosopher,  was  bora  at  Roveredo,in  the  Tyrol, 
March  24, 1797.  He  studied  at  Padua,  became  a  priest 
at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  and  in  1827  published  his 
first  treatise  on  philosophy,  to  which  he  had  devoted 
himself  from  his  eariy  youth.  About  the  aame  time 
he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Manzoni,  and  the  next 
vear  founded  a  new  religious  order,  the  **  Institute  del 
JPreti  della  Cariti'*  {Brethren  of  CharUg\vmting  Rome 
in  1830  to  obtain  the  sanction  of  the  pope.  In  1884 
he  returned  to  Roveredo  as  archdeacon,  and  in  1886 
became  abbot  there,  and  founded  a  similar  female  order 
(^Sisters  of  Providence),  Meanwhile  he  continued  his 
philosophical  studies  and  publications,  in  consequence 
of  the  liberality  of  which  he  failed  to  secure  the  con- 
firmation of  his  cardinalsbip  (given  him  in  1848  by 
Pius  IX),  and  some  of  his  books  were  even  put  on  the 
Index  £xpurgaiorius.  He  died  at  Stresa,  July  1, 1855. 
His  writings  fill  thirty-five  volumes.  His  Ltfe  has 
been  wriUen  by  Lockhart  (1856)  and  Garelli  (1861). 
For  a  notice  of  his  career  and  philosophy  see  the  Fort^ 
nightlg  Review^  November,  1881,  and  July,  1882. 

RoflB,  AsTHUR,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  minister  of 
Birse,  in  the  shire  of  Aberdeen,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  St.  Andrews.  In  1665  he  was  pastor 
at  Glasgow,  where  he  continued  until  1675.  He  was 
then  promoted  to  the  see  of  Argyle,  whence  he  was 
transferred  to  that  of  Glasgow  in  1679,  and  to  that  of 
Galloway  the  same  year.    But  he  was  retranslated  to 


the  see  of  Glasgow  Oct.  15,  the  same  year,  and  thence 
advanced  to  the  see  of  St.  Andrews,  Oct.  81, 1684,  whete 
he  continued  until  the  revolution  in  1688,  when  he  was 
deprived.  He  died  June  18, 1704.  See  Keith,  iSoo/lM 
Bishops,  p.  48, 269, 282, 291. 

Roaaanian  Manuaorlpt  (Codex  Rossanentis)  is 
an  uncial  manuscript  designated  by  the  Greek  letter  S, 
and  u  80  called  from  Rossano,  in  (JUabria,  where  it  was 
found.  In  the  spring  of  1879  two  German  scboUn, 
Dr.  Oscar  von  Gebhardt,  of  Gottingen,  and  Dr.  Adolf 
Haraack,  of  Giessen,  made  a  joint  expedition  into  Italy 
in  search  of  old  manuscripts.  In  his  Bytpoiyii  qum 
FerwUur  Omnia,  p.  216,  Ij^garde  called  attention  to  a 
notice  from  the  16th  century,  according  to  which  maa- 
uscripts  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Dionysius  Alezandrinua, 
and  of  Hippolytus  are  said  to  be  in  the  monasteiy  of 
Santa  Maria  de  lo  Patire,  near  Rossano.  This  notice 
induced  the  two  German  scholars  to  search  for  these 
writings,  of  which,  however,  they  could  hear  nothing, 
the  monastery  having  long  since  perished.  But  they 
were  informed  that  there  was  a  very  old  Biblical  book 
in  the  arcbiepiscopal  palace.  They  begged  to  be  al- 
lowed to  look  at  this.  Ushered  into  the  presence  of 
the  archbishop,  monsignor  Pietro  Cilento,  they  beheld, 
to  their  astonishment  and  delight,  a  quarto  volume  of 
the  gospels,  written  in  silver,  on  purple  parchment,  in 
old  Greek  uncial  letter^  unaccented,  the  words  unaep- 
arated,  and  at  the  beginning  a  number  of  admirably 
drawn  and  colored  miniatures  and  historical  pictures^ 
It  consists  of  one  hundred  and  eighty-eight  leaves  of 
parchment  of  two  columns  of  twenty  Unes  each.  More 
than  half  of  the  original  manuscript  seems  to  have  per- 
ished. What  survives  contains  the  whole  of  Matthew 
and  Mark  as  far  as  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  verse 
of  the  last  chapter.  The  discoverers  assign  it  to  the 
6th  century;  the  text  attaches  itself  closely  to  the 
chief  representatives  of  the  amended  text  of  A,  A,  IT, 
over  against  the  most  ancient  codices  X  and  B;  but 
where  one  of  these  (A  for  example)  accords  with  the 
older  text,  2  also  usually  follows  it,  and  shows  a  re- 
markable agreement  with  the  scattered  purple  oodex 
of  the  gospels  N.  Independent  of  the  new  Greek  text 
(a  specimen  of  which  is  given  by  Schaff  in  A  Con^poH- 
ion  to  the  Greek  Teskanent,  N.  Y.  1888,  p.  182),  the  pict- 
ures in  the  manuscript  are  believed  to  be  of  great  value 
for  the  early  histoiy  of  painting.  While  Latin  manu- 
scripts with  pictures  are  relatively  numerous^  only  a 
very  few  Greek  manuscripts  prior  to  the  7th  century 
are  thus  adorned.  Chief  among  them  is  the  Vienna 
purple  manuscript  of  Genesis.  The  newly  discovered 
pictures  give  a  very  favorable  impression  of  the  art  of 
the  6th  century.  They  are  described  as  being  won- 
derful in  distinctness  of  outline  and  freshness  of  color- 
ing. The  manuscript  is  the  property  of  the  chapter 
of  the  cathedral  church  of  Rossana  See  Gebhardt  and 
Haroack,  Evangdiorum  Codex  Gracus  Purpureut  Ro^ 
sanensis,  etc  (Leipsic,  1880) ;  Schttrer,  in  the  TheaL 
Literaturzeiiung,  1880,  No.  19.    (R  P.) 

Roth,  Abraham,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  1688  at  Herwigsdorf,  Silesia,  studied 
at  Leipsic,  and  died  at  Sorau,  April  26,  1699,  cocot^ 
preacher  and  superintendent  He  wrote,  De  Cerva 
Aurora  ad  Psa,  axUc—De  Cultu  Dei  R^msUHo  MaU, 
XV,  9  i—De  Ni&MHs,  ApocaL  it,  15  :—De  Esamu  :^De 
MoiochaHairia  Judaorvm  : — De  Jwksorum  Ligamenti§ 
Precaioriis,  See  Grosser,  LausiUer  Merhsrilrdigkeiien  ; 
Jocher,  A  llgemHnea  GekhrteihLexikon,  a  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rotbe,  JoRAKN  Andkbas,  a  Luthetan  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  May  12, 1688,  at  Lissa,  Silesia, 
and  studied  at  Leipsic.  Count  ZInzendorf  selected  him 
to  fill  the  office  of  pastor  at  Berthelsdorf,  the  duties  of 
which  Roth  discharged  to  the  admiration  of  all  who 
knew  him.  He  died  July  6, 1758.  Rothe  is  the  author 
of  several  hymns,  the  best  known  of  which  is  his  /eft 
habe  nun  den  Grund  gefunden  (EngL  transL  **  I  now  have 
found,  for  hope  of  heaven,**  in  MiUs,  fform  Germaniem, 


ROUGEMONT 


807 


RUCKERT 


Ko.  82).  See  Kocb,  GttfAidUe  da  tkuttchm  Kinked- 
2£0ile«,v,24Osq.     (aP.) 

Rothenburg,  MbIr.    See  Hub  nKsi-BABncB. 

Rougemont,  FtatDtsac  db,  a  Proteetant  theolo- 
gian of  Switzeriand,  who  died  at  Neafchatel  in  1876^  was 
a  very  prolific  writer,  whoee  works  have  for  the  greater 
part  been  translated  into  German.  Of  his  poblieations  we 
mention,  Du  Monde  dam  su  Rapports  avec  Dieu  (1841) : 
-^Euai  tur  h  Pktime  (1842) :— Hwtotre  de  la  Torre 
tBApreo  la  Bible  et  la  GMogU  (1866;  Germ.  transLby 
fabarios,  Stattgard,  eod.)  i^La  People  PrimHf  (186&- 
b7y.~^VAged£BromMOulMShmteamOccideia{l9fft)i 
-^La  Vie  Humaine  aveeetsoM  la  Foi  (1869) :— TAiorM 
de  la  Beden^ion  (187ei)i^BMlaium  de  Saint  Jean 
ExpUqude  (1888):— Z>f  xii  Demiere  Limrta  ProphA- 
Hqitea  de  VAncien  Teetament  (1841):— PAOMopMs  de 
tHittoire  (1874, 2  vols.)  i^Ckriet  et  see  Thnoine  (1869) : 
— £a  Dioimli  et  rinjirmiti  de  VAneien  Testament  (1869), 
etc.  See  Godet,  Journal  Beligieuz,  1876,  Kos.  16, 17; 
liebtenberger,  Eneifdop,  des  Sciences  Rdigienses^  s.  t. 

(a  P.) 

Ronmaziia  comprises  4,596,219  inhabitants  belong- 
ing to  the  Greek  Chnrch,  115,420  to  the  Church  of  Rome, 
8803  to  the  Armenian  Chnrch,  7790  to  the  Evangelical 
Chufch,  401,051  Jews,  25,088  Mohammedans,  and  16,058 
who  call  themselves  Lipowanians.  The  Greek  Church 
is  the  State  Chuicb,  oiganiaed  on  strictly  hierarchical 
principles.  At  the  head  of  the  clergy  is  the  archbishop 
or  metropolitan  and  primate  of  Ronmania,  at  Bucharest, 
and  the  archblBhop  of  Moldavia,  at  Jassy.  The  lower 
clergy  are  educated  at  seminaries,  and  supported  by 
the  congregation,  whereas  the  higher  clergy,  from  the 
archbishops  to  the  protopopes,  are  paid  by  the  state. 
What  is  demanded  from  the  lower  clergy  is  the  ability 
of  reading  the  prescribed  formularies  and  performing 
the  ceremonies.  The  Boman  Catholic  Church  has  two 
bishops,  one  at  Bucharest  and  another  at  Jassy.  The 
Evangelical  congregations,  with  the  exception  of  that 
at  Bucharest,  are  in  connection  with  the  State  Chnrch 
of  Prussia,  and  receive  their  preachers  from  the  Prussian 
consistory.  These  congregations  have,  however,  their 
own  government,  but  are  required  to  send  a  very  careful 
report  through  their  ministers  to  the  Prussian  ecclesi- 
astical authority.  At  present  there  exist  eight  Evan- 
gelical congregations — at  Jassy,  Bucharest,  Galatz, 
Braila,  Pitesti,  Crsjova,  Tumu-Severin,  and  Atmadscha 
(Dobrudscha).  Each  congregation  has  its  own  paro- 
chial school,  with  male  and  female  teachers.  The  latter 
are  from  the  Kaiserswert  house  of  deaconesses.  See 
Plitt-Herzog,  RealrEnq/ldop,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rons  (RouBe,  or  Rowse),  Francis,  a  fanatical 
supporter  of  the  English  commonwealth,  was  bom  at 
Healton,  Comwsll,  in  1579,  and  educated  at  Broadgate 
Hall  (now  Pembroke  College),  Oxford.  He  afterwards 
studied  law,  and  was  a  member  of  Parliament  under 
Charles  I.  He  was  one  of  the  few  laymen  appointed 
by  the  Commons  to  sit  in  the  Westminster  AMembly 
of  Divines,  and  became  provost  of  Eton  in  1648.  He 
died  in  1659.  His  writings  were  printed  in  London  in 
1657,  and  include  a  Utopian  scheme  of  government 
modelled  after  the  Jewish,  and  a  metrical  version  of  the 
Psalms.    SeeBo6e,£ta^.i>ic^s.v. 

RoiLMe],  NAPOLrfoif,  a  French  Protestant  theo- 
logian, was  bom  at  Sauve  in  1805.  He  studied  at 
Geneva,  was  in  1881  psstor  at  daint  ^tienne,  but  at  the 
Instance  of  the  consistory  he  had  to  resign  in  1835  be- 
cause his  sermons  ^  bore  the  stamp  of  Methodism."  In 
vain  did  the  majority  of  the  Church  protest  against 
the  intolerance  of  the  consistory.  Ronssel  resigned,  and 
founded  an  independent  chapeL  In  1885  he  was  pastor 
at  Marseilles,  in  1838  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  started 
a  journal  called  VEsperaneey  the  organ  of  the  orthodox 
party.  He  was  the  means  of  founding  churches  at 
Angouldme,  Ylllefavard,  limoges,  Ballcdant,  etc.  In 
1868  Ronssel  went  to  Lyons,  but  resigned  his  pastorate 
in  1867.    He  then  retired  to  Geneva,  and  died  June  8, 


1878.  Beside9hi8Commailtffie/aii<jKisiVMer,he 
published  a  great  many  brochures  and  tracts.  See 
lichtenbeiger,  Enaickp,  des  Sdenoes  ReligieuseSt  a.  y. 
(RP.) 

Rowden,  Phiup,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  waa 
bora  in  England  in  1828,  and  in  early  life  came  to  New 
York  city.  Not  long  alter  be  was  converted,  and  joined 
the  Church  in  Newark,  N.  J.  Having  subsequently  en- 
tered the  ministry,  his  pastorates  were  snccessiveiy  in 
Newark,  Bronson,  Mich.,  and  in  Chili,  Ind.  His  minis- 
try was  attended  with  powerful  revivals.  *'  He  was  a 
man  of  studious  habits  and  deep  research."  He  died  in 
Rochester,  Ind.,  April  i,  1875.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
Bnegdop,  p.  1012.    (J.  a  &) 

Rowlandaon,  Michael,  D.D.,  an  English  di^-ine, 
was  bom  about  1759,  and  educated  at  Queen's  College 
Oxford.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  Jnly  8, 1824,  he  was 
vicar  of  Warminster.  He  was  a  man  whose  exemplary 
life  and  unceasing  fidelity  in  the  work  of  the  ministry 
won  for  him  the  esteem  and  bve  of  all  who  knew  him. 
See  (Loud.)  Christian  Bemembrancer,  Aug.  1824,  p.  508. 

Rowley,  Gborob,  D.D.,  an  English  educator  and 
divine,  was  bora  in  1782,  and  educated  at  University 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  successively  fellow, 
tutor,  and  public  examiner.  In  1821  he  was  elected  to 
the  mastership  of  his  college,  and  in  1882  was  appointed 
to  the  vice-chancellorship  of  the  UniverBity  of  Oxford, 
which  he  held  till  his  death,  OcL  5, 1886.  In  his  offi- 
cial duties  he  was  noted  for  his  punctuality  and  decision ; 
and  in  private  life  he  was  distinguished  for  kindness  of 
disposition  and  unselfishness  of  character.  See  (Lond.) 
Christian  Bemembrancer,  Nov.  1836^  p.  700. 

Roacbnrgh,  Huoo  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  rector 
of  Tullibody,  and  derk  to  NicolAus,  the  chancellor  of 
Scotland.  He  was  afterwards  archdeacon  of  St.  An- 
drews. In  1189  he  was  made  chancellor  of  Glasgow, 
and  in  1199  bishop,  but  sat  only  one  year.  He  died  in 
1200.     See  Keith,  SeoUish  Bishops,  p.  286. 

Rilokeit,  Friedrloli,  an  Orientalist,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  German  poets  of  the  19ch  century,  was  bom 
at  Schweinfurt,  May  16, 1789.  He  studied  at  Jena,  com- 
menced his  academical  career  in  1811,  was  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Erlangen  in  1826,  and  in  1841  at 
Berlin.  He  retired  in  1846  to  his  country  seat  at  Neu- 
sees,  and  died  Jan.  81, 1866.  He  pnUiBhed,  Bebrdisehe 
Propketm  Hbersetzt  und  erlautert  (Leipsic,  1881)  :~L€5ai 
JesUf  Evangelien-Harmome  in  gebundener  Bede  (Stntt- 
gard,  1889)  i—Beroden  der  Grosse  (1844).  Some  of  his 
religious  poems  have  been  translated  into  English,  as 
/Tetn  K(mig  kommt  in  niederen  Htillen  (in  Schaff,  Christ 
in  Song,  p.  88 :  *'  He  comes,  no  royal  vesture  wearing") : 
— £r  ist  in  Bethlehem  geboren  (ibid.  p.  98 :  '^n  Bethle- 
hem, the  Lord  of  glory  ^  i—Das  Parodies  muss  schihter 
sein  (ibid.  p.  657 :  *<  Oh  Paradise  must  fairer  be") :— I7m 
Mittemaeht  bin  ich  erwadkt  (Wink worth,  Christian 
Singers  of  Germany,  p.  887 :  **  At  dead  of  night  Sleep 
took  her  flight").    (B.P.) 

RUckeit,  Ii6opold  Immanuel,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1797  at  Groeshen- 
nersdorf,  near  Hermhut,  Upper  Lusatia.  He  studied 
theology  and  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  was  for  some  time 
deacon  at  his  native  place,  and  published,  in  1821,  De  Ba- 
Hone  TraclandiB  Theologim  Dogmatiae.  In  1825  he  was 
appointed  teacher  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Zittan,  and  while 
there  published,  Kommentar  aber  den  BrirfPauli  an  dio 
B&mer  (Leipsic,  1881 ;  2d  ed.  1889) :— Kommentar  aber 
den  Brief  Pauli  an  die  Galaier  (1888):— i4  n  die  Epheser 
(1834):— i4n  die  Koriniher  (1886-87).  RAckert  was 
made  doctor  of  theology  in  1886  by  the  theological 
faculty  of  Copenhagen,  and  in  1844  he  was  called  to 
Jena,  where  he  wrote,  Theologie  (Leipsic,  1851, 2  vols.) : 
— Das  AbendmahL  Sein  Wesen  und  seine  Gesehichte  in 
dertdtenKirehe  {iS6G):^BQchleinvonderKirehe  (1857): 
^Der  Bationalismus  (1869).  Rttckert  died  April  9, 
1871.  See  Protestantisehe  Kirchensekung,  1871,  p.  809- 
811 ;  Zochold, BibLTheoL  s.v.;  Uchtenberger, Encgdop» 


RXJDDER 


808 


RUNGE 


dei  Seimoet  Rdigimm^  a.  t.{  Flitt-Heizog,  Real^Ew- 
€jfhiop,  8.  y.    (B.  P.) 

Rudder,  Wiluak,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman^  was  born  in  British  Guiana;  graduated  from 
Trinity  College  and  from  the  General  Theological  Sem- 
inary ;  was  ordained  deacon  by  bishop  Brownell  in  1861 ; 
officiated  successively  in  St.  Paulas  Church,  Flatbush, 
L.  I. ;  Calvary  Church,  New  York,  as  an  assistant  min- 
ister; SU  Paulas  Church,  Albany, as  rector;  and  in  St. 
Stephen^s,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  as  assistant  On  the  death 
of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ducachet,  rector  of  St.  Stephen's,  in  1866, 
Dr.  Rudder  assumed  the  rectorship,  and  remained  in  this 
pastorate  until  his  death,  Jan.  29, 1880,  aged  fifty-seven 
years.  See  Whittaker,  Almanac  and  Directory,  1881, 
p.  174. 

Riidel,  Cabl  Ernst  Gottlieb,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1769.  He  commenced 
bis  pastoral  career  at  Leipsic  in  1801,  and  died  there 
in  1842,  doctor  of  theology.  He  published,  Predigtcn 
(^lSi6) :  —  Fettpredigten  und  AmUrtdm  (1828-82,  2 
vols.) : — AbendmdkU-  und  ConflrmaUontredm  (1827-86, 
6  Tols.),  etc.  See  Winer,  Eandbuch  der  theol.  Lit  ii, 
98, 149, 169, 179;  Zuchold,  BOL  TheoL  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rlidiger,  Johann  Baztholomftua,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Grttnberg,  Hesse, 
Oct.  10, 1660.  He  studied  at  Giessen,  was  in  1691  preach- 
er at  Wetzlar,  in  1697  professor  at  Giessen,  in  1707  doctor 
of  theology,  and  died  July  8, 1729.  He  wrote,  De  Pace 
inter  LutAeranos  et  RtformaU>9  (Giessen,  1684)  i^De  In- 
fimiaU  DH  (1700)  -.-De  Pnetentia  Dei  Repletiva  (1701) : 
^De  Nahtra  Dei  Perfeetienme  Simplici  (1706)  :— iTe 
Angelorum  Carpore  SubHli  et  AesunUo  (1707): — De 
JuMiificaHone  Abrahm  ex  Genee.  xr,  6  (1707) :— Z>e  Con- 
identia  Scrupuloea  (1714) :— />e  Affno  Oedto  ab  Origine 
Mundi  (1719):— 2)0  Radkaiume  Ftdelium  in  Chritto 
(1722):— De  Chrieio  per  Primam  et  UUimam  Sacra 
Scr^tuxB  Vocem  (1724).  See  Doring,  Die  gekhrten 
Theologen  Deutechkaids^  s.  ▼.     (B.  P.) 

Rttdigar,  Franz  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  prel- 
ate of  Austria,  was  bom  April  6,  1811,  at  Partheuen. 
In  1863  he  was  made  bishop  of  linz,  and  died  Nov.  24, 
1884b    Rudiger  was  one  of  those  prelates  who  opposed 
all  measures  of  the  Austrian  government  which  tended 
towards  depriving  the  Church  of  any  of  her  preroga- 
tives.   Rudiger  only  knew  one  government,  the 
supremacy  of  the  Church.    When  the  dogma 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was  proclaimed, 
he  celebrated  that  event  by  building  a  splen- 
did cathedral  at  Linz,  and  erecting  monasteries 
throughout  his  diocese.     (E  P.) 

Rule  (Heb.  kau,  *lg,  a  Une  for  measuring,  as 
elsewhere  rendered)  is  mentioned  (Isa.  zliv,  18) 
among  the  tools  of  the  carpenter  ^*^X9  ^*^'Q$ 
hewer  offoood\  the  associated  implements  be- 
ing the  <'line"  (Heb.  eirtd,  n^iS, probably  a 
graver),  the  '*  plane  "  (Heb.  makUa'dh,rt$^1^Tq, 
probably  a  chitd),  and  the  "  compass  **  (Heb. 
mechugah,  tX^XtVO,  probably  ampasees).  See 
Hahdicraft. 

Rnllxnazm,  Georo  Wilhelh,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Grermany,  was  bom  March  16, 
1767,  and  studied  at  Rinteln  and  Gdttingen. 
In  1778  he  was  appointed  con-rector  at  Rinteln, 
in  1782  professor  of  theology,  in  1788  doctor  of 
theology,  and  died  June  16, 1804.  He  wrote, 
De  Intigni  PtyckologuB  in  Theohgia  Revelata 
Ueu  (Rinteln,  1779)  i—Versuch  eines  Lehrtnu^ 
der  rottdicken  AUerthUmer  (1782;  2d  ed.  1787): 
—De  Apoetolie  PrimarUe  RtUgionU  ChrieHanm 
DoetorOme  (1788):  — ra6u2a  ffarmoniam  IV ^ 
EvangeUtiorum  ExMbene  (1790)  x^De  Prophetie  ^ 
iVbm  TestamenH  (eod.)  i-^Die  heiUgen  Schriften 


CriHea  Estegtdoa  in  Looa  Qaadam  Epittohmm  PeaiUj 
etc.  (1796):  — Z>»e  christUd^  ReHgionsUkre  (1808). 
See  Ddring,  Die  gekkrien  Theologen  DeuUeklande,  a.  v. 
(a  P.) 

Rolman,  Mbrswui,  one  of  the  ''Friends  of  God," 
of  the  14th  century,  was  bom  at  Stnttburg  in  1807.  He 
was  a  wealthy  merchant  and  banker,  when,  in  1847,  he 
gave  up  business,  Joined  the  Friends  of  Goid,  and  ]«1  a 
life  of  severe  asceticism,  under  the  guidance  of  Tanler. 
In  1866  Rulman  acquired  the  island  of  Der  grtlne 
W6rt,  in  the  111,  near  Strasburg,  and  retired  thither. 
He  died  July  18,  1882.  Rulman's  writings  are,  Das 
Bannerlnichlein  (edited  by  Jundt,  Lea  Amit  de  Dien^ 
Paris,  1879)  >-DaM  Buch  wm  den  nam  Felten  (ed.  by 
Schmidt,  Leipsic^  1869),  and  an  old  Dutch  verabn  of  the 
same,  Dat  Boeck  van  den  Ooreprondk,  by  G.  H.yan  Booa^ 
sum  Waalkes,  Leuwarden,  1882).  See  Schmidt,  in  JU^ 
vue  ^Altace  (1856);  in  Reuss  und  Cnnits,  Bet^rv^  sac 
der  theoL  Wieeenechaft,  voL  y  (Jena  1864),  and  A'Oo- 
laiu  wm  Basel  (Vienna,  1866) ;  Jundt,  Lee  Amis  de 
Dieu,  p.  140  sq.;  Plitt-Hersog,  Beal-Encyklop,  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Rnmpe,  Hbikrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Hamburg  in  1661,  studied  at  differ- 
ent universities,  was  in  1692  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Helmstfldt,  in  1697  at  Hamburg,  and  died  Aug.  16, 1626. 
He  wrote,  VaUdnia  Aliquot  de  Messia: — Itagoge  w 
LvHguas  OrientaUs  Primarias,  etc.  See  Holier,  CSn^ 
bria  LUterata;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten'Lexikon^ 
B.  V. ;  Furst,  Bibl.  Jud.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Runge,  David,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Gei^ 
many,  was  bora  in  1664  at  Greifswalde,  where  he  was 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  1689.  In  1601  he  attended  the 
CoUoquy  of  Ratisbon,  and  died  July  7, 1604.  He  wrote, 
Dissertationes  rut  de  Cahnmsmo : — De  A  rtiatlo  Prima 
Sgmboli  Apostplicic'^De  Verbis;  non  Fades  Tibi  Sculp- 
tie,  Exod,  XX,  4 :— />«  Baptismo,  etc.  See  Jdcher,  A  tf- 
gemdnes  Gelehrien-Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Runge,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Swe- 
den, was  bora  in  1666,  studied  at  Abo,  was  preacher 
there  in  1691,  in  1697  professor  of  theology,  in  1701 
doctor  of  theology  and  superintendent  at  Narva. 
Runge  died  Aug.  8, 1704.  He  wrote.  Comment,  inix,x 
et  xi  cap,  ad  Romanos: — De  Sede  Anima  in  Hamine 


fc£ 


RUPP 


809 


RUTZ 


PrcBc^ua,    See  Stinimann,  Aboa  Liierata  ;  JScber, 
AUgtmevmu  GdehrUn^Lexihon^  8.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Rnpp,  JuLiusJ  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Genoany, 
was  bom  in  1809.  He  belonged  to  the  so-called  Frienda 
of  Light  (q.  v.)|  and  founded  in  1846  the  first  free  oon- 
gpregation.  He  died  July  11, 1884,  doctor  of  philosophy. 
Rupp  published,  Grepor's,  des  Biachofs  von  Nyt»a^  Lebm 
vnd  Meiuungen  (Leipeic,  1834)  : — Der  Symboizwang  und 
die  protestcmtiscke  Lehr-  und  Geteisser^freiheit  (Konigs- 
berg,  1843):  — Chiittliche  Predigien  (1843-46):— £r- 
bauungiAuckJurfreie  ncmgelitche  Gemewden  (1846): — 
Von  der  Frdkeit  (1856, 2  vols.) : — Das  Sektemcesen  und 
die/reie  Gemeinde  (1859),  etc  See  Zuchold,  BiU,  TkeoL 
8.V.     (a  P.) 

Rob,  Johaxm  Reinhard,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  Feb.  24, 1679,  and  studied  at  Giessen 
and  Jena.  In  1708  he  was  made  adjunct  to  the  philo- 
sophical faculty  of  Jena,  in  1712  professor  of  theology, 
in  1730  doctor  of  theology,  and  died  April  18, 1738.  He 
wrote,  Dt  Um  LuigutB  Sffriaca  in  Novo  Testamento : — 
De  Usu  A  ccentuationis  Il^raica  Pentode  Dictorum 
VHeris  Testamenii  Denumstrato: — De  ffarmonia  Vita 
Davidis : — De  Zackaria  non  8ummo  Pont^fice  ad  Luc  i : 
— De  Serpente  non  Naturali  sed  solo  Diabolo  ad  Genes, 
Hi: — De  Evocatione  Abrakamii — De  Sceptro  a  Juda 
Ahlato  ad  Genes. xlix: — De  LXX  HMomadUms  Dani^ 
elis: — De  Lapidatione  Stepkani: — De  Vario  Mosis  in 
Moniem  Sinai  A  soensu : — BUeam  Vales  Evangelicus  ex 
Nunuxxiv,  15-19 : — Introductio  in  Novum  Testamentum 
Generalise  —  ffarmonia  EvangeliUarum : — De  Magis 
non  Judais  ad  Maith,  ii^  etc.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten 
Theohgen  Deutschlands,  %  v.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
theoL  Lit,  i,  244, 590 ;  J^hetfAUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lex' 
ikon,  9,  y,    (RP.) 

RuBsel,  William,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  a  native 
of  the  Isle  of  Man  and  abbot  of  Rushen.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  the  Isles  in  1248,  and  held  a  synod 
at  SL  MichaeFs  in  1350,  in  which  five  additional  can- 
ons were  made.  He  died  April  4, 1374.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishopsy  p.  303. 

Rusaell,  Andrew,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Congregatbnal 
minister,  was  born  at  Winchburgh,  Linlithgowshire, 
Nov.  1, 1807.  He  was  educated  in  letters  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  and  in  theology  at  the  Glasgow 
Theological  Academy,  He  was  ordained  pastor  at  Had- 
dington in  1833,  where  be  labored  some  eight  years; 
next  at  Princes  Street  Chapel,  Dundee,  four  years.  The 
state  of  his  health  at  this  time  requiring  a  change  of 
climate,  he  removed  to  Stirling,  where  he  enjoyed  a  long 
and  successful  pastorate.  From  Stirling  be  went  to 
Bradford,  Yorkshire,  in  1859,  and  for  some  years  took 
pastoral  charge  of  the  Chapel  at  Lister  Hills.  During 
the  last  twelve  and  a  half  years  of  his  life  he  was  pas- 
tor of  the  Church  at  Holme  Lane,  Bradford.  He  died 
June  19, 1881,  having  filled  with  great  honor  several 
denominational  office  See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book, 
1882,  p.  329.' 

RuBseU,  Charles  'WlllUun,  D.D.,  a  Roman 
Catholic  divine,  was  bom  at  KiUongh,  County  Down, 
Ireland,  May  14, 1812.  He  was  educated  at  Drogheda, 
at  Downpatrick,  and  at  Maynooth  College;  was  elected 
to  the  Dunboyne  Establishment  in  1832,  for  ten  years 
discharged  his  duties  as  professor  at  Maynooth,  and  in 
1845,  when  the  chair  of  ecclesiastical  history  was  estab- 
lished, he  was  appointed  thereto.  He  held  this  position 
until  the  death  of  Dr.  Renehan  in  1857,  when  he  became 
president  of  the  college,  which  office  he  filled  until  his 
death,  on  Feb.  26, 1880.  Dr.  Russell  was  a  regular  con- 
tributor to  the  Dublin  Review  and  Edinburgh  Review, 
He  published  transIatioDS  of  the  Talet  of  Canon  von 
Schmid  and  Leibnitz's  System  of  Theology,  His  /4/e 
of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti  (1858)  bad  its  origin  in  an  ar- 
ticle on  that  wonderful  linguist  in  the  ^inbuigh  Re^ 
view  of  1855,  and  included  notices  of  the  most  celebrated 
linguists  of  all  countries.  It  was  translated  into  Italian 
and  published  at  Bologna  in  1859.    A  second  edition 


appeared  in  1868.  In  1869  Dr.  Russell  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  royal  commission  on  historical  manu- 
scripts, and  from  1872  he  edited,  in  conjunction  with 
Mr.  Prendergast,  several  volumes  of  the  Calendars  of 
Stale  Papers  relating  to  Ireland,  beginning  with  the 
reign  of  James  I.  Dr.  Russell  contributed  also  to  the 
eighth  edition  of  the  EnegdoptBdia  BritanmcOf  North 
British  Review,  the  English  Cydoj^xdia,  the  Academy, 
and  several  other  publications.  See  (N.  T.)  Catholic 
Almanac,  1881,  p.  106. 

RuBsell,  David,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  in  Glasgow,  Oct.  10,  1779.  He 
studied  literature  and  the  classics  privately,  and  the- 
ology at  the  Edinburgh  Theological  Academy.  In 
August,  1805,  he  was  sent  to  Aberdeen,  where  he  sup- 
plied the  pulpit  five  months.  He  then  removed  to 
Montrose  for  nine  months,  but  returned  to  Aberdeen, 
where  he  was  ordained  pastor  in  1807.  He  went  to 
Dundee  in  1809,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Church 
then  assembling  in  Sailor's  Hall.  In  this  charge  he 
continued  thirty-nine  years,  with  great  honor  to  all 
concerned.  He  died  Sept.  23, 1848.  Dr.  Russell  pub- 
lished, among  other  works.  Letters,  chiejly  Practical  and 
Consolatory: — On  the  Old  and  New  Covenants: — The 
Way  of  Salvation : — Hints  to  Inquirers: — Infant  Sal- 
vation, etc.     See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1848,  p.  237. 

Russell,  John,  LL.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Cavendish,  Vt.,  July  1,  1793.  He  graduated 
from  Middlebury  College  in  1812,  was  converted  just 
before  entering  upon  his  senior  year,  and  soon  after  bis 
graduation  went  to  Georgia,  where  he  taught  school 
for  a  time.  From  1819  to  1826  he  was  tutor  in  a  pri- 
vate family  in  Missouri,  and  subsequently  taught  in  St. 
Louis,  Yandalia,  Alton  Seminary,  and  later  in  life  was 
principal  of  Spring  Hill  Academy,  in  East  Feliciana, 
La.  On  Feb.  9,  1833,  he  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the 
Bluffdale  Church,  111.  He  died  Jan.  21,  1863.  Dr. 
Russell  wrote,  as  an  advocate  of  temperance,  Venomous 
Worm;  or.  Worm  of  the  Still,  To  counteract  Univer- 
salism  he  preached  a  number  of  discourses,  which  were 
afterwards  published  under  the  title  of  The  Serpent 
Uncoiled,  He  was  an  accomplished  linguist  and  an 
able  scholar.  See  Minutes  of  IlUnois  A  nniversaries, 
1863,  p.  13.     (J.  C.S.) 

Russell,  Patrick,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was 
promoted  to  the  see  of  Dublin  Aug.  2, 1683.    In  July, 

1685,  be  held  a  provincial  council  at  Dublin,  in  which 
it  was  ordained  that  any  priest,  celebrating  a  marriage 
without  license  from  the  ordinary,  or  the  parish  priest 
of  the  place,  should  be  excommunicated,  etc.  The 
council  further  confirmed  the  decrees  of  those  held  in 
1614  by  Dr.  Eugene  Matthews  and  in  1640  by  Dr. 
Fleming.  In  1686  Dr.  Russell  assisted  at  a  session  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  held  in  Dublin.  He  also 
presided  at  a  diocesan  synod,  held  there,  June  10, 

1686,  in  which  it  was  decreed,  in  reference  to  the  paro- 
chial clergymen  having  cure  of  souls,  that  each  should 
have  a  schoolmaster  in  his  parish  to  instract  the  little 
children  in  "  Christian  doctrine  and  good  courses."  In 
1688  he  presided  at  a  synod  held  in  Dublin.  On  the 
downfall  of  the  Stuart  dynasty  he  fled  to  Paris.  He 
returned  to  his  native  country  and  died  at  the  close  of 
the  year  1692.  See  D'Alton,  Memoirs  of  (he  A  rchbish" 
ops  of  Dublin,  p.  446. 

Rutledge,  Frakcib  Huokr,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  a  native  of  South  Caro- 
lina, and  a  son  of  chancellor  Hugh  Rutledge,  graduated 
from  Yale  College  in  1820,  and  was  for  some  time  rector 
of  St.  John's  Parish,  Tallahassee,  Fla.  He  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Florida,  Oct.  15, 1851,  in  SL  Paul's 
Church,  Augusta,  Ga.,  and  died  at  Tallahassee,  Nov.  6, 
1866,  aged  sixty-eight  years.  See  A mer,  Quar,  Church 
Rev.  Jan.  1867,  p.  646. 

Riitz,  Fra>*z  Gkorg  Curistoph,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian, was  born  at  Ratzeburg,  Oct.  22, 1783.  He 
studied  at  Rostock.    In  1762  be  was  preacher  of  the 


RYAN 


810 


SAFED 


Lutheran  Chnieh  «t  Amsterdam,  in  1764  was  called 
to  Breda,  and  in  1775  accepted  a  call  to  the  Hague. 
Btttz  died  Dec.  81, 1802,  leaving,  Non  Piacet  Nobis  Or- 
thodoxia  sme  Pidate^  nee  Pietas  swe  Ortkodoxia  (Am- 
sterdam, 1777 )  :  —  Ezegeiitche  und  kriUit^  Briefi 
(1779)  :—Kleme  Bydragm  tot  de  deitUache  LeUerbtnde 
(Hague,  1782)  :—ApoU^  van  het  Leeraarampl  (1784), 
etc  See  Doring,  DU  gdekrtm  Tktologen  DeuiiMmdtf 
8.T.    (a  P.) 

Ryan,  Gheorge  Frederiok,  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  bom  at  Abergavenny,  Mon- 
mouthshire, in  1790.  He  joined  the  Church  at  the  age 
of  fourteen,  began  village  preaching  in  his  sixteenth 
year,  entered  Botherham  College  in  1814,  and  com- 
menced his  pastoral  life  at  Bridlington.  After  four 
years'  labor  in  that  place  he  removed  to  Stockport, 
where  he  ministered  ten  years,  and  then  went  to  Dog- 
ley  Lane  Chapel,  near  Huddersfield.  In  1886  he  again 
returned  to  Bridlington.  He  died  at  Dore,  Aug.  19, 
1865.  His  principal  publication  was  entitled  The  Dial- 
ogitt.  He  dso,  at  various  times,  published  sermons  and 
pamphlets.    See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1866,  p.  288. 

Ryaa,  Henry,  founder  of  the  *'  Canadian  Wedeyan 
Methodist  Church  "  (so  called),  or  Ryanites,  was  bom 
of  Irish  parentage  in  Connecticut,  April  22, 1775.  Edu- 
cated a  Roman  Catholic,  while  teaching  school  he  heard 
the  eccentric  Methodist  preacher,  Lorenzo  Dow,  was 
converted,  united  with  the  Methodists,  and  was  dis- 
owned by  his  parents.  He  taught  school  for  six  years 
after  his  conversion,  preaching  regularly,  however,  and 
introducing  Methodism  into  a  part  of  Warren  County, 
N.  Y.  In  1800  he  was  received  into  the  New  York  Con- 
ference. His  circuits  in  the  United  States  were  Yer- 
gennes  (large  part  of  Vermont)  and  Plattsburg,  N.  Y. 
In  1805  Asbnry  sent  him  and  William  Case  to  reinforce 
the  Methodist  force  in  Canada.  Firm  to  obstinacy,  of 
indomitable  perseverance  and  iron  will,  he  had  a  courage 
that  never  quailed.  In  labors  and  sacrifices  he  was 
abundant.  During  the  war  of  1812  the  oversight  of  the 
societies  in  Canada  devolved  upon  him,  and  from  1815 
to  1825  he  continued  to  itinerate  as  a  presiding  elder, 
now  on  the  Upper  Canada  District,  then  on  the  Lower 
Canada  District.  In  1827  he  withdrew  from  the  con- 
nection, in  consequence  of  a  difference  of  opinion  on 
Church  government.  Shortly  afterwards  some  of  those 
who  had  espoused  Ryan's  cause  organized  the  Canadian 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Church,  making  lay  delegation  its 
distinguishing  feature.  With  this  body  Ryan  united, 
and  with  it  he  continued  to  be  identified  during  the 
brief  remainder  of  his  earthly  existence.  He  died  in 
September,  1882.  See  Dr.  T.  Webster,  in  the  National 
R^poeiiory,  SepL  1880;  Stevens,  Hist,  of  the  Meth.  Epie- 


copal  Churdk  (see  Index,  vol  iv) ;  Flayter,  Bitt,  of 
MetkodUminCamda(j:atfmto,lBii),p.8i,2M,^SI7-39. 

Ryder,  Jomr,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  created 
bishop  of  KiOaloe  in  1741 ;  transferred  to  the  see  of  Down 
and  Connor  in  1748;  and  to'the  archbishopric  of  Tuam 
in  1752.  He  died  at  Nice,  Italy,  Feb.  4, 1775,  in  the 
seventy-eighth  year  of  his  age.  See  (Lond.)  AmuuMi 
Register,  1775,  p.  206. 

Ryeroon,  Eooerton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent 
C!anadisn  Methodist  minbter,  was  bom  in  the  Province 
of  Ontario,  Canada,  in  1808.  He  united  with  the  Metb- 
odist  Episcopal  Church  in  1828.  He  received  an  early 
classical  education  preparatory  to  the  study  of  law,  but 
entered  the  itinerant  work,  preaching  his  first  sermon 
on  Easter  Sunday,  1825.  In  1829  he  became  the  first 
editor  of  the  Ckrittian  Guardian ;  in  1842  was  appointed 
the  first  president  of  Victoria  College ;  and  in  1845  was 
made  superintendent  of  education  for  the  Province  of 
Upper  Canada,  an  office  he  held  for  thirty  years.  On 
the  union  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  the  New  Connec- 
tion, and  the  Eastern  British  Conference,  he  was  elected 
first  president  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  Canada.  He 
visited  Europe  and  the  United  States  a  number  of  times 
in  the  interests  of  Methodism  and  education,  and  waa 
twice  a  representative  to  the  British  Conference  and 
to  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Epiacopal 
Church  of  the  United  Sutes.  He  died  at  Toronto, 
Feb.  19, 1882.  Among  his  writings,  aside  firom  editorial 
work,  may  be  mentioned  his  Manual  of  AgrieuUurai 
Chemittrg: — Compuleorg  Education: — The  Clergg  Rt- 
serve  Questionf  etc. 

Ryland,  John,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Warwick,  Jan.  29,  1758.  Hia 
father  was  a  fine  scholar  and  able  minister,  and  taught 
hb  son  Greek  and  Hebrew  and  Scripture  history.  He 
was  baptized  at  fourteen,  and  began  to  preach  in  1778, 
in  and  around  Northampton,  as  his  father's  assistant; 
then  as  co-pastor,  aiding  bis  father  in  his  academy,  in 
which  young  men  were  trained  for  the  ministry.  In 
1786  he  was  sole  pastor  at  Northampton.  In  co-opera- 
tion with  Carey,  Fuller,  Sutdiffe,  and  others,  he  orig- 
inated the  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  Oct.  2, 1792.  He 
became  president  of  the  Baptist  College,  Bristol,  and 
pastor  of  the  Broadmead  Chapel  in  that  city  in  1794 
In  1815  he  became  secretary  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society.  He  died  May  25,  1825.  Dr.  Ryland  wrote^ 
Memoirs  of  Robert  ffaU,  of  Vrusbg  :-^A  Candid  StaU- 
mad  of  the  Reasons  which  Induce  the  Baptists  to  Differ 
from  their  Christian  BrOhren: — some  Sermons: — and 
nearly  a  hundred  Hymns,  which  appeared  in  magazines^ 
signed  *' J.  B.  jun."  These  have  been  published  in  a 
neat  volume  by  Daniel  Sedgwick. 


8. 


Babai  Version  of  the  Scriptubes.  Sabai  is 
spoken  in  several  islands  in  Torres  Strait,  between 
Australia  and  Papua.  The  gospel  of  Mark  was  printed 
at  Sydney  in  1883  under  the  care  of  the  Auxiliary  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  transla- 
tion was  made  by  a  teacher,  Ella,  who  had  been  fifteen 
years  engaged  on  the  work,  and  revised  by  the  Rev.  S. 
Macfarlane,  of  Murray  Island.  The  gospel  of  Matthew 
has  since  then  been  added.    (B.  P.) 

Etobba,  Abraham  ibit-,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  16th 
centuf}',  who  was  banished  with  thousands  of  Jews 
from  Lisbon  in  1499,  is  the  author  of  a  very  extensive 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  entitled  The  Bundle 
of  Myrrh  "lltifl  II'IX,  in  which  he  largely  avails 
himself  of  the  aohar  and  other  early  cabalistic  worio. 
The  commentary  was  fint  published  at  Constantinople 
in  1514;  then  at  Venice  in  1523»  1546, 1566,  and  at 
Cracow  in  1595.  Pellican  has  translated  this  com- 
mentary into  Latin,  and  the  MS.  of  this  verrion  is  in 


the  Zurich  library.  See  FUrst,  BOIL  Jud,  s.  v.;  Gtm- 
burg,  Kabbalah,  p.  128 ;  Lindo,  Eistory  of  the  Jews  m 
Spain  cmd  Portugal,  p.  266;  Jocher,  AUgemeimes  G^ 
lArten'Lexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Saddler,  Isaac  P.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Westmoreland  County,  Pa.,  Oct. 
5, 1807.  He  was  converted  in  1889,  licensed  to  preach 
in  1840,  entered  the  Pittsburgh  Conference  in  1853,  was 
superannuated  in  1872,  and  assigned  to  the  East  Ohio 
Conference  at  its  organization  in  1876.  He  died  sud- 
denly, March  2, 1882.  See  Minutes  qf  Annual  Confer- 
r,  1882,  p.  829. 


Safed  is  an  important,  but  comparatively  modem 
town  of  Palestine,  eight  miles  north-wesi  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  famous  especially  as  a  medisBval  seat  of  Jewish 
learning.  The  following  account  of  it  is  taken  ftom 
Murray's  HandJbooh  for  Syria  (p.418)b  Further  d*> 
tails  may  be  found  in  the  Memoirs  aocompanying  the 
Ordnance  Survey  (i,  199, 248). 


SAPFORD 


811 


SAUM 


"Safed  lies  on  an  liolatod  peak,  which  crowns  the 
eoothern  brow  of  Uie  monDtaln  range.  A  deep  glen 
sweeps  ronnd  Its  northern  and  western  sides,  and  a 
shallower  on^  after  sldrtiDS  the  eastern  side,  foils  Into 
the  former  a  few  miles  to  the  sonth.  Beyond  these,  on 
the  north-esst,  north,  and  west,  are  higher  hills,  bnt  on 
the  south  the  view  is  open.  The  old  castle  crowns  the 
peak;  the  Jewish  quarter  of  the  town  clings  to  the  west- 
em  side,  considerably  below  the4  snmmlt,  the  rows  of 
houses  arranged  like  stairs.  There  are,  besides,  two 
Moslem  quarters— one  occupying  the  ridge  to  the  south, 
and  the  other  nestling  in  the  valley  to  the  east  The 
population  may  be  estimated  at  about  four  thousand,  of 
whom  one  third  are  Jews  and  a  very  few  fiimilles  Chris- 
tians. 

"The  only  attraction  of  8afed  ie  the  splendid  view  it 
commands.  This  is  best  seen  fh>m  the  summit  of  the 
castle.  The  latter  Is  surrounded  by  a  deep,  dry  ditch, 
within  which  was  a  walL  All  is  now  a  msss  of  ruins. 
Onlv  a  shattered  (higment  of  one  of  the  great  round  tow- 
ers has  survived  the  esrtbqnake  of  1887.  Before  that  cap 
tastrophe  it  was  not  in  the  best  repair,  still.  It  aflTorded  ac- 
commodation to  the  govenior  and  his  train;  but  then, 
in  a  few  minutes,  it  was  utterly  ruined,  and  many  of  Its 
inmates  buried  beneath  the  fallen  towers. 

"Safed  Is  first  mentioned  in  the  Vulitate  version  of  the 
book  of  Tobit  [rather  aa  Safat  In  the  Jerusalem  Talmud ; 
perhaps  also  the  Seph  of  Josepbns  {War,  li,  86)].  Tradi- 
tion has  made  it  the  site  of  Bethulia  of  the  book  of  Judith, 
but  without  evidence.  The  castle  seems  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  crusaders  to  guard  their  territory  against 
the  inroads  of  the  Saraoen&  It  was  garrlBoned  by  the 
Knights  Templars.  Its  defences,  both  natural  and  artifi- 
cial, were  so  strong  that  Saladin  besieged  It  for  five  weeks 
before  he  was  able  to  capture  it.  After  lying  in  ruins  for 
many  years  It  was  rebuilt  by  Benedict,  bisnop  of  Mar- 
seilles, in  the  year  1240.  Bnt  It  only  remained  twenty 
years  In  the  hands  of  the  Christians,  for,  being  hard 
pressed  by  Sultan  Bibars,  the  garrison  capitulated  and 
were  murdered  to  a  man,  the  chief  being  ilayed  alive  by 
the  barbarous  Mohammedans.  From  that  period  till  the 
past  century  it  continued  to  be  one  of  the  bulwarks  of 
ralestine. 

"  We  know  not  when  the  Jews  first  settled  in  Safed,  or 
at  whatperiod  they  raised  the  town  to  the  rank  of  a  *  holy 
city.'  liiere  were  no  Jews  in  the  place  In  the  middle  of 
the  12th  century,  when  Benjamin  of  Tudela  visited  the 
country ;  and  it  was  not.  in  fact,  until  four  centuries  later 
that  the  schools  of  Saied  became  celebrated.  Then  a 
printing-press  was  set  up,  synagogues  were  built,  and 
the  rabbis  of  Safed  were  acknowledged  to  be  among  the 
chief  ornaments  of  Hebrew  literature.  The  16th  century 
was.their  golden  age.  In  the  17th  both  learning  and  fands 
began  to  decline,  and  the  earthquake  of  1887  gave  a  death- 
blow to  the  Jewish  canse^  Printing-press,  synsgogues, 
schools,  houses,  and  people  were  all  involved  in  one  com- 
mon ruin.** 

SafEsrd,  JcFFKBaon  Pbick,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Zanesville,  O.,  Sept.  22,  1828. 
He  graduated  from  the  Univernty  of  Ohio,  at  Athens, 
in  1843;  taught  at  Dry  Creek  Academy,  Covington, 
Ky.,  and  at  Indianapolis  Academy,  Ind.,  for  two  years 
each;  was  professor  of  mathematics  at  Covington,  in 
1847  and  1848 ;  next  entered  Princeton  Seminaiy,  N.  J., 
where  he  graduated  in  1852 ;  was  licensed  by  the  Pres- 
byteiy  of  Philadelphia,  April  6,  1851 ;  Uught  math- 
ematics at  Richmond  Academy,  Bichmond,  Ya.,  three 
yean,  suppiying  also,  part  of  the  time,  the  Church  at 
Bethlehem,  and  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of 
West  Lexington,  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  Feb.  9, 1855.  Hia 
fields  of  labor  were  the  Church  at  Frankfort,  from  1855 
to  1857;  pastor  of  First  Church,  Piqua,  O.,  from  1857 
to  1862;  First  Church,  New  Albany,  Ind.,  from  1862  to 
1867,  and  district  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Missions  for 
Ohio  and  Indiana  from  1867  to  1870.  He  served  as 
stated  supply  to  Brownsville  (O.)  Cbureh  front  1870  to 
1876,  at  the  aame  time  aopplying  also  Fairmount  Church 
from  1870  to  1877,  Bosville  Church  from  1871  to  1878, 
acting  as  president  of  ZanovUIe  Univenity  in  1871 
and  1872,  supplying  Uniontown  (O.)  Church  from  1871 
to  1878,  Hanover  Church  in  1878  and  1874,  Kirkersville 
Church  from  1874  to  1879,  and  Claysville  and  West 
Carlisle  cbnnbes  until  hia  death,  which  occnrred  at 
Zanesville,  July  10, 1881.  Dr.  Saflbrd  was  also  the  ao- 
cmate  and  efficient  stated  clerk  of  the  Flesbytery  of 
Zanesville  from  1878>  and  of  the  synod  of  Golumbns 
from  1876.  Biit  NtcroL  Report  of  PrmoeUmTheoLSem, 
1882,  p.  48. 

Etalun,  Petbb,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  gradu- 
ated from  GeUysbnrg  Th«ok)gical  Seminaiy  in  1881, 


and  entered  the  ministiy  in  1882,  the  period  of  his  ser- 
vice comprising  fbrty-fonr  yearb  He  preached  in  both 
German  and  English,  aa  occasion  required.  A  consid- 
erable time  he  was  pastor  at  Green  Castle.  At  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  serving  the  Church  at  New  Beriin, 
Pa.  He  died  at  Laurelton,  Biarch  14, 1876,  aged  sixty- 
six  years.    See  Lutheran  Obterver,  March  24, 1876. 

Saint  Aldagonde.    See  Marnix,  Philipfk. 
Saint  Andrews.    See  Akdbew^s,  St. 
Saint  Brieuc.    See  Biueug,  St. 
Saint  Claude.    See  Clauds,  Si; 
Saint  Cyran.    See  Duvxboucb. 
Saint  Denia.    See  Dkhis,  St. 

Saint  Bdmnndfl»  Auoi,  a  Scotch  prelate,  waa 
bishop  of  the  see  of  Caithness  in  1290,  and  in  1291 
was  made  lord  chancellor.  He  died  in  1292.  See 
Keith,  Scottiih  Bishopt,  p.  211. 

Saint  OalL    See  Gall,  St. 

Saint  Martin.  See  Martin  {Saint),  Louis 
Claudb  de. 

Saint  Omer.    See  Omer,  St. 

Saker,  Alfred,  a  missionary  to  the  **  Dark  Conti- 
nent," was  bom  in  England,  July  21, 1814.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-nine  he  waa  accepted  by  the  Baptist  Miuion- 
ary  Society  for  the  mission  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 
In  1845  Saker  settled  at  King  Aqua's  Town,  the  seat  of 
a  large  tribe,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cameroons  River, 
and  about  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth.  With  great 
difficulty  he  mastered  the  Dualla  language,  spoken  by 
the  people  among  whom  he  lived.  Early  in  November, 
1849,  he  baptized  the  fint  convert,  and  in  the  afternoon 
of  the  day  a  church  was  formed,  consbting  of  the  mis- 
sionary and  his  wife,  the  native  helpers,  and  the  Dualla 
convert.  Mr.  Saker  translated  the  Bible  into  the  Du- 
alla language,  and  died  at  Victoria,  Biarch  18, 1880,  hav- 
ing spent  thirty-four  years  in  Africa.     (B.  P.) 

Salat,  Jacob,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  and 
philosopher  of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  24,  1766.  In 
1801  he  was  professor  of  ethics  and  pastoral  theology 
at  Munich,  in  1807  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at 
Landshut,  and  died  in  1851.  He  published.  Die  JU" 
Ugion^ykUoiophie  dargutelU  (Landshut,  1811)  i—Grund- 
Omen  der  Religiotuphilotophie  (Sulzbach,  181 9) : — Grund- 
Umim  der  MoralphHosophie  (Munich,  1827) : — Vermcht 
Uber  SupranaturalietmiM  und  MyeiieiMmuM  (Sulzbach, 
1828)  i^Sokraiet,  oder  Hber  den  neuesten  Gegentatz  zwi- 
edun  Chriettnthum  und  PhUoeopkie  (1820):  — /i^  der 
Priettercdlibat  ein  Ideal f  (Stuttgart,  1888):  — Dte 
literariiche  SteUung  der  Protetianien  eu  den  KathoKhen 
(1881)  i—A  vfechbue  vher  den  UUrakathoUcitmus  (1888) : 
-^Sckdling  und  Hegel  (Heidelberg,  1842).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TkeoL  s.  v. ;  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  IheoL  Lit,  i,  285, 
288,870,875^466,728.     (RP.) 

Salim.  Lieut.  Conder  (  Teni  Work,  i,  92)  advocates 
the  poaition  of  this  place  at  Salim,  four  miles  east  of 
Nablils^  urging  the  abundance  of  water  therc,  and  the 
presence  of  a  village,  Ainftn  (£non),  seven  and  a  half 
milea  to  the  north-east;  and  Tristram  (^t^  Placee, 
p.  192)  likewise  accepts  this  situation  for  similar  reasons, 
adding  that  "  it  is  close  to  one  of  the  old  main  lines  of 
road  from  Jerusalem  to  Galilee."  ''The  head-springs 
are  found  in  an  open  valley  surrounded  by  desolate  and 
shapetoss  hiUs.  The  water  gushes  out  over  a  stony  bed, 
and  flovrs  rapidly  down  in  a  flue  stream  surrouuded  by 
bushes  of  oleander.  The  supply  is  perennial,  and  a  con- 
tinual snccession  of  little  springs  occurs  along  the  bed 
of  the  valley,  so  that  the  cunent  becomes  the  principal 
western  affluent  of  Jordan  south  of  the  Vale  of  JezreeL 
The  valley  is  open  in  most  parts  of  its  course,  and  we 
find  the  two  requisites  for  the  scene  of  baptism  of  a 
mnltitnde — an  open  space  and  abundance  of  water" 
(Conder).  Sallm  itself  is  described  in  the  Memoire  ac- 
companying the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,  280)  as  *'a  small 
viU^^e,  retemUisg  the  rest,  bnt  evidently  andent,  hav- 


SALKINSON 


812 


SALVATION  ARMY 


ing  rock-cat  tombs,  cisterns,  and  a  tank.  Olive-trees 
surround  it;  on  the  north  are  two  springs,  three  quarters 
uf  a  mile  from  the  village." 

Salkinaon,  Isaac  K,  a  missionary  among  the 
Jews,  and  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar,  who  died  June 
16, 18^,  at  Presburg,  in  the  employ  of  the  British  So- 
ciety for  Jewish  Missions,  is  the  author  of  a  Hebrew 
translation  of  Philosophy  of  the  Plan  o/ Salvation  (Al- 
tona,  1858).  Besides  translating  into  Hebrew  MUton^s 
Paradite  Lott^  Shakespeare's  Romeo  and  Juliet,  he  pub- 
Tished  The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Romans, 
translated  from  the  original  Greek  (Edinburgh,  1855). 
Ac  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  finished  a  Hebrew 
translation  of  the  New  Test,  which  was  edited  by  Dr. 
Ch.  D.  Qinsburg  of  England,  and  published  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  English  Triniurian  Bible  Society  at  the 
imperial  press  of  K.  Fromme,  in  Vienna.  The  transla- 
tion has  been  made  in  '*  classical  Hebrew  idiom,"  but 
**m  seeking  for  elegance  of  language,  exegetical  and 
historical  correctness,  which  are  always  closely  connect- 
ed with  correctness  of  language,  has  been  lost"  See 
Theologisches  LiteraturblaU  (Leipsic,  1885,  Nos.  45,  46, 
47).     (a  P.) 

Sail,  Andrew,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  born 
near  Cashcl,  Ireland,  about  1612,  and  after  having  studied 
for  some  time  at  St.  Omer's,  was  transferred  to  Vallado- 
lid,  in  Spain,  that  he  might  become  conversant  with  the 
rules  and  institutions  of  the  Jesuits.  Having  acquired 
distinction  as  a  theologian,  he  was  appointed  successive- 
ly reader  of  divinity  at  Pampeluna,  i)rofessor  at  Tudela 
and  Valencia,  rector  of  the  Irbh  College,  and  lecturer 
of  controversial  divinity  at  the  University  of  Salamanca. 
It  was  at  thia  time  that  many  of  the  influential  Roman 
Catholics  in  Ireland  expressed  their  willingness  to  ad- 
here to  king  Charles  II,  and  renounce  the  intorference 
of  all  foreign  power,  even  though  the  pope  should  ex- 
communicate  them.  Under  these  ciroumstancea  it  was 
deemed  expedient  by  the  Romish  oourt  to  send  Jesuits 
to  Ireland,  and  among  them  was  SalL  Some  years  later, 
however,  a  change  took  place  iu  his  religious  views,  and 
he  joined  the  Church  of  England,  in  connection  with 
which  he  labored  with  exemplary  diligence  till  his 
death,  April  6, 1682.  His  works  are,  Recantation,  and  a 
Sermon  on  Matt,  xxiv,  15-18,  in  Confutation  of  the  Er^ 
rors  of  the  Church  of  Rome  (Lond.  1674,  8vo)  r-^The 
Catholick  and  ApostoUck  Faith  Maintained  m  the  Church 
ofEttffkmd  (Oxford,  1676, 8 vo) : — Votumpro  Pace  Chris- 
tiana (1678,  4to): — Ethica  seu  Morcdis  Philosqphia 
(1680, 8vo).  See  (Lond.)  Church  of  England  Magazine, 
July,  1841,  p.  3 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Au- 
thors, s.  V. 

Salle,  John  Baftist  de  iji,  founder  of  the  order 
of  Christian  Brothers,  was  bom  at  Rheims,  France,  April 
80, 1651.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  made  canon 
of  the  Cathedral  of  his  native  city,  and  alUr  studying 
some  time  at  the  Sulpician  Seminary  in  Paris,  he  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity,  and  was  ordained  priest 
in  1678.  He  died  in  Rouen,  April  9, 1719.  The  order 
which  he  established  is  devoted  to  teaching,  especially 
among  the  poorer  classes.  He  introduced  the  mutual- 
simultaneous  method  of  instruction,  and  also  composed 
a  treatise  on  school  government.  The  order  was  ap- 
proved by  Benedict  XIII,  and  has  thousands  of  schools, 
and  first-class  colleges  at  Passy,  near  Paris,  at  Maneilles, 
Manhattanville,  K.  Y.,  St.  Louis,  Baltimore,  etc  Bap- 
tist de  la  Salle  was  declared  venerable  by  Gregory  XVI, 
May  8,  1840,  and  beatified  by  Pius  IX  in  1873.  See 
(N.  Y«)  Caih.  Almanac,  1873,  p.  88. 

Salthen,  Dahibl  Ijorknz,  a  Luthemn  theologian, 
was  bom  March  16, 1701,  at  Markin,  near  Upsala,  and 
died  at  Konigsberg,  Jan.  29, 1760,  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology.  He  wrote,  De  ArticuUs  Smaleal^cis  (Ko- 
nigsberg, 1729): — Introductio  in  Omnes  Libras  Sacros 
(1736):— 2>e  Auctore  lAbri  SapiaUios  (1739).  See  Furst, 
BOa.  Jud.  a.  v.;  Winer,  ffandbuek  der  theoL LU.  i,  829; 
Jdcher,  A  ll(femeines  GMrten-Lexikon,  a.  ▼.    (B.  P.) 


SalTation  Anny,  The.  This  new  religious  or- 
ganization is,  in  some  of  its  agencies  and  operationa, 
suggestive  of  the  reformation  under  Luther,  and  of  the 
religions  awakening  under  the  Wesleys.  Each  of  these 
great  movements  was  so  startling  in  its  character  that 
it  commanded  wide-spread  attention,  and  excited  oppo- 
sition and  envy  on  every  hand.  Their  enemies  declared 
that  the  work  would  somi  come  to  naught,  and  that  such 
inflammable  material  would  soon  bum  itself  out.  But 
these  disparaging  predictions  have  not  been  fulfilled 
with  regard  to  the  former  two  efforts,  nor  are  they  likely 
to  be  realized  in  the  case  of  the  Salvation  Armv.  Not 
designed  for  any  merely  human  agg^ndizement,  not 
antagonistic  to  any  other  religious  organization,  it  be- 
gan with  a  burning  desire  in  the  heart  of  one  Chriatian 
minister  to  "  rescue  the  perishing  ^  in  London.  It  was 
the  privilege  of  the  writer  to  hear  William  Booth,  the 
general  and  founder  of  the  Salvation  Army,  preach  the 
gospel  in  a  prison  when  he  was  only  twenty  yean  old, 
and  to  be  an  intimate  personal  acquaintance  of  his  from 
that  time  to  the  present. 

I.  Origin  of  the  Movement. — 1.  William  Booth  was 
bora  in  the  town  of  Nottingham  in  the  year  1829.  Hia 
parents  belonged  to  the  Cburoh  of  England,  but  at  the 
age  of  fourteen  he  began  to  attend  the  services  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodists,  then  and  now  a  large  and  inflo- 
ential  body  in  the  town.  Their  services  had  in  them 
more  life  and  energy  than  he  found  in  the  Established 
Church,  and  having  experienced  a  change  of  heart  in 
these  exercises,  his  i^ections  were  naturally  omtred 
where  he  had  derived  so  much  good;  hence,  though 
young  in  years,  he  began  to  attend  mission  and  open-air 
services  and  cottage-meetings  among  the  poor  in  the 
neglected  parts  of  the  town.  He  soon  became  an  ex- 
horter,  and  related  at  the  meetings  his  own  happy  ex- 
perience, persuading  others  to  seek  salvation.  During 
the  daytime  he  was  employed  at  the  misoeUaneona  atore 
of  a  pawnbroker,  and  there  he  became  practically  ac- 
quainted with  the  wants,  privations,  and  sufferinga  of 
the  poor.  His  natural  quickness  of  obaervation  and  hia 
retentiro  momory  were  used  by  him  to  advanUge.  In 
the  evenings  and  on  Sundays,  while  a  mere  youth,  be 
began  to  preach  short,  earnest  sermons,  in  the  open  air, 
in  all  weathers,  inviting  sinners  to  Christ.  In  1846, 
when  only  seventeen,  he  was  accepted  as  a  local  preach- 
er, became  sealooa  and  useful,  and  hia  labors  were  moch 
owned  of  God.  He  waa  then  a  mere  stripling,  tall, 
with  long,  flowing  black  hair,a  pieroing  eye,  and  a  tongue 
of  fire.  Before  he  was  twenty  he  was  urged  to  enter 
the  Methodist  ministry,  but  in  addition  to  hia  want  of 
theological  training,  the  doctors  told  him  that  one  year 
of  the  earnest  ministerial  work,  to  which  he  waa  occa- 
sionally called,  would  probably  exhaust  the  little  strength 
he  had ;  and  as  he  was  not  physically  strong,  he  waited 
for  a  time  to  see  if  his  health  improved.  In  the  mean- 
while he  was  wholly  engaged,  partly  in  London  and 
partly  in  Lincolnshire,  as  an  evangelist,  a  work  in  which 
he  took  special  delight. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-four  he  was  accepted  as  a  min- 
ister on  trial  in  the  Methodist  New  Connection,  and 
placed  for  a  time  under  the  care  of  the  Kev.  William 
Cooke,  D.D.,  for  theological  training.  Shortly  after- 
wards, In  1854,  their  society  at  Guernsey  invited  him 
to  raise  their  cause,  then  in  a  low  condition,  and  at  the 
same  time  improve  his  own  health  in  their  mild  and 
genial  atmosphere.  At  the  first  Sunday  service  he  held 
there  thirty  persons  were  converted,  and  within  a  month 
three  hundred  were  added  to  the  churoh  membership. 
He  had  to  return  to  London,  but  the  news  of  his  auooeaa 
quickly  spread  through  the  Connection,  and  he  aooQ 
afterwards  had  invitations  to  ten  drcnits,  to  hold  apedal 
services  for  a  week  or  two  in  each.  The  conference  that 
year  sent  him  out  as  an  evangelist,  the  results  of  which 
may  be  Judged  by  the  returns  from  a  few  places :  ct 
Hanley,  Staffordshire,  400  conversions;  at  Newcastle,  in 
one  week,  290;  at  Sheffield,  in  four  weeks,  over  400;  at 
Cheater,  several  hundred.   Fifteen  of  these  converts 


SALVATION  ARMY 


813 


SALVATION  ARMY 


known  to  have  become  ordained  mioiBten  of  the  gos- 
peL 

2.  Jealousy  among  a  few  senior  preacheiBi  who  could 
not  oommand  aach  sacceasi  obliged  him  to  settle  down 
in  a  circuit,  and  he  spent  three  years  (1857-59)  at  Gates- 
head-on-Tyne,  where,  by  his  labors,  the  membership 
was  trebled.  He  was  next  sent  to  Newcastle,  with  the 
same  result,  having  in  the  meantime  married  Catharine 
Humford,  daughter  of  Mr.  J.  Momford,  a  good  London 
Methodist;  and  his  young  wife  worked  earnestly  and 
lovingly  with  him.  Her  piety,  zeal,  discretion,  and 
ability  entitle  her  to  take  rank  with  the  late  Mrs.  I^osbe 
Palmer,  of  New  York,  as  one  of  the  specially  called  and 
gifted  of  God  to  do  a  great  work  for  him  in  the  world 
and  in  the  church.  Seeing  how  God  was  working  by 
Mr.  Booth  among  a  class  of  people  seldom  reached  by 
the  ordinary  minister,  and  feeling  the  burden  of  souls 
pressing  upon  him,  he  made  a  most  eam^t  appeal  to 
the  Liverpool  Conference  of  1861  to  again  appoint  him 
as  an  evangelist;  and  his  appeal,  worthy  of  Dr.  Coke  or 
Creoige  Whitefield,  was  supported  for  a  while  by  an 
equally  earnest  appeal  made  by  Mrs.  Booth  from  the 
gallery  of  the  chapel.  Some  of  the  older  preachers 
were  shocked  by  a  woman  addressing  the  conference, 
and  she  was  silenced.  The  conference  made  a  great 
mistake  in  not  accepting  Mr.  Booth's  services  as  an 
evangelbt:  had  they  done  so,  their  membership  might 
have  been  doubled  in  ten  years;  instead  of  which,  after 
the  lapse  of  a  quarter  of  a  century,  their  membership  is 
less  tOHday  than  it  was  then,  and  does  not  number  thirty 
thousand  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  ninety  years.  Mr. 
Booth  resigned  his  connection  with  the  body,  and  re- 
solved to  await  the  openings  of  Providence;  without 
employment,  home,  or  income,  he  and  his  devoted  wife 
looked  alone  to  God  for  gpiidance,  and  it  soon  came. 

Yiaiting  Cornwall,  he  found  many  earnest  Methodists 
in  hearty  sympathy  with  the  yearnings  of  hU  heart. 
Mrs.  Booth  now  fuUy  shared  his  labors,  herself  preach- 
ing and  holding  revival  services  both  on  the  Sabbath 
and  on  week  days.  In  this  way  they  spent  two  years 
as  missionaries,  in  various  localities,  for  three  or  four 
weeks  each.  Fishermen  and  tin  miners  came  to  their 
services  by  thousands,  whole  neighborhoods  were  stirred 
all  round,  the  claims  of  religion  became  paramount,  and 
men  by  scores  left  their  work  to  seek  divine  mercy. 
The  knowledge  of  these  gracious  outpourings  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  spread  throughout  the  country.  One  chapel 
was  kept  open  from  daylight  in  the  morning  till  mid- 
night for  a  whole  week.  The  result  of  such  manifesta- 
tions awakened  general  interest  in  the  work,  and  invita- 
tions for  the  services  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Booth  reached 
them  from  all  parts  of  England  and  Wales.  These  oc- 
cupied them  both  for  two  years  more,  and  in  June,  1885, 
they  came  to  London. 

Providentially  they  were  directed  to  the  East  End,  a 
locality  where,  within  the  limits  of  half  a  mile,  eighteen 
thousand  persons,  men  and  women,  were  counted  enter- 
ing drinking-saloons  on  one  Sunday.  There,  on  a  heap 
of  refuse,  Mr.  Booth  commenced  the  work  which  has 
developed  into  the  great  Christian  army  known  the 
world  over.  A  small  pocket  Bible  and  hymn-book  were 
bis  only  weapons.  In  1888  Mrs.  Booth,  in  writing  of 
herself  and  Mr.  Booth  in  1885,  remarks :  **  He  left  a  happy 
and  prosperous  minirterial  career,  gave  up  all  that  is 
commonly  regarded  as  valuable  in  life,  came  out  with- 
out any  human  encouragement  or  guarantees,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  labor  among  the  neglected  masses,  with 
no  thought  beyond  that  of  a  local  work  in  the  east  of 
London.  We  surrendered  home,  income,  every  friend 
we  had  in  the  world,  save  my  parents  [whom  they 
nourished  in  old  age],  with  four  little  children  under 
five  years  old,  to  trust  only  in  Crod.  During  the  ten 
years  following,  we  were  groping  our  way  out  of  the 
conventionalism  in  which  we  had  been  trained,  and 
often  reluctantly  fdlowing  the  pillar  of  cloud  by  which 
God  was  leading  ns.  We  tried  committees,  conferences, 
and  all  sorts  of  governments,  showing  how  far  we  were 


wrong  till  the  grand  military  idea  was  revealed  to 
us." 

Not  much  consideration  was  required  to  convince 
Mr.  Booth  that  in  East  London  there  was  labor  for  a 
man's  life,  however  earnest  and  long-lived  he  might  be; 
and  having  his  sympathies  strongly  drawn  towards  tho 
dense  mass  of  godless  people  in  the  streets  day  and  night, 
he  gave  up  invitations  to  labor  in  the  provinces  to  de- 
vote himself  fully  to  the  teeming  population  of  White- 
chapel  and  its  surroundings.  In  ten  or  fifteen  minutes 
he  would  gather  a  congregation  of  a  thousand  people, 
to  whom  he  preached  daily  the  plain  gospel  in  the  old- 
fashioned  manner.  He  was  a  Methodist  to  the  back- 
bone, and  in  all  his  addresses  he  taught  and  enforced 
the  necessity  of  repentance,  faith,  and  holiness.  God 
wonderfully  owned  the  word  preached;  its  effects  had 
been  witnessed  in  Cornwall  and  other  parts,  and  it  was 
soon  found  that  conversions  followed  the  preaching  in 
London.  As  there  was  no  place  in  which  to  gather  the 
people,  Mr.  John  Eason,  an  old  Methodist,  lent  Mr.  Booth 
a  preaching  tent  which  he  had  long  used  on  London 
Fields.  Crowds  gathered  there,  many  were  saved,  and 
these  soon  began  to  be  useful  in  their  own  localities, 
each  one  asking  himself,  after  he  had  found  Jesus, 

"What  sbftll  I  do  to  make  It  known 
What  Thon  for  all  mankind  hast  done?" 

Mr.  Booth  prepared  a  cheap  hymn-book,  which  was  sold 
freely  at  all  the  meetings,  and  thousands  were  bought 
and  read  by  the  new  converts.  These,  one  after  another, 
began  to  speak  of  the  blessings  they  had  received,  and 
their  testimony  deepened  and  intensified  the  general  in- 
terest in  the  services;  so  that  the  companions  of  these 
poor  men,  now  made  rich  by  faith,  began  to  think  there 
was  something  in  the  preaching  which  had  completely 
changed  very  bad  persons,  and  made  them  lovers  of 
home,  of  God,  and  of  their  fellow-creatures.  The  storms 
of  autumn  scattered  the  tent  in  which  they  found  shelter, 
but  the  work  went  on  in  the  open  air.  As  winter  ap- 
proached, shelter  was  required,  and  one  of  the  lowest  of 
the  many  drinking-saloons,  a  very  den  of  infamy,  was 
secured,  and  converted  into  a  mission  hall  and  book-store, 
fur  the  sale  of  hymns,  tracts,  and  such  literature  as  would 
be  suitable  to  young  converts  brought  up  in  utter  igno- 
rance of  religion.  Next  a  large  dancing -saloon  was 
taken  and  used  in  the  same  wa}'.  Both  these  places 
were  soon  filled  by  eager  listeners,  services  being  held 
on  the  ground-floor  and  the  first-floor  simultaneously, 
the  stairs  and  passages  crowded  at  nearly  every  service 
by  the  neglected  poor,  who  saw  in  these  agencies  and 
ministrations  the  means  of  rescuing  themselves  from 
sin,  misery,  and  poverty.  Believing  in  the  advantages 
of  labor,  and  in  the  truth  of  Mr.  Wesley's  adage,  *' All  at 
work  and  always  at  work,**  Mr.  Booth  found  employment 
for  many  of  the  converts  in  extending  the  mission,  and 
it  was  soon  manifest  that  they  were  gradually  rising  in 
the  moral  and  social  scale.  Converts  increased,  people 
by  thousands  attended  the  exercises,  and  in  less  than  a 
year  Mr.  Booth  hired  a  large  theatre  for  services  on 
Sunday,  which  proved  attractive  to  the  outcast.  Crowds 
gathered  there,  young  and  old,  most  of  whom  had  lived 
like  heathen,  with  no  knowledge  of  God  or  regard  for 
his  laws.  Drunkards  became  sober,  swearers  began  to 
pray,  those  who  had  lived  by  stealing  stole  no  more, 
scores  of  old  and  forgotten  debts  were  paid,  multitudes 
of  women  were  rescued  from  ruin,  and  appeals  now 
came  to  Mr.  Booth  to  open  new  missions  at  Bethnal 
Green,  Limehouse,  Poplar,  Canning  Town,  Croydon, 
Norwood,  and  other  places;  in  these  localities  the  appli- 
cants were  directed  to  procure  a  room,  and  speakers 
were  sent  to  hold  services.  It  is  amusing  to  surve}',  at 
this  time,  the  variety  of  spots  used  for  the  new  efforts, 
many  of  which  the  writer  personally  visited  at  the  time 
— a  club-room,  a  cellar,  a  shed,  a  railway  arch,  behind  a 
pigeon-shop,  an  old  factory,  a  schoolroom,  a  cottage— so 
eager  were  the  poor  people  to  get  the  gospel  preached 
to  them.  They  had  not  been  accustomed  to  churches 
or  chapels;  they  knew  little  about  the  Bible,  and  par- 


SALVATION  ARMY 

•oni  tbej  thought  their  gmtcBt  enemies,    lliey  be- 

loDgedloLlwnriiwoftnuikiDd— niTrica,uiltin,g7pdea, 
infideli,  scoffbra,  drnnkiidi,  tbiercs,  dog-fu]ciera,pigton- 
keepen;  iiieii,womeii,aDd  childi«n,  the  itiiigbe(il,wild- 
eM,  most  igDoranC  and  dagisded  met  tagtthn,  and 
Ihem  the  full  power  of  the  gospel  wss  muiifested 
their  conveniDD  and  Bfter-life.     Penwni  froni  bU  thi 
olssses  stood  forth  and  openly  decUred  what  the  Riace 
of  God  bad  done  for  them,  then  appealing 
oompanions  In  >ia  aa  lo  the  tnith  of  their  U 

While  Hr.  Booth  waa  thai  evangelising  the  mines, 
hia  wife  was  engaged  in  holding  meetingi  in  many  of 
the  largest  halls  and  moat  orisucratic  centiea  in  the 
kingdom.  At  Hastings,  Margate,  Brighton,  and  man; 
other  placea,  crowda  of  the  middle  and  upper  claiaea  at 
tended  her  services,  and  numbets,  whose  interest  am 
sympathy  were  enlisted,  became  friends  and  lielpen  ii 
the  eatabliahment  of  missions  for  the  woriflng  classes  oi 
le  plans  already  desori bed.    The  motto  of  Mrs.  Booth' 


lifese 


nedto 


ic  work,  her  family  was  not 


While  thns 
neglected;  for 

not  spent  in  public  work  waa  sacntdly 
children,* ho  were  mainly  educated  at  home,  and  trained 
on  the  principles  laid  down  in  a  book  entitled  TheTr 
Biy  0/ CAiWrea,  recently  written  by  her  husband.  How 
completely  this  task  was  accomplished  is  manifest  from 
the  fact  that  all  their  children  wen  converted  early  in 
lite,  and  all  who  are  old  enough  are  doing  nseful  and 
important  labor  in  (he  Salvation  Army.  ~' 
spread  faster  than  Ur.  Booth's  family  <x)uld  keep  pace 
with  it,  and  their  converts  carried  the  holy  " 
Ihem  into  their  homes;  and  thus  b^an  fresh  mis«ana 
at  Old  Ford,  Stoke  Newington,  Shoieditch,  Tottenham, 
Mill  Wall,  and  other  pans  in  and  around  London, 
progress  being  reported  monthly  in  a  new  periodical 
which  bore  the  title  of  C/irittirm  Miuion  ilagaziat. 
S.  In  1870  a  great  impulse  was  given  lo  the  mo 


book-room,  and  a 

Kiwhen. 

All  (heae  were  put  lo  active 

use,  and  there  (h 

verts  found  a  hearty  welcoma 

■t  the  daily  seri 

•t  fresh  snrl  cheery;  and  in 

that  building  ma 

iccn  saved  from  every  kind 

of  miairy,  and 

ven  from 

telf-desiniclion,  as  despair 

eeiied  upon  the 

B.     The 

tended,  and  on  S 

uday  Uit 

B  or  fuur  ser^ioes  were  recu- 

tally  held,  at  which  both  Mr.  snd  Mrs.  Booth  tabortd 

4  SALVATION  AEMY 

aontianoasly  and  Minestlf .  At  length  his  health  gare 
way,  and  a  long  rest  ww  needed;  bat  God  raised  np 
nwiy  belpoa,  moch  piayei  was  olTeied  np,  and,  on  his 
recovery,  a  fresh  campaign  was  started,  in  1873,  large 
additions  being  made  to  the  membenhip,  and  officera 
sent  into  new  locslitiei  to  rescue  (he  perishing.  In 
1874  a  new  mission  waa  opened  at  Hammersmith,  and 
othen  were  begun  in  towna  far  away  from  LondoD,  op- 
erating with  the  same  results  as  those  in  the  nietropidiB. 
In  the  prorincea  aoma  remarkable  eonrersions  took  place 
of  persons  who  bad  been  notorious  sinnen,  and  ibty 
soon  became  as  noted  in  Sfoeading  tlie  newsof  sslvatioo. 
Tbcae  cooreits  were  chiefly  nnedocated  people,  but 
were  easily  led  by  those  who  had  been  helpful  (o  them, 
and  it  became  neceaaary  to  issue  su^estions  for  their 
gnidance.  The  fidlowing  Sve  points  were  sccordingly 
distributed :  I.  To  hold  meetings  out  o(  doors,  and  to 
march  singing  thniugh  the  streets  in  hirmon)'  with 
Uw  and  order;  S.  To  visit  public-bouses,  gin-palace^ 
prisons,  private  bouses,  and  to  prav  with  any  who  can 
be  got  at ;  S.  To  hold  meetings  in  theatres,  music- 
halls,  saloons,  and  other  common  resorts  of  those  wbo 
prefer  pleasure  (o  God,  and  services  in  any  place  where 
hearen  can  be  gathered,  especially  auch  as  would  DM 
ea(eT  ordinary  places  of  worship;  4.  To  use  the  most 
papular  sang-Innes,  and  the  langnage  of  every-dsy  life, 
(o  convey  a  knowledge  of  God  to  every  one  in  nerel 
snd  striking  forma;  5.  To  make  every  convert  1  witness 
for  Christ,  both  iu  public  and  private.  The  While- 
chspel  headquarters  soon  became  a  centre  of  great 
influence,  which  reached  far  beyond  London,  and  tbe 
deaths  of  two  of  the  offloen  there  proved  to  be  a  hleaa- 
ing  (o  many,  as  they  verifled  the  truth  of  the  well- 
known  wotda  of  tha  Bev.  Charles  Wesley,  "  God  buries 
his  workmen,  but  cames  on  bis  work."  In  six  looatha 
nine  valiant  officers  came  forth  to  supply  the  places 
of  those  who  had  died.  Quietly,  but  tike  a  de^  and 
mighty  liver,  the  work  was  spreading  through  the  prov- 
inces, and  a  new  departure  became  necessary,  with  more 

4.  Alter  mature  consideration,  in  the  spring  of  1876, 
tbe  entire  mission  wis  remodelled  as  a  military  organ- 
iiation,with  the  title  "Tha  Salvation  Army," and  tbe 
writer  waa  present,  by  invitation  of  Ur.  Booth,  at  tbe 
fint  meeting  held  under  the  new  designatUin,  when 
the  originator  was  called  "General  Booth."  The  rea- 
son given  by  him  for  the  change  was  that  bis  adberenta 
were  really  an  army  of  salvation.  "  Tbe  ttome,"  aaid 
he,  "  ia  preferable,  because  the  only  reason  for  which 
(he  organiiation  exists  being  war  against  sin,  common- 
Sense  requires  that  it  shall  be  framed  aftei  that  paUeni 
which  mankind,  in  all  ages,  has  found  to  be  the  most 
efleotive,  and  the  only  one  p««ble  for  an  army."  The 
novelty  of  the  new  daignstion  at  once  attracted  tbe 
notice  of  the  press,  some  to  approve,  others  (o  oppose; 
but  the  object  was  gained.  Tbe  miarion  at  once  rooe 
from  comparative  obscurity  and  weakness  to  one  of 
strength,  and  in  a  few  months  thirty  new  stations  were 
opanad,  most  of  which  have  had  prosperity.  By  tbe 
end  of  a  year  the  new  openings  were  increased  to  eighty, 
and  the  number  of  ofBceis  {evangelists)  increased  from 
thirty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven.  Thus  the 
leisnre-loving  Christians  aaw  a  spectacle  which  takes  it* 

nk  among  the  marvels  of  the  age,  an  army  "  atmag 

tbe  Uird  and  in  the  power  of  his  might."  When 
the  atmy  waa  formed,  in  IST8,  it  numbered  29  corps  and 
"  officers,  or  evangelists;  in  1882  they  had  increAsed 

881  corps  and  760  officers;  in  1885, 1001  coria  aud 
3560  officers,  with  a  total  ngistered  membership  in 
~  ine,188fi,'or90,000inGfeaCBriUin  and  Irehind. 

IL  OrgcamaaoH,  CAaracUrulia,  etc— 1.  As  the  plan 
adopted  in  London  is  the  one  in  use  in  all  the  piaoea 
army  has  a  field  of  operation,  it  will  be  best 
described  by  the  words  of  gentnl  Booth  himself,  who 
say^  "Our  organiiation  makes  every  soldier  in  socnc 
d^iee  an  officer,  charged  with  the  responiUiilitj-  of  s« 
many  of  his  townsfolk,  and  expected  to  cany  on  Um 


SALVATION  ARMY 


815 


SALVATION  ARMY 


war  against  the  locality  where  he  resdea.  Every  corps 
b  mapped  to  a  portion  of  the  country,  and  every  village 
is  placed  under  the  care  of  a  sergeant  until  a  oorpe  be 
established  in  it  under  commissioned  officers.  England 
is  divided  into  thirteen  districts,  each  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  major,  whose  duty  it  is  to  direct  and  inspect 
the  operations  of  every  corps  therein ;  he  has  to  see  to 
the  extension  of  the  war,  and  the  calling  out  of  new 
officers,  and  to  the  removal  of  others  unfit  for  their 
position.  Each  corps  is  under  the  command  of  a  cap- 
tain, assisted  by  one  or  two  lieutenants,  who  are  entire- 
ly employed  in  and  supported  by  the  army,  their  duty 
being  to  conduct  services  out-doors  and  in-doors,  to  visit 
those  enlisted,  and  to  plan  and  work  for  the  salvation 
of  the  whole  population  around.  Captains  and  lieuten- 
ants are  removed  about  every  six  months,  to  avoid  set- 
tling into  old  ruts,  and  to  prevent  their  forming  too 
strong  attachments  to  either  persons  or  places.  We 
have  tens  of  thousands  of  soldiers  who  are  ready  at  a 
word  to  leave  all  and  go  out  to  rescue  the  souls  of  oth- 
ers, and  who  glory  in  submitting  to  the  leadership  of 
either  men  or  women  placed  over  them,  for  Christ's 
sake.  Experience  has  taught  us  that  real  soldiers  care 
little  who  leads  or  how  they  march,  so  that  there  is 
victory.  We  have  never  enjoyed  such  unbroken  peace 
and  harmony  as  we  have  had  since  it  was  thoroughly 
nndeistood  that  the  corps  is  under  its  captain,  the 
division  under  its  major,  and  the  whole  army  under 
its  genera],  with  no  hope  of  successful  agitation  against 
superior  authority.  It  is  a  great  object  with  us  to 
avoid  using  our  system  of  government  so  as  to  limit 
spiritual  liberty,  or  hamper  any  officer  with  awkward 
restrictions,  who  is  seeking  the  accomplishment  of  his 
great  mission.**  In  1883  the  army  had  509  centres  of 
operation  in  England,  85  in  Scotland,  17  in  Ireland,  and, 
at  the  last  account,  one  each  in  France,  Switzerland, 
Sweden,  United  States,  Canada,  India,  South  Africa, 
South  Australia,  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  Queens- 
land, and  New  Zealand — a  remarkable  development  as 
the  result  of  five  years*  work. 

2.  Shortly  before  the  army  was  organized,  it  was 
found  that  property,  valued  at  many  thousand  pounds, 
was  owned  by  If  r.  Booth's  mission,  and  in  order  to  leave 
no  doubt  of  its  security  for  the  objects  for  which  it  had 
been  acquired  or  built,  a  deed  was  drawn  up,  and  en- 
rolled in  chancer}*,  Aug.  7, 1876,  which  declares  that 
the  property  belongs,  first,  to  William  Booth,  second, 
to  his  son,  William  Bramwell  Booth,  and  at  the  death 
of  both  these  persons  the  whole  is  to  be  vested  in 
trustees  for  the  use  of  the  army  so  long  as  it  may  exist ; 
and  the  solicitors  to  the  army  hold  in  their  possession 
the  deeds,  and  a  complete  schedule  of  all  property  stand- 
ing in  the  name  of  William  Booth,  which  is  increasing 
rapidly  every  year. 

The  finances  of  the  army  are  derived  from  various 
sources.  From  the  firsti  all  who  attended  the  services 
were  taught  the  duty  and  privilege  of  giving  in  support 
of  the  work,  and  the  majority  of  the  corps  have  long 
been  self-supporting.  In  1884  the  members  of  the  army 
contributed  among  themselves  more  than  $500,000  to 
carry  on  the  work,  and  this  in  addition  to  subscriptions 
and  donations  from  the  general  public,  and  the  sales  of 
their  various  newspapers  and  publications.  The  total 
revenue  for  1884  was  $1,350,000,  made  up  as  follows: 
Central,  or  office  funds,  $878,825 ;  local  funds,  $675,000 ; 
foreign  funds,  $815,000.  Persons  of  all  religious  de- 
nominations contribute  to  this  result,  and  the  accounts 
are  under  the  supervision  and  yearly  audit  of  regular 
chartered  accountants  in  London.  The  net  profits  on 
the  sale  of  books,  newspapers,  medals,  and  other  in- 
signia were,  in  1868,  $26,000,  and  in  1884  over  $40,000. 
Out  of  these  results  the  salaries  of  the  officers  were  paid, 
including  ako  general  Booth  and  his  family.  During 
the  time  (about  twelve  years)  previous  to  the  formation 
of  the  army,  and  for  several  years  afterwards,  a  benev- 
olent Christian  gentleman,  member  of  parliament  for 
Nottingham  (Mr.  Booth's  birthplace),  afterwards  for 


Bristol,  generonsly  provided  for  the  wants  of  Mr.  Booth 
and  his  family,  and  this  was  continued  until  the  book 
profits  were  sufficient  for  the  purpose,  without  trench- 
ing on  the  general  funds.  These  profits  are  Mr.  Booth's 
legitimate  creation,  and  as  general  editor  he  might 
claim  them,  but,  instead,  he  maintains  the  official  staff 
from  that  source  of  revenue. 

8.  Having  to  oiganize  mostly  by  means  of  uneducated 
persons,  the  work  has  been  slow  and  up-hill.  The  offi- 
cers are  drawn  from  the  ranks;  those  who  prove  the 
best  soldiers  are  recommended  by  their  captains  to 
headquarters,  inspected  and  reported  on  by  the  major, 
and  if  then  able  to  answer  (to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
general  himself)  a  lengthy  series  of  questions,  they  are 
placed  in  the  training-barracks  at  Qapton.  There,  a 
few  weeks  of  East-end  London  work  test  their  qualities 
and  qualifications  severely;  meanwhile  they  are  trained 
in  conducting  every  branch  of  the  service,  carefully 
drilled,  and  taught  the  simplest  way  of  conveying  the 
truths  of  the  Bible  to  the  people.'  Some  have  to  be 
taught  the  elements  of  knowledge,  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic;  but  the  training  is  not  so  much  scho- 
lastic as  spiritual,  the  great  necessity  pressed  upon  every 
one  being  that  of  holiness  of  heart  and  life.  Those  who 
prove  unfit  for  officen  are  sent  back  to  the  ranks :  the 
care  in  selecting  cadets  is  such  that  this  necessity  does 
not  often  arise.  Few  persons  are  received  as  officen' 
who  do  not  give  up  homes  or  positions  more  comfort- 
able, from  a  worldly  point  of  view,  than  the  one  they 
come  to,  so  that  self-seeking  persons  are  seldom  found 
in  the  army.  The  training  lasts  from  six  to  twelve 
weeks;  then  the  cadet  is  sent  as  a  lieutenant  to  some 
captain  in  the  field.  Neither  captain  nor  lieutenant 
hsis  often  many  shillings  in  pocket  when  commencing 
the  work  in  a  new  place,  whether  city  or  village.  Con- 
stant dependence  on  God  for  the  supply  of  all  needs  is  a 
lesson  often  learned  amidst  hard  surroundings.  So  rapid 
and  complete  is  success  generally  that  their  lot  is  not 
often  one  of  much  privation.  For  a  few  yean  mob- 
violence  was  their  chief  hardship,  but  as  the  army  be- 
comes better  known  and  understood  by  the  authorities, 
and  their  non-resistant  disposition  discovered  by  all 
classes,  the  officen  are  able  to  give  their  whole  strength 
to  the  service.  Each  officer  is  expected  to  conduct  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  meetings  weekly,  extending  over 
thirty  to  thirty-five  boun ;  to  spend  eighteen  houra  in 
visiting  from  house  to  house,  and  to  spare  no  possible 
effort  in  seeking  the  good  of  souls.  The  amount  of 
salary  to  be  drawn  by  a  single  man-captain  is  twent}'- 
one  shillings  weekly,  by  a  woman-captain  fifteen  shil- 
lings, and  by  a  married  captain  twenty-seven  shillings, 
with  one  shilling  per  week  per  child,  so  that  drones  are 
seldom  found  in  the  Salvation  Army.  A  negligent  or 
unsuccessful  officer,  after  sufficient  trial,  is  usually  left 
without  an  appointment.  The  frequent  removals  check 
all  selfish  sentiment,  and  thus  the  officers,  by  experience, 
become  examples  of  self-sacrifice  for  the  salvation  of  the 
world. 

The  uniform  worn  by  the  army  consists  of  a  plain 
simple  dark-blue  dress,  trimmed  with  a  neat  red  braid, 
and  marked  with  the  letter  S  on  the  collar:  the  S  on 
the  general's  garments  is  marked  in  gold.  It  is  found 
to  be  useful,  attracts  attention,  gives  opportunity  for 
convenation,  gathen  people  at  the  open-air  demonstra- 
tions, excites  respect  in  the  rougher  class  of  the  people, 
indicates  a  person's  position  in  the  army,  and  is  a  safe- 
guard against  the  fisshions  of  the  age.  The  militan* 
fbrm  of  government,  affirms  Mr.  Booth,  in  his  Book  of 
Instructions^  contradicts  no  form  of  government  laid 
down  or  practised  in  the  New  Test.,  and  is  in  perfect 
harmony  with  the  only  system  described  in  the  Old 
Test.,  and  cannot  therefore  be  said  to  be  unscriptural. 

4.  The  doctrines  taught  in  the  army  are  Armiiitan, 
such  as  Mr.  Booth  learned  to  love  and  preach  when  ho 
was  a  Methodbt  minister.  In  describing  this  matter, 
he  says,  **  We  have  not  a  parttde  of  sympathy  with 
those  who  desire  to  let  down  or  adapt  the  gospel  of 


SALVATION  ARMY 


816 


SALVATION  ABMT 


Cbrilt  In  the  hue;  of  the  19th  eenlnrj'.  The  giMpd 
whicb  Cells  >  m*n  tb*t  he  ia  thonug'iily  b«il,  and  under 
the  poirer  of  Ibe  dty'il  \  wbicb  dnga  out  tbe  hidden 
thing!  flf  iniquity  to  the  light  of  the  Judgment  throne; 
which  denouacet  tin  without  mere;-,  and  warns  men 
of  elemil  wnth  la  come  uiilen  the;  repent  end  be- 
Uerc  in  the  only  Sivigur;  the  gotpel  ot  a  crucified 
Saviour,  who  shed  real  blood  to  ure  men  from  real 
guilt,  real  danger,  a  real  bell,  and  who  live*  again  to 
give  a  real  tunlon  to  the  really  penitent — a  real  deliv- 
erance from  the  guilt,  power,  poUutioii,  and  fact  or  sin 
(0  all  who  really  give  up  to  him  a  whole  heart,  and 
tniie  him  with  a  perfect  faith — aucb  is  the  goipel  of 
the  Salvation  Army.  We  heartily  believe  the  three 
creeds  of  the  Church,  wa  believe  every  word  o{  the 
comminatlon  service,  and  we  denounce  the  wrath  of 
Oiod  against  sinners  a*  thoK  who  bcli«v«  that  all  thcM 
things  are  true.  We  teach  men  to  expect  salvation 
from  the  guiltotiin  the  moment  the;  turn  from  sin  to 
God,  and  tnist  bin  to  receive  and  pardon  them.  We 
teach  that  Uod  is  able  and  willing  pafectly  to  purge 
the  heart  from  all  its  evil  tendencies  a-ui  desires,  tbe 
moment  tbe  soul  tiuala  him  fur  it  ■11;  we  urge  the 
people  oot  to  rest  until  tied  has  thus  cleansed  tbe 

thought,  of  their  hearts  by  his  Holy  Spirit ;  and  we   FobllsblDg  Offlce  of  t^hi 
assure  tbem  that  God  will  preserve  (hem  blameless,  and 


e,  Londoi 


Army,  60)  Paternoster 


ause  them  everywhere 
full;  trust  and  obey  hin 

whoever  commits  it,  and  that  mere  cannot  at  sin  witti- 
out  the  divine  displeasure!  tbil  there  is  a  real,  con- 
itant,  and  perfect  deliveTance  from  sin  provided  by 
Jesus  Christ,  which  all  men  are  respoositde  either  for 
accepting  or  rejecting.    We  teach  ihit  all  saved  men 

viiion  of  others,  if  required;  that  being  followers  of 
Christ  meana  sacrificing  all  our  own  interests,  enjoy- 
menla,  and  possesHons  to  save  a  rebel  world,  and  that 
whosoever  does  oot  so  bear  the  cross  has  no  right  to 

6.  Printing  has  been  a  great  factor  in  the  progress 
and  success  of  the  army.  From  the  commencement  of 
tbe  mission  in  East  London  Hr.  Booth  ha*  had  strong 
faith  in  the  power  of  Che  press.  A  cheap  and  good 
bymn-book  was  one  of  his  first  requisites,  and  his  first 
collection,  sold  at  one  penny,  was  often  enlarged  and 
added  to,  until  it  bas  became  one  of  the  best  penny 
hymn-books  in  use,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  have 
been  sold  of  it.  He  then  began  a  penny  monthly  mag- 
uine,  called  The  SatI  London  Evar^itl,  which  was 

followed  by  another,  with  the  title  Chi 

Uagaime.      Both  these  wen  loo  slow 


alion  lo  satisfy  tbe  general  of  an  army.  During  a  few 
weeks  of  enforced  confinement  to  his  room  through  an 
injuiwl  foot,  Mr.  Booth  conceived  the  idea  of  a  weekly 
new^apei,  of  four  large  pages,  to  sell  at  one  cent ;  in 
three  days  bis  plans  were  completed,  and  within  a 
month  appeared  No.  1  of  ^ia  War-<xj,  a  startling  title 
for  timid  people,  but  it  exactly  met  the  wants  of  the 
srmy,  and  in  a  few  days  TOOO  of  that  inue  were  wM, 
and  of  No.  2  fully  30,000  were  wanted.  In  a  few  mootha 
it  had  a  weekly  circulation  of  100,000,  then  it  became 
necessary  lo  issue  it  twice  in  the  week,  and  it  was  81lcd 
with  stirring  news  of  the  doings  of  the  army  every- 
where, illuBtrated  by  engravings  which  stron^y  ap- 
pealed to  the  emotional  senribiUtiei,  every  column  in 
each  issue  being  filled  with  intetligoice,  short,  sharp, 
and  fresh.  The  sales  soon  ran  up  lo  2£0,000,  and  in 
each  issue  wai  printed  an  account  of  Che  number  of 
copies  of  tlie  paper  sold  by  each  corps  throughout  tbe 
country,  as  a  spur  lo  ambition.  The  War-erg  is  now 
a  valuaiile  property  to  Mr,  Booth,  and  ^ncG  January, 
1B86,  it  has  been  enlarged,  and  issued  once  a  week,  at 
one  penny.  There  are  now  twenty  diHeient  papen  with 
that  title,  four  English  and  sixteen  foreign,  issiied  in  as 
many  localities,  to  report  the  work  of  tbe  army  in  theae 
places,  and  all  after  the  English  original.  For  the 
children  in  the  army  another  paper  is  issued,  called 
rAsZiUlaSoUirr,  in  which  are  reported  the  sayings  and 
dungs  of  the  Juvenile  membera  of  the  ainiy.  Peo- 
ple ontaide  the  army  have  frequently  DMuplaiDed  of' 
articles  whicb  have  appeared  in  both  papers,  but  the 
reply  of  the  offidali  is,  that  the  loldtets  in  the  army 
■re  satisfied,  and  they  are  the  chief  patrons  of  both 
papeni  Every  soldier  is  expected  to  lake  part  in  sdl- 
ing  these  papers  weekly,  and  they  are  sold  aa  freely 
on  Sunday  as  on  any  other  day,  as  are  also  other  pnb- 
licationsof  theirs.  Quite  a  nnmbetof  bookaare  issoed 
now  from  the  book-room,  for  which  a  Urge  puUiab- 
ing-hause  has  been  opened  in  LondoiL  One  ot  these 
is  entitled  The  Sidvation  Soldia'i  Gridr,  whicb  coo- 
tains  a  Bible  chapter  for  every  morning  and  cveniDg 
throughout  tbe  year,  Co  help  the  unlearned  to  a  d^y 
increased  knowledge  of  God'i  word.  The  army  baa 
DOW  a  connderable  catalogue  of  its  own  puUicatioiH, 
About  twenty  tona'  weight  of  printed  biioks  u  aeot 
ODt  every  week  from  the  publishing-house. 

6,  It  has  been  found  that  strong  prejudice  cxiata 
among  tbe  poor  against  churches  and  citapela;  to  avoid 
arouung  those  prejudices  in  the  minds  of  the  oatcaat 
class  and  the  igiwranl,  tbe  terms  "Salvation  Army," 


SALVATION  ARMY 


817 


SANDBUCHLER 


(*ChnBt  Charcb"  or  "Jetm  College."  The  csnyiog 
of  colon,  using  bandB  of  muBic,  processions,  and  other 
sensational  methods  are  justified  because  other  methods 
have  failed  to  influence  the  massesi  Striking  hand- 
bills are  used  as  the  only  means  likely  to  influence 
drunkards,  gamblers,  thieves,  and  neglecters  of  salva- 
tion generally.  The  terms  ^  Blood  and  Fire,"  used  on 
the  banners  and  in  their  literature,  refer  to  the  blood 
of  the  Atonement  by  which  men  are  saved,  and  fire 
means  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  sanctifies,  energizes^  and 
comforts  all  true  soldiers  of  God. 

All  new  converts  are  taught  and  encouraged  to  speak 
immediately  after  their  conversion,  just  to  tell  what  the 
Lord  has  done  for  them;  it  commits  them  to  a  life  of 
usefulness  in  his  service  before  all  their  old  companions, 
kindred,  and  friends.  God  blesses  them  in  so  doing,  it 
makes  them  happy  and  useful,  and  has  been  the  means 
of  saving  scores  from  becoming  backsliders,  by  return- 
ing to  their  old  ways. 

The  employment  of  women  to  speak  and  preach  has 
been  objected  to  by  some,  but  it  is  justified  by  various 
passages  in  the  New  Test.  Beyond  these,  the  fact  that 
they  have  the  gilt  to  preach— and  this  both  Mrs.  and 
MIbs  Booth  have  in  a  very  high  degree — and  preach 
most  effectively,  is  evidence  that  the  gift  should  be 
exercised.  Philip  the  Evangelist  had  four  daughters 
who  were  preachers.  '  For  ten  years  and  more  Mrs.  and 
Miss  Booth,  and  scores  of  other  females  in  the  army, 
have  preached  continually  to  all  classes  of  people,  with* 
out  any  evil  consequences  following;  on  the  contrary, 
hundreds  of  people,  rich  and  poor,  have  been  saved 
under  their  ministrations.  The  army  does  not  recruit 
its  ranks  by  drawing  members  from  any  churches,  it 
openly  avows  its  objection  to  accept  members  belonging 
to  any  existing  Church ;  but  churches  of  most  denomi- 
nations have  voluntarily  contributed  to  its  funds,  espe- 
cially the  Church  of  England  and  the  Methodists,  who 
best  understand  its  operations  and  designs.  Many  of 
the  army  converts  go  to  join  other  churches,  and  it  is 
known  that  more  than  four  hundred  persons,  converted 
and  trained  in  its  ranks,  were,  in  1885,  employed  by 
different  religious  organizations  as  ministers,  evange- 
lists, missionaries,  colporteurs,  Bible  women,  and  in 
other  like  agencies.  Great  care  is  taken  of  the  health 
of  the  soldiers  in  the  army,  and  when  unable  to  attend 
to  the  duties  of  their  station  they  are  sent  to  a  House 
of  Best,  which  was  many  years  the  home  of  general 
Booth  and  his  family,  and  there  they  remain  till  recov- 
ered strength  justifies  their  return  to  doty. 

IIL  Statistict. — The  success  of  the  army,  especially 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies,  has  4x>mmanded  the 
attention  and  consideration  of  persons  in  all  classes  of 
society.  On  June  80, 1882,  queen  Victoria  intimated 
her  personal  disposition  towards  the  army  in  a  letter  to 
Mrs.  Booth,  from  which  the  following  is  an  extract: 
*' Madam,  I  am  commanded  by  the  queen  to  acknowl- 
edge the  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  27th  insL,  and  to 
assure  you  that  her  majesty  learns  with  much  satisfac- 
tion that  you  have,  with  other  members  of  your  society, 
been  successful  in  your  efforts  in  winning  many  thou- 
sands to  the  ways  of  temperance,  virtue,  and  religion." 
About  the  same  time  the  bishops  in  convocation  spoke 
most  favorably  of  the  army,  and  they  unanimously 
passed  a  resolution  "  for  a  committee  of  their  lordships 
to  inquire  into  the  workings  of  the  army,  to  see  what 
advice  they  could  give  to  their  presbyters  in  dealing 
with  them.**  The  archbishop  of  York  and  the  bishop 
of  Bedford,  among  others,  have  gathered  large  compa- 
nies of  the  army  and  administered  the  Lord's  Supper  to 
them  in  their  churches.* 

The  great  Congress  Hall  in  London  is  the  school  for 
the  army.    There  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  soldiers 

*  In  1883  the  Salvation  Army  was  prohibited  by  the 
authorities  of  the  cantons  of  Geneva,  Berne,  and  Kenf- 
cbatel,  in  Switzerland,  on  an  old  law,  as  disturbers  of  the 
public  peace,  and  there  have  been  occasioual  interferences 
with  their  Sunday  processions  in  some  towns  In  America 
by  the  municipal  authorities  on  similar  grounds.— Eik 

XU^Fff 


are  constantiy  under  training  in  various  departments; 
some  have  to  learn  the  mere  elements  of  knowledge,  and 
the  elements  pf  theology  are  not  forgotten.  To  many 
of  the  cadets  the  interior  of  a  church  or  chapel  was  a 
place  of  mystery  before  their  conversion.  The  army 
is  now  so  thoroughly  before  the  public,  and  has  met 
with  almost  universal  endorsement  in  the  minds  of  un- 
prejudiced persons,  that  it  has  become  a  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  raising  fallen  and  degraded  humanity 
in  nearly  all  lands.  As  described  by  general  Booth 
himself,  ^The  end  and  design  of  the  Salvation  Army 
is  to  spread  throughout  the  entire  world,  and  to  last 
as  long  as  God  has  enemies  to  be  fought  with  and 
overcome  I" 


BTATI  or  TBI  SALVAnOK  ABUT,  XyKOIMEBZ,  1886. 


United  Kingdom 

France  and  Switzerland. . . . 

Sweden 

United  States 

California 

Canada. 

India  and  Ceylon 

Victoria. 

South  Australia 

New  South  Wales 

Tasmania 

Queensland 

New  Zealand. 

South  Anrlca 

Holland  in  preparation 


Cbrpfc 
1884.       188S. 


037 
16 

4 
60 

6 
Tl 
14 
SI 
85 
21 

B 

•  • 

28 

11 


910 


808 

29 

6 

148 

6 

141 

16 

41 

48 

86 

6 

8 

83 

17 


1828 


1884.   188S. 


1476 

66 

IT 

120 

8 

MM 
ZZV 

66 
86 
65 
83 

7 

•  • 

68 

14 


2164 


17S0 

108 

86 

801 

IS 

413 

65 

96 

71 

67 

14 

9 

75 

85 


8076 


inniBn  of  ssbvxoks  usldw 

WtMf. 

DurlDgl884 17,470 

During  1886 85,496 


Increase. 


8086 


BtUptr  Ytar. 

8n,600 
1,868,798 

485,898 


(G.  J.  S.) 

Samaria.  The  archssology  of  Sthustieh  is  given  in 
detail  in  the  Memoirs  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Sur- 
vey (ii,  211  sq.),  and  the  topography  somewhat  (p.  160). 
See  also  Conder,  Tent  Work,  i,  88  sq. 

Bamaon,  Hermann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many,  who  died  at  Riga,  Dec  16, 1642,  is  the  author  of, 
De  BoMiFidd  tea  Je  Scriptura  Sacra : — De  AudorUaU 
Scriptura  Sacra : — De  Imagine  Dei  in  Prima  ffomine 
Statuque  InnocenUa: — De  Autore  et  C<nt$a  Peccati: — 
De  BapHtmo: — De  Sacra  Ccma: — De  Ecclesia: — Num 
Sandi  sint  fnvocandi: — De  AntuChritto,  See  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeinet  GeUhrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

SanCtina,  Caspar,  a  Jesuit,  was  bom  in  1554,  and 
died  Nov.  16, 1628,  professor  of  theology  at  Madrid.  He 
is  the  author  of,  In  Quatuor  Libros  Regum  et  in  Duos 
Paralipomcnorum  Commentarii  (Antwerp,  1624;  Lyons, 
1625)  :-^Commentarii  in  Libros  Ruth,  Esdras,  Nehem,^ 
Tob»,  JudUh,  Esthera  et  Machabceorum  (Lyons,  1628) :~ 
Commentarii  in  Acta  Apostolorum,  A ccetsit  Disputatio 
de  Jacobi  et  Pauli  in  Hiapaniam  A  dventu  (1616 ;  Cologne, 
1617).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  208,  204, 
250;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  s.  v.;  Jdcher,  A Bgemeines  Gelehrten- 
Lexihon^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

SandbUohler,  Alots,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  20, 1751.  In  1770  he  Joined 
the  Aogustinians  at  Salzboiig,  was  in  1810  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  and  biblical  exegesis  at  the  Lyceum 
there,  and  died  Feb.  8,  1820,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
published,  DarsteUur^  der  Regdn  einer  aUgemeinen  A  us- 
Ugungskunst  ton  den  BOchem  des  A  Uen  und  Neuen  Tetter 
menis  nach  John  (Salzburg,  1818) : — Kurze  DarsteUung 
einer  Einleitung  in  die  BUdi^r  des  A  Uen  TestamentSf  nach 
John  (eod.) : — A  bhcmdlung  liber  die  zvechndssigen  Mittd, 
den  hinraischen  und  griechischen  Grundtext  dem  Wortsinne 
nach  ridUig  su  verstehen  (1791) :  —  Vertheidigung  der 
GMichkeit  des  mosaischen  Gesetzes  und  des  A  Iten  Bundes 
(1787-S8, 4  parU) :—  UOer  die  ZuverUissigbeU  des  Grund- 


SANDBY 


818 


SARTORIUS 


textet  (1788).  See  Doring,  Die  gdehrttn  Theohgen 
Dettt9ddandB,  8.  r. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  a.  v. ;  Winer,  ffand- 
buch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  877, 898, 400, 409.     (K  P.) 

Sandby,  George,  D.D^  a  Church  of  England  di- 
vine, was  bora  about  1717,  and  was  educated  at  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  MA.  in 
1740,  and  afterwards  was  master  of  Magdalen  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  D.D.  in  1760. 
He  was  collated  to  the  rectorship  of  Denton,  Norfolk, 
in  1750,  and  to  the  chancellorship  of  Norwich  in  1768. 
He  died  at  Denton,  April  29, 1807.  See  (Lond.)  Annual 
Register,  1807,  \i.b7L 

Sandeii,  Bemhard  von  (1),  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  born  Oct.  4, 1636,  at  Insterburg. 
He  studied  at  different  universities,  was  in  1664  preacher 
at  Konigsberg,  in  1674  professor,  and  in  1675  doctor  of 
theology.  In  1690  Sanden  was  made  general  superin- 
tendent, and  died  April  19, 1708.  He  published,  Tkeo' 
hgia  Sgmbolica  Lutherana: — Ditsertatio  ad  Gen,  xUx, 
de  Pn^pketa  Promitso : — De  Verbis  Dei  ad  Petrum  Matt, 
xn,  19 : — Pentas  lUustrium  Quagtionum  Theohgiearum, 
See  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrien-Lexihon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Sanden,  Bernhard  von  (2),  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  bom  at  Kdnigsberg,  May  4, 1666.  He  studied 
at  different  universities,  was  in  1695  professor  of  the- 
ology at  the  university  of  his  native  place,  in  1709  first 
court-preacher,  and  died  Jan.  22, 1721,  doctor  of  theolo- 
gy. He  wrote,  De  Cive  in  Rejmblica  Hebraorum: — 
De  Modis  Obtinendi  Civitatem  ffebneorum: — De  Prose- 
Igtismo : — In  Matt,  xvi,  19 : — In  Jok,  xxi,  16 : — /n  Luc, 
xxiif  81, 88 :— /n  lesa,  Ixiv,  6 : — De  Dvobis  Hircis  Festo 
ExpicUionis  Deo  Oblatis: — An  Concilium  Trideniinum 
sit  (Ecumeniatm : — De  ProphetU  et  Propheiiie  Veteris 
Testamenii: — De  Conjugio  Petri  et  Pauli  Apostolorum: 
— De  Appariiione  Spirilus  Sandi  in  Specie  Columbas: 
— DeSinu  Abrakami: — De  Salute  Gentium  fnfideUum, 
etc.    See  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexiion,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Sanfbrd,  BAUes,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  a  na- 
tive of  Connecticut,  was  for  a  time  a  Methodist,  then 
became  a  Baptist,  and  was  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist 
Church  in  Chicago,  111. ;  subsequently  an  editor  in  De- 
troit, Mich.,  from  which  place  he  removed  to  East  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  then  to  Gloucester,  and  at  length  to  North 
Adams,  whence  he  went  as  chaplain  of  a  Westera  Mas- 
sachusetts regiment  to  active  service  in  the  late  war. 
Next  he  was  for  a  short  period  financial  secretary  of 
the  American  Bible  Union,  and  then  became  pastor  of 
the  First  Church  in  Salem,  N.  J.,  where  he  remained 
about  two  years.  He  died  at  Salem,  Oct  81, 1874. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  1028.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Sanford,  Peter  P.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  at  Lodi,  N.  J.,  Feb.  28, 1781.  He 
was  religiously  inclined  from  childhood,  converted  at 
the  age  of  eighteen,  and  in  1807  entered  the  Philadel- 
phia Conference.  In  1810  he  was  transferred  to  the 
New  York  Conference,  and  in  it  continued  laborious  till 
his  death,  Jan.  14, 1857.  Dr.  Sanford  was  a  thorough 
divine,  an  able  scholar,  and  an  eminent,  honest,  and  de- 
vout man.  From  1816  to  1852  he  was  elected  a  dele- 
gate to  every  general  conference.  See  Minutes  of  An^ 
nual  Conferences,  1857,  p.  821;  Simpson,  Cydop,  of 
Methodism,  s.  v. 

Sanger,  Rauph,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  son  of 
Rev.  Zedekiah  Sanger,  D.D.,  was  bora  in  Duxbury, 
Mass.,  June  22,  1786.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
College  in  1808 ;  then,  after  spending  three  years  in  the 
study  of  theology  under  his  father,  he  was  appointed 
tutor  at  Cambridge ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Dover,  Mass.,  Sept.  16, 1812,  and  continued  there  until 
his  death,  May  6,  1860.  See  Necrology  of  Harvard 
College,  p.  805.     (J.  C  S.) 

Sangulreee  Version  of  the  Scriptciies.  This 
language  is  used  in  the  Sangir  Islands,  the  inhsbitants 
of  which,  numbering  about  80,000  soiils,  10,000  of  whom 


have  been  baptized,  have  but  recently  been  blessed  with 
a  translation  of  the  New  Test  From  the  report  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for  1879  we  learn 
that  the  Rev.  Bir.  Kelling,  who  has  been  Uboring  twen- 
ty years  on  the  island  of  Tagulandang,  where  he  has 
formed  a  church,  has  completed  the  New  Test^  and  is 
giving  it  a  final  revision.  This  translation  was  pub- 
lished at  London,  in  the  Siamo  dialect,  in  1882,  the 
Rev.  £.  W.  King,  of  Tilbury,  having  read  the  proofs. 
Encouraged  by  the  good  reception  which  the  New- 
Test  had  received  at  the  hands  of  the  natives,  the  com- 
mittee of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  agreed, 
in  1884,  to  print  an  edition  of  the  Psalms,  the  transla- 
tion having  also  been  made  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Kelling. 
(B.  P.) 

Sanke,  Christopher,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  Dec.  12, 1700,  at  Guben,  Lower  Lu- 
satia.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  died  there,  May  4, 
1752.  He  wrote.  Diss,  PkiloL  de  Anatkemate  PauU 
Votivo  Roman. ix,  8  (Leipsic,  1729)  i^Vollstandige  An- 
voeiiung  zu  den  Acoenten  der  IlebrSer  (1740)  i—De  Dif- 
ferentia Inter  Vocationem  ac  Tentationem  circa  Munu$ 
Ecclesiasticum  (1749).  See  Dciring,  Die  gelehrten  The- 
ologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Santes,  Paqninus.    See  Paomisus. 

Saphir.    The  probable  representative  of  this  place 

is  thus  described  in  the  Memoirs  accompanying  the 

Ordnance  Survey  (ii,  418) : 

"  Three  mud  villages  of  the  name  es-^u^ir  exist  cloee 
together.  It  is  probably  the  Zeophir  !n  the  territory  of 
Ascalon,  given  ss  properly  to  the  bishop  of  Bethlehem, 
A.D.  1100  (William  of  Tyre).  The  most  andent  of  the 
sites  would  appear  to  be  Snafir  esh-Shemaliyeh  (the  most 
northerly  of  the  three),  where  there  are  ruined  cieterD» 
of  rubble  masonry.  There  are  small  gardens  and  wells 
at  each  village.** 

Saphir,  Jacob,  a  Jewish  traveller,  was  bora  in 
1880,  and  died  at  Jerasalem,  June  28, 1685.  He  visited 
Egypt,  Arabia,  India,  and  Australia;  the  results  of  hia 
researches  he  published  in  "^ifiO  pK  (1868, 1874,  2 
vols.).  This  work  is  of  great  historical  and  ethno- 
graphical value.  For  the  Hebrew  codex  which  Saphir 
brought  from  Arabia  and  sold  to  the  public  library  at 
Paris  in  1868,  see  Siiapiha  Maxdscript.     (B.  P.) 

Sarohi,  Philip,  a  Jewish  writer,  who  died  at  Paris 
in  1830,  is  the  author  of,  Grammaire  Ifebratque  Raiaon- 
nh  et  Comparee  (Paris,  1828):— ^n  Essay  on  Hebrew 
Poetty,  Ancient  and  Modem  (Lond.  1824).  See  Funr, 
BibL  Jud,  8.  V. ;  Winer,  ffandbueh  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  116. 
(a  P.) 

Sargado.    See  Ibk-Saroado. 

Saild.  Lieut.  Conder  suggests  {Memoirs  to  the 
Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  49)  that  the  original  name  may 
have  been  Sadid  ("^  for  1),  as  in  the  SepL,  and  in  tbst 
case  the  place  may  be  represented  by  the  modem  Teil 
Shadud,  three  and  a  half  miles  south-west  of  Kazaieth, 
consisting  of  **  a  good-sized  artificial  mound,  with  fine 
springs  beneath  on  the  south  "  (ibid.  p.  70). 

Sartoriue,  Chriatoph  Friediicli,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  22, 1701.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen,  was  vicar  at  Ludwigsburg  in  1727, 
in  1780  at  Stuttgart,  in  1783  preacher  and  professor  at 
Bebenhansen.  In  1747  he  went  again  to  Ludwigsburg, 
was  called  to  Tubingen  in  1755,  and  took  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  theology  in  1766.  He  died  Dec.  2, 178&. 
Sartorius  published,  Meditationes  ad  Psa,  liii  de  Salute 
ex  Zione  (Tubingen,  1785)  :—Positiones  GeneraUorea  de 
Libra  Geneseos  {1756)  z—De  Messim  rUU  Dei  Genera- 
tione  Sterna  ex  Psa,  0,7  A  dserta  (1758)  i—De  Sacra" 
mentis  in  Genere  (1760)  \-^De  Baptismo  (1761)  :~^De 

Sacra  Ccma  (eod.):— Z)e  Lege  CeremomaU  (1762): 

VindicuB  Cantici  Canticorum  (1765) : — Diss,  ExegeUca 
Super  Psa,  xix  (1766):  —  Theohgumena  SymboHoa 
(1769-71)  '^De  UtUitate  Vet,  Teet,  etc.  (1772) :— Dtas. 
ad  Dictum  ChrisH  Matt,  v,  1-19  (1778).  See  During, 
Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschkmds,  s.  v. ;  Fttnt,  BibL 
/lid  8.  v.     (RP.) 


SARTORIUS 


819 


SCEPTICISM 


BaxtoriuBk  Friedzlch  Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Dantzie,  Feb.  7, 
1715,  and  died  at  Lubben  in  1784,  doctor  of  theology 
and  general  superintendent.  He  wrote,  De  Metempt^ 
ehosi  PytkOfforica,  etc  (Lttbben,  1760) : — De  Seriptura 
Sacra  {l7B6)i—De  BeUo  Domini  in  AmaUk  (1786). 
See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  HUoL  Xt/.  i,  468;  Flint,  BibL 
Jud.  8.  ▼.     (R  P.) 

Baaoo,  Aaron.    See  Aabon  bex-Joskph  Sason. 

Satiafieiotional  Vieinr  of  the  Atonement.  The 
vicarious  sofferijigs  of  Jesus  Christ  upon  the  cross  are 
often  represented  by  theologians  as  mainly  intended  to 
appease  the  divine  wrath  by  offSering  a  satisfaction  for 
human  guilt.  That  this,  however,  is  incorrect  is  evi- 
dent, not  only  from  the  character  of  God  himself,  who 
is  no  Shylock  demanding  his  ^  pound  of  flesh,"  and  is 
infinitely  anxious  to  be  reconciled  to  the  sinner,  but  it  is 
dear  likewise  from  the  fact  that  no  adequate  quid  pro 
quo  was  either  attempted  or  achieved  in  this  regard. 
The  virtue  and  obedience  and  holiness  of  Jesus  did  not 
in  the  slightest  degree  lessen,  palliate,  or  modify  the 
crimes,  the  sins,  and  the  transgressions  of  man,  nor  are 
they  ever  represented  as  any  apology  or  excuse  for 
these.  To  accept  the  merit  of  the  pure  as  a  counter- 
poise of  the  dereliction  of  the  impure  Is  no  reasonable 
equivalent,  much  less  to  condone  the  fault  of  the  oCTend- 
ing  by  the  suffering  of  the  innocent.  Such  a  satisfac- 
tion is  opposed  to  the  plain  teaching  of  the  parable  of 
the  prodigal  son,  in  which  no  reparation,  but  merely  a 
penitent  return,  is  attempted  or  spoken  of  on  the  part 
of  the  wanderer.  Nor  does  this  conflict  with  Paul's 
doctrine  of  the  release  from  the  claims  of  the  law 
(Rom.  V,  II),  for  he  everywhere  represents  this  from  a 
Judaic  or  human  point  of  view,  and  especially  insists 
that  these  obligations  are  cancelled  for  the  past  and 
fulfilled  for  the  future  simply  by  a  subjective  con- 
formity to  the  will  of  God  (Rom.  x,  4  ^  xiii,  10).  It  is, 
in  fact,  the  sinner  himself  who  is  ultimately  and  prac- 
tically called  upon  to  be  satisfied  with  this  arrange- 
ment, and  upon  his  acceptance  of  the  substitute  the 
whole  efficacy  of  the  scheme  is  finally  made  to  depend. 
God  needs  no  such  inducement,  but  man  does,  and  this 
not  so  much  outside  parties  as  the  offending  individual 
himself.  It  is  the  sinner*s  conscience  that  demands  a 
satisfaction,  and  this  he  can  find  only  in  Christ.  See 
YiCABioua  Suffering. 

Saubert.  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger^ 
many,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg,  Feb.  1, 1688.  In  1660 
he  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages,  in  1665  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  HelmstUdt,  in  1678  professor  and 
pastor  at  Altdorf,  and  he  died  April  29, 1688,  doctor  of 
theology.  He  wrote,  Varia  Lectionet  Text,  Greed  Evan- 
gelii  MaUh,  (HelmstUdt,  1672)  i-^De  Templo  IHeroeo- 
lymi  (1666)  :—Die  heiL  Schrift  AUen  TetU  (pt.  i,  eod.)  : 
—De  SacrificOs  Veterum  ColUekmea  (ed.  Crenius,  Ley- 
den,  1699)t  — Zte  SiudU  ffebraica  Lingua  MuUipUci 
UtilikUe  et  NecetsilaU  (HelmsUldt,  1661,  1678).  See 
Winer,  ffandbuch  der  iheol  Lit,  i,  28, 108, 139, 169, 515 , 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  s.  v  ,  Jiicher,  AUganeinet  GeUkrten^ 
Lexikonj  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Saul,  JoiiN,  D,D,,  an  Irish  Blethodist  preacher,  was 
bom  at  Dromore,  County  Down,  in  July,  1795.  He 
was  brought  up  in  the  Established  Church,  converted 
in  his  youth,  and  joined  the  Methodists  to  exercise  his 
f^h  for  preaching.  He  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Irish  Conference  in  1826,  and  for  forty-two  years  em- 
ployed his  talents  to  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of 
man.  He  was  some  years  treasurer  of  the  Children*8 
Fund,  became  a  supernumerary  in  1868,  and  removed 
to  England.  He  was  for  fifty  years  a  diligent  student 
of  the  Bible  in  the  original  languages.  He  was  a  happy, 
pious,  and  useful  minister,  and  died  near  Manchester, 
Oct.  11, 1878.  See  Minutet  <ifthe  Britith  Conference, 
1879,  p.  43. 

SauU,  Alessandro,  an  Italian  Baraabite,  was  bom 
at  Milan  in  1585.    He  studied  at  Pavia  and  Mihin  with 


such  success  that  he  knew  the  ''Summa**  of  Aquinas 
almost  by  heart  In  1567  SauU  was  made  superior  of 
his  order,  in  1570  bishop  of  Aleria,  in  1591  bishop  of 
Pavia,  after  having  refused  the  archbishopric  of  Genoa. 
He  died  in  1592.  Benedict  XIV  beatified  him  in  174L 
See  Aigelati,  BibUotheca  Scr^t.  Mediol,  (MiUn,  1745), 
voLii;  CoUesione di  Viie  dei  Piu  DittinH  ReUffwH  ddla 
Cot^pr^caione  dei  Chierici  RR»  di  8,  Poole  detti  Bama' 
hUi  (ibid.  1861),  vol  xiii ;  Letiere  fnediie  del  Beat.  Ales' 
Mondro  SauU  (Turin,  1868) ;  RaceoUa  di  Oraxiom  in 
Lode  del  Beai.  A  leuandro  SauU  (Lucca,  1743) ;  Uohten- 
berger,  Enejfdop.  dee  Sdeneee  J2e%»eiisef,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Satmden,  Ephbath  Dod,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  near  Mendham,  N.  J.,  Sept  80, 1809. 
After  graduating  at  Yale  College  in  1881,  he  remained 
in  New  Haven  for  several  months  for  the  purpose  of 
theological  study.  In  the  autumn  of  1882  he  went  to 
Virginia,  where  he  spent  a  year  in  teaching  and  study, 
He  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  East 
Hanover,  in  session  at  Nottoway,  Oct  18, 1888.  After 
four  years  of  pastoral  work,  during  which  time  he  col- 
lected money  to  build  two  churehes,  he  opened  a  school 
for  boys  in  Cumberland  County,  which  he  removed  to 
Goochland  County.  In  1848  he  became  principal  of 
the  Classical  Institute  at  Petersburg,  Va.,  and  held  this 
position  for  four  years.  In  1848  he  visited  Europe,  and 
on  his  return  established  a  Church  in  Pottsville,  Pa. 
In  1851  he  removed  to  West  Philadelphia,  and  founded 
a  school  for  boys,  which  was  afterwards  chartered  as  a 
college.  During  the  late  war  a  military  department 
was  established,  the  pupils  being  styled  the  *'Courtland 
Saunders  Cadets,"  in  honor  of  the  founder's  only  child, 
who  was  killed  in  battle,  in  September,  1862.  Dr. 
Saunders  was  made  chairman  of  the  Bounty  Fund 
Commission  of  Philadelphia.  In  1871  he  offered  to 
give  his  real  estate  in  West  Philadelphia  to  the  Pres- 
byterian Alliance  for  the  purpose  of  founding  a  hospi- 
taL  He  also  obtained  subscriptions  to  the  amount  of 
one  hundred  thousand  dollars  towards  the  endowment 
of  the  hospitaL  He  died  in  West  Philadelphia,  Sept. 
13, 1872.    See  Obiiuary  Record  of  Yale  College,  1878. 

Savage  Island  VeraioxL  See  Kicean  Vkr- 
siox. 

Sayres,  Gilbert  H.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Churoh,  a  native  of  New  Jersey,  died 
at  Jamaica,  L.  I.  (where  he  had  formerly  been  for  many 
years  rector),  April  27,  1867,  aged  eighty  years.  See 
Amer.  Quar.  Church  Rev.  July,  1867,  p.  835. 

Scambler,  Edward,  D.D.,  an  English  Protestant 
Dissenter  and  bishop,  was  bora  in  1512,  and  educated 
at  the  University  of  Cambridge.  In  the  reign  of  queen 
Mary  he  was  pastor  of  the  first  Protestant  congregation 
in  London,  but  went  abroad  during  the  Marian  perse- 
cution i  returned  in  the  early  days  of  Elizabeth's  reign, 
and  was  chaplain  to  archbishop  Parker-,  consecrated 
bishop  of  Peterborough  in  1560,  translated  to  Norwich 
in  1584.  He  conducted  himself  with  wisdom  and  mod- 
eration, was  a  learaed  man,  but  zealous  against  the 
papists.  He  encouraged  religious  meetings  among  the 
deigy,  but  the  queen  suppressed  them  because  Puritans 
were  admitted.  He  died  May  7, 1597,  and  was  interred 
in  Norwich  Cathedral  See  Wilson,  Diseenting  Churcha, 
1,4. 

Soeptioiaiii,  Rbcbkt  Phases  of.  Scepticism 
is  primarily  nothing  more  than  an  inquiring  state  of 
mind,  with  provisional  suspension  of  positive  conclu- 
sions. It  soon  comes  to  mean  denial,  or  repudiation 
of  what  transcends  human  observation  and  inference 
therefrom,  in  matters  necessarily  of  faith.  See  Scep- 
ticism in  vol.  ix.  It  is  in  the  latter  signification  that  it 
will  now  be  noticed,  knd  only  in  its  chief  recent  forms. 

Every  age  has  its  own  philosophical  tendencies,  re- 
curring under  modified  fashions,  with  the  change  of 
antecedents  and  surroundings.  Thus,  old  scepticism 
reappears  with  altered  face,  moving  always  in  a  vicious 
circle.    Every  philosophy  is  the  imperfect  expression 


SCEPTICISM 


820 


SCEPTICISM 


of  tbe  faintly  perceived  and  feebly  andentood  mani- 
festatioDB  of  the  anivene,  and  of  their  Bappoeed  rignifl- 
cance.  Each  baa  its  own  scheme  for  tbe  interpretation 
of  the  mysteries  with  which  **  we  are  girt  aboat,"  either 
recognising  or  excluding  the  sapematural.  Scepticism, 
therefore,  varies  with  the  ages,  in  degree,  in  method, 
and  in  form.  In  no  period  of  hbtoiy  has  unbelief  in 
revealed  or  natural  religion,  which  is  unbelief  in  all  the 
foundations  of  knowledge,  assumed  so  many  varying 
forms  and  shadows  of  form  as  in  the  present  day. 
Much,  very  much,  of  recent  thought  and  speculation 
is  corroded  by  the  burrowing  virus  of  this  diseased  and 
morbi6c  tendency.  It  is  difficult  to  employ  familiar 
phrases  and  current  modes  of  argument  without  being 
involved  and  entangled,  unawares,  in  some  of  the  ram- 
ifications of  the  pervading  infection.  All  men  are 
creatures  of  their  age  and  of  the  intellectual  atmos- 
phere encompassing  them.  The  mind  is  moulded,  and 
its  developments  and  products  are  shaped  or  colored,  by 
the  influences  which  it  habitually  endures.  Hence  it 
becomes  a  difficult  task,  but  urgent  in  proportion  to  its 
difficulty,  to  examine  tbe  modes  of  aberration,  and  to 
detect  the  fallacies  in  widely  accepted  systems  of  error. 
Of  course  it  would  be  impracticable,  within  any  moder- 
ate limits,  to  distinguish  the  manifold  varieties  of  recent 
scepticism,  to  trace  tbe  melting  hues  by  which  they 
blend  almost  insensibly  into  each  other,  and  to  dis- 
criminate the  multitudinous  variations  and  degrees  of 
diseased  perception  in  the  diversities  of  philosophical 
sects.  No  more  can  be  safely  or  profitably  attempted 
than  to  note  the  most  accepted  tj'pes  of  sceptical  specu- 
lation in  this  declining  century.  All  might  be  included 
under  tbe  single  head  of  Rationausm  (q.  v.),  but  this 
term  has  a  mora  restricted  meaning  in  theological  ter- 
minology. All  proceed  from  the  negation  or  exclusion 
of  everything  in  the  intelligible  universe  beyond  tbe 
grasp  of  (he  observing  and  reasoning  faculties. 

The  species  of  scepticism  which  will  be  estimated 
here  are  those  which  assail,  extrude,  or  undermine  re- 
ligious truth— which  reject  knowledge  or  authority, 
superior  to  such  as  may  be  compressed  into  the  narrow 
domain  of  scientific  or  demonstrative  processes.  Of 
these  there  appear  to  be  six  leading  classes,  the  appre- 
ciation of  which  will  afford  guidance  for  the  criticism 
of  tbe  intermediate  or  affiliated  varieties  of  incredulity. 
They  are,  1.  Materialism;  2.  Naturalitm;  8.  AgnotH- 
cisin;  4.  Phenomenalitm ;  6.  Pesnmum;  6.  Nihilism, 
which  last  approximates  to  Neo^  Buddhism,  These 
several  schemes  have  been  exhibited  in  more  or  less 
developed  proportions  nnce  human  inquiry  gained 
strength  and  audacity  to  propose  a  systematic  answer 
to  the  torturing  questions.  Whence  come  man  and  the 
universe?  How  are  they  sustained?  What  are  their 
meaning,  their  purpose,  and  thtir  destiny?  What  are 
their  relations  to  the  source  of  their  being,  of  their 
maintenance,  and  of  their  order  ?  The  manner  in  which 
these  enigmas  have  been  answered  has  continually  suf- 
fered change  with  the  extension  of  human  knowledge 
and  the  consciousness  of  previous  failure.  The  latest 
transmutations  now  attract  our  regard.  Of  the  six 
classes,  into  which  the  chief  recent  theories  of  a  scep- 
tical character  have  been  divided,  two  have  been  suffi- 
cientlv  considered  in  the  articles  specially  devoted  to 
them.'  These  are.  Materialism  and  Pessimism  (q.  v.  sev- 
erally). They  require  no  further  notice  than  may  be 
incident  to  their  relations  to  other  theories. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  examination  of  the  remain- 
ing forms,  it  may  be  judicious  to  indicate  the  funda- 
mental delusion  which  underlies  and  vitiates  all  schemes 
of  scepticism,  using  the  designation  in  the  restricted 
sense  of  unbelief  in  the  transnatund.  All  knowledge 
of  things  included  within  the  observation  of  physical 
perception  is  obviously  and  necessarily  limited  by  the 
range  of  the  several  senses.  The  calorific,  the  actinic, 
and  the  chemical  rays  of  light  are  invisible;  yet  they 
are  probably  more  important  and  more  operative  in  the 
economy  of  nature  than  the  color-rays,  with  their  end- 


less service  and  infinite  variety  of  beauty.  There  are 
sounds  too  loud  for  the  human  ear  to  distinguish,  too 
slight  for  human  hearing;  notes  that  are  diBoord  to 
some  races  and  musical  to  othen;  odors  too  faint  oc 
evanescent  for  man's  olfactories  to  detect;  tastes  too 
delicate  or  too  oppressive  for  the  tongue  of  roan  to  dis- 
criminate; things  too  distant  or  too  small  for  human 
discernment.  Assuredly  there  are  stars  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  telescope,  organisms  too  minute  for  micro- 
scopic vision.  These  facts  are  recognised  by  observa- 
tion and  reflection,  aided  by  artificial  contrivances. 
They  prove  that  the  senses  cannot  attain  to  the  ap- 
prehension of  a  vast  variety  of  unquestionable  facts. 
Intellectnal  comprehension  is  limited  by  its  constitu- 
tion, in  like  manner,  in  regard  to  things  intelligible. 
This  is  in  consonance  with  the  physiod  or  material 
creation.  The  conclusion  is  the  same  in  the  one  case 
as  in  the  other.  It  is  ooly'transferred  from  the  senses 
to  the  mind,  and  adapted  to  a  new  sphere.  It  is  identi- 
cal, also,  with  the  irrefragable  axiom  or  postulate  that 
the  finite  can  neither  intellectually  grasp  nor  logically 
deny  what  lies  beyond  its  comprehension.  But  it  mmj 
and  must  recognise  it,  or  else  renounce  all  validity  of 
thought.  Every  form  of  dogmatic  scepticism  starts 
out,  therefore,  with  a  fatal  and  utterly  irrational  assump- 
tion. 

On  any  scheme  of  philosophy  the  office  of  the  human 
race  on  earth  is  to  improve  its  habitation,  its  conditions, 
and  itself,  through  the  instrumentalities  acquired  by 
the  enlargement  of  its  knowledge  and  the  expansion  of 
its  capacities.  The  fulfilment  of  this  destiny  or  tbe 
achievement  of  this  result  would  be  impossible,  and, 
indeed,  inconceivable,  if  the  limits  of  the  unknown  did 
not  always  spread  around,  and  if  humanity  were  not  al- 
ways led  on  and  guided  by  an  imperfect  apprehension, 
a  confident  intuition,  a  persistent  assurance  of  further 
enlargement  of  its  acquisitions.  It  is  the  very  law  of  its 
existence,  of  the  possible  sustenance  of  its  increasing 
numbers,  that,  as  Roger  Bacon  said,  the  recognition  of 
the  unknown  and  still  unknowable  advances  more  rap- 
idly than  the  increase  of  the  known.  "  Qu»  scit,  pauca 
sunt  et  vilia  respectu  eorum  qns  non  intelligit  sed 
credit,  et  longe  pauciora  respectu  eorum  qns  ignorat." 
This  is  only  an  illustration  of  the  law  which  renders 
fallacious  aU  knowledge  dwarfed  to  the  compass  of  the 
reasoning  faculties  of  man. 

There  is  another  line  of  procedure — a  purely  logical 
argument — ^which  arrives  at  'the  same  result.  Ever}* 
conclusion  mnst  rest  on  accepted  premises.  These  prem- 
ises,  whether  as  previous  conclusions,  or  as  interpreta- 
tions offsets,  which  are  also  conclusions,  must,  in  their 
turn,  depend  upon  more  remote  premises.  Ultimately 
a  point  must  be  reached  beyond  which  it  is  impossible 
for  analysis  to  go.  Yet  the  first  principles  repose  on 
surer  conviction  than  any  inferences  that  may  be  de- 
duced from  them.  The  sphere  beyond  the  utmost  range 
of  systematic  ratiocination  is  not  the  darkness  of  the 
unapprehcnsible,  but  the  realm  of  the  partially  unknown, 
yet  inevitably  believed.  Throughout,  the  invisible,  the 
incomprehensible,  the  unattainable,  must  be  received 
as  existent  and  operative,  or  all  knowledge  and  all  fact 
must  rest  upon  nothing  but  pure  imagination.  This  is 
only  the  development  of  the  profound  and  ssgacioua 
observation  of  Aristotle,  that  whoever  demands  a  rea- 
son for  ultimate  principles  takes  away  all  posaibility  of 
reasoning.  The  necessary  inference  from  these  truths, 
which  arc  only  diverse  aspects  of  the  ssme  truth,  is 
that  the  whole  order  of  existence,  physical  and  intel- 
lectnal— the  whole  procedure  of  valid  reasoning  on  any 
subject— requires  the  constant  admission  of  infloences, 
causes,  powers,  purposes,  and  governance  beyond  the 
possible  limits  of  formal  and  s>'stematiaed  knowledge, 
beyond  the  grasp  of  finite  intelligence.  Henoe,  any 
scheme  of  philosophy  which  pretends  to  include  all 
being,  and  all  appreciation  of  being,  within  the  brief 
tentacles  of  human  apprehensiiHi,  is  not  merely  incom- 
plete and  fallacious,  but  absurd. 


SCEPTICISM 


821 


SCEPTICISM 


With  this  prclimioary  exposition  of  the  fandamental 
conditions  of  thought,  the  artful  sophistry  involved  in 
all  forms  of  dogmadc  scepticism,  and  cunningly-  dis- 
guised or  ignored  in  the  recent  phases  of  philosophical 
unhelieC  becomes  manifest.  The  countless  forms  of 
scepticism  lie  between  the  antagonistic  extremes  of 
materialism  and  idealism.  These  extremes  are  not 
necessarily  sceptical,  but  in  their  development  they 
tend  to  sceptical  issues.  Milton  and  Berkeley  were 
fervent  in  their  religions  convictions.  Of  course,  as 
materialism  and  ide^m  are  the  opposing  poles  of 
speculation,  every  scheme  for  the  exposition  of  being 
and  its  interpretation  must  approximate  more  closely 
to  the  one  or  to  the  other.  All  may  be  included  in  the 
two.  But  such  absorption  of  divergent  currents  of 
thought  tends  only  to  confusion.  It  will  explain,  bow- 
ever,  the  impossibility  of  separating  discordant  systems 
by  sharp  lines  of  discrimination.  They  are  variously 
compounded,  and  coalesce  with  each  other  in  various 
modes  and  in  var}'ing  proportions.  The  failure,  then, 
to  maintain  sharp  distinctions  will  be  due  to  the  nature 
of  the -subject  divided,  not  to  the  error  of  the  division. 

I.  Naturalism, — Materialism,  as  has  been  remarked, 
has  already  been  amply  discussed.  Naturalism  is  an 
extensive  species  of  it,  which  requires  special  notice. 
There  is,  indeed,  one  subdivision  of  naturalism  which 
is  the  purest  idealism,  when  all  nature,  concrete  and 
operative,  is  resolved  into  the  divinity,  and  this  again 
is  dissolved  into  nature.  This  occurs  in  Spinozism, 
and  in  all  varieties  of  pantheism.  In  its  current  philo- 
sophical acceptation,  however,  naturalism  signifies  the 
interpretation  of  the  facts,  functions,  and  developments 
of  existence  by  the  forces  and  changes  of  physical  real- 
ities. It  sees  nothing  beyond.  It  denies  higher  causa- 
tion. It  imprisons  itself  within  the  domain  of  the  sen- 
sible, and  affirms  that  this  is  the  sole  and  adequate 
exposition  of  all  things.  The  voluntary  captive,  in  his 
self-constructed  dungeon,  affirms  that  there  is  neither 
sun  nor  sunlight  without.  The  unreasonableness  of  the 
conclusions  and  of  the  philosophy  erected  upon  them 
is  shown  by  the  preliminary  considerations  which  have 
been  presented. 

It  should  be  remarked  that,  in  tliese  fashions  of  scep- 
ticism, the  supposed  conclusion  is  always  the  starting- 
point  of  the  doctrine.  That  which  is  to  be  proved  is 
assumed.  The  philosophy  is  invented  and  manipulated 
for  the  support  of  the  thesis.  Great  acuteneas  and  in- 
genuity, greater  self-delusion,  and  the  confidence  of 
wilful  ignorance,  are  shown  in  the  elaborate  artifices  of 
the  frail  but  often  imposing  structure.  Every  fact  of 
nature,  if  analyzed — every  part  of  such  fact,  if  further 
analyzed,  and  if  the  analysis  be  conducted  to  its  utmost 
limit  —  inevitably  leads  ^from  nature  up  to  nature's 
God."  The  same  thing  is  true  of  every  intellectual  or 
emotional  experience,  which  gives  facts  of  another  order. 

Unquestionably  the  spontaneous  revelation  of  the 
transnatural  through  the  forms  of  the  natural  does  not 
rest  upon  the  same  kind  of  evidence,  or  generate  the 
same  species  of  conviction  as  are  characteristic  of  scien- 
tific conclusions.  But  they  come  clothed  with  a  firmer 
and  more  impressive  certainty.  This  is  no  novel  doc- 
trine, for  it  is  a  reply  to  antiquated  error.  Thomas 
Aquinas  said,  "The  dubitation  which  occurs  in  regard 
to  articles  of  faith  arises  from  no  uncertainty  of  the 
thing,  but  from  the  weakness  of  the  human  mind. 
Nevertheless,  a  minimum  of  knowledge  of  the  highest 
things  is  more  to  be  desired  than  the  most  certain 
knowledge  of  things  little  in  comparison.*'  Such  testi- 
mony may  be  rejected  with  scorn,  as  the  utterance  of 
a  schoolman,  a  metaphysician,  and  a  theologian.  But 
the  Angelic  Doctor  makes  his  avowal  on  the  authority 
of  Aristotle,  who  should  be  safe  from  the  petty  censure 
of  curmnt  science.  His  remark  is  {De  Part.  AmmdL 
i,  5),  "  If  it  be  but  little  of  these  things  that  we  ap- 
prehend, that  little,  on  account  of  the  preciousness  of 
such  knowledge,  is  more  acceptable  than  all  within  our 
grasp.''     Old  error  should  not,  on  accoont  of  its  at- 


tempted rehabilitation,  object  to  oog^t  lefotation  b^ 
cause  it,  too,  is  ancient. 

II.  EvoliUioniam  is  the  most  prominent  and  the  most 
controlling  type  of  naturalism  in  our  age,  the  credit 
and  the  parentage  of  which  are  usually  assigned  to 
Darwin,  though  its  most  elaborate  and  systematic  de- 
velopment is  to  be  sought  in  the  unfinished  and  inter- 
minable treatises  of  Spencer.  The  foundations  and  the 
main  walls  of  the  building  are  distinctively  Darwin'si 
To  him  is  due  the  patient,  persistent  industry  by  which 
the  materials  have  been  quarried,  chiselled  into  shape, 
and  adapted  to  their  places  in  the  bewildering  edifice. 
But  the  plan  and  the  purpose  of  the  philosophy  may  be 
found  in  the  notes  to  the  prosaic  poems  and  in  the  prose 
romances  of  his  grandfather.  Nor  is  the  elder  Darwin 
to  be  considered  as  the  original  inventor  of  the  system. 
Many  critics  have  shown  that  the  whole  essence  of  the 
speculation  and  its  line  of  argument  were  the  teachings 
of  Lucretius.  The  Roman  poet  proved,  in  bis  own  case, 
his  maxim,  **  Ex  nihilo  nihil  fit,"  and  borrowed  his  dog- 
mas, but  not  their  radiant  setting,  from  Epicurus.  In 
this  recurrence  to  the  resuscitated  phantasms  of  long- 
buried  delusion,  Darwinism  corresponds  with  all  current 
schemes  of  sceptical  speculation.  They  return  with 
the  revolving  cycle.  But  never  before,  not  even  under 
the  Roman  republic  or  the  empire,  did  Epicureanism 
display  so  bold  a  front  or  arrogate  so  absolute  dominion 
as  Darwinism  has  presented  and  received.  It  claims  to 
be  accepted  by  all  scientific  and  intelligent  minds.  It 
has  been  extensively  admitted  into  nearly  all  depart- 
ments of  knowledge.  These  have  been  remoulded  in 
consonance  with  it.  Now  it  looks  forward  to  an  early 
sovereignty  over  the  wh<de  realm  of  thought  and  action. 
The  eminent  naturalist  maintained,  during  his  life,  that 
his  doctrine  was  not  inconsistent  with  the  Christian 
faith.  His  letter  to  a  German  student,  published  after 
his  death,  revealed  his  suppressed  conviction  that  it 
was  so,  and  that  it  had  proved  so  in  his  own  case. 
His  declaration  may,  nevertheless,  be  so  interpreted 
as  to  be  true.  There  is  no  inevitable  inconsistency  be- 
tween the  creed  of  Christendom  and  the  hypothesis  of 
a  pn>gres8ive  development.  Everything  depends  upon 
the  exposition  and  the  application  of  the  cardinal  dog- 
ma. To  human  apprehension  there  is  a  more  marvel- 
lous exhibition  of  creative  intelligence  and  power  in  so 
ordering  the  world  from  the  beginning,  that  every  force 
and  every  creature  in  the  universe  should,  like  the  fruit- 
tree,  have  'Mts  seed  within  itself,"  and  exert  its  charao 
teristic  peculiarities  in  the  perpetuation  and  progressive 
modification  of  all  developments  through  endless  gener- 
ations. In  this  there  is  a  more  wondrous  exhibition 
of  intelligence  and  power  than  in  the  supposition  of 
constant  divine  action  in  maintaining,  regulating,  com- 
bining, and  modifying  all  the  successive  agencies  and 
results  of  existence.  The  immanent  operation  of  divine 
enei^,  which  Thomas  Aquinas  considers  the  most  co- 
gent demonstration  of  the  being  of  God,  is  imperative 
in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other.  The  former  explana- 
tion will  not,  indeed,  satisfy  the  requirements  of  either 
true  religious  belief  or  genuine  religious  appetency;  but 
it  is  the  more  difficult  of  conception.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, under  either  aspect  that  evolution  has  been  pro* 
mulgated,  applauded,  and  accepted. 

One  reason  of  the  wide  diffusion  of  evolutionism  has, 
unquestionably,  been  the  plausibility  of  the  doctrine, 
and  the  ambiguity  of  the  term.  Evolution  is  true-—"  sub 
modo  et  terminis  suis  "— as  the  statement  of  a  fact.  Evo- 
lutionism is  erroneous  as  a  theory.  That  things  change 
is  a  commonplace ;  that  organic  beings  grow  is  anoth- 
er;  that  the  chicken  comes  from  the  egg  is  undisputed; 
that  plants  and  animals,  including  man,  will,  under 
suitable  circumstances,  be  modified,  improving  or  retro- 
grading, has  never  been  controverted.  But  that  these 
mutations  can  take  place  only  within  wider  or  narrower 
limits — still,  within  restricted  limits — has  never  been 
disproved.  It  is  the  baldest  assumption  and  the  wildest 
reverie,  to  presume  that  the  possible  changes  are  il- 


SCEPTICISM 


822 


SCEPTICISM 


limluble  and  uncontrolled,  find  that  one  genus  can  be 
transmuted  into  another,  even  in  the  imaginary  sons 
of  time.  Thia  is  worse  hallucination  than  alchemy. 
Evolution  is  an  unfortunate  and  misleading  term.  It 
is  wholly  arbitrary  to  empby  it  as  the  designation  of  a 
philosophical  system.  Evolution  cannot  appropriately 
signify  a  force,  a  process,  a  mode,  or  a  determining  rule. 
It  is  merely  descriptive  of  a  phenomenon— unexplained. 
Smoke  is  evolved  out  of  a  gun-banel.  Something  more 
than  smoke  is  required  to  reveal  the  force,  the  nature, 
and  the  action  of  the  gunpowder.  This  criticism  may 
appear  trivial,  but  it  indicates  the  frailty  and  delusiveness 
of  the  theory  of  evolutionism.  Certain  modes  succeed 
each  other,  and  are  noted.  This  affords  no  evidence 
of  the  fact  or  character  of  any  philosophical  relation  be- 
tween the  forms.  Nor  is  there  much  more  to  be  ascer- 
tained from  the  cabalistic  symbols  of  the  school— the 
differentiation  of  the  homogeneous,  and  the  integration 
of  the  heterogeneous.  These  phrases  have  meanings, 
but  what  their  precise  meaning  may  be  depends  upon 
the  presumptions  of  the  interpreter.  Of  themselves  they 
are  as  obscure  as  "  Greek  invocations  to  call  fuels  into  a 
circle." 

Abandoning,  however,  this  skirmishing  about  the 
outpoets,  evolutionism,  as  a  heresy,  is  sufficiently  dis- 
tinct and  well  understood.  It  signifies  the  progressive 
growth  of  all  existence  by  successive  stages,  and  through 
the  influence  of  the  surroundings,  from  primitive  and 
unintelligent  germs.  There  is  a  recent  exposition, 
elaborated  with  great  skill  and  acumen,  which  builds 
up  society  in  its  actual  and  prospective  excellence,  from 
protopla«n ;  and  protoplasm  from  the  diffused,  undis- 
tinguished, and  undistinguishable  antecedents  of  cosmi- 
cal  dust.  Where  did  the  dust  come  from  ?  The  ele- 
phant may  stand  on  the  tortoise,  but  on  what  does  the 
tortoise  stand  ? 

Into  the  details  and  assumptions  of  evolutionism  it  is 
impossible  to  enter  here.  A  hasty  notice  of  a  few  sali- 
ent characteristics  is  all  that  shot^d  be  attempted,  not- 
withstanding the  ha2ard  of  such  brevity.  It  may  be 
said,  however,  that  there  is  not  a  single  principle  relied 
upon  by  the  evolutionists  that  is  proved,  or  that  admits 
of  proof,  in  the  latitude  required  for  the  theory;  that 
the  ingenious  multiplication  of  assimilated  details  is  not 
argument,  and  does  not  authorize  the  inductions  drawn ; 
that  the  accuracy  and  propriety  of  the  details  is  ques- 
tionable, and  has  been  questioned ;  and  that  **  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest"  is  contrary  to  all  known  fact,  ex- 
cept through  such  casuistry  and  quibbling,  such  limita- 
tion and  explanation,  as  constrain  the  evidence  to  fit 
the  hypothesis.  Throughout  the  theory  there  is  a 
latent  and  unperceived  **  petitio  principii,"  which  con- 
ducts, by  long,  bewildering  channels,  the  original  as- 
sumption to  the  conclusion  into  which  it  is  converted. 
It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  repeat  the  preliminary  propo- 
sition— that  the  world  of  observation  reveals  and  neces- 
sitates, at  all  times,  the  admission  of  a  higher  force, 
guidance,  and  wisdom ;  initiating,  sustaining,  and  di- 
recting all  that  is  or  can  be  observed. 

The  aim  of  evolutionism  is  to  exclude  from  the  the- 
ory of  being  and  of  truth  ever^'thing  transcending  the 
manifestations  of  physical  existence.  Of  course,  the 
virtual  effect  on  the  spirit  of  speculation  is  the  same, 
whether  the  supernatural  is  denied  or  rigidly  ignored. 
The  practical  outcome  of  epicureanism,  which  relegated 
the  gods  to  uninterrupted  repose,  was  identical  with 
that  of  the  most  absoItUe  atheism.  There  is  a  logical 
and  a  metaphysical  distinction,  but  little  diversity  of 
consequences.  Hence  Darwinism  and  evolutionism  are 
on  the  same  plane  with  positive  unbelief,  and  merge 
into,  even  when  they  are  not  embodied  in,  the  general 
procedure  of  agnosticism.    See  Evolution. 

III.  Agnoiticitm  is  the  current  designation  of  the 
most  prevailing  type  of  sceptical  philosophism.  It  re- 
jects all  outside  of  the  material  and  phenomenaL  It 
deems  it  unnecessary  to  deny  the  divine,  which  it  ban- 
ishes.    Indeed,  Tyndall,  Huxley,  Spencer,  and  other 


hieropbants  of  the  fashionable  delosioD,  have  admitted 
the  reality  of  what  they  exclude  from  consideratioa 
and  from  rational  inquiry.  They  do  not  deny  divinity  ; 
they  do  not  reject  creative  energy  as  a  possibility. 
They  are  content  to  say  that  they  know  nothing,  and 
can  know  nothing,  about  it,  and  that  no  one  does  or  can 
know  anything  on  the  subject.  They,  therefore,  refuse 
to  admit  it  into  their  contemplation,  or  to  accord  it  any 
rational  authority  over  the  thoughts  and  conduct  of 
men.  They  pass  it  by  with  the  flippant  sneer,  ^  Nihil 
ad  noB."  Agnosticism  is  simply  shameless  profession 
of  ignorance — huno^notkinffism  in  all  that  is  esential  to 
philosophy.  It  is  the  substitution  of  human  science,  or 
nescience,  for  human  knowledge.  It  may,  accordingly, 
be  exteiided  to  all  forms  of  negation,  or  rejection  of 
what  lies  beyond  the  domain  of  matter,  or  of  physical 
science.  But  can  physical  science,  or  human  reason,  in 
its  finite  8ystematizations,flll  the  whole  globe  of  human 
thought,  feeling,  and  conduct?  of  human  aspiration  and 
of  human  duty  ? 

As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  science,  obeervatioo, 
experience,  reasoning,  imperatively  require  the  constant 
recognition  and  support  of  what  the  agnostics  reject  as 
being  unknowable.  What  they  repudiate,  but  what, 
nevertheless,  remains  indispensable,  is  unknowable,  in 
the  sense  of  being  irreducible  to  the  forms  and  predsioa 
of  scientific  knowledge.  But  thero  is  much  knowledge 
of  the  highest  practical  value  which  is  unreduced  to 
such  demonstrable  form,  much  which  is  incapable  of 
being  reduced  to  that  form.  Scient ific  knowledge  woold 
be  vain,  a  mere  phantasm  in  the  clouds,  a  casde  in  the 
air,  if  it  had  nothing  but  propositions  reached  by  indoc- 
tion  or  deduction  to  rest  upon.  In  the  brilliant  devel- 
opments of  modem  science  the  necessary  philosophic 
basis  of  science  is  forgotten,  and  in  the  pretensions  of 
scientific  system-builden  it  is  ignored.  The  sun  shines 
calmly  on,  if  invisible  to  the  blind,  or  denied  by  them. 
True  wisdom  is  distrustful  of  itself.  It  eschews  pre- 
tension, and  avoids  the  confidence  which  would  restrict 
the  world  to  the  limits  of  human  comprehension.  What 
cannot  be  scientifically  arranged,  co-ordinated,  and  syllo- 
gistically  or  inductively  proved,  is  not  absolutely  un- 
known. Were  it  so,  a  child  could  possess  no  knowledge, 
and  could  never  learn.  In  things  transcending  **  the  beg- 
garly elements  of  man,'' we  are  and  must  *'be  as  little 
children.**  Here  huniility  is  the  condition  and  means  of 
knowledge.  The  assurance  thus  gained  is  accepted  in 
a  different  form  from  scientific  conclusions;  but  it  is 
confirmed  by  a  more  potent  authority,  and  exercises  a 
more  constant  and  controlling  influence  over  hummn 
life.  The  peaks  of  the  Himalayas  are  not  less  lofty  or 
less  firmly  rooted  because  they  are  inaccessible  to  the 
foot  of  roan.  It  is  their  elevation  that  rendere  them 
inaccessible.  Their  snow-clad  summits,  disguised  by 
their  white  robe,  shine  in  a  clearer,  purer,  more  trans- 
lucent atmosphere  than  the  low  hlUs  on  which  men 
dwell,  which  may  be  measured  and  traversed  amid  fogs 
and  exhalations.  The  extension  of  precise  knowledge 
widens,  or  should  widen,  the  vision  of  an  infinitely  lain^ 
knowledge,  which  is  unprecise.  It  is  equally  foolish 
and  unphilosophical  to  deny  the  reality  of  all  that  can- 
not  be  impounded  in  our  own  petty  preserves.  To  ex- 
dude  such  knowledge  from  consideration  is  the  same^ 
in  effect,  9B  to  deny  it,  and  is  even  more  irrattonaL  But 
this  is  what  is  done  by  the  recent  school  of  agnosticism, 
which  refuses  to  acknowledge  everything  which  scienoe 
does  not  include  or  hope  to  embrace. 

The  attempt  of  Buckle  to  affirm,  and  of  Arnold,  hia 
Dutch  compeers,  and  many  other  schemers,  in  France, 
Germany,  and  England,  to  construct,  a  system  of  nn- 
spiritual  morality,  or  of  immoral  morals,  is  only  the 
adaptation  of  current  agnosticism  to  ethical  doctrine. 
As  in  the  physical,  as  in  the  intellectual,  so  in  the  eth* 
ical  sphere,  the  characteristic  defect  is  that  the  build- 
ing demands  a  firm  foundation,  but  is  deprived  of  any- 
thing to  rest  upon.  Historical  and  ethical  agnosticirai 
are  more  pernicious  than  evolutionism.    It  is  poasible 


SCEPTICISM 


828 


SCEPTICISM 


to  investigAte  physical  pheoomenA  apart  from  their  or- 
igin or  caaae,  but  the  essence  of  morals  consists  in  the 
acceptance  of  right,  as  a  mle^  extraneously  presented, 
and  obligatory  in  obedience  to  an  authority  above  and 
beyond  those  bound  to  obey,  though  they  have  the 
power  of  disobeying.  These  traditions  transcend  the 
reach  of  rationalistic  science. 

A  more  dogmatic,  but  not  more  satisfactory,  attitude 
is  assumed  by  that  growing  sect  of  physiological  psy- 
chologists who  discern  in  mind  only  an  exudation  from 
matter,  and  resolve  thought  into  a  cerebral  process, 
stimulated  or  stimulating,  through  the  telegraphic  lines 
of  the  nervous  cords.  Thought  is  thus,  according  to 
Spencer,  a  complex  series  of  nervous  *' shocks,"  like 
those  of  an  electric  battery.  If  the  nature  and  action 
of  the  human  intellect  are  degraded  to  the  level  of  the 
electric  fluid,  or  of  the  currents  of  sap  in  vegetative 
growth,  there  is  neither  room  nor  occupation  for  any 
agency  higher  than  organic  motions.  But  how  did 
these  motions  originate  ?  Whence  were  their  capabili- 
ties primarily  derived  ?  In  all  the  play  of  nervous  ex- 
citation, direct  or  reflex,  where  is  the  intelligence  that 
notes  and  employs  the  communications  transmitted? 
In  ordinary  telegraphing,  an  operator  at  each  end  of  the 
line,  or  at  the  completion  of  the  circuit,  is  indispensable. 
The  apparatus  is  useless  without  something  diverse 
from  the  apparatus,  to  interpret  the  messages.  The  gray 
matter  of  the  brain,  however  wonderful  its  constitution 
and  action,  cannot  discharge  this  function.  At  best,  it 
is  only  a  central  office.  'Die  mind  must  be  something 
entirely  diiferent  from  its  complicated  network  of  agen- 
cies. The  spider's  web  is  not  the  spider.  But  mind, 
intangible  in  its  essence  and  modes,  is  inconceivable  and 
unmeaning,  without  a  creative  mind  to  form  and  to  in- 
form it,  after  a  fashion  far  different  from  any  physical 
changes.  Physiology  has  rendered,  and  may  continue 
to  render,  most  important  services  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  physical  accompaniments  and  instrumentalities 
of  mental  processes.  But  Maudsley,  and  Bain,  and  Spen- 
cer, and  the  other  advocates  of  human  automatism,  can- 
not detect  mind  or  thought  under  the  scalpel,  with  the 
aid  of  any  microscope.  Their  theories  are  wholly  su- 
perficial. They  deal  only  with  the  manifestations  on 
the  surface,  produced  by  the  underlying  forces.  They 
exclude  the  idea  of  forces,  except  as  the  sequence  of 
changes,  and  as  a  substitute  for  cause.  They  would 
exclude  the  term  if  they  could  dispense  with  iL  They 
fail,  however,  to  see  that  its  indispensability  attests  the 
reality  of  what  they  would  expeL  Ab  these  specula- 
tions confine  their  attention  to  the  show  of  things,  they 
might  be  embraced  under  the  head  of  phenomenalism. 

IV.  Phenomenalism^  however,  in  its  technical  signi- 
fication, is  sufilciently  dbUnct  to  claim  separate  consid- 
eration. It  assumes  two  very  divergent  positions.  It 
may  restrict  itself  to  material  sembUnoes.  This  form 
has  been  noticed  under  Poiitwiem  (q.  v.).  It  may 
make  matter  merely  a  mental  conception.  In  this  case 
transcendental  idealism  is  the  result.  The  universe  is 
one  incessant  flux  of  modifications  and  convolutions  of 
a  single  entity,  which  is  all  in  all,  in  each,  and  in  every- 
thing. This  idealistic  phenomenalism  inevitably  runs 
into  pantheism.  It  has  been  examined  in  the  article 
on  Spinoza  (q.  v.).  Notwithstanding  the  bitter,  en- 
during, and  often  ill-considered  censure  bestowed  upon 
Spinozum,  it  is  returning  in  the  speculation  of  the  age, 
with  such  alterations  of  garb  as  the  fashions  of  the  times 
require.  It  is  a  recoil  from  the  innutrilious  diet  prof- 
fered by  the  materialists  and  naturalists  of  current  sci- 
ence. A  noteworthy  example  of  this  violent  reaction 
is  furnished  by  the  philosophy  of  Lotze,  now  rising  into 
favor.  Lotze  endeavors  to  unite  the  results  of  science 
with  those  of  transcendental  metaphysics,  combining, 
reconciling,  and  harmonizing  them  in  a  more  comprehen- 
sive scheme.  He  sees  in  all  things  the  continuous  in- 
teraction and  reciprocal  determination  of  their  mutual 
relations.  These  relations  constitute  all  existence  and 
all  change — ^they  bear  to  reality  the  same  analogy  that 


Boscovich's  points  of  force  bear  to  the  gravitation  and 
cohesion  of  matter.  These  shifting,  reciprocally  mould- 
ing relations  constitute  at  once  the  circulation  and  the 
substance  of  all  being.  The  universe  is  one  and  single ; 
its  whole  life,  and  the  life  of  all  its  parts,  are  contained 
in  the  constant  throb  and  vital  activity  of  these  rela- 
tions. The  wheels  move  incessantly,  because  there  is 
life  in  the  wheels;  but  the  vitality  of  each  part  is  the 
appropriate  play  in  that  part  of  the  common,  undivided 
energy  which  is  concentrated  in  the  totality  of  all  the 
parts  combined  into  one  whole.  The  universe  is  a  web 
of  one  piece,  weaving  itself  into  changing  patterns  by 
interchange  of  reUtions  through  all  the  phantasmagoria 
of  existence  in  time  and  in  eternity.  This  is  not  Spi- 
nozism,  but  patient  discrimination  is  needed  to  discrim- 
inate them.  Lotze  would  regard  his  scheme  as  the 
negation  of  pantheism ;  and  the  last  words  of  his  meta- 
physics imply  his  recognition  of  God  as  a  distinct  e»- 
seilce.  But  the  desire  to  distinguish  is  not  always  at- 
tended by  the  ability  to  do  so.  If  Lotze's  philosoph}'  is 
conceived  in  opposition  to  pantheism,  its  tendency  is 
towards  it.  The  adoption,  development,  and  applica- 
tion of  his  principles  and  conclusions  could  scarcely  be 
prevented  from  reaching  that  goal.  Pantheism  de- 
stroys the  conception  of  divine  intelligence  and  govern- 
ment by  identifying  them  with  all  the  phenomena  of 
being,  as  naturalism  repudiates  the  conception  altogeth- 
er by  substituting  for  the  creative  eneigy  the  blind  and 
unintelligent  forces  exhibited  by  matter,  and  ascribed 
to  matter  as  their  origin. 

To  this  brief  notice  of  the  vapory  idealism  of  Lotze 
may  be  appended  the  commemoration  of  the  equally 
impalpable  metaphysicsof  sir  William  Hamilton  and  his 
acolytes.  The  inadequacy  and  baselessness  of  the  Phi- 
loiophy  of  the  Conditioned  have  been  indicated  already. 
See  Hamilton,  Sir  Wiluam.  The  legitimate  deduc- 
tion from  it  was  drawn  by  Dean  Mansel  (q.  v.),  in  his 
Limits  of  Riligiout  Thought^  which  may  be  considered 
9A  a  prelude  to  Arnold's  Religion  without  Faith,  and 
Morality  without  Jforalt.  The  tendency  of  the  meta- 
physical system  of  Hamilton  is  decidedly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  pantheistic  idealism,  and  antagonistic  to  the  safe, 
but  narrow,  *' common-sense"  speculation  of  the  Scotch 
school.  If  the  admission  of  a  constantly  operating  first 
cause  most  be  excluded  from  the  sphere  of  philosophy, 
because  a  first  cause  cannot  be  conceived ;  if  the  rela- 
tivity of  human  knowledge  is  so  interpreted  as  to  ren- 
der all  knowledge  a  dream  or  a  delusion ;  if  nothing  can 
be  accepted  as  known,  except  what  is  precisely  known, 
and  known  only  so  far  as  it  is  "  conditioned,"  then  all 
the  powers,  aspirations,  and  emotions  of  man  are  par- 
alyzed, or  rendered  unsubstantial  shadows.  All  things, 
so  far  as  man  is  concerned,  would  be  resolved  into  the 
spectral  shapes  cast  on  the  clouds  of  the  human  mind. 
Even  these  phantasms  must  be  cast  by  something,  or 
evoked  by  something.  This  primary  something  is  a 
cause,  and  a  first  cause,  but  its  essence  is  beyond  human 
grasp.  There  are,  therefore,  but  two  existences  in  the 
universe,  conjoined  to  each  other — the  mirror  of  the 
mind,  and  the  entity  which  starts  the  images  from  the 
reflecting  surface.  Obviously,  this  reduces  the  actual, 
the  intelligible,  and  the  active  to  a  single  essence,  some 
of  whose  pulsations  manifest  themselves  as  the  phan- 
tasms of  the  human  mind.    This,  too,  is  pantheism. 

The  fatal  defect  of  the  Hamiltonian  philosophy,  and 
of  its  developments,  is,  apparently,  not  in  the  assertion 
of  the  relativity  and  conditionalism  of  human  knowl- 
edge, but  in  the  exclusion  of  all  knowledge  of  the  '*  un- 
conditioned." Knowledge  is  a  very  elastic  term :  "  con- 
ditioned "  is  a  very  ambiguous  one.  It  may  be  doubted 
whether  incomprehensible  technicalities — '*  absolute," 
**  unconditioned,"  *^  infinite,"  etc— afford  such  definite 
ideas  as  permit  strict  reasoning,  logical  or  philosophical, 
in  regard  to  them.  They  are  shifting  phantoms  of  the 
misU  Controversies  in  regard  to  them  are  as  effective 
as  would  be  battles  of  children,  fighting  with  iridescent 
soap-bubbles.    Waiving  the  discussion  of  the  question, 


SCEPTICISM 


824 


SCEPTICISM 


which  would  be  endleas,  and  presumably  ittoonduaive, 
it  most  be  felt  that  many  paralogiams  in  pbiloaophy 
are  doe  to  the  unperceiv^  divernty  of  latitude  in  the 
meaning  of  the  terms  conjured  with.  Knowledge  is 
of  various  degrees,  kinds,  and  characters.  Some  is  sci- 
entific, some  philosophical,  some  intuitive,  some  re- 
vealed in  mode  and  form  apt  for  human  acceptance.  If 
all  knowledge  be  denied,  or  excluded,  but  that  which  is 
established  by  logical  or  sdentific  reasoning,  the  human 
mind  must  wander  *'in  endless  mazes  lost**  It  will 
stagger  helplessly  along,  led  only  by  the  marsh-fires  of 
the  night,  through  forest  and  bog ;  mistaking  every 
ignis  fatutu  for  eternal  sunlight  Science  should  oon- 
flne  itself  to  scientific  knowledge.  The  range  is  wide 
enough  for  any  ambition.  But  science  must  beg  its 
first  principles  It  must  rest  on  postulates  which  have 
a  metaphysical  basis.  Logic  observes  the  processes  and 
sequences  of  thought,  but  the  mind  is,  in  itself,  beyond 
human  observation.  All  that  it  receives  or  produces  \b 
derived  from  impulses  within  and  impulses  without, 
whose  existence  must  be  accepted  without  other  testi- 
mony than  themselves.  Thus,  in  all  the  grades  and 
species  of  knowledge,  the  fundamental  and  indispensa- 
ble assurance  which  renders  any  knowledge  possible  is 
the  immutable  conviction  and  the  unwavering  recep- 
tion of  knowledge,  outside  of  systems  of  philosophy  and 
provinces  of  science.  Reason  demands  this.  Conscious 
experience  confirms  it.  Common-sense  proceeds  at  all 
times  from  its  influence,  without  a  thought  of  its  re- 
quirement. The  relativity  of  human  knowledge,  and 
its  character  as  '<  conditioned,"  should  be  admitted,  but 
accompanied  with  the  further  admission  that  such 
knowledge  is  built  upon  the  ** absolute"  and  the  ''un- 
conditioned." 

Such  limited  idealism  as  has  shown  itself  in  late 
years  may  easily  have  been  provoked  by  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  scientific  systems  to  furnish  support  or  satis- 
faction to  yearning  and  inquiring  spirits.  Perplexity, 
induced  by  the  enigmas  presented  to  the  intellect,  and 
despair  of  their  solution,  may  have  suggested  another 
recent  phase  of  scepticism,  which  differs  widely  from 
the  forms  commented  upon.  It  is  the  least  excusable 
of  all  forms,  because  it  runs  away  from  the  battle-field, 
and  seeks  selfish  relief  in  wilful  misrepresentation  and 
morose  discontent.  This  scheme,  if  it  is  entitled  to  be 
called  a  scheme,  is 

y.  PeMtmum.— It  might  be  supposed  to  be  a  natn- 
ral  resilience  from  the  optimism  of  Leibnitz;  but  the 
schemes  are  separated  by  too  wide  an  inten^al  of  time, 
and  exhibit  no  links  of  actual  connection.  It  rather 
grew  out  of  the  despair  of  the  disappointed  age  which 
witnessed  the  dissipation  of  the  dreams  of  the  French 
revolution,  and  found  utterance  in  the  gloomy  strains 
of  Byron.  Every  age  presents  the  results  of  the  pro- 
ceding  philosophy,  and  moulds  the  philosophy  of  the 
age  succeeding.  That  strange,  poetic  genius,  Leopardi, 
sang  the  prelude  of  pessimism ;  Schopenhauer  gave  it 
form,  expansion,  and  coherence ;  and  Hartmann  has  en- 
deavored to  give  it  systematic  exposition.  Pessimism 
is  not  so  much  a  negation  of  creative  power  and  au- 
thority as  a  denigration  of  creative  wisdom  and  benev- 
olence. It  maintains  that  the  order  of  the  universe  is 
so  constituted  and  regulated  as  to  produce  only  wretch- 
edness and  increasing  distress.  In  a  period  of  brilliant 
industrial  and  intellectual  achievement,  but  of  augment- 
ing disquietude,  discontent,  and  misery,  it  presents  a 
doctrine  disparaging  an  order  of  things  so  often  embit- 
tering life,  and  multiplying  the  myriads  of  the  suffer- 
ing, the  sorrowing,  and  of  those  who  find  no  rest  In 
one  respect,  pessimism  is  to  be  reprobated  more  se- 
verely than  agnosticism.  It  does  not  merely  hide  the 
supernatural  behind  an  impenetrable  veil ;  it  calumni- 
ates the  creator  and  the  creation.  It  degrades  man, 
and  unfits  him  for  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  hu- 
manity. Man's  function  on  earth  is  not  enjoyment ; 
that  may  be  an  incident  of  his  life,  a  result,  or  a  recom- 
pense of  his  conduct    It  is  not  to  exult  in  the  posses- 


sion of  pleasures  and  ease  and  vanities  and  graliflc*- 
tions.  His  office  is,  through  constant  trials,  recorring 
sorrows,  and  ''much  tribulation,"  to  strengthen  and  fit 
himself  for  the  work  set  before  him,  and  to  do  it~to 
make  his  contemporaries,  and  posterity,  and  the  world, 
better  and  better  provided,  in  consequence  of  his  action 
— and  to  serve  earnestly  and  loyally,  as  private  or  oa^ 
tain,  in  promoting  the  unseen  purpose  of  Providence, 
and  the  destinies  of  humanity.  What  may  be  th« 
fortunes  or  the  fate  of  an  individual  is  of  paasing  mo- 
ment Countless  bubbles  burst  every  second  on  the 
ocean  of  life;  but  the  movement  of  the  ocean  is  unia- 
termpted.  Each  individual  is  but  one  in  the  army  of 
laborers.  When  he  falls,  his  place  will  be  taken,  osn- 
ally  by  one  better  fitted  for  the  growing  task.  Tber« 
would  be  an  impropriety  in  dwelling  on  this  tj'pe  of 
scepticism,  as  it  has  been  already  noticed  in  this  work. 
See  Pessimism. 

It  must  suffice  to  add  that  the  blackening  of  the  un- 
seen, and  of  its  cause,  the  substitution  of  a  maUgoant 
author,  or  order  of  creation,  for  the  wise  and  the  Iwnefi- 
cent,  are  as  distinctly  sceptical  procedures  as  any  other 
mode  of  repudiating  a  transcendent  authority.  These 
remarks  on  pessimism  have  been  introduced  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  notidng  an  outgrowth,  conscious  or  un- 
conscious. This  excrescence  has  not  yet  coagulated 
into  a  distinct  theoiy,  but  has  an  immediate  practical 
effect,  and  tends  to  diffuse  itself,  like  a  spreading  uloer, 
through  intelligent  classes  of  exbting  society.  Its 
evangel  was  Malloch's  inquiry :  "Is  life  worth  living?* 
The  obvious  reply  is,  "Certainly  not,  if  life  is  'propter 
vitam  Vivendi  perdere  causae' " 

YI.  NihiUtm  is  a  convenient  designation  for  the  in- 
cipient doctrine.  Its  purpose  is  to  escape  from  the 
perplexity  of  conflicting  arguments  and  the  bewilder- 
ment of  insoluble  problems ;  to  make  the  best,  for  selfish 
comfort,  of  what  is  presumed  to  be  inevitably  bad,  bb 
well  as  uncertain;  to  seek  tranquillity,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, in  the  renunciation  of  all  annoying  duties,  and 
of  all  unselfish  aims. 

"How  weary,  stale,  flat,  and  nnprofluble 
Seem  to  me  all  the  uses  of  this  world  T' 

Nihilism,  and  the  pessimism  from  which  it  desoenda, 
display  analogies  to  the  rehabiliuted  Buddhism,  which 
has  been  recently  compared  to  Christianity,  and  which 
is  preached  as  a  substitute  for  it  in  the  midst  of  the 
chief  centres  of  modem  civilization.  There  is  no  folly 
or  delusion,  says  Cicero,  which  has  not  been  advocated 
by  some  of  the  schools  of  the  philosophers.  If  such 
extravagant  reveries  meet  with  acceptance  in  a  culti- 
vated and  thoughtful  generation,  it  is  a  consolation  to 
know  that  like  errors  have  been  welcomed  and  applaad- 
ed  before— and  have  been  forgotten.  They  are  dreama 
which  vanish  with  the  morning,  and  belong  to  *'  those 
fashions  of  the  world  which  soon  pass  away." 

If  man  be  regarded— and  the  individual  perhaps  may 
properly  be  so  regarded— as  one  ant  in  the  busy  ant-hill 
of  humanity,  the  problem  of  life  and  of  the  universe  in 
respect  to  him  becomes  as  simple  and  dear  as  it  is 
grand.  What  is  needed  for  earthly  necessities  he  leans 
by  transmission,  by  observation,  by  experience,  by  th« 
advance  of  science,  and  the  growth  of  his  faculties.  Of 
all  that  is  above  him,  and  that  is  so  strongly  felt  as  to 
regulate  his  conduct  and  his  understanding,  he  knowa 
nothing,  of  his  own  knowledge,  except  im^rfectly,  for 
it  is  "  wisdom  unsearehable,  and  past  finding  out"  *  Cna 
he  reject  the  knowledge,  and  the  author  of  all  his  knowU 
edge,  because  both  remain  incomprehensible  ?  Wbetb* 
er  affirming  or  denying,  he  is  compeUed  to  accept  both. 
Shall  the  ant  deny  the  existence  of  superior  beings, 
which  he  can  neither  measure  nor  comprehend  ?  Shall 
the  day  ignore  the  hand  of  the  potter?  Shall  man, 
walking  in  obscurity,  and  seeing  only  "as  through  a 
glass,  darkly,"  reject  or  exclude  all  that  he  cannot 
fathom  with  his  short  plummet  line?  He  has  his  ofltoe 
upon  earth.  What  that  office  demands  he  knows,  or 
may  know,  so  far  as  is  required  for  its  discharge.    Ho 


scaspnciSM 


825 


SCHAEFFER 


works  for  hii  family,  that  othen  may  take  hii  place 
when  his  time  of  labof  is  over.  He  works  for  his  oom- 
trymen,  and  for  his  age;  he  scarcely  knows  why,  or 
how.  He  knows  imperfectly  what  has  gone  before, 
made  him  what  he  is,  and  elevated  and  facilitated  his 
tasks.  He  thinks  he  knows  the  present,  in  which  he 
lives.  He  knows  nothing  certainly  of  what  may  come 
after  him.  He  "struts  his  honr  upon  the  stage,"  un- 
consctoasly  ministering  to  purposes  of  which  he  can 
haidly  dream.  When  generations  have  sooceeded  gen- 
erations, the  retrospect  may  show  a  grand  result  flow- 
ing from  the  purblind  activity  of  himself  and  his  con- 
temporaries. The  prospect  may  reveal  a  still  more 
glorious  advancement  to  be  accomplished.  A  new 
earth,  if  not  a  new  heaven,  will  proceed  from  the  suc- 
cessive swarms  of  mankind. 

Can  it  be  rationally  questioned  that  there  are  con- 
trolling influences  and  purposes  from  the  beginning, 
pressing  forward  to  a  determinate  end?  They  neces- 
sitate the  adminion  and  the  governance  of  a  wisdom 
which  man  cannot  conceive,  of  a  beneficence  which 
man  cannot  understand,  of  a  plan  which  man  cannot 
penetrate,  and  a  guidance  which  man  cannot,  rationally 
or  logically,  ignore  or  deny. 

It^erenca.—lt  is  a  natural  result  of  the  self-confi- 
dence of  men — an'  inevitable  exorbitancy  of  that  dar- 
ing thought  and  speculation  which  are  the  handmaids 
of  progress,  that,  in  the  hour  of  intellectual  triumph 
and  of  material  splendor,  the  bold  leaders  should  under- 
take the  erection,  on  earthly  foundations,  of  "  towers 
reaching  to  heaven."  In  their  exultation,  they  are  un- 
mindful that  these  edifices  must  totter  over,  like  other 
Babels,  and  note  their  existence  by  their  ruins.  The 
shattered  monuments  will  furnish  the  quarries  for  hum- 
bler but  securer  dwellings.  The  churches  and  forta- 
lices  of  mediiBval  Rome  were  mainly  built  with  the 
broken  capitals  and  architraves,  columns,  statues,  and 
other  carvings,  of  fallen  palaces  and  pagan  temples. 
The  strong  places  of  later  progress  are  similarly  con- 
structed. We  mount  on  ruins,  and  on  the  corpses  of 
those  that  have  preceded  us.  It  would  be  weak  fanat- 
icism to  disparage  the  services  to  human  knowledge 
and  performance  rendered  by  the  theories  of  scepticism 
which  have  been  surveyed.  It  would  be  imbecile  in- 
gratitude to  refuse  admiration  to  the  learning,  ingenu- 
ity, and  perseverance  of  the  high  priests  of  recent  aber- 
rations. Their  devices  may  produce  a  dreary  impres- 
sion— 

"  We  start,  for  soul  is  wanting  there  "— 

but  there  is  no  reason  for  consternation  or  despondency. 
They  have  opened  new  paths  through  the  haunted 
forest  of  life.  They  have  made  clearings  for  the  day- 
light, and  for  cultivation.  They  have  extended  our 
joumeyings,  noted  the  dangerous  routes,  and  proved 
by  their  failures  the  limits  of  human  capacity  in  many 
directions.  They  have  wrought  for  ends  unseen  by 
themselves.  They  have  erected  magnificent  abodes 
for  other  occupants. 

Ziterature, — ^The  materials  for  the  full  appreciation 
of  the  recent  phases  of  scepticism  must  necessarily  be 
sought  in  the  writings  of  the  foundera  and  leaders  of 
the  several  sects  and  divisions  of  sects,  and  in  the  crit- 
icisms which  those  writings  have  provoked.  The  lit- 
erature of  the  subject,  accordingly,  embraces  the  works 
of  the  prominent  philosophers  of  the  last  and  current 
generations  who  have  propounded  theories  of  sceptical 
design  or  tendency.  It  equally  includes  the  multitudi- 
nous controversies  which  they  have  excited,  embodied 
in  volumes,  pamphlets,  and  periodicals.  The  biogra- 
phies of  the  authors,  as  illustrative  of  their  doctrines, 
constitote  a  desirable  appendage.  This  literature  would 
form  a  goodly  library,  and  is  too  extensive  for  specifics- 
tion.  So  vast  and  so  various  have  been  the  several 
schemes,  their  expositions,  their  refutations,  and  their 
rejoinders,  that,  instead  of  multiplying  the  titles  of  the 
embattled  hosts  of  books,  it  might  be  appropriate  to 
employ  the  epitaph  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  in  St. 


Fkiil*8 :  **  Cinmmspioe."  Some  valnaUe  and  acoesaible 
treatises  may,  however,  be  designated,  for  the  purpose 
of  fuller,  but  still  summary  elucidation  of  the  prevalent 
forms  of  philosophical  incredulity.  Such  are.  Temple, 
Bampton  Lecturt$;  Tulloch,  7%etm;  Modem  Theories 
m  PhHotopky  and  Rdtgion;  Flint,  Anti-Theietic  Theo- 
riet  f  Martineau,  Typei  of  Ethical  Theory,    (6.  F.  H.) 

Schaeffer,  Charles  Frederiok,  D.D.,  an  emi- 
nent Lutheran  divine,  was  bom  at  Germantown,  Pa., 
Sept.  3,  1807.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1827,  and  studied  theology  with  his 
father  and  with  his  father's  assbtant,  the  Rev.  Charles 
R.  Demme.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Synod  of  Maryland 
and  Virginia  June  17, 1829,  and  spent  some  months  as- 
sisting his  brother  in  New  York.  His  fint  charge  was 
at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  his  ordination  took  place  Oct.  12, 
1881.  He  left  Carlisle  Dec  1, 1834,  to  enter  upon  the 
pastorate  at  Hagerstown,  Md.,  where  he  remained  until 
1840,  when  he  received  a  call  to  become  professor  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Columbus,  O.  His  relation  to 
the  Ohio  synod  became  unpleasant,  and  he  removed  to 
Lancaster,  Nov.  21,  1848.  He  next  removed  to  Red 
Hook,  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  28, 1845,  where  he  was 
much  esteemed.  In  1851  he  became  pastor  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Easton,  Pa.,  where  he  had  a  prosperous  minis- 
tiy  of  four  years.  It  was  daring  this  period  that  he 
translated  Kurtz's  Sacred  Hietoryf  and  made  a  careful  re- 
vision of  the  translation  of  Luther's  SmaUer  Cateohitm, 
In  June,  1855,  he  was  unanimously  chosen  as  German 
professor  in  Pennsylvania  College  and  in  the  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  at  Gettysburg.  The  ministerium  of  PenU' 
sylvania  having  decided  to  establish  a  theological  sem- 
inary at  Philadelphia,  in  July,  1864,  called  Dr.  Schaeffer 
to  become  professor  of  dogmatic  theology,  his  instruction 
to  be  given  in  German  and  English  equally.  In  this 
field  he  hOwred  until  bis  death,  Nov.  28, 1879.  Besides 
the  above-named  works,  he  published  several  single 
sermons^  translated  Lange's  Commentary  on,  the  Acta 
(1866),  and  contributed  numerous  articles  to  the  Evan' 
geUcal  Review  and  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  See  a  Me- 
morial of  bis  life,  funeral  addresses,  etc.,  in  German  and 
EnglUh  (Phila.  1880). 

Schaeffer,  David  Fredexiok,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran 
minister,  was  bom  at  Carlisle,  Pa^  July  22,  1787.  He 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1807, 
and,  having  finished  his  theological  course,  took  charge 
of  the  evangelical  Lutheran  congregation  at  Frederick 
City,  Md.,  in  July,  1808.  He  was  ordained  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1812,  and  in  1829  was  unanimously  elected 
principal  of  the  Frederick  Academy.  He  died  at  Fred- 
erick City,  May  5, 1837.  See  Sprague,  AmiaU  of  the 
Amer,  PulpU/t,V2!i, 

Schaeffer,  Prederlok  ChxiBtlan,  D.D.,  a  Lu- 
theran minister,  was  bom  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  Nov.  12, 
1792.  He  pursued  his  classical  and  also  his  theological 
studies  under  his  father,  was  licensed  in  1812,  and  soon 
after  accepted  a  call  from  the  Harrisburg  congregation. 
He  preached  two  years  in  New  York  city.  In  1830  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  German  language  and  liter- 
ature at  Columbia  College,  but  died  Bfarch  29,  1832. 
See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit^  IX,  i,  145; 
Evangdical  Review^  viii,  200. 

Schaeffer,  Frederick  David,  D.D.,  a  Luther- 
an minister,  was  bom  at  Frankfortron-the-Main,  Nov. 
15, 1760,  and  received  his  education  at  the  gymnasium 
in  Hanau.  In  1774  he  began  a  private  course  in  the- 
ology. He  was  licensed  in  1786  by  the  Synod  of  Penn- 
sylvania, ordained  Oct.  1, 1788,  and  took  charge  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  at  Carlisle,  preaching  at  different 
places  in  other  countiesi  In  1790  he  assumed  the  pas- 
toral charge  of  Germantown  District,  and  in  1812  re- 
moved to  Philadelphia,  as  pastor  of  St.  Michaers  and 
Zion's  churches.  In  1834,  in  consequence  of  declining 
health,  he  removed  to  Maryland,  where  he  died,  Jan. 
27, 1836.  See  Sprague,  A  mtals  of  the  Amer,  PulpU,  IX, 
i,  79 ;  EvangeHeal  Review,  vi,  275. 


SCHALLER 


826 


SCHAUBACH 


Sohaller,  Jacob,  a  LiitherAn  theologUn  of  Ger- 
man3ry  was  born  at  Heilgenstein,  near  Strasburg,  Feb. 
25, 1604.  He  studied  at  different  universities,  was  in 
1688  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Strasburgjin  1684 
doctor  of  theology,  and  died  June  24, 1676.  Of  his  many 
writings  we  mention,  De  TestamenHs  Chritiianis: — De 
Plantatione  Not  ad  Libros  PkUoni$  Judai : — De  VanitaU 
Vanitatum  exEcdet,  i^li—DeChritto  OffensiomsLapide: 
— Le  Regno  Davidico  ad  1  Sam,  xvi,  1  sq.,  etc  See 
Witte,  Diarium  Biogtvphicum  f  JocheT^AUgememet  Ge- 
lehrten-LexikoHj  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Schamelius,  Mabtik,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Meuselwitz,  Altenburg,  June  6, 
1668.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Halle,  was  in  1708 
deacon,  and  in  1708  first  pastor  at  Xaumburg.  He  died 
in  1742.  He  is  the  author  of,  Nattmburgu(^et  glouiria 
Getangbuch  ndui  einer  hungrfautm  GettMchie  der 
Hynmopolorum  (4th  ed.  Nuremberg,  1720): — Evange- 
litcker  LtedercommentariuSf  etc.  (Leipsic,  1724;  2d  ed. 
1787): — Vindicias  Cantianum  Sanetm  Ecdesm  Evange- 
lie<B  (1712-19,  3  parts).  See  Jocher,  Ailgememea  Ge- 
lehrten' Lexikon,  s.  ▼.;  Koch,  Guehichte  des  deutseken 
Kirchadiedes,  v,  626  sq.     (R  P.) 

Schappeler,  Christopii,  a  famous  theologian  and 
jurist  of  the  reformation  period,  was  bom  at  St.  Gall  in 
1472.  In  1613  he  was  preacher  at  Memmingen,  and  in 
1620  he  joined  the  reformation  by  attacking  the  Church 
of  Rome,  not  so  much  in  the  sense  of  Luther,  but  of 
Zwingli,  who  wished  his  countryman  to  come  back 
to  Switzerland.  Schappeler,  however,  remained  at 
Memmingen,  where  he  commenced  the  work  of  refor- 
mation. He  showed  to  his  congregation  that  the  Bible 
is  the  centre  and  source  of  the  Christian  belief  and  of 
all  ecclesiastical  institutions.  He  denounced  the  mass 
as  of  no  avail  and  the  priests  as  unfit  persons,  who  pray 
without  devotion  and  read  mass  for  the  sake  of  money. 
The  papal  power  he  denounced  as  a  carnal  right,  and 
the  commandments  of  the  Church  as  the  false  papal 
commandment.  Such  language  had  its  effect,  and  the 
majority  of  the  citizens  were  brought  over  to  Schap- 
pelcr's  side.  The  writings  of  the  reformers  were  cir- 
culated and  read,  especially  the  New  Tost.  In  1528 
Schappeler  spent  a  short  time  in  his  native  countr}'', 
where  he  preached  against  the  abuses  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  in  November  of  the  same  year,  after  his 
retum  from  Switzerland,  he  was  joined  by  Christoph 
Gerung,  another  preacher  of  Memmingen,  and  both 
now  worked  together  in  the  interests  of  reformation. 
In  vain  did  the  bishop  ask  the  town^x>uncU  to  stop 
Schappeler.  When,  however,  the  bishop,  on  Feb.  27, 
1624,  pronounced  the  ban  and  excommunication  over 
Schappeler,  it  had  only  the  contrary  effects  The  citi- 
zens openly  declared  themselves  for  their  preacher,  and 
the  council  was  powerless.  In  order  to  bring  about  a 
modus  Vivendi,  the  opponents  of  Schappeler  had  to  ap- 
pear at  the  council  hall,  on  Jan.  2,  1526,  for  a  public 
disputation.  The  confession  of  Schappeler,  consisting 
of  seven  articles,  was  read.  Five  days  the  deputation 
lasted,  which  resulted  in  favor  of  the  reformation,  to 
introduce  which  the  council  now  lent  its  hand.  The 
ministers  were  allowed  to  marr>',  and  the  monks  and 
nuns  to  leave  the  monasteries.  Schappeler  died  at  his 
native  place,  Aug.  25, 1561.  See  Bobel,  Memmingen  im 
Reformalionneitalttr  (1877);  Vogt,  in  Plitt-Herzog, 
Real-Ewyklop,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Scharbau,  Heikrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Lubeck,  May  26,  1689.  He 
studied  at  Jena,  Wittenberg,  and  Leipsic,  was  in  1716 
preacher  at  his  native  place,  and  died  Feb.  2, 1769.  He 
wrote,  De  Creophagia  A  nte  Diluvium  Licita  (Jena,  1709) : 
— i>e  Faiis  Studii  Aforalis  apud  Ebrceot  (Leipsic,  1712) : 
^Exerciiatio  Philol.  de  SerpetOis  JRwi  Significatione 
Mgstica  (LUbeck,  1713) : — De  Caipka  ef usque  VaUcinio 
ex  Joh.  xt,  49,  60,  61  (1716):-- Judaitmus  Detedut 
(1722):— Parervjra  PhilologicO'tkeohgioa  (1719-26,  6 
parts)  v—Ohservatumes  Sacra, etc  (1781-87, 8  parts):— 


besides  contributing  to  the  Bibliotkeca  Luheoeiuia.  See 
Ddring,  Die  geUhrten  Theologen  DeuU^lands,  s.  v. ; 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Schttrer,  Johavn  Rudolf,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Berne  in  1766.  In  1798  he  was  professor  of  He- 
brew, in  1806  professor  of  Biblical  study  at  the  Berne 
Academy,  and  he  died  July  8, 1829,  preacher  at  Blimp- 
flingen.  He  is  the  author  of.  Das  Buck  Hiob  aus  dem 
Grundtext  meirisch  Obersetti  und  erlautert  (Berae,  1818, 
2  parts) : — Die  Psahnen  metriseh  Ubersetzt  mit  kurzen 
A  nmerkungen  ( 181 2  ) :  —  Rdigidses  Erbauungdfuch  fur 
Ge/angene  (1817,  1820).  See  Winer,  Handbueh  der 
theoL  LiL  i,  206,  209;  u,  820;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  s.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Bcharfenberg,  Johakh  Gottfried,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Leipsic,  Oct.  16, 
1748,  and  died  there,  March  18, 1786,  doctor  and  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy.  He  is  the  author  of,  Prohuio  de 
Josephi  et  Versionis  Atexandrina  Consimsu  (Leipaic, 

1780)  i-^Fragmenta  Versionwn  Gneearum  Veteris  Te*" 
tamend  tn  Monte'Faleordo  CoUeeta  (part  i,  1776;  ii, 

1781)  i-^Loci  NomntUi  Danielis,  etc  (1774).  Together 
with  Vogel  he  edited  Lud.  Capelii  Critica  Sacra  (1778- 
86, 8  vols.).  See  FUrst,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v. ;  WineV,  ITomI- 
buck  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  61, 98, 222.     (B.  P.) 

Schaxil^  JoHANN,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Kroppenstadt,  near  Halberstadt, 
June  18, 1696.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1627 
professor  of  philosophy,  in  1649  professor  of  theology, 
and  died  Jan.  6, 1660,  doctor  of  theology.  He  wrote, 
De  Messia  et  Jesu  Salvatore  Mundi:— Collegium  Anii" 
Calvinianum: — Collegium  Theologicum  Decern  DitpU" 
tationes  de  Pracipuis  Fidei  A  rticuHs  Continens : — A  nge^ 
lologia  Sacra  ex  Matth.  xvUi,  10 :  —  De  Justifioatione 
ex  Rom,  tu,  24, 26 :— Z>«  Interna  Confirmaiione  Fidetium 
ex  2  Cor,  i,  21,  22  :—De  Divimtate  Christi  ex  Veteri  el 
Novo  Testamento  Asserta,  etc  See  Witte,  Diarium 
Biographicum ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  GeUhrten-Lexihrn^ 
8.  V.     (R  P.) 

Scharllng;  Karl  Emil,  a  Danish  theologian,  waa 
bom  at  Copenhagen  in  1803,  and  died  in  1877,  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology.  In  1828  he  published  De 
Stedingis  Commentatio,  and  in  1833  Ifvad  er  Hensigten^ 
Betydmngen  og  Resultateme  (if  Theologemes  videnska* 
belige  Undersogelser  om  det  Nge  Testamentes  Skri/Urf 
Upon  publishing  this  treatise  he  was  made  professor. 
For  a  great  many  years  he  e<Uted  the  Tkeologisk  Tidt^ 
skryi  (1837-65),  and  published,  besides  his  writings 
already  mentioned,  De  Paulo  Apostolo  ^usque  Adeer^ 
sariis  Commenlatio  (1836)  i—Epistola  PauH  ad  Corw- 
Ihios  Posterior  Annotaiionibus  in  Usum  StudiMorvm 
JUustrata  (1840):— Jacofri  et  Judm  Epistola  CathoUctm 
Commentariis  lUusirata  (1841)  : — and  some  other  works 
which  have  been  translated  into  German,  Die  neuetten 
Untersuchungen  Uber  die  sogenannten  Pastoralbrif/e  det 
Neuen  Testaments  (Jena,  1846) :— Michael  de  Molinoe 
(Gotha,  1855).  See  Lichtenberger,  Encgclop.  des  Sd^ 
ences  Religieuses,  s.  v. ;  Zuchold,  BiU,  TheoL  s.  v.  (R  P.) 

Schartau,  Henrik,  a  Swedish  theologian,  was  bom 
Sept.  27, 1767,  at  Malmo.  He  studied  at  Lund,  and  at 
the  age  of  twenty-three  was  ordained.  In  1786  he  waa 
called  to  Lund,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  Schartau,  who  died  Feb.  2, 1826,  was  a  very  emi- 
nent preacher  and  a  faithful  witness  of  Jesus.  He 
lifted  up  his  voice,  calling  to  repentance  all  who  were 
permeated  by  the  leaven  of  unbelief,  which  character- 
ized the  age.  After  his  death  a  number  of  homiletical 
and  ascetical  works  were  published.  His  followers  are 
known  as  Schartauans.  See  Lindeblad,  Sckartau's 
Life  and  Teaxking  (Lund,  1887 ;  Germ,  transl.  by  A. 
Michelsen,  Sduirtau^s  LA&h  und  Lehre,  Leipsic,  1842) ; 
Melin,  Henrik  Schartau  (Stockholm,  1838) ;  BiosrapkiA 
Lexicon  qfver  namtdisundige  Svenska  M&ui,  xiii,  847- 
367  (Upsala,  1847);  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Enegklop.  s.  ▼. 
(RP.) 

Sohaubaob,  Kokrad  Fjusobiob,  a  Latbena 


SCHAUFFLER 


827 


SCHELWIG 


tbeologUn  of  Germany,  was  born  Jan.  9, 1827,  at  Mein- 
ingen.  He  stndied  at  Gottingen  and  Jena,  was  in  1851 
rector  at  his  native  place,  in  1865  deacon,  in  1870  first 
pastor,  in  1882  member  of  the  superior  ecclesiastical 
council,  and  died  Dec.  25, 1884.  He  published,  Da* 
Leben  Philipp  Meianchthon^s  (2cl  ed.  Meiniitgen,  1860) : 
— A utgew&kUe  PscUmen  im  AmcMuue  an  die  Evaxtgelim 
dei  Kircka^ahrta  autgekgt  (Halle,  1863)  :—Zur  Chon 
raklerittik  der  dtutadun  Volk^eratur  (a  prize  essaj). 
See  Znchold,  BihL  TheaL  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Bchanffler,  Wiluam  Gottukb,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a 
Congregational  minister,  was  bom  at  Stuttgart,  the  cap- 
ital of  WUrtemberg,  Aug.  22, 1798.  When  he  was  six 
years  old  his  father  removed  to  Odessa,  Russia,  where 
be  held  the  office  of  mayor  over  the  German  colony. 
The  son  early  gave  much  attention  to  the  study  of 
French  and  Italian.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two.  With  a  view  of  preparing  himself  for  a 
missionary,  under  the  direction  of  Joseph  Wolf,  the 
Jewish  missionary,  he  went  to  Constantinople  and  en- 
gaged in  the  study  of  the  Latin,  Turkish,  and  English 
languages.  To  perfect  himself  in  the  work  of  prepa- 
ration he  came  to  the  United  States,  entered  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  and  completed  the  full  course 
in  1880.  He  was  more  or  less  familiar  with  a  score 
of  languages.  In  1831  he  was  ordained,  and,  after 
spending  five  years  in  America,  returned  to  Constan- 
tinople. One  of  the  great  works  of  Dr.  Schauffler's 
life  was  the  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  into  Osmanli 
Turkish,  under  the  direction  of  the  British  and  Amer- 
ican Bible  Societies.  This  work  occupied  eighteen 
years  of  unremitting  labor.  His  labors  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Jews  were  characterized  by  zeal  and  devo- 
tion. He  translated  the  Old  Test,  into  Spanish.  He 
was  obliged  to  leave  Constantinople  on  account  of  the 
plague  in  1836,  and  travelled  in  southern  Russia  preach- 
ing the  gospel  to  German  residents  He  spent  three 
years  in  Vienna  superintending  the  printing  ot  the  Bi- 
ble. In  1877,  in  consequence  of  the  infirmities  of  age, 
he  was  obliged  to  lay  aside  his  active  work,  and  came 
to  the  United  States  to  end  his  days.  He  died  in  New 
York,  Jan.  26, 1883.  The  Tract  Society  published  his 
MediUaiwM  on  the  Last  DayM  of  Christ,  See  N.  Y. 
Obterver,  Feb.  1, 1883.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Sohaw,  Robert,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  ab- 
bot of  PaLsley,  March  1, 1498,  and  was  advanced  to  the 
see  of  Moray  in  1524.  He  died  iu  1527.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishapt,  p.  148. 

Bchftzler,  Constantim  von,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian,  was  bom  of  Protestant  parentage  at  Augs- 
burg, in  1827.  He  studied  Jurisprudence,  and  was  pro- 
moted as  doctor  of  law  at  Erlangen  in  1850.  In  the 
same  year  he  joined  the  Church  of  Rome  at  Brussels, 
studied  theology,  and  was  made  a  priest  in  1857  at 
Liege.  In  1859  he  was  promoted  at  Munich  as  doctor 
of  theology,  was  in  1868  lecturer  at  Freiburg,  in  1866 
archiepisoopal  counsellor,  went  to  Rome  in  1873,  and 
was  made  chaplain  by  Pius  IX.  In  1878  he  Joined  the 
Jesuits,  and  died  at  Interlaken,  Sept.  20,  1880.  He 
published.  Die  Lehre  von  der  Wirkeamkeit  der  Sacra- 
menu  (Munich,  1860)  i^Natur  und  Udtematur  (1865) : 
—Gnade  und  Glaube  (1867): — Das  Dogma  von  der 
Mensehwtrdung  Christi  {IB^O^i—Ueber  p^utliche  Un- 
fihibarkeit  (eod.) : — Der  heilige  Thomas  von  Aquin  als 
Besieger  des  Liberalismus  0^^)'    (^.P*) 

&k>]ieffer,  Wilhrlm,  a  Reformed  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  April  15, 1803,  at  Schrecksbach,  Kur- 
bessen,  commenced  his  theological  career  at  Marburg 
in  1827,  was  professor  of  theology  there  in  1881,  mem- 
ber of  consistory  in  1838,  member  of  superior  consistory 
and  superintendent  in  1857,  and  died  Feb.  26, 1883,  doc- 
tor of  theology.  He  published,  Qutestionum  Phihma- 
rum  Partiatla  I  (Marburg,  1829)  :~Z>e  Usu  Philoms  in 
Interpretatiom  Novi  Testamenti  (1831),  besides  several 
sermons.  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Hand- 
buch  der  theol  Lit.  i,  522.     (B.  P.) 


Sohegg;  Pktbii,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  June  6,  1815,  at  Kaufbeum.  In 
1888  he  received  holy  orders,  commenced  his  academical 
career  at  the  lyceum  in  Freising  in  1843,  was  professor 
of  exegesis  there  in  1847,  in  1848  at  Wttrzbnrg,  in  1872 
at  Munich,  and  died  July  9,  1855,  doctor  of  theology. 
He  wrote,  Geschichte  der  letzten  Propheten  (Ratisbon, 
1858, 2  parts) : — Uebersetzung  und  Erlddrung  der  Ideinen 
Propheten  (1854, 2  vols.) :— Uebersetzung  «nJ  Erkldntng 
der  PsaJbnen  (2d  ed.  1857, 8  vols.) : — Die  heiligen  Evange- 
lien  Hhersetzt  und  erUdrt  (Munich,  1856-70,  7  vols.)  :— 
Sechs  BUcher  des  Lebens  Jesu  ( Freiburg,  1874-75,  2 
vols.) :— JdoD6tf«  undiein  Brief  (1881)  \--Das  Todesjahr 
dei  K^nigs  Iferodes  und  das  Todesjahr  Jesu  Christi 
(Munich,  1882).     (B.  P.) 

Sohaibel,  Johann  Gottfbird,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Breslao,  Sept.  16, 1783. 
In  1811  he  was  professor  of  theobgy  at  the  university 
of  his  native  place,  but  was  deposed  from  his  office  in  1882 
on  account  of  his  connection  with  the  Separated  Luth- 
erans (q.  v.),  of  whom  he  became  a  leader.  Scheibel 
retired  to  Nuremberg,  and  died  in  1842.  He  wrote,  Ob- 
servatiottes  Critica  et  Exegdica  ad  Vaticmia  Haggaei 
(Breslau,  1822)  :>-Da«  Abendmahl  des  Herm  (1823): 
— Actenmassige  Geschichte  der  neuesten  Untemehmungen 
einer  Union  zwischen  der  refomdrten  und  lutherischen 
KinAe  (Leipsic,  1834, 2  vols.) : — Commttnionbuch  (1827). 
See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  230, 454, 530, 756 ; 
ii,  105, 275, 867 ;  Zuchold,  BiU.  ThtoL  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Boheid,  BALTHA8AR,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Strasburg  in  1614,  and  died  there 
Nov.  26, 1670,  doctor  of  theology  and  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages.  He  wrote,  Jonas  Propheta  PhUol. 
Commentar.  ExposUus  (Strasburg,  1665): — iVopiifii 
Testamentum  ex  Talmude  et  Antigwtatibus  HebrtBorum 
lUustratwn  (ed.  by  J.  Chr.  Meuschen,  Leipsic,  1786) : — 
Epistola  Pauli  ad  Titum  et  Philemon,  Syr.  Adjuneto 
Versione  (1668).  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theol.  Lit. 
i,  55,  227,  239;  FUrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  s.  v.;  Jocher,  AUge- 
meines  GeUhrten-Lexihon^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Sohelhom,  father  and  son,  two  prominent  theolo- 
gians of  the  18th  century,  whose  works  are  still  very 
valuable  to  the  Church  historian. 

1.  JoHANK  Georo,  Sr»f  was  bom  Dec.  8,  1694,  at 
Memmingen.  He  studied  at  Jena,  was  in  1718  con- 
rector  in  his  native  city,  in  1784  pastor,  in  1753  doctor 
of  theology,  in  1754  superintendent,  and  died  March  81, 
1778.  Of  his  works,  we  mention,  De  Religionis  Evan- 
geliea  in  Provincia  Salisburgensi  Ortu  ei  Fatis  (Leipsic, 
1782 ;  also  in  German  and  Dutch)  :-^Amanitates  Histo^ 
rim  EcdesiastiaB  et  Litteraria  (1787-46, 4  volai ;  Germ, 
translation,  Ulm,  1762-^  8  yo\».) : -^  Acta  ffistorica 
EedesiasHca  Saculi  XV  et  XVI  (1788):^/>e  VUa, 
Fatis  Mentis  Ph.  Camerarii  Commentarius  (Nurem- 
berg, 1740) : — Diatribe  de  Antiquissima  Latinorum  Bib~ 
liorum  Editione  (1760).  See  D&ring,  Die  gelehrten 
Theologen  DeutschlandSf  s.  v. ;  Meusel,  Lexikon  verstor- 
bener  deutscher  Schnftsteller,  xii,  124  sq.;  Lichtenber- 
ger,  Encgdop,  des  Sciences  RdigieuseSf  s.  v.;  Winer, 
ffandbuch  der  theol  Lit.  i,  783, 787 ;  PUtt-Herzog,  Real- 
Encgdop,  s.  v. 

2.  Joha:in  Gkorg,  Jr.,  was  bom  at  Memmingen, 
Dec  4, 1733;  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Tubingen,  was 
in  1756  preacher  at  Buxach,  near  Memmingen,  in  1762 
at  Memmingen,  in  1793  superintendent  there,  and  died 
Nov.  22, 1802.  He  wrote,  Beitrage  zur  Erlduterung  der 
Geschichte,  etc  (1772-77, 4  parte)  i—Afdeitung fur  Bib- 
lioihekare  und  A  rchivare  (1788-1791,  2  vols.),  etc  See 
Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschkmds,  s.  v. ; 
Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirchenliedes,  v,  190 ;  vi, 
224;  Meusel,  lexikon  verstorbener  deutscher  Schriji- 
steller,9.y.\  r\iU'HeTZOg,ReaUEncgclop.s.Y.    (B.  P.) 

Sohelwig,  Samuel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  March  8, 1643.  He  studied  at  Witten- 
berg, was  in  1673  professor  of  philosophy  at  Dantzic, 
in  1675  professor  of  theology,  in  1685  doctor  of  theol- 


SCHBM 


828 


SCHICKEDANZ 


ogy.  In  1698  Schdwig  inaogurated  a  eontroreny  with 
ht8  colleague  Constantine  &h1itze,  whom  he  aoeuaed 
of  having  spokea  in  the  pulpit  in  favor  of  pietism 
(q.  V.)  and  Spener.  The  outcome  of  this  controversy 
was  a  number  of  controversial  writings  published  by 
both  parties.  In  1694  the  town  council  interfered. 
But  Schelwig  would  not  stop.  He  now  wrote  against 
Spener,  who  replied.  In  1701  Schelwig  was  joined  by 
Ghr.  F.  Bacher  in  his  polemics  against  Spener,  and  he 
died  Jan.  18, 1715.  See  Pnetorius,  Athenm  Gtdanaaei 
(Leipsic,  1718),  where  a  complete  list  of  Schelwig*s 
writings  is  given;  Jocher,  AUgemtinu  Gekhrtm-Laei- 
hon,  B.  V. ;  Walch,  BeUffiofuttreitighaim  der  evangel- 
lutkeritchen  Kireke^  i,  602  sq.,  789  sq. ;  iv,  169 ;  Schmid, 
GetchichU  dee  Pietisnuu,  p.  225  sq.,  848 ;  Schnaase,  Ge- 
eMchtederevangeliechen  Kirche  Donate  (Dantzic,  1868) ; 
Flitt-Herzog,  Redr-Ettcydop.  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Sohem,  AuEXAia>ER  Jacob,  a  religious  Journalist 
and  statistician,  was  bom  at  WiedenbrQck,  Germany, 
March  16, 1826.  After  a  course  of  instruction  at  the 
gymnasium  of  Paderi)om,  he  studied  theology  at  Bonn 
(1848),  and  Tubingen  (1845) ;  became  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic priest  (1846),  but  embraced  Protestantism,  and  edited 
a  newspaper  in  Westphalia  (1849).  In  1851  he  came 
to  America,  was  professor  of  languages  in  Dickinson 
College  (1854-60),  and  afterwards  devoted  himself  to 
literary  labors,  especially  in  connection  with  several  re- 
ligious and  political  newspapers.  He  died  at  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  May  21, 1881,  being  at  the  time  assisunt  super- 
intendent of  the  public  schools  in  New  York  city.  He 
was  a  contributor  to  Appleton*s  Cifdopadia^  M^Clintock 
and  Strong's  Cydoptedia,  editor  of  the  Deute<A'Ameri- 
hamtche  ConvereaHone-Lexiam  (1869-74),  of  a  Laiut' 
EnglitK  Lexicon  (in  connection  ¥rith  Dr.  Crooks),  of  a 
Cydopadia  of  Education  (in  connection  with  Henry 
Kiddle),  and  author  of  several  Year-booke,  besides  other 
volumes. 

Sohenck,  Noah  Huirr,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal minister,  wss  bom  near  Trenton,  N.  J.,  June  80, 
1825.  He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1844, 
studied  law,  and  practiced  it  for  a  year  in  Trenton  and 
three  years  in  Cincinnati,  O. ;  but  having  decided  to  en- 
ter the  ministry,  studied  theology  at  the  Seminary  in 
Gambler,  where  he  graduated  in  1858.  His  first  parish 
was  at  Hillsboro'.  In  1856-57  he  preached  at  Gambier, 
and  from  1857  to  1859  in  Trinity  Church,  Chicago,  111. 
While  in  that  city  he  founded  and  edited  The  Weetem 
Churchman.  In  1859  he  accepted  a  call  to  Emanuel 
Church,  at  Baltimore,  where  he  remained  until  he  went 
to  Brooklyn,  in  1867,  as  rector  of  St.  Ann's  Church, 
where  he  continued  until  his  death,  Jan.  4, 1885.  Dr. 
Schenck  travelled  several  times  in  Europe,  and  was  the 
author  of  several  works,  mostly  letters  of  travel  and 
sermons.  At  one  time  he  edited  The  Proteetani  Church^ 
num  of  New  York,  and  he  was  talked  of  for  bishop  on 
several  occasions.  He  was  regarded  as  a  preacher  of 
great  ability,  and  always  was  listened  to  by  large  con- 
gregations. 

Schenkel,  Danibt^  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Dec.  21, 1813,  at  DSgerlen,  Canton 
ZQrich.  He  studied  at  Basle  and  G5ttingen,  was  in 
1887  privat-docent  at  Basle,  in  1841  chief  pastor  at 
Schaffhausen.  In  1846  he  began  his  great  work,  Dae 
Weeendee  Proteetantiemue  (1846-51,  8  vols. ;  2d  ed. 
1861),  in  which  he  took  his  stand  upon  the  so-called 
"Vermittelungstheologie,"  the  via  media  between  the 
old  evangelicalism  and  the  new  criticism.  Upon  the 
death  of  De  Wette,  Schenkel  was  called  in  1849  to 
Basle  as  professor  of  theology.  In  1851  he  wastcalled 
to  Heidelberg.  At  first  evangelical  in  spirit,  in  1857 
he  sided  with  the  liberal  direction  in  the  General 
Synod,  and  worked  for  the  reconstraction  of  the  Hessian 
Church  upon  the  basis  of  the  Congregational  principle 
C'Gemeindeprinzip").  As  editor  of  the  Attgemeine 
JdrchUi^  Zeitechr{ft,  he  used  the  press  to  support  the 
liberal  direction  in  theology  and  ecclesiastical  oonsti- 


tution.  The  beginning  of  his  liberalism  be  showed  in 
the  ChriuUehe  Dopmatik  vom  Stamfyunkt  des  Gtwieeent 
(185a4»9);  bat  when  he  published  in  1864  Dot  Cha^ 
rakUrbUd  JetUf  one  hundred  and  eighteen  parocbiAl 
clergymen  in  Baden  issued  a  protest  against  the  book. 
Schenkel  replied  in  Die protetianiied^  f>eiheit  m  ihrem 
gegenwdrHgen  Kampfe  mil  der  hirchiidien  Reaktiou 
(1865).  From  1868  he  had  labored  bard  for  the  foun- 
dation of  the  German  *<  Protestanten  Verein."  In  1883 
he  retired  from  the  direction  of  the  bomiletical  sem- 
inary, and  in  1884  from  academical  activity,  and  died 
May  19,  1885.  Besides  the  works  already  mentionedy 
he  published.  Die  Grundlehren  dee  Chrieienihims  amt 
dem  Bewueeteein  dee  Glaubene  darpeetdU  (1877) : — Lh^ 
ther  in  Worme  wnd  Wittenbery  (1870) :— CAm^oaOttw 
und  Kirche  im  EinJdang  mil  der  KuUuretUwiddMmg 
(1867-72,  2  vols.)  i—Dae  ChrietuMd  der  Apoetd  wed 
der  nachapoetoUechen  Zeil  (1879) : — in  connection  with 
eminent  scholars  he  published  DibeNexikon  (1867-72, 
5  vols.) : — and  for  Lange*s  Bibdverk  he  wrote  the  oom- 
mentaries  on  Ephesians,  Philippians,  and  Cokwsianny 
and  his  volume  passed  into  a  second  edition ;  bat  its 
place  in  the  series  was  afterwards  occupied  by  a  com- 
mentary on  the  same  epistles  by  Dr.  Karl  Braune  (q.  v.). 
See  Zucbold,  £t5iL  rieo/.  s.  V.    (B  P.) 

Sohenkl,  &f  aurus,  a  Benedictine  of  Germany,  waa 
bom  at  Auerbach,  Jan.  4,  1749.  In  1768  he  joined  hia 
order,  received  holy  orders  in  1772,  was  in  1778  profess- 
or of  theology  at  Weltenburg,  in  1790  at  Amberg,  and 
died  June  14, 1816.  He  wrote,  Poeitionee  ThedoffuB 
Dogmatiem  (Regensburg,  1779-80) : — Poeitionee  ex  Tke^ 
ologia  Univerea  (1781) : — Poeitionee  ex  jure  EedeeiaeHco 
Univereo  et  Bavarioo  (1788)  i—Ethica  Chrietiana  (1800- 
1801, 8  vols.)  i^Inetiiutionee  Theohgim  Paetoralie  (1802 ; 
2d  ed.  1803):  — CompoMliifm  ewe  Inetitutionee  Elkica 
Chrudana  (1807).  See  Ddring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
Deutechlande,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  l/andbuch  der  iheoL  Lit.  i, 
816;  ii,  9, 85.    (a  P.) 

Bcherer,  Joha^ssc  Ludwio  Wilhelii,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Nidda,  Feb.  27, 
1777,  and  died  in  1825.  He  is  the  author  of,  A  ttefidkr" 
Uche  Erlddrung  der  eammtlichen  meteianiechen  Weieea-' 
gungen,  etc.  (Altenburg,  1801): — Ar^iv  zur  VervoU^ 
kommnuf^  dee  Bibdetudiume  (  Hamburg,  cod.  ) :  — 
GeechidtU  der  Jeradiien  vor  Jeeue  (Zerbst,  1808-1804) : 
— Der  Sckryflforecher  tur  Bildung  dnee  grindHchen 
Bibeletudiume  (Weimar,  1808-1805, 2  vols.) :— iivf^r- 
Uche  ErUarvng  der  eammtlichen  Weieeagungen  dee  y^emen 
TeetamenU  (Leipsic,  1808)  i^ffistorieche  Einleitung  swm 
nchtigen  Veretehen  der  Bibd  (Halle,  1802).  See  Winer, 
ffandbudi  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  277, 890, 891 ;  ii,  87, 162, 249, 
252, 280,  298 ;  Furst,  BibL  Jud.  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Soherzer,  Johakh  Adam,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  bom  at  Eger,  Aug.  1,  1628,  was  in  1657 
professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic,  in  1658  professor  of 
Hebrew,  and  died  Dec  28,  1683,  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology.  He  wrote.  Collegium  Anti-Calviniamnn 
(edited  by  J.  Schmid,  Leipsic,  1704):— Co^wm  Anti-^ 
Socinianum  (1672) : —  Trifolium  Orientate  (containing 
Mandudio  ad  Lectionem  Talmudieo-rabbinicam,  Spec* 
imen  TheologieB  Judaorum  Afgstiee^  Abarbanelie  Comm. 
in  Haggeeum): — Nudeue  Grammaticorwn  Ebraietfmm 
(1660).  See  FUrst,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v.;  ^ner,  ffandbuck 
der  theol  Lit.  i,  858, 854 ;  Jocher,  A  llgemeinee  GdehrUn-^ 
Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Sohiokedans,  Abraham  Phiupp  Gottfrikd,  a 
Reformed  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Deasan, 
Hay  22, 1747.  In  1772  he  was  rector  at  Frankfort,  in 
1776  third  preacher  of  the  Reformed  Church  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  in  1784  doctor  of  theology,  and  died 
at  Zerbst,  Nov.  28, 1808.  He  wrote,  De  cinpha  Pnh- 
phdam  Sinutlanfe  ad  Joh,  xi,  49-^2  (Frankfort,  1773) : 
— Veetigia  Meeeia  in  ScripUe  Joeephi  atque  PhUonie 
(1774): — Diee.  euper  (luadam  Loea  Sabbatarionnn 
SeriptoruM  Exierorum  (1775-7^)  :~Xte  Natura  Sacri-- 
JUAorum  VeUrie  TeetameHU  (1784),  etc.     See  D5iing^ 


SCHIEDE 


829 


SCI 


:riiii 


Diegekhrten  Tkeologen  DeuitehkmdB,  a.  v. ;  Winer,  Ham^ 
buck  der  tkeoL  LiL  i,  186,  586.     (a  P.) 

Bohiede,  Joha^in  Georo,  a  Reformed  theologian 
of  GermaDy,  was  bom  at  Gaaael,  May  15,  1714.  He 
studied  at  Marburg,  was  ordained  in  1789,  and  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Carlshafen  in  1741.  In  1745  he  was 
called  to  Hanau,  was  in  1755  member  of  consi8toi7,and 
died  May  13, 1792.  He  wrote,  Dt  Veto  TabernacuHj 
etc  (Marburg,  1786)  i — Biffa  Ohservationum  Sacrarum 
de  Codice  Bibliarum  EWaico  MS,  BibUothecee  Cassekma 
(Bremen,  1748).  See  Doring,  Die  gddirten  Theohgtn 
DeuUchkmda,  s.  ▼. ;  Fttrst,  BibU  Jud,  s.  v.    (K  P.) 

Sohirmer,  August  Gottex>b  Ferdinakd,  a  Lu- 
theran theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  Silesia, 
May  14, 1791,  and  died  in  1868  at  Greifswalde,  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology.  He  published,  Ohtervatumu 
Exeg,-Critica  «i  lAbrum  Etdrm  (Breslau,  1820):— Z>»e 
Inblucke  Dogmatik^  etc.  (eod.) : — Vertudi  oner  wtMim- 
sckq/llichen  Wurdigung  det  SupematuraHanuu  und  Ra- 
tionalUnou  (1818) :— Dm  Anbetiuig  GoUtB  im  Geitt  und 
in  der  Wahrkeit  (Greifswalde,  1880),  etc.  See  Winer, 
ffcmdbuch  der  ikeoL  JM.  i,  204,  292,  369;  il,  104,  177; 
Zncbold,  BiltL  TheoL  s.  y.    (li.  P.) 

Sohlegel,  QottUeb,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Konigsberg,  Feb.  16,  1789,  and 
died  at  Greifswalde,  May  27, 1810,  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology.  He  published,  De  ParaUdismo  Semumum 
Jem  et  Scriptorum  ApoUolicorum  (Greifswalde,  1791) : 
'•^Emeuerle  Erwdgung  von  der  gdttL  Dreieimgkeii  (Riga, 
1791-92, 2  parts)  i—Briefe  der  Apottel  PetruB,  Johannetf 
Jacobue  und  Judae  Ubereetzt  mU  eiiagen  Anmerkungen 
(Halle,  1788): — De  PrindpUM  ExpedaiionU  de  Mettia 
•R  Genu  Judcdea  (1798),  etc.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten 
Thedogen  DeuttdUands^  s.  v. ;  Winer,  llandbuch  der  theoL 
Lit,  i,  110,  384,  421,  484,  497,  867;  U,  81,  46,  221,  278. 
(B.  P.) 

Sohlegel,  Johaxin  Carl  Ftlrohtegott,  a  Ger^ 
man  theologian,  son  of  Johann  Adolf,  was  bora  in  Han- 
over, Jan.  2, 1758,  and  died  Nov.  18, 1881,  member  of 
consistory.  He  wrote,  Udier  den  Geitt  der  BeUgiotiiSt 
aUer  Zeiien  und  VUker  (Hanover,  1819,  2  vols.):-. 
Kirdun-  ttnd  Reformationtgeechid^e  von  Norddeutsch" 
land  und  den  hannover'echen  Siaaten  (1828-^2, 8  vols.) : 
—Kurkannover^tches  Kirchenrechi  (1801-1806.  5  vols.). 
See  Zuchold,  BUd,  Tkeol,  s.  v.;  Winer,  Handhuch  der 
theol  Lit.  i,  510, 797 ;  ii,  16, 28.     {K  P.) 

Schlegel,  Karl  August  Moxltz,  a  German 
divine,  son  of  Johann  Adolf,  was  bom  in  Hanover, 
Sept.  26, 1756.  He  studied  at  G5ttingen,  was  in  1790 
prei^;her  at  Harburg,  in  1796  at  Gottingen,  and  died 
Jan.  29,  1826.  He  published  some  ascetical  works. 
See  Doring,  Die  deutechen  Kanxdredner,  p.  409-418. 
(RP.) 

Sohleyer,  Pbter,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  at  Ettenheim,  Feb.  28,  1862, 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology,  is  the  author  of, 
Orakd  dee  leeaia  iiber  den  Untergang  Babels  (Freiburg, 
1839): — Ueber  die  neutestamentUche  Lehre  von  der  Un- 
aufioiUchkeit  der  Eke  (1844): — Der  Puseyismut  nach 
eeinem  Ureprunge  und  alt  Lehrsgetem  dargestelU  (1845). 
See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v.;  FUrst,  Bibl,  Jud,  s.  v. 
(RP.) 

Bchliohter,  Chbistiam  Ludwio,  a  Reformed  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Cothen,  Dec  7,  1705, 
and  died  there,  April  23, 1765,  doctor  of  theology.  He 
wrote,  De  BapUtmo  vvip  rStv  viKpdv,  etc.  (Bremen, 
1725)  : — De  Quatuor  Rdmt  Scdomonais  Iniellectu  Diffi- 
cillimie  ad  Prov,  xxx,  18, 19  (Halle,  1730)  :—ExercUaiio 
EpistoUca,  etc,  ad  D'THn  Gen,  vUi,  21  sq.  (1732):— 
Decimee  Saerm  seu  Obtervationum  in  Utrvugue  Faukrie 
lAbroi  Qjnin^e  Decades  (eod.) : — Exerdtatio  ffistorieo- 
anUquaria  de  Cruce  apud  JudatoSf  Ckristianos  et  Genies 
(1788):  —  De  Pambus  Faderum  eorumque  Mgsterio 
lnB7)i—LibeUus  Swgularis  de  Stifitu  Saero  Hdfrm- 
wum  ^utqw  Mifsterio,  etc*  (1754),  and  other  workft  I 


See  Doring,  Die  gdehrten  Tkeologen  Deutsddands,  s.  r.  4 
Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  s.  v.    (R  P.) 

SoUiemaim,  Adolf,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  at  Schwerin,  July  80,  1879,  doctor 
of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  Die  dementimechen  Reeog- 
niiionen  (Kiel,  1848):— Die  Clementwen  ndttt  den  ver- 
wandten  Schr{ftenj  und  der  EbUmitumus  (Hamburg, 
1844).    See  Zuchold,  i5i6/.  neoi:  s.  V.     (R  P.) 

Bohloohow,  Emmanuel  Moritz,  a  minister  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  was  bora  of  Jewish  parentage 
in  1826,  at  Winzig,  SUesia.  In  1848  he  joined  the 
Christian  Church  at  Breslau,  and  in  1851  acted  as  lay 
missionary  among  the  Jews  in  Upper  Silesia.  In  or- 
der to  make  himself  more  fit  for  missionary  work, 
Schlochow  entered  the  Hebrew  College  of  the  London 
Society,  and  in  1858  was  appointed  to  Jassy,  where  he 
remained  for  nearly  ten  years.  In  1868  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  Mtthlhausen,  and  at  the  end  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  settled  at  Strasburg,  as  the  most  impor- 
tant place  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1876  he  was  compelled  to  retire  from  the 
mission-field  on  account  of  broken  health,  and  settled 
at  Worthing,  England,  where  he  died,  Dec  80, 1876. 
(R  P.) 

Sohmid,  Christian  Bmst,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  May  14, 1715,  at  Rabenau, 
Saxony,  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  entered  upon  his  pas- 
toral duties  in  1739.  He  died  at  Eilenburg,  Nov.  27, 
1786,  superintendent,  leaving,  Expositio  Bitus  Cantandi 
per  Nodes  Dierum  Festorum  apud  Hdfrceos  (Leipsic, 
1788)  :~Ds  Lege  per  Peecatum  Infirmata  (1739) :— De 
Veritatis  Dimnm  Dodoribus  Tamquam  trrvXoiQ  iKkKti- 
aiuQ  (eod.) :— D«  Sacrificio  a  Perjuris  Offerendo  (eod.) : 
— De  Corpore  Christi  Ommt  in  Sepukro  Experte  Cor- 
rupUoms  contra  Anongmi  Dubia  (1740).  S^  D6ring, 
Die  gdehrten  Theohgen  Deuteddandi^  s.  v.;  FUrst,  Bibl. 
Jud.B.y.     (RP.) 

Sohmid,  Christian  Frledrloh,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  20, 1741,  at  RiJglitz, 
near  Merseburg.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  com- 
menced his  academical  career  there  in  1764.  He  was 
professor  in  1767,  went  to  Wittenberg  in  1772,  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  theology  in  the  same  year,  and  died 
May  19, 1778.  He  wrote,  Versio  Alexandrina  Optimum 
Interpretationes  Librorum  Sacrorum  Prcesidium  (Leip- 
sic, 1763-64)  ;— De  Ilerodianis  (I7ti):  — Super  OH- 
gine  Epistoks  ad  ffebraos  (1765)  i^Observationes  super 
Epistola  ad  Hebrteos  (^17SS) r —  Observationes  super 
Epistola  JudtB  (1768):— ZhVifta  Origo  Librorum  Ca- 
nonicorum  Veteris  Testamenii  (Wittenberg,  1772):— De 
Antigua  Forma,  CoUectione  et  Conservaiione  Codicis 
Sacri  Hebraioi  (eod.),  etc  See  Doring,  Die  gekhrten 
Theohgen  Deutschlemds,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  s.  v.; 
Winer,  Bandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  76,  77,  91, 109,  256, 
267, 272, 486.     (B.  P.) 

Bohmid,  Heinrioh,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  July  81, 1811,  at  Harburg,  near 
Nordlingen.  He  studied  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  com- 
menced his  academical  career  at  Erlangen  in  1837,  was 
in  1848  professor  of  theology,  and  died  Nov.  17, 1885. 
He  wrote,  Udter  SchUiermacher's  Glaubenskhre  (Leip- 
sic, 1835):— Dm  Dogmaiik  der  evangdisch'lutherischen 
Kirche  dargestellt  (6th  ed.  1876)  i—Geschichte  der  syn- 
kretistischen  StreUigkdten  in  der  ZeU  des  Georg  Calixt 
(Erlangen,  1846)  i-^Lehrbuch  der  Kirchengeschichte  (2d 
ed.  lSbei):—Handbuch  der  Kirchengeschichte  (1880-81, 
2  vols.) :— Die  Theologie  Semler^s  (1858)  :--Lehrbuch  der 
Dogmengeschichte  {1859)  i—Geschiehte  des  Pietimus 
(1863):— Kampf  der  lutherischen  Kirche  urn  Luther's 
Lehre  vom  Abendmahl  (2d  ed.  I8f78)  :~^Geschichie  der 
kathoL  Kirche  Deutsddands,  etc  (1872-74).    (R  P.) 

Sohmid,  Johann  Andreas*  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Worms,  Aug.  28, 1652, 
was  in  1688  profeaM>r  at  Jena,  in  1699  at  Helmstiidt, 
and  died  June  12, 1726,  doctor  and  professor  of  theology. 
He  pabllahed,  Congaiaidium    Historim    Ecdedastiea 


SCHMID 


830 


SCHMUCKER 


(Helmstiidt,  1701;  new  ed.  1708):— De  Aposlolis  Uxo- 
raiU  (1704)  -.—Higloria  Saatli  Quarti  Fabulis  Farto- 
rum  Macukaa  (1712) :— Z)«  FaJtU  CalicU  Eucharittia 
in  Ecdetia  Romana  (1708)  :—/..«ctcon  Eecknatticum 
Minus  (1712) :— Z>e  Cantoribua  Eccktia  Veterit  et  Novi 
Testamenii  {17QS):—De  Re  Monetali  Ehraorum  (1699). 
See  Winer,  Bcmdbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  529, 632, 584, 554, 
564,  578,  603,  608,  618,  614, 616,  618,  620, 627,  629, 630^ 
82, 634, 635,  637, 654, 663, 759, 761 ;  Jocher,  A  U^emeinet 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Scbmid,  Johaxm  ^77ilhelm,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Gennany,  waa  bom  at  Jena,  Aug.  29, 1744,  and 
died  there  April  1, 1798,  doctor  and  professor  of  theol- 
ogy. He  published,  Immortalitatis  A  nimorum  Doctrina 
(Jena,  1770)  i—De  Neieu  inter  Fidem  et  Virtutem  Chris- 
iianam  (1784)  i—Historia  Returreciumis  Christi  (eod.) : 
— Commentaiioms,  in  qua  fiimrov  Notio  Indagatur^ 
Particula  Tree  (1785-87) :— />«  Cantensu  Principii  Mo- 
rattt  Kanticmi  cum  Eihica  Christiana  (1788) : —  Vera 
Nestorii  de  Unione  Naturarum  in  Christo  Sententia  £>- 
plicatio  (1793)  i^-De  Joanne  a  Jesu  Dilecio  (1795),  etc 
See  Doring,  J)ie  gtlehrten  Theohgen  Deutschlands,  s.  ▼. ; 
Winer,  Handhuch  der  theoL  Lit  i,  810, 424, 428, 487, 447, 
566,599;  ii,59,68.     (B.  P.) 

Schmid,  Joseph  Anton,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  (Germany,  was  bom  in  1827  at  Heideck, 
Upper  Palatinate.  He  received  holy  orders  in  1851, 
was  in  1858  professor  of  Hebrew  and  exegesis  at  the 
episcopal  lyoeum  in  EichstUtt,  in  1868  professor  of  Church 
history  and  dogmatics  at  Bamberg,  and  died  March  9, 
1881,  at  Munich,  doctor  of  theology.  He  published, 
Commentar  zum  Buck  der  Weisheit  (Vienna,  1858)  :— 
Kirche  und  Bibel  (1862).  '  (a  P.) 

Bchmid,  Karl  Christian  Brhard,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  born  at  Heilsberg,  Weimar, 
April  14, 1761,  and  died  at  Jena,  April  10, 1812,  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology.  He  published,  Philosophische 
Dogmatik  im  Grundrisse  (Jena,  1796): — Versudi  einer 
Moralphilosophie  (1790-98, 2  vols.;  4th  ed.  1802-3)  :— 
De  Theohgia  Biblica  (1788)  i—Adiaphora  philosophische 
theologisdi  und  historisch  untersueht  (1809).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  284, 288,  292,  294, 486, 761 ; 
ii,94.    (a  P.) 

Schmid,  Leopold,  a  professor  of  philosophy,  who 
died  at  Giessen,  Dec  20, 1869,  waa  originally  a  Koman 
Catholic  divine,  and  occupied  the  theological  chair  at 
Giessen  from  1839  to  1849.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  bishop  by  the  Mayence  chapter,  but  the  papal 
see  did  not  acknowledge  the  election.  Schmid  resigned 
his  position  as  theological  professor,  accepted  a  position 
in  the  philosophical  faculty,  and  in  1867  publicly  left 
the  Church  of  Kome,  and  published  Ultranumtan,  etc. 
Of  his  writings  we  also  mention,  Erid&rung  der  Genesis 
(Giessen,  1885) : — GrundzUge  der  Einkkung  in  die  Phi- 
losophie  (imi),    (B.P.) 

Schmidt,  Johann  Bmst  Christian,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Jan.  6, 1772,  at  Bnsen- 
bora,  Hesse.  He  studied  at  Giessen,  commenced  his 
academical  career  there  in  1798,  and  died  June  4, 1831, 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology.  He  published,  Gette- 
sis  xliz  neu  ubersetzt^  mii  Anmerkungen  (Giessen,  1798) : 
—8aionio*s  Prediger^  neu  iibersetzt  und  erUdrt  (1794) :— 
PhUologisch-exeqetisAer  CUxvis  Ober  da*  Neue  Testa- 
ment (1795-'imy,—BibliothekJur  KrUik  und  Exegese 
des  Neuen  Testaments  (1796-1802,  2  \o\s,)i^Lehrbuch 
der  christlichen  Dogmatik  (1800)  i— Handbuch  der  christL 
Kirehengeschichte  (1801-20,  6  vols.) :  —  ^M(orwcA-tri- 
tisehe  Ewdeitung  in  das  Neue  Testament  (1804--5, 2  vols.), 
Theologische  Encgclopddie  (1811).  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. ;  FUrtt,  BibL  Jud, 
s.  v.;  Winer,  flandbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  i,  10, 15, 75,  201, 
213, 236, 299, 474, 537, 577,  604.    (B.  P.) 

Schmidt,  Oswald  Gk>ttlob,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Kaditz,  Saxony,  Jan. 
2, 1821.  He  studied  at  Leipsie,  waa  in  1845  pastor  at 
Schonfeld,  in  1856  at  Greifenhain,  and  in  1866  at  Wer- 


dau.  Schmidt  died  Dec.  26, 1882,  doctor  of  theobgy. 
He  puldished,  Pericula  Conjungendorum  Ecclesiarum, 
etc  (Grimma,  1844) : — Die  Lehre  von  der  Rechtftrtigung 
durch  den  Glauben  (Leipsie,  1859):  —  Nicolaus  Hans' 
mantt,  der  Freund  Luther's  (I860)  i— Caspar  Cruciger 
tmd  Georg  der  GottseUge  (in  L^en  der  AlttSter  der 
lutherischen  Kirche,  1861)  i-^Petrus  Mosellanus  (1866)  : 
— Blicke  in  die  Kirehengeschichte  der  Stadt  Meissen 
(1879).  He  also  contributed  to  the  Plitt-Herzog  Real- 
Enqfclop,t,y.    (a  P.) 

Sohmitt,  Leoiihard  Cleueks,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1810  at  Hochstadt- 
on-the-Aich.  He  received  holy  orders  in  1834,  was 
doctor  of  theology  at  Munich  in  1835,  and  died  at  Bam- 
berg, Dec  14, 1869,  professor  of  theology  and  vicar-gen- 
eraL  He  published,  Grundriss  einer  Christologie  des 
Alien  Testaments  (i^l)  i  —  Prahfische  ErUSrung  des 
ersten  Psalms  (1843) : — Die  Construction  des  theolog.  Be- 
weises  (1836).    (a  P.) 

Schmdiders,  August,  a  German  Orientalist,  waa 
bom  in  1809  4it  Bochold,  Westphalia,  and  died  at  Brea- 
Uiu,  Feb.  21, 1880,  professor  at  the  university.  In  1869 
he  joined  the  Old  Catholics.  SchmSlden  published, 
Documenta  Philosophic  A  rabum  ex  Codioe  Manuscripto 
(Bonn,  1836) :— De  Studiis  A  rabum  Grammaticis  (Brea- 
lau,1862).    (a  P.) 

Schmncker,  John  George,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran 
minister,  waa  bom  in  Biichaelstadt,  in  the  Duchy  of 
Darmstadt,  Germany,  Aug.  18, 1771.  He  came  to  Amer- 
ica in  1785,  finished  bis  course  of  study  in  Philadelphia 
in  1792,  and  was  admitted  as  a  member  of  the  Synod  of 
Pennsylvania,  then  at  Beading.  His  first  charge  con- 
risted  of  several  congregations  in  York  County.  In 
1809  he  became  pastor  of  the  congregation  at  York, 
where  he  labored  twenty-six  years.  He  died  Oct.  7, 
1854.  See  Sprague,  Amials  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  IX,  i, 
95;  Evangelical  Review,  vi,  412. 

Schmncker,  Samnel  Simon,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Lutheran  minister,  son  of  John  George,  waa  bora  at 
Hagerstown,  Md.,  Feb.  28, 1799.  His  preparatory  stud- 
ies were  pursued  at  York  (Pa.)  Academy.  In  1814  be 
entered  the  Unix^ersity  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  re- 
mained until  the  dose  of  the  sophomore  year,  when  he 
retumed  to  York,  and  in  August,  1816,  took  charge  of 
the  classical  department  of  the  York  Academy,  and  held 
this  position  until  November,  1817.  Having  ctudied 
theology  for  a  time  with  his  father,  he  entered  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  from  which  he  graduated  in 
1820.  That  year  he  was  licensed  to  preach ;  for  several 
months  assisted  his  father;  then  went  to  Virginia  to 
take  charge  of  congregations  in  Shenandoah  County, 
which  had  been  under  the  care  of  his  uncle,  Rev.  Nicho- 
las Schmncker.  He  waa  ordained  Sept  5, 1821,  at  Fred- 
erick, Md.  The  Shenandoah  congregations  which  he 
served  were.  New  Market,  Solomon's,  Reder's,  and  Ar- 
mentrout's,  and  he  remained  in  this  charge  nntil  1836. 
While  here  be  set  himself  to  work  to  translate,  rear- 
range, and  enlarge  Storr  and  Flatt's  Biblical  Thedogg, 
In  1822  he  began  to  prepare  students  for  the  ministry. 
In  March  of  the  same  year  he  submitted  to  a  commit- 
tee, appointed  for  the  purpose,  a  plan  which  he  bad 
drawn  up,  entitled  The  Formula  for  the  Government  and 
Discipline  of  the  Evangdical  Lutheran  Church  in  Marg^ 
land  and  Virginia,  It  was  adopted  by  the  synod  in 
1822,  and  approved  by  the  General  Synod  in  1828, 
Subsequently  it  was  revised  and  enlarged  in  1827,  un- 
der his  direction,  by  the  Synod  of  West  Pennsylvania ; 
waa  printed  in  the  English  ffgmn-book  in  1829;  became 
the  ground-plan  of  the  organization  of  the  congrega- 
tions within  the  Greneral  Synod,  and  it  has  endured 
until  the  present  time.  In  1827  he  was  directed  to 
prepare  the  constitution  for  synods,  which  was  adopted 
in  1829.  When,  in  1828,  the  Ministerinm  of  Penn- 
sylvania withdrew,  and  the  existence  of  the  Genexml 
Synod  was  imperilled,  he  waa  very  active  in  the  meas- 
ures taken  to  prolong  its  life.    He  edited  the  EngUak 


SCHNECK 


831 


SGHOLZ 


Cateekum,  and,  in  company  with  Rev.  C.  P.  Kraath, 
prepared  the  Englith  Byvmrbook,  The  work  to  which 
he  believed  himaelf  to  be  called  waa  the  preparation 
of  candidatea  for  the  ministry.  When  the  General 
Synod  decided,  in  1825,  to  establuh  a  theological  sem- 
inary, he  was  at  once  elected  the  first  professor.  The 
institution  was  opened  Sept  5, 1826,  at  Gettysburg,  to 
which  place  he  removed.  For  four  years  he  was  the 
sole  professor.  During  his  connection  with  the  sem- 
inary over  four  hundred  ministers  went  out  from  iL 
After  nearly  forty  years  of  labor  in  this  office  be  re- 
signed it  in  1864.  He  was  Urgely  instrumental  in  the 
establishment  of  Pennsylvania  College,  and  was  one  of 
its  trustees  from  its  incorporation  until  the  close  of  his 
life,  July  26, 1878.  In  1888  he  published  an  appeal  to 
the  American  churches,  with  a  plan  for  Christian  union, 
and  was  present,  in  1846,  when  tbe  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance was  organized.  His  Popular  Theology  passed 
through  eight  editions;  his  Ptychology  reached  a  third 
edition.  He  published  forty-four  works,  most  of  which 
were  synodical  and  occasional  discourses.  It  is  said 
that  his  attempts  to  produce  liturgies  were  the  most  un- 
successful of  his  literary  endeavors.  As  a  preacher  he 
was  very  careful  in  his  preparation,  and  was  always 
gladly  heard,  ^w  Pom,  College  Year Jbook,\9«l,^\li\ 
Fifty  Years  in  the  Lutheran  Ministry  (1878),  p.  121 ; 
(Gettysburg)  Evangeliail  Review,  Jan.  1874. 

Schoeok,  Bkxjamiv  S.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
German  Reformed  Church,  was  bom  near  Reading,  Pa., 
March  14, 1806.  He  studied  theology  under  Rev.  Dr. 
F.  S.  Herman,  was  licensed  in  1825,  and  ordained  in 
1826.  His  first  charge  consisted  of  seven  congrega- 
tions in  Centre  County,  where  he  labored  until  1838. 
In  1834  he  became  pastor  in  Gettysburg  and  vicinity, 
but,  his  health  failing,  he  resigned  in  1885.  Shortly 
after  he  took  charge  of  the  Weekly  Messenger,  contin- 
uing as  editor  until  1844.  He  resumed  the  editorial 
management  of  the  Messenger  from  1847  to  1852.  He 
was  idso  editor  of  the  Rrformirte  Kirehenzeiiung  from 
its  beginning  until  1864,  aa  well  as  minister  at  dUTerent 
intervals  to  congregations  in  the  vicinity  of  Chambers- 
burg.  In  1855  he  took  charge  of  St.  John's  Reformed 
Church  at  Chambersburg,  of  which  he  continued  pas- 
tor until  his  death,  April  19,  1874.  In  1839  he  was 
president  of  the  synod  which  met  at  Philadelphia.  For 
some  time  before  his  death  he  was  professor  of  German 
in  the  Wilson  Female  College,  near  Chambersburg. 
He  was  a  man  of  much  general  information ;  a  geni^, 
pleasing,  and  instructive  writer.  See  Harbaugh,  Fa- 
thers  of  the  Germ.  Ref,  Church,  v,  120. 

.Bohneemami,  Gkrhabd,  a  Jesuit,  who  died  Nov. 
20,  1885,  at  Kirchrath,  HoUand,  is  the  author  of.  Die 
Irrthikmer  iHber  die  £he;  Die  Freiheit  ttnd  Unahkdn^ 
gigkeil  der  Kirche;  Die  kirdUiehe  Gewalt  und  ihre 
Trdger ;  Die  kirchUehe  Lehrgcwalt  (published  as  essays 
in  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Loach,  Freibarg,  1866-69) : — 
SancU  Ireneti  de  Eedesia  RomimcB  Prineipatu  TestimO' 
mum  (1870) :— />te  J^onoaet  tnid  BesdhlUsse  des  vaJtioa- 
nisehen  Condls  (in  German  and  Latin,  1871) :— />»e  Ent- 
stehung  derthomtstisdMHolimstiechen  Controverse  (1879) : 
— Controversiarum  de  Divina  Gratia  LSberique  A  rhUrii 
Concordia  Initia  et  Progressus  (1881)  :—Weiiere  Eni- 
wickelung  der  thomistisch-moluustischen  Controverse 
(1880).     (a  P.) 

Schneider,  Leohhabd,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  who  died  April  25, 1874,  at  Mooren- 
weis,  diocese  of  Augsburg,  is  the  author  of  Die  Unsterb^ 
UehkeiisUhre  des  Arietoteks  (Paasan,  1867):  — ^/wc^ 
iAer  Roger  Bacon  (Augsburg,  1878)  i—Die  UntterbUch" 
keiisidee  im  Glaubm  und  in  der  PhUosophie  der  Vdlker 
(Ratisbon,  1870>    (a  P.) 

Bohnorr  (mm  Carokfdi),  Julius,  a  famous  paint- 
er, and,  besides  Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  Veit,  one  of  the 
oldest  and  roost  disUnguished  representatives  of  Chris- 
tian painting  of  modem  times,  was  bom  in  1794  at  Leip- 
sic,  and  educated  at  Dresden.    In  1817  Schnorr  went 


to  Italy,  was  iii  1846  appointed  director  of  the  picture* 
gallery  at  Dresden,  and  died  May  24, 1872.  He  pub- 
lished. Die  Bibel  in  Bildem  (Leipsic,  I860):— ^tWia 
Sacra  Tabulis  lUustratd,  etc  (1855-60>    (B.  P.) 

Bohdberleiii,  Ludwio  Friedricii,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Kolmberg,  near 
Anspacb,  Sept.  6, 1813.  He  studied  at  Munich  and  Er- 
langen,  and  oommentied  his  academical  career  at  the 
Utter  place  in  1841.  In  1850  he  was  professor  at  Hei- 
delberg, in  1855  at  Gottingen,  in  1862  member  of  con- 
sistory, and  died  July  8, 1881.  Schoberlein  published, 
Die  GnuuUehren  des  Ileils,  entwichelt  aus  dem  Prinzip 
der  Liebe  (Stutgard,  1848):  — Z>er  evangeUsche  Gottes- 
dienst  nach  den  Grundsdtzen  der  Reformation  (Heidel- 
berg, 1854):  —  Der  evangelisehe  Baup/goftesdienst  in 
Formularen/iir  das  ganze  Kirchenjahr  (1855;  new  ed. 
1874):  —  Das  Wesen  des  chrisf lichen  Gottesdienstes 
(1860):  —  Schatz  des  Uiurgischen  Chor-  und  Gemeinde^ 
gesangs,  etc  (G6ttingen,  1868-72, 8  vols.)  i—Geheimnisse 
des  Glaubens  (1872) : — Prinzip  und  System  der  Dogma- 
tik  (1881).  See  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences 
ReUgieuses,  s.  v. ;  PUnJer,  Theol  JdhreAericht  (1881),  i, 
374  sq. ;  Plitt-Herzog,  Real^Encyklop,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Sohook,  James  L.,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was 
bom  in  Berks  County,  Pa.,  March  16, 1816.  He  grad- 
uated from  Pennsyh'ania  College  in  1889,  after  which 
he  was  a  tutor  there,  and  for  a  short  time  studied  at 
the  Gettysburg  Theological  Seminary.  In  1841  he 
was  licensed  to  preach,  and  that  year  was  pastor  in 
Reading,  Pa.  For  a  time  he  preached  in  Chamber»- 
buig,  and  in  1852  became  pastor  of  St.  James's  Church, 
New  York  city.  He  disappeared  mysteriously  during 
a  mental  disturbance,  as  a  result  of  impaired  physical 
health,  Oct  29, 1865.  See  Pennsylvania  College  Year- 
book, 1882,  p.  208. 

Soholten,  Johahm  Hein rich,  a  Dutoh  theologian 
and  leader  of  the  critical  theological  school  in  Holland, 
who  died  in  April,  1885,  was  in  1840  professor  at  Frane- 
ker,  and  in  1843  at  Leydeiu  He  is  the  author  of,  Dis^ 
guisUio  de  Dei  Erga  Bominem  A  more  Principe  Religion 
nis  Christiana  Jjoeo  (Leyden,  1836): — De  Vitando  in 
Jesu  Chrifti  Bistoria  InUrpretanda  Docetismo  (1840) : 
— De  Religione  Christiana  sua  Ipsa  Divinitatis  in  A  nmo 
Bumano  Vindice  (1844)  :—De  Pugna  inter  Theologiam 
atque  Philosophiam  Recto  Utriusque  Studio  ToUenda 
(1847)  i^Dogrnatiees  Christiana  Initia  (2d  ed.  1858)  :— 
De  Saeris  Liferis  Theologia  Nostra  jEtate  Libert  Ex^ 
culta  Fonte  (1857):  —  Geschiedenis  der  godsdienst  en 
wijthegeerte  ten  gebruihe  bij  het  akademische  lessen  (1860) : 
— Die  dltesten  Zeugnisse  betreffend  die  Schrijien  des 
Xeuen  Testaments,  from  the  Dutch,  by  Manchot  (Brem- 
en, 1867) : — Das  Evangelium  nach  Johannes  (transl.  by 
H.  Lang,  Berlin,  1867): — Das  alfeste  Evangelium,  etc 
(transL  by  Redcpenning,  Elberfeld,  1869)  :—Geschichte 
der  Religion  und  PhUosophie  (transL  from  the  8<l  ed. 
by  Redepenning,  ibid.  1868;  also  transl.  into  French  by 
A.  Reville,  Manuel  dllistoire  Comparee  de  la  PhUoso- 
phie et  de  la  Religion,  Paris,  1861):— Z>«r  AposUl  Jo- 
hannes in  Kleinasien  (transL  by  Spiegel,  Berlin,  1872)  :— 
Das  Pauludsche  Evangelium,  etc  (transl.  by  Redepenn- 
ing, Elberfeld,  1881):  —  Bistofisch-a-Uische  bijetragen 
naar  aankiding  van  de  meuwste  hypothese  aangatmde 
Jezus  en  den  Paulus  der  vier  hoofdrieven  (Leyden,  1882). 
(RK) 

Scholz,  JoHANN  Martin  Auoustin,  a  Roman 
Oitholic  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  8, 1794, 
at  Kapsdorf,  Silesia,  and  died  at  Bonn  in  1858,  doctor 
and  professor  of  theology.  He  published,  Novum  Te- 
stamentvm  Grace  (Leipsic,  1830-35,  2  vols.)  :^Biblisch- 
kritische  Reise  in  den  Jahren  1818-21  (1828):  — Cura 
Critica  in  Bistor,  Textus  Evangeliorum,  etc  (Heidel- 
berg, 1820): — Bandbuch  der  UbL  Archaologie  (Bonn, 
1834)  \~-Reiu  in  die  Gegend  zwischen  Alexandrien,  etc. 
(Leipsic,  1822):  — Die  kleinen  Prvpheten  ubersetzt  und 
erkldrt  (1888)  i-^Eudeilung  m  die  heUigen  Schriften  dee 
A  lien  undNeuen  Tettamenis  (1845-48, 8  vols.):— i>e  FtV- 


SCHORGH 


832 


SCHWARZ 


tutUni$  et  VUiii  Uirnuque  Codicum  Novi  Tettamaiti 
Familim  (1845).  See  Zuchokl,  BibL  TheoL  a.  v. ;  FQnt, 
JBibL  Jud,  8.  V. ;  Winer,  Hcmdbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  14, 46, 
92, 102, 1S7, 166, 174, 176, 660, 677.    (K  P.) 

Etohoroh,  Franz  Eduabd,  a  Lutfaenm  theologitn 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  HennannagitUi  in  1802,  and 
died  at  Schleiz,  Nov.  17, 1881,  superintendent  and  doc- 
tor of  theology.  He  pnUished  Dot  Leben  Jent^  etc. 
(Leipsic,  1841),  and  several  volumes  of  JSermonM,  for 
which  see  Zuchold,  BUd.  TheoL  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Bohdttgen,  Christian,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
and  philologist  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Wurzen,  Sax- 
ony, March  14, 1687.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in 
17i6  rector  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  in  1719  at  Sur- 
gard,  Pomerania,  in  1728  at  Dresden,  and  died  Dec  16, 
1761.  '  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of,  I/ora  Ue- 
hraica  et  TalmudictB  in  Univertum  Novum  Testamentum 
(Dresden,  1738):  — //ons  HAraicm  et  TcdauidiocB  in 
Theotogiam  Judaorum  Dogmatioam  Aniiquam  et  Or* 
thodoxam  de  Meitia  Impensa  (1742) : — Novum  Lexicon 
Gneco-Latinum  in  Novum  Testamentum  (Leipsic,  1746 ; 
new  ed.  by  Krebs,  1766,  and  Spohr,  1790).  See  During, 
Die  gelehrten  Theohgen  Deutschlemdtf  s.  v.;  Meuael, 
Lexicon  der  von  1760.1800  verttorbenen  dsatooAen  Sckr^ft- 
etetter,  xii,  882  sq.;  Plitt  -  Herzog,  RetU-EnegUop.  s.  v. 
(R  P.). 

8ohr5der,  Johann  Joachim,  a  Lntheran  theo- 
logian of  German}-,  was  bom  at  Neukirchen,  Hesse, 
July  6, 1680,  and  died  at  Marburg,  July  19, 1766,  pro- 
fessor of  theology.  He  published,  De  Higtaria  et  Con- 
ditione  Verticnit  ArmemoB  Sacri  CodieiB  (Amsterdam, 
1711):  —  Diepulationes  de  Natura  Lingua  HAraHoa 
(Marburg,  1716):— 2>e  Rubo  Ardente  et  non  Comburente 
ad  Exod,  Ui,  i  sq.  (1714)  i--De  Annis  AehcuicB^  Judao* 
rum  Regis  ad  ConcUiandi  Loca  2  Reg,  rtf,  26  s<  2  Chron. 
xxii,  2  (1716)  i—De  Primava  Lingua  Ehraiea  (1716) : 
—  Z>e  PrecUna  Ebraorvm  (1717):  — 2)8  Nethtneeit 
(1719):  — 2)8  Voce  T^'l^aK  ad  Gen.xU,AZ  (eod.),  etc. 
See  Ytmi^BibLJud.  s.~v.;  Ddring,  Z^m  ^Arfen  Theo- 
hgen DeutsMands^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Bohroder,  Johann  'Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Marburg,  June  16, 1726, 
and  studied  at  the  university  in  his  native  place.  In 
1766  he  succeeded  bis  father  as  professor  of  Oriental 
langusges  and  Hebrew  antiquities,  and  died  March  8, 
1793.  He  published,  De  ScmcHtate  in  Genere  et  QuibuM- 
dam  ejus  Spedebus,  Pracipue  de  Sanctitate  Dei  (Mar- 
burg, 1760): — Commentarius  Philologicus  in  Psabnum  x 
(Groningen,  1764):  —  In  Causae  Quare  Didio  Pure 
Grmca  in  Novo  Testamento  Pkrumque  Prostermissa  sit 
(1768) :— /n  DiffidUora  Qjuadam  Psaimorum  Loca  Fas- 
ciculus (1781).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theohgen 
DeuUchlands^  s.  v.    (R  P.) 

Bohroeder,  John  Frbdbrick,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  April  6, 
1800.  He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1819; 
studied  in  the  Episcopal  Seminary  at  New  Haven,  Conn.; 
was  ordained  in  1828 ;  had  charge  of  a  parish  on  the 
eastem  shore  of  Maryland  for  a  few  months;  was  aasisU 
ant  minister  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York  city,  from 
1824  to  1888;  and  in  the  latter  year  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Crucifixion,  and  of  Su  Thomas's  Church, 
Brooklyn.  In  1889  he  established  a  seminary  for  young 
ladies,  called  SU  Ann's  Hall,  at  Flushing,  L.  I.  He  died 
in  Brooklyn,  Feb.  26, 1867.  Dr.  Schroeder  was  a  fine 
scholar,  a  popular  preacher,  and  the  author  of  several 
volumes;  one  contains  essays  on  Biblical  subjects,  and 
three  are  on  General  Washington. 

Bchrqter,  Kobbrt  Gustav  Tiikodor,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  who  died  at  Breslau,  March  20, 
1880,  is  the  author  of,  Gregorii  Bar-fffsbrtBi  Scholia  in 
Psabnum  vOi,  xl,  xli,  /,  etc  (Breslau,  1867)  -^Kritik  des 
Dunasch  ben-Labrat  iiber  einzdne  Stdlen  aus  Saadic^ 
etc  (1866) : — 2>te  den  Saadia  beigdts^  arabische  Ueber- 
setxung  der  hUinen  Propkdm  (in  Men^  ArMo  fir 


Erfirstkus^  des  Alien  TesUmenl^;  beudes^  he  contrib- 
uted to  the  ZeitsArift  der  deutsdi.  morgenL  GesdUchqft. 
(B.P.) 

Etohubert,  JoHAinr  Erhbt,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Elbing,  June  22, 1717,  and  died 
at  Greifswalde,  Aug.  19, 1774,  doctor  and  professor  of 
theology.  He  published,  Introduetio  in  Theologiam 
Revdatam  (Jena,  1749)  ^-/luftte^toiMf  Theologia  Po^ 
lemiocB  (1766>68,  4  vol&)  I'-VemOnftige  mid  sduifige^ 
mdsse  Gedanken  von  der  gdttUehen  Drddmgkdt  (1761)  : 
— Gedanken  von  der  Gnadenwahl  (1764): — Schriftgemasee 
Gedanken  von  der  Reektfertigung  dues  Simders  vor  Gott 
(1744) :—  Vem&nflige  und  schriftgemSsse  Gedanken  vom 
Tode  (1748):  —  Gedanken  vom  ewigen  Leben  und  vom 
Zustande  der  Seden  naeh  dem  Tode  (1747>  See  Winer, 
^osMftiMA  <fer  M€ot  i:«/.  i,  292, 848, 421, 443, 447, 448, 487, 
470;  D5ring,  Die  gdekrien  Theohgen  Deutsehkmds^  a.  ▼. 
(B.P.) 

Etohultse,  JoHAMN  Heinbich,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  SepL  7, 1810,  and  died 
Nov.  21, 1884.  He  is  the  author  of,  Wdhnachtsghcke 
Oder  liturgische  Vorfder  zum  heiL  Christtage  (6th  ed. 
Magdeburg,  1868)  i^Vesperghcke  oder  Hturgisdke  An- 
dadden  zum  Sonntag-Nackmittag  (1866) : — Textgemdste 
Predigt'EfUwUrfe  iAer  die  evangdischen  und  epistolisdken 
Perikopen  (2d  ed.  GStUngen,  1884, 8  vols.).  See  Zuchold, 
Bibl.Theol,  B.y.    (aP.) 

Bchwabe,  Frakz,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, who  died  Aug.  12, 1884,  at  Friedberg,  doctor  and 
professor  of  theology,  is  the  author  of,  Evangdisdka 
Brevier  in  Lied  und  Gdfet  (2d  ed.  Friedberg,  1878):— 
GdstUches  Liederbuch  (4th  ed.  1878),  and  of  some  homi- 
letical  works,    (a  P.) 

Etohwais,  Fnmx  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  who  died  at  Ellwangen,  July  1, 
1886,  doctor  of  theok^,  is  the  author  of,  Neue  Umter* 
suchungen  aber  das  Verv>andUchaJU'  VerhSUmss  der 
sgnop^sdim  Evat^dien,  etc  (Tubingen,  1841):— Die 
kathdische  Kirche  und  der  Protestantismus  auf  dan 
Gdnde  der  inUbtdisehen  Mission  0861) :— Z)m  gOtOid^ 
Offenbarung  von  Jesus  Christus  naeh  der  sogenanmtem 
ilniiai6i6e/(2ded.Fniburg,1888).    (a  P.) 

EtohwBJS,  Frledrioh  Heinrlch  ChrUtiaii,  a 
Protestant  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  May  80, 
1766,  at  Giessen,  and  studied  there.  In  1790  he  was 
preacher  at  Dezbach,  near  Biedenkopf,  Hesse,  in  1796 
at  Echzell,  and  finally,  in  1804,  professor  of  theology  at 
Heidelberg,  where  he  died,  April  8, 1887.  Schwara  took 
a  great  interest  in  pedagogy,  founded  prosperous  edu- 
catiooal  institutions,  and  published  Lehbudk  der  Erzie^ 
hungs-  und  UnterrichtsUhre  (1886, 8  vols.).  Of  his  the- 
ological works  we  mention,  Sciagn^ia  DogmaHoea 
Christianm  in  Usum  Pndeelorum  (1908)  :—Grumbisa 
der  MrddidunprotestaHtUeken  Dogmatik  (1816):— Das 
Christenthum  in  seiner  Wakrheit  und  GdttUchkdt  be- 
trachUt  (1808) :— fToNdBireA  der  evangdisek-diristUeAen 
Ethik/Ur  Theohgen  undgdOdets  Christen  (1821 ;  Sd  ed. 
1880).    See  Plitt^Herzog,  RedUEncgkhp,  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

EtohwBJS,  Friedrlch  Zmznannel,  a  Lotheraa 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  6,  1728,  and 
died  at  Leipsic,  Oct.  26, 1786,  doctor  and  professor  of 
theology.  He  wrote,  Exercitationes  Historioo-critiees 
Ml  Utrumque  Samaritanorum  Pentateudkum  (Witten- 
beig,  1766) :— Jefvs  Targundeus  (Torgau,  175a^59,  2 
parts)  :-^De  DisputaUone  Vinarienn  d  ResHtutione  Cam- 
tabr^iend  (1760)  >— Z>e  Uncdone  Pontijhis  Afagni  ffe- 
bmeorumper  Cruoem  (1766): — De  SccSinis  Bebrwormm 
(1766):^ — bfartgrium  SUphan  e  Pandeeds  Hdrrveormm 
JUustratum  (1766):— Z>8  Resurrtetkme  Jobi  (1769):— 
Vatioinium  lesaia  de  Tunmh  Jesu^  Commeniatio  Super 
Ies.xxi,U,U  (17W) i-'Observadones  Cridaede  Uaao- 
ra  Scriptures  Sacrm  Vderis  Testamenti  Po^ghtta  (1754). 
See  Winer,  irandbttcAderlAcoi.  £0.1, 96, 486, 760;  Fttnt» 
BMJud. 9,yr.  Domg, Die gdd&ten  Theohgen De»it$d^ 
landSfB,r.    (aP.) 


SCHWARZ 


833 


SCOTT 


Bohwars,  Gtottfried,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
GenDany,  was  bora  at  Iglao,  Hungary,  Nov.  19, 1707. 
He  studied  at  Jena,  was  in  1730  oonrector  at  Lentschau, 
Hungary,  in  1742  rector  at  OsnabrUck,  in  1749  professor 
at  Rintehi,  and  died  Nov.  18, 1786,  doctor  of  theology. 
He  published,  TrioM  Obienatiomtm  Grammaiicarum 
(OsnabrUck,  1744): — Prolegomena  de  Pracipuis  Notnini- 
bus  Dei  (1771)  :—A  tmorum  Vita  Tharahhi  et  A  hrdhami 
(1773),etc  See  Doring,  DiegeUhrten  Theologtn DeuUek- 
kmds,s.v,    (RP.) 

Sohwarz,  Johann  Conrad,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Coburg  in  1676.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  Halle,  was  in  1706  professor  at  the 
academical  gymnasium  in  Goburg,  in  1715  doctor  of 
theology,  and  died  June  8,  1747.  He  published,  De 
Mokammedis  Furto  ScripiunB  Sacra  Liber  Unus  (Leip- 
sic,  1711) : — CommentarH  Critici  et  PhUologici  Lingua 
Graea  Novi  Foederis  Divini  (1736),  etc.  See  During, 
Die  gelehrten  Theologen  Deutschiands,  s.  ▼.;  Winer, 
ffandbuch  der  tkeoi.  Lit,  i,  125,  128,  580;  FUrst,  BibL 
Jud,  s.  V. ;  Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten  -  Lexihon^  s.  ▼. 
(RP.) 

Bohwarz,  Johann  Peter,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Budolstadt,  July  6, 1721.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  Gottingen,  and  commenced  his 
academical  career  in  1739  at  the  former  university.  In 
1749  he  was  deacon  at  his  native  place,  in  1761  court- 
preacher,  and  died  in  1781.  He  wrote,  De  Panicula' 
mentis  Judaorum  (Gottingen,  1737)',^- De  Per/eetione 
Lingua  Bebraiea  Quoad  SgOabas  (1738):— Z>e  Foto, 
guo  se  Invieem  Judai  Ineunte  Anno  Prosequuntur  (Jena, 
1736) : — Diss,  ad  Versionem  Jonathanis  ben-  Usiel  Gen^s, 
U,  1  (1739): — De  NominHnts  Veteris  Testamenii  Pro^ 
priiSf  Religioms  Ebraorum  Monumentis  (1743):  — 
Paradoxa  Tkeologica  de  Fjfficacia  Sacra  Scriptura 
(1757),  etc.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten.  Theologen 
Deutschiands,  s.  v. ;  Fttrst,  Bibl.  Jud,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Gfchwarz,  Elarl  Helnrich  'Wilhelm,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  19, 1812. 
He  commenced  his  academical  career  at  Halle  in  1842, 
was  professor  there  in  1849,  in  1856  court-preacher  and 
member  of  consistory  at  Gotha,  and  died  March  25, 
1885,  doctor  of  theology.  According  to  his  own  re- 
quest, Schwarz*s  body  was  cremated.  He  published, 
De  Sanaa  Trinitate,  etc  (Halle,  1842)  :-^Das  Wesen 
der  JUligion  (lU7)\—Ussing  als  Theolog.  (1854):— 
Zur  Geschichte  der  neueren  Theologie  (4th  ed.  1869): 
--Predigten  aus  der  Gegenwart  (1859-79,  7  vols.). 
Schwarz  was  the  leader  of  the  so-called  liberal  the- 
obgians  of  Germany.  See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

Bchwarsenberg;  Friedbich  JoiiAira  Nepomuk, 
prince-archbishop  of  Prague,  was  bora  April  6,  1809. 
In  1836  prince  Schwarzenberg  was  made  archbishop  of 
Salzburg,  in  1842  cardinal-priest,  in  1849  archbishop  of 
Prague,  and  died  at  Vienna,  March  27,  1885,  cardinal- 
archbishop.  At  the  Vatican  council  be  made  an  ad- 
dress, May  18, 1870,  against  the  dogma  of  papal  infalli- 
bility, which  caused  a  great  sensation  in  all  Europe. 
But  the  resistance  of  Schwarzenberg  was  soon  broken ; 
he  did  not  sign  the  protest  of  the  opposition  party,  and 
retired  to  a  monastery  to  avoid  being  further  pressed 
by  his  former  adherents.  In  Rome  the  papal  faction 
soon  proclaimed  **  Laudabxliter  se  subjecit."  And  such 
was  the  case,  for  Schwarzenberg  was  one  of  the  first 
who  proclaimed  the  dogma  of  infallibility  in  his  arch- 
diocese. Otherwise  he  was  one  of  the  most  peaceful 
and  tolerant  prelates  in  Anatria.    (B.  P.) 

Bchwanhttber,  Sdcpbbtus,  a  Benedictine,  was 
bora  at  Augsburg,  Dec.  4, 1727,  and  died  at  Salzburg, 
April  30,  1795,  doctor  of  theology.  He  published. 
System  der  ekristUdken  SiUenlehre  (Salzburg,  1798-94,  2 
vols.)  :—Gedanhen  iiber  die  hedenkUdisten  Einwendmgen 
gegen  die  UntrUgUchkeU  der  Kirehe,  etc.  (1794)  i—Prah- 
tiich'katholisekes  BdigiomshandbHeh  fiir  nachdenkende 
Cftrjften  (1784-86, 4  vols.).    See  Winer, //owiSireA  <far 

XIL— Goo 


theoL  LU,  i,  816,  404;   ii,  328;  Doring,  Die  gekkrim 
Theologen  Deutschiands,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Ekshwarsl,  Karl,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  in  Austria,  Feb.  19, 1746,  and 
died  at  Freiburg,  March  4, 1809.  He  wrote,  Elenchus 
Sanctorum  Patrum  Ordine  Alphabetico  (Innsbruck, 
1780):  —  Pralediones  Theologia  Polemica  (Vienna, 
1781) : — Die  Psalmen  David's^/rei  aus  dem  Hdrraisehien 
Ubersetzt  (Augsburg,  1798): — Anleitung  tu  einer  voU- 
standigen  Pastoraltheologie  ( 1799,  8  vols. )  '.—Uebersetu 
ung  und  A  uslegung  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Ulm,  1802- 
1805,  6  vols. ).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen 
Deutschiands,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  liandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i, 
842,670;  ii,85,70.     (R  P.) 

Bconoe,  a  movable  candlestick  of  brass,  latten,  or 
other  metal,  sometimes  affixed  to  a  wall,  placed  against 
a  pillar,  or  let  into  the  rail-moulding  of  a  pew.  Sconces 
were  likewise  arranged  along  the  top  both  of  the  rood- 
screen  and  of  the  side  -  screens  of  choirs  and  lateral 
chapels,  in  which,  on  great  festivals,  such  as  Christmas 
and  Candlemas,  lighted  tapers  were  placed. — ^Lee,  Gloss, 
of  Liturg,  and  Eccles.  Terms, 

Boot,  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  archdeacon  of 
St.  Andrews,  and  soon  after,  in  1200,  was  made  bishop 
of  Dunkeld.  He  died  in  1208.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  76. 

Boot,  Matthew,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  archdeacon 
of  St.  Andrews  and  chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  He  was 
postulate  bishop  of  the  see  of  Aberdeen  in  1228,  and 
about  the  same  time  postulate  bishop  of  the  see  of 
Dunkeld.  He  died  before  he  had  been  consecrated  to 
either  see.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  79, 106. 

Boott,  Gtoorge,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  at  Clogher,  0>unty  Tyrone,  Ireland, 
July  26, 1805,  of  parents  who  came  of  the  Covenanter 
stock,  and  was  well  educated.  In  1822  he  came  to 
America,  and,  after  a  short  engagement  in  mercantile 
pursuits,  joined  the  church  of  Dr.  Samuel  B.  Wylie,  in 
Philadelphia,  by  whom  he  was  encouraged  to  prepare 
for  the  ministry.  By  teaching  school,  and  the  most 
severe  economy,  he  completed  his  studies  privately,  and 
after  licensure  travelled  as  an  evangelist  for  some  time, 
but  at  length  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  congregations  at  Little  Beaver,  Pa.,  and 
Austintown,  O.,  April  19,  1881.  He  afterwards  con- 
fined his  care  to  the  former,  until  his  resignation,  Oct.  1, 
1880.  He  died  Dec.  16, 1881.  Dr.  Scott  was  a  most  hon- 
ored,  faithful,  and  successful  pastor.  See  (Pittsburgh) 
Presbyterian  Banner,  Aug.  9, 1882. 

Boott,  John  "Work,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  in  York  County,  Pa.,  Nov.  27, 1807. 
He  attended  the  Lower  West  Nottingham  Academy 
and  Slate  Ridge  Academy,  and  graduated  from  Jeffer* 
son  College  in  1827.  He  then  taught  three  years 
at  Butler  (Pa.),  Church viUe  (Md.),  and  Chanceford 
(Pa.).  In  1880  he  entered  the  middle  class  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  where  he  remained  two 
years,  at  the  same  time  teaching,  as  an  assistant  to 
Prof.  Robert  B.  Pallon,  at  the  Edgehill  Seminary  at 
Princeton.  He  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New 
Castle,  Oct.  8,  1832;  preached  as  stated  supply  at 
Poland,  O.,  during  the  winter  following,  and  was  also 
tutor  at  Jefferson  College.  In  1836  he  became  stated 
supply  to  the  Church  at  Three  Springs,  also  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Steubenville,  O.  After  this  he  preached 
frequently,  but  had  no  stated  place.  Dr.  Scott's  chief 
work  was  as  an  educator.  He  was  founder  and  princi- 
pal  of  the  Grove  Academy,  at  Steubenville,  and  with 
this  was  connected  from  1886  to  1847.  He  was  princi- 
pal of  the  lindsley  Institute,  at  Wheeling,  Va.,  until 
1858;  president  of  Washington  College,  Pa.,  from  1858 
to  18iS5;  principal  of  Woodbura  Female  Seminary  and 
of  the  Academy,  at  Morgantown,  W.  Va.,  until  1867; 
then  vice-president  of  the  State  University  at  the  same 
place,  and  for  two  years  was  acting-president.    This  be 


SCOTT 


834 


SEARS 


was  obliged  to  resign  in  1877,  because  of  foiling  eye- 
sight. His  eyes  being  treated  with  success,  be  went, 
in  1879,  to  Biddle  University,  N.  C,  to  fill  a  vacancy. 
Be  died  July  25, 1879.  Dr.  Scott  was  a  man  of  excel- 
lent mental  powers,  of  great  vigor  of  mind.  As  a  teach- 
er he  was  admirable  and  rarely  surpassed.  See  NeeroL 
Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1880,  p.  18. 

Scott,  Levi,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodut  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  bom  at  Gantwell's  Bridge  (now 
Odessa),  Del,  Oct.  11, 1802.  He  was  trained  to  labor, 
and  Ix^an  his  thorough  intellectual  discipline  after 
reaching  manhood.  He  grew  up  in  a  Christian  home, 
his  father  being  an  itinerant  minister.  Levi  was  con- 
verted in  1822,  and  entered  the  Philadelphia  Conference 
in  1825.  He  served  a  number  of  the  most  important 
charges  in  his  conference,  and  soon  gained  a  high  rep- 
utation as  a  clear,  logical,  incisive  preacher.  In  1840 
lie  became  principal  of  the  grammar-school  of  Dickin- 
son College,  where  he  remained  until  1843.  The  next 
two  years  he  was  pastor  of  Union  Church,  Philadelphia ; 
and  from  1845  to  1848  presiding  elder  of  the  South 
Philadelphia  District.  At  the  General  Conference  of 
1848  he  was  made  assistant  book-agent  at  New  York. 
In  1852  he  was  elected  bishop,  and  from  that  time  until 
the  dose  of  his  active  career  was  most  earnest  in  labors 
for  the  Master.  Shortly  after  his  election  to  the  epis- 
copal office  he  visited  our  mission  in  Liberia,  and  for 
many  years  sulTered  from  the  effects  of  the  climate.  In 
1880,  after  twenty-eight  years  as  bishop,  and  fifty-five 
in  the  active  ministry,  he  retired  to  his  childhood's 
home,  where  he  gradually  declined  until  bis  death, 
July  18, 1882.  "  In  his  most  vigorous  days  the  hearer 
was  first  arrested  by  the  searching  expression  of  the 
preacher's  eye ;  then  by  the  condensed  energy  of  his 
diction;  then  by  the  conciseness  and  clearness  with 
which  point  after  point  of  the  argument  was  made  out. 
No  time  was  lost  in  amplification ;  the  paragraphs  of 
logic  were  sent  home  to  the  conscience  with  the  force 
of  shocks  from  an  electric  battery.  A  torrent  of  appeal, 
brief,  but  intense,  followed,  and  the  preacher's  work  was 
done."  See  Minuta  of  A  mtual  Cotiferenoet,  1882,  p.  801 ; 
Life  and  Timet,  by  Dr.  Mitchell  (N.  Y.  1884). 

Soott;  Thomas  Fielding;  D.D.,  a  missionary 
bishop,  was  for  many  years  a  Presbyterian  minister  in 
Georgia,  but  was  ordained  deacon  in  1848  in  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church.  H  is  first  parish  was  at  Marietta, 
which  was  a  new  field,  and  where,  within  six  years,  a 
fiine  church  property  and  a  female  institute  were  pur- 
chased. In  1851  he  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
Columbus,  firom  which  he  was  promoted  to  missionary 
bishop  in  1858.  His  jurisdiction  extended  over  Oregon 
and  Washington  territories.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
July  14, 1867,  aged  sixty-two  years.  See  Amer,  Quar. 
Church  Rev,  1867,  p.  499. 

Bcott,  Uriah,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  bom  at  Lincoln,  England,  in  1820.  He 
was  first  employed  as  a  minister  in  New  Milford,  Pa. ; 
but  in  1859  was  chosen  rector  of  Grace  Church,  Hones- 
dale,  where  he  remained  until  1861.  He  then  went  to 
New  York  city,  where  he  officiated  occasionally,  and 
in  1867  ministered  to  the  Church  of  the  Redemption. 
In  1870  he  was  chosen  rector  of  that  church,  and  died 
in  the  same  city,  Dec.  25, 1878.  See  ProL  Epiac  Al- 
manac, 1880,  p.  172. 

Bcreven,  Chablbs  Odisobell,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1774.  He 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1795,  and  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1801.  His  ministerial  labors  were 
confined  to  Liberty  and  the  immediate  counties.  In 
1806  he  was  elected  president  of  Mt.  Enon  College, 
where  he  remained  and  taught  probably  two  years. 
His  only  publications  are  two  sermons.  In  1802  a 
painful  disease  began  to  develop  itself  in  one  of  his 
eyes.  He  continued  to  prosecute  his  labors  until  1821. 
The  hist  six  years  of  his  life  were  yean  of  intense  and 
almost  unintenruptcd  pain.  He  died  in  New  York,  July 


2, 1880.    See  Sprigue,  AmaU  qf  the  Amer. 
Yi,489L 

Bcrogie.  Wiluax,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  minister 
of  Baphm,  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  was  elected  and  oon- 
secrated  liishq)  of  Argyle  in  1666,  where  he  continued 
until  his  death  in  1675.  See  Keith,  Sconiah  Bishopg^ 
p.  291. 

Seaman,  LAZARuai,  D.D.,  an  English  Presbyte- 
rian clergyman,  was  bora  at  Leicester,  and  educated 
at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  M«A.  in  16S1.  By  diligence  and  hard  stody 
he  attained  great  eminence  in  literature  and  in  the 
learned  languages.  He  went  to  London  as  chaplain 
to  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  and  was  lecturer  at  St. 
Martin's,  Ludgate.  His  ability  secured  for  him  the 
valuable  living  of  Allhallows,  Bread  Street,  given  by 
archbishop  Laud  in  1642.  The  next  year  he  was  choaen 
a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines. 
He  was  an  able  disputant,  and  defeated  two  Bomiah 
priests  in  a  set  controversy.  In  1644  he  was  made 
master  of  Peterhouse,  Cambridge.  He  had  interviewa 
with  king  Charles  I  before  his  impeachment  Cnmi> 
well  appointed  Dr.  Seaman  visitor  to  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  and  vice-chancellor  thereof.  After  the 
Restoration  he  lost  all  his  preferments,  was  ejected  from 
Allhallows  in  1662,  and  gathered  a  congregation  of  his 
former  hearers,  who  formed  a  new  and  important  chuRh| 
which  met  in  Silver  Street,  continued  about  a  century, 
and  had  a  fine  body  of  ministers.  He  died  in  War- 
wick Court,  Newgate  Street,  SepL  9, 1695.  For  more 
than  thirty  years  his  skill  as  a  casuist  procured  him 
great  fame;  as  an  interpreter  of  Scripture  he  was  one 
of  a  thousand;  he  was  also  a  model  pastor.  He  pub- 
lished several  sermons,  and  a  translation  into  Turldsh, 
in  1660,  of  John  BaWs  Catechiem,  He  had  a  very 
choice  and  valuable  library,  the  catalogue  of  which  is 
preserved  in  the  museum  at  the  Baptist  Academy^  Bris- 
tol   See  Wilson,  Diuentmg  Churches,  iii,  6-1 2. 

Bears,  Barn  as,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  BaptisI 
minister,  was  bora  at  Sandisfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  19, 190%. 
In  1825  he  graduated  from  Brown  University,  and  four 
years  later  from  Newton  Theological  Seminary.  From 
1827  to  1829  he  was  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church 
at  Hartford,  Conn.  From  1880  to  1882  he  was  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Hamilton  Literary  and  Theological  loati* 
tution  (now  Madison  University),  and  from  1888  to 
1836  he  studied  theology  at  the  €rerman  univenitiea. 
During  this  period  he  inaugurated  the  German  Baptist 
Church  by  immersing  Rev.  J.  G.  Oncken  and  six  oChen 
in  the  Elbe,  at  Hamburg.  He  was  a  professor  in  the 
Newton  Theological  Seminary  from  1^  to  1847,  act- 
ing part  of  the  time  as  president  of  the  institution.  He 
succeeded  Horace  Mann  as  secretary  and  execntire 
agent  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education  in  1848, 
and  served  in  that  position  until  1855,  when  he  became 
president  of  Brown  University.  In  March,  1867,  Dr. 
Sears  was  selected  as  the  general  agent  of  the  Peabody 
Educational  Fund,  and  at  once  went  to  Virginia  to  live. 
In  this  position  he  did  much  towards  promoting  educa- 
tion in  the  South.  When  the  fund  was  established 
not  a  single  Southera  state  had  a  modera  system  of 
public  schools,  but  within  eight  yean  no  state  was 
without  such  a  system.  He  died  at  Saratoga  SpringSi 
N.  T.,  July  6, 1880.  Dr.  Sears  succeeded  professor  James 
D.  Knowles  as  editor  of  the  Christian  Review  in  18S8w 
and  held  the  position  for  a  number  of  years.  He  was 
also  a  contributor  to  the  A  merican  Cydopadia,  and  the 
BiUiotheca  Sacra,  Among  the  works  pnblisbed  by 
him  were  the  following:  Nohden's  German  GrasH- 
mar  with  Additions  (1842)  t^Classical  Studies  (184S) : 
^The  Ciceronian  (iSH)iSeleet  Treatises  of  Luther 
(1846) :— Lf/*e  of  Martin  Luiher  (1850) :— Roget's  The- 
saurus (1854).  Dr.  Sears  also  published  many  sd* 
dresses,  educational  reports,  and  misceUaneons  e8B8y% 
including  his  discourse  at  the  centennial  celebratioo  of 
Brown  Univemty  in  1864.  ^ 


SECACAH 


885 


SEMINARIES 


Baoaoab.  For  this  nte  Lient  Conder  suggests  ( Teni 
Work^  ii,  889)  the  modem  Sikhek,  bat  be  does  not  in- 
dieste  the  loctlity.  It  is  thus  Teferred  to  in  the  Quar, 
Statement  of  the  **  PaL  Explor.  Fund/'  Jan.  1881,  p.  65 : 
"In  the  Judctn  desert;  possibly  the  ruin  Sikkehj  east 
of  Bethany  (sheet  xvii)."  But  no  snch  name  appears 
on  the  Map  nor  in  the  accompanying  Memoirs, 

Seoeden  is  a  term  applied  in  Scotland  to  those 
bodies  of  Christians  who  have  separated  from  the  Na- 
tional Church  on  grounds  not  implying  a  disagreement 
with  its  constitution  and  standards,  in  which  latter  case 
they  are  termed  Diseenten  (q.  v.). 

Bechu.  Lieut  Conder  suggests  (Tent  Work,  ii, 
116)  that  this  may  be  represented  by  KAurbet  SuweUceh, 
three  and  a  half  miles  north-west  of  er-Ram,  consisting 
of  *'  waUs,  foundations,  and  heaps  of  stones ;  pieces  of 
tessellated  pavement"  {Memoirt  to  Ordnance  Survey, 
iii,  126). 

Baoond  Adventiata.    See  ADviornsTs. 

SednUna,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  called  bishop  of 
Dublin  in  785  in  the  roartyrologies  of  Marian  Gorman, 
and  those  of  TuUagh.  lie  died  Feb.  12,  785.  See 
D*Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  Archbishops  ofDuhUn^  p.  24. 

Segedin,  Strpheh  Kis,  D.D.,  a  Hungarian  divine 
and  educator,  was  born  at  Segedin  in  1505,  and  educated 
at  the  univenities  of  Cracow  and  Wittenberg.  In  the 
latter  place,  where  he  spent  three  years,  he  had  the 
privilege  of  attending  on  the  instructions  of  Luther 
and  MeUmchthon.  He  commenced  his  public  career 
at  Thasnyadin,  where  he  instructed  those  who  were 
studious  of  the  best  arts,  and  preached  the  gospel  to 
the  common  people.  This  dual  work  he  prosecuted  to 
the  end  of  his  life,  laboring  successively  at  the  foUow- 
iog  places :  Gyula,  Ceglede,  Temeswar,  Thnrin,  Bekeny, 
Tholna,  Lascow  (where  he  was  ordained  pastor  by  the 
imposition  of  hands  in  1554),  Calmantze,  and  Kevin. 
He  died  May  2, 1572.  Dr.  Segedin  was  eminent  for 
piety,  distinguished  for  eloquence,  and  held  in  high 
esteem  by  the  Christian  Church  of  his  time  for  the 
earnestness  and  fidelity  with  which  he  enforced  the 
doctrines  of  the  Bible.  See  The  (Lond.)  Theological 
Magazine^  Feb.  1802,  p.  48. 

Segond,  Loins,  a  Swiss  Protestant  theologian,  was 
bom  in  1810,  and  died  at  Geneva,  June  18, 1885,  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  and  doctor  of  theology.  Segond  is 
best  known  as  the  latest  translator  of  the  Bible  into 
French,  whose  name  will  be  remembered  with  that  of 
Le  Fevre,  Olivetan,  De  Sacy,  Martin,  and  Osterwald. 
The  Old  Test,  in  Segond's  version  was  first  published 
at  Geneva  in  1874,  then  at  Nancy  in  1877,  and  lastly 
at  Geneva  in  1879.  But  the  entire  Bible  was  issued 
in  1880  from  the  Oxford  University  Press,  printed  with 
admirable  care  and  skilL  The  translation  is  pronounced 
an  exquisite  one.    (B.  P.) 

B^gur,  LotTis  Gaston  dr,  a  French  prelate,  was 
bom  at  Paris  in  1820.  In  1856  he  was  made  canon  of 
the  chapter  of  St.  Denis,  and  died  in  1881.  Segur  was 
one  of  the  most  active  and  influential  members  of  the 
clerical  party,  unjust  towards  the  Protestants,  and  a 
promoter  of  ultramontane  ideas.  He  publbhed,  La  Pi' 
etietlaVie  Itderieure  (1868-e4, 4  vols.)  i-^-Irutructions 
Familisres  et  Lectures  da  Soir  sur  Touies  les  Veritss  de 
la  Religion  (1866.  2  vols.)  :^La  Liberty  (1869)  :-~Le 
Dogme  de  TlnfattSbaiU  (1872):  — Z^s  Jeiaie  Ouvrier 
Chriiien  (1876),  etc.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop.  des 
Sciences  JUUgieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Beidemann,  Jobanx  Karl,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Dresden,  April  10, 1807. 
He  studied  at  I^ipsic,  was  for  some  time  private  tutor, 
and  in  1834  preacher  at  Eschdorf,  Saxony.  In  1871  he 
retired  from  the  ministry,  and  died  at  Dresden,  Aug.  5, 
1879,  doctor  of  theology.  He  published,  Thomas  MUmer 
(Dresden,  1842):— Z>te  Uipziger  Disputation  im  Jahre 
1519  (1843)  '.r~-Karl  von  MUtiZj  sine  chronohgische  Un- 
tersuchung  (iSH)  :^Erlautenmgen  zur  Jitformations' 


ges^ichte  dtareh  hisher  unbekamsle  Urksmden  (eod.): — 
BeitrSge  zur  BB/ormationsgesehichte  (1846)  :^Z.u6b<r- 
briefe  (1859):— jlnlon  Lauterbach's,  Diaeoni  zu  Witten- 
berg  Tagdmeh  (1872)  -.—Jacob  Schenk  (1875)  i^Luiher's 
erste  und  alteste  Vorlesungen  Ober  die  Psalmen  (1876). 
See  Neues  Archivfur  sSehsischs  Geschiehte,  1880,  p.  94 
sq.;  ZeiUchrifi  des  bergischen  Geschiehtsvereins,  xvi, 
257  sq.  (Bonn,  1881) ;  Plitt-Henog,  Real-EMyklop,  s.y. 
(B.P.) 

Selwyn,  Gkobob  AuotJSTUs,  missionary  bishop 
of  New  Zealand,  was  bom  at  Hampstead,  England,  in 
1809,  and  received  his  earlier  education  at  Eton.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1831  was  appointed  private 
tutor  to  Lord  Powis,  at  Eton,  while  acting  at  the  same 
time  as  a  curate  at  Windsor.  In  1841  Selwyn  was  ap- 
pointed first  bishop  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  New 
Zealand,  and  citer  having  been  consecrated  in  October, 
he  sailed  in  December  for  his  station.  He  landed  at 
Sydney  in  April,  1842,  and  remained  some  time  there 
to  confer  with  the  bishop.  In  the  first  year  of  his 
arrival  Selwyn  established  a  college  for  the  training  of 
candidates  for  the  ministry,  and  five  years  after  his 
landing  in  New  Zealand  he  commenced  to  work  among 
the  isles  of  the  South  Sea.  In  1854  bishop  Selwyn  came 
to  EngUnd.  Twelve  years'  experience  had  taught  him 
that  his  diocese  must  be  divided,  and  that  Melanesia 
must  have  some  one  who  could  spend  all  his  energies 
on  its  many  islands  and  its  diverse  population.  His 
time  in  England  was  not  wasted.  When  he  returned 
to  New  Ze^and  he  was  accompanied  by  bishop  Patte- 
son.  For  some  years  he  shared  and  directed  Patteson's 
work  among  the  islands,  and  in  the  college  at  Auckland. 
Then  the  diocese  was  divided,  and  divided  again.  In 
1866  there  were  six  bishops  under  Selwyn's  direction  as 
primate,  and  among  them  Patteson  was  giving  his  whole 
attention  to  those  islands  among  which  he  was  after- 
wards to  lay  down  his  life.  In  1867  Selwyn  came  again 
to  England,  and  during  his  stay  the  diocese  of  Lichfield 
became  vacant.  It  was  offered  more  than  once  to  him, 
and  he  refused.  At  length,  on  being  strongly  pressed 
by  archbishop  Loogley,  he  yielded.  His  administration 
of  this  new  and  trying  sphere,  which  comprised  the  so- 
called  "  Black  Country,"  was  very  vigorous.  Selwyn 
died  April  11, 1878.  His  Life  has  been  written  by  H. 
W.  Tucker  (Lond.  1879, 2  vols,>     (B,  P.) 

Bemlnarlea,  Theological,  in  the  UirrntD 
States.  Professional  schools  for  the  special  training 
of  ministers  of  the  gospel  are  almost  peculiar  to  Amer- 
ica. Although  most  of  the  universities  of  Europe  were 
originally  instituted  chiefly  for  ecclesiastical  education, 
and  clerical  studies  were  for  a  long  time  mainly  pur- 
sued in  them,  this  was  only  an  accident  of  the  time, 
arising  principally  from  the  imperfect  views  of  science 
then  entertained,  and  the  predominance  of  religious 
teachers  in  the  world  of  letters.  In  some  instances, 
such  as  the  famous  Sorbonne  (q.  v.)  of  France,  the  acad- 
emical studies  gradually  supplanted  the  theological; 
while  in  but  a  few  cases,  such  as  those  of  Geneva  in 
Switzerland,  Montauban  in  France,  and  the  Propaganda 
at  Rome,  is  theology  prominently  or  exclusively  taught. 
To  these  must  be  added  the  training-schools  of  the  Eng-» 
lish  Dissenters,  which  are  comparatively  few  and  un- 
InfluentiaL  As  a  very  general  rule,  however,  the  various 
branches  of  theology  in  Europe  are  included  as  depart- 
ments of  the  great  universities,  and  are  therefore  taught, 
almost  entirely  by  lectures,  as  parts  of  a  scisnUfic  edu- 
cation. 

In  America,  on  the  other  hand,  while  nearly  all  the 
higher  schools  were  originated  and  are  sustained  by 
yarious  Christian  bodies,  yet  the  system  of  special  prep- 
aration of  candidates  for  the  ministry  is  very  generally 
carried  on  in  distinct  institutions,  sometimes  included 
in  a  so-called  university,  but  nevertheless  having  each 
its  separate  faculty  and  particular  course  of  study,  which 
is  intended  and  arranged  so  as  to  be  supplementary  to 
those  of  the  academy  and  the  college.    This  gives  a 


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SERAPION 


definiteneM  tnd  practical  cluuncter  to  miniitcriil  tnin- 
ing  scaroely  Attainable,  or  eyen  attempted,  by  the  looaer 
method  of  European  inatmction.  See  BIiotbtkbial 
Education. 

I.  Growth  and  CharadUr  of  American  BdiooU  uf 
Theology. — ^The  earltett  of  these  inatitutions,  ezdosive 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  one  founded  in  1791,  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  which  still  survives,  and  a  private  one  established  in 
1804  by  Dr.  John  K.  Biason,  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
which  lasted  several  years,  is  the  Theological  Seminary 
founded  by  the  Congregationalists  at  Andover,  Mass.,  in 
1808,  although  a  foundation  waa  made  somewhat  earlier 
for  a  similar  institution  by  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church 
at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  which  did  not  go  into  operation 
€or  a  long  time.  The  next  great  theological  seminary 
was  that  of  the  Presbyterians,  founded  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
in  1812,  although  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  with  which 
it  is  connected,  was  establuhed  in  1767.  The  divinity 
schools  of  Harvard  and  Yale  are  even  more  modem, 
while  the  universities  themselves  are  much  older.  After 
the  above  dates  numerous  schools  and  departments  of  a 
strictly  theological  character  sprang  up  in  the  more 
thickly  settled  states,  and  in  more  recent  times  they 
have  rapidly  multiplied  throughout  the  Union.  Thus, 
in  the  first  decade  of  the  present  century  (1800-1809) 
there  were  but  two  organized,  in  the  second  2,  in  the 
third  14,  in  the  fourth  9,  in  the  fifth  8,  in  the  sixth  19, 
in  the  seventh  88,  in  the  eighth  (1870-79)  80.  The 
Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  1888  (the  latest  return)  gave  the  total  of  theological 
seminaries  and  departments  as  being  145,  with  an  aggre- 
gpate  of  688  resident  teachers  and  6771  students. 

*'  As  to  the  methods  pursued  in  the  theological  schools 
of  the  United  States,  it  may  be  remarked  that  no  uni- 
formity, but  a  general  similarity,  pravails.  In  nearly 
all,  primary  attention  is  given  to  the  study  of  Hebrew 
and  New-Test  Greek,  as  the  foundation  of  an  enlight- 
ened Scriptural  exegesis.  In  the  departments  of  eccle- 
siastical history  and  systematic  and  practical  theology, 
instruction  is  largely  given  by  lectures,  with  references 
to  text-books  and  collateral  reading.  In  all  the  fully- 
oiganized  seminaries  the  coune  of  study  extends  through 
tluree  years,  and  is  planned  in  reference  to  the  attain- 
ments of  graduates  of  colleges,  although  partial-course 
students  are  admitted  on  specified  conditions."  Tuition 
is  free,  and  arrangements  are  usually  made  which  reduce 
the  cost  of  board,  etc,  to  a  very  low  rate. 

II.  SUUittiet. — The  accompanying  table,  compiled 
from  the  above-mentioned  report,  exhibits  a  summaiy 
account  of  all  the  theological  institutions  in  the  Union, 
arranged  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  several  states. 
For  further  details,  see  the  annual  catalogue  of  each, 
which  is  furnished  gratuitously  on  application  to  the 
pieaiding  officer. 

Sen,  KB8HUB  Cbuhdbb,  one  of  the  chief  priests  of 
the  Brahma  SomaJ  (q.  v.),  was  bom  in  India.  The  sect 
of  which  he  waa  a  leader  was  formed  in  1880  by  Ram- 
mohun  Roy.  In  1869  Keshob  Chnnder  Sen  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  the  sect  by  his  remarkable  ability  and  en- 
thusiasm. He  effected  the  separation  of  those  who 
were  willing  to  abolish  caste  in  their  communion,  as 
the  Brahma  Somaj  of  India.  The  more  conservative 
remained  in  the  Chnroh  at  Calcutta,  where  the  firet 
building  waa  opened  for  wonhip  in  1869.  Sen,  in  his 
pttbliahed  sermons  and  tracts,  avows  his  belief  in  the 
unity  of  God,  in  immediate  revelation,  in  the  necessity 
of  a  new  birth,  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the 
importance  and  efiicacy  of  prayer.  His  morality  was 
pure,  and  he  inculcated  a  reverence  for  the  character 
of  Jesus  Christ,  but  repudiated  the  doctrines  of  his 
divinity,  mediation,  and  atonement,  as  taught  in  the 
gospels.  He  believed  that  Christ  was  better  than  Mo- 
hammed or  Confucius.    Sen  died  in  India,  Jan.  8, 1884. 

Seneoa  Venion  of  thx  Scripturks.  For  this 
branch  of  the  Iroquois  the  American  Bible  Society  has 
provided  the  gospels,  published  in  1829,  while  the  Brit- 


ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society  publiahed  the  goapela  of 
Matthew  and  Mark.  In  general  the  Iroquois  version 
(q.  V.)  is  nnderetood  by  the  Senecas,  Mohawks,  and 
Oneidas.    See  BibU  of  Every  Land,  p.  468. 

Etoney,  Robbst,  a  veteran  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Queen  Anne,  Md.,  Oct.  12, 1799. 
He  lost  his  father  while  yet  an  infant,  was  educated  in 
New  York  city,  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in 
1816,  studied  law,  was  converted,  licensed  to  exhort, 
travelled  some  time  with  Rev.  Nathan  Bangs,  and  in 
1820  entered  the  New  York  Conference.  That  year  be 
served  Granville  Circuit;  in  1821,  New  Rochelle;  in 
1822,  Wethersfield,  Conn.;  in  1828,  Poughkeepsie ;  in 
1824,  Middlebnry,  Yt. ;  in  1826,  Flushing;  in  1826  and 
1827,  New  York  city;  in  1828  and  1829,  Newbuigh ;  in 
1880  and  1881,  Sandy  Hill  and  Glen's  FaUs;  in  1882» 
White  Plains  and  Greenburg;  in  1838,  White  Plains; 
in  1884,  New  Haven;  in  1886,yesey  Street  and  Mul- 
berry Street,  New  York  city;  in  1886,  Mulberry  Street, 
alone;  in  1837  and  1888,  Third  Street,  Biooklvn;  in 
1839  and  1840,  Newburgh;  in  1841  and  1842,  First 
Church,  Poughkeepsie;  in  1848  and  1844,  Allen  Street 
Church,  New  York  city ;  in  1846,  Mariner's  Methodist 
Episcopal  Chapel;  in  1846  and  1847,  Washington 
Street,  Brooklyn;  in  1848,  Danbury,  Conn.;  in  1649, 
Carlton  Avenue  Church,  Brooklyn ;  in  1860,  Washing- 
ton Street  Church,  as  supernumerary;  in  1861,  South 
Brooklyn  Home  Mission,  and  in  1862  and  1868  super- 
numerary at  Brooklyn,  where  he  continued  to  reside 
until  the  dose  of  his  life,  July  1, 1864.  Mr.  Seney  waa 
eminently  devoted  and  successful,  able  and  winning. 
See  Sprague,  AnnaJU  of  the  Amer,  Pulpii,  vii,  687; 
Simpson,  Cyclop.  ofMethodum^  s.  v. 

Sennara,  in  Hinduism,  is  the  sacred  Brahminkal 
cord,  whose  use  is  restricted  to  the  three  superior  castes 
aa  a  mark  of  distinction.  It  is  composed  of  a  definite 
number  of  threads  of  cotton  taken  from  a  particular 
plant.  Its  length  is  such  as  to  allow  of  its  being  worn 
diagonally  across  the  body,  from  the  left  shoulder  to 
the  right  side.  The  stoutest  cord  is  that  worn  by 
Brahmins,  that  of  the  Kshatriyas  being  thinner  and 
that  of  the  Vaisyaa  being  veiy  slender,  so  that  the 
cord  serves  to  distinguish,  between  the  castes.  (Butler, 
Land  of  the  Veda,  says  that  the  Brahmin's  cord  is  nmdm 
of  cotton  threads,  the  ELshatriya's  of  hemp,  and  the 
Vaisya's  of  wool).  Brahminical  devoteea  or  sainta 
often  wear  a  snake-skin  instead  of  the  cord. 

Sephanraim.  Dr.  William  Hayes  Ward,  who  haa 
recently  explored  the  region  in  question,  and  is  well 
versed  likewise  in  Assyriology,  finds  in  the  ancient  in- 
scriptions four  cities  or  districts  called  Sippara,  the 
Greek  equivalent  of  this  name.  Of  these  the  two  prin- 
cipal ones,  he  thinks,  were  the  **  Sippara  of  the  Sun,** 
discovered  by  Mr.  Rassam  at  Abn-Habba,  and  the  orig- 
inal place,  known  as  the  *' Sippara  of  Anuenit,"  being 
the  one  where  Sargon  I  was  exposed  in  his  infancy, 
the  town  of  Xisuthrus,  the  one  captured  by  Cyrus  with- 
out fighting,  and  (he  seat  of  the  famous  Jewish  school, 
which  Dr.  Ward  believes  he  has  found  in  the  large  fell 
or  mound  still  bearing  the  medieval  name  of  i4ii6ar, 
south  of  the  point  of  the  effluence  of  the  Sokkameh 
canal  from  the  Euphrates.  See  Hdfraka,  Jan.  1886, 
p.  79  sq. 

Sepphoria.  The  modem  site  Stffurieh  is  oopioos- 
ly  described  in  the  Memoin  accompanying  the  Ordnance 
Survey  0»  279, 880  sq.).    (See  illustration  on  p.  841.) 

Serapion.  By  way  of  supplement  we  add  the 
following  bearen  of  that  name :  (1),  eighth  bishop  of 
Antioch,  successor  of  Maximus,  and  opponent  of  the 
Montanists;  mentioned  by  Eusebiua,  Uitt,  Eedet.  v,  19, 
22;  (2),  a  martyr  by  the  name  of  Serapion  is  mentioned 
by  Eusebius,  iv,  41,  said  to  have  suffered  mart3rrdom  on- 
der  Decius  at  Alexandria;  (8),  a  third  one  by  the  same 
name  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius,  iv,  44,  aa  belonging  to 
the  lapii  (q.  v.) ;  (4),  another  Serapion  ia  mentioned  by 
Cassian  in  CoUat.  x,  2.    See  Sozom.  viii,  1 1 ;  Schriickh, 


^au   u  a  vl  Phanteia  | 


rlil,  4fil  j  Qidclcr,  I,  2,  SM ;  PUU-Uenog,  Stal-Emy- 
ifop.B.v.    (RP.) 

8«IpilltU,  Geobo,  ■LatheTiD  theologian  of  G«r- 
mui7,WM  boni  M  OedcDbtirg,  Hunguy,  June  11,1668. 


He  Mudied  at  Leipdc, ' 


a  1690  d< 


ViUilrup, 
died  Noi 


28. 172&  He  publiabed,  VolitSudigt  Ludtrameoriam 
(Pimi,  1636)  1 — Daaiplio  Sgnagoga  SerpUianm  Ineu- 
tmta  (R«li»bon,  1723) :  ~  Penonalia  Motii,  Jotaa, 
Samu^it,  Etra,  Neheaia,  Uorirtiua  tl  EttAeri  (Leip- 
tic,  \70a)  ■.  —  Penanalia  JM  {  U 10  ):  —  Ptrir^lia 
Sandii  (1718)  ■.~-S<Uamo  u  ConHiualiimem  aer^aruTa 
Bibliorun  (1716):  — ftnona/ia  laaia  (1717),  etc 
8m  DUiing,  Die  ftltkriai  Tlieologat  IkMl*clUaitdt.a.r.; 
FUnt,  BM.  Jvd.  i.  r. ;  Jocber,  A  Ugemtina  GdrArlat- 
LexUion,  a.  r.    (K  P.) 

BerratiiUi  3ai>A  According  to  Athtnidoi  CApol. 
il,  767),  t  GilliciQ  biabop,  hy  tlie  lume  of  Servatiui, 
VM  among  Ihoae  wbo  aUended  the  Council  of  Sardica 
in  347,  and  he  may  probably  have  been  the  lame  whom 
Salpiciua  3eTemi  lent  lo  Rimini  in  Si9  lo  defend  the 
Atfaanuiin  orthodox}'  igainit  the  Aiiana.  See  RelC- 
b«rg,  KirchmgachichU  DaitKJdmdt,  i,  304  *q. ;  Fried- 
rich,  KirAaigitckiditt  DtuttcUaniU,  i,  800  iq.;  Hefele, 
CoiKaitngacldclat,i,b\b;  F^a-Htrzoe,  Rad-Eacytiop. 
t,  V. ;  Lichtenberger,  Sncydop.  da  Sciaica  Rtligitata, 
k  T.  Serraia.    (B.  P.) 

BaHion,  Church  ( or  Klik ).    See  Pbisbtiv- 


B«t  (or  Bntekh),  an  ata-headed  deiCy,  the  nadonal 
god  of  tbe  Shemitio  Hykio*.  wbo,  on  their  invaaion 
of  Egypt  in  cbe  inlerv^  between  tbe  thirteenth  and 
tigbleenth  dynaatiet,  farced  hii  aole  worship  npoii  the 
Egypliioa.    Bet  wai  already  one  of  tbe  caamical  dei- 


"crynher*  erased.    He  w 


■n  asa-headed  man,  bolding  tbe  u 
■taffof  life,  and  tbe  cucii/u,itaff  of  divine  power.  Tha 
Egyptiani  were  aociutonied  to  regard  Set  u  a  pereon- 
ification  of  the  erit  principle.  "The  wonhip  of  thla 
god  paaMd  through  two  hiitorical  phawe.  At  one  time 
he  wu  held  in  honor,  and  accounted  u  one  of  the 
greater  gods  of  Abydoa.  He  appvara  to  have  had  a 
poaitian  analogoui  lo  that  of  the  Thebon  deity  Mentu, 
in  which  he  wai  the  adveraary  of  the  acrpent  Apopbie, 
the  gymbol  of  wiekedness  and  darkneu.  Same  time 
later  on,  in  conaequence  of  political  cbangn,  the  wor- 
ahip  of  Set  wai  aboliahe>1,  and  his  eUtun  were  de- 
atroyed.  It  la  dilBcult  to  atate  at  what  period  Set 
waa  introduced  into  the  Onrian  mythe  aa  a  penoniSea- 
tion  of  evil,  and  thni  became  identiSed  with  Typhon 
w  the  murderer  of  tbe  great  Kgvpiian  god  Osiris.  The 
treatiae  (by  Plutarch),  i^  Itide  et  Oiiridr,  makes  Nepb- 
thyithe  companion  of  Set,  and  nbe  is  represented  united 
with  him  in  a  group  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  in 
the  Hall  of  the  Goda.  Tbe  animal  symbolical  of  Set 
waa  a  camiToroui  quadruped,  at  one  time  confounded 
with  theaaa-godofJoeephusaodApion,  having  a  long, 
curved  incut  and  upright,  aquare-topped  ears,  which 
ebaraetera  are  often  exaggerated  to  diatinguish  him 
from  the  jackal  of  Anubia  "  (Pierret).  After  the  aec- 
ond  reatoration  of  the  old  mytholi^,  in  the  period  of 
the  nineteenth  dynasty.  Sat  was  identified  wiih  the 
tlyksoa  Sulekh,»ho  waa  properly  an  Asiitic  deity,  and 
whose  wcrahip  wu  maintained  even  by  Seti  I  and 
Both  goda,  however,  wer«  treated  as  im- 


etical,  Bi 


It  tbe 


■linguish  exactly  between 


SEYFFARTH 


842 


SHELTON 


them,  owing  to  the  complete  destrnction  by  the  Egyp- 
tians of  oil  those  parts  of  the  monwnenta  whereon  their 
names  occur. 

Seventh-day  Adventists.  See  Adybhtxstb, 
Srventh-dat. 

SeTems,  Alkzakdbb.  SeeALEXAMDEBSsvEBua. 

Beyffarth,  Gustav,  a  Lutheran  theologian  and 
archiBologist  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Ubigaa,  Sax- 
ony, July  18, 1796.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  com- 
menced his  academical  career  there  in  1828.  In  1857 
he  came  to  America,  was  professor  at  the  Lutheran 
Concordia  College,  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  retired  in  1871  to 
New  York  dty,  and  died  Nov.  17, 1885.  He  published, 
UtAer  die  uraptHngUchen  Louie  der  kebr,  BuchUaben 
(Leipsic,  1824) : — BeUrSge  zur  Kermtmts  der  Literature 
Ktuut,  Mythologie  und  Gesekichte  der  alien  .£gjfpier 
(1826-40)  '.—Chronohgia  Sacra  (1846)  i—Iku  iautendr 
jShrige  Reich  im  Lkhie  der  Offetibarunffen  det  Alien 
tmd  Neuen  Tettamentt  (N.  Y.  1860).  See  Furst,  Bibl. 
Jud,  s.  y. ;  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Bfondrata,  Cceucstike,  prince -abbot  of  St.  Gall, 
and  nephew  of  Gregofy  XIY,  was  bom  at  Milan  in 
1644.  He  was  educated  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Gall, 
taught  theology,  philosophy,  and  canon  law  at  various 
places,  and  was  elected  prince-abbot  of  SL  Gall  in  1689. 
In  1695  Innocent  XII  made  Sfondrata  a  cardinal,  but 
he  died  soon  after  his  promotion,  in  the  same  year,  at 
Rome.  Sfondrata  wrote,  Begale  Saoerdoiiam  Romano 
Pont\fici  Ataertum  et  Quaiuor  Propontiombus  ExpUca' 
turn  (1684),  which  is  a  defence  of  the  absolute  suprema- 
cy of  the  pope  over  and  against  the  pretensions  of  the 
Gallican  Church.  Five  French  bishops  refuted  this 
work : — Nodut  PradestinalioKis  . . .  IHtsolutut  (Rome, 
1696;  Venice,  1698).  This  posthumous  work  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Sorbonne,  Bossuet,  and  others,  who  in 
vain  tried  to  have  the  book  put  on  the  Index.  See 
Moreri,  Audoret  Diarii  ftalici  (Venice,  1782),  vol.  vi; 
Journal  des  Savant*,  1698, 1708,  and  1709;  Lichtenber- 
ger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  ReligieuseSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Bhaalbim.  The  probable  representative  of  this 
place,  Selbit,  lies  two  miles  north  of  Amw&s.  It  is  a 
deserted  rain,  and  **  appears  to  be  the  Seldd  of  Jerome's 
Comment,  on  Ezek,  xlviii,  22  *'  (^Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance 
Sur\'ey,  iii,  52). 

Bliaaraim.  The  probable  site  is  that  of  Khurhet 
Saireh,  three  and  a  half  miles  north-east  of  Beit  Nettlf, 
and  one  a  half  west  of  Beit  Atab.  It  consists  of  "  foun- 
dations on  a  hill,  with  a  spring  below "  (^Afemoirs  to 
the  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  124). 

flhahaistmah  is  conjectured  by  lieuL  Conder 
{Tent  Work,  ii,  889)  to  be  the  present  TeU  esh-Sheikh 
Kdsinif "  a  very  large  artificial  mound  near  the  Jordan  " 
{Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  128),  eight  miles 
south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee ;  but  there  is  no  special 
ground  for  this  identification. 

Bharpe,  Samuel,  an  Egyptologist  and  Hebrew 
scholar,  was  bom  in  England  in  1799.  After  starting 
in  life  as  a  banker,  he  soon  retired  from  business,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  studies  of  Egyptology  and  He- 
brew. The  numerous  volumes  which  came  from  his  pen 
during  his  long  and  busy  life — he  died  in  August,  1881 
— were  all  concerned  either  with  the  monuments  of  an- 
cient Egypt,  or  with  Biblical  researches.  '<A  Unita- 
rian and  liberal," says  the  Academy ,  *'he  occupied  him- 
self in  popularizing  a  mode  of  interpreting  the  Script- 
ures which,  though  it  would  now  be  considered  at  once 
conservative  and  narrow,  seemed  half  a  century  ago 
startling,  if  not  profane."  His  chief  Egyptological  works 
were  the  following:  Early  History  of  Egypt  from  the 
Old  Testament,  Herodotus,  Manetho,  and  the  Bieroglyphu: 
Inscriptions  (1836):  —  Egyptian  Inscriptions  from  the 
British  Museum  and  other  Sources  (first  series,  1887 ; 
second  series,  1855)  *. — The  Rudiments  of  a  Vocabulary 
of  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics  (1887)  i-^The  History  of 
Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies  (18QS)  i-^History  of  Egypi 


under  the  Romans  (1842)  >-The  History  of  Egypt  from 
the  Earliest  Times  till  the  Conguest  of  the  Arabs,  AJ>. 
640  (1846;  5th  ed.  1870)  \—Ths  Chronology  and  Geog- 
raphy qf  Ancient  Egypt  (1849)  '.^Historical  Sketch  of 
the  Egyptian  BuUtKngs  and  Seu^ttitre  (1854)  :—il  fee 
andrian  Chronology  (1857)  :— Egyptian  Hierog^pkiet 
(1861) '.^Egyptian  AntiguUies  in  the  British  Museum 
(1862)  :-^The  Decree  of  Canopus  (1870)  i^The  Roeetta 
Stone  (1871).  His  most  important  publications  on  Bib- 
lical matters  were,  Historic  Notes  on  the  Books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  (1854 ;  8d  ed.  1858) :— Critical 
Notes  on  the  Authorized  English  Version  of  the  Old 
Testament  (1856;  2d  ed.  1867)  i—The  Chronciogy  of  ike 
Bible  (1868)  .—Texts  from  the  Holy  BibU  Exjiamod  5y 
the  Help  of  the  Ancient  Monuments  (tod.):— History  of 
the  Hebrew  Nation  and  Literature  (1869 ;  2d  ed.  1872)  : 
—On  the  Journeys  and  Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paui 
(1876):—^  Short  Hebrew  Grammar  without  Poimto 
(1877) :— rAe  Book  of  Isaiah  arranged  Chronologioatt^ 
in  a  Revised  Translation,  and  A  ccon^kxnied  with  Histor^ 
ioal  Notes  (eod.).  Mr.  Sharpens  two  lines  of  study  met 
in  his  work  on  Egyptian  Mythology  and  Egyptian  Chrin-- 
tianity^with  their  Injluenee  on  the  Opudons  ofModerts 
Christendom  (1863).  In  1875  he  brought  out  a  volonie 
on  Hebrew  Inscriptions  from  the  Valleys  betwem  Egypt 
and  Mount  Sinai,  and  shortly  after  his  death  was  pub- 
lished  his  Bapvafia  EmeroXfi,  The  Epistle  of  Bam^ 
basfrom  the  Sinaitic  Manuscript  of  the  Bible,  with  an 
English  translation  (1881),  in  which  he  seeks  to  fix  its 
date  to  the  year  of  the  destrnction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus.    (RP.) 

Bhamhen.  The  probable  represenUtive  of  this 
place.  Tell  esh  •  Sheriah,  lies  ten  miles  north-west  of 
Khurbet  Bir  es-Seba,  and  is  thus  described  in  the  Afe- 
moirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey  (iii,  889) :  **  A  Urge 
mound  on  the  north  bank  of  the  valley.  Broken  pot- 
tery and  a  few  small  unhewn  stones  are  found  on  the 
top.    In  the  valley  is  a  well-cut  trough  of  basalt." 

8Iia'V7,  William,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Bridgewater,  Mass;  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Church  in  Marshfield  in  April,  1769;  and  died  June  1, 
1816.    See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  i,  578. 

Bheohesb.  The  arcluBological  remains  of  the 
modem  Nablus  are  copiously  dewribed  in  the  Memoirs 
to  the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,  208  sq.). 

Sheldon,  Qeorge,  D.Dh  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  Oct.  12, 1818.  He 
graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1885,  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1888.  He  was  pas- 
tor of  the  Presbyterian  Church  oear  QhaiiestOQ,  S.  G^ 
from  1840  to  1848,  and  was  lUtenraids  chosen  district 
secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society  for  New  JerKy 
and  Delaware,  which  office  he  filled  for  thirty  yesn. 
It  may  be  said  his  life  was  spent  in  organizing  means 
for  the  dissemination  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duties  he  displayed  great  eneigy,  wi»- 
dom,  and  executive  ability.  He  was  much  esteemed 
by  the  citizens  of  Princeton,  where  he  resided  twenty 
years.  He  died  there,  June  16, 1881.  See  N,  Y,  Ob- 
server,  June  28, 1881.     (W.  P.  &) 

BheldoD,  Lnther,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  mini»- 
ter,  was  bom  at  Rupert,  Yt,  Feb.  18, 1786.  He  gradn- 
ated  from  Middlebuiy  College  in  1808,  and  was  ordained 
at  Easton,  Mass,  in  1810,  which  pastorate  he  retained 
until  his  resignation  in  1855.  He  preached  six  thou- 
sand written  sermons,  and  declined  eight  calls  to  larger 
saUuries.  He  died  at  Easton,  Sept.  16»  1866.  See  Ctfi^s. 
Quarter^,  1867,  p.  804. 

SheltQD,  Oeorge  A.,  D.D.,  a  deigyman  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  rector  of  St  JamesVi 
Church,  Newtown,  U  L;  died  Dec  27, 1868,  aged  six- 
ty-three years.  See  Amer,  Quar,  Church  Rev.  ApriL 
1864,  p.  150. 

Bhelton,  WlUiaxn,  D.D.,  a  dergvman  of  the 
Protestont  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Fatrfi^d, 


SHEMA 


843 


SHILOH 


Oonn.,  in  Sepiemberi  ITM,  hia  father  being  the  Rer. 
Philo  Shelton,  the  first  Episcopal  clergyman  ordained 
in  America.  William  graduated  from  -the  General 
Theological  Seminary  of  New  York  in  1828,  was  or^ 
dained  deacon  the  same  year,  and  presbyter  in  1826; 
ministered  at  Plattsbargh  and  Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  and  in 
his  native  town,  until  1829,  when  he  became  rector  of 
SL  Paul's  Church,  Buffido.  In  1879  he  was  made  potior 
emeritut^  and  so  continued  until  his  death,  at  the  old 
Fairfield  parsonage,  Oct.  11, 1888.  See  (N.  Y.)  Church 
Abnanaef  1884,  p.  108. 

ShenuL  The  Sameh  between  Tell  MUh  and  Beer- 
sheba,  proposed  for  this  place,  is  an  error  for  Saweh 
(i.  e.  Uozor-Shual) ;  and  Tristram  suggests  {Bible  Placet, 
p.  18)  that  Shema  (u  e.  Sheba)  is  represented  by  Tdl 
et^eboj  about  two  mUes  east  of  Bir  ee-Seba.  See 
Bbersreba. 

Bhepard,  George,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Connecticut  in  1802.  He  graduated 
from  Amherst  College  in  1824,  from  Andover  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  in  1827,  and  was  ordained  Feb.  5, 1828, 
pastor  at  Hallowell,  Me.  He  became  professor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Bangor  in  1836, 
and  died  there,  March  28, 1868.  See  Trim,  Colt,  of  A  »- 
dover  TheoL  Sem,  1870,  p.  76. 

Bhepard,  Thomas^  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Norton,  Mass.,  May  7,  1792.  After 
studying  at  Taunton  Aoidemy,  he  graduated  from 
Brown  University  in  1818,  and  in  1816  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminary.  The  two  succeeding  years  he 
was  a  home  missionary  in  Georgia.  In  1818  and  1819 
be  was  agent  for  the  Connecticut  A^'lum  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb.  He  was  ordained  pastor  at  Ashfield,  Mass., 
June  16, 1819,  and  remained  until  May  8, 1888.  From 
1888  to  1885  Dr.  Shepard  was  agent  of  the  American 
Bible  Society.  From  April  80,  1885,  until  his  death 
he  was  pastor  at  Bristol,  K.  I.,  although  he  hmd  resigned 
active  service  in  1866.  In  1846  he  was  elected  a  cor- 
porate member  of  the  American  Board  of  Commission- 
ers for  Foreign  Missions  He  died  Oct  5, 1879.  Among 
bis  publications  were  various  sermons  and  thirty  New 
Tear*t  A  tmualt.    See  Cong.  Year-book,  1880,  p.  27. 

Shepley,  David,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Solon,  Me.,  in  May,  1804.  His  father  dy- 
ing when  David  was  quite  young,  he  went  to  Norridge- 
wock,  where  he  resided  for  a  time  in  the  family  of  Rev. 
Jonah  Peet,  and  became  a  Christian.  He  pursued  his 
preparatory  studies  at  Saco,  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  in  1825,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1828.  He  was  ordained  as  pastor  of  the  First 
Church  at  Yarmouth,  Me.,  in  Febraaiy,  1829,  and  re- 
signed in  April,  1849.  He  was  next  pastor  at  Winslow 
from  September,  1851,  until  June,  1862;  subsequently 
of  the  Central  Church  at  Falmouth  for  a  short  time, 
and  then  provisional  secretary  of  the  Maine  Missionary 
Society.  His  health  failing,  he  removed  to  Providence, 
R.  I.,  in  1871,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  Dec 
1,1881.    See  Providence  Journal,  Dec  SflBSi.  (J.C.S.) 

Bherman,  Joseph,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister and  educator,  was  bom  at  Edgecomb,  Me.,  March 
8, 1800.  He  graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1826, 
was  principal  for  six  years  of  the  Academy  at  North 
Yarmouth,  studied  two  years  at  Andover,  and  m  1834 
went  to  Columbia,  Tenn.,  as  professor  of  ancient  lan- 
guages in  Jackson  College.  For  fifteen  years  he  was 
connected  with  the  college,  during  three  of  which  he 
waa  its  president.  He  died  in  June,  1849.  See  ffitl, 
of  Bowdoin  College,  p.  355.     (J .  C.  S.) 

Sherwood,  Adiel,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Fort  Edward,  N.  Y.,  Oct  3, 1791.  He  studied 
three  years  at  Middlebury  College,  graduated  from 
Union  College  in  1817,  studied  one  year  in  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  and  then  went  to  Georgia  for 
his  health,  whero  he  took  high  rank  as  a  preacher. 
He  was  ordained  pastor  at  Bethlehem,  near  Lexing- 
ton, in  1820i     While  at  Eatonton.  whither  he  went  in 


1827,  having  charge  of  an  academy,  as  well  as  preach- 
ing, a  most  remarkable  revival  began  in  his  church, 
and  for  two  years  it  spread  through  the  state.  He 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  originator  of  what  is 
now  Mercer  University.  In  1837  and  1888  he  was  a 
professor  in  Columbian  College,  Washington,  D.  C, 
and  from  1889  to  1841  professor  of  sacred  literature 
in  Mercer  University,  Ga.  For  several  years  be  was 
president  of  Shurtleff  College,  Alton,  ID.  In  1848  and 
1849  he  was  president  of  the  Masonic  College,  Lexing- 
ton, Mo,  and  from  1849  to  1857  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Gape  Girardeau.  Returning  to  Georgia,  he  was  pres- 
ident of  Marshall  College  for  a  few  years.  The  closing 
years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  Missouri,  his  death  occur- 
ring at  St.  Louis,  Aug.  18, 1879.  Among  the  numeroua 
productions  of  his  pen  may  be  mentioned  his  Gautteer 
of  Georgia,  Chrittian  and  Jewith  Churchet,  and  hia 
Notu  OH  the  New  Tetiament.  In  his  personal  appear- 
ance Dr.  Sherwood  was  tall  and  commanding,  with 
noble  and  dignified  features.  See  Cathcart,  BapUti 
Enegelop,  p.  1054.     (J.  C  S.) 

Sbervrood,  Reuben,  D J).,  a  clergyman  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  died  at  Hyde  Park,N.  Y., 
May  11, 1856,  aged  sixty-six  years.  He  was  one  of 
the  oldest  clerg}'men  of  his  denomination  in  Dutchess 
County,  and  for  the  last  twenty-two  years  of  his  life 
had  been  rector  of  St.  James's  Church  at  Hyde  Park. 
He  was  formerly,  for  a  long  time,  in  charge  of  the 
Church  at  Norwalk,  Conn^  and  was  the  founder  of  the 
parishes  at  Saugerties  and  Esopus,  X.  Y.  See  Amer» 
Quar.  Church  Rev,  1856,  p.  SOL 

Shipron  is  thought  by  Tristram  {Bible  Placet^  p.  34) 
to  be  the  modem  Zemuka,  which  lies  two  and  a  half 
miles  north-east  of  Yebnah  (Jabneh),  and  is  **  a  large 
mud  village,  with  cactus  hedges  around  it,  and  wells  in 
the  gardens"  {Afemoirt  to  Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  414). 
Lieut.  Conder  suggests  {Quar,  Statement  of ''Pal.  Explor. 
Fund,"  Oct.  1876,  p.  170,  note)  that  it  may  be  the  Khur- 
bet  Sukereir,  a  small  ruined  khan,  near  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  four  and  a  half  miles  south-west  of  Yebnah, 
and  exhibiting  traces  of  a  cistern,  a  reservoir,  a  viaduct^ 
and  a  canal  {Afemoirt,  ii,  425). 

Sbihon.  For  this  place  both  Tristram  {Bible  Placet, 
p.  277)  and  Conder  (  Tent  Work,  ii,  339)  accept  Ayum 
eth'Shain,  two  miles  north-west  of  DebOrieh,  which 
consists  merely  of  "  two  springs,  built  up  with  masonry, 
about  thirty  yards  apart;  good  perennial  supply  of 
water;  no  stream"  ^Memoirt  of  Ordnance  Survey,  i, 
877).  On  the  other  hand,  eth-Shejeraht  four  and  a  half 
miles  north  by  east  of  Debfirieb,  contains  the  ruins  of 
an  ancient  building  later  used  as  a  mosque  (ibid.  p.  414). 

Shihor-libnath.  Both  Tristram  {Bible  Placet, 
p.  289)  and  Conder  {Tent  Work,  ii,  389)  identify  this 
stream  with  the  Wady  eth-Skagur,  which  comes  down 
the  mountains  east  of  Acre,  and  by  its  junction  with 
Wady  Shulb  forms  the  Wady  el-IIalz<ln,  that  runs  into 
the  Nahr  Numein,  or  Belus.  This,  however,  is  at  least 
fourteen  miles  north-east  of  Carmel,  and  more  than 
twenty  from  the  south-west  extremity  of  Asber. 

Shiloh.  The  archnological  remains  at  Seilun  are 
minutely  described  in  the  Memoirt  accompanying  the 
Ordnance  Survey  (it,  867  sq.).  The  following  particu- 
lars from  Conder*s  Tent  Work  (i,  81  sq.)  are  of  hiterest : 


u' 


We  approached  Shiloh  from  the  sonth,  by  a  monntsin- 
road  of  evident  antiqnlty,  from  the  little  plain.  The  ruins 
of  a  modem  vlllajpe  here  occupy  a  sort  of  tell  or  mound. 
On  the  east  and  north  the  site  Is  shut  In  by  bare  and  lofty 
hills  of  gray  limestone,  dotted  over  with  a  few  flg-trees; 
on  the  south  the  plateau  looks  down  on  the  pinin  Just 
crofsed.  A  deep  valley  runs  behind  the  town  on  the 
north,  and  In  its  sides  are  many  rock-cnt  sepulchres ;  fol- 
lowing Its  course  westward,  we  again  rencned  the  main 
road,  tnus  avoiding  a  steep  pass,  and  turning  north warda 
found  the  villag^e  of  Lebonah  perched  on  the  hillside  to 
the  went  of  the  road  and  north  of  Shiloh,  as  described  In 
the  Bible. 

"Shiloh  was  for  about  four  hundred  years  the  chosen 
abode  of  the  tabernacle  and  ark.  It  Is  a  question  of  no 
little  interest  whether  this  waa  the  first  spot  selected  after 


>r  ths  Rulna  at  SI 


thaeanqnnt  or  th<  hills  bjJotbna.  Thai  Bhllnh  bMnine 
the  ulh«rlDK-pUce  iftcr  the  conqneit  of  Sbecbeni  Ibers 
li  *Mnd*ut  piool  (J(wh.  nil,  II),  and  It  ni«j  be  InFirred 
tb«t  the  Tabamado  was  placed  tben  earlr;  bnt,  on  1b< 
other  hand,  n  Sad  '  SaDCtuiT  or  tba  Lord' jur  Ilolr  Place 
of  Jshorabl  nwnUoiMd,  bj  (be  oak  near  ShMbem  | Jo«b. 
xxtT,  M],  and  we  ma*  perhiu  ealhar  tbat,  thongb  not 
racotcnlaed  bT  the  docior*  of  tbeHlahna,  there  «u  a  Ume 
when  the  Tabamacla  Hood,  as  Is  believed  bf  the  Bamar- 
tuma,  Dear  Sbecben.  The  date  which  Ibef  kItb  Tor  lia 
tran>fti«iieetoShllah,lDthetln:ieafI!ll,  wbom  thej  coa- 
■Ider  to  have  been  the  IliM  Khlcmatlcal  loader  nt  ibe 
children  oT  Jadah,  doea  Dot,  howerer,  accord  with  the 
Biblical  account,  and  the  aton  uo  doubt  orlglaaled  IQ 
eoDHqaenc*  of  rellglona  haired. 
"The  alle  belnf  so  certalolT  known, 


.  _)topofthet 

„  a  eort  of  itregnlar  q 

the  weit.  and  perched  abore  t< 
pnrpoee*.   The  rock  hu  bei 


^rallel  e 


poeltlon  o(  the  Taber- 
>u  ihe  north  of  the  mini, 
■angle,  (loplnj;  rather  tn 
»e  made  (br  agrlcuUnral 

idred  feeL  with  n  cunit 
;,  aiid  ta<\  Ave  feet  be- 


w^wTwi 


for  the  court  ol  the  Taliernacle  hi 
■Ibj  of  notice  Uiat  the  meaioremen 
cloeelrwllhthaii'ldihorthe< 


th."'"/rS; 
lower  uatt  of  the  Tab 


nate  on  a  dope  eontb  of  the  m 

t.[  ^nare,  and  bnlll  ol 

..  J  nurih.  and  la  aumii ,  _  _ 

which  la  a  doaign  In  bold  relief,  representlL„ 

wteaiha.  Inilde  there  are  plllitra  wltb  capluli,  aeemlnslj 
Bjiaotlne.  A  eloping  tcnrp  hai  been  ballt  Igalnit  Die 
nail  on  three  aldei.and  a  llltle  moaqne  aacrsd  toSI-Arbatn 
— 'tbeFortT'ConipanlonB  of  the  Prophet— 1>  bnlTtnn  to 
the  eaat  wall.  There  la  a  pointed  arch  on  the  weal  wall. 
Tbnawe  haveatleaat  three  perjode— Ihatofthe  old  arna- 
iTDiFiie,  repmenled  bv  the  llnlel,  which  la  almllar  to  the 
riutola  or  OaUlieau  BjoBKOEDea  that  of  a  later  CbrlatlaD 
erection,  nod  tlonll;  tbe  Moalem  mosqne,  bnllt,  prob- 
abljr,  wbete  the  apaa  of  the  chapel  would  have  Tjceu 

"The  JamU  el-Yetelm,  or  'Moaqne  of  the  Serranta  of 
Oodj'  li  altnated  nt  the  Bonthern  foot  of  the  tell.  It  la 
■haded  br  a  large  oak-tree,  and  la  of  good  maeonrT,  like 
that  of  the  last  -  there  waa  nothing  very  remarhtble  in 


Of  the  Tabernacle. 

'  Tbe  onlf  water  cloee  to  the  Tillage  waa  once 
contaiiiedin  a  little  tank  with  attpi.  eODth  of 
the  lower  moaqne.  3'hBra  la,  however,  a  flne 
aprlDg  placed,  aa  la  often  to  be  obecrred  In 
Palestine,  at  a  dlitence  of  no  leaa  than  Ibree 
qnattera  of  a  mile  from  Ihe  town,  at  the  head 
of  the  Talln  which  comes  down  behind  tbe 
mlus  from  the  east  A  good  anpplj  of  water 
here  laenei  Into  a  rockj  baaln,  and  waa  once 
carried  b;  an  nndergronnd  aqoednct  to  ■  rock- 
cat  lank,  bnt  la  now  allowed  to  mn  waate. 

Tbo  Tlnejards  of  Shiloh  hiYe  disappeared, 
tbongh  Terj  poaalhlj  once  anrronndlnE  the 
■priDB,  and  perhaps  extending  down  tbs  tbI- 
IsT  westwards,  where  water  Is  alao  found. 
With  Ibe  deatnietlon  of  the  Tillage  desolation 
baa  spread  over  the  barren  hills  aronnd. 

A  jearlf  feast  nsi  held  at  gbiloh,  when 

Tarda  {Jndges  xil,  11).  It  la  pouJble  that  a 
tradition  oT  this  fesilTal  ts  reUined  In  tbo 
Dsms  Herl  sl-'Ald,  'Ueadow  uf  the  Feaat,' 
to  ths  soQlhoftbe  preaenl  elte," 

ShimrOn.  Tbe  present  Stminith  is  d»- 
Bcnbed  in  the  Mtmoin  accompanjing  the 
Oidaance  Surrey  (1,  280)  as  "a  amall  village 
on  a  knolt  at  the  edge  of  the  plain  of  E>- 
draeloD  [five  milca  west  at  Nazareth],  with 
three  springs  .  . .  and  contains  ptobably  less 
than  one  hundred  aouls."  It  has  'Wrtificisl 
mounds,  traces  of  mina,  and  a  sarcophagus  " 
(ibid.  p.  389). 

8Uim,  Asa,  an  eminent  Hethodiat  Prot- 
estant minister,  was  bom  in  New  Jersey^  Mar 
S  1781,  of  poor  bnt  honest  Quaker  parents. 
He  received  bia  edncation  chiefly  among  the 
western  hills  of  Vii^nia,  became  a  Methodist 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  waa  requested  to  be- 
come  an  exborter,  and  before  hia  twentieth  year  was 
employed  aa  a  travelling  preacher  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  in  which  connection  he  continued 
over  twenty-seven  years.  Tbe  fact  tbat  he  never  saw 
an  English  grammar  or  a  clock  until  he  entered  upon 
hia  first  circuit  pictures  his  illiterate  and  inexperienced 
oondition;  yet  such  was  hia  progress  that  in  1809  we 
find  him  by  appointment  in  the  city  of  Baltimore.  He 
gave  hinudf  wholly  to  tbe  work,  ulilieed  his  opportu- 
nities as  a  student,  and  whether  in  season  or  outof  aea- 

back,  his  tireless  mind  wsa  at  work,  until  he  became  a 
theologian  before  whose  logic  and  masterly  delivery  no 
foe  of  tbe  truth  could  atand.  In  I82&  Ur.  Sbinn  was 
trautferred  to  tbe  Pittsburgh  Confeience,  end  in  1829 
withdrew  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  helped 
to  organise  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church,  and  at  its 
firat  conference,  which  waa  held  that  year,  in  Ohio,  he 
was  elected  president.  He  afUrwaiils  was  the  fitsc 
president  o(  the  Pittsburgh  Conference.  In  18B4  he 
was  elected  editor  of  the  Mahodiit  Fralaliml,  and 
served  two  years.  When  a  young  man  Mr.  Shinn  ex- 
perienced an  accidental  fiacture  of  his  skull,  which,  be< 
cause  of  improper  surgical  att«i  don,  caused  his  insan- 
ity in  old  age,  and  he  was  lemored  to  Brattleboro  (Vl,') 
Lunatic  Aaylum,  whete  he  died,  Feb.  11,  1838.  Mr. 
Shinn  produced  two  theological  worka:  The  Plan  ff 
Sahaliom,  and  Tit  ^Cnnwlmce  and  KeOilude  of  Ihe  Sm- 
premt  Bang;  they  evince  great  logical  power,  piety 
of  heart,  and  loyalty  to  Christ.  See  Basselt,  Bit.  of 
(i«Jf,aaiirc*,p.B25. 

Bboraewood,  GioBoa,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  i«o- 
tor  of  Culter  in  IMS,  and  in  USA  was  chsncelior  of  tbe 
Church  of  Dunkeld.  Ha  wss  confessor  to  the  king  in 
1464,  in  which  year  he  went  on  an  embsjsy  to  Etigland. 
He  was  made  bishop  of  the  see  of  Brechin,  Oct.  S3  lbs 
same  year,  was  also  royal  eecreury,  and  afterwards  be- 
came lord  high  chancellor.  Ue  wss  bishop  there  In 
14G2.     See  Keith,  Scottiih  Bithopi,  p.  164. 

Short,  Ansaatiu,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  prelate,  was 
bom  near  Exeter  in  180S.    Froni  Westminster  Scbool 


SHORT  8< 

be  iru  KDt  to  Chiist  Ctmrch  College,  Oxford,  irben ' 
be  graduated  A.a  in  18U,4ndA.H.  in  1836.  He  «u 
■ppointed  Ticu  of  RiTenithorpe,  NotthiiD|iUnuhire,  in 
18BS I  Bempton  lectarer  at  Oxford  in  1M6,  and  the 
am  bidiop  of  Adelaide,  South  Aoatnlia,  in  1B47.  He 
died  Oct.  B,  1SB3. 

Bhoit,  David  HawldiiB,  D.a,  ■  Pretestut 
E[UMopal  clergyman,  wu  bom  in  IS06.  I]«  graduated 
from  Trinit;  College  in  1883,  and  from  the  General 
'rbeologicalSemiiurj-,N.r.,inl88«i  waa  ordiiued  the 
aame  year;  for  a  numbar  of  jnn  vai  eioplayed  ai  ■ 
teacbei  in  Ridgefleld,  Conn.;  in  1860  became  rector  of 
SL  Jame^s  Cbuicb,  WaiMed ;  in  ISGl  of  Once  Cbuich, 
BroadbTDok;  in  1866  lemoTcd  to  Gmnwich  ai  rector 
of  two  churches,  viz. :  Calvary  Church,  at  Round  Ilil), 
andEmmanuet  Cbuicfa.iD  Glenville;  in  1867  officiated 
in  St.  John's  Church,  Hartford;  the  next  jeai  in  the 
Memorial  Church  of  the  Holj  Trinity,  Wealpoit.  He 
raided  in  Ponisnd,  in  1870,  withoot  charge ;  but  the  fol- 
lowing year  offidaled  ia  Trinity  Church,  in  that  place ; 
in  1872  he  wai  choaen  rector  of  St.  Andrew'a  Church, 
Northford,  where  ha  remdned  for  acTeral  yearK  He 
died  in  Fairfield.  Jan.  21, 1877.  See  Prof.  Epuc.Abui- 
noc,  1878,  p.  170. 

Sbotat.     See  Offickb. 

Sbnnein.  Its  modern  representalive,  Sdtam,  is 
thiee  and  a  quailei  miles  north  of  Zerlu,  and  is  briefly 
noted  in  the  MemoirM  accompanying  the  Ordnance  Sur- 
vey  (ii,  87).  The  tblloning  particulan  couceming  its 
iitnation  are  given  by  Conder  {Tait  Work,  i,  123) : 

■•Wealwaid  the  tIcw  loclnde*  7(Lleh— the  cnuadlne 
Cattle  of  the  Besn,  wllh  lis  fuue  nnd  manbT  pool  oui- 
■lda,B]id  «r '- 


d,  flrieei 


inrtKing 


V.  S4) oi 


It  of  It 

Were  the  hoowi  ofthBl' 


DDtldes 


I  Tillage,  it  wia 
not  a  p-EUt  archllccliinl  atidertiklng  lo  bolld'a  llllle 
chamber'  for  the  prophet,  and  (he  ennmeratlon  of  the 
simple  fuiQiiare  or  that  chamber— the  bed.  perhapa  ooly 

iDdlcate  that  k  was  onlf  such  a  lllile  but  tha't  was  In- 
tended. Another  point  msy  be  noted  :  hgw  csme  It 
that  Elliba  so  consIantlT  passed  by  BhunemF  The  an- 
swer seems  simple;  he  IlieEl  babltuallT  on  Cnrtnel,  bat 
he  was  a  native  of  Abel  Ueholah,  -iha  Usadow  of  Clr- 
ete»,'  a  place  now  called  'AIn  Helweh,  1u  the  Jordan  »sl- 
ley,  to  which  the  direct  toad  led  past  Shnuem  down  the 
Talley  of  JeireeL" 

Slmr.     Dr.  Tmrnboll  Ubcra  at  great  length  (Ka- 
dstJUonMO,  p.  44  sq.)  to  prove  that  Sbnr  was  the  name 


S  SIEFFERT 

of  ■  line  of  rortificalions  extending  from  Suex  to  the 
Mediterranean;  hut  in  that  case  the  word  must  bare 
taken  the  article  (lite  Wall),  which,  on  the  contrary,  it 
nerer  baa.  His  etymologies  connecting  it  in  this  sense 
with  Etham  are  rery  forced.  That  there  may  have 
existed  some  sucb  defences,  in  the  way  of  forts,  Higdol 
(q.T,)  being  the  principal  one,  may  very  well  be  grant- 
ed, without  suppoung  a  amtinuons  or  wall-like  scrica, 
of  which  there  is  no  evidence.  Nor  is  the  word  itself 
ever  used  in  any  such  relation.  The  phrase  "ifV  Tl*^^ 
(Gen.  xvi,  7),  can  only  mean,  in  Hebrew  idiom,  "the 
way  to  SbuT,"  like  1>ld  ^(t'la  (1  Sam.  xv,  7),  or,  more 
exactly,  Pinfld  7\»1J  (1  Sam.  xivii,  8)  not  "  the  Wall- 
Boad." 

Bbnrtleit  Roswell,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  pro- 
fessor, was  born  at  Ellington,  Conn.,  Aug.  !9, 1778.  He 
was  educated  at  CheeterSeld  Academy  and  Dartmouth 
College.  In  1800  he  wai  appointed  tutor,  and  in  IS04 
profeaaor  of  theology  and  college  pastor  at  Dartmouth. 
This  office  he  held  for  twenty-three  years,  snd  fnim 
1827  to  1888  ha  held  the  pTDreBK>rehip  of  moral  philos- 
ophy and  political  economy.  Hit  remaining  years  were 
spent  quietly  at  home.  He  died  at  Hanover,  N.  H., 
Feb.  4,  1S61.  Dr.  ShurtldTs  mind  was  clear,  far- 
ngbted,  veraatile,  and  logical ;  bis  wit  and  humor  were 
unfailing;  his  sympsthiea  were  strong,  bis  preaching 
was  powerful.Bnd  his  learning  wis  ample.  In  theolo- 
gy be  wat  a  Hopkinnan.  See  Cong.  QaarUrig,  1861, 
P.21G. 

Bib«r,  Uhbah  Gottfkiei),  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Dee.  12, 1669,  at  Schandau,  &x- 
ony,and  studied  at  Wittenberg.  In  1708  he  was  dea- 
con, and  in  1708  arcbikacon  at  Schneeberg.  In  1711 
be  went  to  Leipeic,  was  in  IT15  professor,  in  1TS4  doc- 
tor of  theologj-,  and  died  June  16,  1741,  He  wrote, 
De  etkiifpotapiiif  t  Satleniia  Graconm  (Wittenberg, 
1697) :— De  Gaia,  Palailina  Oppido  rjittqut  Epucopit 
ad  Actor.viii.  26  (Schneeberg,  1716)  ■.^Proltgomena  ad 
HiiloTiam  Mdodorum  Ecdeiia  Craae  (1714)  ■.—Eode- 
lia  Grata  Marlyrola^um  Mttricam  (1727),  See 
Doring,  Die  geleirtai  Tlieologat  DattiMaiA,  s.  v.; 
Winer,  HaadbuA  der  IheoL  Lit.  i.  690,  614,  621,  6S6; 
Jocher,  AUgemtma  GtUhTttn-Laihm,  t.  v.     (E  P.) 

BleSert,  Friedrich  Ludwio,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Elbing,  Frassia,  Feb.  I, 
1808.    In  1826  be  commenced  hi*  academical  carter  at 


Present  Appaaraikce  otShuD' 


.    (From  Ttaomaon^  CmtraJ  AsIesHns  md  MonMo.) 


SIE6EL 


846 


SIMPSON 


K5nig8beig,  was  in  1828  profeBsor,  and  died  Nov.  2, 
1877|  doctor  and  profeaor  of  theology.  He  published, 
De  Sinffulorum  Librorum  Sacrorum  Audoriiate  Ca- 
wmica  lUete  ^ttmanda  (Konigsberg,  183B)>^Ueber 
den  Ursprvmg  des  ertten  kanimiKhm  Evangeliumi  (1882): 
— Theodonu  Moptuut.  Veteris  Tutamenii  Sobrie  Inter' 
pretcmdi  Vindex  (IS27) i^Andeutunffen  uber  dk  apola- 
getitcke  Fundammterung  der  chrittlichen  GlauhentwU" 
aexudiajt  (Giiterslohe,  1871).    (a  P.) 

Biegel,  Karl  Christian  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Marienburg  in 
1781,  and  died  at  Leipsic  in  1845,  doctor  of  theology. 
He  published,  Neue  Maierialien  zu  Kanzdcortragen 
(Leipeac,  1827-28,  2  yoh,)  i-^Honnletucher  Raihgdter 
(1832-33,  2  vols.):— i>0  Artibut  QuibuM  Siffimm  Crucit 
in  Sacria  Chrutianorum  fnataiem  PrabuU  (1889):  — 
ffandbuch  der  christUch-kirchlichen  AlterthUmer  (1885- 
89, 4  vols.) : — Dia  epittoUschm  Texte  in  Mrchlich-archdr 
ohgUdier  exegeHscher  ninsickt  (1842^48, 8  vols.).  See 
Znchold,  B^  TheoL  s.  v.  {  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  t&eoL 
LU.  i,  609 ;  ii,  124, 148.     (R  P.) 

Sigrvv^art,  Heivrich  Christofh  Wuhklm  von, 
professor  of  philosophy,  who  died  in  1844  at  Tubingen, 
is  the  author  of,  Ztuammenhang  des  Spinozismus  mil 
der  cartesianiechen  Phihtopkie  (Tttbingen,  1816):— 
Der  Spmozismue^  hiatorisch  und  pkUotophiach  erlautert 
(1839):— Fer^McAiiJ^  der  RedUe*  uiA  Staatetkeorien 
dee  Betted.  Spmcta  und  dee  Th,  Hobbet  (1842)  i-^Dae 
Problem  von  der  Freiheit  und  der  Unfreiheit  des  mensch- 
lichen  WiUens  (1889)  :—Das  Problem  des  Bosen  oder  die 
Theodioe  (1840).  See  FUist,  BibL  Jud.  a.  v. ;  Zuchold, 
BibLTheoL  B,y,    (a  P.) 

Sillier,  WiLHKLM,  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Germany, 
was  bom  in  1801.  Having  completed  his  theological 
studies,  he  was  for  a  time  tutor  at  the  Blochmann  In- 
stitute at  Dresden.  In  1843  he  came  to  America,  la- 
bored for  a  time  in  the  state  of  Ohio,  and  accepted  a  call 
as  professor  at  the  Lutheran  seminary  in  Fort  Wayne, 
Ind.,  in  1845,  where  he  died,  Oct.  27, 1885.  He  pub- 
lished, Ldtenslavfala  Uitheriscker  Pastor  (1880, 2  vols.) : 
—Predigten  (1862, 1874, 1888).     (B.  P.) 

Biloaxn,  Pool  of.  A  remarkable  Hebrew  inscrip- 
tion on  an  interior  passage  lately  discovered  behind  the 
present  Fountain  of  the  Virgin,  by  which  the  water 
WIS  reached  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  city,  commem- 
orates the  cutting  of  the  tunnel  leading  between  these 
two  reservoirs  (see  Dr.  Guthe,  in  the  Zeitschr,  d  deutsck, 
morgenldnd,  GescheUschqft,  xxxvi,  3  sq.).  The  follow- 
ing translation  is  by  professor  Sayce  (in  the  Quar, 
Statement  of  the  '*  Pal.  Expbr.  Fund,''  Oct  1888,  p.  210) : 

**1.  (Behold)  tbe  excavation !  Now  this  had  been  the 
history  of  the  excavation.  While  tbe  workmen  were 
etlll  lilting  up 

**  2.  the  axe,  each  towards  his  neighbor,  and  while  three 
cubits  still  remained  to  (cnt  through),  (each  heard)  the 
voice  of  the  other  who  called 

**8.  to  bis  neighbor,  since  there  was  an  excess  of  the 
rode  on  the  right  hand  and  on  (tbe  left).  And  on  the 
day  of  the 

''^  excavation  the  workmen  struck,  each  to  meet  his 
neighbor,  axe  against  axe,  and  there  flowed 

**  6.  the  waters  ftrom  the  spring  to  the  pool  for  a  thousand 
two  hundred  cnblts ;  and . . . 

"  6.  of  a  cubit  was  the  height  of  the  rock  over  the  heads 
of  the  worlonen.*' 

Blmoii,  the  name  of  several  Scotch  prelates : 

1.  Bishop  of  Dunblane  in  the  12th  century.  See 
Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  171. 

2.  Bishop  of  Boss  in  the  12th  century.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  18i. 

3.  Consecrated  bishop  of  the  Isles  in  1226»and  «it«^ 
ness  to  a  charter  dated  Jaiiwd,  In  the  seventeenth  year 
•of  king  AkzBBier  II.  He  held  a  synod  in  1239,  where 
Iw  made  thirteen  canons,  which  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Monaaticon  Anglicanum,  He  died  at  his  palace  of 
Kirkmichacl,  in  the  isle  of  Man.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  299. 

4.  Dean  of  the  see  of  Moray  in  1232  and  also  in  1242, 
«nd  advanced  to  the  bishopric  of  Moray  in  the  latter 


year.    He  was  bishop  nine  years,  and  died  in  12&8. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops^  p.  139. 

5.  Bishop  of  Galloway  in  1821.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops^  p.  1821. 

Bimpflon,  CaloTius  Abraham,  LL.D.,  an  Eng- 
lish Congregational  minister,  was  bom  in  1789.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Glasgow  University,  and  left  that 
institution  with  the  highest  testimonial  of  Christian 
character  and  scholarly  attainment.  He  essayed  to 
make  proof  of  his  ministry  first  at  Fulboume,  and  in 
1820  removed  to  Haverhil],  where  he  was  ordained,  and 
for  eleven  3reara  greatly  blessed  in  his  work.  In  1886 
Dr.  Simpson  settled  at  Onndle,  thence  in  1842  he  re- 
moved to  Cardiff,  and  in  1844  entered  upon  his  final 
pastorate  at  Long  Sutton,  Lincolnshire.  He  died  Mareh 
17,  1868.  ''His  literary  reading  was  very  wide;  he 
had  singular  conversational  powers  and  great  urbanity 
of  manner;  his  love  of  theological  and  metaphysical 
questions  amounted  to  a  passion,  and  on  them  he  spoke 
with  decision  and  authority.**  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Ytatr^ 
book,  1867,  p.  818. 

Simpflon,  Matthew,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Cadiz, 
Harrison  Co.,  O.,  June  10, 1810.  He  graduated  from 
Madison  College  (afterwards  merged  into  Allegheny 
University)  in  1832.  In  1888  he  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine,  but  before  the  year  was  ended  had 
decided  to  enter  the  Pittsburgh  Conference.  The  sec- 
ond year  thereafter  he  became  pastor  of -the  Liberty 
Street  Church,  Pittsburgh,  where  he  soon  gave  evi- 
dence of  the  eloquence  which  eventually  placed  bim 
among  the  greatest  pulpit  orators  of  the  age.  In  1887 
he  was  called  as  professor  of  natural  sciences  to  AUe» 
gheny  University,  and  two  years  afterwards  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  Indiana  Aabory  Univerrity,  at 
Greencastle,  Ind.  Under  his  management  the  oolkge 
grew  in  strength  and  usefulness.  In  1848  Dr.  Simpaoa 
was  elected  to  the  editorship  of  The  Western  Chris- 
tian Advocate,  of  Cincinnati.  In  1852  he  was  elected 
a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He 
adorned  the  episcopal  office  with  gentleness,  humility, 
and  devotion.  He  was  indefatigable  in  the  discharge 
of  his  duties,  and  though  careful  in  the  maintenance, 
doctrine,  and  discipline  of  his  Church,  he  did  so  without 
exciting  enmity  from  those  of  his  own  or  other  sects. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  18, 1884.  Biahop 
Simpson  will  be  best  remembered  by  his  patriotic  la- 
bors in  aid  of  the  government  during  the  civil  war, 
which  gave  him  a  national  reputation.  He  was  the 
trasted  friend  and  adviser  of  president  Lincoln,  and  it 
was  at  his  request  that  bishop  Simpson  made  a  aeries 
of  powerful  addresses  on  the  Union  in  many  of  the 
cities  of  the  North.  He  was  the  stanch  supporter  of 
the  colored  race,  and  was  urged  by  the  secretary  of  war 
to  undertake  the  organization  of  the  freedmen  at  the 
establishment  of  the  bureau,  and  was  afterwards  invited 
by  president  Grant  to  go  as  commissioner  to  San  Do- 
mingo, both  of  which  offers  he  declined.  Besides  the 
public  addresses  which  the  bishop  delivered  he  was 
employed  by  tbe  government  on  many  missions  of  a 
confidential  nature,  which  aided  largely  in  strengdieii- 
ing  the  Union  cause.  In  view  of  these  services  rendered 
during  the  war  and  under  the  direction  of  president 
Lincoln,  it  was  fitting  that  he  should  have  been  choaea 
to  deliver  the  nation's  eulogy  upon  her  martyred  presi- 
dent. In  1870,  on  the  death  of  bishop  Kingsley,  bishop 
Simpson  visited  Europe  to  complete  the  work  which 
had  been,  asaigni^d  to  him  on  the  Continent,  and  also  as 
a  delegate  to  the  English  Conference.  In  1874  he  vis- 
ited Mexico,  and  in  1875  again  went  to  Europe  to  at- 
tend the  conferences  held  in  Germany  and  Switzeriand, 
and  also  to  meet  the  missionaries  on  the  Continent  In 
1881  he  attended  the  (Ecumenical  Council  of  the  Meth- 
odist Church,  which  was  held  in  London,  and  while 
there  was  the  recipient  of  many  kind  attentions  fbom 
the  members  of  his  denomination  in  England.    He  is 


sm 


847 


SKINNER 


the  author  of  A  Hfmdrtd  Years  of  Mtihodum,  a  toI- 
nme  of  Yale  Ledurea  on  Preaching^  and  was  the  editor 
of  the  Cydopadia  of  Metkodiem,  which  containa  infor- 
matioD  aa  almost  every  sttbject  of  interest  to  the  de- 
nomination. Some  of  his  Sermona  have  been  edited 
by  Dr.  G.  R  Crooks  (N.  Y.  1886). 

fiUn,  Hak  of  (o  dv^fMoiroQ  rif c  afiapriaCt  2  Thess. 
il,  8).  In  the  admirable  essay  on  this  subject  appended 
to  £adie*s  Commentary  on  ThestcUomatu  (Lond.  1877), 
the  untenableness  of  the  earlier  interpretations  is  clear- 
ly shown,  and  even  that  the  popular  application  of 
the  phrase  by  Protestants  to  the  Roman  papacy  is  not 
conclusive.  The  only  unsatisfactory  part  of  the  discus- 
sion is  the  summary  dismissal  of  Elliott's  argument  for 
an  impersonal  antichrist  by  simply  denying  the  mean- 
ing (sueceator)  assigned  to  the  participles  6  koHx**^  ^^^ 
t6  Karixoy,  "  that  withholdeth  "  or  "  letteth  "  (p.  849). 
The  proof  that  tipenon  is  meant  does  not  depend  upon 
that  signi6catien  of  these  participles,  but  upon  the  fact 
that  the  personal  masculine  is  thus  exchanged  for  the 
imperBonal  neuter,  and  especially  that  the  principal 
power  is  likewise  designated  by  the  abstract  ftwrriipioVf 
"mystery**  (ver.7).  In  like  manner  the  Jobannean 
term  **the  antichrist"  (o  avrixptorot,  1  John  ii,  22) 
is  not  a  proper  name,  nor  even  the  designation  of  an 
individual,  for  it  is  used  in  the  plural  in  the  same  con- 
nection ( iLvrtxpurrot,  ver.  18 ;  comp.  2  John  7  ),  and 
also  as  a  neuter  or  abstract  (rb  tov  dvrtxfHorov),  To 
nnderstand  this  impemnaUon  of  the  evil  pnndple 
(comp.  u  diafioKog  as  an  embodiment  of  Satanic  influ- 
ence), we  must  advert  to  the  conventional  use  in  the 
Kew-Test.  figures,  especially  in  eschatologtcal  passages, 
of  the  concrete  terms  and  names  of  the  Old  Test,  such 
as  especially  appears  in  the  adoption  of  "Gog  and 
Magog**  from  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  (zxxviii), 
where  they  probably  designate  a  particular  people, 
hostile  to  Judaism,  to  express  a  collective  or  abstract 
power  of  persecution  in  the  future  of  Christendom  (Rev. 
XX,  8).  In  like  manner  the  "little  horn"  of  Daniel, 
which  invariably  represents  Antiochus  £piphanes,  has 
been  confounded  with  the  persecuting  beast  of  the 
Apocalypse.  The  names  of  the  Old  Test,  have  been 
typically  transferred  to  the  symbolology  of  the  New 
Test.,  like  Zion,  Jenuakm,  Babyhn,  etc.,  but  have 
never  lost  their  literal,  local,  and  personal  meaning. 
In  fact,  this  very  type  of  Antiochus  was  evidently  in 
the  apostle's  mind  while  employing  the  masculine  in 
the  passage  under  discussion,  and  the  whole  aspect  of 
the  persecuting  power  is  evidently  borrowed  from  the 
description  of  that  blasphemer  in  the  book  of  Daniel. 
This  explains  what  has  been  a  puzzle  to  commentators, 
the  impious  arrogance  of  the  future  antichrist  (2  Th^s. 
ii,  4),  which  is  exactly  parallel  with  the  prophet's  lan- 
guage (Dan.  vii,  8,  20,  25;  viii,  10-12;  xi,  86).  We 
conclude,  therefore,  that  in  the  eschatology  of  the  New- 
Test,  writers  these  expressions  are  to  be  interpreted 
figuratively,  and  not  literally,  as  in  the  Old  Test. ;  and 
that  they  probably  refer  to  some  great  onset  of  infidelity 
near  the  dose  of  the  present  dispensation.  See  Mys- 
tery OP  Iniquity. 

Sinclair,  a  Scotoh  prelate,  was  dean  of  Restabrig 
and  Edinburgh,  and  put  into  the  see  of  Brechin  in  the 
16th  century.  He  died  in  1566.  See  Keith,  ScoUi$h 
Bishops^  p.  165. 

Binolair,  Henry,  a  Scotoh  prelate,  was  rector 
of  Glosgow  in  1539,  and  in  1541  abbot  of  the  abbey 
of  Kilwinning,  which  last  benefice  he  exchanged  for 
the  deanery  of  Glasgow  in  1550,  where  he  had  minis- 
tered two  years  before.  He  was  bishop  of  Ross  in  1561. 
He  died  in  France,  Jan.  2,  1564.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  193. 

Sinclair,  William,  a  Scotoh  prelate,  was  made 
bishop  of  Dunkeld  in  1312.  He  probably  died  in  1387. 
See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  82. 

Siric,  archbishop  of  Canteibuiy,  was  educated  at 
Glastonbury,  and,  having  been  a  monk  there,  was  re- 


moved to  St.  Angnsttne's,  at  Canterbury,  where  be  be- 
came abbot  Siric  was  consecrated  archbishop  in  990, 
and  went  to  Rome  for  his  pallium.  He  was  fond  of 
pomp  and  display.  He  died  in  994.  See  Hook,  Liota 
of  the  A  rckbishx^  qf  Canterbury ,  i,  432. 

ftlHiimaw^  Isaac,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  New  Jersey  in  1740,  and  graduated  from  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  in  1766.  He  was  sent  into  the 
ministry  by  the  First  Baptist  Church  of  New  York ;  in 
1778  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist  Church  at 
Boston,  and  in  1787  returned  to  New  Jersey.  On  Sept. 
18, 1790,  he  was  called  to  the  pastoral  charge  of  the 
Baptist  Church  at  Salem,  entered  upon  his  duties  the 
November  following,  and  continued  there  until  his 
death,  June  8, 1799.  Dr.  Skillman  was  a  man  of  learn, 
ing  and  abilities,  but  never  very  popular  as  a  preacher. 
See  Sprague,  A  muils  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  i,  458. 

Skinner,  John  (1),  a  Scotoh  Episcopal  clergyman,  • 
was  bom  at  Balfour,  Aberdeenshire,  in  1721,  studied  at 
Marischal  College,  taught  at  Keumay  and  Moneymusk, 
and  in  1742  became  minister  at  Longside.  He  died  in 
1806.  In  his  early  years  he  obtained  considerable  rep- 
utation as  a  Scotch  poet,  his  poems  forming  voL  iii  of 
his  posthumous  works  (Edinbuigh,  1809).  His  son 
edited  his  theological  works,  which  were  published  with 
a  memoir  (Aberdeen,  eod.  2  vols.  8vo).  These  works 
contain  Letters  to  a  Candidate  for  Orders^  Dissertation 
on  the  Shediinah,  Literal  and  True  Radical  Exposition 
qf  the  Song  qf  Songs,  and  Psalms  viii,  zxiO,  and  xh, 
done  into  Latin  verse. 

Skinner,  John  (2),  primus  of  the  Scotoh  Epis- 
copal Church,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  bom  May  17| 
1744.  He  was  educated  at  Echt,  by  his  grandfather, 
and  at  Marischal  College,  University  of  Aberdeen.  In 
1761  he  became  private  tutor,  and  in  1763  was  or- 
dained by  bishop  Gerard.  He  was  settled  at  Ellon, 
and  in  1775  was  preacher  in  a  chapel  at  Aberdeen.  In 
1782  he  was  consecrated  coadjutor  to  bishop  Kilgour, 
of  that  see,  and  in  1784,  on  the  elevation  of  Kilgour  to 
the  primacy  of  Scotland,  Dr.  Skinner  was  invested  with 
the  full  honors  of  the  episcopate.  In  1788  he  succeeded 
as  primus  pneses  of  the  Episcopal  College.  He  died  at 
Aberdeen,  July  13,  1816.  Under  the  fostering  hand  of 
this  benevolent  and  untiring  bishop,  the  Scotch  Episco- 
pal Church,  from  obscurity  and  depression,  arose  to  re- 
spectability and  distinction.  It  was  bishop  John  Skinner 
who,  with  two  other  Scottish  bishops,  in  an  upper  cham- 
ber of  a  mean  dwelling-house  in  a  lane  in  Aberdeen, 
consecrated  the  first  bishop  of  the  United  States,  in  1784. 
He  wrote,  A  Course  of  Lectures  for  the  Young  (Aber- 
deen, 179S):— 'An  Ecdesiasiical  History  of  Scotland 
(Lond.  1788, 2  vols.  8vo ;  a  vindication  of  the  Episcopal 
party)  :-^A  Layman's  Account  of  his  Faith  and  Practice 
(Edinburgh,  1801, 12roo) :— iVwii/tre  Truth  and  Order 
Vindicated  (Aberdeen,  1803, 8vo). 

Bishop  Skinner^  elder  son,  John,  ordained  in  1790, 
was  a  minister  at  Forfar,  and  the  author  of  Annals  of 
Scottish  /episcopacy  from  1788  to  1816,  iekh  a  Brirf 
3fe7noir  of  Bishop  Skinner  (Edinburgh,  1818,  8vo). 
See  the  (N.  Y.)  Christian  Journal,  Febraary  and  March, 
1820,  vol.  iv ;  Darling,  Cydop.  Bibl,  s.  v. 

Skinner,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate  of  the 
17th  century,  was  bora  at  Pisford,  Northamptonshire, 
where  his  father  was  a  clergyman.  He  became  a  fel- 
low of  Trinity  College,  Oxford ;  was  rector  at  Lannton, 
Oxfordshire;  bishop  of  Bristol  in  1636,  translated  to 
Oxford  in  1640  and  to  Worcester  in  1668,  and  died  June 
14, 1670.  He  is  said  to  have  been  an  eminent  preach- 
er. See  Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  il, 
607. 

Skinner,  William,  D.D.,  a  bishop  in  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  was  bom  at  Aberdeen  in  1778,  and  died 
there,  April  15,  1857.  He  was  educated  at  Wadham 
College,  Oxford;  was  ordained  priest  in  1802,  when  he 
became  curate  to  his  father  at  St  Andrew's  Church, 
Aberdeen ;  in  1816  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Abe^ 


SLATER 


848 


SMITH 


deen,  and  in  1841  elected  primns  of  the  Cbnreh  in 
Scotland.    See  Amer,  Quar,  Church  Reo,  1867,  p. 814. 

fiUater,  Richard,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1728.  He  gradnated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1739,  studied  medicine  and  became 
a  skilful  pnu:titioner;  then  studied  theology,  and  for 
some  time  supplied  one  of  the  pulpita  in  Boston.  He 
was  ordained  pastor  at  Mansfield,  Conn.,  June  27, 1744, 
and  died  there,  April  14, 1789.  See  Sprague,  A  tmals  qf 
the  Amer,  Puljnt,  i,  421. 

Slaughter,  W.  B.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minbter,  was  bom  in  New  York  city  in  1828.  He  was 
converted  early  in  life ;  graduated  from  Grenesee  We»- 
leyan  Seminary,  Lima,  N.  Y.,  and  entered  the  Genesee 
Conference,  in  which  he  served  Palmyra,  Carlton,  and 
Old  Niagara  Street  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  Buf- 
falo ;  then  accepted  a  call  to  the  principalship  of  the 
'Academy  at  Condersport,  Pa.,  and  later  to  that  of  the 
Genesee  Model  School,  Lima,  N.  Y.  Removing  west- 
ward, he  became  pastor  of  Wabash  Avenue  Church, 
Chicago,  111.  He  served  in  one  of  the  Illinois  regi- 
ments as  an  officer  during  the  early  part  of  the  civil 
war.  His  next  field  of  labor  was  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain Conference,  he  being  appointed  one  of  its  two  pre- 
siding elders.  The  rigor  of  the  climate  being  too  severe 
for  his  constitution,  he  was  transferred  to  the  Nebraska 
Conference,  and  stationed  as  pastor  at  Omaha,  then  at 
Lincoln,  and  three  years  later  was  made  presiding  elder 
of  Omaha  District.  He  died  at  Omaha,  July  26, 1879. 
He  published  in  1876  a  work  of  great  ability,  entitled 
Modem  Genesis,  He  was  a  patient  and  thorough  stu- 
dent, an  affectionate  father  and  friend,  and  a  devoted 
and  successful  minister.  See  MimUea  of  Atmual  Con- 
ferenoesj  1879,  p.  101. 

B1b.v6  Version  of  this  Scrii*turks.  The  Slav^ 
is  spoken  by  the  Indians  of  Mackenzie  River,  Canada. 
A  translation  of  the  gospels  into  SIav6  was  made  by 
bishop  Bompas,  and  printed  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  in  1883  in  the  syllabic  character,  the 
proofs  having  been  read  by  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Reeve,  arch- 
deacon of  Chippewy an  Fort.  The  syllabic  character  was 
adopted  because,  as  Mr.  Reeve  says,  *'  the  Roman  char- 
acter is  useful  for  those  who  have  learned  English,  for 
*  whites  *  and  others  desirous  of  teaching  the  Indians, 
but  for  the  Indians  themselves  the  syUabic  edition  is 
the  more  useful."     (a  P.) 

Slovakien  Versioxi.    See  Slavonic  VERSioNa. 

Small'wood,  William  A.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman, was  born  in  Washington,  D.C,  in  1805. 
He  graduated  from  Columbian  College,  Washington; 
studied  law  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  and  theology  at  Alex- 
andria, Ya. ;  was  ordained  in  1829,  and  took  charge 
of  St.  Matthew's  Church,  Bladensburg,  and  of  Zion's 
Church,  Prince  George  County,  Md. ;  in  1886  became 
rector  of  St.  James's  parish,  in  Zanesville,  O.,  where  he 
remained  seventeen  years ;  in  1863  was  pastor  of  Trin- 
ity Church,  Chicago,  111. ;  took  charge,  in  1857,  of  Zion 
and  St.  Paul's  parishes,  in  Frederick  County,  Md. ;  in 
1861  became  rector  of  a  church  in  Cincinnati,  O.,  and  in 
1865  of  Holy  Trinity  parish,  St.  Anthony's  Falls,  Minn., 
where  he  died,  Jan.  2, 1867.  See  Amer,  Quar,  Church 
Rev,  April,  1867,  p.  153. 

Bmedea,  Aldert,  D.D.,  a  ProtesUnt  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  New  York  city,  April  29, 1810. 
He  graduated  from  Transylvania  University  in  1826, 
and  from  the  General  Theological  Seminaxy  in  1832; 
from  1886  to  1839  was  rector  of  St.  George's  Church, 
in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.;  in  1842  opened  8U  Maxy's 
School,  in  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  of  which  he  was  rector  until 
his  death,  April  25, 1877.  See  Prot,  £pitc  Almcmac, 
1878,  p.  170. 

Smith,  Benjamin  Bosworth,  D.D.,  a  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  bishop,  was  bom  at  Bristol,  R.  I.,  June 
18, 1794.  He  graduated  from  Providence  College  (now 
Brown  University)  m  1816,  was  ordained  deacon  April 


27, 1817,  and  presbyter  June  24, 1818.  Alter  having  a 
charge  at  Marblehead  for  two  years,  he  became  rector 
of  St.  George's  Church,  Accomac,  Ya.;  two  years  later 
of  Zion's  Church,  Charlestown,  with  charge  of  Trinity 
Church  in  Shepherdstown;  in  1828  of  SL  Stephen'a 
Church,  Middlebury,  Yt  While  there  he  edited  The 
Episcopal  Register,  In  1828  he  became  rector  of  Grace 
Church  mission,  in  Philadelphia,  and  editor  of  The  Epis- 
copal Recorder,  In  1882  he  was  minister  of  Christ 
Church,  Lexington,  Ky.  On  Oct.  80  of  the  same  year  be 
was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Kentucky, 
from  which  position  he  retired  in  1880,  and  spent  his 
remaining  days  in  New  York  citv,  where  he  died,  June 
1,1884. 

Smith,  David,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Bozrah,  Conn.,  Dec.  18, 1767.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  College  in  1795 ;  commenced  preacbiog 
in  Durham,  Feb.  15,  1799,  and  was  ordained  Aug.  15 
following;  was  dismissed  Jan.  11,  1882,  and  died  at 
Fair  Haven,  March  5,  1862.  When  ninety  yeaia  old 
he  was  able  to  act  as  chaplain  to  the  Cincinnati  Socie- 
ty, in  Boston,  and  preached  at  Washington,  in  Congress 
Hall    See  Chauncy  Memorial,  p.  170.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Smith,  Sd'v^ard  Dunlap,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Greenwich,  N.  J.,  Sept.  17, 1802. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1822,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1826;  was  licensed 
the  same  year;  employed  as  a  home  missionary  in 
Georgia  in  1828  and  1829,  and  served  as  chaplain  of  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1880.  In  1831  he  waa  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Washington.  D.  C,  which  church  he  served  until  1885. 
During  his  pastorate  in  Washington  he  was  chaplain 
of  the  House  of  Representatives.  He  next  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Eighth  Street  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York 
city,  where  he  remained  until  1842,  when  he  accepted 
the  pastorate  of  the  Chelsea  Church,  in  the  same  city, 
and  toiled  there  faithfully  until  his  death,  March  28, 
1888.  Dr.  Smith  was  a  fine  scholar  and  an  able  preach^, 
but  his  excessive  modesty,  amounting  to  timidity, always 
kept  him  in  the  background.  See  NeeroL  Report  of 
Princeton  Theol,  Sem,  1888,  p.  75.    (W.  P.  &) 

Smith,  Gheorge  (l),  D.D.,  an  English  Wesleyan 
author,  was  bora  about  1800,  of  humble  parentage.  He 
was  educated  in  a  Lancasterian  school,  and  although 
engaged  in  secular  business,  acquired  a  large  fund  of 
information,  which  he  used  in  the  preparation  of  sev- 
eral historico- religious  works,  especially  a  series  en- 
titled Sacred  ArmalSf  which  were  reprinted  in  New 
York.    He  died  at  Camboroe,  Cornwall,  Aug.  80, 1868L 

Smith,  George  (2),  D.D.,  an  Englnh  Congrega- 
tional divine,  was  bom  at  Poplar,  near  London,  July  31, 
1803.  After  a  course  of  theological  instraction,  he  wss 
sent  out  to  preach  under  the  direction  of  the  **Tent 
Mission,"  and  in  1827  was  ordained  pastor  of  Hanover 
Chapel,  Liverpool.  In  1884  he  was  settled  over  the 
New  Taberaacle,  Plymouth,  and  in  1842  removed  to 
London  as  pastor  of  Trinity  Chapel,  where  for  twenty- 
eight  years  he  preached  with  great  acceptance.  He 
died  Feb.  19, 1870.  Many  large  schools,  both  Sunday 
and  day,  were  built,  and  still  remain  a  monument  of  his 
labors.  Pr.  Smith  was  elected  secretary  of  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society.  He  was  also  a  director  of  the  London 
Mi^ionaiy  Society,  and  secretary  of  the  Irish  Evangel- 
ical Society  and  Congregational  Union.  His  published 
works  are,  ThePeniateuch: — Prayers /or  Domestic  Use: 
— The  Origin  of  Lomguage  : — The  SpirHual  Life,  See 
(Lond.)  Cong,  Year-hook,  1871,  p.  846. 

Smith,  George  (8),  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Chtuch 
of  England,  was  bora  in  1815,  and  graduated  from 
Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford.  When  China  was  opened  to 
the  residence  of  Christian  missionaries^  Ifr.  Smith  of^ 
fered  himself  for  service  there,  and  was  aoeepted.  Alter 
spending  several  yean  in  the  work  of  a  missiottaiy, 
a  bishopric  was  founded  In  China,  to  which  be  was 
elected.    For  sixteen  yeais  bishop  Smith  diaehai;g«d 


SMITH 


849 


SMITH 


the  dattes  of  the  episoopete  in  the  British  eolony  of 
HoDg-Koog,  among  the  British  cfaspUinsi  aod  in  the 
missionary  fields  occupied  by  the  Chaich  Missionary 
Society  in  that  vast  conntry.  As  a  preacher  he  ex- 
ercised a  wide  influence  for  good,  as  a  hishop  he  ruled 
wisely,  and  as  prindpsl  of  St.  Paul*s  College,  Hong- 
Kong,  he  directed  the  education  of  many  intelligent 
Chinese  youths,  who  afkerwards  became  influential 
members  of  the  natire  community,  not  a  few  of  them 
professing  Christianity.  The  bishop  twice  returned  to 
England  to  recruit  his  health,  passing  on  one  occasion 
through  India,  and  on  another  by  Japan  and  San  Fran- 
cisco through  North  America.  Of  his  visit  to  Japan 
he  publiriied  a  very  interesting  JoumaL  He  died  Dec. 
li,  1871.    See  (Loud.)  ChritUan  Obterver,  Feb.  1872. 

Smith,  George  (4),  an  eminent  English  Assyriol- 
ogist,  was  bom  about  1840.  Originally  a  bank-note 
engraver,  he  began,  in  1857,  the  study  of  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  ai^  after  publishing  several  interesting 
discourses  in  a  German  periodical,  was  called  in  1867 
to  a  position  in  the  British  Museum,  where  he  rendered 
important  aid  to  Bawlinson  in  the  preparation  of  vol- 
ume three  of  his  Cuneiform  /n$cripiioiu  of  Westem 
Asia,  He  made  two  visits  to  the  ruins  in  Assyria,  one 
in  1872,  and  another  in  1876,  and  during  the  latter  died 
at  Aleppo,  Aug.  19  of  that  year.  Among  his  other  con- 
tributions to  antiquarian  science  are  ChaSdaan  AcooufU 
of  Genetis  (1876),  and  many  papers  it  the  Journal  of 
the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology. 

Smith,  George  Charles,  an  English  Baptist, 
known  for  more  than  half  a  century  sll  over  England 
as  *'  Boatswain  Smith,**  was  bom  in  London  in  1782, 
brought  up  religiously  by  a  pious  mother,  and  went  to 
sea  while  a.  boy.  He  was  forcibly  impressed  into  the 
king's  service  in  the  last  century,  and  transferred  into 
various  ships  of  war,  visiting  most  of  the  seaports  of 
'Europe.  He  fought  in  the  battle  of  Camperdown,  the 
battle  of  Copenhagen,  aod  was  engsged  in  the  mutiny 
at  the  Nore.  The  dreadful  scenes  of  immorality  he 
witnessed  on  board  ship  and  in  seaports  impelled  him 
after  his  conversion  to  devote  his  Ufe  as  a  missionary 
to  sailors  and  soldiers;  and  with  a  constancy,  a  per- 
sistency, and  a  self-denial  quite  heroic,  he  spent  nesrly 
sixty  years  of  his  life  in  that  toilsome  work,  night  and 
day  often,  and  every  day.  In  1804  he  began  his  labors 
at  Plymouth,  in  1807  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  at 
Devonport,  and  in  1809  established  the  first  Sailor's 
Gospel  Ifission  at  Mountbay.  The  work  was  blessed 
by  God  with  the  conversion  of  sailon,  and  he  began  to 
itinerate  to  all  the  British  seaports,  preaching  every- 
where, and  supporting  himself  by  holding  his  hat  for 
gifts  after  he  had  preached.  In  1810  Bev.  Dr.  John 
Bippon  aided  Mr.  Smith  to  establish  a  Sailor's  Mission 
for  London,  at  his  chapel,  Carter  Lane,  by  the  river 
Thames.  He  wrote  and  published  a  dialogue  in  the 
sailor's  dislect,  and  also  the  immensely  popular  story 
of  The  Cabu^-ioy,  Bob.  In  1814  he  joined  the  duke 
of  Wellington's  army  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula  as 
soldiers'  missionary.  In  1817  he  resumed  his  labors 
among  the  sailors,  and  established  the  first  Floating 
Chapel  and  the  Bethel  Union  Society.  He  also  com- 
menced, and  edited  to  the  month  of  his  death,  The 
Soldier's  and  Sailor's  Magazine^  containing  for  over 
forty  years  some  of  the  most  remarkable  experiences 
ever  put  into  print,  but  it  was  so  genuine  and  hon- 
est, though  rough  and  illiterate,  that  it  led  the  way 
fur  the  lords  of  the  admiralty  to  make  many  changes 
and  improvements  in  the  navy  and  in  the  conduct 
of  ships.  He  established  sailoi^s  homes  and  seamen's 
friend  societies;  he  benevolently  took  charge  of  numer- 
ous orphan  children  of  sailors  and  soldiers;  they  trav- 
elled with  him,  he  preached  for  them,  mostly  in  the 
open  air,  daily — and  the  boys  with  their  caps  collected 
what  was  the  means  of  their  support  for  many  years. 
He  died  at  Penzance,  Cornwall,  Jan.  10, 1862, 

Smith,  Genrmie,  D.D.,  an  English  Wealeyan 

XII.— H  H  B 


minister,  was  bom  at  Langley,  Derbyshire,  June  87,. 
1821.  In  his  youth  he  received  a  liberal  educatbn,, 
and  early  began,  as  a  local  preacher,  to  invite  sinners  to 
repentance.  He  was  accepted  ws  a  candidate  for  the 
ministry  in  1^2,  and  spent  three  years  in  study  at 
Didsbnry,  receiving  his  first  appointment  in  1845.  His 
preaching  was  eminently  evangelical,  and  very  attrac- 
tive from  the  beginning  of  his  career.  He  also  had  a 
special  adaptability  to  the  presentation  of  the  various 
benevolent  enterprises  of  the  Churoh.  In  1878  he  wtt 
elected  secretary  of  the  conference,  and  two  years  later 
its  president.  In  1874  he  was  appointed  British  repre- 
sentative to  the  first  General  Conference  of  the  Meth- 
odist Church  in  Canada;  and  in  1877  to  the  Australa- 
sian Conference,  with  instructions  to  visit  the  districts 
in  Polynesia  formerly  under  the  care  of  the  Wesleysn 
Missionary  Society.  For  nearly  twelve  years  he  was 
secretary  of  the  Metropolitan  Chapel  Building  Fund ; 
and  in  1880  became  treasurer  of  the  Auxiliary  Fund. 
He  died  April  22,  1882.  See  Minuits  of  the  British 
Conference,  1882,  p.  26. 

Smith,  Henry  AngnstOB,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Palatine,  Montgomery  Co.,  N.  Y., 
May  28, 1828.  He  graduated  from  Williams  College  in 
1858  and  from  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  1866;  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  South  Street  Church,  Philadelphis, 
in  1868 ;  resigned  this  charge  in  1864  to  become  pastor 
of  the  Northminster  Church,  West  Philadelphia,  where 
he  continued  eighteen  years,  until  ill-health  compelled 
him  to  relinquish  his  work.  He  died  there,  March  7, 
1888.  Dr.  Smith  was  an  able,  scholarly,  eloquent  divine, 
and  his  labors  were  attended  with  success.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Bmith,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Glasgow,  Scotland.  He  became  a  deist  from 
reading  the  works  of  Yolney  and  Paine,  came  to  Amer- 
ica, settled  in  Tennessee,  and  edited  a  paper  in  Nash- 
ville. Soon,  however,  he  was  converted,  and  began  to 
preach.  In  the  winter  of  1839,  while  upOn  a  visit  to 
Columba%  Miss.,  the  home  of  Olmstead,  author  of  the 
work.  The  Bible  its  Own  Refutation^  he  was  challenged 
to  a  public  debate  on  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  and 
achieved  a  great  victor}*.  He  afterwards  compiled  his 
argument,  and  published  it  in  a  book  entitled  Christian 
Evidences,  Dr.  Smith  was  connected  with  the  Cumber- 
land Presbyterian  Church  in  Kentuckv,  but  was  thor- 
oughly Calvin  istic  in  his  theology.  The  Springfield 
Church,  in  Illinois,  of  which  he  became  pastor,  April  II, 
1849,  prospered  under  his  ministry.  He  was  dismissed 
Dec.  17, 1866 ;  acted  for  two  or  three  years  as  agent  for 
Peoria  University,  and,  on  Mr.  Lincoln's  accession  to  this 
presidency,  was  appointed  consul  to  Glasgow.  There 
he  spent  the  closing  years  of  his  life,  and  died  at  Dun- 
dee, but  the  date  does  not  appear.  See  Jlist,  of  the 
Pretbyterian  Church  in  Illinois^  p.  898. 

Smith,  J.  Brinton,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector  at  Kingsessing,  Pa.,  several  years 
preceding  1866.  In  1869  he  bMame  rector  at  Troy,  N.  Y., 
wheqce  he  removed  to  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  as  rector  of 
St. Matthew's  Church;  in  1866  removed  to  New  York 
city ;  in  1867  was  elected  principal  of  St.  Augustine 
Normal  School  and  Collegiate  Institute,  at  Baleigh, 
N.  C,  and  held  this  position  until  his  sudden  death, 
Oct  1, 1872.     See  Prot.  Episc,  A  tmanac,  1873,  p.  184. 

Smith,  John,  an  English  Wesleyan  minister,  styled 
"  the  revivalist,"  was  bom  at  Cudworth,  near  Bsmsley, 
Yorkshire,  Jan.  12, 1794.  Although  trained  religiously, 
he  became  profane,  a  gambler,  and  a  pugilist.  He  was 
converted  in  1812,  and  entered  an  academy  at  Leeds, 
where  he  enjoyed  the  instraction  of  David  Stoner.  He 
wss  received  into  the  ministry  in  1816,  and  labored  on 
the  York,  Barnard  Castle,  Brighton,  Windsor,  Frome, 
Nottingham,  Preston,  Lincoln,  and  Shefileld  Circuits. 
Like  WiUiam  Carvosso  and  Bramwell,  he  was  a  man 
of  intense  zeal  and  mighty  faith.  On  his  circuits  the 
whole  vicinity  wss  stirred,  the  worst  men  were  smitten, 
and  hundreds  were  added  to  the  Church.    His  chapeU 


SMITH  Bi 

wan  ciowdtd,  ud  bii  pnyei-DiMdngs  wen  Uke  tbe 
d^  of  PenlccMt  Bnt  hU  woik  wars  him  out,  ud  id 
Staeffleld,  fau  luc  drcuit,  he  died  in  bis  prime,  Nov.  S, 
1S8I.  SaeJntbtj.MoKiirMO/lieB,  John  SmM  (load. 
1882,  ISmo;  2d  ed.  with  iotcodaction  by  Dr.  IHxaD); 
Steveni,  BtA  of  MeOmdin,  iii,  S8&  iq.,  468 ;  SmUh, 
EitLof  Waited  Maioii*m,va.^\f»,\l^\  MitMt* 
i/  &t  Bntiih  Cimfereux,  1632  -,  WeM,  Slutdui  of  Wt*- 
Ityca  Prtacktri,  p.  BS  >q. 

ft'"*t'',  John  Cotton,  D.D^  an  emiiieDt  Protn- 
twit  Episcopil  clergjnuaii,  hid  of  Dr.  Tboniu  H.,  eT 
KeD7oi)  College,  grandion  of  Dr.  Leonard  Wood,  and  a 
deaceudant  of  Cotton  Mather,  wai  bom  at  Andover, 
Man.,  Aog.  4, 1S26.  He  itudied  at  Phillipa  AaAaay, 
graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1847,  and  from  the 
Tbeologica]  SeiDiniry  at  Gambier,  0.;  vai  ordilDed 
deacon  in  1849,  presbytei  in  ISfiO,  and  tbe  latter  ;ear 
became  rector  of  St.  John's  Church,  Bangor,  He. ;  in 
18C6  waa  uustant  miniater  at  Trinity  Church,  BoUon, 
Haaiq  and  in  18G0  rector  of  the  Chuich  of  the  Aacen- 
aion.  New  York  city,  where  he  died,  Jan.  9, 1882.  Dr. 
Smith  waa  a  man  of  great  literary  acquinraenta,  and 
of  broad  and  liberal  ideaa  in  religion,  without,  bowerer, 
DTerttepping  tbe  pale  of  tbe  onhodoiy  of  the  creed  to 
which  he  belonged.  He  waa  remarkable  not  only  for 
bia  pnlpit  eloqaence,  bat  aa  an  aftet-dinner  apeaker. 
He  waa  a  prominent  member  of  the  Unirenity  Clnb, 
•nd  of  other  aocial  and  religioua  aaaodationa  of  tbe  day. 
The  Aeoenaioa  Chnrcb  Huoon  wu  one  of  bia  nobleat 
charitable  coneeptiona,  to  elevate  the  teDement-honH 
population,  and  hai  biwn  very  •neceadoL  He  waa  tbe 
author  of  a  number  of  worka  upon  theological  and  aodal 
a&LiJecti,  among  which  are.  The  Charitf  of  Tntk:— 
Tl»  LitMrgf  at  a  Batit  of*Uitiim:—Tht  CkunA't  Lme 
of  DardopmeM  i—The  (htford  Euagt  and  Renats . 
m  Homenc  Agt:—Tke  Principlt  <if  Palriotiaii 
Th*  Umtai  8UUa  a  Kalim  :—EciAnim  and  a  Ptrtonal 
Cnalor.  He  waa  alao  the  editor  of  Clutrch  and  Slalt, 
an  Epiacopal  joomal  of  high  Kanding.  Uii  pabliabed 
worka  have  aU  been  collected  in  two  volnmea. 

Bmith,  Thomas  Mfttber,  D.D.,  a  Proteatant 
Epiacopal  ckrg}-man,  waa  bom  at  Stamford,  Conn., 
1797.  He  waa  a  son  of  Rer.  Daniel  Smith,  who, 
filly  years,  waa  paetor  of  the  Congregational  Chuich 
Stamford,  and  a  deacendaat  of  the  Cottoni  and  Hathera 
of  Puritan  fame.  Thomai  graduated  from  Yale  College 
in  1816,  spent  the  following  year  in  atudy  with  hii 
uncle,  John  Cotton  Smith,  governor  of  Connecticut, 
and  graduated  fnim  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1820.  In  1823  ha  was  ordained  minister  of  tbe  Con- 
gregational Church  at  Portland,  Me.,  bnt,  hia  health 
failing,  he  nmoved  to  Fall  River,  Maaa.;  waa  next 
pastor  at  Catakili,  "S.  Y.,  and  aubsequenUv  at  Xew  Bed- 
ford, Mass.  During  this  period  hia  views  of  ths  minis- 
try underwent  a  change,  and  he  waa  ordained  la  the 
Protestant  Epiacopal  Church.  Soon  after  be  was  ap- 
pcMnted  to  the  Uilnorprofesmrsbip  of  systematic  divin- 
ity in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Gambier,  O.  He 
combined  with  the  duties  of  his  profeasorship  the  pres- 
idency of  Kenyoo  CoU^  during  four  years.  In  186S 
he  reaigned  his  pTofesBorahip  at  Qambier,  receiving  the 
appointment  of  emeritua  profeaaor.  He  died  at  Port- 
land, He.,  Sept.  6, 1864.  Set  A  mer.  Quar.  Ckurck  Ren. 
Oct.  1864,  p.  484. 

Smyth,  AsTHUH,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  dean 
of  Derry,  and  in  March,  1762,  waa  promoted  to  the 
united  bishopiica  of  Clonfert  and  Kilmacdusgb.  In 
176S  be  waa  translated  to  the  aeea  of  Down  and  Connor, 
and  in  October,  1765,  to  that  of  Meatb.  On  April  4, 
1766,  be  was  promoted  la  the  archbishopric  of  Dublin, 
He  died  at  8L  Sepulchre,  Dec.  14, 1771.  Bishop  Smytb 
amaned  property  to  the  amount  of  £60,000,  of  which 
he  bequeathed  £1000  to  augment  the  funds  of  Swill's 
Hoapltal,  £200  to  the  poor  of  St.  Scpalcbre'a,  and  £A0 
la  tboie  at  tbe  pariab  of  Tullagh.  See  D' Alton,  Mt- 
meinoftktArMith)ptofDubliK,p.aa. 


Idola  of  the  Sodely  lalandi; 


tiaoB  ot  the  pagoo  deities  otiginally  fomid  on  Ibcaa 
ialands.  They  are  of  stone,  and  sometimel  aepantc^ 
aomctimea  grouped,  and  represent  gods  or  deiBed  prtH 
genitota. 

Sola,  Abkabah  de.    See  De  Sola. 

SoUtailiU,  pHiup,  a  Greek  monk,  who  lived  in 
tbe  latter  pan  of  the  llth  century,  in  ConetantiDoplc, 
ia  the  author  of  a  myatico-atcctitnl  work,  wiiuen  in 
tbe  form  of  a  dialogue,  and  entitled  iioTTpa,  The  Mir- 
Tvr,  It  is  a  representation  of  the  aacelic  views  of  tbe 
Greek  myaticism  of  the  time.  The  work  found  favor, 
waa  commentated  by  Michael  Psellu^  and  translated 
into  l4tin  proae  by  the  Jcanit  Jacob  Pontanos  (Ingol- 
atadt,  leot).  The  Utin  translation  was  republished 
in  the  BiUialL  Fair.  Coloit.  tom.  xii,  and  in  the  £iUiolk. 
Painim  Max,  Lsgdun.  tom.  xiL  The  Latin  tntoala- 
tion,  however,  ia,  according  to  Lambed ua,  very  defidenL 
Of  the  Greek  text  only  a  few  fragmenta  have  been 
printed  by  Oudin,l^mbedua,andCot«leriuB.  SeeCavc, 
De  ScripUir.  Ecdii.  p.  638;  PtituHerzog,  Btal-Emi^ 
ifop.a.v.    (D.P.) 

SomaJ.    See  Bbabka-Soxaj. 

Sommara,  Chaklu  Q.,  DJ>.,  a  Baptist  clergTmaa 
and  author,  waa  bom  in  LoDdm  in  1788.  His  paccnia 
removed  to  America  in  1803,  and  in  his  early  manhood 
he  was  cmpkiyad  aa  tbe  confldential  clerk  and  travel- 
ling agent  of  John  Jacob  Astor.  Having  prepared 
himself  for  the  aaered  office,  he  oammenceil  bia  Jabota 
aa  preacher  at  the  old  almshouas  in  City  Hall  Park, 
New  York  dly.  His  first  n^lar  settlement  waa  with 
the  Fiiat  Baptist  Church  of  Tioy,  where  be  remumd 
asveral  yean,  and  in  ISSS  received  an  invitation  to  b«- 
eome  the  pastor  of  tbe  South  Baptiat  Church,  New 
Yorkci^.  In  1856  he  retired  to  private  life.  He  died 
in  New  York,  Dec.  19, 1S6B.  Dr.SomnMrs,at  dilferau 
periods  of  his  life,  was  called  to  fill  prominent  prtitinna 
in  sevenl  rtligious  organixations.     (J.  C  S.) 

Somitag,  Kahl  Uottlob,  a  Lutheran  theologiaa 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Aug.  31, 1768.  He  studied  at 
Leipnc,  waa  in  1787  rector  at  the  cathtdnl-acbool  at 
Riga,  in  1791  first  pastor  there,  and  in  1799  aMcaeor  irf 
the  livese  cooaistoiy.  In  1808  be  waa  general  super- 
intendent and  president  of  tbe  superior  conaiabMy,  and 
died  July  17, 1827.  He  published,  i)us.  A  Jm  Sim- 
dde,  EccUtiajlico  noit  Libra,  ttd  Libri  FarapiK  (Kiga, 
1793),  beudea  a  number  of  aacetieal,  liturgical,  and  hom- 
iletical  worka.  Stt  DGiing,  Die  geUArUa  KaiaelrabKr. 
p.  457-462;  Winer,  ffmd&uA  der  lUol  Lit.  i,  936 ;  ii, 
93, 164, 167, 178, 177,  396,  828,  S70.     (E  P.) 

Sorsk.  The  village  by  thia  name  mentioned  in 
the  OnomaMiceH  ia  probably  tepreaenled  by  the  preaent 
ruined  nta  Kkiirbtl  Surtk.  lying  one  and  a  half  mOta 
north  of  Wady  Surar,  and  Uie  same  dislaime  west  of 
Surah  (Zorah).    It  cootains  "  tracea  of  a  mined  rit- 


SORTS 


861 


SPECTACULAR  VffiW 


lege,  springi,  with  a  rock-eat  win^-pran  and  care  to 
the  west,  aod  a  aaered  tree  **  (Memoin  to  the  Oidnaace 
Sonrey,  iii,  126). 

ek>ilii,  Matthew,  D.D^  a  Methodist  Eplsoopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  7, 1801,  of  Ro- 
man Catholic  parents.  His  father  died  when  Matthew 
was  about  nine  years  of  age,  and  the  latter  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  paper-maker,  whose  family,  though  Protestants, 
were  bitter  enemies  of  the  Methodists.  He  procured  a 
New  Test.,  read  it  secretly,  and  began  its  memoriiation. 
He  joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1817 ; 
received  license  to  preach  in  his  early  manhood;  and 
in  1828  entered  the  Philadelphia  Coitference.  He  la- 
bored on  Dauphin  Circuit  in  that  year;  in  Somerset, 
Md.,  in  1824;  on  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  in  1826 
and  1826;  tiavelled  Snow  Hia  Circuit  in  1827;  Salis- 
bury Circuit  and  Aocomac,  Ya.,  in  1829  and  1830;  be- 
came disooursged,  and  located  in  1881  at  Drummond- 
town ;  started  with  his  wife  for  the  far  West  in  1882, 
but  was  overtaken  and  induced  to  return  as  senior 
preacher  on  Snow  Hill  Circuit,  where,  early  in  1833, 
he  was  blessed  with  a  great  revivaL  That  year  he 
re-entered  the  effective  ranks  of  the  Philadelphia  Con- 
ference, and  was  made  presiding  elder  of  the  Chesa- 
peake District.  In  1886  he  was  stationed  at  Asbuiy, 
WUmington,  Del,  then  at  Union  Church,  Philadelphia, 
Pa. ;  in  1889  at  Ebenezer  Church,  same  city ;  a  failure  of 
his  nervous  system  rendering  his  supemumeration  nece8> 
sary,  he  tried  book-publishing  at  Philadelphia  between 
1842  and  1848;  then  moved  West,  within  the  bounds 
of  the  Rock  River  Conference,  and  practiced  medicine ; 
removed  to  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  in  1852,  and  to  Red  Wing 
in  1853,  where  he  took  charge  of  the  mission.  His 
health  being  somewhat  restored,  he  was  transferred  to 
the  Missouri  and  Arkansas  Conference  in  1865,  and  ap- 
pointed presiding  elder  of  Sl  Louis  District;  in  1869 
of  Kansas  City  District ;  in  1873  and  1874  was  stationed 
at  Austin,  Mo.;  in  1875  at  Rolla;  in  1876,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Philadelphia  Conference,  he  was  retrans- 
ferred  to  its  active  ranks,  and  statbned  at  Marcus  Hook, 
Pa. ;  in  1877  was  appointed  to  Bustleton ;  and  in  1878 
to  Oxford,  Chester,  Co.,  where  he  closed  his  active  la- 
bors, took  a  superannuated  relation,  and  spent  the  re- 
miunder  of  his  days  travelling  in  the  far  West.  He 
died  suddenly,  in  Pueblo^  CoL,  Aug.  11, 1879.  By  his 
own  energies  and  perseverance.  Dr.  Sorin  became  an 
able  scholar  in  history,  general  literature,  and  theolog}'. 
He  was  an  intellectual  and  physical  giant,  one  of  the 
most  powerful  preachers  of  his  day.  See  Minutes  of 
Annual  Conferenoet,  1880,  p.  27;  Simpsoni  Cydop,  of 
Methoditm^  s.v. 

8oiioh6,PiKBRE,a  Protestant  theologian  of  France, 
was  bom  in  1804.  After  having  finished  his  studies  at 
Montauban  and  Strasbnrg  in  1827,  he  assisted  the  Rev. 
Gibaud.  at  Rouill^,  Yienne.  In  1829  Souche  was  elect- 
ed pastor  of  the  Church  at  Rouillt^,  and  retired  from  the 
ministry  in  1871.  In  acknowledgment  of  the  great 
services  which  he  rendered  to  the  Church,  he  was  made 
honorary  preddent  of  the  consistory,  and  died  Jan.  25, 
1878,  highly  respected  and  honored  by  both  Protestants 
and  Roman  Catholics.  See  Lichtenberger,  Encyclop, 
det  Science*  Rdigiaue*^  su  v.     (B.  P.) 

Spaokman,  Henrt  S^  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  assistant  minister  of  the  Church  at 
Francisville,  Pa.,  in  1858,  served  in  the  same  relation 
to  Sl  Clement's  Church,  Philadelphia,  in  the  following 
year,  and  afterwards  as  its  rector  until  1864,  when  he 
was  appointed  chaplain  in  the  United  States  Hospital, 
Chestnut  Hill,  same  city.  In  1866  he  became  rector  of 
Trinity  Church,  Wiiliamsport,  and  continued  in  this 
pastorate  until  1868,  when  he  was  elected  chaplain  of 
the  Episcopal  Hospital,  Philadelphia.  This  situation 
he  retained  until  his  death,  Feb.  9, 1875,  aged  sixty- 
four  years.     See  Proi.  Epitc,  A  Imanac,  1876,  p.  149. 

Spalding;  BCabtin  Johs,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Roman 
Catholic  prelate  and  author,  was  bora  near  Lebanon, 


Ky.,  May  28, 1810,  being  descended  from  the  Catholic 
settlers  of  MaryUnd.  He  graduated  from  St.  Mary's 
Seminary,  Ifarion  County,  in  1826,  and  in  theology  from 
St  Joseph's  Seminary,  Bardstown,  after  four  3rears'  study. 
In  1880  be  went  to  Rome,  and  after  four  years  in  the 
Urt)an  College  of  the  Propaganda,  publicly  defended, 
for  seven  hours,  in  Latin,  two  hundred  and  fifty -six 
propoaitiotts  in  theology,  was  rewarded  with  the  doctor's 
diploma,  and  ordained  priest  by  cardinal  Pediana.  He 
was  now  made  pastor  of  St.  Joseph's  Church,  Bards- 
town, afterwards  president  of  St.  Joseph's  College,  and 
again  pastor  of  St.  Joseph's.  In  1843  he  was  called  to 
the  cathedral  of  Louisville,  where  he  served  five  years. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  sealous  missionaries  of  his 
time  in  Kentucky.  In  1848  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Lengone  inpartihui^  and  coadjutor  to  bishop  Flaget^ 
of  Louisville.  In  1864,  on  the  death  of  archbishop 
Kenrick  of  Baltimore,  Dr.  Spalding  was  installed  sev- 
enth archbishop  of  Baltimore.  He  labored  assiduously 
in  his  office.  New  churches  were  erected,  schools 
founded,  and  noble  charities  endowed.  He  convened 
the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  over  which 
he  presided.  He  attended  the  CEcumenical  Council  of 
the  Yatican  at  Rome  in  1869  and  1870,  where  he  was 
distinguished  by  bis  labors  and  zeal.  With  the  other 
American  bishops,  he  favored  the  dogma  of  pap^  in- 
fallibility as  there  defined.  His  last  years  were  as  liu 
borious  as  his  early  priesthood.  <*  His  amiability,  sim- 
plicity of  character,  love  of  his  people,  and  especially 
of  children,  his  devotion  to  the  faith  and  to  his  duties, 
have  placed  his  name  high  among  the  illustrious  prel- 
ates "of  the  American  Roman  episcopacy.  He  died  in 
Baltimore,  Feb.  7,  1872.  Dr.  Spalding  was  a  distin- 
guished controversialist  and  literary  reviewer.  He 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  United  States  CaihoUc 
Magazine.  His  principal  works  were,  Sketches  of  the 
Early  CathoUe  Missions  of  Kentucky  {iUi):^nist, 
of  the  Proi,  Reformation  in  Europe  (Louisville,  1860, 
2  vols.;  4th  ed.  Baltimore,  1866), being  an  enlarged  ed. 
of  his  Review  oflTAubiffne,  Ranke,  etc  (1844),  which 
was  republished  in  London  and  Dublin  (1846) : — Lect' 
ures  on  the  Evidences  of  Catholicity  (1847 ;  4th  ed. 
Baltimore,  1866, 8vo)  :—Life  and  Times  of  Bishop  B,  J, 
Fhget  (Louisville,  1852, 8vo) : — Lectures  and  Essays : 
Miscellanea  (Lond.,  Baltimore,  and  Louisville,  1855; 
4th  ed.  1866, 8vo,  edited,  with  introduction  and  notes, 
by  Abb4  and  Darras)  i^Gen,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Church 
(N.  Y.  1865-66, 4  vols.  8vo).  His  works  are  published 
in  5  vols;  8vo,  by  Murphy,  Baltimore.  See  (N.  T.)  Cath, 
A  Imanac,  1878,'p.  85  i  DeCouroey  and  Shea,  Hist,  of  the 
Cath.  Church  in  the  United  States,  p.  178  sq. ;  Rev.  J.  L. 
Spalding,  Life  of  the  Most  Rev.  M.  J.  Spalding,  D.D. 
(N.  Y.  1878,  8vo). 

Bpangenberg,  Johann,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  father  of  Cyriacus  (q.  v.),  was  bora  March  80, 
1484,  at  Hardegsen,  near  Gotdngen.  He  studied  at 
Erfurt,  joined  the  Lutheran  reformation,  was  in  1521 
archdeacon,  in  1524  first  evangelical  preacher  at  Kord- 
hausen,  in  1546  at  Eisleben,  and  died  June  13,  1550. 
He  published  sermons,  hymns,  and  asoetical  writings. 
See  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  KirchenUedes,  i,  872 
sq.;  Beste,  Kanxelredner,  i,  140;  Plitt-Herzog,  Real- 
Encykiop,s.y.     (a  P.) 

Bparke,  Bowyer  Edward,  S.T.P.,  an  English 
prelate,  was  born  about  1759.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Pem- 
broke College,  Cambridge,  official  visitor  of  Peterbouse, 
St.  John's,  and  Jesus  colleges,  and  visitor  to  the  master 
of  Trinity  College  in  that  university.  In  1809  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Chester,  and  in 
1812  transUted  to  that  of  Ely,  which  he  held  till  his 
death,  April  4, 1836.  See  The  (Lond.)  Christian  Remem- 
branoer,  ICay,  1836,  p.  314. 

Speotaonlar  View  of  thk  Atonement  is  an 
expression  fitly  applied  to  that  doctrine  of  the  person 
of  Christ  which  represents  his  crucifixion  as  a  mere 
semblance  of  suffering  intended  to  impress  beholders 


SPENCE 


862 


STAFFORD 


with  bis  martjr-like  tympftthy  in  behalf  of  mankind, 
rather  than  as  a  yeritable  death  for  human  sin.  The 
divine  nature  ia  thns  ao  far  aevered  from  the  djring  vic- 
tim as  to  eliminate  its  Ticarioas  virtne.  The  whole 
scene  becomes  a  human  transaction.  Jesns  is  reduced 
to  the  level  of  a  moral  and  religious  reformer,  who  seals 
his  career  and  attests  his  sincerity  with  his  Mood.  The 
inadequacy  of  this  as  a  satisfaction  to  God*s  law,  and  an 
equivalent  for  man's  punishment,  is  obvious.  It  is  but 
the  old  heresy  of  Docetism  revived  in  a  specious  Unita- 
rian form.  That  the  sacrifice  upon  the  cross  was  de- 
signed to  have  a  powerful  moral  influence  upon  all  who 
should  become  acquainted  with  it  is  certainly  true,  and, 
in  our  opinion,  thb  affords  the  inner  solution  of  the 
profound  question  why  that  mode  of  expiation  was 
adopted ;  but  this  is  a  very  different  position  from  the 
above,  for  it  is  postulated  upon  the  bona-fik  onion  of 
the  two  natures  in  the  atoning  %'ictim.  See  Atoxkmkkt. 

Bpence,  Jaxnea,  D.D.,  an  English  Congregational 
divine,  was  bom  at  Huntley,  Scotland,  April  6, 1811.  He 
graduated  at  King's  College,  Abenleen,  accepted  a  call  to 
the  Congregational  Church,  Oxford,  in  1848  removed  to 
Preston,  and  in  1852  settled  at  Poultry  Chapel,  London. 
In  1865  he  visited  Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land.  In  1868 
Dr.  Spence  was  appointed  to  the  editorship  of  the  Evan- 
pdical  Magazine f  and  the  functions  of  this  office  he  was 
abie  to  discharge  till  his  death,  Feb.  28, 1876.  He  pub- 
lished the  Pattor^s  Prayer  for  the  People'*  Weal:-^ 
Scenes  in  the  L\ft  ofSU  PeUr: — Mariha  Dryland;  or^ 
Strength  in  Quietneat: — Sunday  Morning*  tnth  my  Flock 
on  St.  PauV*  Letter  to  the  Colo**ian* :  —  The  Martyr 
Spirit : — The  Religion  o/ Mankind :  Christianity  A  dapt- 
ed  to  Man  in  all  the  Atpect*  of  hi*  Being.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong.  Year-hook^  1877,  p.  414. 

Spence,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of 
Galloway  in  1451,  and  was  employed  in  several  embas- 
sies, particularly  in  the  treaty  of  marriage  between  the 
duke  of  Savoy  and  Lewis,  count  de  Maurienne,  with 
Arabella,  in  1449.  In  1451  he  was  appointed  by  king 
James  II  one  of  his  ambassadors  to  negotiate  a  truce 
with  England,  and  was  made  keeper  of  the  privy  seal 
in  1458.  In  1459  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Aber- 
deen. He  died  April  15, 1480.  He  erected  a  hospital  at 
Edinburgh.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishop*^  p*  114, 275. 

Spenoor,  Gkorob  Trbvob,  D.D.,  a  miasionary  of 
the  Church  of  England,  was  bom  in  1800.  He  gradu- 
ated at  University  College,  Oxford,  in  1822 ;  the  same 
year  was  nominated  incumbent  of  Buxton,  Derbjrshire, 
but  resigned  this  position  in  1829,  when  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  Leaden  Roding,  near  Chipping 
Ongar.  In  1887  he  was  nominated  as  bishop  of  Madras, 
but  in  1849  returned  to  England.  In  1860  he  became 
rector  of  Walton-in-the- Wolds,  and  the  same  year  chan- 
cellor of  St.  Paul*s  Cathedral  He  died  at  Edgemoor, 
Buxton,  England,  July  18,  1866.  See  Amer,  Quar. 
Church  Rev,  Oct.  1866,V  498. 

Sperbaoh,  Kabl  Gottlieb,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  KSnigsbrUck,  Upper  Lusatia, 
Feb.  26, 1694.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  commenced 
bis  academical  career  there  in  17 1 7.  In  1734  he  accepted 
R  call  to  Wittenberg,  and  died  July  6, 1772.  He  pub- 
lished, Cav*a  Philo*cphia  adver*ut  A  theismi  Calumma 
Defensa  (Leipsic,  1730) : — Diet,  qua  Ver*io  Syriaca  2 
Epi*t,  Johannit  cum  Textu  Grceco  Confertur  (Witten- 
berg, 1785) :  —  Obeervatione*  PhilologictB  in  NonnuUa 
Pentateuchi  Ijoca  (1756) : — Dt  Vario  Acceniuum  Be^ 
IfrcBorum  Officio  (1738) : — De  Genio  Lingua  Uehraica 
(eod.):  —  Academia  Jahhnenn*  aique  ejus  Rectore* 
(1740)  :—De  Judai*  D'^Rlbn  ad  J/os.  xi,  7  (1747) :— /)c 
Voce  Jehovah  (1755).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten  Theo- 
logen  DeiU*chland*,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Spieker,  Johannbs,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  March  26, 1756,  at  Wdfshagen,  in 
Lower  Hesse.  He  studied  at  Marburg,  was  in  1776 
preacher  at  Rauschenberg,  near  Marburg,  in  1800  preach- 


er, at  Hersfeld,  and  in  1818  director  of  the  theological 
seminary  at  Herbom.  Spieker  died  April  18, 1825.  He 
published,  besides  some  catechetical  and  homiletieal 
works,  Ueber  den  Mysticisnuu,  det*en  Begriff,  Unprunff 
und  Werth  (Herbom,  1825).  See  Doring,  Die  deutechem 
KanzelredneTf  p.  472  sq.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lii. 
i,  365, 480 ;  ii,  78, 103, 148.     (a  P.) 

Bpotiffwood,  JoHH,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bom 
in  1565,  became  minister  of  Calder,  in  Mid-Lothian,  in 
1586,  and  in  1602  was  chosen  to  accompany  the  duke 
of  Lennox,  as  hit  grace's  chaplain,  in  his  embassy  .to 
France ;  consecrated  bishop  of  Glaegow  Oct.  21, 1610 ;  in 
1615  translated  to  the  see  of  St.  Andrews,  and  made 
chanoeUor  of  Scotland,  Jan.  14, 1685.  He  was  excom- 
municated by  the  rebellious  Assembly  at  Glasgow,  and 
died  in  London,  Nov.  26, 1689.  See  Keith,  SooUieh 
Bithopt,  p.  41,  268. 

Bprague,  Nathahiel,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bora  in  Cheshire  County,  N.  H.,  Aug. 
20, 1790.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered  Dartmonth 
College,  where  he  remained  only  two  years,  but  contin- 
ued his  studies  privately ;  spent  several  years  as  an  in- 
structor in  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.;  was  profeasor  io 
Royalton  Academy,  Yf*,  and  began  the  study  of  law 
at  that  place.  He  had  belonged  successively  to  the 
Presbyterian  and  Congregational  churches;  having 
Joined  the  Protestant  Episcopal  communion,  he  was 
ordained  deacon  in  1838,  and  shortly  after  became  a 
presbyter,  and  ministered  at  Royalton,  and  afterwaids, 
from  1844,  at  Drewsville,  K.  H.  An  unfortunate  habit 
of  stuttering  was  entirely  overcome  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
six.  He  died  at  Claremont,  X.  H.,  OcL  29, 1858.  See 
Amer.  Quar.  Church  Rev.  1854,  p.  626. 

Bprole,  William  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  March  16, 1809. 
He  studied  privately,  and  spent  a  year  and  a  half 
(1827-28)  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  was 
licensed  in  1829,  ordained  an  evangelist  the  same  year, 
and  became  pastor  of  the  First  General  Reformed  Church 
of  Philadelphia  in  1882 ;  suted  supply  of  the  First  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1887 ;  pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  at  Washington,  D.  C^  in 
1843,  and  for  five  years  acted  as  chaplain  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  In  1847  he  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  chaplain  and  professor  of  ethics  in  the  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point,  but  resigned  in  1856  to  accept 
a  call  to  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  at  Newbnrgh, 
N.  Y.,from  which  he  was  released  in  1872.  In  1874  he 
removed  to  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  became  pastor  of  Wood- 
worth  Avenue  Church,  a  charge  which  he  resigned  in 
1877.  He  died  at  Detroit,  June  9, 18^.  See  \ecroL 
Report  of  Princeton  Theol.  Sem,  1884,  p.  12.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Sptirden,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  London,  England,  May  25, 1812.  In  his  twen- 
ty-fifth year  he  entered  the  Bristol  Baptist  Colle^pe. 
On  May  13, 1841,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Baptist 
Church  at  Hereford,  where  he  continued  until  the  latter 
part  of  1842,  and  then,  in  answer  to  application  from 
the  committee  of  the  Baptist  Education  Society  of  New 
Branswick,  Canada,  was  sent  out  to  take  charge  of  the 
Seminary  at  Fredericton.  In  1867  he  resigned  this 
position.  He  was  one  of  the  examiners  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  New  Branswick  and  of  the  Provincial  Training 
School  until  his  death,  Jan.  13, 1876.  Dr.  Spnrden  was 
a  man  of  literary  attainments,  prudent,  wise,  modest, 
and  a  devoted  Christian.  See  (Canada)  Baptist  Tear-* 
book,  1876,  p.  34;  BUI,  Hitf.  of  Baptist*  in  MarMme 
Provinces  (index). 

Stafford,  John  (1),  archbishop  of  Canterborr, 
was  bora  at  Hook,  near  Beaminster,  England,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  On  Sept.  9, 1419,  he  became  nrch^ 
deacon  of  Salisbury,  of  which  diocese  he  was  chanoeUor 
in  1421.  In  1422  he  became  dean  of  St.  Martin\  in 
London,  and  Sept.  9, 1423,  was  installed  dean  of  Wells. 
As  a  lawyer  Staflbrd  soon  attracted  the  attention  of 
archbishop  Chicheley,  who  appointed  him  bis  vicar- 


STAFFORD 


853 


STANLEY 


general,  and  advanced  htm  to  the  deanship  of  the  Conrt 
cS  Arches.  In  May,  1421,  he  was  keeper  of  the  privy 
aeal,and  was  subsequently  appointed  lord  higb-treasuier 
of  England..  He  was  oonsecrated  bishop  of  Bath  and 
Wells  at  Blackilriars,  London,  May  27, 1426.  As  keeper 
of  the  privy  seal  he  accompanied  Heniy  VI  to  Paris  in 
14dO,  to  receive  the  crown  of  France.  On  his  return  be 
was  appointed  lord  chancellor,  an  office  which  he  held 
eighteen  years.  On  May  13, 1448,  Stafford  was  trans- 
lated to, 'the  see  of  Canterbury.  He  continued  to  hold 
the  great  seal,  and  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  politics 
of  his  party.  He  was  zealous  in  promoting  the  mar- 
riage of  Henry  YI  with  Margaret  of  Anjou,  and  offi- 
ciated at  the  ceremony,  April  22,  1445.  John  Stafford 
died  at  his  manor  of  Maidstone,  May  25, 1452.  See 
Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbuhopa  of  Canterbuty,  v, 
130  sq. 

Btafford,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  Independent 
minister,  was  bom  at  Leicester  in  August,  1728.  He 
was  brought  up  a  wool-comber,  but  devoting  himself 
to  the  ministry,  studied,  first  under  Dr,  Doddridge,  at 
Northampton,  then  in  London,  and  finally  at  Mile  End, 
and  joined  the  church  of  Dr.  Guyse,  in  New  Broad 
Street.  He  was  sent  to  preach  at  Royston  and  St. 
Neots,  but  in  1758  accepted  a  call  as  pastor  in  sneoee- 
sion  to  Dr.  Gujrse,  at  New  Broad  Street,  and  for  nearly 
forty  years  continued  the  pastor  of  that  important 
ehurch.  He  lived  in  a  constantly  prepared  state  for 
death,  even  in  full  health,  and  in  that  spirit  died,  Feb. 
22, 1800.  He  published,  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Sin 
<xnd  Grace  Connderod  in  Twenty-five  Discoursee  (1772), 
which  reached  a  second  edition,  and  a  h'uneral  Sermon 
for  his  daughter  Elizabeth  (1774).  See  Wilson,  Dis- 
tenting  Churches,  ii,  243. 

Btahl,  Friedricii  Julius,  a  famous  Jurist  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Munich,  of  Jewish  parentage,  Jan. 
16,  1802.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  embraced  Chris- 
tianity, and  though  he  was  entitled  at  that  time  to  a 
professorship  at  the  gymnasium,  he  betook  himself  to 
the  study  of  jurispradence,  and  was  in  1829  made  doc- 
tor of  law.  In  1827  Stahl  commenced  his  academical 
career  at  Munich,  was  called  in  1832  to  Erlangen,  and 
in  1840  to  Berlin.  Here  he  gathered  crowded  audiences, 
not  only  of  juridical  students,  but  at  times,  also,  of  edu- 
cated people  in  general,  as,  for  instance,  in  1850,  when 
he  lectured  on  The  Present  Party  Position  in  Church 
and  State  (which  lectures  were  published  after  his 
death,  Berlin,  1868).  He  also  held  the  highest  posi- 
tions in  the  state  government  of  the  Church,  and  took 
a  very  active  part  in  Prussian  politics.  His  brilliant 
parliamentary  talent  soon  made  him  one  of  the  most 
prominent  leaders  of  the  consen'ative  party,  both  in 
politioal  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Democracy  and  free- 
thinking  he  understood,  and  was  not  afraid  of;  but  he 
hated  liberalism  and  rationalism.  The  former  is  rev- 
olution, he  said;  but  the  latter  is  dissolution.  Stahl 
died  Aug.  10,  1861.  In  his  Philosophic  des  JRechts 
(1830-37;  3d  ed.  1854)  he  tried  to  show  that  philoso- 
phy is  not  the  last  end  of  God,  but  that  God  is  the 
last  end  of  philosophy.  He  called  science  to  "  repen- 
tance," and  thus  caused  a  great  stir  both  among  jurists 
and  philosophers.  To  understand  Stahl's  greatness 
and  influence  one  must  study  his  Kirchenterfassung 
nach  Lehre  und  Becht  der  Protestanlen  (2d  ed.  Erlangen, 
1862) :  —.  Ueber  KirchenzudU  (  Berlin,  1845  )\'-Der 
ehristliche  Steutt  und  sein  VerhaUniss  zu  Deismus  und 
Judenthum  (1847)  :—Was  ist  Revolution  f  (1852) :— />er 
Protestantismtu  als  politisches  Princip  (4th  ed.  1853) : 
— Die  katholischen  Widerl^ungen  (1854) : — Ueher  ehrist- 
liche ToUram  (1855)  ^-TFtder  Bunsen  (3d  ed.  1856)  -^ 
Die  lutherische  Kirche  und  die  Union  (1860).  Stahl 
was  very  intimately  connected  with  professor  Heng- 
stenberg,  and,  like  the  latter,  an  able  advocate  of  high 
,  Lutheran  orthodoxy.  See  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Encyldop, 
s.  V. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses^ 
s.  V. ;  Gioen  van  Prinsterer,  Ter  Hagedachtenis  van  StaMi 


I  and  especially  Schwars,  Zw  Gesehiekte  der  neuesten  Th^ 
ologie  (4th  ed.  Leipsic,  1869),  p.  240  sq.     (K  P.) 

Stamp,  William  Wood,  D.D.,  a  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odist divine,  was  bom  at  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  England, 
May  28, 1801,  and  educated  at  Woodhouse  Grove  School. 
He  was  converted  in  early  manhood,  during  his  resi- 
dence in  London  as  a  medical  student,  entered  the  min- 
istry in  1828,  was  governor  of  Richmond  Theological 
Institution  from  1846  to  1848,  chairman  of  important 
districts,  president  of  the  Conference  in  1860,  became 
superaumeraiy  in  1878,  and  died  at  Waterloo,  Liver- 
pool, Jan.  1, 1877.  Dr.  Stamp  had  studied  the  history 
and  polity  of  Methodism  with  thoroughness  and  dis- 
crimination, and  in  its  welfare  he  took  persistent  inter- 
est. During  his  long  tenure  of  office  as  chairman  he 
won  the  confidence,  esteem,  and  admiration  of  ministers 
and  laymen,  by  his  intelligence,  firmness,  and  urbanity. 
During  the  closing  years  of  his  life,  his  experience  and 
judgment  made  his  services  in  settling  questions  of 
discipline  in  much  request.  His  fidelity  as  a  friend 
and  counsellor  was  unfailing.  He  was  the  author  of. 
Memoir  of  Rev,  John  Crosse,  M,A .,  Vicar  ofBradford^ 
Yorkshire  (Lond.  1844,  8vo):  —  Domestic  Worship:  a 
Sermon  (ibid.  1846, 8vo) : — Historical  Notices  of  Wesley- 
an Methodism  in  Bradford  and  Vicinity  (without  date, 
12mo) : — The  Orphan  House  of  Wesley ,  with  Notices  of 
Early  Methodism  in  Newcastle-vpon-Tyne  and  its  Vicin- 
ity (1868, 8vo).  For  some  years,  and  until  the  issue  for 
1878,  he  was  editor  of  the  (Lond.)  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Connectional  Record  and  Year-book.  See  Minutes  of 
the  British  Conference,  1877,  p.  24;  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Connectional  Record  and  Year-book,  1878,  p.  136 ;  Os- 
borne, Wesleyan  Bibliography,  p.  177. 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  Anglican  divine,  son  of  bishop  Edward  Stan- 
ley, and  nephew  of  the  first  baron  Stanley  of  Alderley, 
was  bom  at  Alderley,  Cheshire,  Dec  13,  1815.  At  the 
age  of  fourteen  years  he  entered  the  Rugby  School,  and 
remained  there  five  years.  During  this  time  he  was  a 
favorite  student  and  enjoyed  the  especial  friendship  of 
Dr.  Arnold — a  fact  which  may,  without  doubt,  be  as- 
sumed to  have  had  close  connection  with  the  broadness 
and  liberality  of  his  thought  and  doctrines  as  a  church- 
man. In  1834,  having  won  a  scholarship  in  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  young  Stanley  there  entered  upon  a  career 
that  formed  a  fitting  continuation  of  his  brilliant  student- 
life  at  Rugby.  He  won,  in  1887,  the  Newdigate  prize 
for  his  English  poem.  The  Gypsies,  the  Ireland  scholar- 
ship, gained  the  first  class  in  classics,  and  became  a 
fellow  of  University  College.  Two  years  later  he  re- 
ceived the  Latin  essay  prize,  and  in  1840  the  English 
essay  prize  and  theological  prizes.  After  his  graduation, 
in  1838,  he  became  for  twelve  years  a  tutor  in  University 
College.  On  taking  orders  in  the  Church  of  England 
he  naturally  affiliated  himself  with  the  "  Broad  Church  " 
party,  although  the  opposite  sentiment  prevailed  at  Ox- 
ford. In  1851  and  1852  he  was  secretary  to  the  Uni- 
versity Commission,  and  in  1858  became  regius  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Oxford  and  canon  of 
Christ  Church  College.  In  1872  he  was  a  second  time 
chosen  select  preacher  to  the  University,  and  on  March 
31,  1875,  was  installed  lord  rector  of  the  University 
of  St.  Andrew's.  Earlv  attracting  attention  as  a  pul- 
pit orator,  he  was  made,  in  1854,  chaplain  to  prince 
Albert;  in  1857  to  Dr.Tait,  bishop  of  London,  and  to 
the  queen  and  prince  of  Wales  in  1862.  From  1851 
to  1858  he  was  canon  of  Canterbury  Cathedral.  He 
declined  the  archbishopric .  of  Dublin  in  18C3,  and 
early  in  the  following  year  was  made  dean  of  West- 
minster, a  position  which  he  occupied  until  his  death, 
July  18, 1881.  In  1852  and  1863  he  made  an  exten- 
sive toar  in  the  East,  visiting  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Pal- 
estine, and  gathering  there  material  for  his  work  on 
those  countries.  In  1862  be  again  visited  the  East  in 
company  with  the  prince  of  Wales.  In  1878  he  visited 
America  in  search  of  health  and  rest,  and  was  greeted 


STANLEY 


854 


STEDMAN 


everywhere  not  ODiy  with  the  respect  his  genius  com- 
manded, but  with  warm  personal  friendship.  During 
his  stay  he  addressed  the  students  of  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  New  York,  and  preached  at  Trinity 
and  Grace  churches.  He  also  met  a  number  of  prom- 
inent Baptist  preachers,  and  was  given  receptions  by 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  clergy  and  the  Century  Club. 
After  his  college  poems  and  essays  dean  Stanley's  first 
literary  venture  was  the  biography  of  his  former  master, 
Dr.  Arnold,  in  1846.  In  the  following  year  he  published 
a  volume  of  Sermons  and  Essays  on  (he  Apostolic  Aye. 
He  edited,  in  1851,  a  volume  of  his  father's  addresses 
and  pastoral  charges,  adding  thereto  an  affectionate 
memoir.  A  series  of  his  lectures  delivered  to  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  was  published  in  1854,  and 
was  followed  the  next  year  by  The  Epistles  of  SL  Paul 
to  the  CorvUhians,  toUh  Notes  and  Dissertations: — ^if- 
torical  Memorials  of  Canterbury,  and  a  number  of  ser- 
mons. His  well-known  work  on  Sinai  and  Palestine 
was  issued,  with  some  minor  volumes,  in  1856 : — Lect- 
ures on  the  History  of  the  Eastern  Church  (1861):— 
Lectures  on  the  Jeunsh  Church  (1862-76) '.—^SermoM 
Preached  be/ore  the  Prince  of  Wales  during  his  Tour 
in  the  East,  with  Descriptions  of  Places  Visited  (1868) : 
— Historical  Memorials  of  WestminsUr  Abbey  (1867) : 
^Lectures  on  the  Church  of  Scotland  (1872).  During 
these  years  he  was  the  author,  also,  of  numerous  other 
volumes  of  essays,  sermons,  lectures,  and  disputations. 
He  was  a  voluminous  contributor  to  various  reviews 
and  periodicals,  and  furnished  a  valuable  series  of 
Biblical  biographies  to  Dr.  William  Smith's  Dictionary 
qf  the  Bible,  His  sermon  delivered  at  the  funeral  of 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  in  Westminster  Abbey,  Feb.  27, 1875, 
and  since  published,  was  notable  for  its  hearty  recogni- 
tion of  the  services  of  that  eminent  geologist  in  having, 
as  he  believed,  scientifically  established  the  facts  in  re- 
gard to  the  creation  of  the  earth  and  the  human  race. 
His  latest  literary  work  was  performed  as  a  member  of 
the  association  for  the  revision  of  the  Bible. 

StaxUey,  Jamda,  D.D.,  brother  of  Thomas,  earl 
of  Derby,  a  native  of  Lancashire,  England,  was  preb- 
end of  London  in  1458,  of  York  in  1460,  of  Durham  in 
1479,  archdeacon  of  Richmond  in  1500,  precentor  of  Sal- 
isbury in  1505,  and  preferred  bishop  of  Ely  by  Henry 
VII  in  1506.  He  never  resided  at  his  own  cathedral, 
but  in  the  summer  with  his  brother,  the  earl,  and  in 
the  winter  at  his  manor  at  Somersham,  Huntingdon- 
shire. He  died  March  22, 1515.  See  Fuller,  Worthies 
qf  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  ii,  195. 

Stark,  Christian  Ludwio  Wilhelm,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Grermany,  was  bora  Sept.  28,  1790,  at 
Jena,  where  he  also  pursued  his  theological  studies.  In 
1815  he  commenced  his  academical  career  there,  was  in 
1817  professor,  and  was  drowned  in  the  Saale,  July  1, 
1818.  He  published,  De  Notiane,  quam  Jesus  Verbo  tpya 
Tribuerit  (Jena,  1813): — Paraphrasis  tn  EvangeUi  Jo- 
hatmis  xiii-xvii  ( 1814 )  I'—BeUrUge  zur  VervoUkomm- 
nung  der  Hermeneutik^  insbesondere  der  des  Neuen  TestOr 
ments  (1818).  See  DOring,  Die  gelehien  Theologen 
DeutsMmds,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit.  i, 
107,249,895.    (B.  P.) 

Btaudt,  JoHANMBS  Hbinrich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  who  died  at  Kornthal,  Nov.  11, 1884, 
is  the  author  of,  Predigtsammlungen  ( Stutgard,  1852, 
1853, 1860) : — Fingerzeige  in  den  fnhalt  und  Zusammen- 
hang  der  heiHgen  Sehrijl  (2d  ed.  1859)  i—Erlcl&rung  des 
touriembergischen  Kor^rmationMichleins  (1853).  See 
Zuchold,  Bibl.  TheoL  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Steadxnan,  W.,  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Eardisland  in  1764.  He  was  early  con- 
verted, and  baptized  in  April,  1784.  Three  years  after- 
wards he  preached  his  first  sermon,  and  was  admitted 
Aug.  20, 1788,  into  Bristol  Academy.  He  was  ordained, 
Nov.  2, 1789,  pastor  in  Broughton,  Hampshire ;  in  1804 
he  became  the  assistant  of  Rev.  Isaiah  Birt,  in  Devon- 
port;  in  1806  pastor  of  a  colony  from  that  Church ;  and 


in  1808  removed  to  Horton,  near  Bndfoid,  when  for 
more  than  thirty  years  he  was  president  and  thecdogi- 
cal  tutor  in  the  Baptist  College,  as  well  as  pastor.  He 
died  at  his  residence,  Ashfield  Place,  near  Bmdford* 
AprU  12, 1887.    See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Magaxme,  1887, 

p. 229.  (J. as.) 

Steane,  Edward,  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Oxford,  March  23, 1798.  He  studied 
privately  at  Oxford;  in  1819  entered  the  academy  at 
Bristol;  and  in  1821  went  to  Edinburgh  to  prosecute  his 
studies  stUl  further.  While  at  Oxford  and  Edinburgh 
his  services  were  much  in  demand  as  a  preacher.  In 
1828  he  entered  upon  his  first  and  only  pastorate  at 
Camberwell.  Failing  health  and  the  death  of  his  wife 
induced  his  retirement  from  the  pastoral  office  in  1862. 
He  removed  to  New  House  Park,  near  Rickmansworth, 
where  he  died.  May  8, 1882.  Dr.  Steane  was  active  and 
efficient  in  all  the  denominational  enterprises,  and  instni- 
mental  in  the  organization  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  New  Baptist  Misod" 
lanyf  and  for  some  years  editor  of  Evangdiad  ChriS' 
tendom.  He  published,  besides  numerous  sermons,  a 
volume  entitled  The  Doctrine  of  Christ,  as  Devehped 
by  the  Apostles,  ^Ui.(^iS72).  See  (Lond.)  Bopftst  iJand- 
book,  1883,  p.  276. 

Steams^  Shubaet^  a  noted  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  28, 1706.  He  was  converted 
under  the  preaching  of  Whitefield  about  1740,  and  be- 
came connected  with  the  Separatists  in  1745.  In  1751 
he  embraced  the  views  of  the  Baptists,  was  immersed 
at  Tolland,  Conn.,  and  on  May  20,  was  ordained  for  the 
ministry.  He  labored  in  New  England  for  two  or 
three-  years,  and  then  went  South  and  preached  fur 
some  time,  first  in  the  counties  of  Berkeley  and  Hamp- 
shire, Va.,  and  then  in  Guilford  County,  N.  C^  where 
he  made  his  permanent  settlement.  He  died  Nov.  20, 
1771.  His  character  was  indisputably  ^good  as  a  man, 
as  a  Christian,  and  as  a  preacher.  See  Sprague,  Afuuds 
of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  vi,  60. 

Steck,  Dakiel,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was 
born  near  Hughesville,  Lycoming  Co.,  Pa.,  Nov.  IS, 
1819.  After  pursuing  a  partial  course  in  the  college 
at  Gettysburg,  he  graduated  from  the  theplogical  sem- 
inary;  in  1846  was  licensed;  and  in  1847  began  preach- 
ing in  English  in  the  German  Church  at  Pottsville,  from 
which  grew,  in  about  one  yea^,  an  English  Lutheran 
Church.  In  1858  he  was  called  to  St.  John's  Chnroh,  in 
Lancaster;  and  in  1862  became  pastor  of  the  Main  Street 
Church,  Dayton,  O.,  remaining  a  little  more  than  two 
years.  Subsequently  he  organized  St.  John's  Church, 
and  became  connected  with  the  English  Synod  of  Ohiou 
The  congregation  in  Pottsville  recalled  him  in  1868, 
and  he  8er%'ed  them  the  second  time  nearly  two  yeans. 
From  1870  to  1875  he  preached  in  Middletown,  Md., 
and  then  became  pastor  of  St  James's  Chnroh,  Gettys- 
burg, Pa.  He  died  there,  June  10, 188L  Set  Lutheran 
Observer,  July  1, 1881. 

Stedman,  James  OwEX,D.D.,a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Fayetteville,  N.  C,  Oct.  81, 181 1.  He 
graduated  from  the  University  of  North  Carolina  in 
1832,  and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1836. 
He  was  licensed  the  same  year,  and  became  stated  sup- 
ply of  the  First  Church  of  Baltimore,  Md.  After  thte 
he  labored  as  a  missionary  in  Waynesboro,  N.  C,  for  a 
time,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in  Tns- 
cumbia,  Ala.,  in  1837.  In  1845  he  became  stated  sup- 
ply of  the  church  in  Wilmington,  N.  C,  but  in  1851,  his 
wife's  health  failing,  he  removed  to  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
During  1852  and  1858  he  supplied  the  First  Church 
of  Chester.  He  was  next  called  to  the  First  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Memphis,  Tenn.,in  1854;  and  in  1868 
organized  the  Alabama  Street  Church,  in  the  aame 
city,  which  he  served  until  1880,  when  failing  health 
obliged  him  to  retire  from  active  work.  He  died  id 
Memphis,  April  28, 1 882.  See  NecroL  Report  of 
ton  Theol,  Sem.  1888,  p.  88. 


STEELE 


855 


STEM 


Steele,  John  Lawrence^  D.D.,  a  ProtetUnt 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  rendiogi  in  1972,  in  Ottawa, 
DL,  where  be  became  the  rector  of  Christ  Church.  In 
1874  he  removed  to  Key  West,  Fla^  as  rector  of  St. 
Paul's  Church,  and  continued  there  until  his  death,  Oct 
18,  1878,  at  the  age  of  thirty. six  years.  See  Prot, 
EpUc,  Almanac^  1879,  p.  170. 

Steele,  William,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian  clergy- 
man, was  bom  and  educated  in  Scotland,  and  began  his 
ministry  at  Dyserf,  in  Ayrshire,  where  he  preached  for 
some  years.  He  came  to  London  in  1751,  and  became 
pastor  at  Founder's  Hall.  His  health  soon  gave  way, 
and  he  died  before  he  had  been  a  year  in  the  metropo- 
lis, yet  he  was  so  much  esteemed  that  the  Church  col- 
lected two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  for  the  benefit  of 
his  wife  and  children.  See  Wilson,  DitHxdmg  Churches, 
ii,497. 

Steere,  Edward,  LL.D.,  an  English  missionary 
prelate,  was  bom  in  London  in  1828.  He  graduated 
from  the  university  of  that  city  in  1847 ;  was  curate  of 
KingskersweU,  Devonshire,  from  1856  to  1858;  next  of 
Skegness,  Lincolnshire;  chaplain  to  bishop  Tozer,  in 
Central  Africa,  from  1862  to  1868 ;  resigned  his  rector- 
ship at  Little  Stepping,  linoolnshire,  in  1872;  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Central  Africa  at  Westminster  Abbey 
in  1874,  and  died  at  Zanzibar,  Aug.  28, 1888.  Besides 
being  lawyer,  preacher,  and  metaphysician,  he  wss 
printer,  master  carpenter,  and  physician.  He  was  the 
author  of  A  Sketch  of  PertecuHom  under  the  Roman 
Emperors,  and  prepared  an  edition  of  Bishop  Butler's 
Works,  A  History  of  the  Bible  and  Prayer-book,  and 
hymns  and  stories  in  the  Shambella  and  Swabili  lan- 
guages. 

Steflfens,  Heinrich,  a  German  philosopher,  was 
bom  at  Stavanger,  Norway,  May  2, 1778.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  natural  sdenoes  at  Breslan  and  Berlin,  but  in 
1881  he  renounced  his  pantheistic  errors,  and  published 
Wie  ich  wieder  Lutheraner  tourde,  und  was  mir  das 
Lutherthum  ist.  In  the  same 'year  he  published  IHe 
falsche  Theologie  und  der  wethre,  Glaube,  which  was 
directed  sgainst  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed churches,  as  inaugurated  by  king  Frederick 
William  III  of  Prussia.  StefFens's  main  work  is  Christ^ 
liehe  Religionsphiiosophie  (Breslau,  1839,  2  vols.).  He 
died  in  1845.  See  Lichtonberger,  Encydop,  des  Sci- 
ences ReUgieuses,  s.  v. ;  ^teifens,  Was  ich  erlebie  (Bres- 
lan, 1840, 10  vols.). 

Steld,  Skpulchral.  These  monumental  slabs  were 
generally  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  principal  chamber 
of  the  tombs  of  the  old  dynasties  of  Egypt.  They  are 
square,  and  often  of  colossal  proportions,  with  large 
hieroglyphics,  sometimes  in  bss-relief,  and  spaced  out. 
The  representations  are  the  facade  of  a  building  or 
tomb.  At  the  time  of  the  sixth  dynasty  they  still  have 
a  degree  of  archaism.  From  the  earliest  period  till  the 
twelfth  dynasty  these  tablets  are  dedicated  to  Anup,  or 
Anubis,  not  Osiris,  whose  name  is  rarely  found.  Anubis 
is  invoked  as  the  god  who  presided  over  the  funereal 
chapel  and  the  embalming  of  the  dead.  The  formula 
of  dedication  is  short  anddliptical,  the  usual  expression 
**  to  give  "  is  omitted,  as  also  that  of  the  gift ;  the  name 
of  Chiris  is  not  found  before  that  of  the  deceased,  or  the 
expression  *^ justified"  after  the  name.  In  the  formula 
at  this  time  a  kind  of  abridgment  of  the  calendar  is 
often  introduced,  as  a  mention  of  the  festivals  of  the 
beginning  of  the  year,  the  new  year,  Thoth,  that  of  the' 
greater  and  lesser  heat,  the  monthly  and  half-monthly. 
The  numerous  titles  of  the  offices  held  by  the  deceased 
are  given  in  detail.  The  tablets  continued  rode  till  the 
time  of  the  eleventh  dynasty,  when  the  mention  of  the 
festival  of  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sothis,  or  the  dog-star,  is 
added.  Under  the  twelfth  dynasty  the  tablets  change 
in  shape  and  texts;  most  of  them  being  rounded  at  the 
top,  and  forming  the  hutu  of  the  texts.  The  upper  part 
of  the  tablet  has  often  the  winged  disk,  the  But  or  Tdh 
hui.    The  dates  of  the  years  of  the  mooaichs  imder 


whom  the  deceased  was  buried  appear.  The  scenes 
represented  are  the  acts  of  sepulchral  homage  or  ances- 
tral worship  made  by  the  children  or  other  relatives  of 
the  dead  to  himself  and  his  wife,  the  tables  before  them 
being  loaded  with  offerings,  among  which  appear  the 
head  and  haunch  of  a  calf,  and  other  Joints  of  the  same 
animal,  ducks  or  geese,  circular  or  oval  loaves  or  cakes 
of  bread,  gourds,  onions,  and  papyrus  or  lotus  flowers, 
whUe  jara  of  wine  or  beer  of  coniod  shape  are  seen  placed 
under  the  tables.  The  name  of  the  god  Anubis,  which 
is  so  prominent  in  the  tablets  of  Memphis,  either  disap- 
pears or  becomes  secondary  to  that  of  Osiris,  and  the 
dedication  often  contains  the  names  of  other  deities,  as 
the  frog- headed  goddess  Haka,  the  ram -headed  god 
Khuum,  and  others;  but  no  god  is  represented  on  the 
tablets.  The  texts  themselves  also  differ,  as,  in  addition 
to  the  expressions  of  the  fourth  dynasty,  the  verb  "to 
give,"  omitted  at  that  time,  as  also  the  subject  of  the 
gift,  is  introduced  into  the  text,  the  deceased  is  called 
^'justified,"  but  the  name  of  Osiris  does  not  precede  his. 
His  merits  are  often  told  in  a  verbose  style,  to  which  are 
sometimes  added  the  public  works  in  which  he  was  en- 
gaged. The  contents  of  these  texts  often  contain  curious 
historical  and  other  information,  throwing  much  light 
on  the  mythology  and  ethics  of  the  Egyptians.  Under 
the  eighteenth  dynasty  the  tablets  changed  again,  and 
the  scenes  of  ancestral  or  sepulchral  worship  became 
subordinate.  The  principal  scene  of  the  tablet,  placed 
at  the  upper  part,  represents  the  deceased,  sometimes 
attended  by  his  wife,  sister,  son,  or  other  member  of  the 
family,  standing  or  kneeling  in  adoration  to  the  solar 
boat,  or  deities,  or  Osiris,  accompanied  by  Isis,  Nephtbys, 
Anubis,  Horos,  and  other  deities  who  presided  over  em- 
balming and  the  future  state,  before  whom  is  placed  a 
table  of  altar  offerings.  A  second  division  generally 
has  the  scenes  of  family  worship,  while  in  the  accom- 
panying text  the  adorations  to  the  deities  occupy  the 
most  important  portion;  and  the  merits  of  the  de- 
ceased, or  his  public  works,  are  only  slightly  men- 
tioned. At  the  time  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty  the 
name  of  Osiris  appears  first  placed  before  the  name  of 
the  deceased,  while  the  title  of  "justified,"  or  makhem, 
always  foUows.  These  tablets  were  in  general  use  dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties,  became 
rarer  under  the  twentieth,  exceedingly  rare  at  the  pe- 
riod of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  and  disappear  after 
that  time.  They  reappear,  however,  again  under  the 
Ptolemies,  and  besides  the  usual  formula  of  fiedication, 
often  contain  interesting  notices  relative  to  the  func- 
tions and  offices  discharged  by  the  deceased,  and  fam- 
ily details.  They  are  at  this  period  often  accompanied 
by  inscriptions  in  the  cursive  handwriting,  the  so- 
called  Demotic,  or  Enchorial  Under  the  Romans  the 
art  and  the  inscriptions  of  the  tablets  again  changed. 
The  subjects  are  in  bas-relief,  and  the  deities  represent- 
ed in  the  hybrid  types  prevalent  at  the  epoch.  The 
inscriptions  are  in  Greek,  and  follow  the  usual  formulas 
used  at  that  period ;  the  older  dedications  to  the  g^ods 
being  omitted,  only  the  name  of  the  deceased  and  date 
of  his  death  being  retained,  a  valedictory  address  being 
substituted.  The  Coptic  sepulchral  tablets,  made  after 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Egypt  and  at  a  late 
period,  and  those  in  Cufic,  the  tombstones  of  the  Moham- 
medan conqueron  of  Egypt,  follow  also  the  forms  of 
their  respective  nationalities,  all  trace  of  the  old  repre- 
sentations and  formulas  having  been  obliterated  or  su- 
perseded. See  Birch,  Guide  to  the  Briiish  Museum 
(Vestibule). 

Stem,  Nathah,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Chester  County,  Pa.  While  young 
he  entered  upon  a  mercantile  life  in  Philadelphia ;  but, 
his  attention  having  been  called  to  the  ministry,  he  en- 
tered the  Alexandria  Theological  Seminary  in  1824. 
On  account  of  ill-health  he  left  the  seminary,  and  sab- 
sequently  attended  Kenyon  College,  O.;  afterwards  re- 
moved to  Worthington,  and  pursued  his  studies  under 
bishop  Chaae,  by  whom  he  was  admitted  to  the  diaoo- 


STEMLER 


856 


STEWART 


nate  in  18*28  and  to  tbe  eldership  in  1829.  Hia  first 
parochial  charge  was  in  Delaware,  O.,  where  he  labored 
several  years;  then  accepted  an  invitation  to  St.  Ste- 
phen's, Harrisbarg,  Pa. ;  in  1838  he  was  called  to  St. 
John's,  Norristown,  a  parish  which  he  served  until  his 
death,  Nov.  1, 1854,  at  the  age  of  fifty-four  years.  See 
A  mer,  Quar,  Church  Rev,  1860,  p.  179. 

Stemler,  Johascn  Christian,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  12, 1701.  He  studied 
at  Leipsic,  was  in  1728  rector  at  Sangerhausen,  in  1780 
at  Naumburg,  in  1789  superintendent  at  Torgau,  in  1741 
'  doctor  of  theology,  in  1751  professor  at  Leipsic,  and  died 
March  29, 1778.  He  published,  De  Critica  Fro/ana  in 
Sacrit  Unt  (Leipsic,  1727)  :—ConcUiatio  Pauli  H  Petri 
ad  Rom,  xn»,  2  eC  Petr.  U,  13  (eod.) : — De  Emphasi  Vocis 
dvaKbtwptiv  ad  2  Tim,  i,  6  {1729)  i  ^  Nathanaiii  de 
Chritto  Con/etgio  (1755),  etc.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrten 
Theologen  DeuttckUaidt^  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

Stephen,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  the  Isles 
in  1253,  and  in  the  same  year  confirmed  to  the  monas- 
tery of  Paisley  all  the  churches  and  lands  they  held 
within  bis  diocese.    See  Keith,  ScoUish  BUhopa,  p.  300. 

Stephen,  William,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  divinity 
reader  in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  and  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  see  of  Dunblane  about  1422.  He  proba- 
bly died  in  1429.     See  Keith,  ScoUi$h  Bishops,  p.  177. 

Stem,  Hbmht  AAit02f,D.D.,a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  bom  April  11, 1820,  at  Unterreichen- 
bach,  Hesse-Cassel,  of  Jewish  parentage.  In  1840  he 
embraced  Christianity  in  London,  England,  and  in  1844 
the  London  Jews'  Soiciety  sent  him  as  a  missionary  to 
Bagdad,  to  labor  there  among  the  Jews.  At  Jerusalem, 
where  be  stopped  on  the  joumey,  he  was  admitted  into 
deacon's  orders  by  fhe  late  bishop  Alexander,  the  first 
Protestant  bishop  in  the  Holy  City.  In  1849  Stem  left 
his  station  for  England,  and  was  admitted  into  priest's 
orders  by  the  bishop  of  London.  In  1850  he  returned 
to  Bagdad,  a  few  years  afterwards  was  removed  to 
Constantinople,  and  from  this  centre  be  undertook  mis- 
sionary journeys  to  Asia  Minor,  Arabia  Felix,  and  the 
Crimea.  At  the  request  of  the  London  committee,  he 
then  proceeded  in  1859  to  Abyssinia,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  known  the  gospel  among  the  Falasha  Jews. 
For  eighteen  months  he  labored  there,  when  he  was  in- 
vited to  visit  England  with  a  view  of  setting  before  his 
society  the  importance  of  laboring  in  Abyssinia.  In 
1862  Stem  started  on  bis  second  joumey  to  that  country. 
The  events  of  that  joumey  were  eventually  to  form  no 
unimportant  episode  in  the  history  of  England.  Tbe 
semi-barbarous  king  of  Abyssinia  had  endeavored  in 
vain  to  open  diplomatic  relations  with  England.  The 
infuriated  king  imprisoned  tbe  helpless  missionary  who 
came  to  pay  his  respects.  The  other  Europeans,  in- 
cluding the  British  consul,  shared  in  Mr.  Stem's  suffer- 
ings and  imprisonment.  This  happened  in  October, 
1868,  and  not  till  April  11, 1868,  were  tbe  prisoners  de- 
livered. Having  recovered  from  bis  many  sufferings, 
Stem  accepted  in  1870  the  charge  of  the  Home  Mission 
in  London.    He  died  May  13, 1885.     (a  P.) 

Steuber,  Johamn  Enoelhard,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  March  16, 1693,  at  Marburg. 
In  1716  he  commenced  his  academical  career  at  Jena, 
was  in  1721  professor  at  Rintehi,  and  died  Dec  6, 1747. 
He  published,  De  PrvnogeKUu^  etc.  (Marburg,  1711)  :— 
DtAimoJoMao  (Rinteln,  1721)  i—De  UgatioM  Fesii- 
vorum  ad  Comua  AUarit  (i72d):--Z>e  Siffno  FiUi 
Ilominis  ad  Matt,  xxiv,  30  (eod.)  i^De  Mutuo  Psalmo^ 
rum  Nexu  (1736)  :—De  Phihtophia  Platomeo-Pjftha- 
■fforea  (1744).  See  Doring,  Die  gdekrim  Theologen 
DeuUchlandt,  s.  v. ;  FQrst,  BibL  Jud,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  A  Uge- 
moinet  Gelehrien-Lexiion,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Stevens,  John,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister  and  edu- 
cator, was  bom  at  Townsend,  Mass.,  June  6, 1798.  He 
graduated  from  Middlebury  College,  Vt.,  in  1821,  had 
charge  of  the  Montpelier  Academy  for  one  year,  then 
entered  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  was  converted, 


and  in  1828  was  baptized  and  united  with  tbe  First 
Church  in  Salem,  Mass.  From  1825  to  1828  he  was  a 
tutor  in  Middlebury  CoUege,  and  then,  for  three  years^ 
classical  teacher  in  South  Reading  (now Wakefield) 
Academy.  From  1831  to  1888  he  was  editor  of  the  Ohio 
BaptiH  Weekly  Journal^  and  was  then  chosen  professor  of 
moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  in  Granville  CoUege 
(now  Denison  University),  a  position  which  he  occupied 
till  1848,  when  he  accepted  an  appointment  from  the  Mia- 
sionary  Uuion  as  district  secretary  for  the  sutes  of  Ohio 
and  Indiana,  and  held  this  important  office  twelve  yean* 
In  1844  he  was  ordained  in  Cincinnati.  In  all  educa- 
tional matters  affecting  the  weliare  of  the  denomination 
he  took  great  interest.  For  several  years  he  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Western  Baptist  Education  Society ;  and  was 
one  of  the  early  and  warm  friends  of  the  theological 
institution  established  at  Covington,  Ky.,  and  of  the  in- 
stitution established  at  Fairmount,  near  CincinnatL 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Deo- 
ison  Univeraity  in  1859,  and  when  a  division  was  made 
in  the  twodepartments,  be  retained  tbe  chair  of  Latin  iu»- 
til  1875 ;  upon  his  resignation  he  was  continued  "  emeri- 
tus "  professor.  He  died  in  Granville,  O.,  April  30, 1877. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  1103.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Stevenaoii,  Andrew,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Strabane,  Ireland,  in  1810.  He 
came  to  America  when  a  young  man,  and  after  passing 
through  a  literary  and  theological  course  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Second  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in 
New  York  city.  He  remained  pastor  of  this  church 
until  his  health  failed,  and  on  his  resignation  was 
continued  senior  pastor  until  his  death,  June  29, 1881. 
(W.  P.  a) 

Stewart,  Abel  T.,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  born  at  Somerville,  N.  J.,  Aug.  4, 1822. 
He  graduated  from  Rutgers  CoUege  in  1843,  from  the 
Hew  Brunswick  Seminary  in  1846 ;  and  in  tbe  same  year 
was  licensed  by  the  Classis  of  New  Brunswick;  waa 
pastor  at  Greenville  from  1846  to  1850,  and  at  Green- 
ville and  Bronxville  from  1850  to  1852;  First  Church* 
Tarry  town,  from  1852  to  1866,  HoUand,  Mich.,  from 
1866  to  1878,  and  died  May  24, 1878,  at  Watkins,  N.  T. 
See  Corwio,  Manual  of  the  Ref.  Church  in  America  (Sd 
ed.),  p.  468. 

Stewart,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  first 
prior  of  Whitern  and  then  abbot  of  Inchaffray.  He 
was  made  bishop  of  Moray  in  1527,  and  remained  nntil 
1538.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  149. 

Stewart,  Andrew  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  sub- 
dean  of  Glasgow  in  1456,  and  soon  after  rector  of  Monk- 
land.  In  1477  he  was  provost  of  Lindoden.  He  waa 
elected  dean  of  the  faculty  in  the  University  of  Glc»- 
gow,  and  was  made  bishop  of  Moray  in  1482.  He  stU] 
held  that  office  in  1492,  and  died  iii  1501.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  146. 

Stewart,  Andrew  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
made  bishop  of  Caithness  in  1490.  He  died  June  17, 
1518.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  214. 

Stewart,  lion,  Charles  Jamea^  D.D.,  a  Cana- 
dian prelate,  was  born  April  13,  1775.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  AU-Souls'  College,  Oxford,  England,  of  which 
he  became  a  fellow;  ordained,  and  presented  to  th« 
rectory  of  Orton  Longueville,  Huntingdonshire,  and  in 
1807  proceeded  to  Canada  as  a  missionary.  He  first 
settled  at  St.  Armand,  thence  removed  to  Halley,  and 
on  Jan.  1, 1826,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Quebec.  He 
died  July  13, 1837.  Bishop  Stewart  was  pre-eminently 
a  good  man,  and  a  faithful  and  successful  worker  in  his 
adopted  field  of  labor.  See  The  Church  of  £ngla»d 
Magazine,  July,  1888,  p.  85. 

Stewart,  Charles  Samnel,  D.D.,  a  Predv^r- 
terian  minister,  was  bom  at  Flemington,  N.  J.,  Oct, 
16, 1798.  He  graduated  from  New  Jersey  CoUege  in 
1815,  and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1819 ; 
was  ordained  Aug.  14, 1821 ;  served  as  a  missionaiy  to 


STEWART 


857 


STOCKTON 


the  Sandwich  iBUnds  from  1822  to  1826,  hccame  chai>- 
lain  in  the  United  States  nary  in  1828,  made  his  last 
crnise  in  1862,  and  died  at  Coopentown,  N.  Y.,  Dec  14, 
1870.  He  edited  the  Uniied  SttUes  Naval  Magazimt  in 
1886  and  1837,  and  published  several  interesting  books 
of  voyages  and  observations,  for  which  see  AUlbone, 
Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthorSf  s.  v. 

Stewart,  David,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  the  see  of  Moray  in  1462,  and  continued  there  until 
his  death  in  1477.    See  Keith,  SeoUish  Bithopa^  p.  144. 

Stevrart,  Bdward,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop 
of  Orkney  about  1611.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bithopt, 
p.  223. 

BteiRrart,  Jamea  (l)*  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  dean 
of  the  see  of  Moray  and  lord-treasurer  afterwards,  in 
1463,  and  in  1469  was  advanced  to  the  bishopric  He 
died  in  1462.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  144. 

Stewart,  Jamea  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected 
to  the  bishopric  of  St.  Andrews  in  1497,  and  in  1608 
was  both  bishop  and  chancellor.  This  prelate  also  held 
the  monastery  of  Arbroath.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bish- 
ops,  p.  32. 

Ste'wart,  Robert  (1),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
elected  bishop  of  the  see  of  Caithiless  in  1642.  He 
never  was  in  prtesfs  orders.  He  had  the  title  of  bishop 
in  September,  1583,  and  died  at  St  Andrews,  March  29, 
1686.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  216. 

Stewart,  Robert  (2),  a  veteran  missionary  of  the 
Presbyterian  Board,  was  bom  in  Kentucky  in  May, 
1798.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  and  ordained  for  mis- 
nonary  work  in  southern  Illinois,  where  he  spent  a 
long,  laborious,  and  successful  ministry,  preaching  to 
the  very  last  of  hb  life.  He  organized  many  churches 
in  that  destitute  region,  which  he  supplied  with  preach, 
ing,  and  multitudes,  through  his  instrumentality,  were 
brought  into  the  fold  of  Christ.  Afler  an  active  ser- 
vice of  over  firty  years,  he  died,  in  Troy,  Madison  Co., 
IlL,  July  11, 1881.  See  Presbyterian  AlorUhly  Record, 
Sept.  1881.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Steward,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  arch- 
deacon of  St,  Andrews,  and  was  elected  bishop  of  the 
same  in  1401,  but  declined.  He  probably  died  about 
1414.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  27. 

Stewart,  William,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bom 
in  Glasgow  about  1479.  He  was  doctor  of  laws  and 
afterwards  minister  of  Lochmaben,  then  rector  of  Ayr, 
and  a  prebendary  of  Glasgow.  In  1627  he  was  pre- 
'  ferred  to  the  deanery  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1628  sat  in 
parliament  In  1680  he  was  made  lord-treasurer  and 
provost  of  Lindnden,  and  was  elected  bishop  of  Aberdeen 
in  1632.  After  seven  years  he  resigned  the  treasury.  He 
died  about  1646.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  121. 

Stiohart;  Franz  Otto,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  born  at  Werdan,  Saxony,  in  1810,  and 
died  at  Dresden  in  1888.  He  published.  Die  Lehre  vom 
Beistande  des  heUigen  Geittes  zur.  Beuenttiff  ( Leipstc, 
1836) : — JubelehraM  der  dritten  ib'rcA&Aeti  Sacularfeier 
der  Etnjuhnag  der  Reformaiion  in  Setchsen  (1841) : — 
De  Reditu  Christi  ad  Judicium  Soletme  (eod.) :— Paulas 
Odontius  au$  Werdan  (1843)  i-^Dr,  Martin  Luther's  Tod 
(1846)  : — Kirchenpforte  oder  BeUhrung  uber  die  heiligen 
Tage,  Orte  und  Gebrduche  der  Christen  (2d  ed.  1869);— 
Die  HrchUche  Legends  Uber  die  hdUgen  Apostel  (1861)  :— 
Eratnats  von  Rotterdam,  seine  SteUunff  zur  Kirehe  und 
den  kirehlkken  Bewegungen  seiner  Zeit  (1870).  See 
Zuchold,  BOtL  TheoL  s.  v.    (R  P.) 

Sticht,  JoRAMV  Christoph,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  at  Altona,  Jan.  12,  1772,  is  the 
'  author  of,  De  urbe  Hanodna  Geneseos  iv,  17,  etc.  (Jena, 
1727)  i^Super  Dictis  Genes,  vi,  6,  Luc  u,  12,  etc.  (1767) : 
—De  Keri  ei  Kethibh  (1760)  i^De  (Economo  Luc.  xvi, 
1-9  (1762)  :—De  CoUoquio  Dei  am  Caino,  etc  (1766)  : 
—De  Ctdlogvio  Dei  cum  Satana  Biobi  t,  b-Xl  (1767). 
See  Dbrinfi,  Die  gekhrten  Theelogen  Deutschlands,  a.  v. ; 
FUrst,  BOL  Jud.9,  v.    (B.  P.) 


Sttobllts,  JOHANH  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Halle,  Aug.  7, 1707. 
He  studied  there  and  at  Jena,  commenced  his  academi- 
cal career  at  Giessen  in  1731,  was  professor  at  Halle 
in  1738,  and  died  Dec.  12,  1772.  Stiebritz  published, 
De  Aecofnmodatione  Scripturm,  etc.  (  Halle,  1727  )  :— 
Nova  Loci  1  Cor,  xv,  28  ExpUeaHo  (1731)  i—De  Pro- 
pheta  a  Leone  NecatOt  1  Reg.  artit,  etc  (1788):— I^e  Deo 
Medico  (1786)  i-^De  Platonismo,  Coloss.  ii,  9  (eod.)  i— 
De  SaeerdotUms  Vitio  Corporis  LaboranHbus,  ad  Leeii. 
xxi,  21-23  (1762):  — Z)e  Vero  Sensu  Uosea  xi,  1  in 
Matt,  a,  16  (1763): — Betrojchtangen  Uber  Gegenst&nde 
der  Sehrift  und  der  Rdigion  (1769),  etc  See  Doring, 
Die  gelehrlen  Theologen  Deutschlands,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BibL 
Jud.  s.  V.    (B.  P.) 

Stinaon,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Wesleyan  minister,  was 
bom  at  Castle  Donington,  Leicestershire,  England.  He 
was  converted  at  Gainsborough  when  about  twenty  years 
of  age,  received  into  the  ministry  in  1823,  and  appoint- 
ed to  eastern  Canada.  From  1829  to  1882  he  labored 
on  the  Gibraltar  mission,  leaving  the  Church  there  in 
much  prosperity.  In  1833  he  resumed  his  work  in 
Canada,  spending  three  years  in  Kingston  and  five  in 
Toronto,  being  general  superintendent  of  missions  and 
president  of  the  Canadian  Conference  in  1838.  In  1842 
he  for  the  first  time  received  an  appointment  to  a  cir- 
cuit in  England  (Sevenoaks),  and  after  laboring  in  Shef- 
field, Leeds,  London,  Bradford,  and  Manchester,  he  again 
left  for  Canada.  In  1868  he  was  again  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Canadian  Conference,  and  he  spared  no  la- 
bor to  meet'  the  demands  upon  his  time  and  talents. 
There  was  a  genial  warmth  and  suavity  in  his  spirit 
and  manners;  he  had  a  well-cultivated  mind  and  a  fine 
taste.  He  died  in  Toronto,  Aug.  26, 1862,  in  his  sixty- 
first  year.  See  MtnMes  of  the  British  Conference,  1867, 
p.  18;  Minutes  of  Canadian  Conferences,  1863;  Carroll, 
Case  and  His  Contemporaries,  index,  vol.  v. 

Stip,  Gkrharu  Chrtno  Hermann,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  May  4, 1809,  at  Nor- 
den.  East  Frisia.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Bonn, 
and  was  for  a  time  preacher  to  a  country  congregation. 
He  then  travelled  through  Switzerland,  and  settled  for 
a  time  at  Berne,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Schneckenburger.  In  1841  he  lived  .in  London,  in  the 
house  of  Bunsen,  whose  sons  he  instructed.  Having 
retumed  to  Germany,  he  settled  at  Alexandrowka,  near 
Potsdam,  and  died  June  21, 1882.  Stip  belongs  to  the 
most  prominent  hymnologists  of  the  19th  century,  and 
publidied,  Beleuehtung  der  Gesangbuchhesserung  (Got  ha, 
1842,  2  Yo\s.)  I  — HymnologUche  Reisdn-iefe  (1863,  2 
vols.) :  —  Kirckerfried  und  Kirchenlied  (eod.)  :  —  Das 
evangelische  Kirchenlied  und  die  confesstonelle  Brand- 
fackel  (1864)  .—Unverfalschter  Liedersegen  (1861)  :— 
Das  Kleinod  der  evangelischen  Religionsfreiheit :  ErhaW 
uns  Herr  bd  deinem  Wort  (1866),  etc  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  TheoL  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Stockton,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  near  Washington,  Pa.,  Nov.  18,  1808.  He 
graduated  from  Washington  College  in  1820,  and  was 
for  two  years  teacher  of  Latin  in  that  institution ;  pros- 
ecuted his  theological  studies  under  Rev.  Drs.  Wylie 
and  Anderson,  and  spent  one  year  (182&-26)  in  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Cross  Creek  Church  in  1827,  and  remained  in  this 
charge  until  1877,  when  he  was  released  from  respon- 
sible duties,  with  the  title  of  pastor  emeritus.  During 
the  filly  years  of  his  pastorate,  fiiteen  hundred  and 
forty -five  members  were  added  to  the  Church,  more 
than  forty  ministers  of  the  Gospel  were  raised  up,  and 
one  hundred  elders  were  ordained.  One  year  after  his 
settlement  he  founded  a  clnssioal  school,  which  was  a 
means  of  great  usefulness  to  the  surrounding  country. 
He  died  at  Cross  Creek,  May  6, 1882.  See  NecroL  Re- 
port of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1883,  p.  20.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Stockton,  "William  S,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Methodist  Protestant  Church,  an  editor  and  cour 


STOEVER 


858 


STOSCH 


«Uint  contributor  to  its  presSi  was  born  at  Boriiogton, 
X.  J.f  April  8,  1786.  From  a  youth  he  develo|Md  a 
taste  for  good  reading  that  never  left  hinu  In  1820 
his  first  book  was  published,  entitled  Truth  Venus  a 
WtsUyan  MethoditL  In  1821  he  published  Sevm 
Nighttf  aimed  against  the  use  of  ardent  spirits  as  a 
beverage.  He  became  identified  with  the  periodical 
known  as  The  Wesleyan  Repoeitorjf^  and  was  one  of  the 
first  to  agitate  with  his  pen  the  subject  of  lay  repre- 
sentation. He  assisted  in  the  publication  of  the  first 
American  edition  of  Wesley^s  works,  wrote  the  article 
on  the  "  Methodist  Protestant  Church  ^  in  Hay*s  edition 
of  Buck's  Theological  Dictionary^  contributed  to  the 
secular  press  as  an  editorial  writer,  and  also  wrote  for 
Methodist  periodicals.  One  of  his  most  important  lit- 
erary undertakings  was  the  publication  of  Whitehead's 
Lioet  of  John  aid  Charles  We4ey»  He  was  a  distin- 
guished philanthropist,  and  as  such  was  well  known  in 
the  city  of  Philadelphia.  In  1860  he  removed  to  Bur- 
lington, the  place  of  his  birth,  ond  died  there,  Nov.  20 
of  that  year.  See  Colhouer,  Founders  of  (he  M,  P. 
CAurcA,  p.  48. 

Stoever,  Martin  Luther,  LL.D.,  a  Lutheran  ed- 
ucator, was  born  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  Feb.  17, 1820.  In 
1888  he  entered  the  preparatory  department  of  Penn- 
sylvania College  at  Gettysburg,  and  graduated  from 
that  institution  in  1888.  In  the  fall  of  that  year  he 
took  charge  of  a  school  in  Jefferson,  Md.  One  year 
afterwards  he  became  principal  of  the  preparatory  de- 
partment of  Pennsylvania  College,  assisting  also  in  the 
college  proper.  During  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Krauth, 
professor  Stoever  lived  in  the  college  building,  and  act- 
ed as  president  pro  tem.  The  last  ten  years  of  his  life 
were  more  especially  devoted  to  instruction  in  Latin. 
His  literary  labors  were  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
Evangelical  Quarterly  Review^  in  every  number  of 
which,  from  its  beginning  in  1849,  with  the  exception 
of  two  issues,  one  or  more  of  his  articles  appeared.  In 
1862  he  became  sole  editor  and  proprietor  of  that  peri- 
odical. During  the  civil  war  he  was  prominently  con- 
nected with  the  United  States  Christian  Commission. 
It  was  his  original  purpose  to  enter  the  Lutheran  min- 
istry, but  he  was  deterred  by  his  hesitancy  of  speech. 
In  many  respects  he  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  in  his  Chuich.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  July  22, 
1870.  See  FifUf  Years  in  (he  Lutheran  Ministry,  1878, 
p.  252. 

Stohlman,  Charles  F.  E.,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Klein  Bremen,  kingdom  of  Hanover, 
Germany,  Feb.  21,  1810.  He  studied  at  the  gymna- 
sium of  Buckeburg;  was  a  student  of  theology  at  the 
University  of  Halle,  under  Dr.  Tholuck ;  after  his  grad- 
uation came  to  America,  in  September,  1834,  and,  with 
his  family,  settled  in  Erie,  Pa.,  taking  charge  of  a  small 
congregation.  He  began  his  career  in  New  York  city, 
Sept.  12,  1838,  as  pastor  of  St.  Matthew's  German  Lu- 
theran Church,  in  Walker  Street,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death.  May  3, 1868.  See  Lutheran  Ob- 
server^ May  15, 1868. 

Stole  Alban,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  3, 1808,  at  Buhl,  Baden.  In 
1883  he  was  made  a  priest,  was  for  some  time  vicar 
at  Rothenfels,  in  1841  teacher  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Bruchsal,  in  1848  professor  of  pastoral  theology  at 
Freiburg,  and  died  Oct  16, 1883.  Stolz's  writings  com- 
prise thirteen  volumes  (Freiburg,  1877  sq.).    (B.  P.) 

Stone,  James  R.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Westborough,  Mass.,  in  1818.  He  removed  to 
Providence,  R.  I.,  when  a  child,  and  united  with  the 
First  Baptist  Church  in  that  city  in  1838.  After  stud- 
ying two  years  in  Brown  Uqiversity,  he  became  prin- 
cipal of  VVashington  Academy,  in  Wickford,  and,  in 
1839,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in  that  place. 
A  few  years  afterwards  he  became  pastor  of  the  Stew- 
art Street  Church,  in  Providence;  subsequently  held 
ptitorates  in  Connecticut,  New  York,  Pemisylvania,  and 


Rhode  Island.  For  two  years  he  had  charge  U  the 
Worcester  (Mass.)  Academy.  In  1864  he  was  appoint- 
ed district  secretary  of  the  American  Baptist  Publica- 
tion Society  for  West  Viiginia,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Mich- 
igan. In  1869  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.  For  several  years  he  was  president  of  the 
Indiana  Baptist  State  Convention.  His  bst  pastorate 
was  in  Lansing,  Mich.  He  died  Feb.  1,  1884.  See 
Cathcart,  Baptist  Eneydop.  p.  lllfi.     (J.  a  &) 

Stone,  John  Seely,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
divine,  was  bom  at  West  Stockbridge,  Mass^  in  1795. 
He  gndnated  from  Union  College  in  1823;  was  or- 
dained deacon  in  1826;  began  his  ministry  in  Mary- 
Und;  was  afterwards  (1882-41)  settled  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Boston,  Mass.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  Brookline^ 
Mass.;  was  some  years  lecuirer  in  the  Philadelphia 
Divinity  School ;  in  1869  became  dean  of  the  Theolog- 
ical School  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  died  there,  Jan. 
13, 1882.  Besides  numerous  tracts,  etc.,  he  published. 
The  Mysteries  Opened  (1844):~£^e  of  Bishop  Gru- 
wold  (eod.):— rA<t  Churdi  Universal  (1846;  enlarged 
under  the  tide  The  Living  Temple^  1866) :— rA«  Cask- 
trast  (1863)  :—Life  of  James  Milnor  (1848) :— Lectures 
on  the  Christian  Sabbath  (1867)  i-^The  Christian  Sac- 
raments (eod.). 

Stork,  Theophilus,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
son  of  Rev.  Charles  A.  G.  Stork,  of  Branswick,  Germany, 
was  bora  near  Salisbury,  N.  C.,  in  August,  1814.  He 
graduated  from  Pennsylvania  College  in  1836,  and  from 
Gettysburg  Theologiad  Seminary  in  1H37,  in  which 
year  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  was  immediatelj 
called  to  Grace  Lutheran  Church,  Winchester,  Va.  In 
1841  he  became  pastor  of  St.  ]klatthew*s  Church,  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  labored  nine  years.  In  1842  he  was 
one  of  the  active  promoters  of  the  organization  of  the 
East  Pennsylvania  Synod.  The  large  church,  known 
as  St.  Mark's,  in  Philadelphia,  was  organized  by  htm  in 
1850.  Eight  years  after  he  was  called  to  the  presidency 
of  the  new  Lutheran  College  at  Newberry,  S.  C.  In  18G0 
he  became  pastor  of  Su  Mark's  Church,  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  where  he  labored  until  1866,  and  then  returned  to 
Philadelphia  and  organized  St.  Andrew's  Church,  which 
was  afterwards  merged  in  the  Messiah  Mission,  since 
the  Church  of  the  Messiah.  Impaired  health  compelled 
him  to  resign  pastoral  labor  in  1873.  He  died  in  Phil- 
adelphia, March  28, 1874.  Dr.  Stork  was  a  scholar  of 
fine  literary  taste,  an  elegant  writer,  and  an  eloquent 
preacher.  At  various  times  he  was  editor  of  the  ffomsn 
Journal,  of  the  Lutheran  Home  Montkhf,  and  joint  edi- 
tor of  the  Lutheretn  Observer  f  also  author  of,  Luiker 
at  Home  .'—Luther  and  <Ae  Bible: -^Luther's  Christnsa* 
Tree  .'-^Children  of  the  New  Testament:— Home  Scemev 
of  the  New  Testament  :'-Jeeus  m  the  Temple:— A fUs>- 
noon,  A  volume  of  his  Bermmw  was  published  after 
his  death.  See  Penwyloama  CoQ/ege  Tear-book^  1882, 
P.20L 

Stofloh,  Sberbard  Heixirioli  Daniel,  a  Re- 
formed theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  liebeo- 
berg,  Prassia,  March  16, 1716,  and  studied  at  Frsnkfort- 
on-the-Oder.  In  1738  he  was  assistant  preacher  mt 
Jerichau,  in  1744  at  Soldin,  in  1748  professor  at  Dnt»- 
burg,  in  1749  at  Frankfort,  and  died  March  27, 178], 
doctor  of  theology.  He  published,  CammaUaiio  Hia^ 
torioo-Critica  de  lAbrorum  Novi  Testamenti  Camme 
(Frankfort,  17^):— Z>e  EecUsia  IHvimm  Biblionm 
Inspirationem  Testante  (I7b\):  —  De  Septan  Domam 
OcuUs  Perhtstrantibus  Totam  Terram  ex  Zadkar.  tv,  lO 
(1751):— Z>e  Bevelatione  Divina  Ante  Mosen  Scr^to 
Consignata  (Xtb2)\—Inltroductio  in  Theohgiam  Ihg^ 
maticam  (1778)  :—Institutio  Theologim  Dogmatiecs  (1779). 
See  During,  Die  gdehrten  Theologen  DeutsdUands,  a.  t.  ; 
FQr8t,BiU:/ud.s.v.;  Winer,  HandbuckdertheoL  JUL  i^ 
77,292,305,394,535.    (B- ^0 

Stoioh,  Ferdinand,  a  brother  of  the  foregoiog^ 
was  bora  Dec.  80, 1717,  at  liebenbag.  He  studied  a% 
Frankfort,  was  in  1743  con-xector  at  Lioges,  in  1761 


STOWELL 


859 


STUBBS 


profettor  at  the  Joachimsthal  Gymnasiam  in  Berlin, 
in  1771  member  of  constttorj  and  general  superintend- 
ent at  Detmold,  and  died  Aag.  17, 1780.  He  wrote, 
Ve  Nommibus  Uriis  Thyatira  (Lingen,  1743):  — Z)e 
Angelo  Eedetia  Thyatirenm  (eod.):  —  -^  Sqmltwa 
JephUB  ad  Jud,  xtif  7  (1746)  *.— X>e  Ecduia  Novi  Tetta» 
tnaOi  PropheUi  turn  IndigenU,  ad  Ephes,  m,  2, 8  (1748) : 
— De  Septem  £putolarttm  Apoealyplicarum  Ordine 
(1749) : — De  Adamo,  Prmeipum  Pruno  ad  P»a,  Ixxxiif 
7  (1764): — Con^peadium  ArchtJBologicB  (Economicm  Novi 
TetCamenti  (Leipeic,  1769),  etc  See  Doring,  JHe  ge^ 
Uhrtm  Theohgen  DeuUcklandi,  a.  v.;  FUrst,  BiU,  Jud, 
8.  ▼. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  tkeoi.  UL  i,  78, 274.    (&  P.) 

Stow^ell,  WiLUAH  Hekrt,  D.D.,  an  English  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  bom  on  the  Isle  of  Man  in 
1800.  He  entered  secular  business  at  an  early  age  in 
Liverpool;  was  there  persuaded  to  enter  the  ministry; 
studied  theology  at  Blackburn  Academy,  and  settled 
as  pastor  at  North  Shields  in  1821.  In  1888  he  was 
invited  to  the  presidency  of  Botherham  Independent 
College,  and  the  pastorate  at  Masborongh,  which  offices 
he  filled  until  his  acceptance  of  the  presidency  of  Ches- 
hnnt  College  in  1860.  He  retired  from  public  duty 
about  a  year  and  a  half  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  hb  residence  at  Bransbury,  Jan.  2, 1868.  Dr. 
Stowell*s  scholarship  was  extensive  and  varied.  He 
was  well  acquainted  with  history  and  ethics,  good  in 
the  classics,  and  able  in  theology.  He  published,  //»• 
tory  of  the  Puriiana  in  EngUmd  (1837) : — Memoir  of 
Richard  Winter  Hamilton,  />./>.,  LL,D.  (1860)  i—The 
Work  of  the  Spirit  (1863),  and  a  volume  of  Sermon$f 
as  well  as  several  lesser  works.  See  (Lond.)  Cong. 
Year 'book,  1869,  p.  222;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and 
Amer,  A  uthorSf  s.  v. 

Btrachan,  David,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  pastor  of 
Fettercaim,  and  upon  the  king*s  restoration  promoted 
to  the  see  of  Brechin,  and  consecrated  June  1,  1662, 
where  he  continued  until  his  death  in  1671.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  167. 

Strain,  John,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Catholic  prelate,  was 
bom  Dec  8, 1810.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Abila 
(mpartibus)  by  Pius  IX,  SepL25, 1864,  and  appointed 
vicar-apostoltc  of  the  eastern  district  of  Scotland.  On 
the  restoration  of  the  hierarchy  by  Leo  XIII,  in  March, 
1878,  he  was  translated  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  St. 
Andrews  and  Edinburgh.    He  died  July  2, 1888. 

Btrathbrock,  Robert,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bbh- 
op  of  Caithness  about  1444.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bish- 
ops, p.  214. 

Btraube,  Carl,  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Germany, 
was  bom  at  Berlin,  Oct.  27, 1807.  After  completing 
his  theological  studies,  he  assisted  his  father  in  the 
ministry  at  Mittenwalde  from  1829  to  1836,  was  then 
appointed  pastor  at  Werder,  in  1866  at  Falkenhagen, 
and  died  March  2, 1881.  Straube  was  very  active  in 
the  work  of  home  and  foreign  missions,  and  his  Beise- 
psalter  has  become  a  household  work  in  the  Christian 
families  of  Germany.    (B.  P.) 

StrauBfl,  Otto,  son  of  Gerhard  Friedrich  Abn- 
ham  (q.  v.),  who  died  March  6, 1880,  is  the  author  of 
Nahum  de  Nino  VcUiamum  Explicatwn  ex  AssyrOs 
Monumentis  (Berlin,  1863),  the  publication  of  which 
entitled  him  to  the  right  of  lecturing  at  the  Berlin 
University.  In  1867  he  was  military  preacher  at  Po- 
sen,  and  in  1866  first  preacher  of  the  Sophienkirche, 
in  Berlin,  where  he  labored  to  his  end.  Besides  the 
work  on  Nahum,  he  published,  Nimve  und  das  Wort 
Oottes  (1865):— Der  Psalter  als  Gesang-  und  Gebetbuch 
(1869) : — and,  in  connection  with  his  brother,  Friedrich 
Adolph,  Lander  und  St&dte  der  heUigen  Schrift  (1861). 
See  Pank,  Zur  Ervaerung  an  Lie  Otto  Strauss  (Ber- 
lin, 1880).     (Bb  P.) 

Stxiokland,  Williah  Peteb,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
E|»soopal,  and  later  a  Presbyterian,  divine,  was  bom  at 
Pittabnigh,  Pa.,  Aug.  17, 1809.    He  studied  at  the  Ohio 


University,  entered  the  Ohio  Conference  in  1882,  labored 
several  years  in  Cincinnati,  and  then  became  agent  of 
the  American  Bible  Society.  In  1866  he  engaged  in  lit- 
erary labor  in  New  York,  chiefly  in  connection  with  the 
Methodist  press,  and  as  assistant  editor  of  the  Christian 
Advocate,  In  1862  he  was  chaplain  of  the  48th  New 
York  regiment  at  Port  Boyal,  &  C.  In  1866  he  sup- 
plied the  pulpit  of  the  Presbyterian  Chureh  at  Bridge- 
hampton,  L.  I.,  and  in  1874  was  installed  its  pastor. 
Three  years  later  he  resigned  through  ill-health,  and 
retired  to  private  literary  work.  He  died  at  Ocean 
Grove,  N.  J.,  July  16, 1884.  Dr.  Strickland  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  the  religious  journals,  and  also  to 
the  cyclopsBdias,  and  was  the  author  of  numerous  vol- 
umes, of  which  we  may  mention.  Hist,  of  (he  A  mer,  Btbie 
Society  (New  York,  1849 ;  new  ed.  1866)  :—Hist,  ofMeth, 
Missions  (1860) :  —  (i€fitt/4  and  Mission  of  Methodism 
(iSblJi  —  Christiamfy  Defended  (1862) :  —  3fmotr  of 
J.  B,  Finley  (1863) :  — Afanua/  of  Biblical  Literature 
(eod,)'.  — Light  of  the  Temple  (lSb4) -.-^Astrologer  of 
Chaldea  (1866)  i—Pioneers  of  the  West  (eod.)  .—Life  of 
Asbury  (1868)  .—Life  of  Groben  (1869)  i—Old  MaM- 
now  (1860);  besides  editing  the  Literary  Casket,  the 
WeJ^em  Review,  and  the  Autobiography  ofPeier  Cart" 
Wright  (1866). 

Strobel,  Gbobq  Thkodor,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  12, 1736,  and  studied  at  Alt- 
dorf.  In  1769  he  was  preacher  at  Rasch,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Altdorf,  in  1774  at  Word,  and  died  Dec.  14, 
1794.  Strobel  published,  Melanchthoniana  (Altdorf, 
1771) : — Nachrichten  von  den  Verdiensten  Mekmchthoh's 
urn  die  heilige  Schrift  (1773)  x—Bibliotheca  Melanchtho- 
niana (Nureraberf^,1776;  3ded.  1782): — Literargeschichfe 
von  Ph.  Melanchifion^s  Locis  Theologicis  (1776) : — Ph, 
Melanchthonis  Libellus  de  Scriptoribus  Ecclesiasticis 
(1780),  etc.  See  Doring,  I>M^/«Arfen  Theologen  Deutsche 
lands,  sTv.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  296, 746, 
746, 767, 861.     (a  P.) 

Btuart,  Andre*^,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  postulated 
bishop  of  the  see  of  Dunkeld  in  1616,  and  was  after- 
wards put  into  the  see  of  Caithness.  See  Keith,  Scot- 
tish  Bishops,  p.  93. 

Btuart,  John,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  in  1740.  He  graduated  at  the 
College  of  Philadelphia,  was  ordained  in  1770,  and  ap- 
pointed to  the  mission  at  Fort  Hunter.  He  prepared  a 
Mohawk  translation  of  the  gospel  of  Mark,  an  Exposi' 
tion  of  the  Church  Catechism,  and  a  compendious  His- 
tory  of  the  Bible,  During  the  revolutionary  war  he 
became  an  object  of  suspicion,  and  was  subjected  to 
many  hardships.  At  length  he  removed  to  Canada, 
and  in  1786  opened  an  academy  at  Kingston.  About 
1799  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  garrison.  He 
died  at  Kingston  in  August,  1811.  He  has  been  called 
the  ** Father  of  the  Upper  Canada  Church."  See  Sa- 
bine,  LoyalisU  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  ii,  389.  (J.  C.  S.) 

Btuart,  Robert  L^  a  philanthropic  merchant,  was 
bom  in  the  city  of  New  York,  July  21, 1806.  He  in- 
herited a  considerable  fortune  from  his  father,  together 
with  his  business,  the  refining  of  sugar  and  the  manu- 
facture of  candy,  by  which  he  amassed  a  large  property, 
and  liberally  contributed  of  it  for  religious  and  benevo- 
lent purposes,  especially  to  the  library  and  mission  en- 
terprises of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  of  which  he  was 
a  consistent  and  devout  member.  He  died  in  his  na- 
tive city,  Dec.  13, 1883.  It  is  estimated  that  the  total 
gifts  of  himself  and  his  brother,  Alexander  (died  in  De- 
cember, 1879),  amounted  to  nearly  three  million  dollars. 

Btubba,  Alfrkd,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Turk's  Island,  West  Indies,  May 
12, 1816.  He  passed  his  school-days  at  Bloomingdale 
and  in  Brooklyn,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1836,  and 
at  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York  city, 
in  1889.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  rector  of 
Christ  Chureh,  New  Branswick,  a  position  which  he 
oontinoed  to  hold  until  his  death,  Dec  11, 1882.    He 


STUTTEVILLE 


860 


SUPPER 


was  a  warm-hearted  and  generous  man,  and  of  ondring 
energy  and  earnest  devotion  to  the  principles  of  the 
Church.  In  the  convention  of  the  diocese  he  took  an 
active  and  leading  part,  and  frequently  was  sent  as 
deputy  to  the  General  Convention.  He  had  been  for 
a  long  time  president  of  the  Standing  Committee.  In 
1867  Dr.  Stubbs  made  a  charge  against  the  Rev.  Ste- 
phen H.  Tyng,  Jr.,  of  violating  the  canon  laws  of  the 
Church  by  preaching  in  a  Methodist  meeting-house  in 
New  Brunswick.  Dr.  Stubbs  was  a  prominent  person 
in  that  trial,  which  attracted  wide  attention. 

Btutteville,  Robert  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
probably  bishop  of  the  see  of  Dunkeld  in  1272.  He 
died  in  1300.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Buhopiy  p.  81. 

StUtsle,  JoHANN  Nepomuk,  a  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  bom  in  1807  at  Schecr,  WUrtem- 
berg,  was  made  a  priest  in  1832  at  Augsburg,  called  to 
Balzhausen,  Augsburg  diocese,  in  1849;  and  died  April 
1^,  1874.  He  published,  VerMUch  einer  Harmonuirung 
der  Welt'  und  Kircheitffeschickte  (Zurich,  1868)  i—Hand- 
buck  zum  rdmisch-katkolischen  Religionntnterrichte  (Augs- 
burg, 1868, 2  vols.)  :—StundeH  der  Andacktjur  Katholi- 
hen  (Troppau,  1869-78).     (R  P.) 

Styles,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  Congregational 
minister  and  author,  commenced  hb  ministry'  in  early 
life  at  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  thence  removing  to  Brigh- 
ton, where  for  many  years  he  attracted  large  audiences. 
His  next  charge  was  Holland  Chapel,  North  Brixton, 
which  he  built,  and  which  he  left  in  1835.  From  1836 
to  1844  he  officiated  in  Claylands  Chapel,  at  the  same 
place.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  pastor  at  Foleshill, 
where  be  remained  until  his  death  at  Kennington,  June 
22, 1849.  A  masculine  energy,  a  noble  generosity  and 
benevolence  of  disposition,  were  his  characteristicSb  His 
mind  was  energetic  and  powerful,  he  could  write  on  al- 
most any  topic,  was  an  acute  critic,  had  superior  collo- 
quial powers,  richness  of  fancy,  and  his  style  was  pol- 
ished, vivacious,  and  luminous.  Dr.  Styles  published, 
An  E»9ay  on  the  Stage  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1807, 12mo)  \— Le- 
gend of  the  Velvet  Cushion  (exposing  in  a  masterly  man- 
ner a  writer  on  the  Puritans) : — Sermons  (ibid.  1813, 
1823,  2  vols.  8vo)  [the  sermon  on  The  SpirituaWy  of 
God  (Isle  of  Wight,  1806),  and  that  on  Temptations  of  a 
Wateiing'Place  (Brighton,  1815)  were  published  sepa- 
rately] :— Sermon  on  Lord  Byron^s  Works  (Lond.  1824)  : 
— Pi-tze  Essay  on  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals 
(elegant  and  convincing)  i— Critical  Papers  in  Ward's 
Miscellany  and  ifi  the  Evangelical  Magazine,  See 
(I^nd.)  Evangelical  Magazine^  August,  1849,  p.  893. 

Bummera,  Thomas  Osmond,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  emi- 
nent divine  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South, 
was  bom  near  Corfe  Castle,  Isle  of  Purbeck,  Dorset- 
shire, England,  Oct.  11, 1812.  lie  was  trained  by  Dis- 
senters, came  to  America  while  a  youth,  joined  the 
Methodists  in  1832,  was  converted  the  following  year, 
soon  began  to  preach,  and  entered  the  Baltimore  Con- 
ference of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1835.  In 
1840  he  became  a  missionary  in  Texas,  and  was  one  of 
the  first  members  of  that  conference ;  was  transferred  to 
the  Alabama  Conference  in  1844,  with  which  he  ever 
afterwards  remained  connected,  occupying  for  several 
years  its  most  important  charges,  and  afterwards  en- 
gaged in  literary  work,  as  the  editor  of  the  Southern 
Christian  Advocate  (1846),  of  the  Quarterly  Review  of 
the  M,  E,  Church  South  (1855),  and  other  periodicals. 
He  acted  as  secrctarj'  of  every  General  Conference  of 
his  Church,  from  its  organization  in  1845  to  his  death, 
which  occurred  during  the  session  of  that  body  at  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  May  5,  1882.  During  the  civil  war  he 
served  as  a  pastor  in  Alabama,  and  for  several  of  his 
later  years  he  was  a  professor  in  the  Vanderbilt  Uni- 
versity. He  was  a  man  of  encyclopedic  information, 
untiring  diligence,  and  wide  libendity  of  sentiment. 
He  wrote  and  edited  very  many  works  for  the  press  of 
his  Church,  and  numberless  articles  of  value  for  its  Jour- 
nali.    See  Minutes  of  the  Annual  Conferences  (if  the 


M.  E,  Ckmreh  South,  1882,  p.  125;  Simpson,  Cydop,  of 
Methodism,  s.  v. ;  Life  by  FitzgeraU  (Nashville,  1884). 

Sumner,  Charles  Richard,  D.D.,an  English  pre!- 
ate,  was  bom  at  Kenilworth,  Warwickshire,  in  1790.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge; became  rector  of  St  Helen's,  Abingdon,  Bucka^ 
and  librarian  and  historiographer  to  George  IV;  preb- 
end of  Worcester  in  1822 ;  of  Canterbury  in  1825;  dean 
of  St.  PauFs,  prebend  of  London,  and  bishop  of  Uandafl^ 
all  in  April,  1826 ;  was  translated  to  Winchester  in  1827  ; 
and  resigned  his  see,  on  account  of  the  infirmities  of  age, 
in  September,  1869.  He  died  Aug.  15, 1874^  Bialrap 
Sumner  was  an  earnest,  evangelical  preacher,  and  m 
hearty  supporter  of  the  Bible  and  missionary  sodetiea. 
He  published,  PralecUones  Aeadanioas  OxonU  Hahita 
(Lond.  8vo)  i^Mimsterial  Character  of  Christ  Praeti- 
eaUy  Considered  (ibid.  1824, 8vo ;  2d  ed.  1885, 8vo),  and 
several  Charges.  See  The  (Lond.)  Christian  Observer^ 
May,  1876,  p.  825. 

Supper,  The  Last,  is  a  modem  phrase  often  oaed 
to  designate  the  Lord's  Supper,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
it  was  the  last  meal  of  which  Jesus  partook  with  his 
disciples  (Matt,  xxvi,  29;  Mark  xiv,  25;  Lake  xxu,  ISy. 
The  circumstances  of  the  repast  have  been  so  fnOv  dis- 
cussed in  preceding  articles,  that  it  remains  to  consider 
more  particulariy  only  one  feature,  namely,  the  relative 
position'of  the  guests  at  the  table ;  as  this  reflects  special 
light  upon  several  incidents  and  expressions  in  the  nar- 
ratives of  the  evangelists. 

1.  The  place  of  Peter  would  properly  be  that  of  honor 
among  the  disciples;  and  it  is  agreed  upon  all  hands 
that  such  was  by  custom  the  uppermost  or  left-hand 
one  on  the  highest  or  left-hand  wing  of  the  tridiniam 
or  dinner-bed,  reckoned  according  to  the  fact  that  the 
guests  reclined  upon  their  left  side  (so  as  to  leave  the 
right  hand  free  for  eating  with),  each  facing  the  petaon 
next  below.  In  this  arrangement  also  he  would  be  the 
first  to  whom  the  Master  would  come  for  the  foot-waah- 
ing,  as  is  evident  from  the  account  of  that  incident 
("  began,"  John  xiii,  5).  Moreover,  he  would  thus  be 
opposite  John,  and  sufficiently  removed  from  him  to 
render  ''beckoning"  necessary  in  order  to  ascertain 
through  him  the  person  of  the  traitor  (John  xiii,  24). 

2.  The  interesting  group  of  which  the  Lord  himself 
formed  the  centre  consisted,  besides  him,  of  Judaa  and 
John,  who  were  so  situated  that  the  latter,  as  he  lay  **  in 
Jesus'  bosom,"  could  lean  back  {liritnowv,  John  xiii,  25, 
for  which  many  read  ipawtobtv,  both  to  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished from  the  avoKtifUvoc  of  the  verse  preceding), 
and  whisper  to  the  Master;  and  the  former  so  located 
that  he  could  readily  receive  the  sop  from  the  Master*8 
hands.  All  this  renders  it  plain  that  Judas  occupied 
the  honorable  position  above,  i.  e.  at  the  back  of  Jeans; 
and  John  the  next  favored  location  below  or  joat  in 
front  of  him. 

According  to  classical  etiquette,  the  master  or  host 
reclined  on  the  middle  place  of  the  middle  bed;  and  in 
that  case  the  arrangement  of  ttke  whole  would  be  as  in 
the  accompanying  diagram  (see  Smith,  Did,  of  dose, 
AnUq,  a.  v.,  triclinium).  This  meets  the  ordinary  sense 
of  propriety  also.    But  Edersheim  maintains  {Life  €tmd 


1 

1 

1 

TART.1B 

»- 

Presumed  Clasakal  Order  of  the  last  $apper. 


SUSSKINB 


861 


SYLBXJRG 


r 

^ 

7^ 

f~ 

A, 

^ 

« 

• 

r 

TABLB 

1 

J 

T 

Timm  of  Jeius,  ii, 
494),  from  oeitain  rab- 
binical notices,  tbat 
the  appropriate  place 
for  the  giver  of  the 
feast  was  at  the  foot 
of  the  table,. and  in 
that  case  John  would 
be  exactly  opposite 
Peter,  at  the  other 
extreme  of  the  entire 
series,  as  in  the  sub> 
joined  diagram.  In 
thb  way,  however, 
these  two  disciples 
would  seem  to  be  too 
near  each  other  to 
suit  the  need  of  signs, 
since  they  could  free7 
ly  converse  across  Supposed  Rabbinical  Order  at  the 
the  Uble;  and  they  Last  Supper, 

would  not  so  fully  face  one  another,  since  they  would 
be  reclining  rather  back  to  back.    S^e  Accusation. 

BliBflkind,  Friedrich  Gottu>b  von,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  17, 1767.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen,  was  in  1795  deacon  at  Urach,  in 
1798  teacher  at  Tubingen,  in  1805  court-preacher  and 
member  of  consistory  at  Stutgard,  and  died  No^l2, 
1829.  He  published*,  Quonam  Sensu  mam  JesuiVoc- 
trinamDivwamPerhibuerUf  (Tubingen,  1798>-1 801 ;  in 
German,  ibid.  1802)  '^—SymbolcB  ad  Ittustranda  Qucedam 
EvangeUorum  Loca  (1802-1804,  8  parts) :  — ^fa^oztn 
fur  christlicke  Dogmatik  und  Moral  (1808-12)  i—Prii' 
fung  der  Schelling'Bchen  Lehre  von  Gott  (1812).  See 
D5ring,  Die  deutschen  Kanxelrtdnerj  p.  502-505 ;  Winer, 
ffandbuck  der  theoi.  Lit.  i,  21, 284, 400.     (B.  P.) 

Butcliffe,  Joseph,  M.A.,  an  English  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  bom  at  Baildon,  Yorkshire.  He  was  con- 
verted in  early  life,  was  appointed  by  Wesley  to  Red- 
ruth in  1786,'  introduced  Methodism  into  the  Scilly 
Isles  in  1788,  spent  the  last  twenty  yean  of  his  life  in 
retirement  in  London,  and  died  May  14,  1856.  His 
course  was  one  of  "  unspotted  Christian  purity  and  pro- 
gressive excellence.  In  Biblical  scholarship  he  espe- 
cially excelled."  He  was  an  indefatigable  writer,  pub- 
lishing in  all  thirty-two  works  on  religious  subjects, 
the  chief  being  A  Commentary  oti  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  (Lond.  1884, 2  vols,  royal  8vo).  See  Minutes 
of  the  British  Conference,  1866*  p.  211 ;  Stevens,  Hist, 
of  Methodism,  ii,  848 ;  Smith,  Hist,  of  Wesl  Methodism, 
ii,  647;  WesL  Meth.  Magaztne,  1856,  p.  503;  Osbom, 
Meth.  Bibliography,  p.  181 ;  Wesleyan  Takings,  i,  803. 

Button,  Amos,  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  Sevenoaks,  Kent,  Jan.  21, 1802.  At  fifteen 
he  resided  in  London,  at  twenty  returned  home  and 
joined  the  Baptist  Church.  He  was  accepted  as  a 
general  Baptist  missionary,  and  sailed  fur  Calcutta  in 
1824,  thence  to  Cuttack,  Orissa,  India,  where  he  labored 
till  his  health  failed  in  1832,  and  then  returned  to  Eng- 
land. He  returned  to  CutUck  in  1837,  and  labored  till 
1847,  when  he  had  again  to  seek  rest  in  England,  and 
became  pastor  at  Leicester.  In  1850  he  returned  again 
to  India  by  way  of  America.  He  reached  his  station 
in  India  only  to  die,  Aug.  17, 1851. 

Swaim,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Pemberton,  N.  J.,  March  80, 1817.  He  was  for 
a  time  a  student  in  Brown  University  in  the  class  of 
1888,  and  having  completed  his  college  course  in  Mad- 
ison University,  graduated  from  Hamilton  Theological 
Seminary  in  1844.  He  was  ordained  in  November, 
1846,  pastor  at  Washington,  Pa.  At  the  end  of  four 
yean'  successful  labor,  he  accepted  an  agency  in  the 
service  of  the  missionary  union  for  six  months,  and 
then  was  pastor  in  Flemington,  N.  J.,  sixteen  years. 
In  1867  he  became  the  financial  secretary  of  the  New 
Jersey  Classical  and  Scientific  Institute  at  Hightstown, 


and  in  1868  district  secretary  of  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Missionary  Society.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  March  24, 1884.  See  CSathcart,  Baptist  Eneydop, 
p.  1124.    (J.  a  a) 

Swain,  Lbo9ARD,.D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  Feb.  26, 1821.  He  grad- 
uated from  Dartmouth  College  in  1841,  and  from  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary  in  1846;  was  immediately 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Nashua,  establishing 
from  the  outset  a  reputation  as  an  able  and  eloquent 
preacher.  His  next  pastorate  was  over  the  Central 
Church  of  Pirovidence,  R.  L,  from  1852  to  1869.  For 
nearly  two  yean  he  was  laid  aside  from  his  work,  and 
died  July  1^  1869.  See  Rhode  Island  Biographical 
Cydopasdia,  s.  v.     (J.  C  S.) 

Swan,  Jabez  Smith,  a  noted  Baptist  evangelist, 
was  bom  at  Stonington,  Conn.,  Feb.  23, 1800.  He  had 
early  educational  advantages;  was  converted  at  thi; 
age  of  twenty-one;  licensed  the  following  year;  stud- 
ied at  the  Hamilton  Institute,  N.  Y. ;  became  pastor  at 
Stonington  in  1827;  Norwich,  N.  Y.,  in  1880;  Preston 
in  1837;  Oxford  in  1842;  New  London,  Conn.,  in  1848; 
Albany,  N.Y.,  in  1848;  at  New  London  again  in  1849; 
served  as  a  missionary  through  the  state  of  New  York 
for  several  yean ;  became  pastor  at  Waterford,  where 
his  health  failed  in  1862;  and  died  Nov.  19,1884.  He 
was  powerful  in  prayer  and  preaching,  and  grest  re- 
vivals followed  his  labors.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  En- 
cyclop,  s.  V. 

Bycazninum.    See  Haifa. 

Bydeaerf,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  trans- 
lated from  Brechin  to  Gallo%vay  in  1688,  and  was  ex- 
communicated. He  was  the  only  bishop  who  survived 
the  troubles,  and  then  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
Orkney,  Nov.  14,  1662.  He  died  in  February,  1676. 
See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  228,  281. 

Bydow,  Kabl  Leopold  Adolf,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  23, 1800,  at  Berlin. 
He  studied  theology  under  Schleiermacher;  in  1828  was 
chaplain  and  tutor  in  the  military  school  at  Berlin,  and 
in  1837  was  called  aa  court  and  military  chaplain  to 
Potsdam.  In  1841  he  was  sent  by  Frederic  William 
rV  to  England,  to  study  there,  in  connection  with  other 
commissioners,  the  institutions  for  the  religious  care  of 
the  population  of  London  and  other  large  cities,  and  to 
repwt  of  his  experience,  and  at  the  same  time  of  the 
newly  founded  Anglo-Prussian  bishopric  at  Jerusalem; 
This  he  did  in  his  A  mtliche  Berichte  Uber  die  in  neuerer 
Zeii  in  England  erwachte  ThStigkeUfiir  die  Vermehrung 
und  ErweUerung  der  hirchlichen  A  nstaUen  (1845).  As 
this  mission  brought  him  in  connection  with  the  queen 
of  England  and  prince  Albert,  he  was  requested  to  pre- 
pare a  paper  on  the  movement  then  pending  in  Scot-^ 
land  for  separating  the  Church  from  the  State.  This 
he  did  in  his  Beiirdge  zur  Characteristik  der  kerchlichen 
Binge  m  Grossbritanmen  (1844-45, 2  parts),  in  which  he 
freely  advocated  the  separation.  In  1846  he  accepted 
a  call  as  pastor  of  the  Neue  Kirche  in  Berlin,  which 
position  he  occupied  till  the  year  1876.  In  connection 
with  Eltester,  Thomas,  and  Pischon,  he  published  the 
Monatsschrift,  afterwards  Zeitschrifi  fur  die  unirte 
Kirche,  which,  in  1854,  was  replaced  by  the  Protestan- 
tische  Kirchenzeitwig.  In  1848  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Berlin  National  Assembly,  and  ten  yeara  later  the  the- 
ological faculty  of  Jena  honored  him  with  the  doctorate 
of  theology.  W^hen,  in  1872,  he  delivered  a  lecture,  in 
which  he  declared  that  Jesus  was  the  natural  son  of 
Joseph  and  Marv,  the  Brandenburg  consistory  deposed 
him  from  his  office.  He  died  Oct.  22, 1882.  Bemdcs 
the  writings  already  mentioned,  he  published  Sammlung 
geistlicher  Vortrage  (Berlin,  1888),  and,  in  connection 
with  F.  A.  Schulze,  he  translated  and  published  fifteen 
volumes  of  Channing's  works  (1850-^5).  See  Zuchold, 
BibL  Theol.  ii,  1301.     (B.  P.) 

Sylburg,  Friedrich,  a  German  scholar,  was  bom 
in  1586  at  Wetter,  near  Marburg,  and  died  Feb.  16, 1596^ 


SYME 


862 


TABOO 


at  Heidelberg.  Sylbmg  ia  knoirn  m  the  editor  of  some 
of  the  works  of  the  Church  fathers,  to  which  he  made 
annotations.  Thus  he  edited  the  works  of  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  in  Greek  and  Latin  (Heidelberg,  1582),  an 
edition  which  is  still  highly  praised.  See  Jbcher,  A  tl- 
gtmdneB  Gdehrta^LexUoon^  a.  t.  ;  Winer,  ffandbudk  dor 
tkeoL  LU.  i,  831, 883, 888, 898.     (a  P.) 

Syme,  Andrew,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  minister,  was 
bom  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  September,  1764.  He 
went  to  Petersburg,  Ya.,  before  1800,  and  remained  till 
his  death,  Oct  26,  1846,  being  at  the  time  the  old- 
est citizen  in  the  town,  and  the  oldest  clergyman  in 
the  state.  See  Sturgh,  Amar,  Bioff,  Notes ,  p.  886. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Syzningtoii,  W.,  D.D.,  a  minister  in  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  was  bom  in  1795,  and 
died  at  Glasgow,  professor  of  theology  in  the  seminary 
of  his  mother  Church,  Jan.  28, 1862,  in  the  forty-third 
year  of  his  ministry.  His  works  on  the  Atonement  and 
Intercession  of  Christ,  and  on  the  Mediatorial  Dominion 
of  Christy  were  the  best  known  to  the  public.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  a  volume  of  Sermons,  See  Appl^ 
ton's  A  nnual  Cyclop,  1862,  p.  683. 

Bymmona,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Church  of  England 
divine,  was  bom  in  1749.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster, at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  at  Clare  Hall, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.D.  in  1776; 
was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Narberth  by  the  king 
in  1778,  and  died  at  Bath,  April  27, 1826.  His  first  pub- 
lication  was  in  1788,  an  octavo  volume  of  Sermons,  In 
1789  he  published  in  quarto  A  Sermon  for  the  Benefit  of 
Decayed  Clergymen  in  the  Diocese  of  St,  David's ;  and  in 
1790,  The  Consequence  of  the  Character  of  the  Indioid- 
no/,  and  the  Injluenoe  ^Education  in  Forming  ft ;  in 
1797  he  produced  /nes,  a  dramatic  poem ;  and  in  1800 


another  called  ConttanUa,  In  1806  appeared  his  Li/e 
ofMiltonf  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Hilton's  prose  worki^ 
of  which  he  was  not  the  editor.  In  1818  he  published 
an  octavo  volome  of  poems,  partly  his  own,  and  partly 
the  compontions  of  his  wondroudy  gifted,  but  then  de* 
ceased,  daughter.  Subsequently  he  amuaed  his  leiaore 
hours  with  writing  A  Bhymed  Translation  oftheuEneid, 
which  was  published  in  1817.  His  last  work  waa  a 
sketch  of  Shakespeare^s  life.  See  (Lond.)  Ammal  JU^ 
urer,1826,p.247. 

Syzlao  (Modern)  Version  of  the  Scripturbs. 
The  modem  Syriac  language,  written  in  Nestorian 
characters,  and  spoken  by  the  Christians  of  the  latter 
name,  is  a  very  corrupt  dialect  of  the  ancient  Syriac, 
abounding  in  Persian,  Turkish,  and  Kurdish  words,  and 
pronounced  very  harshly.  Mr.  Perkins,  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board  of  Missions,  commenced,  in  1836,  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  from  the  ancient  or  ecclesiastical 
language  into  the  vernacular  now  in  use  among  the 
people.  The  gospels  were  soon  issued  from  the  preaa 
at  Oroomiah,  and  later  the  entire  Bible.  See  BUis  of 
Every  Land^  p.  46. 

8yxo-Roman  Cbxiatiaiis  are  a  class  of  converta 
to  the  Romish  faith  in  Malabar  and  Travanoore,  in  In- 
dia. They  have  their  own  bishops  and  priests.  Their 
forefathers  appear  to  have  belonged  to  the  Christiaiia 
of  SL  Thomas,  as  they  were  called ;  and  were  gained 
oveif  to  the  Romish  Church  by  the  Portuguese,  who 
compelled  the  churches  nearest  the  coast  to  acknowl- 
edge the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  The  Syro- Roman 
Christians,  along  with  the  converts  from  other  tribes 
in  the  district,  are  said  to  amount  to  upwards  of  one 
hundred  thousand  souls.  They  are  allowed  to  retain 
their  own  language  in  divine  worship,  as  well  as  their 
own  liturgy,  and  they  have  a  Syriac  college. 


T. 


Taanaoh.  The  present  Tanmtk  lies  six  miles 
north-west  of  Zerin  (Jezreel),  and  is  ^'a  small  village 
on  the  south-east  side  of  the  great  tell  or  mound  of  the 
same  name,  at  the  [south-west]  edge  of  the  great  plain 
[of  Esdraelon].  It  has  olives  on  the  south,  and  wells 
on  the  north,  and  is  surrounded  by  cactus  hedges. 
There  is  a  white  dome  in  the  village.  The  rock  on 
the  sides  of  the  tell  is  quarried  in  places,  the  wells  are 
ancient,  and  rock-cut  tombs  occur  on  the  north,  near 
the  foot  of  the  mound"  {Memoirs  to  Ordnance  Survey, 
ii,  46;  comp.  p.68). 

Taanath-Bhiloh  is  thought  by  Tristram  {BibU 
Places,  p.  195)  and  Conder  {Tent  Work,  ii,  340)  to  be 
the  present  ruin  Tana,  seven  miles  south-east  of  She- 
chem,  and  two  north  of  Janohoh  (Yanflm),  containing 
*' foundations,  caves,  cistern,  and  rock-cut  tombs"  {Me- 
moirs to  Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  245,  comp.  p.  232). 

Tabaraud,  Matthieu  MATHunuf,  a  French  con- 
troversialist, was  born  at  Limoges  in  1744.  He  was 
educated  by  the  Jesuits,  was  for  some  time  professor  of 
belles-lettres  at  Nantes,  professor  of  theology  and  He- 
brew at  Aries,  in  1783  superior  of  the  college  at  Peze- 
nas,  in  1787  at  Rochelle,  emigrated  in  1791  to  EngUnd, 
and  died  at  limoges,  Jan.  9, 1832.  He  published,  TraUe 
Historique  et  Critique  de  t Election  des  Eveques  (Paris, 
1792,  2  vols.)  '.--De  la  NecessiU  d'une  Religion  SEtat 
(1808, 1804)  \—Principes  sur  la  Distinction  du  CorUrat  et 
du  Sacrement  de  Mariage  (1802, 1816)  :-^Histoire  de 
Pierre  de  BiruUe,  Fondateur  de  la  Congregation  de  VOr* 
atoire  (1817,  2  vols.).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL 
Lit,  i,  726,  820 ;  Lichtenberger,  Eneydop,  des  Sciences 
Beligieuses,  s.  v.    (B.  P.). 

Tables,  Tine  Four.  During  the  fierce  contest  in 
Scotland  between  the  adherents  of  the  Church  of  Eng^ 
land  and  the  Presbyterians,  several  outbreaks* occurred. 
On  Nov.  15, 1687,  there  was  a  meeting  of  the  Privy 


Council,  and  large  numbers  of  Presbyterians  assembled 
at  the  capitaL  In  order  to  prevent  any  tumnltaoos 
commotion,  the  nobles  were  requested  to  use  their  in- 
fluence to  induce  their  friends  to  return  to  their  homesL 
This  was  consented  to  on  condition  that  a  sufiSdent 
number  should  remain  to  look  after  their  interests.  It 
was  arranged  that  as  many  of  the  nobility  as  pleased, 
two  gentlemen  from  every  county,  one  minister  from 
every  presbytery,  and  one  burgess  from  every  burgh, 
should  form  a  general  commission,  representing  the 
whole  body  of  the  Presbyterians.  Still  more  to  con> 
centrate  their  efforts,  a  smaller  number  was  selected, 
who  should  reside  at  Edinburgh,  watch  the  progress  of 
events,  and  be  ready  to  communicate  with  the  whole 
body  on  any  emergency.  This  smaller  committee  was 
composed  of  sixteen  persons — four  noblemen,  four  gen- 
tlemen, four  ministers,  and  four  burgesses;  and  from  the 
ciroumstance  of  their  sitting  in  four  separate  rooms  in 
the  parliament  house,  they  were  designated  The  Foor 
Tables.  A  member  from  each  of  these  constituted  m 
chief  table  of  last  resort,  making  a  supreme  council  of 
four  members.  See  Hetherington,  Hist,  ofChnrck  of 
Scotland,  i,  291. 

Taboo  (or  Tab^),  an  institution  common  to  all  the 
Polynesian  tribes,  which  solemnly  interdicted  whatever 
was  esteemed  sacred.  Hence  the  term  was  used  to  de- 
note anything  devoted.  With  persons  or  places  that 
were  tabooed,  all  intercourse  was  prohibited.  Thete 
were  tabooed  or  sacred  days,  when  it  was  a  crime  to  be 
found  in  a  canoe.  Pork,  bananas,  cocoa-nuts,  and  cer- 
tain kinds  of  fish  were  tabooed  to  women,  and  it  was 
death  for  them  to  eat  these  articles  of  food.  The  eadng 
together  by  man  and  wife  was  also  tabooed,  as  was  the 
preparation  of  their  food  in  the  same  oren.  Anythinn^ 
of  which  a  man  made  an  idol,  and  articles  of  food  of- 
fered to  idols,  were  tabooed  to  him.  There  were  other 
instances  of  taboo,  as  the  ariki,  or  head  chiei^  of  an  ial» 


TABOR 


863 


TANTALUS 


and,  who  was  w  laend  that  hit  houae,  garmeiits,  and 
eveiything  relatiii^  to  him  were  taboo.  The  taboo 
arose  (torn  the  idea  that  a  portion  of  the  spiritnal  es- 
sence of  the  divinity  indwelling  in  saored  things  and 
persons  was  more  or  less  transmitted  to  anything  else 
brought  in  contact  with  it. 

Tabor,  Houirr.  For  the  latest  description  and  plan 
of  Jd>el  et-^TSr,  see  the  Memoirt  to  the  Ordnance  Sur- 
rey, i,  388  sq. 

TabuniflOBton,  among  the  Kalmucks,  is  a  deity 
of  the  second  rank,  who  has  appeared  fifty-two  times  in 
as  many  different  forms.  The  principal  form  is  that 
of  a  woman,  which,  in  all  external  appearance,  is  en- 
tirely like  that  of  tbe  Kalmuck  women  in  general  She 
sits  with  crossed  legs  upon  an  elevation,  is  in  part  un- 
clothed, and  wherever  the  flesh  appears  is  painted 
red.  Head-dress  and  clothing  are  about  tantamount  to 
each  other  in  most  Kalmuck  deities ;  the  lower  part  of 
the  body  is  enveloped  in  a  light  robe,  while  the  head  is 
crowned  with  a  towering  ornament,  and  adorned  with 
flowers.  Tabunisozton  holds  in  her  hands  a  vessel  of 
fruit,  and  is  regarded  as  the  goddess  of  earthly  fruitful- 
ness,  with  which  her  frequent  reviviscence  agrees. 

Tae-Kelh  is  the  fundamental  unity  of  the  Chinese 
literati,  the  absolute,  or,  literally,  the  "great  extreme." 
Beyond  this,  they  all^^  no  human  thought  can  soar. 
Itaelf  incomprehensible,  it  girdles  the  whole  frame  of 
nature,  animate  and  inanimate.  From  it  alone,  as  from 
the  fountain-head  of  nature,  issued  everything  that  is. 
Creation  is  the  periodic  flowing  forth  of  it.  Tae-Kdh 
is  identical  with  Le,  the  immaterial  element  of  the  uni- 
verse. 

Tafel,  JoHANN  FimcDBXCH  Ixuaxuel,  a  Sweden- 
borgian,  who  died  at  Stutgard  in  1863,  professor,  is  the 
author  of,  ReUgimutyaUm  dor  Neuen  Kircke  (Ttlbingen, 
1882) : — Getchichie  wid  Kritik  det  Shepticitmut  und  Ir- 
raHonaUtmus  in  ihrer  Benehung  zur  neuem  Philo$ophit 
(1834) : —  Vergkkhende  DartteUufig  und  Beurthnbmg  der 
Lehrgegeasdtze  der  KathoUken  und  Protutanien  (1835): — 
Zur  GescAkkte  der  Neuen  Kircke  (1841)  i^Swedenhorg 
und  sesM  Gegner  (2d  ed.  eod.) : — Die  ffaupiwakrheiten 
der  Religion  (1862)  .-Die  UiuterUichkeit  und  Wieder- 
eritmenmgtkraft  der  Seele  (1858) : — Swedenborg  und  der 
Aberglaube  (1856),  etc  See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  Theolt  s.  v. ; 
Wiim,HandbuchdertkeoLLiLit&06,b9b.    (B.  P.) 

Tailory,  The,  a  room  adjoining  the  wardrobe  in 
monasteries,  where  a  number  of  the  lay  brethren,  with 
a  vocation  for  that  useful  craft,  were  continually  at 
work,  making  and  repairing  the  clothes  of  the  commu- 
nity. These  two  rooms  and  the  lavatory  were  in  charge 
of  the  camerarius  or  chamberlain.  See  Hill,  EngUih 
MonatUeiem,  p.  20. 

Taixi,  the  principal  ddty  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders. 

Tait,  Archibald  Caxpbbll,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Eng- 
lish prelate,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  Dec  22, 
1811.  He  graduated  from  the  Edinburgh  High  School, 
Edinburgh  Academy,  Glasgow  University,  and  Oxford 
University,  from  the  last  with  the  highest  honors.  He 
became  a  public  examiner  of  the  university,  and  in  1842 
head  master  at  Rugby,  where  he  remained  eight  years. 
He  was  appointed  dean  of  Carlisle  in  1850,  where  he 
instituted  an  extra  pulpit  service^  and  gave  much  time 
to  visiting  and  instructing  the  poor.  In  1856  he  be- 
came bishop  of  London,  and  successfully  originated  a 
scheme  for  adding  to  the  Church  accommodation  in  the 
metropolis,  by  raising  in  ten  years  a  fund  of  five  million 
doUsrs.  He  was  translated  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of 
Canterbury  in  December,  1868.  He  presided  over  the 
Fan-Anglican  Synod  in  Lambeth  in  1867,  the  Churoh 
Congress  in  Croydon  in  1877,  and  the  Congress  of  An- 
glican Bishops  in  Lambeth  in  1878.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec  8, 1882.  Arohbuhop  Tait  was  a  churehman 
of  conservative  spirit  He  wrote,  Dangera  and  Safer 
guarde  of  Modem  Tkeologg:  —  The  Word  of  God  the 
Ground  of  Faiih :  —  Charge  to  the  Clergy :  —  Same 


Thous^  an  the  Dirfieff  of  (he  Church  of  England:-^ 
Lettere  on  EdueaHan  and  Kindred  Topict^  in  Sc«W/k  and 
British  reviews.    (W.  P.  a) 

Talbot,  RiCHABD,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  collated  to 
the  precentorship  of  Hereford  in  1407,  and  in  1416  was 
elected  to  the  primacy  of  Armagh.  In  1417  he  was 
consecrated  arehbiihop  of  the  see  of  Dublin.  In  1428 
he  was  lord  justice,  and  subsequently  lord  chanceUor  of 
Ireland,  and  in  1424  had  a  grant  for  all  his  services  of 
all  the  estates  of  Matthew  St.  John,  deceased.  He  was 
at  the  same  time  constituted  justice  and  guardian  of 
the  peace  in  tbe  county  of  Dublin.  In  1426  he  reduced 
the  proxies  that  were  formerly  paid  by  the  prior  and 
convent  of  the  Holy  Trinity  to  the  archbishops  of  Dub- 
lin, from  five  marks  to  two  and  a  half,  which  concession 
pope  Eogenius  afterwards  confirmed.  He  was  sgain 
constituted  lord  chanceUor  in  1428.  In  1432  he  estab- 
lished a  chantry  in  St.  Michael's  Church,  which,  from 
being  a  chapel,  he  constituted  parochial,  and  likewise 
founded  the  chantry  of  St.  Anne  in  St  Audeon's  Church, 
for  the  maintenance  of  six  priests  to  pray  for  the  king, 
the  founder,  and  their  successors.  In  1448  he  was 
elected  arehbishop  of  Armagh,  but  refused  the  dignity. 
In  1445  he  was  a  fourth  time  lord  deputy  of  Ireland, 
and  in  1447  was  appointed  deputy  to  the  earl  of  Or- 
naond,  viceroy  of  Ireland.  He  died  Aug.  15, 1449.  See 
D'Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  Archbithope  of  Dublin^  p.  158. 

Taliamans  were  used  by  the  Chaldiean  magicians 
to  prevent  the  attache  of  evil  spirits,  injury  from  wick- 
ed sorcery,  poison,  etc  We  give  the  following  transla^ 
tion  of  part  of  the  seventeenth  formula  on  the  tablet 
found  in  the  library  of  the  royal  pakce  at  Nineveh : 

**Two  double  bands  of  white  cloth 
upon  the  bed  on  the  platform 
as  a  talisman  If  he  binds  on  the  (right)  hand, 
two  double  bands  of  black  cloth 
if  he  binds  on  the  left  hand." 

The  possessor  of  this  talisman  was  assured  that  all  evil 
spirits  and  other  ills  would  leave  him,  never  to  return. 
These  talismana  were  of  different  kinds.  First  of  all 
there  were  those  which  consisted  of  bands  of  cloth, 
covered  with  certain  written  formufae,  and  were  fastened 
to  the  furniture  or  the  garments,  like  the  phylacteries 
of  the  Jews.  There  were  also  Amulets  (q.  v.).  Ves- 
sels, containing  food  and  drink  for  the  gods  and  genii, 
were  placed  in  the  apartmenta  as  protecting  talismans. 
The  dsNDons  were  represented  by  figures  of  such  hid- 
eous forms  that  it  was  believed  that  they  were  only  to 
be  shown  their  own  image  to  cause  them  to  flee  away. 
In  the  museum  of  the  Louvre  is  a  bronze  statuette  of 
Assyrian  workmanship;  a  figure  of  a  horrible  dssmon 
in  an  upright  position,  with  the  body  of  a  dog,  the  feet 
of  an  eagle,  the  claws  of  a  lion,  the  tail  of  a  scorpion, 
the  head  of  a  skeleton  but  half  decayed,  and  adorned 
with  goat's  horns,  the  eyes  still  remaining,  and,  lastly, 
four  great  expanded  wings.  See  Lenormant,  Chaldaan 
MagiCf  p.  850  i  Yolbeding,  Index  Programmatum,  p.  160 ; 
Thomson,  Land  and  Book^  i,  140, 217 ;  com  p.  Charm. 

Tall  Brothers,  an  epithet  (from  their  stature)  of 
four  Nitrian  monks,  named  Dioscurus,  Ammonius,  £u- 
sebius,  and  Euthymius,  who  were  reluctantly  induced 
by  Theophilua,  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  to  leave 
the  desert  and  receive  ordination.  They  were  so  dis- 
gusted during  the  troubles  of  the  time  of  Chrysostom 
that  they  returned  once  more  to  their  solitude,  and  al- 
though condemned  and  denounced,  A.D.  401,  and  even 
personally  attacked  by  Theophilus^  they  persisted  in 
remaining  there. 

Tamarisk.    See  Grove, 

TantAlus,  a  Greek  mythological  character,  was, 
according  to  some,  a  son  of  Zeus,  or,  according  to 
others,  of  Tmolus.  All  traditions  agree  in  stating 
that  he  was  a  wealthy  king,  but  assign  him  to  differ- 
ent kingdoms,  as  Lydia,  Sipylus,  in  Fhrygia  or  Paphla- 
gonia,  and  Argos  or  Corinth.  Tantalus  is  peculiarly 
celebrated  in  ancient  story  for  the  severe  punishment 


TANTRAS 


864 


TAPPtTAH 


inflicted  upon  him  after  his  death.  The  following 
are  somo  of  the  traditions,  of  which  the  moet  common 
is  that  Zens  invited  him  to  his  table  and  communicated 
his  divine  counsels  to  him.'  Tantalus  divulged  these 
secrets,  and  the  gods  punished  him  by  placing  him  in 
the  midst  of  a  lake,  of  which  he  oould  never  drink,  the 
water  always  withdrawing  when  he  stooped.  Branch- 
es laden  with  fruit  hung  temptingly  near,  but  with- 
drew whenever  he  reached  after  them.  Over  his  head 
there  was  suspended  a  huge  rock  ever  threatening  to 
crush  him.  Another  tradition  relates  that,  wishing  to 
try  the  gods,  he  cut  his  son  Pelops  in  pieces,  boiled 
them,  and  set  them  before  the  gods  as  a  repast.  A 
third  account  states  that  Tantalus  stole  nectar  and  am- 
brosia from  the  table  of  the  gods,  and  gave  them  to  his 
friends;  while  a  fourth  relates  the  following  story. 
Rhea  caused  the  infant  Zeus  and  his  nurse  to  be  guard- 
ed  by  a  golden  dog,  whom  subsequently  Zeus  appointed 
guardian  of  his  temple  in  Crete.  Pandsrus  stole  the 
dog,  and  carrying  him  to  Mount  Sipylus,  in  Lydia,  gave 
him  to  Tantalus  to  take  care  of.  But  when  Pandierus 
demanded  the  dog  back,  Tantalus  took  an  oath  that  he 
had  never  received  him.  The  punishment  of  Tantalus 
was  proverbial  in  ancient  times,  and  from  it  the  Eng- 
lish language  has  borrowed  the  verb  "to  tantalise," 
that  is,  to  hold  out  hopes  or  prospects  which  can  never 
be  realized.    See  IxiON. 

Tantras  (from  Uuuu  tan^  to  believe)  are  the  sacred 
writings  of  the  Hindis,  which  are  said  to  have  been 
composed  by  Siva,  and  bear  the  same  relation  to  the 
votaries  of  Siva  that  the  Puranas  do  to  the  votaries 
of  Vishnu.  The  Saiva  sect  look  upon  the  Tantras  as 
the  fifth  Yeda,  and  attribute  to  them  equal  antiquity 
and  superior  suthority.  The  observances  they  pre- 
scribe have,  indeed,  in  Bengal,  almost  superseded  the 
original  ritual.  The  date  of  the  first  composition  is 
involved  in  considerable  obscurity ;  but  professor  Wil- 
son thinks  that  the  system  originated  early  in  the 
Christian  asra,  being  founded  on  the  previous  worship  of 
the  female  principle  and  the  practices  of  the  Yoga,  with 
the  Mantras  or  mystical  formulsB  of  the  Vedas.  The 
principal  Tantras  are  the  Sjfomarahagya,  Rudrayamala, 
Mantramahodadhi,  SaradaiUaha,  and  Kalikattmira, 
Raromohun  Roy  alleges,  in  his  Apoiogy  for  VedtnUic 
Theismj  that  among  the  Tantras  there  are  forged  works 
and  passages,  published  as  if  genuine,  *'  with  the  view 
of  introducing  new  doctrines,  new  rites,  or  new  precepts 
of  seculsr  law."  Some  of  the  Tantras  appear  to  have 
been  written  chiefly  in  Bengal,  and  in  the  eastern  dis- 
tricts of  Hindustan,  being  unknown  in  the  west  and 
south,  and  the  rites  they  teach  having  there  failed  to 
set  aside  the  ceremonies  of  the  Vedas,  although  they 
are  not  without  an  important  influence  upon  the  belief 
and  practices  of  the  people.  The  Saktas  (q.  v.)  derive 
the  principles  of  their  sect,  and  their  religious  ceremo- 
nies, wholly  from  the  Tantras,  and  hence  are  often 
called  Tantraists. 

Tantum  Ergo  {So  great  thenfore).  The  con- 
cluding part  of  the  hymn  for  Corpus  Christi  day,  en- 
titled Pange  liaguOy  which  is  sung  in  the  Latin  Church 
when  the  holy  sacrament  is  exposed  for  the  worship, 
and  elevated  for  the  benediction  of  the  faithful. 

"Tantnm  er^  Sacraroentnm 
Veueremnr  cernui : 
Bt  anUquom  documentom 

Novo  cedat  ritai : 
Pnestet  fldes  snpplementnn^ 
Sensnnm  defectot 

"  Genitori,  eenltoque 

Laos  et  jabilatio, 
Sains,  honor,  virtus  qaoqoe. 

Sit  et  benedictio: 
Procedeuti  ab  utroqne 

Compar  sit  laodatia    Amen." 

Tapestry.  The  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages  re- 
quired for  various  purposes  a  great  number  of  tapestries 
— ^for  dorsalia  at  the  back  of  the  choir-stalls,  for  dosing 
the  doors  and  windows,  for  the  protecting  enclosures  | 


of  the  altars,  for  the  veiling  of  the  sanctnaiy  durinf^^ 
the  fast-time  (iasting^oths),  and  especially  for  cloth- 
ing the  walls  and  the  floor.  At  flnt  the  tapestry  came 
ftom  the  East,  until,  in  the  4th  oentnry,  a  tapestry  man- 
ufactory was  formed  at  Palermo,  which,  under  tlie 
hands  of  Saracen  and  Byzantine  workmen,  imitated  the 
Oriental  patterns.  These  old  silk  webs,  of  which  we 
find  remains  here  and  there  in  collections,  show  a  strict- 
ly architectonic  style,  and  are  covered  with  figures  of 
animals  of  a  typical  character,  such  as  griffins,  uniooma, 
lions,  elephants,  peacocks,  and  parrota  In  the  northern 
cloisters,  tapestry-weaving  vras  learned  and  soon  prae-^ 
ticed,  even  from  the  beginning  of  the  Romanesque  pe- 
riod, and  the  circle  of  representations  was  increased  by 
Biblical  and  symbolical  scenes,  to  which  were  added 
representations  out  of  favorite  poets.  Tapestry -em- 
broidery was  an  occupation  followed  with  zeal  in  the 
nunneries.  From  the  14th  century,  carpets  painted 
with  size-colors  on  linen  were  also  made.  With  the 
entrance  of  Gothic  art,  there  appears  in  use  a  frieze- 
like  composition,  hand  in  hand  with  a  naive  naturalis-' 
tic  border,  which  drives  out  the  severe  style  of  the 
earlier  times.  Interesting  tapestries  of  the  Romancaqiie 
period,  partly  with  antique  mythological  representa- 
tions, are  to  be  seen  in  the  treasury  of  the  collegiate 
church  at  Quedlinbnrg;  others  of  the  same  time,  with 
Christian  representations,  in  the  cathedral  at  Halbcr- 
stadt,  intended  for  the  backs  of  choir-stalls.  A  com- 
plete selection  of  tapestries  is  in  the  monastery  of  Wien* 
hausen,  near  Zell,  one  of  them  an  embroidery  with  the 
history  of  Tristan  and  Isolde;  others  in  the  St  Eliza- 
beth Church  at  Marburg,  in  St.  Sebald  and  St.  Lorenz, 
at  Nuremberg,  and  in  many  church  treasuries. 

Tappan,  Hiscnr  Philtp,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  diatin- 
guisheid  educator,  was  bom  at  Rhinebeck  on  the  Hod- 
son,  April  23, 1805.  He  gradiuited  from  Union  College 
in  1825,  and  from  Auburn  Theological  Seminary  in 
1827 ;  became  assistant  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Van  Vecbten, 
in  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  at  Schenectady;  the 
next  year  was  settled  as  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  Pittsfield,  Mass. ;  and  in  1881  was  compelled 
by  ill-health  to  resign.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  resigned  in  19S8, 
During  the  next  few  years  he  spent  most  of  his  time 
in  writing  books  and  conducting  a  private  seminary  in 
New  York  dty.  He  published,  A  Review  ofEdwanfe 
Inquiry  inio  the  Freedom  of  the  WiU  (1889) :—  The 
Doctrine  of  ike  Freedom  of  the  WiU  Determumi  6y  am 
Appeal  to  ComeiouMeee  (1840) :— rAe  Doclrim  of  the 
Freedom  of  the  WiU  appUed  to  Moral  Agency  a»d  Re- 
iponnbUity  (ISil):^  ElemaUs  ofLogie^  with  am  Iwiro* 
ductory  View  of  Philosophy  in  General^  and  a  PreUmi' 
nary  View  of  the  Reaeon  (1844) :— a  trcatiw  on  Uni' 
versify  Education  (1851).  In  the  latter  year  he  went 
to  Europe,  and  on  bis  return  in  1852  published  A  Step 
from  the  Kern  World  to  the  Old,  He  was  president  of 
the  University  of  Michigan  from  1852  to  1863,  end 
gave  it  a  new  life  by  his  administration.  XUit  hb 
retirement  from  this  school  he  lived  almost  entirely 
abroad,  and  died  Nov.  15, 1881,  st  Vevay.  Switzeriand, 

Tappuah.  The  present  TVt^oA,  which  probably 
represents  Betb-tappuah  (Josh,  zv,  58),  is  briefly  de- 
scribed in  the  Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey  (iii, 
810).  BeiU.4  tah,  which  we  have  conjectured  to  be  the 
Tappuah  of  Josh,  xii,  11 ;  xv,  84,  is  copiously  described, 
ibid.  p.  22  sq.,  83 ;  but  Tristram  suggests  {Bible  Piaee»^ 
p.  48)  for  the  latter  Biblical  site  the  present  Art^f^ 
which  lies  three  and  a  half  miles  to  the  north-west  of 
Beit-Atah,  and  one  and  a  quarter  miles  south-east  of 
Surah  (Zorah).  It  is  described  in  the  above  Memoim 
(iii,  22)  as  <<  a  small  village  on  a  low  hill,  with  an  open 
valley  to  the  west.  There  is  a  pool  in  the  valley,  where 
the  village  obtains  its  water.  OUve<ptrees  occur  aioand 
the  place."  There  do  not  seem  to  be  any  traces  oC 
antiquity.    The  third  Tappuah,  or  that  of  Ephiaina 


TASSO 


866' 


TAYLOR 


(Jo8b.  ZYi,  8;  xvii,  S),  or  En-tappoah,  is  conceded  by 
Tmtnin  (ut  tup*  p.  195)  to  be  the  modem  Ati^^  but  to 
this  CoDder  objects  {Memoirt,  ii,  867)  that  there  is  no 
spring  and  no  tombs,  and  that  the  names  have  bat  one 
letter  in  common.  The  place  is  **a  mud  village^  built 
on  an  older  site,  and  supplied  by  wells  and  cisterns*' 
(ibid.  p.  227). 

Taoao,  Torquato,  a  celebrated  Italian  poet,  was 
born  at  Sorrento,  where  hb  parents  were  visiting, 
March  11, 1544.  Soon  alter  his  parents  returned  to 
Naples  with  him,  and  committed  their  son,  at  the  age 
of  three  years,  to  the  care  of  a  man  of  learning.  At 
four  he  was  sent  to  the  college  of  the  Jesuits,  where  he 
made  such  rapid  progress  that  at  seven  years  of  age  be 
was  pretty  well  acquainted  with  the  Latin  and  Greek 
tongues.  Bernardo,  the  father  of  the  poet,  following  his 
patron,  the  prince  of  Sslemo,  into  France,  committed 
his  son,  then  nine  years  old,  to  Maurice  Cataneo,  who 
assiduously  cultivated  the  early  disposition  of  his  pupil 
to  polite  literature.  When  Tasso  was  twelve  years  of 
age  he  went  to  join  his  father,  who  soon  afterwards 
pUced  him  in  the  University  of  Padua,  where  he  wrote 
RinaldOf  a  poem,  being  then  in  his  eighteenth  year. 
Invited  by  the  prindpid  persons  of  the  city  and  college 
of  Bologna,  he  took  up  his  residence  there,  but  shortly 
after,  upon  the  invitation  of  Scipio  Gonzaga,  prince  of 
the  academy  at  Padua,  returned  to  that  city,  and  be- 
came incorporated  into  the  academy,  at  the  age  of 
twenty  years.  He  here  formed  the  design  of  his  cele- 
brated poem,  Jenuakm  Ddwered,  and  being  urged  by 
Alphonso  II,  duke  of  Ferrara,  took  up  his  residence  in 
his  palace.  He  continued  to  work  upon  his  great 
poem,  which  he  completed  in  his  thirtieth  yesr,  but  it 
was  printed,  even  then,  against  his  wilL  Not  long  after, 
being  engaged  in  a  duel,  he  was  arrested  by  order  of 
the  duke,  ostensibly  to  screen  him  from  the  designs  of 
his  enemies.  After  about  a  year*s  detention,  he  escaped, 
and  retired  to  Turin,  where  he  endeavored  to  remain 
concealed.  He  soon  became  known,  and  was  received 
by  the  duke  of  Savoy,  who  showed  him  every  mark  of 
esteem.  Fearful  of  being  given  up  to  the  duke  of  Fer- 
rara, he  left  Turin  and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
treated  with  great  honor  by  all  classes.  Shortly  alter 
he  took  up  his  residence  with  his  sister  at  Sorrento,  and 
then  returned  to  Femra,  hoping  to  have  his  writings 
restored  to  him.  Failing  in  this  he  left  that  city,  and 
went  to  Mantua,  Padua,  and  Venice,  finally  trying  his 
fortune  once  more  with  the  duke,  who,  pretending  to 
believe  that  his  mind  had  become  affected,  caused  him 
to  be  confined  in  the  hospital  of  Santa  Anna.  After  seven 
years*  confinement,  his  release  was  procured  by  Yincen- 
tio  Gonzaga,  prince  of  Mantua,  who  brought  him  to  his 
own  city.  Wearied  with  dependence,  he  resolved  to 
retire  to  Naples,  and  from  there  he  went  to  Bisaccio 
with  his  friend  Manso.  At  the  approach  of  winter  they 
returned  to  Naples,  and  soon  after  Tasso  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  lived  about  a  year,  and,  after  some  wander- 
ing, took  up  his  residence  at  Naples  again  with  the 
count  of  Palena.  Here  he  applied  himself  to  the  com- 
position of  Jenualem  Conquered.  He  abandoned  Naples 
again  to  go  to  Rome  upon  the  invitation  of  cardinal 
Cynthio  AldobrandinL  Disgusted  with  the  life  of  a 
courtier,  he  obtained  permission  to  retire  to  Naples, 
where  he  took  up  his  lodging  in  the  Benedictine  con- 
vent of  San  Severina  He  was,  however,  soon  recalled 
to  Rome,  to  be  publicly  crowned  with  laurel  in  the 
capitoL  He  arrived  in  that  city  in  the  beginning  of 
1595,  but  while  the  preparations  for  the  ceremony  were 
being  made,  Tasso  fell  ill,  and  died,  in  the  monastery 
of  San  Onufrio,  April  25, 1595. 

Tatwlne,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  a  distin- 
guished scholar,  poet,  and  divine.  He  was  appointed 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury  in  731,  and  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  the  quiet  routine  of  episcopal 
duty.  He  died  in  784.  See  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Arch* 
hSdiops  ofCcmUrbury,  i,  195  sq. 

XIL-Iii 


Tawfift  Veralon.    See  Febsian  Yebsions. 

Taylor,  Benjamin  C,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  24, 1801. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1819,  and  from 
the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  in  1822; 
was  licensed  the  latter  year,  and  immediately  became 
pastor  at  Greenbnsh  and  Blooming  Grove,  Rensselaer 
Co.,  N.  Y.;  in  1825  at  Aquackanock  (now  Passaic), 
N.  J. ;  in  1828  at  Beigen,  where  ho  was  made  pastor 
emeritus  in  1870,  and  died,  Feb.  2, 1881.  He  published 
several  sermons  and  addresses,  and  a  volume  entitled 
Aimalt  of  ike  Ckusie  and  Townsh^  of  Bergen  (1856). 

Taylor,  Francis,  an  English  theok>gian  of  the 
17th  century,  is  the  author  of  a  Latin  translation  of 
Aben-Esn'd's  Commentary  on  and  Rcuk€e  Exposiiion  of 
Lamentationa  (Lond.  1645)  :—T(xr^m  BieroeoL  in  gutV 
qtte  Libros  Legis  in  Latinum  Conversum  (1649) : — Pirke 
Aboth  cum  Versione  Latina  a  PhiL  Aquino,  Additis 
Notis  MarqinalUnu  (1651) : — Targum  Prius  et  Potteriue 
in  EHhercm,  etc.  (1655).  Together  with  Arnold  Boote, 
he  published,  Exam^n  P^cefationis  Joh.  Morini  in  Bihlia 
GrcBca  de  Textut  Hthraici  Corruptione  et  Greed  AuctO' 
ritaU  (Leyden,  1686).  See  Furst,  BihL  Jud.  s.  v.; 
Jdcher,  AUffemeines  Gelehrten-LexikoHf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Taylor,  James  Bamett,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minis- 
ter,  was  bom  at  Barton-uppn-H  umber,  Enghind,  March 
19, 1804.  He  came  to  New  York  with  his  parents  while 
an  infant;  removed  to  Virginia  in  1817,  having  already, 
at  the  age  of  thirteen,  made  a  profession  of  religion ; 
began  to  preach  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  was  formal- 
ly licensed  at  twent}'.  He  performed,  for  a  year  or  two, 
missionaxy  labor  in  the  Meherran  District,  Ya.  -.  was 
ordained  May  2,  1826,  at  Sandy  Creek,  and,  the  same 
year,  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Second  Church 
at  Richmond,  where  he  remained  thirteen  years.  He 
was  elected  chaplain  of  the  University  of  Virginia  in 
1839,  and  in  1840  became  pastor  of  the  Grace  Street 
Church,  Richmond,  where  he  remained  until  1844,  and 
then  entered  upon  his  duties  as  corresponding  secretary 
of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention,  which  office  he 
held  with  distinguished  ability  for  twenty-rix  years. 
During  thirteen  of  these  years  he  was  pastor  of  the 
Taylonville  Church,  and  was  also  in  the  Confederate 
army  as  colporteur  and  post-chaplain.  For  a  short  time 
he  was  editor  of  The  Religioue  Berald,  The  Southern 
Baptist  Missionary  Journal  and  Home  and  Foreign 
Journal  were  established  by  him.  He  wrote  also  a  Life 
of  Lot  Carey  f  a  L^e  of  Luther  Rice,  Lives  of  Virginia 
Baptist  Ministers,  and  had  prepared,  in  part,  a  History 
of  Virginia  Baptists,  After  the  war  he  took  a  deep  in- 
terest in  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  freedmen.  He  died 
Dec  22, 1871.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop.  p.  1184. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Taylor,  John  Lord,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  di- 
vine, was  bom  at  Warren,  Conn.,  May  20,  1811.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1885  and  at  the  Divin- 
ity School  in  1839,  having  been  a  tutor  in  the  college 
for  two  years ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  South  Church, 
Andover,  Mass.,  the  last-mentioned  year;  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  homiletics  in  Andover  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  in  1868,  resigned  in  1879,  and  died  there, 
Sept.  23, 1884.  Besides  many  contributions  to  the  lit- 
erary Journals,  he  wrote,  a  Memoir  of  Hon,  Samuel 
Philip  (ISbe)  I —Memorial  of  the  Semi  ^Centennial 
CeUbration  of  Andover  Theological  Seminary  (1859). 

Taylor,  Joseph  van  Sommem,  a  missionary 
of  India,  was  bom  at  Bellaiy,  Southem  India,  in  1820, 
where  his  father  was  a  missionary  of  the  London  Society. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Bishop's  College  in  Calcutta  and 
at  Glasgow,  graduating  at  the  latter  place  in  1845.  In 
the  same  year,  having  been  accepted  by  the  London 
Mismonary  Society,  he  left  England  for  Gujerat,  >»here 
he  labored  for  thirty-four  years,  the  last  twenty-one 
years  in  connection  with  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Ireland.  He  died  in  1881.  Mr.  Taylor,  besides  trans- 
lating the  Coifession  of  Faith  into  Gujerati,  wrote  two 


TEACHING  OP  THE  APOSTLES  866   TEACHING  OF  THE  APOSTLES 


of  the  best  g^mmara  in  that  language.  The  natWes 
of  Gujerat  are  indebted  to  him  for  a  Hutory  of  the 
Christian  Church,  founded  on  that  of  Dr.  Bartb,  as  well 
as  for  a  Book  of  Christian  Praise  and  a  Manual  ofDt- 
votion.  Several  of  the  best  tracts  in  the  list  of  the 
Gujerat  Tract  and  Book  Society  are  from  his  pen.  He 
also  translated  the  Shorter  Catechism^  and  was  engaged 
at  the  time  of  his  death  on  a  translation  of  the  Philoso- 
phy of  the  Plan  ofSalcatian,  which  he  left  unfinished. 
(RP.) 

Taytazak.    See  Taitazak. 

Tcheremlaaian  Varaioii.  See  Russia,  Ver- 
sions OF. 

Tohuwaaohian  Version.    See  Russia,  Ybr- 

8I0K8  OP. 

Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  is  the 

title  of  a  newly  discovered  writing  belonging  to  the 
Patristic  period.  In  the  year  1883  Philoletheos  Bryen- 
nios,  metropolitan  of  Ntcomedia,  published,  from  the 
Jerusalem  manuscript  of  the  year  1056,  and  presented 
at  Constantinople,  a  hitherto  unknown  writing,  bearing 
two  titles,  Ai8a^  rdv  BiltSoea  diroorokuv  and  AiSaxfj 
Kvpiov  Si(i  riivDioitKa  drroffroXtav  toJq  t^icip.  An 
edition  with  critical  emendations  was  published  in  1884 
by  Utlgenfeld,  in  his  Noffum  Testamentum  Extra  Canxh- 
nem  Receptum  (Leipsic,  1884,-iv,  94-103),  and  from  that 
time  the  republic  of  letters  has  been  kept  alive  by  trans- 
lations, essays,  etc 

I.  Contents,  —  The  *' Teaching"  comprises  sixteen 
chapters,  and  may  be  divided  into  four  parts :  ch.  i-vi, 
comprising  the  doctrinal  and  catechetical  part,  setting 
forth  the  whole  duty  of  the  Christian ;  ch.  vii-x  and 
xiv  contains  the  liturgical  and  devotional  part,  giving 
directions  for  Christian  worship-,  ch.  xi-xiit  and  xv 
contains  the  ecclesiastical  and  disdplinary  part,  con- 
cerning church  officers  i  and  ch.  xvi  the  eschatological 
part,  or  the  Christian's  hope. 

II.  Theology  of  the  Teaching, — God  is  the  Creator  (i, 
2),  who  made  all  things  (x,  8),  and  is  our  Father  in 
heaven  (viii,  2).  Nothing  can  happen  without  him  (iii, 
10) ;  he  is  the  giver  of  all  good  gifts,  the  author  of  onr 
salvation,  the  object  of  prayer  and  praise  (ix  and  x),  to 
whom  belongs  idl  glory  through  Christ  Jesus  (viii,  2 ; 
ix,4;  x,4).  Christ  is  the  Lord  and  Saviour  (x,  2, 3), 
God's  servant  and  God's  son  (ix,  2),  and  David's  God 
(x,  6),  the  author  of  the  gospel  (viii,  2;  xv,  4).  He  is 
spiritually  present  in  his  Church,  and  will  visibly  come 
again  to  judgment  (xvi,  1, 7, 8).  Through  him  knowl- 
edge and  eternal  life  have  been  made  known  to  us  (ix, 
8 ;  X,  2).  The  Holy  Spirit  is  associated  with  the  Father 
and  the  Son  (vii,  1, 8);  he  prepares  man  for  the  call  of 
God  (iv,  10),  speaks  through  the  prophets,  and  the  sin 
against  the  Spirit  shall  not  be  forgiven  (xi,  7). 

The  Teaching  speaks  of  the  Lord's  Day  as  a  day  to 
be  kept  holy  (xiv,  1),  and  recognises  only  two  sacra- 
ments, Baptism  and  the  Eucharist  (vii,  1-4;  ix,  x,  xiv). 

Man  u  made  in  the  image  of  God  (v,  2)  but  mnfuJ, 
and  needs  forgiveness  (viii,  2);  he  must  confess  his  trans- 
gressions to  receive  pardon  (iv,  14 ;  xiv,  1,  2).  There 
are  only  two  ways,  the  way  of  life  and  the  way  of 
death. 

IIL  Language  of  the  T'eacAtn^.^The  *<Didache"  is 
written  in  HeUenistic  Greek,  like  the  New  Test.  It  is 
the  common  Macedonian  or  Alexandrian  dialect,  with 
'*a  strong  infusion  of  a  Hebrew  soul  and  a  Christian 
spiriL"  The  " Didache"  contains  2190  words,  504  are 
New  TesL  words,  497  are  classical,  and  479  occur  in  the 
Septnagint,  I9  occur  for  the  first  time  in  the  "Didache," 
but  are  found  in  later  writers, 

IV.  Authenticity  of  the  Teaching,— It  is  arst  quoted 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria  {Stromataf  i,  20),  who  cites  a 
passage  from  it  as  ** Scripture."  Eusebius  (died  A.D.  840) 
mentions  it  as  "  the  so-called  Teachings  of  the  Apostles" 
(Hist.  EccL  iii,  25),  and  so  does  Athanasius(died  A.D.  378) 
(EpisU  Fest,  89,  in  Operas  ed.  Bened.  i,  2, 963).  The  last 
inention  of  the  "Teaching"  is  by  Nicephorus,  patriarch 


of  Constantinople  (died  A.D.  828),  who  speaks  of  such  s 
book  as  among  the  Apocrypha  of  the  New  Test. 

v.  Date,  Place,  and  A  uthorsh^,— The  mott  prevailing 
view  as  to  the  time  when  the  Teaching  was  oompoaed 
is  between  A.D.  80  and  120;  but  this  date  seems  to  as 
rather  early.  The  minority  of  scholars  assign  tbe 
Teaching  to  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  a  minority  to  Pales- 
tine or  Syria.  Who  the  author  of  the  Teaching  was  is 
not  known.  From  the  work  itself,  it  may  safely  be 
stated  that  he  was  a  Jewish  Christian. 

VI.  Scripture  Quotatians  and  A  llusions  in  the  Didache^ 
—The  author  of  the  Teaching  quotes  not  only  the  Old 
and  New  Tests.,  but  also  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Test^ 
as  the  following  table  will  exhibit : 

1.  Quiotations  from  ths  Old  Testcansnt  » 

Zeeh.  xiT,  5 Teaching  xvi,  T. 

MaLl,ll,14 xiv,  8. 

S.  Allusions  to  ths  Old  TestamsnL 

Exod.xvlU,  80;  Deutxxxl,29 1,1. 

xx,l«-17;  v,lT-21 li. 

Numb,  xviil,  19,  U,  10, 80*^ 

Deot.  xviii,  8, 4  I  ^1, 

Eaek.xIiv,aO  f ""• 

Neh.  x,  80-37  J 

Deot  xii,  82 !▼,  18l 

Jobiv.lO iy,«. 

l8a.]xTi,2,6 ilLS. 

Jer.xxi,8 !»i. 

Dan.  Iv,  2T 1  v,  & 

8.  Quotations  from,  and  Allusions  to,  ths  Old  Tsttament 

Apocrypha. 

Tobitiv.T Iv,e-S. 

16l : 1,8. 

Bcclas.li,4 iii,ia 

iv,8 iv,8. 

81 iv,6. 

4.  Quotations  and  Remintscenoes  from  the  New  TestasneniL 

Matt  v.O liUT. 

«8,«4 xiv,t 

98,  M. 1,6. 

89-41  (Luke  vl,  99, 80) 1,4. 

44-i8(LQkevi,ST} 1,8. 

vl,6 viil,2L 

1,8. XT.4. 

9L.1S vin,ft. 

16 vill,l. 

Vll,6 lx,5. 

19. 1,9. 

X,  9, 10  (oomp.  Luke  ix,  1-8;  x, 4^7). .  xiii,  1, 2. 

xl!,81 xl,7. 

xvlll,  16,17 XV,  8. 

xxl,  9 x,«. 

xxtt,8T-89 1,9. 

xxiv,  10-14. xvl,4,fi. 

80,81 «,8L 

81,86 1. 

49,44 x,6. 

XXV,  84. " 

xxvlH,19,20 tU,!. 

Lnke  vi,  97-80. 1,3,4,6. 

xil,  85u xvl,l. 

8.  Allusions  and  Parallsls  to  the  Xew  TestamsnL 

Acts  fv,  89 iv.a. 

Rom.  XV,  37 " 

1  Cor.  XV,  69 xvi,  8, 

"    xvi, 92  (Haranatha) x,8. 

Eph.vl,6,9 It,  10, 11. 

1  Ttaess.  iv,  18, 17 xvi,4-6L 

v,99 111,1. 

9Tbess.  11,8-10. xvi,  4. 

Heb.  X,  99  {ffw4t6riatv  wovttpa) xl V,  1. 

«iH,7.;;!!!!;!;;;!i!!*i!!i*!!;^*i;;!!i  xv,i,s. 

1  Pet  II,  11 1,4. 

Rev.  1,8  x,t. 

10 3v,L 

xxll,16 v,SL 

The  absence  of  any  reference  to  so  many  books  of  the 
New  Test  accords  with  the  view  that  we  have  before 
us  a  very  eariy  document;  but  it  does  not,  of  oonne, 
prove  that  the  sacred  writings  were  unknown  to  the 
writer,  and  still  less  does  it  fumbh  any  aigninent  tat 
the  view  that  they  were  not  then  known  to  the  Church 
in  general  The  object  of  the  writer  was  very  limited; 
his  intention  was  to  furnish  a  manual  or  catechiam  for 
catechumens. 

YIL  Ltterotere.— Although  so  recently  diaoovered, 
this  little  tract  has  already  been  the  subjea  of  r^xy 


TEKOA 

noDwroiu  esuyl  and  tipo^tioni.  In  nddilian 
trMtiie.  DMDtioDed  iboTe  ud  De  Romcttia,  Ttucking 
vflit  Tmbt  Apeula  (Loud.  1864,  8to),  Ihr  moit  com- 
plete uid  exbioniTe  work,  giving,  besides  the  origiD«l 
tezl,  an  Engli^  tmuUtion  Mid  lilenrr  matter,  ii  tbe 
one  pablidied  by  Vh.  Schiff,  Tkt  Oidat  CkonK  Manual, 
calltd^'TJUT<aMueftkeTiBdaiAp(ullti"(,SewYaTii, 
1885).    <B.P.) 

Takke  Turooman  Tenlon.  Sec  Jaouitai 
TuBKi  Vsnsios, 

Tekoa.  The  prneot  Khurbel  Ttkma  u  aceluecdug- 
ieally  described  in  the  Mimoirt  aecompanyiog  the 
Ordnance  Surfev  (iii,  814,  S68). 

,Tea  Broec^  Asnom,  D,D^  a  rrotettant  Epi» 
copal  deigynnn,  was  born  io  Sew  York  city  in  1816. 
He  graduated  (rom  Columbia  Collej^,  and  from  tbe 
Oeoeral  Tbeoli^eal  Seminary  in  1837 ;  for  man;  ^ean 
was  engaged  in  teaching ;  was  conoeeUd  with  a  icbool 
in  Orange,  K.  J.,  under  tbe  anpervision  of  bishop  Doane ; 
taught  in  the  Hb  Auburn  Institute  in  Waihingloni 
founded  the  bishop  Bowman  Inslituta  at  Fittsbu^h, 
Pa.;  and  became  rector  of  Burlington  College.  He 
wai  rector  of  SU  James's  Cburch,  Eatontown,  S.  J.,  it 
the  time  of  his  death,  Sepc  S2, 1880.  See  Whittaker, 
Almanae  and  DiitcUny,  1861,  p.  17I>. 

Tenoent,  Wiluau  Haceat,  D.D.,  a  PresbytoHen 
miniater,  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in 
1768,  and  in  1773  was  ordained  pastor  at  Greenfield, 
Conn.  In  1761  he  accepted  a  call  to  tbe  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Abingdon,  near  Philadelphia,  where  he  oon- 
tinuednnti1btideatb,inDeoember,1810.  SeeSprague, 
AmaU  o/lMe  Amer.  P*lpil,  iii,  26. 

TemlAy,  Erdiz.  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
■on  of  Dr.  Joebua  Tenney,  was  bom  at  Corinth,  Vt., 
Jnne  11, 1801.  He  studied  at  Bradford  Academy;  in 
18!6  graduated  from  Hiddlebury  Coliege;  in  1829  from 
the  Andover  Theotogicat  Seminar;' ;  was  ordained  pas- 
tor, Jan.  6,  1831,  at  Lyme,  N.  M.,  and  was  dismissed 
Aug.  IS,  1867.  From  1867  to  18SD  he  leaded  at  West- 
borough,  Mass.,  without  charge;  and  from  1860  until 
death,  Nor.  IS,  1S82.  at  Norwich,  Conn.  See  Cong. 
Ytar^boot,  1683,  p.  38. 

Tout.  Tbe  fnllowing  deecription  of  this  Arab  dom- 
icile, from  Conder's  Tail  Wart,  if,  77i,  conUins  some 
additional  infonnation : 

"Tlie  tents  ate  armniied  In  dllTerent  wsji.    Among 

aoDie  arty  ysrds  apart,  the  lenli  In  each  row  belug  close 
logeLber,  end  to  end.  Among  the  Tl'atnlreh  and  Abilin 
the  oeaal  forrn  !•  a  rectangle.    The  aremge  lenoib  of  ihe 

fanyfHt.  Tho  dl/tance'belween'lwo'lnu  in  n°llD?!s 
abool  four  feet.  Thos  a  camp  at  tweolT  unts  occnpled 
a  space  ot  two  taondred  feel  by  sevenLy  feel.  Id  another 
caae  the  form  wae  a  triangle,  the  reason  <>f  this  amuge- 

at  nigbi,  and  Ihoa  protected  trom  ibe  attacks  of  robbers 
or  preTsnted  trom  straying  by  themielies. 

'■The  Arab  lent  Is  eilremel*  nnlike  the  ninil  repre- 
senTaltonf,ln  which  it  Is  ihown  either  as  a  eon  of  bnl,  as 

black  'house  of  bslr,'  with  a  low.sluptuR  roof  and  open 
front.  II  bis,  buwerer,  been  caretDtlj  described  by  Bnrck- 
bardt,  md  tbere  Is  Iklla  Io  idd  to  his  accDont.  The  can. 
Tsiirfthe  roof  and  side  walls  IsofeDst'sbalr,  black,  with 
occasionally  stripes  of  wblternnDlDehorlKin tally  (Cant.  I. 
et.  TbeDlecesoritatrareabont  two  feet  wide,  and  Uilrly 
to  IWty  feet  lone.  The  tent  tax  genenlly  ulne  poloi 
fAwamWl,  irr ■  ■■■ •"  ■ "- —  ■-  ■■■ 

ways  In  order 


Arabs,  bowsTer,  anlhr  very  much  from  rhenmatlem  In 
winter.  In  anrnmer  they  occaslonilly  Inbabli  reed  huts 
I'Ailsh),  which  are  cooler  (ban  the  tents." 

Ter  Haar,  BumAmi,  a  Dntch  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Amsterdam,  June  18,1806.  He  studied  at  Ley- 
den,  and  was  in  1SS9  doctor  of  theoltf^.  After  having 
served  seTcnl  congregations  with  great  success,  he  was 
in  1848  called  to  Amsterdam,  and  was 
made  proreeaor  of  theology  in  1854  at 
Utrecht.  In  1874  he  retired  to  Velp, 
near  Amheim,  and  died  Not.  19,1880. 
He  published,  Jian  H  TUogiM  (Am- 
heim, 1888)  i~llitloirt  de  la  Rr/orma- 
(ton  (1815 ;  Gth  ed.  1 854)  s—De  HiHoria 
Ecdftialica  H  Theologia  AforaS*  Stu- 
dio (Utrecht,  1864);  — Z)a  lliUonoB 
RtBffumiM  CAruTtoin  Indob  (1S60):— 
L'Hitloriographie  de  tHiibnn  E(xii- 
«iuKifi»  (1870-71, 2  rols.).  Sec  Lich.  i 
teobe^er,  EiKgdop.  da  Saaat  Jielt- 
gieita,  a  v.     (a  P.) 

Teipalchi&iA,  one   of  the   i 

Huses  (q.  r.) ;  ihe  presided  over  choral  d 

eonganddaneiog.  Anitqae    FlBure 

Thalia,  one   of  tbe   nine   Muaes  »» Terpelcbore. 

(q.  v.) ;  regarded  in  later  times  as 

preuding  orei  comedy.     She  be- 

the  motberof  the  Cory  banles. 


in  the  rahi  off.    The  dottas  stli^e  sld( 


beigbt  of  a  leut  i>  about 

'•Frail  and  cold  as  these  hilillatlonB  might  be  Ihonghl 

,_  -.,_.„  ....- „ mfoMable 

rind  does 

at  skllhil' 

■well. 


eipected.    Being  h 


Anllqne 


of  the  Rhenish  provincea 
ui  rnnua  in  1807.  He  came  to 
America  in  1840,  and  settled  in 
New  Yotk  city,  where  he  founded 
■  Snnday- school  in  tbe  fldeeDth 
ward,  from  which  sprang  the  Sec- 
ond German  Prrabyterian  Church. 
He  was  the  first  pastor  of  this 
church,  where  lie  labored  success- 
fully seTenI  years.  Receiving  ■ 
call  from  tbe  German  Presbvterisn 
xomL  Cburch  of  Pateraon,  N.  J.,' he  ac- 

cepted the  same,  and  renuined 
Ibnr  yeaiB.  After  this  he  took  charge  of  n  mission- 
school  in  Albany,  N.  T.,  where  he  continued  until  bit 
health  failed,  when  he  resigned  and  removed  to  New. 
ark,  N.  J.,  where  he  died,  Oct  8, 1882.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Thebes.  The  modem  Tabiu  is  described  in  tbe 
Mtmoirt  to  the  Ordnance  Survey  (ii,  229,  247). 

Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom  in 
Normandy,  tbe  year  of  his  birth  not  being  known.  He 
was  tbe  third  archbishop  supplied  to  the  Cburch  of 
England  by  the  oelebnted  abbey  of  Bee  He  was  ap- 
pointed prior  in  1137,  and  ten  years  afterwards  was 
elected  abbot.  In  1138  be  was  invited  to  England  by 
king  Stephen  and  his  queen,  Matilda.  He  was  conse- 
crated archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1139.  It  reflect! 
credit  upon  the  character  of  Theobald  that,  in  that  rude 
and  boisterous  age,  his  residence  became  the  centra  of 
all  the  learning  and  ability  of  Ibe  kingdom.  "  For  two 
genentioni  several  of  the  meet  diitinguished  men  in 
the  country  could  refer  to  the  happy  hours  they  bad 
passed  at  Theobald's  court."  Be  appears  to  have  been 
banished  by  Ihe  king  at  one  time,  but  he  returned  to 
Enghind,  and  matters  were  again  set  right.  The  last 
time  Theobald  appeared  in  public  was  at  tbe  consecra- 
tion of  Richard  Peche,  bishop  of  Lichfield.  He  was  too 
infirm  to  officiate,  but  witnessed  the  consecration.  Ha 
died  AprU  18, 1161.  S<xi^<x>t,Uvtto/ltuArtlibiiiopi 
n/CanMriaryi"<S2!'q- 

Thoolosfoal  Samluariwi.     See  SKuiNABtaa, 

THBOLOaiCAL, 

Insurer,  Carl  JoHAim  Wiijielji,  a  Protestant 
minister,  was  bom  April  36,  16S6,  at  Waldenbuch,  in 


THIERSCH 


868 


THOMAS 


W&rtemberg.  In  1868  he  was  pastor  at  Mttblhaosen- 
on-the-Neckar,  in  1870  assistant  at  the  hospital  church 
in  Stutgard,  in  1875  second  preacher  at  the  StifUkircbe 
there,  and  died  July  16|  1882,  at  Zavelstein.  He  pub- 
lished, Das  Reich  GoOes^  etc  (Lndwigsburg,  1862)  :— 
Predigten  (ibid.  1874 ,  2d  ed.  1879)  i^BUcke  in  die  Herr- 
lickheit  da  VcOer-Unters  (1881 ,  2d  ed.  1882).    (K  P.) 

Thiersoh,  Hexkrich  Wilheui  Josxas,  a  Protes- 
tant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Munich,  Nov. 
5, 1817.  In  1840  he  commenced  his  academical  career 
at  £Tlangen,  and  in  1843  was  professor  at  Marbarg,  but 
resigned  his  professorship  in  1850  on  account  of  his  oon- 
yeision  to  the  "  Catholic  Apostolic  Church.*'  He  spent 
many  years  as  a  private  tutor  in  South  Germany,  con- 
tinuing all  the  time  active  and  fertile  in  the  production 
of  theological  works.  In  1875  Thiersch  retired  to  Basle, 
and  died  Dec  8, 1885.  He  published.  Ad  PenUUeuchi 
Versionem  Alexandrinam  Critice  PertraeUmdam  Pro- 
legomena (Erlangen,  1840):— Z>e  Pentateuchi  Vertione 
Akxandrina  Libri  Tree  (1841):  —  Bebraitche  Gram- 
maJtik  (1842;  2d  ed.  1858):— FertucA  sur  BertUUung 
dee  hittoritchen  StandpunkU/iir  die  Kriiik  der  neutetta- 
menUichen  SckrifUn  ( 1845 ) :— ftm^  WarU  Hber  die 
A  ecKtheii  der  neiUest.  Schriften,  etc  (1846) :—  Vorksunffen 
Uber  KatkcUcumue  und  Protetiantiimue  (eod.;  2d  ed. 
1848)  i—'De  Epistola  ad  Hebneoe  Conunentaiio  Hiatorica 
(Marburg,  1849)  :^De  Stepham  Protamari^  OraHone 
CommeiUatio  Exegetica  (eod.): — Die  Geechickle  der 
chrUa.  Kirche im  AUerthtm  (2d  ed.  1858;  8d  ed.  1879): 
^PoUHIt  und  Phiiowphie  in  ihrem  VerkSltmse  strr  Re- 
ligion unier  Trajanus,  Hadrianus  und  den  heiden  Anto- 
ninen  (1853) :— CTefter  chriMtUeket  FamilienUben  (1854; 
often  reprinted):  —  Die  Bergpredigt  ChritU  und  ihre 
Bedeutungfur  die  GegenwaH  (1867;  2d  ed.  1878) :» 
Die  Gleichniese  Chritti  nach  ihrer  moraUschen  und  pro- 
pheiischen  Bedeutung  betrachtet  (1867;  2d  ed.  1875):— 
Die  Genesis  nach  ihrer  moralitihen  und  prophetischen 
Bedeutung  betrachtet  (1870 ;  new  ed.  1875)  i-^Inbegriff 
der  christUchen  Lehre  (published  shortly  after  the  au- 
thor's death,  Basle,  1886 ).  See  Znchold,  BibL  TheoL 
S.V.;  Allgemeine  evangel  hUh,  Kirchenzeitung  (Leipsic, 
1886),  No.  1, 2, 3.     (B.  P.) 

Thomas,  the  name  of  several  Scotch  prelates. 

1.  Bishop  of  Galloway,  who  swore  fealty  to  Edward 
I  of  England  in  1296,  and  recognised  king  Robert 
Bmce's  title  to  the  crown  in  1804^  He  was  bishop 
here  before  1309.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  273. 

2.  Bishop  of  the  Isles  about  1334.  He  died  in 
Scotland,  SepL  20, 1338.  See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops, 
p.  303. 

3.  Bishop  of  Galloway  in  1362.  See  Keith,  Scottish 
Bishops,  p.  274. 

4.  Bishop  of  Roes  in  1481,  and  founder  of  the  colle- 
giate church  of  Tain  the  same  year.  He  was  stall  bish- 
op there  in  1487.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  189. 

Thomas  op  Wilton,  D.D.,  was  made  first  chan- 
cellor and  then  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  London.  In  his  time 
(during  the  reign  of  Edward  IV)  occurred  the  contest 
between  the  prelates  and  friars,  the  latter  upbraiding 
the  former  for  their  pomp  and  plenty.  Wilton  entered 
into  this  contest,  and  charged  upon  the  monks  that, 
although  confessing  their  poverty,  they  really,  by  their 
influence  at  the  confessional,  opened  the  coffers  of  all 
the  treasures  in  the  land.  He  wrote  a  book,  An  Validi 
Mendicantes  sint  in  Statu  Perfectionis,  maintaining  that 
such  were  rogues  by  the  laws  of  God  and  man,  and 
fitter  for  the  house  of  correction  than  a  state  of  perfec- 
tion. Wilton  flourished  in  1460.  See  Fuller,  Worthies 
of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  iii,  335. 

Thomaa,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  South  Wales  in  1828,  and,  when  quite 
young,  removed  to  Ohio.  He  graduated  from  Denison 
University,  was  ordained  in  1846,  and,  for  a  time,  taught 
in  YermilUon  College.  His  pastorates  were  as  follows : 
Mansfield,  Monroeville,  First  Church  in  Zanesville, 
Bradfield,  and  Newark,  all  in  Ohio.    Subsequently  he 


removed  to  Bloomington,  111.,  and  became  western 
retary  of  the  American  Bible  Union.  Having  occnpied 
other  prominent  positions  in  hb  denomination  in  Uli* 
nois,  he  removed  to  Arkansas  in  1864,  and  became  pres- 
ident of  the  university  at  Judsonia.  During  the  war 
he  served  as  a  soldier  in  the  Federal  army,  and  became 
brevet-colonel.  He  died  at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  March  5, 
1884.  SeeCathcart,Ba/}/if^£iKyc2(:p.p.ll47.  (J.a&) 
Thomaa,  John,  M.Dh  the  founder  of  the  Chriata- 
delphians  (q.  v.),  was  bom  at  Hoxton  Square,  Lond<xi, 
April  12, 1806.  His  father  was  a  Dissenting  deigyman 
while  in  England  and  a  Baptist  clergyman  after  coming 
to  the  United  States  in  1832.  John  was  educated  aa  a 
physician,  beginning,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  a  medical 
course  under  a  private  physician,  and  continuing  it  for 
three  years  at  St.  Thomas's  HospitaL  He  then  assisted 
a  London  physician  a  year,  and  practiced  medidne 
at  Hackney  three  years.  Although  a  member  of  his 
father's  church  from  boyhood,  his  first  attention  to 
creeds  was  in  1830  or  1831,  when  he  began  the  study 
of  the  subject  of  immortality,  upon  which  he  made 
contribntions  to  The  Lancet,  Purely  as  a  business 
venture  he  sailed  for  Kew  York,  May  1, 1882.  Short- 
ly after  reaching  Cincinnati  he  became  acquainted 
with  Walter  Scott,  the  original  founder  of  the  **  Chris- 
tians," or  Campbellites.  Before  he  was  aware  of  it, 
he  had  heard  from  Scott  a  full  exposition  of  his  doc- 
trines, had  assented  to  them  as  appearing  rational, 
and  had  been  induced  to  indicate  that  assent  by  im- 
mersion at  ten  o'clock  at  night  in  the  Miami  canaL  On 
a  trip  east,  in  1888,  he  met  and  visited  Alexander  Camp- 
bell, was  forced  reluctantly  into  assisting  him  in  pobUc 
addresses,  and  was  so  well  received  by  the  people  that, 
on  reaching  Baltimore,  he  made  addresses  every  even- 
ing for  a  week  upon  religious  topics.  During  1884  and 
1^5  he  practiced  medicine  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
and  Richmond,  speaking  to  the  Campbellite  congrega- 
tions on  Sundays.  In  May,  1834,  he  issued  the  first 
number  of  The  Apostolic  Advocate,  a  monthly  maga- 
zine, of  which  five  volumes  were  issued  in  aU.  His 
first  opposition  to  the  received  views  of  the  sect  con- 
sisted in  publishing,  in  No.  6  of  his  magazine,  an  article 
on  Anabaptism,  resulting  in  controversy  between  him 
and  Mr.  Campbell.  The  former  insisted  upon  the  re- 
immenion  of  persons  coming  to  the  sect  from  Baptist 
churches;  the  latter  denied  its  necessity.  On  Dec.  1, 
1835,  Dr.  Thomas  made  another  advance  in  free-thooght 
by  publishing  thirty- four  questions  which  hinted  at 
materialism,  annihilation  of  the  wicked,  a  physical 
kingdom,  etc.  The  chief  outcry  against  him  was  for 
his  materialistic  tendencies.  By  1886  Mr.  Campbell 
denounced  him  openly.  About  this  time  Dr.  Thomas 
moved  to  Amelia  County,  Ya.,  abandoned  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine,  set  np  a  printing-office  on  his  farm, 
and  devoted  himself  largely  to  literary  work.  In  Au- 
gust, 1837,  he  engaged  in  a  public  discussion  with  a 
Presbyterian  clergyman.  Rev.  Mr.  Watt.  In  Norenabcr 
he  was  publicly  disfellowshipped  by  Mr.  Campbell,  while, 
in  response  to  the  demands  of  the  latter,  he  was  called 
to  account  by  the  churches  at  Painesville  and  Bethel 
for  his  views.  They  did  not,  however,  see  fit  to  disci 
pline  him,  contenting  themselves  with  some  suggestions 
concerning  the  spirit  in  which  he  should  carry  on  the 
discussion.  In  1838  he  made  a  preaching  tour  throogh 
the  southem  counties  of  Virginia,  coming  in  conflKt 
more  or  less  with  Mr.  CampbelL  In  1889  he  removed 
to  Longrove,  111.,  took  up  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
acres  of  land,  and  for  two  years  confined  his  attention 
to  farming.  After  a  brief  residence  at  St  Charles,  where 
his  printing-office  and  physician's  office  were  burned, 
he  opened  an  office  at  Hennepin,  and  was  appointed 
lecturer  on  chemistry  in  Franklin  Medical  CoU^^. 
The  Advocate  having  now  been  suspended  for  nearly 
three  years,  he  started,  in  1842,  a  monthly  called  TUie 
Investigator,  of  which  he  issued  twelve  numbers^  In 
1843  he  began  The  Herald  of  the  Future  Age,  at  Lcmis- 
ville,  Ky.,  and  continued  it  at  Richmond,  where,  in 


i 


THOMAS 


869 


THORNEBOROUQH 


1844,  h«  held  his  first  meetiogs  separately  from  the 
CampbelUtes.  CollisionB  with  the  latter  led  to  farther 
stndy  and  to  wider  diveigenoe  of  creed.  He  published 
his  articles  of  belief  at  this  time,  and  in  October,  1846, 
delivered  a  series  of  ten  lectures  in  New  York  in  defence 
thereof.  Having  still  farther  perfected  his  declaration 
of  belief,  he  decided,  in  February  or  March,  1847,  that 
be  ought  to  be  baptized  into  that  belief;  accordingly, 
he  requested  a  friend  to  immerse  him  and  to  say  over 
him,  '*  Upon  confession  of  your  faith  in  the  things  con- 
cerning the  kingdom  of  God  and  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ,  I  baptize  you  into  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit.*'  After  fourteen  years  of  search  he 
was  now  satisfied  that  he  had  reached  the  truth.  He 
began  to  advocate  it  more  earnestly  than  ever,  visiting 
Baltimore,  where  he  was  permitted  to  speak  in  the 
Campbellito  meeting  •  house ;  Bnifalo,  where  he  was 
furnished  with  the  MiUerito  place  of  wonhip,  and  New 
York,  where  he  was  received  by  the  CampbelUtea.  With 
letters  from  many  Campbellites  and  other  friends  he 
sailed  from  New  York  in  June,  1848,  for  England.  His 
enemies  had  communicated  bis  peculiar  doctrines  to 
the'Campbellites  of  Nottingham  and  other  places.  He 
was  therefore  refused  audience  by  them,  but  he  ad- 
dressed the  MiUerites  of  Nottingham,  Derby,  Birming- 
ham, and  Plymouth.  The  London  Campbellites  de- 
nounced him  ofllcially.  Those  of  Lincoln  and  Newark 
received  him.  and  the  former  made  him  their  delegate 
to  the  Church  convention  at  Glasgow.  An  effort  to 
prevent  his  sitting  was  unsuccessful,  and  he  addressed 
large  audiences  in  the  City  Hall.  A  call  for  the  publi- 
cation of  bis  views,  while  at  Glasgow,  led  to  the  prep- 
aration of  Eipis  Itrad  (478  pp.  royal  8vo).  At  Edin- 
burgh he  delivered  a  course  of  ten  lectnresi  Spending 
the  winter  of  1848-49  in  London,  upon  his  book,  he 
made  subsequent  tours  through  England  and  Scotland 
lecturing  and  preaching.  In  November,  1860,  he  came 
again  to  the  United  States,  resumed  The  Herald  of  the 
Future  Age  in  1851,  and  published  voL  i  of  Eureka,  He 
travelled  and  advocated  his  views  through  the  States 
and  Canada  until  1862,  when  the  war  caused  the  cessa- 
tion of  his  paper,  and  he  sailed  for  Liverpool.  He  vis- 
ited all  the  places  where  groups  had  been  organized  to 
advocate  his  views,  and,  returning  to  the  United  States, 
issued  the  second  volume  of  Eureka,  The  third  volume 
was  published  in  1868.  A  third  trip  to  Great  Britain 
was  made  in  1869,  when  he  found  that  his  Birmingham 
church  had  grown  from  twelve  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-three  members.  Crossing  to  the  United  States 
for  the  fourth  time,  in  May,  1870,  he  began  a  tour  of 
the  country,  but  was  prostrated  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
and  compelled  to  give  up  his  work.  He  died  in  New 
York,  March  5, 1871.  In  addition  to  the  periodicals 
and  books  mentioned  above,  he  issued,  The  Apottaty 
UnveUed  (1888, 148  pp.):— Anatolia  (1854, 102  pp.) :~ 
Antutasit  (46  pp.)  i—PhaneroUf  and  several  tracts  and 
lectures.    (CW.S.) 

Thomas,  Robert  8.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  Scott  0>unty,  Ky.,  June  20,  1805.  He 
united  with  the  Church  in  1821,  was  ordained,  in  1830, 
pastor  at  Columbia,  Mo.,  and  for  several  yean  per- 
formed much  evangelical  labor  in  Missouri,  being  the 
first  to  introduce  Sabbath-schools  into  that  state.  He 
was  chosen  professor  of  languages  and  moral  science 
in  the  State  University,  and  in  1853  president  of  Will- 
iam Jewell  College.  He  finally  removed  to  Kansas 
City,  where  he  organized  a  church,  of  which  he  was 
the  pastor  until  his  death,  June  12,  1859.  See  Ctith- 
cart,  BapHsi  Ewyclop,  p.  1149.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Thomaji,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Baptist  minis- 
ter and  educator,  was  bom  at  Cowbridge,  Jan.  12, 1805. 
He  began  to  preach  when  fi/leen  years  of  age,  and  U- 
bored  with  much  zeaL  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
entered  the  Baptist  College  at  Abergavenny,  and  two 
years  later  removed  to  Stepney  College,  where  he  spent 
four  yean  in  faithful  study.    In  1828  he  entered  upon 


the  pastorate  of  the  Church  in  Henrietta  Street,  Bmns- 
wick  Square,  London,  where  he  remained  eight  years. 
In  1886,  on  the  removal  of  Abergavenny  College  to 
Pontypool,  he  became  its  president,  and  retained  the 
office  until  1877.  In  the  beginning  of  this  work  he 
was  energetic  in  his  ministerial  labors,  and  soon  formed 
a  Baptist  Church,  which,  in  time,  became  the  leading 
one  of  the  town.  He  died  Dec  6, 188L  See  (Lond.) 
Baptist  Hand-book,  1888,  p.  278. 

Thomas,  Thomas  B.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  London,  England,  in  1812,  and  grad- 
uated from  Miami  Univenity  in  1884.  His  fint  pas- 
toral char^re  was  at  Harrison,  near  Cincinnati,  and  his 
second  at  Hamilton,  for  twelve  years.  He  then  accepted 
the  presidency  of  Hanover  (College,  Ind.,  and  passed 
from  that  to  a  professonhip  in  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  New  Albany.  In  1859  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Fint  Presbyterian  Church  at  Dayton,  O.,  and  in  1871 
was  elected  professor  of  Biblical  literature  in  Lane  The- 
ological Seminary.  He  died  Feb.  2, 1875.  Dr.  Thomas 
was  a  man  of  strong  mind,  and  one  of  the  leaden  of  the 
anti-slavery  party  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  long  be- 
fore the  civil  war.    See  PreAgterioMj  Feb.  18, 1875. 

Thompson,  Thomas  Jefpbrson,  D.D.,  a  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  minister,  was  bora  in  Dorchester  Coun- 
ty, Md.,  March  13, 1808.  He  was  converted  in  his 
thirteenth  year,  began  his  itinerant  career  in  1825, 
and  in  1826  entered  the  Philadelphia  Conference.  In 
it  he  served  in  turn  Milford  and  Talbot  Circuits;  St. 
George's,  Philadelphia;  Rah  way,  N.  J.;  St  John's, 
Philadelphia;  Kent  Circuit, Md. ;  Trenton, N.  J.;  New- 
ark ;  East  Jersey  District;  Harrisburg,  Pa.;  Fifth  Street, 
Philadelphia;  St.  Paul's;  Snow  Hill  District;  Asbury 
Church,  Wilmington;  Union  Church,  Philadelphia; 
South  Philadelphia  District;  Beading  District,  as  gen- 
eral agent  of  Wesleyan  Female  College;  Dover,  Del.; 
Easton  District,  Dover  District,  and  Wilmington  Dis- 
trict— thus  summing  twenty-two  and  a  half  yean  on 
circuits  and  stetions,  two  yean  as  agent,  and  twenty- 
five  yean  as  presiding  elder.  In  1836  the  New  Jersey 
Conference  was  organised  and  Mr.  Thompson  became 
identified  therewith,  but  the  next  year  returned  to  the 
Philadelphia  Conference.  In  1868,  on  the  formation 
of  the  Wilmington  Conference,  he  fell  within  its  limits, 
and  therein  remained  till  his  death,  at  Wilmington, 
Del.,  Nov.  29, 1874.  Dr.  Thompson  was  a  member  of 
the  General  Conferences  of  1844, 1852, 1856, 1860, 1868, 
1872.  He  was  characterized  by  promptness  and  ster- 
ling integrity,  zeal  and  solid  worth.  See  Mimttet  of 
Annual  Cot^ferences,  1875,  p.  27. 

ThOrah,  FSAST  OF  THE.  SeeTABBBMACLE8,FlSABT 
OF. 

Thome,  Jaioeb,  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Bible 
Christians,  was  bom  at  Shebbear,  Devonshire,  England, 
Sept.  21, 1795.  At  an  early  age  he  was  converted,  and 
in  1816  entered  the  ministry.  By  nature  and  grace  he 
was  peculiariy  fitted  to  be  a  leading  spirit  in  the  Con- 
nection. His  gifts  were  diversified,  his  piety  deep,  his 
devotion  to  the  work  thorough,  and  his  spirit  catholic, 
childlike,  and  forbearing.  He  was  president  of  the  Con- 
ference five  times,  viz.,  in  1881,  1835,  1842,  1857,  and 
1865;  secretary  from  1819  to  1830,  from  1832  to  1885, 
in  1849  and  1850, and  in  1858— eighteen  times;  and  for 
several  yean  editor  and  book-steward.  He  died  Jan. 
28, 1872.  See  Minute*  of  the  Conference^  1872 ;  Jubilee 
Volume^  published  in  1866. 

Thomeborough  (or  Thomburgfa),  Jobh,  B.D., 
an  English  divine  of  the  17th  century,  was  bom  at 
Salisbury,  Wiltshire,  educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
ford, was  preferred  bishop  of  Limerick  in  1593,  dean  of 
York  in  1608,  bishop  of  Bristol  in  1617,  at  the  same 
time  holding  his  deanery  and  his  Irish  bishopric  in 
eommendam  with  it.  He  was  translated  to  Worcester 
in  the  latter  year,  and  died  July  19, 1641.  His  skill  in 
chemistrv  is  spoken  of.  See  Fuller,  Worthiee  of  Eng* 
land  (ed.  NuttaU),  ui,  826. 


THROP 


S10 


TIEFTRUNK 


Throp,  Chabucs,  D.D.,  F.R.S^  an  English  divine, 
was  bom  at  Gateshead  rectory,  Oct  13, 1783.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Cathedral  School,  and  at  Oxford,  where 
he  obtained  a  fellowship,  and  subsequently  was  ap- 
pointed tutor  of  University  College.  In  1807  he  was 
presented  with  the  rectorship  of  Ryton,  where  he  spent 
several  years  in  active  service ;  in  1829  was  presented 
with  a  prebendal  stall  in  the  Cathedral  of  Durham ; 
and  about  1881  was  promoted  to  the  archdeaconry  of 
Durham.  At  the  same  time  he  was  elected  one  of  the 
lord  Crewe  trustees,  in  which  capacity  he  exerted  him- 
self to  the  utmost.  On  the  establishment  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Durham,  ho  became  its  first  warden.  He 
died  at  Ryton  rectory,  Durham,  Oct.  10,  1862.  Dr. 
Throp  was  proverbial  for  his  love  of  the  fine  arts,  his 
gallery  of  pictures  surpassing  any  other  in  the  north 
of  England.  He  was  a  man  of  rare  benevolence,  giv- 
ing £400  per  annum  to  endow  the  parish  of  Winlanton, 
and  erecting  a  house  of  worship  at  Greenside,  at  his 
own  expense,  to  the  memory  of  his  parents.  See  Ap- 
pleton'e  A  nnual  Cyclop,  1862,  p.  693. 

Thube,  Christiah  Gottlob,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  Saxony,  March  19, 1742. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  was  in  1775  rector  at  Butzow, 
Mecklenburg,  in  1776  preacher  at  Baumgarten,  and  died 
Jan.  26,  1826.  He  published,  Ankitung  zum  richtigen 
Ventande  der  Offenbarung  Johannu  (Minden,  1786; 
2d  ed.  1799):  — Z>as  Buck  da  Prophetai  Daniel,  neu 
HbeneUU  und  erJddrt  (1797}  :-^D(u  Buck  det  Propheten 
SackarjOy  neu  Hbertelit  und  erUart  (1801).  See  Doring, 
Die  gdekrten  Theologen  Deutteklandt,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BUI, 
Jud,^y.     (B.P.) 

Thummell,  C  B.,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was 
bom  in  Grermany  in  1802;  in  1820  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle,  Prossia,  and  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen,  in  Wilrtemberg.  In  the  spring 
of  1824  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  was  ordained  in 
1826.  On  his  arrival  in  America,  in  August  of  that 
year,  he  commenced  the  study  of  the  English  language. 
The  first  year  he  was  employed  as  a  missionary.  From 
1827  to  1888  he  was'professor  of  languages  in  Hartwick 
Seminary;  and  then  accepted  a  professorship  in  the 
Lutheran  Seminary  at  Lexington,  S.  C.  In  1845  he 
removed  to  Prairieville,  IlL,  where  he  remained  until 
the  dose  of  his  life,  May  28, 1881.  For  fifteen  years  he 
was  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  Farmers'  Mutual 
Fire  Insurance  Company  of  Palmyra,  111.  See  Lutheran 
Observer^  July  29, 1881. 

Thurston,  Eli,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Brighton,  Mass.,  June  14, 1808.  At  the 
age  of  seventeen  he  went  to  Millbury  to  learn  the  gun- 
smith's trade,  but  having  been  converCed  in  his  twen- 
tieth year,  he  immediately  began  to  study  for  the  min- 
istry, attending  Day's  Academy  at  Wrentham,  and 
graduating  from  Amherst  College  in  1834.  The  year 
following  he  spent  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
and  the  two  succeeding  studied  theology  with  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Jacob  Ide,  of  West  Medway.  He  was  ordained 
pastor  in  Hallowell,  Me.,  Jan.  8,  1838,  and  filled  this 
position  for  ten  years.  The  foUowing  twenty  years, 
dating  from  March  21, 1849,  he  was  pastor  of  the  Cen- 
tral Church  in  Fall  River,  Mass.  He  died  there,  Dec. 
19, 1869.  In  theology  Dr.  Thurston  was  ranked  as  a 
Hopkinsian  Calvinbt,  and  his  sermons  were  all  con- 
structed on  the  basis  of  his  theology.  As  a  preacher' 
he  was  remarkable  for  clearness  of  statement  and  di- 
rectness of  argument.  See  Cong,  Quarterly ,  1871,  p.  433. 

Tiben  (also  written  Twin  or  Dwln),  Councils 
OF  (Concilium  Thevinenu),  Tiben  (perhaps  the  same 
as  Thevis  or  Divo,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  present 
Erivan),  under  Chosroes  II,  became  the  capital  of  Ar- 
menia, and  the  religious  centre  of  the  realm.  Several 
councils  were  held  there. 

I.  The  first  council,  held  in  452,  declared  Tiben  the 
seat  of  the  catholicos. 

IL  The  second  council  was  summoned  by  the  ca- 


tholicos, Nerses  II,  in  527,  and  passed  thirty-eight  caioos, 
the  last  of  which  ordered  a  fast  of  one  week  every  month. 

III.  The  third  council  was  held  in  551,  under  Moses 
II,  with  a  view  of  rqpilating  the  Easter  festival.  The 
11th  day  of  July,  558,  was  to  begin  the  Armenian  Kra, 
and  was  declared  the  New  Year's  day  of  the  first  year. 

IV.  The  fourth  council,  held  in  596,  was  important 
for  bringing  about  a  separation  between  the  Armenians 
and  Georgians.  Up  to  the  year  580  the  Georgians 
elected  their  own  cathoUooa,  who  was  always  ordained 
by  the  Armenian.  About  that  time,  when  the  Georgian 
catholicos  had  died,  the  Georgians  asked  Moaes  II  to 
elect'  one  for  them.  He  appointed  Cyrion,  a  very  learned 
theologian,  who  decreed  the  acceptance  of  the  acts  of 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  Moses'  snoeessor,  Abraham 
I,  who  differed  with  Cyrion  concerning  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  urged  the  Georgian  catholicos  to  reject  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  but  in  vain.  At 
the  fourth  Council  of  Tiben,  Cyrion  and  his  followers 
were  condemned.  This  act  was  the  occasion  of  much 
controversy  among  the  Armenians. 

y.  The  fifth  council,  held  under  Nerses  HI,  in  645^ 
condemned  all  heretics,  and  especially  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  and  its  supporters. 

YI.  The  sixth  council  was  convened  by  Nerses  HI,  in 
648,  which  again  condemned  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 

VII.  In  719  the  seventh  council  was  held,  under  John 
IT;  thirty-two  canons  were  passed,  which  provided, 
among  other  things,  that  the  altar  and  baptismal  foot 
should  be  made  of  stone,  unleavened  bread  and  unmixed 
wine  should  be  used  in  the  communion,  the  daoae 
"Thou  that  wast  crucified  for  us,"  in  the  Trisagioo, 
should  be  sung  three  times,  moroing  and  evening,  as 
well  as  at  the  mass,  etc  The  last  canon  strictly  for- 
bade the  intercourse  with  the  Faulidans. 

VIIL  The  last  or  eighth  council  was  held  in  726,  and 
condemned  Julian  Halicaraassensis,  his  followers,  and 
his  writings.  Tiben  is  also  celebrated  for  the  martyr- 
dom which  some  faithful  Christians  suffered  there.  See 
Plitt-Herzog,  Reai^Encyldop.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

TiberiaB.  The  present  Tubariga  is  described  ia 
the  Memoirt  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  i,  861,  418. 

Tibetan  Version.    See  Thibetan  Ykrsiom. 

Tidman,  Arthcr,  D.D.,  an  Engtish  Congregation- 
al minister,  was  bom  at  Mickelton,  Nov.  14, 17^  He 
was  educated  for  the  medical  profession,  but  afterwards 
studied  theology  with  Rev.  George  CoUison,  and  in 
1818  commenced  missionary  work  in  Sidmoutb.  In 
1818  he  received  a  call  from  Frome,  and  in  1828  settled 
at  Barbican  Chapel,  London.  During  the  last  years 
of  his  pastorate  he  held  the  office  of  foreign  secretary 
of  the  London  Missionary  Society.  He  died  March  K 
1868.  Dr.  Tidman  was  well  versed  in  all  civil  and 
diplomatic  questions  of  the  day;  cool,  far-seeing,  and 
practical  in  all  questions  of  Church  doctrine  or  govern- 
ment, and  especially  distinguished  by  the  wisdom,  en- 
ergyt  >n<l  depth  of  his  spiritual  perception.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-book,  1869,  p.  281. 

Tleftmnk,  Johanm  Heimrich,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian and  philosopher  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  17G0 
at  OeftenhiLfcn,  near  Rostock.  He  studied  at  Rostock 
and  Halle,  was  in  1792  professor  at  Halle,  and  died  Ocf« 
7,  1837.  He  published,  Ewzig  mogUcher  Zweck  Jesu 
aus  dem  Grundgesetze  der  ReUgion  entvidseU  (2d  ed. 
Halle,  1793) :—  Vertuch  eifier  Kriiik  der  Beligion  (1790)  : 
— Ceneur  det  chrigtlichen  proteslantitchen  Lekrhegriffe 
nach  den  Priazipien  der  Beligionskritik  (Berlin,  1791-^ 
3  parts;  2d  ed.  1796):  — Z>e  Afodo  Deum  CognotcemH 
(1792):— Dilucidaiionet  ad  Theoreticam  Bdiffiomg 
Chrittiana  Partem  (1798,  2  parU)  i—Rdigion  der  Mim- 
digen  (1800,  2  parU).  See  Krug,  Phiht^ieeka  Wor^ 
terbuck,  iv,  173  (2d  ed.iv,  197);  Banr,  Vorleeungen  6&er 
Dogmengetchichte,  iii,  836  sq.;  Gass,  Getek,  der  prot, 
Dogmatikj  iv,  300  sq. ;  Pttnjer,  GttehiehU  der  Bdiffiim»~ 
pkihtophie,  ii,  62  sq. ;  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Enqfcicp,  a.  r. 
(a  P.) 


TIMANN  81 

Timann  (or  Tidamann),  Josanx,  Lhs  reformer 
of  Bremen,  wu  bom  at  Amsterdam  about  tbe  year 
150O.  In  1&S2  be  went  to  Wiitenberg,  where  he  made 
tbe  acqimiatwice  of  LuCher  and  Btelanchthon.  In  16Z4 
h«  went  to  Bremen,  and  was  appcnnted  pastor  of  St. 
Harlln't.  He  now  introduced  thoae  reform itory  changes 
which  hara  immortalized  his  nunc.  In  1629  coaot 
Entio  II,  of  Eut  Frina,  called  him  to  Emden  to  work 
Ibere  against  ibe  Anabaptiita.  In  1&33  tbe  city  conndl 
■dopled  a  church  order,  which  was,  no  doubt,  prepared 
by  Tiiaann,  and  was  approved  by  Luther  and  Bugen- 
hageii.  Timan  was  also  pment  at  the  eoUoquy  in 
Wonns,  and  at  the  meetings  held  at  Ratisbon  in  IMI. 
He  died  Feb.  17, 1667,  at  Nienburg.  See  Rothmund, 
I,.snitm  aller  Gtkhrtm  in  Bremm,  ii,  216  aq.  (where  a 
listofTimann'swritinggisgiren);  Plitt-Heizog, Am^ 
EncyUop.  >.  V.     (R  P.) 

Tlnmali  (or  TlmnaUi).  There  seem  to  be  three 
localitiea  thus  designated. 

1.  In  the  mounUios  of  Judah  (Uen.  xxxviii,  1 
14;  Josh.  XT,  B7).  For  this  no  modem  representati 
of  a  eorrespoDding  name  (Tibneb)  hu  been  diaeorered 
in  the  region  required,  for  the  ruined  site,  TOma,  two 
and  a  balfmiles  east  of  Beit  Nettir,and  nine  miles  west 
of  Bethlehem,  suggested  by  Conder  (J/nmfiri  to  tbe 
Ordnance  Survey,  iil,  53),  and  containing  only  "  foun- 
dations" (ibid.  p.  161),  is  entirely  out  of  the  oeighbor- 
bood  of  the  associated  localities  (in  Josh.), 

2.  In  tbe  pUin  of  Judah  (Joeb.  XF,  10 ;  Jndg.  lir, 
1,2,5;  2  Cbron.  xariii,  IS),  The  present  representa- 
tive, Tiimah,  lies  five  and  a  half  miles  noith-eaat  of 
Tell  es-Safieh  (Cath),  and  eight  miles  south  of  Abu 
Shnsheb  (GezerJ,  It  ii  merely  de«!ribed  in  tbe  Mt- 
moiri  lecompanying  tbe  Ordnance  Surve;  (ii,  441)  as 
"ruined  walla,  eaves,  and  wlne-preeses,  with  roc' 
cisterns.    The  water  supply  is  (him  a  spring  on  the 

3.  In  HountEphiaim  (Joeh.xix.fiO;  xiiv.SO',  Judg. 
ii,  9).  The  n»odem  ruin,  ribnA,  which  lies  ten  miles 
north-west  of  Beitlu  (Bethel),  and  ten  and  a  half  miles 
north-east  of  JimiQ,  is  described  at  length  in  the  Mt- 
noirt  to  tbe  Ordnance  Survey,  ii,a74  >q.  Lieut.  Cou- 
der  remarka  {Trot  Work,  ii,  229) ; 

the  IdenUtr  of  the  llle  wlih  Itial  o\  Tlmnilh-Hereii.  II 
Is  eenaia  tbat  ibis  la  ibe  place  called  TImnslba  lij  Je- 
rome, a  town  of  importaao,  capital  of  a  district  in  tli< 
bllli,  and  on  lbs  road  from  Lydda  la  Jerusulem,  lbs  po- 
sition of  which  Is  Sled  by  references  to  inrroundlos 
towns.  But  lbs  Jewish  IradltloD,  sod  also  Ihat  nf  tbe 
modem  Samarltana,  points  to  Kefr  Haris  as  Ibe  burial 

lage'called  Kerr  Ishw's,  or  ■Joshna's  hamlet,' eilaU  Ii 
the  Immediate  neighborhood  of  the  mln  of  Tibneb." 

TiphBah  (2  Kings  sv,  16)  is  thought  by  LieuL 
Conder  {Memain  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  ii,  169) 


TOBENZ 

be  (different  from  that  of  1  Kings  iv,  24)  the  present 
KXurIxt  Tqftak.  six  miles  south-west  of  Shechem  (Na- 
bias),  and  deacribed  (ilnd.  p.  198)  as  "a  small  ruined 
illage  in  gardena,  appears  to  be  modern.^* 

nixalL  Tbe  present  Ttiarir,  which  Tristram  a»- 
•nmes  {B3iU  Plaea,  p.  196)  as  the  modem  lepresenta- 
dve,  lies  twelve  miles  east  by  north  from  Sebuatieh  (Sa- 
maria), and  is  described  in  the  tftmoiri  accompanying 
tbe  Ordnance  Surrey  (ii,228,!4&).  As  to  (be  identity 
of  the  name, Lieut. Conder  remarks  (TaU  VTori^ ii,  108) : 

"It  contains  tbe  eiael  Jellers  or  the  Hebrew  word, 
thnngh  lbs  last  two  rsdlcali  sre  Itilercbanied  in  poalllon, 
a  kind  of  cbsoge  uot  uDUsnal  amoDe  ibe  peasanlry,  Tbe 
ttesutT  of  lbs  poalllon  and  the  richness  of  the  plain  on 
the  west,  tbe  anc<eni  remslns,  and  tbe  old  main  road  to 
Ibe  place  from  Shechem,  seem  to  agree  well  with  the  Idea 
of  lis  taatlDE  once  been  a  capllal ;  und  U  I  sni  riebt  lu 
the  aucEesdon.  lljen  Ibe  old  sepulchres  are  prubablj, 
some  orihani,  th»e  of  tbe  esrlr  klDCs  of  Isnel  befure 
the  royal  family  began  to  be  burled  In^amsrla." 

Tltelmanii,  Fbakcis,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  in  1497  at  Haiselt,  Belgium,  and  studied 
at  lieg&  Having  completed  bis  studies,  be  jcnned  the 
Capuchins, went  to  Rome  in  1537,aad  died  tbe  same  year- 
Be  wrote,  Coaimaitai-ia  in  Ofvta  PtalfVH : — ParopArd- 
Miea  Llutitlatio  in  ttbrum  Joi.-— Coin»im(aria  tn  Ec- 
daiaMa  Salotnamt : — ComwiBilaria  in  Canlica  Caatiat- 
nati—Coliatio  pro  EUtiimt  Vuigata  Sacra  ScriptaTa: 
— EbieidMio  in  Omaa  SpiMtolat  Fmti,  etc  See  Miraeua, 
Elogia  Ittiutrian  Bflgii  StripToruni ;  Andreas,  Biblio- 
Ihfoa  Btlgica;  Jochei,  AUffemana  GeUhriat-Laikon, 

•.,.  (a p.) 

Titlvia;  Gerhard,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  horn  at  Quedlinburg,  Dec.  17,1620,  and  stud- 
ied at  diSerent  universilies.  In  1646  he  was  professor 
of  Hebrew  at  Uelmalltdt,  in  1650  doctor  of  theology, 
and  died  June  7, 1681.  Tiliua  wu  a  ToluminOBS  writer. 
Of  his  publications  we  mention,  Dt  Princ^iia  Fidei 
Chriitiima itt  Canoaica  Scriplura; — De  Miniitrit  Ec- 
claia :  —  Dt  Btatiludine  it  Damnatiom  jEttma  as 
JUiiclmajolh  ei  Comrneniariii  Balbinorum  Coniiderala  .• 
-De  ThtopoKhitaTOm  UaTia-.—Be  Orthodaza  FHa 
Cirittiana  Doctrina :  —  Dt  Jaa  Chritti  Officio  Prtj- 
yiArtieo,  Sacerdolali  et  Rtgio,  etc  See  Witle,  Jfemoria 
TUologoniia !  J6cher,  AUj/tratirut  GtUhrim-Ltxiltim, 
»v.    (B,P.) 

Tobens,  DANiBi,an  Augnslinian,  was  bom  *tTlen> 
na  in  1748.  In  1768  be  was  made  a  priest,  in  1772  doctor 
of  tbeoli^y,  and  in  I7T5  professor  of  theology  at  Tiett- 
na.  In  181 1  he  retired  from  his  professorship,  and  died 
Aug.  20, 1819.  He  published,  I-mtilutima,  Uiat  tt  Doe- 
trina  Palrum  (Vienna,  1779-83)  :—£ninwn  Traclalut 
Joanma  Barbtgrad  dt  Doctrina  Morati  Patrum  Ecde^ 
lia  ( 1786  ) ;  —  Commmfiiriw  iii  A'oFum  TtitoiKntum 
1804-6, 2  vols.)  i—Paraphraiii  Pvdmorvm  ex  Hebraico 


'ftadltlonalSapoklnear  JcdwaatTlbiMh.   (From  Thomson's  gnOum  ftlssHm  «tii  Jrywtmi.) 


TODD 


872 


TOUSSAIN 


Adomata^  NbHt  et  Summariit  InttmOa  (2d  ed.  1814).  I 
His  works  were  pablished  under  the  title  Opera  Omnia 
(1822, 15  Tols.).    See  Ddring,  Die  gekkrim  Tkeoloj^ 
DeuUchiands,  s.  y.     {B,  P.) 

Todd,  Ambrose  S.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  son  of  Rev.  Ambrose  Todd,  was  bom  at  Hunt- 
ington, Conn.,  Dec.  6, 1798.  His  early  edocation  was 
acquired  at  Ciieshire  Academy,  and  Yale  College  con* 
ferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of  A.M.  in  1824. 
He  was  ordained  presbyter  June  80, 1828,  and  his  firrt 
charge  comprised  the  parishes  of  Reading,  Danbury, 
Greenwich,  New  Canaan,  Darien,  and  Stamford.  For 
thirty-eight  years  he  was  rector  of  St.  John*s,  in  the 
latter  place,  and  died  there,  June  23, 1861.  He  filled 
many  offices  of  honor  and  responsibility  in  the  diooeae, 
and  was  universally  respected.  See  A  mer,  Quar,  Church 
Eev.  1862,  p.  557. 

Tolea,  Russell  G.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Dunham,  X.  Y.,  in  1811.  He  graduated  from  Madison 
University  at  an  early  age,  studied  theology,  and  then 
took  charge  of  a  Baptist  Church  in  Cooperstown,  where 
,  he  was  ordained.  At  the  breaking-out  of  the  rebellion 
'  he  was  given  control  of  one  branch  of  the  Christian 
Commission,  and  stationed  at  Fortress  Monroe.  From 
these  duties  he  was  called  to  the  Howard  Mission  of 
New  York.  He  founded,  with  the  aid  of  ten  wealthy 
laymen,  the  Wanderers'  Home,  in  Baldwin  Place,  Bos- 
ton, in  1865.  At  first  it  wss  a  mission  school  as  well 
as  a  home,  and  children,  and  even  infants,  were  carried 
there  in  the  daytime  by  their' parents,  and  then  taken 
home  at  night;  but  eventually  it  became  a  permanent 
home  for  children  until  adopted  into  families.  Dr. 
Toles  died  in  Boston,  July  11, 1884. 

Tonel,  SiaiBON  dk,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of 
Moray  in  1171.  He  was  a  monk  of  Melrose,  and  before 
that  he  had  been  abbot  at  Cogshall,  in  Essex,  England. 
He  died  in  1184.    See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bithopt,  p.  136. 

Tony,  Patrick,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  Scotland,  died  at  Peterhead,  Oct.  8, 1852,  aged 
ninety  years.  He  was  consecrated  OcL  12, 1808.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  Dum- 
blane,  and  Fife,  Scotland.  See  Amer,  Quar,  Church 
Rev,  1853,  p.  159. 

TOfliphta  (Ktp&tD**lD,  the  addition  or  euppkmeid)  is 
the  title  of  a  great  halachic  work,  which  originated  in 
the  time  of  the  Mishna  (q.  v.).  It  is  of  great  importance, 
because  the  Tosiphla  (or  ToseftOf  as  it  is  alK>  called) 
contains  the  decisions  of  the  Jewish  teachers  in  their 
original  form,  while  the  Mishna  gives  them  in  an  ab- 
breviated manner.  Thus  many  things  are  contained  in 
the  Tosiphta  which  are  not  found  in  the  Mishna.  The 
Tosiphta  is  also  richer  in  quotations  from  the  Old  Test. 
While  we  have  noticed  twelve  variations  in  the  "  textus 
rooeptus"  of  the  Mishna — we  say  '^  textus  receptos," 
because  Lowers  edition,  from  the  Cambridge  MS.  (^The 
Mishnah  on  which  the  Palestinian  Talmud  Retta,  edited 
from  the  unique  MS,  preserved  in  the  Univernty  Libra- 
ry ofCambAdge  [Cambridge,  1883])  does  not  always 
agree  with  the  common  text — and  about  ninety-five  in 
the  Gemara,  we  have  collated  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  variations  from  the  Tosiphta,  that  is,  more  than 
double  the  number  that  the  Talmud  presents.  The  best 
edition  is  that  of  M.  S.  Zuckermandel,  Totefta  nach 
den  Wiener  und  Erfurier  Uandschrifien  herauagegeben 
(Pasewalk,  1880),  aud  it  is  to  this  edition  that  our  ref- 
erences are  made.  The  following  incomplete  list  of 
variations  will  at  once  show  the  importance  of  this  work 
for  the  Old-Test,  scholar. 

Exod.  xxdx,  43,  ba  is  omitted,  p.  S21. 
Lev.  vii,  19,  ba  is  omitted,  p.  169. 

vii,  29,  the  reading  is,  **  tbe  blood  of  the  peace  oifer- 
ings,**  for  "  the  sacrifice  of  his  peace  offerings,"  p. 
47. 

xiv,  67,  **  and  to  teacb,*'  so  Sept,  Sirr.,  p.  618. 

xvi,  13, "  upon  the  ark,**  instead  of  "  upon  the  testi- 
mony," p.  181. 


Numb.  Y,  10, "  he  shall  pat  no  oU  vpon  her  nor  put  frsaldn- 
cense  upon  her,**  the  reading  is  ri49  for  l47. 
p.  SM. 
zl,23,theflntbnb  MXSI  omitted,  ^  805. 

Dent  Y,  14,  "^nsXI  *^n3X1  omitted,  p.  8S& 

XYii,9,bxi  b'^lbil  Diansn  omitted,  p.  211. 

xxlY,  19,  "]1  vn  omitted,  p.  SB. 

Josh,  i,  1,  the  last  three  words  omitted,  p.  815. 

ill,  16,  bneiS,  so  all  ▼erBlons.pi  810;  theBerlsed  Ter- 

slon,  "  at  Adam.**  with  marginal  note ;  another 
reading,  **  from  Adam.  ** 
Josh,  iv,  8,  tbe  reading  Is,  "hence  from  under  the  feet  of 
the  priests  twelTe,'*  p.  810. 
iv,  6,  at  the  end, "  and  leave  them  in  the  place  where 
the  feet  of  the  priests  stood/'  p.  81& 

vlil,  88,  and  their  oflicers,  l^^kSVI.  p.  811 ;  so  also 

Targian  (ed.  Lagarde),  and  Mishna,  Soto,  du  vii, 
S  6 ;  but  Lowe*s  Cambridge  edition  reads  as  the 
present  text  of  the  Bible. 
1  Kincs  X,  ST.  "for  abundance'*  omitted,  p.  Tl. 
rlii,  4,  **  children  **  omitted,  p.  46& 


S  Kings  XT 
Job  xxxvi 


they  shall  wax  old  In  the  good  of  their 
days.*'  The  Masoretic  text  reads  *^?a%  and  the 
mark  Kin  l^,  L  e.  it  Is  thus  written,  vis.  with  9, 

indicates  that  there  already  existed  a  diversity  of 
readings.  Indeed,  Mlchaelis  (Hebr.  Bible,  m  loeo) 
adduces  a  number  of  MSS.  which  read  ibs**,  with 

heUi, 
Prov.  ix,  1,  **  wise  women  build.**   The  plural  noun  with 
a  singular  verb  is  strange ;  the  Sept,  Targ.,  and 

Syr.  read  hSSlT 

xx,ST,*«thelampofGod**=Q*^rAM  ^a,p.lM;  ao 

Targ.,  TaXmud PeaaeMm,  foL  T,  coL  3 ;  foL  8,  coL  1» 
and  ancient  Midrashim. 
Bsek.  xlvil,  4, "  and  caused  me  to  pass  through  the  watere^ 
waters  that  were  to  the  loins.**  B&r  and  De- 
litzsch.  In  their  edition  of  Ezekiel,  remark,  in  lees, 
'Mn  tractatu  Yoma  T7^,  et  Tbeefta,  Sticea  iii,  hlc 

locus  addndtur,  tanqnam  si  scriptnm  enet  D^BS 

D'ldriQ  '^S  et  revera  in  Reuchllniano  prima  ma- 

nns  sic  scripserat** 

xlvil,  8,  "to  Galilee  to  the  Front  Sea,**  ^b  'yn  Vs( 

naiQipn,  p.  lOO ;  the  "  Front  Sea  '*  is  explained 

by  Q^D  blZ)  ns*«  m.  I  e.  that  is  the  sea  of  Sod- 
om. The  reading  is  not,  as  in  the  Masoretic  text, 
nb'ibfth,  but  nb'^bjn,  so  read  Sept,  Targ.,  Syrl- 

ac.  ine  codex  to  which  Bftr  and  Delitxsch  at- 
tach great  importance,  the  codes  Jamanetieia^ 

reads,  as  the  two  editors  note,  nb'^^ftM,  cum  gi^ 
mel  Kamezato. 
xlvil,  11, 1B'>'^  Mb,  p.  196:   so  also  Bir  and  De- 
litxsch, against  the  M^l  of  the  teaOua  reeeptue, 

Zech.  viil,  19,  "loTe  truth,'*  nsMT,  p,  S41:  so  also  Tal- 
mud, Tebamoth,  fol.  14,  col.  S. 

A  few  of  these  variations  have  already  been  noted  by 
De*  Rossi  in  his  Varies  Leetiones,  A  complete  list  ia 
given  by  Pick  in  Stade*s  Zeiischrift  flar  die  abtaUt- 
menUiche  Wietenaehaft  (Giessen,  1886).     (B.  P.) 

Totten,  Silas,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
dergyman,  was  for  a  long  time  engaged  in  educational 
work  in  Williamsburg,  Vs.,  until  1859.  In  that  year 
he  was  dected  president  of  the  Iowa  State  Univernty, 
and  also  ministered  in  Trinity  Church,  Iowa  City.  For 
a  number  of  years  he  was  one  of  the  standing  commit- 
tee of  the  diocese  of  Iowa ;  was  one  of  the  trustees  of 
Griswold  College,  Davenport,  and  was  identified  with 
the  missionary  work  in  his  diocese.  In  1864  he  was 
rector  of  St  John's  Church,  Decatur,  HI ;  in  1867  be- 
came rector  of  Christ  Church  Seminary,  Lexington, 
Ky.,  in  charge  of  which  he  remained  until  his  death, 
Oct  7, 1873.     See  Prot,  Epiac  A  Imanac,  1874,  p.  1S9. 

ToaBsain  (Lat  rAtiMOjutf),  Pierre,  father  of  Dan- 
iel, was  bom  at  St  Laurent,  Lorraine,  in  1499.  He 
studied  theology  at  Cologne,  Paris,,  and  Rome,  and  was 
made  a  canon  at  the  cathedral  of  Metz.  When  tbe 
persecution  against  the  Protestants  began,  he  fled  to 
Basle,  and  formally  embraced  the  ReformatioD.  Two  au 
tempts  which  he  made  to  propagate  his  views  in  Fiance 


TOWNLEY 


878 


TRESENBEUTER 


(at  Metz  and  in  Paris)  ended  with  impriaonment ;  bat  in 
1589  the  duke  of  Wttitemberg  made  him  saperintend- 
ent  of  Mttmpelgard,  where  he  introduced  the  Beforma- 
tion,  not  without  great  difficolties,  however,  aa  he  was 
a  Calvinist,  and  the  duke  a  Lutheran.  Toussain  died 
in  1573.  See  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Encyldop,  8.  v. ;  lich- 
tenberger,  Encydop.  de»  Sdencet  Reliffieusei,  s.  r.  (B.  P.) 

To^vnley,  Chablbs  Gostlxho,  LL.D.,  an  English 
Congregational  minister,  waa  bom  in  1780.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  the  stody  of  law,  but  with  his  brother 
Henry  prepared  himself  for  the  ministry.  Afler  study- 
ing divinity  at  Hoxton  Academy  he  began  to  preach 
in  Ireland,  laboring  with  selt-denying  devotedness  for 
the  good  of  both  Romanists  and  Protestants.  From 
1817  to  1841  he  preached  in  Limerick  and  vicinity. 
He  then  returned  to  England,  where  he  resided  at 
Brixton,  afterwards  at  Pimlico,  and  became  pastor  of  a 
small  church  at  Mortlake,  Surrey,  where  he  erected 
school-houses  at  his  own  expense.  He  died  at  Pimlico, 
June  17, 1856.    See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book^  1857,  p.  209. 

Townsend,  Stephsn,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  in  1808,  and  was  for  forty- 
six  years  a  member  of  the  Philadelphia  Conference, 
being  a  supemnmerary  from  1875  until  his  death,  Aug. 
5, 1881.  He  waa  a  man  of  extensive  scholarship.  See 
Minuies  o/Ammal  Cot^ferencet^  1882,  p.  71. 

Townaon  (or  Tonson),  Bobbrt,  D.D.,  a  divine 
of  the  17th  century,  was  bom  in  St  Botolph's  Parish, 
Cambridge,  became  fellow  of  Queen's  College,  being  ad- 
mitted therein  when  but  twelve  years  of  age.  He  was 
an  excellent  preacher,  attended  king  James  as  chaplain 
into  Scotland,  became  dean  of  Westminster  in  1617,  bish- 
op of  Salisbury  in  1620,  and  died  May  15, 1621.  See 
Fuller,  WoHhies  (Nuttall),  i,  231. 

Tracy,  Samuel  Waltbb,  D.D.,  an  English  Inde- 
pendent minister,  was  bora  at  Portsea,  in  Febmary,  1778. 
He  studied  under  Rev.  Dr.  Bogue,  preached  at  Lichfield, 
next  at  Hot  Wells,  near  Bristol,  then  at  Yeovil,  was 
secretary  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  spent  sev- 
eral years  on  the  Continent,  and  afterwards  preached  at 
Hounslow,  Chelsea,  and  Brixton  Rise.  He  died  Feb. 
16, 1853.     See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book^  1854,  p.  256. 

Trail,  Walter,  a  Scotch  prelate,  a  canon  of  St.  An- 
drews, was  elected  bishop  of  that  diocese  in  1885,  and 
was  still  there  in  1400.  He  died  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Andrews  in  1401.    See  Keith,  Scottith  Buihopi,  p.  26. 

Transcanoaaian  Tartar  Version  of  the 
Scriptures.  A  peculiar  and  rather  conrupt  dialect  of 
the  Turkish  is  spoken  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Mos- 
lem population  in  (xeorgia,  Shuati,  Shirwan,  Derbend, 
and  North-west  Persia.  Aa  it  is  vernacular  in  nnmer- 
oua  tribes  in  all  the  Russian  provinces  beyond  the  Cau- 
casus, thia  dialect  has  been  termed,  by  way  of  distinc- 
tion, the  Transcaucasian.  Parts  of  the  New  Test,  were 
prepared  in  this  language  many  years  ago  by  BOrza 
Ferookh  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pfander.  In  1875  the  com- 
mittee of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bil)|e  Society  pro- 
posed to  reprint  the  gospels  under  the  superintendence 
of  Mr.  Abraham  Amircbanjanz,  the  son  of  Miiza  Fe- 
rookh, who  has  latterly  been  employed  in  the  service  of 
the  Basle  missions.  From  the  report  of  1877  we  leara 
that  the  British  BiUe  Society  resolved  to  print  the 
remaining  portiona  of  the  New  Test,  and  Mr.  Amir- 
cbanjanz has  revised  the  remainder  of  his  father's 
manuscript,  and  translated  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
In  1878  the  entire  New  Test,  waa  printed  under  the  su- 
perintendence of  Messrs.  Acpirchanjanz  and  Sauerwein. 
From  the  report  of  1881  we  leam  that  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  had  secured  the  entire  services 
of  Mr.  Amirchanjanz  for  editorial  work,  and  that  he 
had  undertaken  a  tranalation  of  the  Old  Test.  Thia 
translation,  which  waa  completed  in  1888,  induced  the 
American  misiionariea  to  give  np  their  version,  on 
which  they  were  engaged,  and  nnite  with  Mr.  Amir- 
cbanjanz in  a  final  reviaion  of  the  Old  Test,  in  order 


to  secure  but  one  version  of  the  Bible  in  the  Trans- 
caucaaian  language.    (B.  P.) 

Trapier,  Paui^  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, a  graduate  of  the  General  Theological  Seminar}*, 
waa  for  several  years  prior  to  1856  rector  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.  In  1857  he  resided  in  Lynchburg,  Va.,  and  re- 
mained there  until  1859,  when  he  removed  to  Camden, 
S.  C,  having  been  appointed  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  and  the  evidences  of  Christianity  in  the  theo- 
logical seminary  there.  When  the  seminary  waa  re- 
moved, in  1866,  to  Spartansburg,  Dr.  Trapier  removed 
to  that  place,  holding  the  same  professorship.  In  1868 
he  waa  assigned  to  ecclesiastical  history  and  exegesis. 
In  1870  he  removed  to  Locust  Grove,  Md.,  and  became 
rector  of  Shrewsbury  pariah,  where  he  remained  until 
hia  death,  July  12,  1872,  aged  sixty-six  years.  See 
ProU  Epitc  Almanac,  1878,  p.  183. 

Treat,  Selab  Bvbm,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Hartland,  Conn.,  Feb.  19, 1804.  After 
studying  at  Lenox  Academy  and  Hopkins  Grammar- 
school,  he  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1824 ;  in  1826 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  the  practice  of  hia 
profession  at  East  Windsor  Hill,  removing,  however,  in 
1831  to  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y.  *,  where  he  became  a  Christian, 
and,  abandoning  the  law,  graduated  from  Andover  The- 
ological Seminary  in  1835.  The  next  year  he  became 
paator  of  the  Third  Presbyterian  Church,  Newark,  N.J. 
In  1840  he  was  associated  with  Rev.  Dr.  Absalom  Peters 
in  editing  the  Biblical  RepotUory  and  American  EcUc- 
tiCf  in  New  York.  In  1843  he  was  appointed  editor  of 
the  Miationary  Herald,  In  1847  he  was  elected  one 
of  the  secretaries  of  the  American  Board  of  Commia- 
sioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  hia  special  work  being  the 
carrying  on  the  correspondence  with  the  missionariea 
among  the  North  American  Indians.  In  1859  he  was 
called  to  take  charge  of  the  home  department  of  the 
board,  and  continued  in  this  o£Bce  until  a  few  months 
before  hia  death,  which  occurred  March  27, 1877.  He 
had  continued  hia  editorial  labors  until  1856,  at  which 
time  he  took  a  second  somewhat  extended  trip  abroad, 
his  first  joumey  having  been  taken  in  1850.  See  Cong, 
QftarierUf,  xix,  847, 875.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Tregnry,  Michael,  D.D.,  an  Iriah  prelate,  was  a 
native  of  the  village  of  Tregury,  in  Comwall,  and  for 
some  time  fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  He  was 
consecrated  in  St  Patrick's  Church  archbbhop  of  Dub- 
lin in  1449.  In  1450  he  had  restitution  of  the  tempc- 
ralities  of  his  see.  In  1467  Treguiy  assigned  a  moieiy 
of  the  parish  of  Lusk  for  the  treasurer  of  St  Patrick's, 
and  constituted  the  rectory  of  St  Andeon  in  the  city. 
In  1468  he  held  a  visitation  in  the  chapter-house  of  St 
Patrick's  Cathedral  He  died  in  1471.  See  D'Alton, 
Mtmoirt  of  the  Archbiihapt  of  Dublin,  p.  159. 

Trenoh,  Hon,  Power  Lb  Poer,  D.D.,  a  prelate  of 
the  Irish  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  June  10, 1770, 
and  educated  at  Dublin  University.  His  first  prefer- 
ment on  being  ordained  waa  the  union  of  Creagh,  in 
the  diocese  of  Clonfert  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Waterford,Nov.21,1802;  in  1810  translated  to  the  see 
of  Elphin ;  and  in  1819  appointed  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Tuam,  which  he  held  till  his  death,  March  21, 1839. 
Archbishop  Trench  waa  a  fine  scholar,  a  profound  the- 
ologian, a  devout  Christian,  a  brilliant  orator,  and  dili- 
gent in  the  performance  of  all  life's  duties.  See  The 
(Lond.)  Church  of  England  Magazine^  June,  1841,  p. 
880;  The  (Lond.)  Christian  RementJbranoer,  May,  1839, 
p.  815. 

Tresenreater,  Johann  Ulrxch,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct  81, 1710,  and  studied 
at  Altdorf  and  Leipsic  In  1738  he  commenced  his 
academical  career  at  Altdorf,  was  preacher  at  Coburg 
in  1788,  and  died  March  81, 1744.  He  published,  De 
Bababe  coniraju*  Naturm  Jtute  Agente  (Altdorf,  1783) : 
— De  Paradito  Igne  Deklo  (1735):  —  De  Persona 
Christi  (1788):»X>0  Signo,  quod  Deus  Caino  Dedii 
(eod.):  —  De  Vaticinatione  Benochi  in  Epittola  Judm 


endeni,  tad  died 


TREVOR  81 

(!7B9>t— J)e  LUnv,  jui  <^aTiu>  Etra  Volga  JmenbitKr 
(1742)  -.—Dt  SretiM  Judaorum  in  Gmm  (17*8) :— On 
EtaormaNimitie  (roa.),etc  Set'Donag. Die gritkrlBi 
Theohgm  DaOKUaadi,  e.  v, ;  Jdcher,  A  Ugemrina  Ce- 
leirltn-Lexiim,  i.  v.     (B.  F.) 

Trevor,  Bickasd,  D.D.,  a  Charah  of  EngUnd  di- 
vine, «■■  bom  in  1707;  became  canon  of  Christ  Ch arch, 
Oxrurd,  in  17Sb;  was  conBeeuted  bitbap  of  SLDavid'e 
in  1714,  tniulated  to  th«  tee  of  Durham  in  17B2,  and 
died  It  hi*  borne  in  Tenderden  Street,  Hanover  Sqoaie, 
London,  June  9,  1771.  He  pubtiahoit  Mveral  Knnona. 
See  (Lend.)  Amual  Segiilrr,  1771,  p.  179 ;  Li/e  (1776). 

Triflechov,  Adah,  a  Lutheran  Iheologian  of  Ger- 
many, waa  bom  Aug.  11,  1641,  at  Ltlbeck,  studied  at 
different  univeinlies,  Traa  in  1672 
lor  at  Goths,  in  1G77  general  sup 
Aug.  IT,  1687.  He  published,  Uiiloria  Ciitiatmi!- 
De  ImpotiiioM  JVonuuin  in  Sacrificiit  tx  Hdiraonm 
nee  non  Ciriilianoivm  Mormiaailit: — De  EmpSoMibai 
Scriplura  Sacra  ad  !a.  i,  l-Gi  —  Dt  RfckabaU  ad 
Jerem.  xxxv .-  —  Dt  A  iffetit :  —  fit  Mott  jEgyptioru'iii 
Oiiride: — De  Concami  Dei: — IliUoria  Naturalitmi  a 
Prima  ma  Origtaa  ad  Noitra  utque  Tempora  per  ruat 
ClatMi  Deducia  (edited  and  published  by  his  son,  Jens, 
1700>  See  Mailer,  Cinbiia  IMtralOf  J<x^eT,AUs^ 
nusno  Gfieinen-Lezibm,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

TrIn»UrtlCSan»crit,(ri,''tbree,"»ndinHrti,"forni"), 
tbe  name  of  the  Hindfl  triad,  the  gods  Brahma  (mas- 
culine), Vuhnfl,  and  Siva,  which  arc  considered  an  in- 
separable unity,  though  three  in  form.  Different  works 
aAsign  the  chief  place  to  different  members,  according 
to  the  schools  from  wbicb  Ihev  emanate.  TbePaduta- 
Pimma  of  the  Yaiubnara  (q.  v.)  sei 
the  highest  ranit  in  the  trimurti, . 
character;  "In  the  beginning  of 
Vishnb,  desirous  of  creating  the  whole  world,  became 
threefold — crcaioi 
to  create  this  world  the  Supreme  Spirit  produced  from 
the  right  side  of  his  body  himneir,  aa  Brahma  * 
ill  order  to  presen'e  the  woild,  he  produced  fr 


IS  deAnea  ii 


order 


y  Iht 


produced  fror 

iddlo  of  bis  body  the  eternal 

ra.    Some  worship  Biahma, 

a  ViahnO,  others   Siva; 

creates,   preserves,  and 
destroys;    therefore    let    the 
pious  make  no  difference  be- 
tween the  three."    The  Mai 
■..  «...#»■        .,     n/a^Furana,  speakinp  of  th 

"«"»'""•"-'"■  S.W,o,li»»«.,i,rin.l 
pie,  say*,  "Hahat  become*  distinctly  known  as  Ihrtt 
gods,  through  the  influeuce  of  the  three  qualities, 
goodness,  passion,  and  sin;  being  one  person  and  three 
gods,  viz.,  Brahma,  Viihni),  and  Siva."  We  are  thus 
cnalded  to  see  that,  a^de  from  sectarian  belief,  which 
makes  its  own  god  the  cbief,  trimurti  implies  the  unity 
personified  of  tbo  three  principles  of  creation  (Brah- 
ma), preservation  (Vishnfl),  and  deatruction  (Siva). 
When  represented,  the  trimurti  is  one  body  with  three 
heads :  in  the  middle  that  of  Brahma,  at  its  tight  that 
of  Vishnfi,  and  at  ila  left  that  of  Siva.  The  symbol  of 
the  trimurti  is  the  mystical  syllable  am,  in  which  o  is 
equivalent  to  a  and  u,  and  where  a  means  Brahma, « 
means  VishnQ,  and  m  mcsna  Siva. 

TrlnluB,  JoHAKN  Amton,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  6,  1722.  He  studied  at 
Leipaic,  Helmatildt,  and  Halle;  was  in  1748  aanstant 
minister  at  Braunroda,  in  the  county  of  Hanafeld,  Sax- 
ony, and  died  at  Eisleben,  Klsy  B,  17S4.  He  published, 
ScAediasma  Hiitoricum  de  Conjuffiit  Proa^torum  Jit- 
daieorum  {ilelmaiadt,1744) ;— Diatribe  Hiilorioo^polo- 
getiea  dt  Digamia  Clericoruia  quihaidam  Exata  (1746)  : 
~De  PalAopalridulgia  Saadorum  (KostJMk,  1762)  :— 


4  TRtJBNER 

Theotoffischet  Wirlerbiich  (Leipsic,  1770),  etc  S«« 
Dbring, /*  jefairtni  Tkeolagen  Deiitichlamii,t.v.;  Wi- 
ner, /fanatic*  der  thtoL  Lil.  i,  S76,  600, 8M.     (B.  P.) 

Tllton,  in  Greek  mythology,  was  primarily  a  son 
of  Nepture,  by  Amphitrite,  who  lived  with  his  rather 
and  mother  on  the  bottom  o(  the  sea  in  a  golden  pal- 
ace. Hence  the  name  was  applied  to  anydnown  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  who  rode,  sometimes  upon  horses, 
at  other  times  on  monsursof  the  deep,  and  occasionally 
deities  in  tiding.   SochTrilona 


.ntlqne  Representation  of  a  Triton  Funilj. 


are  described  differently.  They  are  probablir  of  the 
double  nature,  half  man  and  halt  6tb.  I'he'  hair  of 
their  head  ia  green,  they  have  Ane  scales,  gills  under 
their  ears,  a  human  iwse,  a  broad  mouth  with  animal 
teeth,  green  eyes,  hands,  fingers,  and  nails  rough,  and 
instead  of  feet  they  possess  the  tail  of  a  dolphin.  Tbej 
blow  a  spiral- formed  trumpet. 

Trotter,  John,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian  clergy- 
man, was  bom  in  Edinburgh  in  1728,  in  which  city  bia 
father  was  a  magistrate.  He  showed  marks  of  tme 
piety  in  his  youth,  and  a  preference  for  the  miniatiy. 
He  studied  the  learned  languages,  philosophy,  and 
divinity  It  the  City  Unircrsitv,  passed  his  triala  be- 
fore the  Synod  of  Edinburgh 'in  1749,  and  waa  mtoa 
afterwards  presented  to  the  liring  at  Ceres,  Fifesbire, 
where  he  was  very  popular  for  seventeen  years.  The 
Swallow  Street  Qiorch,  in  London,  became  vacant  in 
17C9.  and  Dr.  Trotter  accepted  the  pastorate  there  in 
December  of  that  year,  snd  with  unirorm  and  un- 
wearied diligence  performed  the  duties  for  nearly  fortT 
years.  Aft£r  a  short  illness  he  died,  Sept.  14, 1808,  and 
was  interred  in  Bunhill  Fields  Cemetery.  lie  made 
Calvinistic  theology  his  careful  study  through  bis  long 
life  of  more  than  fourscore  years.  He  publuhed  a  abort 
memoir  of  bia  first  wife  in'l771.  See  Wilaoo,  2>iMM(- 
uig  CiunAei,  ii,  43. 

l^rottet,  Jkah  Piubkr  Paiurt'E,  a  Protestant  the* 
ologian  of  Switierland,  was  bom  at  I^  Tour  de  Peili, 
in  the  canton  of  Vand,  Dec  12, 1818.    He  studied  at 

ordained  in  1B61.  In  186B  he  published  a  volume  of 
DiKOurt  Ecai^tiqiiei  (Parle),  and  spent  some  yean  at 
Stockholm  as  paalor  of  the  FiBDcb  Cfanrch.  In  1860 
he  waa  called  to  the  Hague  as  pastor  of  tba  Walloon 
Chureb.  where  [le  published,  against  Groen  van  Prin- 
Bterer,  Le  Parti  Ortkodom  Pur  dam  tigliti  WaUomite 
dt  La  Bay. — Le  Parti  Anti-RtcolMliomairi  el  Con- 
feuimael  dan  fEgUi*  Rifarmie  da  Pas'  -  Bat :  — 
Poarqaoii  je  Prtndt  Congi  de  fis^im  IFalicnme  de  La 
Bage  (1860-61).  In  1862  he  retired  to  Geneva,  and 
died  Aug.  30  of  the  same  year.  He  published  also, 
GraadM  Jours  de  V^iu  Apmtolique,  Comidirit  Rela- 
fuentent  a  fSpoque  AdueUe  (Paris,  18o6) ;—(;««  <lrt 
Citrilitalioni  ( 1862,  2  vols. ).  See  Hontet,  Diet,  Biog. 
da  Gentf.  el  da  Vaud,  ii,  583  sq. ;  ChriHai  Kt^iagilifMr, 
1869, 1862;  Lichtenberger,  Eacsdap.  da  Sdeiuee  lb~ 
Hgitata,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

TrUbner,  Miciioi.a8,  a  publisher  of  London,  who 
died  April  S,  ISSt,  deserve*  an  boacaable  maotioQ  fur 
the  great  interest  he  took  in  Oriental  research,  and 
more  especially  in  Indian  stndiea.  Hii  Jtecerd  baa 
always  been  a  welcome  and  invaloabla  visitor  to  alt 
tboae  who  were  interested  in  soch  putait^  an]  tba 


TRUDPERT 


875 


TUPPEK 


afliisUnoe  which  it  baa  rendered  to  Oriental  learning 
cannot  be  overestimated.  But  Mr.  Trttbner's  interests 
and  sympathies  were  not  confined  to  these  researches. 
The  history  of  religious,  the  study  of  languages,  the 
deyelopment  of  political  life  in  the  East,  all  claimed 
a  share  of  his  time  and  thoughts.  Many  stmggling 
scholars  have  lost  in  him  the  best  friend  they  had. 
(B.P.) 

Tmdpert  is  the  name  of  a  hermit  and  founder  of 
a  celebrated  monastery  in  the  Breisgau,  Baden.  About 
the  year  G40  he  came  into  the  region  of  the  upper 
Rhine,  and  settled  at  the  river  Ncumage.  Othpert, 
a  German  noble,  gave  to  Trudpert  the  land,  besides 
six  servants,  who  were  to  assist  him  in  the  clearing 
and  making  arable  the  wooded  country.  Soon  a  chapel 
was  built  in  honor  of  St.  Peter.  Three  years  Trudpert 
led  an  ascetic  life,  when  two  of  the  servants  killed  him 
while  resting  from  his  manual  labor.  Othpert  had 
Trudpert  buried  in  the  chapeL  During  the  8th  century 
the  place  lay  waste,  but  in  816  Rambert,  one  of  0th- 
pert*s  descendants,  built  a  splendid  basilica  in  hon- 
or of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  Trudpert's  remains  were 
placed  there.  See  Mone,  QueUentammbing  eur  hadi- 
Bcken  Landetgeichichtef  i,  17-28;  Rettberg,  Kirchen- 
gtichidUe  Detitschlandtf  ii,  48-50 ;  Hefele,  Ges^ickte  der 
Ewfuhrung  des  Chrittenthums  im  sudwettlichen  DeuttcK- 
hmd,  p.  814-829;  Friedrich,  Kirchengesehickte  Deutsche 
Uxndt,  ii,  607  -  613 ;  Plitt  -  Herzog,  JUal-EncyUop,  s.  v. 
(B.  P.) 

TroUan  Counoila,  The,  were  held  in  a  room  of 
the  imperial  palace  at  Constantinople,  which  had  a 
dome  (r/9ot;XXoc),  whence  the  name. 

I.  The  first  Trullan  council  was  called  in  680  by  the 
emperor  Constantinus  Pogonatns,  and  held  eighteen 
sittings.  The  legates  of  pope  Agatho  were  accorded 
the  highest  rank,  then  followed  in  order  the  patriarch 
George  of  Constantinople,  the  legate  of  the  pstriarch 
of  Alexandria,  Macarius  of  Antioch,  the  legato  of  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  three  delegates  from  the  West- 
em  Chureh,  delegates  from  Ravenna,  and  finally  the 
bishops  and  abbots  present.  In  the  very  first  session 
the  papal  legates  accused  the  patriarchs  of  Constanti- 
nople and  Antioch  of  heresy.  Macarius  defended  him- 
self against  this  accusation,  and  referred  to  the  canons 
of  the  councils  of  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon,  and  of  the 
fifth  Constantinopolican  council  In  the  eighth  sitting 
George  of  Constantinople  went  over  to  the  Roman 
doctrine.  In  the  sixteenth  sitting  pope  Honorius  I 
was  anathematized  for  his  monothelitic  views,  and  the 
anathema  was  repeated  at  the  eighteenth  session.  Pope 
Agatho's  confession  of  two  wills  in  Christ,  in  his  EpU- 
tola  ad  ImperatoreSf  was  declared  the  doctrine  of  the 
council,  and  all  monothelites  were  anathematized.  The 
patriarch  Macarius  was  deposed  at  a  later  time. 

II.  The  second  Tmllan  council,  called  together  by 
Justinian  in  692,  is  known  as  the  Concilium  Quini- 
sextum,  for  which  see  the  art,  Quixisextum  Con- 
cilium. See,  besides,  the  Church-histories  of  Schrockh 
and  Gieseler;  Pichler,  Getckkhte  der  kirchlichm  Trm- 
nuwjf  zwitchen  Orient  und  Occident  (Munich,  1864),  i, 
87  sq. ;  HergenrStber,  Pkatius,  Patriarch  von  Conttan- 
linopel  (Ratisbon,  1867),  i,  208-626 ;  Plitt-Herzog,  Real- 
Kncyldop.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

TmyiiB,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest 
of  the  Jesuit  order,  was  bom  in  Belgium  in  1813.  In 
1837  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  was  an  officer 
of  the  St.  Louis  University  and  of  St.  Charles  College, 
La.  For  some  time  he  was  engaged  in  missionary  work 
among  the  Indians,  and,  later  in  life,  was  pastor  of  St. 
Joseph's  Church,  Bardstown,  Ky.  He  died  at  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  Dec.  14,  1868.  See  Hough,  Amer,  Biog.  Notet, 
p.  398.     (J.  a  &) 

Tsohl  Veralon.    See  Otji  Version. 

Tnokar,  John,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Amesbury,  Mass.,  Sept.  19,  1719.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  iu  1741,  studied  the- 


ology with  Rev.  Paine  Wingate,  of  Amesbury,  and  was 
ordained  at  Newbury,  Mass.,  Nov.  20,  1746,  as  col- 
league-pastor with  the  Rev.  Christopher  Toppan.  His 
death  occurred  March  22,  1792.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  published  sermons  and  controversial  pam- 
phlets. See  Sprague,  AtmaU  of  the  Amer»  Pulpit,  i, 
451. 

Taokar,  Mark,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bora  at  Whitestown,  N.  Y.,  June  7, 1796.  He  stud- 
ied at  Whitestown,  graduated  from  Union  College  in 
1814,  and  was  instracted  in  theology  by  president  E. 
Nott^  D.D.;  ordained  pastor  at  Stillwater,  Oct  8, 1817, 
and  dismissed  in  1823;  installed  colleague  with  Rev. 
Solomon  Williams,  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  March  10, 
1824,  and  dismissed  Aug.  16, 1827 ;  called  to  the  Second 
Presbyterian  Church,  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  31,  1827;  to 
the  Beneficent  Church,  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  June  of 
1887,  and  dismissed  March  24, 1866 ;  installed  atVeroon, 
Conn.,  April  16, 1867,  and  was  pastor  of  this  church  un- 
til 1863.  He  resided  without  charge  at  Ellington  and 
Old  Saybrook,  and  after  1865  at  Weatherefield,  where  he 
died,  March  19, 1876.  He  was  chosen  a  director  of  the 
American  Home  Missionary  Society  in  1882,  a  vice- 
president  in  1844,  and  was  a  corporate  member  of  the 
American  Boanl  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions 
from  1838.     See  Cong.  Quarterly,  1876,  p.  436. 

Tolloch,  Thomas  de,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bish- 
op at  Orkney  about  1422.  See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops, 
p.  221. 

Tollooh,  WilUam,  a  Scotch  prekte,  was  sent  by 
James  III  into  Denmark  in  1468  to  negotiate  a  mar- 
riage between  him  and  the  princess  Margaret  of  that 
nation.  He  was  bishop  of  Orkney  in  1470.  He  was 
made  lord  privy  seal,  March  26, 1473.  In  1477  he  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Moray.  He  died  about  1482. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  222. 

Tunlfli.    See  Jacob  ben-Chajim. 

Tapper,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Corawallis,  N.  S.,  Aug.  6, 1794.  He  was  bap- 
tized by  Rev.  £.  Manning,  May  14, 1816,  taught  school 
in  Corawallis,  was  ordained  July  17, 1817,  labored  as  a 
home  missionary  in  several  parts  of  the  province,  be- 
came pastor  at  Amherst  in  1819,  at  St.  John,  N.  B.,  in 
1826,  at  Tr>'on  and  Bedeque,  P.  E.  I.,  in  1833,  at  Amherst 
again  in  1834,  where  he  was  also  in  charge  of  the  gram- 
mar school,  was  principal  of  the  Baptist  Seminary  at 
Fredericton,  N.  B.,  in  1835-36,  returaed  to  Amherst  in 
1840,  made  several  evangelistic  tours  through  the  prov- 
inces, became  pastor  at  Aylesford,  N.  S.,  in  1851,  and  in 
this  relation  he  continued  until  his  death,  assisted  after 
1870  by  a  colleague.  He  died  at  Kingston,  Aylesford,  Jan. 
19, 1881.  In  January,  1827,  Tupper  became  editor  of  the 
Baptist  Missionary  Magazine  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick,  which  he  continued  until  1833,  and  followed 
by  the  Christian  Messenger  (Halifax,  N.  S.)  in  1837.  He 
published  a  review  of  Rev.  Or.G.Buras,  of  St.John,  N.B., 
on  The  Subjects  and  Modes  of  Baptism  (1830)  i— Baptist 
Principles  Vindicated,  in  reply  to  Rev.  J.  W.  D.  Gray,  of 
St.  John  (1844)  :~.4  Discussion  of  the  Translation  of 
^Baptizo^  and  a  ViadiccUion  of  the  Action  of  the  Baptist 
Missionaries  in  Burmah  (1846): — Expository  Notes  on 
the  Syriac  Version  of  the  Scriptures,  He  was  a  man 
of  vast  linguistic  learning.  He  was  one  of  the  pioneers 
of  temperance.  See  Bill,  Histoty  of  the  Baptists  in  the 
Maritime  Provinces  of  Canada  (SL  John,  1881),  p.  680 
sq. ;  BaptiH  Year-hook  of  Maritime  Provinces,  1881, 
p.  71.  His  autobiography  appeared  in  the  Christian 
Messenger,  Jan.  2, 1880. 

TurldBh  Version.    See  Tubkey,  yEBsio:«s  of. 

TnrldBh-Armenian  Version.  See  Tuekrt, 
Vebsions  of. 

Tnrkish-Oreek  Version.    See  Tubket,  Veb- 

SIOHS  OF. 

Turkish-Tartar  Version.    See  Kabass  Ver- 

8109. 


m 


TURNER 


876 


UNIVERSrnES 


Tarner,  Johk  M^  D.D.,  an  Anglican  mifliionaiy 
bishop,  was  bora  in  England  abont  1786;  educated  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford;  in  1828  presented  to  the  vicar- 
age of  Abingdon ;  in  1824  removed  to  the  rectory  of 
Wilmalow,  Cheshire;  and  in  1829  appointed  to  the 
bishopric  of  Calcutta,  India,  which  he  held  till  his  death, 
July  7, 1831.  Bishop  Turner  was  a  man  of  exemplary 
piety,  faithful  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  and  much 
loved  and  respected  by  all  with  whom  he  was  associated. 
See  appendix  to  the  (Lond.)  Christian  Obterver  for  1831, 
p.  815 ;  The  (Lond.)  Christian  Guardian,  Feb.  1882,  p.  73. 

Tnmey,  Edbctjnd,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  in  Easton,  Conn.,  May  6, 1816L  He  received  his 
education  at  the  Hamilton  Institute,  N.  Y.,  and  his  first 
pastorate  was  in  the  Second  Church,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Subsequently  he  was  pastor  in  Granville,  O.,  and  Utica, 
N.  Y.  He  became  professor  of  Biblical  criticism  in  the 
Hamilton  Seminary  in  1860,  and  for  five  yean  (1858<-68) 
was  professor  in  Fairmount  Theological  Seminary,  O. 
After  preaching  without  settlement  for  a  few  years,  lie 
started,  in  Washington,  in  1865,  the  first  experiment  for 
the  education  of  colored  teachers  and  preachers.  With 
great  disinterestedness  and  self-sacrifice  he  labored  in 
this  department  of  Christian  effort  for  several  yearsu 
'*  He  seemed  inspired  with  the  conviction  that  God  had 
specially  intrusted  thb  great  business  to  him,and  nothing 
could  change  his  impressions  of  duty."  He  died  Sept.  28, 
1872.  SeeCathcart,^qp<w<£:m:yc^.p.ll77.  (J.a&) 

TuzplD,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  elected  to  the  see  of 
Brechin  in  1178.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  156. 

Tub!    See  Persian  Vbrsions. 

Tuatlii,  Sbftimub,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
who  died  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Oct.  28, 1871,  was  in 
1836  chaplain  of  the  Universi^  of  Virginia,  and  in 
1844  was  elected  chaplain  of  the  United  States  Senate. 
At  a  later  period  he  was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Hagerstown,  Md.,  and  of  the  First  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  Germantown,  Pa.  He  was  the  delegate 
from  the  Old-school  Assembly  to  the  New-school  Assem- 


bly, which  flat  in  Philadelphia  in  1868.   He  was  warmly 
interested  in  the  reunion  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 

Twi  Veraion.    See  Obji  Version. 
Twin,  Councils  of.    See  Tiben. 

Twlng;  AuN  Tabor,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clerg3rman,  was  born  at  Topsbam,  Vt.,  Feb.  9, 181 1 .  He 
spent  two  years  at  the  University  of  Vermont;  studied 
theology  under  bishop  Hopkins;  was  ordained  deacon 
Aug.  21,  1836 ;  was  rector  of  St.  PauPs,  Veigennes ; 
of  Trinity,  West  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  of  Trinity,  Lansing- 
burgh,  for  twenty-three  years ;  secretary  of  the  domestic 
committee  of  the  BoaxU  of  Missions  fiom  1864  till  his 
death,  in  Kew  York  city,  Nov.  11, 1882.  See  The  Churdi 
Almanac,  1888,  p.  115. 

Tyng,  Stephen  Hiqqinson,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Protestant  Episcopal  divine,  was  bom  at  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  March  1, 1800,  being  the  son  of  Hon.  Dudley 
Atkins,  but  assumed  the  name  of  his  relative,  James 
Tyng,  whose  estate  he  inherited.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1817;  engaged  for  some  time  in 
commercial  pursuits;  afterwards  studied  theology;  was 
ordained  in  1821 ;  and  was  rector  successively  in  George- 
town, D.  a  (1821-23) ;  in  St.  Anne*s  Parish,  Md.  (1823- 
29) ;  in  St.  Paul's,  PhUadelphU,  Pa.  (1829-38) ;  in  the 
Church  of  the  Epiphany  in  the  same  city  (1833-45);  and 
thereafter  in  St  George's,  New  York  city,  until  1878, 
when,  on  account  of  failing  health,  he  was  made  pastor 
emeritus.  He  died  at  Irvington,  N.  J.,  Sept.  4,  18B5. 
Dr.  Tyng  was  one  of  the  most  evangelical,  popular,  and 
useful  preachers  of  his  denomination.  He  was  editor 
at  different  times  of  The  Episcopal  Recorder,  The  Theo- 
logical Repository,  and  The  Protestant  Churchman,  while 
he  was  also  the  author  of  several  religious  and  homilet- 
ical  works,  including  observations  made  during  a  visit 
to  Europe. 

Tyre.    The  archssology  of  Es-Sur  is  minutely  ex- 
amined in  the  Memoirs  aooomi»nying  the  Ordnance 
Survey,  i,  72  sq* ;  comp.  Quar,  Statement  of  the  "  PaL 
I  Explor.  Soc.,"  July,  1881,  p.  178  sq. 


u. 


Ulf^  Hermann  Wilhelm^  a  Swedish  theologian, 
was  bom  June  19, 1830,  and  studied  at  Upsala  and  £r- 
langen.  In  1867  he  commenced  his  academical  ca- 
reer at  Upsala,  in  1872  he  was  made  pastor  at  Store 
Skedwi,  in  1877  doctor  of  theok>gy,  and  died  Dec.  18, 
1882,  greatly  lamented  by  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Swe- 
den,   (R  P.) 

Ulxnann,  Karl  Christian,  a  German  Protestant 
bishop,  who  died  at  Walk,  Livonia^  Oct  20, 1871,  doctor 
of  theology,  is  best  known  as  the  editor  of,  Miitheiiungen 
und  Nachrichten/iir  die  evangeUsche  Geistlichheit  Russ- 
lands  (Dorpat,  1839  sq.) ;  besides  he  published,  Sermons 
(1840)  * — Das  gegenwdrtige  VerhaUmss  der  evangel,  BrU- 
dergemeinde  zur  evangeUsch^utherischen  Kirche  in  Lief- 
und  Esthkmd  (Berlin,  1862):— TFie  die  Baptisten  der 
huh.  Kirche  die  Bibd  enigegensteUen  ( St.  Petenburg, 
1865).    (RP.) 

Ulrioh,  Jean,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was  bom 
Dec  20, 1622,  in  Switzerland.  He  studied  at  Zurich, 
and  after  having  travelled  through  Holland,  England, 
France,  and  Germany,  was  appointed  pastor  at  Creutz 
in  1650;  in  1658  became  professor  of  Hebrew,  in  1669 
pastor  at  the  Frauen-MUnster,  and  died  in  1682.  He 
wrote.  Orotic  de  Duohus  Testibus  Apocalgpseos  :~-Ora- 
tio  de  Anti-Christi  A dversus  Miiitantem  in  Terris  Christi 
Ecdesiam  Ultimo  Conatu,  etc.  See  AUgemeines  HistO' 
risches  Lexikon,  s.v. ;  Jocher,  Al(gemeines  GeUhrten-^Lex- 
ihon,§.y.    (B.  P.) 

niricii  Hermann,  a  philosophical  writer  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  March  23,  1806,  at  Pfdrten,  Lower 
Lnsatia.  He  stodied  law  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  and 
commenced  to  practice  in  1827.    Upon  the  death  of 


his  father,  in  1829,  he  gave  up  the  practice  of  law,  and 
began  studies  which  were  more  congenial  to  him.  In 
1833  he  commenced  his  academical  career  in  the  phil- 
osophical faculty  at  Berlin,  went  to  Halle  in  1884,  and 
died  Jan.  11,  1884.  Ulrici  belonged  to  the  school  of 
specidative  philosophy  which  combated  the  idealistic 
pantheism  of  Hegel  by  a  theistic  view  of  the  universe, 
based  upon  the  facts  of  natural  philosophy  and  psychol- 
ogy. His  principal  works  are,  Glauben  und  Wiasenj 
Speculation  und  exacts  Wissenscht^fl  (Leipsic,  1858): — 
GoU  und  die  Natur  (1862 ;  2d  ed.  1866)  i—GoU  und  der 
Mensch  (1866).     (E  P.) 

Umnmh  is  probably  the  present  Abna  esh-Skamb, 
two  and  a  half  miles  south-east  of  en-Naktiirah  (near 
the  promontory  of  the  same  name),  described  in  the 
Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  i,  160,  as  *' A  lai^ 
Christian  village,  containing  about  five  hundred  inhab- 
itants. The  houses  are  clean  and  well  built.  There 
are  two  chapels,  and  the  place  seems  increasing  in  sixe. 
It  is  situated  on  a  ridge,  with  figs,  olives,  pomegranatesy 
and  arable  land  around.  To  the  east  and  north  the 
land  is  covered  with  brushwood.  There  is  a  spriog 
within  reach,  and  about  thirty  rock-cut  dstems  in  the 
village." 

UnivexBlties.  By  way  of  supplement,  we  give 
here  a  list  of  the  European  universities  that  have  theo- 
logical faculties: 

A.  In  Osrmanp. 

1.  Berlin,  founded  in  1810,  Protestant  (Bnmgelicsl). 
S.  Bonn,  founded  in  181S,  mixed,  L  e.  Frotettant  and 
Roman  Catholic. 

8.  Braunsherg^  Roman  Catholic 

4w  Breslauy  fonnded  In  1702,  mixed. 

6L  Brlangen,  fonnded  in  174B,  Lutheran  and  Befonned. 


UNIVERSrnES 


877 


VAN  SANTVOORD 


8.  FrHburff''im»BrHt9aUf  founded  in  ItfT,  Boman 
Catholic. 

T.  OietMn,  founded  in  1607,  Protestant. 

8.  GMUngimj  founded  In  1T87,  Protestant  (Lntheran). 

9.  Oreifiiwaidie,  founded  in  1400,  Protestant  (Bvangel- 
ical). 

10.  HaXU,  founded  in  lOM,  Protestant  (Brangelical). 

11.  H«idtlb0rgt  founded  in  1888,  Protestant  (Erangel- 
leal). 

ll  J€na,  founded  in  1608,  Protestant  (Lutheran). 
18.  KUl^  founded  in  188S,  Protestant  (Lutheran). 
14.  K&nigiberg,  founded  in  1544,  Protesuut  ( Bvangel- 
Ical). 
10.  LeipHe,  founded  in  1400,  Protestant  (Lutheran). 
18.  Marlmrgf  founded  In  1087,  Protestant  (Bvangelical). 

17.  JfunieA,  founded  in  18M,  Roman  Catholla 

18.  MiknaUr,  Roman  Catholic. 

19.  Rotock^  foonded  in  1419,  Protestant  (Lntheran). 

20.  Sfrosbur^,  founded  in  1688,  Protestant. 

91.  TUbingtn^  founded  In  1477,  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic. 

92.  WQTtlmrgt  founded  in  1089,  Roman  Catholic. 

B.  In  SwUMtrUmd. 

1.  Batlt,  founded  in  1409,  Reformed. 
9.  HcrfM,  founded  in  1884,  Protestant  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic. 

8.  ^MrieA,  Refonned. 

C.  In  ituMid. 

1.  DorpoC,  founded  in  1880,  Lntheran. 

D.  In  Atutria. 

1.  OoMW,  founded  in  1884,  Roman  Catholic. 

9.  Grsryiowftr,  founded  in  1870,  Greek  Oriental 
8.  Onu.  founded  in  1068,  Roman  Catholic. 

4.  /itneonidk,  founded  in  1879,  Roman  Catholic 
Ol  Xismftsry,  founded  in  1784,  Roman  Catholic 

8.  PrayiM,  founded  in  1848,  Roman  Catholic. 

7.  rimna,  founded  in  I860,  Roman  Catholic  and  Prot* 
estant 

Of  univenitiea,  now  no  more  existing  in  Germany 
and  Austria,  we  mention : 

1.  AUdorft  founded  in  1078,  Protestant,  abolished  in 
1807. 

9.  BofmJbtrg^  founded  in  1648,  Roman  Catholic,  reduced 
to  a  college  in  1808. 

8.  ColoanBt  founded  in  1888,  Roman  Catholic,  abolished. 
4.  DaitfMcn,  founded  in  1648,  Roman  Catholic,  abol- 
ished in  1808. 


8.  DiMbwrg^  founded  In  168B,  Reformed,  abolished  in 
1804. 

8.  BrfwrU  founded  in  1399,  mixed,  abolished  in  1818. 

7.  i'VtinJ£r<Mt-on-tA»*Oder,  founded  In  1006,  transferred 
to  Breslau  in  181L 

8.  MtimtlMt,  founded  In  1076^  Protestant,  abolished  in 
1809. 

9.  iJcrbom,  founded  in  1604,  Protestant,  reduced  to  a 
theological  seminary. 

10.  IngoktadL  founded  in  1479,  Roman  Catholic,  trans- 
ferred to  Landshut  in  1908,  and  firom  thence  to  Munich  in ' 
1896. 

11.  Lins,  founded  in  1686,  Roman  Catholic,  reduced  to 
A  college  and  seminary. 

19.  irajfsiiM,  foonded  in  1477,  Roman  Catholic,  now  a 
theologlad  seminary. 
19.  CimlUt,  founded  in  1081,  Roman  Catholic,  abolished. 

14.  OtnabriM^  founded  in  1680,  abolished. 

15.  Aufcrbom,  founded  in  1610,  Roman  Catholic,  re- 
duced to  a  seminary. 

16.  lUnUln.  founded  In  1681,  Protestant,  abolished  In 
1809. 

17.  SaUhurg,  founded  in  1688,  Roman  Catholic 

13.  WitUnberpt  founded  in  1008,  Lntheran,  transferred 
to  Halle  in  1817,  and  now  reduced  to  an  Evangelical  sem- 
inary for  candidates  for  the  ministry  who  have  finished 
their  university  course.  /-q^  p  \ 

nraiilaa,HEiKRiCH,who  lived  in  the  16th  century, 
is  the  author  of,  GrammaiietB  H^ram  Compendium 
(Basle,  1641  and  often) :— 2>6  Um  ei  OffidU  LUerarum 
ServiUum  (Cologne,  1570)  i-^PueriUs  IruHtutio  LUerar, 
Hdr.  etc  (Basle,  1551).  See  Fi^rst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  461 ; 
Jocher,  AUgtmeines  Gelehrten^Lescikan,  s.  t.;  Stein- 
Schneider,  BiHiog,  Handbuch^  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

TTrdii  Version.    See  Hiin>i78TAMi  Vebsios. 

Uxzen-aherah.  Tristram  {BihU  Plaoest  p.  177) 
and  Conder  {Tent  Work,  ii,  840)  identify  this  with  the 
present  Beit  Sira,  two  and  a  half  miles  south-west  of 
Beit-ur  el-Tahta  (Lower  Bethhoron),  which  the  recent 
extension  of  the  border  of  Ephraim,  so  as  to  include 
Abn-Shusheh  (Gezer),  allows.  The  place  is  described 
in  the  Memoirs  to  the  Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  16,  as  "a 
small  village  on  a  swell  in  the  low  bills.  A  main  road 
passes  through  it.    The  water  supply  is  artificial." 


V. 


Vadian.    See  Watt,  Joachim. 

Vail,  Stkphkh  M.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Union  Vale,  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  15, 1816.  At  fourteen  he  entered  Cazenovia  Sem- 
inary, where  he  was  converted.  In  1838  he  graduated 
from  Bowdoin  College,  and  in  1842  from  Union  Theo- 
l<t;];ical  Seminary.  After  completing  his  studies  he 
joined  the  New  York  Conference,  and  was  stationed 
successively  at  FishkiU,  N.  Y. ;  Sharon,  Conn.  \  and  Pine 
Plains.  He  was  two  years  principal  in  Pennington 
Seminary,  N.  J.,  and  from  1849  to  1868  was  professor 
of  Hebrew  in  the  Biblical  Institute  at  Concord,  X.  H. 
His  health  giving  way,  he  resigned  his  professor- 
ship and  returned  to  his  home  on  Staten  Island.  In 
1869  be  was  appointed  consul  to  Bavaria,  where  he 
remained  five  years.  Returning  home,  he  continued 
the  literary  labors  in  which  he  had  been  engaged 
for  years,  preaching  as  he  had  strength  and  oppor- 
tunity, without  salary,  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  Nov.  26,  1880.  He  wrote  nu- 
merous articles  for  the  Quarterly  Review  and  other 
periodicals.  Among  his  literary  worlcs  were,  Mimt' 
terial  EducaUon:—Bibh  agaiinH  Slavery  t—tuad  a  iTe- 
Inrew  Grammar,  He  lived  an  earnest,  faithful,  noble 
Christian  life,  characterized  by  the  strictest  integrity 
and  honor  to  the  Church.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Cof^ferenceSf  1881,  p.  85. 

Van  Doren,  William  H.  ^  See  Dorek. 

Van  Ingen,  Jobs  V.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector  of  a  church  in  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
antil  1864,  and  of  Christ  Church,  St  Paul,  Minn.,  until 
1862,  when  he  became  cfaapUun  in  the  United  States 


army;  in  1864  he  returned  to  Rochester  as  rector  of 
Trinity  Church.  While  in  that  city  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  of  the  Rochester  institutions  and  missionary 
at  Victor.  In  1877  he  became  rector  of  St  John*s,  in 
Clyde.  His  death  occurred  Dec.  1  following,  at  the  age 
of  seventy-one  years.  See  ProL  Epise.  A  Imanac^  1879, 
p.  170. 

Van  Oosterzee.    See  OoaTBRZKB. 

Van  Pelt,  Pbter,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  served  as  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Mis- 
sions of  his  Church  for  several  years  prior  to  1856,  re- 
siding during  that  time  in  Philadelphia.  Shortly  after 
he  was  elected  adjunct  professor  of  English  Uteratufe 
in  the  Diocesan  College  at  Burlington,  N.  J.  In  1859 
he  was  professor  of  Hebrew  in  that  college,  and  at  the 
same  time  held  the  position  of  secretary  to  the  General 
Board  of  Missions  in  Philadelphia.  In  1862,  although 
still  holding  the  secretaryship,  he  was  elected  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Di- 
vinity School,  in  Philadelphia.  He  retired  from  this 
position  in  1867,  but  remained  a  resident  of  that  city 
until  his  death,  Aug.  20, 1873,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
five  years.    See  Prot.  Episc  Almanac,  1874,  p.  88, 

Van  SantTOOrd,  Staats,  D.D.,  a  Reformed 
(Dutch)  minister,  grandson  of  Cornelius,  was  bom  at 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  in  1790.  He  graduated  from  Union 
College  in  1611,  and  from  the  New  Brunswick  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  in  1614;  was  licensed  in  the  latter  year, 
and  preached  at  Belleville,  N.  J.,  until  1828,  when  he 
became  agent  for  the  New  Brunswick  Seminary  for  one 
year,  and  thereafter  successively  pastor  at  Scbodack 
(1829,  including  Coeymans  in  1830),  New  Baltimore 


VAN  ZANDT 


878 


VERNES 


(1884),  Oniaquethan  (1889,  including  New  Salem  in 
1843),  and  Jenisalem  (184&~67) ;  in  1864  he  engaged  in 
the  service  of  the  Christian  Commission,  at  Nashville, 
Tenn.  He  died  May  81,  1882.  Dr.  Van  Santvoord 
published  several  sermons.  See  Corwin,  Mwmal  of  the 
Rtf,  Church  in  A  merica^  8d  ed.  p.  521. 

Van  Zandt,  Abraham  Bkooks,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a 
Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom  Nov.  16, 1816,  in  Albany 
County,  N.  Y.  His  preparatory  education  was  acquired 
under'private  tutors  at  Auburn  and  Schenectady ;  he 
graduated  from  Union  College  in  1840,  teaching  the 
grammar-school  at  Schenectady  during  the  last  half  of 
his  senior  year,  and  for  the  same  time  after  his  graduation ; 
studied  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  from  1840  to 
1842;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Troy,  Feb.  18 
of  the  latter  year,  and  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of 
North  River,  at  Matteawan,  Dutchess  Co.,  June  29  fol- 
lowing; on  the  same  day  he  was  also  installed  pastor  of 
the  Matteawan  Church,  from  which  he  was  released  Oct. 
29  following;  was  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church 
of  Newburgh  from  1842  to  1849;  of  the  Tabb  Street 
Presbyterian  Church  at  Petersburg,  Ya.,  from  1849  to 
1856 ;  of  the  Central  Reformed  Dutch  Church  on  Ninth 
Street,  New  York  city,  from  1856  to  1859;  of  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church  at  Montgomery,  N.  Y.,  from  1860 
to  1872 ;  was  inaugurated  professor  of  didactic  and  po- 
lemic theology  in  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Sept. 
24  of  the  same  year.  On  account  of  ill-health  be  was 
released  from  the  active  duties  of  this  professorship, 
June  8, 1881,  but  was  continued  as  professor  emeritus 
until  his  death,  July  21  following.  He  was  a  man  of 
marked  ability,  an  eloquent  and  scriptural  preacher, 
and  one  of  the  foremost  scholars  of  his  denomination. 
See  NeeroL  Rtport  of  Princeton  TheoL  8em.  1882,  p.  48. 

Vardill,  John,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  was 
bom  in  1752.  He  g^duated  from  King's  (now  Colum- 
bia) College,  and,  for  a  time,  was  tutor  in  that  institu- 
tion. In  1774  he  went  to  England  to  take  orders,  and 
the  same  year  was  elected  assistant  rector  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York  city,  but  preferred  to  remain  abroad. 
The  BriUsh  government  employed  him  in  some  de- 
partment of  labor.  He  wrote  some  satirical  poems  on 
the  Whigs,  and  Trambull  alludes  to  him  in  his  AfcFin' 
gaU  He  became  rector  of  Skirbeck  and  Fishtoft,  Lin- 
colnshire, and  died  in  1811.  See  Sabine,  Loyali$t$  of 
the  Revolutionary  War,  ii,  881.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Vatke,  JoHAMN  Karl  Wilhblm,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian, was  bom  at  Behndorf,  Saxony,  Bfarch  14, 1806. 
He  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at  Halle,  Gdttin- 
gen,  and  Berlin,  and  was  privat-docent  in  theology  at 
the  latter  place  in  1880.  His  publication  oilHe  Rdigion 
dee  AUen  TettamaUs  (1885)  excited  the  wrath  of  the 
late  professor  Hengstenberg  to  such  a  degree  that  be 
declared,  in  Wilhelm  Vatke,  Peter  von  Bohlen,  and 
David  Friedrich  Strauss,  the  antichrist  has  appeared, 
with  three  heads.  Vatke  was  in  1887  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  extraordinary,  and  died  April  19, 1882,  doctor 
of  theology.  Besides  the  work  noentioned  already, 
in  which  Vatke  shows  himself  to  be  the  forerunner 
of  writers  like  Wellhausen,  Kuenen,  Reuss,  and  others, 
who  regard  the  prophets  as  older  than  the  law,  and 
the  Psalms  as  more  recent  than  both,  he  published  Die 
mentehUche  FreiheU  in  ihrem  Verhdltnisi  zur  SOnde 
ttnd  zur  gdUlichen  Gnade  (1884).  In  philosophy  Vatke 
belonged  to  the  left  wing  of  the  Hegelian  school  See 
Benecke,  WUhelm  Vathe  (Bonn,  1868).     (B.  P.) 

Vaughan,  Wiluam,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  in  Westmoreland  County,  Pa.,  Feb.  22, 1785.  In 
1810  he  was  converted,  licensed  in  1811,  and  ordained 
in  1812.  He  settled  in  Bfason  County,  Ky.,  where  he 
preached  to  several  churches,  and  had  charge  of  a  school 
for  about  fifteen  years.  During  this  period  be  became 
an  earnest  defender  of  Campbellism.  For  two  and  a 
half  years,  from  1881,  he  was  in  the  service  of  the 
American  Sabbath -school  Union,  and  estabUshed  in 


Kentucky  not  far  from  one  hundred  Suoday^^cboolflu 
He  was  for  a  time  general  agent  for  Kentucky  of  the 
American  Bible  Society.  In  1886  he  became  pastor  of 
the  Bloomfleld  Church,  and  resigned  in  1868.  He  died 
May  81,  1877,  universally  loved  and  honored.  See 
Cathcart,  Baptist  Eneydop,  p.  119.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Vaiza,  Gboboe,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  the 
see  of  Galloway  in  1489,  and  was  still  bishop  in  150& 
See  Keith,  SootiiMh  Biehope,  p.  276. 

Veesenmeyer,  Gboro,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Crermany,  was  bom  at  Ulm,  Nov.  20,  1760,  and  died 
April  6,  1888,  doctor  of  theology.  He  published,  Li- 
terargetMehie  der  BriefsammUtnff  und  einiger  Sckr\fUn 
von  Luther  (Berlin,  ISii^i—Kleine  BeUrage  zur  Ge^ 
echiehte  det  Reiehetaga  tu  Augdmrg  1580  und  der  auffm~ 
burg.  Confeenon  (Nuremberg,  1880):  —  Literarisdk' 
bibiiographieehe  Nachrichten  von  eimgen  ewxngditcken, 
eaiechetiacken  Schr^ften,  etc  (  Ulm,  eod. ) :  —  Denhnal 
der  einheimiechen  und  fremden  JTkeologen,  etc  ( 1831  )• 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  TM,  i,  25, 752;  ii,  212 « 
Zuchold,  BibL  Theol  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

VehmiO  Court  {Fehmgericht,  probably  derived 
from  reme,  L  e.  **  punishment " )  was  the  name  of  a 
peculiar  Judicial  institution,  which,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, was  founded  by  Chariemagne  and  Leo  III,  and 
continued  to  exist,  at  least  nominally,  in  Westphalia 
down  to  the  present  century,  when  it  was  suppreased 
(in  1811)  by  Jerome  Bonaparte.  The  tribunal  was  cooa- 
posed  of  freemen  of  spotless  character,  but  not  necea- 
sarily  belonging  to  any  certain  social  rank  or  state ; 
both  the  emperor  and  the  peasant  could  be  membera. 
The  presence  of  seven  members  was  necessary  in  order 
to  form  the  court.  When  duke  Heinrich  of  Bavaria 
was  sentenced,  in  1484,  over  eight  hundred  membeiv 
were  present.  The  court  took  cognizance  of  all  kinds 
of  cases,  as  heresy,  witchcrafts^,  rape,  theft,  robbery, 
murder,  and  summoned  all  kinds  of  persons,  except 
ecclesiastics,  Jews,  and  women,  to  appear  before  it.  Ita 
sittings  were  partly  public — held  under  open  sky — 
partly  secret,  and  its  verdicts  were  executed  by  its  own 
memberSi  In  the  course  of  time,  when  the  state  b^ 
came  able  to  maintain  its  laws,  the  Vehmic  Court  be- 
came superflnons,  and  in  the  16th  century  it  held  ita 
last  open  seasion.  See  Wigand,  Getchiehte  der  Vehm- 
gtriehu  (Wetzlar,  1847);  Walter,  Deutsche  JUekts- 
geschiehte  (Bonn,  1857),  ii,  682;  Gebberg,  Die  Fehme 
(MUnster,  1858);  Kampschulte,  Zur  Geschiehte  des 
MittelaUers  (Bonn,  1874);  Essellen,  Die  westfaHseken 
Frei-  oder  Fehmgerichte  (1877).     (R  P.) 

Vent,  Hakb  Lorenz  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Hademarachen,  Holatein, 
April  10, 1785.  In  1811  he  was  deacon  at  Tallingstedt, 
and  from  1815  to  1863  pastor  in  his  native  city.  He 
resigned  the  pastorate  in  1868,  and  died  April  21,  1879, 
member  of  consistor}'.  He  published,  Luther's  Werte 
in  einer  das  BedUrfniss  der  ZeU  berOeksichtigenden 
Auswahl  (Hamburg,  1826,  10  vols.)  :-~//oimfeeudl«« 
Magazin  iiber  die  evangelischen  Texts  des  ganzen  Jahres 
(2d  ed.  ibid.  1839, 2  voIa.>  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
theol.  Lit.  i,  25,  584;  u,  126, 827;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL 
8.V.     (B.P.) 

Vermeil,  Antoine,  a  French  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Nimes,  March  19, 1799,  and  studied 
at  Geneva.  In  1824  he  was  pastor  at  Bordeaux,  where 
he  founded  many  benevolent  institutions.  In  1840  he 
was  called  to  Paris,  and  died  in  1864.  Vermeil  has 
immortalized  his  name  by  his  great  monument,  The 
Institute  of  Deaconnesses,  which  he  founded  at  a  time 
when  Fliedner*8  name  was  not  yet  known  in  France. 
A  biogrsphical  sketch  of  Vermeil  is  given  in  his  ser- 
mons, Catichisme  Liturgiquej  published  after  hia  death 
(Paris,  1869  sq.  8  vols.).  See  Ltchtenberger,  Emgdop., 
des  Sciences  Religieusss,  s.  ▼.    (B.  P.) 

Yemen,  Jacob,  a  Protestant  tbeok)gian  of  Geneva, 
was  bom  in  1728,  and  died  in  1791.  He  is  the  anthor 
of,  Lettres  sur  h  Christiamsme  de  J,  J.  Rousseau  (1768) 


VERNY 


879 


VULLERS 


^Dialogiu  sur  le  Chrutianitme  de  J,  J,  Xouiteau  (eod.) : 
^Cof^fidenee  Philosophigue  (1776,  2  yo]b.)  i—Sermont 
(1790,  2  ro]B,)i  —  Catichwne  a  FUtape  de  Touiu  Us 
Commiadoiu  Ckritieimet  (1774 ;  M  ed.  1778).  See  Lich> 
tenberger,  Enqfdop,  du  Sciencet  JUUffutuetf  a.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Vemy,  Louis  Eduard,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
France,  was  bom  at  Mayence,  March  17,  1808.  He 
studied  law  at  Strasborg,  and  practiced  at  Colour. 
In  1828  he  gave  up  his  profession  and  betook  him- 
self  to  the  study  of  theology.  In  1880  he  was  ap- 
pointed principal  of  the  college  at  Mulhansen,  and  in 
1835  accepted  a  call  to  the  Lutheran  Church  at  Paris. 
He  died  Oct.  19, 1854,  in  the  pulpit  of  St.  Thomas,  at 
Strasburg,  where  he  had  made  the  opening  address  of 
the  session  of  the  Superior  Consistory.  After  his  death 
a  volume  of  ServMnt,  containing  also  a  biographical 
sketch,  was  published  (Paris,  1867).  See  Scherer  and 
Colani,  in  Revue  ThSologique,  of  Strasburg,  first  series, 
iz,  265  sq. ;  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  det  Scieneet  Re- 
UffieiueSf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Vialart  (de  Ifene),  Felix,  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
was  bom  in  Paris,  Sept.  4, 1618,  of  a  noble  family,  and 
pursued  his  studies  at  the  0>llege  de  Navarre.  In  1688 
he  was  made  doctor  of  theology,  and  in  1641  coadjutor 
to  the  bishop  of  Ch&lons,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the 
following  year.  Vialart  died  June  10, 1680,  highly  es- 
teemed by  all  classes.  He  published,  RUuel  ou  Manuel 
de  FEfflise  de  Chalons  (  Paris,  1649  ) :  —  Ordomumces, 
Mandements  ei  Letires  Pastorcdes  pour  le  JUtabUssement 
de  la  Disciplme  EccUsiastique  (1660, 1662 ')i—L*Ecole 
Chriiieime^  a  kind  of  catechism.  See  Gouget,  Vie  de 
Messire  Vialart  de  Herse,  Jtvique  et  ConUe  de  Chdhns 
(new  ed.  Utrecht,  1739).  Lichtenberger,  Encydop,  des 
Sciences  ReliffieuseSf  s.  v.     (&  P.) 

Villers,  Crarles  Fban^om  Dominique  de,  a 
distinguished  French  writer,  was  bom  at  Belchen,  in 
Lorraine,  Nov.  4, 1764.  He  was  educated  in  the  mili- 
tary school  at  Metz,  and  entered  the  army  in  1782,  but 
studied  at  the  same  time  classical  literature  and  philos- 
ophy. His  De  la  LibertS  (1791)  proved  too  moderate 
for  the  Jacobins,  and  in  1792  he  was  compelled  to  fiee. 
He  settled  at  Lttbeck,  and  became,  in  the  course  of 
time,  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  German  language 
and  literature.  Having  written  with  great  openness 
against  the  violence  of  Napoleon's  generals,  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  Hanse  Towns  by  Davoust  in  1806* 
Villers  went  to  Paris,  and  obtained  from  the  emperor 
the  repeal  of  the  order.  In  1811  he  was  made  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Gottingen,  from  which  position,  how- 
ever, he  was  dismissed  in  1814  by  the  returning  Hano- 
verian dynasty.  Villers  died  Feb.  26, 1815.  His  prin- 
cipal worics  are,  Essai  sur  V Esprit  et  Flnjlttence  de  la 
Rfformaiion  de  Luther  (5th  ecL,  published  by  Maeder, 
Strasburg,  1851),  which  received  the  prire  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1804,  and  was  translated  both  into  German 
and  English  .--Philosophie  de  Kant  (Metz,  1802, 2  vols.). 
See  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop,  s.  v. ;  lichtenberger,  Encjf" 
clop,  des  Sciences  Rdigieutes^  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
cAeo^Lir.  1,825,826, 742, 743.    (B.P.) 

Vilmar,  Jacob  Wilhelm  Gbobo,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1804,  and  died  Dec. 
7, 1884,  at  Melsungen.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  Sep- 
arate Lutherans  of  Hesse,  and  published,  Die  prote^ 
stantisehe  Lehre  der  Recktfertigung  durch  den  Glauben 
iCBa8ei,lSa8):^Was/asstder  biblis<Ae  BegHffder 
Siinde  insichf  (1840) :  -Die  hirhessische  Kirche  (1845) : 
— Protestantismus  und  Christenthum  (1847) : — Dergegeo' 
wdrtige  Kampf  der  hessischen  Kirche  um  ihre  SdbsU 
etdndighdt  OJSJl),     (B.  P.) 

Vincent;  Jacques  Louie  Samuel,  a  Prote»- 
unt  theologian  of  France,  was  bom  at  Nimes,  Sept.  8, 
1787.  After  having  studied  at  Geneva,  he  settled  in  his 
native  city  as  pastor.  In  1825  he  was  made  president 
of  the  consiitoxy.  After  the  revolution,  the  French 
Reformed  Church  gradually  sank  down  into  the  deism 


of  Rousseau,  and  its  theology  became  mere  convention- 
alism without  any  tme  vitality.  Vincent  felt  the  evil, 
and  it  is  his  great  merit  that  he  procured  the  remedy. 
His  first  original  production  was  an  attack  on  Lamen- 
nais's  Essai  sur  VIndifferenoe  en  Matiire  de  Rdigion^  and 
his  Ohservaiions  sur  FUmti  Religieuse  (1820),  and  Ob- 
servations sur  la  Voie  iA  utorite  Appliquie  a  la  Religion^ 
created  quite  a  sensation.  From  1820  to  1824  he  pub- 
lished Melanges  de  Religion,  de  Morale  et  de  Critique 
Sacrie  (10  vols.),  which  made  the  French  public  ac- 
quainted with  and  interested  in  German  theology.  Of 
still  deeper  influence  were  his  Vues  sur  le  Protestantisme 
(1829,  2  vols.;  republished  by  Prevost-Paradol,  1860), 
and  Meditations  Religieuses  (most  complete  edition  by 
FonUn6s,  1863).  Vincent  died  July  10,  1887.  See 
Corbi&re,  Samuel  Vinoent,  sa  Conception  ReUgieuee  et 
ChrUienne  (1873) ;  Antonin,  Etude  sur  Samuel  Vincent 
et  sa  Thiologie  (1863);  Plitt-Uerzog,  Real-Encykhp,  s.v.; 
Lichtenberger,  Encgchp,  des  Sciences  Religieuses^  s.  v. 
(RP.) 

Vincent,  Philippe,  a  Reformed  theologian  of 
France,  was  bora  in  1595.  Having  completed  his  the- 
ological studies,  he  was  ordained  in  1620,  was  appointed, 
in  1626,  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  La  Rochelle, 
and  died  March  12, 1651.  He  is  the  author  of  Para- 
phrase sur  lee  Lamentations  du  ProphUe  Jirimie  (1646). 
See  JQcher,  A  llgemdnes  Gelehrten^I^exikon,  s.  v. ;  Lich- 
tenberger, Encydop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

Vinton,  Alexander  Hamilton,  D.D^  a  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  at  Providence,  R.  L, 
May  2,  1807.  He  studied  medicine  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  and  practiced  as  a  physician  from  1828  to  1882. 
Ho  then  studied  theology  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Seminaiy  in  New  York  city,  and  was  ordained  in  1^5. 
For  about  a  year  he  was  pastor  of  a  church  at  Portland, 
Me.,  and  from  1836  to  1842  was  stationed  at  Providence, 
R.  I.  From  1842  to  1858  he  was  a  pastor  in  Boston, 
ilass.  He  then  went  to  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  remaining 
in  that  city  until  1861.  He  next  became  rector  of  St. 
Mark's  Church,  New  York  city,  until  1869,  when  he 
went  to  Boston  as  rector  of  Emanuel  Church,  and  later 
was  a  professor  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Divinity 
School,  Cambridge,  Mass.  He  died  there,  April  26, 1881. 
Dr.  Vinton  published  a  volume  of  Sermons  (1855)  and 
several  separate  discourses  and  addresses. 

Vinton,  Franoie,  D.D.,  D.CIL.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal deigyman,  was  bom  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Aug.  29, 
1809.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1830;  became 
lieutenant  of  artillery )  was  stationed  in  Boston  Harbor; 
studied  law  in  Harvard  College,  and  acted  sa  civil  en- 
gineer; left  the  army  in  1886 ;  and  after  studying  in  the 
(jreneral  Theological  Seminar}*,  was  rector  in  Brookl3m, 
N.  Y.,  several  years  prior  to  1856,  and  shortly  after  be- 
came assistant  minister  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York 
city.  About  1870,  in  addition  to  his  pastoral  duties,  he 
was  elected  Ludlow  professor  of  ecclesiastical  polity  and 
law  in  the  General  Theological  Seminary  at  New  York. 
He  died  in  Brooklyn,  Sept.  29, 1872.  See  Pt^t,  Episc. 
Almanac,  1873,  p.  184. 

Vormbanm,  Rbxkhold,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  who  died  Oct.  2,  1880,  at  Kaiserswerth, 
where  be  had  been  laboring  for  more  than  thirty  years, 
is  the  author  of,  Evangdische  Missionsgeschichte  in  Bio- 
graphien  (Elberfeld,  1850-61,  4  vols.)  \r-Missumssegen. 
Ldtensbilder  aus  der  Geschiehte  der  evang,  Heidenmission 
(1852):— JoacAtm  Neander's  Leben  und  Lieder  (1860). 
See  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  1404  sq.    (B.  P.) 

Vnllera,  Johann  August,  a  German  Orienulist, 
was  bom  at  Bonn,  Oct.  28, 1808,  and  died  at  Giessen, 
Jan.  21, 1880,  where  he  had  been  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  since  1833.  He  published,  Fragmente  fiber 
die  Region  des  Zoroaster  (Bonn,  1831)  i^Institutiones 
Lingua  Persicee  cum  Sanscrita  et  Zendica  Lingua  Comr 
para(€B  (Giessen,  1840-50,  2  vols.)  i-^Lexicon  Persioo- 
Latinum  Efymologicum  (Bonn,  1855-64, 2  vM):—Suih 


VULLEEMIN 


880 


WALLER 


pUmentum  Lexiei  Pernco-Laimi,  CotOmau  Verbontm 
Lingum  Periica  Radicea  (l^St^y-^rantmatiea  Lingua 
Penica  (Gieasen,  1870).    (B.  P.) 

Vnlliemln,  Louis,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was 
born  at  Yverdon,  Switzerland,  Sept.  7, 1797.  He  was 
educated  in  the  institate  of  the  famouaJPestalozzi,  and 
pursued  his  philosophical  as  well  as  theological  studies 
at  Lausanne.  He  was  ordained  in  1821,  and  acted  for 
several  yeacB  as  vicar  in  various  places.  But  his  delicate 
health  prevented  him  from  assuming  a  pastorate,  and 
he  betook  himself  to  literary  work.  In  1828  he  pub- 
lished an  Enai  tur  VEvangiU;  in  1829,  Contideraiumt 


iur  Ui  Memrt  det  ChMmtf  Uur  Cuke  ti  latr  Gonatnte- 
mioa  Pendant  lee  Troie  Premiere  Sikdee.  To  the  aame 
period  belongs  his  translation  of  Ge^^ickte  der  Sckweizer 
{7oii/ederation,  by  Johannes  von  MfUler.  Inl849yall]*- 
min  was  made  professor  of  theology  at  Lausanne,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  his 
country.  In  1866  he  resigned  his  professorship,  and 
died  Aug.  10,  1879.  See  Secretan,  in  the  Gazette  de 
Lautcmne^  Oct  3  and  4, 1879 ;  Pingaud,  Louia  VuUiemm 
(Be8an9on,  1881);  Maro  Debrit,  in  the  Journal  de  Genive^ 
Aug,  12, 1879 ;  lichtenberger,  Encydop,  dee  Sdeneee  R^ 
liffieueee,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 


w. 


Wackerhagen,  Augustus,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Hanover,  Germany,  May  22, 1774.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  G&ttingen ;  employed 
for  a  time  in  a  young  ladies*  seminary,  and  slso  as  private 
tutor  in  a  nobleman*8  family.  In  1801  he  arrived  in 
America,  acted  as  tutor  three  years  to  the  son  of  Mr. 
Bohlen,  a  Philadelphia  merchant,  then  visited  Europe. 
Returning  to  the  United  States,  was  shipwrecked,  but 
his  life  was  saved.  In  1805  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Schoharie,  N.  Y. ;  in  1816  was  pastor  of  various  churches 
in  Columbia  County;  for  several  years  had  charge  of 
the  academy  at  Clermont,  and  died  there,  Nov.  1, 1866. 
Dr.  Wackerhagen  was  a  diligent  student  of  ancient  and 
modem  languages.  For  twdve  years  he  presided  over 
the  New  York  Ministerium,  and  was  an  original  trastee 
of  Hartwick  Seminary.  Except  a  sermon  on  the  Lu- 
theran Pulpit,  the  only  work  he  published  was  a  German 
volume.  Faith  and  Morale  (Philadelphia,  1804).  See 
Fijfttf  Yeare  in  the  Lutheran  Mimetry  (1878),  p.  68. 

WadsT^orth,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Presbjrterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  May  8, 1814*  He 
graduated  from  Union  College  in  1887,  and  after  teach- 
ing one  year  at  Canajoharie,  N.  Y.,  graduated  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1840.  He  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  17, 1842;  in  1860  was  celled  to  the 
Arch  Street  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
which,  under  his  charge,  became  large^  influential,  and 
flourishing ;  in  1862  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  Calvary 
Church,  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  in  1869  rctnmed  to  Phila- 
delphia as  pastor  of  the  Third  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church,  which  in  1873  united  with  the  Immanuel  Pres- 
byterian Church.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  April  1, 
1882.  Dr.  Wadsworth  was  an  earnest,  eloquent  preacher, 
and  had  few  equals  in  the  pulpit.  See  NecroL  Report 
of  Princeton  TheoU  Sent,  1882,  p.  89.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Wait,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
in  Washington  County,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  19, 1789.  He  made 
a  profession  of  religion  March  12, 1809;  was  ordained  at 
Sharon,  Mass.,  June  3, 1818,  and  allcrwards  pursued  his 
studies  at  Columbian  Coll^pe,  Washington,  D.C.,  where 
for  a  time  he  was  a  tutor.  He  became  pastor  at  New- 
bera,  N.  C,  in  1827,  and  for  a  number  of  years  travelled 
through  that  state.  Under  his  auspices  the  religious 
organ  of  the  denomination,  the  Recorder^  was  estab- 
lished. To  him,  also.  Wake  Forest  College  owes  its 
existence.  It  was  started  as  a  manual-labor  institution 
in  1833,  and  he  was  called  to  preside  over  it.  The  school, 
in  1839,  having  abandoned  the  manual-labor  feature, 
was  made  a  coUege,  and  Dr.  Wait  continued  at  its  head 
until  1846,  and  then  resigned,  filling  the  position  of 
pastor  of  one  or  two  churches  until  1861,  when  he  be- 
came principal  of  a  female  school  in  Oxford,  N.C*,  where 
he  remained  until  1866.  He  died  July  28, 1867.  See 
Cathcart,  Baptiet  Encydop,  p.  1198.     (J.  C  S.) 

Walcott,  Mackekzib  E.  C,  a  minister  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  bora  at  Bath,  Dec.  16, 1821. 
He  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford,  at  a  very 
early  period  in  life  entered  upon  authorship,  and  for 
more  than  thirty  years  issued  a  constant  suooession  of 


works  on  topographical  and  ecclesiastical  history.  As 
a  cunte  of  the  churches  of  St.  Margaret  and  St.  James, 
Westminster,  he  was  naturally  drawn  to  the  stoiy  of 
the  historical  associations  connected  with  those  par- 
ishes. His  three  volumes  on  the  narrative  of  West- 
minster, and  the  two  most  famous  parish  churches 
which  bear  its  name,  were  published  before  1861.  In 
that  year  he  published  The  EngUeh  Ordinal:  tie  His- 
tory y  Validity  f  and  Catholicity  s  with  an  Introductioek^ 
The  Thru  Holy  Ordere  ofMimetere  in  the  Church,  In 
1863  he  was  appointed  to  the  precentorsbip  and  pi«- 
bendal  stall  of  Oving,  at  Chichester,  and  illustrated  the 
history  of  the  cathedral  to  which  he  was  attached  by 
numerous  volumes  on  its  bishops  and  episcopal  registersu 
He  died  at  London,  Dec  22,  isiso.  Besides  the  writings 
already  mentioned,  he  published,  Sacred  Artheeotogy 
(Lond.  1868)  i—Traditione  and  CueUme  of  Cathedrale 
(1872) : — The  Conetitutione  and  Canons  Ecdeeiaetieal  of 
the  Church  of  England  (1874) : — Church-work  and  L^e 
in  Englieh  Minetere  (1880).  Mr.  Walcott  was  also  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  TraneacHone  of  the  British 
Archsological  Association  and  the  Royal  Society  of 
literature.    (B.  P.) 

Waldby,  Bobbbt,  D.D.,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bom 
in  the  city  of  York,  and  received  the  radiments  oi  his 
education  in  the  abbey  of  Tickell,  in  Yorkshire.  He 
became  divinity  professor  at  Toulouse.  In  1388  he  was 
sent  by  Richard  II  to  treat  with  John,  duke  of  Lancas- 
ter, another  time  to  negotiate  a  neutral  league  with 
Charles,  king  of  Navarre,  and  a  third  to  effect  the  re- 
duction of  John,  earl  of  Armagnac,  to  trae  obedienoe. 
In  1391  he  succeeded  to  the  see  of  Dublin.  In  1392  he 
was  constituted  chancellor  of  Ireland.  In  1396  he  wms 
summoned  to  a  great  council  to  be  held  at  Kilkenny. 
He  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Chichester,  and  from 
that  promoted  to  the  archbishopric  of  York.  He  died 
in  1897.  See  D'Alton,  Memoire  of  the  Arehbiehope  of 
Dublin,  p.  146. 

Walker,  Josefh  R.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
dergjrman,  was  ordained  deacon  in  1817.  For  fifty-five 
years,  that  is,  from  1823  to  1878,  he  was  rector  of  St. 
Helena's  Parish,  Beaufort,  S.  a  He  died  April  2, 1879, 
aged  eighty-three  years.  See  Prot,  Epise,  AlmamtCy 
1880,  p.  172. 

Walkures.    See  Walxtbies. 

Wallace,  Robbbt,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  minister 
at  Barnwell,  Ayrshire,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
the  Isles,  at  St.  Andrews,  in  January,  1661.  He  died 
in  1676.    See  Keith,  ScoUieh  Biehope,  p.  8ia 

Waller,  WxixtAX  J.,  MJ).,  S.T.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopsl  deigyman,  was  bom  Jan.  6^  1799.  He  was 
oidained  deacon  in  1844|  and  presbyter  in  1845.  From 
1847  to  1869  he  wss  premdent  of  Shelby  CoU^re,  and 
then  removed  to  Louisville,  Ky.  About  1864  be  re- 
turned to  his  former  position  at  Shelbyville,  and  there 
remained  until  about  1868,  when  he  went  to  Lebaooo. 
About  1873  be  removed  to  Louisville.  In  1877  be  went 
to  Anchorage,  where  he  died,  April  31, 1879L  See  ProU 
Epiec  Almanae,  1880,  p.  173. 


WALTER 


881 


WARNER 


Walter  (l),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  prolMibly  bishop 
of  St.  Andrews  in  the  12th  centnry.  See  Keith,  Seot-^ 
tish  BUkoptf  p,  9. 

Walter  (2),  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Don- 
keld  in  1324.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bukopt,  p.  88. 

Walters,  W.  T.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Pittsjlrania  County,  Va.,  in  1826.  He  made  a  pro- 
fession of  religion  early  in  life,  and  graduated  from 
Wake  Forest  0>llege  in  1848,  in  which  he  became  first 
a  tutor  and  then  professor  of  mathematics,  remaining  in 
that  position  until  the  college  was  closed  by  the  civil 
war.  He  was  chosen,  in  1867,  corresponding  secretary 
of  the  North  Carolina  State  Convention,  and  for  three 
years  was  engaged  in  the  duties  of  that  office.  He  was 
also  for  some  time  occupied  in  editorial  work,  being 
connected  for  a  while  with  the  Biblical  Recorder,  of 
which  for  several  3'ears  fie  was  the  agricultural  editor. 
Two  churches,  those  of  Littleton  and  Wilson,  N.  C,  were 
organized  by  him.  He  died  Dec.  81, 1877.  See  Cath- 
cart,  Bapf,  Encydop.  p.  1208.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Walton  (called  Mouttem),  John,  an  Irish  prelate, 
was  the  eighteenth  abbot  of  Osney,  near  Oxford,  to  the 
government  of  which  house  he  was  appointed  in  1452. 
From  this  abbacy  he  was  advanced  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Dublin,  consecrated  in  £ngland,  and  invested  with 
the  pall  ill  1472.  He  did  not  receive  formal  restitution 
of  the  temporalities  of  his  see  until  1477.  In  1478  this 
prelate  annexed  the  perpetual  vicarage  of  St.  Kevin  to 
his  choral  vicar  of  the  prebend  of  Cullen.  He  resigned 
in  1484.  See  D'Alton,  Afemoirt  o/the  Archbithops  of 
DuUin,  p.  166. 

\7arbiirtoii,  CnARLisa  MonoAir,  D.D.,  an  Irish 
bishop,  was  bom  in  1765,  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  He 
was  intended  for  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  sent  to 
study  in  one  of  the  institutions  on  the  Continent  en- 
dowed Ibr  the  education  of  Romish  priests,  but  was 
thrown  by  accident  into  the  society  of  the  earl  of  Moira, 
who  induced  him  to  become  a  Protestant.  He  was, 
after  taking  orders,  appointed  chaplain  to  a  regiment  in 
America.  Not  long  afterwards  he  changed  his  name 
from  Mangan  to  Warburton,  became  dean  of  Ardagh, 
then  bishop  of  Limerick  in  1806,  and  of  Cloyne  in  1820. 
He  died  at  Cloyne  palace,  Aug.  9, 1826.  See  (Lond.) 
Annual Regitter,  1826,  p.  270. 

Ward  (prop.  ">Q1St3  or  n^731Dp,  ^vXac^ ;  oocasion- 

aUy  laiO  [Ezek.  xix,  9],  or  hnj^D  [ix,  1, 11],  euttody 

[''oversight,"  etc]),  a  prison  (q.  v.)  or  an  apartment 
thereof  (tien.  xl,  8 ;  Acts  xii,  10);  also  a  watch-post  al 
the  gates  of  the  Tf>mple  (Neh.  xii,  25 ;  1  Chron.  ix,  23). 
This  term  is  likewise  used  to  designate  a  class  or  de- 
tachment of  priests  or  Levites  (xxv,  8 ;  Neh.  xii,  24 ; 
xiii,a0). 

^7ard,  John,  LUD.,  an  English  Baptist  educator, 
was  bom  in  London  in  1679,  his  father  being  a  Baptist 
minister.  He  possessed  learning  of  the  highest  order, 
and  loved  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  with  an  intense 
affection.  He  was  elected  professor  of  rhetoric  in  6res> 
ham  College  in  1720,  and  died  in  1758.  Among  the 
productions  of  his  pen  were.  The  LvtcM  of  the  Gretham 
ProfcMsors: — Tho  Wetimituter  Greek  Grammar,  He 
assisted  Horsley  in  his  Britamtia  BomanOj  and  Ains- 
worth  in  his  Dictionary,  See  Cathcart,  Bapt,  Encydop, 
p.  1208.    (J.  a  a) 

"Ward,  Beth,  D.D.,F.R.S.,  an  eminent  English  di. 
vine  and  mathematician,  was  bom  at  Buntingford,  Hert- 
fordshire, in  1617.  He  graduated  at  Sidney  Sussex  Col- 
lege,  Cambridge,  about  1687,  and  became  a  fellow  of  the 
same  college  in  1640;  bat  was  ejected  from  his  fellow- 
ship in  164S,  for  refusing  to  sign  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant.  He  then  became  a  private  tutor,  and  after^ 
wards  went  to  Oxford,  where  he  was  choeen  Savilian 
professor  of  astronomy  in  1649,  and  remained  at  that 
post  until  1661.  He  was  elected  principal  of  Jesus  Col- 
lege in  1657,  but  did  not  receive  possession ;  and  presi- 
dent of  Trinity  College  in  1659|,  but  was  obliged  to  re- 1 

XIL-Kkk 


sign  this  position  at  the  Restoration,  in  1660.  The 
same  year,  however,  he  received  the  vicarage  of  St, 
Lawrence,  Jewry,  London,  and  the  preoentorship  of  Ex* 
eter;  and  was  promoted  to  the  deanery  of  Exeter  in 
1661.  He  became  bishop  of  Exeter  in  1662,  bishop  of 
Salisbury  in  1667,  chancellor  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter 
in  1671,  prebendaiy  of  Salisbary  in  1672,  archdeacon  of 
Wilto  in  1676^  prebendary  of  Winchester  in  1676,  chan* 
oellor  of  Salisbury  in  1681,  and  treaanrer  of  Salisboiy  in 
1687.  In  1682  he  founded  at  Salisbury  a  college  for 
the  widows  of  clergymen.  About  1687  he  lost  his  men- 
tal faculties,  and  died  at  Knightsbridge,  Jan.  6,  1689. 
He  was  a  distinguished  astronomer,  and  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was  the  author  of 
Ah  Ettay  on  the  Being  aani  AUrHnitcM  of  God;  on  the 
Immortality  of  the  Soul,  etc  (Oxford,  1652)  :-^  volume 
of  Sermom  (Lond.  1674):— iVtsfectso  de  Cometie,  etc 
(1658) :  —  Aetronomia  Geometrica  (1656) :  —and  other 
works.    See  Ei^fHeh  Cydopmdia,  s.  v. 

^T^arden,  a  keeper,  a  guardian;  a  term  sometimes 
applied  to  the  head  of  a  college,  and  sometimes  to  the 
superior  of  the  chapters  in  conventual  churchea 

WardlaT^,  Walter,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  arch- 
deacon of  Lothian,  and  secretary  to  king  David  II,  when 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  see  of  Glasgow  in 
1368.  He  was  bishop  here  in  1389.  See  Keith,  Scot- 
tith  Biihope,  p.  246. 


Wardrobe  0^3, 2  Kings  xxii,  14 ;  2  Chron. 
22 ;  dothing  or  garments,  as  usually  rendered),  the  ves- 
try of  the  palace  or  temple  (q.  v.). 

Wame,  Josbph  Aan>RBW8,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minis- 
ter, bora  in  London,  England,  in  1795,  was  converted  in 
early  life,  graduated  at  Stepney  College  in  1821,  in  1822 
came  to  America,  settling  first  in  North  Carolina,  where, 
after  teaching  some  time,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church 
in  Newbera,  and  afterwards  principal  of  the  Furman 
Academy  of  Edgefield,  S.  C  Later  he  came  north,  and 
supplied  the  pulpit  successively  of  the  First  Baptist 
Church  in  Providence,  R.  I.;  South  Reading  (now  Wake- 
field), Mass.;  Brookline  (seven  years) ;  the  Second  Bap- 
tist Church  in  Providence,  and  the  Sansom  Street  Church, 
Philadelphia.  He  died  at  Frankford,  March  9, 1881. 
Dr.  Warne  was  greatly  interested  in  foreign  missions. 
He  was  editor  of  a  Baptist  edition  of  The  Conqtrehamve 
Commentary,     See  The  National  Baptist^  March  17, 

188L  (J. as.) 

Wamaford,  Samuel  Wilson,  D.CL.,  a  clergyman 
of  the  English  Churoh,  was  bora  at  Sevenhampton,  near 
Highworth,  in  Wiltshire,  in  1758.  He  was  educated  at 
University  College,  Oxford,  where  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  A.M.  in  1786,  and  KCU  in  1790.  He  became 
rector  of  Liddiard  Millioent,  Wilts,  in  1809 ;  and  of  Bour- 
ton-on-the-Hill,  in  Gloucestershire,  in  1810,  when  he 
lived  plainly,  and  bestowed  the  large  fortune  of  which 
he  was  then  in  possession  in  gifts  of  public  charity  and 
benevolence.  He  founded  schools  and  almshouses  in 
his  own  parish,  and  contributed  largely  to  schools,  col- 
leges, and  hospitals  throughout  the  kingdom.  To  the 
Clergy  Orphan-school  he  gave  thirteen  thousand  pounds, 
and  to  Queen's  College,  Birmingham,  upwards  of  twenty- 
five  thousand  poundsi  In  1844  the  bishop  of  Gloucester 
conferred  on  him  an  honorary  canonry  in  Gloucester 
Cathedral ;  and  in  1849  a  statue  of  him  was  erected  in 
the  Waraeford  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Oxford,  the  expense 
of  which  was  met  by  public  subscription.  He  died  at 
Bourton,  Jan.  11, 1855. 

Wamefrid,  Paul.    See  Paul  thb  Dragon. 

Warner,  John  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  ecclesiastic, 
was  bora  in  the  parish  of  St.  Clement  Danes,  London,  in 
1585.  He  was  elected  demy  of  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1599;  graduated  A.B.  in  1602;  made  perpetual 
fellow  in  1605;  dean  of  Lichfield  in  1633;  and  bishop 
of  Rochester,  Jan.  14, 1688.  He  died  in  1666.  Being 
a  loyalist,  he  suffered  during  the  usurpation  of  Crom- 
well.   He  was  the  author  of  Church  Lands  not  to  be 


WARNER 


882 


WARRENER 


Sold  (Load.  1646) :— «nd  Letter  to  Dr.Jeramf  Taylor  etm- 
cermng  the  Chapter  on  Origmal  Sin  in  the  Utum  Necet' 
tarium  (1666).  He  alao  published  several  sennons. 
He  poss^sed  considerable  fortaoe,  and  was  veiy  liberal 
with  it,  giTiog  daring  bis  lifetime  and  bequeathing  at 
his  death  some  twenty  thousand  pounds  for  charitable 
purposes.    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  JHct,  s.  v, 

Warner,  Jobn  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  dergyroant 
son  of  Dr.  Ferdinando  Warner,  was  bom  at  Ronde,  Wilt- 
shire, in  1786.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1768 ;  preached 
many  years  at  a  chapel  in  Long  Acre;  became  rector 
of  Hockliffe  and  Chalgraye,  Bedfordshire,  in  1771,  and 
afterwards  of  Stourton,  Wilts.  He  died  in  St  John's 
Square,  Qericenwell,  Jan.  20, 1800.  He  resided  in  France 
during  the  Revolution,  and  thus  became  an  ardent  re- 
publican. He  was  the  author  of  Metronaritton;  or,  A 
New  PUaeure  Recommended  in  a  Distertaiion  upon  a 
Part  of  Greek  and  fjOtin  Proso^  (Lond.  1797) ;  and  Jfe- 
moirs  o/Mekerchut,  in  the  Genilman**  Magaxine,  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Waxpiilia,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  U  the  god  of 
the  winds;  one  in  the  train  of  followers  of  Perun, 
the  god  of  thunder.  He  causes  the  roaring  of  the 
storm. 

Wanren,  John  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  clergy-man, 
was  bom  in  1670,  became  prebendary  of  Exeter  in  1709, 
and  died  in  1786.  He  published  some  single  sermons 
which  have  been  commended.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  vthors,  s.  v. 

Warren,  John  (2),  LL.D.,  an  English  prelate  of 
the  18th  century,  became  archdeacon  of  Worcester  in 
1776,  bishop  of  SL  David's  in  1779,  was  translated  to 
Bangor  in  1788,  and  died  in  1800.  He  published  six 
single  sermons  (1777-92).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit, 
and  Amer,  Authortf  s.  v. 

Warren,  Joseph  "W.,  D.D.,  one  of  the  oldest  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Presbyterian  Board  in  India,  was  bora  at 
Brunswick,  Me.,  Aug.  80, 1809.  After  a  course  of  study 
at  the  academy  at  Plymouth,  K.  H.,  he  learned  the  art 
of  printing  at  Concord,  and  afterwards  resumed  his  stud- 
ies at  Phillips  Academy,  Exeter,  where  he  was  convert- 
ed, and  soon  after  determined  to  devote  himself  to  the 
work  of  the  ministry.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he 
entered  Lane  Theological  Seminary,  and  was  one  of  the 
large  body  of  students  who  left  on  account  of  the  aboli- 
tion excitement.  He  completed  his  studies  at  the  Al- 
legheny Seminary,  where  he  connected  himself  with 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  October,  1828,  in  com- 
pany with  Messrs.  Freeman  and  Scott,  he  left  for  India, 
where  his  knowledge  of  printing  contributed  to  his 
great  usefulness  in  superintending  the  press.  He  took 
with  him  and  set  up  at  Allahabad  the  first  mission 
press  ever  established  in  India  north  of  Serampore. 
He  was  much  engaged  in  promoting  the  cause  of  ed- 
ucation in  India,  and  aided  in  establishing  the  high- 
school  at  Agra  for  European  and  Eurasian  children. 
In  1868  he  returned  to  the  United  States  to  make  pro- 
vision fur  the -education  of  his  children,  and  entereil  for 
a  time  upon  ipastoral  work  in  Indiana.  He  served  also 
as  chaplain  during  the  late  civil  war.  In  October, 
1872,  he  rotumed  to  India  and  completed  a  Grammar 
of  the  Urdm  Dialect j  and  partially  completed  a  transla- 
tion of  Gesenitu^s  Ilebrew  Lexicon,  The  Kev.  John  S. 
Woodsade,  of  Dehra,  Northern  India,  in  communicating 
the  deAh  of  Dr.  Warren,  writes,  among  other  things, 
^'Throughout  his  illness  his  constant  prayer  was  for 
patience,  that  he  might  have  grace  to  endure  all  he 
had  to  suffer.  He  did  not  desire  that  his  life  should  be 
undu^  prolonged,  but  his  prayer  was,  *  Come,  Lord  Je-. 
sus,  and  come  quickly.'"  He  died  at  Morar  Gualior, 
March  7, 1879.     (W.P.S.) 

Warren,  Samuel,  LL.D.,  eminent  in  the  history 
of  English  Methodism,  commenced  bis  career  as  a  Wes- 
leyan  minister  in  1802.  He  was  a  man  of  large  ability, 
and  occupied  some  of  the  most  important  circuits  in 


England.  Jealous  of  the  risiDg  influence  of  Dr.  Jabcs 
Bunting,  he  objected  to  certain  features  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  theological  institution  in  1884^  and  not  ceasing 
in  hb  opposition,  he  was  suspended  from  his  ministerial 
functions  at  a  special  district  meeting  at  Manchester, 
where  he  was  then  stationed,  in  October  of  that  year. 
Controversial  publications  were  issued  by  both  parties, 
violent  language  was  indulged  in,  an  extensive  agita- 
tion followeid,  and  a  large  defection  from  the  societies 
was  the  result.  Dr.  Warren's  case  exciting  much  sym- 
pathy. Deeming  himself  unconstitutionally  suspend* 
ed,  Warren  appealed  to  the  high  court  of  chancery,  but 
on  March  25,  1885,  the  lord  high  -  chancellor  denied 
the  appeal  At  the  Wesleyan  conference  at  Sheffield, 
in  Augast  following.  Dr.  Warren  was  expelled  from  the 
connection.  Many  of  his  sympathizers  amalgamated 
with  the  Leeds  secessionists,  who  had  adopted  the  title 
of  the  Protestant  Methodists  in  1828,  and  assumed  the 
name  of  the  Wesleyan  Association  Methodists  in  1885, 
and  in  1857  both  united  in  the  formation  of  that  re- 
spectable body,  the  United  Methodist  Free  Church. 
Dr.  Warren  himself,  becoming  tired  of  the  excitement 
and  extremes  connected  with  an  agitation,  many  feat- 
ures of  which  could  never  have  been  congenial  to  bia 
sober  and  deliberate  Judgment,  was  received  into  the 
Episcopal  Church,  and  liecame  the  incumbent  of  All- 
Souls*  Church,  Ancoats,  Manchester,  which  preferment 
he  held  until  his  death,  in  1874^  Dr.  Warren  published, 
besides  a  number  of  sermons,  Memoirs  and  Select  Let' 
ten  of  Aire,  A,  Warren  (1882, 12mo)  i—A  Digest  of  the 
Laws  and  ReguUUions  of  the  Weslegan  Methodists  (2d 
ed.  Lond.  1885).  See  Stevenson,  /list,  if  dtg  Road 
ChapeL,  p.  557;  Adeline  Waddy,  L\ft  of  8.  D,  Waddg, 
D.D,j  p.  96 ;  Smith,  Hist,  of  Weil.  Methodism  (see  sMpra 
and  Appendices  H-P),  iii,  575-^06;  Minutes  ofComfer- 
enee,  1885,  vii,  542-591 ;  Jackson,  Life  of  Robert  Newtcm, 
D,D.  (Lond.  and  N.  T.  1855),  p.  142  sq. 

Wairen,  William,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Waterford,  Me.,  Oct.  21, 1806L  He 
was  a  student  at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Masa.; 
also  in  Bowdoin  College  from  1884  to  1836;  graduated 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1888;  preached 
in  Wells,  Me.,  six  months ;  was  ordained  at  Windham, 
Feb.  14, 1840 ;  installed  at  Upton,  Mass.,  Nov.  14^  1849 ; 
dismissed  April  29, 1856 ;  was  district  secretary  of  the 
American  Board  of  (Commissioners  for  Foreign  Misaona 
for  northern  New  England,  residing  at  Gccham,  Me, 
from  1857  to  1878,  and  died  Jan.  ^  1879.  He  pub- 
lished. Geography  and  Atlas  (i»^) :— Household  Con- 
secration and  Baptism  (1846) :  —  7>acA«r's  Institute 
Lecture  (1848)  i—Spirii's  Sword  (1853)  i— Funeral  Ser- 
mon: — Religious  Progress: — A  Voice  to  the  Toun^^  and 
other  sermons.  Also  a  work  on,  Theories  of  the  WiU: 
— Twelve  Yeats  with  the  Children  :—Our  InekUedness 
to  Missions,     See  Coiv^.  Year-book,  1880,  p.  81. 

Warrener,  Wiluam,  an  English  Wesleyan  niio- 
ister,  was  received  into  the  work  by  Wesley  in  1779. 
After  laboring  in  Great  Britain  for  seven  years,  he  went 
as  a  missionary  to  the  West  Indies,  **  being  the  first  of 
our  preachers,"  say  the  Minutes, "  who  was  regularly  ap- 
pointed to  that  work."  He,  with  Clarke  and  Hanonaet, 
went  over  with  Dr.  Coke,  in  1786,  on  that  celebrated 
voyage  intended  to  terminate  in  Nova  Scotia,  but  whicb 
ended  really  eighteen  hundred  miles  south,  at  the  island 
of  Antigua.  Warrener  was  stationed  on  that  island, 
where  a  most  flourishing  cause  was  inaugurated,  tha,so- 
ciety  ha%'ing  been,  in  fiict,  already  formed  by  Nathaniel 
Gilbert  and  John  Baxter.  In  1797,  after  a  successful 
career,  he  returned  to  his  own  country  and  was  appointed 
to  a  circuit.  In  1818  he  retired ;  and  on  Nov.  27, 1825ia 
in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age,  he  passed  away, 
"  triumphing  gloriously  over  death."  He  was  the  fint 
Methodist  missionary  who  addressed  the  great  annual 
gatherings  of  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  doing 
so  at  the  memorable  meeting  at  Leeds.  See  Smith, 
^u/.  0/ ITm/.  JTcfAodum,  iii,  101  sq. ;  also  i,  544 ;  ii,  2S2, 


WARS 


883 


WASH 


546;  Stevens, ^uto/ire«A<Ktffm,iS, 858;  iu,488;  Mn^ 
Viet  of  the  Cdifermee,  1826;  Newoomb,  Cydopadia  of 
Mtuiofu  (revised  ed.  1854),  p.  768. 

Wars  OF  THE  LORD,  Book  or  thb  C^^d 
nin*^  nisribQ),  a  docament  cited  Numb,  xxi,  14. 
It  was  probably  a  collection  of  poems  or  songs  cele- 
brating tbe  victories  which  had  been  achieved  by  the 
Israelites  by  the  help  of  God.  That  it  was  an  Amorit- 
ish  work,  as  Michaelis  sogg^ested,  is  dUproved  by  the 

use  of  the  term  n*in**,  which  Michaelis  vainly  attempts 
to  show  is  to  be  taken  as  a  verb,  and  the  passage  trans- 
lated: ''As  it  is  said  in  the  book  of  tbe  wars,  it  shall 
be."  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  there  were  min- 
strels enough  in  Israel  at  all  times  of  their  history  to 
record  the  events  of  that  history  in  song,  and  those 
composed  before  the  date  of  this  notice  might  have 
been  written  in  a  book.  What  confirms  this  are  the 
undoubted  fragments  of  ancient  songs  in  ver.  17, 18,  and 
27-30. 

It  is  not  clear  what  the  passsge  cited  means;  but  it 
seems  to  give  a  geographical  notice,  and  probably  was 
of  some  importance  as  indicating  the  ancient  boundaries 
of  the  Moabitish  territory  (RosenroUller,  adloc, ;  HUver- 
nick,  EinUU.  I,  ii,  504,  Eng.  transl.  p.  321 ;  Bleek,  EinUiL 
p.  199).  Hengstenberg  has  a  peculiar  view  {BeitrS^^ 
ii,  223 ),  which  Baumgarten  (  Theolog.  Commentary  ii, 
344)  follows.  He  translates:  "And  Vaheb  (he  took— 
i.  e.  Jehovah)  in  the  storm,  and  the  brooks,  the  Arnon 
and  the  valley  of  the  brooks  which  goes  down  to  the 
dwelling  of  Ar,  and  leans  on  the  Iwrders  of  Moab.** 
This  is  not  very  different  from  the  Sept  veruon :  ^ui 
TOVTO  Xiyirai  Iv  fiipik'n^'  ToXtfio^  too  Kvpiov  rrjv 
Zubp  (they  probably  read  nMt  for  SMI)  i(p\6yuri,  Kcd 
rov^  Xti/idftpovQ  'Apvdvn  —  Kitto.  It  was  evidently 
one  of  the  documents  used  by  Moses  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch.  It  may  have  contained,  among 
other  matters,  the  history  of  the  expeditions  occasion- 
ally made  by  the  Hebrews,  while  in  Egypt,  among  the 
surrounding  tribes.  At  any  rate,  some  such  document 
seems  to  have  been  used  by  the  writer  of  Chronicles, 
and  its  contents  are  characterized  wt  **  ancient  things" 
(1  Chron.  iv,  21-23;  vii,  21,  22).  See  New-EngUxndery 
Jan.  1862.    See  Pkmtatbuch. 

Warton,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  English  clergjrman,  son 
of  Thomas  Warton,  Sr.,  was  born  at  Dunsford,  Surrey, 
in  1722.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester  School,  and 
at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1744; 
took  orders  iu  the  Church  of  England,  and  was  curate 
to  hu  father  at  Basingstoke  from  1744  to  1746;  curate 
at  Chelsea  from  1746  to  1748;  became  rector  of  Wins- 
lade,  Hampshire,  in  1748;  travelled  in  France  and  else- 
where on  the  Continent  with  the  duke  of  Bolton  ia 
1751 ;  became  rector  of  Tunworth  in  1754,  of  Wick- 
ham  in  1782,  and  of  Upham  in  1788.  He  was  second 
master  of  Winchester  School  from  1755  to  1766,  and 
head  master  from  1766  to  1798.  He  became  chaplain 
to  Sir  George  Lyttelton  in  1756;  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's,  London,  in  1782 ;  and  prebendary  of  Winchester 
in  1788.  He  died  at  Wickham,  in  Hampshire,  Feb.  28, 
1800.  His  principal  published  works  are,  Otka  on  Vor 
nout  Su^fcts  ( 1746 ) :  —  a  poetical  translation  of  the 
Bdogues  and  Georgia  of  Virgil  (1758) : — an  Es*aii  on 
Ae  Genius  and  Writingg  of  Pope  (1756-82):— twenty- 
four  critical  papers  in  The  Adventurer: — and  editions 
of  the  works  of  Pope  (1797, 9  vols.)  and  Dryden  (1811, 
4  vols.).  A  Biographical  Memoir  of  Dr,  Joeeph  War' 
ton,  with  a  selection  from  his  poetry  and  literary  cor- 
respondence, was  published  in  1806  by  Rev.  John  Wool], 
master  of  the  school  at  Midhnrst,  in  Sussex.  See  Chal- 
men,  Biog,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Waaer,  Caspar  (or  Gaspar),  a  Swiss  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Zurich,  Sept.  1, 1565.  He  studied  at  Alt- 
dorf  and  Heidelberg,  travelled  extensively  through  Hol- 
land, England,  Ireland,  and  Italy,  and  after  his  return, 


in  1593,  was  appointed  pastor  at  Witticon,  which  place 
he  exchanged,  in  1596,  for  the  deanery  at  Zurich,  con- 
necting at  the  same  time  the  professorship  of  Hebrew. 
In  1607  he  received  abo  the  chair  of  Greek,  and  in  1611 
the  theological  chair,  and  died  Nov.  9, 1625.  He  wrote, 
Archetypus  Gram,  HdtraiccBf  Duabut  prcecipue  Parti^ 
buSf  Etymologia  et  Syntaxi  Abtolutut,  etc  (Basle,  1600, 
and  often): — Tradatus  de  Antiquit  Hummis  Hebrceo^ 
rum,  ChaldtEorum,  et  Syrorum  (Zurich,  1605) : — De  An^ 
tiquis  Hebraorum  Mensurit: — Elementale  Chaldaicumf 
etc.  See  Jodoc  a  Kuosen,  Oratio  de  Vita  et  Obitu  (7. 
Wateri;  Witte,  Diarium  Biographieum ;  Konig,  Bibli' 
otheca  Nova  et  VetUM;  Jocher,  Allgemeineg  Getehrta^ 
Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  FUrst,  BM.  Jud.  iii,  494 ;  Steinschneider, 
Bibliographisches  //iondbtfcA,  s.  v. ;  Biographic  Uniioer* 
8eUe,8.y.     (B.P.) 

Wash  (denoted  by  several  Hebrew  words  of  vary- 
ing import ;  but  in  Greek  vinru,  which  applies  to  a  part 
of  the  person,  is  cleariy  distinguished  from  \ovut,  which 
applies  to  the  whole  body,  in  John  xiii,  10,  where  the 
A.  y.  unfortunately  confounds  the  two).  This  act  for 
ordinary  purposes  of  personal  cleanliness  is  considered 
under  Bathjc  We  here  treat  it  under  its  ceremonial 
aspect.    See  Ablution. 

The  Jews  had  two  sorts  of  washing  for  purposes  of 
religious  purification :  one,  of  the  whole  body  by  im- 
mersion, bs^,  tabdl^  which  was  used  by  the  priests  at 
their  consecration,  and  by  the  proselytes  at  their  initia- 
tion ;  the  other,  of  the  hands  or  feet,  called  dipping, 
or  pouring  of  water,  923,  tsabdf  which  was  of  daily 
use,  not  only  for  the  hands  and  feet,  but  also  for  cups  and 
other  vessels  used  at  their  meals  (Matt  xxv,  2 ;  Mark 
vii,  3, 4).  The  six  water^pots  of  stone  used  at  the  mar- 
riage feast  of  Cana  in  Galilee  (John  ii,  6)  were  set  for  this 
purpose.  To  these  two  modes  of  purification  our  Lord 
seems  to  allude  in  John  xiii,  10,  where  the  being  ''clean 
every  whit"  implies  one  who  had  become  a  disciple  of 
Christ,  and  consequently  bad  renounced  the  sins  of  his 
former  life.  He  who  had  so  done  was  supposed  to  be 
wholly  washed,  and  not  to  need  any  immersion,  iu  imi- 
tation of  the  ceremony  of  initiation,  which  was  never 
repeated  among  the  Jews.  All  that  was  necessary  in 
such  a  case  was  the  dipping  or  rinsing  of  the  hands  or 
feet,  agreeably  to  the  customs  of  the  Jews.  See  Wasu- 
IKO  (the  Hands  and  Feet),  Sometimes  the  lustration 
was  performed  by  sprinkling  blood  or  anointing  with 
oil.  Sprinkling  was  performed  either  with  the  finger, 
or  with  a  branch  of  cedar  and  hyssop  tied  together  with 
scarlet  wool  (Lev.  xiv,  4-6;  Numb,  xix,  18;  Psa.  Ii,  7). 
See  Baptism. 

The  practice  of  frequent  ablutions  was  not  peculiar 
to  the  Hebrews;  we  find  it  rigidly  enjoined  by  tbe 
Mohammedan  law.  We  quote  the  following  extract 
from  Taylor,  History  of  Mohammedanism: 

^'Tbe  Sonna  of  tbe  Mobsmmedaos  exactly  corresponds 

with  the  nsOiQ,  Mishnah,  of  the  Jews,  and  comprehends 

All  their  religions  traditions,  (a.)  From  it  we  take  the 
follnwiog  account  of  the  greater  pariflcatlou,  OhoA,  It 
mast  be  remembered  that  there  are  seven  species  of  wa- 
ter fit  for  rightly  performing  religious  ablutions ;  that  is 
to  say,  rain,  sea,  river,  fountain,  well,  snow,  and  Ice  water. 
Bat  the  principal  requisites  for  tbe  lustration  Qhail  are 
three:  (1)  intention;  (3)  a  perfect  cleansing;  (3)  that  tbe 
water  should  touch  the  entire  skin  and  every  hair.  There 
are  five  requisites  of  the  traditional  law,  or  Sonna:  (1)  the 
appropriate  phrase,  Bismillah  (*In  the  name  of  the  most 
merciral  Ood*),  mnst  be  pronounced :  (2)  the  palms  mnst 
be  washed  before  the  hands  are  pnt  into  tbe  basin ;  (8) 
tbe  lustration  Wod&  mast  be  performed ;  (4)  tbe  skin  most 
be  rubbed  with  the  band ;  (5)  it  must  be  prolonged.  (We 
omit  the  cases  in  which  thU  lustration  Is  required.)  {h.) 
Tbe  second  lustration,  WodiU,  The  principal  parts,  indeed 
the  divine  (they  are  called  divine  because  takea  from  the 
Koran)  Institutions,  of  the  lustration  Wod6  are  six:  0) 
intention ;  (8)  the  washing  of  the  entire  face :  (3)  the  wasn- 
ing  of  the  hands  and  forearms  np  to  the  elbows;  (4)  tbe 
rubbing  of  some  parts  of  the  head;  (6)  the  washing  of  the 
feet  as  for  as  the  ankles ;  (6)  observance  of  the  prescribed 
order. 

"The  institutes  of  the  traditional  law  abont  this  lustra- 
tlon  are  ten :  (1)  tbe  preparatory  formula,  BIsmiUah,  mnst 


WASHBURN 


884 


WASH-POT 


be  used ;  (2)  the  palniB  rnoit  be  washed  before  the  bands 
fire  pot  Into  the  Dat^ia ;  (8)  the  moath  most  be  cleansed  i 
(4)  water  mnst  be  drawn  thronsh  the  noetriU ;  (6)  tbe 
entire  bead  and  ears  mast  be  mbbed ;  (6)  if  tbe  beard  be 
thick,  the  fingers  roust  be  drawn  throosh  it;  (7)  the  tooa 
most  be  separated :  (8)  the  right  hand  and  foot  shoold 
be  washed  oefore  tbe  left :  (9)  these  ceremonies  most  be 
thrice  repeated ;  (10)  the  whole  mnst  be  performed  iu  nn- 
interropted  soccession.  (We  omit  the  cases  in  which  this 
losbratfon  is  required.) 

"Of  pnrification  by  sand.  The  divine  instltotious  re- 
specting purification  by  sand  are  four:  (1)  intention;  (3) 
tne  robbing  of  the  face ;  (3)  the  robbing  of  the  hands  and 
forearms  op  to  tbe  elbows ;  (4)  the  obsenrance  of  this  or- 
der. Bnt  the  Sonnlte  ordinances  are  three:  (1)  the  for- 
mula Blsmillah ;  (8)  the  right  hand  and  foot  precede  the 
left :  (S)that  the  ceremony  be  performed  without  intermp- 
tlou.  The  Mohammedans  have  borrowed  tbe  permission 
to  use  sand  for  water,  in  case  of  necessity,  from  the  Jewa 
Indeed,  Cedrenns  mentions  an  Instance  of  sand  being 
used  for  a  Christian  baptism.  Their  necessity  dictated 
the  permission ;  we  need  not  therefore  have  recourse  to 
Beland*8  strange  theory,  that  sand  is  really  a  liqoid.  Four 
requisites  to  its  validity  are  added  by  tbe  commentators : 

SI)  the  person  must  be  on  a  Journey ;  (8)  he  most  have 
lligently  searched  for  water ;  (S)  it  muse  be  at  the  stated 
time  of  prayer;  (4)  the  sand  must  be  clean." 

See  LuSTBATiOM. 

Waahbnm,  Alvin  H.,  D.D.,  i  ProtesUnt  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  rector  of  Christ  Church,  at  Hyde 
Pork,  Mass.,  in  1862,  and  in  1866  removed  to  Cleveland, 
O.,  as  rector  of  Grace  Church,  where  he  continued  until 
his  death,  near  AshtabuUi,  Dec.  30,  1876.  See  ProU 
Epitc  Almanacj  1878,  p.  170. 

Waohbuni,  Ed^^ard  4>blel,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  16, 1819.  After  receiving  a  good  primary 
education,  he  entered  the  Boston  Latin  School  for  prep- 
aratioix  for  Harvard  College,  where  he  was  admitted 
at  the  age  of  sixteen.  He  graduated  in  1838  with 
high  honors.  After  studying  a  short  time  at  the  The- 
ological Seminary  at  Andover  and  the  Yale  Divinity 
School,  he  served  for  about  six  months  as  a  licentiate 
under  the  Worcester  Association  of  Ministers,  but  in 
1843  took  orders  as  a  deacon  in  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church.  In  1845  he  was  ordained  presbyter  by 
bishop  Eastbum,  of  his  native  state.  His  first  call  was 
to  the  rectorship  of  St.  Paul's  Church  at  Newburyport. 
After  laboring  seven  years  in  this  parish,  he  spent  two 
years  in  travel  in  the  East  and  on  the  continent.  Re- 
turning home  in  1854,  he  succeeded  Dr.  0>xe  at  St. 
John's  Church,  Hartford,  Qonn.  His  next  parish  was 
St.  Mark's  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  In  1865  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  the  Odvary  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  on  East  Twenty.first  Street,  New  York  city, 
where  he  labored  until  his  death,  Feb.  2, 1881.  Dr. 
Washburn  was  a  laige-minded,  warm-hearted  theolo- 
gian, an  evangelical  preacher,  and  an  admirable  pastor. 
He  was  also  active  in  the  religious  enterprises  of  his 
day.  He  was  a  member  of  the  American  committee 
for  the  revision  of  the  Bible,  aided  Dr.  Schaff  in  the 
preparation  of  one  of  the  volumes  of  Lang^a  Commen- 
tary^ and  was  the  author  of  a  volume  of  Sermons  on  the 
Ten  Commandments, 

^TTiaBhing  the  Haitds  akd  Feet.  The  particular 
attention  paid  by  the  Jews  to  the  cleansing  of  the  hands 
and  feet,  as  compared  with  other  parts  of  the  body,  orig- 
inated in  the  social  usages  of  the  East.  As  knives  and 
forks  were  dispensed  with  in  eating,  it  was  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  hand,  which  was  thrust  into  the  com- 
mon dish,  should  be  scrupulously  dean ;  and,  again,  as 
sandals  were  ineffectual  against  the  dust  and  heat  of  an 
Eastern  cKmate,  washing  the  feet  on  entering  i  house 
was  an  act  both  of  respect  to  the  company  and  of  re- 
freshment to  the  tnvdler.  (In  the  following  account 
of  them,  we  chiefly  use  the  art.  in  Smith's  DieL  of  the 
Biblt.)    See  Wash. 

I.  Washii^  the  Hands  was  transformed  by  the  Phari- 
sees of  the  New-Test  age  into  a  matter  of  ritual  observ- 
ance (Mark  vii,3),  and  special  rules  were  laid  down  as 
to  the  times  and  manner  of  Its  performance.  The  neg- 
lect of  these  rules  by  our  Lord  and  hii  disciples  drew 


down  upon  him  the  hoalility  of  that  sect  (Matt  xv,  2 ; 
Luke  xi,  88).  Whether  the  expression  mrffi^g  used  by 
Mark  has  reference  tQ  any  special  regulation  may,  per- 
haps, be  doubtful;  the  senses  ^^oft"  (A.  V.)  and  '^ dili- 
gently" (Alford)  have  been  assigned  to  it;  but  it  may 
possibly  signify  *- with  the  fist,"  as  though  it  were  oee- 
essary  to  close  the  one  hand,  which  had  already  been 
cleansed,  before  it  was  applied  to  the  unclean  one.  This 
sense  appears  preferable  to  the  other  interpretations  of  a 
similsr  character,  such  as  "  up  to  the  wrist"  (Lightfoot)  ; 
'<  up  to  the  elbow"  (Theophylact) ;  **  having  ck)eed  the 
hand**  which  is  undergoing  the  washing  (Grotius;  Seal- 
iger).  The  Pharisaical  regulations  on  this  aobject  are 
embodied  in  a  treatise  of  the  Mishna  entitled  Yadakn^ 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  ablution  was  confined  to 
the  hand  (ii,  §  3),  and  that  great  care  was  needed  to  se- 
cure perfect  purity  in  the  water  used.  The  ordinary,  as 
distinct  from  the  ceremonial,  washing  of  hands  before 
meals  is  still  universally  prevalent  in  Eastern  countriea 
(Lane,  i,  190 ;  Burckhardt,  Notes^  i,  68 ;  Thomson,  Lani 
tsna  Book,  i,  184).    See  Hahix 

The  Mosaic  law  directed  that  in  certain  cases  the 
Jews  should  wash  their  hands,  to  signify  that  they 
were  guiltless  of  the  blood  of  an  unknown  person  found 
murdered  (Deut  xxi,  6).  Pilate  was  probably  aware 
of  this  custom,  for,  from  Matt,  xxvii,  24,  we  find, "  When 
Pilate  saw  that  he  could  prevail  nothing,  he  took  water 
and  washed  his  handa  before  the  multitude,  saying,  I 
am  innocent  of  the  blood  of  this  just  person :  see  re  to 
it"  He  knew  that  this  symbolical  act  was  calculated 
to  make  an  impression,  and  would  be  distinctly  under- 
stood. To  himself,  also,  the  adoption  of  this  ceremony 
was  perfectly  natural,  as  the  rite  was  common  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  one  of  expiation  for  an  act 
of  unintentional  or  unwilling  homicide.  See  the  mon- 
ographs on  the  subject  cited  by  Volbeding,  Index  Pro-' 
gram,  p.  55, 69, 121.    See  Red  Heifer. 

II.  Washing  the  Feei  did  not  rise  to  the  dignity  of  a 
ritual  observance  except  in  connection  with  the  serviees 
of  the  sanctuary  (Exod.  xxx,  19,  21).  It  held  a  high 
place,  however,  among  the  rites  of  hospitality.  Imme- 
diately after  a  guest  presented  himself  at  the  tent.door, 
it  was  usual  to  offer  the  necessary  materials  for  washing 
thefeet(Gen.  xviii,4;  xix,2;  xxiv,82;  xliii,24;  Judg. 
xix,  21 ;  comp.  Hom.  Od,  iv,  49).  It  was  a  yet  more  com- 
plimentary act,  betokening  equally  humiUty  and  afleD- 
tion,  if  the  host  actually  performed  the  ofike  for  hia 
guest  (1  Sam.  xxv,  41 ;  Luke  vii,  38, 44 ;  John  xiii,  6-14 ; 
1  Tim.  V,  10).  Such  a  token  of  hospiulity  is  still  ooca- 
sionally  exhibited  in  the  East  either  by  the  host  or  by 
his  deputy  (Robinson,  Res.  ii,  229 ;  Jowett,  Res,  p.  78, 79). 
Tbe  feet  were  again  washed  before  retiring  to  bed  (Cant. 
V,  3).  A  symbolical  significance  is  attached  in  John 
xiii,  10  to  washing  the  feet  as  compared  with  bathing 
the  whole  body,  tbe  former  being  partial  (viittm),  tbe 
latter  complete  (Xovw) ;  the  former  oft  repeated  an  the 
course  of  the  day,  the  latter  done  once  for  all ;  whence 
they  are  adduced  to  illustrate  the  distinction  between 
occasional  sin  and  a  general  state  of  sinfulness.  After  be- 
ing washed,  the  feet  were  on  festive  occasions  anointed 
(Luke  vii,  38 ;  John  xii,  8>  The  indignity  stUched  to  the 
act  of  washing  another's  feet  appears  to  have  been  extend- 
ed to  the  vessel  used  (Pka.  Ix,  8).    See  Foot-washisg. 

Feet-washing  (jMtKfamm)  t>ecame  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, a  part  of  the  observances,  practiced  in  the  early 
Christiau  Church.  The  real  signification,  however,  wns 
soon  forgotten,  or  overloaded  by  superstitions  ieelings 
and  mere  outward  practices.  Traces  of  the  prnctioe 
abound  in  ecclesiastical  history,  and  remnants  of  the 
abuse  are  sUU  to  be  found,  at  least  in  the  Romish 
Church.  The  reader  who  wishes  to  see  an  outline  of 
these  may  consult  Siegel,  Hcmdbueh  der  christLrkirekL 
AlterthiimeTf  ii,  156  sq. 


Wash-pot  (^'n^  ■>''p),  a  basin  or  ewer  for 
the  hands  and  feet ;  put  figuratively  for  the  meanest 
•el(Pta,lx,10).  RespecUngtheancieDtEgyptianSiWil- 


WASMUTH 


886        WATCH  OP  THE  NIGHT 


kinaon  {Anc  EggpL  i,  77  aq.)  remarks  as  foUows:  *<To 
those  who  arrived  from  a  journey,  or  who  desired  it,  wa- 
ter was  brought  for  their  feet  previous  Co  entering  the 
festive  chamber.  Joseph  ordered  his  servants  to  fetch 
water  for  his  brethren  that  they  might  wash  their  feet 
before  they  ate  (€>en.  xUii,  24 ;  oomp.  also  xviii,  4 ;  xxiv, 
82;  1  Sam.  zxv,  46).  It  was  always  a  custom  of  the 
East,  as  with  the  Greeks  and  Romans  (compw  Luke  vii, 
44, 46).  The  Egyptians  also  washed  their  hands  before 
dinner,  the  water  being  brought  in  the  same  manner  as 
at  the  present  day;  and  ewer^  not  unlike  those  used 
by  the  modem  Ef^Qrptians,  are  represented,  with  the  ba- 
sins belonging  to  them,  in  the  paintings  of  a  Theban 
tombb  In  the  houses  of  the  rich  they  were  of  gold  or 
other  costly  iTTfl»M«fiK    Herodotus  mentions  the  golden 


server  Vishnu.  She  also  carries  the  surname  BunMi 
—cow  of  plenty ;  which  is  not  in  the  least  an  unbecom- 
ing comparison,  as  it  might  seem,  because  the  cow  in 
India  is  worshipped  and  held  sacred  to  the  godSi  In 
poetrj'  she  receives  still  other  surnames :  the  dark  bor- 
der of  the  ocean,  the  sea-bordered  earth,  etc 

Wasathr,  in  Notm  mythok)gy,  is  the  perMmifiea- 
tion  of  a  condition  of  the  weather.  His  son  was  Wind* 
loni  (ice  wind).  He  made  with  Swasuthr  (warm  irind) 
the  season  of  summer.  To  this  dynasty  belong,  yet  in  an 
unknown  degree  oi  kindred,Grimmer  mid  Swalbriostator. 

Watch,  in  Heb.  ^QID,  denoting  **  to  cut  into,"  thence 
**  to  impress  on  the  mind,"  « to  observe,"  ^  to  watch,"  in 
the  sense  of  keeping  or  guarding ;  or  tX^%  the  original 
meaning  of  which  is  ''to  look  out,"  thence  ''to 
watch ;"  as  in  English, "  to  keep  a  lookout,"  in 
the  sense  of  spying  or  noticing.  Watching 
must  have  been  coeval  with  danger,  and  danger 
arose  as  soon  as  man  became  the  enemy  of  man, 
or  had  to  guard  against  the  attacks  of  wild  ani- 
mals. Among  a  primitive  and  nomadic  people 
this  is  especially  necessary.  Accordingly,  we 
find  traces  of  the  practice  of  watching  in  eariy 
portions  of  the  Hebrew  annals.  Watching  must 
have  been  carried  to  some  degree  of  complete- 
ness in  Egypt,  for  we  learn  from  Exod.  xiv,  24 
that  the  practice  had,  at  the  time  of  the  Exode, 
caused  the  night  to  be  divided  into  different 
watches  or  portions,  mention  being  made  of  the 
"morning  watch"  (comp.  1  Sam.  xi,  11).  In 
the  days  of  the  Judges  (vii,  19)  we  find  "the 
middle  watch "  mentioned  ( see  Luke  xii,  88 ). 
At  a  later  period  Isaiah  plainly  Intimates  (xxi, 
6,  6)  that  there  was  a  watch-tower  in  Jerusa- 
lem, and  that  it  was  customsry  on  extraordinary 
occasions  to  set  a  watchman.  Watchman  were. 
Golden  Ewers  and  Basins  in  the  Tomb  of  Barneses  m  at  Thebea.  however,  even  at  an  earlier  da}',  customarily 

employed  in  the  metropolis,  and  their  post  was 


foot-pan  in  which  Amasis  and  his  guests  used  to  wash 
their  feet.  The  Greeks  had  the  same  custom  of  bring- 
ing water  to  the  guests,  numerous  instances  of  which 
we  find  in  Homer— «b  when  Telenuichus  and  the  son  of 
Nestorwere  received  at  the  house  of  Menelaus,  and  when 
Asphalion  poured  it  upon  the  bands  of  his  master  and 
the  same  guests  on  another  occasion.  Virgil  also  de- 
scribes the  servants  bringing  water  for  this  purpose 
when  .£neas  wss  entertained  by  Dido.  Nor  was  the 
ceremony  thought  superfluous,  or  declined,  even  though 
they  had  previously  bathed  and  been  anointed  with 
oiL" 

Wasmiitb,  MArrmAs,  a  German  doctor  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  was  bom  June  29, 1625.  In  1665  he 
became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Kiel ;  in  1667, 
extraordinary  professor  of  theology ;  and  in  1675,  pro- 
fessor in  ordinsiy.  He  died  Nov.  18, 1688.  He  wrote, 
Imtituiio  Methodica  Accentuationia  Hehr.,  eta  (Kiel, 
1664,  a.  o.) : — Smegma  HebnBum  Defricant  Pudendam 
Barbariem  Invedtun  Nuperii  quorundam  Fcdsu,  Impiu, 
et  ScandaUms  A$aertumibutt  etc  (ibid.  1668)  :-~H^a- 
ismus  Faciliiad  et  InUgritati  tua  Restitutusi  i.  e.  1.  Nova 
Grammatiea;  2.  Accentuadoms  Hd)r,  InttUutio  Metko^ 
diea  ;  8.  Fvidicis  8. 8^  etc.  (ibid.  1664,  a.  o.) :— XV/oimo 
DoctrmcB  Acoeniuum  BibUeorum  (ibid.  1670)  i—Janua 
HAraumi  Noviter  Aperta  (ibid.  1670) :  —  Pro  8ancL 
Jfdnr.  Textu  Vindkianm  AnU-CappeH-  Walton;  Pan  t, 
qua  Origuudu  AutkmHa  Dwma  tarn  Aeeaiiufim  tt  Ko- 
oalium  quam  et  Iptarum  LUerarum . . .  Autritur;  Pear* 
iif  qua  Neceuarittt  A  txentuum  Ums,  etc,,  Demonstratur; 
Pan  iiif  Hebraomattix  tive  Antt'Conringius  Apologet* 
etc.  (ibid.  1669).  See  FUrBt,  BM  Jud,  iii,  495;  Stein- 
schneider,  BibUog,  Ifandbuch,  p.  146 ;  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theolog.  Lit,  p.  93, 114 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GhUrale, 
S.V.    (RP.) 

Wasada  (or  Vasoda)  is  the  esrth  in  India,  a  suU 
lime  goddess  whom  they  worship  alike  with  the  pre- 


at  the  gates  (2  Sam.  xviii,  24  sq. ;  2  Kings  ix,  17  sq. ; 
Psa.  cxxvii,  1 ;  cxxx,  6 ;  Prov.  viii,  34),  where  they 
gave  signals  and  information,  either  by  their  voice  or 
with  the  aid  of  a  trumpet  (Jer.  vi,  17 ;  £zek«  xxxiii, 
6).  At  night  watchmen  were  accustomed  to  perambu- 
late the  city  (CanL  iii,  3 ;  v,  7).  In  the  New  Test,  we 
find  mention  made  of  the  second,  the  third,  and  the 
fourth  watch  (Luke  xii,  88 ;  Matt,  xiv,  25).— Kitto.  On 
the  watch  at  Christ's  sepulchre  (Matt,  xxvii,  66),  see 
the  monographs  cited  by  Volbeding,  Index  Programma- 
turn,  p.  67.    See  Watcumah. 

WATCH  OF  THE  Night  (n^OTDK ;  ^Xaiefi).  Tha 
Jews,  like  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  divided  the  night 
into  military  watches  instead  of  hours,  each  watch  rep- 
resenting the  period  for  which  sentinels  or  pickets  re- 
mained on  duty.  The  proper  Jewish  reckoning  recog- 
niied  only  three  such  watches.  These  would  last  re- 
spectively from  sunset  to  10  P.H.;  from  10  P.Bi.  to  2 
A.l£.;  and  from  2  A.AL  to  sunrise.  It  has  been  con- 
tended by  Lightfoot  {Ifor.  Heb.  in  Matt,  xiv,  25)  that 
the  Jews  realty  reckoned  four  watches,  three  only  of 
which  were  in  the  dead  of  the  night,  the  fourth  being 
in  the  morning.  This,  however,  is  rendered  improbable 
by  the  use  of  the  term  "  middle,**  and  is  opposed  to  Bab- 
binical  authority  (Mishns,  Berach,  i,  1 ;  Kimchi,  On 
Psa.  Ixiii,  7;  Rashi,  On  Judg,  vii,  19).  We  find,  how- 
ever, different  opinions  on  this  subject  as  early  as  the 
Tslmud  {Berach.  iii,  b,  etc).  The  Old  Test,  mentions 
expressly : 

1.  n'i")«ITOM  V7K1,  head,  first,  of  the  watches  (Lam.  11, 
W).     '  ' 

t.  naia*<rin  n^^ixacK,  vuddu  watch  (Jndg.  vii,  i9), 

which,  ACCordTiog  to  those  who  afllrm  that  then  were 
always  four,  means  the  middle  of  those  three  watches 
which  fell  In  the  time  of  complete  night 
8.  ^pian  'k,  iMrning  watch  (Exod.  xiv,  24;  1  8am.  xl, 
11).   ' 


WATCHER 


886 


WATCH-lJiGHT 


Sabfleqaently  to  the  establishment  of  the  Roman 
premicy,  the  number  of  watches  (vigUue)  was  increased 
to  four,  which  were  described  either  aooording  to  their 
numerical  order,  as  in  the  case  of  the  '^  fourth  watch** 
(BCatL  ziv,  25 ;  comp.  Josephus,  AtU,  v,  6, 6),  or  by  the 
terms  ''even,  midnight,  cook -crowing,  and  morning" 
(Mark  xiii,  85>  These  terminated  respectively  at  9 
.PJdL,  midnight,  8  A^,  and  6  A^  Conformably  to 
this,  the  guard  of  soldiers  was  divided  into  four  relays 
(AcU  xii,  4),  showing  that  the  Soman  regime  was  fol- 
lowed in  Herod's  army.  (See  Veget  De  Re  MUit.  iii,  8, 
**  In,  qnatnor  partes  ad  depsydram  sunt  diviss  vigilio^ 
nt  non  amplius  quam  tribus  horis  noctnmis,  necesse  est 
vigilare;"  Censorin,  De  Die  Natal  Ufol  ^.  rtrdprriv; 
Josephus,  Atit,  zviii,  9j  C  Uipl  ^.  iampav ;  Oiod.  Sic. 
18, 40;  Xenoph.  Anab,  iv,  1, 5;  Buztorf,  Lex,  TaUnud,,' 
Fischems,  Probu.  de  Viliis  Lex.  N.  Tett.).  According- 
ly, in  the  New  Test  four  night-watches  are  mentioned 
(MarkxiU,85): 

l.'*o^^,tbe  laU  watch,  histing  fh>m  sunset  to  the  third 
hour  of  the  night,  iDClndlug  the  evening  dawn :  also 
called  iy^ia  &pa,  even -tide  (Hark  xi,  11),  or  simply 
Hi'a,  evening  <John  xx,  19). 

9.  Uwo¥vKriov,iMdni0htt  (h>m  tbe  third  hour  to  midnight 

^'AXtKrmpo^mviOfeoek' crowing,  Itom  midnight  to  the 
third  hour  after  midnight.  This  ended  with  the  sec- 
ond cock-crowlng. 

i.  Ilp«/,  earlv,  from  the  ninth  honr  of  the  niffht  to  the 
twelfthtindudlng  the  morning  dawn  or  twiifsht  It  is 
also  called  vp«^  morning -tide  or  morning  (John 
xvili,  88). 

SeeNiOHT-WATCH;  Yioiu 

Watoher  0*^9,  toahmg),  a  class  of  angelic  beings 
mentioned  in  the  description  of  Nebuchadnezzar'B  dream 
.  (Dan.  iv,  18-17).  The  Chaldnans  appear  to  have  be- 
lieved that  God  had  delegated  the  moral  government  of 
the  earth  to  celestial  spirits,  who  had  the  charge  of 
making  inqnirition  into  human  actions,  and  punishing 
tbe  guilty.    See  Angbu 

'WatoheiB,  a  dass  of  monks  who  are  said  to  have 
peribrmed  divine  service  without  intermission,  by  di- 
viding themselves  into  three  classes,  and  taking  their 
turns  at  the  service  at  stated  hours.  See  Accemetjl 
The  term  is  applied  to  the  keepers  of  the  Easter  sepul- 
chre. Usually  there  were  two  or  three  who  sang  psalms 
and  maintained  the  watch.  The  term  is  also  used  to 
designate  the  keepers  of  the  Church  who  went  the 
rounds  at  night. 

Watching  with  thb  Dead.    See  Wake. 

Watohing  Loft  is  an  apartment  over  the  aisle, 
sacristy,  or  porch  of  a  Church  or  cathedral,  from  which 
the  great  shrines  were  observed  by  tbe  watchers  of  the 
Church.  Such  lofts  remain  at  Nuremberg,  Germany; 
and  at  Oxford,  Lichfield,  St.  Albans,  Westminster,  Exe- 
ter, Hereford,  and  other  pUces  in  EngUind. 

Watdunan  f^XJ,  2  Kings  xvii,  9;  xviii,  8;  Jer. 
zxxi,  6;  **  watcher,"  Jer.  iv,  16;  elsewhere  ''keeper,** 
** preserver,"  etc;  but  usually  MBX  or  *^sti).  Even 
strong  walls  and  double  gates  would  not  of  themselves 
secure  a  dty  from  the  enemy.  Men  were  therefore  em- 
ployed to  watch  day  and  night  on  the  top  of  the  walls, 
and  especially  by  the  gates.  It  was  thus  that  the  mes- 
sengers from  the  army  were  seen  long  before  they 
reached  the  place  where  David  anxiously  sat  (2  Sam. 
xviii,  24-27).  In  like  manner  the  watchman  of  Jezred 
saw  in  the  distance  the  company  of  Jehu  driving  furi- 
ously (2  Kings  ix,  17-20).  S(D  Isaiah,  in  one  of  his  sub- 
lime visions,  saw  a  watchman  standing  by  his  tower  day 
and  night  (Isa.  xxi,  5-12).  A  figurative  use  of  the 
watchnum  and  his  work  is  beautifully  made  in  Isa.  Ixii, 
6 ;  Ezek.  xxxiii,  2, 6,  7 ;  Hab.  ii,  1.  There  were  others 
whose  duty  it  was  to  patrol  the  streets  of  the  city  and 
preserve  order  (see  Psa.  cxxvii,  1 ;  Song  of  Solomon  iii, 
8).  There  are  such  in  Oriental  dties  to-day,  and  they 
challenge  all  persons  found  abroad  after  certaui  hours 
of  tbe  night,  arresting  those  that  are  not  able  to  give  a 
good  account  of  themsdves,  and  sometimes  sul^ecting 


them  to  rough  treatment    In  Perria  the  watchmen 
were  obliged  to  indemnify  those  who  were  robbed  io 
the  streets,  and  make  satisfiiction  with  their  own  blood 
for  thoee  who  were  murdered;  which  accounts  for  the 
vigilance  and  severity  which  they  display  in  the  dis- 
charge of  their  oiBoe,  and  illustrates  the  character  of 
watchman  given  to  Ezekid,  who  lived  in  that  country, 
and  the  duties  he  was  required  to  perform.    If  the 
wicked  perished  in  his  iniquities  without  warning,  the 
prophet  was  to  be  accountable  for  his  blood;  but  if  be 
duly  pointed  out  his  danger,  be  ddivered  his  own  aool 
(Esek.  xxxiii,  5).    These  terms,  therefore,  were  ndthcr 
harsh  nor  severe;  they  were  the  common  appointmcnta 
of  watchmen  in  Persia.    They  were  also  chaiged  to 
announce  the  progress  of  the  jiight  to  the  slnmberinic 
dty:  ''The  burden  of  Dumab;  he  cdls  to  me  out  of 
Seir,  Watchman,  what  of  the  night?  watchman,  what 
of  the  night  ?    The  watchman  said,  The  moniing  oom- 
eth,  and  also  the  night"  (Isa.  xxi,  11).    This  is  con- 
firmed by  an  observation  of  Chardin,  that,  as  the  people 
of  tbe  East  have  no  docks,  the  several  parts  of  the  day 
and  of  the  night,  which  are  eight  in  all,  are  announced. 
In  the  Indies,  the  parts  of  the  night  are  made  known, 
as  well  by  instruments  of  music,  in  great  dties,  as  by 
the  rounds  of  the  watchmen,  who,  with  cries  and  small 
drums,  give  them  notice  that  a  fourth  part  of  tbe  night 
is  past.    Now,  as  these  cries  awoke  those  who  had 
slept  dl  that  quarter  part  of  the  night,  it  appeared 
to  them  but  as  a  moment.    There  are  sixty  of  these 
in  the  Indies  by  day,  and  as  many  by  night;  that 
is,  fifteen  for  each  dividon.     Th^  are  required  not 
only  at  each  watch  of  the  night,  but  at  frequent  inter- 
vals in  the  progress  of  it,  to  cry  aloud,  in  order  to 
give  the  people,  who  depend  upon  them  for  the  pro- 
tection of  their  lives  and  property,  assurance  that 
they  are  not  sleeping  at  their  posts  or  n^ligent  of 
their  charge.    On  these  latter  occasions,  their  exda- 
matlons  are  made  in  a  form  calculated  to  enliven  the 
tediousness  of  their  duties,  as,  "God  be  merciful  to 
you;"  while  the  other  responds,  "Blessings  be  on  yo« 
likewise."    This  practice  of  salutation,  when  they  met, 
in  the  form  of  a  set  dialogue,  was  observed  also  by  the 
andent  officers  of  this  description  among  the  Jews,  tbe 
watchword  being  then,  as  we  have  seen  it  is  still  among 
the  watchmen  of  the  caravans,  some  pious  sentiment,  in 
which  the  name  of  Jehovah  was  spedally  expresaed. 
Two  remarkable  instances  of  this  occur  in  Sariptare. 
The  one  is  in  the  prophedes  of  Isaiah,  where,  spodcing 
of  the  watchmen  of  the  Temple^  who  were  aJways  Le- 
vites,  and  among  whom  the  same  regulations  subsisted 
as  among  other  watchmen,  be  addresses  them  under  the 
poeticd  description  of  "  Ye  that  make  mention  of  the 
Lord,"  L  e.  Ye  whose  watchword  is  the  name  of  Jeho- 
vah (Isa.  Ixii,  6).  '  The  other  instance  is  in  Psa.  cxxxiv, 
the  whde  of  which,  as  is  justly  observed  by  bishop 
Lowth,  is  nothing  more  than  the  alternate  cry  of  two 
different  divisions  of  the  watch.    The  first  watch  ad- 
dresses the  second,  reminding  them  of  their  doty ;  the 
second  answers  by  a  solemn  blcsdng.    The  address  and 
the  answer  seem  both  to  be  a  set  form,  which  each  pn>- 
cUumed  aloud  at  stated  intervals  to  notify  the  time  of 
night: 

Firti  hamd  ^waUBMnMi— "Bless  ye  the  Lord,  all  ye  seiw 
vants  of  the  Lord,  who  by  night  stand  in  the  boose  of  the 
Lord.  Lilt  np  your  hands  in  the  sanctuary,  and  bless  the 
Lord." 

Second  hand  qf  watchmen ansiMr— *'Tbe  Lord  blsM  thee 
out  of  Zion,  tbe  Lord  that  made  heaven  and  earth.*' 

Watoh-night  is  a  Wesleyan  custom.  Near  the 
beginning  of  Methodism  the  members  of  that  body  in 
Bristol  Ugan  to  meet  at  night,  that  they  might  wor- 
ship without  interruption.  Mr.  Wedey,  knowing  that 
such  meetings  would  soon  be  misinterpreted,  made  them 
public,  and  for  a  time  bdd  them  once  a  month.  After- 
wards, however,  they  were  observed  only  on  tbe  eve  of 
the  new  year,  which  custom  prevails  to  a  certain  ex* 
.tent  to  the  present  time. 


WATCH-TOWER 


887 


WATSON 


Watoh- tower  (n-'BX,  Isa.  xxi,  6;  HDM,  2 
Chron.  xz,  24;  Isa.  xxi,  8),  a  atractuie  over  or  by  the 
aide  of  city  gatea  id  the  Eaat,  in  which  a  watchman  was 
stationed  to  observe  what  was  going  on  at  a  distance, 
especially  in  times  of  danger  (2  Sam.  xviii,  25).  We 
find  that  he  went  up  by  a  staircase  from  the  passage, 
which,  like  the  roof  of  the  dwelling-houses,  was  flat,  for 
the  purpose  of  descrying  at  a  distance  those  that  were 
approaching  the  place,  or  repelling  the  attacks  of  an 
enemy.  The  observations  made  by  the  watchman  were 
not  communicated  by  him  immediately  to  the  king,  but 
by  the  intervention  of  a  warder  at  the  outer  gate  of  the 
tower;  and  it  appears  that  a  private  staircase  led  from 
the  lower  room,  in  which  David  (in  the  above  passage) 
was  sitting,  to  the  upper  room  over  the  gateway ;  for  by 
that  communication  he  retired  to  give  full  vent  to  his 
sorrow  (see  Thomson,  LaoRd  and  Bookj  ii,  411).  See 
Ciry;  Gatb;  Towbb. 

Waterford,  Gourcil  op  (Synodiu  Guaierfordia). 
Waterfoid  is  a  city  of  Ireland,  capital  of  the  county  of 
the  same  name,  situated  near  the  southern  coast,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Soir,  nine  miles  from  the  sea.  An  ec- 
clesiastical council  is  said  to  have  been  held  there  about 
1168,  in  which  it  was  ordered  that  all 'the  English 
slaves  throughout  Ireland  should  be  liberated  to  avert 
the  divine  wrath.  It  seems  that  many  of  the  English 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  selling  their  own  children  to 
the  Irish  for  slavei^  and  that  not  under  the  pressure  of 
extreme  want    See  Mansi,  CaneiL  x,  1188. 

fioth  the  date  and  place  of  this  council  are  probably 
inoorreci,  as  the  account  of  it  in  Labbe  exactly  coin- 
ddea  with  that  of  the  Council  of  Armagh  in  1171 
(q.  v.X  and  in  both  the  council  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
voked apmd  Ardmachiam, — Landon,  Mamial  of  Cowt- 

Waterhonsa,  Edwabd,  an  English  author  who 
became  a  clergyman,  was  born  in  1619.  He  received  a 
learned  education,  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety in  1668,  and  took  holy  orders  the  same  year.  He 
died  May  80,  1670.  He  was  the  author  of  Ifyndtle 
Apotoffjf/or  Learning  and  Learned  Men  (1658)  -.--Two 
Conten^ixiionM  (eod.)  i^Diecourie  of  the  Piet^f  Policy^ 
and  Chanty  of  Elder  Timea  and  Chriatians  (1655)  :-> 
Gentleman^  Monitor  (eod.)  \-^Shori  Narrative  of  the 
Late  Dreadful  Fire  of  London  (1667):— and  other 
works.  See  Allibone,  JHeL  <f  Brit,  and  Amer.  Au- 
thort,  Sb  V. 

"Watarlaiidan  (or  Waterlandlana),  a  sect  of 
Anabaptists  (q.  v.)  in  Holland,  so  called  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Flemingians,  or  Fhmdrians,  and  also  be- 
cause they  consisted,  at  first,  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  dis- 
trict in  the  north  of  Holland  called  Waterland.  The 
Flemingians  were  more  rigid  in  their  views  and  prac- 
tice than  the  Waterlandiana.  Both  are  goremed  by 
presbyters  and  deacons,  and  each  congregation  is  inde- 
pendent of  aU  foreign  jurisdiction.  The  Waterlanders* 
are  also  called  Johamitea,  from  John  de  Ries,  who  was 
of  great  service  to  them  in  many  respects,  and  who  was 
one  of  the  composers  of  their  Cottfeseion  of  Faith  in  1580. 
The  WaterUnders  of  Amsterdam  afterwards  Joined  with 
the  Galenists  (q.  v.).    See  Mjevsohites. 

Waterman,  Hritrt,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, was  bom  at  Centreville,  Warwick,  R.  I.,  Aug.  17, 
1813,  and  was  a  graduate  of  Brown  University  in  the 
dass  of  1881.  He  pursued  his  theological  studies,  in 
part,  at  Cambridge,  at  a  school  taught  by  Rev.  John 
Henry  Hopkins  and  Rev.  George  Washington  Doane, 
which,  on  their  appointment  as  bishops — the  one  of  the 
diocese  of  Vermont,  and  the  other  of  the  diocese  of  New 
Jersey— was  given  up.  Mr.  Waterman  completed  his 
course  of  study  at  the  Episcopal  Seminary  in  New  York, 
and  was  ordained  deacon  by  bishop  Griswold,  at  Provi- 
dence, in  June,  1685,  and  presbyter  by  the  same,  at  Bos- 
ton, in  1887.  He  commenced  the  active  duties  of  the 
ministry  at  Woonsocket,  R.  L,  as  rector  of  St.  James's 


Chmeh,  where  he  renuiined  six  years  (1885^1),  and 
then  look  charge  of  the  parish  of  St  Stephen's  in  Prov- 
idence, commencing  his  ministry  in  November,  1841. 
Here  he  continued  for  four  years  (1841-46),  and  then 
went  to  Andover,  Mass.,  where  he  was  rector  of  Christ 
Church  until  June,  1849.  He  spent  nearly  a  year  in 
foreign  travel  for  his  health,  and,  on  his  return,  in  the 
summer  of  1850,  he  again  became  rector  of  St.  Stephen's 
Church,  occupying  that  position  until  October,  1874,  a 
period  of  twenty-four  years,  during  which  a  strong  and 
vigorous  parish  grew  up  under  his  administration.  Re- 
signing his  parish,  he  continued  to  reside  in  Providence^ 
preaching  in  different  parts  of  Rhode  Island  and  other 
places  as  his  health  allowed  him.  His  death  ocenrred 
in  Providence  Oct.  18,  1876.  ''Dr.  Waterman,"  says 
Prof.  GammeU,  *'was  an  instructive  and  efl^ective 
preacher,  and  a  careful  student  of  the  works  of  the  old 
English  divines,  and  was  thoroughly  Anglican  in  all  his 
ecclesiastical  viewa.  Beyond  his  immediate  sphere  as 
a  dergjrman,  he  seldom  cared  to  appear  in  public.  In 
that  sphere,  however,  he  exerted  a  very  important  in* 
flnence,  and  was  greatly  respected  bv  his  brethren.** 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Waters,  Frawcis,  D.D.,  a  local  deacon  and  elder, 
and  a  noted  educator  in  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church,  was  bom  Jan.  16, 1792,  in  Maryland.  He  grad- 
uated in  Pennsylvania  University,  in  1810,  and  took 
charge  of  Washington  Academy  in  Somerset  County, 
Md.  In  1818  he  was  elected  president  of  Washington 
College,  in  Chestertown,  Kent  Co.,  and  resigned  this 
position  in  1828.  From  this  date  until  1828  he  resided 
in  Somerset  Connty;  from  1828  to  1885  he  taught  pri- 
vate school  in  Baltimore.  In  1840  he  became  president 
of  theTheok)gical  and  Literary  School  for  the  education 
of  young  men  for  the  itinerant  ministry  of  the  Metho- 
dist Protestant  Church ;  in  1846  he  went  to  reside  in 
Baltimore,  and  filled  several  important  positions  of  an 
educational  character  until  Jan.  80, 1860,  when,  on  ac- 
count of  feeble  health,  he  was  obliged  to  resign.  He 
was  president  of  the  General  Conference  of  the  Metho- 
dist Protestant  Church  in  1846  and  1862.  He  died 
April  28, 1868.  See  Cothouer,  Founder$  of  the  M,  P. 
Churchf  p.  182. 

Water-Bpont  is  the  rendering,  in  the  A  V.  at  Psa. 
xlii,  7,  of  "lisx,  fainn&r  (from  *)32C,  a  root  of  doubtful 

import),  which  Gesenius  thinks  a  ccUaract  or  water- 
course ("  gutter,**  2  Sam.  v,  8),  and  FUrst  a  pipe  or  con- 
duit Water-spouts,  it  seems,  are  actually  seen  on  the 
Mediterranean  (see  Thomson,  Land  and  Book^  ii,  256). 
SeeGuTTKR. 

Watson,  Qeorge,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  rector  in  Norwalk,  O.,  in  1854,  and  from 
that  time  until  1865  served  the  parish  of  St.  Paul,  in 
that  city.  He  died  Nov.  15, 1870,  aged  sixty-eight 
yearn    See  Prot,  Epuc,  Almanac,  1871,  p.  118. 

Wataon,  Jamea  Clemaon,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Donegal  township,  Lancaster 
0>.,  Pa.,  Jan.  27, 1805.  He  graduated  from  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey  in  1827 ;  studied  at  Princeton  The- 
ological Seminary  between  two  and  three  years;  was 
licensed  in  1880,  and  ordained,  in  1832,  pastor  of  the 
united  churches  of  Gettysburg  and  Great  Conewago, 
Pa.,  where  he  labored  until  1849 ;  then  became  pastor 
at  Clinton,  N.  J. ;  next  at  Kingston  in  1851,  and  finally 
in  1854  at  Milton,  Pa.,  where  he  died,  Aug.  31, 1880. 
See  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Senu  1681,  p.  81. 

Wataon,  Robert,  LL.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  professor  and  author,  was  born  at  St.  An- 
drew's about  1780.  He  was  educated  at  the  universi* 
ties  of  St.  Andrew's,  Glasgow,  and  Edinburgh.  In  1751 
he  began  to  deliver  in  Edinburgh  a  course  of  lectures 
on  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres,  which  he  repeated  for  sev- 
eral successive  winters.  He  became  a  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1758 ;  professor  of  logic,  rhetoric, 
and  belles-lettres  in  the  College  of  St.  Salvator,  at  St. 


WATSON 


888 


WATTERS 


Andrew's,  8cx>a  after;  and  principal  of  the  United  Col- 
lege of  St.  Leonard  and  St.  Salvator,  and  minister  of 
the  ChoToh  and  parish  of  St.  Leonard,  in  1777.  He  died 
at  St.  Andrew's,  March  81, 1781.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  Hiaiory  of  the  Reigu  of  Philip  11,  King  of  Spam 
(Lond.  1777,  2  vols.);  and  a  Hitiory  of  the  Reign  of 
Philip  III  (1788).  The  latter  work  was  left  unfin- 
ished at  the  author's  death,  and  was  completed  for  the 
benefit  of  his  family  by  William  Thomson,  LL.D.  The 
former  was  translated  into  French,  Dutch,  and  German. 
Both  works  have  been  republished  in  the  United  States 
(N.  Y.  1818),  but  are  of  little  value,  being  heavy  and 
inelegant  in  style,  and  yielding  inevitably  to  the  more 
philosophical  and  elegant  works  of  Presoott 

Watson,  Thomas  (1),  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
prelate,  was  bom  about  1620.  He  was  educated  at  St, 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow 
and  master  in  1668.  He  took  orders  in  the  Church  of 
England ;  was  appointed  dean  of  Durham  in  1668 ;  bish- 
op of  Lincoln  in  1667 ;  and  was  preacher  to  queen  Mary. 
On  the  accession  of  queen  Elisiibeth,  he  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  supremacy,  was  deprived  of  his  bishopric, 
and  from  that  time  until  his  death  adhered  firmly  to 
the  Koman  Church.  He  was  imprisoned  near  I<ondon 
until  1680,  when  he  was  removed  to  Wisbeck  Castle, 
where  he  died,  Sept.  ^6, 1682.  His  published  works  are 
Ttoo  Notable  JSernum*  before  the  Queenee  Highnes  con- 
eermng  the  Reall  Preeenot  (1664);  and  HoUtome  and 
Catho^fke  Doctryne  concermnge  the  Seven  Seuramentes 
(1668).  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  Latin  tragedy, 
which  was  greatly  admired,  but  never  published. 

Wataon,  Thomas  (2),  an  eminent  Nonconformist 
divine,  was  educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
and  was  pastor  of  St  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  London,  in 
1646.  Ejected  for  nonconforroi^  in  1662,  he  preached 
in  Crosby  Hall  in  1672,  and  died  in  Essex  about  1689. 
Watson  was  an  eminent  preacher,  and  one  of  his  ser- 
mons, entitled  Heaven  taken  bg  Storm,  was  often  reprint- 
ed. Besides  A  Bodg  of  Practical  Divinilg,  consisting 
of  one  hundred  and  seventy-six  sermons  on  the  Assem- 
bly's Catechism  (1692 ;  last  ed.  N.  T.  1871),  he  published 
The  Chrittian  Charter  .-—The  Art  of  Divine  Conteni- 
menl  :—A  Diecouru  of  Meditation  (6th  ed.  Lond.  1660). 
His  S^ct  Worke  were  published  in  London  in  1821, 
and  in  New  York  in  1866.  See  Flitt-Herzog,  Real- 
Encghhp,  a.  v.    (E  P.) 

Watt  (also  Vadianns),  Joaofalm  Ton,  the  Re- 
former of  St  Gall,  was  bom  Dec  80, 1484,  of  ancient 
family  in  that  city.  His  father  was  a  merchant,  his 
mother  a  Judicious  and  pious  woman.  His  eariy  edu- 
cation was  conducted  by  his  mother  and  pedagogues  of 
his  native  town,  but  he  soon  went  to  Vienna  in  order  to 
avail  himself  of  the  superior  privileges  there  afforded. 
He  there  became  acquainted  with  Ulric  Zwingli  and 
Heinrich  Loriti  (Glareanus).  A  period  of  Hi— ftinf^  t)e. 
havior  ensued  in  his  life,  but  it  was  speedily  followed  by 
a  continuous  season  of  earnest  classical  study.  A  Yirgil 
which  he  was  wont  to  use  as  a  pillow  in  those  days  is 
still  preserved  in  the  town  library  of  St  Gall.  He  also 
tried  his  powers  in  Latin  verse,  and,  in  obedience  to  the 
customs  of  his  day,  changed  his  name  into  the  Latin 
Vadlus,  afterwards  Vadianut,  After  a  tour  through  Po- 
land, Hungary,  and  Carinthia,  and  an  essay  at  teaching 
in  Villach,  he  returned,  by  way  of  Venice,  to  Vienna,  and 
resumed  his  studies.  He  Joined  the  learned  society 
known  as  the  Danube  Association,  and  included  Juris- 
prudence, theology,  and  medicine  in  his  course,  obtain- 
ing the  doctorate  in  the  last-named  department  After 
the  death  of  Cuspinian,WaU  filled  the  chair  of  the  Greek 
language  and  literature.  In  1614  he  was  made  poet- 
laureate  by  the  emperor  Maximilian.  Four  years  af- 
terwards he  returned  to  St  Gall  for  a  visit,  but  was 
given  the  post  of  town-physician,  by  which  he  was  held 
to  that  city  as  long  as  he  lived.  In  1619  be  married 
Martha  GrebeL 

The  Church  of  St  Gall  was  wholly  controlled  by  the 


spirit  of  Middle-Age  Catholicism;  bat  Watt,  who  had 
become  acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Lather  and  the 
ideas  of  the  Reformation  while  at  Vienna,  gave  himself 
to  the  work  of  improving  its  spiritual  condition.  He 
was  assisted  in  his  endeavors  by  the  newly  installed 
minister  of  St  Laurent,  Benedict  Burgauer,  and  his  help- 
er, Wolfgang  Wetter.  He  maintained  an  active  corre- 
spondence with  ZwinglL  He  presided  in  the  Colloquy 
d  Zurich  in  1623,  and  of  Berne  in  1626.  He  became  the 
chief  promoter  of  the  Reformation  initiated  in  St.  Gall 
after  the  Zurich  Colloquy,  and  incurred  much  hatred  in 
consequence.  The  Anabaptist  movement  in  St  Gall 
and  Appenzell  also  gave  him  trouble ;  but  the  contin- 
ued support  accorded  him  by  his  fellow -citizens  8a»- 
tained  him  even  when  his  brother-in-law,  Conrad  Gre- 
bel,  of  Zurich,  was  drowned  in  punishment  of  his  here- 
sies. He  was  chosen  burgomaster  of  St  Gall  repeated- 
ly, and  in  that  capacity  gave  himself  to  the  work  of  in- 
structing the  populace  and  increasing  their  comforts. 
He  also  participated  in  the  theological  controversies  of 
his  time,  particulariy  the  Sacnunentarian  and  Schwenk- 
feldian  disputes,  and  in  connection  with  them  wrote 
several  books.  He  died  April  6, 1661,  and  was  mourned 
by  Calvin  and  others  as  being  lost  to  the  great  work  of 
the  Reformation  in  whose  promotion  he  took  so  influen- 
tial a  part 

The  life  of  Watt  was  first  described  by  Kcader,  the 
friend  whom  he  had  brought  under  the  influence  of  Lu- 
ther and  Mdancthon,  and  thereby  gained  for  the  Refor- 
mat ion.  Kessler's  MS.  is  preserved  in  the  Library  of  St 
Gall.  Other  biographers  are,  Hnber,  KhrengedSehtinu 
dee  .  ..  Joachim  v.  WaU  (St  Gall,  1688);  Pels,  Dent- 
maltchtoeiz,  Reformatorm  (ibid.  1819) ;  Pressel,  Joadkim 
Vadian,  etc  (Elberfdd,  1861),  pt  ix^Hertog,  Real-En^ 
cgUop,  S.V. 

"Wattan,  If icholaa,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, and  brother  of  William  Watters,  was  bom  in  Anne 
Arundel  County,  Md.,  Nov.  20, 1789.  He  entered  the 
travelling  connection  about  the  year  1778,  and  was  ap- 
pointed as  follows:  Kent,  Md.,  1776;  Hanover,  1777-78; 
Union,  a  a,  1794;  Seknda,  1799;  Haribrd,Md.,  1800; 
Winchester,  Va.,  1801;  Lancaster,  1802;  Broad  River, 
Ga.,  1808;  Charleston,  &  C,  1804^  where  he  died  in 
peace  and  triumph  Aug.  10,  1804.  Bennet  Kendriek, 
his  colleague  in  the  ministry,  reported  to  the  Sonth 
Carolina  Conference  that  Nichohu  Watten  was  pecul- 
iarly attentive  in  visiting  the  sick,  and  would  not  let  a 
favorable  opportunity  slip.  He  exercised  a  great  da- 
giee  of  humanity  in  his  Christian  and  ministerial  dntieaL 
His  Ust  words  were,  **  I  am  not  afr^d  to  die,  thanks 
be  to  God  T  See  Mumtee  of  A  nmal  Caiferenoee,  1806^ 
p.  126;  Bangs,  Sist.  of  the  M.  K  Church,  ii,  174;  Ste* 
vens,  Uitt.  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  ii,  21 ;  iii,  893 ;  iv,  240. 
241. 

Watteim,  'WilUam,  a  Methodist  Episoopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  Baltimore  County,  Md.,  Oct  16, 1751, 
of  Church  of  England  parents.  He  was  naturally  vain, 
self-willed,  and  passionate,  but  his  devotion  to  his  wid- 
owed mother  led  him  to  seek  religion  eariy  in  life.  He 
acquired  a  good  education ;  Joined  the  Methodists  at  the 
age  of  twenty ;  soon  began  earnest  Christian  work  by 
prayer  and  exhortation ;  and  in  1778  entered  the  Phila- 
delphia Conference.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  to  Fred- 
erick, in  1776  to  Fairfax,  in  1777  to  Brunswick,  and  in 
1779  to  Baltimore  Circuit  In  1782  he  retired  from  the 
regular  work  to  his  little  farm  in  Fairfax  County.  In 
1786  he  re-entered  the  active  ranks,  and  was  appointed 
to  Berkeley  Circuit,  Vs.,  but  was  soon  obliged  to  retain 
home  because  of  sicknesSi  He  labored  in  Alexandria, 
D.  a,  in  1801,  Georgetown  in  1803,  Alexandria  in  1804» 
and  in  1806  was  appointed  to  Washington  city.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  on  his  fisnn  ia  retire- 
ment He  died  March  29, 1827.  Mr.  Watters  aoeoo- 
plished  A  great  amount  of  good  under  very  advene  cir- 
cumstances, and  was  universally  respected  and  rever- 
enced.  See  Sprague,  A  nnalt  of  the  A  mer.  PulpU,  vii,  46. 


WAVE.BREAST 


889       WAVING  AND  HEAVING 


d^pifffiaroc  or  r^  iindi/Miroc;  A.y.in  Ezod.xxix, 
27,  *<  breast  of  the  wave-offBriog'')  was  the  hreost  of 
the  Tictim  offered  in  lacrifioe,  a  ram  (Exod.  xxix,  27; 
Namb.  vi,  20),  at  the  oonaecration  of  a  priest  or  the 
parxfication  of  a  Nazarite  after  his  vow ;  or  of  any  other 
animal  in  thank-offerings  (Lev.  vii,  84 ;  x,  14  sq.) ;  or 
of  the  first-born-offering  (Numb,  xviii,  18).  It  was  so 
called  because  waved  by  the  priest  (Exod.  xxix,  27; 
Numb,  vi,  20),  and  belonged  to  him  (Exod.  xxix,  27; 
Lev.  vii,  34),  to  be  eaten  by  the  members  of  hia  family 
who  iveie  in  a  state  of  ceremonial  purity  (x,  14).~ 
Winer.    See  Wavino. 

"Wave-loaf  (ncnSFin  Dni)  was  the  first-fruit  of 
bread  made  of  fine  wheat  flour  and  leavened,  which  at 
the  Paschal  festival  was  presented  to  Jehovah  in  con- 
nection with  a  burnt,  sin,  or  thank  offering  (Lev.  xxiii, 
17  sq.    See  Waviso. 

WaTe-ofiiBrliig  (n]D^3tn,  <<a  waving,"  from  Vfli, 
«»to  wave,"  mnj  ■»3Bb  nfisiapi,  «  a  waving  before  Je- 
hovah"). This  rite,  together  with  that  of  ^  heaving** 
or  *'  raising"  the  offering,  was  an  inseparable  accompa- 
niment of  peace-offerings.  Li  such  the  right  shoulder, 
considered  the  choicest  part  of  the  victim,  was  to  be 
''  heaved,"  and  viewed  as  holy  to  the  Lord,  only  eaten 
therefore  by  the  priest;  the  breast  was  to  be  '*  waved," 
and  eaten  by  the  worshipper.  On  the  second  day  of 
the  Passover  a  sheaf  of  com,  in  the  green  ear,  was  to  be 
waved,  accompanied  by  the  sacrifice  of  an  unblemished 
lamb  of  the  first  year,  from  the  performance  of  which 
ceremony  the  days  till  Pentecost  were  to  be  counted. 
When  that  feast  arrived,  two  loaves,  the  first-fruits  of 
the  ripe  com,  were  to  be  offered  with  a  burat-offering,a 
sin-offering,  and  two  lambs  of  the  first  year  for  a  peace- 
oflbring.    These  likewise  were  to  be  waved. 

The  Scriptural  notices  of  these  rites  are  to  be  found 
in  Exod.  xxix,  24, 28 ;  Lev.  vii,  80, 84 ;  viii,  27 ;  ix,  21 ; 
X,  14, 15;  xxiii,  10, 16,  20;  Numb,  vi,  20;  xviii,  11, 18, 
26-29,  etc. 

We  find  also  the  word  MfiASrt  applied,  in  Exod. 

xxxviij,  24,  to  the  gold  offered  by  the  people  for  the 

furniture  of  the  sanctuarv.    It  is  there  called  3ht 

-I 

nfi^snSl.  It  may  have  been  waved  when  presented, 
but  it  seems  not  impossible  that  n^^3PI  had  acquired  a 
secondary  sense  so  as  to  denote  "  free-will  offering.'*  In 
either  case  we  must  suppose  the  ceremony  of  waving  to 
have  been  known  to  and  practiced  by  the  Israelites  be- 
fore the  giving  of  the  law. 

It  seems  not  quite  certain  from  Exod.  xxix,  26, 27, 
whether  the  waving  was  performed  by  the  priest  or  by 
the  worshipper  with  the  former's  assistance.  The  Rab- 
binical tradition  represents  it  as  done  by  the  worship- 
per, the  priest  supporting  his  hands  from  below. 

In  conjecturing  the  meaning  of  this  rite,  regard  must 
be  had,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  kind  of  sacrifice  to 
which  it  belonged.  It  was  the  accompaniment  of  peace- 
offerings.  These  not  only,  like  the  other  sacrifices,  ac- 
knowledged God's  greatness  and  his  right  over  the  creat- 
ure, but  they  witnessed  to  a  ratified  covenant,  an  estab- 
lished communion  between  God  and  man.  While  the 
sin-offering  merely  removed  defilement,  while  the  bumt- 
offering  gave  entirely  over  to  €rod  of  his  own,  the  vic- 
tim being  wholly  consumed,  the  peace-offering,  as  estab- 
lishing relations  between  God  and  the  worshipper,  was 
participated  in  by  the  latter,  who  ate,  as  we  have  seen, 
of  the  breast  that  was  waved.  The  rabbins  explain  the 
heaving  of  the  shoulder  as  an  acknowledgment  that 
€rod  has  his  throne  in  the  heaven,  the  waving  of  the 
breast  that  he  is  present  in  every  quarter  of  the  earth. 
The  one  rite  testified  to  his  eternal  majesty  on  high, 
the  other  to  his  being  among  and  with  his  people. 

It  is  not  said  in  Lev.  xxiii,  10-14  that  a  peace-offer- 
ing accompanied  the  wave-sheaf  of  the  Passover.  On 
'the  contrary,  the  only  bloody  sacrifice  mentioned  in 


connection  with  it  is  atyled  a  bumt-offeriog.  When, 
however,  we  consider  that  everywhere  else  the  rite  of 
waving  belongs  to  a  peace  offering,  and  that,  besides  a 
sin  and  a  burnt  offering,  there  was  one  in  connection 
with  the  wave-loaves  of  Pentecost  (Lev.  xxiii,  19),  we 
shall  be  wary  of  concluding  that  there  was  none  in  the 
present  case.  The  significance  of  these  ri^es  seems  con- 
siderable. The  name  of  the  month  Abib,  in  which  the 
Passover  was  kept,  means  the  month  of  the  green  ear 
of  com,  the  month  in  which  the  great  produce  of  the 
earth  has  come  to  the  birth.  In  that  month  the  nation 
of  Israel  came  to  the  birth;  each  succeeding  Passover 
was  the  keeping  of  the  nation's  birthday.  Beautifully 
and  naturally,  therefore,  were  the  two  births— that  of 
the  people  into  national  life;  that  of  their  needful  sus- 
tenance into  yearly  life— combined  in  the  Passover. 
AH  first^fraits  were  holy  to  God:  the  first-bom  of  men, 
the  first-produce  of  the  earth.  Both  principles  were 
recognised  in  the  Passover.  When,  six  weeks  after, 
the  harvest  had  ripened,  the  first-fraito  of  its  matured 
produce  were  similarly  to  be  dedicated  to  God.  Both 
were  waved,  the  rite  which  attested  the  Divine  presence 
and  working  all  around  us  being  surely  meet  appropri- 
ate and  significant  in  their  case.— Smith.  See  Wa vmo. 

Wave-aheaf  (HfiSlinn  ICJ?,  Sept,  ipaypia  rod 
iwiM/Aorott  A.  V,  '*  sheaf 'of  the  wave-offering,"  Lev. 
xxiii,  16)  was  the  first-fruit  of  the  harvest,  which  at  the 
beginning  of  the  harvest  or  Passover  (q.  v.)  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Jehovah  by  the  ceremony  of  waving  (Lev. 
xxiii,  11  sq.,  16>    See  WAVB-orrEiUNo. 

leaving  AifD  Hbavino  as  Ceremonial  Manipula^ 
tioiu  qfOfferingt,    See  Offebimo. 

I.  Wavmff  be/ore  Jekovak  (ilifT^  *^3B^  S)*^3n  or 
MBSISPI)  occurs  as  a  special  ceremony  by  the  priests  in 
the  Jewish  ritual  not  only  in  connection  with  meat-of- 
ferings (Exod.  xxix,  24  [Lev.  viii,  27] ;  Numb,  v,  25), 
in  the  case  of  the  first-fruits  and  the  first-bom  (Lev. 
xxiii,  1 1  sq. ;  xvii,  25),  but  also  of  bloody  offerings, 
whether  (especially  in  thank-offerings)  of  single  fneces 
only,  as  the  breast  or  right  shoulder  or  fore-leg  (Exod. 
xxix,  26  sq.;  Lev.  vii, SO, 84;  ix,  21 ;  x,  14;  Numb,  vi, 
20),  or  of  the  whole  animal  (a  lamb.  Lev.  xix,  12, 24; 
xxiii,  9B),  which  was  waved  before  Jehovah  in  token  of 
presentation ;  and  this  principle  extended  even  to  the 
persons  of  the  Levites  as  an  initiatory  rite  to  their  of- 
fice (Numb,  viii,  1 1, 15).  The  waving  in  case  of  meat^ 
offerings  or  pieces  of  animals  was  performed  upon  (with) 
the  hands  (Exod.  xxix,  24;  Lev.  viii,  27;  according  to 
the  rabbins,  it  was  held  upon  the  hands  of  the  offerers, 
beneath  which  were  placed  those  of  the  priest  [Tosiph- 
ta,  Afenach.  vii,  17],  so  as  to  fulfil  the  requirement  of 
Exod.  xxix,  24;  Numb,  vi,  19, 20;  while  whole  animals 
were  waved  by  the  hands  of  the  priest  alone  [Mishna, 
MenacA.  v,  6]) ;  each  having  previously  been  laid  upon 
the  altar ;  in  the  case  of  whole  animals  this  was  done 
before  slaughtering  them  (Lev.  xiv,  12  sq.,  24  sq.).  It 
consisted,  according  to  the  rabbins  (Mishna,  Menach,  v, 
6),  like  the  porrkere  of  the  Romans  (Macrob.  Sat,  iii, 
2),  also  the  oimwvere  or  commovere  (Cato,  Res  Rust, 
134)  in  certain  respects  (Zora  j  Bibliotk,  A  nliq,  i,  74),  of  a 
forward  and  backward  motion  upward  of  the  articles; 
while  living  objects  were  simply  moved  to  and  fro. 
Whether  the  motion  was  ever  to  the  right  and  left  is 
uncertain,  although  the  import  of  the  word  T\^^t2  (^^ 
Isa.  XXX,  28;  Dent,  xx,  25)  would  justify  such  an  opin- 
ion, which,  moreover,  would  be  highly  significant  The 
act,  at  all  events,  indicates  a  festive  surrender  to  Jeho- 
vah as  a  personal  service  like  the  peace-offering;  be- 
yond this  all  is  speculation  (Bahr,  Symbol,  ii,  376  sq. ; 
see  Reland,  Antiq,  Sacr.  p.  276).     See  Wave-offer- 

UJG. 

II.  Heaving  (0*^*^*1  or  niQ!|"]r))  is  associated  with  the 
tossing  (Exod.  xxix,  27),  as  the  heave-shoulder  (pid 
rra!|*)nn)  occurs  along  with  the  wave-breaat  (Exod. 


WAX 


890 


Wayside  cross 


xxix,  27 ;  Lev.  vii,  80, 82, 84),  and  what  is  eaUed  (Exod. 
xxxviii,  24)  wave-gold  is  also  called  heave-gold  (Xumb. 
xxxi,  62).  Indeed,  the  Jews  scarcely  distingaisb  be- 
tween the  two  (n^ntn  and  ni(!iatn)  as  ritualistic  acts, 
but  explain  each  as  an  upward  and  downward  motion 
(Mishna,  Menack,  v,  6),  a  sort  of  elevatio.  Both  would 
thus  stand  as  generally  expressive  of  supreme  consecra- 
tion to  God  as  the  universal  Owner  and  Giver  (see  Ge- 
senius,  Thesaur,  p.  866 ;  BUhr,  Symbolik,  ii,  855  sq.,  877). 
Some  modems  incorrectly  regard  the  two  acts  as  iden- 
tical (Jahn,  Archad,  iii,  38),  or  take  "heaving"  (D'^nn) 
in  the  vague  sense  of  offerre  or  axj'errt  (like  Geseniu% 
ThucMv,  p.  1277),  and  oomiect  .D^^fl,  Exod.  xxix,  27, 
with  D'^Klsn  7'^K^,  contrary  to  the  accents  and  the 
parallelism;  but  see  Kurtz,  Mq»*  Opfer^  p.  146  sq.>- 
Winer.    See  Hbave-offeriko. 

^^az  (23*1^  or  ^y\\  dondg,  supposed  to  come  from 
a  root  A3^,  significant  of  melting  or  yiddxng^  the  soft 
•ticky  substance  of  which  bees  form  their  cells,  and 
which  is  readily  separated  from  the  honey  by  melting  in 
warm  water  (Pss.  xxii,  14;  Ixviii,  2;  xcvii,  5;  Mic.  i, 
4).  This  is  properly  called  beuwax,  and  is  of  vegetable 
origin,  although  manipulated  by  the  bees  from  the  pol- 
len of  flowers.  But  there  are  other  kinds  of  wax,  made 
from  resins,  either  vegetable  or  mineral  (the  latter 
originally  vegetable  likewise),  by  the  addition  of  pro- 
portions of  grease,  such  as  shoemaker*s  wax,  grafting- 
wax,  etc.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Hebrews  were  ac- 
quainted with  any  of  these  artificial  sorts. 

Waxen  Flgnres.  A  well-known  custom  of  curs- 
ing an  enemy  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  that  of  making 
a  waxen  figure,  and,  as  it  melted  before  the  fire,  the  per^ 
son  represented  by  it  was  supposed  similarly  to  waste 
away.  This  practice  is  referred  to  in  Horace  {Satirei, 
i,  8, 80  sq.),  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  same 
custom  b  described  in  the  incantations  of  the  ancient 
Aocadian  sorcerers.  See  Lenormant,  ChaldcBcm  Magic, 
p.  5. 

l^ay.  This  word  hsu  now  in  ordinary  parlance  so 
entirely  forsaken  ita  original  sense  (except  in  combina- 
tion, as  in  **  highway,"  "  causeway"),  and  is  so  uniform- 
ly employed  in  the  secondary  or  metaphorical  sense  of 
a  "  custom"  or  "  manner,"  that  it  is  difficult  to  remem- 
ber that  in  the  Bible  it  most  frequently  signifies  an 
actual  road  or  track.  Our  translators  have  employed 
it  as  the  equivalent  of  no  less  than  eighteen  distinct 
Hebrew  terms.  Of  these  several  had  the  same  second- 
ary sense  which  the  word  "  way"  has  with  us.    Two 

others  (nnk  and  S'^Pd)  are  employed  only  by  the  poets, 
and  are  commonly  rendered  **  path"  in  the  A.  V.  But 
the  term  which  most  frequently  occurs,  and  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  signifies  (though  it  also  is  now  and  then 
used  metaphorically)  an  actual  road,  is  "^^^f  dereky  con- 
nected with  the  German  tretaiy and  the  English  "tread." 
It  may  be  truly  said  that  there  is  hardly  a  single  pas- 
Bsge  in  which  this  word  occurs  which  would  not  be 
made  clearer  and  more  real  if  "  road  to"  were  substi- 
tuted for  "  way  of."  Thus  Gen.  xvi,  7, "  the  spring  of 
the  road  to  Shur ;"  Numb,  xiv,  24, "  the  road  to  the  Bed 
Sea;"  1  Sam.  vi,  12,  "the  road  to  Bethsbemcsh ;"  Judg. 
ix,  37,  **  the  road  to  the  oak  of  Meonenim ;"  2  Kings  xi, 
19,  "  the  road  to  the  gate."  It  turns  that  which  is  a 
mere  general  expression  into  a  substantial  reality.  In 
like  manner  the  word  u66g  in  the  New  Test,  is  almost 
invariably  translated  "  way."  Mark  x,  32, "  They  were 
on  the  road  going  up  to  Jerusalem ;"  Matt,  xx,  17,  "and 
Jesus  took  the  twelve  disciples  apart  in  the  road" — 
out  of  the  crowd  of  pilgrims  who,  like  themselves,  were 
bound  for  the  Passover. 

There  is  one  use  of  both  derek  and  666^  which  must 
not  be  passed  over,  viz.  iu  the  sense  of  a  religious  course. 
In  the  Old  Test,  this  occurs  but  rarely,  perhaps  twice: 
namely  in  Amos  viii,  14, "the  manner  of  Beersheba," 
where  the  prophet  is  probably  alluding  to  some  Idola- 


trons  rites  then  practiced  there;  and  again  in  Pm. 
cxxxix,  24, "  look  if  there  be  any  evil  way,"  any  idolt- 
trous  practices, "  in  me,  and  lead  me  in  the  everlaitiDg 
way."  But  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  o^oci  **  the  way," 
"  the  road)"  is  the  received,  almost  technical,  term  for 
the  new  religion  which  Paul  first  resisted  and  after- 
wards supported.  See  Acts  ix,  2;  xix,  9,  23;  xxii,  4; 
xxiv,  14, 22.  In  each  of  these  the  word  "  that"  is  an 
interpolatioo  of  oar  translators,  and  should  bare  been 
put  into  italics,  as  it  is  in  xxiv,  22. 

The  religion  of  Islam  is  spoken  of  in  the  Koran  as 
"  the  path  "  (e^arik,  iv,  66),  and  "  the  right  path"  (1,6^ 
iv,  174).  Gesenius  {Thuaur,  p.  858)  has  collected  ex- 
amples of  the  same  expresnon  in  other  langoages  and 
religions. — Smith.    See  Road. 

Waynflete,  William  of,  an  eminent  English  prel- 
ate of  the  16th  century,  founder  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  was  bom  of  a  noble  family  in  Waynfiete,  lin- 
colnshire.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester  School  and 
one  of  the  colleges  at  Oxford.  He  was  ordained  deacon 
in  1420,  and  prnbyter  in  1426;  became  head-master  of 
Winchester  School  in  1429 ;  rector  of  Wraxall  in  1433^ 
master  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  Hospital  in  1438 ;  removed 
to  Eton  with  a  part  of  his  school  in  1440,  by  the  adriee 
of  Henry  YI;  became  bishop  of  Winchester  in  1447,  in 
which  position  he  continued  for  thirty-nine  years.  In 
1450  he  was  called  upon  by  king  Henry  for  advice  in 
the  matter  of  the  rebellion  of  Jack  Cade,  which  be  ten- 
dered with  great  prudence ;  and  soon  after  rendered  a 
like  service,  when  Richard,  duke  of  York,  took  up  arms 
against  his  majesty.  In  1453  he  baptized  the  prince  of 
Wales,  afterwards  Edward  IV.  In  1456  he  was  appoint- 
ed lord  high  chancellor,  and  resigned  the  oflice  in  14G0. 
He  died  Aug.  11, 1486,  and  was  buried  in  Wincheater 
Cathedra],  in  a  magnificent  sepulchral  chapel,  which  is 
kept  in  the  finest  preservation  by  the  Society  of  Msgda- 
len  College.  He  founded  Magdalen  College,  established 
a  free  school  in  his  native  town,  and  was  a  benefactor 
to  Eton  College  and  Winchester  Cathedral  He  pos- 
sessed considerable  ability  as  an  architect,  which  he  em- 
ployed in  connection  with  his  benefactions.  See  Chal- 
mers, Biog,  Did*  s.  v.   - 

Wayside  Chapel  is  a  small  house  of  worship  at 
some  frequented  place  on  a  public  highway,  formeriy  r^ 
sorted  to  on  pilgrimage,  or  as  a  pUce  of  safety  by  pil- 
grims. **  These  buildings  were  commonly  attached  to 
bridges  at  the  entrance  of  towns— as  at  Rochester,  Stam- 
ford, Elvet,  Durham,  Exeter,  Newcastle,  and  London. 
Two  still  exist  at  Castle  Barnard  and  Wakefield,  the 
latter  being  of  the  14th  century.  It  has  a  remarkable 
carving  of  the  Resurrection.  In  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy  they  are  still  common ;  there  is  a  good  exam- 
ple at  Pisa,  about  1280.  They  were  frequented  some- 
times as  objects  of  pilgrimage,  but  more  commonly  by 
pilgrims  going  and  returning  from  a  shrine,  and  by  or- 
dinary travellers  when  the  dangers  of  the  highway  and 
bypaths  were  considerable.  Until  recent  tiroes  the 
bishop  of  Chichester  was  met  at  St.  Roche's  Hill  by  the 
civic  authorities,  on  his  return  from  Parliament,  to  con- 
gratulate him  upon  his  safe  arrival  home."— Waloott, 
Sacred  A  rchceoL  p.  609. 

Wayside  Cross  is  a  cross  erected  on  the  public 
highwa}',  either  to  commemorate  some  remarkable 
event,  to  indicate  the  boundary  of  an  estate,  to  desig- 
nate a  customary  station  for  a  public  service,  or  the 
temporary  resting-place  of  the  corpse  on  a  royal  or  no- 
ble funeral;  or  to  mark  the  confines  of  a  diocesan, mo- 
nastic, or  parochial  boundary.  Anciently,  in  England, 
wayside  crosses  were  abundant,  and  reminded  the  faith- 
ful of  the  duty  of  prayer.  They  were  often  of  stone, 
standing  on  the  steps;  though,  no  doubt,  wooden  vay- 
side  crosses  were  frequently  set  up.  Stone  crosses  par- 
took of  the  distinct  architectural  features  of  the  sge  au^ 
time  in  which  they  were  erected.  One  removed  from 
the  site  of  the  abbey  is  preserved  in  Langley  Park,  Nor- 
folk.   The  Weeping  Cross  at  Shrewsbury  was  a  sUtioa 


WEBBE 


891 


WEBER 


on  Corpus  Cbiisti  Day,  when  the  rarioui  gmlds,  lelig- 
iona  and  oorporate  bodies  visited  it;  and  there  offered 
prayers  for  aii  abundant  hanrest,  retnming  to  hear  masa 
in  St.  Chad's.  There  was  a  weeping  cross  at  Caen, 
erected  by  queen  Matilda  in  memory  of  her  sorrows  at 
the  cruel'  treatment  of  her  husband,  William  of  Noi^ 
mandy.  Sometimes  it  oommcmorated  a  battle,  as  the 
Neville's  Cross,  near  Durham,  erected  in  1846;  or  a 
death,  like  the  memorial  of  Sir  Ralph  Peroy,  who  was 
killed  on  Hedgeley  Moor  in  1464.  There  are  remains 
of  wayside  crosses  near  Doncaster  and  at  Braithwell, 
with  inscriptions,  inviting  the  prayers  of  the  passing 
traveller.  In  Devonshire  alone  there  are  one  hundred 
and  thirty-five  places  called  by  the  name  of  the  cross. 
At  Pencran  and  St.  Herbot,  Brittany,  there  are  superb 
specimens ;  and  others,  richly  carved,  at  Nevem,  Carew, 
and  Newmarket.  Yalle  Crucis  Abbey  took  its  name 
from  Eliseg's  sepulchral  cross  of  the  7th  century.  In 
Spain,  Italy,  Lubbeck  (near  Louvain),  WiUebrock,  and 
on  Boonhiii,  Berwickshire,  there  are  memorials  of  a  vi- 
olent death.  In  the  life  of  St  Willebald  the  English 
laborers  are  said  to  have  gathered  round  a  cross  in  the 
middle  of  a  field  for  daily  prayer  as  an  ordinary  custom. 
See  Waloott,  Saer^d  A  rehtBoL  p.  610. 

Webbe,  Geokor,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was  bom 
at  Bromham,  Wiltshire,  in  1581.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford  Univernty,  took  holy  orders,  and  became  min- 
ister of  Steeple  Aston,  Wiltshire,  where  he  also  kept  a 
grammar-school,  as  he  afterwards  did  at  Bath.  In 
1621  he  became  rector  of  St.  Peter  and  St  Paul's  in 
Bath ;  was  made  chaplain  to  Charies  I,  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne;  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  limerick, 
Ireland,  in  December,  1684.  Some  time  before  his 
death  he  was  confined  in  Limerick  Castle  by  the  rebels, 
and  died  there  near  the  close  of  1641.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  Practice  o/QuUtne§a  (8d  ed.  1631)  i—A  Brief 
ExpoiitUm  of  the  Prineipki  of  the  Ckriatian  ReUffiom 
(1612)  :-^Arraiffnment  of  an  Unruly  Tongue  (1619) :~ 
Auguf'B  Praiferi  or.  The  ChrigUan  Choice  (1621):— rAs 
Protett<mta  Calendar  (1624)  s—J^mors  and  Exerdtee 
out  of  Cicero  ad  Auicum:^«>ra»  other  text-books  for 
schools,  and  several  Sermons,  which  appeared  from  1609 
to  1619L  He  was  accounted  the  best  preacher  in  his 
time  In  the  royal  court,  and  the  smoothest  writer  of 
sermons  that  were  then  published.  See  Chalmers,  Biog, 
Diets,  v. 

Webber,  XYancis,  D.D.,  an  English  clerg}*mac 
of  the  18th  century,  was  rector  of  Exeter  College,  Ox- 
ford ;  and  in  1766  became  dean  of  Hereford.  He  pub- 
lished five  single  Sermont  (1788-58).  See  AlHboiie, 
Did,  ofBriL  and  A  mer,  A  uthore,  s.  v. 

Webber.  George,  D.D^  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Shapleigb,  Me.,  March  18, 180L 
He  embraced  religion  in  early  life,  and,  after  spending 
some  time  as  a  student  in  Maine  Wesleyan  Seminary, 
joined  the  Maine  Conference  in  1828,  and  was  appoint- 
ed as  junior  preacher  on  Strong  Circuit,  which  embraced 
nearly  the  whole  valley  of  Sandy  River.  His  reputa- 
tion as  an  able  preacher  soon  spread,  and  he  was  sought 
by  all  the  important  charges  in  the  Conference.  No 
preacher  in  the  Maine  Conference  had  ever  been  so 
highly  honored  by  his  brethren.  Sixteen  yean  he 
served  as  presiding  elder;  five  times  was  a  delegate  to 
the  General  Conference;  once  to  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance in  London ;  and  once  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  of  Canada.  At  the  General  Conference  of 
1852  he  was  a  prominent  candidate  for  the  office  of 
bishop.  For  many  years  he  was  a  trustee  of  Maine 
Wesleyan  Seminary,  and  was  prominently  connected 
with  all  the  great  interests  of  the  Conference  for  nearly 
half  a  century.  As  a  preacher,  Mr.  Webber  was  solid 
rather  than  brilliant,  profoundly  impressive,  evincing 
thorough  mastery  of  his  subject,  deliberate  and  ex- 
haustive, and  purely  extemporaneous.  His  forty-seven 
years  of  ministerial  record  stand  without  a  blemish. 
In  1874  he  superannuated,  and  retired  to  his  home  at 


Kent's  Hin,  and  died  May  11, 1875.    See  MimtUs  of 
Ammal  Confereneee,  1876,  p.  86. 

Weber,  Ananiae,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Lindenbayn,  in  Saxony,  Aug.  14, 1596. 
He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he  also  took  the  different 
theological  degrees.  In  1627  he  was  appointed  to  the 
pastorate  at  Mutschen,  in  1684  to  the  superintendency 
at  Leissnig,  having  in  the  same  year  received  the  de- 
gree of  licentiate  of  theology.  In  1688  he  went  to 
Leipsic  as  archdeacon  of  St  Thomas's,  was  appointed  in 
1639  professor  of  theology,  and  in  1640  received  the 
doctorate  of  divinity.  In  1645  he  was  called  to  Bres- 
lau,  in  Silesia,  where  he  occupied  the  highest  ecclesi- 
astical positions.  He  died  Jan.  26, 1665.  He  wrote, 
Adventus  Afessianua  Dudum  Fadue  et  in  hunc  Mundum 
Datau,  etc.  i—Probknia  Theolog,  de  A  uctoritate  Divina  et 
Infaiiibiii  Verhi  Dei  Saipti,  etc.  i— Synopsis  Doctrinm 
Orthodoxm  de  Convertione  ffominis  Jrregenia  contra 
it^evioSoiiav  Pelagianorum,  etc.,Asserta ;  Patdus  anti- 
Ctdviniamu, etc  See  Kempf,  Afemoria  Anania  Wdteri 
(Lips.  1789);  Freher,  Theatrum  Erudiiorum;  Oraiiones 
w  Ifonorem  Scriptorum  Hahita;  Jochcr,  A  ligemeines 
GelehrteH'Lexilton,  s.  v.;  FUrst,  Bibi.  Jud,  iti,  496. 
(a  P.) 

Weber,  Andreas,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Mareh  27,  1718,  at  Eisleben.  From 
1788  to  1742  he  studied  at  Jena  and  Leipsic  In  the 
latter  place  he  publicly  spoke  on  De  Cogniiione  Spiritus 
Finiti  circa  Hysteria  (1742).  In  1749  he  was  called  as 
professor  of  philosophy  to  Halle,  and  in  1750  to  Got- 
tingen,  where  he  lectured  till  1770,  when  he  accepted  a 
call  to  Kiel  as  professor  of  philosophy  and  theology. 
He  died  May  26, 1781.  He  wrote,  Die  Uebereinstim^ 
mung  der  Natur  und  Gnade,  etc  (Leips.  1748-50, 3  vols.) : 
— Commentatio  de  Prima  Melanchthonis  Locorum  Contr- 
mumum  EdUiomt  (Kiloni,  1771)  :—Progr.  uti-um  Judanis 
Mosi  ut  LegiskUori  solum,  non  ob  Miracula,  ptibus  Con* 
tpicuus  eratf  Religiosam  Obedientiam  Debeat,  etc  (ibid. 
1771).  See  Doring,  Die  gekhrien  Theologen  DAttsch- 
&iiM2f,iv,659  8q.     (RP.) 

Weber,  Beda,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  Oct.  26, 1798,  at  Lienz,  in  the  TyroL 
In  1824  he  received  holy  orders,  and  in  1825  was  called 
as  professor  to  Meran.  In  1849  he  accepted  a  call  to 
the  pastorate  in  Frankfort,  where  he  died,  Feb.  28, 1858. 
He  wrote,  Tirol  und  die  Rtformaiion  (Innsbrack,  1841) : 
— Giovamia  Maria  deUa  Croce  und  ihre  Zeit  (Ratis- 
bon,  1846)  i^Predigtm  an  das  Tiroler  Volk  (Frankfort, 
1851) : — he  also  translated  six  books  of  Chn'sostom  on 
the  priesthood  (Innsbruck,  1833).  See  TheoL  Universal" 
Lextkonf  s.  v. ;  Brtlhl,  Geschichte  der  hathoL  Lit,  Deutsck" 
lands  (Vienna,  1861),  p.  411  sq.    (B.  P.) 

Weber,  Christiaii  Friedrlob,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  March  4, 1764,  at  Cann- 
stadt,  and  died  as  dean  at  Nurtingen,  in  WUrtemberg, 
in  the  year  1882.  He  wrote,  Beitrdge  zur  Gesch.  des 
neutest,  Kamms  (Tttbingen,  1791): — Neue  Untersuchun- 
gen  aber  das  A  Iter  und  A  nsehen  des  Evang,  der  H^der 
(ibid.  1806) : — Doctrina  ACvi  Primi  ae  Prisci  pracipue 
Mosaid  de  Ente  Summo  (Stuttgart,  1828)  i^Schnurret^s 
COen,  Charakter  u,  Verdienste  (CannsUdt,  1823) :— //e- 
qesippus  qui  didtur  sive  Egesippus  de  BeUo  Judaico  Ope 
Codicis  Casselani  Becognitus  (Marburg,  1858).  See 
Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  77, 85, 412, 867 ;  Ftlrst, 
Bibl,Jud,iu,A9G,    (B.  P.) 

Weber,  Ferdinand  Wllhelm,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  22, 1836,  at  Schwa- 
bach.  His  preparatory  education  he  received  at  the 
H^mnasium  in  Nuremberg,  which  he  left  in  1855  for 
the  University  of  Erlangen.  Here  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Hofmann,  Delitzsch,  Thomasius,  Heyder,  and 
Hamack ;  and,  besides  theology,  he  also  stuiiied  his- 
tory and  Rabbinic  literature.  After  the  completion  of 
his  academic  curriculum,  he  became  vicar  of  the  well- 
known  Ldhe,  and  second  teacher  at  the  mission  school 


WEBEB 


892 


WEBSTER 


in  Neneodettebao,  On  account  of  a  diMertation  CTcfter 
den Begriffdea  SMnen  wad £rhabmm bei KanLh^ n- 
ceived  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.  At  Meuen- 
dettelsau  his  great  talents  found  a  wide  scope  for  use- 
fulness. Here  he  published  his  weU-known  work,  Vom 
Zome  Gotiet  (with  an  introduction  by  Delitzsch)  in  1862, 
and  his  Introduction  to  the  Writmgt  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  (eod. ;  6th  ed.  1878).  In  1864  he  went 
to  Diebach,  where  he  labored  until  1872,  when  he  was 
appointed  Lohe's  successor.  Bodily  infirmities,  how- 
ever, soon  obliged  him  to  retire  to  Polsingen,  where  he 
died,  July  10, 1879.  Bendes  the  works  already  men- 
tioned, he  published,  Hermann  der  Pramonstratenser, 
Oder  die  Juden  und  die  Kirche  des  MittelaUers  (Nord- 
lingen,  1861),  with  a  preface  by  Lohe  i^Kurze  BetratA- 
tungen  Ober  die  Evangelien  und  Episteln  der  Somnr-  und 
Festtage  des  Kirchtnjahrs.-'-Der  Prophet  Jesaja  in  Bi- 
helstunden  ausgelegt  (2  pta.  1875, 1876).  He  left  in  man- 
uscript GrundzUge  der  paldsttnisch-jUdischen  Theologie 
aus  Targum,  Midrasch  und  Talmud  dargdegt,  which 
will  soon  be  published.  See  Delitzsch,  8aait  aufHojf- 
nung  (Erlangen,  1879),  p.  228  sq.     (a  P.) 

"Weber,  Oeorg  Gk>ttlieb,  a  ProtesUnt  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  who  was  bom  in  1744,  and  died  Feb. 
18, 1801,  as  court  deacon  and  member  of  consistory  at 
Weimar,  is  the  author  of.  Die  Augtbmrgische  Co^ession 
naeh  der  Urachri/t  im  Beiduarchio  (Weimar,  1781)  ^- 
Kritische  Geschichie  der  Augsburgisehm  Confession^  aus 
arehivaUschenlfachrichtenl¥nnkf.l79S),  See  Winer, 
Handb.dertheol.Lit.i,S2^S2S.    (KP.) 

Weber,  Johann  Oeorg,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Herwigsdorf,  near  Zittan,  July 
10,  1687.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  was  appointed 
there  in  1718  preacher  in  the  university  church.  In 
1719  he  was  called  to  Weimar,  where  he  was  made  chief 
court  preacher  in  1720.  In  1729  he  was  made  general 
superintendent  and  chief  preacher  of  St  Paul  and  St. 
Peter's,  at  the  same  time  having  the  superintendence 
of  the  gymnasium  there.  He  died  Nov.  24, 1758.  Be- 
sides a  number  of  ascetical  works,  he  published,  Disser- 
tatio  de  Sacris  Hociumis  (Lips.  1718)  i-^Ordo  Eedesias- 
ticus  in  Augustana  Confeesione  Triumphans  (Yimario^ 
1730)  i—Doctrina  Tutior  de  Detcensu  Christi  adlnfer09, 
etc  (ibid.  1781):— 'O  'AMHN  nai  t6  'AMHN,  hoc  ml, 
Commentatio  Extgetico-theologiea  in  Amen  Evangdir 
cum,  vd  Veritatem  Doctrinm  EvangelieeB  Jurrfurimdo 
Christi  Conjirmatam,  etc  ( Jenn,  1784).  See  Ddring, 
J)ie  geUhrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  iv,  662.    (B.  P.) 

Weber,  Joseph,  a  Boman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  23, 1753,  at  Rhain,  in  ^varia. 
In  1776  he  received  holy  orders;  in  1779  he  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  on  canon  law  and  catechetics  at  the 
seminary  in  Pfaffenhausen ;  in  1781  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  philosophical  sciences  at  DiOingen;  and  in 
1800  he  was  made  doctor  of  divinity.  In  1826  he  was 
appointed  cathedral  dean  and  general  vicar  at  Augs- 
burg, where  he  died,  Feb.  14, 1881.  He  wrote,  Ldtfaden 
zu  Vorlesungen  uber  die  VemuM^ftkhre  (Dillingen,  1788): 
'^Institutiones  Logica  (ibid.  1790 )  :>-L«^'ca  in  Usmn 
eorum  qui  eidem  Student  (Landshut,  1793):— i/eto- 
physica  in  Uaum  eorum^  etc  (ibid.  1795)  i^Charakter, 
des  PhUosophen  und  NichtphUosophen  (Augsburg,  1786) : 
— PhUosophie,  Religion  und  Christenthum.  im  Bunde  zur 
Veredlung  und  Beseligung  des  Menschen  (Munich,  1806- 
11)  z^Lichier  Jur  Erhauung  suchende  Christen  (ibid. 
1816.20, 3  vols.),  etc  See  Felder,  Gelehrten^Lexikon,  li, 
482  sq. ;  Schmid,  DomdecanJoeeph  r.  Wdter  (Augsburg, 
1831)  J  Theolog,  Umversal-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Weber,  BCiohael,  a  German  doctor  and  professor 
of  theology,  was  bom  Dec  8, 1754,  at  Groben,  near  Weis- 
senfeld.  In  1784  he  was  called  as  professor  of  theology 
to  Wittenberg,  and  in  1815  to  Halle,  where  be  died,  Aug. 
1, 1833.  He  wrote,  A  uthentia  Capitis  Ultimi  Evmgdii 
Johamdif  etc  (Halle,  1823)  i—Eeloga  Exeg^'critiem  ad 
Nomuaoe  Libror,  N,  T.  Historioor.  Locoe  (ibid.  1825- 
82)  i—Interpreta(io  Nova  Novi  Prteeepti  a  Christo  DaH 


Jah.xm,U,ib  (ihid.lS3l6)i^Pan^r.CapUUmEpi. 
stoUBPauUadGakUas  (Und^lSSay^DsDesctasuCkriiti 
ad  Inferos  «  Loco  1  Petr,  Hi,  19  ToOendo,  etc  (Witteob. 
1805)  i^-LOni  Sgmbol,  Ecdesim  Evang,  Lutherantt,  Ac 
cur,  EdUi  Varisque  Generis  Animadierss,  ae  Di^^uUXtL 
Ilbutr,  (ibid.  1809) :— Con/esno  Augustana  eaque  /a- 
variata  ex  Editions  Mdanchthonis  prineipe  AoesraU 
Beddita,  etc  (Halis,  1830)  '.--Coii/esmo  Augustana  Amto 
CIDIDXL,  a  Melanchthone  Edita,  qum  rede  quidesi 
Nominata  est  Fiorjo/a,  temere  autem  Vitaia  Accurate 
Bedditur,  etc  (ibid,  eod.)  i—Doelrina  BibHea  deNatura 
Spiritus  Saneti  (ibid.  1825)  i-^Dodrina  BUMca  de  No- 
tura  Christi  FiUi  Dei  (ibid.  1826)  i^EcUtgm  EngeUoh 
critica  ad  NomnuUos  EvangdU  Mard  Loom  (ibid. 
1831 ).  See  Winer,  Handh,  der  IheoL  IM.  i,  88,  242, 
249,  262,  270, 821,  324, 825, 428, 424, 435, 562;  Zochdd, 
BibL  TheoL  ii,  1428.     (K  P.) 

Webster,  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  dergy- 
man,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh  in  1707.  He  becsme 
minister  of  Culross  in  1783,  and  of  Tolbooth  Chozch, 
Edinburgh,  in  1737;  drew  np  for  the  Scotch  govern- 
ment in  1755  the  first  attempt  at  a  census ;  pabUsbed 
several  sermons  and  poems;  and  died  Jan.  26|,  1784. 
See  Allibone,  DicL  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

l^ebster,  If  oah,  LL.D.,  the  lexicographer,  was  a 
leaned  layman  of  the  G>ngregational  Church,  and  bora 
in  Hartford,  CJonn.,  Oct.  16, 1758.  Under  the  guidance 
of  Rev.  Nathan  Perkins,  he  was  fitted  for  eoltege,  and 
entered  Yale  in  1774,  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  The  Bero- 
lution  seriously  interrapted  the  college  exerdses,  and 
in  his  junior  year  he  joined  the  army.  Notwithstand- 
ing, he  graduated  with  his  daas  in  1778.  AAer  grsdo- 
adon  he  was  occupied  more  or  less  in  teaching,  and  also 
in  the  study  of  law  with  Oliver  Ellsworth,  of  Hartfoid, 
ailerwards  Chief-jnstice  of  the  United  Sutes.  In  1781 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  still  taught  school:  and 
for  a  time  was  principal  of  an  academy  in  Goshen,  N.T. 
In  1782  he  conceived  the  plan  of  preparing  and  pabtisb- 
ing  a  aeries  of  school-books,  and  returned  from  Gosbea 
to  Hartford ;  and  in  the  following  year  published  Ibe 
American  SpdUng-book,  Soon  after  he  issued  an  £9- 
Hsh  Grammar  and  a  Beader,  The  spelling-book  at- 
tained an  unprecedented  popularity.  Five  million 
copies  had  been  issued  up  to  1818,  and  in  the  yeaf  1847 
24,000,000  had  been  published.  After  that  time  the  so- 
nuial  demand  was  about  1,250,000  copies.  Since  1861  the 
sale  has  been  about  500,000  copies  annually.  Among 
his  publications  may  be  mentioned,  Sketches  ofAmeri' 
can  PoUcg  il78i-S5} i-^Dissertations  on  the  EagUtk 
Language  (1789) : — Effects  of  Slavery  on  Morals  and 
Industry^  etc.  In  1788  he  began  the  publication,  in 
New  York,  of  the  American  Magasane;  in  1798  be  es> 
tablished  there  a  daily  paper  called  the  Minerva  s  ami 
afterwards  a  semi-weddy  paper  known  as  the  HenM. 
Between  1788  and  18^  his  time  was  passed  at  Hait^ 
ford.  New  Haven,  New  York,  and  Amherst.  He  ie> 
moved  from  Amherst  to  New  Haven  in  1822,  and  ntade 
that  place  his  residence  undl  his  death.  His  great 
work  is,  of  course,  his  Dictumarg  of  the  English  !/»• 
guagct  which  he  began  in  1807.  Preliminary  to  this,  h« 
had  published,  in  1806,  an  octavo  dictionary.  In  1823 
he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Yale  College ;  and 
then,  having  nearly  completed  his  large  dictionary,  be 
sailed  for  IVance,  in  June,  1824;  spent  two  moathi  at 
Paris  in  consulting  rare  works  in  the  Boyal  libcaxr; 
and  then  went  to  England,  spending  eight  moDtbs  at 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  with  free  access  to  the 
libraries.  There  he  finished  the  American  DieHesarji^ 
An  edidon  of  2500  copies  was  printed  in  the  United 
States  at  the  dose  of  1828,  which  was  followed  by  sn 
edition  of  8000  in  England.  In  1840  a  second  Ameri- 
can edition  was  iasued— 8000  copies  in  two  volaocs. 
In  1848  he  published  a  volume  enriUed  A  CoOecHen  cf 
Papers  on  PoUticalj  Literary  f  and  Moral  Suhjeets.  M 
a  religious  man,  Dr.  Webster  was  earnest  and  prayeifol, 
having  united  with  the  Church  in  1808.    The  Bibfe 


WEBSTER 


803 


WEDLOCK 


was  his  daily  study,  and  he  prepared  a  roTtsed  edition 
of  the  common  English  version  (New  Haven,  1883, 
8vo).  He  died  at  New  Haven,  May  28, 184&  See 
Cfmg,  Qmr.  1866,  p.  1. 

Webster,  Samael,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Bradford,  Mass^  in  1718.  He  grad- 
uated from  Harvard  College  in  1787;  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Chorch  at  Sidisbury,  Aug.  12,  1741,  and 
died  July  18, 1796.  In  1757  he  published  a  pamphlet 
entitled  A  Winter  Evenin^B  Canvtrtation  upon  the  DoC" 
trwe  of  Original  iSui,etc.,  which  brought  out  rejoinders 
from  Rev.  Peter  Clark  and  others.  Mr.  Webster  issued 
a  defence  of  his  pamphlet,  which  led  to  a  general  con- 
troversy. This  was  oondacted  with  great  spirit  and 
ability  on  both  sides.  See  Sprague,  A  tmals  of  the  A  mer. 
Pulpit,  i,  291. 

"Webster,  l^iUlam,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  di- 
vine, was  bom  in  1689.  He  was  educated  at  Caius  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1711.  He  be- 
came curate  of  St.  Duostan  in  the  West,  London,  in 
1715 ;  was  removed  in  1731 ;  became  curate  of  St.  Clem- 
ent Eastcheap  in  1782;  rector  of  Deptden,  Suffolk,  in 
1783;  resigned  his  curacy  and  rectory  for  the  vicarages 
ofWareandThunderidge.  He  died  Dec.  4, 1758.  He  was 
the  author  of,  The  Clergy's  Right  of  Maintenance  Vindi^ 
eated: — Tvo  Dieoourtfa,  on  the  nature  of  error  in  spec- 
ulative doctrines  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  (1729): 
— wl  Translation  of  Simon's  New  Testament  (1780)  :— 
The  Fitness  of  the  Witnesses  of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ 
Considered  (1731):— and  several  other  works,  chiefly 
pamphlets  of  temporary  interest.  He  also  edited  the 
Life  of  General  Monk  (1725) ;  and  conducted  The  Week- 
ly  Miscellany  for  a  short  time,  beginning  in  1783.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Weohselbalg,  in  German  my thobgy.  The  elves 
or  dwarfs  sometimes  purloin  well-formed  children  from 
the  cradle,  and  put  their  own  ugly,  deformed  children, 
or  even  themselves,  in  their  stead.  These  spurious  be- 
ings are  therefore  called  Wechselbftlge.  The  object  for 
changing  seems  to  be  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  elves  to 
improve  their  race.  A  protection  against  such  chang- 
ing, in  the  popular  estimation,  is  to  place  a  key  or  a  part 
of  the  father^s  clothing,  or  steel  or  sewing-needles,  in  the 
cradle.  An  interesting  piece  of  superstition  is  the  man- 
ner of  freeing  one's  self  from  such  a  Wechselbalg.  It  is 
necessary,  first,  by  some  strange  and  unusual  act,  to  bring 
him  to  an  acknowledgment  of  his  own  age,  and  then  of 
the  theft  and  change,  upon  which  be  immediately  with- 
draws and  the  stolen  child  returns,  as  the  elves  want  noth- 
ing gratis.  For  example,  if  the  Wechselbalg  should  see 
water  boiling  in  egg-shells  over  a  fire,  he  calls  out, 
'<Now  I  am  as  old  as  Westerwald,  and  have  never  yet 
seen  water  boil  in  egg-sheUs." 

Weda,  in  German  mjrthology,  is  one  of  the  two 
gods  of  war  among  the  Friesians.  He  was  represented 
and  worshipped  with  his  brother  god  Freda.  The  head 
was  covered  with  a  feathered  helmet,  the  breast  with  a 
shield;  and  he  was  also  represented  as  having  wings. 
Because  Weda  and  Freda  appeared  as  twins,  it  was 
thought  they  were  Castor  and  Pollux  returned. 

Wedag,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  a  Protesunt  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1758  at  Neuenrade,  in 
Westphalia.  He  studied  at  Halle  and  Duisburg;  and 
after  the  completion  of  his  academical  curriculum  he 
acted  as  a  private  tutor.  Having  no  prospects  for  ob- 
taining a  position  in  his  own  country,  he  thought  of  go- 
ing to>  Amsterdam,  and  there  to  obtain  from  the  East 
India  Company  a  position  as  preacher  in  the  East  or 
West  Indies.  Having  received  a  call  from  the  Reform- 
ed congregation  at  Dortmund  in  1786,  he  remained  at 
home.  But  his  position  was  such  that  he  was  often 
obliged  to  preach  in  other  congregations  in  order  to 
keep  himself.  On  one  occasion  he  had  to  preach  at 
Leipeic,  where  he  proved  himself  such  an  excellent  pul- 
pit orator  that  after  Zollikofer's  death  (1788)  he  was 
called  as  his  successor.    Here  he  labored  until  his  death, 


May  18, 1799.  He  published  some  works  of  an  asceti- 
cal  character,  for  which  see  Dfiring,  J)eutsehe  KtrnteU' 
redner,  p.  565;  Winer,  Handbuch  dor  theol  Lit,  ii,  98, 
198,244.     (B.P.) 

Wedderbum,  James,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bom 
in  Dundee,  and  studied  at  Oxford.  In  1681  he  became 
a  prebendary  of  Whitechurah,  in  the  diocese  of  Wells, 
England.  He  was  afterwards  professor  of  divinity  at 
St.  Andrews.  In  February,  1636,  he  Was  preferred  to 
the  see  of  Dunblane,  and  in  1638  deprived  and  excom- 
municated by  the  Assembly  at  Glasgow.  He  died  in 
1689.    See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  182. 

Wedding  (yapoQ,  Matt  xxii,  3, 8, 10, 12 ;  Luke  xU, 
36  i  xiv,  8,  marriage,  as  elsewhere  rendered).  See  the 
monographs  cited  in  Yolbeding,  Index  Program,  p.  152, 
153.     See  Marriage;  King  j  Wkdlock. 

Wedge  OP  Gold  "jio^,  lash&n,  Josh,  vii,  21,  24,  a 
tongue,  as  elsewhere  rendered ;  more  elliptically,  CHS, 
he'them,  Isa.  ziii,  \%fne  gold,  as  elsewhere  rendered). 
See  Gold. 

Wedlock,  a  word  that  oocura  but  once  in  the  A.y. 
(in  the  phrase  *<  break  wedk>ck,"qK3,  Ezek.  xvi,  38,  to 
commit  adultery,  as  elsewhere  rendered) ;  but  the  rela- 
tion is  very  often  referred  to  both  in  its  literal  and  figu- 
mtive  (spiritual)  sense  in  the  Scriptures.  The  term 
property  designates  the  state  of  lawful  matrimony  as 
distinguished  from  all  illicit  or  irregular  connection  of 
Ihe  sezea.  As  this  is  a  subject  having  extensive  social 
relations,  we  give  here  a  treatment  of  the  several  topics 
embrsoed  under  it,  presenting  some  additional  points  to 
those  given  under  previous  articles,  and  freely  using  for 
this  purpose  such  materials  as  we  find  in  the  Biblical 
dictionaries,  especially  of  Winer  and  Smith. 

I.  The  Married  State,— This  among  the  Hebrews 
was  contracted  by  the  fathera  of  the  two  parties  (Gen. 
xxxiv,  4;  xxxviii,  6;  1  Kings  ii,  17;  comp.  Homer, 
Iliad,  ix,  894;  xix,  291 ;  Arvicnx,  Voy.  iii,  254  a),  and 
only  in  their  absence  by  the  mothers  (Gen.  xxi,  21 ;  by 
daoghten  with  the  consent  of  their  full  brothers,  xxi\', 
50;  xxxiv,  10),  so  that  the  bride  (H^S)  and  the  bride- 
groom Cjt^n)  often  did  not  even  see  each  other  previous- 
ly (as  is  still  customary,  at  least  with  the  inhabitants  of 
cities  in  the  East;  see  Russell,  i4/ep/>o,  i,  414;  Burek- 
hardt,  Prov,  p.  178;  Descr,  de  Vtgypte,  xviii,  84;  but 
comp.  Judg.  xiv,  1  sq. ;  Cant,  viii,  1  sq. ;  Tob.  vii,  10). 
Indeed,  the  parents  sought  the  wife  for  their  son  (Gen. 
xxxiv,  4,  8 ;  xxxviii,  6 ;  Judg.  xiv,  1 ;  comp.  RUppell, 
Abyss,  ii,  49;  yet  see  Tob.  vii,  10),  and  a  formal  price 
(*)hb, dowry)  had  to  be  stipulated  (Gen.  xxix,  15  sq.; 
xxxiv,  12;  Exod.  xxii,  15  sq.;  1  Sam.  xviii,  25;  Hos. 
iii,  2),  a  role  which  prevailed  likewise  with  the  ancient 
Greeks  (Homer,  Odyss,  viii,  318  sq.;  Aristotle, Po/i<.  ii, 
8;  Pausan.  iii,  12, 2),  Germans  (Tacitus,  Germ,  c.  8 ;  see 
Strodtmann,  Deutsch,  AUerth,  p.  309  sq.),  Babylonians 
(Herod,  i,  196),  and  Assyrians  (iElian,  V,  H,  iv,  1; 
Strabo,  xvi,  745),  as  still  among  the  Arabians  (Arvieux, 
iii,  21, 254;  Buckingham,  ii,  129;  Joliffe,  Trav.  p.  804), 
Kurds  (Niebuhr,  Reis,  ii,  420),  Persians  (Olear.  Voy, 
p.  318),  and  other  Asiatics  and  Africans  (RUppel],i45vM. 
ii,  49 ;  comp.  B.  Michaelis  in  Pott*s  Sylhg,  ii,  81 ).  This 
sum  was  naturally  very  various  (Gen.  xxxiv,  12;  1 
Sam.  xviii,  23;  Hos.  iii,  2,  etc),  but  in  one  case  (Dent, 
xxii,  29)  was  to  be  fifty  shekels  as  a  minimum  (see,  on 
the  other  hand,  Hos.  iii,  2).  The  practice  of  the  mod- 
em Egyptians  illustrates  this;  for  with  them  the  dowry, 
though  its  amount  differs  according  to  the  wealth  of  the 
suitor,  is  still  graduated  according  to  the  state  of  the 
bride.  A  certain  portion  only  of  the  dowry  is  paid  down, 
the  rest  being  held  in  reserve  (Lane,  i,  211).  Among 
the  modern  Jews  also  the  amount  of  the  dowry  varies 
with  the  state  of  the  bride,  according  to  a  fixed  scale 
(Picart,  i,  240).  See  Dowry.  Different  from  this  was 
the  present  Cjn^)  which  the  wooer  bestowed  before- 
hand (Gen.  xxiv,  58 ;  xxxiv,  l!^ ;  Gr.  vpoi^.    In  some 


WEDLOCK 


894 


WEDLOCK 


caacfl,  where  the  suitor  waa  poor  or  a  partiqalar  task  woa 
exacted,  the  daughter  was  earned  (Gen.  xxix,20, 27; 
Josh.  XV,  16;  Judg.  i,  19;  1  Sam.  xviii,  24  sq.;  2  Sam. 
iii,  14;  comp.  Pausan.  iii,  12,  2;  Herod,  vi,  127;  Diod. 
Sic  iv,  42,  64 ;  Burckhardt,  i,  465 ),  and  sometimes  a 
dowiy  accompanied  the  bride  (1  Kings  ix,  16;  comp. 
Josh.  XV,  18  sq. ;  Tob.  viii,  28).  But  it  is  a  disgrace, 
according  to  Oriental  ideas,  for  a  maiden  to  make  the 
match  herself  (Isa.  iv,  1).  The  Talmudists  specify 
three  modes  by  which  marriage  might  be  effected,  viz., 
money,  marriage  contract,  and  consummation  {Kidtbuk, 
i,  1).  The  matrimonial  agreement  between  the  parents 
was  verbal  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  but  occasional- 
ly ratified  by  an  oath  (Bfal.  ii,  14) ;  it  is  only  after  the 
Exile  (l*ob.  vii,  15)  that  we  meet  with  a  written  mar- 
riage contract  (Talmud,  ns^ns,  lit  a  writing;  see  the 
Mishnic  tract  entitled  Kethuboth),  The  technical  term 
of  the  Talmudists  for  the  dowry  which  the  wife  brought 
to  her  husband,  answering  to  the  dot  of  the  Latins,  was 
K'^anS.  The  technical  term  used  by  the  Talmudists 
for  betrothing  waa  kiddushia  0*^0^'^)?),  derived  from 
d^p,  **  to  set  apart."  There  is  a  treatise  in  the  Mishna 
so  entitled,  in  which  various  questions  of  casuistry  of 
slight  interest  to  us  are  discussed.  As  to  the  age  of  the 
parties,  nothing  is  specified  in  the  Mosaic  law ;  but  later 
enactments  require  full  twelve  years  for  the  girl  and 
thirteen  for  the  boy  (puberty  in  both  sexes  being  much 
earlier  in  warm  climates,  so  that  females  of  ten  or  eleven 
yean  often  become  mothers,  and  lads  but  little  older 
fathers;  see  RUppell,  Nub,  p.  42;  Abyss,  i,  201;  ii,  60,. 
67 ;  Harmer,  Obs,  ii,  812 ),  though  the  usual  age  was 
about  eighteen  (Mishna,  Pirke  A  both,  v,  21 ;  Carpzov  in 
the  Brem,  BiMioth.  ii,  907  sq.).    See  Betrothal. 

The  Mosaic  law  permitted  several  wives  to  one  roan, 
as  is  universally  customary  in  the  East;  3rcit  before  the 
Exile  this  practice  seems  to  have  been  mostly  confined 
to  princes  and  important  personages.  See  Folyoamt. 
Second  marriages,  especially  on  the  woman's  part,  were 
held  in  disesteem  (see  Ran,  De  Odio  Secund,  Nuptiarum 
[Lips.  1808]),  at  least  in  later  times  (Luke  ii,  86  sq.;  1 
Cor.  vii,  8;  1  Tim.  i,  9),  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
priestly  (Josephus,  Life,  §  75,  76)  and  the  apostolical 
regulations  (1  Tim.  iii,  2 ;  Tit.  i,  6),  as  generally  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  (Diod.  Sic  xiii,  12 ;  Virgil,  ^'n. 
iv,  23  sq.;  Plutarch,  Qucut,  Rom,  c.  105;  Val.  Max.  ii, 
2,  8;  Josephus,  Ant,  xviii,  6, 6).  The  celibacy  of  the 
Essenes  (Philo,  ii,  482,  683;  Joeephns,  Ant,  xviii,  1,  5; 
War,  ii,  8,  2;  Pliny,  v,  15)  was  a  disreputable  asceti- 
cism (1  Tim.  iv,  8).    See  Matbimony. 

U.  The  Wedding  Itseff^ln  this  the  most  observable 
point  is  that  there  were  no  definite  religious  ceremonies 
connected  with  it.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  there  is  no 
term  in  the  Hebrew  language  to  express  the  ceremony 
of  marriage.  The  substantive  chatwmdh  (nsrin)  oc- 
curs but  once,  and  then  in  connection  with  the  day 
(Cant  iii,  U).  The  word  '*  wedding"  does  not  occur  at 
all  in  the  A.  Y.  of  the  Old  Test.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  some  formal  ratification  of  the  espousal  with  an 
oath  took  place,  as  implied  in  some  allusions  to  mar^ 
riage  (Ezek.  xvi,  8;  Mai.  ii,  14),  particularly  in  the  ex- 
pression "  the  covenant  of  her  God**  (  Prov.  ii,  17  ),  as 
applied  to  the  marriage  bond,  and  that  a  blessing  waa 
pnmounced  (Gen.  xxiv,  60;  Ruth  iv,  11, 12)  sometimes 
bv  the  parents  (Tob.  vii,  IS).  But  the  essence  of  the 
marriage  ceremony  consisted  in  the  removal  of  the 
bride  from  her  father's  house  to  that  of  the  bridegroom 
or  his  father.  There  seems,  indeed,  to  be  a  literal  truth 
in  the  Hebrew  expression  "  to  iak^  a  wife  (Numbi  xii, 
1 ;  1  Chron.  ii,  21),  for  the  ceremony  appears  to  have 
mainly  consisted  in  the  taking.  Among  the  modem 
Arabs  the  same  custom  prevails,  the  capture  and  re- 
moval of  the  bride  being  effected  with  a  considerable 
show  of  violence  (  Burckhardt,  Notes,  i,  108 ).     The 

bridegroom  prepared  himself  for  the  occasion  by  put- 
ting on  a  festive  dress,  and  espedally  by  placing  on  his 


head  the  handsome  tniban  described  by  the  term  pe^ 
(Isa,  Ixi,  10;  A.y.  '^onuunenta'^,  and  a  nuptial  crown 
or  garland  (Cant  iii,.  11);  be  was  redolent  of  myrrh  and 
frankincense  and  '*all  powders  of  the  merchant"  (ver. 
6).    The  bridegroom*8  crown  was  made  of  various  ma- 
terials (gold  or  silver,  roses,  myrtle  or  olive),  accordini* 
to  his  circumstances  (Seldf  n,  Ux,  Ebr,  ii,  15).    The  use 
of  the  crown  at  marriages  was  familiar  both  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.    The  bride  prepared  herself  for 
the  ceremony  by  taking  a  bath,  generally  on  the  day 
preceding  the  wedding.    This  was  probably  in  ancient, 
as  in  modem,  times  a  formal  proceeding,  accompanied 
with  considerable  pomp  (Picart,  i,  240;  Lane,  i,  217). 
The  notices  of  it  in  the  Bible  are  so  few  as  to  hare  es- 
caped general  observation  (Ruth  iii,  8 ;  Ezek.  xxiii,  40; 
£ph.  V,  26, 27) ;  but  the  passages  cited  establish  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  custom,  and  the  expressions  in  the  last 
(''having  purified  her  by  the  laver  of  water,"  **  not  hav- 
ing spot**)  have  evident  reference  to  it,    A  similar  cu»> 
tom  prevailed  among  the  Greeks  (Smith,  Diet,  of  Close. 
Ant.  s.  V.  '*Balne»**).    The  distinctive  feature  of  the 
bride*s  attire  was  the  tsaiph  (q'^rx)  or  <<  veil'*->a  light 
robe  of  ample  dimensions,  which  covered  not  only  the 
face,  but  the  whole  person   (Gen.  xxiv,  6o;  oomp. 
zxxviii,  14, 16)i    lliis  was  regarded  as  the  symbol  of 
her  submission  to  her  husband,  and  hence  in  1  Cor. 
xi,  10  the  veil  is  apparently  described  under  the  term 
i^owria,  **  authority.**    The  use  of  the  veil  was  not  pe- 
culiar to  the  Hebrews.    It  was  customary  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans;  and  among  the  latter  it  gave  riae 
to  the  expression  nubo,  lit ''to  veil,**  and  hence  to  oar 
word  "  nuptial.**    It  is  still  used  by  the  Jews  (Picart,  i, 
241).    The  modem  Egyptians  envelop  the  bride  in  an 
ample  shawl,  which  perhaps  more  than  anything  else 
resembles  the  Hebrew  tea^  (Lfne,  i,  220)^    She  also 
wore  a  peculiar  girdle,  named  kishMhurim  (B^VSp ; 
A.y.  the  "attire**),  which  no  bride  could  forget  (Jer. 
ii,  82).    The  girdle  was  an  important  article  of  the 
bride*s  dress  among  the  Romans,  and  gave  rise  to  the 
expression  solvere  tonam.    Her  head  was  crowned  with 
a  chaplet,  which  was  agaip  so  distinctive  of  the  brid€ 
that  the  Hebrew  term  kalldh  (H^S, "  bride**)  originated 
from  it    The  bride*s  crown  was  cither  of  gold  or  gilded. 
The  use  of  it  was  interdicted  after  the  destruction  of  the 
second  Temple,  as  a  token  of  humiliation  (Seld«a,  Ux, 
Ebr,  ii,  15) .    If  the  bride  were  a  virgin,  she  wore  her  hair 
flowing  {Keikub,  ii,  1).    Her  robes  were  white  (Rev. 
xix,  8),  and  sometimes  embroidered  with  gold-thread 
(Psa.  xlv,  13,  14),  and  covered  with  perfumes  (ver.  8) : 
she  was  further  decked  out  with  jewels  (Isa.  xlix,  18; 
Ixi,  10;  Rev.  xxi,  2).    When  the  fixed  hour  arrived, 
which  was  generally  late  in  the  evening,  the  bride- 
groom set  forth  from  his  house,  attended  by  his  grooai». 
men,  termed  in  Hebrew  mereim  (D*^9^p ;  A.  V. "  com- 
panions,** Judg.  xiv,  11),  and  in  Greek  vcoi  roi;  pvfu^i^^ 
voc  (A. y.  "children  of  the  bride-chamber,** Matt,  ix, 
15).    Winer  {Realw,  a.  v.  "Hochzeit")  identifiea  the 
"children  of  the  bride-chamber**  with  the  shoekbemim 
(D*^9Sl^ilb)  of  the  Talmudists.    But  the  former  were 
the  attendants  on  the  bridegroom  alone,  while  the 
skoshbenim  were  two  persons  selected  on  the  day  of  the 
marriage  to  represent  the  interests  of  bride  and  bride- 
groom, apparently  with  a  special  view  to  any  pooaihle 
litigation  that  might  subsequently  arise  on  the  sabject 
noticed  in  Deut  xxii,  1&-21  (Selden,  Ux,  Ebr,  ii,  16  >. 
These  attendants  were  preceded  by  a  band  of  moaiciana 
or  singers  (Gen.  xxxi,27;  Jer.  vii,  84;  xvi,  9:  1  Mace. 
ix,S9),  and  accompanied  by  persom  bearing  flambeaoa 
(2  Esdr.  X,  2;  Matt  xxv,  7;  oomp.  Jer.  xxv,  10;  Rev. 
xviii,  23, "  the  light  of  a  candle**).    W^ith  these  flam- 
beaus  we  may  compare  the  ^^^ec  wpfuuii  of  the 
Greeks  (Aristoph.  Pax,  1817).    The  lamps  described 
in  Matt  xxv,  7  would  be  small  hand-lamps.    With*- 
out  them  none  could  Join  the  procession  (Trench,  Pctr- 


WEDLOCK 


805 


WEED 


oftfef,  p.  257,  note).  See  Laxtkbv.  Htving  leached 
the  house  of  the  bride,  who  with  her  maidens  anxiously 
expected  his  arrival  (Matt,  xxv,  6),  he  conducted  the 
whole  party  back  to  his  own  or  bis  father's  bouse*  The 
bride  was  said  to  ''go  to"  (bH  KIS)  the  house  of  her 
husband  (Josh,  xv,  18;  Judg.  i,  14)— an  expression 
which  is  worthy  of  notice,  inasmuch  as  it  has  not  been 
rightly  understood  in  Dan.  xi,  6,  where  **  they  that 
brought  her"  is  an  expression  for  huAand,  The  bring- 
ing home  of  the  bride  was  regarded  in  t^e  later  days  of 
the  Roman  empire  as  one  of  the  most  important  parts 
of  the  marriage  ceremony  (Bingham,  Christ,  A  nU  bk.  xxii, 
ch.  iv,  §  7).  This  procession  was  made  with  every  dem- 
onstration of  gladness  (Psa.  xlr,  15).  From  the  Joyous 
sounds  used  on  these  occasions  the  term  haldl  (bPH)  is 
applied  in  the  sense  of  marrying  in  Faa.  Ixxviii,  63  (A.  y 
**  their  maidens  were  not  given  to  marriage,"  lit.  **  were 
not  praised,"  as  in  the  margin).  This  sense  appears 
preferable  to  that  of  the  SepL,  oin  Mv^tftravt  which  is 
adopted  by  Gesenius  {Thesaur,  p.  596)^  The  noise  in 
the  streets  attendant  on  an  Oriental  wedding  is  exces- 
sive, and  enables  us  to  understand  the  allnsiona  in  Jere- 
miah to  the  **  voice  of  the  bridegroom  and  the  voice  of 
the  bride."  On  their  way  back  they  were  joined  by  a 
party  of  maidens,  friends  of  the  bride  and  bridegroom, 
who  were  in  waiting  to  catch  the  procession  as  it  passed 
(liatt.  xxv,  6;  comp.  Trench,  ParoMra,  p. 244,  note). 
The  inhabitante  of  the  place  pressed  out  into  the  streets 
to  watch  the  procession  (Cant  iii,  11).  At  the  house  a 
feast  was  prepared,  to  which  all  the  friends  and  neigh- 
bors were  invited  (Gen.  xxlx,  22;  Matt,  xxii,  1-10; 
I«nke  xiv,  8 ;  John  ii,  2),  and  the  festivities  were  pro- 
tracted for  seven  or  even  fourteen  days  (Judg.  xiv,  12; 
Tob.  viii,  19).  The  feast  was  regarded  as  so  essential  a 
part  of  the  marriage  ceremony  that  iroif  ty  yaftov  ac- 
quired the  specific  meaning  ^  to  celebrate  the  marriage 
feast"  (Sept.  at  Gen.  xxix,  22:  Esth.  ii,  18;  Tob.  viii, 
19;  1  Mace,  ix,  87;  x,  58;  Matt,  xxii,  4;  xxv,  10; 
Luke  xiv,  8),  and  sometimes  to  celebrate  any  feast  (Esth. 
ix,  22).  The  guests  were  provided  by  the  host  with 
fitting  robes  (Matt,  xxii,  11 ;  comp.  Trench,  Parables^ 
p.  230),  and  the  feast  was  enlivened  with  riddles  (Judg. 
xiv,  12)  and  other  amusements.  The  bridegroom  now 
entered  into  direct  communication  with  the  bride,  and 
the  joy  of  the  friend  was  ''fulfilled"  at  hearing  the  voice 
of  the  bridegroom  (John  iii,  29)  conversing  with  her, 
which  he  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  testimony  of  the 
success  of  his  share  in  the  work.  In  the  case  of  a  virgin, 
parched  com  was  distributed  among  the  guests  {Kethub, 
ii,  1),  the  significance  of  which  is  not  apparent;  the 
custom  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  distribution  of 
the  ffuutaoeum  (Juvenal,  vi,  202)  among  the  guests  at  a 
Roman  wedding.  The  modem  Jews  have  a  custom  of 
shattering  glanes  or  vessels  by  dashing  them  to  the 
ground  (Picart,  i,  240).  The  last  act  in  the  ceremonial 
was  the  conducting  of  the  bride  to  the  bridal  chamber, 

ehider  (y^Tjf  Judg.  xv,  1 ;  Joel  ii,  16),  where  a  canopy, 

named  chvppah  (MSn),  was  prepared  (Psa.  xix,  5;  Joel 

ii,  16).  The  term  occurs  in  the  Mishna  (^Kethuh,  iv,  5), 
and  is  explained  by  some  of  the  Jewish  commentators 
to  have  been  a  bower  of  roses  and  myrtles.  The  term 
was  also  applied  to  the  canopy  nnder  which  the  nuptial 
benediction  was  pronounced,  or  to  the  robe  spread  over 
the  heads  of  the  bride  and  bridegroom  (Selden,  Ux,  Ehr, 
ii,  15).  The  bride  was  still  completely  veiled,  so  that 
the  deception  practiced  on  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix,  23)  was 
very  possible.  If  proof  could  be  subsequently  adduced 
that  the  bride  had  not  preserved  her  maiden  purity,  the 
case  was  investigated;  and  if  she  was  convicted,  she 
was  stoned  to  death  before  her  father's  bouse  (Deut 
xxii,  13-21).  A  newly  married  man  was  exempt  from 
military  service,  or  from  any  public  business  which 
might  draw  him  away  from  his  home,  for  the  space  of  a 
year  (xxiv,  5) ;  a  similar  privilege  was  granted  to  him 
who  waa  betrothed  (xs,  7).    See  Mabbiaob, 


in.  Violaium  of  Marriage  Foim..— Uniaithfulnesa  on 
the  part  of  the  wife  was  punished  with  death  (Lev.  xx, 
10;  Deut  xxii,  22;  Ezek.  xvi,  38,  40;  Sus.  45;  comp. 
Josephus,  Apiaru  ii,  24 ;  ilti^  iv,  8, 28)  by  stoning  (Deut 
xxii,  4 ;  Ezek.  xvi,  40),  and  not  by  stranguUlion  (as  the 
Talmudists  maintain,  Mishna,  Sanhedr,  xi,  1,  6).  The 
legislation  of  other  nations  was  milder  (Tacitus,  Germ, 
19 ;  iElian,  V,  If,  id,  6;  xii,  12 ;  xiii,  24 ;  yet  see  Aroob. 
iv,  28).  The  Roman  law  (Lex  Julia  de  AduUerit  Coei  - 
cawHt)  only  prescribed  confiscation  of  part  of  the  cul- 
prits goods,  and  public  infamy,  as  the  extreme  penalty. 
Constantine  first  made  adultery  a  capital  crime  (see 
Dick,  in  the  Stud,  u,  Krit,  1832,  vol.  iv ;  Rein,  ROm, 
Criminalreckt,  p.  889).  The  ordeal  of  the  bitter  waters 
(Numb.  V,  14  sq.)  is  detailed  in  the  Mishna  {Sota,  ii,  2), 
and  has  its  parallel  in  other  nations  (iElian,  Anim,  i,  57; 
AcbiL  Tat  viii,  8 ;  see  Groddeck,  in  Ugolino,  Thesaur, 
XJLX ;  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb,  p.  52).    See  Adultkrt. 

IV.  DistolutioH  of  the  Marriage  Tie, — Separation  of 
a  man  from  his  wife  was  legitimate  (Deut  xxiv,  1), 
except  in  two  cases  (xxii,  19, 29),  when  he  found  reason 
{^W  ni*l9,  a  phrase  that  led  to  much  Talmudical  cas- 
uistry); but  must  be  done  by  a  regular  certificate  of 
dismissal  (n^D'^na  "^feO,  Isa.  1, 1 ;  Jer.iii,8;  Talmndic 
hO'^A  or  OA ;  PipXiov  dvoffrairioVf  Matt  xix,  7 ;  Mark 
X,4;  or  awotrrdffiov  simply.  Matt  v,  81 ;  comp.r^tu£f- 
ttm.  Suet  CcUig,  §  36).  The  subject  is  treated  at  great 
length  in  the  Talmud  (tract  GiUin),nnd  by  Seldeit 
(  Ux,  Hebr,)  and  BuxtorT  (^Spotual.  ei  DicorU),    Se^ 

PiVORCB. 

l^ednaBday  is  a  day  often  marked  by  special  re- 
ligious exercises,  being  numbered  among  the  Rogation 
and  Ember  days  in  the  Church  of  England.  At  a  very 
early  period  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
the  custom  of  meeting  for  divine  worship  on  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays  was  adopted.  Both  days  were  con- 
sidered as  fasts,  on  the  ground  that  our  LoM  was  be- 
trayed on  a  Wednesday  and  crucified  on  a  Friday.  The 
fasting  continued  liU  three  in  the  afternoon;  hence 
they  were  called  aemt-jejuna,  or  half- fasts,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  fast  of  Lent,  which  was  continued  till  the 
evening.  Subsequently  the  Montanists  introduced  the 
custom  of  limiting  the  kind  of  food  to  be  taken,  which 
consisted  only  of  bread,  salt,  and  water.  These  fasts 
were  called  stationet,  from  the  practice  of  soldiers  keep- 
ing guard,  which  was  called  ttafio  by  the  Romans* 
Lent  b^ins  on  that  day  (see  Asii  Wednesday).  In 
the  Western  Church  Saturday  at  length  took  the  place 
of  Wednesday  as  a  fast    See  Fast;  Lent. 

WEDNESDAY,  Ash.    See  Ash  Wedmesdat. 

Wedorhoelner,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the  hawk, 
sitting  between  the  eyes  of  the  eagle,  that  dwells  on  the 
top  of  the  ash  YgdrasiL 

Weed  (C)^0,  tuph,  Jon.  ii,  6;  elsewhere  rendered 
**  flag,"  Exod.  ii,  8 ;  Isa.  xix,  6,  but  usually  as  an  epithet 
of  the  Red  Sea,  lit  the  veed^sea;  Sept  pvKO^;  Lat 
iUgOf  see  Pliny,  xxxi,  46, 4 ;  ix,  25),  the  aea-iceed  {fyicut 
natans  of  Linn.;  Fucut  marimUf  Pliny,  xxvi,  66  and 
79),  a  sort  of  sea-grass  with  Unciform,  serrated  leaves, 
and  threadlike  knotted  stalks,  which  grows  in  great 
abundance  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  (Jon.  ii, 
6;  see  Hirtius,  BelL  A/ric,  24),  but  especially  of  the 
Hellespont  (Ovid,  lleroid.  xviii,  108;  Belon,  Obterv,  ii, 
8),  as  likewise  of  the  Red  Sea  (comp.  Strabo,  xvi, 
773 ;  Diod.  Sic.  iii,  19,  /tWov),  the  last  taking  its  name 
(C)^D  Q^)  from  that  circumstance.  See  Red  Sea.  The 
plant  is  described  by  Acosta  (in  Clusii  Exoticor,  Libb. 
[Antw.  1605],  p.  293),  Delile  {Flora  jEgypU  in  Descr,  de 
VEffjfpie,  xix,  113),  Bochart  iPhaleff,  iv,  29),  Celsius 
{Hierobot,  ii,  67  sq.).  There  are  several  varieties  (see 
Pliny,  xxvii,  25 ;  xxxti,22;  Galen,i/^(/.  <9«mp^.  viii,21, 
9),  of  which  it  is  uncertain  which  is  the  Egj'^ptian  spe- 
des  (Pliny,  xiii,  44;  Theophr.  Plant,  iv,  9;  see  Gese- 
nins,  Thesaur,  p.  944).    See  Flag.— Winer.    Noxious 


WEED 


896 


WEEK 


weedB  ill  general  fleem  to  be  denoted  by  the  pbraM 
« tboms  and  thistles  "  (Gen.  iii,  18).    See  Thobh. 

Weed,  Bartholomew,  a  Methodist  Epi8co|»l 
minister,  was  bom  at  Ridgefield  (now  Danbary),  Conn., 
March  6, 1793.  He  was  trained  in  the  Calvinistic  faith 
and  became  a  Baptist  in  1809,  but  joined  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Chnrch  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  age, 
under  the  ministry  of  Rev.  Seth  Crowell ;  was  licensed 
to  exhort  in  1812;  obtained  local  preacher^s  license  in 
1815;  and  joined  the  Philadelphia  Conference  in  1817. 
During  his  ministry  of  sixty-four  years  he  filled  ap- 
pointments in  Philadelphia,  Bridge  ton,  Trenton,  btc,  and 
was  four  years  a  presiding  elder  in  the  Rock  River  Con- 
ference, from  which  he  was  elected  delegate  to  the  Gen- 
eral  Conference  of  1844.  His  last  years  were  spent  in 
the  Newark  Conference,  which,  in  1864,  gave  him  a  su- 
perannuated relation.  During  the  last  eleven  years  of 
his  life  he  acted  as  chaplain  of  Essex  County  JaiL  He 
died  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Jan.  5, 1879.  Mr.  Weed  was  ar- 
dent in  his  attachment  to  the  doctrines,  discipline,  and 
usages  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chureh,  and  bore 
with  cheerfulness  a  part  in  the  sacrifices  and  sufferings 
of  her  pioneer  work.  His  ministry  was  cbaracterijsed 
by  clearness,  warmth,  and  strength.  He  was  a  man  of 
simple  tastes  and  manners,  of  strong  convictions  and  at- 
tachments, and  of  a  heroic  and  magnanimous  spirit. 
Preaching  was  his  loved  employment,  and  it  seemed  as 
hard  for  him  to  quit  it,  though  in  his  eighty<4ixth  year, 
as  it  was  for  him,  a  few  weeks  later,  to  die.  Sec  iftn- 
nte$  of  A  mual  Conferences,  1879,  p.  78.    (R.  V.) 

Weed,  Henry  Rowland,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Ballston,  N.  y.,  July  SO,  1789. 
He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1812,  and  with 
the  first  class  of  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1815;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Jamaica,  L.I.,  in  1816; 
in  1822  went  to  Albany,  N.  Y.,  as  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church;  in  1830  became  agent  for  the 
Board  of  Education;  in  1832  pastor  of  the  First  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Wheeling,  Va.,  and  died  at  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Dec.  14,  1870.  In  the  councils  of  the 
Church  be  was  greatly  respected. 

"Week  (?»a^,  or  yao,  Mhabua,  from  rSl^,  "sev- 
en," lit  a  heptad  of  anything,  but  specifically  used  for  a 

period  of  seven  days;  Sept,  ifiisfiag;  Yulg.  septimana). 
See  Seven. 

1.  The  origin  of  this  division  of  time  is  a  matter  which 
has  given  birth  to  much  speculation.  Ite  antiquity  is 
so  great,  its  observance  so  wide-spread,  and  it  occupies 
so  important  a  place  in  sacred  things,  that  it  has  been 
very  generally  thrown  back  as  far  as  the  creation  of 
man,  who,  on  this  supposition,  was  told  from  the  very 
first  to  divide  his  time  on  the  model  of  the.Crcator*s 
order  of  working  and  resting.  The  week  and  the  Sab- 
bath are,  if  this  be  so,  as  old  as  man  himself,  and  we 
need  not  seek  for  reasons  either  in  the  human  mind  or 
the  facts  with  which  that  mind  comes  in  oontect,  for 
the  adoption  of  such  a  division  of  time,  since  it  is  to  be 
referred  neither  to  man*s  thoughts  nor  to  man*s  will. 
A  purely  theological  ground  is  thus  esUblished  for  the 
week  and  for  the  sacredness  of  the  number  seven. 
They  who  embrace  this  view  support  it  by  a  reference 
to  the  six  days'  creation  and  the  Divine  rest  on  the 
seventh,  which  they  consider  to  have  been  made  known 
to  man  ffrom  the  very  first,  and  by  an  appeal  to  the  ex- 
ceeding prevalence  of  the  hebdomadal  division  of  time 
from  the  earliest  age— an  aigument  the  force  of  which 
is  considered  to  be  enhanced  by  the  alleged  absence  of 
any  natural  ground  for  iu    See  Day. 

To  all  this,  however,  it  may  be  objected  that  we  are 
quite  in  the  dark  as  to  when  the  record  of  the  six  days* 
creation  was  made  known ;  that  as  human  language  is 
used  and  human  apprehensions  are  addressed  in  that 
record,  so,  the  week  being  already  known,  the  perfection 
of  the  Divine  work  and  Sabbath  may  well  have  been 
set  forth  under  this  figure,  the  existing  division  of  time 
moulding  the  document,  instead  of  the  document  giv- 


ing birth  to  the  division;  that,  old  and  widespread  ag 
is  the  recognition  of  that  diviaion,  it  is  not  nnivenal ; 
that  the  nations  which  knew  not  of  it  were  too  impor- 
tant to  allow  the  axgoment  from  its  prevalency  to  stand ; 
and  that,  so  far  from  its  being  without  ground  in  nat- 
ure, it  is  the  most  obvious  and  convenient  way  of  di* 
viding  the  month.  Each  of  these  pointe  must  now  be 
briefly  considered : 

(1.)  That  the  week  reste  on  a  theological  ground 
may  be  cheerftilly  acknowledged  by  both  sides;  bat 
nothing  is  determined  by  such  acknowledgment  as  to 
the  original  cause  of  adopting  this  division  of  time. 
The  records  of  creation  and  the  fourth  commandment 
give,  no  doubt,  the  ultimate  and  therefore  the  deepest 
ground  of  the  weekly  division,  but  it  docs  not  therdbre 
follow  that  it  was  not  adopted  for  lower  reasons  before 
either  was  known.  Whether  the  week  gave  its  sacred* 
ness  to  the  number  seven,  or  whether  the  ascendener 
of  that  number  helped  to  determine  the  dimensions  oif 
the  week,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  latter  fact,  the 
ancient  ascendency  cf  the  number  seven,  might  rest  on 
divers  grounds.  The  planets,  according  to  the  astron- 
omy of  those  times,  were  seven  in  nnmber;  so  are  the 
notes  of  the  diatonic  scale ;  so  also  many  other  things 
naturaUv  attracting  observation. 

(2.)  The  prevalence  of  the  weekly  division  was  in- 
deed very  great,  but  a  nearer  approach  to  universality 
is  required  to  render  it  an  aigument  for  the  view  in  aid 
of  which  it  is  appealed  to.  It  was  adopted  by  all  the 
Shemitic  noa,  and,  in  the  later  period  of  their  htstoty 
at  least,  by  the  Egyptisna.  On  this  side  of  the  Atlantic 
we  find  it,  or  a  division  all  but  identical  with  it,  among 
the  Peruviana.  It  also  obtains  now  with  the  Hindiks^ 
but  its  antiquity  among  them  is  matter  of  question.  It 
is  possible  that  it  was  inttoduoed  into  India  by  the 
Arabs  and  Mohammedans.  So  in  China  we  find  it,  bat 
whether  universally  or  only  among  the  Badfihists  ad- 
mite  of  doubt.  (See,  for  both,  Priaulx's  Qiuutionet  Mo^ 
taioaj  a  work  with  many  of  the  results  of  which  we  n»y 
be  well  expected  to  quarrel,  bat  which  deserves,  in  re- 
spect not  only  of  curious  learning,  but  of  the  vigorous 
and  valuable  thought  with  which  it  is  impregnated,  to 
be  far  more  known  than  it  is.)  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  no  reason  for  thinking  the  week  known  till  a 
late  period  either  to  Greeks  or  KomanSb 

(8.)  So  far  from  the  week  being  a  division  of  time 
without  ground  in  nature,  there  was  much  to  recom- 
mend ite  adoption.  Where  the  days  were  named  from 
planetary  deities,  as  among  first  the  Assyrians  and 
Chaldees,  and  then  the  Egyptians,  there  of  coarse  each 
period  of  seven  days  would  constitute  a  whole,  and  that 
whole  might  oome  to  be  recognised  by  nations  that  dis- 
regarded or  rejected  the  practice  which  had  shaped  and 
determined  it.  But,  further,  the  week  is  a  most  natural 
and  nearly  an  exact  quadripartition  of  the  montb,  so 
that  the  quarters  of  the  moon  may  easily  have  suggeat- 
ed  it 

(4*)  Even  if  it  were  proved  that  the  planetary  we^ 
of  the  Egjrptians,  as  sketched  by  Dion  Cassias  (ffte. 
Rom,  xxxvii,  18),  existed  at  or  before  the  time  of  the 
Exode,  the  children  of  Israel  did  not  copy  that.  Their 
week  was  simply  determined  by  the  Sabbath ;  and  there 
is  no  evidence  of  any  other  day,  with  them,  having  ei- 
ther had  a  name  assigned  to  it,  or  any  purticular  aa- 
sociations  bound,  up  with  it.  The  days  seem  to  have 
been  distinguished  merely  by  the  ordinal  namenl% 
counted  from  the  Sabbath. 

2.  History  among  the  Hebrews, — Whatever  contro- 
versies exist  respecting  the  origin  of  the  week,  there 
can  be  none  about  the  great  antiquity,  on  particular  oc- 
casions at  least,  among  the  Shemitic  races,  of  meaauring 
time  by  a  period  of  seven  days.  This  has  been  thought 
to  be  implied  in  the  phrase  respecting  the  sacrifices  of 
Cain  and  Abel  (Gen.  iv,  8),  *<  in  process  of  time,"  literally 
"  at  the  end  of  days.**  It  is  to  be  traced  in  the  nam* 
tive  of  the  subsidence  of  the  Flood  (viii,  10),  *'and  he 
stayed  yet  other  seven  days;*'  and  we  find  it  recognised 


WEEK 


897 


WEEPING 


by  the  Syrian  Laban  (xxix,  27),  <*  fulfil  her  ireek.**  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  this  division  of  time  is  a  marked 
feature  of  the  Mosaic  Iaw,aAd  one  into  which  the  whole 
year  was  parted,  the  Sabbath  sui&ciently  showing  that 
The  week  of  seven  days  was  also  made  the  key  to  a 
scale  of  seven,  running  through  the  sabbatical  years  up 
to  that  of  jubilee. 

We  have  seen  in  Gen.  xxix,  27  that  it  was  known  to 
the  ancient  Syrians,  and  the  injunction  to  Jacob,  '^  fulfil 
her  week,"  indicates  that  it  was  in  use  as  a  fixed  term 
for  great  festive  celebrations.  The  most  probable  ex- 
pofiition  of  the  passage  is  that  Laban  tells  Jacob  to  ful- 
fil Leah^s  week,  the  proper  period  of  the  nuptial  festivi- 
ties in  connection  with  his  marriage  to  her,  and  then 
he  may  have  Rachel  also  (comp.  Judg.  xiv).  So,  too, 
for  funeral  observance,  as  in  the  case  of  the  obsequies 
of  Jacob,  Joseph  **  made  a  mourning  for  his  father  seven 
days"  (Gen.  1, 10).  But  neither  of  these  instances,  any 
more  than  Noah's  procedure  in  the  ark,  goes  further  than 
showing  the  custom  of  observing  a  term  of  seven  days 
for  any  observance  of  importance.  Nor  does  it  prove 
that  the  whole  year,  or  the  whole  month,  was  thus  di- 
vided at  all  times,  and  without  regard  to  remarkable 
events. 

In  Exodus,  of  coarse,  the  week  comes  into  very  dis- 
tinct manifestation.  Two  of  the  great  feast»— the  Pass- 
over and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles— are  prolonged  for 
seven  days  after  that  of  their  initiation  (Exod.  xii,  15- 
20,  etc.),  a  custom  which  remains  in  the  Christian 
Church,  in  the  rituals  of  which  the  remembrances  and 
topics  of  the  great  festivals  are  prolonged  till  what  is 
technically  called  the  octave.  Although  the  Feast  of 
Pentecost  lasted  but  one  day,  yet  the  time  for  its  ob- 
servance was  to  be  counted  by  weeks  from  the  Pass- 
over, whence  one  of  its  titles,  **  the  Feast  of  Weeks.*^ 

The  division  by  seven  was,  as  we  have  seen,  expand- 
ed so  as  to  make  the  seventh  month  and  the  seventh  year 
sabbatical.  To  whatever  extent  the  laws  enforcing 
this  may  have  been  neglected  before  the  Captivity, 
their  effect,  when  studied,  must  have  been  to  render  the 
words  9*12n?,  ifidoiiaSf  week,  capable  of  meaning  a  seven 
ff  years  almost  as  naturally  as  a  seven  of  days.  Indeed, 
the  generality  of  the  words  would  have  this  effect  at  any 
rate.  Henee  their  use  to  denote  the  latter  in  prophecy, 
snore  especially  in  that  of  Daniel,  is  not  mere  arbitrary 
symbolism,  bat  the  employment  of  a  not  unfamiliar  and 
easily  understood  language.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
discuss  schemes  of  prophetic  interpretation,  nor  do  we 
propose  giving  our  opinion  of  any  such,  but  it  is  con- 
nected with  our  subject  to  remark  that,  whatever  be 
the  merits  of  that  which  in  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse 
nnderstands  a  year  by  a  day,  it  cannot  be  set  aside  as 
forced  and  unnatunl.  Whether  days  were  or  were  not 
intended  to  be  thus  understood  in  the  places  in  question, 
their  being  so  would  have  been  a  oongroonsi  and  we 
may  say  logical,  attendant  on  the  scheme  which  counts 
weeks  of  jrears,  and  both  would  have  been  a  natural 
computation  to  minds  familiar  and  occupied  with  the 
law  of  the  sabbatical  vear.    See  Day. 

8.  Chrigtian  Obiervanees. — In  the  New  Test.,  we  of 
course  find  such  clear  recognition  of  and  familiarity 
with  the  week  as  need  scarcely  be  dwelt  on.  Sacred 
as  the  division  was,  and  stamped  deep  on  the  minds  and 
customs  of  God*s  people,  it  now  received  additional  so- 
lemnity from  our  Lord's  last  earthly  Passover  gathering 
up  his  work  of  life  into  a  week. 

Hence  the  Christiiui  Church,  from  the  very  first, 
was  familiar  with  the  week.  Paul's  language  (1  Cor. 
xvi,  2,  Kara  ftiav  aafi^armv)  shows  this.  We  cannot 
conclude  from  it  that  such  a  division  of  time  was  ob- 
served by  the  inhabitants  of  Corinth  generally  ^  for 
they  to  whom  he  was  writing,  though  doubtless  the 
majority  of  them  wene  Gentiles,  yet  knew  the  Lord's 
day,  and  most  probably  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  But 
though  we  can  infer  no  more  than  this  from  the  place 
in  question,  it  is  dear  that  if  not  by  this  time,  yet  veiy 

XIL— L  L  L 


soon  after,  the  whole  Roman  world  had  adopted  the 
hebdomadal  division.  Dion  Cassiua,  who  wrote  in  the 
2d  century,  speaks  of  it  as  both  universal  and  recent  in 
his  time.  He  represents  it  as  coming  from  Egypt,  and 
gives  two  schemes,  by  one  or  other  of  which  he'  consid- 
ers that  the  planetary  names  of  the  different  days  were 
fixed  (Dion  Cassius,  xxvii,  18).  Those  names,*  or  cor- 
responding ones,  have  perpetuated  themselves  over 
Christendom,  though  no  associations  of  any  kind  are 
now  connected  with  them,  except  in  so  far  as  the  whim- 
sical conscience  of  some  has  quarrelled  with  their  Pagan 
origin,  and  led  to  an  attempt  at  their  disuse.  It  would 
be  interesting,  though  foreign  to  our  present  purpose,  to 
inquire  into  the  origin  of  this  planetary  week.  A  deep- 
ly learned  paper  in  the  PhUologioal  Muteum,  by  the 
late  archdeacon  Hare,  gives  the  credit  of  its  invention 
to  the  Chaldees.  Dion  Cassius  was,  however,  pretty 
sure  to  have  been  right  in  tracing  its  adoption  by  the 
Roman  world  to  an  Egyptian  origin.  It  is  very  strik- 
ing to  reflect  that  while  Christendom  was  in  its  cradle, 
the  law  by  which  she  was  to  divide  her  time  came, 
without  collusion  with  her,  into  universal  observance, 
thus  making  things  ready  for  her  to  impose  on  roan- 
kind  that  week  on  which  all  Christian  life  has  been 
shaped — that  week  grounded  on  no  worship  of  planetary 
deities,  nor  dictated  by  the  mere  wish  to  quadripartite 
the  month,  but  based  on  the  earliest  lesson  of  revelation, 
and  proposing  to  man  his  Maker's  model  as  that  where- 
by to  regulate  his  working  and  his  rest — that  week 
which  once  indeed  in  modern  times  it  has  been  attempt- 
ed to  abolish,  because  it  .was  attempted  to  abolish  the 
whole  Christian  faith,  but  which  has  kept,  as  we  are 
sure  it  ever  will  keep,  its  ground,  being  bound  up  with 
that  other,  and  sharing  therefore  in  that  other's  invin- 
cibility and  perpetuity. — Smith.    See  Tix k. 

WEEK,  Thb  Great,  is  the  name  of  the  week  fol- 
lowing Palm  Sunday.    See  Lkmt. 

Weeks,  Fbast  of.    See  Psmtiboost. 

WEEKS,  Sevewty.    See  Seventy  Weeks. 

Weeks,  John  W^illiSi  D.D.,  a  colonial  bishop  of 
the  Church  of  EngUnd,  died  March  25, 1857,  having 
just  returned  to  Sierra  Leone,  of  which  he  was  bishop, 
on  the  17th  of  that  month,  after  visiting  the  stations 
of  the  Yarriba  Mission.  His  consecration  to  this  see 
occurred  in  1855.  See  Amer,  Quar,  Church  Rev,  1857, 
p.  471. 

Weeks,  William  Haymond,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian divine,  was  bom  at  Brooklyn,  Conn.,  Aug.  6, 17^. 
He  graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1809; 
studied  theology  at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary ; 
was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Association  in  Vermont, 
and  was  ordained  and  installed  by  the  Columbia  Pres- 
bytery as  pastor  of  the  church  in  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  in 
February,  1812.  He  resigned  this  charge  in  1814,  and 
was  occupied  in  supplying  different  churches  and  teach- 
ing until  1832,  when  he  became  pastor  of  the  Fourth 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  perform  the  double  duty  of  preaching  and 
teaching  a  school  until  1846,  when,  on  account  of  de- 
clining health,  he  had  to  give  up  both.  He  died  June 
27, 1848.  Dr.  Weeks  had  a  mind  of  more  than  ordinary 
activity  and  independence;  the  classics  and  the  He- 
brew language  were  the  studies  of  his  life,  and  in  these 
departments  few  have  attained  to  greater  accuracy  of 
scholarship.  He  published,  Nine  Sermom  on  the  De* 
ereet  and  Agency  of  God  (1813,  three  editions)  :—8eryU^ 
ure  Catechitm  (1818,  two  editions)  i— Pilgrim^ $  Progrtu 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1849, 12mo,  posthumous)  :— 
also  single  Sermons,  Letten,  and  a  series  of  Short  Traett, 
See  Sprague,  AnnaU  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  iv,  478 ;  Alli- 
bone,  Dia.  ofBriL  and  Amer,  Authors,  s.  v. 

Weepers  (irpoffkKaiovTfQ,  Jlenies)^  the  class  who 
lay  in  the  porch  weeping  and  beseeching  the  pmyeia 
of  all  who  entered.~-Walcott,  Sacred  A  rdkaoL  a.  v. 

Weeping  (**^31t  cXaiw).    The  ancient  Hebrews 


WEGEUN 


898 


WEINZIERL 


aufcpt  and  made  their  troubles  to  appear  openly,  in 
ariouming  and  affliction ;  they  were  not  of  opinion  that 
oourage  and  greatness  of  soul  consisted  in  seeming  to  be 
iwensible  in  advenity,  or  in  restraining  their  tears.  It 
^feas  even  looked  upon  as  a  great  disrespect  for  any  one 
flDOt  to  be  bewailed  at  his  funeral.  Job  says  of  the 
wkked  man,  **  His  widow  shall  not  weep"  (Job  xxvii« 
Ifr).  The  Psalmist,  speaking  of  the  death  of  Hophni 
and  Fhinehas,  says,  **  Their  priests  fell  by  the  sword, 
flOBi  their  widows  made  no  lamentation*'  (Psa.  Ixxiii, 
64^  God  fbrbids  Ezekiel  to  weep  or  to  express  any 
Uarow  for  the  death  of  his  wife,  to  show  that  the  Jews 
ahpuld  be  reduced  to  so  great  calamities  that  they  should 
fi|it  have  the  liberty  even  to  mourn  or  bewail  them- 
sdHres  (Ezek.  xxiv,  16).    See  Movbkiko  ;  Tkars. 

"'^|jb7egelin,  Josua,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
%A%y,  was  bom  Jan.  11, 1604,  at  Augsburg.  He  stud- 
l&ii  at  Tubingen,  and  was  appointed  in  1627  deaoon  in 
hii^  native  place.  In  1629,  when,  at  the  command  of 
ttie'  emperor  Ferdinand  III,  the  evangelical  churches 
XrePe  closed  and  divine  service  was  prohibited,  Wegdin 
iid^  to  leave  the  city  with  the  other  evangelical  minis- 
ters! He  returned  again  in  1632,  after  Gustavus  Adol- 
I'liiis  had  entered  the  city,  to  leave  it  again  in  1635. 
iik  went  to  Presburg,  in  Hungary,  where  he  died,  Sept. 
)t^.1640.  For  the  benefit  of  his  members  in  Augsburg, 
he  composed  A  ugtburger  Betbuchlein  (2d  ed.  Nuremb. 
Xt!i^)f  and  JJand-,  Land-  und  Siandbuchlem  (ibid.  1637). 
^hW  his  death,  his  ascetical  writings  were  published 
u^ir  the  title  Gebete  und  Lieder  (ibid.  1660).  One  of 
^iis  Wmns,  Avf  Christi  Himmelfahrt  aUeittf  has  also 
ue^n  translated  into  English,  ^  Since  Christ  has  gone 
fioipeav'n,  his  home,"  in  the  Choral  Book  for  England^ 
^o!  bi.  See  Hartmann,  WUrtembergUdita  3fagister' 
huchjlblh  series ;  Koch, Gesch, d, deuttchen  Kircherdiedet^ 
tii^l69  sq.     (a  P.) 

Wegelin,  ThomaB,  a  Protestant  divine  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Augsburg,  Dec.  21,  1577.  At  the 
Ratisbon  Ck>lloquy  he  acted  as  amanuensis  of  the  Prot- 
estant theologians.  He  died  as  professor  of  theology 
indf  president  of  the  chureh-convent  at  Strasburg,  March 
^^!  1629.  He  wrote,  Vusert,  J II  de  Scripturce  Sacra 
^/{ucibritateyLwffuis  et  Venionibui: — Hyponmema  Theo- 
fa^t^m  de  Ilymno  Ti-isoffio  .'^Praledionea  in  Petitateu- 
MM|i:— Z)fl  Ckristo.'^De  Majestate  Christi  :^De  In- 
^htfentiis :  —De  Resurrectione  Mortuorum,  etc  See  Ser- 
pUius,  Ejjttaphia  Theolofforumf  Witte,  Memoria  Theolo- 
Viifhifn;  Jdcher,i4//pemetfie«  Gelehrien~Lex,A.  v.    (U.  P.) 

',\/weger,  Laurentius,  a  German  philologist,  was 
t]oinT>ec  80, 1653,  at  Konigsberg.  He  prosecuted  his 
^uu^  at  his  native  place  and  Leipsic,  and  was  appoint- 
eoLm  1679,  professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  his  native 
clc^vwhere  he  died,  May  21,1715.  He  wrote,  Disseti,  de 
f;^  Dei  Occoiiane  Phraseot  Chaldaica  '^^'l  KIC^TS: 
m^^\Otculaiione  Manus  Jdololairica  ex  Job  xxxij  26, 
fm4io'>He  also  wrote  on  Psa.  xxii ;  Hos.  iii,  4 ;  Ezek. 
iiWi  ^.  See  Amold,  Uiat,  der  KOniffabergischen  Univer- 
Mlfif^fciJocher,  AUgenieinet  Gelehrten*  Lex.  s.  v.j  FUrst, 
J9f^>/Kd  iii,  497.    (B.P.) 

jii/^Tlegleiterr  Christoph,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
t^ttfony,  was  bora  April  22, 1659,  at  Nuremberg.  He 
f^MilM  at  Altdorf  and  other  universities.  In  1688  be 
i»*f(h^pointed  professor  of  theology  and  preacher  at  Alt- 
dfdrt^here  he  died,  Aug.  16, 1706.  Besides  some  dia- 
^^^ttfckons,  he  is  also  the  author  of  sermons  and  hymns. 
i^'^^Y>fframma  Funebre  in  ObUum  Dr.  Wegleileri  (Alt- 
^ort^'tCOO);  Zeltneri  Vita  TheoL  AUorphin.  (1720),  p. 
43&'M  ;  J(5cher,  A  Ugemeineg  Gelehrten-fAx,  s.  v. ;  Koch, 
4fmk^  deutschen  Kircheidiedet^  iii,  602  sq.     (B.  P.) 

''^^'^^gner,  Gottfried,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Oels,  March  18, 1644,  and  died 
0livre  44, 1709,  as  doctor  and  professor  of  theology,  and 
Vtilitt^freacber  at  Konigsberg.  He  is  the  author  of, 
Di8t€fU  UisL'theol  de  Sabbatho  Chrittianorum  Judaico 
(JlMNHgsb.  1702)  i-^DitpuU  Uittor,  Ecdetiaet.  de  Alba 


Vette  Baptizatorum  (ibid.  1700,  llUy.—Horologimm 
Hdnaum  cum  Isc^oge  (Fnnkt  1678) : — Programma  de 
Computo  Eedenastieo  ei  Aeoentyaiume  Bebraa  (ibid. 
1680),  reprinted  in  Syntagma  DitputaHonum  /Voaco- 
furientium  (ibid.  1700) : — Specimen  A  nafysii  Bebr,  de 
Verbo  Kin  (ibid.  1670).  See  Winer,  ffandb.  der  tkeoL 
Lit.  i,  617,  631 ;  FHist,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  497;  Steinacbnei- 
der,  BiUiog,  Handbuch,  No.  2180.    (a  P.) 

Weimar  Hymn-book  was  a  work  prepared  by 
Herder  at  Weimar  in  1778.  His  plan  was  to  restore  the 
old  hymns  to  their  original  readings,  and  introduce  aa 
many  as  possible  that  were  already  established  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people.  He  thought  it  subversive  of  the 
highest  interests  of  the  Church  to  alter  these  composi- 
tions to  meet  the  peculiar  views  of  theologians  of  suc- 
cessive generations,  yet  he  would  not  pursue  his  own 
method  of  restoration  without  certain  restrictions  with* 
in  the  bounds  of  reason.  See  Hagenbach,  Ilitt,  of  the 
Church  in  the  18/A  and  IM  Centuties,  ii,  53  sq. 

"Welnbreimer,  Fribdrich,  an  eminent  German 
architect,  was  bom  at  (^Israhe  in  1766.  He  waa 
trained  as  a  carpenter  and  builder,  and  in  1788  began 
to  travel  for  improvement,  visiting  in  tum  Zurich,  Dres- 
den, and  Berlin,  and  in  1792  started  for  Italy.  Here  he 
discovered  his  own  want  of  training  and  instruction, 
and  entered  upon  a  thorough  course  of  study  and  re- 
search, supporting  himself  in  part  by  giving  inatmctioa 
in  architecture  to  numerous  persons,  some  strangers  of 
distinction.  He  retumed  to  Garlsruhe  in  1797,  where 
he  became  inspector  of  buildings,  and  soon  after  eieeted 
a  synagogue  and  some  private  mansions.  He  removed 
to  Strasburg  two  years  after,  but  did  not  find  much  em- 
ployment, and  in  a  short  time  returned  to  Garlsruhe  in 
his  former  capacity.  He  entertained  higher  yiewa  of 
his  art  than  bis  countrymen  generally,  and  did  much  to 
diffuse  the  same  sentiment  throughout  the  next  gener- 
ation by  his  instructions.  At  Garlsruhe  he  construct- 
ed the  Catholic  church,  Lutheran  church,  Theatre,  Mu- 
seum, Mint,  Hochberg  Palace,  and  other  edifices.  At 
Baden  he  supervised  the  erection  of  numerous  buildings 
He  alsa  constracted  several  churches,  mansions,  rillasi, 
etc,  in  various  parts  of  Germany.  He  published  n 
numb^  of  works  on  different  branches  of  architectural 
study,  viz.,  Zeichnungalehre  (1810) :  —  Optik  (1811) :  _ 
Pertpectivlehre  (1817-24)  i—Udter  Form  und  SckofAeii 
(1819)  i-^Ueber  architektomsche  Verzierungen  (1820)  :.- 
and  other  works.  He  died  March  1, 1826.  See  Spooo- 
er,  Biog,  Bist.  of  the  Fine  A  rto,  s.  v. 

Weinzioh,  Johcum  BCichael,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bora  Oct.  12, 1688,  at  Dettera, 
in  Franconia,  and  died  aa  court-deacon  at  Meiningen, 
March  18, 1727.  He  wrote,  Kirchen  und  Sckulemstaai 
dee  FUrstenthums  UennAerg  alter  und  mkUerer  Zeitem 
(Leips.  1720)  -^Bittoritche  und  theologisdke  Betracktm^ 
gen  der  merkumrdigen  AUerthUmer  und  gdehrten  Dinffe 
(Coburg,  1725):  —  Comparatio  Poeteoi  Germanieorum 
cum  Ula  Bebraorum  Veteri  (printed  in  Afisc  Lips,  x, 
76  sq.).  See  Winer,  Bandb.  der  (heoL  Ltt.  i,  808 ;  FUrat, 
BibL  Jud.  uubOi,    (a  P.) 

'Weinrich,  Thomaa,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  May  4, 1629,  at  Leipsic,  is  the  au- 
thor of,  Examen  Synodi  Dordracerue  de  A  bioluto  Preedes^ 
tin.  Dea-eto: — Thronum  Christi  Regakm  ex  P*a.  tr,  8, 
Bomiliis  Explicatum: — Controvertia  de  Spiritu  S,  cot^ 
ira  Photinianos : — 'E^iraotg  Abominationis  Pontificitt, 
See  Freher,  Theatrum  Eruditort  m;  Ebert,  Leprvtum 
Eruditum;  Cave,  BisL  Lit.  Scntptorum  Ecdesuutieo- 
rum  i  Winer,  ffandb.  der  theol.  Li '.  i,  445 ;  Jocher,  A  Uge^ 
meines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  a,  v.     |[Bb  P.) 

'Weinzierl,  Fravz  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec  24,  1777,  at 
Pfaffenberg,  in  Bavaria.  He  studied  at  Munich  nod 
Ratisbon,  received  holy  orders  an  1801,  and  acted  as 
chaplain  at  Penting  for  a  short  ^ime.  In  1802  be  went 
to  Ratisbon  as  professor  of  thcr  gymnasium,  where  he 


WEIS 


809 


WEISS 


labored  antU  1806,  when  he  was  appoiDted  cathedral 
preacher.  He  died  Jan.  1, 1829.  He  published,  Die 
Klagges&nQe  det  Prapheten  Jeremiat  nach  der  Vulgata,  in 
Versen  (Aagsburg,  1805) :— -Die  tieben  Busspscimen  in 
gereimten  Versm  (ibid.  1814) : — Die  Ptabnen  nebtt  den 
Klagtliedem  Jeremid  tmdden  iArigen  GetSngen  der  heUi- 
gen  Schrijl  m  gereimten  Verten  (ibid.  1819 ;  2d  ed.  1828) : 
—Spr'Hche  der  Weitheit,  out  den  heiUgen  Biichem  in  ge- 
reimten Verten  iibertetzt  (ibid.  1821>  See  D&ring,  Die 
geUhrten  Theoiogen  Deuiachlands,  it,  682  sq. ;  Fttrst, 
BUbL  Jud.  iii,  502 ;  Winer,  Handb,  der  iheoL  Lit.  ii,  118. 
(a  P.) 

TVeis,  NiooLAUS  vox,  a  German  prelate,  was  bom 
March  8, 1796,  at  Schonhof,  in  the  bishopric  of  Metz. 
He  studied  at  Mayence,  was  appointed  pastor  at  Duden- 
hofen  in  1820,  and  two  years  later  capitulary  at  Spcyer, 
where  he  was  consecrated  as  bishop  July  10, 1842.  He 
died  Dec.  18, 1869.  In  connection  with  the  bishop  of 
Strasburig,  Andreas  Riias,  he  founded  the  Catholic,  a  very 
influential  paper  in  Germany,  and  translated  many 
works  into  German ;  thus  they  translated  Butler's  Livee 
of  the  Saints  (Mayenoe,  1821-27, 23  vols.)  from  the 
French  translation  of  Godescard ;  from  the  latter  lan- 
guage they  also  translated  Robelofs  work  On  the  Infiu- 
enee  of  Luther' t  Brformaiion  upon  Religion,  Politics, 
etc  (ibid.  1828).  See  Literariseher  Ifandweiser/ur  das 
kathoUsche  DetUschland,  1869,  p.  550;  Winer,  Handbueh 
der  theol  LiL  i,  850,  852,  405,  678,  742, 818,  847 ;  ii,  28, 
85»88,112,lia    (a  P.) 

Weiaa,  Gbobo  Asidbmab,  a  Lutheran  minister  of 
Germany,  was  bom  Dec  11, 1787,  at  Astrakhan,  in  Rus- 
sia. He  went  to  Halle  with  his  father  in  1748,  and  here 
he  received,  not  only  his  early  education,  but  also  his 
theological  instraction,  and  Franke,  Michaelis,  Freyling- 
hanaen,Banmgarten,and  Knapp  were  his  teachers  in  the 
nniversity.  From  1761  to  1768  he  superintended  the 
schools  of  the  Orphan  Asylum ;  in  the  latter  year  he  was 
appointed  deacon  of  St.  George's,  and  in  1774  pastor  of 
that  church.  In  1788  he  was  called  to  Blagdeburg, 
where  he  died,  June  16, 1792.  He  published,  Ueber  £e 
Reden  des  sterbenden  MUtlers  (Halle,  1778)  .-^Reden  Uber 
die  Weissagung  des  Jesaias  von  Chrisfi  fjciden  undAuf- 
erstehung  (ibid.  1780).  He  also  published  sermons  for 
the  Christian  year.  See  Doring,  Die  gelehiien  Theo- 
logen  Deutschlands,  iv,  684  sq.     (B.  P.) 

l^elser,  DAiaix,  D.D.,  a  German  Reformed  clergy- 
man, was  bom  at  Selinsgrove,  Pa.,  Jan.  18, 1799.  In 
bis  youth  he  learned  the  trade  of  a  nailsmith  in  Lewis- 
burg,  and  in  1814  served  four  months  in  the  United 
States  army.  He  began  to  study  for  the  ministry  at 
Hagerstown,  Md.,  in  1819,  was  licensed  in  1828,  and  or- 
dained in  1824.  His  first  charge  embraced  three  con- 
gregations in  the  vicinity  of  Selinsgrove,  which  he  ex- 
tended to  eleven.  After  laboring  in  this  field  for  ten 
years,  he  became  pastor  at  New  Goshenhoppen  and 
Great  Swamp,  in  Montgomer}'  Co.,  Pa.,  to  whom  he 
minbtered  for  thirty  years.  In  1868  he  withdrew  from 
the  active  ministry,  but  until  the  close  of  his  life  fre- 
quently assisted  his  son,  who  succeeded  him,  and  sup- 
plied neighboring  pulpits.  He  died  Dec  2, 1875.  Dr. 
Weiaer  was  a  hard-working  pastor,  a  close  student,  and 
A  good  preacher.  See  Harbaugb,  Fathers  of  the  German 
Rtf.  Churchf  v,  146. 

Weiflhanpt,  Adam,  founder  of  the  srct  of  the  II- 
luminati  (q.  v.),  was  bora  at  Ingoktadt,  Feb.  6,  1748. 
He  was  educated  at  the  seminary  of  the  Jesuits  in  his 
native  city,  but  soon  quitted  it  for  the  university,  where 
he  was  made  doctor  in  1768,  and  in  1772  profesaor  of 
jurisprudence.  In  1775  he  displaced  the  Jesuits  in  the 
chair  of  canon  law,  and  thenceforth  became  their  oppo- 
nent, first  by  means  of  a  powerful  secret  society,  and 
afterwards  by  the  establishment  of  the  mystical  or  en- 
thusiastic sect  above  named,  in  whose  interest  his 
works  (for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GeniraU,  a.  v.) 
were  written.  In  1785  he  resigned  his  professorship, 
and  retired  to  Gotha,  engaged  in  scientific  and  social 


lahoiB,  still  occupying  the  honorary  position  of  aulie 
oonnaellor.    He  died  there  Nov.  18, 1880. 

177eiimaiin,  Christian  Ebbrhard,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Sept.  2, 1677,  at  Hir- 
schau.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  was  appointed  in  1701 
deacon  at  Calw,  and  in  1704  court  chaplain  at  Stutt- 
gart, but  in  1707  he  exchanged  his  position  for  that  of 
professor  of  church  history  and  philosophy  at  the  gym- 
nasium there.  Here  he  published  Einlatung  in  die  Merk- 
wUrdigheiten  der  Kirchenhistorie  N,  Testaments  zur  Be- 
fordartmg  der  Erkenntmss  des  Reichs  Gottes,  etc  (1718, 
1719, 2  pts.).  In  1721  he  was  called  as  professor  of 
theology  to  Tubingen,  was  honored  in  the  same  year 
with  the  degree  of  D.D.,  and  succeeded  G.  Hoffmann 
as  provost  of  St  George's  in  1729.  He  died  Hay  26, 
1747.  Besides  his  Institutiones  Theologica  Exegetico- 
dogmaiica  (1789),  he  wrote  some  very  fine  hymns.  See 
Moser,  'Beitrag  zu  einem  Lexioo  der  jeM  Ubenden  luth, 
und  reform.  Theologen  (Zullichau,  1740),  p.  444-454; 
Bracker,  Bildersaal  heutigen  Tages  lebender  Schrifistd- 
ler  (Augsb.  1741) ;  Romer,  KirchL  Gesch,  von  WUrten^ 
berg  (1848),  p.  887-895,  421-428 ;  Koch,  Gesch.  des  deut- 
sehen  Kirdunliedes,  v,  50  sq.;  Winer,  Ilandbuck  der 
Meo^  Ld.  i,  298,  534, 760.    (a  P.) 

'Vfelam,  Charles,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was 
bora  at  Strasburg,  Dec  10,  1812.  On  publishing  his 
Richard  de  Saint-Victor  H  la  Thiologie  Mystique,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  history  in  the  Lycee  Bona- 
parte; and  both  his  UEspagne  Depuis  h  Rhgne  de 
PhiUppe  J  I,  etc  (Paris,  1844, 2  vols.),  and  his  Bistoirt 
des  RffugiSs  ProtestanU  de  Paris  (1858,  2  vols.)  were 
crowned  by  the  Academy.  While  preparing  a  second 
edition  of  the  last  work,  Weiss  became  insane  (1864), 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  an  asylum  at  Vanves, 
near  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1681.  See  Lichtenberger, 
Encychp,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Weiss  (Lat.  Weitzius),  Oeorga  Miohael,  a 
(Dutch)  Reformed  minister,  was  a  native  of  the  Palat- 
inate of  the  Rhine,  but  was  licensed  and  ordained  to 
the  Gospel  ministry  at  Heidelberg  in  1725.  With  about 
four  hundred  German  emigrants,  he  settled  in  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1726-27,  accompanying  them  by  request  of 
his  dassis  as  their  spiritual  teacher.  They  were  aided 
on  their  way  by  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam.  In  1731 
the  colony  numbered  fifteen  thousand  souls,  who  sought 
here  a  refuge  from  oppression.  Mr.  Weiss  settled  and 
founded  a  Church  at  sikippach,  about  twenty-four  miles 
west  of  Philadelphia.  In  1728  he  asked  help  for  these 
scattered  sheep  in  the  wilderaess  from  his  classis  of 
the  Palatinate  But  these  persecuted  "churches  un- 
der the  cross  "  could  only  refer  them  to  the  Synod  of 
Holland.  In  1729-30  he  visited  Holland  with  an  elder, 
J.  Reif,  to  solicit  money,  which  was  given  to  a  large 
amount  for  that  day.  But  Reif  stole  mopt  of  it,  only 
one  hundred  and  thirty-five  pounds  being  recovered. 
The  Classis  of  Amsterdam  sent  over  ministers  and  mon- 
ey to  sustain  these  German  churches,  and  thus  began 
that  system  of  missionary  labor  and  supervision  out  of 
which  the  German  Reformed  Church  has  grown  up, 
and  which  formed  a  strong  and  early  tie  between  her 
and  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland.  When  Weiss 
returned  to  America  in  1731,  he  settled  among  the  Ger- 
mans in  New  York  state,  in  Schoharie  and  Dutchess  and 
Greene  counties,  at  Catskill  (now  Leeds),  Coxsackie, 
etc  Indian  depredations  obliged  him  about  fourteen 
years  afterwards  to  retura  to  Pennsylvania.  He  was  a 
meml)er  of  the  first  German  ecclesiastical  assembly,  held 
in  Philadelphia  in  1746,  and  was  minister  of  three  Ger- 
man congregations  west  of  Philadelphia  about  fourteen 
years.  He  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-five.  He  is  repre- 
sented to  have  been  a  fine  scholar,  speaking  Latin  as 
well  as  he  did  his  native  German.  His  ministry  was 
entirely  a  pioneer  work,  prosecuted  under  great  diflScul- 
ties  and  with  manifest  blessings  attendant  upon  it.  See 
Corwin,  Manual  of  the  Rtf.  Church  in  A  merica,  p.  262, 
268.    (W.J.R.T.) 


WEISS 


900 


WEISZ 


WelM,  Miohaalt  a  Germm  divine,  oontemponry 
with  Luther,  waa  born  at  Neiaae^  in  Silesia.  When  the 
Beformation  began,  the  Bohemian  Brethren  were  among 
the  first  to  hail  it;  as  early  as  1522  they  sent  messen- 
gers to  Lather  to  wish  him  saccess  and  confer  with 
him  on  questions  of  Church  discipline.  One  of  these 
was  Michael  Weiss,  who  afterwards  became  pastor  of 
the  German  branch  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  at  Lands* 
kron  and  Fulneck,  in  Bohemia,  and  for  their  benefit 
translated  into  German  the  finest  of  the  Bohemian 
hymns,  adding  some  of  bis  own.  Weiss  died  in  1540. 
Of  his  own  hymns  we  mention:  Christus  ist  erttamdm 
(£ng.  transL  in  Chorale  Book  for  England,  Ko.  58: 
**  Christ  the  Lord  is  risen  again*') : — Lob  set  dan  aller- 
hdchsten  GoU  (Eng.  transL  in  Moravian  Ilymn'hoohf 
No.  24 :  "  To  God  we  render  thanks  and  praise")*   (B.  P.) 

WaiSB,  Paul,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
was  bom  in  1543  at  Strelen,  in  Silesia.  In  1666  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  the  Konigsberg  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1581  professor  of  theology  there.  In 
1589  he  was  appointed  court  preacher,  and  died  Jan.  5, 
1612.  He  wrote,  Duputationu  de  Peceato  OriginaU  ex 
Jerem.  xnt,  9: — De  Eodena  ejutque  Signii,  etc.  See 
Witte,  Dictrium  Biograpkicum ;  Arnold,  HiUorie  der 
kSnigsberguchen  Umversitaif  JQcher,  AUgemeinet  Ge- 
lehrten-Lexikonj  s.  v,    (B.  P.) 

Welase,  CHRisTiAif  Hermamn,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian and  philosopher  of  Germany,  was  born  Aug.  10, 
1^1,  at  Leipaic.  At  first  he  studied  law,  but  betook 
himself  more  and  more  to  the  study  of  Hegelian  philos- 
ophy, and  oommenced  lecturing  in  hia  native  place  in 
1828.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philoso- 
phy, but  in  1837  he  retired  to  spend  his  time  entirely 
in  literary  pursuits.  Having  thus  spent  a  few  years, 
he  again  commenced  lecturing,  and  in  1845  he  was 
made  professor  in  ordinary  of  philosophy,  lecturing  at 
the  same  time  as  Privaldooent  on  theology.  He  died 
Sept.  19, 1866,  having  been  honored  with  the  doctorate 
of  divinity  in  1838  by  the  Jena  University.  At  first  a 
follower  of  Hegel,  he  soon  emancipated  himself  from 
that  system,  as  may  be  seen  from  his  Ueber  den  Begriff, 
die  BehandUtng  und  die  Quellen  der  Mgthologie  (Leipsic, 
1827).  Prominent  among  his  works  are: — Die  Idee 
GotUt  (Dresden,  1888) : — Die  phUosophisehe  Geheimlehre 
von  der  UntteriUchheit  (ibid.  lS^)i—Grundzuge  der 
Metapkgtik  (Hamburg,  1834) : — Die  evangeL  Gesckickte 
kritiach  und  philosopMtch  bearbeitet  (Leipsic,  1888,  2 
vols.)  i—Ueber  die  Zubtnft  der  evang,  Kirche  (ibid.  1849): 
—Philotophische  Dogmaiik  (1855-62, 3  vols.)  i—Christo- 
logie  Luihert  (ibid.  1855) : — Die  Evangdienfrage  in  ihrem 
gegenwartigen  Studium  (ibid.  1856).  After  bis  death 
were  published,  Beiirage  zur  Kriiik  der  paulin.  Brief e 
(ibid.  \WI)i  —  P»ychologie  und  Untterblichkeitslehre 
(1869).  See  Seydel,  Ckr.  H.  Weisie  (Leipsic,  1866) ; 
Theolog,  Unmereal'Lexihon,  a.  t.  ;  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoU 
ii,  1431;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  LiL  i,  412,  472. 
(a  P.) 

Weiasel,  Georo,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  1590  at  Domnau,  in  Prussia.  He 
was  rector  at  Friedland  for  three  years,  and  in  1623  be- 
came minister  of  the  newly  erected  Rosengarten  Church 
at  Konigsberg.  He  is  said  to  have  quickened  the  po- 
etic powers  of  others,  and  especially  of  Simon  Dach,  his 
Junior  contemporary.  He  died  Aug.  1, 1635.  Weissel 
is  the  author  of  some  very  fine  hymns,  which  are  still 
used  in  the  German  Evangelical  Church,  e.  g.  Mouht 
hoch  die  TMr^  doe  Thor  macht  weit  (Eng.  transl.  in 
I^fra  Germ,  i,  10:  "Lid  up  your  heads,  ye  mighty 
gates").  See  Koch,  Gekh.  d.  deutschen  Kirchetdiedes, 
ui,180sq.    (B.P.) 

WeiBsenbach,  Josefh  Anton,  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic divine  of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  15, 1734,  at  Brem- 
garten,  and  died  April  11 ,  1801,  at  Luzeme.  He  wrote, 
Kriti$chet  Verteickmte  der  besten  Schriften,  welcke  in  ver- 
eehiedeneH  Sprachen  turn  Bewei*  und  tur  Vertheidigung 
der  Rdigion  harausgekommen  (Basle,  1784):»Z>e  Elo' 


quaUia  Patnm  JJbb.  XIII  (Augsburg,  1775,  9  vok). 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  LU.  i,  380, 882.    (B.  P^ 

Weisfldnbom,  Filedxioh  Lndwig,  a  Gemum 
theologian,  was  bom  April  16, 1816,  at  Parkentin,  in 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  He  occupied  the  pbilosoph- 
4cal  chair  at  Halle,  and  afterwards  at  Marburg,  wherv 
he  died,  June  4, 1874.  He  published,  Vorlena^  &ter 
Sehleiermachert  Diakhtik  und  Dogmaiik  (Leipsic,  1847, 
2  ^\A,)i—Vorletungen  fiber  Pantheitmus  und  TkeismMt 
(Mart)urg,  1869).     (a  P.) 

'WeisBenbom,  Jesaias  Fiiedrich,  a  Lathenn 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Nov.  15, 1673,  at  Smal- 
cald.  He  studied  at  Erfurt,  in  1700  was  appointed  pas- 
tor of  Su  Michaela  there,  was  made  superintendent  Id 
1722,  professor  of  theology  in  1724,  and  died  Jul?  3, 
1750.  He  wrote,  Dittertt,  de  eOBaiftovi^.'-^De  SMa- 
thi  Obligaiione  Naturali: — Jeeus  PonHfidonm  <xm 
Jetu  Lutheranorum  ColkUua: — Deirunenium  Fidd  et 
Pietatia  e  Dogmate  Reformatorum  de  A  baoluto  Deento 
Enatum: — De  Negatione  Beturrectionit  ChritH  Detep' 
tanda  e  Pauli  Verbis  1  Cor.  xv,  17,  18:^/)e  Divimfate 
Spiritus  8,  contra  PnemnaiomachoSf  etc  See  Moser, 
Lezikon  JeUsilebender  Gottesgekhrten;  Neubaner,  A'aeJk- 
richi  vonjetztlebenden  Gotteagelehrten  ;  Jdcher,  i4  tf^eno- 
net  Gelehrteit'Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Weiaoenbom,  Jolmnn,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Siglitz,  in  Thuringia,  Nov.  21, 
1644.  He  studied  at  Jena,  was  appointed  rector  of  the 
Evangelical  Lutheran  school  at  Smalcald  in  1672,  and  in 
1688  went  to  HUdesheim  as  director  of  the  gymasiiBni 
there.  In  1691  he  received  a  call  as  pastor  to  Erfurt, 
was  made  doctor  of  divinity  in  1692,  and  in  1700  follow- 
ed a  call  as  professor  of  theology  and  soperintendeot  to 
Jena,  where  he  died,  April  20  of  the  same  year.  He  u 
the  author  of  JSchmalkaldiechei  kemhajies  G^betbud 
nebtt  aUerhand  geistreichen  Lthentregeln  (1706 ;  new  ed. 
1716).  See  Pipping,  Menwr.  TheoL  DecoM  IX  (1707); 
Zeumeri  Vita  Prof.  TheoL  Jenenrium,  p.  252;  Koch, 
Geeeh.  d  deuUchen  Kirchenliedet,  y,  418  sq.    (B.  P.) 

T^eiBBensee,  Puilipp  Hkinrich,  a  Lutheran  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  6, 1673,  at  Vickbeig,  in 
WUrteroberg.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  was  appointed 
in  1703  teacher  at  the  monasterv  in  Maulbronn,  sod  in 
1708  be  was  called  for  the  same  position  to  Blaubeoren. 
In  1722  he  received  the  prelacy  in  the  same  school,  and 
in  1727  that  of  Hirschau,  In  1740  be  was  appointed 
provost  and  general  superintendent  at  Denkendorf,  and 
died  Jan.  6, 1767,  as  senior  of  the  evangelical  church  of 
Wurtemberg.  He  is  the  author  of  some  fine  b>inns 
which  are  still  in  use  in  Germany,  and  published  in 
1718  an  edition  of  Thomas  ik  Kempis's  book,  The  Imr 
taHon  of  Chritt,  in  German  rhvmes.  See  Bark,/>rr 
ChriOenbote,  1847,  No.  3,  p.  25-28;  No.  11,  p.  130  sq.; 
Na  16,  p.  187 ;  No.  25,  p.  297 ;  Pregizers,  Go^geh.  Poak 
(Tub.  1727),  p.  280-285 ;  Koch,  Getch.  d,  deuUehen  Kir- 
ehenliedeit  v,  79  sq.     (B.  P.) 

V^eissmann,  Eiirekreich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  July  15, 1641,  at  Weyerburg, 
in  Lower  Austria.  Religious  intolerance  obliged  him  to 
leave  bis  country.  He  went  to  WUrtemberg  and  studied 
at  Tubingen.  In  1662  be  was  appointed  pastor  st  Hir- 
schau ;  in  1680  special  superintendent  and  pastor  at  Waib* 
lingen;  in  1693  he  was  called  to  Stuttgart;  was  noadc 
general  superintendent  and  abbot  at  Maulbronn  in  1711 : 
and  died  Feb.  28, 1717.  He  wrote  Bketorica  Sacra, 
besides  ten  vols,  on  homiletical  sobjeeta.  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  IM.  if,  58 ;  J6cher,  AUgemoM  (7e- 
lehHen-Lexibm,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Weiss,  George,  a  pioneer  of  the  German  Befonn- 
ed  Church  in  Ohio.  He  was  bom  in  Northumberlsnd 
County,  Pa.,  June  21 ,  1798.  He  served  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  War  of  1812,  and  was  appointed  quartermaster.  He 
began  his  theological  studies  with  Rev.  Isaac  Gerhsrt, 
and  finished  with  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Hdfenstein  in  Phils- 
delphia.   In  1816  he  was  appointed  by  the  Synod  of  the 


WEITENA0ER 


SOI 


WEIXE6LEY 


Germaa  Bcfonmcd  Cbureh  w  tai  esploring  miMioouy 
to  ObioL  In  1817  he  Httkd  pmnuieatl;  in  Ltncwter, 
0„  exwnding  hi>  minkniiiy  libon  over  four  countK4. 
Ue  ]aid  ibt  foandUion  aTniimemui  flouriabing  chnichn, 
being  in  l.nbon  ibundsnC  to  [he  end  of  bu  life.  11a 
died  in  peue,  March  10, 1S&9.  Ue  hu  >  »n  in  tba 
anaituy. 

^Felteaansr.  Iqnatz,  m  Romin  Catholic  tbeolo- 
gian  of  Oeiman}'  who  IWed  in  the  laat  rtnOiry,  ii  the 
■Dthoror,  Trifottuin  fftbraicam,  CKaldaimm,  Syriacam, 
per  gHOil  /'OMU  inlra  A  ligaot  Bona  aim  Ilirroltxieo 
AudoriM  EipHcare  Ciouma,  BOjUaim,  etc  (Augnburg, 
1769)  -.—Job,  PiabiH.  Prot.  Salimim.  <t  Siroetd.,  ex  He- 
braicit  Gritcuqut  FonlSiai  ad  MeKtem  Vulgala  tt  LaL 
Semomi  Dilacide  Explieont  (ibid,  1757)  -.—HeraglatUm, 
ten  Modtii  A  ddarrndi  ialra  Brevitt.  Ttmpvi  l.inguam 
GalL,  Hal,  Hvp„  Grae„  llebraicam  el  Cialdaicam,  ete, 
(Frankfort,  1756):— -Vo™  Grananalica  Btbliea  Me- 
ihadia  (Ulm,  17afi)  •.—Libri  MachiAaon-m  rum  Com- 
mtKlario  Literati,  ^uibai  Addila  til  Dili,  de  Dodrina 
Monm  «  Sacra  Scripfura  (ibid.  1778)  -.—Ltxicoti  Bibli- 
«Min,etc.(Aog»burg,l"68iVeB!«,1860).  Healaotraiu- 
laltd  into  German  the  Old  T«tBment,  to  which  he 
added  anUDtUioni.  StcFUnt,  33)1.  Juiili,  bos ;  Stein 
■ctaDeider,  Bibliog.  tfandbuci,  t.  t.     (a  P.) 

Wejones  were  furtune-teUen  of  the  barbaroui 
Pnu^aiu,  who  foretold  future  event!  from  the  force 
the  wind  aud  the  direction  of  the  cloudi. 


Walaudi  Jaico  Chbibtofh, 
logtan  of  Germany,  waa  bom  Jalr  18,  l7(iS,  at  BremcB, 
and  died  March  10, 181B,  o  ahhot,  general  laperinlend- 
ent,  and  flrat  paUor  at  UoliTninden.  He  wrote,  Utter 
Wiaider  nacli  den  BedArfiatteH  mttrer  Zeil  (Gottingen, 
1789);-_/VnJ^ni  iibrr  die  EtangtHen  (Bmnewick, 
ISlSii—EitJaltaig  in  dU  Bibd,  nacli  den  Bediirfmuen 
■ntMrer2«((HanoTer,1813).  See  Winer, //andtucA  der 
lAei>JlU,i,334,393;  ii,  l39,2H!Sl.Soa,B6B.    (B-T.) 

'Welapotren  (or  Velapotren),  in  HindA  my- 
thology, ia  that  giant  who  came  into  existeoee  wbep 
Siva,  in  deapair,  becauie  of  hii  wife's  death,  pulled  a 
hair  from  his  head.  The  giant  decapitated  the  father 
of  thii  lovely  wife,  Shak^,  ai  he  had  been  the 
her  death. 

^ITeleda,  in  German  mjrthology,  wai  one  of  the 
moat  famooa  fortune  -  telten  in  the  lit  century  of  the 
CbriaUaD  tera.  A  maiden  bom  of  princely  parents,  ahe 
la  aaid  to  bare  wielded  a  mighty  political  influence  over 
het  people.  Having  been  bmiighl  to  Home  aa  a  prison- 
er, she  waa  carried  aimutin  triumph,  and  received  great 
diadnction  at  the  bands  of  the  emperor  Teapatian.  Af- 
ter her  death  the  Germana  honored  her  as  a  goddeaa. 

'Wales,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  waa  the  first  of  the 
deities  after  Ferun,  the  supreme  god  of  the  Poles.  Hi 
was  alao  wonhipped  in  Ruasia  aa  a  god  of  protection 
especially  of  horses  and  cattle. 

Well,  EccLEStAtTiCAi.  The  moat  ancient  exam- 
plea  of  Christian  hapliimal  wells  an  to  be  found  in  tht 
Calacombs.  Wella  occur  in  ciypIs,some  of  which  wen 
regarded  as  possessing  waters  of  miraeuloua  powers,  as 
at  Pierrefcmda;  but  very  poasibly  they  were  made  in 
imitation  of  the  bapiiimal  wells  of  the  Catacombs. 
There  was  uaually  a  well  or  founti 
eloiiter  ganh.  There  ii  one  hip 
south  nave  aisle  of  Strasburg,  Probably  these  wells, 
as  in  cathcdrala,  served  to  dnin  water  and  au[iplv  the 
baptismal  font,  as  in  Su  Patrick's,  Dublin,  and  at  York, 
Carlisle,  GUigow,  and  Winchester.  In  many  of  the 
■mall  Cornish  oratories  or  baptisteries  there  is  a  welL 
St.  Kevne's  Well,  in  Cornwall,  waa  an  object  of  frequent 
Tisils,  as  was  St.  Winlfred'a,  in  North  Wales,  which  was 
bailt  in  149G,  and  contains  a  star-shaped  basin,  formerly 

vaulted  ambulatory  under  an  upper  ctupeL  Wella  are 
found  also  in  many  of  the  ancient  Cornish  churches  of 
the  Gth  and  Tth  ceDluriea,BtMardeii,Kirk  Newton,  and 


ham  Joubert  a  Well  at  Poitlen  ii  a  good  mediaval 
:imen  At  Ratubon,in  the  south  wing  of  the  tran- 
sept there  la  a  well  with  figurca  of  the  Saviour  and  th« 
in  of  Samaiia.  There  ia  also  an  ancient  well  in  the 
eloiater  of  Arlea.  St.  Aldhelm's  Well  at  Sheplon  Mallet, 
St.  Chad's  at  LichHeld,  St.  Julicn's  at  Wellow,  Somerset, 
St.  Thomas's  at  Canterbury,  and  numerous  others  in 
Wales  are  still  regarded  as  possessing  medicinal  virtuea. 
Throughout  all  Chiiatendom  such  wells  exist,  and  rule* 
Iteming  them  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by 
lonical  decreea,  beeaoae  of  abuses  which  arose  in  past 
ages.  They  were  forbidden  to  be  worshipped  without 
the  bishop's  authority  in  B60,  1018,  and  110S.  In  9G0 
they  were  made  sanctuaries.  Round  them  were  frith- 
geards,  for  sanctuary,  which  were  repated  boly  ground. 
They  were  determined  aa  holy  by  the  diocesan,  by  can- 
ons paaied  in  960  and  1  lOS,  and  abusei  were  condemned 
by  the  Synod  of  Winchester  in  ISOH.  See  Lee,  Glou. 
o/Lilwg.aiidEtxla.Ttniu,».v.;  V/tkatt,SatTtiIAr- 

WeU-belng.    See  HArpDrass. 

'Waller,  Hlaronymna,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  SepU  B,  1499,  at  Freybutg.  He 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  became  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  Luther.  In  1533  he  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  divinity,  and  in  I&89  waa  appointed  superin- 
tendent at  Freyburg,  where  he  died,  Mareh  20,  1572. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  bnoka  of  Samuel,  Kings, 
Job;  on  the  epiatlea  to  the  Ephesisns,  Philippiana, 
Thessaloniana ;  of  Peter  and  the  first  of  John.  He  alaa 
wrote,  Erptieaiionei  in  Epiitolai  et  Ewmgelia  Domini' 
carum  rt  Feilonim  :-~De  Fauioat  Domini  Noitri  Jen 
Chri^i: — beaidea  homiletical.  asceUcal,  and  eiegetical 
works  in  German.  See  Freher,  Thealrum  EruditorvM  i 
A  eta  ErudiUrun  Latino  ;  Jiicber,  A  Ugemeinei  Gdehrtm- 
Leriion,t.v.;Wtmr,aatka.derlheol.La.B,i8.  (KP.) 

WeUar,  Jakob,  a  Protestant  divine  of  Germany, 
waa  bom  Dec  6, 1602,  at  Neukirehen.  In  1635  he  waa 
appomted  ptofeasor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Witten- 
berg; in  16*0  superintendent  at  Brunswick;  and  in 
1646  first  court  preacher  and  church  councillor  at  Dres- 
den, where  he  died,  July  6,  I6G4.  Ue  wrote,  Aditota- 
tioneM  in  Epiil.  Pauli  ad  Romanat  .  .  .  CuUecta  a  J, 
ScAindkro  (Brunawick,  1654 ) :  —  l-iXpn  Dpb,  Spi- 
eiltffiam  Quaitiomm  Ebrao  -  Syratvm  (Wittenberg, 
1673) : — Dt  Lii^a  IIAraica  Aninquilalt  contra  BvM- 
leum  (ibid.  1631):— ZXiptKorio  aa  Puncta  Bdr.  Litrril 
Coavaf  (ibid.).  See  Winer,  nrndbuck  drr  thtol.  Lit. 
i,  165,  256 ;  FUnt,  BIbL  Jud.  iii,  504 ;  Steinscbn eider, 
Bibliog,  Hmdbudi,  a.  v.     (&  P.) 

'Wellaalay,    Sea  Wnur, 

WeUealay,  OeTald  VBlerlan,  an  Anglican 
prelate,  waa  bom  in  1S09.  He  graduated  Tram  Trinity 
College,  Camhridg«,  in  1880;  held  the  rectory  of  Strath- 


WELLESLEY 


902    WELSH  CALVIN.  METHODISTS 


fieldsaye,  Hants,  from  1886  till  1855;  became  domeBtic 
chaplain  to  the  queen  in  1849 ;  dean  of  Windsor  in  1854, 
and  died  Sept.  18, 1882. 

Wellealey,  Hemy,  D.D.,  an  English  c]erg}'man, 
a  natural  son  of  Richard  CoUey  WeUesley  ( marquis 
Wellesley)  and  Mile.  H.6.  Roland,  was  bom  in  1792; 
graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1816;  became 
rector  of  Woodmancote,  Hunt  Monceaux,  in  Sussex; 
was  appointed  principal  of  New  Inn  Hall,  Oxford,  in 
1842;  became  preacher  to  the  University  of  Oxford; 
curator  of  the  Bodleian  library,  University  Galleries, 
and  Taylor  Institution;  and  died  Jan.  11,  1866.  He 
was  the  author  of,  AtUholopia  Pofyffhtta;  or,  A  Sdee- 
tion  of  Versiont  in  Various  Lcmguages,  chiefly  from  the 
Greek  Anthology  (1849):^and  Stray  NoUt  on  Shake- 
Mpeare  (1865).  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  B.y, 

Welllamen  (or  Velllamen),  in  Hindd  mythol- 
ogy, was  one  of  the  two  wives  of  Kartiavertshunen : 
the  other's  name  is  Devanei,  who  was  the  daughter  of 
Indra.  Statues  of  both  are  erected  in  the  temple  of 
this  god. 

Well-maids,  in  Norse  mythology,  were  daughters 
of  Aeger  and  Ran.  They  swim  upon  the  stormy  sea 
around  their  mother,  and  appear  with  white  veils  to  as- 
sist the  unfortunate  out  of  the  wild  waves,  and  lay  the 
drowned  down  in  the  lap  of  their  mother.  Their  names 
are  Himinglilffe,  Dufa,  Blodughadda,  Heffring,  Udur, 
Raun,  Bylgia,  Drobna,  and  Kolga. 

Wells  or  Pttt,  *<the  five  wounds  of  Christ,  distil- 
ling his  sacred  blood— for  grace,  from  the  right  foot ;  for 
ghostly  comfort,  from  the  led  foot;  for  wisdom,  from 
the  right  hand;  for  mercy,  from  the  left  hand;  and 
from  the  heart,  for  everlasting  life— each  represented  by 
a  drop  of  blood  in  rich  ruby  glass,  issuing  from  a  gash 
which  bears  a  golden  crown,  as  in  a  pane  of  Perpendicu- 
lar glass  at  Sidmouth."— Walcott,  Sacred  A  rchtsol.  s.  v. 

'Wells,  Bd ward  Uvingston,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  began  his  regular  ministry  in  1860, 
as  pastor  of  the  Church  of  Our  Saviour,  Plainville,  Conn.; 
the  following  year  became  rector  of  Calvary  Church, 
Louisville,  Ky. ;  in  1865  went  to  Pittsfield,'Maas.,  as  rec- 
tor of  St.  Stephen's  Church,  and  remained  there  until 
1871,  when  he  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  South- 
port,  Conn.,  and  here  he  continued  to  reside  until  1879, 
part  of  the  time  without  charge,  and  afterwards  as  min- 
ister of  St.  John's  Church,  New  Milford,  where  he  died, 
Aug.  7, 1880,  aged  forty-six  years.  See  Whittaker,  A  l- 
tnanac  and  Directory ,  1881,  p.  175. 

WellSi  Eleaxer  Mather  Porter,  D.D.,  a  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  clergyman,  was  born  in  179B,  being 
a  descendant  of  Thomas  Wells,  who  had  come  to  Salem 
with  Winthrdp  and  Wilson  in  1629.  He  entered  the 
ministry'  in  1828,  and  preached  at  Plymouth,  Calais, 
and  Bangor,  Me.  In  1826  he  was  ordained  a  deacon  by 
bishop  Brownell,  of  Connecticut,  and  was  professionally 
engaged  for  brief  periods  at  more  than  a  dozen  places 
in  New  England.  His  special  vocation,  however,  was 
found  when  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  House  of 
Reformation  for  Juvenile  Offenders  at  Boston,  and  also 
became  superintendent  of  Sl  Stephen's  House.  He 
was  a  most  philanthropic  city  missionary,  and  up  to  the 
time  of  his  death,  which  occurred  in  Boston,  Dec  1, 1878, 
he  was  "  in  labors  more  abundant.*'    (W.  P.  S.) 

Wells,  Henry,  a  distinguished  philanthropist,  was 
bom  in  New  Hampshire  in  1805.  He  was  brought  by 
his  parents  when  a  child  to  Central  New  York.  With- 
out the  advantages  of  an  early  education,  but  with  a 
pushing  spirit  within  him,  he  began  his  career  as  an 
expressman,  his  first  route  being  from  Albany  to  Buffa^ 
lo,  at  which  time  he  carried  all  the  matter  in  a  carpet- 
bag himself,  and  gave  personal  attention  to  its  deliver}*. 
His  business  gradually  prospered,  and  he  increased  it  as 
circumstances  required.  Such  was  its  wonderful  prog- 
ress that  he  organized  a  company,-under  the  title  of  | 


''The  American  Express  Company,"  which  subeequeot- 
ly  bore  the  name  of  *'  Wells,  Faigo  A  Go."  Thdr  busi- 
ness increased  to  such  an  extent  that  it  embraced  the 
whole  country  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and 
from  Canada  to  Mexico  and  acroas  the  ocean.  The  re- 
ward of  his  enterprise  and  prudence  was  a  princely  fort- 
une. With  its  avails  he  purchased  a  beautiful  property 
on  the  banks  of  the  Cayuga  Lake,  at  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  and 
there  erected  a  palatial  residence,  which  he  filled  with 
all  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  art.  In  the  retixement 
of  his  lovely  rural  home,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  erect- 
ing and  furnishing  at  his  own  expense  a  seminary  or 
ooUege  for  the  higher  education  of  young  women.  By 
the  side  of  his  own  mansion  he  laid  off  a  park  embrac- 
ing woodland,  hill,  and  plain,  and  in  the  middle  of  it  he 
erected  a  splendid  brick  edifice,  with  all  the  appoint- 
ments that  skill,  taste,  and  money  could  provide  for  the 
carrying-out  of  the  great  object  he  had  in  view.  Thla 
magnificent  edifice,  with  the  entire  property,  was  con* 
veyed  by  deed  as  a  free  gift  to  a  board  of  trustees,  who 
gave  it  the  name  of  **  Wells  College."  A  board  of  In- 
struction was  soon  organized,  and  the  college  sprang 
rapidly  into  high  repute.  Its  halls  were  soon  filled,  and 
students  flocked  to  it  from  all  parts,  many  of  them  the 
daughters  of  gentlemen  with  whom  Mr.  Wells  bad  been 
associated  in  business.  Its  library  and  cabinets  were 
made  rich  by  contributions  of  his  frienda.  The  Hon. 
E.  B.  Morgan,  of  Aurora,  added  the  munificent  gift  of 
f  100,000  to  the  endowment  of  the  institution,  and  is 
about  to  erect  another  important  building  for  the  col- 
lege. On  Nov.  9,  1878,  Mr.  Wells  sailed  for  Glasgow, 
and  reached  there  on  the  19th.  He  was  too  far  en- 
feebled to  proceed  farther,  and  after  lingering  for  a  few 
weeks,  his  active,  eventful,  and  useful  life  closed,  Dee. 
10, 1878.    (W.  P.  S.) 

Welle,  Horatio  T.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Epiaco- 
pal  clergyman,  was  head  master  of  the  English  depart- 
ment in  Burlington  College,  N.  J.,  in  1859,  and  the 
following  year  acting  rector  of  the  college;  in  1662  was 
principal  of  a  boys*  school  in  Andalusia,  Pa.,  which  in- 
stitution, in  1866,  became  known  as  Andalusia  College. 
Mr.  Wells  was  elected  president  and  professor  of  Eng- 
lish literature  and  oommeroial  law,  and  remained  at  the 
head  of  the  college  until  his  death,  in  December,  1871. 
See  Prot,  Episc,  Almanac,  1878,  p.  188. 

Welle,  William,  D.D.,an  English  Unitarian  min- 
ister, who  afterwards  emigrated  to  America,  was  bom 
at  Biggleswade,  Bedfordshire,  in  1744.  He  was  educat- 
ed at  the  Academy  of  Daventry ;  became  minister  at 
Bromsgrove,  Worcestershire,  in  1770;  was  a  friend  to 
the  Americans  during  the  Revolution;  introduced  in- 
oculation for  small-pox  among  his  poor  neighbors,  at- 
tending some  thirteen  hundred  cases ;  removed  to  Amer- 
ica, arriving  in  Boston  with  his  family,  June  12, 1798 ; 
settled  on  a  farm  at  Brattleborough,  Vt.,  in  1794,  resid- 
ing there  and  preaching  to  the  Society  in  the  town  until 
his  death,  which  occurred  Dec  27, 1827.  See  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  viii,  254  sq. 

Wellwood.    See  Moncrkiff. 

Welah  Calviniatio  Methodiata,  a  consider- 
able body  of  Methodists,  chiefly  in  Wales,  which  dates 
its  origin  from  1785,  sprang  from  the  labors  of  Mr.  How- 
el  Harris,  of  Trevecca,  in  Brecknockshire.  This  young 
man  had  gone  to  Oxford  to  prepare  for  the  ministry  of 
the  Church  of  England ;  but,  becoming  disgusted  with 
the  immorality  and  gross  carelessness  of  that  place,  he 
returned  home  and  began  to  visit  from  house  to  house, 
warning  people  to  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come.  He 
soon  began  to  preach  in  public  Crowds  flocked  to  bear 
him,  and  many  were  converted  under  his  preaching. 
He  appointed  meetings  for  religious  conversation  in  ser- 
eral  places;  hence  arose  those  private  societies  which 
form  a  prominent  part  of  the  arrangements  of  this  body. 
His  labors  were  crowned  with  extraordinary  success, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  regular  clergy 
and  the  magistrates;  and  in  1789,  al^er  only  four  yean 


WEI5H  CALVDr.  METHODiSTS   903 


WELSH  VERSION 


of  effort,  he  had  established  as  many  as  three  hundred 
societies  in  the  south  of  Wales.  Mr.  Harrb  was  great- 
ly aided  in  his  labors  by  the  Rev.  Daniel  Bowland,  of 
Llangeitho,  Cardiganshire,  who  attracted  large  crowds  by 
his  eloquence.  Sevenl'  pious  ministers  of  the  Estab- 
lishment seceded  and  joined  the  Methodists;  a  consid- 
erable band  of  itinerant  missionaries  was  formed;  a  most 
precious  reviTal  spread  among  the  different  denomina- 
tions; and  the  new  sect  grew  so  popular  that  in  seven 
years  from  its  commencement  no  fewer  than  ten  minis- 
ters of  the  Church  of  England  had  joined  it.  The  first 
chapel  built  by  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists  was 
erected  at  Bnilth,  Brecknockshire,  in  1747.  In  the 
foUowing  year  two  others  were  built  in  Carmarthen- 
shire. The  Church  made  rapid  progress  in  the  south 
of  Wales,  but  was  greatly  hindered  in  the  north.  It  was 
about  this  time  that  the  Rev.  Thomas  Charles  began  his 
labors.  He  lived  at  Bala,  Merionethshire,  and  it  is  to 
his  exertions  and  influence  that  these  societies  are  chief- 
ly indebted  for  their  prosperity.  He  was  converted  un- 
der the  preaching  of  Mr.  Rowhind,  and,  after  the  usual 
preparation,  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. But  in  1784  he  decided  to  leave  the  Established 
Church  and  join  the  Methodists,  where  he  could  enjoy 
greater  freedom  in  evangelical  labors.  He  found  the 
principality  in  a  deplorable  condition  on  account  of  the 
ignorance  and  degradation  of  the  people.  A  Bible 
could  scarcely  be  found  in  any  of  the  cottages  of  the 
peasantry,  and  in  some  parishes  very  few  were  able  to 
read  it.  He  therefore  decided  to  educate  the  people  in 
the  rudiments  of  learning  and  religion.  He  established 
for  this  purpose  what  he  called  circulating  schools,  that 
is,  schools  which  might  be  removed  from  one  place  to  an- 
other at  the  end  of  a  definite  period,  say  nine  or  twelve 
months.  He  induced  *'  a  few  friends  to  set  a  subscription 
on  foot  to  pay  the  wages  of  a  teacher,  who  was  to  be 
moved  circuitously  from  one  place  to  another,  to  in- 
struct the  poor  in  reading,  and  iv  the  first  principles  of 
Christianity  by  catechising  them.'*  This  work  was  be- 
gun in  1785  with  only  one  teacher.  Others  were  add- 
ed as  the  funds  increased,  until  they  numbered  tMcuty. 
At  first  he  instructed  the  teachers  himself,  and  these  in 
turn  instructed  others.  In  this  manner  many  thousands 
were  instructed,  and  the  good  seed  thus  sown  produced 
abundant  fruit,  religious  awakenings  occurring  in  many 
places  where  the  teachers  had  labored.  In  1799  a  re- 
ligious periodical  was  started  by  Mr.  Charles,  entitled 
The  Spirituai  Trecuury,  the  design  of  which  was  to  sup- 
ply the  people  thus  instnicted  with  religious  reading. 
Hitherto,  Bibles  in  the  vernacular  had  been  ver}'  scarce, 
and  the  want  was  met  by  the  formation  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  in  1804.  By  this  organization, 
W^elsh  Bibles  and  Testaments  were  scattered  through- 
out the  principality,  and  eagerly  received. 

In  the  organization  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Bleth- 
odist  Society  Mr.  Charles  took  an  active  and  prominent 
part.  At  an  association  held  at  Bala  in  1790,  he  drew 
up  a  set  of  Rules  for  Conducting  the  Quarterly  Meet- 
ings of  the  North  Wales  Association,  consisting  of  the 
preachers  and  leaders;  and  these  Rules  form  the  basis 
of  the  present  system  of  Church  government  of  the 
whole  society.  In  1801  Rules  of  DucipUne  were  first 
published,  laying  down  the  order  and  form  of  Chunch 
government  and  discipline.  To  these  were  added,  in 
1811,  several  regulations  designed  to  render  the  organ- 
ization, in  its  membership  and  ministr}',  permanently 
independent  of  the  Established  Church. 

In  1828  they  adopted  and  published  a  Ctmfusufn  of 
Faith,  which  was  unanimously  agreed  upon  at  the  as- 
sociations of  Aberystwith  and  Bala.  The  doctrines 
thus.avowed  are  decidedly  Calvinistic,  and  accord  with 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  and  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion in  all  essential  points  of  doctrine  and  practice. 
Their  Church  government  is  neither  Episcopal,  on  the 
one  hand,  nor  Congregational,  on  the  other,  but  ap- 
proaches more  nearly  the  Presbyterian  form.  The  pri- 
vate societies  are  subordiiute  to  the  monthly  meetings, 


and  these  again  to  the  quarterly  associations,  at  whicH 
the  general  business  of  the  body  is  transacted.  Thei^ 
preachers  itinerate  from  place  to  place,  and,  being  men 
of  limited  education,  they  are  generally  dependent  on 
some  secular  employment  for  their  support.  Of  lat^ 
years  they  have  turned  their  attention  towards  the  imf 
portance  of  an  educated  ministry.  Accordingly,  in  1837, 
a  college  for  the  purpose  of  training  theological  students 
was  established  at  Bala,  and  in  1842  another  at  Treveccal 

The  ministers  of  the  Connection  are  selected  by  the 
private  societies,  and  reported  to  the  monthly  meetiogSj 
which  examine  them  as  to  their  qualifications,  and  per- 
mit them  to  t>egin  on  triaL  After  they  have  preached 
for  five  years  or  more  on  trial,  and  are  fouud  properly 
qualified,  they  are  ordained  to  administer  the  sacra- 
ments, and  the  ordination  takes  place  at  the  quarterly 
associations.  The  preachen  are  expected  each  to  itm- 
erate  in  a  particular  county ;  but  generally  once  in  a 
year  they  undertake  a  missionary  tour  to  different  parts 
of  Wales,  when  they  preach  twice  every  day,  each  time 
in  a  different  chapeL  Their  remuneration  is  derived 
from  the  monthly  pence  contributed  by  the  members  of 
each  congregation;  out  of  which  a  small  sum  is  given 
to  them  after  every  sermon;  but  some  have  a  stated 
stipend. 

The  Welsh  Calvinisric  MethodisU  have  about  1000 
chapels  and  about  80,000  communicants,  60,000  of  whom 
are  in  Wales  and  4000  in  America,  the  rest  principally 
in  England. 

In  1840  they  formed  an  association  for  sending  mis- 
sionaries to  the  heathen,  and  towards  the  end  of  the 
same  year  a  mission  was  commenced  among  one  of  the 
hill  tribes  in  the  northeast  part  of  Bengal.  They  have 
also  a  mission  -  station  in  Brittany,  France,  the  lan- 
guage of  that  country  being  a  sister  dialect  of  the 
Welsh ;  and  they  have,  besides,  a  mission  to  the  Jews. 
The  operations  of  the  home  mission  of  this  denomina- 
tion are  carried  on  among  the  English  population  in- 
habiting the  borders  between  England  and  Wales. 
There  are  several  societies  in  England  belonging  to 
the  Connection — for  example,  in  London,  Liverpool, 
Manchester,  Bristol,  Chester,  Shrewsbury,  etc. — whose 
worship,  public  and  private,  is  performed  in  the  Welsh 
language.  There  is  also  a  small  congregation  among 
the  Welsh  miners  of  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  who  have 
preaching  in  their  own  language.  In  some  parts  of 
Wales,  and  on  the  borders  of  England  where  the  Eng- 
lish language  is  most  prevalent,  worship  is  conducted  in 
that  tongue. 

"Welsh  Version.  The  first  edition  of  the  New 
Test,  was  printed  in  London  in  1567,  in  cobsequence  of 
a  law  enacted  by  Parliament  in  1562.  The  translation 
was  made  by  William  Salesbury,  assisted  by  a  certain 
Huet,  a  chanter  of  St.  David's,  and  Dr.  Richard  Davies, 
bishop  of  the  same  place.  In  1588  the  entire  Bible  was 
given  to  the  Welsh  people,  the  Old  Test,  being  translat- 
ed by  Dr.  W.  Morgan,  afterwards  bishop  of  St.  Asaph, 
with  the  aid  of  several  eminent  scholars,  who  also  re- 
vised Salesburv's  version  of  the  New  Test.  A  new  and 
revised  edition  was  prepared  by  Dr.  R.  Parr}-,  successor 
to  the  sec  of  St,  Asaph,  and  published  in  1620.  This 
edition  was  held  in  such  high  estimation  that  it  has 
been  used  as  the  text  of  all  succeeding  editions.  Being 
in  folio,  a  small  and  portable  edition  waa  published  in 
1630,  which,  besides  the  Old  and  New  Tests.,  contained 
the  Apocrypha,  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  a  met- 
rical version  of  the  Psalms;  the  latter,  which  is  still 
used  in  the  Welsh  churches,  was  prepared  by  Pryss, 
archdeacon  of  Merioneth.  Of  the  editions  of  the  whole 
Bible  which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  we  men- 
tion the  following : 

1654— sttmetimes  called  Croinweirs  Bible. 

1G7S— wtih  correcttous  by  the  Rev.  St.  Hughes. 

1090— published  by  the  Rev.  D.  Jones. 

160U— primed  at  Oxfurd  for  the  U9e  of  churches,  iu  Roman 

chnrncters,  sometimes  culled  Bishop  Lloyd's  Bible. 
ITlS^priiited  at  Loudou,  often  called  Moses  Williams's 

Bible, 


WELTE 


904 


WENDS 


178T— printed  at  Losdos :  less  valoable. 

1746— printed  at  Cambridge;  the  third  edition,  pablished 

bytbeSocietyformmoting  Christian  knowledge, 

and  containiDg  the  aame  as  pablished  in  the  llrst, 

in  1718. 
1702— reprint  of  that  of  1746. 
1769 — by  the  same  eociety. 
1770— with  notes  by  the  Bev.  P.  Williams,  and  reprinted 

▼ery  often. 
1789— printed  for  the  ose  of  chnrches  by  the  aame  society. 
1790— with  Mr.  John  Canoe's  references. 
1799— printed  by  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 

Knowledge. 

These  editions,  with  rhe  exception  of  ten  thousand  cop- 
ies of  the  New  Test  i»t  inted  in  the  year  1800  at  Shrews- 
bury, were  all  that  appeared  before'tbe  formation  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  great  scarcity 
of  the  yemacular  Scriptures  prevailing  in  Wales  was 
the  cause  of  finally  bringing  about  the  formation  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  first 
edition  of  the  Scriptures  issued  by  this  society  was 
the  Welsh  Bible,  the  text  adopted  being  that  of  1752. 
This  edition  left  the  press  in  1806.  Including  this,  their 
first  edition,  the  number  of  copies  issued  at  successive 
intervals  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  from 
the  year  1806  up  to  March  81, 1879,  may  be  briefly  stat- 
ed as  follows: 

Bibles 818,466 

Testaments. 1 ,088,607 

JMglots,  Welsh  aud  English ; 86,686 

Total 1«»38,6O0 

Besides  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  the 

Society  for  PktMnoting  Christian  Knowledge  and  the 

American  Bible  Society  have  published  the  Scriptures 

ill  Welsh.    SB»Bibleo/£vtfyLcmdfp.\bSBq^,    (a  P.) 

Welte,  Benedict  von,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1805  at  Ratzewied,  and 
acted  as  professor  of  Old-Test,  exegesis  at  Tubingen 
from  1838  to  1857.  He  died  May  27, 1885,  at  Rotten- 
burg,  senior  of  the  chapter,  and  doctor  of  theology.  He 
published.  Dot  Buck  Job  iibersetzt  und  erkldrt  (Frei- 
burg, 1849) : — Nachmosaiicha  itn  Pentateuch  beleuchtet 
(Carlsmbc,  1840) :  —  Historiteh  -  kriiucht  EinUiiung  m 
die  Schriften  A  Uen  TettamaUs  (eod.) ;  besides  he  was 
co-editor  of  the  Freiburg  KircheiUxikon^w\i\c\i  he  pub- 
lished together  with  Wetzer  (q.  v.).    (B.  P.) 

Welton,  Richard,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  bad  been  deprived  of  the  rectorship  of  St. 
Mary's,  Wbitechapel,  London,  on  account  of  his  attach- 
ment to  the  non -jurors,  and  was  consecrated  in  1722  by 
Rev.  Ralph  Taylor.  He  arrived  in  America  probably 
in  1723,  was  invited  to  take  charge  of  Christ  Church, 
Philadelphia,  July  27,  1724,  and  entered  immediately 
upon  his  duties.  His  anomalous  relation  to  the  Church 
as  a  non-juring  bishop  occasioned  disquietude  among 
the  Epiaoopalians  when  it  became  known.  Soon  after 
an  order  came  from  England  to  governor  Keith  of  Penn- 
sylvania, enclosing  a  king's  writ  addressed  to  Welton, 
commanding  him  to  return  to  England.  Accordingly, 
in  January,  1726,  after  a  brief  but  acceptable  ministry, 
he  embarked  for  Lisbon,  where  he  died  shortly  after  his 
arrival.   See  Sprague,  A  rmcUt  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit^  v,  33. 

Welts,  JcsTiNiAN  Erhst  von,  a  Hungarian  noble- 
man of  the  17th  century.  He  is  known  on  account  of 
his  connection  with  the  mystics  Breckling,  Gichtel, 
and  others.  At  Ratiabon  he  met  with  Gichtel,  and 
both  united  in  forming  a  fraternity  of  the  pious  ("  Je- 
sus-Gesellschaft")  for  the  purpose  of  renewing  the 
inner  life  of  the  Church.  The  members  received  their 
names  from  the  society  to  which  they  belonged;  thus, 
Weltz  received  Breckling  in  Holland  under  the  name 
of  '*Der  Brechende."  Being  very  rich,  Weltz  gave 
$30,000  towards  the  objecta  of  the  fraternity.  This  was 
about  1660.  The  society  also  had  in  view  a  union  be- 
tween the  Lutherana  and  the  Calvinists.  In  1664  Welta 
and  Gichtel  presented  to  the  Corpus  Evangelieorum  a 
plan  of  their  tendencies,  which  Weltz  had  ai)proved  by 
the  most  famous  theologians.  He  was  also  the  first 
who,  in  two  works,  reminded  the  Church  of  the  holy 


duty  of  minionary  work;  hot  the  orthodox  anperin- 
tendent  Ursinus,  at  Ratiabon,  dismissed  him  mocking- 
ly. In  the  same  year  (1664)  Weltz  went  to  Surinam 
to  preach  the  Gospel  there,  which  be  did  until  his  death. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  evangelical  missions^  See 
Jocher,  A  Ugememe*  GdehrUn-LeaShm,  s.  v. ;  Plitt,  Geteh. 
der  btiheri$chm  Mittion  ( Erlangen,  1871 ),  p.  22  sq. ; 
Theoioff.  Umvertal-LexikoHf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Wen  is  the  inaccurate  rendering  in  the  A.T.  of  ba^, 
yalMU  (on  Lev.  xxii,  22),  which  means  JUncing  with  a 
running  sore ;  spoken  of  a  diseased  fiock. 

Wencealaua  (Wenzel,  or  VezixeBlav),  St,^ 
a  prince  of  Bohemia,  son  of  Vratislav  and  Drabomira, 
was  bom  about  the  beginning  of  the  10th  oentnry.  His 
education  was  intrusted  to  his  grandmother  Ludmila, 
a  devoted  Christian;  and  he  thus  received  a  training 
which  led  him  to  become  a  pious  Christian,  and  follow 
the  course  of  a  clergyman  more  than  that  of  a  prince. 
His  brother  Boleslaus  (or  Boleslav)  was  a  fierce  pagan ; 
and,  in  conjunction  with  his  mother,  also  a  pagan,  se- 
cured a  visit  from  him,  aud  slew  him  at  the  foot  of  the 
altar  while  engaged  in  prayer,  Sept.  28, 93&  Wencea- 
laua has  been  the  subject  of  many  works  of  art.  See 
Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders,  p.  175  aq. ; 
Neander,  UisU  of  the  Church,  iii,  822. 

Wendelin  (or  Wandelin),  a  aaint  of  the  7th  ceo- 
tniy  whose  day  is  October  20,  and  who  is  said  to  have 
been  of  Scottish  familv.  He  establiahed  himself  aa  a 
hermit  in  a  forest  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tkeves,  and 
afterwards  as  a  herdsman  in  the  late  principality  of 
Lichtenberg.  His  fidelity  in  this  service  led  the  monks 
of  Tholey  on  the  Saar  to  elect  him  their  prior.  The  cir- 
cumstances of  his  life  and  career  are  to  be  found  reooid* 
ed  solely  in  the  Ada  S3.  BolL  Juli  vi,  171,  and  similar 
legendary  depositories.  Comp.  Vogt,  Rkein,  Gesek.  v. 
SageUy  i,  283  sq. ;  Rettberg,  Kirchengesch,  DeutscklamdA, 
i,  480 ;  Berlepsch,  Die  A  Ipen  in  Natur  u.  Lebenthilderm 
(Leipe.  1861),  p.  886  sq. ;  Heizog,  Real^Encj^op,  a.  v. 

Wendelin,  Marcna  Fxiedrioh,  a  theologian 
of  the  Reformed  scholastic  school  in  the  17th  century, 
was  bom  near  Heidelberg  in  1584,  and  after  gradua- 
tion, presumably  at  the  univereity  of  that  town,  became 
tutor  of  the  princes  of  Anhalt-De8sau,and  in  1611  rector 
of  the  gymnasium  of  Zerbst.  He  retained  the  latter 
position  during  a  period  of  forty-one  years,  and  died 
there  Aug.  7, 1652.  He  composed  a  number  of  text- 
books which  bear  witness  to  the  breadth  of  his  culture ; 
but  his  most  important  works  were  of  a  theological 
character.  Among  them  were,  Con^pend,  Christiana 
Theotogia  (Hanan,  1684)  i^Christianm  Tkeologim  Sy^ 
tema  Majus  (posthumously  published,  Fraukf.  1666  aod 
1677) : — Exerciiationes  TheoL  contr,  Jo,  Gerhard,  et  ZAoia- 
hauer: — and  CoUatio  Jkjctr,  R*-formatorum  et  Lutke^ 
ranorum  (Cassel,  1660).  He  avoided  abstruse  diacna- 
sions,  assumed  only  simple  and  evident  premises,  and 
made  only  a  fotmal  use  of  dialectics.  His  method  was 
to  discuss  the  contents  of  the  dogma  itself  instead  of  an 
extraneous  addition  of  Aristotelian  tenets  to  the  doc- 
trine. The  arrangement  of  his  material  and  the  deter- 
mination of  the  problems  presented  to  bis  mind  give 
evidence  of  great  acuteness.  His  Christ,  TheoL  Sgtteasa 
was  translated  into  Dutch  and  Hungarian.  See  Wende- 
]in*sWorks;  Becmann,  A  nhabische  Ilistorie;  Jocber,  AU- 
gemeines  Gdehrten-Lexikon  ;  Herzog,  ReaUEnegUop,  a  ▼• 

Wendiah  Veraion.    See  Slavokic  Vebsioks. 

Wenda  (from  wend,  to  *^  wander"),  a  Slavic  people 
who  aa  early  as  the  6th  century  occupied  the  north 
and  east  of  Germany,  from  the  Elbe  along  the  coast  of 
the  Baltic  to  the  Yiatula,  and  as  far  aouth  aa  Bohemia. 
They  were  divided  into  several  tribes,  which  were  aiio- 
cessively  subdued  by  the  Germans,  and  either  extermi- 
nated or  Germanized.  Charlemagne  drove  them  back 
towanls  the  Vistula,  and  by  the  close  of  the  13th  oco-^ 
tun'  his  successors  in  Germany  had  almost  completed 
the  work  of  extirpation.   In  the  16th  centoiy  TemnaDta 


WENGERSK 


905 


WERENFELS 


of  this  Slavic  popalation  were  still  aoittered  over  the 
whole  region  between  Berlin  and  Frankfort-on>the- 
Oder ;  and  there  was  a  remnant  of  Wends  in  Hanover, 
where  they  kept  up  their  language  until  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century.  They  are  now  found  in  portions  of 
Brandenbuigi-Silesia,  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and 
principally  on  the  banks  of  the  Spree.  At  present  the 
number  of  Wends,  or  those  speaking  the  Wendish  lan- 
guage, exclusive  of  that  portion  of  this  people  who  have 
been  Germanized,  is  placed  at  140,000,  of  whom  83,000 
are  in  Prussia  and  62,000  in  Saxony.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  the  Sloventzi  of  Austria,  a  Slavic  people 
numbering  1,260,000,  are  called  Vvub,  and  their  lan- 
guage the  Vindish.  To  these  the  name  Southern  Wends 
is  frequently  applied.  Most  of  the  Wends  are  Fh>t- 
estants,  though  a  large  portion  of  those  living  in  Saxony 
are  Catholics.  Christianity  was  introduced  among  them 
about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century  by  their  zealous 
king  Gottschalk,  founder  of  the  Wendish  kingdom.  But 
they  lapsed  again  into  psganisro,  and  were  subsequently 
restored  to  Christianity  by  missionaries  from  the  south. 
The  language  of  the  Wends  is  similar  to  the  other 
branches  of  the  northwestern  stem  of  the  Slavic  lan- 
guages, the  Polish  and  the  Bohemian.  It  has  sev- 
eral dialects — the  Lower  Lusatian,  and  the  Upper  Ln- 
satian,  which  is  subdivided  into  the  £vangelical,  near 
Bautzen;  the  Catholic, near  Kamenz  and  in  the  north- 
west; and  the  Northeastern.  The  extent  of  the  entire 
Wendish  literature  has  been  estimated  at  three  hundred 
volumes.  The  oldest  work  in  the  language  is  a 'trans- 
lation of  the  EpittU  ofSUJamet,  dating  from  1548,  pub- 
lished at  Leipsic  (1867).  There  are  grammars  of  the 
Wendish  language  by  Ticinns  (Prague,  1679),  Matthili 
(1721),  Seiler  (Bautzen,  1830),  and  Jordan  (Prague,  1841). 
There  are  also  some  collections  of  Sorbenian- Wendish 
songs  and  ballads.  See  Giesebrecht,  Wenditehe  Ge- 
tchidUm  (Berlin,  1843);  Jku  hanndveritche  Wendkmd 
(Lttchow,  1863);  and  ObermUiler,  Die  Uryttckickte 
Wenden  (Leipsic,  1874). 

Wengerak,  Andreas,  a  Protestant  minbter  of  the 
Lublin  diocese  in  Poland,  where  he  died,  Jan.  1 1, 1649,  is 
the  author  of,  Systema  Hitt,-ckronoL  Ecdenar,  Shvoni- 
car,,  per  Provincicu  Varias  prtBcipue  PolomcB,  Bohemia ^ 
Lituama,  RustUB,  Prustias,  Jkforavur,  etc,  Disiincfar, 
Libris  IV  Adomatum,  ConHnem  Hittor.  EccUsiasf.  a 
Ckr.et  Apostolor.  Tempore  adA,D,  1650  (Utrecht,  1652). 
This  work  he  published  under  the  name  of  Adr.  Kegen- 
vobc ;  but  the  new  edition  which  was  published  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1679,  with  the  title  Slavonim  Re/ormat<e,  Con" 
thuntea  Hist,  Eccknatt,  Ecckaiar,  Slavomcarum,  etc., 
gave  his  original  name.  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  IheoL 
Lit,  i,  884.     (B.  P.) 

Wenig,  JoHAXS  Baptist,  a  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  in  1826  at  Neudorf,  in  Bohemia.  In 
1844  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  studied  at  Linz  and 
Vals,  and  received  holy  orders  in  1852.  In  1854  he  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  Episcopal  gymnasium  in  Linz ; 
and  in  1857  professor  of  archawlogy  and  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Innsbruck,  where  he  died,  Oct  25, 1875.  He 
published,  Ueher  den  Wetensbeitand  des  Afetuchen  (Inns- 
bruck, 1863)  i^Ueher  die  FreiheU  der  Wiuenachaft  (ibid. 
1868)  I'/^cAo/a  ^^rioco.  Part  Prior:  Chrettomathia 
cum  Apparatu  Grammaiico  (ibid.  1866).  See  Literari' 
icher  Handweisery  1866,  p.  154 ;  1875,  p.  433.     (B.  P.) 

Wenigk,  JoHAiRV  Erkst,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1701  at  Gotha.  In  1731  he 
was  appointed  pastor  at  Crobstadt  and  Grabsleben,  and 
in  1734  he  was  called  to  Bischleben,  where  he  died,  Feb. 
10, 1745.  Hi  is  the  author  of  Hikiria  Sacra,  oder 
Ileiliffe  SomUagtlusl  der  Kinder  GoUet  (Amstadt,  1731), 
which  contains  sixty -eight  hymns  which  he  wrote. 
See  BrUckner,  Kircheu'  und  Schulenstaat  im  Henogtkum 
Gotha  (Gotha,  1768),  ii,  29  sq. ;  Koch,  Getch.  d,  deutschen 
KirchenHedet,  iv,  586.    (B.  P.) 

Wepler,  Johakn  Heivbicb,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Cassel,  July  27, 1755. 


For  a  number  of  years  he  acted  as  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  the  Carolinum  and  Lyceum  of  bis  native 
place.  In  1786  was  called  as  professor  of  theology  to 
Marburg,  where  he  died,  Nov.  80, 1792.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of,  Philologiache  und  krifische  Fragmmte  (Cassel, 
1781-86)  -.—Din,  Inaug,de  Cherubit  Anpelia  Tonantibus 
ffebrworum  (Marburg,  1777)  :—Naehruiten  von  den  avf 
der  CastePschen  BibliotAek  befindli^en  morgenL  Hand" 
ichriflen  (ibid.  1778)  :—Gedanken  Uber  die  Ureachen^  wet" 
tM^m  die  Syrer  dm  Hebraem  und  A  rabem  in  der  Dicht' 
htnst  so  sAr  na<^ehen,  in  the  Memoiree  de  la  Soc, 
dFAnL  d€  Caetd,  i,  307  sq.  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der 
eileo2. Li/. i, 280 ;  FUrst, fiU. Jiid: iii, 504.    (BP.) 

Werdandi  (Jh-eeemy,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
was  one  of  the  three  deities  of  fate.    See  Urd. 

Werder,  Peter,  a  Baptist  preacher,  was  bom  in 
1728,  and  ordained  in  May,  1751,  at  Warwick,  R.  L 
The  first  nineteen  years  of  his  ministry  were  spent  in 
that  vicinitv.  He  removed  in  1770  to  a  Rhode  Island 
settlement,  then  known  as  New  Providence  Grant,  with- 
in the  present  limits  of  Cheshire,  Mass.,  where  he  labor- 
ed for  thirt^'-etght  years,  preaching  his  last  sermon  on 
the  Sunday  before  his  death,  FeK  21, 1808.  He  was  an 
influential  and  successful  preacher,  and  venerated  as  a 
father  among  the  churches  of  his  faith  in  Western  Mas- 
sachusetts.    See  Mom,  Bapt,  Mag,  ii,  848. 

Werembert,  a  learned  Swiss  monk  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury, was  bom  at  Coira,  studied  at  Fulda  under  Raba- 
nus  Maurus,  and  became  teacher  in  the  Monastery  of  St. 
Gall,  where  he  died.  May  24  (or  29),  884.  He  was  the 
author  of  some  musical  treatises  and  commentaries,  fur 
which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ginirak,  ^  v. 

Werenfelfl,  Samuel,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was  the 
son  of  the  antistes  of  Basle,  Peter  Werenfels,  and  was 
bom  March  1, 1657.  He  was  educated  at  Basle,  Zurich, 
Berne,  Lausanne,  and  Geneva;  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  Basle;  and  soon  afterwards  undertook  an  extended 
scientific  tour  through  Holland  and  North  Germany. 
On  his  return  be  received  the  chair  of  rhetoric  at  Basle. 
He  was  himself  an  orator,  and  sought  to  develop  the 
oratorical  faculty  in  his  pupils,  encouraging  them  to 
cultivate  naturalness  and  simplicity  of  manner  and 
style,  together  with  elegance  of  diction.  He  regarded 
disputatiousness  as  a  malady  having  its  root  in  moral 
conditions,  as  pride,  etc,  and  for  its  cure  he  recommend- 
ed a  universal  lexicon  containing  exact  definitions  of 
all  scientific  conceptions.  In  1696  Werenfels  became  a 
theological  professor,  receiving  the  chair  of  dogmatics 
and  polemics,  and  in  the  same  year  received  the  doc- 
tor's degree.  He  interpreted  his  duty  in  the  new  posi- 
tion as  having  less  to  do  with  the  antiquated  heresies 
of  bygone  ages  than  with  the  perverse  tendencies  of  the 
time  in  which  he  lived,  and  as  involving  the  efibrt  of 
restraining  theological  zeal  within  its  proper  limits.  In 
these  opinions  he  had  the  sympathy  and  co-operation  of 
Friedrich  Osterwald  (q.  v.)  and  AlphonseTurretin  (q.  v.), 
with  whom  he  became  acquainted  at  this  time,  and 
with  whom  he  formed  the  soncalled  theological  triumvi- 
rate of  his  day.  He  also  entered  into  relations  with  the 
leamed  Parisian  Benedictine  Montfaucon,  though  by  no 
means  indifferent  as  respects  the  profound  questions  at 
issue  between  Romanism  and  Protestantism.  In  1703 
he  was  promoted  to  the  chair  of  Old-Test,  exegesis.  In 
this  office  he  devoted  himself  to  an  exposition  of  the 
Psalms,  and  introduced  a  new  study  into  the  curricnlum 
of  the  school — that  of  hermeneutics.  His  principles  of 
interpretation  were  altogether  those  which  were  subse- 
quently brought  to  general  recognition  and  acceptance, 
viz.  the  principles  of  the  grammatico-historical  method. 
In  1711  he  served  for  a  time  as  preacher  to  the  French 
Church,  and  became  ver}'  popular,  though  obliged  to 
speak  in  an  acquired  tongue.  His  sermons  were  print- 
ed and  translated  into  Dutch  and  German.  In  the 
same  year  he  advanced  to  the  foremost  theological  pro- 
fessorship in  the  university  —  that  of  New-Test,  exe- 
gesis—and continued  to  hold  that  office  until  his  death, 


WERF 


906 


WERMELSKIRCH 


Jane  1,  1740.  He  rejected  a  call  to  the  UnireiBlty  of 
Franeker,  secured  for  him  through  the  interveution 
of  Vitringa,  but  accepted  the  honor  of  roemberBhip 
in  the  ^British  Society  for  the  Spread  of  the  Goepel 
in  Foreign  Lands  "  and  in  the  **  Berlin  Sdentifie  Asso- 
ciation.'* 

No  striking  erents  occurred  in  the  life  of  Werenfels 
by  which  he  might  secure  a  name,  nor  did  he  compose 
any  important  and  epochal  theological  work.  His  Opvs- 
cula,  however,  contain  a  collection  of  treatises  on  differ- 
ent exegetical  and  doctrinal  subjects  which  are  still  de- 
serving of  notice.  His  spirit  was  irenical,  and  his  labors 
were  put  forth  in  constant  endeavors  to  promote  honor- 
able fraternity  among  Christians.  He  felt  assured  that 
the  root  of  evil  is  not  in  the  head,  but  in  the  heart.  As 
a  teacher,  he  combined  practical  instruction  with  theo- 
retical, that  lie  might  give  a  higher  fitness  to  the  young 
men  who  came  under  his  care.  In  the  evening  of  his 
life  an  effort  was  made  to  compel  Werenfels  to  assist  in 
the  endeavor  to  degrade  the  learned  and  meritorious 
Wettstein  from  the  ministry  on  account  of  alleged  het- 
erodoxy. He  consequently  absented  himself  from  the 
sessions  of  the  theological  court,  and  ultimately  with- 
drew from  the  academical  life  to  privacy. 

No  suitable  biography  of  Werenfels  has  yet  been 
prepared,  and  the  many  grains  of  information  scattered 
through  his  Opuscula  have  not  been  collected.  See  the 
Atketu  Raur,  p.  67  sq. ;  Hanhart,  Erinnerungen  an  Sam, 
Weren/elSf  in  BasUr  wUsensch,  Zeitsckr.  1824,  p.  22 ;  and 
Hagenbach,  Programme,  1860. — Herzog,  Beal-Encykhp, 

8.V. 

Werf^  Adriaan  van  deb,  an  eminent  Dutch  paint- 
er, was  born  at  Kralinger- Ambacht,  near  Rotterdam, 
in  1659.  He  studied  under  Cornelius  Picolctt  for  two 
years,  and  under  Eglon  van  der  Neer  during  the  next 
four.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  commenced  his  career 
as  a  painter  at  Rotterdam,  and  met  with  great  encourage- 
ment. He  was  commissioned  by  the  elector-palatine  to 
paint  a  picture  of  the  Judgment  of  Solomon  and  his  own 
portrait.  After  finishing  these  works  he  went  to  DUs- 
seldorf,  where  the  elector  desired  to  retain  him  in  his 
service ;  but  he  agreed  to  paint  for  him  six  months  of 
the  year,  and  give  the  other  six  to  his  own  engage- 
ments. He  received  a  liberal  pension  from  the  elector 
and  many  valuable  presents,  and  continued  in  his  ser- 
vice until  the  death  of  his  royal  patron,  in  1717.  Among 
his  pictures  in  the  DUsseldorf  Gallery  is  a  life-size  Mag^ 
daleney  painted  as  a  companion-piece  to  the  St,  John  of 
Raphael,  but  considered,  even  by  his  friends  and  ad- 
mirers, as  inferior  to  that  work.  He  carried  his  finish- 
ing to  a  very  high  pitch,  and  as  a  consequence  his  works 
are  rare  and  command  a  high  price.  He  died  in  1722. 
See  Spooner,  Biog.  Hist,  of  the  Fine  >4  rf«,  s.  v. 

Werln,  in  Persian  mythology,  was  an  evil  dev, 
placed  by  Ahriman  against  Ormuzd,  and  designed  to 
hinder  the  falling  of  rain,  and  thus  also  the  fruitfulness 
of  the  earth. 

ISSTerkmeiater,  Benedict  Maria  vox.  a  Roman 
Catholic  theologian  and  representative  of  the  so-called 
Josephinism  or  reformatory  tendency  in  his  Church» 
was  bom  at  FUssen,  in  Upper  Snabia,  Oct.  22,  1745, 
and  became  a  Benedictine  monk  in  1765.  Bv  direc- 
tion  of  his  abbot  he  studied  theology  at  Bcnedict- 
beuren,  making  Oriental  languages  and  exegesis  his 
principal  subjects,  and  finding  in  father  ^gidius  Bart- 
scherer  a  teacher  who  developed  in  him  the  faculty 
for  independent  research  which  he  naturally  possessed. 
He  soon  discovered  that  ethics,  which  appeared  to  him 
to  be  of  primary  importance,  was  altogether  overlooked 
by  theologians  in  their  eagerness  to  employ  their  wits 
npon  the  mysterious,  lie  could  not  be  satisfied  with 
the  schemes  of  probabilists  or  probabiliorists,  of  liberal- 
ists  or  rigorists,  among  the  Romish  teachers  of  ethics, 
and  saw  himself  obliged  to  seek  for  what  he  wanted  in 
the  lectures  of  the  Protestants  Gellert  and  Mosheim, 
and  in  the  Life  of  Jesus  by  Hess. 


In  1769  Wericmeister  became  a  priest  and  anperin- 
tendent  of  novices  at  Neresheim,  the  latter  post  being 
associated  with  that  of  professor  of  philosophy.  He 
filled  a  similar  chair  at  Freyaing from  1772  tol774 ;  then 
became  secretary  to  the  prelate  of  the  empire ;  archivist 
and  librarian  at  Neresheim;  and  afterwards  resomed 
his  duties  as  professor  of  philosophy  at  Freyuag,  and 
added  to  them  those  of  a  director  of  the  curriculum,  of  a 
professor  of  canon  law,  and  a  librarian.  Duke  Cbaries 
of  WUrtemberg  made  Werkmeister  his  court  preacher 
in  1784,  and,  being  a  highly  enlightened  Roman  Catho- 
lic, permitted  him  to  both  preach  and  administer  the 
ritual  of  his  Church  as  he  might  prefer.  A  frait  of 
this  libcrt}*  is  presented  to  view  in  the  Gesangbudi  nebgt 
angehdngten  G^beten,  etc.,  for  the  ducal  chapel  (1784-<86)i, 
which  contains  a  large  number  of  Protestant  hymns  and 
tunes,  and  is  wholly  in  keeping  with  the  general  a^le 
of  hymnology  and  liturgy  in  that  time. 

Physical  ailments  began  to  trouble  Werkmeister  se*- 
riouslv  in  1787,  and  to  make  it  difficult  and  ultimatelv 
impossible  for  him  to  preach ;  and  as  the  presumptive 
heir  to  the  throne,  Louis  Eugene,  brother  of  Charles, 
was  known  to  be  a  bigot,  and  likely  to  dismiss  every 
libera]  priest  from  his  service  whenever  he  should  have 
the  power,  he  applied  for  secularization  and  the  canon- 
ry  of  Spires.  The  former  was  granted  and  the  latter 
denied,  and  in  1794  Werkmeister  and  his  ccdleagnes 
were  superseded  by  Franciscans  and  Capuchins.  The 
duke  even  requested  that  Werkmeister  should  be  ban- 
ished ;  but  the  Monastery  of  Neresheim  gave  htm  all- 
ium until  another  change  in  the  succession  of  thedachy 
took  place,  when  he  was  recalled  to  his  former  poet  at 
StuttgarL  He  now  applied  for  and  received  the  parish 
of  Steinbach  (1796).  In  1807  he  became  a  member  of 
the  ecclesiastical  council  for  the  Romish  Church  in 
Wtlrtemberg,  and  in  1810  of  the  newly  erected  su- 
pervisory council.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  to  the 
direction  of  education,  and  in  1817  he  received  the  title 
of  high  councillor  for  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  the 
knight's  cross  of  the  Order  of  the  WUrtembergian 
Crown.     He  died  July  16, 1823. 

Werkmeister  was  a  rationalist,  though  of  the  noble 
sort,  and  lacked  profoundness  of  religious  thought  and 
feeling.  He  never  penetrated  into  the  spiritual  depths 
of  religion,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  never  sought  to 
set  aside  the  authority  of  Scripture  and  of  the  received 
doctrines  of  the  evangelical  faith.  He  had  the  bold- 
ness to  attack  various  Romish  teachings  and  institu- 
tions, e.  g.  the  celibacy  of  priests,  the  worship  of  Marr, 
the  indissolubility  of  marriage,  etc  He  did  not  regard 
his  course  in  this  re^)ect  as  involving  him  in  conflict 
with  the  Church,  but  only  with  what  was  impure  and 
spurious  that  had  fastened  itself  upon  her  in  the  prog- 
ress of  ages.  It  would  seem,  nevertheless,  that  he  car- 
ried about  with  him  the  idea  of  a  German  National 
Church  which  should  be  independent  of  Rome,  but  none 
the  less  Roman  Catholic.  His  works  of  a  literary  char- 
acter possess  only  historical  interest  at  this  distance 
from  his  time.  The  most  important  is  the  Jahrejh- 
schrijl  fur  Theologie  und  Kirchenrtcht  der  KathoHben 
(1806-20,  5  vols.,  edited  by  him),  in  which  he  opposes 
many  abuses  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Of  his 
ascetical  works,  his  Neues  Gebeibuch  fur  aufgeklarie 
kathdische  Christen  (Heilbronn,  1801 ;  11th  ed.  1818)  is 
especially  deserving  of  mention,  as  well  as  bis  Sermons 
(1812-15,  8  vols.).  See  Schmidt,  Neuer  Nel-roicg  der 
Deutichenf  1828,  it,  578 ;  Herzog,  ReaUEncyHop,  a.  v. 

ISSTennelBkircll,  Johann  Gkoko,  a  Luthersn  min- 
ister of  Germany,  was  born  Feb.  22,  1808,  at  Bremen. 
In  1820  he  entered  the  missionary  institution  of  father 
JUnicke  at  Berlin,  and  some  time  aftencards  the  semi- 
nar}'  of  the  English  misMonary  society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  among  the  Jews  at  Henstead,  near 
Portsmouth.  From  1824  to  1885  he  labored  among 
the  Jews,  when  he  accepted  a  pastorate  of  a  Lutheran 
congregation  in  Posen.  Not  being  a  Pnissian,  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  country  in  1886,  and  went  to  Dica- 


WERNEMS 


907 


WERTHEIM  BIBLE 


den,  where  he  oonnected  hinuelf  with  the  Luthenn 
Missionary  Society.  In  1842  be  again  returned  to 
Pniaria,  and  in  1844  he  became  pastor  of  the  Lutheran 
congregation  at  Erfurt,  and  died  Dec  20, 1872.  Wer- 
melskirch  was  very  active  in  behalf  of  Christian  mis- 
sions, and  the  Lutheran  Missionary  Society  in  Thnringia 
is  the  fruit  of  his  labors.    (B.  P.) 

Wemems,  Rollwinck  de  Laer,  a  Westphalian, 
and  Carthusian  monk  at  Cologne,  was  bom  in  1425. 
He  was  the  author  of  some  works,  among  them  Fasci' 
cuius  Temporwn,  embracing  all  the  ancient  chronicles, 
coming  down  to  1480,  and  continued  by  John  Linturius 
to  1514.  He  died  in  1502.  See  Mosheim,  JJitt.  of  the 
Church,  bk.  iii,  cent,  xv,  pL  ii,  ch.  ii. 

T^emer,  Andreas  Konrad,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century, 
is  the  author  of,  Diuertationes  Tret  de  Puritate  ForUium 
Hebraorum  SpedaUm  ex  Libro  Jotua,  etc.  (Stade,  1720- 
26) : — Diai,  de  SamariianU  eorumque  Ten^plo  in  MotUe 
Garizim  Ai^dificato  (Jena,  1723)  i—De  Votit  VeUrum  J*- 
raeUiarum  ex  A  ntiquitate  Judaica  (Stade,  1787) : — Diss, 
de  VeriUUe  DoctrimB  Divwm  de  Christo,  ex  Judaorum 
parUm  Tetlimomit,  peurtim  Crimmaiionibut  et  Cabim- 
niis  eorum  lUuttrata  et  Coujirmata  (ibid.  1729)  :—Diu. 
de  Bethlehemo  apud  Hieron^mum  (ibid.  1769).  See  Wi- 
ner, Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  141  \  KUrst,  Bibl,  Jud, 
iii,  505.     (a  P.) 

TFTemer,  Friedrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  May  28,  1659,  at  Flemingen,  near 
Naumburg.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he  died, 
April  21, 1741,  having  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  in 
bis  eighty-second  year.  He  wrote,  Prtecepia  Uomile- 
tica : — Tract,  llenneneulico-homUeticus  m  Evcmgelia  Do- 
mmicalia  et  Fetticalia: — Dida  Biblica  ex  V»et  N,  T, 
cum  Soopo  Evanffeliorum  Atmuorum  Convenientia : — De 
Vana  Spe  Ituignis  Judaorum  Conreraionie  SimuUanem 
ante  Diem  Extremum  adhuc  Exspectandte,  See  Ranft, 
Leben  der  chursSchsitchen  Gottesgetehrten ;  FUrst,  BibL 
Jud.  iii,  505;  Jocher,  ^^^Tememef  GeUkrten-LexiJbon, s,y. 
(B.P.) 

"WemBdort  Bmat  Frledrlcb,  a  Lutheran  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  Dec  18, 1718,  at  Witten- 
berg. He  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at  Leipsic, 
was  made  magister  in  1742,  and  after  presenting  his  dis- 
sertation De  Septimia  Zenobia,  Palmffrenorum  A  ugutta, 
was  allowed  to  lecture  at  the  university.  In  1746  he 
was  made  professor  extraordinary  of  philosophy,  and 
opened  his  lectures  with  an  oration  De  Nexu  Ilistoria- 
rum  CogmtioniM  cum  0mm  Philo$ophim  Ambitu,  In 
1752  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Christian  antiq- 
uities, and  presented  on  this  occasion  a  dissertation,  De 
Quinquoffetima  Paachalu  Four  years  later,  in  1756,  he 
was  called  to  Wittenberg  as  professor  of  theology,  where 
he  died.  May  7, 1782.  Wemsdorf  wss  a  very  learned 
man  and  quite  at  home  in  patristic  literature,  from 
which,  especially  from  the  writings  of  Ignatius,  Euse- 
bins,  Tertulltan,  he  explained  the  Christian  antiquities 
and  older  ecclesiastical  usages  which,  in  the  course  of 
time,  had  either  entirely  disappeared  or  received  an- 
other form.  This  subject  he  treated  in  dissertations 
like  De  Quinquaffetima  Patchali  (1752):>-I>e  Pat- 
ehate  AnnoHno  (1760): — De  Sacerdote  Latitia  Lingua 
ad  A  Uare  CantUlanie  (1761)  ;^De  Veteris  Ecdesia  Die- 
hu  Festit  Annivertariit  (1767),  etc  See  Doring,  Die 
gdehrten  Theologen  Deutachlands,  iv,  6^  sq.;  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  557,  617,  618,  619, 631,  688; 
FUrst,  BUI  Jud,  iii,  505 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Genirnle, 
«.v.     (RP.) 

Wemsdoxi;  Gkyttlleb  (1),  professor  of  theolopry 
in  the  university,  provost  in  the  court  church,  general 
superintendent  of  the  diocese  of  Wittenberg,  and  eccle- 
siastical councillor  to  the  duke  of  Weissenfels,  was  bora 
Feb.  25, 1668,  of  a  noble  but  poor  family.  His  theo- 
logical position  was  that  of  strict  Saxon  orthodoxy, 
united  with  Spenerian  earnestness  as  respects  the  prac- 


tice of  Christianity.  His  personal  piety,  and  also  his 
irenical  disposition,  are  attested  by  Zinzendorf,  who  was 
at  that  time  a  student  at  Wittenberg  (Spangenbeig, 
Leben  Zimendorfe,  I,  iii).  The  only  literary  produc- 
tion of  Wemsdorf  which  has  come  down  to  us  is  his> 
DitputatioMB  Academica  (published  by  Zeiblich,  1736, 
2  vols.  4to),  whose  subjects  are  the  leading  questions  of 
his  time,  e.  g.  the  controversies  with  Halle  and  the  , 
mystics,  and  with  unbelief  and  indifiPerentism.  He  de- 
fends the  idea  of  a  mediate  inspiration  of  the  symbolical 
books,  as  well  as  their  soundness  throughout,  not  con- 
fining his  argument  to  their  doctriruil  parts.  The  vrit- 
ness  of  the  Spirit  to  our  salvation  is  made  by  him  to 
consist  in  a  conclusion  deduced  from  the  Scriptures  by 
the  human  mind,  and  the  operation  of  the  Spirit  solely 
in  the  bringing  to  mind  of  all  the  passages  of  Scripture 
which  can  demonstrate  that  the  judgment  of  the  un- 
derstanding with  respect  to  our  adoption  as  sons  of 
God  is  well  founded.  Wemsdorf 's  book  gives  evidence 
of  wide  leaming,  a  love  of  truth,  an  anxious  holding- 
fast  to  the  traditional  views  of  Wittenbergian  ortho- 
doxy, and  unfailing  moderation.  His  students  admired 
especially  the  elegance  of  his  literary  style.  He  died 
July  1, 1729.  See  Herzog,  Real-EncyUop,  s.  v.;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  GetUrale,  s.  v. 

Wemsdorf;  Gtottlieb  (2),  a  Plrotestont  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  Aug. 
9, 1717,  at  Wittenberg,  and  became  doctor  of  philosophy 
and  teacher  of  sacred  literature,  eloquence,  and  history 
in  the  gymnasium  at  Dantzic,  of  which  he  was  eventu- 
ally director.  He  died  Jan.  24, 1774.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of.  Diss,  PhdologiochcrUica  ^pta  SentaUia  Jo,  CUr^ 
ci  de  Artt  Poetioa  Ebraorum  Proponitur  et  JUuttratur 
(Dantzic,  1744): — Oratio  Autpicatoria  de  Cognaiione 
Spartanorum  et  Judoeorum  ac  proRcipue  de  Epittola 
Arii  Regis  ad  Oniam  Poniifioem,  ad  Elucidandum  Lo- 
cum 1  Maoc,  Cap,  xii  (ibid,  eod.) : — Diss,  de  Cultu  As» 
trorum  a  Deo  Gentibus  Profanis  oUm  Concesso,  ad  DeuL 
tr,  19, 20  (ibid.  1746) : — A  bhandlung  von  der  allgemeinen 
Bekehrung  der  Juden  zum  Christenthum  (ibid.  1748) : — 
Diss,  Fabularis  Historia  de  Baecho  ex  Mosaica  baud 
Conficta,  contra  Ifuetium  Aliosque  (ibid.  1753):— CVn^ 
mentatio  de  Fide  Librorum  Maccabaorum  qua  Frah- 
lichii  Annales  Syria  eorumque  Prolegomena  ex  Inst^ 
tuto  Exandnanturj  etc  (Bretslau,  1747).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  9;  FUrst,  Bibl  Jud,  iii,  505, 
where  some  works  are  mentioned  which  belong  to 
Gottlieb  Wemsdorf  j  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  Generale,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Wertheim  Bible  designates  a  German  version 
of  the  Pentateuch,  which  excited  great  interest  at  the 
time  of  its  first  appearing  (Easter,  1785),  but  has  now 
lost  whatever  importance  it  may  have  heretofore  pos- 
sessed. It  has  not  even  the  merit  of  being  rare.  It  is, 
as  its  title  indicates,  the  first  volume  of  an  intended  is- 
sue of  the  whole  Bible,  and  contains  a  preface  of  forty- 
eight  pages,  followed  by  ten  hundred  and  forty  pages 
of  subject-matter,  in  small  quarto.  The  preface  sets 
forth  the  purpose  of  the  author  to  show  that  the  ques- 
tionings of  the  human  mind  with  respect  to  the  divine 
authority  of  the  Scriptures  are  to  some  extent  warrant- 
ed, and  that  the  current  conception  of  their  authority 
rests  largely  upon  prejudice  and  unscientific  notions; 
and  his  further  purpose  to  conform  the  statements  of 
the  Scriptures  to  the  requirements  of  the  human  un- 
derstanding, aided  in  this  work  by  the  light  of  history 
and  the  evidence  of  sound  reason,  and  also  to  popular- 
ize the  language  of  the  Bible  more  than  was  done  by 
Luther's  ver»iun.  The  work  is  a  simple  product  of  vul- 
gar rationalism,  evincing  in  its  features  the  marks  of  a 
half-educated  mind  and  of  zealous  though  private  study 
on  the  part  of  its  author,  who  was  Johann  Lorenz 
Schmidt,  in  1725  and  afterwards  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Count  L6wenstein,  and  a  graduate  of  Jena.  He  spent 
yeara  in  the  preparation  of  the  book,  and  submitted 
it,  with  varying  result,  to  different  scholars.    It  was 


WESSENBURG 


908        WESSOBRUNN  PRAYER 


printed  in  secret  and  published  anonymously,  and  on 
its  appearance  excited  a  controversy  which  led  to  the 
issae  of  an  imperial  mandate,  Jan.  15,  1737,  ordering 
its  confiscation  and  the  apprehension  of  its  author. 
Schmidt  was  imprisoned  a  whole  year  before  the  au- 
thorities would  admit  him  to  bail,  and  was  soon  after- 
wards arrested  again.  His  trial,  however,  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  carried  forward  to  a  conclusion. 
Schmidt  disappeared  from  view,  though  it  was  rumored 
that  he  had  fled  to  Hamburg,  assumed  the  name  of 
Scbroeder,  and  fotmd  employment  as  a  translator  from 
the  English  (Tindal),  Spanish  (Spinoza),  and  French 
(Cantimir),  and  afterwards  as  chamberlain  at  Wolfen- 
buttel,  where  he  died  in  1750.  Schmidt  published  in 
1738  a  collection  of  writings  in  support  of  or  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Wertheim  BUde,  which  contains  reviews, 
polemical  pamphlets,  and  his  own  replies  (528  pages, 
4to).  A  similar  collection,  augmented  with  documents 
bearing  on  the  trial,  is  that  of  Sinnhold  (Erfurt.  1737  sq., 
8  pamphleta  containing  217  pages,  4to).  See  also  Walch, 
StreiUgheitm  in  d,  Utth,  Kirche,  pt.  v ;  Baumgarten, 
Nachrichien  von  einer  /foil.  Bibliothek,  pt.  viii :  Schrockh, 
NGure  KivchengeKk,  vii,  598  wi.-  Hprzojr,  Retil-Kncy- 
khp.  s.  V. 

Wesalia,  John  of.    See  Wbsel. 

^TT'essenburg,  Ionatz  HicnmicH,  Baron  ton^  was 
a  prominent  liberal  among  the  prelates  in  the  Romish 
Church  of  Germany,  and  also  a  theological  writer  and  a 
participant  in  civil  affairs.  He  was  bom  at  Dresden, 
Nov.  4, 1774.  His  education,  being  largely  under  the 
direction  of  Jesuits,  was  defective  to  a  degree  that  im- 
paired his  efficiency  as  a  scholar  wbile  he  lived.  He 
visited  the  schools  at  Augsburg,  Dillingen,  Wurzburg, 
aud  Vienna,  nowhere  finding  the  assistance  which  his 
active,  questioning  intellect  demanded,  and  eventually 
confining  his  efforts  to  the  use  of  the  libraries  and  the 
«tudy  of  art,  for  which  latter  employment  the  society 
of  Vienna  afforded  opportunity.  He  had  come  into  the 
possession  of  benefices  as  early  as  1792,  and  to  one  of 
them,  at  Constance,  he  retired  when  the  unpatriotic  pol- 
icy of  the  state  in  the  closing  years  of  the  century  drove 
him  from  the  capital  in  disgust.  In  1799  he  published 
at  Zurich  a  poetical  epistle  on  the  corruption  of  manners 
in  Germany.  In  1800,  Dalberg  (q.  v.)  called  Wessen- 
burg  to  be  his  vicar  in  the  diocese  of  Constance,  and  he 
entered  on  the  duties  of  the  place  with  enthusiasm.  He 
regulated  the  secular  affairs  of  the  diocese  with  a  skill 
which  elicited  the  commendation  of  the  pope  himself. 
He  sought  to  help  his  clergy  to  a  more  systematic  and 
thorough  culture,  and  to  stimulate  it  to  greater  activity, 
giving  to  the  enterprise  his  personal  dforts  and  reor- 
ganizing the  seminary  at  Meersburg  in  its  behalf.  He 
also  sent  individual  clergymen  to  Pestalozzi,  that  they 
might  become  more  practically  acquainted  with  the 
work  of  educating  the  young,  and  established  teachers' 
seminaries  within  his  own  diocese.  By  such  measures 
he  not  only  contributed  materially  to  the  prosperity  of 
his  work,  but  also  arrayed  against  himself  the  opposition 
of  Rome,  which  was  yet  further  intensified  by  his  at- 
tempts to  introduce  the  German  language  into  the  lit- 
urgy, and  to  place  £s8*s  New  Testament  and  Schmidts 
BMische  GeKkichie  in  the  schools  as  text-books.  The 
nuncio  in  Luzerne,  Testaferrate,  succeeded  in  taking 
Switzerland  from  under  the  Jurisdiction  of  Constance. 
In  1817  Wessenburg  was  unanimously  chosen  to  succeed 
Dalberg  as  bishop  of  Constance,  having  previously  been 
coadjutor  to  that  prelate;  but  the  election  was  set  aside 
at  Rome  in  the  most  unqualified  manner,  and  when 
Wessenburg  went  to  Rome  to  plead  his  own  cause,  he 
was  not  g^nted  audience  of  the  pope.  The  grand-duke 
Charles  of  Baden  laid  the  matter  before  the  German 
Diet,  but  without  effect,  and  the  next  duke,  Louis  (1818), 
was  not  favorably  disposed  towards  Wessenburg.  On 
the  erection  of  the  archbishopric  of  Freiburg,  the  local 
clergy  proposed  Wessenburg  as  its  head ;  but  the  gov- 
ernment this  time  refused  its  assent  as  decidedly  as  the 


curia  had  done  in  the  former  instance.  The  king  of 
Wflrtembeig  next  desired  him  to  fill  the  efnsoopal  chair 
of  Rottenbui^,  without  being  able  to  secure  the  assent 
of  Rome.  In  1819  a  new  career  opened  before  Wessen- 
burg through  his  election  to  the  Chambers  of  Baden,  in 
which  he  retained  a  seat  daring  the  next  fourteen  yean^ 
and  in  which  he  was  a  most  zealoos,  eloquent,  and  influ- 
ential representative  of  liberalism  in  its  best  and  purest 
form.  In  1833  he  retired  to  private  life,  devoting  hia 
declining  years  to  literary  occupations  and  to  the  col- 
lection of  works  of  art.  His  circle  of  friends  was  very 
wide,  and  bis  influence  over  them  very  strong.  Queen 
Hortense,  who  resided  near  Constance,  was  among  hia 
friends,  and  it  was  her  influence  which  induced  Louis 
Napoleon  in  1838  to  voluntarily  relieve  Switzerland  of 
the  embarrassment  occasioned  by  the  demand  of  king 
Louis  Philippe  for  his  banishment  by  forsaking  the 
country.  He  died  Aug.  6, 1860.  His  leading  ideas  9a 
a  Churchman  had  occasioned  the  erection  of  a  German 
National  Catholic  Church,  and  a  revivification  of  Church 
councils.  His  principal  work  was  written  with  an  eve 
to  the  latter  subject  It  is  entitled  Die  grossen  Kirehei^ 
versammL  des  15,  u.  16.  Jahrkundert*  (Constance,  1840, 
4  vols.),  and  is  considered  of  some  value.  His  other 
works  are  of  but  little  importance,  because  they  lack  an 
adequate  basis  in  historical  research.  See  Wessenbarg's 
writings;  Beck,  Freihtrr  /.  H.  v.  WmefAurff  (WagneTt 
1862) ;  Baur,  Kirchengesch,  d,  19.  Jahrhundertt^  p.  147 
sq. ;  Herzog,  RecdrEnqfklop,  s.  v. 

WeaBobrtinn  Prayer  (^Wessobnumer  GAdy 
Wessobrunn  is  a  Bavarian  village  in  which,  according 
to  documentary  evidence,  duke  Thassilo  established  a 
mdnastery  in  760;  others  say  740.  Certain  remnants 
of  the  studies  of  the  monks  there  domiciled,  upon  geog- 
raphy, weights  and  measures,  and  also  certain  important 
glosses  of  the  8th  century,  have  been  preserved,  and  par- 
ticularly this  prayer,  which  exists  in  a  codex  now  at 
Munich,  and  which  antiquarians  assign  to  the  8th  cen- 
tury. The  entire  piece,  as  given  in  Wackemagel*s 
A  Udtutsches  Les^ueh,  8d  ed.  p.  61,  reads : 


Dat  gefregln  Ih  mlt  flrablm 

flrmnlzzA  meistA, 
dat  cro  nl  uuas 

nob  fifhirail, 
noh  panm  uoh  pereg 

ni  onas. 
nl  nohheiulg, 

nob  Bunna  ni  scein, 
nob  m&no  ni  liuhtn 

nob  der  mfirco  edo. 
D6  d&r  uluniht  ni  nuas 

enied  nl  uunteft 
enti  d6  naas  der  eino 

almahttco  Cot, 
manno  rolltisto ; 

enti  dAr  uuArun  anh  ma- 
nakd 
mlt  iuau  cootlthhfi  gelstA. 

Enti  Cot  heilac,  Cot  almah- 

tSco, 
dd  himil  enti  erda  gauno- 

rahtOs, 
enti  dCi  maannn  sd  mannc 

coot, 
forgftpi,  forglp  mir  in  dtnA 
ganftdft  rehta  galanpa  euti 

c6tan 
nnilleon,  nntstdm,  enti  spft- 

hlds, 
enti  crnflt  tiuflun  aa  nuldar- 

stantanno 
enti  arc  za  pinutsanne  enti 

dtnan 
nuilleon  sa  ganurcbanne. 


This  learned  I  amouff  loen 

As  the  greatest  of  wfidoms. 
That  earth  was  not 

Neither  the  heaven  above. 
Nor  tree  nor  hill 

Was  not, 
Neither  was  any  [star]. 

Nor  the  sun  shone  not. 
Nor  the  moou  eave  no  lipit. 

Nor  the  high  sea. 
When  there  was  nothing 

Of  ends  and  bonods 
And  there  was  the  one 

Almighty  God, 
The  mildest  of  men : 

And  there  were  alao  with 
him 
Many  godlike  spirits. 

And   God  holy,   God    Al- 
mighty, 
Who  nasi  made  heaven  and 

earth. 
And  who  hast  given  to  men 

so  many  a  g<M>d : 
Give  me  true  confidence  In 

thy  grace 
And  good 
Will,  wisdom,   and   Jttdg> 

ment 
And  hope  to  withstand  dcv- 

lis 
And  throw  off  the  evil  and 

thy 
Will  to  perform. 


Rettberg  argues  (ii,  781)  from  the  superscriptioa  to 
the  first  part  of  the  piece  (Jh  Poela)  that  it  was  Ukcn 
from  some  other  source  by  the  author,  who  appended  to 
it  the  second  part  containing  bis  prayer  for  faith  and 
strength.  Part  first  seems  to  be  designed  for  a  hywam 
on  the  creation,  which,  however,  is  not  carried  beyond 
the  stage  of  God^s  premundane  existence.  Part  second 
is  almost  word  for  word  the  same  as  a  prayer  in  Sc 


WESTMINSTER,  COUNCILS  OF  909  WESTMINSTER,  COUNCILS  OF 


Emmerau's  manuacripti  with  Latin  trandation,  which 
was  doocd  in  ^1.  Grimm  ( Getchichte  d.  datttchen 
Sprache,  p.  484  sq.)  states  that  the  dialect  in  which  the 
entire  piece  ia  written  ia  genuine  old  High-German. 

See  Pertz,  Monmru  Germ,  xi,  215  sq. ;  J/onvm.  Boko, 
Mon.  (1766),  vii,  827;  Mabillon,  AfmaU$  Benedict,  ii, 
163 ;  Hund,  Metropolis  SaliAurg,  Ratup,  ( 1719),  iii, 
885  aq.;  Zedler,  Universal -Lexihon  (Leips.  1748),  Iv; 
Geograph,'Lexikon  (ibid.  1749),  xii;  Wiltach,  Handb, 
d.  HrchL  Geoffr,  v.  Statistik  (Berl.  1846),  i,  880;  Rett- 
berg,  Kirchengesch,  Deutschlcrnds^  ii,  166 ;  the  brothers 
Grimm,  Die  beiden  dltesten  deutscken  Gediekte  (Gassel, 
1812);  Massmann,  Erldutentngen  zum  Wessobr,  Gebet; 
Wackemagel,  Das  Wessobr,  Gebet  u.  d,  Wessobr,  Glossen 
(Berl  iB21):'-id,Auswahldeutsch,Gedickte,4thtd.p,22S; 
Feussner,  Die  altesten  edliierirenden  Dichtungsreste  m 
kochdtutscker  Sprache  (Hanao,  1845) ;  Kehrein,  Proben 
d,  deutsch,  Poesie  tc  Prosa,  i,  18 ;  Putz,  A  Udeutsches  Lese- 
buck  (2d  ed.  Coblentz,  1868),  p.  15,  etc  See  also  Her- 
zog,  Real'EncyJdop,  s.  v. 

'Weatminster,  Couivcils  op  {CmeUium  West' 
monasteriense),  Westminster  is  a  city  of  England, 
county  of  Middlesex,  forming  the  west  part  of  London, 
having  on  the  south  and  west  Chelsea  and  KenaingtoUi 
on  the  north  Marylebone,  and  on  the  east  the  Thames. 
In  1871  the  population  was  246,606.  It  contains  nu- 
merous magnificent  public  buildings,  and  is  the  seat  of 
many  important  historic  events.  Several  ecclesiastic 
councils  have  been  held  there. 

L  Was  held  about  1070,  by  archbishop  Lanfranc,  in 
the  presence  of  William  I,  in  which  Wulstan,  bishop  of 
Worcester,  who  alone  of  the  Saxon  bishops  had  with- 
stood William,  was  deprived,  upon  the  plea  of  want  of 
learning.  When  he  found  that  he  was  to  be  stripped 
of  his  episcopal  vestments,  he  boliUy  exclaimed  to  Will- 
iam, <*  These  I  owe  to  a  better  man  than  thee;  to  him 
will  I  restore  them.**  Whereupon  he  went  to  the  tomb 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  who  had  advanced  him  to  his 
see,  and  there  taking  off  his  vestments  he  laid  them 
down,  and  struck  his  pastoral  staff  so  deep  into  the 
stone  that,  as  the  legend  states,  no  human  force  could 
draw  it  ouL  This  miracle,  or  his  deserved  reputation 
for  sanctity,  produced  a  revision  of  the  sentence  of  dep- 
rivation, and  he  retained  his  bishopric  See  Johnson, 
Preface  to  Lanfraw^s  Caa&ons  at  Winchester;  Wilkins, 
Condi  i,  867 ;  Wharton,  A  nglia  Sacra,  ii,  225. 

IL  Was  held  in  1102,  *"  in  St.  Peter's  Church,  on  the 
west  side  of  London,"  i.  e.  at  Westminster— Anselm, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Gerard  of  York,  being 
present,  with  eleven  other  bishops,  and  some  abbots. 
In  this  synod,  three  great  abbots  were  deposed  for  simo- 
ny, three  not  yet  consecrated  were  turned  out  of  their 
abbeys,  and  three  others  deprived  for  other  crimes. 
Roger  the  king's  chanoeUor  was  consecrated  to  the  see 
of  Salisbury,  and  Roger  the  king's  larderer  to  Hereford. 
Twenty-nine  canons  were  published. 

I.  Forbids  bishops  to  keep  secnlnr  courts  of  pleas,  and 
to  apparel  themselves  like  liiyinen. 

S.  Forbids  to  let  archdeaconries  to  farm. 

8.  Bnacts  that  archdeacons  must  be  deacons. 

4.  Enacts  that  no  archdeacon,  priest,  deacon,  or  canon 
shall  marry,  or  retain  his  wife  If  married.  Knacts  the 
eamu  with  regard  to  sobdeacons  who  have  married  after 
profession  of  chastity. 

h.  Declares  that  a  priest  gnilty  of  fornication  la  not  a 
lawfhl  priest  and  forbids  him  to  celebrate  mass. 

0.  Orders  that  no  one  be  ordained  subdeacou,  or  to  any 
higher  order,  except  he  profess  chastity. 

7.  Orders  that  the  sons  of  priests  be  not  heUrs  to  their 
fkthera'  chnrches. 

8.  Orders  that  no  clergyman  he  ajadse  in  a  case  of  blood. 

9.  Orders  that  priests  go  not  to  drinking -bouts,  nor 
drink  "to pegs." 

10.  Orders  that  their  clothea  be  all  of  one  color,  and 
their  shoes  plain. 

II.  Orders  monks  or  clerks  who  have  forsaken  their  or- 
der to  retnm,  or  be  excommunicated. 

19.  Orders  that  the  tonsure  of  clerks  be  visible. 
18.  Orders  that  tithe  be  paid  to  the  Chnrch  only. 
14.  Forbids  to  bny  churches  or  prebends. 
16.  Forbids  to  bnild  new  chapels  withont  the  bishop's 
conseut 


10.  Forbids  to  consecrate  new  churches  until  all  thinga 
necessary  for  it.  and  the  priest,  have  been  provided. 

17.  Forbids  abbots  to  create  knights ;  orders  them  to 
eat  and  sleep  in  the  same  house  with  their  monks. 

18.  Forbids  monks  to  enjoin  penance  except  in  certain 
cases. 

19.  Forbids  monks  to  be  godrathers,  or  nnns  godmoth- 
ers. 

90.  Forbids  monks  to  hire  farms. 

91.  Forbids  monks  to  accept  of  the  impropriations  of 
churches  without  the  bishop's  consent,  and  further  for- 
bids them  to  spoil  and  rednce  to  poverty  those  who  min- 
ister in  their  parishes. 

22.  Declares  promises  of  marriage  made  withont  wit- 
nesses to  be  null,  If  either  party  deny  them. 

2S.  Orders  that  those  who  have  hair  be  clipped,  so  that 
their  ears  and  eyes  shall  be  visible. 

94  Forbids  those  who  are  related  within  the  seventh 
degree  to  marry. 

S&  Forbids  to  deft-and  the  priest  of  his  does  by  carry- 
ing a  corpse  fur  burial  to  another  parish. 

M.  Fwbids  to  attribute  reverence  or  sanctity  to  a  dead 
body,  or  fountain,  etc,  without  the  bishop's  authority. 

27.  Forbids  to  sell  men  like  beasts,  as  had  biiherio 
been  done  in  Eneland. 

S8.  Anathematizes  persons  guilty  of  certain  horrible 
sins  of  undeanness. 

29.  Orders  the  publication  of  the  above  excommunica- 
tion In  all  chnrches  every  Sunday. 

See  Johnson,  Eodes,  Canons,  A.D.  1102;  Wilkins,  Cone, 

i,382. 

III.  Was  held  Jan.  13, 1 126.  Otto,  the  pope's  nuncio, 
was  present,  and  read  a  bull  of  Honorius  containing  the 
same  proposition  which  the  legate  had  made  to  the 
French  clergy  assembled  at  Bourges  in  November,  1225, 
vie,  that  in  every  cathedral  church  the  pope  should 
nominate  to  two  prebends  and  in  every  monastery  to 
two  places.  The  bishops  separated  without  coming  to 
any  decision.    See  Mansi,  ConciL  xi,  303. 

IV.  Was  held  Sept.  9, 1126,  by  WiUiam  Corbeil,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbur>'«-John  de  Cremona,  legate  from 
Honoriua  II,  presiding.  Thurstan,  archbishop  of  York, 
and  about  twenty  bishops,  forty  abbots,  and  an  innumer- 
able assembly  of  clergy  and  people,  were  present  Sev- 
enteen canons  were  published. 

1.  Forbids  simony. 

2.  Forbids  to  charge  anything  for  chrism,  oil,  baptism, 
visiting  and  anointing  the  sick,  communion,  and  burial. 

8.  Forbids  to  demand  cope,  carpet,  towel,  or  basin  at 
the  consecration  of  bishops,  or  churches,  or  blessing  of 
abbots. 

4.  Forbids  investiture  at  the  hands  of  lay  persons. 

5.  Forbids  anv  one  to  challenge  a  church  or  benefice  by 
inheritance,  and  to  appoint  a  sncoesaor.  Psa.  Ixxxiii,  18, 
13  is  quoted. 

A.  Deprives  beneficed  clerks  who  refused  to  be  ordained 
(priests  or  deacons)  in  order  that  they  might  live  more  at 
liberty. 

7.  Orders  that  none  but  priests  be  mode  deans  or  pri- 
ors, nor  any  but  deacons  archdeacons. 

8.  Forbids  to  ordain  any  one  a  priest  withont  a  title. 

9.  Forbids,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  to  eject  any 
one  flrom  a  cliurch  to  which  be  has  been  instituted  with- 
ont the  bishop's  sentence. 

10.  Forbids  otshops  to  ordain  or  pass  sentence  upon  any 
one  belonging  to  the  Jurisdiction  of  another  bishop. 

11.  Forbids,  under  pain  of  excommnnlcation,  to  receive 
an  excommunicated  person  to  communion. 

12.  Forbids  any  one  to  hold  two  dignities  in  the  Chnrch. 

13.  Forbids  priests,  deacons,  snbdeacous,  and  canons  to 
dwell  in  the  same  house  with  any  woman,  except  a  moth-' 
er,  sister,  annt,  or  unsuspected  woman.   Offenders  to  lose 
their  order. 

14.  Forbids  the  practice  of  usury  smong  clerks. 
Ifi.  Bxcommnuicates  sorcerers,  etc 

lA.  Forbids  marriage  within  the  seventh  degree 
17.  Declares  that  no  regard  is  to  be  paid  to  hnsbanda 
who  implead  their  wives  as  too  near  akin  to  them. 

See  Wilkins,  Cone,  i,  406 ;  Johnson,  Kedes.  Canons,  A.D. 

1126. 

y.  Was  held  in  1127,  by  William  Corbeil,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  the  pope's  legate;  ten  English  bishops 
attended,  and  three  Welsh.  It  is  also  said  that  the 
multitude  of  clergy  and  laity  of  all  ranks  who  flocked 
to  the  oouncil  waa  immense,  but  no  mention  is  made  of 
abbotSL  The  archbishop  of  York  sent  excuses,  and  the 
biahopa  of  Durham  and  Worcester  were  also  absent; 
the  sees  of  London  and  Coventry  were  at  that  time  va- 
cant. Thia  synod  sat  three  several  days,  and  ten  can- 
ons were  published. 

1.  Forbids,  "by  authority  of  Peter,  prince  of  the  asoa- 


WESTMINSTER,  COUNCILS  OF  910  WESTMINSTER,  COUNCIIfi  OF 


ties,"  and  that  of  the  Archbishop  and  bishops  aasembled, 
the  Daying  and  selling  of  churches  and  benefices. 

2.  Forbids  any  one  to  be  ordained  or  preferred  by  means 
of  money. 

8.  Forbids  all  demands  of  money  for  admitting  monks, 
canonfli,  or  nans. 

4,  Orders  that  priests  only  shall  be  made  deans,  and  dea- 
C0U9  archdeacons. 

6.  Forbids  priests,  deacons,  snbdeacone,  and  canons  tn 
live  with  women  not  allowed  by  law.  Those  that  adhered 
to  their  concnbines  or  wives  to  be  deprived  of  their  order, 
dignity,  and  benefice;  If parUh  pHsste,  to  be  cost  ont  of 
the  choir  and  declared  infamoas. 

6.  Beqnires  archdeacons  and  others  whom  it  concerned 
to  use  all  their  endeavors  to  root  oat  this  plagne  from  the 
Church. 

7.  Orders  the  ezpnlston  Trom  the  parish  of  the  concn- 
bines of  priests  ana  canons,  unless  they  are  lawfully  mar- 
ried there.  If  they  be  afterwards  found  fnalty,  directs 
that  they  shall  be  brought  under  ecclesiastical  discipline, 
or  servitude,  at  the  discretion  of  the  bishop. 

8.  Forbids,  under  anathema,  anv  one  to  hold  several 
archdeaconries  in  several  bishoprics,  and  directs  him  to 
keep  to  that  he  first  took ;  forbids  priests,  abbots,  and 
monks  to  take  anything  to  farm. 

9.  Orders  the  payment  of  tithe  in  fbll.  Forbids  church- 
es or  tithes  or  benefices  to  be  given  or  taken  without  the 
consent  of  the  bishop. 

10.  That  no  abbess  or  nun  use  more  costly  apparel  than 
such  as  is  made  of  lambs'  ur  cats'  skins. 

Matthew  of  Paris  declares  that  the  king  (Henry  I) 
eluded  all  these  provisions  (to  which  he  had  given  his 
consent)  by  obtaining  from  the  archbishop  a  promise 
that  he  should  be  intrusted  with  their  execution ;  where- 
as, in  reality,  he  executed  them  only  by  taking  money 
from  the  priests  as  a  ransom  for  their  concubines.  See 
Johnson  fEedes.  CcaumSfAJD,  1127;  Wilkins,  Cone,  i,410. 
VI.  Was  held  in  1138  by  Alberic,  bishop  of  Ostia, 
legate  of  pope  Innocent  II,  during  the  vacancy  of  the 
see  of  Canterbury ;  eighteen  bishops  and  about  thirty 
abbots  attended,  who  proceeded  to  the  election  of  Theo- 
bald to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  Seventeen  canons  were 
published. 

I.  Forbids  to  demand  any  price  for  chrism,  oil,  baptism, 
penance,  visitation  of  the  sick,  espousals,  unction,  com- 
munion, or  burial,  under  pain  of  excommunication. 

8.  Orders  that  the  body  of  Christ  be  not  reserved  above 
eight  days,  and  that  it  be  ordinarily  carried  to  the  sick  by 
a  priest  or  deacon  only ;  in  case  of  extreme  necessity  by 
any  one,  but  with  the  greatest  reverence. 

8.  Forbids  to  demand  a  cope,  ecclesiastical  vestment,  or 
anything  else,  upon  the  consecration  of  bishops  and  bene- 
diction of  abbots ;  also  forbids  to  require  a  carpet,  towel, 
basin,  or  anything  beyond  the  canonical  procuration,  upon 
the  dedication  of  a  church. 

4.  Forbids  to  demand  any  extra  fees  when  a  bishop  not 
belongiuf^  to  the  diocese  consecrates  a  church. 

6.  Forbids  lay  investitures ;  orders  every  one.  upon  in- 
vestitnre  by  the  bishop,  to  swear  on  the  gospels  that  he 
has  not,  dlrectlv  or  Indirectly,  given  or  promised  anything 
for  it,  else  the  donation  to  be  unll. 

6.  Is  identical  with  canon  6,  A.D.  118<K. 

T.  Forbids  persons  ordained  by  other  than  their  own 
bishop  without  letters  flrom  him  to  exercise  their  office; 
reserves  the  restoration  of  them  to  their  order  to  the  pope, 
unless  they  take  a  religious  habit. 

8.  Deprives  concubinary  clerks,  and  forbids  any  to  hear 
their  mass. 

0.  Deprives  usurious  clergvmen. 

10.  Anathematizes  him  that  kills,  imprisons,  or  lays 
hands  on  a  clerk,  monk,  nun,  or  other  ecclesiastical  per- 
son. Forbids  any  but  the  pope  to  grant  him  penance  at 
the  Inst,  except  in  extreme  danger  of  death ;  aenies  him 
bnrial  if  he  die  Impenitent. 

II.  Excommunicates  all  persons  violently  taking  away 
the  floods  of  the  Church. 

12.  Forbids  any  one  to  build  a  church  or  oratory  upon 
his  et^tate  without  the  bishop's  license. 

13.  Forbids  the  clergy  to  carry  arms  and  fight  in  the 
wars. 

14.  Forbids  monks  after  receiving  orders  to  recede  from 
their  ri)rmer  way  of  living. 

15.  Forbids  nuns,  under  anathema,  to  use  parti-colored 
skins  or  golden  rings,  and  to  wreathe  their  hair. 

IG.  Commands,  under  anathema,  all  persons  to  pay  the 
tithe  of  all  their  fruits. 

17.  Forbids  schoolmasters  to  hire  out  their  schools  to  be 
governed  by  others. 

See  Johnson,  Ecdcs,  Canons^  A^D.  1138;  Wilkins,  Cone 
i,  413. 

YII.  Was  held  in  1176  by  cardinal  Hugo  or  Hage> 
zen,  who  had  been  sent  from  Rome  to  endeavor  to  settle 
the  dispute  between  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 


York ;  the  latter  of  whom  claimed  the  right  of  having 
his  cross  borne  before  him  in  the  province'Of  Gmterburr. 
Many  prelates  and  clergy  attended ;  bat  when  Boger  of 
York,  upon  entering  the  assembly,  perceived  that  the 
seat  on  the  right  hand  of  the  legate  had  been  assigned 
to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  that  on  the  left 
kept  for  himself,  he  thrust  himself  into  the  lap  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  whereupon  the  aervants  of 
the  latter  and  many  of  the  bishops  (as  Hovenden  writes) 
threw  themselves  upon  the  archbuhop  of  York,  and 
forced  him  down  upon  the  ground,  trampled  upon  him, 
and  rent  his  cope;  upon  which  the  council  broke  up  in 
confusion.    Johnson,  ut  tup. ;  Wilkins,  Cone  i,  485. 

YIII.  Was  a  national  council  held  in  1200  by  Hubert 
Walter,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  which  fifteen  can- 
ons were  published. 

I.  Orders  the  priest  to  aay  the  canon  of  the  mass  dis- 
tinctly, and  to  rehearse  the  hours  and  all  the  ofltces  plain* 
ly,  and  without  clipping  the  words.  Offenders  to  be  en»- 
pended. 

a.  Forbids  to  celebrate  two  masses  in  one  day  except  in 
case  of  necessity.  When  it  is  done,  it  directs  that  nothing 
be  poured  into  the  chalice  after  the  first  celebration,  bat 
that  the  least  drop  be  diligently  supped  out  of  the  chalice, 
and  the  finders  sucked  and  washed ;  the  washings  to  be 
drunk  by  the  priest  after  the  second  celebration,  ezoqit  a 
deacon  be  present  to  do  so  at  the  time.  Orders  that  the 
eucharist  be  kept  in  a  decent  pyx,  and  carried  to  the  sick 
with  cross  and  candle ;  care  to  be  taken  not  to  confuse 
the  consecrated  and  unconsecrated  hosta. 

8.  Orders  that  baptism  and  confirmation  shall  be  con- 
ferred upon  those  concerning  whom  there  exists  a  doubt 
whether  or  not  they  have  received  them.  Forbids  Cithers, 
mothers-in-law,  and  parents  to  hold  the  child  at  the  foot. 
Forbids  deacons  to  baptize  and  give  penance,  except  in 
cose  of  the  priest's  absence,  or  other  necessity.  Permits 
even  a  father  or  mother  to  baptise  their  child  In  case  of 
necessity,  and  orders  that  all  that  follows  after  the  im- 
mersion shall  be  completed  subsequently  by  the  priesL 

4.  Relates  to  the  administration  of  penance. 

&  Renews  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Lateran,  A.D. 
1179,  which  restrict  the  expenses  and  retinue  of  prelates 
and  other  ordinaries  when  in  visitation,  and  declares  the 
design  of  visitations  to  be  to  see  to  what  concerns  the  cure 
of  souls,  and  that  every  church  have  a  silver  chalice,  de- 
cent vestments,  and  necessary  books,  utensils,  etc 

6.  Orders  that  bishops  ordaining  any  one  without  a  title 
shall  maintain  him  till  he  can  make  a  clerical  proTision 
for  him. 

7.  Renews  the  canon  of  Lateran,  A.I>.  1179,  which  for- 
bids prelates  to  excommunicate  their  subjects  without  ca- 
nonical warning.  Orders  the  yearly  pronunciation  of  a 
general  excommanication  against  persons  guilty  of  vari- 
ous specific  Crimea 

6.  Renews  canon  7,  Lateran,  A.D.  1179. 

9.  Orders  the  payment  of  tithe  without  abatement  for 
wages,  etc ;  grants  to  priests  the  power  of  excommuni- 
cating, before  harvest,  all  withholaers  of  tithe.  Orders 
the  tithe  of  land  newly  cultivated  to  be  paid  to  the  partsh 
church.    Orders  detainers  of  tithe  to  be  anathematised. 

10.  Forbids  to  institute  any  persons  to  churches  not 
worth  more  than  three  marks  per  annum  who  will  not 
serve  in  i)er8on.  Renews  the  11th  canon  of  Lateran,  A.D. 
1 1 79.  Forbids  clerks  to  go  to  taverns  and  driukiog-booths, 
and  so  put  themselves  in  the  way  of  being  Insulted  by  laj- 
nien.  Orders  all  the  clergy  to  use  the  canonical  tonsnre 
and  clerical  habit,  and  archdeacons  and  dignified  clergy- 
men copes  with  sleeves. 

II.  Forbids  marriage  under  various  circumstances:  or- 
ders that  the  banns  m  thrice  published ;  that  marrilage  be 
celebrated  openly  in  the  face  of  the  Church. 

12.  Orders  those  who,  being  suspected  of  crimes,  deny 
them,  to  undergo  a  purgation. 

18.  Renews  the  SSd  canon  of  Lateran,  1179,  concerning 
churches  and  priests  for  Icpen. 

14.  Renews  canon  9  of  Lateran,  which  forbids  the  Tem* 
plars  and  other  fraternities  to  accept  of  tithes,  churches, 
etc.,  without  the  bishop's  consent. 

16.  Renews  canon  10  of  Lateran,  1179,  and  contains  vari- 
ous regulations  relating  to  the  dress,  etc,  of  the  religions. 

See  Wilkins,  Cone  i,  505;  Johnson,  Ecdet,  Commw,  ad 
ann. 

IX.  Was  held  about  1229  by  Richard  Wethenhed, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Twelve  constitutions  w«e 
published,  eleven  of  which  are  the  same  with  those  pub- 
lished in  the  Council  of  London,  A.D.  1175.  The  last 
refers  to  the  duties  of  physLciana.  See  Johnson,  Eedef, 
Canons, 

X.  Was  held  in  1229  under  master  Stephen,  chaplain 
and  nuncio  of  the  pope,  who,  sorely  to  the  discomfort  of 
the  assembly,  demand^  on  the  part  of  Rome  the  tentha 


WHALLEY 

oT  all  movabln  belDngEiif;  to  clCTgjr  and  liitT  in  E 
Und,  Ireland,  and  Wain,  in  order  to  enable  the  Koi 
pontiff  to  cany  on  war  agoinit  the  excommunicated 
peior  Frederick.     The  argumenla  by  which,  auun 
Kome  ai  the  hcail  or  all  ehuRhes,  it  wai  lueneri  that 
bet  Tall  would  inroire  the  ruin  of  the  memben,  was 
met  on  the  pan  of  the  tail  j  by  a  plain  refuial ;  anil  tht 
cWgy,  after  three  or  four  days'  deliberation  end  oo  amai: 
re  at  length  brought  to  coiucnt  ftom  feai 


of  e 


!ing  the 


■edience  to  the  demand.     See  Wilkina, 
Cone,  i,  032.-Landon,  Ma-aal  of  CouwHt,  (  " " 

Whalley.  Thomas  SKixuviri,  D.D.,  a  Church  of 
England  divine,  wa*  bom  in  JT4fi.     He  waa  educai 
at  Su  John'a  College,  Cambridge^  graduating  B.A. 
17C7,  and  U.A.  in  1774;  waa  preienled  to  the  recti 
of  Uaewonh Ingham,  LincolnabiT^  in  1772,  and  died 
La  Flecbr,  Nor.SO,  1828.     He  publinhed  hia  £ificy  oaiJ 
EdUia,  a  tale  (1778,  8vo)  \—T\e  fatal  Kiu,  a  poem 
written  in  the  last  stage  of  an  atrophy,  by  a  beautiful 
.vnang  lady  (1781, 4to) :—  Virtti  aidnited  lo  Idrt.  Sid- 
ibnu  Q7«i,ilo):—JHonBt  Blaac.t  poem  (1788, 4to)  :— 
TMa  Cattk  ofifonteal,  a  tragedy*  (1781,  8vo):— i-oenu 
and  Trantlaliont  (Sya)  ■.—Ktimil  and  Finrlia,  a  legend- 
arv  Ule  (  1809,  8vd).     See  (Lond.)  Amiuol  RrgUter, 
1S28,  p.  267. 

Wliedon,  DASiiir.  Dekiuin,  D.I>.,  LL.D.,  an  em 
nent  Methodist  EpiKupal  diTine,  was  horn  at  Ouondag 
N.  Y.,  March  20, 1808.  lie  graduated  from  Hamilti 
College  in  182Sj  Mudied  law  in  Rocheiter  for  a  ja 
and  then  became  leacheT  in  Caienovia  Seminarv;  : 
1831  tutor  in  hia  alimt  maliri  in  1S33  professor  of  lai 
guages  in  Wealeyan  Univeiaity,  Conn. ;  in  1834  juini 
the  New  York  Conference;  in  1842  was  ttinsrerred  ' 
the  Troy  Conference,  and  alationed  in  1843  at  riii. 
Held,Maas.;  in  I84fi  became  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the 
UniTcntty  nt  Michigan;  in  18&S  pastor  at  Jamaica, 
L.  I. ;  in  i85C  editor  of  the  Milhodul  Qaarlnii/  Rfciea, 
a  position  which  he  retained  until  1884.  He  died  at 
Atlantic  Highlands,  N.  J.,  June  8,  1886.  Dr.  Whedou 
vaa  noted  for  his  iudsive,  vigorous  style,  both  as  preach- 
er and  writer,  and  was  remarkably  powerful  in  contro- 
TCtij.  He  wrote  very  largely  fur  the  denominational 
press,  and  prominent  among  his  works  are  a 
in  llu  Wai  (New  York,  I8C4),  and  a  Commmit 
j\"«rr»»(.(1860-80,6vols.  12mo).  See  Alumni Rreord 
efWaltyan  t'ni«mVy,  1888,  p.  xaix,  G&6. 

W1w«l.  The  vision  of  the  wheels  demands  somt 
remark  (Eiek.  i,  IB,  16, 19-21) ;— "  Nun-  as  I  beheld  th( 
living  ctealurea,  behold  one  wheel  upon  ilie  earth  by  lb( 
living  creatures,  with  his  four  faces.  The  appearance  of 
the  wheels  and  their  work  waa  like  unto  the  color  of  a 
beryl:  and  they  (uur  had  one  likeness:  and  their  ap- 
peatanoe  and  Ibeit  work  waa  aa  it  were  a  wheel  in  the 
middle  of  a  wheel.  And  when  the  living  creatures 
went,  the  wheels  went  by  them :  and  when  the  living 
creatures  were  lifted  up  from  the  earth,  the  wheels 


lifted  up.     Wbitl 


they  went,  thither  was  their  spirit  to  go;  and  ihi 
wheels  were  lifted  up  over  against  them :  fur  the  spirit 
of  the  living  creature  was  in  the  wheels.  When  thoee 
went,  these  went;  and  when  those  stood,  these  stood; 
and  when  those  were  lifted  up  from  the  earth,  the 
wheels  were  lifted  up  over  against  them :  fur  the  spirit 
of  the  living  creature  was  in  the  wheels."  This  vision 
of  Eieklel  has  always  been  regarded  both  by  Jews  and 
Christians  as  very  abstruse  and  difficult  of  interpreta- 
tion, so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the  former  anciently  for- 
bade It  to  be  read  by  persons  under  thirty  yeara  of  age. 
Bush  obaerres, "  From  alt  that  we  can  gather  of  thi 
form  of  these  wheels,  they  appear  to  have  been  spheri- 
cal, or  each  composed  of  two  of  equal  size,  and  inserted 
the  rim  of  tbe  one  into  that  of  the  other  at  right  an- 
gles, and  so  consisting  of  four  equal  pans  or  half-circles. 
They  were  accordingly  adapted  to  run  either  forward 
or  backward,  to  the  right  hud  or  to  tbe  left,  without 


WHIPPING 

any  lateral  turning,  and  by  this  means  their  motion 
carte^nded  with  that  of  the  foot  faces  of  the  living 
creatures  to  which  they  were  attached.  'When  they 
went  upon  their  fuur  aides,  they  turned  not  as  they 
went,'  lleb.  'When  they  went,  they  went  upon  the 
quarter-part  of  their  fourfold nesa,"  i.  e.  upon  of  in  the 
direction  of  one  of  the  four  vertical  semicircles  into 
which  they  were  divided,  and  which  looked  towards 
the  fuur  points  of  the  compass.  When  it  is  said  '  they 
turned  not,'  It  is  not  to  be  nnderstooil  that  they  had  not 
a  revolving  ot  rotary  motion,  but  that  tb«y,  like  the 
facts,  never  forsook  a  *traightf«waid  course."  A  sim- 
ilar fraq/brm  position  of  tbs  wheels  ia  adopted  by 
most  commentators.  Of  veraea  19  and  20  the  same  au- 
thor observes,  "These  circumstances  are  doubtlen dwelt 
upon  with  peculiar  empbaus  in  order  to  show  the  in- 
timacy of  relation  and  harmony  of  action  subsisting 
between  the  living  creatures  and  the  wheels,  or,  mora 
properly,  between  the  things  symbolically  represented 
by  ihem."  Ijyard  observes  that  the  "wheel  within 
wheel"  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  emblematical 
flgnres  may  refer  lo  the  winged  circle  or  wheel  repre- 

Jng  at  Nimrfidthe  supt«medeity  (A'tneivA,  iil,8^2). 

CneuuBtM. 


Andent  Assyrian  Smblems  of  Ddty. 

Whoel  of  Bolls,  an  instmnwnt  consisting  of  a 
broad  wooden  wheel  to  which  from  eight  to  twelve 
ulver  bells  are  affixed,  rung  by  a  rope  at  the  elenlion 
of  the  host  in  certain  foreign  churebes,  remarkable  ex- 
amples of  which  exist  at  Hanresa  and  Gentna,  Spain. 
The  apecimen  at  tbe  former  town,  placed  against  the 
wall  of  the  cboir-alale,  is  contained  in  an  omamenlat 
eight-uded  wooden  case  with  Gothic  sound-holes;  that 
at  the  latter,  bung  against  the  north  wall,  is  all  of 
wood,  its  frame  being  corbelled  out  from  the  wall 

Wliealook.  At^iuo,  D.D^  a  Baptist  minister,  ma 
bom  in  1801,  In  Yermont.  Although  the  cireumsunce* 
of  his  eariy  life  were  ot  a  somewhat  depressing  charac- 
-  '-J,  be  secured  for  himself  a  good  classical  education, 
id  had  almost  completed  his  studies  preparatory  to 
itering  upon  the  practice  of  medicine,  when  he  became 
hopeful  Christian,  lie  now  decided  to  lit  himself  fur 
the  ministry.  He  was  a  graduate  of  what  is  now  tbe 
Theological  Seminary  of  Madison  (N.  Y.)  University,  in 
the  class  of  1839.  He  had  an  honorable  and  succ^ul 
lioistr}'.  Hia  life  as  a  minister  was  spent  mostly  with 
churches  in  the  S(al«  of  New  York.  For  several  years 
he  had  charge  of  a  Church  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
lie  was  recognised  as  an  able  scholar  and  an  attractive 
preacher,  and  maile  hosts  of  friends  wherever  he  lived. 
~  or  three  years  before  bis  clcath  he  waa  obliged 

from  the  active  duties  of  the  ministry.    Hia 
deatb  occurred  at  Fiedonla,  in  March,  1873.     (J.  C.  S.) 
Whipping  ivas  a  punishment  employed  in  the  an- 


WHIRLWIND 


912 


WHIRLWIND 


ctent  Charch  for  the  discipline  of  janior  monkf  and  in- 
ferior clergy  for  insnbordiaatlon.  It  was  also  applied 
to  others  in  certain  cases.  Binfi^ham  (Christ,  Antiq,  bk. 
vii,  ch.  iii)  quotes  from  Palladius  as  follows:  <*In  the 
Church  of  Mount  Nitria,  there  were  three  whips  hanged 
upon  three  palm-trees — one  for  the  offending  monks,  an- 
other for  the  correcting  of  thieves,  and  a  third  for  the  cor- 
recting of  strangers,  whom  they  entertained  in  a  hospital 
^adjoining."  Again,  in  Bingham's  A  nHqvitiet  (bk.  xvi, 
ch.  iii),  we  find  these  statementa:  "  Cyprian,  in  the  Life 
o/Cctsaruu  Avelai^nsU,  says  that  bishop  observed  this 
method  both  with  slaves  and  freemen ;  and  that  when 
they  were  to  be  scourged  for  their  faults,  they  should 
suffer  forty  stripes  -save  one,  according  as  the  law  ap- 
pointed. The  Council  of  Agde  orders  the  same  punish- 
ment, not  only  for  junior  monks,  but  also  for  the  inferior 
clergy.  And  the  Council  of  Mascon  particularly  insists 
upon  the  number  of  forty  stripes  save  one.  .  .  .  The 
Council  of  Epone  speaks  of  stripes  as  the  peculiar  pun- 
ishment of  the  minor  clergy  for  the  same  crimes  that 
were  punished  with  excommunication  for  a  whole  year 
in  the  superior  derg}'.'*    See  Scoubob. 

"Wliirlwind  (MfislD,  suphdh,  Job  xxxvii,  9;  Prov. 
i,  27;  X,  25;  Isa.  v,  28;  xvii,  13;  xxi,  1 ;  Ixvi,  15;  Jer. 
iv,  13;  Hos.  viii,  7;  Amos  i,  14;  Neh.  i,  8;  elsewhere 
*'  storm,"  etc,  denoting  the  sweeping  force  of  the  wind  or 
hurricane;  also  "170, fdar  Jer. xxiii,  19 ;  xxv,*82;  xxx, 
23;  elsewhere  "tempest," or  [fern.]  11*^90,2  Kings  ii, 
1,  11;  Job  xxx  viii,  1,6;  Isa.  x],24;  xli,  16;  Jer.xxiii, 
19;  XXX,  23;  Ezek.  i,  4;  Zech.  ix,  14;  elsewhere 
"storm," etc.,  which  denote  rather  the  violent  rain  or 
tempegtf  although  accompanied  with  wind,  Psa.  cvii,  25 ; 
Ezek.  xiii,  11,  13).  "The  two  Hebrew  terms  above 
noted  convey  the  notion  of  a  violent  wind,  but  with  a 
different  radical  import — the  former,  because  such  a 
wind  twtepe  away  every  object  it  encounters ;  the  lat- 
ter, because  the  objects  so  swept  away  are  fosted  about 
and  destroyed.  In  addition  to  this,  Gesenius  gives 
^a  similar  sense  to  galydl^  in  Psa.  Ixxvii,  18  (A.y. 
*  heaven')  and  Ezek.  x,  18  (A.  V.  <  wheel').  Generally, 
however,  this  last  term  expresses  one  of  the  effects  of 
such  a  storm  in  roUing  along  chaff,  stubble,  or  such  light 
articles  {Thesaur,  p.  288).  It  does  not  appear  that  any 
of  the  above  terms  express  the  specific  notion  of  airAtr/- 
wind,  L  e.  a  gale  moving  violently  round  on  its  own  axis, 
and  there  is  no  warrant  for  tlie  use  of  the  word  in  the 
A.  v.  of  2  Kings  ii,  11.  The  most  violent  winds  in 
Palestine  come  from  the  cast;  and  the  passage  in  Job 
xxxvii,  9,  which  in  the  A.y.  reads  'Out  of  the  south 
cometh  the  whirlwind,*  should  rather  be  rendered '  Out 
of  his  chamber,'  etc.  The  whirlwind  is  frequently  used 
as  a  metaphor  for  violent  and  sweeping  destruction. 
Cyru8*s  invasion  of  Babylonia  is  compared  to  a  southerly 
gale  coming  out  of  the  wilderness  of  Arabia  (Isa.  xxi, 
1 ;  comp.  Knobel,  ad  locJ)^  the  effects  of  which  are  most 
prejudicial  in  that  country.  Similar  allusions  occur  in 
Psa.  Iviii,  9 ;  Prov.  i,  27 ;  x,  25 ;  Isa.  xl,  24 ;  Dan.  xi,  40" 
(Smith).  In  a  larg^  proportion  of  the  passages  the 
terras  in  question  are  employed  in  a  figurative  sense 
with  reference  to  the  resistless  and  sweeping  destruc- 
tion that  is  sure  to  overtake  the  wicked.  But  this  of 
course  impUes  that  tempests  of  such  a  character  were 
])henorocna  not  unknown  in  some  parts  of  Palestine. 
We  have  only  to  look  into  the  accounts  of  travellers  to 
»ee  how  much  this  is  the  case,  especially  in  the  South 
Country  and  the  regions  bordering  on  the  Dead  Sea. 
Prof.  Robinson  and  party  were  exposed  to  a  violent 
sirocco  in  the  desert,  in  their  route  from  Akabah  to  Je- 
rusalem, which  continued  until  towards  evening. 

*'  The  wind  had  been  all  the  morning  N.E.,  but  at  eleven 
o'clock  it  snddenly  chsnged  to  the  south,  and  came  apon 
ns  with  violence  nnd  intense  heat,  nntil  it  blew  a  perfect 
tempest  The  atmosphere  was  filled  with  fine  pnrttclee 
<>r  sand,  forming  a  bluish  hsze ;  the  snu  was  scnrcel  j  vtKi- 
ble,  hia  disk  exnibltlDg  only  a  dnn  nnd  nickly  hoe :  nnd 
the  glow  of  the  wind  came  upon  onr  faces  ns  from  a  burn- 


ing oven.  Often  we  ooold  not  see  ten  rods  around  na,  and 
onr  eyes,  ean,  months,  and  clothes  were  filled  with  sand. 
The  thermometer  at  twelve  o*clock  stood  at  SSP  Fahr.,  and 
had  apparently  been  higher;  and  at  two  o'clock  it  had 
fallen  to  76°,  although  the  wind  still  continued.  Onr 
Arabs  called  it  ahurkiyeh,  I.  e.  an  east  wind,  altbongh  it 
blew  from  the  south.  The  simoon,  L  e.  burmng  or  poison- 
otft  wind,  they  said,  differs  from  it  only  in  Its  greater  heat 
—the  base,  and  sand,  and  discoloration  of  the  air  being 
alike  in  both.  Bhonld  it  overtake  a  traveller  without 
water,  it  may.  in  certain  drcomstances,  prove  fatal  to 
him.  He  needs  water,  not  only  to  drink,  but  It  is  well  to 
wash  the  skin.  The  simoon,  tney  said,  prevails  only  dor> 
ing  the  season  when  the  khamsin  blows  in  Egypt." 

Farther  on  he  states,  *'The  tempest  had  become  a  tor- 
nado. It  was  with  the  utmost  difiicultv  that  we  oould 
pitch  our  tent,  or  keep  it  upright  after  it  was  pitched. 
For  a  time  the  prospect  was  dreadful,  and  the  storm  in 
itself  was  probably  as  terrific  as  most  of  thoee  which 
have  given  rise  to  the  exaggerated  accounts  of  travel- 
lers'* (  Researches^  i,  287,  289  ).  A  similar  tempest  of 
hot  wind,  **  the  glow  of  the  air  being  like  the  mouth  of 
a  furnace,"  and  fully  charged  with  dust  and  sand,  over- 
took him  in  the  Arabah,  not  very  far  from  the  Dead  Sea, 
about  the  end  of  Blay  (ibid,  ii,  604).  Lieut.  L^'nch  de- 
scril)e8,  nnder  April  26,  a  tempest  which  assailed  him 
on  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was  with  difficulty  the  boat  was 
rowed  ashore.  He  and  hia  companiona  were  nearly 
stifled  with  the  wind.  They  sought  relief  in  a  ravine, 
where  they  found  pools  sufficient  to  bathe  in ;  bat  the 
relief  was  only  momentar}*.  The  wind  increased  to  a 
tempest;  the  sun  became  red  and  ray  less;  the  ther- 
mometer rose  to  104^;  and  when  "some  endeavored  to 
make  a  screen  of  one  of  the  boat's  awnings,  the  fierce 
wind  swept  it  over  in  an  instant  It  waa  more  like  a 
blast  of  a  furnace  than  living  air"  {Expedition^  p.  314). 
Kitto  remarks  (Piicf.  BibUj  note  on  Isa.  xxxvii,  36) : 

'*As  we  have  ourselves  only  felt  the  mitigated  effect* 
of  this  wind  on  the  skirts  of  deserts  and  in  the  shelter  of 
towns,  we  cannot  from  experience  speak  of  the  more  di»- 
astrons  effects  which  it  exhibits  in  tne  open  deserts ;  bat, 
judging  from  what  we  observed  under  the  circumstaners 
Indicated,  and  from  such  information  as  we  have  collected, 
we  have  no  donbt  that  the  numerons  acoompliahed  travel- 
lers of  ilie  last  centary  and  the  one  beforeu  as  Chardin, 
Shaw,  NIebuhr,  Volney,  Bmce,  Ives,  and  others,  are  cor- 
rect in  their  nnlted  testimony,  supported  as  it  la  by  the 
consenting  evidence  of  natives  accustomed  to  traverse  the 
deserts.  It  is  necessary  to  mention  this,  becanse  some 
more  recent  travellers,  who.  on  aocoant  of  the  seaaon  or 
direction  of  their  jonmeys,  had  no  occasion  to  experience 
any  other  than  the  milder  effects  of  this  wind,  have  seemed 
to  donbt  the  destmctive  power  which  has  been  attrlbnted 
to  it." 

The  most  complete  account  of  the  simoon  and  its  effects 
is  that  given  by  Tolney  (  Travels,  i,  4).  That  part  which 
describes  its  effects  in  the  towns  tourists  can  confirm 
from  their  own  experience,  and  the  rest  is  amply  cor- 
roborated by  the  testimony  of  other  travellers. 

''Travellers  have  mentioned  these  winds  nnder  the 
name  of  sotsomms  winds,  or,  more  correctly,  hot  winds  <tf 
the  desert  Such,  in  fact,  is  their  quality ;  and  their  heat 
is  sometimes  so  excessive  that  It  is  dilBcnlt  to  form  an 
idea  of  their  violence  without  having  experienced  it ;  bat 
it  may  be  compared  to  the  heat  or  a  large  oven  at  the 
moment  of  drawing  out  the  bread.  When  these  winds 
begin  to  blow,  the  atmosphere  assumes  an  alarming  as- 
pect The  sky,  at  other  times  so  clear  in  this  climate,  be> 
comes  dark  and  heavy,  and  the  snn  loses  ita  splendor  and 
appears  of  a  violet  color.  The  atr  is  not  clonfly«  but  gnj 
and  thick,  and  is,  In  fact,  filled  with  an  extremely  eabtile 
dnst  that  penetrates  eveiywhere.  This  wind,  always  light 
and  rapid,  is  not  at  first  remarkably  hot,  but  Increases  In 
heat  in  proportion  as  it  continnes.  All  animated  bodies 
soon  discover  it  by  the  change  It  prodocee  in  them.  The 
lungs,  which  a  too  rarefied  air  no  limeer  expands,  are  con- 
tracted  and  become  palnfuL  Respiration  Is  shoct  and 
difficult  the  skin  parched  and  dry,  and  the  body  con- 
sumed by  an  internal  heat  In  vain  la  recourse  had  to 
large  draufrhta  of  water;  nothing  ean  restore  perspira- 
tion. In  vain  Is  coolness  sonsht  lor :  all  bodies  in  which 
it  is  usual  to  find  It  deceive  the  hand  that  touches  them. 
Marble,  iron,  water— notwithstanding  the  snn  no  longer 
appears— are  hot.  The  srrecta  are  deserted,  and  the  dead 
sfieace  of  night  reigns  everywhere.  The  Inhabitants  of 
towns  and  villages  shut  themselves  up  in  their  honaes 
and  those  of  the  desert  in  their  tents,  or  In  pits  they  dig 
In  the  earth— where  they  wait  the  termlnsUon  of  the  de- 
stmctive heat    It  nsnally  lasts  three  itijui  hot  if  Ift  cx> 


il  Wt»! 


WHIRLWIND  9 

eecda  Ibit  Ume,  It  becofflet  InnippnrUble.  Woa  to  tb< 
ITHTellcr  wbiHD  ihia  wind  mrpiim  nioola  fmni  iheltecl 
ha  noM  nStr  all  lu  dnadhil  eoDMqMncaa.  wblcb  auma- 
tlme*  an  morlil.  Tka  dauEer  la  muii  Immlneni  whea  It 
blowa  iu  ■qaalli,  for  tben  Ibe  rapldLlr  of  the  wlod  1n- 
cnaiM  the  hut  to  ancb  a  dagm  aa  ID  cbdib  laddaD 
daatb.  TbU  dcalb  I*  a  real  raBunlloD :  Itaa  Inni*,  belnti 
•mpl},  ■ivconnilHd,  (bedrenlatloDdliordeied,  and  tbe 
nbola  Diaaiorblcwd  driiteii  bf  Ibe  beat  towards  the  liead 
ind  bnagt:  wbenn  Ibat  hamcnrban  at  the  ii<wi  and 
moDtb  wtatcb  bappau  alter  death.  Tbltwlud  lae-pn-lal- 
Wlalal  to  perwueoCapIetboch:  habit,  nod  ihoH  lu  whuni 
atlgoe  haa  daalrofed  the  tone  of  the  maAcktft  au<l  vei^>e\t. 
The  corpee  remaLaa  a  lonir  time  irnnn,  awclla,  mnn  bine, 
and  la  aaallj  aapinted :  ell  iitwlilcb  era  algua  ur  tbai  pn- 
trld  rerraanudou  wblcb  takaa  place  wbeo  (be  linmnra  l>e- 
coms  atagnanl.  Tbeie  aecldeeta  are  lo  be  avilded  b; 
etnpptng  ibe  noaa  and  maath  wltb  handkercblefa.  An 
eOcaclDUa  melbnd  la  also  Ihet  i>ricUced  by  the  cnmela. 
who  bnrr  tbeir  nnaea  In  Die  alad,  nitd  keep  Ibem  Lbere 
till  lbs  Mjnnll  la  oret.  Another  quiltjr  of  tbie  wind  la  lu 
eitmne  uidtlir,  nblch  la  auch  that  water  sprinkled  upon 

tbe  Boor  erapomlea  In  a  few  minatea.    "-  "■' — — 

drynesB  It  wlihera  and  strips  all  the  plar 
lag  too  aoddanlr  Ibe  emanatlDDB  Trot 

«r&pslheiklu,closee  ihe  l>ore^  and  «— 

heat  wfalcb  Is  the  luvirluble  effect  orsupgirSBBed  penplra- 

Tbe  ninth  pUgiK  with  which  the  Lord  afflicted  the 
Egyptiani  iru  a  thick  darkness,  which  ia  generally 
identified  with  the  tempest  called  khamsin,  prevalent 
in  Egj-pt  in  the  montha  of  April  and  May  (Exod,  i,  21- 
2B).  When  the  khamun  blows,  (he  aun  is  pale  yellow, 
its  light  ia  obacurol,  and  the  daiknees  ie  aomctimea  bo 
great  that  one  seems  to  be  in  the  blackest  night,  even 
in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Sonini  stya,"The  atmos- 
phere was  heated,  and  at  the  same  time  obscured  hj 
clouda  of  dust.  Men  and  animals  lireatbed  only  vapor, 
and  that  was  mingled  nitb  a  fine  and  hot  sand.  Plants 
drooped,  and  all  living  nature  tanguiahe<L  The  air  v 
dark  on  acconut  of  a  thick  mist  offing  duit  aa  red 
flame."  Hartmtnnuje,"Ttie  inhabitants  of  the  cit 
and  villages  shut  themselTcs  up  in  the  lowest  apart- 
ments of  their  house*  and  cetlnrs;  but  the  inhabitants 
of  tbe  desert  go  into  cheii  tents,  or  into  the  holes  which 
they  have  dug  in  the  ground.  There  they  await,  full 
of  anxiety,  Ibe  termination  of  this  kind  of  lempeit, 
■  ihre«  days."    Tbe  hot  wind  of 


18  WHIRLWIND 

the  desert,  called  by  the  Italians  tineeo,  ud  by  lb« 

Anba  lAurkiyri,  i.  e.  an  tail  icind,  resemble*  the  khim- 
Hn  of  Egypt.  Tbeaand-slonnsoccurin  the  most  awful 
form  in  deseits,nhen  the  fine  sand  is  thrown  into  hil- 
locks, and  these  are  swept  by  furious  winds,  the  sand  of 
tihich  they  are  formed  being  tossed  on  high,  and  whirled 
rapidly  and  densely  through  the  air,  until  the  atom 
hai  Anally  subsided.  Under  this  iDost  awful  visitation 
of  the  aud-stomi,  it  sometimes  happens  that  travellers 
and  their  cattle  are  overwhelmed  and  suffocated.  And 
even  the  more  common  and  less  dangerous  forma  of 
this  phenomenon,  which  occur  in  regions  lesa  absolntcly 
sandy,  or  where  the  sands  are  ieaa  exteniive  than  in  the 
great  sandy  desen*  of  Asia,  sre  still  rery  formidable 
and  alarming.  Mr.  Buckingham  has  given  a  descrip- 
tion of  aiich  a  atorm,  of  Ilial  kind  which  must  have 
been  fsmiliir  to  the  Israelites  during  theii  wanderings. 
It  occurreU  in  the  desert  of  Suez,  that  is,  on  the  western 
verge  of  that  sandy  desert  which  occupies  a  considerable 
ponioa  of  the  oountry  between  Egj'pt  and  Paleeline. 

>■  Tbe  mornlne  waa  delUblfnl  on  nor  setting  ont.  and 
promised  ns  s  due  day:  but  the  light  airs  from  ths  south 
soon  Increased  li>  a  gi\t,  the  son  became  nbacnre,  and  as 
every  boor  bronghi  na  biiii  n  lno«r  panil,  It  flew  about  n* 


t  abetiei 


I  of  on 


knee',  and  nllered  In  Ibeir  wnlbn^  har*n  metsncbolj 
ajnipbnuy.  ,  .  .  Fifty  galea  of  wind  ai  fea  appeared  to 
me  mure  esay  to  be  encooatered  thnn  one  amimK  ibese 
aanda.  It  la  (mposilble  to  Imagine  desolation  more  com- 
plete. WeconldseenellbersnD,eBrlh,norfky:  Ibeplaln 
s(  ten  paces'  distance  waa  absolutely  Imperceptible.  Oar 
beasts,  OB  well  as  onrselns,  were  so  covered  aato  render 
brestblnedlOcnll:  Ibeyhld  their  fsceslu  the  EToand, and 
ws  coDid  only  uncover  oar  own  for  a  moment  to  behold 
this  chnoe  nfmld-dsy  darkness,  and  wait  patiently  tor  Its 
abatement.'' 

Dr.  Thomson  state*  (£md  and  Book,  ii,  SlI) :  "  We 
have  two  kinds  of  sirooco — one  socompsnied  by  vehe- 
ment wind,  which  fills  the  ait  with  dust  and  flue  sand. 
I  have  often  seen  the  whole  heavens  veiled  in  gloom 
with  this  sort  of  sand-cloud,  through  which  the  Sun, 
shorn  of  hi*  beams,  looked  like  a  globe  of  dull,  ■noolder- 
ing  fire."    See  Wihd. 


VUlrlwInd  In  the  Desert. 


WHITBY 


OU 


WHITE 


Whitby  (or  Streneohal),  CotmciL  of  (ConeUU 
urn  Pharerue).  Whitby  is  a  seaport  town  of  England, 
Goanty  of  York,  North  Biding,  on  the  Esk,  near  its 
mouth  in  the  North  Sea.  An  ecclesiastical  council  was 
held  there  in  664.  This  was  properly  a  conference  be- 
tween the  English  and  Scotch  bishops  on  the  subject 
of  the  celebration  of  Easter.  There  were  present  oo 
the  English  side  Agilbert,  a  Frenchman,  bishop  of  l>or- 
cbester,  with  his  presbyter,  Agatho;  Wilfred,  a  yoong 
Northumbrian  priest,  who  had  studied  at  Rome ;  Bo- 
manns,  who  had  before  contended  the  point  with  Finan, 
late  bishop  of  lindisfame;  and  an  old  deacon,  James^ 
whom  Paulinus  had  left  thirty  years  before.  On  the 
Scotch  side  were  Golman,  bishop  of  lindisfame;  and 
Cedda,  a  bishop  who  acted  as  interpreter.  Oswy,  king 
of  Northumbria,  was  also  present,  who  opened  the  pro- 
ceedings, and  desired  Golman  to  explain  the  nature  and 
origin  of  the  rites  which  his  Church  had  so  long  prac- 
ticed. The  Soots  alleged  the  example  of  St.  John,  Wil- 
fred that  of  St,  Peter,  and  the  latter  concluded  his  ad« 
dress  in  the  following  terms:  ^But  for  you  (Golman) 
and  your  adherents,  if,  after  having  beard  the  decrees 
of  the  apostolic  see,  yea,  of  the  whole  Ghurch,  and  these, 
too,  confirmed  by  Scripture,  you  refuse  to  obey  them, 
you  certainly  are  guilty  of  sin.  For,  allowing  your 
fathers  to  have  been  holy  men,  is  their  small  handful  in 
a  comer  of  a  remote  island  to  be  compared  to  the  Ghurch 
of  Ghrist  over  the  whole  earth  ?  And  great  as  that  Co- 
lumba  of  yours  may  have  been,  is  he  to  be  preferred  to 
the  blessed  prince  of  the  apostles,  to  whom  the  Lord 
said, 'Thou  art  Pteter,  and  upon  thb  rock  I  will  build 
my  Ghurch,  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail 
against  it ;  and  to  thee  will  I  give  tlie  keys  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  ?' "  This  fortunate  quotation  from  Holy 
Scripture  determined  the  king  in  favor  of  the  Roman 
custom ;  be,  as  he  said,  fearing  to  contradict  one  who 
held  the  kejrs  of  heaven,  and  might  peradventure  refuse 
to  open  to  him  when  he  knocked.  In  this  council,  more- 
over, the  affair  of  the  tonsore  was  discussed,  the  Roman 
fashion  differing  from  that  in  nse  among  the  Scotch, 
which  the  former  pretended  had  been  derived  from 
Simon  Magus.  See  Mansi,  ConeiL  vi,  491 ;  Wilkins, 
ConciL  i,  87. — Landon,  Mtmucd  of  CcundU,  p.  692. 

White  (prop,  "jab,  Xcvkoc).  In  Ganaan  persons  of 
distinction  were  anciently  dressed  in  fine  linen  of  Egypt, 
and,  accortling  to  some  authors,  in  silk  and  rich  cloth 
shaded  with  the  choicest  colors.  The  beauty  of  these 
clothes  consisted  in  the  fineness  and  color  of  the  stufis; 
and  it  seems  the  color  most  in  use  among  the  Israelites, 
as  well  as  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  white, 
not  improved  by  the  dyer's  art,  but  the  native  color  of 
the  wool,  being  most  suited  to  the  nature  of  their  laws, 
which  enjoined  so  many  washings  and  purifications. 
(Indeed,  so  early  as  the  days  of  Hesiod  the  Greeks  con- 
udered  white  as  the  color  in  which  the  celestials  ap- 
peared: men  went  to  heaven  in  white  cbthing  [Opera 
et  Die$,  i,  198].)  The  general  nse  of  this  color  seems 
to  be  recognised  by  Solomon  in  his  direction,  **  Let  thy 
garments  be  always  white"  (Ecdes.  ix,  8).  But  gar- 
ments in  the  native  color  of  wool  were  not  confined  to 
the  lower  orders ;  they  were  also  in  great  esteem  among 
persons  of  superior  station,  and  are  particulariy  valued 
in  Scr|ptore  as  the  emblem  of  knowledge  and  purity, 
gladness  and  victory,  grace  and  glory.  The  priests  of 
Baal  were  habited  in  black,  a  color  which  appears  to 
have  been  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  which  few  oth- 
ers in  those  countries  except  mourners  would  choose  to 
wear.  In  all  countries  and  all  ages  white  has  been  re- 
garded as  the  emblem  of  purity.  See  WHrrsuziDAT. 
Isaiah  says, "  Though  your  sins  be  as  scarlet,  they  shall 
be  as  white  as  snow ;  though  they  be  red  like  crimson, 
they  shall  be  as  wool**  (i,  16).  See  the  monographs  cited 
by  Volbeding,  Index  Programmaium,  p.  124.  See  GoiiOB. 

WHITE  or  AN  Ego  is  the  rendering  adopted  in  the 
A.  V.  at  Job  vi,  6  for  the  Heb.  n^xkn  *^'^\  rtV  dud- 
Jamiah  (Sept.  iv  piificuriv  Ktvdt^  [v.  r,  jcaiyoly],  Vulg.  | 


quod  guiiatum  offert  moriem\  Host  interpreteis  derive 
the  Hebrew  word  from  DPH,  tkdUmf  io  dnam,  and, 
guided  by  the  context,  explain  it  to  denote  toumokMcgf 
fatuity  (comp.  Ecdes.  v,  2,  9),  and  so  tmyidtfy  (oompw 
fuip6c  in  Diosoorides,  spoken  of  tasteless  roots).  The 
Syriac  renders  it  by  oAafamlo,  which  signifies  portulae- 
ea  or  jmrslam,  an  herb  formerly  eaten  as  a  salad,  but 
proverbial  for  iu  insipidity  (*<portulaoca  stultior,"  in 
Meidan.  Proverb.  No.  844,  p.  219,  ed.  Scbnltens).  The 
phrase  will  thus  mean  purwlam-hroth,  i.  e.  sUIy  di»- 
oourse.  See  Mallows.  The  rabbins,  folk>wing  the 
Targums,  regard  it  as  L  q.  Ghald.  Vlfi^l?,  the  coagnluna 
of  an  e^  or  curd;  and  so  explain  the  phrase,  as  the 
A.  v.,  to  mean  the  slime  or  tokUe  of  an  egg,  put  as  an 
emblem  of  insipidity.  This  in  itself  is  not  ill ;  but  the 
other  seems  more  consonant  with  Oriental  usage.  See 
Gesenius,  Tktaaur,  p.  480. 

Wliite  (or  Whyte),  John  (1),  D.D.,  an  Engfirik 
prelate,  was  bora  at  Famham,  in  Surrey,  in  151 1 .  He  was 
educated  at  Winchester  School  and  at  New  GoUege,  Ox- 
ford, of  which  he  became  perpetual  felk>w  in  1527 ;  sooo 
after  made  warden  of  Winchester  GoUege ;  became  rec- 
tor of  Gheyton  in  1551 ;  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
for  some  months  during  the  preceding  year  for  hia  sup- 
posed correspondence  with  persons  abroad  who  were  op> 
posed  to  Edward  VI ;  was  made  bishop  of  Lincoln  by 
queen  Mary  in  1554;  translated  to  the  see  of  Winches- 
ter in  1557 ;  deprived,  on  the  accession  eS  queen  Eliza- 
beth, on  account  of  his  opposition  to  Protestantism ;  and 
imprisoned  for  a  short  time  in  the  Tower  in  1559  for  his 
public  attacks  upon  the  queen.  He  died  at  South  Warn- 
borough,  Jan.  11, 1560,  and  was  buried  in  Winchester 
Gathedral  He  was  the  author  of  certain  Latin  poema, 
and  some  of  his  sermons  and  orations  have  been  pub- 
lished.   See  Ghalmers,  Biog,  DicL  s.  v. 

White,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  Englbh  clergyman  of 
the  latter  part  of  the  16th  and  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  was  vicar  of  Ecdes,  and  subsequently  chap- 
lain in  ordinary  to  James  I.  He  died  in  1615.  He  pab> 
lidied  The  Wag  io  Ike  True  Church,  and  other  worka. 
See  Allibone, Diet,  ofBriL  and  Amer.  Authors,  s. t. 

White,  John  (8),  a  Puritan  divine,  known  as  the 
Patriarch  of  Dorchester,  was  bom  at  Stanton,  St.  John, 
Oxfordshire,  England,  in  December,  1574.  He  was  edn- 
cated  at  Winchester  School  and  New  GoUege,  Oxford,  of 
which  he  became  perpetual  fellow  in  1595;  here  he  grad- 
uated, took  holy  orders^  and  became  a  frequent  preacher 
at  Oxford ;  became  rector  of  Trinity  Ghurch,  Dorchester^ 
in  1606 ;  was  one  of  the  projectors  of  the  c(Aony  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1624;  had  his  house  plundered  and  hia 
library  carried  away  by  the  soldiers  of  Prince  Rupert; 
escaped  to  London,  and  was  made  minister  of  the  Savoy ; 
was  appointed  one  of  the  learned  divines  to  assist  in  a 
committee  of  religion  selected  by  the  House  of  Lords  in 
1640 ;  became  a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  in 
1643 ;  was'chosen  rector  of  Lambeth  in  1645;  and  after- 
wards retomed  to  Dorchester,  where  he  died,  July  21, 
1648.  Hepubli8hed,7Ae/'fan^er'<P(ea;or,^rAe(;roarw2f 
of  Plantations  Examined,  and  the  Usual  Objections  Am- 
swered  (1680) :— X  Wag  to  the  Tree  of  Life  Discovered, 
etc  (1647)  I— Commentary  on  the  Pint  Three  Chapters 
of  Genesis  (1656>    See  Ghalmers,  Biog.  Diet.  &  v. 

White,  Nioholas,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bora  at  Biiddletown,yt.,  June  8, 1786.  He  received 
a  careful  religious  training;  experienced  religion  in 
1810;  joined  the  New  York  Gonference  in  1813;  and 
from  that  date  to  1854,  when  be  superannuated,  be  led 
an  active,  successful  itinerant  life.  In  1854  he  retired 
to  Brookl3m,  where  he  resided  until  bis  death,  Feb.  14, 
1861.  Mr.  White  was  eamest  and  fervent  as  a  speaker, 
greatly  beloved  as  a  pastor,  devoted  and  affectionate  as 
a  husband  and  father.  See  Mvmtee  qfA  nemad  Ceefer^ 
ences,  1861,  p.  76. 

White  (Whyteior  Vitiui)f  mofaazd,an  Eogfiah 


WHITE  BRETHREN 


915 


WHITEHEAD 


historian,  antiqaafy,  and  afterwards  GaUiolio  priat,  was 
bom  at  Basingstoke,  Hampshire.  He  was  edtieated  at 
Winchester  School;  admitted  fellow  of  New  College, 
Oxford,  in  1557 ;  lost  his  fellowship  on  aocoant  of  his  at- 
tachment to  Romanism  in  1564;  became  regius  profess- 
or of  civil  and  canon  law  at  Dooay,  in  which  relation 
he  remained  nearly  twenty  years;  was  appointed  by 
that  umvereity  the  chancellor,  or  rtdor  magnijieuif  was 
created  count  palatine  by  the  emperor ;  after  the  loss  of 
his  secoQd  wife,  was  ordained  priest  and  made  a  canon 
of  St.  Peter's  ChtinSh  in  Douay.  He  died  in  1612,  and 
was  buried  in  St.  James's  Chnrch.  Among  his  publica- 
tions were,  ^Yki  Lcslia  CritpU;  Epitaphit/m  Antiguum 
quod  in  Agro  Bononiensi  adhuc  Videtur,  etc  (1618) : — 
Orationea  Qumqve  (1596) : — Notm  ad  LegtM  DecemvirO' 
rum  m  Duodedm  TahuUt  (1597) : — and  JJistoria  Bru 
tamnca  Iiuuke  ab  Origine  Mundi  ad  A  maim  Dommi  0<y 
iittgenteiimum  (1602).    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  &  v. 

TVhite  Brethren,  a  body  of  enthusiasts  who  ap- 
peared in  Italy  about  the  beginning  of  the  15th  oen- 
tufy,  and  were  so  called  from  being  all  clad  in  white 
linen  robes  reaching  to  their  feet,  with  hoods  of  the 
same  material  that  left  only  their  eyes  exposed.  They 
were  first  collected  together  by  a  priest,  whose  name  is 
unknown,  among  the  villages  on  the  southern  side  of 
the  Alps.  He  led  them  down,  a  large  multitude,  into 
the  Italian  plains  under  the  pretence  that  he  was  the 
prophet  Elias.  Bearing  a  cross  at  their  head,  he  bade 
t^em  follow  him  in  a  crusade  against  the  Turiks  for  the 
purpose  of  regaining  the  Holy  Land;  and  so  great  was 
his  influence  that  not  only  the  peasantry,  but  some 
priests  and  even  cardinak,  are  said  to  have  enrolled 
themselves  among  his  army  of  **  penitents."  They  ad- 
vanced in  troops  of  ten,  twenty,  and  forty  thousand, 
marching  from  city  to  dty,  singing  hymns  and  utter- 
ing loud  prayers;  and  wherever  they  went  multitudes 
were  ready  to  give  them  alms  and  join  in  their  pilgrim- 
age. They  were  met  at  Yiterbo  by  a  body  of  papal 
troops,  which  had  been  ordered  to  march  against  them 
by  Boniface  IX  under  the  impression  that  their  leader 
intended  to  dethrone  him  and  seize  upon  the  papal  do- 
minions. The  pilgrims  were  dispersed  by  the  troops, 
and  their  leader  taken  captive  to  Rome  and  burned  as 
a  heretic,  about  the  year  1408.  Their  history  is  very 
similar  in  many  respects  to  that  of  the  Apostolicals,  led 
by  Segarelli  and  Dolcino  a  century  earlier;  hence  some 
have  supposed  that  both  uprisings  were  by  the  same 
sect.    See  Blunt,  DicL  o/SeeU,  s.  v.    See  Apostoucl 

TVhitefieldf  James,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  was  born  in  Liverpool,  England,  Nov.  8, 1770. 
Having  received  a  good  education,  he  engaged  for  some 
time  in  mercantile  pursuits,  but  abandoned  this  work  for 
the  study  of  divinity,  which  he  prosecuted  under  Dr. 
Ambroise  Mar^chal  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1809, 
settled  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1817  as  minister  of  St  Pe- 
ter's Church,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Mar^chal  as  archbishop 
of  Baltimore  Mav  25, 1828.  He  died  at  Baltimore,  Oct 
19, 1884. 

Whltefield,  J.  G.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  tho  Meth- 
odist Protestant  Church;  was  bom  in  Virginia,  Sept  10, 
1810.  He  was  converted  when  seventeen  years  of  age; 
in  August,  1829,  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing September  went  to  his  first  appointment  For 
nearly  fifty  years  he  was  a  faithful  minister  of  the 
GospeL  He  was  elected  to  the  General  Conferences 
of  1842,  '46,  '50,  '54,  '58,  '62,  '66,  and  also  of  1870.  of 
which  he  was  president  He  was  a  member  of  the 
conventions  of  1867  and  1877,  when  the  dissevered 
Church  was  reunited.  In  1874  he  became  a  member 
of  the  North  Carolina  Conference,  and  represented  that 
body  in  the  union  convention  held  in  Baltimore  in 
May,  1877.  He  died  Aug.  28, 1879.  See  Founden  of 
the  M,  P.  Church,  p.  378. 

White  QannentB  were  worn  by  the  clergy  as  early 
OS  the  4th  oentuiy,  and  the  use  has  been  continued  to 
the  present  time  in  the  ritualistic  churches.    White 


gnmenfis  were  also  worn  by  penons  newly  baptized.  In 
the  Latin  Church  this  vesture  came  immediately  before 
confirmation,  but  in  the  Greek  Church  inunediately 
after.  This  ceremony  was  to  represent  the  having 
put  off  the  old  man  with  his  deeds,  and  having  put  on 
the  new  man  Christ  Jesus.  Those  who  wore  the  gar- 
ments were  called,  in  the  Greek,  Xf vx^c/ioyovvrcc,  and 
in  the  Latin,  grex  Chritti  Candidas  €t  moau  (the  white 
flock  of  Christ).  The  garments  were  delivered  to  them 
Witn  the  following  solemn  charge:  **  Receive  the  white 
and  immaculate  garment,  which  thou  mayest  bring 
forth  without  spot  before  the  tribunal  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  that  thou  mayest  have  eternal  life.  Amen." 
These  garments  were  commonly  worn  eight  days,  and 
then  laid  up  in  the  church.  The  Sunday  after  Easter 
is  mentioned  as  the  day  appointed  for  this  purpose. 
That  was  the  conclusion  of  the  Paschal  festival,  and 
then  the  neophytes  changed  their  habit;  whence  that 
day  is  thought  to  have  the  name  of  Domimca  in  AUns; 
and  Whitsunday  (q.  v.)  is  said  to  be  so  called  from  this 
custom  of  wearing  white  robes  after  baptism.  These 
being  laid  aside,  were  carefully  preserved  in  the  vestries 
of  the  church  as  an  evidence  against  men  if  they  after- 
wards violated  the  baptismal  covenant  See  Bingham, 
ChrisL  Aniiq,  bk.  xiii,  ch.  viii ;  bk.  xii,  ch.  iv ;  and  bk. 
xx,ch.vL 

^VVIlitehead,  David,  an  eminent  English  divine 
of  the  16th  century,  was  bom  at  Tuderley,  in  Hamp- 
shire. He  was  educated  at  Oxford ;  became  chaplain 
to  Anne  Boleyn ;  retired  to  Frankfort,  in  Germany,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  queen  Mary,  and  there  became  pastor 
to  the  English  congregation ;  returned  to  England  on 
the  accession  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  one  of  the 
committee  appointed  to  review  king  Edward's  liturgy ; 
was  selected  as  one  of  the  public  disputants  against  the 
popish  bishops  in  1559 ;  and  declined  the  archbishopric 
of  Canterbury  and  the  mastership  of  the  Savoy.  He 
died  in  1571.  The  only  published  works  left  by  him 
are  Lectures  and  Homilies  on  St,  PauVs  EpistleSf  and 
several  of  his  discourses  in  Brief  Discourse  of  the 
Troubles  Begun  at  Frankfort  (1575).  Wood  speaks  of 
him  as  '^a  great  light  of  learning  and  a  most  heavenly 
professor  of  divinity."    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Wmtehead,  George,  an  eminent  public  preacher 
of  the  Quakers,  was  bom  at  Sonbigg,  in  the  parish  of 
Orton,Westmoreland,  England,  about  16S6.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  free  school  of  Blencoe,  in  Cumberland ;  taught 
school  for  a  time ;  began  to  travel  as  a  Quaker  preacher 
before  he  was  eighteen  years  old ;  was  several  times  im- 
prisoned, and  sometimes  whipped  for  his  preaching;  ap- 
peared at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  defence 
of  his  sect ;  was  very  active  in  behalf  of  Dissenters,  and 
exercised  considerable  influence  with  Charles  II.  He 
died  in  March,  1722.  Among  bis  numerous  publications 
the  following  mav  be  mentioned:  Nature  of  ChrisHan' 
iig  inthe  True  Light  Asserted  (1671)  i—The  Christian 
Quaher,  etc  (1824,  2  pts.),  in  which  he  was  assisted  by 
William  Penn :  —  Enthusiasm  above  Atheism  (1674) :~ 
The  Way  ofL\fe  and  Perfe<ium  lAvingUf  Demonstrated 
(1676)  i—An  Antidote  against  the  Venom  of  a  Snake  in 
the  Grass  (1697)  .—Christian  Progreas^f  George  White- 
head, in  Four  Parts,  with  a  Supplement,  being  Memoirs 
of  his  Life  (1725).  See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet.  &  v.; 
Smith,  Catalogue  of  Friends'  Books,  u,  884-908. 

Whitehead,  John,  MJ).,  a  biographer  of  Wesley, 
was  bora  in  1740.  He  studied  medicine,  and  became 
physician  to  the  old  Bethlehem  Hospital,  Moorfields, 
London.  From  1764  to  1769  he  travelled  as  a  Methodist 
preacher,  returning  again  to  his  professional  duties.  He 
was  a  Quaker  for  some  years,  but  afterwards  returned  to 
the  Methodists.  He  was  chief  physician  to  John  and 
Charles  Wesley  during  their  last  illnesses.  At  the  re- 
quest of  the  executors  of  John  Wesley  and  the  trustees 
of  City  Road  Chapel,  he  preached  the  funeral  sermon  of 
Wesley  to  an  audience  **  still  and  silent  as  night,"  to  use 
Crowther's  words,  March  9, 1791.  This  sermon  was  pub? 


WHITELAMB 


916 


WHITSUNDAY 


Itsbedi  went  through  aeyenl  editions,  and  realized  to  the 
Book-ioom  a  profit  of  £200.  With  Coke  and  Moore, 
Wesley  appointed  him  literary  execator.  A  long  and 
unfortnnate  dispute  ensued  between  Whitehead  and 
his  two  brethren  concerning  the  papers  of  Wesley,  the 
former  refusing  to  gire  them  up  for  escamination  and  a 
possible  cremation.  For  this  he  was  expelled  from  mem- 
bership and  from  his  office  as  local  preacher.  White- 
head, having  the  advantage  of  the  possession  of  Wes- 
ley's papers,  at  once  wrote  a  plain  and  valuable  account 
of  the  Lives  of  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  the  first  vol- 
ume of  which  was  issued  in  1793.  In  the  meantime, 
however  (1792),  Coke  and  Henry  Moore  published  a 
hastily  prepared  Life,  heavy  editions  of  which  were  at 
once  sold,  thus  supplanting  to  a  large  extent  the  more 
authoritative  biography  by  the  layman.  In  1797,  White- 
head  restored  the  papers  to  his  co-executors,  and  was 
reinstated  in  his  position  in  the  Church.  Having  served 
as  physician  to  the  Methodists  for  many  years,  he  died 
in  London,  March  18, 1804. 

Dr.  Whitehead  published  the  following :  Essay  on 
Liberty  and  Necessity  (1776, 12mo),  in  which  Mr.  Wes- 
ley's Thovffhts  on  Necessity  are  examined  and  defended: 
— Materialism  PhUosophicaUy  Excunined,  or  the  Jmmor 
terialify  of  the  Soul  Asserted  and  Proved  on  Philosoph" 
ical  Principles  J  in  an  Anstber  to  Dr,  Priestley's  Disquisi- 
tions on  MaUer  and  Spirit  (Lond.  1778, 78  pp.) :— a  Dis- 
course  (ibid.  1791, 8vo)  delivered  at  the  New  Chapel, 
City  Boad,  March  9, 1791,  at  the  funeral  of  Rev.  John 
Wesley  t—A  True  Narrative  of  the  Origin  and  Progress 
of  the  Difference  concerning  the  Publication  of  the  Life 
of  Rev.  John  WeOey  (1792, 8vo) :— a  Defence  (eod.  8vo) 
of  the  same :  —  a  L^e  of  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,  M.A, 
(Lond.  1793-96,  2  vols.  8vo ;  reprinted  in  Dublin  in 
1806,  with  an  Appendix  by  the  Irish  editor,  and  White- 
head's Sermon  on  Wesley;  in  Boston,  Mass.,  with  Pref- 
ace by  John  McLeish,  1844,  8vo;  in  Auburn  and 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1854, 8vo),  collected  from  his  private, 
papers  and  printed  works,  to  which  is  prefixed  some  ac- 
count of  hu  ancestors  and  relations,  with  the  Life  of 
Rev.  C.  Wesley,  M.A.,  collected  from  his  private  journal 
and  never  before  published.  See  Stevenson, //»«/.  o/* 
City  Road  Chapel,  p.  87,  877 ;  Crowther,  Delin.  ofMeih^ 
odism  (1815,  2d  ed.),  p.  105;  Wesley,  Works  (Lond.  3d 
ed.),  iv,  296, 351 ;  xiii,  15 ;  Tyerman,  Life  of  John  Wes- 
ley (see  Index,  vol  iii).  For  the  dispute  about  Wesley's 
papers,  see  Myles,  Chron.  UisU  of  Meth,  Ann.  1792; 
Smith,  Ilisl.  of  Wesley  and  Methodism  (see  Index,  iii, 
723) ;  Advertisement  in  Whitehead's  Life  of  Wesley, 
and  Life  of  Jlenry  Moore  (lldl). 

Whitelamb,  John,  one  of  the  Oxford  Method- 
ists, was  bom  in  1707,  near  Wroot,  Lincolnshire.  He 
was  educated  in  the  charity-school  of  that  place,  and 
while  residing  with  Samuel  Wesley  at  Epworth,  was 
prepared  for  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  where  he  gradu- 
ated about  1781.  In  1733  he  became  S.  Wesley's  cu- 
rate, and  afterwards  married  his  daughter.  In  1734 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rectory  of  Wroot,  a  position 
which  he  retained  until  his  death,  in  July,  1769.  In 
1742  John  Wesley  preached  once  in  his  pulpit,  and 
friendly  but  not  intimate  relations  existed  between  him 
and  Whitelamb  ever  afterwards.  See  Tyerman,  Ox- 
ford  Methodists,  p.  374  sq. 

'Wmte  Stone  W^oq  \evKfj,  a  white  pebble),  re- 
ferred to  as  given  to  the  Christian  conqueror  (Rev.  ii, 
17),  is  supposed  by  many  to  refer  to  the  usage  among 
the  Greeks  of  absolving  those  that  were  tried  on  the 
ground  of  any  accusation,  by  the  use  of  white  balls  or 
stones,  and  condemning  by  black  ones.  The  balls  were 
thrown  together  into  an  urn,  whence  they  were  drawn 
and  count^.  But  the  white  stone  is  given  to  the  victor 
himself.  Hence  others  think  reference  is  made  to  the 
tessera  given  to  the  victor  at  the  Olympic  games,  on 
which  was  inscribed  the  reward  to  be  received  from  his 
native  city,  the  value  of  bis  prize.  But  in  these  cases 
the  white  stone  is  wanting,  and  the  mystic  inscription 


which  no  one  bot  the  recipient  could  read.  The  refer- 
ence is  undoubtedly  to  Hebrew  sourceiL  Christians  are 
called  kings  and  priests  unto  God  (Rev.  i,  6 ;  v,  10 ;  xx, 
6;  1  Pet.  ii,  6).  On  the  front  of  the  mitre  or  turban 
worn  by  the  Hebrew  high-priest  was  a  plate  of  gold 
with  the  inscription  ''Sacred  to  Jehovah"  (Exod.  xxviii, 
86).  The  name  Jehovah  was  the  incommunicable  and 
secret  name,  which  could  be  pronounced  only  by  the 
high-priest,  and  was  known,  as  the  Jews  say,  only  to 
him.  Victors  in  the  Christian  struggle  are  to  be  ex- 
alted to  the  dignity  of  high-priests  and  kings.  Instead 
of  a  plate  of  gold  in  their  mitre  they  have  a  white  stone, 
a  pellucid  or  resplendent  gem,  with  an  inscription  equiv- 
alent to  "  Sacred  to  Jehovah  "  (Rev.  i,  4),  a  new  name, 
doubtless  some  name  of  the  Saviour,  perhaps,  "Sacred 
to  the  Logos  or  Word,"  that  is,  the  incarnate  Jehovah 
(John  i,  1 ;  xix,  13).  The  whole  probably  symbolises 
the  assurance  of  the  futhful  by  the  indwelling  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  This  is  the  pellucid  gem,  the  seal  of  the 
living  God,  having  the  inscription  of  divine  acceptance 
which  no  one  can  read  but  he  who  possesses  it.  See 
Seal;  Stone. 

Whltfbrd  (Whjrtford,  or  Whytforde),  Rich- 
ard, an  English  monk  of  the  16th  century,  was  eda^- 
cated  at  Oxford;  subsequently  joined  the  Order  of 
St.  Bridget  in  the  monastery  called  Sion,  near  Brent- 
ford, Middlesex,  and  styled  himself  "The  Wretche  of 
Syon ;"  afterwards  became  domestic  chaplain  to  Will- 
iam Mountjoy.  He  was  the  author  of  several  works; 
among  which  we  note,  The  Fruyte  ofRedeng»eyon(lbli') : 
--A  Soke  Catted  the  Pype  or  Toune  of  the  I^e  of  Per- 
fection (1582) :— and  Dyvers  Tnstrucyons  and  Teaekynge» 
very  Neoessarye  for  the  Uelihe  of  Matmes  Soule,  etc 
(1541). 

Whitford,  Walter,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
first  minister  at  Monkland  and  sub-dean  of  Glasgow, 
then  rector  of  Moffat.  In  1684  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Brechin,  in  which  see  he  remained  until  de- 
prived by  the  assembly  in  1688,  after  which  he  fled  to 
England,  where  be  died  in  1648.  See  Keith,  Scoitisk 
Bishops,  p.  167. 

Wliitney,  Josiah,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minia- 
ter,  was  bom  at  Plainfield,  Conn.,  Aug.  11, 1781.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1762,  and  was  ordained  at 
Brooklyn,  Conn.,  in  1756,  which  charge  he  retuned  for 
sixty-eight  years,  until  his  death,  Sept.  18, 1824,  though 
two  colleagues  successively  settled  with  him.  To  ex- 
treme old  age  Dr.  Whitney's  mental  faculties  remained 
almost  as  keen  as  ever ;  he  was  social,  witty,  and  yet 
had  the  dignity  of  a  Christian  old  age.  In  theology 
Dr.  Whitney  was  a  moderate  Calvinist.  He  published 
seven  sermons.    See  Cong.  Quarterly,  1859,  p.  86L 

^771lit81lnda7,  a  festival  of  the  Christian  Church 
commemorative  of  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon 
the  apostles,  as  "  they  were  all  assembled  together  with 
one  accord  in  one  place,"  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (q.  v.), 
from  which  fact  the  name  Pentecost  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  Whi tsunday.  Blunt  says  (Did.  of  Doct,  and 
Hist.  TheoL),  **  The  etymology  of  the  term  has  been 
strangely  confused.  It  has  been  derived  (a)  from  White 
Sunday,  in  supposed  allusion  to  the  white  garments  of 
the  neophytes,  as  Whitsuntide  was  one  of  the  two  chief 
seasons  for  baptism ;  and  (6)  from  Wytsonday,  L  e.  Wit, 
or  Wisdom,  Sunday,  in  reference  to  the  outpouring  of 
wisdom  upon  the  apostles.  But  the  real  White  Sun- 
day is  the  octave  of  Easter,  or  Dominica  in  albis,  and 
both  of  these  derivations  must  be  abandoned  when  .the 
proper  use  of  the  title  is  considered.  It  is  not  Whit 
Sunday,  but  WhiUun  Day,  as  Easter  is  Easter  Day ;  and 
the  week  is  Whitsun  Week,  not  Whit  Week;  and  the 
season  Whitsuntide,  not  Whiuide.  In  Yorkshire,  and 
doubtless  also  in  other  parts  of  England,  the  feast  is 
commonly  called  Whiasun  Day,  the  accent  being  strong- 
ly thrown  on  the  first  syllable ;  and  the  two  days  follow- 
ing, Whissun  Monday  and  Whissun  Tuesday.  The 
name  is  thts  derived,  as  Dr.  Neale  shows  (Essays  <m 


WHITSUNDAY 


917 


WIDOW 


Liturgiology,  etc.),  directly  from  Pentecost,  poMiDg,  by 
various  oorroptions,  Piiv^leH,  ITAin^fli,  into  the  Ger- 
man Pfitfftten  and  the  English  WhiUwu  The  Germans, 
have  also  their  Pfingittn-Woche^  in  exact  coiiespondence 
to  our  WhUtun  Week." 

StiU  other  derivations  of  the  term  are  given,  Hamon 
L*£8tnnge  thinking  it  is  derived  from  the  French  huiif 
or  eight;  because  there  are  eight  Sundays  between 
Easter  and  Pentecost.  "Wheatley  publishes  a  letter 
of  the  famous  Gerard  Langbain,  written  on  Whitsun- 
eve,  1650,  in  reply  to  a  friend  who  had  asked  of  him  the 
origin  of  the  name,  in  which  it  is  attempted  to  be  shown 
that  the  festival  was  so  called  from  a  custom  among  our 
ancestors  upon  this  day  to  give  all  the  milk  of  their 
ewes  and  kine  to  the  poor  for  the  love  of  God,  in  order 
to  qualify  themselves  to  receive  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Ghost;  which  milk  being  then  (as  it  is  still  in  some 
countries)  called  vhHe'taeat^  therefore  the  day  from  that 
custom  took  its  name.''  It  is  also  suggested  that  all 
persons  were  required  to  pay  their  tithe  of  young  be- 
fore that  day  or  be  liable  to  the  wite^  or  mulct 

Anciently  the  whole  period  of  fifty  days  between 
Easter  and  Whitsuntide  was  a  sort  of  festival,  and  each 
was  observed  as  a  day  of  joy.  We  are  told  that  Chris* 
tians  had  solemn  worship  every  day,  and  paid  the  same 
respect  to  these  as  they  did  to  the  Lord's  day.  All 
fasting  was  forbidden,  and  no  one  prayed  kneeling,  the 
standing  posture  being  considered  more  in  accordance 
with  the  joyous  spirit  of  the  season,  which  was  the 
commemoration  of  our  Saviour's  resurrecuon  and  as- 
cension. At  these  services  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
were  read,  because  they  contained  a  history  appropri- 
ate to  the  season ;  alms  were  freely  distributed ;  slaves 
were  liberated ;  places  of  worship  were  decorated  with 
evergreens ;  and  baptisms  were  frequently  solemnized. 
At  first  all  persons  were  bsptized  as  opportunity  served; 
but  when  the  discipline  of  the  Church  began  to  be  set- 
tled, baptism  was  confined,  except  in  urgent  cases,  to 
Easter  and  Wliitsuutide,  including  the  fifty  days'  in- 
terval. 

In  countries  where  Romanism  has  prevailed,  the 
greatest  absurdities  have  been  practiced  on  this  day; 
fire  has  been  thrown  down  from  elevated  places,  to  rep- 
resent the  cloven  tongues  of  fire;  flowers  of  various 
hues  scattered  abroad,  in  token  of  the  various  tongues 
and  gifts  of  the  Spirit;  and  doves  let  loose  to  flutter 
about  the  church  as  an  emblem  of  the  Spirit's  presence. 
The  following  instances  are  cited  from  Walcott'a  Sacred 
Archttology  (p.  612-613):  "At  Lichfield,  1197,  <on 
Pentecost  and  the  three  days  ensuing,  while  the  se- 
quence was  sung,  clouds  were  by  custom  scattered.'  A 
circular  opening  still  exists  in  the  centre  of  the  vault  of 
Norwich,  and  there  are  similar  apertures  at  Exeter. 
Through  it,  on  Whitsunday,  a  man,  habited  as  an  an- 
gel, was  let  down  to  cense  the  rood.  At  St.  Paul's  a 
white  dove  was  let  to  fly  out  of  it,  and  a  long  censer, 
reaching  almost  to  the  floor,  was  swung  from  the  west 
door  to  the  choir  steps, '  breathing  out  over  the  whole 
church  and  company  a  most  pleasant  perfume.'  At 
Dunkirk,  in  1662,  the  ceremonial  was  always  performed 
during  the  chanting  of  the  Veni  Creator ^tA  in  Spain. 
Balsamon  alludes  to  the  loosing  of  the  dove  in  the  East. 
At  Orleans,  on  Whitsunday,  during  the  singing  of  the 
prose,  birds,  lighted  tow  and  resin,  wildfire,  and  flow- 
ers were  thrown  into  the  cathedral  At  St.  Julien's, 
Caen,  until  the  end  of  the  16th  century,  seven  kinds  of 
flowen  were  showered  down.  In  Sweden  churches  are 
on  this  festival  still  decorated  with  the  wind  flower  and 
Pentecost  lily — the  daffodil. ...  In  most  cathedrals  the 
country  folk  came  in  procession  on  this  day,  and  Sir 
Thomas  More  mourns  over  the  unwomanly  songs  of  the 
women  who  followed  the  cross;  their  offerings  then 
made  were  called  Whitsun-farthings  or  Pentecostals. 
On  Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  in  Whitsun-week 
the  famous  Whitsun  plays  of  Chester  were  acted  from 
the  14th  century  until  1594  on  Whitsuu- Wednesday, 
*•  Whitsonday,  the>  making  of  the  Creed,'  being  per^ 


formed.  Tilta  and  tourneys  amused  knights  and  fair 
dames ;  the  morris-dancers  delighted  the  common  folks ; 
and  in  many  a  rural  parish  the  church  ale,  a  sort  of  pa- 
rochial picnic,  was  kept  in  an  arbor,  called  Robin  Hood's 
Bower,  followed  by  dancing,  bowls,  and  archery.  .  .  . 
Whitsunday  was  also  called  the  Easter  of  Roses. 

'WbitBun-farthlngs.    See  Pkkteoostal& 

^OThoooever  Psalm,  a  local  term  current  in  parts 
of  England  for  the  Athanasian  Creed  (q.  v.). 

WioelluB.    See  Witzel. 

Wichem,  Johakn  Hbixrich,  father  of  the  Inner 
Mission  in  Germany,  and  one  of  the  foremost  Christian 
philanthropists  of  the  century,  was  bom  at  Hamburg, 
April  21, 1808.  He  studied  theology  at  Gottingen  and 
Berlin,  and  reached  the  degree  of  "candidate."  On 
his  return  home,  encouraged  by  his  pious  mother,  he 
started  a  Sanday*«chool  for  the  poorest  and  most  wicked 
children  in  the  city,  and  ultimately  had  five  hundred 
children  under  his  care.  It  was  this  school  which  gave 
him  the  idea  of  the  institution  which  he  opened  on 
Nov.  1, 1883,  at  Iloni,  a  suburb  of  Hamburg.  He  called 
it  the  *'Rauhe  Haus"  (q.  v.).  In  1845  Wichem  sent 
out  his  Fiiegende  Blatter  aua  dem  Rauhen  IJauSf  now 
the  organ  of  the  Inner  Mission,  in  which  he  urged  the 
duty  of  laying  to  heart  the  misery  of  our  fellow-mor^ 
tab,  and  at  the  same  time  told  the  story  of  his  own 
institutions.  In  1848,  at  the  Church  diet  held  at  Wit- 
tenberg, Wichem  presented  with  such  extraordinary 
eloquence  the  claims  of  the  sick,  the  suffering,  and 
sinful,  who  were  their  countrymen,  that  from  that  hour 
a  new  movement  on  their  behalf  was  begun.  This 
was  the  so-called  ** Inner  Mission"  (q.  v.),  the  very 
name  of  which  is  due  to  Wichem.  Under  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  IV,  Wichem  found  favor  in  court  circles,  and 
exerted  great  influence  upon  the  ari8tocrac>%  In  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  great  services  rendered  to  the 
cause  of  the  Church,  the  University  of  Halle  honored 
Wichem,  in  1851,  with  the  doctorate  of  theology,  while 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV  made  him  a  member  of  the  su- 
preme consistory  of  Berlin.  In  his  official  capacity, 
Wichem  was  enabled  fo  provide  regular  religious  ser- 
vices in  the  prisons.  In  1858  he  founded  the  "Evan- 
gelische  Johannisstift"  in  Berlin,  a  similar  institution 
to  the  Rauhe  Haus,  and  organized  the  Prassian  mili- 
tary diaconate.  In  1872  he  had  a  stroke  of  paralysis, 
from  which  he  never  recovered,  and  died  at  Hamburg, 
April  7, 1881.  See  Oldenberg,  Johann  Hemrich  Wichem, 
iem  Leben  und  Wirken  (Hamburg,  1884),  vol.  i ;  Krum- 
macher,  J.  ff,  Wichem^  etfi  Lebensbild  aus  der  Gegenwart 
(Gotha,  1882) ;  Monat»9chr\fi  fur  umere  Mistkm  (ed- 
ited by  Schitfer,  GQtersIohe,  1881),  i,  880  sq.;  Zockler, 
Hdndbuch  der  theoL  Wittentchqfien  (2d  ed.  Ndrdliugen, 
1885),  iv,  450  sq.;  Plitt-Herzog,  Real-Encykhp.  s.  v.; 
Lichtenberger,  Encyclop,  des  Sciences  ReRgieuKSy  s.  v. 
(a  P.) 

"Wideborg,  Cbxlstoph  Tobias,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  who  died  at  Helmstadt,  Dec. 
5, 1717,  is  the  author  of,  De  Jnspiratione  IHvina:—De 
Peccato  in  Spiritum  Sanctum : -De  Persona  Christi: — 
De  Umone  Pertonali  Duarum  Naturarum  in  Christo : 
— De  Perfectione  Uomims  Renati;—De  Ministerio  Ec- 
cUsiastico : — De  Ministris  Eccksim: — De  Obacuratione 
Solis  in  PassUme  Dominica  ex  Afatt  xxvii^  51,  etc  See 
Jticher,  A  Ugemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Wideburg,  Heinrich,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  at  Gosslar,  Feb.  1, 1641.  He  stud- 
ied at  Helmstadt,  was  made  doctor  of  theology  in  1693, 
and  died  May  4,  1696.  He  wrote,  Sy sterna  Theologies 
PoskivcB: — De  Recta  Dubitandi  Rations: — De  Opera- 
tionibus  Dei: — De  lis,  qua  in  Area  Foederis  Fuerunt 
Servata : — De  Scripturarum  Sacrarum  Divina  Inspi- 
rations,  etc  See  Pipping,  Memories  Theohgorum; 
Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

"Widovr  (naabw,  xw«)'  The  benevolent  influ- 
ence of  the  Bible  is  in  nothing  more  apparent  than  in 


WIDOW 


918 


WIGAND 


the  superior  tieatment  which  woman  haa  experienced 
among  those  nations  where  it  haa  prevailed ;  especially 
in  that  roost  forlorn  and  helpless  class  of  females  who 
have  been  deprived  of  the  support  and  protection  of  a 
husband.  Among  pagans,  on  the  contrary,  and  con- 
spicuously in  Oriental  lands,  the  condition  of  widows 
is  most  deplorable.  They  are  generally  regarded  with 
suspicion  and  contempt,  and,  'in  many  countries,  with 
positive  abhorrence,  as  if  the  cause  of  their  husbands' 
death.  In  India  this  oppression  seems  to  have  reached 
its  culmination  of  misery;  and  the  atrocious  custom  of 
widow-burning  or  titttee  (q«  v.),  was  for  ages  the  doom 
of  this  unfortunate  class.    See  Womah. 

L  Widows  among  the  Htbrewi. — Besides  the  general 
law  against  their  hard  treatment  (Exod.  xxii,  22-24), 
there  was  special  legislation  respecting  them. 

1.  Their  rights  should  always  be  respected  (Dent  x, 
18;  xxvii,  19);  nor  should  their  dotbing  or  cattle  be 
pledged  (xxiv,  17),  nor  their  children  be  sold  for  debt 
(2  Kings  iv,  1 ;  Job  xxiv,  9).  According  to  Maimo- 
nides  ( Sanedr.  21,  6 )  their  cases  must  be  tried  next 
after  those  of  orphans. 

2.  They  must  be  invited  to  the  feasts  accompanying 
sacrifices  and  tithe-offerings  (Deut  xiv,  29;  xvi,  11- 
14;  xxvi,  12  sq.).  Childless  priest-widows  living  in 
their  fathers'  houses  had  a  right  to  the  priests'  meat 
(Lev.  xxii,  18).  In  later  times  it  was  the  custom  that 
the  rich  sent  them  wine  for  the  passover  meal;  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees  widows  were  also  allowed  to  de- 
posit their  property  in  the  temple  treasury  (2  Haoc.  iii, 
10). 

8.  Gleanings  were  left  for  them  (Deut,  xxiv,  19-21), 
and  they  shared  in  the  battle  spoils  (2  Mace  viii,  2ft- 
80).  Their  remarriage  was  contemplated  (Lev.  xxi,  14, 
but  the  high-priest  was  forbidden  to  many  one),  and 
only  on  the  childless  widow  did  the  Levirate  law  oper- 
ate (Deut.  XXV,  5 ;  see  Lrviratk).  The  later  Judaism 
greatly  facilitated  the  remarriage  of  widows  (Jebatnoth, 
XV,  1  sq.,  4  sq. ;  xvi,  4  sq.),  but  this  was  to  be  done  not  less 
than  ninety  days  after  the  husband's  demise.  According 
to  Kethubothf  xii,  2  sq.;  GiUin,  iv,  8,  if  the  widow  remained 
in  her  husband's  house  the  heirs  had  to  provide  her 
with  the  necessary  rooms  and  means  for  her  support ; 
but  if  she  went  to  her  father's  home  she  forfeited  her 
right  to  support  more  than  was  absolutely  necessary, 
and  neither  she  nor  the  heirs  could  lay  claim  to  her 
dowry  until  the  expiration  of  twenty-five  years,  pro- 
vided she  could  prove  by  oath  that  she  had  not  yet 
received  anything  of  it.  In  order  to  get  subsistence, 
widows  were  allowed  to  sell  the  property  of  their 
husbands,  both  real  and  personal  {Kethuboth,  viii,  8; 
ix,  9;  Maim.  Ithuth^  xvi,  7  sq.).  In  case  a  man  left 
two  widows,  the  first  wife  had  prior  claims  (ibid.  Conj, 
xvii,  1).  Betrothed  women  whose  prospective  hus- 
bands died  were  considered  as  widows,  and  such  a  one 
the  high-priest  was  also  forbidden  to  marry.  In  spite 
of  these  laws  and  regulations,  complainta  of  the  unjust 
treatment  of  the  widows  in  Israel  were  heard  at  differ- 
ent times  (Isa.  i,  17, 23 ;  x,  2 ;  Jer.  vii,  6 ;  xxii,  8 ;  Ezek. 
xxii,  7;  MaL  iii,  3),  and  even  in  the  New  Test,  period 
(Matt,  xxiii,  14). 

See  Selden,  De  Succ.  ad  Leg,  Ebr,  in  bona  Defunct,  ; 
Mendelsohn,  Rit,  Getetze^  iv;  Gans,  Erbrecht^  i,  152  sq.; 
SaalschlUz,  MoMtsches  Reckt,  881  sq.,  860  sq.;  Fron- 
muller,  l)e  Vidua  l/tbraa  (Wittenberg,  1714) ;  Dasso- 
vius,  Vidua  Jlebraa,  in  Ugolino's  Thesaurus^  xxx,  1026 
sq. ;  HerzofT, Real- Encyl'lop. 8. v.;  Lichtenberger, jE-ncy- 
clop,  des  Sciences  Relif/ieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

II.  Widows  among  Christians,-^!,  In  the  early  Church 
abundant  and  careful  provision  was  made  for  theih  by 
special  ministration  appointed  under  the  apostles  them- 
selves (Acts  vi,  1-6) ;  and  Paul  gives  particular  direc- 
tions concerning  them  (1  Tiro,  v,  8-16)  in  terms  which 
have  been  understood  by  some  commentators  as  ranking 
them  in  a  special  class  of  Church  ofllcials,  but  which 
rather  seem  to  indicate  their  general  maintenance  at 
the  expense  of  the  body  of  believers,  after  a  careful 


discrimination,  soeh  as  the  iiatm«  of  the  times  then 
dictated.  The  writers  who  immediately  succeeded  the 
apostles  often  refer  to  the  duty  and  practice  of  caring 
for  the  poor  widows  of  the  Church  (Hermas,  Mand,  vilt, 
10;  Sitn,  i,  8;  v,  8;  Ignatius,  Ad  Smjfnt.  vi;  Ad  Pofy~ 
carp,  iv;  Polycarp,  Ad  PkiHp,  iv,  etc.).  In  still  la- 
ter times  the  ApifHoiical  ConstituUom  and  other  au- 
thorities speak  of  a  distinct  order  by  this  name  (r6 
^pucov),  but  these  appear  to  have  held  an  eleemosy- 
nary office,  rather  than  to  have  been  themselves  benefl- 
daries.  See  Dkaooxbss.  They  eventuaDy  took  vows 
like  nuns,  and,  in  fact,  devoted  themselves  to  a  convent- 
ual, or,  at  least,  continent  and  actively  benevolent  life. 
See  Smith,  Diet,  of  CkrisL  Antiq,  a.  v.  At  the  same 
time  this  body  formed  a  convenient  refuge  for  the  desti- 
tute widows  of  those  days,  and  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  nunneries  have  largely  been  recruited  from  the 
ranks  of  bereaved  or  disappointed  women.  But,  aside 
from  this.  Christian  churches  have  in  all  ages  exerted 
themselves  with  a  praiseworthy  diligence  and  liberalitr 
to  furnish  shelter  and  maintenance  for  believing  widows 
whose  leladves  have  been  found  unable  or  unwilling  to 
provide  for  them.  In  more  recent  times  special  retreats, 
called  «01d  Ladies'  Homes,"  have  been  esUhliahed, 
where,  for  a  moderate  charge  or  entirely  gratuitously, 
indigent  widows  are  comfortably  and  pleasantly  taken 
care  of,  without  compeUing  them  to  become  objects  of 
public  charity.    See  Poor. 

Wledenfisld,  Karl  Wilheui,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  bom  at  HUnshoven,  Prussia,  April 
6,  1801,  was  in  1824  pastor  at  Grtfrath,  and  died 
in  1856,  doctor  of  theology.  He  published,  Jeremia's 
KlageliedeTf  neu  iibersetzt  und  erldutert  (Elberfeld,  1830) : 
— Kriiik  des  Simordsmus  (Barmen,  1882) : — De  Homine 
Saa-a  Scriptures  Inierprete  (Leipsic,  1885) : — [Teber  die 
Ehescheidung  unter  den  Evangelischen  (1^7)  : — Para- 
beln  JesufUr  Kinder  (1844)  :~CAriff&*dier  Uaussekatt 
(1847)  i—GeistUcher  Rathgeber  (1848),  etc  See  Zuch- 
old,  BibL  TheoL  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Wieseler,  Karl  Gkoro,  a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Allenzelle,  Hanover,  Feb.  28, 
1818.  He  studied  at  Gdttingen,  and  commenced  his 
academical  career  there  in  1889.  In  1851  he  was  called 
as  professor  to  Kiel,  in  1863  to  Greifswalde,  was  made 
member  of  consistory  in  1870,  and  died  March  11, 1883, 
doctor  of  theolog}*.  He  published,  De  ChrisHano  Ca- 
pitis Pcena  (Gottingen,  1885)  i—Num  Marc  art,  9-20 
et  Joh,  xxi  Genuini  Sinf,  etc  (1889)  i—Die  70  Wocken  des 
Propheten  Daniel  erihiert,  etc  (eod.) ; — Ckronologiscke 
Synopse  (Hamburg,  1843) :—  Chronologie  des  apostoUschen 
Zeitakers  (Gottingen,  1845):  —  Kommentar  uber  den 
Brief  an  die  Galater  (1859)  : — Untersnchwtg  uber  den 
Hebraerbri^iKiei,  1861)  i-^BeUrage  zur  riektigen  Wur^ 
digung  der  EvangeUen  (Gotha,  1869): — Gesckiekte  dn 
Bekeimtnissstandes  der  btth,  Kirehe  Pommems  (Stettin^ 
1870): — Die  Nationaliiat  der  kleinasiatischen  GakUer 
(GUterslohe,  1877)  -.^Die  Christenrerfoigwigen  der  Cdsa- 
ren  (1878):  —  Zur  GeschidUe  der  neutestamentlicken 
Schrifi  und  des  Urchristenthunts  (\S80'):—UnterMuehush' 
gen  zur  Gesckichte  und  Religion  der  alten  Gemumen  m 
Asien  und  Europa  (1881),  etc  See  Plitt-Henog, Real- 
Encgklop.  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Wieser,  Johanneb,  a  Jesuit  and  professor  in  the 
university  at  Innsbruck,  who  died  in  1885  at  Botsen,  is 
the  author  of.  Die  Bedeutung  der  IJerz-Jesu-Andaekt 
und  des  Gebetsapostolates  fur  unsere  Zeit  (Innsbrack, 
1869): — PauU  ApostoH  Doctrina  de  Justifcatione  ex 
Fide  sine  Operibus,  etc  (Tricnt,  1878)  i—Die  Unfekibar- 
keit  des  Papstes  und  die  miinchener  Eneagungen  (1870) : 
— Der  jesuiUsche  KrankheUsstoff  in  der  Kvreke  (Inns- 
brack,  1872) :— />»e  DdlUngerische  DreUdrchtnidee^  etc 
(Brixen,  1875)  :-^Der  Spirititmus  und  das  Christentkum 
(Ratubon,  1881).     (R  P.) 

Wife.    See  Marbiagk;  Woman. 
"Wigand,  JoHAKN,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Mansfeld  in  1528.    He  itndied  at 


WI6BERT 


919 


WILBUR 


WtUenberg,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  his  native 
city  in  1M6|  saperintendent  of  Magdeburg  in  1&68,  pro- 
fessor of  tlieology  at  Jena  in  1560  (from  which  position 
he  was  discharged  the  next  year),  siiperiotendent  of 
Wismar  in  1662,  and  again  professor  at  Jena  in  1569. 
In  1570  he  accompanied  the  duke  Johann  Wilhelm  to 
the  diet  at  Spires,  but  after  the  death  of  the  duke,  in 
1578,  Wigand  was  expelled  from  Saxony.  At  the  in- 
sunce  of  Martin  Chemnitz  he  was  appointed  professor 
at  Konigaberic*  and  in  1575  he  was  made  bishop  of 
I'omerania.  Wigand  died  at  LiebemUhl,  Prussia,  Oct. 
21, 1587.  He  was  an  ultra-Lutheran,  an  ardent  cham- 
pion of  Flacius  (q.  v.),  and  took  part  with  great  vehe- 
mence in  all  controversies  of  the  time,  persecuting  with 
blind  fanaticism  any  one  who  differed  from  him  in 
opinions.  At  last  he  fell  out  with  his  own  master, 
with  whom  he  at  one  time  labored  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Lutheran  popedom,  and  wrote  against  him. 
Wigand's  autobiography  is  found  in  Fortgetetxte 
Sammlung  von  aUen  und  neuen  thenlogi$chen  Sachen 
(Leipsic,  1738),  p.  601-<620,  where  a  complete  list  of  all 
his  writings  is  also  found  \  comp.  also  Zeumer,  VUm 
Proffuommjenentium^  p.  43  sq.  •,  SchlOsselburg,  OraHo 
FanebrU  de  Vita  ei  ObUu  J.  Wi^tuU  (Frankfort,  1591) ; 
Salig,  GescAichfe  der  aufftburg.  Confession^  i,  689  sq. ; 
iii,  279  sq. ;  Arnold,  Preussische  KirchengesdiichU,  p. 
846  sq. ;  Walch,  Hist,  vnd  tkeoL  EinUitung  in  die  Be- 
liffitnisstreitigkeitm,  i,  57  sq.;  iv,  100  sq.;  Planck,  Ge^ 
schichte  des  protest,  Lehrhegriffsy  iv,  195  sq. ;  DoUinger, 
Peformationj  ii,  476 ;  Preger,  Flacius^  i,  82  sq. ;  ii,  84  sq. ; 
Frank,  Geschichte  der  protest,  Theologie^  i,  97 ;  Schulte, 
Beitrage  zvr  Etd^ehungsgesckichte  der  Magddmrger 
Centurien  (Neisse,  1877);  Wegele,  Geschichte  der  deui- 
schen  Historiographie  (1885),  p.  828  sq.;  Wagenmann, 
in  Plitt-Herzog's  Real-EncyJdop.  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Wigbert,  j^otn/,  the  first  abbot  of  Frit2lar,  was  a 
native  of  England.  In  784,  when  Boniface  had  be- 
come bishop  of  Mayence,  he  invited  Wigbert  to  come 
to  Germany,  and  take  charge  of  the  Fritzlar  abbey. 
Under  the  new  abbot  the  school  soon  became  famous. 
Wigbert  died  in  747.  See  Servatus  Lupus,  Vita  8, 
Wigberti,  Abbatis  Fritzlariensis^  in  Mabillon,  i4c/a 
Benedict,  iii,  671  sq. ;  Afiracula  Wigberti,  edited  by 
Waitz  in  Pertz,  Monumenta  Hist,  German,  vi,  227  sq. ; 
Rettberg,  Kirchengesckichte  DeiUsehlandSf  i,  593  sq.; 
Wattenbach,  DeutschUmds  Geschiehtsquelten  im  Jfittel- 
alter,  4th  ed.  i,  195 ;  Ebert,  Geschichte  der  LUeratur  des 
Mittelaltersy  ii,  206;  Hahn,  Bom/az  und  Lul,  p.  141  sq. ; 
Plitt-Herzog,  Reat-Encglciop,  s.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  En- 
cgdop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Wighard,  an  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  an  Eng- 
lishman by  birth.  He  had  been  chaplain  to  Dcusdedit, 
and  had  been  educated  in  the  Church  of  Canterbury. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Canterbury  and  metro- 
politan of  all  England  some  time  between  AiD.  664  and 
668.  He  immediately  went  to  Rome  to  be  consecrated, 
where  he  died,  soon  after  his  arrival,  of  the  plague. 
See  Hook,  Lives  of  the  A  rchlfishops  ofCanta-burg,  i,  142. 

TT^ight;  Hbmby,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  at  Medfielil,  Mass.,  in  1758,  and  was  a  grad- 
uate of  Harvard  College  in  the  class  of  1782.  His  or- 
dination took  place  at  Bristol,  R.  L,  Jan.  5, 1785,  in  con- 
nection with  the  dedication  of  a  new  house  of  worship. 
Of  this  church  he  continued  to  be  the  sole  pastor  for 
more  than  thirty  years  (from  1785  to  1815).  On  Nov. 
13  of  the  latter  year,  the  Rev.  Joel  Mason  was  ordained 
as  his  colleague.  Dr.  Wight  was  dismissed  at  his  own 
request  Nov.  11, 1828.  His  residence  during  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  among  his  own  people  in  BristoL 
He  died  Aug.  12,  1837.  His  ministry  in  Bristol  was 
a  prosperous  one,  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  persons 
being  received  into  the  membership  of  the  Church  dur- 
ing his  pastorate.  See  Harvard  General  CataUtgue, 
p.  87;  Memorials  of  R,L  Cong,  Misasters,     (J.  CS.) 

Wlgfatmaxi,  William  Mat,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  at 


Charieston,  S.  C,  Jan.  8, 1808.  He  was  converted  at 
sixteen,  graduated  from  Charleston  College  in  1827,  en- 
tered the  South  Carolina  Conference  in  1828,  and  im- 
mediately sprang  into  position  and  popularity.  After 
laboring  successively  on  the  Pedee,  Orangeburg,  Sum- 
ter, and  Abbeville  circuits,  and  in  Charleston  and  Cam- 
den stations,  he  was  appointed  agent  for  Randolph- 
Macon  College  in  1884;  in  1887  was  made  professor  of 
English  literature  in  that  institution ;  two  years  later 
presiding  elder  of  Cokesburg  District;  in  1840  editor 
of  the  Southern  Christian  A  dvoccUe ;  in  1854  president 
of  Wofford  College ;  in  1859  president  of  the  Southern 
University  at  Greensboro',  Ala. ;  and  in  1866  bishop, 
an  office  which  he  filled  with  great  ability  until  his 
death  in  Charleston,  Feb.  15, 1882.  He  was  singularly 
effective  as  a  preacher,  dignified  and  successful  as  an 
administrator,  ardent  as  a  friend,  and  modest  and  ear- 
nest as  a  Christian.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer^ 
ences  oftheM.E,  Church  South,  1882,  p.  161. 

'Wigram,  Joseph  Cotton,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  bom  Dec  26, 1798,  being  the 
son  of  sir  Robert  Wignm,  bart.  He  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1820,  and  was  ordained  deacon  in  1822,  and 
priest  the  next  year;  in  1827  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  the  National  Society  for  Promoting  the  Educa- 
tion of  the  Poor,  and  in  the  same  year  became  assistant 
minister  at  St  James's,  Westminster;  in  1885  he  was 
appointed  rector  of  East  Tisted,  Hants;  in  1847  was 
made  archdeacon  of  Winchester,  holding  that  position 
until  his  appointment  as  bishop  of  Rochester,  to  which 
he  was  consecrated  in  1860;  from  1851  until  I860' he 
was  rector  of  St.  Mary's,  Southampton.  He  died  sud- 
denly at  London,  April  6, 1867.  His  literary  remains 
consist  of  a  lai^  number  of  published  sermons.  See 
A  meriean  Quar,  Church  Rev.  July,  1867,  p.  846. 

"Wigrdr,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the  name  of  the 
large  plain  which  serves  the  Asas  and  the  Einheriars, 
the  Muspelheimers,  with  Hel,  Loke,  Fenris,  and  Jormun- 
gand,  as  a  battle-field.  It  has  an  area  of  10,000  square 
miles. 

"Wlke,  in  the  mythology  of  the  Finns  and  Lapps,  is 
a  child  which  the  moon  with  Bil,  the  daughter  of  the 
Asas,  exalted  to  heaven,  in  order  that  both  might  be  its 
constant  companions.  Some  see  in  this  a  reference  to 
the  different  phases  of  the  moon. 

Wikeford,  Robebt  de,  D.CL.,  an  Irish  prelate, 
was  bora  in  Essex,  and  was  archdeacon  of  Winchester. 
For  a  time  he  was  fellow  of  Merton  College,  and  was 
advanced  to  the  see  of  Dublin,  Oct.  12, 1375,  before  the 
close  of  which  year  he  was  consecrated.  In  1877  he 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  Ireland.  In  1378  he  had 
an  exemplification  and  confirmation  of  the  manor  of 
Swords  to  him  and  his  successors.  About  1880  he  had 
a  grant  to  the  see  of  all  its  possessions.  In  1882  De 
Wikeford  was  ordered  to  attend  a  conference  of  the 
prelates,  to  be  held  at  Naas.  In  1885  he  was  again 
appointed  lord  chancellor.  In  1890  he  visited  Eng- 
land, where  he  died,  Aug.  29  of  that  year.  See  D'Alton, 
Memoirs  of  the  A  rchbishops  ofDuUin,  jx  142. 

T77ila,  in  Slavonic  mythology,  is  one  of  the  deities 
worshipped  by  the  Bohemians  and  Moravians,  and  was 
ruler  of  night  and  death. 

"Wilbur,  Hervey,  D.D.,  an  American  minister, 
was  bom  at  Wendell,  Mass.,  in  1787.  He  was  pastor  of 
his  native  place  from  1817  to  1823;  subsequently  pre- 
sided over  several  female  seminaries;  and  died  at  New- 
buryport  in  1852.  He  was  the  author  of,  Discourse  on 
the  Religious  Education  of  Youth  (1814) :  —  Reference 
Bible  (1828)  -.—Elements  of  A  stronomg  (1829)  .—Lexicon 
of  Useful  Knowledge  (1830)  :— and  Reference  Testament 
for  Bible  Classes  (1831). 

Wilbur,  John,  an  American  minister  of  the  Socie- 
ty of  Friends,  was  born  at  Hopkinton,  R.  I.,  in  1774.  He 
opposed  the  introduction  into  the  society  of  any  new 
doctrines  or  practices.    In  1888  he  was  accused  by  sev- 


WILBUBITES 


WILD  ASS 


cnl  memben  of  the  Rhode  laland  yeirl]-  mccdng  of;  [Srec  Sypot};  "o  the  Etstern  oHf  oypMic,  Photiot 
publuhinft  ■UterocDU  derogtwry  lo  the  ch««ct*r  of  Cod.  xlii,  91 ;  PhiloMr.  ^poU.  iii,  I ;  Siita,  Atn.r. 
Jowph  Jdhn  Uiirnev,  who  »m  theo  visting  the  Uniud  52),  r  ■peejea  iubibiiiiig  the  doert  (Job  xiir, »;  [k 
StMlen.  Ho  wan  suatuned  in  hia  canne  by  bis  own  xxxU;  Jer.ii,2,4),ro«aiing  free  (Job  xxiii,S),  iirii^ 
iDoiithly-  meeling,  that  of  South  KinRKoa;  bat  th*l  on  heibi  (li,  6;  Jer.  xiT,  S\  which  ii  likewiac  do- 
body  hsvinu  b*eii  Bopcrseded  by  the  Greenwich  meet-  lioned  in  pn>Cu>eiutb«i(Aniti>t.^*n.ri,36;  Onw 
ing,  he  wm  disowned  by  the  Uttei  body,  and  iti  >cliun  CfHeg.  iii,  IW  Bq.).  «nd  it  e«peei>ny  made  in  Se^fUat 
CDnfinned  by  the  hif-her  power*.  Hi«  aupporten  in  the  lymbol  of  a  nomadic  life  (Gcn.iTi,l!).  Tb(  M- 
various  paru  of  New  England  nniled  in  fonning  ■  aep-  lowing  i*  a  cloae  InuuUtion  of  Ibe  poetical  dttoiptigB 
ante  yearly  tneeting,  whiwe  membera  were  known  ■»  rf  the  wiki  aai  giren  in  (he  book  of  Job  (mil,  i-«): 
"Wilburitei"     They  mainlain  the  Nriclent  traditiont '  \       -^      i 

of  the  sect,  anil  claim  that  Quaken,as  ■  bodv,  are  gir-' 
ing  up  their  principles.  Ur.  Wilbni  died  in  1856.  He  I 
was  the  author  of,  Xarratin  and  /CrpaoHon  ofikt  Latt 
I  of  lit  Krw  t'ltghnd  Ytarfy  Uleeting,  c 

i/L'iK 


Who  not  forth  lihe] 


nfree: 


(1845) ; — A  Fev  Remarks  upon  Iht  Coitirofrrty  kfmoa 
Good  and  Evil  M  ria  fiocit^  of  Friaidt  (1865) :— uid 
ita  Journal  and  Cormpoivinct  have  appeared  since  his 
death  (1S59). 

Willnuitea.    Sea  Wilbch,  Jotnt 

^nioock^  Joseph,  DJ).,  an  Engliih  clagroun, 
wubominlGiS.  HewasedacaudatMaedalenCuIlefte, 
Oiford;  chOBCndemyofhiBColle^Btlbeumetimewith 
Douller  and  Addison,  from  which  circumstance  ihia  was 
called  "  the  golden  election  i'  became  chaplain  lo  the 
Englitb  Factory  at  Lisbon;  relumed  to  Engiuiri,where 
he  became  chaplain  lo  George  I,  and  preceptor  to  tbe 
children  of  deorge  II;  became  prebendatv  of  West-  i 
minster  in  Uarch,  1720;  was  made  bishop 'of  Glouces- 
ter in  1721;  liandaud  to  the  sec  of  Kochetler  in  1781, 
and  at  tbe  itme  time  held  the  deanery  i 
and  died  March  9, 1'sG.  He  published  i 
See  Chalmers,  Biog.2ji 


I'e.i,  nfler  eTsrj  prea  [IblDg]  will  he  reek. 
Dm  (he  fr«{nent  rdiI  familiar  allwiinnt  lo  ihe  liU 
n  Scripture,  we  may  condnde  it  was  nmeli  mn 
Frous  in  the  counliies  a^jacuit  lo  Pakaline  in  it- 
' "     'I  is  at  ptesenL     Tboogh  w  " 


i  single  M 


"WOA,  Friedrioh  Karl,  a  Protealant  iheolngian 
of  Germany,  who  died  at  Kitchheim,  July  3, 1869,  is 
the  author  of,  Der  moderiK  Jaaitiimui  (yurdlin^^n 
1843)  -.—Gollti  Won  Knl  rf«  KircAe  (StuUgart,  184i) ; 
—En  IFort  ^f^nt  dm  iOlii^m  GAravci  umd  dir  ktr- 
hSmmlkhe  SItUang  drr  Apobypkai  in  der  erangtliKhtH 
Kirdit  (\Sbi):— Jacob  titilbnma:  Ein  Iltid  uMtr' 
da  Slrriltm  Jrsu  CbiUli  (Leipaic,  1869).  See  Zuch- 
old,fiiW.r*«ois.v.    (&P.) 

wild,  Jobum.    See  FEBi:a. 

'Wild,  Jobanu  Chriatopb  FrlAdilcb,  a  Piot- 
eslant  Iheoli^ian,  was  born  at  Duabeig,  Jut>e  18, 
1803.  He  studied  at  Erlangcn,  was  in  1830  prewber 
at  WassertrOdingen,  and  in  1839  pastor  at  Schonberg, 

where  he  labored  for  twenty-nine  i-ears.     In  1868  he  -  -  .-    - 

was  called  to  UnterKhvraninEen,  iii  Bavaria,  and  died ;  This  species 


Wild  Ah. 
Haaian  (Bashan) ;  nor  do  ws  findit  in  tbe  Snailicil- 
demess.  The  species  which  is  lound  east  of  Syria  ii 
the  Aiiniii  kaKippm,  or  Syrian  wild  ass,  whidi  dlfin 
from  the  .4foui  Anitoiv,  the  wild  an  of  Cenlnl  Au. 
ilighl  particulars  of  oMeologT  aid  fern- 
undoubtedly  known  lo  the  Jews,  sad 


April  6,  1882.  He  wrote,  Cfbrr  gdlllicke  SIrafe  and  "  probably  t\ieptn:  ofScripturr.  The  Atiami  r»^o™ 
BlrafgrridUe  (Anspach,  1882) :  _  SgUfmatiidui  Dor-  j  or  Onager  of  Ibe  ancients,  the  original  of  tbe  tvot  to. 
itaung  do-  CnltrKhadiagMUhre  drr  kalkolackm  »■(  I  inhabits  the  Egyptian  deaert»,and  must  alio  hsTtbten 
protalaMitcAtM  Kirtkt  (Nbrdlingen,  1842) :— ftr  Torf.'known.  If  Ihe  species  were  distinguished  from  H 
tai  Lickie  der  OfffAanag  (Nuremberg,  1847),      See  S.vrian  one,  it  may  probably  be  the  arSd  of  the  Hi 


.,    ,  i  1847), 

Zochold,  ^iU.  Tieoi.  ii,  1448.     (a  P.) 

■Wild,  Robert.  D.D.,  an  English  Nonconformist 
diyine,  poet,  and  wit,  was  bom  at  Sn  Ives,  Huntii 
doosbire,  in  1609.  He  was  edncated  at  Ihe  tlnirerNty 
of  Cambridge ;  received  his  fint  degm  in  divinilv  at 
Oxford  in  1642;  was  appointed  rector  at  Avnhoe,  North- 
amptonahire.  in  1646;  ejected  it  the  KeMoralion;  and 
died  at  Oundle  in  1679.  He  was  Ihe  anthor  of,  Tragrdg 
o/ChriiTopher  Loet  at  Tomer  HiU  (1660)  —JUr  Bottaie 
(voi.);  —  Pota  on  tie  /mpriMonniBU  of  att  ~' 
CaJang  u  A'ntjwfe  (1662):_i'iwB»  ( 1668 )  : _ ftjaie 
Sij/md  U  Dtalh  (1683),  being  ■  collection  of  choice 
poems,  in  two  parts,  written  by  the  earl  of  Rrochestcr], 
Dr.ttild,etc;-7'*e  ioagfa;  o  Cowo^  (1689).  In 
1870  appeared  Poemt  iy  Soieri  Wiid,  D.D.,  om  of  Ihe 
Ejected  Jtiniilert  0/1662;  ici/k  a  Hiitorical  and  Bio- 
frapiical  Pr^aa  and  ffoUi,  \iv  the  Rev.  John  Hani. 
Bee  Chalmen,  Biog.  Diet.  a.  r. 

Wild  Ah  {KlB,piri  ;  once  [Job  xxiiz,  5]  Ills 
a>-6d;  (nuld.  [Dta.  r,  21]  f^S.  ordJ;  Sept  Syaypi'c 


brew,  Timveller*  hare  seen  Ibia  ass  wild  in  the  dan" 
of  North  Africa,  in  amall  troops  of  four  or  fire.  Wlin 
riding  in  Ihe  Sahara,  tbey  hare  detected  whst  ihry  toik 
tobe  antelopes  onaslightiyelcvatednwand  ofsand ;  tboi. 
by  their  glaaaes,  dUoorering  they  had  no  honu,  Ibcy 
suspected  they  were  the  boTaes  of  Bediwin,  wbs 
might  be  coiKealed  behind  them,  til]  they  aUowtd  as  ap- 
proach sufficiently  near  to  make  them  out  mon  dcaily, 
when,  snuffing  up  the  wind,  tbe}t  dashed  olT  at  a  iiMtd 
which  the  best  of  horara  eonU  not  bare  apprsadwL 
Tristram  saw  a  wild  asa  in  tbe  oasis  of  Soof,  wUck 
had  been  snared  when  a  cojt ;  bat  though  it  had  ten 
kept  for  three  years  in  confinemeDt,  it  was  as  rnlna- 
■ble  as  when  first  caogbl,  biting  and  kicking  tanauit 
at  erery  one  who  ai^roached  it,  and  nerer  eodaring  i 
saddle  on  its  back.  In  appearance  and  color  it  coaU 
not  hare  been  distinguished  litNB  one  of  the  SoBt 
---rimenaof  Ihe  tame  saa.  Tbe  Syrian  wild  aai(-<>- 
iem^ypia)  in  no  way  diftrs  liom  the  African  ia 
habits.  All  the  spepies  of  wild  asa  an  raon  m  las 
migratory,  travelling  north  and  aonlh,  anotding  l«  Ibt 


Wn.D  BEAST  8S 

Kuon,  in  Inrge  herds.  The  Aiiitic  (Atinui  tontRP"') 
proceeil  in  lumnier  u  far  north  4a  Amienii,  marking 
their  course  by  gnzing  the  herbtge  very  c  dm  y  on 
their  march.  In  winter  Ihey  dMcend  as  fir  aa  h« 
ahorea  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  the  wne  Tnanner  Cha 
African  epeciea  is  only  in  aumnier  seen  on  the  conflnea 
of  Egypt,  retiring  in  winter  lowarda  the  inlerio  Their 
habit  of  congref^cing  at  watering-place*,  ind  ofatand 
ing  OD  the  watch  on  any  riling  ground,  are  tratb  al 
luried  to  in  Scripture  (Paa,  civ,  11 ;  Jer.  liv  6)  See 
Trialram,  ym.  Hitl.  aftht  BibU,  p.  42.     See  Au. 

Wild  BeoBt  ia  the  rendering  of  the  A.  V  a  I  la. 
1, 11;  lux,  13  [elsewhere  "abundance,"  lBa.lxTi,  II] 
of  fl,  ill,  a  poetical  word  for  any  moTing  ctea  ure  of 
lh«  field.  Another  Heli.  lerm,  cioy^  (rcn  Sept. 
Silpiav,  ^uDC,  5lip,  TiTpawovt,  jn-qvof,  ifijnroy  di;pu! 
Xvros,  ^ptrraf,  Vuli./era,  aniiBUB<iu,  animat)  also 
nndfied  "  beast,"  "  wild  beast,"  ia  tbe  ferain  os  of  he 
adjective  '<n,  "liriog,"  used  to  denote  any  an  maL 
It  is,  however,  very  frequenlly  used  specially  of  w  d 
beaat."  when  the  meaninfr  is  often  tnnre  fidly  expressed 
by  the  additioti  of  the  word  Hl^h,  hai^adik  (wild 
beast)  "of  the  field"  (Exod.  xxiii,  It;  Lev.  xx  i,  S3 
Deut,  vii,  W  i  Hos.  ii,  14 ;  xiii,  8 ;  Jer,  xii,  9,  etc)  S  m- 
iliT  ia  the  use  of  the  Chaldee  tt^-^n,  oiiysiU  (Dan. 
vii).    See  Beast. 

WILD  BEAST  or  thi:  DESKitT  ia  the  rendering  of 
the  A.  V.  at  Isa.  liii,  21 1  xixiv,  U :  Jer.  1,  80  [eUe- 
where  "  dwelliug  in  the  wilderness,"  (Psa.  iii,  9;  ixxiv, 
14;  laa-xxiii,  IS]  of  the  Heb.wonl  Tound  only  in  this 
sense  in  the  plur.  □''?X,  Irii/ioi,  although  the  sing.  ^X, 
rsNurnb. 


WILDERNESS 


;  Dan.  xi,  30,  in 


le  sense  of  "ship."    It  is  thought  li 


ir  perhaps  any)  species  of  animal  living 
in  the  desert,  such  as  jackals,  ostriches,  etc.  The  an- 
cient vcraions  arc  incouaiBienl(Sepr.^(pia,(WdX^ra; 
Vulg.  btitUe,  druanvi).  The  Targum  understands  ajia, 
Michielis  ^Suppl  p.  2086)  ttTpoiU,  AuriviUlus  (Dinrrl. 
p.  2Dg)  uampgrtM,  Saadias  and  Abulwilid  tnU  buUi,  and 
otben  vrild  aali.     See  Bocbart,  Bitrot.  u,  211. 

WILD  BEAST  or  the  Isuindb  ia  the  rendering  of 
the  A.Y.  It  Isa.xiii,  22;  ixxiv,  14;  Jer.  I,  39,  of  the 
HeU  word  which  occun  in  tbis  sense  only  in  the  plur, 
B"*'!*,!}™,  although  it  frequently  occurs  both  in  the 
aing.  and  plur.  in  the  sense  of  "  island."  The  ancient 
interpreters  variously  understand  ealt  (Chald.and  Kim- 
cbi)  and  iptelru  (Sept.  6yoKiirraiipos)  i  but  later  writ- 
era  generally  agree  that  the  Jackal  (q.  v.)  ia  meant, 
from  ita  habit  of  hoKling  (Bochan,  Ifieroi.  i,  843). 

Wild  Bull  ia  the  rendering  of  the  A.  V.  at  Isa.  li, 
20,  of  Xin,  M  (Sept.  DturXtov;  Vulg.  otyi),  which  is 
nov  generally  thought  to  denote  some  of  the  larger 
species  of  antelope  (q.  v.),  as  the  same  word  in  a 
slightly  longer  form,  iKR,  /e<>,  occurs  elsewhere  (Deut. 
siv,  8,  A.  V."  wild  ox"),  where  the  ancient  interpreter! 
(Sept.Spff;  Vulg.  oryr),  as  well  as  the  context,  agree 


n  that  aetue  The  paiticnlar  k  nd  is  ptobabW  the 
oiyz,  although  no  exact  species  may  have  been  intended. 
Others,  however,  are  inclined  to  regard  the  creature  in- 
tended as  kindred  rather  with  the  iv^'i,  or  "  unicorn  "  of 
our  veraion.  It  is  ■  singular  fact  that  various  animals 
of  the  ox  kind  are  figured  on  tlie  monumenta  aa  tribute 
to  the  ancient  Assyriina.     See  Buffalo. 

WUdftnieu  is  in  the  A,  T.  the  most  frequent  ren- 
dering of  ^27^  imidbdr,  i)  tpriiioi),  wliich  primarily 
denotes  a  region  not  regularly  tilled  or  inhabited  (Job 
iii,  26;  Isa.  xxxii,  15 ;  Jer.  it,  2),  but  used  for  paa- 
turage  (from  *^3^,forracjt^rererriDgtotheeattle-patbs) 
(Jer.  ix,  9;  Paa.  Ixv,  13t  Joel  ii,  22;  Luke  xv,  4); 
mostly  treeless  and  dry,  but  not  entirely  destitute  of 
vegetation  or  fertility,  such  OS  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
io  tho  East  (Robinson  ii,  656;  occasionally  culliraled 
in  spots,  Joaephus,  .4nf.  xii,4, 6).  Towers  were  some- 
times elected  in  ibem  for  the  protection  of  floeks  (2 
Chnin.]txvi,10;  2  Kings  xvii,  9;  comp. laa. i, 8),  Tho 
term  is  likewise  in  some  instances  applied  to  particular 
barren  tracts  of  hard  arid  steppes  (Isa.xxxv,  G;  xlt,  18; 
xliii,20;  Lam.iv.B;  UaLi,3)  overrun  with  wild  ani- 
nsls  (see  Koaenmllller,  Jf(ii^s«7i^i,88  aq.);  althuugb  for 
lucb  apuU  the  worda  nsSID  nBTS  (Joel  ii,3;  iv,  19), 
liciir^,  n=^5  (see  Credner,  in 'the  SWrf.  u.  Kni.  1833, 
iii,  TSB  sq.),  etc.,  are  usually  employed.  For  a  remarka- 
ble phenomenon  of  these  dry  wastes,  see  MinACE. 

Although  this  kind  ofregiou  is  nut  particularly  char- 
acteristic of  Palestine,  yet  (he  tenn  midiar  is  applied  to 
the  following  localities  iu  it  or  its  immediate  vicinity 
[see  DkSeRT]  : 

-    -"     f  nfJadiih,  also  called  Jahimon  (1 

Sim.x.iii,19!  xxvi,1.3),isarocky 

tribe  adjoining  the  Dead  Sea  and 
including  tbe  (own  of  Engedi  (Josh. 
XV,  6t;  Judg.i,  IG).  It  appeals  to 
have  eitcndeil  from  the  vicinity  of 
the  EedroD,  a  few  miles  east  of  Jeru- 
salem, to  the  S.W.  shore  oftbe  Dead 
Seaand  to  thehillsof  Judah.  The 
convent  of  Mar  Saba  (q.  v.)  U  a 
marked  feature  of  one  of  its  wild 
and  barren  delh.    Sec  JmAii,  Wii^ 

DKBMESB  OF. 

,  On  the  N.W.  border  of  the  wil- 

Jri I    ^emesB  of  Judah  lay  lie  Wildrrnra 

ii,BndAiil*lope.    (From  the  Black  Obelisk  of  HlmrAd.)        ij)'r<i(ia(2Cliron.'xT,20;  1  JtUcc. 


1.  The  WUJtn 


WILDERNESS 


922 


WILDERNESS 


ix,  88) ;  as  in  iu  £.  part  appears  to  have  lain  the  Wilder^ 
ness  ofEfiffedi  (1  Sam.  xxiv,  2),  and  in  iu  S.  part  the  WU- 
dentess  qfZiph  (xxiii,  14  sq.)  or  Maon  (q.  ▼.)»  othei^ 
wise  called  Jeruel  (2  Chron.  xx,  16).  The  WUdemeu 
of  St.  John  (Matt,  iii,  1, 8 ;  oomp.  xi,  7 ;  Lake  i,  80)  is  a 
part  of  the  desert  of  Judab ;  altbongb  modem  tradition 
gives  that  name  to  the  neighborhood  of  Ain  Karim  west 
of  Jerusalem.    See  John  the  Baptist. 

2.  The  WUdeneu  of  Beersheba  (Gen.  xxi,  14)  lay 
south  of  that  town  on  the  borders  of  the  desert  Et-Tih. 
See  Beersheba. 

8.  The  Wilderness  ofJeru^  (Josh,  xvi,  1),  between 
that  city  and  the  Mount  of  Olives,  or  rather  Bethany,  was 
an  extension  of  the  desert  of  Judab,  a  rough  and  stony 
tract  full  of  precipices  (see  Josephus,  A  nt,  x,  8, 2),  which 
contains  the  so-called  khan  of  the  Samaritans  (Luke  x, 
80).  Its  N.  E.  extremity  is  the  wiidemess  ofQuarcmta- 
na  (q.  v.),  and  its  N.  W.  extremity  the  wUdemess  of 
Belh-avtn  (Josh,  xviii,  12). 

4.  The  Wildetyiess  of  Gibeon,  in  the  vicinity  of  that 
city,  north  of  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  ii,  24). 

5.  The  Wilderness  of  Reuben  (Deut.  iv,  48),  denotes 
the  barren  tract  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bezer,  on  the 
border  of  the  tribe  towards  the  Arabian  desert.  See 
Reuben. 

6.  The  Wilderness  ofBethsaida  (Luke  ix,  10),  a  past- 
ure-g^und  adjoining  that  town,  apparently  extending 
on  both  aides  of  the  mouth  of  the  Upper  Jordan.    See 

BKTHSAroA. 

For  the  WUdemess  of  Arabia  Petraa  or  of  Mt,  Sp- 
naif  including  those  of  Etham^  Paran^  Shur^  and  the 
Arabahy  see  Wildebness  op  the  Wandebinob. 

WILDERNESS  of  the  Wanderino  of  the  Children 
oflsraeL  This  is  a  convenient  popular  designation  of 
the  wide  region  in  which  the  people  were  led  by  the 
divine  guidance  under  Moses,  for  forty  3'ears,  from  Egypt 
to  Canaan.  It  was  here,  amid  nature^s  grandest  and 
wildest  architecture,  wrapped  in  nature's  profoundest 
silence  and  solitude,  far  removed  from  the  din  and  dis- 
traction of  the  world  of  life  and  action,  that  the  people 
of  Israel  met  with  their  God,  and  witnessed  manifesta- 
tions of  his  glory  and  majesty  and  power  such  as  mor- 
tals never  witnessed  before,  aud  never  can  witness  again. 
There,  as  Stanley  says,  **  they  were  brought  into  con- 
tact with  a  desolation  which  was  forcibly  contrasted 
with  the  greeu  valley  of  the  Nile.  They  were  enclosed 
within  a  sanctuary  of  temples  and  pyramids  not  made 
with  hands — the  more  awful  from  iU  total  dissimilarity 
to  anything  which  they  or  their  fathers  could  have  re- 
membered in  Egypt  or  Palestine.  They  were  wrapped 
in  a  silence  which  gave  full  effect  to  the  morning  and 
the  evening  shout  with  which  the  encampment  rose 
and  pitched,  and  still  more  to  the  *  thunders,  and  the 
voice  exceeding  loud*  on  the  top  of  Iloreb"  {Sin.  and  PdL 
p.  20).  The  appropriateness  of  these  natural  features 
to  the  scenes  recorded  in  the  sacred  narrative  cannot 
safely  be  overlooked  by  the  modern  critic  and  commen- 
tator. They  tend  to  demonstrate  the  perfect  consisten- 
cy of  Bible  history  in  its  minutest  details.  (In  our 
treatment  of  it  here  we  adopt  for  the  most  part  the 
article  found  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  the  Bible).  See  Exodb. 

I.  General  Configuration  and  Features.  — \.  Principal 
jyivisions. —The  country  embraced  in  the  "Wilderness 
of  Wandering*'  extended  fhim  the  borders  of  Bgvpt  and 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  west,  to  the  plateau  of  Arabia 
on  the  eiuit  Bow  much  of  the  latter  it  included  cannot 
be  determined,  because  the  eastern  boundary  of  Bdom  Is 
Indefinite :  and  even  were  it  minutely  defined,  It  would 
be  lmpo»sible  to  ascertain  how  close  to  or  how  far  from 
it  the  Israelites  travelled.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
their  march  wns  never  conducted,  like  that  of  a  modem 
army.  In  one  dense  column.  It  bore  a  far  closer  resem- 
blance to  the  migration  of  an  Arab  tribe,  whose  flocks, 
herds,  shepherds,  and  guards,  with  their  families,  spread 
over  the  country  for  many  miles.  Travellers  in  this  re- 
gion often  pass  through  n  moving  tribe  whose  outer  ex** 
tremities  are  twenty  miles  opnru  The  sonthem  limits 
of  the  wilderness  were  marlcad  by  the  Red  Sea  and  Its 
gulfs;  and  the  northern  by  Canaan,  Moab,  and  Bashan. 

This  vast  tract  is  divided  by  the  Gulf  of  Akabab.  and 
the  deep  valley  of  the  Arabah,  into  two  great  eectlona. 


The  western  section  is  triangular  in  form,  the  base  being 
marked  by  the  Mediterranean  coast  and  the  hills  of  Jn> 
dab,  and  the  apex  by  Ras  Mohammed  on  the  extreme 
sooth.  The  physical  Keograpby  of  this  region  is  very  re> 
markable,  and,  as  it  formed  the  chl^  scene  of  the  wan- 
derings of  the  Israelites,  it  must  be  described  with  soid« 
minuteness.  From  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  a  great 
plain  extends  Inland.  At  first  It  is  very  low,  and  stndded 
with  mounds  and  ridges  of  drifting  sand,  it  rises  grad< 
ually,  and  the  sand  gives  place  to  a  white,  flinty  soil, 
which  scantily  covers  the  limestone  strata.  As  the  ele- 
vation Increases,  lone  reaches  of  rolling  table-land,  and 
broad  ridges  with  naked  crowna  and  long  gravelly  slopes, 
stretch  away  Ikr  as  the  eye  can  see,  while  shallow,  naked 
wadys,  and  hare,  rocky  glens,  seam  Its  surface  and  wind 
away  waterless  to  the  sea.  Towards  the  east  the  table- 
land becomes  still  more  uneven.  The  rids:e8  rise  higher 
and  are  more  rugged,  and  the  valleys  are  deeper  and  wild- 
er. Here,  however,  are  some  smooth  expanses  of  npUmd 
plain,  ana  broad  beds  of  wadys,  coated  with  a  light  but 
rich  soil.  Springs  and  wells  also  become  more  freonent, 
and  occasionally  a  streamlet  may  be  traced  for  a  Bule  or 
two  along  Its  tamarisk-fringed  bed.  At  length  the  pla- 
teau, having  attained  an  alutnde  of  about  two  thousand 
feet,  breaks  down  abruptly,  in  a  series  of  Irr^nlar  ter- 
races, or  wall-like  cllfl^  to  the  great  valley  of  the  Arabah. 
Rnch  are  the  general  features  t)f  the  desert  of  et-Tth.  Its 
name  Is  remarkable.  St-llh  signifies  "The  Wandering,** 
and  Is  doubtless  derived  from  the  wanderings  of  the  Is- 
raelites, the  tradition  of  which  has  been  handed  down 
thnragh  a  period  of  three  thousand  years.  It  was  at  the 
eastern  border  of  the  plateau.  In  the  valley  of  the  Arabah. 
that-  the  camp  was  pitched  so  long  around  the  sacred 
fountain  of  Kadesh ;  and  it  was  up  the  wild  paswe  that 
lead  from  the  Arabah  to  the  table-land  that  an  inlatnated 
and  rebellious  people  attempted  to  force  their  way,  against 
the  divine  command,  into  Canaan,  when  they  were  ariveu 
back  with  disgrace  by  the  hardy  Amalekltes  (Numb,  xtv, 
4D-4B). 

On  the  north  the  plateau  of  et-Tth  rises  gradually  to 
meet  the  swelling  hills  and  green  vales  of  Palestine.  On 
the  south  U  also  rises  In  long,  bare,  gravelly  slopes  to 
Jebel  et-T!h,  which  sweeps  round  like  the  arc  of  a  bow. 
and  regular  as  a  colossal  wall,  fh)m  Suez  to  the  head  of 
the  gulf  of  Akabah. 

The  Arabah  is  a  deep,  wide  valley,  running  in  a  straight 
line  ftrom  the  gnlf  of  Akabah  to  the  Dead  Sea.  From  the 
latter  It  rises  in  a  series  of  terraces,  supported  by  wall- 
like  cliffs,  until  It  attains  an  elevation  of  three  or  foor 
hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean :  then  it  de> 
cllues  gently  to  the  shore  of  the  irnlf  of  Akabah.  The 
greater  portion  of  it  is  a  bare  and  barren  desert,  covered 
fu  part  with  a  light,  flinty  sol],  and  lu  part  with  loose  sand. 
Low  shrobberies  of  tamarisk  appear  here  and  there,  and 
clumps  of  camel-thorn  are  met  with,  but  these  are  its  only 
products.  Fountains  are  almost  unknown  lu  It.  That 
of  Kadesh  is  the  only  one  of  any  note  recorded  in  andcot 
or  modem  times.  Along  its  wei^teni  side  runs  a  range 
of  bare,  rusged  limestone  hills,  from  two  to  three  choo- 
sand  feet  in  height.  The  ranee  is  deeply  furrowed  by 
long,  dry  ravines,  like  rants  m  the  nKky  strata;  and 
theve  form  the  only  approaches  to  the  plateau  of  et-Tth. 
Most  of  them  are  Impassable  to  human  feet:  and  aa  tbey 
cut  far  into  the  table-land,  theyeffectnally  bar  all  pas- 
sage along  Its  eastern  border.  The  Israelites,  therefore, 
in  their  approach  to  Kadesh  f^om  Sinai,  must  have  trav- 
elled along  the  Arabah,  or  else  have  treaded  the  Interior 
of  the  plateau  Itselt 

On  the  east  side  of  the  valley  is  a  mountain-range  of  a 
different  character.  Its  sonthem  section  Is  cranfte,  show- 
ing the  sharp  peaks  and  deep  colore  of  the  Slualiic  groap. 
The  granite  then  gives  place  to  sandstone,  whose  hues 
are  still  more  gorgeous.  This  ranee  formed  the  country 
of  the  Bdomites,  Into  which  the  Israelltea  never  peue. 
trated.  Thev  were  compelled  to  turn  back  fh>m  Mouat 
Hor,  march  down  the  Arabah,  and  pass  round  the  sooth- 
ern  and  eastern  sides  of  Bdom.  'The  desert  of  Arabia 
thus  formed  the  scene  of  their  last  wanderings.  It  ia  a 
vast  table-land,  extending  from  the  mountam-ranee  of 
Bdom  eastward  to  the  horixon,  without  tree  or  Mmh, 
stream  or  fountain.  The  surface  Is  either  bare  rods,  or 
white  gravel  mixed  with  flints,  or  drilling  sand.  The  veer 
Bedavnn  dread  the  passage  of  this  **  great  and  terrible  wil- 
derness." For  days  together  the  daring  traveUer  who 
ventures  to  cross  It  must  hasten  onward,  and  shonld  the 
suppiv  of  water  which  he  Is  obliged  to  carry  with  him 
fail,  all  hope  is  gone.  Wallin,  one  of  the  very  few  who 
traversed  it,  says,  "It  Is  a  tract  the  most  desolate  and 
sterile  I  ever  saw.  Its  irreeuUir  surface  Is,  Instead  of  veg- 
etation, covered  with  small  stones,  which,  shining  some- 
times In  a  dark  swarthy,  sometimes  in  a  bright,  white 
color,  reflect  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  a  manner  most  li^arf- 
ous  to  the  eyes"  {JourtuU  of  the  Roy.  Oeoa.  Soe.  xxlv,  IB). 
Mr.  Palgrave.  who  crossed  It  more  recently,  almost  in  the 
track  ofWallin,  also  gives  a  frlghtAil  account  of  It  <fVa«- 
els  in  Arabisit  1, 8  sq.).  It  Is  far  mora  desolate  and  areaiy 
and  terrible  than  any  part  of  the  region  west  of  the  Ara- 
bah. 

8.  The  Peninsula  of  S{nai.^The  twin  gul&  of  Saea  and 
Akabah,  into  which  the  Red  Sea  separates,  embrace  this 


WILDERNESS  8! 

It*  vrett  mi  CMt  aldn  T»pwilT>tT.    One  or 

itsr,  sod  fnnn  Lba  blshnl  poluu  bolh 
■  lbs  gait ol----- 


bnnchcs.    The  >. 

with  ibclli,  ind  with  the  rom 

whlcii  pDMlblj  g»To  the  whc 


The 
raroraadol 


"hnfa  triiiika''i>rita 


Ihim  It,  tad  th>  lUM*  a(  tantbjUit  lla  iblcklr  banpsd 
onthabcKh.  SImllir  "cnralliDe  fumu"  ira  dnertbad 
(StiDle^r.  Bimt  and  PaUtine,  p.  89)  u  mirklns  the  coui 
or  the  gnlf  of  Akibiib.  Tba  nwtheni  ponToo  of  Iha 
wbola  penlnnnlil  li  t  plftlnn  tnnnded  (oathnrdi  hr  the 
mniie  of  al-Tlh,  vhlcn  droape  acroH  It  na  the  map  with 
a  tarn  nmeiihal  tlhe  Ihat  of  a  tlnck  chRln,«how  potnu 
nf  HupenBlon  an,  wealwirda,  Snn,  ud  eaBlwird,  bnl 
tHnber  ninth,  aome  "Nuiditone  cIlnK  which  «hut  (iff" 
Ibl*  region  from  thafnlfotAkabah.  The  Dortb-waileni 
ntcnber  of  thia  chain  amttTgtt  with  the  ihore  of  the 
gait  al  Snea,  liTI  (he  two  ran  uearlj  paralleL  Ila  eiatarn 
member  tbnnra  off  HTeral  rranneDta  of  long  and  abort 
rtdjK*  towaidi  the  tall  of  Akabab  and  the  aorlhem 
pinlean  allied  fmni  li  ci-Tih.  The  Jeba]  UllW  (Bnrck- 
bard',  DMll)  la  tba  Dual  aontheTlr  nf  [ha  conllsnallona 
•  •r  Ihia  eoatern  member  ( Seelien.  AtfHn,  III,  III,  4111- 
The  grealett  claTallon  In  tbe  et-Tlb  range  la  attained  a 
Utile  weft  of  the  meridian  Wj  near  li)  rnoet  •ODlberlT 

Froni'lhla  point  Iho  v 
Uqacljr  beiweea  north 

drained  b;  the  great  Wad;  el-'Arl(h.  along  a  aradaal 
alope  to  the  Uldliarninean.  Tba  aharler  anil  moch 
pleeper  alope  eaulward  partlr  contern*  Into  tbe  large 
ilDcU  or  wadyi  Flkreb  and  el-Jelh,  eaierln^  Ihe  Dead 
ttea'a  annih-weatem  a"i;1e  through  the  aonlbem  wall  of 
ihn  rihAp  iiiifi  h>n|7  Tinda  an  ontiel  nvarlr  parv^i**  ^^t 
n,  bj  the  Wady  Jerafah  Into 


the  et-Tlb  ri 
in  W,  near  !■ 

aet  aboia  th.  

erabad  or  the  pi •  lea 
d  ea>I  iDwarda  Heli 

northward  frnm  the  wcalerlj 


iial 


be  Wad  T  Jer 

lun  of  the  D 

.)  explains  ibt  „ 

alnpa^    In  croaaing  Lbli  p1al4 

...n  nnd  »•-■■  —■ • '— '  -— 

Hat,  which  cii 
biaflat  mae  hi 

mil 
thia  point 


d"hafl"woVke<l''d 

..._tained  a  few  tbrnoa  or  laoi 

here  and  there  in  haigbta  ita« 

white  chalk  with  freanent  la 

imbedded  ((Md.  Ill,  4^1.    Theplaltan  haaaeei 


iiolni  in  Iha  alalion  Kbnh  NDkhl,  lo  named  fr( 

dale-lreae  wblch  ouce  adorned  lu  wndj,  bnl  wblch  hare 
■II  dleappeared.  Thia  poiol  i>  neurlT  eqnldlMant  from 
flaai  wealwird.  Akabah  enitward.  el-'AHib  nonhward, 
and  tbe  hint  of  Jebei  HQaa  Minthward.  It  Ilea  halfa  mlt« 
north  of  Iba  "Ha}-ronte,"  between  Snea  and  Akabah. 
which  traieraea  "a  boDudleea  dnt.  drear;  and  deaolate" 
((Ml  p.  H),  aod  la  Itfi.feet  above  Iha  Hedllerranean- 


ie  higbeat  pol 
illon  of  SftO 


UitHmo 


a  el-^Ariab.  and  tbe  lonihern  cape,  liia  Mohammed,  la 
Dated  abont  M°  II'.    Thai  Ihe  parattel  Sl°  and  Ihe  me- 
llan  M*  tonn  [ntporlaiit  niee  of  Ihe  whole  region  nf 
spenlnanla.    A  tnll  deacrliiiiaii 
h  la  eiven  br  Robinaon  lOibl. 
K  t,  m,  lis,  tW),  together  with 


third  pli — __,  ._r- r " 

the  general  aarface  of  the  et'Tih 
region.  Theea  Boiaegger  (JfdiJ) 
dlatlngnlthea  aa  three  lermcea  In 
Ihe  .chalk  ridgca.  Ur.Kmw,  In 
hia  Amntrkuagtn  on  Seetieii'a 
itarela  (Jlriaen.  Ill,  Hi,  ■IIO),  re- 
matka  that  the  Jebel  et-Tlh  la  Ihe 
BuMaa  n^,  or  ficXotn  of  Ptol- 
emy, In  whoH  Tlew  thai  ranga 
dercenda  to  tbe  extttme  aonibern 
iwlnl  ot  the  penlnania,  Ihna  iu. 
cladlng,  nf  coarM,  the  ■" 
regtuD.     Thia    eonfnaloi 


3  WILDERNESS 

of  Iha  arc  of  the  et-Hh  riDge,  tbe  length  of  which 
latter  la  about  one  hundred  and  twentr  mllee.  Tliia 
•lope,  deacending  nonbwarda  Dpon  Ihe  MedllerTanaan, 
ia  oflimoatoua  (Stanley.  Sfnaf  and  JtalaiMu,  p.  Tl.cniend 
with  cnarve  graiel  Inlenpenad  with  black  tllnla  and 
drift  (RaHrgger.  Map).  Bnt  Itadeaolaiiou  hia  not  alwaja 
been  ao  eilreme,  oiea,  aaaei.  and  abetp  having  once 
grand  In  parte  or  It  where  now  onlf  the  cnmal  la  [blind. 
Thne  paaaea  Ihroogh  Ihe  et-Tlh  range  are  menlioned  br 
Koblnaon  (ZHbl.  Aa.  I,  IIB ;  camp.  Mf-US,  App.  nil)— er- 
Rakineb,  tbe  wealeni :  el-HarelkbT,  the  eaaletn;  and  e1- 


Wttraab,  

halbeh  (Rahnbolb.  Geo.  xzrt.  It  t).  In  abont  nonh  lailtade 
11°  fi',  eaat  longltiide  W  4f ,  aod  tbenca  dlfergc  towarda 
Hebron  and  Oaia.  Tbeeaalem  iannled  hj  Ruraegget  as 
WW  fVet  above  aea-larel,  Seelmi  tiuk  Die  et-l1h  lange 
for  Iha  "Hoiuit  Seir," jiaaaed  na  the  way  from  Sinai 
( Boreb,  Dent  I,  II  lo  Kadaab  Btniea  br  tbe  laraalite* 
iAriam,  iii.n;  comp.  Kioae.  Jnmanhintrnt,  Hi.  41T).  It 
would  K>m  a  coosplcnons  obl*ct  on  the  left  to  the  laraet- 
ilea.  going  auntb-aaatwarda  near  tbe  coaat  of  Ihe  gnlf  of 
Sues.  Seetzen,  proceeding  towards  Soei,  1.  e.  In  the  op- 
poalle  direction,  menliona  a  high  aandj  plain  (JMam,  ill, 
111),  appaieullj  near  Wad;  OhBrflndeT,  whence  Ita  Bleep 
Bonthcm  face  waa  Tlalhla  In  a  while  aireak  atreiching 
westwaida  and  eaatwarda.  Dr.  Btanler.  i3nai  oiUI  /Wet- 
Hw,  p.  T)aava."  However  mncb  the  other  monuiaina  of 
the  penlnenla  varr  in  form  or  heigbt,  Ihe  monnlalDS  of 
the  Tih  are  always  allke-aiwaja  ISIihfnl  to  ihelr  Ubniar 
oalline  and  blanched  daaohilion."  Tbev  appear  like  "a 
long  ilmeaionc  wall"  Tbla  traTelter  law  them,  boweret, 
ODljr  "Itnu  adl>laDee''(tM£  and  nolat).  Seetien,  who 
croaaad  Ihem,  going  from  Hebron  to  Sloal,  aaja  of  the 
view  from  the  aigheat  ridge  nf  Ihe  lower  munntaln-lliK. 
■■WhaCalandacapewaa  tbati  looked  down  nixin!  On 
all  aldea  the  ainai  rrlghttni  itllderii»M  extended  oat  ol 
siehl  In  every  direcllon,  withoni;  tree.  ahmb.  or  apeck 
of  green.  It  waa  an  aiienialion  of  Sale  and  fallla.  tor  Iha 
moat  pari  black  aa  nigbt,  only  the  naked  lock-wails  on 
Iha  bummocks  and  helgbls  ahowed  patchee  ot  daiiling 
whlleoeas...a>tr1kingrniageoronr  globe,  wbeo.ihroagS 

IRtitn,  til,  10).  Blmlla'rly.deacrlbing  Iha  winery  of  Ihe 
Wady  el-Biim,  by  which  he  iinaasd  Uie  et-Tlh  range,  ho 
eays,  >■  Du  the  south  stde  roaa  a  eoaslderabla  range,  deso- 
late, cniEgy,  and  naked.  All  waa  llmeatone,  chalk,  nnd 
flint.  l%e  chalk  cUlfa  gave  Ihe  alacp  olbst  of  the  Tlh 
rann  on  ila  south  aide  Ihe  aapecl  of  a  aiuw  nuyantaia" 
(p.  U).  Tba  proper  enlraiica  lo  Ihe  Interior  nf  Ibla  lloa, 
althongh  not  Ihe  oanal  one  (nr  irnTellers,  Is  by  Wady 
Wutah.  wblch  Ilea  at  Ihe  head  of  Wady  Ohllrllndel,  and 
la  a  blr  aped  men  nf  the  passes  at  Ibla  entire  region. 

The  other  moles  whlcii  irarerae  itae  penlniolaara,(hat 
from  Bebrou  to  Soei  along  tlie  maritime  plain,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  from  ten  lo  thirty  miles  from  thetaa,  piasaingel- 
'Arlsb:  tboirmmSnextoTllr.BlongihecoaalortbeguTrDr 
Snea  ibroagb  tbe  Kin ;  and  that  from  Akabah.  near  Salon- 
geber,  aacendlog  tbe  wealam  wall  ot  tba  Arabab  Ibrongb 
tbe  Wady  el'Jelb,  by  feveral  paaiea,  not  far  tlom  the 
Hmlbem  eitmnlty  of  (he  Dead  Sea,  towards  Hebron,  In 
a  cnune  here  nearly  north-wnt,  Ihen  again  north  A 
modern  monntnln  road  haa  been  parlinlly  conitmcled  by 
Ihe  paaa  of  the  Wady  BebrAn,  leading 
,r  tha  ^ir  nt  Snea  mwarda  the  eonveot 
lalherlae's.     The  oscant  (rom  Ihe 


"■file  B 


of  distinct  concep- 
iphicaldetaila  '"  ~ 

;k.  color  which  is  Dlwei 


i>nof geograpbicaldetaila.  Tl 
lined  trill 


WILDERNESS 


924 


WILDERNESS 


trongh  of  the  Arabah  (which  it  rteeper'Slded  at  its  north- 
Mrest  extremity  than  elsewhere)  towards  the  general 
plateau  is  by  toe  pass  el-KhHr&r,  by  which  the  level  of 
that  broad  sarface  is  attained.  The  smaller  platean  rests 
obliqnely  upon  the  latter,  abuttinji:  on  the  Dead  Sea  at 
Masada,  where  its  side  and  that  of  the  lower  floor  con- 
▼erge,  and  is  reached  by  ascending  throngh  the  higher 
Kukb  es-Sfifa.  Its  face,  corresponding  to  the  southern 
face  of  the  Tlh  plateaa,  loolcs  considerably  to  the  west  of 
south,  owing  to  this  obliquity,  and  Is  delineated  like  a 
well-aeflued  monntain-wall  in  Kiepert's  man,  having  at 
the  south-east  angle  a  bold  buttress  in  the  Jebel  Molch- 
rflh,  and  at  the  south-west  another  in  the  Jebel  'ArAif  en- 
Nakah,  which  stands  out  apparently  in  the  wilderness 
like  a  promontory  at  sea.  From  the  former  mountain. 
Its  most  southerly  point,  at  about  80<'  90'  north  latitude, 
this  platean  extends  northward  a  little  east,  till  it  merges 
in  the  southern  slope  of  Judiea,  but  at  about  SO^  so'  north 
latitude  is  cut  nearly  through  by  the  Wady  Fikreh, 
trenching  its  area  eastward,  and  not  quite  meeting  the 
Wady  Mnrr&h,  which  has  its  declivity  apparently  towards 
the  Wady  el-'Arifh  westward.  The  nice  of  mountain- 
wall  mentioned  aljove  mnv  probably  l)e  "  the  mountain 
of  the  Amoriten,**  or  this  whole  higher  platean  may  be  so 

S^ent  i,  7, 19,  20).     A  line  drawn  nortnwards  from  It&s 
ohammed  passes  a  little  to  the  west  of  'ArAif  en-Nakah. 

On  the  whole,  except  in  the  Debbet  er-Riimleh,  sand  is 
rare  in  the  peninsula.  There  is  little  or  none  on  the  sea- 
shore, and  the  plain  el-KAa  on  the  south-west  coast  is 
gravelly  rather  than  sandy.  Of  sandstone  on  the  edges 
of  the  granitic  centml  mass  there  is  no  lack.  It  is  chiefly 
found  between  tiie  chalk  and  limcotone  of  et-T!h  and  the 
southern  rocky  triangle  of  Sinai.  Thus  the  Jebel  DlllAl  is 
of  sandstone,  in  tnll  vertical  cliflTs,  forming  the  boundary 
of  er-Ramleh  on  the  east  side,  and  stmilnr  steep  sandstone 
cliffs  are  visible  in  the  same  plain,  Iving  on  its  north  and 
north-west  sides  (Seetzen,  HeiMn,  iii,  06;  comp.  ill,  418). 
In  the  Wndy  Mokntteb  "  the  soft  surface  of  these  sand- 
stone cliffs  offered  readv  tablets"  to  the  unknown  way- 
farers who  wrote  the  "Sinailic  inscriptions."  This  stone 
gives  in  some  parts  a  strong  red  hue  to  the  nearer  land- 
scape, and  softens  into  shaoes  of  the  subtlest  delicacy  in 
the  distance.  Wliere  the  surface  has  been  broken  away, 
or  fretted  and  eaten  by  the  action  of  water,  these  hues 
are  most  vivid  (Sinai  and  Palettine^  p.  10-1 8).  It  has  been 
snpposed  that  the  Egyptians  worked  the  limestone  of  et- 
Tin,  and  that  that  materisl,  as  found  in  the  pyramids, 
was  there  quarried.  The  hnrdness  of  the  granite  in  the 
Jebel  et-T&r  has  lieen  emphmicallv  noticed  bv  travellers. 
Thus,  in  constructing  recently  the  mountain  road  for 
Abbas  Pasha,  "the  rocks*'  were  found  "obstinatelv  to 
resist  even  the  gunpowder's  blast,"  and  the  sharp,  gfass- 
like  edges  of  the  granite  soon  wear  away  the  workmen's 
shoes  and  cripple  their  feet  (Hamilton,  Sinai^  the  Hedj€Ut 
and  Soudan,  {>.  17).  Similarly,  Laborde  says  {Comm.  en 
Numb,  xxxiii,  36):  **In  mv  Journey  across  that  country 
(from  Egypt,  throngh  Sinai  to  the  GhAr),  I  had  carried 
from  Cairo  two  pair  of  shoes ;  thev  were  cut,  and  mv  feet 
came  throngh :  when  I  arrived  at  Akabah,  luckily  I  found 
in  the  magazines  of  that  fortress  two  other  pairs  to  replace 
them.  On  my  return  to  Sinai,  I  was  barefoot  again.  Hus- 
sein then  procured  me  sandals  half  an  inch  thick,  which, 
on  my  arrival  in  Cairo,  themselves  were  reduced  to  noth- 
ing, though  they  had  well  preserved  my  feet."  Seetzen 
noticed  on  Mt.  St.  Catherine  that  the  granite  was  **flne- 
grained  and  very  flrm  **  (Hi,  90).  The  name  Jebel  et- 
T&r  includes  the  whole  cluster  of  raonutnins  from  el- 
FureiA,  on  the  north,  to  nm-Shdmer,  on  the  south,  and 
from  MAsa  and  ed-DeIr,  on  the  east,  to  Hnm'r  and  SerbA], 
on  the  west,  including  St.  Catherine,  nearly  south-west 
of  M&sa.  By  "  Sinai "  is  generally  understood  the  Mdsa 
plateau,  between  the  Wady  Le^iA  (Stanley,  Map)  and  the 
Wady  Shueib,  on  its.  western  and  north-eastern  flanks, 
and  nounded  north-westward  by  the  Wady  er-Kaheh, 
and  south-eastward  by  the  Wady  SebAyeh.  The  Arabs 
give  the  name  of  TCir— properly  meaning  a  high  mountain 
(Stanley.  Sinai  and  PaUtftinetp,  8)— to  the  whole  region 
snath  of  the  Haj-route  ftrom  Suez  to  Akabah  as  far  as 
Rjis-Mohammed.  The  name  of  TQr  is  also  emphatically 
given  to  the  cultivable  region  lying  south-west  of  the 
Jebel  et-Tftr.  Its  flue  and  rich  date-palm  planution  lies 
a  good  wav  southwards,  down  the  gulf  of  Suez.  Here 
opens  on  tne  sea  the  most  fertile  wady  now  to  be  found 
in  the  peninsula  (Bnrckhardt,  ilrad.  ii.  868;  Wellsted,  ii, 
9),  receiving  all  the  waters  which  flow  down  the  range  of 
Sinai  westward  (Stanley,  Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  19). 

II.  InUrior  PeaJfcs.  —  Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  pen- 
insula lies  a  wedge  of  granite,  grUnstcin,  and  porphyry 
rocks,  rising  to  between  eight  thousiyid  and  nine  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea.  lis  shape  i^sembles  a  scalene 
triangle,  with  a  crescent  cut  from  its  northern 'or  longer 
side,  on  which  border  Rnssegger's  map  gives  a  broad, 
skirting  tract  of  old  red  sandstone,  reaching  nearly  ftom 
gulf  to  gulf,  and  traversed  by  a  few  ridges,  chiefly  of  a 
tertiary  Tormation,  running  nearly  north-west  and  south- 
east. On  the  south-west  side  of  this  triangle  a  wide  al- 
Itivial  plain— narrowing,  however,  towards  the  north- 
lines  the  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Suez,  while  that  on  the  east- 
ern or  Akabah  coast  is  so  narrow  as  almost  to  disa])pear. 
Between  these  alluvial  edges  and  the  granitic  mass  a 


strip  of  the  same  sandstone  is  interposed,  the  two  stripe 
converging  at  BAs  Mohammed,  the  southern  promontory 
of  the  wiutle.  This  nucleus  of  plutonic  rocks  is  said  to 
bear  no  trace  of  volcanic  action  since  the  original  up- 
heaval of  its  masses  (Stanley,  81,  88).  Laborde  (TVovefs, 
F>.  106)  thought  he  detected  some,  but  does  not  affirm  it. 
ts  general  oonflguration  rune  into  neither  ranges  nor 
peaks,  but  is  that  of  a  plateaa  cut  across  with  intersect- 
ing wadys,  whence  spring  the  cliffs  and  monntain  peaks, 
beginning  with  a  very  gradual  and  terminating  in  a  very 
steep  ascent 

In  the  present  day  the  name  Sinai,  as  above  stated.  Is 
given  by  Christians  to  the  cluster  of  mountains  to  which 
we  have  referred ;  but  the  Arabs  have  no  other  name  for 
this  group  than  Jebel  et-TAr,  sometimes  adding  the  dis- 
tinctive epithet  Sitia,  In  a  stricter  sense  the  name  Sinai 
is  applied  to  a  very  lofiv  ridge  which  Ilea  between  the 
two  parallel  vallevs  of  Sher  and  el-LcJa.  Of  this  ridge 
the  northern  end  is  sometimes  termed  Horel^  the  south- 
em  Sinai,  now  called  Jebel  Mftsa,  or  Moses*  MonnL  The 
entire  district  is  a  heap  of  lofty  granite  rocks,  with  steep 
gorges  and  deep  vnlleya  The  several  mountains  in  the 
penlnsnla  seem  all  to  ascend  gradually  till  they  reach 
their  highest  point  in  the  group  of  Sinai,  which  presents 
a  wild  aspect  of  broken,  cleft,  and  irregular  masses,  with 
))ointed  tops  and  precipitous  sides.  The  entire  aroap  Is 
made  up  of  four  huge  ranges,  which  run  south  and  north, 
with  an  inclination  eastward.  The  ranges  are  separated 
fr(»m  each  other  by  deep  valleys  or  watercourses. 

Certain  vivid  impressions  left  on  the  minds  of  travel- 
lers seem  to  bespeak  remarkable  features  for  the  rocks 
of  this  cluster,  and  they  are  generally  so  replete  with  in- 
terest that  a  few  leading  details  of  the  aspect  of  princii^ 
mountains  may  And  place  here.  Approaching  the  gran- 
itic nucleus  from  the  north  side,  Sc«tzen  found  himself 
*'ever  between  two  high  wild  and  naked  dlffa  of  gran- 
ite." All  possible  forms  of  mountains  blended  in  the 
view  of  the  group,  conical  and  pointed,  truncated,  ser- 
rated, and  rounded  {Beiaen,  iii,  67, 69).  Immediately  pre- 
vious to  this  he  had  been  upon  the  perpendicular  sand- 
stone cliffs,  which  in  el-DillAl  bounded  the  aandy  plain 
er-Ramleh  on  the  eastern  side,  while  similar  steep  sand- 
stone cliffs  lay  on  the  north  and  north-west.  On  a  nearer 
view  small  bright  quartz-grit  {Qparz-^ieael),  of  whitish- 
yellow  and  reddish  hue,  was  observed  in  the  coane- 
grained  sandstone.  Dr.  Stanley,  approaching  fh>m  the 
north-west,  from  Wadv  ShellAl,  through  wadys  Sidri  and 
FeirAn,  found  the  rocks  of  various  orders  more  or  less 
interchanged  and  intermixed.  In  the  first,  **red  tops 
resting  on  dark-green  bases  closed  the  prospect  in  fbout," 
doubtless  both  of  granite  Contrast  with  this  the  de- 
scription of  Jebel  M(ksa,  as  seen  firom  Mt  St  Catherine 
(ibid.  p.  77), "  the  rtddiBh  granite  of  its  lower  mass,  ending 
in  the  gray-i^esn  granite  of  the  peoik  itselL"  Wady  Sidri 
lies  '*  between  red  granite  mountains  descending  predpi- 
tonsly  on  the  sands,"  bnt  Just  in  the  midst  of  it  the  granite 
is  exchanged  for  sandstone,  which  last  forma  the  rock- 
tablets  of  the  Wady  Mokatteb,  Iving  in  the  way  to  Wady 
FeirAn.  This  last  is  full  of  *'  endless  windings,"^*  and  here 
"began  the  curious  sight  of  the  mountains,  streaked 
from  head  to  foot,  as  if  with  boiling  streams  of  dark  red 
matter  poured  over  them,  the  igneous  fluid  squirted  up- 
wards as  they  were  heaved  from  the  ground.  .  .  .  The 
colors  tell  their  own  story,  of  chalk  and  limestone  and 
sandstone  and  granite."  Besides  these,  "huge  cones  of 
white  clay  and  sand  are  at  intervals  phmted  along  these 
mighty  watercourses  (the  now  dry  wadys).  apparent  It 
the  original  alluvial  deposit  of  some  tremenaoos  antedi- 
luvian torrent,  left  there  to  stiffen  into  sandstone  "  (p.  71). 
The  Wady  FeirAn  is  tx>nnded  southwards  by  the  Jebel 
Nediyeh  and  the  Jebel  Serl>Al,  which  extend  westwards 
to  the  maritime  plain,  and  eastwards  to  the  Sinaitic  grvmp, 
and  on  whose  rarther  or  southern  side  lies  the  widest 
part  of  el-KAa,  previously  noticed  as  the  "Wilderness  of 
Sin."  Seetzen  remarks  that  Jebel  FeirAn  ts  not  an  indi- 
vidual mountain,  but,  like  Sinai,  a  oonsplcuooa  group 
{Reieen,  iii,  107;  comp.  ill,  413). 

1.  SerbAl  rises  from  a  lower  level  than  the  Sinaitic  groap, 
and  so  stands  out  more  fhlly.  Dr.  Stewart's  accoant  of 
its  summit  confirms  that  of  Burckhardt  The  former 
mounted  Uom  the  northern  side  a  narrow  plateau  at  the 
top  of  the  easternmost  peak.  A  block  or  gray  granite 
crowns  it' and  several  contiguous  blocks  form  one  or  two 
grottoes,  and  a  circle  of  loose  stones  rests  in  the  narrow 
plateau  at  the  top  (TttU  and  the  Khan,  p.  117,  IIS).  Tbe 
"flve  peaks,"  to  which  *'  in  most  points  of  view  it  is  reda- 
cible,  at  flrst  slsht  appear  inaccessible,  bnt  are  divided  by 
steep  ravines  fllled  with  fragments  of  alien  granite."  Dr. 
Stanley  mounted  "over  smooth  blocks  of  granite  to  the 
top  of  the  third  or  central  peak,"  amid  which  '*  innumer- 
able shrubs,  like  sage  or  thyme,  grew  to  tbe  very  sam- 
mit"  Here,  too,  his  ascent  was  assisted  by  loose  stones 
arranged  by  human  hands.  The  peak  divides  into  **tw*» 
eminences,''  on  "the  highest  of  which,  as  on  the  back 
of  some  petrifled  tortoise,  you  stand,  and  overlook  the 
whole  peninsula"  {Sinai  and  PaUatine,  p.  71,  78).  Rna- 
segger  says  "the  stone  of  the  peak  of  SerbAl  is  pofphy> 
ry  "  (Reieen,  ill,  876).  Dr.  Stewart  mentions  the  extettsire 
view  from  its  summit  of  the  mountains  "which  arise 
from  the  western  shore  of  tho  gulf  of  Akabah,'*  seen  in 


WILDERNESS 


925 


WILDERNESS 


the  north-east,  and  of  the  Sinaltlc  range, "  closely  pocked  " 
with  the  intermediate  Jobel  Watei&h,  **  foraiins  the  most 
conftised  mass  of  moontain-tops  that  can  be  imagined*' 
(p.  114,  IIB).    Hie  description  of  the  ascent  of  the  eastern 

Eeak  is  formidable.  Be  felt  a  rarity  of  the  air,  and  often 
ad  to  climb  or  crawl  flat  on  the  breaat  It  was  like 
**  the  ascent  of  a  glacier,  only  of  smooth  granite,  instead 
of  ice."  At  a  quarter  of  an  hour  from  the  summit  he  also 
**  fonnd  a  stair  of  blocks  of  granite,  laid  one  above  another 
on  the  snrface  of  the  smooth,  slippery  rock  "  (p.  118).  On 
the  northern  summit  are  visible  the  remains  of  a  bnlld- 
Ing,  "granite  fragments  comeuted  with  lime  and  mor> 
tar,"  and  "close  beside  it  three  of  those  mysterious  in- 
scriptions, **  implying  "  that  this  summit  was  frequented 
by  unknown  pil^ms  who  used  those  characters  *  {Sinai 
and  Palettinty  p.  72). 

8.  The-  approach  to  Jeliel  Mftsa  from  the  west  is  only 
practicable  on  fooL  It  lies  ihrongh  Wady  Solam  aud 
the  NQkb  HAwy,  "Pass  of  the  Wind,"  whose  stair  of  rock 
leads  to  the  second  or  higher  stage  of  the  great  mountain 
labjrrlnth.  Blsewhere  this  pass  wnnid  be  a  roaring  tor- 
rent It  is  amid  masses  of  rock,  a  thread  of  a  stream  Just 
visible,  and  here  and  there  forming  clear  poiils.  shrouded 
In  palms,  or  leayine  Its  clew  to  be  traced  only  by  rushes. 
From  the  head  of  tnis  pass  the  cliff- front  of  Sinai  comes 
in  sijght  through  "a  long-continued  plain  between  two 
precipitous  mountain-ranges  of  black  and  yellow  gran- 
ite." This  is  the  often-mentioned  plain  er-RilUieh.  Deep 
forges  enter  It  on  each  side,  and  the  convent  and  Its  gar- 
ens  close  the  view.  The  ascent  of  Jebel  Mdsn.  which 
contains  "high  vnlleys  with  abundant  springs,"  Is  by  a 
long  flight  of  rude  steps  winding  through  crags  of  grnn- 
ite.  The  cave  and  chapel  "  of  Bllas  "  are  passed  on  the 
slope  of  the  ascent,  and  the  summit  is  marked  by  the 
ruins  of  a  mo*qne  and  of  n  Christian  church.  But,  Strauss 
adds,  "the  'Mount  of  Moses*  rose  in  the  south  higher 
and  higher  still,"  and  the  point  of  this,  Jebel  MOsa,  eighty 
feet  in  diameter,  is  distant  two  hours  and  m«)re  from  the 
plain  below  {Sinai  and  CMaotha,  p.  1 16).  The  RAs  uafsiifeh 
seems  a  smnll,  steep,  and  high  mountnin,  which  Is  inter- 
posed between  the  slope  oi  Jebel  MOsa  and  the  plnin; 
and,  firom  its  position,  snrveys  both  the  openings  of  es- 
Sbeikh  north-east  and  of  er-RAbeh  north-west,  which 
converge  at  its  foot.  Opposite  to  it,  across  the  plain,  is 
the  Jeoiel  VurelA,  whose  peak  Is  cloven  asunder,  and  the 
taller  snmmit  Is  again  shattered  and  rent,  and  strewn,  as 
by  an  earthquake,  with  its  own  fragments.  The  aspect 
of  the  plain  between  Jebel  FureiA,  which  here  forms  a 
salient  angle,  wedging  southwards,  aud  the  Rfls  SQfsAfeh, 
is  described  as  being,  in  conjunction  with  these  moun- 
tains, wonderfully  suggestive,  both  bv  its  grandeur  and 
its  suitableness,  for  the  giving  and  the  receiving  of  the 
Law.  "That  such  a  plam  should  exist  at  all  in  front  of 
such  a  cliff  is  so  remarkable  a  coincidence  with  the  sa- 
cred narrative,  as  to  fhruish  a  strong  Internal  argument, 
not  merely  of  Its  Identity  with  the  scene,  but  of  the  scene 
Itself  having  been  described  by  an  eye-witness"  {Sinai 
and  PaUstins,  p.  43,  48).  The  character  of  the  Slnaitlc 
granite  is  described  by  Seetzen  (iSeum,  lil.  86)  as  being 
(1)  flesh-red  with  glass-colored  quarts  ana  black  mica, 
and  (2)  grayish-white  with  abundance  of  the  same  mica. 
He  addrt  that  the  flrst  kind  is  larger-grained  and  hand- 
somer than  the  second.  Hamilton  speaks  of  "lung  ridgea 
of  arid  rock  surrounding  him  in  chaotic  confusion  on 
every  side,"  and  "the  sharp  brol<en  peaks  of  granite  far 
and  near  as  all  equally  desolate"  (Smai,  the  Hedjaz.  and 
Soudan,  p.  31).  Tnls  view  of  " granite  peaks,"  so  thickly 
and  wildly  set  as  to  form  "  a  labyrinth  *'  to  the  eye,  was 
what  chiefly  impressed  Dr.  Stanley  iu  the  view  from  the 
top  of  Jebel  MQsa  {Sinai  and  PaU»tine^  p.  77).  There  the 
weather-beaten  rocks  are  full  of  curious  fissures  aud  holes 
(p.  46),  the  surface  beins;  "a  granite  mass  cloven  Into 
deep  gullies  and  basins  "  (p.  76).  Over  the  whole  moun- 
tain tbe  Imagination  of  votaries  has  stamped  the  rock 
with  tokens  of  mirncle.  Tbe  dendrites  were  viewed  as 
memorials  of  the  burning  bush.  In  one  part  of  the 
mountain  is  shown  the  impress  of  Moses'  back,  as  he  hid 
himself  Ax>m  the  presence  of  Ood  (ibid.  p.  SO) ;  In  another 
the  hoof-print  of  Mohammed's  mule ;  In  the  plain  below  a 
rude  hollow  between  contiguous  blocks  of  stone  passes 
for  the  mould  of  tbe  head  of  the  golden  coif;  while  iu 
the  valley  of  the  Leia,  which  runs,  parallel  to  and  over- 
hung by  the  Jebel  Mftsa's  greatest  length,  iiito  er-RAheh, 
close  to  BAs  SfifsAfeh,  the  famous  "Stone  of  Moses*'  Is 
shown — "  a  detached  mass  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  high, 
intersected  with  wide  slits  or  cracks ....  with  the  stone 
between  them  worn  away,  as  If  by  tbe  dropping  of  water 
from  the  crack  immediately  above.*'  This  d£«tlnctnes8 
of  the  mass  of  the  stone  lends  itself  to  the  belief  of  the 
rnbhis,  that  this  "rock  followed"  the  Israelites  through 
the  wilderness,  which  would  not  be  the  case  with  the 
non-detached  offset  of  some  larger  cliff.  The  Koran  also 
contains  reference  to  "the  rock  with  the  twelve  mouths 
for  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,"  I.  e.  the  aforesaid  cracks 
iu  the  stone,  into  which  the  Bedawin  thrust  grass  as  they 
mutter  their  prayers  before  it.  Bishop  Clnyton  accented 
it  as  genuine,  so  did  Whlston,  the  translator  of  Josephus; 
but  it  is  a  mere  huua  natures ;  and  there  is  another  frag- 
ment, "leas  conspicuous,"  In  the  same  valley, "  with  pre- 
cisely similar  marks."  In  the  pas*  of  the  Wady  es-Sheikh 


Is  another  stone,  called  the  "Seat  of  Moaes,**  described 
by  Laborde  {Sinai  and  i*alestine,  p.  46*48,  and  notes). 
Seetzen  adds,  some  paces  beyond  the  "Stone  of  Moses" 
several  springs,  copious  for  a  region  so  poor  iu  water, 
have  their  source  from  under  blocks  of  granite,  one  of 
which  Is  aa  big  as  this  "  Stone  of  Moses."  These  springs 
gush  into  a  very  small  dyke,  and  thence  are  conauctSl 
bv  a  canal  to  supply  water  to  a  little  fruit-garden.  .  .  . 
Their  water  is  pure  and  very  good.  On  this  canal,  sev- 
eral paces  below  the  basin,  lies  a  considerably  bizger 
block  of  granite  than  the  " Stone  of  Moses,"  "ana  the 
canal  runs  round  so  close  to  its  side  as  to  be  half-con- 
cealed  by  it"  (Arissn,  ill,  96).  lie  seems  to  argue  that 
this  appearance  and  half- concealment  may  have  been 
made  use  of  by  Moses  to  procure  belief  in  his  having  pro- 
duced the  water  miraculously,  which  existed  before.  But 
this  is  wholly  inconsistent,  aa  indeed  Is  any  view  of  this 
being  the  actual  "rock  in  Horeb,"  with  his  view  of  Keph- 
Idlm  as  situated  at  el-Hessueh,  the  western  extremity  of 
the  Wady  Feirfin.  Equally  at  variance  with  tbe  ScriptunU 
narrative  Is  the  claim  of  a  hole  in  er-RAheh,  below  RAs 
SflfsAfeh,  to  be  tbe  "Pit  of  Eorah,"  whose  story  belongs 
to  another  and  far  later  stage  of  the  march. 

3.  On  Mt.  St.  Catherine  the  principal  interest  lies  In  the 
panoramn  of  the  whole  peninsula  which  it  commands, 
embraced  by  tbe  conversins  boma  of  the  Red  Sea,  and 
the  complete  way  In  which  It  overlooks  the  Jebel  Mfisa, 
which,  as  seen  from  It.  Is  by  no  means  consplcnons,  being 
about  a  thousand  feet  lower.  Seetsen  mounted  by  a  path 
strewn  with  stones  and  blocks,  having  nowhere  any  steps, 
like  those  mentioned  as  existing  at  SerbAl,  and  remarks 
that  Jasper  aud  porphyry  chiefly  constitute  the  monnuln. 
He  rencned  the  highest  point  in  three  hours,  including  in- 
tervals of  rest,  by  a  nard,  steep  path,  with  toitoome  clamber- 
ing :  but  the  actual  time  of  ascending  was  only  one  hour 
and  three  quarters.  The  date-palm  plantation  of  TQr  Is 
said  to  be  visible  from  tbe  top ;  but  the  hace  prevailing 
at  the  time  prevented  this  traveller  from  verifying  It 
{Rei$en,  ill,  89-93).  "  The  rock  of  the  highest  point  of  this 
mountain  swells  Into  the  form  of  a  human  body,  Its  arms 
swathed  like  that  of  a  mummy,  but  headless— the  connter- 
pari,  as  It  is  alleged,  of  the  corpse  of  the  beheaded  Egyp- 
tian saint. .  . .  Not  Improbably  this  grotesque-  figure  rar- 
uUhes  not  merely  the  illustrntlon,  but  tbe  origin,  of  the 
story  '*  of  St.  Catherine's  body  being  transported  to  the 
spot,  after  martyrdom, from  Egypt,  by  angelic  hands  {Sinai 
and  PalMtine,  p.  45). 

4  The  remaining  principal  mountain  of  this  central  clus- 
ter Is  named  variously  ed-Deir,  "the Convent;"  "Bcstln," 
from  St.Episteme,  tbe  first  abbess  of  the  nunnery ; "  Solah,*' 
from  "the  Cross,"  which  stands  on  its  summit;  and  the 
"Monnt  of  the  Burning  Bush,"  from  a  legend  that  a  sun- 
beam tihoots  down,  supposed  miraculously,  on  one  day  !n 
the  yoiir,  through  the  mountain  Into  the  chapel  "of  the 
Burning  Bush  "  (so  called)  in  the  convent  {ibuf.  p.  78).  In 
the  pass  of  the  convent  rocks  arise  on  every  side.  In  long 
succession,  fantastically  colored,  gray,  red,  blue,  bright 
3'ellow,  and  bronae,  sometimes  strangely  marked  with 
white  lines  of  quartz  or  black  bands  of  basalt ;  huge 
blocks  worn  into  fantastic  shapes  .  . .  interrupt  the  nar- 
row track,  which  successive  oges  have  worn  along  the  face 
of  the  precipice,  or,  hangiiiff  overhead,  threaten  to  over- 
whelm the  traveller  in  their  fall.  The  wady  which  con- 
tains this  pass  is  called  by  the  name  of  Shn'eib— a  corrup- 
tion of  Bobab,  the  name  of  the  father-in-law  of  Moses 
(iM(/.}i.32,83).  At  the  foot  of  a  mountain  near  the  convent 
Seetzen  noticed  "a  range  of  rocks  of  black  horn-porphyry, 
of  hornblende,  and  black  iasper,  and  between  their  scrolls 
or  volutes  white  quartz.'*  The  gardens,  as  has  been  no- 
ticed, are  In  sight  ft'om  the  approach  through  er-RAheh. 
Seetzen  enlarees  on  their  beauty,  enhanced,  of  course,  by 
the  savage  wild  about  them;  "indeed,  a  blooming  vege- 
tiition  appears  In  this  climate  wherever  there  is  water'* 
{ReiMen,  ill,  70, 73,  S7).  These  proved  capabilities  of  the 
s{»il  are  of  interest  in  reference  to  the  Mosaic  and  to  every 
period.  As  regards  the  convent,  the  reader  may  be  re- 
ferred to  Dr.  Stanley's  animated  description  of  its  charac- 
ter, the  policy  of  its  founder,  and  the  quality  of  its  inmates 
{Sinai  and  PciUMine,  p.  61-^).  This  traveller  took  three 
hours  In  the  ascent  "In  the  recesses  between  the  peaks 
was  a  ruined  Bedawin  village.  On  tlie  highest  level  was 
a  small  natural  basin,  thickly  covered  with  shrubs  of  myrrh 
— of  all  the  ^pots  of  the  kind  that  I  saw,  the  best  suited 
for  the  feeding  of  Jethro's  flocks  in  the  seclusion  of  the 
mountain"  {ioid.  p.  7S).  Be  thougtit  the  prospect,  how- 
ever, from  its  summit  inferior  In  various  ways  to  any  of 
the  other  views  from  the  neighboring  mountains,  SerbAl, 
St.  Catherine,  Jebel  MAsa,  or  RAs  SilfsAfeh. 

&  Three  or  four  days*  Journey  south  from  Jebel  Mfisa 
lies  Jet>el  nm-Sh6mer,  which,  although  not  quite  so  high 
as  ML  St.  Catherine  (the  summit  being  8449  feet  high),  may 

fet  l)e  said  to  be  the  culminating  peak  of  the  entire  group, 
t  was  ascended  bv  an  English  party  In  1862,  and  still 
later  by  captain  Palmer,  of  the  exploration  engineers. 
This  mfmntain  Is  connected  in  Arab  legend  witli  a  roman- 
tic story  of  a  fairy  maiden's  abode  there,  in  whose  honor 
one  of  its  cliffs  has  received  the  name  of  HaJr  el-Blut. 
The  ascent  is  extremely  laborious,  but  the  view  from  the 
summit  Is  extremely  fine,  embracing  the  Red  Sea,  the 
gulfe  of  Akabah  and  Suez,  and  the  peaks  and  ridgea  be- 


926  WILDSmTESS 


■n  Ihem,  whil 


enrlongly  liilermluclsd, .. 

marEln  of  the  wadn  Sldrl  >nd  MaknLteb. 
eanutns  "hllla  nfa  conical  i' 


Mr.  St.  Catherin*  bnanai  Um  Mene  on 

0.  Tb«  ri;cli<,  tin  lenrliie  Siiuit  on  Ilw  e>ul  &r  Akabib, 
■re  enrlongly  liilermluclsd,  Bomawhiit  u  in  the  nppoitte 

-       '   '  ■      '^- .teb.    W»d»^j(il 

:arioui1j  •Igntiae 

and  ImmIL    The  widj  .  .  .  Iben'innnDted  SBhort  rockj 
pou-^r  blllg  capped  wllb  nudiloiie-Hiiid  ealared  on  a 
plain  of  deep  (and— the  fint  we  had  enconnlered— mrer 
wblch  were  sutured  laolatad  clamix  of  undilone,  wllb 
occaaloDiil  chalk. . . ,  At  tbe  cIdh  onhla  plain  an  Uolated 
rock.  111  high  tten  rlflng  ont  of  lower  tlert,  like  a  cut- 
tle."   Hftni  "thn  Invnl  rangei  of  et-llli  ro»e  In  front," 
down,  apparentlj  nortb-eaMwardr, 
at  IkntMtIc  aandttone  rocki ,  mixed 
n  iiiacaQo  auiigreen.  aalfof  tDni,''aiicc«ded.    Afier 
L  cnnie  a  desert  atrewn  wllb  '^fragmenta  of  the  Tib," 
11niei>lcine.bat"pnKD(lT,''inthe"WBdjOhBaieli," 
ich  Inrni  at  Bret  nearly  doe  northwerd.  and  then  do- 
te neEiwird,  the  ^^ bign  uranlla  rocki"  reappeared^ 
I  In  the  Wodj  el-'Alu  "  tlia  rocke  rirt,  red  granite  or 
;kbexalt.o«aBlanally  tipped  aalfwtthcnftlei of  aand- 

illjr  open  on  the  eea.    At  tbe  month  of  the  poia  are 


m^°l 


I  nf  flood— (reel 
uie  rana  (un'd.  p,  BO,  SI). 
Ul.  OmparaUm  FerteUy.- 


1  ilrewed  along 


Important  {tamnil 

supprmlDg  animal  and  bnman  \itc,  eapadal1]>  whan 
by  the  ronenmptlon  of  aDCb  llocka  and  harde  aa  the 
Ilea  took  with  them  lW>m  Bgrpt,  and  probobli— 
nttblelaetwaa  .applied 


thODgbweki 

bT  tbe  mnnna— by  the  demand  madi 
■  hOBi  of  from  1,000,000  to  8,000,000 . 
Ibla  qncetlun,  "  mndi,"  It  ha*  been 
°-'--'' *'■  "maj  bo  allowed  ' 


a  (Siwi  and 
epread  of  tbe 


IB  of  anppori  from 
tbeir  own  flocka  and  berde."  Something,  too,  might  '" 
ellclled  from  (- ■'- ■■ '—  "- '-■' 

tbe  penluinia .-       -         „ 

tbe  eaniTao  of  the  Are  Lboniasd  African  pllgrimp,  on 
tbeIr  way  to  Uecca.  Bat,  amoDg  tbeee  coDBldenitlone.  II 
I*  Importnnt  to  obKrre  wbat  IndlcatlODt  tbere  may  be 
of  the  monntalna  ofSlnnl  having  eter  been  able  to  nimlili 
artBler  reBaorcea  than  at  preaent  Tbete  Indlcailoue  are 
well  anmmed  aa  bj  RItter  ISinai,  p.  H«,  HI).  Ther«  I> 
DO  donbt  tbnt  the  Tegetailon  of  the  wadys  bae  conalder- 
ahljr  decreneed.  In  ptirt,  IhIa  wanld  be  an  Inerltable  eOtet 
of  thr  -'-' '  ■■—  -I----  ■ ■-      ■"■•-  ■ — '"  -' 


ining,  too  m 

a  population  — 

•  the  whole  permaueut  popnletlon 

aciuallT  pau  tbroneb  tbr  •' ' 

*~~  "- -■  African  p 


if  tlie  Dead  Sea,  fro 


neared.  Bhow  nhai  moy  hare  been  the  devaatatlon  pro- 
dnced  amoni;  IhoFe  moDnlalne  where  the  floodB.  eapedally 

In  earlier  timer,  moll  hn»a  been  tl.ileiu  to  a  decre 

known  in  PnlntlnB;  while  the  pecnliar  cnDBC-Ib' 

Egnallou  of  h11— which  bit  preMrred  the  Teitig 
older  TegetoUoD  there,  haa  here,  of  conrae,  no  i 


TOr,  iu  IBS).    In  part,  the  eame  leenlt  bat  ftillowed  traa 
Iha  nrblHi  wute  of  iba  Bedawin  tribes-recklesa  in  de- 
In  replenlihing,    A  fire,  a  pipe,  111 


9  of  den 


"The  I 


Mi  ley. 


t  Ireef.  any  cleat  away  the  T< 


deelroyed  t>j  ibe  Bedawin  Itit  the  lake  of  ducoaV 
which  forme  "  tbe  chief,  pertaape  It  might  be  aald  tb«  odIt, 
tratnc  of  the  peniainla'  (Slnai  jmi  FaittUit,  p,  M). 
1'bnB,  the  clearance  nf  tbie  Ir«a  la  tbe  inoiiDtalna  wbcra 
It  eboanded  once,  and  111  decreaae  In  tbe  neighbor  groci 

In  which  It  eilila  ailll,  la  aeconnled  for.  r' —  "- * 

appear  to  have  aided  tbe  deraBialloo.    Vi 


ilDcie  the  BioBiu 

ieepaalite  Iu  oim  llti, 

to  prodnce  veEeuiion  anjwhere  Iu  lUa 
ive  failed.     "The  gardcna  at  ■*■-  ■ 

the  French  and  fiirilih  ag 

...jenaln  tbeTalleT*of7ebdliCiaB,ni 

of  the  Greek  monki  of  the  Convent  ofSL  C 


le  convent,  now  enlliel;  bare. 


)y  er.Rabeh.  In 

i  "  (MaiK»n»r''lnliilB'irii~d'iJfnaBis7oo,  abode  Ana- 
II,  "lbe)lraloflhenaUotta,''|>owerrnlenoueb  aerioalr 
a  Imperil  the  pange  of  the  laraellleB^  Ihrongh  It.  and 

ontb,"  1.  e;  appannilj  oi 
iglng  the  Ob^r  near  Ha 


In  porta  ntly  conlrlbntlog  lo  anbseqi 

monarchy.    Bealdaa  them  we  ha— 

nannlte,  who  dwelt  In  the  aontb, 

terrace  of  moQntaln  overhanging .. __ 

D  tbe  Dead  Sea,  In  a  reeloii  now  wholly  denlate. 

iB  people  were  Identical  -">■  '••-  ' '■ "- 

..MorSnmbilv,**;  TH 
EkllMDrEiod.iTli.«,w> 


1;  miil.M:  Dent. 


'e  been  "eomelblng 


a  mere  haodfol  of  liedawln.  The  ERvptlan  copper-mine*, 
moonmenU,  and  hleroeljphlca  In  SOrlblt  et-fEhidlm  and 
tlie  WadyUngbtra  imply  a  degree  of  Interconrae  between 
Egypt  and  the  penluinia"  In  a  period  ;«abablr  older  than 
tbe  BiodDB,  "of  which  nil  othw  tracct  have  long  neaaed. 
Tbe  mined  cities  of  Edam,  In  the  DKinntalna  eial  of  the 
Arabah,  and  the  remalai  and  hlrtor*  of  Feiia  ItaelC  1>- 
dlcals  a  trntBc  and  a  popniation  In  Itaefe  rentoTa  rvglaai 
nblcbuowi>almoat1ncoTiMlTable"<SiM(aiHlftileiMK 
p,  Ml.  Even  IbeSth  andtibcenlnrlsi  A-Dvataowed  traca 
of  habitation,  soma  of  wblcb  itlll  tsihiId  in  mined  cclla 
— ^d  gardena,  etc-,  ffir  exceeding  the  tale  told  br  prcavsl 
_..     o , '-— ■- -«rhapi  aaarld  and  aeeolnloa 


etaen,  In  what  ia  perhapa  aa  arid  a 
any  In  the  whole  deaert.  aaked 


...  kia  got 

nentionall  the  neighboring  placeiwhcH  Dime*  he  1 
le  recalled  a  Hat  of  Biily-three  placce  In  the  ne' 
luod  of  MadOnh,  Petra,  and  Akabab,  and  of  tweb 


ltd*  to 


WILDERNESS 


927 


WILDERNESS 


retaintd  DOthlog  Wft  their  naniM  — "a  proof,"  he  re- 
marks, **  that  111  very  early  ages  this  region  was  extreme* 
ly  popolons,  and  that  the  furious  race  with  which  the 
Arabe,both  before  and  after  the  age  of  Mohammed,  assailed 
the  Greek  emperors,  was  able  to  convert  into  a  waste 
this  blooming  region,  extending  flrom  the  limit  of  the 
He4)aa  to  the  neighborhood  of  Damascos"  (iisissn,  ill, 
ITjlS). 

Thus  the  same  trarelter  in  the  same  Joamey  (from 
Hebron  to  Madflrah)  entered  a  wady  called  el-Jemen, 
where  was  no  trace  of  water  save  moist  spots  in  the  sand, 
but  on  making  a  hole  with  the  hand  it  was  quickly  foil 
of  water,  good  and  drinkable  (ibid.  p.  IS).  The  same,  if 
saved  in  a  eistem,  and  served  ont  by  sluices,  might  prob- 
ably have  clothed  the  bare  wady  with  verdure.  This  is 
confirmed  bv  his  remark  {ibid,  pb  88)  thnt  a  blooming 
vegetation  snows  itself  in  this  climate  wherever  there  is 
water,  ns  well  as  by  the  example  of  the  tank  system  as 
practiced  in  Hindustan.  He  also  notices  that  there  are 
quicksands  in  many  spots  of  the  Debbet  er-Ramleh, 
which  it  is  dffflcnlt  to  understand,  unless  ns  caused  by 
accumulations  nf  water  (ibid.  p.  07).  Similarly  in  the 
desert  Wady  el-Kudels,  between  Hebron  and  Sioai,  he 
fonnd  a  spot  of  qnicksand  with  sparse  shrubs  growing  in 
it  (ilrid.  p.  48). 

Now  the  question  is  snrely  a  pertinent  one,  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  subsistence  of  the  flocks  and  herda 
of  the  Israelites  during  their  wanderings,  how  the  slxiv- 
three  perished  communities  named  by  Seetzen's  guide 
can  have  supported  themselves  ?  It  is  pretty  certiilii  that 
fish  cannot  live  in  the  Dead  Sea,  nor  is  there  any  reason 
for  thinking  that  these  extinct  towns  or  villages  were  in 
any  large  proportion  near  enough  to  its  waters  to  avail 
themselves  of  its  reeources,  even  if  such  existed.  To  sup- 
pose that  the  country  could  ever  have  aupported  exten- 
sive coverts  for  game  is  to  assume  the  most  difficult  of  all 
solutions  of  the  question.  The  creatures  that  find  shelter 
about  the  rocks,  as  hares,  antelopea,  gazelles.  Jerboas, 
and  the  lizards  that  burrow  in  the  sand  ( e1-dsobb ),  al- 
luded to  by  this  traveller  in  several  places  (lil,  67 ;  oomp. 
iii,  416>442,  and  Lnborde,  Comm.  en  Ifumb.  xxxlll,  48),  are 
far  too  few,  to  judge  frmn  appearances,  to  do  more  than 
eke  ont  a  subsistence,  the  staple  of  which  must  have 
been  otherwise  supplied;  and  the  same  remark  will  ap- 
ply to  such  casual  windfalls  aa  swarms  of  edible  locusts, 
or  filghta  of  quails.  Nor  can  the  memory  of  these  places 
)>e  probably  connected  with  the  distant  period  when 
Petra.  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Nabathttans,  en- 
joyed the  carrving  trade  between  the  Levant  and  Bjrypt 
westwards,  and  the  rich  commun  1 1  lea  farther  east,  lliere 
is.  least  of  all,  reason  for  supposing  that  by  the  produce 
of  mines,  or  by  asphalt  gathered  trom  the  Dead  Sea,  or 
by  anv  other  native  commodities,  they  can  ever  have  en- 
Joyea  a  commerce  of  their  own.  We  are  thrown  back, 
then,  upon  the  supposition  that  they  must  in  aome  wav 
have  supported  themselves  from  the  produce  of  the  soil. 
And  the  produce  fur  which  it  is  most  adapted  is  either 
that  of  the  date-palm,  or  that  to  which  earlier  parallels 
point,  as  those  of  Jethro  and  the  Eenites,  and  of  the 
various  communities  in  the  southern  border  of  Jndah 
(Numb,  sxxiv,  4,  6;  Josh,  xv,  8,  4;  1  Sam.  xxx,  S7-S1 ), 
viz.,  that  of  pa#tnrage  for  flocks  and  herds,  a  poiisibllliy 
which  seems  solely  to  depend  on  adequatelv  husbanding 
the  water  supplied  by  the  rains.    This  tallies  with  the 

use  of  the  word  *^2^p,  for  "wilderness,**  L  e.  **a  wide 
open  space,  with  or  without  actual  pasture,  the  country 
of  the  nomada,  as  distinguished  flrom  that  of  the  agri- 
cultural and  settled  people**  {Sinai  and  Puleatine,  u.  486, 
App.  ft  9).  There  seems,  however,  to  be  Implied  In  the 
name  a  capacity  for  pasturage,  whether  actnallv  realized 
or  not  This  corresponds,  too,  with  the  "  thin,"  or  rather 
**  transparent  coating  of  vegetation,**  seen  td  clothe  the 
greater  part  of  the  Sinaitic  wlldemeaa  in  the  present  day 
(ibkL  p.  IS,  8S),  and  which  ibrnishes  an  initial  minimum 
ftom  which  human  fostering  hands  might  extend  the 

f>ro8pect  of  possible  resources  up  to  a  imint  as  far 
n  excess  of  present  facts  as  were  .the  numbers  of  the 
Israetitlsh  host  above  the  six  thousand  Bedawin  com- 
puted now  to  form  the  population  of  the  desert.  As 
regards  the  date-palm,  Hasselqnist  speaks  as  though 
ft  alone  afforded  the  means  of  life  to  some  existing 
Arab  communities.  Hamilton  {Sinai^p.11)  says  that 
fn  his  path  by  the  Wady  Hebr&n,  towards  the  modem 
Blnai,  "email  clumps  of  unculllvated  date-trees  rise  be- 
tween the  granite  walls  of  the  pass,  wherever  the  winter 
torrents  have  left  sufficient  detritus  for  their  nourish- 
ment." Again,  after  describing  the  pass  of  the  Con- 
vent, he  conttunes,  "beneath  lies  a  veritable  chaos, 
through  which  now  trickles  a  slender  thread  of  water, 
where  in  winter  rushes  down  a  boiling  torrent**  (Ibid.  p. 
19).  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  affirm  that  the  resources  of 
the  desert,  under  a  carefhl  economv  of  natnre*s  bounty, 
might  be,  to  its  present  means  of  subsistence,  as  that 
winter  torrent's  volume  to  that  summer  streamlets  slen- 
der thread.  In  the  Wady  Hebrlln  this  traveller  found  "  a 
natural  bath,**  formed  In  the  granite  by  the  *Ain  HebrAn. 
called  "  the  Christians*  pool "  (ibid.  p.  17).  Two  thirds  of 
the  w«y  np  the  Jebel  Mflsa  he  came  upon  **a  frozen 
streamlet'*  (ibib.  p.SO);  and  Seetzen,  on  April  14,  found 


snow  lying  about  in  sheltered  clefts  of  Mt  St.  Catherine, 
where  the  rays  of  the  sun  could  not  penetrate  (ill,  H)» 
Hamilton  encountered  on  the  Jebel  M&sa  a  thunderstorm, 
with  "  heavy  rain  "  {Sinat,  p.  16).  There  seems  on  the 
whole  no  defldency  ol  precipitation.  Indeed,  the  geo- 
graphical situation  wonla  ratner  bespeak  a  copious  sup- 
ply. Any  southerly  wind  must  bring  a  fair  amount  of 
watery  vapor  flrom  the  Red  Sea,  or  from  one  of  its  ex- 
panding arms,  which  embrace  the  peninsula  on  either 
side,  like  the  bladea  of  a  forfex;  while  at  no  greater  dis- 
tance thaii  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  northward  roll 
the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  supplying,  we  may  sup- 
pose, their  quota,  which  the  much  lower  ranges  of  the 
Tlh  and  Ojroe  cannot  eflisctually  Intercept.  Nor  is  there 
any  such  shelter  from  rain-clouds  on  either  of  the  gulfs 
of  Suez  and  Akabah,  as  the  long  line  of  mountains  on 
the  eastern  flank  of  Kgypt.  which  screens  the  rain  supply 
of  the  former  from  reiiching  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  On 
the  contrary,  the  conformation  of  the  penipaula,  with  the 
high  wedge  of  granitic  nlountalns  at  its  core,  would  rath- 
er receive  and  condense  the  vapors  from  either  gulf,  and 
precipitate  their  bounty  over  the  lower  faces  of  mountain 
and  troughs  of  wady,  interposed  between  it  end  the  sea. 
It  Is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  low  intellectual  con- 
dition of  the  monks  forbids  any  reasonable  hope  of  ade- 
quate meteorological  observations  to  check  these  merely 
Erobable  argumenta  with  trustworthy  statements  of  fhct; 
ut  in  the  aosence  of  anv  such  register,  It  seems  only  fair 
to  take  reasonable  probaDllltlea  fblly  into  view.  Tet  some 
signlflcant  facts  are  not  wanting  to  redeem  in  some  de- 
gree these  probabilities  fh>m  tne  ground  of  mere  hy- 
pothesis. "In  two  of  the  great  wadys **  which  break  the 
wilderness  on  the  coast  of  the  gnlf  of  Suez,  "  Ghtirlindel, 
and  Uselt,  with  its  continuation  of  the  wady  Tayibeh, 
tracts  of  vegetation  are  to  be  Jbnnd  in  considerable  lux- 
uriance." The  wadys  leading  down  fh>m  the  Sinai  range 
to  the  gulf  of  Akabah  "fhrnish  the  same  testimony,  in  a 
still  greater  degree,'*  as  stated  by  RQppell,  Miss  Harti- 
neau.  Dr.  liobinsou,  and  Burckhardt.  "In  three  spots, 
however,  in  the  desert . . .  this  vegetation  la  brought,  by 
the  concurrence  of  the  general  conflgaratlon  of  the  conn- 
try,  to  a  still  higher  pitch.  By  far  the  most  remarkable 
collection  of  spnngs  is  that  which  renders  the  clusters  of 
the  Jebel  MQsa  the  chief  resort  of  the  Bedawin  tribes 
during  the  summer  heats.  Four  abundant  sources  in  the 
mountains  immediately  above  the  convent  of  St.  Cathe- 
rine must  always  have  made  that  region  one  of  the  most 
frequented  of  the  desert  .  .  .  Oases  (analogous  to  that 
of  Ammon  in  the  western  desert  of  the  Nile)  are  to  be 
found  wherever  the  waters  fh»m  the  different  wadys  or 
hills,  whether  f^om  winter  streams  or  fh>m  such  living 
springs  as  have  Just  been  described,  converge  to  a  com- 
mon reservoir.  One  such  oasis  in  the  Sinaitic  desert 
seems  to  be  the  palm-grove  of  eUWAdy  at  Tflr,  described 
by  Burckhardt  as  so  thick  that  he  could  hardly  find  his 
way  through  It  {Sinai  and  Ai2esfi>i«,  p.  19,  note  1 ;  see 
Burckhardt  ilrao.  11, 868).    The  other  and  the  more  im- 

Bortant  is  the  waay  reirAn,  high  np  in  the  table-land  of 
inai  itself"  (ibid.  p.  18, 19).  Now,  what  nature  has 
done  in  these  favored  spots  might  surely  be  seconded 
in  others  by  sn  ample  population,  familiarized,  to  some 
extent,  by  their  scgoum  in  Bgypt  with  the  most  ad- 
vanced agricttlturisu  of  the  then  world,  and  guided  by 
an  able  leader  who  knew  the  country,  and  found  in  his 
wife's  fkmlty  others  who  knew  it  even  belter  than  he 
(Numb.  X.  81).  It  is  thus  supposable  that  the  language 
of  Psa.  evil,  86-88,  la  based  on  no  mere  pions  Imagery,  but 
on  actual  finct :  "He  tumeth  the  wilderness  into  a  stand- 
ing water,  and  dry  ground  into  water-springs.  And  there 
he  maketh  the  hungry  to  dwell,  that  they  may  prepare  a 
city  for  habitation:  and  sow  the  fields  and  plant  vine- 
yards, which  may  yield  ft'uits  of  increase.  He  ble^seth 
them  BO  that  they  are  multiplied  greatly;  and  mfertth 
no€  thrtr  eaitU  to  deor«a$e."  Thiu  we  may  find  an  ap- 
proximate basis  of  reality  for  the  enhanced  poetic  im- 
ases  of  Isaiah  (xll,  19;  Iv,  18).  Palestine  itself  aflbrds 
abundant  tokens  of  the  resources  of  nature  so  husbanded, 
aa  in  the  artificial  "terraces  of  which  there  are  still  traces 
to  the  very  summits"  of  the  mountains,  and  some  of 
which  still,  in  the  Jordan  valley, "  are  occupied  by  masses 
of  vegetation"  (Sinai  and  PaUstinSf  p.  138,  297).  In  fa- 
voreaspots  wild  luxuriance  testifies  to  the  extent  of  the 
natural  resources,  as  in  the  wndys  of  the  coast,  and  in  the 
plain  of  Jericho,  where  "  far  and  wide  extends  the  green 
circle  of  tangled  thickets,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  the 
hovels  of  the  modem  village,  beside  which  stood,  in  an- 
cient times,  the  great  city  of  Jericho  "  (ibid.  p.  806).  From 
this  plain  alone,  a  correspondent  of  the  British  consul  at 
Jaffa  aeserts  that  he  could  feed  the  whole  population  of 
modern  Syria  (Cotton  Snmlp  Reporter,  June  14,  1S63). 
But  a  plantation  redeemed  from  the  wilderness  is  ever  in 
the  position  of  a  besieged  city;  when  once  the  defence 
of  the  human  garrison  is  withdrawn,  the  fiertllity  stimu- 


lated bv  its  agency  must  obviously  perish  by  the  Inva- 
sion of  the  wild.  So  we  may  probablv  suppose  that, 
from  numberleas  tracts,  thus  temporarily  rescued  from 


barrenness,  in  situations  onlv  moderately  favorable,  the 
traces  of  verdure  have  vanished,  and  the  desert  has  re- 
claimed its  own ;  or  that  there  the  soil  only  betrays  Ita 
latent  capacity  by  an  unprofitable  dampness  of  the  sand. 


WILDERNESS 


928 


WILDERNESS 


Seetzen,  on  tbe  route  from  Hebron  to  Sinai,  after  de- 
ecriblojg  nn  "immente  flinty  plain,"  tbe  "dreariest  and 
moit  (folate  Bolltode,"  observes  tbat,  "as  soon  as  the 
rainy  season  is  over  and  the  warm  weather  sets  In.  the 
pits  (of  rain-water)  dry  np,  and  it  becomes  nninbanita- 
ole,"  as  "  there  ore  no  lirooks  or  springs  here  "  jiii,  66. 60). 
Dr.  Stewart  {Tent  and  the  Khan,  p.  14, 16)  says  of  the  Wady 
Ahthi,  which  he  would  identify  with  Btbam  (Ezod.  ziif, 
20;  Numb,  zzzlii,  6),  "8and>hills  of  considerable  height 
separate  it  from  the  sea,  and  prevent  tbe  winter  nuns 
from  running  off  rapidly.  A  considerable  deposit  of  rich 
allnvinl  loam  is  the  resolt,  averaging  from  two  to  fonr 
inches  in  thickness,  by  sowing  noun  which  Immediatelv 
after  the  rains  the  Bedawin  conid  certainly  reap  a  rich 
harvest;  but  they  afiiect  to  dei^lse  all  agricnltnral  labor. 
. . .  Yet,"  he  adds,  **  the  region  never  cooid  have  sapplied 
food  by  its  own  natural  vegetation  for  so  great  a  mnlti> 
tnde  of  flocks  and  herds  as  followed  In  the  train  of  the 
Israelites."  Tfils  seems  rather  a  precipitate  sentence; 
for  one  can  hArdly  tell  what  Its  improved  condition  un- 
der ancient  civilisation  may  have  yielded,  from  merely 
seeing  what  it  now  is,  after  being  overnin  for  centuries 
by  hordes  of  contemptuous  Bedawin.  Still,  as  regards 
the  general  question,  we  are  not  informed  what  numbers 
of  cattle  followed  the  Israelites  out  of  Bgypt.  We  only 
know  that  ** flocks  and  herds"  went  with  ibem,  were  for- 
bidden to  graze  "  before  tbe  mount "  (Sinai),  and  shared 
the  fortunes  of  tbe  desert  with  their  owners.  It  farther 
appears  that,  at  tbe  end  of  the  forty  years'  wandering, 
two  tribes  and  a  half  were  tbe  chief,  perhaps  the  only, 
cattle-masters.  And,  when  we  consider  how.greatly  the 
long  and  sore  bondage  of  Egypt  must  have  interfered 
with  their  favorite  pursuit  during  the  eighty  years  of 
Hoses'  life  before  the  Exode,  it  seems  reasonable  to 
think  that  in  the  other  tribes  only  a  few  would  have  pos- 
sessed cattle  on  leaving  Ksypt.  The  notion  of  a  people 
"scattered  abroad  tiirou^^out  all  the  land  of  iCgypt" 
(Bxod.  v,  IS),  in  pursuit  of  wholly  different  and  absorbing 
labor,  being  able  generally  to  maintain  their  wealth  as 
eheen-mosters  is  obviouslv  absurd.  It  is  therefore  sup- 
posanle  that  Reuben,  Gaa,  and  a  portion  of  Monaoseb 
bad,  by  remoteness  of  local  position,  or  other  favorable 
circumstances  to  us  unknown,  escaued  the  oppressive 
consequences  to  their  flocks  and  herds  which  must  have 
generally  prevailed.  We  are  not  told  that  the  Iambs  at 
tbe  flrst  passover  were  obtained  from  the  flock  of  each 
family,  but  only  that  they  were  bidden  to  **draw  out  and 
take  a  lamb  for  an  house  "—a  direction  quite  consistent 
Id  many,  perhaps  in  most  cases,  with  purchase.  Hence 
it  is  probable  that  these  two  tribes  and  a  half  mav  have 
been  the  chief  cattle-masters  flrst  as  well  as  last  If  they 
had  enough  cattle  to  flnd  their  pursuit  in  tending  them, 
and  the  others  had  not,  economy  would  dictate  a  transfer ; 
and  the  whole  multitude  of  cattle  would  probably  fare 
Itetter  by  such  an  arrangement  than  by  one  which  left  a 
few  head  scattered  up  and  down  In  the  families  of  differ- 
ent tribes.  Nor  is  there  any  reason  to  think  that  the 
whole  of  the  forty  years'  sojourn  was  spent  In  fuch  loco- 
motion 08  marks  tlie  more  continuous  portion  of  the  nar- 
rative. The  great  gap  in  the  record  or  events  left  by  the 
statement  of  Dent,  i,  M,  "Ye  abode  in  Kadesh  many 
days,"  may  be  filled  up  by  the  supposition  of  quarters 
established  in  a  favornole  site,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the 
whole  time  may  have  been  really  passed  in  such  station- 
ary encampments.  And  here,  if  two  tribes  and  a  half 
only  were  occupied  In  tending  cattle,  some  resource  of 
labor,  to  avoid  the  embarrnssiug  temptations  of  idleness 
in  a  host  so  large  and  so  disposed  to  murmur,  would  be, 
in  a  human  sense,  necessary.  Nor  con  any  so  probable 
an  occupation  be  osfigned  to  the  remaining  nine  and  a 
half  tribes,  as  that  of  drawing  from  the  wilderness  what- 
ever contributions  It  might  be  mode  to  afford.  From 
what  they  hod  seen  in  ISgypt,  the  work  of  irrigation 
would  be  familiar  to  them,  and  from  the  prospect  before 
them  in  Palestine  the  practice  would  at  some  time  be- 
come necessary:  thus  there  were  on  the  whole  the  sound- 
est reasons  for  not  allowing  their  experience.  If  possible, 
to  Inppe.  Irrigation  being  supposed,  there  Is  little,  if  any, 
difllculty  in  supposing  Im  results;  to  the  spontaneous- 
ne98  of  which  ample  testimony,  trotn  various  travellers, 
hns  been  cited  above.  At  ony  rote  it  is  unwise  to  decide 
tbe  quet«tion  of  the  possible  resources  of  the  desert  from 
the  condition  to  which  the  apathy  and  fostidiotisness  of 
the  Bedawin  have  reduced  it  in  modem  times.  On  this 
view,  while  the  purely  pastoral  tribes  would  retain  their 
habits  nuimpnired,  the  remainder  would  acquire  some 
slight  probation  in  those  works  of  the  field  which  were 
to  form  the  staple  industry  of  their  future  country.  But, 
if  any  one  still  insists  that  tbe  produce  of  the  desert, 
however  supposably  improved,  could  never  hove  yielded 
support  for  all "  the  flocRs  and  herds"— utterly  indefinite 
as  tneir  number  ie— which  were  carried  thither :  this  need 
not  invalidate  the  present  argument,  much  less  be  deemed 
inconsistent  with  tbe  Scriptural  narrative.  There  is  noth- 
ing in  tbe  latter  to  forbid  our  supposing  that  the  cattle 
esrisbed  in  the  wilderness  by  hundreds  or  by  thousands, 
ven  if  the  words  of  Psa.  cvli,  88,  be  taken  in  a  sense  lit- 
erally historical,  they  need  mean  no  more  than  that,  by 
the  time  they  reached  the  borders  of  Palestine,  the  num- 
ber 80  lost  hod,  by  a  change  of  favorable  circumstances. 


been  replaced,  perhaps  eren  by  captnre  from  the  enemy, 
over  wnom  Ood,  and  not  their  own  sword,  had  given 
them  the  victory.  All  that  is  contended  for  is  that  the 
resoorcee  of  tbe  wUdemess  were  doubtless  utilized  to  tbe 
utmost,  and  that  the  flocks  and  herds, so  far  as  tbey  ear- 
vived,  were  so  kept  olive.  What  those  resources  might 
amount  to^  Is  perhaps  nearly  as  indeftnite  an  Inquiry  mm 
what  was  the  number  of  the  cattle.  Tbe  difBcnIty  woald 
"flnd  its  level "  by  the  diminution  of  the  latter  till  It  fell 
within  the  limits  of  the  former;  and  In  this  balanced 
state  we  mast  be  content  to  leave  the  question. 

Nor  ought  it  to  be  left  out  of  view,  in  ctmsldering  any 
arguments  regarding  the  possible  change  in  the  character 
of  the  wQdemess,  that  Egyptian  policy  certainly  lay,  on 
the  whole,  in  favor  of  extending  the  oesolation  to  their 
own  frontier  on  the  Suez  side;  for  thus  tbey  would  gain 
the  surest  protection  orainst  Invasion  on  their  most  ex- 
posed border;  and  as  Egypt  rather  aimed  at  the  devel- 
opment of  a  high  Internal  civilization  than  an  extension 
of  Influence  bv  foreign  conquest,  such  a  desert  frontier 
would  be  to  Bgvpt  a  cheap  defence.  Thus  we  may  as- 
sume that  tbe  Pharaohs,  at  any  rate  after,  the  rise  of  tbe 
Assyrian  empire,  would  discern  their  Interrat  and  woald 
act  upon  it,  and  that  the  felling  of  wood  and  stopping  of 
wells,  and  the  obliteration,  wherever  possible,  of  oases, 
would  systematically  moke  the  peninsula  nnieuable  to  a 
hostile  army  desoenalng  from  the  north-east  or  the  north. 

IV.  Natural  HCsCorj^^— The  domestic  cattle  of  the  Bedawin 
will  of  coarse  be  found  here,  but  camels  more  numeronsly 
In  the  drier  tracts  of  et-TIh.  Schubert  (neieen^  11,  3M) 
speaks  of  Sinai  as  not  being  frequented  byany  of  tbe 
larger  beasts  of  prey,  nor  even  by  Jackals.  The  lion  has 
become  very  rare,  bnt  is  not  absolutely  unknown  In  tbe 
region  {Heffeb,  u. 44,47).  Foxes  and  hyenas, Hitter  (xiv,833| 
soys,  are  rare,  out  Mr.  Tyrwhttt  mentions  hyenoe  as  o>m- 
mon  in  tbe  Wody  Hugh&ro ;  and  Ritter  (ibid.),  on  the 
authority  of  Burckhnrdt,  ascrilies  to  the  region  a  creature 
which  appears  to  l>e  a  cross  between  a  leopard  and  a  wt^l^ 
both  of  which  are  rare  in  the  peninsulH,  bnt  by  which 
probably  a  hyena  is  to  be  nndersUM>d.  A  leopard-ekin 
was  obtained  by  Burckhardt  on  SInal,  and  a  fine  leopard 
is  stated  by  Mr.  Tyrwhitt  to  have  been  seen  by  some  of 
bis  party  in  their  ascent  of  um-ShAmer  In  1669.  Scbabert 
continues  his  list  in  the  hjfrax  Syriaeue^  the  ibex — seen 
at  Tnffleh  in  flocks  of  forty  or  fifty  together,  and  a  pioir 
of  whose  horns,  seen  by  Burckhardt  {Arab,  p.  40s^  4M) 
at  Kerek,  measured  three  and  a  half  feet  In  lengtli--(be 
webr,  tbe  shrew -mouse,  and  a  creature  which  he  calls 
the  "  spring-maus  *'  {muejaeulue  or  Jerboa  ?),  also  a  cams 
fanulteue.  or  desert -fox,  and  a  lizard  known  aa  tbe 
Agama  Sinaitiea^  which  may  possibly  be  identical  with 
one  of  those  described  below.  Hares  and  JerboAs  are 
fonnd  In  Wody  FeirAu.  Schubert  ouotes  (ibid,  note)  Rfip- 
pell  as  having  found  specimens  of  Helta;  and  of  Coorteeua 
In  this  wildeniess ;  for  the  former,  comp.  ForskftL  leemtt 
Herum  Jfatur.  Tab.  xvi.  Schubert  sow  a  fine  eagle  In  the 
same  region,  besides  catching  specimens  of  thmsh,  with 
stonecbat  and  other  song-birds,  and  s])eabi  of  the  war- 
bling of  tbe  birds  as  being  audible  from  the  Mimoea  bosh. 
Clouds  of  birds  of  passage  were  visible  in  the  Wady  Jlnr- 
rab.  Near  the  same  tract  of  wlldemesa  Dr.  Stanley  c«w 
"  the  sky  darkened  by  the  flights  of  innumerable  oirdst 
which  proved  to  be  large  red-legged  cranes,  three  feet  in 
height,  with  block  and  white  wings  measuring  seven  feet 
ttom  tip  to  tip  "  {Sinai  and  PaUttins,  p,  SHU  At  Tnflleh 
crows  obouna.  On  Serb&l  Dr.  Stewart  sow  tbe  red-legged 
partridge  {TentandKhan,  P*!!?;  comp. Burckhardt^ Sj/ria, 
p.  634) :  and  the  bird  "  kotu,"  in  some  porta  of  the  penin- 
sula, comes  In  such  numbers  that  boys  sometimes  Knock 
over  three  or  fonr  at  a  single  throw  of  a  stidc  Haf«el- 
qulst,  who  saw  it  here  and  In  Egypt,  colls  It  a  partridge, 
smaller  than  ours,  and  of  a  grayish  color  (p.  S04).  Bluer 
(xlv,  888)  o'dds  linnets(*),  ducks,  prairie-birds,  heath-cocks, 
larks,  a  specimen  of  finch,  beudea  another  small  bird, 
probably  redbreast  or  cbofllnch,  the  varieties  of  Iklcon 
known  as  the  Braehydaetylue  and  the  Nigtr^  and,of  eoarse, 
on  the  coast,  seo-swollows  and  mews.  FlodLs  of  blae 
rock  pigeons  were  repeotedly  seen  by  Mr.  Tyrwhitt 

Seetzen.  going  from  Hebron  to  Madura,  makes  mention 
of  the  following  onirools,  whose  names  were  mentioned 
by  his  guides,  tnough  he  does  not  soy  that  any  of  them 
were  seen  by  himself:  wolf,  porcupine,  wild-cat,  onnce, 
mole,  wild-ass,  and  three  not  easily  to  be  identified,  the 
Selleh^  dog-shoped.  the  Anaeeh,  which  devuore  the  gaseUe, 
and  the  Ikkajib^  said  to  be  smoU  and  in  shape  like  ahedg«- 
hog.  Seetzen's  list  In  this  locality  also  Includes  certain 
reptiles,  of  which  such  as  can  be  Identified  are  exulsdned 
In  the  notes:  eUMelUdnha^  Um  el^Zieiman^  tlltidtha  or 
Lmo,  el-Harraha  or  Hirhd^  Jerrdr  or  JarrAreh^  el-iMh, 
otherwise  DOde^  el-Hanne  or  Uanan^  el  -  LefeA ;  and 
among  birds  the  partridge,  duck,  stork,  eagle,  vnltnre  iter-- 
Rakham)^  crow  {el-Ordb)j  kite  {HidAifeh)^  and  an  anknown 
bird  called  by  him  Um-SaliL  His  guides  told  him  of 
ostriches  as  seen  near  BttUiha  on  the  way  fh>m  Hebron 
to  Sinai,  and  he  saw  a  nightingale,  but  it  oeema  at  oo 
great  distance  to  tbe  south  of  Hebron.  The  eame  writer 
also  mentions  the  edible  lizard,  «2-Deoft,  as  fhsqaently 
found  in  most  parts  of  the  wilderness,  and  hia  third  t<u- 
ume  has  an  appendix  on  zoology,  porttcnlorly  deaeilbtnc 
and  often  with  iUnatrations,  many  reptiles  and 


WILDERNESS 


020 


WILDERNESS 


of  BgTpt  and  Arabia,  withoot,  however,  pointing  ont  sncb 
as  are  pecollar  to  the  wilderneM.  Araong  tbesie  are  thir- 
teen varieties  of  llxard,  twenty-one  of  serpent,  and  seven 
of  ft'og,  besides  fifteen  of  Nlie-flsh.  Laborde  speaks  of 
serpents,  scorpions,  and  black-ecaled  lizards,  which  per- 
forate the  sand,  as  foond  on  the  eastern  border  of  Banm 
near  Tnflleh  ( Cowm,  en  Numb,  zxzii  1, 49).  The  MS.  of  Mr. 
TVrwbltt  speaks  of  starting  **a  Isrge  snnd-colored  ilxard, 
abont  three  feet  long,  exactly  like  a  crocodile,  with  the 
same  bandy  look  a1x>at  his  fore-legs,  the  elbows  turning 
ont  enormonslv."  He  is  described  as  covered  not  only 
*Mn  scales,  bat  in  a  regular  amior,  wbich  rattled  quite 
loudly  as  he  ran.*'  He  "  got  up  before  the  dromedary,  »nd 
vanished  into  a  hole  amonsr  some  reUm,**  This  occurred 
at  the  head  of  the  Wady  Mokatteb.  Hasselqnist  (p.  880) 
gtvea  a  Laeerta  Heinetu^  **  the  Bclnc,"  as  found  in  Arabia 
PetrKa,  near  the  Red  Sea,  ns  well  as  In  Upper  Egypt, 
which  ne  says  is  much  used  by  the  inhabitants  or  the 
Bast  as  an  aphrodisiac,  the  flesh  of  the  animal  being 
given  In  powder,  and  In  broth.  He  also  mentions 
the  edible  locust,  Qryllug  ArahieuM,  which  appears  to 
be  common  in  the  wilderness,  as  in  other  parts  of 
Arabia,  giving  an  account  of  the  preparation  of  it  for 
fiKMl  (p.  890-^).  Bnrckhardt  names  a  cape  not  far  from 
Akabab,  RAs  Um  Haye,  ft'om  the  number  of  serpents 
which  abound  there,  and  accordingly  npplied  to  this  re- 
gion the  description  of  the  *'  fiery  serpents"  in  Numb,  zxl, 
4-9.  Schubert  (11, 868)  remarked  the  first  serpents  in  going 
from  Snea  and  Sinai  to  Petra,  near  el-HndnerAb ;  he  de- 
scribes them  as  speckled.  Bnrckhardt  kSyria^  p.  499, 608) 
saw  tracks  of  serpents,  two  Inches  thick,  in  the  sand. 
According  to  RQppell,  serpents  elrewhere  in  the  penin- 
sula are  rare.  He  names  two jiolsonous  kinds,  C^rtuH— 
and  SeytaHt  (Bitter,  xiv,  889).  The  scorpion  has  given  his 
name  to  the  ** Ascent  of  Scoiplons,"  which  wns  part  of  the 
boundary  of  Jndah  on  the  side  of  the  fonthem  desert. 
Wady  e»-Znweirah,  in  that  region,  swarmed  with  them ; 
and  De  Soulcy  says  "yon  cannot  tnm  over  a  single  peb> 
ble  in  the  Nejd  (a  branch  wady)  without  finding  one  un- 
der it "  (De  Saulcy,  i,  689,  quoted  In  Negeb,  p.  61). 

The  reader  who  is  curious  abont  the  fish,  molluscn,  etc., 
of  the  gulf  of  Sues  should  consult  Schubert  (11, 863  note ; 
898  note ;  and  for  the  plants  of  the  same  coawt,  894  note). 
For  a  description  of  tne  coral-banks  of  the  Red  Sea,  see 
Ritter  (xiv,  476  sq.),  who  remarks  that  these  formations 
rise  fn>m  the  coast-edge  always  in  longitudinal  extension 
parallel  to  its  line,  bespeaklne  a  fundamental  connection 
with  the  upheaval  of  the  whole  stretch  of  shore  from 
sonth-east  to  north-wesL  A  fish  which  Seetxen  calls  the 
AlAm,  mny  be  mentioned  as  ftamishing  to  the  Bedawin 
the  fish-skin  sandals  of  which  they  are  fond.  Ritter  (xiv, 
887)  thinks  that  fish  may  have  contributed  materially  to 
the  sustenance  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  (Numb,  xl, 
88),  as  they  are  now  dried  and  salted  for  sale  in  Cairo  or 
«at  the  Convent  of  St.  Catherine.  In  a  brook  near  the  foot 
of  Serb&l,  Schubert  saw  some  varieties  of  JSlaphru^  Djfti- 
cus,  ColymbelMy  Oyrinu»f  and  other  water  insects  {Reiien, 
11, 808  note). 

As  reganls  the  flora  of  the  desert,  the  most  frequently 
found  trees  are  the  date-palm  {Pkanix  daetyU/era),  the 
desert  acacia,  and  the  tamarisk.  The  palms  are  almost 
always  dwarf,  as  described  In  Sinai  atui  Palestins,  p.  80, 
but  sometimes  the  "ddm"  palm  Is  seen,  as  on  the  shore 
of  the  gulf  of  Akabah  (Schubert,  11, 370;  comp.  Robinson, 
i,  161).  Hasselqnist,  speaking  of  the  date-palm's  powers 
of  sustenance,  says  that  some  of  the  poorer  Ihmllies  in 
Upper  Egypt  live  on  nothing  else,  the  very  stones  being 
ground  into  a  provender  for  the  dromedary.  This  tree  » 
often  found  in  tufts  of  a  doxen  or  more  together,  the  dead 
and  living  boughs  Interlacing  overhead,  tfie  dead  and  liv- 
ing roots  intertwining  below,  and  thus  forming  a  canopy 
in  the  desert  The  date-palms  in  Wady  Tftr  are  said  to  be 
all  numbered  and  registered.  The  acacia  Is  the  Mimoaa 
miotieat  and  thla  forms  the  most  common  vegetation  of 
the  wilderness.  Its  Arabic  name  is  ea-Seudl,  and  it  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  furnished  the  "Shittim  wood" 
ri)r  the  Tabemacle  ( Forskdl,  Deser.  Plant,  Cent,  vi.  No. 
90 ;  Celsius,  Hierobat  i,  498  so. ;  Ritter,  xiv,  836  sq.).  See 
SnrrrAn-TBKB.  It  is  armed  with  fearful  thorns,  wbich 
sometimes  tear  the  packages  on  the  camels'  backs,  and 
of  course  would  severely  lacerate  man  or  beast.  The  gum 
arable  is  gathered  from  this  tree,  on  which  account  it  is 
also  called  the  Acacia  gummi/era.  Other  tamarisks,  be- 
side the  manniferOt  mentioned  above,  are  fonnd  in  the 
desert.  Grass  is  comparatively  rare,  bnt  its  quantity  va- 
ries with  the  season.  Robinson,  on  finding  some  in  wady 
Snmghy,  north-east  fVom  iSIuai,  near  the  gulf  of  Akabab, 
remarks  that  it  was  the  first  his  party  had  seen  since  leav- 
ing the  Nile.  The  terebinth  {Piatachia  terebitUhu§,  Arab. 
Battn)  is  well  known  in  the  wndys  abont  Beersbeba,  but 
in  the  actual  wilderness  it  hardly  occnrs.  For  a  full  de- 
scription of  it  see  Robinson,  ii,  828, 888,  and  notes,  also  i. 
808,  and  comp.  Celsius,  Hierobot  i,  84.  The  "  broom,"  of 
the  variety  known  as  rettm  (Ueb.  and  Arab.),  rendered  in 
the  authorized  version  by  "Juniper,'*  is  a  genuine  desert 

{>Iant:  it  is  described  (Robinson,  i,  908  and  note)  as  the 
argest  and  most  conspicoous  shrub  therein,  having  very 
bitter  roots,  and  yielding  a  quantity  of  excellent  charcoal, 
which  is  the  staple,  if  one  may  so  say,  of  the  desert.  The 
following  are  mentioned  by  Schubert  (li,  858-364)  as  found 

XIL-N  N  H 


within  the  Itmlta  of  the  wilderness;  Meepiltu  Aaronia, 
CcluUa  haUppieaj  Atraphaxit  ninoaa.  Ephedra  alaba, 
CptituB  unifloruij  and  a  cynomortMm,  a  nignly  interesting 
variety,  compared  by  Schnliert  to  a  well-known  Maltese 
one.  To  these  be  adds  in  a  note  (Ibid.) :  Daetylis  mem' 
nkiHtOt  Oagea  reticulata,  Rumex  tfeeieariuMf  ArtemisUi 
judaiea,  Leyeeera  dfseoidsa,  Santalina  fraffrantiaetmOf 
Seriola,  Lindenbergia  SinaieOt  Lamium  amplexicatde, 
Stachye  ajflnie,  Sieymbrium  irie^  Anchuea  Mitleri^  Aepe- 
rugowoeumbMe,  Omphalodee  intermedia,  Dcemia  eordata, 
Reaeaa  eaneeeene  snaoruinoea,  Reaumuria  vermieulata, 
Fumaria  parviflora,  Myveeoum  pendulum,  Cleome  triner- 
via,  jErua  tomentoea,  Malva  Honberey,  Fagonia,  Zygo- 
phyllum  coeeineum,  Aetragalue  Freeenii,  Oenieta  motto- 
n>erma.  Schubert  (ii,  857)  also  mentions,  ns  found  near 
Abu  Snweir,  north-east  of  Sinai,  a  kind  of  sage,  and  of 
what  is  probably  goat's-me.  also  (note,  ibid.)  a  fine  variety 
of  Aetragalue,  together  with  Linaria^  Lotue,  Cynoeurue 
eehinaiua,  Bnmue  teetorum,  and  (p.  866)  two  varieties  of 
Ptrgularia,  the  Proeera  and  the  Tomentoea. 

In  the  sonth-west  region  of  the  Dead  Sea  grows  the 
singular  tree  of  the  apples  of  Sodom,  the  Aeeleptaa  gigan- 
tea  of  botanists.  Dr.  Itoblnson,  who  gives  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  it  (i,  688, 688),  says  it  might  be  taken  for  a  gigantic 
species  of  the  milk-weed  or  silk-weed  foond  in  the  north- 
ern regions  of  the  United  States.  He  condemns  the  no- 
tion of  Hasselquist  (p.  885,  887,  88S)  as  an  error,  that  the 
ftnit  of  the  Solanum'mdonoela,  when  punctured  by  a  ten- 
thredo,  resulted  in  the  Sodom  apple,  retaining  tne  skin 
nninjured,  but  wholly  changed  to  dust  within  (ibid.  p.  684). 
It  is  the  ^Oeher  of  the  Arabs.  Robinson  also  mentions 
willows,  hollyhocks,  and  hawthorns  in  the  Sinaitlc  re- 

glon,  from  the  first  of  which  the  Bde  Sufed/eh,  "willow- 
ead,"  takes  its  name  (i,  106, 109 ;  Stanley,  Sinai  and  Pal- 
eetine,  p.  17).  He  saw  hyssop  {JAdeh)  in  abundance,  and 
thyme  (JTa'ter),  and  In  the  Wady  Feir&n  the  colocynth,  the 
Ktrdhy  or  Kirdi,  a  green  thorny  plant  with  a  yellow 
flower;  and  in  or  near  the  Arabah,  the  Inniper  CArar), 
the  oleander  (Di/leh),  and  another  shrub  like  it,  the  Zak- 
ndm,  as  also  the  plant  ei-Oh^ah,  resembling  the  RUem, 
bnt  larger  (i,  110,  83 ;  11, 184, 186, 119  and  note).  He  also 
descrilMS  the  OhArMd,  which  lias  been  suggested  as  pos- 
sibly the  "tree"  cast  by  Moses  into  the  waters  of  Marah 
(Bxod.  XV,  86).  It  grows  in  saline  regions  of  intense  beat, 
bearing  a  small  red  berry,  very  Juicy,  and  slightly  acidn- 
Ions.  Being  constantly  found  among  brackish  pools,  the 
"bane  and  antidote**  would  thus,  on  the  above  supposi- 
tion, be  side  by  side,  but  as  the  fruit  ripens  in  June,  it 
could  not  have  been  ready  for  its  8iippi>sed  use  in  the 
early  days  of  the  Exodus  (Robinson,  i,  66-4i9).  He  adds 
in  a  note  that  Forskftl  gives  it  (FZor.  ^ypt.Arab.  p.  Ixvi), 
as  the  Peganum  retueum,  but  that  it  U  more  correctly  the 
NitraHa  tridentata  of  Desfontaines  (Flora  Atlant,  1, 878). 
The  mountain  Um  Shomer  takes  its  name  from  the  fen- 
nel found  upon  it,  as  perhaps  may  SerbAI  from  the  Ser, 
myrrh,  which  "  creeps  over  its  ledges  up  to  the  very  sum- 
mit "^a  plant  noticed  by  Dr. Stanley  as  "thickly  cover- 
ing*' with  its  "shrubs**  the  "natural  basin"  which  sur- 
mounts ed-Deir,  and  as  seen  in  the  Wady  Sey&l,  north- 
east fh>m  Sinai  {Sinai  and  Paleetine,  p.  17,  78-80).  Dr. 
Stanley  also  notices  the  wild  thorn,  from  which  the  Wady 
Sidri  takes  Its  name,  the  fig-tree  which  entitles  another 
wady  the  "  Father  of  Fig-trees  "  (A  bH  Hamad\  and  in  the 
Wady  SeyAl,  "a  yellow  flowering  shrub  called  AbeithU 
ran,  and  a  bine,  thorny  plant  called  SiUeh,**  Again, 
north-eastwards,  in  Wady  el-'Aln  were  seen  "rushes, 
the  large-leaved  plant  called  Beher,"  and  farther  down 
the  "Laea/t  or  caper  plant,  springing  from  the  clefts." 
Seetxen*s  meMembryanthemum  is  noticed  by  Forsk&l, 
who  adds  that  no  herb  Is  more  common  in  sandy 
desert  localities  than  the  second,  the  nodifiorum,  called 
in  Arabic  the  ghaeitU  Hasselquist  speaks  of  a  meeemb 
which  he  calls  the  "flg-marlgold,"  as  fonnd  in  the  ruins 
of  Alexandria ;  its  agreeable  saltish-aromatic  flavor,  and 
its  use  by  the  Egyptians  in  saladu,  accord  closely  with 
Seetsen's  description.  Seetien  gives  also  Arabic  names 
of  two  plants,  one  called  lekedumhj  the  guides,  described 
as  the  size  of  heath,  with  blue  flowers ;  the  other  named 
Subbh^l-dieh,  fonna  to  the  north  of  Wady  el-*Ain,  which 
had  a  club-shaped  sappy  root,  ranged  a  foot  high  above 
the  earth,  having  scales  instead  of  leaves,  and  covered, 
when  he  saw  it,  with  large,  golden  flowers,  clinging  close 
together,  till  it  seemed  like  a  little  ninepin  (Kegel).  Some^ 
what  to  the  south  of  this  he  obsen'ed  the  "  rose  of  Jeri- 
cho" growing  in  the  dreariest  and  most  desolate  solitude, 
and  which  appears  always  to  be  dead  {RHeen.  ill,  46,  64). 
In  the  region  about  Madura  he  also  found  what  he  calls 
**Christ's-thoni,"  Arab.  el-Aueeiteh,  and  an  anonymous 
plant  with  leaves  broader  than  a  tulip,  i)erhaps  the  Eeher 
mentioned  above.  The  following  list  of  plants  between 
Hebron  and  Madnra  is  also  given  by  Seetzen,  having 
probably  been  written  down  by  him  from  hearing  them 
))ronounced  by  his  Bedawin  guides,  and  some  accordingly 
It  has  not  been  possible  to  identify  with  any  known 
names — el-Khikrrdy,  ^-Bttreid,  a  hyacinth,  whose  small 
pear-shaped  bulb  Is  eaten  raw  by  the  Bedawin,  el-Arta^  eU 
Deehirra,  el-Sphdra  (or  Za/rd  f),  el-Erbidn.  el-Odime,  Sehe- 
kera  ( or  Shakooreeyeh ),  el-Metndn,  described  as  a  small 
shrub,  el-Hmim,  eUSehUlueh,  possibly  the  same  as  that 
called  SUUh,  as  above,  by  Dr.  Stanley,  el'KMUa  (or  Khal), 


WILD  GOAT 


WILD  GOAT 


more  rarerlintf.precloosoD  iccoontoflhelrprodnclfciirB 
tb«  followlQg:  Ailatmum  AaronU,  or  nnx  Mm,  called 
bj  Iba  Anthi  Jfatuek  el-Ban,  ttom  »blcli  an  nil  li  eilrul- 
M  hiving  00  pertBrnB  of  IM  own,  but  «""  ' 

's\Dai  *tid  Upper 
7  dny"' 


«fitu  jMBiuiOB  or  nthflT  odorlferona 
fboict  aaicatat.  It  li  tonnd  Id  Hi 
^CTPl  —  Cveurbita  LAffenaria, 
filtypt^ndlhe-* "'  '■-'■' 


Jot 


Arsbli,  nrhertTti 

ill.    The  Ireopr- 

bittim  called  "of  Mecca,"  !■  fiin 


ir  wine  bettutlan,  decided  that  It  kb*  o  npMlei  nt 
irrit.    Ths  olibat         '      '  '  t       .  . 


_  ..,  ._.    j  la  mlnlQBd  by 

Iliuaelqaltt  lU  »  product  of  ibe  dwert:  bnttbe  prndndUE 

nrebic  »<!.,  tbn  JTiimm  nllotim,  manllonad  abort.  Tbe 
nme  irrktar  menllona  Ibe  Se^anantJiwt  ogLdnaiii,  "  cam- 
el'a  liaT,"a*KruwluxPlcDtlfallTlD  Iba  deaerlauf  both  Ibe 
Anbiaa,  andrasarda  Ft  aa  npdonbtedlr  one  of  ibepreclnna 
■mmatle  and  iWMt  plauta  whicb  tbg  ansen  nT  Sbeba 
gnira  to  SulomoD  (UaarthioUt,  p.  nt,  188, »«,  MI :  ei»nn 
p. ISO, «1, SOO).  FDllaTdataUiaDtbaftctaornalDralbl*- 
ioTT  or  (be  recloD  will  b«  funad  la  Cb«  mltera  referred  to, 
nud  aoma  additional  anlborlttaa  may  ba  fbond  In  Spreu- 
gal,  HUloTitt  Ttl  Btth.  vol.  II. 
Baaldea  itaeae,  Itaa  cnltlTaUon  of  Ibe  sronnd  by  tba  31- 


rmit-treaa,  and  wUb  ■ 
■i(  the  (Omier  la  ttnti 


ialy.ifot 


rialble  (ar  anaj  amotiK  lb* 


niDnDtalDS.  aod  Ibara  ia  a  aincia  coiiaplcnoaa  ona  near 
tbe  "caTe  of  BDaa"  on  Jebel  MAaa.  BMldM,  Ihay  >i*ve 
the  allter  aod  tba  eoBimnD  poplar,  witb  otbai  treea.  tir 
timber  or  nmameDL  Tbe  apricot,  apple,  pear,  qnlaee, 
■ImoDd,  walout,  pomegranate.  oliTe,  Tine,  citron,  oranee, 
cornelian  cbtrrr,  and  two  rmll*  named  In  Ibe  Arabic 
EMl&k  and  Bw^k,  bava  been  ancceaafDllj  naiaiallud 
tberalRoUoaon,  l,M;  Heeliten,  ill,  TO,  ate:  llaaaelqnlal. 
p.  «ia :  Analaiut  iUtHiH.  p.  M).  Ur.  StanleT  riewa  tbeae 
■a  moatlj  Introdaced  fnim  Bnrapei  Haaaefqulit,  on  the 
contnir]',tiewa  tbem  aa  beine  the  orlglnala  wbence  the 
flnaat  larletlea  we  have  In  Sniope  were  flnt  bronEbl. 

IntbeEardenaafPaleitineandDamaacnr.    Bee  Sihai. 

'Wild  Qoat  is  tbe  rendering  in  the  A.V.  of  two 
HeU  worda  wbicb  aeetn  to  r«ter  lo  cognate  qieciea  of 
the  caprid  [lib*.    See  Goat. 

I.  The  more  frequent  term  ii  alwaya  fuond  in  tbe 
plur.  D^b?^,  yilim  (^Sept.  rpayika^oi  or  iXa^i,  Vulg. 
iMcu),  which  occurs  1  Sam.  ixir,  Z;  Job  xxxix,  1 ; 
Paa-cir,  18;  beaidea  the  fem.  aing.  nVs^  yaalak  ("loe," 


Wild  Goat  otSlnal. 
ProT.  T,  IS),  ic  ia  not  at  all  improbable,  aa  the  Vnlg.ia- 
lerpreta  the  word,  that  aome  apeciea  or  Sitx  't»  deiuud, 
pertiipe  the  Capra  Sinailica  (Ehrenb.),  the  Ma  a 

jatla  o(  Eixi'pt  and  Arabia.  Thii  ibei  waa  noticed  iI 
'  Ehreiiberg  and  Hcmpricb  {SyM.  Ftyi.  1. 18), 
Burckhardt  (TVur.  p.  fiSeX  who  (p.  105)  thm 
apeaka  of  theae  animals:  "In  ail  the  rallej-s  mlh  of 
tbe  Mnjeb,  and  particularly  in  those  of  Mojeb  and  El- 
Ahsa,  large  herds  of  mountain  goata,  called  by  Ihe  Aiata 
'    '  ith.     This  ia  the  tltinbodi  or  bajinfiB 

Tyrol  Alp*.  They  pasture  in  docki  tl 
forty  and  flfty  together.  Great  nambers  of  thtm  an 
liilled  by  Ihe  people  oC  Kerek  and  Tifyle,  who  bold 

■  ■  "  ■  ■  high  estimation.  They  sell  Ibe  U^ 
knotty  horns  to  the  Hebrew  merchants,  who  tsity 
them  to  Jeroaalem,  where  they  are  worked  into  bsmllM 
Cir  knives  and  daggers. . . .  The  Arabs  lold  melbUil  >i    ' 

ifficuic  toget  asboCat  theTn,andlhat  the  huntenhidt 
themaelTea  among  tbe  reeda  on  the  banks  of  Hrtanx 

the  ereniiig  Is  drink.  Tbty 
alao  aaserted  that,  when  par- 
sued,  Ihey  will  throw  Iheni- 
aelres  from  ■  height  ofGfly 
feet  and  more  upoa  their 
heads  without  receiving  any 
injury."  llaaselquiit  (rror. 
p.  190)  speaks  of  rock  goau 
{Copra  crrtieapra,  Linn.) 
which  he  saw  hunted  with 
falcons  near  Naiamh.  Boi 
theC. 


lioal  with  (he  Swigs  ibex  or 
s(«nbock  (C.  iia),  though  it 
ia  a  ctoaely  allied  spcdea.  Tbe 
wild  goat  of  Aratna  and  Plil- 


e  difl^im 


inly  froD  (be 


European  in  tbe  shape  u 
maiking  oTthe  bonu  and  in  ia 
lighter  color.  It  ia  still  ona- 
tionaily  loiind  in  the  nrigb- 
borbood  of  Engedi,  iu  okl  r- 
■on,  whicb  thence  took  tbe 
nasM  (aee  Tiistnm,  A'o'-  "iif. 
o/lh Biib,p.9e).  SeclBU. 
2.  The  other  word  fefldmd 
"wild  goat"  is  'lpK.aUi: 
which  occurs  only  in  Peel, 
sir,  S,  as  a  clean  animal,  ni 


WILD  GRAPE 


931 


WILKIE 


which  the  Sept.  and  Vulg.  undentind  to  be  a  kind  of 
deer  {rpayiXa^t  traffelaphus)^  and  the  Targunis  and 
Sjrriac  a  wild  goat  (M^^*^).  Gesenios  concludes  in  fa- 
vor of  the  roebuck ;  while  others  prefer  the  cAamoif,  and 
others  the  gazeUt.  Gesentas  derives  it  from  Arab,  anak, 
while  Fllrst  says  it  is  to  be  traced  to  a  radix  nomuialiBy 
common  to  both  the  Sanscrit  and  Shemitic  tongues. 
Schultens  {Origine*  Hebraica^  conjectures  that  the 
name  arose  ob  fugacitatem,  from  its  shyness  and  con- 
sequent readiness  to  flee;  and  Dr.  Harris  points  out 
what  he  takes  to  be  a  oonBrmation  of  this  conjecture 
in  Shaw*8  Travda,  which,  from  the  translations  of  the 
Sept.  and  Vulg.,  makes  it  a  goat-deer,  or  Tragelaphus, 
such  as  the  krwi  or  Jishtalf  by  mistake  referred  to 
Copra  mambriea  of  Linnens;  whereas  that  naturalist 
(Sgttem,  Nat*  Idth  ed.  by  Gmelin)  places  Unci  among 
the  synonyms  of  Aid,  eervieapra^  which  does  not  suit 
Shaw's  notice,  and  is  not  known  in  Western  Asia. 
TheJUhtal  is,  however,  a  ruminant  of  the  African  des- 
ert, possibly  one  of  the  larger  AntilopidiB,  with  long 
mane,  but  not  as  yet  scientifically  described.*  Some 
have  referred  the  akkd  to  the  ahu  of  the  Penians,  i.  e. 
the.  Capreoltu  pjfgargus,  or  the  ** tailless  roe"  (Shaw, 
XooL  ii,  287),  of  Central  Asia.  If  we  could  satisfactorily 
establish  the  identity  of  the  Persian  word  with  the  He- 
brew, the  animal  in  question  might  represent  the  akh6 
of  the  Pentateuch,  which  might  formerly  have  inhabited 
the  Lebanon,  though  it  is  not  now  found  in  i'alestine. 
Perhaps  the  paseng  {Cap,  agagruij  Cuv.),  which  some 
have  taken  to  be  the  parent  stock  of  the  common  goat, 
and  which  at  present  inhabits  the  mountains  of  Persia 
and  Caucasus,  may  have  in  Biblical  times  been  found  in 
Palestine,  and  may  be  the  akh6  of  Scripture.  It  is,  on 
the  whole,  as  likely  to  have  been  the  beden,  or  wild 
goat  of  Mt.  Sinai,  as  any  other.    See  Dekr  ;  Roic 

T77ild  Grape  is  the  rendering  of  the  A.  Y.  at  Isa. 
V,  2, 4  of  the  Heb.  word  which  occun  only  in  the  plur. 
beuMhim,  ti*^129fita,  and  indicates  a  noxious  species  of 
plant  or  kind  of  fruit.  In  form  the  word  is  a  pass, 
participle  of  VMS,  which  means  to  tmeU  ojjfensivelgy  as 
many  poisonous  vegetables  do;  and  this  connects  it 
radieaUy  with  rvotf^boshdh  (''cockles,** Job  xxxi,40), 
although  the  two  seem  to  denote  different  plauts,  but 
both  useless.  The  Sept.  gives  oKav^as  as  the  Greek 
equivalent;  which  is  certainly  a  mistake,  unless  they 
had  some  other  reading  of  the  original  text.  The  ren- 
dering of  Aquila  is  fjavpiaiy  that  of  S3'mmachus  circX^; 
both  of  which  give  rather  the  etymological  meaning  or 
force  of  the  original  word  than  translate  it  into  its 
Greek  equivalent  as  a  significative  appellation.  The 
rendering  of  Jerome  is  labrutcoe ;  and  this  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  Luther  (//cr^jn^)  and  the  A.V.  {wUdgrapei), 
The  species  of  plant  intended  has  been  supposed  by 
some  to  be  the  Viti*  labrusea,  a  plant  which  produces 
small  berries  of  a  dark-red  color  when  ripe,  but  sour  to 
the  taste;  Hasselquist  suggests  the  SoUutum  incanum, 
or  gray  nightshade;  and  Celsius  contends  for  the  Aeo- 
nOum  napdlus,  wolfsbane.  It  seems  more  probable,  how- 
ever, that  no  specific  plant  is  referred  to  in  the  passage 
of  the  prophet;  but  that  the  word  is  simply  used  as  an 
adjective  with  its  substantive  understood,  as  a  designa- 
tion of  bad  or  worthless  grapes.  The  Lord  expected 
that  his  vineyard  should  produce  grapes,  but  it  pro- 
duced only  beiafuTn,  vile,  uneatable  grapes.  See  Bosen- 
mUUer,  BibL  Bot.  (£ng.  transL),  p.  Ill ;  and  Comment, 
ad  loc;  Gesenius,  Henderson,  Knobel,  ad  loc  See 
Grape. 

Wild  Ox.    See  Wild  Bull. 

Wiley,  Isaac  William,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bbhop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Lewiston, 
Pa.,  March  29, 1825.  He  was  converted  when  ten  years 
old,  at  eighteen  began  to  preach,  and  in  1846  graduated 
from  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York.    After  three  yean  of  practice  as  a 


physician  in  Pennsylvania,  he  joined  the  Philadelphia 
Conference,  and  in  1851  went  as  a  miauonary  to  China. 
Three  yean  afterwards  he  returned  to  America,  and 
was  engaged  in  pastoral  work  in  New  Jersey,  including 
an  agency  for  Pennington  Seminary.  In  1864  he  was 
elected  editor  of  The  Ladies'  Bepontory,  at  Cincinnati, 
and  in  1872  bishop,  an  office  which  he  held  until  his 
death,  Nov.  22, 1884,  at  Foo-Chow,  China.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished  for  a  calm  but  impressive  manner,  deep 
cordiality  of  disposition,  and  great  taot  and  method  in 
labor.  See  Meth.  Review^  Jan.  1886;  MmuteM  of  An- 
nual  Conferences,  1884,  p.  818. 

Wilhelm,  Ludwio  Wilhklm,  a  Reformed  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Neuenhain,  Nov.  19, 1796w 
He  studied  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  was  in  1816  as- 
sistant preacher  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  In  1818  third 
preacher,  in  1828  second,  and  in  1886  first  preacher  at 
Wiesbaden.  In  1858  he  was  made  bishop  of  Nassau, 
and  died  May  1 1 ,  1882,  doctor  of  theology.    ( a  P.) 

TT^ilhelmina,  a  fanatical  woman  of  Milan,  who 
died  in  1281,  pretended  to  be  the  daughter  of  Constan- 
tia,  queen  of  Primislaus,  king  of  Bohemia.  She  spent 
the  last  twenty  or  thirty  yeara  of  her  life  in  Milan  in 
pious  labors,  especially  in  works  of  active  charity.  She 
had  organized  a  band  of  foUowen  (afterwards  known  as 
Wilhelminians),  who  reverenced  her  as  a  saint,  and  be- 
gan in  her  lifetime  to  make  her  the  object  of  extrav- 
agant and  fanatical  veneration.  This  increased  after 
her  death  to  an  undue  extreme.  She  had  claimed  that 
her  birth  was  announced  to  her  mother  by  the  angel 
Raphael,  just  as  the  birth  of  Christ  was  announced  to 
Mary  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit  be- 
came incaipate  in  her  for  the  purpose  of  working  out 
the  salvation  of  Jews,  Saracens,  and  false  Christians,  as 
that  of  trae  Christiana  had  been  wrought  by  Christ. 
She  deluded  her  foUowen  into  the  expectation,  first,  of 
her  repeating  in  her  own  person  the  sufferings  of  Christ, 
and,  secondly,  of  her  resurrection  and  return  to  them 
after  her  death.  But,  with  no  indications  of  any  fulfil- 
ment of  such  promises,  a  number  of  her  followers,  head- 
ed by  Andrew  Saramita,  disinterred  the  recently  buried 
body,  arrayed  it  in  costly  robes,  erected  a  magnificent 
monument  over  the  grave,  and  proclaimed  the  worehip 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  incarnate  in  Wilhelmina,  as  of  equal 
importance  with  the  worship  of  the  incarnate  Son  of 
God.  She  had  appointed  a  nun  named  Mayfreda,  of 
Tirovano,  as  her  vicegerent  under  the  new  dispensation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost — a  female  pontiff  to  represent  her  as 
the  Roman  pontiffs  represent  SL  Peter.  The  sect  was 
entirely  rooted  out  about  the  year  1900,  the  remnant  of 
her  followers  having  perished  at  the  stake,  and  her  tomb 
and  dead  body  having  been  destroyed.  See  Muratori, 
A  ntiq.  ItaL  Medii  Alvi,  v,  95  sq. ;  Palacky,  Literary  Tour 
to  Italy  (Prague,  1838),  p.  72  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Uist,  of  the 
Churc^  bk.  iii,  cent,  xiii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v. 

Wilhelminians.    See  Wilhelmina. 

Wilken,  Fribdhich,  a  famous  hutorian,  was  bom 
May  23, 1777,  at  Ratzeburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Lanenburg. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,at  first  theology,  but  afterwards 
classic  and  Oriental  philology  and  historj*.  In  1798  he 
received  the  prize  for  an  essay,  De  Bellorum  Cruciato^ 
rum  ex  A  bulfeda  Ilistoria ;  in  1805  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  histor>'  at  Heidelberg,  and  in  1807  director 
of  the  university  library.  In  1817  he  was  called  to  Ber- 
lin as  first  librarian  and  professor  in  the  university,  and 
in  1819  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences. He  und(^rtook  a  literary  journey  to  Italy  in  1826 ; 
in  1829  he  went  in  behalf  of  the  government  to  France 
and  England,  and  in  1838  to  Wiesbaden  and  Munich. 
He  died  Dec.  24, 1840.  His  main  work  is  the  Gesch.der 
Kf'euzzUge  nack  morgenldndischen  und  abendlandischen 
Berichten  (Leips.  1807-32, 7  vols.).  He  also  wrote,  Gesch, 
derBildungj  Beraubung  und  Vernkhtung  der  alten  fleidd' 
berger  Buchersammlwig  (  Heidelb.  1817)  :  —  Gesch.  der 
kdniglichen  BibUothek  zu  Beriin  (Berlin,  1828).     (B.  P.) 

Wilkie,  Sir  David,  a  British  painter  of  great 


WILKINS 


032 


WILLET 


cdebrityi  was  born  at  the  manse  of  the  parish  of  Colti^ 
on  the  banks  of  Edenwatcr,  in  Fifeshire,  Soothind,  Nov. 
18, 1785.  He  received  a  limited  education  at  the  gram- 
mar-school of  Kettle,  when  he  was  sent  to  the  Trustees* 
Academy  of  Ekiinbuigh  for  the  Encouragement  of  Man- 
ufactures. Here,  in  1803,  he  won  the  prize  of  ten  guin- 
eas for  painting  CaUUto  in  the  Bath  of  Diana,  In  1604 
he  returned  home,  and  spent  some  time  in  painting  pop> 
traits  and  scenes  of  common  life.  He  then  went  to  Lon- 
don, and  entered  the  Royal  Academy  as  a  student.  His 
picture  of  the  ViMag^.  PoUtidant,  exhibited  in  1806, 
gained  for  the  young  artbt  great  notoriety,  and,  indeed, 
established  his  fame.  He  now  settled  in  London,  and 
was  busily  employed  in  the  execution  of  his  commis- 
sions for  several  years.  In  1811  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy*  In  1823  he  was  appointed  lim- 
ner to  the  king  in  Scotland.  Two  years  later  he  made 
a  tour  of  the  Continent,  spending  the  greater  portion  of 
the  time  in  Italy.  In  1830  he  became  painter  in  ordi- 
nary to  his  majesty.  In  1832  he  exhibited  his  cele- 
brated picture  of  John  Knox  Preaching  the  R^ormation 
in  St.  A  ndrew^s,  painted  for  Sir  Robert  Peel  for  twelve 
hundred  guineas.  It  is  claimed  that  his  greatest  his- 
torical work  is  the  picture  of  Sir  David  Baird  Discov- 
ering the  Bodif  of  the  Sultan  Tippo  Saib,  after  Storming 
Seringapaiam.  In  1840  he  started  for  the  East,  making 
an  extended  tour  through  Holland,  Southern  Germany, 
Constantinople,  the  Holy  Land,  and  Egypt  He  died, 
on  his  return  to  England, on  board  the  "Oriental,"  then 
off  Gibraltar,  June  1, 1841.  His  works  have  been  made 
known  to  the  world  by  the  engravings  of  Raimbach, 
Burnet,  Cousins,  Doo,  and  C.  Fox.  See  Spooner,  Biog, 
Hist,  of  the  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Wilkina,  Akn,  an  eminent  Methodist  Episcopal 
missionary,  was  bom  in  the  state  of  New  York,  June  80, 
1806.  She  was  converted  in  1836,  and  sailed  as  a  mis- 
sionary for  Africa,  June  15, 1837.  She  labored  there 
until  1841,  when  she  returned  to  America  to  recruit  her 
health ;  went  out  again  in  1842,  returned  with  broken 
health  in  1858 ;  sailed  again  in  1854,  but  was  once  more 
obliged  to  return,  in  1857.  She  was  preparing  for  active 
service  in  a  juvenile  asylum,  when  she  suddenly  died, 
Nov.  18  of  the  last-named  year. 

'WiUdnBon,  Henry,  eldest  of  those  thus  named, 
was  bom  in  the  vicarage  of  Halifax,  Torkshire,  Oct.  9, 
1566.  He  went  to  Oxford  in  1581,  was  elected  fellow 
of  Merton  College,  and  graduated  in  1586 ;  in  1601  be- 
came rector  at  Waddesdon,  in  Buckinghamshire,  and 
died  there,  March  19, 1647.  He  was  one  of  the  Puri- 
tan divines  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  and  wrote,  A 
Catechitm : — Debt-book,  etc.    'See  Chalmers,  Biog.  ZHct, 

8.  V. 

WilkinBon,  Jemima,  a  fanatical  Quakeress,  was 
bom  at  Cumberland,  R.  I.,  in  1753.  In  October,  1776, 
on  recovering  from  an  attack  of  sickness,  in  which  she 
bad  fallen  into  a  kind  of  trance,  she  announced  that  she 
had  been  raised  from  the  dead,  and  had  received  a  di- 
vine commission  as  a  religious  teacher.  She  gathered 
around  her  a  few  proselytes,  who  styled  themselves 
*' Universal  Friends'*  (q.v.),  and  formed  a  settlement 
between  Seneca  and  Crooked  lakes,  N.  Y.,  which  she 
called  New  Jerusalem.  Here  she  secured  the  belief 
of  her  followers  in  the  most  absurd  pretensions.  She 
claimed  to  be  inspired  and  to  have  reached  absolute 
perfection.  She  pretended  to  foretell  future  events,  to 
discern  the  secrets  of  the  heart,  and  to  have  the  power 
of  healing  diseases.  She  declared  thai  those  who  re- 
fused to  believe  in  her  claims  rejected  the  counsel  of  God 
to  their  own  hurt.  She  even  claimed  to  be  Christ  in 
his  second  <»>ming.  On  one  occasion  she  declared  her 
intention  of  walking  across  Seneca  I^ake ;  but  when  all 
the  preparations  were  made,  she  inquired  of  her  follow- 
ers whether  they  had  faith  in  her  power  to  do  so,  and 
on  their  replying  in  the  affirmative,  said  that  as  they  be- 
lieved in  her  power  it  was  unnecessary  to  display  it. 
She  claimed  to  be  the  one  by  whom  the  miUennium  was 


to  be  established,  and  two  of  her  disciples  declared  them- 
selves to  be  the  *'  two  witnesses  "  mentioned  in  the  book 
of  Revelation.  She  lived  in  a  luxurious  style  in  an  ele- 
gant house,  having  amassed  a  large  fortune  by  the  do- 
nations made  by  her  followers.  She  died  in  1819.  See 
Hudson,  History  of  Jemima  WilHnaon  (Geneva,  N.  Y., 
1821);  and  Memoirs  of  Bath. 

WilkinBon,  John,  a  Puritan  divine,  brother  of 
the  Henry  foregoing,  was  bora  in  Halifax,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  where  he  became  fellow  of  Magdalen 
College ;  in  1605  principal  of  Magdalen  Hall,  and  in 
1648  president  of  Magdalen  College.  He  died  Jan.  2, 
1649.    See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Will  (testament).    See  Wills. 

Will,  Gboro  Amdbxas,  professor  at  Altdorf,  where 
he  died,  SepU  18,  1798,  is  the  author  of,  BewtrSge  zxr 
Oeschichte  der  A  nabaptisten  m  DaitsckUmd  (Nuremberg, 
1778) : — Dissertatio  de  Nethinteis  Levitantm  FammHSf 
€X  SaenB  Potissimum  Scriptura  Foniibut  InsiitMtis 
(Altdorf,  1785):  — Typva  Pronominum  Fbraseorm^ 
qum  Suffixa  Dumntur,  et  Forma  Classimn  Tta^o- 
rumque  Verbonan  Perfeetorum  in  Tabttlis  (ibid«  1750). 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  767 ;  Fttrst,  BibL 
Jud.  iii,  515.     {K  P.) 

Will  "Wonhip  O^tXo^prtoKfia,  CoL  ii,  23),  the  in- 
vention and  practice  of  such  expedients  of  appeasing  or 
of  plearing  God  as  neither  reason  nor  revelation  suggests 

Willard,  Samuel^  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, nephew  of  president  Joseph  Willard,  was  born  at 
Petersham,  Mass.,  in  1775.  He  graduated  from  Har- 
vard College  in  1803,  was  tutor  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1804  and  1805,  became  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Deer- 
field  in  1807,  and  resigned  his  pastorate,  on  account  of 
the  total  loss  of  sight,  in  1829,  but  preached  occasion- 
ally until  within  a  month  of  bis  death,  which  occurred 
Oct.  8,  1859.  He  was  the  author  of.  The  DeerfM 
CoUeetion  of  Sacred  Music  (1808)  i-^Originat  Hgmas 
(1823):— i4n  Index  of  the  Bible  (1826) :— i4«  Iwqmmd 
Reader  (1827):— 7Ae  General  Class-hook  (1828)*.— 
Sacred  Poetry  and  Music  Reconciled:  a  Collection  of 
Hymns  (1830) : — An  Introduction  to  the  Latin  Language 
(1835),  and  other  school-books  (some  anonymous),  sev- 
eral sermons,  papers  in  periodicals,  and  left  hymns  and 
other  works  in  MS. 

Willelmus,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  11th  century,  be- 
came abbot  of  Metz  in  1073,  and  was  friendly  to  Greg- 
ory Vlf.  Seven  of  his  epistles  and  an  oration  have 
been  published  in  Mabillon's  Analeda,  i,  247.  See 
Mosheim,  Hist,  of  the  Church,  bk.  iii,  cenL  xi,  pt.  ii, 
ch.  iL 

WlUemer,  Jouakn  Helvich,  a  German  tbeok>- 
gian,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, at  Wittenberg,  is  the  author  of,  Dissert,  de  Tuniea 
Adami  Pellicea  (Wittenberg,  1680):— Z>M|7Wtof to  de 
Sadducasis  (ibid,  eod.) : — Diss.  Philolog.  de  Essenis  (ibid, 
eod.) :— 2>0  PaUio  Elia  ad  2  Reg. »',  8 ;  u,  8»  18, 14  (ibid. 
1679 ) : — De  Pronanciatume  Nominis  tXMl^  per  Legem 
Levit.  axctr,  16  Canoessa  (ibid.  1677),  etc  See  Jocher, 
AUgemeims  Gelehrten  •  Lexikon,  a.  v. ;  FUrst,  BAL  Jud. 
iii,  516.     (B.  P.) 

T^illea,  Edward,  D.D.,  a  Church  of  England  di- 
vine, was  prebend  of  Westminster  in  1724,  of  Linoohi 
in  1730,  dean  the  same  year,  elected  bishop  of  St  Da- 
vid's in  1742,  translated  to  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wella  in 
1743,  and  died  Nov.  24, 1778.  See  (Lond.)  A  nnual  Reg- 
ister, 1773,  p.  176. 

Willet,  AicDREw,  a  learned  English  divine,  was 
bom  at  Ely  in  1562.  He  was  educated  at  Peterhonse 
and  at  Christ  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  a 
fellowship;  became  prebendary  of  Ely  July  22, 1584; 
had  the  rectory  of  Childerly,  in  Ouoobridgeshire,  mud 
in  1597  that  of  Little  Grantesden,  in  the  same  county ; 
became  chaplain  to  prince  Henry,  and  died  at  Hod- 
desden,  in  Hertfordshire,  Dec.  4,  1621.     He  was  tlia 


WILLIAM  OF  CONCHES        933     WILLIAM  HI  OF  ENGLAND 


ftutbor  of,  SgnoptU  Papi$m  (1598) :— refraJ^n  Pa- 
pidicKm  (eod.):  —  Saerontm  EfiMematum  Cenhiria 
Unoj  etc  (1698) -.^ii  CafkoUean  (V602)  x^Hexapla  on 
Gaunt,  ExotUUj  etc^  and  other  works.  See  Chalmers, 
Biog.  Diet.  8.  v. 

William,  the  name  of  several  Scotch  prelates. 

1.  Bishop  of  Morav  some  time  in  the  12th  centurj'. 
He  died  in  Febniary,'ll62.  See  Keith,  ScoUith  Bith- 
opty  p.  185. 

2.  Bishop  of  Dmiblane  about  1210.  See  Keith,  ScoU 
tith  Bithop9,\t,172, 

3.  Bishop  of  Argyle  in  1240.  He  was  drowned  in 
124 1 .     See  Keith,  Scottish  Biakopt,  p.  286. 

4.  Bishop  of  the  see  of  Danblane  in  1290.  On  July 
12, 1291,  he  signed  a  submission  to  Edward  I,  king  of 
England.  He  was  bishop  here  in  1292.  See  Keith, 
ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  174. 

5.  Bishop  of  Dunblane  in  1858.  See  Keith,  Scottisk 
Bishops,  p.  175. 

'William  OF  Cokciies,  a  philosopher  of  the  12th 
century,  was  a  natire  of  Conches,  Normandy,  and  in- 
structed at  the  cathedral-school  of  Chartres.  William 
was  famous  as  a  grammarian,  but  took  part  in  theo- 
logical questions.  His  work,  entitled  Philosophia,  in 
which  he  espoused  Abelard*8  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
was  attacked  after  bis  master's  condemnation  by  Will- 
iam of  St.  Thierry,  and  the  author  did  not  hesiute  to 
recant  his  errors.  William  of  Conches  died  in  1154. 
His  PhUosophia  was  published  three  times,  with  differ- 
ent titles,  and  under  the  name  of  three  different  au- 
thors: L  Pkilosophicarum  el  Astronomicarum  Instituti- 
onum  GuUidmi,  ffirscmffiensis  Olitn  A  hbatis,  Libri  Tres 
(Basle,  1531);  2.  Tltpi  iiidlfiav  sice  EUmentorum  Phi- 
losophim  LibH  IV,  in  Beda's  Opera,  ii,  811-843  (Basle 
1503);  3.  De  PhUosophia  Mundi,  by  Honorius  of 
Autun,  in  the  Maxima  BibUolkeca  Pairum,  voL  zx 
(Lyons,  1667).  Another  work  of  William  is  Dragmati- 
con,  in  which  he  rejects  the  errors  expressed  in  his 
PhUosophia,  The  Dragmaticon,  too,  is  extant  under  at 
least  six  different  titles.  William  also  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  Boethius's  />«  Consoiatione  PhUosophia. 
See  Werner,  in  Sitzungsberichte  der  philosophisch-histO' 
rischen  Classe  der  kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenr 
seht^flen  in  Wien  (1873),  Ixxv,  p.  811  sq.;  Hanr^u,  in 
Coniptes "  Rendua  de  VAcadimie  des  Inscriptions  et  des 
Belles 'Letlres  (eod.)*  8d  series,  i,  75  sq.;  Prantl,  Ge- 
schichte  der  Logik,  ii,  127 ;  Keginal  L.  Poole,  lUustrations 
of  the  History  of  Mediaval  Thought,  and  the  same  in 
Piitt^Herzog,  Real-EncgUop,  s.  v.     (E  P.) 

William  m  OF  Enolahd  (^WUUam  Henrg  of 
Nassau),  prince  of  Orange,  stadtholder  of  Holland,  was 
bom  at  the  Hague,  Nov.  4, 1650.  He  was  the  son  of 
William  II  of  Orange,  by  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  I 
of  England,  and  was  bom  to  a  large  inheritance,  though 
his  party  was  kept  in  check  for  some  time  by  the  in- 
fluence of  CromwelL  The  house  of  Orange  had  long 
sought  to  obtain  supreme  power  in  Holland,  a  country 
which  its  greatest  member  had  freed  from  the  Span- 
ish yoke.  The  death  of  William  II  eight  days  before 
the  birth  of  his  sou  put  a  stop  to  the  projects  for  the 
establishment  of  a  despotism  over  the  republic,  and 
threw  the  power  into  the  hands  of  the  opposite  party. 
For  years  the  Orange  party  was  depressed  for  want  of 
a  representative  of  sufficient  influence  to  maintain  its 
policy  and  secure  the  stadtholdershtp.  The  republic 
was  governed  by  Jan  de  Witt,  the  grand  pensionary. 
The  attack  upon  Holland  by  France  and  England  com- 
bined, in  1672,  made  a  great  change  in  the  fortunes  of 
the  young  prince  of  Orange.  He  was  immediately 
chosen  captain  and  admiral  -  general  of  the  United 
Provinces.  The  contest  was  at  first  unfavorable  to  the 
Provinces,  but  by  the  wisdom  and  determination  of  the 
young  stadtholder,  the  struggle,  which  lasted  for  nearly 
seven  yean,  was,  in  1678,  terminated  by  the  treaty  of 
Nimegnen,  in  a  manner  highly  advantageous  and  hon- 
orable to  Holland.    This  was  brought  about  more  es- 


pecially by  the  diplomatic  abilities  of  William,  who 
detached  England  from  the  alliance  and  brought  her 
over  to  the  side  of  the  Dutch.    A  few  jrears  before 
their  rain  had  seemed  inevitable,  and  the  fame  of  Will- 
iam became  great  over  Europe.    In  November,  1677, 
William  had  married  his  cousin  Mary,  eldest  daughter 
of  James,  duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.    This 
marriage  was  entered  into  chiefly  for  political  purposes, 
and  proved  very  popular  in  both  countries,  the  prince 
being  regarded  as  the  natural  head  of  the  Protestant 
party,  and  his  wife  being  expected  to  succeed  to  the 
English  throne.    James  II  came  to  the  throne  in  1685, 
and  determined  to  establish  the  Catholic  religion ;  but 
William  was  still  the  champion  of  Protestantism,  and 
in  1686  became  the  head  of  a  league  formed  among  the 
Protestant  princes  of  Ciermanj^  the  kings  of  Spain, 
Sweden,  and  others,  having  for  its  object  the  crashing 
of  the  power  of  Louis  XIV  of  France,  whose  influence 
was  the  dread  of  all  Europe,  and  who  was  the  most 
dreaded  foe  of  Protestantism.    The  treaty  by  which 
the  alliance  was  constituted  was  signed  at  Au^urg  in 
July,  1686.    The  oppressions  of  James  II  drove  many 
of  the  Protestants  into  exile,  and  Holland  became  the 
place  of  refuge  for  the  discontented  English.    The  na- 
tional dissatisfaction  became  so  great  that  on  June  80, 
1688,  a  number  of  prominent  English  statesmen  invited 
the  prince  of  Orange  to  enter  England  with  an  army. 
William  conducted  his  operations  with  great  secrecy 
and  skill,  and  on  Nov.  15  of  the  same  year  he  landed  at 
Torbay  with  an  army  of  fifteen  thousand  men,  composed 
of  English  and  Dutch.    Soon  the  whole  country  was  at 
his  side,  and  James  was  an  exile  in  France.    Men  of 
influence  of  all  parties  gave  him  their  presence  and 
support;  and  on  Dec  18  following  he  entered  London 
triumphantly  as  a  national  deliverer.    The  adherents 
of  James  held  out  for  some  time  in  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land, but  the  death  of  Dundee  ended  the  resistance  of 
the  Highlanders;  while  in  Ireland  it  was  quelled  after  a 
vigorous  contest  in  1691«    In  spite  of  his  sterling  quali- 
ties and  of  the  debt  which  they  owed  him,  the  English 
nation  never  really  liked  William  IIL    In  1695  the 
death  of  queen  Mary  diminished  her  husband's  influ- 
ence, and  leaving  factious  opposition  at  home,  he  had 
to  maintain  unequal  strife  with  Louis,  until  the  treaty 
of  Ryswick  was  brought  about  by  sheer  exhaustion  on 
both  sides,  in  September,  1697.    During  the  whole  war 
William  had  been  disturbed  by  Jacobite  plots,  some  of 
them  against  his  life.    A  partition  treaty  regarding 
Spain  was  violated  by  Louis,  who  took  the  throne  of 
that  country  for  his  grandson,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  and 
the  French  king,  on  the  death  of  James  II,  acknowl- 
edged his  son  as  successor.    The  English,  enraged  at 
this,  were  making  preparations  for  a  powerful  invasion, 
when  William  was  thrown  from  his  horse  while  hunt- 
ing, and  died  March  8, 1702.    His  career  was  one  of 
incessant  and  strenuous  activity,  and  he  carried  himself 
victoriously  amidst  immense  difficulties  and  numerous 
discomfitures.    The  predominant  motive  of  his  foreign 
policy  from  the  beginning  of  his  career  as  stadtholder 
of  Holland  until  the  close  of  it  as  king  of  England  was 
resistance  to  the  aggressive  and  tyrannous  policy  of 
Louis  XIV.    There  is  little  room  for  doubt  that  he  ac- 
cepted the  English  throne  for  the  sole  purpose  of  en- 
hancing his  power  against  French  despotism.     While 
it  is  trae  that  his  policy  dragged  England  more  thor- 
oughly than  before  into  the  circle  of  European  politics, 
yet  it  brought  to  the  English  a  free  constitution,  with 
political  institutions  capable  of  receiving  indefinite  im- 
provement without  danger  of  destraction.     The  sacred 
principle  of  toleration,  both  in  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
matters,  was  firmly  established,  though  its  full  bearings 
and  application  were  not  yet  developed  or  even  clear- 
ly apprehended.    Covenanters,  in  the  North,  and  high- 
churchmen,  in  the  South,  bated  him,  but  the  great  mass 
of  moderate  and  reasonable  Protestants  felt  that  he  was 
a  thoroughly  practical  and  inflexibly  Just  sovereign. 
He  loved  his  own  countrymen,  and  advanced  them  tc 


WILLIAM  OP  TYRE 


934 


WILLLAMITES 


positions  of  trust  and  honor;  but  no  discredit  is  to  be 
attached  to  him  on  this  account,  for  they  were  loyal  to 
him  and  not  disloyal  to  England.  While  his  temper 
was  cold,  the  nobler  passions  of  man  were  in  him  deep 
and  strong,  and  he  possessed  that  stem  lore  of  truth, 
honor,  and  right  that  distinguishes  a  moral  hero.  Few 
greater  kings  hare  erer  ruled  in  England,  but  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  Macdonalds  of  Glcncoe,  and  his  conduct 
towards  the  promoters  of  the  Darien  scheme  are  two 
blots  on  his  reputation  which  his  roost  thorough-going 
apologists  have  been  unable  to  efface.  In  addition  to 
the  abore-roentioned  services  to  the  English  nation  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  during  his  reign  the  Bank  of 
England  was  founded,  the  modern  system  of  finance 
introduced,  ministerial  responsibility  recognised,  and 
the  liberty  of  the  press  secured.  His  manner  was  wholly 
Dutch,  and  even  among  his  own  countrymen  he  was 
thought  blunt  In  his  theological  opinions  he  was  de- 
cided but  not  illtberaL  See  Treror,  Life  and  Timei  of 
William  HI  (Lond.  1886-36,  2  vols.);  Vernon,  Court 
and  Time$  of  William  III  (ibid.  1841, 2  vols.) ;  Macau- 
lay,  HitUny  of  England  (1849^5) ;  Ranke,  Knglisehe 
Gesdkichte  vomehmlich  im  17.  Jahrhundert  (1659-67,  6 
vols.;  EngL  transl.  1875). 

\yilliaxn  OF  Tyrk,  a  prominent  ecclesiastic  and 
judicious  historian,  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 
He  was  bom  in  Syria  about  A.D.  1180,  and  reared  at 
Antioch  or  Jerusalem.  About  1160  he  visited  Italy  and 
France  as  a  student  of  the  liberal  arts,  and  on  his  retum 
to  Jerusalem,  after  an  absence  of  several  years,  he  be- 
came the  friend  and  instroctor  of  king  Amalric  (reigned 
1 162-1 178).  In  1 167  he  became  archdeacon  of  Tyre,  and 
in  the  same  year  was  employed  by  Amalric  to  negotiate 
a  league  with  the  emperor  Manuel  I  at  Constantino- 
ple, with  a  view  to  the  invasion  of  Egypt.  Soon  after- 
wards some  unpleasantness  arose  between  his  arch- 
bishop, Frederic  of  Tyre,  and  himself,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  visited  Bome;  and  immediately  after  this 
Amahric  gave  him  charge  of  the  education  and  train- 
ing of  his  son,  the  prince  Baldwin.  In  the  summer  of 
1170  a  terrible  earthquake  convulsed  the  East,  destroy- 
ing many  ancient  towns  and  numerous  lives,  and  over- 
throwing several  strong  towers  in  Tyre.  King  Amal- 
ric died  July  11, 1173,  and  his  successor,  Baldwin,  called 
William  to  the  post  of  chancellor ;  about  the  same  time 
the  archbishop  Frederic  died,  and  William  was  given 
the  vacant  see,  being  the  sixth  incumbent  of  that  dio- 
cese since  the  founding  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
In  this  capacity  he  was  present,  in  1178,  at  the  third 
Lateran  synod  at  Rome,  and  on  his  retum  wrote  out 
the  decisions  of  the  synod,  together  with  a  list  of  the 
names  and  titles  of  all  participants  in  its  business,  in  a 
work  which  be  deposited  in  the  archives  of  the  prind- 
pal  church  at  Tyre.  He  spent  seven  months  in  Con- 
stantinop^  in  the  transaction  of  business  for  his  see, 
then  visited  Antioch  on  a  mission  from  the  emperor 
Manuel,  and,  after  an  absence  from  home  of  one  year 
and  ten  months,  returned  to  Tyre.  So  much  may  be 
gathered  from  his  own  writings,  which  form  the  almost 
exclusive  source  for  his  life.  An  ancient  French  writer 
adds  the  statement  that  William  was  poisoned  through 
the  agency  of  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  Heraclius,  at 
Rome,  whither  he  had  gone  to  effect  the  deposition  of 
that  prelate.  Another  tradition  states  instead  that 
William  acted  as  a  commissioner  to  the  West  after  the 
Uking  of  Jemsalem  by  Saladin  in  1188,  and  was  ap- 
pointed legate  in  matters  pertaining  to  crusades  by 
pope  Gregory  YHI,  being  present  as  such  at  a  meeting 
of  Philip  Augustus  of  France  and  Richard  of  England, 
which  took  place  between  Gisors  and  Trie. 

William  of  T^^re  composed  two  historical  works,  one 
of  which  contained  the  history  of  Eastern  princes  from 
Mohammed  to  his  own  time,  a  period  of  five  hundred 
and  seventy  years  {Getia  Principium  Ori&Ualium'),  It 
was  based  upon  Arabic  sources  which  were  placed  at 
his  disposal  by  the  liberality  of  king  Amalric.  This 
work  is  no  longer  extant.    The  other  work  contains 


the  history  of  the  Crusades,  from  A.D.  1100  to  1184,  in 
twenty -three  books,  the  last  of  which  is  unfinished 
{Uiitoria  Rerum  in  PartHnu  Trantmarinis  Gettarum  a 
Tempore  Mahumeth  usque  ad  AM.  1184).  It  was 
drawn  from  documentary  sources  and  from  his  pemnal 
observations  and  carefully  managed  inquiries  among 
his  contemporaries.  Its  learning  is  very  great  as  re. 
spects  natural,  political,  and  ecclesiastical  conditions  in 
both  the  East  and  West,  and  the  literatures  of  the  Ara- 
bic, Syriac,  Greek,  and  Latin  languages.  Its  matter 
also  is  rery  full,  and  its  tone,  upon  the  whole,  impartial, 
and  little  affected  by  the  credulous  belief  of  his  age  in 
wonders.  Its  style,  finally,  is  that  of  animated  descrip- 
tion, such  as  best  harmonizes  with  the  portrayal  of 
events  in  which  the  military  element  plays  a  principal 
part.  It  earned  for  its  author  the  reputation  of  being 
one  of  the  foremost  historical  writers  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  oldest  edition  of  this  work  extant  is  that  of 
Basle  (1549  fol.;  2d  ed.  1560).  Other  edidons  are  by 
Bongarsius  (1564),  in  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos^  i,  625  sq. ; 
G.  du  Pr^au  (in  French,  Paris,  1573  foL).  The  contin- 
uation of  the  work  to  1285,  by  an  unknown  writer,  is 
given  in  Martene,  The$aur.  v,  581.  An  abridgment  is 
given  in  Bemhard,  Tkegaurus,  with  continuation,  in 
French,  to  1284 ;  in  Latin,  by  the  Dominican  Pippin 
(1320),  in  Muratori,  TkesaurUM,  vii,  657  sq.  A  German 
edition  was  issued  in  1844  at  Stuttgart,  by  Kaualer, 
with  the  title,  Gf»ch,  d,  Kreuzzuge  u,  d.  KonigreieAs  Je- 
rusalem, Comp.  Bongarsius,  Prof, ;  Vossius,  De  Bist. 
Lot  p.  53;  Fabricius,  BiU,  iMt,  Medii  jEvij  b.  r.; 
Wfthler,  //andbuch  d,  Gesch,  d,  Liieratur  (2d  ed.  Leipsic, 
1823),  ii,  222 ;  Hcrzog,  Beal-Encyklop,  s.  v. 

WilliamiteB,  an  order  of  monks  deriving  their 
name  from  a  hermit,  who,  after  conversion  frona  a  li- 
centious life,  had  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem 
by  the  advice  of  hermits  and  pope  Eogeniua  IH, 
and  had  then,  in  1153,  established  a  hermitage  in  a 
desert  of  Tuscany,  near  Pisa.  Disorderly  followers  de> 
stroyed  all  prospect  of  retirement  here,  and  he  sought  a 
new  refuge  in  the  depths  of  a  forest  on  Monte  I'mno. 
New  disciples  gathered  about  him,  who,  in  time,  be- 
came offended  with  him  and  expelled  him  from  their 
society.  He  returned  to  his  original  retreat  on  the 
island  of  Lupocavia,  but  found  the  community  unim- 
proved, and  therefore  journeyed  until  he  discovered  a 
stony  vale  containing  a  care,  in  the  bishopric  of  Gros- 
seto,  in  Siena.  Here  he  settled  in  1155  and  began  an 
ascetical  life,  whose  rigor  was  somewhat  relieved  by 
the  lord  of  Buriano,  who  built  him  a  oelL  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  Albert  became  his  associate,  and  a  year 
later  Rainald  arrived,  though  only  in  time  to  assist  at 
the  burial  of  William,  who  had  died  Feb.  10,  1157. 
These  two  men  remained  at  the  place,  which  was  at 
first  called  Stabulum  Rhodis,  and  afterwards  Malavalle, 
and  which  became  the  original  of  all  the  congregations 
of  hermits  which  adopted  the  name  of  Williamites. 
Such  congregations  extended  over  the  whole  of  Italy 
and  beyond,  to  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  and  France. 
The  institutions  of  their  founder,  together  with  a  de- 
scription of  his  life,  had  been  transmitted  from  Albert. 
They  maintained  a  perpetual  fast.  Gregory  IX  gave 
them  the  rule  of  Benedict,  and  permitted  them  to  wear 
shoes.  Innocent  IV  issued  a  bull  in  1248  touching  the 
election  of  a  general  prior,  and  conferring  privileges  on 
the  order.  Alexander  lY  ordered  its  incorporation 
with  an  order  of  Augustinian  eremites,  but  recalled  hb 
bull  of  April  18, 1256,  in  view  of  the  violent  protest 
raised  against  the  scheme,  though  matters  had  pro- 
gressed so  far  as  to  occasion  serious  difficulties  in  the 
order,  which  involved  the  loss  of  a  number  of  monas- 
teries in  1266.  In  1435  the  Council  of  Basle  confirmed 
the  privileges  possessed  by  the  order,  which  then  cov- 
ered the  three  provinces  of  Tuscany,  Germany,  and  Flan- 
ders and  France.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century 
only  twelve  convents  remained  to  the  order,  all  of  which 
were  in  Flanders,  and  by  the  end  of  the  century  they 
too  were  extinct.    An  order  of  knights  of  SL  William 


WILLIAMS 


935 


WILLIAMS 


hat  been  spoken  of,  but  is  entirely  apocrrphuL  See 
Bolland,  Ada  Sanctorum,  Feb.  10,  with  Hensehen's 
Diw. ;  and  Helyot,  Hist,  d  Ordret  Motuut,  Belig.  et 
MiUtairet,  i,  250;  iii,  18;  vi,  14^153;  also  Henog, 
Real-EnafkUtp.  s.  v. 

'Williams,  Aaron,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Leetsdale,  Pa«,  Nor.  20, 1807.  He  grada- 
ated  from  Jefferson  College,  and  in  the  first  class  at 
the  Western  Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny.  He 
served  with  eminent  ability  as  professor  of  languages 
in  the  Ohio  University,  and  subsequently  filled  the 
same  chair  in  his  alma  mater  at  Cannonsburg,  Pa.,  be- 
ing at  the  time  a  member  of  the  Presbytery  of  AUe-. 
gheny.    He  died  at  Leetsdale,  Dec  81, 1878.    (W.P.S.) 

TT^iUianiB,  Alvin  P.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  in  St,  Louis  County,  Mo.,  March  13,  1813. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  publicly  set  apart  as 
his  father's  assistant  in  the  ministry,  and  afterwards 
labored  as  an  evangelist.  Among  his  pastorates  were 
Lexington,  Miami,  Bethel,  St.  Joseph,  and  Glasgow,  in 
&f  issouri.  He  died  at  Glasgow,  Nov.  9, 1868.  He  was 
conspicuous  among  the  most  able  ministers  of  his  de- 
nomination in  the  South-west.  '*  His  sermons,  exposi- 
tions, and  essaj's  before  the  association  for  twenty-five 
years  mark  him  as  a  man  of  extraordinary  ability,  a 
second  Andrew  Fuller.**  See  Cathcarr,  Baptist  Encydop, 
p.  1247.     (J.  C.  S.) 

^7illiaiiifl»  Charles  P.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  a  teacher  for  many  years  in  a 
classical  school  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  died  in  that 
city,  June  12, 1859,  aged  sixty-seven  years.  See  Prot» 
Episc  Almanacj  1860,  p.  98. 

Williaxiifl»  laaao,  an  English  clergyman,  was 
bom  in  Wales  in  1802.  He  graduated  from  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  in  1826,  and  became  a  fellow  there 
in  1832;  entered  into  holy  orders  in  1881,  and  was 
curate  of  Windrush,  St.  Mary  the  Virgin's,  Oxford,  and 
Bisley,  in  succession;  wrote  tracts  Nos.  80,  86,  and  87 
of  the  Pusey  Tractarian  series;  contributed  to  the 
Lyra  Apostolica,  and  spent  his  later  years  in  retire- 
ment at  Stinchcombe,  Gloucestershire,  where  he  died, 
May  1,  1865.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  we 
name  the  following  among  his  numerous  works :  The 
Cathedral;  or,  The  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church  of 
England  ( 1838 ) :  —  //^nuu,  translated  from  the  Par^ 
isian  Breviary  (18^9):^  Thoughts  in  Past  Years 
(1842):  —  Harmony  and  Commentary  on  the  Whok 
Gospel  Narrative  (1842-45;  new  ed.  1869-70):— rAe 
Baptistery;  or,  The  Way  to  Eternal  L\fe  (1842-44):-- 
Christian  Scholar  (1849);— The  Altar;  or.  Meditations 
in  Verse  on  the  Great  Christian  Sacrifice  (eod.) : — The 
Seven  Days ;  or,  The  Old  and  the  New  Creation  (1850) : 
—The  Apocalypse,  with  Notes  and  Reflections  (1852)  :— 
The  Characters  of  the  Old  Testament  (1856)  \— Female 
Characters  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  in  a  series  of  sermons 
(1859)  \— Beginning  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  (1861):— 
The  Psalms  Interpreted  of  Christ  (1864-65). 

'WilliamSt  John  (l),an  English  missionary,  called 
« the  Apostle  of  Polynesia  '*  and  **  the  Mshyr  of  Erro- 
roanga,"  was  bora  at  Tottenham,  near  London,  June 
29, 1796.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  apprenticed 
to  an  ironmonger,  and  acquired  a  knowledge  of  mech- 
anism which  was  afterwards  of  great  service  to  htm. 
He  was  ordained  in  1816,  and  sent  by  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  to  Eimeo,  one  of  the  Society  Islands, 
where  he  learned  the  language  and  began  to  preach  to 
the  natives  in  two  months.  From  Eimeo  he  soon  re- 
moved to  Huaheine,  and  afterwards  to  Raiatea,  where 
he  was  eminently  successful  in  introducing  Christianity 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  arts  of  civilization.  In  1823 
he  removed  to  Baratonga,  the  chief  of  the  Hervey  Isl- 
ands, where  he  established  a  mission  that  was  remarka- 
bly successful,  the  population  of  the  entire  group  having 
embraced  Christianity  under  his  influence.  He  em- 
ployed native  teachers,  and  prepared  the  New  Test,  and 
other  books  in  the  Raratongan  langoage.     Being  in 


want  of  a  vessel  to  Journey  from  island  to  island,  he  re- 
solved to  build  one.  He  made  all  the  necessary  tools, 
and  completed  the  vessel,  which  was  sixty  feet  long  by 
eighteen  wide,  in  about  fifteen  weeks.  The  sails  were 
of  native  matting,  the  cordage  of  the  bark  of  the  hibis- 
cus, the  oakum  of  cocoa-nut  husks  and  banana  stumps. 
With  the  aid  of  this  vessel  he  extended  his  labors 
during  the  next  four  years  as  far  as  the  Samoa  Islands. 
In  1884  he  retnmed  to  England,  and  remained  nearly 
four  years,  employing  himself  in  the  publication  of  his 
Raratongan  New  Test,  (by  the  Bible  Society)  and  in 
raising  £4000  for  the  purchase  and  outfit  of  a  mission- 
ary ship  for  the  South  Sea  Islands.  In  1888  he  returned 
to  the  scene  of  his  labors,  and  in  the  following  year  vis- 
ited thesNew  Hebrides  for  the  purpose  of  planting  a 
mission,  but  was  killed  on  the  shore  of  the  island  of 
Erromanga,  and  most  of  his  body  eaten  by  the  savage 
natives,  Nov.  20, 1889.  Besides  his  New  Test.,  above 
mentioned,  he  was  the  author  of,  A  Narrative  of  Mis- 
sionary  Enterprises  m  the  South  Sea  Islands  (1887): — 
Missionary's  Farewell  (1888).  See  Prout,  L{fe  of  the 
Rev,  John  Williams,  Missionary  to  Polynesia ;  Compiled 
from  his  Journals,  Correspondence,  and  other  A  uthenHc 
Sources  (1848). 

^V^ilUamfl,  John  (2)  (called  Ab  Ithel),  a  Welsh 
clergyman,  waa  bora  at  Uangyhafcl,  Denbighshire, 
North  Wales,  in  181L  He  graduated  from  Jesus  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1884;  was  ordained  in  the  Established 
Church,  and  stationed  successively  at  Llanfor,  Nerguis, 
and  Lbuiymowddwyn ;  and  preferred  by  the  bishop  of 
Bangor  to  the  rectory  of  lianenddwyn,  Merionethshire, 
a  few  months  before  his  death,  which  occurred  Aug.  27, 
1861.  He  published,  The  Church  of  England  Indepen- 
dent of  the  Church  of  Rome  in  All  Ages: — Ecdesiastical 
Antigmiies  of  the  Cymry  (1844)  :— Glossary  of  Terms 
Used  for  A  rtides  of  British  Dreu  and  A  rmor  (1851) : 
— Ancient  Welsh  Grammar  (1856) : — Bruty  Twyeogion; 
or.  The  Chronicle  of  the  Princes  (1860)i—Barddas,  or 
Bardism :  a  Collection  of  Original  Documents  lUustra* 
five  of  the  Theology,  Discipline,  €md  Utages  of  the  Bardo- 
Druidic  System  of  the  Ule  of  Britain  ,*  wUh  Translation 
and  Notes  (1862), 

'Willlamfl,  Samnel,  LL.D.,  a  Congregational 
minbter,  son  of  Rev.  Warham  Williams,  of  Waltham, 
Mass.,  was  bom  there,  April  28, 1743.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  College  in  1761 ;  was  selected  by  pro- 
fessor Winthrop  to  accompany  him,  the  same  year,  to 
Newfoundland,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus ;  taught 
school  at  Waltham,  and  pursued  his  theological  stud- 
ies; was  licensed  to  preach  Oct.  11, 1763;  preached  at 
Concord  and  Bradford,  Mass.,  and  was  ordained  in 
the  latter  place  Nov.  20, 1765.  In  May,  1780,  he  was 
installed  in  the  Hollis  professorship  of  mathematics 
and  natural  philosophy  in  Harvartl  College.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Meteorological  Society  of  Mann- 
heim, Germany,  and  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of 
Philadelphia ;  also  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
in  Massachusetts.  In  1786  he  went  to  Penobscot  Bay 
to  observe  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  in  a  galley  fitted 
out  by  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts.  The  same 
year  the  government  of  Massachusetts  appointed  him 
to  assist  in  mnning  the  line  of  jurisdiction  between 
that  state  and  New  York.  He  resigned  his  professor- 
ship in  1788,  and  removed  to  Rutland,  Vt,  preaching 
there  as  a  stated  supply  from  January,  1789,  to  October, 
1795.  Subsequently  he  preached  at  Burlington  more 
than  two  years.  He  died  at  Rutland,  Jan.  2, 1817.  In 
1794  he  published  The  Natural  and  Civil  History  of 
Vermont  (8vo),  which  was  republished  in  two  volumes 
in  1809.  In  1805  governor  Tickenor  appointed  him  to 
ascertain  the  boundary  of  the  sute  of  Vermont.  A 
course  of  lectures  was  delivered  by  him  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vermont  soon  after  its  establishment.  Many 
MSS.  on  astronomical,  philosophical,  and  mathematical 
subjects  of  great  value  are  among  his  literary  remains. 
See  Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  i,  596. 


WILLIAMS 


036 


WILLIGIS 


TVilliaxnfl^  Samnel  TT^ells,  LUD.,  a  dUtin- 
gnished  Chinese  BchoUr,  was  bom  at  Utica,  N.  Y., 
^pt.  22,  1812.  He  graduated  from  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  learned  printing,  and  in 
18SS  went  to  Canton,  China,  as  printer  for  the  Amer- 
ican mission,  where  he  assisted  in  editing  The  Chinese 
Repository,  In  1837  he  visited  Japan,  learned  the  lan- 
guage, and  translated  Matthew  and  Luke  into  Japanese. 
Returning  to  China,  he  edited  many  works;  became 
interpreter  to  commodore  Perry's  Japan  expedition  in 
1858,  and  in  1855  to  the  United  States  legation.  In 
1860  he  revisited  the  United  States,  and  in  1876,  after 
various  public  services  in  China,  permanently  settled 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  where  he  acted  as  lecturer  on 
Chinese,  until  his  death,  Feb.  16, 1884,  at  which  time 
he  was  president  of  the  American  Bible  Society.  He 
is  the  author  of  many  works  on  China,  especially  The 
Middle  Kingdom  (N.  Y.  1848, 1857). 

^Vmiamfli  Williaiii,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Eatonton,  Patnam  Co.,  Ga.,  March 
15,  1821.  He  united  with  the  Church  in  1887;  grad- 
uated  from  the  University  of  Georgia  in  1840,  and  from 
the  law-school  of  Harvard  University  in  1847 ;  became 
pastor  at  Auburn,  Ala.,  in  1851 ;  professor  of  theology 
in  Mercer  University  in  1856 ;  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history,  etc.,  in  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1859,  and  in  1872  of  systematic  theology,  which 
office  he  held  until  his  death,  at  Aiken,  S.  C,  Feb.  20, 
1879.    See  CtLthcATt,  Baptist  Encyclop.ii.l2&5.  (J.C.&) 

'WiUiamfl*  WilUam  Frederick,  D.D.,  a  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  bora  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  7, 
1818.  For  a  time  he  studied  at  Yale  College;  grad- 
uated in  1847  from  Auburn  Theological  Seminary ;  in 
1848  was  licensed,  and  ordained  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Utica;  the  same  year  commissioned  by  the  American 
Board,  and  sailed  for  Syria,  his  first  station  being  at 
Beyrout.  Thence  he  was  transferred  to  Mosul,  and  next 
was  called  to  Mardin,  East  Turkey,  where  he  died,  Feb. 
14, 1871.  For  some  years  be  was  especially  engaged 
io  training  native  helpen  and  preachers. 

TVilliamBt  William  R.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent 
Baptist  divine,  was  born  in  New  Y^ork  city,  Oct.  14, 
1804,  being  the  son  of  Rev.  John  WillUms  (1767-1825), 
pastor  of  the  Oliver  Street  Baptist  Church  for  twenty- 
seven  years.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in 
1823,  studied  law  and  practiced  it  one  year,  entered  the 
ministry  in  1831,  and  the  ensuing  year  became  pastor 
of  the  Amity  Street  Church,  a  relation  which  continued 
until  his  death,  April  1, 1885.  Dr.  Williams  was  an  ele- 
gant writer,  and  the  author  of  several  valuable  works 
OR  Baptist  history  and  literature,  for  which  see  Allibone, 
Did,  of  Brit,  cmd  Amer,  Authors,  s.  r. 

Willigia,  archbishop  of  Mayence,  was  a  statesman 
and  primate  of  the  German  Church  in  the  period  of  the 
Saxon  emperors.  His  origin  is  unknown  and  was  prob- 
ably obscure.  His  birthplace  was,  it  may  be  assumed, 
the  town  of  Schoningen,  in  Saxony.  He  was  a  canon 
at  Hildesheim,  when  Yolcold,  tutor  of  the  young  Otto 
n,  whose  friendship  he  had  been  fortunate  enough  to 
gain,  recommended  him  to  notice,  with  the  result  that 
he  was  transferred,  about  A.D.  970,  to  the  imperial 
chapel  and  received  into  the  number  of  imperial  coun- 
cillors. On  Jan.  18,  975,  he  became  archbishop  of 
Mayence  and  archchancellor  and  metropolitan  of  Ger- 
many, by  the  appointment  of  emperor  Otto  II  and  the 
confirmation  of  the  pope,  Benedict  VII.  The  (fiipal 
bull  provided  that  he  should  have  pre-eminence  over 
aU  prelates  in  Germany  and  Gaul  in  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters, and  particularly  on  the  occasion  of  royal  oorona^ 
tions  and  in  respect  to  the  holding  of  synods  at  places 
to  be  chosen  by  himself.  He  took  part  in  all  the  im- 
portant affairs  of  the  empire  until  other  favorites  tem- 
porarily usurped  his  place,  but  was  not  a  participant  in 
Otto's  Italian  campaign,  A.D.  980.  When  Otto  sufTered 
defeat  in  Calabria,  July  18,  982,  Willigis  accompanied 
Other  German  princes  to  tho  imperial  camp,  and  at  the 


diet  of  Verona,  where  the  infant  son  of  Otto  was  chosen 
king  and  successor  to  his  father,  he  appeared  invested 
in  ah  his  former  honors.  Otto  II  die<l  Dec  7,  983,  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  Willigis  officiated  at  the  coronation 
of  the  new  king  as  the  representative  of  the  transalpine 
peoples,  and  in  the  dispute  respecting  the  giuutliaaahip 
of  the  young  emperor  he  was  the  bead  of  the  Saxon 
party  and  the  most  terrible  opponent  of  duke  Henry  of 
Bavaria,  who  had  seized  the  prince  and  had  attempted 
to  secure  the  throne.  During  this  dLspute,  which  doeed 
in  985,  Willigis  was  the  constant  companion  of  the 
empress.  When  the  empress-mother  died,  June  15, 991, 
a  commission  was  appointed  to  assist  the  grandmother, 
Adelheid,  in  exercising  care  over  the  prince,  and  of 
this  commission  Willigis  was  a  member.  Later  author- 
ities even  confer  upon  him  a  regency  of  the  empire 
during  a  period  of  three  years.  The  education  of 
young  Otto  was  also  the  peculiar  charge  of  Willigu, 
and  was  by  him  intrusted  to  his  protege,  Bemward,  a 
later  bishop  of  Hildesheim.  Willigis  prepared  the  fint 
Roman  expedition  of  his  pupil  and  guided  him  over 
the  Alps.  Easter,  996,  was  celebrated  at  Pavia,  and  a 
delegation  announcing  the  death  of  John  XV  and  ask- 
ing the  king  to  choose  a  new  pope  was  received  in  the 
same  place.  Willigis,  more  than  any  other  person,  de- 
termined Otto  to  choose  his  own  cousin,  Bnmo,  the  son 
of  the  duke  of  Carinthia ;  and,  in  connection  with  Hil- 
dibald,  chancellor  and  bishop  of  Worms,  he  escorted 
Brano  to  Rome,  and  was  present  at  his  election  by  the 
clergy  and  people,  and  his  enthronement  as  Gregory  V, 
May  8, 996.  Before  leaving  Rome  he  induced  the  pope 
to  convoke  a  synod,  through  which  he  secured  the  re- 
turn of  Adalbert,  bishop  of  Prague,  to  the  diocese  which 
that  prelate  had  twice  abandoned,  though  the  retoni 
was  not  desired  by  the  emperor,  the  pope,  or  Adalbert 
himself. 

The  next  important  affair  in  the  life  of  Willigis  was 
his  dispute  with  bishop  Bemward,  of  Hildesheim,  re- 
specting the  right  to  exercise  jurisdiction  over  the  nun- 
nery of  Gandersheim,  where  Sophia,  the  emperor's  sister, 
was  about  to  uke  the  veil  The  emperor  aided  with 
Bemward,  and  Sophia  with  Willigis.  The  dispute  was 
finally  brought  before  a  synod  at  Rome,  which  sent  a 
legate  to  Gandersheim  to  forward  the  interests  of  Bem- 
ward. Willigis  refused  to  obey  this  authority,  and  was 
accordingly  suspended  from  his  offices  by  the  legate 
and  cited  to  appear  before  the  pope.  He  nevertheless 
persisted  in  the  exercise  of  his  episcopal  functions,  and 
found  numerous  supporters  among  the  German  dcrgy, 
as  is  evident  from  the  large  attendance  of  bishops  at  a 
synod  convoked  by  him  at  Frankfort,  Aug.  20,  1002. 
Bem  ward's  entrance  at  Gandersheim,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  resisted  by  ita  inmates  with  force  of  arms.  The 
opposition  against  both  pope  and  emperor  was  every- 
where, whether  in  Rome  or  Germany,  so  strong  as  to 
make  it  posnble  for  Willigis  to  despise  the  wrath  of 
either.  The  emperor's  death,  followed  by  the  aooeasion 
of  Henry  II,  occasioned  a  tmoe,  during  which  Willigis 
consecrated  Sophia  as  abbess  of  Gandeiaheim ;  and  in 
1007  a  peace  "was  negoUated,  by  the  renunciation,  on  the 
part  of  Willigis,  of  jurisdiction  in  the  disputed  territory. 
Otto's  idea  of  establishing  a  universal  empire,  in  which 
Bemward  and  his  coadjutors  were  his  principal  mt^ 
porters  and  Willigis  his  principal  opponent,  had,  bow- 
ever,  been  defeated,  and  papal  intervention  in  the  affairs 
of  the  German  Church  had  been  efTeetually  rebuked,  in 
the  course  of  a  quarrel  which  seemed  to  concern  local 
matters  only,  but  which,  because  of  the  prominence  of 
the  persons  engaged,  involved  issues  of  the  gravest  im- 
portance for  the  entire  Westem  Chnrch. 

On  the  accession  of  Henry  II,  he  found  in  Willigia 
the  most  prominent  supporter  of  his  claims  aa  against 
those  of  margrave  Eckard  of  Meissen  and  of  dnke  Hc!r- 
mann  of  Suabia.  Willigis,  assisted  by  his  suffiragana, 
anointed  and  crowned  the  emperor,  June  6  or  7, 1002, 
at  Mayence,  and  the  empress  Kunignnde,  Ang.  10)  at 
Paderbom.    He  accompanied  the  emperor  to  Aix-lft- 


WILLISON 


937 


WILLS 


Cbapelle,  where  the  Uitter  was  reoogniMd  as  soyereign 
by  the  uaembled  princes,  and  to  Bruchaal,  where  the 
duke  of  Suabia  made  a  voluntary  surrender  of  his  claims. 
He  was  present  also  at  a  synod  held  at  Theoni'ille,  aud 
was  the  influential  personage  who  caused  the  punish- 
ment of  death,  denounced  npon  count  Ernest  of  Austria, 
for  rebellion,  to  be  changed  into  the  imposition  of  a  fine. 

Everything  in  the  records  thus  reveals  Willigis  as 
the  counsellor  and  influential  friend  of  the  emperor. 
His  power  is  evidenced  in  numerous  documents,  and  in 
many  ecclesiastical  provisions  and  arrangements  of  the 
time.  He  was  incessantly,  energetically  active  in  the 
affairs  of  both  Church  and  State.  Several  churches  in 
the  city  of  Mayence,  a  number  of  bridges  and  other 
public  works,  and  various  works  of  art,  were  among  the 
permanent  relics  of  his  administration.  He  died  Feb.  28, 
1011. 

Zireratorf.— Historical  works,  like  Giesebrecht,  GettA. 
d,  deutteken  Kaiteneil;  Gfrdrer,  Aliffem.  k.  Getck.  iii, 
8,4;  and  monographs,  e.g.  I)e  WiUiffin  A  rckieanoeUarii 
Regna  Germ,  et  A  rehiepuc  Mogunt,  Vita  H  lUhus  Gestis, 
by  Ossenbeck  (Monasterii,  1859);  Euler,  EnhUchnf 
WiUigiB  von  Mamz,  etc  (Naumburg,  1860).  See  also 
Thietmar,  CAroNtc.  passim.;  Pertz,  Monum,  Germ,  Script. 
ii-vii,  etc. ;  Guden,  Cod,  Diplcm, ;  Monum,  Boica^  xxxi ; 
Oriffff,  GuelficoBf  iv ;  Schunnat,  Ifitt,  Fuldent,  150,  etc. ; 
Bohmer,  Font,  Rer,  Germ,  iii ;  Thangmar,  Vita  Bern' 
wardi  Epitc,  Canaparius,  Vita  S,  A  daiberii  and  Herzog, 
Real-Enegkhp.  s.  v. 

TVlllliOii  (or  'WilliBone),  Johs,  a  divine  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  was  bom  in  1680;  became  minister 
at  Brechin  in  1708,  and  in  1716  at  Dundee,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death,  May  8, 1750.  He  was  the 
author  of,  Examplu  of  Plain  CatedHting  (1787)  i—Sac- 
ramental  Directory ;  or^  a  Treatise  Concerning  the  Sane- 
tificatian  of  a  Communion  Sabbath  {i745):^  A Jiieted 
Man^s  Companion  (1755):  —  Sacramental  Meditation* 
ondAdcioes  (1769):— Sacramental  Cateckitm: — Chris^ 
tian  Scripture  Directory: — Free  and  Impartial  Testis 
mony  to  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  other  works.  An 
edition  of  his  TTorib'was  published  in  Aberdeen  in 
1769,  and  other  editions  have  since  appeared,  including 
hia  later  publications*  See  Fasti  EceUt,  Scoticanm^  iii, 
698, 813 ;  AlUbone,  DieL  ofBriL  and  A  mar,  A  uthors,  s.  y. 

WiUiston,  PAT802I,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  West  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1768 ;  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1788;  studied  theology  at  New  Haven ; 
became  pastor  at  Easthampton,  Blass.,  in  1789,  where  he 
remained  until  1838.  He  died  there  Jan.  80, 1856.  He 
published  a  Sermon  in  1799,  a  Half-century  Sermon  in 
1889,  and  contributed  several  articles  to  Sprague's  A  n- 
nals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit  (voU.  i  and  ii). 

TT^Ulxn,  JoSKFH,  a  Protestant  pedagogue  and  philos- 
opher, was  bora  at  Ueiltgenstein  iu  1792.  In  1821  he 
was  professor  at  the  gj'mnasium  in  Strasburg,  in  1826 
professor  of  philosophy  at  the  seminary,  and  died  in 
1853.  He  published,  De  rtduoation  du  People  (1843) : 
— Histoire  de  la  PhUotophie  Allemande  Dtpuie  Kant 
(1844),  which  received  the  prize  from  the  French  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  From  1844  to  1850  he  was  one  of  the 
contributors  to  the  Dictionnaire  dee  Sciencee  Philoso- 
phiqueSf  published  by  Hachette.  See  Bmch,  Diecourt 
Nicrologique  (Strasburg,  1853);  Lichtenberger,  Ency- 
dop,  dee  Sdencee  ReligieuteSf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

'WilloWB,  Bbook  of  (0*^3^  jn  bna,  ^dchal  ha- 
AraMmf  Sept.  ^  fdpay^  'ApafiaQ\  Vulg«  terrene  eali-' 
cum)f  a  wady  mentioned  by  Isaiah  (xv,  7)  in  his  dirge 
over  Moab.  Over  thia  name  Jerome  takes  a  singular 
flight  in  his  Commentary  on  lea,  xv,  7,  connecting  it 
with  the  Ordrim  (A.  V. "  ravens'*)  who  fed  Elijah  during 
his  seclusion.  The  prophet's  language  implies  that  thia 
bnxtk  was  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  country — proba- 
bly, OS  Gesenius  (JeeatOj  i,  682)  observes,  the  southern 
one.  It  is  possibly  identical  with  a  wady  mentioned  by 
Amos  (vi,  14)  as  the  then  recognised  southern  limit  of  the 
northern  kiiigdom  (Funt,  Bandwb,f  Ewald,  Pn^pheten), 


This  latter  appears  in  the  A.y.  as  "the  river  of  the 
wilderness**  (HSn^n  9,  Ndchal  ha^AraUth;  Sept.  b 
Xtifiiappoc  ruv  ivoftwv;  Vulg.  torrena  deeerti).  Widely 
as  they  differ  in  the  A.  V.,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
names  are  all  but  identical  in  the  original,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  that  it  is  plural  in  Isaiah  and  singular  in 
Amos.  In  the  latter  it  is  ha-Arabah,  the  same  name 
which  ia  elsewhere  almost  exclusively  used  either  for 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  the  ghCr  of  modem  Arabs,  or 
for  its  continuation,  the  great  Arabah,  extending  to  the 
gulf  of  Akabab.  If  the  two  are  regarded  as  identical, 
and  the  latter  as  the  accurate  form  of  the  name,  then  it 
is  probable  that  the  Wady  el-Ahsy  is  intended,  which 
breaks  down  through  the  southern  part  of  the  mountains 
of  Moab  into  the  so-called  Ghor  es-Safieh,  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  lake,  and  appears  to  form  a  natural  barrier 
between  the  districts  of  Kerak  and  Jebal  (Barckhardt, 
SyriOf  Ang.7).  This  is  not  improbably  also  the  brook 
Zered  (nachaUZered)  of  the  earlier  histor}%  The  Tar- 
gum  Pseudojonathan  translates  the  name  Zered  by 
"osiers,"  or  "  baskets." 

Should,  however,  the  Nachal  ha-Arabim  be  rendered 
**  the  Willow-torrent"— which  has  the  support  of  Geseni- 
us (Jesaia)  and  Pusey  (Comm.  on  il»io*,vi,  14)— then  it 
is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  name  Wady  Svfsaf  **  Wil- 
low Wady,"  is  still  attached  to  a  part  of  the  main  branch 
of  the  ravine  which  descends  from  Kerak  to  the  north 
end  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Irby,  May  9). 
Bnrckhardt  (Syi-ioj  p.  644)  mentions  a  fountain  called 
Mth  Safsdf  "  the  Willow  Fountain"  (Catafago,  i4 raWc 
Dictionary f  p.  1051). 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Wilton,  in  his  work  on  The  Nyeb,  or 
South  Country  of  Scripture,  endeavors  to  identify  the 
Nachal  ha^A  rabah  of  Amos  with  the  Wady  el-Jeib^ 
which  forms  the  main  drain  by  which  the  waters  of  the 
present  Wady  Arabah  (the  great  tract  between  Jebel 
Sherah  and  the  mountains  of  et-Tih)  are  discharged 
into  the  Ghdr  es-Safieh  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  This  is  certainly  ingenious,  but  cannot  be  accepted 
as-  more  than  a  mere  conjecture,  without  a  single  con- 
sideration in  iu  favor  beyond  the  magnitude  of  the 
Wady  el-Jeib,  and  the  consequent  probability  that  it 
would  be  mentioned  by  the  prophet.---Smith,  Diet,  of  the 
Ba)le,B.r, 

'Willow -Sunday  is  a  local  term  to  designate 
Palm-Sunday  in  some  parts  of  England ;  so  called  be- 
cause boughs  of  the  willow-tree  are  need  instead  of 
palms. 

TT^illB,  John,  D.D.,  a  Church  of  England  divine, 
was  bora  at  Seaborough,  Somersetshire,  in  1740.  He 
graduated  M.A.  in  1765  at  Wadham  Ck>Uege,  Oxford ; 
succeeded  to  the  wardenship  of  that  college  in  1788; 
served  the  office  of  vice-chancellor  from  1792  to  1796, 
and  held  the  rectorships  of  Seaborough,  and  of  Tydd 
St.  Mary,  Lincoln,  in  the  gift  of  the  crown.  Dr.  Wills 
died  May  16, 1806,  very  rich,  leaving  numerous  benev- 
olent bequests.  Sec  (Lond.)  Annual  Register^  1806, 
p.  585. 

Wills,  Samnel,  D.D.,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
youngest  son  of  Rev.  Alexander  Wills,  of  Ashley,  was 
bora  at  Salisbury  in  April,  1808.  He  united  with  the 
John  Street  Church,  London,  at  seventeen.  In  early 
manhood  he  was  engaged  for  several  years  in  preaching 
in  the  neighborhood  of  London ;  in  1838  opened  a  boys' 
boarding-school  in  Dorking,  Surrey,  preaching  on  the 
Sabbath,  chiefly  at  Mortlake ;  in  1840  became  pastor 
of  a  Church  in  Gosport,  remaining  till  1846,  and  then 
returned  to  London-,  in  1847  emigrated  to  the  United 
Sutes,  and  in  New  York  established  an  open-commu- 
nion church,  of  which  he  was  the  pastor  for  a  time. 
Besides  bis  ministerial  work,  he  prepared  several  vol- 
umes for  the  press,  which  had  a  large  circulation  in  this 
country.  Among  these  were,  Daily  Meditations  (4  vols.) : 
— rAe  Seven  Churches  in  Asia: -Christian  Ordinances t 
—A  Commentary  on  the  Prophet  DameL  In  1858  he 
returned  to  En^Umd,  and  was  pastor  at  Upper  Norwood, 


WILLSTADTER 


938 


WIMPHELING 


then  At  Yemon  Chapel,  King's  Croas,  and  of  West  Row, 
Suffolk.  His  last  settlements,  which  was  of  brief  dura- 
tion, were  at  Winchester  and  Milfordi  Hants.  Kesign- 
ing  his  pastoral  work,  he  retired  to  Thornton  Heath, 
Surrey,  where  he  died,  April  12,  1878.  See  (Lond.) 
BapU  IJand-book,  1874,  p.  296.     (J.  C.  &) 

TT^lllstftdter,  Elias,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Germany, 
was  bom  in  the  year  1796,  at  Carlsruhe.  In  1821  he 
attended  the  lectures  at  the  Wurzburg  Unirersitr,  and 
in  1824,  after  due  examination,  was  enrolled  among 
the  rabbinical  candidates  of  Baden.  In  1887  he  was 
appointed  to  fill  the  vacancy  of  the  rabbinate  at  Carls- 
ruhe, and  died  Nor.  14,  1842.  He  published,  AMst 
der  ffetamnUm  judUehen  Theologie  (Carlsruhe) :— Pre- 
digtm  bet  vtrt^iedmen  GeUgenhiiten  (ibid.  1829).  To- 
gether with  some  other  rabbis  he  edited  an  edition  of 
the  Old  Test  for  the  use  of  schools  (ibid.  1836-88).  See 
Fttnt,  BihL  Jud.  iii,  616;  Kayserling,  Bibiiothek  jQdi- 
tcher  Kanzdrtdner^  i,  851  sq.     (B.  P.) 

TT^ilmeid,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the  progenitor 
of  all  the  magicians.  He  is  the  originator  of  the  sci- 
ences of  medicine,  magic,  and  fortune-telling. 

'Wllmor,  Joseph  Perb  Brll,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
^rotestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  for  a  number  of  years 
rector  of  St.  Mark's  Church  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  after 
which,  about  1864,  he  removed  to  Virginia,  residing  in 
Soottsville.  In  1866  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Loui- 
siana, in  Christ  Church,  New  Orleans,  and  died  Dec.  2, 
1878,  aged  about  sixty-five  years.  See  Prot,  Epitc  A  l- 
manaCf  1879,  p.  168. 

'Wilmsan,  Fxledxloh  Sdtiard,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Gennany,  was  bom  Jan.  29, 1786,  at  Halle. 
In  1777  he  was  called  as  pastor  of  the  Parochial  Church 
to  Berlin,  where  he  died.  May  28, 1798.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of,  De  SapienHa  Christi  in  StUgendo  ad  Apott, 
GeniL  Mums  Pavllo  Contpicua  (Halle,  1766):  — 2?e- 
trachtungtn  iAer  Weisheit  und  ThorheU  im  gemnaen 
Ltben  der  Menschen  (Beriin,  1786)  :—Moralucke  Pr&- 
digten  (ibid.  1798 ;  edited  by  F.  Ph.  Wilmsen)  i—Predig- 
ten  fur  Hausvdter  und  ffauimOtter  (Leipaic,  1776).  He 
also  translated  into  German  S.  Clarke's  Paraphrase  of 
the  Four  EvangelUU  (Berlin,  1768, 8  vols.).  See  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  i,  243, 669 }  ii,  204, 207.  (B.  P.) 

'Wilmflen,  Fkledxloli  Fhillppb  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  Feb  28, 1770,  at  Magde- 
burg, and  died  at  Berlin,  May  4, 1881.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of,  Briefe  tur  Befirderung  des  hate(k,  Studiunu 
(Beriin,  1794-98)  i^Die  biUitchen  GetchidUen  des  Alten 
und  Neuen  Testaments  (ibid.  1809)  i^Das  LAen  Jem 
Christi  beschrid>en  (ibid.  1816) : — Luther  der  Btformator 
(ibid.  1817) :  —  Eusetna,  AndachtsObungen  in  Gesdngen^ 
etc.  (ibid.  1827) : — Eugenia  oder  das  Leben  des  Gkutbens 
und  der  Liebe  (ibid.  1820) : — IIerzen$erhebungenJur  siille 
Abendstunden  (Hanover,  1880).  See  Winer,  Handbuch 
der  theol  Lit,  1,  862;  ii,  62,  71, 180,  263,  257,  262,  266, 
883, 370, 893 ;  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol.  ii,  1453.     (a  P.) 

'Wilson,  Haxry  Biisto^  D.D.,  an  English  cler- 
gyman, was  bom  in  London  in  1774;  educated  at  Mer- 
chant-Taylors*  School,  and  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford ; 
was  appointed  third  undermaster  of  Merchant-Taylors' 
School  in  1798,  and  second  undermaster  in  1805,  in 
which  office  he  continued  until  1824,  when  he  resigned ; 
became  curate  and  lecturer  of  St.  Michael's,  Bassishaw, 
in  1807 ;  and  was  rector  of  St.  Mary  Aldermary  and  St. 
Thomas  the  Apostle  from  Aug.  2, 1816,  until  his  death, 
Nov.  21, 1853.  He  published  a  volume  of  Sermons  on 
Several  Subjects  (1807)  i— History  of  Merchant' Taghrs' 
School  (1812-14) :— Index  to  the  Bible  (1818),  and  other 
works.    See  (Lond.)  Gentleman's  Magazine,  1854,  i,  686. 

WUboh,  N.  W.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
iu  Pendleton  County,  Va.,  Oct.  20, 1824.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1868,  and  after  having  been  a  pastor  of  coun- 
try churches  for  several  years,  was  invited  to  the  pas- 
torate of  the  Church  at  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C,  and  subse- 
quently to  Farmdale,  Va.,  where  he  remained  two  years. 


In  1870  he  waa  called  to  the  Grace  Street  (Thmcli, 
Richmond;  in  1876  he  removed  to  New  Orieans,and 
became  pastor  of  the  Colosseum  Church.  He  died  of 
the  yellow  fever  iu  1878.  He  is  spoken  of  as  having 
been  **  one  of  the  most  eloquent  ministers  in  the  Soath," 
See  Cathcart,  Bapt.  Encgdop.  p.  1260.     (J.  C  &) 

'Wilson,  Thomas  (1),  an  English  Puritan  divine 
of  the  16th  century,  preached  at  St.  George's  Church  in 
Canterbury  thirty-six  years,  was  chaplain  to  lord  Wot- 
ton,  and  died  in  Januaiy,  1621.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  Dialogue  Concerning  Juatification  bg  Faith  (1610) : 
— Gods  Eternal  Purpose  (iSil) :— Complete  Chrittian 
IHdionafy  (1612) : — Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  (IGli)  i— Receipt  against  Heresies:— Chritfs 
Farewell  to  Jerusalem  {eoA.):— Theological  Rules  (1615), 
and  other  works.    See  Chalmen,  Biog.  Diet,  s^  v. 

Wilson,  Thomas  (2),  an  English  cleigyman  and 
school-master,  was  bora  in  1748.  Ho  was  master  of  the 
grammar  school  at  Oitheroe,  Lancashire,  for  about 
forty  years,  and  died  in  1818.  He  was  the  author  of 
An  ArchcBological  JHctionarg;  or.  Classical  Antiquities 
of  the  Jews,  Greeks^  and  Romans^  Alphabetical^  Ar^ 
ranged,  and  a  volume  of  Miscellanies. 

Wimmer,  Gabbiel,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Sagan,  in  Silesia,  Oct.  29, 1671,  and 
died  at  Alten-Morbita,  in  the  diocese  of  Boras,  Mardi 
14, 1746,  in  his  first  and  only  parish,  to  which  be  was 
appointed  in  1697.  He  is  the  author  of  A  usjukriiehc 
LiedererUarung  (Allenbnrg,  1749, 4  parts,  published  by 
his  son).  He  also  wrote  some  hymns,  which  are  still 
in  use.  See  Koch,  Gesch.  d,  deutschesk  KirehenUedes^  v, 
497  sq.     (a  P.) 

Wimpheling;  Jakob,  a  German  humanist,  was 
bom  July  26, 1460.  At  Freiburg  he  was  the  pupil  of 
Geiler  von  Kaiserbeig  (q.  v.).  An  epidemic  drove  him 
to  Erfurt,  but  he  eventually  completed  bis  university 
course  at  Heidelberg.  He  became  master  in  phikwopby 
in  1471,  and  began  the  study  of  canon  law,  exchanging 
it,  however,  ere  long  for  that  of  theology.  In  1479  he 
was  made  dean  of  the  philosophical  faculty,  in  1481 
superintendent  of  the  Artist  College  and  rector,  in  1488 
bachelor  of  theology  and  licentiate.  Soon  afterwards 
he  was  consecrated  to  the  priesthood,  and  made  preach, 
er  and  canon  at  the  cathedral  of  Spires.  He  was,  how- 
ever, rather  suited  to  be  an  educator  than  a  preacher, 
by  reason  of  physical  debility  and  a  weak  voice,  and 
the  natural  bias  of  his  mind.  He  was  incessantly  busy 
with  his  pen,  and  constantly  had  chaige  of  a  number 
of  young  men,  whom  he  inspired  with  a  love  of  learn- 
ing and  of  truth,  which  made  them,  as  a  rale,  the  ready, 
and,  in  some  instances,  effective  supporters  of  the  Refor- 
mation, when  that  movement  began.  In  this  period 
(1497)  he  wrote  the  Isidoneus  Germanicus,  one  of  his 
most  important  works,  and  one  of  the  first  to  direct  the 
course  of  education  into  a  new  channeL  Fourteen  yean 
were  spent  at  Spires,  when  he  resolved  upon  retiring 
with  Cbristoph  von  Utenheim  (q.  v.),  Geiler  von  Kaiser- 
berg,  and  others,  to  a  hermitage  in  the  depths  of  the 
Black  Forest,  but  was  hindered  from  the  execution  of 
the  plan  by  a  transfer  to  the  faculty  of  arts  at  Heidel- 
berg, Sept.  13, 1498.  It  was  characteristic  of  his  spirit 
that  while  concerned  to  introduce  a  purer  Latin,  and 
engaged  in  the  delivery  of  lectures  on  rhetoric  and  po- 
etr}%  he  should  confine  himself  chicfiy  to  the  teaching 
of  Christian  authors  like  Jerome  and  Pradentius,  and 
that  he  should  reject  the  study  of  heathen  authors  as 
being  injurious  to  youth.  From  this  judgment  he  ex- 
cepted Cicero,  Virgil,  and  a  few  others  only ;  but  slight 
as  was  this  concession,  it  obliged  him  to  deliver  two 
apologetic  discourses  to  prove,  against  the  assaults  of 
monastic  adversaries,  the  utility  of  humanistic  studies. 
In  1600  he  resigned  his  professorEhip  on  the  invitation 
of  Utenheim}  to  resume  the  project  of  a  hermit  life,  bat 
while  tarrying  at  Strasbuig,  Utenheim  was  made  ad- 
ministrator of  the  diocese  of  Basle,  and  Wimpheling 
accordingly  remained  with  Kaiserberg,  and  completed 


WIMPHELING 


939    WINCHESTER,  COUNCILS  OF 


(1502)  the  edition  of  Gerson'g  works,  npon  which  the 
latter  bad  been  employed  since  1488.  At  this  time  be 
came  into  conflict  with  the  notorious  barefoot  monic 
Thomas  Mumer  (q.  y,'%  through  the  publication  of  a 
work  intended  to  promote  the  loyalty  of  Strasburg  tow- 
ards Germany,  and  basing  its  plea  on  the  false  state- 
ment that  the  Gaul  of  Canards  time  had  never  extended 
to  the  Rhine,  bat  only  to  the  borders  of  Austrasia,  sub- 
sequently a  German  province ;  and  as  he  was  victorious 
in  the  dispute,  he  retained  his  erroneous  opinion  while 
he  lived.  In  December,  1502,  Utenheim  succeeded  to 
the  see  of  Basle,  and  invited  Wimpheling  to  collect 
and  examine  existing  synodal  statutes,  with  a  view  to 
reforming  the  clergy  of  the  diocese.  After  complet- 
ing this  work  Wimpheling  returned  to  Strasburg  to 
take  possession  of  a  summissariat,  to  which  he  was 
appointed,  but  which  was  given  to  another  person.  He 
was  therefore  obliged  to  resume  the  training  of  young 
men  as  a  means  of  earning  a  livelihood,  and  accepted  a 
tutorship  over  the  sons  of  his  friends,  Sturm  and  Paulus. 
A  tract  written  at  this  time  for  one  of  these  young  men, 
in  which  he  proved  that  Augustine  had  never  been  a 
monk,  and  that  the  boast  of  monasticism,  that  all  wis- 
dom takes  refuge  in  a  cowl,  was  false,  since  neither  the 
ancient  philosophers  nor  Moses,  nor  yet  Christ  and  the 
apostles,  the  early  fathers  of  the  Church,  and  later  ven- 
erable men,  such  as  Gregory  the  Great,  Bede,  Alcuin, 
etc.,  were  in  any  wise  identified  with  monasticism, 
brought  upon  him  the  full  weight  of  monkish  fury,  and 
made  him  the  earliest  of  humanists  to  experience  its 
rage.  Hib  books  enraged  many  of  the  secuhir  clergy 
also,  as  they  contained  frequent  exposures  of  the  abuses 
tolerated  in  the  Church,  and  of  vices  existing  among 
her  mintsters,  and  peisisted  in  demanding  a  reform  of 
these  evils.  He  was  accused  at  Kome,  but  pope  Julius 
n  commanded  the  ignorant  monks  to  be  silent.  Wim- 
pheling now  undertook  the  work  of  improving  the  cur- 
rent methods  of  educating  the  young,  but  with  indif- 
ferent success,  as  he  received  no  encouragement  from 
persons  in  authority.  He  also  wrote  a  history  of  the 
diocese  of  Strasburg,  which  is  still  a  source  of  some 
value.  After  the  death  of  Geiler  von  Kaiserberg  he 
wrote  an  appreciative  characterization  of  the  great 
preacher  who  had  so  long  been  his  friend.  His  next 
important  occupation  was  the  drawing  up  of  the  list  of 
complaints  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  papacy  by  the  Ger- 
man people,  by  direction  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  I. 
To  the  list  he  added  a  number  of  recommendations, 
touching,  e.  g.,  the  plurality  o(  benefices,  and  an  adapta- 
tion of  the  French  Pragmatic  Sanction  to  German  con- 
ditions, which  were  favorably  received,  as  was  a  sup- 
plementary work  entitled  Medulla  Sanctionis  Pragnm- 
Hc€B,  A  nunnery  in  the  diocese  of  Basle  was  placed  in 
his  charge  by  his  friend,  bishop  Utenheim,  and  in  this 
place  he  spent  several  years.  In  1512  he  wrote  a  valu- 
able psedagogical  work,  entitled  De  Proba  IngtUutione 
Puerorum  in  Trivialibut  et  A  doleacenlum  in  Univertalp- 
bus  Gyvrauuiit;  but  he  felt  himself  to  be  too  old  to  put 
his  theories  into  practice  at  the  head  of  a  school,  and 
therefore  declined  a  call  to  teach  theology  at  Strasburg. 
The  warfare  with  the  monks  was  continued  steadily, 
and  drew  forth  from  him  a  number  of  exposures  of  their 
conduct,  and  ultimately  a  broadside  from  the  authors 
of  the  Epittola  Obtcurorum  Virorum,  Towards  the 
close  of  1515  he  retired  to  his  native  town  of  Schlett- 
stadt,  and  thenceforward  made  that  place  his  home. 
He  surrounded  himself  with  a  company  of  ambitious 
young  men,  and  organised  a  literary  society  which  in- 
cluded Bucer  and  Phrygio  among  its  members,  and  for  a 
time  commended  the  Wittenberg  scholars  as  promoters 
of  improved  methods  of  study.  Wimpheling  himself 
greeted  the  rise  of  the  Reformation,  and  approved  of 
Luther^s  course.  In  1518  he  submitted  an  opinion  to 
the  emperor  at  the  diet  of  Worms,  which,  though  guard- 
ed, was  certainly  not  adverse  to  Luther's  interests.  He 
soon  found,  however,  that  the  new  movement  was  tak- 
ing on  more  extensive  proportioas,  and  assuming  a  more 


rmdieal  character  than  he  had  expected,  and,  with  the 
timidity  which  characterized  the  class  to  which  he  be- 
longed, he  not  only  withdrew  from  its  support,  but  even 
wrote  to  Lather  to  persuade  him  that  the  canon  of  the 
mass  contained  nothing  contrary  to  the  doctrines  and 
usages  of  the  early  Church.  He  saw  with  pain  that 
the  Reformation  was  the  fruitage  of  a  seed  which  he 
had  himself  helped  to  sow. 

Wimpheling's  life  and  character  were  full  of  contra- 
dictions,  growing  out  of  the  fact  that  while  he  saw 
clearly  the  corruption  and  danger  of  the  Church  and 
the  age,  he  yet  failed  to  understand  the  methods  through 
which  alone  a  reform  could  be  secured.  He  trembled 
at  the  idea  of  lay  hands  attempting  an  improvement, 
even  though  they  might  be  the  hands  of  emperor  or 
king,  and  shrank  in  terror  from  the  idea  of  assailing  the 
pope  and  existing  institutions  in  the  Church.  With 
scholarly  bias  be  thought  that  the  study  of  theology 
would  alone  elevate  the  clergy  and  reform  the  Church. 
His  psBdagogical  writings  contained  many  ideas  which 
were  reduced  to  practice  by  Protestant  teachers  in  the 
next  generation,  though  he  was  still  too  much  a  school- 
man to  intend  more  than  a  reform  in  grammatical  and 
rhetorical  instruction  with  his  proposals.  He  cared  more 
for  a  return  to  the  elegant  and  correct  style  of  classical 
writers  than  for  the  study  of  the  teachings  of  antiquity 
as  a  means  of  culture  for  the  mind.  He  studied  the  hym- 
nology  of  the  Church,  and  attempted  its  improvement. 
He  also  wrote  an  Epitome  Rerum  Gtrmanicarum,  which 
is  interesting  as  the  first  essay  towards  the  writing 
of  German  history.  Wimpheling's  style  was  easy  and 
perspicuous,  precise,  often  elegant,  lively,  and  witty, 
though  verbose.  He  wrote  poetry  which  lacked  in- 
spiration and  fancy,  and  which  may  be  characterized 
as  mere  practice  in  Latin  versification.  He  was,  in 
brief,  rather  practical  than  speculative,  and  was  devoid 
of  originality.  His  writings  were  generally  brief  trac- 
tates, filled  with  citations  from  other  books,  and  the  in- 
fluence they  exerted  was  laigely  due  to  the  elevated 
sentiments  they  expressed.  His  personal  bearing  was 
amiable,  modest,  and  yet  helpfuL  Reuchlin  honored 
him  as  a  sturdy  supporter  of  religion,  and,  after  his 
death,  Nov.  17,  1528,  £rasmus  wrote  a  very  beautiful 
letter  in  his  praise  to  Ylatten.  For  material  towards 
his  biography,  consult  Riegger,  Amanitates  Literaria 
Friburgefues  (Ulm,  1775 ;  Fasc.  2),  and  see,  generally, 
Herzog,  Beal-Encf^dop^  s,  v. 

IT^inohell,  Jambs  Masnino,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  bom  at  North  East,  Dutchess  Co.,  N.Y.,  Sept.  8, 1791 ; 
was  converted  about  1807 ;  entered  Union  College  in 
1808;  graduated  from  Brown  University  m  1812;  was 
licensed  by  the  Baptist  Church  at  North  East,  Oct.  4 
of  the  same  year;  supplied  the  Baptist  Church  at  Bris- 
tol, R.  I.,  during  1813 ;  was  onlained  pastor  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Blarch  80, 1814;  and 
died  Feb.  22, 1820.  He  published  an  edition  of  Waita'i 
PscUnu  and  Hymna,  with  a  Supplement^  and  Two  Dia- 
courses.  Exhibiting  an  Historical  Sketch  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church  in  Boston  from  1665  to  1818  (1819).  See 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pulpit,  vi,  595. 

TT^inoheBtor,  Councils  or  (Concilium  TTtn/oni- 
ense),  Winchester  is  a  city  of  England,  capital  of 
Hampshire,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Itchin, 
twelve  miles  north-north-east  of  Southampton  and  six- 
ty-two miles  west-south-west  of  London.  Several  eccle- 
siastical councils  have  been  held  there,  as  follows : 

L  Was  held  in  856,  in  the  presence  of  three  kings. 
It  was  enacted  that  in  future  the  tenth  part  of  all  lands 
should  belong  to  the  Church,  free  of  all  burdens,  as  an 
indemnification  for  the  losses  sustained  by  the  incursion 
of  the  Normans  who  had  ravaged  England.  See  Blansi, 
ConciL  vui,  248;  Wilkins,  Condi,  i,  184. 

II.  Was  held  in  975,  by  St.  Dunstan,  in  consequence 
of  the  disturbances  raised  by  certain  clerks,  whom  he 
had  deprived  of  their  churches  on  account  of  marriage 
tod  scandalous  life.    The  well-known  incident  of  the 


WINCHESTER,  COUNCILS  OF   940 


WIND 


image  of  oor  cnicified  Saviour  having  decided  in  favor 
«»f  the  inonk8)  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  thia  council 
The  clerks  were  condemned,  and  implored  the  interces- 
sion of  the  young  king  Edward,  who  entreated  Dnnstan 
to  re-establish  them,  but  in  vain«  See  Mansi,  ConcU,  is, 
721 ;  Wilkins,  ConciL  i,  261. 

IIL  Was  held  in  1021,  under  king  Canute,  to  confirm 
the  exemption  of  the  abbev  of  St.  Edmund.  See  Mansi, 
CoHciL  ix,  848;  Wilkins,  ConciL  i,  297. 

IV.  Was  held  on  the  octave  of  Easter,  1070,  in  the 
presence  of  William  the  Conqueror.  The  three  legates 
of  Rome,  Hermenfride,  bishop  of  Syon,  and  the  cardinals 
John  and  Peter,  presided.  Stigand  of  Canterbury  was 
deposed,  (1)  for  having  retained  the  bishopric  of  Win- 
chester together  with  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury; 
(2)  for  having  worn  the  pall  of  his  predecessor  Robert 
until  the  pope  sent  him  a  new  one;  and  (8)  for  having 
received  the  pall  from  the  anti-pope,  Benedict  X. 
Agelmar,  bishop  of  the  East  Angles,  and  several  abbots 
were  also  deposed.  Walfred,  bishop  of  WorGester,claimed 
from  William  certain  lands  belonging  to  his  bishopric 
which  the  latter  had  withheld,  and  the  claim  was  al- 
lowed.   Thirteen  canons  were  published. 

I.  Conceraiag  the  comiDg^tn  of  bishops  and  obbots  by 
simoniacal  herecty. 

8.  Of  ordaining  men  promiscaonsly,  and  by  meaus  of 
money. 

8.  Of  the  life  and  conversation  of  soch  men. 

4.  That  blMhops  should  celebrate  coancUs  twice  a  year. 

B.  That  bishops  ordain  archdeacons  and  other  ministers 
of  the  sacred  oraer  iu  their  own  churches. 

0.  That  bishops  have  free  power  in  their  dioceses  over 
the  clergy  and  laity. 

7.  That  bishops  and  priests  invite  laymen  to  penance. 

8.  or  apoetatixiiig  clerks  and  monks. 

9.  That  bishops  liave  their  sees  ascertained,  and  that 
none  conspire  against  the  prince. 

10.  That  laymen  pay  tithes,  as  it  Is  written. 

II.  That  none  invade  the  goods  of  the  Chnrcb. 
12.  That  no  clerk  shall  bear  secular  arms. 

18.  That  clerks  and  monks  be  dnly  reverenced,  let  him 
that  dues  otherwise  be  anathema. 

See  Johnson,  Ecd,  Canons^  sub  ann. ;  Mansi,  CondL  ix, 
1202;  WUkins,  ConcU.  i,  822. 

'  v.  Was  held  probably  in  1071,  by  archbishop  Lan- 
franc.  Sixteen  canons  were  published,  the  beads  only 
of  which  remain  to  us. 

1.  That  no  one  be  allowed  to  preside  over  two  bish- 
oprics. 

i.  That  no  one  be  ordained  by  means  of  simoniacal 
heresv. 

8.  That  foreign  clergymen  be  not  received  without  let- 
ters commendatory. 

4.  That  ordinations  be  performed  at  the  certain  seasons. 

0.  Of  altars,  that  they  be  of  stone. 

0.  That  the  sacrifice  be  not  of  beer,  or  water  alone,  but 
of  wines  mixed  with  water  only. 

7.  Of  baptism,  that  it  be  celebrated  at  Easter  or  Whit- 
enntide  only,  except  there  be  danger  of  death. 

8.  That  masses  be  not  celebrated  in  churches  before 
Ihey  have  been  consecrated. 

9.  That  the  corpses  of  the  dead  be  not  buried  In  churches. 

10.  That  the  bells  be  not  tolled  at  celebrating  in  the  time 
of  the  Secret  (Secretum  Missc). 

11.  That  bishops  only  give  penance  for  gross  sins. 

12.  That  monks  who  have  thrown  off  their  habit  be  ad- 
mitted neither  into  the  army,  nor  into  any  convent  of 
clerks,  bnt  be  esteemed  excommunicated. 

18.  That  every  bishop  celebrate  a  synod  once  a  year. 

14.  That  tithes  bo  paid  by  all. 

15.  That  clergymen  observe  continence,  or  desist  finom 
their  ofllce. 

10.  That  chalices  be  not  of  wax  or  wood. 

It  was  probably  resolved  in  this  council  that  an  institu- 
tion of  penance  for  the  soldiers  of  William  of  Normandy, 
left  by  the  legate  Hermenfride,  should  be  executed.  It 
is  in  thirteen  heads.  See  Johnson,  EccL  Canons,  1078; 
Wilkins,  Conca.  i,  865. 

VI.  Was  convoked  by  William  the  Conqueror,  and 
held  in  1072;  fifteen  bishops  were  present,  with  Hubert, 
the  Roman  legate,  and  many  abbots  and  barons.  The 
dispute  between  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York 
was  examined  with  care,  and  it  was  established,  both 
from  ecclesiastical  history  and  by  popuhr  tradition, 
that,  from  the  time  of  St.  Austin  tall  the  last  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  years,  the  primacy  of  the  see  of  Canter^ 


bury  over  the  whole  of  Great  Britain  bad  been  leoog* 
nised;  that  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  had  often  held 
ordinations  and  sjmods  in  the  very  city  of  York  itself. 
At  the  following  Whitsuntide  it  was  alao  decided,  in  a 
synod  held  at  Windsor,  that  the  see  of  York  was  subject 
to  that  of  Canterbury.  See  Mansi,  Condi,  ix,  1211; 
Wilkins,  ConcU.  i,  824. 

YIL  Was  held  in  1076,  by  archbishop  Lanfiranc  Six 
canona  were  published. 

1.  Forbids  canons  to  have  w!ve«.  Enacts  that  such 
priests  as  live  in  castles  and  villages  be  not  forced  to  dis- 
miss their  wives  if  they  have  them.  Forbids  such  aa  have 
no  wives  to  marry,  and  bishops  to  ordain  in  fhture  any 
who  do  not  declare  that  they  have  no  wife. 

8.  Forbids  to  receive  a  clerk  or  monk  without  letters 
from  his  bishopL 

8.  Forbids  the  clergy  to  pay  any  service  for  his  benefice 
but  what  he  paid  In  the  time  of  king  Edward. 

4.  Irfiymen  accused  of  any  crime  to  be  excommunicated 
after  the  Uiird  anmmons  to  appear  before  the  bishop^  if 
they  refhse. 

6,  Declares  a  marriage  made  without  the  priest's  bene- 
diction to  be  a  state  of  fornication. 

0.  Forbids  all  snpplantation  of  churches. 

See  Johnson,  Eed,  Canom;  Mansi,  ConeiL  x,  851 ;  Wil- 
kins, CondL  i,  867. 

VIII.  Was  held  Aug.  29,  1189,  under  archbishop 
Theodore,  against  king  Stephen,  who  had  seized  upon 
certain  houses  belonging  to  the  churches  of  SaUsbary 
and  Lincoln,  and  thrown  the  two  prelates  into  prison. 
Stephen  himself  was  cited  to  appear  before  the  counciL 
Henry,  bishop  of  Winchester,  the  pope*s  legate,  com- 
plained of  the  injury  done  to  the  cause  of  religion  by 
those  who  plundered  the  property  of  the  Church  upon 
the  plea  of  the  ill-conduct  of  the  bishops.  He  required 
that  the  king  should  begin  by  re-establishing  the  in- 
jured bishops,  who,  by  the  common  law,  were  incapaci- 
tated from  pleading  on  account  of  their  seizure.  The 
king  sent  a  warning  to  the  bishops,  that  none  of  them 
should  have  the  boldness  to  make  complaint  to  Rome 
against  him.  Upon  this  the  council  broke  up  without 
settling  anything,  for  the  king  refused  to  submit  to  the 
judgment  of  the  prelates,  and  the  latter  did  not  think 
it  advisable  to  employ  ecclesiastical  censures  against 
him  upon  thdr  own  responsibility,  and  surrounded  as 
they  were  by  h\n  power.  See  Wilkins,  CondL  i,  419; 
Mansi,  CondL  x,  1014. 

IX.  Was  held  in  1148,  on  the  Monday  after  the  octave 
of  Easter,  by  Henry,  bishop  of  Winchester,  legate  a  la- 
tere.   Two  constitutions  were  published. 

1.  Declares  that  none  who  violated  a  church  or  church- 
yard, or  laid  violent  hands  upon  a  cierk  or  religions  per- 
son, should  be  absolved  by  any  person  bnt  the  pope. 

2.  Declares  that  the  plougn  and  hnslMuidman  in  the 
field  should  enjoy  the  same  peace  as  if  they  were  in  the 
churchyfird. 

All  who  opposed  these  decrees  were  excommunicated 
with  candles  lighted.  See  Wilkins,  CondL  i,  421 ;  John- 
son, sub  ann. ;  Alansi,  CondL  x,  1024. — Landon,  Maxmal 
of  CoundU,  p.  692-696. 

Wind  (n^^,  ruach;  Sept.  irvfvfia,  apt/ioci  Volg. 
spirituMf  ventus).  This  Hebrew  word  signifies  air  m 
motion  generally,  aa  breath,  wind,  etc  Both  the  Se|>- 
tuagint  words  occur  in  the  following  definition  of  wind 
by  Aristotle  {De  Mundo,  c.  4) :  *'  Wind  (<!v(/ioc)  is  noth- 
ing else  but  a  large  quantity  of  air  flowing,  which  is 
cslled  irvfvua"  So  also  Plato  has ficydX^  nvi  nrv- 
fuiTi  for  a  high  wind  (PAcedon,  §  24,  edit.  Forster). 
Josephus  alao  uses  wpiv/ta  puuov  for  a  violent  wind 
{AnL  xiv,  2, 2),  as  Lucian  also  does,  fitai^  wvfOfUiTi 
(  Ver,  HiMt.  I,  i,  714).  The  Vulgate  word  apiritus^  from 
9piro,  **  to  breathe,"  **  blow,"  ia  applied  in  like  manner 
in  Latin,  as  by  Virgil  (^jEndd,  xii,  865):  **BoresB  cam 
spiritus  alto  Insooat  JE^BOOf^  ^  When  the  northern  blast 
roars  in  the  Mgun." 

1.  The  wind  aa  a  natural  pkenomenom  (Geo.  iii,  8 ; 
Jobxxi,18;  xxx,15,22;  xxxvii,2i;  FMLi,4;  cm,16; 
Prov.  xxz,  4;  Ecdes.  i,  6;  xi,  4;  Isa.  vii,  8;  xvii,  18$ 
xl,  7 ;  Jer.  x,  13 ;  li,  16 ;  Amos  xiv,  18>  It  is  poetically 
ascribed  to  the  immed^te  agnK^  of  God  (Wikcxxxv, 


WIND 


941 


WIND 


7 ;  cxlvii,  18 ;  oomp.  Banich  vi,  61).  In  the  N«w  Test 
it  ocean  in  Matt,  zi,  7 ;  xiv,  24  \  Mftrk  iv,  39 ;  John  iii, 
8 ;  Acts  zxrii,  4 ;  £ph.  iv,  14 ;  James  i,  6 ;  Rer.  vi,  13 ; 
vii,  1).  Throughout  the  New  Test,  the  word  is  avtftoc, 
except  in  our  Lord's  illustration,  John  iii,  8.  In  the 
Apocrypha  aviiioQ  occurs  in  Wisdom  v,  14 ;  xiii,  2,  etc ; 
but  wvvjfia  iu  xvii,  18 ;  Ecclua.  v,  9 ;  xxii,  18 ;  Song  of 
the  Children,  xxvi,  42).  We  might  perhaps  attribute 
the  exclusion  of  the  word  wvcv/io,  for  **  the  wind,"  from 
the  New  Test,  to  its  having  become  almost  entirely  ap- 
propriated to  *^  heavenly  things,"  In  Acts  ii,  2,  we  have 
irvo^,  translated  ^  wind  ;*'  Vulg.  spirUug,  It  means  the 
same  in  Homer  (Jliad^  v,  697),  irvoiii  for  irvoii  fiopiao, 
*'  the  breath  or  blast  of  Boreas ;"  coirnp.  Job  xxxvii,  10, 
Sept  In  Gen.  iii,  8,  **  the  cool  of  the  day,"  or  rather 
**  wind  of  the  day,"  indicates  the  evening,  since  in  the 
East  a  refreshing  breeze  arises  some  hours  before  sun- 
set ;  Vulg.  ad  auram  post  meridiem.  Comp.  Cant  ii, 
17;  iv,  6;  where  the  words  '*  until  the  day  break  and 
the  shadows  flee  away  "  should  be^rendered  **  until  the 
day  breathe  or  Uovd  "  (i.  e.  till  evening) ;  Heb.  nifi'^IS ; 
Sept  iiafTVivoy;  Vulg.  aepiret.  The  evening  breeze 
is  still  called,  among  the  Persians,  **  the  breeze  of  the 
day  "  (Chardin,  Voyage^  iv,  48).  In  Amos  iv,  13,  God 
is  said  to  **  create  the  wind."  Although  this  idea  is 
very  conformable  to  the  Hebrew  theory  of  causation, 
which  does  not  recognise  second  causes,  but  attributes 
every  natural  phenomenon  immediately  to  the  divine 
agency,  yet  the  passage  may  perhaps  be  directed  against 
the  wonhip  of  the  winds,  which  was  common  among 
ancient  nations.  Corop.  Wisdom  xiii,  2.  Herodotus  re- 
lates the  same  of  the  Persians  (i,  131).  The  words  of 
our  Saviour,  "a  reed  shaken  with  the  wind"  (Matt  xi, 
7),  are  taken  by  some  in  the  natural,  and  by  others  in 
a  metaphorical  sense.  The  former  view  is  adopted  by 
Grotius,  Beza,  Campbell,  RosenmUUer,  Schleusner,  and 
Wetstein ;  and  is  confirmed,  as  RosenmUller  obsorves,  by 
the  antithesis  of  the  rich  man,  whose  maguiliuenoe  all 
gladly  survey.  The.  comparison  is  adopted  to  reprove 
the  fickleness  of  the  multitude  (comp.  ver.  15,  and  £ph. 
iv,  14). 

2.  The  wind  occurs  as  the  medium  of  the  divine  inter- 
position, or  agency  (Gen.  i,  2;  viii,  1^  £xod.  xv,  10; 
Numb,  xi,  31;  1  Kings  xviii,  45 ;  xix,  11;  Job  i,  19;  Isa. 
xi,  5 ;  Jonah  i,  4).  In  the  New  Test,  the  wind  was 
supematurally  employed  at  the  day  of  Pentecost,  like 
the  **  sound  "  and  *'  fire  "  (Acts  ii,  3).  Indeed,  our  Lord's 
illustration  (John  iii,  8),  and  the  identity  of  the  He- 
brew and  Greek  words  signifying  breath,  wind,  and 
spirit,  lead  to  the  inference  that  the  air  in  motion  bears 
the  nearest  resemblance  of  any  created  object  to  divine 
influence,  and  is  therefore  the  most  appropriate  medium 
of  it  See  Spirit.  To  this  class  of  instances  we  refer 
Gen.  i,  2,  "And  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon  the  face 
of  the  waters."  Along  with  Patrick  and  KosenmUller, 
we  construe  the  phrase,  ^  a  wind  of  God,"  a  wind  em- 
ployed as  the  medium  of  divine  agency.  RosenmUller 
compares  Psa.  civ,  30 ;  cxlvii,  8 ;  Isa.  xl,  7.  Dr.  Lee  re- 
fers to  1  Kings  xviii,  12;  2  Kings  ii,  16,  and  Psa. 
xxxiii,  6 ;  Isa.  xi,  4.  In  the  two  latter  passages,  he  ob- 
serves that  the  word  is  equivalent  to  power,  etc  The 
commotions  of  the  elements,  etc.,  through  means  of 
which  the  petulance  of  £lijah  was  reproved  (1  Kings 
xix,  11),  are  best  understood  as  having  occurred  in  vis- 
ion (comp.  Dan.  ii,  35 ;  Zech.  v,  9). 

8.  The  wind  is  used  metaphorically  in  the  following 
instances :  "  The  wings  of  the  wind  "  denote  the  most 
rapid  motion  (2  Sam.  xxii,  11),  where  the  phrase  may 
be  a  poetical  representation  also  of  the  incident  record- 
ed (2  Sam.  V,  24 ;  Psa.  civ,  3).  The  onomatopoeia  in 
the  two  former  passages,  in  Hebrew,  is  remarkable. 
Anything  light  or  trifling  is  called  wind  (Job  vii,  7 ; 
l8a.xli,29;  Psa.  Ixx viii,  39;  comp.  £ph.  iv,  14 ;  £cclus. 
V,  9).  Violent  yet  empty  speech  is  called  "  a  strong 
wind,"  or  a  mere  tempest  of  words  (Job  viii,  2).  "  Vain 
knowledge"  is  called  H^^^n??,  knowledge  of  wind 


(Job  XV,  2);  *'vain  words^**  words  of  wind  (xvi,  8). 
Many  expressive  phrases  are  formed  with  this  word. 
"To  inherit  the  wind,"  denotes  extreme  disappoint- 
ment (Prov.  xi,  29) ;  "  to  hide  the  wind,"  impossibility 
(xxvit,  16) ;  to  "  labor  for  the  wind,"  to  labor  in  vain 
(£ccle8.  V,  16) ;  "  to  bring  forth  wind,"  great  patience 
and  pains  for  no  purpose  (Isa.  xxvi,  18 ;  comp.  Hos. 
viii, 7;  xit,l);  "to  become  wind," to  result  in  nothing- 
ness (Jer.  V,  18).  "The  four  winds"  denote  the  four 
quarters  of  the  globe  (£zek.  xxxvii,  9) ;  "  to  scatter 
to  all  winds,"  to  disperse  oompletdy  (v,  10;  xit,  11; 
xvii, 21) ;  "to  cause  to  come  from  all  winds,"  to  restore 
completely  (xxxvii,  9).  "The  wind  hath  bound  her 
upon  her  wings,"  means  deportation  into  a  far  oountiy 
(Hos.  iv,  19) ;  "  to  sow  the  wind  and  reap  the  whirl- 
wind,"  unwise  labor  and  a  fmitless  result  (viii,  7) ;  "to 
feed  on  the  wind//  to  pursue  delusory  schemes  (xii,  1); 
"  to  walk  in  wind,"  to  live  and  act  in  vain  (Micah  ii, 
11) ;  "  to  observe  the  wind,"  to  be  over-cautious  (Eocles. 
xi,  4) ;  to  "  winnow  with  every  wind,"  to  be  credulous, 
apt  to  receive  impressions  (v,  9). 

Comparisom. — Disappointment,  after  high  promise 
or  pretension,  is  "as  wind  without  rain"  (Prov.  xxv, 
14) ;  the  desperate  speeches  of  an  afilicted  person  are 
compared  to  wind  (Job  vi,  26). 

SymMicaUy. — Empires  are  represented  as  having 
wings,  and  "  the  wind  in  their  wings  "  denotes  the  ra- 
pidity of  their  conquests  (Zech.  v,  9).  The  wind  is 
often  used  as  the  symbol  or  emblem  of  calamities  (Isa. 
xxxii,  2;  xli,16;  Ivii,  13;  Ixiv,  6);  destruction  by  the 
ChaldsBan  army  (Jer.  iv,  11, 12;  comp.  Wisd.  iv,  4;  v, 
28 ;  xi,  20).  "  The  windy  storm  "  (Psa.  Iv,  8)  denotes 
Absalom  and  bis  party.  The  wind  is  the  frequent  em- 
blem of  the  divine  chastisements  (Isa.  xxvii,  8 ;  Jer. 
xxii,  22 ;  Ii,  1,  etc. 

Beautiful  expressions  occur,  as  in  Isa.  xxvii,  2,  "  He 
stayeth  bis  rough  wind  in  the  day  of  the  east  wind ;" 
that  is,  God  doth  not  aggravate  the  misfortunes  of  man- 
kind bv  his  chastisements;  to  "  make  a  weight  for  the 
winds"  (Job xxviii, 25). 

Mistranshiions, — In  Psa.  Ixxviii,  89,  "He  remem- 
bered that  they  were  but  flesh,  a  wind  that  passeth 
away  and  cometh  not  again,"  should  probably  be  ren- 
dered, "  a  spirit  going  away  and  not  returning."  All 
the  versions  make  the  words  relate  to  the  soul  of  man. 
Homer  has  a  very  similar  description  of  death  (//tacf, 
ix,  408).  In  Eodes.  i,  5, 6,  the  transktion  is  faulty,  and 
the  sense  further  obscured  b\'  a  wrong  division  of  verses. 
The  passage  should  be  read :  "  The  sun  also  ariseth  and 
the  sun  goeth  down,  and  hasteth  to  his  place  where  he 
ariseth,  going  to  the  south  and  circulating  to  the  north. 
The  wind  is  continually  whirling  about,  and  the  wind 
retometh  upon  its  whirlings."  All  the  versions  give 
this  rendering;  our  version  alone  mistakes  the  mean- 
ing. The  phrase  "  brought  forth  wind,"  is  understood 
by  Michaelis  as  an  allusion  to  the  female  disorder  called 
empneumatosis,  or  windy  inflation  of  the  womb  {Syn» 
tagma,  Comment,  ii,  165).  The  Syriac  translator  also 
understood  the  passage  in  this  way :  "  £nixi  sumus  nt 
illsB  qusB  ventos  pariunt." 

4.  The  east  wind  (&*^*Tp"m'^,  avtfioc  voroc,  dvipoQ 
xavcuv,  voroc,  ventus  urens,  spiritus  vehemens,  ventus 
ouster,  0^*1p,  Kavamvi  ardor,  aslvs^  ventus  urens). 
Both  forms  denote  the  natural  phenomenon  (Gen.  xli, 
6,  23;  Job  xxxviii,  24;  Psa.  xlviii,  7;  Ixxviii,  26;  Jo- 
nab  iv,  8).  Considerable  indeflnlteness  attends  the  use 
of  these  words.  Dr.  Shaw  remarks  that  every  wind  is 
called  by  the  Orientals  C^ip,  an  east  wind,  which 
blows  from  any  point  of  the  compass  between  the  east 
and  north,  and  between  the  east  and  south  {Travels,  p. 
285).  Accordingly,  the  Sept  often  understands  this 
word  to  mean  the  south,  as  in  £xod.  x,  13 ;  xiv,  21  (see 
Bochart,  flieiozoicoti,  U,  i,  15).  If  the  east  wind  hap- 
pens to  blow  a  few  days  in  Palestine  during  the  months 
of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  it  occasions  great  de- 
struction to  the  vines  and  harvests  on  the  land,  ond  also 


WIND 


942 


WIND 


to  the  retaels  at  sea  on  the  Mediterraoean  (Hoa.  xiii, 
16:  Jonah  iv,  8;  Jobxiv,2;  xr,2;  l8a.xl,7;  Gen.xli, 
6,  28;  Ezek.  xvii,  10;  xix,  12;  xxvii,  26;  Pba.  xlnii, 
7;  ciii,  5).  In  Jonah  iv,  8,  the  phrase  ocean,  ni"> 
n'^W'^nn  n^*ip,  a  stUl  or  sultry  east  wind.  For  tcsti- 
monies  to  the  destructiveness  of  this  wind  in  Egypt 
and  Arabia,  see  Niebuhr,  Betekrieb.  von  Arabien,  p.  8; 
Tbevenot,  Voyageit  I,  ii,  84;  Hackett,  IttustraHoM  of 
Scripturt^  p.  186. 

The  east  wind  crossea  the  sandr  wastes  of  Arabia 
Deserta  before  reaching  Palestine,  and  was  hence  termed 
«*  the  wind  of  the  wilderness  **  (Job  i,  19 ;  Jer.  xiii,  24). 
It  is  remarkably  dry  and  penetrating,  and  has  all  the 
effects  of  the  sirocco  on  vegetation  (Esek.  xvii,  10 ;  xix, 
12 ;  Hoe.  xiii,  16 ;  Jonah  iv,8).  It  also  blows  with  vio- 
lence, and  is  hence  supposed  to  lie  used  generally  for 
any  violent  wind  (Job  xxvii,  21 ;  xxxviii,  24 ;  Psa. 
xlviii,  7 ;  Isa.  xxvii,  8 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  26).  It  is  proba- 
bly in  this  sense  that  it  is  used  in  Exod.  xiv,  21,  though 
the  east,  or  at  all  events  the  north-east,  wind  would  be 
the  one  adapted  to  effect  the  phenomenon  described, 
viz.  the  partition  of  the  waters  towards  the  north  and 
south,  so  that  they  stood  as  a  wall  on  the  right  hand 
and  on  the  left  (Robinson,  Renarduiy  i,  67).  In  this, 
as  in  many  other  passages,  the  Sept.  gives  the  "  south  ** 
wind  {v6toq)  as  the  equivalent  for  the  Greek  haiim. 
Nor  is  this  wholly  incorrect,  for  in  Egypt,  where  the 
Sept  was  composed,  the  south  wind  has  the  same  char- 
acteristics that  the  east  has  in  Palestine.  The  Greek 
translators  appear  to  have  felt  the  difficulty  of  render* 
ing  hadim  in  Gen.  xli,  6, 28, 27,  because  the  parching 
effects  of  the  east  wind,  with  which  the  inhabitants  of 
Palestine  are  familiar,  are  not  attributable  to  that  wind 
in  Egypt,  but  either  to  the  south  wind,  called  in  that 
country  the  khamnnf  or  to  that  known  as  the  samaim, 
which  comes  from  the'  south-east  or  south-south-east 
(Lane's  Modem  Egypt^  i,  22, 28).  It  is  certainly  possible 
that  in  Lower  Egypt  the  east  wind  may  be  more  parch- 
ing than  elsewhere  in  that  conntiy,  but  there  is  no  more 
difficulty  in  assigning  to  the  term  kadim  the  secondary 
sense  of  parching^  in  this  passage,  than  that  of  violent 
in  tlie  others  before  quoted.  As  such,  at  all  events,  the 
Sept.  treated  the  term  both  here  and  in  several  other 
passages,  where  it  is  rendered  haut&n  (cat/ffa^v,  lit  the 
burner).  In  James  i,  11,  the  A.  Y.  erroneously  under- 
stands this  expression  of  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun. 
In  Palestine  the  cast  wind  prevails  from  February  to 
June  (Ranmer,  p.  79). 

It  is  used  melaphoricattg  for  pernicious  speech,  a 
Storm  of  words  (Job  xv,  2);  calamities,  especially  by 
war  (Isa.  xxvii,  8;  Jer.  xviii,  17 ;  Ezek.  xvii,  10;  xix, 
12;  xxvii,  26;  Hos.  xiii,  16).  In  this  latter  passage 
the  east  wind  denotes  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria ;  in 
Ezek.  xxvii,  26,  it  denotes  the  Chaldeans.  Tyre  is 
there  represented  under  the  beautiful  allegory  of  a  ship 
lowed  into  deep  waters,  and  then  destroyed  by  an  east 
wind.  A  very  similar  representation  is  given  by  Hor- 
ace {Cam,  i,  14).  The  east  wind  denotes  divine  Judg- 
ment (Job  xxvii,  21).  ''To  follow  the  east  wind,'*  is 
to  pursue  a  delusor}'  and  fatal  course  (Hos.  xii,  1). 

6.  West  tptnd  (D^  ni%  av^ftoQ  airb  OaXaffinjc,  van- 
tut  ab  occidenle).  The  west  and  south-west  winds  reach 
Palestine  loaded  with  moisture  gathered  from  the  Med- 
iterranean (Robinson,  i,  429),  and  are  hence  expressive- 
ly  termed  by  the  Arabs  "the  fathers  of  the  rain" 
(Raumer,  p.  79).  The  little  cloud  "  like  a  roan's  hand  " 
•  that  rose  out  of  the  west,  was  recognised  by  Elijah  as 
a  presage  of  the  coming  downfall  (1  Kings  xviii,  44), 
and  the  same  token  is  adduced  by  our  Lord  as  one  of 
the  ordinary  signs  of  the  weather  (Luke  xii,  64).  West- 
erly winds  prevail  in  Palestine  from  November  to  Feb- 
ruary.    See  Wkst. 

6.  A  or/A  witid  ("pBS  TVy\  Prov.  xxv,  28,  dviftoc 
^opiag^  ventut  Aquilai),  The  north  wind,  or,  as  it  was 
nsoally  called,  *'the  north,'*  was  naturally  the  coldest 


of  the  four  (Ecdns.  xliii,  20),  and  its  pretence  is  henoe 
invoked  as  favorable  to  vegetation,  in  Cant  iv,  16.  It 
is  further  described  in  Prov.  xxv,  28,  as  bringing  (A.  V. 
''driveth  away"  in  text;  ''bringeth  forth"  in  marg.) 
rain ;  in  this  case  we  must  nnderstand  the  north-west 
wind,  which  may  bring  rain,  but  was  certainly  not  re- 
garded as  decidedly  rainy.  The  difficulty  connected 
with  this  passage  has  led  to  the  proposal  of  a  wholly 
different  aense  for  the  term  ttapMn,  viz.  hiddat  place. 
The  north-west  wind  prevails  from  the  siitnmnal  equi- 
nox to  the  beginning  of  November,  and  the  north  wind 
from  June  to  the  equinox  (Raumer,  Paldti.  p.  79).  See 
North. 

7.  South  wind  (bT>*7,  Job  xxxvii,  17;  ItJT,  Pia. 
Ixxviii,  26;  X(^,  ventus  A/ricut^  Luke  xii,  66;  vorot 
[Sirocco],  Acte  xxvii,  18).  The  south  wind,  which 
traverses  the  Arabian  peninsula  before  reaching  Pales- 
tine, must  necessarily  be  extremely  hot  (Job  xxxvii, 
17;  Luke  xii,  66);  but  the  rarity  of  the  notices  leads 
to  the  inference  that  it  seldom  blew  from  that  quarter 
(Fta.  Ixxviii,  26;  Cant  iv,  16;  Ecdus.  xliii,  16);  and 
even  when  it  does  blow,  it  doea  not  carry  the  wamum 
into  Palestine  itaelf,  although  Robinson  experienced  the 
effects  of  this  scourge  not  far  south  of  Bc«rsheba  (/?«- 
$earchet,  i,  196).  In  Egypt  the  south  wind  (khamnn) 
prevails  in  the  spring,  a  portion  of  which,  in  the  months 
of  April  and  May,  is  termed  el-khamtin  from  that  dr- 
cumstanoe  (Lane,  i,  22).    See  South. 

8.  The/our  tdndt  (n*in*l")  ^n'^X,  ra  Haaapa  irw v- 
liara,  o\  rkaoapiQ  avf/iot,  quatuor  venit).  The  He- 
brews speak  only  of  four  winds;  and  so  Joeephus  (^Ant, 
viii,  8, 6).  This  phrase  is  equivalent  to  the  four  quar- 
ters of  the  world  (Ezek.  xxxvii,  9 ;  2  Esdras  xiii,  6), 
the  several  points  of  the  compass,  as  we  should  aay 
(Dan.  viii,  8).  See  Tristram,  Nat,  Hist,  of  the  Bible,  p.  fiS. 

Phraaet, — "  Striving  of  the  four  winds  "  is  great  po- 
litical commotions  (Dan.  vii,  2 ;  comp.  Jer.  iv,  11, 12 ;  li, 
1) ;  to  "  hold  the  four  winds  "  is  by  contrary  to  secure 
peace  (Rev.  vii,  1);  <*to  be  divided  to  the  four  winds'* 
implies  utter  dispersion  (Dan.  xi,  4 ;  Jer.  xlix,  82 ;  Ezek. 
V,  10, 12 ;  xvii,  2).  So  idso  the  phrase  ic  r&v  rtoaapmv 
Mpuiv  (Matt  xxiv,  81)  means  from  all  parte  of  the 
world  (Bf  ark  xiii,  27). 

9.  The  Hebrews,  like  other  ancient  nations,  had  bat 
few  nam€9  of  winds.  Homer  mentions  only  popiag,  v6- 
roCf  Zi<^vpoCf  and  lupo^.  AuL  Gellius,  indeeil,  complains 
of  the  infreqnency  of  names  of  winds  in  ancient  writers 
(^Noct,  A  tt,  ii,  22).  The  same  indefiniteness  appean  in 
Herodotus  (see  Larcher's  notes  on,  i,  188).  In  the  course 
of  time  the  Greeks  and  Romans  added  eight  other  winds 
to  the  original  four,  but  that  appearing  too  minute  a 
division,  they  reduced  the  additional  ones  to  four,  thus 
making  only  eight  in  all.  The  names  of  these  may  be 
seen  in  Larcher  (ut  $vpra\  or  Pliny  {Hist.  Nat,  xviii, 
84).  Further  information  may  be  found  in  Corsy*a 
Tran^ation  of  JlippocrateSy  De  jEribus,  A  quis  <t  Locis 
(Paris,  1800);  Ditcoure  Pr&iminaire,  and  see  index. 
For  a  comparative  table  of  the  English,  Latin,  and 
Greek  divisions  of  the  winds,  and  their  names,  amount- 
ing to  more  than  thirty,  see  Beloe's  Herodotus  (Po/jtm- 
Rur,  notes,  iii,  298,  Ix>nd.  1791). 

One  Greek  name  of  a  wind  occurs  in  Acts  xxvii,  14, 
EbpoKXviiavt  Eurodydon,  a  tempestuous  wind  io  the 
Mediterranean,  now  called  a  Levanter.  The  Alexan. 
drtan  MS.  has  'EvpaKvktav ;  Tulg.  Euroaquito;  Syriac, 
1^1^bpni2t  The  common  reading,  Evpokkviuty^  secma 
derived  from  EvpoCt  Eurue^  ^'cast  wind,"  and  kXvCmv, 
"  a  wave,"  quasi  an  eastern  tempest.  Other  MSS.  read 
EvpvcXv^taiv,  Euryclgdon^  from  cvpi^,  "broad,"  and 
cXv^cav,  **a  wave,"  or  rough  wavy  sea;  and  then  the 
word  would  mean  the  wind  which  peculiarly  exeitea 
the  waves.  Shaw  defends  the  common  reading,  and 
describes  the  wind  as  blowing  in  all  directions  from  th« 
north-east  round  by  the  north  to  the  south-east  {Trav^ 
els,  p.  830,  4to;  see  Bowyer's  conjectureis  and  Dod- 
dridge, in  loc.). 


WINDESHEIM 


943       WINDSOR,  COUNCILS  OF 


The  Hebrews  hftd  no  UDgle  terms  indicating  the 
relative  velocity  of  the  air  in  motion,  like  our  words 
breeze,  gale,  etc  Such  gradations  they  expressed  by 
some  additional  word,  as  "great,"  nbl^raTlll,  "a 

great  wind"  (Jonah  i,  4),  "rough,"  nop,  etc.  Nor 
have  we  any  single  word  indicating  the  destructive  ef- 
fecu  of  the  wind,  like  their  verbs  ^90  and  *n7b,  as 
D"^:P0H1  (Zech.  vii,  14,  etc.),  and  answering  to  the 
Greek  word  dvifU^opog  (see  Sept.  of  Gen.  xli,  6, 28). 
Our  metaphorical  use  of  the  word  storm  comes  nearest. 
The  term  zUapkdh  (n&sbt),  in  Fsa.  xi,  6  (A.  V.  "hor- 
rible**),  has  been  occasionally  understood  as  referring 
to  the  samum  (Olshausen,  in  loc, ;  Gesen,  The$aur,  p. 
418) ;  but  it  may  equally  well  be  rendered  "  wrathful," 
or  "avenging"  (Hengsteuberg,  in  ioc).  The  phrase 
n"ta?D  nn,  "stormy  wind,"  irvivfia  caroiyi^oc,  «pfV- 
ituM  proctUm,  occurs  in  Psa.  cvii,  25  \  cxlviii,  8.  It  is 
metaphorically  used  for  the  divine  judgments  (Ezek. 
xiii,  11, 13).  The  word  niSD  is  usually  translated 
"whirlwind;"  it  means,  however,  more  properly  a 
storm  (2  Kings  ii,  1, 11 ;  Job  xxxviii,  1-,  xl,  6;  Zech. 
ix,  14 ;  Sept.  tnfaotwfw^j  XaiXai//,  vi^g ;  Vulg.  turho ; 
Ecclus.  xliii,  17 ;  ovarpo^i^  trvivfiaroc,  xlviii,  9 ;  Xai- 
Xawc  wupo^y  We  have  notice  in  the  Bible  of  the 
local  squalls  (XaiXat^Mark  iv,  37  \  Luke  viii,  23),  to 
which  the  sea  of  Gennesareth  was  liable  in  consequence 
of  iu  proximity  to  high  ground,  and  which  were  suffi- 
ciently violent  to  endanger  boats  (Matt,  viii,  24 ;  John 
vi,  18). 

The  Hebrew  word  is  nsed  metaphorically  for  the  di- 
vine judgments  (Isa.  xl,  24;  xli,  16);  and  to  describe 
them  as  sudden  and  irresistible  (Jer.  xxiii,  19;  xxv, 
32 ;  XXX,  23).  "  A  whirlwind  out  of  the  north  "  (Ezek. 
i,4)  denotes  the  invasion  from  Babylon.  Another  word, 
nsiD,  is  also  translated  "  whirlwind,"  and  properly  so. 
It  occurs  in  Job  xxxvii,  9,  Isa.  xxt,  1.  It  is  used  as 
a  simile  fur  complete  and  sudden  destruction  (Prov.  i, 
27) ;  and  for  the  most  rapid  motion,  "  wheels  of  war- 
chariots  like  a  whirlwind  "  (Isa.  v,  28  \  Jer.  iv,  13).  To- 
tal defeat  is  often  compared  to  "chaff  scattered  by  a 
whirlwind  "  (Isa.  xvii,  13).  It  denotes  the  rapidity  and 
irresistibieness  of  the  divine  judgments  (Isa.  Ixvi,  5). 
The  phrase  "to  reap  the  whirlwind"  denotes  useless 
labor  (Hos.  viii,  7);  "  the  day  of  the  whirlwind,"  de- 
struction by  war  (Amos  i,  14).  "  The  Lord  hath  his 
way  in  the  whirlwind,'*  is  probably  an  allusion  to  Sinai 
(Nahum  i,  3).  A  beautiful  comparison  occurs  in  Prov. 
X, 25 :  "As  the  whirlwind  paseeth,  so  is  the  wicked  no 
more :  but  the  righteous  is  an  everlasting  foundation." 
— ^Kitto,  s.  V.    See  Whiklwisd. 

Windeshelm  (or  Windesen),  a  Dutch  monas- 
tery of  the  order  of  Regular  Canons,  celebrated  as  the 
centre  of  a  somewhat  extensive  congregation  of  re- 
formed convents,  flourished  in  the  former  half  of  the 
15th  century.  It  was  intimately  connected  w^ith  the 
association  of  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  having 
been  established  by  Radewin,  the  pupil  and  successor 
of  Gerhard  Groot,  to  serve  as  a  ridlying-point  for  its 
members.  Berthold  ten  Have,  a  citizen  of  ZwoU,  in 
Zealand,  and  one  of  G  root's  converts,  donated  his 
homestead  property  of  Windcsen,  worth  above  three 
thousand  florins,  to  the  prospective  monastery  on  the 
inception  of  the  plan,  and  other  donations  followed,  so 
that  the  convent  became  an  accomplished  fact  in  1386. 
Six  brothers  constituted  its  original  congregation.  The 
church  was  dedicated,  and  the  investing  of  the  brothers 
with  the  robes  of  their  order  was  performed  Oct.  16, 
1387,  Henry  of  Huxaria  being  made  temporary  superior, 
with  the  title  of  rector.  Yos  von  Huesden,  who  succeeded 
to  the  government  of  the  convent  as  prior,  four  years 
afterwards,  became  the  real  founder  of  its  imporUnce. 
During  thirty-three  years  he  was  zealons  in  the  promo- 
tion of  its  internal  prosperity,  as  well  as  in  the  erection 
of  its  buildings  and  the  extension  of  its  influence.    Iu 


riches  became  immense  under  his  administration,  and 
the  number  of  monasteries,  and  also  of  nunneries,  con- 
nected with  it,  increased  remarkably.  Among  these 
the  monastery  of  St.  Agnes,  near  Zwoll,  became  chi^y 
famous,  through  Thomas  k  Kempis  and  Jobann  Wessel, 
who  were  its  inmates.  In  1402  the  flist  convocation 
of  the  general  chapter  was  held  at  Windesheiro.  In 
1435  the  Council  of  Basle  directed  Windesheim  to  un- 
dertake the  reformation  of  the  convents  of  Regular 
Canons  in  Grermany.  This  reformatory  work  extended 
in  time  even  to  the  convents  of  other  orders,  and  con- 
tinued until  the  general  reformation  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury brought  it  to  a  close.  The  convent  of  Windesheim 
itself  continued  to  exist  until  the  end  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, and  a  chapter  of  Windesheim  even  until  the  18th 
century.  Its  members  were  bound  only  by  the  three 
tuhttantiaOa  of  monasticism,  the  rows  of  poverty,  chas- 
tity, and  obedience,  and  they  employed  themselves,  par^ 
ticularly  during  the  earlier  period,  with  the  copying  of 
manuscripts  and  industrial  pursuits.  Their  reformatory 
labors  aimed  merely  at  a  re-establishment  of  the  eariier 
monastic  discipline  by  reducing  ascetical  requirements 
to  a  tolerable  degree.  See  Busch,  Chronicon  Windete- 
mense  (  Antwerp,  1621 ) ;  De  Re/,  Monaster,  guorund, 
Saxoniaif  in  Leibnitz,  Scriptores  Brunsvic.  c  ii ;  Del- 
prat,  Over  d,  BroderKhap  van  G,  Groote  ( 2d  ed.  Am- 
heim,  1856;  Germ.  ed.  by  Mohnike,  Leipsic,  1846); 
Herzog,  Real-Encyklop,  s.  v. 

Windhftim,  Chrhtian  Erkst  von,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  German}*,  was  bom  at  Wemigecode,  Oct. 
29, 1722.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  after  completing 
his  couise  went  to  Helmst&dt,  where  he  commenced  hu 
philoeophical  lectures.  In  1746  he  publicly  defended  a 
dissertation,  De  Inteilectu  Divino^  quo  Sociamsmus  Phi- 
losophicus  A  rffumentis  suis  Prtvatur,  and  was  appointed 
adjunct  to  the  philosophical  faculty.  In  1747  be  went 
to  Gottingen  as  professor  of  philosophy,  and  in  1750  to 
Erlangen,  where  he  also  lectured  on  theology.  He  died 
Nov.  5, 1766.  He  wrote,  Commentatio  Philoi>gi<shcritica 
de  Ilehrmorum  Vav  Conversico  Futurorum  (Halle,  1744) : 
^Diss.  de  Pauh^  Gentium  Apostolo  (ibid.  1745):— 
Sylloge  i-«,  Thesium  Pkiiosophicarum  Misodkutearum 
( Helmsti&dt,  1746^7 ) -.^Conspectus  Thesium  Phiioso- 
phicarum  ( ibid.  1749  ) :  —  Diss,  in  Danzianam  Grami' 
maticam  ffebraam  ( Eriangen,  1751 ) :  —  Diss,  PhiloL 
LittercB  Epenthetusas  Bebraorum  ad  Bationem  suam 
Revocatas,  lUaque  Voces^  quibus  Inesse  Putantur,  Reso- 
lutiBf  Vay-iaque  Loca  Scriptures  Sacra  Veteris  Testa- 
menti  lUustrata  (ibid.  1752),  etc  See  Doring,  Die  ge- 
lehrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  iv,  728  sq.,  Ftlrst,  BibL 
Jud.  iii,  522  sq.,  Steinschneider.  Bibl,  Bandbuchj  p.  150; 
Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  153, 158, 187, 259, 343, 
572  i  ii,12,59.     (R  P.) 

Winding-sheet,  the  cloth  in  which  a  corpse  is 
wrapped  for  burial. 

Windiflohmann,  Fmedrich  Heinrich  Hugo,  a 
Boman  Catholic  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at 
Aschaffenburg,  Dec.  13,  1811.  In  1836  he  received 
holy  orders,  M-ent  to  Munich  in  1838  as  professor  of 
canon  law  and  New -Test,  exegesis,  and  was  made 
canon  of  St,  C^ajctan  in  1839;  in  1842  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Munich  Academy  of  Sciences,  in  1846 
general  vicar,  and  died  Aug.  24, 1861.  He  wrote,  San- 
cara  Sacra  de  Theoloffumenis  Vedanticorum  (Bonn, 
1833): — Ueber  den  SomacuUus  der  Arier  (Munich, 
1846): — Ursagen  der  arischen  Volker  (ibid.  1853): — 
Die  persische  Anahita  (ibid.  1856):  —  Anahiia  (ibid, 
eod.);  — Jft/Ara  (Leipsic,  1857):—  Vindicias  Peirinm 
(Regensburg,  iB^):-^£rkldrunff  des  Brief es  an  die 
Galater  (Mayence,  1843).  His  stndies  on  Zoroaster 
were  edited  by  Spiegel  (Berlin,  1863).  See  Dr.  Friedr. 
Windischmann.  Am /^c2(eiu5i/tf  (Augsburg,  1861):  Theol. 
UnicersaUexikon^  s.  v. ;  LUerarischer  Handweiser,  1862, 
p.  18.     (a  P.) 

"Windeor,  Coukcils  of  ( Concilium  WindorienHf 
or  Windleshorense'),    Windsor  is  a  town  in  Berkshire, 


WINE 


044 


WDfE-PRESS 


England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  twenty- 
three  miles  south-west  of  London.  Its  castle  is  the 
residence  of  the  queen  of  England.  Old  Windsor  is  a 
mile  and  a  half  east-south-east  of  this,  and  was  the 
royal  residence  during  the  Saxon  dynasty.  The  pres- 
ent location  was  chosen  by  William  the  Conqueror. 
Two  ecclesiastical  councils  have  been  held  at  Windsor, 
as  follows: 

I.  Was  held  on  Whit-Sunday,  1070,  in  which  Agelric, 
bishop  of  the  South  Saxons,  was  deprived,  and  com- 
mitted to  prison  at  Marlborough;  no  crime  was  im- 
puted to  him,  and  the  sole  object  of  the  proceeding 
seems  to  have  been  to  make  room  for  a  Norman.  Sev- 
eral abbots  were  in  like  manner  deposed  at  the  same 
time.  See  Johnson,  Eed,  CcmoiUf  sub  ann. ;  Mansi,  C&n- 
ciL  ix,  1203. 

II.  Was  held  April  26, 1114,  in  which  Ralph,  bUhop 
of  Kochester,  was  elected  to  the  see  of  Canterbury, 
vacant  during  the  five  preceding  years.  See  Mansi, 
CondL  X,  796 ;  Landon,  Manual  of  CouneiU^  p.  696. 

Wine,  EcCLRSTASTiCAL  Use  of.  In  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  common  wine  was  ordi- 
narily used.  Such  was  probably  that  which  our  Saviour 
nsed  at  the  last  supper.  The  ancients  mixed  water 
with  the  wine ;  and  this  practice  seems  at  one  period 
to  have  been  general,  and  is  abundantly  authorized  by 
canons  of  the  Church.  The  proportion  of  water  varied 
at  different  times.  Sometimes  it  was  one  fourth ;  at 
others,  one  third.  The  Western  Chnreh  mixed  cold 
water  only;  the  Greek  Church  first  cold,  and  then  warm 
water.  This  was  said  to  be  emblematical  at  once  of  the 
fire  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  of  the  water  which  flowed 
from  our  Saviour's  side.  Various  idle  quest  ions  respect- 
ing the  sacred  elements  were  agitated  at  different  times. 
With  some  there  was  a  question  of  what  grain  the  bread 
should  be  made.  Others  mingled  salt  and  oil  with  the 
bread.  Some  substituted  water  for  the  wine.  Red  wine 
Vas  preferred  in  order  to  avoid  mistakes  by  the  use  of 
white  wine,  and  also  more  sensibly  to  represent  the 
mystery.  The  Roman  Church  now  uses  white  wine. 
In  the  17th  century  ckret  and  in  the  18th  century  sack 
was  employed  in  England.    See  Eucharist. 

Wine,  Sacramkntau  The  Rev.  Dunlop  Moore, 
D.D.,  shows  most  conclusively,  in  the  Pre^ttrian  Re- 
view for  January,  1882,  in  opposition  to  the  sUteroents 
of  Dr.  Samson  {Divine  Law  as  to  Wine^  p.  199  sq.),  that 
the  early  Christian  fathers  knew  only  of  fermented  wine 
in  this  connection;  and  likewise,  by  the  testimony  of 
the  most  eminent  rabbis  of  modern  times,  that  the  Jews 
to-day  use  fermented  wine  for  Passover  purposes.  The 
use  of  steeped  raisins  is  only  resorted  to  where  pure 
wine  (L  e.  wine  free  from  ceremonial  impurity  by  Gen- 
tile contact)  cannot  be  procured ;  but  even  in  that  case 
the  Jews  are  utterlv  indifferent  as  to  whether  it  has  fer- 
mented  or  not.  They  also  freely  use  vinegar  during  the 
Passover,  although  this  is,  of  course,  the  product  of  fer- 
mentation. 

V7hie-0XLp  (1??tt   CSf  cwp  of  '*«  wine).    Wine, 

or  the  cup  in  which  it 
is  contained,  often  rep- 
resents in  Scripture  the 
anger  of  God :  **  Thou 
hast  made  us  drink  the 
wine  of  astonishment" 
(Psa.  Ix,  8>  "  In  the 
hand  of  the  Lord  there 
is  a  cup,  and  the  wine 
is  red ;  it  is  full  of 
mixture,  and  he  pour^ 
eth  out  of  the  same. 
But  the  dregs  thereof 
all  the  wicked  shall 
wring  them  out  and 
drink  them"(lxxv,8). 
The  Lord  savs  to  Jere- 

Ancient  Assyrian  Wine^ops.     miah   (Jer.  xxv,  15), 


•fwmu 

mctx 


Ancient  Egyptian  Wine-cnpe. 

"  Take  the  wine-cup  of  this  fury  at  my  hand,  and  gsok 
all  the  nations  to  whom  I  send  thee  to  drink  it"  Ele- 
gant forms  of  drinking-cups  are  represented  on  the  As- 
syrian and  Egyptian  monuments.    See  Cuf. 

Wine-preM  is  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  tlirw 
Hebrew  and  one  Greek  words:  t^|,  gafh  (**  wine-prm," 
Judg.  vi,  II ;  Xeh. xiii,  15;  Lam.  i,  15;  **  wine-rat,** Isi. 
Ixiii,  2;  «*  press,"  Joel  iii,  13),  which  denotes  the  whole 
apparatus  (see  Geth-skmank),  or  (as  Gesenius  prefers) 
simply  the  large  vat  (Xiyroc)  in  which  the  grapes  wen 
trodden,  the  latter  being  a  meaning  specifically  bone 
by  m^,  purdh  ( *•  wii«  -  press,**  Isa.  Ixiii,  8 ;  «  preas," 
Hagglii,16);  while  3;^;?,y<JM  ("  wine-press,"  Numb. 
xviii,27,d0;  Dent.  xv,'l4;  Judg.  vii,  25;  2  Kings  ti. 
27 ;  Job  xxiv,  11 ;  Isa.  v,  2 ;  Jer.  xlviii,  33 ;  H«s.  ix,  2. 
Zech.  xiv,  10 ;  "  press,"  Prov.  iii,  10 ;  Isa.  xvi,  10 ;  •*  fat," 
Joel  ii,  24;  iii,  13;  "press- fat,"  Hagg.  ii,  16;  ^'wiue," 
Deut.  xvi,  13)  is  thought  to  denote  the  lower  trough 
or  receptacle  into  which  the  expressed  juice  flows,  the 
viroXriviov  of  Mark  xii,  1.    The  last  Hebrew  word  u 
derived  by  Gesenius  (  Theiaur.  p.  619  b  )  from  a  root 
signifying  to  hollow  or  dig  out;  and  in  accordance  with 
this  is  the  practice  in  Palestine,  where  the  **  wine-pnsa" 
and  **  vats  ".appear  to  have  been  excavated  out  of  the 
native  rock  of  the  bills  on  which  the  vineyards  Isy. 
From  these  scanty  notices  contained  in  the  Bible  we 
gather  that  the  wine-presses  of  the  Jews  consisted  of 
two  receptacles  or  vats  placed  at  different  elevations,  in 
the  upper  one  of  which  the  grapes  were  trodden,  while 
the  lower  one  received  the  expressed  juice.    The  two 
vats  are  mentioned  together  only  in  Joel  iii,  13:  **The 
press  (ffath)  is  full;  the  fats  (yekebim)  overflow  "—the 
upper  vat  being  full  of  fruit,  the  lower  one  overflowing 
with  the  must.     Tikeb  is  similariy  applied  in  Joel  li, 
24,  and  probably  in  Prov.  iii,  10,  where  the  verb  ren- 
dered "  burst  out "  in  the  A.  V.  may  bear  the  more  gen- 
eral sense  of  **  abound  **  (Gesen.  Thesaitr,  p.  1 190).  Gafk 
is  also  strictly  applied  to  the  upper  vat  in  Neh.xiii,15; 
Lam.  i,  15,  and  Isa.  Ixiii,  2,  with  ptrSA  in  a  parallel 
sense  in  the  following  verse.     Elsewhere  yiteb  is  not 
strictly  applied;  for  in  Job  xxiv,  11, and  Jer.  xlviii, 33, 
it  refers  to  the  upper  vat,  just  as  in  Matt,  xxi,  33, 
irvoXfiviov  (properly  the  vat  under  the  press)  is  sobrti- 
tuted  for  XijvoCf  »  given  in  Mark  xii,  1.     It  would, 
moreover,  appear  natural  to  describe  the  whole  arrsnge- 
ment  by  the  term  ffathy  as  denoting  the  most  important 
portion  of  it;  but,  with  the  exception  of  proper  names 
in  which  the  word  appears,  such  as  Gath,  Gath-rimmon, 
Gath-hepher,  and  Gittaim,  the  term  feieb  is  applied  to 


the  produce  of  th« 
wine  -  press  (  Numb. 
XTiii,27,S0;  Deut-xv, 
H  ;  2  King!  ri,  S7 ; 
Hoi.  ii, !).  The  term 
jmrah,  w  ulCd  in  H>gg. 
ii,  16,  perhipa  refers  to 
the  conlenu  or  >  wine- 
Tat,  nther  tlin  to  ttt« 
pren  or  vat  itnlf.  Tbe 
two  vail  were  aiuillf 
dug  or  hewD  out  of  (he 
■olid  rocit  (Im.  v,  2, 
marg.j    Uilt.  xii,  83). 

10  coDKmcttd. 

(Robiaaoa,S>U.A'A 

137;  comp.p.603). 

Ibne  on  Mount  CanneL,  which  ht 

■cUy  like  olben  observed 


Ancient  BejpUin  Foot-pte*i  tm  Wine. 


tn  examined  seTenl  oT 
scribes  aa  being  ex- 
iulhesouth  ofjudah,  '^Inall 
It  sloping  rock  is  made  nseorroTthi 
conatcuclioo.  Al  the  upper  end  ■  trough  is  cut  about  thr 
feet  deep  and  Tour  and  a  hair  by  three  and  a  half  feet 
length  and  breadth.  Just  below  (bis,  in  the  same  lock, 
hewn  a  lecond  (rough,  fourteen  incha  deep  and  four  feet 
by  three  ia  me.   The  two  are  connected  by  two  or  three 
small  boles  bored  (hraugh  the  rock  close  to  tbe  bottom 
of  the  upper  trough,  so  that,  on  the  grapes  beiog  put 
in  and  pressed  down,  tbe  juice  streamed  into  (be  lower 
vat.     Every  vineyard  seems  to  have  tiad  one  of  these 
presses"  (  Land  of  lirail,  p.  106}.     The  wine.presKS 
were  thus  permsnent,  and  were  iufflcieotly  well  known 
to  serve  as  indications  of  cerUin  localities  (Judg.  vii,  26 ; 
Zech.  HIT,  10).    The  upper  receptacle  (salh)  was  large 
enooffh  to  admit  of  threshing  being  carried  on  in  (not 
"by," as  in  the  A,  V.)  it,  ai  was  done  by  (iideon  for  tbe 
sake  or  concealment  (Judg.  vi,  II).    SeePinw;  Vine- 

In  Palestine  the  vinUge  takes  place  in  September, 
and  is  celebrated  with  great  rejoicings  (Robinson,  BibL 
Xa.  i,  431 ;  ii,  81 ).  Tbe  ripe  fruit  was  gsthered  in 
baskets  (Jer.  vi,  9),  as  rBpre»en(ed  in  Egyptian  pain[- 
ingi  (Wilkinson,  Am:.  Egypt.  i,41^fi},  and  was  carried 
to  the  wine-press.  It  was  then  placed  in  tbe  upper  one 
of  the  two  TBta  or  receptacles  of  which  ttie  wine-press 
was  fanned,  and  wasaubtected  (o  the  procos  of  "  tread- 
ing," which  has  prevailed  in  all  ages  in  Oriental  and 
South-European  countri«(Neh.xiii,lS,  Job  xiiv,  11 ; 
laa.  xvi,  10;  Jer.  xxv,  SO;  xlviii,  SS;  Amoa  ix,  IS; 
Rev.  nix,  16).  A  certain  amount  of  Juice  exuded  from 
tbe  ripe  IVuit  from  its  own  presHire  hefore  the  (reading 
oommenced.  This  appears  to  hare  been  kept  separate 
from  tbe  restofthejuice,  and  to  have  (armed  the  j&iubDf, 
or  "  sweet  wine,"  noticed  in  Acts  ii,  18.  The  first  drops 
of  juice  that  reached  the  lower  rat  were  termed  the 
ima,  or  "  tear,"  and  formed  (he  fin(-f[iii(s  of  the  Tintage 
(Sept.  Airnpx'i^  Ai)vau)  which  were  to  be  presented  to 
Jehovah  (  Exod.  xxii,  29 ).  The  "  treading  "  waa  ef. 
reeled  by  one  or  more  men,  according  to  the  siie  of  the 
Ta(,  and,  if  the  Jews  adopted  tbe  same  arrangementa 


as  the  Egypliana,  the  treaden  were  assisted  in  the  oper- 
ation by  ropes  fixed  to  the  roirf  of  the  wine-press  (Wil- 
kinsoo,  A  vc.  Eggpt.  i,  44  ).  Tliey  encouraged  one  an- 
other by  ihoatj  and  ciiea  (laa.  xri,  9, 10 ;  Jer.  xxv,  SO ; 
xlviii,  83).  Their  legs  and  gannenta  were  dyed  red 
with  the  juice  (Gen.  xlix,  11 ;  Isa.  Ixiii,  S,  3).  The 
expreaaed  juice  escaped  by  an  apertiiie  into  the  lower 
vat,  or  was  at  once  oolleeted  in  Teasels.  A  hand-preia 
was  occationall?  used  in  Egypt  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Eggpl. 
i,  46),  but  we  have  no  notice  of  such  an  initniment  in 
the  Bible.  As  to  the  subsequenttrestmentof  thewine, 
we  bare  but  little  inrormsliou.  Sometimes  it  waa  drank 
as  mult,  hut  more  generally  it  was  bottled  off  alter  fer- 
mentslion,  and,  if  it  were  deugned  to  be  kept  for  aon* 
time,  a  certain  amount  of  lees  was  added  to  giTS  it  body 
(Isa.  xxv,  6).  Tbe  wine  consequently  required  to  ba 
"reHned,"  or  strained,  preriouily  (o  being  brought  to 
table  (ibid.).— Smith,  (.v.  Fat  further  elucidstioa  of 
the  sulyect,  see  Hackett,  IlliatT,  of  Scripl.  p.  156  aq.  i 
TanLenaep,fii6t£aiKli,p.ll7sq.     See  Wine, 

'WlngBte,  W.  U.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  miuistei,  was  bom 
at  Darlington,  S.  C,  July  28, 1828.  He  graduated  from 
Wake  Foreit  College,  N.  C,  in  1849;  hr  two  yean 
was  a  student  of  theology  at  Furman  Institute,  8.C.t 
from  136!  to  18U  agent  of  Wake  Forest  College,  and 
in  the  latter  year  was  chosen  president,  which  office 
be  held  for  twenty-flve  years.  He  died  Feb.  27, 1879. 
(J.  C.  S.) 

Winkalera,  a  aect  existing  in  Strasburg  towarda 
the  end  of  (he   Nih  cendiry.      Their  teachingi  and 
nsiges  resembled  Iboae  of  the  eontempoiaty  Waldenses, 
thougb  with  some  divergences;  but  it  is  probable  that 
(he  see(  was  of  nalire  growth,  and  origina(ed  in  tbe 
creasing  sense  of  need  for  an  improTement  in  religious 
ichingi  which  existed  in  the  consdousnen  of  the  peo- 
>.    Its  members  sustained  communication  with  those 
other  umilarassociationa  In  different  dtica  along  the 
Rhine  and  in  WUrtcmberg  and  Switierland.    They  re- 
jected, on  the  aochority  of  the  Itible,  all  mariolatry 
and  aainta'-wonhip,  the  use  of  images,  (he  priesthood, 
and  tbe  doctrines  of  meritoriooa  works  and  purgatory. 
They  wished  (a  reatore  (be  worahip  of  God  in  apirit 
and  truth.    Tbey  made  use  of  lav 
teachen,  who  were  required  to  bit 
unmarried  and  unencumbered  nitb 
property,  and  who  itinerated  ooo- 
tiuuously.    Tbe  teachers  were  sup- 
ported by  the  members  of  the  sect, 


1   they   1 


oeived  and  upon  whom  they  ii 
poaed  penancea.  In  their  asaem- 
blies  it  was  customaiy  to  oflei 
prayer,  read  from  booka,  and 
preach.  They  attended  mail  and 
coofsaed  minor  oStecei  to  the  BtK 


WINKELHOFER 


046 


WINNOWING 


miBh  priesU  for  the  sake  of  peace.  In  Strasburg  labor- 
ers and  artisans  oorapoaed  the  sect,  master  Johaon  von 
Blurostein— later,  after  he  had  renounced  their  errorSi 
syndic  of  the  city — being  its  most  prominent  member. 
A  number  of  Beguins  were  also  among  its  members. 
They  were  not  disposed  to  deal  aggressively  with  the 
Church,  and  were  content  to  meet  in  the  secrecy  of 
private  houses,  but  the  fear  of  being  disoovered  some* 
times  led  them  into  crime.  In  1874  a  Winkeler,  who 
had  returned  to  the  Church,  was  murdered  by  direction 
of  the  sect,  which  paid  a  certain  sum  for  the  deed  and 
submitted  to  undergo  the  penance  imposed  by  its  rulers. 
At  another  time  the  inquisitor,  Johann  Arnold!,  was  so 
emphatically  threatened  with  death  in  the  confesnonal 
that  he  fled  the  city.  In  1400,  however,  thirty- two 
members,  both  men  and  women,  were  arrested  and  tor- 
tured. Twenty-six  of  them  acknowledged  their  con- 
nection with  the  sect,  and  were  banished  from  the  dty 
and  diocese,  under  the  penalty  of  death  by  fire  if  they 
should  return.  The  documents  bebnging  to  the  trial 
are  yet  in  existence,  and  are  given  in  Kohrich's  MU' 
tfuUungen  aus  der  Getehichte  der  evang,  Kircke  dea 
Elsauea  (Strasburg,  1866),  i,  8  sq.  Neither  Wiukeler 
nor  Waldense  was  ever  found  in  Strasburg  after  this 
trial    See  Herzog,  Real-Enqfldop.  s.  v. 

TT^inkelllofer,  Sebastian,  a  Soman  Catholic  the- 
ologian, was  bom  Jan.  18,  1743,  at  Munzing,  in  the 
Lower-Danube  department.  When  sixteen  years  of 
age  he  joined  the  order  of  the  Jesuits.  Two  years 
later  he  went  to  Ingoktadt,  where  he  studied  philoso- 
phy, Greek,  and  Hebrew.  In  1768  he  betook  himself 
to  the  study  of  theology,  especially  of  Church  history 
and  canon  law.  In  1772  he  received  holy  orders,  and 
in  the  year  following  was  made  head  of  the  congrega- 
tion of  St.  Maria  de  Victoria.  In  1776  he  was  appointed 
preacher  of  St.  Maurice,  and  in  1789  delivered  his  first 
sermon  as  dean  in  Neuburg,  on  the  Danube.  Here  he 
labored  till  1794,  when  he  was  called  as  court-preacher 
to  Munich,  where  he  died,  Nov.  16, 1806.  He  wrote, 
Reden  fiber  die  Bergpredigt  unteres  Herm  Jetu  Chritti 
(edited  by  S.M. Sailer, Munich,  1809;  2d  ed.  1812);  the 
same  editor  published  his  Vermitchte  Predigten  (ibid. 
1814-17, 4  vols.).  See  Doring,  Die  gelehrtea  Theologen 
Deuttckkmdty  iv,  781  sq.     (a  P.) 

Winkler,  Hermann  Erloh,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  April  11, 1738,  at  Hildes- 
heim.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  under  Walch,  Michaelis, 
and  Heilmann.  In  1763  he  was  appointed  pastor  in  his 
native  place ;  in  1772  accepted  a  call  to  Hamburg,  where 
he  labored  for  twenty  years ;  in  1798  was  called  to  Lune- 
burg  as  superintendent,  and  while  he  was  delivering  his 
first  sermon,  on  March  18,  he  was  paralyzed,  and  died  a 
few  hours  later.  Winkler  was  very  well  versed  in  Greek 
history,  philosophy,  and  literature ;  Pindar  he  knew  al- 
most by  heart.  His  published  writings  are  of  no  im- 
portance. See  Doring.  Die  deyUcKtn  Kanzdredfuer,  p. 
670  sq.    (a  P.) 

Winkler,  Johann  Dletrloh,  a  Protestant  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  Dec  27, 1711. 
He  studied  at  Leipeio  from  1732  to  1786,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  made  magister,  on  account  of  his  dis- 
sertation, De  Luca,  Evanffditta  Medico,  In  the  same 
year  he  was  called  as  professor  to  Hamburg,  to  occupy 
the  chair  made  vacant  by  Fabricius,  He  entered  upon 
his  duties  by  delivering  an  oration,  De  FeUei  PctriUr 
ae  Seoeaeario  Nexu  SdenUarum  PhUotophiearum  cum 
A  tie  Bene  et  Ornate  Dicendi,  In  1744  he  accepted  a 
call  to  Hildesheim  as  superintendent  and  member  of 
consistory.  The  Univenity  of  Binteln  conferred  on 
him  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  on  presenting  a 
dissertation,Z)ePA«<afopAiaBP2a(omo(>-i^fAa^rea  Frau^ 
dibys.  Many  professorships  offered  to  him  he  declined. 
In  1768  he  was  called  as  first  pastor  of  St.  NicoUi  to  his 
native  city,  where  he  died,  April  4, 1784.  Of  his  many 
works  we  mention,  Disquttiiionei  Philologiea^  etc.  (1741) : 
— Hyponmemaia  PkHolopica  et  Critica  (1746):  —  Ani- 


madverntmee  Phtlotogioct  et  CriHea  (1760^2,  8  parts> 
See  Doring,  Die  gd^hrten  Theologen  DeutedUoands,  iv, 
786  sq. ;  Ftlrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  628 ;  Winer,  HmidbwJk  der 
theoL  Liu  i,  191, 279, 645, 670, 796, 909.    (a  P.) 

Winkler,  Johann  Fkledrloh  (1),  father  of  Jo- 
hann Dietrich,  was  bora  Dec  18, 1679,  at  Wertheim,  in 
Franconia.  He  studied  at  Greifswalde,  and,  after  com- 
pleting his  course,  travelled  extensively  through  Hoi- 
land  and  England.  With  the  laige  material  which  he 
had  collected  in  England  he  went  to  Frankfort,  with 
the  view  of  preparing  a  new  edition  of  the  Ethiopic 
grammar,  published  by  Ludolph,  bis  former  teacher, 
in  1702.  In  1704  he  accepted  a  call  to  Hambui^  as 
professor  of  Oriental  languages,  and  in  1712  was  made 
first  pastor  of  St.  NicoUu.  He  died  Oct.  24, 173&  Be- 
sides his  Ethiopic  grammar,  which  he  edited  in  a  sec- 
ond edition,  he  published  a  number  of  sermons,  for 
which  see  Ddring,  Die  gelehrten  Theologen  DeuUddandt^ 
iv,742.    (a  P.) 

"Winkler,  Johann  Friedrioh  (2),  a  Lutheran 
theologian,  was  bora  Aug.  17, 1809,  at  Hohen-Prieamitz, 
in  Saxony.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  and  in  1884 
came. to  America.  In  1836  he  was  called  to  Newark, 
N.  J.,  where  he  labored  for  seven  years.  In  1842  he 
was  called  as  professor  to  the  theological  seminary  at 
Columbus,  O.,  where  he  taught  for  three  years*  In 
1846  he  went  to  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  labored  there  for 
twelve  years.  In  the  meantime  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted with  pastor  Grabau,  the  head  of  the  Lutbeian 
Buffalo  Synod,  which  he  Joined,  and  which  appointed 
him,  in  1866,  professor  of  the  Martin  Luther  College. 
Here  he  labored  until  his  death,  June  9, 1877.    (a  P.) 

"Winkler,  Johann  Joseph,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, was  bora  at  Luckau,  in  Saxony,  Dec  23, 1670. 
He  was  at  first  pastor  in  Blagdeburg,  afterwards  a  chap- 
lain in  the  army,  and  accompanied  the  troops  to  Hd- 
land  and  Italy.  Subsequently  he  returned  to  Magde- 
burg, and  beoime  chief  minister  of  the  cathedral  and 
member  of  consiBtoiy.  He  died  Aug.  11, 1722.  Wink- 
ler left  some  hymns  which  are  still  sung  in  the  German 
Chureh.  Thus,  SolW  ich  aua  Furehi  vor  J/owdkca- 
Idndem  (EngL  transL  in  the  Moravicn  BfOM'Book,  p. 
718,  '*  Shall  I,  thro'  fear  of  feeble  man  *0  ■i—Ringe  reeht, 
leam  GoUet  Gnade  (EngL  transL  Lgra  Genn.  i,  46, 
"Strive,  when  thou  art  called  of  God*^:— ifcms  SeeU 
eenket  tick  {ibid,  i,  198,  **  Yea,  my  spirit  fain  would  sink  *> 
See  Koch,  Getch,  dee  deuUchen  Kircheidiedet,  iv,  888  aq. 

(a  P.) 

TVinner,  Isaac,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister. 
Scarcely  any  data  of  his  life  are  obtainable.  He  was 
admitted  into  the  Philadelphia  Conference  in  1822,  and 
some  time  later  joined  the  New  Jersey  Conference.  He 
died  July  4, 1868.  He  was  a  remarkable  man  every 
way;  original,  strong  in  his  convictions,  peerieas  in 
self-respect  and  self-possession.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  fosterers  of  Pennington  Seminary,  and 
took  large  interest  in  all  educational  matters,  except 
theological  schools,  which  he  opposed  bitterly,  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  prolific  of  theological  erron^ 
See  MimkM  of  Annual  Conferences,  1869,  p.  62. 

TVinnowing  (P^},  lit.  to  tcaifer).  Among  the 
Hebrews,  as  still  in  Palestine,  when  the  gram  had  been 
threshed,  or,  rather,  crashed  and  trodden,  in  the  open 
threshing-floor,  it  was  thrown  out,  altogether,  into  the 
middle  of  the  floor;  it  was  then  tossed  up  into  the  wind, 
which  removed  the  broken  straw  and  the  chaff,  while 
the  grain,  the  unthreshed  ears,  and  clods  of  earth,  with 
grain  adhering  to  them,  fell  in  a  separate  heap^  The 
earth  and  other  impurities  were  then  removed  from  the 
grain  by  means  of  a  sieve ;  and  the  winnowed  heap  oMr^ 
tatuing  many  ears  that  were  broken,  but  not  fulljr 
crasheil  out,  was  exposed  again  to  the  threshing  opera* 
tion.  This  was  again  thrown  across  the  wmd  by  a 
shovel  (n^T^,  mter^A,  rendered  **fan*'  w  our  veiaiofi 
of  Isa.  zxz,  24}i  when  the  pure  grain  fell  to  the  ground 


SSTpUau  WlnnnwlDg  Onla.    (Pmbi  the  IlotiuaieiiLt>l 


and  tfaa  light  chaff  wm  barne  iwiy  bf  the  wind,  M 
ttM  pulmiM  daeTibf&  Thg  icattMed  (trow,  ki  far  u 
required  for  the  Toddcr  or  eittla  and  the  making  of 
briekf,  wM  eoUeeted  (be  dh  ;  biit  the  light  chaff  or  the 
Mcoad  winnoiriag  WM  leTE  in  the  groand  entangled 
with  the  Uabble  (the  threahing-floor  being  in  the  har- 
iniC-flelJ),  with  which  it  wn  bumed  on  [he  groDDd  Co 
help  u  manitra  the  (oiL  It  thereron  rumiabed  a  fit 
aymbol  of  the  deatioetioa  of  tha  wicked.  Theae  win- 
nowing piocoBu  are  itill  foliawed  in  the  Eut;  and,  aa 
Gar  a*  appean  by  their  painting)^  are  mneh  the  aame  aa 
were  practiced  by  the  audenc  Egyptiani. — Kitio,  Pict. 
BIbU,  Dota  Ml  Pm.  i,  4.    See  Aqkicultusk. 

Wlnram,  Jonif,  a  Seolch  rerormer  of  the  IBth  can- 
tary,  waa  auperinlendent  of  Fife  and  Strsthenie,  and 
died  in  1682.  He  waa  the  author  of  a  Calediitn,  of 
trhich  all  eopiea  are  thoaght  to  have  periahed. 

'Wlntor,  Veit  Astox,  aRomui  Catholic  theologian, 
was  bom  May  22, 17M,  at  Hobeneggdkofen,  near  Land- 
ihul.  He  Btodied  at  Ingolitadt,  and  io  1778  receired 
holy  orden.  For  two  yeara  be  continoed  bis  atudiee  at 
Rome,  and  aflei  his  return  was  appointed  pastor  at 
Laicliling,  near  EggmUhL  Some  yean  he  apent  in 
imvelling  with  the  aon  of  a  count,  whose  tutor  ha  was. 
ARer  returning  home,  he  was  called  to  lugolatadt  as 
preacher  and  proreasor  of  Church  hiBloiy.  In  1795  he 
Commeuced  his  lecture*.  When  the  Uiiiveraily  of  In- 
gotstadt  was  removed  to  LandahuC,  in  1801,  he  went 
there,  and  died  Feb.  27, 1811.  He  wrote,  Vtriuch  lur 
Verbatfrang  der  luiikaUicfun  Liturgit  (Uunicb,  1804) : 
—Sammlung  ktana-  lUvrgitcher  ScAHflai  (ibid.  1811) ; 
— GaehidiU  der  baUriichm  Wwderidafer  im  xvL  Jahr- 
huaderl  (ibid.  1808) :— ATirciatseiaiicWe  von  AUhaiera, 
Oeilerrach  und  Tyrol  (LandsbuC,  ISli)  ■.—Palmbigit 
(Munich,  eod.).  See  Ddiing,  Die  inUkrtin  Tifotism 
DeulnMandt,  iv.  7«  aq.;  Winer,  ilandbwJt  der  tkeoL 
LiL  i,  767,  781, 785,  8Mi  ii,  70,  78,  285,  286.     (a  P.) 

Wlntarfeld,  Ueobq  Auouit  Tivtqehs  Cahi.  voa, 
a  German  schoUr,  was  bom  in  1794,  and  died  at  Berlin, 
Feb.  19,  \9i>2,  during  the  morning  prayer.  He  is  weU 
known  in  the  department  of  Church  music,  and  as  editor 
otlhe  following  works:  Da- aangditeke  KinAtngaang 
vnd  inn  VtrluUtma  tar  Kuntl  dtt  TVnualzu  (Leipsic, 
\»a-a,  in  3  parts) :  the  flrst  is  entitled,  Dtr  mmgtlUckt 
Kircitiigaaiig  im  1.  JaArhimiitrt  dtr  Kirchaaerban- 
rang;  the  second.  Dot  titbtiatlailt  JaJirkiaidtrl ;  the 
third,  Dat  achlzehiite  Jakrhtaidirt:—Dr.  Mart.  LtlAer'i 
dailKht  gaitl,  Lteder  neist  den  vSiratd  tiaa  Ltbnu 
daxu  gebrauclUeit  Singwtitat  (ibid.  1840}:— {/ehr  ller- 
tletiaag  dtt  Gtmdnde-  and  CAotyaanffi  in  dtr  ttang. 
Kirche  (ibid.  1848):— Zur  GtuAkhU  ktUigtr  TonlMmU 
(ibid.  1850, 1852,  2  parts).  It  moat  be  remarked  that 
Winterfeld  was  by  profesabn  ■  jurist.  Sea  Zuchold, 
BM.  ThtoL  ii,  1456 ;  Koch,  Gttck.  d.  dtuttdiat  Kirchet- 
litda,  vii,  425, 446, 459, 488.     (a  P.) 

WiatertllTir  (  Vimduramt,  ai  OrlUideOppido  K^ia- 
ttrturt  "Fracnim  Mioorom  MiniDm^"  aa  be  docribes 
himaelf),  JoHAmrcs  von,  wu  a  Minorite  monk  of  the 
l*tb  centaiy,  and  tha  author  of  a  chronicla  which  is 
presen-ed  in  the  town  library  of  Zurich,  and  is  a  sonree 


tat  tht  history  of  Sontfa  Germany  uid  Switierland.    He 
was  bom  in  ibe  period  ISgS-ISOO,  at  Wlntetthar,  in  the 
preaeot  eanloa  M  Zaiieb,  and  bei^ma  a  Minorite  about 
ISSO.     He  probaUy  died  at  Zurich  after  ia4& 
Tiie  original  manosciipt  of  tba  cbronlcle  waa  doubt- 


AbfjL 


«  Bulling 


rotZflri 


loriognpher  of  the  IBth  centaiy,  ai 
Ubrary.  All  Mbef  maniwcripts  and  editiona  are  derived 
from  that,  though  m  additfooal  codex  la  pnationed  by 
Haotfaucan(Ssliti«fik0»Kif(n«Kr9X.^t>mi,i,SI,  Paris, 
1789}  as  harhig  beea  transferred  from  the  library  of 
queen  Chiistitu  ol^Sweden  lothatof  iheTatiean.  The 
period  oorered  by  the  chronicle  extends  from  the  death 
of  the  emperor  Frederic  II  u  1B48.  It  ia  baaed  in  part 
apmi  more  ancient  chroniclea,  in  part  npon  tJie  oral  and 
written  statements  of  contemporary  witnesses,  and  to 
some  extent  on  personal  obserratlona  made  by  the  au. 
thor.  The  writer  was  acquainted  with  tbe  ecclesiaatical 
and  profane  literature  of  his  time,  with  tbe  Scriptures, 
rks  of  the  masters  in  his  order,  Lyra,  Occam, 


bofth 


Hem 


totle,  Mxip,  Horace,  Isidore,  el 
book  are,  however,  made  up  of  di 
illBStrations,  strong  together  in  chronological  order.  It 
is  important  «•  a  portrayal  of  tbe  conflicts  of  tba  emperor 
Loots,  the  Bavarian,  with  the  papacy,  and  of  the  conse* 
qtnat  distorbaaces  in  tha  Ufe  of  tbe  Chnrch,  It  ii  the 
eaiUeat  report,  Ibr  Swua  history,  of  tba  battle  of  Mor> 
garten,  of  Che  vengeance  vitfled  by  tbe  dukea  of  Aostria 
npon  the  assassin  of  king  Albert,  of  the  histoty  of  Zurich, 
etc  It  isalsooftpecialimponaneato  tbe  study  of  the 
life  and  conditions  of  ihe  time  in  which  it  originated. 
See  Uenog,  Beat-EncylUvp,  s.  v. 

Wlntle,  Thovah,  a  learned  English  divlrie,  waa 
bom  at  Giooceater,  April  28, 17S7;  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  learning  in  hia  native  city;  became  scholar, 
fellow,  and  tular  of  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  graduated  M.A.  in  1759;  was  appointed  rector  of 
Wittrisham,  io  Kent,  and  domestic  chaplain  to  arch- 
bishop Seeker  in  1767 ;  obtained  the  living  of  St.  Fe- 
ler'a  in  Wallingfordi  became  rector  of  Brightwell,  in 
Berkshire,  in  1774,  where  he  remained  nntU  his  death, 
July  29,  1814.  He  published,  Danul,  aa  Improvtd 
Vtrium  A  UempUd,  etc  (179!) :— TAe  ExpeditiKy,  Pn- 
diction,  and  Actongjlithnitia  of  lie  Cliritlian  Redemp- 
(ion,  lUvitrattd  in  Eight  Sermons  (Bampton  lecture, 
Oxford,  1794 ):_/.^Mn-  to  lie  Lord  Biitatp  of  Wor- 
atttr^—Diutrtation  on  Ihe  Viiion  Coatmned  in  IA4 
Secood  Chapltr  o/Zedariai  (nST^-.—Chritiaii  EAiet, 
or  Ditcoartt  on  lie  BeaiiludeM,  etc;  (1812).  Sea  Chal- 
mers, Biog.  Dili.  a.  v. 

Dnnzer,  Julius  FaiEDmtni,  a  German  doctor  and 
professor  of  theology,  was  bom  July  BO,  1780,  at  Chem- 
nitz. In  1802  he  was  appointed  teacher  at  tbe  famous 
school  in  Meissen,  in  1809  he  waa  called  to  Wittenberg 
aa  ordinary  profeMor  of  morals,  and  in  1812  became  ordi- 
nary professor  of  theology.  In  1814  ha  was  called  to 
Lripne,  where  he  died  in  the  year  1845.  He  wrote, 
AdnokUiona  ad  Ima  Q/tadam  Epilobii  PanU  ad  Ro- 
miHKH  (Leipric,  195)  i^Coantmalio  in  tocan  Poatl 


WINZET 


948 


WISDOM  PERSONIFIED 


ad  Ephesios  EpiHola  Cap,  t,  15  sq,  (ibid,  eod.) : — Com^ 
mefOaiio  in  Locum,  etc^  Cap,  tv,  1  §q,  (ibid.  1839) : — At^ 
notatio  ad  Locum  Ephe$,  vi,  10-17,  put  Suh/uneUe  tunl 
VHa  Dodorum  Theologim  a  Lipnentimn  TKeologorum 
Ordine  JUeens  Creatomm  (ibid.  1840): — Annotatumea 
ad  Locum  Priori$  EputoltB  Petri  CapA,  S-12  (ibid.1848) : 
-^Afmotatumeg,  etc,  Cap,  tt«\  18-22  et  tv,  6  (ibid.  1844). 
In  connection  with  U.  A.  Schott  he  published  Comment 
tarii  in  EpistoloM  Novi  TestamaitL  See  Winer,  //and>- 
huch  der  theol  Lit.  i,  29, 164,  218,  249, 252, 267, 268, 268, 
294,  429,  434,  440,  476;  Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  ii,  1456. 
(B.P.) 

Winzet  (or  Wlnget),  Nxxxam,  a  Scotch  clergy- 
man, is  supposed  to  have  been  bom  in  Renfrewshire  in 
1518,  and  to  bare  been  educated  at  the  University  of 
Glasgow ;  was  master  of  the  grammar-school  of  Linlith- 
gow in  1551,  and  soon  afterwards  entered  into  holy  or- 
ders ;  was  cited  before  the  superintendent  of  the  Lothians 
in  1561  to  answer  for  his  religious  opinions,  when  he 
gave  in  his  adherence  to  the  Roman  Church,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Reformation,  and  was  deposed  from  his 
office;  defended  his  position,  and  endeavored  to  accom- 
plish reform  within  the  Roman  Church;  was  compelled 
to  escape  to  Flanders  in  1568;  appointed  abbot  of  the 
Scottish  monastery  of  St  James  at  Ratisbon  in  1576; 
and  died  Sept  21, 1592.  He  published,  Certane  Trac- 
tatis^or  Rfformatoun  ofDoelryne  and  Mtmerit  (1562) : 
—The  Loit  BUut  o/the  Tmmpei  ofGodU  Wordt  affatnti 
the  Usurpit  A  ueloritie  ofJokne  Knot  and  hit  Calviman 
Brether,  IntrudU  Preeheourii  (1592),  suppressed  by  the 
Protestants  in  the  hands  of  the  printer:— iln  Exhorla* 
tion  to  Mary  Queen  of  SooUii,  etc  (1562):— 7As  Buke 
of  Fourescoir  and  Thre  Quettiom  tcudktg  Doctrine, 
Ordour,  and  Maneris  Prppomi,  etc  (1568).  See  Irving, 
Lites  of  Scottish  Writ€r$,  i,  9^-101. 

Wire  (b*irD,parA»l,  Exod.  xxxiz,  8,  a  line  or  thread, 
as  rendered  in  Judg.  xvi,  9 ;  Ezek.  xl,  8). 

'Wlro,  Saintf  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bom  in  the  coun- 
ty of  Clare,  and  was  at  an  early  period  of  life  elected 
bishop  of  Dublin.  He  went  to  Rome  and  was  oonse- 
cxated  by  the  pope.  He  governed  this  see  some  time, 
and  gained  a  high  repntation  on  account  of  his  sanctity. 
He  finally  resigned  his  bishopric  and  went  to  Gaul. 
He  built  an  oratory  at  Mons  Petri,  which  he  dedicated 
to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  called  it  St  Petefs  Monas- 
ter}". He  died  May  8,  on  which  day  his  festival  is  ob- 
served. See  D' Alton,  Memoirs  of  the  Arckbiahopt  of 
Dublin,  p.  18. 

Wirtli,  MiCHABL,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bora  Oct  1, 1788,  at  Lauingen,  and  died  as 
professor  of  hermeneutics,  exegesis,  and  paedagogics  at 
Dillingen,  July  17,  1882.  He  is  the  author  of  AUe$ 
und  Neuea  iiber  den  1.  Bruf  an  die  Korinther  (Ulm, 
1825).  See  Winer,  Ilandbuch  der  theoL  Lit.  ii,  807. 
(B.  P.) 

Wilts,  JoHAMif,  a  Swiss  theologian,  who  died  at 
Zurich,  Sept  6, 1658,  is  the  author  of,  De  Munere  Ec- 
ckeiaatico  ex  1  Cor,  to ; — De  Eedetia  ex  1  Tim.  Hi,  15 : 
— Emblema  Theologicum  ex  Apocalypri .—De  CommU" 
nione  Sanctorum  :—De  Chritto  Umco  Novi  Teatamenti 
Pontijice! — De  Apoatoh  Petro:—De  Bonia  Operibua: 
— De  Natura  PhUoaophim: — De  Teatinumio  Divino:-^ 
De  CoUOf  etc  See  Witte,  Diarium  Biographicum ;  J&- 
cher,  Allgemeinea  Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Wire,  LuDwio,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Zurich  in  1756,  and  died  at  Monch-Altdorf,  in  Swits- 
erland,  May  29, 1816.  He  is  the  author  of,  Heloetiache 
Kirchengeachichte  aua  Ilottinger'a  alterem  Werke  und 
andem  (iueUen  neu  bearbeitet  (Zurich,  1808-14,  4  vols.). 
See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  809.     (B.  P.) 

Wisdom  OF  God  is  that  grand  attribute  of  his 
nature  by  which  he  knows  and  orders  all  things  for  the 
promotion  of  his  glory  and  the  good  of  his  creatures. 
It  is  that  perfection  of  God,  by  virtue  of  which  he  re- 
alizes the  highest  designs  by  the  use  of  best  means. 


The  assertion  of  Spinosa  and  Stnusa,  that  no  design  si 
all  can  be  ascribed  to  God,  is  connected  with  the  psn- 
theistie  idea  of  the  impersonality  of  God.  Certainly 
there  does  not  exist  for  the  infinite  understanding  the 
opposition,  nor  even  the  great  disparity,  between  meani 
and  ends,  which  so  frequently  hinder  us.  The  ezdu- 
sion  here  of  the  idea  of  dengn  is  the  exclusion  of  the 
idea  that  God  is  a  Spirit  who  thinks  and  wiUs.  As  such 
he  must  not  only  be  the  All- wise,  but  also  the  Only-wiie 
One,  in  comparison  with  whom  all  human  wisdom  is  ss 
nothing.  Holy  Scripture  also  presents  him  to  us  pie- 
dsely  in  this  light  (1  Tim.  i,  17),  He  is  a  God  vho 
not  only  possesses  in  himself  wisdom  in  perfection  (Ptot. 
viii,  22),  but  communicates  it  to  others  (James  i,  5), 
and  pooseases  a  manifold  wisdom  manifest  for  the  eye 
of  angels,  although  for  that  of  man  unsearchable  (Epbct. 
iii,10;  Rom.xi,88). 

This  wisdom  appears  in  all  the  works  of  God*s  handi 
(Psa.  civ,  24) ;  in  the  dispensations  of  his  providenee 
(xGvii,  1,2);  in  the  work  of  redemption  (Eph.  iii,  10); 
in  the  government  and  preservation  of  his  Church  ia 
all  ages  (Psa.  cvii,  7%  This  doctrine  should  teach  us  sd- 
miration  (Rev.  xv,  8, 4);  trust  and  confidence  (Fliz, 
10) ;  prayer  (Prov.  iii,  5,  6);  submission  (Heb.  zii,  9); 
praise  (Psa.  ciii,  1, 4).  See  Charaock,  Worka,  toL  i; 
Saurin,  Sermona,  i,  167,  Engl,  tnmsl. ;  Gill,  Divimtf,  i, 
98;  Aberaetby,  Sermona,  vol.  i,  ser.  10;  Ray,  Wiadm 
of  God  M  Creation ;  Paley»  Natural  Theology, 

In  Prov.  viii,  12-86,  we  have  a  beautifiU  and  poctie 
personification  of  divine  wisdom.  Some  undentsnd 
wisdom  here  to  be  the  same  as  the  Logoa  (q.  v.)  ot 
Word,  mentioned  in  John  i,  1, 14.  We  only  need  ob- 
serve here  that  wisdom,  in  the  passage  mentioned,  is 
spoken  of  as  an  attribute  and  not  a  peraon ;  a  virtue, 
and  not  a  concrete  being.  See  the  article  foUowiog. 
The  term  wisdom  is  used  of  the  divine  wisdom  ss  re- 
vealed in  and  by  Christ  (Matt  xi,  19;  Luke  vii,87; 
xi,  49;  Mark  vi,  2);  also  of  Christ  himself,  as  the  lu- 
thor  and  source  of  wisdom  (1  Cot,  i.  80).  See  BiklMh 
theca  Sacra,  April,  1858 ;  July,  1858. 

WlBdom  PxnaomFivD.  The  foandatioo  of  this 
view  is  to  be  found  in  the  book  of  Proverbs,  where  (viii) 
wisdom  {Chohmdh)  is  represented  as  present  with  God 
before  (viii,  22)  and  during  the  creation  of  the  world. 
So  far  it  appears  only  as  a  principle  regulating  the  le- 
tion  of  the  Creator,  though  even  in  this  way  it  esUb- 
lishes  a  close  connection  between  the  world,  as  the  oot- 
ward  expression  of  wisdom,  and  God.  Moreover,  by  the 
personification  of  wisdom,  and  the  relation  of  vi«lom 
to  men  (viii,  81),  a  preparation  is  made  for  the  extension 
of  the  doctrine.  This  appears,  after  a  long  intenrsl,  in 
Ecdesiasticus.  In  the  great  description  of  wisdom 
given  in  that  book  (xxiv),  wisdom  is  represented  «i  • 
creation  of  Grod  (xxiv,  9),  penetrating  the  whole  uni- 
verse (4-6),  and  taking  up  her  special  abode  with  the 
chosen  people  (8-12).  Her  personal  existence  and  prov- 
idential function  are  thus  distinctly  brought  oat  In 
the  book  of  Wisdom  the  conception  gains  yet  farther 
completeness.  In  this,  wisdom  is  identified  with  the 
Spirit  of  God  (ix,  17)— an  identification  half  implied  in 
Eoclus.  xxiv,  8 — which  brooded  over  the  elements  of  the 
unformed  world  (ix,  9),  and  inspired  the  prophets  (rii, 
7, 27).  She  is  the  power  which  unites  (i,  7)  and  directs 
all  things  (viii,  1).  By  her,  in  eapedal,  men  have  fel- 
lowship with  God  (xii,  1) ;  and  her  action  ia  not  confined 
to  any  period,  for  *<in  all  ages  entering  into  holy  aonls, 
she  maketh  them  friends  of  God  and  prophets  "  (rii,  27). 
So  also  her  working,  in  the  providential  history  of  God's 
people,  is  traced  at  length  (x);  and  her  power  is  de- 
daied  to  reach  beyond  the  woiid  of  man  into  that  of 
spirits  (vii,  28).    See  EoctBStAsnciTS. 

The  conception  of  wisdom,  however  boldly  penooi- 
fied,  yet  leaves  a  wide  chasm  between  the  world  and 
the  Creator.  Wisdom  answers  to  the  idea  of  a  spirit 
vivifjrittg  and  uniting  all  things  in  all  time,  as  distin- 
gnished  from  any  special  outward  revelation  of  the  di- 
vine person.    Thus,  at  the  same  time  that  the  doetrioi 


WISE 


949 


WISLICENUS 


of  wisdom  wis  gradually  oonstnicted,  the  oonelative  doe> 
trine  of  the  dtTine  utterance  was  also  reduced  to  a  definite 
shape.  The  word  {Memrd),  the  divine  expression,  as 
it  was  understood  in  Palestinei  furnished  the  exact  com- 
plement to  wisdom,  the  divine  thought:  but  the  am- 
biguity of  the  Greek  Logos  (termOf  raiw)  introduced 
considerable  confusion  into  the  later  treatment  of  the 
two  ideas.  Broadly,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
Word  properly  represented  the  mediative  element  in 
the  action  of  God,  Witdom  the  mediative  element  of 
his  omnipresence.  Thus,  according  to  the  later  dis> 
tinction  of  Philo,  wisdom  corresponds  to  the  immaneiU 
word  (Adyoc  Mid^tro^),  while  the  word,  strictly 
speaking,  was  defined  as  enundative  {A6yoc  wpo^opc- 
ffdc).  Both  ideas  are  included  in  the  language  of  the 
prophets,  and  both  found  a  natural  development  in  Pal- 
estine and  Egypt  The  one  prepared  men  for  the  rev- 
elation of  the  Son  of  Grod,  the  other  for  the  revelation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,    See  Logos. 

The  book  of  the  Pseudo-Solomon,  which  gives  the 
most  complete  view  of  divine  wisdom,  contains  only 
two  passages  in  which  the  word  is  invested  with  the 
attributes  of  personal  action  ( Wisd.  of  SoL  xvi,  12 ; 
xviii,  15;  ix,  1  is  of  different  character).  These,  how- 
ever, are  sufficient  to  indicate  that  the  two  powers  were 
distinguished  by  the  writer;  and  it  has  been  com- 
monly argued  that  the  superior  prominence  given  in 
the  biook  to  the  conception  of  wisdom  is  an  indication 
of  a  date  anterior  to  Philo.  Nor  is  this  conclusion  un- 
reasonable, if  it  is  probably  established  on  independent 
grounds  that  the  book  is  of  Alexandrian  origin.  But  it 
is  no  less  important  to  observe  that  the  doctrine  of  wis- 
dom in  itself  is  no  proof  of  this.  There  is  nothing  in 
the  direct  teaching  on  this  subject  which  might  not 
have  arisen  in  Palestine,  and  it  is  necessary  that  we 
should  recur  to  the  more  special  traits  of  Alexandrian 
thought  in  the  book  which  have  been  noticed  before 
(§  6)  for  the  primary  evidence  of  its  Alexandrian  or- 
igin ;  and  starting  from  this  there  appears  to  be,  so  far 
as  can  be  judged  from  the  imperfect  materials  at  our 
command,  a  greater  affinity  in  the ybrm  of  the  doctrine 
on  wisdom  to  the  teaching  of  Alexandria  than  to  that 
of  Palestine  (comp.  £wakl,(?e«cAtc/</«,  iv,  548  fol. ;  Welte, 
EifUeitunffy  p.  161  sq.,  has  some  good  criticisms  on  many 
supposeil  traces  of  Alexandrian  doctrine  in  the  book, 
but  errs  in  denying  all).    See  Wisdou  of  Solomon. 

The  doctrine  of  the  divine  wisdom  passes  by  a  tran- 
sition, often  imperceptible,  to  that  of  human  wisdom, 
which  is  derived  from  it.  This  embraces  not  only  the 
whole  range  of  moral  and  spiritual  virtues,  but  also  the 
various  branches  of  physical  knowledge.  In  this  aspect 
the  enumeration  of  the  great  forms  of  natural  science  in 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  vii,  17-20  (viii,  8),  offers  a  most 
instructive  subject  of  comparison  with  the  correspond- 
ing passages  in  1  Kings  iv,  82-34.  In  addition  to  the 
subjects  on  which  Solomon  wrote  (Songs,  Proverbs: 
plants,  beasts,  fowls,  creeping  things,  fishes),  cosmol- 
ogy, meteorology,  astronomy,  psychology,  and  even 
the  elements  of  the  philosophy  of  history  (Wisd.  viii, 
8),  are  included  among  the  gifts  of  wisdom.  So  far, 
then,  the  thoughtful  Jew  had  already  at  the  Christian 
sera  penetrated  into  the  domain  of  speculation  and  in- 
quiry, into  each  province,  it  would  seem,  which  was 
then  recognised,  without  abandoning  the  simple  faith 
of  his  nation.  The  fact  itself  is  most  significant;  and 
the  whole  book  may  be  quoted  as  furnishing  an  impor- 
tant corrective  to  the  later  iloman  descriptions  of  the 
Jews,  which  were  drawn  from  the  people  when  they 
had  been  almost  uncivilized  by  the  excitement  of  the 
last  desperate  struggle  for  national  existence.  See 
Bruch,  Die  Weuheitslehre  der  Hebrder  (1851).-^Smith, 

S.  V.      Comp.  PlilLOSOPHT. 

Wise  (DSn,  chdkdm,  oo^oq).  The  Hebrew  word, 
D*^63n,  chakamim^  rendered  ''  wise  men  *'  (Gen.  xli,  8 ; 
Exod.  vii,  11 ;  Eccles.  ix,  17 ;  Jer.  1, 85 ;  Esth.  i,  18)  not 
only  signifies  men  celebrated  for  wiadAm,  magi^  but  also 


ffici^ictafia  or  enchanters.  See  Maoic.  The  feminine 
of  the  same  term,  i^^sn,  ehakmdh^  is  used  for  a  "  wise 
woman,*'  one  noted  for  cunning  or  akiU  (2  Sam.  xiv,  2 ; 
XX,  16).  See  Witch.  The  Hebrew  word  D'^aanij,^ 
ckartummim^  rendered  "  magicians  "  (  Gen.  xli,  8,  24 ; 
Exod.  vii,  11,  22 ;  viii,  7, 18, 19 ;  ix,  11 ;  Dan.  i,  20 ;  ii, 
21),  properly  signifies  sacred  scribes,  skilled  in  the  sa- 
cred writing  or  hieroglyphics;  and  is  applied  to  a  class 
of  £g3rptian  priests;  and  also  to  the  magi  of  Babylon 
and  Persia.  See  Magi.  In  Hatt  ii,  1-16,  the  Greek 
term  is  fiayog,  having  the  same  significance.  See 
Star  in  the  East. 

JFfiae,  Franois,  an  English  clergyman,  was  bom 
at  Oxford  in  1695.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1718 ;  was  assistant  to 
the  Bodleian  librarian  in  1717;  afterwards  presented 
to  the  living  of  EUesfield,  near  Oxford ;  custos  archi- 
vorum  in  1726 ;  became  rector  of  Rotherfield  Greys  in 
1745 ;  Radcliffe  librarUn  in  1748 ;  and  died  Oct  6, 1767. 
He  published.  Annates  Benim  Gtstarum  A£lfredi  Mag^ 
m  (1722)  : — JCpistola  ad  Joatmem  Masson  de  Nummo 
Abgari  liegis  (1786) ;— i4  Letter  to  Dr,  Mead  Concern- 
ing some  A  rUiquities  in  Berkshire,  etc.  (1788)  '.^History 
and  Chronology  of  the  Fabulous  Ages,  Considered  Par- 
ticuhrlg  with  Regard  to  the  Two  Ancient  Deities,  Bac- 
chus  and  Hercules  (1764),  and  other  works.  See  Chal- 
mers, Biog.  Diet,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  s.  V. 

Wise,  Miohael,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  Eng- 
lish Church-music  composers,  was  born  in  Wiltshire 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  He  was  among 
the  first  set  of  children  chosen  at  the  Chapel  Royal  after 
the  Restoration;  became  organist  and  master  of  the 
choristers  in  the  cathedral  of  Salisbury  in  1668 ;  was 
appointed  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  1675 ;  and 
was  made  almoner  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1686. 
Quitting  his  boose  at  night  in  a  state  of  great  irrita- 
tion, he  was  stopped  by  the  watchman,  with  whom  he 
entered  into  a  quarrel,  and  was  killed  in  the  affray,  in 
August,  1687.  His  anthems,  **  Awake  up,  my  Glory,** 
"Prepare  ye  the  Way  of  the  Lord,"  and  "The  Ways 
of  Zion  do  Mourn,"  are  still  listened  to  with  admiration. 

Wiaeheart,  the  family  name  of  several  Scotch 
prelates. 

1.  Georob,  was  minister  at  North  Leith,  and  de- 
posed in  1688  for  refusing  to  take  the  covenant.  He 
went  to  England  in  1660,  and  soon  after  had  the  rectory 
of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  conferred  upon  him.  Upon 
the  restoration  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  he  was  pre- 
ferred to  the  see  of  Edinburgh,  into  which  he  was  con- 
secrated, June  1,  1662,  at  St.  Andrews.  He  died  in 
1671.     See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  62. 

2.  John,  came  into  the  see  of  Glasgow  in  1819.  He 
was  an  enemy  to  the  English  interest  in  Scotland.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  and  confined  in  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don, April  6, 1820,  but  was  probably  released  in  1822. 
He  died  in  1825.    See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  248. 

k  3.  Robert,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Glai^g^ow  in 
"1272.  In  1296  he  swore  fealty  to  king  Edward  I  of 
England.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
regency  in  1286,  and  died  Nov.  1, 1816.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops,  p.  241. 

4.  William,  was  archdeacon  of  St.  Andrews  and 
lord  high-chancellor.  He  was  elected  to  the  see  of 
Glasgow  in  1270,  and  afterwards  to  that  of  St.  Andrews. 
See  Keith,  ScoUish  Bishops,  p.  241. 

WlBlicentis,  Adolf  Timotheiui,  formeriy  a 
leader  of  the  free-religious  movement  in  Germany,  and 
speaker  of  the  society  at  Berlin,  who  died  at  Dresden, 
March  27,  1888,  is  the  author  of,  Beitrag  zur  Beani- 
wortung  der  Frage:  Ob  Schriftf  Ob  Geistf  (Leipsic, 
1845)  : — Christus  in  der  Kirche:  todf,  erstehend  vnd  er- 
stcmden  (eod.): — Zur  Veriheidigung  derfreien  Gemeinde 
(Halberstadt,  ie(&2),  etc.  See  Zuchold,  Bibl,  Theol  s.  v. 
|(RP.) 


WISLICENCS 


950 


WITCH  OF.  ENDOR 


.  WiBlio«iin%  OtuUT  Adol(  «. liberal  Prntct* 
tant  theologian  of  GenDany,.wa8  bom  Nov.  20, 1808,  at 
BatUume,  near  Eilenburg.  He  atadied  at  Halle,  and 
while  yet  a  stndent  vas  seDtenced,  in  1824,  to  prison 
for  twelve  years  on  account  of  demagogical  intrigues. 
Having  been  pardoned  after  five  yean*  imprisonment, 
he  resomed  his  studies  at  Berlin  in  1829,  in  1884  was 
appointed  pastor  niear  Querfart,  and  in  1841  was  called 
to  Halle.  Hftving  become  a  member  of  the  "  friends 
of  light,"  he  lectured  in  their  behalf  on  May  29, 1844, 
at  Kotben.  Professor  Gaericke,then  at  Halle,  de- 
nounced him  before  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  in 
consequence  of  which  Wialicenus  published  his  Ob 
^chrijlt  Ob  Geistt  (Leipsic;  4th  ed.  1846).  In 
1846  Wislicenus  was  deposiBd  of  his  office^  and  wrote 
Z>M  AmtMenttetxuBg  (ibid.  1846).  He  now  preached  to 
a  congregation  of  so-called  "free. members"  at  Halle, 
and  idler  the  poblicatiou  of  Die  Bibei  tm  LichU  der 
BUdung  umatr  Zeii  (Magdeburg  and  Lubeck,  1858), 
he  left  for  America,  and  lectured  in  New  York  in  1864^ 
At  Hoboken  he  founded  an  academy,  which  he  left,  in 
^856,  for  Switzerland,  where  he  also  founded  an  acad- 
emy at  Zurich.  He  soon  retired  fur  literary  pursuits 
to  Flonteni,  where  he  died,  Oct.  14, 1875.  Besides  the 
publications  mentioned  already,  he  wrote,  Nachrichien 
&)er  die  frtU  Gemeinde  in  ffaUe  (Halle,  1847)  i—Bei^ 
trage  zur  Fdrdarvmg  der  Beligian  der  Meiuchliehheit 
(ibid.  1850):— ilM  Amerika  (Leipsic,  1854)  :—/>m  Bi^ 
hel  fur  denkende  Leaer  (ibid.  1868-64,  2  vols. ;  2d  ed. 
ISSQ^i—ErUweder^Oder  {Zurich^  1968)  i^Gegenwart 
und  Ztikunft  der  ReUgion  (Leipsic,  1878).  See  Zuchold, 
BiU,  Tkeol,  ii,  1459  sq. ;  Theologi§(^  irmvereaUexihm, 
s.  V. ;  Literaritcher  Handweiter^  1875,  p.  488.     (0.  P.) 

Wlsflowatius,  AsDRKAB,  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent Socinians,  and  grandson  of  F.  Socinus,  was  bom  in 
1608  at  Philippovien,  in  Lithuania.  For  many  years 
he  was  pastor  of  different  Socinian  congregations  in 
Poland.  He  died  in  Holland  in  1678.  Of  his  sixty- 
two  writings  we  mention,  ReUgio  Raiumalit  (1685)  :— 
Stimuli  Virtutum  Freni  Peceaior  (Amsterdam,  1682). 
He  edited  the  BiUiatheca  Frairum  PoUmorum,  and  the 
Racoovian  CaUchitm.  Leibnitx  wrote  against  him  a 
treatise  on  the  Trinity.  See  Winer,  ffandbuch  der 
theoL  Lit.  i,  808,  874,  485 ;  Theohgitchee  UniveraaUexi" 
kottj  B.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Witoh  or  Ekdob  (Heb.  rra  niK-M^va  noK 

»  *        •  •  • 

*^1'n,  1  Sam.  xzviii,  7 ;  lit.  a  vommi,  mitireet  of  an  Ob 

in  En'Dor;  Sept  yvvii  iyyavrpifitfdoc  iv  'Eviittp; 
Vulg.  nutlier pyAonem  habent  in  Endor;  A.V.  "a  wom- 
an that  hath  a  familiar  spirit  in  Endor  ").  The  story 
of  **  the  witch  of  Endor,"  as  she  is  commonly  but  im- 
properly called,  is  usually  referred  to  magical  power. 
She,  however,  belongs  to  another  class  of  pretenders  to 
supernatural  powers.  See  Diyiication.  She  was  a 
necromancer^  or  one  of  those  persons  who  pretended  to 
call  up  the  spirita  of  the  dead  to  converse  with  the  liv- 
ing (Isa.  viii,  19;  xzix,  4;  Ixv,  8).  A  full  account  is 
friven  of  such  perM>ns  by  Locan  (vi,  591,  etc),  and  by 
Tibullus  (i,  2;  v,45),  where  the  pretensions  of  the  sor- 
ceress are  thus  described — 

*'HiGc  cantn  flnditqne  solnm,  Manesqne  sepnicbris 
Elicit,  et  tepldo  devocat  ossa  rogo." 

Of  much  the  same  chacacter  is  the  sibyl  in  the  sixth 
book  of  Yirgirs  jEneid,  For  the  pretended  modem 
instances  of  such  intercourse,  see  Spiritualtbm. 

It  is  related  as  the  last  and  crowning  act  of  SauPs  re- 
bellion against  God,  that  he  consulted  such  a  person,  an 
act  forbidden  by  the  divine  law  (Lev.  xx,  6),  which  sen- 
tenced the  pretenders  to  such  a  power  to  death  (ver. 
27),  and  which  law  Saul  himself  had  recently  enforced 
(1  Sam.  xxviii,  8,  9),  because,  it  is  supposed,  they  had 
freely  predicted  his  approaching  ruin ;  although,  after 
the  well-known  prophecies  of  Samuel  to  that  effect,  the 
disasters  Saul  had  already  encountered,  and  the  grow- 
ing influence  of  David,  there  "  needed  no  ghost  to  come 
from  the  grave  to  tell  them  this."    Various  explana^ 


tloda  otthlt  itory  hive  been  offered.    See  Necmkax- 


1.  It  baa  been  attempted  to  resolve  the  whole  bto 
Mi/wfters  and  eolktaion,  Saul,  who  was  natnially  a 
weak  and  excitable  man,  bad  become,  thioagh  a  loDg 
series  of  vexations  wad  anxietiea,  absolutely  **  deUriooi," 
aa  Patrick  observes:  ^'he  was  afiraid  and  hia  heart 
greatly  trembled,"  aays  the  aacred  writer.  In  thb  stats 
of  mind,  and  apon  the  wry  eve  of  his  last  battle,  he 
QommiasionsbiaoamaBnraNet  to  seek  him  awonan  pos- 
sessing  a  familiar  spirit,  and,  attended  by  two  of  them, 
he  comea  to  her  **  by  night,"  the  moat  favorable  time  for 
impoeition.  He  oonverses  with  her  alone,  his  two  at- 
tendants, whether  his  secret  enemies  or  real  fnendt, 
being  absent,  eomewkere^  yet,  however,  doae  at  hand. 
Might  not  one  of  these,  or  some  one  else,  have  agreed 
with  the  woman  to  personate  Samuel  in  another  room? 
-*for  it  appeara  that  SanI,  though  be  spoke  with,  did 
not  tee  the  ghost  (ver.  18, 14) :  who,  it  should  be  ob> 
served,  told  him  nothing  but  what  his  own  attendsott 
could  have  told  him,  with  the  exception  of  these  woida, 
M  to-moirow  shalt  thou  and  thy  sons  be  with  me"  (ver. 
19);  to  which,  however,  it  is  replied,  that  Saal*s  death 
did  not  occur  upon  the  morrow,  and  that  tiie  word  so 
translated  ia  sufficiently  ambiguous,  for  though  "ilTO 
means  **  to-morrow  "  in  some  passages,  it  means  the  fut- 
ure, indefinitely,  in  others  (Exod.  xiii,  14,  and  see  the 
margin;  Josh. iv,  6, 21  ^  comp.  Matt,  vi,  84).  It  is  fur- 
ther ur£^  that  her  <*  crying  with  a  loud  voice,**  and 
her  telling  Saul,  at  the  same  time,  that  ahe  knew  him, 
were  the  well-timed  arts  of  the  sorceress,  intended  to 
magnify  her  pretended  skill. 

It  is,  however,  objected  against  this,  or  any  other 
hypothesis  of  collusion,  that  the  sacred  writer  not  only 
represents  the  pythoness  as  affirming,  but  also  himeelf 
affirms,  that  she  saw  Samuel,  and  that  Samuel  spoke  to 
Saul,  nor  does  he  drop  the  least  hint  that  it  was  not 
the  real  Samuel  of  whom  he  was  speaking. 

2.  The  same  objections  apply  equally  to  the  theory 
of  ventriloqviem,  which  has  been  grounded  upon  the 
word  used  by  the  Sept.,  iffaorpiii^oQ, 

3.  Others  have  given  a  Uieral  imterprelation  of  the 
story,  and  have  roainuined  that  Samuel  acttuUy  ap- 
peared to  Saul.  Justin  Martyr  advocates  this  thooiy, 
and,  in  hb  dialogue  with  Trypho  the  Jew,  urges  this 
incident  in  proof  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  (p.  333). 
The  same  view  is  taken  in  the  additions  to  the  Sept. 
in  1  Chron.  x,  18,  cac  inrtKpivaro  avr^  Sa/ioin}X  6 
trpo^iiniCi  and  in  Eodus.  3dvi,  9,  20,  it  is  said,  "and 
after  his  death  Samuel  prophesied,  and  showed  the 
king  his  end,"  etc.  Such  also  is  the  view  Josepbus 
takes  {Aniiq.  vi,  14, 8,  4),  where  he  bestows  a  Ubored 
eulogium  upon  the  woman. 

It  is,  however,  objected  that  the  actual  appearance 
of  Samuel  is  inconsistent  with  all  we  are  taught  by 
revelation  concerning  the  state  of  the  dead ;  involves 
the  possibility  of  a  spirit  or  soul  assuming  a  corporeal 
shape,  conversing  audibly,  etc. ;  and,  further,  that  it  is 
incredible  that  God  would  submit  the  departed  eools 
of  his  ser\'ant8  to  be  summoned  back  to  earth,  by  rites 
either  utterly  futile,  or  else  deriving  their  efficacy  from 
the  co-operation  of  Satan.  So  TertuUian  argues  {De 
Animd^  cap.  Ivii),  and  many  others  of  the  ancients. 

4.  Others  have  supposed  that  the  woman  induced  St- 
tan  or  some  evil  spirit  to  personate  SamueL  But  this 
theory,  besides  other  difficulties,  attributes  nothing  leas 
than  miraculous  power  to  the  devil;  for  it  supposes  the 
apparition  of  a  spiritual  and  incorporeal  being,  and  that 
Satan  can  assume  the  appearance  of  any  one  he  pleases. 
Again,  the  historian  (ver.  14)  calls  this  appearance  to 
Saul,  Kin  bKltav, «  Samuel  kimetlf'*  (the  latter  word 
ia  entirely  omitted  by  our  translators) ;  which  he  eeold 
not  with  truth  have  done  if  it  were  no  other  than  the 
devil;  who,  besides,  is  here  represented  ss  the  severe 
reprover  of  Saul's  impiety  and  wickedness.  The  ad- 
mission that  Satan  or  an  evil  spirit  could  thns  personstc 


WITCHCRAFT 


051 


WITCHCRAFT 


An  individual  at  pleatore,  woaM  endanger  the  strongest 
evidences  of  Christianity. 

5.  Others  have  maintained  another  interpretation, 
which  appears  to  os  at  once  tenable,  and  oountenanoed 
by  similar  narratives  in  Scripture;  namely,  that  the 
whole  account  is  the  narrative  of  a  miracle,  a  divine 
wpresenttUion  or  impreitiot^  partly  upon  the  senses  of 
Saul,  and  partly  upon  those  of  the  woman,  and  intend- 
ed for  the  rebuke  and  punishment  of  SaoL  It  is  urged, 
from  the  air  of  the  narrative  in  verses  11, 12,  that  Sam- 
uel appeared  before  the  woman  had  any  time  for  jug- 
glery,  fumigations,  etc ;  for  although  the  word  ^  when  ** 
(ver.  12)  is  speciously  printed  in  Koman  characters,  it 
has  nothing  to  answer  to  it  in  the  original,  which. reads 
simply  thus,  beginning  at  verse  11:  *'Tben  said  the 
woman,  Whom  shall  I  bring  up  unto  thee?  And  he 
said.  Bring  me  up  SamueL  And  the  woman  saw  Sam- 
uel, and  cried  with  a  loud  voice.'*  No  sooner  then  had 
Saul  said,  *'  Bring  me  up  Samuel,**  than  Samuel  himself 
was  presented  to  her  mind — an  event  so  contrary  to 
her  expectation  that  she  cried  out  with  terror.  At  the 
same  time,  and  by  the  same  miraculous  means,  she  was 
made  aware  of  the  royal  dignity  of  her  visitant.  The 
vision  then  continues  in  the  mind  of  Saul,  who  thereby 
receives  his  lost  reproof  from  heaven,  and  hears  the 
sentence  of  his  approaching  doom.  Ulins  God  inter- 
posed with  a  miracle  previously  to  the  use  of  any  mag- 
ical formuln,  as  he  did  when  the  king  of  Moab  had  re- 
ooutae  to  sorceries  to  overrule  the  mind  of  Balaam,  so 
that  he  was  compelled  to  bless  those  whom  Balak 
wanted  him  to  curse  (Numb,  xziii) ;  and  as  God  also 
interposed  when  Ahaziah  sent  to  consult  Baal-zebub 
his  god,  about  bis  recovery,  when  by  his  prophet  Elijah 
he  stopped  the  messengers,  reproved  their  master,  and 
foretfdd  hit  death  (2  Kings  i,  2,  16).  It  may  also 
be  observed  that  Saul  was  on  this  occasion  simply 
sentenced  to  the  death  he  had  justly  incurred  by  hav- 
ing recourse  to  those  means  which  he  knew  to  be  un- 
lawfuL  This  theory  concerning  the  narrative  of  Sam- 
ueFs  appearance  to  Saul  is  maintained  with  much 
learning  and  ingenuity  by  Hugh  Farmer  (^Diuertation 
on  MiradeSf  Lond.  1771,  p.  472,  etc).  It  is  adopted  by 
Dr.  Waterland  (Sermons^  ii,  267),  and  Dr.  Delaney,  in 
hiB  Life  of  David;  but  is  combated  by  Dr.  Chandler 
with  objections,  which  are,  however,  answered  or  obvi- 
ated by  Farmer.  This  last-named  writer  is  of  opinion 
that  the  suppression  of  the  word  '*  himself*'  (ver.  14), 
and  the  introduction  of  the  word  **  when  "  (ver.  12),  are 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  prejudices  of  our  translators.  If 
they  do  not  betray  a  bios  on  their  minds,  these  instances 
support  the  general  remark  of  bishop  Lowth,  upon  the 
English  translation,  '•  that  in  respect  of  the  sense,  and 
accuracy  of  interpretation,  the  improvements  of  which 
it  u  capable  are  great  and  numberless"  {Preiintinary 
DiaertaUon  to  Isaiah^  nd  finem  ).  —  Kitto,  s.  v.  See 
Saul. 

Witohoraft,  Biblical  Mention  of.  1.  The 
word  "witchcraft"  occurs  in  the  A.V.  as  a  translation 
of  quia,  kesheph  (but  only  in  the  plur.),  in  2  Kings  ix, 
22;  Isa.  xlvii,  9, 12;  Mic  v,  12  i  Nah.  Ui,  4  (Sept.  ^ap- 
/Minia,  ^apfttuca;  Vulg.  veneficium^  mcdejicium).  In 
the  Apocrypha  "witchcraft,"  "sorcery,"  occur  as  ren- 
derings of  ^apfjuuuia  (Wisd.  xii,  4;  xviii,  18),  and  in 
the  New  Test.  (GaL  v,  20;  Bev.  ix,  21 ;  xviii,  23).  As 
a  verb  S)1S3,  kishthiph, "  he  used  witchcraft,"  occurs  in 
2  Chron.  xxziii,  6  (Sept  l^apfiaictvtro ;  Vulg.  maleficit 
arUbus  uuerviAai'),  This  verb,  in  Arabic,  signifies  "  to 
reveal"  or  "discover;"  in  Syriac  ethpaalj  according  to 
Gesenius,  "to  pray;"  but  this  word,  he  observes,  like 
many  other  sacred  terms  of  the  Syrians,  as  D'^ICS  bsa, 
etc,  is  restricted  by  the  Hebrews  to  idolatrous  services; 
hence  tfOZ  meant  "  to  practice  magic,"  literoUy  "  to 
pronounce  or  mutter  spells."  The  word  ^pfi€u:6g  is  con- 
nected with  papfiaKivWfto  administer  or  apply  medicines 
as  remedies  or  poisons,  to  oae  magical  herbs,  drugs,  or 


substances,  supposed  to  derive  their  efficacy  from  mag- 
ical spells,  and  thence  to  use  spells,  conjurations,  or  en- 
chantments; hence  ^pftacdc  means,  in  the  classical 
writers,  a  preparer  of  drugs,  but  generally  of  poisons, 
or  drugs  that  operate  by  the  force  of  magical  charms, 
and  thence  a  magician,  an  enchanter,  of  either  tex.  It 
occura  in  the  latter  sense  in  Josephus  (a  ni,  xvii,  4, 1),  and 
is  applied  by  him  to  m  female,  n/v  fiijripa  aifvov  0af>- 
fiOKov  Kal  iroptmiv  axoKaXivat  (ibid,  ix,  6,  8).  This 
word  also  answera  in  the  Sept  to  Q*^Ql3"in,  "magi- 
cians "  (Exod.  ix,  1 1),  ^pfAOKOi,  malefcu  The  received 
text  of  Bev.  xxi,  8  reads  papfianvc ;  but  the  Alexan- 
drian, and  sixteen  later  MSS.,  with  several  printed  edi- 
tions, have  ^apfiaxSc,  a  reading  embraced  by  Wetstein, 
and  by  Griesbach  received  into  the  text  ^apfianv^ 
occun  in  the  same  sense  as  ^apfMKoq  in  Lucian  {^DiaL 
Dear,  xiii,  1 ;  Joseph.  Life,  §  81).  The  word  (papfiaictia 
i^  used  of  Circe  by  Aristophanes  (Plut.  p.  302),  and  in 
the  same  sense  of  enchantment,  etc,  by  Polybius  (vi, 
13,  4;  xl,  3,  7).  It  corresponds  in  the  Sept  to  D'^isb, 
D'^anb, "  enchantments  "  (Exod.  vii,  11 ,  22).    The  verb 

^pfiaxivu  is  employed  in  the  sense  of  using  enchant- 
ments by  Herodotus  (vii^l  14),  saying  that  when  Xerxes 
came  to  the  river  Strymon,  the  magi  sacrificed  white 
horses  to  it. 

Some  other  mis-translations  occur  in  reference  to 
this  subject  In  1  Sam.  xv,  23,  "rebellion  is  as  the 
sin  of  witchcraft,"  should  be  of  "divination."  In  Dent 
xviii,  10,  the  word  P]^3S»  mekashshephf  does  not  mean 
"witch,"  but,  being  masculine,  "a  sorcerer."  In  Acts 
viii,  9,  the  translation  is  exceedingly  apt  to  mislead  the 
mere  English  reader :  "  Simon  used  sorcery,  and  be- 
witched the  people  of  Samaria" — ^fiwv  wpovvfjpxip 
iv  ry  irdXct  fiaywutv  Kai  i^toTiov  to  £dvoc  riji  Da/Mt- 
paae — L  e. "  Simon  had  been  punning  magic,  and  per- 
plexing (or  astonishing)  the  people,"  etc  See  also  ver. 
11,  and  oomp*  the  use  of  the  word  iZi<mifUf  Matt,  xii, 
28.  In  Gal.  iii,  1,  "Foolish  Galatians,"  rii  vfiag  ifia- 
OKavt, "  who  hath  fascinated  you  ?"  (For  the  use  of  the 
words  PaoKavia  and  ^apfiania  in  magic,  among  the 
Greeks,  see  Votter,  A  rchceoloffia  Graca  [Lond.  1775], 
vol.  i,  ch.  xviii,  p.  366,  etc).  It  is  considered  by  some 
that  the  word  "  witchcraft"  is  used  metaphorically,  for 
the  allurements  of  pleasure  (Nah.  iii,  4  \  Rev.  xviii,  23), 
and  that  the  "  sorcerers"  mentioned  in  xxi,  8  may  mean 
sophisticaton  of  the  truth.  The  kindred  word  0ap- 
fioffou  is  used  by  metonomy,  as  signifying  "  to  charm," 
"  to  persuade  by  flattery,"  etc  (Plato,  Sympos,  §  17), "  to 
give  a  temper  to  metals  "  (0dtf»9,  ix,  393). 

2.  The  precise  idea,  if  any,  now  associated  with  the 
word  "witch,"  but,  however,  devoutly  entertained  by 
nearly  the  whole  nation  in  the  time  of  our  translators,  is 
that  of  a  female,  who,  by  the  agency  of  Satan,  or,  rather, 
of  a  familiar  spirit  or  gnome  appointed  by  Satan  to  at- 
tend on  her,  performs  operations  beyond  the  powers  of 
hunaanity,  in  oonsequence  of  her  compact  with  Satan, 
written  in  her  own  blood,  by  which  she  resigns  herself 
to  him  forever.  Among  other  advantages  resulting  to 
her  from  this  engagement  is  the  power  of  transforming 
herself  into  any  shape  she  pleases,  which  was,  however, 
generally  that  of  a  hare,  transporting  herself  through 
the  air  on  a  broomstick,  sailing  "on  the  sea  in  a  sieve," 
gliding  through  a  keyhole,  inflicting  diseases,  etc,  upon 
mankind  or  cattle.  The  belief  in  the  existence  of  such 
persons  cannot  be  traced  higher  than  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  was  probably  derived  from  the  wild  and  gloomy 
msrthology  of  the  Northern  nations,  among  whom  the 
"Fatal  Sisters,"  and  other  impersonations  of  destructive 
agency  in  a  female  form,  were  prominent  articles  of  the 
popular  creed.  This  oomparativcly  modem*  delusion 
was  strengthened  and  confirmed  by  the  translators  of 
the  Bible  into  the  Western  languages— a  popular  ver- 
sion of  the  original  text  having  led  people  to  suppose 
that  there  was  positive  evidence  for  the  existence  of 
such  beings  in  Scripture.  Bishop  Hutchinson  declares 
that  our  translators  accommodated  their  version  to  the 


WITCHCRAFT 


952 


WITCHCRAFT 


tenninology  of  king  James's  Tretaite  on  Demonologie 
{Encjfdop,  MetropolitunOf  an,  *'  Witch,*'  etc.)* 

8.  Avery  different  idea  was  conveyed  by  the  Hebrew 
word,  which  probably  denotes  a  sorceress  or  magician, 
who  pretended  to  discover,  and  even  to  direct,  the  ef- 
fects ascribed  to  the  operation  of  the  elements,  conjunc- 
tions of  the  stars,  the  influence  of  lucky  and  unlucky 
days,  the  power  of  invisible  spirits,  and  of  the  inferior 
deities  (Graves,  Lectures  on  the  Pen/ateuch  [Dublin, 
1829],  p.  109,  110).  Sir  Walter  Scott  well  observes 
that "  the  sorcery  or  witchcraft  of  the  Old  Test,  resolves 
itself  into  a  trafficking  with  idols  and  asking  counsel  of 
false  deities,  or,  in  other  words,  into  Idolatry  "  (T^ttert 
on  Jkmonology  and  Witchcraft  [Lond.  1830],  let.  2). 
Accordingly,  sorcery  is  in  Scripture  uniformly  associ- 
ated with  idolatry  (Dent  xviii,  9-14 ;  2  Kings  ix,  22 ; 
2  Chron.  xxxiii,  5, 6,  etc ;  Gal.  v,  20 ;  Bev.  xxi,  8).  The 
modem  idea  of  witchcraft,  as  involving  the  assistance 
of  Satan,  is  inconsistent  with  Scripture,  where,  as  in  the 
instance  of  Job,  Satan  is  represented  as  powerless  till 
God  gave  him  a  limited  commission ;  and  when  ^  Satan 
desired  to  sift  Peter  as  wheat,**  no  reference  is  made  to 
the  intervention  of  a  witch.  Nor  do  the  actual  refer- 
ences to  magic  in  Scripture  involve  its  reality.  The 
mischiefs  resulting  from  iYi^  pretention,  under  the  theoc- 
racy, to  an  art  which  involved  idolatry,  justified  the 
statute  which  denounced  it  with  death ;  though  instead 
of  the  unexampled  phrase  M^nn  Mb,  **  thou  shalt  not 
suffer  to  live,**  Michaelis  conjectures  n*^nn  Kb,  <* shall 
not  be"  (Exod.  xxii,  18),  which  also  better  suits  the 
paimllel,  *'  There  shall  not  be  found  among  3*ou,  etc.,  a 
witch"  (Deut  xviii,  10).  Indeed,  as  *'we  know  that 
an  idol  is  nothing  in  the  world,  and  that  there  is  none 
other  God  but  one  "  (1  Cor.  viii,  4),  we  must  believe  all 
pretensions  to  traffic  with  the  one,  or  ask  counsel  of  the 
other,  to  be  equally  vain.  Upon  the  same  principle  of 
suppressing  idolatry,  however,  the  prophets  of  Baal  also 
were  destroyed,  and  not  because  Baal  had  any  real  ex- 
istence, or  because  they  could  avail  anything  by  their 
invocations. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  more  intelligent  portion 
of  the  Jewish  community,  especially  in  later  times,  un- 
derstood the  emptiness  of  pretensions  to  magic  (see  Isa. 
xliv,  25 ;  xlvii,  11-15 ;  Jcr.  xiv,  14 ;  Jonah  ii,  8).  Plato 
evidently  considered  the  mischief  of  magic  to  consist  in 
the  tendency*  of  the  pretension  to  it,  and  not  in  the  real- 
ity (Z)«  Leg,  lib.  11).  pi  vination  of  all  kinds  had  fallen 
into  contempt  in  the  time  of  Cicero :  "  Dnbium  non  est 
quin  hiec  disciplina  et  ars  augunim  evanuerit  jam  et 
vetustate  et  negligentia**  {De  IjegAx,  18).  Joseph  us 
declares  that  he  laughed  at  the  very  idea  of  witchcraft 
(  VU,  §  31).  For  the  very  eariy  writers  who  maintained 
that  the  wonders  of  the  mogicians  were  not  supemat- 
nra),  see  Universal  Ilisf,  (8vo  ed.),  iii,  874. 

It  seems  safe  to  conclude  from  the  Septuagint  render- 
ings, and  their  identity  with  the  terms  used  by  classical 
writers,  that  the  pretended  exercise  of  this  art  in  an- 
cient times  was  accompanied  with  the  use  of  drugs,  or 
fumigations  made  of  them.  No  doubt  the  skilful  use 
of  certain  chemicals,  if  restricted  to  the  knowledge  of  a 
lew  persons,  might,  in  ages  unenlightened  by  science, 
along  with  other  resources  of  natural  magic,  be  made 
the  means  of  extensive  imposture.  The  natural  gases, 
exhalations,  etc.,  would  contribute  their  share,  as  appears 
from  the  ancient  account  of  the  origin  of  the  oracle  at 
Delphi.  See  Pythox.  The  real  mischiefs  ever  effected 
by  the  professors  of  magic  on  mankind,  etc,  may  be 
safely  ascribed  to  the  actual  administration  of  poison. 
Josepbus  states  a  case  of  poisoning  under  the  form  of  a 
philter  or  love-potion,  and  sa3rs  that  the  Arabian  wom- 
en were  reportckl  to  be  skilful  in  making  such  potions 
{Ant,  xvii,  4, 1).  Such  means  doubtless  constitute  the 
real  pemiciousness  of  the  African  species  of  witchcraft 
called  Obi,  the  similarity  of  which  word  to  the  Hebrew 
212(,  injlation,  is  remarkable.  Among  the  Sandvich- 
IslaQderSySoiae,  who  bad  professed  witchcraft,  confessed, 


after  their  conversion  to  Christianity,  that  they  had 
poisoned  their  victims.  The  death  of  sir  Thomas'Ovcr- 
bury  is  cited  as  an  instance  in  England,  by  sir  Walter 
Scott  (ut  sup.).  There  was,  indeed,  a.  wide  scope  for 
the  production  of  very  fantastic  effects,  short  of  death, 
by  such  means.->Kitto,  s.  v.    See  Maoic 

WITCHCRAFT,  in  Popular  Estimation,  is  the 
practice  and  powen  of  a  person  supposed  to  have  formed 
a  compact  with  Satan.  The  powen  deemed  to  be  pa»* 
sessed  by  the  witches,  and  the  rites  and  incantations  by 
which  they  acquired  those  powers,  were  substantially 
the  same  as  belonged  to  the  devotees  of  the  Greek 
Hecate,  the  Striga  and  Venefica  of  the  ancient  Romans, 
and  the  Vala  or  Wise  Woman  of  the  Teutonic  pagansi 
But  when,  along  with  the  knowledge  of  the  one  tme 
God,  the  idea  of  a  purely  wicked  spirit,  the  enemy  of 
God  and  man,  was  introduced,  it  was  natural  that  all 
supernatural  powers  not  proceeding  directly  from  the 
true  God  should  l>e  attributed  to  Satan.  Thia  gave  an 
entirely  new  aspect  to  such  arts;  they  l)ecame  associated 
with  heresy ;  those  who  practiced  them  must  be  in  com- 
pact with  the  devil,  and  have  renounced  God  and  the 
true  faith.  Previous  to  the  development  of  this  doctrine, 
if  a  witch  was  punished,  it  was  because  she  bad  been 
guilty,  or,  at  least,  was  believed  to  have  been  guilty,  of 
poisoning  or  some  other  actual  mischief.  Now,  however, 
such  power  was  only  the  power  to  work  evil ;  and  meivly 
to  be  a  witch  was  in  itself  a  sin  and  crime  that  filled  the 
pious  mind  with  horror.  This  feeling,  zealously  fostend, 
first  by  the  Catholic  clergy,  and  then  no  less  by  the 
Protestant,  rose  to  a  frenzy  that  for  four  centuries' filled 
Europe  with  the  most  shocking  bloodshed  and  cruelty. 

1.  The  creed  of  witchcraft,  in  its  full  development, 
involved  almost  all  the  notions  and  practices  previoasly 
connected  with  magic  and  sorcery.  What  was  iwir 
and  distinctive  in  the  witchcraft  of  Christendom  was 
the  theory  of  magical  arts  which  it  involved.  The  do^ 
trine  of  Satan,  as  finally  elaborated  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
esublished  in  the  world  a  rival  dominion  to  that  of  the 
Almighty.  The  arch-fiend  and  his  legions  of  soboidt- 
nate  dsemons  exercised  a  sway,  doubtless  only  permitted, 
but  still  vast  and  indefinite,  not  only  over  the  elements 
of  nature,  but  over  the  minds  and  bodies  of  men,  except 
those  who  had  been  admitted  to  the  number  of  the 
faithful,  and  were  guarded  by  the  faith  and  rites  of  the 
Church.  But  even  they  wera  not  altogether  exempt 
from  diabolical  annoyance,  for  the  protection  does  not 
seem  to  have  extended  to  their  belongings.  All  persons 
in  possession  of  these  supernatural  powen  (and  there 
was  no  doubt  of  their  existence  in  all  ages)  must,  there- 
fore, have  derived  them  from  the  prince  of  darkiic»| 
and  be  acting  under  his  agency— excepting,  of  course, 
those  miraculous  powen  which  had  been  bnitowcd  upon 
the  Church  directly  by  Heaven.  But  Satan,  bestowing 
these  powers,  was  supposed  to  demand  an  equivalent; 
hence  it  came  to  be  the  established  belief  that,  in  order 
to  acquire  the  powen  of  witchcraft,  the  person  vast 
formally  sell  his  or  her  soul  to  the  deviL  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  the  early  view.  Bfagicians  had  been  dili- 
gent students  of  their  art.  Alchemists,  astronomers, 
and  astrologen  had  searched  into  the  hidden  things  of 
nature  as  deeply  as  circumstances  would  permit.  The 
higher  kind  of  European  magic  in  the  Middle  Ages  was 
mixed  up  with  what  physical  science  there  then  was; 
and  the  most  noted  men  of  the  time  were  addicted  to 
the  pursuit,  or  were,  at  least,  reputed  to  be  so.  So  far 
from  deriving  their  power  from  the  kingdom  of  dark- 
ness, the  scientific  magician,  by  the  mere  force  of  his 
art,  could  compel  the  occasional  services  of  Satan  him- 
self, and  make  inferior  dssmons  the  involuntary  slaves 
of  his  will.  A  belief,  however,  had  'early  existed  that 
individuals  in  desperate  circumstances  had  been  ten^ited 
to  purchase,  at  the  price  of  their  own  souls,  the  help  of 
the  devil  to  extricate  them  from  their  difficulties;  and 
hence  the  suspicion  began  to  gain  adherence  that  many 
magicians,  instead  of  seeking  to  acquire  their  power  by 
the  laborious  studies  of  the  regular  art,  had  acquired  it 


WITCHCRAFT 


953 


WITCHCRAFT 


in  this  illegitimate  way.  The  chief  cause  of  the  prom- 
inent part  in  this  matter  assigned  to  females,  particu- 
larly old,  wrinkledi  and  deformed  women,  is  the  natural 
disUke  of  ugliness.  It  may  also  be  noted  that  their 
more  exciuble  temperament  renders  them  peculiarly 
liable  to  those  ecstasies  which  have  been  associated 
with  the  gift  of  divination  from  the  priestess  of  the 
ancient  heathen  oracle  down  to  the  medium  of  modem 
spiritualism.  And  when  witchcraft  came  to  be  prose- 
cuted for  heresy,  the  part  asrigned  to  woman  in  the 
Scripture  account  of  the  fall  led  to  her  being  looked 
upon  as  specially  suited  to  be  the  tool  of  the  deviL 
Upon  this  circumstance  was  founded  the  doctrine  in  the 
creed  of  witohcraft  which  alleged  carnal  intercourse  be- 
tween witehes  and  evil  spirits. 

The  bargain  by  which  the  soul  was  sold  to  the  devil 
was  usually  in  writing,  and  signed  with  the  witeh*s  own 
blood.  She  was  rebaptized,  receiving  a  new  name,  and 
had  to  trample  on  the  cross  and  renounce  God  and  Christ 
(among  the  Roman  Catholics  also  the  Virgin  Mary)  in 
forms  parodying  the  renunciation  of  the  devil  in  Chris- 
tian baptism.  She  received  a  **  witch  mark,"  which 
remaineid,  and  the  liocation  of  it  was  known  by  that  part 
becoming  callous  and  dead — a  matter  of  great  interest 
to  witch-finders.  The  powers  conferred  by  SaUn  upon 
these  servants  were  essentially  the  same  as  those  ascribed 
to  sorcerers,  and  the  mode  of  exercising  them  was  the 
same,  viz.  by  charms,  incantations,  concoctions,  etc  The 
only  change  was  in  the  theory,  that  is,  that  instead  of 
any  power  inherent  in  the  sorcerer  or  derived  from  any 
other  source,  the  results  were  all  wrought  by  the  devil 
through  the  witoh  as  his  servant.  The  power  was  also 
exerted  exclusively  to  work  evil— to  raise  storms,  blast 
crops,  render  men  and  beaste  barren,  inflict  racking  pain 
on  an  enemy,  or  make  him  pine  away  in  sickness.  If  a 
witoh  attempted  to  do  good,  the  devil  was  enraged  and 
punished  her,  and  whatever  she  did  she  was  powerless 
to  serve  her  own  interests,  for  witohes  always  remained 
poor  and  miserable. 

A  prominent  feature  of  witohcraft  was  the  belief  in 
sUted  meetings  of  witohes  and  devils  by  night,  called 
Witches*  Sabbaths.  The  places  of  meeting  were  always 
such  as  had  feelings  of  solemnity  and  awe  connected 
with  them,  such  as  old  ruins,  neglected  churchyards, 
and  places  of  heathen  sacrifices.  First  anointing  her 
feet  and  shoulders  with  a  salve  made  of  the  fat  of  mur- 
dered and  unbaptized  children,  the  witoh  mounted  a 
broomstick,  rake,  or  similar  article,  and  making  her  exit 
through  the  chimney,  rode  through  the  air  to  the  place 
of  rendezvous.  If  her  own  particular  dsmon-lover  came 
to  fetoh  her,  he  sat  on  the  sta£f  before,  and  she  behind 
him ;  or  he  came  in  the  shape  of  a  goat,  and  carried  her 
o£f  on  his  back.  At  the  place  of  assembly  the  arch- 
damou,  in  the  shape  of  a  large  goat  with  a  black  human 
countenance,  sat  on  a  high  chair  and  received  the  hom- 
age of  the  witohes  and  demons.  The  feast  was  lighted 
up  with  torches,  all  kindled  at  a  light  burning  between 
the  horns  of  the  great  goat.  Among  the  viands  there 
was  no  bread  or  salt,  aitd  they  drank  out  of  ox^hoofs  and 
horses'  skulls,  but  the  meal  neither  satisfied  the  appetite 
nor  nourished.  After  eating  and  drinking  they  danced. 
In  dancing  they  turned  their  backs  to  each  other;  and 
in  the  intervals  they  related  to  one  another  what  mis- 
chief they  had  done,  and  planned  more.  The  revel  con- 
cluded with  obscene  debauchery,  after  which  the  great 
goat  burned  himself  to  ashes,  which  he  divided  among 
the  witohes  to  raise  storms.  Then  they  returned  as 
they  came.  (For  a  vivid  and  entertaining  description 
of  one  of  these  revels,  see  the  Tarn  G^ShcmUr  of  Robert 
Bums.) 

2.  The  proseculiofu  for  witohcraft  form  a  sad  episode 
in  human  histor}'.  Thousands  of  lives  of  innocent  per- 
sons were  sacrificed  to  the  silly  superstition,  and  thou- 
sands more  were  tortured  in  various  ways  because  they 
were  suspected  of  having  some  connection  with  the 
black  art.  In  the  Twelve  Tables  of  Rome  there  were 
penal  enactments  against  him  who  should  bewitoh  the 


froite  of  the  earth,  or  conjure  away  his  neighbor's  com 
into  his  own  field.  A  century  and  a  half  later  one  hun<* 
dred  and  seventy  Roman  ladies  were  convicted  of  poi- 
Boning  under  the  pretence  of  charms  and  incantetions, 
and  new  laws  were  added.  But  in  these  and  in  all 
other  heathen  laws  there  was  no  penalty  atUched,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  positive  injury  done.  Magical  of 
supernatural  power  was  looked  upon  rather  with  favor 
than  otherwise,  only  it  was  feared  that  it  might  bt 
abused  by  its  possessor. 

The  early  Church  was  severe  in  its  judgments  against 
magic,  astrology,  augury,  charms,  and  all  kinds  of  divi- 
nation. The  civil  law  condemned  the  Mathemaiiei,  or 
men  that  formed  calculations  for  the  prediction  of  for- 
tunes. Vetvjiciumf  or  MaUfidum,  poisoning  and  mis- 
chief-making, was  the  name  given  to  sorcery.  The 
Church  would  not,  by  a  law  of  Constentine,  baptize 
astrologers,  nor  a  special  class  of  them  called  Gmeih-' 
liaciy  or  tlibse  who  calculated  what  sters  had  been  in 
the  ascendant  at  a  man's  nativity.  The  twenty-fourth 
canon  of  Ancyra  says:  "Let  those  who  use  soothsaying 
after  the  manner  of  the  heathen,  or  entertain  men  to 
teach  them  pharmacy  or  lustration,  fall  under  the  canon 
of  five  years'  (penance),  viz.  three  years  of  prostration, 
two  years  of  communion  in  prayer  without  the  oblation." 
Those  who  consulted  or  followed  such  soothsayers  as 
were  supposed  to  be  in  compact  with  Saten  were  to  be 
cast  out  of  communion.  Constantine,  however,  made 
such  divination  a  capital  crime,  as  well  on  the  part  of 
those  who  practiced  it  as  of  those  who  sought  informa* 
tion  from  it.  Amulets,  or  spells  to  cure  disease,  were 
reckoned  a  species  of  idulato',  and  the  makers  of  such 
phylacteries  shared  in  the  same  condemnation.  The 
abraxis  or  abracadabra  (q.  v.)  of  the  Basilidians  came 
under  similar  censure.  But  the  prosecutions  against 
witohcraft  as  such  were  of  minor  importence  compara- 
tively until  as  late  as  the  11th  century,  when  the  prose* 
cutions  against  heresy  were  systematically  organized. 
Hitherto  magic  had  been  distinguished  as  white  or  Hack; 
now  no  distinction  was  made,  and  all  magic  was  reckoned 
Hack,  Almost  all  heretics' were  accused  of  magical  prac- 
tices, and  their  secret  meetings  were  looked  upon  as  a 
kind  of  devil-worship.  Fostered  by  the  proceedings 
against  heresy,  the  popular  dread  of  witohcraft  had  been 
on  the  increase  for  centuries,  and  numerous  executions 
had  taken  place  in  various  parts  of  Europe.  At  last 
Innocent  VlII,  by  his  celebrated  bull,  SumtnU  Deti^ 
rantetf  issued  in  1484,  gave  the  full  sanction  of  the 
Church  to  these  notions  concerning  sorcery,  and  charged 
the  inquisitors  and  others  to  discover  and  put  to  death 
all  guilty  of  these  arts.  He  appointed  two  special  in- 
quisitors for  Germany,  Heinrich  Institor  and  Jacob 
Sprenger,  who,  with  the  aid  of  a  clergyman  of  Con- 
stence,  Johannes  Gremper,  drew  up  the  famous  MaUeus 
J/oZ^/Scanim,  or  Hammer  for  Witohes,  in  which  the  whole 
doctrine  of  witohcraft  was  elaborated,  a  form  of  trial  laid 
down,  and  a  course  of  examination  appointed  by  which 
the  inquisitors  could  discover  the  guilty  parties.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  witoh-mania  proper.  The 
edict  of  Innocent  was  reinforced  by  a  bull  of  Alexander 
VI  in  1494,  of  Leo  X  in  1621,  and  of  Adrian  VI  in  1522, 
each  adding  strength  to  its  predecessor,  and  calculated 
to  increase  the  popular  agiution.  The  results  were  de- 
plorable. Armed  with  the  MaUeus  Maleficarum,  the 
judge  had  no  difficulty  in  convicting  the  most  innocent 
persons.  If  the  accused  did  not  confess  at  once,  they 
were  ordered  to  be  shaved  and  examined  for  "  witoh- 
marks."  If  any  strange  mark  was  discovered  on  the 
person,  no  further  evidence  was  required.  But  failing 
in  this,  the  accused  was  put  to  the  torture,  which  in 
almost  all  instences  elicited  confession.  Many,  in  order 
to  avoid  this  ordeal,  confessed  at  once,  and  were  forth- 
with led  to  execution.  Others  seem  to  have  become 
insane  because  of  the  prevalent  excitement,  and  fancied 
themselves  witohes.  The  extent  of  the  prosecutions  in 
Germany  is  appalling  to  consider.  In  the  bishopric  of 
Bamberg  600  victims  fell  within  four  years,  apd  in 


WITCHCRAFT 


954 


WrrCHCRAIT 


Wttrxbaig  900. .  In  tbe  district;  of  Lindhetm  a  tvrantietli 
part  of  tbe  population  perisbed  in  tbe  aame  time.  And 
during  tbia  inquirition  7000  Uvea  were  aacrificed  at 
Trier.  Such  atrocitiea  were  riraUed  by  1000  ezecutiona 
in  tbe  Italian  province  of  Como  within  a  single  year, 
400  at  Toulouse  in  one  day,  and  500  at  Geneva  in  tbree 
months.  It  is  said  that  in  France,  about  tbe  year  1620, 
fires  for  tbe  execution  of  witches  blaaed  in  every  town. 
Tbe  madness  seised  upon  all  nations  and  all  estates  of 
men,  alike  on  Catholics  and  Protestants,  and  often  on 
tbe  accused  as  firmly  as  on  their  accusers,  so  that  tbe 
trials  represented  pure  and  nnmingled  delnsiona.  •  Even 
Luther  looked  on  his  earache  as  ''peculiariy  diabol- 
ical," and  exclaimed  of  witches,  '^I  could  bum  them 
aU." 

England,  by  its  insular  position  and  intense  political 
life,  was  kept  longest  from  the  witch  mania;  but  when 
it  came,  it  was  no  less  violent  than  it  bad  been  on  tbe 
Continent.  The  statute  of  Elisabeth,  in  1662,  first  made 
witchcraft  in  itself  a  crime  of  the  first  magnitude, 
whether  directed  to  the  injury  of  others  or  not.  Tbe 
act  of  James  I  (VI  of  Scotland),  in  the  first  year  of  his 
reign  in  England,  defines  the  crime  still  more  minutely. 
It  is  as  follows:  **Any  one  that  shall  use,  practice,  or 
exercise  invocation  of  any  evil  or  wicked  spirit,  to  or  for 
any  purpote^  or  take  up  any  dead  man,  etc,  auch  offen- 
den,  duly  and  lawfully  convicted  and  attainted,  shall 
suffer  death."  Soon  the  delusion  spread  throughout  all 
England,  and  increased  to  a  frensy.  Witch-finders 
passed  through  the  country  from  town  to  town,  profess- 
ing to  rid  the  community  of  all  witches,  and  receiving 
therefor  a  stipulated  sum.  Their  methods  were  most 
inhuman.  They  stripped  the  accused,  shaved  them, 
and  thrust  pins  into  their  bodies  to  discover  witches' 
marks;  they  wrapped  them  in  sheets  with  the  great 
toea  and  thumbs  tied  together,  and  dragged  them 
through  ponds  or  rivers,  and  if  they  sank  they  were  ac- 
counted innocent;  but  if  they  floated,  which  they  were 
sure  to  do  for  a  time,  they  were  set  down  as  guilty,  and 
executed.  Many  tiroes  the  poor  creatures  were  kept 
fasting  and  awake,  and  sometimes  walking  incessantly, 
for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours.  Indeed,  such  cruel- 
ties were  practiced  as  an  inducement  to  confession,  that 
the  unhappy  victims  were  glad  to  confess  and  end  their 
miseries  at  once.  During  the  sittings  of  tbe  Long 
Parliament,  thrte  thoutand  persons  are  said  to  have  been 
executed  on  legal  convictions,  besides  the  vast  number 
that  perished  at  the  hands  of  tbe  mob.  Even  so  wise 
and  learned  a  judge  as  Sir  Matthew  Hale  condemned 
two  women  for  witchcraft  in  1664.  Chief-justices  North 
and  Holt  were  the  first  to  set  their  faces  steadily  against 
the  continuance  of  this  delusion.  This  was  in  1694,  but 
summary  executions  continued  as  far  down  as  1716, 
when  the  last  victim  was  hanged  at  Huntington.  The 
English  laws  against  witchcraft  were  repealed  in  1786. 

The  burning  of  witches  forms  a  dark  chapter  in  the 
history  of  SooUand,  and  the  penal  laws  are  said  to  have 
been  first  inflicted  in  the  reign  of  James  III.  In  that 
reign  twelve  women  are  said  to  have  suflered,  but  their 
witchcraft  was  associated  with  treason  and  murder. 
James  VI  was  a  notorious  witch-finder,  but  his  well- 
known  statute  was  only  in  accordance  with  the  spirit 
of  the  times.  The  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland  and  its  presbyteries,  from  convictions  of 
duty,  had  often  taken  the  matter  up,  for  the  Old  Test, 
bad'  expressly  said,  *<  Thou  shalt  not  suffer  a  witch  to 
live."  The  number  of  victims  in  Scotland  from  first 
to  last  is  estimated  at  over  four  thousand.  When  the 
penal  laws  were  at  length  repealed,  the  early  seceders 
mourned  over  the  repeal  as  a  sad  dereliction  of  national 
duty  to  God.  The  principal  scenes  of  witchcraft  were 
in  the  lowlands,  the  fairies  of  the  highlands  being 
harmless  and  ingenious  sprites,  rather  than  dark,  ugly, 
and  impious  fiends.  Many  of  the  Scottish  witches,  as 
appears  from  their  trial,  were  the  victims  of  miserable 
hallucination ;  others  seem  to  have  gloried  in  a  fancied 
power  to  torment  others,  and  to  have  profited  by  it; 


others,  when  acme  sodden  calamity  happened,  or  aoaie 
iDdividoal  was  afiiicted  with  any  mjrsterioas  malady, 
malignantly  took  credit  aa  having  bad  a  band  in  pn>- 
ducing  it;  and  others  made  the  implied  compact  with 
Satan  a  knavish  cover  for  crimes  of  various  kinda^  both 
against  familiea  and  against  the  state. 

New  England  was  settled  at  a  time  when  the  excite- 
ment over  witchcraft  waa  very  general  and  intense^  and 
several  persons  were  executed  in  Maasacboaetta  prior 
to  the  extraordinary  outburst  at  Salem.  As  in  Soot- 
land  and  elsewhere,  tbe  clergy  were  the  prime  movenw 
Two  clergymen  have  obtained  an  unenviable  notoriety 
for  the  part  they  had  in  it.  The  one  waa  Cotton  Ma- 
ther, a  man  who  was  considered  a  prodigy  in  learning 
and  piety,  but  whose  writings  and  proceedings  in  re- 
gard to  the  trial  and  punishment  of  witches  display  an 
amount  of  bigotry  almost  incredible*  Tbe  other  waa 
Samnd  Parris,  of  Salem  Village  (now  Danvers  Centre), 
who  seems  to  have  made  use  of  tbe  delusion  to  gratify 
his  own  personal  dislikes.  Previous  to  the  outbreak 
the  last  instance  had  been  the  hanging  of  an  Irish 
woman  in  Boston,  in  1688,  accused  of  bewitching  four 
children  belonging  to  the  family  of  a  Mr.  Goodwin. 
During  the  winter  of  1691  and  1692  a  company,  con- 
sisting mostly  of  young  girls,  was  accustomed  to  meet 
at  the  house  of  Mr.  Parris  for  the  purpose  of  practicing 
magic,  necromancy,  etc.  They  soon  began  to  exhibit 
nervous  disorders,  contortions,  spasms,  sometimes  drop- 
ping insensible  to  the  floor.  The  children  were  declared 
to  be  bewitched,  and,  being  pressed  to  reveal  the  per- 
petrator of  the  mischief,  they  accuaed  an  Indian  wom- 
an, named  Tituba,  a  aervant  in  tbe  family  of  Mr.  Parris; 
Sarah  Good,  a  woman  of  ill-repute,  and  Sarah  Osburn, 
who  was  bedridden.  These  were  tried  before  tbe  mag- 
istrates March  1, 1692.  From  this  time  the  excitement 
became  intense.  The  clergy  were  sealoua  in  the  prose- 
cntion,  being  urged  by  the  belief  that  Satan  was  making 
a  special  efl^rt  to  overthrow  tbe  kingdom  of  God  in 
that  locality,  and  all  classes  were  subject,  more  or  less^ 
to  the  delusion.  The  special  court  appointed  to  try 
these  cases  met  the  first  week  in  June,  and  oontinned  its 
sessions  until  Sept  9.  Nineteen  victims  were  hanged, 
as  a  result  of  the  investigation,  some  of  them  pious  and 
respectable  citisens.  An  old  man,  more  than  eighty 
years  of  age,  was  pressed  to  death  for  refusing  to  plead 
to  a  charge  of  witchcraft.  A  reaction  now  set  in,  and 
subsequent  sentences  wero  not  executed.  In  May  ful- 
lowing  tbe  governor  discharged  all  then  in  prison,  aboat 
one  hundred  and  fifty  in  number. 

Witchcraft  still  remained,  in  the  minda  of  the  people 
of  many  countries,  a  reality  for  almost  a  century  after 
the  general  excitement  had  abated.  The  last  judictat 
execution  did  not  occur  in  Germany  until  1756,  in  Spain 
until  1780,  and  in  Switxerland  until  1782.  And  litMB 
the  cessation  of  executions  many  think  that  belief  in 
witchcraft  has  entirely  passed  away,  but  facta  are  con- 
trary to  such  a  supposition.  Some  occurrences  in  Eng- 
land in  very  recent  times  point  to  tbe  fact  that  the 
popular  mind  is  still  infected  with  tbe  belief  In  witch- 
craft as  a  thing  of  the  present.  In  1865  a  poor  oM 
paralysed  Frenchman  died  In  consequence  of  having 
been  dragged  through  the  water  as  a  wisard  at  Castk 
Heddingham,  in  Essex;  in  1875  the  trial  at  Warwick 
Assises  of  the  murderer  of  a  reputed  witch  brought  out 
tbe  fact  that  over  one  third  of  the  villagers  dt  LoQg 
Coropton  are  firm  bdievers  in  witchcraft;  and  in  April, 
1879,  at  East  Dereham,  Norfolk,  a  man  was  fined  lor 
assaulting  the  daughter  of  an  old  woman  who  was  al- 
leged to  have  charmed  him  by  means  of  a  walking  toad. 
With  very  rare  exceptions  educated  people  do  not  be- 
lieve in  witchcraft,  but  among  the  ignorant  and  illiter- 
ate of  all  countries  the  belief  still  retains  a  firm  hold. 
To  the  mass  of  the  adherenta  of  Boddbiam,  in  Cemial 
Asia,  the  lamOf  or  priest,  is  merely  a  wisard  who  knows 
how  to  protect  them  from  the  malignity  of  evil  spirits; 
and,  according  to  modem  travellers,  trials  and  exeen- 
tions  for  witchcraft  are  at  this  day  common  throc^gb- 


J 


WITENAGEMOT 


966 


WITNESS 


mit  Africa,  as  tbej  were  in  Euibpe  id  the  17tli  eentmy, 
and  under  very  similar  forms. 

3.  The  Kieraiure  of  the  subject  is  copious*  Among 
the  many  works  the  following  may  be  noted :  Wier,  De 
PrmtUgm  Dtmtmum  (Basie^  1568) ;  Soot,  The  Diaoov- 
trie  (if  WUekcraJt  (Lond.  1584) ;  Glanvil,  SudducumuM 
7VftiMfx&ate#;  or,  Futt  and  Plam  Evidaee  concerning 
WiUAe$  and  ApparUUmt  (ibid.  1689) ;  Baxter,  Certain- 
tjfoftke  World  of  Spirite  ;  Mackenzie,  A  Biitory  of  the 
WHekee  of  Rmfrewehire  ( 1678 ) ;  Mather,  Memorable 
Providenoee  rdattng  to  Witchcraft  and  Possessions,  with 
Diseoperies  and  Appendix  (Lond.  and  Boston,  1689) ; 
Hutchinson,  BistorixU  Essay  concerning  WiUhcraJl 
(1718);  Williams,  Svg^rstUions  of  Witchcraft  (ISGb); 
"Mmckny,  Extraordinary  and  Popular  Delations  (1841); 
Soldan,  Geschkhte  der  ffexet^trocesse  (Stutrgart,  1848); 
Upham,  Salens  Witchcraft  (Boston,  1867);  Mudge, 
Wiich  HiU:  a  ffistoty  of  Salem  Witchcraft  (N.  Y. 
1871);  Conway,  Jkmonology  and  Devil  Lore  (Lond. 
1879).    See  SuPRBsnTiox. 

'Witenagemot  (or  Witan)  (Anglo-Saxon,  wt/oia, 
of  wise  men,  from  witan,  to  know,  and  gemot,  assembly), 
the  great  national  council  of  the  Saxons,  by  which  the 
king  was  guided  in  all  his  main  acta  of  government. 
Each  kingdom  had  its  own  witan  before  the  union  of 
the  heptarchy,  in  827,  after  which  there  was  a  general 
one  for  the  whole  oouotiy.  Its  members  are  all  spoken 
of  as  men  of  rank,  and  most  probably  included  buhops, 
abbots,  ealdormen  of  shires,  and  thanes.  In  984  there 
were  present  at  one  of  these  assemblies  king  Athelstane, 
four  Welsh  princes,  two  archbishops,  seventeen  biBhops, 
four  abbots,  twelve  dukes,  and  fifty-two  thanes.  Every 
measure  of  national  importance  was  debated  here,  the 
laws  received  its  sanction,  and  the  succession  of  the 
crown  depended  upon  its  approval.  It  could  make  new 
laws  and  treaties ;  it  regulated  military  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs,  and  levied  taxes;  without  its  consent  the 
king  had  no  power  to  raise  forces  by  sea  or  land ;  and 
it  was  the  supreme  court  of  justice,  civil  and  criminal. 
The  voice  of  the  Church  was  never  absent  from  its  de- 
liberations, 80  that  the  right  of  British  prelates  to  sit 
and  vot^s  in  the  national  assembly  was  one  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  earliest  regular  form  of  government,  not 
derived  from  Korman  laws,  but  from  that  time,  long 
before,  when  the  Saxon  archbishop,  bishop,  and  abbot 
took  their  seats  three  times  a  year  (at  Easter,  Whit- 
suntide, and  Christmas)  in  the  Saxon  witan.  The 
witenagemot  was  abolished  by  William  the  Conqueror 
and  its  powers  only  in  part  transmitted  to  parliament 
See  UiU,  English  Monasticism,  p.  202;  Hallam,  Middle 
Ages,  chap,  viii;  Palgrave,  JOse  and  Progress  of  the 
English  Commonwealth;  Kemble,  Saxons  in  England, 

With  0^^  ysther,  Judg.  xvi,  7-9,  a  rope;  "cord," 
Job  XXX,  11 ;  "  string/'  Psa.  xi,  2).  In  the  passage  of 
Judges  cited  we  read  that  Delilah  bound  Samson  with 
**  seven  green  withs  which  had  not  been  dried."  '*  Green 
ropes,"  as  distinguished  from  '^dry  ropes,"  is  the  proper 
meaning,  the  peculiarity  being  in  the  greenness,  not  in 
the  materisL  It  may  imply  any  kind  of  crude  vegeta- 
ble, commonly  used  for  ropes,  without  restricting  it  to 
withs,  or  tough  and  pliable  rods,  twisted  into  a  rope. 
Such  ropes  are  used  in  the  East,  and  while  they  remain 
green  are  stronger  than  any  other.  In  India  the  legs 
of  wild  elephants  and  buffaloes  newly  caught  are  com- 
monly  bound  with  ropes  of  this  sort.  Ji^ephiis  says 
{Ant,  V,  9, 11)  that  the  ropes  which  bound  Samson  were 
made  with  the  tendrils  of  the  vine.  At  the  present  day 
ropes  in  the  East  are  rarely  made  of  hemp  or  flax.  Ex- 
cept some  that  are  made  with  hair  or  leather,  they  are 
generally  formed  with  the  tough  fibres  of  trees  (partic- 
ularly the  palm-tree)  and  roota,  with  grasses,  and  with 
reeds  and  rushes.  These  ropes  are,  in  general,  toler- 
ably strong,  but  are  in  no  degree  comparable  to  our 
hempen  ropes.  They  are  very  light  in  comparison, 
and,  wanting  compactness,  in  most  cases  they  are  also 
rough  and  coarse  to  the  eye.    The  praises  which  trav- 


ellert  bestow  on  ropes  of  thb  kind  most  not  be  under- 
stood as  putting  them  in  comparison  with  those  in  use 
among  ourselvee^  but  with  the  bands  of  hay  which  our 
peasants  twist,  and  with  reference  to  the  simple  and 
crude  materials  of  which  they  are  composed  (Kitto, 
Pictorial BiUe^nottnd.loe,'),    See  Cokd. 

Wltfalngton,  LaoNABD,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
miniater,  was  bom  at  Doiehester,  Mass.,  in  1789.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  CoUege  in  1814,  studied  for  some 
time  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  became  psator 
of  the  First  Church  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  in  1815, 
and  died  there,  April  22, 1886^  a  coUeague  having  l»een 
appomted  in  1838.  He  wrote.  The  Puritans  (1886)  ^~ 
Solomon's  Song  Explained  (1861),  etc 

Witness  Oy,  fem.  m9;  Sept.  and  New  Test 
fidprvci  Vulg.  testis)  is  used  in  the  English  Bible  both 
of  persons  and  things. 

1.  Leading  Significations, — This  frequent  term  oo- 
cus,  1.  In  the  sense  of  a  person  who  deposes  to  the 
occurrence  of  any  fact,  a  witness  of  any  event.  The 
Hebrew  word  is  from  *X^t,  to  repeat.  The  Greek 
word  is  usually  derived  from  /ii/pw,  to  "divide,**  ''de- 
cide," etc,  because  a  witness  decides  controversies 
(Heb.  vi,  16);  but  Damm  {Lex,  Horn,  ool.  1495)  deduces 
it  from  the  old  Word  isapti,  ^  the  hand,"  because  wit- 
nesses anciently  held  np  their  hands  in  giving  evi- 
dence. This  custom,  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  is 
referred  to  in  Gen.  xtv,  22;  among  the  heathens,  by 
Homer  (JUad,  x,  821),  and  by  VirgU  {^ncid,  xii,  196). 
God  himself  is  represented  as  swearing  in  this  manner 
(Dent  xxxii,  40;  Ezek.  xx,  6, 6, 16;  comp.  Numb,  xiv, 
80).  So  also  the  heathen  gods  (Pindar,  Olymp,  vii,  119, 
120).  These  Hebrew  and  Greek  words,  with  their 
various  derivations,  pervade  the  entire  subject.  They 
are  applied  to  a  judicial  witness  in  Exod.  xxiii, ! ;  Lev. 
V,  1 ;  Numb.  V,  18;  xxxv,  80  (comp.  Deut.  xvii,  6 ;  xix, 
15;  Mattxviii,16;  2  Cor.  xiil,  1) ;  Prov.xiv,  5;  xxiv, 
28 ;  Matt,  xxvi,  65 ;  AcU  vi,  18 ;  1  Tim.  v,  19 ;  Heb.  x, 
28.  They  are  applied,  generally,  to  a  person  who  cer- 
tifies, or  is  able  to  certify,  to  any  fact  which  has  come 
under  his  cognizance  (Josh,  xxiv,  22;  Isa.  viii,  2 ;  Luke 
xxiv,  48;  AcU  i,  8,  22;  1  Thess.  ii,  10;  1  Tim.  vi,  12; 
2  Tim.  ii,  2;  1  Pet.  i,  5).  So  in  allusion  to  those  who 
witness  the  public  games  (Heb.  xii,  1).  They  are  also 
applied  to  any  one  who  testifies  to  the  world  what  (xod 
reveals  through  him  (Rev.  xi,  8).  In  the  latter  sense  the 
Greek  word  is  applied  to  our  Lord  (Rev.  i,  5;  iii,  14). 
Both  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  are  also  applied  to 
God  (Gen.  xxxt,  60;  1  Sam.  xii,  5 ;  Jer.  xlii,  6;  Rom.  i,  9; 
PhiL  i,  8 ;  1  Thess.  ii,  5) ;  to  inanimate  things  (Gen.  xxxi, 
62;  Psa.  Ixxxix,  87).  The  supernatural  means  where- 
by the  defleieney  of  witnesses  was  compensated  under 
the  theocracy,  have  been  already  considered  under  the 
articles  Adultkby,  Trial  of;  Ukim  akd  Thummim. 
For  the  punishment  of  false  witness  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  evidence,  see  PuNfSHMBXiT.  Vor  the  forms  of 
adjuration  (2  Chron.  xviii,  16),  see  Adjuration.  Opin- 
ions diStr  as  to  what  is  meant  by  *'  the  faithful  witness 
in  heaven  "  (Psa.  Ixxxix,  87).  Some  suppose  it  to  mean 
the  moon  (comp.  Psa.  Ixxii,  6,  7;  Jer.  xxxi,  85,  36; 
xxxii i,  20,  21;  Ecdus.  xliil,  6);  others,  the  rainbow 
(Gen.  ix,  12-17). 

2.  The  witness  or  testimony  itself  home  to  any  fact  is 
expressed  by  "T^ ;  paprvpia  (testimonium).  They  are 
used  of  ju^Ucial  testimony  (Prov.  xxv,  18 ;  Mark  xiv, 
56, 59).  In  verse  55,  Schleusner  takes  the  word  pap^ 
Tvpia  for  pdprvp^  the  abstract  for  the  concrete  (Luke 
xxii,  71 ;  John  viii,  17;  Josephos,  Ant,  iv,  8, 15).  It 
denotes  the  testimony  to  the  truth  of  anything  gener- 
ally (John  i,  7, 19;  xix,  85) ;  that  of  a  poet  (Tit.  i,  13). 
It  occurs  in  Josephus  (Cont,  Apion,  1, 21).  In  John  iii, 
11, 82,  Schleusner  understands  the  doctrine,  the  thing 
professed ;  in  v,  82, 86,  the  proofi  given  by  God  of  our 
Saviour's  mission ;  comp.  v,  9.  In  viii,  13, 14,  both  he 
and  Bretschneider  assign  to  the  word  the  sense  of  praise. 


WITNESS 


956 


WITNESS 


In  Acts  zxii,  18,  the  former  trandates  it  Uackuig  or  tR- 
itructiofu  In  Rev.  i,  9,  it  deootes  /Ae  eonsUaU  pro/esiitm 
of  Christianityi  or  testimony  to  the  truth  of  the  gospel 
(comp.  ti  2 ;  vi,  9).  In  1  Tim.  iii,  7,  /laprvpia  xaXri 
means  a  good  character  (comp.  8  John  12 ;  Eoclua.  xxxi, 
84 ;  Josephus,  A  n/.  vi,  10, 1).  In  Psa.  xiz,  7,  <*  The  tes- 
timony of  the  Lord  is  sure"  probably  signifies  the  orti^ 
nance$,  instituiionSf  etc  (comp.  cxix,  22, 24,  etc). .  Those 
ambiguous  wortls,  "He  that  believeth  in  the  Son  of 
God  hath  the  witness  in  himself"  (1  John  v,  10),  which 
hare  given  rise  to  a  variety  of  fanatical  meanings,  are 
easily  understood,  by  explaining  the  word  c^^cc, "  re- 
ceives," *' retains,"  etc,  i.  e.  the  foregoing  testimony 
which  God  hath  given  of  his  Son,  whereas  the  unbe- 
liever rejects  iL  The  whole  passage  is  obscured  in  the 
English  transhition  by  neglecting  the  uniformity  of 
the  Greek,  and  introducing  the  word  **  record,"  contrary 
to  the  profession  of  our  translators  in  their  Pnfaee  to 
the  Reader  (ad  finem).  The  Hebrew  word,  with  fiap- 
TvpioVf  occurs  in  the  sense  of  monvnwn/,  evidenecj  etc 
(Gen.  xxi,  80 ;  xxxi,  44 ;  Deut.  i%%  45 ;  xxxi,  26 ;  Josh. 
xxii,27;  Buth  iv,7;  Matt.  viii,4;  Mark  vi,  11;  Luke 
xxi,  13 ;  James  v,  3).  In  2  Cor.  i,  12,  Schleusner  explains 
fiaprvpiovj  commendation.  In  Prov.  xxix,  14,  and  Amos 
i,  11,  n;b  is  pointed  to  mean  perpetually ,  forever,  but 
the  Septuagint  gives  c<c  iiaprvpiov ;  Aquila,.  f ic  m ; 
Symmachus,  c<c  &^ ;  Vnlg.  tn  cefenuim.  In  Acts  vii,  44, 
and  Rev.  xv,  5,  we  find  ri  oiofvii  rov  ftafyrvpiov,  and 
this  is  the  Sept.  rendering  for  ^91 Q  ^MK  (which  real- 
ly means  ''the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation^)  in 
Exod.  xxix,  42,  44;  xl,  22,  24— deriving  ^rita  from 
nnr,  "  to  testify,"  instead  of  from  IS'',  "  to  assemble," 
On  1  Tim.  ii,  6,  see  Bowyer,  Conjectures.  In  Heb.  iii,  5, 
Schleusner  interprets  iIq  futprvpiov  rwv  XaXi}^ao/i<- 
vmy,  "the  promulgation  of  those  things  about  to  be 
delivered  to  the  Jews." 

3.  To  be  or  become  a  toitneu,  by  testifying  the  truth 

of  what  one  knows.  Thus  the  Sept.  translates  I'^TM 
(Gen.  xliii,  8),  fAaprvpiuff  to  bear  trnfnfM,  and  Amos  iii, 
18 :  see  also  1  Kings  xxi,  10, 18.  In  John  i,  7 ;  xv,  26 ; 
xviii,  28,  Schleusner  gives  as  its  meaning,  to  teach  or 
explain;  in  John  iv,  44;  vii,  7;  I  Tim.  vi,  18,  to  de- 
clare ;  in  Acts  x,  48 ;  Rom.  iii,  21,  to  declare  prophet^ 
ically.  With  a  dative  case  following,  the  word  some- 
times means  to  approve  (Luke  iv,  22).  So  Schleusner 
understands  Luke  xi,  48,  *'  Ye  approve  the  deeds  of  your 
fathers,"  and  he  gives  this  sense  also  to  Rom.  x,  2.  In 
like  manner  the  passive  paprvpfofmi, "  to  be  approved," 
**  beloved,"  "  have  a  g^ood  character,"  etc  (Acts  vi,  8 ; 
I  Tim.  V,  10;  comp.  8  John  6, 12).  "ITie  witness  of 
the  Spirit/'  alluded  to  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.  viii,  16),  is  ex- 
pUined  by  Macknight  and  all  the  best  commenutora^ 
as  the  extraordinary  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  con- 
curring with  the  filial  disposition  of  converted  Gen- 
tiles, to  prove  that  they  are  "  the  children  of  God,"  as 
well  as  the  Jews.    (See  below.) 

4.  "  To  call  or  take  to  witness,"  "  to  invoke  as  wit- 
ness," papTvpofuxi  (Acts  XX,  26;  Gal.  v,  8;  Josephus, 
War,  iii,  8, 8).  A  still  stronger  word  is  itafiaprvpoftat, 
which  corresponds  to  T'rn  (Deut.  iv,  26).  It  means 
« to  admonish  solemnly,"  "  to  charge  earnestly,"  "  to 
urge  upon  "  (Psa.  Ixxxi,  8 ;  Neh.  ix,  26 ;  Luke  xvi,  28 ; 
Acts  ii,  40).  In  other  passages  the  same  words  mean 
to  "f«acA  earnestly."  In  Job  xxix,  11,  a  beautiful 
phrase  occurs,  <'  When  the  eye  saw  me  it  gave  witness 
to  me."  The  admiring  expression  of  the  eye  upon  be- 
holding a  man  of  eminent  virtue  and  benevolence,  is 
here  admirably  illustrated.  The  description  of  the 
mischief  occasioned  by  a  false  witness,  in  Prov.  xxv, 
18,  deserves  notice:  *'A  man  that  beareth  false  witness 
against  his  neighbor,  is  a  maul,  and  a  sword,  and  a 
sharp  arrow."  Few  words  afford  more  exercise  to  dis- 
crimination, in  consequence  of  the  various  shades  of 
meaning  in  which  the  context  requires  they  should  be 
tmderstood.^Kitto,  s.  v. 


IL  Hebreio  Usaget. — 1.  Among  people  with  whom 
writing  is  not  common,  the  evidence  of  a  tnnaactioa  is 
given  by  some  tangible  memorial  or  significant  cere- 
mony. Abraham  gave  seven  ewe-Iamba  to  Abimdech 
as  an  evidence  of  his  property  in  the  well  of  Becr- 
sheba.  Jacob  raised  a  heap  of  stones,  **  the  heap  of 
witness,"  as  a  boundary-mark  between  himself  and  L*- 
ban  (Gen.  xxi,  80 ;  xxxi,  47, 52).  The  tribes  of  Reaben 
and  Gad  raised  an  **  altar,"  designed  expressly  not  for 
sacrifice,  but  as  a  witness  to  the  covenant  between  them- 
selves and  the  rest  of  the  nation ;  Joshua  set  up  a  stone 
as  an  evidence  of  the  allegiance  promised  by  lanel  to 
God ;  **  for,"  be  said,  **  it  hath  heard  aU  the  words  of  the 
Lord  "  (Josh,  xxii,  10, 26, 84 ;  xxiv,  26,  27).  So  also  « 
pillar  is  mentioned  by  Isaiah  as  *'a  witness  to  the  Locd 
of  hosts  in  the  land  of  Egypt "  (Isa.  xix,  19, 20).  Tbos 
also  the  sacred  ark  and  its  contents  are  called  *^  the  tes- 
timony" (Exod.  xvi,  88,  84;  xxv,  16;  xxxviii,  21; 
Numb,  i,  50, 68 ;  ix,15;  x,ll;  xvii,7,8;  xviii,  2;  Hebk 
ix.4). 

Thus  also  symbolical  usages,  in  ratification  of  con- 
tracts or  completed  arrangements,  as  the  ceremony  of 
shoe-loosing  (Deut  xxv,  9, 10;  Ruth  iv.  7, 8),  the  or- 
deal prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  suspected  wife  (Numbt 
V,  17--dl),  with  which  may  be  compared  the  ordeal  of 
the  Styx  (Class.  Mus,  vi,  886).  The  Bedawin  Arabs 
practice  a  fiery  ordeal  in  certain  cases  by  way  of  com- 
purgation (Burckhardt,  KoteSf  i,  121 ;  Layard,  A'ts.  {tad 
Bab,  p.  805).  The  ceremony  also  appointed  at  the  ob- 
lation of  first-firuits  (q.  v.)  may  be  mentioned  as  partak- 
ing of  the  same  character  (Deut  xxvi,  4) 

But  written  evidence  tras  by  no  means  unknown  to 
the  Jews.  Divorce  was  to  be  proved  by  a  written  doc- 
ument (Deut  xxiv,  1, 8),  whereas  among  Bedawin  and 
Mussulmans  in  geneiid  a  spoken  sentence  is  sufficient 
(Burckhardt,  Notes,  i,  110;  Sale,  Koran,  c.  S3,  p.  848; 
Lane,  Mod.  Egypt,  i,  136,  236).  In  civil  contracti,  at 
least  in  later  times,  documenury  evidence  was  required 
and  carefully  preserved  (Isa.  viii,  16;  Jer.xxxii,  10-16). 

On  the  whole  Bloses  was  veiy  careful  to  provide  and 
enforce  evidence  for  all  infractions  of  law  and  all  trans- 
actions bearing  on  it :  e.  g.  the  memorial  stones  of 
Jordan  and  of  Ebal  (Deut.  xxvii,  2-4 ;  Josh,  iv,  9 ;  viii, 
30);  the  fringes  on  garments  (Numb,  xv,  89,  40);  the 
boundary-stones  of  property  (Deut.  xix,  14 ;  xxvii,  17 ; 
Prov.  xxii,  28) ;  the  *' broad  plates"  made  from  the  cen- 
sers of  the  Korahites  (Numb,  xvi,  88) ;  above  all,  the  ark 
of  testimony  itself— all  these  are  instances  of  the  care 
taken  by  the  legislator  to  perpetuate  evidence  of  the 
(acts  on  which  the  legislation  was  founded,  and  by 
which  it  was  supported  (Deut  vi,  20-25).  Appeal  to 
the  same  principle  is  also  repeatedly  made  in  the  case 
of  prophecies  as  a  test  of  their  authenticity  (Dent 
xviii,  22;  Jer.  xxviii,  9, 16, 17;  John  iii,  11 ;  v,  86;  x, 
88 ;  xiv,  11 ;  Luke  xxiv,  48 ;  Acts  i,  8 ;  ii,  82 ;  iii,  15,  etc). 

2.  Among  special  provisions  of  the  law  with  Ripect 
to  evidence  are  the  following : 

(1)  Two  witnesses  at  least  are  required  to  esUblish 
any  charge  (Numb,  xxxv,  80;  Dent  xvii,  6;  xix,  15; 
1  Kings  xxi,  18 ;  John  viii,  17 ;  2  Cor.  xiii,  1 ;  Heb.  x, 
28);  and  a  like  principle  is  laid  down  by  Paul  as  a  rule 
of  procedure  in  certain  cases  in  the  Christian  Church 
(1  Tim.  V,  19). 

(2)  In  the  case  of  the  suspected  wife,  evidenoe  be- 
sides the  husband^s  was  desired,  though  not  demanded 
(Numb.  V,  13). 

(3)  The  witness  who  withheld  the  truth  was  cen- 
sured (Lev.  V,  1). 

(4)  False  witness  was  punished  with  the  ponish- 
ment  due  to  the  offence  which  it  sought  to  establish. 
See  Oath. 

(5)  Slanderous  reports  and  officious  witness  are  dis- 
couraged (Exod.  XX,  16;  xxiii,  1;  XiCv.  xix,  16,  18; 
Deut.  xix,  16-21 ;  Prov.  xxiv,  28). 

(6)  The  witnesses  were  the  first  execntioners  (Dent 
xiii,  9;  xvi,  7;  Acts  vii,  58). 

(7)  In  case  of  an  animal  left  in  charge  and  torn  bj 


I 


WITNESS 


957 


WITNESSES 


wild  beasts,  the  keeper  was  to  bring  the  carcass  in 
proof  of  the  fact  and  disproof  of  his  own  criminality 
(Exod.  zxii,  18). 

(8)  According  to  Josephus^  women  and  slaves  were 
not  admitted  to  bear  testimony  (AnI.  iv,  8, 15).  To 
these  exceptions  the  Mishna  adds  idiots,  deaf,  blind, 
and  dumb  persons,  persons  of  infamoos  character,  and 
some  others,  ten  in  all  (Selden,  Be  Synedr,  ii,  18, 11 ; 
Otho,  Lex.  Raid,  p.  6^).  The  liigh- priest  was  not 
bound  to  give  evidence  in  any  case  except  one  affecting 
the  king  (ibid.).  Varions  refinements  on  the  quality 
of  evidence  and  the  manner  of  taking  it  are  given  in 
the  Mishna  (Sankedr,  iv,  5;  v,  2, 8;  A/hceothj  i,  1,  9; 
Shd>,  iii,  10 ;  iv,  1 ;  v,  1).  In  criminal  cases  evidence 
was  required  to  be  oral;  in  pecuntarr,  written  evidence 
was  alk>wed  (Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  p.  658). 

8.  In  the  Kew  Test,  the  original  notion  of  a  witness  is 
exhibited  in  the  special  form  of  one  who  attesta  his  be* 
lief  in  the  gospel  by  personal  suffering.  So  Stephen  is 
styled  by  Paul  (AeU  xxii,  20),  and  the  *<  faithful  Anti- 
pas  "  (Rev.  ii,  18).  John  also  speaks  of  himself  and  of 
■others  as  witnesses  in  this  sense  (Rev.  i,  9 ;  vi,  9 ;  xi,  8 ; 
XX,  4).  See  also  Heb.  xi  and  xii,  1,  in  which  passage 
a  number  of  persons  are  mentioned,  belonging  both  to 
Old  Teat,  and  New  Test.,  who  bore  witness  to  the  truth 
by  personal  endurance;  and  to  this  passage  may  be 
added,  as  bearing  on  the  same  view  of  the  term  **  wit- 
ness," Dan.  iii,  21 ;  vi,  16 ;  1  Maoc.  i,  60, 68 ;  2  Mace, 
vi,  18, 19.  Hence  it  is  that  the  use  of  the  ecclesiastical 
term  **.  martyr  **  has  arisen,  of  which  copious  illustration 
may  be  seen  in  Suicer,  Tkee.  il,  810,  etc. — Smith,  s.  v. 
See  Mabtyr. 

WITNESS,  Falsb.  The  early  civil  and  ecdeuas- 
tical  laws  were  very  severe  in  their  denunciation  and 
punishment  of  this  crime.  We  learn  from  Aulus  Gel- 
llus  that  the  punishment  of  fslse  witness  among  the 
old  Romans,  by  the  law  of  the  twelve  tables,  was  to 
cast  the  criminal  headlong  from  the  top  of  the  Tarpeian 
rock.  Afterwards,  by  the  law  called  Lex  Remmiaj  false 
witnesses  were  burned  in  the  face  and  stigmatized  with 
the  letter  ib,  denoting  that  they  were  calumniators.  In 
opposition  to  these  the  law  designates  honest  men  as 
homittes  uUegrce  fnmtu,  or  men  without  such  mark. 
And,  though  the  Christian  law  abolished  it,  as  it  did 
other  laws  of  undue  severity,  still  false  accusation  and 
calumny  were  corrected  with  suitable  punishments,  such 
as  infamy,  banishment,  and  suffering  the  same  evil,  by 
the  law  of  retaliation,  which  the  accuser  intended  to 
draw  upon  others.  The  substance  of  the  law  is  as  fol- 
lows :  If  any  one  called  another  roan^s  credit,  or  fortune, 
or  life,  or  blood  into  question  in  judgment,  and  could 
not  make  out  the  crime  alleged  against  him,  he  should 
suffer  the  same  penalty  that  he  intended  to  bring  upon 
the  other.  And  no  one  could  formally  implead  another 
at  law  till  he  had  bound  himself  to  this  condition,  which 
the  law  terms  vmculum  inMcriptioniSf  the  bond  of  in- 
scription. While  the  civil  laws  were  thus  severe,  the 
ecclesiastical  laws  did  all  that  fell  within  their  province 
to  effect  the  same  results^  By  a  canon  of  the  council 
of  Eliberis  the  false  witness  in  any  case  was  to  do  pen- 
ance five  years,  and  in  case  the  false  accusation  was  of 
murder,  the  criminal  was  to  be  debarred  from  commun- 
ion to  the  very  last,  as  in  the  case  of  actual  murder. 
The  councils  of  Agde  and  Yannes  impose  a  general 
penance  upon  such  offenders,  without  naming  the  term 
or  duration  of  their  penance,  which  was  left  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  bishop,  who  was  to  Judge  of  the  sincerity 
of  their  repentance.  But  the  first  council  of  Aries 
obliges  them  to  do  penance  all  their  lives,  and  the  sec> 
ond  only  moderates  their  punishment  so  far  as  to  leave 
it  to  the  bishop  to  determine  of  their  repentance  and 
satisfaction.  See  Bingham,  Christ.  Antiq.  bk.  xvi,  ch.  x, 
§  ix,  and  ch.  xiii,  §  i.  , 

WITNESS  OF  THE  Spirit  is  a  phrase  common  with 
many  ChriBtians,  especially  the  Methodists,  to  denote 
the  inward  assurance  which  every  believer  has  of  bis 


filial  jelation  to  God,  namely,  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
mmediaieljf  and  direetljf  witnesses  to  and  with  (9v/<- 
fiaprvpiTj  his  spirit  that  he  is  a  child  of  God,  involv- 
ing the  collateral  assurance  that  through  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ,  who  died  and  rose  again  for  him,  all  hb  sins 
are  blotted  out,  and  he- is  reconciled  to  God  (Rom.  viii, 
14-17 ;  GaL  iv,  6-7 ;  John  i,  12 ;  1  John  v,  9-18).  Mr. 
Wesley  observes,  **  1  do  not  mean  hereby  that  the  Spirit 
of  God  testifies  this  by  any  outward  voice ;  no,  nor  al- 
ways by  an  inward  voice,  although  he  may  do  this 
sometimes.  Neither  do  I  suppose  that  he  always  ap- 
plies to  the  heart,  though  he  often  may,  one  or  more 
texts  of  Scripture.  But  he  so  works  upon  the  soul  by 
his  immediate  influence,  and  by  a  strong  though  in- 
explicable operation,  that  the  stormy  wind  and  troubled 
waves  subside,  and  there  is  a  sweet  calm— the  heart 
resting  as  in  the  arms  of  Jesus,  and  the  sinner  being 
clearly  satisfied  that  all  his  *  iniquities  are  forgiven  and 
his  sins  covered.*  The  immediate  result  of  this  testi«> 
mony  is '  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit — love,  Joy,  peace,  long- 
suffering,  gentleness,  goodness,  faith,  meekness,  temper- 
ance' (GaL  V,  22,  28).  Without  these  the  testimony 
itself  cannot  continue;  for  it  is  inevitably  destroyed, 
not  only  by  the  oommLnion  of  any  outward  sin,  or  the 
omission  of  known  duty,  but  by  giving  way  to  any  in- 
ward sin  —  in  a  word,  by  whatever  grieves  the  Holy 
Sinrit  of  God."  Some  claim  a  similar  testimony  for 
special  states  of  grace,  and  even  peculiar  experiences  or 
prognostications,  but  such  an  extension  of  the  privilege 
is  not  authorized  by  Scripture.  See  Adoption  ;  As- 
surance. 

Witnestes,  The  Thbee  Heavenly,  is  a  conven- 
ient designation  of  the  famous  controversy  respecting 
the  genuineness  of  the  clause  in  the  fint  epistle  of  John 
(v,  7),  '*  For  there  are  three  that  bear  record  in  heaven, 
the  Father,  the  Word,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  these 
three  are  one." 

I.  Histoty  of  iti  frUroducHon  into  the  Text.— In  all 
the  first  printed  Bibles,  which  were  those  of  the  Latin 
Vulgatf*.  as  amended  by  Jerome,  the  danse  appeared 
snbstaiifially  as  at  present  {Ed,  Prinetpe,  1462),  being 
found  in  the  great  majority  of  manuscripts  of  the  Vul- 
gate. It  may  therefore  be  considered  as  the  generally 
received  form  at  that  period.  But  when  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  Test,  appeared,  which  was  that  of 
Erasmus,  published  at  Basle  in  1616,  the  clause  in 
question  ["in  heaven,  the  Father,  the  Word,  and  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  these  three  are  one;  and  there  are 
three  which  bear  witness  in  earth  **]  was  wanting. 
Erasmus  was  attacked  by  Stunica,  one  of  the  editora  of 
the  Complutensian  Polyglot,  of  which  the  New  Test, 
in  Greek  and  Latin  had  been  printed  in  1514  (and  con- 
sequently before  the  appearance  of  Erasmus's  edition), 
although  not  published  until  1522.  Erasmus  replieil 
to  Stunica  by  observing  that  he  had  faithfully  followed 
the  Greek  manuscripts  from  which  he  had  edited  his 
text,  but  professed  his  readiness  to  insert  the  clause  in 
another  edition,  provided  but  a  single  Greek  manuscript 
was  found  to  contain  it.  Such  a  manuscript  was  found 
in  England,  upon  which  Erasmus,  although  entertain- 
ing strong  suspicions  respecting  this  manuscript,  yet, 
faithful  to  his  word,  inserted  the  clause  in  his  third 
edition,  which  was  published  in  1522,  as  it  now  stands 
in  the  common  Greek  text. 

Nevertheless,  the  absence  of  the  definite  article  from 
the  six  nouns  in  the  disputed  passage  in  this  pretended 
manuscript  is  of  itself  sufficient  to  excite  suspicions  of, 
if  not  completely  to  overthrow,  its  genuineness.  What 
has  become  of  the  manuscript  is  not  known,  but  it  is  gen- 
erally believed  to  have  been  the  same  with  that  now 
possessed  by  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
called  the  Codex  Montfortiamie^  or  DuUmenaisy  in  which 
the  disputed  clause  appears,  but  without  the  conclusion, 
^  and  these  three  are  one."  Erasmus  also  speaks  of  a 
Codex  BrUannictu  as  containing  the  entire  clause,  with 
some  minute  variations  (i4fifiof.  4th  ed.  p.  697).  See 
MoNTFORT  Manubcripts.    The  Dublin  manuscript  is 


WITNESSES 


958 


WITNESSES 


genenlly  ascribed  to  the  15th  or  16th  eenturjr,  ind  otti- 
Dot  pofldibly  be  older  than  the  ISth;  it  tikewiae  variefl 
from  the  received  Greek  text  in  several  leaser  paittco* 
lara.  The  clause  has  been  also  found,  althonjifh  in  a 
form  still  more  cormpt,  in  a  manuscript  in  the  Vatican 
{Cod,  Ouobon,  298),  of  the  15th  century,  first  coUated 
by  Dr.  Scholz,  of  Bonn. 

The  above  is  the  amount  of  Greek  manuscript  author- 
ity for  this  celebrated  clause,  for  although  all  the  libra- 
ries in  existence  have  been  examined  (containing  above 
one  hundred  and  eighty  Greek  MSS.,  written  between 
the  5th  and  15th  centuries),  no  other  copy  has  been 
found  which  contains  a  vestige  of  it.  Nor  has  it  been 
once  cited  by  a  single  Greek  father,  although  abundant 
opportunities  presented  themselves  for  introducing  it, 
which  they  could  not  have  failed  to  avail  themselves 
of,  had  it  existed  in  their  copies ;  but  they  have  invaria- 
bly cited  the  passage  as  it  has  been  preserved  in  all  the 
ancient  manuscripts.  It  found  its  way,  however,  into 
the  received  text  of  the  Greek  Test,  having  been  copied 
from  Erasmus's  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  editions  (1522, 
1527,  and  1535),  with  more  or  less  of  variation,  into  all 
Stephens's  editions,  from  the  third  or  folio  edition  of 
which  it  was  adopted  by  Besa  in  all  his  editions,  the 
first  of  which  was  puUished  in  1565,  and  again  by  El- 
zevir, in  his  edition  of  1624,  to  which  his  anonymous 
editor  gave  the  name  of  Textut  tmdigue  reoeptut.  The 
best  critical  editions  since  have  left  out  the  words  as 
spurious.  They  are  wanting  in  those  of  Aldus,  Gerbe- 
lius,  CepbelflBus,  Colinsus,  Mace,  Uarwood,  Matthsi, 
Griesbacb,  Scholz,  Lachmann,  Tischendorf,  and  others. 
Bowyer  enclosed  them  in  brackets,  and  Knappin  double 
brackets,  indicating  their  spuriousness.  The  clause  ap- 
pears in  the  principal  printed  editions  of  the  New  Test, 
before  the  time  of  Griesbach.  These  were  the  editions 
of  Mill  (1707),  Bengel  (17»4),  and  Wetstein  (1751),  the 
two  former  of  whom  held  it  to  be  genuine. 

Luther  uniformly  rejected  this  clause  from  all  his 
translations.  It  is  absent  from  his  last  edition  (1546), 
published  after  his  death,  and  was  first  inserted  in  the 
Frankfort  edition  of  1574,  but  again  omitted  in  1588, 
and  in  subsequent  editions.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  century,  with  the  exception  of  the  Wittenbeig 
edition  of  1607,  its  insertion  has  been  general.  This 
was,  however,  in  opposition  to  Luther^s  injunction. 

It  is  inserted  in  all  the  early  English  printed  versions, 
commencing  with  Goverdale's  in  1586,  but  is  generally 
printed  either  in  brackets  or  in  smaller  letters.  It  Was, 
however,  printed  in  the  editions  of  1586, 1552,  and  in 
the  Geneva  Bible  (1557),  without  any  marks  of  doubt. 
It  found  its  way,  perhaps,  from  Beza's  Greek  Test,  into 
the  then  authorized  English  veruon. 

II.  External  EvidencL — The  eariieat  Greek  form  in 
which  the  disputed  clause  is  found  is  contained  in  the 
Latin  translation  of  the  acta  of  the  council  of  Lateran, 
held  in  1215,  and  the  first  Greek  writer  who  absolutely 
cites  any  part  of  it  ia  Manuel  Calecaa,  a  Dominican 
monk  of  the  14th  century,  while  in  the  next  century  it 
u  cited  by  Joseph  Bryennins,  a  Greek  monk. 

The  clause  of  the  three  heavenly  witnesses  is  abo 
absent  from  all  existing  manuscripts  of  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate, written  between  the  8th  and  10th  centuries,  ante- 
rior to  which  date  there  is  no  manuscript  of  this  ver- 
sion now  in  existence,  oont«ning  the  Catholic  epistles. 
Nor  has  any  writer  of  the  Western  Church  cited  the 
passage  before  Cassiodorns,  at  the  ckMe  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury, although  even  the  fiiict  of  his  having  done  ao  ia 
doubted  by  Person.  There  is,  indeed,  a  preface  to  the 
eamottkal  epistles,  bearing  the  name  of  Jeioroe,  in 
which  the  omission  of  this  clause  is  ascribed  to  "  false 
translators;"  but  this  is  a  forgery.  The  clause  is  also 
wanting  in  all  the  manuscripts  of  the  Syriac,  Armenian, 
and  other  ancient  versions. 

From  the  circumstance,  however,  of  the  clause  in 
question  having  been  cited  by  two  north-west  African 
writers  of  the  5th  century— Vigilius,  bishop  of  Tliapsus 
(the  supposed  author  of  the  Athanasian  Creed),  and 


Victor  TitensKs,  the  histerian  of  the  Tandal 
—it  has  been  fairiy  presumed  that  it  existed  in  iheif 
time  in  some  of  the  African  copiea  of  the  old  Latin  ver- 
sion, from  whence^  or  from  the  citations  of  these  writer^ 
it  may  have  found  its  way  into  the  later  mamBerlptt 
of  the  Tulgate.  It  ia  cited  by  Victor,  as  contained  ia 
the  Confession  of  Faith  drawn  np  by  Eogenina,  bishop 
of  Carthage.  Vigilius^  however,  dtes  it  in  so  many 
various  ways,  that  K^e  reliance  can  be  placed  on 
his  authority.  After  this  it  is  cited  by  Fulgenciuah 
bishop  of  Rusopa,  ia  the  beginning  of  the  6th  oentoiy, 
but  is  omitted  in  the  same  century  by  Facnndos,  bishop 
of  Hermione,fcom  which  it  is  at  least  evident  Uiat  the 
copies  ia  that  age  and  country  varied.  But,  at  a  nrach 
earlier  period,  the  whole  clause  is  dted  by  Anga»> 
tine  of  Hippo.  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  have  been  sup- 
posed, indieed,  to  have  referred  to  the  clause^  hut  the 
proof  of  this  depends  on  the  proof  of  the  previous  fiwt, 
whether  the  clause  existed  or  not  in  their  copies. 

m.  Internal  J£videmx,^^YMMiaoM  have  beoi  the  opin- 
ions on  this  point  for  and  against  the  genuineness  of 
the  passage.  The  advocates  of  the  dense  have  genef^ 
ally  maintained  that  the  context  requires  its  inscition, 
while  its  adversaries  maintain  that  the  whole  force  of 
the  argument  is  destroyed  by  it.  Ltlcke,  one  of  the 
ablest  modem  commentators  on  John*a  writings,  mato- 
tains  that  internal  evidence  aloae  would  be  soffi- 
cient  to  reject  the  passage,  inasmuch  (besides  other 
reasons)  as  John  never  nses  o  trartip  and  o  \6yos 
as  coneUitives,  but  ordinarily,  like  Paul,  and  eveiy 
other  writer  of  the  New  Test.,  assodates  6  vcoc  ^rith  i 
irarhp  (ii,  22, 28 ;  iv,  14;  v,  9, 11,  20,  etc),  and  always 
refers  the  \oyoQ  in  Christ  to  6  deoc,  and  not  to  6  wor^ 
He  unites  with  those  critics  who  look  upon  the  rejected 
passage  as  an  allegorical  gloss,  which  found  its  way 
into  the  Latin  text,  where  it  has,  ''ever  since  the  4th 
century,  firmly  maintained  its  place  as  a  welcome  and 
protective  passage,**  etc  He  adds,  however,  that  exe- 
getical  consdence  will,  in  our  age,  foibid  the  most  or- 
thodox to  apply  this  passage,  even  if  it  were  genuine, 
for  such  a  purpose,  as  IV  c7vai  has  quite  a  different  sense 
from  that  which  is  required  by  the  doctrine  of  the  trin- 
ity. Here  Lttcke  fully  coSnddes  with  the  late  btsfaop 
Middleton  {Greek  Artide),  LUcke*s  condosion  is  a 
strong  one.  ''Either  these  words  are  genuine,  and  the 
epistle,  in  this  case,  a  producrion  of  the  8d  or  4th  cen* 
tury,  or  the  epistle  is  a  genuine  work  of  John's,  and 
then  these  words  spurious.** 

Among  the  latest  attempts  to  vindicate  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  passage  is  that  of  M.  Gaussen,  of  Geneva, 
in  his  Theopneuftia  (1889).  But  his  reasonings  are 
founded  on  a  palpable  error— the  interpolation  of  the 
words  Iv  TJ  yy  {in  the  earth)  in  the  eighth  vene, 
which  he  absolutdy  cites  upon  the  authority  of  Gries- 
bach*8  text,  vhere  they  do  not  exist/  The  correspond- 
ing words  in  terra  are,  indeed,  found  in  the  present  text 
of  some  MSS.  of  the  Vulgate,  and  of  some  ancient 
writers,  although  wanting  in  the  seventh  verse. 

IV.  Literature, — The  following  are  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal  controversies  to  which  this  famous  clause  has 
given  rise,' of  which  a  more  complete  account  win  be 
found  in  Mr.  Charles  Butler's  Hora  BHUob;  and  most 
fully  in  Orme*s  Memoir  (1880)  on  the  subject  (under 
the  pseudonym  of  "  Criticus**),  especially  the  American 
edition  by  Abbot  (N.  Y.  1866). 

The  eariiest  was  the  dispute  between  Erasmus  and 
Lee,  afterwards  archbishop  of  York,  and  between  Eras- 
mus and  Stunica,  one  of  the  Complutensian  editors. 
Erasmus  was  the  first  to  suspect  the  genninenesB  of  the 
preface  to  the  canonical  epistles  above  referred  to, 
which  ascribes  the  omission  of  the  clause  to  false  trans- 
lators or  transcribers.  The  genuineness  of  this  prefiMse, 
which  led  Sir  Isaac  Newton  to  charge  Jerome  with 
being  the  fabricator  of  the  disputed  clause  (whereas  it 
is  certain  that  that  leaned  father  was  totally  anao- 
quainted  with  its  existemce)  of  the  t^ct,  is  now  given 
up.    It  is  consideted  in  the  BenMictine  edition  of  J*- 


WITNESSES 


959 


WITTENBERG 


fome*8  worka  to  be  a  forgeiy  of  the  9th  centoiy  (Burigni, 
F«6<rZraj»M,Paria»  1767,1,872-881;  u,  168-176;  CrU. 
Sac  Til,  1229). 

It  was  afterwards  attacked  hy  Sandias  the  Ariao  (iVu- 
deus  ffiai,  EcduioML,  Amsterdam,  1669;  and  JnierprO. 
Paradox,  in  Jokan,),  It  was  defended  by  Selden  (/)e 
SynedrieU  Ehrceor,^  and  ably  attacked  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  father  Simon  (//u<.  Critique  du  TexU,  1680, 
etc.).  It  was  defended  again  by  Martin  (pastor  of  the 
Reformed  Church  in  Utrecht,  1717),  who  was  replied  to 
by  Thomas  Emlyn,  the  celebrated  and  much-persecuted 
English  Presbyterian  {A  Full  Inquiry,  etc.,  1716-20), 
and  by  Caesar  de  Missy,  French  preacher  in  the  Savoy. 
There  are  other  able  treatises  on  the  same  side  by  Dr. 
Benson,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  the  learned  printer,  Mr, 
Bowyer;  and  in  its  favor  by  Smith  (1690),  Ketttier, 
Calamy  (1722),  as  well  as  by  fioesuet,  and  by  Cal- 
met  (1720)  in  France,  and  Semler  in  Germany  (1751). 
In  Germany  it  was  also  attacked  by  Schmidt  (//tcf. 
AntiquOf  1774), and  Michaelis,in  his  Introduction;  but 
found  an  able  defender  in  the  excellent  Bengel  {Gno- 
mon, 1778),  who  conceived  that  the  passage  contained 
a  divine  internal  evidence,  but  at  the  same  time  main- 
tained  that  its  genuineness  depended  on  the  transpo- 
sition of  the  two  verses  so  as  to  make  the  earthly  wit- 
nesses precede  the  heavenly,  according  to  the  citation 
(tupra^  of  Yigilius  of  Thapsus.  (See  Christian  Re- 
numbrancer,  iv,  43,  note.) 

The  third  and  most  important  stage  of  the  contro- 
versy may  be  said  to  commence  with  the  time  of  Gib- 
bon, and  was  attacked  by  archdeacon  Travis  in  three 
letters  (1784-86).  This  publication  gave  rise  to  the 
most  celebrated  work  which  had  yet  appeared  on  the 
subject,  professor  Porson's  Letters  (1788):  *'an  eternal 
monument  of  his  uncommon  erudition,  sagacity,  and 
tact*'  (fforee  Bibliea),  Mr.  Butler  concludes  his  enu- 
meration with  the  Obfervations  of  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  on 
the  text  of  the  heavenly  witnesses  (1805). 

Griesbach's  Diatribe,  at  the  close  of  the  second  vol- 
nme  of  his  celebrated  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  Test. 
(1806),  contains  a  complete  and  masterly  view  of  the 
evidence  on  both  sides;  but  as  this  eminent  critic  had 
completely  rejected  the  passage  from  the  text,  he  met 
with  an  indefatigable  adversary  in  the  late  bishop  Bur- 
gess {Vindication,  1821,  and  Introduction,  1883).  The 
writings  of  this  prelate  drew  down  many  learned  replies, 
but  his  most  able  and  successful  opponent  was  Dr.  Turton, 
regius  professor  at  Cambridge  {VindiccUion  of  the  Lit' 
erary  Character  of  ProfeMor  Portonfrom  the  Animad- 
versions of  the  Right  Rev,  Thomas  Burgess,  D.D,,  etc, 
published  under  the  name  of  Crito-Cantabrigiensis, 
1827).  A  temperate  vindication  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  passage  had  been  published  by  the  late  bishop 
Middleton  (1808),  in  his  work  on  the  Greek  article, 
which  was  also  replied  to  by  Dr.  Turton  {ut  sup,). 

In  the  year  1834,  Dr.  Wiseman  renewed  the  contro- 
versy in  favor  of  the  clause,  in  two  letters  in  the  Cath- 
olic Magazine,  vol.  ii  and  iii,  reprinted  at  Rome  in  1885. 
Dr.  Wiseman's  principal  arguments  are  founded  on  the 
citations  in  African  writers.  Wright's  Append  to  his 
Translation  o/SeiUr's  Hermeneutics  contains  some  ac- 
count of  the  state  of  the  controversy  respecting  this 
clause  to  the  year  1885 ,  also  Home's  Introduction,  8th 
ed.  ii,  185',  iv,  448-471.  Siqce  the  time  of  Griesbach 
it  has  been  generally  omitted  in  all  critical  editions, 
and  its  spuriousness  was  especially  shown  in  that  of  the 
learned  Roman  Catholic  professor  Scholz,  of  Bonn  (1886), 
who  was  replied  to  by  bishop  Burgess  (eod.).  The  whole 
ground  of  the  controversy  has  more  lately  been  reviewed 
by  Dr,  Davidson  {Lectures  on  Biblical  Criticism,  1853, 
ii,  403-426),  who  proves  conclusively  that  the  clause  is 
indefensible  either  on  its  external  or  internal  evidence. 

For  the  exposition  of  the  passage  as  containing  the 
words  in  question,  see  bishop  Uorsley's  Sermons  (i,  198). 
For  the  same  passage  interpreted  without  the  disputed 
words,  see  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Hist,  of  Tvo  Texts 
{Works  [Lond.  1779],  v,  528).— Kitto,  s.  v. 


Wltiohel,  JoRASM  Hbimricii  Wilrxlv,  a  Pro^ 
estant  theologian  of  Germany,. was  bord  May  9, 1769^ 
at  Hensenfeld,  near  Ntiiemberg.  In  1801  he  was  ap> 
pointed  pastor  at  Igeosdorf,  in  1811  dean  at  Qitfen- 
berg,  in  1819  pastor  and  dean  at  Katxenhochstadt,  in 
Bavaria,  and  died  April  24, 1847.  He  is  the  author  of 
an  ascetieal  work  entitled,  Aforgen-  und  Abendonfer 
(Nttrembeig,  1806 ;  18th  ed.  1854)  i-^MoraUscke  BlOUer 
(ibid.  1801;  8d  ed.  wUh  the  title,  Stimmen  rdigidser 
Erhebung,  1862) :— fiermofaas  (ibid.  nwy-.—Auswahl 
WM  GesHngen  und  Liedem  car  hausUchen  £rbauung 
(Hanover,  1817).  See  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theol.  Lit. 
ii,  384, 888»  895 ;  TheoL  UmversaUexikon,  s.  v. ;  Zuchold, 
BibL  Theol. 9,Y,    (a  P.) 

"Witttaok,  a  citizen  of  Stettin,  Pomerania,  of  some 
note,  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  12th  centory. 
He  was  converted  and  baptized  daring  the  first  vint  of 
bishop  Otto  to  Stettin,  and  endeavored  to  show  his  zeal 
for  Christianity  by  fighting  against  the  pagans.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  on  a  piratical  expedition,  and  for 
some  time  kept  in  chains.  Resorting  to  prayer  for  con- 
solation in  his  confinement,  he  was,  as  he  thought, 
providentially  released,  and  made  his  way  back  to  his 
home.  This  deliverance,  and  some  other  events  of  like 
character,  he  regarded  as  the  divine  call  to  him  to  pro- 
claim Christianity  to  his  perishing  country  men.  Through 
his  aid  Ottp  was  enabled  to  overcome  paganism  in  Stet- 
tin, and  place  Christianity  on  a  firm  footing.  See  Nean- 
der,  Hist,  of  the  Church,  xv,  26. 

Witt,  Daniki^  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  in 
Bedford  County,  Ta.,  Nov.  8, 1801.  He  united  with  the 
Church  in  December,  1821,  was  licensed  April  13, 1822, 
and  itinerated  through  several  counties  in  his  native 
state  for  two  or  three  years.  About  1825  he  became 
pastor  of  a  Church  which  he  had  organized  at  Sandy 
River,  and  for  forty-five  years  occupied  that  position. 
During  a  part  of  this  long  ministry  he  had  the  pastqral 
oversight  of  several  chqrches.  He  died  Nov.  15, 1871. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Etfcydop,  p.  1267.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Wittenberg;  The  Coiioord  of,  signed  May  29, 
1586,  denotes  one  of  the  most  interesting,  as  also  one  of 
the  most  important,  stages  in  that  series  of  negotiations 
which,  daring  the  first  period  of  the  Reformation,  was 
carried  on  in  order  to  bring  about  an  agreement  be- 
tween the  Swiss  and  Saxon  reformers^  Politicly, 
landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse  was  the  motive  power  of 
these  negotiations;  theologically,  Bucer;  and  the  per- 
sonal meeting  which  the  former  brought  about,  in  1584, 
between  the  latter  and  Melanchthon,  at  Cassel,  formed 
the  introduction  to  the  larger  assembly  at  Wittenberg, 
held  in  1686.  The  hard  words  which  Luther  let  drop 
in  his  letter  to  Albrecht  of  Brandenburg,  immediately 
after  Zwinglt's  death,  showed  the  aversion  he  nourished 
to  him ;  and  it  was  well  known  how  anxiously  he  watched 
that  no  one  inclined  to  the  Zwinglian  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  should  be  allowed  to  keep  up  community 
with  the  Saxon  camp,  as  his  letters  to  Brunswick,  Mttn- 
ster,  and  Augsburg  show  (De  Wette,  iv,  472 ;  vi,  148). 
With  Melanchthon,  however,  a  change  had  taken  place. 
He  learned  from  (Ecolampadius's  Dialogus  that  many 
of  those  passages  from  the  fathers  which  he  had  quoted 
in  hia  Sententia  Veterum  Aliquot  Scriptorum  de  Ctena 
Domsm  {Corpus  Re/ormatorum,  vol.  xxvi)  were  mere  in- 
terpolations, and  that  Augustine  never  taught  a  *^  maa- 
ducatio  oralis,"  etc.  Thus  he  wrote  to  Bucer,  in  April, 
1581:  '^Aliquando  inter  nos  veram  et  solidam  concor- 
diam  coiturum  esse,  idque  ut  fiat,  deum  oro,  certe  quan- 
tum possum  ad  hoc  annitar.  S^unquam  placuit  mihi 
hoc  viokntia  et  hostUis  digladiaiio  inter  Lutherum  et 
Cinglium,  Melius  ilU  causes  consuUum  fuerit,  si  sina- 
mus  paulatim  consilescere  has  tragicas  contentiones^ 
(ibid,  ii,  498).  Under  the  influence  of  Bucer*s  ex- 
positions he  gradually  lost  all  mterest  in  Luther's  pe- 
culiar conception  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  became 
more  and  more  anxious  for  the  elimination  of  all  ele- 
ments of  discord  between  the  two  evangelical  churches. 


wrrrKSA 


960 


wrrzEL 


In  Mtrch,  1638,  he  wrote  to  fiiioer  ooDoerolng  the 
moderation  which  both  bad  hitherto  shown,  and  begs 
of  him  as  instantly  as  possible  **  ut  det  operam,  m*- 
gis  ut  contentiones  istfs  sedentnr  atque  constlescanti 
quam  ut  excitentur  et  inflammentur "  (ibid,  ii,  641); 
and  in  a  letter  written  Oct.  10, 1688,  Ifelanchthon  even 
goes  so  far  as  to  write  to  Bucer,  ^*  Utinam  saltern  nos 
aliquando  possemns  una  oommentari  atque  oommunicare 
de  doctrina  "  (ibid,  ii,  676).  The  Swiss  had  also  become 
more  susceptible  to  the  idea  of  concord.  Bocer  had 
succeeded  in  gaining  over  to  the  side  of  reconciliation 
tfyconius  in  Basel,  Bnllinger  in  Zurich,  his  ooUeague 
Capito,  etc,  and  in  the  summer  of  1584  an  attempt  at 
practical  union  was  made,  and  proved  successful,  in 
WUrtemberg,  and  on  July  81  a  colloquy  was  held  at 
Stuttgart,  in  the  presence  of  duke  Ulrich,  between  Si- 
mon Grynaeus  of  Basel  and  Ambroeius  Blaurer  of  Con- 
stance, who  represented  the  Swiss,  and  Erhard  Schnepf, 
the  Lutheran  representative.  In  th»  same  year,  Dec. 
27,  Bucer  and  Melanchthon  met  at  Cassel,  and  in  spite 
of  the  very  stringent  instructions  which  Luther  had 
given  Melanchthon,  they  succeeded  in  drawing  up  a 
formula  of  concord  which  satisfied  both.  Copies  of  the 
formula  were  sent  to  Urbanus  Rhegius,  Brenz,  Amsdorf, 
and  Agricola,  with  the  request,  *'an  ita  sentientes  tole- 
randi  sint,  ne  damnentur"  (ibid,  ii,  826).  On  October 
.6,  1535,  Luther  wrote  to  Strasburg,  Augsburg,  Ulm, 
£sslingen,to  Gerion  Seller  and  Huberinus,  etc,  inviting 
them  to  a  general  discussion  of  the  formula  of  concord. 
Eisenach  was  decided  upon  as  the  place  of  rendez- 
vous. In  April  Bucer  left  Constance,  accompanied  by 
nine  preachers.  As  they  progressed  they  were  joined 
by  Capito,  Musculus,  Bonifacius  Wolfhard  of  Augsburg, 
Gervasius  Schuler  of  Memmingen,  and  Martin  Frecht 
of  Ulm.  At  Easlingen  they  were  Joined  by  others. 
Meanwhile  Luther  had  fallen  sick,  and  requested  the 
visitors  to  come  to  Grimma;  they  determined,  however, 
to  go  directly  to  Wittenberg.  On  May  22,  at  seven  o*clock 
in  the  morning,  Bueer  and  Capito  went  to  Luther*s 
study.  At  three  o*clock  in  the  afternoon  they  again 
went  to  Luther,  accompanied  by  Bngenhagen,  Jonas, 
Cruciger,  Meniiis,  Mecnm,  Weller,  and  magister  Georg 
Rovarius.  Luther  was  suffering,  irritable,  harsh ;  Bu- 
cer became  confused.  The  subject  of  the  debate  was  the 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Luther  demanded  that 
the  Swiss  should  make  a  formal  recantation  of  what 
they  had  hitherto  believed  and  taught;  this  they  re- 
fused, on  the  ground  that  they  could  not  recant  any- 
thing which  they  had  never  taught  or  believed.  The 
next  day,  however,  everything  was  changed.  Bucer 
was  clear  and  adroit,  Luther  was  mild  and  kind.  Af- 
ter some  debate  the  Saxon  theologians  retired  to  an- 
other room  to  deliberate  in  private,  and  the  result  was 
the  formula  proposed  by  the  Swiss  was  substantially 
accepted.  May  24  the  assembly  met  in  Melanchthon*s 
house.  The  subjects  of  the  discussion  were  baptism, 
absolution,  the  school,  etc,  and  the  agreement  which 
was  arrived  at  was  chiefly  due  to  the  tact  and  resolu- 
tion of  Bugenhagen.  On  Sunday  Bucer  preached  in 
the  forenoon,  Luther  in  the  afternoon ;  and  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  assembly  took  the  Lord's  Supper  together. 
Luthersns,  like  Osiander  and  Amsdorf,  were  not  satis- 
fied with  the  result;  they  continued  to  demand  that 
Bucer  should  recant.  But  Luther  himself  spoke  for  a 
long  time  with  great  contentment  and  confidence  of  the 
affair.  In  Switzerland,  too,  there  were  some  difficulties 
to  overcome  \  but  Bucer  succeeded.  See  Herzog,  Real- 
Encyldop,  s.  v.     (a  F.) 

Wittesa  (or  Vittesa),  in  Hindd  mythology,  is 
the  god  of  wealth,  one  of  the  eight  protectors  of  the 
world,  or  of  the  ten  patriarchs,  Rishis,  masters  of  created 
beings.  He  always  appears  upon  a  magnificent  wagon, 
overlaid  with  precious  stones,  or  on  a  white  feather-cov- 
ered horse. 

Wittioh,  Christoph,  a  Reformed  theologian  of 
Holland,  was   born  Oct  7,  1625,  at  Brieg,  in  Silesia. 


He  ttodied  at  Grtfningen  and  Leyden,  was  in  1655  ap- 
pointed profesM>r  of  theology  at  Nimegnen,  where  he 
lectured  for  sixteen  years.  In  1671  he  was  called  to 
Leyden,  where  his  lectures  were  received  with  great 
lavor,  and  died  May  19, 1687.  He  wrote,  CcmaauuM 
VerUaHt  in  Seriphira  Divina  et  InfaUibUi  Rertlatte 
cum  Veritate  PkUoiophica  a  Cartaio  Deltela: — Ccm^ 
meHt»  m  Epitt,  ad  Romanoa: — Tnvestiffatio  EpistoUa  ad 
Htbntat: — Ditaertatio  de  Natura  Dei,  See  Bayle, 
Diotiotmain  JJittorique  Critique;  Benthem,  ffoU&tdi' 
teher  Kirdun~ Staai ;  Jocher,  AUgemeimM  Gekkrten' 
LexihoH,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  JJandbueh  der  ikeoL  UL  i,  30S. 

cap.) 

Wittichen,  Ferdhiand  Karl,  a  Protestant  tbetH 
logian,  was  bom  April  7, 1832,  and  died  Mareh  90,  I88S, 
at  Eschweiler,  in  Prussia.  He  is  the  author  of.  Die 
lAkre  Gottet  aU  det  Vatere  (GdUingen,  1865) :  —  Die 
Idee  des  Metucken  (ibid.  1868):~Z>w  Idee  det  Reiekes 
Gottet  (ibid.  1872)  .--Die  christlicke  Lehre,eim  Leif/adem 
fur  dm  kdhertn  JRdigiaiuunUrrickt  (ibid.  1874)  r—Au 
Ldfen  Jetu  in  urhundlidter  DartitUung  (ibid.  1876). 

(a  P.) 

'Witting;  JoHAXN  Carl  Frikdrich,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  80, 1760,  at 
Alfeld,  in  Hanover.  He  studied  theology  and  philoso- 
phy at  Gdttingen,  and  ader  completing  his  curriculum 
he  acted  for  ten  years  as  private  tutor  in  the  bouse  of 
a  nobleman.  In  1783  he  received  the  pastorate  in  £1- 
lensen,  near  Eimbeck.  Here  he  wrote  his  Stoffsu  Urn- 
terhaltungen  am  Kranhenbelie  (Gottingen,  1788 ;  2d  cd. 
1789) '. — Gedanken  uber  Kanzehortri^  vnd  deren  zteeeh- 
matiige  Einrichiung  (ibid.  1791).  In  1799  he  went  to 
Branswick  as  second  preacher  of  St.  Blagnus,  and  ad- 
vanced in  1805  to  be  first  preacher.  He  died  Jan.  24, 
1824.  Belonging  to  the  strict  orthodox  party,  he  pub- 
lished, Ud»er  Bationalitmus  und  EationaUitrie  (Brans- 
wick, 1822 ):— ^fUwcAei*  Beweist  van  der  //taune/- 
fahti  JeMU  (ibid.  lH7ff):^Practitchet  Haftdbu<A  fh- 
Prediger  (1791-98,6  vols.) :— (7rinMlr£ss  der  T^gend- 
und  Religitmslehre  (1802).  See  Doring,  Die  gelekrten 
Theologen  DeuUchlandt^  iv,  750  sq.;  Winer,  Ilandbmdk 
der  theoL  Lit.  i,  869, 400, 491, 562 ;  ii,  40.     (a  P.) 

Wittmaxm,  Gboro  Michael,  a  Roman  Catholic 
prelate  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Finkenhammer,  near 
Pleistein,  in  the  Upper  Palatinate,  Jan.  28, 1760.  Ue 
studied  at  Ambeig  and  Heidelberg,  and  received  holy 
orders  in  1782.  In  1803  he  became  head  of  the  episco- 
pal clerical  seminary  at  Ratisbon,  in  1804  was  appointed 
cathedral-preacher,  in  1821  made  suffragan  and  general 
vicar  to  bishop  Sailer,  and,  at  the  same  time,  cathedral- 
provost  there.  When  Sailer  died  he  was  appointed 
his  successor,  but  before  the  confirmation  reached  him 
from  Rome,  he  died,  March  8, 1883.  He  wrote,  Prit^ 
cipia  CathoL  de  Sacra  Scriptura  (Ratisbon.  1793) : — 
Principia  CaihoUca  de  MatrimonOt  CatkoUcorum  cam 
Altera  Parte  Protettantica  (ibid.  1881;  Germ.  tranaL 
eod.): — Annotationet  m  Pentateuekum  Mogrit  (ibid. 
1796)  :—Ein  Wort  uber  die  Dent-  und  Gtaubau/reiieit 
der  Proiettatden  (  Sulzbach,  1817  ) : — Con/ettarnte  pro 
^tate  Juvenili  (ibid.  1882;  3d  ed.  Lat.  and  Germ.  1862) : 
—  VolUtandige  SiUenkhre  (Landshut,  1832),  and  other 
ascetical  works.  See  Diepenbrod^t  Trauerrede  (Scadt- 
am-hof,  1888);  Schenk,  ^otffr  und  Witimann  (Ratis- 
bon, 1^) ;  Schubert,  Ervmerungen  cm  (herbeck  vnd 
Wittmann  (Erlangen,  1835) ;  Sintzel,  Erinnerungem  cm 
Bitchof  Wittmann  (Ratisbon,  1841);  TheoL  Umrertal- 
lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Winer,  Handbuck  der  tkeoL  Lit.  i,  401, 
467;ii,28.     (RP.) 

Witsel  (Lat  YFMuri),  Gbobo,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Vach,  Hesse,  in  1504.  He  studied 
theology  at  Erfurt,  and  in  1520  went  to  Wittenberg  to 
attend  the  lectures  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  but  was 
nevertheless  ordained  as  priest  by  bishop  Adolpb,  of 
Merseburg.  Appointed  vicar  in  his  native  town,  he 
preached  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation,  married,  and 
was  expelled  in  1525.     Driven  away  by  the  peasantaf 


wrrzsTADT 


961 


WODROW 


war  ftom  LUboitz,  in  Thurlngia,  where  be  had  aet- 
Uedi  he  was,  on  the  recommendation  of  Lather,  ap- 
pointed paator  of  Niemeck,  but  relapsed  into  Boman- 
iam,  began  to  write  with  great  violence  against  Lather 
and  Melanchthon,  and  was  expelled  in  1680.  After 
aome  years  of  onoertain  endeavors,  he  entered  the  aer- 
vice  of  abbot  John  of  Fnlda,  in  1640,  pablished  his 
principal  book,  Tgpmi  Ecduia  Prions^  and  presented 
his  Qfterda  Pacu  to  Charles  Y  at  the  Diet  of  Spires 
(1544),  who  appointed  him  to  draw  up,  together  with 
Agricola,  the  Augsboig  Interim.  The  troubles  of  the 
war  induced  Witiel  to  leave  Fulda  in  1654  and  to  settle 
at  Mayence,  where  he  published,  in  1564,  Via  Btgia  aeu 
de  Controversiit  ReKgkmit  CapUitius  BeooncUicmdit  Sen- 
loi/ia.  He  died  in  1578.  See  Strobel,  Btiirage  tar 
LiUratur  des  xvL  JakrhundertM  (Nuremberg,  1786); 
Schrockh,  KirchenguckichUj  i,  570;  iv,  242  sq.;  Nean- 
der,  De  Georgio  WiceUo  (Berlin,  1839);  Holzhausen, 
in  Niedner's  ZeiUchrift  fur  hitior.  Thealogk,  1849, 
p.  382  sq.;  Kampfschulte, De  G,  Wicdio  ejusque  SiudUt 
(Paderbom,  1856);  Schmidt,  Georg  WUzeU  Em  AU- 
haihoUk  des  xvu  JahrhvnderU  (Vienna,  1876) ;  Heizog, 
Real-Enqfklop,  s.  v.;  Lichtenberger,  Encjfchp,  des  Sd- 
enoes  Religieuses^  s.  v,    (B.  P.) 

'Witzstadt,  Haas,  an  Anabaptist  hymn-writer  of 
the  16th  century,  is  known  by  some  hymns  which  he 
probably  wrote  in  the  first  half  of  that  century,  because 
be  speaks  of  the  inroad  of  the  sultan,  Soleiman  II,  in 
1521,  and  of  the  preparations  of  the  emperor  Charles 
y  against  the  Smalkald  League,  in  1546.  One  of  his 
hymns,  Kon^  her  cu  mir,  spridU  Gottes  8<m,  has  been 
tianalated  into  English,  ^  <  Come  hither,*  says  the  Son 
of  God,"  by  the  late  Dr.  Mills,  in  his  ffora  GermamoB^ 
pb  47.  See  Schade,  in  the  Weimars^ckes  Jahrhuch  Jur 
deuische  Spraehe,  Literatur  und  Kuntt  (Hanover,  1856), 
voL  iv ;  Koch,  (?€fc4.  d,  deutsehm  Kirdimliedes^  ii,  141  sq. 
(B.P.) 

Wigenmann,  Thomas,  a  German  champion  of 
orthodoxy,  was  bom  at  Ludwigsburg,  in  Wurtemberg, 
Nov.  2, 1759,  of  pietistic  parents.  Afker  having  passed 
through  preliminary  studies,  be  was  received  into  the 
training-school  and  orphanage  (d  his  native  town,  as 
famulus,  Oct  28, 1775.  In  the  spring  of  1777  he  re- 
signed that  position,  however.  He  received  the  mas- 
ter's degree  in  October  of  that  year,  and  in  1780  passed 
the  theological  examination  and  became  vicar  at  £s- 
singen.  He  had  previously  studied  deeply  the  writ- 
ings of  Bengel,  Oetinger,  and  Fricker,  and  continued 
to  employ  his  leisure  in  the  examination  of  standard 
authors,  e.  g.  I.<ocke,  Leibnitz,  Wolff,  Mendelssohn,  Jacob 
Bohme,  Herder.  He  was  also  accustomed  to  commit 
the  results  of  his  thinking  to  writing,  and  on  many  oc- 
casions to  give  them  to  the  public  Pfenninger*8  Christ- 
Uches  Magazin  (1760-88)  contains  an  extended  series 
of  articles  contributed  by  him;  but  many  papers  on 
theological  and  psychological  subjects  were  never  pub- 
lished, and  were  found,  usually  in  an  unflnished  state, 
among  his  literary  remains  after  be  died.  In  1788 
Wisenmann  exchanged  his  vicariate  for  a  tutor's  place 
in  a  private  family  at  Barmen,  and,  while  Journeying 
thither,  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  philosopher  Jacobi, 
which  was  not  without  influence  over  his  mental  life. 
Jacobi  subsequently  made  him  acquainted  with  Spinoza's 
Eihics  and  Kant's  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  In  April, 
1784,  Wizenmann  began  a  work  on  the  gospel  according 
to  Matthew,  in  which  he  attempted  to  make  the  gospel 
narrative  demonstrate  its  own  genuineness.  He  died 
before  the  work  was  completed,  but  it  was  published  as 
a  frsgment  by  Kleuker  in  1789.  In  1785  he  resigned 
his  tutorship  and  took  up  his  abode  in  the  house  of 
Jacobi.  In  1786  he  published  Resuliate  der  Jacobischen 
tt.  Menddssohn,  Philosophies  kriiisck  untersucht,  etc,  in 
which  he  denied  the  possibility  of  proving  the  existence 
or  non-existence  of  God  by  the  method  of  demonstra- 
tion, but  asserted  the  reasonableness  of  a  belief  in  a 
revdation  whenever  trustworthy  historical  proofs  in 

XIL-Pfp 


its  support  can  be  addnoed.  The  work  exdted  consid^ 
erable  interest,  and  was  farorably  reviewed  by  many 
influential  scholars,  among  them  Jacobi,  but  Kant  pub- 
lished an  unfavorable  criticism  in  the  Berliner  Ifonais- 
sehrtftf  alleging  that  Wizenmann  had  convicted  himself 
of  enthusiasm  in  the  positions  assumed  in  the  Resukaie. 
Wizenmann  felt  obligied  to  reply  to  the  charge  of  fanati- 
cism emanating  from  so  high  a  source,  and  made  so 
maateriy  an  exposure  of  the  weak  spots  in  Kant's  argu- 
ment as  gained  him  friends  among  those  who  had  not 
previously  approved  hia  book,  among  them  Hamann. 
The  strain  upon  his  delicate  constitution  had,  however, 
been  too  severe.  His  strength  gave  way,  and  he  lay 
down  to  die.  The  end  came  Feb.  22, 1787,  when  he 
had  scarcely  begun  a  course  of  what  promised  to  be 
important  labors  for  the  cause  of  truth.  A  memoir  was 
pubUsbed  by  von  der  Goltz,  under  the  title  Th,  Wize^ 
mann,  der  Frtund  JacobPs,  etc  (Gotha,  1859,  2  vols.). 
See  Herzog,  lUcd-Enqfldop,  s.  v. 

Wjetkasra,  a  email  branch  of  Russian  dissenters, 
who,  about  A.I>.  1780,  during  a  time  of  persecution, 
took  refuge  in  the  islands  of  Wjetka,  in  a  small  river 
between  Russia  and  Poland,  from  which  circumstance 
they  derive  their  name.  Here  they  formed  a  separate 
community  and  built  two  monasteries,  from  which  some 
of  them  migrated,  fifty  years  later,  to  Poland,  and  boilt 
a  church  and  convent  at  Tschemoboltz.  They  belonged 
originally  to  the  Popofbchins^  and  their  chief  peculiari- 
ty is  that  they  will  not  take  oaths  nor  offer  prayer  for 
the  emperor. 

Wo  (usually  ^iK  or  *tin,  olai,  all  onomatopoetic) 

is  often  used  in  the  English  version  where  a  softer  expres- 
sion would  be  at  least  equally  proper.  '*  Wo  to  such  an 
one  r  is  in  our  language  a  threat,  or  imprecation,  which 
comprises  a  wish  for  some  calamity,  natural  or  judicial, 
to  befall  a  person;  but  this  is  not  always  the  meaning 
of  the  word  in  Scripture.  We  have  the  expression 
**  Wo  is  me,"  that  is,  Alas,  for  my  sufferings !  and  **  Wo 
to  the  women  with  child,  and  those  who  give  suck," 
etc,  that  is,  Alas,  for  their  redoubled  sufferings,  in  timet 
of  distress  I  It  is  also  more  agreeable  to  the  gentle  char* 
acter  of  the  compassionate  Jesua  to  consider  him  as 
lamenting  the  sufferings  of  any,  whether  person  or  city, 
than  as  imprecating,  or  even  as  denouncing  them,  since 
hia  character  of  Judge  formed  no  part  of  his  mission. 
If,  then,  we  should  read,  **  Alas,  for  thee,  Chorazin !  alas, 
for  thee,  Bethsaida!"  we  should  do  no  injustice  to  the 
general  sentimenta  of  the  place  or  to  the  char&cter  of 
the  person  speaking.  This,  however,  is  not  the  sense 
in  which  wo  is  always  to  be  taken,  as  when  we  read, 
*'Wo  to  thoee  who  build  houses  by  unrighteousness, 
and  cities  by  blood  ;**  wo  to  thoee  who  are  **  rebellious 
against  God,"  etc,  in  numerous  passages,  especially  of 
the  Old  Test  The  import  of  this  word,  then,  is  in 
some  degree  qualified  by  the  application  of  it;  where 
it  is  directed  against  transgression,  crime,  or  any  enor- 
mity, it  may  be  taken  as  a  threatening,  a  malediction; 
but  in  the  words  of  our  Lord,  and  where  the  subject 
is  suffering  under  misfortunes,  though  not  extremely 
wicked,  a  kind  of  lamentatory  application  of  it  would 
seem  to  be  most  proper.— Odmet,  s.  v.    See  Ijcfbeca- 

TIOM. 

Wodin,  the  principal  deity  of  the  old  German  na- 
tions, to  whom,  as  the  god  of  battles,  the  captives  taken 
in  war  were  saciilioed.  He  was  the  analogue  of  the 
great  Scandinavian  god  Odin  (q.  v.). 

Wodrow,  RoBKBT,  a  Scotch  minister,  antiquary, 
and  ecclesiastical  historian,  was  bom  in  Glasgow  in 
1679.  He  entered  the  university  in  his  native  city  in 
1691,  and  became  librarian  of  the  college  while  studying 
divinity;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  March,  1708;  or- 
dained in  the  summer  of  the  same  year,  minister  of 
Eastwood,  in  Renfrewshire,  where  he  prosecuted  his  lit- 
erary labors  during  the  remainder  of  his  life ;  was  active 
in  the  interests  of  a  free  church,  opposing  the  act  of 
1712  for  re-esublisbing  patronage,  and  becombg  the 


WODU 


962 


WOLF 


moat  promineat  member  of  a  committee  of  five  dergy- 
men  deputed  by  the  General  Ajsembly  to  proceed  to 
LondoDi  on  the  accenbn  of  George  I,  to  urge  its  repeal 
He  died  March  21, 1734.  He  published,  Hittofy  of  (he 
Sufferingt  of  the  Church  of  Scotland^  from  the  RetUtra- 
lion  to  the  Jtecokttion  (1721-22;  republished  with  Me- 
moiry  etc,  1828-30)  >^Life  ofProfeseor  (Jamea)  Wod- 
row,  i4.J/.,  Professor  of  DwwUy  in  the  UmversUff  of 
Glasgow  from  1692  to  1707  (1828) :—  CoUedums  upon 
the  Lives  of  the  Reformers  and  Most  EmineiU  Ministers 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  (1834-45):— iiiuzJecto;  or, 
Materials  for  a  History  of  Remarhafjle  Providences,  etc. 
(1842-48),  and  other  works. 

Wodu,  one  of  the  sacred  lustrations  authorized  by 
the  Koran.  The  principal  parts  of  this  institution  are 
six :  (1)  intention,  (2)  the  washing  of  the  entire  face, 

(8)  the  washing  of  the  hands  and  forearms  up  to  the 
elbows,  (4)  the  nibbing  of  some  parts  of  the  bead,  (5) 
the  washing  of  the  feet  as  far  as  the  ankles,  and  (6)  ob- 
servance of  the  prescribed  order.  The  institutes  of  the 
traditional  law  about  this  lustration  are  ten :  (1)  the 
preparatory  formula,  ^  In  the  name  of  the  most  merci- 
ful God,**  must  be  used ;  (2)  the  palms  must  be  washed 
before  the  hands  are  put  into  the  basin;  (8)  the  mouth 
must  be  cleansed ;  (4)  water  must  be  drawn  through  the 
nostrils;  (5)  the  entire  head  and  ears  must  be  rubbed; 
(6)  if  the  beard  be  thick,  the  fingers  must  be  drawn 
through  it;  (7)  the  toes  must  be  separated;  (8)  the 
right  hand  and  foot  should  be  washed  before  the  left; 

(9)  these  ceremonies  must  be  thrice  repeated;  (10)  the 
whole  must  be  performed  in  uninterrupted  succession. 
See  Ablution. 

Wohl&zth,  Johanh  Friiedrich  Thbodor,  a 
Protestant  theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Teu- 
chel,  Dec  16,  1795,  and  died  at  Neustadt^n-the-Orla 
in  1863,  doctor  of  philosophy.  He  is  the  author  of, 
Udfer  die  Bedeutung  und  die  Folgen  des  StreHes  zwi' 
schen  Rationalismus,  SupematuraUsTHXU  und  Mgsiicis^ 
mus  (Halle,  1883)  :—Die  Lehre  von  dtr  heiligen  Schrift, 
von  dem  Standpunhte  der  Geschichte  und  Philosophie 
(Neustadt,  1835):— {7«&er  den  Einjluss  der  schlhien 
KOttSte  avf  die  Religion  und  den  CuUus  Uberhaupt 
(Leipsic,  1836  ) :— TWiiinpA  des  Glavbens  an  Unsterb- 
lichheU  und  Wiedersehen  iiiber  den  Zweifel  (2d  ed. 
1842):— TVmpe/  der  UnsterhUchkeii  oder  neue  Antho^ 
logie  der  wichtigsten  Ausspriiche  iiber  Fortdcaier  und 
Wiedersehen  (1837):— Z>a«  Leben  Jesu  (1842):— 2>er 
Pauperismus  nach  seinem  Wesen,  Ur^runge,  Folgen  und 
HeUmiUeln  {l^b)i-'BUcke  in  das  Jenseiis  (1847):— 
Luther  im  Kreise  der  Seinigen  ( 1861),  etc  See  Zuchold, 
BiU.  TheoL  s.  t.  ;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  LU.  ii,  82, 
89, 66, 77, 149, 174, 321, 878.     (a  P.) 

Wogullan  Version.    See  Russia,  Vebsioiis  of. 

Wokefi,  Frakz,  a  German  doctor  of  theology  and 
professor  of  Oriental  languages,  bom  at  Ravin,  in  Pom- 
erania,  in  1685,  was  called  to  Wittenberg  in  1727,  where 
he  died,  Feb.  18, 1734.  He  wrote.  Diatribe  de  Magistris 
Coliedionum  (niBIOJt  *^l>ra)  (Wittenberg,  1727)  >- 
An  Moses  Genesin  e  Schedis  Patriarcharum  Cottegerit 
(ibid.  eoCL):  — Dissert,  de  Utiiitale  Novm  Pentateuchi 
Samaritani  Editionis  (ibid.  l728):-'Alloquium  ad 
Eruditos  de  UtiUtate  Novas,  quam  Parat,  EdiUonis 
PentcUeuchi  Samaritani  (ibid.  1729) : — Mdeiemaia  An- 
tiquaria,  etc  (ibid.  1^30):  —  Commentatio  Exegetieo- 
eritica  in  Canticum  (ibid.  1729):— i>Mf.  de  Usu  Fl. 
Joseph,  in  V.et  N,  T,  (ibid.  1720 ) :  —  ifeditafibiiet 
Privata,  etc  ( Leipsic,  1716-18  ) : ^  AdnottOUmes  Exe- 
geticm  m  PropheOam  Ifaggm  (ibid.  1719)  i-~Samariiani 
Eusebiam,  Qu<Uenus  ad  Vindicandum  Textum  ffebrteum 
Pradpue  Fadunl  (Wittenberg,  l7Si):-'Pidas  CriHea, 
qua  V,  et  N,  T,  Textum  Origin,  etc.  (ibid.  1718-20,  2 
parts):  — rex<u«  F.  T,  OriginaUs  Ebr,  ab  EnaUagis 
LQteratus  (ibid.  1726).  See  Winer,  Bandbuch  der  theoL 
Lit.  i,  127,  190,  230,  279 ;  Furst,  BibL  Jud.  m,  527. 
(B.P.) 


Woloott,  John,  an  English  satirist,  better  known 
as  Peter  Pindar,  was  bom  at  Dodbroke,  Devonshire,  in 
1738.  He  was  educated  as  a  physician,  and  in  1767 
accompanied  sir  William  Trelawney,  governor  of  Jamai- 
ca, to  the  West  Indies  as  medical  attendant.  Though 
an  avowed  unbeliever,  he  returned  to  England,  took 
orders  in  the  Church,  and  sailed  again  for  Jamaica, 
where  he  accepted  a  small  curacy  until  the  death  of 
Trelawney,  in  1768,  when  he  returned  to  England,  and 
spent  twelve  years  in  trying  to  establish  himself  as  a 
physician  at  seversl  places  in  GorawalL  He  died  Jan. 
14, 1819.  He  published  numerous  satirical  pieces,  rid- 
iculing the  Royal  Aaidemy  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
government,  it  is  said,  thought  it  worth  while  to  pur* 
chase  his  silence  with  £300  a  year.  Collections  of  his 
writings  appeared  between  1789  and  1812. 

Wolder,  David,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Hamburg,  and  studied  at  Rostock. 
In  1577  he  was  appointed  deacon  of  Sl  Peter's,  in  his 
native  city,  where  he  died,  Dec  11, 1604.  He  is  the 
editor  of  a  Polyglot  Bible  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
German,  which  was  issued  at  Hamburg  in  1595.  Be- 
sides, he  published  NeU'Caiechismus  GesangbSeUem 
(ibid.  1598),  in  which  some  of  his  own  hymns  are  given. 
See  Le  Long-Masch,  Bibliatheca  Sacra,  i,  887 ;  J.  Mol- 
leri,  Cimbria  Literata  (Havnis,  1744),  i,  740  sq. ;  Koch, 
Gesch,  d.  deutschen  Kirchenliedes,  ii,  296  sq.     (B.  P.) 

Wdldike,  Marcus,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  bom  at  Sommersted,  in  Sleswick,  Nov.  25, 
1699,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen  from 
1731,  and  died  Sept  26,  1750.  He  is  the  author  of. 
Caput  Secundum  ex  Tr,  Berad^t  Latine  VerlU  et  cum 
A  nnotatiombus  NonmiUis  A  tgectis  Edidit  (Havniie,1738) : 
— TVaetatus  Talm,  Chagga  cwn  Gemara  HierosoL  La- 
tine  Versus  Notisque  lUustratus  (ibid.  1735)  z^ExpH- 
catio  Numini  Cujusdam  JudMMxdAaUsUci  (ibid.  1736): 
-^Mos,  Maimonidis  Tract  de  Cibis  Vetitis,  etc  (ibtd. 
1722-34):  — Dtcfa  Classica  Veteris  Testamenti  (ibid. 
1735  )  :  —  Apologia  Condonator,  EvangeL  adc,  Acem- 
satiom  Episcopor,  et  Clericorunu  Pont^fidor,  Re^  et 
Senatui,  etc  (  Copenhagen,  1739 ).  See  Winer,  Hand- 
buch der  theoL  LiLLd27;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  ui,  52& 
(R  P.)  ^ 

Wol^  Abraliam,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  CabeliU  in  1680,  studied  at  Halle, 
and  was  appointed  professor  at  Konigsberg  in  1708. 
In  1717  he  received  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages^ 
was  made  doctor  of  divinity  in  1727,  received  the  pas- 
torate of  the  Altenstadt,  together  with  a  seat  in  consis- 
tory, the  same  year,  and  died  June  20, 1781.  He  wrote, 
Diss,  de  Ammo  ad  Cohd,  tit,  21  '.—De  Elihu  Anuearvm 
Jobi  Optimo: --De  Loco  CoheLxii,  11,  12:  — /Hmlm 
Haggai  ii,  5,  6,  de  bp^odo^iac  et  if^orofuaQ  Vincuh 
Neoessario,  etc  See  Amold,  Bistorie  der  ibmgtberyk' 
schen  Umversitdt;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gdehien- Lex- 
ikon,t,y,    (RP.) 

"Wolf  (or  Wolff)!  Christiail  von,  a  German  phi- 
losopher, was  bom  at  Breslau,  Jan.  24, 1679.  He  had 
been  dedicated  to  the  ministry  from  his  childhood  by 
his  parents,  and  hence  received,  as  he  himself  expresMs 
it,  an  ecclesiastical  education.  He  studied  in  the  gym- 
nasium at  home  and  at  the  University  of  Jena,  where  he 
developed  a  special  taste  for  mathematical  studies,  and 
applied  the  principles  of  the  science  to  theokigy.  He 
preached  a  few  times  with  great  acceptability,  and 
noted  for  the  cleamess  of  his  explanations.*  He 
a  professor  at  Halle  from  1707  to  1723,  when  he 
driven  from  the  country  by  Frederick  William  I,  and 
assumed  a  similar  position  at  Marburg.  In  1740  he 
was  recalled  to  Hslle  by  Frederick  II,  where  he  wm 
received  with  unbounded  enthusiasm.  Hera  he  ie> 
mained  until  his  death,  April  9, 1754^  See  Ueberw^ 
History  of  Philosophy,  ii,  116;  Hagenbach,  History  of 
the  Church  in  the  18th  and  19th  Centuries,  i,  117  sq.; 
SeOMbiograpkie  (publiriied  by  Wnttke,  Leipsic,  1841). 

WoU;  Fxledrioh  Augiist,  a  Protestant  theolo- 


WOLF 


963 


WOLPLEIN 


gUn  of  Germany,  was  bora  July  81, 1784.  He  was  ap- 
pointed preacher  at  St.  Peter's,  in  Leipsic,  in  1805,  and 
died  Aug;  13, 1841.  He  left  in  MS.  sermons,  which 
were  published  by  Kritz  (Leipsic,  1841-44,  6  vols.). 
See  Winer,  Handbueh  der  (heoL  Lit.  ii,  171 ;  Zuchold, 
BihL  TheoL  ii,  1466.     (B.  P.) 

Wolf  (Lat.  Wolfius),  Jerome,  a  learned  German, 
was  born  in  the  principality  of  Oetttngen  (Swabia), 
Auf^.  18,  1516.  As  an  envoy  to  Nordlingen  and  then 
to  Nuremberg,  he  made  rapid  progress  in  the  ancient 
languages.  His  misanthropy  and  morbid  asceticism 
prevented  his  promotion,  but  at  length,  in  1586,  the 
death  of  hu  father  left  him  at  full  liberty  to  gratify  his 
inclination  for  study.  The  fame  of  Melanchthon  at- 
tracted him  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  had  opportunities 
to  hear  the  lectures  of  Luther  and  Amerbach.  In  1545 
he  was  charged  with  the  direction  of  a  Protestant 
school  at  Mlllhausen  (Thuringia),  but  he  left  this 
position  after  a  very  brief  trial,  and  from  that  time 
he  lived  in  the  homes  of  his  friends  at  Tubingen  and 
Strasburg,  devoting  his  time  to  translating  the  Greek 
authors  into  Latin.  In  1557  he  obtained  the  position  of 
director  of  the  college  of  Augsburg,  and  thus  of  the  libra* 
ry,  which  position  he  held  until  his  death,  Oct  8, 1580. 
He  wrote,  De  Vero  d  Licito  Usu  A  Hrohgia  (1558)  ^~•D« 
Expedita  Utrituque  Lingua  Discendoi  RcUiont: — Jv- 
didum  de  Poetia  Legmdis: — De  Chrittiaaa  Clauis  Vic- 
toria. He  is  better  known  by  his  Latin  translations, 
accompanied  with  notes,  of  Isocrates  (1549, 1570),  De- 
mosthenes (1549),  Kioetas  (1557),  Zonaras  (eod.),  Epic- 
tetus  (1560),  Nicephorus  Gregorius  (1562),  and  Suidas 
(1564).  These  were  published  at  Basle.  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Gin^ra^,  s.  v. 

.  'Wolf,  Martiii,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Germany, 
who  died  May  81,  1875,  at  Stulberg,  near  Hombuig, 
dean  and  member  of  consistory,  is  the  author  of.  Die 
Urgeschiehte  oder  Geneti»  cap,  »-ri,  6  (Homborg,  1860) : 
— Die  Bedeutung  der  Wdtschop/ung  nach  Natur  und 
^cAnyi  (1866).    (B.  P.) 

WolfenbUttel  Fragments  (or  Fragments  of 
the  WoyenbiUtel  Anongmoue  Worh^  is  the  name  of  a 
work  written  from  the  deistic  point  of  view  to  contest 
the  truth  of  the  gospel  history,  of  which  Lessing  (q.  v.) 
began  to  publish  fragments  in  1774.  As  early  as  1771, 
during  a  visit  to  Berlin,  he  tried  to  find  a  publisher 
of  the  work,  in  spite  of  the  advice  of  Ch.  F.  Nicolai 
and  Moses  Mendelssohn  to  the  contrary,  but  as  the 
royal  censor  (though  he  promised  not  to  interfere 
with  the  publication)  refused  to  authorize  it,  he  gave 
up  the  plan  for  the  time.  In  1773,  however,  he  began 
to  issue  a  kind  of  periodical  publication,  Zur  Geschichte 
und  LitUratur  aus  den  Schdtzen  der  herzoglichen  BibUo' 
ihek  zu  Wol/enhuttelf  which  was  exempted  from  the 
control  of  the  ducal  censor ;  and  in  the  third  number 
of  that  publication  appeared,  in  1774,  the  first  instal- 
ment of  the  work.  Von  Duldung  der  Deieten,  Fragment 
einee  Ungenaimten,  accompanied  with  a  few  cautious 
remarks  by  the  editor,  but  very  adroitly  introduced  by 
the  preceding  article.  The  fragment  attracted  no  par- 
ticular attention ;  but  when,  in  1777,  the  whole  fourth 
number  was  occupied  by  fragments,  of  which  some, 
UnmdgUchheii  emer  Offenbarung^  Durd^ang  der  lerae- 
iiten  durch  da$  rothe  Afeer,  Ueber  die  Auferttehungs- 
geschichtCf  etc,  were  of  a  rather  pronounced  character, 
quite  a  sensation  was  produced ;  and  Lessing  did  not 
fail  to  deepen  the  impression  by  publishing,  in  1778,  in 
the  form  of  an  independent  book,  a  new  fragment,  Von 
dem  Zveche  Jem  und  seiner  Jihger.  He  immediately 
lost  his  privilege  of  publishing  anything  without  the 
permit  of  the  censor,  and  a  violent  controversy  with 
the  orthodox  party  began,  the  most  prominent  figure 
of  which  was  the  Lutheran  pastor,  Johann  Melchior 
Gotse  (q.  v.).  After  the  death  of  Leasing,  the  seven 
fragments  which  he  had  published  appeared  in  Berlin 
in  1784  (4th  ed.  1885).  Some  more  fragments,  which 
had  had  in  his  possession,  but  had  not  published. 


appeared  in  1787,  edited  by  C.  A.  £.  Schmidt,  a  paendo- 
nym  for  Andreas  Riem,  canon  of  Brunswick.  The 
anonymous  author  of  the  fragments,  which  form  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  productions  of  German  deism, 
was  Samuel  Reimarus  (q.  v.).  Lessing  tried  to  lead 
public  curiosity  on  a  wrong  track  by  hinting  that  the 
author  probably  was  Johann  Lorenz  Schmidt,  editor  of 
the  Wertheim  Bible  ( q.  v. ).  But  already  Hamann 
mentions  Reimarus  as  the  author  in  a  letter  to  Herder, 
of  Oct.  18,  1777;  and  the  authorship  was  afterwards 
established  beyond  any  doubt  by  the  declaration  of 
the  son  of  Reimarus,  made  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the 
managers  of  the  Hamburg  town-library,  to  whom  he 
also  presented  a  complete  manuscript  of  the  entire 
work  of  his  father.  The  letter,  written  in  1813,  a  year 
before  the  death  of  the  younger  Reimarus,  was  pub- 
lished bv  Gurlitt  in  the  Leipsic  Literatur-ZeiUchrf/l, 
1827,  No.  55,  and  by  Klose,  in  Niedner's  ZeUechHft/ur 
die  historitche  Theologie  (1850),  p.  519  sq.  See  Rope, 
Joha>m  Melchior  Gotze  (Hamburg,  1860),  p.  152  sq. ; 
Strauss,  Herman  Samuel  Reimarus  und  seine  SehutZ" 
schrifijur  die  vemOnftigen  Verehrer  Gottes  (ibid,  1862) ; 
Monckcbeig,  ffermann  S,  Reimarus  und  Johann  Chri- 
stian Edelmatm  (ibid.  1867);  Fischer,  Geschichte  der 
neueren  Philosophie  (2d  ed.  Heidelberg,  eod.),  ii,  759- 
772;  Plitt-Herzog,  ReaUEncgklop,  s.  v.  "Fragmente." 
(B.P.) 

TT^olfl^  LuDwxo,  a  Lutheran  minister  of  Germany, 
was  born  in  1808.  He  was  brought  up  in  rational- 
ism, but  the  influence  of  Leo  and  J.  Muller,  of  Halle, 
gave  him  that  true  foundation  on  which  he  after- 
wards lived  and  labored.  In  1866  he  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  Ottenstein  diocese.  He  died  at 
HaUe,  Oct.  15, 1877.    (B.  P.) 

T77dlffliD,  Christoph,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  Owen,  in  WOrtemberg,  Dec.  28, 
1625.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  was  in  1651  deacon  at 
Aurach,  in  1657  at  Ttibingen,  in  1659  professor  of  Greek, 
and  in  1660  was  made  doctor  and  professor  of  theol- 
ogy. In  1669  duke  Eberhard  III  appointed  him  court- 
preacher,  and  provost  of  Loroh.  In  1680  duke  Frederic 
Charles  appointed  him  provost  of  Stuttgart,  a  position 
which  has  never  again  been  occupied  after  WdUfiin. 
He  died  Oct.  80, 1688.  He  wrote,  Exercitationes  8  de 
Lapsu  Adami.'-^Exereitt.  7  de  Obligaiione  Credendi  in 
Christum  .'-^Exereitt.  5  de  Pamtentia  Tgriorum  et  Sido- 
morum:  ^Dissert  de  Triduo  Mortis  Christi  :^ffistoria 
Incestue  Lothi,  etc  See  Fischlin,  Memoria  TheologO' 
rum  Virtemhergentium;  Freheri,  Theatrum  Eruditorum; 
Jocher,  A  Ugemeines  GeUhrien-ljexUeon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Wolfgang  OF  Anhalt  is  known  from  the  history 
of  the  reformation  sa  one  of  those  German  princes  who 
fought  for  the  cause  of  Luther.  Bora  in  1492,  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1508.  At  the  Diet  of  Worms,  in 
1521,  th^  new  doctrine  found  in  him  a  strong  arm 
and  Luther  a  trae  friend.  In  his  own  country  he  in- 
troduced the  reformed  doctrine,  and  was  its  warmest 
promoter  at  home  and  abroad.  He  opposed  the  em- 
peror, signed  in  1529  the  protest  at  Spenger,  and  the 
Augsburg  Confession  in  1530;  and  here  (at  Augsburg)  it 
was  that  he,  together  with  George  of  Brandenburg, 
told  the  emperor  that  they  would  rather  give  up  their 
heads  than  follow  the  procession  on  Corpus-Christi  day. 
He  belonged  to  the  promoters  of  the  League  of  Smal- 
kald,  and  the  part  which  he  took  in  the  war  brought 
upon  him  the  ban  of  the  empire  and  the  loss  of  his  estate, 
which  was  given  to  the  Spaniard  Ladrone.  On  horse- 
back he  left  his  castle  in  Beraborg,  singing  Luther's 
famous  battle-song  of  the  reformation  *<  Ein'  feste  Burg." 
In  1552  his  estates  were  returoed  to  him,  and  he  died 
March 28,1566.   See  TheoL Universallexikon,B.y.  (a P.) 

"Wdlflein  (Lat.  Lupuhu),  Hkinrich,  a  Swiss  hagi- 
ographer,  was  bora  about  1470  at  Berne.  He  waa  di- 
rector of  the  gymnasium  at  his  native  place,  and  canon 
of  the  chapter.  The  doctrines  of  Zwingli,  who  had  been 
his  disciple,  he  corrupted.     He  spread  with  ardor  the 


WOLPRATH 


064 


WOLLNER 


religioQf  reform,  married  in  1624^  was  appointed  in  1637 
aecretary  of  the  eonsbtoryf  and  died  in  liy82.  W^flein 
oontributkl  mnch  towards  reviving  the  tone  of  litera- 
ture among  bis  compatriots.  He  wrote,  Viia  NieoUn 
SvbtUuani  (1501) ;  it  was  republished  by  J.  Eicbhom, 
under  the  title,  Uistoria  F,  Nioolai  dt  Scuco  (Fribourg, 
1608;  Constance,  1681)  i^Oficium  JS,  Vmcentii  Matiyru 
(Basle,  1617).    See  Hoefer,  Now,  Biop.  GMrale,  s.  v. 

Wolfrath,  Frixdrich  Wilhklm,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bom  Sept.  8, 1767,  at  Gltick- 
stadt.  In  1794  he  was  called  as  pastor  primarins  to 
Husnm,  in  1796  as  court -preacher  to  GlUckstadt,  in 
1805  as  doctor  and  professor  of  theology  to  Rinteln,  and 
died  June  26, 1812. .  He  wrote.  Was  9oU  der  CmeUdcU 
der  Theohgie  tcittenf  (Altdorf,  1800) : —FerracA  emu 
Lehrbucht  der  allgememen  KaUchettk  vnd  Didakiik,  etc 
(Lemgo,  1807, 1808)  :-^Frapen  aber  lituryitcke  Gegen- 
etdnde,  etc.  (Hamburg,  1792)  :—Predigten  (ibid.  1791-97, 
8  vols.)  '.-^OeUiliche  Reden  (Altona,  1791)  i—MeMchen- 
Men  und  Schichal  (Rinteln,  1808)  i—Religumslehrbttch 
(Hamburg,  1811): — Lihtrgitehet  Handbuch  (Marburg, 
1806).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theol  Lit,  ii,  46, 61, 69, 
76, 126, 182, 141, 168, 174, 175, 199, 202, 287, 280, 880, 860, 
864.     (B.  P.) 

'WolfsBOhxi,  Aaron,  also  called  A  aron  HaUe,  a  Ger- 
man rabbi,was  born  in  1786,  and  died  at  FUrth,  March  20, 
1835.  He  was  a  distinguished  disciple  of  Mendelssohn, 
and  worked  in  the  department  of  Biblical  exegesis  and 
Hebrew  literature  in^onjanction  with  Joel  Lowe, G.Solo- 
mon, etc.  He  pubUshed  a  German  translation  of  Liamen- 
tations,  with  an  elaborate  Hebrew  introduction  and  com- 
mentary by  Lowe  (BerUn,1788):— a  tranalationof  Esther, 
with  a  Hebrew  introdnction,etcObid.eod.) : — a  transla- 
tion of  Ruth,with  a  Hebrew  introduction,  etc  (ibid,  cod.) : 
*-a  Hebrew  commentary  on  the  Song  of  Solomon,  writ- 
ten conjointly  with  Ldwe,  accompanying  Mendelssohn's 
translation  of  this  book  (ibid.  1789):-«the  book  of  Job, 
with  a  German  translation  and  Hebrew  commentary 
(Prague,  1791 ;  Vienna,  1806) :— the  first  book  of  Kings, 
with  a  German  translation  and  Hebrew  oommentary 
(Bredau,  1809) : — critical  and  exegetical  annotations  on 
the  vision  of  Habakkuk  (ibid.  1806) :— a  German  trans- 
lation of  the  first  two  chapters  of  Habakkuk,  published 
in  the  periodical  Jedidja^  ii,  107  sq. : — ^a  German  transla- 
tion and  Hebrew  exposition  of  the  Sabbatic  and  festi- 
val lessons  (Berlin,  1790) : — a  Hebrew  primer,  entitled 
^1*^bh32K,  with  an  introduction  by  D.  Friedliinder  (ibid, 
eod.).  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  iii,  533  sq.;  Kitto,  Cydop, 
8.  V. ;  Steinschneider,  Catalogue  Lihr,  Hebr,  in  BibL 
Bodl.  coL  2782-2734;  the  same,  BibL  Handbuch^  p.  151 ; 
Dessauer,  Geech,  der  leraeliten,  p.  608 ;  Delitzsch,  Gesch. 
dLjt«/.Poa»e,p.l00,107.    (B.  P.) 

WollaBton,  George,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  for 
some  time  father  of  the  Koyal  Society,  and  sixty-two 
years  member  of  the  Society  fbr  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel,  was  born  in  1738.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Charterhouse,  and  afterwards  at  Sidney  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  graduated  A.B.  in  1758.  Such  was 
the  high  character  he  sustained,  that  he  was  chosen 
mathematical  lecturer;  and  while  at  Cambridge  he  was 
also  engaged  in  editing  Newton's  Prineipia.  He  was 
presented  to  the  rectory  of  Stratford,  Suffolk,  in  1754 ; 
to  the  rectory  of  Dengey,  Essex,  in  December,  1762;  and 
to  the  rectory  of  St.  Mary  Aldermary,  London,  in  1774. 
He  died  Feb.  14, 1826.  See  (Lond.)  Annual  Regieler, 
1826,  p.  226. 

WoUaston,  William,  an  English  clergyman  and 
author,  was  born  at  Colon  Claorord,  SUffordsbire,  March 
26,1659;  became  pensioner  at  Sidney  College, Cambridge, 
in  1674;  took  deacon's  orders  about  1681 ;  became  assists 
ant  master  of  Birmingham  School ;  was  ordained  priest 
in  1686 ;  inherited  a  large  estate  in  1688,  and  thereafter 
passed  his  time  in  literary  leisure  in  London,  where  he 
died,  Oct.  29, 1724.  He  published.  The  Design  of  a  Part 
of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes ;  or,  the  Unreasonableness  of 
if  en's  Restless  Contentums  for  the  Present  Enjogments, 


Represented  in  an  English  Poem  (1691):— and  ReUgkm 
of  Nature' DeUneated  (1722).  He  also  left  a  number  of 
works  in  MS.    See  Chalmers,  Biog.  Diet,  n,  r. 

Wolle,  Crristoph,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  Jan.  24, 1700,  at  Leipsic,  where  he  also 
prosecuted  his  theological,  philosophical,  and  Oriental 
studies.  On  presenting  and  defending  his  dissertation, 
De  Faeultatiibus  IntelUctualSbus  m  Bonos  Habiims  Mm^ 
tandis,  he  was  allowed  to  lecture  as  private  dooeot. 
In  1746  he  was  made  doctor  of  divinity,  and  two  years 
later  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  theology.  He  opened 
his  lectures  with  a  discourse.  In  Anton,  CoOisaan  de 
Christiana  Rdigione  ut  ab  Ipso  Christo  et  Ejus  DisdpuHa 
Tradita  est,  NuUi  rei  Minus  guam  POs  FraudUms  Fo" 
vente.  He  died  July  6, 1761.  Of  his  many  writings  we 
mention,  Diet.  PhUoL  Sacra  de  ReguUs  xxz  Bennememti-' 
ciSf  ad  CircumspeeUam  Scrytturm  Saerte  IBustrationemy 
etc  (Leipsic,  1722): — Diss,  de  Mgsteriis  Oraticnis  ad 
Mysteria  ReveiaOonis  Pcedagogicis  (ibid,  eod.) : — Diss. 
Regules  ffenteneutioes  mpi  r^c  Iffoiwaftiac  site  evyc 
wpias  Usu  HAbuMU  (ibid.  1728) i—Dist,  de  Dietis  Soti 
Testamenti  Quatuor  ab  InterpuncHanibus  Naoia  Vittdseo' 
tie  (ibid.  1726)  i—Bie  Ruhe  der  Seekn,  das  hodute  Gut 
m  dtesem  Leben,  oder  leurte  Auslegung  des  Predigers 
SaUmo,  etc  (ibid.  1729)  i^Diss.  de  8ingulari  Faelo  et 
Fato  Ijothi,  ad  Genes,  xxvi,  26  (ibid.  1780, 1749):— i>ui. 
de  ParaUeUsmo  Novi  Testamenti  Verbali  aan  latx  ViraK 
Caute  Instituendo  (ibid.  1781),  etc  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theoiogen  DeutschlandSf  iv,  756  sq.;  Flkrst, 
BibL  Jud.  iii,  684  sq.;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  LiL 
i,  110,  111,  116, 126, 129, 169, 168, 629.     (B.  P.) 

"Wolleb,  JoHANMBS,  a  theologian  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  was  bom  Nov.  80,- 1586,^  at  Basle,  where  bU 
father,  Oswald,  was  a  q^agistratc  At  the  age  of  twen- 
ty, after  preliminary  courses  in  philosophy  and  theol- 
ogy, in  both  of  which  he  excelled,  he  was  ordained  to 
the  ministry.  In  1607  he  was  made  city  deacon;  in 
1611  pastor  of  SL  Elizabeth's;  in  1618  pastor  at  the  Ca- 
thedral,  as  successor  to  Grynaeus,  and  profeaaor  of  the 
Old  Test.,  as  successor  to  Sebastian  Beck.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  dissertations,  and  a  single  theological  worii, 
the  Compendium  Theohgia  Christiana  (1626),  a  volume 
of  only  273  pages,  but  a  masterpiece  of  compact  brevity, 
clear  arrangement,  and  thorough  comprehensiveness  as 
respects  all  important  doctrinal  matters.  It  was  made 
a  texUbook  at  Basle  and  several  other  reformed  univer- 
sities. A  second  edition  appeared  at  Basle  in  16S4,  and 
a  thinl  at  Amsterdam  in  1688.  An  English  edition  was 
prepared  by  Alexander  Boss,  and  pubUshed  under  the 
title,  WolMnui  Christian  Divinity.  WoUeb  did  not  Uve 
to  see  the  success  of  his  book,  but  died  of  the  plague, 
Nov.  24,  1629,  leavbig  two  sons,  Johann  Jacob  and 
Tbeodor,  both  of  whom  afterwards  became  pastors  at 
Basle,  and  in  1667  died  of  the  same  disease  A  vol- 
uroe  of  funeral  sermons  by  WoUeb  appeared  in  print  in 
1657.     See  Herzog,  Real'Encyklop.  s.  v. 

WoUgast,  JoHAsiic  FaiKDaicif,  a  Protestant  tbc> 
ologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Schweidnitz,  May  l^ 
1797,  and  died  March  29, 1889.  He  is  the  author  of 
Kirchenagende  fur  Stadt-  und  Landprediger  (Breslaa, 
1811,  2  parts).  See  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  Ut,  ii, 
280.    (RP.) 

T77dllner,  Crristoph,  the  Prussian  statesman  of 
the  reign  of  Frederick  William  II,  who  originated  tb« 
famous  religious  edict  in  which  orthodoxy  in  teachirig 
was  commanded,  was  bom  in  1782  at  Doberits,  and  was 
at  first  an  orthodox,  though  tolerant,  theologian.  He 
became  engaged  in  secular  affairs  after  a  time,  and  re- 
signed his  pastorate  at  Behnitz.  During  fifteen  years 
(1766-80)  he  contributed  nearly  all  the  reviews  on 
domestic  and  horticnltond  matters  which  appealed  iu 
Nicolai's  Altgemeine  deutsche  Bibliothek.  In  1776  he 
joined  an  order  of  templars  founded  at  Wiesbaden  by 
a  certain  knight,  Theophilus  a  Cygna,  which  promised 
to  open  the  way  into  the  most  secret  myBterics  of  nature. 
In  1777  he  published  in  Nioolai*a  Bibliothek  a  proplicey 


WOLTERS 


966 


WOMAN 


coooeming  **  the  impending  destmction  of  the  prevalent 
rationalistic  enlightenment."  He  became  tutor  in  po- 
litical economy  to  the  crown-prince  in  1782,  was  enno- 
bled in  1786,  and  appointed  councillor  of  finance  and 
intendant  of  royal  buildings,  etc  On  Jidy  8, 1788,  he 
was  made  minister  of  the  department  of  justice,  which 
included  in  its  jurisdiction  the  affairs  of  the  Church,  and 
in  that  position  was  employed  by  the  king  to  place  a 
barrier  in  the  way  of  the  progress  of  the  *' enlighten- 
ment,'' which  had  become  powerful  in  the  land.  The 
notorious  religious  edict,  written  by  Wollner,  was  issued 
in  consequence,  July  9.  It  accorded  liberty  of  belief  to 
everybody,  but  ordered  that  teachers  who  could  not 
accept  the  doctrines  of  evangelical  orthodoxy  should 
either  resign  their  positions  or  refrain  from  promul- 
gating their  own  ^aews,  and  in  public  support  those  of 
the  Ghuroh,  under  penalty  of  ^  being  dismissed  and  still 
more  severely  punished."  The  edict,  issued  in  the 
country  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  after  fifty  years  of 
governmental  principles  of  a  directly  opposite  character, 
produced  an  immense  excitement,  and  called  forth  more 
than  a  hundred  pamphlet  reviews,  about  one  third  of 
which  were  in  its  favor;  and,  curiously  enough,  one  by 
Semler,  the  father  of  rationalism,  was  in  this  class. 
Nothing  in  the  way  of  enforcing  the  edict  was  done, 
however,  for  about  two  years ;  but  then  a  royal  order, 
dated  Aug.  13,  1791,  compelled  WOllner  to  proceed 
against  offend^  e.  g.  Bahrdt  (q.  v.),  who  had  ridiculed 
the  edict  by  writing  a  comedy  upon  it.  A  commission, 
of  which  pastor  Hermes  of  Breslau  was  the  head,  was 
instituted  by  the  king  to  give  effect  to  the  edict ;  but 
as  its  members  were  altogether  unknown  in  the  learned 
world,  its  authority  was  not  great,  and  its  work  unim- 
portant. It  atldressed  threatening  fulminations  to 
Nosselt,  Niemeyer,  Kant,  the  University  of  Halle,  etc, 
wliich  were  followed  by  no  consequences  whatever. 
With  the  accession  of  Frederick  WUliam  III  (1797),  aU 
the  measures  taken  to  advance  the  cause  of  orthodoxy 
were  set  aside.  Wollner  retained  his  office,  and  in  1798 
attempted  to  revive  the  religious  edict,  but  received  a 
cutting  rejoinder  from  the  king.  He  resigned  and  re- 
tired to  his  estates,  where  he  died,  respected  for  his 
character  and  abilities,  in  the  year  1800.  See  Teller, 
Denktchr^  auf  IJerm  StaaUmimtUr  «.  WdlUer,  etc 
1802 ;  Doiprtutnsche  RelifjiotueiUki,  etc  (Leipsic,  1842); 
Manso,  Guch.  cLpreutt,  StaaUj  i,  165  sq.,  201  sq. ;  Sack, 
Gesdu  cLgeittL  Afimiteriumt  WoUttert  in  Niedner's  Zct(- 
ichr,/,  hist,  TkeoL  1863,  No.  8. 

Wolters,  Albreoht,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  who  died  at  Halle,  March  80,  1878,  doctor 
and  professor,  is  the  author  of  Predigten^  published  in 
1847, 1860,  and  1874  i—Re/ormatiorugetchichie  der  Stadt 
Wewdbit  zur  BefisHgung  ikres  rrformirtm  BehemUmttei 
durch  die  weseUr  Sgnode  (last  ed.  Bonn,  1868) .    (B.  P.) 

Woltars,  Otto  Ludwig  Siegmund,  doctor  of 
theology  and  pastor  of  Su  Catherine's,  at  Hamburg,  was 
born  there  Dec  17, 1796,  and  died  May  18, 1874.  For 
thirty  years  he  occupied  the  pulpit  of  St.  Catherine's, 
in  his  native  place,  of  which  ho  was  one  of  its  truest 
and  most  learned  sons.  His  sermons  were  repeatedly 
printed.     See  Zucholdf  BibLTkeoL  it,  liQ9.     (RP.) 

Woltersdoii^  Ernbt  Gottlieb,  an  evangelical 
hymn-writer,  was  bom  at  Friedrichsfelde,  near  Berlin, 
May  31, 1725.  He  was  a  student  of  Halle,  and  resided 
and  taught  in  the  orphanage.  In  1744  he  became  a 
private  tutor,  and  four  years  afterwards  associate  pastor 
at  Bunzlau.  He  evinced  great  interest  in  the  instruc- 
tion  of  the  young,  and  consented  to  assume  the  direo- 
tion  of  an  orphanage  founded  in  his  parish  by  a  mason 
named  Zahn.  This  institution  enjoyed  his  supervision 
until  his  death,  Dec  17, 1761.  Woltersdorf  possessed 
uncommon  readiness  in  versification,  and  was  con- 
tinually tempted  to  spread  his  thoughts  over  a  great 
deal  of  surface  Some  of  his  hymns  are  largely  in  the 
style  of  Zinzendorf,  with  whom  he  shared  noany  doc- 
trinal views,  though  not  otherwise  connected  with  him. 


Several  of  them  have  oonsiderable  value,  and  have 
found  deserved  admission,  in  a  revised  and  abridged 
form,  in  the  hymn*books  of  various  evangelical  chnrch- 
ea.  He  had  the  ability  to  seize  upon  some  pregnant 
word  taken  from  Scripture  or  other  source,  and  to  pre* 
sent  it  in  a  different  light  with  every  succeeding  stro- 
phe, and  did  this  in  several  of  his  hymns^  This  power 
led  him  to  write  also  a  number  of  parodies.  He  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  Psalms  (1750;  2d  ed.  1768;  a  re- 
cent ed.,  by  Schneider,  accompanied  with  a  biography 
of  the  author,  Dresden,  1849).  A  second  collection  was 
issued  in  1751.  This  volume  contains  a  list  of  other 
writings  by  Woltersdorf,  generally  admonitions  address- 
ed to  the  young.  After  his  death  a  volume  of  sketches 
of  sermons  prepared  by  him  was  published.  See  Her- 
zog,  Jteod'Emyklop,  s.  v. 

Wolsogeii,  Johann  Ludwig  von,  a  famous 
Soeinian,  was  bom  in  1599,  in  Austria,  of  a  family  be* 
longing  to  the  Calvinistic  Cbnreh,  and  died  in  1685, 
at  Sohlichtingsheim,  near  Fraustadt.  His  exegetical 
writings  are  found  in  the  BMwtheoa  Fratrum  Poiono* 
ntm  (Amsterdam,  1656).  He  also  wrote.  Compendium 
RtUgkmis  ChristiaruB  (ibid.  eod.).  His  Opera  Omnia 
were  published  at  Amsterdam  in  the  same  vear.  See 
W'mer,  Handbuch  der  tkeoL  Lit,  i,  17, 81, 808, 4 1 9 ;  Fock, 
Der  Sodmamemus  (Kiel,  1847) ,  TheoL  UmvereaUexi^ 
Aon,s.v.    (a  P.) 

Wolsogen,  LndOTicus  Tan,  a  Reformed  theo- 
logian of  Holland,  was  bom  in  1632.  After  completing 
bis  studies,  he  travelled  through  France  and  G«rmany, 
and  was  appointed  preacher  of  the  French  congregation 
at  Grdningen.  In  1664  he  was  appointed  professor  in 
Utrecht,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  called  to  Amster- 
dam, where  he  died,  Nov.  18, 1690.  He  wrote,  OreUor 
Sacer,  seu  PrtBceptiones  de  Ratiane  Concionandi: — 
Traetatue  de  Scriptura  Saerm  Interprtte  ■  —  Dissert, 
Critieo  -  Tkeologicam  de  Corredione  Senharum^  etc. 
After  his  death  there  was  published,  m  1700,  ExpUca^ 
tion  de  la  Priere,  See  Burmann,  Trajeetum  Eruditum , 
LeUres  sur  la  Vie  fl  sur  la  Mori  de  Lottis  de  WoUogue 
(Amsterdam,  1692) ;  Lud,  Wolzogenii  Apologia  Paret^ 
talis,  Auetore  Pet.  Ysarmo  (ibid  1698)  i  Jdcher,  AUge- 
meifies  OeUhrten^Lexikon^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Woman  (Heb.  niTK,  ishshdh  [plur.  D*^t:9,  a  masc 

form  contracted  for  0*^193)1,  men],  fem.  of  D**K,  u A,  as 

psra  [in  virago'}  from  rtr,  and  dvipic  from  dvqp)i  like 
our  own  term  woman,  is  in  the  Hebrew  (and  so  the 
Greek,  yvvif)  used  of  married  and  unmarried  females. 
See  Man. 

I.  Original  Position  of  (he  <Sesr.— The  derivation  Ktf 
the  word  shows  that,  according  to  the  conception  of  the 
ancient  Israelites,  woman  was  man  in  a  modified  form 
—one  of  the  same  race,  the  same  genus,  as  man ,  a  kind 
of  female  man.  How  slightly  modified  that  form  is, 
how  little  in  essential  stracture  woman  differs  from  man, 
physiology  has  made  abundantly  dear.  Variant,  how- 
ever, in  make  as  man  and  woman  are,  they  differ  still 
more  in  character;  and  yet  the  great  features  of  their 
hearts  and  minds  so  closely  resemble  each  other,  that  it 
requires  no  depth  of  vision  to  see  that  these  twain  are 
one!  This  most  important  fact  is  characteristically 
set  forth  in  the  Bible  in  the  account  given  of  the  for^ 
mation  of  woman  out  of  one  of  Adam's  ribs :  a  represen- 
tation to  which  currency  may  have  the  more  easily 
been  given,  from  the  apparent  space  there  is  between 
the  lowest  rib  and  the  bones  on  which  the  trunk  is 
supported.  **  And  Adam  said.  This  is  now  bone  of  my 
bones,  and  flesh  of  my  flesh :  she  shall  be  called  Wom- 
an, because  she  was  taken  out  of  man."  An  immediate 
and  natural  inference  is  forthwith  made  touching  the 
intimacy  of  the  marriage-bond:  ** Therefore  shall  a 
man  leave  his  father  and  his  mother,  and  shall  cleave 
unto  his  wife,  and  they  shall  be  one  flesh  "  (Gen.  ii,  21- 
24).  This  narrative  is  hence  effectively  appealed  to  as 
supplying  an  argument  for  enforcing  the  duties  of  the 
husband  towards  the  wife  (Eph.  v,  28-81).    Those  who 


WOMAN 


966 


WOMAN 


have  been  pleased  to  make  free  with  this  simple  nar- 
rative may  well  be  required  to  show  how  a  rude  age 
could  more  effectually  have  been  taught  the  essential 
unity  of  man  and  woman — a  unity  of  nature  which  de- 
mandsy  and  is  perfected  only  in,  a  unity  of  soul.  The 
conception  of  the  Biblical  writer  goes  beyond  even 
this,  but  does  not  extend  further  than  science  and  ex- 
perience unite  to  justify.  There  was  solid  reason  why 
it  was  not  good  for  Adam  "  to  be  alone."  Without  a 
helpmeet  he  would  have  been  an  imperfect  being.  The 
genus  homo  consists  of  man  and  woman.  Both  are 
necessary  to  the  idea  of  man.  The  one  supplements 
the  qualities  of  the  uiher.  They  are  not  two,  but  one 
flesh,  and  as  one  body  so  one  soul. 

The  entire  aim,  then,  of  the  narrative  in  Genesis  was, 
by  setting  forth  certain  great  physical  facts,  to  show 
the  essential  unity  of  man  and  woman,  yet  the  de- 
pendence of  the  latter  on  the  former;  and  so  to  en- 
courage and  foster  the  tenderest  and  most  considerate 
love  l^tween  the  two,  founded  on  the  peculiar  qualities 
of  each — pre-eminence,  strength,  intellectual  power,  and 
wisdom  on  the  one  side;  reliance,  softness,  grace,  and 
beauty  on  the  other— at  the  same  time  that  the  one 
set  of  excellences  lose  all  their  worth  unless  as  exist- 
ing in  the  possession  of  the  other.  Many  usages  of 
early  times  interfered  with  the  preservation  of  this 
theoretical  equality :  we  may  instance  the  existence 
of  polygamy,  the  autocratic  powers  veaied  in  the  head 
of  the  family  under  the  patriarchal  system,  and  the 
treatment  of  captives.  Nevertheless  a  high  tone  was 
maintained  generally  on  this  subject  by  the  Mosaic  law, 
and,  as  far  as  we  have  the  means  of  judging,  by  the 
force  of  public  opinion. 

II.  Condition  of  Andeni  Hebrew  Females, — 1.  Liber- 
ty, — Women  appear  to  have  enjoyed  eonsiderably  more 
freedom  among  the  Jews  than  is  now  allowed  them  in 
western  Asia,  although  in  other  respects  their  condition 
and  employments  seem  to  have  been  not  dissimilar. 
At  present,  women  of  all  ranks  are  much  confined  to 
their  own  houses,  and  never  see  the  men  who  visit 
their  husbands  or  fathers,  and  in  towns  they  never  go 
abroad  without  their  persons  and  faceft  being  complete- 
ly shrouded  they  also  take  their  meals  apart  from  the 
males,  even  of  their  own  family.  But  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts they  enjoy  more  freedom,  and  often  go  about  un- 
veiled. Among  the  Jews,  women  were  somewhat  less 
restrained  in  their  intercourse  with  men,  and  did  not 
generally  conceal  their  faces  when  they  went  abroad. 
Only  one  instance  occurs  in  Scripture  of  women  eating 
with  men  (Ruth  ii,  14)  \  but  that  was  at  a  simple  refec- 
tion, and  only  illustrates  the  greater  freedom  of  rural 
mannera.  Instead  of  being  immured  in  a  harem,  or 
appearing  in  public  with  the  face  covered,  the  wives 
and  maidens  of  ancient  times  mingled  freely  and  open- 
ly with  the  other  sex  in  the  duties  and  amenities  of 
ordinary  life.  Rebekah  travelled  on  a  camel  with  her 
face  unveiled,  until  she  came  into  the  presence  of  her 
affianced  (Gen.  xxiv,  64,  65).  Jacob  saluted  Rachel 
with  a  kiss  in  the  presence  of  the  shepherds  (Gen.  xxix, 
11).  Each  of  these  maidens  was  engaged  in  active 
employment,  the  former  in  fetching  water  from  the 
well,  the  latter  in  tending  her  flock.  Sarah  wore  no 
veil  in  Egypt,  and  yet  this  formed  no  ground  for  sup- 
posing her  to  be  married  (Gen.  xii,  14-19).  An  outrage 
on  a  maiden  in  the  open  field  was  visited  with  the  se- 
verest punishment  (Deut.  xxii,  25-27),  proving  that  it 
was  not  deemed  improper  for  her  to  go  about  unpro- 
tected. Further  than  this,  women  played  no  inconsid- 
erable part  in  public  celebrations:  Miriam  headed  a 
band  of  women  who  commemorated  with  song  and 
dance  the  overthrow. of  the  Egyptians  (Exod.  xv,  20, 
21);  Jephthah's  daughter  gave  her  father  a  triumphal 
reception  (Judg.  xi,  ^) ;  the  maidens  of  Sbiloh  danced 
publicly  in  the  vineyards  at  the  yearly  feast  (Judg.  xxi, 
il) ;  and  the  women  fSted  Saul  and  David,  on  their  re- 
turn from  the  defeat  of  the  Philistines,  with  singing  and 
dancing  (1  Sam.  xviii,  6,  7).     The  odes  of  Deborah 


(Judg.  x)  and  of  Hannah  (I  ISam.  ii,  1,  etc)  exhibit  a 
degree  of  intellectual  cultivation  which  is  in  itself  a 
proof  of  the  position  of  the  sex  in  that  period.  Women 
also  occcasionally  held  public  offices,  particularly  that 
of  prophetess  or  inspired  teacher,  as  instanced  in  Miriam 
(Exod.  XV,  20),  Huldah  (2  Kings  xxii,  14),  Noadiah 
(Neh.  vi,  14),  Anna  (Luke  ii,  96\  and  above  all  Deborah, 
who  applied  her  prophetical  gift  to  the  administration 
of  public  affairs,  and  so  was  entitled  to  be  styled  a 
** Judge"  (Judg.  iv,  4).  The  active  part  taken  by  Jez- 
ebel in  the  government  of  Israel  (1  Kings  xviii,  13 ; 
xxi,  25),  and  the  usurpation  of  the  throne  of  Jodah  b}- 
Athaliah  (2  Kings  xi,  8),  further  attest  the  latitode  al- 
lowed to  women  in  public  life. 

2.  The  employmente  of  the  women  were  very  varioos, 
and  sufficiently  engrossing.  In  the  earlier  or  patri- 
archal state  of  society,  the  daughtera  of  men  of  sab^ 
stanoe  tended  their  fathers'  flocks  (Gen.  xxix,  9; 
Exod.  ii,  16).  In  ordinary  drcumstanoes,  the  fim 
libor  of  the  day  was  to  grind  com  and  bake  bread. 
The  other  cares  of  the  family  occupied  the  rest  of 
the  day.  The  women  of  the  peasantry  and  of  the 
poor  consumed  much  time  in  collecting  fuel,  and  in 
going  to  the  wells  for  water.  The  wells  were  usually 
outside  the  towns,  and  the  labor  of  drawing  water  from 
them  was  by  no  means  confined  to  poor  women.  This 
was  usually,  but  not  always,  the  labor  of  the  evening; 
and  the  water  was  carried  in  earthen  vessels  borne 
upon  the  shoulder  (Gren.  xxiv,  15-20 ;  John  tv,  7,  28). 
Working  with  the  needle  also  occupied  much  of  their 
time,  as  it  would  seem  that  not  only  their  own  clothes 
but  those  of  the  men  were  made  by  the  women.  Such 
garments,  at  all  events,  were  either  for  the  nse  of  the 
family  (1  Sam.  ii,  19;  Prov.  xxxi,  21),  for  sale  (Pror. 
xxxi,  14, 24),  or  for  charity  (Acts  ix,  39).  Some  of 
the  needlework  was  ver\'  fine,  and  much  valued  (Exod. 
xxvi,  86;  xxviii,  89;  Judg.  v,  30;  Psa.x]v,  14).  The 
women  appear  to  have  apun  the  3'am  for  all  the  cloth 
that  was  in  use  (Exod.  xxxv,  25;  Prov.  xxxi,  19) ;  and 
much  of  the  weaving  seems  also  to  have  been  executed 
by  them  (Judg.  xvi,  13, 14 ;  Prov,  xxxi,  22).  The  tap- 
estries for  bed-coverings,  mentioned  in  the  last-dtcd 
text,  were  probably  produced  in  the  loom,  and  appear 
to  have  been  much  valued  (Prov.  vii,16).    See  IIaxd- 

ICRAFT. 

The  value  of  a  virtuous  and  active  housewife  fonns 
a  frequent  topic  in  the  book  of  ProvertM  (xi,  16 ,  xii,  4 ; 
xiv,  1 ;  xxxi,  10,  etc.).  Her  influence  was,  of  ooune, 
proportionably  great ;  and,  where  there  was  no  aecood 
wife,  she  controlled  the  arrangements  of  the  bouse,  to  the 
extent  of  inviting  or  re^ieiving  guests  on  her  own  motion 
(Judg.  iv,  18 ;  1  Sam.  xxv,  18,  etc ;  2  Kings  iv,  8,  etc). 
The  effect  of  polygamy  was  to  transfer  female  inflaence 
from  thewives  to  the  mother,  as  is  incidentally  shown 
in  the  amplication  of  the  term  gebirah  (literally  mean- 
ing/^otcfi/u/)  to  the  queen  mother  (1  Kings  ii,  19;  xv, 
18;  2  Kings  x,  18;  xxiv,  12;  Jer.  xiii,  18;  xxix,  3). 
Polygamy  also  necessitated  a  separate  establishment 
for  the  wives  collectively,  or  for  each  individwdlr. 
Thus,  in  the  palace  of  the  Persian  monarch  there  was 
a  **  house  of  the  women  "  (Esth.  ii,  9),  which  was  guard- 
ed by  eunuchs  (ii,  8);  in  Solomon's  palace  the  harem 
was  connected  with,  but  separate  from,  the  rest  of  the 
building  (1  Kings  vii,  8) ;  and  on  joumeya  each  wife 
had  her  separate  tent  (Gen.  xxxi,  88).  In  such  cases 
it  is  probable  that  the  females  took  their  meals  ap«rt 
from  the  males  (Esth.  1,9);  but  we  have  no  reason  to 
conclude  that  the  separate  system  prevailed  generally 
among  the  Jews.  The  women  were  present  at  festi- 
vals, either  as  attendants  on  the  guests  (John  xii,  2),  or 
as  themselves  guests  (Job  i,4;  John  ii,  8);  and  hence 
there  is  good  ground  for  concluding  that  on  ordinary 
occasions  also  they  joined  the  males  at  raeal%  tbongh 
there  is  no  positive  testimony  to  that  effect  See 
Eatixg. 

8.  We  have  no  certain  information  regarding  the  dirrat 
of  the  women  among  the  poorer  classes;  ^i  it  was 


lUtroB  Id  Foil 

ptnbibl]' coane  ukldmplei  ind  not  materially  Jiffemit 
rrom  that  which  ire  now  tee  arnong  the  Bedawin  wam- 
en,  and  tho  female  peoiantry  of  Syria.  Thi«  comiita 
of  diawen,  and  a  long  and  loose  gonji  of  coarae  hlue 
linen,  with  iome  ornamental  bordering  wrought  with 
the  needle,  in  anothei  color,  (bout  the  neck  and  bosom. 
The  head  ia  covered  with  a  kind  of  [urban,  connected 
with  which,  behind,  ii  ■  veil,  which  coven  the  neck, 
back,  and  binom.  3«e  Veil.  Ws  may  preaume,  with 
atill  greater  certainty,  that  women  of  luperior  condition 
wore,  over  their  inner  dreaa,  a  frock  or  tunic  like  that 
of  the  men,  bnt  more  cloMly  fitting  the  peraon,  with  a 
gitdle  formed  by  an  unfolded  kerchief.  Their  head' 
dreia  waa  ■  kind  of  turban,  with  diflerent  aorti  of  veila 
and  wrappers  used  under  varioua  circumuancea.    The 

meroua  trenes,  with  lrink«ts  and  ribbooi  (1  Cor.  xi,  16 ; 
1  Tiro,  ii,  9  i  1  Pet.  iii,  B),  With  the  head-drem  the 
principal  omamenta  appear  to  have  been  connected, 
such  as  a  jewel  for  the  forehead,  and  rows  of  pearls 
(Sol.  Song  i,  10  i  Eiek.  xvi,  13).  Ear-rings  were  also 
worn  (Isi.  iii,  20  i  Ezek.  xvi,  V2),  ai  well  aa  a  nose- 
Jewel,  consisting,  no  doubt,  aa  now,  either  of  a  ring  in- 
serted in  the  cartilage  ot  the  nose,  or  an  ornament  like 
a  button  attached  to  it.  The  noie-jewel  was  of  gold  or 
lilrer.  and  sometimes  set  with  gems  (Gen.  xxiv,  47; 
Isa.  Iii,  21).  BnceletB  were  also  generally  worn  (Isa. 
iii,  19 ;  Eiek.  xvi,  1 1),  and  ankleta,  which,  as  now,  were 
probably  more  like  fetten  than  ornaments  (Isa.  iii,  16, 
20).    The  Jewish  women  poaauaed  the  art  of  staining 


WOMAN 

their  eyelidi  hlaek,  for  elTect  and  eiprearfon  (2  Kinga 
ix,SO;  Jer.  iv,  aO;  Eiek.  iiiii,  40)  ;  and  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  they  had  the  present  prac^ce  of 
•taining  the  nails,  and  tha  palms  of  their  hands  and 
aoles  of  their  feet,  of  an  irort-ruat  color,  by  means  of  a 
paste  made  froia  the  plant  called  trnaa  (l^$rma  wcr- 
nif).    Thii  plant  appears  to  be  mentioned  in  8oL  Song 

14,  and  its  present  ose  is  probably  referred  to  in  Dent. 

li,  12 ;  a  Sam.  xix,  U.     See  Drus. 
4.  F/Kidlf  Rdatiinu. — The  customs  concerning  mar- 

^e.  and  the  drcumstaoces  which  the  relation  of  wife 
■nd  mother  inTolved,  have  been  deacribed  in  the  article 

MAttaiAOK. 

The  Israelites  eagerly  denred  children,  siri  espedal- 
•onL  Hence  the  measenger  who  flnt  bronght  to  tbe 
bther  the  news  that  a  aon  was  born,  was  well  rewarded 
(Job  iii,  S;  Jer.  ii,  IB).  The  event  was  celebrated 
with  music;  and  the  father,  when  the  child  was  pre- 
sented to  him,  pressed  it  to  his  bosom,  by  which  act  he 
was  undentood  Is  acknowledge  it  as  his  own  (Gen,  I, 
28;  Jobiii,  12;pBa.xiii,10).  On  the  eighth  day  from 
the  birth  the  ehild  waa  circumcised  (Gen.  xvii,  10) ;  at 
'hich  time  alio  ■  name  was  given  to  it  (Lake  i,  S9). 
The  fitM-bom  eon  was  highly  esteemed,  snd  had  many 
distinguishing  prinlegea.    He  had  a  double  portion  of 


e(DenU 


.i,l-);l 


rental  authority  over  his  younger  brothers  (tieD.  xxv, 
■  "  Exod.  xiijiS;  a  Chron.  ixi,  8); 
jtion  of  the  Leviiicol  priesthood  he 
acted  as  the  priest  of  tbe  family  (Numb,  iii,  12,  IS;  viii, 
18).  The  patriarchs  exercised  the  power  of  taking 
these  privileges  from  the  flrat-hom,  and  giving  them  to 
any  other  sou,  ot  of  distributing  them  among  diHereut 
aons;  but  this  practice  waa  overruled  hy  the  Uoaaic 
Uw  (Dent,  xxi,  16-17). 

The  child  continued  about  three  years  at  the  breast 
of  the  mother,  and  a  great  festival  was  given  at  the 
weaning  (Gen.  xxi.B^  1  Sam.  i,  22-24;  2Chron.sixi, 
6 1  Uatt.  xxi,  16),  He  remained  two  years  longer  in 
women,  after  which  he  was  taken  under 
the  especial  care  of  the  father,  with  a  view  to  his  proper 

'  ing  (Deut.  vi,  20-2&;  xi,  19).  It  appears  that 
I  who  wished  for  their  sons  better  initruclion  than 
they  were  themselves  able  or  willing  la  give,  employed 
private  teacher,  or  else  sent  them  to  a  priest  or  Levile, 
'ho  had  perhapa  several  others  under  his  care.  The 
principal  object  was  that  they  should  be  well  acquit* 
ed  with  the  law  of  Moses ;  and  reading  and  wridngwere 
langht  in  subservience  to  this  leading  object. 

The  authority  of  a  father  was  very  great  among  the 
Israelites,  and  extended  not  only  to  his  sous,  but  to  his 
grandsons— indeed,  to  all  who  were  descended  fnnn  him. 
His  power  had  no  recognised  limit,  and  even  if  he  put 
his  son  or  grandaon  to  death,  there  was,  at  first,  no  law 
by  which  he  could  be  brought  to  account  (Gen.  xxi, 
14;  xxxviii,24).  But  Moses  circumscribed  this  power, 
by  ordering  that  when  a  father  judged  his  son  worthy 
c^  death,  be  should  bring  him  before  the  public  tribu- 
nals. If,  however,  he  had  struck  or  cursed  his  father 
or  mother,  or  was  refractory  or  diaobedient,  he  was  still 
liable  to  capital  punishment  (Exod.  xxi,  16, 17;  Lev. 
XX,  9;  Deut.  xxi,  18-21).     See  Child. 

HI.  Dacription  ofModmt  Oriental  Fmala^-H  will 
at  once  be  seen  that  under  the  inSuence  of  a  religion, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  lay  those  ideas  concerning  the 
relations  of  the  sexes  otie  to  another,  slavery  on  the 
port  of  the  woman  waa  impossible.  This  fact  is  the 
more  noticeahle,  and  it  speaks  the  more  loudly  in  favor 
of  the  divine  origin  of  the  rcL^^on  of  the  Dible,  because 
the  East  has  in  all  times, down  to  the  present  day,kepC 
women  everywhere,  save  in  those  placea  in  which  Ju- 
daism and  Christianity  have  prevailed,  in  ■  stale  of  low, 
even  if  in  soma  cases  gilded,  bondage,  making  her  the 
mere  toy,  plaything,  and  instrument  of  man.  Nothing 
can  be  mora  painful  to  contemplate  than  the  humiliat- 
ing condition  in  wbich  Islamism  still  holds  its  so-called 
condition  of  perpetual  childhood — child- 


WOMAN 

hood  of  mind,  while  Un  pauiaii*  reedyc  coaMuit 
ctDK;  leaving  the  flue  cadoiTiDenU  ot  woman's  t 
uDdeveloped  and  ioeit,  or  cnubing  Ihem  when  in  U17 
cue  thej  may  b^ipcn  to  g«noiaat«;  ind  converting 
man  into  s  taprictoiu,  haughty  idol.  Tot  whoae  will  and 
pleaaora  the  olhei  kz  Uvea  and  aufl^n.  la  thoas  parts 
of  the  East  where  thg  influence  of  the  Bible  has  not 
prevailed,  woman  hu  been  aabjected  to  d^raduioni 
■od  viewed  a*  little  bettir  than  the  aUvo  of  an  imperi- 
ous master.  Being  mainly  immured  within  the  hartm, 
and  prohibiled  from  mingling  in  geoeral  aociety,  their 
mindB  ara  left  wholly  uncultivsWd ;  and  what  time  Ibey 
can  spare  from  their  household  duties  is  principally  de- 
voted to  embroidery,  dms,  and  iniDking.  This  iini- 
veiail  want  of  education,  with  the  inSaeace  of  polyg- 
amy, naturally  disqualiflea  them  from  b«ng  the  piopet 
companions  of  their  hoibands.  The  state  of  morality 
in  tba  higher  circlet,  in  aome  of  the  principal  Eaatera 
cities,  consequent  on  this  oondition  of  society,  is  Just 
what  might  be  expected.  Wherever  the  influence  of 
Christianity  prevails,  woman  is  invariably  elevated  to 
her  natnial  position  in  aodety— the  Mjual  and  compan- 


It  will  aaaist  the  reader  in  forming  a  Just 
of  Hebrew  women  in  the  Kblioal  periods,  if 
few  details  respecting  the  actual  condition  of  women  in 
Syria.  Hr.  Bartlett  (  WaUa  about  Jeniialim,  p,  S91  sq.) 
visited  the  house  of  a  rich  Jew  ia  the  metropolis  of  tbe 
Holy  Land.   Wa  give  tbe  substance  of  hia  observationa : 

"On  entering  his  dwelling  we  found  hlia  eealed  on  tba 
law  dlTu,  ronailnK  bis  Tonngart  child ;  and  on  our  ex- 

emlag  a  wlih  lo^raw  the  costnnie  of  tbe  fSmale  mem- 
n  orhls  himlly,  be  commindad  tbelr  attendance,  bnt 
tl  was  tome  time  beEirettaeywoDld  come  Ibrwardt  when, 
however,  they  did  pre«enttbenuaiTea,ltwBB  with  no  sort 
of  rewrra  wbatevec.  Their  coatDme  Is  chastely  elaganL 
Tbe  prominent  flgnre  in  the  room  was  the  married  dunab- 
ter,  whoae  hoaband,  n  bor  of  fonrteen  or  atleen,  as  ne 
eaemsd,  wanted  neatly  a  head  of  the  stature  of  hu  wife, 
but  waa  alreadv  chirgeaUe  with  the  onerona  dntlaa  of  a 
fattier.  Au  oval  bead^reuot  peculiar  ihapa,  from  wblcb 
wna  rlDDi;  a  long  tell  of  embroidered  muslin,  admirably 
■ft  off  ber  brow  and  eyes :  the  neck  waa  iKnaoieuted  with 
Jewels,  and  the  bosom  with  a  profntlon  ot  sold  eolna, 
panlj  coDCsaled  by  folde  of  mnillni  ■  eraceml  robe  ot 
atrlpad  silk,  wttb  long  open  sleevei,  halMscad  under  the 
bosum,  Invested  the  whole  parson,  over  which  waa  worn  a 
Jacket  ofgresD  sUk  with  short  alearea,  teavlns  tbe  white 
arm  and  braceleled  band  at  liberty.  An  elderly  person 
aat  on  tbe  aota,  the  mother,  whose  dreas  was  more  grave, 
her  tnrVan  leaa  oval,  and  of  blue  shawl,  and  the  breast 
covered  entirely  to  the  neck  with  a  kind  nt  omamanied 
gold  tlaane,  and  over  all  was  seen  a  lacket  ot  far  :  sbt 
waa  engand  In  knitting,  wbile  bar  younger  dntightcr  beat 
over  bnlD  conversation;  her  dress  was  alml^r  to  ibat 
other  alatar.but  with  do  gold  coins  or  light  moslla  folds, 
and,  bnlaad  ot  large  ear-ringa,  tba  vemullon  blossom  nf 
the  pomegranate  formed  an  einnlBlta  pendant,  reOactinK 
lU  glow  upon  tbe  daiallng  wbllenen  of  her  akin.  Wa 
were  larpiiaad  at  the  tainwas  and  delicacy  of  their  com- 
plexion, and  tbe  vlvael^  otjheii  manner.  Unlike  tba 
wives  ot  Oriental  Christians,  who  respectflilly  attend  at  a 
distance  till  invited  1«  approach,  thete  pretty  Jewesses 
aaemed  on  a  perhct  fboting  ot  equality,  sad  chatted  and 
laughed  away  without  Intarmlsslon." 
Many  of  the  daugbtera  of  Jodah,  here  and  at  Hebron, 


^n»-AiablaB  Coauma.   Indoor  Dieaa. 


are  remarkable  for  thdr  a 
acribea  one  ot  tbem  with  enthnaiasm,  a 
conscious  poetry — "  the  beautiful  Si 
met  at  a  "  wedding-featt." 

Lrcely  seated  when  the  TeU  a 


lady  she  was :  (all.  of  a  fiilr  complexion  and  blue  tn 
and  atonnd  her  totehead  and  cheeks  abe  won  Kienl 
roKc.    No  queen  bad  a  Oner  deportment  tban  tbit  Itv- 

Mr.  Bartlett  waa  alao  admitted  into  the  abode  J  > 
Cbriatian  family  in  Jerusalem,  of  whom  be  ihniiuaki 
(p.  SOS,  206) : 

"The  Interior  ot  tbelr  hoases  is  similar  to  tbete  of  tke 
Jews.  In  onr  intercourse  with  tbem  we  were  rcoiind 
' '  more  ceremony  than  among  the  tormer.  The  nit- 
of  the  fnmlly  St  in  attendance  with  her  children  sad 
jnta,  and  bealdea  plpai  and  coSCe,  the  ediM  1>  pre- 
sented with  saucers  ot  sweetmeats  and  small  glisaas  ot 
anlaead :  which,  when  done  wltb,  are  taken  ftnm  him  tj 
Us  fiiir  boetesi  or  ber  servant,  who  kiss  hIa  hand  M  tb^ 
receive  them.  Tbey  are  more  reserved,  often  alindlac 
during  tbe  visit.  Tbelr  dma  Is  more  gorgeoDi  ttuu  iku 
ot  tbe  Jewish  women,  but  not  so  cbaslaly  elq;ani ;  It  nlu 
Ihelangnorof  ibelr  air,  tbelr  dnskycomplniaii, 


LDd  large  blaci 


.    Thet 


ad-dresa  has  a  fanlaiik:  air 


like  itaat  of  a  Hay-dny  gneeu  lu  E 
alllllain  thertyleof 

'Beeallea  by  ilr  Peter  Lely, 
Wboee  drapery  bints  we  may  admire  freely.' 
.  heavy  shawl  Is  gracofnlly  wreathed  round  tbe  tgiit, 
illppera.    The  ensemtle.  It  mnsl! 


1)  very  tssclnating,  w 


nits  w 


ir  [a  yuSDI  sn 


V  page  to  the  peaaantrj,  and  take  from  U- 
aketeh  of  the  Syrian  women,  aa  aeen  by  bia 
at  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  on  a  Sunday. 

"Alter  having  with  tbelr  families  attended  dlTintier- 
vice,  the  btter  return  to  their  houeae  to  enjoy  a  repui 
more  snmptuoaa  than  on  ordinary  dsTi:  Ux 
id  giris,  adorned  in  their  richest  cloUiu.  ihilr 
-J  ._j  .„  -. ,.1  orangp-Howen,  •cukl 


neighbors.    It  is 


'  their  dwefilng^  wilh  their  fdendi  tad 

Impoailbte  10  describe  wltb  the  pen  tbe 

uin  »  icuuicnt  of  the  picturesque,  from  the  rlctuxai 

Ibslr  coetame  nsd  their  beauty,  which  these  femaks 

n  compose  in  the  landscape.    I  eee  among  tbem  dally 

h  conDtenanees  aa  Rapbssl  had  not  beheld,  even  In 

dreams  as  an  artist.    It  Is  mora  tbaa  tbe  Italiu  «- 

_.jek  beauty  ;  tbere  la  (be  nicety  ot  shape,  the  deliocy 

ot  outline.  In  a  word,  all  (bat  Greek  and  Roman  artku 

left  na  as  lbs  moat  Bnlsbed  model !  but  It  Is  rendered  mme 

bewitching  stQIhy  a  primitive  artleaaaesa  otupreialw. 


otpr 


I  fhim  tbe  bine  eyee,  trluKcd  wilh 

the  featares,  and  by  a  eniUtng  srcli- 

portloiM,  a  rich  wbttenna  01  skle, 

~   '       I  metalUc  gloss 

mt,  a  novefty  hi 

iDfvoic«,whlch 


Indescribable  tnnspnrei 

Du  the  hair,  a  ffracetnlneH  on 

>  sttlmdes,  aniTa  vibrating  ailvi 

__jder  the  vonng  Syrian  Klrl  the— ., 

paradise.  Sncb  admirable  and  varied  beann  Is  also  very 
common;  I  never  go  lutotfae  country  G>t  an  hour  wllbgel 
meeting  aeieral  sncb  bmalas  going  to  tbe  foantain  or 


Tbs  ordinuy  drew  of  cbe  women  of  Pdntinc  ii  not, 
pcihipi.  much  dtLed  to  enhance  theic  luiCunl  chinu, 
mnd  yet  it  idmiu  of  eua  >ad  dignity  in  the  carmge. 
Dr.  Olin  tbua  deicribea  the  ciuUmaif  ippeinnoe  of 


,--,  -     ...  htti,bonnet«,nOT«toctliip 

both  Hios  appeir  la  looM,  AowLns  dr«i«.  and  red  ( 
r  illppera :  the  men  mu  »d  cip«  irilh  or  wlihoi 


"  The  people  wi 

both  Hfo* 

jeUowtllpi. ,-     ..-  .-      .. 

tDibtDP.  the  iromen  en  concmled  by  whtle  Telle, 
Uieeictpllonott)igeTe«"|lI.ttI)- 

Thfl  ungulat  beauty  of  the  Hebi«ir  women,  and  the 
naCunl  wumth  of  their  effectioDS,  have  caoapired  It> 
throw  gemsof  domeatic  loTelineaa  over  the  pag«*of  the 
Bible.  Id  no  bialory  can  there  be  fouDd  an  eqnel  num- 
ber of  channing  female  portraiti.  From  Hagar  down 
hi  Uuj  end  Uanha,  the  Bible  preaenca  picturea  of 
womanly  beauty  that  are  unsurpaaaed  and  rarely  par- 
alleled. But  we  ihould  very  impeifectly  represent  in 
theie  general  remarka  the  IbrmBdve  influence  of  the 
female  cbaiaoter  u  ie«u  iu  the  Bible,  did  not  we  refer 
theae  amiable  trails  of  characler  to  the  oriKiual  concep- 
tiona  of  which  we  bare  spoken,  end  In  the  pure  and 
lofty  religioui  ideas  which  the  Biblical  boohs  in  general 
present.  If  woman  there  appean  aa  (he  companion  and 
friend  of  man,  if  she  riMS  ebore  the  condition  of  being 
■  bearer  of  children  to  that  nuble  position  which  ii  held 
by  the  mother  of  a  family,  she  owes  her  elevation  in 
the  main  lo  Che  religion  of  Mows  and  to  Chat  of  Jeaua. 
The  first  ayslem— aa  a  preparatory  ouo— did  noc  and 
Gonld  DOC  complete  the  emancipttion  of  woman.    The 


TouDg  Lady  In  Pall  Die**. 

Oriental  influence  modified  the  religious  so  materially 
aa  to  keep  women  generally  in  some  coutiderable  ~  ' 
jeetion.    YeC  the  placing  of  the  fondest  deairea  and 
glowing  hones  of  the  nation  on  lame  child  that  wj 
be  bom,  some  son  that  was  to  be  given,  aa  ic  m*d( 
eiy  matron'a  heart  beaC  high  with  expecCaCion,  n 
the  tone  of  aelf-reapect  among  Che  women  of  lanel,  and 
caused  ibem  to  be  regarded  by  the  other  acx  witb 
ly  interest,  deep  regard,  and  a  senciment  which 
akin  to  reverence.    There  was,  however,  needed  the 
finiahing  toscb  which  the  Great  Teacher  pot  (o  the  Uo- 
•tic  view  of  the  relatioua  between  the  aeies.     Becog. 
nising  the  fundamental  truths  whicb  were  as  old  as 
the  eraatioa  of  man.  Jeau*  proceeded  to  restrain  the 
DDcb-«ba«Bd  facUi^  of  divorce,  leaving  only  one  can** 
why  the  mairiage-bond  tbould  be  broken,  ind  at  the 
•anu  time  leaching  that  a*  the  origin  of  wedlock  was 
.  divine,  ao  its  acverance  ought  iwc  to  be  the  work  of 
man.     Still  further — bringing  to  bear  on  tbe  dom 
ties  bis  own  doctrine  of  immorCality,  he  made  the 
eceiistent  with  the  ondpng  soul,  only  teaching  that  (be 
connection  would  be  refined  with  the  refinement  of  on~ 
affection*  and  onr  liberation  from  these  tenements  o: 
(day  in  which  we  now  dwell  (Hate  v,  31 ;  xix,  ■  sq, 


WOMEN 

xxii,  SS  aq.).  With  views  so  derated  a*  theae,  and 
1th  aStelions  of  the  tendertst  benignity,  (he  Savkmr 
■y  well  have  won  Che  warm  and  gentle  faearta  of  Jew. 
)  women.  Accordingly,  the  purest  and  richnC  human 
light  Chat  lie*  on  the  page*  of  the  New  Test,  cornea 
from  the  band  of  high-minded,  faithful,  and  affectionate 
women,  wbo  are  found  in  connection  with  Christ  from 
'adle  to  his  emaa,  hia  tomb^  and  hi*  reaorrecCion. 
These  ennobling  infinencea  have  operaCed  on  socieCy 
with  equal  benefit  and  power.  Woman,  in  the  beCtel 
'  )ni  of  society,  is  now  a  new  being.  Yec  her  an- 
career  i>  only  just  begun.  She  sees  what  aha  may, 
and  what  under  the  gaq«l  she  ought  lobe;  and  ere  very 
long,  we  trust,  a  way  will  be  found  to  employ,  in  pui^ 
pose*  of  good,  energies  of  the  finest  natoie,  which  now 
waste  away  from  want  of  scnpe,  in  the  ease  and  refine- 
ments of  affluence,  if  not  in  the  degrsdstion*  of  luxury 
_a  meat  precioos  offering  made  lo  the  Molocb  of  fus- 
ion, but  wbich  ought  lo  be  cousecnted  (o  the  servica 
of  that  God  who  gave  these  aidowments,  and  of  that 
Saviour  who  has  brought  to  light  the  rich  capalnlitiNi, 
■nd  exhibited  the  bigit  and  holy  vacation,  of  the  female 
sex.— Kitto,  s.  V.  i  Smith,  s.  y.     See  Wire 

IV.  tsWrohm!.— Atkinson,  Womat  of  Pertia  (Lond. 
n.d.8va);  Jeaaup,  Women  o/ (As  Arabi  (ibid.l874}i 
I^ne,  Modem  Egf/ptiiaiM,  pL  i,cb.  vi,  Thomsoni  /-and 
and  Book,  i,  174  sq.  On  special  pointa,  see  Selden, 
Uxor  Kbraiea  (ibid.  164B,  and  later)-,  Schiiider,  lit 
VeMu  MMlienm  HOr.  (Leyden,  174G,  177G);  SpSrl, 
De  Onanemu  Htbr.  (1758);  Srach,  Be  Maiienm 
Moi-iii  (Slrasburg,  1S97) ;  Zipser,  Ue6.  d.  Warier  D-<^3 
und  D^ICSX  (in  the  JewitK  Chroniclt,  vii,  16),  and  the 
monographs  cited  by  Tolbeding,  Inda  Pro^ammalum, 
p.  IDS.    See  Wife;  Vi'om^. 

VTouMa.  The  influence  of  Christianity  did  mucb 
in  early  times  for  the  female  sex.  They  were  freely 
admitted  to  (he  Church,  but  they  sat  in  upper  rooms 
orgaUeriesset  apart  for  them.  In  many  churches  they 
had  agate  of  their  own  by  which  to  enter,  and  of  which 
tbe  deaconess  had  charge.  See  Diacoviiss.  But  wom- 
en were  never  allowed  to  preach,  tbongh  they  might 
hold  the  rank  of  deaconess,  and  as  such  might  instruct 
privately  catechumens  and  Iheir  own  sex  generally, 
Tbe  Hontanista  (q.  v.)  wen  an  exception  to  this  gen- 
eral rule.  As  women  were  not  (o  preach,  so  they  could 
not  baptiie ;  nor  were  they  allowed  Co  keep  piirata 
vigils.  Tertallian  thna  deacribea  the  felicity  of  do- 
mestic life:  "How  can  we  find  words  Co  exprea  tbe 
happiness  of  that  marriage  which  the  Church  efilect*, 
and  the  oblation  confirms,  and  the  blessing  seals,  and 
Ifae  angels  nporC,  and  the  Father  ratifies!  WhaC  a 
union  of  two  believers,  with  one  hope,  one  discipline, 
one  service,  one  spirit,  and  one  flesh !  Together  they 
pray,  together  they  prostrate  themselves,  and  together 
keep  their  fasts,  leaching  and  exhorting  one  another. 
They  an  together  aC  the  Church  and  at  (he  Lord's 
Sapper;  they  are  together  in  straits  snd  refreshments. 
,  .  ,  Christ  rejoice*  on  hearing  and  beholding  such 
things;  lo  such  persons  he  sends  bis  peace.  When 
the  two  are,  he  is  himself;  and  where  ha  is,  there  the 
evil  one  is  not."— Eadie,  Ecda,  Cfclop.  p.  663;  Bing- 
ham, Claiit.A»t.  bk.  ii,  ch.  xxii;  see  Divobcei  Mab- 

Theeatimataof  womanhood  in  tbe  earliest  Chriatian 

literalun  exhibit*  a  remarkable  contrast  Co  that  of 
paganism,  as  both  etCsching  fsr  more  imporCance  Co 
female  modesty  and  chastity,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
greatly  enhancing  tbe  dignity  of  the  female  character 
and  enlarging  the  sphere  of  woman's  activities.  The 
epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians  (peaks 
of  the  husbands  whom  he  addresses  as  exboiling  their 
wives  to  the  discharge  of  tbeir  dntiea  witb  a  blameless. 


conjugal  alTection,  aiMl  also  teaching  them  to  superin- 
tend domestic  matters  with  dignified  decomm  (mfivwc) 
(c  i,  od.  Dressel,  p.  48).    lo  the  same  manner,  Polycarp 


WOMEN 


070 


WOMEN 


{A  d  Pkiiipp.cA)  exhorts  the  Christian  wives  of  Philippi 
to  live  in  the  faith,  in  love  and  purity^  to  doly  honor 
their  husbands,  and  to  instruct  their  children  in  the 
fear  of  the  Lord.  Second  marriages  being  systemat- 
ically discouraged  in  the  early  Church,  the  advice  given 
by  the  same  writer  to  the  widows  seems  directed  against 
the  faults  to  which  women,  when  lonely  and  unemployed, 
are  specially  prone— *' calumny,  speaking  against  their 
neighbors,  bearing  false  witness,  and  avarice  "  (ed.  Dies- 
sel,p.881). 

The  advice  of  Tertnllian  (Ad  Uxorvm,  bk.  ii,  c  8), 
that  a  woman  should  not  refuse  to  marry  one  slightly 
below  herself  in  station,  provided  he  is  likely  to  prove 
in  other  respects  a  good  husband,  points  probably  to 
the  existence  of  a  certain  social  ambition  among  those 
to  whom  his  treatise  is  addressed,  which  he  considered 
unworthy  of  the  Christian  character.  As  contrasted 
with  the  cruelty  which  too  often  disgraced  the  privacy 
of  pagan  households,  we  find  Chrysostom  observing  that 
it  is  a  shame  for  a  man  to  beat  his  female  slave,  much 
more  his  wife  {fn  EpUt,  I,  ad  Corinth,  Horn.  26 ;  Migne, 
PatroL  Grac,  Ixi,  222). 

The  teaching  of  the  most  enlightened  of  the  fathers 
was  undoubtedly  to  the  effect  that  there  was  no  natural 
inferiority  in  the  woman  to  the  man.  Theodoret  {Grxee, 
Affect,  Curat,  bk.  v)  insists  emphatically  on  their  exact 
equality,  and  says  that  God  made  woman  from  noan  in 
order  that  the  tendencies  and  action  of  both  might  be 
harmonious.  Sometimes,  indeed,  he  observes,  woman 
has  been  found  superior  to  man  in  encountering  adver- 
sity (Migne,  Ixxxiii,  836).  Chrysostom  {Horn,  Ixi,  8) 
says  that  no  one  is  more  fit  to  instruct  and  exhort  her 
husband  than  a  pious  woman.  This  conception  dif- 
fered, however,  materially  from  that  of  Plato  ( Repub. 
V,  465),  in  that  while  the  Greek  philosopher  sought  to 
obliterate  the  ordinary  distinctions  between  the  sexes, 
the  Christian  father  held  that  nature  assigned  to  wom- 
an her  special  and  distinct  province  of  activity.  Chrys- 
ostom, in  a  passage  of  singular  beauty,  gives  us  a  com- 
parison between  the  duties  of  the  wife  and  those  of  the 
husband,  the  former  being  represented  as  in  some  re- 
spects the  more  dignified;  for  while  the  husband  is 
described  as  engaged  in  the  rougher  work  of  life,  in 
the  market  or  the  law-courts,  the  wife  is  represented 
as  remaining  at  home  and  devoting  much  of  her  time 
to  prayer,  to  reading  the  Scriptures,  kuI  rg  aXky  ^iXo- 
90^'^.  When  her  husband  returns,  harassed  with  his 
labora,  it  is  her  function  to  cheer  and  to  soothe  him, 
00  that  he  again  goes  forth  into  the  world  purified 
from  the  evil  influences  to  which  he  has  there  been  ex- 
posed, and  carrying  with  him  the  higher  influences  of 
his  home-life  {In  Joann.  Horn,  61 ;  Migne,  lix,  840). 

The  participation  of  young  females  in  the  exercises 
of  the  palnstra  and  in  races,  commended  by  pagan  the- 
orists (Grote,  PlatOf  iii,  217),  is  condemned  by  Clemens 
of  Alexandria  (  Pad,  iii,  10 )  as  altogether  repugnant 
to  the  notions  of  female  modesty  ( Migne,  viii,  626 ). 
Chr}'8ostom  {In  Matt,  Horn,  1)  contrasts  the  difference 
in  relatioq  to  these  points  between  Christian  and  pagan 
teaching,  and  even  goes  so  far  as  to  afSrm  that  true 
virginity  was  a  notion  which  paganism  was  unable  to 
realize  (Migne,  Ivii,  19). 

At  the  same  time  we  have  satisfactory  evidence  that 
this  exalted  conception  of  the  female  character  and  fe- 
male duties  did  not  involve  any  renunciation  of  woman's 
humbler  functions.  Clemens  says  that  it  is  right  that 
women  should  employ  themselves  in  spinning,  weaving, 
and  watching  the  bread-maker  (ry  irtrroviry),  and  that 
it  is  no  disgrace  for  a  wife  to  grind  com  or  to  superin- 
tend the  cookery  with  the  view  of  pleasing  her  husband 
(Migne,  viii,  626). 

The  excessive  luxury  of  the  4th  century  would  seem, 
however,  to  have  been  not  less  fatal  to  the  maintenance 
of  this  high  ideal  than  to  other  features  of  the  Christian 
character.  Amedee  Thierry  says  that,  by  one  of  those 
contradictions  which  *'  deroutent  la  logique  des  idees," 
Christianity  itself,  essentially  the  religion  of  the  poor, 


conspired  to  give  to  the  manners  of  the  Western  empire 
a  degree  of  ^eminacj'  unknown  in  pagan  times  (Samt 
Jir6met  p.  2).  Chrysostom  declares  tbat  many  of  the 
ladies  of  Constantinople  would  not  walk  across  even  a 
single  street  to  attend  church,  but  required  to  be  ooo- 
veyed  for  the  shortest  distance  ( In  MatL  Hem.  7 ; 
Migne,  Ivii,  79  ).  When  there  they  were  to  be  seen 
with  their  necks,  heads,  arms,  and  fingers  loaded  with 
golden  chains  and  rings,  their  persons  breathing  predoos 
odors,  and  their  dresses  of  gold  stuff  and  silk  (Milman, 
UisL  of  Christianity^  bk.  iv,  c.  1 ).  Others,  again,  af- 
fected masculine  apparel,  and  seemed  to  blush  for  their 
womanhood,  cutting  short  their  hair,  and  presenting 
faces  like  those  of  eunuchs  (Jerome,  Epitt.  18).  Ac- 
cording to  the  same  authority,  the  greater  faciUties 
possessed  by  ecdestastics  for  gaining  admissioo  to  fe- 
male society  was  an  inducement  with  some  to  become 
priests  (ibid.).  Elsewhere  Jerome  strongly  dissuades 
the  clergy  from  accustoming  themselves  to  private  in- 
terviews with  those  of  the  other  sex  (Epitt,  52;  Migne, 
xxii,  260). 

The  exaggerated  importance  attached  by  Jerome  to 
the  unwedded  life,  as  one  of  superior  sanctity,  seems  to 
have  led  him  to  dwell  somewhat  harshly  on  the  weak- 
nesses and  worldliness  of  many  of  the  wealthy  matrons 
of  his  day.  He  represents  them  as  given  to  exeessivc 
personal  adornment,  and  bestowing  much  of  their  time 
on  preparations  for  feasts  and  other  household  matters^ 
When,  however,  we  find  him  enumerating  such  obvious 
duties  as  **  dispensatio  domus,  necessitates  mart ti,  liber- 
orum  educatio,  correctio  servulorum,**  as  prejudicial  to 
the  higher  interests  of  the  soul,  we  perceive  that  his 
tone  is  that  of  one  to  whom  the  ascetic  life  alone 
appeared  adequately  Christian  (Z>e  Perp,  Viry.  c.  20; 
Migne,  xxiii,  228).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident 
that  the  state  of  Roman  society  at  this  time  rendered 
it  exceptionally  difficult  for  Christian  women  to  cany 
the  principles  of  their  religion  into  daily  practice.  Of 
this  Marcella's  retirement  to  her  mansion  in  the  sub- 
urbs, as  described  by  the  same  father,  is  an  indication. 
He  depicts  the  very  different  future  which  her  mother, 
Albina,  had  dewgned  for  her— a  splendid  marriage  and 
the  possession  of  great  wealth,  while  the  daughter  rare- 
ly issued  from  her  seclusion  save  to  visit  the  churclies 
of  the  apostles  and  martyrs,  especially  those  least  fre- 
quented by  the  multitude  {EpUt.  96).  The  mistresses 
of  large  establishments,  according  to  Jerome,  were  often 
exposed  to  exceptional  temptations;  and  be  statea  that 
young  widows  would  sometimes  consent  to  many  even 
pagan  husbands,  in  order  to  avoid  being  plundered  by 
dishonest  stewards,  and  to  escape  the  anxieties  insep- 
arable from  the  management  of  a  large  household,  thus 
bringing  home  to  their  children  by  a  former  marriage, 
^'not  a  guardian,  but  an  enemy;  not  a  parent,  bat  a 
tyrant  "(Apif^  54;  Migne,  xxii,  291). 

Among  other  indications  of  the  confusioo  and  de- 
moralization characteristic  of  that  and  the  following 
century  must  be  included  that  laxit}'  of  Church  disci- 
pline which  permitted  the  performance  of  puUic  re* 
ligious  rites  to  be  sometimes  intrusted  to  women.  la 
the  twenty-first  canon  of  the  coUection  ascribed  to 
Gelasius  this  is  spoken  of  as  evidence  of  the  ''con- 
tempt'' into  which  religion  had  fallen. 

It  is  generally  assumed,  though  on  somewhat  scanty 
and  doubtful  evidence,  that  at  the  period  of  the  convert 
sion  of  the  Teutonic  nations  the  regard  for  female  chas- 
tity and  the  respect  paid  to  the  sex  were  greater  among 
pagan  communities  than  among  the  Latin  races.  Bnt 
however  this  may  have  been,  it  is  certain  that  the  viewa 
inherited  and  handed  down  by  the  Western  Church 
with  regard  to  **  the  personal  and  propriety  liberty  of 
women"  were  greatly  superior  to  those  tbiat  find  ex- 
pression in  any  of  the  bsi'baric  codes.  Something  of 
this  feeling  seems  reflected  in  Jerome  when  CEpiaL  180) 
he  oensnres  parents  for  their  too  common  practice  of 
leaving  deformed  or  otherwise  unmairiageable  daugh- 
ters inadequately  ptovided  for  (Migne,  xxii,  9S>. 


WOMEN 


911 


WONDERS 


''The  ChuTcb"  aars  sir  Henry  Maine,  ''eonferred  ft 
great  benefit  on  serenil  generations  by  keeping  alive 
the  traditions  of  the  Roman  legislation  respecting  set* 
tied  property,"  and  be  points  out  that  Christianity  ivas 
really  carrying  on  the  tradition  of  the  Roman  dot.  The 
formula  of  the  marriage  service,  *'  With  all  my  worldly 
goods  I  thee  endow,"  is  one,  he  says,  **  which  sometimes 
puzzles  the  English  lawyer  from  its  want  of  correspond- 
ence with  anything  which  he  finds  among  the  oldest 
English  law"  (Early  Hitt.  of  InttUuiumi,  p.  887;  see 
also  De  Broglie,  V£glise  ei  VEmptrt^  I,  ii,  278,  and 
Edaircissemait  D). — Smith,  Diet,  of  Christ,  A  ntiq,  s.  v. 

WOMEN,  Churcuwg  of  (rA  lKK\fiotaa^ivai\  is 
aUuded  to  by  pope  Gregory,  in  601,  as  the  thanksgiving, 
and  by  the  emperor  Leo's  Corutitutiont^  in  460.  The 
Salisbury  use  calls  it  the  purification  after  childbirth  at 
the  church  door,  evidently  in  allusion  to  the  purifica- 
tion of  the  "Virgin  Mary.  In  1549  the  ''quire  door" 
was  substituted  for  the  original  place.  A  veil,  or 
chnrching-cloth,  of  white  material,  was  used  in  1560 
by  the  woman  and  a  pew  or  seat  was  allotted  to  her 
from  an  earlier  date. — ^Walcott,  Sacred  A  rchceoL  p.  614. 

Women's  Qalleries  were  upper  rooms  or  apart- 
ments in  ancient  churches,  set  apart  for  the  iise  of  wom- 
en and  catechumens.  They  were  called  ican7%ot;/i€va 
and  vmpiua.  The  author  of  the  Constituliont  speaks 
of  it  as  the  custom  of  the  Church  in  bis  time,  where  he 
gives  directions  about  it  that  women  should  sit  in  a 
separate  place  from  the  men,  and  thus  orders,  Let  the 
doorkeepers  stand  at  the  gate  of  the  men,  and  the 
deaconesses  at  the  gate  of  the  women.  Intimations  of 
this  custom  are  frequent  in  writers  on  early  Church 
usages.  The  barrier  between  the  two  was  usually 
made  by  rails,  or  wooden  walls,  as  they  are  called  by 
Cbrysostom,  who  has  these  remarkable  words  concern- 
ing the  origin  of  this  custom :  "  Men  ought  to  be  sep- 
arated from  women  by  an  inward  wall,  meaning  that 
of  the  heart;  but  because  they  would  not,  uur  fore- 
fathers separated  them  by  these  wooden  walls.  For  I 
have  heard  from  our  seniors  that  it  was  not  so  from 
the  beginning.  For  in  Cbnst  Jesus  there  is  neither 
male  nor  female.  Do  we  not  read  that  men  and  wom- 
en prayed  together  In  their  upper  room  ?"  {Honnl.  74  in 
Matt,),  In  later  times,  however,  as  in  the  Roman  and 
Greek  usage,  the  separation  was  made  by  placing  the 
women  in  galleries  directly  over  the  apartments  of  the 
men.    See  Bingham,  Christ,  Ant,  bk.  viii, ch.  v,  §  6, 7. 

'Womook,  Lawbkmck,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate, 
was  born  at  Lopbam,  in  Norfolk,  in  1612.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Corpus  Christ!  College,  Cambridge,  in  1632 ; 
took  deacon's  orders,  Sept.  21, 1684 ;  is  supposed  to  have 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  living  of  Lopbam  upon  the 
lattei's  decease,  in  1642,  but  was  ejected  by  the  Norfolk 
commissioners,  and  perhaps  imprisoned,  for  his  adher- 
ence to  the  cause  of  Charles  I ;  was  made  archdeacon 
of  Suffolk  and  prebendary  of  Ely  at  the  restoration  in 
1660;  became  rector  of  Homingsheath,  in  Suffolk,  in 
1662,  and  of  Boxford,  in  the  same  county,  in  1668;  was 
made  bishop  of  St.  David's,  Nov.  11,  1683,  and  died 
March  12,  1685.  He  published.  Beaten  OHe  for  thB 
Lamps  of  the  Sanctuarie ;  or,  The  Great  Controversie 
concenwng  Set  Prayers  cmd  our  LUurgie  Examined 
(1641) :— rAe  Examination  of  Tilenus  before  the  Triers 
(1685) : — Arcana  Dogmaium  Anti-RemonstranHum ;  or. 
The  Calvvdste  Cabinet  Unlocked  (1659)  i^The  ResuU  of 
False  Principles  (1661):— rA«  Solemn  League  and  Cov- 
enant A  rraigned  and  Condemned  (eod.)  : — Sujfragium 
Protestantium  (1683),  and  other  works.  See  Chalmers, 
Biog,  Diet,  a.  v. 

T77onder  (usually  Kbo,  r^MrCf  bo(^  generally  used 
in  the  sense  of  prodigy)  is  some  occurrence,  or  thing, 
which  so  strongly  engages  our  attention  by  its  surpris- 
ing greatness,  rarity,  or  other  properties,  that  our  minds 
are  struck  by  it  into  astonishment.  Wonder  is  also 
nearly  synonymous  with  sign :  "  If  a  prophet  give  thee 
a  sign,  or  a  wonder,"  says  Moses  ( Deut.  ziii,  1 ),  and 


"  if  the  sign  or  wonder  come  to  pass,"  etc.  Isaiah  says, 
he  and  "fab  children  are  for  signs  and  wonders"  (viii, 
18),  that  is,  they  were  for  indications  of,  allusions  to, 
prefigurations  of,  things  future,  that  should  certainly 
take  place ;  and  they  were  to  excite  notice,  attention, 
and  consideration  in  beholders;  to  cause  wonder  in 
them.  Wonder  also  signifies  the  act  of  wondering,  as 
resulting  from  the  observation  of  something  extraordi- 
nary, or  beyond  what  we  are  accustomed  to  behold. — 
Calmet,s.v.    See  Miracles;  Wonders. 

Wonderful  is  the  rendering  in  the  A.  Y.  at  Isa. 
ix,  6  of  the  Heb.  vk^fpeH  (Sept.  ^avfiatrro^i  Vulg. 
admirabilis),  as  an  epithet  of  the  Messiah,  and  desig- 
nates bis  incomprehensible  character  as  the  God-man. 

Wonders,  in  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  are  those  re- 
markable occurrences,  whether  deceptive  or  otherwise, 
which  partake  of  the  nature  of  miracles,  and  have  been 
regarded  as  such  by  those  who  witnessed  them.  Mir- 
acles were  very  common  in  the  early  Church,  and  were 
a  powerful  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  both  to 
convince  unbelievers  and  to  secure  submission  on  the 
part  of  believers.  It  is  proposed  in  the  present  treat- 
ment to  consider  them  under  the  heads  of  the  persons 
or  objects  by  Vrhich  they  were  wrought,  and  In  sub- 
divisions to  consider  their  purpose  and  the  manner  of 
their  being  wrought. 

I.  Wonders  Wrought  by  Living  Saints,  —  These  were 
performed  either  by  direct  means,  such  as  invocation 
of  the  name  of  Christ,  prayer,  signing  of  the  cross,  or 
the  imposition  of  hands,  or  by  indirect  means,  such  as 
sending  to  the  sick  the  garments  of  saints  or  others, 
bread,  oil,  or  water  which  had  been  blessed  by  saints. 
It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  in  the  accounts  of  miracles 
which  have  reached  us  from  the  early  fathers  the 
writers  lay  no  claim  to  the  performance  of  the  miracles 
they  attest,  and  do  not  even  mention  the  authors  by 
name.    Under  this  head  we  notice, 

1.  Miracles  of  Beneficence, — ^I'bese  consisted  of 

(I)  Exordtm  and  Healing, — Justin  Martyr  tells  us 
that  Christians,  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  cast  out  dsemons 
from  those  whom  pagan  enchanters  could  not  cure. 
Irenseus  and  Cyprian  bear  similar  testimony  to  their 
power,  while  TertulIiAn  declares,  "  Devils  we  not  only 
despise,  but  both  overcome  and  daily  expose  and  expel 
from  men,  as  is  known  to  very  many."  Some  of  the 
earliest  miracles  of  this  class  were  wrought  by  Gregory, 
bishop  of  Neo-CsBsarea,  in  Pontus,  in  the  8d  century,  the 
record  of  which,  however,  belongs  to  the  4tb  century. 
Among  those  recorded  may  be  mentioned  the  exorcism 
of  a  youth  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  and  the  healing 
of  the  plague -stricken  of  Neo-Oesarea.  Among  the 
miracles  of  this  class  wrought  by  the  earlier  Eastern 
monks,  those  of  Antony  and  Hilarion  will  sen^e  as  ex- 
amples. As  belonging  to  the  former  we  note  the  case 
of  a  boy  in  a  fishing-boat,  whose  state  of  possession  was 
indicated  by  a  foul  stench  in  the  boat,  but  whose  spirit 
yielded  to  the  exorcism  of  the  monk ;  and  also  that  of  a 
girl  from  whom  he  cast  out  an  evil  spirit  at  Alexandria 
in  his  old  age ;  while  among  his  cures  may  be  mentioned 
the  case  of  a  man  afflicted  cither  with  epilepsy  or  mad- 
ness, upon  whom  he  employed  no  means  to  effect  a 
cure  at  once,  but  sent  him  away  into  Egypt,  declaring 
that  there  he  would  be  cured.  Hilarion  wrought  chief- 
ly in  Sicily  and  Palestine.  Of  his  miracles  in  the  former 
place  we  have  the  testimony  of  a  Grecian  Jew  that  "  a 
prophet  of  the  Christians  had  appeared  in  Sicily,  and 
was  doing  to  many  miracles  and  signs  that  men  thought 
him  one  of  the  old  sainta."  Jerome,  who  was  his  biog- 
rapher, records  among  his  miracles  the  restoration  of 
sight  to  a  woman  who  had  been  blind  for  ten  years,  a 
cure  of  paralysis,  another  of  dropsy,  and  exorcising  the 
possessed,  even  a  camel,  which,  in  its  fury,  had  killed 
many.  In  one  case  a  man  was  dispossessed,  and  offered 
a  sum  of  money  to  the  saint  for  the  cure  which  had 
been  wrought,  but  was  informed  that  his  acceptance  of 
the  money  would  surely  bring  back  the  possession.    In 


WONDERS 


972 


WONDERS 


another  instance  he  effected  the  cure  of  an  uneducated 
Frank,  who  began  at  once  to  speak  Syriac  and  Greek, 
although  having  no  previous  knowledge  of  those  lan- 
guages. In  the  West  we  find,  in  the  4th  century,  St 
Ambrose  curing  a  woman  of  palsy,  laying  his  hands  on 
her  in  prayer  while  she  touched  his  garment,  casting 
out  evil  spirits,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  causing  a  thief 
to  be  repossessed  on  account  of  his  misdeeds;  also  St. 
Martin  of  Tours  delivering  a  slave  of  a  devil,  and  heal- 
ing a  leper  at  Paris;  while,  in  the  following  century, 
Germanus  of  Auxerre,  at  Aries,  cures  a  pnefect's  wife 
of  a  quartan  ague,  at  Alexia  bestows  power  of  speech 
on  a  girl  who  had  lost  it  twenty  yean,  at  Autun  heals 
a  girl  of  a  withered  hand,  in  England  a  boy  of  con- 
tracted limbs,  and  at  Milan  and  Ravenna  casts  out  evil 
spirits. 

Thus  far  the  examples  ha^'e  been  confined  to  exor- 
cisms and  cures  by  direct  means.  Some  examples  of 
the  same  results  wrought  through  indirect  means  will 
next  be  presented.  The  monk  Fachomius  had  been 
applied  to  by  a  man,  whose  daughter  had  an  evil  spirit, 
to  work  a  cure.  The  saint  bade  the  man  bring  him 
one  of  his  daughter's  tunics,  warning  him  at  the  same 
time  that  the  blessing  he  should  bestow  upon  it  would 
be  of  no  avail  so  long  as  his  daughter  continued  to  live 
a  sinful  life.  Accordingly,  the  giri  was  not  cured  until 
she  had  confessed  and  forsaken  her  sin.  In  another  in- 
stance the  saint  had  directed  that  in  order  to  obtain  a 
cure  the  euergumen  should,  before  each  meal,  take  a 
small  piece  of  a  loaf  of  bread  which  had  been  blessed. 
As,  however,  he  refused  to  touch  the  bread,  the  device 
was  adopted  of  concealing  morsels  of  it  inside  dates, 
but  with  no  better  success.  The  demoniac  carefully 
extracted  them.  At  last,  having  been  left  some  days 
without  food,  he  took  the  bread  and  was  cured.  By 
means  of  consecrated  oil  Htlarion  healed  the  bites  of 
serpents,  and  St.  Martin  of  Tours  cured  a  paralytic 
girl,  when  at  the  point  of  death,  by  putting  into  her 
mouth  a  few  drops  of  this  oil.  Threads  frayed  from 
St.  Martin's  garments  healed  the  sick  when  wound 
around  the  neck  or  fingers,  and  a  letter  written  by  the 
saint  cured  a  girl  of  fever  when  laid  upon  her  chest 
Straw  upon  which  Germanus  of  Auxerre  had  reposed 
for  a  single  night  cured  a  dsBmoniac  when  bound  upon 
it,  and  a  barley  loaf,  which  the  bishop  had  blessed  and 
sent  to  the  empress  Pladdia,  possessed  and  retained  for 
a  long  time  wonder-working  properties.  St.  Genevieve 
of  Paris  cast  out  devils  by  threads  of  her  garments^ 
and  cured  the  sick  by  bits  of  her  candle. 

With  regard  to  the  comparative  prevalence  of  mirac- 
ulous gifts  of  healing,  as  exercised  by  living  saints  in 
different  ages,  we  can  form  an  opinion  only  from  the 
records  which  have  reached  us.  It  wonld  appear,  how- 
ever, that  the  power  of  working  cures  was  in  nowise 
diminished  in  the  6th,  7th,  and  8th  centuries.  DiBmo- 
niacal  possessions,  madness,  leprosy,  paralysis,  blindness, 
deafness,  lameness,  and  many  other  diseases  and  infirm- 
ities constantly  csiled  forth,  and  found  relief  through, 
the  thaumatuigic  powers  with  which  monks  and  bish- 
ops were  endowed,  while  accidents,  such  as  those  to 
which  monks  themselves  were  exposed  in  the  perform- 
ance of  their  agricultural  labors,  were  naturally  not  ex- 
cluded from  the  sphere  of  miraculous  treatment  Nor 
was  there  any  partiality  in  the  distribution  of  these 
gifts  over  the  various  regions  of  Christendom,  although 
the  accident  of  the  birthplace  or  dwelling  of  some  of 
those  who  undertook  to  record  certain  miracles  might 
lead  us  to  a  contrary  opinion.  If,  for  example,  during 
the  6th  century,  thaumaturgy,  as  exercised  in  the  mat- 
ter of  healing  and  exorcism,  shone  brightly  in  the  per- 
sons of  monks  and  bishops,  it  shone  no  less  brightly  in 
Palestine  in  the  person  of  the  abbot  Theodosius,  or  in 
France  in  the  instances  of  Melanius,  bishop  of  Rennes, 
and  St  Genevieve  of  Paris. 

(2)  Renting  from  the  Dead, — Irenssus  declares  that 
''with  much  fasting  and  prayer  the  spirit  of  the  dead 
ceturned;'*  and  again,  "before  now«  m  we  have  said, 


even  the  dead  have  been  raised  np,  and  have  remained 
with  us  many  years."  We  mention  a  few  alleged  in- 
stances of  this  wonder  occurring  at  different  timeSi 
Julian,  who  suffered  maztyidom  at  Antioch  in  the  Dio- 
cletian persecution,  raised  a  dead  man  to  life,  and  St 
James,  bishop  of  Nisibis,  in  A.D.  325,  a  man  who  was 
brought  to  him  as  dead,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  mon- 
ey (presumably  to  defray  the  expenses  of  burial),  and 
who  really  died  while  counterfeiting  death.  St  Martin 
of  Tours  restored  to  life  a  catechumen,  who  had  died 
in  his  monastery  unbaptized,  by  throwing  himself  upon 
the  dead  body  and  praying  earnestly  for  its  restoration, 
and  on  another  occasion  a  slave,  who  had  hanged  him- 
self. Hilary  of  Poitiers  raised  a  child  to  life  who  had 
died  unbaptized;  Marcellus,  abbot  of  a  monastery  of 
the  AoosmctsB,  near  Constantinople,  in  446,  a  monk ;  and 
Gelaains,  abbot  of  a  moiuutery  in  Palestine,  in  452,  a 
child.  Germanus  of  Auxerre,  when  at  Ravenna,  raised 
a  man  from  the  dead;  St  Benedict  of  Nursia,  a  boy; 
St  Bavo  of  Ghent,  in  653,  a  man  \  St  Walaricns,  abbot 
of  a  monastery  on  the  Somme,  in  662,  one  who  had  been 
unjustly  hanged ;  St  Wulfram,  bishop  of  Sens,  in  720^ 
five  Frisian  youths  who  had  been  hanged  as  a  sacrifice 
to  the  gods. 

(8)  MiradeM  of  Deliverance,  Protection,  and  Suoeor, 
— ^These  afford  a  series  of  wonders  which  range  all  the 
way  from  the  deliverance  of  cities  from  siege  or  assault, 
or  of  districts  from  inundation,  to  the  multiplication  of 
com  in  a  granary,  or  of  wine  or  beer  in  a  cask.  They 
differ  widely  from  one  another  in  respect  of  their  object 
and  importance,  and  the  sphere  they  affect,  and  often 
degenerate  into  little  else  than  a  display  of  miracoloas 
power  for  its  own  sake,  thus  losing  the  character  of  a 
true  miracle.  The  raising  of  the  siege  of  Nisibis  will 
serve  as  an  example  of  the  power  ascribed  to  living 
saints  in  this  direction.  Sapor  II  was  besieging  the 
city.  The  inhabitants,  in  their  alarm,  appealed  to  their 
bishop,  St.  James.  In  answer  to  the  supplications  he 
offered,  swarms  of  gnats  attacked  the  besiegers,  their 
horses  and  elephants,  irritating  them  to  such  a  pitch 
of  frenzy  that  they  broke  loose.  To  increase  bis  dis- 
comfiture, the  Persian  king  mistook  the  buhop,  when 
he  appeared  on  the  waUs  in  his  purple  and  with  his 
diadem  on  his  head,  for  the  Roman  emperor,  and 
thereupon  raised  the  siege.  According  to  Tbcophanes 
{Chronographia^  p.  52, 58),  the  bishop's  prayers  had  the 
further  result  of  bringing  famine  and  pestilence  upon 
the  besiegers  when  they  returned  to  their  own  land. 
The  deliverance  of  Paris  from  the  Huns  by  St  Gen- 
evieve is  a  case  of  like  import  The  miracle  wrought 
by  Gregory  Thanmatorgus  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Lycus  furnishes  an  instance  of  the  exercise  of  this 
power  in  another  direction.  The  bishop,  having  been 
appealed  to  by  the  inhabitants  of  a  certain  district  to 
deliver  them  froifl  the  calamities  to  which  they  wers 
from  time  to  time  exposed  by  the  overflowing  of  this 
river,  made  a  journey  to  the  place,  and,  invoking  the 
name  of  Christ,  planted  his  staff  at  the  particular  spot 
where  the  stream  was  wont  to  burst  through  the  mound 
which  had  been  erected  on  its  banks  to  prevent  its  en- 
croachments. The  staff  became  a  tree ;  the  water  rose 
as  usual,  but  henceforth  never  passed  the  tree.  The 
miracle  had  its  ethical  result  in  the  conversion  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  were  at  that  time  heathens.  Similar 
miracles  are  ascribed  to  several  others  in  different 
places. 

As  a  rule,  however,  such  interpositions  of  miracakms 
power  were  in  behalf  of  small  communities  and  fre- 
quently of  individuals.  As  illustrations  of  this  fact,  we 
mention  the  cases  in  which  St  Hilary  cleanses  the  In- 
sula Gallinaria  of  serpents;  St  Martin  of  Tours,  when, 
in  his  missionary  seal,  he  has  set  fire  to  a  lieatben 
temple,  successfully  repels  the  flames  from  an  adjoin- 
ing building;  St  Manr  walks  on  the  water  to  save 
his  friend  Placidius;  Germanus  of  Auxerre  nstoras  a 
stolen  valise  to  its  owner;  St  Benedict  of  Nursia, 
and  Leutfred,  abbot  of  a  monastery  near  Evreux,  in 


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A.D.  788,  cause  iron  to  twim,  and  others  of  like  import 
In  marked  contrast  with  the  miracles  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  we  And  the  monks,  on  their  missionary  journeys 
or  at  home,  working  miracles  in  hehalf  of  their  own 
special  needs,  such  as  caosing  water  to  flow  in  dry 
places  by  the  simple  expedient  of  planting  a  staff  in 
the  ground  or  of  striking  on  the  rock  with  a  rod, 
multiplying  wine  or  beer  in  the  cask,  and  of  quenching 
the  fliiuoes  when  fire  had  chanced  to  break  out  in  a 
monastery  or  conrent. 

2.  Miradet  of  Power,— Jn  the  early  Charoh  these 
assumed  the  forms  of  speaking  with  tongues,  prevision 
of  events,  and  the  seeing  of  visions.  Under  this  head 
we  shall  consider, 

(1)  Miradeg  Wrought  in  Confirmatumo/Chritticmity, 
— For  example,  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  on  one  occa- 
sion was  forced,  through  storm  and  the  approach  of 
nightfall,  to  take  refuge,  together  with  his  companions 
in  travel,  in  a  heathen  temple  which  happened  to  be 
famous  for  its  oracles.  Having  invoked  the  name  of 
Christ  and  signed  the  cross,  the  bishop  spent  the  night 
in  praising  God.  In  the  morning  the  priest  of  the  tem- 
ple found  upon  his  arrival  that  the  daemons  had  fonaken 
their  shrine.  Gregoxy  informed  him  that  he  could 
bring  them  back  as  well  as  expel  them.  Challenged 
to  do  so,  he  vrrote  upon  a  piece  of  paper,  '*  Gregory  to 
Satan  —  enter."  and  banded  it  to  the  priest,  who 
placed  it  upon  the  altar.  Forthwith  the  diemons 
gave  evidence  of  their  return.  To  satisfy  the  priest 
still  further  as  to  the  truth  of  Christianity,  Gregory  ac- 
cepted a  challenge  to  move  a  large  stone  which  lay  near, 
by  means  of  his  word  alone.  He  at  once  moved  it,  and 
thus  convinced  his  opponent.  Ililarion  wrought  a  re- 
markable miracle  of  this  class  at  Gaza.  A  Christian 
named  Italicos,  who  bred  horses  for  the  chariot-races, 
applied  to  Hilarion  to  help  him  against  a  rival  who 
made  use  of  magic  to  check  the  speed  of  his  horses,  and 
thus  secure  the  victory  for  his  own  steeds.  The  saint, 
although  at  first  unwilling  to  lend  his  aid  in  so  trivial 
a  matter,  acceded  to  the  request,  and  sent  Italicus  the 
vessel  he  was  wont  to  use  in  drinking,  filled  with  water, 
wherewith  horses,  chariot,  and  charioteers  were  to  be 
sprinkled.  This  done,  the  Christian's  horses,  flying  like 
the  wind,  easily  won  the  race.  Whereupon  the  pagan 
party,  whose  god  was  Mamas,  raised  a  loud  shout, 
**  Blarnas  is  conquered  by  Jesus  Christ" 

(2)  M trades  Wrought  in  Confitmation  of  Orthodoxy, 
— St  Amulph,  having  received  a  command  from  the 
king  of  the  Visigoths,  who  wished  to  test  the  saint's 
powers,  to  rid  the  land  of  a  serpent  whose  breath  was 
of  so  fiery  a  nature  as  apparently  to  dry  op  water,  was 
conducted  to  the  serpent's  lair,  where  he  laid  his  stole 
upon  the  head  of  the  monster,  and,  bidding  him  follow, 
led  him  to  a  pond,  and  forbade  him  ever  to  leave  it,  or 
thenceforth  to  injure  any  living  creature.  In  the  same 
pond  lay  the  body  of  a  man  who  had  died  a  violent 
death.  Upon  the  approach  of  the  saint  the  dead  man 
prayed  to  be  delivered  from  his  miserable  resting-place. 
In  answer  to  the  prayer,  St  Amulph  raised  the  body 
and  buried  it  in  a  fitting  place.  These  miracles  are 
said  to  have  made  such  an  impression  upon  the  king 
and  his  courtiers  that  they  forsook  their  Arianism  and 
accepted  the  Catholic  faith. 

(3)  M  trades  Wrought  in  Punishmeni  of  Evil-doers, — 
When  St.  Willibrod,  A.D.  789,  was  on  a  missionary 
journey,  he,  with  his  company,  sought  rest  one  day  in  a 
field.  The  owner  of  the  land  proceeded  to  drive  him 
away,  refusing  to  listen  to  his  remonstrances,  or  to  drink 
with  htm  in  token  of  amity.  **  Then  drink  not,"  ex- 
claimed the  saint,  and  the  man  lost  the  power  of  drink- 
ing, while  suffering  all  the  pangs  of  thirst,  nor  did  he 
regain  it  till  he  had  confessed  his  sin  to  the  saint  upon 
his  return  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

(4)  Miracles  Wrought  in  Illustration  of  the  Gifts 
Bestowed  upon  Men  for  their  Enterprise  and  Piety.— 
St  Benedict  of  Nursia  miraculously  detected  an  infrac- 
tion of  the  monastic  rules  by  some  of  his  monks,  and  a 


theft  on  the  part  of  a  messenger,  and  enabled  two  monks 
to  carry  a  heavy  fragment  of  a  rock.  Numerous  other 
examples  of  miracles  performed  by  living  saints  might 
be  cited,  but  the  foregoing  will  suffice. 

II.  Wonders  Wrought  ^  Edics, — ^The  relics  of  a  saint 
perpetuated  the  benefits  which  the  saint  himself,  during 
his  lifetime,  had  conferred  upon  those  who  stood  in  need 
of  healing  or  succor.  They  originated  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  4th  century,  and  may  be  divided  into 

1.  Miracles  of  Beneficence,  consisting  of 

(1)  Exorcisms  and  Miraculous  Cures,  wrought 

i.  By  the  Bodies  of  Saints.  —  Many  miracles  were 
wrought  by  St  Stephen's  relics.  The  town  of  Calama 
had  possessed  relics  of  St  Stephen  for  about  eight  years, 
and  that  of  Hippo  for  less  than  two  years,  when  St  Au- 
gustine declared  that  many  books  would  have  to  be 
Mrritten  in  order  to  recount  all  the  miracles  of  healing 
alone  which  had  been  wrought  by  means  of  these  relics 
during  this  space  of  time  in  the  two  districts  of  Calama 
and  Hippo,  and  that  of  those  which  had  been  wrought 
in  the  latter  district  alone  nearly  seventy  accounts  had 
already  been  written  (Z>e  CivitcUe  Dd,  xxii,  8,  §  20). 

iL  By  Objects  hrou^  into  Contact  tcith,  or  Proximity 
to,  the  Bodies  of  Saints,  Living  or  Dead, — Such  mir- 
acles, according  to  Gregory  the  Great,  were  likely  to 
make  a  deeper  impression  on  the  popular  mind  than 
those  wrought  by  the  bodies  of  the  saints  themselves,  for 
the  reason  that  in  the  latter  case  they  might  be  regard- 
ed as  wrought  in  answer  to  prayer,  by  the  saint  himself, 
whose  spirit  was  supposed  to  hover  about  its  former 
tenement    These  may  be  further  classified : 

(a)  The  Garments  or  Possessions  of  Saints, — The  tunic 
of  St  John  the  Evangelist,  preserved  in  Rome,  worked 
many  miracles;  the  shoes  of  St  Gall,  A.D.  646,  healed 
a  man  to  whom  they  were  given  after  the  saint's  death 
of  contraction  of  the  limbs;  while  the  keys  of  St  Peter 
wrought  many  cures  at  Rome. 

(b)  Cloths  Laid  upon  the  Bodies  of  Bead  Saints,— 
Cloths  were  laid  upon  the  face  of  Miletius  of  Antioch 
on  the  occasion  of  his  funeral  at  Constantinople,  in 
881,  and  distributed  among  the  people  as  prophylactics. 
Handkerchiefs  and  garments  in  use  were  cast  upon  rel- 
ics, in  order  to  invest  them  with  remedial  properties, 
and  even  threads  which  had  been  frayed  from  a  hand- 
kerchief that  had  been  used  to  cover  the  face  of  Ni- 
cetius,  bishop  of  Lyons,  on  the  day  of  his  death,  when 
laid  upon  an  altar,  cured  an  epileptic  who  prayed  be- 
fore it 

(c)  The  Candles  or  Lamps  which  Illuminated  the  Tomb 
of  a  Saint. 

(</)  The  Dust  which  Gathered  upon  the  Tomb,  e.  g.  of 
St  Hilary  of  Poitien,  was. the  means  of  cleansing  two 
lepers,  of  bestowing  sight  upon  a  blind  person,  and 
soundness  of  limb  upon  two  persons  with  withered 
haiids.  Dust  from  the  tomb  of  martyrs  in  Lyons,  when 
gathered  in  a  spirit  of  faith,  cured  the  infirm. 

(e)  Water  with  which  the  Tomb  was  Washed, — Several 
persons  at  Tours  were  cured  of  dysentery  by  the  water 
with  which  St  Martin's  tomb  was  washed  in  prepara- 
tion for  Easter. 

(/)  The  Fabric  and  Furniture  of  the  Church  which 
Held  the  Belies, — A  boy  suffering  from  the  effects  of  a 
poisoned  dart  was  cur»l  upon  kissing  the  threshold  of 
St.  Martin's  basilica.  Sidonius  ApolUnaris  tells  a  friend 
that  he  lost  the  sense  of  his  debility  when  prostrate 
upon  the  threshold  of  the  Vatican  basilica  at  Rome. 

(2)  Raising  the  Dead. — A  presbyter  at  Calama,  in 
Africa,  laid  out  as  dead,  revived  when  a  tunic  which 
had  been  taken  to  a  memoria  containing  relics  of  St 
Stephen  was  placed  on  his  body.  A  wagon-wheel  went 
over  a  child  and  killed  him,  bis  mother  took  him  to 
the  same  memoria,  **  and  he  not  only  came  to  life  again, 
but  even  appeared  unhurt"  (Augustine,  De  Civitate  Dd, 
xxii,8,§12). 

(8)  Deliverance,  Protedion,  Succor,— T\i\B  belief  came 
into  existence  along  with  that  in  their  curative  proper- 
ties, and  has  been  quite  aa  prevalent  and  deep-seated. 


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WONDERS 


The  Romans  regarded  the  relics  of  St.  Peter  and  St 
Paul  as  safeguards  to  their  city.  When  a  band  of  re- 
belUous  monks,  belonging  to  the  monastery  of  SuSabas, 
in  Palestine,  were  on  their  way  to  attack  the  monastery, 
they  were  seized  with  blindness,  and  unable  to  reach 
their  destination.  This  deliverance  of  the  abbot  and 
his  party  was  attributed  to  the  presence  of  the  relics  of 
St.  Sabas.  In  the  time  of  Gregory  of  Toors,  the  popu- 
lation of  several  districts  of  Gaul  were  visited  with  a 
plague  of  an  infectious  character,  and  among  them  the 
province  of  Prima  Germania.  The  town  of  Rheims, 
however,  escaped  by  virtue  of  the  pall  or  covering  of 
St.  Remignis's  tomb,  which  was  carried  in  procession, 
accompanied  by  crosses  and  candles,  round  the  town. 
The  belief  in  the  miraculous  virtues  of  relics  led  to  the 
practice  of  carrying  them,  as  the  Jews  their  ark,  into 
battle.  The  Prankish  princes  required  their  army  chap- 
lains to  carry  them  at  the  head  of  their  forces;  ChU- 
peric  had  them  carried  before  him  when  he  entered 
Paris,  and  an  Eastern  king,  according  to  a  story  repeat- 
ed by  Gregory  of  Tours,  went  so  &r  as  to  insert  the 
thumb  of  St.  Surgius  in  his  own  right  hand,  and  was 
able,  by  raising  his  arm,  to  conquer  his  enemies.  Be- 
sides this  public  use  of  relics,  many  individuals  were 
accustomed  to  carry  them  about  their  persons  for  their 
own  protection,  especially  when  travelling. 
2.  Miradet  ofPoicer,  consisting  of 

(1)  Those  Wrought  in  Attestation  of  the  Bighteousness 
of  the  Innocent  and  the  Guilt  of  the  Wrong-doer, — Greg- 
ory of  Tours  relates  that  a  priest  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  the  Church  of  St.-  Martin  at  Tours,  and  was  there 
put  into  chains,  was  proved  to  be  innocent  by  the  fact 
that  his  chains  fell  off  him,  and  could  not  be  made 
to  remain  on  him  when  replaced.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  priest  who  had  falsely  asserted  his  innocence  before 
the  tomb  of  St.  Maximin,  in  Treves,  fell  down  dead. 

(2)  Those  Wrought  in  Punishment  of  Such  as  Treated 
Relics  with  Contempt, — For  example,  when  the  relics  of 
Su  Babylas,  bishop  of  Antioch,  had  been  removed  at 
the  emperor  Julianas  comn^and  from  Daphne,  where 
their  presence  was  supposed  to  render  dumb  the  oracles 
of  ApoUo,  the  temple  of  that  god  caught  fire,  and  no 
traces  of  it  were  left  (A.D.  854). 

III.  Wonders  Wrought  by  the  Eucharist,— It  is  a  note- 
worthy fact  that  the  miracles  alleged  to  have  been 
effected  by  the  eucharist  were  wrought  by  it  not  only 
as  a  sacrament,  but  as  that  of  the  Catholic  faith,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  rite,  and  in  condemnation  of  the 
doctrines,  of  a  heretical  creed. 

1.  Miracles  of  Beneficence, 

(1)  Exorcism  and  JIealutg,'—A  girl  possessed  of  an 
evil  spirit,  upon  receiving  the  eucharist  from  St.  Au- 
stregisile  of  Bourges,  in  624,  at  once  ceased  to  shout 
and  rave ;  and  a  singer  in  a  church  choir,  having  been 
exhausted  and  in  a  prostrate  condition  from  a  conflict 
with  diemons,  revived  upon  receiving  it  from  Sulpicius, 
bishop  of  the  same  see,  in  644. 

(2)  VeliverancejProtectiony  Succor, — During  the  reign 
of  Justinian  it  was  customary  to  distribute  among  the 
young  children  of  Christian  parents  such  fragments  of 
the  eucharistic  bread  as  remained  after  communion.  By 
accident  a  Jewish  child,  mingling  with  his  Christian 
companions,  received  and  ate  one  of  these  fragments. 
The  father  of  the  boy,  a  glass-blower  by  trade,  was  so 
enraged  that  he  shut  his  son  into  his  furnace,  in  order 
not  only  to  kill  him,  but  to  destroy  all  traces  of  him. 
The  child,  however,  was  saved,  and  the  miracle  resulted 
in  the  conversion  of  the  mother,  who  was  baptized,  to- 
gether with  her  child. 

2.  Mirades  ofPower^  wrought 

(1)  In  Condemnation  of  Immorality,  —  Gregory  of 
Tours  relates  that  as  a  deacon,  a  man  of  unholy  life,  was 
one  day  carrying  the  eucharist  into  a  church,  the  bread 
flew  out  of  his  hands  and  placed  itself  on  the  altar. 

(2)  In  Condemnation  of  Ifereeg, — Certain  members 
of  the  Donatist  sect,  in  token  of  their  contempt  for  the 
Catholics,  once  ordered  the  eucharistic  bread  to  be  giv- 


en to  their  dogs.  Upon  eating  it  the  dogs  went  mad 
and  bit  their  masters.  A  woman  receiving  some  of  the 
eucharistic  bread  of  the  Macedonians,  to  her  alarm 
found  that  it  had  tamed  into  stone. 

Similar  miracles  were  also  wrought  by  holy  bapttsmu 
For  example,  as  related  'by  Augustine,  the  cure  of  a 
surgeon  afflicted  with  the  gout,  and  of  an  actor  having 
paralysis. 

IV.  Wonders  Wrought  by  Pictures  and  Image*, 

1.  Miracles  of  Beneficence, — A  picture  of  the  Yargin 
Mary  at  SozopoUa,  in  Pisidia,  was  wont  to  shed,  at  the 
point  where  the  hand  of  the  Virgin  was  represented,  a 
sweet-smelling  ointment.  The  fact  has  been  aseeited, 
it  is  claimed,  by  many  witnesses.  An  image  of  our 
Lord  on  the  cross,  which  stood  near  the  great  gate  of 
the  imperial  palace  at  Constantinople,  was  supposed  to 
possess  miraculous  virtues,  and,  in  fact,  was  believed  to 
have  wrought  a  cure  of  hemorrhage  similar  to  that  men- 
tioned in  the  gospels. 

The  victories  which  Heracliuswon  over  the  Peruans 
were  attributed  to  the  fact  of  his  carr}*ing  at  the  head 
of  his  legions  images  of  our  Lord  and  the  Virgin  Mary; 
and  the  repulse  of  a  Saracen  army  before  the  walla  of 
Nioosa,  A.D.718,  to  the  possession  by  that  city  of  images 
of  the  saints. 

2.  Miracles  of  Power,— A  Jew  stole  a  picture  of  our 
Lord  from  a  church,  and  in  token  of  his  contempt  and 
hatred  for  the  person  it  represented  transfixed  it  with 
a  dart.  Forthwith  blood  began  to  flow  from  the  pict- 
ure, and  in  such  quantity  that  the  Jew  was  covered 
from  head  to  foot  Thereupon  he  resolved  to  burn  it, 
but  the  blood  it  had  shed  enabled  its  rightful  ownen  to 
trace  and  bring  condign  punishment  upon  the  thieC 

Images  of  the  cross,  as  representatives  of  the  true 
cross,  on  the  same  theory,  came  to  be  regmrded  as  pos- 
sessing the  same  miraculous  powers. 

V.  Wonders  Wrought  by  Cdettial  rut^on/s.— What- 
ever miracles  were  attributed  to  living  saints  were  also 
attributed  to  those  beings  supposed  to  poeeess  the  holy 
qualities,  the  angelic  visitants.  For  example^  St.  Coth- 
bert,  bishop  of  Undisfame,  in  687,  was  cared  of  weak- 
ness in  his  knee  by  an  angel  who  appeared  to  him 
on  horseback ;  and  a  nun  in  a  convent  at  PauviUy,  in 
Normandy,  (»f  au  ulcer  in  her  throat,  after  the  hand  of 
some  invisible  personage  had  been  placed  in  support 
of  her  head,  and  a  vision  had  been  subsequently  ae- 
corded  to  her  of  one  clothed  in  the  white  robes  of  a 
virgin. 

VI.  Wonders  Wrought  Apart  from  HumoM  or  An^ 
gelic  Agency, — Of  this  class  of  wonders,  those  which  sie 
best  attested  are  least  marvellous,  while  those  which 
are  most  miraculous  rest  on  manifestly  insufficient  tes- 
timony. Many  of  them  might  be  looked  upon  as  spe^ 
cial  providences,  others  as  extraordinary  ooincidencei; 
but  at  the  time  of  their  recurrence  they  were  all  looked 
upon  as  interpositions  of  Providence,  intended  to  sup- 
ply the  needs  or  confound  the  enemies  of  the  faithfuL 
Of  these  we  note 

1.  Miraculous  Occurrences, 

(1)  Miracles  of  Beneficence, — A  body  of  Catholics 
living  in  Typasa,  in  Mauritania,  A.D.  484,  lor  the  crime 
of  holding  assemblies  and  refusing  to  communicate  with 
a  heretical  bishop,  had  their  right  bands  ampotated, 
and  their  tongues  cut  out  by  the  roots,  by  order  of  Hnn- 
neric,  the  Arian  king  of  the  Vandals.  But  on  the  third 
day  after  this  occurrence  they  were  able  to  speak  as  b^ 
fore.  At  least  three  of  the  narrators  of  this  miracle^ 
^neas  of  Gaza,  a  rhetorician  and  philosopher,  the  em- 
peror Justinian,  and  count  Marcellinus,  hb  former  dtao- 
cellor— were  witnesses  of  the  mutilaUon  inflicted,  and  of 
the  capacity  of  some  of  these  martyrs  to  articolate  who 
were  living  in  their  time.  Marcellinus  adds  that  one  of 
the  confessors  having  been  bom  dumb,  spoke  for  the 
first  time  after  the  excision  of  his  tongue.  Procopios 
states  that  two  out  of  their  number  lost  their  snpemat- 
nral  power  of  speech  through  having  lapsed  into  evil 
living.    No  contemporary  authority  gives  the  niambci 


WONDERS 


975 


WONDERS 


of  tbe  confeiaort,  but  in  an  old  menology  it  was  stated 
as  sixty. 

When  the  emperor  Marcus  Aarelius  was  waging  war 
against  the  Quadri,  his  troops  suffered  greatly  on  one 
occasion  from  thirst,  owing  to  the  intense  heaL  Among 
his  soldiers  were  many  Christians.  Those  who  belonged 
to  the  Melitene  legion  fell  on  their  knees  in  prayer ;  a 
shower  of  rain  fell,  refreshing  and  invigorating  the  Ro- 
man army,  but  terrifying  and  dispersing  the  enemy,  to 
whom  it  had  been  a  storm  of  thunder  and  lightning. 
The  account  is  sometimes  given  without  any  mention 
of  the  prayers  of  the  Christians,  and  again  the  miracle 
is  attributed  to  the  prayers  of  the  emperor. 

Individuals  are  mentioned  as  having  been  miracu- 
lously protected.  We  may  mention  Theotimns,  bishop 
of  Tomi,  A.D.  400,  who  became  invisible  to  his  pur- 
suers; St.  Martin  of  Tours,  the  arm  of  whose  assailant 
fell  powerless;  Armogastus,  a  young. Catholic  in  Theo- 
doric*8  service,  whose  limbs  were  freed  from  their  bonds 
on  his  signing  the  cross  and  invoicing  Christ. 

(2)  Miracles  of  Power, — As  an  example  of  a  prim- 
itive miracle,  which  rests  upon  ample  testimony,  we 
note  the  fiery  eruption  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
of  Jerusalem.  The  emperor  Julian  had  given  orders 
for  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  having  intrusted  the 
superintendence  of  the  work  to  his  lieutenant,  and  him- 
self issued  invitations  to  the  Jews  of  all  countries  to 
assemble  at  Jerusalem  and  aid  him  in  accomplishing 
his  purpose.  Of  the  marvellous  manner  in  which  the 
work  was  interrupted  and  the  emperor's  designs  thwart- 
ed, we  learn  the  particulars  from  several  writers.  A 
whirlwind  arose,  scattering  heaps  of  lime  and  sand  in 
every  direction ;  a  storm  of  thunder  and  lightning  fell, 
melting  in  its  violence  the  implements  of  tbe  workmen ; 
an  earthquake  followed,  casting  up  the  foundation  of  the 
old  Temple,  filling  in  the  new  excavations,  and  causing 
the  fall  of  buildings,  especially  the  public  porticoes,  be- 
neath which  the  terrified  multitude  had  sought  shel- 
ter. When  the  workmen  resumed  their  labors  balls  of 
flre  burst  out  beneath  their  feet,  not  once  only,  but  as 
often  as  they  attempted  to  continue  the  undertaking. 
The  fiery  mass  traversed  the  streets,  repelling  from  the 
doors  of  a  church,  even  with  the  loss  of  life  or  limb, 
those  who  had  fled  to  it  for  safety.  This  miracle  has 
the  support  of  contemporary  writers,  Gregory  Naztan- 
zen  {OraL  v,  4),  and  Ammianus  Blarcellinus  {HUt. 
xxiii,  1) ;  and  of  later  historians,  Rufinus  {/lisL  i,  87), 
Socrates  (tii,  20),  Sozomen  (v,  22),  Theodoret  (//iff. 
Eeclea.  iii,  20).  See  also  Warburton,  Julian  f  Gibbon, 
Dedme  and  Fall,  c  xxiii;  Newman,  On  Miradea^ 
dxxv;  Migne,  Diet,  de§  Mir,  ii,  1116. 

2.  Miraculous  Appearances,  —  Gibbon  (c  xv)  de- 
clares that  ^*it  is  impossible  to  overlook  the  clear 
traces  of  visions  and  inspirations  which  may  be  found 
in  the  early  fathers.''  The  purport  of  visions  was 
sometimes  to  allay  the  fears,  to  solve  the  doubts,  to 
direct  the  steps  of  those  who  were  in  trouble  or  difii- 
culty,  sometimes  to  forewarn  of  approaching  calamities. 
They  were  not  restricted  in  their  coming  to  any  par- 
ticular sort  of  persons,  but  appeared  to  all.  We  may 
classify  them  into 

(I)  Apparitions  of  Beings, 

(a)  Angds,  —  The  appearances  of  the  archangel 
Michael  were  numerous,  both  in  the  East  and  the 
West.  An  angel  appeared  to  St.  Theuderius,  directing 
him  where  to  erect  his  monastery,  two  angels  to  Fur- 
seius,  A.D.  650,  admonishing  him,  as  abbot  of  a  monas- 
tery, that  monks  should  pay  less  attention  to  the  mor- 
tification of  the  body,  and  more  to  the  cultivation  of  an 
humble,  contented,  and  charitable  disposition. 

(b)  Dcsnums, — ^The  evil  one  appeared  to  St.  Anthony 
in  the  guise  of  a  woman,  then  of  a  black  child ;  as  a 
monk  with  loaves  in  his  hands,  when  the  saint  was 
fasting ;  as  a  spirit  calling  himself  the  power  of  God, 
and,  lastly,  avowing  himself  to  be  Satan. 

(c)  Departed  SpiriU,'-SL  Stephen  appeared,  A.D. 
420,  to  Pulcheria,  sister  of  Theodoeias  II,  informing  her 


of  the  safe  arrival  of  his  relies  (right  hand)  from  Jeni'* 
salem.  St.  Ambrose,  on  the  night,  being  Easter  eve,  on 
which  he  was  laid  out  for  burial,  appeared  to  the  newly 
baptized  infants,  varying  tbe  manner  of  his  appearance, 
but  to  tlie  parents  of  the  children  remaining  invisible, 
even  when  pointed  ont.  Again,  on  the  day  of  his 
death,  he  appeared  to  saints  in  the  East,  praying  with 
them  and  laying  his  hands  on  them,  while  in  Florence 
he  was  frequently  seen  after  his  death,  praying  before 
tbe  akar  of  the  church  he  had  built  in  that  city. 

(d)  Living  Saints, — ^A  child  who  had  fallen  into  a 
well  was  found  sitting  upon  tbe  surface  of  the  water. 
His  account  was  that  St.  Julian  Sabas,  who  at  the  time 
was  entertained  by  the  mother  of  the  child,  had  ap- 
peared to  him  and  borne  him  up.  A  similar  story  is 
given  in  the  life  of  Theodosius  of  Palestine. 

(2)  Visions  of  Purgatory  ^  Hell,  and  l/eaven^—A  vis- 
ion the  martyr  Perpetua  had  of  her  brother,  in  whose 
behalf  she  had  been  led  to  pray,  first  as  suffering  and 
in  a  place  of  darkness,  and  then  as  comforted  and  sur* 
rounded  with  light,  has  been  supposed  to  refer  to  a 
state  of  pui^tory.  As  indicative  of  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked,  an  abbot  in  Auvergne  had  a  vision  of  a 
stream  of  fire,  and  of  men  immersed  in  it,  bitterly  be- 
moaning their  sufferings.  These  had  lost  their  footing 
when  crossing  a  narrow  bridge  which  spanned  the 
stream,  and  were  men  who  had  been  careless  in  the 
discharge  of  their  spiritual  duties  After  this  vision 
the  abbot  became  stricter  in  the  regulation  of  his  mon- 
astery. Visions  of  heaven  were  accorded  among  others 
to  St.  Furseius  and  to  Salvins,  bishop  of  the  Albigenses, 
as  a  place  paved  with  gold  and  silver,  and  illuminated 
by  a  cloud  shining  beyond  the  light  of  sun  or  moon. 

(8)  Apparitions  of  Crosses, 

(a)  In  the  A  ir, — Constantine,  when  marching  against 
Maxentius,  A.D.  811,  and  in  doubt  to  what  deity  he 
should  apply  for  succor  against  an  enemy  whose  forces 
outnumbered  his  own,  saw,  in  company  with  his  whole 
army,  a  luminous  cross  in  the  sky  above  the  mid-day 
sun,  with  this  inscription,  '*In  this  conquer."  The 
same  night  our  Lord  appeared  to  Constantine  in  a  vis- 
ion, showed  him  a  cross,  and  bade  him  fashion  a  stand- 
ard after  the  pattern  of  it  as  a  means  of  victory  in  his 
contest  against  Maxentius.  This  is  the  account  given 
by  Kusebius  in  his  Life  of  Constantine  (i,  28-82),  but 
not  till  twenty-six  years  after  the  occurrence,  and  which 
he  professes  to  have  heard  from  the  emperor  himself, 
who  affirmed  his  statement  with  an  oath.  Socrates, 
Philostorgius,  Gelasius,  snd  Nicephorus  speak  of  the 
phenomenon  as  seen  in  the  sky ;  Sozomen  and  Rufinus 
in  a  dream,  although  on  the  authority  of  Eusebius  they 
also  mention  the  apparition  in  the  sky.  On  the  feast 
of  Pentecost,  May  7, 851,  a  cross  appeared  in  the  sky  at 
Jerusalem,  stretching  from  Mount  Calvary  to  Mount 
Olivet,  and  shining  with  a  brilliancy  equal  to  that  of 
the  sun*s  rays.  The  apparition  lasted  for  several  hours; 
the  whole  city  beheld  it,  and  all,  residents  and  visitors. 
Christians  and  unbelievers,  alike  Joined  in  tbe  acknowl- 
edgment that  *'  the  faith  of  the  Christians  did  not  rest 
upon  the  persuasive  discourses  of  human  wisdom,  but 
upon  the  sensible  proofs  of  divine  intervention."  Of 
this  phenomenon  Cyril,  then  patriarch  of  Jerusalem, 
wrote  an  account  to  the  emperor  Constantius,  who  at 
the  time  was  fighting  against  Maxentius  in  Pannonia, 
where  also,  according  to  Philostorgius  {Hist,  Ecdes,  iii, 
26),  it  was  seen  by  the  contending  armies,  to  the  con- 
fusion of  the  pagan  and  the  encouragement  of  the 
Christian  host.  Several  other  appearances  of  like  char- 
acter are  mentioned. 

(6)  On  the  Garments  of  Men, — We  read  that  when 
the  emperor  Julian  was  entering  lUyricum  the  vines 
appeared  laden  with  unripe  grapes,  although  the  vint- 
age had  taken  place,  and  that  dew  falling  from  them 
on  the  garments  of  the  emperor  and  his  companions 
left  upon  them  tbe  imprint  of  crosses ;  a  phenomenon 
which  by  some  was  supposed  to  portend  that  tbe  em- 
peror should  perish  prematurely,  like  unripe  grapes. 


WOOD 


976 


W00IM3ARRYING 


The  appearance  of  the  laminont  ctom  in  the  aky,  on 
the  occasion  of  Julian's  attempt  to  rebuild  the  Temple, 
was  accompanied  by  the  appearance  on  the  bodies  and 
garments  of  men  of  crosses  which  were  luminous  at 
night,  in  some  instances  of  a  dark  color,  and  would  not 
wash  out. 

(c)  On  Animals,— When  the  emperor  Julian  was  in- 
specting the  entrails  of  an  animal  he  was  offering  in 
sacrifice,  he  beheld  in  them  the  figure  of  a  cross  encir- 
cled by  a  crown.  St,  Placidas,  when  hunting  a  stag, 
beheld  amid  its  horns  a  luminous  cross  and  the  figure 
of  the  Crucified,  and  heard  a  voice  saying,  '*  Why  per- 
secutest  thou  me,  Placidas?  Behold,  I  am  here  on  ac- 
count of  thee.  I  am  Christ  whom  thou,  ignorant  of, 
dost  worship."  St.  Minulphus  also  saw  a  cross  amid 
a  stag's  horns. 

besides  the  foregoing  there  are  many  other  marrels 
mentioned  in  ancient  writings,  but  illustrations  of  the 
leading  classes  have  been  given.  For  the  credibility 
of  such  accounts  see  Miracles,  Egclksiastical. 

For  additional  information  tee  Acta  Sanctorum; 
Acta  SS,  Benedict.;  Newman,  On  Miradet;  Fleury, 
Histoire  EccUs, ;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints;  Gregory  the 
Great,  Dialoffues;  Augustine, De  Civitate  Dei;  Gregory 
of  Tours,  De  Gloria  Martyrum;  Migne,  Diet,  des  Mir. 
and  Patrol  Lot, ;  Sulpicius  Severus,  Life  of  St.  Martin 
of  Tours ;  the  various  Apologia  of  the  fathen,  with 
many  of  their  other  writings ;  and  the  Ecdesiastieal  Uis^ 
tories  of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomen,  Philostorgius, 
Rufinus,  and  Theodoret,  as  well  as  many  of  the  later 
writers  on  the  same  subject 

Wood,  Andrew,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  bishop  of 
the  Isles,  where  he  continued  until  1680,  when  he  was 
translated  to  the  bishopric  of  Caithness.  See  Keith, 
Scottish  Bishops^  p.  218,  810. 

Wood,  Jeremiah,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  at  Greenfield,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  11, 1801.  lie  grad- 
uated from  Uuion  College,  Schenectady,  in  1824 ;  spent 
over  two  years  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminaxy; 
began  his  labors  at  Blayficld,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  26, 1826;  was 
ordained  as  an  evangelist,  Jan.  10, 1828,  and  continued 
bis  work  as  stated  supply  at  Mayfield  until  1840.  He 
was  installed  pastor  at  that  place  in  September,  1841, 
and  continued  to  labor  there  until  bis  death,  June  6,1876. 
Dr.  Wood  was  a  man  of  clear  intellect,  and  of  unusual 
power  in  the  pulpit  and  in 'debate;  a  wise  counsellor, 
deeply  pious,  consistent  in  life,  and  successful  as  a  pas- 
tor. See  Necrol,  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1877, 
p.  20. 

Wood,  N.  N.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
at  Fairfax,  Vt,  May  1,  1808.  He  graduated  from 
Middlebury  College,  in  1885 ;  for  one  year  was  princi- 
pal of  the  Black  River  Academy ;  studied  theology  for 
a  part  of  the  regular  course  at  Madison  University; 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Lebanon  Springs, 
N.  Y.,  in  1888;  in  1842  went  to  Yicksburg,  Miss.;  re- 
signed his  pastorate  in  1845,  and  went  to  Market  Street 
Church,  Zanesville,  O.,  where  he  remained  until  1850, 
when  he  was  called  to  the  presidency  of  Shurtleff  Col- 
lege, Upper  Alton,  111.,  holding  this  office  until  1855. 
For  one  year  after  his  resignation  he  was  pastor  at 
Palmyra,  Mo. ;  then  became  a  chaplain  in  the  Union 
army.  Neanthe  close  of  the  war  he  removed  to  Jack- 
sonville, IlL,  where,  for  several  years,  he  was  professor 
of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  and  logic  in  the  Young 
Ladies*  Athenaeum.  He  died  there,  Jan.  21, 1874.  See 
Minutes  of  Illinois  A  nniversaries,  1874,  p.  16.    (J.  C  S,) 

Woodbridge,  Oeorob,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal divine,  was  bom  in  Massachusetts.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point,  served  a  short  period  in  the  United 
States  army  at  Old  Point,  and  siterwards  at  Fort  In- 
dependence, near  Boston ;  resigned,  and  went  to  Mary- 
land, where  he  edited  a  political  newspaper.  He  sub- 
sequently went  to  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Alex- 
andria, Va.,  graduating  in  1833,  was  ordained  by  bishop 
Moofe,  and  soon  after  was  called  to  the  Mooamcntid 


Chuveh,  Richmond,  where  he  remained  until  hia  death, 
Feb.  14, 1878,  at  the  age  of  aerenty-fonr  yearn 

Wood-oarrying,  The  Fbast  or,  one  of  the  an- 
nual festivals  instituted  after  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
although  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible.    See  Fbstitau 

L  Name  of  the  Festival  and  its  Significance.  —  The 
name  C3*^:c;n  ^ff^^  or  D*^2C9  ^ff\^,  which  Uterally 
denotes  the  wood-offering^  ^vXo^opco,  XghpkoriOf  or  its 
fuller  phrase,  D*^X9  'jSnp  bo  313  D1\  iMefeasi  of 
iBOod^  offering,  19  rAv  KvXofopitsv  ioprii  (Joacphss, 
War,  ii,  17, 6),  by  which  thb  festival  is  designated,  i^ 
derived  from  Neh.  x,  85 ;  xiii,  81.  It  obtained  ita  namt 
from  the  fact  that  on  the  day  in  which  it  was  cele- 
brated all  the  people,  without  any  distinction  of  tribe 
or  grade,  brought  wood  to  the  temple,  being  the  last 
day  in  the  year  whereon  wood  could  be  felled  for  the 
burning  of  the  sacrifices  and  the  perpetoal  fire  on  the 
alUr.  It  is  also  denominated  K^snab  "^rtt  irt,  the 
time  of  wood  for  the  priests  {Megittath  TaanitA,  v),  be- 
cause on  this  festival  the  priests  too,  like  the  rest  of 
the  people,  offered  wood. 

II.  The  Dag,  and  Manner  of  its  CeUbration^Tht 
day  on  which  this  festival  was  annually  celebrated  was 
the  15th  of  ^5  pK^ August).  This  is  distinctly  at- 
tested by  the  nnanimous  voice  of  the  most  mcicot  and 
moat  tmstworthy  records  (oomp.  Mishna,  Taamikt  iv,  8; 
BabgUm  Gemara,  ibid.  80  a;  Baba  Bathra,  121  a ;  Jfe- 
giUath  Taanith,  v;  Midrash  Babba,  on  Lamentations, 
Ivii).  The  remark  in  Josephui^  that  this  festival  was 
celebrated  on  the  14th  (rg  ik  iKiic  rvv  ^uKo^opi^v 
hprric  ovaiic^v  ^  wamv  i^oc  hXtfy  r^  P^t*T  ^P^ 
(TMpciv,  War,  iif  17, 6 ;  and  rg  ik  IC$c«  wssatnicfomii 
ii  ffv  Aktov  fifiv6Ci  c  r.  X.,  ibid,  ii,  17, 7),  moat  tbeieCore 
be  regarded  as  the  error  of  a  oopyiat  (comp»  Heizfeld, 
Gesehichledes  Volkes Israel,  i,  144;  GriUs,  Gtsekiekte  der 
Juden,  2d  ed.  iii,  478).  The  nine  days  in  the  year  a|H 
pointed  for  the  delivery  of  wood  by  the  leapeetiTe  fam- 
ilies were  as  follows:  On  the  20th  o(  Ah,  when  the 
descendants  of  Pachat  Moab  b.  Jehndah  furnished  the 
wood ;  the  20th  ofElul,  the  family  of  Adeen  h.  Jehodah ; 
the  1st  of  Tehetj  the  family  of  Parosh ;  the  Itt  of  Kisam, 
the  family  of  Arab  b.  Jehndah ;  the  20th  of  TVansz,  the 
family  of  David  b.  Jehndah;  the  5th  of  Ah,  tht  family 
of  Parosh  U  Jehudah;  the  7th  o(  Ah,  the  family  of 
Jondab  b*  Bechab ;  the  10th  of  ^1 5^  the  family  of  Scnaa 
b.  Benjamin ;  and  on  the  15th  of  i4  5,  the  famUy  of  Salta 
b.  Jehndah,  with  the  priests,  Levites^  and  all  thoae  who 
did  not  know  from'  what  they  descended,  as  well  as  the 
families  of  Gonbei  All  and  Kozai  Kcxioth  (Mishna, 
Taanith,  iv,  8).  So  general  was  the  delivery  of  wood 
on  this  day  (i.  e.  the  15th  of  Ah)  that  even  proeeiyta, 
slaves,  Nethiuim,  and  bastards  brought  fuel  (MegiUaA 
T€umith,  v).  Hence  the  remark  of  Josephus,  that  on 
this  day  all  the  people  brought  wood,  from  which  cir- 
cumstance it  derived  its  name  (TFor,  ii,  17, 6). 

On  this  day,  when  all  the  people  wen  thae  congre- 
gated together,  discarding  all  distinction  of  tribe,  of 
rich  and  poor,  of  Israelite  and  proselyte,  of  master  and 
slave,  the  maidens  of  Jerusalem  met  together  for  sing- 
ing joyful  and  religious  songs,  and  for  dradog.  Dreaoed 
in  white  garments,  which  they  borrowed  in  order  not 
to  shame  those  who  had  none  of  their  own,  these  dam- 
sels assembled  together  in  an  open  plaee  in  the  vine- 
yards. They  sang  atrophic  songs  in  the  aacred  Ian- 
gnage,  and  danced  in  the  presence  of  the  oongr^ation. 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  happy  choice  <2  part- 
ners in  life  frequently  took  place,  sinoe  it  was  one  of 
the  two  annus!  opportunities  aftuded  to  ibe  yooi^ 
people  of  making  their  atttactiona  known  witboot  vio- 
lating feminine  modesty  (Mishna,  MegiOa,  iv,  8).  Ces- 
sation from  manual  labor  on  this  day  was,  however,  not 
enjoined;  but  fasting,  penitential  piayen^  and  moom- 
ing  for  the  dead  were  fortndden  (M^gUlatk  TtfanAA,  v: 
Maimonides,  Yad  ha,<»maka  JSUekoa  KM  kam-MH' 
dash,  vi). 


WOOD-CARRYING 


977 


WOODHEAD 


III.  Origin  and  Date  of  tkit  FeaUoah-^Tht  origin 
of  this  fesdyal  ib  inyolved  in  great  obecnrity,  aa  the 
ancient  Talmadie  aathoritiea  which  describe  its  cele- 
bration differ  materially  in  their  opinions  about  the 
occasion  which  gave  rise  to  its  institution.  From  Neh. 
z,  85 ;  xiii,  81,  we  learn  that  this  statesman,  in  order  to 
supply  the  necessary  fuel  for  the  burning  of  the  sacri- 
fices and  the  keeping  up  of  the  perpetual  fire  on  the 
altar,  ordained  that  each  family  in  rotation  was  to  furnish 
wood  for  the  temple  at  a  certain  period  of  the  year,  and 
that  the  order  and  time  of  delivery  were  to  be  settled  by 
casting  lots.  The  result  obtained  by  the  casting  of  lots 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  canonical  Scriptures;  but  the 
post -canonical  documents,  which  describe  the  temple 
service,  furnish  us  with  a  minute  account  of  both  the 
names  of  the  respective  families  upon  whom  it  devolved 
to  supply  the  wood,  and  the  periods  of  the  year  in 
which  they  delivered  it.  This  account  is  given  in  the 
preceding  section  of  this  article.  It  is,  therefore,  only 
natural  to  conclude  that  the  different  families  who  are 
thus  recorded  to  have  offered  the  wood  at  appointed 
times  did  so  in  accordance  with  the  results  obtained  by 
the  casting  of  lotsu  Now,  the  reason  why  the  loth  of 
A  b  was  kept  as  a  special  festival,  and  why  all  the  na- 
tion at  large  took  part  in  the  offering  of  wood  on  this 
day,  is,  according  to  some  authorities  in  the  Talmud, 
that  on  it  the  people  ceased  to  fell  wood  for  the  tem- 
ple, because,  according  to  R.  Eliezer  the  Great,  the  heat 
of  the  sun  begins  to  diminish  on  this  day,  and  the  wood 
which  was  cut  after  this  date  did  not  become  suflScient- 
ly  dry.  Hence  the  15th  of  i45  was  designated  *'the 
day  on  which  the  axe  is  broken."  As  it  was  also  be- 
lieved that  the  wood  cut  down  after  the  15th  of  i45  is 
sapless  (Rosh  kaak-Skana,  2  a,  14  a),  Herzfeld  {Geschichte 
da  VoUeet  Israel,  i,  145)  ingeniously  conjectures  that 
the  trees  were  regarded  as  dead  afler  this  date,  and  the 
wood  of  such  trees  was  considered  as  unfit  for  the  altar. 
The  other  ancient  opinion  about  the  origin  of  this  fes- 
tival is,  that  the  furnishing  of  wood  for  the  temple  by 
the  pious,  which  existed  from  time  immemorial,  and 
which  Nehemiah  reinstituted  after  the  return  from 
Babylon,  was  prohibited  by  some  wicked  sovereign^  and 
that  this  interdict  was  abolished  on  the  16th  of  ^46. 
Hence  this  day  was  constituted  a  festival,  and  the  fam- 
ilies who  jeopardized  their  lives  in  stealthily  supplying 
wood  for  the  temple  during  the  time  of  the  prohibition 
are  those  named  above,  who,  as  a  privilege,  continued 
to  bring  some  wood  on  this  festival,  whether  the  fuel 
was  wanted  or  not.  There  is,  howe%;er,  a  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  who  this  wicked  monarch  was.  The  Je- 
rutaUm  Talmud  will  have  it  that  it  was  Jeroboam  who 
placed  guards  on  the  roads  leading  to  the  temple  in 
order  to  prevent  the  people  from  taking  to  the  sanctu- 
ary the  first-fruits  and  the  wood,  and  the  families  of 
Gonbei  AU  and  Kozai  Kesioth,  mentioned  in  the  Mish- 
na,  were  those  who  encountered  the  danger  in  clandes- 
tinely supplying  the  wood  (Jerusalem  TaanUh^  iv,  6). 
The  MtgiUath  Taanith  (cap.  v)  again  has  it  that  this 
interdict  proceeded  from  ^tke  Hnga  of  Grtece"  who 
imitated  the  conduct  of  Jeroboam ;  while  the  BainfUmian 
Talmud  omits  the  dynasty  altogether,  and  simply  re- 
marks that  the  prohibition  emanated  from  tome  gov^ 
eminent  (^Taanith,  28  a).  As  the  reference  to  Jeroboam 
on  the  part  of  the  Jenualem  Talmud  is  simply  to  make 
this  monarch  the  author  of  all  the  wicked  deeds  in 
connection  with  the  Jews,  and  as,  moreover,  the  ascrip- 
tion of  this  deed  in  the  MtgUkUk  Taanith  to  Greek 
rulers  is  unhistorical — since  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  to 
whom  aione  it  could  refer,  totally  abolished  the  temple 
service,  which  rendered  it  useless  to  smuggle  the  first- 
fruits  and  wood— Grtttz  concludes  that  this  prohibition 
could  only  proceed  from  Alexander  JannsBus,  who  forbade 
the  offering  of  wood  out  of  hatred  to  the  Pharisees,  and 
that  then  the  above-named  pious  families  clandestinely 
furnished  the  fuel  When  this  interdict  ceased  with 
the  reign  of  Alexander,  and  the  ancient  custom  of 
wood-offering  was  resumed,  the  oondading  day  for  the 

XIL-Qqq 


delivery  of  it  (oomp.  Tcuanth,  81  a)  obtained  a  higher 
significance,  and  waa  elevated  into  a  national  festival 
(Grtttz,  iii,  477).  It  will  be  seen  from  the  account  of 
the  nature  of  this  festival  that  the  custom  for  all  the 
people  to  bring  large  supplies  of  firewood  for  the  sacri- 
fices of  the  year  could  not  possibly  have  been  designed 
to  relieve  the  Nethinim,  and  that  these  Nethinim  did 
not  bear  a  conspicuous  part  in  it,  as  is  supposed  by 
many. 

IV.  ZAeratore.— Mishna,  Taanith^  iv,  5,  8 ;  the  •/«- 
ruaalem  and  Babylon  Gemaras  on  this  Mishna;  Me^ 
gillath  Taaniih  (ed.Meyer,Amsterdam,  1724),  v, 82-39;. 
Maimonides,  Tad  ha-Chetaka  HUchoth  Kelei  ham^Mik- 
dasht  vi ;  Herzfeld,  Geschickte  des  Volhee  Israel  (Nord- 
hausen,  1855),  i,  67  sq.;  144  sq.;  Joet,  Geschichte  dee 
Judenthums  (Leipsic,  1857),  i,  169;  GrUtz,  Geschichte  der 
Juden  (2d  ed.  ibid.  1868),  p.  122, 477  ff.— Kitto,  s.  v.  See 
Offilbino. 

"Wooden  Churohea.  In  Waloou*s  Sacred  Ar^ 
cheeologg  (p.  614, 615),  the  principal  facts  concerning  the 
wooden  churches  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  a  little  later 
are  given  in  brief. 

**  Nether  Peevor,  bnllt  in  the  time  of  Henry  II ;  a  chapel 
At  Bury  St  Edmund's  until  1803:  St.  Aldhelm's,  Durham, 
99S;  Sc  Stephen's,  Mayeoce,  1011 ;  a  stud  Lady-chapel  at 
T/kford,  and  another  nt  Spalding,  in  1069,  were  all  built 
of  wood,  as  many  of  the  Norwegian  churches  (like  Little 
Qreenatead,  1018:  Newtown,  Montgomeryshire:  and  New- 
land,  Worcesterehlre)  are  to  this  day.  The  latter  may  have 
t>een  a  grange  altered  to  form  a  chnrch.  Ribbesford  has 
wooden  nave-arcades.  The  excellence  of  Bngllsh  carpen- 
try is  conspicaons  in  the  woodwork  preaerved  to  us  in 
roofs,  AS  atPeterboroogh,  Ely.  Old  Shorehom,  Polebrooke, 
Warmlngton,  and  St. Mary's  Hospital  and  the  palacekitch- 
en,  Chichester ;  the  Gneeton-hall,  now  in  a  chnrch,  at  Wor> 
cester ;  and  St  Marr's,  Reading :  doors,  as  at  Beanlien  and 
Lntou ;  cloisters,  like  the  dean's  at  Windsor,  of  the  14th 
centnry;  lychgates,  as  at  Beckenham;  windows,  like  those 
of  Bnglefield :  stalls,  as  at  Lancaster,  and  some  of  early 
Bnsllsh  date  at  Salisbury;  screens,  as  at  St  John's  Hos- 
pital. Winchester,  Roydon,  Bwerby,  the  palace  chapel, 
Chichester,  Lavenham,  and  St.  Margaret's,  Lynn ;  or  early 
stall  desks,  like  one  preserved  at  Rochester,  of  the  IStn 
ceutory.  The  curious  *flsh-scale*  ornament  of  Norman 
splrea  is  an  imitation  of  the  oaken  shingle  so  common  In 
Kent  and  Soseez,  a  clear  proof  that  tnere  were  earlier 
spires  of  wood.  Probably  the  Gothic  stone  spire  was  de- 
rived from  Normandy,  where  the  earliest— the  pyramid  of 
Thann— forms  a  snccesslou  of  steps,  of  the  end  of  the  19th 
century,  and  was  the  prototype  of  Comomes,  Basley,  and 
Rosel.  But  England  never  produced  such  a  grand  exam- 
ple of  ornamental  carpentry  and  lead  as  the  fltehe  of 
Amiens." 

American  churches  and  chapels  from  the  first  have  been 
largely  of  woo<l;  but  the  present  tendency  is  towards 
structures  built  of  more  substantial  material 

Woodford,  Jahe8  Russell,  D.D.,  an  English 
prelkte,  was  born  at  Henley-on-Thames,  April  80, 1820. 
He  graduated  from  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1842;  was  ordained  deacon  in  1843,  and  presbyter  in 
1845 ;  became  incumbent  at  St  Mark^s,  Easton,  near 
Bristol,  in  1847;  vicar  at  Kempsford,  Gloucestershire, 
in  1865;  of  Leeds  in  1868;  bishop  of  Ely  in  1873;  and 
died  Oct  24, 1885.  He  published  several  volumes  of 
sermons,  lectures,  etc. 

Woodhead,  Abraham,  an  English  clergyman, 
and  subsequently  a  Roman  Catholic  controversial  writer, 
was  bom  at  Meltham,  Yorkshire,  in  1608.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  University  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became 
fellow  in  1633,  and  soon  after  entered  into  holy  orders. 
In  1641  he  was  proctor  at  Oxford,  and  about  thia  time 
travelled  on  the  Continent  as  tutor  to  some  young  gen- 
tlemen of  distinction.  While  at  Rome  he  became*  a 
secret  convert  to  the  Catholic  religion.  In  1648  he  was 
deprived  of  his  fellowship  for  absence,  but  was  reinstated 
at  the  Restoration  in  1660.  Finding  it  impossible  to 
conform,  however,  be  obtained  leave  to  travel  with  an 
allowance  of  £20,  on  which  he  lived  in  concealment, 
teaching  Roman  Catholic  pupils  and  writing  controver- 
sial books,  at  Hoxton,  near  London,  until  his  death, 
May  4, 1678.  He  was  considered  one  of  the  ablest  con- 
troversial writers,  on  the  popish  side,  of  his  time,  and 
his  abilities  and  candor  have  been  commended  by  some 


WOODLAND 


978 


WOOLLEN  AND  LINEN 


ProtetUmt  writers.  Among  his  pablications  we  note, 
Brirf  Account  of  Ancient  Church  Giwemment  (1662)  :— 
Guide  in  Cantroverties,  in  IV  Ditcourtet  (1666):— Z>r. 
SiUtias/keee  Prmdpke  (1671) :— L(/e  of  St.  Terexa^from 
the  Spanish  (eod,)  i—Pcaraphrate  of  the  ApoeaX^pte 
(1692):— rim>  Diicounee  Concerning  the  Adoration  of 
our  Bleteed  Satnour  in  the  Euchariet  (1687)  i— Of  Faith 
Neceuary  to  Salvation,  etc.  (1688):—^  Compendious 
Discourse  on  the  Eucharist,  etc  (eod,):— Motives  to  Holy 
Lunng  (eod.)  \—Catholick  Theses  (1689) :— and  Concemr 
ing  Images  and  Idolatry  (eod.).  See  Ghalmen,  Biog. 
I}ict,B,v, 

Woodland  (D'^'n^*],  "  forests  ">  The  groves  of 
Pilestine,  inhabited  by  wild  and  even  rapacious  animals 
(2  Kings  ii,  24 ;  Jer.  y,  6 ;  xii,  8 ;  Amos  iii,  4,  etc),  were, 
especially  before  the  cultiTation  of  the  soil  by  the  Israel- 
ites, not  inconsiderable,  but  not  adequate  to  supply  tim- 
ber, much  less  fuel.  See  Wood.  In  the  Mosaic  law 
there  is  reference  to  forests  and  their  employment  (Deut. 
xix,  5),  and  conflagrations  in  them  are  occasionally 
noticed  (Psa.  Ixxxiii,  15 ;  Isa.  ix,  17 ;  comp.  Jer.  xxi, 
14 ;  James  iii,  6).  Several  tracts  of  woodland  are  enu- 
merated in  the  Bible  (Reland,  PaUest,  p.  878  sq.;  Ha- 
mesveld,  i,  486  sq.).    See  Fobbst. 

'Woodxnfl^  Gboror  W.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  in  New  York  city,  April  21, 1824. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of  that  city  and 
at  Oberlin,  O.;  joined  the  New  York  Conference  in  1845, 
,was  ordained  deacon  in  1847,  and  elder  in  1849.  His 
successive  appointments  were:  Greenport,  Riverhead, 
Flatbush,L.L;  New  Britain,  West  Winsted, Conn.;  Tork 
Street,  Brooklyn,N.Y,;Danbniy,ComDL;  St  John  Street, 
New  Haven;  Middletown;  Waterbory;  Hanson  Place, 
Brooklyn;  Seventh  Street,  Alanson  Church,  New  York 
dty;  First  Church,  New  Haven;  New  BocheUe,  N.  Y.; 
in  1874  superannuated;  St  Paul's,  Fall  River,  Mass^  Allen 
Street,  New  York  city;  Nostrand  Avenue,  Brooklyn;  in 
1881  supernumerary.  He  was  secretary  of  the  New  York 
East  Conference  fourteen  consecutive  years,  and  was 
delegate  to  the  General  Conference  four  times,  of  which 
body  he  was  three  times  secretary.  He  died  March  20, 
1882.  He  was  an  able  and  effective  preacher,  a  good 
pastor,  and  a  zealous  counsellor.  See  Minuies  of  A  nnual 
Coiferenoesj  1882,  p.  77. 

'Woodworth,  Fbakcib  C,  a  Presbyterian  minister 
and  author,  was  bom  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  Febb  12, 1818. 
He  served  eight  years  as  a  printer;  was  educated  at^ 
Oneida  Institute,  N.  Y.,  graduated  at  Union  Theological 
Seminary  in  1840,  was  licensed  by  the  Third  Presbjrtery 
of  New  York,  April  26  of  that  year,  and  ordained  as  pas- 
tor of  the  Congregational  Church,  Fairbaven,y  t,  on  the 
28th  of  October.  Here  he  labored  three  years,  and  then 
resigned,  on  the  failure  of  his  health,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  juvenile  literature,  in  which  department  he  ao- 
qoired  a  wide  reputation.  He  died  June  5,  1859,  on 
board  a  steamer,  at  the  wharf  in  New  York,  just  arrived 
from  Florida.  He  published.  Uncle  Frank^s  Home  Stories 
(6  vols,  lemo):— Unde  Franl?s  Boy^  and  Girls'  Library 
(6  vols.  16mo)  i—Unde  Frames  Picture  Gallery  (2  vols. 
16mo) :— Theodore  Thinker's  Stories  for  IMUe  Folks  (12 
vols.  18mo).  He  also  published  in  England,  England  as 
It  Is  {ISmoy.—Scotlandas  It  Is  (18mo):— 7A€  World  as 
It  Is  (2  vols.  18moy,— Youth's  Book  of  Gems  (8vo):— 
Young  American's  Life  of  Fremont  (1856,  18mo):— 
Unde  Frank's  Pleasant  Pages  for  the  Fireside  (1857, 
12mo):— il  Wheat-sheqffrom  Our  Own  Fields  (16mo; 
republished  as  Buds  and  Blossoms  from  Our  Own  Gar- 
dm,  16mo):  —  String  of  Pearls  for  Boys  and  Girls 
(16mo): — American  Miscellany  of  Entertaining  JTmno^* 
edge  (6  vols.  12mo),  which  is  warmly  commended:— 
Youth's  Cabinet^  and  Unde  Franks  DoUar  Magazine,  of 
which  he  edited  about  fifteen  volumes,  and  which  made 
his  name  a  familiar  sound  in  many  househoMs.  See 
Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  1861,  p.  168;  Allibone, 
DicL  of  Brit,  and  Amer,  A  uthors,  %  v. 

Woof  p^9, 4reb,  mixture,  M  Bometinies  leodered), 


the  cross-threads  inserted  into  the  warp  in  weavfaig 
(Lev.xiii,48-^).    See  Wbb. 

Woog;  Carl  Chrxstoph,  a  Grerman  linguist,  was 
bora  in  1713  at  Dresden,  and  died  as  professor  of  Greek 
and  Latin  at  Leipsic,  April  24, 1771.  He  is  the  author 
of,  Pretbyteror,  et  Diaconor.  Achaia  de  Martyrio  S. 
Andrea  Epistola  Encydica  (Leipsic,  1749)  *. — Progr,  de 
Genuinis  A  ntiquitatum  Sacrar,  in  Primitiva  Kcdaia 
Obviar.  Fontib,  (ibid.  1745):  — //tstonb/a  de  Synesio 
Episc  et  Evagrio  PhUos,  (ibid.  1758)  i^Hippofyti  Fraff- 
mentum  ad  Prov,  ix,  1-5  (ibid.  1762).  See  Furst,  sii 
Jud,  iii,  586 ;  Winer,  ffandbuch  dor  theoL  LiL  \,  566,  606, 
900.     (RP.) 

ll7ool  (Gr.  fpiov,  Heb.  ix,  19;  Rev.  i,  4).  The  fleece 
of  the  sheep,  as  such,  was  properly  called  H  or  rUf, 
while  the  material  of  which  it  was  composed  waa  called 
^'&1 ;  hence  *^pSil  Hia,  a  fleece  of  wool  (Jodg.  vi,  97). 
Wool  was  used  by  the  Hebrews  from  an  early  period 
extensively  for  clothing  (Lev.  xiii,  47 ;  Deut  xxii,  U; 
Job  xxxi,  20 ;  Prov.  xxxi,  18 ;  Ezek.  xxxiv,  8 ;  Hoe.  ii. 
5). — Ritto,  s.  V.  The  importance  of  wool  is  incidentally 
shown  by  the  notice  that  Mesha*s  tribute  was  paid  in  a 
certain  number  of  rams  *'with  the  wool^  (2  Kings  iii, 
4),  as  well  as  by  its  being  specified  among  the  fint- 
fruits  to  be  offered  to  the  priests  (Deut  xviii,  4).  llie 
wool  of  Damascus  was  highly  prized  in  the  mart  of 
Tyre  (Ezra  xxvii,  18),  and  is  compared  in  the  Sept  to 
the  wool  of  Miletus  (cpta  Ik  M(X»/?-ot>),  the  fame  of 
which  was  widely  spread  in  the  ancient  world  (Pliov 
viu,  78 ;  Virgil,  Georg,  iii,  806 ;  iv,  834).  Wool  is  ocea- 
sionally  cited  as  an  image  of  purity  and  brilliancy  (Im. 
i,  18 ;  Dan.  vii,  9 ;  Rev.  i,  14),  and  the  flakes  of  soow 
are  appropriately  likened  to  it  (Psa.  cxivii,  16).  The  ait 
of  dying  it  was  understood  by  the  Jews  (Mishna,  Shak 
1,  §  6). — Smith,  s.  v.    See  Subkp;  Woollen. 

"Woollen  AND  LnncN  (L  e.  Unsey-woolseyy,  Among 
the  Mosaic  laws  against  unnatural  mixtures  is  found  one 
to  this  effect,  ^  A  garment  of  mixtarea  (Yas$  t3,  Aaaima) 
shall  not  come  upon  thee**  (Lev.  xix,  19);  or,  as  it  it 
expressed  in  Deut  xxii,  11,  '^  thou  shalt  not  wear  shaat- 
nh,  wool  and  flax  together.**  Our  version,  by  the  help 
of  the  latter  passage,  has  rendered  the  strange  wotd 
shaalnie  in  the  former, ''of  linen  and  woollen ;"  while 
in  Deuteronomy  it  is  translated  **  a  garment  of  divcis 
sorts.**  In  the  Vulgate  the  difficulty  is  avoided;  and 
irt/3^i|Xoc, ''spurious**  or  " comiterfeit,"  the  rendering 
of  the  Sept,,  is  wanting  in  precision.  In  the  Targmn 
of  Onkelos  the  same  word  remains,  with  a  slight  modi- 
fication to  adapt  it  to  the  Chaldee;  but  in  the  Feshito- 
Syriac  of  Leviticus  it  is  rendered  by  an  adjective. 
'^ motley,** and  in  Deuteronomy  a  "motley  garment,*' 
corresponding  in  some  degree  to  the  Samaritan  veision, 
which  has  **  spotted  like  a  leopard.**  Two  things  only 
appear  to  be  certain  abont  shaatnh — that  it  la  a  foreign 
word,  and  that  its  origin  has  not  at  present  been  traced. 
Its  signification  is  sufficiently  defined  in  Dent  xxii,  IL 
The  derivation  given  in  the  Hishna  (ATtZam,  ix,  6), 
which  makes  it  a  compound  of  three  words,  signifying 
^  carded,  spun,  and  twisted,**  is  in  keeping  with  rabbin- 
ical etymologies  generally.  Other  etynx>k>gies  are  pro- 
posed by  Bochart  (  Hierot,  pt  1,  b.  2,  c  45),  Simonis 
\Iax,  //eft.),  and  Pfeiffer  (^Dub.  Vex.  cent  2,  loe.  xi). 
The  last-mentioned  writer  defended  the  Egsrptian  origin 
of  the  word,  but  his  knowledge  of  Coptic,  aeooiding  to 
Jablonski,  extended  not  much  beyond  the  lettcn,  and 
little  value,  therefore,  is  to  be  attached  to  the  solocion 
which  he  proposed  for  the-  difilculty.  Jablonski  him- 
self favors  the  suggestion  of  Forster,  that  a  garment  of 
linen  and  wooUen  was  called  by  the  Egyptians  MpwtHM,, 
and  that  this  word  wo  borrowed  by  the  Hebffewa»  and 
written  by  them  in  the  form  shaafnh  (Opsiee,  i,  29^. 
SeeLtMKX. 

The  reason  given  by  Joeephua  {AwLir,  8, 11)  te  the 
law  which  prohibited  the  wearing  n  ganneot  wown  ef 
Uoen  and  wooUeo  is,  that  audh  w«ie  worn  by  the 


WOOLSTON 


079 


WORD  OP  GOD 


alone  (see  Uishna,  KUaun^  ix,  1).  Of  thiB  kind  wen 
the  girdle  (of  which  Joeephus  atys  the  wtrp  was  en- 
tirely linen,  AtiL  iii,  7,  2), ephod,  and  bmastplate  (Brao- 
nios,  De  Vett,  Sac  IJebr,  p.  110,  111)  of  the  high-prieat, 
and  the  girdle  of  the  common  prieatB  (Maimonides,  Cele 
ham'Mibdashy  cviii).  Spencer  conjectured  that  the 
lue  of  woollen  and  linen  inwoven  in  the  same  garment 
prevailed  among  the  ancient  Zabti,  and  was  associated 
with  their  idolatrous  ceremonies  {De  Leg,  ffeb,  ii,  83, 8)  \ 
but  that  it  was  permitted  to  the  Hebrew  priests,  be- 
cause with  them  it  could  give  rise  to  no  suspicion 
of  idolatry.  Maimonides  found  in  the  booka  of  the 
Zabii  that  **  the  priests  of  the  idolaters  clothed  them- 
selves with  robes  of  linen  and  woollen  mixed  together" 
(Townley,  Reason*  of  the  Iaubs  o/ Moses,  p.  207).  By 
''wool"  the  Talmudists  understood  the  wool  of  sheep 
(Mishna,  KUaim,  ix,  1).  It  is  evident  from  Zeph.  i,  8, 
that  the  adoption  of  a  particular  dress  was  an  indication 
of  idolatrous  tendencies,  and  there  may  be  therefore 
some  truth  in  the  explanation  of  Maimonides. — Smith, 
e.  V.    See  Divkbse. 

'Woolston,  Thomas,  an  English  divine,  who  was 
noted  in  his  day  for  the  boldness  of  his  opinions,  was 
bom  at  Northampton  in  1669.  He  received  the  proper 
training  in  the  grammar-school,  and  entered  Sidney  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1685,  where  be  subsequently  gradu- 
ated, and  became  fellow  of  his  college.  He  was  prose- 
cuted before  lord  chief-justice  Kaymond  for  the  views 
advanced  in  his  Discourses  on  (he  Miracles  of  Our 
Saviour^  and  sentenced  to  a  year's  imprisonment  and  a 
fine  of  £100.  He  purchased  the  liberty  of  the  rules  of 
the  King^s  Bench,  where  he  continued  after  the  expira- 
tion of  the  year,  being  unable  to  pajr  the  fine.  Efforts 
were  made  for  his  release,  but  were  unsuccessful,  because 
he  refused  to  desist  from  oflTensive  writings.  He  died 
in  the  bounds  of  King's  Bench  prison,  Jan.  27,  1732. 
Among  his  principal  writings  are  the  following:  The 
Old  Apology  for  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion 
against  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  Revived  (1705) : — Disser- 
tatio  de  PontU  PiloH  ad  Tiberium  Epistola  (1720)  :— 
A  Free  Gift  to  the  Clergy,  in  Four  Parts  (1722-24):— 
Moderator  Between  an  Infidel  and  an  Apostate  (1725) : 
— Six  Discourses  on  (he  Mirades  of  Our  Saviour  (1727- 
29) : — Defence  of  the  Six  Discourses  an  the  Miracles  of 
Our  Saviour  (1729-80).    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Woroester,  Councils  of  (Concilium  Vigomiense), 
Worcester  is  a  city  of  England,  capital  of  the  county 
of  the  same  name,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sev- 
ern, twenty-five  miles  south-west  of  Birmingham.  Un- 
der the  name  Caer  Guorangon,  it  was  one  of  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  the  ancient  Britons.  Two  ecclesiastical 
councils  have  been  held  there,  as  follows : 

I.  Was  held  about  601,  by  St.  Austin,  in  which  he 
endeavored,  ineffectually,  to  persuade  the  bishops  of 
the  British  Church  to  observe  the  festival  of  Easter, 
to  administer  baptism  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
Latin  Church,  and  to  yield  obedience  to  the  Church  of 
Rome.    See  Mansi,  CondL  v,  1610 ;  Wilkins,  ConaL  i,  24. 

II.  Was  held  July  26, 1240,  by  the  bishop  Walter  of 
Chaoteloup.  Fifty-nine  constitutions  were  published, 
which,  among  other  things,  enjoin  to  baptize  condition- 
ally in  doubtful  cases,  but  always  with  trine  immersion. 
Forbids  to  celebrate  mass  before  having  said  prime,  to 
plight  troth  except  when  fasting,  and  te  obser^'o  any 
particular  day  or  month  for  marriage.  It  is  also  or- 
dered that  any  person  desiring  to  confess  to  any  other 
than  his  own  priest,  shall  first  modestly  ask  permission 
of  the  latter.  See  MansL  ConciL  xi,  572 ;  Wilkins,  Con- 
ciL  i,  665. 

Word  is  in  Hebrew  (^3>i)  often  put  for  thing  or 
matter;  as  Exod.  ii,  14,  ^ Surely  this  thing  [Heb. word] 
is  known;"  '* To-morrow  the  Lord  shall  do  this  thing 
{Heb.  word]  in  the  land"  (ix,  5) ;  « I  will  do  a  thing 
[Ueb.  word]  m  Israel,  at  which  both  the  ears  of  every 
one  that  heareth  it  shall  tingle  "  (1  Sam.  iii,  11) ;  *'  And 
the  rest  of  the  acts  [Heb.  words']  of  Sotomon"  (1  Kings  | 


zi,  41).  So  likewise  the  Gr.  p^fia,  which  properly  rig- 
nifies  an  utterance,  came  to  denote  any  sensible  object 
or  ooeurrtnee. 

WORDoF(jOD,or,oPTHKLoitx>.  Sometimes  Script- 
ure ascribes  to  the  word  of  God  supernatural  effects ;  or 
represents  it  as  animated  and  active.  So,  *''  He  sent  his 
word,  and  healed  them  "  (Pta.  cvii,  20) .  Enlarging  upon 
this  idea,  the  apocryphal  book  of  Wisdom  ascribes  to  the 
word  of  God  the  death  of  the  first-born  of  Egypt  (xviii, 
15;  xvi,  26;  ix,  1;  xvi,  12) ;  the  miraculous  effects  of 
the  manna;  the  creation  of  the  world;  the  healing  of 
those  who  looked  up  to  the  braxen  serpent.  In  a  sim* 
ilar  sepse  of  omnific  power  the  centurion  in  the  gospel 
says  to  our  Saviour,  ^  Speak  the  word  only,  and  my  ser^ 
vant  shall  be  healed**  (Matt,  viii,  8).  Referring  to  the 
preserving  influence  of  divine  truth,  Christ  says  to  the 
devil  that  tempted  him,  "  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread 
alone,  but  by  eveiy  word  that  prooeedeth  out  of  the 
mouth  of  God  "  (iv,  4). 

From  these  and  other  passages  we  see  that  the  phrase 
*"  word  of  God  '*  or  *'  of  the  Lord  "  is  taken  (1)  for  that 
internal  word  heard  by  the  prophets,  when  under  in- 
spiration from  God ;  (2)  for  that  which  they  heard  ex- 
ternally, when  God  spoke  to  them ;  as  when  he  spoke 
to  Moses,  face  to  face,  or  as  one  friend  speaks  to  another 
(Exod.  xxxiii,  11) ;  (8)  for  that  word  which  the  minis- 
ters of  God,  the  priests,  the  apostles,  the  servanto  of 
God,  declare  in  his  name  to  the  people;  (4)  for  what  is 
written  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tests. ; 
(5)  for  the  only  Son  of  the  Father,  the  uncreated  wjc- 
dom.  For  the  first  four  of  these,  see  Biblx;  the  last 
only  we  propose  to  discuss  here. 

I.  The  lA>gos  (o  Aoyoc)  is  the  name  given  to  the  di- 
vine or  pre-existent  nature  of  Christ,  designating  him 
as  the  great  medium  of  communication  between  God 
and  man  (John  i,  1, 14 ;  1  John  i,  1;  v,  7;  Rev.  xix, 
13 ;  comp.  Heb.  iv,  12).  This  remarkable  usage  of  the 
term  word,  as  designating  not  a  mere  attribute,  but  a 
hypostasisin  some  respects  diverse  from  God,  yet  at  the 
same  time  God  himself,  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  poetical  personification  of  "  wisdom," 
in  Prov.  viii,  12, 22;  nor  from  the  apocryphal  books  of 
Wisilom,  vii,  22-26 ;  and  of  Ecdesiasticus,  i,  1-10 ;  xxiv, 
1-14.  Even  the  Logos  of  Plato,  and  that  of  Philo,  is 
no  more  than  an  abstraction  or  personification  of  divine 
power,  intelligence,  and  wisdom.  As  John  has  united 
the  idea  of  proper  personality  with  his  designation  of 
the  Logos,  it  is  certain  that  he  could  not  have  derived 
his  views  from  any  of  those  writers.  There  is  an  im- 
measurable discrepancy  between  the  views  of  John  and 
those  of  Plato  and  the  Jewish  writers.  If  the  Logos  of 
John  be  the  same  as  theirs,  then  proper  personality 
and  divinity  are  out  of  the  question.  But  from  the 
passages  cited  it  is  evident  that  the  Logos  of  the  New 
Test,  is  a  proper  and  real  person,  not  a  mere  personifi- 
cation, i.  e.  a  philosophical,  speculative,  or  poetical  ab- 
straction, amounting  to  nothing  more  than  a  poetico- 
rhetorical  method  of  describing  either  divine  attributes- 
or  divine  operations  or  energies.  In  the  prologue  to 
the  gospel  of  John,  the  original  state  or  condition  of  the 
Logos,  and  his  essential  nature,  are  first  described;  and 
then  the  developments  of  himself,  which  had  been  made 
either  in  the  way  of  creation  or  redemption.  He  is 
eternal;  was  with  God ;  was  God.  As  such  he  was  the 
Creator  of  all  things  without  exception.  In  particular, 
he  was  the  source  of  all  life ;  and  as  the  author  of  spir- 
itual life,  he  was  the  source  also  of  all  true  spiritual 
light  (1  Cor.  viii,  6;  CoL  i,  15-19;  Heb.  i,  2,  8).  See 
Fulness. 

How  God  communed  with  the  first  human  pair  in 
the  innocence  of  Eden  we  know  not;  but  after  the 
first  transgression  his  communings  were  in  a  different 
mode,  and  adapted  to  man  in  his  altered  circumstances. 
The  Logos  was  God  reveafed— communicating  with  bii 
creatures,  and  disclosing  to  them  the  way  of  salratioo* 
The  various  divine  revelations  to  the  patriarchs,  and  to 
othen  under  the  law,  whether  as  the  angel  Jehovah,  or 


WORD  OF  GOD 


980 


WORD  OP  GOD 


otherwise  in  visions,  voices,  and  symbol?,  were  revela- 
tions b}^the  Logos.  So,  in  the  tabernacle,  God  of  old 
dwelt,  and  the  skekinah,  as  significant  of  the  abiding 
divine  glorj  over  the  mercy-seat,  was  the  symbol  of  bis 
presence  among  his  people.  So  also  in  the  theophany 
described  in  Isa.  iv,  1*18,  we  learn  something  of  the 
glory  of  the  Logos  before  he  became  incaniate  (John  i, 
14 ;  xii,  41 ;  xvii,  5).  Jehovah  was  indeed  revealed  in 
many  respects,  in  the  Old  Test.;  but  God  as  Father, and 
Christ  as  Son  and  Redeemer,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  as 
Sanctifler,  were,  to  say  the  roost,  only  foreshadowed  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  It  is  the  Logos  manifested  in 
the  flesh,  Christ  the  Son  of  God,  who  hath  revealed  God, 
i.  e.  placed  the  character  and  designs  of  God  in  the  light 
that  the  gospel  affords.  His  light  shone  on  the  dark- 
ness of  all  the  ages  which  preceded  bis  coming;  bat 
this  darkness  was  so  gross  that  little  impression  was 
made  upon  it.  In  order  to  save  the  world  from  its  ruin- 
ous sute,  the  Logos  became  incarnate,  i.  e.  took  on  him 
the  human  form  and  nature,  and  thus  dwelt  among  men, 
and  manifested  his  glory,  which  was  tnily  that  of  the 
Only  Begotten  of  the  Father.  Neither  Moses  nor  any 
other  prophet  ever  understood  and  disclosed  the  char- 
acter and  designs  of  God  in  such  a  way  as  was  adequate 
to  accomplish  the  plan  of  our  redemption.  But  he  who 
is  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father  exhibited  grace  and  re- 
vealed truth  in  such  a  way  as  fully  to  satisfy  our  wants 
and  alleviate  our  woes.    See  Loooa. 

IL  The  Memrd  (M';)13'iiQ).— The  Chaldee  paraphrasts, 
the  most  ancient  Jewish  uncanooical  writers  extant,  gen- 
erally use  this  name  (signifying  word)  where  Moses  puts 
Jehorahj  and  it  is  thought  that  under  this  term  they 
allude  to  the  Son  of  God.  Now,  their  testimony  is  so 
much  the  more  considerable,  as,  having  lived  before  or 
at  the  time  of  Christ,  they  are  irrefragable  witnesses  of 
the  sentiments  of  their  nation  on  this  article,  since  their 
Targum,  or  explication,  has  always  been,  and  still  is, 
in  universal  esteem  among  them.  In  tlie  greater  part 
of  the  passages  where  the  sacred  name  occurs,  these 
paraphrasts  substitute  Memra  Jehovah  p''*!  K*1C53), 
the  Word  of  God,  and  as  they  ascribe  to  Memra  all  the 
attributes  of  deity,  it  is  concluded  that  they  believed 
the  divinity  of  the  Word.  In  effect,  according  to  them, 
Memra  created  the  world;  appeared  to  Abraham  in 
the  plain  of  Mamre,  and  to  Jacob  at  Bethel.  It  was  to 
Memra  Jacob  appealed  to  witness  the  covenant  between 
him  and  Laban :  *'  Let  the  Word  see  between  thee  and 
me."  The  same  Word  appeared  to  Moses  at  Sinsi, 
gave  the  law  to  Israel,  spoke  face  to  face  with  that 
lawgiver,  marched  at  the  head  of  that  people,  enabled 
them  to  conquer  nations,  and  was  a  consuming  fire 
to  all  who  violated  the  law  of  the  Lord.  All  these 
characters,  where  the  paraphrasts  use  the  word  Mem- 
ra, clearly  denote  Almighty  Go<1.  This  Word,  there- 
fore, was  God,  and  the  Hebrews  were  of  this  opinion 
at  the  time  when  the  Targum  was  composed.  See 
Shkkinaii. 

The  author  of  the  book  of  Wisdom,  as  above  observed, 
expresses  himself  much  in  the  same  manner.  He  says 
that  God  created  all  things  by  his  Word  (Wisd.  ix,  1) ; 
that  it  is  not  what  the  earth  produces  that  feeds  man,  but 
the  Word  of  the  Almighty  that  supports  him  (xvi,  26). 
It  was  this  Word  that  fed  the  Israelites  in  the  desert, 
healed  them  after  the  biting  of  the  serpents  (ver.  12), 
and  who,  by  his  power,  destroyed  the  first-born  of  the 
Egyptians  (xviii,  15;  see  Exod.  xii,  29,  30),  and  by 
which  Aaron  stopped  the  fury  of  ilic  fire  that  was 
kindled  in  the  camp,  which  threatened  the  destruction 
of  all  Israel  (  Wisd.  xviii,  22 ;  see  Numb,  xvi,  46  ). — 
Calmet,  s.  v.    See  Wisdom  Pkiisonifikd. 

in.  TheBath'Kol(b>\p  T^2,ditughter  of  the  voice). — 
Under  this  name  the  Talmud,  the  later  Targums,  and 
the  rabbinical  writen  make  frequent  mention  of  a  kind 
of  oracular  voice,  constituting  the  fourth  grade  of  rev- 
elation,, which,  although  it  was  an  instrument  of  divine 
communication  throughout  the  early  history  of  the 


Israelites,  was  the  most  prominent,  because  the  sole, 
prophetic  manifestation  which  existed  during  (and 
even  after)  the  period  of  the  second  temple.  The 
Midrtuhim  and  the  Gemara,  cited  in  Reland's  Antig. 
Saer,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ix,  severally  affirm  that  the  Bath-Kol 
is  the  voice  which  spoke  to  Abraham,  Moeee,  David^ 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  othera ;  and  the  Targums  of  Jona- 
than and  of  Jemsalem  make  the  Bath-Kol  appear  in 
Gen.  xxxviii,  26 ;  Numbb  xxi,  6,  and  in  other  places 
The  treatise  Sanhedrm^  cited  in  Vitringa*s  Ob$er.  Sacr, 
ii,  d88,  uses  the  words,  ''From  the  death  of  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  the  Holy  Spirit  (dlpM  TT\^, 
which,  according  to  the  Jewish  distinction,  is  only  the 
second  degree  of  the  prophetical  gift)  was  withdrawn 
from  Israel ;  but  they  nevertheless  enjoyed  the  use  of 
the  Bath-Kol." 

The  Jewish  authorities  are  not  agreed  as  to  what  the 
Bath-Kol  M'as,  nor  as  to  the  precise  reason  of  its  desig- 
nation. It  is  disputed  whether  the  persons  hearing 
the  Bath  -  Kol  heard  the  very  voice  from  heaven,  or 
only  a  daughter  of  it — an  echo  of  it ;  whether,  as  thun- 
der is  often  mentioned  as  a  sign  of  the  divine  presence, 
and  as  the  word  voice  appears  to  be  nsed  for  thonder  in 
Exod.  ix,  28;  Jer.  x,  18;  Psa.  xxix,3,  the  Bath-Kol 
may  not  signify  an  articulate  voice  proceeding  out  of 
the  thunder;  or  whether,  according  to  the  explanation 
of  Maimonides,  *'  the  Bath-Kol  is  when  a  man  has  snch 
a  strong  imagination  that  he  believes  he  bean  a  vmoe 
from  without  himself." 

As  to  the  meaning  of  th^  name  itself,  passages  are 
cited  in  Buxtorf 's  Lex,  Talm.  s.  v.  TS,  and  in  Reiand*a 
Antiq,  Sacr,  loc.  ciL,  which  show  that  the  daughter  of 
the  voice  sometimes  means  the  echo  of  a  sound,  and 
sometimes  merely  a  primary  sound  itself.  It  Is  certain 
that  the  Pethito  has  sometimes  rendered  the  simple 
(ireek  ^inv^  by  "  daughter  of  the  voice,"  as  in  Acts  xii, 
22;  1  Tim.  vi,  20;  Heb.  iii,  15.  It  is  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  remark  that,  according  to  a  fundamental  law 
of  all  Syro- Arabian  grammar,  these  two  words  mti»t 
either  stand  to  each  other  in  the  relation  of  appoiition 
or  of  the  ttate  conttruct.  But  as  apposition  can  only 
take  place  between  equivalent  and  convertible  tenna, 
which  "daughter"  and  ''voice"  are  not,  accordingly 
the  alternative  rendering  of  daughter  voice  proposed  by 
Priileaux  (which  Home  also  has  adopted,  Introdmct. 
iv,  149)  violates  that  rule,  because,  in  such  an  English 
combination,  the  word  "daughter"  has  the  force  of  an 
adjective ;  and  the  Hebrew  language,  possessing  bat  few 
adjectives,  would  have  expressed  the  sense  of  dav^er 
voice  (if  that  had  been  the  sense  intended  to  be  con- 
veyed by  Bath-Kol)  by  making  Bath  the  UtH  word, 
depending  as  a  genitive  on  the  former.  For  instance, 
what  we  render  the  Holy  Spirit  is  literally  "  the  spirit  of 
holiness  "  in  Hebrew.  Thus, "  davghier  voice  "  is  not  an 
apposition  in  English,  nor  is  it  the  translation  of  a  state 
construct  according  to  the  Hebrew  order,  but  of  a  state 
construct  in  which  Prideaux  has  taken  the  liberty  of 
transposing  the  dependent  word,  L  e.  of  making  "  daugh- 
ter of  the  voice  "  become,  in  effect,  "  voice  of  a  daugh- 
ter." Jennings  also,  in  his  Jewish  Antiq,  p.  229,  when 
he  renders  Bath-Kol  by  **fiim  vox^  teujilia  rocu,"only 
commits,  in  the  first  case,  the  same  error  more  palpa- 
bly, and  is  guilty  of  quite  as  great  a  violation  of  the 
first  principle  of  Hebrew  grammar  as  he  would  be,  in 
the  case  of  Latin,  were  he  to  translate  JUia  rod*  by 
**  voice  of  the  daughter.** 

The  occasions  on  which  St  is  alleged  that  the  Bath- 
Kol  was  heard  after  the  death  of  Malachi  are  of  verv 
various  degrees  of  solemnity  or  significance.  Suppos- 
ing the  instances  mentioned  in  Josephus  {Ani.  xiii,  10), 
of  the  voice  which  announced  to  Hyrcanus  that  bis 
sons  had  conquered  Anliochus,  and  (  War,  vi,  5)  of  the 
awful  voice  which  was  heard  in  the  temple,  jasi  before 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  to  exclaim,  Mira/3aiW/i(y 
JiTcv^ev!  not  to  belong  to  the  Bath-Kol  (as  it  is  to 
be  ob8er\'ed  that  the  pseudo-Josephus  bcn-Gorion  has. 


WORDS  OF  INSTITUTION      981 


WORLD 


in  these  cascB,  merely  used  the  Hebrew  wofd  for  rotoe), 
most  of  the  other  recorded  instances  fall  far  short  of 
these  in  dignitVi  and  some  appear  irreconcilable  with 
even  very  credulous  notions  of  the  limits  of  divine  in- 
tetpositton.  Only  a  few  of  them,  however,  can  be 
classed  with  quite  as  trivial  a  species  of  divination  as 
the  Sortes  VirffUiasuBf  which  is  done  in  the  unfair 
statement  of  Prideaux  (Cormex,  iJ,  854).  The  fact  is, 
that  most  Christian  writers  who  have  treated  of  the 
Bath-Kol  have  not  been  able  to  divest  themselves  of 
an  undue  desire  to  discredit  its  pretensions,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  fearing  any  comparison  which  might 
be  instituted  between  it  and  the  voices  from  heaven 
mentioned  in  the  New  Test.  Indeed,  Lightfoot  (in  his 
/for,  ffebr,  ad  Afait,  iii,  17)  considers 'all  cases  of  Bath- 
Kol  to  be  either  Jewish  fables  or  devices  of  the  deviL 
Instances  of  voices  from  heaven,  on  occasions  outward- 
ly very  analogous  to  some  among  the  Jews,  are  recorded 
in  the  history  of  the  early  Christian  Church,  as  the 
voice  which  was  instrumental  in  making  Alexander 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  that  which  exhorted  Polycarp 
to  be  of  good  courage  (Eusebius,  flitt,  Ecclet,  iv,  16 ;  vi, 
11).— Kitto,  S.V.    See  Bath-Kou 

'Words  of  iDBtitation  are  those  words  which 
were  used  by  our  Saviour  when  he  instituted  the  sac- 
rament of  his  body  and  blood,  the  essential  parts  of 
which  are  commonly  held  to  be  "  This  is  my  body  "  and 
**  This  is  my  bIoo<l  of  the  New  Testament,*^  words  found 
in  sll  the  ancient  liturgies. 

'Wordsworth,  Christopher,  D.D.,  an  English 
prelate,  nephew  of  the  poet,  was  bom  in  1807.  He 
graduated  from  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1830; 
was  elected  a  fellow,  ordained,  and  in  1836  appointed 
public  orator  at  Cambridge  and  head-master  of  Harrow 
School;  in  1844  canon  in  Westminster,  and  bishop  of 
Lincoln  in  1869,  a  position  which  he  held  until  his 
death,  March  20, 1885.  He  was  of  the  Low-church  or 
evangelical  type,  and  the  author  of  numerous  critical 
and  historical  works,  the  roost  important  being  his 
Ifofy  Bible,  trilh  Atmotations  (Lond.  1856-76, 10  vols.). 
See  Commentary. 

Wdrger,  Franz,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger. 
many,  was  bom  at  Lubeck  in  1647.  He  studied  at  dif- 
ferent universities,  became  preacher  of  St.  Laurence,  in 
his  native  place,  in  1673,  was  suspended  in  1692  on  ac- 
count of  his  great  zeal,  and  disobedience  against  the 
magistrate,  and  died,  as  a  private  scholar,  in  1708.  He 
was  a  voluminous  writer.  See  Seelen,  AtKenm  Lube- 
censes;  MoUer,  Cimbria  LiUerata;  Jocher,  AUgemdnes 
Gekhrten^Lescikon,  s.  v.;  Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL 
LU.  i,  567.     (a  P.) 

"Works  {ipya)y  "  works,  or  deeds,  of  the  law,"  is 
equivalent  to  the  works  which  the  law  requires,  or  the 
entire  performance  of  those  works  which  the  moral 
law,  whether  written  or  unwritten,  i.  e.  law  in  general, 
whether  applicable  to  Gentile  or  Jew,  demands  (Bom. 
ii,  15;  iii,  20;  ix,  12,  82;  x,  6;  xi,  3;  Gal.  ii,  16;  iii,  2, 
6, 10 ;  Epb.  ii,  0).  On  the  ground  of  works,'  i.  e.  of  per- 
fect obedience  and  therefore  of  merit,  none  can  be  jus- 
tified, because  "all  have  sinned  and  come  short  of  the 
glory  of  God."  If,  then,  any  are  justified  at  all,  it  must 
be  of  grace;  but  this  grace,  although  freely  bestowed 
and  without  any  just  claims  on  the  part  of  the  sinner, 
is  still  not  unconditionally  bestowed.  Faiih  in  him 
who  died  to  save  sinners  is  requisite  to  prepare  one  for 
the  reception  of  pardon;  and  he  who  is  justified  in  this 
way,  as  a  consequence  of  his  faith,  is  still  justified  in  a 
manner  altogether  gratuitous. 

The  reader  will  mark  the  difference  between  the 
phrase  "  works  of  the  law,"  in  the  above  passages,  and 
the  expression  **  work  of  faith  "  or  "  good  works "  (1 
Thess.  i,  3 ;  2  Thess.  i,  11 ;  2  Cor.  ix,  8 ;  Ephes.  ii,  10; 
Col.  i,  10 ;  1  Tim.  v,  10, 25 ;  vi,  18 ;  2  Tim.  iii,  17 ;  Titus 
1, 16;  ii,  7, 14;  iii,  1,  8, 14).  In  the  writings  of  Paul, 
works  of  the  law  always  designates  the  idea  of  perfect 
obedience,  L  e.  doing  all  which  the  law  requires.    But 


works  of  faith  or  good  works  are  the  fraits  of  sanctifi- 
cation  by  the  Spirit  of  God;  the  good  worka  which 
Christiana  perform,  and  which  are  sincere,  are  therefore 
acceptable  to  God  under  a  dispensation  of  grace,  although 
the}'  do  not  fulfil  all  the  demands  of  the  law.  On  the 
ground  of  the  first,  Paul  earnestly  contends,  at  length, 
in  his  epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Galatians,  that  no 
one  can  be  justified.  The  latter  he  everywhere  treats 
as  indispensable  to  the  Christian  character.  So  also 
the  apostle  James,  when  disputing  with  those  who 
make  pretensions  to  Christian  faith,  and  mere  preten- 
sions, maintains  that  no  man  has  any  good  claim  to  the 
faith  of  a  Christian  who  does  not  at  the  same  time  ex- 
hibit good  works;  in  other  words,  he  avers  that  a  mere 
speculative  faith  is  not  a  real  Christian  faith  (James  ii, 
14-26).  In  a  word,  Paul  has  taught  us  that  justifica- 
tion is  not  on  the  ground  of  merit,  but  of  grace :  James 
has  taught  us  that  a  faith  which  will  entitle  one  to 
hope  for  justification  must  be  accompanied  with  evan- 
gelical obedience.  Both  are  tme  and  faithful  teachers; 
the  doctrines  of  both  are  equally  the  doctrines  of  the 
gospel.  Good  works,  in  the  gospel  sense  of  these  words, 
are  an  essential  condition  of  our  acceptance  with  God; 
but  on  the  ground  of  perfect  obedience  to  the  divine 
law,  no  one  ever  was  or  ever  will  be  accepted.  See 
Justification. 

In  an  evangelical  sense,  pood  works  are  those  actions 
which  spring  from  pure  principles,  and  are  conformable 
to  tmth,  justice,  and  propriety;  whether  natural,  civil, 
relative,  moral,  or  religious.  The  phrase  is  often  used 
of  acts  of  charity.  The  qualities  of  a  good  work,  in 
the  Scriptural  sense  of  the  term,  are,  (1)  That  it  be  ac- 
cording to  the  will  of  God ;  (2)  that  it  spring  from  love 
to  God  (1  Tim.  i,  5) ;  (3)  that  it  be  done  in  faith  (Rom. 
xiv,  28) ;  (4)  that  it  be  done  to  the  glory  of  God  (1 
Cor.  X,  81 ;  Phil,  i,  11).  The  causes  of  good  works  are, 
(1)  God  himself  (Heb.  xiii,  21);  (2)  union  with  Christ 
(Ephes.  ii,  10);  (3)  through  faith  (Heb.  xi,  4,  6) ;  (4) 
by  the  word  and  spirit  (Isa.  iii,  8;  Luke  viii,  15;  2  Tim. 
iii,  16).  As  to  the  nature  and  properties  of  good  works 
in  this  world,  (1)  They  are  imperfect  (Eccles.  vii,  20 ; 
Rev.  iii,  2;  (2)  not  meritorious  (Luke  xvii,  10;  Titus 
iii,  5) ;  (3)  yet  found  only  in  the  regenerate  (Matt,  vii, 
17).  The  necessary  uses  of  good  works,  (I)  They  show 
our  gratitude  (Psa.  cxvi,  12, 13) ;  (2)  are  an  ornament 
to  our  profession  (Titus  ii,  10) ;  (3)  evidence  our  regen- 
eration (Job  XV,  5) ;  (4)  are  prdStable  to  others  (l*itus 
iii,  8).     S^  Gill,  Boif  of  Div,  voL  iii,  bk.  iv. 

World  is  the  English  term  by  which  our  transla- 
ton  have  rendered  four  Hebrew  words  (in  addition  to 
the  general  term  ]^'nK,  hits,  "earth ") :  1.  b*in,  ckidd, 
which  is  erroneously  supposed  by  some  to  have  arisen 
by  transposition  of  letters  from  "ibn,  comes  from  a  root 
which  signifies  ^  to  rest,"  to  "  discontinue,"  and  hence 
^'to  cease  from  life,"  ^^  to  be  at  rest;"  and  as  a  noun, 
*'  the  place  of  rest,"  *'  the  grave."  The  word  occurs  in 
the  complaint  uttered  by  Hezekiah,  when  in  prospect 
of  dissolution,  and  when  he  contemplates  his  state 
among  the  iuhabiunts,  not  of  the  upper,  but  the  lower 
world  (Isa.  xxxviii,  11);  thus  combining  with  many 
other  passages  to  show  that  the  Hebrews,  probably 
borrowing  the  idea  from  the  Egyptian  tombs,  had  a 
vague  conception  of  some  shadowy  state  where  the 
manes  of  their  departed  friends  lay  at  rest  in  their 
ashes,  retaining  only  an  indefinable  personality  in  a 
land  of  darkness  and  *'the  shadow  of  death"  (Job  x, 

21, 22).  2.  ibn,  chOgd  (Psa.  xlii,  14),  means  *'  to  con- 
ceal," and  derivatively  "any  hidden  thing,"  hence 
"age,"  "antiquity,"  "remote  and  hidden  ages;"  also 
"  the  world,"  as  the  hidden  or  unknown  thing  (Psa. 
xlix,  1).  3.  dVi7,  Warn  (in  the  New  Test.  aiW),  the 
root-signification  of  which  is  "  to  hide,"  denotes  a  very 
remote,  indefinite,  and  therefore  unknown  period  in 
time  past  or  time  to  come,  which  metaphysicians  call 
eternity  &  parte  ante,  and  eternity  ^  parte  post  (Eccles. 


WORLD 


982 


WORM 


iii,  11).  In  Psa.  Ixxiii,  12,  it  is  rendered  «  world ;"  but 
in  this  and  in  the  previoas  instance  it  may  be  qaes- 
tioned  whether  the  natural  creation  is  really  meant, 
and  not  rather  **  the  world  "  in  our  metaphorical  use  of 
the  term,  as  denoting  the  intelligent  world,  the  rational 
inhabitants  of  the  earth,  aifd  still  more  specifically  that 
portion  of  them  with  which  we  are  immediately  con- 
cerned. 4.  bsr),  tebel  (the  usual  word  so  rendered  the 
Greek  coo-fc op) i  comes  from  a  root  that  signifies  "to 
flow,"  and  as  water  is  the  unfailing  cause  of  fertility  in 
the  East,  it  denotes  "  to  be  productive," **  to  bear  fruit;** 
and  as  a  noun,  ^'th*-  fruit-bearer,"  that  is,  the  earth. 
This  word  is  frequently  rendered  "  world  "  in  the  com- 
mon version,  but  if  more  was  intended  than  the  earth 
on  which  we  dwell,  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  passages 
in  which  it  occurs  will  justify  the  translators. 

In  truth,  the  Hebrews  had  no  wonl  which  comprised 
the  entire  visible  universe.  When  they  wanted  to 
speak  comprehensively  of  God^s  creation,  they  joined 
two  words  together  and  useil  the  phrase  '*  heaven  and 
earth  "  (Gen.  i,  1).  We  have  already  seen  that  they 
had  an  idea  of  an  under  world ;  the  meaning  of  their 
ordinary  term  for  earth,  )^1^K,  which  signifies  the 
^^  lower,"  shows  that  they  also  regarded  the  earth  as 
beneath  the  sun;  while  the  term  for  heaven,  D^S^,  de- 
noting **  what  is  elevated,"  indicates  that  their  view 
was  that  the  heavens,  or  the  heights,  were  above. 
Above,  below,  and  under— these  three  relations  of  space 
comprehend  their  conception  of  the  world.  —  Kitto, 
s.  V.    See  Earth  ;  Hkavek. 

The  following  Greek  words  are  also  translated 
*'  world :"  1.  KocfioQ,  h)$mo8,  the  world,  wneerse  (Matt, 
ziii,  85;  xxiv,  21;  Luke  xi,  50;  John  xvii,  5,  24; 
Acts  xvii,  24;  Rom.  i,  20);  the  inhabitants  thereof 
(1  Cor.  iv,  9) ;  also  the  erirM,  as  the  abode  of  man 
(Matt.xiii,88;  BIarkxvi,15;  John  i,  9;  iii,  19;  vi,14; 
xvi,21,28;  xxi,25;  Heb.x,5;  Matt.iv,8;  Rom.i,8); 
the  inhabifants  of  the  earth  (Matt,  v,  14 ;  John  i,  29 ; 
iii,  16 ;  xvii,  14, 25 ;  Rom.  iii,  6, 19 ;  Heb.  xi,  7 ;  2  Pet. 
ii,  5 ;  1  John  ii,  2) ;  the  mvltitude^  as  we  say  **  every- 
body "  (John  vii,  4;  xii,19;  xiv,  22;  xviii,  20;  2  Cor. 
i,  12 ;  2  Pet.  ii.  5) ;  also  the  heathen  world  (Rom.  xi,  12, 
15).  It  likewise  designates  the  state  of  the  worUj  as 
oppMed  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ  (IVfatt.  xvi,  26;  Mark 
viii,36;  John  xviii,  86;  1  Cor.  iii,  22;  v,  10;  £phe8.ii, 
2 ;  Gal.  vi,  14 ;  James  iv,  4)  and  men  of  the  world, 
tDorUUingg  {Johti  xii,  81;  1  Cor.  i,  2;  iii,  19;  2  Cor.  vii, 
10;  PhiLii,  15);  also  the  Jewish  dispensatUMu  founded 
on  Sinai  and  ended  on  Calvary  (Ephcs.  i,4;  1  PeL  i,  20; 
Heb.  ix,  26).  2.  OtKovfiivfj,  Oikoumin^,  the  inhabited 
earth,  the  toorld  as  known  to  the  ancients  (Matt,  iv,  8 ; 
xxiv,  14;  Luke  iv,  5;  Rom.  x,  18;  Heb.i,  6;  Rev.  xvi, 
14) ;  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  (Acts  xvii,  81;  xix, 
27 ;  Rev.  iii,  10;  xii,  9);  the  Roman  empire  (Acts  xvii, 
G;  xxiv,  5);  Palestine  and  the  adjacent  countries  (Luke 
ii,  1 ;  Acts  xi,  28).  8.  AiW,  A  iorty  the  world,  or  ape, 
the  present  ftW,  or  the  future,  as  implying  duration 
(MatLxii,82;  Mark  x,  50;  iii,  28, 29;  Luke  xviii,  80) ; 
the  presertl  woiid  or  age^  with  its  cares,  temptations, 
evils,  etc  (Matt,  xiii,  22;  Luke  xvi,  8;  xx,  84;  Rom. 
xii.  2;  1  Cor.  i,20;  ii,  6,8;  2  Cor.  iv,4;  2  Tim.iv,  10; 
Tit.  i,  12 ;  Gal.  i,  4) ;  and  men  of  the  world,  wicked  gen- 
eration (£phes.ii,  2;  Luke  xvi,  8;  xx,  84);  also  the 
world  itself,  as  an  object  of  creation  and  existence  (Matt, 
xiii,  40;  xxiv,  3;  Heb.  i,  2;  xi,  8).  This  term  also 
denotes  the  age  or  world  before  the  Messiah,  i.  e.  the 
Jewish  dispensalion  (1  Cor.  x,  11;  Heb.  ix,  26);  also, 
after  the  Messiah,  L  e.  the  Gospd  dispensation  (Heb.  ii, 
5 ;  vi,  5),     See  Cosmooomy. 

In  popular  Christian  phraseology,  the  world  is  taken 
also  for  a  secular  life,  the  present  state  of  existence, 
and  the  pleasures  and  interests  which  steal  away  the 
soul  from  God.  The  love  of  the  world  does  not  con- 
sist in  the  use  and  enjoyment  of  the  comforts  God 
gives  us,  but  in  an  inordinate  attachment  to  the  things 
of  time  and  sense.    We  love  the  world  too  much  (I) 


when,  for  the  sake  of  any  profit  or  pleasure,  we  wilfully, 
knowingly,  and  deliberately  transgress  the  commands 
of  God;  (2)  when  we  take  more  pains  aboat  the  pres- 
ent life  than  the  next;  (8)  when  we  cannot  be  con- 
tented, patient,  or  resigned,  under  low  and  inconvenient 
circamstanoes;  (4)  when  we  cannot  part  with  anything 
we  possess  to  those  who  want,  deserve,  and  have  a  right 
to  it;  (5)  when  we  envy  those  who  are  more  fortunate 
and  more  favored  by  the  world  than  we  are;  (6)  when 
we  honor  and  esteem  and  favor  persons  purely  accord- 
ing to  their  birth,  fortunes,  and  success,  measuring  our 
judgment  and  approbation  by  their  outward  appearance 
and  situation  in  life ;  (7)  when  woridly  prosperity  makes 
us  proud  and  vain  and  arrogant;  (8)  when  we  omit 
no  opportunity  of  enjoying  the  gootl  things  of  this  life; 
when  our  great  and  chief  business  is  to  divert  ounelvet 
till  we  contract  an  indifference  for  rational  and  maniv 
occupations,  deceiving  ourselves,  and  fancying  that  we 
are  not  in  a  bad  condition  because  others  are  worse 
than  we  (Jortiu,  Sermons,  vol  iii,  ser.  9).  See  Hopkins, 
On  the  Vanity  of  the  World;  Stennet,  Sermon  on  Con' 
formity  to  the  World;  More,  On  Education,  vol.  u, 
ch.  9 ;  Walker,  Sermons,  vol  iv,  ser.  20. 

Worm  is  the  rendering,  in  the  A.  Y.,  of  seveiml 
Hebrew  and  one  Greek  word. 

L  Sds  (OD,  from  its  leaping;  Sept.  ar/Q;  Volg.  tinea) 

oocoTS  only  in  Isa.  Ii,  8,  *'For  the  *dsh  QOT,  'moth*) 

shall  eat  them  up  like  a  garment,  and  the  «£f  shall  eat 
them  like  wool."  The  word  probably  denotes  some 
particular  species  of  moth,  whose  larva  is  injurious  to 
wool,  while  perhaps  the  former  name  is  the  more  geo- 
enl  one  for  any  of  the  ilestruetive  tinea,  or  **  dothe*- 
moths."    See  Moth. 

2.  Rvmi»%ah  {tVIT),  of  uncertain  etymology;  Sept. 
(TfcwXi}^,  (Tjyi^cc,  vawpia ;  Vulg.  vermis,  putredo,  tinea  ) 
occurs  Exod.  xvi,  24 ;  Job  vi,  5 ;  xvii,  14 ;  xxi,  26 ;  xxir, 
20 ;  XXV,  6;  Isa.  xiv,  11,  and  seems  to  denote  worms  in 
putrid  substances,  or  putrid ity  itself.  The  Hebrew  word 
points  evidently  to  various  kinds  of  maggots,  and  the 
larvs  of  insects  which  feed  on  putrefying  animal  mat- 
ter, rather  than  to  earth-worms.  Job,  under  his  heavy 
affliction,  exclaims,  **My  flesh  is  clothed  with  rimmak  '* 
(Job  vii,  5;  see  also  xvii,  14).  Then  b  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  the  expression  is  to  be  understood  literally ; 
a  person  in  Job's  condition  would  very  probably  suffer 
from  entoeoa  of  some  kind.  In  Job  xxi,  26;  xxiv,  30, 
there  is  an  allusion  to  worms  (insect  larvie)  feeding  on 
the  dead  bodies  of  the  buried  (oomp.  EocIusl  x,  11 ;  xix, 
8 ;  1  Mace  ii,  62).  Our  translators,  in  the  weU-koown 
passage  (Job  xix,  26) — "And  though  after  my  skin 
worms  destroy  this  body  " — ha%'e  over-interpreted  tlie 
words  of  the  original,  "My  skin  shall  have  been  con- 
sumed,"  for  there  is  no  mention  of  worms  whatever  in 
the  original.  These  passages,  and  especially  th«  last, 
have  contributed  to  the  popular  impression  thmt  the 
human  body,  when  buried  in  the  grave,  is  ooneuoied  by 
worms.  The  Oriental  method  of  burial  in  wrappefs, 
and  of  depositing  the  corpse  in  caves,  etc,  would  do 
doubt  often  aflbrd  the  spec^cle  of  the  human  body  de- 
voured by  the  larvae  of  different  insects;  bot  the  al- 
lusions in  Scripture  to  such  nghts  do  not  apply  to  banal 
elsewhere,  except  where  the  body  is  buried  in  a  wooden 
coffin  only,  in  vaults  which  have  communications  witk 
the  external  air,  when  swarms  of  a  species  of  fly,  of  m 
ciroex  aspect,  insinuate  themselves  between  the  lid  and 
lower  part  of  the  coffin,  and  their  larv»  batten  io  the 
corpse  within,  while  the  adult  insect  sports  in  the  lurid 
atmosphere  of  the  vault. 

8.  The  distinctive  term  is  told  ( yVin,  Exod.  xvi, 
20;  Isa.  i,  18;  Lam.  iv,  5),  or  (fem.)  toleSik,  or  toldaik 
(toViPI,  or  P?bin,  Deut.  xxviii,39;  Job  xxv,6;  Pia. 
zxii,  6;  Isa.  xiv,  11;  xii,  14;  Ixvi,  24;  Jonah  iv,  7; 
t)esides  the  use  of  the  latter  in  connection  with  '^^,  to- 
gether  rendered  ** scarlet"  [q.r.]),  yet  it  often  stands 
in  parallelism  with  the  preceding  term.    The  manna 


WORM 


983 


WORM 


that  the  disobedient  Israelites  kept  till  the  morning  of 
a  week-day  "  bred  worms  "  (D'^yVlP),  and  stank  (Exod. 
xvi,  20) ;  while  of  that  kept  over  the  Sabbath  and  gath- 
ered the  nigUt  before,  it  is  said  that  "it  did  not  stink, 
neither  wiw  there  any  worm  (na*l)  therein."  The  pa- 
triarch uses  both  terms  in  Job  xxr,  6,  where  he  com- 
pares the  estate  of  roan  to  a  rimmdky  and  the  son  of 
man  to  a  toUah.  Homer  also  compares  a  man  of  infe- 
rior consequence  to  a  worm,  wrrt  iTKwXtiK  M  yaitf 
KiXro  To^itg  {Iliad,  xiii,  6M).  rpiin  is  applied  to  that 
which  preys  on  human  flesh  (Job  xiv,  11;  Ixvi,  24); 
on  vegetables,  as  on  the  gourd  of  Jonah  (Jonah  iv,  7), 
and  on  vines  (Deut.  xxviii,  89).  The  ancient  Hebrews 
applied  such  words  as  indeterminately  as  the  common 
people  now  do  the  words  «  worm,"  •*  fly,*'  etc  Similar 
indeterminateness  attends  the  Sept.  and  Vulg.  render- 
ings. Aristotle  also  applies  the  word  ffwXnK  to  the 
larva  of  any  insect— rkrw  Sk  trayra  uKiitKiiKay  "all  in- 
sects produce  a  worm"  {Biti,  Anim,  v,  19). 

The  insect  which  the  manna  is  said  to  have  "  bred, 
when  kept  till  the  morning  "  (Exod.  xvi,  20, 24),  what- 
ever it  was,  must  be  considered  as  miracnlously  pro- 
duced as  a  punishment  for  disobedience,  since  the  sub- 
stance now  understood  to  be  the  same  keeps  good  for 
weeks  and  months,  nor  did  the  specimen  laid  up  in  the 
ark  breed  wormsu    See  Mahna. 

An  insect  is  alluded  to  as  injuring  vines  and  gnpes 
(Deut.  xxviii,  89 ;  jbir,  tnCiKfil,  vermu).  The  Greeks 
had  a  distinct  name  for  this  insect,  and  probably  as 
eariy  as  the  Sept.  translation  of  Exodus  was  made, 
l^  and  11  (Theophrastus,  De  Causis,  iii,  27).  It  was 
called  by  the  latins  involvolug,  convolwhitj  and  volvox 
(Pkutns,  CistelL  act  iv,  sc  2 ;  Pliny,  Ilisf,  Nat.  xWi,  28). 
Rosenmnller  thinks  it  was  the  Scarabcnis  kirteUuSyOx 
the  Scarabmug  mutiatt  hirtus  tettcKWh-niffricans  of  Lin- 
nsus  {Sygt.  Xat  I,  iv,  1677)  Forskal  calls  it  the  P^alig 
vitana,  or  Fyralig  fatciana.  Various  kinds  of  insects 
attack  the  vine,  among  which  one  of  the  most  destruc- 
tive is  the  Tortrix  viiigcma,  the  little  caterpillar  of  which 
eats  off  the  inner  parts  of  the  blossoms,  the  clusters  of 
which  it  binds  together  by  spinning  a  web  around  them. 
A  species  of  beetle,  Lethrug  ctpkaloleg,  is  injurious  to  the 
vines  of  Hungary ;  other  species  of  beetles  do  similar 
mischief  (  rynckiteg,  bacchug,  eumolpug  ).  Vine-leaves 
in  France  are  frequently  destroyed  by  the  larva  of  a 
moth,  Totirix  vUana.  In  Germany  another  species  does 
great  injury  to  the  young  branches,  preventing  their 
expansion  by  the  webs  in  which  it  involves  them ;  and 
a  third  species,  Torlrixfagciana,  makes  the  grapes  them- 
selves its  food  (Kirby  and  Spence,  ItUrod,  to  Entomology 
[Lond.  1828],  i,  205).  It  may  serve  as  an  illustration 
of  the  looseness  of  popular  diotion  respecting  insects  to 
remark  that  what  the  farmers  call  "  the  fly "  in  the 
turnip  is  in  reality  a  small  species  of  jumping  beetle, 
for  which  turmp-flea  would  be  a  more  appropriate  name. 

The  "  gourd  "  of  Jonah  is  e^id  to  have  been  destroyed 
by  "a  worm"  (Jonah  iv,  7;  r^bin,  acwXij^,  rermw). 
The  identity  of  the  gourd  with  the  Ricitaig  communig 
has  been  thought  to  be  well  established  (see  Gourd),  and 
Rumphius  {fferbar,  Amboineag.  iv,  95)  testifies  to  the 
ravages  of  a  species  of  black  caterpillar  upon  it.  These 
are  produced,  he  says,  in  great  quantities  in  the  sum- 
mer-time, during  a  gentle  rain,  and  eat  up  the  leaves  of 
the  Palma  Chiigtif  and  gnaw  its  branches  to  the  pith 
in  a  single  night  (Michaelis,  SuppL  ad  Lex,  Ilebraic  p. 
2187).  Allusions  to  the  worm  in  wood  occur  in  the  Sept. 
of  Prov.  xii,  4,  and  xxv,  20:  iv  Kv\f  wwAij?;  Vulg. 
vermig  lignOf  which  words  have  nothing  corresponding 
to  them  in  the  present  Hebrew  text  (see  Vulg.  of  2  Kings 
xxiii,  8). 

It  is  possible  that  the  word  si^T\  was  also  given  as 
a  proper  name ;  thus  "Tola  "  occurs  among  the  descend- 
anto  of  Issachar  (Gon.  xlvi,  18),  and  wo  also  the  name 
of  a  person  of  the  same  tribe  (Judg.  x,  1).  Bochart 
eonjectares  that  the  name  was  given  to  these  children 


by  their  parents  because  the  tribe  of  Inachar  was  one 
of  the  meanest,  and  they  were  themselves  in  needy  cir- 
cumstances, or  that  these  were  very  sickly  children  when 
bom.  He  remarks,  however,  that  the  first  Tola  became 
a  great  man,  the  head  of  the  Tolaites  (Numb,  xxvi,  28), 
who,  in  the  days  of  David,  apaounted  to  22,600  (1  Chron. 
vii,  2),  and  that  the  latter  judged  Israel  twenty  years 
(Judg.  X,  1,  2). 

4.  In  Mic.  vii,  17  the  words  "  like  worms  of  the  earth  " 
represent  the  Heb.  yj«  "'^rj^a,  lit,  "creepers  in  the 
dust,"  "serpents;"  Viilg.  ReptiUa  terra  (comp.  Deut. 
xxxii.  24). 

6.  The  usual  Greek  word  for  worm  is  trKuXri^.  In 
1  Mace  ii,  62,  "Fear  not  the  words  of  a  unful  man, for 
his  glory  shall  be  dung  and  worms,"  instead  of  cofrpia, 
"dung,"  should  be  read  vavpia,  " rottenness," as  in  the 
Sept.  of  Job  vii,  6 ;  xxv,  6.  So  also  in  Ecclus.  xix,  8, 
"Moths  and  worms  shall  have  him  that  deaveth  to 
harlots,"  instead  of  (r^nc,  "  moths,"  read  djirij,  "  rot- 
tenness." 

"Worm"  occurs  in  the  New  Test  in  a  figurative 
sense  only  (  Mark  ix,  44, 46,  48 ),  "Their  worm  dieth 
not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched ;"  words  borrowed  from 
Isa.  Ixvi,  24,  which  originally  relate  to  a  temporal  state 
of  things,  but  which  had  also  become,  in  our  Lord's 
time,  the  popular  representation  of  future  punishment 
(Jud.  xvi,  17 ;  Ecclus.  vii,  17).  See  Tophet.  Origen 
here  understands  "  worm  "  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  as 
denoting  the  accusation  of  conscience;  but  Austin, 
Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Theophylact,  eta, 
contend  that  the  word  should  be  understood  literally. 

The  death  of  Herod  Agrippa  I  was  caused  by  worms 
(<rc<tfXi)c6/3pwroc,  Acts  xii,  28) ;  according  to  Josephus 
{Ani,  xix,  8,  2),  his  death  took  place  five  days  after  his 
departure  from  the  theatre.  It  is  curious  that  the  Jew- 
ish historian  makes  no  mention  of  worms  in  the  case  of 
Agrippa,  though  he  expressly  notes  it  in  that  of  Herod 
the  Great  {Ant.  xvii,  6,  5 ;  War,  i,  83,  5 ).  A  similar 
death  was  that  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (2  Mace,  ix,  9; 
see  also  Eusebius,  Ecdeg.  Hist,  viii,  IG;  Lucian, /Vetnlo- 
tnoiU,  i,  904;  comp.  Wetstein  on  Acts  xii,  28).  Wheth- 
er the  worms  were  the  cause  or  the  result  of  the  disease 
is  an  immaterial  question.  The  "angel  of  the  Lord 
struck  Herod "  with  some  disease,  the  issue  of  which 
was  fatal,  and  the  loathsome  spectacle  of  which  could 
not  fail  to  have  had  a  marked  humiliating  effect  on  his 
proud  heart.  It  has  been  attempted  to  expUin  all  these 
instances  as  cases  of  phthiriasis,  or  the  lougy  disease, 
but  the  conjecture  is  inconsistent  with  the  words  em- 
ployed in  the  several  narratives;  and  since  they  are  in- 
stances of  persons  being  devoured  by  wormg  while  aHioe, 
contrary  to  the  order  of  nature,  we  are  compelled  to 
ascribe  the  phenomenon  to  divine  agency.  At  all  events, 
the  larvsB  in  Herod's  case  were  internal.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  cmel  Pheretima,  the  wife  of  Battus,  whose 
horrible  vengeance  is  detailed  by  Herodotus  {Hut.  iv, 
202-204),  is  described  by  him  as  dying  under  a  disease 
which,  from  the  terms  he  uses,  must  have  been  peculiar- 
ly terrible.  "  She  died  miserably ;  for  even  while  alive 
ghe  gwarmed  with  magffotg.  So  odious  to  the  gods  are 
the  excesses  of  human  vengeance."  The  word  fi/Xait 
which  the  father  of  history  employs  in  this  passage,  is 
generally  considered  as  synonymous  with  oKutXtfi,  in- 
asmuch as  it  signifies  the  maggots  or  larvn  produced 
by  the  carrion-eating  flies;  but  the  two  term^  are  not 
equivalent,  since  the  Greek  ffcitfXi}^  has  a  wider  mean- 
ing, including  all  insect  larvs  without  an  exception 
(Arist  Bigt.  Anim.  ii,  1).  For  the  account  of  insects  in- 
festing the  human  frame,  from  disease,  see  Kirby  and 
Spence,  Introd.  to  Entomology,  i,  84 ;  Bartholin,  Aforb. 
BibL  c.  28;  Mead,  BibL  Digeageg,  c.  15. 

There  are  several  species  of  earth-worms  {lambriau) 
in  Palestine  similar  to  our  own,  but  by  far  the  most 
abundant  of  the  so-called  worms  there  are  the  m^rta- 
poda,  or  mellipedes,  especially  the  gcolopendra,  which 
appear  to  perform  the  functions  of  the  earth-worm  in 


WORM 


984       WORMS,  COLLOQUIES  OF 


nature,  though  belonging  to  a  very  different  order  of 
animal  life,  and  which  supply  food  to  many  of  the  birds 
of  the  country  (Tristram,  Nat,  But.  of  the  Bible^  p.  801). 
On  the  general  subject,  see  Bochart,  Hieroz,  (ed.  Rosen- 
milUer,  Leipsic,  1798-96),  ui,  619  sq. 

Worm,  CiiRisTiAv,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, who  died  in  1787,  professor  of  theology  and 
bishop  of  Seeland,  is* the  author  of,  De  Corrupts  Anti* 
quitatum  Hfbrcdearvm  apud  Taciturn  et  Martialem  Vet' 
tiffUt  (Hafnie,  1698, 1694)  :—De  Corrvptione  Antiquita- 
turn  ffebr.  apud  Taciturn  (reprinted  in  Ugolino^s  The" 
saurus  Aniiquiiatum  Hdn:  Sacr,  torn,  ii): — Bittoria 
SaheUiana  teu  de  Origme  et  Incrementit  Bcertteot  Sa- 
beUioTUB  Usque  ad  Tmtium  SecuU  5  Deductce  ex  Antiqui' 
(ate  EccUsiast.  OhservatL  (Frankfort,  1696).  See  FOrst, 
BibL  Jud,  iii,  636 ;  Winer,  Bandbuch  der  TheoL  Lit,  i,  187, 
642.     (B.P.) 

'Worms,  Councils  of  (ConcUium  Voi-matiente). 
Worms  is  a  city  of  Germany,  in  Hesse,  province  of  Rhein- 
Hessen,  on  the  Rhine,  twenty-six  miles  south-east  of 
Mentz.  It  was  formerly  an  imperial  city,  and  is  very 
ancient,  having  existed  before  the  arrival  of  the  Romans. 
Three  ecclesiastical  councils  have  been  held  there,  as 
follows : 

I.  Was  held  in  829.  Several  regulations  were  pub- 
lished, one  of  which  condemns  the  ordeal  by  cold  water; 
a  treatise  written  by  Agobard  against  these  practices  is 
still  extant.    See  Mansi,  ConciL  vii,  1669. 

II.  Was  held  May  16, 868,  in  the  presence  of  Louis 
of  Germany,  to  which  all  the  bishops  of  his  kingdom 
were  cited.  Having  drawn  up  a  confession  of  faith,  in 
which  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  the  Father 
and  the  Son  was  dearly  stated,  the  council  proceeded 
to  publish  forty-four  canons. 

1.  Forbids  to  admluister  holy  baptism  except  at  £aster 
and  Wbltsantide,  unless  in  a  case  uf  necewlij. 

2.  Orders  that  the  chrism  be  consecrated  by  the  bishop 
only. 

8.  Forbids  bishops  to  exact  any  fee  or  present  for  the 
consecration  of  a  church :  also  forbids  them  to  consecrate 
any  church  except  there  oe  a  writing  under  the  band  of 
the  founder,  conflrming  the  foundation,  ond  signifying 
what  endowment  he  has  given. 

4.  Forbids  to  offer  upon  the  altar  Ibr  the  encharlst  any- 
thing save  bread,  ana  wine  mixed  with  water.  States 
that  wine  and  water  should  be  used,  **qnla  videmns  in 
nana  populum  intelUgi,  in  vino  vem  ostendi  san^ninem 
Chrlstl,''  and  thus,  by  the  union  of  the  water  with  the 
wine^  the  union  of  Christ  with  bis  Church. 

6.  Approves  the  regulations  of  SU  Gregory,  upon  the 
subject  of  single  and  trine  immersion. 

6.  Gives  to  the  bishop,  and  not  to  the  founders,  the  dis- 
posal of  the  revenaes  of  new  chnrchifs. 

7.  Orders  that  all  offerings  and  revenues  belongine  to  a 
church  be  divided  into  four  portions— one  for  the  bishop, 
the  second  for  the  clerks  serving  the  church  (according 
to  their  zeal  and  diligence),  the  third  for  the  poor,  and 
the  fourth  to  the  fabric 

0.  Orders  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy. 

18, 14.  Forbid  excommunication,  without  weighty  and 
sufficient  cause,  and  declare  that  the  bishop  so  exeom- 
ninnicating  without  sufficient  cause  shall  be  deprived  of 
the  communion  of  the  neighboring  bi^hopo. 

18.  Enacts  that  when  a  robberv  »hall  nave  been  com- 
mitted in  any  monastery,  the  thief  being  nnkuown,  the 
abbot  or  some  other  priest  shall  celebrate  mass,  at  which 
all  the  inmates  shall  attend,  in  order  by  this  to  prove 
severally  their  innocence. 

16.  Excommunicates  bishops  who  refuse  to  attend  syn- 
ods,  or  who  retire  before  the  conclusion  of  business. 

17.  Orders  bishops  keeping  sporting  do^rs,  or  birds,  to 
be  suspended  for  three  months ;  a  priest,  two;  and  a  dea- 
con, one. 

IV.  Excommunicates  and  suspends  priests  who  refhse 
to  obey  their  bi»hop. 

82.  Forbids  those  who,  having  been  in  their  Infancy 
offered  by  their  parents  to  some  monastery,  for  the  ser- 
vice of  God,  and  who  have  accordingly  been  brought  up 
to  the  regular  life,  when  they  come  to  the  age  of  puberty, 
to  renounce  that  life  and  return  into  the  world. 

26.  Declares  that  a  man  who  has  murdered  a  priest 
shall  neither  eat  meat  nor  drink  wine,  but  fast  on  every 
day,  except  festivols,  till  the  evening;  that  he  shall  never 
carry  arras,  never  go  except  on  foot,  nor  enter  a  church 
for  tne  space  of  five  years :  after  which  he  may  enter  the 
church,  bat  shall  still  not  be  received  to  communion.  At 
the  expirstlon  of  teu  vears  he  may  be  received,  but  shall 
Cast  three  times  a  week  to  bis  life's  end. 

8S.  Orders  that  a  madman  who  has  killed  any  one  shall 


be  put  to  a  light  penance  should  he  ever  recover  Us 
senses. 
81.  Orders  that  the  holy  eucharist  be  given  to  lepers. 

See  Mansi,  ConciL  viii,  941. 

III.  Was  held  Sept.  8, 1122.  It  was  settled  that  aU 
elections  of  bishopa  were  to  be  freely  conducted  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  the  Church,  but  under  the  supervisioa 
of  the  emperor;  and  that  the  right  of  spiritual  investi- 
ture by  ring  and  staff  belonged  to  the  pope,  while  that 
of  secular  infiefment  with  the  sceptre  was  conceded  to 
the  emperor.  This  agreement  was  confirmed  by  the 
first  general  council  of  Lateran  in  1 128. 

WORMS,  DiKT  OF,  was  held  in  1621 ;  for  an  account 
of  which  see  Litther. 

WORMS,  Edict  of,  was  the  edict  passed  at  the  diet 
of  Worms,  which  declared  Luther  a  heretic  and  schia- 
matic.    See  Lutheb. 

WORMS,  (Rkligious)  Colu>quis8  of.  This  title 
applies  to  two  conferences  held  at  Worms,  in  Germany, 
in  the  16th  centuiy,  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  a  reeoo- 
ciliation  between  the  Romish  and  Protestant  parties  in 
the  German  statesL 

I.  The  first  Colloquy  of  Worms  formed  a  link  in  the 
long  series  of  negotiations  by  which  it  was  hoped  to 
render  an  appeal  to  the  sword  unnecessary.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  the  desire  for  peace  was  very  sincere,  whether 
the  situation  be  regarded  in  its  religious  or  its  political 
features.  The  Augsburg  Confession,  though  the  ulti- 
matum of  the  Protestant  party  at  the  time,  was  yet  in- 
tended to  serve  as  a  new  basis  upon  which  the  entire 
Church,  rather  than  a  separate  party,  might  stand.  The 
Romanists  conceded  the  need  of  reforms  in  the  Churdi, 
and  a  spirit  of  improvement  seemed  disposed  to  assext 
itself  even  in  the  immediate  vicinage  of  the  pope.  The 
emperor,  also,  though  emphatically  rejecting  the  de- 
mands of  the  evangelical  party,  evinced  an  intention  to 
make  some  concessions  in  important  matters^  It  was 
natural,  therefore,  that  the  Protestants  should  indulge 
the  hope  of  ultimate  reconciliation,  however  strongly  a 
few  of  the  more  sagacious  minds  among  them  might 
insist  that  no  solid  peace  could  be  thus  secured.  In  its 
political  bearings,  the  Augsbuig  Confession  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  Smalkald  League  (q.  v.),  an  aUianoe 
intended  to  be  wholly  defensive  in  its  nature,  but  nev- 
ertheleBS  constituting  a  powerful  influence  in  favor  of 
peace,  by  reason  of  the  general  complication  in  which 
the  affairs  of  the  empire  were  involved.  The  result  of 
these  conditions  was  an  alternation  of  warlike  prepara- 
tion with  efforts  to  preserve  the  peace,  continued  through 
more  than  a  decade  of  years. 

The  Reformation  had  been  able,  in  about  twenty 
years,  to  extend  its  rule  over  regions  pre%*iou8ly  regard- 
ed as  the  strongholds  of  Romanism,  and  seemed  likdj 
to  obtain  control  of  the  whole  of  North  Germany.  A 
majority  of  the  electoral  college,  too,  was  on  its  sides. 
These  facts,  coupled  with  the  pressure  brought  to  bear 
by  the  offensive  operations  of  the  Turks  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  hostile  attitude  of  France  on  the  other,  com- 
pelled the  emperor  to  give  respectful  attention  to  Prot- 
estant grievances  and  demands,  and  to  arrange  for  a 
conference  which  should  attempt  a  reconciliation  upon 
disputed  matters  of  doctrine,  such  as  had  been  su^ceted 
in  1589.  The  assembly  was  appointed  to  meet  at  Spires^ 
April  2, 1640,  but  was  compelled  by  an  epidemic  to  con- 
vene at  Hagenau  instead,  in  June  of  that  year.  A  pre- 
liminary meeting  of  Romanists,  called  by  king  Ferdi- 
nand, had  been  held  in  May,  however,  in  which  Morooe, 
the  papal  legate,  aided  by  the  emperor  and  king,  who 
imagined  the  holding  of  a  national  council  to  1^  con- 
trary to  the  interests  of  the  empire,  was  able  to  start  a 
train  of  influences  which  led  to  the  breaking-up  of  the 
Hagenau  Conference  before  it  had  fairly  begun.  The 
emperor's  necessities,  however,  compelled  its  revivifica- 
tion, and  a  decree  recalled  its  members  to  Worms  to 
open  the  renewed  conference,  Oct.  28.  The  actual  date 
of  its  opening  was,  however,  Nov.  25,  the  imperial  chan- 
cellor, Granvella,  presiding.   As  at  H agenau,  the  princes 


WORMS,  COLLOQUIES  OF       985       WORMS,  COLLOQUIES  OF 


were  repreieiited  by  tfaeir  political  and  theological  agenti. 
Rome  was  represented  by  Campeggio,  brother  to  the  car- 
lUnal,  and  bishop  of  Feltre,  whoae  diplomatic  ability  was 
equal  to  the  task  of  preventing  the  aucceas  of  this  re- 
newed attempt  to  secure  a  national  ooonciL  He  pro- 
posed that  the  disenasionB  should  be  in  writing,  and 
that  each  party  should  have  but  one  vote,  instead  of 
being  permitted  to  secure  victory  by  a  majority  of  indi- 
vidual voicea,.both  of  which  measures  were  rejected. 
Granvella's  proposition,  however,  that  a  single  theolo- 
gian from  either  party  should  represent  his  side,  but 
that  any  member  of  the  conference  should  be  at  liberty 
to  add  whatever  he  might  deem  proper,  was  rejected 
by  the  nuncio,  and  afterwards  admitted  only  with  the 
proviso  that  such  additions  might  be  made  by  a  majority 
of  either  party  only,  a  minority  being  allowed  to  submit 
their  objections  in  writing  to  the  president  and  the  im- 
perial orator.  Discosdons  respecting  such  matters  of 
form  occupied  the  whole  of  December.  The  business 
of  the  conference  began  Jan.  2, 1541.  Melanchthon  and 
Calvin  were  prominent  on  the  Protestant  side,  and  the 
former  was  opposed  to  his  familiar  antagonist,  £ck,  the 
disputation  b^tnning  with  the  charge,  advanced  by 
£ck,  that  the  alterations  made  in  the  Augsbuig  Conn 
fession  marked  a  departure  from  the  original  ground  of 
that  instrument,  and  the  response  by  Melanchthon  that 
the  changes  made  had  respect  merely  to  matters  of  form. 
The  question  of  original  sin  was  again  taken  in  hand, 
but  with  no  result,  as  might  have  been  expected  from 
a  disputation  to  which  a  man  like  £ck,  whose  vanity 
would  permit  no  retraction  even  if  he  were  defeated, 
was  a  party.  The  conference  was  thus  fruitlessly  occu- 
pied from  Jan.  14  to  17,  and  on  the  following  day  an 
imperial  rescript  brought  the  Conference  of  Worms  to  a 
dose,  and  transferred  its  business  to  Ratisbon,  where  a 
.diet  of  the  empire  had  begun  to  assemble.  The  result 
of  that  congress  demonstrated  completely  the  impossi- 
bility of  a  peaceful  settlement  of  existing  differences, 
and  left  the  prospect  dark  with  clouds  of  strife,  which 
ultimately  burst  in  the  Smalkald  war. 

Documents  relating  to  the  first  Colloquy  of  Worms 
are  quite  fully  given  in  Corp,  Reform,  iti,  1182-iv,  90. 
See,  in  addition,  Raynald,  ad  ann.  1540, 47-59;  Secken- 
dorf,  nist,  Ltah,  iti,  21,  §  79,  80;  Salig,  IJitt,  d,  Augp- 
burg  Con/,  I,  bk.  iii,  2,  §  8, 4 ;  Ranke,  Deutach.  Geach,  im 
ZeUdUer  <L  Re/ormcUion,  iv,  151  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-En' 
egklop.  s.  V. 

11.  The  Colloquy  of  1557  was  the  last  in  the  scries 
of  fruitless  endeavors  to  bring  together  the  now  com- 
pletely divided  religious  parties  of  the  German  empire. 
Its  principal  importance,  however,  consists  in  its  bearing 
upon  the  internal  conditions  of  the  Protestant  Church 
itself.  The  religious  peace  of  Augsburg  had  secured 
the  external  interests  of  that  Church  for  a  time ;  but  the 
rise  of  Flacianism  originated  most  bitter  controversy 
within  its  own  pale,  whose  subject  was  the  Avgusiana, 
the  confession  upon  which  the  Evangelical  Church  based 
its  right  to  recognition  itself.  There  was  consequently 
no  desire  among  theologians  fur  a  religious  congress, 
particularly  such  a  congress  as  was  called  for  by  the  re- 
cess of  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  in  1557,  which  directed  that 
a  colloquy  between  the  atlherents  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith  and  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  should  be  held. 
Statesmen,  for  their  part,  had  learned  by  repeated  ex- 
periences to  regard  such  measures  as  wholly  unsuited 
to  accomplish  the  end  in  view  and  give  the  desired  rest 
to  Church  and  country,  llie  wish  of  king  Ferdinand, 
however,  decided  the  case,  and  the  colloquy  was  fixed 
for  August,  1557.  A  previous  diet  of  Protestant  princes 
was  convoked  at  Frankfort,  for  the  purpose  of  attempt- 
ing a  reconciliation  of  parties  in  the  evangelical  camp, 
but  without  result;  and  the  representatives  of  Emes- 
tinian  Saxony  went  to  Worms  instructed  to  labor  that 
a  solid  front  might  be  presented  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
foe,  but  to  make  the  utterance  of  the  Flacian  thibboleih 
the  condition  of  any  unity  that  might  be  reached.  The 
arrival  of  the  delegation  from  electocal  Saxoigr  was  de- 


layed, and  the  Flacianists  used  the  opportunity  thus 
afforded  to  attempt  the  proselytizing  of  the  representa- 
tives of  other  governments  as  they  arrived;  but  in  this 
respect  their  success  was  very  imperfect.  An  attack 
directed  against  Melanchthon  in  the  assembly  of  Sept.  4 
by  the  theologians  of  Weimar  was  equally  without 
satisfactory  result,  and  even  led  to  threats  of  excluding 
the  troublesome  party  from  the  colloquy,  the  occasion 
being  marked  with  great  violence  and  passion.  A  writ- 
ten condemnation  of  the  corrupters  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  was  finally  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Prot- 
estant assessors,  with  the  reser^'atton  of  liberty  to  publish 
the  paper  if  it  should  become  necessary.  Melanchthon, 
against  whom  all  those  efforts  were  principally  directed, 
endeavored  to  harmonize  the  conflicting  elements,  and 
even  drew  up  a  formula  of  consensus,  which  amounted 
to  a  retraction  of  the  points  offensive  to  Flacianists,  but 
was  thwarted  in  his  purpose  to  restore  peace  by  the 
obstinacy  of  others,  particularly  the  WUrtembergers. 

In  the  absence  of  the  princes  king  Ferdinand  had  ap- 
pointed  the  bishop  of  Spires  to  preside  at  Worms,  and 
when  that  prelate  became  sick  he  substituted  for  him 
the  bishop  of  Naumburg,  Julius  von  Pfiug,  the  only 
person,  perhaps,  besides  Melanchthon,  who  cherished  a 
real  desire  for  reconciliation.  Pfiug  was  supported  by 
Seldius,  the  royal  vice-chancellor,  and  each  party  had 
its  assessors,  adjuncts,  suditors,  and  notaries.  The  prin- 
cipal collocutors  were  Melanchthon,  Brentius,  Morlin, 
Schnepf,  etc,  on  the  Protestant,  and  the  theologian 
Canisius  and  the  perverts  Sisphyluo  and  Wicelius  (q.  v.) 
on  the  Romish,  side.  A  preliminary  meeting,  for  agree 
ment  on  the  methods  to  be  observed  in  the  disputation, 
was  held  in  September,  which,  however,  served  only  to 
begin  the  series  of  difliculties  encountered  in  the  progress 
of  the  conference,and  to  foretell  its  failure.  Melanchtlion 
made  a  preliminary  statement,  unequivocally  based  on 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  in  behalf  of  the  Protestant 
party;  and  Sidonius,  speaking  for  the  other  party,  in- 
terposed objections,  whose  effect  the  president  was  able 
to  neutralize  only  by  refusing  to  receive  either  state- 
ment in  documentary  form.  On  Sept.  14  the  expecta- 
tion of  ultimate  failure  to  realize  the  ends  hoped  for 
from  the  conference,  which  the  delegates  evidently  en- 
tertained, found  expression  in  the  decision  to  conduct 
the  disputation  in  writing — a  decision  which  protracted 
the  debate  interminably.  On  the  following  day  a  ques- 
tion of  fundamental  importance  was  discussed,  upon 
which  the  parties  came  to  a  disagreement  so  unquali- 
fied that  no  future  reconciliation  was  possible — ^the  ques- 
tion respecting  standards  of  authority  by  which  to  test 
questions  of  doctrine,  etc.  The  Romanists  proposed  and 
insisted  on  the  Comemua  Patrum  as  such  a  standard, 
but  the  Protestants  interposed  a  formal  protest  against 
the  proposition.  The  attempt  to  ignore  the  fundamental 
character  of  this  difference,  made  by  introducing  and 
proceeding  to  discuss  the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  met 
with  failure ;  and  as  it  was  now  evident  that  no  agree- 
ment could  be  reached  where  the  opposing  principles 
were  so  surely  destructive  of  each  other,  the  Romish 
party  adopted  the  tactics  of  exciting  quarrels  among 
their  opponents,  which  should  necessitate  the  adjourn- 
ment of  the  conference.  Canisius  called  attention  to 
the  many  alterations  made  in  the  A  ugugtami,  and  Si- 
donius demanded  that  the  evangelicals  should  declare 
whether  Zwinglians  and  Calvinists  on  the  sacraments, 
Osiandrians  on  justification,  Flacianists  with  respect  to 
the  De  Servo  A  rbitrio  and  good  works,  and  the  Picards 
on  many  points,  were  judged  to  be  beyond  the  pale  of 
the  Augsburg  Conference.  The  Weimar  theologians 
now  submitted  their  hitherto  unpublished  protestation 
to  the  president  and  the  Romish  councillors,  despite  the 
opposition  of  the  Protestant  assessors  and  the  threat 
that  they  should  be  excluded  from  the  congress.  Duke 
John  Frederic  the  Intermediate  attempted,  by  personal 
intervention,  to  influence  Melanchthon  to  favor  the 
Weimar  party,  but  that  theologian  could  lay  the  blame 
for  the  failure  of  the  colloquy  at  no  other  door  than  that 


WORMWOOD,  STAR  OF         986 


WORSHIP 


of  the  Weimar  delegation,  and  was,  bendes,  too  clotely 
united  with  the  WUrtembergera  to  become  the  ally  of 
Weimar.  The  Flacianista  thereupon  wrote  to  Pflug  to 
explain  their  action,  and  to  protest  against  their  exdu- 
rion  from  the  oongrees;  and  the  Rombh  aneason,  etc^ 
voted  against  the  continuation  of  the  colloquy,  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  determine  the 
party  with  which  the  disputation  ought,  by  the  terms 
of  the  Ratisbon  recess,  to  be  held.  Both  protestations 
were  officially  acknoivledged  by  Pflug,  Oct.  6.  Duke 
Christopher  of  Saxooy  sent  other  theoU^anSi  but  the 
Romanists  peisisted  in  their  refusal  to  dispute.  A  del- 
egation of  French  Protestants  arrived  at  this  precise 
Juncture  to  invoke  the  good  offices  of  their  coreligion- 
ists with  Henry  II,  who  had  incarcemted  one  hundred 
and  thirty-five  members  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in 
Paris,  and  their  arrival  complicated  matters  by  raising 
the  question  whether  adherents  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession could  properly  take  action  in  favor  of  members 
of  the  Reformed  churches;  and  the  difficulty  was  still 
further  aggravated  by  a  violent  controversial  sermon, 
with  which  George  Major,  at  Leipsic,  responded  to  the 
charges  submitted  by  the  Weimarians  at  Worms.  The 
protest  rendered  Oct  21  by  the  evangelical  party,  in 
which  they  charge<l  the  failure  of  the  colloquy  upon 
the  Romish  opponents,  though  in  some  respects  author- 
ized, was  yet  neutralized  by  the  irreconcilable  differ- 
ences which  were  thus  shown  to  exist  among  its  alleged 
supporters,  and  elicited  no  response.  All  the  papers  re- 
lating to  the  colloquy  were  sent  to  Ferdinand,  and  the 
toembers  of  the  congress  scattered.  A  royal  rescript 
was  received,  Nov.  16,  ordering,  if  possible,  a  renewal  of 
the  colloquy,  in  which  the  Weimar  theologians  should 
be  allowed  to  participate,  and  in  connection  with  which 
the  Romish  party  should  be  satisfied  with  a  general 
profession  of  adherence  to  the  Augsburg  Confession  on 
the  part  of  its  opponents.  A  long  series  of  protests  and 
responses  was  the  result  of  this  order,  whose  persistency 
finally  exhausted  even  the  patience  of  Pflug.  He  for- 
warded the  whole  collection  to  the  king,  and  reported 
the  impossibility  of  securing  the  results  desired  from  a 
disputation.  The  last  official  attempt  to  unite  the  two 
opposing  religious  parties  of  Grerroany  was  ended. 

For  documentary  sources,  see  Corp,  Rrfornu  vol.  ix, 
and  Raynald,  ad  ann.  1557,  No.  81-85.  The  most 
thorough  presentation  of  the  colloquy  is  that  of  Salig, 
Hist,  d.  A  ugthurg  Conf,  iii,  9, 1 ;  see  also  Planck,  Guck, 
d.  ProU  Lehrbeffrifftf  iii,  8,  8;  Bucholtz,  Geick,  Ferdi' 
nands  /,  vii,  6 ;  Herzog,  ReaUEncyhlop,  s.  v. 

Wormwood,  Star  of  {aar^p  ^^iv^oci  Rev.  viii, 
10,  11),  the  Apocalyptic  appellation  for  the  national 
daemon  of  Egypt,  set  forth  in  the  vision  of  Patmos  as  a 
luminous  »do/  presiding  over  ''the  third  part  of  the 
waters."  The  vocation  of  this  star  was  to  destroy  by 
poison,  not  by  fire,  sword,  or  famine ;  hence  the  Tal- 
mudic  phrase  "  poison  in  Egypt "  is  put  in  opposition 
to  food  or  "  corn  in  Ephraim  **  as  the  symbol  of  blas- 
phemy and  idolatry  (Bab.  Talmud,  Menacoth,  fol.  85, 1). 
Philo  also,  speaking  of  Helicon,  **  the  scorpion-like  slave,** 
represents  him  as  having  cast  up  rbv  AiyvvrtoKhv  I6v, 
"  the  Egyptian  venom,"  against  the  dwellers  in  Pales- 
tine (/>e  Lepat,  p.  102,  ed.  Tumeb.).  Daniel  gives  a 
clear  intimation  of  his  acquaintance  with  the  prevalent 
belief  that,  like  Persia,  Greece,  and  Judaea,  every  na- 
tion had  a  celestial  prince  or  patron,  *llO,  sar,  or  sir 
(Dan.  X,  21).  This  sar  lamtala,  "  prince  on  high,"  of 
the  rabbins  had  also  a  representative  image  in  the  ma- 
terial firmament  (rabbi  Salomon  on  Dan.  xi,  1),  some 
(^  ?"*}!,  h&ef)  glittering  son  of  the  morning  (Isa.  xiv, 
12),  or  "light  of  lights"  {mori  red)  among  the  splendid 
stars  or  intercessors  above  (^felitim,  Ezek.  xxxii,  7,  8), 
who  were  "  darkene<l "  when  Pharaoh  was  extinguished. 
Euaebius  {Demons,  Evang,  iv,  8,  10)  and  lamblichns 
(/>«  ACgyptiorum  Mgsteriis,  §  v,  c  25)  both  mention 
**tbe  angels  who  preside  over  the  nations;"  and  rabbi 
Solomon,  the  chief  of  the  Gallican  synagogue  in  his  day, 


affirms  that  **  before  God  wreaks  his  rengeaaoe  oa  « 
people  he  punishes  their  prinee,  because  it  is  writtcD, 
*  The  Lord  shall  punish  the  host  of(k€  high  onies  on  high/ 
and  then  follows  '  and  the  kings  of  the  earth  upon  the 
earth ;'  and,  moreover,  it  is  written, '  How  art  thou  fall- 
en, O  Lucifer,  son  of  the  morning  !* "  (Coatmenf .  on  Jsa, 
xiii,  18).  Hence,  as  the  literal  fulffiment  of  Isa.  xxiv, 
21,  the  Jews  yet  anticipate  "  the  extirpation  of  all  the 
Gentiles,  with  their  princes  on  high  and  their  (pre- 
tended) gods"  (Niaekon,  p.  255,  in  WagenseU's  Ttia 
Igma), 

John  seems  to  employ  this  symbol  of  Egjrptian 
poison  and  bitterness,  as  the  prototype  of  a  great  anti- 
Christian  power,  which  would  poiaon  and  embitter  the 
pure  waters  of  Christian  life  and  doctrine,  oonvcrtittg 
them  into  "  wormwood,"  mittraim  being  a  figure  of 
apostasy  and  rebellion.— Kitto,  a.  v.    See  Stab. 

WoroniOS,  Jak  Pawel,  an  eminent  Polish  prelate 
and  writer,  was  bom  in  1757.  He  was  educated  in  a 
Jesuit  seminar)%  entered  that  order  at  an  early  Mf^, 
and  oh  its  abolition,  in  1772,  entered  the  Society  of 
Missionaries.  In  consideration  of  important  literaiy 
services  rendered  bishop  Cholm,  then  vioe-chanodlor, 
he  was  rewarded  with  the  deanship  of  Lvov.  In  1795 
he  retired  to  the  small  town  of  Kazimieiz,  and  took 
upon  him  the  duties  of  a  parish  priesk.  When  the 
duchy  of  Warsaw  was  formed,  in  1808,  he  was  made 
both  a  member  of  the  council  and  dean  in  the  chapter 
of  the  cathedral.  In  1816  he  became  bishop  of  Crsoow, 
and  in  1827  archbishop  of  Warsaw  and  primate  of  Po- 
land. Going  abroad  for  medical  advice,  he  died  at  Ti- 
cnna,  Oct  16, 1829.  He  published,  among  other  works, 
Stbglla,  a  poem :— ^<^'m  Wislidki,  or  the  Diet  of  WisHea, 
also  a  poem.  His  sermons  were  published  at  Cracow  ia 
1829,  under  the  title  of  Kataniaj  ezyU  AVncU  Parqffaime. 

Worrell,  Charles  Flavel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Chester  County,  Pa^  June  30, 
1805.  He  graduated  from  Lafayette  College  in  1836, 
and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1840.  He 
was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Newton  in  1889L 
During  his  last  year  in  the  seminary  he  supplied  the 
churches  of  Knowlton  and  Blairstown,  N.  J.,  preaching 
half  of  his  time  in  Titusville.  lie  was  ordained  as 
evangelist  by  the  Newton  Presbytery,  and  supplied  the 
Upper  Freehold  (now  Perrinerille)  Church  for  two 
years,  when  he  was  installed  pastor.  He  labored  hers 
for  twenty-five  years,  when  he  was  released,  in  1868, 
and  supplied  the  Plumsted  Church  at  New  Egypt  for 
one  year,/  His  next  charge  was  at  Squan  YiUagc^ 
where  he  was  installed  in  1880.  He  then  retired  in 
very  infirm  health  to  his  farm  in  Perrineville,  and 
gradually  declined  until  his  death,  Jan.  27, 1881.  See 
NecroL  'Report  of  Princeton  Tkeol,  Sem.  1881,  p.  68. 
(W.  P.  S.) 

Worahip  (properly  some  form  of  nHD,  especially 

in  Hithpael ;  Xnrpcia),  homage  paid  to  a  superior,  e»» 
pedally  to  God  (which  we  consider  only),  anally  ex- 
pressed by  prayer,  sacrifice,  and  rituaL  See  each  tent 
in  its  place ;  also  Adoration 

I.  General  View, — The  homage  of  the  progeniton 
of  our  race  was  the  direct  and  simple  effusion  of  grati- 
tude (see  Schroder,  De  Prima  CmUms  Dieam  PtHGei 
Institutione,  Marburg,  1746).  There  can  be  no  dosbt 
that  the  Most  High,  whose  essence  no  man  hath  seen, 
or  can  see,  was  pleated  to  manifest  himself  in  Eden,  by 
an  extemal  svmbol,  to  the  eves  of  hb  innocent  wt)r- 
shippers.  This  divine  manifestation  is  called  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Lord ;  and  may  have  been  in  oonneetioa 
with  the  tree  of  life  in  the  midst  of  the  garden  (Gen. 
ii,  9 ;  iii,  8). 

After  the  first  transgression  the  mode  of  the  divine 
manifestation  was  altered ;  and  a  mediatorial  eeonoesy 
was  established.  Henceforth,  the  homage  {>aid  by  man 
was  the  service  of  a  ereatnre  consekma  of  criae^  a|>- 
proaching  God  tbroogh  the  medium  of  sacrifice,  plead- 
ing for  foigirenesi,  mad  eonfiding  in  mcicy.    Thoiqgh 


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the  diTine  manifefltfttton  was  no  longer  immeduite,  yet 
a  vinble  symbol  of  Jehovah  was  still  vouchsafed  in 
the  Shekinah  or  visible  glory,  from  which  Cain  was 
exiled  (Gen.  iv,  16;  comp.  2  Tbess.  i,  9;  Psa.  xcvi,  8); 
which  was  seen  by  Abraham  (Acts  vii,  2) ;  by  Moses 
and  the  people  (Exod.  iii,  2-6;  xiii,  21,  22;  xxiv,  16, 
18 ;  Numb,  xiv,  10 ;  xvi,  19,  42) ;  by  the  high-priest 
(Exod.  XXV,  22;  Lev.  xvi,  2);  by  Solomon  in  the  tem- 
ple (1  Kings  viii,  10-12) ;  and  flnaUy  in  "the  Word 
made  flesh  "  (John  i,  14). 

Since  this  last  visible  manifestation,  the  worship  of 
the  Most  High,  which  is  no  longer  external  and  sym- 
bolic, has  not  been  confined  to  any  one  place.  **  God 
is  a  Spirit,  and  they  that  worship  him  must  worship 
him  in  spirit  and  in  truth  ^  (John  iv,  21-24).  God 
now  manifests  himself  to  the  spirits  of  his  faithful  wor- 
shippers, helping  their  infirmities.  Hence  the  presence 
of  the  L^rd  is  in  every  place  where  Christ  is  active  in 
the  Spirit,  and  where  through  him,  the  sole  mediator, 
the  faithful  pay  their  homage.  As  the  true  wonhip 
of  God  is  only  in  the  inward  heart,  and  the  whole  life 
a  spiritual  service,  every  Christian  in  particular,  and 
every  Church  in  general,  now  represent  a  spiritual  tem- 
ple of  the  Lord.  In  the  assemblies  of  the  faithful, 
God  by  his  Spirit  diffuses  his  vital  and  sanctifying  in- 
fluence, and  takes  his  devout  worshippers  into  fellow- 
ship with  himself,  from  which  they  derive  strength  to 
do  and  suffer  his  will  in  the  various  scenes  of  life,  while 
he  there  affords  them  a  foretaste  of  the  deep  and  hal- 
lowed pleasures  which  are  reserved  for  them  in  his  im- 
mediate presence  forevermore  (Matt,  v,  8 ;  Heb.  xii,  14). 
See  the  monographs  cited  by  Volbeding,  Index  Pro» 
fframmatvm,  p.  107, 127,  ISO. 

IF.  Atnoi^  the  Ancient  ItraeHtet. — 1.  In  General  Ade* 
— ^The  forefather  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  Abraham,  ap- 
pears at  the  outset  as  a  firm  monotheist;  but  in  his 
migrations  there  are  obscure  traces  of  a  lingering  idol- 
atry, at  least  in  bis  family  (Gen«  xxi,  19,  80 ;  xxxv, 
2  sq.;  comp.  Josh,  xxiv,  2,  14;  Jud.  v,  6  sq.;  see  Jon- 
athan, Targ.  on  Gen.  xxxi,  19 ;  also  Sonne,  Der  Gott 
Abraham's  [Hanover,  1806]).  See  Tkbaphoi.  The 
worship  of  the  patriarchs  (Ben-David,  U«h,  die  Rdiff, 
der  JSbraer  vor  Moses  [Berlin,  1812],  contains  strange 
hypotheses)  was  exceedingly  simple,  consisting  of  offer- 
ings and  prayer  (Gen.  xxiv,  63),  presented  at  whatever 
place  of  residence,  although  very  early  particular  spots 
seem  to  have  been  held  sacred  (u  e.  where  God  had 
specially  manifested  himself;  see  Gen.  xii,  7,  8  [comp. 
xiii,  4] ;  xlvi,  1  [comp.  xxvi,  28] ;  e.  g.  anointed  pillars. 
Gen.  xxviii,  18 ;  xxxv,  14),  heights  having  the  prefer- 
ence to  plains  (Cieu.  xxii,  2 ;  xxxi,  54 ;  see  Creuzer, 
SffwhoL  i,  158  sq. ;  Zacharift,  De  More  Vett,  in  Lods 
EdUis  Colendi  Deum  [Halle,  1704]).  See  Hioh-flace. 
Subsequently  worship  was  held  under  (shady)  trees 
and  in  groves  (Gen.  xiii,  18 ;  xxi,  88 ;  comp.  Tacit 
Germ,  xxxix,  7 ;  Callim.  In  Dion,  xxxviii ;  Soph. 
Traeh,  764;  Ovid,  Fagt,  iii,  296;  Apollon.  Rhod,  iv, 
1714;  see  Woken,  De  Iamm  TemporSnuqve  qua  FideJes, 
Ante  Legem  Cerimon,  Preces  Desdnerunt  [Rostock, 
1720] ;  DoughtsBi  Ancdect.  i,  24  sq.).  See  Grove.  In 
the  offerings  the  ruling  idea  was  that  of  thanking  and 
propitiating  God  in  general,  the  proper  notion  of  expi- 
ation not  yet  appearing.  See  Ofpkrino.  The  priests 
were  the  heads  of  the  families.     See  Meijcrizedek. 

In  Egypt  the  larger  part  of  the  Israelites  may  per- 
haps have  been  more  or  less  addicted  to  nature  worship 
(see  Exod.  xxxii;  Lev.  xvii,  7;  Josh,  xxiv,  14;  Eaek. 
XX,  7),  and  in  the  desert  traces  of  Sabaism  are  evident 
(Numb.  XXV ;  Amos  v,  25  sq.).  Moses,  however,  estab- 
lished the  cultus  of  Jehovah  as  the  exclusive  religion, 
and  to  him  the  strict  rule  of  monotheism  is  due.  The 
ritual  of  the  law  is  no  copy  of  the  Egyptian  (Spener) 
nor  of  the  Phosnician  (Yatke)  institutions,  although 
particular  features  may  have  been  derived  from  the 
former  (Hengstenberg,  Moses,  p.  147  sq. ;  Bilhr,  SymboL 
i,  89  sq.),  but  recognised  Jehovah  as  the  sole  national 
deity,  and  stood  in  direct  personal  as  well  as  public  re- 


lation to  him.  See  Law.  It  contained  a  multitude 
of  special  provisions  (such  as  sacrifices,  vows,  fasts,  etc.), 
both  of  a  positive  and  a  negative  kind,  pointing  to  God 
as  the  giver  of  all  good,  and  the  object  of  all  moral 
obligation,  both  of  blessing  and  atonement ;  especially 
embodying  the  distinction  of  ekan  and  uwdean  in  all 
the  bodily  relations  of  life.  The  cardinal  sections  of 
this  cultus  are  marked  by  the  regularly  recurring  fes- 
tivals (q.  v.),  and  the  tabemado  and  temple  were  its 
central  rallying-poiuts  as  a  national  system  of  obser- 
vance, while  the  priesthood  formed  its  official  conser- 
vatore  and  expounders.    See  Priest. 

The  most  marked  of  its  peculiar  features  were  the 
mruf'Ms  character  of  the  deity  adored,  in  which  it  stood 
in  bold  contrast  with  all  the  prevalent  idolatries;  and 
the  universality  of  its  prescriptions,  as  pertaining  not 
only  to  the  whole  nation,  but  to  every  indiindual  in  it, 
and  to  the  minutest  affain  of  social  and  private  econ- 
omy.   See  MosAiSM. 

In  later  times,  especially  after  the  exile,  the  national 
worship  was  in  some  degree  affected  by  foreign  subju- 
gation, and  in  process  of  time  abnormal  elements  grad- 
nally  crept  in,  such  as  Sadduceeism  and  Essenism.  Un- 
der Antiochus  Epiphanes  a  violent  effort  was  made  to 
force  paganism  bodily  upon  the  Jews,  but  it  succeeded 
onlv  to  a  small  extent.  Under  the  Ptolemies  full  tol- 
eration  was  allowed,  and  under  Alexander  extraordinary 
privileges  were  granted  even  to  foreign  Jews.  During 
all  this  period  the  heathen  mien  occasionally  contrib- 
uted to  the  Mosaic  worship  (see  Ezra  vi,  9 ;  1  Mace 
X,  84;  2  Mace  iii,  8;  Josephus,  Ant,  xii,  8,  3;  xiv, 
10-23).  It  is  well  known  that  under  the  Boman  rule, 
the  Jews,  even  in  Borne  itself  (Dio  Cass,  xxxvii,  17), 
were  allowed  the  full  exercise  of  their  religion  (see 
Zimmem,  Gesch,  d,  r6nu  PrivafrechtSf  I,  ii,  470;  Levy- 
sohn,  De  Judmor.  sub  Ccssar,  Conditione  [L.  B.  1828]). 
See  Judaism. 

2.  In  Prayer  Particularly, — This,  as  constituting  the 
central  idea  of  worship,  was  always  strictly,  although 
not  formally,  understood  in  the  Mosaic  service.  There 
are  no  directions  as  to  prayer  given  in  the  Mosaic  law ; 
the  duty  is  rather  taken  for  granted,  as  an  adjunct  to 
sacrifice,  than  enforced  or  elaborated.  The  temple  is 
emphatically  designated  as  **the  House  of  Prayer** 
(Isa.  Ivi,  7) ;  it  could  not  be  otherwise,  if  **  He  who 
hears  prayer  **  (Psa.  Ixv,  2)  there  manifested  his  special 
presence ;  and  the  prayer  of  Solomon  offered  at  its  con- 
secretion  (1  Kings  viii,  80,  85,  38)  implies  that  in  it 
were  offered,  both  the  private  prayers  of  each  single 
man,  and  the  public  prayers  of  all  Israel. 

It  is  hardly  conceivable  that,  even  from  the  begin* 
ning,  public  pra}*er  did  not  follow  every  public  sacrifice, 
whether  propitiatory  or  eucharistic,  as  regularly  as  the 
incense,  which  was  the  symbol  of  prayer  (see  Psa.  cxii, 
2 ;  Rev.  viii,  8,  4).  Such  a  practice  is  alluded  to  as 
common  in  Luke  i,  10 ;  and  in  one  instance,  at  the  offer- 
ing of  the  first-fruits,  it  was  ordained  in  a  striking  form 
(I^ut  xxvi,  12-15).  In  later  times  it  certainly  grew 
into  a  regular  8er\4oe,  both  in  the  temple  and  in  the 
synagogue.    See  Syhagooue. 

But,  iMsides  this  public  prayer,  it  was  the  custom  of 
all  at  Jerusalem  to  go  op  to  the  temple,  at  regular  houre 
if  posrible,  for  private  prayer  (see  Luke  xviii,  10;  Acts 
iii,  1) ;  and  those  who  were  absent  were  wont  to  "  open 
their  windows  towards  Jerusalem," and  prey  *'  towards** 
the  place  of  God*s  presence  (1  Kings  viii,  46^9 ;  Psa, 
V,  7 ;  xxviii,  2 ;  cxxxviii,  2;  Dan.  vi,  10).  The  desire 
to  do  this  was  possibly  one  reason,  independently  of 
other  and  more  obvious  ones,  why  the  house-top  or  the 
mountain-top  were  chosen  places  of  private  prayer. 

The  regular  houn  of  prayer  seem  to  have  been 
three  (see  Psa,  Iv,  17 ;  Dan.  vij  10),  the  "  evening,"  that 
is,  the  ninth  hour  (Acts  iii,  1 ;  x,  8),  the  hour  of  the 
evening  sacrifice  (Dan.  ix,  21) ;  the  "  morning/*  that  is, 
the  third  hour  (Acts  ii,  15),  that  of  the  morning  sacri- 
fice; and  the  sixth  hour,  or  *<  noonday.'*  To  these 
woidd  naturally  be  added  some  prayer  at  rising  and 


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lying  down  to  sleep ;  and  thence  might  easily  be  de- 
veloped (by  the  love  of  the  mystic  namber  seven),  the 
**  seven  times  a  day"  of  Psa.  cxix,  164,  if  this  is  to  be 
literally  understood,  and  the  seven  hours  of  prayer  of 
the  ancient  Church.  Some,  at  least,  of  these  hours  seem 
to  have  been  generally  observed  by  religious  men  in 
private  prayer  at  home,  or  in  the  midst  of  their  occu- 
pation and  in  the  streets  (Matt,  vi,  6).  Grace  before 
meat  would  seem  to  have  been  an  equally  common 
practice  (see  Matt  xv,  86 ;  Acts  xxvii,  85). 

The  posture  of  prayer  among  the  Jews  seems  to  have 
been  most  often  standing  (1  Sam.  i,  26;  Matt,  vi,  6; 
Mark  xi,  25;  Luke  xviii,  11) ;  unless  the  prayer  were 
offered  with  especial  solemnity  and  humiliation,  which 
waa  naturally  expressed  by  kneeling  (1  Kings  viii,54; 
comp.  2  Chron.  vi,  18;  Ezra  ix,  5;  Psa.  zcv,  6;  Dan. 
vi,  10) ;  or  prostration  (Josh,  vii,  6;  1  Kings  xviit,  42; 
Neh.  viii,  6).  The  hands  were  "lifted  up,"  or  <* spread 
out*'  before  the  Lord  (Exod.  ix,  88;  FSa.  xxviii,  2; 
cxxxiv,  2,  etc.).  In  the  Christian  Church  no  posture  is 
mentioned  in  the  New  TesL  excepting  that  of  kneel* 
ing;  see  Acts  vii,  60  (St.  Stephen) ;  ix,  40  (St.  Peter) ; 
XX,  86;  xxi,  5  (St.  Paul);  perhaps  from  imitation  of 
the  example  of  our  Lord  in  Gethsemane  (on  which  oc- 
casion alone  his  posture  in  prayer  is  recorded).  In 
after-times,  as  is  well  known,  this  posture  was  varied 
by  the  custom  of  standing  in  prayer  on  the  Lord's  day, 
and  during  the  period  from  Easter  to  Whitsunday,  in 
order  to  commemorate  his  resurrection,  and  our  spirit- 
ual resurrection  in  him.     See  Pratks. 

II.  Christian  YTorMtp.^This  is  usually  divided  into 
three  kinds,  according  to  the  extent  of  the  persons  en- 
gaged in  it. 

1.  Privaie  Wonhipf  otherwise  called  secret  prayer^  is 
between  the  individual  and  his  Maker.  It  is  specifi- 
cally enjoined  b}*  our  Iiord  (Matt,  vi,  6),  and  is  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  spiritual  life  in  the  soul  of  the 
believer.    See  Closet. 

The  lately  discovered  Teaehing  ofiht  Twelve  A'paetles 
(§  viii)  enjoins  the  use  of  the  Lord's  Tnyex  ^  three 
times  a  da}*,"  evidently  for  private  devotion.  See 
Lord's  Pratkr. 

Private  worship  should  be  conducted  with,  (1)  rever- 
ence and  veneration ;  (2)  self-abasement  and  confession ; 
(8)  contemplation  of  the  perfections  and  promises  of 
God;  (4)  supplication  for  ourselves  and  others;  (5) 
earnest  desire  of  the  enjoyment  of  God ;  (6)  frequency 
and  regularity.    See  Dk%'otion. 

2.  Family  WorMkip^  i.  e.  regular  domestic  prayer. 
This  is  obviously  called  for  in  order  to  the  proper  relig- 
ious conduct  of  the  Christian  household,  and  its  obliga- 
tion is  enforced  by  nearly  every  branch  of  evangelical 
Christendom.    Sc«  Family. 

8.  Public  Worshipf  u  e.  religious  services  conducted 
in  the  general  congregation.  Some  who  have  acknowl- 
edged the  propriety  of  private  worship  have  objected 
to  that  of  a  public  nature,  but  without  any  sufficient 
ground.  For  Christ  attended  public  worship  himself 
(Luke  iv);  he  prayed  with  his  disciples  (Luke  ix,  28, 
29 ;  xi,  1) ;  he  promises  his  presence  to  social  worship- 
pers (Matt  xviii,  20).  It  may  be  argued  also  from  the 
conduct  of  the  apostles  (Acts  i,  24;  ii;  iv,  24;  vi,  4; 
XX,  36 ;  Rom.  xv,  80 ;  1  Cor.  xiv ;  2  Thess.  iii,  1,  2 ;  1 
Cor.  xi)  and  from  general  principles  (Deut.  xxxi,  12; 
Psa.  c,  4  M  Tiro,  ii,  2, 8 ;  Heb.  x,  25). 

The  obligation  of  public  worship  is  partly  founded 
upon  example,  and  partly  upon  precept ;  so  that  no 
person  who  admits  that  authority  can  question  this 
great  duty  without  manifest  and  criminal  inconsisten- 
cy. The  institution  of  public  worship  under  the  law, 
and  the  practice  of  synagogue  worship  among  the  Jews, 
from  at  least  the  time  of  Ezra,  cannot  be  questioned ; 
both  of  which  were  sanctioned  by  the  practice  of  our 
Lord  and  his  apostleSb  The  preceptive  authority  for 
our  regular  attendance  upon  public  worship  is  either 
inferential  or  direct.  The  command  to  publish  the 
gospel  includes  the  obligation  of  assembling  to  hear  it; 


the  name  by  which  a  Christian  society  is  designated  in 
Scripture  is  a  Church,  which  signifies  an  assembly  for 
the  transaction  of  business;  and,  in  the  case  of  a  Cbria- 
tian  assembly,  that  business  must  necessarily  be  spir- 
itual, and  indude  the  sacred  exercises  of  prayer,  praise, 
and  hearing  the  Scriptures. 

But  we  have  more  direct  precepts,  although  the 
practice  was  obviously  continued  from  Judaism,  and 
was  therefore  consuetudinary.  Some  of  the  epistks 
of  Paul  are  commanded  to  be  read  in  the  churches. 
The  singing  of  psalms,  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs  is 
enjoined  as  an  act  of  solemn  worship  to  the  Lord;  and 
Paul  cautions  the  Hebrews  that  they  ^^  forsake  not 
the  assembling  of  themselves  together."  The  practice 
of  the  primitive  age  is  also  manifest  from  the  epistks 
of  Paid.  The  Lord's  Supper  was  celebrated  by  the 
body  of  believers  collectively;  and  this  apostle  pre- 
scribes to  the  Corinthians  regulations  for  the  exereiscs 
of  prayer  and  prophcsyings,  *'  when  they  came  together 
in  the  Church  "—the  assembly.  The  periodicity  and 
order  of  these  holy  offices  in  the  primitive  Church,  ap- 
pear also  from  the  apostolic  epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome' 
**  We  ought  also,  looking  into  the  depths  of  the  divine 
knowledge,  to  do  all  things  in  order,  whatsoever  the 
Lord  hath  commanded  to  be  done.  We  ought  to  make 
our  oblations,  and  perform  our  holy  offices,  at  their  ap- 
pointed seasons;  for  these  he  hath  commanded  to  be 
done,  not  irregularly  or  by  chance,  but  at  determinate 
tiroes  and  hours;  as  he  hath  likewise  ordained  by  his 
supreme  will  where,  and  by  what  persons,  they  shall  be 
performed ;  that  so  all  things  being  done  according  to 
his  pleasure,  may  be  acceptable  in  his  sight."  This 
passage  is  remarkable  for  urging  a  divine  authority  for 
the  public  services  of  the  Church,  by  which  dement, 
no  donbt,  means  the  authority  of  the  inspired  directions 
of  the  apostles.    See  Skrvice. 

The  ends  of  the  institution  of  public  worship  are  of 
such  obvious  importance  that  it  must  ever  be  considered 
as  one  of  the  most  condescending  and  gracious  dispen- 
sations of  God  to  man.  By  this  his  Church  oonfenes 
his  name  before  the  world ;  by  this  the  public  teaching 
of  his  word  is  associated  with  acts  calculated  to  affect 
the  mind  with  that  solemnity  which  is  the  best  prep- 
aration for  hearing  it  to  edification.  It  is  thus  that  the 
ignorant  and  the  vicious  are  collected  together,  and  in- 
structed and  warned ;  the  invitations  of  mercy  are  pub- 
lished to  the  guilty,  and  the  sorrowful  and  afflicted  are 
comforted.  In  these  assemblies  God,  by  his  Holy  Spirit, 
diffuses  his  vital  and  sanaifying  influence,  and  takes 
the  devout  into  a  fellowship  with  himself,  from  which 
they  derive  strength  to  do  and  to  suffer  his  will  in  the 
various  scenes  of  life,  while  he  there  afforda  than  a 
foretaste  of  the  deep  and  hallowed  pleasures  which  are 
reserved  for  them  at  his  right  hand  forevermore.  Pray- 
ers and  intercessions  are  offered  for  national  and  public 
interests,  and  while  the  benefit  of  these  exercises  de- 
scends upon  a  country ,'all  are  kept  sensible  of  the  de- 
pendence of  every  public  and  personal  interest  upon 
God.  Praise  calls  forth  the  grateful  emotions,  and  gives 
cheerfulness  to  piety;  and  that  instruction  in  right- 
eousness, which  is  so  perpetuslly  repeated,  diff^ases  the 
principles  of  morality  and  religion  throughout  society, 
enlightens  and  gives  activity  to  conscience,  raises  the 
standard  of  morals,  attaches  shame  to  vice  and  praise 
to  virtue,  and  thus  exerts  a  powerfully  purifying  influ- 
ence upon  mankind.  Laws  thus  receive  a  force  whidt, 
in  other  circumstances,  they  could  not  acquire,  even 
were  they  enacted  in  as  great  perfection ;  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  is  aided  1^  the  strongest  possible 
obligation  and  sanction  being  given  to  legal  oatha.  The 
domestic  relations  are  rendered  more  strong  and  inter- 
esting by  the  very  habit  of  the  attendance  of  CsmUlcs 
upon  the  sacred  services  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  Lord; 
and  the  meeting  of  the  rich  and  the  poor  together,  and 
their  standing  on  the  same  common  groond  as  sinners 
before  God,  equally  dependent  upon  him,  and  equally 
suing  for  his  mercy,  has  a  powerful,  though  often  an 


WORSHIPPER 


989 


WREATH 


inMnsible,  inflatnce  in  humbling  the  pride  which  is 
nourished  by  superior  rank,  and  in  raising  the  lower 
classes  above  abjectness  of  spirit,  without  injuring  their 
humility.  Piety,  benevolence,  and  patriotism  are  equal* 
ly  dependent  for  their  purity  and  vigor  upon  the  regu- 
lar and  devout  worship  of  God  in  the  simplicity  of  the 
Christian  dispensation. 

Public  worship  therefore  is  of  great  utility,  as  (1)  it 
gives  Christians  an  opportunity  of  openly  professing 
their  faith  in  and  love  to  Christ ;  (2)  it  preserves  a  sense 
of  religion  in  the  mind,  without  which  society  could  not 
well  exist ;  (3)  it  enlivens  devotion  and  promotes  zeal ; 
(4)  it  is  the  means  of  receiving  instruction  and  consola- 
tion ;  (5)  it  affords  an  excellent  example  to  others,  and 
excites  them  to  fear  God,  etc. 

Public  worship  should  be  (1)  solemn,  not  light  and 
trifling  (Psa.  Ixxxix,  7) ;  (2)  simple,  not  pompous  and 
ceremonial  (Isa.  Ixii,  2) ;  (8)  cheerful,  and  not  with  for- 
bidding aspect  (Psa.  c) ;  (4)  sincere,  and  not  hypocritr 
ical  (Isa.  1, 12;  Matt,  xxiii,  13;  John  iv,  24) ;  (5)  pure, 
and  not  superstitious  (Isa.  Ivii,  15).  See  Public  Wor- 
ship. 

WORSHIP  OF  Images.    See  Imaok-woi»hip. 

WORS  H  IP  OF  Saints.  See  Invocation  of  Saints. 

WORSHIP  OF  THE  Virgin  Mart.    See  Mariola- 

TRY. 

^OCTorahlpper  is  a  translation  of  the  Greek  word 
vtuKopoCy  used  once  only  (Acts  xix,  85;  roarg.  "  tem- 
ple-keeper "),  The  neocoros  was  originally  an  attendant 
in  a  temple,  probably  intrusted  with  its  charge  (Eurip. 
Ion  [ed.  Dindorf],  p.'ll5, 121 ;  Plato,  I^g,  [ed.  Bekker], 
vi,  7 ;  Theodoret,  Hist,  £ccUi,  iu,  14, 16 ;  Pollux,  i,  14 ; 
Philo,  De  Prov,  Sac  6,  ii,  237 ;  Hesycbius  explains  it 
by  o  rbv  vahv  Koofiwv,  Koptiv  yAp  ro  caipuv ;  Suidas, 
KOiTfiwv  Kai  ivrptviZufVf  aXX'  ovx  o  aapwv  [ed.  Gaisf. 
p.  2579]).  The  divine  honors  paid  in  later  Greek  times 
to  eminent  persons,  even  in  their  lifetime,  were  imitated 
and  exaggerated  by  the  Romans  under  the  empire, 
especially  in  Asia  (Plut.  Ly».  p.  23;  Appian,  Mkhr, 
p.  76 ;  Dion  Cass,  xxxi,  6).  The  term  neocoros  became 
thus  applied  to  cities  or  communities  which  undertook 
the  worship  of  particular  emperors,  even  in  their  life- 
time, but  there  is  no  trace  of* the  special  title  being  ap- 
plied to  any  cit}*  before  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  first 
occurrence  of  the  term  in  connection  with  Ephesus  is 
on  coins  of  the  age  of  Nero  (A.D.  54-68),  a  time  which 
would  sufficiently  agree  with  its  use  in  the  account  of 
the  riot  there,  probably  in  55  or  66.  In  later  times  the 
title  appears  with  the  numerical  adjuncts  ^i^,  r/oiCf  and 
even  rerpoictc*  A  coin  of  Nero's  time  bears  on  one  side 
'Bpiffiiiw  vftaKopwVf  and  on  the  reverse  a  figure  of  the 
temple  of  Artemis  (Mionnet,  Inscr,  iii,  93;  Eckhel, 
Doctr,  Vet.  Num.  ii,  520).  The  ancient  veneration  of 
Artemis  and  her  temple,  on  the  part  of  the  city  of 
Ephesus,  which  procured  for  it  the  title  of  vnaKopOQ 
r^c  'ApWfti^oc,  is  too  well  known  to  need  illustration ; 
but  in  later  times  it  seems  probable  that  with  the  term 
viuncopoc  the  practice  of  neocorism  became  reserved 
almost  exclusively  for  the  veneration  paid  to  Roman 
emperors,  towards  whom  many  other  cities  also  of  Asia 
Minor  are  mentioned  as  neocorists,  e.  g.  Nicomedia, 
Perinthus,  Sardis,  Smyrna,  Magnesia  (see  Herod,  i,  26 ; 
Strabo,  xiv,  640;  Aristid.  CV.  [ed.  Dindorf],  xlii,  775; 
Mionnet,  Inscr,  iii,  97,  Nos.  281, 285;  Eckhel,  De  Num, 
ii,  520, 521 ;  Boeckh,  Inscr.  2617,  2618, 2622,  2954, 2957, 
2990,2992,2993;  Krause,i)«  Civ.  Neocoris ;  Hoffmann, 
Lex.  su  V. "  Neocoros.'*^Smith,  s.  v.    See  Ephesus. 

Worthington,  Joun  T.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  rector  at  Pittsfield,  IlL,  several 
yeara  prior  to  1856,  and  then  at  Prairieville,  Mo.  In 
1859  he  became  rector  at  Louisiana,  Mo.  The  following 
year  he  served  two  churches,  viz..  Calvary  Church,  in  the 
same  place,  and  St.  Markka  Church,  in  Bowling  Green. 
He  ser\'ed  these  two  parishes  until  about  1864,  when  he 
fixed  his  residence  at  Pittsfield,  111. ;  but  in  1865  again 
became  rector  of  Calvary  Church,  in  Looisiana,  Mo. 


The  following  year  be  was  employed  as  a  missionary  at 
Macon  City  and  Shelbina,  and  in  1867  officiated  at  Pitts- 
field, 111,,  where  he  died  in  1868,  at  the  age  of  sixty-six 
years.     See  Prot.  Epise.  Almanac^  1869,  p.  109. 

Wo^akian  Veralon.  See  Russia,  Versions  of. 

^O^ouncl  (usually  MS^,  irXiry^,  a  stroke ;  but  prop. 
19X&,  rpavfia).  The  Hebrews  had  but  little  knowledge 
of  surgery,  less  than  the  Egyptians.  They  seldom  used 
inward  remedies,  but  trusted  mainly  to  outward  appli- 
cations. Isa.  i,  6  illustrates  the  treatment  of  wounds ; 
they  were  **  closed,"  that  is,  the  lips  of  the  wound  were 
pressed  together  and  bound,  that  cohesion  of  the  parts 
might  be  effected.  "  There  was,  and  is,  no  sewing  up 
of  wounds  in  the  East;  and  hence  the  edges,  healing 
without  being  perfectly  united,  make  the  scar  of  a 
wound  more  conspicuous  and  disfiguring  than  with  us. 
The  only  attempt  to  produce  cohesion  is  by  'binding 
up '  the  wound,  after  the  edges  have  been  as  far  as  pos- 
sible <  closed '  by  simple  pressure  "  (Kitto,  Dailjf  Bible 
lUustr,  vi,  25).  '  Sec  Medicine. 

Wrangel,  Charles  Magnus,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran 
clergyman,  regarded  as  the  ablest  of  the  early  Swedish 
Lutheran  ministers,  entered  upon  his  labon  in  America, 
as  provost  or  chief  pastor  of  the  Swedish  churches, 
in  1759.  During  his  brief  ministry  here  two  new 
churches*  were  built  at  Kingsessing  and  at  Upper  Mer- 
ion,  Pa.  He  preached  with  facility  and  acceptance  in 
Swedish,  German,  and  English.  The  Synod  of  Penn- 
sylvania recommended  the  use  of  his  translation  into 
English  of  Luther's  Catechism.  He  preached,  not  only 
throughout  Pennsylvania,  but  occasionally  in  New  Jer- 
sey,  laboring  in  company  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Muhlenberg. 
He  was  a  man  of  culture,  large  and  varied  acquisitions, 
and  great  .eloquence.  The  crowds  that  attended  his 
preaching  compelled  him  to  hold  service  in  the  open 
air.  After  a  residence  of  nine  yeara  in  America  he  was 
recalled,  and  returned  to  Sweden  in  1768,  where  he  re- 
ceived from  the  government  an  episcopal  appointment 
He  died  in  1786.    See  (Lond.)  Evangelical  Review,  ii, 

"Wrath  is  great  and  permanent  anger  (q.  v.).  The 
wrath  of  God  is  his  indignation  at  sin  and  punishment 
of  it.  "For  the  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  from  heaven 
against  all  ungodliness  and  unrighteousness  of  men 
who  hold  the  truth  in  unrighteousness "  (Rom.  i,  18). 
The  objecta  of  God's  anger  or  wrath  are  the  ungodly, 
whom  he  has  declared  he  will  punish.  His  wrath  is 
sometimes  manifested  in  this  life,  and  that  in  an  awful 
degree,  as  we  see  in  the  case  of  the  old  world,  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah,  the  plagues  of  Egypt,  the  punishment 
and  captivity  of  the  Jews,  and  the  many  striking  judg- 
ments on  nations  and  individuals.  But  a  still  more 
awful  punishment  awaits  the  impenitent  in  the  world 
to  come,  for  the  wicked,  it  is  said,  shall  go  away  into 
everlasting  punishment  ( Bfatt.  xxv,  46 ),  where-  the 
worm  dieth  not  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched  (see  Rom. 
ii,  8, 9).    See  Mediation  ;  Punishment. 

Wreath  (MSSiS,  sebekahf  a  net-work  or  lattice  [as 
often  rendered],  i.  e.  balustrade,  2  Kings  xxv,  17 ;  2 
Chron.  iv,  12,  13 ;  but  perhaps  really  a .  festoon  or 

checkerwork,  as  i''*?*,  ffedtl,  1  Kings  vii,  17  ["fringe," 
i.  e.  tassel,  Deut.  xxii,  12]  certainly  means).  Garlands 
in  ancient  times  were  chiefly  made  of  green  leaves 
or  twigs  (Wisd.  ii,  18),  which,  among  the  ancient  Is- 
raelites, likewise  were  symbols  of  joy  (8  Mace,  vii,  16). 
Accordingly,  victorious  chieftains  and  warrion  were 
crowned  with  such  wreaths  ( Jud.  iii,  8 ;  comp.  He- 
rod, i,  7, 11),  and  they  were  sometimes  strewn  in  their 
path  (Sueton.  Ner.  xxv ;  Livy,  xxxiii,  33 ;  Curtius,  ix, 
10,  25).  Guesta  were  adorned  with  them  (see  Hein- 
dorf,  Ilorat.  Satir.  [ii,  8],  p.  256)  at  feasta  (8  Mace,  iv, 
8 ;  comp.  Athen.  xv,  674) ;  and  on  gala  occasions  dwell- 
ings and  sacred  objects  were  decked  with  them  (1  Mace, 
iv,  57;  Let.  of  Jer.  9  [in  the  Apocr.  Greek] ;  see  Voss, 
Virg.  Georg,  p.  826;  Orelli,  Amob.  ii,  48),  as  likewise 


WREATH 


900 


WRESTLING 


sacrificial  vicdmB  (Herod,  iv,  11,  8)  and  altan  (Acts 
xiv,  13 ;  comp.  Herod,  ii,  45 ;  Strabo,  xv,  782 ;  Pliny, 
xri,  4 ;  Ovid,  Met,  t,  866 ;  see  Tzetzes,  Lycoph.  p.  827 ; 
Wetstein,  A*.  T,  ii,  643;  DoaghUei  Ami  ii,  81 ;  Pere- 
zon.  AHlian,  V,  U,  iii,  3) ;  and  finally  the  worshippers 
themselves  (Herod,  i,  132 ;  Athen.  xv,  674 ;  Lucian,  Dt 
dea  Syr,  xlvi ;  TibulL  i,  10, 28 ;  ii,  2, 16 ;  Apollon.  Rkod, 
ii,  159;  see  B%hr,  Symbol,  ii,  252).  See  Stack,  Aniiq, 
Conviv,  p.  368  sq. ;  Dieteric  and  Nikolai,  in  Ugolini 
The»aur,  xxx.    See  Ckown. 

WREATH,  Ecclesiastical,  is  a  circular  garland  of 
flowers  intertwined;  a  chaplet;  that  which  is  inter- 
woven or  entwined.  Such  symbols  were  made  use  of 
to  designate  certain  saints,  and  are  found  represented 
both  in  old  MSS.,  stained  glass,  and  on  the  lower  panels 
of  rood-screens.  A  wreath  of  flowers,  sometimes  desig- 
nated a  ^  marriage  crown,"  was  often  placed  on  the  head 
of  a  virgin  bride.  Wreaths  were  also  carried  at  funer- 
als. One,  of  the  17th  centur}',  remains  suspended  in 
the  south  aisle  of  St.  Alban's  Abbey.  And  they  were 
anciently,  and  are  now  not  uncommonly,  put  upon  graves 
and  memorial  crosses.    See  Corona. 

Wren,  <Str  Christopher,  an  eminent  English  archi- 
tect and  mathematician,  son  of  Dr.  Christopher  Wren, 
was  bom  at  Knoyle,  in  Wiltshire,  Oct.  20, 1632,  and 
early  discovered  a  special  genius  for  mathematics.  He 
entered  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen, and  graduated  A.B.  in  1650.  He  was  then  chosen 
fellow  of  All-Souls'  College,  and  graduated  A.M.  in  1652. 
He  was  made  professor  of  astronomy  in  Gresham  Col- 
lege, London,  in  August,  1657,  and  three  years  later  he 
received  the  Savilian  professorship  at  Oxford.  In  1661 
he  was  appointed  by  Charles  II  assistant  to  sir  John 
Denham,  the  sun'eyor-geueral,  and  was  commissioned, 
in  1668,  to  survey  and  report  upon  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
with  a  view  to  its  restoration  in  such  a  form  as  to  har- 
monize it  with  the  Corinthian  colonnade  added  to  it  bv 

* 

Jones.  The  scheme  met  with  such  opposition  from 
many  quarters  that  it  was  indefinitely  postponed.  Wren 
was  in  the  meantime  employed  on  some  other  buildings, 
as  the  Sheldonian  Theatre  at  Oxford,  from  1664  to  1669, 
and  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  which, 
however,  was  not  built  until  1772.  He  visited  Paris  in 
1665,  while  the  works  of  the  Louvre  were  in  progress. 
After  the  great  fire  of  1666  he  began  at  once  a  plan  for 
the  entire  reconstruction  of  the  city  of  London  on  a 
magnificent  architectural  plan,  with  wide  streets  and 
piazzas  at  intervals.  But  the  immediate  necessities  of 
the  citizens  prevented  the  accomplishment  of  so  vast  a 
design,  so  he  was  obliged  to  content  himself  with  labors 
upon  individual  structures.  Among  th^e  were  the 
Royal  Exchange,  Custom-House  (both  since  destroyed 
by  fire  and  rebuilt),  Temple  ^ar,  the  Monument,  and 
some  churches,  including  that  of  St.  Stephen's,  Wal- 
brook,  all  of  which  were  built  before  St.  Paul's  was  be- 
gun. He  was  busy  in  the  meantime  with  designs  for 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  when  it  came  to  the  actual 
construction  of  the  edifice,  the  plan  which  he  preferred 
was  rejected,  and  the  one  chosen  he  was  compelled  to 
modify  contrary  to  his  own  judgment.  The  first  stone 
of  the  present  edifice  was  laid  June  21,  1675,  and  the 
last  stone  on  the  summit  of  the  lantern  was  laid  by 
the  architect's  son,  Christopher,  in  1710.  On  the  de- 
cease of  sir  John  Denham,  in  March,  1688,  Wren  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  ofiice  of  surveyor-general  of  his  maj- 
esty's works,  an  office  which  he  held  until  after  the 
death  of  queen  Anne,  In  1714.  He  had  resigned  the 
office  of  Savilian  professor  in  1678,  and  accepted  that 
of  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1680.  He  also  sat 
several  times  in  Parliament,  but  his  numerous  and  im- 
portant professional  engagements  left  him  little  leisure 
for  other  pursuits  or  duties.  He  was  found  dead  in  his 
chair  after  dinner,  Feb.  25, 1723,  and  received  the  honor 
of  a  splendid  funeral  in  St  Paul's,  where  his  remains 
were  deposited  in  a  crypt,  with  na  other  adornment  to 
his  tomb  than  the  inscription,  '*Si  monumentum  qaa»- 


w 


i\»^  circumspiee."  Among  his  numerous  architectural 
works  not  already  mentioned  are,  spire  and  Church  of 
SLMar}--le.Bow  (1671-78);  St  Lawrence,  Jewry  (1671- 
86);  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich  (1676);  Chelsea 
Hospital'  (1682-90) ;  St  James's,  Westminster  (1683); 
Hampton  Court  (1690),  and  towers  of  the  west  front  of 
Westminster  Abbey  (1713).  See  Chalmers,  Bioy,  Diet, 
s.  V. ;  Knight,  En^  Cydop,  s.  v. 

'Wrezming-day,  a  term  used  in  certain  parts  of 
England  to  designate  St  Stephen*s  day,  because  on  that 
day  a  wren  was  stoned  to  death,  in  commemoration  of 
the  Christian  proto-martyr. 

Wrest,  a  screw  in  a  cross  or  banner-staff. 

Wrestling  (b^nB3,  Gen.  xxx,  8,  figuratively; 
iraXi7,  £ph.  vi,  12,  Hterally;  in  Gen.  xxii,  25,  26,  the 
verb  is  plK,  used  in  a  literal  sense).  This  was  one  of 
the  principal  exercises  in  all  the  public  games  of  Greece. 
The  Greeks  ascribed  the  invention  of  wrestling  to 
mythical  personages,  and  Mercury,  the  god  of  all  gym- 
nastic exercises,  ailso  presided  over  wrestling.  In  the 
Homeric  age  wrestling  was  much  practiced;  during 
this  period  wrestlers  contended  naked,  and  only  (he 
loins  were  oo%*ered  with  the  j)emoma  (wfpiZwfa),  and 
this  custom  probably  remained  throughout  Greece  un- 
til 01. 15,  from  which  time  even  this  covering  was  no 
longer  used,  and  wrestlers  fought  entirely  naked.  In 
the  Homeric  age  the  custom  of  anointing  the  body  for 
the  purpose  of  wrestling  does  not  appear  to  hare  been 
known,  but  in  the  time  of  Solon  it  was  quite  genenJ, 
and  was  said  to  have  been  adopted  by  the  Cretans  and 
Lacediemonians  at  a  very  eariy  period.  After  the  body 
was  anointed  it  was  strewed  over  with  sand  or  dust, 
in  order  to  ena- 
ble the  wrestlers 
to  take  a  firm 
hold  of  each  oth- 
er. The  Greeks, 
in  their  combats, 
were  generally 
matched  two 
against  two;  but 
sometimes  sever- 
al couples  contended  at  the  same  time.  In  case  the  whole 
aim  and  design  of  the  wrestlers  was  to  throw  their  ad- 
versary upon  the  ground,  both  strength  and  art  were 
employed  for  this  purpose;  they  seized  each  other  by 
the  arms,  drew  forward,  pushed  backwards,  used  many 
distortions  and  twiatings  of  the  body,  locking  their  limbs 
in  each  other's,  lifting  from  the  ground,  dashing  their 
heads  together,  and  tw^isting  one  another's  necks.  In 
this  manner  the  athletes  wrestled  standing,  the  combat 
ending  with  the  fall  of  one  of  the  competitors.  See 
Games. 

Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  likewise,  aoooiding  to 
Wilkinson,  **  wrestling  was  a  favorite  amusement ;  and 
the  painting  of  the  grottoes  at  Beni  Hassan  presents  all 
the  varied  attitudes  and  modes  of  attack  and  defence  of 
which  it  is  susceptible.  In  order  to  enable  the  specta- 
tor more  readily  to  perceive  the  position  of  the  limbs  of 
each  combatant,  the  artist  has  availed  himself  of  a  dark 
and  light  color,  and  even  ventured  to  introduce  alter- 
nately a  black  and  red  figure.  It  is  not,  however,  neces- 
sary to  give  an  instance  of  every  position  indicated  in 
those  varied  subjects;  and  a  selection  of  the  principal 
groups  will  suffice  to  convey  some  idea  of  their  mode 
of  representing  the  combatants,  and  of  their  geoeral 
system  of  attack  and  defence.  It  is  probable  that,  like 
the  Greeks,  they  anointed  the  body  with  oil  when  pre- 
paring for  these  exercises,  and  they  were  entirely  naked, 
with  the  exception  of  a  girdle,  apparently  of  kathem 
thongSL  The  two  combatants  generally  approsdied 
each  other  holding  their  arms  in  an  incuneu  jMiition 
before  the  bod}-,  and  each  endeavored  to  seize  his  ad- 
versary in  the  maimer  best  suited  to  his  mode  of  attack. 
It  was  allowable  to  take  hold  of  any  part  of  the  bo4y» 
the  head,  neck, or  legs;  and  the  struggle  was  fireqoently 


Ancient  Greek  Wrestlers. 


coDtinued  on'the  ^aod,  ttta  one  or  both  had  fiUen,  a 
mode  of  wmtling  common  olao  lo  the  Giecki.  1  do  not 
Bud  that  tbej  had  the  ume  lijp  or  ackrowledgiiig  their 
defeat  in  thia  gtme  ai  the  Greeka,  which  iru  by  hold- 
ing up  a  finger  in  token  of  mibminion;  and  itwaa  prob- 
aUf  don*  b;  (he  Eg;pliani  with  a  word '  (Ann. Egypl. 
i,!01>.    SeeSFOttT. 

Virlfht,  IiTHMD,  D.D.,  ■  Bapdst  mininer,  «u 
bi)matWestfoid,OtaegoCo^N.Y^Sept.!B,  1816.  He 
united  with  the  Church  Sept.  8, 1831,  punued  hi*  itud- 
ies  at  UadiKin  Univenity,  wu  ordained  ba  an  erangel- 
iit  Feb.  11, 1838,  became  piMor  at  Exeter  in  1889,  at 
CockvUle  in  IMl,  at  FayetleviUe  in  1B«.  For  one 
year  he  was  collecting  agent  of  the  Minioniry  Union. 
In  1854  he  became  putot  at  Norwich,  N.  ¥.,  in  1858  at 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  retumed  to  Norwich  in  lgB9,  where  he 
lemainBd  until  1861,  when  be  andertook  to  raiae  funds 
for  Madinn  Unireruly.  Hia  next  paitorate  was  in 
Newbnrgh,  from  19M  to  ie«9,  and  hia  next  and  last  In 
Knghamton,  where  he  died,  April  !,  1879.     (J.  C.  S.) 

Wrigbt,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  be- 
came prebendary  of  Wells  in  ISM;  bishop  of  Bristol  in 
January,  1623-,  of  LiebSeld  and  Coventry  in  1632,  and 
died  in  August,  1643.  See  AUIbone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and 
Amer.Aallmn,*.v. 

^Flight,  William,  D.D.,  an  Irish  clergyman,  was 
educaleil  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  died  in  1866. 
He  published,  Doclrine  of  Ike  Rtal  Framct.—Slavay 
al  the  Copt  afGooA  Hopt  (1831)  -.—BSitical  /Ifi-mateu- 
Ua,finm  the  German  of  G,  F.  Seiltr,  D.D.  (1836),  etc 
See  AUibone,  Dia.  ofBril.  <md  A  r«r.  A  ulliori,  a.  v. 

WriUng  (»ome  form  of  3ril,  kalkdb,  jpafl,')  i»  the 
art  of  exprearipg  thought  by  letters  or  other  matka. 
See  Letter. 

I.  Or^H  and  Variota  Kadt  nf  Writynfit. — Language 
expreasea  thought,  pi««rv«a  thought,  aiid  also  aiiggesia 
or  crcstea  thonghL  But  it  is  obviuui  thai,  lo  long  aa 
language  is  unwritten,  it  can  accomplish  these  enda  only 
In  a  very  imperfect  meseure.  Hence  we  may  well  aup- 
pose  that,  at  a  very  early  stage  of  man's  hiatoiy,  at- 
umpts  were  made  to  present  in  some  way  to  the  eye 
the  thought  which  spoken  Ungoags  conveyed  to  the 
ear,  and  &na  give  it  visible  form  and  permanence.   But 


we  cannot  wonder  that  no  record  remaina  of  the  origin 

of  an  art,  the  beginnings  of  which  mutt  be  placed  in 
the  political  infancy  of  mankind.  Pliny  speaks  of  the 
"atemus  literarum  usus"  {N.  11.  vii,  56). 

The  various  kinds  of  writing  which  have  been  in  use 
in  different  ages  and  in  different  parts  of  the  world  may 
be  dnaaified  in  two  great  divisiona,  according  as  the 
object  of  their  inventors  was  to  present  the  ideas  to 
which  they  wished  to  give  visible  expression  directly 
and  immediately  to  the  mind,  or  indirectly,  through  the 
medium  of  spoken  laiigoage.  Each  of  these  method) — 
the  ideographic  and  the  phom^rapbic  or  phonetic — has 
its  attendant  advantsges  and  disadvantages;  hat  (he 
advantages  of  the  Inter  method  greatly  preponderate. 
The  principal  recommendation  of  the  former  method, 
in  which  the  depicted  idea  is  caught  up  immediately 
bv  the  mind,  is  that  it  addreasea  itwir  to  a  much  wider 
circle  Ihsn  the  Utter,  being  intelligible,  so  far  as  it  is 
intelligible,  alika  by  all  classes  and  in  all  coutitriea; 
wbcteaa  tha  latter,  in  which  the  tcord  ia  depicted,  not 
the  irfm,  ia  of  courae  intelligible  only  to  those  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  language  to  which  the  depicted 
word  belongs.  On  the  other  hand,  the  very  serioua 
drawbacka  attendant  upon  the  direct  method  are  (I) 
Uiat  it  ia  capable  of  giving  distinct  expresuon  only  to 
a  very  limited  range  of  iileaa,  viz.  the  ideas  of  seosibla 
objects  ami  qualities,  ami  if  it  attempts  to  go  beyond 
that  range  at  once  becomes  arbitrary  and  obscure  \  and 
(a)  that  in  it*  repreaenlition  even  of  the  limited  ctaaa 
of  ideas  to  which  it  is  capable  uf  giving  distinct  cxpres- 
Hon,  it  is  cumbrous  and  altogether  unlitted  for  generid 


writing  of  the  Egyptians  may  b*  regarded 
oa  forming  a  stage  of  transitiun  between  the  two  sons 
of  writing  Just  described.  Kegardirg  the  Mexican 
wriring.aee  liobertaon's  ^nm'cu,  bk.vii,  and  Prescott's 
Uexico,  i,  86.  Bee  also  Knpp's  remarks  on  (he  Chinese 
writing  in  BMer  v.  Sckrifiea,  ii,  66,  Tl>,  8'.  Till  (he 
present  century  it  waa  the  received  opinion  that  (ha 
ancient  Egyptian  waa  an  exduiively  ideognphic  writ- 
ing, and  to  ihia  conclusion  the  (eslimontes  of  thoaa 
ancient  writers  who  have  given  any  account  of  It  seemed 
to  point  (Kenrick,  Anc.  Kgnplfi.^i-'iOi).  But  tha 
labors  of  Young,  Champullioii,  Wilkinson,  Lcpsios,  and 


WRITING 


992 


WRITING 


others,  daring  the  last  half-centuiy,  have  thrown  new 
light  on  those  ancient  and  inysterioua  charicten;  and 
it  is  now  agreed  that,  though  very  possibly  a  picture- 
writing  originally,  the  hieroglyphic,  in  the  form  in 
which  it  appears  on  the  most  ancient  monuments,  and' 
which  it  retains  unchanged  down  to  the  early  centuries 
after  Christ,  bears  a  composite  character,  being  in  part 
ideographic,  in  part  phonetic  According  to  Mr.  Ken- 
rick  (i,  800,  etc.),  "  the  characters  are  used  in  three  dif- 
ferent ways.**  There  is  first  of  all  the  pictorial  use,  in 
which  "  the  character  is  designed  to  convey  to  the  mind 
the  idea  of  the  object  it  represents,  and  nothing  more. .-. . 
This  pictorial  representation  sometimes  stands  instead 
of  a  phonetic  name  for  the  object,  but  the  most  common 
use  of  it  is  to  make  the  phonetic  group  of  characters 
more  intelligible  by  being  subjoined  to  them.  Thus, 
to  the  names  of  individuals  the  figure  of  a  man  is  sub- 
joined." Such  characters  Champollion  calls  determtna- 
tives.  **  The  second  use  of  the  hieroglyphical  writing 
is  the  symbolical,  in  which  the  object  delineated  is  not 
meant  to  convey  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  itself,  but  of 
something  associated  with  it  and  suggested  by  it.  Thus, 
a  crescent  denotes  a  month,  ...  a  stretched-out  hand 
the  act  of  giving,  etc"  "  The  last  class,  the  phonetic, 
is  really  by  far  the  most  extensive.  The  greater  part 
of  the  characters  are  as  truly  letters  as  if  the  language 
were  English  or  Greek ;  .  .  .  syllabic  characters  are  the 
exception,  not  the  rule."  Mr.  Kenrick  adds  that  ^  in 
every  inscription  of  any  length  we  find  these  three 
modes  of  writing  in  use  together,  but  with  a  great  pre- 
dominance of  phonetic"    See  Hieroglyph. 

Thus,  in  the  hieroglyphic,  we  find  the  point  of  meet- 
ing between  the  two  great  classes  of  written  characters, 
the  ideographic  and  phonetic,  and,  as  it  seems,  we  have 
some  light  thrown  on  their  mutual  relation,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  one  arose,  or,  at  least,  may  have 
arisen,  out  of  the  other.  It  has  been  affirmed,  indeed, 
that  the  two  kinds  of  writing  are  so  entirely  distinct 
that  it  is  impossible  to  entertain  the  idea  of  a  historical 
relationship  between  them  (Kopp,  ii,  62).  But  the  fact 
is,  that  in  the  hieroglyphic,  and  to  a  certain  extent  also 
in  the  Chinese,  such  a  relationship  is  already  estab- 
lished. No  nation  which  has  made  any  considerable 
advances  towards  civilization  can  remain  satisfied  with 
a  pictorial  or  symbolic  writing,  more  particularly  if  it 
be  disposed  to  cultivate  to  any  extent  intercourse  with 
other  nations.  To  represent  by  means  of  such  a  method 
of  writing  foreign  words  and  names  is  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  difilculty;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
origin  of  the  phonetic  writing  may  be  traced  to  the  in- 
tercourse of  nations  speaking  different  languages.  Thus 
the  Chinese  are  compelled  to  employ  their  ideographic 
characters  phonetically  in  writing  foreign  words;  and 
something  of  the  same  kind  may,  it  is  said,  be  discov- 
ered even  in  the  Mexican  writing.  In  the  hieroglyphic 
the  process  had  advanced  much  further.  In  Chinese, 
the  name  of  the  patriarch  Shem  is  represented  in  writ- 
ing by  the  ideograph  for  "  life,"  tem  being  the  Chinese 
for  life  (Kopp,  ii,  80, 81).  Here,  consequently,  we  have 
an  example  of  the  same  character  used  in  two  ways: 

(1)  ideographically,  to  represent  the  idea  of  life,  and 

(2)  phonetically,  to  represent  the  sound  «em. 

From  this  there  is  but  a  step  to  the  discovery  of  an 
alphabet,  viz.  the  employment  of  the  same  sign  to  repre- 
sent not  the  combination  of  sounds  forming  the  word 
tern,  but  the  initial  sound  8.  That  this  step  was  actually 
taken  by  the  Egyptians  we  appear  to  have  sufficient 
evidence.  "  Thus,  an  eagle  stands  for  A,  and  its  Coptic 
name  is  ahom;  a  leaf  of  an  aquatic  plant,  Coptic  acAi, 
stands  for  the  same  letter;  a  lion  for  L,  Coptic  labo;  an 
owl  for  M,  Coptic  moulad,  etc"  (Kenrick,  i,  806, 806).  It 
is  true,  as  Mr.  Kenrick  remarks,  this  correspondence 
cannot  be  traced  through  the  whole  of  the  phonetic 
alphabet.  But  when  we  consider  how  very  imperfect 
is  the  knowledge  which  even  the  most  distinguished 
Egyptologists  possess  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  language, 
we  are  fully  warranted  in  putting  aside  this  negative 


evidence,  and  receiving  the  hypothedi  Just  mentioiMd 
(which  was  that  of  Champollion),  as  furnishing  a  veiy 
probable  explanation  of  the  origin  of  what  may  be  called 
the  Egyptian  alphabet. 

Passing  now  to  the  purely  phonetic  system  of  writ- 
ing, it  is  of  two  sorts,  viz.  syllabic  and  alphabetic,  in 
the  former  of  which  each  character  represents  a  com- 
bination of  sounds,  in  the  latter  a  simple  sound.  The 
most  ancient  alphabet  is  the  Hebrew,  or  Phoenician, 
which,  having  its  origin  in  thesouth-westem  comer  of 
Asia,  the  home  of  the  Sheroitic  nations,  was  at  a  very 
early  period  introduced  by  the  Phosnicians  into  Greece, 
and  perhaps  at  a  somewhat  later  period  even  into  India 
(Max  MUll^r,  Ancient  ScaucrU  Literature,  p.  621;  JoW' 
nal  of  Asiatic  Society,  vi,  461,  etc ;  ZeiUckrift  d  />.  IT. 
G.  X,  890,  etc),  and  thus  became  the  medium  through 
which  almost  all  that  is  known  of  the  ancient  world  has 
been  preserved  for  the  instruction  of  mankind.  Who 
the  person  was  who  framed  the  first  alphabet,  and  thus 
conferred  upon  his  race  a  benefit  of  incalcolable  value, 
is  unknown.  It  is  the  received  opinion  that  in  South- 
western Asia,  as  in  Egypt,  the  alphabetic  writing  had 
for  its  precursor  an  ideographic,  which,  after  passing 
through  several  stages  of  change,  assumed  at  last  the 
form  in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us.  lliis  opinion 
is  founded  (1)  on  a  comparison  with  the  hiefY>g]yphie 
and  other  forms  of  writing,  in  which,  as  has  already 
been  observed,  we  detect  the  process  of  transition  from 
the  ideographic  to  the  phonographic;  and  (2)  on  the 
names  of  the  letters.  These  names  are  all  significant; 
and  it  is  probable  that  each  of  the  letters  in  its  ori^nal 
form  was  an  ideograph  representing  the  object  denoted 
by  the  name  which  the  letter  still  bears.  Thus  olepk 
(K)  in  its  original  form  would  be  the  ideograph  of  ox, 
hetk  of  house,  etc  Afterwards,  when  the  ideographic 
writing  gave  place  to  the  alphabetic,  each  of  the  alpha* 
betic  sounds  was  represented  by  a  character  which  had 
formerly  been  the  picture  or  symbol  of  an  object  of 
whose  name  that  letter  was  the  initial  sound.  We  ad- 
mit that  it  is  by  no  means  easy  in  the  case  of  several 
of  the  letters  to  trace  the  resemblance  between  the  let- 
ter form  and  the  object  of  which,  according  to  this 
hypothesis,  it  was  originally  the  picture.  But  this  nceil 
not  excite  our  surprise,  if  we  consider  how  great  the 
change  of  form  which  these  letten  must  have  under- 
gone as  they  passed  from  one  country  to  another,  or 
were  transmitted  from  age  to  age  (see  Kopp,  ii,  167, 
877-399).  The  ancient  Shemitic  stone-cutters  and  en- 
gravers were  not  always  careful  to  preserve  an  exact 
uniformity  in  their  delineation  of  the  several  characten; 
they  were  probably  less  expert  than  their  Egyptian  con- 
temporaries; and,  it  may  be,  had  no  very  fixed  standard 
by  which  to  test  the  accuracy  and  to  correct  the  errors 
of  their  workmanship.  Moreover,  the  wide  diffuaion 
of  the  Shemitic  alphabet  would  naturally  occasion  still 
more  extensive  changes  in  the  forms  of  the  letters. 
Ewald  {Lekrhu<Ji,  §  77,  b)  speaks  of  three  main  branches 
from  the  parent  stem,  a  southern,  western,  and  eastern, 
viz.  (1)  the  Ilimyaritic,  in  Southern  Arabia,  and  the 
Ethiopic,  though  the  latter  is  by  others  brought  into 
closer  connection  with  the  Greek  form  of  the  Shemitie 
alphabet;  (2)  the  western,  including  the  Phcenician 
writing,  and  the  Samaritan,  which  closely  resembles  it; 
and  (8)  the  Babylonian  or  Assyrian,  of  which  it  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  the  Hebrew  square  character  is  an 
offshoot.  Now,  it  is  impoesible  to  say  which  of  these 
different  forms  of  the  Shemitic  alphabet  approaches 
nearest  to  the  original  It  is  probable  that  all  have 
deviated  from  it  more  or  less.  The  original  symbolic 
meaning  of  the  characters  having  fallen  into  disuse, 
there  was  nothing  to  be  gained  by  rigid  adherence  to 
all  the  details  of  the  original  forms. 

Some  writers,  admitting  that  a  resemblance  does  ex- 
ist between  the  lettere  and  the  objects  denoted  by  their 
names,  have  attempted  to  account  for  it  otherwise  than 
by  the  hypothesia  of  an  eariier  ideographic  use  of  the 


I 


WRITING 


993 


WRITING 


•Ipbabetie  fomuL  They  vn  of  opinion  that  letteis  were 
ftom  the  fint  trbitmy  ligns  of  Kmnda,  never  of  objceta ; 
end  that  the  nemee  they  have  so  long  borne  originated, 
like  the  namea  of  the  oonstellationa,  in  lome  fancied  re- 
aembUnoe  between  them  and  the  objecta  denoted  by 
these  namea  {ZeiUekr^  dL  D.  M.  G,  zi,  88>  But,  not 
to  mention  other  objectiottB  to  this  view,  when  we  eon- 
aider  that  this  lesemblanoe  in  form  ia  not  the  only  point 
of  correspondence,  that  there  is  the  farther  oorrespond- 
enoe  between  the  sounds  expressed  by  the  letters  and 
the  initial  sounds  of  the  letter-nameSi  it  must  appear 
improbable  that  whoever  invented  the  latter  should 
have  been  at  the  pains  to  search  for  names  bearing  to 
the  letters  this  twofold  correspondence,  in  initial  sound 
and  in  form,  and  ahould  not  have  been  satisfied  with  a 
single  point  of  correspondence.  On  the  whole,  the 
weight  of  argument,  and  also  the  weight  of  authority, 
are  in  favor  ot  the  other  hypothesis. 

It  is  impossible  with  any  confidence  to  decide  to 
which  branch  of  the  Shemitic  family  of  nations  the  in- 
vention of  the  Shemitie  alphabet  is  to  be  traced.  From 
the  names  of  the  letters  one  might  expect  to  have  some 
light  thrown  upon  this  point;  but  this  expectation  is 
not  realized.  For,  though  the  names  are  certainly 
Shemitic^  there  ia  no  single  language  of  the  Shemitic 
family  (so  far  as  these  languages  are  known)  in  which 
they  all  find  explanation.  But,  in  truth,  of  the  Shemitic 
languages  in  their  ancient  form,  with  scarcely  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Hebrew,  our  knowledge  is  very  imperfect; 
and  it  would  be  extremely  rash  to  say  that  such  and 
each  worda  did  not  exist  in,  for  example,  the  old  Phoeoi- 
cnn  language,  because  they  have  not  been  found  in  the 
few  fragments  of  that  language  which  have  come  down 
to  us.    See  pH<Binoiik. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  that  the  idea  of  the  alpha- 
bet was  borrowed  ftom  Egypt.  Hug  (Z>ie  Er/btdung 
^kr Buek*iabeiuehrift,p,S2febcJ)  thinks  the  Phcenicians 
resident  in  Egypt  were  the  inventors  of  the  alphabet, 
the  forma  of  the  letters  being  Egyptian,  the  names 
Pbosnician.  But  if  the  Shemitic  nationa  did  borrow 
the  idea  from  Egypt,  they  certainly  worked  it  out  much 
more  suocessfuUy  than  those  with  whom,  according  to 
this  hypothesiSy  it  originated;  and  moreover,  when  we 
consider  that  there  is  no  very  marked  corresp<mdence 
between  the  Egyptian  and  Shemitic  alphabets^  except 
in  the  general  idea,  it  is  on  the  whole  safer  to  conclude, 
in  the  absence  of  all  historical  evidence,  that  the  two 
alphabeta  originated  independently  of  each  other,  and 
were  alike  the  offspring  of  that  necessity  which  ia  the 
mother  of  invention.    See  Alphabbt. 

11.  Tke  H^nrew  Alj)habeL—Thia  oonsisU  of  twenty- 
two  letters.  It  has  heen  conjectured  that  several  of 
these  letters  did  not  belong  to  the  alphabet  in  its  orig- 
inal form;  and  there  ia  a  traditional  statement  found 
in  some  Greek  writers  ot  authority  that  the  Phoeni- 
cian alphabet  (which,  there  is  no  question,  was  iden- 
tical with  the  Hebrew)  when  first  introduced  into 
Greece  conaisted  of  not  more  than  fifteen  letters  (see 
Hug,  Erfndung  der  Buehtiabeuchri/t,  p.  12,  etc).  How- 
ever this  may  be,  it  ia  ceruin  that  at  a  very  early 
period  the  Hebrew  alphabet  included  the  same  number 
of  letters  as  at  present.  This  \»  ascertained  (1)  from 
those  Scriptural  songs  and  poems,  the  several  lines  or 
stansas  of  which  begin  with  the  successive  letters  of 
the  alphabet  (see  Poktrv)  ;  and  (2)  from  the  use  of 
the  letters  as  marks  of  number,  particularly  when  com- 
pared with  the  corresponding  use  of  the  Greek  letters. 

With  regard  to  these  twenty -two  letters  various 
questiona  have  been  atarted,  to  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant of  which  it  is  necessary  briefly  to  advert. 

1.  Did  these  letters  originally  represent  syllables  or 
simple  sounds?  Some  writers,  aa  Lepsius  (Pa/A>- 
grapkie,  §  19),  have  maintained  that  originally  one  and 
the  same  sign  stood  for  both  vowel  and  consonanL 
They  hold  that  after  the  ideographic  writing  comes 
not  the  alphabetie  but  the  syllabic,  our  separation  of 
vowels  and  eonsonaots  being  entirdy  ideal,  and  never 

XIL'B  B  B 


actually  poaBible»  inasmuch  aa  consonants  cannot  find 
expression  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel  sound;  and  vow- 
ela  cannot  be  pronounced  except  in  dependence  on  a 
preceding  conaonantal  element  more  or  lesa  distinct 
In  all  this  these  writers  are  probably  theoretically  cor- 
rect Of  the  phonetic  writing  the  syllabic  ia  naturally 
the  earliest  stage,  and  in  the  Aasyrian  cuneiform  we 
have  the  example  of  such  a  writing  in  actual  use  among 
the  Shemitic  nationa  (Rawlinson,  itaoenl  Monarckiu^  ^ 
84, 887).  But  how  essentially  different  in  their  nature 
the  Assyrian  letters  are  from  the  Hebrew  ia  evident 
firom  the  fkct  that  the  former,  according  to  Sir  H.  Raw- 
linson  and  H.  Oppert,  number  from  three  to  four  hun- 
dred, the  latter  only  twenty-two.  Indeed,  it  is  impoa- 
sible  that  a  really  syllabic  alphabet  should  have  fewer 
characters,  except  in  the  case  of  such  a  state  of  language 
aa  Lepsiua  presuppoaea,  in  which  all  the  syllables  are 
open,  t  e.  end  with  a  vowel,  and  there  ia  no  variety  of 
vowel  sounds. 

It  ia  to  be  noted,  however,  that  in  the  Ethiopic  al- 
phabet, in  which  each  letter  appears  under  seven  differ- 
ent forms,  according  to  the  vowel  sound  associated  with 
it,  the  simplest  form  is  not  that  which  the  letter  takes 
when  no  vowel  follows,  as  we  might  expect,  but  that 
which  it  takes  when  followed  by  short  a.  When  this 
sound  follows,  the  original  form  of  the  letter  is  retained 
unchanged;  when  no  vowel  follows,  a  slight  alteration 
ia  made  in  the  form  of  the  letter  to  indicate  that  it 
doses  the  syllable.    See  Erinorio  Language. 

2.  Admitting  that  the  Hebrew  writing  is  alphabetic, 
is  it  purely  consonantal,  or  does  it  contain  signa  to  ex- 
press vowel  sounds  as  well  aa  consonants?  Some  have 
held  that  the  letters  K,  \  **,  were  originally  vowels,  and 
that  their  use  aa  consonants  waa  of  later  introduction. 
It  has  been  said  that  the  alphabet  of  each  language 
must  contain  a  sufficient  number  of  letters  to  represent 
all  the  sounds  of  the  language,  and  that  it  is  as  easy  to 
conceive  of  a  language  without  vowel  sounds  aa  of  an 
alphabet  without  vowel  letters  And  further,  with  re- 
gard to  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  Kopp  {Bilder  u.  i?cAri/?m, 
ii,  112,  etc)  thinks  it  absurd  to  suppose  that  it  original- 
ly contained  separate  forms  for  guttural  breathings  so 
little  differing  from  one  another  aa  K,  n,  n,  and  not  a 
single  sign  to  repreaent  the  vowels,  which  constitute 
the  life  of  every  language.    Now,  with  regard  to  the 

letten  1  and  %  it  ia  certain  they  were  used  aa  vowels 

from  a  very  andent  period;  but  there  is  no  reason 
whatever  to  suppose  that  this  use  of  these  letten  pre- 
ceded their  use  as  consonants,  but  every  reason  to  sup- 
pose the  contrary.  At  the  bc^ning  of  a  syllable  only 
*l  is  ever  used  as  a  vo^el,  and  in  the  few  cases  in  which 
it  is  so  used  it  haa  been  softened  from  an  original  con- 
sonantal sound.  In  the  middle  of  a  word,  1  and  *^  ap- 
pear aa  vowels  much  less  frequently  in  the  earlier  He- 
brew books  than  in  the  later;  and  on  the  aurviving 
monuments  of  the  Phcenidan  language  and  writing 
they  have  uniformly  a  consonantal  force.  Beaides,  it 
ia  known  that  one  of  these  letters,  viz.  \  passed  over 
from  the  Phoenicians  to  the  Greeks  as  a  consonant, 
though  as  a  Greek  letter  it  afterwards  fell  out  of  use. 
As  for  K,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how,  if  it  originally 
stood  for  A  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  it  should,  even  at 
the  date  of  the  very  earliest  monuments  of  the  lan- 
guage, have  so  entirely  lost  thia  power,  and  passed  into 
a  simple  breathing.  With  regard  to  the  alleged  im- 
probability of  so  ancient  an  alphabet  distinguishing 

the  closely  allied  sounda  of  N,  n,  n,  by  the  use  of  dif- 
ferent characters,  we  are  scarcely  in  a  position  to  form 
a  sound  Judgment  on  such  a  point,  as  the  languages  we 
speak  differ  so  entirdy  from  the  Shemitic  tongues,  and 
our  organa  are  consequently  incapable  of  giving  dis- 
tinct expression  to  the  variety  of  guttural  sounds  which 
characterized  the  ancient  Hebrew,  as  it  does  the  mod- 
em Arabic. 


WRITING 


994 


WRrrmG 


8.  Ab  to  the  origin  of  the  Hebrew  aquare  chaneten, 
which  appear  in  all  extant  MSS.,  as  well  as  in  onr 
printed  Bibles,  the  most  direrse  views  have  been  pro* 
pounded;  some,  especially  among  the  older  scholars, 
tracing  them  back  to  the  age  of  Moses  and  the  tables 
of  the  law ;  and  others  believing  them  to  be  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin.  The  latter  view  is  taken  by 
Kopp  {BUder  u,  Schriften^  ii,  164),  who  places  their  in- 
troduction somewhere  about  the  4th  century,  chiefly  on 
the  ground  that  the  Palmyrene  characters,  from  which, 
in  his  opinion,  they  were  derived,  were  in  use,  as  ap- 
pears from  inscriptions  yet  extant,  as  late  as  the  8d  cen- 
tury of  onr  era.  But  whatever  may  be  the  oonnecdon 
between  the  square  character  and  the  Palmyrene  (and 
there  is  no  doubt  it  is  very  intimate),  the  opinion  of 
Kopp  is  quite  untenable.  We  have  direct  testimcfny 
to  the  fact  that  the  square  character  belongs  to  a  much 
earlier  age  than  that  to  which  he  assigns  it.  Jerome 
informs  us  that  in  his  day  the  ineffable  name  Jehovah, 
TV\Ty\  was  sometimes  introduced  into  Greek  MSS.  in 
its  Hebrew  form,  and  that  readers  of  these  BISS.  unac- 
quainted with  Hebrew  often  by  mistake  read  the  name 
Aj»,  IIIIII :  from  which  it  is  quite  certain  that,  in  Je- 
rome's age,  the  Hebrew  Bible  must  have  been  written 
in  the  square  character  presently  in  use,  for  only  on 
this  supposition  was  such  a  mistake  possible.  But,  if 
Kopp's  hypothesis  be  well  founded,  the  square  charac- 
ter must  then  have  been  quite  recently  elaborated  from 
the  Palmyrene.  Was  it  so?  Let  us  turn  to  another 
passage  of  Jerome,  in  his  celebrated  Prohgus  Galeatut, 
in  which  he  informs  us  that  the  Hebrew  character  in 
use  in  his  day  had  been  introduced  by  Ezra,  in  place 
of  a  more  ancient  character  which  had  passed  over  to 
the  Samaritans.  Is  it  credible  that  the  square  charac- 
ter was  invented  by  the  Jewish  scholan,  and  intro- 
duced into  MSS.  for  the  first  time  in  the  4th  century, 
and  yet  that  before  the  close  of  that  same  century  its 
origin  was  completely  forgotten,  and  had  passed  from 
the  region  of  history  to  that  of  tradition  or  fable  ? 

A  similar  testimony  on  the  part  of  Origen  carries  us 
back  a  century  earlier.  He,  too,  mentions  the  Jewish 
tradition  of  a  change  of  characters  by  Ezra,  and  speaks 
of  MSS.  in  which  the  divine  name  was  found  even  in 
his  day  written  in  the  ancient  characters  (Montfaucon, 
ffexaph^  ii,  94).  The  expression  in  the  sermon  on  the 
mount,  **not  one  Jot,"  carries  us  back  a  step  further 
still,  indeed,  almost  to  the  beginning  of  our  era;  for  it 
is  evident  that  the  phrase  was  a  proverbial  one,  and 
that  the  alphabet  which  gave  rise  to  it  must  have  been 
in  use  for  a  connderable  Ume.  Kow,  it  is  only  in  the 
square  character  (also,  though  not  so  decidedly,  in  the 
Palmyrene)  that  the  letter  yod  la  very  much  smaller 
than  the  otbersi  Kopp,  who  not  unfrequently  makes 
up  by  strength  of  assertion  for  weakness  of  argument, 
declares  the  foregoing  argument  to  be  **  indescribably 
weak."  He  points  to  the  Greek  iota  (I),  in  the  writing 
of  those  days  by  no  means  a  small  letter. 

To  all  this  we  may  now  add  the  still  more  decisive 
evidence  of  monumental  inscriptions,  from  which  it  ap- 
pears that  even  before  the  period  of  the  Maccabees  the 
square  character  was  in  use  among  the  Jews  {Revue 
Archhl,  1864;  Zeitschfifi  d.  D.  M.  G.  xix,  637-641 ; 
comp.  Chwolson,  A  cktzehn  Grabtchriflen  atts  der  Krim)» 
That  another  character,  more  closely  allied  to  the  Phoe- 
nician and  Samaritan,  is  found  on  the  extant  coins  of 
the  Ifaccabees  does  not  militate  against  this  conclusion. 
Ancient  forms  and  usages  often  survive  in  coins  and 
official  documents  after  they  have  fallen  into  disuse  in 
common  life.  Besides,  it  is  not  impossible  that  the 
Maccabees,  vindicating  as  they  did  the  nationality  of 
Israel  against  the  tyranny  of  Syria,  may  have  purposely 
revived  the  use  of  the  old  characters,  regarding,  it  may 
be,  those  in  common  use,  which  had  been  introduced 
under  foreign  auspices^as  a  badge  of  national  servitude. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  the  old 
Jewish  tradition  of  a  change  of  letters  having  taken 


place  In  the  time  of  Ezra,  however  erroneoos  it  may  be 
in  some  of  its  details,  is  not  without  a  sdid  foundatioci 
in  fact    See  Hebrkw. 

III.  Progrtstwe  Diffusion  of  the  Art  among  the  Ai^ 
eiaU  Bebrtwt. — ^The  art  of  writing  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures  previous  to  the  age  of  Moaea. 
In  the  book  of  Genesis  there  is  no  allusion  to  docu- 
ments of  any  sort.  Abraham  buys  the  field  and  cave 
of  Maehpelah,  but  there  is  ik>  bill  of  purchase  as  in  the 
case  of  a  similar  transaction  in  the  history  of  Jeremiah 
(comp.  Gen.  xxiii  with  Jer.  xxxii).  The  cave  and  the 
field  "  were  made  sure  unto  Abraham  for  a  poaseseion 
in  the  presence  of  the  children  of  Heth,  before  all  that 
went  in  at  the  gate  of  his  city  "  (Gen.  xxiii,  18).  There 
is  no  hint  of  any  documentary  proof  of  the  purchase 
being  given  or  asked.  It  does  not,  however,  by  any 
means  foUow  from  this  absence  of  allusion  to  the  art 
of  writing  in  the  book  of  Gonefis  that  that  art  was  al- 
together unknown  in  Palestine  in  the  patriarchal  age. 
It  may  have  been  unknown,  or  but  rarely  practiced,  by 
the  nomad  and  rural  population,  in  the  midst  of  which 
the  scene  of  the  patriarchal  story  is  laid ;  and  yet  have 
been  known  and  practiced  in  the  great  centres  of  pop- 
ulation and  civilization,  as  it  certainly  was  in  Egjrpt, 
and  we  can  scarcely  doubt  in  Mesopotamia  alao^  even 
at  that  early  period  (Kenrick,  Egsfpt^  ii,  101, 102).  In 
confirmation  of  this  we  may  refer  to  the  story  of  Ruth, 
from  which  we  find  that  even  in  a  much  later  age  it 
was  not  uncommon  in  Palestine  to  transact  and  com- 
plete purchases  similar  to  Abraham's  without  the  aid 
of  writing  materials,  though  no  one  will  now  maintain 
that  the  art  of  writing  was  then  unknown  (Ruth  iv, 
7-11).  Instances  of  the  same  sort  might  be  adduced 
from  the  history  of  all  nations  at  a  similar  stage  of  ao- 
cial  advancement. 

When  we  pass  fnym  the  age  of  the  patriarchs  to  that 
of  Moses,  from  the  family  life  of  Palestine  to  the  polit- 
ical life  of  Egypt,  and  afterwards  of  the  desert,  we  first 
meet  with  distinct  traces  of  the  art  of  writing.  It  is 
probable  that  the  «&ofertm,  or  ** officers"  subordinate  to 
the  taskmasters,  mentioned  in  Exod.  ▼,  6-19,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  see  that  the  full  amount  of  labor  was 
performed  by  their  enslaved  countrymen,  were  so  named 
from  the  use  they  made  of  writing  in  the  discharge  of 
their  degrading  functions  (Arabb  jolaro,  to  write). 
But,  however  this  may  be,  we  immediately  afterwards 
read  of  the  two  tables  of  the  law,  and  of  the  **  book  of 
the  covenant"  which  "Moses  read  in  the  audience  of 
all  the  people"  (Exod.  xxiv,  7,  IS) ;  also  of  a  book,  in 
which  was  entered  a  record  of  the  victory  over  Amalek 
in  Repbidim,  and  which  Moses  was  directed  to  "re- 
hearse in  the  ears  of  Joshua"  (Exod.  xvii,  14;  this 
«^A«r  or  document  may  afterwards  have  formed  part 
of  the  ^  Book  of  the  Wars  oi  the  Lord,"  mentioned  in 
Numb,  xxi,  14) ;  and  at  a  later  period  mention  is  made 
of  a  written  account  of  the  joumeyings  of  the  IsraeHtea 
in  the  wilderness  (Numb,  xxxiii,  2).  We  also  read  of 
the  high-priest*s  breastplate  with  its  four  rows  of  stones, 
on  which  were  engraven,  ^'like  the  engravings  of  m 
signet^"  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel ;  and 
of  the  mitre  with  its  plate  of  pure  gold,  on  which  waa  a 
**  writing  like  to  the  engravings  of  a  signet,"  Hcdinean 
to  the  Lord  (Exod.  xxxix,  14, 80).  Of  the  use  of  writing 
in  legal  transactions  and  processes  mention  is  made  in 
Numb.  V,  28 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  1, 8.  Specially  to  be  noted  is 
the  figurative  use  which  is  made  of  the  word  sipker  in 
Exod.  xxxii,  82, 88 :  **  Blot  me  out  of  the  book  which 
thon  hast  written,"  in  which  we  already  meet  with  the 
idea  of  a  memorial  book  kept  by  God,  "for  them  that 
feared  the  Lord  and  that  thought  upon  his  name  "  (MaL 
iii,  16;  Psa.  Ivi,  9  [8]).  From  aU  this  it  is  evident 
that  in  the  age  of  Moses  the  art  of  writing  was  oom- 
monly  employed  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the 
knowledge  of  important  troths  and  the  memory  of  ioK 
portant  events.  The  aasumption  by  some  writers  that 
the  art  of  writing  among  the  Hebrews  is  due  to  and 
dates  ftom  the  delivery  St  the  Law  on  Sinai,  is  nega-^ 


WRITING 

tWtd  by  the  Eut  (lut  itvu  aridwitljr  uwpted  M  thit 
titat  MM  ■  wcU-knowii  ut,  and  no  bioC  u  there  given  ' 
it  u  ■  new  inventino. 

We  ire  not,  homrcr,  U>  eondDde  from  thii  that  in 
that  age,  or  lor  dtany  agea  alter,  wtiling  wai  in  (omm 
tae  among  the  body  of  the  people.  The  luiawledge 
it  wal  probably  cocflncd  t«  the  few  who  occupied  an 
official  poiition ;  the  people  beiog  ■liU  dependent  chiefly 
on  oral  inHtnotion  for  their  knowledge  of  what  God 
bad  done  for  tbem,  and  what  he  required  of  them, 
Wiiliug  wai  in  those  dajii  employed  rather  ai  a  meana 
of  preierving  than  of  drcnlaling  knowkdge.  The 
tablet  of  atone  were  laid  op  in  the  ark.  The  itCBk  of 
the  eoTenant  (mentioned  Eiod.  iiir)  wa*  read  to  the 
people.  The  book  of  the  law  (mentioned  Deut.  zxxl, 
U-W)  wBi  giren  to  the  Levitei  "  M  pot  it  in  the  aide 
of  the  ark ; ...  for  a  witneaa  againM  luaeL"  The  aong 
of  Hoaea  (eh.  xxxii)  waa  not  drcnlaled  in  writing 
among  the  people,  but  **  wu  ipoken  in  their  eaia " 
(nxi,  SO);  and  thn*  they  were  taugbt  to  repeat  it  and 
to  tranunit  it  to  othen  (Tcr.  19,  Ti).  It  ia  only  the 
king  who  waa  cxpreialy  enjoined  to  hare  written  ont 
for  hii  apecial  u»  ■  copy  of  the  law,  and  to  itad  there- 
in all  the  dajn  of  his  life  (XTii,  IH,  19).  Of  the  people 
in  general  it  waa  requited  that  they  eltonld  learn  God's 
•tstntea.  and  have  them  in  their  heart,  and  teach  them 
diligently  to  their  children  (vi,  8,  7),  plainly  by  word 
of  month;  lot  when  it  ia  added  (  ver.  9  )," Thou  shall 
write  them  npon  the  posts  of  thy  house,  and  on  thy 
gates,"  the  expression  ia  probably  to  be  nadentood  Sg- 
Diatively,  like  the  "  binding  on  the  hand,  and  as  front- 
lets between  the  eyes  "  (ver.  B ;  comp.  also  Fa*,  xliv,  ! 
[1];  lxzviii,8,withci,19i;iS]J. 


During  the  wars  nnder  Joshua 
the  art  of  writing  is  to  be  looked  for.  In  the  book  of 
Joshua,  accordingly,  then  ii  mention  made  but  of  one 
new  document,  viz.,  a  geographical  description  and  sev- 
enfuld  divisian  of  the  land  west  of  Jordan,  drawn  np  by 
delegates  from  the  several  tribes  (Josh,  iviii,  9).  The 
fliolain  are  likewise  mentioned  among  the  civil  and 
military  officers  (i,  10;  iii,  2;  riii,  23;  xiiii,  3;  xxiv, 
1).  In  the  same  connection,  also,  frequent  reference  is 
made  to  the  book  of  the  law,  which  Joshua,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  injunctioD  of  Uoaes,  wrote  upon  great 
stones  on  Haunt  Ebal,  and  afteiwards  read  in  the  bear- 
ing of  all  the  people.  The  book  of  Jasher  (quoted  x, 
IS)  piDbably  belongs  to  a  sooMwhat  later  »ge  {i  S«nv 
i,  18).    See  Book. 

Important  to  our  pnaaol  [»MtM»a  ia  Iha  laeDtian  in 
JodL  x»,  U,  M;  Slid.  Jadg.  i,  II,  12,  of  Eirjath-aepber 
(iirf  lama),  ■ftcTwards  named  Detrir;  and  with  this 
■17  be  conjoined  the  allusion  in  ibe  imniortal  song  of 
Deborah  to  the  mediolbrliin  (aqnavera)  and  lopkerim 
(writen),  who  led  the  bead*  of  Uachir  and  Zebulon 
"to  the  help  of  the  Lord  nBatpst  the  mighty"  (Judg. 
v,  U).    Asyet  the  arle<  writing  was  not  only  couflncd 


5  WKITING 

vated  cbiefly  in  certain  localities  (yet  comp.  vlli,  11). 
The  ricinity  of  Zebulon  and  Hachir  to  Fhcenicia  and 
Damascns  is  to  be  noted  (Gen.  ilix,  IS). 

Under  Samuel  the  institntion  of  the  achoola  of  the 
prophets  must  bare  conduced  not  leas  la  the  litoaij 
than  to  the  rcUgious  advancement  of  laaek  The 
seed  which  wm  then  sown  ripened  into  an  abundant 
haiveat  during  the  glmion*  tetgnt  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon, which  were  rendered  not  has  illnstrions  by  the 
literary  acUerements  which  distinguished  them  than 
by  the  soccesrfal  cultivation  of  the  aits  of  war  and 
peace.  Daring  theae  reigns  the  art  of  writing  mnst 
have  been  largely  emplo^,  not  mdy  ftir  literary,  bnt 
for  political  purposes.  The  mpiir,  or  secretary,  scribe, 
was  a  constant  attendant  npon  tbe  mmardi'a  person 
(2  Som.viii,  17;  xx,25);  so  also  lb*  isasilr.ai  re- 
corder. We  also  read  of  David  bimadi  writing  a  letter 
(«^p*(r)  to  Joab  (zi,  14, 16),  thongh  tbe  fact  that  the 
reply  of  Joab  was  by  messsoger,  and  not  by  letter,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  tbe  latter  mode  of  commtmieatiaa 
was  still  rare  and  ezceptionaL 

In  the  age  of  Isaiah,  in  which  (or  not  long  before) 
the  strictly  prophetic  literatare  nuy  be  said  to  com- 
mence, various  eircumstancca  contributed  to  the  devel- 
opment of  tbe  art  of  writing,  such  as  the  oommsrcial 
activity  of  the  reign  of  Uniah;  the  closer  relations 
and  increased  intercourse  between  Palestine  and  the 
great  seatsof  civilization  on  tbe  banks  of  tbe  Euphratea 
and  Tigris,  on  the  one  ude,  and  of  the  Nile,  on  the  oth- 
er; and  also  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribe*,  and  the 
breaking-Dp  of  the  local  and  get^^phical  unity  of 


Israel,  whicb  w 


between  the  widely  separated  bnncbea  of  the  nation. 
Accordingly,  in  tha  iMok  of  Isaiab  we  find  various 
notices  illustrative  of  our  pteaent  sut^tet,  one  of  which 
is  specially  interesting,  as  it  would  appeal  to  indicate  a 
wider  diffusiott  than  we  have  had  any  evidence  of  pre- 
vioody  to  this  period,  of  tbe  practice  of  reading  and 
writing  among  the  people.  We  r«fer  to  Isa.  xxix,  II, 
IS,  where  the  pnqihet,  in  describing  the  UindiKaa  of 
the  people,  compares  tbe  word  of  God  to  *  sealed  book 
(□■inrin  *l$Bh),  a  document  of  any  deaerlptloD, 
"which  men  deliver  to  one  that  la  leaned  (lit.  that 
knows  writing,  1)DQ  S^'<),  saying,  Read  this,  I  pray 
thee :  and  be  saith,  I  cannot,  for  it  is  sealed ;  and  the 
book  ia  delivered  to  him  that  is  not  learned  (who  does 
not  know  writing),  saying.  Read  this,  I  pray  thee :  and 
ha  saith,  I  am  not  teamed  (l^D  '^PStF^  M^,  I  do  not 
know  books  orwriliug)."  Here  we  read  of  two  classes 
of  the  population,  iboae  able  to  read  a  written  docu- 
ment, and  those  not  able ;  and  though  the  Utter  were 
probably  still  much  the  Urgei  class,  it  would  seem  from 
the  form  of  the  prophet's  language  tbat  the  knowledge 
of  writing  was  no  longer  confined  witbin  the  limits  of 
an  official  class,  but  was  diffused  somewhat  mora  widely 
among  the  people. 

This  was  stiU  more  decidedly  tha  ease  In  the  age  of 
Jeremiah,  as  is  evident  from  the  frequency  with  wbich 
tbe  art  of  writing  is  alluded  to  in  his  writings,  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  earlier  prophets.  In  Jeremiah 
we  read  for  the  flrH  time  of  a  cuuveyanoa  of  property 
twing  drawn  out  ia  writing,  and  subscribed  not  only  t^ 
tha  ptiaeipal  parties,  but  alio  by  witneaaes  (Jer.  xxxil, 
10-IX).'  That  thiswas  the  common  practice  itevident 
ftom  ver.  B4  of  the  lame  chapter.  Copies  of  the  sacred 
writing!  appeal  alao  to  have  been  multiplied  (viii,  8), 
Letters  are  spoken  of  more  frequently  ( xxix,  2fi,  39  ). 
The  class  oftopierini,  or  scribes,  hod  became  nuniierons 
(vui,8;  xxxvi,  10,12,38,36;  xxxvii,  IS,  30;  Iii,  26; 
EMk,ii,2,8,  II;  2Chran.xxiiv,lB).  On  the  whole, 
the  state  at  matters,  with  respect  to  the  art  of  writing 
at  tbii  period  in  Palestine,  was  very  similar  to  tbat 
which  we  Hnd  delineated  on  the  Egypdan  monumenla 
(Kenrick,  Egfpt,  i,  283,  384 ;  ii,  52).  A  stiU  wider  dif- 
fusion of  the  art  of  writing  is  indicated  by  the  notices 


inEodM.zii,l!,mdEedia.zlii,7;  Lukexrl.flL    8rs 

SCBtBX. 

IV,  Malaiab  ef  Wnliiis.—Vft  hive  no  veiy  OtOai 
•taCemaot  in  the  Old  ToL  u  to  tbe  miterial  vhieh  « 
in  moM  onomon  oae  far  th«  purpava  of  vritisg. 
in  ign  it  hu  been  cnatcvuT;  to  cngrare  on  itonc 
metil,  or  other  durable  mitoial,  with  the  view  or  ae- 
cming  the  pemunenof  of  the  record ;  and  accaidinglf-, 
in  Ibo  very  coiniiiencemait  of  the  nitioual  hiitory  of 
brul,  we  read  of  the  two  tables  of  the  law  wriiun  in 
atone,  and  of  ■  aubeaqnent  writing  of  the  law  on  slone 
(DenLKXTii,8;  Jaab.Tiii,82).  In  the  Utter  ok  there 
U  thii  peooliiiity,  that  plaiur  (tid,  lime  oc  gypaum) 
waa  naed  along  with  atone,  a  combination  of  materiala 
which  Hengitenberg,  in  the  valuable  diaaertaLoa  on 
the  art  of  writing  among  the  Uebrewa,  contained  in 
his  CaiRMnteu  <if  tie  PaiiaietuJi,  lUoatnte*  b;  com- 
puuonofthe  practice  of  the  Egyptian  engraTSn,  who, 
having  flitt  cuefnll;  aoMxitbed  the  atoae,  fUlKl  up  the 
bolty  placawith  gypaani  or  cement,  in  order  tc  obtain 
•  perfectly  DDirorm  aarfaae  on  which  Ic  execute  theii 
•DgnlTiiTga  Ci,  1S3,  Claike'B  IraDiL  i  comp.  alao  Wilkin- 
mm,Ane.^jpl.ii,lll}. 

The  metalj  alao  an  mentioned  aa  ■  material  of 
writing;  aa  lead,  ia  Job  xix,  38,  S4  (thoogh  whether 
the  reference  in  that  panage  ia  to  writing  on  lead,  oi 
filling  up  the  hollow  of  tbe  letlen  with  lead,  ia  not  cer- 
tain) (oomp.  Plinj,  'Vo/.  Bui,  itiii,  11;  Uengatenberg, 
i,4S8);  irau  (1  SEacc  Tiii,»;  xiv,  IS,  S7,  48) ;  ^ 
'  (Exod.  xxzix,  30).  Of  atamped  coina  oC  the  Hebrewa 
there  ia  no  tiaM  earlier  than  the  age  of  the  Uaceabeea 


(lU 


r,6). 


To  tha  engraving  of  genu  there  is  frequent  reference 
in  tha  Old  Test,  aa  in  the  aocount  of  the  bigh-prieat'a 
braiatplata  (aee  alao  Iia.  zxii,  11,  IS,  18 ;  Jei.  xxxji, 
14;  Dan,xii,4).  In  Oen.  xxxviii,  18  we  read  of  Ju- 
dah'a  aignet,  and  fhnn  the  recesc  diacoveriea  in  the 
Eaat  we  learn  that  it  waa  the  cuatom  of  tha  ancient 
Cbaldaana  to  carrf  about  with  them  an  engraved  cjl- 
indai  in  agato  or  other  hard  atone,  which  waa  uaed  aa  a 
aeal  or  aignet,  and  probably  worn  ronnd  the  wriat;  but 
the  engraving  on  these  cyUnden  waa  not  alwaya  accom- 
panied with  an  inamptioiL  (For  apedmeoa,  aee  Baw- 
iuaoa,Ane.  J/oa.  i,  87,  117,  118,  134,  211,  S31;  comp. 
alao  Heertn,  Bift  Sa.  ii,  303).    See  Siuu 

The  common  materiala  of  wriUng  were  the  tablet 
(rvh,  liad)  and  the  roll  (TI^STS,  niesiMK),  the  former 
probably  blTiog  a  Chaldaan  origin,  tbe  latter  an  Egyp- 

"The  ublela  of  the  Chaldeane,"  eaya  Rawrinaon 
(.Inc.  ifoa.  i,  8li-87), "  are  among  the  most  remarkable 
of  their  remaina.  .  .  .  They  are  small  pieces  of  clay, 
•ontewhit  mdely  shaped  into  a  fonn  reaembling  a  pil- 
low, and  thickly  inataibed  with  caneifotm  ehaiactera. 
.  1 ,  What  ia  meet  enrioaa  ia  that  these  doCDmenla  hare 
been  in  general  enveloped,  after  they  were  baked,  in  a 
cover  of  moitt  day,  upon  which  their  ooalenta  have 
been  again  iDiCribe(l,Baaa  to  present  eictemaUy  a  dupli- 
cate of  the  writing  within ;  and  the  tablet  in  its  oarer 
haa  then  been  baked  afnah."  The  aame  material  was 
largely  used  by  the  Avyriana,  and  many  of  their  clay 
tablets  still  remain.  "They  are  of  varioua  uaea, rang- 
ing from  nine  inchea  long  by  six  and  a  half  wide,  to  an 
indi  and  a  half  by  an  inch  wide,  and  even  leaa.  .  .  . 
Some  thooaanda  of  tbeaa  have  bean  recovered ;  many 
ate  hiatorieal,  aoma  lingnlMic,  aotoe  geographical,  acme 
aatroDomical''(collip.PBny,  JVaf.Aisl;Tii,66;  Haeren, 
Bitt,  So.  ii,  ISfi).  For  tbe  aimilar  oae  of  hollow  cyl- 
inden,  or  piiama  of  nx  or  eight  ridea,  formed  of  Bne 
terra  eotta,  aometimea  glazed,  on  which  the  charaeteis 
were  traced  with  a  small  alylus,  in  some  apecimena  aa 
minutely  as  to  be  capable  of  decipherment  only  with 
the  aid  of  a  magnifying-giaaa,  aee  BawlinaDn(j4iKifoii. 
i,  3S0,  478).     See  Brick. 

In  E^typt  the  principal  writing  material  waa  qtiite 
of  a  different  aort.     Wooden  tablets  are  indeed  foond 


«  WRITING 

(dctDTcd  on  the  monnmenta  (Wllkinaon,  .4ac.  Egspt'  i>< 
100);  but  the  material  which  was  in  common  nat,  even 
from  very  andent  times,  waa  the  papym*.  This  reed, 
found  ebiedy  in  Lower  Egypt,  "bad  vaiions  econocaic 
uaes  I  ...  for  wriUng,  the  pith  waa  taken  out,  and  di- 
vided by  a  pointed  inatnunent  into  the  thin  pellidra 
of  which  it  is  composed ;  it  was  then  Battened  by  press- 
ure, and  the  atrips  glued  together,  Dlhar  itripa  being 
placed  at  right  angles  to  them,  so  that  a  roll  of  any 
length  night  be  mannfiactared  (Pliny's  aceoont,  Nat. 
Hilt.  liii,  23,  is  partly  ammeoui)"  (Keniick,  Eggft,  1,89, 
90).  That  this  material  waa  in  use  in  E^ypc  from  a 
verr  eariy  period  ia  evidenced  by  atill  exiating  papyma 
MSS.  of  the  earlieri  Theban  dynasties  <iUd.  i,  S88,  AST, 
*Bo,497;  ii,  102,  142;  see  also  Wilkinaoo,  .lac  ^)0r. 
ii,  99).  Aa  tha  papyma,  being  in  great  demand,  and 
exported  to  all  parte  of  the  world,  became  very  ceatly, 
other  materiala  were  crflen  uaed  instead  of  it,  amoog 
which  Wilkiuaou  mentions  leather,  a  few  leather  roUa 
of  an  early  period  having  been  found  in  the  tombs 
(ibid.  p.  162). 

Now,  aa  Palestine  lay  between  Babylonia  and  Aaayiia 
on  the  one  hand,  and  Egypt  on  the  other,  and  formed 
the  highway  of  union  and  commerce  between  tbem,  we 
may  expect  to  find  the  materiala  of  writing  very  nmi- 
lar  to  thoaa  in  common  use  in  the  t 
civilization,  with  which  it  was 
Accordingly,  we  do  find  men- 
tion made  in  the  Old  Teat. 
bo^  of  the  tablet  (Hack) 
and  of  the  roll  {mtgilldA) ; 
are  not   diatinetly 


infoiT 


of  what  SI 


eitber  tablet  or  roll  was  com- 
poaed.  From  the  character 
of  the  soil  of  Palestine  it 
is  pretty  certain  that  the 
tablet  was  not,  aa  usually  iit 
Assyria  and  Babylonia,  of 
baked  clay,  unleaa  we  ara 
to  suppoaa  an  Importation  of 
Assyrian  tablets,  which  is 
scarcely  pcasible,  aa  the  wric- 

lo  have  been  in-  ^^^ 


r  his  Writ  log 


_._^ Scribe,  wlih_ Pal- 

acribed  on  these  tablets  when  „„^, 

the  clay  waa  freah,  which,  of     Satchel  h 
courae,  it  could  not  be  after     Mslerisls  lu  nuui  m  nim. 
tt.  Up- rf,l»,. •».,«»    fflfflSJ?""'" 
ID  It*  carriage  from  Assyria 

to  Palestine.  Accordingly,  brick  is  mentioned  in  Script- 
ure tiaually  in  connecUon  with  Babylonia  or  Egjpt 
(Gen.  xi,8;  Eiod.  t,  7-19;  Nah.iii,14;  Jer.  xliii,  9; 
Ezek.  Iv,  1) ;  rarely  in  connection  with  Palestine  (Isa. 
ix,  e  [10]) ;  and  we  read  of  no  tablet  of  clay,  but  either 
of  atone  (as  in  the  case  of  the  tahlea  ol  the  law),  or  of 
metal  (1  Kings  vii,Se;  lu.  viii,l;  comp.iii,!3),  oi  of 
wood,  which  was  probably  tbe  material  comiDonly  em- 
ployed for  writing  on  (Luke  i,  G3;  comp.  2  Eadraa  siv, 
SI),  where  tableta  of  box-wood  an  mentioned. 

The  roll,  nkSQ  (or  l^p  n^JB,  fta.  »1, 8  [7] ;  Jer. 
xxxvi,  S,  4;  Ezek.  ii,  9),  ia  not  mentiotied  befor*  tha 
time  of  Jeremiah  (unlus  Fsa.  si  be  earlier),  and  ooly 
in  Jer.  xxxvi;  Exek.  ii  and  iii,and  Zech.  T  (compLalao 
Isa.  xxxiv,  4,  "  And  the  heavens  shall  be  nUcd  np  aa 
book;"  alao  lEsdiasvi,SS;  Luke  iv,  IT;  Bev.Ti,14). 


WUCHERER 


997 


WUNDT 


Egypt,  especially  in  the  later  period  of  the  kingdom,  it 
it  probftble  that  the  roll  waa  of  papyrus,  though  we 
have  no  actual  statement  to  that  effect  in  the  Hebiew 
Scriptures.  All  we  certainly  know  is  that  it  was  of  a 
substance  which  might  be  torn  and  burned  (Jer.xxzTi, 
28) ;  that  the  writing  was  with  ink,  i*^*^,  deyd^  and  was 
arranged  in  columns,  rihb^,  ddaihSth,  lit.  doors  (ibid.) ; 
and  that  both  sides  of  the  material  were  sometimes 
written  on  (Ezek.  ii,  10).  Mention  is  made  of  paper  in 
2  John  12;  also  2  Esdras  xr,  2;  Tobit  vii,  14.  See 
JPapbr. 

That  prepared  skins  were  used  for  writing  on  by  the 
ancient  Hebrews  is  probable,  but  we  have  no  direct 
evidence  of  the  fact.  Whether  the  Hebrew  MJpAer,  book 
or  document,  was  so  called  from  its  connection  with  a 
root  meaning  to  ** scrape,"  is  veiy  doubtful;  it  is  cer- 
tain that  in  Hebrew  the  root  saphdr  has  no  such  mean* 
ing.  The  only  Scriptural  mention  of  parchment  is 
found  in  the  New  TesL  (2  Titus  iv,  13).    See  Pabch- 

XENT. 

The  tablet  was  inscribed  with  a  stylus,  which  made 
an  indentation  in  the  substance  of  which  the  tablet  was 


Palette  of  an  Egyptian  Scribe.    (Brit  Mus.) 

composed;  the  roll  was  written  on  with  ink  (2  Cor.  iii, 
8;  2  John  12;  3  John  18).  In  Ezek.  iz,  2, 8, 11,  the 
inkstand,  "^fibn  Ht)^,  is  mentioned.  As  to  the  stylus 
or  pen,  the  Hebrew  word  for  it  is  199,  Sty  the  derivation 
of  which  is  obscure.  It  is  found  in  four  passages,  in 
two  of  which  it  has  attached  to  it  the  epithet  **  iron  ^ 
(Job  xiz,  24;  Jer.  xvii,  1) ;  in  the  other  two  (Psa.  xlv, 
2  [1] ;  Jer.  viii,  8)  it  denotes  the  pen  in  common  use 
among  the  iopherim  or  scribes,  of  whatever  sort  that 
may  have  been.  The  word  I3*^n,  ehiretj  which  is  usn* 
ally  conjoined  by  writers  upon  this  subject  with  19$,  is 
mentioned  only  in  one  somewhat  obscure  passage  (Isa. 
viii,  1)  as  an  instrument  of  writing;  it  has  probably 
some  connection  with  charivmmim,  the  name  of  the 
Egyptian  sacred  scribes.  In  Egypt  the  reed-pen  seems 
to  have  been  in  use  from  the  earliest  times.  It  even 
forms  part  of  one  of  the  ancient  alphabetic  characters. 
*'  The  reed-pen  and  inkstand,  and  scribes  employed  in 
writing,  appear  among  the  sculptures  in  the  tombs  of 
Gizeb,  which  are  contemporaneous  with  the  pyramids 
themselves"  (Kenrick,  Egypt,  U,  102, 142).— Fairbaini, 
s.  v.    See  Pkn. 

Wucherer,  Johamk  Fbiedrioh,  a  Lutheran  the- 
obgian  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  8,  1808,  at  Nord- 
liugen.  He  studied  at  Erlangen,  and,  after  completing 
his  oourBe,  acted  for  some  time  as  assistant  minister  in 
his  native  pUoe.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  hospital- 
preacher  of  N($rdlingen,  and  pastor  at  Baldingen.  In 
1855  he  was  called  to  Aha,  and  died  there,  Dec.  26, 1881. 
Wucherer  was  a  faithful  follower  of  his  Master,  and  the 
many  difficulties  which  he  had  to  overcome  in  the 
early  period  of  his  ministry  proved  to  be  a  blessing  not 
only  to  him  but  also  to  his  flock.  He  wrote,  Vom 
evangdiack-luihentchm  HauptgoUesdUmi  (Nordlingen, 
1846)  .—Zu  einem  ZeugnUi  (ibid,  eod.) :— Popute're  Ein- 
UUmg  in  die  SchiyUn  dea  Neum  Testamenta^ihiA.  1848- 
60, 2  parts) :—Au$fuhrlicher  Nachweis  aus  8chi-\ft  und 
i9y7ii6ofen,  etc  fibid.  1853).  See  Zuchold,  ^iML  7%eo2.  ii, 
1476.     (a  P.) 

"Wtilfer,  JoiiAiTN,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Nuremberg,  June  7, 1651,  and  died 
there,  Sept.  8, 1724.  He  is  the  author  of,  ta'^bpo  JTe- 
braiee  et  Latine  cum  Ampio  et  Erudiio  Commentario 
Perpetuo  (Altdorf,  1680)  .—Theriaca  Judaioa  adExamm 
Bevocata^  ete^  Ace.  It,  Viva  Vwdez  Sanguims  (Nurem- 
berg, 1681).  See  Fttrst,  BUtL  JtuL  iu,  537;  Winer, 
Handbuch  der  theol.  Lit,  i,  525.    (a  P.) 


WiUffar,  Damikl,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Nuremberg,  July  8, 1617,  and  died 
there.  May  11, 1685,  professor  and  pastor.  He  is  best 
known  as  the  author  of  that  fine  hymn,  0  Ewigkdt^ 
0  Ewighatj  a  favorite  with  the  historian  Niebuhr.  It 
has  been,  translated  into  English  in  the  Lyra  Gem,  i, 
26:  *< Eternity!  Eternity!  How  long  art  thou,  Eter- 
nity!" See  WiU,  NUniager  GdehrUn- Lankan,  iii, 
1757;  WulffaitchB  Lackenprtdigt  (Nuremberg,  1685); 
Koch,  (7esol.  d,  deuUchen  KirchaUiedeif  iii,  144   sq. 

(a  p.) 

Wulfhelin,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  consfr> 
crated  by  archbishop  Athelm,  to  whom,  both,  at  Wells 
and  at  Canterbury,  he  was  the  successor.  One  of  the 
first  public  acts  he  was  called  upon  to  perform,  within 
two  years  of  his  appointment,  was  to  officiate  at  the 
coronation  of  Athelstan,  which  occurred  *in  925.  In 
January,  soon  alter  the  coronation,  his  services  were 
required  at  Tamworth,  to  officiate  at  a  political  mar- 
riage. Again,  at  a  later  period,  the  good  offices  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  were  required  at  the  mar- 
riage of  the  daughter  of  Edward  the  Elder  to  Hugh  the 
Great,  count  of  Paris,  the  son  of  Robert  I.  As  a  ruler 
he  was  discreet,  and  did  much  to  civilize  the  people 
and  promote  Church  privileges.  He  died  in  942.  See 
Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  y  i,  339  sq. 

Wulfliich  (or  Wulf),  an  ecclesiastic  of  Longo- 
bardian  origin,  established  himself  as  a  stylite,  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  6th  century,  in  the  district  of  Triers, 
France,  and  gained  the  admiration  of  the  people  for  whose 
conversion  ho  prayed,  preaching  to  the  multitudes  that 
thronged  around  him,  and  persuading  them  to  destroy 
their  idols.    See  Neander,  Hist,  of  the  Church,  iii,  28. 

Walfred,  an  English  ecclesiastic  of  the  10th  cen* 
tuiy,  went  over  as  a  missionary  to  Skara,  in  West 
Gothland,  and  very  inconsiderately  seized  an  axe  and 
dashed  to  the  ground  a  much  venerated  idol,  for  which 
act  he  was  attacked  by  a  body  of  furious  pagans  an4 
put  to  death  at  once.  See  Neander,  Hiti,  of  the  Church, 
iii,  292. 

Wulfred,  archbishop  of  Camtbrbuby,  was  nom- 
inated by  Ethelhard,  and  was  the  first  occupant  of  that 
important  office.  His  consecration  took  place  in  Aup 
gust,  805,  and  it  is  said  that,  although  he  held  the  arch- 
bishopric for  more  than  twenty -eight  years,  he  did 
nothing  worthy  of  record.  He  died  March  24,  832, 
See  Hook,  Lites  of  the  A  rchbishops  of  Canterbury ,  i, 
270  sq. 

Wundemami,  Johav  n  Chbistiasi  Fbxbdbioh,  a 
Protestant  theologian,  who  died  doctor  of  theology 
and  pastor  at  Wahlendorf,  in  Schleswig,  Deo.  26, 1827, 
is  the  author  of,  Meletemata  de  JS,  Cana  Comm,  Eatg^ 
Critic  (Rostock,  l9Qff)i -^Geschichte  der  christtichen 
Glaubenslehren  vom  Zeitalter  des  Athanasius  bis  axf 
Gregor  den  Grossen  (Leipsic,  1798>99,  2  vols.).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL  LiU  i,  454, 594.    (a  P.) 

Wunderbar,  Reubbn,  a  Jewish  teacher  at  Riga, 
where  he  died,  Aug.  19, 1868,  is  the  author  of,  XWZT\ 
*inb  HKIB^n,  i.e,£iblisch'talmudische  Medicin  (Riga, 

1850-60,  2  vols.).  Besides,  he  contributed  largely  to 
FUrst's  Orient  and  other  periodicals.  See'Furst,  BibL 
Jud,  iii,  537.     (B.  P.) 

VTiuidt,  DA2SIEL  LuDWio,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  Nov.  12, 1741,  at  Crenznach.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  was  appointed  in  1765  second 
preacher  at  Ladenberg,  and  .in  1770  first  preacher  at 
Oppenheim.  In  1773  he  was  called  to  his  native  place, 
where  he  labored  till  1788,  when  he  waa  appointed  sec- 
ond professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg,  advancing  in 
1797  to  the  first  professorship.  He  died  Feb.  19, 1805. 
Of  his  writings  we  mention,  Kurzer  EWtumrf  wm 
Vorlesungen  vber  die  Gtschickte  des  jOdiscken  VoUoes 
(Heidelberg,  n%«)x—Magazin  fur  die  Kirchm-  und 
Gelehriengesehiehte  des  Churjtirstenthums  Pfalz  (ibid. 
1789-90,  2  vols.)  :~ifa^aztn  ftir  die  ]^fSUische  G^ 


WUORIN  VAKI 


998 


WYATT 


ichichie  (ibid.  1798).    See  Doting,  Die  gdekrtm  Th«h 
hgm  DeutteUandt,  it,  768  aq.     (a  P.) 

Wnorln  VSki,  in  Finnish  mytbology,  were  the 
genii  of  the  rocks  and  mines,  who  worked  under  the 
guidance  of  Kttmulilineai 

VTISrdtwelii,  Stanislaus  ALBZAin>EB,  a  Roman 
Catholic  prelate  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Amorbach  in 
1719,  and  died,  as  saifEagan  of  Worms,  April  12, 1796. 
He  is  the  author  of,  Momuticon  Palatimim  (Mannheim, 
179S-97, 6  vols.)  i—Diacuis  Afegunt.  in  A  rchidiac  Dittr, 
et  Comment,  DipL  lUuttr.  (ibid.  1767-77,  8  parts)  :  — 
Thuringia  et  Eich^ekUa  Med.  jEvi  EceUt,  (ibid.  1790) : 
-^Subridia  DipUm,  ad  Sdecta  Jurie  Ecdee,  Germ,  et 
Hittoriar,  Capita  Eiueidanda  (Bamberg,  1772f-80, 13 
parts): — Nova  Suhndia  Diplom,  etc  (ibid.  1781-90). 
See  Winer,  Bandbuck  der  tkeol.  Lit.  i,  791, 792, 802, 916 ; 
y,6.    (B.P.) 

WUrfel,  Andreas,  a  Protestant  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Nuremberg,  Febu  28, 1718,  and  died 
at  OfTenhausen,  in  Bavaria,  Oct  6,  1769.  He  is  the 
author  of,  Lebeiubetckreibungen  aUer  Geittlichen,  welche 
in  der  ReU^uitadt  Numherg  und  avf  deren  Land  sett 
der  Reformation  gedienet  (Nuremberg,  1766 ;  continued 
until  1779  by  Waldau,  ibid.  1779-86):— 17tf<ort«cA« 
Nachrickt  von  der  Jttdengemeinde^  welche  ehehin  in  der 
Reichsstadt  NiirrAerg  cmgerichtet  geweeen,  aber  anno 
1499  auegeickajlft  worden  (ibid.  1766):  —  Hittorische 
Nachrichi  von  der  Judengemeinde  in  der  Bo/mark 
FQriht  etc.  (Fratakfort  and  Prague,  1764).  See  Winer, 
Bandbuch  der  theol  Lit,  i,  787 ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  638. 
(B.P.) 

Wurflkaiti  were  priests  of  the  third  order  among 
pagan  Prussians.  Griwa  takes  the  lead  as  supreme 
head;  next  in  order  come  the  Griwaites,  then  the 
Siggones,  and  lastly  the  Wurskaiti.  They  are  said  to 
have  had  in  control  the  mansgement  of  religious 
duties.  Probably  the  dedication,  cleansing,  and  sac- 
rificing of  the  offerings  was  their  main  duty. 

Wttrtemberg,  Thb  Kingdom  of,  has,  according 
to  the  census  of  1880,  a  population  of  1,971,266  souls, 
of  whom  1,861,412  are  Protestants,  690,406  Roman 
Catholics,  18,826  Jews,  etc.  The  constitution  of  the 
ProtesUnt  Church  is  consiBtoriaL  The  highest  legis- 
lative and  administrative  authority  is,  so  far  as  regards 
purely  ecclesiastical  matters,  vested  in  the  consistory, 
composed  of  a  president,  a  legal  councillor,  and  seven 
ordinary  councillors  (five  laymen  and  two  ecclesiastics), 
who  are  all  appointed  by  the  king.  Since  1848,  how- 
ever, there  has  been  established  alongside  the  consis- 
tory, and  acting  in  unison  with  it,  a  series  of  parish 
councils,  diocesan  synods,  and  annual  synods>general, 
to  which  the  membership  is  elective.  The  territory 
of  the  Church  is  divided  into  six  superintendencies, 
each  with  a  ''prelate"  at  the  head.  These  prelates 
superintend  49  deaneries,  comprising  906  parishes, 
with  1021  pastors  Each  prelate  has  to  visit  his  dio- 
cese every  three  years.  The  general  synod  meets 
every  four  years,  and  is  composed  of  fifty-six  members, 
viz.,  of  forty-nine  members  representing  the  different 
deaneries,  one  representing  the  theological  faculty  of 
Tubingen,  and  six  nominated  directly  by  the  king. 
The  University  of  Tubingen  has  a  faculty  of  Protestant 
theology,  consisting  of  five  ordinary  professors,  besides 
professors  extraordinary  and  '*  Privatdooenten.'*  The 
Roman  Catholics  in  WUrtemberg  form  the  episcopal 
diocese  of  Rottenburg,  which  comprises  672  parishes 
and  946  priests,  paid  by  the  state.  The  University  of 
Tubingen  has  also  a  faculty  of  Roman  Catholic  theology, 
consisting  of  six  professors.  The  diocese  of  Rottenburg 
belongs  to  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Freiburg,  to 
which  its  relations  have  been  arranged  by  the  papal 
bull  Provida  iolertqut,  of  Aug.  11, 1821.  The  present 
incumbent  of  the  episcopal  see  at  Rottenburg  is  the 
famous  Church  historian  Hefde.  Besides  the  Catholic 
faculty,  there  is  also  a  clerical  seminary  at  Rottenburg, 
with  three  professors.    The  relations  of  the  Jews  are 


regulated  by  the  law  of  April  26, 1825.  The  teiritory 
of  the  synagogoe  is  divided  into  twelve  rabbinates, 
which  are  governed  by  an  ecclesiastical  council,  ooittist.<- 
ing  of  the  chief  rabbi  of  Stuttgart  and  five  laymen, 
who  are  responsible  to  the  miilistiy  for  eodesiastieal 
aflairs.  SeeSchmid-Sonneek,i>MeMin9e&efte/)Mtf})oni 
Witriead)erg*8  noA  Emtttkung  wad  gegenwartigem  Be- 
stand  (Stuttgart,  1879) ;  HeUferich,  Chronik  der  ewm- 
g^itchm  Kirche  WOrtemberg^s  vom  Jahre  1879  ^bid. 
1880) ;  Bof-  und  Staate- Bandbuch  dee  KonigreiekM  Wwr* 
Umiirg  ( 1881 ) ;  Lichtenberger,  Encgdop,  da  JSdencee 
Religieuees,  s.  v. ;  Herzog,  Reat'EncgUop,  s.  v.    (BL  P.) 


"Wttrxborg  (or  Wurtzbnrg),  Council  of  (Co 
eilium  Berbipoiente),  Wfirzburg  is  a  fortified  city  of 
Bavaria,  ea|>ital  of  the  circle  of  Lower  Franconia,  one 
hundred  and  forty  miles  north-west  of  Munich,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Main.  An  ecclesiastical  council  was 
held  there  March  18, 1287,  in  the  presence  of  the  em- 
peror Rudolph,  by  the  legate,  John,  bishop  of  Tosculum, 
assisted  by  four  archbishops,  viz.  those  of  Mayenoe, 
Cologne,  Salzburg,  and  Vienna,  some  of  their  snfta- 
gans,  and  many  abbots.  Forty-two  canons  were  pub- 
lished. 

The  first  five  relate  to  the  moral  conduct  and  manner 
of  life  of  clerks,  enjoining  them  not  to  fteqneni  taverns, 
nor  play  with  dice,  and  to  dress  according  to  their  caU- 
iog. 

7.  Forbids  to  celebrate  two  masses  In  one  day,  except 
in  a  case  of  necessity. 

8.  Orders  that  the  Body  of  our  Lord  shall  be  carried 
with  proper  solemnity  to  the  sick,  and  to  women  near  the 
time  of  their  delivery. 

10.  Forbids  to  holds  two  vicarages. 

14.  Orders  those  who  have  received  investiture  at  the 
hands  of  laymen  to  resign  their  benefices  Into  the  bleb- 
op's  hands,  to  whom  the  collation  properly  belongs. 

16.  Forbids  any  fee  for  the  nuptial  benediction  and  for 
fonersls. 

S8.  Forbids  to  fortify  a  church  without  the  bishop's 
consent 

89.  Forbids  to  excommunicate  wives  or  mothers  on 
account  of  their  deceased  hasband*s  or  children's  debts, 
except  they  have  succeeded  to  their  property. 

See  Mansi,  ConciL  xi,  1818;  Landon,  Manual  ofCo^nt' 
ciU,  p.  696, 697. 

WuBtan.    See  Wodan. 

Wnttke,  Karl  Frikdrich  Adolph,  a  Protestant 
theologian  and  philosopher  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Breslau,  Nov.  10, 1819.  Here  he  studied  theology  and 
philosophy,  and  lectured  from  1848  as  a  private  teacher 
on  philosophy.  In  1864  he  was  called  as  professor  of 
theology  to  Berlin,  and  in  1861  as  ordinary  professor  to 
Halle,  where  he  died,  April  12,  1870.  He  wrote,  >(  6- 
handlung  Hber  die  Cotmogonie  der  iekhtitchen  VoOber 
vor  der  Zeit  Jeeu  «.  der  Apoetd^  a  prize  essay  (Hague, 
V6bS)'.^Gt9chichte  dea  Beidenihtms  in  Bezug  avf  Be* 
ligion^  Wieten^  Kvntt^  JSittUckkeit  ttnd  Staateldfen  (Bres- 
lau, 1851-68,  2  vols*):— />fr  deutedie  Voiktaberykmbe 
der  Gegenwart  (Hamburg,  1860;  2d  ed.  1869):— J^omI- 
buch  der  ckritdiehen  Sitteidehre  (Berlin,  1861-62, 2  vols. ; 
EngL  transL  by  J.  P.  Laooix,  Chrietian  Ethioj  N.  T., 
1878, 2  vols.).  After  hia  death  was  published  Zvr  Vcr- 
guekichte  der  BartMohmaumacht  von  Dr,  S,  MUUer^ 
FrauenMein  (Leipsic,  1879).  Bendes  these  works  he 
published  some  minor  writings.  See  Literariecker 
Bandweiser,  1870,  p.  489;  Tkeologiecbet  UnwereaUeX'- 
ik(my  s.  V. ;  Zuchold,  BSbU  TkeoL  u,  1478.    (&  P.) 

WyaAa,  in  Hindfi  philosophy,  is  probably  a  generic 
name  of  the  founders  of  the  Vedanta  (q.  v.). 

Wyatt,  Christopher  B.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epifr* 
copal  clexg}*man,  graduated  from  the  General  Theok^ 
ical  Seminary,  N.  Y.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1846 
and  presbyter  in  1849;  became  rector  of  a  church  ia 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  which  he  served  until  about  1856; 
in  1868  of  St.  Thomas's  Church,  New  Windsor,  N.  Y.; 
in  1862  of  Mount  Calvary  Church,  Baltimore,  Md. ;  in 
1864  of  Trinity  Church,  San  Francisco,  Cat,  whence  he 
removed,  in  1869  or  1870,  to  New  York  city,  where  he 
resided  until  1872,  and  then  became  rector  of  St  Petali 


WTCLIFFITES 


999 


XENOCRATES 


Church,  Westchester,  N.  T^  in  which  office  he  remained 
until  his  death,  Nov.  8,  1879,  at  the  age  of  fiftf-four 
years.    See  Prot,  Epitc  A  Imanae,  1880,  p.  172. 

Wyollffltes,  the  followers  of  John  Wycliffe  (q.  ▼.). 
For  their  history  and  doctrines,  see  Lollards. 

Wylie,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Ireland  about  17d2,  and  came  to 
the  United  States  when  a  boy.  He  was  educated  under 
the  supervision  of  bis  uncle,  the  Rev.  S.  B.  Wylie,  D.D., 
of  Philadelphia.  He  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  and  at  the  theological  seminary  of  the 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Church,  and  was  ordained  in 
1818.  He  acted  as  a  home  missionary  until  1820,  when 
he  was  settled  as  pastor  of  a  church  at  Sparta,  IlL, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death,  March  20,  1872. 
He  exerted  a  wide  influence  in  his  field  of  labor,  above 
a  dozen  churches  having  been  formed  from  the  nucleus 
of  his  original  congregation. 

Wymundiu,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  the  Isles  in  the  12th  century.  He  was  de- 
prived about  1151.     See  Keith,  ScoUish  Biehopa,  p.  297. 

Wyntown  (Wynton,  or  Winton),  Akdrew 
OF,  a  Scotch  eocleaastic  and  poet,  was  a  canon  regular 
of  the  priory  of  St.  Andrews,  and  in  or  before  1895  was 
elected  prior  of  St.  Serf's  Inch,  Lochlevcn.  He  was 
prior  at  least  as  late  as  1413,  and  records  the  death  of 
Robert,  duke  of  Albany,  which  occurred  in  1420.    But 


the  dates  of  hu  own  birth  and  death  are  unknown. 
He  is  the  third  of  the  early  Scotch  poets  whose  works 
are  extant.  Of  his  writings  we  have  De,  OtygynaU 
CromfhU  of  SeotUtnd,  bt  Andrew  of  Wjffdown^  Priour 
of  Sonet  Serjit  Ynehe,  in  Loch  Levyn;  now  fint  /»&. 
Uthed^  toith  Notet^  €te.,  by  David  Meuphenon  (1795}, 
See  Mackenzie,  Scotch  Writers;  Irving,  Scot^  Poets; 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

'Wyttenbaoh,  Damiel,  one  of  the  most  prominent 
theologians  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, was  bom  at  Worb,  near  Beroe,  June  26,  1706. 
He  studied  in  Switzerland,  Germany,  Holland,  and 
France.  In  1746  he  was  appointed  professor  at  Beme, 
and  in  1756  was  called  to  Ifarburg,  where  he  also 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity.  He  died 
June  29,  1779.  He  is  the  author  of,  Prutleetio  de  liSf 
qum  Obtervanda  sunt  circa  Theologiam  et  Dogmatieam 
et  Eleuchtieam  Docendam  (Beme,  1747): — De  PrtneipOi 
Statuum  Evangelieorum  circa  Res  EedesioMticas  (Mar- 
burg, 1756)  :-^Testttmen  Theohgia  Dogmaticm  Metkodo 
SeienHfioa  Pertraetaite  (  Beme,  1741-47,  8  vols.)  '.— 
Compendium  Theol,  Dogmaticm  et  MoraHs  (Frankfort, 
1754),  etc  See  Curtius,  Memoria  D,  WylteiAaAU 
(  Marburg,  1779 ) ;  Bang,  Elogium  in  D.  WyUeiAachium 
(Beme,  1781);  Strieder,  Heu.  GeU^Geschichte^  xvii, 
822  sq. ;  Heppe,  Geschichte  der  iheoL  FaeuUSt  zu  Mar^ 
burg  (Marburg,  1878);  TheoL  UniversaUexihon,  s.  v.; 
FiUBt,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  588.     (B.  P.) 


JLantem  Pagnlniu.    See  Pagiiinvb,  Saivctes. 

Zan'tfaiotui  (S?<ivducoc)t  the  name  of  the  sixth 
month  among  the  Seleucid  Syrians  (2  Mace  xi,  80, 38 
38  [xii,  1]),  L  e.  in  the  Macedonian  calendar  (Ideler, 
Handb,  d,  ChronoL  i,  892  sq.).  Josephus  makes  it  par- 
allel with  the  Jewish  Nisitn  (^Ant,  i, 3, 3 ;  iii,  10, 5;  comp. 
ITar,  V,  3, 1).    See  Month. 

Xanthopulos.    See  Kicbpiiorus  Callmtus. 

Zavexius  Society.  This  is  the  name  of  a  mis- 
sionary society  founded  in  1822  by  some  laymen  at 
Lyons,  in  honor  of  Francis  Xavier.  This  society  is 
found  all  over  the  globe.  Its  income  was,  in  1869,  five 
millions  and  a  half  in  francs.  See  Aloys,  Statist,  Jahr- 
huh  der  Kirche,  i,  179-182;  Marx,  Generalstatistik  der 
Kathoi.  Vereine  (Trier,  1871).    (B.  P.) 

Xenasans,  a  Monophysite  sect  which  held  a  middle 
line  between  the  Aphthartodcetce  (q.  v.)  and  the  Phihar- 
tolatrm  (q.  v.),  maintaining  that  Christ  tmly  became 
man,  with  the  same  capacities  for  suffering  and  the  same 
human  sensations  as  men  in  general,  but  that  he  did  so 
of  his  own  free  will  and  choice,  and  not  by  the  physical 
necessity  of  his  human  nature.  This  doctrine  originated 
with  Xenaias,  of  Tabal,  in  Persia,  afterwards  known  as 
Pbiloxenns  of  Mabug  (q.  v.).  The  Xenisan  party  was 
strongly  opposed,  in  common  with  the  other  Mono- 
physites,  by  Flavian,  the  patriarch  who  succeeded  Peter 
the  Fuller. 

Zexii&dds,  a  Greek  philosopher,  was  a  native  of 
(}orintb.  The  age  in  which  he  flourished  is  uncertain. 
Our  knowledge  of  him  is  derived  chiefly  from  Sextus 
Empiricus,  who  represents  him  as  the  most  ultra  scep- 
tic, maintaining  that  all  notions  are  lalse,and  that  there 
is  absolutely  nothing  trae  in  the  universe.  See  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Rom,  Biog,  and  Myth,  s.  v. 

See  Philoxemus  or  Mabuo. 


Xenoor&tdfl,  a  Greek  philosopher,  was  bom  in 
Chaloedon,  396  B.(X  He  was  originally  a  pupil  of 
JSschines,  the  Socratic  philosopher,  and  afterwards  of 
Plato.  His  intimate  connection  with  Plato  is  indicated 
by  the  account  that  he  accompanied  that  master  to 
Syracuse.  After  the  death  of  PUto  he  betook  himself, 
with  Aristotle,  to  Hermias,  tjrrant  of  Ataroeus  and 
Aisns,  and,  after  his  retnm  to  Athens,  was  repeatedly 


sent  on  embassies  to  Philip  of  Macedonia,  and  at  a  later 
time  to  Antipater,  during  the  Lamian  war.  The  want 
of  quick  apprehension  and  natural  grace  he  compensated 
by  persevering  and  thorough-going  industry,  pure  be- 
nevolence, purity  of  morals,  unselfishness,  and  a  moral 
earnestness  which  compelled  esteem  and  trast  even 
from  the  Athenians  of  bis  own  age.  Yet  even  he  ex- 
perienced the  fickleness  of  popular  favor,  and  being  too 
poor  to  pay  the  /tcro(ctov,  or  protection  money,  is  said 
to  havo  been  saved  only  by  the  coursge  of  the  orator 
Lycurgus,  or  even  to  have  been  bought  by  Demetrius 
Phalereus,  and  then  emancipated.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  the  academy,  389  RC.,  even  before  the  death 
of  Spensippus,  and  occupied  the  post  for  twenty-five 
yearL  He  died  in  814  B.C  Xenocrates'  doctrines  were 
discussed  by  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus,  and  he  was 
held  in  high  regard  by  such  men  as  Panastius  and 
Cicero.  Diogenes  Laertius  gives  a  long  Kst  of  his 
writings,  but  the  works  themselves  have  perished. 
With  a  more  comprehensive  work  on  dialectic  there 
were  connected  separate  trearises  on  science,  on  divi- 
sions, on  genera  and  species,  on  ideas,  on  the  opposite, 
and  others,  to  which  probably  the  work  on  mediate 
thought  also  belonged.  Two  works  on  ph3rsics  are  men- 
tioned, as  are  also  books  upon  the  gods,  on  the  existent, 
on  the  One,  on  the  indefinite,  on  the  soul,  on  the  affec- 
tions, on  memory,  etc  In  like  manner,  with  the  more 
general  ethical  treatises  on  happiness  and  on  virtue, 
there  were  connected  separate  books  on  individual  vir- 
tues, on  the  voluntary,  etc.  His  four  books  on  royalty 
he  had  addressed  to  Alexander.  Besides  these,  he  had 
written  treatises  on  the  state,  on  the  power  of  law,  etc., 
as  well  as  upon  geometry,  arithmetic,  and  astrology. 
We  know  little  of  the  doctrines  of  Xenocrates,  but  we 
may  infer  that  he  exhibited  his  opinions  in  a  systematic 
form,  and  not  in  dialogues,  like  his  master,  Plato.  To 
him  is  attributed  the  division  of  philosophy  into  logic, 
ethic,  and  physic,  or  physics.  He  occupied  himself 
principally  with  attempting  to  reduce  the  ideal  doctrines 
of  Plato  to  mathematical  elements.  He  predicted  three 
forms  of  being — the  sensuous,  that  which  is  perceived 
by  the  intellect,  and  that  which  is  compounded  and  con- 
sists in  opinion.  In  his  positions  we  see  the  tendency 
of  the  academy  towards  the  Pythagorean  doctrines  of 
number.    Unity  and  duality  he  considers  as  the  godi 


XENOPHANES 


1000 


which  rale  the  world,  and  the  sonl  ts  a  aelf-moving 
number.  Other  like  conceits  are  attributed  to  him. 
Xenocrates  considered  that  the  notion  of  the  deity  per- 
vades all  things,  and  is  even  in  the  animals  which  we 
call  irrationaL  He  also  admitted  an  order  of  dsmons, 
or  something  intermediate  between  the  dirine  and  the 
mortal,  which  he  made  to  consist  in  the  conditions  of 
the  soul.  In  his  ethical  teaching  he  made  happiness 
consist  not  in  the  possession  of  a  virtuous  mind  only, 
but  also  of  all  the  powers  that  miniBter  to  it  and  enable 
it  to  effect  its  purposes.  How  decidedly  he  insisted,  not 
only  on  the  recognition  of  the  unconditional  nature  of 
moral  excellence,  but  on  morality  of  thought,  is  shown 
by  the  declaration  that  it  comes  to  the  same  thing 
whether  one  casts  longing  eyes  or  sets  his  feet  upon  the 
property  of  others  His  monsl  earnestness  is  sJso  ex- 
pressed in  the  warning  that  the  ears  of  children  should 
be  guarded  against  the  poison  of  immoral  speeches. 
See  Van  de  Wynpersee,  Diatribe  de  Xtnoartie  Choice' 
domo  (1822);  Diogenes  Laertius,  Xenocncflef/  Ritter, 
Cfttekichte  der  PhUoiopkie^  ii ;  Ueberweg,  Histofy  of 
PkUotophy^  i,  138  aq.;  Smith,  Diet,  qf  Grtek  and  Rom, 
Biog,  cmd  Myth.  s.  v. 

Xenophftn^B,  a  Greek  philosopher,  was  bom  at 
Colophon,  Ionia,  probably  about  670  B.C.  He  was  the 
son  of  Orthomenes,  or,  according  to  others,  of  Dexius. 
He  left  his  native  land  as  an  exUe,  and  betook  himself 
to  the  Ionian  Colonies,  Sicily,  Zancle,  and  Catana. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  as  the  founder  of  the  Elea- 
tic  school,  he  lived  for  some  time  at  least  in  Elea  (Yelia, 
in  Italy,  founded  by  the  Phocteans  about  6d6  AC),  the 
foundation  of  which  he  had  sung.  His  death  occurred 
probably  about  480  RC.,  though  amid  the  conflicting 
statements  concerning  his  age  it  is  best  to  say  that  he 
lived  between  the  tiroes  of  Pythagoras  and  Heraditus, 
for  he  mentions  the  one  and  is  mentioned  by  the  other. 

Xeoophanes  was  a  poet  as  well  as  a  philosopher.  He 
wrote  an  epic  of  two  thousand  verses  on  the  founding 
of  Elea,  and  a  poem  on  the  foundation  of  his  native 
city,  Colophon.  His  philosophical  doctrines  were  ex- 
prened  in  poetic  form,  and  from  the  few  fragments  of  his 
poetry  which  remain,  and  the  brief  notices  of  him  by  oth- 
er writers,  we  collect  what  we  know  of  his  doctrines.  He 
attacked  Hesiod  and  Homer,  in  hexameter  verses,  elegi- 
acs, and  iambic  verses,  for  their  representations  of  the 
deities,  to  whom  those  poets  attribute  all  the  vices  and 
weaknesses  of  men.  He  taught  that  God  was  one,  un- 
like men  either  in  form  or  mind.  He  pointed  out  the 
fact  that  men,  in  their  representations  of  the  gods,  de- 
pict them  as  having  bodies  like  their  own,  and  declared 
that  if  animals  could  make  representations  of  the  deity, 
they  would  make  them  like  themselves.  Assuming 
that  the  deity  is  the  most  powerful  of  beings,  he  proves 
that  he  must  of  necessity  be  one,  all  alike,  all  endued 
with  equal  powers  of  seeing,  comprehending,  and  hear- 
ing. He  asserted  that  the  deity  is>of  a  spherical  form, 
neither  limited  nor  unlimited,  neither  moving  nor  at 
rest.  God  rules  and  directs  all,  and  things  as  they  ap- 
pear to  us  are  the  imperfect  manifestations  of  the  One 
eternal.  He  maintains  that  God's  trae  nature  cannot 
be  known.  He  has  been  charged  with  being  a  panthe- 
ist, but  from  this  accusation  Cousin  takes  some  pains  to 
defend  him.  In  the  early  history  of  philosophy  the 
language  of  the  science  waa  not  well  defined,  so  that 
many  expressions  which  have  since  come  to  mean  cer- 
tain things  did  not  then  have  those  meanings.  Certain 
expressions  of  Xenophanes  have  been  quoted  by  modern 
writers  to  prove  his  pantheism ;  but  other  quotations, 
as,  for  example,  those  of  Aristotle,  show  that  he  speaks 
of  God  as  a  Being  eternal,  and  distinct  from  the  risible 
universe. 

See  Diogenes  Laertins,  JTenopAojaef ;  Ritter,  (revcAtcAte 
der  Philoiophie,  voL  i ;  Cousin,  Nouveaux  Fragmau  Phi- 
iotophigwtf  art.  Xenophcttie ;  Simon  Kaisten,  Xenophani* 
Cokphonii  Carminum  BeUqua,  de  Vita  ejus  et  StudOt 
DisiemU,  Fragmenta  ExpKooerit,  Phcita  lUuttravUf 
Smith,  Diet  of  Greek  and  Rom,  Biog,  and  Myth,  s.  v. 


Xeiud,  a  sect  of  materialists  in  Japan,  who  beHerc 
in  no  other  life  than  the  present 

Xeodoxfim  are  a  sect  among  the  Japanese  who 
acknowledge  a  future  state,  and  believe  in  the  immor- 
tality of  the  souL  Amidas  is  thmr  favorite  deity,  azid 
the  bonzes  of  this  sect  go  up  and  down  the  public  streets 
and  roads,  summoning  devotees  by  the  sound  of  a  bell, 
and  distributing  indulgences  and  dispensationa,  con- 
stantly crying  in  a  chanting  tone, "  O  ever  Ueased  Ami- 
das, have  mercy  upon  us." 

Xerophagia  (^ifpo^yia,  from  Knpo^f  dry,  and 
^ayiivy  to  eat)  were  fast^ays  in  the  eaiiy  ages  of  tb« 
Christian  Church,  on  which  they  ate  nothing  but  bread 
and  salt,  and  drank  water;  but  afterwards  pulse,  herba, 
and  fmiu  were  added.  Epiphanius  says,  "  throughout 
the  Holy  Week  people  continue  to  use  dry  food,  vis.  bread 
and  salt,  using  water  only  in  the  evening "  {Compeni, 
Doct,  Cath,).  This  great  fast  was  kept  six  days  of  the 
Hoi}'  Week  for  devotion,  and  not  by  obligation;  so  that 
the  Church  condemned  the  Montauists,  who,  of  their 
own  private  authority,  would  not  only  oblige  all  people 
to  observe  the  xerophagia  of  the  Holy  Week,  but  also 
other  fasts  that  they  had  established,  as  well  as  several 
Lents.  The  Essenes,  whether  they  were  Jews  or  the 
first  Christians  of  the  Church  of  Alexandria,  observed 
xerophagia  on  certain  days;  for  Fhilo  says  that  they 
put  nothing  to  their  bread  and  water  but  salt  and  hyssop. 
During  Lent  fish  was  the  only  animal  food  permitted ; 
but,  according  to  some  authorities,  fowls  were  afterwards 
added. 

fences  (Slp^ifc ;  Pers.  Khethperehe,  or  Ks'karea ; 
according  to  Benfey,  K^hthyanke),  king  of  Perna,  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  gigantic  but  unsuccessful  inva- 
sion  of  Greece  (Herod,  vii,  viii;  Diod.  Sic.  xi).  He 
was  the  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  and  of  Atossa,  daugh- 
ter of  C3rrus.  He  succeeded  his  father,  485  B.C.,  hav- 
ing been  declared  heir  to  the  kingdom  of  Persia  a  abort 
time  before  his  father's  death,  who  preferred  him  befoce 
his  elder  brother  Artabazanes,  because  the  latter  was 
bom  while  Darius  was  a  private  individual ;  bat  Xerxes 
was  bom  after  his  elevation  to  the  throne.  He  wai 
the  "fourth"  king  prophesied  of  in  Dan.  xi,  2:  *'He^ 
hold  there  shall  stand  up  yet  three  kings  in  i^nna 
(Cynis,  Cambyses,  and  Darius,  son  of  HydaspesX  <uid 
the  fourth  (Xerxes)  shall  be  far  richer  than  they  all; 
and  by  his  strength  through  his  riches  he  shaD  stir  op 
all  against  the  realm  CMmOhna. 
of  Greece."   Xerxes,    j^^^     g  y  ^^ ^^     -^.^ 

friendly  to  the  Jews    ^h    eh     o     a     r     $A    a    , 
of  the  captivity,  and 
confirmed  all  the  fa- 
vors granted  to  them 
by  his  father;  in- 
deed, Josephns(i4iif.    Kh   eh     a   a        r         M    . 
xi,  6)   «»cribcs    to     cuneiform  and  Hieroglyph  of 
Xerxes  the  letter  m  Xerxes, 

behalf  of  the  return- 
ing Jews  given  in  Ezra  vii,  1 1-26.  He  began  his  reign 
by  conquering  Eg^^p^ ;  uid  rapidly  subdued  the  Ph<B&i- 
cians,  Cilicia,  Parophylia,  Pontus,  Pisidia,  Lycia,  Garia, 
M3rria,  Troas,  Kthynia,  the  Hellespont,  and  the  Ide  of 
Cyprus.  Four  years  previously  the  forces  of  Darius 
had  been  defeated  by  the  Greeks  under  BCiltiades  at 
the  battle  of  Marathon,  and  the  interval  bad  been 
passed  in  preparing  for  a  second  expedition.  These 
preparations  Xerxes  continued  on  a  scale  of  magnifi- 
cence almost  incredible,  and  in  the  spring  of  480  &C. 
he  commenced  his  march  from  Sardis :  his  army  waa 
moved  forward  with  great  deHbenatton,  and  being  mmt- 
bered  on  its  arrival  in  Europe  was  found  to  master 
1,700,000  foot,  and  80,000  horse,  besides  cameb,  chari. 
ots,  and  ships  of  war.  These  numbers,  and  the  nndi»> 
divined  crowds  who  must  have  attended  them,  to  sup- 
ply their  necessities,  are  perfectly  bewiUcriiig  te  the 


HiOTD^JpUc 


&m  1 1^4*51 


XERXES 


1001 


XUAllEZ 


joDiginatioa;  and  they  become  still  more  so  when  their 
varied  ooatames,  the  silken  and  gilded  tents,  the  standi 
aidS|  the  costly  armori  and  the  variety  of  national  wea- 
pons are  considered.  One  of  the  political  parties  of 
Greece,  it  most  be  borne  in  mind,  was  in  league  with 
the  Persian  court,  and  the  terror  of  the  country  verged 
upon  despair  of  maintaining  their  liberties.  Themis- 
tocles,  however,  while  the  pass  of  ThermopylsB  was  de- 
fended by  Leonidas  and  his  Spartans,  succeeded  in 
rallying  his  countrymen,  and,  having  created  a  navy, 
defeated  Xerxes  at  the  battle  of  Salamis.  This  great 
event  took  place  in  the  year  of  the  expedition,  480  B.C 
The  Persians  were  allowed  to  retreat  in  such  order  as 
they  could,  but  Ifardonins,  one  of  the  principal  com- 
manders, reserved  a  more  manageable  army,  the  best 
he  could  pick  from  the  flying  host,  and  with  these  he 
was  defeated  by  the  combined  Greeks  the  year  follow- 
ing.  After  the  return  of  Xerxes  from  his  unsuccessful 
campaign,  he  ordered  the  demolition  of  all  the  Grecian 
temples  in  Asia;  that  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  alone  being 
spared.  He  had  been  instructed  in  the  religion  of  the 
magi  by  Zoroaster,  and  was  inspired  with  a  horror  of 
idolatry;  wherefore  he  also  destroyed  all  the  idols  in 
Babylon ;  thus  fulfilling  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  vi, 
2,  and  li,  44-47.  See  Babtlom.  Xerxes  was  assassi- 
nated by  Artabanus,  one  of  the  great  officers  of  his 
court,  who  aspired  to  found  a  new  dynasty  in  Persia, 
466  B.a    See  Smith,  Did,  of  Clou,  Biog,  s.  v.    See 

PftBSIA. 

This  prince  was,  according  to  most  interpretera  (see 
especially  Scaliger,  Emend,  Ten^,  vi,  687,  696),  the 
Ahatuenu  (On;!VnK)  of  the  book  of  Esther  (q.  v.), 
an  identification  which  the  whole  romantic  story  of 
Esther  goes  to  confirm  (see  RosenmuUer,  Aiterth,  I,  i, 
838  sq. ;  HKvemick, EinL iniA.T.n,i, 839  sq. ;  Baum- 
garten,  De  Fide  Libri  Etth,  p.  123  sq. ;  Rodiger,  in  the 
HaUe  Eneydop,  I,  xxxviii,  295  sq.).  The  enumeration 
of  his  resources  (Esth.  i,  2 ;  ii,  16)  agrees  with  the 
statement  of  Herodotus  (vii,  7  sq.)  respecting  the  rally- 
ing of  his  forces  against  Egypt ;  and  the  date  of  the 
great  feast,  the  third  year  of  his  reign  ( Esth.  i,  8 ), 
tallies  with  the  successful  conclusion  of  that  expedition 
which  took  place  in  his  second  year,  the  luxurious 
character  of  the  carousal,  moreover,  being  consistent 
with  Persian  customs  (Herod,  i,  133).  Between  the 
dismissal  of  his  sultana  Yashti,  resulting  from  that 
feast,  and  the  reception  of  Esther  into  his  harem  in  his 
seventh  year  (Esth.  ii,  16),  falls  appropriately  the  Greek 
campaign  which  Xerxes,  after  several  years  of  prepa- 
ration, undertook  in  his  fifth  year  (Herod,  vii,  20.  The 
duration  of  the  expedition,  from  the  crossing  of  the 
Hellespont  by  Xerxes  [ibid,  vii,  83  sq.],  to  the  return 
to  Susa,  is  disputed  by  chronologers  [see  Baumgarten, 
L  c.  p.  142  sq.] ;  but  two  years  is  a  most  probable  inter- 
val [see  Clinton, FatU  HeUen.  ii, 28;  VAri  de  ViriJUr 
lea  Datetj  ii,  887  sq.]).  Again,  the  extent  of  the  do- 
minions (Esth.  i,  1  sq.)  corresponds  with  the  classical 
description  of  Xerxes;  he  occupied  Ethiopia,  which 
Cambyses  had  already  attempted  (Herod,  iii,  20  sq. ; 
moreover,  the  Ethiopians  served  in  Xerxes*  armies, 
ibid,  vii,  69  sq.),  as  well  mb  India,  to  which  Darius 
Hystaspis  had  advanced  (ibid,  iv,  44  sq.).  Moreover, 
the  voluptuousness  and  imperiousness  of  women  (Esth. 
V,  8;  vii,  8  sq.;  Wii,  8  sq.;  ix,  12)  in  the  time  of 
Xerxes  are  wdl  known  (Herod,  ix,  10  sq.).  But  es- 
pecially does  the  vexation  which  Xerxes  experienced 
from  the  failure  of  his  expedition  to  Greece  explain 
why,  while  living  entirely  for  his  own  pleasure  (Cicero, 
Tvic  V,  7),  he  £ould  not  only  abandon  the  most  im- 
portant affiuum  of  state  to  an  upstart  (Esth.  iii,  16),  but 


also  give  his  assent  to  deeds  of  violence,  now  on  this 
side,  and  now  on  that  (iii,  10  sq. ;  vii,  10 ;  viii,  8) ;  all 
of  which  facts  characterize,  according  to  our  ideas,  a 
senseless  (Herod,  vii,  36),  godless  (viii,  109),  and  cruel 
despot  (vii,  87  sq.).  Finally  the  raising  of  a  large  tax 
(Esth.  X,  1)  may  readily  have  followed  the  exhaustion 
of  the  royid  treasury  by  the  disastrous  expedition  into 
Greece.    See  ARAauKRua. 

Xisathmft  (or  Xlsithnia),  the  Chaldsan  Noah, 
See  Delvgb. 

Zt;  Xtian,  Ztmaa,  are  abbreviations  for  Chri^^ 
Chritkan^  and  CkriMtmoM^  respectively.  Other  abbre- 
viations of  a  similar  character  are  used :  Xmae^  or  JTm., 
for  Christmas;  JTii,  for  (^ristian;  JTfi/y,  or  Xty^  for 
Christianity. 

Zylolaters  (literally,  worthippere  of  the  vsood) 
was  a  term  of  reproach  applied  by  the  old  iconoclasts 
to  the  orthodox  Christians,  who  reverenced  both  the 
symbol  of  their  faith  and  representations  of  sacred  per^ 
sons  and  objects. 

Zylon  (the  wood)^  i.  e.  the  Cro$$  on  which  our  Lord 
was  crucified. 

Zylophoxla.    See  WooD-CARRTCfo,  Feast  of. 

Zuares,  Juan,  an  early  Roman  Catholic  prelate  in 
America,  was  a  native  of  Valencia,  Spain,  and  entered 
the  Franciscan  order  in  the  province  of  St.  Gabriel,  es- 
tablished by  Martin  at  a  time  when,  by  the  zealous  re- 
forms of  cardinal  Cisneros,  the  Franciscans  of  Spain  were 
full  of  fervor  and  piety.  When  Cortez  applied  for  Fran- 
ciscan missionaries  to  undertake  the  conversion  of  the 
thickly  settled  towns  in  the  kingdom  just  reduced  by 
his  arms,  a  Spanish  father,  Francis  de  los  Angeles,  hsd 
just  been  elected  general  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis.  For 
the  leader  of  the  twelve  missionaries  chosen,  he  selects 
ed  Martin  de  Valencia,  and  fourth  among  their  number 
was  Juan  Xuarez.  With  his  superior,  he  embarked  at 
San  Lucar,  Jan.  16, 1624,  and  on  May  13  they  reached 
the  castle  of  San  Juan  de  UUoa,  before  Vera  Cniz,  and 
met  Cortez  at  Mexico.  Father  Xuarez  was  placed  at 
Huegocongo,  and  as  the  result  of  his  labors  there  the 
temple,  where  human  sacrifices  had  often  been  perpe- 
trated, was  destroyed.  After  laboring  here  two  yean 
he  returned  to  Spain,  in  1626,  accompanied  by  some  of 
his  Indian  pupils,  and  sent  out  six  more  missionaries. 
In  1627  Xuarez  was  assigned  to  the  expedition  then  fit- 
ting out  by  Pamphilo  de  Narva^  which  was  intended  to 
establish  in  Florida  a  settlement  to  rival  that  of  Mex- 
ico. Xuarez  was  not  only  made  commissary  of  his  or- 
der, bnt  waa  nominated  bishop  of  Florida,  his  diocese 
to  extend  from  the  Atlantic  to  Rio  de  las  Palmas,  Mex- 
ico. With  four  Franciscan  fathers  and  other  priests, 
he  sailed  from  San  Lucar,  June  17, 1627,  and  reached 
Florida  in  April.  Misfortune  attended  this  ill-starred 
expedition.  The  people  were  fierce  and  hostile,  and 
the  force,  thinned  by  disease  and  constant  engage- 
ments, crept  along  the  northern  coast  of  the  gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  brave  Karvaez  was  driven  out  to  sea,  and 
never  again  heard  of.  The  party  then  scattered,  and 
many  perished  ou  an  island  called  Malhado,  probably 
that  called  Massacre  Island  by  the  French.  There  is 
no  record  of  the  death  of  bishop  Xuarez  and  his  com- 
panion,  John  de  Palos.  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca, 
with  three  others,  reached  a  Spanish  post  in  Sonora, 
but  has  left  no  details.  They  either  perished  of  hun- 
ger or  at  the  hands  of  the  Indians,  abont  the  close  of 
1628.  The  portraits  of  the  original  twelve  Franciscans 
of  Mexico  have  been  preserved,  and  that  of  Xuarez 
appears  in  the  relation  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca.  See  (N.  T.) 
CaikdUc  AlmomaCy  1672,  p.  67. 


YAONA 


1002 


YABIBA  VERSION 


T. 


Taalah.    See  Rob. 
Taanah.    See  Owu 

Tacna  (literally,  saa-ifioe),  in  Panee  philosophy, 
\8  B.  book  of  the  Zend  AvesU  (q.  v.). 

Y'adayim.    See  Talmcq 

TaJSl    See  Wild  Goat. 

IfaSn.    See  Ostbich. 

Yahalom.    See  Diamond. 

Xahgan  Version  of  the  Scripturks.  Tshgan 
is  the  language  spoken  by  ■  tribe  in  the  south  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego.  The  Rev.  T.  Bridges,  of  the  Sooth  Ameri- 
can Missionary  Society,  who  has  been  laboring  among 
this  people  for  the  last  eleven  years,  and  has  taught 
them  to  read  and  write  their  own  tongue,  written  ac- 
cording to  Ellis's  phonetic  system,  has  prepared  the 
gospel  of  Luke  in  the  above  language,  spoken  by  about 
three  thousand  people.  This  is  the  only  part  of  the 
Bible  which  has  been  published  in  Yahgan  by  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  appears  for  the  first 
time  in  the  seventy-sixth  report  (1880),  in  the  table 
of  languages.    (B.  P.) 

Taks  are  a  species  of  demons  recognised  as  rem- 
nants of  the  primitive  superstition  of  the  Singhalese 
in  Ceylon.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  autbora  of 
diseases  and  other  misfortunes,  and  the  Takadura,  or 
devil-dancer,  is  almost  invariably  called  upon  to  over- 
come their  malignity  by  his  chants  and  charms.  In 
these  exorcisms  the  performers  wear  horrible  masks, 
which  have  beaks,  and  are,  in  fact,  caricatures  of  birds* 
heads.  These  demons  are  believed  to  marr}*,  and  de- 
light in  dances,  songs,  and  other  amusements.  They 
have  great  strength,  and  some  of  them  are  represented 
as  possessing  splendor  and  dignity. 

Talden  (or  Tonlding),  Thomas,  D.D^  an  Eng- 
lish divine  and  poet,  was  bom  at  Exeter  in  1671.  He 
was  educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  chosen 
fellow  in  1700.  He  entered  into  holy  orders  the  following 
year,  became  rector  of  Willoughby,  in  Warwickshire, 
and  was  chosen  lecturer  of  moral  philosophy.  In  1706 
he  entered  the  family  of  the  duke  of  Beaufort,  and  soon 
after  became  rector  of  Chalton  and  of  Cleanville,  in 
Hertfonlshirc.  He  also  had  the  sinecure  prebends  of 
Deanis  Hains,  and  Pendles,  in  Devonshire.  In  17X8  he 
was  chosen  preacher  of  Bridewell  Hospital,  on  the  res- 
ignation of  Dr.  Atterbury.  He  was  arrested  and  tried 
for  complicity  in  what  is  known  as  Bishop  Atterbury's 
Plot,  in  1722,  but  was  soon  released  for  want  of  evidence. 
He  died  July  16,  1786.  He  pubUshed  an  Odtfor  SU 
Cecilia's  Day  (1693):— On  /Ae  Conquest  of  Namur,  a 
Hndaric  ode  (1695)  i—The  Temple  of  Fame,  a  poem 
( 1700 '):—A  Hymn  to  Darkness :  — A  Hymn  to  Light, 
and  other  works,  chiefly  poetical.  See  Johnson^  British 
Poets ;  Dryden,  Misoelkmies,  voL  iii,  iv ;  Lintot,  Misoel" 
lanies;  Chalmers,  Bioy,  Dict.\  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit, 
and  A  mer,  A  uthors,  s.  v. 

7ale,  Elisha,  D.O.,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
bom  at  Lee,  Mass.,  June  15, 1780.  He  was  converted 
in  1799 ;  pursued  his  classical  and  theological  studies, 
under  the  Rev.  Dr.  Perkins,  at  West  Hartford,  Conn.; 
was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  North  Association  of 
Hartford  County  in  February,  1808,  and  ordained  and 
inatalled  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Kingsborough,  N.  Y., 
BCay  28, 1804,  where  he  remained  until  1852.  He  was 
chosen  a  corporate  member  of  the  American  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  in  1838.  He  died  Jan.  9, 1853.  Dr. 
Yale  was  an  excellent  classical  and  general  scholar. 
His  discourses  were  always  rich  in  substantial  and 
well-matured  thought,  and  in  nothing  was  he  more 
remarkable  than  his  devotion  to  the  cause  of  missions 
and  to  the  preparation  of  young  men  for  the  ministry. 


He  published,  Divine  Method  for  Raising  ChariuAU 
Contributions  (Boston,  19ib)'.^8eket  Verse  System,  for 
the  Use  of  Individuals,  Families,  and  Schools  (Eothn- 
ter,  1858).  He  also  published  single  sermons  and  arti- 
cles in  periodicals,  and  left  in  MS.  A  Revieso  of  a  Pae^ 
torate  of  Forty^eight  Years  and  Melps  to  Cultivate  the 
Conscience,  See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer,  Pulfif, 
iv,  848 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uihors,  s.  r. 

Tang  and  yin  (or  Ten)  are  terms  used  in  Chinese 
philosophy  to  indicate  the  two  phases  under  which  the 
ultimate  principle  of  the  universe  di8pla3rs  itself  in  the 
phenomenal  world.    They  were  generated  by  TVn'-H,  or 
the  supreme  principle — Yemg  t«ing  a  perfect,  subtle, 
celestial,  luminous  nature ;  Tin  being  matter,  imperfect, 
erode,  earthly,  obscure.    From  this  duality  of  opponte 
essences,  called  the  two  Ke,  all  created  existences  have 
sprang.     Gardner  (Faiths  of  the  World,  s.  r.)  quotes 
from  Hard  wick  as  follows:  **  According  to  the  different 
proportions  in  which  Yang  and  Yin  are  blended  is  the 
character  of  every  created  existence.     Everything 
is  Yang  and  Yin  together.     For  the  highest  actual 
manifestation  in  which  Yang  preponderates  we  look  to 
heaven  itself,  which  is,  accordingly,  to  be  esteemed  the 
aptest  image  cognizable  by  the  senses  of  the  uteimate 
and  all-embracing  principle.    Earth  is,  on  the  oontrarr, 
the  highest  form  of  Yin.    The  same  duality,  where  one 
or  other  of  the  factors  operated,  either  for  the  purpose 
of  transforming  or  uniting,  issued  in  the  first  production 
of  the  innate  essences,  which  constitute  the  five  ele- 
ments of  water,  fire,  wood,  metal,  and  earth.    A  tnm- 
soendental  union  and  coagulation  now  takes  place  of 
the  ultimate  principle,  the  two  essences,  and  the  fire 
elements.    The  positive  essence  becomes  the  masculine 
power,  the  negative  essence  the  feminine  power,  con- 
ceived in  which  character  the  former  constitutes  the 
heavenly  mode,  or  principle;  the  latter  the  earthly 
mode,  or  principle.    By  a  mutual  influencing,  the  two 
produce  ill  things  in  the  visible,  palpable  world,  and 
the  double  work  of  evolution  and  dissolution  goes  on 
without  end — Yang  evincing  its  peculiar  force  in  every 
kind  of  progress,  Yin  in  every  kind  of  retrogression ; 
Yang  determining  commencement,  Yin  completion; 
Yang  predominant  in  spring  and  summer,  and  the  au- 
thor of  all  movement  and  activity;  Yin  more  visible 
in  the  autumn  and  the  winter,  passive,  drooping,  and 
inert."   The  same  idea  pervades  their  notions  of  rational 
as  well  as  irrational  beings.    In  the  ethical  system  of 
the  Chinese,  evil  is  Yin  of  the  moral  world,  and  good  is 
Tang.    See  Chika. 

Tanahaph.    See  Owu 

Tao  Version  of  the  ScRipruitEa.  This  Ian* 
gnage  is  spoken  by  the  Yaoa,  occupying  the  country 
to  the  east  and  south  of  Lake  Kyassa,  including  the 
Scotch  stations  Blantyre  and  livingstonia.  The  Rev. 
Chauncy  Maples,  of  the  Universities*  Mission,  after  work- 
ing three  years  at  Masasi,  in  Africa,  with  bishop  Stecxe, 
prepared  a  translation  of  the  gospel  of  Matthew  into 
that  language,  which  was  printed  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  in  Lcmdon  in  1880,  at  the  recom- 
mendation of  bishop  Steere,  the  translator  himself  eai^ 
lying  the  work  through  the  press.    (B.  P.) 

Tariba  (or  Tomba)  Vendon  op  thk  Script^ 
UBB8.  Yariba  is  an  African  language  spoken  by  the 
tribes  on  the  right,  or  west,  bank  of  the  Niger.  A 
trandation  into  this  dialect  is  of  recent  date.  The 
first  part  printed  was  the  epistle  to  the  Romans^  tnn^ 
lated  by  the  Rev.  S.  Crowther,  a  native  of  the  country. 
It  was  published  in  1850.  In  the  following  year  the 
gospel  of  Luke,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  together 
with  the  epistles  of  James  and  Peter,  were  printed 
by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Other  parts 
were  added  from  time  to  time,  and  at  present  the 


TARN 


1003 


TEAR 


Yonibas  enjoy  the  entire  New  Teit^  together  with  the 
books  of  Genesis  to  Ruth,  FlMlms,  and  Daniel,  of  the 
Old  Test,  in  their  yemaealar.    (B.  P.) 

Tarn  (nfr^^t  mUtvih,  a  eoikdUm;  or  K;i|pp,  mikvS), 
The  notice  of  yam  is  contained  in  an  extremely  obscure 
passage  in  1  Kings  x,  28  (2  Chron.  i,  16):  *' Solomon 
had  horses  brought  out  of  Egypt,  and  linen  yam ;  the 
king's  merchants  received  the  linen  yam  at  a  price." 
The  SepL  gives  Ik  Oucovi,  implying  an  original  read- 
ing of  91pn^ ;  the  Vulg.  has  de  CoOj  which  is  merely 
a  Latinized  form  of  the  originaL  The  Hebrew  received 
text  is  questionable,  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
second  mUcceh  has  its  final  vowel  lengthened  as  if 
it  were  in  the  ttcUuM  conttructu$*  The  probability  is 
that  the  term  does  refer  to  some  entrepot  of  Egyptian 
commerce,  but  whether  Tekoah,  as  in  the  Sept.,  or  Coa, 
as  in  the  Y ulg.,  is  doubtful  Gesenius  ( Thesaur,  p.  1202) 
gives  the  sense  of  *^  number"  as  applying  equally  to  the 
merchants  and  the  horses :  **  A  band  of  the  king  s  mer- 
chants bought  a  drove  (of  horses)  at  a  price ;"  but  the 
verbal  arrangement  in  2  Chron.  is  opposed  to  this  ren- 
dering. Thenius  {Extg.  Ilandk  on  1  Kings  x,  28)  com- 
bines this  senso  with  the  former,  giving  to  the  first 
mikvih  the  sense  **from  Tekoah,"  to  the  second  the 
sense  of  ^  drove."  Bertheau  ^Exeg,  Bandb.  on  2  Chron. 
i,  16)  and  FUrst  {Lex.  s.  v.)  side  with  the  Vulgate,  and 
sappcee  the  place  called  Coa  to  have  been  on  the  Egyp- 
tian frontier:  **The  king's  merchants  from  Coa  (i.e. 
stationed  at  Coa)  took  the  horses  from  Coa  at  a  price." 
The  sense  adopted  in  the  A.  V.  is  derived  from  Jewish 
interpreters.— Smith,  s.  v.    See  Likem. 

Taahpeh.    See  Jaspkr. 

Tatms,  the  religion  of  the  Yatus,  a  name  given  to 
the  enemies  of  Zoroaster  in  the  Zend-Avesta.  These 
were  overthrown  by  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  and 
the  religion  of  Zoroaster  re-established.  See  Lcnor* 
mant,  Chaldaean  Magic^  p.  219. 

year  (MSl^,  ihanaht  lit.  repetiiion^  kindred  with 
^31D,  tecond;  itoq),  the  highest  ordinary  division  of 
time,  marked  by  the  solar  revolutions  of  the  seasons. 
See  Tims. 

L  Xeartj  properly  to  called, — Two  years  wore  known 
to,  and  apparently  used  by,  the  Hebrews.    See  Calen- 

DAB. 

1.  A  year  of  360  days,  containing  12  months  of  80 
days  each,  is  indicated  by  certain  passages  in  the  pro- 
phetical Scriptures.  The  time,  times,  and  a  half,  of 
Daniel  (vii,  25;  xii,  7),  where  "time"  (Ch.  TJ?,  Heb. 
^^is)  means  "  year,"  evidently  represent  the  same  pe- 
riod as  the  42  months  (Rev.  xi,  2)  and  1260  da3r8  of  the 
Revelation  (xi,  8;  xii,  6),  for  860  x  8.6  =  1260,  and 
80  X  42= 1260.  This  year  perfectly  corresponds  to  the 
Egyptian  Vague  year,  without  the  five  intercalary  days. 
It  appears  to  have  been  in  use  in  NoaVs  time,  or  at  least 
in  the  time  of  the  writer  of  the  narrative  of  the  flood, 
for  in  that  narrative  the  interval  from  the  17th  day  of 
the  2d  month  to  the  17th  day  of  the  7th  of  the  same 
year  appears  to  be  stated  to  be  a  period  of  160  days 
(Gen.  vii,  11, 24 ;  viii,  3, 4 ;  oomp.  13),  and,  as  the  1  st,  2d, 
7th,  and  10th  months  of  one  year  are  mentioned  (vii, 
11 ;  viii,  4, 6, 18, 14),  the  Ist  day  of  the  10th  month  of 
this  year  being  separated  from  the  Ist  day  of  the  Ist 
month  of  the  next  year  by  an  interval  of  at  least  64 
days  (viii,  6,  6, 10, 12, 18),  we  can  only  infer  a  year  of 
12  months.  Ideler  disputes  the  former  inference,  argu- 
ing that  as  the  water  first  began  to  sink  after  160  days 
(and  then  hAd  been  fifteen  cubits  above  all  high  moun- 
tains), it  must  have  sunk  for  some  days  ere  the  ark 
could  have  rested  on  Ararat,  so  that  the  second  date 
roust  have  been  more  than  IfiO  days  later  than  the  first 
{ffandbuch,  i,  69, 70, 478, 479>  This  argument  depends 
«pon  the  meaning  of  the  expression  <^high  mountains," 
and  upon  the  height  of  "  the  mountains  of  Ararat,"  upon 
which  the  ark  rested  (Gen.  viii,  4),  and  we  are  certainly 
justified  by  Sbemitic  usage,  if  we  do  not  consider  the 


nsoal  inference  of  the  great  height  attained  by  the  flood 
to  be  a  necessary  one  {Genetit  of  the  Earth  and  of  Man^ 
2d  ed.  p.  97, 98).  The  exact  correspondence  of  the  in- 
terval mentioned  to  6  months  of  80  days  each,  and  the 
nie  of  a  year  of  860  days,  or  12  such  months,  by  the 
prophets,  the  latter  fact  overlooked  by  Ideler,  favor  the 
idea  that  such  a  year  is  here  meant,  unless,  indeed,  one 
identical  with  the  Egyptian  Vague  year,  of  12  months 
of  80  days  and  6  intercalary  days.  The  settlement  of 
this  question  depends  upon  the  nature  and  history  of 
these  years,  and  our  informatidn  on  the  latter  subject  is 
not  sufllciently  certain  to  enable  us  to  do  more  than 
hazard  a  conjecture. 

A  year  of  860  days  is  the  radest  known.  It  is  formed 
of  12  spurious  lunar  months,  and  was  probably  the  parent 
of  the  lunar  year  of  864  days,  and  the  Vague  year  of 
866.  That  it  should  have  continued  any  time  in  use 
would  be  surprising  were  it  not  for  the  convenient 
length  of  the  months.  The  Hebrew  year,  from  the 
time  of  the  Exodus,  as  we  shall  see,  was  evidently  lunar, 
though  in  some  manner  rendered  virtually  solar,  and  we 
may  therefore  infer  that  the  lunar  year  is  as  old  as  the 
date  of  the  Exodus.  As  the  Hebrew  year  was  not  an 
Egyptian  year,  and  as  nothing  is  said  of  its  being  new, 
save  in  its  time  of  commencement,  it  was  perhape  earlier 
in  use  among  the  Israelites,  and  either  brought  into 
Egypt  by  them  or  borrowed  from  Shemite  settlers. 

The  Vague  year  was  certainly  in  use  in  Egypt  in  as 
remote  an  age  as  the  earlier  part  of  the  12th  dynasty 
(dr.  2000  B.C.),  and  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt 
that  it  ¥ras  there  used  at  the  time  of  the  building  of  the 
Great  Pyramid  (cir.  2860  KC).  The  intercalary  days 
seem  to  be  of  Egyptian  institution,'for  each  of  them  was 
dedicated  to  one  of  the  great  gods,  as  if  the  inno- 
vation had  been  thus  made  perm^ent  by  the  priests, 
and  perhaps  rendered  popular  as  a  series  of  days  of 
feasting  and  rejoicing.  The  addition  would,  however, 
date  from  a  very  early  period,  that  of  the  final  settle- 
ment of  the  Egyptian  religion. 

As  the  lunar  year  and  the  Vsgue  year  ran  up  parallel 
to  so  early  a  period  as  that  of  the  Exodus,  and  the  for- 
mer seems  to  have  been  then  Shemitic,  the  latter  then, 
and  for  several  centuries  earlier,  Egyptian,  and  probably 
of  Egyptian  origin,  we  may  reasonably  conjecture  that 
the  former  originated  from  a  year  of  860  days  in  Asia, 
the  latter  from  the  same  year  in  Africa,  this  primitive 
year  having  been  used  by  the  Noachians  before  their 
dispersion. 

2.  The  year  used  by  the  Hebrews  from  the  time  of 
the  Exodus  may  be  said  to  have  been  then  instituted, 
since  a  current  month,  Abib,  on  the  14th  day  of  which 
the  first  Passover  was  kept,  was  then  made  the  first 
month  of  the  vear.  The  essential  characteristics  of  this 
year  can  be  clearly  determined,  though  we  cannot  fix 
those  of  any  single  year.  It  was  essentially  solar,  for 
the  offerings  of  productions  of  the  earth,  first-fruits, 
harvest-produce,  and  ingathered  fruits  were  fixed  to 
certain  days  of  the  year,  two  of  which  were  in  the 
periods  of  great  feasts,  the  third  itself  a  feast  reckoned 
from  one  of  the  former  days.  It  seems  evident  that  the 
year  was  made  to  depend  upon  these  times,  and  it  may 
be  observed  that  such  a  calendar  would  tend  to  cause 
thankfulness  for  God's  good  gifts,  and  would  put  in  the 
background  the  great  luminaries  which  the  heathen 
worshipped  in  Egypt  and  in  (}anaan.  Though  the  year 
was  thus  essentiaily  solar,  it  is  certain  that  the  months 
were  lunar,  each  commencing  with  a  new  moon.  There 
must,  therefore,  have  been  some  method  of  adjustment. 
The  first  point  to  be  decided  is  how  the  commencement 
of  each  year  was  fixed.  On  the  16th  day  of  Abib  ripe 
ears  of  com  were  to  be  offered  as  first-fraits  of  the  har- 
vest (Lev.  ii,  14;  xxiii,  10,  11) :  this  was  the  day  on 
which  the  sickle  was  begun  to  be  put  to  the  com  (Deut. 
xvi,  9),  and  no  doubt  Josephus  is  right  in  stating  that 
until  the  offering  of  first-fraits  had  been  made  no  har- 
vest^work  was  to  be  begun  {Ant,  iii,  10,  6).  He  also 
sutes  that  ears  of  barley  were  offered  (ibid.).   That  this 


YEAR 


1004 


YEAR 


was  the  caae,  and  that  the  eaxB  were  the  earliest  ripe,  is 
evident  from  the  following  circumstances.  The  reaping 
of  barley  commenced  the  harvest  (2  Sam.  xzi,  9),  that 
of  wheat  following,  apparently  without  any  considera- 
ble interval  (Ruth  ii,  23).  On  the  day  of  Pentecost 
thanksgiving  was  offered  for  the  harvest,  and  it  was 
therefore  caUed  the  Feast  of  Harvest.  It  was  reckoned 
from  the  commencement  of  the  harvest,  on  the  16th  day 
of  the  Ist  month.  The  50  days  must  include  the  whole 
time  of  the  harvest  of  both  wheat  and  barley  through- 
out Palestine.  According  to  the  observations  of  modem 
travellers,  barley  is  ripe,  in  the  warmest  parts  of  Pales- 
tine, in  the  first  days  of  April  The  barley-harvest, 
therefore,  begins  about  half  a  month  or  less  after  the 
remal  equinox.  Each  year,  if  solar,  wonld  thus  begin 
at  about  that  equinox,  when  the  earliest  ears  of  barley 
must  be  ripe.  As,  however,  the  mouths  were  lunar,  the 
commencement  of  the  year  must  have  been  fixed  by  a 
new  moon  near  this  point  of  time.  The  new  moon 
must  have  been  that  which  fell  about  or  next  after  the 
equinox,  not  more  than  a  few  days  before,  on  account 
of  the  offering  of  first-fruits.  Ideler,  whose  observations 
ou  this  matter  we  have  thus  far  followed,  supposes  that 
the*  new  moon  was  chosen  by  observation  of  the  for^ 
wardness  of  the  barley-crops  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
country  (Hcmdbuch,  i,  490).  fiut  such  a  method  would 
have  caused  confusion  on  account  of  the  different  times 
of  the  harvest  in  different  parts  of  Palestine;  and  in  the 
period  of  the  Judges  there  would  often  have  been  two 
separate  commencements  of  the  year  in  regions  divided 
by  hostile  tribes,  and  in  each  of  which  the  Iwaelitish  pop- 
ulation led  an  existence  almost  independent  of  any  other 
branch.  It  is  more  likely  that  the  Hebrews  would  have 
determined  their  new-year*8  day  by  the  observation  of 
heliacal  or  other  star-risings  or  settings  known  to  mark 
the  right  time  of  the  solar  year.  By  such  a  method 
the  beginning  of  any  year  could  have  been  fixed  a  year 
before,  either  to  one  day,  or,  supposing  the  month-com- 
mencements were  fixed  by  actual  observation,  within  a 
day  or  two.  We  need  not  doubt  that  the  Israelites 
.  were  well  acquainted  with  such  means  of  marking  the 
periods  of  a  solar  year.  In  the  ancient  Song  of  Deborah 
we  read  how  "  They  fought  from  heaven ;  the  stars  in 
their  courses  fought  against  Sisera.  The  river  of  Rishon 
swept  them  away,  that  ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon" 
(Judg.  v,  20, 21).  The  stars  that  marked  the  times  of 
rain  are  thus  connected  with  the  swelling  of  the  river 
in  which  the  fugitive  Canaanites  perished.  So,  too,  we 
read  how  the  Lord  demanded  of  Job,  **  Canst  thou  bind 
the  sweet  infiuences  of  Eimah,  or  loose  the  bands  of 
Kesil ?'  (Job  xxxviU, 81).  " The  best  and  most fertU- 
izing  of  the  rains,"  in  Palestine  and  the  neighboring 
lands,  save  Egypt,  "fall  when  the  Pleiades  set  at  dawn 
(not  exactly  heliacally),  at  the  end  of  autumn ;  tain 
scarcely  ever  falling  at  the  opposite  season,  when  Scorpio 
sets  at  dawn."  That  Kimah  signifies  the  Pleiades  does 
not  admit  of  reasonable  doubt,  and  Kcail,  as  opposite  to 
it,  would  be  Scorpio,  being  identified  with  Cor  Scorpio- 
nis  by  Aben-Esra.  Therefore  it  cannot  be  questioned 
that  the  Israelites,  even  during  the  troubled  time  of  the 
Judges,  were  weU  acquainted  with  the  method  of  de- 
termining the  seasons  of  the  solar  year  by  observing 
the  stars.  Not  alone  was  this  the  practice  of  the  civil- 
ized Egyptians,  but,  at  aU  times  of  which  we  know  their 
history,  of  the  Arabs,  and  also  of  the  Greeks  in  the 
time  of  Hcsiod,  while  yet  their  material  civilization 
and  science  were  rudimentary.  It  has  always  been  the 
custom  of  pastoral  and  scattered  peoples,  father  than  of 
the  dwellers  in  cities;  and  if  the  Egyptians  be  thought 
to  form  an  exception,  it  must  be  recollected  that  they 
used  it  at  a  period  not  remote  from  that  at  which  their 
civilization  came  from  the  plain  of  Shinar. 

It  follows,  from  the  determination  of  the  proper  new 
moon  of  the  1st  month,  whether  by  obsenration  of  a 
stellar  phenomenon,  or  of  the  forwardness  of  the  crops, 
that  the  method  of  intercalation  can  only  have  b^n 
that  in  use  after  the  captivi^r,  the  addition  of  a  13th 


month  whenever  the  12th  ended  too  long  before  the 
equinox  for  the  offering  of  the  first-fruits  to  be  made 
at  the  time  fixed.  This  method  is  in  accordance  with 
the  permission  granted  to  postpone  the  celebration 
of  the  Passover  for  one  month  in  the  case  of  any  one 
who  was  legally  unclean,  or  jonmejring  at  a  distance 
(Numb,  ix,  9-13) ;  and  there  is  a  historical  instance  In 
the  case  of  Hezekiah  of  such  a  postponement,  for  both 
reasons,  of  the  national  celebration  (2  Chron.  xxx,  1-3, 
15).  Such  a  practice  as  that  of  an  intercalation  vary- 
ing in  occurrence  is  contrary  to  Western  osage;  bat  the 
like  prevails  in  all  Moslem  countries  in  a  far  more  in- 
convenient form  in  the  case  of  the  oommenoement  of 
every  month.  The  day  is  deteimined  by  actual  oImsp- 
vation  of  the  new  moon,  and  thus  a  day  is  frequently 
unexpectedly  added  to  or  deducted  from  a  mooth  at 
one  place,  and  months  commence  on  different  days  at 
different  towns  in  the  same  countiy.  The  Hebrew  in- 
tercalation, if  determined  by  stellar  phenomena,  woold 
not  be  liable  to  a  like  uncertainty,  though  such  may 
have  been  the  case  with  the  actual  day  of  the  new  moon. 
The  later  Jews  had  two  commencements  of  the  year, 
whence  it  is  commonly  but  inaccurately  said  that  they 
had  two  years,  the  sacfed  year  and  the  civiL  We  pre- 
fer to  speak  of  the  sacred  and  civil  reckonings.  Ideler 
admits  that  these  reckonings  obtained  at  the  time  of 
the  second  temple.  The  sacred  reckoning  was  that 
instituted  at  the  Exodus,  according  to  which  the  Ist 
month  was  Abib;  by  the  civil  reckoning  the  Ist  month 
was  the  7th.  The  interval  between  the  two  commence- 
ments was  thus  exactly  half  a  year.  It  haa  been  sap- 
posed  that  the  institution  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus 
was  a  change  of  commencement,  not  the  introdnctioa 
of  a  new  year,  and  that  thenceforward  the  year  had 
two  beginnings,  respectively  at  about  the  vernal  and 
the  autumnal  equinoxes.  The  former  suppoaitioa  is  a 
hypothesis,  the  latter  may  almost  be  proved.  The 
strongest  point  of  evidence  as  to  two  beginnings  of  the 
year  from  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  strangely  unnoticed 
in  this  relation  by  Ideler,  is  the  circumstance  that  the 
sabbatical  and  jubilee  years  commenced  in  the  7th 
month,  and  no  doubt  on  the  10th  day  of  the  7th  month, 
the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xxv,  9,  10),  and  as  this 
year  immediately  followed  a  sabbatical  year,  the  latter 
must  have  begun  in  the  same  manner.  Both  were  foil 
years,  and  therefore  must  have  commenced  on  the  l£t 
day.  The  jubilee  year  was  proclaimed  on  the  Ist  day 
of  the  month,  the  Day  of  Atonement  standing  in  the 
same  relation  to  its  beginning,  and  perhaps  to  the  dvil 
beginning  of  the  year,  as  did  the  Passover  to  the  sacred 
beginning.  This  would  be  the  most  convenient,  if  not 
the  necessary  commencement  of  a  year  of  total  cessa- 
tion from  the  labors  of  agriculture,  as  a  year  so  eom- 
mencing  would  comprise  the  whole  round  of  sodi  occa- 
pations  in  regular  sequence  from  seed-time  to  harvest, 
and  from  harvest  to  vintage  and  gathering  of  IniiL 
The  command  as  to  both  years,  apart  from  Um  mention 
of  the  Day  of  Atonement,  deariy  shows  thia,4mless  we 
suppose,. but  this  is  surely  unwarrantable,  that  the  in- 
jimction  in  the  two  places  in  which  it  ooenrs  follows 
the  regular  order  of  the  seasons  of  agricuUtire  (Exod. 
xxiii,  10, 11 ;  Lev.  xxv,  8, 4^  11),  but  that  this  was  wA 
intended  to  apply  in  the  case  of  the  observance.  Two 
expressions,  used  vdth  reference  to  the  time  of  the 
Feast  of  Ingathering,  on  the  1 5th  day  of  the  7th  month, 

must  be  here  noticed.  This  feast  is  spoken  of  as  fttCKa 
ns  W,  "in  the  going  out "  or  '^  end  of  the  year  *  (Exod. 
xxiii,  16),  and  as  njtSh  HBiiptn,  **  [at]  the  change  xi 
the  year*'  (xxxiv,  22),  the  latter  a  vague  expression, 
so  far  as  we  can  understand  it,  but  quite  consistent 
with  the  other,  whether  indicating  the  turning-point 
of  a  natural  year,  or  the  half  of  the  year  by  the  sacred 
reckoning.    The  rabbins  use  the  term  M^4pt|)  to  dca» 

ignate  the  oommenoement  of  each  of  the  four  aeasoos 
into  which  they  divide  the  year  {ffandhtck^  i,  550, 
551).    Our  view  is  ooofirmed  by  the  similarity  of  the 


YEAR 


1005 


YEAR 


iBt  and  7tli  months  as  to  their  obsemnces,  the  one  con- 
taining the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  from  the  16th 
to  the  21st  indosiTe;  the  other,  that  of  Tabemades, 
from  the  16th  to  the  22d.  Evidence  in  the  same  direc- 
tion is  found  in  the  special  sanctification  of  the  Ist  day 
of  the  7th  month,  which  in  the  blowing  of  trumpets 
resembles  the  prodamatbn  of  the  jabilee  year  on  the 
Day  of  Atonement.  We  therefore  hold  that  from  the 
time  of  the  Exodus  there  were  two  beginnings  of  the 
year,  with  the  1st  of  the  1st  and  the  1st  of  the  7th 
month,  the  former  being  the  sacred  reckoning,  the  lat- 
ter, used  for  the  operations  of  agrieolture,  the  civil  reck- 
oning. In  Egypt,  in  the  present  day.  Modems  use  the 
lunar  year  for  their  religions  observances,  and  for  ordi- 
nary afbirs,  except  those  of  agriculture,  which  they 
regulate  by  the  Coptic  Julian  year. 

8.  We  must  here  notice  the  theories  of  the  derivation 
of  the  Hebrew  year  from  the  Egyptian  Vague  year,  as 
they  are  connected  with  the  tropical  point  or  points, 
and  agricultural  phenomena,  by  which  the  former  was 
regelated.  The  Vague  year  was  commonly  used  by 
the  Egyptians ;  and  from  it  only,  if  from  an  Egyptian 
year,  is  the  Hebrew  likely  to  have  been  derived.  Two 
theories  have  been  fonned  connecting  the  two  years  at 
the  Exodus. 

(1)  Some  hold  that  Ahib,  the  let  month  of  the  He- 
brew year  by  the  sacred  reckoning,  was  the  Egyptian 
Epiphi,  called  in  Coptic,  Epepi,  and  in  Arabic,  by  the 
modem  Egyptians,  Ablb,  or  Eblb,  the  llth  month  of 
the  Vague  year.  The  similarity  of  sound  is  remark* 
able,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Egyptian 
name  is  derived  from  that  of  the  goddess  of  the  month, 
PEP-T  or  APAP-T  (?)  whereas  the  Hebrew  name  has 
the  sense  of  "  an  ear  of  com,  a  green  ear,''  and  is  de- 
rived from  the  unused  root  32M,  traceable  in  2M,  "ver- 
dure," Chaldee,  IK,  *'  frait,"  Arabic,  ah, "  green  fodder." 
Moreover,  the  Egyptian  P  is  rarely,  if  ever,  represented 
by  the  Hebrew  3,  and  the  converse  is  not  common. 
Still  stronger  evidence  is  afforded  by  the  fsct  that  we 
find  in  Egyptian  the  root  AB,  **a  nosegay,"  which  is 
evidently  related  to  Abib  and  its  cognates.  Supposing, 
however,  that  the  Hebrew  calendar  was  formed  by  fix- 
ing the  Egyptian  Epiphi  as  the  Ist  month,  what  would 
be  the  chronological  result?  The  latest  date  to  which 
the  Exodus  is  assigned  is  about  1820  B.C  In  the  Juli- 
an year  1820  B.C.,  the  month  Epiphi  of  the  Egyptian 
Vague  year  commenced  May  1^44  days  after  the  day 
of  the  vemal  equinox,  April  2,  very  near  which  the 
Hebrew  year  roust  have  begun.  Thus,  at  the  latest 
date  of  the  Exodus,  there  is  an  interval  of  a  month  and 
a  half  between  the  beginning  of  the  Hebrew  year  and 
Epiphi  1.  This  interval  represents  about  180  years, 
through  which  the  Vague  year  would  retrograde  in  the 
Julian  until  the  commencement  of  Epiphi  corresponded 
to  the  vemal  equinox,  and  no  method  can  reduce  it  be- 
low 100.  It  is  possible  to  effect  thus  much  by  conject- 
nring  that  the  month  Abib  began  somewhat  after  this 
tropical  point,  though  the  precise  details  of  the  state  of 
the  crops  at  the  time  of  the  plagues,  as  compared  with 
the  phenomena  of  agriculture  in  Lower  Egypt  at  the 
present  day,  make  half  a  month  an  extreme  extension. 
At  the  time  of  the  plague  of  hail,  the  barley  was  in  the 
ear  and  was  smitten,  with  the  flax,  but  the  wheat  was 
not  sufficiently  forward  to  be  destroyed  (Exod.  ix,  81, 
82).  In  Lower  Egypt,  at  the  present  day,  this  would 
be  the  case  about  the  end  of  February  and  beginning 
of  Maroh.  The  Exodus  cannot  have  taken  place  many 
days  after  the  plague  of  hail,  so  that  it  must  have  oc- 
curred about  or  a  little  after  the  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  and  thus  Abib  cannot  possibly  have  begun 
much  after  that  tropical  point ;  half  a  month  is  there- 
fore excessive.  We  have  thus  carefully  examined  the 
evidence  as  to  the  supposed  derivation  of  Abib  from 
Epiphi,  because  it  has  been  cardessly  taken  for  grant- 
ed, and  more  carelessly  alleged  in  support  of  the  latest 
date  of  the  Exodus. 


(2)  We  have  founded  an  argument  for  the  date  of 
the  Exodus  upon  another  comparison  of  the  Hebrew 
year  and  the  Vague  year.  We  have  seen  that  the 
sacred  commencement  of  the  Hebrew  year  was  at  the 
new  moon  about  or  next  after,  but  not  much  before,  the 
vernal  equinox :  the  civil  commencement  must  usually 
have  been  at  the  new  moon  nearest  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox. At  the  earliest  date  of  the  Exodus  computed  by 
modem  chnmolbgeri,  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  the  Egyptian  Vague  year  commenced  at  or 
about  the  latter  time.  The  Hebrew  year,  reckoned 
from  the  dvil  oommencement,'and  the  Vague  year, 
therefore,  then  nearty  or  exactly  coindded.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  Hebrews  in  Egjrpt,  if  they  used 
a  fordgn  year,  must  be  supposed  to  have  used  the 
Vague  year.  It  is  worth  while  to  inquire  whether  a 
Vague  year  of  this  time  would  further  suit  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  first  Hebrew  year.  It  would  be  neces- 
sary that  the  14th  day  of  Abib,  on  which  fdl  the  full 
moon  of  the  Passover  of  the  Exodus,  should  correspond 
to  the  14th  of  Phamenoth,  in  a  Vague  year  commencing 
about  the  autumnal  equinox.  A  full  moon  fell  on  the 
14th  of  Phamenoth,  or  ThurKlay,  April  21,  1652  KC, 
of  a  Vague  year  commendng  on  the  day  of  the  autumnal 
equinox,  OcL  10, 1668  B.C  A  full  moon  would  not  fall 
on  the  same  day  of  the  Vague  year  within  a  shorter 
interval  than  twenty-five  years,  and  the  triple  near 
coincidence  of  new  moon.  Vague  year,  and  autumnal 
equinox  would  not  recur  in  less  than  fifteen  hundred 
Vague  years  (^Eneydop,  Brif,  8th  ed.  '<  Egypt,"  p.  468). 
This  date  of  the  Exodus,  1662  B.C.,  is  only  four  yean 
earlier  than  Hales's,  1648  B.C.,  and  only  six  yean  later 
than  that  adopted  in  this  Cydopasdiay  1668*  B.a  In 
confirmation  of  this  early  date,  it  must  be  added  that 
in  a  list  of  confederates  defeated  by  Thotbmes  III  at 
Megiddo,  in  the  twenty  -  third  year  of  his  reign,  are 
certain  names  that  we  believe  can  only  refer  to  Israd- 
itish  tribes.  The  date  of  this  king's  accession  cannot  be 
later  than  about  1460  KC.,  and  his  twenty-third  year 
cannot  therefbre  be  later  than  about  1440  B.C.  Were 
the  Inraelites  then  settled  in  Pdestine,  no  date  of  the 
Exodus  but  the  longest  would  be  tenable.    See  Chso 

MOLOGY. 

IL  JHvitioni  of  the  Year.—1.  Seasons,— T^fo  seasons 
are  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  y^^,  '* summer,"  and  r)*^!!, 
**  winter."  The  former  properly  means  the  time  of  cut^ 
ting  fmits,  the  latter,  that  of  gathering  fraits;  they  are 
therefore,  originally,  rather  summer  and  autumn  than 
summer  and  winter.  But  that  they  signify  ordinarily 
the  two  grand  divisions  of  the  year,  the  warm  and  cold 
seasons,  is  evident  from  their  use  for  the  whole  year  in 
the  expression  Cj'JHI  y^p,  "summer  and  winter"  (Psa. 
Ixxiv,  17 ;  Zech,  xiv,  8 ;  perhaps  Gen.  viii,  22),  and  from 
the  mention  of  "  the  winter  house  "  (Jer.  xxxvi,  22)  and 
"  the  summer  house  "  (Amos  iii,  15,  where  both  are  men- 
tioned together).  Probably  C)'^n,  when  used  without 
reference  to  the  year  (as  in  Job  xxix,4),  reuins  its 
original  signification.  In  the  promise  to  Noah,  after 
the  flood,  the  following  remarkable  passage  occun: 
"  While  the  earth  remaineth,  seed-time  and  harvest, 
and  cold  a6d  heat,  and  summer  and  winter,  and  day 
and  night  shall  not  cease"  (Gen.  viii,  22).  Here 
"seed-time,"  5'lT,  and  "harvest,"  ^I'^XJ,  are  evidently 
the  agricultural  seasons.  It  seems  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  they  mean  winter  and  summer,  as  the 
beginnings  of  the  periods  of  sowing  and  of  harvest  are 
not  separated  by  six  months,  and  they  do  not  last  for 
six  months  each,  or  nearly  so  long  a  time.  The  phrase 
'*  cold  and  heat,"  dHi  *l'p,  probably  indicates  the  great 
dteraations  of  temperature.  The  whole  passage,  in- 
deed, speaks  of  the  alternations  of  nature,  whether  of 
productions,  temperature,  the  seasons,  or  light  and  dark- 
ness. As  we  have  seen,  the  year  was  probably  then  a 
wandering  one,  and  therefore  the  passage  is  not  likely  to 
refer  to  it,  but  to  natural  phenomena  alone.  See  Sbak>9. 


TEAR 


1006 


YEAR 


2.  M<mih», — ^The  Hebrew  months,  from  the  time  of 
the  Exodus,  were  lunar.  The  year  appears  ordinarily 
to  have  contained  12,  but,  when  intercalation  was  nec- 
essary, a  18th.  The  older  year  contained  12  months  of 
80  days  each.    See  Month. 

&  ir«fib.—Tbe  Hebrews,  from  the  time  of  the  insti- 
tution of  the  Sabbath,  whether  at  or  before  the  Exodus, 
reckoned  by  weeks,  but,  as  no  lunar  yesr  could  have 
contained  a  number  of  weeks  without  a  fractional  ex- 
cess, this  reckoning  was  virtually  independent  of  the 
year  as  with  the  Moslems.    See  Wkkk. 

4.  FegtivaU,  HoUf  Dayt,  and  FoUm,— The  Feast  of  the 
Passover  was  held  on  the  14th  day  of  the  Ist  month. 
The  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  lasted  7  days;  from  the 
15th  to  the  21st,  inclusive,  of  the  same  month.  Its  first 
and  last  days  were  kept  as  Sabbathai  The  Feast  of 
Weeks,  or  Pentecost,  was  celebrated  on  the  day  which 
ended  7  weeks,  counted  from  the  16th  of  the  1st 
month,  that  day  being  excluded.  It  was  called  the 
Feast  of  Harvest,  and  Day  of  First-fruits.  The  Feast 
of  Trumpets  (lit  **of  the  sound  of  the  trumpet")  was 
kept  as  a  Sabbath  on  the  1st  day  of  the  7th  month. 
The  Day  of  Atonement  (lit.  "of  Atonements")  was 
a  fast,  held  the  10th  day  of  the  7th  month.  The 
Feast  of  Tabemades,  or  Feast  of  Gathering,  was  cele- 
brated from  the  16th  to  the  22d  day,  inclusive,  of  the 
7th  month.  Additions  made  long  after  the  giving  of 
the  law,  and  not  known  to  be  of  higher  than  priestly 
authority,  are  the  Feast  of  Purim,  commemorating  the 
defeat  of  Haman's  plot;  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication, 
recording  the  deansiog  and  re-dedication  of  the  Temple 
by  Judas  Maccabeus;  and  four  fasts.    See  Festival. 

III.  Sacred  Tears,  —  1.  The  Sabbatieal  fear,  rO«3 
rnpptSh,  **  the  fallow  year,"  or,  possibly,  "  year  of  re- 
mission," or  Tl^pD  alone,  kept  every  seventh  year,  was 
commanded  to  be  observed  as  a  year,  of  rest  from  the 
labors  of  agriculture  and  of  remission  of  debts.  Two 
Sabbatical  years  are  recorded,  commencing  and  current, 
164-8  and  186-5  B.C    See  Sabbatical  Teas. 

2.  The  Jubilee  Year,  bs'l^H  nSO,  *<the  year  of  the 
trumpet,*'  or  ^21*)  alone,  a  like  year,  which  immediate- 
ly followed  every  seventh  Sabbatical  year.  It  has  been 
disputed  whether  the  jubilee  year  was  every  forty-ninth 
or  fiftieth :  the  former  is  more  probable.— Smith,  s.  v. 
See  Jubilee. 

YEAB,  Ecclesiastical.  The  present  arrangement 
of  the  ecclesiastical  year  is  one  which  has  grown  up 
and  devdoped  during  the  course  of  a  long  time,  repre- 
senting the  wisdom  of  successive  ages.  It  was  but 
natural  that  the  anniversaries  of  the  chief  events  of  our 
Lord's  life,  and  of  the  day  on  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
came  down  upon  the  Church,  should  be  observed  by  the 
disdples.  Accordingly,  it  is  not  surprising  that  one  of 
the  very  earliest  questions  debated  in  the  Church  was 
as  to  the  time  of  keeping  Easter.  As  early  as  A.D. 
158,  Polycarp  went  to  consult  Anicetus  at  Kome  on  this 
question,  and  the  controvers}',  which  they  could  not 
settle,  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  Council  of  Nicaea. 
Similar  early  testimony  may  be  found  as  to  other  festi- 
vals and  solemn  days.  The  anniversary  of  our  Lord's 
death,  Good  Friday,  must  have  been  kept  from  the  first 
So,  too,  Epiphanius  {Hceree,  Ixxv ;  Adrian,  vi)  speaks 
of  St.  Paul  as  keeping  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  and  quotes 
Acts  XX,  16,  in  that  connection.  We  find  notices  of 
the  Epiphany  as  early  as  A.D.  200.  Augustine  ob- 
serves that  it,  with  other  anniversary  solemnities,  was 
either  instituted  by  the  apostles  themselves  or  by  plen- 
ary councils. 

Next  after  these  *'  days  which  the  Lord  bath  made," 
there  arose  the  commemorations  of  the  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs of  the  Church.  These  are  of  very  high  antiquity. 
In  the  epistle  of  the  Chuich  at  Smynia  to  the  Church 
at  Philomdium  (Eusebius,  ffist.  £ccle9,  iv,  15),  the 
Christians  of  Smyrna  tell  their  brethren  where  Poly- 
carp's  body  was  entombed,  and  how  they  intended  to  I 


assemble  at  that  place  and  celebrate  his  birthday  with 
joy  and  gladness.  The  festival  of  St.  Peter  is  taeed 
back  to  the  8d  century,  and  no  doubt  was  observed 
much  earlier  as  a  festival  of  Peter  and  PanL  Origen 
names  the  Commemoration  of  the  Holy  Innocents^  and 
Chrysostom  the  Festival  of  All  Martyn^  which  wm 
kept  on  the  octave  of  Pentecost. 

Then,  in  course  of  time,  other  festivals  were  intro- 
duced; such  as  the  Encmia  (q.  v.).  Bishops  were 
also  wont  to  keep  the  anniverBaries  of  their  consecra- 
tions, and  particular  churches  had  special  days  of  thanka* 
giving  for  great  merdes  and  ddtveranoes  vouchsafed 
to  them  from  God.  Ordination  was  gradoally  limited 
to  the  Ember  (q.  v.)  season,  that  thus  there  might  be  a 
spedal  time  of  prayer  and  fasting  on  behalf  of  the  new- 
ly ordained.  Marriages  were  forbidden  in  certain  parts 
of  the  year;  as  from  Advent  Sunday  to  Epiphany,  from 
Septnagesima  to  the  octave  of  Ea^er,  three  weeks  be- 
fore the  feast  of  St.  John,  and  from  Rogation  Sunday 
to  Trinity  Sunday.  The  special  times  for  baptism  were 
Epiphany,  Easter,  and  Whitsuntide,  but  chiefly  the  lat- 
ter two.  During  certain  festal  seasons  kneeling  aft 
prayers  was  forbidden,  as  from  Easter  to  Whitsontide 
indusive,  as  ordered  by  the  twentieth  canon  of  Kicea. 
On  the  Lord's  day  the  standing  posture  was  also  adopt- 
ed, in  memory  of  our  Lord's  lesurrectioD.  Thns  grad- 
ually were  ordered  and  harmomaed  the  aeaaooa  of  the 
Church.    Kurtz  says: 

"  In  the  Bast,  the  symbolical  relation  between  the  naU 
nnl  and  the  ecdesiastlcal  year  was  ignored,  exocnA  so 
far  OS  Implied  in  the  attempt  to  give  to  the  Jewish  feasts 
a  Christian  adaptation.  To  some  extent,  indeed.  West- 
em  ideas  had  been  Imported  In  reference  to  the  great 
festivals,  such  as  Christmas,  Bcster,  and  Pentecost,  hot 
not  In  connection  with  the  ordinary  sun  and  feast  dayn. 
At  first  the  eccleslastfeal  yesr  in  the  East  commenced 
with  Easter,  afterwards  with  Qoadragesina  or  with 
Epiphany,  and  ultimately  In  September,  ss  under  the  old 
dfepensation.  The  year  was  divided  into  four  parts,  ae- 
ooidlng  to  the  *  lectio  oontinna*  of  the  gospela,  and  the 
Sundays  obtained  corresponding  names.  The  ap«ac^ 
vpwrri  rov  Mar^aiov  took  plscc  Immediately  after  Pente- 
cost The  Latin  ecclesiastical  year  commenced  in  Ad- 
vent, and  was  divided  Into  a  ^  Semestre  Domini  *  and  a 
^Semestre  ecdesic'  But  the  Idea  underlying  this  ar- 
raugenent  was  only  carried  out  In  reference  to  the  *  Se- 
mestre Domini  '^Christmas,  Easter,  and  Pentecost,  with 
the  Sundays  which  they  induded,  indicating  ihe  com- 
mencement, the  development,  and  the  completion  of  the 
history  of  redemption.  In  reference  to  the  'Semestre 
ecclesiK,'  only  the  commencement  of  a  symbolical  ar* 
ransement  was  made.  Thns  the  Feast  of  Peter  and 
Paul,  on  June  S9,  represented  the  foundation  of  the 
Church  by  the  npostles;  the  Feast  of  Laurentins,  the 
martyr,  on  August  10,  the  contest  awaiting  the  *Chnidi 
militant;'  and  the  Feast  of  Michael,  the  archangel,  on 
September  SBL  the  complete  snccess  of  the  '  Church  tri- 
umphant.* Thst  these  feasts  were  Intended  to  form  tfaie 
bssis  of  three  cycles  of  festivals  we  nther  ftom  the  dr> 
cumstanoe  that  the  Sondoys  after  Pentecost  had  bcsD 
arronsed  as  'Dominies  post  Apostolos,  post  Laorentil, 
po«t  AiigcloB.*  But  the  idea  was  not  developed ;  the 
nequency  of  saints*  days  not  only  msde  this  amngcmcot 
impossible,  but  rendered  it  even  necessary  to  eecitM^ 
on  the  *  Semestre  Domini.'  The  principle  of  attenMbig 
to  Christianize  the  worship  of  the  heathen  was  authon- 
tatlvely  sanctioned  by  Oregoiy  the  Great,  who,  In  en, 
instructed  the  Anglo-Saxon  missionaries  to  translona 
the  heathen  temples  into  churches,  and  the  pagan  into 
saints'  festivals  or  martyr  days.  *ut  dam  mentes  gradi- 
bus  vel  passlbos  non  antem  saitibos  eleventur.'  Ssints 
now  took  the  places  of  the  old  gods,  and  the  ecdesiBstieal 
was  made  In  every  respect  to  correspond  with  the  nate* 
ral  year,  only  in  a  Chrietianixed  form." 

**  Eodedastical  festivals  became  seasona  of  home  en- 
joyment; holy  days  were  turned  into  holidays;  the 
ChuTch*s  children  learned^  in  private  life,  to  think  and 
to  speak  in  the  Church's  way. . .  •  The  goremon  of  the 
state  fell  almost  unconsdoudy  into  the  times  end  ace- 
sons  of  her  who  is  not  of  this  world;  aheiilb  were 
pricked  on  the  morrow  of  St.  Martin ;  lawyers  ledioned 
by  Hilary  or  Trinity  term ;  every  dasa  was  snbjcct  to 
the  same  moulding  influence. ...  It  waa  the 
fluence  dwaya  and  everywhere  at  work;  someti 
beautifully,  sometimes  amusingly,  sometimes 
gantly,  but  dwaya  really  "  (Neale,  Euape,  etc,  p.  fiQe> 
See  Calbvdab. 


TEDmOVERTZI 


1007 


YEzmis 


Tebamoth.    Sm  Talmud. 

Y'edioovartsi,  a  name  signifying  oo-religioniits, 
was  given  to  some  members  of  the  Snssian  sect  of  the 
Starovertti  (see  RuaaiAN  Sects,  1, 4)  in  the  reign  of 
the  emperor  Alexander  (1801-26),  when  strong  hopes 
were  entertained  of  regaining  them  to  the  orthodox 
communion.  They  assume  for  themselyes  the  name 
of  Blapoihcemu,  or,  The  Bleaed, 

7alak.    See  Locust. 

T'allow.    See  Color. 

Tamim.    See  Mule. 

TaomanSi  Edward  Dorr,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  North  Adams,  Mass.,  Sept  27, 
1829.  He  spent  one  year  in  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  N.  J.,  and  became  stated  supply  at  New  Co- 
lumbia, Pa.,  from  1847  to  1849;  was  principal  of  the 
academy  at  DanTille,  from  1847  to  1830 ;  ordained  by 
the  PresbjTtery  of  Northumberland,  Not.  29, 1864;  pa»- 
tor  at  Warrior  Run  from  1864  to  1868;  of  the  Fourth 
Church  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  from  1869  to  1863;  at  St. 
Peter's  Churoh,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  from  1868  to  1867;  of 
Central  Church,  Onmge,  N.  J.,  in  1867  and  1868,  and 
died  there,  Aug.  26  of  the  latter  year.  See  (7en.  Cat 
o/PrimxUm  TheoL  Sem,  1881,  p.  160. 

Taaterday  (prop.  t3rK,  €'me$h ;  bat  frequently 
Ml3D,  {{foretime;  x^'C)  i*  sometimes  used  in  Hebi  to 
denote  all  titne  past,  however  distant;  as  to-day  de- 
notes time  present,  but  of  a  larger  extent  than  the 
very  day  on  which  one  speaks.  *^  If  the  ox  was  wont 
to  push  with  his  horn  in  time  past"  (Exod.  xxi,  29; 
Heb.  ifetterday).  ''And  it  came  to  pass,  when  all  that 
knew  him  before  time  (Heb.  tfuterday) ;  whereas  thou 
camest  but  yesterday  **  (2  Sam.  xv,  20).  <*  Jesus  Christ, 
the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  forever  "  (Heb.  xiii,  8). 
His  doctrine,  like  his  person,  admits  of  no  change;  his 
truths  are  invariable.  With  him  there  is  neither  yes- 
terday nor  to-morrow,  but  one  continued  to-day.  Job 
says  (viii,  9),  "  We  are  but  of  yesterday,  and  know 
nothing ;  because  our  days  upon  earth  are  a  shadow." 

7aw  Sunday  is  a  term  used  in  some  parts  of 
England  to  designate  Palm-Suuday  (q.  v.)* 

7aw-trea,  an  evergreen  tree  of  the  genus  taxui^ 
allied  to  the  pines,  and  valued  for  its  wot^  or  timber, 
is  veiy  commonly  found  planted  in  the  old  English 
churohyards ;  and  was  formerly  much  used  to  decorate 
churches  at  Christmas,  Palm-Sunday,  and  Easter. 

7asidia,  an  ancient  sect  of  unknown  origin,  form- 
ing a  tribe  with  a  distinct  nationality,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Mosul,  in 
Asiatic  Turkey. 
This  obscure  race 
appears  to  be  a 
relic  of  the  an- 
cient Chaldaeans, 
and  their  religion 
seems  to  be  a  con- 
fused mixture  of 
Gnostic  Christian- 
ity, grafted  upon 
the  Chaldaaan  su- 
perstitions, include 
ing  Magianisro, 
and  then  adulter- 
ated with  Mos- 
lemism.  They  are 
generally  called 
devil- worshippers, 
but  profess  to  take 
their  name  from 
Azad,  the  ancient 
name  for  God  in 
the  Yezidi  dialect. 
*<  We  are  Yezidis,"  they  say,  *<  that  is,  wonhippen  of 
God."  The  following  account  is  taken  from  Layard*s 
Ninevth  and  Us  Remaine  (New  York,  1849),  i,  246  sq. : 


Common  Dress  of  the  Yezldis. 


**Tha  Tetldls  recognise  one  Supreme  Being,  bnt,  as  fkr 
as  I  could  learn,  thev  do  not  offer  up  any  direct  praver  or 
sacrillce  to  him.  Sheik  Nasr  endeavored  to  evade  my 
questions  on  this  subject,  and  appeared  to  shno,  wltn 
snpeivtitlous  awe,  every  topic  connected  with  the  exist- 
ence and  attributes  of  the  deity.  The  common  Moham- 
medan forms  of  expression— half-oath,  half-eJacuIatlon-^ 
are  nevertheless  frequently  In  the  months  or  the  people, 
bat  probably  from  mere  haolL  The  name  of  the  evil  spir- 
it is,  however,  never  mentloDed,  and  any  allusion  to  It  by 
others  so  vexes  and  Irritates  them  that,  it  is  said,  they 
have  put  to  death  persona  who  have  wantonly  outraged 
their  feellnss  by  its  nse.  So  far  is  their  dread  of  offend- 
ing the  evu  principle  carried  that  they  carefhlly  avoid 
every  exi>res8{on  which  may  resemble  in  sound  the  name 
of  Satan,  or  the  Arabic  word  for  'accursed.* .  .  .  When 
they  speak  of  the  devil  they  do  so  with  reverence,  as 
Mtlek  Totfa  (king  Peacock)  or  MeUk  el-KOt  (the  mighty 
angel).  Sheik  Nasr  distinctly  admitted  that  they  pos- 
sessed a  bronze  or  copper  flgnra  of  a  bird,  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  careful  iu  explalutus  was  only  looked  upon 
as  a  symbol,  and  not  as  an  idol,  it  always  remains  with 
the  great  snelk,  and  is  carried  with  him  wherever  he 
maylonmey.  . .  .  This  symbol  is  called  Melek  Tads,  and 
is  held  in  great  reverence. . . .  They  believe  Satan  to  be 
the  chief  or  the  angelic  host,  now  suffering  punishment 
for  his  rebellion  against  the  divine  will,  but  still  all-pow- 
erful, and  to  be  restored  hereafter  to  his  high  estate  In 
the  celestial  hierarchy.  He  must  be  conciliated  and  rev- 
erenced, they  say,  tor  as  he  now  has  the  means  of  doing 
evil  to  mankind,  so  will  he  hereafter  have  the  power  or 
rewarding  them.  Next  to  Satan,  bnt  inferior  to  falm  In 
might  and  wisdom,  are  seven  archangels,  who  exer- 
cise a  great  inflaeuce  over  the  world ;  they  are  Gabrall, 
M IchaiL  Raphall,  Azrail,  Dedrall,  Azrapheel,  and  Shem- 
keel.  uhrist,  according  to  them,  was  also  a  great  angel, 
who  had  taken  the  form  of  a  man.  He  did  not  die  on  the 
Cross,  but  ascended  to  heaven. 

"  They  hold  the  Old  Te»t.  in  great  reverence,  and  be- 
lieve In  the  cosmogony  of  Genesis,  the  Deluge,  and  other 
events  in  the  Bible.  They  do  not  reject  the  New  Test, 
nor  the  Koran,  but  consider  them  less  entitled  to  their 
veneration.  Still,  they  always  select  passages  from  the 
latter  for  their  tombs  and  holy  places.  Mohammed  they 
look  upon  as  a  prophet— as  they  do  Abraham  and  the  pa- 
triarehs.  They  expect  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  as 
well  as  the  reappearance  of  Imanm  Mebdl,  giving  cre- 
dence to  the  Mnssulman  fobles  relating  to  hun.  Sheik 
Adl  Is  their  great  saint. . . . 

**It  is  dUBcult  to  trace  their  ceremonies  to  any  particu- 
lar source.  They  baptize  in  water,  like  the  Christians ; 
if  possible,  within  seven  days  after  birth.  They  circum- 
cise at  the  same  age  and  In  the  same  manner  as  the 
Mohammedans;  and  reverence  the  tun,  and  have  many 
customs  In  common  with  the  Sabeans. . . .  They  are  ac- 
cnstomed  to  kiss  the  object  on  which  its  beams  flrat 
fall;  and  I  have  fk«qnently,  when  tnvelling  Iu  their  com- 
pauy  at  sunrise,  observed  them  perform  uils  ceremony. 
For  lire,  as  symbolic!  they  have  nearly  the  same  rever- 
ence :  they  never  spit  Into  it,  but  fteqoentl v  pass  their 
hands  through  the  dames,  kiss  them,  and  rub  them  over 
their  right  eyebrow,  or  sometimes  over  the  whole  fiice. 
The  color  blue,  to  them,  as  to  the  Sabsans,  is  an  abomina- 
tion, and  never  to  be  worn  in  dress,  or  to  l>e  nsed  in  their 
houses.  Their  Kubleh,  or  the  place  to  which  they  look 
while  performing  their  holy  ceremonies,  is  that  part  of 
the  heavens  in  which  the  sun  rises,  and  towards  it  they 
turn  the  faces  of  their  dead.  In  their  fondness  for  white 
linen,  in  their  cleanliness  of  habits,  and  in  their  fluent 
ablutions,  they  also  resemble  the  Sabseans. . . . 

"They  have  four  orden  of  priesthood,  the  Pirs,  the 
Sheiks,  the  Cawals,  and  the  Fakirs:  and  what  Is  very 
remarkable,  and,  I  believe,  unexampled  in  the  East,  tbeve 
offices  are  hereditary,  and  descend  to  females,  who,  when 
enjoying  them,  are  treated  with  the  same  respect  and 
consideration  as  the  men. 

"The  Pirt,  or  saints,  are  most  reverenced  after  the 
great  sheik,  or  religious  head  of  the  sect.  They  are  be- 
lieved to  have  power,  not  only  of  interceding  for  the 
people,  bnt  of  curing  disease  and  insanity.  They  are  ex- 
pected to  lead  a  life  of  great  sanctity  and  honesty,  and 
are  looked  up  to  with  great  reverence. .  . . 

"The  Sheika  are  next  in  rank.  They  are  acquainted 
with  the  hymns,  and  are  expected  to  know  something  of 
Arabic,  the  language  In  which  the  hymns  are  written. 
Their  dress  should  he  entirely  white,  except  the  skull-cap 
beneath  their  turbans,  which  Is  black.  As  servants  or 
sheik  Adi  they  are  the  guardians  of  his  tomb,  keep  up 
the  holy  tires,  and  bring  provisions  and  fuel  to  those  who 
dwell  wlihln  Its  precincts,  and  to  pilgrims  of  distinc- 
tion. . . . 

"The  Cawale,  or  preachers,  appear  to  he  the  most  ac- 
tive memben  of  the  priesthood.  They  are  sent  by  sheik 
Nasr  on  missions,  going  firom  village  to  village  as  teach- 
era  of  the  doctrines  of  the  sect.  They  alone  are  the  per- 
formera  on  the  flute  and  tambourine,  both  iustrumenta 
being  looked  upon,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  sacred. . . . 

"The  Fakira  are  the  lowest  in  the  priesthood.  They 
wear  coarse  dresses  of  black  or  dark-brown  cloth  or  can- 
vas, descending  to  the  knee  and  fitting  tightly  to  the 


YGDRASIL 


1008 


TOGINS 


penoTi,  and  a  black  tntten,  acrots  or  over  which  li  tied 
a  red  handkerchlet  They  perform  all  menial  oAces  con- 
nected with  the  tomb,  tnm  and  light  the  rotlve  lampe, 
and  keep  clean  the  sacred  balldinge.*' 

For  many  interesting  particulars  concerning  this 
strange  sect,  see  Iisyard,  Nineveh  and  iit  RemauUf  vol.  i, 
chap,  ix ;  Nineveh  and  Babylon^  p.  92 ;  Badger,  NettO' 
rians  and  iheir  Ritual,  i,  105-184. 

7gdrafiil,  in  Korse  mythology,  is  the  tree  of  the 
world,  an  enormous  ash,  whose  branches  touch  the  sky 
and  stretch  out  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth. 
Three  roots  feed  it :  one  extends  to  the  assembling  place 
of  the  gods,  Asgard ;  another  into  the  giant  country, 
Jotunbeim;  and  the  third  reaches  down  to  Niflheim 
(infernal  regions).  By  the  spring,  Urdarbom,  live  the 
three  holy  destinies  of  fate,  who  daily  water  the  roots 
with  the  water  from  the  spring.  This  fountain  is  in 
the  country  of  the  Asaa.  By  the  other  root,  in  Jotun- 
heim,  is  the  well  of  Minvers,  and  in  the  kingdom  of 
Hel  is  the  spring  Hwergelmer,  from  which  the  hell- 
streams  flow.  The  tree  is  inhabited  by  different  ani- 
mals. The  two  harts,  Dunair  and  Duratoor,  eat  the 
buds  of  the  tree.  In  the  peak  of  the  tree  lives  an 
eagle,  who  carries  the  hawk  Wedurfolner  between  his 
eyes;  at  the  bottom  of  the  tree  the  reptile  Nidh&gr 
lives,  and  gnaws  at  the  root  of  the  tree ;  between  both 
there  travds  up  and  down  a  squirrel,  Ratatosker,  that 
seeks  to  cause  discord  between  the  eagle  and  the  snake. 
The  harts  bite  its  branches  to  destroy  it,  but  the  tree  is 
preserved  by  watering,  and  will  be  preserved  till  the 
destruction  of  the  earth,  up  to  which  time  the  gods 
will  assemble  daily  in  ita  shade  to  seek  advice — and 
even  at  the  end  of  the  world  it  will  not  be  destroyed, 
but  only  receive  a  heavy  shock.    See  Nouse  Mythol- 

OOT. 

yih-king;  **  the  book  of  changes,**  is  the  oldest  of 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Chinese.  It  was  written  by 
Fohi,  the  reputed  founder  of  Chinese  civilization,  and 
is  described  as  a  vcr}'  mysterious  and  almost  unin- 
telligible work,  treating  chiefly  of  the  nature  of  the 
universe  in  general,  the  harmonious  action  of  the  ele- 
ments, and  periodic  changes  of  creation.  These  ideas 
were  expressed  by  means  of  eight  peculiar  diagrams, 
which  constitute  the  basis  of  natural  philosophy  as  well 
as  of  religion.  Some  contend  that  in  Fohi  and  his 
family  we  may  recognise  Noah  and  the  second  parents 
of  bur  race.  Many  commentaries  have  been  written  on 
the  Yih-hing,  and  very  varied  have  been  the  exposi- 
tions, so  that,  from  being  regarded  originally  as  a  cos- 
roological  essay,  it  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  stand- 
ard treatise  on  ethics. 

7i]i6r,  in  Norse  mythology,  is  the  giant  from  the 
separate  parts  of  whose  body  the  world  was  created. 
The  heat  at  Muspelheim  made  the  ice  in  Niflheim 
melt,  which  caused  the  creation  of  the  great  giant 
Ymer  and  the  cow  Audumbla,  from  whose  milk  the 
former  was  nourished.  The  cow  satisfied  her  hunger 
by  licking  tlie  salt -stones,  by  which  means  the  first 
man,  Bure,  was  created.  Ymer  himself  created  the 
frightful  dynasty  of  the  Hiymthussen.  But  he  did 
not  live  long,  for  Bure's  nephews,  sons  of  Bors— Odin, 
Wile,  and  We  —  killed  Ymer,  and  of  his  blood  they 
made  the  sea,  of  bis  flesh  the  earth,  of  his  bones  the 
rocks  and  hills,  of  his  skull  the  firmament,  of  his  brain 
the  clouds,  and  of  bis  eyelashes  the  battlements  about 
Asgard. 

Toga  (Sanscrit  yug, "  to  join ;"  hence,  yimduMi,  and 
figuratively,  contemplation^  religious  or  abstract)  is  the 
name  of  one  of  the  two  divisions  of  the  Sctnkhya  (q.  v.) 
philosophy  of  the  Hindds.  The  main  object  of  the 
Yoga  is  to  establish  the  doctrine  of  a  supreme  being, 
and  to  teach  the  means  by  which  the  human  soul  may 
become  permanently  united  with  iL  The  reputed  au- 
thor of  the  system  is  Patanjali,  who  explains  the  term 
Yoga  as  meaning  ^  the  hindering  of  the  modifications  of 
thinking."  These  are  accomplished  either  by  a  repeat- 
ed effort  to  keep  the  mind  in  ita  unmodified  state,  or  by 


dispaasion,  which  is  the  conaciooaiieii  of  hsvisg  orer- 
oome  all  deaiies  for  objects  that  are  seen  or  heard  oC 
According  to  the  founder  of  the  qrstem,  the  pnctical 
Yoga  by  which  "concentration"  is  to  be  attained  com- 
prises mortification,  the  muttering  of  certain  bycnoa 
and  a  devoted  reliance  on  the  Supreme  Being.  Through 
it  meditations  are  established,  and  afflictions  got  rid  oC 
By  afflictions  are  understood  ignorance,  egotism,  affec- 
tion, aversion,  and  tenacity  of  life ;  which  terms  are  then 
the  subject  of  an  especial  investigation  into  the  natnre 
of  what  is  to  be  got  rid  of,  of  what  is  not  desired  to  be 
got  rid  of,  of  what  is  constituted  by  the  cause,  and  of 
what  is  the  constitutive  cause. 

There  are  eight  means  or  stages  subservient  to  the 
attainment  of  concentration,  vis.  yoma,  forbearance; 
myamOf  religious  observance;  oMonOt  postiirea;  prmn- 
gama,  regulation  of  the  breath ;  pratgahara,  leeCniiit 
of  the  senses;  dharana,  steadying  of  the  mind ;  dhgana, 
contemplation ;  and  tamadki,  profound  meditation.  The 
practical  part  of  the  Yoga  was  admitted  into  the  later 
Vedanta  (q.  v.).  Its  ethical  part  is  cspedaUy  dwelt 
upon  in  the  Mahabharata  (q.  v.).  But  the  great  power 
it  has  at  all  periods  exercised  over  the  Hindi!  mind  is 
less  derived  from  its  philosophical  speculatioiis,  or  its 
moral  injunctions,  than  from  the  wonderful  effects  which 
the  Yoga  practicea  are  supposed  to  produce,  and  from  the 
countenance  they  give  to  the  favorite  tendency  of  ortho- 
dox Hinddism — the  performance  of  austeritiea.  Fre- 
quently these  practices  were  and  are  merely  a  doak  for 
imposture  and  hypocrisy.  Professional  Yogina  (q.  v.), 
numbers  of  whom  are  met  with  throughout  India,  axe 
often  nothing  but  lazy  mendicants  or  jugglen,  who,  by 
impressing  the  vulgar  with  a  belief  in  their  superoataral 
powers,  convert  it  into  a  source  of  easy  livelihood.  Sodi 
followers  of  Yoga  pretend,  for  instance,  to  foretell  future 
events;  they  deal  in  palmistiy,  and  profesa  to  core  dis- 
eases. There  are  instances,  too,  where,  for  a  handsooc 
consideration,  they  aUow  themselves  to  be  buried  for  a 
certain  time,  so  as  to  exhibit  the  power  of  the  Yoga. 
Two  such  cases  are  related  as  authentic  in  the  treatise 
of  Navinachandrapala ;  and  it  would  appear  from  them 
that  a  hdman  being,  after  having  undergone  certain 
preparations,  such  as  the  Yoga  prescribes,  may  be  shut 
up  in  a  box,  without  either  food  or  drink,  for  the  space 
of  a  month,  or  even  forty  daya  and  nights,  and  yet  re- 
main alive.  The  author  of  the  treatise  endeavors,  in- 
deed, to  show  that  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  Yoga 
regarding  the  mode  of  respiration,  the  poetnrea,  and  the 
diet  of  a  Yogin,  may  have  been  founded  on  a  earefnl 
observation  of  hibernating  animals;  and  in  soppoft  of 
this  view  he  enters  into  a  detailed  inveatagation  of  the 
effect  of  the  Yoga  practices  on  animal  life.  If,  aa  it 
seems,  his  statements  are  correct,  much  of  what  other- 
wise would  be  incredible  in  the  accounts  given  of  the 
performances  of  the  Yo^^ns,  could  be  received  aa  true, 
because  admitting  of  explanation. 

The  system  of  Patanjali  was  taught  by  him  in  a  little 
work  called  Yogatutrot  which  consists  of  four  padaa,  oe 
chapters,  each  comprising  a  number  of  sutna  (q.  v.). 
The  oldest  commentary  on  it  is  ascribed  to  a  Vgd$a  (q.  v.) ; 
and  this  was  commented  on  by  Vachaspati  Mianu  For 
an  elabonte  enumeration  of  works  on  the  Yoga,  see  A 
Contribution  towardt  an  Index  to  the  BibUograpkg  </ 
the  Indian  PkUotophical  Sgatems,  by  Fitsedward  Hall 
(Calcutta,  1S&9).  The  first  two  chapters  of  the  aatraa 
have  been  tmnshited,  with  annotations  founded  on  the 
commentary  of  Bhojaveda,  by  the  late  J.  B.  BaQatttyiie 
(Allahabad,  1858) ;  and  a  paraphrase,  but  somewhat  too 
free,  of  the  same  commentary  is  contained  in  voL  ir  of 
WUliam  Ward's  Vitw  of  the  Hittorg,  LUeraturt^  and 
i?efi[^i2/'Me£^tmlitf,etc.(Lond.l817-SO,4vo]a.).  Tm 
a  brief  account  of  the  system,  see  also  vol.  i  of  H.  T. 
Colebrooke*s  MiteeilaneouM  £sMi|fe  .(Lend.  1887,  S  vob;) ; 
and  for  the  practice  of  the  Yoga,  A  Treatiae  cm  the  Toga 
Philoeophg,  by  N.  C  Paul  (Benares,  1861). 

Togins  are  the  foUowen  of  the  Yoga  (q^  r.)  tytftem 
of  Hindti  philosophy,  but  in  popular  aooeptatioii  a 


geocrallr  denoticB  & 
Hinclft  ucctic  or  do- 
Totce,  ■  nun  who  hu 
entend  tbe  (baith 
■tags  or  relif^oua  lire 
u   dnciibcd   in    th« 

of  audi  prraons  rormi 
a  diviuoD  of  the  vouri 


Tok«,  an  egriculliuil 


1  Sim.  V 


I.  Tbe  cDired  pieee  of  wood  npoa 
tha  neck  of  draught  aninuli,  bj 
which  thcj  an  faatened  to  the  pale 
01  beam.  Tbi)  w«ll-kiiown  imp]»- 
ntiiC  of  hnibandtjr  it  daactibed  in 
the  Hebrew  Ungiuge  bf  the 
™M  Caia),  molik  (n^lO),  and  '61 
(b;),  the  foimer  two  apeciBcallj  ap- 
ptjing  to  the  bowf  of  wood  oat  of 
which  it  wu  conitrtieted,  and  the 
lut  to  tha  application  {biaJiiig)  of 
(he  article  lo  the  neck  of  the  oi. 
The  exprcaioni  are 
Ut.  uvi,  13  and  Euk.  uiiv,  !T, 
with  the  meaning,  "  bandi  o(  the 
Toke."     The  Hebrew  word  '61  (Numb,  six,  S;  Dent. 


ir  alavery  (1  King)  iii,4-ll;  tu.iK,4;  x, 
S7;  Iii-,3(>i  ilTii,6;  Jer. T,  &),  and  to  tnut  tbe  fake  U 
to  beeoDM  tnt  (Gen.  xxvii,  40 ;  Jer.  ii,  W  i  v,  b ;  Hah.  i, 
IS).  Ad  trail  yott  a  the  aymlMl  of  KTere  bondage 
{Deut.xxviii,48;  Jer.  zziriii,  14).  The  term  ■■  yoke  " 
ii  alw  uied  aa  the  lymbol  of  ealunity  or  •nlfering  (t^m. 
i,14;  iii,37).    The  Hebrew  word  inofdA  alio  ugnifle*  a 


I  Hen  Irrlgailng  the  Qraood  wllb  Poll  of  Water 


yoke  H  worn  chiefly  by  men ;  probably  uich  a>  ia  etill 
borne  by  waler-carricn,  having  a  Teatel  taipended  by  ■ 
rope  or  chain  at  each  end(Jcr,xXYii,!;  xiviii,  10,12). 
The  breaking  or  remoral  of  the  yoke  i>  an  emblem  of 
freedom  (Iu.lTiii,  6,9 i  Lev.  xxvi,  IS;  Eick.xxx,lg; 
xxxiT,Z7;  Nah.i,ia).  So.likewiae,  the  conuponding 
Gnek  lenn  ivy6s  ja  lued  at  the  emblem  of  ipirilaal 
tc7THZ(Ualt.  xt,  29, 86),  alto  of  apitilual  bandage  (Acta 
XT,  10;  Gai.v.l), 


Among  the  indent  Egyptiani  jokea 
kinda  wen  oaed  ((x  leverai  purpoeea  (eec 
Atic.  Efffpt.  i,  88,  8T9i  ii,  lb). 

(1)  In  many  instancet  men  wert  empkiyed  lo  carry 
the  water  in  pailt,  auapended  by  a  wooden  yoke  borne 
upon  thui  ihouldera.  The  aaow  yoke  wae  employed 
for  carrying  other  tbingi,  at  boxes,  baakeu  containing 
game  and  poaltry,  or  whatever  was  taken  to  market; 
and  OTCiy  Inde  aeemi  to  hara  nieil  it  fo(  thii  purpoar, 
from  the  potter  and  tha  tnick-maker  lo  the 
carpenter  and  the  abipwrittht.  The  wooden 
bar  or  yoke  wat  about  Ihree  feel  aeven  inchea 
in  length  i  and  [he  tlrapa,  which  wert  double, 
and  fattened  Ingeiher  at  the  lower  aa  well  a* 
at  the  upper  extremity,  wen  of  lealber,  and 
between  fltteen  and  Mxicen  inchea  long.  The 
amail  Ihong  at  the  bottom  not  only  aerred 
to  connect  tbe  ends,  but  waa  probably  intend^ 
cd  to  tattea  a  hook,  or  an  additional  atnp,  if 
required,  to  attach  the  harden;  and  thongh 
moat  of  theae  yoke*  bad  two,  tome  were  fur- 
nished with  four  or  eight  atrapt;  and  tbe 
form,  number,  or  arrangement  of  them  varied 
according  to  the  purpoeea  for  which  they  were 
intended. 

(!)  For  [toughing  the  mode  of  yoking  the 
beatta  wat  Exceedingly  simple.  Acroaa  the  exliemily 
of  the  pole  a  wooden  yoke  or  croaa-bar,  about  flfty-flvc 
inches  or  Are  feet  in  length,  waa  faatened  by  a  ttrap 
lashed  backwardt  and  forwards  oret  a  prominence  pro- 
jecting froQi  tbe  centre  of  the  yoke,  which  correspoDd- 
ed  to  a  aimilar  peg,  or  knob,  at  iha  end  of  the  pole ; 
and  oGcationally,  in  addition  to  theae,  wat  ■  ring  paa- 
ing  over  them  aa  in  some  Onek  chariala.  At  either 
end  of  the  yoke  wat  a  flat  or  slightly  conavc  pn^eo- 


Anclent  Bgyptisn  Yoke  for  Hen. 
IIL— S» 


rested  on  a  pad  placed  upon  tbe 
wither)  of  the  animal ;  and 
thmugh  a  hole  on  cithw  aide 
of  it  paased  a  thong  for  tuspend- 
ing  the  ahoulder-piecce  which 
formed  the  collar.  Theae  were 
two  woollen  bare,  forked  at  about 
half  their  length,  padded  so  aa 
to  protect  the  ahoulder  from  frio- 
tion,  and  connected  at  the  lower 
end  by  a  strong,  broad  band  paaa- 
ing  under  tbe  IhroaL 

Sometimea   the   dnoght,  in- 
tiead  of  being  from  tbe  withei). 


TOKE-FELLOW 


1010  YORK,  COUNCILS  OP 


WM  fiem  the  hod,  tha  jrok^bdng  tiid  to  Ui«  b«M  of 
tha  honiB ;  ind  in  Teligion  ccitOKiilie*  oxen  ficqaeDll; 
daw  the  bier,  or  tha  ucrcd  ilnioc,  b7  a  TOpt  fMlened 
to  the  npp«r  put  ot  the  honi^  witiiont  eilba  yohs  or 
pole.    8ee  Plodob. 

(8)  For  corrides  and  wic-cbRrioIi  the  hinien  wii 
liiiillir,  ■nd  the  pole  in  either  cue  wu  mpported  on  ■ 
ctured  yoke  fixed  to  iu  eilnniity  by  s  ■IronK  pin,  and 
bound  irith  etrapa  or  thoDgs  of  teither.  The  yoke, 
tertinK  upon  a  iniiU,  well-pidded  nddle,  was  firmly 
fitted  into  a  grooTe  of  metal;  and  the  uddle,  placed 
upon  the  honei'  withera,  and  fumiihed  with  girtb*  and 
a  liTeaM-baiid,  wm  lunnoanled  by  an  omamenlal ' 


tended  by  Simon,  dtto  of  the  Ctmich,  tha  tomMw, 
the  arcbdeaeona  of  Nottingham  and  QerelaDd,  the 
ehaoeellor,  Robert,  the  prorost  of  Bereriey,  and  Koe  tt 
tha  ccnoai,  with  almoat  all  the  abboti,  pfion,  ofidala, 
deina,  and  paeton  of  the  chnrchea  in  the  dioccae  ot 
York.  Pope  CelcgliD«  III  ippean  to  hare  anqKiided 
6eoffry,archbiihopof  Tork  (son  of  the  fair  Raaumad), 
from  the  ezerciie  of  all  hi*  cpiKopal  fiinetioiuv  and  a 
few  jiears  before  had  cut  offrrom  his  province  tbevhsle 
of  Scotland,  which  he  made  immediately  subject  talk* 
are  of  Rome.    Nineteen  constitutions  wen  publiilicd. 

1.  Relates  tn  the  admin  latntlon  of  the  holy  ammtt- 
ion :  dlrecU  that  the  minister  ahatl  take  on  thit  knsd, 
iTlded  (or  lbs  racrt. 
celebnted  wilkoit 

. — It  the  host  be  ktpi 

in  ■  decent  Pyx,  and  nnswad  evsry  leii'i 

1  Nrecta  that  tha  boat  be  carried  to  IM 
sick  with  niliable  aolamnlty. 

8.  Orden  atchdeacoua  to  take  care  tbt 
the  canons  ot  tiw  mas*  be  corrected  st 
cording  to  aoma  apprarad  copy. 

t.  Forblda  to  impoM  maiaea  as  pan  el 
penalica.  In  order  to  obtain  money  lor  ssy 
iDjt  them.  Forbids  also  priests  to  usi* 
bargains  tat  eelebratlnx  mssar*, 

t.  Ordains  that  no  mots  than  two  or 
three  ufaoua  aball  take  a  child  ngt  o[  Iks 
■aawT  Ibnt ;  IbM  a  cblld  toand  tipont 
aball  bo  baptlwd,  whether  It  be  fniDil  *tik 
■alt  or  wltbont,  for  that  cannot  be  said  to 
be  Iterated  which  wu  not  kuown  to  km 


i>  bapilie.  admlDls 


Andent  Itayptiao  Yoke  for  a  Chartot,  with  BnlarEod  View  or  the  Saddle  body  of  ChruTt^  or  eoJotn'TMnsncs 

-  °"'  -■  -'■•—  '^■'  fesaliin.     (TharEes  prfosi.,  when  dedmlio 


or  Pad  at  either  Bnd. 

while  in  ftoat  of  it  a  sroalt  hook  secured  the  bearing- 
rein.    See  Chariot. 

The  word  f  yoke "  also  ngniSea  a  pair  of  oxen,  to 
urnwd  *a  being  yoked  together  (1  Sam.  xi,7;  1  King* 
six,  19, 21).  The  Hebrew  term,  lOiial  (inx),  is  alio 
ai>(JiedIoan«(Judg.xii,ia}andmulea(3KingST,17), 
ud  even  to  ■  couple  ot  tiden  (laa,  zxi,  7).  Tha  term 
Meiarf  is  also  applied  to  a  certain  amount  of  land,  cquira- 
tent  to  that  which  a  couple  of  oxen  could  plough  in  a  day 
(Isa.  r,  10;  A,  V.  "acra'O,  corresponding  to  the  Latin 
jugum  (Varro,  S.  S.  i,  ID).  The  term  atands  in  this 
aense  in  1  Sam.  xiv.U  (A. T.  "yoke");  hot  the  text 
is  doubtful,  and  the  rendering  of  die  SepL  suggests  that 
the  true  reading  would  refer  to  the  initraments  (ir 
co^XaCi}  wherewith  the  slaogbter  wai  elFected.   See  Ox. 

TolM-fellOw  (ivtryocl,  a  coBeagut  (PhiL  iv,  B). 
Bat  many  interpretara  regard  the  word  there  ai  a  proper 
name,  Syiigiii  (although  the  gender  Is  uncertain),  as  it 
n  with  other  actual  names,  and  the 
Dt  otherwiae  he  qitcifled  at  alL 

Tonu.     See  Talxud. 

Tonab.    See  Dove. 

Toaetni.    See  Troxxrua. 

Tork,  CocvciLS  or  ^Condluan  Eboraeam),  York 
i*  the  second  city  of  England  in  point  of  rank,  though 
not  in  size  or  in  commercial  importance,  ■  parliamen- 
tary and  municipal  borough,  and  county  of  itself,  capital 
ot  the  Gonnty  of  the  same  name  (Yorkshire),  near  iu 
centre,  at  the  junction  of  the  Three  Ridings  on  the  Ouse, 
at  the  influx  of  the  Foaa,  one  hundred  and  sevcnty-Sre 
mile*  north-north-west  of  London,  The  ecclesiastical 
authority  of  the  archbishop  extends  orer  the  province 
of  York,  cooniting,  with  the  archbishopric,  of  tbe  bish- 
oprics of  Durham,  Carlisle,  Chester,  Uancheater,  Ripon, 
and  SodoT  and  Man.  It  eonUins  York  cathedral,  the 
finest  sttnctore  of  the  kind  in  England,  mostly  built  in 
tballllhandHIhcenlurie*.  Several eccle»aalical eoun- 
dla  have  been  held  there,  as  follows : 

L  Wis  held  June  11  and  Ifi,  USA,  in  the  Church  of 
St,  Petei,  at  York,  by  Habert  Waller,  archbishop  of 
Canletbaiy,  legale  and  ehaoeellor  of  England.  No 
other  bishop  «a*  prsMOt  In  the  council,which  waa  at- 


baptlia  a  cblld,  II 

lion  In  tha  alck.  to  make  no  delsy. 

T.  Directs  that  patsons  and  vican  r1 
heir  ehuTchea  are  kept  in  Jirnper  n|>al 

e.  Direct*  that  In  all  ministration i 


MtDjc  lOrdbly  clipped  by  the  archdsusa  or 
dean,  irthey  have  not. 
11.  Forbids  priests  to  pi  abonl  In  copes  with  slscin; 

IJ.  Forbids  any  money  to  be  Cken  by  tbe  Jadjt  tn  te- 
la, Orden  that  tha  tithe  be  paid  to  the  Chnrch  OrM,  te- 

fore  tbewifnaof  thebarreatnien,  etc. 
14.  Forbids  monks  to  take  esiitea  In  farm,  and  to 

leave  their  houses  wtthont  msonsble  cause. 

"' lesvo  the  verge  of  their  moBSftrfj, 

.—.'ForbidaL.,. 
II.  Orden  that 
ate,  with  candlr 


company  of  their  t 

' -m  to  Ikrm  churches  iir  tithes 

'cry  priest  shall  aiinDslly  eicon 
and^Klls,  tboHi  who  finwau 


18.  Reqnlrea  prlcala  lo  abataln  from  drinUni-boiIi  ai 
taiBTDB.  Forbids  then,  under  pain  of  sngpensliiB.  Ii> 
keep  Goncnblnea  In  their  own  honaev,  or  la  the  faoeHs  ot 

19.  Drden  that  when  any  one  Is  snspected  of  s  ciIm 
on  public  rapOTt,  the  dean  ol  the  place  aball  fmilliilr 
■dmonlsb  him  thrice;  tfhe  do  notiherenpon  reTorm.ite 
dean  ahall  ttprOTS  him  In  conjnncllon  with  two  or  ikn* 
more  with  whom  he  has  lost  bis  npalatinn:  irhe  ess- 
not  be  reformed  by  Ihia  meanF,  the  dean  shell  brlog  <M 
mailer  before  the  chapter,  In  order  that  the  aecnaed  nij 
be  elttier  poulabed  or  canonioilly  parked. 

See  Wilkins,  CondL  i,  £01 ;  Johnson,  Eeei  Caaau,  i, 
1791, 

II.  Waa  held  iboDt  the  year  1B6S,  by  John  ThnAv. 
archbishop  of  Yorii.  Five  fresh  constilulioo  nn 
published,  and  aeven  eonstilutiona  pubiiabed  by  sich- 
bisbop  ZoDche,  in  a  provincial  synod  held  at  Tlxirp,  ia 
1U7. 

.  1.  Forbids  lo  hold  markala,  pleadloga,  ate..  In  chordt^ 
churchyards,  and  other  holy  placM,  on  the  Lord's  dsj,  <' 
other  holy  disy*. 

!.  Forbids  tbe  perfbrmsnce  of  plays  and  vanlika  ta 
churches  on  vigils. 

R-  Rntatea  to  tha  aalsrles  to  be  aaslirned  lo  stlpendlsry 
>nd  chaplains,  and  renews  a  eooslllntlon  nude  bj 
'-■'  --"^■-jorTork,  which  asslpn 


>nd  chaplal 
Oraenpeld 


KstKntlons  made  by  srcbblabop  Zoncha,  at  Thnrp.  In 
IT,  vis.  L  Relatlni  to  tbe  stipend*  to  b*  1»ll»**  to  •» 


YORK,  COUNCILS  OF  1011 


YOUTH 


stoting  pzlMto,  etc  U.  Conoernlng  the  oveHnyloff  of  chil- 
dren, ui.  Couoerning  the  ohetrnction  offered  by  titbe- 
gayen  to  thoee  who  take  it,  nod  declares  that  some 
Indered  the  tithe-owner  firom  ourrylng  It  by  the  aceas- 
tomable  way,  and  compelled  him  to  take  it  by  Intricate 
and  ronndaoont  patha :  others  forbade  him  to  carry  it 
nntil  all  their  own  com  waa  carried,  and  malldonslT  per- 
mitted the  tithe  to  be  trampled  nptm  and  dettroyed.  iv. 
Forbids  to  give  away  property  at  death  to  the  injury  of 
the  Churches  rights,  and  those  of  the  king's  relations,  etc 
>  ▼.  Forbids  priests  to  wear  ridfcnlons  domes,  and  to  seek 
glory  from  their  shoes;  declares  that  many  priests  did, 
"ont  of  an  affection  to  show  their  shapes,**  in  defiance 
of  the  canons,  wear  clothes  so  short  as  not  to  come  down 
to  the  knees.  ▼!.  Relates  to  the  trying  of  matrimonial 
caasM.  tIL  Forbids  clandestine  marriages,  and  orders 
that  the  banns  be  publi«hed  on  three  sereral  solemn 
days. 

4.  States  how  the  abore  statute  was  in  some  particulars 
modUUd  in  another  provincial  coondL 

5.  Specifies  for  the  guidance  of  rectors,  vicais,  and  other 
confessors,  thirty-seven  cases,  which  were  to  be  reserved, 
either  for  the  Judgment  of  the  archbishop,  and  his  penl-, 
tentiary,  or  for  that  of  the  pope :  and  orders  that,  in  each 
of  these  esses,  the  offender  shall  be  sent  to  the  archbishop 
or  his  penitentiary,  unless  he  be  in  dancer  of  death,  with 
letters  granted  to  him  free  of  cost,  explaining  his  cose. 

See  Johnson,  Eod.  Canontf  xi,  2482. 

III.  Was  held  in  1444,  by  John  Kemp,  archbishop 
of  York,  and  cardinal  of  Balbina,  in  a  prorinctal  synod. 
Two  constitutions  were  published. 

1.  Is  with  little  variation  the  same  with  the  fifth  con- 
Btitntion  of  Merton,  A.D.  1806. 

2.  Lays  certain  restrictions  upon  the  sale  of  trees, 
woodlands,  etc.,  and  npon  the  granting  of  rights,  rents, 
pensions,  etc,  by  abbots,  priors,  and  other  administrators 
of  Church  goods. 

See  Johnson,  Ecd,  Cimont. 

IV.  Was  held  April  20,  1466,  in  the  metropolitan 
church  of  Tork,  by  George  NeviUe,  archbishop.  From 
various  causes  connected  with  the  state  and  liberty  of 
the  Church,  it  was  assembled  without  a  royal  brief. 
Eleven  constitutions  were  published. 

I.  Is  the  same  with  the  ninth  constitution  of  Lambeth, 
A.D.  1381. 

8.  Is  the  same  ^vith  the  fifth  constitution  of  London, 
A.D.  1848. 

8.  Is  the  same  with  the  ninth  constitution  of  London, 
A.D.  1848. 

4  and  B.  Are  the  same  with  the  twelfth  constitution  of 
London,  AD.  1348,  mutatit  mtUandUs,  against  the  ob- 
structors  of  ecclesiastical  process. 

0.  Is  the  same  with  the  last  constitution  of  London, 
A.D.  1348. 

7.  Declares  that  some  ansstors,  in  defiance  of  the  de- 
crees of  the  Council  of  Lateran,  In  1216,  had,  with  ex- 
treme impudence,  granted  indulgences  to  the  people  of 
their  own  will,  had  dispensed  with  vows,  absolved  for 
murders;  had,  for  a  sum  of  money,  relaxed  a  third  and 
fourth  part  of  the  penance  enjoined,  had  falsely  afllrmed 
that  they  had  drawn  ont  of  purgatory  three  or  more  souls 
of  the  parents  or  fVlends  of  those  who  had  given  them 
alms,  and  conveyed  them  to  the  Joys  of  paradise ;  that 
they  had,  moreover,  absolved  such  as  had  been  excom- 
municated  by  the  ecclesiastical  Judges,  buried  suicides  in 
the  churchyards,  and  done  all  sorts  of  like  abominations. 
Orders,  in  consequence,  that  the  decrees  of  Lateran  and 
Vieune  (A.D.  1312).  which  restricted  the  operations  of  the 
qnssstors,  be  rigidly  enforced,  and  snbjects  to  a  fine  of 
forty  shillings  any  rector,  vicar,  etc,  who  shall  admit  any 
such  ouiestor  to  preach  contrary  to  the  form  prescribed. 
The  fine  to  be  applied  to  the  fabric  of  the  cathedral 
church  of  York. 

8.  Declares  parishioners  who  attend  a  chapel  of  ease 
instead  of  their  parish  church,  and  contribute  to  the  re- 
pair of  it,  shall  nevertheless  be  bound  to  contribute  to 
the  fabric  of  the  mother  Church,  and  to  support  the  other 
burdens  thereof,  at  the  discretion  of  the  ordinary ;  and 
orders  Ihrther,  that  if  they  refuse  so  to  contribute,  the 
said  chapels  shall  be  interdicted,  and  no  service  per- 
formed in  them. 

9.  Forbids  abbots,  priors,  and  provosts  to  permit  any 
of  the  religions  belonging  to  tnelr  several  houses  to 
dwell  alone  out  of  the  verge  of  their  monasteries,  In  their 
manors,  or  churches,  under  penalty  of  payins  forty  shil- 
lings towards  the  fabric  of  York  Minster.  The  rellgfons 
vitfabond  himself  to  be  deemed  an  apostate. 

10.  Forbids,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  any  eccle- 
siastical or  secular  person  to  arrest,  cite,  force  ont,  or 
cause  to  be  arrested,  cited,  or  forced  out,  nnv  roan  that 
is  in  church,  during  the  celebration  of  the  divine  ofllces. 

II.  Is  the  same  with  the  fiflh  constitution  t>f  Merton, 
A.D.  1806,  except  that  no  mention  is  made  of  the  tithe  of 
wine,  whereas  it  speaks  of  the  tithe  of  coal  where  It  is 
dug,  and  of  the  tithe  of  safikon. 


Ailer  these  oonstitutiona  follow  the  conatitutions  of 
archbishop  Kemp,  published  in  1444,  as  given  in  the 
preceding  council.  See  Johnson,  EecL  Cammt,  xiii, 
1428;  Wilkins,  ConciL  iu,  699.— Landon,  Manual  of 
Councils,  p.  699-704. 

« 

york  Use  is  a  term  employed  to  designate  that 
ritual  which,  taking  its  name  from  the  cathedral  of 
York,  was  commonly  used  in  the  northern  province  of 
England  prior  to  the  Beformation.  Printed  editions  of 
the  York  Ritual  were  issued  in  A.D.  1616, 1618,  and  1632. 
In  the  main  it  differs  but  slightly  from  that  of  Salis- 
bury— ^first,  in  the  manner  of  maldng  the  first  oblation ; 
and,  secondly,  in  the  words  used  by  the  priest  in  par- 
taking of  the  sacrament.  Other  minor  cUilerences  ex- 
ist, but  they  are  unimportant.    See  Usk. 

Tomig;  John,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was  professor  of 
divinity  in  Glasgow,  when  he  was  elected  bishop  of 
Argyle,  but  died  before  he  was  consecrated,  in  1661. 
See  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops,  p.  291. 

Toung;  John  Freeman,  LL.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Pittston,  Me., 
Oct.  30, 1820.  He  graduated  from  the  Alexandria  The- 
ological Seminary  in  1846,  was  ordained  deacon  the 
same  year,  and  became  rector  of  St.  John's  Church, 
Jacksonville,  Fla.;  in  1846  was  ordained  presbyter,  and 
removed  to  Texas  as  a  missionary;  in  1860  to  Missis- 
sippi, and  in  1862  to  Louisiana ;  subsequently  became 
assistant  minister  of  Trinity  Parish,  New  York  city ; 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Florida,  July  26,  1867,  and 
died  in  New  York  dty,  Nov.  16, 1886.  See  The  Church 
Almanac,  1886,  p.  102. 

Toung,  VTilliam  MoXntoeh,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  about  1820. 
In  early  life  he  went  to  Providence,  B.  I.,  where  he  was 
converted,  and  subsequently  graduated  from  Columbian 
College,  Washington.  His  first  settlement  was  at  Nor- 
folk, Va. ;  next  at  Williamsburg,  and  then  at  Wilming- 
ton, N.  C  Afterwards  he  became  pastor  at  Pittsburgh, 
Pa. ;  then  successively  of  churches  at  Oil  City,  Wo- 
bum  (Mass.),  Meadville  (Pa.),  and  Cheyenne  (Wyo- 
ming), where  he  died  suddenly,  Feb.  20,  1879.  See 
Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydop,  p.  1288.    (J.  C.  S.) 

younger.  Under  the  Jewish  dispensation  it  waa 
frequently  the  will  of  God  to  prefer  the  younger  sons 
before  the  elder,  notwithstanding  the  right  of  primogen- 
itureship,  as  Shem  before  Japheth,  Isaac  before  Ishmael, 
Jacob  before  Esau,  Joseph,  Judah,  and  Levi,  before 
Reuben,  Ephraim  before  Manasseh,  Moses  before  Aaron, 
and  David  before  all  his  brethren.  In  some  of  these 
cases  the  elder  had  forfeited  his  right  of  primogeniture- 
ship  by  transgression,  as  Esau  and  Reuben,  but  not  so 
the  others.  The  cause  of  the  proceeding  of  God's  prov- 
idence may  be  conjectured  to  have  been  twofold— -first, 
as  a  memorial  of  the  sin  of  Cain,  first-born  of  Adam, 
by  which  Seth  and  his  posterity  were  preferred  before 
them ;  and,  secondly,  as  a  type  of  the  future  preference 
of  the  Christian,  or  younger  Church,  before  the  Jew. 
ish,  or  elder  Church,  in  consequence  of  the  forfeiture  of 
the  latter  by  unbelief.    See  Age. 

Tounglove,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  a  native  of  Cambridge,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  from 
Union  College  in  1801,  was  tutor  in  the  college  from 
1802  to  1806,  settled  in  the  ministry  at  Brunswick, 
N.  Y.,  and  died  there  in  1883.  See  Sprague,  A  muds  of 
the  A  mer.  Pulpit,  iv,  97. 

youth.  The  ancients  considered  youth  in  a  much 
more  extended  view  than  we  do.  They  regarded  it 
relatively  with  strength,  activity,  vigfr;'  and  while  a 
mian  retained  those  attributes  he  was  reckoned  a  young 
man,  or  a  yonth,  without  reference  to  the  numl)er  of  his 
years.  Thus  Benjamin  is  viewed  ss  a  mere  youth  when 
upwards  of  thirty  years  old.  So  in  Numb,  xxi,  28, 
Joshua  is  called  a  young  man  when  about  forty.  The 
word  frequently  translated  in  our  version  young  man  is 


YULE 


1012 


ZABARELLA 


"^^nia,  bachurf  from  ^H^f  ba^dr, ''  to  choose ;"  it  rigpi- 
fies  primarily  a  choice  man— one  who  may  be  chosen 
for  some  particular  qualities.    See  Lad. 

See  JooA. 


7iila,  the  old  name  for  Christmaa,  still  m  provincial 
popular  use  in  England.  It  points  to  heathen  times^ 
and  to  the  annual  festival  held  by  the  Northern  nations 
at  the  winter  solstice  as  a  part  of  their  system  of  sun- 
worship.  In  the  Edda  (q.  v.)  the  sun  is  styledybt^aAoe/ 
(fair  or  shining  wheel),  and  a  remnant  of  his  worship, 
under  the  image  of  a  fire-wheel,  survived  in  Europe  as 
late  as  1823.  The  inhabiunts  of  the  village  of  Konz, 
on  the  Moselle,  were  in  the  habit,  on  St.  John's  Eve,  of 
taking  a  great  wheel  wrapped  in  straw  to  the  top  of  a 
neighboring  eminence,  and  making  it  roll  down  the 
hill,  flaming  all  the  way :  if  it  reached  the  Moselle  be- 
fore being  extinct,  a  good  vintage  was  anticipate  A 
similar  usage  existed  at  Trier.  The  Greenlanders  of 
the  present  day  have  a  feast  at  the  winter  solstice  to 
rejoice  at  the  return  of  the  sun,  and  Wormius  {Fa§t, 
Dan,  lib.  i)  tells  us  that  in  his  time  the  Icelanders  dated 
the  beginning  of  their  year  from  Yule.  The  old  Norse 
Aoe/,  Anglo-Saxon  Arm/,  have  developed  into  Iceland 
kiol,  Sweden  and  Danish  A;W,  English  whetl;  but  from 
the  same  niot  would  seem  to  have  sprung  old  'SoTteJolf 
Sweden  and  Danish  jti/^  Anglo-Saxon  ^eo/,  English  yule, 
applied  as  the  name  of  the  winter  solstice,  either  in  ref- 
erence to  the  conception  of  the  sun  himself  as  a  wheel, 
or,  more  probably,  to  his  wheeling  or  turning  back  at 
that  time  in  his  path  in  the  heavens.  The  general 
nature  of  the  observances  of  this  festival  are  nodced 
nnder  the  head  of  Christmas  (q.  v.).  In  the  greenery 
with  which  we  still  deck  our  homes  and  places  of  wor- 
ship, and  in  the  Christmas-trees  laden  with  gifU,  we 
may  see  a  lelic  of  the  symbols  by  which  the  pagan  an- 
cestors of  the  modem  English  signified  their  faith  in 
the  power  of  the  returning  sun  to  dothe  the  earth  again 
with  green  and  hang  new  fruit  on  the  trees;  and  the 
furmety,  until  ktely  eaten  in  many  parts  of  England 
(in  Scotland  the  preparation  of  oatmeal  called  $awatu) 
on  Christmas  eve  or  morning,  seems  to  be  a  lingerii\g 
memory  of  the  offerings  paid  to  Hulda,or  Berchta,  the 
divine  mother,  the  Ceres  of  the  North,  or  personification 
of  frnitfulness,  to  whom  they  looked  for  new  stores  of 
grain.  The  burning  of  the  Yule-log,  Yylt-dog^  or 
Chrittnuu^ock,  testifies  to  the  use  of  fire  in  the  wor- 
ship of  the  sun.  This  custom  still  survives  in  the  north 
of  England.  In  1684  Herrick  tells,  in  his  IleapeiHdes, 
how  the  YuU-log  of  the  new  Christmas  was  wont  to  be 
lighted  "  with  last  year's  brand,"  and  already,  in  the 
same  year,  its  blazes  are  condemned  by  Warmstrey 
as  "  foolish  and  vaine,  and  not  countenanced  by  the 
Church.*'  The  religious  keeping  of  Tale  and  Easter 
had  been  one  of  the  articles  of  Perth  (q.  v.),  which  had 
been  strongly  objected  ta  On  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary  the  Scottish  discharged  what  was  called  the 
'*  Yule  vacancy  "  of  the  Court  of  Sessions,  and  compelled 
the  judges  to  attend  court  at  that  period.  But  in  1712 
an  act  was  passed  re-enacting  the  Christmas  recess. 
The  act  gave  great  offence  to  many  Presbyterians  in 
Scotland.  See  Atkinson,  Ghstary  of  the  Cleveland 
Dialed  (1868);  Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythologie;  Brand, 
Popular  A  ntiquitie*,  s.  v. 

Ttile  Bonghs  are  branches  of  holly,  ivy,  yew,  and 


mistletoe,  used  to  decorate  churchea  and  {wivate  houses 
at  Christmas. 

Tnle  Festival  is  the  same  as  Yule  (q.  r.). 

Tnla  Mass,  a  name  for  the  three  masses  of  Christ- 
mas-day. 

TTes  (Ite9  dk  Bbr-Martci,  known  by  the  name 
of  SauU)  was  bom  at  the  manor  of  Rer-Martin,  parish 
of  Meneht,  Bretagne,  Oct.  17,  1263.  Sprang  from  a 
noble  family  of  the  diocese  of  Treguier,  he  was  son  of 
Heelor,  or  Helori,  and  Azo  of  Kenquia.  Being  sent 
to  Paris,  he  devoted  ten  years  to  the  study  of  theology 
and  of  civil  and  canon  law  (1267-77).  Having  paaMd 
through  the  University  of  Orleans,  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  William  of  Blaye,  with  whom  he  examined 
the  Deeretab,  Afterwards,  at  Rennes,  under  the  Fran- 
ciscans, he  studied  the  Sentetuxi  of  Pierre  Lombard  and 
the  interpreUtion  of  the  Scriptures.  Having  received 
'there  the  minor  orders,  he  was  successively  rector  of 
Tredrez  (1286)  and  curate  of  Lohanec  (1298).  He  was 
connected  with  the  hospital  of  ibe  patrimonial  estate  of 
Rer-Martin,  and  appointed  A  dvocate  of  the  Poor,  The 
fasu  and  austerities  to  which  he  submitted  himself  did 
not  hinder  bim,  in  the  meantime,  from  actively  en- 
gaging in  preaching,  nor  from  filling  his  judicial  func- 
tions with  such  energy  and  equity  as  to  make  him  an 
object  of  terror  to  the  evil  litigants.  The  crown  found 
no  favor  in  his  eyes  in  urging  fiscal  clums  against  the 
clergy,  and  he  opposed  more  than  once  the  levying  of 
royal  impoaitions,  which  be  deemed  unjust  He  died 
at  Lohanec,  May  19, 1303.  At  the  solicitation  of  duke 
Jean  de  Montfort,  who  made  a  trip  to  Avignon  for  that 
purpose,  the  canonization  of  Ivea  was  declared  by  a 
brief  of  Clement  VI  on  May  19, 1847,  and  hia  anniver- 
sary has  since  been  held  on  that  day.  See  HoeCer, 
Nouv,  Biog,  Ghiirale,  s.  v.     See  also  Iva 

Tvon,  Pktkr,  the  friend  and  succesaor  of  Labadie 
(q.  v.),  was  bom  at  Montauban  in  1646. '  At  the  age  of 
five  he  already  listened  to  Labadie's  sermons,  and  his 
association  with  htm  was  only  severed  by  the  master's 
death  in  1674.  He  now  became  the  head  and  leader 
of  the  Labadists,  settled  at  Wiewert,  in  West  Frisia, 
and  died  in  1687.  His  writings,  mostly  in  French, 
but  translated  into  Dutch  and  German,  were  onoe  ex- 
tensively read,  and  were  not  without  influence  upon  the 
formation  of  Christian  life  in  the  Reformed  Choich. 
We  mention,  VJmpieti  Convainone  .-—Euentia  ReHffiome 
Chrittknue  PaUfacta ;— 2>e  PnedettinatioHe : — Emman- 
uel,  ou  la  Comoistanoe  du  Seigneur  Jesue,  etc  See 
Moller,  Cindfria  Litterat,  ii,  1020  sq.;  Theohffieehee  Uni- 
versaUexihon,9,v,;  Jocher,  Allgemeines  Gekhrtem-Lejri-' 
ihm,  s.  V. ;  Winer,  Uandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  606.    (a  P.) 

7vonetus,  a  Dominican  who  was  suppoaed  to  be 
the  author  of  a  tract  of  the  18th  century,  entitled  Trac* 
tatut  de  liareti  Pauperum  de  LugdtmOj  and  given  in 
Marttoe  and  Durand's  Thesaurue  Novum  A  necdot,  xoL  r, 
p.  1777,  of  whom  nothing  else  is  known.  Pfeilfer  has 
proved  that  the  tractate  is  the  production  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan David  of  Augsburg  early  in  the  ISih  centary. 
Two  manuscript  copies  of  the  piece  exist,  at  Stuttgart 
and  Strasbnrg.  See  Pegna,  in  Eymericus,  Direetorimm 
Inguidtorum  (Rome,  1687  fol.),  p.  229, 279 ;  D'Argentrfi, 
Collectio  Judiciorum  de  Abvtr  Erroribiuf  i,  S4,96;  Haapt, 
ZeU$chr,Jur  Deuttch,  AUerthmn,  1868,  p.  66;  Heizog. 
ReaUEna/Hdop.  a.  v. 


Zabarella  (or  De  ZabareUia),  archbishop  of 
Florence  and  caidinal,  the  most  notable  man  among  the 
Italians  present  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  was  born 
at  Padua  in  1839.  He  studied  canon  law  at  Bologna, 
and  Uught  at  Padua.  During  the  siege  of  the  city  by 
the  Venetians  he  was  deputed  to  invoke  the  assistance 
of  France,  and,  after  Padua  had  surrendered,  he  was  the 
orator  of  the  fourteen  deputies  who,  in  St.  Mark's  Place 


in  Venice,  handed  over  the  Paduan  flag.  He 
quently  migrated  to  Florence,  and  engaged  in  teaching 
canon  law.  After  a  time  the  town  authorities  dected 
him  archbishop,  but  it  was  found  that  the  pope  had 
already  given  the  place  to  another.  Boniface  IX  called 
him  to  Rome  to  submit  an  opinion  respecting  the  best 
methods  for  healing  the  schism  in  the  Church,  on  wbieh 
question  he  wrote  the  book  De SchitmatSm$  AuciorUaU 


ZABARELLA 


1013 


ZABISM 


ImperatorU  ToUaidit  (Bade,  1565;  Stnisburg,  1609, 
1618),  which,  together  with  the  preface  by  Schardius, 
was  placed  in  the  index.  He  was  appointed  archi- 
preab^rter  to  the  cathedral  on  his  return  to  Padua,  and 
held  a  wealthy  abbacy  for  a  time,  and  until  the  diaaolute 
John  XXIII,  who  favored  learned  men,  called  him  to 
Rome  and  made  him  archbishop  of  Florence  and  cardi- 
nal-deacon, with  the  title  of  St,  Cotmatand  Damamu 
(1411).  He  had  pievioualy  eanied  a  scholarly  reputit- 
tion  by  the  numerous  books  which  emanated  from  his 
pen. 

When  arrangements  were  made  for  the  Council  of 
Constance,  Zabarella  was  one  of  the  papal  envoys  to 
the  court  of  emperor  Sigismund.  In  the  council  itself 
he,  as  the  youngest  cardinal,  announced  the  time  or  the 
first  session  and  read  the  bull  of  John  XXUI,  intended 
to  regulate  the  drift  of  its  business.  He  Joined  other 
cardinals  in  submitting  a  memorial  relating  to  a  reform 
in  the  administration  of  the  papal  court,  and  read  the 
offer  by  which  the  pope  volunteered  to  abdicate  if  the 
antipopes  would  renounce  their  pretensions  to  his  office. 
When  John  fled  from  Constance,  Zabarella  supported 
the  resolutions  affirming  the  superiority  of  a  general 
council  to  a  pope ;  but  he  nevertheless  incurred  the 
censure  of  the  council  by  an  unfairness  committed  in 
the  interest  of  the  pope,  in  connection  with  the  reading 
of  resolutions  which  had  been  agreed  upon,  affirming 
the  divine  right  of  the  council  to  require  the  submission 
of  all  people,  indoding  the  pope,  in  all  matters  concern- 
ing the  faith,  the  removal  of  the  existing  schisro,  and 
the  reformation  of  the  Church  in  head  and  members^  the 
italicized  clause  having  been  omitted  by  him  from  the 
reading.  He  was  eventually  sent  with  a  delegation  of 
cardinals  to  negotiate  with  John,  and  obtained  from  him 
the  unconditional  surrender  of  his  pontificate. 

ZabarelU  participated  also  in  the  negotiations  with 
Hubs,  and  suggested  the  drawing  up  of  an  exceedingly 
mild  formula  of  retraction,  which  the  reformer,  how- 
ever, refused  to  sign.  In  connection  with  the  schism 
he  delivered  a  strong  argument  against  pope  Benedict, 
in  which  he  charged  the  miserable  state  of  the  Church 
upon  the  obstinacy  o(  its  leaders;  and  when  a  new  pope 
was  to  be  chosen,  he  delivered  another  speech  in  sup- 
port of  the  cardinals'  view  that  the  election  ought  to 
precede  any  movement  looking  towards  a  reformation 
of  the  Church,  which  was  so  violent  that  he  predicted 
it  would  be  the  occasion  of  his  death.  He  soon  became 
dangerously  sick,  and  died  Sept.  26,  1417  (others  say 
Nov.  5).  It  is  probable  that  he  would  have  been  chosen 
pope,  instead  of  Martin  V,  but  for  his  early  death. 

Zabarella  wrote  numerous  works  of  limited  extent, 
e.  g.  Comment,  in  Libro$  Decretal,  et  Clementinas  (Venice, 
1G02)  '.—Comment,  in  Clementinas  (ibid.  1481, 1487)  :~ 
Consilia  Juris  (ibid.  1581):  —  Variar,  Legum  Repeti- 
tiones  (ibid.  1587) :— Z>e  SchismatUnts  (supra),  etc  See 
Yon  d.  Hardt,  Akten  d.  Const.  Concils,  torn,  i;  Lenfant, 
Hist,  du  Concil.  de  Constance,  passim ;  Herzog,  Heal' 
Encyldop.  s.  v. 

Zabarella,  Bartholomwv',  nephew  and  heir  to 
the  cardinal,  a  teacher  of  canon  law  at  Padua,  partici- 
pant in  important  consultations  at  the  papal  court,  and 
ultimately  arohbishop  of  Florence.  He  died  in  1445. 
See  Herzog,  Real-Encyldop.  s.  v. 

Zabarella,  Jacobs  professor  at  Padua,  A.D.  1564 
et  seq.,  and  author  of  the  book,  De  Inventione  yEtemi 
Motoris,  Ideas  presented  in  the  book  and  otherwise, 
exposed  him,  before  the  inquisition,  to  the  charge  of 
doubting  the  imroortslity  of  the  soul,  from  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  acquitted.  He  was  bom  at  Padua  in  1533, 
and  died  in  1589.    See  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop,  s.  v. 

Zabathaitee,  the  followers  of  Zabathai  Zevi  (or 
Sabatai  Sebi),  a  celebrated  Jewish  impostor,  who  ap- 
peared at  Smyrna  about  1666,  and,  pretending  to  be  the 
Messiah,  promised  to  deliver  the  Jews,  and  re-establish 
them  in  more  than  pristine  glory.  Multitudes  of  his 
nation  were  deceived  by  him,  and  many  of  his  follow- 


ers pretended  to  visions  and  prophetic  ecstasies.  At 
length,  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  sultan,  he  ordered 
him  to  be  placed  as.  a  mark  for  his  archers,  to  prove 
whether  he  was  vulnerable  or  not  (as  he  pretended),  to 
avoid  which  Zevi  turned  Mohammedan.  See  Mbssiaub, 
Falsk.  His  sect,  however,  survived,  and  there  is  said 
to  be  still  a  remnant  of  them  at  Saloniki,  who,  while 
they  profess  to  be  Mussulmans,  observe  the  Jewish  rites 
in  secret,  marry  among  themselves,  and  all  live  in  the 
same  quarter  of  the  city,  without  communicating  with 
the  Turks,  except  in  commerce,  and  in  the  mosques. 
Zevi,  it  seems,  had  also  adherents  among  the  Jews  of 
England,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Poland,  some  of  which 
have  remained  to  our  own  time ;  and  M.  Or^goire  men- 
tions a  musician  of  this  sect  who  came  to  Paris  so  lately 
as  in  1808.  See  Adams,  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  p.  816,  528 ; 
Grigoire,  Jlist.  ii,  809-813.    See  Sabbathax. 

Zabiana,  an  ancient  sect,  said  to  be  Chaldseans, 
addicted  to  astrology  and  star-worship.  The  word  is 
derived,  according  to  Pococke,  from  the  Aramaic  tsahd, 
the  heavenly  host,  from  which  same  root  the  word 
Sabian  is  taken,  but  in  the  different  sense  of  ^  to 
change  religion.**  The  Zabians  were  idolaters,  dwelling 
in  the  north  of  Mesopotamia,  in  the  Biblical  Haran.  An 
Arabic  writer,  quoted  by  Chwolsohn,  says  that  they 
adopted  the  name  Zabian  as  being  a  religion  tolerated 
by  the  Koran,  and  so  escaped  the  persecution  to  which 
their  star-worship  would  have  exposed  them.  They 
first  gave  planetary  names  to  the  days  of  the  week ;  the 
feast  day  of  each  planet  being  determined  by  the  time 
of  its  culmination;  hence,  also,  the  alchemists  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  through  them  heralds,  have  borrowed 
the  notion  of  assigning  a  particular  metal  and  a  partic- 
ular color  to  the  several  planets.  In  common  with  other 
Aramaic  races  they  had  a  civil  year,  which  began  like 
the  Jewish  Rosh  Ha-Shanah  in  autumn,  and  an  ecclesi- 
astical year  commencing  at  the  vernal  equinox.  Before 
the  time  of  Mohammed  they  offered  human  sacrifices 
to  the  deities  which  they  believed  were  embodied  in 
the  planets.  See  Herzog,  Real-Encykhp,  s.  v.  See 
Sabians. 

Zabism,  the  religion  of  the  Zabians  (q.  v.),  or 
Haranian  idolaters.  It  was  formerly  understood  that 
they  were  a  distinct  race,  and  that  their  religion  was 
composed  of  Chaldaism,  Parsaism,  Judaism,  Christiani- 
ty, Neo-Platonism,  Gnostidsm,  and  cabalistic  specula- 
tions. This  is  not,  however,  strictly  true.  They  might 
best  be  described  as  Syrians,  who,  partly  descended  from 
Greek  colonists,  had  been  subject  so  long  to  Syrian  in- 
fluences that  they  became  in  a  manner  Syrianized. 
Their  religion  was  the  old  heathenism  of  their  fathers, 
which  had,  with  incredible  obstinacy,  resisted  not  only 
Christianity,  but  rendered  even  Mohammedan  ill-will 
harmless  by  stratagem.  But  there  were  certain  non- 
pagan  elements  which  crept  into  it  during  the  early 
centuries,  and  many  other  additions  of  later  years. 
We  mention,  first  of  all,  a  number  of  legends  about 
Biblical  personages,  from  whom  they  pretend  to  be  de- 
scendants. There  are  also  laws  of  purity  and  im- 
purity, and  of  sacrifices,  which  are  very  similar  to  Ju- 
daism. Then  again,  names  of  Greek  and  Roman  gods, 
such  as  Helios,  Ares,  and  Kronos,  occur,  a  circumstance 
which  may  be  explained  from  the  prevailing  tendency 
of  the  perio<l  of  exchanging  the  names  of  native  divin- 
ities for  Greek  and  Roman  names.  There  are  also  cer- 
tain metaphysical  and  physical  views  incorporated  in 
their  creed,  which  are  distinctly  traceable  to  Aristotle, 
and  finally,  the  Keo-Platonic  philosophy  of  heathenism, 
m  presented  by  Porphyry,  Proclus,  lamblichus,  and 
others.  All  these  elements,  infused  into  it  by  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  period,  do  not  prevent  it  from  being 
in  reality  heathenism. 

The  sources  of  information  in  reference  to  the  creed 
are  written  in  Arabic,  in  Hebrew,  and  in  Greek.  The 
Arabic  are  the  most  copious;  the  Hebrew  are  chiefiy 
represented  by  Maimonides;  and  the  Greek  are  ascribed 


ZABISM 


1014 


ZABISM 


to  yariona  pMndonymoixs  writen,  among  whom  are 
ArUtotle  anj  Hermes  TrismegUtoi.  From  Uieae,  though 
somewhat  vaiiooa  and  contradictory,  the  following  facta 
may  be  gathered  in  reference  to  the  creed.  The  Crea- 
tor is  one  in  essence,  primity,  ori^nality,  and  eternity; 
bat  manifold  in  lus  manifestations  in  bodily  figures. 
He  is  chiefly  personified  by  the  seven  leading  planets, 
and  the  good,  knowing,  and  excellent  of  earthly  bodies. 
Bat  his  unity,  they  claim,  is  not  thereby  disturbed ; 
and  it  is  **  as  if  the  seven  planets  were  his  seven  limbs, 
and  as  if  our  seven  limbs  were  bis  seven  spheres,  in 
which  he  manifests  himself,  so  that  he  speaks  with  our 
tongue,  sees  with  our  eyes,  hears  with  our  ears,  touches 
with  our  hands,  comes  and  goes  with  our  feet,  and  acts 
through  our  members."  Zabism  expresses  the  idea 
that  God  is  too  great  and  too  sublime  to  occupy  him- 
self directly  with  the  affairs  of  this  world;  that  he 
therefore  has  handed  over  its  ruling  to  the  gods,  and 
that  he  himself  only  takes  the  most  important  things 
under  bis  special  care;  and  that  man  is  too  weak  to 
address  himself  directly  to  the  highest,  and  is  therefore 
obliged  to  direct  prayers  and  sacrifices  to  the  interme- 
diate deities  to  whom  the  rule  of  the  world  is  intrusted. 
Thus  the  veneration  of  the  planets,  and  even  the  wor- 
shipping of  idols,  is  nothing  but  a  symbolical  act,  the 
consequence  of  that  original  idea.  There  are  many 
gods  and  goddesses  in  Zabism  of  this  intermediate 
stamp.  It  is  not  the  planets  themselves,  but  the  spirits 
that  direct  them,  conceived  as  deities  that  stand  to  the 
spheres  in  the  relation  of  soul  and  body.  Apart  from 
these  there  are  those  gods  who  cause  or  represent  every 
action  in  this  world.  Every  universal  natural  deed  or 
effect  emanates  from  a  universal  deity,  every  partial 
one  from  a  partial  deity  that  presides  over  part  of 
nature.  These  gods  know  our  most  secret  thoughts, 
and  all  our  future  is  open  to  them.  The  female  deities 
seem  to  have  been  conceived  of  as  the  feeling  or  passive 
principle.  These  gods  or  intelligences  emanate  direct- 
ly from  God  without  hb  will,  as  rays  do  from  the  sun. 
They  are  of  abstract  forms,  free  of  all  matter,  and  nei- 
ther made  of  any  substance  nor  materiaL  They  con- 
sist chiefly  of  a  light  in  which  there  is  no  darkness, 
which  the  senses  cannot  appreciate,  by  reason  of  its 
immense  clearness,  which  the  understanding  cannot 
comprehend,  by  reason  of  its  extreme  delicac}',  and 
which  fancy  and  imagination  cannot  fathom.  Their 
nature  is  free  from  all  animal  desires,  and  they  them- 
selves are  created  for  love  and  harmony,  friendship  and 
unity.  Their  existence  is  fuU  of  the  highest  bliss,  by 
reason  of  their  nearness  to  the  Most  High;  they  have 
a  free  choice,  and  always  incline  to  the  good ;  and  are 
the  « lords  and  gods"  of  the  Zabians,  their  **intermedi. 
ators  and  advocates  with  the  Lord  of  lords  and  God  of 
gods."  All  substances  and  types  of  the  bodily  world 
emanate  from  the  spiritual  world,  which  is  one  from 
which  everything  flows  and  to  which  everything  re- 
turns, and  which  is  full  of  light,  sublime  and  pure. 
These  two  worlds  correspond  to  each  other,  and  are  to 
'  each  other  like  light  and  shadow.  The  way  to  approach 
these  gods,  and  through  them  the  highest  essence,  is 
by  purifying  the  soul  from  all  passions,  by  keeping  a 
strict  guard  over  one's  words  and  deeds,  by  fasting, 
sincere  prayer,  invocations,  sacrifices,  fumigations,  and 
incantations.  By  steadfastly  persevering  in  these  and 
similar  acts  of  devotiou,  man  may  reach  so  high  a  step 
of  perfection  that  he  may  communicate  even  directly 
with  the  Supreme  Power.  The  planeta,  as  the  prin- 
dpal  representative  and  intermediate  gods,  are  to  be 
carefully  observed,  especially  as  regards  (1)  the  houses 
and  stations  of  the  planets ;  (2)  their  rising  and  setting ; 
(8)  their  respective  conjunctions  and  oppositions;  (4) 
the  knowledge  of  their  special  times  and  seasons,  the 
hours  and  days  of  the  ruling  of  special  planets ;  (5)  the 
divisions  of  the  different  figures,  forms,  climates,  and 
countries,  according  to  their  dominant  stars — in  fact, 
everything  below  heaven,  according  to  their  belief,  was 
subject  in  some  way  to  the  infli^ence  of  the  stars  or  the  ] 


spirits  which  inhabit  them.  Every  substance  and  every 
action,  every  country  and  every  hour,  had  its  special 
planetary  deity.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  study 
carefully  the  special  conjanctiofis  and  figures,  aa  wdl  as 
the  special  mixtures  of  incense,  which  might  render  the 
individual  numen  propitious.  Thus,  for  example^  the 
first  hour  of  Saturday  standa  under  Saturaos,  and  it  is 
right  and  advisable  at  that  time  to  select  such  prayera, 
soils,  amulets,  dresses,  and  fumigations  as  might  be  es- 
pecially pleasing  to  that  planetary  god. 

In  order  to  address  themselves  to  visible  mediaton, 
some  of  the  Zabians  are  supposed  to  have  directed  their 
devotions  to  the  stars  themselves.  Bat  they  aooo  found 
a  worship  that  addressed  itself  to  things  that  appeared 
and  disappeared  in  turn  very  nnsatiafactory.  Accord- 
ingly they  manufactured  permanent  repreaentatives  of 
them  in  the  ahape  of  idols,  wrought  in  aa  complete  ac- 
Gordance  as  possible  with  the  theuigical  rulea  derived 
from  the  nature  of  the  deity  to  be  represented.  They 
were  of  gold  to  represent  the  sun ;  of  silver^  to  repre- 
sent the  moon.  The  very  temples  in  which  they  were 
placed  were  of  as  many  comers  as  were  supposed  to 
correspond  to  the  form  of  certain  stars. 

Zabism  teaches  that  man  is  composed  of  contradic- 
tory elements,  which  make  him  the  vadllatiog,  strugw 
gling  creature  he  ia.  Passions  and  deaires  rule  him  and 
lower  him  to  the  level  of  the  brute  creation,  and  he 
would  utterly  lose  himself  were  it  not  for  sach  religioas 
rites  as  purifications,  sacrifices,  and  other  meana  of  gnoe, 
by  which  he  may  t)e  enabled  to  approach  the  great 
gods  once  more  and  attempt  to  become  like  them.  The 
soul  of  man  partakes  partly  of  the  nature  of  the  anioud 
soul  and  partly  of  that  of  the  angelic  soul.  The  soul 
never  dies,  and  rewards  and  punishments  will  affect 
only  it  These,  however,  will  not  be  wrought  in  any 
future  world,  but  in  this^  only  at  different  epochs  of 
exbtence.  Thus  all  our  present  joys  are  rewards  for 
good  deeds  done  by  as  in  former  epochs,  and  the  aor- 
rows  and  griefs  we  endure  spring  in  tho  same  mamicr 
from  evil  actions  we  committed  at  former  stages.  As 
to  the  nature  of  the  general  world-soul  itself,  they  aay  it 
is  primitive,  for  if  it  were  not  so  it  would  be  material, 
as  every  newly-created  being  partakes  of  the  material 
nature.  Kathibi  says,  **  The  soul,  which  ia  thus  ao  im- 
material thing,  and  exists  from  eternity,  b  the  involun- 
tary reason  of  the  first  types,  as  God  is  the  first  canse 
of  the  intelligences.  The  soul  once  beheld  matter  and 
loved  it.  Glowing  with  the  desire  of  assuming  a  bodi- 
ly shape,  it  would  not  again  separate  itself  from  that 
matter  bv  means  of  which  the  world  was  created.  Since 
that  time  the  soul  forgot  itself,  its  everiasting  exist- 
ence, its  original  abode,  and  knew  nothing  more  of  what 
it  had  known  before.  But  God,  who  turns  aU  things 
to  the  best,  united  it  to  matter  which  it  loved,  and  out 
of  this  union  the  heavens,  the  elements,  and  composite 
things  arose.  In  order  thst  the  soul  might  not  wholly 
perish  within  matter,  he  endowed  it  with  intelligenoe, 
whereby  it  conceived  its  high  origin,  the  spiritual  world, 
and  itself.  It  further  conceived  through  this  that  it  was 
but  a  stranger  in  this  world,  that  it  was  subject  to  many 
sufferings  in  it,  and  that  even  the  joys  of  this  world  are 
but  the  source  of  new  sufferings.  As  soon  as  the  soul 
had  perceived  all  this  it  began  to  yearn  again  for  iu 
spiritual  home,  as  a  man  who  u  away  from  his  birth- 
place pines  for  his  homestead.  It  Uien  also  learned 
that,  in  order  to  return  to  its  primitive  state,  it  had  to 
free  itself  from  the  fetters  of  sensuous  desires,  and  from 
all  materialistic  tendencies.  Free  from  fhem  all,  it 
would  regain  its  heavenly  sphere  again,  and  enjoy  the 
bliss  of  the  spiritual  world." 

The  life  of  the  sect  holding  this  creed  was  but  short. 
After  having  first  been  on  terms  of  great  friendship  with 
the  ruling  powers  of  Mohammedanism,  as  well  as  with 
Christians  and  Jews,  and  having  filled  many  of  the 
highest  and  most  responsiUe  posts  at  the  courts  of  the 
caliphs,  they  were,  by  degrees,  made  the  butt  of  fanati- 
cism and  rapacity.    Mulcted,  persecuted,  banished  at 


ZACCARIA 


1015 


ZALLWEIN 


fUffeienk  periods,  they  ^Mppear  from  histoiy  since  the 
middle  of  the  11th  century.  That  obscurely  ended  a 
sect  which  for  two  hundred  years  had  produced  a  host 
of  men  pre-eminent  in  every  branch  of  learning  and 
literature,  in  philosophy,  astronomy,  history,  natural 
histor}',  poetry,  medicine,  and  the  rest.  See  Chwol* 
sohn,  Die  Sabiem  und  dk  Sabumui  (SU  Petersburg,  1866, 
2  vols.). 

Zaocaria,  Antonio  Maria,  an  Italian  monk,  found- 
er of  the  congregation  of  the  Bamabites,  was  bom  at 
Cremona  in  IdOO.  He  studied  at  first  medicine  and  phi- 
losophy at  Padua,  and  afterwards  theology  also.  Hav- 
ing received  holy  orders,  he  settled  at  Milsn,  where,  in 
1526,  he  joined  the  fraternity  of  Eternal  Wisdom,  and 
where  he  soon,  in  connection  with  several  other  mem- 
bers, and  with  the  sanction  of  Clement  VII,  founded  a 
new  congregation,  of  which  he  was  made  superior. 
From  their  first  church,  St.  Paurs,  in  Milan,  they  were 
originally  called  the  ReguUir  Clerks  of  St.  Paulas  (Pau- 
lines), which  name  they  exchanged  for  fiarnabites, 
when,  in  1641,  they  were  presented  with  the  Church 
of  St.  Barnabas,  in  Milan.  Zaocaria,  who  is  said  to 
have  had  the  power  of  prophecy  and  of  working  mir- 
acles, died,  according  to  his  own  prediction,  July  5, 1539, 
at  Cremona.  Of  his  writings,  we  mention  a  compila- 
tion from  the  Church  fathers,  iMti  NoiabUi  Raceoki  da 
DwernAutori  (Venice,  1588 ;  printed  in  French,  Lyons, 
1625 ;  Latin,  by  J.  A.  Gallicus,  A  xiomata  Sacra).  See 
ArisittS,  Cremona  LiUrafOy  ii,  88  sq.,  Biedenfeld,  MonehS" 
ifrdatj  i,  180 ;  Theol,  UmversaUexikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

ZacohSBans  is  a  local  name  for  the  Gnostics,  men- 
tioned by  Epiphanius  {/lares,  xxvi,  3),  but  witboat 
adding  where  they  were  so  called. 

Zac'chiir  (1  Chron.  iv,  26).    See  Zaccur. 

ZachallOfl,  an  ancient  Babylonish  writer,  is  men- 
tioned by  Pliny  {Nisf,  Nat.  zzxvii,  10)  as  the  author 
of  a  book  on  gems  and  their  magical  powers,  which  was 
dedicated  to  the  king  Mithridates.  "  It  was  evidently 
a  writing  belonging  to  that  Gmco-Babylonian  literature 
which  was  so  widely  developed  during  the  centuries 
bordering  on  the  Christian  mm^  and  which  had  the 
same  connection  with  the  real  Chaldoian  doctrines  as 
the  Grecian  literature  of  the  hermetical  books  had  with 
the  doctrine  of  ancient  £g}*pt"  (Lenormont,  Chcddman 
Magic,  p.  176). 

Zaoharia,  Just  Friedrich,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Haina,  in  Goths,  in  1704.  He  studied 
at  Jena  and  Kiel,  was  appointed  at  the  latter  place,  in 
1785,  professor  of  Oriental  languages,  in  1742  elected  to 
the  chair  of  Biblical  antiquities,  and  in  1747  to  that  of 
theolc^.  He  died  March  8, 1778.  He  published, /)t9- 
eertatio  seu  Commentatio  SolemniSf  Comma  Seatndam 
Qitinti  ffotecB  Capitis  Kxplicans  (Kiloni,  1731)  i—Prvgr, 
de  Usu  Lingua  Ebram  in  PhUosophia  (ibid.  1786)  :— 
Diss,  de  Ritibus  Scholaslicis  Judaorum  (ibid.  1745). 
See  Doring,  Die  gelekrfm  Thtologen  Deutschlands,  iv, 
767  sq. ;  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  540.     (R  P.) 

Zachariaa,  bishop  of  Anagni,  Italy,  was  sent  in 
A.D.  860,  as  one  of  the  legates  of  pope  Nicholas  I,  to 
Constantinople  with  letters  of  reply  to  those  of  the 
emperor  Michael  and  the  patriarch  Photius,  making 
overtures  to  the  Church  of  Rome  for  sympathy  and  co- 
operation.   See  Neander,  DisL  of  the  Churchy  i ii,  662. 

Zachariaa  ScHoukSTicvs,  bishop  of  Mitylbnb, 
in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  was  present  at  the  Synod  of 
ConsUntinople  (A.P.586)  which  deposed  Anthimus, 
the  patriarch  of  Alexandria.  Zachariaa  had  studied 
philosophy  at  Alexandria,  and  for  some  time  practiced 
as  an  advocate  at  Bery tus.  He  is  the  author  of  ^  mmo- 
niuM  site  de  Mundi  Opificio,  a  dialogue  in  which  he  de- 
fends the  Christian  view  of  creation  and  government 
of  the  world  against  objections  to  it  raised  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  Greek  philosophy.  It  was  first 
published  at  Paris  in  1619.  The  best  edition  is  that 
by  Jean  Fr.  Boissonade,  ^neae  Gazanu  et  Zaekariae 


Mitykmsut,  de  ImmcrUdiUUe  Ammm  et  Mundi  Con* 
summaiione  (  Paris,  1886  )•  He  also  wrote,  Dispyta^ 
tio  contra  JEo,  qum  de  Duobus  Prine^is  a  Matickao 
quodam  Scripta  tt  Prqfecta  in  Viam  PtibUcam  Reperit 
JuMtimamtM  Imperator  (Latin  interpretation  by  Turri- 
ano,  in  BiibL  Pat,  Max.  Lugd.  ix,  794).  See  Bnicker, 
HiMU  Crit,  Pkilos,  ii,  628 ;  Bitter,  Geeckiekte  der  christL 
PkHosophie,  ii,  496 ;  Herzog,  ReaUEncgkhp.:  v.  (B.  P.) 

Zaonto,  Abbahax.    See  Sakkuto,  Abraham. 

Zaoynthian  Manuscript  (designated  as  37)  is 
a  palimpsest  uncial  fragment  in  the  librar}'  of  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  London,  which,  under 
an  evangelistary,  written  on  coarse  vellum  in  or  about 
the  Idth  centuf}',  contains  large  portions  of  Luke*s  gos- 
pel down  to  xi,  33,  in  full,  well-formed  characters,  but 
surrounded  by,  and  often  interwoven  with,  large  ex- 
tracts from  the  Lectors,  in  a  hand  which  cannot  be 
earlier  than  the  8th  century.  It  was  obtained  from 
Zante  in  1821.  The  entire  volume  must  have  original- 
ly been  a  large  folio  (14  inches  by  11),  of  which  eighty- 
six  leaves  and  three  half-leaves  survive.  The  readings 
are  very  valuable.  They  were  communicated  to  dean 
Alford  for  the  fourth  edition  of  his  New  Test,  by  Dr. 
Tregelles,  who  has  since  (1861)  collated  and  published 
it  in  fulL  See  Scrivener,  Inirod.  to  the  New  Tut.  p.  126 ; 
Christian  Remembrancer,  Jan.  1862;  Jourru  of  Sac  Lit, 
Jan.  1862,  p.  495.    See  Manuscbift. 

Zahab.    See  Gold. 

Zahalon,  Abraham  bbit- Isaac;  a  Jewish 
writer  of  Spain,  who  flourished  in  the  16th  century, 
is  the  author  of,  ^tA  KB^Q,  or  Healing  of  the  Soul, 
an  ascetical  work,  treating  on  repentance  (Venice, 
1595):  — tt'^SI'in,  ^%  on  the  Jewish,  Christian,  and 
Mohammedan  calendar  (ibid.  1594-95) :— Q*^nbK  90*^, 

a  grammatical  and  pasdagogical  commentary  on  the 
book  of  Esther  (ibid.  1596).  See  Ffirst,  Bibi.  Jud.  iii, 
541;  Jocher,  AUgemeines  Gelekrten'Lexihon,9.y,\  De' 
Rossi,  Dizionario  Storioo  DegU  Autori  Ebrei  (Germ. 
transl.),p.ddd.    (B.P.) 

Zahalon,  Jacob  bbn-Isaac,  a  Jewish  writer  of 
Rome,  was  bom  in  1630,  and  died  at  Ferrara  in  1698. 
Besides  a  large  medical  work,  D*^'>nn  *^2C1X,  he  left, 

in  MS.,  a  commentary  on  Isaiah,  entitled  nilPllS*^  D 
Sp?*^:— a  commentary  on  Ecdesiastes,  3p39'f  D^hp: 
—  disquisitions  on  Daniel,  bx'^3'1  h^  C'^ISI'^'T:  — 
homiletical  expositions  on  the  Pentateuch,  rcX  "(Hn 
2p7*^^ : — a  commentary  on  the  Song  of  Songs,  hbnx 
ny^\  et&  See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud.  iii,  541  j  Jocher,  AU- 
gemeines Gelekrten-Lexikon,  s.  v.;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario 
Sforico  DegU  A  utori  Ebrei  ( Germ,  transl. ),  p.  332. 
(RP.) 

Zahn,  a  German  philanthropist,  was  a  mason  of 
Bunzlau,  who  wandered  about  as  an  orphan  in  child- 
hood, and  learned  to  read  at  the  age  of  twenty-four. 
He  carried  on  a  little  school  in  his  own  house  for  the 
benefit  of  orphans.  He  made  the  first  movement  tow- 
ards the  establishment  of  an  orphan-house  in  Bunzlau, 
and  went  to  Berlin  to  solicit  the  royal  sanction.  The 
comer-stone  was  laid  in  1755.  Zahn  became  the  first 
superintendent,  but  died  of  the  plague  in  1756.  The 
institution  was  conducted  from  that  time  by  Emest 
Gottlieb  Woltersdorf.  See  Hagenbach,  IJist,  of  the 
Church  in  the  ISth  and  I9th  Ceniutiee,  i,  146. 

Zalr.  Conder  suggests  {lland^hook  to  the  BibU, 
p.  427)  that  this  is  "  perhaps  the  ruin  Zueireh  on  th( 
south-west  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea." 

Zallwein,  Gregobxus,  a  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Obervinchtach,  in  the 
Palatinate,  Ocu  20, 1712.  In  1733  he  joined  the  order 
of  the  Benedictines,  and  received  holy  orders  in  1787. 
In  1744  he  was  elected  prior  of  the  monastery  at  Wesso- 
brunn,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  called  to  Strasburg, 


ZAMPIERI 


1016 


ZANCHI 


in  Carinthia,  as  profenor  of  theology,  Church  history, 
and  canon  law.  In  1749  he  was  called  to  the  Salsbarg 
University,  and  died  Aug.  9, 1766.  Of  his  pnblications, 
we  mention,  ForUes  Origwarii  Juris  Canonici,  etc.  (Salz- 
burg, 1754-66)  :—Ju8  Eedma^kum  Particulare  GtT' 
mama  ah  uEra  ChrisH  usque  ad  Carolum  IX  Imp.  (ibid. 
1767)  : — CoUectioneM  Juris  Ecdesiasttd  AtUiqui  et  A'brt, 
etc  (ibid.  1760) : — Principia  Juris  Eceksiastici  Univer- 
salis  et  Particuktris  Germama  (1768  sq.  4  vols.).  See 
Doring,  Die  gekhrten  Theohgen  DeutscklandSf  iv,  770 ; 
Winer,  ffandbuch  der  theoL  IM.  ii,  8.     (a  P.) 

Zamora,  ALPHONsa   See  Alphonso  db  Zamora. 

Zampieri,  Domrxico  (commonly  known  as  Domeni- 
chino)f  an  eminent  Italian  artist,  was  bom  at  Bologna 
in  1681,  and  received  his  first  instmctions  from  Denis 
Calvart,  but,  on  account  of  severe  treatment  by  that 
master,  he  was  removed  to  the  Academy  of  the  Caracci. 
His  great  talents  did  not  develop  themselves  so  early  as 
in  many  other  painters,  and  his  studious  and  thought- 
ful manner  drew  from  his  fellow-students  the  appella- 
tion of  the  Ox ;  but  Annibale  Caracci  testified  of  his 
abilities  by  saying  to  his  pupils,  '*This  Ox  will  in  time 
surpass  you  all,  and  be  an  honor  to  the  art  of  painting." 
In  the  first  contest  of  the  students  for  a  prize  after  he 
entered  the  academy,  Domenichino  was  triumphant ; 
but  this  triumph,  instead  of  rendering  htm  confident 
and  presumptuous,  only  stimulated  him  to  greater  assidu- 
ity, and  he  pursued  bis  studies  with  such  patient  and 
constant  application  that  he  made  sach  progress  as  to 
win  the  admiration  of  some  of  his  contemporaries  and 
to  beget  the  hatred  of  others.  After  leaving  the  school 
of  the  Caracci,  he  visited  Parma,  Modena,  and  Reggio, 
to  study  the  works  of  Orreggio  and  Parmiggiano ;  and 
soon  after  returning  to  Bologna  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  commenced  his  brilliant  career.  Cardinal  Agucchi 
was  the  first  to  patronize  him,  and  he  employed  him  in 
his  palace,  and  commissioned  him  to  paint  three  pict- 
ures for  the  Church  of  St.  Onofria,  representing  subjects 
from  the  life  of  St.  Jerome.  He  was  employed  about 
this  time  to  assist  Annibale  Caracci  in  his  great  works 
in  the  Famesian  Gallery  at  Rome,  and  he  executed  a 
part  of  them  from  the  cartoons  of  Caracci.  He  also 
painted  in  the  loggia,  in  the  garden,  from  his  own  de- 
signs, the  Death  of  Adonis,  in  which  he  represented 
Venus  springing  from  her  car  to  succor  her  unfortunate 
lover.  He  was  employed  by  cardinal  Borghese  to  assist 
in  decorating  the  Church  of  San'^Gregorio,  in  which  his 
Flagellation  of  SU  A  ndrea  is  so  justly  celebrated.  Car- 
dinal Famese  next  employed  him  to  paint  some  frescos 
in  a  chapel  in  the  abbey  of  Grotto  Farrata,  where  he 
executed  several  subjects  from  the  life  of  St.  Nilo ;  one 
of  these,  representing  the  cure  of  a  daemoniac,  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  finest  productions  at  Rome.  Soon 
after  this  he  executed  his  famous  Communion  of  St,  Je- 
rome, painted  for  the  principal  altar  of  San  Girolamo 
dclla  Cavity,  a  work  which  has  immortalized  his  name, 
and  which  was  accounted,  next  to  the  Transfiguration 
of  Raphael,  the  finest  picture  of  Rome.  This  work  has 
experienced  some  removals,  but  has  been  returned  to  its 
original  place  and  copied  in  mosaic  to  preserve  the  dc-> 
sign,  the  original  having  suffered  from  the  effects  of 
time.  His  next  great  work  was  in  the  Church  of  San 
Lodovico,  repreaen  ting  the  life  of  St.  Cecilia.  His  great 
success  and  increasing  fame  had  by  this  time  so  excited 
the  envy  and  hatred  of  his  contemporaries  that  he  was 
constrained  to  leave  Rome  in  disgust.  He  therefore 
returned  to  Bologna,  where  he  resided  several  years  in 
the  quiet  practice  of  his  profession,  and  executed  some 
of  his  most  admired  works,  particularly  the  Martyrdom 
of  St.  Agnes,  for  the  church  of  that  saint,  and  the  A/a- 
donna  del  Rosario,  both  of  which  were  engraved  by 
Gerard  Audran  for  the  Louvre  at  Paris  by  order  of 
Napoleon.  The  fame  of  Domenichino  was  now  so  well 
established  that  intrigue  and  malice  could  not  suppress 
it,  and  pope  Gregory  XV  invited  him  back  to  Rome, 
and  appointed  him  principal  painter  i^nd  architect  to 


the  pontifical  palace.  Caidinal  Montalto  employed  him 
to  decorate  the  vault  of  San  Andrea  delU  Valle,  where 
he  represented  the  four  evangelists,  with  angels,  m  audi 
a  masterly  manner  that  they  were  the  admiration  of 
Italy  and  the  study  of  artists.  He  also  painted  in  the 
chapel  of  cardinal  Bandini,  in  the  Church  of  San  Syt> 
vestro,  in  the  Quirinal,  four  picture»-7-{2veai  Esther  b^ 
fore  Ahasuerus,  Judith  with  the  Head  of  Holofemga^ 
David  Piaging  on  the  Harp  before  the  A  rk,  and  Sohmtm 
and  his  Mother,  Bathsheba,  Seated  on  a  ribrone— which 
were  esteemed  among  his  finest  works.  Soon  afier  be 
painted  the  Four  Cardinal  Virtues  in  the  Church  of 
San  Carlo  Catenari.  He  was  next  invited  to  Naples  to 
paint  the  chapel  of  St.  Januarius.  He  executed  one  of 
his  most  admired  works  in  the  Palazzo  della  Torre, 
representing  the  dead  Christ  supported  on  the  knees  of 
the  Virgin,  together  with  Mary  Magdalene  and  oth- 
ers. But  his  life  soon  became  so  embittered  by  the 
jealousy  and  hatred  of  his  rivals  that  he  quitted  Na- 
ples in  disgust,  and  returned  onoe  more  to  Bologiuit 
where  he  died,  in  1641.  His  work  as  an  architect  b^aa 
with  the  superintendence  of  the  pontifical  palace  under 
Gregory  XV,  but  he  executed  various  other  works,  pai^ 
ticularly  two  designs  for  the  Church  of  San  Ignazio^  at 
Rome.  He  was  not,  however,  allowed  to  complete  this 
edifice,  but  his  designs  were  combined  by  the  Jcanit 
Grass!  in  another  edifice.  Thereupon  Domenichino  re- 
fused to  furnish  additional  plans,  and  the  building  was 
transferred  to  Algardi.  In  Santa  Maria  Trastevere  he 
designed  the  rich  and  ingenious  entablature,  also  the 
chapel,  called  Della  Madonna  di  Strada  Cupa.  He  also 
designed  the  greater  part  of  the  elegant  villa  Belvidere 
at  Frascati,  and  designed  and  erected  the  pictoreaqoc 
villa  Lodoviso  at  Rome,  the  gardens  of  which  he  laid 
out  with  a  number  of  verdant  walks,  and  divided  the 
grove  with  exquisite  taste.  No  better  proof  of  hts  great 
merits  as  an  artist  can  be  desired  than  the  fact  that 
upwards  of  fifty  of  his  worics  have  been  engraved  by 
Gerard  Andran,  Raphael  Morghen,  and  other  faraona 
engravers,  and  that  many  of  them  have  been  frequent- 
Iv  copied.  See  Spooner,  Biog,  Hist,  of  the  Fine  Arts^ 
p.  266, 1119 ;  Blilisia,  Lives  of  Celebrated  Architects,  ii, 
162. 

Zanohl,  Jerome,  a  clergyman  and  theologian  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church,  was  bom  at  Alzaoo,  in 
the  territory  of  Bergamo,  Feb.  2, 1616,  and  was  the  son 
of  the  historian  Zanchi.  He  entered  the  Augustinian 
order  of  regular  canons  in  1631,  engaged  in  pfailoeopb- 
ical  and  theological  studies,  and,  on  their  completioo» 
came  with  his  friend,  count  Clelso  Martinengo  of  Brescia, 
to  the  monastery  of  Lucca,  where  VermigU  was  teach- 
ing, and  where  they  became  acquainted  with  the  writ- 
ings of  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Bullinger,  and  Calvin. 
They  soon  afterwards  came  into  notice  as  evangelical 
preachers,  and  were  compelled  to  flee — Martinengo  to 
Blilan  and  Geneva,  where  he  t>ecame  pastor  of  the  Ital- 
ian Church,  in  1662,  and  Zanchi  to  Switseiland  and 
Geneva,  in  1661.  In  1668  Zanchi  accepted  a  professor- 
ship of  the  Old  Test,  at  Strasburg,  where  Marbach  and 
other  Lutherans  were  his  colleagues,  the  association 
invoking  him  in  controversies  upon  the  doctrines  of 
the  antichrist,  predestination,  and  the  perseverance  of 
the  saints,  which  began  in  1661,  and  were  superfidally 
settled  by  arbitrators,  who  drew  up  a  formal  agree- 
ment, which  was  signed  by  all  the  clergy  and  profinaors 
of  the  city,  Zanchi,  however,  appending  a  reservation 
to  his  signature  intended  to  prevent  his  being  com- 
pelled  to  teach  what  he  did  not  receive  aa  the  troths 
Calvin  and  other  reformed  theologians,  however,  cen- 
sured the  yielding  temper  which  Zanchi  had  exhibiifd, 
and  thus  induced  him  to  speak  his  sentiments  moR 
positively.  This  naturally  renewed  the  strife  and  in- 
volved disagreeable  oonseqnencea,  from  which  he  was 
glad  to  escape  by  accepting  a  call  to  Chiavenna  as  pas- 
tor of  the  Italian  oongregfition.  He  had  previously  de* 
elined  repeated  calls  to  a  similar  post  at  Lyons^  False 
teadhen  and  uneasy  Italian  agitators  troubled  hioi  at 


ZANCHIUS 


1017 


ZEAL 


CbtATenna,  and  in  1564  a  pestilence  intemipted  the 
semces  of  his  Chnich  and  compelled  his  retirement  to 
a  rooantain  near  Piuri,  where  he  occupied  himself  with 
writing  a  sketch  of  his  controversy  with  Marbach, 
which  afterwards  appeared  under  the  title  of  Mueel- 
kmea  (!566, 4to).  In  1568  he  became  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Heidelberg,  and  rapidly  earned  the  first  place 
among  the  scholars  of  the  theological  faculty.  His  ad- 
rice  was  sought  by  {lersons  in  every  quarter  and  upon 
all  the  debated  questions  of  the  day,  e.  g.,  the  sacra- 
ments, the  Trinity,  the  mediation  of  Christ,  and  replies 
in  great  number  were  written  to  inquirers,  sometimes  in 
the  name  of  the  feculty,  and  often  in  his  own  name,  all 
tending  to  the  confirmation  of  the  teachings  of  Reformed 
orthodoxy.  He  was  equally  zealous  and  influential  in 
the  work  of  introducing  a  strict  discipline  in  the  church- 
es of  the  palatinate.  Of  larger  theological  works  writ- 
ten by  him  in  this  period  we  mention  De  Tribu$  Elohim, 
etc.  ( 1572 ),  which  is  chiefly  important  as  collocating 
the  grounds  upon  which  the  antitrinitarians  based  their 
opinions ;  De  I^aiura  Dei,  etc,  a  sort  of  speculative  phi- 
losophy of  religion,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  predestina- 
tion especially  is  carried  to  its  logical  consequences; 
and  De  Operibus  Dei  infra  Spatium  Sex  Dierum  Creatitf 
a  cosmology  in  which  dogmatic  hypotheses  and  phys- 
ical facts  are  intermingled^-intcresting  as  showing  the 
amount  of  knowledge  possessed,  or  supposed  to  be  pos- 
sessed, respecting  nature  and  natural  forces  in  that  day. 
A  fourth  work,  De  Primi  Hominii  Laptu^  etc,  was 
begun  at  Heidelberg,  but  not  completed.  A  Lutheran 
prince  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  the  Palatinate,  and 
Zanchi  was  dismissed.  The  newly  established  Univer- 
sity of  Neustadt-on-the-Hardt  received  him,  and  made 
him  its  professor  of  the  New  Test,  in  1578,  and  this  post 
he  retained  until  he  died,  Nov.  19, 1590,  though  he  hatl 
been  invited  to  return  to  Heidelberg  when  the  Palati- 
nate was  restored  to  Calvinism.  In  1577  he  was  re- 
quired to  write  a  confession  by  the  deputies  of  the 
Reformed  churches,  then  assembled  at  Frankfort,  which 
confession  was  intended  to  be  opposed  to  the  Formvla 
of  Concord,  This  work  became  the  basis  of  the  Uar- 
moma  Conf.  Fidei  Orthodoxarum  of  Deza  and  Danieus 
(1561).  His  children  collected  his  works  and  published 
them  after  his  death,  though  no  complete  edition  ap- 
peared prior  to  that  of  Geneva  (1619, 8  vols.  foL  8  paru). 
These  works  rank  among  the  leading  sources  of  the  Ke- 
formed  theology  of  his  time,  but  are  already  tainted 
with  the  scholastic  spirit.  See  Schmid,  in  Stud,  u.  Krit. 
1859;  Henogf  Heal-Encifldop,  9,y. 

Zanchias,  Basil,  a  learned  Italian  monk  and 
writer,  was  bom  at  Bergamo  in  1501.  His  real  name 
was  Peter,  which  he  exchanged  for  Basil  when  he  be- 
came a  canon  regular.  He  studied  at  Rome  and  vari- 
ous other  places,  but  resided  for  the  greater  part  of  his 
life  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1560.  He  was  the  sub- 
ject of  persecution,  for  some  cause  not  clearly  ascer- 
tained, and  (lied  in  prison.  He  was  one  of  the  best 
Latin  poets  of  his  age.  His  I^tin  poems  were  first 
printed  at  Rome  in  1540,  snd  were  often  reprinted. 
He  also  wrote  ob6er\-ations  on  sU  the  books  of  Script- 
ure (Rome,  1553).  He  published  Epitheiorum  Com- 
meniarii  (1542),  a  second  edition  of  which  appeared 
under  the  title  Didionarium  Poeticum  et  EpitJieta  le- 
terum  Poelarum^  etc.  (1612).  See  Chalmers,  Bioff. 
Dicf,i,r, 

Zanoah.  (1)  In  the  plain  of  Judah.  The  present 
Khurbet  Zanua  lies  one  and  a  half  miles  north  of  Beit 
Nettif  and  two  and  a  half  south-east  of  Ain  Shems 
(Beth-Shemeh).  and  is  "  a  large  and  important  ruin  on 
high  ground,  mainly  east  of  the  road ;  but  remains  are 
also  found  on  the  hill-top  to  the  west,**  consisting  of 
chambers  with  arched  entrances,  foundations  of  house- 
walls,  traces  of  mills,  cave-tombs,  etc  {Memoirg  to  the 
Ordnance  Survey,  iii,  128).  (2)  In  the  hills  of  Judah. 
The  modem  Khurbet  Eanuta  lies  four  and  a  half  miles 
south-west  of  £s-Serofla  (Eshtemoa),  and  one  and  a  half 


north-west  of  Attft,  and  consista  of  **  heaps  of  stonea 
and  foundations,  fallen  pillars,  caves  and  cisterns  on  a 
bill "  (described  in  the  Memoin  to  the  Ordnance  Sar« 
vey,  iii,  410  sq.). 

Zanolini,  Aktostio,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  18th 
century,  is  the  author  of,  Quttttiones  e  Scriptura  Sacra 
(Padua,  1725):— /.exMWi  Jfebraicum  (ibid.  1782):— 
Lexicon  Chaldaico-Rahbimcum  (ibid.  1747) : — Ratio  In- 
ititutioque  Additcendm  Limpta  ChaUL'Rabb.-Talmudica 
cum  Singularum  Dialectorum  ExempHa  etiam  Lutinitate 
Donatiif  etc  (ibid.  1750).  See  FUnt,  BiU,  Jud,  iii, 
542  sq. ;  Wolf,  BibL  Hebr,  iv,  812 ;  Steinschnetder,  BibL 
Handbuchf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Zanti,  Abraham,  a  Jewish  physician,  philosopher, 
and  poet,  was  bom  in  1670,  and  died,  rabbi  of  Ven- 
ice, in  1729.  He  is  the  author  of  Cnnsx  n^ns,  or  a 
metrorhythmic  paraphrase  of  the  Psalms  (Venice,  1719). 
See  FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  iii,  548;  De'  Rossi,  Dizionario 
Siorico  (Germ.  transL),  p.  885.    (a  P.) 

Zansaltia,  Jacob  (called  also  Baradavs),  a  monk 
of  the  6th  century,  became  conspicuous  by  reviving  the 
Monophysite  (q.  v.)  sect  of  the  Eutyc'hians  (q.  v.). 
They  had  been  reduced  to  a  very  small  number,  but 
these  had  ordained  Zanzalus  bishop  of  Edessa,  and  by 
his  zeal  and  unceasing  toil  he  left  the  sect,  at  his  death 
in  A.D.  588,  in  a  flourishing  condition  in  Syris,  Meso- 
potamia, Armenia,  Egypt,  and  other  countries.  These 
are  known  as  Jacobites  (q.  v.). 

Zaremba,  Feucian  BIartim  von,  a  famous  mis- 
sionary, was  bom  at  Zaroy,  in  the  Russian  govcmment 
of  Grodno,  in  Lithuania,  March  15, 1794.  He  studie<l 
at  Dorpat  for  a  political  career.  In  1816  he  was  made 
doctor  of  philosophy,  and  in  1817  engsged  at  St.  Peters- 
burg in  the  college  for  foreign  affairs.  In  the  same 
year  he  concluded  to  give  up  everything  and  to  work 
in  the  service  of  his  Blaster.  He  went  to  Basle  in 
1818,  and  having  spent  there  nearly  three  years,  was 
appointed  to  commence  missionar}' operations  in  Gruvia. 
Having  received  his  ordination  in  1821,  he  went  to 
Shusha,  which  became  the  nucleus  for  his  operations. 
In  1830  he  was  obliged  to  leave  his  post  on  account  of 
feeble  health,  and  retumed  to  Basle.  In  1835  he  again 
returned  to  his  poet,  but,  on  his  way,  an  imperial  ukase 
forbade  further  operations.  All  representations  were 
in  vain,  and  Zaremba,  the  first  and  last  missionary  of 
the  Basle  Society,  left  Shusha  in  1838  for  Basle.  From 
1889  to  1864  he  travelled  through  Europe  in  behalf  of 
his  society,  but  in  1865  he  was  struck  with  apoplexy. 
He  died  May  31, 1874.  See  Der  evangtiitche  Heidm- 
bote,  1874,  No.  7.     (U,  P.) 

Zaal,  a  passionate  ardor  for  any  person  or  cause. 
The  word  in  Hebrew  is  hKap,  kin&h,  from  M9]7,  kandh, 
**  to  flush  "  with  passion.  The  Sept.  usually  rendere  it 
by  ^^Xoc  (the  New  Test,  temi),  which  is  derived  from 
Zita,  **  to  be  hot."  Thus  we  say,  "  a  fiery  zeal."  The 
psalmist  says  (Psa.  Ixix,  9),  "The  zeal  of  thine  house 
hath  eaten  me,"  or  consumed  me  like  fire  (see  Bauer, 
De  Mesna  Zelo  pro  Domo  Dei,  Viteb.  1744).  Zeal  is 
an  earnestness  arising  either  from  good  or  evil  motives 
(2  Sam.  xxi,  2;  1  Ck>r.  xiv,  12;  Col.  iv,  13).  Thus 
Phtnehas  was  commended  because  he  was  zealous  for 
Jehovah  (Numb,  xxv,  11-13) ;  but  Jehu,  when  he  slew 
the  priests  of  Baal  and  the  family  of  Ahab,  was  zealous 
in  order  to  gain  public  applause  (2  Kings  x,  16-81). 
Zeal  mav  be  misdirected,  or  it  may  be  honorable  (Phil, 
iii,  6 ;  Gal.  iv,  17, 18 ;  Tit.  ii,  14 ;  Psa.  Ixix,  9 ;  John  ii, 
17).  Zeal  is  attributed  in  Scripture  to  God  as  well 
as  to  roan  (2  Kings  xix,  81 ;  Isa.  ix,  7 ;  Ezek.  v,  13). 
There  are  various  kinds  of  zeal,  as  (1)  an  ignorant  seal 
(Rom.  X,  2, 8) ;  (2)  a  persecuring  zeal  (PhiL  iii,  6);  (8) 
a  superstitious  zeal  (1  Kings  xviii;  Gal.  i,  14);  (4) 
a  hypocritical  zeal  (2  Kings  x,  16) ;  (5)  a  contentions 
seal  (1  Cor.  xi,  16) ;  (6)  a  partial  zeal  (Hos.  vii,  8) ;  (7) 
a  temporary  zeal  (2  Kings  xii,  xiii;  Gal.  iv,  15);  (8) 
a  genuine  zeal,  which  is  a  sincere  and  warm  concern 


ZEALOTS 


1018 


ZEISBERGER 


for  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  spiritual  welfare  of  man- 
kind (GaL  iv,  18;  Ber.  iii,  19).  This  last  is  generaUy 
compounded  of  sound  knowledge,  strong  faith,  and  dis- 
interested regard;  and  will  manifest  itself  by  self-de- 
nial, patient  endurance,  and  constant  exertion.  The 
motives  to  true  seal  are  (1)  the  divine  command  (Rev. 
iii,  19) ;  (2)  the  example  of  Christ  and  the  end  of  his 
death  (John  ii,  17;  Acts  x,  88;  Tit.  ii,  14);  (8)  the 
importance  of  his  service ;  (4)  the  advantage  and  pleas- 
ure it  brings  to  the  possessor;  (6)  the  instances  and 
honorable  commendation  of  it  in  the  Scriptures :  Moses, 
Phineas,  Caleb,  David,  Paul,  etc  (GaL  iv,  18;  Rev.  iii, 
15,  etc) ;  (6)  the  incalculable  good  effects  it  produces 
on  others  (James  v,  20).  "fiee  Reynolds  and  Orton  on 
Saered  Zeal;  Massillon,  Charges;  Evans,  Christian 
Temper,  sermon  87;  Hughes,  Channtng,  and  Chapin, 
Sermon  on  Zeal;  Mason,  Christ,  Mor,  sermon  28 ;  Nai' 
ural  History  of  Enthusiasm,  See  Faith;  Fanaticism; 
Jealousy. 

Zealots  (^nXwrai)  were,  in  a  technical  Jewish 
sense,  the  followers  of  Judas  the  Gaulonite,  or  Qalilnan 
(q.  v.).  Josephns  speaks  of  them  as  forming  the 
"  fourth  sect  of  Jewish  philosophy,"  and  as  distin- 
guished from  the  Pharisees  chiefly  by  a  quenchless 
love  of  liberty  and  a  contempt  of  death.  Their  lead- 
ing tenet  was  the  unlawfulness  of  paying  tribute  to  the 
Romans,  as  being  a  violation  of  the  theocratic  constito- 
tioiu  This  principle,  which  they  maintained  by  force 
of  arms  against  the  Roman  government,  was  soon  con- 
verted  into  a  pretext  for  deeds  of  violence  against  their 
own  countrymen,  and  during  the  last  days  of  the  Jew- 
ish polity  the  Zealots  were  lawless  brigands  or  guerrillas, 
the  pest  and  terror  of  the  land.  After  the  death  of 
Judas,  and  of  his  two  sons,  Jacob  and  Simon  (who  suf- 
fered crucifixion),  they  were  headed  by  Eleazar,  one  of 
his  descendants,  and  were  often  denominated  Sicarii^ 
from  the  use  of  a  weapon  resembling  the  Roman  sica 
(Joseph.  Ant,  xviii,  1 ;  War,  iv,  1-6 \  vii,  8 ;  see  Ijird- 
ner,  CredibiU/y,  pt.  i,  bk.  i,  ch.  vi,  ix;  Kitto,  Palestine, 
p.  741, 751).— Kitto,  s.  v.    See  Zklotbs. 

Zedner,  Joseph,  for  a  long  time  custodian  at  the 
British  Museum,  in  London,  was  bom  at  Groes-Glosgau 
in  1804,  and  died  in  Beriin,  Oct.  10, 1871.  He  wrote, 
Utber  den  Wortton  in  der  hdfr.  Sprache  (Berfin,  1817) : 
-—Auswahl  historischer  StOcke  aus  hebr,  Sehrijlstdlom 
vom  II,  Jahrhunderts  bis  aufdie  Gegemoftri  (Heb.  and 
Germ.  ibid.  1840) :— onnsx  SjDI'^l,  or  Abraham  ben- 
Ezra's  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Esther  after  another 
Version  (Lond.  1850) : — Catalogue  of  the  Hebrew  Books 
in  the  Linrary  of  the  British  Museum  (ibid,  1867).  He 
also  contributed  to  the  I/a-Maskir  for  1859  and  186L 
See  Fflrst,  BUd,  Jud,  iii,  546.     (B.  P.) 

Zegadin  (or  Ssagedin),  Stephen  de,  an  emi- 
nent Lutheran  divine,  was  bom  at  Zegedin,  a  city  of 
Lower  Hungary,  in  1505.  His  family  name  was  Kis, 
He  studied  under  Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Witten- 
berg, taught  and  preached  Lutheranism  in  several  cities 
in  Hungary,  and  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks,  who 
treated  him  with  great  craelty.  He  subsequently  offici- 
ated as  minister  at  Buda  and  in  many  other  places.  He 
died  at  Reven,  in  Hungary,  May  2, 1572.  He  left  the 
following  works,  which  were  afterwards  published :  As- 
sertio  de  TrinUate  (1578) :— raiu&s  Analgticm  m  Pro- 
phetas,  PsalmoSy  et  Novum  Tesiameiiium  (1592):  — 
Speculum  Romanum  Powtificum  Histaricum  (1602). 
See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did,  s.  v. 

Zaibich,  Carl  Heiniich,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Eilenburg,  June  19, 1717.  He 
studied  theology*,  philosophy,  and  philology  at  Witten- 
berg, was  made  magister  in  1787,  on  presenting  a  dis- 
sertation, De  Chaldaicorum  Veteris  Testammti  apud 
Judaos  Auctoritate,  In  1752  he  was  made  professor, 
and  died  Aug.  8, 1768.  Of  his  writings  we  mention, 
De  Lingua  Judaorum  Hebraica  TemporUnis  Christi  et 
Apostoiorum  (Viteb.  1741)  :r-De  Codicum  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenti    Orientalium   et   OcddenlaUum  DissensumUms 


(ibid,  eod.)-.— />s  Ritu  Bapiizandi  in  Mortem  Christi, 
ah  Eunomiams  Recentionbus  Introdudo  (ilnd.  1752) : — 
Svfiffuera  Antiquilatum  Tarsicarum  ex  Scrtptorum 
VeUnimMomimentisCoUeeta(\lud,lieff),  See  Doring, 
Die  gelehrien  Theohgen  Deutsehlands,  iv,  772  sq. ;  Fttist, 
^tUL  Jin/,  iii,  547.    (&P.) 

Zeiblch,  Heiniloh  Angost,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Merseburg,  June  22, 1729,  and  died 
March  80, 1787,  at  Gera,  being  professor  of  elocution 
there.  He  b  the  author  of,  Vermischte  Betracktungen 
aut  der  Theologie  und  Philologie  (Leipsic,  177^74,  3 
parts):  —  Progr.  de  Vdo  Hierosolfmiiano,  etc  (Gm, 
1757)  \—V<m  dem  Grabs  Mosis  (ibid.  1758) :— Pr^. de 
Vento,  Pneseniim  Divina  Documento  (ibid,  eod.) : — Pr. 
de  Thuribulo  Aureo  (ibid.  1768):  — /V.  de  Badianie 
Mosis  Facie  a  Cinanorum  Cormbus  Defensa  (ibid. 
1764):— De  CengSbus  Hebraorum  (ibid.  1764-66)  :—Z)e 
Circumeisionis  Origins  (ibid.  1770):  —  Progr.  duo  de 
Miraculo  Mamia  IsraelitiaB  (ibid.  1770-71):  —  Pr, 
Isaaci  Ortus  in  Fcdmla  Orionis  Vestigia  (ibid.  1776) : — 
Pr,  de  FL  Josepho  Vespasiano  Imperium  Bansamim 
Vaticinante  (ibid.  1788).  See  Winer,  ffandbmck  der 
theoL  LiL  i,  81 ;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  iii,  547.    (R  P.) 

Zalsbargar,  David,  a  Moravian  missionary  among 
the  Indians  of  North  America,  was  bora  in  Moravia, 
Germany,  in  1721,  whence  his  parents  emigrmled  to 
Hermhut^  in  Upper  Lusatia,  for  the  sake  of  religions 
liberty.  He  was  educated  by  the  Moravians  in  Sax- 
ony, and  afterwards  lived  at  their  settlement  of  Nenren- 
dyk,  HolUmd.  In  1788  he  came  to  Georgia,  where 
some  of  his  brethren  had  begun  a  settlement,  that  they 
might  preach  the  gospel  to  the  Creeks.  Thenoe  be 
removed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  assisted  in  the  oom- 
menoeroent  of  the  settlements  of  Bethlehem  and  Naz- 
areth. Soon  afterwards  he  became  a  missionary  to  the 
Indians,  and  labored  among  the  Delawaies  at  Shamo- 
kin,  and  the  Iroquois  at  Onondaga,  N.  T.,  till  after  the 
bieaking-ont  of  war  in  1754.  On  the  return  of  peace, 
after  the  conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  he  led  the  remnant  of 
the  Christian  Indians,  who  had  found  a  refuge  in  Phil»> 
delphia,  Pa.,  to  Wyalosing,  on  the  Susquehaima,  in  Bnal- 
ford  County.  In  1767  he  established  a  Church  amoBg 
the  Monseys,  on  the  Alleghany.  In  1772  he  penetrated 
still  farther,  exploring  the  Mudcingum  region,  and  layii^^ 
out  the  town  of  Schoenbrann,  on  the  Toscarawas,  about 
ten  miles  from  the  present  Canal  Dover,  O.  Here  he 
was  joined  by  all  the  Moravian  Indians  of  Ptansyl- 
vania,  and  the  mission  was  greatly  enlarged.  In  1781, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  British  commandant  at  De- 
troit, a  party  of  Wyandots  broke  up  these  settle- 
ments, and  compelled  the  Christian  Indians  to  removte 
to  Sandusky.  The  missionaries  were  sbamefullr 
abused.  In  the  following  year  a  party  of  ninety-six  of 
those  who  had  been  driven  to  Sandusky  retaraed  to 
their  former  homes  to  gather  their  corn,  and  were 
treacherously  murdered  at  GnadenhtUten  by  a  party 
of  the  white  settlers.  After  this  melancholy  incident 
most  of  the  converts  dispersed,  and  Zeisberger,  with  a 
small  remnant,  went  to  the  Clinton  River  and  formed 
a  settlement  in  the  present  state  of  Michigan.  In  1786 
he  returoed  to  the  southern  shore  of  I^ke  Erie,  and 
soon  began  another  settlement,  which  he  called  New 
Salem.  In  1791,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  remove  to 
Canada  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the  other  Indians. 
There  he  founded  Fairfield  on  the  Thames.  In  1798 
the  Moravian  Indians  received  a  grant  from  Congress 
of  the  tract  of  land  which  had  been  their  former  home 
in  the  valley  of  the  Tuscarawas.  To  this  locality  Zeis- 
berger retnraed  with  some  of  his  converts,  and  estab- 
lished a  new  station,  which  he  called  Goshen.  Here  be 
remained  nntil  his  death,  Nov.  17,  1808.  Perhaps  no 
man  ever  preached  the  gospel  so  long  among  the  Id^ 
dians,  and  amid  so  many  trials  and  hardships.  He  was 
a  man  of  small  statore,  with  a  cheerful  countenance,  of 
a  cool,  intrepid  spirit,  with  a  good  understanding  and 
sound  judgment.    His  portrait  is  prefixed  to  Heeke- 


ZETTMANN 


1010 


ZELLER 


wddei't  Ncaratwt^  Amid  all  bis  privatioiit  tnd  dao- 
gen  he  was  never  known  to  complain,  nor  ever  regret- 
ted that  he  had  engaged  in  the  caose  of  the  Bedeemer. 
He  would  never  content  to  receive  a  salary,  although 
he  deemed  it  proper  for  some  miflsionaries.  He  trusted 
in  his  Lord  fur  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  he  looked  to 
the  future  world  for  his  reward.  Free  from  selfishneis, 
a  spirit  of  universal  love  filled  his  bosom,  A  move  per- 
fect character  has  seldom  been  exhibited  on  the  earth. 
It  is  a  melancholy  fact  that  he  suffered  more  from  white 
men,  called  Christians,  by  reason  of  their  selfishness  and 
depravity  and  hostility  to  the  gospel,  than  from  the 
Indiana.  Had  the  bade  settlers  of  our  country  partici- 
pated in  the  benevolent  spirit  of  the  Moravians  the 
benefit  to  the*  natives  would  have  been  incalculable. 
Amid  all  obatacles  the  brethren,  in  the  days  of  Mr. 
Zeisberger,  instructed  and  baptized  about  fifteen  hun- 
dred Indianai  The  calm  death  of  those  who  were  mur» 
dered  at  Muskingum,  in  1782,  is  a  striking  proof  of 
the  influence  of  the  gospel  on  men,  concerning  whom 
it  is  sometimes  said  they  cannot  be  made  Christians. 
About  1768  be  wrote  two  grammars  of  the  Onondaga, 
In  English  and  German,  and  a  dictionary,  German  and 
Indian,  of  more  than  seventeen  hundred  pages.  In  the 
Lenape,  or  language  of  the  Delawares,  he  pubUshed  a 
spelling-book,  sermons  to  children,  and  a  hymn-book, 
containing  upwards  of  five  hundred  hymns,  translated 
partly  from  German  and  partly  from  English.  J^e  left 
in  manuscript  a  grammar  in  Grerman  of  the  Delaware 
language,  which  has  been  translated  by  Mr.  Du  Pon- 
ceau; also  a  harmony  of  the  four  gospels,  translated 
into  Delaware.  See  De  Schweinitz,  Lj/a  omI  Timet  of 
David  ZdAergar  (Philadelphia,  1870);  Heckewelder, 
Narraiivt  of  the  Miuiant  among  ike  Delaware  and 
Mohegan  Jndkau  (ibid.  1820) ;  Allen,  Amer,  Biog.  Did. 
(1867) ;  Allibone,  Did,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer,  A  uthor$,  s.  v. 

Zaitmanii,  Gottfried  Thomas,  a  Lutheran  min- 
ister, was  born  of  Jewish  parentage  at  Cracow,  Poland, 
in  1696.  On  account  of  the  war  between  Poland  and 
Sweden,  Zeitmann's  father  had  to  leave  his  countr}', 
and  settled  at  Frankfort,  where  his  son  Hirschel  (this 
was  Zeitmann*s  name  before  his  baptism)  received  his 
early  education.  In  1707  he  was  baptized,  taking  the 
above-mentioned  name.  He  desired  to  learn  a  trade, 
but  his  friends  advised  him  to  attend  the  gymnasium 
of  St.  Anna,  at  Augsburg,  where  he  had  gone  on  account 
of  being  persecuted  by  his  relatives.  In  1717  he  com- 
menced his  studies  at  Jena,  where  he  remained  till  1721. 
Having  passed  some  years  as  a  private  tutor,  he  was, 
in  1728,  chosen  pastor  at  Oberode,  and  in  1736,  one  of 
the  pastors  of  Frankfort  and  Sachsenhausen.  He  died 
Feb.  7, 1747.  His  biographer,  Dr.  C.  H.  Martin,  says  of 
him,  ^  Zeitmann  preferred  to  speak  in  Latin,  and  as  oft 
as  we  quoted  a  passage  of  Scripture,  whether  of  the  Old 
or  New  Test.,  he  repeated  the  same  in  the  original,  with 
chapter  and  verse.  He  never  entered  the  pulpit  with- 
out having  studied  his  subject  with  prayer  and  medita- 
tion. His  delivery  was  distinct,  his  voice  powerful; 
he  could  be  heard  in  the  largest  church  in  Frankfort." 
(R  P.) 

ZeU,  Matthiew,  the  earliest  Reformed  preacher  of 
Strasburg,  was  bom  in  1477  at  Kaisersberg,  in  Upper 
Alsace,  and  graduated  in  theology  at  Freiburg.  In 
1518  he  became  pastor  to  the  cathedral  of  Strasburg, 
having  already  been  strongly  influenced  by  Luther's 
Thetet,  and  in  1521  he  took  decided  ground  as  an  evan- 
gelical preacher,  while  engaged  in  the  exposition  of 
the  epistle  to  the  Bomans.  Some  persons  traduced 
him  for  his  course,  but  others  became  bis  supporters, 
and  even  the  magistracy  of  the  city  pledged  themselves 
in  his  defence  against  the  chapter.  In  1628  his  bishop 
formulated  a  series  of  charges  against  him,  to  which 
ZeU  replied  with  a  refutation,  which  was  at  the  same 
time  a  Scriptural  authenrication  of  the  evangelical 
doctrines.  In  the  same  year  two  clergymen  publicly 
renotmoed  their  allegiance  to  the  papacy  and  entered 


into  wedlock,  and  ZeU  improved  the  occasion  by  pub* 
lishing  a  sermon  in  defence  of  the  marriage  of  priestSt 
Soon  afterwards  he  was  himself  married.  On  Dec  1, 
1523,  the  magistracy  directed  aU  preachers  ''to  pro- 
claim, freely  and  in  public,  to  the  people  nothing  but 
the  Holy  Gospel  and  the  doctrines  of  God,  and  what- 
ever may  tend  to  the  promotion  of  love  for  God  and 
our  neighbor."  A  few  months  later  all  the  married 
priests  were  excommnnicated  by  the  bishop,  but  the 
measure  proved  ineffective.  ZeU  replied  with  an  Ap^ 
pettation,  and  the  citiseens  continued  in  increasing  num- 
bers to  turn  away  from  Romanism.  ZeU  was  as  liberal 
towards  all  who  beUeved  in  Christ  as  he  was  firm  in 
his  own  convictions.  He  gave  hospitable  entertain- 
ment to  the  fugitive  Schwenkfeld,  and  refused  to  anath- 
ematize the  Swiss  because  of  their  opinions  respect- 
ing the  sacramenta.  He  attached  no  great  importance 
to  formulated  creeds,  and  took  no  part  in  current  dis- 
putes, nor  yet  in  Sneer's  attempt  at  union.  In  1584  he 
published,  in  the  name  of  the  Strasburg  clergy,  a  cate- 
chism (JCuriM  christliehe  Erbauung  fur  die  Kinder  u, 
Angohnden,  etc)  for  beginners;  which  seems  suited 
rather  to  teachen  than  to  chUdren.  He  also  wrote  for 
the  latter  class  an  expoeition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer.  In 
1542  he  united  with  his  coUeagues  in  sending  an  opin- 
ion respecting  images,  etc,  to  the  preachera  of  Frank- 
fort,  which  decided  them  to  be  adiaphora,  and  which 
asserted  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament, 
but  in  a  heavenly  and  not  bodily  manner.  ZeU  died 
in  1548.  His  widow,  Catharine,  waa  a  skilful  disputer, 
and  maintained  a  correspondence  with  Schwenkfeld 
during  many  years,  besides  issuing  a  defence  of  her  as- 
sociation with  him.  She  also  wrote  a  brave  defence 
of  her  husband's  memory,  in  1557,  against  an  attack 
made  by  Louis  Rabos.  She  obtained  the  reputation 
of  a  pious  benefactor  of  the  afflicted,  and  espedaUy  of 
**poor  scholars"  and  such  as  had  fled  for  refuge  to 
Strasburg  on  account  of  their  religious  convictions,  not 
excluding  even  Anabaptists.  See  the  biographies  of 
ZeU  and  his  wife  in  Rohrich,  MiitheiL  aut  d.  Getch, 
d,  Evang,  Kirche  d,  EUauet  (Strasburg,  1855),  iii,  89  sq. ; 
Herzog,  Real'Encgldop,  s.  v. 

Zella,  Council  of  {Concilium  ZeUense  or  TeUptenee), 
was  held  in  418,  at  Zella,  or  Telia,  in  the  province  of 
Byzacena,  in  Africa,  Donatianus,  bishop  of  Zella,  pre- 
siding.   Various  regulations  were  made. 

1.  Enacts  that  no  man  shall  be  admitted  to  holy  orders 
who  has  served  in  war  after  baptism. 

9.  Enacts  that  every  bishop  shaU  be  consecrated  by 
three  bishops,  with  the  consent  of  the  metropolitan,  and 
that  of  the  Dlshops  of  the  provinces,  ezpressea  in  writing. 

8.  Declares  that  one  bishop  only  cannot  consecrate 
another,  except  In  the  Roman  Cburcn. 

4.  Ezhorts  uishops,  priests,  etc,  to  observe  continence. 

8.  Directs  that  toe  Montaulst^  and  Novatianists  shall 
be  admitted  into  the  Charch  by  impositiou  of  hands. 

See  Mansi,  CondL  ii,  1577.— Landon,  Manual  of  Coun^ 
cil$,  p.  704. 

Zaller,  ChzUtian  Hainrloh,  a  Protestant  peda- 
gogue, was  bom  at  Uoheu-Entringen,  near  Tubingen, 
March  29, 1799.  He  studied  Uw  at  Tubingen,  which 
he  did  not  practice,  but  gave  himself  entirely  to  the 
cause  of  education.  In  1820  he  founded  his  famous  in- 
stitution for  chUdren  and  teachen  at  Beuggen-on-the- 
Rhine,  where  he  died.  May  18, 1860.  He  published, 
GotfHeke  Anivcorten  avf  memchliche  Fragen  (2d  ed. 
Basle,  1852)  :^Kuru  Setknlehre  (Stuttgart,  1846)  :^ 
MonaiMtiit  von  Beuggen,  which  contains  a  great  many 
essays  on  vsrious  subjects.  ZeUer  also  distinguished 
himself  as  a  hymn-writer;  one  of  his  hymns,  Goit  hei 
mir  anjedem  Ort,  is  found  in  an  English  translation  in 
I/gmntfrom  (he  Land  of  Luther,  p.  27  ("  My  Gud  with 
me  in  every  pUce").  See  Znchold,  Bibl,  Theol.  s.  v.; 
Herzog,  Real'Encgkhp,  s.  v.;  Koch,  Geschichtt  dee 
deuischen  Kirchenliedet,  vii,  188  sq.    (B.  P.) 

ZeUer,  Hemuum,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  at  Neckarweihingen,  Aug  26, 1807,  and 
died  at  MUhlhausen,  April  10, 1885.    He  is  best  known 


ZEiAjER 


1020 


ZEND-AVESTA 


ta  the  editor  of  BiUitchet  WorierUich  JUr  dot  chritt^ 
Ucke  Volk  (8d  ed.  Leipsic,  1884).     (B.  P.) 

Zeller,  Johann,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Zurich,  Jane  29, 1807,  and  died  July  6, 1889.  He  is 
the  author  of  Stimmen  der  deutschm  Kirche  uber  das 
Lehen  Jesu  von  Sfraus*  (Zurich,  1837).  His  Predigten 
were  published  after  his  death  (1840).  See  Zuchold, 
B&tL  TheoL  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Zemsem  is  the  name  of  a  well  at  Mecca  accounted 
aacred  by  the  Mohammedans.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
formed  from  the  spring  of  water  which  God  pointed  out 
to  Hagar  and  Ishmael  when  they  were. driven  from 
the  bouse  of  Abraham  and  compelled  to  flee  into  Ara- 
bia. The  Mohammedan  pilgrims  drink  of  its  waters 
and  believe  it  to  be  cfifectuid  in  healing  diseases,  and 
even  in  purifying  the  soul. 

Zend-Avesta  is  the  name  commonly  given  to 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees  (q.  v.),  which  are  as- 
cribed to  Zoroaster  (q.  v.).  The  word  avesta  {avasfhd} 
means  iext^  or  oriffinal  text ;  zend,  or  zand,  means  trant' 
lotion  and  paraphrase.  According  to  the  latest  re- 
searches, it  would  seem  as  if  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  entire  collection  now  extant  were  formed  by  avesta, 
4>r  text,  the  rest  being  made  up  of  send,  or  commen- 
tary, without  text.  The  term  zend  has  changed  its 
meaning  repeatedly.  Originally  it  indicated  an  author- 
itative interpretation  coming  from  the  highest  source, 
which  was  in  time  embodied  in  the  text  itself.  Later 
it  came  to  denote  a  translation  into  the  P«hlri,OT  native 
idiom  of  Persia,  made  by  the  Zoroastrian  priests  during 
the  Sassanian  period.  There  is  also  a  special  zend  doc- 
trine  which  differs  considerably  from  that  contained  in 
the  avesta.  A  still  further  explanation  of  the  zend 
doctrine  is  the  pdzend,  a  word  which  often  occurs  in 
connection  with  avesta  and  zend. 

The  doctrine  of  the  *'  Magi,"  as  the  Zoroastrian  priests 
were  anciently  called,  as  ueil  as  those  of  India  and 
Babylonia,  is  first  alluded  to  in  Jeremiah,  where  the 
chief  of  the  Blagi  is  mentioned  among  Nebuchadnez- 
zar^s  retinue.  In  the  New  Test.  (Matt,  it,  1)  the  Magi 
came  to  worship  Jesus  at  Bethlehem.  The  earliest  ac- 
count among  Greek  writers  is  furnished  by  Herodotus. 
There  are  also  accounts  by  Ctesias,  the  Greek  physician 
of  Artaxerxes  II,  by  Denion,  Theopomus,  and  Hermip- 
pus.  But  only  fragments  from  their  vrritings  remain, 
embedded  chiefly  in  Plutarch  and  Diogenes  Laertius. 
The  writings  of  Pliny,  Strabo,  Pausanius,  Dion  Chry- 
sostomus  also  contain  more  or  less  information  on  the 
subject.  Among  the  Armenian  writers  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury of  our  sera  we  find  Eznik  and  Elizjeus,  from  whose 
records  we  may  gather  that  the  Zoroastrians  at  their 
time  were  split  into  two  parties,  the  one  called  Mog, 
the  other  Zendik— the  former  inhabiting  chiefly  Media 
and  Persia,  and  acknowledging  in  the  main  the  avesta ; 
the  latter  living  principally  in  Bactria,  and  following 
the  traditional  explanations,  or  zend  proper.  The  na- 
tions of  modem  Europe  came  into  contact  with  the 
adherents  of  Zoroastrianism  in  the  western  parts  of 
India,  and  in  the  17th  century  some  MSS.  of  their 
Bacred  books  were  brought  to  England.  But  no  one 
was  able  to  read  them ;  and  Hyde  himself,  the  cele- 
brated Oxford  scholar,  was  unable  to  make  any  use  of 
them  when,  in  1700,  he  wrote  his  learned  work  on  the 
Persian  religion.  The  key  to  this  book  was  first  ob- 
tained by  Anquetil  Duperron,  a  young  Frenchman,  who 
went  to  Bombay  in  1754,  and  there  prevailed  on  some 
of  the  dusturs,  or  learned  priests,  to  introduce  him  into 
the  m3rsterics  of  the  holy  language  and  rites,  and  to 
sell  him  some  of  their  most  viduable  works  written  in 
it.  In  1759  he  commenced  a  translation  of  the  whole 
2^nd-Ave8ta.  In  1761  he  returned  to  Paris  with  one 
hundred  and  eighty  MSS.  in  different  Oriental  lan- 
guages, and  in  1771  published  in  French  the  first  Euro- 
pean translation  of  the  Zend-Avesta,  to  which  was  added 
n  great  deal  of  supplementary  matter.  This  work  pro- 
duced a  profound  sensation  throughout  Europe,     In 


England  it  was  pronounced  a  forgery  by  almost  all 
scholars.  In  France  there  was  but  one  opinion,  vis;.* 
that  English  scholars  were  tiying  to  run  down  the  work 
out  of  sheer  tpite  and  jealousy.  In  Germany,  however, 
opinions  were  divided ;  for  while  some  acceded  to  all 
the  argoments  arrayed  against  it^  there  arose  another 
renowned  German  scholar,  Kleaker,  who,  in  token  of 
his  complete  and  unreserved  trust  in  the  genuinencasi, 
set  about  translating  Anquetirs  work  into  German, 
adding  much  supplementary  matter.  After  the  lapae 
of  more  than  fifty  years.  Rash,  a  Danish  scholar,  under- 
took an  investigation  of  the  matter.  In  1826  he  wrote 
a  pamphlet,  in  which  he  pointed  out  (as  had  been  done 
before)  the  dose  affinity  between  the  language  of  the 
Zend-Avesta  and  the  Sanscrit,  and  proved  it  to  be,  not 
a  corruption  of  Sanscrit,  but  a  distinct  language.  He 
also  proved  that  modem  Persian  is  derived  from  Zend, 
as  Italian  from  Latin,  and  this  gave  the  key  to  many 
of  the  errors  of  Anquetil*s  version.  The  learned  dnstur 
himself,  from  whom  Anquetil  derived  his  infonnatioa 
of  the  language,  possessed  no  grammatical  knowledge 
of  it.  Rash  had  pointed  out  the  way,  Eugene  Buraoof 
followed  it.  He,  indeed,  may  be  called  the  father  of 
Zend  philology.  For  more  than  twenty  years  this  emi- 
nent scholar  devoted  all  his  energies  to  elucidating, 
commenting  on,  and  discussing  this  language,  and  the 
sacred  writings  couched  in  it,  and  in  publishing  texts 
and  translations.  In  Germany,  Olshauaen,  Bopp,  Mul- 
ler,  Brockhaus,  Spiegel,  Haug,aiid  in  Copenhagen,  Wes- 
tergaaid,  have  been  busy  ever  since  in  editing  and 
translating  the  Zend-Avesta  or  some  portions  of  it. 

The  Zend-Avesta  was  originally  of  very  great  extent, 
consisting  of  vastly  more  than  at  present.  Pliny  saji 
that  Zoroaster  composed  two  million  verses,  and  Atta- 
vari,  an  Arabian  author,  says  that  his  writings  covered 
twelve  thousand  cow-skins.  But  from  the  conquest  of 
Persia  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in  330  B.C.,  to  the  ac- 
cession of  the  Sassanidae,  in  AD.  285,  the  religioB  of 
Zoroaster  and  the  wisdom  of  the  Msgi  were  thrown 
into  the  background  by  Greek  ideas,  and  became 
nearly  lost  When,  however,  the  Sassanidas  assumed 
the  rule  their  principal  endeavors  were  directed  to  the 
revival  of  the  ancient  faith,  and  their  unceasing  efforts 
after  the  ancient  fragments  of  the  Zoroastrian  doctrine 
have  resulted  in  the  small  collection  which  we  now 
possess.  The  whole  Scripture  is  said  to  have  consisted 
of  twenty-one  nosks^  or  parts,  each  containing  avesta 
and  zend,  that  is,  text  and  commentary.  The  number, 
twenty-one,  was  to  correspond  to  the  twenty-one  words 
of  which  the  most  sacred  prayer  of  the  Zoroastrians 
(the  Honovar)  was  composed.  By  the  unanimous  con- 
sent of  both  classical  and  Persian  writers  the  whole 
bulk  of  the  sacred  literature  is  ascribed  to  Zoroaster 
himself.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  substance,  or,  as 
was  subsequently  held,  the  very  words  of  divine  revela- 
tions to  the  prophet  in  the  form  of  conversations. 

The  name  Zend-Avesta  belongs  more  particularly  to 
the  three  collections  which  are  severally  called  %'emdidad, 
Vispered,  and  Feuna,  while  the  remaining  writings  are 
comprised  under  the  name  of  Kkorda-Avesta,  or  small 
Avesta.  The  latter  contains  short  prayers,  and  espe- 
cially the  Yatihts^  or  Teshts,  hymns  addressed  to  tbe 
diffierent  genii,  on  the  days  which  bear  their  names  and 
are  sacred  to  them,  or  on  the  da3rs  of  those  genii  who 
are  considered  to  be  the  attendants  of  the  former. 

The  Vaididad  consists  of  twenty- two ybr^orgb,  or 
sections,  which  treat  of  cosmogony,  and  may  be  called 
the  religious  and  civil  code  of  the  old  Parsees.  The 
first  fargard  relates  how  Ahtra^Mazda  (now  oaUed 
Ormuzd),  the  good  spirit,  created  the  several  countzies 
and  places  (of  which  sixteen  are  named),  excellent  and 
perfect  in  their  kind,  but  thai  Angro' Mam/us  (now 
called  Ahriman),  the  evil  or  black  spirit,  created  in  op- 
position all  the  evils  which  infest  these  worids^  In  the 
second  fargard  Zoroaster  bids  Yima  announce  to  man- 
kind the  sacred  law  which  he  had  taught  hiss,  bat 
Yima  refuses  compliance  with  this  behest*     He  tha 


ZEND-AVESTA 


1021 


ZEND-AVESTA 


bids  bim  enlarge  the  worlds  and  make  them  prosperous. 
This  he  obeys,  and  carries  oat  the  orders  given  him  by 
Ahura-Mazda.  The  third  fargard  enomerates  the  five 
things  which  are  the  most  agreeable,  then  the  five 
things  which  are  the  most  disagreeable,  and  afterwards 
the  five  things  which  convey  the  greatest  satisfaction 
in  this  world.  The  fonrth  fargard  may  be  tenned  the 
criminal  code  of  the  Avesta.  It  enumerates,  in  the 
fiist  instance,  various  offences,  which  are  considered  to 
be  so  grave  as  to  affect,  not  only  the  person  who  com- 
mits them,  but  also  hii  relatives,  and  then  proceeds  to 
define  the  punishments  incurred  by  the  offender.  The 
eight  following  fargards  contain  injunctions  in  reference 
to  impurities  caused  by  dead  bodies.  The  thirteenth 
fargard  begins  with  the  description  of  two  kinds  of 
dogs,  Che  one  created  by  Ahura  -  Mazda,  the  other  by 
Angro-Manyus — the  killing  of  the  former  being  a  crim^ 
inal,  that  of  the  latter  a  meritorious,  act ;  and  the  re- 
maining part  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the  proper 
treatment  of  dogs  in  general,  while  the  same  subject  is 
continued  in  the  fourteenth  fargard,  which  enumerates 
also  the  penalties  for  injuring  dc^^s.  The  treatment  of 
young  dogs  is  likewise  the  subject-matter  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  fifteenth  fargard,  which,  in  its  first  sections, 
treats  of  sexual  offences,  and  the  bringing-up  of  illegit- 
imate children.  The  great  care  and  attention  given  to 
dogs  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  fact  that  the  coun- 
try was  infested  with  wolves.  The  sixteenth  fargard 
teaches  how  to  treat  women  when  affected  with  im- 
purities. The  seventeenth  fargard  treats  of  impurities 
caused  by  the  cutting  of  hair  and  the  trimming  of 
nails.  The  next  fargard  is  more  of  a  mixed  character ; 
it  treats  of  various  ceremonies,  and  gives  injunctions 
on  cleanliness,  decency,  and  moral  conduct.  The  nine- 
teenth fargard  relates  how  Angro-Manyus  endeavored 
to  kill  Zoroaster,  but  how  the  latter  successfully  de- 
fended himself  with  weapons  given  him  by  Ahura- 
Blazda.  Then  the  evil  spirit,  being  aware  that  it  had 
no  material  power  over  2^roaj«ter,  next  resorted  to 
temptations ;  but  those,  too,  were  defeated  by  the  proph- 
et, who  now  resolved  to  conquer  the  evil  spirit,  and  for 
this  purpose  addressed  to  Ahura-Mazda  various  ques- 
tions on  the  rites  of  purification  and  the  condition  of 
souls  after  death.  The  twentieth  fargard  gives  some 
information  about  the  first  man  who  understood  curing 
disease.  The  twenty-first  fargard  is  devoted  to  the 
phenomena  of  the  sky  and  the  luminous  bodies,  and 
comprises  invocations  of  the  clouds,  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  stars.  The  last  fargard  relates  that  Angro- 
Manyus,  having  engendered  diseases,  Ahura-Mazda  is 
compelled  to  devise  remedies  against  them.  The  book 
concludes  with  an  account  of  the  creation  of  various 
animals  and  other  objects  to  this  end.  The  form  of  all 
these  fargards  is  nearly  always  that  of  a  dialogue  be- 
tween Ahura-Mazda  and  Zoroaster,  and  the  same  form 
is  occasionally  observed  in  the  two  other  portions  of 
the  Avesta,  which  differ  materially  from  those  of  the 
Vendidad. 

The  Vitpeied  contains  a  collection  of  prayers,  com- 
posed of  twenty-three  chapters,  resembling  the  younger 
YatnGj  next  to  be  noticed,  and  referring  to  the  same 
ceremonies.  The  Vispered  and  the  Yasna  bear  promi- 
nently a  liturgical  character.  All  that  can  really  be 
held  to  emanate  from  Zoroaster  himself  are  the  five 
GathcUf  which  form  part  of  the  Yasua.  This  ITasna 
consists  principally  of  prayers  to  be  recited  at  the  sac- 
rificial rites,  such  as  the  consecration  of  Zodthra,  or 
holy  water;  of  the  Baresona,  or  bundle  of  twigs  of  a 
particular  tree;  the  preparation  of  the  sacred  juice  of 
the  homa  (Indian,  toma^  q*  ▼•)>  taken  to  be  an  emblem 
of  immortality ;  the  offering  of  certain  cakes,  etc.  The 
whole  of  the  Yasna  now  comprises  seventy-two  chap- 
ters. It  consists  apparently  of  two  parts  belonging  to 
different  periods.  The  older  is  written  in  what  has 
been  called  the  Gatha  dialect,  and  was  considered 
sacred  even  at  the  time  when  the  other  books  of  the 
Zend-Avesta  were  composed.    This  *^  older  Yasna  "  was 


divided  into  the  Gathas  and  some  minor  pieces.  The 
former,  five  in  number,  are  small  Golle<;tions  of  sacred 
prayers,  songs,  and  hymns,  arranged  in  metre,  and 
exhibiting  philosophical  and  abstract  thoughts  about 
metaphysical  subjects.  The  name  itself  signifies  nmg. 
Their  metre  resembles  chiefiy  that  of  the  Vedic  hymns. 
They  are  without  rhymes,  and  only  the  syllables  are 
counted.  The  first  bears  the  heading  (which  is  im* 
plied  as  to  the  other  four),  **The  Revealed  Thought, 
the  Revealed  Word,  the  Revealed  I>eed  of  Zarathustra 
the  Holy;  the  Archangels  first  sang  the  Gathas." 
They  are  all  more  or  less  devoted  to  exhortations  on 
the  part  of  the  prophet  to  forsake  polytheism,  and  to 
bow  only  before  Ahura-Mazda.  The  difference  between 
monotheism  and  idolatry  is  pointed  out  in  the  respec- 
tive sources  whence  they  flow, "  existence  "  and  "  non- 
existence." The  mission,  activity,  and  teaching  of 
Zoroaster  are  dwelt  upon  mofo  or  less  in  all  the  Gathas, 
but  chiefly  in  the  second.  To  the  other  portion  be- 
longs the  "  Yasna  of  Seven  Chapters,"  which  seems  to 
have  been  composed  by  early  disciples,  and  which  con- 
sists of  prayers,  in  pruse,  addressed  to  Ahura-Mazda, 
the  angels,  the  fire,  the  earth,  the  waters,  and  other 
spiritual  beings,  genii  presiding  over  the  different  parts 
of  the  good  creation.  There  is  also  a  chapter  contain- 
ing a  formula  by  which  the  ancient  Iranians  were 
received  into  the  new  religious  community.  The  so- 
called  younger  Yasna,  written  in  the  common  Zend 
language,  is  of  more  varied  contents,  such  as  an  invi- 
tation to  Ahura-Mazda  and  all  the  good  spirits  to  be 
present  at  the  sacrifice,  pieces  referring  to  the  prepara* 
tion  and  drinking  of  the  homa  juice,  the  praises  of  the 
genius  Serosh,  and  a  commentary  on  the  most  sacred 
prayers. 

The  Tcukt*  are  in  twenty-four  divisions.  Yasht  (yes/f) 
means  worship  by  prayers  and  sacrifices,  and  in  the 
Avesta  indicates  certain  laudations  of  sacred  persons 
and  objects,  called  yazatas  (tsiul),  or  angels;  and  in  so 
far  different  in  nature  from  the  invocations  in  the  Yasna 
and  Vibpered  that,  while  in  the  latter  the  divine  beings 
are  invited  promiscuously,  the  single  yashts  are  ad- 
dressed to  individual  minima.  In  these  songs  are  also 
found  the  primary  sources  of  the  legends  contained  in 
the  Shah-nameh. 

There  yet  remain  some  smaller  pieces.  Khordo' 
Ave»(a,  which  are  now  used  by  the  Parsees  as  common 
prayers,  such  as  the  five  Nijayith,  addressed  to  the  sun, 
the  moon,  the  water,  and  the  fire;  the  Afrigam,  or 
blessings  to  be  recited  over  «  certain  meal  prepared  for 
an  angel  or  a  deceased  person ;  the  five  Gabsy  or  prayers 
to  the  angels  set  over  the  five  different  times  of  the  day 
and  night;  and  finally  the  Sirozah,  or  thirty  days,  be- 
ing a  calendar,  or  rather  an  enumeration,  of  the  thirty 
divine  beings  that  preside  over  each  of  the  days.  It  is 
chiefly  recited  on  the  thirtieth  day  after  the  death  of  a 
man. 

The  religious  belief  taught  in  the  Avesta  rests  on  the 
dualism  of  the  two  great  principles — Ahura-Mazda,  or 
the  good,  and  A  ngro-Manyus^  or  the  evil  principle.  The 
genii  subordinate  to  the  former  are  the  A  mesha-spentatf 
six  of  whom  are  named  in  the  Yasna,  viz.,  Vohumano, 
who  protects  living  beings;  Asha-vahishta,  or  the  genius 
of  fire;  Kshathra-vairya.  or  the  genius  of  metals;  Spenta- 
armaiti,  or  the  genius  of  earth ;  Hauroat,  or  the  genius 
of  water;  and  Ameretat,  or  the  genius  of  the  trees. 
They  are  severally  opposed  by  the  Devatf  or  daononf, 
subordinate  to  Angro-Manyus,  viz.,  by  Akomano,  Andar, 
Saurva,  Naongkaithi,  Tauru.  and  Zairicha.  Other  dss- 
mons  are  named  in  the  Vendidad.  The  worshippers  of 
fire  belong  to  Ahura-Mazda,  whereas  the  worshippers 
of  the  Devas  are  possessed  by  Angro-Manyus.  See 
Zoroaster. 

The  worship  taught  by  Zoroaster  seems  to  have  been 
of  the  simplest  kind,  the  adoration  of  fire  by  means  of 
hymns  and  offerings,  chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  taken 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  an  essential  concomitant  of 
the  sacrifice  being  the  juice  of  the  homa  (or  soma),  which 


oecnpiei  viinipiiRaiitpartalioiiitheTcdiciiUa.  Thli 
wonhip,  however,  miiat  ntic  be  confounded  irith  the 
MmplioUd  lituil  of  liUr  period*  of  tha  Psnee  creed, 
which  enunied  ■  aimiUr  daTclopniciit  to  that  bued  bj 
the  HiadllB  on  Che  Rigveda  text,  ind  ii  iadialcd  br 
terenl  portioni  of  Che  AvesCa,  which  cuinat  be  looked 
upon  u  iu  earliest  part.  Ac  the  preaenc  di?  every 
Pm«e  child  is  taught  to  repeat  long  panagea  in  the 
original  Zend;  buCbardlfadnglewordorthatlaognage 
ii  inlelligible  even  to  the  Pareee  prieita  or  duitDia. 

IMeralure. — In  the  Zend  Uoguage  thia  oonaiKa  cbief- 
ij  of  ita  tranaliled  text,  the  acoompatijiDg  gloaaea,  aod 
a  few  independenC  work*  in  the  aame  language,  tb* 
HBEvareab,  or  literary  Pehlevi,  m  the  BmMutk  and 
tbe  Dia-karb,  ot  maeh  later  date.  It  ia  an  important 
aid  to  Che  DDdentanding  of  the  Aveata;  yet  ita  intei^ 
pretatioD  ia  not  to  be  implicitlj'  tmated.  That  part  of 
the  Zuroaitrian  literature  which  ia  compoaed  in  the  to- 
called  Pareee  dialect  ia  of  Btill  more  moderti  date  and 
limited  extent.  GlotteaotinterpretatianaoftheATestan 
l«lta,  called  Pa-Ztad,  veinooa  of  certain  portiona  of 
them  and  of  Pehlevi  text*,  aundty  invocationa  and  aa- 
eriptiona  of  praiae,  and  expoaitiona  of  Panee  doctrine, 
constitute  nearly  ita  whole  aubatanee.  Several  paaaage* 
of  these  texts  were  published  in  Spiegel's  ParJo  Cmai- 
■ur (Lei pdc,  1851).  AlUrthesattlenwnCortbePatseea 
in  India,  a  Sanaciil  version  of  the  Vatna  and 
pans  of  tbe  Aveatan  text  was  made  by  Merioaeugh.  It 
has  been  published  in  a  Latin  transliteration  by  S^egel 
(Leipsic,  1861).  See  Spiegel,  AvtHa;  iKe  IuS^ 
Seiriflai  drr  Partai,  aiu  dm  (TmdreK  ufeneM  (Laip- 
iic,  I85S~63,  B  vols.;  Eng.  ed.  of  the  same  by  fileek. 
Land.  18M) ;  Hang,  Euagi  (lit  ed.  Bombay,  1S6S) ; 
BareUcque,  Ciainaioira  de  la  Lmgue  Zemde  (Paria, 
1878);  Uirleaz,  Atala,  Urn  Saeri  da  Stttatatn  de 
ZorocurrefLJese,  1875-78,8  vols.);  Buraouf,  Vmdidod- 
Sadi;  Olshauaen,  Vadidad  Zad-AnaUa;  Kaak,  AUtr 
umt  jEdUteilderZadipracJu;  Spiegel,  froMfOU  j4&<r- 
IhamdMtde  (Letpaic,  1872, 1S73,  !  vols.);  UuUer,  Ch^ 
/ram  a  Germm  Workihop,  vol.  i,  lectures  T-vuL  For 
tbe  ttngnsge  of  the  Zend-Avesla,  see  Pietnasenskt, 
Air^delaGrammairt Zmd(Beiiia.l861,8Toy,  Ung, 
OuiOki  ofZtad  Grammar  (Bombay,  186S,  8vo). 

Zand  IiBngnage. 

Zenksl,  Geokq  Fitter,  a  Proteati 
Geimaay,  was  bora  March  SO,  1717,  at  Schwanenbach, 
iu  Bsyreuch.  He  studied  theology.  Oriental  languagea, 
and  natural  adencea  at  Jena.  In  1740  he  wia  permitted 
to  lecture,  and  in  1746  was  made  adjunct  to  the  philo- 
■ophical  (kculcy.  In  1754  he  was  called  aa  proftoaor  of 
philosophy  to  Erlingen,  and  opened  his  lectures  with 
an  address,  Dt  Mtthodo  Doctndi  upud  I'tlrra  Hetraoi. 
In  1755  he  resigned  his  position,  and  >lied  Dec.  11, 1760. 
He  wrote,  Comuiatlarii  Grarantatici  Kbraa  Lingua 
(ieiia,ll^,l~i^):—CimmoaariuiEcaKgtlico-!l<miUti- 
eut  (ibid.  1747  a.  o.) : — BtUrdge  tur  Verlktidtgumg  der 
M<aaiickt»  RfUgioa,  etc  (Ootbn,  1762-56,  2  vols.) : — 
Din.  PhUologica  de  StpvUura  CkriMi,  ad  Learn  Emia 
^ 9 (Jena,  1754).  SetOonag, Die gtUhrlaiThtologm 
"  ■  ■■3»irfi,iv,782sq.;  Fllrst,fii4tJiKiiii,650i  Stein- 
r,  BiU.  UiadlMch,  p.  152.     (a  P.) 

ZuiO,  a  repnted  bishop  or  TiinoxA,  and  allej^ 
author  of  ninetv-three  sermona,  which  were  published 
in  1608  by  Jacob  de  Lenco  and  Albert  CaaCellan  under 
tbe  title,  8.  Zenaid  Epitc.  Vtrmea.  Strmona,  tftni  a 
TSiy  andenC  manuscript  found  Bdy  j-eaia  before  in  tbe 
epiaoopal  library  of  Verona  by  Guirinua.  These  aet^ 
DM*  were  previously  wholly  unknown,  and  Zeno  him- 
self lived  only  in  a  few  miracle  -  tegenda.  He  was 
repteaented  with  a  Hah  attached  to  his  angle  or  epis- 
copal alnfT,  because  he  had,  while  angling,  delivered  a 
drowning  man  from  the  dutches  of  the  dcviL  Eleven 
of  the  sermona  are  certainly  not  by  the  author  of  tbe 
general  mass.  The  age  of  tha  collection  is  variously 
estimated ;  Vogel,  in  Henog  (following  Dottier),  dating 
them  back  peihapa  to  Che  beginning  of  the  latter  half 


t2  ZERREMER 

of  tbe  8d  eeotaty,  Batooitn  to  A.D.  SOO,  otben  la  AJ>. 
450400.  It  woald  seem  that  QtKj  eiMiiated  from  tba 
mind  of  a  Inahap  who  waa  eodowad  with  eamestntsa 
and  dignity  of  cbatactel  as  wdl  as  Ibeologieal  katning, 
and  who  prnided  over  an  aalafaliafaed  Chnnib  and  a  f^- 
ularly  organized  deigy.  Sec  Feeder,  /astiM.  Patnta^ 
(Oenipont,  1861),  i,  7S  sq.;  Wetxer  >L  Welle,  Kirdiaf 
LexHeti,  s.r.;  Jaadiewiki,  Zaw,  FeroHni  Qiise.  (Bat- 
LsboD,  1862) ;  Dotner,  EtUwidbtvsttdt  d.  loirs  «n  it 
/yrs«i(71ri>tft,2ded.i,T54Bq.j  Uanoft  Aaoi-AajUy. 

iuaobia.    See  Tadhob. 
Zanonlsm.    See  Srtnr^  PaiUMonrr;  Sions. 
ZantgTkT,  Joiusn  Jacob,  a  Lotberan  tbeoli^n 
oT  Germany,  was  bora  at  Strasburg,  Hay  21, 1643.    He 

studied  at  Leipsic  and  Wiltenberg,  was  in  1676  professor 
in  his  Dative  city,  in  1678  doctor  of  theology,  and  died 
Xov.  28, 1707.  Zentgrav  was  a  volumiuona  writer.  A 
complete  list  of  his  writings,  embracing  all  departmeota 
of  theology,  is  given  by  Jocher,  AUgentiiK$  (Mehrttm- 
LexiioH,  t.^.    (B.P.> 

Zephym^  in  Greek  mythology,  tbe  repnaentativ* 
of  tbe  west  wind,  wa*  a  aoo  of  Aatiiau*  and  Eo*.  H« 
was  repicaented  in  Athan*  on  tbe  lower  of  winda,  light- 


Antlqn*  Flgnre  of  Zephjrrat. 


ly  draped  with  a  mantle,  because  he  waa  the  waiwuat 
wind.  In  tbe  lap  of  bis  mantle  be  carried  a  quantity 
of  floweta, 

ZtT  (Heb.  Tttr,  ^X,  rock;  S^H.  by  misapprchenaioii, 
TupO£,  Vulg.  Srr),  one  of  the  fortiOed  towna  of  Napbtsli 
(Josh.  xix,S5),  where  it  is  named  between  Ziddioa  and 
Hamnath;  but  from  Che  abaeucs  of  the  copolalire 
("  and  ")  between  this  and  the  preceding  name,  aa  weU 
as  from  the  total  ("nineteen  ciliea")  in  ver.3S,itis  evi- 
dently a  part  of  the  preceding  name,  Ziddim-ia.  See 
ZiDDin.  Scbwaix  remarks  {Paitt.  p.  182)  that  Z«T  is 
mentioned  in  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  (Hegillalt,  i)  aa 
lying  near  Ziddim. 

Kent  Abrallam  (BH^SX  X^p  ia  the  title  <f  a 
grammatioo-hiatoiical  commentary  on  tbe  Penlateocb, 
written  by  Abraham  Se^  of  Bneae,  in  tha  17ib  ceo- 
tury,  and  published  at  Sulzbach  in  1685.  See  De'  BiHi, 
Dtcionaria  Sloriea  (Germ.  trsnsL),  p.  S5j  Furat,  BAL. 
Adi,ll.    (RP.) 

Zardnst.    See  Zouoaster. 

Zerada.  The  pteaent  Sardah  Ilea  twenly-ocM  and 
a  half  miles  north-west  of  Btitln  (Bethel),  and  ia  -■ 
small  village  on  a  hillside,  with  a  garden  to  the  soMli 
of  it,  and  the  spring  Ain  JelaiOn  on  tbe  east"  (_ilemain 
to  the  Ordnance  Surrey,  ii,  295). 

Zairemar,  Hsikbich  GtnruKB,  a  Protestant  the- 
ologian of  Germany,  was  bora  aC  Wernigtrode,  Ifarefa 
8,  1760.  He  atndied  at  Halle,  and,  after  completing 
his  studies,  accepted  a  pontion  aa  teacher  of  Latio  ami 
nutbematica  at  Klosterbergen.  In  1775  be  was  calkd 
aa  pastor  to  Bayendotf.  In  17S7  be  waa  appointed  Brat 
preacher  at  Dereobnrg,  in  the  duchy  of  HalbeiMadt. 
In  1810  bo  was  appmnled  general  superintendent  at 
Ualberatadt,  where  be  died,  Nov.  10^  ISl  L  He  wm  a 
popuUr  writer,  and  hi*  pubUcatioos  were  greatly  e^ 


ZESTERMANN 


1023 


ZILLERTHAL 


teemed  in  bis  day,  though  of  little  valne  for  the  imeent 
They  ere  given  by  Ddring,  in  his  DU  gdekrtem  Theo^ 
logm  Deutichlandij  iv,  787;  aee  also  Winer,  Hcatdbueh 
(ferMcoALtf.  1,192, 196, 226,288,248,891     (B.P.) 

Zeotemuum,  August  Christian  Adolp,  who 
died  at  Leipdc,  March  16, 1869,  doctor  and  profeaor,  is 
the  author  of,  Ve  BaaUicu  Libri  Trti  (Leipsic,  1847) : 
— DU  amtihem  und  chritttiehtn  BatUiken  naek  ikrer  £m^ 
tiehvnff^  AiubUdunff  vnd  Btziehung  tuemander  dargea- 
idU  (1847).    See  Zucbold,  BibL  TkeoL  a.  ▼.     (&  P.) 

SSiokler,  Frikdhich  Samuel,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Nor.  14, 1721,  at  Schwabe- 
dorf,  in  Weimar.  He  studied  at  Jena,  where  he  was 
made  magister  in  1744,  on  presenting  a  dissertation, 
Ad  Vaticmium  Jacobaum  Genet.  xUx,  12.  In  1758  he 
was  made  professor  of  philosophy,  and  at  the  jubilee  of 
the  Jena  University  was  made  doctor  of  theology,  pre- 
senting a  dissertation,  De  Glorioto  Servatorit  in  Cahim 
Adtcentu.  In  1760  he  went  to  Erlangen  as  third  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  university-preacher.  He  opened 
his  lectures  with  a  dissertation  on  J)e  dp^oSolia  el 
dp^oroitia  Neoetsariii  m  Bodore  Eccksia  JRequuilit, 
He  returned  again  to  Jena  in  1768,  advanced  rapidly, 
and  died  April  25, 1779,  having  four  years  before  been 
choeen  first  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote,  IHu,  I 
et  II  Hittorico "  ExegeHetB,  Rdtgionem  Bettiarum  ab 
.^yptiii  CoruecraUtrum  Exponentet,  etc.  (Jena,  1745- 
A&)i—Du$.  Exegetiea  Statum  EedesitB  Novi  FotdtriM 
PrimmwB  a  Jeremia  tti,  14  #;.,  Pnedictum  Exponent 
(ibid.  I7i7) i^Chaldaitnmt  Vamdit  PropAetm,  etc 
Cibid.  1749,  etc).  See  Ddring,  Die  ffeUhrtem  Tkeohgen 
BeutteUandt,  iv,  789  sq. ;  FQrst,  BibL  JtuL  iil,  560. 

(a  P.) 

Slddini.  The  modem  llaUin  lies  seven  and  a  quar- 
ter miles  north-west  of  Tiberias,  and  four  and  three 
quarters  south-west  of  Hejdel  (Magdala);  it  contains 
several  rock-cut  tombs  to  the  west,  and  the  wady  of 
Neby  Shoaib  (Jethro)  on  the  south  (^Menwirt  to  the 
Ordnance  Survey,  i,  884). 

Zlegenbalg,  Bartholomaus,  a  well-known  Prot- 
estant misuonary  of  Germany,  was  bom  June  14, 1683, 
at  Pulsnitz,  in  Lusatia.  lie  studied  at  Halle,  where 
A.  H.  Francke  enlisted  him  for  misslonar)'  service.  On 
Nov.  29, 1705,  he  left  for  Tranqnebar  with  his  friend 
FlUtschow.  For  a  time  his  work  was  opposed  b}'  the 
Danish  officers,  but  finally  he  succeeded.  Having  maa- 
tered  the  language,  he  translated  Luther's  smaller  cate- 
chism, the  New  Test.,  and  commenced  the  translation  of 
the  Old  Test,  into  the  Malabar  language.  He  also  found- 
ed schools  and  built  chapels  there.  In  1714  he  returned 
to  Europe,  to  return  again  to  Tranquebar  in  1716,  where 
be  died,  Feb.  23,  1719.  He  published,  Grammatica 
BamuUca  (Halle,  1716) :— together  with  J.  E.  Grttndler, 
be  published  Theologia  Thetiea  in  qua  Omnia  Dogmata 
ad  Salutem  Cognotcmiam  Necettaria  Pertpieua  Metho- 
do  TraeUtniur^  etc  (2d  cd.  Halle,  1856).  See  German, 
Ziegenb(dg  und  PliUtchow  (Erkingen,  1868,  2  vols.) ; 
Theoiogitchea  UnivertaUexihon,  a.  v.;  Zuchold,  BibL 
TkeoL  ii,  1491.     (R  P.) 

Slegenbein,  Johanx  Wilhelm  Hbikrich,  a  Prot- 
estant theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  in  1766  at 
Braunschweig.  In  1798  he  was  appointed  pastor  of 
St.  Peter's,  in  hu  native  place,  and  advanced  in  1803  as 
f^eneral  superintendent  of  the  duchy  of  BUmkenburg. 
In  1819  he  was  appointed  abbot  of  Michaelstein,  and 
died  Jan.  12, 1824.  Ziegenbein*s  writings  are  mostly 
of  a  pedagogical  nature.  He  translated  from  the  French 
Senebrier's  lives  of  Calvin  and  Beza  (Hamburg,  1789); 
from  the  English  Priestley's  Compariton  of  the  InatilU" 
tiont  of  Motet  with  thote  of  the  Hitidut  and  other  An' 
dent  Nationt;  The  Life  of  Gibbon,  etc  See  D<)ring, 
Diegelehrten  Theologen  Devttchkmdt,  iv,  793  sq.;  Wi- 
ner, ffandbuch  der  theoL  LU.  i,  142;  ii,  78, 95,  228,  237, 
239,  245,  248,  260,  339,  354;  Fttrst,  BibL  Jud.  iu,  550. 
(B.P.) 

Zlegler,  Daniel,  D.D.,  a  German  Beformed  min- 


ister, was  bom  at  Reading,  Pa.,  Jnly  11, 1804.  His 
parents  removing  to  New  Beriin,  Union  Co.,  in  his  in- 
fancy, his  yonth  was  spent  there.  He  was  a  saddler  by 
trade,  and  went  to  Philadelphia  to  work;  but  his  mind 
being  turned  towards  the  ministry,  he  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  located  at  Philadelphia ;  stud- 
ied theology  in  the  seminary  of  the  Refonned  Chureh 
at  Cariisle ;  was  licensed  in  1830,  and  became  pastor  of 
some  congregations  in  York  County ;  was  called  to  the 
Kreotzereek  charge,  where  he  spent  the  whole  of  his 
life,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  few  years,  which 
were  devoted  to  the  First  Reformed  Chureh  in  York. 
He  died  ICay  23, 1876.  He  preached  almost  exclusive- 
ly in  German,  which  he  spoke  with  great  fluency,  ao- 
euraey,  and  elegance.  His  preaching  was  calm,  clear, 
and  impressive.  He  was  a  man  of  culture,  pleasant, 
open-hearted,  kind,  and  sympathising.  See  Harbangh, 
Fathert  of  the  Germ.  Bef  Churchy  v,  199. 

Zlegler,  "Werner  Carl  Lndwlg,  a  Protestant 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  Ma}'  15,  1768,  at 
Scharaebeck,  in  LUneburg.  He  studied  at  Gbttingen, 
some  time  lectured  in  the  Gottingen  University,  and 
was  called,  in  1792,  as  professor  of  theology  at  Rostock. 
He  died  April  24, 1809,  leaving,  De  Afimit  Romanorum 
Commentatio  (Gottingen,  1788)  : — VoUttandige  Eudei- 
tung  in  den  Brief  on  die  fithrder  (ibid.  1791) : — Progr, 
A  dit,  Hittoria  Dogmatit  de  Redempiione^  etc  (ibid,  eod.) : 
— Beitrage  zur  Getchichte  det  GUiuhent  an  dot  Dateyn 
Gottet  in  der  Theologie  (ibid.  1792).  See  Doring,  Die 
gelehrten  Theologen  Deuttchlandt,  iv,  798  sq. ;  Winer, 
ffandbuch  der  theoL  Lit,  i,  32, 90, 211, 572, 596,  599, 610 ; 
Fttrst,  BibL  Jud,  iii,  551.     (B.  P.) 

Zierold,  Johaxn  WiLHXLM,a  Lutheran  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bora  May  14, 1669,  at  Neustadt-ober^ 
Wiesenthal,  in  Meissen.  He  studieid  at  Leipsic,  trav- 
elled extensively  through  Austria,  Holland,  and  Eng- 
land, was  appointed,  in  1696,  pastor  and  professor  of 
theology  at  the  GrJSningen  College  in  Stargard,  received 
the  doctorete  of  theology  in  1698,  and  died  Sept.  1, 
1781.  He  wrote,  Analogitmut  Nominum  et  Berum  ex 
Pta.i  (Stargard,  1701):  — 3I3%1  *lit3  oder  deuOiche 
Erlduterungen  der  heiUgen  Schrifl  (Leipsic,  1715): — 
Der  Prediger  Sahmo  out  der  Bedeutung  der  Buchttaben 
(ibid,  eod.) : — Der  Prophet  Obadja,  etc.  (ibid,  eod.) ; — 
Der  Prophet  Jdd,  etc  (ibid.  1720).  See  Hildebrand, 
ffirlen  nach  dem  f/erzen  Gottet  zu  Stargard;  Jocher, 
A  Ugemeinet  GeUhrten-Lexihon^  s.  v. ;  Fttrst,  BiiL  Jud,  iii, 
551.    (RP.) 

Zigabenne,  Euthymius.    See  Exrrinraacs  Zioa- 

BBXUS. 

Zlller,  TuiSKOTf,  ^  German  philosopher,  was  bom 
Dec  22, 1817,  and  died  April  20, 1882,  at  Leipsic,  doctor 
and  professor  of  philosophy.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Her- 
bart,  whose  system  he  followed.  ZUler  published,  Die 
Begientng  der  Kinder  (1859) : — Grundlegung  zur  Lehre 
vom  erziehenden  Unterricht  (1801) : — Vorletungen  Hiber 
cdigemeine  Pddagogik  (1876) : — AUgemeinephHotophitehe 
Ethik  (1880).  In  1860  he  started  with  Allihn  the 
Zeittchryft  fur  exdkte  PhUotophie  m  Sinne  det  neueren 
philotophitchen  Bealitmut,  He  also  organized  the  so- 
ciety of  scientific  pedagc^cs,  whose  organ,  the  Jahr' 
6ucA«r,  he  edited  for  fourteen  years.    (B.  P.) 

ZUlerthal,  a  valley  of  Tyrol,  stretching  for  about 
five  miles  along  the  ZUler,  between  Sa]d>urg  and  Inns- 
bruck, and  inhabited  by  about  15,000  souls,  has  become 
memorable  in  Chureh  history  on  account  of  the  infa- 
mous manner  in  which  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  suc- 
ceeded in  suppressing  an  evangelical  rising  which  took 
pUoe  in  our  century.  As  in  other  countries  of  Ger- 
many, the  Reformation  found  its  way  iuto  Salzburg  and 
Tyrol,  but  it  was  suppressed,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
16th  century,  in  Salzburg,  by  the  arohbishops,  and  in 
Tyrol  by  the  government,  in  connection  with  the  no* 
bility  and  the  ecclesiastics.  In  1730  arehbuhop  Frinian 
inaugurated  a  cruel  persecution,  with  a  view  of  exter- 


ZIMMEB 


1024 


ZIN6ERLE 


minatlng  all  adherents  to  the  evangdieal  faith.  Ner* 
ertheless  it  reappeared  in  the  Zillerthal  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  centnr3'.  As  soon  as  the  Roman 
cleigy*  became  aware  of  the  danger,  the  number  of 
priests  was  doubled  in  the  villages  and  the  strictest 
watch  was  kepL  When,  in  1882,  the  emperor  Frands 
of  Austria  visited  the  valley,  the  evangelical  Ziller- 
thalecs  petitioned  him  in  behalf  of  their  religion.  The 
emperor  promised  to  do  what  he  could.  When  the 
Boman  dergj  became  aware  of  this,  they  resorted  to 
violent  measures.  The  toleration  edict  of  Joseph  II, 
and  the  stipulations  of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  were 
thrown  aside,  and,  instigated  by  the  fanatical  dcrgy, 
the  provincial  estates  of  T3T0I  decreed  that  no  split  in 
the  Church  of  the  country  shonld.be  allowed,  that  those 
who  would  not  confonn  to  the  Church. of  Borne  should 
leave  the  country  and  settle  under  an  evangelical  prince. 
But  before  this  could  be  effected  the  Evangelicals  had 
to  suffer  many  things.  Being  under  the  ban  of  the 
Church,  their  neighbors  were  warned  against  holding 
any  kind  of  intercourse  with  them.  The  children  of 
the  Evangelicals  were  forced  to  frequent  the  Boman 
Catholic  schools,  where  they  were  placed  on  separate 
seats,  as  "  children  of  the  devil,"  apart  from  the  **  Chris- 
tian children."  When,  after  eleven  years  of  perpetual 
chicanery,  the  Evangelicals  were  advised  from  Vienna 
that  they  could  emigrate,  they  addressed  themselves  to 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  HI  of  Prussia,  in  1887,  and  by  hU 
humane  intorcession  they  were  allowed  to  sell  their  es- 
tates and  remove  to  his  dominions,  where  they  were 
settled,  four  hundred  and  forty-eight  souls,  in  Hohen- 
Htttel,  and  Nieder-Zillerthal,  in  Silesia.  See  Rhein- 
wald,  Die  Evangduchegeairaten  im  ZUUrlhal  (Berlin, 
1887);  Evcmgelisehe  Kirchenzeitunff  (1885),  p.  818-«15, 
820-^23;  (1886),  p.  182;  (1837),  p.  843;  Herzog,  iZea/- 
Eruyidop.  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Zimmer,  Patriz  Bbxkdict,  a  Boman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bom  Feb.  22,  1762.  He 
studied  theology  and  philosophy,  received  holy  orders 
in  1775,  was  made  profeseor  of  dogmatics  at  Ingolstadt 
in  1789,  and  died  at  Steinheim,  Oct.  16,  1820.  He 
wrote,  Theologia  Christianas  Theoreiiae  Systema  (Det- 
lingen,  1787)  : — Verittu  Christiana  Rtliffionis  (Augs- 
burg, 1789-90):  — rAeo/o^  Christiana  Sptdalis  et 
Theoretica  (Landshiit,  1802-1806)  i—PhHosophische  Re- 
UgionsUhre  (ibid.  1805) :—  Untersudhung  iiher  den  allge- 
meinen  VerfaU  des  menschL  Geschlechts  (ibid.  1809): — 
Untersuchung  iiber  den  BegriJJf  und  die  Gesetze  der  Ge~ 
tchichie  (Munich,  I8I8).  See  his  biography  in  Wid- 
mer*s  edition  of  Sailer^s  works,  xxxviii,  117  sq.,  and 
appendix  to  his  biography  (Uri,  1823);  Densinger, 
Jietigidse  Erheimtniss,  i,  209  sq.,  540  sq. ;  Werner,  Ge$ch, 
der  kathol  Theologie,  p.  254  sq.,  810  sq. ;  TheoL  Urnvtr^ 
saUexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Zimmexmami,  Emst,  a  brother  of  Karl,  was 
bom  Sept.  18,  1786.  Like  his  brother,  he  studied 
theology'  and  philology  at  Giessen.  In  1805  he  was 
called  as  assistant  preacher  and  teacher  to  Auerbach 
(where  he  published  an  edition  of  Euripides  p^rank- 
fort,  1808  sq.],  and  Suetonius^s  History  of  the  Roman 
Emperors  [Darmstadt,  1810]).  In  1809  he  was  ap- 
pointed deacon  at  Grossgeran,  in  1814  advanced  as 
court-deacon,  and  in  1816  made  court-preacher,  at  the 
same  time  acting  as  tutor  of  prince  Ludwig  of  Anhalt- 
Kdthen.  He  died  J  une  24, 1 832,  having  been  appointed 
prelate.  He  was  an  excellent  preacher,  and  bis  hom- 
iletical  works  are  still  of  great  value.  Besides  sermons, 
he  published,  Hmniietisdies  Uandbuehfur  denbende  Pre^ 
diger  (Frankfort,  1812-22, 4  To\B,)i^M&nats9chrififwr 
Predigerwissenschajten  (Darmstadt,  1821-24,  6  vols.): 
—Jahrbuek  der  theoL  Literatur  (Essen,  1882-36, 4  voU) : 
^Geitt  aus  Luther's  Schrijlen  (Darmstadt,  1828-31,  4 
vols.).  In  1822  he  commenced  the  A  ilgemeine  JTt irAen- 
teitung^  which  is  still  published*  See  Karl  Zimmer- 
mann,  Emst  ZimmermoMH  nach  seinem  Lebe»f  Wirken 
«.  Character  geschUdert  (Darmstadt,  1888);  Zuchold, 


BibL  TheoL  ii,  1497  sq.;   TheoL  VmunaVetiim,  a.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Zimmannami,  Johann  Cbxlstiaii,  a  Lutheran 
theologian  of  Germany,  was  bora  at  Langenwiesen,  near 
Ilmenan,  Aog.  12, 1702.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  was 
appointeid  ooortpchaplain  at  Hanover  in  1738.  In  1743 
he  was  called  as  provost  and  superintendent  to  ITeltzen, 
in  Hanover,  where  he  died.  May  28,  1783.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  hjrmns,  which  are  found  in  Vermehrtes 
ffanoverioehes  Kireheit-Gesangivck  (edited  by  Zimnoer- 
mann,  Hanover,  1740).  See  Koch,  Gesek,  dL  daitseken 
KirehenUedeSf  v,  566  sq.    (B.  P.) 

Zimmemiami,  Johann  Jakob  (1),  an  eloquent 
German  preacher,  was  bora  in  the  duchy  of  Wurtem- 
bei|;  in  1644.  He  was  generally  regardcMl  as  a  disciple 
of  Boehman  and  Brouquelle,  whose  doctrines  he  rei^ 
dered  highly  popular,  making  many  converta  in  Ger- 
many and  the  united  provinces  of  the  Netherlands. 
He  was  for  some  years  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Heidelberg.  He  was  sbout  to.  depart  for  America  to 
escape  the  persecution  to  which  his  preaching  had  sub- 
jected him,  when  he  died  at  Botterdam,  in  169S.  The 
most  noted  of  his  works  is  entitled  a  Revelation  o/AvtU 
Christ, 

Zimmermann,  Johann  Jakob  (2),  a  Swiss  the- 
ologian, was  bora  in  1685,  became  professor  at  Zurich 
in  1737,  and  died  in  1756.  He  introduced  more  libersl 
views  in  his  teaching  than  had  been  current  hitherta, 
and  was  often  suspected  of  heresy.  See  Hagenbach, 
fJist,  of  the  Church  in  the  iSth  and  I9th  Centuries,  i,  113; 
Fritzsche,Z>i«fertofum  (Zurich,  1841);  Schweitzer,  C^k 
traldogmenf  ii,  791  sq. 

ZUnmermann,  Karl,  a  Protestant  thcologiaB  of 
Germany,  was  bora  at  Darmstadt,  Aug.  28,  1006.  He 
studied  theology  and  philology  at  Giessen,  and,  afkcr 
having, labored  for  some  years  in  the  department  of 
education,  was  appointed  deacon  to  the  court-ckurdi 
at  Darmstadt  in  1832.  From  that  time  be  reoBained 
in  the  ministry,  advancing  rapidly,  and  was  appointed 
in  1842  first  preacher  to  the  court.  In  1847  he  was 
made  prelate  and  member  of  conustory,  and  fiUed  this 
high  position  till  1872,  when  he  retired.  He  died  Jane 
1 2, 1877.  To  him  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society  (q.  v.) 
is  much  indebted  for  the  great  interest  and  activity  be 
showed  in  its  behalf.  His  publications,  mostly  ae^ 
mons,  are  all  specified  by  Zuchold,  Bibl,  TheoL  ii,  1495- 
97.     See  also  TheoL  UmrersaHexikon^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Zimmermann,  Mathlaii,  a  German  theokgian, 
was  bora  at  Ypres,  Sept  21,  1625.  He  began  bia 
studies  in  his  native  village,  and  afterwards  went  to 
the  CoUege  of  Thun  (1639X  snd  thence  (1644)  to  tbs 
University  of  Strasbuig,  where  he  studied  phikMophy. 
Having  decided  upon  a  religious  career,  be  studied  at 
Leipsic,  and  in  1651  retnraed  home.  He  was  soon  noos- 
inated  rector  of  the  College  of  Leutach,  in  Upper  Hai»> 
gary,  but  the  next  year  (1652)  returned  home  again. 
Soon  afterwards  the  elector  of  Saxony  appointed  him  a 
colleague  of  the  superintendent  of  Goklits,  and  the  min- 
ister and  superintendent  of  Meissen.  He  had  prepared 
himself  for  those  positions  by  a  license  in  theology 
(Nov.  1661),  and  in  1666  was  made  doctor  in  the  uni- 
versity at  Leipuc,  but  died  suddenly,  Nov.  29,  1689, 
leaving  many  religious  works,  which  are  enumerated 
in  the  £iog,  l/moerseUe,  a.  v. 

Zimmarmann,  WHhalm,  historian  and  oontro- 
versialist  of  Neustadt,  in  the  duchy  oi  WUrteinberg, 
was  preacher  at  Wimpfew  in  1569,  member  of  ooosis- 
tory  and  court -preacher  at  Hdddberg  in  157^  aad 
finally  (in  1586)  inspector  of  chnrehes  and  schools  at 
Grotz.  He  left  a  JUittoria  GermamciB^  and  some  £d- 
feres,  which  are  inserted  by  Fecht  in  his  ooUestiott  of 
Epistola  Theohgioes. 

Zingerle,  Pxua,  a  Boman  Catholic  Orientafist,  was 
bora  at  Meran,  Mareh  17, 1801,  and  died  Jan.  10^  1881« 
at  Mariaberg,  Tyrol.   He  published,  £blf«^l«eBlei%fr 


ZINZENDORF 


1025 


ZINZENDORF 


Mutiiyrer  des  Morgenkmdetf  aus  dem  Syrisehen  i&eneUt 
( Innabriick,  1836,  2  rols. )  :-^Clement  RomtMu'  kwH 
Brirfe  an  die  Jwigfrauen^  cuts  dem  Syritchen  mii  An- 
merkungen  (  Vienna,  1827  ) :  —  Ephraem  Syrus*  auMer^ 
wdhUe  Sckriften  (Innsbruck,  1830-^,  6  voU.) ;  besides, 
he  contributed  largely  to  the  ZtiiBckriJt  of  the  German 
Oriental  Society.     (B.  P.) 

Zinxendori^  Nicholab  Lewis  Count  von,  is  en- 
titled to  a  fuller  notice  than  space  allowed  in  vol.  x. 
The  founder  of  the  modem  Moravian  Gharch  was  born 
at  Dresden,  May  26, 1700,  and  died  at  Hermhut,  Ssxo- 
ny,  May  9, 1760.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient 
Austrian  family.  For  the  sake  of  the  Protestant  faith 
his  grandfather  relinqnished  broad  domains  in  Austria, 
and  settled  in  Franconia.  When  he  was  but  six  weeks 
old,  his  father,  one  of  the  cabinet  minister^  of  the  eleo> 
tor  of  Saxony,  died ;  while  several  years  later  his  moth- 
er married  the  field  •  marshal  Von  Natzmar,  of  the 
Prussian  army,  and  removed  to  Berlin.  Young  Zin- 
aendorf  did  not  accompany  her,  but  remained  with  his 
grandmother,  the  baroness  Catharine  von  GersJorf,  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  women  of  her  day,  who  had 
organized  a  Spenerian  ecdesiola  in  her  castle  of  Gross 
Henuersdorf.  That  he  was  intrusted  to  her  care  proved 
to  be  an  important  event  in  his  life.  Amid  the  influ- 
ences of  that  ecckaioia  he  spent  his  childhood,  daily 
breathing  the  atmosphere  of  a  transparent  piety.  His 
grandmother  and  aunt  Henrietta  shaped  his  religious 
(levelopment.  When  he  was  not  yet  four  years  old 
he  grasped,  with  a  clear  perception  and  a  flood  of 
feeling,  Christ's  relation  to  man  as  a  Saviour  and 
divine  brother.  This  consciousness  produced  a  love 
for  Jesus  which  was  the  holy  and  perpetual  fire  on 
the  altar  of  his  heart;  so  that  in  mature  years  he 
could  truthfully  exclaim:  ^*I  have  but  one  passion; 
and  it  is  He — ^He  only  !*'  In  1710  he  was  sent  to  the 
Boyal  Paedagogium  at  Halle,  at  the  head  of  which 
stood  the  celebrated  Francke;  in  1716  he  entered 
the  University  of  Wittenberg;  and  in  1719,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  custom  of  young  nobles  of  that  day,  be- 
gan his  travels.  During  all  these  years  he  confessed 
Christ  with  youthful  enthusiasm,  and  labored  for  his 
cause  with  manly  courage.  At  Halle  he  organized  a 
fraternity  among  the  students,  known  as  ^^The  Order 
of  the  Grain  of  Mustard  Seed  f  at  Wittenberg  he  ex- 
ercised no  little  influence ;  in  Paris,  where  he  spent  an 
entire  winter,  neither  the  blandishments  of  the  royal 
coart  nor  the  flatteries  of  the  highest  nobles  could  se- 
duce him  from  the  path  of  godliness.  His  commentary 
on  the  French  capital,  with  its  hollow  gayeties  and  car- 
nal frivolities,  was:  **0  Spkndida  Miseriar  while  the 
impression  which  an  exquisite  Kcce  ffomo — ^with  the 
inscription, "  Hoc  fed  pro  te,  quid/acts  pro  me  f" — in  the 
picture-gallery  of  DUsseldorf  made  upon  his  heart  fol- 
lowed him  through  life.  When  Zinzendorf  returned 
from  his  journey,  it  was  his  earnest  wish  to  devote  him- 
self, in  spite  of  his  rank,  to  the  ministry  of  the  gospel. 
But  neither  his  mother  nor  grandmother  would  listen 
to  such  a  proposition,  and  insisted  upon  his  adopting, 
like  his  father,  the  career  of  a  statesman.  With  a 
heavy  heart  he  yielded,  and  in  1721  accepted  a  position 
as  Aulic  and  Justicial  Councillor  at  Dresden.  His  pui> 
pose  to  promote  the  cause  of  Christ  remained,  however, 
unshaken,  and  soon  after  attaining  his  majority  he  pur- 
chased the  domain  of  Berthelsdorf,  in  Upper  Lusatia, 
with  the  intention  of  making  that  the  centre  of  his 
Christian  activity.  In  what  such  activity  was  to  con- 
sist he  did  not  as  yet  know.  He  was  supported  in  his 
purpose  by  his  young  wife,  the  countess  Erdrouth  Dor- 
othy von  Reus8,whom  he  married  in  1722,  and  through 
whom  he  became  connected  with  several  of  the  royal 
bouses  of  Europe.  Of  the  manner  in  which  he  was  led 
to  grant  an  asylum  on  his  newly-purchased  estate  to 
the  remnant  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  of  the  renewal 
of  their  Church  through  his  agency,  and  of  the  peculiar 
character  which  he  gave  to  it,  a  full  oocount  may  be 
found  in  the  article  on  the  Moraviam  BBBTHBBiTy  2, 

XII.— T  T  T 


vi,  685,  etc  In  all  that  he  undertook  in  this  respect 
his  aim  was,  not  to  interfere  with  the  established 
Church,  bat  rather  to  make  the  Moravians  a  Church 
within  that  Church.  His  course  was  misunderstood 
and  excited  bitter  opposition.  In  1786  he  was  ban- 
ished from  Saxony,  and,  two  years  later,  as  he  refused 
to  sign  a  bond  acknowledging  himself  guilty  of  "of- 
fences,'* banished  '*  forever."  The  same  result  which 
generally  grows  out  of  religious  persecutions  appeared 
in  this  case  also.  His  enemies  overreached  themselves. 
Instead  of  putting  a  stop  to  his  Christian  activity,  it 
grew  in  importance  and  extended  far  and  wide.  A 
"  Church  of  Pilgrims,"  as  it  was  called,  gathered  around 
Zinzendorf,  composed  of  the  members  of  his  family  and 
his  chief  ministerial  coadjutors,  and  itinerated  to  vari- 
ous parts  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  and  Eng- 
land, everywhere  making  known  the  renewal  of  the 
UnUa»  Fratrum^  and  attracting  large  numbers  to  its 
communion.  Zinzendorf,  with  the  aid  of  his  fellow- 
laborers,  directed  the  entire  work  of  the  Moravians  in 
Christian  and  heathen  lands.  He  had  long  since  re- 
signed his  civil  office  at  Dresden,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  ministry ;  and  now,  May  25, 1787,  at  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  king  of  Prussia,  he  was  consecrated, 
at  Berlin,  a  bishop  of  the  Uniias  FrcUrum,  by  bishops 
Jablonsky  and  David  Nitschmann.  In  the  following 
year  he  set  out  on  a  tour  of  inspection  to  the  mission 
in  St.  Thomas,  and  in  1741  visited  America.  His  course 
continued  to  excite  opposition,  and  brought  upon  him 
personal  defamation  of  the  grossest  character.  Few 
servants  of  the  Lord  have  suffered  more  in  this  respect. 
But  he  leaned  upon  the  strong  arm  of  his  divine  Mas- 
ter, and  gradually  won  the  victory.  The  Saxon  gov- 
ernment recalled  him  to  his  native  conntr}^  and  fully 
acknowledged  the  Renewed  Church  of  the  Brethren; 
the  British  parliament  recognised  the  Church,  and 
passed  an  act  encouraging  the  Moravians  to  settle  in 
the  British  colonies;  the  government  of  Prussia  grant- 
ed the  most  favorable  concessions.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  the  Church  for  whose  renewal  God  had  appoint- 
ed him  the  instrument  was  everywhere  firmly  estab- 
lished, and  in  Germany,  over  against  the  State  Church, 
had  gained  a  position  even  more  independent  than  he 
had  intended  to  secure.  Zinzendorf  died  full  of  joy 
and  peace,  triumphing  in  the  thought  of  his  "going  to 
the  Saviour,"  blessing  his  children  and  fellow-workers, 
and  when  speech  failed  him,  looking  upon  them  with 
a  countenance  that  was  irradiated  with  the  brightness 
of  coming  glory.  Thirty-two  presbyters  and  deacons 
from  Germany,  Holland,  England,  Ireland,  North  Amer- 
ica, and  Greenland  bore  his  remains  to  their  last  rest- 
ing-place on  the  Hulbei'g^  at  Hermhut. 

Zinzendorf  was  an  extraoniinary  man,  a  heroic  lead- 
er in  the  Church  of  Christ,  a  "disciple  whom  Jesua 
loved,**  a  prfest  of  the  living  GokI.  Like  all  great  men 
he  had  his  faults,  and  some  of  them  were  of  a  grave 
character.  He  was  often  impetuous  when  he  ought  to 
have  been  calm;  he  allowed  himself  to  be  unduly 
swayed  by  his  feelings;  in  one  period  of  his  career  his 
theological  views  and  utterances,  which,  however,  he 
subsequently  laid  aside,  were  very  objectionable;  while 
his  efforts  to  renew  the  Unitat  Fratrum  and  yet  make 
it  a  part  of  the  establbhed  Church  of  Germany  brought 
him  into  dilemmas  the  inevitable  outcome  of  which  was 
offences  on  the  score  of  insincerity  and  double-dealing, 
although  nothing  was  further  from  his  thoughts.  On 
the  other  hand,  his  sterling  piety,  his  intense  love  to 
the  Saviour,  his  Johannean  intercourse  with  him,  his 
work  for  the  Moravian  Church,  his  labors  for  the  Church 
universal,  the  principles  which  he  originated,  often 
misunderstood  and  ridiculed  in  his  day,  but  now  the 
common  and  cherished  property  of  all  evangelical 
Christians,  the  missions  which  he  inaugurated  among 
the  heathen,  the  lifelong  efforts  which  he  made  to  pro- 
mote the  unity  of  the  children  of  God  of  every  iwme, 
and  to  bring  about  the  fulfilment  of  Christ's  high-priest- 
ly prayer—"  that  they  may  be  one"    awigw  to  him  an 


ZINZENDORP 


1026 


ZISCA 


exalted  place  in  eedeuaBtical  histonr,  give  bim  an  im- 
perishable name»  and  justify  the  epitaph  on  bis  tomb- 
stone: *'He  was  ordained  that  he  should  go  and  bring 
forth  fruit,  and  that  his  fruit  should  remain."  In  many 
respects— «nd  this  truth  explains  to  a  great  degree  the 
opposition  with  which  he  met— Zinzendorf  was  more 
than  a  century  in  advance  of  his  age.  His  writings 
number  more  than  one  hundred,  and  consist  of  sermonsi 
hymnals,  offices  of  worship,  oontroveraial  works,  cate- 
chisms, and  historical  collections.  He  was  a  gifted 
hymnologist.  In  public  service  he  frequently  impro- 
vised hymns,  which  were  sung  by  the  congregation  as 
he  announced  them  line  by  line.  Many  of  his  compo- 
sitions, both  in  point  of  the  sentiments  and  the  poetty, 
are  worthless;  many  others  are  beautiful, and  take  their 
place  among  the  standard  hymns  of  the  Christian 
Church.  The  best  collection  of  them  was  edited  by 
Albert  Knapp^  GeitiUche  Lieder  det  Grafm  twn  Zwr 
sendbi/ (Stuttgart  and  Tubingen,  1846). 

We  append  a  brief  account  of  Zinzendorfs  labors  in 
America.  His  chief  purpose  was  not  to  found  Moravian 
churches,  but  to  care  for  his  neglected  German  country- 
men in  Pennsylvania.  He  landed  at  New  York  on  Dec. 
2, 1741,  accompanied  by  his  daughur,  the  countess  Be- 
nigna,  his  private  secretary,  and  several  others.  From 
New  York  he  proceeded  to  Philadelphia,  and  established 
himself  at  Germantown,  where  he  rented  a  house  which 
is  still  standing.  Keeping  in  view  the  main  object  of 
his  visit  to  America,  he  opened,  in  that  dwelling,  a 
school  for  German  children ;  preached  the  gospel  wher- 
ever he  came,  in  churches^  sdhool-honses,  and  bams ;  ac- 
cepted from  the  Lutherans  of  Philadelphia,  who  were 
without  a  minister,  an  appointntent  as  Uieir  temporary 
pastor,  a  thing  that  led,  on  Muhlenberg's  arrival  from 
Europe,  to  bitter  animosities,  for  which  both  sides  were 
responsible;  and  organized  the  so-called  Pennsylvania 
Synod.  This  last  was  his  favorite  undertaking.  He 
conceived  the  idea  of  uniting  the  German  churches  and 
sects  of  Pennsylvania,  upon  the  basis  of  experimental 
religion,  into  what  he  called  ^  The  Congregation  of  God 
in  the  Spirit."  Gaining  over  to  his  views  Heniy  Antes, 
a  prominent  magistrate  of  the  Reformed  persuasion  (see 
McMinn,  Lift  and  Times  qf  Henry  Antes,  Moorestown, 
N.  J.,  1886),  a  call  was  addressed  to  all  German  religions 
bodies  within  the  colony  to  send  representatives  to  a 
Union  Synod  to  be  held  at  Germantown.  It  convened 
on  Jan.  12, 1742,  and  met  again,  at  various  places,  seven 
times  during  Zinzendorfs  stay  in  America,  and  eighteen 
times  after  his  return  to  Europe.  But,  however  beau- 
tiful the  ideal,  it  was  premature— no  real  union  was 
brought  about;  the  interest  in  the  movement  gradually 
waned,  and,  in  the  end,  it  served  but  to  augment  the 
-  differences  among  the  German  religionists  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Reports  of  the  first  seven  meetings  of  this  Syn- 
od, together  with  cognate  documents,  were  'published 
by  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  form  a  volume  which  is  as 
valuable  as  it  is  rare.  The  title  of  the  first  report  is 
Autheniische  RekOum  von  dent  Ankus^  Fortgang  vend 
Sddnsse  der  m  Germantown  gehakenen  Versammbing 
eimger  A  rbeiter  derer  meislen  ChrisUicken  Religionen  tmd 
vider  vor  sick  sdbst  Gott-dienenden  Ckristen-Menschen  in 
Pennsghama  (Philadelphia:  by  Benj.  Franklin).  Zin- 
zendorfs labors  among  his  own  brethren  resulted  in  the 
organization  of  several  churebes,  particularly  the  one 
at  Bethlehem.  After  he  had  left  the  country  Moravian 
enterprises  were  begun  at  nearly  all  the  places  where 
he  had  preached.  The  Indian  mission  attracted  his 
earnest  attention.  He  undertook  three  journeys  to  the 
aboriginal  domain— the  first,  in  July,  1742,  to  the  Dela- 
wares  of  Pennsylvania;  the  second,  in  August,  to  the 
Mohicans  of  New  York ;  and  the  third,  in  September, 
to  the  Shawnees  of  the  Wyoming  Valley.  He  was 
probably  the  first  white  man  who  encamped  on  what 
is  now  the  site  of  Wilkesbarre,  and  be  would  have  been 
murdered  by  the  savages  had  it  not  been  for  the  oppor- 
tune arrival  of  Conrad  Weisser,  the  government  agent 
The  rattlesnake  story,  which  has  fonnd  its  way  into  so 


many  books  .and  is  so  often  quoted  as  an  inatance  of 
God*s  special  providence,  is  a  fable.  During  hii  «ttr 
in  America  Zinzendorf  laid  aside  his  rsnk  as  a  cooni, 
and  was  known  as  Lewis  von  TkUmsltinf  which  name 
formed  one  of  his  titles.  On  Jan.  9, 1748,  be  set  nil  for 
Europe  in  a  chartered  vessel  commanded  by  ctptain 
Garrison,  who  afterwards,  for  many  yean,  was  the  cip- 
tain  of  the  Moravian  missionary  vessel  which  plied  be- 
tween England  and  the  American  colonieSi 

Literature, -^TYkt  books  in  relation  to  Zinaendocf 
are  very  numerous.  Besides  the  works  noted  in  tbe 
article  on  the  Renewed  Moravian  Brethren^  tbe  noot 
important  are  the  folh>wing:  Spangenberg,  Ubn  da 
Graf  en  ton  Zuaendorf  (Barby,  1772-76,  8  vols.;  in 
abridged  English  translation  by  Jackson,  Lond.  1888); 
Yerbeek,  Leben  von  Zinzendorf  (Gnadau,  1846);  Ytn- 
hagen  von  Ense,  Leben  des  Graf  en  Zviaa^ioff  {^M^ 
1846) ;  Pilgram,  LAen  des  Graf  en  Zuaendorf  (Leipttc, 
1867),  from  a  Roman  Catholic  standpoint;  KoIUng, 
Der  Graf  von  ZimendoffdargesteUt  aus  semen  Gediddm 
(Gnadau,  1860);  Bnun,  Leben  des  Grafen  wm  Ztszeh 
<foi/ (Bielefeld,  eod.);  Bovet,  Le  ConUe  de  Zimeuioif 
(Paris,  1866;  an  English  translation  under  tbe  title  of  He 
BanUked  Cdknt^  by  John  Gin,  Lond.  eod.) ;  Zva&doift 
Theologte,  dargestettt  von  H.  PliU  (Gotba,  1869-74,8 
vols.) ;  Becker,  Zineendotfim  Verkditnist  tu  Plntouplm 
und  Kirchentum  seiner  Zeit  (Leipaic,  1886).    (E.  db  S.) 

21pporis.    See  Sbpphori& 

21pser,  Maier,  chief  rabbi  at  Stuhlweissenborg 
and  afterwards  at  Recbnitz,  in  Hungaty,  was  bon  Ang. 
14, 1816,  and  died  Dec  10, 1870.  He  contributed  hiige- 
ly  to  the  LUeraturblatt  des  Orients  from  1846  to  1850, 
Ben^hananjaf  and  the  Jewish  Chronick^  puUisbed  in 
London.  His  contributions  to  the  latter  periodicil, 
headed  ''The  Talmud  and  the  Gospels,"  which  were 
called  forth  by  Mr.  Newdegate  in  tbe  British  House  of 
Commons,  when  he  opposed  the  admission  of  Jem  ioto 
Parliament,  were  published  separately  under  tbe  tide, 
The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Lond.  1852).  After  bit 
death.  Dr.  A.  Jellinek  published  his  Des  Flarius  Jon- 
phui  Werk  "  Ueber  das  hohe  AUer  des  fid,  Voltetg^ 
Apion**  nach  hebr,  Originalqvelkn  erlSuiert . . .  (Wieo, 
1871).  See  Maier  Zipser,  eine  Biographie,  in  tbe  Bttk 
d-Ehrentempel  terdienter  vngariscker  Israeliten,  by  Ig. 
Reich  (Pesth,  1862,  4  Hea),  p.  1-80 ;  FUrst,  Bibi  Jil 
iu,662sq.     (E  P.) 

Zlrkel,  Grbgorius,  a  Roman  Catholic  theotogiao 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Silbach,  near  Hassfarth,  Jolj 
28,  1702,  and  died  at  WUrzburg,  Dec.  18, 1807,  si  doe- 
tor  and  professor  of  theology  and  regent  of  the  clexicil 
seminary.  He  is  the  author  of,  Der  Prediger  Sakam^ 
iibersetzt  und  erkldri  (WUrzburg,  1792)  i-^UnterpuA- 
ungen  Ober  <kn  Prediger  nebst  hitiseken  und  pUMo' 
gischen  Bemerkungen  ( ibid.  eod. ).  See  Wioer,  //on^ 
buck  der  iheoL  Lit,  i,  213;  ii,  208;  Fllrst,  BibL  Tied. 
iu,664.    (RP.) 

Zifloa  (or  Ziska),  Jomr,  the  military  leader  of 
the  Hussites,  was  bom  at  Trocznow,  in  the  circle  of 
Budweis,  Bohemia,  about  1S60.  He  was  of  a  noble  Bo- 
hemian family,  and  in  bis  boyhood  lost  an  eye.  At 
the  age  of  twdve  he  became  apage  to  king  Wcnceilis 
at  the  court  of  Pnigne,  but  his  gkwmy  and  tbougbtfnl 
tempemment  unfitted  him  at  this  period  for  the  friroloos 
occupations  of  the  court.  Embracing  the  csrecr  of 
arms,  he  served  aa  a  volunteer  in  the  English  army  is 
France,  and  afterwards  Joined  king  I^isfau  of  Pblod, 
with  a  body  of  Bohemian  and  Moravian  aoziliarie*,  sad 
greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  tbe 
Teutonic  knights,  deciding  the  battle  of  Tanneobcrg 
(July  16, 1410),  in  which  the  knighu  snffercd  a  teirible 
defeat.  High  honors  were  heaped  upon  bim  by  tbe 
king ;  but  the  war  being  now  over,  bis  reaclcss  spirit  led 
him  to  Join  the  Austriana  against  the  Turks  in  Hongny. 
and  afterwards  to  enter  the  English  army,  in  whkh  be 
enngedinthebattleofAginooiirtinl416[  Heretanicd 
to  Bohemia  soon  after  the  death  of  John  Hoa^  and  be- 


ZISCA 


1027 


ZOHAR 


came  cbamberlain  to  king  Wencedas.  He  had  early 
embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Hiuaitea,  and  entered 
deeply  into  the  feelings  of  resentment  which  the  execu- 
tion of  Hon  and  Jerome  of  Prague  excited  throughout 
Bohemia.  A  powerful  party  was  soon  formed,  which 
arged  upon  the  king  a  policy  of  resistance  to  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Coundl  of  Constance.  Zisca  was  one  of 
the  prominent  leaders  of  this  party,  and  his  personal  in- 
6ttence  with  the  king  gained  for  it  the  latter*8  sanction 
to  offer  resisunce,  though  the  king*s  vacillating  dispo- 
sition incapacitated  him  from  giving  effect  to  his  own 
honest  convictions,  and  taking  open  part  with  his  sub- 
jects against  their  oppressors.  About  the  time  of  the 
outbreak  at  Pragpie  (July  80, 141&),  Zisca  was  chosen 
leader  of  the  Hussite  party.  On  that  da}',  as  a  proces- 
sion of  Hussite  priests  was  marching  to  St.  Stephen^s 
Church,  one  of  them  was  struck  by  a  stone  which  came 
from  the  town  house,  where  the  magistrates  (Boman 
Catholics)  were  assembled.  Zisca  and  his  followers 
immediately  stormed  the  building,  and  threw  thirteen 
of  the  city  council  into  the  yard  below,  where  they  were 
instantly  killed  by  the  mob.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  first  great  religious  controversy  of  Gennany, 
known  as  the  Hussite  war.  The  shock  produced  by 
the  news  of  this  outbreak  was  fatal  to  Wenceslas,  and 
his  death  gave  more  of  a  political  character  to  the  con- 
test, for  when  his  brother,  the  emperor  Sigismund,  at^ 
tempted  to  obtain  the  throne  by  advancing  an  army  of 
40,000  men  into  the  country,  his  project  was  frustrated 
for  a  time  by  the  Hussites,  who  insisted  on  their  religious 
and  political  liberties  being  secured,  and  totally  defeated 
his  army  with  a  force  of  not  more  than  4000.  In  this 
contest  he  had  captured  Prague  in  the  spring  of  1420, 
and  he  completed  the  conquest  of  Bohemia  by  capturing 
the  castle  of  Prague  in  1421.  He  secured  bis  hold  of 
Che  country  by  the  erc'<ition  of  fortresses,  the  chief  of 
which  was  that  of  Tabor,  whence  his  party  received  the 
name  of  Taborites  (q.  v.).  The  varied  experience  ac- 
quired by  Zisca  in  foreign  warfare  was  now  of  immense 
service  to  his  party;  his  followers  were  armed  with 
small  firearms,  and  his  almost  total  deficienc}'  in  cavalry 
was  compensated  for  by  the  introduction  of  the  tcagen' 
burfff  or  '*cart-fort,"  constructed  of  the  baggage-wagons, 
to  protect  his  little  army  from  the  attach  of  the  mail- 
clad  knights.  In  1421  he  lost  his  remaining  eye  by  an 
arrow  shot  from  the  enemy  while  beneging  the  casde 
of  Baby ;  and,  though  now  entirely  blind,  he  continued 
to  lead  his  armies  with  the  same  masterly  generalship. 
He  was  carried  in  a  car  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  and 
was  enabled  to  give  orders  for  their  disposition  from  the 
description  of  the  ground  given  him  by  bis  officers,  and 
from  his  own  minute  knowledge  of  the  country.  About 
the  close  of  1421  Sigismund  led  a  second  large  army 
into  Bohemia,  which  included  a  splendid  body  of  15,000 
Hungarian  horse.  A  battle  took  pbice  at  Deutsch-Brod 
in  January,  1422,  in  which  the  imperial  army  was 
totally  routed.  Followed  closely  by  Zisca  in  their  re- 
treat to  Moravia,  the  fleeing  troops,  in  crossing  the 
Iglawa  on  the  ice,  broke  through  and  2000  were 
drowned.  He  repeatedly  vanquished  the  citizens  of 
Prague  who  were  not  disposed  to  obey  his  orders,  and 
the  uniform  success  of  his  arms  at  last  convinced  Sigis- 
mund that  there  was  no  prospect  of  the  reduction  of 
Bohemia.  After  a  short  time,  therefore,  he  proposed 
an  arrangement  with  the  Hussites,  by  which  full  re- 
ligious liberty  was  allowed;  and  Zisca,  who  had  an  in- 
terview with  the  emperor  on  the  footing  of  an  inde- 
pendent chief,  was  to  be  appointed  governor  of  Bohemia 
and  her  dependencies.  But  the  war-worn  old  chief  did 
'  not  live  long  enough  to  complete  the  treaty,  for  while 
besieging  the  castle  of  Przibislaw  he  was  seized  with 
the  pUgne,  and  died  Oct.  12, 1424.  He  was  buried  in 
A  church  at  Czaslaw,  and  his  battle-axe  was  hung  up 
over  his  tomb.  The  story  that,  in  accordance  with  his 
express  injunction,  his  skin  was  flayed  off,  tanned,  and 
used  for  the  cover  of  a  drum  which  was  afterwards  em- 
ployed in  the  Hussite  army,  is  a  fable.    Zisca  was  victor 


in  more  than  one  hundred  engagements,  and  won  thir- 
teen pitched  battles.  Once  only,  at  Kremsir,  in  Moravia, 
he  suffered  a  reverse;  and  even  then  the  evil  conse- 
quences were  warded  off  by  the  skilful  manner  in  which 
he  conducted  his  retreat.  The  only  accusation  which 
can  with  justice  be  made  against  Zisca  is  on  the  ground 
of  excessive  cruelty,  the  victims  being  the  monks  who 
fell  into  his  bands.  It  would  have  been  strange  if 
Zisca  had  not  laid  himself  open  to  such  a  reproach; 
for  the  burning  alive  of  the  propagaton  of  the  faith  to 
which  he  adhered,  the  atrocious  cruelties  practiced  on 
such  Hussite  priests  as  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  im- 
perialists, and  the  seduction  of  his  own  favorite  sister 
by  a  monk,  were  events  ill  calculated  to  induce  him  to 
moderate  the  hatred  entertained  by  himself  and  his 
followera  against  their  opponents.  Zisca  considered 
himself  the  chosen  instrument  of  the  Lord  to  visit  his 
wrath  upon  the  nations,  and  a  fanaticism  which  asked 
no  mercy  for  its  defenders  gave  none  to  its  oppoeers. 
His  line  of  march  could  be  traced  through  a  country 
laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword,  and  over  the  ruins  of 
plundered  towns.  One  of  the  dogmas  held  by  his  fol- 
lowers was, "  that  when  all  the  cities  of  the  earth  should 
be  burned  down  and  reduced  to  the  number  of  five,  then 
would  come  the  new  kingdom  of  the  Lord;  therefore  it 
was  now  the  time  of  vengeance,  and  God  was  a  God  of 
wrath.**  The  cries  and  groans  of  the  monks  and  priests 
whom  he  sent  to  the  stake  he  was  wont  to  call  the 
bridal  song  of  his  sister.  His  victories  were  generally 
won  by  the  decisive  charge  of  a  chosen  band  of  his  fol- 
lowera named  the  invincible  brethren.  In  his  great 
victory  at  Aussig  over  the  German  crusading  army, 
commanded  by  Frederick  the  Warlike  of  Saxony,  and 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  the  furious  onset  of  the 
Hussites  was  steadily  sustained  by  the  Saxons,  and  the 
Bohemians  recoiled  in  astonishment  at  a  successful  re- 
sistance which  they  had  never  before  encountered. 
Zisca,  being  apprised  of  the  circumstance,  approached 
on  his  cart,  thanked  the  men  for  their  past  services,  and 
added,  "  If  you  have  now  done  your  utmost,  let  us  re- 
tire." Thus  stimulated,  they  made  a  second  charge, 
still  more  furious  than  before,  broke  the  Saxon  ranks, 
and  left  9000  of  the  enemy  dead  on  the  field.  See 
Millauer,  Diphmatiteh-kittoritche  Avftatte  uber  Jo- 
hann  Zitha  von  Troctnow  (Prague,  1824).  See  Hus»> 
ITES;  Tadoritbs. 

Zith'ri  (typographical  enor  in  some  eds.  at  £xod. 
vL  22).    See  Zichri. 

Zittel,  Kari^  a  Protestant  theologian  and  doctor 
of  theology  of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Schmieheim,  in 
Baden,  June  21, 1802.  He  studied  theology  at  Jena, 
was  called  in  1824  as  pastor  to  Bahlingen,  in  1849  to 
Hefdelberg,  where  he  died,  Aug,  28,  1871.  Zittel  is 
known  as  leader  of  the  Liberal  Church  movement  in 
Baden.  He  published,  ZuHande  der  wangdUch-prote' 
statUitchen  Kirche  in  Baden  (Carlsruhe,  1843)  \— Motion 
auf  GettaUung  oner  Religionrfraheit  (ibid.  1846) : — ^e- 
gHkndung  der  Motion  uber  ReligionsfreOieit  (Berlin,  eod.) : 
^Die  SomUagtfeier  (Heidelberg,  1851)  i—Der  Bekennt- 
muttrek  in  der  protestantischen  Kirche  mit  besonderer 
BerOckticfUigung  der  SrJirift  von  ffundetkagen  (Man 
helm,  1852).  He  also  edited  the  Sonntagabend,  BUUter 
Jur  ckriitUche  Erbauung  und  fUr  IdrchUcha  Ldten 
(Berlin,  1857-63).  See  Holtzmann,  in  Proiett.  Kirchen- 
teiiung,  1871;  Zuchold,  BiU.  TkeoL  ii,  1500;  Thiol 
Univerealiexihonf  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Zizka,  JoHii.    See  Zisca. 

Zoerard,  a  Polish  monk  of  the  10th  century  (or 
early  part  of  the  11th),  visited  Hungary  by  invitation 
of  king  Stephen  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  the  peo- 
ple in  the  Christian  religion  which  had  been  recently 
introduced.    See  Neander,  HiiL  of  the  Church,  iii,  834. 

Zohar  i^ty\l,  i.  e.  light)  is  the  name  of  the  standard 
and  code  of  the  cabalistic  system,  and  has  been  called 
"the  Bible  of  the  cabalists."  The  titles  of  the  book 
yaiy :  Midrash  ofR,  Simon  ben-Jochaif  from  its  reputed 


1 


ZOHAR 


1028 


ZOHAR 


author;  Midrath^  Let  there  he  lights  from  tlie  words  in  I 
Gen.  i,  4 ;  but  more  commonly  Sepker  haz-Zohar^  from  { 
Dan.  xii,  8,  where  the  word  Zohar  is  used  for  *'  the 
brightness  of  the  firmament."  The  title  in  full  is,  Se- 
pA«r  haZ'Zohar  al  hat-Torahy  me-ish  Elohim  Kodesh^ 
hu  nore  meod  hat-tana  R,  Simon  hen-Jochai,  etc,  i.  e. 
•*The  book  of  Splendor  on  the  Law,  by  the  very  holy 
and  venerable  man  of  God,  the  Tanaite  rabbi,  Simon 
ben-Jochai,  of  blessed  memory." 

I.  ConteniB^—TYit  body  of  the  work  takes  the  form 
of  a  commentary,  extending  over  the  Pentateuch,  of  a 
highly  mystic  and  allegorical  character.  But  the  Zo- 
har is  not  considered  complete  without  the  addition  of 
certain  appendices,  attributed  either  to  the  same  author, 
or  to  some  of  his  personal  or  successional  disciples. 
These  supplementary  portions  are, 

1.  Siphra  de  Teeniutha  (Kniy^aS  *1  XIDD).  L  e.  "the 

book  of  mystorietf/'  given  in  vol.  ii,  p.  176M78^  It  con- 
tains five  chapters,  nnd  is  chiefly  occupied  with  dlscues- 
Ing  the  questions  involved  in  the  creniion.  It  has  been 
translated  into  Latin  bv  K.  v.  Rosen  roth,  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  JTo^bato  Denvdata  (Fraukfort-on-the-Molu, 
16S4). 

2.  Iddera  Rokbha  (K3*l  K^^K),  i.  e.  '*  the  Great  Assem- 

hij/'  referring  to  the  community  or  college  of  Simon's 
disciples,  in  their  conferences  for  cabalistic  discussion. 
It  is  generally  found  In  vol.  iii,  p.  127M46*,  and  has  also 
been  translated  into  Latin  by  Rosenrotb,  1.  c.  See  Iddkoa. 

S.  Iddera  ZtUa  <K:3*iT  K^^IK),  i.  e.  **tbe  Small  Assem- 

blv,"  referring  to  the  few  disciples  who  still  assembled  for 
cabalistic  discussion  towards  the  end  of  their  master's 
life,  or  after  bis  decease.  This  treatise  Is  given  In  ill, 
S87^-SMP>  (ed.  Amsterdam,  1806),  and  is  also  found  in  Latin 
in  the  KahbtUa  Denudatat  I.  c.  To  these  three  larger  ap- 
pendices are  added  fifteen  other  minor  fragments,  via. : 

4.  Saba  (K3D),  "  the  oged  man,'*  also  called  Saba  de- 

mUhpatim  (fi*tOBt7d  K2DX  or  the  dieoourm  <tf  the 

aped  in  mUhpatim,  given  in  il,  M«-1U*.  The  nged  is 
the  prophet  Silas,  who  holds  converse  with  R.  Simon 
ben-Jocnal  about  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  and 
tlie  discussion  is  attached  to  the  Sabbatic  section,  called 

D'^ISBCrS,  1.  e.  Exod.  zzl,  1-xxiv,  18. 

6  Midraeh  Rvth  (HII  O't'l'Q),  a  n-ogment 

5.  Sepher  hab'bahir  O'^^^'f^  "llDO)*  "  the  book  of  clear 
light." 

7  and  8.  Toeephta  and  Mattanitan  (KP.BD^.n  and 
*in'^3riX3),  or  *' small  additional  pieces,"  which  are  found 
in  the  three  volumes. 

9.  Rala mehemna  (Kafi'^hS  K'^'l),  "the  faithfiil  shep- 
herd," found  in  the  second  and  third  volumes. 

10.  Hekaloth  (Hlbs*^!!),  i.  e. "  the  palaces,"  found  in  the 

first  and  second  volumes,  treats  of  the  topographical 
structure  of  paradise  and  bell. 

11.  Sithre  Tmrah  (niin  '^^HO),  "  the  secrets  of  the 
law." 

13.  Midraeh  han-neelam  (cb^ZT^  IS^^U).  I  e.  "the  con- 
cealed treatise.'* 

13.  Raie  de  Batin  (]'^^1>^  '^T"l),  i.  e.  "mysteries  of  the 
mysteries,"  contained  in  11, 70*-76*. 

14.  Midraeh  Chaxith  (H'^Tn  i:9**i1Q),  on  the  Song  of 
Songs. 

15.  Maamar  ta  Chaxi  OTFl  KD  ^1:K1S),  a  discourse, 
so  entitled  from  the  first  words  "come  and  see." 

16.  ToMtia  (Kpia*^),  i.  e.  "the  Youth,"  and  is  given  in 
Hi,  1S6M92-. 

17.  Pekuda  {»*lpfi),  i.  e.  "Illustrations  of  the  law." 

la  Chibbura  kadmaah  (n\^t^*Vp  K^inH),  i.  e.  "the 
early  work.*' 

The  body  of  the  work  is  sometimes  called  Zohar 
Gadol  (bna  "^Tlt),  and  the  other  portions  Zohar 
Katon  fjlisp  imt).  The  editio  princeps  is  that  of 
Mantua  (155S-1560, 8  vols.),  which  has  often  been  re- 
printed. The  best  edition  of  the  book  of  Zohar  is  that 
by  Christian  Knorr  von  Rosenroth,  with  Jewish  com- 
mentaries (Sulzbach,  1684,  foL),  to  which  his  rare  Kab- 
bala  Denudata  (1677-1684,  4to)  forms  an  ample  intro- 
duction. This  edition  was  reprinted  with  an  additional 
index  of  matters  (Amsterdam,  1714, 1728, 1772, 1805, 3 


vols.  8  vo).  To  this  last-mentioned  issue  the  refercuccs  in 
this  article  apply.  The  latest  editions  are  those  of  Bres- 
lau  (1866, 8  volsL  large  8vo),  Brody  (1873,3  vols.  8vo). 

IL  Authorthip.—The  Zohar  pretends  to  be  4  nvt- 
lation  from  God,  communicated  through  R.  Simon  ben- 
Jochal  (q.  v.),  to  his  select  disciples,  according  to  the 
Iddera  Zuta  (Zohar,  iii,  287^).    This  declsration  tnd 
the  repeated  representation  of  R.  Simon  ben-Jochti,  u 
speaking  and  teaching  throughout  this  production, 
made  R  Simon  the  author  of  it,  an  opinion  roaintiined 
not  only  by  Jews  for  centuries,  but  even  by  such  dij- 
tinguished  Christian  scholars  as  Lightfoot,  Gill  (.1 
Diseertation  concerning  the  A  ntiquUg  of  the  Btbrfie 
Ijonguage^   Lettert^   Vowel-potnte,  and  Accents^  Lood. 
1767),   Dartolocci  (Magna  BtbL  Raih,  iv,  230  «q.); 
Pfeiffer  (jCritica  Sacra),  Knorr  von  Rosenroth  (Kahbak 
Denudata')^   Molitor  {PhUotophy  of  IJistoiy,  vol.  iii, 
MUnster,  1839),  Franck  (La  KahbaU,  Germ.translbr 
A.  Jellinek,  Leipsic,  1844),  and  Etheridge  (Ttdrodedm 
to  Htbrew  LUeratttre,  Lond.  1856,  p.  814).    On  the  oth- 
er hand  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  by  euch 
schoUirs  as  Zunz  (GotteedienstL  Vortrdge^  Berlin,  1831, 
p.  405),  Geiger  (Melo  Chofnajim^  ibid.  1840,  introd.  p. 
xvii),  Sachs  (Religiose  Poeeie  der  Juden  in  Spamtn^ 
ibid.  1845,  p.  827),  Jellinek  CMosee  ben-Shem^Tob  de 
Leon,  Leipsic,  1851),  Gratz  (GescA.  d,  Juden,  ibid.  1863. 
vii,  73-87;  442-459;  487-^7),  Steinscbneider  (Je»iA 
Literature,  Lond.  1857,  p.  104-122;  249-309),  Ginsbiirg 
(The  Kabbalah,  p.  85-93),  and  a  host  of  othent,  thst  it 
is  not  the  production  of  R.  Simon,  but  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, by  Moses  de  Leon  (q.  v.).    For  Simon  ben-JochsI 
was  a  pupil  of  R.  Akibah ;  but  the  earliest  mention  of  the 
book's  existence  occurs  in  the  year  1290 ;  and  the  snt- 
chronisms  of  its  style,  and  of  the  facta  referred  to,  togeth- 
er with  the  circumstance  that  it  speaks  of  the  vowel- 
points  and  other  Masoretic  inveptions,  which  are  dear- 
ly posterior  to  the  Talmud,  justify  J.  Horinus  (although 
too  often  extravagant  in  his  wilful  attempts  to  depre- 
ciate the  antiquity  of  the  later  Jewish  writings)  in  as- 
serting that  the  author  could  not  have  lived  much  be- 
fore the  year  1000  of  the  Christian  sera  {Exercitatio»a 
BibUoae,  p.  858-^9).    This  later  view  of  the  author- 
ship is  sustained  by  the  following  reasons : 

1.  The  Zohar  most  fhlsomely  praises  its  own  author, 

calls  him  the  Sacred  Light  (KO'Hp  K*^a3*!2),  and  exalts 

him  aI)ove  Moses,  "the  true  shepherd  "  (Zohar,  iii,  \^, 
144*),  while  the  disciples  deify  R.Simon  (11, 88*). 

5.  The  Zohar  quotes  and  mystically  explains  the  He- 
brew vowel -points  (1,  18>',  24'*;  11,  1]6>;  ill,  <B«},  which 
were  introduced  for  the  first  time  by  R.  Mocha  of  Pales- 
tine (q.  v.). 

8.  The  Zohar  (HSTa'^nxJ  K'^51,  "the  faithful  shep- 
herd ")  borrowed  two  verses  (sect.  d'<01*Tp,  iii,  fit)  Ihm 
Ibn  Gabirors  (q.  v.)  celebrated  hymn,  "the  royal  dia- 
dem "  (Dld^a  "inS) ;  comp.  Sachs,  1.  c  p.  89. 

4.  The  Zohar  (1, 18\  28*)  quotes  and  explains  the  inter- 
change, on  the  outside  of  the  Mezuea  (q.  v.),  of  the  words 
{tV\r\^  y^'^rh^  t\^m)  Jehovah  mar  God  U  Jekomh  for 

OTIS  TDdlan  ItlS),  Kma  Remvekeax  Ktaa,  by  sobetl- 

tntine  for  each  letter  its  immediate  predecessor  In  the 
alphabet,  which  was  transplanted  from  France  into  Spain 
in  the  13th  century  (Ginsburg). 

0.  The  Zohar  (iii,  8811^)  uses  the  expression  Benega, 
which  is  a  Portugnese  corruption  of  irnagogoe,  and  ex- 
plains it  in  a  cabalistic  manner  as  a  compound  of  two 

Hebrew  words,  i.  e.  nr )  V3K,  brilUant  light 

6.  The  Zohar  (II.  82*)  mentions  the  Cmaades,  the  mo- 
mentary taking  of  Jemsaletn  by  the  Crusaders  from  ths 
lufidels,  and  the  retaking  of  It  by  the  Samcens. 

7.  The  Zohar  records  events  wnich  transpired  A.D.  IKl 

8.  The  doctrine  of  the  Hn^Soph  and  the  S^irotk  (q.  r.\ 
as  well  as  the  metempsychoeian  retribatlon,  were  noi 
known  before  the  Idth  century. 

9.  The  verV  existence  of  the  Zohar,  according  to  ths 
stanch  cabaliet  Jehudah  Chayoth  (fl.  1600),  was  unknown 
to  such  dlsUngniahed  cabalfists  as  Machmanidea  (q.  v) 
and  6en-Adereth  (1285-1810)  s  the  first  who  meatioDs  it  it 
Todros  Abulafia  (1884-1806). 

10.  Isaac  of  Akko  (fl.  1890)  afiHrms  that  **  the  Zohar  vn» 
put  into  the  world  from  the  head  of  a  Spanland."  To  the 
same  effect  is  the  testimony  ;of  Joseph  ihn-Wakkar,  who, 
in  speaking  of  later  books  which  may  be  relied  npoc. 


ZOHAR 


1029 


ZOHAli 


recommendfl  onir  thote  of  Moees  NacbmaDldes  and  To- 
dros  AbolafiA,  "bnt,"  he  adds,  "the  Zohar  is  ftiU  of  er- 
rors, nod  one  mnet  take  care  not  to  be  misled  by  them.** 
This,  says  Dr.  Steinschneider,  "  la  an  impartial  and  lodi- 
rect  teailroooy  that  the  £ohar  was  recognleed  scarcely 
fifty  years  after  its  appearing  as  one  of  the  Matter '  works, 
and  not  attributed  to  Simon  ben-Jochal "  {Jewiah  Litertt- 
turty  p.  113). 

11.  That  Moses  de  Leon  was  the  author  of  the  Zohar, 
we  have  already  stated  In  the  art.  Mobrs  i»k  Lion,  and  the 
account  f^ren  there  is  confirmed  in  the  moet  remarkable 
manner  by  the  fact  that— 

18.  The  Xohar  contains  whole  passage  which  Moses 
de  Leon  translated  into  Aramaic,  from  his  works,  e.  g. 

ipoah  b,  -p^-in  b,  as  the  eradlte  Jellinek  has 

demonstrated  in  his  Jfoset  de  Leon^  p.  SI  sq. :  comp.  also 
Grfttz,  1.  c  p.  498  (8d  ed.  1678,  p.  477  sq.).  it  is  for  these 
and  many  other  reasons  that  the  Zohar  la  now  regarded 
na  a  peeudograph  of  the  18th  ceutnry,  and  that  Moses  de 
Leon  shouki  have  palmed  the  Zohar  upon  Simon  ben- 
Jochal  was  nothing  remarkable,  since  this  rabbi  is  re- 
garded by  tradition  as  the  embodiment  of  mysticism. 

in.  Diffusion  and  Inftuenee  of  ike  Boolc—Th^  birth 
of  the  Zohar  formed  the  great  landmark  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  cabala,  and  the  history  of  this  theosophy 
divides  itself  into  two  periods,  the  pn-Zohar  period, 
and  the  post-Zo^r  period.  During  these  two  periods 
different  schools  developed  themselves,  which  Dr.  Griltz 
classifies  as  follows : 

1.  The  School  of  Gerona.— To  this  school,  which  is  the 
cradle  of  the  cabala,  belong  Isaac  the  Blind  (fl.  1190-1210) 
(q.  v.),  Ezra  and  Azariel  hia  disciples,  Jehndilh  b.  Jokar, 
bis  pnpil  Moses  Nachmanides  (q.v.),and  Jacob  ben-Sbeahet 
(q.v.).  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  school  is  that  it, 
for  the  first  time,  established  and  developed  the  doctrine 

of  the  En  Soph  (q^O  'j'^K),  the  Sephiroth  (nin'^BC),  me- 
tempsychosis ("1*i37ri  ^*ID),  with  the  doctrine  of  retri- 
bution pIQ^n  ^1D)  belonging  thereto,  and  a  peculiar 

christology  (H'^irQ  11D).    It  is  the  creative  school;  the 

cabalistic  mode  of  exegesis  is  still  subordinate  in  it. 

2.  The  School  of  Segovia.— To  this  school  belong  Jacob 
of  t^ovin,  his  two  sons  Isaac  and  Jacob,  Jr.,  Moses  ben- 
Simon  of  finrgos,  Isaac  ben-Tod ro»,  teacher  of  Shem-Tob 
Ibn  Gaon  (d.  1882),  Todros  Abulnfia  (d.  1805),  and  hia  son 

Joseph,  the  author  of  HI  Sib  X  HSI^Q,  and  Isaac  of  Akko 

(fl.  1290).  It  is  the  exegetieal  school,  endeavoring  to  inter- 
pret the  Bible  and  the  Hagada  per  fat  et  mfae  in  accord- 
ance with  the  cabala. 

8.  The  Quatti-Philoeophieal  School  of  Isaac  ben-Latlf  or 
Allatif  (q.  v.),  which  in  its  doctrines  stands  isolated. 

4.  The  School  of  ilfruto/fa.  ao  called  after  Abulafla,  the 
founder  (born  in  1240,  and  died  about  1292).  To  this 
schi>ol  also  belonged  Joseph  Oikatilla  ben -Abraham 
(0.  1860).  The  characteristics  of  this  school  are  the 
stress  laid  on  the  extensive  use  of  the  exegetieal  mies 

caUed  GtfnuUtria  (X'^naaS),  Xotaricon  (■jlp'^na'13)  (q.  v.), 

and  Ziruph  (Cj^^'^2C).    In  this  emplojrment  of  commnta- 

tiou9,  permutations,  and  reduction  of  each  letter  in  every 
word  to  ita  numerical  value,  Abulafla  and  his  followers 
are  not  original. 

0.  The  Zohar  School^  which  is  a  combination  and  ab- 
sorption of  the  different  features  and  doctrines  of  all  the 
previous  schools,  without  any  plan  or  method ;  and  we 
must  not  be  surprised  at  the  wild  speculations  which  we 
no  often  find  In  the  writings  of  the  ntret-Zohar  period.  In 
Spain  especially  the  study  of  the  Zohar  took  deep  root, 
and  found  its  way  to  Italy,  Palestine,  and  Poland. 

As  it  penetrated  all  branches  of  life  and  literature, 
voices  were  also  raised  against  the  Zohar.  The  first 
among  the  Jews  who  opposed  its  authority  was  Elia 
del  Medlgo,  of  Candia,  who,  in  his  phiiosophfcal  treatise 

entitled  An  Examination  qf  the  Law  (niM    n3*^n3), 

which  he  wrote  in  1491,  brings  forth  three  arguments 
against  the  genuineness  of  the  Zohar,  but  his  voice 
and  those  of  others  had  no  power  to  check  the  rapid  prog- 
ress of  the  cabala.  One  of  the  most  daring  opponents 
was  Leon  da  Modena  (q.  v.).  In  the  meantime  toe  Zohar 
had  been  published:  Christians  became  somewhat  ac- 
quainted with  its  contents  by  the  extracts  of  the  Zohar 
translated  Into  Latin  by  Joseph  de  Voisin,  in  his  Diepu- 
taJtio  Cabalietiea  (Paris,  1635),  and  afterwards  by  Uie  cel- 
ebrated work  entitled  The  Unveiled  Cabalah,  or  KahbeUa 
Jknudata  of  Knorr  v.  Roscnroth  (Snisbach,  1677-78,  2 
vols. ;  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1684).  With  the  18th  ceu- 
turv  a  new  sera  in  the  criticism  of  the  Zohar  commenced, 
ana  without  quoting  the  different  scholars  who  made  the 
criticism  of  tne  Zonar  their  special  study,  we  can  only 
state,  what  has  already  been  said  above,  that  almoet  the 
unanimous  result  of  criticism  is  that  the  Zohar  was  not 
written,  as  has  hitherto  been  believedi  by  B.  Simon  ben- 
JuchaTi  but  by  Moses  de  Leon. 


IV.  /.(feraf ttfif^  —  Besides  the  authorities  already 
quoted,  we  will  mention  Fttrst,  Bibi,  Jud.  iii,  829-^5; 
Jellinek,  Beitrdge  zur  GeeckidUe  der  Kahbala  (Leipsic, 
1862) ;  Ben^ChananjOf  vols,  i,  ii,  iii,  iv,  where  a  most 
thorough  and  instructive  analysis  of  the  Zohar  is  given 
by  Ignats  Stem  (Szegedin,  1858-61);  Jost,  Geech,  d. 
JuderUhunu  v.  a.  Sehen^  iii,  70  sq. ;  Monk,  Melanges  de 
Philosophie  Juive  et  Arabe  (Paris,  1859),  p.  276  sq.; 
Pauli,  The  Great  Mystery^  or  Bow  can  Three  he  One 
(London,  1863),  an  endeavor  to  prove  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  from  the  Zohar;  Wfinache,  Die  Leiden  des 
Messias  (Leipsic,  1870),  p.  95  sq.,  gives  some  passages 
relating  to  the  atonement  and  the  Meaaiab.  See  also 
the  article  in  the  Theol  UidversaUexikon,    (B.  P.) 

y.  Doctrines,— ThQ  treatise  of  the  Zohar  is  difficult 
and  fantastic,  embracing,  moreover,  not  merely  the 
origin  of  the  world,  but  likewise  specuUting  on  the 
essence  of  God  and  the  properties  of  man;  in  other 
words,  covering  at  om:e  coeroology,  tbeolog}',  and  an- 
thropology. It  se^^t  with  the  conception  of  divinity 
as  the  self-existing,  eternal,  all-embracing  first  cause, 
the  active  as  well  as  passive  principle  of  all  being,  for 
which  thought  has  no  adequate  measure,  or  language  a 
fit  name,  although,  while  other  systems  have  therefore 
styled  it  the  great  Naught  or  Void,  the  Zohar  terms  it 
the  Boundless  or  Infinite  (5)10  "pK).  Deity  at  length 
emerges  from  this  absolutism  and  reveals  itself,  L  e.  be- 
comes at  once  active  and  capable  of  being  known ;  and 
thus,  through  the  division  of  its  essence  into  attributes 
(which  before  did  not  separately  exist,  because  they 
imply  a  reduction  incompatible  with  the  absolute),  is 
established  a  connection  between  the  infinite  and  the 
finite,  or  real  creator.  These  attributes  are  ten,  called 
Sephiroth  (ni"1*^Bp,  Rum6er«),  constituting  so  many 
vessels  of  the  infinite,  which  contain  and  are  forms  of 
its  manifestation,  subject  always  to  the  contained,  like 
colored  glasses  that  receive  the  light  and  irradiate  it. 
The  impartation  of  the  contents — in  other  words,  the 
creation  of  the  Sephiroth,  is  thus  also  a  beaming  or 
emanation ;  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  speculation, 
as  we  shall  see.  The  idea  is  further  illustrated  by  vari- 
ous figurative  applications,  e.  g.  the  cube,  with  its  three 
dimensions  and  six  surfaces,  making  up  the  perfect  de- 
cade ;  and  so  man,  with  hia  limbs  (the  ten  Sephiroth 
hence  being  sometimes  designated  as  the  first  man^ 
*|iia*l|?  ^*J^i  or  ideal  form  of  divinity,  in  accordance 
with  F«zek.  i,  26;  Dan.  vii,  IS),  whose  shape  is  repre- 
sented by  the  so-called  "cabalistic  tree"  as  follows: 

1.  nnS  (Crown). 
8.  nj'^a  (InteUlgenee).  8.  »^«3n  {Wisdom), 

6.  -pn  (Judgment).  4.  ^IDH  (Jfercy). 

«.  n*5KBn  (Beairfy). 
8.  *liri  (Majesty).  '"  *  '  7.  H^J  (Splendor), 

9.  nio**  (I\fundatioti), 

10.  nsiSPa  (Kifigdom), 

To  each  of  these  Sephiroth  correspond  certain  appella- 
tions of  the  Deity.  To  the  first,  which  Is  the  concentra- 
tion and  partial  development  of  all  the  others  (called  also 

figuratively  the  old  or  the  long  face,  **pD3K  Tf'^'^K,  a  title 
indicative  of  personality),  is  assigned  the  undefined  name 
}1*^}1M,  "  I  am.**  The  second  and  third  are  the  active  and 
passive  forms  of  being  growing  out  of  the  first,  and  are 
considered  aa  the  male  (father)  and  female  (mother),  the 
knowing  and  the  known,  the  subject  and  the  object,  which 
with  their  result,  perception  (H?^,  included  as  a  son  or 
product),  or  else  with  the  unit  at  the  bead,  make  up  the 
metaphysical  trinity  of  the  divine  essence.  To  these  are 
attributed  the  sacred  names  1!\\  Jah,  and  hill*^,  Jehovih : 
and  they  coustitnte  the  shoulders  of  the  mystical  body. 
The  fourth  and  fifth  (equivalent  to  Grace  and  Right,  also 
called  Greatness,  1191^3,  and  Power,  n"it|!3li)  represent 
the  arms  (still  duplicate,  or  male  and  female,  active  and 
passive,  external  and  internal,  soul  and  body,  like  all  the 
others),  with  the  sixth  as  an  intermediate  prindole  com- 
bining them,  like  the  heart  These  correspona  to  the 
higher  or  ethical  principles,  and  are  respectively  deaig- 


ZOHAB 


1030 


ZOHARITES 


sated  by  the  sacred  eptiheta  bx,  m,  Q'^il^K,  JPtoAAn,  and 

^htl\  Jehovah  (othenrlae  *^^19,  Shaddai).    The  lower, 

or  physical  trinity,  ooDslstiog  of  the  sereDth,  eighth,  aod 
ninth  Sephiroth  (eqniralent  to  Radiance  [according  to 
another  exposition, Triumphj,  Glory,  and  StabilltT),  and 
respectively  corresponding  to  the  divine  appellations 

ni»3S   n'iri%  JeA«vaA  £^a&ao<^  niKaS  ^niV(,Sloh€ 

Sdbaoth^  and  "^H  7K,  El  Chal,  represent  the  hips  and 

genitals  of  the  body,  and  are  apparently  the  symbols  of 
motion,  quantity,  and  strength.     The  last  Sephirah,  to 

which  the  name  *^3^2<,  ^(fonai.  Is  attached,  is  a  sort  of 

joint  conception  of  nii  the  others,  as  the  feet  or  basis  of 
the  whole. 

By  farther  combinations  of  the  different  Sephiroth  ac- 
cording  to  the  above  diagram  or  chart,  the  male  triad 
(Nos.  2,  4,  7),  or  right  colnmn,  separates  IVom  the  female 
triad  (8, 5, 8),  or  len  column ;  hot  the  middle  colamn  (Nos. 
1,  6, 10),  in  which  No.  9  is  omitted,  or  included  in  No.  10, 
gives  three  ftandamental  conceptions,  namely,  absolnte 
existence,  Ideal  existdDce.  and  immanent  strength,  as  the 
three  phases  of  pre -worldly  existence;  or,  if  preferred, 
the  three  conceptions  of  Matter^  Thought,  and  Life.  In 
this  connection,  the  a)xth  Sephirah  is  sometimes  called 
the  King  or  Hessiah :  and  the  tenth,  the  Queen  or  Matron, 

q.  d.  inhabitation  (rTa*^31S).    These  two  are  also  called 

the  two  perwng  ( *)*^B^2C*^9, 1.  e.  wpo^mva ).    Elsewhere 

there  are  five  persons  counted,  the  first  three  Sephiroth 
belnff  added  to  these  (in  both  enumerations  the  residue 
are  included  under  those  named).  If  we  notice  that  the 
Mh,  as  a  consequence  of  the  Sd,  is  called  &m,  and  the 
10th,  as  a  consequence  of  the  8d,  the  Spirit  (the  latter  is 
also  considered  as  female  or  mother),  we  will  find  at  once 
the  point  of  contact  of  the  Ono«tlc  speculation  with  the 
Christian,  and  also  the  unsolved  question  of  the  manner 
of  this  connection. 

These  ten  sephiroth  or  **  vessels  '*  (Q*^^3)  of  the  Infinite, 
in  so  far  aa  they  are  considered  at  once  in  their  plurality 
and  In  their  unity,  are  also  called  a  world  (O^i^),  and.  In 
contradistinction  from  the  other  worlds,  of  which  we  will 
speak  hereafter,  the  world  of  effluence  (or  omanalion, 

n*^*^SK).    This  does  not  mean  to  imply  that  the  origin 

of  things  outside  of  that  world  was  in  any  special  man- 
ner  dllrerent  from  it,  which  would  render  the  system  in- 
consistent, but  rather  seeks  to  establish  between  the  in- 
finite and  matter  what  is  the  object  of  every  system  of 
emanation— a  medium  by  which,  in  spite  of  distance  (In 
every  sense  of  the  word,  not  merely  with  regard  to  space) 
between  effect  and  cause,  this  working  conid  be  under- 
stood. Now  this  medium  Is  establish^  by  the  two  mid- 
dle worlds,  namely,  the  world  of  creation  (tlK'^'ISl)  and 
the  world  of  formation  (h^*^3S^),  in  which  we  are  not  yet 
led  to  substantial  elements.  I^e  first  is  described  as  the 
world  of  the  pure  spirit,  the  latter  as  that  of  the  angels 
or  heavenly  bodies.  We  can.already  perceive  by  this  dis- 
tinction that  neither  of  these  names  Is  to  be  taxen  in  its 
popular  acceptanee.  In  fhct,  the  one  treata  of  ideas,  the 
other  of  power,  physical  as  well  as  ethic,  but  not  of  act- 
ual  beings.  In  botti  worlds  the  decade  is  again  found  as 
a  representative  element  Each  is  considered  as  a  pro- 
ducUon  of  the  preceding,  which  Is  therein  improved,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  reflects  the  original  light  In  a  more  dif- 
fhse  and  imperfect  manner,  each  also  establishing  for  it- 
self a  new  unity.  Neither  must  we  understand  the  ex- 
pressions *'  creation  "  and  **  formation  "  In  their  common 
acceptance.    There  is  no  mention  made  in  either  of  any 

J>re^xisting  matter,  or  a  creation  from  nothing  as  nanal- 
y  understMMi  The  Caballst  generally  speaks  of  such, 
but  mean  thereby  the  original  void,  tlie  Sn-ooph^  i.e.  the 
absolnte,  which  is  the  source  of  the  whole  metaphysics. 
But  as  by  this  the  pre-exlstence  of  all  things  is  implied, 
we  consequently  arrive  at  the  principle  of  the  immutabil- 
ity of  existing  things,  while  by  means  of  the  parallel  prop- 
ositions that  these  are  the  same,  notwithistanding  the 
mode  of  their  origin,  there  is  established  a  relative  Inde- 
pendence, which  contains  the  possibility  and  cause  of  the 
fall  and  corruption  of  mind  and  nature. 

This  point,  nowever,  belongs  to  the  obscure  parts  of  the 
system,  as  it  does  not  agree  well  with  the  premises,  and 
the  modem  formula  of  its  explanation  has  not  yet  been 
found  (but,  on  the  contrary,  a  different  one,  if  we  are  to 
consider  the  fkll  as  a  materialisation  itself)*  Generally  it 
Is  Just  in  the  cosmology  we  And  the  greatest  obscurity, 
the  least  development,  so  mnch  so  that  the  question  aa  to 
its  being  absolutely  or  only  relatively  pantheistic  is  not 
yet  decided.  It  is  also  in  this  part  of  the  system  that  the 
poetic  garb  of  personification  is  the  roost  abundant :  for 
instance,  when  the  stars  are  represented  as  the  hiero- 
glyphics of  the  active  (speaking  divinity).  It  is  often 
perplexing ;  as,  for  instance,  when  a  number  of  angels' 
names,  virtues,  natural  forces,  etc.,  become  personlfl^  as 
resents  of  separate  spheres  of  the  universe. 
we  will  here  remark  that  the  second  world  is  called 


also  the  throne  of  God ;  the  divine,  spiritual  dement  of 
it,  which  other  philosophical  systems  would  perhaps  call 
the  soul  of  the  world,  is  here  called  Sandalphan  (nniAcX- 
^ocf).  It  is  similar  to  the  third  world,  that  of  the  nat- 
ural forces,  or  the  asaembling,  governing  principle,  and  ia 

then  called  the  angel  Metatron  (linDSQ,  L  e.  jtcra  ipprnm). 

The  expression  "  throne  "  brings  ns  back  to  Esekid,  from 
whose  well-known  vision  the  figurative  expressions  arv 
here  employed ;  so  that  the  first  worid  represents  the 
Glory,  and  the  third  the  four  beasts.  These  are  fnllowe*! 
by  the  four  wheels  of  God's  chariot,  by  the  fourth  world, 

or  that  of  action  (Fl^b?),  L  e.  the  material,  the  rind  of 

the  spiritual,  the  residuum  of  the  subsunce  of  the  divine 
light  As  we  had  Just  now  ten  classes  of  angels,  which 
were  leaders  of  the  natural  and  vital  forces,  and  which 
were  reUined  In  the  ethic  sense,  slthough  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  endowed  with  personality,  or  as  aogela  popo- 
larly  so  called,  so  are  there  also  ten  classes  of  devils  as 
Integuments  of  existence,  L  e.  as  limits  to  intelligence 
and  life.    These  last  ten  Sephiroth  are,  first.  Wilderness 

(^htn).  Void  (4Ma),  and  Darkness  (Tf  Ori) :  then  the  seven 

houses  of  corruption  (the  lapse).  Their  chief,  or  prindpal 
unity,  is  Sammaffil  (poison-god),  the  angel  of  death ;  next 
to  him,  as  personification  of  evil,  is  the  liarlot,  the  fbrsacr 
representing  the  active,  the  other  the  passive  concepticm 
of  the  Idea ;  while  both,  as  a  whole,  are  called  the  beast 

Fmro  all  these  metaphysical  ground-ideas  spring  orig- 
inal views  of  the  nature  and  destiny  of  man.  From  the 
foregoing  scheme  itself  It  follows,  in  short,  that  man,  in 
the  union  of  his  soul  and  body,  is  a  representation  of  the 
universe,  a  microcosm,  while  his  body  Is  a  raiment  of  liis 
soul,  as  the  world  Is  of  God ;  and  this  comparison  is  som»> 
times  carried  out  with  a  greater  number  of  poetical  fig- 
ures. But  as  more  closely  united  to  God  himsdf,  accord- 
ing to  his  divine  eseence,  man  in  this  system  attains  a 
higher  standing,  as  wns  indicated  ftt>ro  tne  first:  for  the 
seif-maDifsstinff  divinity  itself  was  called  the  original 
man,  because  all  nature  could  produce  no  more  noUe 
imago  for  the  iden.  Thns  man  is  next  the  image  of  God, 
and,  like  him,  a  unit  and  a  triad,  the  latter  being  spirit 

( ri^V3 ),  soul  ( nn ),  and  life  (UBS ).    The  first  is  the 

principle  of  thought,  the  second  of  feeling,  the  third  of 
passions  and  instincts  (we  think  the  last  can  be  so  under- 
stood, although  some  ctmsider  it  as  a  coarser  orgBu  of  the 
soul,  and  some  even  as  the  body;  at  all  events,  the  mate- 
rial substance  is  not  meant  thereby).  All  three  are  like- 
wise unmistakable  consequences  of  the  three  middle 
Sephiroth;  from  which  they  at  the  same  time  derive  tbdr 
relative  dignity.  By  this,  what  we  may  call  the  pre-exists 
ence  of  the  soul  is  esteblished,  and  not  only  it,  but  aleo, 
in  one  sense,  the  pre-existence  of  the  body  so  Car  as  ic  is 
a  prototype  of  corporealness— and  even  of  a  particular 

one  for  each,  therefore  called  in  later  days  ^H^^rP  (indi- 
vidual). The  entrance  into  life,  and  the  laUer  itnelf,  are 
not  considered  as  an  evil  or  as  a  state  of  exile,  althcMigh 
the  souls  would  certainly  prefer  remaining  always  with 
God.  It  la  a  means  of  edocation  for  the  soul,  and  of  re- 
demption for  the  world :  fi>r  while  the  spirit  deecenda 
even  to  being  mixed  up  with  matter,  it  atill  possessea  at 
one  point  a  clear  consdousness  of  itself  and  of  iu  origin, 
and  is  thns  the  more  eager  to  return  to  its  former  p)Osl- 
tion ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  elevates  the  matter  with 
which  it  is  combined,  enlightening  and  pnrifVing  it.  God 
knows  beforehand  the  destiny  of  each  fndividQal  aoul,so 
fkr  at  least  as  it  will  be  affected  by  this  combination  with 
matter,  but  he  does  not  determine  that  destiny.  In  (Hh- 
er  words,  the  Caballst  does  not  speak  of  predestinattoo, 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  does  he  solve  the  problem  of  the 
relation  between  firee-will  and  omnisdence ;  but,  in  order 
to  afford  fhll  scope  to  this  fkee-will,  and  yet  maintain 
the  apokatastasis,  or  restoration  ( a  consequence  of  Its 

ftandamental  idea),  it  introduces  the  wandering  (^^(bft)  of 

the  soul,  1.  e.  an  infinite  range  of  probationary  Ufa,  which 
is  to  end  only  on  reaching  the  aim  above  mentioned. 
The  souls  in  their  pre-woridlv  existence  are  already  male 
and  female,  and  even  bound  in  couples;  appearing  aone- 
times  to  enter  into  life  eeparatdy,  but  they  will  nnite 
again  In  matrimony,  by  which  they  are  completed  and 
merged  into  one  essence :  thus  they  strive  Jointly  towards 
the  great  end,  which  Is  thdr  Junction  in  heaven,  in  the 
temple  of  love  (nStlK  bs*^)!},  with  God.  who  takes  theai 
to  himself  with  a  kiss  (earthly  death) ;  and  by  perfecting 
themselves  in  him  in  thought  and  in  will  they  bceoiM 
psrUkers  of  eternal  holiness. 

See  Herzog,  Real-  Enc^Hop.  a.  v.  <*  Kabbalah,**  and 
comp.  Aharon  Selig,  93d  "^7^97  (Cracow,  1636X 
which  is  a  full  commentary  on  the  Zokar»  Sec  also 
Cabala. 

Zotkaiiten,  so  called  from  their  attachmciit  to  the 
book  Zokar,  are  properly  to  be  legarcted  as  a  oootioi 


ZOLLNER 


lOSl 


ZOOLOGY 


tion  of  the  aect  formed  by  the  fiunotta  Sabbtthai  Zeri 
(q.  T.)*  Their  creed  is  briefly  as  follows :  1.  They  be- 
lieve in  all  that  God  has  ever  revealed,  and  consider  it 
their  duty  constantly  to  investigate  its  meaning.  2. 
They  beliove  the  letter  of  Scripture  to  be  merely  the 
shell,  and  that  it  admits  of  a  mystical  and  spiritual  in- 
terpretation. 8.  They  believe  in  a  Trinity  ofPanuphim, 
or  persons,  in  Elohim,  4.  They  believe  in  the  incarna- 
tion of  God;  that  this  incarnation  took  place  in  Adam, 
and  that  it  will  again  take  place  in  the  Messiah.  5.  They 
do  not  believe  that  Jerusalem  will  ever  be  rebuilt.  6. 
They  believe  that  it  is  vain  to  expect  any  temporal 
Messiah ;  but  that  God  will  be  manifested  in  the  flesh, 
and  in  this  state  atone,  not  only  for  the  sins  of  the  Jews, 
but  for  the  sins  of  all  throughout  the  world  who  be- 
lieve in  him. 

This  sect  was  revived  about  the  year  1750  by  a  Polish 
Jew,  of  the  name  of  Jacob  Frank,  who  settled  in  Podo- 
lia,  and  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  Polish  government, 
to  which  he  was  recommended  by  the  bishop  of  Kame- 
nets,  in  whose  presence  he  held  disputes  with  the  ortho- 
dox Jews,  and  who  was  astonished  at  the  approximation 
of  his  creed  to  the  principles  of  Christianity,  On  the 
death  of  the  bishop,  he  sind  his  adherents  were  driven 
into  the  Turkish  dominions;  and  being  also  persecuted 
there  by  the  Rabbinists,  they  resolved  to  conform  to  the 
rites  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Frank  at  last  found  a 
place  of  rest  at  Offenbach,  whither  his  followers  flocked 
by  thousands  to  visit  him,  and  where  he  died  in  1791. 
llieir  numbers  do  not  appear  to  have  increased  much 
of  late ;  but  they  are  to  be  met  with  in  different  parts 
of  Hungary  and  Poland.    See  Zohab. 

Zdllner,  Johann  Frikdbich,  a  Lutheran  theolo- 
gian, was  born  April  24, 1768.  He  studied  at  Frankfort, 
was  in  1779  preacher  at  Berlin,  declined  a  call  as  super- 
intendent to  Neu-Brandenburg  in  1782,  and  remained  at 
Berlin  as  pastor  of  St.  Mary's,  where  he  died,  Sept.  12, 
1804.  He  published,  Diiputaiio  pro  Umciiate  Dei 
(Frankfort,  1776) : — U^r  Afotes  MendelstoMs  Jerusa- 
lem (1784),  besides  a  number  of  sermonsi  See  Doring, 
Die  ffelehrten  Kamelredner,  p.  580-585.     (B,  P.) 

Zonaras,  Joiiahiiks,  a  Byzantine  historian,  was 
bom  in  the  last  part  of  the  11  th  centuiy,  and  died  about 
1180.  He  was  secretary  to  the  emperor  Alexius  Com- 
nenus.  After  the  death  of  Alexius  (1118)  he  retired 
to  the  monastery  of  St.  Elijah,  in  Mount  Athos,  and 
devoted  himself  to  theological  and  literary  studies. 
His  Chronicle,  from  the  creation  till  the  death  of 
Alexius,  is  a  mere  compilation  from  Josephus,  Euse- 
bius,  Xenophon,  Herodotus,  Plutarch,  Dio  Cassius,  etc., 
and  was  edited  by  Hieronymus  Wolf  (Basel,  1557),  Du 
Fresne  (Paris,  1686,  2  vols.),  and  Pinder  (Bonn,  184U 
44,  2  vols.).  Of  more  value  is  his  commentary  on 
the  Syntagma  of  Photius:  'E^i/yrimc  r&v  upHv  koI 
dtluy  Kavovufv  r&y  re  ayiwv  cat  aturdv  'AirooroXtttP, 
Kai  rdv  upiiy  otKovfUVUcvv  ffwoStov,  etc.  In  Latin 
and  Greek  the  work  was  published  at  Paris  in  1619;  the 
best  edition,  however,  is  the  one  publbhed  at  Oxford  in 
1672  fol.  Zonaras  also  wrote  scholia  on  the  New  Test., 
on  which  see  Zoncarm  GIossub  Sacrm  Novi  Tettetmenti 
lUutirata  a  F,  W,  Sckurz  (Grimma,  1818^20).  On  the 
first  two  works  see  Schmidt,  Uelfer  die  Qvellen  det 
Zonarat,  in  Zimmermatm^s  Zeitschrijl  JUr  die  Alter- 
thumtwisseruchqft  (Darmstadt,  1839),  vol.  vi.  No.  80-86; 
Zander,  Quibus  e  Foniibus  Joh,  Zonarat  Hauaerit  tuos 
Aimaleg  Bomanot  (Ratzeburg,  1849) ;  Biener,  De  CoUec- 
tumilms  Canonum  EccleaicB  Gracce  (Berlin,  1827) ;  the 
same,  Das  Kanomsche  Recht  der  griechiscken  Kircke^  in 
Mittermaier's  Zeitschrijl  (Heidelberg,  1855),  voL  xxviti, 
p.  201-208 ;  Mortreuil,  Histoire  du  Droit  Byzantin  (Paris, 
1843),  lit,  428-428;  HeROg,i2eaZ.£m9Jk/op.B.v.;  Lichten- 
berger,  Encydop,  des  Sciences  RdigieuseSy  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Zodlatry  (Greek  iStov  and  \arpfia),  the  worship 
of  animals.    See  Animal.  Worship  ;  Idolatry. 

ZoSlogy,  BiBUGAL.  This,  like  all  other  scientific 
subjects,  is  practically  and  incidentally,  rather  than  sys- 


tematically and  designedly,  treated  in  the  Scriptures; 
yet  many  animals  are  mentioned,  and  their  character- 
istics are  given  with  substantial  accuracy.  In  the 
Talmud  a  more  copious  and  minute  description  is  given 
of  many  animals  (see  Lewysohn,  Die  Zodlogie  des  Tal- 
muds  [Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1858]).  The  popular  and 
general  classification  into  beasts,  birds,  reptiles,  etc,  is 
the  usual  Biblical  one,  and  they  are  further  distinguished 
as  dean  and  unclean.  See  each  of  these  designations 
under  its  proper  head.  The  following  is  a  full  list  of  all 
the  animals  (including  certain  animal  products)  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible,  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the 
names  in  the  original,  with  the  ordinary  rendering  in 
the  A.  v.,  and  the  real  name  as  nearly  as  modern  re- 
search has  identified  it.  See  each  term  in  its  proper 
place  in  the  body  of  this  Cydopadia,  Comp.  Natu- 
ral History. 

Aehaateranim'. .  .mules "  camels." 

AUoa vnltnre *'  eagle." 

Aqttr* swallow "swallow." 

AKbar' dormouse "  mouse.** 

Akkabish' spider "  spider." 

Atko' goat "roebuck." 

Akrab\.,., scorpion. "scorpioo.** 

Akris. ...locust "locust.** 

Akshvb' asp "adder." 

AUktor cock. "cock.** 

Aldpex fox "fox'* 

Alukah' vompyre "  leech.*' 

Anakah' liaard "ferret" 

AfU^hah' parrot "  heroo.** 

Arw onager "wild  ass.** 

ArbekT locust "locust" 

AriT lion "lion.** 

Arktos. bear "  bear." 

Amibeth bare "hare.** 

Arab', gad-fly "  swarms.'* 

Arod\ onager "wild  ass." 

Arveh' Uon "lion.** 

Ash moth "moth.** 

Aspis. asp. "  asp." 

AtalUtpW boi "bat" 

Athon  sho-ass "she-ass.** 

AUvd' he-goat "  he-goat" 

AyahT hawk. "kite,**  "vulture." 

Ayal* stag "hart" 

Ayakih' doe. "hind." 

A'yit beast "bird.** 

Bakar' beef-animal "  ox." 

Barburifn\ goore. "fatted  fowl." 

Batrdehos irog "  f rog. " 

Behetnah' quadruped "beast'* 

Behemoth' hippopotamus. ..."  behemoth.** 

Bikrah'. »he-camel "  dromedary.*' 

Chagab' locu  st "  grasshopper. ' ' 

Chcmor' he-ass "ass." 

ChanameV. ant "frost** 

Chapharphsrah' .nt "mole." 

ChargoV locust "beetle." 

Chasldah' stork "stork." 

Chasil' locust "locust" 

ChMEir' swine "swine." 

Choiors swine "  swi  ne. " 

CMiU fopinm "gall." 

Chbled,. weasel "weasel." 

Chdvut lizard "snail." 

Daah' kite "glede,'*  "vulture. ** 

Dayah' falcon "vulture." 

Deborah' bee "bee." 

D6b bear "bear.** 

Dishon' antelope. "  pygarg.** 

Drakon serpent "  dragon." 

DitkiphaUi' hoopoe "lapwing." 

Echidna viper "vijYer." 

Epheh' serpent "  viper.'* 

Eriphion kid "goat" 

Er\phos goat "goat" 

Ez ebe-goat "  goat " 

Qamal' camel "camel." 

Gazam' nn winged  locust. . " palmer-worm." 

Gib locust "locust" 

Gedf kid "kid." 

Gediyah' she-kid "kid." 

Gbb locust "grasshopper." 

Gdr' whelp "  young  Hon." 

Gozal' fledgling "  yon  ug  bird." 

Gftr whelp "  young,*'  "  whelp." 

Hippos horse "horse." 

Hue swine "  sow." 

Ijfim'' Jackals "wlldbeasU." 

Kaath' cormorant "  pellCAo." 

Kamilos camel "  camel  ** 

KiUb dog "dog." 

Kin gnat "lice." 

Kephir' yonng  lion "  young  lion.** 


ZOOLOGY 


1032 


ZOROASTER 


Ketoa feft>monster "  whftle.** 

Kinnam' gnat "lice." 

Kippod^ Eedgie-hog "biitern." 

Ktmpoz', orroir-snake **  ^reat  owL" 

Kirharoth', dromedariea "  swift  beaets." 

Kdaeh llxard "chameleon.** 

KoktoB cochineal "scarlet** 

Kbnbpt gnat. "gnat/* 

Kdph ape. "ape." 

Korax crow ••  raven.** 

K6% ...pelican "owl.** 

KiOn, dog "doff.** 

L&vUh lion "llou." 

Lew Hon "Hon." 

Lehiyah\ Honeae "lioneea.*' 

Lidn lion "Hon.** 

LetaahT lizard "lixard.** 

JAvyaJthan' crocodile "  leyiathan.*' 

IaM9 wolf. "wolt*» 

Mithi, thread "silk." 

NafmaT\ leopard. . .  / "  leopa  rd.  * ' 

Nemdiah* nnt "  ant.** 

Nemar' leopard "  leopard.*' 

^^ft^'T:.^' ."!':}  ^««»"i "e«fii«" 

FHb,,'. !..hawk. "hawk." 

Ochimr owla. "doleful.** 

Onardbn,  or  an^«.aM "  aae.'* 

Ortb' 


raven "raven. 


*• 


If*" 


Ozinyiih' eagle "oeprey.** 

Panuh' steed "horse.** 

Parddtfi§ leopard. "  leopard." 

Panmh'. flea "flea.** 

Perah', mole "mole." 

Piri onager "wild 

Fired. male "mule.** 

P^et eagle "oasifhif 

J^then, serpent "adder.^ 

Baah' valtnre "glede.** 

■^jJSSk'I'.rf:} '»>"'• "Kler-«.gle.» 

RtSm bnfliilo "anicom.** 

Biketh courser ^ "swift  beast** 

Rhn bnflklo **  nnioorn.** 

Renanah' ostrich "  ostrich.*' 

JUym buffalo "  nnlcom.** 

Rimmah' worm "worm." 

£Mr^ he>goaL "satyr." 

Sds moth "moth." 

SeheehiUth pnrple  shell "  onycha.** 

SelatT, quail "quail.** 

Semamith' lizard "epidet" 

Slrikdn silk ,...."  silk.'* 

S£s moth "moth." 

Shdbltd' snail "snail." 

SMteJuU lion "Hon." 

&id£haph gull "  cnckoa" 

Shalakr,.. gannoi. "cormorant." 

Shani" oochineaL '*  crimson,"  "scarlet" 

Shaphan' rabbit "coney.** 

Shephiphon' snake "adder.** 

Shual'T. jackal "fox." 

SkUix worm "  worm." 

81cfirpi6% scorpion "  scorpion." 

Solamr. locust "  bald  locust." 

&a6ngd9 sponge "  sponge." 

StrofUhibB sparrow "sparrow.'* 

869 hone "horse." 

86$. swallow "crane." 

SuMh*. mare "  mare." 

T6ehaah seal "  ba  dger.  *' 

Tcuihmat' f  ostrich "  night-hawk." 

Tan jackal "dragon." 

Tanntm' crocodUe "  dragon." 

Tomnin' sea-monster **  whale,**  etc. 

TekiUth sea-sheH "blue.'' 

Teo' antelope "  wild  ox.** 

TiMhimeth lizard "  chameleon.** 

HHfuhimeth heron "  swan.** 

Td. antelope "  wild  ox.** 

Tola' cochineal. ........"  crimson,"  etc. 

T6r, dove "turtle-dove." 

Trag/k, he-goat "  goat." 

Trugihi dove "  turtle-dove." 

TaAb lirard "tortoise." 

TaoMd hyena "  speckled." 

Taehf (male)  gazelle. . . . . "  deer." 

TseMyoA' (female)  gazelle. . . "  roe. " 

TtelaUal' cricket "locost." 

Tsipha basilisk "  cockatrice. " 

Tteptutrdid ft-og "fh>g." 

Tsippor* little  bird "sparrow." 

!f>iirahf fly. "hornet** 

Tmiuim' wild  beasts. "  beasts  of  the  desert" 

Tukkipim'. ..... .peacocks "  peacocks." 

Yaalah' (female)  ibex **  roe." 

Yaanab' (female)  ostrich. . . "  owl." 

Tachmur' oryx •*  fallow  deer." 

Yail' (male)  ibex.. .*. . . ."  wild  goat" 

yain' (male)  ostrich . , . , " OBlrich." 


''ps5:'.."'}«««™ "owl" 

r«e* hafry  locost "cankerwonn," etc 

Yonah' dove "dove." 

m^VlUr    ...........  ny .  ........  scacsac       By. 

tttV wolf. "wolf." 

Zimjtr gazelle "chaiuoia." 

Zopl^  JoHAMii  HEiNiucHy  a  German  theological 
writer,  who  lived  in  the  18th  centnry,  is  the  author  of, 
Iniroductio  ad  Lectionem  VeierU  Tertatmatti,  etc  (Leip- 
sic,  1768):— JoMpAitf*  Ztugniu  von  Jem  Ckritto  (itMd. 
1759):~.(2tfadn^  DiimrtU:  I.  De  Vertiom  lxx,qmM 
Vacant,  Inierprttum;  2.  De  SerpetHe  Protoplastanan 
Sedvctore^etc  (ibid.  1768) i—IntroducUo  m  AnHquitaUt 
SaeroM  Veterum  Ebraorutn  (Utile,  1784):— Z>tcs.  de 
Jephtm  M  FUiam  MUigata  CreduUiatf,  etc.  (Easee, 
1780)  '.—Dist,  de  Paeudo  '  Samvelis  ex  1  Sam.  e.  xxviii 
(ibid.  1747)  i—CompemHum  Grammatka  IJebnug  Dand- 
ano!  (ibid.  1748).    See  Faret,^tULytfdiii,555.    (a  P.) 

Zom,  PBTBii,a  German  theological  writer,  iras  botxi 
at  Hamburg,  May  22, 1682.  In  1716  he  was  calietl  as 
rector  to  Plon,  in  Holstein ;  in  1725  became  profesMr 
of  history,  in  1729  that  of  Church  history  at  the  gym- 
nasium in  SteUin,  and  died  at  Thorn,  Jan.  23,  174& 
He  published,  De  Seholit  Pwblicu  quat  Antiqvti  Jttdin 
Prope  LacHum,  Anm,  et  Fluviorym  Crfpidiitibiu,  etc, 
ExetruxennU  {Ad,  arrt,  18)  (PlflNUB,  \71S):—J)e  Epi- 
thalamiu  ewe  Carmtmbut  Veterum  ffebraontm  Nwp- 
tialibue  (Hamburig,  8.a.):— />e  Anfifftie  ^mgmatSbms 
j»  Caaau  NvptiaUbut  Hebraorum,  Grtecorum  ei  Roma^ 
nontm  (Leipsic,  1724)  i—Hittoria  Bibiiontm  ex  Bebne^ 
orum  DuhMs  Festit  et  Jefmriit  Ilhutraia,  etc  (ibid. 
1741)  i—Dist,  de  Baptismo  Protebftor,  Judaieo  Saxror 
ment,  V,  T.juxta  Liffht/ootwn  (ibid.  ITOi^i^Heeatmi 
Abderitm  Ecfogm  (Altona,  1780)  i^Hutoria  Fiad  Jwda- 
id  tub  Imperio  Vetenm  Romanorum  (ibid.  1734).  See 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  iii,  666 ;  Winer,  BamUmck  der  tkeoL  UL 
1,82,140,682)899.     (R  P.) 

Zoroaster  (more  correctly  ZaratkuMra,  which  in 
Greek  and  Latin  waa  corrupted  into  Zarastradet  and 
Zot-oattret,  while  the  Persians  and  Paraeea  changed  it 
into  Zerdueht)  was  the  founder  of  the  Panee  religion. 
The  original  meaning  of  the  word  was  probably  that 
of  **  chief,"  *<aemor,"  *«  high-priest,"  and  it  was  a  comnum 
designation  of  a  spiritual  guide  and  head  of  a  district 
or  province  Indeed,  the  founder  of  Zoromtrianiam  b 
hardly  ever  mentioned  without  his  fiimily  name  Spiiimtu 
He  igraa  a  native  of  Bactria.  He  applied  to  himself  the 
terma  Manihran  (reciter  of  *'Manthras"),  a  Meawi^er 
sent  by  Ahura-Mazda,  or  a  tpeaberf  one  who  listens  to 
the  voice  of  oracles  given  by  the  spirit  of  natnie,  ooe 
who  receives  sacred  words  from  Ahura-Mazda  through 
the  flamca.  His  life  is  covered  with  obscurity.  The 
accounts  of  him  are  legendary  and  unbiatoricaL  In 
the  Zend  writings  he  is  to  a  great  extent  represented, 
not  as  a  historical,  but  aa  a  dogmatical  peraonalitr, 
vested  with  superhuman,  or  even  divine,  powers,  stand- 
ing  next  to  God.  His  temputiona  by  the  devil,  whoae 
empire  was  threatened  by  him,  form  the  subject  of 
many  traditional  stories  and  legenda.  He  is  represented 
as  the  fountain  of  all  wisdogfi  and  truth,  and  the  master 
of  the  whole  living  creation.  One  of  the  prayers  of 
the  Fravardin  Yaaht  declares — 

"We  worship  t^e  mle  and  tho  gnardian  angel  ofZara- 
thnatra  Spltlms,  who  fli>t  thought  good  thoughts,  who 
flrst  spoke  gtiod  words,  who  flrst  perfurmed  good  actiaas 
—who  was  the  first  priest,  the  first  warrior,  the  flrst  cnkS- 
vntor  of  the  soil,  the  first  prophet,  the  first  who  waa  in- 
spired, the  first  who  has  given  to  mankind  nature,  and 
reality,  and  word,  and  hearing  of  word,  and  wealth,  and 
all  good  things  created  by  Maada,  which  embellish  reali- 
ty; who  first  caused  the  wheel  to  turn  among  cods  and 
men,  who  first  prsised  the  purity  of  the  living  creation 
and  destroyed  Idolatry,  who  confessed  the  Zarathostriau 
belief  in  Ahura-Maida,  the  religion  of  the  living  Ood 
against  the  devils. .  . ,  Through  him  the  whole  true  and 
revealed  word  was  heard,  which  is  the  life  and  ffnidaiiM 
of  the  world.  .  .  .  Through  hia  knowledge  and  m^ 
the  waters  become  desirous  of  growing;  thitwgh  hla 
knowledge  and  s}>eech  all  beings  created  by  the  Boly 
Spirit  are  nttering  words  of  happbeis,'* 


ZOROASTER 


1033 


ZOROASTER 


In  the  older  YaaiiA  alone  he  appears  like  a  living-ieal- 
ity,  a  man  acting  a  great  and  prominent  part,  both 
in  the  history  of  his  country  and  that  of  mankind. 

I.  J7ufory.-- Zoroaster's  father  seems  to  have  been 
called  Purosbaspa,  and  his  daughter,  the  only  one  of 
-his  children  mentioned,  Pamehista.  But  the  time  when 
he  lived  remains  very  obscure.  He  is  usually  said  to 
have  flourished  in  the  reign  of  a  king  Gushtasp,  who 
has,  on  apparently  sufficient  grounds,  been  identified 
with  the  Darius  Hjrstaspis  of  the  classical  writers 
(Malcolm,  Hiat,  of  Persia,  i,  234).  The  dates  generw 
ally  given  are  as  follows:  Xanthos  of  Lydia  places 
him  about  six  hundred  years  before  the  Trojan  war; 
Aristotle  and  Eudoxus  place  him  six  thousand  years 
before  Plato ;  others,  again,  tive  thousand  years  before 
the  Trojan  war.  Berosus,  a  Babylonian  historian,  makes 
him  a  Babylonian  king,  and  the  founder  of  a  dynasty 
which  reigned  over  Babybn  between  2200  and  2000 
B.C  The  Parsees  place  him  at  the  time  of  Hystaspes, 
the  father  of  Darius,  whom  they  identify  with  a  king 
mentioned  in  the  Shah-Nameh,  from  whom,  however, 
Hystaspes  b  wholly  distinct.  This  account  would  place 
Zoroaster  at  about  650  B.C  Tet  there  is  scarcely  a 
doubt  that  he  must  be  considered  as  belonging  to  a 
much  earlier  age,  not  later  than  1000  RC.  It  is  almost 
certain  that  Zoroaster  was  one  of  the  Sosbyantos,  or 
five  priests,  with  whom  the  religious  reform  first  arose, 
which  he  boldly  carried  out.  The  Aryans  seem  to  have 
originally  led  a  nomad  life,  until  some  of  them,  reach- 
ing, in  the  course  of  their  migrations,  lands  fit  for  per- 
manent settlements,  settled  down  into  agriculturists. 
Bactria  and  the  parts  between  the  Oxus  and  the 
Jaxartes  seem  to  have  attracted  them  moat.  The  Ira- 
nians became  gradually  estranged  from  their  brother- 
tribes,  who  adhered  to  their  ancient  nomad  life,  and  by 
degrees  came  to  consider  those  peaceful  settlements  a 
fit  prey  for  their  depredations  and  inroads.  The  hatred 
thus  engendered  and  nourished  soon  came  to  include  all 
and  everything  belonging  to  those  devastators — even 
their  religion,  originally  identical  with  that  of  their 
own.  The  Deva  religion  became,  in  their  estimation, 
the  source  of  all  evil.  Moulded  into  a  new  form,  styled 
the  Ahura  religion,  the  old  elements  were  much  more 
changed  than  was  the  case  when  Judaism  became  Chris- 
tianity. Generation  after  generation  further  added  and 
took  awa3%  until  Zarathustra,  with  the  energy  and  the 
clear  eye  that  belongs  to  exalted  leaders  and  founders 
of  religions,  gave  to  that  which  had  originally  been  a 
mere  reaction  and  spite  against  the  primitive  Brahminic 
faith  a  new  and  independent  life,  and  forever  fixed  its 
dogmas,  not  a  few  of  which  sprang  from  his  own  brain. 

II.  Doctrines, — Zoroaster  is  commonly  spoken  of  as 
the  great  reformer  of  the  Magian  system  after  it  had 
sufTered  corruption ;  but  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
that  on  the  primitive  dualistic  worship  of  the  Persians 
he  superinduced  some  notions  borrowed  from  the  ele- 
ment-worship, with  which  Magism  at  a  later  period 
coalesced.  His  doctrines,  as  far  as  they  can  be  gath- 
ered from  the  extant  fragments  of  the  Zend-Avesta, 
especially  the  Vendid&d  Sade,  and  from  the  Ulemai 
Isiam  (a  treatise  on  the  'Parsee  doctrine  by  an  Arabic 
writer,  supposed  to  belong  to  the  6th  or  7th  century 
of  our  sra),  relate  principally  to  theology  and  ethics, 
with  occasional  references  to  questions  of  a  cosmologi- 
cal  and  physiological  character. 

The  problem  of  the  world  in  relation  to  God  he  an- 
swers by  reference  to  the  antithesis  of  light  and  dark- 
ness, good  and  evil ;  all  things,  according  to  him,  consist 
in  the  mingling  of  antitheses.  His  primary  physical 
principle  is  the  Zenoane  Aherene,  the  Endless  Time 
(with  which  may  be  compared  the  t6  dtrttpov  of 
Anaximander;  see  Arist.  Physic,  i,  4,  5;  iii,  4-7). 
Everything  else  save  time  has  been  made.  The  orig- 
inal spiritual  power  was  Ormuzd,  the  luminous,  the 
pure,  the  fragrant,  devoted  to  good  and  capable  of  all 
good.  Gazing  into  the  abjrss,  he  beheld,  afar  off,  Ahri- 
mao,  black,  undean^  unsavory,  the  evil-doer.    He  was 


startled  at  the  sight,  and  thought  within  himself,  I 
must  put  this  enemy  out  of  the  way ;  and  set  himself  to 
use  the  fit  means  for  this  end.  All  that  Ormuzd  ac- 
complished was  by  the  help  of  Time.  After  the  lapse 
of  twelve  hundred  years  the  heavens  and  paradise  weria 
made,  and  the  twdve  signs  which  mark  the  heavens 
were  fixed  there.  Each  sign  was  formed  in  one  thou- 
sand years.  After  the  first  three  were  formed,  Ahriman 
arose  to  make  war  on  Ormuzd,  but  failing  of  success  he 
returned  to  his  gloomy  abode,  and  remained  there  for 
other  three  thousand  years,  during  which  the  work 
of  creation  advanced,  and  three  other  signs  were  made. 
During  this  period  the  earth  and  the  sea  were  also 
formed,  man  was  created,  and  plants  and  animals  pro- 
duced. Again  Ahriman  assailed  heaven  with  all  his 
might,  but  failing  in  this,  he  attacketl  the  world.  He 
afflicted  Kajumert,  the  first  man,  with  a  thousand 
plagues  till  he  was  destroyed;  but  was  himself  taken 
and  driven  into  hell  through  the  same  opening  by 
which  he  had  come  into  the  world.  In  man  there  ia 
much  of  Ormuzd  and  much  of  Ahriman :  in  his  body 
are  fire,  water,  earth,  and  air;  he  has  also  soul,  under- 
standing, judgment,  a/erpfr  (**  principe  des  sensations,** 
Anquetil),  and  five  senses.  By  the  soul  arc  moved  ail 
the  members  we  possess,  and  without  the  soul  we  are 
nothing.  AU  these  he  has  from  Ormuzd.  From  Ahri- 
man he  has  desire,  need,  envy,  hatred,  impurity,  false- 
hood, and  wrath.  When  a  man  dies,  the  four  elements 
of  which  his  body  is  composed  mingle  with  the  four 
primitive  elements;  his  soul,  understanding,  and  judg- 
ment unite  with  the  ferver,  and  all  become  one.  In 
this  state  man  goes  to  judgment,  and  according  as  hia 
good  works  or  his  bad  works  have  preponderated  during 
life,  he  is  rewarded  with  immortality  in  paradise,  or 
punuhed  by  being  cast  into  hell.  During  life  he  is  in 
constant  conflict  with  the  Dews  or  Divas,  a  class  of  be- 
ings possessing  a  body  formed  of  the  four  elements- 
beings  essentially  evil,  and  who  tempt  men  to  sin ,  but 
at  the  resurrection  they  shall  be  annihilated,  and  all 
men  at  last  shall  be  received  into  paradise.  Even 
Ahriman  himself  shall  be  accepted  and  blessed ;  for  the 
Dews  are  gradually  abstracting  from  him  the  evil  and 
darkness  that  are  in  him,  so  that  at  last  he  shall  be  left 
pure  and  bright  (see  Hyde,  Hist.  JUL  Vet,  Pers,  [Oxon. 
1700] ;  Anquetil  du  Perron,  Zmd-Avesta  [Par.  1771,  8 
vols.  4101 ;  Vullera,  Fragmente  iiber  die  RtL  des  Zoroaster 
[Bonn,  1831]). 

It  is  chiefly  from  the  Gathas,  however,  that  Zara- 
thustra*s  real  theology,  unmutilated  by  later  ages,  can 
be  learned.  His  leading  idea  was  monotheism.  While 
the  five  priests  before  him,  the  Sosbyantos,  worahipped 
a  plurality  of  good  spirits  called  Ahuras,  as  opposed  to 
the  Indian  Devas,  he  reduced  this  plurality  to  unity. 
This  one  supreme  being  he  called  Ahum -Mazda,  or 
the  creator  of  the  universe  —  the  Auramazda  of  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  of  the  Achemenidian  kings,  the 
Ahurmazd  of  Sassanian  times,  and  the  Hormazd,  or 
Ormuzd,  of  the  modern  Parseea.  This  supreme  god  is, 
by  Zoroaster,  conceived  to  be  **  the  creator  of  the  earth- 
ly and  spiritual  life,  the  lord  of  the  whole  universe,  at 
whose  hands  are  all  the  creatures."  Ahura-Mazda  is 
to  Zoroaster  the  light  and  the  source  of  light.  He  is 
wisdom  and  intellect ;  he  possesses  all  good  things,  tem- 
poral and  spiritual,  among  them  the  good  mind,  immor- 
tality, wholesomenesss,  the  best  truth,  devotion,  piety, 
and  abundance  of  all  earthly  good.  All  these  gifts  he 
grants  to  the  pious  roan  who  is  pure  in  thought,  word, 
and  deed.  He  rewards  the  good  and  punishes  the 
wicked ;  and  all  that  is  created,  good  or  evil,  fortune 
or  misfortune,  is  his  work  alone. 

Nothing  was  further  from  Zoroaster's  mind  than  t(» 
assume  anything  but  one  supreme  being,  one  and  indi- 
visible. But  the  great  problem  of  the  ages,  the  origin 
of  evil  and  its  incompatibility  with  God's  goodness, 
holiness,  and  justice,  he  attempted  to  solve  by  aasum- 
ing  two  primeval  causes,  which,  though  difTerent,  were 
unitedf  and  produced  the  world  of  the  material  things 


ZOROASTER 


1034 


ZUTSZ 


as  well  M  that  of  the  spirit  The  one  who  prodoeed 
the  reality  is  called  Tohu-Mano,  the  good  miDd;  the 
other,  throogh  whom  the  non-reatUy  originated,  is  the 
Akem-Mano,  the  evil  mind.  To  the  former  belong 
all  good,  true,  and  perfect  things ;  to  the  second,  all  that 
is  delusive,  bad,  wicked.  These  two  aboriginal  moving 
causes  of  the  ani  verse  are  called  twins.  They  are  spread 
everywhere,  in  God  as  in  man.  When  united  in  Ahura- 
Mazda  they  are  called  Spento-Manyus  and  Angro- 
Manyns,  i.  e.  white  or  holy,  and  dark  or  evil,  spirit.  It 
is  only  in  later  writings  that  these  two  are  supposed  to 
stand  opposed  to  each  other  in  the  relation  of  God  and 
devil.  The  inscriptions  of  Darius  know  but  one  God, 
without  any  adversary  whatsoever.  But  while  the  one 
side  within  him  produced  all  that  is  bright  and  shining, 
all  that  is  good  and  useful  in  nature,  the  other  side  pro- 
duced an  that  is  dark  and  apparently  noxious.  Both 
are  as  inseparable  as  day  and  night,  and,  though  op- 
posed to  each  other,  are  indispensable  for  the  preset^ 
ration  of  creation.  The  bright  spirit  appears  in  the 
blazing  flame,  the  presence  of  the  dark  is  marked  by 
the  wood  converted  into  charcoal.  The  one  has  cre- 
ated the  light  of  the  day,  the  other  the  darkness  of  the 
night;  the  former  awakens  men  to  their  daty,  the  oth- 
er  lulls  them  to  sleep.  Life  is  produced  by  the  one 
and  extinguished  by  the  other,  who  also,  by  releasing 
the  soul  from  the  fetters  of  the  body,  enables  her  to  go 
up  to  immortality.    See  Duausm. 

Thus  the  original  monotheism  of  Zoroaster  did  not 
last  long.  False  interpretations,  misunderstandings, 
changes,  and  corruptions  crept  in,  and  dualism  was  es- 
tablished in  theology.  The  two  principles  then,  for  the 
first  time,  became  two  powers,  hostile  to  each  other, 
each  ruling  over  a  realm  of  his  own,  and  constantly  en- 
deavoring to  overthrow  the  other.  Hence  monotheism 
was,  in  later  times,  broken  up  and  superseded  by  dual- 
ism. But  a  small  party,  represented  by  the  Magi,  re- 
mained steadfast  to  the  old  doctrine,  as  opposed  to  that 
of  the  followers  of  the  false  interpretation,  or  Zend,  the 
Zendiks.  In  order  to  prove  their  own  interpretation 
of  Zoroaster's  doctrines  they  had  recourse  to  a  false 
and  ungrammatical  explanation  of  the  term  Zervana 
Akarana,  which,  merely  meaning  time  without  bounds, 
was  by  them  pressed  into  an  identity  with  the  Supreme 
Being;  while  the  passages  on  which  the  present  Parsee 
priests  still  rest  their  faulty  interpretation,  simply  in- 
dicate that  God  created  in  the  boundless  time,  or  that 
he  is  from  eternity,  self-existing,  neither  bom  nor  cre- 
ated. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  principal 
doctrines  of  Zoroaster,  drawn  from  certain  passages 
from  the  Gathas,  which  probably  emanated  from  Zo- 
roaster himself. 

I.  Everywhere  in  the  world  a  duality  is  to  he  perceived, 
such  as  the  good  and  the  evil,  light  and  darkness;  this 
life  and  that  life,  human  wisdom  and  divine  wisdom. 

5.  Only  this  lire  becomes  a  prey  to  death,  hut  not  that 
hereafter,  over  which  the  destructlTe  spirit  has  no  power. 

8.  In  the  universe  there  are,  from  uie  beginning,  two 
spirits  at  work,  the  one  making  life,  the  other  destroying 
it. 

4.  Both  these  spirits  are  sccompanied  by  Intellectual 
powers,  repreventing  the  Ideas  of  the  Platonic  system  ou 
which  the  whole  moral  world  rests.  They  cause  the 
struggle  between  good  and  evil,  and  all  the  conflicts  of 
the  world,  which  end  in  the  final  victory  of  the  good 
priucfple. 

6.  The  principal  doty  of  man  in  this  life  Is  to  obey  the 
word  and  commandments  of  God. 

6l  Disobedience  is  punished  with  the  death  of  the 
sinner. 

7.  Ahnra- Mazda  created  the  idea  of  the  good,  hut  is 
not  identical  with  It  This  idea  produced  the  good  mind, 
the  Divide  Spirit,  working  in  man  and  nature,  and  devo- 
tion— the  obedient  heart 

6.  The  Divine  Spirit  cannot  be  resisted. 

9.  Those  who  ohey  the  word  of  God  will  be  flree  fttim 
all  defects  and  immortal. 

10.  God  'exercises  his  nile  in  the  world  through  the 
works  prompted  by  the  Divine  Spirit,  who  is  working  in 
man  and  nature. 

II.  Men  should  pray  to  Ood  and  worship  him.  He 
hears  the  pmyers  or  the  good. 

IS.  All  men  live  solely  through  the  bonnty  of  God. 


18.  The  soul  of  the  pure  will  hereafter  enjoj  everlssting 
life ;  that  of  the  wicked  will  have  to  undergo  everlsstlaf 
punishment,  or  as  modem  Parsee  theotogluui  ezplsia,to 
the  day  of  the  resurrection. 

14.  AH  creatures  are  Ahurs-Masda*a. 

16.  He  is  the  reality  of  the  good  mind,  word,  and  dsed. 

III.  LtCerofurr.— Haug,  Et$aifB  on  ikt  Saertd  La^ 
gfuape,  Writm^,  and  Rd^jffitm  cfikt  Paneet  (Bombav, 
1862);  Spiegel,  EvamtekB  Akerthmtknde  (Lripiie, 
1871-78,  8  vols.);  Darmsteter,  Ormtud  tt  Akrmim 
(Paris,  1877);  Uninns,  J)e  Zaroaatre  (Koremberg, 
1661);  Mulert,  De  Namme  H  VUa  Zoroattru  (Witten- 
berg, 1707) ;  Clarke,  Tm  Great  He^gumi  (Boston,  1871); 
Hardwick,  Ckriti  and  Other  Maatert  (London,  18o547; 
2d  ed.  1868) ;  HtiUer,  Cluptfrom  a  German  Warhkep 
(Index).  See  also  the  following  with  the  refereooei 
under  them:  AHBiXAif;  Gokbicbs;  Maoi;  OaactzD; 
Pabscks;  Ze!ci>-Avk8ta. 

Zorab'^abel  (ZopopdPiX),  the  Greek  form  (1  Eii 
iv,  18 ;  T,  5-70 ;  ri,  2-29 ;  Ecdus.  xlix,  11 ;  Matt,  i,  12, 
18 ;  Luke  iii,  27)  of  the  name  of  Zerabbabel  (q.  v.) 

Zor'phi  (Heb.  with  the  art.  kaU^T»orrpki%  ^V^tn-, 
Sept.  rov  Sapf^';  Vulg.  aurificU;  A.  Y.  "the  gold- 
smith **)  is  a  marginal  suggestion  in  Neb.  iii,  81,  for 
the  name  of  the  father  of  Malchiah,  as  if  a  proper 
name,  but  probably  without  good  reason. 

Znbly,  Joinr  Joachim,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  about  the  year  1780.  In  1775  be  took 
an  active  part  in  political  matters,  and  was  selected  si 
one  of  the  Georgia  delegates  to  the  Continental  Cod. 
gress  at  Philadelphia.  The  Georgia  divine  did  not 
prove  loyal  to  the  Whig  side,  and  a  correspoDdcooe  of 
his  with  the  royal  governor  of  the  state  having  beeo 
discovered,  he  was  compelled  to  resign  bis  position  in 
Congress,  and  subsequently  his  property  was  foiiieitcd 
under  the  Confiscation  Act.  He  died  at  SavsDOsli, 
before  the  war  ended,  in  July,  1781.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  ^  a  man  of  great  learning,  of  vigorous  sod 
penetrating  mind."  See  Sabine,  Royalkt*  m  A*  Bet. 
Trar,ii,467.     (J.aS.) 

Zuckrig],  Jakob,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologiso  of 
Austria,  was  bom  July  26,  1807,  at  Grossolkowitz,  in 
Moravia.  In  1881  he  received  holy  orden,  in  1837 
was  appointed  professor  of  Christian  religious  philoso- 
phy and  university-preacher  in  Vienna,  and  is  1847 
the  Freiburg  University  honored  him  with  the  docto^ 
ate  of  divinity.  In  1848  he  was  called  to  the  cbsir  of 
apologetics,  theological  encyclopndia,  and  philosophy 
at  Tubingen,  where  he  died,  June  9, 1876.  He  wrote, 
WissentchaJUiche  Rechtferiigung  der  ckritd,  TrvatSb- 
Uhre,  etc  (Vienna,  1846):  — /)is  NotJkwendigkU  der 
christL  Ofenbarunffsmoral  (Tubingen,  1850>  Besidei, 
he  contributed  largely  to  the  TSbii^en  Tkeologieal 
Quartertg^  the  Freiburger  Kirckenkxihon^  and  tbe  Btm- 
fier  theologtMche  LUeraturUatt,  See  IMerarudkr 
ffandtceiter,  1867,  p.  1;  1876,  p.  288;  Zuchotd,  BiH 
TheoLu,150^.     (RP.) 

Zulu  Version  op  tiib  ScmpTntKa.  In  this  lan- 
guage, which  is  vernacular  to  the  Kaffres,  a  trsnsUtion 
of  the  New  Test,  has  existed  linoe  1869.  It  was  pob- 
lished  by  the  aid  of  the  American  Bible  Society.  It 
was  formerly  supposed  that  the  aiudogies  and  gencnl 
principles  subsisting  between  the  KafTre  and  Zuln  dis- 
lects  were  so  proximate  that  one  translation  would 
meet  the  wants  of  the  two  tribes.  This  idea  has  been 
relinquished,  and  a  translation  was  prepared  by  Amer- 
ican missionaries  to  provide  the  Woid  of  God  foe  i 
million  of  benighted  heathen.  From  tbe  annual  rrpoit 
of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for  1879  we  see 
that  an  edition  of  the  New  Test.,  slightly  revised,  bot 
conforming  to  the  society's  rule,  has  been  issued  by  the 
American  Zulu  Miision,  and  that  this  society  has  sbartd 
largely,  as  on  former  occasions,  in  the  work.    (B.  P.) 

Znns,  Lbopold,  a  fismona  Jewish  writer,  was  bora 
at  Detmold,  Germany,  Aug.  10, 179k  He  studied  st 
BeiUo,  was  in  1820  preacher  at  the  new  sjnagogss 


ZURICH  LETTERS 


1085 


ZWINQLIANS 


there,  in  1835  at  Prague,  and  in  1889  director  of  the 
Teacher's  Seminary  at  Berlin.  When  that  institution 
was  closed,  in  I8«i0,  Zunz  retired  to  private  life,  devoting 
all  his  energies  to  the  production  of  works  which  have 
made  him  famous  in  the  republic  of  letters.  Zunz  died 
at  Berlin,  March  18, 1886.  Ue  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
and  of  his  many  works  we  especially  mention  LAemge' 
idiichU  det  Sahmo  Jizchakij  ^emuuU  RoMchi  (Lemberg, 
1840)  :—Die  goUetdiauaiehen  Vorirage  der  Juden,  hi- 
ttoriich  entwiekeit  (Berlin,  1832)  :— Ztir  Getchichte  und 
Literatur  (1845)  :—J)ie  JSynagogaU  Poisie  det  Mitid- 
alters  (1855)  i—Die  JUtus  da  tynagogaUn  Gottesdienites 
{lBb9):—LiUraturgeickichie  der  tynagogakn  PoUie 
(1865).  His  minor  writings  were  issued  under  the 
title  of  GesammeUe  Schriften  (1 875, 1876, 8  vols.).  See 
FUrst,  BibL  Jud,  ui,  555-558;  Morais,  EminaU  lerael- 
iteeofihe  10/A  Cearvry  (Philadelphia,  1880),  p.  860  sq. 
(RP.) 

Zmioh  Letters  is  the  name  of  an  English  publi- 
cation of  the  Parker  Society.  On  the  accession  of  queen 
Hary,  more  than  a  thousand  of  the  Reformers  sought 
refuge  on  the  Continent,  and  many  of  them  settled  in 
Zurich.  On  the  return  of  the  Zurich  exiles  to  Eng- 
land, at  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  in  1558,  they  natu- 
rally maintained  a  correspondence  with  the  minister 
and  magistrates  of  Zurich,  who  had  so  kindly  welcomed 
them  and  given  them  shelter.  A  portion  of  these  let* 
ters  have  ^en  published,  and  show  the  opinion  of  that 
time  on  subjects  which  afterwards  produced  such  agi- 
tation. To  these  letters  is  added  a  letter  of  later  date, 
written  in  1590,  by  queen  Elizabeth  to  the  thirteen 
Swiss  cantons;  also  a  few  letters  from  Peter  Ifartyr, 
BuUinger,  and  Gualter,  in  reply  to  some  of  the  English 
Reformers  before  mentioned. 

Ztirioh  Refugees.    See  Zurich  Lbttbbs. 

Zwlokan  Prophets,  a  local  sect  of  fanatic  Lu- 
therans (A.D.  1521),  who  believed  themselves  to  be  the 
subjects  of  immediate  inspiration.  The  leaders  of  the 
party  were  Nicholas  Storcb  (q.  v.),  a  weaver  of  Zwickau, 
Mark  Thomas,  of  the  same  trade  and  place,  Mark  Stllb- 
ner,  a  former  student  at  Wittenberg,  and  Thomas  Mtln- 
zer,  Lutheran  pastor  of  Zwickau,  subsequently  the  rebel 
chief  of  the  Anabaptist  rebellion.  These  fsnatics  re- 
jected the  Bible,  considered  human  learning  a  hinder- 
anoe  to  religion,  and  predicted  the  overthrow  of  the 
existing  governments  to  make  way  for  the  millennial 
reign  of  the  saints  (themselves).  Storch  declared  that 
the  angel  Gabriel  had  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision,  say- 
ing to  him,  ^  Thou  shalt  sit  on  my  throne ;"  and  in  an- 
ticipation of  the  new  kingdom  the  prophets  chose  from 
the  number  of  their  followers  twelve  apostles  and  sev- 
enty evangelists.  They  drew  after  them  a  great  many 
of  the  laboring  classes  and  tradespeople ;  but  when  open 
sedition  broke  out,  the  magistrates  drove  the  leaders 
out  of  Zwickau.    See  Abbcrdabian s ;  An abaptibts. 

ZTJ^inger,  Johann,  a  son  of  Theodor,  and  grand- 
son of  the  younger  Bnxtorf,  was  bom  Aug.  26,  1684, 
became  professor  of  the  Old  Test,  at  Basle  in  1675,  and 
of  the  New  Test,  in  1685.  He  died  of  apoplexy,  while 
engaged  in  lecturing  to  his  students,  in  1696.  He  was 
a  rigid  predestinarian,  a  correspondent  of  Megarius,  the 
pupU  of  Gomarus,  and  an  opponent  of  Opemicus,  con- 
cerning whose  system  he  waged  a  literary  war  with  the 
Basle  mathematician,  Peter  Mezerlin. 

ZTJ^inger,  Johann  Rudolf,  a  son  of  Johann,  was 
bom  Sept.  12, 1660,  and  died  Nov.  18,  1708,  and  was 
antistes  to  the  Basle  Church  and  theological  professor. 
He  wrote  dissertations  and  sermons,  and  also  a  book  dh 
the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  entitled  Der  Troti  liraete 
(1706). 

Zwlnger,  Theodor,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was  bora 
Nov.  21, 1597,  at  Basle.  He  was  a  strict  Oalvinist,  and 
defended  the  doctrine  of  predestination  in  a  disputation 
at  Heidelberg.  In  1630  he  was  made  antistes  to  the 
Church  of  Basle,  to  which  position  was  attached  a  pro- 
fessorship of  theology.    The  breaking  of  bread  instead 


of  the  use  of  the  host  in  the  sacrament  was  introduced 
at  Basle  under  his  administration,  respecting  which 
event  he  published  a  report  in  his  work  on  the  Lord's 
Supper  (1655).  Of  other  works  by  his  pen  we  mention 
a  Commeniary  oa  Romam  ( 1656  ).  Both  these  works 
were  published  soon  after  his  death,  which  occurred 
I>ec  27, 1654.    See  Herzog,  JUal^Emyklop,  s.  v. 

ZwingUaniam.    See  Zwinou;  Zwdioliass. 

Zwlngliana,  a  name  given  to  the  early  Swiss 
Protestants  from  their  leader  Zwingli  (  q.  v. ).  It  is 
also  used  as  a  oontioveisial  designation  of  those  who 
hold  Zwingli*s  view  respecting  the  mere  memorial 
character  of  the  eucharist  The  theology  of  Zwingli  is 
of  interest  as  having  influenced  the  English  Puritans 
to  a  considerable  extent,  until  Zwingli  was  overahad- 
owed  by  Calvin  during  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth. 
Zwingli's  innovations  respecting  the  ministerial  office 
began,  like  those  of  Luther,  with  the  principle  that 
every  one,  in  virtue  of  the  priesthood  common  to  all 
Christians,  is  at  liberty  to  preach,  preaching  being  the 
chief  function  of  the  ministry.  The  irregularities  of 
the  Anabaptists,  however,  compelled  him  to  have  re- 
course to  some  form  of  mission  from  the  Church.  He 
lays  down  the  necessity  of  a  call  to  the  ministry',  no- 
tices three  modes  of  election  named  in  the  Scripture, 
and  states  that  it  is  proper  for  the  election  to  rest  with 
the  body  of  the  faithful,  advised  by  learned  men  {Eedet, 
ii,  52-54).  But  he  rejected  all  notion  of  priesthood  or 
holy  orders.  The  Basle  Confession  places  the  election 
in  the  ministers  and  church  deputies,  and  mentions  im- 
position of  hands.  The  Helvetic  Confession  decrees 
that  ministera  be  called  by  an  ecclesiastical  and  lawful 
election,  either  by  the  Church  or  its  deputies.  It  ad- 
heres strictly  to  the  Zwinglian  principle  that  all  minis- 
ters have  one  and  the  same  power  and  function ;  but  it 
departs  from  this  principle  in  assigning  them  some 
power  of  governing,  and  in  vesting  in  them  some  pow- 
er of  excommunication.  Zwingli  considered  the  exer- 
cise of  the  power  of  the  keys  to  be  nothing  more  than 
the  general  preaching  of  the  gospel.  His  magisterial 
excommunication  was  only  an  external,  not  a  spiritual 
sentence.  The  Helvetic  Confession  gives  the  same  ac- 
count of  the  power  of  the  keys,  and  the  excommuni- 
cation which  it  restores  to  the  ministers  still  belongs, 
therefore,  only  to  iht/orum  externum^  not  to  ihe/brum 
contcientia, 

Zwingli's  doctrine  of  the  sacraments  is  peculiar.  He 
holds  that  they  are  mere  signs  of  initiation  or  of  pledg- 
ing of  continuance.  They  confer  no  grace ;  they  do  not 
free  the  conscience ;  they  are  not  even  pledges  of  grace. 
Every  spiritual  efficacy  which  has  been  attributed  to 
them  is  denied.  Baptism  does  not  make  sons  of  God, 
but  those  who  are  sons  already  receive  a  token  of  their 
sonship.  It  does  not  take  away  sin.  The  baptism  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles  was  the  same  as  the  baptism  of 
John.    The  eucharist  is  regarded  in  the  same  way. 

The  liturgical  forms  of  Zwingli  and  his  followen 
were  constructed  on  the  basis  of  the  doctrines  held. 
The  form  of  baptism  in  Zwingli's  Worte  (ii,  98)  has  a 
prayer  for  the  infant  that  God  would  give  him  the  light 
of  faith,  that  he  may  be  incorporated  into  Christ,  buried 
with  him,  etc.  This  refers  all  to  a  faith  to  be  given  to 
the  child  as  he  grows  up  to  a  capacity  of  faith.  The 
form  carefully  avoids,  either  in  prayer  or  declaration, 
any  mention  of  remission  of  sins  or  of  regeneration. 
The  LUurgia  Tigurina  has  the  same  prayer,  and  reads 
the  same  gospel  from  St.  Mark.  It  adds  the  Creed,  re- 
cited to  the  sureties  tm  the  belief  in  which  the  child  is 
to  be  brought  up,  and  the  minister  addresses  the  sure- 
ties :  **  We  will  bring  unto  the  Saviour  this  child  as  far 
as  it  lieth  in  our  power;  that  is,  through  baptism  we 
will  receive  him  in  his  Church,  and  give  him  the  earnest 
of  the  covenant  and  of  the  people  of  God."  The  form 
of  administration  of  the  eucharist  in  the  liturgy  is  the 
same  as  that  in  Zwingli's  Works  (ii,  563),  and  is  adapted 
to  the  doctrine  of  sacraments  already  stated. 


ZWINGIIANS 


1086 


ZYRO 


Theoreticallyi  Zwingli  did  not  view  the  community 
in  its  two  cafiacities,  civil  and  ecclesiasticali  and  recog- 
nise as  belonging  to  it  two  independent  jurisdictiona, 
temporal  and  spiritual ;  the  community  to  him  waa  a 
Church,  and  not  hing  else.  His  magistratea  were  Church 
officers,  deriving  their  authority  equally  with  the  min- 
istry from  the  body  of  the  faithfid,  and  distinguished 
from  them  only  by  the  character  of  the  work  which  a 
division  of  labor  assigned  to  each.  Practically,  how- 
ever, the  reault  was  that  the  sovereignty  in  spiritual 
as  well  as  in  temporal  matters  waa  vested  in  the  civic 
authorities  of  each  community. 

The  system  of  Zwingli  waa  in  some  measure  modified 
by  BuUinger,  who  introduced  something  approaching  to 
a  recognition  of  a  clergy  and  of  efficacy  in  sacraments; 
and,  again,  the  influence  of  the  Geneva  ministers  added 
to  the  Zurich  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  aomething 
of  that  Calvinistic  teaching  regarding  receiving  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  which  corresponds  to  the 
present  accepted  belief.  It  was  Swiss  theology,  so  mod- 
ified by  BuUinger,  that  found  advocates  in  England. 
Hooper  was  a  faithful  follower  of  BuUinger.  Peter 
Martyr,  k  Laseo,  Dryander,  and  Ochino  were  on  the 
aame  side,  and  with  them  acted  moat  of  the  party  of 
the  Marian  exiles  (see  Zubich  LmrBiia),  who  had  been 


received  with  great  hoapitaUty  at  Zurich.  Hoadlej's 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  not  distingniihable 
from  ZwingU's.  See  ZwingU's  Worhf  by  Goalter  (15H- 
46),  espedaUy  the  treatises  Expositio  Fidei  Ckrittima, 
De  Vera  et  FdUo  ReUgione^  EcdetituteSt  ArckettUt; 
also  BoMle  Confunon  (15S6),  HdveHc  Confessum  (156e), 
In  Stfttoge  Confesdo  (Oxford,  1827),  and  Liturgia  Ttgu- 
rina  (EngL  transl.  Lond.  1698).  See  also  Euciiaeut; 
Heal   PitKSBXCR;    Sacramext;   Tbaitscbstastu- 

TION. 

Zyro,  FKnDiNAMD  Friedricr,  a  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, and  formerly  professor  of  theology  at  Uenie,  who 
died  May  10, 1874,  at  Rheinfeldem,  is  the  author  of, 
Einfrdu  Wort  &er  die  gegemcariigtn  Verkaltnim  der 
evanffelisch  -  reformrten  Kirche  und  ikrer  Diattr  m 
Kanton  Bern  (Berne,  1831)  i—Des  prakfischen  Tkeologn 
Getumung  m  dieter  Zeii  (ibid.  1884)  i^Die  etattg^dtA- 
reformirte  Kirche  u.  ihre  ForUfUdung  im  XIX,  Jahr' 
hundert  (ibid.  1887)  \—De  Optima  TkeohgoB^qui  Dum- 
tur^  PracticoB  Formandi  via  ae  RaHone  (ibid.  1645): 
— Bet  Apottelt  Paulut  SendsckreSfen  an  die  Galater^ 
Epheeer,  Pkilipper,  Koheeer  v.  Tkeeeahmcker,  Ka 
ubertetzt  (Aarau,  18G0)  z^ffandbitch  turn  fftiddberstr 
Kateekisnuts  (Berne,  1848).  See  Znchold,  BiU,  TktoL 
ii,1509.    (RP.) 


ADDENDA. 


A. 

Abbot,  Ezra,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  Unita- 
rian scholar,  was  bom  at  Jackson,  Mc,  April  18, 1819. 
He  studied  at  Phillips  Acadeni}',  Exeter,  N.  H. ;  gradu- 
ated from  Bowdoin  College  in  1840,  taught  for  about 
five  years  at  East  Machias,  Me. ;  removed  to  Cambridge, 
Ma».,  in  1847 ;  in  1856  became  assistant  librarian  of 
Harvard  University,  and  in  1872  professor  of  New-Test, 
criticism,  a  position  which  he  retained  until  his  death, 
March  21,1 884.  In  1855  Dr.  Abbot  edited  Andrew  Nor- 
ton's posthumous  Transiation  of  the  Gospels,  and  in  1856 
Norton's  Statement  of  the  Reasons  for  not  Believing  the 
Doctrines  of  Trinitarians.  In  1864  he  published  hb 
Literature  of  the  Doctrine  of  Future  Life^  in  which  he 
gave  a  list  of  more  than  five  thousand  works  on  that 
subject.  In  1865  he  edited  Lawson's  Church  of  the 
First  Three  Centuries,  and  in  1866  Orme's  Memoir  of 
the  Controversy  on  the  Three  Heavenly  Witnesses.  In 
1860  he  edited  and  revised  Hudson's  Critidal  Greek 
and  English  Concordance  of  the  New  Testament.  He 
was  one  of  the  writers  for  the  American  edition  of 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible^  and  his  additions  to  the 
bibliography  of  that  work  are  exceedingly  valuable. 
He  gave  sul>stantial  aid  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Noyes  in  his 
Translation  of  the  New  Testiunentj  which  was  published 
in  1869.  His  work  on  The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel:  External  Evidences^  brought  out  in  1880,  is 
well-known  to  European  and  American  scholars. 
Among  his  last  labors  was  the  assistance  which  he 
pave  to  Dr.  C.  R.  Gregory,  of  Leipsic,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  his  Prolegomena  to  Tischeiidorf's  last  critical 
edition  of  the  Greek  Test.  Dr.  Abbot' was  also  a  volu- 
minous contributor  to  the  periodical  literature  of  the 
day,  in  Europe  and  America.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Bible  Revision  Committee.  In  the  special 
department  of  Biblical  literature- he  stood  among  the 
foremost  scholars  of  the  present  day,  and  in  textual  crit- 
icism he  was  probably  superior  to  any  other  in  Amer- 
ica. He  was  a  man  of  singular  modesty  and  disinter- 
estedness, and  was  endowed  with  an  almost  unlimited 
capacity  for  work,  possessing  withal  the  qualities  of 
thoroughness  and  accuracy,  and  in  all  his  studies  was 
more  anxious  to  learn  the  truth  thau  to  establish  any 
foregone  conclusion. 

Abeken,  Heinbicr,  a  Protestant  theologian  of 
Germany,  was  bom  at  OsnabrUck,  Aug.  19, 1809.  He 
studied  at  Berlin,  was  appointed  in  1834  chaplain  to  the 
Prussian  ambassador  at  Rome,  and  in  1841  at  London, 
where  he  was  also  actively  engaged  in  the  founding  of 
the  bishopric  at  Jerusalem.  In  1842  he  accompanied 
professor  Lepsius  to  Eg^'pt  and  Ethiopia,  and  in  1848 
was  appointed  member  of  the  Prussian  ministry  for  for- 
eign aiffairs.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  in  1870- 
71,  he  accompanied  prince  (then  count)  Bismarck  to 
France,  and  died  Aug.  8,  1872.  He  is  known  by  his 
biography  of  Bunsen  in  Unsere  Zeit,  vol.  v  ( Leipsic, 
1861),  and  by  his  Babylon  und  Jerusalem  (Berlin,  1853), 
written  against  the  countess  Ida  Hahn-IIabn,  who  had 
embraced  Roman  Catholicism.    (B.  P.) 

Aberorombie,  Richard  Maso.v,  D.D.,  a  Prot- 


estant Episcopal  minister,  was  borfi  in  Philadelphia  in 

1822,  being  the  son  of  the  Rev.  James  Abercrombie. 
Af^cr  a  liberal  education  in  his  native  city,  he  gradu- 
ated from  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  New 
York  city  in  1843,  was  ordained  the  same  year,  and 
took  charge  of  a  church  at  Rahway,  N.  J.  He  was 
snccessivelv  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Intercession, 
in  New  York  city  (1843-50);  St;  John's,  Clifton,  S.  L; 
Christ  Church,  Hartford,  Conn.;  St,  Paul's,  Rahway, 
N.  J. ;  and  St.  Matthew's,  Jersey  City,  where  he  died, 
Dec.  7, 1884.  He  was  practically  the  founder  of  Christ 
Church  Hospital  in  that  city,  and  of  the  Clergymen's 
Retiring  Fund  Societv.  See  The  Church  Almanac, 
1886,  p.  102. 

Abemethy  (or  Abemethie),  John,  D.D.,  a 
Scotch  prelate,  studied  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
was  laureated  in  1587,  and  became  reader  in  1588.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Assemblies  in  1601, 1602, 1608,  and 
1616;  signed  a  protest  against  introducing  episcopacy 
in  1606 :  was  chosen  constant  moderator  of  the  Presby- 
tery;  solicited  the  appointment  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Glasgow  in  1615;  was  a  member  of  the  Court  of  High 
Commission  in  1616;  made  bishop  of  Caithness  the 
same  year,  and  demitted  Sept.  15,  1635;  deposed  in 
1638,  but  was  permitted  to  minister  in  any  place.  He 
died  April  24,  1689,  aged  about  seventy -two  years. 
He  published.  Christian  and  Heavenly  Treatise  concern' 
ing  Physickfor  the  Soul  (1616)  :—Two  LeUers  to  King 
James  VI  (1620)  :—The  Duty  and  Dignity  of  a  Chris- 
tian (Lond.  eod.).     See  Fasti  Eccles.  Scoiicance,  i,  480. 

Ablon,  a  little  village  on  the  Seine,  about  thirteen 
miles  from  Paris,  is  noted  in  the  history  of  French 
Protestantism  as  the  place  where  the  reformed  worship 
was  first  held  after  the  concession  by  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
May  2, 1598,  in  consequence  of  the  opposition  to  that 
liberty  in  Paris  by  the  Romanists.  See  Lichtenberger, 
Encyclop.  des  Sciences  BeligieuseSf  s.  v. 

Acworth,  James,  LL.D.,  an  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Chatham,  Aug.  1,  1798.  lie  studied 
in  the  Baptist  College  at  Bristol,  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  settled  as  co-pastor  at  Leeds  in 

1823,  and  the  next  year  became  sole  pastor.  In  1835 
he  was  chosen  president  of  Horton  College,  Bradford,  a 
position  which  he  held  with  great  efficiency*  until  1863. 
He  died  Get.  13  of  the  same  year.  Dr.  Acworth  was 
active  in  all  the  public  religious  associations  ofliis  day, 
and  was  the  author  of  several  addresses,  sermons,  etc. 
See  (Lond.)  Baptist  flandrbook,  1884,  p.  279. 

Adam,  a  Scotch  bishop,  was  witness  to  a  charter 
by  William  Bisset  to  William  de  Newbigging.  He  was 
bishop  of  Galloway  in  1359.  See  Keith,  ScoUieh  Bish- 
ops, p.  274. 

Adam,  Johannes,  a  Jesuit,  was  bom  at  Limoges 
in  1608.  He  made  himself  known  by  his  controversial 
writings  against  the  Huguenots  and  Jansenists,  For 
forty  years  he  preached  at  Paris,  Poitiers,  Sedan,  Bor- 
deaux, and  other  cities,  making  proselytes  wherever  he 
could.  His  work,  Calcin  Defait  par  Soy-mesme  et  par 
Us  A  rmes  de  St,Augustin  (1650),  eliciteti  a  rejoinder  from 
the  famous  Jansenist,  cardinal  Noris.  Against  the  un- 
CathoUc  Heuret  de  Porf-Royal  of  Maistre  de  Sacy, 


ADA^ 


1038 


ADHEM 


Adam  published,  in  1651,  the  Jleurei  CathoUques, 
When  Innocent  X  condemned  Jansenism,  Adam  pub- 
lished Le  Tombeau  du  Janshmme  (1654): — La  Con' 
iluUe  des  Fidilet  par  Us  Regies  de  la  Foi  (1656).  Dur- 
ing the  session  of  the  Reformed  sj'nod  held  at  Laudun 
in  1659,  he  converted  the  Calvinist  Cottibi,  who,  in  the 
year  following,  joined  the  Church  of  Rome.  When 
the  Jesuits  erected  a  college  at  Sedan,  he  became  its 
rector,  and  published,  in  1671,  Le  Triomphe  de  la  Ste, 
Euckaristie  ou  la  Presence  Reette  eontre  le  Ministre 
Claude,  He  died  at  Bordeaux,  May  12,  1684  See 
R  Bauer  ia  Wetxer  u.  Welters  KirchenUxOxm^  a.  v. 
(B.P.) 

Adam,  Scotos  (also  called  Adamus  Amglicus), 
a  Pnemonstratensian  of  the  12th  century,  was  bora  in 
Scotland.  About  the  year  1150  he  entered  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Andrew  in  Scotland,  and  in  order  to  be- 
come better  fitted  for  asceticism  he  spent  some  time  at 
the  monastery  in  Premontre,  in  the  diocese  of  Laon. 
Having  returned  to  Scotland,  he  was  made  abbot  and 
bishop  of  Casa  Candida  (Witherne),  in  Galloway.  The 
time  of  his  death  cannot  exactly  be  given.  He  wrote, 
/Jber  de  Ordine,  ifabilu  et  Professwne  Prcenumstraten^ 
stum  (14  sermons) :— Z)e  Tripartito  Tabemaculo  (part 
8)  :—De  Triplici  Centre  CorUemplatumis,  These  works 
were  printed  in  1578.  An  enlarged  edition,  containing 
besides  forty  >  seven  sermons  and  two  books,  entitled 
Soliloquia  de  Instrudume  Amm<B^  was  published  by 
Godefr.  Ghiselbertus,  at  Antwerp,  in  1659.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  works  is  given  by  Migne,  in  Patrol,  Lai, 
cxviiL  See  Schenid,  in  Wetzcr  u.  Welte's  Kirchen- 
lexihou^  a.  v.     (R  P.) 

Adamfl^  XSliaha,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  at  WiUiamstown,  Vt^  July  29, 1815. 
He  studied  at  Newbury  Seminary  for  some  time,  and 
spent  three  years  at  Norwich  University ;  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1835;  in  1838  was  ordained  deacon,  and 
elder  in  1840.  Of  the  forty  years  spent  in  the  ministiy 
in  the  New  Hampshire  Conference,  eleven  were  given 
to  district  work,  eighteen  to  stations,  and  three  to  the 
agency  of  the  conference  seminary,  of  which  he  was  a 
trustee  from  the  beginning.  His  labors  were  every- 
where acceptable  and  successful,  and  three  times  he 
was  a  member  of  general  conferences.  He  was  a  man 
of  one  work,  and  as  a  preacher  was  strictly  evangelicaL 
He  died  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  Aug.  15, 1880.  See  Minutes 
of  Annual  Conferences^  1881,  p.  91. 

Adams,  George  F.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  Oct.  8, 1802.  He  removed  to 
Ohio  with  his  father's  family  in  1805^  was  baptized  at 
the  age  of  ten,  and  licensed  to  preach  at  twenty.  He 
graduated  from  Columbian  College,  Washington,  D.  C, 
in  1829,  having  been  ordained  at  the  Navy- Yard  Bap- 
tist Church  of  that  place,  April  22, 1827.  After  teach- 
ing for  several  years,  he  became  the  pastor  of  a  church 
at  Fredericksburg,  Va. ;  in  1835  removed  to  Baltimore, 
and,  in  Januan%  1636,  became  pastor  of  the  Calvert 
Street  Church.  After  serving  as  general  missionary 
of  his  denomination  in  Maryland,  he  took  charge  of 
the  Second  Church,  Baltimore,  in  1848;  in  1860  went  to 
Hampton,  Va.,  as  pastor,  and  on  the  breaking-out  of  the 
civil  war  was,  for  a  short  time,  a  chaplain  in  the  Con- 
federate army.  For  about  three  years  (1862-65)  he 
acted  a  second  time  as  state  missionary  in  Maryland. 
After  teaching  a  }'ear  or  two,  he  returaed  to  Hampton, 
and  was  pastor  nine  years  (1867-76),  and  then  returaed 
Co  Baltimore,  where  he  was  city  missionary  for  a  few 
months,  and  died  there,  April  16, 1877.  See  Cathcart, 
BapUsi  Eneyelop,  p.  10.     (J.  a  a) 

Adams,  Jasper,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bora  in  Massachusetts.  He  graduated 
from  Brown  University  in  1815;  spent  two  years  in 
Andover  Theological  Seminary ;  was  tutor  in  Brown 
University  in  1818  and  1819;  was  ordained  deacon 
Sept  2, 1819,  and  presbyter  Aug.  4, 1820.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  Brown  University  from  1819 


to  1824 ;  president  of  Charleston  College,  S.  C,  from 
1824  to  1826;  of  Geneva  College,  N.  Y.,  from  1826  to 
1828;  of  Charleston  College  again  from  1828  to  1836; 
chaplain  and  professor  of  ethics  at  U.  S.  Military  Acad- 
emy, West  Point,  N.  T.,  from  1888  to  1840,  and  died  at 
Pendleton,  S.  C,  Oct  25, 1841.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  An- 
dover  Theol,  Sem,  1870,  p.  89. 

Adamfl,  Mrs,  Sarah  Flo'v^er,  an  English  poet- 
ess,  daughter  of  Benjamin  Flower,  a  Liberal  editor  and 
author,  was  bora  at  Harlow,  Essex,  Feb.  22, 1805,  and 
in  1884  married  William  R  Adams,  an  engineer  and 
writer.  She  died  Aug.  13, 1849.  Mrs.  Adams  published 
a  dramatic  poem,  entitled  Vivia  Perpetua  (1841),  and  a 
catechism  with  hymns,  entitled  7%e  Flock  at  the  Fomk- 
tarn  (1845).  She  was  a  member  of  the  Unitarian  con- 
gn^tion  of  William  Johnson  Fox,  to  whose  rolame 
of  llymns  and  Anthems  (1840)  she  contributed  thirteen 
pieces,  the  most  noted  of  which  is  "  Nearer  my  God  to 
thee.**  In  later  years  she  is  said  to  have  become  a 
Baptist  Her  sister,  Eliza  Flower,  set  some  of  Sarah's 
songs  to  music,  and  herself  wrote  a  number  of  poems. 

Adams,  Seymour  Webster,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bora  at  Veraon,  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Aug. 
1, 1815.  He  was  converted  at  seventeen  years  of  age ; 
graduated  from  Hamilton  College  and  Theological  Sem- 
inary ;  was  ordained  in  1848,  and  served  aa  pastor  in  his 
native  place  for  two  years,  and  thereafter  in  Cleveland, 
O.,  until  his  death.  Sept  27, 1864^  He  wrote  a  meoMMr 
of  his  father-in-law,  Dr.  N.  Kendrick,  and  bis  own  Ltfe 
was  edited  by  J.  P.  Bishop  (1866).  See  Cathcart,  B^ 
tist  Enaf6lop,  s.  v. 

Adams,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  West  Brookfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  7, 1792. 
He  studied  at  Leic^ter  Academy,  gradoated  from  Dait* 
mouth  College  in  1814,  and  then  studied  theology  with 
Rev.  Dr.  Thomaa  Snell,  of  West  Brookfield.  He  was 
ordained  pastor  in  Vassalborough,  Me.,  Aug.  26, 1818^ 
and  remained  there  until  April  1, 1834.  In  1885  he  was 
agent  for  a  temperance  society.  The  following  year  be 
waa  installed  pastor  at  Waterville,  and  remained  neariy 
two  years.  The  five  subsequent  years  he  was  editor 
of  the  Temperance  Gazette;  and  from  1848  to  1846 
agent  of  the  Tract  Society.  The  next  year  he 
acting-pastor  at  Hampden,  O.;  and  until  1856  be 
tained  the  same  relation  to  the  Church  at  Tbompaon. 
From  1856  to  1860  he  waa  the  Ohio  agent  of  the  Con- 
gregational Board  of  Publication ;  in  1863  acting-pas- 
tor in  Pittstoo,  Me.;  and  from  1864  to  1870  filled  the 
same  position  in  Vassalborough.  After  this  he  resided, 
without  charge,  at  Winslow,  where  he  died,  Feb.  4, 1881. 
Several  of  bis  sermons  have  been  published.  See  Cong, 
Year-book^  1882,  p.  17. 

Adeloga,  saint,  virgin,  and  abbess  of  the  8tb  eco- 
tury,  was  the  daughter  of  Charles  Martel,  by  Kunehilda. 
She  was  of  singular  beauty,  so  that  she  was  gnacly 
sought  in  marriage,  but  she  constantly  refused,  having 
given  her  heart  to  a  heavenly  spouse.  Her  father,  ex- 
asperated, treated  her  with  studied  bratality  and  public 
insult.  She  sought  comfort  in  the  advice  of  her  diice- 
tor,  his  chaplain,  and  they  were  both  expelled  from  the 
palace.  Adeloga  and  the  priest  jouraeyed  till  they 
came  to  a  wild  and  desert  place,  Kitzingen,  in  the  pres- 
ent margrave  of  Anspach,  and  there  they  built  a  con- 
vent. To  her  came  virgins,  the  priest  gave  her  the 
veil,  made  her  abbess,  enjoining  her  to  adopt  the  rule 
of  St.  Benedict  and  St.  Scholastica.  He  attended  to 
the  temporal  affairs  of  the  convent  till  be  died.  In 
after-years  Charles  Martel  was  reconciled  to  his  dangb* 
ter,  endowed  her  monaateiy  with  lands,  and  ristted  her. 
St.  Adeloga  haa  a  place  in  the  Benedictine  martyrokigy, 
and  those  of  Ferrarins,  Menardus,  etc.  There  ia  aa  ao-> 
dent,  apparently  authentic,  life,  by  an  anooymooi 
writer,  pnbHshed  by  Bollandua.  See  Baring -GooU, 
Lines  of  ike  Saints^  Feb.  4,  ii,  42. 

Adhem,  one  of  the  noost  ancient  Hobammedaa 
Quietists,  who  is  said  to  hare  obtained  in  one  of  hit 


^GIDIUS 


1039 


ALBRO 


viaioiu  the  high  priTilege  of  having  his  name  written 
by  an  angel  among  those  who  love  God.  Among  his 
extravagant  expressions  are  the  following:  **Hell  is 
preferable  with  the  will  of  God  to  heaven  without  it." 
"I  would  rather  go  to  hell  doing  the  will  of  God  than 
go  to  heaven  disobeying  him."  Mohammedan  mystics 
often  resort  to  sach  statements  to  show  their  high  re* 
gard  for  the  deity. 

A^dilis  A  LBsannA  (also  Db  Lxssihis),  a  Do- 
minican, who  flourished  about  1278,  was  a  contempora- 
ry with  Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  controversies  against  Aver- 
roism,  and  wrote  many  philosophical,  theological,  and 
chronological  works,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  are 
extant.  He  also  wrote  De  UturUf  which  is  general- 
ly quoted  in  the  editions  of  the  works  of  Thomas 
Aquinas  as  Opusctdum  78.  B.  Har^u,  in  his  La  Phi' 
lo§opkie  8ooUutiqu€  (  Paris,  1850  ),  i,  248,  quotes  a  few 
passages  from  his  De  UnkaU  Forma,  in  which  he  de- 
fends the  Thomistic  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  forma 
nbtUmtialiM,  See  Bach,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welters  Kirehtrir 
Uxihm,s,y,     (B.P.) 

.S^diiis  DE  FRiBSEaTATioNB,  a  Portugusse  scho- 
lastic, was  bom  at  Castel  Branco  in  1539,  and  died  in 
1626,  professor  of  theology  at  Coimbra  and  provincial 
of  the  Portuguese  Augustinian-Eremites.  Besides  the 
writings  in  praise  of  his  order  (Primas  Auffuttmianaut 
[Cologne,  1627]  and  Apologia  »eu  Deftntorium  Ordinit 
S,  A  ug^f  he  wrote,  Di^ntiationn  ad  Priores  V  Qucestio- 
net  1,2  8,  Thoma  (Coimbra,  1609, 1615,  8  vols.)— />e 
Fo/trntario  et  Incoluniurio  (2  vols.) : — PkUotophia  JNTa- 
turalit  et  Supematuralit : — De  Immac  Concepts  B.  M,  V, 
(ibid.  1617,  book  4) .  See  Ossinger,  Bibl,  A  ugust.  856 ; 
Streber,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchetdexibm,  s.  v.  (B.  P.) 

JBthel'wold.    See  Etrelwold. 

Agathiao,  a  Byzantine  historian,  was  boni  at  My- 
rina,  in  ifiolis,  about  586  or  537  A.D.  He  resided  at 
Alexandria,  and  after  554  at  Constantinople,  where  he 
practiced  law,  but  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or  a 
heathen  is  uncertain.  He  died  between  582  and  594. 
He  wrote  a  valuable  history  of  the  eastern  Roman  em- 
pire, from  558  to  559,  which  was  published  in  Greek  by 
Yulcanus  at  Leyden  (1594).  The  best  edition  is  that 
of  Niebuhr,  in  the  Corpus  SeripL  Byiont,  See  Smith, 
Did.  of  Chritt.  Biog,  s.  v. 

Agrloola,  Ignatius,  a  Jesuit,  wijs  bom  at  Zusaro- 
altheim,  in  the  bishopric  of  Augsburg,  July  81, 1661. 
In  1677  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  was  for  a  long 
time  professor  at  the  Jesuit  gymnasium  at  Munich, 
and  died  Jan.  28, 1729.  He  wrote  IJistoria  Provineied 
Societaiit  Jetu  Germanim  Superioris  (Augsburg,  1727- 
29,  2  vols.),  reaching  down  to  1600,  and  continued 
to  1640  by  Flott  and  Khopf.  See  Baader,  GeUhrtee 
Baytm;  Settler,  Gesehickte  der  marianitchen  Congre* 
gation  in  Bayem,  1864,  p.  279;.  Schkisser,  in  Welte  u. 
Welte*sJCtrc4efi2exaoii,s.v.    (B.P.) 

Alton,  John,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  studied  at 
the  Edinburgh  University,  was  licensed  in  1819,  pre- 
sented to  the  living  at  Dolphinton  in  1824,  and  died  at 
Essex,  May  15^  1868.  He  was  the  author  of,  Otoen'M 
ObjecUont  'to  ChritttanUy  Refuted  (1924):^Life  and 
Times  of  Alexander  Henderson  (1836)  '.^Clerical  Ethics 
(1842)  I'-LeUer  on  Imprisomnenis  in  Naples  (1851) :~ 
Lands  of  the  Messiah,  Mohammed,  and  the  Pope  (1852) : 
— The  Drying  up  of  the  Euphrates,  etc  (1853)  '.^Appeal 
M  Behalf  of  Jerusalem  and  the  HcHg  Land  (1854)  :— 
8U  Paul  and  his  Localities  (1856)  i^Manual  ofDomes^ 
tic  Economy  (1857),  and  other  works.  See  Fasti  Ecdes, 
Sootieanee,  i,  221. 

Akera,  Prrut,  D.D.,  a  veteran  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bora  in  Campbell  County,  Ya.,  Sept  1, 
1790.  He  was  reared  in  the  Presbjrterian  Churoh,  stud- 
ied at  the  high-schools  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
taught  school  and  practiced  law  a  few  years,  editing 
likewise  a  weekly  journal;  was  converted  in  1821,  and 


the  same  year  joined  the  Methodist  Churoh ;  began  to 
preach,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Kentucky  Conference, 
in  which  and  in  the  Blinois  (1882)  and  the  Minnesota 
conferences  (1857)  he  occupied  prominent  appointments, 
with  great  eiffieiency,  until  1858,  when  he  became  super- 
annuated, and  retained  that  relation  until  his  death,  at 
Jacksonville,  IlL,  Feb.  21, 1886.  He  twice  (1883  and 
1851 )  served  as  president  of  M*Kendree  College,  and 
was  often  a  member  o(  the  General  Conference.  He 
was  a  powerful  preacher  and  a  genial  Christian.  He 
published  an  elaborate  work  on  Biblical  Chronology 
(Cincinnati,  O.,  1855,  8vo).  See  (N.  Y.)  Christian  Ad- 
vocate, Aug.  5, 1886. 

Alaxio.    See  Goths. 

Albert  op  Riga.    See  Albert  of  Livonia. 

Alberti,  Aloysius.    See  Albertt,  Luiot. 

Albreoht,  son  of  Casimir,  margrave  of  Culmbacfa, 
was  bora  Maroh  28, 1522.  He  entered  into  the  confed- 
eracy formed  by  Maurice,  elector  of  Saxony,  and  other 
princes,  against  the  emperor  Charles  V,  and  committed 
many  excesses  in  the  war,  buraing  towns  and  levying 
heavy  contributions  wherever  he  marched.  Subsequent- 
ly a  league  headed  by  Blaurice  himself  was  formed 
against  him,  and  in  1553  a  great  battle  was  fought  at 
Sivershausen,  in  which  Maurice  was  slain  and  Albrecht 
wounded.  He  was  afterwards  put  under  the  ban  of  the 
empire,  and  deprived  of  his  possesttion.  While  suifer- 
ing  exile  he  composed  the  hymn  Was  mem  Gott  reUl, 
g^k^eh*  aUseii  (Engl,  transl.  in  the  Monthly  Religious 
Magazine  [1864],  xxxi,  p.  80,  « Whate'er  God  will,  let 
that  be  done"),  and  died  as  a  penitent  and  believing 
Christian,  Jan.  8, 1557,  at  Pforzheim,  in  the  house  of 
his  brother-in-law,  the  margrave  Charles  II,  of  Baden. 
See  Koch,  Gesehickte  des  deutschen  KirchenHedes,  i,  839 
sq.     (a  P.) 

Albright,  Jacob,  the  founder  of  the  Evangelical 
Association,  was  bora  near  Pottstown,  Pa.,  May  1, 1759. 
His  parents  were  members  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church,  and  in  youth  he  was  received  as  a  member  into 
its  communion.  About  1790  he  was  converted,  and 
joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  In  October, 
1796,  he  commenced  his  work  as  an  itinerant  minister, 
preaching  to  the  Germans  in  Pennsylvania  and  Vir- 
ginia in  a  stirring,  practical  manner.  In  1800  he  or- 
ganized the  persons  who  had  been  intrusted  to  his  care 
into  classes  or  societies.  The  first  three  of  these  were 
formed  in  the  counties  of  Bucks,  Berks,  and  North- 
ampton, in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania.  Soon  afterwards 
other  classes  were  formed.  His  first  colleague  after 
this  organization  was  John  Walter,  his  second  was 
Abraham  liesser.  A  council  was  held  Nov.  8, 1803,  at 
which  these  three  and  fourteen  others  of  the  society 
were  present.  Albright  was  recognised  as  their  spirit- 
ual (ather,  and  his  two  associates,  with  the  assent  of 
the  others,  solemnly  ordained  him  an  elder,  adopting 
the  Holy  Scriptures  as  their  articles  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice. At  the  first  conference,  held  in  November,  1807, 
in  Lebanon  County,  Pa.,  Jacob  Albright  was  elected 
bishop.  From  the  time  of  this  conference  session  his 
health  failed  rapidly.  On  his  way  home  from  Singles- 
town  he  became  so  weak  that  he  was  compelled  to  stop 
at  the  house  of  Mr.Georjre  Becker,  in  Lebanon  County. 
He  died  May  18, 1 808.  The  immediate  fruit  of  his  labors 
was  the  conversion  of  three  hundred  souls.  His  public 
prayers  and  sermons  were  powerful,  penetrating,  and 
convincing.  See  Yearkel,  Albright  and  his  Co-laborers 
(Qeveland,  O.,  1888). 

Albro,  John  Adams,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Connectictit  in  1800.  He  graduated 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1827,  and  was 
ordained  Nov.  21  of  the  same  year  pastor  at  Chelmsford, 
Mass.;  in  1833  be  became  pastor  at  Fitchburg;  in  1885 
of  First  Church,  Cambridge.  He  was  without  charge 
at  Cambridge  from  1865  until  his  death  at  West  Rox- 
bary,  Dec.  20,  1866.  See  Trien,  Cat»  of  A  ndover  TheoL 
8em.  1870,  p.  78. 


ALDEN 


1040 


ALLEN 


Aldezi,  Joseph,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  noted  edacator 
and  author,  wna  born  at  Cairo,  N.  Y^  Jan.  4, 1807.  He 
graduated  from  Union  College  in  1828,  and  from  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1830;  was  tutor  two  years 
in  the  College  of  New  Jersey ;  ordained  over  the  Con- 
gregational Church  in  Williamstown,  Mass.,  July  8, 
1884 ;  professor  in  the  college  there  from  1885  to  1852 ; 
and  in  Lafayette  College,  Pa.,  thereafter  until  1857, 
when  he  was  elected  its  president;  from  1863  to  1865 
preached  as  stated  supply  at  Boiling  Spring,  N.  J.; 
from  1867  to  1880  was  principal  of  the  New  York  State 
Normal  School  at  Albany,  and  died  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  Aug.  30, 1885.  He  wrote  chiefly  for  the  young, 
especially  in  the  department  of  Sunday-school  litera- 
ture, and  in  the  religious  journals. 

Alexander,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  iu  Ten- 
nessee, Aug.  7, 18U.  He  was  converted  at  the  age  of 
seventeen ;  the  next  year  was  licensed  to  exhort,  and 
the  following  year  joined  the  Tennessee  Conference;  in 
1883  was  transferred  to  the  Mississippi  Conference;  in 
1836  was  appointed  missionary  to  Texas,  and  labored 
zealously  and  successfully  in  that  field  in  various  ca- 
pacities until  near  the  time  of  his  death,  which  occurred 
in  1882.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the 
M.  £,  Church  South,  1882,  p.  119. 

Alexander,  Stephen,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  1, 1806. 
He  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1824,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1832,  when  he  be^ 
came  a  tutor  in  Princeton  College,  and,  in  1884,  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  mechanical  phi- 
losophy, and  was  connected  with  the  college  for  up* 
wards  of  fifty  years.  Professor  Alexander,  in  1860, 
went  to  the  coast  of  Labrador,  at  the  head  of  a  goveni- 
roent  astronomical  expedition,  to  observe  the  eclipse  of 
July  18.  In  1869  he  was  at  the  head  of  an  expedition 
to  the  Kocky  Mountains  to  observe  the  solar  eclipse  of 
that  year.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  papers  on 
astronomy  and  mathematics,  which  attracted  much  at- 
tention in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  National  Academy  of  Science,  a 
member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Association,  of 
the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  of  which 
he  was  president.  He  was  a  devout  Christian,  and  an 
elder  in  the  Presbyterian  Church.  His  old  age  passed 
away  in  the  quiet  study  of  the  stars,  his  favorite  pur- 
suit. He  died  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  June  26, 1883^  See 
Kecrol,  Report  ofPrmceton  A  lumni,  1884,  p.  16 ;  Nevin, 
Pre^.  Encyclop,  s.  v.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Alexander,  William  Lindsay,  D.D.,  an  emi- 
nent English  Independent  minister,  was  bom  at  Leith, 
near  Edinburgh,  Aug.  24,  1808.  He  graduated  while 
young  from  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh  and  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews,  and  in  1828  was  appointed 
classical  tutor  in  the  Lancashire  College,  then  located 
at  Blackburn,  but  subsequently  removed  to  Manchester. 
He  had  expected  to  study  medicine,  but  having  been 
religiously  educated,  he  officiated  in  a  small  chapel  in 
Wales,  whither  he  had  retired  for  his  health,  and  sub- 
sequently in  Newington  Chapel,  Liverpool.  After  a 
course  of  study  at  the  German  universities,  he  accepted 
the  pastorate  of  the  North-College  Church,  Edinburgh, 
in  1835.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theol- 
ogy in  the  Scottish  Theological  Hall,  in  1861  examiner 
in  philosophy  at  St.  Andrew^s  University,  b|it  resigned 
these  positions  at  the  close  of  1882.  He  died  Dec.  20, 
1883.  Dr.  Alexander  was  noted  no  less  aa  a  preacher 
than  aa  a  scholar.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old-Tekt. 
company  of  the  Bible  Revision  Committee,  and  the 
author  of  numerous  Biblical  and  theological  works,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  Congregational  lAdures  for 
1840  (new  ed.  1853): — Anglo^Catholidsm  not  Apostoli- 
cal (1843)  -.—Cfyrvit  and  Christianity  (1854)  x^Life  of 
Dr.  Wardlaw  (1856)  .^Christian  Thought  and  Work 


(1862)  i—St,  Paul  at  Athens,  and  many  articles  in  the 
reviews  and  cyclopsDdias,  besides  editing  the  third  edi- 
tion of  Kitto's  Cydopadia.  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  JTear- 
book,  1886,  p.  146 ;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer, 
Authors,  a.  v. 

Alfonso,  Pedro,  formerly  ra56j  Moses  ofUuesea, 
in  Aragon,  was  bom  in  1062.  At  the  age  of  forty-four 
he  was  baptized  in  the  cathedral  of  his  native  city,  oa 
St.  Peter's  day,  and  in  honor  of  the  saint  and  his  god- 
father, the  king  Alfonso,  he  took  the  name  of  Pedro 
A  Ifonso.  He  was,  besides  being  physician  to  the  king, 
Alfonso  VI,  a  ver>'  learned  and  fine  writer  of  the  me- 
disBval  Chureh,  highly  praised  by  all  Spanish  vritenL 
He  wrote  a  defence  of  Christianity,  and  a  refutation  of 
Jewish  incredulities,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between. 
Moses  and  Pedro  Alfonso,  under  the  title  of,  Dialogi  is 
guibus  Impia  Judeeorum  Opiniones  Credentimmu  task 
NaturaUs  guam  Calestis  Philosophies  Argumaitis  Ccn- 
futantur,  etc.  (Cologne,  1536),  a  work  spoken  of  in  high 
terms,  and  which  has  since  been  in  great  nse  in  Spain. 
He  also  M'roto  a  Diseiplina  ClerieaUs,  a  very  popuUr 
book,  which  was  translated  into  French  in  the  13th 
century*.  I1ic  date  of  Alfonso's  death  is  not  known. 
The  Diseiplina  Clericalis  was  ctlited  by  F.  W.  V. 
Schmidt  (Berlin,  1827).  See  FUrst,  BSA,  /ud.  i,  36; 
Kalkar,  Israel  und  die  Kirche,  p.  22 ;  Bartolocci,  BibL 
Rabb,  iv,  60 ;  Antonii  BiU.  Bisp.  ii,  7 ;  Wolf,  BUL 
Ilebr,  ill,  No.  1824 ;  Lindo,  History  of  the  Jews  ofSpaia 
and  Portugal  (I^ndon,  1848),  p.  55 ;  Ftlrst,  in  Delitzsch  i 
Saat  avfffoffnung  (1 876),  xiii,  142  sq.     (R  P.) 

Aliaon,  Francis,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minieter, 
was  bom  at  Ijic,  County  Donegal,  Ireland,  in  1705.  He 
came  to  America  when  about  thirty  yean  of  age,  and 
engaged  in  teaching.  In  May,  1787,  he  was  ordaiaed 
pastor  at  New  London,  Pa.,  and  in  1749  took  charge  of 
the  Philadelphia  Academy,  afterwards  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  of  which  he  was  vice -provost  ami 
professor  of  moral  philosophy,  at  the  same  time  serving 
as  assistant  minister  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church. 
He  died  Nov.  28,  1779.  Dr.  Alison  was  a  promioent 
actor  in  the  public  enterprises  of  his  time.  See  Kerin, 
/'re»6.  Encyclop,  s.  v, 

Allen,  A.  C,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Iredale  Coiintr, 
N.  a,  March  18, 1818.  He  was  converted  in  earl?  life ; 
was  educated  at  Emory  and  Henry  Ck>Uege;  joined  the 
North  Carolina  Conference  in  1842 ;  was  ordained  deacon 
in  1844,  and  elder  in  1846.  He  filled  some  of  the  best  a|>- 
pointroents  in  the  conference.  In  1852  he  located  and 
moved  to  Mississippi,  where  he  accepted  the  preaidencr 
of  a  female  college  at  Okolona,  remaining  there  uotil 
the  war,  when  be  entered  the  Confederate  army  as 
chaplain.  In  1864  he  joined  the  Memphis  Conference, 
wherein  he  8er\'ed  one  term  as  presiding  elder.  In  1870 
he  was  transferred  to  the  North  Mississippi  Conference, 
in  which  he  served  in  a'  like  capacity.  He  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  North  Texas  Conference  in  1874,  where 
he  served  three  charges.  The  year  1877-78  he  was 
president  of  a  college  in  the  city  of  Dallas.  He  was 
a  delegate  to  the  general  conferences  of  1670  afid  1874. 
His  death  occurred  at  Fort  Worth,  Jan.  17, 1880.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M,  E,  CharA 
South,  1880,  p.  208. 

Allen,  Robert  Welch,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Shelby  County,  Ky.,  March  25, 1817. 
He  graduated  from  Wabash  CoUege,  Ind.,  in  1839. 
From  thence  he  entered  Princeton  Seminary,  where  be 
remained  two  years,  when  failing  health  compelled  him 
to  leave.  He  was  ordained  by  the  Crawfordsville  Fret- 
by  teiy,  and  served  three  years  as  stated  supply  of  sev- 
eral churches,  when  he  was  installed  pastor  of  Jefferson 
and  Frankford  churches,  and  remained  in  that  charge 
for  nine  yearSL  He  next  became  pastor  of  the  Piigah 
Church,  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  which  he  served  with 
great  acceptance  until  1857,  when  he  accepted  a  call  to 
the  Church  of  Jacksonville,  IlL    This  pastorate  he  hdd 


ALLINE 


1041 


ANASTASY 


for  over  eleven  years,  afterwards  he  served  as  miasion- 
ary,  and  supplied  the  Church  of  St  Charles,  Mo.  At  the 
end  of  two  years  he  returned  to  Jacksonville,  and  sop- 
plied  the  chorches  of  Union  and  Murrayville  until  a 
new  church  was  organized  called  Unity,  over  which  he 
was  installed  pastor,  and  which  relation  he  continued 
during  life.  He  died  at  JacksonviUe,  UL,  July  29, 1882. 
See  NecroL  JReport  of  PrinceUm  TheoL  Sem.  1883,  p.  39. 
(W.  P.  a) 

AUine,  Hrmrt,  a  remarkable  character  in  the  le- 
Itgious  history  of  the  last  century,  was  bom  in  Rhode 
Island  in  1748.  In  1760  he  went  to  Nova  Scotia  and 
settled  at  Newport  Six  years  after  he  commenced 
preaching  without  ordination,  although,  in  1779,  he  re- 
ceived the  imposition  of  hands  at  Cornwallis  as  an 
itinerant  preacher.  He  preached  in  Nova  Sootta  from 
1776  to  1784,  then  went  to  the  United  States,  where  he 
died  at  the  residence  of  Rev.  David  M'Clnre,  North- 
ampton, N.  H.,  Feb.  2  of  the  latter  year.  He  travelled 
throughout  the  provinces,  preaching  with  remarkable 
fervor  and  power,  assailing  all  denominations,  causing 
divisions  in  the  churches,  and  making  many  converts. 
Alline  rejected  the  doctrine  of  creation,  denied  that  man 
possessed  a  material  body  before  the  fall,  and  affirmed 
that  all  souls  were  actually  created  at  the  beginning  of 
the  world  and  sinned  in  Eden.  He  also  denied  the 
resurrection  of  the  elemental  body.  He  had  a  keenly 
noetaphysical  mind  and  a  love  of  speculation.  Some 
of  his  writings  were  published,  now  very  rare,  viz., 
Jlfite^  on  Some  of  (he  moH  Important  mul  Disputed 
Points  of  Divinity  Cast  into  the  Treasury  (Halifax, 
N.  a,  1781) :—- ^«rmoiM  (1782-83):— 7%e  AnH-Tradsr 
tionists  (1783):  — £(/«  and  Journals  (Boston,  1806, 
12mo).  Of  the  first-mentioned  work  it  has  been  said, 
"  In  its  statement  of  doctrine  it  is  a  confused  medley, 
almost  resembling  a  sick  man's  dreams,  and  yet  it  is 
varied  with  the  most  impassioned  and  eloquent  appeals, 
when  he  touches  upon  some  of  the  grander  or  more 
tender  topics  of  religion.'*  His  autobiography  is  a  book 
of  thrilling  interest  Alline  had  an  agreeable  manner 
and  a  natural  eloquence.  He  never  left  the  Congrega- 
tional ranks,  in  which  he  was  brought  up.  He  was  in- 
different as  to  the  mode  of  baptism,  and  cared  little  fur 
the  ordinance  at  all.  Some  of  his  followers  joined  the 
Baptists,  but  the  majority  united  with  the  Free-will 
or  Free  Christian  Baptists.  See  his  Life  and  Jour^ 
nals ;  Morgan,  Bibiioth.  Canad.  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Hist,  of 
Methodism  in  East  British  A  merica^  voL  i ;  Bill,  Hist, 
of  the  Baptists  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  (St.  Johns, 
1881),  p.  13-18. 

Altenburg,  a  Benedictine  abbey,  in  Lower  Austria, 
was  founded  by  Hildeburg,  countess  of  Bulge.  In  1144 
a  number  of  monks  settled  there  from  St  Lambrecht,  in 
Styria.  Till  1878  this  abbey  had  forty -five  abbots, 
the  first  of  whom  was  Gottfried.  Altenburg  was  sev- 
eral times  destroyed  by  fire,  twice  by  the  Hussites,  and 
suffered  greatly  from  the  peasants'  war,  and  from  the 
Swedes,  Russians,  and  French.  The  famous  abbot  was 
the  thirty-eighth,  Matirus  Boxler,  who  greatly  promoted 
the  spiritual  as  well  as  material  interests  of  the  abbey. 
His  clergy  were  educated  at  the  universities  of  Vienna 
and  Salzburg.  Under  the  forty-fifth  abbot,  Honorins 
Burger,  who  died  in  1878,  the  seventh  centenary  of  this 
institution  was  celebrated  in  1844.  Burger  also  wrote 
the  history  of  his  abbey,  and  published  the  documents 
oonceming  the  same  in  Pontes  Rerum  Austriacarum^ 
ZHpiom,  et  Acta,  xxi  (Yindob.  1865).  Besides  Marian, 
Geseh,  der  osterr,  Kkrisei  (Vienna,  1787),  see  Burger's 
History  (ibid.  1862) ;  Wolf«gruber,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's 
Kirchenlexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Altiezi,  Luioi,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was  bom 
in  Rome,  July  17, 1805,  of  a  noble  family.  He  began 
his  career  under  the  immediate  eye  of  Gregory  XVI, 
and  lodged  in  the  Vatican  as  private  chamberlain  to 
the  pope.  His  next  step  was  to  the  secretaryship  of 
the  Congregation  of  Studies,  whence  he  was  promoted 

XII.-U  u  u 


to  the  nnnciature  at  Vienna,  and  consecrated  by  Greg- 
ory himself  archbishop  of  Ephesns,  July  17,  19&, 
He  was  created  cardinal  Dec.  14, 1840,  and  published 
April  23, 1845.  During  the  twenty  years  of  his  cardi- 
nal's life  he  oocapied  some  of  the  most  laborious  and 
important  posts,  as  chamberlain  of  the  holy  Roman 
Church,  arohpriest  of  the  patriarchal  basilica  of  St 
John  Laterao,  lord  chancellor  of  the  Roman  Univer- 
sity, and  bishop  of  the  suburbicarian  see  of  Albano, 
about  fourteen  miles  from  Rome.  While  (1867)  re- 
ceiving the  oaths  and  distributing  the  diplomas  to  th« 
students  of  the  university,  a  hasty  messenger  arrived 
announcing  the  scourge  of  cholera  desolating  his  diocese. 
Without  a  moment's  hesitation  he  broke  up  the  meet- 
ing, summoned  a  notary,  made  his  will,  and  rode  hasti- 
ly to  the  stricken  town  of  Albano.  He  at  once  assumed 
control  of  the  municipal  as  well  as  religious  government 
of  his  see,  seconded  by  the  Papal  Zouaves,  and  the  chol- 
era was  at  length  brought  under  control.  But  Altieri 
was  seized  himself  with  the  disease,  and  died  Aug.  11, 
1867.     See  (N.  Y.)  Catholic  A  Imanac,  1876,  p.  103. 

Amalie  of  Lasauul    See  Lisaula. 

Ambrose  Podobjedow,  a  Russian  ecclesiastic, 
was  bom  Nov.  30, 1742,  in  the  government  of  Vladimir. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Troiz  monastery  and  took  holy 
orders  in  1768.  Having  been  elevated  to  the  bishopric  of 
Sjewsk,  he  took  charge,  in  1785,  of  the  Kasan  eparchy; 
was  in  1794  elected  member  of  the  Holy  Synod,  and  in 
1799  made  archbishop  of  St.  Petersburg,  Esthonia,  and 
Finland.  In  the  year  following  he  received  the  arch- 
episcopal  see  of  Novgorod,  with  the  appointment  as 
metropolitan,  and  died  Bfay  21  (June  2),  1818.  He 
wrote  an  asoetical  work,  in  three  vols.  (Moscow,  1810), 
and  A  Guide  to  the  Reading  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
(new  ed.  ibid.  1840).  His  most  important  work,  how- 
ever, is  his  Russian  Church  history,  Istoria  Rossijshoi 
lerardi^  (ibid.  1807-15, 6  vols. ;  2d  ed.  1827).     (a  P.) 

American  Collegee.    See  Colleges. 

AmexicanWeeleyanMethodiatfl.  SeeWss- 
LBTAN  Methodist  Connection  of  Amebica. 

/^tnmftw,    FrIEDRICH    WlLHELM    PhILIP    VON,  a 

German  theologian,  son  of  Christoph  (q.  v.),  was  bom 
Feb.  7, 1791,  at  Erlangen,  where  he  also  studied  theol- 
ogy, as  well  as  at  Jena.  In  1818  he  was  appointed 
pastor  at  Buttenheim,  near  Bamberg,  and  in  1820  be- 
came arohdeacon  at  Erlangen,  where  he  finally  died 
pastor,  doctor,  and  professor  of  theology,  Sept.  19, 1855. 
He  wrote,  Geikr  von  Kaisersbery^s  Leben,  Lehren  und 
Predigten  (Erlangen,  1826 ):  — />«nima/  zur  dritten 
Sacularfeier  der  avyihurger  Confession  (ibid.  1829): 
— Evanyelisches  Juhelfesthuch  tur  dritten  Sdcularfeier 
der  augtburger  Confession  (ibid.  1881):  —  Gallerie  der 
denhffUrdigsien  Personen,  welche  im  XVL,  XVII,  und 
XVIII,  Jahrhunderte  von  der  evangeHsehen  zur  katho^ 
lischm  Kirehe  mergetrtten  sind  (ibid.  1833).  See 
Zuchold,  BibL  TheoL  i,  24;  Winer,  Handbuch  der  theoL 
Lit,  i,  578, 755,  909,  916 ;  u,  338.     (R  P.) 

Ammonian  Sections  are  those  numerical  divi- 
sions of  the  text  of  the  Greek  Testament  which  were 
introduced  by  Ammonius  of  Alexandria  into  his  Diates- 
saron,  or  harmony  of  the  four  gospels,  and  were  retained 
in  the  margin  of  many  of  the  eariy  copies  of  the  gospels 
as  being  meful  for  comparing  the  parallel  accounts. 
See  New  Testament. 

Anastasy,  Bratanowskt,  one  of  the  most  famous 
pulpit  orators  of  Russia,  was  bom  in  1761,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Kiev.  He  studied  at  the  theological  school 
in  PereJBslav,  became  in  1790  a  monk,  was  appointed 
in  1797  bishop  of  White  Russia,  in  1801  archbishop, 
and  in  1805  member  of  the  Holy  Synod.  He  died  in 
1816,  archbishop  of  Astrachan.  He  published  a  col- 
lection of  religious  discourses,  in  four  vols.  ( St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1796;  Moscow,  1799-1807 ):  — rractafti*  de 
Condoaum  Dispositionibus  Formandis  (Moscow,  1806). 
(RP.) 


ANCELLON 


1042 


ANSELM 


Ancellon,  Charlss,  a  French  Protestant  lawyer, 
and  writer  in  behalf  of  political  libertTi  son  of  David, 
was  bom  at  Metz,  Jan.  28  or  29, 1659.  He  began  bis 
studies  there,  bnt  prosecuted  them  at  Hanau,  and 
afterwards  at  Marbnrg,  Geneva,  and  Paris.  After  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  represented  his 
co-religionists  in  their  efforts  to  obtain  redress  from 
the  government  He  retired  to  Berlin,  where  he  was 
treated  with  marked  favor,  and  died  there,  July  5, 1715. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  historical  and  politi- 
cal works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog,  GiniraU, 
s.  V. 

Anderson,  Alexander,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  Baptist 
minister  and  educator,  was  bom  at  Peterhead,  Aberdeen 
County,  in  September,  1808.  He  studied  at  St.  Andrew's 
University,  was  ordained  pastor  at  Boyndie  in  1830, 
joined  the  Free  Church  party  in  1848,  in  1845  was 
settled  over  a  church  in  Old  Aberdeen,  bu);  in  1847  re- 
signed his  charge  on  account  of  a  change  of  views  on 
the  subject  of  baptism,  and  took  charge  of  the  Chanonry 
House  School,  in  Aberdeen,  to  which  he  joined  the  pas- 
toral care  of  a  Baptist  congregation  in  George  Street 
Hall,  which  eventually  united  with  that  in  Crown  Ter- 
race. He  died  at  Aboyne,  Oct.  25, 1884.  See  (Lond.) 
Baptitt  Handbook,  1886, p.  101. 

Anderson,  David,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  was 
bora  in  London,  Feb.  10, 1814.  He  studied  at  Edin- 
burgh Academy,  and  graduateil  from  Exeter  Hall,  Ox- 
ford, in  1836.  In  1841  he  was  made  vice-principal  of 
St.  Bee's  College,  Cumberland ;  in  1848  incumbent  of 
All-Saints'  Church,  Derby;  in  1849  was  consecrated 
the  first  bishop  of  St.  Rupert's  Land,  but  resigned  that 
see  on  being  appointed  vicar  of  Clifton  in  1864 ;  in  1866 
he  was  made  chancellor  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  died 
in  London,  Nov.  5, 1885.  He  was  the  author  of,  Notts 
on  the  Flood: — Net  in  the  Bay: — five  CAcnyff,  and 
some  Ordination  Sermont, 

Anderson,  Thomas  D.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  30, 1819.  He 
removed  in  early  life  to  Washington,  his  father  holding 
an  office  under  the  government.  In  1838  he  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1841  from 
the  Newton  Theological  Institution.  In  1842  he  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  in  1848  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist 
Church  at  Roxbury,  and  in  1862  of  the  First  Baptist 
Church  in  New  York  cit}'.  He  achieved  distinction 
and  success  in  the  difficult  field  in  which  he  was  called 
to  labor.  During  nearly  all  his  ministry  he  was  official- 
ly connected  with  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  So- 
ciety, the  American  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society, 
and,  while  in  New  York,  with  the  American  Tract  So- 
ciety. For  four  years  he  acted  as  president  of  the  Rut- 
gers Female  College,  in  New  York  city.  Other  impor- 
tant positions  in  benevolent  and  educational  institutions 
he  also  filled.  In  the  summer  of  1878  he  resigned  his 
charge  in  New  York,  and  not  long  after  became  pastor 
of  the  South  Church,  in  Boston,  where  he  died,  Dec.  19, 
1888.  Dr.  Anderson  published  only  a  few  occasional  dia- 
oounes.    See  Cathcart,  Baptitt  Kncydop^  s.  v.  (J.  C*  S.) 

Andreas,  Antonio,  a  Spanish  Minorite  of  the  14th 
century,  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  pupils  of  Duns 
Scotus,  whose  method  he  also  adopted.  The  skill  with 
which  he  made  the  more  difficult  principles  of  Duns 
Scotus  more  simple  and  intelligible  acquired  for  him, 
by  his  students,  the  surname  of  Doctor  Duldfiuut,  He 
died  about  1320.  See  Antonio,  BibUoth,  Hispan,  ii,  97 ; 
Cave,  Ilitt,  Lit.  append.  12;  Stockl,  Geickichte  der  Phi' 
lotophie  dea  Afitteialta'a,  ii,  875 ;  Grammer,  in  Wetzer  u. 
Welte's  Kirehenlexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Angells,  FiLipPO  DR,  an  Italian  canonist,  was  bora 
at  Canterano,  near  Subiaco,  Feb.  10, 1824.  He  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Rome,  and  after  having 
received  holy  orders  in  1846,  practiced  law.  When 
quite  young  he  was  made  professor  of  canon  law  at 
Rome.     In  1871  he  resigned  his  position,  and  died 


March  5, 1881.  Pope  Leo  XIII,  who  appreciated  his 
great  talents  as  a  teacher  and  expounder  of  canon  law, 
made  him  canon  of  Maria  Maggiore.  He  wrote  /Ve- 
Udiones  Juris  Canomci  ad  Methodutn  DeeretaHmm  Gre^ 
gorU  Exada  (  Rome,  1877-80, 8  vols.>  See  Streber, 
in  Wetzer  n.  Welte's  Kirehadexihonj  s.  v.    (K  P.) 

Angerville  (or  Angarrll],  alias  Bury),  Ricn- 
ARD  DE,  an  English  prelate  of  the  14th  century,  son  of 
sir  Richard  AngerviUe,  was  bora  at  Bury,  Soifolk,  and 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  attained  to  great  eminence 
in  learning;  was  governor  to  king  Edward  HI  while  a 
prince,  and  the  latter  afterwards  advanced  him  to  be 
his  cofferer,  treasurer  of  his  wardrobe,  dean  of  WeDi, 
bishop  of  Durham  (1838),  chancellor,  and  lord  treasorer 
of  England  (1334).  He  was  noted  for  his  charities,  b^ 
stowing  on  the  poor  every  week  eight  quarters  of  wheat 
baked,  and  other  benefactions.  He  was  a  great  lover 
of  books,  confessing  himself  *'  extatico  quodam  libranim 
aroore  potenter  idireptum,"  and  he  had  more  books  than 
all  the  bishops  of  England  in  that  age  put  together, 
which  library  he  bequeathed  to  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford. The  most  eminent  foreigners  were  bis  friends,  and 
the  most  learned  Englishmen  were  his  chaplains  until 
his  death,  April  14, 1346.  He  wrote  PkHoHbht.  See 
Fuller,  Worthies  of  Ewfland  (ed.  Nutlall),  iii,  166. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chnrcb.  SeeENGLAia>,Cni;BCR 
or. 

Anqnetll  (^Dnpfrron),  Abraham  HTAcnrms,  a 
French  Orientalist,  bnitlier  of  Louis,  was  bora  at  Paris, 
Dec.  7, 1781.  He  studied  theology-  at  his  native  places 
Auxerre,  and  Amervfoort,  and  with  the  subvention  of 
his  government  he  went,  in  1755,  to  India,  to  study 
Sanskrit  and  Zend  there.  At  Surat  be  succeeded  in 
obtaining  the  help  of  some  Parsee  priests,  who  dictated 
to  him  in  the  neo  -  Persian  language  the  conteota  of 
their  books  written  in  Zend  and  Pchlevi.  Having  i^ 
turned,  in  1762,  to  Paris,  he  was  appointed  interpreter 
of  Oriental  languages  at  the  royal  library,  and  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Zend-Avesta  (Paris,  1771). 
In  1778  he  published,  at  Amsterdam,  the  LegitUttivn 
Orientale,  which  was  followed  by  the  publication  of 
Recherche*  llistoriquu  et  GSoffrqphiquet  but  Vfnde  (Ber> 
lin  and  Paris,  1787, 2  vols.).  He  also  published  a  Latin 
translation  of  a  Persian  extract  from  the  Upamtkadt^ 
or  the  theologico-philosophical  treatises  of  the  Tedas. 
He  died  at  Paris,  Jan.  17, 1805.     (a  P.) 

Anaelm,  a  name  common  to  several  azcbbisliopa 
OP  MiT^N,  of  whom  we  name  the  following: 

X.  Anselm  Biurs  (814-822),  who  was  exiled  with 
other  bishops  on  account  of  the  part  he  took  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Bernard.  He  was,  however,  restored 
again,  and  crowned,  in  821,  king  Lothar,  at  Monza. 

2.  Anselm  Capka  (823-897),  who  crowned,  in  888, 
Berengarius,  at  Pavia,  as  king  of  Italy. 

3.  Amselm  of  Raitde  (1086-1093),  was  a  faithful 
adherent  of  the  pope  and  opponent  of  Heniy  IV,  and 
crowned  his  rebellious  son  Conrad  in  1098. 

4.  Anselm  Valvasob  (1097-1101),  second  succeeaor 
to  the  former,  and  also  a  papal  adherent.  In  1098  he 
held  a  large  synod,  went  to  the  Holy  Land,  bat  returned 
in  1099.  The  second  time  he  took  the  craaa  to  join 
the  crusades,  but  died  at  Constantinople. 

5.  Aksei^  of  Pcsterla  (1123-1136),  refused  to 
accept  the  pallium  from  the  hands  of  Honorius  II.  He 
crowned,  in  1128,  Conrad,  the  rival  of  Lothair,  in  conae- 
t)uence  of  which  he  was  put  under  the  ban  by  the  popc^ 
together  with  Conrad.  When  Anadetus  II  was  elected 
antipope,  Auselm  sided  with  him,  and  accepted*  tbe 
pallium  from  the  hands  of  his  legate.  The  legitimate 
pope  replied  with  an  interdict,  which  only  increased  the 
confusion,  since  Anselm  inflicted  ecclesiastical  pnnisb* 
ment  upon  faithful  adherents  of  the  pope.  At  Jaet 
the  people  of  Milan  expelled  Anselm,  in  1133,  and  tbe 
council  held  at  Pisa  in  1185  confirmed  the  act  of  the 
people  of  Milan.  While  on  hi»  way  to  the  antipope, 
Anselm  was  taken  prisoner,  and  died  at  Ronoe,  Aog.24y 


ANSPACH 


1043  APPEARANCES  OP  OUR  LORD 


1136.    See  UgheUi,  Italia  Saera^  vol.  iv;  Scherer,  in 
Wetzer  a.  Welters  KircheidexikoHf  s.  ▼.    (B.  P.) 

Anapach,  Frkdkrick  Reiniiardt,  D.D.,  a  La- 
theran  minister,  was  born  in  January,  1815,  in  Potter 
Township,  Centre  Co^  Pa.  He  studied  at  Mifflinburg 
Academy,  graduating  from  Pennsylvania  College  in 
1839;  subsequently  pursued  the  theological  course  at 
Gettysburg,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1841,  when 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Barren  Hill  and  Wbitemarsh 
charge,  Montgomery  County ;  from  1850  to  1854  he  was 
pastor  in  Hagerstown,  Md.,  and  remained  there  until 
1857.  He  was  interested  in  the  founding  of  the  Ha- 
gerstown Female  Seminary.  About  this  time  he  be- 
came co-editor  and  proprietor  of  The  Lutheran  Observer. 
From  1857  to  1861  his  residence  was  in  Baltimore;  and 
subsequently,  owing  to  failing  health,  he  retired  from 
active  work  and  resided  principally  in  Anne  Arundel 
County.  He  died  in  Baltimore,  Sept.  16, 1867.  Among 
his  published  works  are  the  following :  translations 
from  the  German  of  Heavenly  Balm^  etc.,  by  Caspar 
Scbwenkfeld  (1858):— 7Ae  Sepulchres  of  our 'Departed 
(1854)  i—The  Sont  of  the  Sires  (1855)  :-^a  lecture  on 
SpiritucMsm  (eod.) : — The  Two  PUgrims:  The  Israelite 
tmd  the  Christian  (1857),  etc.  See  Pennsylvania  College 
Book,  1882,  p.  204 ;  Lutheran  Observer,  Sept.  27, 1867. 

Anstioe,  Joskpii,  an  English  poet,  was  bom  at 
Madeley  Wood,  Shropshire,  in  1808 ;  educated  at  West- 
minster and  Oxford ;  in  1880  became  professor  of  clas- 
sical literature  in  King's  College,  London,  and  died  at 
Torquay,  Feb.  29, 1836.  Among  his  productions  were 
a  select  number  of  Hymns  (anonymously  published  in 
1886),  several  of  which  are  quite  popular. 

AntLoch,  Cou2«ciLS  or.  In  addition  to  those  no- 
ticed in  voL  i,  councils  were  also  held  at  this  place  in 
840,  at  which  the  Arian  Gregory  of  Cappadocia  was 
elected  to  the  see  of  Alexandria  \  in  860,  at  which  the 
Arian  Miletius  of  Sebastia  was  elected  patriarch  of 
Antioch ;  in  891,  at  which  Flavianus  anathematized 
the  Massalians ;  and  in  417,  at  which  Pelagius  was  again 
condemned.    See  Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  s.  v. 

AntlifC  William,  D.D.,  a  prominent  minister  of 
the  English  Primitive  Methodist  Conference,  was  bom 
in  1818.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  began  to  preach. 
He  held  nearly  all  the  positions  of  honor  it  was  in  the 
power  of  his  denomination  to  bestow.  From  1862  to 
1867  he  was  Connectional  Editor,  and  at  the  request 
of  the  conference  he  wrote  an  excellent  biography  of 
Hugh  Bourne,  He  was  twice  president  of  the  confer- 
ence. For  some  time  he  was  principal  of  the  Sunder- 
land Institute.  He  died  in  December,  1884.  See  Chris- 
tian Guardian^  Dec  17, 1884. 

AntoniuB,  a  Christian  poet  of  the  Sd  century,  is 
the  author  of  Carmen  A  dversus  Gentes,  which  consists 
of  two  parts,  the  first  treating  of  the  vanity  of  heathen- 
ism, the  second  of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  The  first 
edition  of  this  poem  was  published  by  Muratori,  in 
his  A  necdota,  vol.  i  (Milan,  1697),  and  in  Opera  S.  Pau- 
lini  (Verona,  1786),  where  it  is  erroneously  ascribed  to 
Paulinus  of  Nola.  Other  editions  are  given  in  Gallandi, 
Biblioth,  vol.  iii ;  Migne,  Patrol,  Lot.  vol.  v.  See  Schmid, 
in  Wetzer  u.  Wclte's  Kirchenlexikon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Antonius  a  matre  Dki,  a  name  common  to  two 
Carmelites. 

1.  The  first  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  at  Alcala,  and  is  the  author  of  CoUegii  CompUt- 
tensis  Disctdceatorum  Fratrum  Ordinis  B,  Maries  de 
Monte  Carmeli  Disputationes,  L  In  Octo  Libros  Physico- 
rum  Aristotelis;  II,  In  Duos  Libros  de  Generations  et 
Ccnceplione  seu  de  Ortu  H  Interiiu ;  II L  In  Tres  Libros 
A  ristolelis  de  A  nma.  See  Hurter,  yomendaior,  i,  697  ; 
Peters,  in  Wetzer  n.  WeUe'a  Kirckmdexikon,  s.  v. 

2.  U«  liwd  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century, 
■ilw|Hwftiwiir  of  theology  in  the  college  of  hb  order 
«S  Salamanca.  He  is  the  author  of  Pitehtdia  Isagogica 
ad  Sacrorum  Bibliorum  IntelUgeniiam,  etc  (Leyden, 


1669).    See  Kaulen,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welters  Kirdienlexi- 
kon,a,v.     {B,  P.) 

Apelt,  Ernst  Friedrich,  a  German  philosopher, 
was  bom  March  8, 1812,  at  Reichenau,  near  Zittau.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  Leipsic;  commenced  his  lectures 
at  Jena  in  1889;  was,  in  1840,  professor  of  philosophy, 
and  died  Oct  27,  1859.  He  published,  Metaphysik 
(Leipsic,  1857)  :—Die  Religionephilosophie  (ibid.  1860) : 
—  Die  Epochen  der  Geschichie  der  MenschheU  (Jena, 
1845-46, 2  vols. ;  2d  ed.  1852) :—  Wie  muss  das  Glaubens- 
bekenmlniss  beschaffen  sein,  das  zur  Vereinigung  aller 
Konfessionen  ftthren  soil?  (ibid.  1846).  See  Zuchold, 
Bibl,  Theol,  i,  86.     (B,  P.) 

Appearances  of  our  Lord  to  his  Disciples  after 
the  Resurrection,  Professor  Gardiner  has  given  a  *'  sy- 
nopsis of  the  events,  so  far  as  the  points  of  difficulty 
extend,"  that  relate  to  Mary  Magdalene  and  the  other 
women,  wit^  a  view  to  accommodating  the  statement 
in  Mark  xvi,  9  (that  he  appeared  first  to  her) ;  and  his 
scheme,  if  practicable,  would  be  a  desirable  solution. 
It  is  as  follows  ( Harmony  of  the  Gospels  in  Greek, 
p.  253) : 

"The  resurrection  itself  occnrred  at  or  before  the  earliest 
dawn  of  the  first  day  of  the  week.  The  women,  coming 
to  the  sepolcbre,  find  the  stone  rolled  away  and  the  body 
goue.  They  are  amaxed  and  perplexed.  Mary  Magdaleue 
alone  runs  to  tell  Peter  and  John.  The  other  women  re- 
main, enter  the  tomb,  see  the  angels,  are  charged  by  them 
to  announce  the  resurrection  to  the  disciples,  and  depart 
on  their  errand.  Meantime  Peter  and  John  run  very  rap- 
idly to  the  sepulchre.  They  enter  the  tomb  and  are  aston- 
ished at  the  orderly  arrangement  of  the  grave-clothes, 
and  then  retnm  to  the  city.  Mary  follows  to  the  tomb, 
unable  onite  to  keep  pace  with  them,  and  so  falling  be- 
hind. Sne  remains  stiuidhig  at  the  entrance  after  they 
have  gone,  and,  looking  In,  sees  the  angels.  Then,  turning 
abouC  she  sees  Jesus  himself,  and  receives  his  charge  for 
the  disciples.  This  was  our  Lord's  first  appearance  after 
bis  resurrection  (Mark  xvl,  9). 

"To  retnni  to  the  women  who  were  on  their  way  flrom 
the  sepnlchre  to  tho  disciples.  They  went  in  haste,  yet 
more  vlowl  v  than  Peter  and  John.  There  were  many  of 
them,  and,  being  in  a  state  of  great  agitation  and  alarm, 
they  appear  to  have  become  separnted  and  to  have  entered 
the  city  by  different  gates.  One  party  of  them,  in  their 
astonishment  and  fear,  say  nothing  to  anv  one ;  the  oth- 
ers run  to  tho  disciples  and  announce  all  that  they  bad 
seen.  via.  the  vision  of  the  angels. 

"At  this  time,  before  any  report  had  come  in  of  the  op- 

Eiarance  of  our  Lord  himself,  tbe  two  disciples  set  out  for 
mroana. 

"Soon  after,  Mary  Magdalene  comes  in,  announcing  that 
she  had  actually  seen  tbe  risen  Lord. 

"  While  these  things  are  happening,  the  first-mentloned 
party  of  the  women  are  stopped  on  the  way  by  tbe  ap- 
))earance  of  tbe  Lord  himself,  and  they  also  receive  a 
charge  to  his  disciples." 

The  proper  test  of  this  scheme  is  to  tabulate  it,  al- 
lowing a  reasonable  interval  for  each  incident  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  all  the  parties  were  more  or  less 
in  haste;  and  as  the  entire  breadth  of  the  city  is  but 
little  more  than  a  mile,  and  the  sepulchre  was  very 
near  the  city,  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  is  sufllcient 
time  for  any  person,  under  the  circumstances,  to  have 
passed  from  any  probable  point  within  the  city  to  the 
sepulchre.  Reckoning,  therefore,  from  any  fixed  point, 
sa}'  four  o'clock,  the  record,  on  that  theory,  would  stand 
about  as  follows : 

A.M. 

Resnrrection '. . .  4:00 

Tbe  women  set  out  together 4:10 

They  arrive  at  the  sepulchre 4:80 

Mary  sets  out  to  return 4:86 

The  other  women  set  ont  to  return 4:46 

Peter  and  John  set  out  for  the  sepulchre,  on  the 

return  of  Mary 4:60 

They  reach  the  sepulchre 6:00 

Sonic  of  the  other  women  reach  the  city,  and  re- 
port   6:00 

Poter  and  John  leave  after  Inspecting  the  tomb. .  6:10 

Mary  arrives  tbe  second  time 6:16 

She  sees  Jesus 6:20 

The  other  party  of  women  see  Jesns,  but  do  not 

report 6:30 

Mary  arrives  and  announces  her  news 6:40 

If  we  can  believe  that  it  took  any  of  the  women 
three  quarters  of  an  hour  to  go  part  of  the  way  back 
to  tlie  city,  when  it  is  especially  said  that  '^  they  fled 


APPELBE 


1044 


ARIUS 


in  haste,"  <*  departed  quicklyi"  nnder  an  urgent  menage, 
which  **  they  ran  "  to  deliver,  we  may  accept  the  above 
scheme,  bat  not  otherwiM.  It  should,  moreover,  be 
observed  that  the  supposition  of  a  division  of  their 
company,  and  a  delay  in  consequence,  are  unwarranted 
by  the  sacred  narratives,  which  invariably  speak  of 
them  all  together,  except  Mar}\  The  statement  in 
Mark  xvi,  9,  that  **  they  said  nothing  to  any  man," 
evidently  means  ''no  person  whom  they  met  on  the 
way."  We  are  not  at  liberty  to  refer  the  report  alluded 
to  by  the  disciples  on  the  way  to  £mmaus  (Luke  zxiv, 
22-24)  to  a  single  division  of  the  women,  for  the  same 
evangelist  (ver.  10)  distinctly  includes  Mary  among 
those  who  made  it. 

The  true  solution  of  this  problem  lies  not  in  any 
forced  harmony  of  the  events,  but  in  a  just  appre- 
hension of  the  language  of  the  several  evangelista. 
Matthew  mentions  in  general  terms  the  appearance  to 
the  women,  including  Maiy ;  Mark  speaks  only  of  the 
appearance  to  Maiy  as  the  representative  of  the  whole 
company  of  women ;  Luke  (as  Paul  in  1  Cor.  xt,  ^S) 
does  not  recognise  any  appearance  to  the  women  at  all; 
John  gives  the  details  of  the  appearance  to  Mary,  but 
makes  no  allusion  to  tbe  other  women. 

Appelbe,  William  Parkkb,  LL.D.,  an  Irish  Wes- 
leyan  minister,  was  bom  at  Bandon,  Nov.  19, 1807.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  with  a  view 
to  the  established  Episcopal  ministry,  but  on  the  com- 
pletion of  his  course  decided  to  enter  the  Methodbt 
itinerancy.  He  was  received  by  tbe  Conference  in 
1884,  and  appointed  to  the  Londonderry  Circuit.  He 
labored  on  the  most  important  circuits  in  the  Confer- 
ence, and  was  chosen  to  nearly  all  the  principal  oflices 
in  the  connection,  having  been  twice  elected  president 
of  the  Conference.  During  the  last  nine  years  of  his 
life,  in  addition  to  his  circuit  work,  he  filled  the  impor- 
tant office  of  theological  tutor  in  the  college  at  Belfast, 
a  position  for  which  his  learning,  culture,  and  sympa- 
thies eminently  qualified  him.  He  died  at  Belfast, 
June  22,  1882.  See  Afinuiei  of  the  Britiih  Con/erfwx, 
1882,  p.  89. 

Appuhn,  August  Wiuiblh,  a  Lntheran  theolo- 
gian of  Germany,  was  bom  Oct.  4, 1804.  In  1884  he 
was  appointed  pastor  at  Attenhausen,  and  in  1852  cathe- 
dral-preacher and  member  of  consistory  at  Magdeburg. 
He  retired  from  the  ministry  in  1871,  and  died  at  Wer- 
nigcrode,  June  6, 1882.  He  published,  3fotef  der  Knecht 
Goltes  (Magdeburg,  lHb):^Fe$fpredifft€n  (ibid.  1857): 
Entwurfe  zu  Predigten  an  dm  Festen  und  Featzeiten  (ibid. 
1876).    See  Zuchold,  BibL  Theol.  i,  87.     (a  P.) 

Araujo,  a  name  common  to  some  theologians  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus : 

1.  Alfhonso  (or  Ildkponso  db  PeI^afiel),  was 
bom  at  Riobambo,  in  Pero  (now  Ecuador),  in  1594. 
He  joined  his  order  in  1610,  was  professor  of  theology 
and  philosophy  at  Cusco  and  Lima,  and  died  at  Gnanca- 
Velica,  Nov.  18, 1657.  He  wrote,  Curnu  Integri  Phi- 
losophici  (Ley den,  1653-70,  4  vols.): — Theoiogia 
Sehokuiica  Naturalis,  etc.  (ibid.  1666,  2  vols.). 

2.  Joseph,  was  bora  at  Oporto,  in  Portugal,  Oct.  10, 
1696.  In  1712  he  joined  his  order,  was  professor  at 
Coimbra,  Oporto,  and  Lisbon,  and  died  in  1759.  He 
wrote  CursuB  ThtologiaiM  (Lisbon,  1734^7,  2  vols.). 
See  Bauer,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchenlexikorit  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Arbnes,  Pedro,  a  Spanish  inquisitor,  was  bom  at 
Epila,  in  Aragon,  in  1442.  He  studied  at  Huesca  and 
Bologna,  and  was,  in  1471,  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
at  the  latter  place.  In  1478  he  was  made  doctor  of  the- 
ology and  in  1474  canon  of  Sarsgossa.  After  having 
returned  to  his  native  place,  he  joined,  in  1476,  the 
order  of  the  Augustinians,  and  in  the  following  year 
received  holy  orders.  As  a  preacher  he  attracted  laige 
crowds,  and  m  an  instructor  of  the  young  clergy  was 
very  successfuL  In  1484  he  was  appointed,  together 
with  .the  Dominican,  Caspar  Juglar,  inquisitor  of  Ai'a- 


gon.  This  appointment  was  made  by  the  grand-In- 
quisitor Torquemada.  With  cnid  fanaticism  Arboes 
executed  tbe  orders  of  his  chief,  and  many  Jews  and 
Moors  were  delivered  to  the  stake.  Among  tbe  rela- 
tives of  his  many  sacrifices  a  conspiracy  was  effected 
and  murderers  were  hired  to  kill  all  members  of  tbe 
inquisitioiu  In  the  night  of  Sept.  14th,  1485,  Arboca, 
while  kneeling  at  the  altar,  received  a  deadly  blow, 
and  died  nn  the  17th  of  that  month.  His  muideren, 
together  with  many  of  the  conspirators,  had  to  pay  the 
penalty  of  their  deed.  In  the  Romish  Church  Arboes 
is  celebrated  as  a  martyr.  Pope  Alexander  Yll  pro- 
nounced him  blessed  in  1661,  while  Pins  IX  canonized 
him  in  1867.  The  famous  Kaulbach  painted,  in  1871, 
a  picture,  on  which  Arbues  is  represented  as  eoodemn- 
ing  heretics  to  death.  See  Zimgiebl,  Peter  Arbttee 
umd  die  epcmuche  Injuisitiom  (3d  ed.  Munich,  1872). 
(B.  P.) 

ArwtdOf  RoDBiocES  Sakchez  dk,  a  Spanish  bbb- 
op,  was  born  at  St.  Maria  de  Kieva,  in  the  diooese  of 
Segovia,  in  1404.  He  studied  law  at  Salamanca,  and 
the  kings,  John  II  and  Henry  IV  of  Castile,  whose  sec- 
retaiy  he  was,  made  use  of  bis  talents  on  several  occa- 
sions. When,  in  1455,  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  bring 
to  pope  Calixtus  III  the  congratulations  of  his  moDarch, 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Oviedo.  Under  Paul  II  be  oc- 
cupied the  episcopal  see  of  Zamora,  next  of  Calabona, 
and  finally  that  of  Palencia.  He  died  Oct.  4,  1470. 
Most  of  his  works  are  still  in  MS.  in  the  Vatican 
Library;  only  three  have  been  published,  Sptfimm 
Vita  llumanm  (Rome,  1468):  —  Historia  Bitpamka^ 
giving  the  history  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  vcar  1469 
(ibid.  1470)  .—De  Monarekia  (hitie  et  de  OrigU^  et  Dif- 
ferentia Principatui  Imperialis  et  RegaUe  (ibid.  1521). 
See  Biog,  GiniraU^  xliii,  249  sq. ;  Hamberger,  Zvrer- 
Iduige  Nachrichten,  iv,  800  sq. ;  Stansnik,  in  Wetzer 
u.  Welters  Kirchenlexikonf  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Arllis  (usually  pronounced  A'riMs,  but  strictly 
A  nii«,  'AfMcoCt  meaning  martiat)f  tbe  famoos  bcresi- 
arch,  was  bom  about  A.D.  256  in  North  Africa  (Ctie- 
naica,  Lybia,  or  Egypt),  but  nothing  is  known  of  his 
early  life  or  circumstances.    He  is  said  to  hare  been 
educated  by  Lucian,  a  presbyter  in  Antiocb,  and  or- 
dained deacon  bv  Peter  of  Alexandria  and  elder  bv 
Achillas,  Peter's  successor,  who  placed  him  (A.D.  313) 
in  charge  of  Baucalis,  one  of  the  great  churches  of 
Alexandria.     On  the  death  of  this  bishop  he  eaaae 
near  being  elected  to  the  see,  sqch  was  his  popularity, 
but  was  defeated  by  Alexander,  through  envy  of  wbam 
(as  Theodoret  asserts,  Hiti.Eccle*.  i,  2)  he  began,  aboot 
A.D.  318,  a  controversy  respecting  the  nature  of  Chriat, 
which  ultimately  involved  the  whole  of  Christendom. 
See  Ariakism.     Anus  had  previously  fallen  nnder 
censure  for  connection  with  the  schism  of  Melecios. 
but  in  some  way  had  been  restored  to  favor.     He  was 
now  excommunicated  for  heresy  by  a  council  held  at 
Alexandria  in  321,  and  his  views  formally  condemned 
by  the  Council  of  Kicsa  in  325.    Constantino  banished 
him  to  lUyria,  but  in  331  he  rccalleti  him  through  tbe 
intercession  of  his  sister,  Constantia,  and  Eusebtos  of 
Kicomcdia.    Athanasius,  however,  refused  to  recognise 
the  heretic.     In  336  Athanasius  himself  was  banished 
to  Treves,  and  Arius,  after  a  penonal  interview  with 
the  emperor,  was  about  to  be  received  in  full  honor  at 
Alexandria,  when  he  suddenly  died  of  a  disease  of  the 
bowels,  apparently  a  violent  attack  of  dysentery,  which 
his  enemies  attributed  to  tbe  visitation  of  God  and  his 
friends  to  the  effect  of  poison.    His  views  are  but  the 
outcropping  of  the  earlier  errors  of  Cerinthns  and  the 
Gnostics,  now  put  into  a  definite  shape  by  the  rirtnal 
denial  of  the  divinity  of  our  Lord.    Arins  was  eridens- 
ly  a  man  of  much  acuteness,  but  little  depth  of  intdkct. 
and  of  a  controversial  turn.    No  charge  of  imnofality 
was  ever  alleged  against  him.    He  is  said  to  hare  been 
tall  in  person,  easy  and  eloquent  in  manner,  bet 
in  habits.    The  representation  of  him  in  the  ftent 


ARMISTEAD 


1046 


ASSAMESE  VERSION 


numoe,  entitled  Ariua  tk»  l^biam  (New  Totk,  1W8),  u 
lively  bat  somewhat  too  favorable. 

Annlstead,  Jbssb  H.,  D.D.,  a  Presb3rterian  min- 
ister, was  educated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College  and  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary  of  Virginia.  Ue  was  li- 
censed to  pveach  in  1926,  when  be  is  thought  to  have 
been  twenty-eight  yean  of  age.  His  first  fields  of  labor 
were  at  Gartenville  and  the  Brick  Church  at  Fluvi- 
anna;  in  1828  he  became  pastor  at  Buckingham  Conrt* 
house,  and  in  1842  at  Cumberland.  He  died  at  Wood* 
ville,  Va.,  May  80, 1869.  He  was  eminently  oseful,  and 
his  ministry  was  blessed  with  powerful  revivals.  See 
Nevin,  PribyterioH  Entyclop.  s.  v. 

Armo,  Hiram  Phslps,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Windsor,  Conn.,  June  1,  1799.  He 
studied  at  Phillips  Academy,  Andover ;  g^dnated  from 
Yale  College  in  1824,  and  from  Yale  Divinity  School  in 
1828 ;  was  ordsined  June  80,  1890,  pastor  at  Hebron, 
where  he  remained  until  Oct  10, 1832;  in  February, 
1888,  became  pastor  at  Walcotville;  in  1886  of  the  First 
Church,  Norwich,  of  which  he  remained  pastor  emer- 
itus from  the  time  of  his  resignation,  Feb.  20,  1878. 
He  died  at  Norwich,  April  6, 1882.  From  1866  he  was 
a  member  of  the  corporation  of  Yale  College.  Besides 
several  published  sermons,  he  was  the  author  of  a  pam- 
phlet, Noita  of  the  Congrfgaiional  Churckea  in  Neto 
London  Couni^y  Comu,/rom  1886  to  1869.  See  Conff. 
Year-book,  1883,  p.  17. 

Arnold  of  Bo^ikbyal,  a  Benedictine  writer  of  the 
12th  century,  was,  in  1144,  appointed  abbot  of  Bonqeval, 
in  the  diocese  of  Chartres.  Like  his  predecesson  he 
had  to  undergo  many  trials.  His  appeal  to  pope  Lu- 
cius U  was  of  no  avail,  and  he  went  to  Rome  a  sec- 
ond time,  where  he  succeeded,  in  1154,  in  receiving 
the  permission  of  pope  Hadrian  FV  to  resign.  He 
died  at  Marmoutiers,  where  he  had  retired.  Arnold 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  St.  Bernard,  who,  on  his 
death-bed,  sent  a  letter  full  of  expressions  of  love  for  Ar- 
nold. After  St.  Bernard's  death  the  monks  of  Clairvaux 
requested  Arnold  to  continue  the  life  of  the  saint,  which 
William  of  Thierry  had  commenced  to  write.  Thus  the 
Viia  Seeunda  S.  Benutrdi  (Migne,  PaL  Lat,  clxxxv, 
267  sq.),  which  is  erroneously  ascribed  to  a  Cistercian 
Arnold  (oomp.  Oudin,  Script,  Eode$.  ii,  1298),  origi- 
nated. Arnold  also  wrote  a  speculative  treatise  on  the 
Hexamavn: — HomiUes  on  the  182c2  PscUm: — a  book  en- 
titled De  Dom»  Spiritu*  S» : — De  Sqttem  Vtrbu  Domini 
in  Cruoe: — MeditationeSy  and  De  Cardinalibui  OperUms 
Chriatu.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  latter  work,  which 
was  dedicated  to  pope  Hadrian  IV,  was  r^arded  for.  a 
long  time  as  a  work  of  St.  Cyprian,  and  was  published 
by  Pamelius  in  his  edition  of  Cyprian  (Amsterdam, 
1568).  Arnold's  works  are  published  by  Higne,  Pat, 
Lot,  clxxxix  (1 513).  See  Streber,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's 
Kirch^nUxihon^  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Arnold,  Albert  Nioholas,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Cranston,  B.  I.,  Feb.  12,  1814.  He 
graduated  from  Brovm  University  in  1888,  and  from 
the  Newton  Theological  Institution  in  1841;  was  or* 
dained  pastor  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Sept.  14,  1841; 
in  1848  sppointed  a  missionary  to  Greece,  and  stationed 
successively  at  Athens  and  in  the  island  of  Corfu.  For 
eleven  years  he* was  engaged  in  his  missionary  work, 
and  then  returned  to  the  United  States.  For  two  years 
he  was  a  professor  at  Newton,  for  seven  years  pastor  of 
the  Church  at  Westborough,  Mass.,  for  five  years  pro- 
fessor in  the  Hamilton  Theological  Institution,  and  for 
four  years  professor  in  the  Chicago  Theological  Semi- 
nary. In  1878  he  returned  to  his  early  home,  near 
Providence,  R.  I.,  where  he  died,  Oct.  11, 1868.  See 
Rhode  Island  Biog,  Encydop,  s.  v.    (J.  C.  S.) 

Arnold,  Jobn  Motte,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  at  Acra,  Greene  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Oct. 
15,  1824.  He  was  converted  eariy  in  life,  and  in  9848 
Joined  the  Michigan  Conference,  in  which  he  was  suc- 
cessively pastor  at  Port  Huron,  St.  Clair,  Flint,  Coran- 


na,  pfending  elder  of  Owano  District,  pastor  at  Dexter, 
Woodward  Avenue,  in  Detroit,  and  Walnut  Street,  in 
the  same  city.  In  1868  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
l>etroit  Methodist  Book  Depository,  and  later  of  the 
Michigan  Christian  Advooaie.  He  died  suddenly  in 
Detroit,  Dec  5, 1884.  See  Minutes  of  A  mmal  Catfer'- 
eneeSf  1885,  p.  381. 

Amot;  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1769;  presented  to  the  living  of 
Ceres  in  1770;  elected  presbytery  clerk  in  1777;  re- 
signed in  1792;  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  in 
the  new  college  of  St.  Andrews  in  1799;  minister  of 
Kingsbams  in  1800,  but  opposed  on  account  of  already 
holding  one  important  office;  the  General  Assembly  of 
1800  approved  of  the  double  appointment.  He  died 
July  2, 1808,  aged  sixty-three  years.  See  Fasti  Ec- 
cies,  Scotieana^  ii,  444, 478. 

Ampeok,  Vnr,  a  Bavarian  historian,  was  bom 
about  the  year  1440  at  Landshut.  He  studied  at  Am- 
berg  and  Vienna,  was  for  some  time  pastor  of  St.  Mar- 
tin's, in  his  native  city,  and  died  about  the  jeer  1505. 
He  is  the  author  of,  Chronieon  Austriacum  to  the  year 
1488  (reprinted  by  Pez,  Ser^,  rer,  Austr,  i,  1165)  :— 
Uber  de  Gestis  Eptsoopomm  Frisingens,  (reprinted  by 
Deutinger,  in  BeitrSge  tur  GesMite  des  Erzbisthunu 
MOnchen^Freisingen,  vol.  iii) :  —  Chronieon  BaivaritB, 
589-1495  (reprinted  by  Pez,  Thesaurus,  iii,  %  19  sq.). 
See  Aretin,  LiteraristAes  Handimck  fir  die  hayet'sehe 
Geschidtte,\,\b\i  Pertz,i4rcAt9.i,487;  tv,658;  Deutsche 
Biographie,  i,  596 ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte*s  Kirehenlexihon^ 
S.T.     (RP.) 

Arras  (in  France),  Cou2(Cil  op  {ponciUum  A  ttr^ 
batense,  from  the  Atrebati,  who  were  the  original  in- 
habitants of  that  region),  was  held  in  the  year  1025, 
chiefly  upon  the  subject  of  the  holy  communion,  against 
certain  heretics  who  had  come  from  Italy.  Seventeen 
chapters  were  published.— Landon,  Manual  ofCouncSSf 
s.  V. 

Arthur,  William,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  father 
of  the  recent  president  of  the  United  States,  was  bom 
in  County  Antrim,  Ireland,  being  by  descent  Scotch- 
Irish,  and  was  a  graduate  of  Belfast  College.  In  his 
eighteenth  year  he  came  to  America,  and  subsequently 
entered  the  Baptist  ministry.  For  about  eight  years 
he  was  pastor  of  the  Calvary  Church,  New  York  city ; 
afterwards  of  several  churches  in  Vermont,  and  then  of 
churches  in  the  state  of  New  York,  among  them  those 
in  Schenectady,  Lansingburg,  West  Troy,  and  Newton- 
ville.  In  the  last-named  place  he  died,  in  October, 
1875.  He  is  spoken  of  as  ''an  author  of  extensive 
learning,  and  a  minister  of  great  usefulness  and  piety." 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encydnp,  p.  ]  29L     (J.  C.  S.) 

ArtioleB,  Irish.  The  articles  of  religion  of  the 
Protestant  Church  of  Ireland,  numbering  one  hundred 
and  four,  were  probably  drawn  up  by  archbishop  Usher, 
and  adopted  by  the  Irish  Episcopal  Church  in  1615, 
They  are  in  striking  agreement  with  the  Westminster 
Confession,  and  may  be  found  in  Schaff,  Creeds  of 
Christendom,  i,  662 ;  oomp.  iii,  526.  They  were  ignored, 
however,  by  the  Irish  convocation  of  1635,  and  the 
thirty-nine  articles  of  the  English  Church  have  ever 
since  been  the  standard  of  the  Irish  Church  also. 

Aflohbaoh,  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  historian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1801  at  Hochst.  He  studied 
at  Heidelberg,  was  in  1823  professor  of  the  gymnssium 
in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  1842  professor  of  histx)ry 
at  Bonn,  and  in  1854  at  Vienna.  He  died,  April  25, 
1882.  He  is  best  known  as  the  editor  of  AUgemeines 
Kirehenlexikon  (1846-^,  4  vols.),  to  which  he  contrib* 
uted  largely,     (a  P.) 

AsMunese  Version.  Assam  is  a  British  pror* 
ince,  now  forming  part  of  the  eastern  frontier  of  India. 
The  original  language  of  the  Assamese  nation  was  the 
Ahom,  a  branch  of  the  Siamese  family  of  lan^usges. 
When  the  people  adopted  the  religion  of  Bengal  in  the 


ASSEBURG 


1046 


ATWATER 


middle  of  the  17th  century,  they  also  gradually  habit- 
uated themselves  to  the  use  of  its  language,  till  at 
length  the  ancient  Ahom  tongue  became  extinct.  Dar- 
ing the  lapse  of  years  the  language  now  spoken  in 
Anam  has  contracted  several  peculiarities  of  its  own, 
distinguishing  it  from  the  Bengalee,  so  that  in  printing 
the  Scriptures  it  was  found  impracticable  to  use  the  Ben- 
galee characters,  and  a  new  font  of  type  had  to  be  cast 
for  that  purpose.  In  1815  the  first  two  gospels  were 
printed  at  Serampore,  while  the  whole  New  Test,  was 
finished  at  press  in  1819,  with  the  title  The  New  Testa' 
tnerU  Translated  from  the  Original  into  the  A  uam  TauI' 
guage  by  the  Serampore  Missionaries.  In  1822  the  Pen- 
tateuch left  the  press,  and  the  printing  of  the  entire 
Old  Test,  was  subsequently  completed.  The  annual 
report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for 
1863  stated  that  "  preparations  are  being  made  for  re- 
vision ;"  but  how  far  the  work  has  progressed  we  are 
unable  to  state.  For  the  study  of  the  language,  see 
Brown,  Grammatieal  Notices  on  the  A  ssamese  lAtnguage 
(Sibsagor,  1848).     (B.  P.) 

Asseburg,  Bosamunds  Julianb  von,  a  German 
visionary,  was  bom  in  November,  1672,  at  £igenst6dt, 
near  Magdeburg.  According  to  her  own  statement, 
she  had  visions  at  different  times.  When  seven  years 
of  age  she  saw  the  Saviour,  who  told  her  of  his  suffer- 
ings and  the  future  of  his  kingdom.  The  news  con- 
cerning the  visionaiy  soon  reached  Magdeburg,  and 
Pfeiffer,  a  young  theologian  of  Lauenburg,  sought  the 
opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  Frclulein  As- 
seburg.  Pfeiffer  wrote  to  Petersen  concerning  the  vis- 
ionary*, and  the  latter,  afler  some  correspondence,  in 
company  with  his  wife  paid  a  visit  to  her.  As  the 
result  of  his  visit  he  published  Species  facti  von  dem 
adeligen  Fraulein  Rosamunda  Juliana  von  Atsdmrg^ 
with  an  appendix  (1691).  This  was  intended  as  an 
address  to  the  most  prominent  theologians,  in  order  to 
ascertain  whether  they  accepted  the  revelations  of  Ro- 
samunde  as  divine  inspirations  or  not.  Some  assented, 
others  violently  opposed.  Spener,  whose  opinion  Avas 
asked,  was  too  cautious  to  commit  himself  in  any  way. 
Meanwhile  Frttulein  Asseburg's  name  became  known  in 
France,  England,  and  Denmark.  The  consistory,  how. 
ever,  at  the  instance  of  the  preachers  of  LUneburg,  who 
accused  Petersen  because  he  allowed  the  visionary  to 
stay  at  his  house,  took  the  matter  into  consideration,  and 
in  accordance  with  a  deciuon  of  the  theological  faculty 
at  HelrostHdt,  deposed  Petersen,  in  1692,  from  his  office, 
and  banished  him  from  the  country.  With  this  verdict, 
an  opinion  was  publicly  pronounced  upon  Frilulein  Asse- 
burg,  who  accompanied  her  friend  first  to  WolfenbUttel, 
then  to  Magdeburg.  From  Magdeburg  she  went  to  Ber- 
lin, where  she  lived  in  the  bouse  of  a  countess.  In  1708 
she  saw  once  more  her  friend  Petersen  at  Berlin,  but 
after  this  she  rapidly  lost  her  prestige,  and  sank  into 
oblivion.  Not  even  the  date  of  her  death  is  known. 
The  famous  Leibnitz  defended  her  moral  and  religious 
character,  and  as  to  her  visions  he  compared  her  to 
Brigitta,  Hildegard,  and  MelchthiIdis,who  were  regard- 
ed as  saints  among  the  more  faithful  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  See  Petersen,  Autobiography  (2d  ed.  1719) ;  Ber* 
tram,  Jie/ormadons"  ttnd  Kirchenkistorie  LOneburgs 
(Braunschweig,  eod.);  Planck,  Gesehichte  der  protest, 
Theologie  von  der  Konhordien/ormel  an  bit  indie  Mitte 
des  18.  Jahrhunderts  (Gottingen,  1831),  p.  248  sq. ;  Bar- 
thold.  Die  Ertceckten  im  protettantischen  Desittchlandy 
in  Baumer's  Histor,  Taschenbuch  (1852);  Dibelius,  in 
Herzog-Plitt's  Real-Encyldop,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

ABsemani,  is  the  Italian  form  of  the  name  of  a 
learned  Maronite  iamily ;  namely,  Gicseppb  Simoxk, 
the  head  of  it,  Stkfamo  Evodio,  and  Giuseppe  Luioi 
(in  Lat  A  loysius,  born  about  1710),  two  of  his  nephews, 
and  his  grandnephew  Simonr,  who  was  bom  March 
14, 1749,  at  Tripoli.  He  was  educated  in  the  Maronite 
College  at  Rome,  and  after  completing  his  studies  spent 
twelve  years  as  a  missionary  in  bis  native  country,  and 


then  went  to  Padua  as  teacher  of  Oriental  languages, 
where  he  died,  April  7, 1821.  He  wrote  a  famous  work 
On  the  Civilization,  Literature,  and  Manners  of  the  A  rcAs 
(Padua,.  1787).  See  WeUer  u.  Welters  Kirchenlarikon, 
S.V.     (a  P.) 

Athune,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  dergyman,  soo  of 
a  commissary  of  Orkney,  was  bom  at  Kirkwall  in  161S; 
took  his  degree  of  M.A.  at  the  Edinbuigh  Unirenity  in 
1686;  studied  divinity  at  Oxford  in  1687;  was  chap- 
lain to  the  marquis  of  Hamilton  in  1638;  presented  by 
the  king  to  the  living  of  Biisay  in  1642;  deposed  in 
1649,  and  for  taking  part  with  the  marquis  of  Montrose 
in  1650  he  was  excommunicated.  He  fled  to  Holland 
in  1658,  afterwards  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  lived 
privately  till  1660.  Parliament  granted  him  £100  for 
bis  suflerings.  On  visiting  London  he  was  collated  by 
Brian  Walton,  bishop  of  Winchester,  to  the  living  of 
Wiunifrith;  was  appointed  minister  at  Elgin  in  1677; 
elected  bishop  of  Moray  the  same  year;  consecrated  in 
1679 ;  transferred  to  the  see  of  Galloway  in  1680,  and 
died  Nov.  15, 1687.  He  made  a  bold  stand  in  Parii*- 
ment,  in  1686,  against  rescinding  the  penal  statutes  re- 
specting popery.  See  Fasti  Ecdes.  Scotieana,  iii,  392> 
452, 778. 

Atkinson,  John  Mato  Pleasant,  D.D.,  a  Pk«ft> 
byterian  minister,  was  bom  at  Mansfieldf  Va.,  Jan.  10, 
1817.  He  graduated  from  Hampden-Sidney  CoUcge 
in  1835,  and  from  the  Yirginia  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary ;  was  ordained  as  an  evangelist,  and  became  a 
stated  supply  of  the  Church  in  Houston,  Texas;  was 
afterwards  installed  pastor  at  Warrenton  and  Salem, 
Va.  In  1850  he  was  insulled  pastor  of  Bridge  Street 
Church,  Georgetown,  D.  C.  In  1857  he  was  elected 
preddent  of  Hampden-Sidney  College,  and  contiuMd 
in  that  position  until  near  the  date  of  his  death,  Aug. 
25, 1883.  His  life  was  full  of  good  deeds,  geneious  im- 
pidses,  and  Christian  sacrifice.  See  NeeroL  Report  of 
Princeton  Alumni,  1884,  p.  26.     (W.  P.  &) 

Attigny,  Council  or  (additional),  hekl  in  May, 
870,  at  which  Charles  the  Bold  brought  his  son  Carlo- 
man  to  Judgment,  and  Hincmar  of  Laon  was  compelled 
to  submit  to  royal  and  ecclesiastical  authority.  See 
Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  s.  v. 

Atwater,  Lyman  Hotchkxss,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  em- 
inent Presbyterian  divine,  was  bom  at  Cedar  Hill  (now 
in  New  Haven),  Conn.,  Feb.  2B,  1818.  He  graduated 
from  Tale  College  in  1881,  spent  the  ensoing  year 
at  the  head  of  the  clasrical  department  of  Mount 
Hope  Institute,  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  then  entered  Tale 
Divinity  School.  At  the  end  of  the  fint  year  he  was 
appointed  tutor  of  mathematics  in  Tale  College, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  continuing  his  theo- 
logical studies.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1834, 
and  became  pastor  of  the  First  Church  in  Fairfield, 
Conn.,  where  he  remained  twenty  years.  In  1854  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  intellectual  and  moral  phi- 
losophy in  Princeton  College,  which  poMtion  be  sub- 
stantially held  until  the  close  of  his  life,  Feb.  17, 1883. 
In  1861  he  was  appointed  to  the  lectureship  extraordi- 
nary in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  which  dSce 
he  held  for  five  years.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Joint 
committee  on  the  subject  of  the  reunion  of  the  old  and 
new  school  branches  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  He 
was  acting  president  of  Princeton  College  from  the  re. 
tirement  of  Dr.  McLean  to  the  inauguration  of  Dr. 
McCoeh.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  especially  for 
the  reviews,  and  became  editor  of  the  Prtneeton  Revinr, 
which  position  he  held  until  it  was  united  with  the 
Presbyterian  Review.  His  contributions  greatly  ex- 
ceeded those  of  any  other  man,  beginning,  in  1840,  with 
his  well-known  essay  on  The  Power  of  Contrary  Choice. 
Many  of  his  articles  have  been  republished  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe.  He  was  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  by  his  colleagues,  and  was  veiy  popular  with 
the  students.  See  Necrol.  Report  of  Princeton  Ahimm, 
1888,  p,  8  i  Nevin,  Presb,  Encydop.  s,  v.     (W,  P.  &) 


AUBER 


1041 


AVERY 


▲uber,  Jiiu  Harrtbt,  an  English  poetess,  was  born 
in  London,  Jan.  20, 1778.  She  lived  a  long  but  retired 
life,  and  died  at  Hoddesdon,  HerUhire,  Jan.  20, 1862. 
Of  her  poetry  only  a  single  rolame  was  published,  en- 
titled The  Sint-ii  of  the  PttdrnM  (anonymously,  1829), 
containing  some  selected  pieces,  but  much  original 
matter  of  great  value,  which  has  been  largely  adopted 
in  modem  hymnals. 

Anburn  Declaration,  a  popular  designation  of 
the  "Exscinding  Act,"  passed  in  that  city  (N.  Y.) 
against  the  churches  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  as 
non-Presbyterian,  for  failing  to  come  up  to  the  higher 
Calvinuttc  theology'  assumed  in  the  document.  It  has 
been  practically  a  dead-letter.  For  its  text,  see  Schaff, 
Creedt  ofCkriitendom^  ii,  777. 

AxdBBtBf  JoBST  Berniiard  von,  dean  of  Bamberg 
and  WUrzburg,  was  bom  March  28, 1671,  at  Mengers- 
dorf,  in  Franconia.  He  was  baptized  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  but  through  the  influence  of  his  uncle,  Carl 
Sigismund,  dean  of  Bamberg  and  WURbui^,  he  was 
brought  up  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  From  1688  to 
1690  he  was  educated  at  the  seminar}'  in  Wurzburg, 
was  in  1695  dean  of  Bamberg,  and  in  1714  he  received 
besides  the  deanery  of  WUraburg.  In  1723  he  was 
also  appointed  provost  of  St.  Stephen  at  Bamberg.  He 
died  April  2, 1788.  He  founded  the  famous  seminar}' 
at  Bamberg.  See  Archiv/Ur  Getchichte  ton  Oberfremk- 
en,  vol.  1  in  1888 ;  voL  x  in  1866;  Refulation  in  Sackm 
der  katholischen  Barone  von  Avfieti  (Bamberg,  1789); 
Gutenitcker,  Geick,  des  Freiherm  r.  avftuntchen  Stu^ 
dkntemmars  (ibid.  1866) ;  Weber,  Das  A  vftesnische  Se- 
minar  (ibid.  1880);  Wittmann,  in  Wetzer  n.  Welte's 
KirckenUxikonj  s.  v.     (B.  P.)  ,  . 

AngtiBtine,  Sitter,    See  Lisaulx. 

Anrelian  (fully  Lucius  Domitius  YALicRtAMua 
AuBsuANUs),  Roman  emperor,  was  bom  about  A.D. 
212,  at  Sirmiuro,  in  Pann^nia,  or,  according  to  some,  in 
Dacia  or  Mcesia,  of  very  humble  parentage.  He  gradu- 
ally rose  as  a  soldier  under  Claudius,  whom  he  succeed- 
ed in  August,  270,  by  the  proclamation  of  the  legions. 
He  reigned  until  March,  275,  with  great  military  vigor, 
aubduing  Zenobia  and  the  other  Oriental  powera.  His 
civil  administration,  however,  was  harsh,  and  he  is  said 
to  have  been  a  persecutor  of  the  Christians^  See  Smith, 
Did.  of  Clati.  Biog.  s.  v. 

▲nstixi,  Thomas  Ralph,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  in  London,  June  16, 1810.  He 
graduated  from  Oxford,  waa  ordained  in  England,  and 
then  came  to  America,  but  in  1883  returned  and  studied 
medicine.  Once  more  coming  to  America,  he  settled 
in  Indiana.  During  the  late  civil  war  he  was  com- 
missioned as  a  surgeon  in  the  army.  At  its  close  he 
preached  at  Terre  Haute  and  JefferM>nville,  and  was 
fifteen  years  rector  of  St.  Jameses  Church,  Vinoccines, 
where  he  died,  Feb.  6, 1884. 

Antun  Inscription.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able Christian  epigraphs  was  found  in  1889  in  the 
cemetery  St.  Pierre  I'Estrier,  near  Autun,  where  the 
Christians,  during  the  persecutions,  used  to  hold  divine 
•ervice.  The  plate,  consisting  of  eight  pieces,  contains 
a  metric  inscription  in  Greek.  It  originally  was  st- 
feached  to  a  wall  or  a  tomb.  According  to  Garucci 
^with  additions  and  corrections  placed  within  brackets) 
the  inscription  reads  thus: 

*IX^vov  o[vf>wiov  ^c]tov  7€vor,  qropi  vttAv^ 

Xpn^t,  \a/3w[i«  viryfilv  ififiporov  ^^  fiftoriott. 
ecwctfiwv  irdarCw]!'.     rifv  ciiVf  ^I'Xff,  ^uXvfo  ^vxC>7*'] 

Tmrhpof  &yit¥  tit\tti64a  \dnfiav{t  fipStviv"}, 

*Ev5i«  9tvat¥,  ix^vv  'x***'  iraXfi/iait. 
'ixMi'  Xo(praC]  ^pOi  X«X«it«*,  Hawora  r&ritp]^ 

*Avxa»6i$  [warjepf  rmpup  Kc[xo]pi9M«v«  ^M^ 
Xvv  fiinrpi  fXvHtpp  KM  AdfA^fjotiriv  ifioivtv, 
'I[x^vot  9tpifvp  ^lo]  fApiicto  IttKTopiovo. 


"The  heavenly  Ichthys'  divine  race,  a  pnre  heart 
Keep,  having  received  among  mortala  the  immortal 

fount 
Of  divine  waters.    Beflresh,  O  friend,  tb  v  sonl 
With  the  ever-flowing  water  of  ricbes-ffivlng  wisdom. 
The  bonev-eweet  meat  of  the  saints'  Mvionr  receive, 
Eat  with  iinneer,  the  Ichthys  holding  In  the  hands. 
With  the  Ichthys  ssttsfV  then,  I  long,  my  Lord  Saviour. 
Sweet  rest  to  the  mother,  I  entreat  thee,  light  of  the 

deadl 
Aschandios,  O  dearest  father  to  mv  heart, 
With  the  best  mother  and  my  brethren. 
In  the  peace  of  Ichthys  remember  thy  Fectorloal** 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  first  part,  containing 
six  verses,  belongs  to  another  author,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  language  of  that  part  in  opposition  to  that  of 
the  other.  According  to  the  charscter  of  the  writing, 
the  epigraph  belongs  to  the  4th,  if  not  to  the  5th,  cea* 
tury.  For  the  meaning  of  Ickihye,  see  that  article. 
The  first  two  lines  are  a  clear  testimony  of  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  Pohl  suggests  that  the  first  six  lines  contain 
an  ancient  liturgical  formula  from  the  time  of  Irensus, 
which  perhaps  was  used  at  the  celebration  of  the  eucha- 
rist.  The  rest  contains  a  prayer  of  Pectorios  for  the 
soul  of  his  deceased  mother,  and  a  petition  that  she, 
in  connection  with  the  father  and  brethren,  may  re- 
member the  living  son.  See  Le  Bknt,  Irucr,  Chrit, 
de  la  GauU,  vol  i,  p.  9,  pL  1,  n.  1 ;  Rossignol,  Revue 
Arckiol  (1856),  xiii,  65,  491;  Garucci,  MiL  <rEpiffr. 
A  nc,  p.  82 ;  KirchhofT,  Corp,  Inecr,  Gr,  iv,  9890 ;  Becker, 
Die  DartttUupg  Jesu  Chrieti  unter  dem  BUde  det  Fitches 
(Breslau,  1866);  Marriot,  The  Testimony  of  the  Cata- 
combs (Lond.  1870),  p.  114,  214;  Poh^  Das  Ichthys- 
Monument  von  A  utun  (Berlin,  1880) ;  Heuser,  in  Kraus*s 
Beal'Encyldop.  der  christL  AUerihUmeTf  p.  524;  Klein, 
in  Weuer  u.  Welte*s  Kirchadexikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Avanoinna,  Nicholas,  a  Jesuit,  was  bom  at  Tynl 
in  1612.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  joined  the  order  at 
Graz.  For  about  ten  yean  he  lectured  on  ethica  and 
scholastic  theology  at  Yieima,  was  then  appointed  rec- 
tor of  the  colleges  of  Passau,  Vienna,  and  Graz,  and  in 
1676  he  was  made  provinciid  of  the  order  in  Austria 
and  visitor  of  Bohemia.  He  died  Dec  6,  1686.  Hia 
main  work  is  Vila  et  Doctrina  Jesu  Christi  ex  Quatuor 
Evangelistis  CoUecta  (Vienna,  1666),  which  has  repeat- 
edly been  reprinted  (best  edition  by  WesthofT,  1844), 
and  translated  into  German  by  Feichtenleine  (Augs- 
burg, 1820),  Wittmann  (ibid.  1822;  2d  ed.  1884),  by  a 
Catholic  priest  (Blunich,  1850;  8d  ed.  1860),  by  ZoUner 
(Regensburg,  1867),  Dotsch  (ibid.  1871),  Ecker  (Frei- 
burg, 1877),  also  into  Polish.  See  Sotwell,  BUfL  ScripL 
8.  J, ;  Stfiger,  Scriptores  Provinda  A  ustriacm  S.  J. ; 
Backer,  i,  829>334;  iii,  1982;  Comelv,  in  Wetzer  u. 
Welte*s  Kirchenlexikon,  %  v.;  Zuchold,  Bibl.  TheoL  i, 
58.     (a  P.) 

Avellng;  Thomas  William  Baxter,  D.D.,  an 
English  Dissenting  minister,  was  bom  at  Castletown, 
Isle  of  Man,  May  1 1, 1815.  He  was  educated  by  a  kind 
guardian,  joined  the  Independent  Church  at  Wisbeck 
when  sixteen  yean  of  age,  at  nineteen  began  to  preach 
in  the  neighborhood,  graduated  from  Highbury  College 
in  1838,  entered  upon  his  ministry  the  same  year  at 
Kiugsland,  near  London,  and  continued  there  until  his 
death,  July  3,  1884.  Dr.  Aveling  was  for  many  yean 
the  honorable  secretary  of  the  Asylum  for  FatherlcM 
Children  at  Reedham,  travelled  in  Italy,  Egypt,  and 
Syria,  visited  America  more  than  once,  was  chairman 
of  the  Congregational  Board  in  1878,  and  in  1874  of 
the  Congregational  Union.  He  published,  Xaaman: 
—  rAs  New  Year's  Party  :-^Thfi  Irish  Scholar :-- 
Voices  on  Many  Waters : -^  Memorials  of  the  Clayton 
Family:  —  besides  addresses  and  poems,  and  for  five 
yean  edited  the  Jewish  Herald,  6ee  (Lond.)  Cong, 
Year-hook,  1885,  p.  176. 

Avery,  Bbsuamin ,  LL.D.,  an  English  Presbyterian, 
and  an  accomplished  scholar,  was  educated  for  tha  min- 
istry in  England  and  Holland.  He  was  chosen  assist- 
ant pastor  at  the  Bartholomew  Close  Churoh,  under 
Thomas  Freke,  afWrwards  under  John  Munckley.    He 


AYRAULT 


1048 


BAKER 


died  at  an  adranced  age,  July  28, 1764.  In  1718  he 
publiahed  a  Sermon  en  Mic,  vi,  5,  preached  on  Nor.  4 
of  that  year.  He  took  part  in  the  Dissenting  Synod 
*  at  Salter's  Hall  in  1719,  and  took  sides  with  the  non- 
subscribing  ministers.  He  was  a  warm  friend  to  re- 
ligious liberty  and  to  the  advancement  of  learning. 
He  resigned  the  ministry  in  1720,  was  chosen  secretary 
of  deputies  from  the  three  denominations  in  1782,  began 
to  practice  medicine,  was  one  of  the  physicians  of  Guy's 
Hospital,  and  one  of  the  writers  in  the  Occasional  Pa- 
per published  in  1716.  QwWHaon,  Dissenting  Churches, 
iii,  381-883. 

Ayranlt,  Walter,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
dergyman,  was  bom  at  Geneva,  N.  T.,  Nov.  28,  1882^ 
He  graduated  from  Hobart  College  in  1840,  was  or- 
dained deacon  in  1848,  and  presbyter  in  1847 ;  settled 
at  Hagerstown,  Md.,  in  1858;  at  Canandaigua,  N.  Y., 
in  1856;  at  Genesee  in  1862,  at  Oxford  in  1865,  and  in 
1875  became  chaplain  in  Hobart  College,  where  be  died, 
Oct.  19, 1882. 

Asaria,  Aaistacbs,  an  Armenian  Catholic  general- 
abbot  and  archbishop,  was  bom  at  Constantinople,  July 
18, 1782.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  went  to  Rome  to  be 
educated  there  at  the  College  of  the  Propaganda.  When 
the  French  entered  Rome,  in  1798,  he  had  to  leave  the 
city.  At  Venice  and  Trieste  he  was  kindly  received 
by  the  Mechitarists,  whom  he  joined  March  25, 1801, 
exchanging  his  name  Joseph  for  Aristaces.*  In  1802  he 
made  his  vows,  and  in  1803  he  received  holy  orders. 
The  peace  of  Pftsburg  connected  Trieste  with  the  king- 
dom of  lUyria,  and  the  new  government  persecuted  the 
Mechitarists  as  Austrian  subjects  and  confiscated  their 
property.  At  last,  in  1810,  the  congregation  was  per- 
mitted to  settle  in  Vienna  with  the  injunction  to  take 
care  entirely  of  itself.  In  1816  Azaria  was  made  varta- 
bed,  i.  e.  doctor,  by  the  general-abbot  Adeodat.  He 
then  went  to  Rome,  and  from  thence  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  labored  in  behalf  of  his  Church.  In  1821  he 
returned  home  again.  In  1822  he  went  again  to  Rome, 
was  appointed  assistant  to  Adeodat,  and  succeeded  him 
after  his  death,  in  1825,  as  general-vicar  and  superior, 
and  in  1826  as  general-abbou  In  1827  Leo  XII  ap- 
pointed him  archbishop  of  Cnsarea.  Under  his  guid- 
ance his  congregation  was  soon  in  a  flourishing  state. 
He  founded  schools  and  propagated  Armenian  literature, 
to  which  he  also  contributed.  He  died  at  Vienna,  May 
6, 1854.  See  Hnrter,  Aus  dem  Leben  des  hochw,  Herm 
Aristaces  Azaria  (Vienna,  1855);  Branner,  Wiener 
Kirchenxeitunfff  1855,  No.  91 ;  Hergenroether,  in  Wet- 
ser  u.  Welte's  KiiiAenkxiiBon,  s.  v.    (R  P.) 

Azpiloueta,  Martik,  a  canonist  of  the  16th  cen- 
tacy,  was  bom  Dec  18,  1498.  He  studied  at  Alcala 
and  Toulouse,  and  commenced  his  lectures  in  1520  at 
Cahors.  For  fourteen  years  he  lectured  at  Salamanca 
with  such  success  that  king  John  III  de  Portugal  called 
him,  in  1544,  to  the  newly  founded  university  at  Coim- 
bra,  where  he  remained  sixteen  years.  He  defended 
the  Toledan  archbishop  Bartholomeo  de  Carranga-Mi- 
randa  before  the  tribunal  of  the  inquisition  at  Vallado- 
lid,  and  afterwards  at  Rome,  in  1557,  where  he  also 
died,  June  21,  1586.  His  Consilia  et  Responsa  were 
published  (Lugd.  1594, 2  vols.) ;  his  other  works  (ibid. 
1595, 8  vols.).  See  Soberer,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  JTir- 
^lentexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

B. 

Bachmann,  Paul,  a  German  oontrorersialist,  was 
bom  at  Chemnitz  about  1466.  He  joined  the  Cister- 
cians, and  was  abbot  of  Altenzelle  from  1522  to  1585. 
In  connection  with  Cochlnus,  Emser,  Peter  Font,  and 
Angostin  von  Alveldt,he  opposed  the  Lutheran  Reforma- 
tion in  Saxony.  He  tried  to  reform  monastic  life,  but 
coold  not  prevent  many  of  his  oo-religionists  from  go- 
ing over  to  the  Church  of  the  Reformation.  He  wrote 
against  Lather,  but  was  answered  in  a  satire,  written 


after  the  manner  of  the  M^oL  Obtanr.  Fuvmsi,  en- 
titled Mars  et  SqmUura  Doetrinm  Lutheranm,  reprinted 
in  Strobd,  Opuseula  Qwndam  Sadrioa  el  Lsdhra  Tem^- 
pore  Brform.  Scripta  (1784),  Ease.  i,49  sq.  See  Streber, 
in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  j:tr«Aai/b;aoii,s.v.    ^P.) 

Backus,  John  Chester,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  bom  at  Wetherifield,  Coon.,  Sept.  S, 
1810.  He  studied  at  Albany  Academy,  spent  two  yetn 
at  Columbia  College,  and  graduated  from  Tale  College 
in  1880;  studied  law  one  year,  and  theology  one  yetr 
at  New  Haven,  joining  the  Congregational  Cbnrch  there 
in  the  meantime ;  spent  part  of  a  year  at  Andovcr  The- 
ological Seminary;  graduated  from  Princeton  Theofog- 
ical  Seminary  in  1835 ;  was  licensed  to  preseh  the  isme 
year,  and  ordained  the  next,  serving  meanwhile  as  as- 
sistant secretary  of  the  fioard  of  Domestic  Miasiuns. 
On  Sept  16, 1886,  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Pks- 
byterian  Church  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  remained  there 
until  his  death,  April  9, 1884,  having  been  pastor  emer- 
itus from  October,  1875.  His  talents  were  of  a  high 
order,  and  few  had  greater  influence  in  the  Church. 
See  Necrol  Report  qf  Princeton  Theol.  Sem,  1885,  p.  21. 

Bacon  (de  Baccone,  or  Bachone),  FxAMasoo^ 
a  Spanish  theologian,  was  bom  at  6erona,or  at  PcraU- 
da,  in  Catatonia.  He  joined  the  Carmelites  of  his  na- 
tive country,  studied  at  Paris,  where  he  also  ketuTed 
on  theology.  He  is  known  by  the  name  of  doctor 
subUmis,  He  also  became  provincial  of  his  order  ia 
Catalonia,  and  died  at  the  monastery  of  Camprodon, 
Aug.  8, 1372.  He  wrote,  CommentaAus  super  SesioL 
/,  ^i^Repertorium  Prmdieantuinu  See  Scbmidt,  in 
Wetzer  u.  Welte*s  Kirchenlexikon,  a.  v.    (&  P.) 

Baird,  Georgia,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman,  was  born 
at  Inveravon  in  1762;  licensed  to  preach  in  1786;  pre- 
sented to  the  living  of  Dunkeld  in  1787,  and  took  his 
K.A.  degree  the  same  year;  was  transferred  to  the 
New  Greyfriar's  Church,  £4inbttrgh,  in  1792;  tnns- 
ferred  to  the  New  North  Church  in  1798;  held  in  con- 
junction the  prindpalship  of  the  aniversity  ia  1799; 
was  transferred  to  the  High  Church  in  1801,  end  died 
Jan.  14, 1840.  At  his  suggestion  the  General  Aaata- 
bly,  in  1824,  formed  a  committee  for  extending  educa- 
tion and  religious  instruction,  espedally  in  the  High- 
lands and  islands  of  Scotland.  He  devoted  much  tioie 
and  money  to  this  work,  and  travelled  seven  thousand 
miles  in  furtherance  of  the  benevolent  scheme.  See 
Fasti  Eccks,  Scoticana,  i,  80, 69, 71 ;  ii,  785, 786. 

Baker,  Sir  Henry  Williama,  an  Englii^  cler- 
gyman and  poet,  was  bom  in  London,  May  21, 1821, 
being  the  son  of  a  baronet.  He  graduated  from  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  in  1844 ;  was  ordained  deacon 
the  same  year,  presbyter  in  1846,  became  vicar  of  Monk- 
land,  Herefordshire,  in  1851,  and  died  there,  Feb.  11 
1877.  Besides  writing  some  essays,  he  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  ffpntns  Ancient  and  Modem  (Lond.  1861, 
1868, 1874),  which  contains  several  of  his  own  compo- 
sition. 

Baker,  William  Mumford,  D.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  bom  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jane  5, 
1825.  He  joined  the  Church  at  sixteen,  grsdoated 
from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1846,  and  after  stadv- 
ing  theology  with  his  father  one  year,  and  in  Prince- 
ton Seminary  another  year,  he  was  licensed  to  preseh 
in  1848;  became  stated  supply  at  Bateaville,  Axfc.,  in 
1849;  evangelist  at  LitUe  Rock  in  1850;  served  as  pas- 
tor at  Austin,  Tex.,  for  fifteen  years,  with  some  io- 
termption  during  the  war;  at'Zanesville,  O.,  fron 
1866  to  1872,  afterwards  in  Boston,  Mass^  and  finaSv 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  from  November,  1881,  to  Febmarr, 
1883.  He  died  at  South  Boston,  Haas.,  Aug.  20  o( 
the  last-named  year.  Dr.  Baker  was  well  known  hj 
his  numerous  publications,  among  which  were,  /snrfr, 
a  Chroniek  of  Secession :-^Tke  New  T^imotig :^7he 
Virginians  tn  Texas  s-^His  Majestg  Mgsdf,  H» 
last  pulpit  labors  were  in  the  Presbyterian  Cbnrch, 
South  Boston.    Although^  in  addition  to  faaa  nuoeroos 


BALLANDRE 


1049 


BATLEY 


bookfli  li«  contributed  largely  to  Jodnials  uid  maga- 
zines, he  alwajTS  made  his  literary  laborB  ineideotal  and 
subordinate  to  his  pastoral  duttesi  He  was  a  man  of 
brilliant  mind  and  untiring  energy.  See  NecroL  R^ 
port  ofPrmotUm  ThtoL  Sem,  1«84,  p.  85. 

Ballandre,  Pierre  Simon,  a  French  mystical 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Lyons,  Aug.  4, 1776;  became  a 
printer  and  proprietor  of  the  BuUe&Rf  in  that  city,  and 
died  in  Paris,  Aug.  7, 1847.  He  wrote  a  nnmber  of  re- 
ligious and  other  works,  for  which  see  Hoefer,  Nouv» 
Biog.  GeneraUj  n,  v. ;  Lichfcenberger}  Sn^fdap,  det  Sei' 
moet  Bdigieiues,  s,  v. 

Bftmbridge,  Giiristopher.    See  Baiubiiidgb. 

Banniiter,  Hexry,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minuter  and  edacator,  was  bom  at  Conway,  Mass.,  Oct. 
5, 1812.  He  united  with  the  Church  at  the  age  of  six- 
teen, studied  at  Cazenovia  Seminaiy,  N.  T.,  graduated 
from  Wesleyan  University,  Conn.,  in  1836,  taught  one 
year  at  Lowville,  N.  Y.,  studied  two  years  at  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary,  teaching  one  year  meanwhile  at 
Cazenovia;  in  1840  became  principal  of  Fairfield  Acad- 
emy; in  1843  of  Cazenovia  Seminary;  in  1856  profess- 
or of  exegetical  theology  at  Garret  Biblical  Institute, 
Evanston,  III,  and  died  there,  April  15, 1883.  In  1869 
he  took  a  trip  abroad.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  in  1864, 1868,  and  1872.  He  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1838,  in  1842  joined  the  Oneida 
Conference,  and  in  1857  was  transferred  to  the  Wiscon- 
sin Conference.  He  was  an  able  divine,  a  fine  scholar, 
and  an  excellent  teacher.  Besides  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  the  periodical  press,  he  prepared  the  part  on 
Isaiah  for  Wbedon*s  Conunentary,  See  Minute*  of 
Ammal  Conferences,  1883,  p.  322;  Alumni  Record  of 
We»L  Univ,  1882,  p.  10,  544. 

Baptiftm,  Heretical,  i  e.  when  administered  by 
heretica,  has  been  generally  held,  at  least  in  the  Roman 
Church,  ever  since  the  Donatist  schism,  to  be  valid; 
so  likewise  if  performed  by  women,  heathen,  or  even  in 
sport,  but  not  if  self- administered  (Smith,  Diet,  of 
Ckriit.  Antiq.  a,  v.).    See  Baptism,  Lay. 

BHr  (LaL  Berus^  i  q.  Baeher),  LuDWto,  a  Swiss  hn- 
manist  and  theologian,  was  bom  at  Basle  towards  the 
end  of  the  15th  century.  He  studied  at  his  native 
place  and  at  Paris.  Iii  the  latter  city  he  was  pro- 
oooted  to  the  doctorate  of  theology.  In  1518  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  at  his  native  place,  and 
soon  attracted  many  students.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  Reformation,  he  sided,  in  connection  with  Eras- 
mus, with  that  movement.  But  when  the  intentions 
of  the  leaders  became  more  and  more  known,  he  stood 
up  for  his  Church,  and,  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
theological  faculty,  opposed  CEoolampadius  and  PeUi- 
can.  When,  however,  in  1529  the  evangelical  par- 
ty bad  gained  the  victory  and  the  Church  of  Rome 
was  declared  to  be  abolished  at  Basle,  Bftr,  in  connec- 
tion with  Erasmus,  Glarean,  and  other  professors  and 
canons,  left  Basle  and  settled  at  Breisgau.  He  died  at 
the  last-named  place,  April  14.1554.  He  wrote,  i>e 
Chrittiana  ad  Mortem  Prtxparatume  Liber  :^PsalmO' 
rum  Expositio:-^Quastio,  an  Tempore  Peatia  Fwfere 
Liceat,  See  Herzug,  Athena  Rauricee  (Basle,  1778); 
Vischer,  Geachichte  der  Universitdt  Bcuel  von  der  GrUn-' 
dung  1460  bis  zur  Reformation  1529  (ibid.  I860) ;  FiaU, 
in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  KirchenUxikon,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Barbler,  Josu^  a  French  pervert,  was  bom  at  Die 
about  1578.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Protestant  congrega- 
tions at  Quint,  St.  Marcellin,  and  livron  (1603-1615), 
but  was  bribed  by  the  bishop  of  Valence  to  turn  Roman- 
ist, and  after  entering  the  royal  service  as  advocate  at 
Grenoble^  wrote  several  abusive  books  against  his  former 
co-religionists,  for  which  see  Lichtenberger,  Encydop. 
det  Sciences  Religieuses^  s.  v. 

Baxrowst  Comfort  E.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  at  Attleborough,  Mass.,  Dec  11, 1881.  He 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1858,  and  from 


the  Newton  Theological  Institution  in  1861 ;  was  or- 
dained Dec.  25  of  the  same  year  pastor  at  South  Dan- 
vers  (now  Peabody),  Mass.,  and  in  1865  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Church  at  Newport,  R.  I.  He  died  there, 
Dec  26, 1888.  Besides  articles  for  reviews  and  papers, 
Dr.  Barrows  published  several  sermons  and  addresses. 
See  A  /.  Biog,  Enegdop,  p.  681.    (J.  a  &) 

Barry,  John,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was  made 
administrator  of  the  diocese  of  Savannah,  and  on  Aug. 
2, 1857,  consecrated  bishop.  Florida  was  at  this  time 
made  a  vicariate,  and  the  diocese  of  Savannah  embraced 
only  Georgia.  He  labored  earnestly  and  zealously  in 
his  capacity  of  bishop,  sa  he  had  in  that  of  a  priest,  but 
his  health  was  broken  down.  Going  to  Europe  to  re- 
crait,  he  was  prostrated  in  Paris,  and  died  there,  Nov. 
19, 1859,  aged  fifty.  See  De  Coure>'  and  Shea,  HtMt,  of 
the  CathoUc  Churdkinthe  U.8.p.isS. 

Baail  of  Jkrusalkx,  a  Jacobite  patriarch  in  the 
9th  century,  is  the  author  of  Epistola  Bynodiea  de  88, 
fmagimbus  ad  ThtopkHum,  Ed,  Gr,  Lot.  CombeJisU 
Mampuhu  Origg.  Rerumgue  Constiuttinopoiitan  (Paris, 
1664),  an  epistle  addressed  to  the  emperor  Theophilus, 
on  account  of  his  severe  edict  against  the  image-wor- 
shippers. See  Miiman,  Bisf,  of  Latin  ChriMtiamty,  ii, 
868;  Peters,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  KinAadexikon^  s.  v. 
(RP.) 

Baatida,  Fbrnando,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  was  bom  at 
Salamanca  in  1572.  He  Joined  his  order  in  1588,  and 
went  to  Rome  as  procurator  of  Molina.  Here  he  de- 
fended the  doctrine  of  predestination  as  held  by  his 
order.  Having  returned  to  Spain,  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  his  order  on  account  of  some  defect  which  de- 
barred a  candidate  from  becoming  a  member,  but  which 
was  not  known  at  the  time  of  his  entrance.  Up  to  his 
death  he  was  canon  and  professor  primarius  at  the 
University  of  Valladolid.  See  Meyer,  Historia  Congrtg^ 
de  A  uxiliis ;  Schneemann,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirdten^ 
kxikon,  s.  t.     (B.  P.) 

Bathurat,  William  HiLBT,an  English  clergyman 
and  poet,  was  bom  near  Bristol,  Aug.  28,  1796.  He 
graduated  from  Christ  Choroh  College,  Oxfonl ;  waa 
ordained  in  1819;  in  1820  becamitt  rector  of  Baiwick- 
in-Elsnet,  Yorkshire,  resigned  in  1852,  and  in  1868  re- 
tired to  his  eeute  at  Sydney  Park,  Gk>ttoestershire, 
where  he  died  iml877.  Besides  An  Essay  on  Human 
Knowledge  (1827)  and  a  Translation  of  VirgiPs  Georgica 
(1849),  he  published  two  volumes  of  poems,  entitled  re* 
spectivelv  Psalms  and  Hymmsfor  Public  and  Private 
Use  (Lond.  1881, 1842)  and  Metrical  Thoughts  in  Verse 
(1849),  from  the  former  of  which  several  pieces  have 
been  quite  popular,  especially  the  hymns  beginning 
*<  Oh  for  a  faith  that  will  not  shrink,"  and  *'  Oh  for  that 
flame  of  living  fire.** 

Bayle,  Marc  AirroncB,  a  French  religious  author, 
was  bom  at  Marseilles  in  1825,  and  died  in  1877.  He 
wrote.  Vie  de  Saint  Vincent  Ferrier  (Marseilles,  1856) : 
—Viede  Saint  PhU^fpe  de  Niri  (ibid.  1859)  :~-ifa#- 
tiUon  {\Sei7}:^0raison  Funebre  du  R.  P.  Laoordaire 
{IBeiji—HonUUes  sur  lee  Evangiles  (Toumay,  1865,  2 
vols.).  He  also  translated  DoUinger's  work.  Christen* 
thum  uni  Kirehe  m  der  Zeit  der  Grundlegung^  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  publication  of  the  ConieiUer  Caik* 
oUgue  and  L^AnU  de  la  Religion,  See  Lichtenberger, 
Encyclop,  des  Sciences  Religieuses,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Bayley,  Jamrs  Ruosevrlt,  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Roman  Catholic  prelate,  was  bom  in  New  York  city, 
Aug.  23, 1814.  He  graduated  from  Washington  (now 
Trinity)  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1835,  and  studied 
theology  under  Dr.  Samuel  Jarvis  at  Middletown ;  was 
ordained  a  minister  of  the  Protesunt  Episcopal  Churoh ; 
preached  at  Harlem,  N.  Y.,  and  afterwards  at  Hagers- 
town,  Md.  He  went  to  Rome,  entered  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  in  1842,  studied  theology  in  the  Sulpitian 
Seminary  at  Paris,  and  was  raised  to  the  priesthood  in 
New  York  by  archbishop  Hughes,  March  2, 1844w  He 
was  engaged  thereafter  in  teaching  and  pastoral  duties 


BEATTY 


1050 


BE60 


in  New  York  eityi  and  in  filling  the  poiition  of  aecie- 
Ury  to  archbishop  Hnghea.  On  Oct.  80, 1868,  he  was 
consecrated  first  bishop  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  on  Oct. 
12, 1872,  he  received  the  palliam  of  the  archbishopric 
of  Baltimore.  He  took  part  in  the  three  provincial 
councils  of  New  York,  in  the  second  plenary  council  of 
Baltimore,  and  in  the  oecomenical  council  of  the  Vat* 
ioan.  He  also  visited  Rome  in  1862  for  the  canonisa- 
tion of  the  Japanese  martyrs,  and  in  1867  for  the  cen- 
tenary of  the  apostles.  In  1877  he  went  to  Europe  for 
the  Vichy  waters,  but,  receiving  no  benefit,  returned  to 
America,  and  got  as  far  as  Newark,  where  he  died,  Oct. 
8, 1877.  Archbishop  Bayley  wrote,  Sketch  of  (he  Hu- 
tory  of  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  Island  of  New  York 
(  N.  Y.  1868 ;  new  ed.  1869  ) :  —  Memoirs  of  SimoH  G, 
BruU,  First  Bishop  of  Vmcermes  (1860)  i—Pastoralsfor 
the  People,    See  (N.  Y.)  Catholic  A  Imanar,  1878,  p.  88. 

Beatty,  Gharles  GUnton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  ven- 
erable Presbyterian  minister,  was  bora  near  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  Jan.  4,  1800.  He  Joined  the  Church  there  in 
1817,  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1818, 
and  from  the  Theolegical  Seminary  at  the  same  place 
in  1822.  After  serving  as  an  evangelist  in  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  Kentucky,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  at  SteubenviUe,  O.,  in  1828. 
In  1829  he  founded  a  female  seminary  in  thst  town,  to 
which  he  devoted  his  chief  attention  thereafter  until 
1879.  In  1887  he  resigned  his  position  as  pastor,  but 
continued  to  act  as  stated  supply  in  adjacent  churches 
for  several  years  thereafter.  He  died  at  SteubenviUe, 
Oct  80, 1882.  He  possessed  rare  executive  ability,  and 
was  enabled  to  amass  a  large  fortune,  of  which  he  gave 
liberally  to  various  causes  of  benevolence.  See  NecroL 
Beport  ofPiiMceUm  Theol.  Sem.  1888)  p.  10. 

Beatty,  William  Trimble,  D.D.,  a  Presbyte- 
rian divine,  was  bora  of  Scotch  -  Irish  parentage,  in 
Fairfield  County,  O.,  June  1,  1888.  He  Joined  the 
Church  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  graduated  from  Miami 
University  in  1857,  spent  one  year  at  the  Dandle 
Seminary,  Ky.,  and  finished  his  theological  studies  at 
the  Westera  Seminary,  Alleghany  City,  Pa.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1859,  and  ordained  pastor  at  Green- 
castle  in  1861.  Two  yean  afterwards  he  became  pastor 
at  New  Branswick,  N.  J.,  and  in  1867  at  Shady  Side, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa^  where  he  continued  until  1880,  and 
then  resigned  on  account  of  ill-health.  He  died  at 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  April  10, 1882.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent preacher,  and  active  as  secretary  of  his  presbytery 
and  of  several  literary  institutions.  See  Ncvin,  Presb, 
Eneydop,  s.  v. 

Bebenbnrg,  Lupold  ton,  a  German  prelate,  who 
died  in  1863,  descended  from  a  noble  family  in  Franconia. 
He  studied  canon  law  at  Bologna.  In  the  controversy 
between  Ludwig  the  Bavarian  and  the  popes  John 
XXII,  Benedict  XH,  and  Clement  VI,  Bebenburg  sided 
with  the  emperor.  In  1888  he  was  canon  of  Mayence, 
Wttrzburg,  and  Bamberg,  and  from  1862  to  1868  bbhop 
of  the  latter  place.  He  wrote,  I>e  Zelo  RfUgionis  Anti' 
quorum  Principum  Geiimtnorum  (Basle,  1497 ;  reprinted 
in  the  BibUotheca  Patrum,  xv,  Cologne,  1622) :— TVac- 
tatus  de  Juribus  Regni  et  Imperii  Romanorum  (Stras- 
bufg,  1508,  etc.)  i—lHetamen  Bhymaiicum  Querulosum 
de  Moderrds  Cursibus  et  Defectibus  Begni  ac  Imperii 
Romani  (ed.  by  Peter,  WUrzburg,  1841,  and  by  Bohmer, 
GeschichtsqueUen  des  14.  JahrhundertSf  Stuttgart,  1848, 
497  sq.).  See  Schreiber,  Die  politischen  und  religiosen 
Ideen  unter  Ludwig  den  Bayem  (Munich,  1858) ;  Riezler, 
Vie  litterarischen  Widersdcher  der  Pdpste  tur  Zeit 
Ludwig  des  Bayem  (Leipsic,  1874) ;  Mejer,  in  Heraog's 
Real'Encyldop,  (2d.  ed),  s.  v.;  Wiumann,  in  WeUer  u. 
Welte's  Kirchenlexikon,  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Beo,  Abbby  op,  a  celebrated  French  Benedictine 
monastery,  belonging  to  the  congregation  of  St,  Maur, 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bee  and  the  Bille, 
Dine  leagues  from  Rouen,  was  founded  about  1034,  by 
8L  Herlnin,  its  first  abbot,  near  the  present  site.    It 


became  famooa  as  a  seat  of  leaning  onder  LmfisDc 
then  prior,  afterwards  archbishop,  S  Cantcrbarr,  snd 
was  eventually  exempted  from  episcopal  juriailiction, 
but  is  now  in  rains.    See  Landon,  Ecdes,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Beocarelli,  Giuseppe,  a  Miknese  spiritusliat,  s 
follower  of  Molinos  (q.  v.),  and  an  active  promoter  of 
the  education  of  youth,  was  seised  by  the  Inqmatioa 
in  1708,  and  after  recantation  in  1710,  at  Venice,  vis 
condemned  to  the  galleys. 

Beckedorfl^  Gboro  Pbiupp  Lvdolt  vos,  a  ped- 
agogue, statesman,  and  author,  of  Germany,  wsi  bom 
April  14, 1778,  at  Hanover.    At  first  he  stiidicd  thed- 
ogy  at  Jena,  and  afterwards  medicine  at  Gottingeo, 
where  be  was  also  promoted  in  1799  as  M.D.    In  1810 
he  accepted  a  call  as  tutor  of  the  electoral  prince  of 
Hesse,  and  in  1811  he  went  to  Ballenstedt  si  tutor  of 
the  prince  of  Anhalt-Bcraburg.    When,  in  1818,  the 
union  between  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Cbarch  vu 
decreed,  his  mind  was  greatly  occupied  with  qoestioni 
conccraing  the  Cliorch,  and  at  that  time  he  slresdy  re- 
garded the  Catholic  Church  as  the  historicsl  develop- 
ment of  the  Apostolic  Church.    To  this  time  belongi 
his  Zur  Kirchencerevrigung  (HaUe,  1814),  and  Brirf- 
wechsel  zwischen  twei  Geistliehen  bei  Gelegenkeit  der 
Versuche  zur  Kirchenvereiitigung  (Leipsic,  1818).   In 
1819  he  was  called  into  the  Praisian  ministry  for  wor- 
ship and  instruction,  but  his  joining  the  Church  of 
Rome,  in  1827,  resulted  in  his  discharge  from  office. 
When  Frederick  William  IV  ascended  the  throne  in 
1840,  he  did  justice  to  Beckedorff  by  appointing  him 
to  some  high  position,  on  which  occasion  he  poblisbed 
his  A  n  gottesfurchtige  protestantisehe  Christen,    Worte 
den  Friedens  vnd  der  Wiedetxersdkmtng  (WeisKUburg. 
1840).     Besides,  he  wrote.  Das  VerhSltmss  van  Bw 
und  Staat  und  Kirehe  su  einander,  etc  (Berlin,  1849): 
—Offenbarung  und  Vermtnft  (Ratiabon,  1858).    He  iho 
founded  some  charitable  institutions,  and  died  Feb.  27, 
1858,  at  Grllnhof,  in  Pbmerania.     See  Rosenthsl,  Cm- 
vertitenbilder,  i,  466-476 ;  Oarus,  Simeon  oder  HonMr 
und  Wanderungen  eines  christliehen  Forschers  (SchsfF- 
hausen,  1862),  ii,  871-4»0 ;  Zuchold,  BOtL  TheoL  i,  88; 
Binder, in  Wetzer  u. Welte's  Kirchinlexihmi%,y,  (B.P.) 

Beckmann,  Otto,  canon  and  **  professor  elo- 
quentisB"  at  Wittenberg,  was  a  friend  of  Lother  snd 
Melanchthon,  although  he  did  not  Join  them  in  the 
work  of  Reformation.  "Alitor  nescio  quid  montri," 
he  writes  to  Spalstin,  Feb.  24, 1519,  spiking  at  the 
same  time  of  the  exciting  sermon  in  which  Luther  hsd 
openly  attacked  the  power  of  the  pope  (Ujscher,  Foff- 
standige  Reform,  Acta  (Leipsic,  1729),  iii,  90  sq.  In 
1525  he  was  pastor  at  Warburg,  hu  native  place,  where 
he  wrote  his  Precatio  Domimoa  coidra  Intpios  et  Sedi' 
tiosos  Lutheranorum  Errores  (Cologne,  1528)  ^-Con- 
men/,  super  Orationem  Dominieam  et  SymboUm  Apoitc- 
lorum  (ibid.  eod.).  In  the  year  1528  he  held  an  open 
colloquy  with  a  certain  Hecker,  at  Miinster,  defending 
the  primacy  of  the.  pope.  He  died  prorost  of  S(. 
iEgidius,  at'  Bf  Unster.  See  Driver,  BibL  Uonast,  p.  6; 
Hamelmann,  0pp.  GeneaL  Hist,  (Leroogov,  1711),  p.  388, 
1180, 1191, 1422;  Panzer,  Annales  Tgpogr,  vi,  892;  is, 
68;  Streber,  in  Wetser  o.  Welte's  KirchenlexUbon,  a  r. 
(B.P.) 

Begg,  James,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clerg3*roan  (son  <tf  Dr. 
Bcgg,  of  Monkland),  graduated  fn>ro  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity; was  licensed  to  preach  in  1829;  appointed  aaast- 
ant  minister  at  North  Leith  in  1830;  elected  minister 
of  lady  Glenoreby*s  Chapel,  Edinburgh,  in  1881;  pro- 
moted to  Paisley  the  same  year;  joined  the  Free  Se- 
cession in  1848;  was  elected  moderator  of  the  Free 
General  Assembly  in  Msy,  1865,  and  died  Sept.  29,1883, 
aged  seventy -four  years.  Dr.  Begg  was  one  of  (he 
foremost  men  in  the  Free  (%urch  of  Scotland  since  the 
death  of  Dr.  Chalmers.  Among  many  other  smslkf 
works,  he  published,  A  re  You  Prepared  to  Die  t  (1845): 
— How  to  Promote  and  Preserve  the  Beatttj^  qf  Edi^ 
burgh  (1849) :— i'oipcrum  and  the  Poor  l^aws  (eod.): 


BEGUNDELLI 


1061 


BENNIE 


National  Education  for  Scotland  Practicallif  Contidertd 
(1850)  '.—Reform  in  the  Free  Church  (eod.)  :—8coiland'$ 
Demands  for  Electoral  JuMtioe  (1857) : — A  Hamdrbook 
of  Popery  (1863) :  —  The  Art  of  Preaching  (eod.)  :— 
Account  of  the  Parish^  etc.  See  Fasti  Ecdet,  Scotica- 
aof,  1,81,117,606. 

BegtmdolU,  Basso  Antonio,  a  canonist  of  the 
17th  centaiy,  who  died  Oct.  9,  1718,  general  vicar  at 
Freisiug,  is  the  author  of  Bibliotheca  Juris  Canomco' 
Civili*  Practica,  See  Hurter,  Nomenclator  Literanue, 
ii,  857;  Historisch'poUiische  Blatter^  Ixxii,  585  sq. ; 
Krentzwald,  in  Wetter  u.  Welte's  Kirchenlexihon^  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

BelfoBt  Society  is  noted  in  the  history  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland  for  its  having  intensely 
agitated  the  Church  for  many  years  upon  the  question 
of  subscription  to  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith. 
It  had  its  origin  with  Rev.  John  Abernethy,  jr.,  who 
became  minister  at  Antrim  in  1703.  He  was  a  diligent 
student,  and  soon  drew  around  him  as  associates  Rev. 
William  Taylor,  of  Randalstown,Rev.  Alexander  Brown, 
of  Donegore,  and  Rev.  James  Kirkpatrick,  of  Temple- 
patrick — all  young  men  of  losuch  promise.  They  were 
soon  joined  by  Rev.  Thomas  Orr,  of  Comber,  Rev.  Alex- 
ander Colvillc,  of  Dromore,  licentiates  and  theologies! 
students,  and  a  few  laymen  of  Belfast.  The  object  of 
the  organization  was  tlieological  improvement.  They 
first  gave  their  organization  the  name  of  Belfast  Society 
in  1705.  "At  their  meetings,  generally  held  monthly, 
each  member  preached  in  succession ;  chapters  out  of 
the  Old  and  New  Tests.,  previously  agreed  upon,  were 
read  in  the  original  languages,  and  their  difficulties 
discussed ;  reviews  and  analyses  of  books  read  by  the 
members  since  the  previous  meeting  were  given ;  and 
dinertations  were  read  on  important  theological  topics, 
specially  on  those  questions  which  were  then  attracting 
the  attention  of  divines  elsewhere,  and  becoming  the 
subjects  of  controvemy.*'  Their  sermons  treated  of 
'*the  nature  and  Scriptural  terms  of  the  unity  of  the 
Christian  Church,  the  nature  and  mischief  of  schism, 
the  rights  of  conscience  and  of  private  judgment,  the 
sole  dominion  of  Christ  in  his  own  kingdom,  the  nature, 
power,  and  effects  of  excommunication,  and  other  sub- 
jects of  that  kind."  Through  Mr.  Abernethy  the  lati- 
tudinarian  notions  on  the  inferiority  of  dogmatic  belief 
and  the  nature  of  religious  liberty,  which  had  obtained 
currency  on  the  Continent  and  in  England,  were  intro- 
duced into  the  Belfast  Society,  and  thus  into  Ireland. 
This  society  held  and  diligently  promulgated  their 
ideas,  principal  of  which  are  the  following :  error  is  in- 
nocent when  not  wilful;  that  every  man's  persuasion 
of  what  is  true  and  right  is  the  sole  rule  of  his  faith 
and  conduct ;  *'  that  the  Church  has  no  right  to  require 
candidates  for  the  ministry  to  subscribe  to  a  confession 
of  faith  prepared  by  any  man  or  body  of  men,  and  that 
auch  a  required  subscription  is  a  violation  of  the  right 
of  private  judgment,  and  inconsistent  with  Christian  lib- 
erty and  true  Protestantism."  There  is  much  evidence 
which  leads  one  to  believe  that  this  society  was  guilty 
of  the  heresy  of  Ariauisro ;  such  was  the  prevalent  im- 
pression at  that  time.  Such  views,  held  by  some  of 
the  most  learned  of  the  Church,  soon  caused  widespread 
alarm.  The  question  of  subscription  became  the  topic 
of  the  day.  l^e' controversy  was  taken  to  the  press, 
and  over  fifty  pamphlets  were  published  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  society  and  t.heir  opponents.  In  1721  the 
General  Synod  met  at  Belfast,  when  the  orthodox  Cal- 
vinists  attempted  to  enforce  subscription.  A  law  to  that 
effect  was  passed  by  the  synod,  to  which  all  conformed 
except  the  members  of  the  Belfast  Society ;  after  which 
time  the  Belfast  Society  was  principally  known  by  the 
appellation  of  non- subscribers.  The  synod,  however, 
did  not  now  expel,  but  passed  pacific  resolutions.  The 
controversy  still  continued  with  unabated  fur}*.  The 
non  -  subscribers  formed  a  presbytery  (the  Presbytery 
of  Antrim).    The  subscribers  refused  communiou  with 


the  non-subscribers.  Finally,  in  1726,  the  synod  ex- 
pelled the  non-subscribers,  some  of  whom  established 
independent  chutches,  others  lost  their  following,  and 
ceased  from  the  ministry,  thus  a  most  unfortunate 
quarrel  was  settled,  and  the  Belfast  Society  passed  out 
of  existence.  In  August,  1727,  the  Belfast  ScK^iety  pub- 
lished a  very  valuable  work ;  though  partial  and  one- 
sided, it  contains  an  elaborate  defence  of  their  peculiar 
views.  It  contains  coropilatious  from  original  docu- 
uments,  and  reports  of  the  synod's  debates,  which  are 
nowhere  else  preserved:  A  Narrati§e  of  the  Proceed' 
ing$  of  Seven  General  Synods  of  the  Northern  Presby' 
teiians  in  Ireland^  with  Relation  to  their  Differences  in 
Judgment  and  Practice,  from  the  Year  1720  to  1726,  mi 
irA»c&  they  Issued  in  a  Synodical  Dreach,  See  Reid, 
Hist,  of  the  Presb.  Church  in  Ireland, 

Bell,  Gteorge,  a  Calvinistic  Methodist,  who  was  the 
first  of  John  Wesley's  followers  to  make  a  division  in 
the  Methodist  societies,  was  a  local  preacher  in  South- 
wark,  a  man  of  heated  imagination,  who  said  he  pos- 
sessed a  miraculous  discernment  of  spirits.  His  doctri- 
nal sentiments  were  high  Antinomianism,  mixed  with 
enthusiasm.  He  first  separated  from  the  Foundery  So- 
ciety, with  the  Rev.  Thomas  Maxfield,  in  February, 
1763,  and  was  a  member  of  his  church  in  Princes  Street, 
Moorfields,but  soon  afterwards  set  upas  preacher  himself, 
and  took  one  of  Mr.  Wesley's  preaching  places,  sittuited 
in  Baker's  Court,  near  Gray's  Inn  Lane,  London.  There 
he  had  many  followers,  and  preached  there  many  years. 
Bell's  fanaticism  obliged  Mr.  Wesley  to  expel  him  from 
the  Foundery  Society.  He  afterwards  prophesied  the 
destruction  of  the  world  on  a  certain  day,  against  which 
Mr.  Wesley  preached,  as  great  fear  was  created  by  the 
prophecy.  The  failure  did  not  disconcert  Bell,  who  con- 
tinued his  wild  enthusiasm.  See  Wilson,  Dissenting 
Churches,  iii,  418-419. 

Bell,  L.  G.|  a  piiineer  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Augusta  County,  Va.,  in  1788.  He  served  in 
the  wnr  of  1812,  and  entered  the  ministry  in  1827  in 
TenncMttee,  but  afterwards  devoteil  himself  to  mission- 
ary Work  in  the  West,  especially  in  Iowa,  ivhere  he  raised 
up  numerous  churches.  He  died  May  20, 1868.  See 
Nevin,  Pre^terian  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Benkert;  Frahz  Gboro,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Nordheim,  Sept.  25, 
1790,  studied  at  WUrzburg,  and  received  holy  orders  in 
1816.  In  1828  he  took  the  degree  as  doctor  of  theology 
by  presenting  his  dissertation,  De  DupUci  Missa  Cate^ 
chumenorum  et  Fiddium,  In  1882  he  was  appointed 
regent  of  the  clerical  seminary,  and  in  1838  succeeded 
the  famous  Mohler  as  cathedral  -  dean  of  WUnburg. 
He  died  May  20, 1859.  In  1822  he  commenced  the 
publication  of  the  Religionsfreund,  a  periodical  for  sys- 
tematic theology,  literature,  and  contemporaneous  his- 
tory. For  practical  theology  he  founded  Athanasia  in 
1827.  In  1840  he  resigned  his  connection  with  these 
two  periodicals  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  the  history 
of  Franoonia,  and  published  as  the  result  of  his  studies 
several  interesting  treatises  in  the  A  rchiv  des  historic 
schen  Vereins  von  Urdetfranken,  See  Srnmminger,  in 
Wetxer  u.  Welte's  Kirchenlexikon,  s.  v.     (U.  P.) 

Bennie,  Archibald,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clergyman, 
was  born  Nov.  1, 1797.  He  graduated  from  the  Glas- 
gow University,  where  he  obtained  three  prizes;  mUs 
licensed  to  preach  in  1820,  and  appointe<l  SMistant  and 
successor  at  the  Free  Chfl|>el  of  Eafle,  Gla.«gr>w,  in  1823 ; 
promoted  to  the  third  charge  at  Stirling  in  1824;  pre- 
Hented  to  the  living  at  Lady  Vester's  Chapel,  E<Hn- 
burgh,in  1835;  appointed  a  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the 
queen  of  England  and  a  dean  of  the  Chspel  Royal  in 
1841,  and  died  at  Dunoon,  Sept.  21,  1846.  He'  pub- 
lished five  sermons  from  1825  to  1839: — A  Letter  to 
Pattich  Arldey,  Advocate,  KfUnburgh  (1846)  :  —  />«- 
courses,  with  a  Memoir  (1847) ;  and  he  edited,  fur  two 
years  (1836-87),  The  Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor, 
See  Fasti  EccUs.  Scoticanof,  i,  64 ;  ii,  84« 


BENTIVOGLIO 


10fi2 


BILLICE 


BentiTOgUOi  CoiiinELiOy  an  Italiin  prelate,  was 
bora  at  Ferram  in  1668.  Pope  Clement  XI  made  him 
chaplain,  afterwards  dtolar  archbishop  of  Carthage,  and 
legate  at  the  French  court.  His  zeal  against  the  Jan- 
seuists  gained  for  him  the  favor  of  Louis  XIV,  but  when 
the  latter  died  he  was  recalled.  In  1719  he  was  made 
cardinal,  and  in  1720  legaitu  a  latert  for  Ravenna  and 
the  Romagna.  Under  Benedict  XIII  he  was  appointed 
by  the  king  of  Spain,  in  1726,  as  his  representative 
at  the  papal  curia.  He  died  in  1782.  See  Kanlen,  in 
Wetzer  u.  Welte'a  Kirckenkxihm,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Bereaford,  Marcus  Gkbvais,  D.D.,  an  Irish  Prot- 
estant prelate,  was  bora  in  1801.  He  wss  educated  at 
Richmond  School,  Yorkshire,  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  was  made  bachelor  of  arts  in  1824 ; 
appointed  rector  of  Kildallen  in  1825,  aUterwards  vicar 
of  Drang  and  Lara,  also  vicar-general  of  Kilroore,  and 
archdeacon  of  Armagh.  In  1854  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Kilroore,  Elpin,  and  Ardagh,  and  in  1868 
transUted  to  the  see  of  Armagh,  and  made  primate  of 
Ireland.    He  died  Dec.  26, 1885. 

Bernard'  db  BoTOMa     See  Behnard  of  Bo- 

LOGSIA  (1). 

Bernard  of  Cokstamce,  who  died  March  15, 1088, 
was  teacher  at  the  cathedralHKhool  of  Constance.  He 
wrote  De  DammUume  SckitnuUioorutn,  See  Ussermann, 
Prodrom,  ii,  188  sq. ;  Giesebrechr,  Gttchickte  der  denttehen 
KaiterzeU  (4th  ed.),  iii,  1084  sq.;  Lutolf,  in  Wetzer  u. 
Weltea  Kirchetdexikont  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

Bernard  of  Pa  via,  a  canonist,  and  bishop  of  Pavta 
about  1198,  is  the  author  of  Breviarium  Extravagant 
tiumf  L  e.  Decretorum  ei  Cammum  Extra  Deerttorum 
Corpui  Vagantittm.    (B,  P.) 

Bernard  of  Pomerakia  was  a  Spanish  monk, 
whom  pope  Paschal  II  had  appointed  bishop  of  that 
country.  In  1122  he  undertook,  accompanied  by  his 
chaplsin  aud  an  interpreter,  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the 
Pomeranians.  But  the  Pomeranians  would  not  recog- 
nise him  because  he  was  dressed  like  a  hermit.  When, 
however,  Bernard  was  about  to  cut  down  the  jul-tiee, 
the  tutelar  deity  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Ju- 
lin,  the  Pomeranians  drove  him  out  of  their  cenntry. 
In  company  with  his  chaplain  and  interpreter,  Ber- 
nard retired  to  Bamberg  and  induced  bishop  Otto  to 
undertake  the  conversion  of  the  Pomeranians,  but  in  a 
more  pompous  manner.  See  Andress,  A  bbat  JS,  Micktsl 
prope  Bamberg^  VUa  S,  OiUmit,  Epitc.  Bamberg,  in 
Ludwig,  Scriptor,  Rerum  Epuc  BawJberg^  i,  464 ;  Alzog, 
ID  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  KiPcheuUxihon^  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

Bernard  of  Waoisio,  a  Benedictine,  was  bora 
about  1400,  studied  at  Salzburg  and  Vienna,  and  Joined 
the  Benedictines  at  Tegerasee  in  1446.  On  account 
of  his  piety  and  learning  he  was  appointed  prior  of  the 
convent  at  Tegerasee;  hence  he  is  generally  called 
prior  Tegemseentit,  He  now  labored  for  the  bene- 
fit of  his  monastery,  and  for  his  clergy  he  wrote.  Con- 
fiinonaU :  —  Speculum  Mortis :  —  ConBolatorium  Tru 
bulaiorum: — Remediarius  PusUUndmium: — De  Cogno- 
mxndo  Deum  :—De  Sentimeniis  SpiritucdibuM,  etc.  For 
the  monks  at  Wibllngen  he  wrote,  in  1456,  Contra  Esum 
Camium ;  for  those  at  St.  Ulrich,  in  Augsburg,  De  Ma- 
teria Eucharistica  and  Contra  Vitium  Propriet,  In 
1461  he  assisted  bishop  John  of  Aich  in  the  reformation 
of  the  Pergen  monastery,  and  prepared  for  the  deigy, 
Presparatn  ad  Miuam;  Formula  Commumt;  and  SpecU' 
lum  Pastorum,  With  the  cardinal  Nicolaus  of  Cusa, 
with  whom  he  was  intimately  connected,  he  also  assisted 
in  reforming  the  monasteries  at  Georgenberg  and  Son- 
nenburg  in  1564,  and  whose  work,  De  Docta  fgnoraniiat 
he  defended  against  the  attacks  of  the  Csrthusian  prior, 
Vincent  of  Axbach.  He  died  Aug.  2,  1472.  See  Pes, 
Bibl,  Aecet^  torn,  vii,  pnef.  n.  10;  BraunmuUer,  in  Wet- 
zer u.  Welte's  KirckenUxikon,  s.  v.     (a  P.) 

Beyer,  Harthanit,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  Ger- 
many, was  bora  at  Fnnkfort-on-the-Main,  Sept.  80, 


1516.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg  under  Luther  sod 
Mdanchthon.  In  1545  he  wu  called  to  his  nstire 
place  as  preacher.  At  that  time  Calvinism  fiooiished 
at  Frankfort,  and  yet  Beyer  at  last  succeeded  in  foand- 
ittg  a  Lutheran  Church  in  1551.  Kot  only  sgsiint 
the  Calvinists,  but  also  against  the  Romsn  GsthoUo, 
Beyer  showed  his  dislike.  His  sermoos}  compriang 
forty-nine  volumes,  are  still  preserved  in  the  dty  Ubn- 
ry  at  Frankfort.  He  died  Aug.  11, 1577.  See  Stekn, 
'uineztofgBReaJlrEncgHop,%,Y.    (a  P.) 

Bialobrsaaki,  MARmr,  bishop  of  Ksmiemec,  vis 
bora  in  1522,  and  died  in  1586  at  his  episcopal  wtt, 
which  he  had  occupied  since  1577.  He  was  one  of  tbe 
most  talented  pulpit  oratora  and  writers  of  Polsnd. 
The  rights  of  his  Church  he  defended  eveiywhere, 
especially  against  heretics.  Thns  he  opposed,  in  be- 
half of  his  chapter,  at  the  Diet  of  Proszowice,  the  coo- 
federation  of  1575  de  pace  inter  distidenfes  in  rtUgiom 
tenenda,  and  pointed  out  its  danger  for  Church  and 
State.  Against  *'  the  errors  of  his  time  "  be  wrote  a 
catechism  (Cracow,  1567).  He  also  wrote  against  lU 
Socinians  Orthodoxa  Con/esiio  de  Una  Deo  (ibid.  1579), 
and  likewise  published  Pottitta  Orthodoxa  (ibid.  1^1, 
1888).  See  Hotowinski,  Homiletyht,  p.  395  sq.;  U- 
towski,  Katalog  Biskupthe,  etc,  ii,  28 ;  MechcRrnski, 
nitf,  Wgmowg,  p.  82;  Kowodworski,  EncyUop.  Koicid' 
na,  s. V. ;  Ludtke,  in  Wetcer  u.  Welters  Kitckekleribm^ 
S.V.     (a  P.) 

BlokezBtetll,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  English  pieUtCi 
was  bora  at  Acton,  Suffolk,  Aug.  24, 1816.  He  gisdo- 
ated  from  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1841 ;  became 
curate  of  Sapoote  the  same  year;  of  St.  Giles's, Read- 
ing, in  1848 ;  at  the  parish  church  of  Clapham  in  1845; 
incumbent  of  St.  John's,  in  the  same  place,  the  ssme 
year;  rector  of  St.  Gik»-in-the-Field8  in  1851,  csnoo 
residentiary  of  Salisbury  in  1854,  and  bishop  of  Ripoo 
in  1856,  in  which  office  he  died,  April  15, 1884.  He 
published,  Bible  Landmarks  ( 1850  ) :— JLeaC  leattm 
(1851),  besides  sermons  and  charges. 

Blgelow,  Andrew,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  sftin- 
ister,  was  bora  at  Boylston,  Mass.,  Dec  18, 1809.  He 
graduated  from  Amhent  College  in  1888;  studied  the- 
ology with  his  half-brother.  Rev.  Jonathan  Bigck»w,of 
Rochester;  was  ocdained  pastor  at  South  Dartnoath, 
Mass.,  in  1841;  in  1847  became  pastor  at  West  Kecd- 
ham  (now  Wellesley);  in  1858  at  WesthaBpua;  in 
1855  at  Medfield ;  in  1866  acting-paator  at  Bojrlatoo;  in 
1874  at  Southboro';  after  1876  he  was  mthout  chsrge, 
and  died  Sept. 28, 1882:   Se^Cong,Year-book,19»%ip,l9, 

Bigelow,  John  F.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  wss 
bora  at  Paxton,  Mass.,  April  25, 1818.  He  studied  two 
yeara  at  Brown  University, and  graduated  from  Colnmbis 
College,  N.  Y. ;  studied  theok>^  first  in  New  Tork,  sod 
completed  his  education  in  Berlin,  Germany.  Soon 
after  his  retura  he  became  pastor  at  Bristol,  R.L;  sol^ 
sequently  at  Middleborough,  Mass.;  Keesville,  N.  Y.; 
and  established  a  church  at  St.  Albans,  Yt.  In  1872  be 
became  associated  with  his  brother  in  conducting  the 
Athenaum  Seminary,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He  died  Jane 
20, 1884.  Dr.  Bigelow  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  snd  i 
man  of  scholarlv  attainments.  See  The  Ckristiaa  ai 
irori^  June  26, 1884.     (J.a&) 

BilUok,  Ebkiuiard,  one  of  the  most  famous  Romsn 
Catholic  theologians  of  the  16th  century,  was  bora  st 
Bilk,  near  DUsseldorf,  and  died  in  the  year  1 557.  He  be- 
longed to  the  Carmelite  order,  and  was  pmfcssor  st 
Cologne.  When  it  was  intended  to  caU  Butier  to 
Cologne,  he  opposed  this  movement  by  publishini;  his 
Judicium  Deputatorum  Unitersiiatis  tt  Secnndnrii  Cten 
Coloniensis  (1548).  In  1545  he  published  another  po- 
lemical work  against  Protestantism,  which  was  props- 
gated  at  Cologne,  under  the  title,  Judieii  Unitersitatit 
et  Cleri  Coloniensis  Adversus  Calunmias  Pkil^  Me- 
lanchikonist  Martini  Bueerij  etc.  In  1546  be  was  present 
at  the  Ratlsbon  oclk)quy.  Pope  Paul  IT  honored  him 
with  the  title  of  bishop  of  (/Vrene.    See  Hartsheim, 


BIRD 


10:^8 


BOSCO 


JStbL  CoL  p.  174  sq. ;  Hagen,  GttehiekU  A  aeken$,  ii,  189; 
Ennen,  Geschichie  der  Siadt  Koln^  ir,  1875;  Varrentimpp, 
Hermann  von  Wied  (Leipsic,  1878);  FasCor,  io  Watzer 
u.  Welte'8  Kirchenlexikon^  s,  v.     (B.  P.) 

Bird,  Milton,  D.D.,  a  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
fDitiister,  waa  bom  Oct  23, 1807,  in  Barren  County,  Ky. 
In  1830  he  was  ordained  an  evangelist,  and  the  next  year 
visited  Western  Pennsylvania  as  a  natssionaiy;  for  some 
time  was  pastor  of  the  Waynesborg  congregation,  and 
fur  several  years  at  Pleasant  Hill,  Washington  Co.  In 
1840.  he  became  professor  of  moral  and  intellectual 
philosophy  and  natural  theology  in  Madison  College, 
but  resigned  in  1842.  Meanwhile  he  assumed  control 
of  the  Union  EvangdisL  For  a  time  be  also  served  as 
pastor  at  Uniontown,  where  he  began,  in  1845,  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Theoiogieal  Medium,  afterwards  the  Jlfe> 
dium  and  Quarter^.  Bendes  he  preached  extensively 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  his  influence  became  very  great. 
In  1847  he  removed  to  Jeffersonville,  Ind.,  and  while 
residing  there  took  chaige  of  the  Book  Concern  in 
Louisville,  where,  in  July,  1850,  he  commenced  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Wat^man  and  EvangditU  In  1855  he 
became  pastor  at  Princeton,  Ky.  For  some  time,  also, 
he  was  nominally  president  of  the  old  Cumberland  Col- 
lege. In  1858  he  became  editor  of  the  8t,  Louis  Obaerver, 
When  the  Civil  War  began  he  removed  to  Jeffersonville, 
Ind.  He  was  several  times  moderator  of  the  General 
Assembly.  In  1864  he  returned  as  pastor  to  Caldwell 
County,  Ky.  He  died  July  26,  1871.  He  published 
Doctrines  of  Grace  (1856).  'See  Dr.  Beard*s  Biograph- 
ical SkUckee,  2d  series,  p.  839. 

Blake,  Mortimcs,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Pittston,  Me.,  Jan.  10, 1813.  He  graduated 
from  Amherst  College  in  1835 ;  was  principal  of  Frank- 
lin Academy,  Mass.,  for  three  years,  while  studying  the- 
ology with  Rev.  Elam  Smally,  D.l}, ;  taught  in  Hopkins 
Academy,  Hadley,  one  year ;  was  ordained  pastor  at 
Mansfield  in  1839;  installed  over  Winslow  Church, 
Taunton,  in  1855,  and  died  there,  Dec  22,  1884.  He 
published  several  sermons  and  addresses.  See  Cong, 
Year-book,  1886,  p.  20. 

Blakeney,  Richard  Paul,  D.P.,  LL.D.,  an  Angli- 
can divine,  was  born  at  Roscommon,  Ireland,  June  2, 
1820.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
taking  a  first-class  place  in  theology  in  1843 ;  became 
curate  of  Sl  Paul's,  Nottingham,  the  same  year;  vicar 
at  Ison- Green,  Nottinghamshire,  in  1844;  at  Christ 
Church,  Claughton,  Birkenhead,  in  1852;  at  Bridling- 
ton, Yorkshire,  in  1874 ;  canon  of  Fenton,  in  York  Ca- 
thedral, in  1882 ;  and  died  Jan.  1,  1886.  He  wrote 
largely  on  the  Catholic  controversy,  and  was  the  author 
of,  Manual  of  the  Romith  Controversy  (1851  and  often) : 
— Bist,  and  Interpretation  of  Common  Prayer  (1865  and 
since) :— besides  two  very  popular  Catechismtt 

Blakealey,  Joseph  William,  an  English  divine, 
was  bom  in  London  in  1808.  He  graduated  in  1831  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  afterwards 
fellow  and  tutor;  in  1845  became  vicsr  of  Ware;  in  1863 
canon  in  Canterbury  Cathedral;  in  1872  dean  of  Lincoln; 
and  died  April  18, 1885.  Besides  several  ecclesiastical 
honorary  positions,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Bible  Re- 
vision Committee,  and  author  of,  A  Life  of  A  ristotle 
(1839):~-//ero<ibfi»,inthe  Bibliotheca  Claseica  (1854): 
— Four  Months  in  A  Igeria  (1859),  and  other  works. 

Blanohard,  Amo%  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Massachusetts  in  1807.  He  graduated 
from  Yale  College  in  1826,  studied  theology  for  one 
year  in  Andover  Seminary,'  and  was  ordained  Dec.  25, 
1829.  He  was  tntor  in  Yale  College  in  1828  and  1829, 
studying  in  the  theological  department  there  at  the 
same  time.  He  became  pastor  of  the  First  Church, 
Lowell,  Mass.,  in  1829;  of  Kirk  Street  Church,  in  the 
same  dty,  in  1845,  and  died  there,  Jan.  14, 1870.  See 
Trien.  Cat,  of  Andover  Tkeol  Sem,  1870,  p.  85. 

Blanokart,  Nikolaus,  a  Carmelite,  was  a  native 
of  Utrecht,  and  joined  his  order  at  Cologne.    In  1546 


he  held  a  public  disputation  on  the  doctrine  of  purga- 
tory, and  was  made  licentiate  of  theology;  in  1551  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  and  dean  of  the 
theological  faculty  at  Cologne.  In  the  same  year  he 
also  went  to  Trent  to  attend  the  council  there.  He 
died  in  1555  at  Cologne.  He  wrote  against  Calvin, 
Judicium  Johannis  Calvini  de  Sanctorum  Beliquiis  Col- 
latum  cum  Ortkodoxorum  S,  EccUsia  Catholica  Patrum 
Senlentioy  etc.  (Cologne,  1551).  He  also  prepared  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  in  Low  €rennan,  which  was 
published  in  1548.  See  Streber,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welters 
Kirchenlexihon,  s.  v.     (B.  P.) 

Blarer  (ron  Wartensee),  Jacob  Crristopb,  a 
Swiss  prelate,  was  bom  May  11, 1542.  He  studied  at 
Freiburg,  in  Breisgau,  and  was  in  1575  elected  prince- 
bishop  of  Basle.  When  Blarer  entered  upon  his  duties, 
he  found  that  Protestantism  had  greatly  advanced  in 
his  diocese.  But  by  his  perseverance  and  energy  he 
at  last  succeeded  in  restoring  the  bishopric  of  Basle. 
He  died  April  18, 1608.  See  Vautrey,  Jacquts-Chris- 
tophe  Blarer  de  Wartensee,  in  the  Revue  de  la  Suisse 
Catholique,  x,  6&>82 ;  Burckhardt,  Die  Gegmreforma" 
tion  in  den  ehemaligen  Vogteien  Zwingen^  Tffffingen  und 
Birsech  des  Bisthums  Basel  (Basle,  1855) ;  Vautrey, 
f/istoire  du  CoUsge  de  Porrentruy  (Porrentray,  1866) ; 
Fiala,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchenlezikon,  s.  v.    (a  P.) 

B&ckhn,  Placidus,  a  German  Benedictine,  was 
bom  in  1690  at  Munich,  joined  his  order  in  1706,  and 
took  holy  orders  in  1713.  Having  received,  in  1715, 
the  degree  of  doctor  utriusque  juris,  he  went  to 
Rome.  In  1721  he  returned,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law  at  Salzburg.  In  1783  he  took  the 
chair  of  Biblical  exegesis.  He  died  Feb.  9, 1752.  His 
main  work  is  Commentarius  in  Jus  Canonicum  Univer- 
sum  (Paris,  1776).  See  Seilelmayer,  Bist,  Univ,  Salis- 
burg,  p.  405;  Ziegdbauer,  Hist,  Bei  Lift,  0,  S,  B.  iii, 
484,  485;  Mittermtlller,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchm- 
lexikott,  s.  V.     (B.  P.) 

Bdhm,  JoHAim,  a  German  religious  fanatic,  known 
under  the  name  **  der  Pauker  von  Niklashausen,"  came 
before  the  public  in  the  name  of  the  mother  of  God,  at 
whose  direction  he  commenced  preaching.  He  was  es- 
pecially severe  against  the  clerg}',  whom  he  charged 
with  avarice  and  other  vices.  The  people,  poor  as  well 
as  rich,  flocked  from  all  parts,  till  at  last  bishop  Rudolf 
of  Wllrzburg  made  him  a  prisoner,  and  ordered  him  to 
be  burned,  July  19, 1476.  See  A  rchiv  des  hisiorisehen 
Vereins  von  Unterfranken  und  Aschaffenburg  (Wtirz- 
bnrg,  1858),  xiv.  No.  8, 1-108;  liliencron,  Hisior,  Volk- 
slieder,  ii.  No.  148;  Ludewig,  Gesehichtsschr,  von  dem 
Bischofthum  Wurzburg^  p.  852-855;  Langhorst,  in 
Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchenlexikon,  s.  v.     (E  P.) 

Bolten,  JoHAim  Adrian,  a  Protestant  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Suderstapel,  in  Sleswig,  Sept. 
1 1, 1742.  In  1772  he  was  appointed  deacon,  and  in  1782 
third  pastor,  at  Altona,  and  died  Aug.  11,  1807.  He 
was  well  acquainted  with  the  languages  of  the  £^r, 
and  published  Diss,  de  Keri  et  Kethibh  Vocabulis  Com- 
positis  ac  Divines  Dignitatis  (Altona,  1760) : — Die  Berg- 
predi^  Jesu  in  einer  neuen  Udtersetzung  mit  A  nmerkun- 
gen  (Hamburg,  1768) : — Der  Bericht  des  Mattkdns  von 
Jesus  dem  MessiaSj  Obersetxt  u,  mit  A  nmerkungen  (Al- 
tona, 1795)  x—Der  Bericht  des  Johannes,  etc.  (ibid.  1797) : 
^Die  GeschichU  der  AposUl  von  Lukas,  etc  (ibid.  1799) : 
--Die  neutestamentUchen  Briefe,  etc.  (ibid.  1800-5).  See 
Winer,  Handbuch  der-  tkeol  Lit.  i,  172, 833 ;  Doring,  Die 
geUhrten  Theologen  Deutschlands,  i,  145  sq.    (B.  P.) 

Book  OF  THB  Dkad.    See  Ritual  of  thb  Dkad. 

BOBCO,  Johannes,  a  famous  Scotist,  was  bora  at 
Antwerp  in  1613.  For  some  time  he  occupied  the 
cathedra  Scoti  at  the  University  of  Louvain.  His 
main  work  is  Theologia  Sacramentalis,  Scholastica  et 
Moralis  ad  Mentem  Dodoris  Subtilis  (Louvain  and 
Antwerp,  1665-85,  6  vols.  foL).  After  his  death  some 
smaller  treatises  of  his  were  published  at  Antwerp,  with 
the  title,  Theologia  Spiriiualis  (1686,  2  vols.  fol.).    See 


BOSTROM 


1054 


BRAUN 


Scbeebeiii  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirehenkxiion,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Bostrdm,  Christopfer  Jakob,  a  Swedish  philos- 
opher, was  born  at  Pitea,  Jan.  1, 1797.  He  studied  at 
Upsala,  where  he  also  commenced  his  lectures  in  1827, 
which  he  continued  till  1863,  when  he  retired  fVom  his 
professorship.  He  died  March  22, 1866.  Bostrom  was 
the  roost  independent  thinker  of  Sweden,  and  founded 
a  philosophical  school,  the  influence  of  which  has  es- 
sentially prevented  the  propagation  of  materialistic  and 
pessimistic  teachings  in  Sweden.    (R  P.) 

Botsheim,  Johaxn  von,  a  Swiss  theologian,  was 
bom  in  1480  at  Botzheim,  near  Schlettstadt.  He  stud- 
ied at  Heidelberg,  and  having  completed  his  studies  in 
Italy,  where  he  was  made  doctor  of  canon  law,  he  was 
appointed  after  his  return,  in  1512,  dean  of  Constance. 
In  1518  he  became  acquainted  with  some  of  Luther*s 
writings,  and  became  greatly  atUched  to  Luther  and 
his  cause.  In  1520  he  wrote  to  Luther,  encouraging 
him  in  his  work;  but  he  soon  turned  his  back  upon 
him.  In  1527  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  place,  and 
went  to  Freiburg,  where  he  died  in  1535.  He  was  on 
very  good  terms  with  Erasmus,  and  it  was  mainly  his 
influence  which  led  Erasmus  to  write  the  Cataiogut 
Ebtcubratianum.  See  DoUinger,  Reformation^  i,  519 ; 
Walchner,  Johcum  von  Botzh^m  und  teine  Freunde 
(Schaffhausen,  1836) ;  Hartmann,  in  A  Ugemeine  deutsche 
Biograpkie,  iii,  208;  Gopfert,  in  WeUer  u.  Welters 
Kirehenlexikon,  s.  v.     (fi.  P.) 

Bonelle,  Stephen,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minbter 
of  Huguenot  descent,  was  born  in  Cumberland  County, 
Pa.,  in  1770.  He  was  educated  at  Dickinson  College, 
and  studied  theolog}'  under  Dr.  David  Rice,  of  Ken- 
tacky.  He  was  licensed  in  1796;  in  1798  went  to 
Abingdon,  Va. ;  from  1804  he  was  pastor  at  Sinking 
Springs  and  Green  Springs,  also  teaching  and  occasion- 
ally making  missionary*  tours  into  Indiana.  In  1887 
he  removed  to  Missouri,  and  died  at  Paris,  111.,  in  De- 
cember, 1840.  He  was  widely  influential.  Sec  Nevin, 
Pret6ytertaii  Encyclop.  s.  v. 

Bouhoura,  Dominique,  a  learned  French  Jesuit, 
was  bom  at  Paris  in  1628.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
Joined  his  order,  studied  under  the  care  of  the  Jesnits, 
and  died  May  27, 1702.  Besides  a  number  of  worka 
pertaining  to  bellea-lettres,  he  wrote.  Vie  de  8,  Tgnace 
(Paris,  1679)  .^VU  de  S.  Fran^oU  Xovier  (ibid.  1682) : 
— Penaeee  Chrkienne$  pour  Us  Jour  du  MoU : — Maximet 
Chritieimu,  In  connection  with  the  Jesuits  Tellier  and 
Bemier  he  translated  the  New  Test,  from  the  Latin 
into  French,  which  was  published  in  1697 ;  latest  edi- 
tion in  1859.  See  Biog,  (/nivenelU,  v,  211 ;  Ersch  u. 
Gruber,  Encyhlop.  xii,  115;  Fritz,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's 
Kircheniexihm,  ».  w    (a  P.) 

BoulainviUiera,  Hrnrt,  count  n/j  a  French  phi- 
losopher, was  bom  at  St.  Saire,  in  Normandy,  OcL  11, 
1658,  and  died  Jan.  23, 1722.  He  was  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  of  Mohammed,  and  a  fierce  opponent  of  Chria- 
tianity.  He  wrote  Refutation  dee  Erreurt  de  B,  de 
Spinosa  (Brassels,  1731).  See  Tennemann,  Geeckidite 
der  Philotophie,  x,  486*,.  Ersch  u.  Graber,  Enc^Hap, 
s.  v. ;  Hefele,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte*s  Kirckenlexihm,  s.  r. 
(B.  P.) 

Boulanger,  Nicolas  Antoink,  who  belonged  to 
the  French  encyclopeedists,  was  bom  in  1722,  and  died 
in  1759.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Christianity  and  of 
all  revelation,  and  wrote,  VAntiquite  Devoilee  ptir  nee 
Usages  (Amsterdam,  1766;  Germ,  transl  Greifswald, 
1769)  -."Dissertation  sur  EUe  H  Enoch  (1765).  To  him 
is  also  ascribed  the  authorship  of  Examen  Critique  de 
la  Vie  ei  des  (Euvrages  de  St.  Paul  (London,  1770),  as 
well  as  of  £«  Ckrtstiamsme  DevoiU  and  VHiatoire  Cri- 
tique de  la  Vie  de  Jisus  Christ,  ou  Analgse  Raisofimie 
des  Eeangiles  (eod.),  which  were  probably  written  by 
his  friend  Holbach.  His  works  were  collected  (Paris, 
1791, 10  vols.;  1792, 8  vols.;  Amsterdam,  1794, 6  vols.). 


See  Hefele,  in  Wetzer  o.  Welte*s  Kirchadenhon,  i  r. 
(B.P.) 

Bo'wer,  Edwin  Rba,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  miDi»> 
ter,  was  bom  in  Lancaster  County,  Pa.,  Sept.  5, 18S6. 
He  joined  the  Church  when  eighteen  years  of  age, 
graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1851, 
spent  one  year  in  teaching,  graduated  from  Prineetoo 
Theological  Seminary  in  1855,  acting  one  year  also  as 
tutor  in  his  alma  mater;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Wip- 
pinger's  Falls,  N.  Y.,  in  1855;  installed  over  the  Seoood 
Churcli,  Springfield,  O.,  in  1861 ;  elected  profenor  of 
theology  in  Lincoln  University,  Pa.,  in  1867,  and  died 
in  that  ofHce,  April  7,  1883.  See  XearoL  Report  of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1884,  p.  40. 

Boyd,  Archibald,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  divine,  wis 
born  at  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in  1803.  After  paiaing 
through  the  diocesan  college  of  that  city,  be  graduated 
from  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1823;  became  curate 
of  the  cathedral  at  Derry  in  1827;  of  Christ  Chorch, 
Cheltenham,  in  1842 ;  canon  of  Gloucester  catbednd  in 
1857,  vicar  of  Paddington  in  1859,  and  dean  of  Exetec 
in  1867,  a  position  in  which  he  died,  July  11, 1883. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  works  on  ecdesiasticil 
and  religious  topics. 

Boynton,  Charles  Brandon,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bom  at  West  Stockbridge,  Man., 
June  12, 1806.  After  spending  one  year  (1827)  at  Will- 
iams College,  and  some  years  in  business  and  legal  prac- 
tice, he  studied  theology  with  Kev.  Dr.  Woodbridge,of 
Spenccrtown,  N.  Y. ;  xas  ordained  associate  pastor  at 
Housatonic,  Mass.,  in  1840,  and  installed  there  in  1842; 
acting  pastor  at  Lansingburg,  N.  T^  in  1845;  st  Vine 
Street,  Cincinnati,  O.,  in  1846;  pastor  at  South  Charcb, 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  in  1856;  again  at  CincinnaU  in  1857; 
at  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1865,  at  the  same  time  acting 
as  chaplain  of  the  House  of  Representatives;  a  third 
term  in  Cincinnati,  from  1873  to  1877,  and  finally  with- 
out charge  there  until  his  death,  April  27, 18^  He 
published  several  booka  of  travel  and  history.  See 
Cong.  Year-book,  1884,  p.  20. 

Braman,  Milton  Palmer,  D.D.,  a  Coqgregatkmal 
minister,  was  bom  at  New  Rowley  (now  Georgetown), 
Mass.,  Aug.  6, 1799.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  1819,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminarr 
in  1824;  was  pastor  at  Danvera  from  1826  until  1868» 
and  thereafter  resided  successively  at  Brighton  and  Ad- 
bumdale  until  his  death,  April  10, 1882.  He  published 
several  sermons  and  addresses.  See  Cong,  Year^iookt 
1888,  p.20. 

BraBaioanus,  JoHAzm  Auolandeb,  an  opponent 
of  the  reformation,  belonged  to  a  family  of  Constancf, 
originally  named  Kohlor  K61,  which,  however,  took  the 
Latin  name  of  Brassicanus  in  the  15th  century,  la 
1493  a  certain  Johannes  K61,  called  Braasicanna,  was 
promoted  at  Ttlbingen ;  he  was  MeUinchtbon's  teacher, 
and  is  probably  the  father  of  Johann  Alexander,  who 
was  professor  at  Ingolstadt  in  1523.  At  first  Alexander 
belonged  to  the  secret  adherents  of  Luther,  but  bis 
patristic  studies  made  him  soon  a  decided  opponent  of 
the  Reformation.  In  1524  he  was  called  to  Tienna, 
where  he  died,  Nov.  27, 1589.  See  DoUinger,  Reformat 
tion,  i,  525  sq.;  Hefele,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte*8  Kircke*" 
lexiton,^v,     (R  P.) 

Brauxi,  Placidus,  a  Benedictine,  was  bom  in  1766 
at  Peuting,  in  Upper  Bavaria.  In  1775  he  entered  the 
monastery  of  St.  Ulric,at  Augsburg,  and,  having  charge 
of  the  library,  published  Kotitia  Bist,  Litf.  de  Lihris  ah 
A  rlis  Typogr.  fnveniione,  etc.  (Aug.-Tind.  1788-89),  and 
Notitia  Hist  Litt,  de  Codicibus  MSS,  m  BOd.  Monas- 
terii  ExstantUnu  (1791-96,  6  vols.).  In  1806  he  was 
made  member  of  the  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  edited  Codex  Diphm,  MonasterH  S,  Udalriei  (in 
the  Mon,  Boica,  torn;  xxii,  xxiii),  and  collected  the 
Codex  Episcopatus  AugustanL  He  also  published  a 
history  of  the  bishops  of  Aogsbozg,  in  four  volames 


BREMER 


1055 


BRUNNER 


(Aogsborg,  1813-15).  He  died  Oct.  28,  1829.  See 
Lindner,  SchrifitUUer  des  Btned,  Ordttu  in  Baytm  §eU 
1750  (Regensburg,  1880),  ii,  124 ;  Streber,  in  Wetzer  u. 
Welte't  KirrAeniexitoH,  8.  v.     (R  P.) 

Bremer,  Friedrich,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Bavaria,  was  born  at  Bamberg,  Jan.  10, 1784.  In  1807 
he  took  holy  orders,  and  in  1808  received  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  theology.  In  1813  he  was  appointed  sub- 
director  of  the  clerical  seminary  at  Bamberg,  and  in  1820 
its  director,  at  the  same  time  occupying  the  chair  of 
dogmatics  at  the  lyceum  there.  In  1821  he  became  a 
member  of  the  newly  founded  chapter,  in  1844  its  dean, 
and  died  Aug.  20, 1846.  He  wrote,  Verntch  einer  hit- 
toriach'pkUotophvidien  DanteUung  der  Offefnbarvng 
(1810)  i—KathoUtche  Dogmatik  (1815-17,  and  often,  3 
vols.)  : — GetchichiUcke  DartteUung  der  Verrichtung  vnd 
A  vstpendung  der  Sacramenfe  (1818-24,  8  vols.) : — Dat 
Gerichfj  etc.  (1829).  See  Thiein,  in  the  Twelfth  A  tmual 
Report  of  the  l/istorical  Societg  at  Bambergt  1849,  p. 
14,  21 ;  Jiick,  Zweites  Pantheon  (Bamberg,  1843),  p.  12, 
13 ;  Wittmann,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welters  KiiTheniexikon,  s.  v. 

(a  P.) 

Brillmaoher,  Peter  Michakt.,  a  Jesuit,  was  bom 
at  Cologne  in  1542,  and  studied  at  Paris  under  Maldo- 
natus.  For  six  years  he  was  rector  at  Speyer,  and  in  1 588 
went  to  MUnster,  where  he  founded  the  college  of  the 
Jesuits,  whose  rector  he  was  for  eight  years.  He  died 
Aug.  25,  1595,  leaving,  De  Commuruone  tub  Altera 
Tantum  Specie  (Cologne,  1582):  —  De  Eucharistia 
Sacramento  Dialogi  V  ( 1580-84  )  :—CAruftana  et  So^ 
lida  Detectio  Errorum  Joanrns  a  MOntter  (1591).  See 
Hartzheim,  £t52.  Cohnsensis;  Reiffenberg,  Jtistoria 
Soe,  Jet.  ad  Rhen,  Jnf,  p.  319;  Strunck,  Annal.  Pader* 
5om,  iii,  539, 566 ;  Bauer,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchen^- 
lexikon,  s.  v.    (B.  P.) 

Bristol,  Dakiel  WheeijOCk,  D.D.,  a  Blethodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  Adams,  Jefferson  Co., 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  15,  1812.  He  joined  the  Church  in  1833, 
was  licensed  the  following  year,  and  entered  the  Oneida 
(afterwards  Central)  Conference,  in  which  ho  continued 
until  his  death,  at  Syracuse,  Nov.  2, 1883,  having  filled 
the  most  important  positions  and  been  several  times  a 
delegate  to  the  General  Conference.  See  Minutts  of 
Annual  Conferences^  1888,  p.  320. 

Broneon,  Miles,  D.D.,  a  Baptbt  missionary,  was 
bom  at  Norway,  N.  Y.,  July  20, 1812.  He  studied  at 
the  Hamilton  (N.  Y.)  Literary  and  Theological  Institu- 
tion, was  ordained  at  Whitesborongh,  and  appointed 
missionary  April  29, 1836.  He  reached  Sadiya,  Assam, 
in  July,  1837,  where  he  remained  until  his  removal  to 
Jaipur  in  the  spring  of  1888.  He  did  good  service  also 
at  Nowgong.  In  1857  he  visited  his  native  land,  but 
in  1860  went  back  to  the  East,  where  he  again  carried 
on  his  work  at  Nowgong  for  nine  years,  and  then  made 
another  short  visit  to  the  United  States.  In  July,  1874, 
he  removed  to  Gowabiti,  and  was  at  that  station  for 
several  years.  Keturaing  once  more  to  his  native  land, 
he  died,*Nov.  10, 1883.  See  Cathcart,  Baptitt  Encydop, 
p.  141.     (J.  C.  &) 

Brooke,  Benjamin  Frankun,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  and  reared  within  the 
bounds  of  the  old  Baltimore  Conference.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Dickinson  College,  and  entered  the  Baltimore 
Conference  while  yet  in  his  youth.  In  1873  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Pittsburgh  Conference,  and  in  1876 
to  the  East  Ohio.  His  last  work  was  that  of  presiding 
elder  of  the  Canton  District,  He  died  at  Winchester, 
Ya.,  Sept.  25,  1882.  See  Minutet  of  Annual  Confer- 
ences, 1882,  p.  329. 

Bro'wn,  Andre'W,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  clerg}-roan,  was 
bom  at  Biggar,  Aug.  22. 1763.  He  became  tutor  in  the 
Cranston  family;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1786;  or- 
dained in  1787  minister  to  the  Presbyterian  congrega- 
tion at  Halifax,  Nova  Scoti^;  admitted  minister  at 
LochmaboD,  Scotland,  in  1795;  transferred  to  New 


Greyfriars,  Edinburgh,  in  1799;  promoted  to  the  Old 
Church  in  1800;  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
belles-lettres  in  the  university  in  1801,  which  be  held 
in  conjunction ;  elected  moderator  of  the  General  As- 
sembly in  1813,  and  died  Feb.  19, 1834.  He  was  char- 
acterized by  eloquent  composition,  unobtrusive  manners, 
and  kindly  feelings.  He  published  a  series  of  sermons, 
and  the  Life  of  A  lexcmder  Ch  ristiton.  See  Fasti  Eccles, 
Scoiicanaif  i,  12,  71, 360,  642. 

Bro^Rm,  John,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  bom  in  New  York  city.  May  19, 1791.  He 
graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1811,  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1812,  and  was  rector  of  St  George's  Church, 
Newbnrgh,  from  1816  until  his  death,  Aug.  15, 1884. . 

Bro'vm,  Mrs,  PhoBbe  Hinsdale  (her  maiden 
name),  a  poetess,  was  bom  at  Canaan,  N.  Y.,  May  1, 
1773.  She  had  no  early  education ;  married  a  painter 
of  Ellington,  Conn.;  lived  a  humble  and  painful,  but 
Christian  life,  and  died  at  Marshall,  111.,  Oct.  10, 1861. 
Among  her  hymns  the  most  noted  is  "  I  love  to  cteal 
awhile  away,"  written  in  1818,  and  included  with  oth- 
ers in  Nettleton's  Village  Hymns  (1824).  She  also  wrote 
for  the  newspapers,  and  was  the  author  of  several  tracta 
and  a  series  of  tales,  entitled  The  Tree  and  its  Fruits 
(N.  Y.  1886).    See  (N.  Y.)  Independent,  Jan.  6, 1881 . 

Brown,  Samnel  Gilman,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Con- 
gregational divine,  was  bom  at  North  Yarmouth,  Me., 
Jan.  4, 1813.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College 
in  1831,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1837 ;  was  principal  of  Ellington  (Conn.)  High-school 
in  1832  and  1833,  and  of  Abbot  Academy,  Andover,  from 
1835  to  1838;  spent  two  years  thereafter  in  Europe; 
became  professor  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1840,  presi- 
dent of  Hamilton  College  in  1867,  instmctor  at  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1881,  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1883,  and 
died,  Nov.  4, 1885,  at  Utica,  N.  Y.  He  had  been  ordained 
in  1852,  but  was  without  charge.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  works  of  a  popular  character,  chiefly  biogra- 
phies and  addresses.     See  Cong,  Year-book^  1886,  p.  20. 

Brown,  'William  Lawrence,  D.D.,  a  Scotch 
clergyman  (son  of  the  professor  of  divinity  and  Church 
history  at  St.  Andrews),  was  bom  at  Utrecht,  where  his 
father  was  then  minister,  Jan.  7, 1755.  He  graduated 
from  the  University  of  St  Andrews  in  1772;  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1777,  ordained  for  the  English  con- 
gregation at  Utrecht,  and  appointed  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  the  Utrecht  University  in  1788.  Being 
threatened  by  the  revolutionar}'  army  of  France,  he  fled 
to  England ;  was  elected  minuter  at  Grcyfriar^s  Church, 
Aberdeen,  in  1795,  and  promoted  to  be  principal  of 
Marischal  College,  which  he  held  in  conjunction;  was 
appointed  one  of  the  chaplains  in  ordinary  to  the  king 
in  1800,  dean  of  the  Order  of  the  Thistle  in  1803,  re- 
signed the  living  at  Greyfriar's  in  1828,  and  died  May 
11, 1880.  He  was  a  man  of  great  talents  and  gifts; 
with  warmth  of  temper,  he  was  open,  sincere,  and  gen- 
erous, exercising  unbounded  liberality.  He  published, 
A  n  Essay  on  the  Folly  of  Scepticism  (Lond.  1788) : — 
Or  alio  de  Religionis  et  PhUosophia  Societate  et  Concordia 
Haxime  Salutari  (Utrecht,  eod.) : — Oratione  Imagina- 
tione  in  VitoB  Institutione  Regenda  (ibid.  1790) : — Essay 
on  the  Natural  Equality  qfMan  (Edinburgh,  1793) : — 
seven  single  sermons  (Lond.  eod.) :— Speech  in  the  Gen^ 
eral  Assembly  on  the  Settlement  at  Kingihaims  of  the 
Rev,  Dr,  A  mot  (Edinburgh,  1800)  -.—Letters  to  the  Rev, 
Principal  //»// (Aberdeen,  1801) :— Sermons  (Edinburgh, 
1803):— ii  LetUrio  Principal  IliU  (1807)  -.—Philemon; 
or,  The  Progress  of  Virtue,  a  poem  (1809,  2  vols.)  :— 
An  Attempt  towards  a  New  Bistorical  and  Political 
Explanation  of  the  Revelation  ( 1812 ) : — A  n  Essay  on 
the  Existence  of  a  Supreme  Creator  (Aberdeen,  1816,  2 
vqIs.,  for  which  was  adjuged  Bennett's  prize  of  X1250) : 
— A  Comparative  Viae  of  Christianity  (Edinburgh, 
1826, 2  vols.).    See  Fasti  Eccles,  ScoHcana,  iii,  475^76. 

Brunner,  Kabl,  a  Swiss  theolo^an  and  architect, 
was  bora  at  Hemberg,  in  the  Toggenbnrg,  in  1831. 


BRUNSON 


1056 


CALDWELL 


He  studied  at  Zarich  and  Tubingen.  At  the  latter  uni- 
▼enity  he  became  a  zealoua  dueiple  of  the  then  prevail 
ing  **  Tubingen  school,"  to  which  he  lemainedi  faithful 
until  his  death,  although  throughout  his  life  he  main- 
tained friendly  intercourse  with  men  of  aU  parties. 
His  first  ministerial  duty  was  at  Kappel,  where  he 
served  as  vicar.  In  1866  he  was  elected  pastor  of 
Uenau,  and  in  1858  of  Buhler,  in  AppenzelL  His  zeal 
for  the  schools  drew  him  away  from  his  clerical  work, 
and  in  1864  he  vras  called  to  the  cantonal  school  of  Ap- 
peozell,  at  Trogen,  and  in  1867  invited  to  become  rec- 
tor of  the  gymnasium  at  Bid.  In  1878  the  government 
of  Aargau  iuvited  him  to  take  charge  of  its  rich  archives, 
a  task  to  which  he  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
without,  however,  attaining  the  great  object— the  com- 
plete organization  of  the  archives  of  the  illustrious 
"gau"oftheAar.     He  died  Jan.  26, 1881.    (a  P.) 

Bninaon,  Alfrbd,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  at  Danbury,  Conn.,  Feb.  9,  1798. 
He  was  educated  in  the  common-schools  and  trained 
as  a  shoemaker;  converted  July  8,  1809,  while  living 
with  an  uncle  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  licensed  to  exhort. 
Returning  to  Connecticut  the  same  year,  he  settled  at 
Bridgeport  and  began  to  hold  religious  services^  In 
1812  he  removed  to  Ohio^  and  entered  the  army  under 
general  Harrison.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1815, 
and  in  1818  formed  a  largo  circuit  in  Huron  County,  O. 
In  1820  he  became  connected  with  the  Pittsburgh  Con- 
ference, formed  that  year.  Here  he  labored  and  studied 
law  until  1886.  In  July,  1886,  he  removed  to  Prairie 
du  Cbien,  Wis.,  to  labor  in  behalf  of  the  Indians.  In 
1889  he  relinquished  his  ministerial  labors  on  account 
of  ill-health,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practiced  for 
ten  years,  during  which  period  he  flUed  several  secular 
offices.  He  resumed  pastoral  work  in  1850,  and  se^yed 
several  important  charges,  including  Prairie  du  Chien 
district.  In  1862  he  was  commissioned  chaplain  of  the 
Thirty-first  Wisconsin  Volunteer  InCuitry,  but  resigned 
on  account  of  failing  health  one  year  Uter.  He  re- 
maine<l  on  the  superannuated  list  until  1869,  when  he 
again  became  effective.  He  travelled  until  the  (all  of 
1872,  when  he  was  superannuated  for  the  last  time. 
He  was  four  times  elected  a  member  of  the  General 
Conference,  and  closed  his  remarkable  career  at  Prairie 
du  Chien,  Aug.  3, 1882.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  secular  and  religious  journals,  and  especially  to 
the  MtihodUi  Quarterltf  Review.  He  published  his 
autobiography,  in  two  volumes,  entitled  The  Western 
Pioneer^  and  also  a  Keif  to  the  Apocaltfpee.  See'  ifui- 
uUs  of  Annual  Conferenoci,  1882,  p.  808. 

Bma,  Anton,  a  Bohemian  prelate,  was  bom  at 
MUglitz,  in  Moravia,  Feb.  13,  1518.  He  studied  at 
Prague,  where  he  also  received  holy  orders.  In  the 
war  against  the  Turks,  1542-45,  he  was  Austrian  chap- 
lain. In  1558  the  emperor,  Ferdinand  I,  made  him 
bishop  of  Vienna,  and  in  1562  he  was  raised  to  the  arch- 
episcopal  see  of  Prague.  He  also  attended  the  council 
at  Trent.  He  died  Aug.  28, 1580.  See  OestefreidiiMehe 
Vierleljcthrsschri/l  fur  KcUholitehe  TheUogie  (Vienna, 
1874),  where  his  biography  is  given;  Borowy,  in  Wet- 
zer  u.  Welte's  Kirchenlanlam,  a.  v.     (B.  P.) 

BUchsenschUtz,  Ludwiq  Jacob  Throdos,  a  Lu- 
theran minister  of  Germany,  was  bom  March  20, 1814. 
In  1846  he  entered  upon  his  first  ministerial  duties,  and 
in  1853  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Ltttzelstein 
diocese  in  Alsace.  In  1859  he  was  removed  to  Weyer, 
the  centre  of  his  diocese,  where  he  labored  for  twenty- 
three  years,  zealouslv  defending  the  sacred  rights  of 
evangelical  faith.     He  died  July  6, 1882.     (R  P.) 

Bugbee,  Lucius  H.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bora  in  Gowanda,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  25, 1^. 
He  was  converted  in  boyhood,  licensed  as  an  exhorter 
at  eighteen,  graduated  from  Genesee  College  in  1853 
and  Amherst  College  in  1854,  became  teacher  in  Coop- 
erstown  Academy  in  1855,  joined  the  Upper  Iowa  Con- 
ference in  1857,  and  was  appointed  president  of  its 


ufriveraity;  in  1800  was  trnnsfeired  to  the  Rock  Bivec 
Conference,  and  served  several  important  stations;  in 
1866  became  president  of  the  Female  College,  Evans- 
ton,  ni. ;  in  1868  of  that  in  Cincinnati ;  in  1875  of  Alle- 
gheny College;  being  then  transferred  to  the  Pittsbargb 
Conference,  in  which,  in  1882,  he  was  appointed  to 
Mooongahela  city,  but  his  health  failed,  and  he  died  at 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  July  28, 1888.  See  MwhUb  of  Awmual 
Ccnfereneet,  1884,  p.  828;  Simpson,  C^fdop.  of  Me/hod- 

Bulflnch,  STKpnEN  Gseenucaf,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian 
minister  and  poet,  was  boro  in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  18, 
1809.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  in  1826,  and  from  the  Harvard  Divinity  School 
in  1880;  served  chiefly  as  pastor  at  Augusta,  Me.,  for 
the  next  seven  years;  afterwards  preached  and  taught 
at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  in  Washin^on,  D.C;  in  1845 
became  pastor  at  Nashua,  N.  H. ;  in  1852  at  Dorchester, 
Mass. ;  and  died  at  Cambridge,  Oct.  12, 1870.  He  pub- 
lished several  prose  works,  as  well  as  Poem*  (Charieston, 
S.  C,  1804).  See  Duyckinck,  Cydop.  of  A  mer.  Lii,  ii, 
845. 

Burigny,  Jean  LrfvasQUK,  &  French  historian,  was 
bora  at  Bheims  in  1692,  and  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  8, 1785. 
He  wrote,  Traiti  de  FA  utoriti  du  Pope  (1720, 4  rob.) : 
--/riftotre  <ie  fa  PAaM<>pAM  PaEdHK  (1724,1754, 2  vols.) : 
—  Vie  de  Grotiut  (Amsterdam,  1750, 1754, 2  vob.) :-.  Vie 
Straeme  (1757,  2  vols.):— Fts  du  Cardinal  Duperron 
(1768).  See  Qu^rard,  La  France  IMtiraire,  a.  v.;  Dader, 
£loge  de  Burignf  (Paris,  1788);  Walkenaer,  RecmtUde 
Notices  Historiquet  (ibid.  1850),  p.  286;  Biog.  GSUnL 
vii,  840;  Gams,  in  Wetscr  u.  Welte's  KirekaJexikon, 
S.V.    (a  P.) 

Burleigh,  Wiluam  Hssibt,  a  reformer  and  poet, 
was  bom  at  Woodstock,  Omn.,  Feb.  2, 1812.  He  early 
became  a  temperance  and  anti-slavery  lecturer;  ivmovcd 
to  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1887,  where  he  published  the  Chrie^ 
tian  Witnestf  and  afterwards  the  TVmpenance  Batmer ;  in 
1843  to  Hartford,  Conn.,  as  editor  of  the  Ckristiau  free- 
mcm,  soon  known  as  the  Charter  Oak  ;  in  1849  to  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  as  editor  of  the  Prohibitioniet ;  in  1855  to  Kew 
York  city  as  harbor^master,  and  subsequently  as  one 
of  the  port-wardens.  He  died  at  Brooklyn,  Mareh  18, 
1871.  He  was  the  author  of  Poeme  ( Philadelphis, 
1841 ;  enlarged,  with  biography  by  his  wife.  New  York, 
1871).     See  Duyckinck,  Cyclop,  ofAmer.  LiL  ii,  899L 

Boms,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Protestant  Church,  was  bora  in  1807.  He  was  an  hon- 
ored member  of  the  Muskingum  Conference,  and  was  one 
of  the  best  known  of  his  denomination  in  Ohio ;  a  strong 
preacher,  had  good  executive  ability,  and  wherever  be 
was  stationed  the  Church  prospered.  For  some  yean 
he  was  chaplain  of  the  Ohio  Penitentiary.  He  died  at 
Cadiz,  Sept.  12,  1888.  See  The  Melhodul  Recorder, 
Sept.  22, 1883. 

BusaBUB.    See  Busrb. 

Bjrnmi,  Jorm,  an  English  poet,  was  bom  at  Kefwil, 
near  Manchester,  in  1691.  After  studying  at  Merchant- 
Taylors  School  in  London,  he  graduated  from  Trinity 
0>llege,  Cambridge,  in  1711,  became  a  fellow  there, 
travelled  in  France,  next  gave  lessons  in  stenognaphy 
in  London,  and  at  length  settled  upon  his  native  estate, 
and  died  there,  Sept.  28, 1763.  He  was  of  a  mystical 
tura,  and  besides  various  miscellaneous  essays  and 
pieces,  he  published  Uywuu  and  Sacred  Poeme  (1739; 
reprinted  1773, 1814,  and  in  his  collected  poems,  1857), 
some  of  which  are  quite  popular.  See  CbalmerSy  Biog,. 
IHct,%y, 

c. 

Caldwell,  Jamcs,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  boro  at  Kilmarnock,  Scotland,  in  the  spring  of  1809. 
He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  Univenity ;  ordained  in 
1887 ;  preached  at  Biggar,  Greenock,  and  Stocktoa-en- 
the-Tecs  (Eng.) ;  came  to  America  in  1851 ; 


AHiM 


CALINICH 


1057 


CARROLL 


pcgtor  sooceMftvely  at  Kent,  Conn.,  Sheffield,  Ifias^ 
BeaidMowD,  IlL,  Poet  Mille,  in  Thetford,  Vt.,  end  witboot 
ctaerge  at  Bernard  and  Poet  Mille  nntil  his  deeth,  April 
9, 1886.    See  Cong,  Year4nok,  1886,  p.  Si. 

Calinich,  Hkrhasm  Julius  Robert,  •  Lntheran 
theologien  of  Germany,  doctor  of  philosophy  and  theol- 
ogy, was  bom  in  1881,  at  Niederfriedendorf,  Saxony. 
In  1860  be  was  teacher  at  the  gymnasium  in  Dresden, 
in  1863  deacon,  afterwards  pastor  of  St.  Jacobus,  at 
Chemnitz,  and  since  1872  pastor  primarius  of  St.  Jaco- 
bus at  Hamburg.  He  died  at  Wiesbaden,  Jan.  18, 1888. 
He  wrote,  Lvther  und  die  Aygtburgiscke  Confestion 
(Leipsic,  1861)  i—Kam^  imd  Unitrgang  det  Mtlanch- 
thonismus,  etc.  (ibid.  1866):  —  Wie  Sackten  orthodox^ 
lutheriich  wwrde  (ibid,  eod.)  >^Zwei  sdchntcke  Kanzler 
(ibid.  1868)  i^Der  Pdptt  und  da$  iihtmeiiuche  ConcU 
(ibid,  end.)  i—Der  Naumbmrger  Furttenfag  (ibid.  1870) : 
-^De  CotuMHtu  Anno  MDLXXIV,  Torga  Babdo  (ibid. 
1873)  :^Dr.  M.  Lut&er't  kUiner  Kateckwnvt,  Beitrdg 
sur  Textreviikm  deudben  (ibid.  1882).     (R  P.) 

CalvititiB,  Justus,  a  Roman  Catholic  oontroTer- 
^list,  was  bom  about  the  year  1570,  at  Xanten,  in 
Cleve.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Calvinistic  preacher.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg  under  the  famous  Junius,  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Bellamin 
and  Baronius,  whose  worlcs  he  now  studied.  After  his 
return  to  Germany,  he  joined  the  Church  of  Rome. 
When  or  where  he  died  is  not  known.  He  published 
at  Mayenoe  in  1601,  Pro  Sacretanela  Catkoiica  Romana 
Eccktia  Apologia  :~^£jfutolarum  Catholiearum  Liber 
Umttc-^De  Latitudine  £ede$im  Dti^  el  ModercAa  Co^ 
ireiUone  NareUcomm,  The  first  two  works  were  also 
published  in  a  second  edition  at  Heidelberg  in  1766. 
His  main  work  is  FrtBscriptionum  Advertut  BareUcoM 
Perpeluamm  ex  3S,  Orikodoxit  Potiteimum  Patribus 
Tradatus  J  V  (Mayence,  1602 ;  2d  ed.  1756).  See  Riiss, 
Convertiienbilder,  iii,  537-620;  Kobler,  in  Wetzer  u. 
Welters  KirchenlexikoH^  s.  v.     (R  P.) 

Cambnslang;  Waltkr,  a  Scotch  prelate,  was 
bishop  of  the  see  of  Dunblane  in  1862,  and  signed  as 
witness  the  fourteen  years'  truce  between  Scotland  and 
England,  executed  at  Edinburgh,  July  20, 1869.  See 
Keith,  ScotH^  Biehope,  p.  176. 

Cameron,  Andrew,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  divine  and  ed- 
itor, was  bom  at  Edinburgh  in  1822,  and  educated 
in  the  university  there.  He  early  became  connected 
with  the  press,  first  as  a  reporter,  and,  in  1845,  as  the 
projector  of  the  Christian  Treasurer,  later  of  the  Fm 
Church  Magazine^  and  other  periodicals.  He  eventual- 
ly became  pastor  at  Maryton,  Fifeshire,  and  in  1870  at 
St.  Kilda,  Melbourne,  where  he  die<l  in  1877. 

Campbell,  John  Mlieod,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  cler- 
gyman, son  of  the  minister  at  Kilninver,  bom  May  4, 
1800,  was  presented  to  the  living  at  Row  in  1825,  and 
ordained;  deposed  in  May,  1881,  for  teaching  universal 
atonement  and  pardon,  also  that  assurance  is  necessary 
to  salvation.  He  continued  teaching  these  doctrines 
to  bis  followers,  first  at  Kilninver,  and  afterwards  in  a 
chapel  at  Glasgow  until  1859.  He  died  at  Roseneath, 
Feb.  27, 1872.  His  publications  were,  Sermons  (1831, 
2  vols.) :— Notes  of  Sermons: — Speech  at  the  Bar  of  the 
Sgnod  (eod.) : — Jjtiters  on  Keeping  a  Conscience  Void  of 
Ojffence  (1884):— C*r«<  the  Bread  of  Life  (Edinburgh, 
1851)  I— Atonement  (1854)  i—Xature  of  the  Atonement 
(IS56) '.^Thoughts  on  Bereiaiion  (1862).  See  Fasti 
Eccies,  ScoticcuuSf  ii,  871 ;  (^ropbell,  Memorials  (Lond. 
1877). 

Campbell,  William  Graham,  D.D.,  an  Irish 
W^eyan  preacher,  was  bom  near  Sligo  in  1805.  He 
was  converted  in  1822,  and  soon  began  preaching,  his 
first  regular  appointment  being  the  Killeshandren  Cir- 
cuit in  1831,  and  he  spent  twenty-five  years  of  great 
power  in  the  general  work.  He  died  Feb.  24,  1885. 
Minutes  of  tk$  British  Conference,  1885,  p.  85. 
Xn.— Xzz 


Cmmpegg^O*  We  notioe  two  other  members  of 
this  family. 

1.  ALB88Aia>iio,  son  of  LMenzo,  was  bom  at  Bologna 
in  1504.  He  was  educated  by  the  most  leamed  men 
of  Italy,  and  appointed,  in  1526,  by  pope  Clement  VII, 
as  his  father's  successor  in  the  bishopric  of  Bologna. 
The  ninth  and  tenth  sessions  of  the  Tridentine  Council 
were  held  at  his  palace.  Pope  Julius  III  made  him 
cardinal  in  1551.    He  died  SepL  20, 1554. 

2.  Camillo,  inquisitor  of  Ferrara,  and  bishop  of 
Kepi-Sutri,  who  died  in  1569,  is  the  author  of  Be  Pri- 
matu  Romani  Pont}fic%s  eonira  M,  Flacium  lUgricum 
(reprinted  by  Rocaberti,  in  BibL  Magn,  Ponttf,  voL  vii). 
See  Gams-Kreutzwald,  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte's  Kirchm" 
lexikon^  s.  v.;  Jocher,  AUegemeines  Gelehrten^Lexihon^ 
s.  V.     (a  P.) 

Camua,  J^tienke,  a  French  Jauseuist  and  prelate, 
was  bom  Nov.  16, 1682.  In  1660  he  was  already  a  doc- 
tor of  the  Sorbonne,  but  his  unchristian  walk  brought 
on  him  the  disfavor  of  Mazarin,  and  be  was  banished. 
Prince  Conti,  governor  of  Languedoc,  however,  received 
him,  and  brought  him  under  the  influence  of  the  Jan- 
senistic  bishop.  Pavilion  of  Alet.  Louis  XIY  made  him, 
in  1671,  archbishop  of  Grenoble.  In  1686  pope  Inno- 
cent XI  made  him  cardinal,  and  he  was  present,  in 
1700,  at  the  conclave  held  at  Rome  for  the  electimi  of 
Clement  XL  He  died  in  1707.  He  founded  a  clerical 
seminary  at  Grenoble.  See  Gallia  Christ,  xv,  255; 
Guaraacci,  Bist,  Pont,  Bom,  et  Card,  i,  237;  Loyson, 
VAssemblie  de  1682,  p.  188-285;  Amauld,  (Eitvres,  i, 
689  sq. ;  Bauer,  in  WeUer  u.  Welters  Kirchenlerikonj 
S.V.     (a  P.) 

Caribbean  Mytholoot.  Like  all  uncivilized  na^ 
tions,  this  people  bad  but  superficial  conceptions  of  the 
creation  of  the  world,  the  population  of  the  earth,  and 
of  a  life  beyond.  They  believed  that  heaven  was  from 
etemity;  it  encircled  an  earth  more  beautiful  and  better 
than  the  present  one.  The  lat  tcr  was  originally  soft  and 
at  rest  A  stranger,  Louguo,  gave  it  form  and  motion, 
and  put  fishes  into  the  sea.  The  origin  of  tenrestrial 
animals  was  not  known,  but  human  beings  sprang  from 
the  navel  of  Louguo,  who  first  inhabited  the  earth,  then 
died,  was  raised  to  life  again,  and  withdrew  to  that  bet- 
ter  heavenly  world.  Men  became  worse  and  worse,  and 
because  they  did  not  make  any  sacrifices  to  the  gods 
the  latter  sent  a  great  flood,  by  which  all  men  save  a 
few  were  destroyed.  The  first  men  lived  very  long, 
some  of  them  being  changed  into  stars  and  made  im- 
mortal for  their  good  works.  After  the  flood  they  lived 
in  poverty  and  want.  The  Caribe,  however,  expected 
a  happier  existence  in  that  upper  world — better  houses, 
more  food,  more  women,  no  work,  no  sickness,  but  an 
unbroken  life  of  pleasure.  They  worshipped  the  sun 
and  moon,  and  on  the  occurrence  of  earthquakes  they 
fasted  for  a  number  of  days.  Very  seldom  did  they 
make  sacrifices,  for  they  took  it  for  granted  that  the 
gods  have  no  need  of  human  service. 

CarraBOO,  Amtonio,  a  leading  Spanish  Protestant 
preacher,  was  bom  in  Malaga,  Jan.  19,  1848.  He  was 
converted  in  youth,  and  was  imprisoned  for  Bible  read- 
ing, but  released  in  1868  at  the  remonstrance  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance.  After  studying  at  Geneva,  Swit- 
zerland, he  retumed  to  Spain  in  1868,  and  zealously  en« 
gaged  in  the  publication  of  the  tme  gospel  there,  be- 
coming pastor  of  the  Free  Church  in  Madrid.  On  his 
way  home  from  a  visit  to  America  he  was  drowned  by 
the  sinking  of  the  steamer  Ville  du  Havre,  Nov.  22, 1878. 
See  Beport  of  the  EvangeUeal  A  Uiance,  1874,  p.  764. 

Carroll,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Chureh  in  Canada,  was  bom  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  Aug. 
8, 1809.  In  1818  his  parenta  went  to  Toronto,  where 
he  was  converted.  In  1827  he  entered  the  itinerant 
ranks,  in  which  he  occupied  prominent  stations  in  Can* 
ada,  London,  Toronto,  Kingston,  Ottawa,  and  elsewhere. 
He  died  in  Toronto,  Canada,  Dec.  13, 1884.  For  nearly 
thirty  years  be  was  chairman  of  the  districts  in  which 


CASHMERIAN  VERSION        1068 


CLOSS 


hta  ■ppointmento  were  located.  He  was  a  meet  faith- 
ful and  laborioas  pastor.  Besides  the  history  of  his 
early  years,  oaUed  Mff  Boy  Lifi^  he  published  several 
smsll  volumes,  a  number  of  pamphlets  and  magazine 
articles,  especially  CoMt  and  hit  ContemporarUa  (Toron- 
to, 1867,  6  vol&).  See  Ckrittian  Guardian^  Dec.  17, 
1884. 

Caahmerlan  Vanlon  op  the  ScBnrrtmEs.  Of 
late  the  work  of  translation  into  this  dialect  has  again 
been  resumed,  for  the  annual  report  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  for  1884  sUtes  that  the  Rev.  T. 
K.  Wade,  formerly  of  Trinagar,  now  of  Amritsar,  has 
completed  the  translation  of  the  New  Test,  on  which 
he  has  been  engaged  for  six  years,  and  in  the  annual 
report  of  the  same  society  for  1885  we  read  that  the 
New  Test  has  been  published.    (B.  P.) 

Caswell,  Edward,  an  English  clergyman  and 
poet,  was  bom  at  Yateby,  in  Hampshire,  July  16, 1814. 
He  was  educated  at  Brasennoee  College,  Oxford,  or^ 
dained  presbyter  in  1889,  in  1840  beoime  curate  of 
Stratford-under-Gastle,  in  1847  Joined  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Chureh,  and  died  Jan.  2,  1878.  Besides  several 
prose  works,  he  published  metrical  translations  of  many 
medieval  hymns,  entitled  Lyra  Catholiea  (1848),  and 
other  poetiod  effusions,  collected  in  Hynmi  and  Poems 
(1878). 

Catholio  Bmanoipatloii,  an  enactment  to  re- 
lieve Roman  Catholics  of  the  civil  and  religious  disabili- 
ties imposed  by  the  laws  passed  in  the  time,  chiefly,  of 
Elizabeth.  These  forbade  a  (Catholic  priest  receiving 
A  neophyte  into  the  Chureh  in  England  under  penalty 
of  death ;  Jesuits  forfeited  life  by  appearing  in  the  coun- 
try ;  no  man  could  plead  at  law  or  become  a  school- 
master, or  bold  any  office,  especially  in  Ireland,  without 
taking  the  oaths  of  supremacy  and  against  transub- 
stantiation.  All  this  was  abolished  by  the  act  of  par- 
liament of  April  28, 1829,  since  which  time  Catholics 
and  Protestants  have  enjoyed  equal  protection  and  lib- 
erty before  the  law. 

Cawood,  John,  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
was  bom  at  Matlock,  Derbyshire,  Mareh  18, 1775.  He 
graduated  from  St  Edmund's  Hall,  Oxford,  in  1801 ;  be- 
came curate  at  Ribbesford,  Dowles,  and  Bewdlcy,  and 
died  Nov.  7,  1872.  Besides  several  prose  works,  he 
published  occasional  hymns,  a  number  of  which  were 
inserted  in  Cotterill's  collection,  and  the  one  beginning 
"  Hark,  what  mean  thoae  holy  voices,"  has  become  es- 
pecially popular. 

Chandler,  Oeorge  Clinton,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bora  at  Chester,  Vt,  Mareh  19, 1807.  He 
was  baptized  in  1825,  and  licensed  to  preach  in  1881 ; 
graduated  from  MadiM>n  University  in  1885,  and  from 
Newton  Theological  Institution  in  1888;  preached  as  a 
missionary  among  the  Indians,  and  at  Terre  Haute, 
Ind.;  became  pastor  at  Indianapolis  in  1889,  president 
of  Franklin  College  in  1848,  in  1850  of  the  new  BapUst 
college  in  Oregon,  but  soon  resumed  miMionary  work ; 
became  pastor  at  Dalles  in  1874,  and  died  there  in  No- 
vember of  the  same  year.  See  Cathcart,  BajAitt  Enty^ 
dop.  s.  V. 

Chandler,  John,  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
was  born  at  Witley,  in  Surrey,  June  16, 1806.  He  grad- 
nated  from  Corpus  Christ!  College,  Oxford,  in  1827 ; 
became  vicar  of  Witley  in  1887,  afterwards  mral  dean, 
and  died  at  Putney,  July  1, 1876.  Besides  some  prose 
productions,  he  published  translations  called  flywuu  of 
the  Primiiive  CkuTch  (1837),  of  which  several  have  been 
inserted  in  most  hymnals. 

Channing,  William  Hehht,  a  Unitarian  divine, 
nephew  of  Dr.  William  E.  Channing,  was  bom  in  Bos- 
ton, May  25, 1810.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  College 
in  1829,  and  from  Cambridge  Divinity  School  in  1888; 
was  ordained  in  1889;  successively  served  independent 
congregations  at  Meadville  (Pa.),  New  York  city,  Cin- 
cinnati, C  Nashua,  N.  H.,  Boston,  Mass.,  Rochester, 


N.  Y.,  and  Liverpool,  Eng.,  and  finally  resided  wiUmt 
charge  in  London  until  his  death,  I>m.  24, 1884.  Ht 
edited  various  journals,  wrote  frequently  for  the  reviewi, 
and  was  the  author  of  several  sermons  and  memotn, 
particularly  of  his  uncle  (1848, 8  vols.). 

Chaplin,  Chablks  Cbawford,  D.D.,  a  Btptiit 
mimster,  was  bom  at  Danville,  Ya.,  SepL  22, 1881.  He 
was  converted  in  1853,  spent  two  yean  in  Richmond 
College,  became  pastor  at  Danville  in  1856,  st  Oweni- 
borough,  Ky.,  in  1870,  at  Paducah  in  1878,  and  died  at 
Brentana,  Texaa,  Nov.  2, 1884.  See  Cathcart,  Bajp»id 
JEiaqfoiop.  B.  v. 

Chapman,  Robert  Mabtiic,  D.D.,  a  Protcatam 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bora  at  Petefibui]g[,  Ts^, 
April  20, 1810.  He  was  ten  years  president  of  the  State 
University,  Yinoennes,  Ind. ;  rector  suooeasirely  at  Jef* 
fersonville,  Ind.,  Pewee  Yalley,  Ky.,  Sacrsmentn  and 
Oakland,  CaL,  and  died  at  Los  Gatos,  April  8, 188. 

Chase,  BBXjAxnr,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  mtnist«r, 
was  bora  at  Litchfield,  N.  H.,  Nov.  20, 1789.  He  grad- 
uated from  Middl^ury  College  in  1814,  and  labond 
as  a  missionary  in  Louisiana;  in  1828  took  charge  of 
**CanDel  Cburoh,"  ten  miles  south  of  Natcbei,  Miai.; 
in  1880  became  Bible-agent  in  the  Soutb-westerastatM; 
in  1840  declined  in  health,  and  died  Oct.  11, 1870.  See 
Nevin,  Prt^byitrian  Sneyelop,  s.  v« 

Christian,  Jamks  W.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  born  in  Me^ 
riweather  County,  Ga.,  in  1844.  He  was  oooTertcd  in 
eariy  manhood,  licensed  to  preach  in  1868,  admitted 
into  the  Alabama  Conference  in  1872,  labond  on  the 
Fredonia  Cirouit,  at  Montioello,  and  at  Birmiogham; 
was  appointed  editor  of  the  AkAama  Ckrinian  Adao- 
eate  in  1881,  and  died  Oct,  7, 1882.  See  ifwvto  o^ 
Annual  Conferences  of  the  M.  E,  Church,  SwtA,  1682, 
p.  79. 

Clarke,  Doras,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  roinister, 
was  bom  at  Westhampton,  Mass.,  Jan.  2,  1797.  He 
graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1817,  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1820;  was  paaiorst 
Blandford,  Mass.,  from  1828  to  1825 ;  at  Chioopee  FalH 
from  1885  to  1840 ;  editor  thereafter  of  various  religiom 
journals,  and  died  March  8, 1884.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  popular  works.  Sec  Cong^  Year-kotk,  188S, 
p.  20. 

Clarke,  Henry  Steele,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Somers,  Conn.,  in  1818.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1841 ;  became  pstfcr 
first  at  Willoughby,  O. ;  in  1849  at  Manchester,  N.  H.; 
in  1852  of  the  Central  Church,  Philadelphia,  and  died 
Jan.  17, 1864.  See  Wilson,  Pref6. HisU  AUnanac,  186&, 
p.  83. 

Clarkflon,  Robkkt  Harper,  D.D.,  LUD.,  a  bish- 
op of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  bora  at 
Gettysburg,  Pa.,  Nov.  19,  1826.  He  graduated  from 
Pennsylvania  College  in  1844,  and  studied  theology  at 
St.  James's  College;  was  ordained  deacon  in  1848;  be> 
came  rector  of  §U  Jameses  Church,  Chicago,  in  1849; 
was  oonaecrated  bishop  of  Nebraska,  Nov.  15^  1865,  and 
died  March  10, 1884. 

Cleptomania.    See  Klkptomaxia. 

Clinob,  JosKPH  H.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bora  Jan.  80,  1806.  He  served  as 
rector  of  St.  Matthew's  Church,  South  Boston,  «ss 
secretary  of  the  Diocesan  Convention,  and  died  July  h^ 
1884. 

Close,  Framcib,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  divine,  was  bon 
near  Alton,  Hampshire,  in  1797.  He  gpraduatcd  from 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1820;  became  cuiaU 
of  the  Lawford  Church,  near  Rugby;  in  1822  of  Wei- 
lesden  and  Kingsbury,  Middlesex;  in  1824  at  Chel- 
tenham, in  1866  dean  of  Carlisle,  and  died  Dec.  l^ 
1882. 

Closa,  WiLUAM,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  MethodiH 


COAN 


1050 


COLLEGES 


Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Botetourt  County, 
Ya.,  in  1809.  He  entered  the  Virginia  Conference  in 
1888,  and  was  identifie«l  with  the  Korth  Carolina  Con- 
ference from  its  organization.  He  spent  nearly  fifty 
years  in  the  itinerant  ministry,  twenty-eight  of  them 
as  presiding  elder ;  and  was  many  times  a  delegate  to 
the  General  Conference.  His  ability  as  a  debater  was 
unsurpassed.  He  died  in  Enfield,  N.  C,  July  8, 1882. 
See  MinuteM  o/Ammal  Comfereneet  of  the  M,  E.  Church 
Southf  1882,  p.  109. 

Coan,  Titus,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Killingworth,  Conn.,  Feb.  1, 1801.  He  joined 
the  Presbyterian  Charcb  at  fiiga,  N.  Y^  in  1828;  stud- 
ied privately,  graduated  from  Aubom  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1888,  was  ordained  the  same  year  a  missionary 
to  Patagonia,  in  1835  went  to  Hawaii,  where  he  labored 
with  great  success  at  Hilo  until  his  death,  Dec.  1, 1882. 
Besides  some  tracts,  essavs,  etc,  he  published  Adventures 
M  Pataffoma  (1880)  i-^Life  m  Havau  (1882).  See 
Conff.  Year-book,  1884,  p.  21. 

Cochran,  William  Porter,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Millerstown,  Pa.,  Nor.  10,  1808. 
He  graduated  from  Dickinson  College  in  1824,  and 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1827 ;  was  or- 
dained an  evangelist  in  1829,  became  stated  supply  at 
Columbus,  Mo.,  the  same  year,  at  Palmyra  in  1884,  at 
Big  Creek  in  1841,  pastor  there  in  1857,  preached  in 
various  churches  in  1861,  was  pastor  at  Millerstown  in 
1867,  and  evangelist  from  1869  until  his  death  near 
West  Ely,  Mo.,  Dec.  25, 1884.  See  Necrol,  RepoH  of 
PrmceUm  Theol,  Sem.  1885,  p.  14. 

Cooker,  Bkhjamim  Franklin,  D.D.,  LL^D.,  a 
Methodist  Episcopal  divine,  was  bom  in  Yorkshire, 
England,  in  1821.  He  was  brought  up  as  a  Wesleyan, 
converted  in  early  life,  and  at  eighteen  became  a  local 
preacher.  He  was  educated  at  King  James's  Gram- 
mar-school fur  one  of  the  learned  professions,  but  after 
spending  several  years  in  business  in  England,  and 
from  1850  several  more  in  Australia,  he  came  to  Amer- 
ica in  1856,  settled  at  Adrian,  Mich.,  and  the  next  year 
joined  the  Detroit  Conference,  being  sent  to  Palmyja  \ 
the  following  year  was  stationed  at  Adrian,  afterwards 
at  Ypsllanti,  Ann  Arbor,  and  Adrian ;  and  in  1869  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  Michigan  Univer- 
sity, a  position  which  he  retained  until  his  death,  April 
8, 1883.  He  was  a  fine  scholar  and  a  brilliant  writer. 
He  was  the  author  of,  Christianity  and  Greek  PhUoso^ 
phjf :  ^Theistic  Conception  of  the  World :  ^ Student s 
Hand-book  of  Philosophy,  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con^ 
ferences,  1888,  p.  815. 

Coggeahall,  Samuel  D.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bora  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  Feb.  18, 1811. 
He  was  converted  in  early  life,  and  immediately  be- 
gan to  preach;  was  admitted  in  1832  into  the  New 
England  Conference,  in  which  and  (after  1840)  in  the 
Providence  (now  the  New  England  Southern)  Confer- 
ence he  occupied  important  positions  until  his  death, 
Oct.  30, 1885.  By  private  studies  he  acquired  a  good 
degree  of  scholarship,  and  was  well  known  as  a  writer, 
especially  on  historical  subjects,  in  the  periodicals  of 
his  denomination.  See  Minutes  of  A  wmal  ConferenceSf 
1886,  p.  90. 

Colt,  Thomas  Winthrop,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  divine,  was  born  at  New  London,  Conn.,  June 
28, 1808.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1821 ; 
became  rector  of  SL  Peter*s,  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1827 ;  of 
Christ  Church,  Cambridge,  in  1829;  of  Trinity  Church, 
New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  in  1839;  afterwards  of  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Troy ;  president  of  Transylvania  University, 
Lexington,  Ky. ;  professor  of  Trinity  College,  Hartford, 
in  1849;  in  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1872,  and  remained  in  that  position  until  his 
death,  June  21, 1885.  He  was  the  author  of.  Theolog- 
ical Comnumplace  Book  (1882,  1857):  —  Remarks  on 
Norton's  Statement  of  Reasons,  etc.  (1838)  i—BihU  m 


Paragraphs  (1884;  an  abridgment  of  Townaend*s 
Chronological  BibUf  which  he  also  edited  in  full,  1837) : 
— Puritanism  (1844),  besides  frequent  contributions  to 
the  journals  of  his  denomination. 

COllegea,  AacsRiCAN.  The  methods  of  organiza- 
tion and  instruction  adopted  in  these  institutions  natu- 
rally grew  out  of  those  pursued  in  the  educational  es- 
tablishments of  the  mother  country,  especially  the  great 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  in  which  the 
colleges  proper  are  subordinate  or  detailed  schools.  See 
Universities,  European.  In  a  few,  chiefly  the  older 
and  better-endowed  colleges  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
States,  the  original  academic  foundation  has  gradually 
expanded  into  a  fully-developed  university,  and  in  many 
of  the  newer  institutions  the  entire  curriculum  has  been 
laid  out  for  future  completion;  hence  the  use  of  the 
title  '*  university "  has  been  not  altogether  inappropri- 
ate, although  few  American  educational  incorporations 
cover  the  entire  field  of  liberal  arts  and  leamcid  profes- 
sions. In  one  instance,  the  University  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  the  European  idea>  has  been  substantially 
adopted,  but  without  any  local  apparatus  of  buildings, 
teachers,  or  personal  instraction.  Special  schools  of 
technical  training  are  generally  relied  upon  to  supple- 
ment the  literary  coarse  in  the  departments  of  law, 
medicine,  theology,  engineering,  etc  See  Thbolooi- 
GAL  Seminaries.  In  many  of  the  newer  colleges  of 
America,  and  in  a  few  of  the  older  ones,  ladies  are  now 
admitted  to  the  full  privileges  and  honon  of  study  and 
graduation,  and  there  are  numerous  institutions,  often 
styled  "  Female  Colleges,"  in  which  women  exclusively 
have  nearly  equal  literary  advantages,  besides  the  or- 
namental branches  more  appropriate  to  their  sphere. 
The  honorary  degrees  (A.B.,  etc)  are  in  America  some- 
times conferred  by  schools  which  in  reality  are  little 
above  the  rank  of  ordinary  **  academies."  See  Edu- 
cation. 

The  following  tables  are  compiled  from  the  Report 
of  the  (JJ,  S,)  Commisnoner  of  Education  for  1883-^ 
(the  latest  return).  Detailed  information  on  nearly  all 
the  colleges  may  be  found  in  Kiddle  and  Schemes  Cy- 
dopadia  of  Education,  under  the  title  pf  each. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  AMBBICAN  COLLEGES. 


Atmrdinf  (•  a««M. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District  of  Colombia. . 

Oeorirla 

Illinois. 

Indiana , 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Lontslsua 

Maiue 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi , 

Missonri , 

Nebraska 

New  Hainpehire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina , 

Ohio 

Oregon  

Pennsyfvnnla 

Rhode  Island 

Sooth  Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont , 

VlrglnU 

Wsshlnj^n  Territory. 
Wisconsin 


4 
6 
11 
8 
8 

i 
1 

6 

6 

SO 

15 

19 

8 

10 

10 

8 

9 

T 

9 

4 

8 

19 

6 

1 

4 

S9 

9 

88 

6 

90 

1 

9 

20 

11 

1 

i 

9 


jM^9Hf09  XAfffl^MfHVwBIWWM* 


African  Meth.  Enlsc. . . 

Assoc.  Bef  PresD 

Baptist 

Christian 

Congregational 

Cong,  and  Presb 

Cumb.  Presb .*.. 

Disciples 

Evnugellcsl 

Evaugelical  Associate. 
Bvaogelical  Lutheran. 

Friends 

Free-will  Baptist 

German  Baptist 

Oernian  Meth.  £pi»c. . 

Hebrew 

Lutheran 

Methodist  Episcopal.. 
Meth.  Episc.  Soutn. . . . 

Meth.  Protestant 

New  Church 

Non-sectarlun 

Presbyterian 

Pi-esb.  Old  Style 

i  Protestant  Episcopal. . 

Heformed 

Reformed  Dotch 

Reformed  German.... 

Romau  Catholic 

Scventh-dnv  Adventlst 
Southern  Presbyterian 

United  Brethren 

United  Presbyterian.. 
Universallst 


Total 


a 

1 

80 
16 
16 
8 
S 
1 
1 
1 

11 

4 

4 

S 

8 

1 

8 

86 

16 

2 

1 

82 

29 

1 

10 
2 
1 
1 
66 
2 
1 
7 
8 
4 


866 


COLLIER 


1000 


CRETENET 


AMERICAN  COLLBGES  BSTABUSHXD  DURING  THB  LAST  CENTURY. 

Orguted. 

KuM.                                                JLocbUm.                        1  Plnraflliic  UmimSmatlom.  1  TMMkm.      itetete.  ] 

16S0 
1701 
1740 
1748 
1754 
1766 
1770 

ini 

1770 
1780 
1783 
1786 
1780 
1780 
1708 
1704 
1706 
1706 

HurTArd  Colleffe. 

Cambridffe.  Mass. 

UnlUrian. 

Coneregatlonal.... 
Pteaoyterian 

Prot  Bpiscopnl 

Baptist 

SB 
41 
IS 

M 

1040 

m 

4M 

141 

9fiS 

Yale  Colleflre. 

New  Haven.  Conn 

College  of  New  Jerser 

University  of  Pennaylvanla.. 
Colombia  College. ■ . . . . 

Princeton.  N.  J 

Pbiladelpbia.  Pa 

New  York  citr.  N.  Y. 

Brown  UnlTeraitT... 

Providence.  Iw  I 

am                   m^^       1 

17             *f^     1 

Dartmontta  Collesa 

Hanover.  K.  H 

Congrmtlonal 

Dntcn  Refimned.... 
Presbyterian 

Meth.  BptsooiMl.... 

• 

Roman  Catholic. . . . 

Congregational 

Presbyterian. 

16 

18 

0 

8 

7 

5 

on 

OS 

13 
M 

77 

RoUrore  CoUeire 

New  Bmnswidc,  N.  J. 

Hanipden-Sldney  College,  Va. 
Chestertown.  Md 

Hampden-Sidney  College. . . . 
Waahlnirton  College 

IMckinifO"  College. . . . . .  ^  <  ^  ^  - 

Carlisle.  Pa. 

College  of  Cbarleatou. 

St.  John's  Collesre 

Charleston.  8.C 

Annapolis.  Md. 

i     1     ii   1 

Georgetown  College 

West  Washington,  D.  C. 

Williamstown.  Mass 

17 

4 

IS 

10 

tic 

19 
18S 

Williins  Collese. 

GreenevUIe  Colleffe. 

Tnscnlnm.  Tenn 

University  of  Nortb  Carolina. 
Union  College 

Chanel  Hill.  N.  C 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 

1» 

CoUier,  William,  D.D.,  a  minioter  of  the  Meth- 
odist Protestant  Church,  was  bom  at  Hagefstown,  Md., 
March  11, 1600.  He  was  oonrerted  at  the  age  of  fonr> 
teen,  joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Charch,  and  be- 
canie  a  local  preacher.  In  1828  he  united  with  the 
Methodist  Piotestaot  Church,  in  1829  was  admitted 
into  the  Maryland  Confereoce,  in  1851  tranaferred  to 
the  Pittabuigh  Conference,  and  in  18o8  to  the  Muskio- 
gum  Conferenee,  in  all  which  he  took  prominent  posi- 
tions, being  seveial  times  president.  He  held  a  super- 
annuated relation  from  1868  to  1869,  and  again  from 
1874  nntU  his  death,  July  12, 188^  He  was  a  power- 
ful  preacher.    Sea  Mttkoditt  Beeorder,  Sept.  20, 1884. 

Conoeptaallnn,  a  term  used  to  designate  that 
form  of  speculative  philosophy  which  does  not  deny  the 
reality  of  objective  existences,  but  still  holds  them  to 
be  certain  only  as  results  of  subjective  perception  or 
cognition.  It  was  substantially  that  of  Abelanl,  Peter 
the  Lombard,  and  Albert  the  Great.  See  Nomihalism 
and  Realism.  It  has  recently  been  revived  in  a  mod- 
ified form  by  Kant,  liOtae,  and  others.  ' 

Conouratift  Dl'^nus,  a  term  used  in  scholastic 
philosophy  to  designate  the  coincidence  between  the 
divine  agency,  as  a  final  caU9e,  and  natural  agencies, 
as  the  efieknt  oauss  of  events  and  processes.  It  was 
elaborated  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  a  similar  distinc- 
tion may  be  traced  in  the  discussions  on  the  human 
will  and  scientific  evolution. 

Condit,  Robert  Woodruff,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Stillwater,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  17,  179&. 
He  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1814, 
was  lipensed  in  1818,  and  after  preaching  in  various 
parts  of  Virginia,  settled  as  pastor  at  Montgomery, 
N.  Y.,  from  December,  1820,  to  April,  1880,  and  at  Os- 
wego, from  April,  1831,  until  his  death,  Feb.  11,  1871. 
He  was  an  excellent  preacher,  and  active  in  all  ecclesi- 
astical work.     See  Gen,  Cat  of  A  uhum  Tkeol,  Setn. 

1883,  p.  241 ;  Nevin,  Pretbjfterian  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Coombe,  Pkmiikl,  a  noted  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Smyrna,  Del.,  Aug.  5, 1811.  He 
was  converted  in  1829;  received  a  good  English  educa- 
tion; filled  a  vacancy  as  preacher  at  Elkington,  Md., 
in  1884,  and  the  next  year  was  admitted  into  the  Phila- 
delphia Conference,  in  which  he  occupied  important 
position^  as  preacher,  presiding  elder,  and  agent  for  va- 
rious Chureh  enterprises,  and  especially  in  the  temper- 
ance cause,  until  his  death,  near  Philadelphia,  Jan.  31, 

1884.  See  dIvuUes  of  A  miual  Confermcet,  1884,  p.  81. 

Cooper,  J.  T.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Dover,  Del.,  Mareh  16, 1806.  He  was 
converted  when  about  twenty-three  years  old,  entered 
the  Philadelphia  Conference  in  1884,  and  in  It  occupied 
important  sutions  nntil  the  failure  of  his  health,  in 
1851,  after  which  he  labored  occasionally,  chiefly  in  the 
Wilmington  Conference,  until  his  death,  April  12, 1884. 
See  Minutti  of  Annual  Cotrfhmcf,  1885,  p.  84. 


Coppin  (Cop  jn,  or  Copping),  Joux,  a  Istidid 
(some  say  a  minister)  of  Buiy  St.  Edmunds,  £iig.,vM 
imprisoned  in  1570  for  holding  public  religious  lemceB, 
and  hanged,  June  5, 1583,  as  a  disseminator  of  heretiol 
books.     See  Dexter,  Congrfgaiiomalism,  p.  210. 

Cotteilll,  Thomas,  an  English  dergymsn  sod 
poet,  was  bora  at  Cannock,  Staffordshire,  Dec  4, 1779. 
He  was  educated  at  SL  John's  College,  Cambridge;  or- 
dained in  1806;  labored  in  the  ministiy  socccsstvely  ai 
Tutbury,  Lane  End,  in  the  Staffordshire  potteries,  sad 
at  Sl  Paul's,  Sheffield  (1817),  nntU  his  death,  Dec.  29, 
1828.  Besides  a  book  of  family  prayers,  he  puUbhed 
(aided  by  James  Montgomery)  a  JStiee^km  of  Paalm 
and  ffymnt  (1819),  among  which  the  veruon  of  Pss.ciii, 
beginning  '*  O  bless  the  Lord,  my  soul,"  has  become 
especially  popular.  Mrs.  M.  J.  Cottcrill's  hymn,  '^0 
thou  who  hast  at  thy  command,  The  hearts  of  sll  bno 
in  thy  hand,"  is  from  the  same  collection. 

Cotton,  Kathanikl,  an  English  physidsn  sod 
poet,  was  bom  in  1707.  He  studied  m«licine  st  Ley. 
den  under  Boerhave ;  established  an  asylum  for  lunstia 
first  at  Dunstable,  Bedfordshire,  and  aAerwards  st  St 
Albans,  and  died  Aug,  2,  1788.  Besides  two  medicil 
bodks,  he  publishetl  Vmon$  in  Verge  (1751,  and  siooe). 
His  works,  both  in  verse  and  prose,  were  edited  by  his 
son  (1791,  2  vols.)*     See  Chalmers,  Bio^,  Diti.  %.  t. 

Co'wley,  AsRAiiAM,  an  English  poet,  was  born  io 
London  in  1618,  and  educated  at  Westminster  School, 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In  1643  he  was  com- 
pelled to  retire  to  Oxford  on  account  of  his  roysliatic 
sentiments,  and  afterwards  left  England  for  ten  yesn, 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  sUidions  retiremeoL 
He  died  at  Chertsey,  July  28,  1667.  Besides  some 
scientific  and  philosophical  treatises,  he  published  many 
poems,  which,  however,  are  now  little  valued.  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Did,  s.  v. 

Craik,  James,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Episoopsl 
clergyman,  was  bom  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  in  1806.  He 
graduated  from  the  Transylvania  University ;  practiced 
law  at  Kanawha,  W.  Va. ;  was  ordained  in  1839:  w«s 
rector  fire  3'ear8  at  Weston,  and  thereafter  of  Chriit 
Church,  Louisville,  Ky.,  until  his  death,  June  9,  \9^. 
He  was  president  of  the  General  Convention  in  1^ 
1868,  1871,  and  1874,  and  for  many  years  a  member  of 
the  standing  committee  of  the  diocese  of  Kentucky. 

Crane,  William  Caret,  D.D.,  LL.D^  a  Bsptist 
minister  and  educator,  was  bom  at  Richmond,  Vs., 
March  17, 1816.  He  graduated  from  Columbian  Col- 
lege, D.  C;  was  converted  in  1832,  and  ordained  in 
1^;  was  pastor  successively  at  Montgomery,  .\]s.« 
Columbus,  Vicksburg,  and  Yazoo  City,  Misa.,  from  1839 
to  1851 ;  in  1863  president  of  Baylor  University,  Texss, 
and  died  Feb.  26, 1885.    See  Cathcart,  Baptist  kweyk^ 

S.V. 

Cretenet,  Jaoqitbs,  a  noted  French  eodesiistie, 
was  bora  at  ChampliUe  (Fraoche  Comte)  in  IGM.  He 
studied  surgery  at  Lyons,  and  devoted  blmadf  to  tfaa 


GROSSMAN 


1061 


DESHON 


icUef  of  the  Tietims  of  the  memoTable  plague  in  that 
city.  After  the  death  of  his  wife,  who  had  broagbt 
him  a  large  property,  he  entered  the  clerical  stale,  and 
founded  the  order  of  Joeephiata,  devoted  to  mtaeiona  and 
edncation,  which  met  with  ranch  oppoaition,  the  head 
himself  being  excommunicated  by  the  archbishop  of 
Lyons.  Creteoet  died  at  Montheel,  Sept.  1, 1666b  See 
Hoefer,  Nauv,  Biog,  GStiraie,  s.  ▼. 

Croflsmaii,  Samuel,  an  Engltah  deigyman  and 
poet,  was  bom  at  Bradley,  Suffolk,  in  1824 ;  became 
prebendary  of  the  first  stall  at  Bristol  in  1667,  dean  in 
1683,  and  died  Feb.  4, 1684.  Besides  Sermons,  be  pub- 
lished The  Yomg  Man'»  MeditaHoiu  (1664,  1868), 
which  contains  several  popular  hymns. 

Cruelty  to  Animau  is  a  subject  which  has  lately 
attracted  much  public  attention  from  moralists  and 
legislaConi  The  principle  upon  which  owners  are  re- 
strained from  exercising  unneoeasary  severity  in  the 
treatment  of  their  beasts  is  not,  as  odten  imagined,  be- 
cause brutea  have  any  moral  righta  in  themaelvea,  but 
because  society  requirss  to  be  protected  from  exhibitions 
of  cruelty,  inasmuch  as  these  not  only  outrage  the  feel- 
ings of  humane  spectators,  but  alio  tend  to  generate 
ferocity  in  the  individuals  who  practice  auch  excess, 
and  thus  render  them  dangerous  to  their  fellow-beings. 
On  this  ground  Christianity,  as  soon  as  it  succeeded  in 
gaining  control  of  public  sentiment  in  the  Roman  em- 
pire, abolished  the  atrocious  customs  of  the  ampbi^ 
theatre,  not  even  allowing  beasts  to  contend  with  each 
other  in  mortal  combat  for  the  amusement  of  the  popu- 
lace; and  the  same  benign  influence  has  nearly  ban- 
ished the  bull-fight,  the  cock-pit,  and  pigeon-shooting, 
aa  sports,  from  Christendom.  Wanton  infliction  of 
suffering  is  at  variance  with  the  fundamental  law  of 
the  Go^mI,  and  invariably  reacts  with  injury  upon  its 
perpetrator.  Even  criminals  are  not  to  be  executed 
with  needless  severity,  nor  with  prolonged  or  aggra- 
vated misery.  Pain  may  be,  often  must  be,  inflicted, 
and  that  of  intense  character,  but  never  unnecessarily 
nor  for  the  gratification  of  revenge,  malice,  or  barbarity. 
The  heavenly  Father  himself,  like  the  wise  surgeon, 
cuts  keenly  and  cauterizes  sorely,  but  only  for  the  good 
of  the  sufferer.  So  the  human  lord  of  creation  has  a 
right  to  take  the  life  of  inferior  creatures  when  thia  is 
aubeervient  to  bis  own  or  others^  important  advantage, 
but  he  is  not  authorized  to  superadd  torture.  The  mod- 
em lawa  passed  in  roost  Christian  countries  to  prevent 
cruelty  to  animals  have  this  principle  for  their  only 
legitimate  foundation.  Hence  they  should  be  judi- 
ciously administered,  so  as  not  rashly  to  interfere  with 
the  proper  rights  of  ownership,  nor  subject  parties  to 
vexatioua  interferences  The  practice  of  vivitectum  for 
acientiflc  and  medical  purposes  has  especially  been,  in 
our  judgment,  onduly  restrained  by  some  of  the  enact- 
ment* in  certain  states  as  well  as  in  Great  Britain. 
The  valuable  information  to  be  acquired  by  this  meana 
alone  shoold  not  be  losf  for  squeamish  regard  to  nervous 
individuals,  who  are  not  compelled  nor  expected  to  wit- 
ness such  operations.  Provided  no  unnecessary  amount 
of  pain  is  caused  the  animal,  nor  any  aggravating  cir- 
cumstancea  introduced  into  the  operation,  these  experi- 
ment should  be  fostered  by  the  statute  law,  rather  than 
repressed.  They 'ought  doubtless  to  be  placed  under 
regulation,  but  not  prohibited.  They  should,  of  course, 
be  performed  in  private,  and  by  scientific  practitioners. 
When  carried  on  property  they  are  a  means  of  mercy 
and  not  an  act  of  inhumanity. 

Cnrran,  Biciiard  Augustus,  D.D.,a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Mifflintown,  Pa.,  July  15, 1808. 
He  graduated  from  Washington  College  in  1834,  and 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1887;  was  li- 
censed the  same  year,  and  became  stated  supply  at 
various  churehes  in  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  Georgia  un- 
til 1842,  after  which  he  was  pastor  of  several  churehes 
successively,  in  Pennsylvania  chiefly,  teaching  ooca- 
aionally  aft  the  same  tioM  until  1876,  when  he  retired 


to  Indiana.  He  died  there,  Mareh  26^  1888.  SeeJVscrol 
Report  o/PrineeUm  TkeoL  Sem,  1884,  p.  22, 

Cnrrey,  George,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
bom  in  London,  April  7, 1816,  and  educated  at  Charter- 
house  School  and  St.  John*s  College,  Cambridge,  grad- 
uating in  1888.  He  became  a  fellow  of  the  latter  in 
1889,  in  1840  a  lecturer,  in  1844  a  tutor,  in  1846  White- 
hall preacher,  in  1849  preacher  at  the  Charterhouse, 
and  in  1871  ito  master.    He  died  Feb.  7, 1882. 


Dabentoime.    See  DAUBsirroiniK. 

Damon,  Samuel  Chenxrt,  D.D.,a  Congregational 
minister,  waa  bora  at  Holden,  Mass.,  Feb.  16, 1816.  He 
graduated  from  Amherst  College  in  1886,  attended 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  for  two  yean^  gradu- 
ating from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1841; 
waa  ordained  seaman's  chaplain  and  editor  of  The 
Friendf  at  Honolulu,  Hawaii,  fkom  1842  until  his  death, 
Feb.  7, 1886.  He  published  numerous  sermons  and  aA> 
dresses.  See  Cong,  Year-bookfl8S6^p,22iNeeToLSiport 
4^PrinoeUm  TheoL  Sem,  1886,  p.  88. 

Daviei^  Baqjamin,  Pb.D.,  LUD.,  a  Baptiat  schol- 
ar, was  bora  at  Wem,  near  St  Clear's,  in  Carmarthen- 
shire,  Wales,  Feb.  28, 1814.  He  began  to  preach  before 
he  was  sixteen  yean  old,  entered  Bristol  College  in 
1880,  studied  at  the  universities  of  Dublin  and  Glaa- 
gow,  and  finally  at  Leipeic;  in  1888  took  charge  of  the 
Baptist  Theological  Institution  at  Montreal,  Omada; 
in  1844  of  Stepney  College,  Enghind;  in  1847  became 
professor  in  McGill  College,  Montreal;  in  1867  in  StefH 
ney  College;  then  removed  to  Regent's  Pkrfc,  London, 
and  died  July  19, 1876.  He  was  active  in  philological 
and  Biblical  labors,  and  published  numerous  worka  in 
that  line*  He  was  a  member  of  the  Bible  Reviskn 
Committee.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Hand-book^  1876, 
p.  841. 

DaTioBi  Sir  John,  an  English  writer,  waa  bom  at 
Tisbttiy,  WilUhire,  in  1670.  He  graduated  from  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  in  1590,  studied  law,  became  a  tnember 
of  Parlisment  in  1601,  in  1608  solicitor-general  of  Ire- 
land, in  1608  chief-justice  in  Enghmd,  in  1616  returned 
to  IreUnd,  and  died  Dec.  7, 1626.  Besides  several  po- 
litical essays  he  published  a  somewhat  noted  poem, 
entitled  Noeoe  T^pevm  (Lond.  1694,  and  often).  See 
Chalmers,  Biog,  Diet,  s.  v. 

Dead,  Book  op  thk.    See  Ritual  of  the  Dbad. 

Dean,  James  Alexami>er,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  born  at  Hubbardtoo,Vt.,  April  8, 
1828.  He  graduated  from  Wesleyan  University,  Conn., 
in  1847;  studied  one  year  in  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary ;  taught  for  several  years  in  Virginia,  North  Car- 
olina, Ohio,  and  Indiana,  Joining  meanwhile  (1862)  the 
North  Carolina  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Chureh  South,  and  later  (1860)  the  Providence  Confer- 
ence of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  in  which  he 
occupied  important  stations  until  1872,  after  which  he 
was  engaged  by  turns  as  teacher,  preacher,  and  author 
until  his  death,  March  80,  1886.  See  Alumni  Record 
of  Wedeyan  Univeraily,  1888,  p.  81, 664 ;  Minutet  of  An- 
nual Conferences,  1886,  p.  81. 

De  Koven,  Hemrt,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  born  Jan.  24,  1819,  at  Middletown, 
Conn.  He  studied  some  time  at  the  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity there,  then  travelled  in  Europe,  studied  theol- 
ogy under  Dt.  Jarvis  at  Middletown,  in  1842  became 
instructor  of  modern  languages  in  the  university  there, 
in  1844  rector  at  Eaat  Haddam,  in  1846  asaisUnt  min- 
ister of  Christ  Church,  New  York  city,  in  1848  rector 
at  Red  Hook,  N.  Y^  in  1862  professor  in  the  Berkeley 
Divinity  School,  Middletown,  Conn.,  and  died  at  Engel- 
buig,  Switserland,  July  10, 1884. 

Deahon,  Giues  Heioit,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal dfligyman,  was  bora  at  New  London,  Conn.,  March 


DICKINSON 


1062 


DODGE 


81,  1820.  He  graduated  ftom  T^le  College  in  1840, 
and  from  the  General  Theological  Seminary  (N.  Y.)  in 
1843 ;  ministered  thereafter  at  Windham,  Conn.,  until 
1844,  at  South  Glastonbury  until  1848,  and  at  Meriden 
from  1850  until  hit  death,  Jan.  1, 1883. 

Dickinson,  John,  LLbD.,  an  English  Independent 
minister,  was  bom  near  Whitby,  Oct.  27,  1797.  He 
was  received  as  a  preacher  among  the  Wesleyans,  but 
left  them  to  study  under  Dr.  Wardlaw  at  Glasgow,  and 
at  the  Edinburgh  Unirersity.  In  1888  he  became  pas- 
tor at  Kilmarnock,  in  1846  at  Hounslow,  in  1852  at 
Bur>*,  Lancashire,  and  in  1857  at  Bridlington,  where  he 
died,  Oct  5, 1884.  See  (Lond.)  Cong.  Year-book,  1885, 
p.  190. 

Diefendor^  Sandkrs,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Minden,  N.  T.,  April  24,  1816.  He 
graduated  from  Tale  College  in  1836;  became  pastor 
of  Nashville  and  Hopewell  churches,  in  Ohio,  in  1845; 
in  1849  professor  in  Vermilion  Institute,  where  he  re- 
mained, with  some  pastoral  and  educational  changes  in 
the  interim,  until  his  death,  Feb.  14, 1884.  See  Nevin, 
Presb,  Entydop,  s.  v. 

Dirok,  Cornelius  Lansing,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Lansingburgh,  N.  Y.,  March  8, 
1785.  He  became  pastor  at  Onondaga  in  1807,  at 
Stillwater  in  1814,  at  Park  Street,  Boston,  Mass.,  in 
1816,  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.  (First  Church),  in  1817,  at  Utica 
(Second  Church)  in  1829,  at  Houston  Street,  New  York 
city,  in  1888,  resided  in  Auburn  from  1835  to  1838,  in 
Illinois  in  1839,  was  pastor  successively  at  Utica,  Syn- 
cuse,  and  Auburn  until  1846,  of  churches  in  New  York 
city  and  Brooklyn  until  1855,  and  died  March  19, 1857. 
He  was  also  a  professor  in  Auburn  Theological  Seminary 
from  1821  to  1826.     See  Nevin,  Presb,  Etuychp,  s.  v. 

Disembodied  State  of  the  Soul  after 
Death.  In  our  almost  total  ignorance  of  the  essen- 
tial nature,  whether  of  matter  or  spirit,  and  of  the 
bond  of  union  between  them  in  the  human  constitu- 
tion, we  are  able  to  predicate  very  little  with  certainty 
respecting  the  condition  of  the  soul  after  its  separation 
from  the  body.  Neither  science  nor  revelation  affords 
us  much  positive  information  on  the  subject  After  all 
the  long  and  -earnest  inquiries  of  Christian  as  well  as 
pagan  philosophers  a  few  general  points  only  have  been 
definitely  ascertained.  They  may,  in  fact,  be  summed  up 
in  the  two  following  propositions.    See  Psychology. 

1.  The  Soul  Preserves  its  Consciousness  after  Death, 
«~The  continuity  of  its  intellectual  and  emotional  pow- 
ers is  indeed  essential  to  its  identity,  if  not  to  its  very 
existence,  fur  we  can  form  no  conception  of  a  disembod- 
ied spirit  where  these  are  absent.  The  so-called  ''  soul- 
sleep  "  is  a  contradiction  in  terms,  fur  literal  sleep  is  a 
state  of  the  5o</y  rather  than  of  the  mind,  or,  at  least,  a 
status  of  the  latter  8ii|)eriiuluced  by  a  certain  condition 
of  the  former.  In  like  manner  all  the  analogies  based 
upon  temporary  unconsciousness  by  reason  uf  accidents 
or  disease  during  life  are  false  and  seir-coiifuted,  since 
the  very  relation  of  corporeity  upon  which  they  are 
hypothecated  is  absent  in  the  premises.  It  is  scientif- 
ically certain  that  all  such  comatose  or  insensible  states 
are  merely  the  result  of  injury  or  inaction  on  the  part 
of  the  brain  and  other  nervous  centres,  and  are  produced 
by  purely  physical  causes;  hence,  if  they  prove  anything 
at  all  in  the  case,  they  would  argue  a  total  and  final 
cessation  of  all  consciousness  at  death— in  other  words, 
the  mortality  of  the  soul  equally  with  that  of  the  body. 
If  the  spirit  really  survives  the  dissolution  of  the  flesh 
— and  this  is  conceded  by  those  who  maintain  the  the- 
ory in  question — then  it  must  continue  to  possess  and 
exercise  its  faculties,  or  else  drop  into  a  state  which  is 
tantamount  to  non-existence.  A  disembodied  soul  is 
diflScult  enough  for  us  to  apprehend  in  any  supposition 
without  this  superadded  notion  of  inanition  of  thought 
It  is  as  nearly  as  possible  analogous  to  a  mere  pointy  but 
this,  if  devoid  of  properties  or  functions,  is  a  sheer  non- 
entity.    Moreover,  a  restoration  to  consciousness  by 


means  and  in  coniequence  of  a  reunion  with  the  body 
would  be  a  recreation  and  a  total  destruction  of  the  ids 
of  identity.    See  Rbsurbectiok. 

Accordingly,  the  uniform  testimony  of  Scripture  is 
clear  as  to  the  continued  exercise  of  all  its  esiential 
powers  by  the  soul  after  death.  Whatever  else  the  par- 
able of  Lazaras  and  Dives  may  or  may  not  mean,  it  cer- 
tainly includes  this,  and  the  frequent,  nay  customary, 
use  of  such  expressions  as  "  being  with  Christ,"  ctc^ 
must  imply,  at  least,  as  much  as  this.  That  the  peni- 
tent thief  and  the  apostle  Paul  expected  to  fall  into 
absolute  unconsciousness  is  abhorrent  to  coDimon-sentt 
and  opposed  to  the  plain  tenor  of  their  language.  There 
could  be  no  joy  in  such  an  anticipation,  and  there  can 
be  no  comfort  in  it  to  modem  believers.  It  is  as  an- 
scriptural  as  it  is  irrational.    See  Soul-sleep. 

2.  The  Disembodied  Soul  Ceases  to  Hold  its  Prestnl 
Relations  to  Earth  and  Sense.— Thw  follows  neceaaarilT 
from  the  absence  of  the  body,  through  which  akoe  it 
maintains  these  relations.    The  sopposition  of  the  de- 
velopment or  continuance  of  spiritual  senses,  or  sooe 
occult  faculty  by  which  it  discerns  outward  objects,  ia 
a  sheer  fancy  destitute  of  logical  or  scientific  sappoit 
A  great  deal  of  vague  phraseology  and  equally  iod^ 
nite  imaginings  is  often  indulged  in  by  Christians  os 
this  point     Swedenborg  carried  his  speculations  so  far 
as  to  invent  a  whole  new  world  of  post-mnndane  vod- 
ders,  and  to  people  it  with  the  creations  of  his  feitile 
fancy.     Sober  theology  should  be  wary  of  sach  ex- 
travagance.    The  figurative  expressions  of  Scripture 
must  not  be  pressed  into  the  service  of  visionary  con- 
ceptions.   Nothing  can  be  more  certain  than  the  total 
suspension  of  all  communication  with  the  external  or 
physical  universe  by  the  disraption  of  the  tie  betveen 
the  body  and  the  spirit  at  death,  and  prior  to  ita  re- 
sumption at  the  resurrection.    How  far  a  disembodied 
spirit  may  be  able  to  hold  intercourse  with  another  is  a 
pure  matter  of  conjecture,  upon  which  experience  affords 
no  information.    That  God,  and  perhaps  angelic  betsga, 
have  direct  access  to  the  mind  in  that  state  is  a  reaaos* 
able  supposition,  but  it  must  be  purely  by  internal  and 
spiritual  influences,  which  leave  no  trace  of  means  or 
method  upon  the  consciousness — as,  in  fact,  thej  do 
not  in  the  embodied  state  (John  iii,  8).    They  can  be 
detected  onl}*  by  their  character  and  tendency  (1  John 
iv,  1).     The  joys  of  the  righteous  and  the  niseiy  of 
the  wicked  will  doubtless  be  intensified  by  the  absence 
of  all  distracting  influences  in  the  disembodied  sute, 
and  will  result  chiefly,  perhaps  wholly,  from  the  itcol- 
lections  and  combinations  of  their  former  habits  and 
associations  of  thought  and  feeling,  just  as  in  the  state 
of  final  beatification  or  perdition  they  will  be  nuinlr 
due  to  similar  causes.    The  soul  will  continue  its  usual 
state  fixed  by  the  absence  of  probation  and  external  in- 
fluences. Nor  will  it  pursue  the  hallucinations  of  <2reti»it, 
which  are  the  efifect  of  a  suspeiuion  of  the  rational  and 
perceptive  faculties  during  sl^p  in  a  corporeal  atate, 
but  will  have  the  full  consciousness  of  its  position  u  to 
guilt  or  innocence,  and  the  clear  apprehension  of  its 
final  award.    A  practical  lesson,  this,  of  the  importance 
of  cultivating  those  moral  faculties  and  spiritual  aspiii- 
tions  upon  which  the  happiness  of  a  rational  and  ac- 
countable creature  must  everlastingly  depend!    See 
Ihtermediatx  State. 

Dobell,  JoHK,  an  English  bymnist,  bom  in  1757, 
was  a  pious  layman  of  moderate  education,  who  died  st 
Poole,  Dorsetshire,  in  May,  1840,  leaving,  besides  two 
%'olumes  on  Baptism  (1807)  and  Humanity  (1812),  a 
New  SeUctian  of  Hymns  (Lond.  1812, 8vo,  and  kter), 
containing  several  of  bis  own. 

Dodge,  Richard  Vabick,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Kaskaakia,  III.,  Aug.  4, 1821.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  CoHege  in  1840,  spent  one  yesr 
studying  law,  graduated  from  Princeton  Theotogicsl 
Seminary  in  1844,  served  aa  pastor  or  stated  supply  at 
various  places  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  Virgiai%  Pcniugrl- 


DORRIEN 


1068 


FORBES 


yania,  Wisoontui,  and  Galifonia,  spent  aereral  yean  in 
foreign  travel,  became  pastor  at  San  Diego,  CaL,  in  1879, 
and  died  there,  Feb.  26, 1885.  See  NeeroL  Rqfori  </ 
Princeton  TheoL  Senu  1886,  p.  48. 

Donien,  Patrick,  D.D.,  an  Irish  Roman  Oatholic 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Downpatrick,  County  Down,  March 
29, 1814.  He  entered  Maynooth  College  in  1888,  was 
ordained  in  1887,  was  curate  at  Belfast  until  1847,  par- 
ish priest  of  Loughlin  Island  until  1860,  when  he  became 
bishop  of  Cabala  in  partibuM,  coadjutor  of  the  see  of 
Down  and  Connor  in  1865,  sole  bishop  in  the  same  year, 
and  died  Nov.  8, 1885.  He  published  some  sermons  and 
charges.    See  Brady,  Epite,  Sucoeincm,  i,  275 ;  ii,  863. 

Dnunmond,  Wiixiam,  the  first  Scottish  poet  who 
wrote  well  in  English,  was  bom  at  Hawthoroden,  Dec. 
18, 1585»  He  graduated  from  Edinburgh  University  in 
1605,  studied  law  at  Brages,  in  France,  settled  upon 
bis  native  estate  in  1609,  spent  several  years  (1625-30) 
abroad,  but  was  so  affected  by  the  execution  of  Charles 
I  that  he  died,  Dec.  4, 1649.  Besides  some  political  pro- 
ductions, he  puUished  numerous  poems  (a  few  religious), 
which  have  been  issued  collectively  (171 1,  1882,  1883, 
1857).    See  Life,  by  Manob  (Lond.  1878). 

Dn  Boifl,  JoH3i  Clabkson,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal minister,  bora  Dec  13. 1829,  was  rector  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Fredericksted,  Santa  Cms,  and  died  at  Antigua, 
Nov.  27, 1884. 

X>iif^  Archiiiald,  D.D.,  a  Ongregational  minister, 
was  bora  in  the  Gallowgate,  Aberdeen,  in  1810,  and  edu^ 
cated  in  Marischal  College,  then  one  of  the  two  univer- 
tttiea  of  that  city.  Visiting  Canada  on  a  commercial 
commisBion,  he  earnestly  engaged  in  religious  labor,  and 
on  his  retura  to  Scotland,  in  1886,  entered  Glasgow 
Theological  Academy.  In  1841  he  was  ordained  pastor 
at  Frsserburg;  in  1845  joined  the  seceding  Scotch 
Church,  accepting  the  pastorship  of  the  newly-formed 
Ebenezer  Chapel;  in  1848  became  pastor  at  Hawick; 
in  1856  entered  the  service  of  the  Colonial  Missionary 
Society,  laboring  first  at  Comansville,  (^nada,  and  after 
1862  at  Sherbrooke.  In  1880  he  resigned  his  charge, 
and,  returning  to  England,  died  at  Putney,  Nov.  19, 1^. 
See  (Loud.)  Conff.  Year-book,  1884,  p.  288. 

Diin'wody,  James,  a  veteran  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Screven 
County,  Ga.,  BCay  4,  1790.  He  joined  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  1810,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1816,  was  admitted  to  the  Carolina  Ooference  in  1818, 
and  labored  earnestly  in  hard  fields  until  1870,  when  he 
took  a  superannuated  relation,  which  he  sustained  until 
his  death,  July  31, 1884.  See  Minutes  o/ Annual  Con^ 
ferences  of  the  If,  E,  Church  South,  1884,  p.  129. 

Dntton,  WARRitx  Backus,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  graduated  from  Yale  (Allege  in  1829,  studied 
at  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  of  Virginia,  became 
assistant  pastor  in  Farmville,  Vs.,  in  1838,  pastor  at 
Charlestown  in  1841,  devoted  1866-67  to  recmiting  his 
health,  labored  from  1868  to  1870  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and 
afterwards  resided  at  Charlestown  until  his  death,  Sept 
5, 1874,  at  the  age  of  seventy  years.  See  Nevin,  Preeb, 
Encyclop,  s.  v. 

E. 

Bdmeston,  James,  an  English  architect  and  ptet, 
was  bom  in  London,  Sept.  10, 1791,  and  died  at  Homer- 
ton,  Jan.  7, 1867.  He  published,  bendes  some  prose 
works,  several  volumes  of  religious  lyrical  compositions, 
from  which  a  few  pieces  have  been  inserted  in  must 
modera  hymnals. 

Elliott;  Mitt  Charlotte,  an  English  poetess,  lister 
of  the  author  of  ^orcs  ApocafypUoetf  was  bom  in  1789, 
and  died  at  Brighton,  Sept  22, 1871.  She  wrote  several 
volumes  of  religious  poems,  of  which  a  number  may  be 
found  in  recent  hymnals,  especially  **  Just  as  I  am, 
without  one  plea,**  which  was  composed  after  she  had 


become  a  permanent  invalid.  Her  sister-in-law,  Mn. 
Julia  Anne  Elliott,  who  died  in  1841,  also  contributed 
several  b^mna  to  one  of  her  eariiest  publicationa. 

Bmeraon,  Daniel  Hopkins,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  at  Salem,  Mass.,  Jan.  28, 1810.  He 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1880,  studied  two 
years  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  graduated  from 
Yale  Divinity  School  in  1888,  Uught  school  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  was  ordained  pastor  at  Northboroogh,  Mass., 
in  1886,  in  1840  became  pastor  in  East  Whiteland,  Pa., 
in  1845  at  York,  in  1855  at  St  George's,  Del.,  in  1869 
of  the  Eastern  Mariners'  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in 
1878  general  secretary  of  the  Young  Mens'  Christian 
Association  of  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  in  1878  missionary  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Chnrch  in  Philadelphia,  and  died 
July  6, 1888. 

Bspy,  T.  B.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora  in 
Cass  County,  Ga.,  in  1837.  He  was  educated  at  Howard 
College,  Ala.,  served  three  years  as  chaplain  in  the  Con- 
federate army,  two  years  as  pastor  at  Athens,  Ga.,  two 
at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  in  1878  became  editor  of  the  Weti- 
em  Baptist,  in  1879  of  the  Baptitt  Reflector,  and  later 
of  the  A  merican  Baptitt  Flag,  St  Louis,  Mo.  He  died 
at  LiUle  Rock,  Feb.  7,  1881.  See  Cathcart,  BapM 
Encjfdop,  s.  V. 

Buropean  UnivenitieB.    See  UflivxiiaiTiBS, 

Ewer,  Fekdimaiid  Cartwbioht,  D.D.,a  Protestant 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bora  at  Nantucket,  Mass.,  May 
22, 1826.  He  grsduated  from  Harvard  CoUege  in  1846, 
became  rector  of  Grace  Churoh,  San  Francisco,  CaL,  in 
1857,  in  1858  assistant  minister  of  St  Ann's,  New  York 
city,  in  1860  of  Christ  Church  in  the  same  city,  later 
of  the  parish  of  St  Ignatius,  and  died  in  Montreal,  Oct 
10, 1883. 

P. 

Field,  JULI17S,  a  veteran  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  April  2, 1799.  In  1821  he  entered  the 
New  York  Conference  (which  then  extended  into  Ver- 
mont), in  which  he  continued  to  labor  with  earnesCoess 
and  success  as  pastor  and  evangelist  until  1889;  then  in 
the  Wisconsin  Conference  as  presiding  elder,  Sunday- 
school  and  Bible  agent,  and  pastor  until  1846;  then 
again  as  pastor  in  his  former  conference  until  his  super- 
annuation in  1866.  He  died  Sept  22, 1884.  See  iTm- 
utet  of  Annual  Conferencet,  1885,  p.  99. 

Fltob,  Eleazar  Thomfson,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
divine,  was  bora  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  1, 1791. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1810,  and  from  An- 
dover Theological  Seminary  in  1815;  was  ordained  in 
1817,  became  professor  in  the  Yale  Divinity  School  the 
same  year,  lecturer  on  horoiletics  in  1858,  professor 
emeritus  in  1868,  and  died  there,  Jan.  31,  1871.  He 
often  wrote  for  the  religions  reviews,  published  several 
sermons,and  aided  in  compiling  Congregational  hymnals. 

Follen,  Mrt,  Eliza  Lee  (nic  Cabot),  a  poetess, 
wife  of  Dr.  Charles  T.  C.  Follen  (q.  v.),  was  bora  in 
Boston,  Aug.  15, 1787.  She  was  married  in  1828,  and 
died  at  Brookline,  Mass^,  Jan.  26, 1860.  Besides  sev- 
eral works  in  prose,  she  publbhed  Poemt  (1839),  some 
of  which  became  quite  popular.  See  Duyckinck,  C^- 
dop,  ofAmer,  IMerature,  i,  989. 

Fontaine,  Edward,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clerg>'man,  was  bom  at  Greenwood,  Va.,  Aug.  5,  1814. 
He  wss  educated  in  the  militaiy  academy  at  West 
Point,  N.  Y. ;  became  a  Methodist  minister  in  Texas  in 
1840;  held  various  parishes  in  Mississippi,  Texas,  and 
Louisiana  from  1847  until  1855,  when  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  He  served  as  captain  in  the  battle  of  Ma- 
nassss.    He  died  at  Belvidere,  Miss.,  Jan.  19, 1884. 

Forbea,  Johk  Murray,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  bora  in  1807.  He  served  as  rector 
of  St  Luke's  Churoh,  New  York  city,  and  dean  of  the 
General  Theological  Seminary  there,  and  died  at  Eliza- 
beth, N.  J.,  Oct  1 1 ,  1885. 


FRASEB 


,  1064 


GRANT 


Frasar,  Jamss,  D.D.,  tn  An^ctn  picUta^  was  bom 
at  Preatbory,  near  ChelMnham^  in  1818.  He  graduated 
from  liscohi  College,  Oxford,  in  1889;  In  1840  beeame 
a  fellow  of  Oriel  (>>llege,  and  acted  as  tntor  there  for 
flye  years;  in  18417  became  rector  at  Gholderton,  Wilt- 
shire; in  1860  at  Upton  Nenret,  near  Reading;  in  1870 
bishop  of  Manchester,  and  died  Oct.  22, 1886.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  reports,  charges,  and  addresses  on 
politico-religious  subjects. 

French,  Edwabd  Wabitbr,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Barre,  Yt,  Aug.  28,  1829.  He 
graduated  from  Williams  CoUege  in  1862;  studied  two 
years  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y. ;  be- 
came pastor  at  Bergen,  N.  J.,  in  1866,  and  died  F^h.  4, 
1886. 

Frothingfaam,  Nathahul  Lahodon,  D.D^  a 
Unitarian  divine,  was  bom  in  Boston,  July  28,  1798. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1811,  and  the 
next  year  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  in  his 
alma  mater;  in  1816  became  pastor  of  the  First  Church, 
Boston ;  resigned  in  1860,  but  continued  to  reside  there, 
chiefly  thereafter  engaged  in  literary  labors,  until  his 
death,  April  8, 1870.  brides  contributions  to  the  peri- 
odical press,  he  published  Sermmu  (1862)  and  Metrical 
Pieeee  (1866-70),  including  hymns  from  the  German. 
See  Dnyckinck,  Cyclop,  ofAmer.  LUeraiure,  ii,  88. 

FnUer,  Eraamiu  Q.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  at  Carlton,  N.  Y.,  April  16, 1828. 
He  was  converted  at  fourteen  years  of  age;  studied  at 
Adrian,  Mich. ;  entered  the  Bock  River  Conference  in 
1866,  in  which,  and  in  the  Georgia  Conference  (1868), 
he  served  very  efficiently  as  preacher,  presiding  elder, 
and  editor  (of  the  Metkoditt  Advocate^  at  Atlanta),  un- 
til his  sudden  death,  Oct  16, 1888.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  General  Conference  in  1868  and  thereafter.  He 
published  a  volume  on  Sunday-schools,  and  another  in 
defence  of  missions  in  the  South  (Qncinnati,  O.,  1876). 
See  MimUet  ofAnmal  CoirfermBet^  1888,p.814;  Simp- 
son, Cyclop.  o/MetkodUmt  s.  ▼• 

FnUer,  R.  "W^  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
at  Beaufort,  S.  C,  Nov.  27, 1829 ;  studied  theology  with 
his  uncle.  Dr.  Richard  Fuller ;  was  pastor  at  AtUiuta, 
Ga.,  afterwards  agent  for  the  Georgia  Baptist  Orphan's 
Home,  and  for  Mercer  University.  He  died  June  10, 
1880.    See  Cathcart,  Baptiai  Eneychp.  a.  v. 


Gkidsby,  William,  a  noted  English  Baptist  minis- 
ter, was  bom  at  Attleborough  in  January,  1778.  He 
was  early  converted  among  the  Congregattonslists,  bap- 
tized in  1798,  ordained  in  1800,  was  pastor  at  Hinckley 
until  1806,  and  thereafter  at  Manchester  until  his  death, 
Jan.  27, 1844.  He  was  very  eccentric  in  preaching. 
See  Cathcart,  Bapiiti  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Qeer,  Gborob  Jarvis,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  graduated  from  Trinity  CoUege,  Hartford, 
in  1842,  and  from  the  Greneral  Theological  Seminary, 
N.  Y.,  in  1843 ;  was  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Ballston 
Spa,  from  1846  to  1862,  then  associate  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  New  York  city,  and  final- 
ly of  St.  Timothy,  in  the  same  dty,  until  his  death, 
Bfarch  16, 1886. 

Qeorge,  AuousTtTS  C.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  at  Avon  Springs,  N.  Y.,  April  22, 
1824.  He  was  educated  at  the  Wesleyan  Seminary, 
Lima,  Joined  the  Genesee  Conference  in  1847,  in  which, 
and  in  the  East  Genesee,  Missouri,  Central  New  York, 
West  Virginia,  and  Rock  River  conferences,  he  occu- 
pied important  positions  until  his  death,  at  Englewood, 
near  Chicago,  IlL,  Aug.  7, 1886.  Dr.  George  was  often 
a  member  of  the  General  Conference,  and  distinguished 
as  a  man  of  patriotic  and  ecclesiastical  inflnenoe.  See 
MuuUea  o/Ammal  Confamou^  1886,  p.  887 ;  Simpaon, 
Cydop,  o/Methodiim,  a.  v. 


OHmmvo,  William  J.,  D.D.,  a  Pkesbyteriso  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Ryegate,  Vt.,  Angi  22, 1810.  He  grad- 
uated from  Jefferson  College,  Pa.,  in  1826,  studied  the- 
ology privately,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1881,  becsoe 
pastor  of  the  Ninth  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia, 
in  1882,  at  Hollidaysburg  in  1888,  subaequeotly  of  ti- 
rious  other  churches  in  Pennsvlvania  until  1861,  tnd 
died  Oct.  6, 1888.    See  Nevin,  Preeb,  Kmydop,9,T, 

Gilbert,  Ltxax,  D.D.,  a  Congregarional  dirioe, 
was  a  native  of  Yermonti  He  graduated  from  MiddW- 
buiy  CoUege  in  1824,  and  from  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1827 ;  was  pastor  of  the  Second  Church, 
Newton,  Mass.,  from  1828  to  1868,  thereafter  si  UaldeB, 
N.  Y.,  and  finally  resided  without  charge  at  BfOoUys, 
until  hia  death,  March  28,1886. 

Oilder,  John  Lbomabi>,  a  noted  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  Aug.  8, 1816.  He  wu  etiij 
converted,  licensed  to  preach  in  1829,  and  in  the  tunc 
year  joined  the  Philadelphia  Conference,  in  which  and 
in  the  New  York  East  Conference  he  occupied  impor- 
tant  posirions,  including  several  years  oocu|ned  intescb- 
ing,  until  his  sudden  death,  July  8, 1888.  See  Uinta 
ofAmnal  Cwftrtncea^  1884,  p.  92. 

GleaBon,  Anson,  a  noted  Congregational  miniatff, 
often  designated  as  "  father  Gleason,"  was  bora  stUta- 
chester.  Conn.,  May  2, 1797.  He  was  a  misrionsrj  to 
various  tribes  of  Indians  from  1828  to  1836,  in  whidi 
latter  year  he  was  ordained,  general  missioQaiy  from 
1848  to  1861,  then  again  to  the  Indians  until  1861,  and 
thereafter  city  missionary  snooessively  in  Rocheiler, 
Utica,  and  Brooklyn,  until  his  death,  Feb.  24,  im, 
Cong,  rear-hook,  1886,  p.  26. 

Goode,  William,  M.A.,  an  English  writer,  was 
bora  at  Buckingham,  April  2, 1762.  He  entered  Hag- 
dalen  EUl,  Oxford,  in  1780,  became  curate  of  Abbots* 
Langley,  Hertfordshire,  in  1784,  cunte  of  St.  Ann's, 
Blackftiais,  London,  in  1786,  rector  in  1796,  and  died 
April  16, 1816.  He  was  the  author  of  a  New  Venkm 
of  the  Ptalmt  in  Metre  (1811, 1816^:— The  Scripttrt 
liamet  of  ChriH  (1822, 6  vols.>  See  Memoir,  by  his 
son  (Lond.  1828). 

(SordOD,  Samuel  R,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bora  in  Somerset  County,  Md.  He 
graduated  from  the  General  Theological  Scminsiy 
(N.  Y.)  in  1848,  served  as  assistant  at  St  PauFs,  Balti- 
more, rector  of  St.  Luke's,  Queen  Anne's  County,  of  St. 
Paul's,  Kent  County,  of  St.  Thomas's,  Prince* George 
County,  in  1868,  and  died  there,  Aug.  19,  1883,  sged 
seventy  years. 

Qowan,  AirrHONT  T.,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Independent 
minister,  was  bora  in  1811  at  Whitehaven,  Cumberland. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Glasgow  University,  beesme 
pastor  at  Blackhills,  near  Aberdeen,  afterwards  at  Dal- 
keith, and  finally  colleague  of  Dr.  Alexander  in  the 
Theological  Hall  at  Edinburgh.  He  died  Dec  IS) 
1884.    See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Tear-book^  1886,  p.  169. 

Qrahame,  James,  a  ScoCtiab  poet,  was  bora  April 
22, 1766,  at  Glasgow.  He  graduated  from  the  univer- 
sity there  in  1784,  was  bred  to  the  law,  but  took  oiden 
in  the  English  Church,  and  became  curate  first  at  Shi(^ 
ton,  Gloucestershire,  and  then  at  Sedgefield,  near  Duf^ 
ham,  and  died  Sept.  14, 1811.  His  poetry,  aU  in  Uank 
verse,  is  religious;  the  principal  pieces  are.  The  5afr- 
bath:^The  Barde  of  ScotUmi :-- British  Cfeorgiee, 
See  EngHth  Cgohp,  s.  v. 

Grant,  Sir  Robkbt,  an  EngCsb  poet,  was  bora  in 
1796,  graduated  from  Cambridge  in  1806,  studied  law, 
entered  Parliament  in  1826,  became  governor  of  Bom- 
bay in  1884,  and  died  at  Dapoorie,  India,  July  9,1888. 
Bc»idea  some  volumes  on  India,  he  wrote  twelve  aacnd 
lyrics,  which  were  published  by  his  brother,  k>nl  Gleo- 
dg,  under  the  title  of  Sacred  Poemi  (1888X  and  are  as 
excellent  that  several  of  them  appear  in  most  medm 
hymnalsii 


6RIER 


1065 


HOES 


Qfier,  Isaac,  D.D.,  a  Prasbyteruui  minister,  was 
bom  at  Jersey  Shore, -Pa^  Jan.  7, 1606.  He  Kraduated 
from  Dickinson  CoUege  in  1828|  and  from  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  in  1888,  became  stated  supply 
at  Sbamokin  and  Washington,  Pa.,  the  same  year; 
the  next  year  pastor  at  the  latter  place  until  1962,  at 
Buffalo  in  1854,  and  so  continued  until  his  death  at 
Mifflinburg,  June  24,  1884.  See  N<crol.  lUpwri  of 
JhrinceUm  TheoL  Sem,  1886,  p^  19. 

QilggB,  Lbvkbbtt,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  nunis- 
ter,  was  born  at  Tolland,  Conn.,  Nov.  17, 1808.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1829,  studied  at  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary,  and  grsduated  from  Yale 
Divinity  School  in  1884;  became  pastor  successively  at 
North  Haven,  in  1888;  Chapel  Street,  New  Haven,  in 
1846 ;  Milbury,  Mass.,  in  1847 ;  Bristol,  Conn.,  in  1856 ; 
agent  of  several  educational  societies  from  1870  to  1881, 
and  died  at  Bristol,  Jan.  28, 1888.  He  published  nu- 
merous sermons  and  addresses^  See  Cong,  Year-book, 
1884,  pb  24. 

H. 

Habington,  William,  an  English  poet,  was  bom 
at  Hindlip,  Worcestershire,  Nov.  6, 1606.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Omer's  Jesuit  College,  and  afterwards  at 
Paris;  spent  his  life  in  literary  and  raral  leisure,  and 
died  on  his  native  estste,  Nov.  18, 1645.  Besides  some 
historical  works,  he  published  occasional  poems  of  a 
serions  vein,  which  were  collected  in  a  volume  entitled 
Cattara  (1685, 1640).    See  Chalmers,  Biog,  Did,  s.  v. 

HaU,  James,  a  veteran  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Rutland,  Vt,  March  4, 1790.  He  entered 
the  Genesee  Conference  in  1818,  in  which  he  labored 
faithfully  until  his  superannuation  in  1862.  He  died 
at  Mayville,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  6, 1882.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
ConfermceSf  1888,  p.  224. 

Halliday,  Davi]>  Moffat,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  Feb.  9, 1807. 
He  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1829, 
studied  (1885-86)  in  the  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, was  licensed  to  preach  in  1887,  became  pastor  at 
PanvUIe,  Va.,  in  1838,  Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  in  1843,  wUhout 
charge  after  1867,  residing  during  his  latter  years  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.  He  died  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  8, 
1884.  8ttNeeroLIUporHifPrineti<mTkeoL8m.l8S^ 
p.  34. 

Hammond,  J.  Pikknbt,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  May  20, 1826. 
He  graduated  from  St.  John's  CoUege  in  1845,  was  settled 
successively  at  Upper  Marlborough,  Md.,  Bangor,  Me., 
Morrisania,  N.  Y.,  Beading,  Pa.,  Omaha,  Neb.,  Annapo- 
lis, Md.,  and  finally  at  Wbittingham  Church,  Baltimore. 
He  died  Aug.  9, 1884. 

Harper,  James,  D.D.,  a  Picabsrterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  July  28, 1802.  He  graduated 
from  Glasgow  University  in  1828,  studied  divinity  un- 
der Dr.  Dick,  was  ordained  by  the  United  Seoosion 
Presbytery  of  Glasgow,  came  to  New  York  in  1888,  be- 
came pastor  at  Galway,  then  at  Ellioott  city,  Md.  <1888), 
and  finally  at  Shippensburg,  Pa.  (1840),  until  his  resig- 
nation in  1870.  He  died  May  9, 1876.  See  Nevin, 
PretlK  Encydop,  a.  v. 

Harrington,  Calyut  Sears,  D.D.,  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  educator,  was  bom  at  St  Johnsbury,  Yt., 
May  17, 1826.  He  graduated  from  Wedeyan  Univei^ 
sity,.Conn.,  in  1852,  and  immediately  engaged  in  teach- 
ing;'in  1854  joined  the  NewHaropshtra  Conference,  in 
1861  became  professor  of  languages  in  his  alma  mater, 
and  retained  that  position  until  his  death,  Feb.  16, 1886. 
See  A  lumni  Record  of  Wetleytm  Umvertify,  1888,  p.  116, 
577 ;  MimUe*  of  Annual  Conftreneet,  1886,  p.  91. 

Harvard,  John,  the  founder  of  Harvard  Universttr, 
was  bora  in  England  about  1608.  He  graduated  from 
Emmsnuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1681,  came  to  New 


England  in  1687,  oflleiated  as  dergyman  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts colony  in  1688,  and  died  at  Charlestown,  Sept. 
14  of  the  same  year.  He  gave  about  £800  and  his  Ubrary 
to  the  establishment  of  the  college  on  a  strictly  orthodox 
basis.    See  Drake,  Did,  of  A  mer,  Biog,  s.  v. 

Hastings,  Thomas,  D.M.,was  bora  at  Washington, 
Conn.,  in  1784,  and  at  twelve  yesn  removed  with  his 
father  to  Clinton,  N.  Y.  From  1824  to  1882  he  conduct- 
ed a  religious  journal  in  Utica,  and  thereafter  resided 
in  New  York  city,  engaged  in  musical  instraction,  until 
his  death,  May  15, 1872.  He  published  many  of  the 
most  popular  books  of  sacred  music  used  in  the  country. 

Heglnbotham,  Ottiwell,  an  English  poet,  was 
bom  in  1744.  He  was  ordained  as  a  Congregational  min- 
ister at  Sudbury  in  1765,  and  died  there  in  1768.  His 
hymns,  about  twenty-five  in  all,  were  printed  in  1794, 
and  again  in  1799  as  a  Svpplement  to  Watts,  Several 
of  them  are  found  in  modem  hymnals. 

Hemans,  Jfr«.  Felicia  Dorothea  (»ie  Browne), 
an  English  poetess,  was  bom  at  Liverpool,  SepL  25, 1794. 
She  married  a  military  man  in  1812,  separated  from  him 
in  1818,  and  died  May  16, 1885.  She  published  numer- 
ous volumes  of  poems,  largely  religious,  which  have  been 
widely  popular.  They  have  been  published  collectively 
as  her  Works  (with  a  Memoiry  Lond.  1889,  7  vols.,  and 
often  since). 

Henry,  Caleb  Spraoub,  D.D.,  LL^D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  minister,  was  bom  at  Rutland,  Mass.,  Aug.  2, 
1804.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1825, 
studied  one  year  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
served  as  Congregational  minister  at  Greenfield,  Mass. 
(1829-81),  and  at  West  Hartford,  Conn.  (1888-85) ;  was 
ordained  deacon  in  the  Episcopal  ranks  the  last-named 
year,  and  presbyter  in  1886;  was  proressor  in  Bristol 
College,  Pa.  (1835-88),  and  in  New  York  University 
(1838-52);  rector  of  St.  Clement's,  N.  Y.  (1847-50),  of 
St.  Michael's,  Litchfield,  Conn.  (1870-78),  and  died  at 
Newburgh,  X.  Y.,  March  9, 1884.  He  published  several 
historical  and  religious  works. 

Herron,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Washington  Qounty,  Pa.,  April  10, 1817. 
He  graduated  from  Muskingum  College,  O.,  in  1845,  and 
from  Allegheny  Theological  Seminary  in  1847 ;  became 
assistant  at  Beech  Spring  Church,  O.,  in  1848  pastor 
at  Ridge  Church,  resigned  in  1876,  and  died  at  Scio, 
June  17, 1884.    See  Nevin,  Presb,  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Hill,  John  Homy,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant  Epia- 
copal  minister,  was  bom^  in  New  York  city,  Sept.  11, 1791. 
He  grsduated  from  Cokimbia  College  in  1807,  in  1880 
was  appointed  missionary  to  Greece,  also  (1845-51) 
chaplain  to  the  British  Legation  in  Athens.  He  died 
there,  July  1, 1882.  He  translated  seversl  works  into 
modem  Greek. 

Hill,  Stephen  P.,  D.D.,  a  Bsptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Salem,  Mass^,  April  17, 1806.  He  was  converted 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  began  to  preach  at  seventeen, 
studied  at  Waterville  CoUege,  graduated  from  Brown 
University  in  1829,  and  from  the  Newton  Theological 
Institution  in  1832,  became  pastor  at  Haverhill,  Mass., 
preached  one  winter  (1888-84)  near  Charleston,  S.  C, 
was  pastor  thereafter  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  until  1861,  and  died  in  the  latter  city,  Sept. 
15, 1884.  He  published  several  sermons  and  addresses, 
likewise  some  works  on  hymnology  and  for  the  young. 
See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encyclop,  s.  v. 

Hlnes,  RiOHARD,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  North  Carolina,  and  educated  at  the 
university  of  that  stote.  He  became  rector  of  St.  Mary's, 
Memphis,  Tenn.  (1857-71),  then  of  Meridian  and  En- 
terprise parishes.  Miss.,  and  died  March  30, 1888. 

Hoes,  Caictine  Fakrbli^  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister,  was  born  at  Middleburgh,  N.  Y.,  July  18, 1811. 
He  graduated  from  Amherst  College  in  1832,  studied 
two  yean  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  was  li- 


HOFF 


1066 


JONES 


eenied  to  preach  in  1884,  became  paator  at  Chittenango, 
N.  Y.,  in  1886,  at  Ithaca  iu  1887,  at  Kingston  in  1846, 
leaigned  in  1867,  and  died  at  the  last  named  place,  Feb. 
9, 1888.  See  NecroL  Report  of  PrinceUm  Tfuol  Sem. 
1883,  p.  29. 

Hof(  JoHS  FuANCis,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  w^s  bom  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  Jan.  10, 1814.  He 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1888, 
and  from  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  in 
1836 ;  was  ordained  deacon  in  1837,  became  rector  of 
Trinity  Church,  Georgetown,  D.  C,  in  1888,  of  Christ 
Church,  Millwood,  Va.,  in  1847,  of  Trinity  Cbarch,  Tow- 
sonton,  Md.,  In  1858,  and  died  in  Baltimore,  Dec  18, 1881. 
He  served  twelve  years  on  the  standing  committee  of 
his  diocese. 

Holman,  Rcssell,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  at  Warwick,  Mass.,  Aag.  14, 1812.  He  graduated 
from  BDwn  University,  became  a  pastor  in  Greene  Coun- 
ty, Ky .,  in  1839,  hi  1842  of  the  Coliseum  Church  at  New 
Orleans,  in  1845  secretary  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Home 
Mission,  an  office  which  he  retained  (with  a  pastoral 
interval  from  1851  to  1856)  until  1862,  after  which  he 
labored  occasionally  as  health  would  permit  in  Louisi- 
ana, Illinois,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  ontil  disabled  by 
paralysis  in  1876.  He  died  Dec.  2, 1879.  See  Cath- 
cart.  Baptist  Encychp.  s.  v. 

Hood,  Edwin  Paxton,  an  English  Independent 
minister  and  author,  was  bom  in  London,  Oct  24, 1820. 
He  was  early  trained  in  religious  work,  especially  as  a 
speaker  in  the  temperance  cause ;  in  1857  became  pastor 
at  Islington,  in  1862  at  Brighton,  in  1878  at  Islington 
again,  in  1877  at  Manchester,  in  1881  at  Falcon  Square, 
Lond.,  and  died  June  12, 1885.  He  visited  America  in 
1880.  He  was  an  eloquent  speaker,  and  wrote  over 
sixty  volumes  of  a  popular  character.  See  (Lond.) 
Cong,  Year-hook,  1886,  p.  178, 

Homberger,  Lewis  P.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct  25, 1841.  He  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  graduated  from  Madison 
University  in  1865,  became  pastor  of  Spring  Garden 
Church,  Philadelphia,  the  same  year,  in  1872  of  Geth- 
semane  Church,  and  died  in  that  city,  March  27, 1884. 
He  was  a  very  successful  pastor.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
Encyclop,  s.  v. 

Home,  James  Wesley,  LL.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  born  on  the  island  of  Jamaica,  W.  I., 
March  24, 1828.  He  graduated  from  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, Conn.,  in  1852,  and  in  1858  became  the  first  princi- 
pal of  Monrovian  Academy,  Liberia,  Africa.  Returning 
in  broken  health  to  America,  he  joined  the  New  York 
East  Confere;ice  in  1858,  and  Arom  that  time  (with  the 
exception  of  a  visit  to  Europe  and  the  East  in  1870) 
continued  to  fill  important  pastoral  positions  until  his 
sudden  death,  Sept  6, 1884.  See  Minutes  of  Anmtal 
Conferences^  1885,  p.  98;  AlumU  Record  of  Wesieyan 
Unicersify,  1883,  p.  116,  586. 

Ho'WBon,  John  Saul,  D.D.,  an  Anglican  divine, 
was  bom  in  1816.  He  graduated  with  honor  from  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  in  1887 ;  was  ordained  in  1845, 
becoming  the  same  year  senior  classical  master,  and  in 
1849  principal  of  the  Liverpool  College ;  in  1866  vicar 
of  Wisbech,  afterwards  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Ely; 
in  1867  dean  of  Chester,  and  died  Dec.  15, 1885.  Be- 
sides contributions  to  the  religious  periodical  press  and 
to  Smith's  Did,  of  the  Bible^  he  wrote  various  lectures 
and  sermons,  and  was  the  joint  author,  with  Dr.  Cony- 
beare,  of  the  well-known  work  on  the  L}fe  and  Epistles 
qfSt.Paul, 

Horlburt,  Russell  Hiolet,  M.D.,  D.D.,  a  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  minister,  was  born  at  Winchester,  Conn., 
April  21, 1826.  He  was  converted  in  1845,  joined  the 
Erie  Conference  in  1850,  and  filled  important  stations  in 
it  until  his  death,  at  Marion,  la.,  April  14, 1883.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences^  1888,  p.  319. 

Hyde,  Mrs.  Abby  Bradley  (her  maiden  name),  a 


poetess,  was  bom  at  Stockbridge,  Maan,  Sept  28, 1789; 
married  Lavios  Hyde  (q.  v.),  a  Congrqpatiooal  minister, 
in  1818,  and  died  at  Andover,  Conn.,  A^  7, 1872.  Some 
of  her  pieces  were  inserted  in  Nettleton's  VUlage  Bymas 
(1824),  and  a  few  have  been  incorporated  into  some 
later  hymnals. 

L 

Ingenoll,  Edward,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Nov.  26, 
1810.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1881 ;  be- 
came minister  at  Weatport,  also  at  Troy  and  Geoeaee, 
N.  Y.;  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Boffido,  in  1884,  a 
position  which  he  retained  for  thirty  year^  and  died 
there,  Feb.  6, 1888. 

Ixutkip,  JoHM  S.,  a  noted  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Huntingdon,  England,  in  1816,  and 
came  to  America  in  1820.  He  was  converted  at  four- 
teen years  of  ag^,  in  1886  joined  the  Philadelphia  Con- 
ference, in  1845  was  transferred  to  the  Ohio  Conference, 
in  1852  to  the  New  York  East  Conference,  later  to  the 
New  York  Conference,  the  Baltimore  Conference,  and, 
finally,  again  to  the  New  York  East  Confexenoe,  in  all 
of  which  he  occupied  important  stations  until  his  super- 
annuation in  1873,  after  which  he  was  editor  of  the 
Christian  Standard,  in  Philadelphia,  until  bis  death,  at 
Ocean  Grove,  N.  J.,  March  7, 1^4^  He  was  a  pleasing 
and  successful  evangelist,  and  in  his  later  years  a  pow- 
erful advocate  of  entire  sanctification.  He  noade  a 
memorable  defence  of  himself  before  the  General  Con- 
ference of  1852  from  the  charge  of  innovatiim  in  his 
pastoral  rulings  at  Springfield,  O.,  concerning  family 
sittings  in  the  congregations.  See  Mnattes  ofAnmal 
CorferenoeSy  1884,  p.  94. 

Xrona,  Wiluam  Josiah,  D.D.,  an  English  clergy- 
man, was  bom  at  Hoddesdon,  Hertshire,  Sept.  12, 1812: 
He  graduated  from  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in  1833; 
became  curate  at  Newington  in  1885,  rector  at  Walworth 
in  1837,  of  Barkway  in  1888,  of  Brompton  in  1842; 
prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  in  1860;  rector  at 
Wadingham,  Lincolnshire,  in  1870;  of  StMaiy'a,  Wool- 
noth,  London,  in  1872,  and  died  June  19, 1883.  Besides 
numerous  lectures,  sermons,  and  eodesiaatical  essays^ 
Dr.  Irons  pnblished  several  poetical  works,  espeoally 
Ifymnsfor  the  Church  (1875),  from  which  a  number  of 
pieces  have  been  adopted  in  many  modem  hymnals, 
notably  bis  version  of  the  Dies  Irte  (q.  v.). 

J. 

Johnaon,  Edwin  A.,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Ep&seopal 
minister,  was  bora  at  Gowanda,  N.  Y.,  Oct,  80, 1^. 
He  joined  the  Church  when  eleven  years  of  age,  and 
in  1852  entered  the  Erie  Conference,  in  which  he  Ubored 
with  efllciency  as  a  pastor  until  his  appointment  (1868- 
72)  as  assisunt  editor  of  the  Pittsbur*^  Christiam 
Advocate.  He  died  at  Allegheny,  Pa.,  June  80,  188& 
He  wrote  several  popular  volumes.  See  Mhurtes  of 
Annual  Conferences,  1885,  p^  880;  Simpson,  Cydop^  oj 
Methodism,  s.  v. 

JohnBtOD,  Cyrus,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  Mecklenburg  County,  N.  C,  Dec  23, 1797. 
He  graduated  from  Hampden-^dney  (>ollege  in  1821 ; 
became  pastor  of  Bethesda  and  adjoining  churches, 
S.  C,  in  1824;  at  Providence  and  Sharon  in  1889;  prin- 
cipal of  a  female  academy  at  Charlotte,  N.C,  in  1845, 
pastor  there  in  1846,  and  died  Jan.  25,  1855.  See 
Nevin,  Presbyterian  Encydop*  a.  ▼. 

Jonei,  Hugh,  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Baptist  minister,  was 
bora  at  Bodedeyrn,  Anglesea,  July  10, 1831.  At  the 
age  of  seventeen  he  was  baptized,  soon  after  began  to 
preach,  in  1857  graduated  from  the  college  at  Haver- 
fordwest, became  pastor  at  Llandndno^  hi  18S9  at  Uan- 
goUen,  in  1862  assistant  at  the  new  eoUege  thcR^ia 
1866  its  president,  and  died  there.  May  28^  188S.  See 
(Lood.)  Bc^aist  Band-book,  1884,  p.  2^ 


KELLET 


106? 


LLOYD 


K. 

Kelley,  Samuel,  a  veteran  Methodist  Epucopal 
minister,  was  born  at  Salem,  N.  H^  Feb.  1, 1802.  He 
Joined  the  Chorcb  in  1820,  and  iii  1822  entered  the 
New  England  Conference,  in  which  and  in  its  later  sub- 
divisions he  labored  fsithfuUy,  for  the  last  thirteen  years 
as  chaplain  to  the  Sailor's  Home  in  Quincy,  Mass.,  un- 
til bis  death,  Sept.  6,  1888.  See  Mmutet  of  Ammai 
dmferemxt,  1884,  p.  85. 

Kepler,  Samuel,  a  veteran  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  at  Baltimore, 
Md.,  Nov.  15, 1804.  He  was  converted  when  a  boy, 
early  esublished  a  mission-school  near  his  native  city, 
studied  at  Dickinson  College,  entered  the  Baltimore 
Conference  in  1827,  from  1863  to  1865  preached  for  an 
independent  Methodist  Church  at  Williamsport,  Pa.,  in 
1867  joined  the  Baltimore  Conference  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  in  1871  became  supernumerar}*, 
and  died  at  Baltimore,  Aug.  1, 1884.  See  Mmutes  of  Ann. 
Confertncet  of  the  M.  E,  Church  South,  1884,  p.  145. 

Keahub  Chnnder  Ben.    See  Sen. 
Xohlor  K5L    See  Brassicaicus. 
Krentilc;er.    SeeCRKUTzroKRi  CRrciGER. 


Ziaird,  Francis,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
graduated  from  Dickinson  College  under  Dr.  Nisbet, 
became  pastor  at  Plumb  Creek  and  Pike  Run,  Pa.,  in 
1800,  at  Murray ville  in  1831,  resigned  in  1860,  and  died 
April  6, 1851.    See  Nevin,  Preab,  Encychp.  s.  v. 

Lanoe,  Lucibh  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  bom  at  fiordentown,  N.  J.,  Sept. 
7, 1832.  He  graduated  from  Charleston  College,  and 
in  1854  from  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y. ; 
became  pastor  of  All-Saints*,  Waccamaw,  N.  C. ;  after 
the  war  in  Wye  and  Queenstown,  Md.,  reetor  of  Ascen- 
sion Church,  Fnwkfort,  Ky.,  two  years;  at  Kenosha, 
Wis.,  from  1872 ;  in  1879  chapUin  in  Kemper  HaU ;  and 
died  Jan.  12, 1888. 

Iia'vvenoe,  Edward  Alexander,  D.D.,  a  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  bom  at  St,  Johnsboiy,  Yt., 
Oct.  7, 1808.  He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College 
in  1834,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1888;  became  pastor  of  Centre  Church,  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  in  1889,  at  Marblehead  in  1845,  professor  in 
Hartford  Theological  Seminary  in  1854.  pastor  at  Ox- 
ford, N.  H.,  in  1865,  South  Church,  Marblehead,  in  1868, 
and  remained  there  without  charge  from  1873  till  his 
death,  Sept.  4, 1888.  He  published  a  number  of  relig- 
ious essays.    See  Cong,  Year-book,  1884,  p.  28. 

Xiatta,  WiLLLAM,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Bucks  County,  Pa.,  in  May,  1769.  ^e  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  studied 
theology  with  his  father,  Dr.  James  Latta,  was  ordained 
over  the  Church  in  Great  Valley,  Pa.,  in  1798,  and  con- 
tinued there  until  hb  death  in  Febraary,  1847.  See 
Nevin,  Presb.  Enqfdop.  a.  v. 

Iiay,  Hemry  Champlin,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop,  was  bom  at  Bichmond,  Ya.,  Dec  6, 
1828.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of  Yirgiuia 
in  1842,  and  from  the  theological  seminary  at  Alexan- 
dria in  1846,  became  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Nativ- 
ity, Hnntsville,  Ala.,  in  1847,  and  bishop  of  Arkansas  in 
1859,  bishop  of  Easton  in  1869,  and  died  Sept.  17, 1885. 

Leacock,  William  T.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  bom  on  the  island  of  Barbadoes  in 
1796,  orduned  in  1824,  was  rector  of  Christ  Church, 
New  Orleans,  from  1852  to  1878,  and  died  at  Beauvoir, 
Miss.,  Dec  28, 1884. 

Iiee,  Iieroy  Madison,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  at  Peters- 
burg, Vs.,  April  30, 1808.    He  was  converted  in  1827, 


■ooD  began  to  preach,  was  admitted  into  the  Yirginia 
Conference  the  next  year,  occupied  important  stations, 
in  1882  was  appointed  eiiitor  of  the  Chrittian  Sentinel, 
Richmond,  Ya.,  in  1889  became  the  editor  of  the  Rich' 
mond  Christian  Advocate,  in  1858  returned  to  pastoral 
work,  in  1881  became  superannuated,  and  died  April  20, 
1882.  He  was  an  able  preacher,  a  powerful  controver- 
sialist, and  the  author  of  several  books,  of  which  the 
Life  and  Times  <fJes»e  Let  (1847)  is  the  most  impor- 
tant. See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the  M,  E, 
Church  South,  1882,  p.  60. 

Iiee,  Nathanael  H.,  DJ).,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist -Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Camp- 
bell County,  Ya.,  April  29, 1816.  He  studied  at  Urania 
College,  Ky.,  was  converted  in  his  twentieth  year,  in 
1888  was  admitted  into  the  Kentucky  Conference,  in 
which  he  soon  attained  eminence,  and  continued  to 
preach,  with  a  few  intermissions  in  other  religious 
work,  until  his  superannuation  in  1880.  He  died  June 
14, 1881.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Conferences  of  the 
M.  E,  Church  South,  1881,  p.  800. 

Leeds,  George,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  cler- 
gyman, was  bora  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  in  1816.  He 
graduated  from  Amherst  Ck>llege  in  1835,  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1839,  served  succes- 
sively at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Salem,' Mass.  (1858>60),  St.  Pe- 
ter's, Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Grace  Church,  Baltimore,  Md., 
and  died  in  Philadelphia,  AprU  15, 1885. 

Lenox;  James,  a  philanthropic  layman,  was  bora 
in  New  York  city  in  August,  1800. '  He  graduated 
from  Princeton  CoUege,  studied  law,  and  spent  his  life 
in  literary  pursuits  and  charity.  Possessed  of  ample 
wealth,  be  founded  the  Lenox  library  in  1870,  which 
is  particularly  rich  in  rare  Bibles  and  other  specialties, 
and  gave  large  sums  to  public  institutions  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  He  died 
in  New  ITork  city,  Feb.  17, 1880. 

LemrlB,  John  J.,  LT^D.,  a  Baptist  minister  and 
educator,  was  bora  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  25, 1843.  He 
graduated  from  Hamilton  College  in  1864,  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute  the  same 
year,  in  1867  pastor  at  Syracuse,  in  1868  professor  in 
Madison  University,  and  died  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  Dec. 
5,1884. 

Lewis.  Joslah,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  graduated  with  honors  from 
Emory  College  in  1859,  began  the  study  of  law,  entered 
the  ministry  in  1861,  joined  the  Georgia  Conference  in 
1866,  served  as  professor  in  Emory  College,  in  1871  en- 
gaged in  pastoral  work,  in  1876  was  transferred  to  the 
Alabama  Conference,  and  appointed  president  of  the 
university  at  Greensborough,  in  1882  was  transferred  to 
pastoral  work  in  the  North  Georgia  Conference,  and  died 
at  Spana,  Feb.  18, 1885.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Com- 
ferenees  of  the  M,  E.  Church  South,  1885,  p.  98. 

Linfield,  William  F.  M.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  Aug.  25,  1824.  He  was  converted  in  1849, 
in  1851  entered  the  Alabama  Conference,  in  which  and 
adjoining  conferences  he  labored,  with  but  one  year's 
intermission,  until  his  death,  March  16,  1882.  See 
Minutes  of  Annual  Cotferenoes  of  the  M,  E.  Church 
South,  1882,  p.  115. 

Little,  Jacob,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bom  in  New  Hampshire,  May  1,1795.  He  graduated 
from  Dartmouth  College  in  1822,  and  from  Andover 
Theological  Seminar}"  in  1825,  preached  at  Hoosick, 
N.  Y.,  and  at  Belpre,  O.,  in  1827  became  Congregational 
pastor  in  Granville,  in  1867  stated  supply  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  Warsaw,  Ind.,  in  1874  removed  to 
Wabash,  and  died  there,  Dec.  17,  1876.  See  Nevin, 
Presb.  Encyclop,  s.  v. 

Lloyd,  WiLLLAM  Freeman,  an  English  poet,  was 
bora  at  Uley,  Gloucestershire,  Dec.  22, 1791.  He  was 
for  many  yean  secretary- of  the  Religious  Tract  Society 


LYNCH 


1068 


MEDLET 


of  London,  and  died  April  22, 1958.  He  wrote  serenl 
hymna,  of  which  some  are  found  in  most  modem 
liymnais. 

Lynch,  Thomas  Toke,  an  English  poet,  was  bom 
at  Dunmore,  Essex,  July  5, 1818,  served  as  pastor  in 
various  chapels  near  London,  and  died  May  9,  1871. 
Besides  several  prose  works,  he  published  a  book  in 
verse,  called  The  Revealed  (1855).  See  his  Memoir$y 
by  White  (Lond.  1874). 


Maclean,  Jouv,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  Presby- 
terian divine,  was  bom  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  March  8, 
1800.  He  graduated  from  the  college  of  his  native 
place  in  1816,  and  its  theological  seminary  in  1819 ;  be- 
came teacher  in  his  iilroa  mater  in  1822,  and  in  1828 
professor,  a  position  which  he  retained,  with  a  transfer 
of  chairs,  until  his  election  as  president  in  1854.  He 
resigned  in  1857,  but  continued  to  reside  at  Princeton, 
loved  and  honored,  until  his  death,  Aug.  10, 1886.  He 
often  wrote  for  the  religious  press,  and  published  sev- 
eral sermons,  essays,  etc. '   See  Nevin,  Pi-eA,  Enofdop, 

8.  V, 

i^^we^^l^  Skaobovr  Wiluam,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  bora  at  St.  Mary's,  Ga.,  Sept.  27, 
1810.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1881,  and 
from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1884;  preached 
in  various  Presbyterian  and  Congregational  churches 
of  Virginia,  Georgia,  Ohio,  Vermont,  and  Connecticut, 
with  several  intermissions  as  agent  of  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  died  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  Jan.  20,  1884. 
See  Cong*  Tear-hook,  1885,  p.  26;  A«cro^  RepoH  of 
Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1885,  p.  28. 

Manly,  Robert  Woolf,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  in  Muskingum  County,  O., 
Aug.  5, 1880.  He  studied  three  years  (1847^50)  in  the 
Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  joined  the  Ohio  Conference 
in  1859,  was  transferred  to  the  Colorado  Conference  in 
1881,  and  died  at  Denver,  July  15,  1883.  See  MimUs 
of  Atmual  Conferences,  1888,  p.  810;  Simpson,  Cyclop, 
of  JJetkodUtHf  8.  V. 

Maraliall,  Abraham,  a  pioneer  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  at  Windsor,  Conn.,  April  28, 1748.  He  was 
converted  in  Soi)th  Carolina  at  the  age  of  twenty-two; 
soon  began  to  preach  in  Georgia ;  was  licensed  in  1771, 
and  ordained  in  1775.  In  1784  he  became  pastor  at 
Kiokee,  Ga.,  and  labored  there  and  in  all  the  adjoining 
region  as  a  flaming  evangelist  until  his  death,  Aug.  15, 
1819.    See  Cathcart,  Baptitt  Encydop.  a.  v. 

Marahal],  Matthew  Morton,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  was  bora  at  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Feb. 
19, 1804.  He  began  to  preach  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
and  continued,  chiefly  at  Trenton,  Tenn.,  until  his  death, 
at  Chattanooga,  Aug.  28, 1874.  See  Nevin,  Prethyto- 
rian  Eneydop,  s.  v. 

Martin,  John  Wyknc,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  Ireland,  and  entered  the  ministry 
there.  In  1837  he  became  principal  of  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb  Asylum  at  Belfast,  in  1840  of  that  at  Dublin, 
and  in  1846  returned  to  that  at  Belfast  In  1858  he 
sailed  for  America;  in  1857  became  rector  at  Doe  Run, 
Pa. ;  in  1880  professor  in  Lincoln  University,  and  after- 
wards labored  in  the  City  Mission,  N.  Y.,  and  as  princi- 
pal of  the  Beaver  Academy,  Pa.  He  died  at  Norris- 
town,  June  1 1, 1888.    See  Nevin,  PreAyterian  Encyelop. 

8.V. 

Mason,  J.  O.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom  at 
Fort  Ann,  N.  J.,  Dec  25,  1818.  He  was  converted  in 
his  eighteenth  year;  graduated  from  the  Literary  and 
Theological  Institute  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  in  1886 ;  la- 
bored as  a  missionary  among  the  Creek  Indians;  in 
1840  became  pastor  at  Fort  Ann,  and  in  1844  at  Green- 
wich, N.  Y.,  where  he  died,  Dec  16, 1881.  See  Oath- 
cart,  Baptitt  Encydop,  s.  v. 


Matlaok,  Lucius  C,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epitoopil 
minister,  was  bom  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  April  ^,  1816. 
He  was  converted  when  sixteen  years  of  age;  licensed 
to  preach  in  1837,  but  refused  admittance  the  ssflie  vesr 
and  also  the  one  following  into  the  Philaddphia  Con- 
ference, on  account  of  his  anti-slavery  sentinients;  in 
1840  was  admitted  into  tba  New  England  Cooferraoe; 
in  1842  withdrew  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Churdi 
and  Joined  in  the  organization  of  the  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odist Connection ;  was  admitted  into  the  Philadelphia 
Conference  in  1887,  and  labored  successfully  until  hii 
death,  at  Cambridge,  Md.,  June  24, 1888.  See  MmttM 
ofAmmal  Conftrmou,  1^4^  p. 79 ;  Shnpson,  C}fdap,9f 
ifethodum,  s.  ▼. 

MoZhiren,  Robkrt,  D.D.,  a  Congicgattooal  nin- 
ister,  was  bora  at  New  London,  ContL,  June  22, 1808. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1827,  and  from  Yak 
Divinity  School  in  1688;  was  home  missionary  for  one 
year  at  Pontiac,  Mich. ;  pastor  at  Middletown,  Cooo., 
from  1885  to  1888 ;  at  Enfield,  Mass.,  from  1842  to  1861, 
and  died  at  New  London,  Aug.  29, 1888.  See  Ca^ 
Year^Mok,  1884,  p.  80. 

MoGlnley,  Amos  A.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  miais- 
ter,  was  bom  near  Fairfield,  Pa.,  in  1778.  He  grsdosted 
from  Dickinson  College  in  1798,  studied  thMkigjr  pii- 
vately,  and  was  pastor  at  Upper  and  Lower  Pkth  Vslky 
from  1808  until  bis  death,  May  1, 1856.  See  Nerin, 
PretbyUriam£m^f€lop»B,Y, 

Molnnifl^  RicsMORD,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bora  in  Greene  County,  Miss.,  Match  17, 1817. 
He  graduated  from  the  literary  department  of  Oskland 
College  in  1889,  and  studied  theology  there  likewise; 
became  pastor  at  Yasoo  City  in  1840,' in  1841  at  Jack- 
son, and  editor  of  the  True  Witnett,  wbidi,  in  1857,  be 
removed  to  New  Orleans;  afterwanto  preached  ss  sn 
evangelist,  and  died  Jan.  18^  1881.  See  Nevin,  Praby- 
terian  Eneydop,  a.  v. 

MoKensie^  J.  W.  P.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Cbnreh  South,  was  bora  in  Burke 
County,  N.  C,  April  26, 1806.  He  graduated  ftom  the 
University  of  cieorgia  in  1824;  taught  ancient  Iso- 
guages  for  a  few  years  there  and  at  Gaine^pitte;  in 
1881  went  to  Tennessee,  where  he  was  eooverted ;  in 
1886  joined  the  Arkansas  Conference,  and  labored  ss  s 
missionary  among  the  Choctaws;  in  1841  opened  s 
school  near  Clariuville^  Texas;  in  1871  became  pnsi- 
dent  of  Makvin  College,  resigned  the  next  year,  sad 
died  June  20,  1881.  See  Mvmie*  of  Ammal  Cmfif 
meet  ofiheM.E,  Church  South,  1881,  p.  848. 

BflcKnight,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  mioiiter, 
was  bora  near  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Oct.  1, 1764.  He  graduated 
from  Princeton  College  in  1778,  and  studied  theology 
privately ;  was  pastor  at  Lower  Marsh  Creek,  Ps.,  from 
1775  to  1788;  colleague  of  Dr.  Rodgeia,  in  New  York, 
from  1789  to  1809;  in  1815  president  of  Dickinson  Col- 
lege, but  resigned  the  next  year,  and  died  Oct.  21, 1823. 
See  Nevin,  Pfetbyterian  Eneydop,  &  v. 

McLaren.    See  Maclabkn. 

Means,  Alexakdkr,  D.D.,  LLJ).,  a  minister  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bon  st 
SutesviUe,  N.  C,  Feb.  6, 1801.  He  studied  four  ycais 
at  the  academy  in  his  native  place;  taught  acbool  one 
year  at  Mocksville;  studied  medicine,  and  practiced  it 
six  years  at  Covington,  Ga.;  became  a  local  preacher 
in  1829;  and  from  1888  devoted  himself  to  tlie  caose 
of  education,  as  principal  of  the  Geoigia  Cooferenee 
Manual  Labor  School  (1884),  professor  in  Emorv  Col- 
lege (1888),  in  the  Medical  CoOege  of  Georgia  (1810), 
president  of  Masonic  Female  College  (1858),  analyticsl 
chemist  of  Georgia  (1869).  He  entered  the  Geoigia 
Conference  in  1889,  and  died  in  1888.  See  MfkmtM  of 
Atmual  Conference  qf  the  Jf.  En  Church  S<mik,  I8C0, 
p.  7a 

Medley,  Samuel,  an  En^^h  poet,  wse  bom  aft 
Cbeshunt,  Hertfordabire^  June  28, 1788w    After  varioai 


MERCER 


1060 


PATTERSON 


■dTentoici  on  land  and  aea,  he  was  converted  in  1769, 
became  pastor  of  a  Baptist  Charcb  at  Waterford  in 
1768,  of  one  at  Liverpool  in  1772,  and  died  there,  July 
17,  1799.  He  published  numerous  hymns  in  sheets, 
which  were  collected  (1789-1800),  and  several  of  them 
(especially  **  Ob,  could  I  speak  the  matchless  worth  ") 
have  found  their  way  into  most  modem  hymnals. 

Meroer,  Alkxandkr  Gabdiickr,  D.D^  a  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  at  Philadelphia, 
Fa^  Jan.  4, 1817.  He  graduated  from  the  College  of 
New  Jersey  in  1887,  and  studied  one  year  in  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary;  became  rector  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Clifton,  N.  Y.,  in  1847 ;  in  1853  professor  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania;  in  1855  rector  of  Trinity 
Church,  Newport,  K.  I. ;  in  1860  assistant  at  Trinity 
Church,  fioston ;  in  1862  rector  of  All-Saints*  Chapel, 
Newport,  where  be  remained  until  his  death,  Nov.  8, 

1882.  See  NecroL  JRepoH  of  Princeton  Theol,  Stm. 

1883,  p.  43. 

Miller,  Chablbs  W.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  Sooth,  was  bom  in  Meroer 
County,  Ky.,  June  22,  1887.  In  1857  he  entered  the 
Kentucky  Conference,  in  which,  with  the  exception  of  a 
short  time  as  chaplain  in  the  Southern  army,  he  con- 
tinued to  preach  efficiently  until  attacked  by  disease,  in 
1882.  He  died  Jan.  10, 1885.  See  Minutes  of  Annual 
Conferences  of  the  M,  E.  Church  South,  1885,  p.  14. 

Monoriftf,  Sir  Hrnrt  Wbllwood,  D.D.,  a  Scotch 
minister,  grandson  of  bis  namesake,  the  Rev.  *'Sir 
Harry,"  was  bom  at  Edinburgh  in  1809.  He  gradu- 
ated from  ^alliol  College,  Oxford,  was  ordained  minis- 
ter at  Baldemock  in  1^,  transferred  to  East  Kilbride 
in  1837,  joined  the  Free  Church  in  1848,  was  transferred 
to  Free  St.  Cuthbert's  in  1862,  appointed  principal  clerk 
to  the  Free  General  Assembly  in  1855,  and  died  at  Edin- 
burgh, Nov.  4, 1883.  He  published  several  letters  and 
addresses.    See  Fasti  Eodes.  Scotioanmy  ii,  291 ,  344. 

Morgan,  Abel,  an  early  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
at  Welsh  Tract,  Del.,  April  18, 1718.  He  was  baptized 
at  twenty  years  of  age,  and  began  to  preach  soon  after ; 
became  pastor  at  Middletown,  N.  J.,  in  1739,  and  con- 
tinued there  until  bis  death,  Nov.  24, 1785.  He  was 
an  eminent  revivalist.    See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encjfdop. 

8.V. 

Morgan,  John,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  divine, 
was  bora  at  Cork,  Ireland,  in  November,  1802.  He 
graduated  from  Williams  College  in  1826;  taught  some 
years  in  New  York,  while  studying  theology ;  was  after- 
wards instractor  in  Lane  Seminary,  professor  in  Oberlin 
Theological  Seminary  (1835-80,  emeritus  thereafter),  or- 
dained in  1837,  and  died  Sept.  27, 1884.  He  published 
a  few  essays  and  sermons.  See  Cong,  Year-book,  1885, 
p.  28. 

Morgan,  Richard  U^  I>-I>.»  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  was  bora  in  Delaware  County,  Pa.,  Jan. 
9, 1800.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1822,  presbyter  in 
1823,  was  rector  for  twenty-three  years  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  and  died  at  Stamford, 
Conn.,  Oct.  9, 1882. 

Monis,  Francis  A.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  son  of  bishop  Morris,  was 
bora  at  Marietta,  O.,  Sept.  8, 1817.  He  graduated  from 
the  old  Augusta  College  in  18dGj  studied  law,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1838,  and  practiced  successfully 
in  Texas;  was  converted  in  1842;  taught  languages 
two  years  in  St.  Charles  College,  Mo.;  in  1845  joined 
the  Missouri  Conference,  in  which  and  in  the  Louis- 
ville Conference  (1851-60)  he  filled  important  stations 
until  his  death,  in  1882.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Con' 
ferences  of  the  M.  E,  Church  South,  1882,  p.  143. 

Monis,  Robert  Deaha,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  at  Washingfon,  Ky.,  Aug.  22, 1814. 
He  graduated  from  Augusta  College  in  1834,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1888;  was  ordained 
pastor  at  Newtown,  Pa.,  in  the  latter  year;  reffiov;^d  to 


Ohio  in  1856;  in  1859  became  president  of  the  Female 
College  at  Oxford,  and  died  there,  Nov.  3, 1882.  See 
Necnd.  Report  ofPrineeion  TheoL  Sem,  1888,  p.  35. 

Morro^  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  in  Greenville  District,  S.  C,  July  81,  1805. 
He  graduated  from  Centre  College,  Ky.,  in  1880 ;  stud- 
ied one  year  each  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
and  Union  Seminary,  Ya. ;  was  engaged  in  the  Creek 
Indian  mission  from  1888  to  1887,  and  therealter  as  an 
evangelist,  organiaing  churches  in  Alabama  and  Mis- 
sissippi, and  at  times  (1860-61,  1867-74)  as  superin- 
tendent of  public-schools  in  Morgan  County.  He  died 
at  HartseUs,  Ala.,  March  12,  i88&  See  NeeroL  Report 
ofPrineeion  TheoL  Sem,  1885,  p.  22. 

Moraell,  Joshua,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bora  in  1815.  He  graduated  from  the 
Alexandria  Theological  Seminary  in  1848,  was  rector 
of  Grace  Chnich,  City  Island,  N.  Y.,  and  died  there, 
Dec.  16, 1888. 

0. 

Owen,  FitANCis  A.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  Sooth,  was  bora  in  Branswick 
County,  Ya.,  Feb.  8, 1804.  In  1822  he  entered  the  Ten- 
nessee Conference,  in  which  and  in  the  St.  Louis  Con- 
ference (after  1874)  he  served  efficiently  as  preacher, 
missionary  to  the  Indians,  and  editor  of  the  Memphis 
Christian  Advocate  (1854),  until  compelled  to  take  a 
superaumerary  and  finally  a  superannuate  relation.  He 
died  March  16, 1888.  See  Minutes  of  Annual  Confer^ 
ences  of  the  M.  E.  Church  South,  1883,  p.  75. 

P. 

Page,  Josicpn  Rcslixo,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Aug.  1, 1817. 
He  united  with  the  Methodists  at  sixteen  years  of  age, 
studied  in  Aubnra  Theological  Seminary  two  yeara 
(1841-48);  was  preacher  at  Plymouth,  N,  Y.,  in  1888, 
pastor  at  Perry,  from  1839  to  1841,  from  1848  to  1857, 
and  from  1859  to  1868;  in  the  interim  at  Stratford, 
Conn.  (1857*59),  thereafter  financial  agent  of  Ingham 
University;  resident  at  East  Avon,  N.  Y.,  five  years, 
and  pastor  at  Brighton  from  1875  until  his  death  at 
Rochester,  Dec.  17, 1884.  See  Gen,  Cat,  of  A  ubum  TheoL 
Sem,  1888,  p,75. 

Pan-FroBbyterian  Counoil.    See  Prbsbytk- 

RIAM  AlUANOB. 

Parker,  H.  J.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  at 
Cavendish,  Yt.,  Nov.  12,  1812.  He  was  converted  at 
eighteen,  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1840, 
studied  theology  at  Newton,  was  ordained  in  1842,  be- 
came pastor  at  Burlington,  Yl,  in  1844;  in  1854  removed 
to  Beaver  Dam,  Wis.,  in  1856  became  pastor  there ;  in 
1861  removed  to  Austin,  Minn.,  in  1872  to  California, 
and  died  at  Riverside,  Jan.  30,  1885.  See  Cathcart, 
Baptist  Encyclop,  s.  v. 

Parry,  Richard,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  bora 
at  Ruthin,  Flintshire.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
whence  he  was  preferred  dean  of  Bangor  (1599),  and 
finally  bishop  of  SL  Asaph  (1604).  He  died  Sept.  26, 
1623.  He  possessed  eminent  episcopal  qualities.  See 
Fuller,  Worthies  of  England  (ed.  Nuttall),  p.  539. 

Partrldgo,  Au'rkd  H.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  bom  Dec.  11,  1811.  He  graduated 
from  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  in  1888, 
was  rector  of  St.  Matthew's,  Bedford,  seventeen  years, 
then  of  Christ  Church,  Brooklvn,  until  his  death,  April 
8, 1883. 

Patterson,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Littlekenny,  County  Donegal,  Ire* 
land.  He  studied  there  and  at  Londonderry,  attended 
the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Pteaby  terian 
Church  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1851  and  ordained  in  1852;  became  pastor  at  Cincinnati, 


PAULINIER 


1070     READING  OF  THE  BIBLE 


O.,  in  1864,  at  Chicago,  III,  in  1857,  of  the  Jeffeivon 
Presbyterian  Gbnrch  in  the  same  city  in  1867 ;  removed 
to  California  in  1878,  became  pastor  at  San  Francisco 
the  same  year,  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  in  1878,  in  1880  min- 
ister at  Brooklyn,  CaL,  and  died  at  San  Francisco,  Jan. 
17, 1885.     See  Nevin,  Pretb.  Encydop,  s.  v. 

PauUnler,  Fibbrk  Ahtoixk  Justix,  a  French 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Fezanas  (Herault),  Jan.  19,  1815. 
He  was  at  first  car6  of  St.  Koch,  Montpellier,  made  bishop 
of  Grenoble  in  1870,  archbishop  of  Besan^on  in  1875, 
and  died  Nov.  14, 1881,  leaving  some  pastoral  letters 
and  essays. 

Pendleton,  Wiluam  N.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  in  Hanover  County,  Va.,  Dec. 
26,  1809.  He  graduated  from  West  Point  Military 
Academy  in  1830,  was  ordained  in  1837 ;  was  successive- 
ly professor  in  Newark  College,  Del.,  principal  of  a  high- 
school  in  Virginia,  rector  of  AU-Saints*,  Frederick,  Md., 
and  from  18&  of  Grace  Church,  Lexington,  Va.,  until 
his  death,  Jan.  15, 1883. 

Pennell,  Georor  Caspar,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  July  11, 1832. 
He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  I852j  and  from 
the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  1855;  was  succes- 
sively assisunt  rector  of  Su  Paul's,  Troy ;  rector  of  Grace 
Church,  and  afterwards  of  St.  James*,  Buffalo;  of  St. 
Mary*s,  Mott  Haven ;  of  Christ  Church,  Rouse's  Point ; 
of  St.  John's,  Newark,  N.  J. ;  and  finally  of  St.  John's 
Mission,  Deadwood,  Neb.,  where  he  died.  May  20, 1882. 

Piotorial  BibleB.  The  value  and  interest  added 
to  books  of  almost  all  sorts  by  graphic  illustrations  has 
not  escaped  the  attention  of  editors  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures. In  the  Middle  Ages  this  was  effected  by  iUumi" 
nating  copies  by  hand.  See  Illumination,  Art  of. 
Since  the  Invention  of  printing  and  the  discovery  of 
engraving,  a  similar  effect  has  been  more  cheaply  pro- 
duced by  designs  on  wood,  metal,  or  stone,  either  etched 
or  in  relief.  The  romantic  scenes  of  Bible  history  have 
been  so  often  reproduced  in  paint  and  pencil,  and  the 
remains  and  scenes  of  Bible  lands  are  so  rich  in  apt 
and  important  elucidations  of  ancient  customs  and  in- 
stitutions, that  a  just  idea  of  Oriental  life  and  manners 
can  hardly  be  conveyed  without  some  such  aid  to  the 
eye.  Accordingly  both  fancy  and  fact  have  been  put 
into  requisition  for  this  purpose,  and  multitudes  of  vol- 
umes have  appeared  expressly  aimed  at  this  result. 
One  of  the  earliest  is  the  Poor  Han's  BUtU,  See  Biblia 
Pauperum.  The  most  noted  is  that  of  Hans  Holbein 
(q.  v.).  In  modem  times  artists  and  authors  have  vied 
with  each  other,  and  publbhers  have  been  lavish  in 
their  endeavors  to  enrich  and  beautify  the  sacred  pages 
with  pictorial  additions,  representing  not  only  the  reali- 
ties of  antiquarian  research,  but  also  the  conceptions  of 
creative  genius.'  Much  of  this  is  of  little  reid  help  to 
the  student,  and  some  of  it  has  really  misled  readers  by 
imaginary  notions  and  false  analogies.  But  a  real  gain 
has  been  effected  by  most  of  the  delineations  borrowed 
from  books  of  travel  and  expbration.  These  have  been 
also  incorporated  in  a  compact  and  convenient  form  in 
the  best  Bible  dictionaries  now  so  widely  circulated. 
One  of  the  most  popular  and  really  serviceable  of  all 
the  pictorial  Bibles  is  that  edited  by  the  late  Dr.  John 
Kitto  (q.  v.).  More  expensive  and  elaborate  ones  have 
been  issued  by  several  EngUsh  and  American  houses, 
which  are  an  ornament  to  the  household  and  an  heir- 
loom to  the  family. 

Pike,  GusTAVK  DoRHAV,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Topsfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  6, 188L  He 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1858,  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1861,  became  co- 
pastor  at  Nashua,  N.  H.,  in  1862,  pastor  at  East  Had- 
dam.  Conn.,  in  1865,  agent  of  the  American  Missionary 
Association  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1867,  and  was  its 
secreury  from  1870  until  bis  death.  Jan.  29, 1885.  He 
published  a  few  missionary  works.  See  Cong,  Year-bookf 
1886,  p.  80. 


PlureUty  of  Worlds.  SeeWoBLDS^PtusALrrr 

OP. 

Poioal,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  at  Martinsbnrg,  W. 
Va.,  May  13, 1807.  He  was  converted  when  a  yooth, 
and  in  his  nineteenth  year  was  admitted  into  the  Balti- 
more Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chorcfa,  in 
which,  and  in  the  corresponding  Conference  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  South,  after  its  separation,  he 
continued,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  years  in  the  New 
York  and  the  Philadelphia  oonferenoes,  to  labor  with 
great  efficiency  and  success  until  his  death,  June  25, 
1882.  Sie  Mtnuteto/AmualCotiferwoeso/tieM.E, 
ChmA  Simtk,  188S,  p.  14. 

Porter,  Abmer,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
bora  at  Ashville,  N.  C,  in  1817.  He  graduated  from 
Princeton  College  in  1836  or  1837,  studied  at  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  Columbus,  S.  C,  in  1842  became 
pastor  in  Greene  County,  Ala.,  in  1846  at  Charleston, 
S.  C,  in  1851  at  Selma,  Ala.,  and  finally  became  a  mis- 
sionary agent  in  Texas  until  his  death,  Dec  8, 1872. 
See  Nevin,  Presft.  Encgdop,  a.  v. 

JPresbytexian  Alliance  is  the  popular  name  of 
"The  Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches  throughout  the 
World  Holding  the  Presbyterian  System,"  which  was 
formed  in  London,  England,  in  July,  1875,  on  the  plan  of 
voluntary  association,  by  those  bodies  that  chose  to  send 
delegates,  and  which  held  its  first  general  coandl,  so 
composed,  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  July  8  to  10, 1877, 
and  its  second  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  28  to  Oct.  2, 
1880.  At  these  meetings  topics  of  general  ftateraal  in- 
terest were  discussed  in  papers  formally  prepared  by 
divines  appointed  for  this  purpose,  and  the  proceedings 
of  each  were  published  in  full. 

Pardy,  James  Souvbraink,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  minuter,  was  born  at  Rye,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  1, 1825. 
He  graduated  from  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
1849,  and  from  the  Greneral  Theological  Seminary.  N.  Y., 
in  1852 ;  became  rector  at  Southport,  Conn.,  in  1853,  of 
Calvarv  Chapel,  N.  Y.,  in  1860,  and  died  at  Saratoga, 
March  21, 1883. 

Pnrefoy,  Gborok  W.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  1809.  He  was  baptized  in  1830,  began  to  preach 
at  once,  labored  in  North  Carolina,  and  died  in  1880. 
He  wrote  some  controversial  tracts.  See  Cathcart,  Bop" 
tUt  Ene^dop,  s.  v. 

E. 

Rameey,  Jamks  Bevkrun,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  near  Elkton,  Bid.,  May  20, 1814^  He 
graduated  from  Lafayette  College  in  1836,  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1840;  became  pastor 
at  West  Farms,  N.  Y.,  in  1841,'after  1846  a  missionart 
to  the  Choctaw  Indians,  teacher  and  stated  supply  in 
various  places,  until  his  death,  July  28, 1871.  See  Gtfu 
Cat.  of  Princeton  Theol  Sem,  1881,'p.  112;  Nevin,  Prak 
Enc^dop,  s.  V. 

Reading  of  the  Bible.  The  regular  and  con- 
stant perusal  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  is  so  delightful  a 
privilege  of  Christians  that  it  is  spontaneously  adopted 
by  the  converted  heart,  and  the  book  has  such  a  charm 
both  for  the  young  and  the  old,  the  scholar  and  the  on- 
leamed,  as  to  be  a  perpetual  theme  of  study  for  every 
intelligent  mind.  It  is  also  enjoined  as  a  religious  datr, 
as  well  in  the  volume  itself  (Deut  vi,  7;  John  v,39), 
as  in  the  prescriptive  mles  of  most' ecclesiastical  bodies 
The  public  use  of  the  Bible  was  practiced  by  the  Jews 
and  by  the  early  Christians,  and  has  been  continued 
among  all  Protestant  bodies.  See  Lessons.  Especial 
officers  were  detailed  in  the  early  Church  for  the  more 
general  diffusion  of  this  work.  See  Kbader.  In  the 
Uoman  Catholic  Church,  however,  and  to  aome  extent 
in  the  Greek,  the  promiacoons  perusal  of  the  Scriptarcs, 
in  the  vernacular,  has  been  prohibited.  See  BnBUc, 
Use  of,  by  the  Laitt.  Much  of  the  modem  ao^caUad 


REDINQ 


1071 


SHAFER 


^^BiUe^TQidlBg*  is  nther  a  mode  of  senooniziog,  or  a 
GftBiud  stringing  together  of  diaconnecfced  texts  on  some 
fancifol  princi^e. 

Reding,  Joseph,  a  pioneer  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  in  Fauquier  County,  Ya.,  about  1750.  He  was 
baptized  in  1771;  began  to  preach  immediately;  la- 
bored successfully  in  South  Carolina  and  Kentucky, 
and  died  in  December,  1815.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
Eftcydop,  s.  V. 

Reea,  Thomas  Swansea,  D.D.,  a  Welsh  Congre- 
gational minister,  was  bora  in  Carmarthenshire,  Dec. 
13, 1815,  He  was  converted  at  thirteen,  began  to  preach 
in  1832,  was  ordained  in  1836,  labored  with  great  suc- 
cess in  various  pastorates  in  Wales,  and  died  April  29, 
1885.     See  (Lond.)  Cong,  Year-book,  1886,  p.  204. 

RichardBk  Austin,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Plainfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  9,  1800.  He 
graduated  from  Amherst  College  in  1824,  and  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1827,  was  pastor  at 
Franoestown,  N.  H.,  and  at  Nashua  thereafter  until  1870, 
and  died  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Biay  9,  1883.  See  Cong. 
Tear-book,  1884,  p.  83. 

RiohardBon,  Nathan  Smith,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bora  at  Middlebury,  Vl,  Jan. 
8, 1810.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1834, 
studied  ot  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y., 
became  minister  at  Watertown,  Conn.,  in  1838,  at  An- 
sonia  in  1844,  editor  of  the  American  Church  Review  in 
1848,  rector  at  Bridgeport  in  1868,  editor  of  The  Guar- 
dian  in  1879,  and  died  Aug.  7,  1888.  He  published 
Reasone  Why  I  am  a  Chrittian^  and  other  works^ 

Rigga»  Cyrus  C,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Fairfield,  Pa.,  April  10, 1810.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Jefferson  College  in  1836,  studied  at  the  West- 
em  Theological  Seminary,  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1839,  ordained  in  1840,  pastor  in  Xllinois  until  1845,  then 
in  Maryland  and  Pennsylvanio,  and  teacher  in  Beaver, 
Pa.,  in  1869.  He  died  Aug.  29, 1883.  See  Nevin,  Pre«6. 
JCruydop,  s.  v. 

RoBB,  Fbkderick  a.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  bora  in  1796.  His  long  life  was  devoted  to 
the  service  of  Christ  He  was  remarkable  for  the  vigor 
of  bis  intellect,  boldness  and  zeal  in  the  pulpit,  and  the 
contributions  of  his  pen  to  the  literature  of  the  Church. 
He  died  at  Hnntoville,  Ala.,  April  18, 1883.  See  (N.  Y.) 
Oftwrwr,  April  26, 1883.     (W.P.a) 

Rossell,  Stephen  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  minister  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  at 
Philadelphia,  Oct.  29, 1812.  He  graduated  early  from 
Augusta  College,  Ky.,  taught  in  Baltimore,  Md.*  became 
professor  in  Dickinson  College,  joined  the  Baltimore 
Conference  in  1838,  and  continued  one  of  its  distin- 
guished preachers  until  laid  aside  by  infirmity.  He 
died  April  27, 1882.  See  MimUes  of  Annual  Confer- 
eneet  of  the  AT.  E,  Church  South,  1888,  p.  13. 

8. 

Banford,  David  Platt,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  bom  at  Redding,  Conn.,  Jan.  29, 
1819.  He' graduated  from  Trinity  College,  Hartford, 
in  1844;  became  minister  at  Woodbury  in  1846,  at  Ox- 
ford and  Quaker's  Farms  in  1847;  WalcottviUe  in  1849; 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  18d0;  New  Milford,  Conn.,  in  1851; 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1853 ;  Faribault,  Minn.,  in  1 858 ;  Long 
Hill,  Conn.,  in  1859;  chaplain  in  the  army  in  1862; 
rector  at  WolcottvUle  in  1864;  Rochester,  Minn.,  in 
1869;  Winsted,  Conn.,  in  1870;  HazardvUle  in  1874, 
and  died  at  Thompson ville,  April  3, 1883. 

Santa  Sophia.    See  Sophia  (SaitU),  CmntcB 

OP. 

Sa'wtell,  Eu  Newtost,  D.D.,  a  Cdngregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  Milford,  N.  H.,  Sept.  8, 1799.  He 
graduated  from  Greeneville  College,  Tenn.,  in  1823,  from 
Marysville  Theological  Seminary  in  1826,  and  studied 


at  AndoTer  in  1826;  was  Presbyterian  minister  at  ser- 
erol  places  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  until  1886 ;  then 
went  as  chaplain  to  Havre,  and  filled  other  ecclesiastical 
offices  until  1864 ;  Congregational  minister  at  Saratoga 
Springs,  N.  Y.,  from  1^  to  1867 ;  thereafter  served  in 
ecclesiastical  commissions  until  1878,  and  died  on  Stat- 
en  Island,  April  6, 1885.  See  Cong,  Year^fookf  1886, 
p.  32. 

Sa'Virtelle,  Hbmrt  Allen,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minuter, 
was  bom  at  Sidney,  Me.,  Dec.  11, 1882.  He  graduated 
from  Colby  Uni\'er8ity  in  1854,  and  from  the  Newton 
Theological  Institution  in  1858 ;  was  pastor  at  Limerick, 
Me.,  one  year;  missionaiy  to  China  from  1859  to  1861  \ 
pastor  at  San  Francisco,  CaL,  in  1862;  at  Chelsea  from 
1877  nntil  his  death.  Nor.  22,  1885.  He  wrote  fre- 
quently for  the  religions  jonraols,  olso  a  volume  entitled 
Things  to  Think  of.   See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Enegclop,  s.v. 

Soott,  Robinaon,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  English  Meth- 
odist minister,  was  bora  at  Bainbridge,  Sept.  17,  1814. 
In  1885  he  entered  the  Wesleyan  ministry,  in  1845  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  connectional  school  at  Dub- 
lin, and  subsequently  of  that  at  Belfast.  He  was  fore- 
roost  in  the  work  of  Methodist  education  in  Ireland. 
He  died  Dec.  22, 1888.  See  Minutes  of  the  British  Con- 
ference, 1884,  p.  88. 

Scott,  WiUlam  Anderson,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Pres- 
byterian minister,  was  bora  at  Rock  Creek,  Bedford  Co., 
Tenn.,  Jan.  31, 1813.  He  was  converted  at  fifteen,  li- 
censed to  preach  at  seventeen,  and  immediately  began 
his  itinerant  ministry.  He  graduated  from  Cumber- 
land College,  Ky.,  in  1883,  studied. one  year  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  was  ordained  in  1835,  labored 
several  years  as  missionary  and  teacher  in  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  and  Tennessee;  pastor  at  Nashville  in  1838; 
at  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  in  1840 ;  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  1848 ; 
San  Francisco,  CaL,  from  1855  to  1861;  travelled  in 
Europe,  and  served  as  pastor  at  Birmingham,  England ; 
at  New  York  city  in  1863 ;  and  at  San  Francisco  from 
1870  until  his  death,  Jan.  14, 1885. '  See  Necrol,  Report 
of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1885,  p.  80. 

Soovol,  Sylvester,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  at  Peru,  Mass.,  March  8, 1796.  He  graduated 
from  Williams  College  in  1822,  and  studied  two  years  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary;  labored  as  a  missionary 
on  the  Delaware  River ;  was  pastor  at  Woodbury,  N.  J., 
in  1825;  supply  at  Norristown,  Pa.,  in  1828;  in  Ohio 
from  1883  to  1836;  agent  of  domestic  missions  until 
1846;  and  president  of  Hanover  College,  Ind.,  until  his 
death,  July  4, 1849.     See  Nevin,  Presb,  Encyclop,  s.  v. 

Seely,  Raymond  Hoyt,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bora  at  Norwalk,  Conn.,  Feb.  19, 1812. 
He  graduated  from  New  York  University  in  1839,  and 
from  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  1842;  became 
pastor  at  Bristol,  Conn.,  in  1843 ;  Springfield,  Mass.,  in 
1849;  at  the  American  Chopel,  Paris,  in  1858;  Hav- 
erhill, Mass.,  in  1860,  and  died  there,  Sept.  7, 1885.  He 
published  several  sermons  and  oddresses.  See  Cong, 
Year-book,  1886,  p.  32. 

Sessions,  Jomr,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  at  Putney,  Vt.,  Sept.  29, 1795.  He  graduated 
from  Dartmouth  College  iu  1822,  studied  one  year  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  ministered  at  various 
Presbyterian  and  Congregational  churches  in  New 
York,  Ohio,  and  Connecticut,  teaching  several  years 
meanwhile  until  1863,  when  he  removed  to  Califoraia, 
and  in  1879  to  Honolulu,  where  he  died,  April  6, 1884. 
See  NecroL  Report  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem,  1885,  p.  10. 

Shafer,  Joseph  L.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bora  at  Stillwater,  N.  J.,  May  9,  1787.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Princeton  College  in  1808,  studied  theology 
under  Rev.  Dr.  Woodbull,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1810, 
served  two  years  as  a  missionary',  and  thereafter  as  pas- 
tor at  Newton  (  with  the  exception  of  three  years  at 
Middletown  Point),  until  his  death,  Nov.  12, 1858.  See 
NeviOi  Presbyterian  Encyclop,  a,  v. 


SHAILER  10 

I,  WiLLiAH  Hq  D.Dq  ■  BtptUt  ainlHer, 
ym  bom  at  Haddim,  Conn^  Hov.  W.  1W7,  He  gr*d- 
ualed  rrom  Uaduaii  Univenity  in  1885;  itudied  al  Uia 
NewIoD  Tbeological  InUiiutian,  Uachinft  meanwhile; 
became  paitur  at  Deep  Kiver,  Conn,,  in  IBS6;  at  Bnwk- 
1in«,  Man.,  in  18B7 ;  at  Ponland,  Me.,  in  ISM,  and  with- 
oat  charge  rrom  1877  nnlil  hia  deaih,  Feb.-^,1S81.  See 
Cathcaru  Baplitt  Encfdop.  a.  v. 

BlBsmnad,  Geoboc  F^  D.D^  a  Pcouiunt  Epii- 
ocipal  clergyman,  wu  bom  in  Pruaaia  in  1838.  He 
(tudied  at  tbe  Univenity  of  Halle ;  came  (o  America  in 
1872;  becamaawatant  at  the  Church  of  Che  Anniuicia- 
Cioo,  New  Vork  city,  in  1874,  and  aftenrarda  at  Grace 
Church;  founded  theGennan  Church  Society, and  died 
ai  New  York  city,  Feb.  SB,  1884. 

Smiley.  Georqe  W.,  D.D.,  a  Pretbyterian  mln1>~ 
ter,  wai  bom  in  Perry  Cotinty,  Pa^  in  I8ia  He 
aC«died  two  yean  in  Dickinaan  Callage  i  remored  to 
Lexington,  Ky.,  where  be  waa  convened;  Jcnned  tbe 
Hethodiac  Chnrch,  and  for  twenty  ycara  aerred  m  an 
itinerant  preacher,  then  ai  a  BefamKd  Dutch  minialer 
at  Philadetpbia,  and  Hnallv,  for  fourteen  yean,  aa  a 
Pnabyterian  miniater  at  Potlavllle,  He  clitd  Jung  18, 
1883.     aee  Ncvin,  Pmialtiim  Entsdop.  a.  t. 

Smitll,  Aldebt  Pattekso:!,  D.D.,  a  Proleatant 
Epiacopal  clergyman,  waa  bom  in  New  Hampahire  in 
1809.  He  graduated  from  the  General  Tbeological 
Seminary,  N.r.,  in  1B41,  gcrved  at  Camden,  N.  J.,  then 
aa  rector  of  St.  Petei'a  Church,  CaienoTia,  for  thlrty- 
tbree  yeara,  until  bia  death,  March  14, 188S. 

SOOiOty  TOR  PROXOTIHa  CHRmiAS  KHOWLXDaE, 

an  important  reli^nua  aaaociation  of  the  Church  of 
England,  founddl  in  1698,  dnigned  to  aupporc  charity- 
•choola  in  England  and  Waits,  and  to  circulate  anno- 
tated Biblea,  tracta,  and  booka,  chiefly  in  the  British 
dominiona.  It  liaa  publiahed  many  faluable  vrorka  of 
a  popular  religious  character.  It  is  distinct  from,  but 
■OBWwhat  akin  with,  the  Rellgioua  Tract  Society,  which 


73  SOPHIA 

waa  inatitatad  In  1799,  and  which  hai  a  wider  Md, 
It  is  lupported  by  endowment,  cnntribalioni,  aad  ulo, 
and  baa  an  annual  inccnie  of  about  half  t  milluD 

BopbiA  {8<mi),C«vBra  (or  HoBQn:)  or,  the  ant 
notable  edifice  in  Conalautinople,  built  by  the  eopenc 
CoDBtantine,  A.D.  B8D,  and  *a  naoMd  is  honor  of  ibe 
divine  wiadom  (Sofia).  It  waa  one  of  the  fint  Chrit- 
lian  churches  permitted  after  the  peneculioii  byDii>- 
detian.  Thirteen  years  afterwarda  it  waa  enlargeJ  br 
C«nstantina,aon  of  CoDitanline;  waa  burned  in  Ml. n- 
huitt  iDilGbyTheodosiuB  II;  humed  asecond  tiTwie 
GS2,  and  in  E>S8  was  reconalrudcd  from  the  foaiirtiun 
by  Justiniin,  and  dedicaled  on  Chriatmas  eve,  M9.  In 
14fi3,when  the  Turka  entered  the  diy,  thepeopl*  g»ib- 
ertd  together  in  this  church,  but  tbpy  wrre  seiud  mi 
ma  ■acred,  tbe  buiMing  being  saved  from  dcMnKtin 
byHohamtaed  II,wbacDDccived  the  idea  of  nnsftni- 
ingit  into  a  moHiue.  The  whole  aapectihoth  inUmil- 
ly  and  extenially,  waa  entirely  changed  lo  accMomoditt 
tbe  new  worabip;  the  picture*  and  moMica  weR  ror- 
ered  over,  the  allar  rebuilt  in  tb«  comer  towards  Htcca, 
a  minaret  waa  added  at  one  comer,  and  (he  fonn  of  Iba 
cburch  waa  changed  to  that  of  a  cmcent  Sioat  then 
other  buildings  have  been  added  lo  tbe  original,  a  tso 
riaty  and  baptialery  being  the  meat  prominent.  Xaong 
the  aaered  curiositiea  found  in  the  ciypt  are,  accoiding 
to  tradition,  the  block  of  red  marble  oacd  aa  the  cnlle 
of  our  Saviuar,  the  cup  used  by  Uary  in  waahiag  Jtwi, 
both  rnm  Bethlehem;  olao  the  "aweating  cidaaiti,'* 
"ahining  alone,"  and  "cold  window,"  vinted  t^Moslnii 
pilgiimaasmiraoiloufc  The  original  form  t^lbecfeorcb 
waa  that  of  a  crosa  encloacd  in  a  aqoare,  whose  sides 
measure  two  hundred  and  forty-five  feet;  indoding  the 
portico,  two  hundred  and  sixty-nine  feel.  Having  been 
enlarged  and  rebuilt  several  timea,  tbe  original  fnnn 
bas  been  loat,  and  now  the  exterior  ot  this  edifkt  is 
eingularly  heavy.  Uncouth  and  diaproportionale  in 
:n  tbe  effect  of  its  nnuBoal  dimcnaoae  is 


Bitarlatoriba  ChnrcbotBL  Sophia. 


<le«Uoy«1  by  it>  Uck  of  lymmeUy,  it  presenting  an  I  ciicuUr  Iibleli.     On  Ihe  top  or  [be  ei 
irregular  matt  of  cupolu,  htil-tiomtt,  delving  roar«,    "  God  ia  ibe  li^ht  ul  ibe  heaven*  and  the  ei 
Olid  uun ceil  ml narcti.     Even  the  great  dome,  riung  in  |  illuminated  [luring  the  realirala.     like  all  i 
the  eenlre,  an  celebralnl  for  ar 

i  tiarchitcctu  ral  bcauC;  .looka 
luw  and  flat,  ami  frum  the 
■■utaiile  pmlucca  nothing  of 

pine.  The  weM  aide  furms 
the  entrance.   The  lint  rea- 

libiile  waa  called  in  ancient 
limcalhenarthei.  Thegal- 
lery  Tur  the  women  ruiiB 
Bides,  auppnrt- 


edby 

buildl 


■ruwed 


uool- 


ief  object 
the  dome,  called 
Ihe  "Brill  tli>n]e,"on  account 
■eiling  lightweight, 
conBiating  of  pumice-atono 
brickarrom  lihodes.  Itriaei 
to  the  height  of  oue  hundred 
and  eighty  feet,  resting 


I         I      f  ■■•^■■-•^•**'-C 


SPOTSWOOD 


1074 


TRENCH 


this  is  dofled  to  Christian  viaitora  except  upon  special 
flrman,  which  may  be  easily  obtained,  at  a  small  ex- 
pense, through  the  interposition  of  the  masters  of  the 
principal  hotels. 

Spotswood,  John  Boswkll,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  in  Dinwiddie  Goanty,  Ya.,  Feb.  8, 
1808.  He  graduated  from  Ambecst  College  in  1828, 
and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1882 ;  be- 
came pastor  in  Sussex  County,  Va.,  in  1893 ;  at  EUicott's 
Mills  in  1840 ;  at  New  Castle,  Del.,  in  1842 ;  resigned  in 
1884,  and  died  there,  Feb.  10, 1885.  See  NecroL  RepoH 
of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1885,  p.  23. 

St.  Sophia.    See  Sophia. 

Sterling,  John  Whelbn,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Black  Walnut,  Pa.,  July  17, 1816. 
He  graduated  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1840, 
and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1844;  be- 
came pastor  at  Tunkhannock,Pa., in  1845;  professor  in 
Carroll  College,  Wis.,  in  1846 ;  teacher  at  Waukesha  in 
1847 ;  professor  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in  1848, 
and  died  in  office,  March  8, 1885.  See  NecroL  Report 
of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1885,  p.  44. 

Stilea,  JosKPii  Clay,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bora  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  Dec  6, 1795.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1814,  studied  and 
practiced  law,  spent  one  year  (1825)  in  Andover  The- 
ological Seminary,  became  an  evangelist  in  Georgia  and 
Florida  (1829),  and  afterwards  (1885)  in  Kentucky; 
pastor  in  Richmond,  Va.  (1844),  at  Mercer  Street,  New 
York  city  (1848),  agent  of  the  American  Bible  Society 
(1850),  pastor  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  (1853),  and  finally 
an  evangelist  in  several  of  the  Southern  states.  He 
died  March  27, 1875.    See  Nevin,  Predt,  Encyclop,  a.  v. 

Stock,  John,  LL.D.,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  bora  in  London,  Dec  7, 1817.  He  began  to  preach 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  studied  two  years  at  University 
College,  London,  became  pastor  at  Chatham  in  1842,  at 
Devonport  in  1857,  and  died  May  8, 1884.  In  1867  be 
visited  the  United  States,  and  was  most  cordially  re- 
ceived. He  published  a  large  number  of  religious  vol- 
umes and  tracts.  See  (Lond.)  Baptist  Uand-bookj  1885, 
p.  157. 

Snddards,  William,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bora  in  1800.  He  was  originally  a 
Methodist  preacher,  was  ordained  by  bishop  M*Ilvaine, 
was  rector  of  Grace  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  over 
forty  years,  and  died  there,  Feb.  20, 1883. 

Sumner,  M.  T.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bora 
in  Massachusetts,  Sept.  6,  1815.  He  graduated  from 
Brown  Univeruty  in  1838,  engaged  in  teaching  and 
preaching  in  Richmond,  Va.,  in  1840,  became  agent  of 
the  American  Tract  Society  in  1854,  secretary  of  the 
Baptist  Mission  Board  in  1858,  subsequently  held  sev- 
eral other  agencies,  became  pastor  at  Athens,  Ala.,  in 
1880,  and  died  Aug.  23,  1883.  See  Cathcart,  Baptist 
Encydop,  s.  v, 

Sunderland,  La  Ror,  a  brilliant  but  erratic  char- 
acter, was  bora  at  Exeler,  R.  I.,  May  18,  1802.  He 
became  a  Methodist  preacher  in  1823,  and  soon  was 
known  as  a  prominent  orator  on  temperance,  anti- 
slavery,  and  eventually  on  physiology  and  psychology. 
He  died  a  professed  infidel,  May  15, 1885.  He  was  the 
editor  of  various  Journals,  and  the  author  of  several  vol- 
umes on  the  above  subjects. 

T. 

Talbot,  JosKpii  CfiUiKSHANK,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  bishop,  was  bora  at  Alexandria,  Va., 
Sept.  5, 1816.  He  studied  at  the  Alexandria  Academy ; 
in  1835  removed  to  Kentucky,  and  engaged  in  mercan- 
tile pursuits;  in  1843  became  a  candidate  for  clerical 
orders,  in  1846  waa  ordained  deacon,  and  in  1848  pres- 
byter; was  in  charge  of  St.  John's  Church,  Louisville, 
seven  years,  and  in  1858  became  rector  of  Christ  Church, 


Indianapolis;  in  1859  was  elected  assiatant  bishop  of 
Indiana,  and  in  1872  became  bishop  of  the  dtocae.  He 
died  Jan.  16,  i883. 

Taylor,  Elisha  £.  L.,  D.D.,a  Bsptbt  minister,  wis 
bora  at  Delphi,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  25, 1815.  He  graduated 
from  Madison  University,  and  from  the  theok^cal  sem- 
inary at  Hamilton,  became  pastor  in  Pierrepoot  Street, 
Brooklyn,  in  1865  secreUry  of  the  Baptist  Cborch  Edi- 
fice Fund,  and  died  Aug.  20, 1874.  See  Cathcart,  Bap- 
tist  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Te£rt,  Benjamin  Franklin,  D.D.,  LLD^  a  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  divine,  was  bora  near  Uiica,  X.  Y.,  Aog. 
20,  1813.  He  graduated  from  Wesleysn  Unireratv, 
Conn.,  in  1835,  became  successively  teacher  and  prescb> 
er  in  New  England  until  1848,  thereafter  professor  m 
Indiana  Asbury  University,  in  1846  editor  of  The  LaSei 
Repository^  from  1852  to  186S  teacher  aind  pastor  in  New 
York  and  Maine,  from  1862  to  1865  engaged  in  United 
States  commissions  abroad  and  at  home,  in  1866  ptstn 
at  Portland,  Me.,  in  1873  editor  of  the  Northern  Border^ 
having  assumed  the  position  of  a  local  preacher,  lod 
died  at  Bangor,  Me.,  Sept.  17, 1885.  He  published  sereial 
works,  the  latest  of  which  was  an  elaborate  volume  oa 
Evolution,  See  A  htmsd  Record  of  Wesiej/itn  Unieerutif, 
1883,  p.  9, 645. 

Thurston,  Stephen,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  oio- 
ister,  was  bora  at  Sedgewick,  Me.,  D^  22, 1797.  He 
graduated  fiom  Bangor  Theological  Seminary  in  1835, 
became  pastor  at  Searsport  (then  Prospect),  Me.,  in 
1826,  was  secretary  of  the  Maine  Missionary  Society 
from  1864  to  1876,  and  died  May  27, 1884.  'He  pub- 
lished several  sermons.  See  Cong.  Year'took^  1885, 
p.  35. 

Toby,  Thomab  W.,  D.D.,  a  BapUat  minister,  wu 
for  several  years  a  misdonary  to  China,  afterwards  pas- 
tor in  North  .Carolina,  professor  in  varioos  litenry  in- 
stitutions, pastor  at  Union  Springs,  then  at  Camden, 
Ak.,  and  finally  principal  of  the  (>>llegiate  Institute  it 
Eufala,  among  the  Creek  nation.  He  died  at  Uke 
Weir,  Fla.,  in  Febraary,  1885,  aged  sixty-fire  yean. 

Trench,  Richard  Ciibxevix,  D.D.,  a  prelate  of 
the  Irish  Church,  was  bom  in  Ireland,  Sept.  9, 1807. 
He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  CoUeg^ 
Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  in  1829.  He  was  short- 
ly afterwards  oitlained  as  curate  to  Hugh  James  Rose 
of  Hadleigh.  At  this  time  Trench  joined  the  High- 
Church  party,  without  having  the  smallest  leaning 
Romewards.  He  had  a  tolerance  for,  though  not  in- 
tellectual sympathy  with,  the  brood  school.  While 
holding  a  small  incumbencv  in  Hampshire,  Trench  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  %ev.  Dr.  (afterwards  bishcf)^ 
Wilberforce,  whose  curate  he  became.  In  1845  Wil- 
berforce  was  made  dean  of  Westminster,  and  Trench 
became  rector  of  Itchenstoke,  a  small  village  near  VTin- 
cheater,  joining  to  his  work  there,  as  soon  as  Wilbe^ 
force  became  bishop,  that  of  examining  chaplain,  and 
soon  after  that  of  theological  professor  at  King*3  Col- 
lege. In  1856  Trench  was  made  dean  of  Westmioster, 
a  position  which  he  held  to  the  end  of  1863.  On  Jan. 
1, 1864,  he  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Dublin.  He 
resigned  his  office  in  1885,  and  died  March  2^  188& 
As  a  writer.  Trench  is  known  beyond  the  ooofines  of 
his  own  country.  He  was  poet,  philologist,  and  theo- 
logian. Of  his  many  writings  the  best  known  are,  (k 
the  Authorized  Version  of  the  New  Tettammt  (K.  T. 
lS5S)'.^-Synoi^fms  of  the  New  Testamaa  (8th  ed.  re- 
vised, Lond.  1876) :— Exposition  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mounts  etc.  (8d  ed.  l^G&yx—Studks  in  the  CotpfU 
{1870) '^The  Star  of  the  Wise  Men  (1850) :— Cowwn- 
tary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Secen  Churchet  in  Asia,  Rer. 
u,  Hi  {1804)1— Notes  on  the  Parablet  of  Our  Lord 
(1871) :— Notes  on  the  Miradet  of  Our  Lord  (eod.)  :— 
On  the  Lessons  in  Proverbs  (1865)  :-^Lectures  on  Medi* 
cBval  Church  History  (1878)  '.-^Sermons  Prectdked  before 
the  University  of  Cambridge  (1866)  i^-Sermoms  Preaehei 
in  Westminster  Abbey  (1861)  i^The  ffulseem  Lectures 


TRIMBLE 


1076  WESLEYAN  METH.  CONNECT. 


for  1845  and  1846  (18^)  \^Sermifm  Preached  for  the 
Afotl  Part  in  Jrelmid  (1878):— ^Socml  Latin  Poetry 
{iS6i)  i^EnffUsh,  PaH  and  Preeeni  (7th  ed.  1871) :_ 
A  Seiect  Glostary  of  EnglUh  Words  (1872) -.—(Tn  the 
Study  of  Words  (1868)  \^Briff  Thoughte  and  Medita- 
twne^  on  Paeeagee  of  Holy  Scripture  (1884).  Trench 
was  also  a  member  of  the  Engliah  Ciompany  for  the 
Re^Uion  of  the  New  Test.    (B.  P.) 

Trimble,  Bobbrt  W.,  LL.D.,  a  Protestsnt  Episeo- 
pa}  clergyman,  was  bom  at  Wheeling,  W.  Ya.,  Feb.  2, 
1829,  ordained  deacon  in  1858,  and  presbyter  in  1860, 
was  rector  at  Pine  BlufT,  Ark.,  for  twenty-one  years,  and 
(lied  April  18, 1882. 

Tacker,  Silas,  D.D.,  one  of  five  brothers,  all  Bap- 
tist ministers,  was  bom  May  16, 1818,  baptized  in  1883, 
licensed  the  next  year,  studied  in  the  seminar\'  at  Ham- 
ilton, N.  Y.,  in  1837  became  pastor  in  (^eveland,  O., 
subsequently  of  other  churches  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois,  and  died  at  Aurora,  IlL,  Nov.  7, 1872.  See  Cath- 
cart,  Baptist  Eneydop,  s.  v. 

Tumboll,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Whitebum,  Linlithgowshire,  Scotland,  Sept.  10, 
1809.  He  was  religiously  trained,  graduated  from  Glas- 
gow University,  studied  with  Dr.  Chalmers,  preached 
a  year  and  a  half  at  Westmancotte,  Worcestershire, 
England;  came  to  America  in  188d»  became  pastor  at 
Danbury,  Conn.,  for  two  years,  afterwards  at  Hartford ; 
in  1839  at  Boston,  BCass.,  in  1845  again  at  Hartford,  in 
1869  preached  in  various  places  with  much  success,  in 
1872  became  secretary  of  the  Connecticut  Baptist  As- 
sociation, and  died  Nov.  20,  1877.  He  published  a 
numlier  of  popular  religious  woriu.  See  Cathcart,  Bap- 
tisi  L'Hcydop,  a,  v. 

w. 

T^adsDVOTth,  Edward,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  at  New 
Beme,  N.  C,  Aug.  28, 1811.  He  was  converted  in  1829, 
entered  the  Virginia  Conference  in  1881,  in  which, 
and  subsequently  (1855)  in  the  Alabama  Conference,  he 
filled  important  stations  until  1859,  when  he  became  a 
professor  in  the  Southern  University,  and  in  1871  he 
retumed  to  pastoral  work,  in  which  be  continued  until 
his  death,  in  the  spring  of  1888.  See  Minutes  of  An- 
nual Conferencee  of  the  M.  E.  Church  South,  1883,  p.  97. 

'Wallace,  Robert  Howard,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  bom  at  Montgomery,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  12, 1796. 
He  studied  with  Rev.  Dr.  McJimpsey  of  his  native 
place,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1824,  served  in  the  do- 
mestic missions  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church,  be- 
came pastor  at  Little  Britain  and  Caledonia,  N.  Y.,  in 
1825,  and  died  in  that  relation,  Feb.  9, 1868.  See  Nevin, 
Pre^  Encyclop,  a,  v. 

'Walsh,  JoHM  JoHSSTON,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  April  4, 1820.  He 
joineil  the  Church  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  graduated 
from  Union  College  in  1889,  and  from  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1843,  went  as  a  raiuionary  to  India, 
retumed  after  thirty  years  of  labor,  was  pastor  at  Mil- 
lerstown,  N.  Y.,  from  1874  to  1876,  and  died  Feb.  7, 1884. 
See  Necrol,  Rtpoii  of  Princeton  TheoL  Sem.  1884,  p.  31. 

Warren,  Jonah  G.,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Ward,  Mass.,  Sept  12, 1812.  He  graduated 
from  Bro¥m  University  in  1885,  and  from  the  Newton 
Theological  Institution  in  1838,  became  pastor  at  Chic- 
opee  the  same  year,  at  North  Troy,  N.  Y.,  in  1849,  sec- 
retary of  the  American  Baptist  Mission  Union  in  1855, 
resigned  in  1872,  and  died  at  Newton  Centre,  Mass., 
Feb.  27, 1884.    See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Encyclop,  s.  v. 

T^atkina,  William  H.,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bom  in  Jeffer- 
son County,  Miss.,  April  11, 1815.  He  was  converted 
early  in  Ufe,  entered  the  Mississippi  Conference  in 
1885,  and  labored  earnestly  and  successfully  until  his 


death,  Feb.  5, 1881.    See  Minutes  of  Annual  Coiner- 
ences  qfthe  M.  E,  Church  South,  1881,  p.'311. 

'Wataon,  Johv  Lkk,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  EpiKopal 
clergyman,  was  bora  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Aug.  27,  1797. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1816,  became 
rector  at  Fishkill,  N.  Y.,  in  1835,  assisUnt  at  Trinity 
Church,  Boston,  in  1886,  rector  of  Grace  Church,  New- 
ark, N.  J.,  in  1846»  of  Burtington  CoUege  in  1853,  chap- 
Iain  of  the  United  States  Navy  in  1855,  was  placed  on 
the  retired  list  in  1861,  and  died  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  Aug. 
12,1884. 

T^ebster,  John  Calvin,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  bom  at  Hampton,  N.  H.,  Jan.  19, 1810. 
He  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in  1832,  and 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1835 ;  preached 
at  Wells,  Me.,  two  years  thereafter;  was  seamen-chap- 
lain at  CronsUdt,  Russia,  in  1888 ;  pastor  at  Hopkin- 
ton,  Mass.,  until  1864;  professor  in  Wheaton  College, 
111.,  until  1876;  acting -pastor  at  Lisbon,  in  the  same 
state,  from  1878  to  1882,  and  died  at  Wheaton,  Aug.  12, 
1884.  He  published  several  sermons.  See  Cong,  Year- 
6ooil,188o,p.87. 

T^ellmroocL    See  Moncrikf. 

'Wentworth,  Ebastcs,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bom  at  Stonington,  Conn.,  Aug.  5, 
1818.  He  was  converted  in  1881 ;  studied  at  Cazenovia, 
N.  Y. ;  graduated  from  Wesleyan  University,  Conn.,  in 
1887;  became  a  teacher  in  Gouvemeur  Seminary  in  1838, 
and  in  1841  in  Troy  Conference  Academy,  joining  the 
Troy  Conference  the  same  year;  in  1846  was  elected 
president  of  MKendrie  College,  lU. ;  in  1850  professor 
in  Dickinson  College,  Pa. ;  in  1854  went  as  a  missionary 
to  Foochow,  China ;  in  1862  became  pastor  of  North- 
second  Street  Church,  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  in  1865  of  State 
Street  Church,  in  the  same  city ;  in  1868  at  Pittsfield, 
Mass.;  in  1871  at  Amsterdam,  N.  Y.;  in  1872  editor  of 
The  Ladit^  Repository,  at  Cincinnati,  O. ;  in  1877  be- 
came superannuated,  and  died  at  Sandy  Hill,  N.  Y.,May 
25, 1886.  He  was  possessed  of  remarkable  and  varied 
talents,  wrote  much  and  brilliantly,  especially  for  the 
journals,  and  several  times  was  a  member  of  the  Gen- 
eral Conference.  See  A  lumni  Record  of  Wesleyan  Uni' 
versity,  1882,  p.  17, 654. 

'Wealeyan  Methodiat  Connection  of 
AxERiCA.  This  society  grew  out  of  a  separation 
from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  on  account  of 
the  connection  of  that  body  with  slavery,  and  the  ar- 
bitrary character  of  its  government.  The  withdrawal 
of  Revs.  O.  Scott,  J.  Horton,  L.  R.  Sunderland,  Luther 
Lee,  and  Lucius  C.  Matlack,  in  the  latter  part  of  1842, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  religious  paper  known  as 
the  TVtis  Wesleyan,  are  regarded  as  the  commencement 
of  the  movement  which  led  to  the  Wesleyan  organiza- 
tion.  A  call,  signed  by  All  of  the  above-named  persons 
except  L.  C.  Ikladack,  was  issued  in  the  True  Wesleyan, 
and  otherwise  circulated,  for  a  Wesleyan  anti-slavery 
convention,  to  be  held  at  Andover,  Mass.,  commencing 
Feb.  1, 1843 ;  and  fifty-two  delegates  from  Massachu- 
setts, Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  and  New  Hamp- 
shire, responded  to  the  calL  In  this  convention  a  large 
number  of  resolutions  were  presented  and  adopted,  set^ 
ting  forth  the  principles  which  had  guided  them  in 
their  separation  from  the  mother  church.  Provisions 
were  also  made  in  this  convention  for  another  general 
convention  to  be  held  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  May  31  following, 
for  the  purpose  of  effecting  the  permanent  organization 
of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Connection.  One  hundred 
and  fifty-three  delegates  responded  to  the  last-named 
call,  representing  New  York,  Michigan,  Connecticut, 
Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  Ohio,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Massachusetts. 

At  this  latter  convention  a  discipline  was  formulated, 
and  among  the  principles  set  forth  for  the  government 
of  the  Church  the  following  were  some  of  the  most 
prominent : 


WESLEYAN  METH.  CONNECT.  1076 


WESTGATE 


L  Opposition  to  slaYery. 

S.  No  affiliation  with  secret,  oatb-bonnd  Bodetiea. 
8.  PlaioDesa  in  apparel  and  manner  of  living. 
^  Eqnal  representation  of  ministers  and  lajmen  in  the 
gOTernment  of  the  Chnrch. 

Six  annual  conferences  were  established,  yiz,\  New 
England,  Ghamplain,  New  York,  Miami,  Alleghany,  and 
Michigan,  and  the  youthful  denomination  started  upon 
its  heaven-appointed  mission.  The  first  general  con- 
ference was  held  in  Cleveland,  O.,  commencing  Oct.  2, 
1644. 

Lilce  all  other  reformatory  bodies,  this  society  was 
bom  in  the  midst  of  the  most  bitter  persecution;  and, 
viewed  from  a  human  standpoint,  under  the  most  un- 
favorable circumstances.  Their  opposition  to  the  in- 
stitution of  American  slavery  at  a  time  when  the  mass- 
es of  the  people  either  lielieved  it  to  be  right,  or  as  a 
matter  of  policy  apologized  for  it,  made  them  a  target 
for  all  kinds  of  abuse,  and  the  opportunity  was  not  neg- 
lected by  the  people.  A  single  illustration  in  this  con- 
nection will  be  sufficient.  On  one  occasion,  while  Rev. 
Lather  Lee  was  speaking  against  slavery,  he  was  treat- 
ed to  a  solution  of  whiskey  and  lampblack,  which  was 
thrown  over  him,  and  not  only  marred  his  personal  ap- 
pearance, but  rained  his  suit  of  dothes.  He  continued 
his  address,  however,  and  that  meeting  proved  to  be 
one  of  the  best  for  the  cause  that  was  ever  held. 

The  growth  of  the  denomination  was  very  encour- 
aging notwithstanding  these  unfavorable  surroundings; 
and  within  ten  years  the  membership  in  the  various 
conferences  aggregated  more  than  ten  thousand.  They 
were  not  of  the  popular  and  aristocratic  class,  neither 
were  they  altogether  poor  and  unlearned.  Among  the 
membership  were  men  and  women  of  remarlcable  in- 
tellectual ability,  who  were  instrumental  in  the  hands 
of  God  in  building  up  and  establishing  the  educational 
interests  of  the  Connection,  until  they  were  not  behind 
other  denominations  of  equal  size  in  this  particular. 

Early  in  the  history  of  the  society  the  propriety  of 
establishing  an  institution  of  learning  was  urged  upon 
the  people,  and  efforts  were  made  in  this  direction  at 
Leoui,  Jackson  Co.,  Mich.,  and  also  at  Wheaton,  III.,  but 
the  matter  finally  took  a  more  definite  form  in  the  lo- 
cation of  a  denominational  college  at  Adrian,  Mich. 
The  citizens  of  Adrian  donated  largely  towards  the 
enterprise  with  the  understanding  and  agreement  that, 
if  within  five  years  the  Wesleyans  should  erect  build- 
ings and  secure  property,  free  from  debt,  amounting  to 
f  100,000,  the  school  should  become  the  property  of  the 
denomination.  Much  more  than  the  required  sum  was 
raised  in  the  given  time,  and  the  terms  having  been 
complied  with,  an  unquestionable  title  was  secured.  A 
competent  faculty  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  college, 
and  astonishing  success  attended  the  enterprise  from 
the  beginning.  Students  flocked  in  from  all  parts  of 
the  country,  and  many  were  compelled  to  find  rooms 
in  private  residences  near  the  college,  all  of  the  desira- 
ble rooms  in  the  two  large  buildings  erected  for  that 
purpose  being  occupied. 

After  the  war  of  the  rebellion  bad  dosed  and  peace 
had  been  declared,  leaving  the  nation  free  from  the 
curse  of  human  bondage,  some  of  the  leading  men  in 
the  Connection,  believing  that  the  mission  of  the  de- 
nomination was  ended,  conceived  the  idea  of  uniting  all 
non-Episcopal  Methodist  churches  into  one  body,  and 
combined  their  efforts  with  others  in  effecting  the  pro- 
posed combination.  A  convention  was  held  in  the  city 
of  Cleveland,  O.,  June  21, 1865,  where  committees  were 
appointed  and  steps  taken  looking  towards  such  a  union 
of  churches.  Provisions  were  also  made  for  another  con- 
vention, which  met  in  Cincinnati,  May  9, 1866,  and  at 
this  convention  the  basis  of  the  union  was  decided  upon 
iund  the  foundation  laid.  The  expectations  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  leaders  were  not  met,  however,  from  the  fact  that 
the  denomination,  as  a  whole,  were  not  satisfied  with  the 
terms  of  the  union,  and  also  from  their  general  disa- 
greement with  the  proposition  that  the  mission  of  their 
Church  was  ended.    When  the  reformatory  principles 


adopted  by  the  Wesleyans  were  preaented  for  the  con- 
sideration of  the  convention,  they  were  entirdy  ignoivd, 
and  secret  sodetxes  were  eulogized  instead  of  bdng  re- 
proved, finding  that  the  union  was  not  a  success,  most 
of  the  Wedeyan  leaders  in  the  movement  withdrew  and 
united  with  other  religious  communions,  and  a  namber 
of  local  churches  followed  their  example.  These  imnr 
be  properly  termed  the  *'  dark  days"  of  the  Connectloa, 
and  when  the  ** smoke  of  battle'*  bad  cleared  away,  it 
was  found  that  somewhat  serious  injuries  had  been  sua. 
tained.  Not  the  least  of  these  was  the  traoafer  of 
Adrian  CoU^e  to  the  control  of  another  dctiominatioB. 
In  the  midst  of  the  exciting  scenes  connected  with  the 
union  movement  a  majority  of  the  trustees  were  pre- 
vailed upon  to  make  the  transfer,  though  not  in  har- 
mony with  the  wishes,  and  without  the  consent,  of  the 
denomination.  Committees  have  been  appointed  by 
the  General  Conference  to  look  after  the  legality  <^  the 
transfer,  and  to  consider  the  feasibility  of  taking  legd 
steps  for  the  recovery  of  the  ooUege.  Notwithstanding 
the  tidal  waye  of  adversity  that  had  swept  over  the 
Connection,  those  who  remained  true  and  stood  by 
tbdr  "colors'*  were  not  disheartened.  Other  men  as 
noble  as  the  first — and  of  greater  value  to  the  Connec- 
tion, because  of  the  fact  that  they  remained  true  to 
principles  through  the  straggle  that  tried  men's  aools— 
took  the  helm,  and  succeeded  in  steering  the  veead 
through  the  breakers  to  the  calm  sea  of  renewed  pros- 
perity. The  troubles  of  the  conflict  only  intensified 
the  zeal  of  the  tried  and  tnie,  and  the  result  was  a  gen- 
eral revival  all  through  the  Connection,  and  a  bealthfnl 
growth  has  been  realized  since  that  time  both  in  noem- 
bership  and  finances. 

A  large  and  commodious  publishing  house  has  been 
erected  in  the  city  of  Syracuse,  N.  T.,  which  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  denomination,  whoie  the  [ttinci- 
pal  part  of  the  business  of  the  Connection  is  ti«n»- 
acted.  Rev.  D.  S.  Kinney  is  connectiond  agent,  and 
not  only  has  charge  of  the  budness  transacted  at  the 
office,  but  visits  the  various  annud  conferences,  and 
looks  after  the  denominationd  interests  in  connection 
therewith.  Rev.  N.  Wardner  is  editor  of  the  We»Ujf€m 
Metkodittf  the  offldd  organ  of  the  denomination,  and 
of  the  Bible  Standard,  a  monthly  magazine  devoted  to 
the  doctrine  and  experience  of  Scriptard  holiness,  both 
of  which  are  published  at  the  publishing  house  in  Syr- 
acuse,  and  receive  a  liberd  patronage  from  the  people. 
He  is  also  editor  of  The  CkUdren^e  Basmery  and  Good 
WordSf  papers  devoted  to  Sunday-school  interests. 
The  publishing  interests  of  the  Connection,  indoding 
building,  printing  machinery,  etc,  are  vdued  at  about 
860,000,  to  which  additions  ate  constantly  made,  and 
ail  is  free  from  debt. 

Two  seminaries  are  now  the  property  of  the  Con- 
nection, one  located  at  Wadoja,  Dodge  Co.,  Minn.,  with 
professor  E.  G.  Pkine  as  prindpal,  and  the  other  at 
Houghton,  Alleghany  Co,  N.  Y.,  with  professor  A.  R 
Dodd  as  principal  Both  of  these  schools  are  in  a  pros- 
perous condition,  and  an  honor  to  the  Connection. 
Added  to  theee  is  a  theologicd  seminai^',  in  connection 
with  Whearton  College,  IIU,  nnder  the  care  of  Rev.  L. 
N.  Stratton,  D.D.,  as  preddent,  where  a  goodly  number 
of  young  men  are  in  course  of  education  each  year  for 
the  Christian  ministry. 

There  are  at  this  date  (September,  1886),  twent3--one 
conferences  in  the  denomination,  aggregating  about 
five  hundred  ministers  and  twenty  thousand  memben. 
Officers  of  the  Cienerd  Conference  are,  president.  Rev. 
N.  Wardner,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  secreury.  Rev.  E.  W. 
Bruce,  of  the  same  place,  who  are  the  joint  authors  of 
this  article. 

Westgate,  Gkorgb  Lkwis,  a  Methodist  Episoopd 
minuter,  was  bom  at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  April  12, 1844. 
He  graduated  from  Wedeyan  Univern^,  Conn.,  in 
1865;  studied  two  years  in  Union  Theologicd  Seo* 
inaiy,  N.  Y.,  and  iq  1867  joined  the  Providence  Confei^ 
ence,  in  which  and  afterwards  (1874)  in  the  New  Torit 


WHITE 


1011 


WORLDS 


East  ConfereoM  be  oooufned  important  itationa  antil 
hia  ekctioD,  in  1880|  as  profewor  of  aocial  flcienee  in  his 
alma  maters  a  poaitiou  which  he  retained  until  hb  death, 
Jnne  28, 1885.  See  A  lumm  Record  of  Wakyan  Umver- 
Mifp,  1888,  p.  212 ;  Mmuiei  qfAmual  Cotifiremxt,  1886, 
p.  8a 

Wbite,  WiLUAK  Spottswood,  D.D^  a  Pnsby- 
terian  minister,  was  bom  in  Hanover  County,  Va.,  July 
80, 1800.  He  attended  Hampden-Sidney  College,  stud- 
ied theology  under  Dr.  John  H.  Rice,  and  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1627 ;  labored  in  Nottoway,  Amelia,  Lunen- 
berg,and  Dinwiddle  counties,  Va.;  in  1833  became  pas- 
tor at  ScottsviUe,  in  1884  agent  of  the  American  Tract 
Society,  in  1836  principal  of  a  female  school,  in  1848 
pastor  at  Lexington,  Va.,  and  died  there,  Nov.  29, 1878. 
See  Nevin,  Presbj^lerian  Encyebp,  s.  v. 

WiUiama,  James  Alfri£i>,  D.D.,  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  was  bom  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  Sept. 
6, 1809.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1831, 
and  from  the  General  Theological  Seroinaiy  in  1886; 
became  rector  of  St.  Mark's  Church^  Orange,  in  1887, 
and  continued  there  until  his  death,  Sept.  2, 1888.  He 
was  president  of  the  standing  committee  of  his  diocese 
for  many  years. 

^^iUiaznaoxi,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bom  in  York  District,  S.  C,  June  12,  1795. 
He  graduated  from  South  Carolina  College  in  1818, 
and  studied  theology  under  Rev.  James  Adams ;  became 
pastor  at  Providence  in  1822,  professor  in  Davidson 
College  in  1840,  ito  president  from  1841  to  1854,  and 
pastor  at  Washington  and  Columbus,  Ark.,  from  1857 
to  1876.  He  died  March  12, 1882.  See  Nevin,  Prethy- 
terian  Etuyehp,  s.  v. 

T^ilflon,  John  A.,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bora  at  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1810. 
He  graduated  from  Kenyon  College  and  Gambier  Theo- 
logical Seminary ;  was  rector  of  Zion  Church,  Pontiac, 
Mich.,  from  1840  to  1847,  and  thereaaer  of  St.  Luke's 
Church,  Tpstlanti,  until  1882.     He  died  May  7, 1885. 

"Wilaon,  John  Glasgow  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
MethodiBt  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  bora  in  Maury 
County,  Tenn.,  in  1826.  He  was  piously  reared  in  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  graduated  from  Nashville  Uni- 
versity at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  licensed  to  preach  at 
twenty-four;  served  for  twenty  yean  as  president  of 
Huntsville  Female  College  and  Warren  College,  Ky. ; 
in  1876  became  pastor  of  St.  John's  Church,  St.  Louis; 
in  1880  presiding  elder,  and  died  Aug.  5,  1884.  See 
Mimt(ea  of  Amrnal  CcnferemxM  of  the  M.  £.  Church 
Sottthy  1884,  p.  142. 

WilBon,  Bamnel  B.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
was  bora  in  South  Carolina  about  1782,  studied  in  the 
usual  schools  of  the  day,  was  pastor  for  thirty -seven 
years,  and  subsequently  professor  in  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  of  Virginia,  at  length  emeritus  until 
bis  death,  in  August,  1869.  See  Nevin,  Preabjfterian 
Encyciop.  &  v. 

Wilson,  Samuel  Jennings^  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
eminent  Presbyterian  minister  and  educator,  was  bora 
near  Washington,  Pa.,  July  19, 1828.  He  graduated 
from  Washington  College  in  1852,  and  from  the  West- 
era  Theological  Seminary  in  1855,  was  licensed  to 
preach  the  same  year,  served  two  years  as  teacher  in 
the  seminar}',  in  1857  became  professor  there,  and  con- 
tinued in  office  until  his  death,  Aug.  17,  1883.  See 
Nevin,  Presbyterian  Encydop,  s.  v. 

Winkler,  Edward  Thgodoke,  D.D.,  a  Baptist 
minister,  was  bora  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  Nov.  13,  1823. 
He  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1843,  and 
studied  in  the  Newton  Theological  Institution ;  in  1845 
was  assistant  editor  of  the  Christian  QuarierUff  and 
supplied  the  pulpit  at  Columbus,  Ga.,  for  six  monUia;  in 
1846  became  pastor  at  Albany,  and  subsequently  at 
Gallisonville ;  in  1852  secretary  of  the  Southera  Baptist 


Publication  Society;  in  1854  pastor  at  Charleston,  &G.; 
in  1872  at  Marion,  in  1874  editor  of  the  Alabama  Bop- 
titt,  and  died  Nov.  10, 1888.  He  wrote  several  denom- 
inational works.    See  Cathcart,  Baptist  Eneydop.  &  v. 

Witherspcon,  Ain>BEW,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  bora  at  Leith,  Scotland,  May  16, 
1808,  and  emigrated  to  America  with  his  parents  when 
nine  years  old.  He  was  converted  at  sixteen,  licensed 
to  preach  in  1832,  and  next  year  admitted  into  the 
Troy  Conference,  in  which  he  held  prominent  appoint- 
ments until  his  superannuation,  in  1877,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Kansas,  and  died  there,  Feb.  9,  1885.  He 
was  a  member  of  six  general  conferences.  See  Minutes 
of  A  nnucd  Covferences,  1885,  p.  95. 

WorldBk  Plurality  of.  The  question  whether 
other  globes  besides  the  earth  are  inhabited  is  one  of 
great  interest  both  to  the  student  of  nature  and  to  the 
theologian.  There  are  two  classes  of  arguments  that 
may  be  brought  to  bear  upon  its  solution. 

1.  ProbabiiUies  from  Anatogy^^Viom  the  (act  that 
our  own  globe  is  populated,  it  has  natunlly  been  in- 
ferred that  the  stellar  bodies  are  so  likewise.  Else 
why  do  they  exist  ?  Sorely,  it  is  contended,  they  can- 
not have  been  formed  merely  for  the  delectation  of  the 
comparatively  few  denizens  of  this  relatively  iosignif- 
icant  orb.  But  are  we  sure  of  that?  If  man  be  the 
only  intelligent  creature,  it  is  inconsistent  neither  with 
reason  nor  with  Scripture  to  suppose  that  the  whole 
visible  creation  was  intended  for  his  express  benefit 
and  behoof.  Moreover,  the  presumption  from  analogy 
almost  wholly  breaks  down  if  extended  to  its  legitimate 
results  in  this  question.  If  the  other  celestial  spheres 
are  inhabited,  it  is  doubtless  with  rational  and  moral 
beings  like  ourselves,  for  mere  unaccountable  animals 
would  be  a  sorry  outcome  of  so  vast  creative  power  and 
skill.  In  that  case  they  are  free  of  will,  and  some  of 
them,  at  least,  have  probably  fallen,  like  men  and  angels. 
Has  a  Redeemer  biecn  proWded  for  them  also?  It 
would  seem  not,  from  the  silence  of  revelation  on  the 
subject,  or  rather  from  the  implications  of  soteriology. 
It  is  hazardous  to  aver  that  Christ  has  died  for  other 
worlds  than  our  own,  or  that  he  will  ever  do  so.  Here 
is  apparently  an  incongruity  which  clogs  the  hypothesis 
of  other  planetary  bodies  being  inhabited. 

2.  Evidence  of  j^cienoe.— This  is  really  a  problem 
within  the  domain  of  physics,  and  should  be  decided 
by  an  appeal  to  known  facts.  These  are  neither  few 
nor  indistinct.  The  moon,  which  is  our  nearest  and 
most  familiar  neighbor,  is  pronounced  by  the  latest 
observers  to  be  utterly  uninhabitable.  She  has  neither 
atmosphere  nor  water,  at  least  not  on  the  hemisphere 
which  is  constantly  presented  towards  us.  But  she 
has  enormously  deep  craters,  which  speak  of  fearful 
convulsions  upon  her  surface,  and  her  face  sppears  to 
be  entirely  destitute  of  all  possibilities  even  of  vegeta- 
tion. In  fact,  an  ordinary-sized  farm,  or  even  a  con- 
siderable dwdling,  had  it  existed  there,  would  prob- 
ably have  been  detected  by  the  powerful  telescopes 
which  have  scanned  and  even  photographed  the  lunar 
landscape. 

Turaing  now  to  Yenus^  our  nearest  fellow-planet, 
we  find  her  not  much  more  favorably  situated.  She 
has  so  wide  a  variation  of  temperature  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year,  owing  to  the  great  obliquity  of 
her  ecliptic,  as  must  be  fatal  to  all  animal  or  vegetable 
existence.  Mercury,  the  sole  other  planet  within  our 
orbit,  is  even  worse  off,  being  so  near  the  sun  that  no 
life  could  possibly  endure  the  terrific  heat  Mars,  our 
first  outside  neighbor,  is  circumstanced  most  like  our- 
selves; but  the  close  observation,  for  which  he  affords 
peculiar  facilities,  have  failed  to  discover  any  positive 
indications  of  habi tability.  Of  the  remaining  members 
of  our  own  planetary  system,  Jupiter  and  Saturn  may 
perhaps  have  a  temperature  capable  of  supporting  life, 
but  the  different  colored  moons  of  the  former  and  the 
singular  electric  zofi|  of  the  litter,  besickl  tlbirfexcee^  \ 


WTLIE 


1078 


ZSCHOEEE 


ingly  low  dentityi  imply  a  diiTerenee  of  constitution  in- 
compatible with  the  conditions  known  upon  our  own 
globe.  The  improbability  of  their  being  Inhabited  is 
increased  by  the  revelations  of  the  spectruruj  which  dis- 
closes a  composition  of  each  materially  different  from 
the  other  and  from  the  earth's.  As  for  the  asteroids, 
which  occupy  the  place  of  a  lost  intermediate  sphere, 
they  seem  to  have  consisted  of  terribly  explosive  mate- 
rials, fragments  of  which  frequently  fall  to  us  in  the 
form  of  meteoroUtes,  and  furnish  compounds  not  found 
in  terrestrial  bodies.  The  more  disunt  planets  are  too 
intensely  cold  to  admit  of  life  in  any  form. 

The  only  remaining  member  of  our  planetaiy  family 
is  the  central  orb,  the  sun  itself.  If  its  body  is  coequal 
with  its  luminous  disk,  the  surface  must  be  too  rare  to 
sustain  beings  of  anything  more  than  ethereal  weight; 
and  whether  this  be  the  real  body  of  the  sun,  or  wheth- 
er the  interior  sphere,  glimpses  of  which  are  obtained 
through  the  so-called  *'  spots,"  and  which  only  appear 
dark  by  contrast  with  the  vivid  incandescence  of  the 
atmosphere,  still  the  fiery  ardor  of  the  surface  must  be 
such  as  to  preclude  all  life  of  which  we  can  form  any 
conception. 

The  fixed  stars  are  but  the  central  suns  of  other  sys- 
tems, and  are  evidently  of  a  like  nature  with  our  own. 
Their  planets,  if  they  have  any,  are  a  matter  of  pore 
conjecture.  Comets  and  nebuln  are  too  flimsy  in  their 
structure  to  form  a  habitable  abode  for  creatures  of  any 
sort;  they  seem,  indeed,  to  be  but  fire-mist  or  electric 
vapor.  We  have  thus  exhausted  the  range  of  space,  and 
find  no  home  except  earth  at  all  suitable  or  possible  for 
a  creature  having  the  least  resemblance  to  man.  To 
suppose  a  being  capable  of  existing  under  the  abnor- 
mal and  intolerable  conditions  of  vitality  such  as  we 
have  ascertained  is  as  gratuitous  as  it  is  preposterous. 
We  cannot,  it  is  true,  limit  the  power  and  resources  of 
the  Almighty,  but  we  are  forced  by  the  facts  in  the 
case,  and  by  the  invariablo  analogies  of  all  life  with 
which  we  are  acquainted,  to  deny  its  existence  upon 
the  other  celestial  bodies.  Nor  is  there  the  slightest 
evidence  that  any  of  the  globes  except  our  own  has 
ever  been  inhabited,  or  is  likely  to  be  so  in  the  future. 
See  Proctor,  Other  WorJdt  than  Our$  (Lond.  1870). 

"Wylie,  William,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  Washing^n  County,  Pa.,  July  10,  1776. 
He  studied  at  various  schools ;  became  pastor  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Sandy  and  Fairfield  Church,  Ky.,  in  1802; 
in  1805  of  Rehoboth  and  Round  Hill;  in  1810  preached 
at  Uniontown,  Pa. ;  in  1823  became  pastor  at  Wheel- 
ing, Va. ;  in  1830  at  Newark,  O.,  where  he  continued 
twenty  years,  and  died  at  Wheeling,  May  9,  1858. 
See  Ncvin,  Pretb^terian  Encydop.  s.  v. 

Y. 

Tale,  Elihu,  F.R.S.,  was  bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
April  5, 1648,  but  removed  to  England  with  his  parents 


at  ten  years  of  age,  and  never  returned  to  America.  In 
1678  be  went  to  the  East  Indies,  became  governor  of 
Madras,  amassed  a  fortune,  and  returned  to  Englsnd, 
where  he  died  (in  London).  July  22, 1721.  He  gave 
above  $2000  in  books  and  money  to  found  a  college  st 
bis  birthplace,  which  therefore  took  his  name. 

YantiSk  John  Lapslet,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  bora  at  Lancaster,  Ky.,  Sept.  14,  1804.  He 
studied  privately,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1829,  be- 
came pastor  at  Stanford  and  Lancaster  in  1880,  removed 
to  Saline  County,  Mo.,  in  1888,  and  thereafter  labored 
altemately  as  teacher  and  pastor  in  various  places,  es- 
pecially Danville,  Ky.,  where  he  died.  May  28,  1881 
See  Nevin,  Prtthjfttrian  Enq/dop.  s.  r. 

yong  (or  Tonnge),  John,  D.D.,  an  English  prel- 
ate, bora  at  Cheapside,  London,  England,  became  mss- 
ter  in  Pembroke  Hall,  (}ambrid^  rector  of  St.  Giles's 
Church,  Cripplegate,  prebend  of  Westminster  (1572), 
and  at  last  bishop  of  Rochester  (1578).  He  was  a  faith- 
ful preacher,  and  queen  Elizabeth  deferred  much  to  his 
judgment  in  Chdrch  matters.  Better  bishoprics  were 
offered  to  him,  but  as  often  declined.  He  died  April  10, 
1605.  Bw¥uner,Worthie9o/£»gland(ed.SuttMa^u, 
857. 

7oiiiig;  Nicholas  Domihic,  a  Roman  Gstbolie 
missionary,  was  bora  near  Washington,  Md.,  Jose  11, 
1798.     He  studied  with  the  English  Dominicans  at 
Borahem,  Belgium,  and  became  a  member  of  their 
order  in  1810.     In  December,  1817,  be  was  ordained 
priest  by  bishop  Flaget,  at  Bardstown,  Ky.,  and  in  1822 
became  superior  of  the  Convent  of  St.  Joseph,  Perry 
County,  O.    He  was  provincial  of  his  order  from  Sep- 
tember, 1832,  to  May,  1857.    In  1851  be  established  a 
house  of  his  order  at  Washington.     He  died  in  that 
citv,  Nov.  28, 1878.    See  (N.  T.)  CathoU'e  A  mmaly  1882, 
P.5& 


Zflohokke,  JoHAinc  Hexnbicr  Dakikl,  a  German 
writer,  was  bora  at  Magdeburg,  March  22, 1771.  He 
was  erratic  in  his  early  youth,  but  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Frankfort- on -the -Oder,  and  although  pro- 
ficient in  philosophy,  history,  and  mathematics,  was  re- 
fused a  position  as  professor  on  account  of  his  opposition 
to  the  government.  Leaving  Prussia,  therefore,  be 
travelled  through  Germany  and  France,  and  settled  in 
Switzerland  as  a  teacher,  but  the  French  revolution 
compelled  him  to  take  refuge  in  Aarau,  where  he  played 
an  active  part  in  those  times.  He  died  there,  Jan.  22, 
1848.  His  later  productions  were  chiefly  poetical  and 
historical,  many  of  them  novels.  His  best  known  is 
Stunden  der  Andacht  (1806;  twice  transl.  in  English, 
MedUaHom  on.  Death') ;  but,  as  might  ht  expected  from 
his  career,  it  is  neidier  profound  nor  inspiring.  Hia 
collected  works  were  published  at  Aarau  (1825, 40  Tola. 
8vo).     See  Hoefer,  iVovr.  Biog,  GMrah^  s.  v. 


THE  END. 


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McCLIHTOCK,  John 

Cyclopaedia  of  Bibli- 
cal ,  theological,  and     .M3l* 
ecclesiastical  literature. 


BR 
95 


V.12 


^^^s^M^m^